r,~ALON~ COLL~GE

LlBRARY ~12i94

' INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC
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BY

WILL IAM B. CAIR NS, PH.D., I ..( 1~!
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INSTRUC TOR IN ENGLISH IN THE UNIVER SITY OF WISCON
SIN

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BOST ON, U.S.A.

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1900

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PREFACE.

COPYR I G HT, 1899 , BY

WILLI AM B. CAIRN S
ALL R I G HT S RE SERVED

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Tms book makes no claims to originality of matter.
It is not to be exp~cted that an elementary treatise on
rhetoric will announce the discovery of any new principles ; and the giving of new names to old things or
the use of old terms in n ew senses would only add to a
confusion now unnecessarily great. No one authority
has been followed throughout; but no n ew term has
been suggested, or familiar word redefined, or new
classification introduced, when it seemed practicable to
borrow the usage of some standard work. Even where
improvement might possibly be made, the author has
preferred to follow a well-known usage rather than to
increase the diversity in nomenclature already to be
found in text-books on rhetoric.
The presentation of the subject has been shaped in
accordance with some ideas regarding the teaching of
English which, the author believes, are coming to be
generally held. The ·first of these is that rhetoric must
be presented as a reasonable study. The pupil is too
likely to gain the idea that rhetoric consists of arbitrary
precepts laid down by some unknown authority. Moreover, the so-called "rules" of the subject are often
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PREFACE.

PREFACE.

given as if all were of equal importance; and the student, finding that some of them are not always followed
by his teacher, or· perhaps by the better authors that
he reads, concludes that all are worthless. At best, he
thinks of rhetorical cautions as something to be borne
in mind only when he is writing a "compositio n " or
preparing his graduating oration. Part I. of this book
is arranged with the hope of giving less erroneous
notions of the subject. Principles depending solely on
usage are treated by themselves, and an attempt is
made to show that much of rhetoric is but a systematic study of ~uch arts as are unconsciousl y used by
the girl who is a good story-teller, or the boy who wins
his fellows to his way of thinking.
The second idea to which the author has attempted
to adapt the treatment of his subject is, that the pupil
should study style and invention together; and that
every exercise that he writes should be criticised both
as regards diction, sentence structure, etc., and as a
whole composition . It seems absurd to ask a boy to
practice style without reference to the choice and
arrangemen t of the ideas that he attempts to express.
Still more unsatisfacto ry is the plan of beginning with
the whole composition , and letting the student's first
exercises confirm him in any bad habits of style that he
may have acquired.
'The difficulty of writing a text-book for the parallel
study of style and invention is practically that of making two subjects occupy the same space at the same
time. The plan here adopted is that of an independent

treatment of each, with a series of cross references in
·the suggestions for exercises. If the teacher sees fit to
follow these suggestions, the pupil will cover the chapters on narration and description while he is studying
the subject of style, and every important composition
assigned will illustrate some matters in both sections of
the book. These chapters on narration and description
are no more difficult than those on style, and indeed
to the average student are likely to be more interestmg. The brief chapters on exposition, argumentatio n,
and persuasion are, .f rom the nature of the subjects
treated, more difficult. In connection with these three
chapters the student would naturally review the subject
of style.
In accordance with this idea that composition should
be considered from the standpoint of both style and
invention, long illustrative selections are given under
each form of composition , rather than short illustrations
scattered through the section on style. These selections, which make up about one-half of the bulk of
Part II., should be used even more as illustrations of
Part I. than in connection with the chapters that they
follow.
The suggestions for exercises are, as the name states,
simply suggestions. Any good teacher can, if he have
time, prepare exercises better suited to the needs of his
particular class than any that can be printed in a textbook. But in the present condition of our schools,
many teachers have little time for such preparation.
The specimens of poor English, especially, are intended

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PREFACE.

only for the use of overworked teachers who have not
time to put before the student similar examples from ·
his own work. The correction of the student's own
faults is a valuable discipline; the usefulness of correcting the faults of others depends on the probability
that the student makes similar errors.
The indebtedness of the. author, both to other textbooks and to his friends, is great. Probably the writers
from whom he has derived most aid are Prof. Genung
and Prof. A. S. Hill, whose text-books he has used in
his classes for some years ; but a host of other works
have been constantly at hand, and have been drawn on
to a considerable extent. Chief among personal obligations are those to Prof. F. G. Hubbard and Mr. Walter
M. Smith, who not only have read the manuscript
and proof, but have generously responded, throughout
the progress of the work, to frequent calls for suggestions and criticisms. The careful, detailed suggestions
of Prof. F. P. Emery, of Dartmouth College, were appreciated both for the aid they furnished apd for the kindly
manner in which they were made. The author wishes
also to express his thanks to a large number of his
friends and former pupils, now teaching English in
secondary schools, who have assisted him in many
ways.
W. B. C.
UNIVERSITY OF 'WISCONSIN, ·
June 1, 1899.

C 0 NT.EN TS.

PAGE

INTRODUCTION
What Rhetoric is
Divisions of Rhetoric

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PART 1. - STYLE.

What Style is
Kinds of Principles that underlie Style
CHAPTER I . - Language Determined by Usage
Spelling
Gramrnu
Mistakes in Number
Mistakes of Case
Mistakes of T ense
Mistakes of Mood
Mistakes of Reference
Mistakes in Comparison
Punctuation
Capitalization
II. Reputableness of Words
Meanings of Words
Idioms

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CHAPTER II. -

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Language Adapted to the Needs of the Reader

I. The Theory of Economy

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The Qualities of Style
Clearness
Force
Ease

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CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

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Unity
Of the Sentence
Of the Paragraph
Of the Composition
II. Language that is capable of two meanings confuses the
reader's mind
A reader can grasp the specific and the familiar more readily
than the general and the unfamiliar
A reader can grasp ideas more readily if they are arranged
in accordance with the laws of association
Since words are used to convey thought from writer to
reader, and not for their own sake, there should be neither
more nor fewer than are necessary
A reader's attention is naturally attracted by anything unusual. When a series of ideas is presented to a reader's
mind, the first and the last make the strongest impression
The relations of likeness and contrast appeal to a reader's
mind with especial force
A reader will grasp ideas more readily if his mind has been
prepared for them
A moderate variety, both m thought and in expression, is
pleasing to the reader
Miscellaneous

Making the Plot
How to begin
Choice of Events
Order of Events .
Movement
Complex Narratives
Illustrative Selections
Endicott and the Red Cross. - I-:lawt/1orne
The Hunt for Captain Flint's Treasure. - Stevenson

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PART II. - INVENTION.

CHAPTER I. -

Narration

Definition
Kinds of Narration
I. Narration without Plot
Subjects for Narration without Plot
Number and Choice of Details
Order of Details
Diction
II. Narration with Plot
Definition
Interest in Narration with Plot
Choice of Subj~,<;:t for Narration with Plot

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Definition
Difficulties of Description
When Description is at an Advantage
Subjects of Description
The Point of View .
Number of Details
Choice of Details
Order of Details
Use of Comparisons in Description
Details gained through Other Senses than Sight
Descriptions of Characters
Sugges~iveness in Description
Illustrative Selections
The Scene of the Nativity. }
w, //,
An Oriental House.
a ace
Vesuvius. -Addison .
Over the Bracken. - Coleridge
Gottfried Wolfgang. - Irving
Maharajah Nuncomar. - Macaulay
CHAPTER III. -

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Description

Exposition

Definition .
The Processes of Exposition
Where found
The Process of Definition
Division
Exposition of Propositions
Some Forms of Exposition

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CONTENTS.
PAGE

lllustrative Selections
Definition and Division of Botany. - Gray
Kinds of Poesy. - Sidney .
Of Goodness and Goodness of Nature. - B acon
Education. - Huxley
C HAPTER IV. -

Argumentation

Definition
Propositions
Need of Definite Statement
Burden of Proof and Presumption
Kinds of Arguments
Place of the Proposition in an Argument
Order of Arguments
Some Cautions regarding Arguments
Suggestions for Debate
Illustrative Selections
Death. - S ocrates
Letter to Dissatisfied Friends. - Lincoln
Bacon and Bribes. - Macaulay
CHAPTER V. -

Persuasion

• D efinition
How Men are Persuaded
Kind s of Oratory .
The Diction of Oratory
Suggestions for Oration-Writing
Illustrative Selections
Virginia Convention Speech. - 1-/enry
The Duty of th e American Scholar to Politics. - Curtis
Gettysburg Address. - Lincoln
INDEX

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207
209
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230
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233
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INTRODUCTION TO RI-IETORIC.

INTRODUCTION.

What Rhetoric is. - Studies in English help us in
two ways - in understanding and appreciating the
works of others, and in expressing our own Definition of
thoughts. Rhetoric is useful for the latter Rhetoric.
purpose. It is impossible to give a perfect definition
of so complex a subject; but we may think of rhetoric
as the study that teaches us to speak or write our
tlwug hts in the best manner.
Rhetoric follows grammar in the school course, and
the two studies resemble each other in many respects ;
but there are also some important differences. The
chief of these is that grammar teaches us to Differences
· correct, r h etonc
· to use wllat IS
· between
use wh at is
Rhetoric and
best. Almost any idea can be expressed in Grammar.
a number of ways, any one of which is grammatical.
Rhetoric teaches us to select from these correct expressions the one that, for our purposes, is preferable to any
of the others.
Rhetoric also differs from grammar in taking account of the circumstances. A sentence that is grammatically correct in one case is grammatically correct
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INTRODUCTION TO RHETORIC.

INTRODUCTION.

in any other, no matter what is the subject, or the
form of discourse, or who are the readers for whom it
is intended; but the form of sentence that is best for
one purpose or time may not be best for another.
A writer should use simpler words and shorter sentences in a child's story than in a book for adults.
An expression that is appropriate in speaking may be
out of place in writing, and vice versa. Rhetoric considers all the circumstances, and teaches us to choose
from the correct ways of expressing an idea the form
that is best adapted for our purpose.
Rhetoric also takes info account the individuality of
the author. Every writer's style should indicate something of his own personality. A course in rhetoric
would do more harm than good if it taught a student
to write and speak exactly in the manner of his teacher,
or of any other person, no matter how good the model
might be. Grammar makes no allowance for personal
tastes ; its rules are alike for all.

of printing was known, it was considered as the art
of public speaking. Nowadays newspapers and books
have largely taken the place once held by the public
speaker, and rhetoric has come to concern itself with
written more than with spoken discourse. Most of the
rules and principles given in this book apply equally
to writing and speaking. When any do not, attention
will be called to the fact. To save space, the words
" writer," " writing," " reader " will be used instead of
the expressions "writer or speaker," "writing or speaking," "reader or hearer"; but this must not be taken
to mean that spoken composition is disregarded.
Divisions of Rhetoric. - The principal divisions of
rhetoric are two - style and invention.
Style is the department that is most closely connected with grammar. It deals with the choice of
words and their effective arrangement in phrases,
clauses, and sentences, and to some extent with the
arrangement of sentences to form paragraphs. Part I.
of this book treats of style.
Invention is the department of rhetoric that is most
closely connected with logic, the science of thought.
It is not the province of any department of rhetoric to
teach us what to think, or even how to think correctly;
but when we have thoughts on any subject, we can
learn from a study of invention how to choose those
that will make a desired impression on the reader, and
how to arrange these in such a way as to make this
impression clear, definite, and forcible. Part II. of
this book treats of invention.

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Caution. - Be careful to avoid the use of the words "right,"
"wroncr" "correct" "incorrect" in recrard to matters of rhetorb'
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do not need to study rhetoric. Notice, however, that not all the
rules and cautions given in this book are matters of rhetoric;
also that your text-book in grammar very likely contained some
rhetorical rules.

Rhetoric has been defined as the study that teaches
us to speak or write our thoughts in the best manner.
The word " rhetoric " is derived from the Greek word
meaning "orator"; and in olden times, before the art

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PART 1.-STYLE.

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What Style is. - In its simplest sense, the word
"style" as applied to language means simply "manner
of expressing thought .." According to this definition,
every bit of composition has a style - that is, a manner
of expression. The style of "two and two are four"
is different from that of "two plus two equals four."
But, since there is not much to say about the form
of such simple statements as these, the word "style"
is most often used in connection with compositions
whose manner is worthy of more attention. Some
writers on rhetoric have given a narrow definition to
the word, and speak of composition that has style and
composition that has not. It seems simpler, however,
to use "style" in its broadest sense, and to modify it
by some adjective, such as "elevated" or "colloquial,"
when any particular manner of expression is meant.
Kinds of Principles that underlie Style. - It is the
plan of this book to give, as far as possible, reasons for
all rules and principles that it lays down.
Some Rules
Often, however, the only reason that can be Determined
given for following a rule is that it is followed by usage.
by all good writers. This is true with regard to matters
of spelling, pronunciation, meanings of words, etc.
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STYLE.

STYLE.

We always begin "sin" with an" s," and the first syllable of
" Cincinnati" with a " C " ; yet the only reason that we could
give for this is that others spell the words in the same way. A
core of graphite surrounded by wood we call a "lead pencil," and
a certain edge tool a "knife." If we were accustomed to it, we
could just as well exchange these names, and speak of writing with
a" knife" which we sharpened with a "pencil." So it is incorrect to say "We was," or" I seen him," only because it is contrary
to the general custom. It is true that philologists are able to trace
back the history of spellings, meanings, and grammatical forms,
but they cannot really explain them ; their real origin is unknown;
in the earliest historical times, as now, they depended upon usage.

belong to rhetoric, but are reviews of other studies,
especially grammar and spelling.
Caution. - In studying each section keep in mind its relation
to all other parts of the subject. It is possible to learn each lesson
by itself and still to have no idea of the subject as a whole. Information gained in this way is of little use, and is rarely remembered long after examination day.

To make easier the explanation of rules and principles in this book, Part I., which treats of Style, will be
divided into two chapters : I., Language determined by
Usage; II., Language adapted to the Needs of the
Reader. Many things mentioned in Chapter I. do not

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Not all principles of language, however, are fixed
entirely by custom. The greater number of rules and
cautions that belong strictly to rhetoric, rather than to
grammar and other branches of language study, depend
upon the laws according to which the mind of a reader
can be depended upon to woi·k, and may be reasoned out
by any one who knows the simpler facts about language
and about mind.
For example, no one would use a sentence containing a thousand words, not because a sentence of that length would be contrary to custom, but because it would confuse the reader's mind.
An emphatic idea is put at the beginning or the end of a sentence,
because, as every one knows, first and last impressions are
strongest.

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LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

CHAPTER I.
LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

I.
Spelling.~ No

student is really prepared to begin the
study of rhetoric unless he is able to avoid most, if not all,
mistakes in spelling. Unfortunately, many misspelled
words are found in the manuscripts of high school
students, and even of high school graduates. English
presents more difficulties of orthography than most
languages, but this is no reason why any one with a fair
amount of determination should not learn to spell. It
should be remembered that poor spelling is a disgrace
to any person who makes even the slightest claims to
being educated, and should be avoided at any cost of
time and study.
One common cause of errors in spelling is carelessness in pronunciation. In some words an entire syllable
Pronunciation is suppressed. "Laboratory,"" sophomore,"
and spelling. are often pronounced and spelled" labratory,"
"sophmore." In some other words vowels are so slurred
that it is impossible to tell what they are. There should
be a difference between the sound of "effect" and
"affect," "immigrant" and "emigrant" ; and any one
who distinguishes them in pronunciation will do so in
spelling.
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A knowledge of the derivation of a word often gives
a clue to a doubtful spelling. No one would write
"reccommend" if he thought what the parts of the word
were in the original Latin. Even if a person Derivation
knows no foreign language, a little attention and Spelling.
to the other forms of a root will often show how to spell
a word. One needs no knowledge of Latin to see that
a "laboratory " is a place 'for ''labor," and this makes
clear the spelling. Every one can spell "prepare," but
"preperation " is not uncommon. Care should of course
be taken not to be misled in the few cases where the
spelling is changed in a derivative : as, "pronounce,"
"pronunciation."
A common cause of poor spelling, and one that really
includes the others, is lack of observation. Form the
habit of noting every new word carefully- Need of
of getting a definite, not a vague impression Observation.
of it. No one could write "retoric " if he had really
noticed what the printed word looked like.
In every large dictionary, or in any good spelling
book, will be found rules for orthography that Rules for
should be learned by every one who finds Spelling.
difficulty in spelling correctly. Among the most important are the following : I. In words of one syllable, or words accented on
the last syllable, a single final consonant preceded by a
single vowel is doubled on adding a suffix beginning
with a vowel: as," rob,"" robbed." In accordance with
a general principle of English pronunciation, r-o-b-e-d
spells "robed."

STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

Silent "e" at the end of a word is dropped before
a suffix beginning with a vowel: as, "stare," "staring."
There is, however, a rule of pronunciation that "c"
and "g" are hard before "a," "o," and "u"; where
"e" is necessary to keep the "c" or "g" soft it is
retained : as, "changeable."
3. Final "y" after a consonant is changed to "i"
before a suffix beginning with any vowel except "i":
as, ii hearty," "heartier."
4. Final "ie " becomes "y" before a suffix beginning
with "i" : as, "die," "dying."
5. After "c," "ei" is generally found instead of
" ie" : as, " received."
A large proportion of the common errors in spelling
might be avoided by proper attention to pronunciation
and derivation, or by applying the few rules here given.
Many words, however, must be learned by mere act of
memory. A word should always be looked up in the
dictionary if there is the slightest doubt in regard to it.
Next in value to knowing how to spell a word is the
knowledge that one does not know how to spell it.

Grammar. -The rules of English grammar, like those
of spelling, are determined by the usage of those who
write and speak the English language~ They do not
rest in the nature of things, as do the laws Grammar
of mathematics and the natural sciences; but Based on ·
most of them are so firmly established that usage.
to violate them is an inexcusable fault. Most of the
grammatical errors found in th·e work of students who
are advanced enough to enter the high school come
from carelessness, but some arise from the misunderstanding of principles, or from failure to recognize
that a principle applies in a particular case. In the
following pages a few of the faults that educated persons are in danger of committing are mentioned by
way of warning.
Mistakes in Number. - Errors in number are violations of the simple rules for the agreement of verb and
subject, and of pronoun and antecedent. A common
though an entirely inexcusable fault is that of making
a verb agree with some noun that stands between it
and the subject : as, "The governor, with several other
dignitaries, were in the city yesterday." This fault is
especially common when such a word as "number" is
the subject: as in the sentence, "The number of students attending our school have increased of late."
Singular nouns and pronouns when connected by
"and" are treated as a plural term ; when connected
by "or" they should be ref erred to, individu- compound
ally, as singular. Thus, "James and John Terms.
are coming," "James or John is expected." When a

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Suggestions for Exercises. - If you are not thoroughly familiar with the rules given above; find at least twelve words to illustrate
each. Find any exceptions that you can, and see if you can tell
why they are exceptions.
Keep a list of the words you misspell in all your school exercises for the next - - days. See how many of these you could
have spelled correctly if you had observed the rules and cautions
given above. Look i11 "Webster's International Dictionary" or
some other good dictionary and see if you can find rules that apply
to any of the other words.

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STYLE.

LANGU{lGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

singular and a plural subject are connected by
" or " it is best to use a form of the verb that is
not inflected for number : as, "John or his sisters
will come," rather than "John or his sisters [is] [are]
. "
commg.
A compound term both members of which refer to
the same object is of course singular : as, "The Father
of his Country and the first president is buried at
Mount Vernon." When a compound term denotes
two objects or substances it is singular if the combination is thought of as a unit, plural if the parts are
thought of separately. Thus, "Bread and milk forms
the greater part of our supper," "Bread and milk are
nutritious articles of food" ; "The horse and carriage
was seen on the street," "The horse and carriage were
in the barn during the night." 1 Care should be taken
that the usage be consistent throughout a composition.
Do not make a term singular in one sentence and
plural in the next.
Most words in "-ics," as "mathematics," "physics,"
are singular. "Athletics " is usually tre"!-ted
words in
as plural.
"-ics."
Collective nouns are singular if the idea of grouping
is strong, plural if the individuals are thought of separately. Thus, "The class is dismissed," but
couective
On
" The class have gone to their homes."
Nouns.
the whole, it is better to use the singular wherever possible, and when individuals are denoted to insert some

distributive word : for example, "The mem~ers of the
class have gone to their homes."
Titles of books and similar expressions are singular, ·
whether plural in form or not. Say, "Two Gentlemen
of Verona was [not were] written by Shakespeare." A
descriptive term indicating that a work is made up of
separate parts may, like a collective noun, be singular
or plural, according to sense. ·"'Johnson's Titles of
Lives of the Poets is very interesting" refers Books, etc.
to the work as a whole; "Johnson's lives of the poets
are very interesting" refers to the separate biographies.
In the last sentence the expression "lives of the poets"
is not really a title, and according to strict usage should
not be capitalized.
Expressions of quantity are singular or plural according as they emphasize the number of units, or the
amount taken as a whole. "Ten dollars were found in
his pocket" should mean ten separate coins or Expressions
bills; "Ten dollars was found in his pocket" of Quantity.
should mean that amount of money, without reference
to its form. When speaking of materials handled in
mass it is best to use the singular. Say, "There is fifty
bushels of wheat in the bin," "There is five gallons of
molasses in the keg." The plural is not, however,
incorrect in such cases.
Some nouns of foreign ongm are troublesome to
persons who are unfamiliar with the Ian- Foreign
guages from which they come. The follow- Plurals.
ing table shows the endings of the most common
classes of such words.

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1 If the sense is plural, it is better to repea t the article : "The horse
and the carriage .... " See page 88.

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LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE .

STYLE.

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Source.

Sing.

Latin

us
a
um
is
on

"
"

"
Greek
Hebrew
French

eau ·

Flu.

ae
a
es
a
im
eaux

Examples.

nucleus, nuclei.
nebula, nebulae.
datum, data.
crisis, crises.
phenomenon, phenomena.
seraph, seraphim.
tableau, tableaux.

Many of these words also have plurals formed according to the regular English usage. Notice that "a " may
be either a singular or a plural ending for a Latin noun.
The plural of a loosely compounded term is formed
by adding the sign of the plural to the principal element, or to that which denotes the objects
Plural of
compounded that are really thought of as plural : thus,
Terms.
"maid-servants," "brothers-in-law," ." bookcases." vVhen the parts of the compound are closely
united- welded into one, as it were- the sign of the
plural is added at the end. "Spoonfuls" is the proper
form ; " spoonsful " is both illogical and affected.
Mistakes of Case. - English grammar recognizes but
three cases, and all nouns have the same form for two
of these. Errors in. the case-forms of nouns can occur
only in connection with the use of the possessive.
All nouns, whether singular or plural, not ending in
"s" form the possessive by the addition of "'s": as,
Formation of "boy's," "men's."
Plural nouns ending in
Possessive.
"s " add only the apostrophe : as, "boys'."
Usage is divided in regard to the possessive of nouns
ending in "s" in the singular. The apostrophe may

15

be added alone, or . the "'s," as in the case of other
singular nouns. The former method is simpler and is
.usually more pleasant to the ear, but h<l;S the disadvantage of making the possessive singular look like a possessive plural. There is some advantage in adding the
"s" in writing, but not in pronunciation : for example,
write "J esus's words," but pronounce as if spelled
" Jes us' words " - that is, do not sound the final "s."
When two or more nouns in the possessive modify
the same word the sign .of the possessive is added to
each if individual ownership is denoted, to only the last
if the ownership is in common. "John's and J ames's
ponies " implies that each boy owns one or more ponies;
"John and Jam es' s ponies " implies that the ponies
belong to the two boys together.
The possessive case is sometimes used where a phrase
containing "of" would be preferable. The possessive
may always be used to denotepossession-actual ownership ; to express extent of time, as "a year's study,''
"a day's work" ; and in some idiomatic expressions,
such as "the law's delay." It may also be use of
used in poetry to express a variety of rela- Possessive.
tions similar to those that are represented in Latin and
German by the genitive; for example, "the lily's fragrance," "eve's one star." This broader use is not
strictly forbidden in prose; but the best authority does
not encourage it. There is a tendency, especially
among newspaper writers, to be altogether too loose in
the use of the possessive. Expressions like "our city's
progress," "protection's triumph" are to be avoided.

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STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

The double possessive - that is, the use of the possessive case after the preposition "of" - is idiomatic ·
and correct. In most cases the objective may be used
in place of the possessive, though this construction is
usually more awkward, and in case of the personal pronoun almost unknown. Thus, we say "a friend of
mine," not "a friend of me." In a few expressions
the use of the objective changes the meaning. "A
picture of John" is not the same as "a picture of
John's."
Personal pronouns and the relative and interrogative
"who " have different forms for the nominative and the
objective cases, and these are often misused. The most
common mistake is that of putting the nominative for
the objective. We are not used to inflecting nouns,
and, without thinking, we use the nominative,
Confusion of
or un inflected form for all cases. There is
Nominative
and Objecespecial danger of committing this error in
tive.
using the relative or interrogative "who,"
which always comes at the first of its clause. The first
noun or pronoun in a clause is so commonly the subject
that it seems natural to use the nominative form without stopping to analyze the construction. Such expressions as "Who did you see ? " are very common. The
most frequent instance of the opposite error - the putting of the objective for the nominative-is the use of
a wrong personal pronoun after some form of the verb
"to be." The most common illustration is "It is me"
- one of the most frequent errors of ordinary conversation.

"Than" is usually followed by the nominative case:
as, "I am taller t~an he." Good usage also allows the
use of "than" with the objective, especially of the
expression "than whom," which has the sanction of
Milton and many English writers since. In this expression some grammarians treat "than" as a preposition,
but the phrase is really an idiom, and not answerable
to the strict rules of grammar.

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Suggestions for Exercises. - Find several examples of compound terms that may be treated as either singular or plural; of
collective nouns that may be treated in the same way. Use each
in sentences showing both numbers. Find illustrations of the
different kinds of foreign nouns given in the table, page 14. How
many of these have their plurals formed in two ways?
Find several examples of each way of forming the possessive.
Comment on the following expressions : the dog's tail, the house's
roof, the river's brim, our nation's destiny, the bird's song.
Correct the following sentences, giving reasons. Try to decide
in each case how the author of the sentence fell into error.
1. On the whole, I think one might feel that they had seen
something worth while at the fair.
2. The gentle swish of the waves as they break upon the
shore have a soothing, dreamy effect.
3. Hobart's company was sent off on the right flank to do
some skirmishing. Here they fell in with a much larger force of
the enemy.
4. In that way each one became more careful of their language.
5. In Westminster Abbey is buried all the kings and queens
of England.
6. The boys studied hard, and each one of them passed their
examinations.
7. Of the origin of the American Indian nothing is positively
known. They were savages, but seldom degraded savages.
. ..

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STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

8. Most of the crew was lost.
9. My father called for my sister and I.
10. This was Uncle Tom, who we thought dead.
I I. The blue jay stays with us all winter, though he is not so
abundant then as in summer.
I 2. Before the game it could be seen that Harvard were heavier
than their opponents.

the infinitive has its future significance. In (1) the "seeing"
takes place, if at all, at any time after the "hoping" ; in (3),
which is a rather rare form, the infinitive indicates time still
farther in the future than that represented by "shall hope." In
the sentences
( 1) He was said to have gone,
(2) He is said to have gone,
(3) He will be said to have gone,

Make a list of all the sentences containing errors in number
and case that are found in your work for the next - - weeks (or
let the teacher make a list from the work of the whole class).
Correct each mistake, and be sure you find out wliy you made it.
Write, as if for publication in a local paper, short items on
rec en t events in your school. Be especially careful about number
·and case.

Mistakes of Tense. - Mis~akes are likely to be made
in the use of the infinitive in a dependent clause. The
time represented by such an infinitive is governed by
the tense of the principal verb. The present infinitive
Tenses of
in English has both a present and a future
Infinitives.
use ; so in a dependent clause it denotes
either time the same as or time just subsequent to that
of the principal verb. The perfect infinitive always
denotes time prior to that of the principal verb.
In the sentences
(1) He tried to pray,
(2) He tries to pray,
(3) He will try to pray,
the time indicated by "to pray" is in each the same as that of the
" trying " - in (I) past, in ( 2) present, in (3) future. In such
expressions as
( 1) I hoped to see him,
( 2) I hope to see him,
(3) I shall hope to see him,

the perfect infinitive is used to show action prior to that of the
principal verb. In (1) this is time before other past time; in (2)
time before the present - that is, any past time; in (3) any time,
past, present, or future, befote that denoted by "will be said."

A common error is the use of the perfect infinitive
for the present: as, "I intended to have written,"
instead of "I intended to write." The former sentence ought to mean that the "writing" was done
before the "intending" - an absurdity. The use of
the perfect infinitive with "ought" is an apparent, not
a real exception, since "ought," though past in form,
is present in signification. "He ought to have gone"
is therefore correct.
Care should be taken in the use of the historic present-that is, the present tense employed with reference
to actions in the past : as,
"She starts,~ she moves, - she seems to feel
The thrill of life along her keel."

The historical present gives vigor to a narrative of
very exciting occurrences, but, like other methods of
gaining force, may easily be used too often.· With
some authors it becomes a mannerism. When the

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20

present has once been introduced it should be used
until a decided break in the narrative is reached. To
Historical
change back and forth from past to present
Present.
is a serious fault, both because it confuses
the reader, and because the use of the weaker past
after the more vivid present gives the effect of an
an ticlimax. 1
A general or universal truth should be expressed in
the present tense, no matter what the tense of the
other verbs in the sentence. Write, " Harvey discovered that the blood circulates [not circulated]" ; " If
you make the experim~nt, you will find that the diamond is [not will be J harder than glass." An especially
striking illustration of this is found in the words of the
Bible - "Before Abraham was, I am."
The auxiliaries of the future, "shall," "will," "should,"
"would, " are very troublesome. This is because by
means of the two auxiliaries we must express three
shall and
kinds of ideas : (I) determination or resolve
wm.
on the part of the speaker; (2) determination on the part of the subject of the verb; (3) simple
prediction of what is to happen. The following table
shows the forms for each use : Determination on Part Determination on Part
of Sub.feet.
of Speaker.

I will,
You shall,
He shall,

I will,
You will,
He will,
1

See page

I I 2.

S£mple Future.

I shall,
You will,
He, it, will.

21

In the first person, where the subject and the speaker
are the same, "will " is used to denote determination.
"I will go " shows that the speaker is resolved to go.
" I shall " simply predicts : as, "I shall be taken to
prison." In the second and third persons "shall " is
used to show that the speaker controls the action, or is
determined that it shall take place. "You shall go,"
"He shall go" mean that the speaker insists on the
action. The forms "You will go," "He will go" have
two meanings : if the auxiliary is emphatic, - "John
will go, though it is foolish,"- it shows determination
on the part of the subject; if the auxiliary is unemphatic, it shows simple futurity - that so far as the
speaker can predict, the action will take place. When
the subject is incapable of volition this form of course
indicates simple futurity: as, "It will rain,"" To-morrow
will come."
There are a few exceptional uses. " Shall " in the
second and third persons sometimes indicates determination, not on the part of the speaker, but of God or
of fate : as, "The heavens and the earth shall pass
away." "Will" is often used by courtesy to soften
the effect of what is really a command : as, "You will
report, etc." in military orders.
In questions, the same form should be used that
would be used in the answer. " Shall I ? " (answer,
"I shall") implies simple futurity. "Will I?" (answer,
"I will") would be nonsense, unless the speaker were
addressing himself, or repeating a question addressed
to him; for no one else could say what he was deter-

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L ANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

mined to do. "Will he ? " (answer, " He will") ex. presses either simple futurity, or determination on the
part of the subject, "he." "Will you?" ("I will"),
"Shall he?" ("He shall") imply that the matter in
question is to be determined by the person addressed.
" Should" and " would " follow the same rules as
"shall" and "will," respectively. They also have a
few special uses. " Should" when emphatic
should and
expresses obligatid'n : as, "He should go, but
Would.
I fear he will not." "Would" may denote habitual
action: as, "We would all sit about the fire on winter
" In the expression "would that," "would"
.
evenmgs.
expresses a wish.
Care is needed in discriminating the tense-forms of
Forms easily a few verbs which resemble each other both
in form and in meaning. The chief of these
Contused.
are "lie" and "lay," "sit" and "set."

Suggestions for Exercises. - Correct the following sentences,
giving reasons .
1. If I should choose again which school to go to, I would take
--academy.
2. As he proceeds in this direction he had not long to wait
before the university appeared.
3. One reading these books shall become familiar with the bes t
use of lang uage.
4. He was said to have been in the habit of talking in his sleep.
5. I will fail in my examinations if I no not study harder.
6. I was afraid I would lose my way.
7. Will we see you soon ?
8. We will find on exan'lination that he was reported to have
gone yesterday.
9. He ought not to have said so - it was not right for him to
have said so.

22

"To lie" (past "lay," past participle "lain") is an intransitive verb, and denotes the act of reclining, or the state of being in
a certain place or condition: as, " I lie down," " I lay down on
the bed," "The apple lay under the tree." "To lay" (past
"laid," past participle "laid") is a transitive verb, and means "to
put in a certain place." As, "Now I lay me down to sleep,"" I
laid the book on the table." Confusion often arises from the fact
that the past of "to lie" and the present of "to lay" are spelled
and pronounced the same. A common error is the use of "laid"
as the past of "to lie." Do not say," I laid down to sleep,"" The
papers laid on the floor."
A similar difference exists between "sit" (past" sat, " past participle "sat ") and "set" (past "set," past participle "set"). The
former is intransitive, the latter transitive. Do not say, "I set
down on the chair," or "I sat the pitcher down."

23

Write a short story containing some dialog ue, in which you
illustrate as many as possible of the uses of "shall," "will,"
" should," " would."
Write a short narrative or an ecdo te in which you use as many
forms as possible of the verbs "lie," "lay," "sit," "set."
Find, in some good history or novel, examples of the historic
present. What is gained by its use ? In what parts of the selections on pages r 42, I 50 mig ht the historic present have been used?
Copy some of these passages, changing the tense from past to
present, and comment on the effect. Notice how vivid Hawthorne
and Stevenson can make a narrative with the past, and remember
that th ere is danger in the unnecessary use of the historical present.

Mistakes of Mood. -The subjunctive form should be
used: ( 1) to express conditions contrary to fact : as, "If
I were five years older, I would enter the army"; (2)
to denote uncertainty or doubt: as, "If it rain next
Sat4rday, our botanizing excursion must be given up."

24

STYLE.

Only a few forms of the verb have separate inflections
for the indicative and the subjunctive, and, perhaps for
this reason, careless writers are likely to disregard the.
subjunctive altogether.
Mistakes of Reference. - Carelessness often causes
ambiguity as to the reference of a pronoun to its antecedent, or of a participle to the noun or proExpress Ante.
.
·
E
cedents of
noun with which it agrees.
very pronoun
Pronouns.
should have as its antecedent some noun,
pronoun, or other substantive definitely expressed. It
is incorrect to make a pronoun refer to an adjective, or
to part of a compound word: as, "They were German
emigrants, from which country they had lately arrived."
"He is a silk weaver, which is a pleasant fabric to
work with."
When two or more nouns of the same person, number, and gender occur near together it is sometimes
hard to· show which is the antecedent of a pronoun.
The general rule is that the pronoun refers to the last
preceding noun with which it might agree. This rule
has few exceptions in case of the relative. In the
expression "John Smith, son of the well-known attorney who, etc.," "who" shou ld re f er to "attorney, "
unless the context shows at once and plainly
Avoid Confusion of Ante- that this is not the case.
Personal pronouns
cedents.
sometimes refer, not to the nearest, but to the
most prominent noun that bas preceded, especially to
the subject of the sentence : as, "John Smith, son of
the well-known attorney, is visiting his brother in this
city. Yesterday he was interviewed by a reporter."

LANGUAGE DETERMINED .BY USAGE.

25

Here, though "attorney" and "brother" both intervene, there can be little doubt that the antecedent of
"he" is "John Smith."
Even if no other noun of the same number and gender
intervene, a pronoun may be too far from its antecedent.
In telling a story there is danger, in recurring to an
important character that has not been mentioned for
some sentences, of using simply "h'e" or" she" instead
of the name. A personal pronoun, or a deKeep Promonstrative ref erring to .a single word, should noun near
rarely be used to refer to an antecedent in a Antecedent.
preceding paragraph. A demon~trative expression that
summarizes "'.hat has gone before, as "this plan," "this
theory," "these consequences," etc., is often used at
the first of a paragraph as a connective. See page 105.
When a sentence contains a number of personal pronouns, reference may sometimes be made plain by using
the direct discourse, so that some pronouns
Use Direct
will be in the first or second and some in Discourse to
the third person. Instead of "He told his Avoid Ambiguity.
son that he would take good care of his
property during his absence," write," He said to his son:
' I will take good care of [my] [your] property during
[my] [your] absence.'"
The rule is sometimes given that a pronoun should
not refer to an antecedent in the possessive
Antecedent
case: as, "The book was John's, who gave in Possesit to his brother.'' The only reason for this sive case.
is that a noun in the possessive is rarely emphatic
enough to be an antecedent.

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STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

When a participle is not used as part of a verb it
should always agree with a noun or pronoun expressed
in the sentence. It is correct to say, "Going
down to the river, we soon launched our boat,"
Participles.
but not "Going down to the river, our boat was soon
launched." The use of the loose or unrelated participle
is a very common error.
Although the participial construction is entirely correct it does not seem so much at home in English as in
other languages. It is sometimes awkwq.rcl, and often
sounds a little artificial or bookish. Students of Greek
and Latin are especially likely to acquire the habit of
using it too often. A safe general rule is never to use
the participle when another expression ~ill answer as
well. The absolute construction with the participle is
especially to be guarded against. In the majority
of cases it is better to say, "I have followed your
advice and begun the study of rhetoric," rather than
"Following your advice, I have begun the study of
rhetoric" ; "After he had crossed the river, Washington fell upon the enemy," rather than "Washington,
having crossed the river, fell upon the enemy." If the
writer wishes to show clearly the subordination of one
idea to another, the participial phrase has an advantage.
If the participial construction is used sparingly, it becomes all the more valuable when it is needed for
variety or to indicate subordination.
Mistakes in Comparison. -The comparative of an
adjective should be used to express the difference in
degree of two objects. This form, as its name indi-

cates, emphasizes the fact of comparison- of matching
an object against some one other object. The superlative indicates that an object excels in the quality in
question. It is used when three or more objects are
considered, and when the number of objects is unknown
or unimportant. Thus, "He is the tallest of them all";
"She is the oldest child in the family" (when it is unknown whether there are two or more children in all), "I
brought the largest stone I could find " (when it is immaterial whether one or more than one other was found).
The comparative arid the superlative of adverbs are
governed by the same _rules as are the corresponding
forms of adjectives. Write, "John came more quickly
than Jam es," "Frank came the most quickly of all."
A common error is that of comparing a word whose
meaning admits of no degree ; for example, "round,"
"perfect," etc. When the force of these words is to
be modified they may be preceded by an adverb, such
as "nearly," and this adverb may be compared: as,
"More nearly round, most nearly round."

27

Suggestions for Exercises. - Improve the following sentences,
giving reasons.
I . I went to the principal's office, who gave me a card.
2. My preparation for rhetoric has not been very thorough,
coming from the - - school, where rhetorical classes meet but
once a week.
3. George was but twelve years old when his father died, which
left him to care for himself.
4. The capitol is surrounded by a large park from which at
all corners arid sides start streets filled with people, resembling
nothing more than some huge spider web covered with spiders.

MALONE COLLEGE LIBRARY
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STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERllIJNED BY USAGE.

5. The school has a very good baseball nine, in fact it has
been the best in the state, for the last few years, of its size.
6. I have also had some work in a literary and debating society which is of great help to me.
7. Our house was but a few miles from an Indian encampment who kept the country in terror.
8. His face bore a look of the most absolute astonishment.
9. A body of water as large as this, although being very
small, I had never seen before.
1 o. In Greek also, I have had a year's work that, being as it
is' the origin of our language, should be of benefit to me.
11. In the tunnel every sound echoes and reechoes, keeping
one in constant fear that a train is coming, and from which there
could be no escape.
1 2. The Jonesville Academy students are home for vacation.
They say it is a very prosperous institution.
13. At the foot of the hill stands the library building, which I
have found a great convenience for reference.
14. The building is of red brick with a tower at each corner,
making a very imposing structure.
15. In the gymnasium an opportunity is given for the students
to develop their body, which is necessary for a strong mind.

cises both in narration and in the application of the rules and
cautions given in the preceding pages. If any errors are found in
your work, be sure to see wlzy you committed them.

Find the examples of the subjunctive in the selection from Bacon,
page 209. Make a list of the subjunctives that you meet with in
days. What does each signify? Find
your reading for the next other sentences in which the subjunctive might be used, but is not.
If you are translating from Greek, Latin, or German, compare
the number of participial constructions in your lessons for the next
- - days with the number that you use in an idiomatic English
translation. How many of these constructions can be translated
by an English participle and give the sense? In how many of
these cases is the translation awkward?

Study carefully what is said of narration, pages 121-129. \Vrite
the items and articles suggested on page 129, making them exer-

Punctuation. - The object of punctuation is to make
plain the construction of a sentence, and so help the
reader to get the thought. To some extent it does for
the reader what pauses, inflections of the voice, gestures, etc., do for a hearer. There is not, however,
any necessary connection between pauses in reading
and punctuation marks in writing. Commas are often
needed where no paus·e would be made, and many
natural pauses are not indicated by any mark.
Some usages in matters of punctuation are as
definitely established as are those of spelling and
grammar ; others are not so generally recognized, so
that sometimes the writer has to decide according to
his own judgment and taste. No formal set of rules
can cover all cases. The suggestions which follow
apply to a few of the matters in which young writers
most need guidance.
All the terms in a series should be separated by
commas, unless a conjunction is used between each
two. Thus, "John and James and Henry some uses
attend our school " ; but "John, Jam es, and of Commas.
Henry attend our schooL" In the last sentence some
writers would omit the comma after "James," but the
be.s t usage requires it.
Two independent clauses connected by a conjunction
should be separated by a comma, in order to show that
the conjunction connects clauses, not words. If the

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LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

sentence "I took the bat, and John picked up the ball"
were written without the comma, the reader might
expect "and" to be followed by another object of the
verb "took."
A semicolon indicates a break in a sentence greater
than that denoted by a comma, and a colon, a break
colons and
greater than that denoted by a semicolon.
semicolons.
In short sentences semicolons are used only
when the stop is a very important one: as, "All is
over; I have failed " ; and colons rarely, except before
an illustration or a series of particulars : as in this
sentence, or in "The New England states are :
Maine, New Hampshire, etc." In longer sentences
semicolons are used to divide a sentence into sections
one or more of which contain commas; colons set off
sections one or more of which contain semicolons.
. This usage is illustrated by the following sentence :
"Ilut notwithstanding this natural love in brutes is
much more violent and intense than in rational creatures, Providence has taken care that it should be no
longer troublesome to the parent than it is useful to the
young; for so soon as the wants of the latter cease, the
mother withdraws her fondness, and leaves them to provide for themselves : and what is a very remarkable
circumstance in this part of instinct, we find that the
love of the parent may be lengthened out beyond its
usual time, if the preservation of the species requires it;
as we may see in birds that drive away their young as
soon as they are able to get their livelihood, but continue to feed them if they are tied to the nest, or

confined within a cage, or by any other means appear
to be out of a condition of supplying their own necessities."
Dashes should be used only before a summary, or to
indicate an abrupt change in the thought or in the
construction of the sentence. They are
Dashes.
.
h
proper1y used m sue sentences as : " I saw
many interesting things - but·' first I must tell you
how I came to go"; "The boy- 0 where was he?"
Parenthetical expressions should be set off by dashes
only when they make a decided break in the thought:
as, " Her story- and I assure you it surprised me was as follows."
When a series of connected paragraphs is quoted
quotation marks should be placed before Quotation
each paragraph, and after the last, not after Marks.
the others .
A quotation within a quotation is indicated by single marks [' ']. A quotation within this should be
enclosed by double marks: as, "The preacher said:
' Remember the words of our Lord, " I am the Good
Shepherd." ' "
When a word is divided at the end of a line the
division should be made between syllables. SyllabifiThe pronunciation will usually determine the cation.
syllabification, but in case of doubt, the proper division should be learned from a dictionary.
The use of too few punctuation marks leaves the
reader without the help that he may fairly expect;
the use of too many, especially of too many commas,

30

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LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

makes a sentence seem broken and disjointed. Both
extremes are to be avoided. A writer who is careless is likely to punctuate too little, one who follows
a system of set rules is likely to punctuate too much.

The word " Bible " and the expression " Word of
God" are capitalized when they refer to the contents
of the book; but "bible" meaning the book as an
object is not capitalized. Thus, " Let the Bible be
your guide in life" ; but "The book dealer sold four
bibles yesterday."
Usage is divided as to the capitalizing of words like
"county," "society," in such expressions as "Kings
County," "New York Humane Society." The majority of writers use the capital.
Every important word in a short title of a book
should be capitalized, especially if the title is not enclosed in quotation marks : as, " Thomas Bailey Aldrich
wrote The Story of a Bad Boy." Longer Titles of
titles enclosed in quotation marks may have Books.
only the first word capitalized: for e-xample, "The
title of the paper is 'A study in the development of
language during the twelfth century.' " Both capitals
and quotation marks are frequently used, though either
is sufficient.
In all cases where usage regarding capitalization is
divided, a writer should decide on a rule for himself and
follow it consistently. Lack of uniformity
· th e use o f capita
· 1s is
· never JUStl
· "fi ab l e. Be Uniform.
111
The tendency of the present time is to use fewer
capitals than formerly. Almost any book printed fifty
or a hundred years ago will show words capitalized that
would now be printed with small letters.

32

Suggestions for Exercises. - Find in selections in this book
- - illustrations for each of the rules given above.
Study the punctuation of the selections on pages 142, 2 1 2,
235, and 258. Try to give reasons for every mark, whether it
is accounted for by the principles you have studied or not.
In punctuating your own exercises be able to give a reason for
each mark you use.

Capitalization. - Capitalization, like punctuation, is
governed partly by fixed rules, and partly by the taste
of the writer. The more common rules, such as those
that require capitals at the beginning of a sentence or
of a proper name, need no statement here.
The question of capitalizing a personified noun 1s
determined by the degree of the personification. If
Personified
the noun is really made a proper name, it
Names.
should begin with a capital. In the expression "Justice, with bandaged eyes," the abstraction is
clearly thought of as a person; in such an expression
as "an outrage on justice" the personification is weaker,
and the capital may be dispensed with.
Not only names of the Christian Deity, but personal
pronouns referring to Deity, sometimes begin with a
Names of
capital. As, "The Lord is in His holy
Deity, etc.
temple; let all the earth keep silence before
Him." This rule is not so generallyfollowed as formerly.
Relative pronouns referring to God·are never capitalized.

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Suggestions for Exercises. - Let each member of the class
take some standard periodical or book approved by the teacher,

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LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

and ascertain its usage in regard to all disputed matters of capitalization. Note not only the points mentioned in the preceding
sections, but capitalization of names of political parties, of religious
denominations, etc. Compare the results.
As you write, make a note of every question that arises regarding capitalization. Decide what your own usage shall be, and
make a note of this also. Go over every exercise after you have
written it, and see that your capitalization is consistent.

other words that no one thinks of questioning now,
have come into good use in this way; half a century
ago writers of text-books on rh etoric denounced them
as barbarous. A student should remembei· that in
whatever he writes he is helping, though of course in
a very slight degree, to fix the usage of the language,
and he should never be satisfied to follow any authority
but the very highest . It is tim e .. for him to adopt a
questionable expression when writers of greater ability
and experience have adopted it. The question that
he should ask is not "Is this word allowable?" but
"Is this in every way the best word that I can
find ? "
It is usual to determine whether or not a word is
good English by looking in the dictionary. It must
not be supposed, however, that the dictionary maker
has any right or any power to say whether a word shall
be in good usage or not. Dictionaries are made by
men who read the works of standard authors and note
the use that these writers make of words. Such words
as they find used fr eely they include in the dictionary
without qu estion; those that are used only by careless authors, or in a certain locality, they mark "low,"
"<loubtful," or "provincial." Those used only in speaking they label "colloquial." A dictionary is valueless
except so far as it is a summary of what one would find
if he could read all English literature for himself. If
the dictionary maker's whims or theories should influence what he says about a word, the public would pay
no attention to him.

34

II.
Reputableness of Words. -The rules and cautions
that have been given in the preceding section belong to
grammar and other fundamental language studies.
With the consideration of the reputableness of words
we come to a subject .that is more properly within the
field of rhetoric.
By reputableness we mean that quality of a word
which renders it "good English." Reputableness is
entirely a matter of usage. Nothing can make a word
bad if the best writers and speakers use it, and nothing
can make it good if it is avoided by all writers who
care for the purity of their diction.
The most valuable authorities for or against a word
are those writers who have won a reputation for the
use of good English; but every educated man helps in
a slight degree to determine usage. Even newspaper
Who are
reporters, who from the nature of their
Authorities. work cannot write very carefully, often force
into the language words that more scholarly writers
protest against. "Telegram," "talented," and many

STYLE.

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Although there is nothing sacred about them, our
best dictionaries are, when first issued, probably as
nearly pe_rfect as any compilation well can be. If the
older dictionaries make mistakes, it is usually by rejecting or questioning words that may possibly be good,
rather than by admitting those that are questionable;
and since it is well for an author to err in the same
way, if at all, it is usually safe to follow these authorities. Some of the later dictionaries, which aim to give
as many words as possible, are far less conservative.
The very great majority of the words that a writer
will want to use are so firmly established in the language that no one thinks of questioning them; some, on
the other hand, like the more vulgar slang
Kinds of
Questionable expressions, are known by every one to be
words.
bad. The few concerning which a careful
writer will be in doubt come mostly under four
heads: (1) words becoming obsolete; (2) new words;
(3) technical and foreign terms; (4) slang and colloquial expressions.
I. lVords becoming Obsolete. -An obsolete word is
one that was once reputable, but has now gone out of
use. Words become obsolete because the things for
which they stand are no longer used, or because other
words have taken their places. In the King James
version of the Bible we find the words "brigand inc," a
kind of armor, "timbrel," a musical instrument, which
have now gone out of use because we no longer need to
speak of the objects for which they stood. "Ear," in
the sense of "plough," "seethe," "to boil," "latch et,"

for "thong" or "shoelace" have been replaced by other
words. Obsolete terms of this latter class are very
numerous; because, while the English language was
being formed from the Anglo-Saxon and the NormanFrench, writers could choose their vocabulary from
both, and two words for the same idea, one French,
the other Saxon, were often found side by side. In
time, however, one of these was changed in meaning
or else dropped. 1 Shakespeare's plays show many
words that have entirely disappeared since the poet's
time. It is hard to t'ell just when a word goes out of
use, especially as words become obsolete for some kinds
of writing and not for others. Many terms are retained
in poetry long after they are obsolete in prose, and in
histories and historical novels terms no longer common
are often used to carry the reader back to the times of
which the narrative treats. In ordinary prose, however, it is best to avoid, not only all obsolete terms, but
all that have so far fallen into disuse as to sound quaint
or old-fashioned, such as "quoth," "prithee," "anon."
. 2. New Words. - So long as a language is spoken
it changes ; and in an age like ours, when new inventions and discoveries are being made, and old methods
of ~oing things are being discarded, it changes very
rapidly. As soon as an invention or a discovery is
announced, men want to talk about it; and in order
to do so they must either give old words new meanings or adopt new words. These terms that express
new ideas often come into good use almost at once;
1

See also page 4 5.

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and the fact that they are not m the dictionary is ·
not to be counted against them. Even the most
conservative writers were using the word " phonograph" only a few weeks after the invention was
named. If a successful air ship were invented, the
words necessary to describe it would come into good
use in a few days. In regard to terms like these the
questions that need be asked are: (I) "Is a new .word
really necessary to express the idea?" (2) "Is this the
word that will be adopted for the purpose?" If but
one word is proposed, the second of these questions
will give no trouble. If several terms are proposed, the
writer must decide for himself which is most. likely to
be adopted; or, if possible, avoid all until time has
decided for him. The word "electrocution" would
probably be more definitely established to-day if several
other words for the same idea had not been suggested
when this method of execution was first adopted. We
are still in doubt whether to say "Roentgen rays " or
" X-rays," though popular usage seems to favor the
latter.
Some new words may be really needed for a time,
but only for a time. Whether a word is likely to take
a permanent place. in the language may general.ly b.e
determined by asking whether the thing for which it
stands is likely to be permanent or of such importance
that it will be long remembered. During the Civil
War the word "monitor" as the name of a type of
war vessel became firmly established. " Contraband,"
meaning "runaway slave," was used as long as needed,

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY U$AGE.

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but is now almost obsolete. The word " reconcentrado," which came into use in connection with the
Cuban War, seems to be meeting the same fate.
Not all new words express new ideas. Some are put
forward for the sake of novelty, or because they are
briefer than any equivalent expression. Of this sort
are verbs coined from nouns already in the language.
Thus, the newspapers say," the man suicided," because
it is shorter than "the man committed suicide." Such
expressions always come into use more slowly than do
names for new ideas, and the majority of those that are
proposed never come into the language at all. For
this reason it is best to be very careful in regard to
them. Avoid them until they are indorsed by some
good dictionary, or until you find them in the works
of standard authors.
3. T eclznical and Foreign Terms. - Belonging to
every science, profession, and trade are technical terms.
The advantage of these is that they express ideas briefly
and exactly; the disadvantages are, that they may not
be understood, that they may repel the reader because
they are long words and hard to pronounce, and that they
may seem affected. As knowledge of science becomes
more widely diffused, more and more of these terms
pass into the popular vocabulary; but the student fresh
from his studies is likely to use them without thinking
that they are not universally familiar, or, sometimes,
for the purpose of showing his superior knowledge.
Words and phrases from foreign languages have the
same disadvantages as technical terms: Their only

STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

advantage is that they may occasionally give the writer's
meaning better than a native phrase. A person with a
good English vocabulary will, however, find his own
language sufficient for the expression of most ideas.
Since people have come to understand that a person
may be educated, and even cultured, without knowing
any language except his own, foreign quotations are
used less than formerly. Words that a writer of English really needs are soon adopted into the language.
" Boulevard," "depot," and many more, which a few
years ago were always italicized as foreign, are now
recognized as perfectly .good English. "lVlenu" is
taking its place with these, if it has not already done
so. A very few combinations of words, such as "noblesse obl£ge," "esprit de corps," may convey a shade of
meaning not readily translatable into English, but fair
equivalents may be found for even these.
4. Colloquial Expressions, Cant, and Slang. - Colloquial expressions are those which may be used in
ordinary conversation, but which would be out of place
in more formal discourse, whether spoken or written.
Some are, in their place, preferable to more dignified
.
. n ' t, " "won 't ."
terms; for example, the contract10ns
"is
Others, such as "cute," "fizzle," "shaky," "kid" (a
child), noticeably lower the tone of discourse in which
they are used, and though it is priggish to condemn them
altogether, they should be used with great caution .
Some shortened forms of expression, such as "pants"
for "pantaloons," "postal" for "postal card," are colloquial, and others must be classed as cant or slang.

Never to use colloquial terms in ordinary speech is
to be pedantic and bookish, but to use them in formal
composition is ·usually to violate the requirements of
good taste. The stiffness and awkwardness often seen
in the speech of educated foreigners who have learned
the language ~n their native schools come from the
fact that they know the book language, not the spoken
language. An easy test of the value of colloquialisms
may be made by avoiding the contractions "can't,"
"don't," etc., in an a1.1imated conversation, and noticing how artificial the use of the full forms · seems to
both speaker and listener. Because colloquialisms are
so closely associated with conversation their use in
writing may sometimes ,give an appearance of informality, as if the writer were actually speaking with his
readers. In personal letters their us e for this purpose
is often very effective. In really serious or formal discourse, however, they usually seem out of place, and often
give an effect that can be compared to that of a false
note in music or of a prosaic word in impassioned
poetry.
Cant consists of words that are used in connection
with some business, sport, or manner of life, but that
are not dignified or important enough to be recognized
as technical terms. Examples are "fly " and "muff"
from baseball, "punt "from football, "flunk" from the
college vocabulary. These words are understood by all
persons interested in the game or mode of life to which
they belong, and to those who understand them they
express an idea more briefly, and often more accurately,

41

43

STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

than any other terms. It would take many words to
explain exactly what is meant to a football
Cant .
player by "punt." For this reason cant in
its proper place is not only allowable, but even preferable. Its place is, however, restricted. College slang
is not objectionable among students, nor are golf and
football terms in the sporting columns of a newspaper;
but in writing intended for general readers it is usually
best to avoid such expressions, even at the expense of
some extra words. A few of the more common terms
of this class may be safe, and if properly explained may
be used to give color to the setting of a story; but, generally speaking, they are neither clear enough nor dignified enough for use in literature of high grade.
The word "slang " is sometimes usecl to mean any
expression that is deliberately used by many persons,
but that is not good English. In this sense
Slang.
it includes both colloquialisms and cant. In
the narrower sense in which it is here used it denotes
only overworked and vulgar expressions.
Overworked expressions are words or phrases that
are good in their place, but that are used on all occasions, whether they are appropriate or not. Every
person is likely to have some pet expressions, which he
uses so often that his friends notice them, though very
likely he does not. These, if peculiar to one person,
can hardly be called slang; but expressions that are
overworked by a whole community certainly come
under that head. Adjectives like "lovely," "sweet,"
"horrid" are the most common examples of this class.

Nouns like "daisy," at first perhaps used · as legitimate figures of speech, are sometimes corrupted in the
same way. The more vulgar slang terms are used in
senses so far from their true meaning that it is hard
to tell how the slang sense originated : for example,
"chestnut," "talking through your hat."
Slang is used mainly by persons "."ho lack vocabulary,
or who are too lazy to use what vocabulary they have.
It is easier for a person to say that his dinner, his new
clothes, his friends, and the weather are all "immense"
than to find a discriminating adjective for each. The
fact that the use of slang encourages mental laziness
ought alone to prevent any one from indulging in it.
Unlike cant terms, wl:].ich remain the same from year
to year, slang is always changing. A word or phrase
is used so much that in a few weeks it becomes worn
out, and another must be found to take its place.

42

Suggestions for Exercises. - To which of the classes of words
discussed above does each of the following belong? Are any of
them allowable? If so, when and wh ere ? What is the advantage,
if any, of each? the disadvantage? Consult dictionaries and any
other available authorities for answers to these questions.
Fin de siecle, deciduous, exam, hot time, burglarize, booze,
cathode, chump, rubberneck, niblok, childe, kine, ion, caddy, mugwump, machete, slugger, gent.
Select from the Bible twenty-five words that are obsolete or
nearly obsolete. Find others in some play of Shakespeare with
which you are familiar. Try to find why each went out of use.
Make a list of as many words as possible that have come into
good usage during the last few years. Why did each become
established in the language? Make another list of words that are

STYLE.

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

sometimes used, but that are not thoroughly established. What
is your prediction as to the fate of each? Give your reasons.

both fascinating and valuable; but, after all, the real
test of the meaning of a word is the sense in which it
is used to-day.
Words are continually changing their meanings.
They become obsolete in some senses, and remain
reputable in others: For example, "tell," Changes of
"to count," is obsolete except in a few ex- Meaning.
pressions like "tell one's beads"; "snuff" meaning
"displeasure" is entirely obsolete ; and with the disuse
of candles "snuff," "the burnt part of a wick," is
probably becoming 'so. Words also gain new meanings.
When a new idea is to be expressed it is often better to
take an old word than to make a new one. "Train,"
" car," "cab," "switch" were all in use before the time
of the railroad.
There is a constant tendency to give words new
meanings when there are no new ideas to be expressed,
or to use words in senses a little inexact, but still close
to their true significance. This is done sometimes for
the sake of novelty, sometimes for the sake of variety
in expression. In either case it should be condemned.
"Function," meaning a social gathering, "transpire,"
in the sense of "happen," "quite," in the sense of
"somewhat" or "nearly" are words that have been
corrupted in this way.
Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly
the same meaning. There are very few, if
Synonyms.
any, pairs of words in English that mean
exactly the same. Most syno!lyms differ slightly in
sense, or at least in tone. "Begin " and " commence "

44

Pick out the words and phrases from foreign languages in the
selection from Macaulay on page 235. Find the best English
equivalents for each. What, if anything, is gained by the use
of each? Notice that most of them are in sentences quoted by
Macaulay. When did the authors of these sentences live? Make
a list of foreign expressions that you meet with in your reading.
How many of them are superior to the English equivalents?
Make a list of the technical terms that you find in the newspapers for the next - - days. Are any of them unfamiliar to
you? What is gained (or lost) by their use?
Make a list of colloquialisms used in The Autocrat of the
Breakfast Table or some similar work approv:ed by your teacher.
Comment on the use of each.
Make a list of cant terms for one of the following sports: baseball, football, golf, basket ball, tennis. Be sure that you get cant
terms, not mere transient slang that may be associated with the
game. How many of these words have decided advantages over
equivalent expressions in good use?
Go over the exercises in. narration that you have already
written, and see if you have used any expressions not in good
use. If so, was their use justifiable in your composition? Why?
Write an account of some game or athletic contest; or of some
party, with a description of the costumes. If you admit any questionable words, be able to tell what is gained by admitting them.
How far would the character of your readers determine what
terms you might use?

Meanings of Words. - Usage determines not only
whether a word is reputable, but what meaning it has.
The study of the history and derivation of words is

45

STYLE.

are sometimes spoken of as perfect synonyms, yet
there are places where one is more appropriate than
the other. It would sound a little like fine writing,
though it would not be incorrect, to speak of "commencing to wash one's hands" or "commencing to
dig potatoes." "Pretty" and "beautiful," "large" and
"great," though good examples of synonyms, cannot
always be used interchangeably. "A great tree" and
"a large tree" are about the same, but "a great man"
and "a large man" are very different. Careless writers
tend to disregard the differences between synonyms
and to use whichever word comes first to mind. The
most important part of the meaning of any word is
.that which no other word in the language can exactly
express. A careful writer will do all that he can to
preserve the slight differences between the meanings
of words, since it is these that enable him to say just
what he wishes.
Confusion of words that resemble each other in form
usually comes from carelessness, but it is not uncomwords Simimon. Such words as" effect" and" affect,"
lar in Form.
"immigrant "and" emigrant," "capital" and
"capitol" should be carefully distinguished.
Idioms. -Idioms are expressions that are approved
by good usage, but that are not in accordance with the
analogy of the language. Most idioms will not make
sense if translated literally into another language;
they must be translated by the corresponding idiom.
Thus, "Wie geht 's?" of the German, set into English
word by word, would· be " How goes it? " but the

LANGUAGE DETERMINED BY USAGE.

47

proper translation would be by our own idiom "How
do you do? " Sometimes the idiomatic quality consists
in the use of words in a peculiar sense; in "What is
the matter.'P" "lt turned out a fine day," "How do
you do'!" the italicized words do not have their usual
meaning. Other idioms do not conform to the analogies of grammar. The double possessive, "A friend
of John's," though correct, seems to put the object
of a preposition in the possessive case ; "methinks "
seems to put the subject of a verb in the objective
case. These idiom's do not really arise from a disregard of the rules of grammar, but are survivals of
earlier forms which were once perfectly regular. In
general, any expression that is in good use, but that
is peculiar to the language or exceptional in form, is
an idiom.
Idioms have grown up within the language and seem
to have a force and naturalness not to be found in
other expressions; No love for uniformity or desire
to get sentences that will " parse " should be allowed
to crowd them out.
Suggestions for Exercises. - Discriminate between the following synonyms. If possible, use each in a sentence where no other
word would answer.
Wealth, property; glory, fame; try, attempt; road, highway;
earth, soil, ground; deny, refuse; doubt, question; pay, salary,
wages, earnings ; tired, fatigued ; forgive, pardon, excuse ; allude,
refer, mention ; healthy, healthful, wholesome ; distinction, difference; argument, proof; chance, accident; visitor, guest; notorious, famous, noted; ancient, antiquated; pride, .vanity; have,
possess.

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STYLE.

In the following, in what does the idiomatic quality consist?
Express the idea conveyed by each in an expression not an idiom.
Look out for danger, fall asleep, get well, you are right, make
money, by all odds, get up.

CHAPTER II.

Make a list of as many idioms as you can find, and tell in what
the idiomatic quality of each consists.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE NEEDS OF THE READER.

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The Theory of Economy. - In his essay on The Philosophy of Style Herbert Spencer puts forth the theory
that the secret of all good style lies in economizing the
reader's mental energy. He assumes that the object of
composition is to convey thought to the reader. Words,
sentences, and paragraphs are useless except for this
purpose. Now the less mental energy the reader needs
to expend in getting the idea, the more he has left to
expend in considering and memorizing it. That style
will be best, therefore, which gives its idea to the
reader with the least effort on his part.

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Language may be compared to a machine, which the writer
uses for the purpose of conveying thought to the mind of the
reader. All energy spent in overcoming the friction of the machine
is lost, so far as real work is concerned. Every boy knows that
it is easier to ride a mile on a good bicycle than on one that runs
hard; or, to state it differently, that with the same amount of
labor he can ride farther on a good wheel than on a poor one. In
just the same way, it is easier for him to get a lesson from a textbook that is clearly written than from one in which the sentences
are a little hard to understand ; because if he does not have to
study over the language, he can put his energy into understanding
and memorizing the thought.
49

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LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

In stating the principle of economy Mr. Spencer
seems to assume that the reader brings to the perusal
of any work a fixed amount of mental energy. This is
not strictly true. The writer may not only be economical in the use of the energy which his reader would naturally expend, but may stimulate him to expend more.

sentence is not really clear if the average reade~ for
whom it is intended needs to study it or even to read
it twice in order to get the meaning. The clearer an
author makes his sentences, the more he economizes
his readers' attention.
What has here been called clearness really includes
two qualities which might be nameq clearness in diction
and clearness in construction . ·· In order that composition be clear it must contain only words that Two Qualiare familiar to the re~der and that can fairly ties of
Clearness.
be understood in but one meaning; and the
sentences into which these words are combined must
be so constructed and so arranged that the thought
will be unambiguou s and easily followed. Rhetoric
deals with both clearness in diction and clearness in
construction - largely with the latter.
Force. - Force is the quality of style that attracts
and holds the reader's attention. It is not the same as
emphasis, which is an especial stress on some part of a
composition , but may be found in the least important
as well as the most important ·parts of a discourse.
The reason that one article interests us, and another on
the same subject does not, is that one has force, the
other lacks it. Force not only economizes the reader's
energies, but often increases them.
Ease. -The third quality of style is called by .a number of names, such as "elegance," "beauty,"" euphony,"
etc. ; but "ease" is perhaps the best. Ease in style is
something like ease in a person's manner. It is that
quality which pleases us by satisfying the demands of

50

A bicycle rider, when he wishes to do his best, not only selects a
wheel that runs easily, but he gets !!Ome other rider to "pace"
him, and thus to stimulate him to do his best. A good writer
will in a way set a pace for his readers. A reader becomes careless and lazy if a discourse moves too slowly - that is, if he can
guess what is coming before he reads it. On the other hand, he
becomes discouraged if the thought moves so rapidly that he cannot keep up. If, however, he finds that he can follow the writer
through an intere~ting, though difficult, train of thought, he will
exert himself to the utmost.

The principles and cautions in Section II, of this chapter are intended to suggest ways in which the reader's
mental energy may be economized and increased.
The Qu~lities of Style. - Before taking up the principles of composition in detail, it will be well to see
what are the necessary qualities of style. Three of
these qualities, clearness, force, and ease, should be
found · in every part of every composition ; a fourth,
unity, should belong to any section of composition
looked at as a whole.
Clearness. - Clearness is the quality of style that
makes a composition easy to understand. Clearness is
opposed to two faults, ambiguity and obscurity. Language is ambiguous if it" may have two or more meanings; it is obscure if no meaning is readily seen. A

52

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taste. A composition may be clear and forcible, and
yet be so rough and harsh that we do not enjoy reading
it. If so, it lacks ease. Ease economizes mental
energy rather than increases it.
There is an important difference between what Prof.
A. S. Hill calls the negative and the positive qualities
of ease. The former is gained by the removal of harsh
and crude expressions, such as awkward repetitions,
rhymes in prose, and combinations of sounds
Two QualiThe positive merits are
ties of Ease. hard to pronounce.
secured by the use of flowing expressions, of alliteration, of figures chosen partly for their beauty, etc. It
is only with the first of these qualities that a young
writer can safely have much to do. It is the duty of
every one to see that his composition is not unnecessarily harsh; but, just as conscious attention to one's
feet and hands is likely to make one awkward in society,
so deliberate attempts to make · composition beautiful
are almost certain to fail.
Many violations of ease are of such a nature that
they appeal to the ear. If a writer forms the habit
Read Compo- of reading all his composition aloud, he will
sition aloud. detect many roughnesses that might otherwise pass unnoticed.
Clearness, force, and ease are of importance in the
order named. Clearness is the most valuable, and
Force is also
Which Qu~li- should be sought at any cost.
ties to seek. very desirable, but it is not always necessary
to take especial pains to secure it. If, from the nature
of the subject, the reader's interest is assured, no

I.

I·I

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

53

special devices for holding the attention are needed.
Ease is the last consideration, and, as has been sai<l,
should be striven for only to the extent of avoiding
awkward expressions.
Force and ease sometimes conflict. A forcible
expression may be too harsh to have ease, and an
expression chosen for ease may be too pretty and .
effeminate to have much force·: The language of a
man who is extremely angry is usually forcible, but it
.
is rarely elegant.
Unity. - Every division of discourse- that is, every
sentence, paragraph, chapter, or whole composition should be a unit. A unit is something that, taken
by itself, may be considered as a complete, undivided
whole. The requirements of unity may be violated by
omitting some necessary part, or, as is more common,
by .adding something that is not in place.

i

I

,,.) •.

1.:

'.

1':

''
' '

I I
I

I

;

I
'

I .

,:,

I'

...'.

I •

As a concrete example, we may say that every brick in a wall
is a unit; the wall itself is a unit; and the whole building of
which the wall forms a part, is also a unit. Each is composed of
parts, but when looked at as a whole is complete in itself. But
half a brick is not a unit; nor is a brick and a half; ·nor half a
brick and half the one next to it.

Unity of the Sentence. - A sentence is a unit
when it leaves a single, definite impression on the mind.
The unity of a sentence may usually be tested by asking such questions as these: "Has the sentence a single logical (not grammatical) subject? " "Is every idea
that it contains so closely related to this subject as
not to seem out of place?" A sentence that treats of
I.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.
STYLE.

54

two or more independent subjects of thought, or one
in which the ideas are too loosely connected is called
heterogeneous.
A sentence may of course have two or more grammatical subjects and still have unity. In the sentence "John will go into
business, and his brother will enter college," the thought-subject is
"The two boys - what they will do." Such a sentence has unity.
But if we say," John will enter college, and George Washington
was the first president of the United States," the sentence is ridiculous because the two grammatical subjects are not parts of one
idea; the sentence as a whole does not answer one question or
leave one impression on the mind.

It is sometimes hard to tell just how close a connection of ideas in a sentence is necessary to secure unity.
The only real test is the one that has been given - the
impression left on the mind of the reader. In case of
doubt it is better to form two sentences than to run any
risk of making one heterogeneous.
The sentence, "John Adams was the second, and his son John
Quincy Adams was the sixth president of the United States," probably would not strike any reader as heterogeneous; but "Thomas
Arnold was principal of Rugby, and his son Matthew wrote Sohrab
and Rustum," probal;ly seems to every one an unwarranted mixing
of statements. Still, it might be hard to give a rule that would
apply to one sentence and not to the other.

Unity is primarily a matter of ideas, but often the
structure of a sentence determines whether it will
impress readers as a unit. If ideas loosely or remotely
connected are expressed in a sentence, care must be
taken to emphasize the connection. If this consists in
a relation of both ideas to a third term, this term must

55

be made prominent. The sentence quoted in the last
paragra~h i~ay be given unity by introducing such a
connectmg idea: thus, "Mrs. Ward comes of a family
known to every schoolboy ; her grandfather, Thomas
Arnold, was principal of Rugby, and her uncle, Matthew Arn~ld, w.rote Sohrab and Rustum." Unity is
often sacnficed if clauses expressing coordinate ideas
are not put in the same grammatical construction.I
The sentence, "The Philippines are freed from their
old allegiance, arid ~pain has lost her navy," is heterogeneous; but there is no lack' of unity in " Spain has
lost
her
navy and relinquished her rule
in the I)h'l"
_
.
"
.
I lp
pi~_es..
In other c~ses unity is lost by expressing in
coordmate clauses ideas that might be subordinated.
~'I ::ote a difficult examination in algebra this mornmg, is clearly better than "I wrote an examination in
~Igebra t~is morning, and it was difficult," unless the
idea of difficulty is to be very prominent. The sentence
quot_ed f:om the preceding paragraph will have unity if
one idea I~ su.bordinated : " Matthew Arnold, son of the
famous pnnc1pal of Rugby, wrote Sohrab and Rustum."
for E x ercises · - Have the f oII owmg
·
sentences
Improve them. Can any of them be
unproved by putting some of the ideas in subordinate clauses?
. I. Mt. Evere~t, the highest peak in the world, is found in the
. :11malaya ~ountains; and also the most active volcano is found
m Italy, which throws a stream of lava many feet into the air.
_2. Pure q~artz sand is the best in the world for making glass,
bemg found m Berkshire county, Mass.
•Suggestions
?

~mty.

If not, why?

1

See page r 08.

57

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

3. Millions of years ago, after the earth was formed, it kept
getting cooler, and the trees began to grow, and grew up, and
then broke off, and fell down on the ground one on top of another,
and then rotted and turned into coal.
4. This boy's name was Tim Lawrence, and he was well known
among the boys of his own town, being a full-fledged Irishman.
5. The Bartholdi statue was a gift of France to the American
people, and it is said that it cost $z50,ooo.
6. There are numerous clear lakes w.hich are stocked with fish;
among them is Lake Winnebago, which is the largest wholly in
Wisconsin and is twenty-eight miles long and ten miles wide.
7. A beautiful rustic bridge spans the stream, composed of the
natural boughs of the trees, t>f which there are one hundred and
fifty-seven different kinds in the park.
8. The grounds cover thirty acres, and here are found many
swings for the pleasure of the people, and a pavilion made of
Georgia pine.
9. We reached the boat after fifteen minutes ·o f hard swimming
and got in and rowed to shore, where we soon built a fire and fried
the frogs' legs we had got for dinner.

of the crews had been wonderfully good. Russell commanded
the naval force of the allies. He had in vain offered battle to
the French. The year before the white flag had ranged the channel. Now it abandoned the open sea. It retired into the depths
of the harbor at Brest. An English squadron had appeared in the
estuary of the Shar{non. This decided the fate of the last fortress
that held out for King Jam es.

State the following facts in as few sentences as you can and
make sure that each has unity.
On the nineteenth of October, 1691, William arrived at Kensington. He came from the Netherlands. Three days later he opened
the parliament. The aspect of affairs was cheering. There had
been gains by land. There had been losses. The balance was in
favor of England. England had lost at Mons. She had won
at Athlone. She had won at Aghrim. She had taken Limerick.
She had subdued Ireland. At sea ~here had been no great victory. At sea there had been great display of power and of activity. Many were dissatisfied that more had not been done. None
could deny that there had been change for the better. Ruin had
been caused by the follies and vices of Torrington. This ruin had
been .repaired. The fleet had been well equipped. The rations
had been abundant and wholesome. For these r~asons the health

Un£ty of the Paragrqplt. -There is danger of
thinking of a paragraph as any group of sentences,
rather than as a unit. One subordinate use of paragraphing is to relieve the monotony. of the use of
printed page, and for this purpose all that Paragraph.
is necessary is to begin a sentence on a new line at
convenient intervals. A true paragraph is, however, a
discussion or presentation of some topic or definite subdivision of a topic. The end of such a paragraph marks
a pause or break in the thought, and affords a sort of
resting place, where the reader can stop to think over
what he has already learned, and to prepare himself for
what is to come.
As the paragraph is a larger section of discourse
than the sentence, it may include more widely different ideas and still have unity. The real test of unity
here is, as in case of the sentence, the Test of Paraimpression left on the min.cl of the reader. graph Unity.
Three rather indefinite rules may, however, be laid
down: (1) paragraphs should be neither too long nor
too short; (2) the breaks between paragraphs should
correspond to more or less important breaks in the
thought; (3) the ideas presented in any paragraph
2.

59

STYLE.

L ANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

should be so closely related that they will not seem
incongruous.
Nothing very exact can be said regarding the proper
length for a paragraph. Most readers find that at first
Length of
glance a book looks more attractive if there
Paragraphs.
is at least one paragraph break on every
page. Paragraphs as long as four hundred or five hundred words each are hard readin g, because the mind
has to go so long without a resting place. On the
other hand, a series of paragraphs containing but a
sentence or two each is in the end almost as tiresome. The reader supposes when be reaches the end
of a paragraph that he has fi nished the discussion of
one topic, and prcp a~c s fo r a n ew idea. If he finds
that the next sentence is really a continuat ion of th e
same thoug ht, he must combine for himself ideas that
the writer has led him to believe were separat e.
T he mo re common fa ult on t he part of st udents is
that of paragraph ing t oo free ly. T his comes partly from
a failure to plan paragrapbs before they arc written,
partly, no dou bt, from a wrong idea of the way manu script would look if put in print. A page of an average
book represents several pages of ordinary handwriting.
The length of parag raphs should be estimated from th e
number of words, not by looking at th e space occupied
on the written page.
While there need be no studied attempt to sec ure
variety, a series of paragraphs all of the same le ng th
should be avoided . A natural alternation of long, short,
and medium paragraphs gives the best effect .

T he second rule for securing unity in a paragraphthat the breaks between paragraphs should correspond
to breaks in the thought - forbids the division of a
topic in such a way that the reader will think he has
reached a rest ing place when he has not. Th e third
rule-that incongruous ideas should not be presented
in the same paragraph - hardly needs explanation .
The working of these t wo rules lnay best be illustrated
by a simple example.
In writing a d escription of your native city you might wish to
treat th e fo ll owing top ics:
Good.

H ad.

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Location.
In state.
~
) Imm ed ia te surroundings.
l ~ Si ze.
Kin ds of bu ilding s.
P ublic.
l' ri vatc .
( ) Educational adv antages.
) Social ach·anta,t.;es .
) l\loral advanta _t.;es- clrnrcbes, etc.
Bus in ess adva ntages.
\Va te r power.
F ac ilities for transportatio n.
Etc., etc.

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All these headings could be very well tre ateci in a si ng le paragraph, the top ic of whi ch would be, " A g enera! description of the
city of - -." A longer composition mi ght contain four parag raph s,
one on loca tion a nd si ze, one o n b uildi ngs, one O il what might be
called intellectual - th a t is, educ ation al, social, a ncl moral - adva ntages , a nd one on busin ess advantages. I n a still longer essay,

60

61

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

one paragraph might be g iven to each subdivision under location,
buildings, and business advantages, and one to each of the topics
not subdivided. The purpose of the article would determine the
amount of space, and hence the number of paragraphs devoted to
each topic. A pamphlet issued by a business men's club would
devote several paragraphs to business advantages. A statement
in a college catalogue would dismiss business advantages with one
paragraph or less, and devote much more space to considerations
of an intellectual and moral nature. The order of parts would
also be determined by the purpose of the article. The order given
above is not sig nificant, except that size and location, being general considerations, would naturally come first.
It would be a serious violation of unity in treating this subject
to split a topic and group each part with other material ; for
example, to put siz.e and public buildings in one parag raph, private
buildings and educational advantages in the next. It would also
be inexcusable so to group th e top ics as to treat in one paragraph such diverse subjects as kinds of buildings and educational
advantages.
The brackets at the left of the table above show some possible
groupings of the topics, good and bad. Make other plans and
decide whether they would be allowable or not. Rearrange the
topics and then decide on proper groupings.

apply to his own work. For example, this paragraph
may be summarized by saying, "Most good paragraphs
~ay be summed up in a brief phrase or sen- Another Test
tence"; the paragraph from Webster, page of Unity.
62, may be summed up, "Our age is extraordinary
because of what has .been accomplished"; that from
Ruskin, page 64, "Mod esty is essential to success in
managing others."
So far in this discussion we have considered the
question, What should be put into a paragraph? In
order that a paragraph give an impression Plan of a
of unity, it is necessary, not only that irrele- Paragraph.
vant matter be excluded, but that whatever is included
be properly arranged and the connection between the
parts clearly shown.
Any sentence that properly belongs in a paragraph
usually performs one or more of the following offices :
( 1) It states the paragraph topic.
(2) It explains the topic.
(3) It establishes or proves the topic.
(4) It applies the topic to something else.
What might be called . an ideal paragraph would
contain sentences of each of these four kinds. Few
paragraphs, however, have all these parts. The topic
may not be stated, either because it has been given
in a preceding paragraph, or because, as in case of
narration a~d description, it can be seen without statement. Many topics need no explanation; others no
proof. Some are of such a nature that they cannot be
applied to anything, and others are left for the reader

It will be seen from the foregoing illustration that
even in simple description the division into paragraphs
depends largely on the nature of the thought. In expositionand argumentation the connection of ideas is closer,
and there is still more danger of making a paragraph
heterogeneous.
It is sometimes said that a paragraph which has unity
may be summed up in a single term or sentence. This
is not quite a universal truth ; but it is true in the
majority of cases, and is a good test for the writer to

62

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

to apply. Many paragraphs contain but one, and the
majority not more than two or three of these four
possible parts.
When two or more of these parts are found in a
paragraph they should generally be arranged in the
order given above. The topic should be stated first, if
at all; if explanation is given, it should come before
proof or application ; proof should precede application.
The reason for this is plain. It is impossible to convince a man that a statement is true if he does not
understand what it means, and no one will apply a
thought to his own or any other affairs if he is not
convinced of its truth.

try, and the dwellers on the banks of the Ohio and the Mississippi
become the fellow-citizens and neighbors of those who cultivate
the hills of New England. We have a commerce that leaves no
sea unexplored ; navies which take no law from superior force;
revenues adequate to all the exigencies of government, almost
without taxation; and peace with all nations, founded on equal
rights and mutual respect."
In the following, from Addison, the topic is stated in the first
part of the first sentence. Then follo.\VS proof that love of country
is reasonable ; and the last sentence applies the thought of the
paragraph to the duties of the individual.
"As this love of our ~ountry is natural to every man, so it is
likewise very reasonable ; and that, in the first place, because it
inclines us to be beneficial to those, who are and ought to be dearer
to us than any others. It takes in our families, relations, friends,
and acquaintance, and in short, all whose welfare and security we
are obliged to consult, more than that of those who are strangers
to us. For this reason, it is the most sublime and extensive of all
social virtues: especially, if we consider that it does not only promote the well-being of those who are our contemporaries, but likewise of their children and their posterity. Hence it is, that all
casuists are unanimous in determining, that when the good of their
country interferes even with the life of the most beloved relation,
dearest friend, or greatest benefactor, it is to be preferred without
exception."

In the following paragraph from Webster's Bunker Hill oration
the first sentence states the topic. The second sentence explains
it - shows in what respect the age is extraordinary. The rest of
the paragraph establishes it by citing examples of achievements
that make the age extraordinary.
"We live in a most extraordinary age. Events so various and
so important that they might crowd and distinguish centuries are,
in our times, compressed within the compass of a single life.
When has it happened that history has had so much to record,
in the same term of years, as since the 17th of June, r 77 5 ? Our
own revolution, which, under other circumstances, might itself
have been expected to occasion a war of half a century,· has been
achieved ; twenty-four sovereign and independent states erected ;
and a general government established over them, so safe, so wise,
so free, so practical, that we might well wonder its ·establishment
should have been accomplished so soon, were it not far the greater
wonder that it should have been established at all. Two or three
millions of people have been augmented to twelve, the great forests of the West prostrated beneath the arm of successful indus-

This theoretical arrangement of the parts of a paragraph is best in the great majority of cases, but sometimes it may be disregarded to advantage. The most
common departure from the ideal plan consists in
delaying the statement of the paragraph topic until the
middle or the end of the paragraph. If the writer is
presenting an unwelcome truth, or one which the reader
will be loath to believe, he should hold it back until

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

interest has been aroused, or hostility partly overcome.
Sometimes it is effective to hold the main idea until
the last, and so excite the reader's curiosity; and sometimes a topic is of such a nature that it cannot be
clearly stated until an explanation has been given.

part of mankind - indeed the necessary effects of the ignorance
and levity of the vulgar. Such complaints and humours have
existed in all times ; yet as all times have not been alike, true
political sagacity manifests itself, in distinguishing that complaint
which only characterises the general infirmity of human nature
from those which are symptoms of the particular distemperature
of our own air and season."

The chief idea of the following paragraph from Ruskin's lecture on Work is that men must be modest to succeed in influencing others. This is made more effective by leading up to it
through an analogy. We admit the application of the principle
to children more readily than to ourselves, but after we have
granted it in one case we do so in the other. Rearrange the
paragraph, putting the topic first, and note the effect.
" The first character of right childhood is that it is Modest.
A well-bred child does not think it can teach its parents, or that
it knows everything. It may think its father and mother know
everything, - perhaps that all grown-up people know everything ;
very certainly it is sure that it does not. And it is always asking
questions, and wanting to know more. Well, that is the first
character of a good and wise man at his work. To know that he
knows very little ; - to perceive that there are many above him
wiser than he ; and to be always asking questions, wanting to
learn, not to teach. No one ever teaches well who wants to teach,
or governs well who wants to govern ; it is an old saying (Plato's,
but I know not if his, first), and as wise as old."
In the following, from Burke, the topic is stated in the last part
of the last sentence. The preceding sentence describes the kind
of complaint that should be discriminated against. It would be
possible to begin by saying that complaints should be discriminated, and afterwar4 to mention kinds of complaints ; but the
method followed in this paragraph is undoubtedly easier for the
reader. Rewrite the paragraph, putting the topic first.
"To complain of the age we live in, to murmur at the present
possessors of power, to lament the past, to conceive extravagant
hopes of the future, are the common dispositions of the greater

In order that a paragraph seem a unit it is necessary,
not only that the ideas contained be related to the paragraph topic, but th'!lt each be given just its proper
degree of prominence. It is a fault either to touch the
important ideas of a paragraph lightly or to lay stress
on trivial details. In planning paragraphs the writer
must remember that proportion should be determined,
not by the way ideas impress him, but by the Proportion
way they will impress the reader. A writer of Parts.
of description or narration is often tempted to give too
many details regarding matters with which he is familiar
or in which he is interested; a writer of exposition or
argumentation sometimes touches a point lightly because
it is plain to him, and in consequence his readers, to
whom it is unfamiliar, have difficulty in following the
line of thototght.
An idea - may be made prominent by expressing it in
a sentence by itself or in several sentences, or by
enlarging on it and repeating it in various forms. It
may be subordinated by expressing it in part of a sentence which contains other ideas, and by stating it but
once, without amplification. For a further discussion of
this subject, see the treatment of emphasis, page 91.

66

STYLE.

In the last sentence of the paragraph quoted from Ruskin,
above, the idea, "it is an old saying," is of subordinate importance
and is brought in, not really for its own sake, but for that of the
idea referred to by" it." Note that it is stated in the middle of a
long sentence - a very subordinate position. As the simple statement, "it is an old saying,'' might be too much subordinated to
attract attention, the author adds the parenthesis ("Plato's, but I
know not if his, first"), which amplifies it a little. Omit the
whole expression and see how much the paragraph loses. Omit
the parenthesis and note the result.
The following paragraph from Carlyle, written early in the century, was perhaps well planned for the readers for whom it was
intended. For us, who are thoroughly familiar with the idea that
this is an age of machinery, more illustrations are given than are
necessary. Cut down the development of this idea until it seems
appropriate for a reader of the present time.
"Were we required to characterise this age of ours by any
single epithet, we should be tempted to call it, not an Heroical,
Devotional, Philosophical, or Moral Age, but, above all others, the
Mechanical Age. It is the Age of Machinery, in every outward
and inward sense of that word; the age which, with its whole
undivided might, forwards, teaches and practises the great art of
adapting means to ends. Nothing is now done directly, or by
hand; all is by rule and calculated contrivance. For the simplest
operation, some helps and accompaniments, some cunning abbreviating process is in readiness. Our old modes of exertion are all
discredited and thrown aside. On every hand, the li•ing artisan is
driven from his workshop, to make room for a speedier, inanimate
one. The shuttle drops from the fingers of the weaver, and falls
into iron fingers that ply it faster. The sailor furls his sail, and
lays down his oar ; and bids a strong, unwearied servant, on
vaporous wings, bear him through the waters. Men have crossed
oceans by steam; the Birmingham Fire-king has visited the fabulous East; and the genius of the Cape, were there any Camoens
now to sing it, has again been alarmed, and with far stranger

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

thunders than Gama's. There is no end to machinery. Even the
horse is stripped of his harness, and finds a fleet fire-horse yoked
in his stead. Nay, we have an artist that hatches chickens by
steam; the very brood-hen is to be superseded ! For all earthly,
and for some unearthly purposes, we have machines and mechanic
furtherances; for mincing our cabbages; for casting us into magnetic sleep. We remove mountains, and make seas our smooth highway; nothing can resist us. We war with rude Nature; and, by our
resistless engines, come off always victorious, and loaded with spoils."
The following, from Matthew Arnold, shows how an idea is
both emphasized and made more definite by repetition. The
paragraph may be summed up in the statement; "Wordsworth is,
with the exception of Shakespeare and Milton, the greatest English poet since the Elizabethan age." So sweeping a statement,
if made simply and but once, might not be impressive enough,
and general terms like "greatest poet" are likely to be misunderstood or, at least, to give rise to quibbl es. The writer therefore
repeats, not only the main idea, but some subordinate parts. The
topic is not likely to meet with the immediate approval of all
readers. The paragraph is therefore introduced by two sentences
that are a partial concession to critics whose opinions differ from
those of the author. The topic is first stated in sentence (3), and
is here purposely made a little indefinite by the use of the expression "most considerable," which might refer to either quality or
amount of work. Sentence (4) repeats and emphasizes the exception first stated in the phrase " from the Elizabethan age to the
present time." Sentence (5) repeats the topic, and makes the
idea of supremacy especially emphatic by giving a list of great
poets with whom Wordsworth is to be compared. Sentence (6)
is a concession in the interest of fairness. Sentence (7) repeats
the main ~<lea again, and by enumerating the particulars "in
power, in interest, in the qualities which give enduring freshness,''
removes any doubt that may remain as to the meaning of "most
considerable" in sentence (3 ). See in this connection the discussion of exposition by repetition, page 20 r.

68

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

(r) "Wordsworth has been in his grave for some thirty years,
and certainly his lovers and admirers cannot flatter themselves
that this great and steady light of glory as yet shines over him.
(2) He is not fully recognized at home; he is not recognized at
all abroad. (3) Yet I firmly believe that the poetical performance
of Wordsworth is, after that of Shakespeare and Milton, of which
all the world now recognizes the worth, undoubtedly the most
considerable in our language from the Elizabethan age to the
present time. (4) Chaucer is anterior; and on other grounds,
too, he cannot well be brought into the comparison. (5) But
taking the roll of our chief poetical names, besides Shakespeare
and Milton, from the age of Elizabeth downwards, and going
through it- Spenser, Dryden, Pope, Gray, Goldsmith, Cowper,
Burns, Coleridge, Scott, Campbell, Moore, Byron, Shelley, Keats
(I mention those only who are dead), - I think it certain that
Wordsworth's name deserves to stand, and will finally stand,
above them all. (6) Several of the poets named have g ifts and
excellences which \V ordsworth has not. ( 7) But taking the performance of each as a whole, I say that Wordsworth see ms to me
to have left a body of poetical work superior in power, in interest,
in the qualities which give enduring freshness, to that which any
one of the others has left."

Go over the narratives that you have written and see if the
paragraph ing can be improved. Plan and write by paragraphs an
account of your school life to the date of writing, giving places,
teachers, length of time in each grade, etc. Be sure that paragraphs are not too short, and that each paragraph is a unit.

As has been said before, m order that a paragraph
g ive the impress ion of unity the connection
connection
between ideas must be properly shown. The
of Ideas.
methods of showing this connection are discussed on
page 105.
Suggestions for Exercises. - Name the topic of .each paragraph in the selections on pages 212 and 235. See if each of these
paragraphs may be summarized into a single phrase or sentence.
Analyze twenty selected paragraphs according to the scheme on
page 61.

Write a paragraph explaining the meaning of one of the follow~ng condensed _sayings_: Handsome is as handsome does. Honesty
is the best policy. Little faults are sometimes more serious than
great ones. Time is money.
Write a paragraph explaining and establishing one of the following: The study of mathematics is good discipline. We may
make books our friends. The study of Latin may be of practical
value. Athletics are of real value.
:Vrite a paragraph either explaining or proving one of the followmg, and applying it to your own school : It is well for persons
connected with any institution to be proud of that institution.
Persons who are trusted try to show themselves worthy of the
confidence reposed in them. All work and no play makes Jack a
dull boy.
':"rite on - - of the following paragraph subjects, making an
outline of the ~aragraph according to the scheme on page 6r,
before you begm to write : The advan tages of science study.
Stude~ts shoul~ read the daily papers. The advantage of public
r.hetoncal exercises in a high school. The advantages of electric
hg_ht over gas. The proper way to treat a bully. The most beneficial form of athletics.

3. Unity of tlze Composz'tz'on. -Almost everything
that has been said regarding unity of paragraphs holds
true regarding unity of whole compositions. The
composition should have one topic ; no paragraph
should be admitted that does not bear directly on

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

this topic; paragraphs should be so· arranged and so
connected as to show the relation of each part to the
central idea; and the proper proportion of ideas should
be maintained.
In order to secure unity a writer should always, as
the first step in composition, make out a careful plan of
his work. In this plan he should set down the topic
of each paragraph in the composition, and he should
have in mind, even if he does not put on
Need of a
Plan.
paper, just how each topic should be treated
-that is, Is it to be stated, explained, established,
applied? Except by mere chance, no good literary
work is ever done unless the writer, before he begins the
work of composition, has such a plan either on paper or in
mind. It is best for a beginner tb write out, not only the
plan by paragraphs, but the outline of each paragraph.
After a little practice the analysis of the paragraph
may be made mentally, and in time the entire plan for
a short essay may perhaps be intrusted to the memory.

Suggestions for Exercises.- Make out an analysis, by paragraphs, of the selection from Huxley, page 2 I 2 ; of that from
. Macaulay, page 235. ,
Always plan your exercises by paragraphs before you begin to
write them. Hand the outline to your teacher with the exercise.

70

The plan of the selection from Sidney, page 207, is as follows.
It should be remembered that this is an extract from a longer
composition.
Composition Topic -

Definition and kinds of poetry.

Paragraph I. - Poetry defined.
Paragraphs I I.-V. -Kinds of poetry.
I I. First kind- Sacred poetry.
I I I. Second kind - Philosophical poetry.
IV. Third kind--:- True (creative) poetry.
V. Subdivision of these divisions.

II.
In this section each specific ·rule and caution for the
use of language is placed under the principle on which
it chiefly depends. Some usages are, however, desirable for several reasons. In every case try to see how
many reasons you can find for following each rule or
caution.
Language that is capable of two meanings confuses
the reader's mind. - This principle should be remembered both in choosing and in arranging words. Disregard of it sacrifices both clearness and force especially the former.
When there is a choice between a word with but
one meaning and a word with two or more, the former
should be chosen. " Recipe" is preferable to Use Words
"receipt" in speaking of a formula or pre- of but one
scription, because the latter term also means Meaning.
an acknowledgment of money paid. "Pupil " is better
than "scholar" to designate a student in school, though
the latter word is entirely correct in this sense. Even
when the writer can see no possible chance for ambiguity, the safest plan is to follow ~his rule, because
what seems perfectly clear to the writer, who understands his subject, may be doubtful to the reader, whose

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

knowledge is all derived from the language itself.
Often the worst ambiguities are not seen by the writer
until they are pointed out to him,
Always make sure that all grammatical constructions
are perfectly plain. If this is done, there can be few
ambiguities except such as arise from the
Make Conmeanings of words. The faults caused by
structions
Plain.
the careless use of pronouns have already
been considered under the head of Mistakes of Reference, page 24. Another error that is likely to pass
unobserved by the writer is the use of a " squinting
construction." This consists in placing a modifier
between two expressions, to either of which it might
belong, so · that it can "look both ways at once." In
the sentence, "The Democrats at least hope for success," "at least " may belong either to "Democrats "
or to" hope" ; and the sense may be, "The Democrats
hope, though the members of other parties may not,"
or "The Democrats hope, though they may do nothing
more."
In English, grammatical relations are shown, not, as
in Latin, by endings and inflections, but by position.
It is unsafe, therefore, to put a sentence elePut Related
ment
far from the other elements with which
Elements
together.
it belongs, unless great care is taken to see
that there is no ambiguity. Modifiers should be kept
close to the words that they modify, dependent clauses
and phrases close to the words on which they depend.
It has been seen (page 24) that a relative clause
sho~1ld follow closely the antecedent of the relative.

Other dependent clauses should be placed, whenever
possible, just before or just after the elements on which
they depend. "He said that he would go Position of
when the train arrived" and "He said when Clauses.
the train arrived that he would go" carry very different meanings.
A participial phrase is naturally placed immediately
after the word modified by the participle. vVhen, for
suspense, such a phrase is put at the first of
Position of
a sentence, the participle should modify the Participial
first important substantive that follows, usu- Phrases . .
ally the subject of the next clause. Such a sentence
as " Coming up the street, I met an old man " is
smooth and clear; but it is awkward, if not ambiguous,
to say: "Riding at anchor in the harbor, the soldiers
observed the ships." Here "riding" seems grammatically to refer to "soldiers," but must really refer
to "ships." The participial phrase can hardly be
placed first in _this sentence unless "ships" is made
the subject of an active verb: as, "Riding at anchor
in the harbor, the ships attracted the attention of the
soldiers "; and even this is awkward.
The word " of " expresses so close a relation that a
phrase introduced by this preposition should rarely be
separated from the noun. Do not write,
Position of
"The pains, in the meantime, of hunger had Prepositional
driven him to desperation," but "In the Phrases.
meantime, the pains of hunger," etc., or "The pains of
hunger, i~ the meantime," etc. The fact that prepositional phrases are used both adjectively and adverbially,

73

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

and so may modify almost any element in the sentence,
makes the danger of misplacing them very great.
Ludicrous examples of such misplacement are often
quoted; for example, the verdict, "The deceased came
to his d~ath by excessive drinking, producing apoplexy
in the minds of the jury." Here the trouble all comes
from the position of the last clause.
The word "only" is especially liable to . be misplaced. The strict rule is, that it should come immePosition of
diately before the word that it .modifies.
"Only."
Abbott saysl: "The best rule is to avoid
placing 'only' between. two emphatic words, and to
avoid using ' only' where ' alone ' can be used instead.
In strictness, perhaps, the three following sentences:
(1) He only beat three,
(2) He beat only three,
(3) He beat three only,
ought to be explained, severally thus:
( 1) He did no more than beat, did n_ot kill, three,
(2) He beat no more than three,
(3) He beat three, and that was all he did. (Here
only modifies the whole of the sentence and depreciates
the action.) But the best authors sometimes transpose
the word."
Correlative expressions, such as "not only . . . but
also," should be followed by similar elements of the
Correlative
sentence : as, "John not only went, but
Expressions. also remained," not "John not only went,
but also James " ; " You will find the book~ either in

the desk or on the table," not "You will either find tpe
books in the desk or on the table."
When ·several infinitives are used in the same sentence care 'should be taken to show on what each depends. The following sentence 1 may have Ambiguous
three meanings : " He said that he wished Infinitives.
to take his friend with him to visit the capital and to
study medicine." (Change 'l:he sentence so as to make
plain, · in turn, each of the meanings.)

74

I"

How to \Vrite Clearly," page 25.

75

Suggestions for Exercises. - Improve · the following, giving
reasons.
1. Because of the clear atmosphere from the absence of smoke
that envelops - - we may conclude that the city has few factories.
2. In my senior year I only had to come to classes because
there was not room in the school building for all the scholars.
3. When I saw the buildings situated systematically on the
hill for the first time I was delighted with the view.
4. At the head of the street we beheld the university buildings
for the first time reflecting from their tall pillars the dim light of the
moon, in which we were to spend four pleasant years of our lives.
5. We had a rifle with us with which we were to kill a few
frogs and fry 'their legs for dinner.
6. They purchased a good hunting dog of the farmer and
some potatoes.
7. They had to buy water to drink and to wash the gold
which they unearthed.
8. When the miner prepared to return home he found all the
gold he had collected gone, and also a supposed friend and partner.
9. Towards the close of the Civil War, Lee was victoriously
marching forward with a superior force to that under the command of the U niori leaders.
Io. Among their provisions for the trip were four horses.
I

Quoted from Abbott.

77

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

Find in your reading for the next - - days examples of the
use of the word "only," and of correlative expressions. Are the
rules given above followed?
Continue the study of the subject of narration as far as page 137.
Write some of the anecdotes called for on page 132.

attention, but it really attracts attention to itself, not
to the idea for which it stands, and though it may be
more readily remembered, it will be less readily understood. Children are often found repeating striking
expressions when they cannot tell what they mean,
and older perso,ns are sometimes attracted by novelty
in a similar way. The terms that are learned in early
life, and so have become most familiar, are usually the
clearest and the most forcible.
A great deal has been written on the choice between
words derived from Anglo-Saxon and those derived
from the classical languages. As a matter of fact, the
origin of a word makes little or no difference as to its
value. The majority of our short, everyday words, such
as prepositions, conjunctions, names of common things,
and verbs that denote familiar actions, come from the
Anglo-Saxon. Because these terms are simple and
familiar - and not at all on account of their derivation
- they are to be preferred to the corresponding classical
terms. " Begin " is usually learned earlier
Saxon vs.
in life than " commence " ; it becomes more c1assica1
familiar, and as it is also a little shorter, it is words.
to be preferred for many uses. When a word of classical origin is the more common it is preferable. "Pork"
is better than "swine's flesh," "preface" (of a book) than
"forewords." Generally, when both classical and Saxon
words for an idea have been preserved, one or the other
has undergone a change in meaning, so that the terms
are no longer perfect synonyms. When this is the case
the choice will be determined by the exact shade of

A reader can grasp the specific and the familiar more
readily than the general and the unfamiliar. - For
example, the words "dwelling house," "trolley car"
present their ideas to the mind more quickly and more
definitely than do the words "tabernacle," "palanquin,"
and more vividly, if not more quickly, than the words
" structure," "conveyance."
When there is a choice between two terms for an
idea, one specific and the other general, it is better
to choose the specific, if it will be understood. Say,
"He gave me a rose," rather than "He gave me a
flower." Terms that are so specific as not to be
readily understood - technical terms, for example cahnot be used without sacrificing clearness. " Rosa
blanda, Ait." is more specific than "rose" and might
well be used in speaking to a botanist, but to the average person it would mean nothing. General terms are
of course preferable to specific for expressing general
ideas. It is better to say, "A bouquet of flowers "
than to give a list of all the flowers in the bouquet;
and a persoh would be obliged to say, "He gave me a
flower" if he did not know the name of the variety.
In the same way that specific terms are better than
general, familiar are better than unfamiliar. An odd
word may sometimes seem to give force by attracting

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

meaning that the writer wishes to convey. Thus,
" turgid " and " swollen," though once almost exact
equivalents, are now best applied to different things.
The use of long and high-sounding terms to express.
simple ideas is called "fine writing." The objections
to this are two : first, that the less familiar words do
not carry their idea to the reader so quickly as would
simpler terms ; second, that the association of commonplace ideas with words usually met with only in poetry
and impassioned prose attracts attention from the
thought, and may even seem ludicrous. A mild form
of fine writing is the use of "booki~h" words, that is,
words that the average person never uses in conversaFine
tion and thinks of only in connection with
Writing.
formal compositions; for example, "ascend"
for "climb"; "peruse" for "read." When the offense
is more serious, it consi~ts in the use of poetic circumlocutions (see page 86), and words evidently chosen for
the sound and not for the sense. For example, "in
the gentle springtime" for "in spring" ; "a great concourse of people witnessed the obsequies," for "a great
crowd (or, many persons) attended the funeral"; "the
pale moonbeams shed their chaste light over the scene,"
,for "it was moonlight."
The use of fine writing may be traced to different
causes. Persons who write so little that they do not
feel quite comfortable in the use of the pen are likely to
think that the diction of written English should differ
from that of spoken English, and to choose their terms
accordingly. Other writers sometimes attempt to dig-

nify trivial ideas by the use of impressive words; and
still others have not the taste necessary to perceive the
difference between the beautiful and the tawdry in
literature. At one time the newspapers furnished
many examples of the fault ; now it is oftenest seen in
the cheap novels. Its use, under any circumstances,
shows either inexperience or entire lack of taste.
Two figures of speech owe their force to the superiority of the specific over the general.1 One is synecdoche, which consists in the use of an example of a
class in place of the ·class, or of a part of an object for
the whole. Synecdoche is very common : as, "hands"
for "workmen," "sails" for "ships," "flowing with
milk and honey" for "abouncing in food of all kinds."
In synecdoche, that part of the object should
.
h
Synecdoche.
b e ment10ned t at, under the circumstances,
is most noticeable or important. Thus, men are called
"hands " when they are employed at manual labor,
"foot" when they are marching as infantry; and in
solving a puzzle we often say, "Two heads are better
than one."
The other figure of speech in which the specific is
used for the general is metonymy. This is the representing of an object, not by one of its parts, but
by one of its attributes, or more commonly, by something related to it. Examples of an attribute for an
object are "the breezy blue" for "the sky," "the deep"

1·

1

79

Other figures, such as simile, metaphor, personification, etc., often
. derive some force from the same fact, though they depend chiefly on
another principle. See page 96.

81

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

for "the sea." In "a good table" for "good edibles,"
"the bench" for "the judges," "the cup that cheers"
for "the tea in the cup," "the pen" for
Metonymy.
"writings," something connected with an
object is put for the object. Metonymy in which an
object is expressed by one of its attributes is usually
stronger than that in which one object is put for
another, but is not so well adapted for use in ordinary
prose.
Synecdoche and metonymy are used mostly for force,
though they may indirectly give clearness.

150, substituting, as far as possible, general for specific terms:
as, "weapons " for "guns." Compare the hew paragraph with
the original as regards (a) clearness, (b) force.

80

Suggestions for Exercises. - Improve the following, giving
reasons:
1. We wended our way up the hill.
2. The football team has won many honors on the field of
battle.
3. On entering college one is at first bewildered by the enormity of the institution, and is hardly able to do good intellectual
work for several weeks.
4. The room presents a spacious area of 50 by 7 5 feet.
5. Shakespeare could not attend school very long, because he
had to stay at home and attend to his father's occupation, that of
a butcher.
6. A large bronze statue was inaugurated with imposing ceremonies.
7. Thus ended one of the most enjoyable days the people had
ever participated in.
8. By far the most costly and conspicuous improvement in the
building line made in - - in recent years is the beautiful Smith
block.
.
.
9. These . studies taught me to express my sentiments in the
best order.
Copy the first two or three paragraphs of the selection on page

Find examples of synecdoche and metonymy in the selections
on pages 142-160, 177-191. What is gained by each?
Estimate, by taking sentences here and there and counting, the
proportion of Saxon and of classical words in the selection on
page 261; in that on page 235. Why is it greater in one than the
other?
·•
Write an anecdote (with plot) telling of some occurrence that
you have seen. Watch especially the use of specific words.
Go over some of the exercises you have written, and look for
"bookish" words. If you find any replace them by better terms.

A reader can grasp ideas more readily if they are
arranged in accordance with the laws of association. Ideas do not come into the mind by chance. Every
thought is suggested, either by something just perceived
by the senses, or by the thought that has immediately
preceded it - either by something seen, heard, felt,
smelt, or tasted the instant before or, as ih a "train of
thought," by the idea that previously held possession
of the mind. When one idea thus leads to another it
does so through one of four laws of association.
I. The Law of Continuity. Ideas are associated
by continuity when · they are related in time. The
thought of an event is likely to call to mind any other
event that happened at the same time, and especially
the events that immediately preceded it or followed it.
We are likely to think of our classes in school in the
order in which they come on the daily program; we
name the days of the week most readily in the order

82

•

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

in which they follow one another ; and in telling a story
or recalling the events of a day it is natural to speak
of occurrences one after another as they happened.
Sometimes the fact .that two ideas were learned at the
same time is enough to com1ect them in the mind.
2. The Law of Contiguity.-The word" contiguity"
means "touching together." Ideas are associated by
contiguity when they are, or have been, in some way
related in place. We naturally recall the houses on a
street in the order in which they stand, or the mem hers
of a class as they sit in the class room. New York,
Pittsburg, Chicago, Denver, and San Francisco are
most naturally named in the order given, or in just the
reverse order. Occurrences that happened in the same
place, or even that were learned of in the same place,
are often thought of together.
3. The Law of Likeness and Contrast. - An idea is
likely to call to mind other ideas that resemble it or
that are contrasted with it. One of the most natural
impulses is to compare any important object with something else of the same class. If we go on a pleasure
trip we compare our experiences with those we have
had on some other pleasure trip. A very cold day in
winter suggests other cold days; and very likely, by
contrast, hot days of the preceding summer. When,
according to• the law of likeness and contrast, we associate ideas that are essentially different we express
ourselves in figures of speech, for a discussion of which
see page 96 .
4. The Law of Cause and Effect. - An effect almost

always suggests its cause, and v£ce versa. When we
hear of a sudden death we almost always ask the cause.
If we learn that a friend has met with an accident we
at once wish to know the result. We rarely think of
the ~ar of the Revolution without remembering the
taxat10n of the colonies by the British ; or of the Civil
War_ without recalling that the existence of slavery was
a chief cause, and the abolition- of slavery a result.
. A writer should remember that a reader can grasp
ideas most readily when they are presented in the way
they would naturally come to the mind - that is, when
they follow one another according to one or more of
these laws. In narration ideas should usually b e arrange d accor d"mg to contmmty
. . · 1·n of
Use of Laws
A SSOCJa·
,
~ e SC rip ti On according to contiguity. Many tion.
ideas in exposition are held together by the relation of
likeness . or contrast; many arguments by the relation
of cause and effect. No law of association is, however,
confined to any one form of compos·ition. Indeed, in
all paragra~hs but the simplest may be found parts of
sentences, 1f not whole sentences, that illustrate each
of the four laws. It should be remembered that an
idea may be associated with the preceding ·in more than
one way.
The following, from J. R. Green, is part of a narrative and
alm~st .every idea is connected with the next by the relati~n of
contmmty; ?ut other relations make the association more definite.
The ~ords 1.n brackets indicate the relation in thought between
what immediately precedes and what immediately follows.

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

"After a few years of wise and able rule [continuity] the triumph of Protestantism under the Earl of Murray had been interrupted [cause] by his assassination, by the revival of the Queen's
faction, and by the renewal of civil war. [Continuity.]" The next
regent, the child-king's grandfather, was slain in a fray ; [contrast] but under the strong hand of Morton, the land won a short
breathing-space. Edinburgh, the last fortress held in Mary's
name, surrendered to an English force sent by Elizabeth ; [contiguity, continuity] and its captain, Kirkcaldy of Grange, was
hanged for treason in the market-place; [continuity] while the
stern justice of Morton forced peace upon the warring lords
[continuity]. The people of the Lowlands, indeed, were now
stanch for the new faith; [continuity, similarity] and the Protestant Church rose rapidly after the death of Knox into a power
which appealed at every critical juncture to the deeper feelings of
the nation at large [contiguity]. In the battle with Catholicism
the bishops had clung to the old religion; [contrast] and the new
faith, [cause] left without episcopal interference, and influenced
by the Genevan training of Knox, borrowed from Calvin its method
of Church government, [similarity] as it borrowed its theology."

In the selection on page 235 find five examples of association
·
of ideas according to each °law.

The fact that in English we depend on order of
words, phrases, and clauses to show grammatical construction sometimes makes it hard to follow strictly
the laws of association within the sentence ; we cannot
always put together the words that should be associated. But in arranging sentences in paragraphs, and
paragraphs in compositions these laws should always
be observed.
Suggestions for Exercises. - Study your own processes of
thought. When you find any peculiar idea in mind try to decide
what suggested it.
Observe people talking together and notice according to what
law of association each change in the topic of conversation is made.

In the selection on page 254 indicate the relation of thought
between each sentence and the sentence preceding.
Jn the narratives that you have already written, did you follow
any other law than that of continuity? If so, why?
Study carefully the last part of the chapter on narration, pages
137-141.
Write one or more short stories,'as directed by your teacher,
following the suggestions on pages 132-134. What laws of association do you follow? Why?

Since words are used to convey thought from writer
to reader, and not for their own sake, there should be
neither more nor fewer than are necessary. - As has
already been said, language may be compared to an
instrument or machine, the object of which is to convey
thought from the writer to the reader. If the machine
lacks any essential part it does its work poorly or not
at all; on the other hand, unnecessary parts are worse
than useless, because they increase the friction.
It is hard to say whether the more serious fault is
the use of too many words or of too few, but the use
of too many is the more common. If a Too Many
sentence does not seem clear a careless or words.
slovenly writer adds words to it instead of giving it a
thorough revision. It is an excellent plan always to
think out the briefest possible way of putting an idea,
even if circumstances make it desirable to use a longer
express ion.
Errors in the use of too many words are of fout
principal kinds.

86

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

Redundancy. -A word is redundant when it serves
no grammatical or rhetorical purpose in the sentence :
as, "The rain, £t poured " ; " A book lying on the table
and which belongs to me" ; " I have got a dollar in
my pocket." Redundancy, as here defined, 1 is never
justifiable.
2. Tautology. -This fault consists in the needless
repetition of an idea. For example, "He walked sorrowfully and sadly away"; "The balloon ascended
upward £nto the sky." Repetition is of course not
always a fault. An idea may be repeated in the same
words for force : as in, "Holy, holy, holy is the Lord " ;
or in different ~ords for clearness : as iri, " For as I
take it, un£versal h£story, the h£story of what 1nan has
accompl£shed £n the world, is at bottom the history of
the great men who have worked here." The word tautology is usually applied only to repetition that serves
no purpose.
3. Verbosity. -This fault differs from tautology in
so pervading the whole sentence that, it cannot be
removed by striking out words. The only way to cure
a verbose sentence is to rewrite it. The most common
Circumlocuform of verbosity is circumlocution, .or talktion.
ing around a subject. This consists in using
a long expression in place of a shorter one. For
example, "The cups that cheer but not inebriate" for

" te a, " " un cl er th e 111
· fl uence of l'1quor" for "drunk,"
"passed away" for" died," "The natal day of freedom"
for "July 4."
Circumlocutions sometimes suggest so much more
than a simple term that their use is justifiable; and
they are sometimes allowable for the purpose of softening down a disagreeable truth when the writer wishes
to spare the reader's feelings; · but in most cases it is
best to call things by their plain names.
Many phrases and quotations that were once allowable circumlocutions· are now so thoroughly worn out
that their use is unjustifiable. When Milton wrote,

I.

1

The word "redundancy " is sometimes used as a generic term to
include tautology, repetition for emphasis, and the use of any words not
necessary to the grammatical construction. If this sense of the word is
taken, there are of course cases of justifiable redundancy.

" Trip it as you go,
On the light fantastic toe,"

the beauty and the suggestiveness of the expression more
than made up for its length; but good taste and good
sense both forbid us to use it now as an equivalent for
"dance." "The fair sex" for" women," "the devouring element" for "fire," and many other phrases fall
under the same condemnation. I
4. Prohx£ty. -This is a fault in the ·use of ideas, as
well as of words. It consists in the giving of trivial
details, which are unnecessary for clearness, and which
detract from force. Prolixity is most likely to be found
in narration. As, "The pitcher stepped into his box,
picked up the ball, wiped it carefully on his sleeve,
grasped it firmly in his right hand, and threw it over
the plate. The umpire called, 'One strike!'" The
1

See page 78.

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

details in the first sentence are not worth giving. · In
narrating personal experiences a writer should be especially careful to decide what occurrences deserve
mention.

tha:n James likes him ." "I helped Mary as ~ell as
Emma" may mean, "as well .as · Emma did," or "as
well as I helped Emma." Even · where the meaning
would be, clear without . the verb it is better to follow
this rule.
i , In long sentences the omission of pronouns, prepositions, or conjunctions often causes ambiguity. No
rules can be given that will cover all cases. In general, use these smaller words whenever there Other Omisis any chance that their omission might cause sions.
the reader to misunderstand the sentence. The following examples show some of the constructions that
should be guarded against. Study each carefully and
see exactly how the ambiguity occurs.
"We try to encourage our younger brothers in their.
school work, and [we] [to] help them in their lessons."
"He forgets the gratitude that he owes to those that
helped all his companions and [that helped] [to] John
Smith in particular." I
"Bec.ause he was a good student, [because] he was
popular among his fellows, and [because] he had represented the school on similar occasions, every one
expected that he would be chosen."
The movement of composition depends mostly on the
number of words used, though it is affected somewhat
by the choice of general or specific terms.
Movement.
.
·
f
R ap1'd't
I y o movement 1s secured by usmg
few modifiers, and by omitting all conjunctions and other
pa~ticles that can readily be supplied. The greatest

88

The use of too many words usually causes loss of
force ; the use of too few causes loss · of clearness.
Faults of this latter kind are not easily clasToo Few
sified. The only rule is, Never omit a word
words.
that cannot readily be supplied. Only a few of the
more common violations of this rule can be mentioned.
The article should be used before each of two nouns
that signify different things. "A physician and surgeon" should mean one man who exercises
Omission of
both functions; "a physician and a surgeon "
Article.
should mean two men. Even where no· ambiguity Is
possible it is best to follow this rule. Write, "a boy
and a girl," not "a boy and girl."
The verb, or part of the verb, shouJcl be omitted only
when the exact form that must be supplied has already
been used. It is allowable to say, "Frank
omission of
went last week, and James yesterday," but
verb.
not "Frank went last week and Jam es will [go] to-morrow," nor, "The boys were in the bo~t, and their sister
[was] on shore." When the difference is one of number, not of tense, as in the last sentence, the fault is
much less serious.
Verbs should not be omitted after the conjunctions'
"than" or "as." "He likes John better than James"
may mean "better than he likes Jam es " or " better

1

Quoted from Abbott.

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

rapidity is seen in the exclamation, in which everything
but the most emphatic word or words is omitted. Slow
movement is secured by fulness in detail and in expression. " I saw John and James and Frank and Henry"
is unusually slow. "I saw John, James, Frank, Henry"
is unusually rapid. The use of one conjunction between
"Frank" and " Henry " gives the ordinary rate of
movement. A common device for gaining rapidity is
the omission of the restrictive relative : as, "This is the
man I saw," instead of "This is the man that I saw."
In order to secure both vividness and rapidity specific
terms should be chosen. Rapidity without force may
be gained by using general terms, which summarize
briefly many particulars. For a discussion of movement in narration, see page I 38.

8. The Indians are tall, with color resembling old copper;
their eyes are black, deep set in, high cheek bones, and a
prominent nose.
9. Compared with the plants and animals of other countries,
Australia is just opposite.
1 o. Balboa and several other Spaniards, being told by the
Mexicans that their gold and precious stones came from the
northwest, they determined to investigate.
1 I. The instrument may be either made with a flat or
cylindrical surface.
1 2. The ro'a d is in such a direction that it crosses the railroad
track twice and then ru,ns one-half mile back and parallel with
the lake.
13. He explained why he did it and the reason.
14. I heard him give a yell as he dived off from the boat.
1 5. Our cottage is situated among twelve or fourteen others.
16. Everything was all ice.
I 7. He was of about sixteen years old.

Suggestions for Exercises. - Improve the following sentences.

A reader's attention is naturally attracted by anything unusual.
When a series of ideas is presented to a reader's
mind, the first and the last make the strongest impression. -These two principles hold, not only in reading,
but in all experiences. As we walk along the street
we may pass by ordinary things without seeming to see
them, but an unusual object, or a familiar object in an
unusual place, attracts our notice. We can often recall
the students who sit on the front seat, or the houses
at the corners of a block, when we cannot remember all
the pupils in the school or all the intermediate houses.
Professor Wendell has pointed out that familiar quotations from a long work are usually taken from near the
beginning or near the end.

If they are ambiguous, change them so as to bring out, in turn,
each meaning. Name each case of redundancy, tautology, verbosity, circumlocution, and prolixity.
.1. My work in rhetoric has been very limit~d in exteht.
2. In reading the works of the best authors, it gave me a
chance to see which author's style was more correct than

another.
3. The advantages furnished the students would compare
with the best of our Eastern schools.
4. - - is the most beautiful city that I myself have ever
visited before.
5. Many such stories are told, but I doubt of their truthfulness.
6. The month passed off without anything out of the usual
order of things.
7. The city has a department store and many others.

92

STYLE.

By applying one or both of these principles a writer
can give emphasis to an idea - that is, can m ake it
ways ot" giv- attract especial attention.
Sometimes this
ing Emphasis. is done by choosing an unusual form of
expression, such as the exclamation or the rhetorical
question 1 ; more commonly by putting the idea out of
its natural position in the sentence or paragraph.
The most emphatic position for the subject of a
sentence is at the encl, because this is the farth es t
from its natural position, and because the
Emphasis of
Subject and
end of a sentence is always emphatic. For ·
Predicate.
a similar reason the strongest position for
the obj ect or the predicate is at the beg inning.
Complete inversions of a sentence are often found in
poetry, but are somewhat rare in prose, partly because
the lack of inflections in En glish makes it hard to
change the order and keep the sense clear, partly
because the emphasis given by such an inversion is
greater than is usually needed.
"Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire,
And shook his very frame for ire," .

is much stronger than "Marmion's swarthy · cheek
burned and his frame shook,,._ so much stronger that
it would seem out of place in prose. Often the subject may be made emphatic enough by putting it only
a little way from its natural position, provided, of
course, that the words that come first do not take the
chief emphas.is to themselves. See how mu~h empha1

See page

101.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

93

sis is gained by saying, "It was John who did this,"
inst ead of "John did this."
The natural position of an adjective in English is
before its noun. If this order is changed, the adjective
is made emphatic. Compare · "Death, un- Emphasis of
looked for, inexorable, " with "Unlooked-for, Adjectives.
inexorable death." A predicate adjective is usually
stron g, both because it com e's after the noun and
because it is placed at the end of the --sentence or
clause.
When an adverb modifies an adjective or another
adverb its natural position is befor e the word it modifi es, and often it can be placed nowhere else EmphaGis of
without making th e sentence very awkward; Adverbs.
for example, "The statement is wholly false" ; "H e
cam e very quickly." Wh en the adverb, though grammati cally connected with an adjective or adverb, really
affec ts the whole id ea of the clause its position may be
chan ged for e mph as is: as, "It is surely true," "Surely
it is true."
The natural position of an adverb modifying a verb
is before th e verb, or between its parts, if the tense is
compound; but in short sentences euphony often causes
the adverb to follow the verb. "He went quickly" is
used in place of " He quickly went " and is so common
that it gives no e mphasis to the adverb, except that
which naturally comes from its position at the end of
the sentence. The most emphatic position for an
adverb is at th e first of its clause : as, " Quickly he
went," "Suddenly the vision burst upon our sight."

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

As considerable liberty is allowed in the placing of an
adverb, almost any desired degree of emphasis may be
obtained. The sentence last quoted may also be written, "The vision suddenly burst upon our sight," "The
vision burst suddenly upon our sight," or "The vision
burst upon our sight suddenly." In no two of these
arrangements is the force of the adverb exactly the
same.
The old rule that a sentence should never end with a
preposition is based on the theory that a preposition is
an unimportant word and .should not be
Prepositions
at End of
placed in an emphatic position. In the more
Sentence.
formal kinds of composition this rule may
well be followed . In conversation and ordinary writing the idiom of the language places the preposition
last. It is rather stilted to say, "To whom are you
writing? " "About what are you talking? " instead of
"Whom are you writing to ? " "What are you talking
about ? " In such sentences preposition and verb are
so closely joined in thought that the whole predicate is
made emphatic rather than the preposition alone.
Conditional clauses usually come before their principals; hence, if they are to be emphatic, they should be
laced at the end of the sentence. The conEmphasis of P
conditional
dition is stronger in ".We shall go, if John
Clauses.
come" than in "If John come, we shall go."
The longer the sentence, the greater is likely to be the
change in emphasis produced by putting a conditional
clause last. A short conditional clause should not be
pl.aced at the end of a long sentence unless it is impor-

tant enough to sustain the emphasis placed upon it.
Avoid a sentence like " The United States will lose its
place among the nations of the earth, its progress in
science and inventions will cease, its commerce will
dwindle a.way, and it will relapse into barbarism, if it
neglect education."
Many specific rules for emphasis might be given, but
they can all be summed up in the caution : Put words .
and phrases that express important ideas in emphatic
positions; and keep unimportant words and phrases in
unemphatic positions. The most difficult problem is
to decide on the proper degree of emphasis ; for, as has
been seen, it is not oft€n that an idea should be made
as emphatic as possible.

94

95

Suggestions for E xercises. - Change the following to make
emphatic the italicized words. If possible, arrange each sentence
in two or more ways, giving different degrees of emphasis.
1. Mr. Tulliver came down stairs on a clear, frosty, January
day.
z. The dim andmysterious twilight was about them.
3. In this instance there were many circumstances in the young
man's favor.
4. Contrast the sense of taste with that of smell as a source of
suggestive impressions.
S. He was off like a flash down the road.
6. I expect, when I go lwme for vacation, to visit all the old
familiar scenes.
7. I don't doubt you love the smell of the sweet fern and bayberry leaves.
8. This revolution has been the least violent and the most
beneficent of all revolutions.
9. We ought to be able to appreciate now, if ever, the impor-

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

tance of the stand against the House of York, which was made by

being capable of receiving impressions, and their unlike~
ness in all other points directs the mind to the one
point of resemblance. A simile is usually, though not
always, introduced by "like " or "as" ; but by no
means are all comparisons so introduced similes. Sim.:
iles are used both for clearness and for force. Like
many other: figures of speech they may give ease, but
should never be tised for this i;urpose alone.
- When a comparison is implied or hinted at instead of'
being expressed the figure of speech is called a metaphor. The most common form of metaphor is that in:
which a thing is said to be something which it is not;
as when we say of a whimpering schoolmate, " He is a
baby," or call Washington "The Father of his Country." Sometimes the comparison is implied
: '
Metaphor.
.
. .
1
h
on y b y t e use of a verb or an adjective that
is naturally associated with another noun. Instead of
comparing the enemies of th.e Lord · to wild beasts, or
the Spirit of God to water, the psalmist says : "Thine
enemies roar in the midst of thy congregation " ; " My
soul thirsteth for Thee."
All metaphors may be changed t6 similes by express~
ing the comparison in full. "Their lips were two twin
roses on a stalk" means "Their lips were like two twin
roses on a stalk"; "The dawn of freedom" means "The
time that stands in the same relation to freedom that
the dawn does to the day." Similes may be changed
to metaphors when the nature of the likeness is such as
to make the meaning plain. "He is as stupid as a
donkey" can be condensed to "He is a donkey"; but

our fathers.
· Go over some of the exercises that you have already written,
and see whether any sentences can be improved by changing the
emphasis.
Study carefully the section on description, page's 161 - 1~8.
\Vrite some of the exercises called for on page r68. Pay especial
attention to number of words and to emphasis.

· The relations of likeness and contrast appeal to a
reader's mind with especial force. - It has been seen
(page 82) that an idea is frequently associated w~th
other ideas that resemble it or that are contrasted with
it. · Whenever a new thought is presented to the mind
the first impulse is to compare it with something
already known, and to note resemblances and differences. So natural is this that several of the common
forms of expressions known as figures of speech are
based on similarity or contrast.
One of the simplest ways of describing an unfamiliar
object or of expounding an unfamiliar term is by means
of comparison. Wheri the things compared are of the
same kind, or have much in common, the comparison is
a literal statement; when they are unlike, except in
the characteristic or quality to be emphasized, the comparison is called a simile. " Parchment is like paper"
is a literal statement ; " The mind of a child is like a
sheet of white paper" is a simile. In the
Simile.
former the objects compared agree in so many
particulars that they can be said to be really alike;
in the latter. the objects agree only in the one point of

97

98

STYLE.

"He is as strong as a horse" could not be changed to
"He is a horse"; the reader would not know whether
the resemblan ce intended were in strength, swiftness,
or some other quality. The metaphor sometimes gives
clearness, but it is used especially for force. It is more
forcible than the correspon ding simile, as may be seen
by expanding any forcible metaphor into a simile.
" My soul thirsteth for Thee" means " I feel the need
of Thee as a thirsty man feels the need of water."
It is difficult to draw the line between metaphor and
literal expression , because so much of our language was
once metaphori cal. Terms applied to abstract or spiritual conceptio ns are almost all taken frotn the vocabulary of the physical world and were once metaphori cal.
In such expression s as "bitter cold," "h£gh fever,"
"strong passion," "narrow-m inded," "warm affections," the italicized words once belonged
All L anguage
once
purely to material things, but hav~ been so
Figurative.
l ong use d m
. expression
. s l 1'k e t h ose given
.
above that they are no longer figures of speech. When
we study the other languages from which English is
derived we see this metaphori cal quality still more
clearly. "Anger" comes from the Latin word meaning " to strangle," because of the choking sensation that
accompan ies the passion when it is strong; "accompany" contains the root of the Latin word for "bread,"
and "to accompan y" a person was once to have bread
with him ; "lady" is derived from the Anglo-Sax on
word meaning "loaf," and originally signified the member of the family who prepared that necessity.

LANGUAG E ADAPTED TO THE READER.

99

Another figure of speech based on similarity is personification. This consists in speaking of a lower
animal or of an inanimate object as if it were a human
being; or, in a looser sense, of ascribing to an object
any kind of life that it does not possess. For ~xample,
"The heavens frowned "; "The angry waves swallowed
up their prey." Personific ation implies a compariso n
much as a metaphor does. .If we say, "The wind
sighed and moaned in the forest " we call Personificaattention to resemblan ces between the wind tion.
and men. This dignifies the subject and also adds an
element of human interest. A weaker form of personification - what might be called grammatic al personification - consists simply in using a masculine or a
feminine pronoun to refer to an inanimate object: as,
"See the moon ; her pale beams fall on the earth."
Since so few English words are inflected for gender
this kind of personific ation is dangerous ly easy. A
safe general rule is never to personify by the use of a
pronoun alone. If the moon is represente d as watching
the earth, or performin g any other action that could be
performed only by a living creature, it may well be
spoken of as "she" ; if not, nothing is gained by the
weak personific ation.
Strong personific ation is often expressed in an apostrophe or supposed address to the object or abstractio n
personifie d : as in, " 0 Liberty, what crimes have been
committed in thy name ! " "And I have loved thee,
Ocean." This strengthe ns the personific ation by calling attention to the fact that the object is considered

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

capable of hearing and understanding, and is ·also
emphatic because it is an unusual form ot expression.
Allegories are figures of speech, especially metaphors
and personifications, carried out at great length ~ The
best illustration of an allegory in English is
Allegory.
the Pilgrim's Progress, in · which characters
,like Obstinate, Pliable, Apollyon, etc., are personifica,tions of abstract ideas. Allegories are seldom written
nowadays.
Figures of speech that are not consistent in all their
parts - that is, figures in which an ·object is compared
to two different things at once- are said to be mixed.
For example, "This is the corner stone of the ship of
state" ; "The loud-mouthed dogs of war which have
ploughed great furrows in the field of. battle." Owing,
Mixed Meta- no doubt, to the alliteratio.n, the expression
"mixed metaphor" is generally applied to
_phors.
any confused figure, whether it be a metaphor, simile;
or personification. The most common cause of mixed
metaphors is . the use of stock expressions - that is,
expressions that are heard so commonly that the writer
does not stop to think what they mean. The examples
quoted above, both of which were taken from student
papers, can be explained in this way. The author of
the first probably wrote "corner stone" without thinking of a stone at all, and "ship of state" without picturing a vessel to his mind. The second is an att empt
to dignify the mention of som e historic cannon by the
use of phrases borrowed from poetry and other sources.
Similar to the use of mixed metaphors is the fault

of connecting a literal and .a figurative expression so
closely that the mind does not readily pass from one to
the other. For example, "His name was inscribed on the
membership roll of the church, and written in the book
. .
of eternal life."

· 100

IOI

. The figures that have been mentioned call attention
to relations of likeness; antithesis' brings out the relation of contrast. In antithesis opposed ideas are set
over against each other and thus made more
Th e more mar k ed the contrast Antithesis.
.
emp ha t ic.
that is brought out, the stronger the effect. Examples
of antithesis are seen in such sentences as "A wise son
maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness
of his mother." Antithesis is often carried to consid~
erable length, as in a chapter of history where a good
and a bad character are contrasted.
Another form of expression that derives its force,
partly at least, from contrast is the interrogation, or
rhetorical question ; for example, "Are we all cowards?"
"Is there not something dearer to a man
· a 1most always. Interrogation.
Th e h earer is
t 11 an l 1.fe.? "
expected to reply "Yes" if the question contains a
negative, " No " if it does not. There is thus a contrast between the speaker's words and the answer.
The rhetorical question also derives some power from
the fact that it is not the usual form of expression. It
gives force and is of great value in impressing a reader
or hearer with the necessity of admitting a point. A
writer who us es it at all is, however, likely to form the

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPJED TO THE READER.

habit of using it too often. No device for giving force
can be most effective if it is used constantly.
Irony consists in saying just the opposite of what is
meant. It is most safely used in speaking, where the
inflection of the voice can show that the statement is
not to be taken literally. In cold print there is no way
of showing whether "Br~tus . is an honorable
Irony.
man " is serious praise or not. When an
ironical expression is introduced in a longer passage,
the rest of which is to be taken literally, the context
will of course show the meaning. When Cassius says
of Caesar, " 'Tis true, this god did shake " the rest of
his speech shows that "god" is used ironically. When
Thackeray speaks of Becky Sharp as "affectionate" or
"timid" the reader who is familiar with that lady's
actions cannot misunderstand the sense in which the
word is used.
Irony may' be used in a light and playful way, but it is
more often employed in attacks on a person or a custom.
Its main use is to give force. Its disadvantages are two:
it may be misunderstood ; and it is liable to be too strong,
and to arouse opposition on the part of the reader.
Hyperbole is an intentional exaggeration for the purpose of emphasis. Its force is mostly derived
Hyperbole.
from the contrast between the statement and
the real fact. Hyperbole is sometimes used seriously,
as when Macbeth says (employing also the rhetorical
question) :

More of ten it is used to give at least a mildly humorous
effect, as when De Quincey speaks of a porter "with a
back as broad as Salisbury Plain," or frequently in the
works of almost any American humorist. In either
case it should be used carefully. Any one can exaggerate, but it is not easy to exaggerate skillfully. It is
important that in hyperbole the exaggeration be so
great that it cannot be mistaken for literal statement.
"His screams could be heard for a mile" might perhaps
state an actual fact ; but " His screams could be heard
ten miles " is clearly exaggeration.

102

"Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood
Clean from my hand?"

103

Suggestions for Exercises. - Pick out all examples of simile,
metaphor, antithesis, personification, interrogation, irony, and
hyperbole from the selections on pages r 50, 1 80, 2 54. What is
gained by the use of each? Change the metaphors into similes,
and notice the effect. How many of the similes can be changed
into metaphors? Note especially the antitheses on a large scale
·in the selection on page I 89.
Go over some of the exercises that you have written and pick
out the figures of the kinds mentioned above. Decide whether
each was useful. Why?
Improve the following mixed metaphors. In each case decide
which is better- a consistent figure or a literal statement of the
idea. Name each figure that you use in the improved sentences.
I. As soon as young men take a step into one of the many
opening arms of seemingly pleasant vices, their downfall is
marked.
2. At night the college stands all forsaken on the hill, but
no sooner is it eight o'clock in the morning than all her children
rush into the fold to inhale the inspirit~g air through the medium
of learned men.

105

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

3. In our school the much-talked-of class spirit seems to be
only skin deep between man and man, although it is probably of
importance when there are meetings of large numbers of students.
4. Standish would bare his bosom unflinchingly before the
steel of a foe, but he would not bare his ear before the " No" of a
woman.
5. On entering a new epoch in life one is frequently confronted by so many new impressions that he finds it difficult to
classify them or to give them to others in plain black and white.
6. The branches form a canopy through which the sifted
sunlight frolics on the pavement to and fro.
7. Washington is the father of his country, but Lincoln is the
father of freemen.
8. This country of ours is full of immigrants, but I am sorry
to say she would be better off if she did not ha:ve such a variety
of them.
9. Many of the ycung men of to-clay who h ave so far found
no channel along which to cultivate their energies might find a
spur to their ambition in the hard school of warfare.
1 o. Douglass was a littl e, active, excitable man, with a mighty
passion of eloquence chained within him.

The simplest way of preparing the mind for a thought
is by the use of conjunctions and other connectives.
These are usually placed near the beginning of a phrase,
clause, sentence, or paragraph, and show : (I) that sornething is to follow; (2) the relation of thought Need of conbetween what follows and what precedes. nectives.
"And" or "in addition" shows that the thought is to
continue along the same line; '"'but" or "on the other
hand," that it is to change and be contrasted with
what has preceded; '.' therefore" or "on this account,"
that an effect or a conclusion is to follow a cause or
a premise already given. The value of connectives
can hardly be overestimated. They tell the reader in
advance, not only the nature of the thought, but, as
they are subordinating or coordinating, something of
its importance. If all connectives between clauses and
sentences were omitted, it would be impossible, e}!:cept
in the case of the simplest prose, to get the sense from
a passage at one reading. · It is an interesting exercise
to strike from a paragraph of some good essay all the
connectives except those between words, and to note
the result.
Conjunctions arethe simplest connectives. They are
used between parts of a sentence, sometimes between
sentences, very rarely between paragraphs.
. .
.
COilJUilCbons.
For connecting sentences there are many
conj unctional phrases, such as, "Notwithstanding this
fact," "to continue," etc. A demonstrative pronoun
referring to the general idea of a preceding sentence or
clause is also a connective; and so is a repetition of

104

Study the section on description, pages 168-r7r. Write the
exercises called for on pages r 70, I 7 r. Watch your use of figures
in these descriptions. Be sure not to use any fi g ures without
good reason.
Distinguish carefully between comparisons that
are similes and comparisons that are not.

A reader will grasp ideas more readily if his mind
has been prepared for them.-Force may occasionally be
gained by presenting an idea in an unexpected way,
but clearness is best secured by giving the reader a
hint of what is coming, so that he may be prepared
to receive it. Even for gaining force the method of
surprise is not often the best .

106

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

part of a preceding sentence, either in the same or
in different words. Even a pronoun ref erring to a sinOther congle word in a sentence that has gone before
nectives.
will, if emphatic, lead the reader to associate the clause in which it occurs with the clause containing its antecedent.

the office in which it has been found. But whatever the adventures of the manuscript may have been, no doubt can exist that
it is a genuine relic of the great poet."

In the following paragraph, notice how the italicized expressions connect the sentences in which they are found with those
that precede. Observe that few are conjunctions. See how the
sentences are planned so that one sentence seems to begin where
the last ended. For example, the first sentence is arranged so
that. " Latin manuscript" comes last; and this makes it easy to
connect the next sentence by means of a pronoun. By means of
a demonstrative, "this work," and the repetition of "the manuscript" the last two sentences are connected, not with what has
immediately preceded, but with the first part of the paragraph.
" Towards the close of the year 1 823, Mr. Lemmon, deputy
keeper of th e state papers, in the course of his researches among
the presses of his office, met with a large Latin manuscript. With
it were found corrected copies of the foreign despatches written
by Milton while he filled the office of Secretary, and several
papers relating to the Popish trials and the Rye-House plot.
The whole was wrapped up in an envelope, superscribed 'To
Mr. Skinner, Merchant.' On examination, the large manuscript
proved to be the long lost Essay on the Doctrines of Christianity,
which, according to Wood and Toland, Milton finished after the
Restoration, and deposited with Cyriac Skinner. Skinner, it is
well known, held the same political opinions with his illustrious
It is therefore probable, as Mr. Lemmon conjectures,
friend.
that he may have fallen under the suspicions of the government
during that persecution of th e Whigs which followed the dissolu·
tion of the Oxford parliament, and that, in consequence of a general seizure of his papers, this work may have been broug ht to

107

The connection between paragraphs may be shown
by means of a phrase such as is used to connect sentences, or by a clause or a whole sentence. If a composition is well planned, any special means of showing the
connection between paragraphs 'is often unnecessary.
In Macaulay's Essay ori Milton, from which the selection given
above was taken, the following expressions are used to introduce
paragraphs.
" From these considerations, we infer,'' etc.
"To return for a moment to the parallel which we have been
attempting to draw between Milton and Dante, we would add,"
etc.
"Hence it was that, though,'' etc.
" But this certainly was not the case, nor can," etc.
In this essay, however, as in all good work, no special devices
are used to connect the majority of the paragraphs. Each paragraph is so planned that the next seems to grow out of it naturally.

Correlative conjunctions are especially useful in preparing the mind for an idea, because they show before
one element of a sentence is finished that
.
Correlatives.
another 1s to follow. As soon as we find
"either" in a clause we expect another clause containing "or." The same is true of correlative phrases
like "on the one hand,'' "on the other hand."
Sentence elements that express similar ideas should,
if possible, be in the same grammatical construction.
Neglect of this principle is one of the most common

108

STYLE.

causes of weakness and confusion, in composition.
A change in construction leads the reader to expect a
Similar con- change in the nature of thou a ht · if the
structions.
·
'
. ·
t houg h t remams
the same, he ~1s surprised
and perplexed almost as much as he would be if an
entirely new subject were introduced without warning.
Say, "He proceeded slowly and cautiously," not "He
proceeded slowly and with caution"; "He decided
that he would leave the store and that he would go to
school," or, more smoothly, "He decided to leave the
store and to go to school," not "He decided to leave
the store and that he would go to school." Som etim es
no little ingenuity is required to find a satisfactory form
in which each of a series of clauses may be cast, but
the added effectiveness of the sentence more than
repays the trouble.
A sentence that consists of two or more parts that
are constructed on the same plan is said to be balanced.
In the sentence " Hear the instruction of thy father,
and forsake not the law of thy mother," the two cla~ses
are built on exactly the same plan. In each the order
is (1) verb, (2) object, (3) prepositional phrase modifyBalanced
ing the object. Sometimes ~he correspondSentence.
enc e of s t rue t ure is
. not qmte
. so close, as in
the following from Macaulay : " Jf their steps were not
accompanied by a splendid train of menials, legions of
ministering angels had charge over them." There
must, however, always be so great similarity of form
that the reading of the first clause will give a clue to
what may be expected in the second.

LAl\iGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

109

The ideas expressed in the two parts of a balanced
sentence may be similar or contrasted, more commonly
the latter. Indeed it is probably true that two out of
every three balanced sentences express antitheses, but
there is no necessary connection between balance and
antithesis; one is purely a matter of form, the other of
id ea. For num ero us examples of balanced sentence,
some of which do and some of which do not express
antitheses, see the Psalms.
The advantage of the balanced sentence is that it is
easy to understand and easy to remember; the disadvantage is that it is the most artificial of forms, and if
used too freely makes th e style seem affected.
A sentence that prepares for the main idea by keeping it until the last is called periodic. The test usually
given for the periodic sentence is that it cannot be
ended at any point before the close and be grammatically complete. A sentence that can be so Periodic
ended is called loose. "The city of Chicago sentence.
is situated in the state of Illinois, /on the shores of
L ake Michigan, /in the midst of a level country" is
loose, because there are two points before the end at
which it might have stopped and been grammatically
complete; but "In the state of Illinois, on the shores
of Lake Michi gan, in the midst of a level country is
situated the city of Chicago " is periodic.
A sentence may, however, conform strictly to the
test given above and still lack ·the real periodic effect.
This effect is secured when the important idea is delayed
until the end and the read er is made to feel that he is

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

being held in suspense; as in the second form of the
sentence quoted in the last paragraph, or in the following: "I have been assured, both by a gentleman who
was a lieutenant on board that ship at the time when
the heroism of its captain, aided by his characteristic
calmness and foresight, greatly influenced the decision
of the most glorious battle recorded in the annals of
our nav·a1 glory; and very recently by a grey-headed
sailor, who did not even know my name, or could have
suspected that I was previously acquainted with the circumstances - I have been assured, I say, that the success of this plan was .such as astonished the oldest
officers, and convinced the most incredulous. '. ' The
effect of these sentences differs materially from that
of the following, which, according to the definition, is
also periodic : "The study of mathematics both teaches
facts which may be of practical value, and disciplines
the mind."
The advantage of periodic sentences is that they
arouse curiosity, and so hold attention until the end
is reached. Their chief disadvantage is that if for
any reason they are not followed to the end, the
entire meaning is lost. They also have the disadvantage of being somewhat artificial. Periodic sentences of more than two clauses are rarely used in
conversation ; and even in discourse that has been
carefully prepared, a small proportion of them will
make a passage sound formal. Usually the best
method of treating a long sentence is to make it
partly loose and partly periodic. This gives variety,

and avoids both the dragging effect of a long loose sentence and the artificial effect of the periodic construction. The following sentence is periodic to Mixed
"barbarians," and loose from this point to Forms.
the end, though the position of the parenthetical
expression in the last part gives something of a
periodic effect: "The continental kingdoms which
had risen on the ruins of the .~Western Empire kept
up some intercourse with those eastern provinces
where the ancient c,ivilization, though slowly fading
away · under the influence of misgovernment, might
still astonish and instruct barbari3'1ns, / where the
court still exhibited the splendour of Diocletian and
Constantine, / where the public buildings were still
adorned with the sculptures of Polycletus and the
paintings of Apelles, /and where laborious pedants,
themselves destitute of taste, sense, and spirit, could
still read and interpret the masterpieces of Sophocles, /of Demosthenes, /and of Plato."
The force of climax is due to the fact that it prepares the mind for an idea by leading up to it through
successive steps. Climax is the arrangement of a series
of ideas in order of importance, the strongest
Climax.
last ; for example, "The town, the city, the
state, the nation" ; "I came, I saw, I conquered."
Climax is most easily ·recognized in the arrangement
of simple terms, as in the examples just quoted; but
it is equally valuable in the placing of ideas on a larger
scale. In telling a story there is an advantage in having the events increase in interest toward the end; in

I IO

I I I

"STYLE.

LANGUAGE A DAPTED TO THE READER.

summmg up a debate it is effective to close with the
strongest arguments. Sentences in a paragraph, paragraphs in a composition, chapters in a volume, may all
be arranged in the order of climax.

comment on the importance of golf. Since ·specific
terms are most forcible it is weak to end a series of
particulars with a general term. A sentence that
closes with "etc." is never impressive.

Climax consists in placing last the idea that is most important
from the writer's point of view, not necessarily the one that is of
most intrinsic value. Thus, the words " minutes, hours, days"
are arrang ed according to their own importance ; but the sentence
"The earnest student never deliberately wastes a day, an hour,
even a minute" contains a true climax. The sentence "He is
strictly honorable in his business relations, true in his fri endships,
scholarly in his abilities, and studious in his habits" mig ht b e
variously arranged according to the purpose for whi ch it was
written. The form here g iven would be proper in a letter of dismissal from one educational institution to another. In a recommendation for a business position the phrase regarding "business
relations " might be given th e place of honor; if the sentence was
intended .as a general tribute to a 1);an's worth, the characteristic
of being "true in his friendships" might be considered the highest praise. The true order of climax must be determined by the
writer's sense of fitness, not by any hard and fast rule.

Suggestions for E xercises. - Copy the s election on page 23 I,
omitting all connectives between sentences and clauses. Read
the altered paragraph and notice the difficulty in following the
.~
thought.

I I2

Anticlimax, the ending of a series with a relatively
unimportant idea, is weak and often ludicrous. The
unintentional use of anticlimax produces a flat effect
known as bathos : as "Intemperance has proAnticiimax.
duced more misery, crime, want, distress, and
idleness than all other causes combined." Sometimes
anticlimax is used with a sort of implied ii-ony to ridicule an idea. Such a sentence as "He was studious in
his habits, scholarly in his tastes, a true friend, and an
excellent golf player" might be used as an ironical

113

In the selections on pages 212 and 258 pick out all expressions
that aid in connecting, sentences. \Vhat proportion of these are
con junctions ? What does each show regarding the nature of the
thought that follows?
In the selection on page 235 pick out all expressions that show
the connection between paragraphs.
Make a list of correlative conjunctions ; of correlative phrases.
Are the following sentences loose or periodic? Make each
wholly loose, wholly periodic, and, if possible, partly loose and
partly periodic. Decide which form is best.
1. To us also, through every star, through every blade of
g rass, is not God made visible, if we will open our minds and
our eyes?
2. Mrs. Tulliver, foreseeing nothing but misbehavior while
the children remained indoors, took an early opportunity of suggesting that, now they were rested after their walk, they might go
and play out of doors.
3. Francis the First had built a castle, and Henry the Fourth
had constructed a noble terrace, at St. Germains, on the verge of
a forest swarming with beasts of chase, and on the brow of a hill
which looks down on the windings of the Seine.
4. I suppose that is the reason why, while expensive sermons
and treatises, newly issued, leave all things as they were before,
the small old-fashioned book, for which you need pay only six-

5

STYLE.

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

pence at a bookstall, works miracles to this day, turning bitter
waters into sweetness.

Variety in thought is advantageous when it may be
secured without sacrificing more necessary qualities.
A good. novelist or dramatist alternates humor and
pathos ; a popular lecturer intersperses the more solid
parts of his discourse with lighter passages. In treat- ·
ing some subjects, however, it is impossible to secure
much variety of thought. Except in the most disconnected discourse - for example, informal essays like Dr.
Holmes's Breakfast Table papers - an idea should never
be introduced solely for the sake of giving variety.
A pleasing effect may often be secured by a proper
alternation of the abstract and the concrete, the general
and the particular. Discussions of philosophical questions are almost unreadable if they are not sometimes
relieved by specific illustrations or applications to par- _
ticular cases. The best novelists intersperse their
accounts of events with occasional comments and gen~
eralizations. There is no form of composition in which
this kind of variety is not desirable.
Variety in words is also an advantage. A passage
in which the words are all long or all short, variety in
or all of Latin or of Saxon origin, is very Words.
likely to be awkward when pronounced, and may lose
effectiveness even when read silently.
Some forms of expression are likely to occur too frequently unless they are guarded against.
. .
Vanety m
Among them are prepositional phrases and Phrases and
· relative clauses. " Of " is the preposition Clauses.
that is most likely to be repeated : as in, "This speech
i& an expression of the sentiments of a large number of

I I

4

In the selections on pages 142, 258, what proportion of the sentences are wholly loose? wholly periodic? partly loose and partly
periodic? Can you see any reason for these different proportions?
Improve the following, giving reasons.
I. They brought to the ship plenty of ammunition and necessary things.
2. The buildings were beautiful, not only externally, but on
the interior as well.
3. We learned the elements of language - how to construct
sentences, and. the different forms of the verb.
4. To gossip is a fault ; to libel a crime; to slander a sin.
5. The buildings were very attractive, some of an older style,
and some up to all the improvements of our time.
6. I learned the best method of expressing myself clearly,
with energy and simplicity.
7. - - is a man who has shown himself to be a danger to
our government, and his principles have been denounced by political economists.
8. The graphophone is a very amusing instrument, telling
comical stories, laughing in natural tones, and altogether amuses
people very much.
9. Another helpful exercise is tennis, a game very popular at
the present time, and not being a rough sport it is especially good
for girls.
10. As we got near the shore there was a crash.
1 I. Sometimes the coal in a mine catches fire, and many
people get killed while. some are saved.

A moderate variety,- both in thought and in expression,

is pleasing to. the reader. - Variety is not necessary for
clearness, but it 1s sometimes essential. to force, and
always to ease.

I I

116

STYLE.

the residents of the state of New York." This sentenc e
may be improved, partly by condensing it, partly by
changing the construction, so that it will read : "This
speech expresses the sentiments of many residents of
New York state." A little study will almost always
suggest a way of getting rid of such faults.
There are several equivalents for the relative which
may be used to avoid an awkward succession of clauses.
Among these are: ( r) the infinitive, as, " He was th e
first that came"=" H e was the first to come"; (2)
the participle, as, "The gentleman who walked with
Equivalents
me yest erday"=" The gentleman walking
for Relative . with me yesterday"; (3) a clause with "if,"
as, "Pupils who have finished their work may go" =
"If a pupil has finished his work, he may go"; (4)
"and he," "and she," "and it," "and this," etc., substituted for the modifying relative: as, "He did his
best, which was all that could be ex pected"=" He
did his best, and this was all that could be expected";
(5) the restrictive relative may often be omitted : as,
"the books that you borrowed" = "the books you
borrowed." All these equivalents except (5) are a
little longer than the relative construction.
Sentences should be varied both in length and in
structure. There should be no studied alternation of
long and short; but sentences of all lengths
Variety in
Sentence
should be so intermixed that no one kind
Structure.
seems especially to predominate. Since
periodic sentences are more artificial than loose, and
balanced more artificial than either, care should .be

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE READER.

117

taken that these forms ·are not used to excess. A
common fault is that of beginning every sentence in a
paragraph with the same subject, especially with "he"
or " it."
It is usually best not to pay much conscious attenti on to variety while one is writing. Variety that is
striven for is likely to be noticeable. If
.
.
.d
h
Attention to
proper a tt ent10n IS pa1 to t e ~thought, and variety unan attempt i~ made to express this accurately, necessary.
monotony will probably be avoided in all but a few
passages. These, of course, should be improved in
revision. As the ear often detects lack of variety
when th e eye does not, composition should always be
r ead aloud when it is revised.
Miscellaneous. - The following cautions are not
readily grouped under any of the principles that have
been given, but are important.
It is contrary to the best usage to put a modifier
between "to" and its infinitive. Write, not "He went
. Infim-.
·to th e library to carefully investigate the Spht
s u b j ect," but "carefully to investigate the tive.
subject," "to investigate carefully the .subject," or,
more smoothly, if the importance of the adverb will
. allow, "to investigate the subject carefully." Violations of this rule .may be found in many of our best
authors, and very rarely circumstances seem to justify
exceptions ; but the rule should be followed except
in very unusual cases.
A common colloquialism for which there is no
authority is the use of " and" instead of '"to" with the

118

STYLE.

infinitive. Write, "Let us try to find it," not "Let
us try and find it." "Come and see me" should imply that the " coming" and the "seeing "
''And''
were of equal importance; if the invitation
with the
Infinitive.
means. "come for the purpose of seeing"
say "Come to see me."
For the sake of ease it is desirable to avoid all harsh
and awkward expressions. Under this head come
Harsh
rhymes in prose, combinations of words hard
Expressions. to pronounce, etc.
For example, "She is
the · foolishest, unrnusicalest of fowls," "As the sun
declines, it shines less brightly."
Rhythm, or the recurrence of accent at fairly regular
intervals, and alliteration, or the recurrence of a sound
at the first .of a word or of an accented syllaLle, may
Rhythm and add to the beauty of prose if they are not
Alliteration. used to excess. They should never be striven
for, however, and should not be allowed to such an
extent that a person reading for the sense will notice
them. The effect is spoiled if it is too obvious. Avoid
such sentences as "If he plays baseball, he is bound to
become a brilliant batter."
Distinction should be made between the restrictive
and the modifying uses of the relative. A restrictive_
clause limits or changes the meaning of its ant eced ent
and could not be omitted without destroying
Restrictive
or changing the meaning of the whole senand Modifying Relative.
tence. A modifying clause gives an additional fact regarding the antecedent and may be treated
- as a parenthesis. In the sentence "The book that is

LANGUAGE ADAPTED TO THE REA D E R .

I I

9

on the table is mine," the clause "that is on the table"
restricts the word "book" - tells what book is meant.
In th e sentence ." George Washington, who commanded
at Vall ey Forge, was the first president of the United
States," the relative clause "who commanded at Valley
Forge " does not tell what George Washin gton is meant,
but simply gives an additional fact regarding him. It
could be enclosed in a parenthesis or omitted without
changing the meaning of the rest of the sentence. A
modifying clause should always be set off from the rest
of th e sentence by c·ommas.
"That" can be used as a relative only in restrictive
clauses; "who" ,and "which" may be either restrictive
or modifying; but there is a great advantage in using
them only in modifying clauses and in cases where the
use of "that " as restrictive would sound harsh. Good
writers are by no means uniform in following this rule,
and some of them disregard it entirely; but its observance will often prevent ambiguity. "Sophomores that
take rhetoric are excused from German" implies that
there may be other sophomores who do not take rh etoric; ;, Sophomores, who take rhetoric, are excused from
German " makes two statem ents about sophomores :
(I) a subordinate statement that they take rhetoric;
(2) a principal statement that they are excused from
German. If "who" were used in the first sentence
'
the fact that th e clause were restrictive could be
shown only by the uncertain device of omitting the
comma.
Wh en another" that" occurs in the sentence, and in

120

STYLE.

other cases when the use of "that " sounds harsh to
the writer, "who" and "which" should be used.
Suggestions for Exercises. - In the selection on page 261
study the alternation of words as regards length ; as regards
derivation.
Study the variety in sentence structure in the selections on
pages 183, 258. Observe variety in length of sentences; in the
position of the emphatic words in succeeding sentences; in the
use of clauses and phrases. Compare with what has bee,1 said
on variety the section on similar constructions, page 108. Do you
find any sentences in which variety must be sacrificed to similarity
of construction? Note again the proportion of loose, periodic,
and balanced sentences that you found on pages 142 and 258.
Go over some of the exercises that you have written and see
how your use of "w~o" and "that" corresponds to the rule
given above. Change the sentences that should be changed.
Study carefully on description , pages 171-175.
tions of character, as suggested on page I 75.

Write descrip-

Improve the following senteri.ces.
The sun had fairly made its way above the horizon, and it
made a very beautiful scene as it made the tree tops look very
red.
2. Character sketches were sometimes required of some of his
characters.
3. Evangeline was gentle, innocent, and fair, with brown hair.
4. One day in my early days I had a wonderful adventure.
5. Providence has lavished a wealth of gifts upon this man;
he is not like the ordinary man.
6. He commanded the men to man the guns.
1.

PART IL-INVENTION .

CHAPTER I.
NARRATION.

Definition. - Narration may be briefly defined as
story-telling. It is the form of composition that
recounts a series of events.
It will be seen from this definition that narration
includes many compositions with which we are all
very familiar : among these are most news articles in
the daily papers, such as reports of meetings, accounts
of fires, ball games, etc.; novels and other stories, histories, and biographies. The form of composition that
most closely resembles narration is description; but
the aim of description is not to tell a story, but to
paint a picture - that is, to give the reader an idea of
some object or thing as it is at one time. One may
write a description of a building, or a person, or a
landscape; and a narrative of the events of a day at
school, of a boat race, or, on a larger scale, of 'the life
of a person or the development of a nation.
Although they differ greatly, narration and description are often intermixed in the same article. · A
121

INVEN TION.

NARRATION.

reporter writing of a football game may begin his
account with a description of the field, the crowd,
and the players, but what he says of the playing
itself will be narration. 'Any novel or history con. tains descriptions of persons and places connected
with the story.
Kinds of Narration. -There are two principal kinds
of narration-narration without plot and narration with
plot. The latter is illustrated by most works of fiction. '
A novel has a plot - that is, the events are told in such
a manner that they arouse curiosity as to the way the
story will en<l. Often the most important facts are kept
until the last, and everything that goes before prepares
the way for them. We read such a story, partly at
least, "to see how it will come out." Every one
probably knows how disappointing it is to read almost
through a novel and then find that the last chapters are
wanting. Every one knows, too, that a story is likely
to be uninteresting if the reader can guess in advanc €
just what the en'd will be. This is because the plot is
defective.
Narration without plot is illustrated by a report in
the news columns of a daily paper. In this the reporter
makes 110 attempt to arouse curiosity by keeping interesting things from the reader until the end. The most
important facts are often told in the headlines, . sometimes in the first paragraph of the article. What
follows is read for the purpose of getting more information. One may read part way through a news
article and leave off with no such sense of disap-

pointment as is felt . when a story with plot is dropped
in the middle.
Histories and biographies may be either narration
with plot or narration without plot, according to the
way in which they are written. Most, though not all, of
the shorter school histories are narration without plot.
They simply mention occurre1~ces without trying to
show how they worked toward any definite outcome.
Histories that are more truly works of literature Macaulay's for example-have a plot. They make
clear how a series of events, extending perhaps over
many years, led to a war, or a change of policy, or
perhaps to the destruction of a nation. There is a
pleasure in reading such histories apart from the
gaining of facts.
Narration without plot also makes up a large part
of personal letters. These usually tell of interesting
occurrences that concern the writer or his friends. The
separate events are rarely so arranged as to form a plot.

122

123

Suggestions for E xercises. - To fix clearly in mind the distinction between narration and description, find illustrations of
both from a newspaper. Pick out descriptive sentences and, if
possible, descriptive parag raphs, from your school history. Find
the descriptive passages in the story on page I 42.
Is the school history that you are studying narration with, or
narration without, plot ? Classify any other histories . that you
have read lately. Classify the following: Robinson Crusoe,
David Copperfield, Pickwick Papers, De Quincey's Flight of a
Tartar Tribe, Midsummer Night's Dream, Legend of Sleepy
Hollow. Is th ere any difference in the strength of the plots of
these works ?

124

INVENTION.

I.
NARRATION WITHOUT PLOT.

Subjects for Narration without Plot.-As has already
been seen, narration without plot is read for the sake
of the facts that it gives. One may read a story which
tells of persons that he has never known, and indeed
that never lived, because he wants to see how the plot
ends, but he will not care for a newspaper article unless
he is interested in the subject that it treats. Most of
the subjects in which readers are interested will be found
to come under one of the four following heads :
r. Tlzings that are Familiar or Near at Hand. · Nothing attracts our attention more quickly than news
regarding persons, places, or things with which we are
acquainted. Every one who has been away from home
for some time knows how eager he was for news of
familiar persons and scenes. Such an item as "Miss
· ] ane Smith has sprained her ankle and cannot attend
school for two weeks" has much interest if Miss Smith
is an intimate friend or a classmate; but it has less if
she is a mere acquaintance in a distant part of the city,
and none if the reader never heard of her before. Only
a slight familiarity is necessary to give interest. A
newspaper reader will pay much ·more attention to
items regarding a noted man if he has met him at a
formal reception, or even if he has heard him lecture.
Even the mere fact of nearness to an occurrence makes
it interesting. A terrible accident in a neighboring

NARRATION.

town attracts more attention than one a thousand
miles away, even though we know none of the persons
concerned.
2. Things that are related to our Social or our Business Interests. - Every one is interested in persons or
things connected with his own business, or with his
favorite sport or line of study. Students are somewhat interested in student ·life everywhere, and so
high school and college papers print news items from
similar institutions all over the country. Almost every
trade and profession' has its journals, which are read, not
only to get information that may be turned to practical account, but to gratify curiosity as to what other
men in the same line of business are doing. A football enthusiast is interested in the report of a game
between elevens not a member of which he has ever
seen. The society columns of New York and Chicago
papers have many readers in other cities among" society
people" who know none of the persons whose names
appear.
3. Things that are Remarkable, Romant£c, or Picturesque. - Almost every one is attracted by things that
are out of the ordinary. This is shown by the interest
taken in collections of relics, etc. It accounts for the
popularity of stories of adventure, and of tales of sea
serpents and of other marvels that are often reported
in the papers. Much of the interest taken in stories
of the gold fields of Alaska is due to this love of the
uncommon; so is the popular interest in remarkable
discoveries of science, such as the X-rays.

INVENTION.

NARRATION.

4. Tliings connected closely or remotely with Human
Life. -The most important thing of which we know is
human life; and every one is interested in events that
concern his fellow-men. Murders, fatal accidents, tortures, etc., concern human beings directly, and so attract
much attention. Political events are interesting because
they are connected with government, and government
affects all persons who live under it. We are interested in the accumulation or the destruction of property, because property belongs to some one. In any
daily paper the great majority of items concern hun1an
life, whether they are interesting for any other reason
or not.
Subjects that are familiar, or that are related to one's
business or social affairs, can be of interest to only a
limited number of readers . Those that are remarkabl e,
or that concern human life, may be of interest to every
one.

In considering a subject for a narrative without plot
it will be well to ask whether it belongs to one or more of
these four classes. If not, the chances are that it will
not be interesting. The best plan is always to avoid
an uninteresting subject, even for practice exercises.
Your friends may enjoy reading anything you write,
because they are interested in you; but even they will
take g reater pleasure in your ... work if you treat an
attractive subject.
It is a mistake to sµppose that whatever is of interest
to you will be of interest to your readers. Accounts
of picnics, wheeling trips, etc., are often written for
school compositions. ·If the events of these expeditions
are remarkable, or if those who read or hear the exercises are acquainted with ·the persons and places conIf
c~rn ed, sue~ a narrative may be very interesting.
not, it will seem dull and flat, no matter how attractive
the subject may be to the writer.
Number and Choice of Details.-The question "Will
this interest the reader ?" should be asked, not only in
, choosing a subject for narration without plot, but also
in deciding how many and what details to give in such
a compos1t10n. One may plod through the dull parts
of a novel in order to see how the story comes out, but
there is no reason for finishing a news article if it
becomes tiresome ; and it will be tir.esome if it is too
long, or if the details are not in themselves interesting.
In letter writing the tastes of the reader are generally
known, and the writer can determine just how much
and what to say about any topic. Composition that is

126

Suggestions fo r Exercises. - Take some daily paper and pick
out the articles that are of interest to you. Decide why each is
interesting. What persons would care for those that do not interest you, and why? Remember that an item may be of interest for
two or more reasons: for example, a letter from a friend, telling
of his adventures in the gold fields of Alaska, would be interesting,
(1) because of your acquaintance with the writer, (z) because the
events narrated would be extraordinary, (3) because they would
concern human life.
Make a list of important occurrences at your school. Decide
how many of them would be of general interest in your town or
city. Would any of tl:em be of interest throughout the state?

127

126

JNVENTJON.

T/;iJtgs connected closely or remotclj1 wit!t Hummi
Life. - The most important thin g of which we know is
human life; and every one is int erested in eve nts that
concern his f ellow-men. Murders, fatal accidents, tortures, et c. , concern human beings directly, a nd so at tract
much a tte ntion . Political eve nts are int eres tin g b ecause
th ey are co nn ec t ed with gove rnm en t, and gove rnm ent
a ffects all persons who live under it. We a rc int e rested in the accumulation or the destruction of property, because property belon gs to some one. In any
dail y paper th e g reat majority of it ems conce rn human
life, wheth er they arc interesting for any other reason
or not.
Subjects that are familiar, or that arc r elat ed to one's
business or social affairs, can be of int erest to only a
limit ed number of reade rs. Those that are re markable,
or that concern human life, may be of int erest to every
one.
4.

S u.i:;i;cs/i(lllS f or Fxcrciscs. - Take so me dail y pape r a nd pi ck
out th e arti cles that arc o( interes t to yo u. Dec id e why e;u:h is
inte res ti11 g . \,Yhat persons would care for thos e that do not interes t yo u, and why? Rem ember that an item may Le of interest for
two or more reasons: for examp le, a lette r from a fri end, telling
of his adv entures in th e g old fields of Alaska, would be interestin g,
(1) beca use of your acquaintance with th e writer, (2) because th e
even ts narrated would b e ex traordin ary, (3) because th ey would
concern huma n life.
l\take a list of importa nt occurrences a t your school. Decide
how man y of th em would b e of ge neral interest in yo ur tow n or
ci ty. vVoukl any of tl ~ c m b e of i11teres t throughout th e state?

NARRATION.

12 7

In co ns id e ring a subject for a narrative without plot
it will be well to ask whether it belongs to one or more of
these four classes . If not, the chances are that it will
not be interestin g. Th e best plan is always to avoid
an uninterestin g subject, even for pi·actice exe rcis es .
Your friends may enjoy r eading anything you write,
becaus e they are interested in you; but even th ey will
ta ke greater pleas ure in your work if you treat an
attractive subject.
It is a mistake to · suppose that whatever is of interest
to you will be of int erest to your reade rs. Accounts
of picnics, wheeling trips, etc., are often writte n for
school compositions. If the events of th ese expeditions
arc r emarkable, or if tho se who read or hear the exercises arc acquainted with the persons and places concerned, sucl; a narrative may be very int e rest in g. If
not, it will seem dull and flat, no matter how attractive
th e subject may be to th e writer.
Number and Choice of Details. -The question "Will
this int e rest th e reader?" should be asked, not only in
choos in g a subject for narration without plot, but also
in deciding how many and what details to g ive in such
a composition. One may plod throu g h the dull parts
of a novel in order to see how the story comes out, but
there is no reaso n for finishing a ne ws articl e if it
beco mes tiresom e ; and it will be tiresome if it is too
long, or if the details are not in thems elves interesting.
In let ter writing the tast es of the reader are generally
known, and the writer can determine just how much
and what to say about any topic. Composition that is

INVENTION.

NARRA l'JON.

to be published mu st be suited to th e needs of an
imaginary " ave rage reader." It should g ive th e facts
that such a person would want to know, and n ot one
more. Too few details are, on the whole, bett er than
too many.
In choosing details, preference should ge nerally be
g iven to the most import ant. Sometimes, when th e
writer wishes to stimulate int erest, unimport a nt details
may be g iven if th ey are striking. For example, histori es intended for small children oft en contain many
stories th at arc more entertaining than import ant.
Order of Details.-In simple narration without plot
events are usually told in th e order in which th ey
occur. This is th e most natural arrangement, and
th erefore th e one leas t likely t o take the reader's attenti on from the facts of th e story. In tellin g of a compli cated series of events there may be som e chan ges
from th e order of occurrence, espec ially to keep causes
and effects together; but such a change should be
admitt ed only when th e writ er can see cl early that it
would be bett er than th e natural arrangement.
In n ewspaper accounts of important occurrences the
first paragraph sometim es g ives a summary of res ults
- th e score of a game, th e loss of property in a fire, or
of life in a railroad accident. This is only an apparent
exception to the rule, as th ese particulars are repeated
in th eir p rope r place in the narrative.
Diction. - Th e style of narration without plot should
gen erally be the plainest and simplest possible. This
form of composition is read for the matter, and the

man ner should not be such as to attract att ention to
itself. Some writers, espec ially some n ewspaper writers, seem to think that a trivial occurrence can be mad e
important, or at least be made attractive, by th e use of
hi gh-so undin g language. Attempts to dignify a subj ec t
in this way arc only ridiculous. Big words are sometim es used, also, for th e sake of humor ; but this is
usu ally a cheap way of bein g funny, an d sboulcl be
attempted only by those who have an espec ial aptitude
for it. Dickens succeeded very well at this kind of
writin g, but not every on e can do so.
In some forms of narrat ion without plot, such as
social letters and newspaper a rticles, words and expressions not fully es tabli shed in th e language are sometim es permissible. In regard t o this, see pages 40- 43.

128

•

12 9

S u,r.;gestions for Exercises. - Jn all exercises in narrat ion without plot, s li ck close ly lo fac ts. An opportunity for th e play of the
imagin ati on will be found in writing narrati on with plot.
vVrite several short news items, from 50 to 15 0 words eac h,
th at would interest yo ur classmates. Decide why eac h is interesting .
Write an account of some im por ta nt local occ urrence, as if for
publication in a pape r issued by yo ur school. vVrite another
account of th e same occurrence for a newspap er of ge neral circulation, publish ed in your town or city, and, if the importance of
th e eve nts warrants, anoth er for a C hi cago or a New York daily.
Pay espec ial attention to choice and number of details.

NA RR A T.!ON.
130

I

3I

JNVENTJON.

II.
NARRATIO N WITH P LOT.

Definition. - The definition of narration with plot has
already bee n g iven in discussing narration without plot.
It is that form of narration in which everything that is
told tends toward an end or culmination of th e storytbat form which is read, partly at leas t, to sec how the
story com es out. It may be helpful to remember that
the word " plot " means a knot or tan gle. The lives
and fortunes of the characters may be compared to
threads, whi ch are often twisted into a confused snarl.
Generally this is cut or unravel ed at th e end of the
story, so that the threads run smoothly and parallel
again. Th ere may be one or more of these threads th e more th ere arc, the more complex the plot.
Interest in Narration with Plot. -Wh cn we read a
novel we are int erested, sometimes chiefly interes ted,
in seeing how the story com es out; but we also feel
oth er kinds of int erest that resembl e those felt in narration without plot. Among th ese are interes t in the
scenes, inte rest in the characters as types of human
nature, and interest in the separate incid ents.
1. Interest in tlze Sce!les. - The scenes in which th e
action of a story takes place may be interesting, and so
attract us to the story itself. This is true of many
historical novels and of stories the plots of which arc
laid in out-of-the-way places or among peculiar classes
of people : for example, Barrie's a nd Ian MacLarcn's

Scotch stories; Kipling 's Eas t Indian t ales; and,
n earer home, Hamlin Garland's stories of W estern
life; and Thom as Nelson Page's n egro sketches.
2. Interest in tlte Cltaracters. -We are generally
int erest ed in peculiar or extraordinary perso ns in real
life, and th e same is tru e of well-drawn characters in a
history, a novel, or a play. Much of th e popularity of
Dickens's works is clue to the uniqu e characters which
he introdu ces to his reade rs. Students of Shakespeare
discus s Falstaff, Iago, and Haml et as if th ey we re real
men, and care more for them as persons th an for th eir
parts in their respective plays.
3. Interest in the Incidents. - It might be possible,
by skillful arrangement, to make a good story by
reco untin g events that were all very trivial; but this
is seldom, if ever, done. Usu ally the separate in cid ents
have an interest of their ow n apart from th eir connection with th e plot, and this is sometimes so strong
that th ey may be tak en from th e co nt ex t and printed
by th ems elves. The Chariot Race in Ben Hur and
th e D eath of Little Nell fr om O ld Curiosity Shop are
often treated in this way.
Th e weaker th e plot
int erest, the greater the n ecessity of interest in
incid ent ; though very interesting incid ents are often
found in stories with exciting plots.
In history,
where the plot is usually less strong than in fiction,
incid ents are especially likely to stand out by themselves. An account g iven by Macaulay or Carlyle
of a battle or an intrigue loses little by bein g taken
(rnt of its context.

13 2

133

J .NVENTJON.

NARRA T.lON.

Suggestions f or Exer cises. - vVrite in yo ur own wo rds several
a necdotes or short stori es that you hav e heard told. (Do not
c hoose stories that you have read, or th a t yo u have heard told
ma ny tim es .) Are th ese narration with plot? If so, why? Decide so far as you ca n what ma kes each interes ting.

given a local scene and setting - that is, if th e plot
is laid in some place familiar to all. If this is don e,
however, the story must be perfectly true to nature and
to life, or the readers will notice the defects.
Odd communities, unfamiliar occupations or modes of
life, regions of country little known make good backgro und s for st ories. They should not be used, however,
unless the writer knows them from personal observation
or from very thorough study. The writer should also
remembe r that the background does not make th e
story.
Another kind of stories th at may be used for practice are those in which th e imag ination is allowed to
run wild, and the plot is clearly impossibl e. Th ese are
excellent for developing some qualities, but are not so
easy t o write as th ey at :first appear. It is necessary
to make such a story seem plausible - th at is, to t ell
it in such a way that a perso n will feel no sense of
impro bability whil e he is reading it, thou gh he may
know all the time that the plot is imposs ible. If a
reade r is to get the most enjoyment from th e Arabian
Nights h e must for the mom ent feel as if all the marvels ascribed to Aladdin's lamp were real.
Such a story may be made t o seem more plausible
by laying th e scene in a remote time or place. Th e
Arabian Nights, which has already been m entioned,
tells of events that are supposed to have occurred a lon g
tim e ago, and in the far East. ] ul es Verne has bid
the scenes of his most marvelous stori es in the moon,
2 0 ,000 leagues und er th e sea, a nd in similar pl aces.

In writin g an ecdotes 0£ this kind mi stakes in pun ctuation arc
co mm on. Be careful in thi s respect - espec ially i£ yo u repo rt
conversation.

Choice of Subject for Narration with Plot. - Since
th ere are so many ways of arousing int eres t in narration with plot, we can hardly speak of choosing a subject in th e same way that we choose a subj ect for a
narrative without plot. The subj ect and th e method
of treatm ent must be chos en togeth er; we mu st decide
at th e outset whether we will rely mainly on plot int eres t or on int erest in scen es, in characters, or in incid ents. Most narratives with plot - stories, histori es,
etc.,-are not writt en for any particular cl ass of r eaders,
but for th e whole readin g public. Their subj ec ts should
th erefore be of gen eral interest, and are usually ex traordinary, romantic, et c. , or else co ncerned with human
to
life. The subj ects of mos t works of fiction belo1w
b
both th ese cl asses. A lon g story in which the id ea of
th e marvelous predominates, is a romance; one in
which the idea of human life predominates, is a novel.
A few suggestions may be given regardin g stories to
be written for practi ce. Th ese are int end ed as hints,
not as statements of laws that apply in all cases.
If a practice story is writt en espec ially for th e
writer's sc hoolm ates , it may ga in in interest if it is

134

135

JN VENT/ON

NARRATION

The same effect may also be gained by t elling the
story with great vividness and minuteness of detail,
and by imitating the air of one who is repo rtin g wonclerful occurrences that he has actually seen. It is the
management of sma11 points, not of large ones, that
makes a story seem real. An incon sist ency, no ma tt er
how slight, destroys the illusion in th e reader's mind.
It seems to be nec essary that a novel or any lon g
narrative be concerned with human characte rs, but a
shorter story may deal with lower animals or even with
inanimate objects personifi ed. "The Autobiography
of a Pin," "The Adventures of a Coin," etc., may be
written to train the imag ination, but can h;irclly be
made as interesting as stories about men and women.

·
cl b y name. Whe1.1 se\reral characters rn ust be
t10ne
introdu ced it is best to bring them in one or two at a

Suggestions .for Exercises. - Recall some improbabl e stories
that you have read, and decid e in each case how the writer makes
th e plot seem plausible. Examples may b e found in th e works of
l'oe, Hawthorne, Stevenson, Swift, Jules Verne, ancl others.
Have you read any s tories of considerable length th at clicl not
d eal with human beings? If so, how interestin g were th ey? Try
to dec ide what made each interesting.

Making the Plot.-No definite rules can be laid clown
for making a plot. The following cautions may be
helpful in planning a story, especially a short story.
I. A St01J1 s!w11ld 11ot !tave too JV!any C!tamcters. It takes a little time and thought for a reader to find
out who a n ew character is, and, as it were, to get
acquainted with him. It is very annoyin g to have so
many persons introduced in the first part of a story
that one cannot recog nize th em when th ey are m en-

tim e.
A C!taracter s!wuld not be introduced wit/tout Good
Reason. - It is hardly fair to ask a reader to form th e
acquaintance of a character unle ss that cha racter is of
some importance in the story. ·Do not bring in a new
person to help over a difficulty and then drop him.
3. A Sto1J1s!tould11ot extend 011cr too LoJtg- a Tim e. Occasionally a novel may treat of the events of a lifetime, but a short story should cove r a much briefer
period. One kind of short story that is worthy of
especial att ention recounts th e events of a space of
tim e hardly longe r than is needed to read it, but suggests much more. Probably every observant person
has noted, perhaps in a railway depot or a street car, a
scene or a conversation that made plain, not only th e
present situ ation of a gro up of characters, but much of
their past life, and perhaps something of their futur e.
It is a triumph of story-telling so to narrate th e events
of a few minutes that the reader shall get a knowledge
of occurrences that have perhaps ext end ed over years.
4. A Plot s!wuld not be too Complex or bwoh;ed.lt is a common fault of stories of the dim e-novel
class that the exciting scenes are too numerous and
follow one another too closely. No sooner does the
hero escape from one set of troubles than he fincls
himself in another set still more perplexing. A plot
should never drag, but it should not be so involved
as to be sensational.
2.

136

/NVENTION.

5. The Scene and Setting o.f each Part o.f the Story
should fit the Action. -An incident in a story will be
much more effective if it harmonizes or contrasts with
the circumstances of time and place. In cheap stories
and in melodramas on the stage murd e rs are usually
assigned to wild and stormy nights, and love scenes to
moonlight evenings. This is a crude way of making
the scene and setting useful, but even this is sometimes
effective. The greatest masters have us ed weather and
similar circumstances to emphasi ze action .
How to begin. -Th ere are three principal ways of
beg inning a story, each of w11ich has some aclvantao-es
0
and some disadvantages.
I . 1Vith a Descriptio1Z o.f the Scene and Setting. The advantage of this method is th at th e reader at
once learns all the circumstances that he needs to
know in order to understand th e story, so th at when
the narrative really beg ins it may continue without
interruption. Th e disadvantage is that th e description
is likely to be dry and unint erestin g. R eaders often
say that it is "hard to get started" in a novel that
beg ins in this way, and sometimes, if th e introduction
is too lon g, they give up in despair and throw th e book
aside befor e th ey really reach the story. This form of
beginning is common in historical novels, because it
is necessary that th e reader know, at once, something
about the time and place of the action. Many of
Scott's novels open in this way.
2.
TVith the Begin1Zing o.f the Story, that is, with
the First o.f the Action. - This arouses the reader's

NARRA T!ON.

137

int eres t and gets him well started at once; but if much
must be said lat er about scene and setting th ere is
dan ger that the long descr iptive passages will break
th e thread of the story. Wh en only a few descriptive
details need be g iven, and when these can be scattered
h ere a nd th ere, this way of beg inning is th e best .
3. "In m edias res," tltat ·is, i1Z t!Le 1"1idd!e o.f the
Story. - Sometim es a writ er may open his narrative
with some very striking event, and aft erward explain
what has gone before. Th e advant age of this plan
is that the beginning is sure to attract th e attention.
Th e disadvantages are: (1) that th e change from the
tru e order of time is likely t o confuse th e reader; and
(2) t11 at to beg in with the most int eresting and follow
with less important deta ils has th e effect of anticlimax.
S11.~gestions for Exercises. - Study th e effect 0£ the sce ne and
setting in Ac t I ., Scene 1, of Hamlet ; in Act l., Scenes 1 and 6,
a nd Ac t II., Scenes 1 and z, of Macb eth ; in Chapter XV IlI. of
Th e House of th e Seve n Gables.

How do es th e story on page 1 42 beg in? Can you see wh y this
way of beginning was chosen? \ Vhat would have been th e result
of beginning in each of th e oth er two ways? Could th e story
hav e been begun in medias res? II so, at what point?
Discuss th e beg innings of the following novels , or of any oth ers
your teach er may select: 1vanhoe, Davi cl Copperfi eld, Acl<!-m Bede,
John H alifax, Th e Hous e of th e Seven Gables.

Choice of Events. - In n arration with plot the incidents should be chosen with reference to two thin g s :
( 1) their own int erest as in cid ents; (2) th eir relation to
th e plot. The stron ger th e plot int erest, th e greater

_____......_ _ _ _...._ _~---.--......--~-.,,......lllr.taliiOldilii...._liiil*. . . . . . . . . . .iifliiiililllit--loiiliiiil----------------------~---·-·

138

139

I NVENT.ION.

NARR ,-l 7'101\7.

the attention th at mu st be paid to th e latt er. If the
plot of a story is exc iting, the r eader will be annoyed
at findin g anything that do es not gratify his curiosity
regarding the end. If the plot interes t is weak, details
that are not quite so closely co nn ect ed with the main
thread of the story are all owable, if th ey are th emselves
int eres tin g.
Order of Events. - In tellin g a simple st ory the
natural order in whi ch to reco unt events is that in
which they occur. Any other order is likely to be confusin g. It may, however, so metim es be best to put an
effect just after its cause, and then to t ell what came
between. Sometimes it may also be n ecessary t o hold
back th e knowledge of some occurrence for the sake of
the plot . In fact, some plots consist in keepin g from
the read er a knowledge of occurrences that happened
before th e story open ed. This is illus t rated in Th e
Scarlet L etter; it is a favorite devic e, too, in detective
st ori es.
Movement. -Th e most important rule regarding
movement in narration is th at the story should n eve r
be allowed to drag. On the other hand, movement
should not be so rapid that th e plot is hard t o follow.
Two n early opposite kinds of passages should move
rapidly.
I. Tlwse wl1ich treat of Unimportattt l-iapfc1liugs,
concerni1ig w ludt D etails would be Useless or Uninteresting. - These are passed over by th e use of general
summ an zmg terms. Th e events of a year, or eve n
of a lon ger tim e may be _treat ed in a single sentence.

T!wse that tell of vc1y Exc£ting Occ111-rc11ccs. In these th e movement should be rapid, to correspond
with th e action. There is danger, too, th at if th e story
drags at such a point the reader will skip to th e end
"to sec h ow it is co rnin g out." These passages should
be made rapid, not like those th at arc unimport ant, but
by th e use of vivid, specifi c terms, which s uggest more
tha n they tell, and by th e use of short sentences.
As a ge neral rule, import ant parts of the story should
move slowly - that is, should be told with mu ch detail,
and if necessary with comments and explanations.
2.

Surrrrestions
fior Exercises . .....

In the s elec ti o ns o n pae:es
r 42,
._,
150 a re th e in cidents chose n mainly for th eir own interest or for
th eir co nn ec tion with th e plot? J\ re th ere any in cide nts th a t can
be om itted witho ut injuring th e plot? For what a re the details
chosen in Pickwick Papers? in Robi nson Crusoe? \V hy?
~.....

In th e selections on pages 142, 15 0 are all th e d eta ils g iv en in
th e s tri ct ord er of time? G ive th e reasons for any departures
from this order.
Find examples of slow move ment a nd of rapid mov eme nt in
th e selections on pages 142, 1 50. vVhy is th e movement employed
in each case ?
\ 1Vrite as many short stori es as your teach er direc ts, illustrating
th e prin ciples that h ave been g ive n. It will b e good practi ce to
write some based on fac ts th at you h ave known, and some entirely
from your imagination.

Complex Narratives. - A complex narrative is one
in which th e plot is made by th e int ertwinin g of two
or more lines of events. A ny novel or play in which
there are two sets of characters, or a ny history which

140

N ARR A TION.

I NVENT ION.

t ells of two or more kind s of occurrences, will serve
as a n exampl e. Thus in Julius Caesa r there ar e th e
two main g roups of charact ers, Caesar and hi s fri e nd s,
a nd the conspirato rs and th eir fri end s, and th ese may
be subdivided, since Antony is not always with Caesar,
nor Brntus with Cassius.
In thi s sort of narration it is imposs ible to t ell of
thin gs in just th e ord er in which th ey happened. One
ch apte r, or other sec tion, of th e di sc ourse mu st t ell of
on e set of cha ract ers, anoth er of an other se t. Thus
in Julius Caesar both sets of characters are togeth er
in A ct I ., S ce ne 2 . Th e n ex t sce nes are mostly g iven
up t o th e co nspi rators. In A ct II., S cene 2 , we hava
Caesa r a nd hi s fri end s ; in A ct III., Sce ne 1 (the murd er
sce ne), both pa rti es a re togeth e r again . In su ch narratives th e main diffi culty is to show the reader th e
rela tion in tim e between events narrated in su ccessive
chapters. If two occurrences t ake place on th e same
clay, one in C hi cago, a nd th e othe r in N ew Y ork, th e
write r cannot t ell of th em toge th e r. H e mu st put
one before th e oth er in his story, but he mu st ri1 ake
th e reader fe el th at th ey happened at th e sa me tim e.
So met im es this is done by givin g dat es, but more oft en
by referrin g from one to th e othe r in s uch a way as to
show the relati on betwee n th em.
S1\r;.r;estio7ls fo r Exercises. - In your sc hool history of th e
U nited S tates, how is it mad e plain th a t th e cot to n g in was
in ve nted in \ ;vashing ton's administration ? tha t th e fi rst railroad
was co mpl e ted in John Quincy Adam s's ad mini s tra ti on? th at
Uncle T om 's Cabin was publis hed just befor e th e Civil War ?

141

P erhaps some o( th ese fa cts are shown b y ela tes, a nd some in
oth er ways. If so, which are easies t to remember?
Write a s tory of at least fiv e. short ch apters, presenting two
sets of characters.

ILLUSTRATIVE S ELECTI ONS.

The more important prin c ipl ~s of narration shoul~l be
verifi ed by th e study of as many examples as po ss1b~ e .
Each memb er of the class may be assi g ned some t o 1~ 1 c ,
such as" number of ch aract ers," or" move me nt " whi ch
he is to illustrate by references to a number of works;
or h e may be g iven some novel, biog raphy, or history,
from whi ch he is to choose illustrati ons of all important topi cs in th e cha pter. Espec ial att e nti on sho~tlcl
be paicl to examples of usage contrary to that whi ch
has b een recomm end ed . In each case th e student
should try to find a reason for th e exc~p tio n .
.
The two selections that foll ow are pnnted here 111
ord er to g ive students a convenient t ext for minut e
study. Th e " sample questions" are intend ed only to
g ive an idea of the many points that may profitably be
discuss ed.

A.
The first selecti on, entitled E ndicott a nd th e R ed
Cross, is a story by H awthorne, t o b e found in Twi ce
Told Tales.
Sample Questions._ Is this .simple .or com.plex narration ?
Which is the stro nges t - interes t m plo t, rnterest 111 cha1acters, or

142

r 43

JNVENT'LON.

NANRATJON.

interes t 111 sce ne a nd sl!lling? \ Vhi ch is nex t stronger? Could
yo u tell th e s tory so as lo mak e the plot interest relatively
s tron ger? l f so, wou ld the sto ry be longe r or sh orter? \Vhat
wo ul d you omit? \ Vou lc\ you add a nything? Co mm ent on the
leng th of tim e cove red by the story; on numb er of ch arac ters;
on way of beginning. For just wh at purpose are th e details
chosen? l s there a ny departure from th e order of tim e in telling
th e story? Can you see a ny place where suc h a departure mig ht
be mad e? Is the move ment of th e whole story fast or slow?
Are a ny passag;es espec ially slow? especially fa st? How does
the writer make th e mo ve ment slow - by desc ripti on, IJy co mments and interpre tations, or by g iving m any deta ils in th e narrati ve itself? Go th roug h th e story a nd es timate roughly how much
of th e story is pu re d esc ription.
W ha t is ga ined by making us see th e surround ings as reflec ted
in E nd icot t's breastplate? Does Hawthorn e use more words th a n
are s tri c tly needed to g ive th e se nse? (See lines 22- 63 .) If so,
does h e ga in anyt hin g by their use ?

wroug ht th e utter ruin of the two Puritan coloni es, l'l ymouth
and M assac husctts. There is eviden ce on reco rd th at ou r
forefathers perceived th eir clanger, but were resolve d that th eir
in fant coun try s ho uld not fall with out a struggle, even beneath 20
the g iant stre ng th of th e K ing's rig ht arm .
Such was th e aspect of th e tim es when the folds of the English bann er, with th e Red Cross in its fi eld , we re flung out over
a company of P uri tans. Thei r leader, the famous End icott,
was a man of stern and resolute countenan ce, th e effec t of 2 s
wh ich was h eig htened by a g ri zz led beard that swept th e upper
portion of hi s breastplate. Th is p iece of arm or was so hi g hl y
polis hed th at the whole surroundin g scene had its image in th e
g litterin g s teel. The central object in the mirrored p icture
was an edifice of hum b le arc hi tecture with neither steeple nor 3°
!:Jell to proclaim it - wh at neverth eless it was - the house of
praye r. A token of th e p erils of the wi ldern ess was seen in the
g rim head of a wolf, wh ich h ad just b ee n slain within the p recin cts of th e town, and accord ing to th e regul ar mode of cla imincr th e bou nty was nailed on the porch of the me eting-house. 35
T~e blood w;s still plashing on the doo rstep. There ha ppened to be visible, at th e sa me noontid e hour, so man y oth er
cha racteri sti cs of the times and manners of th e l'uri tans, that
we must endeavor to represent t hem in a sketc h, though far
less vivid ly tha n they were reflected in th e polish ed breastplate ·1°
of John E nd icot t.
ln close v icinity to the sacred edifi ce appeared that im po rtant eng ine of P uritanic authority, tl1e whi pp ing- post-with th e
soil around it well trodd en by the feet of ev il do ers, wh o had
th ere bee n disc ipli ned. At one corner of th e mee ting-house -t5
was th e pillory, and at the other th e s toc ks ; and, by a sin gular good fortu ne fo r our sketc h, th e head of a n Episcopali an
and suspected Ca th olic was grotesquely encasecl in th e form er
machin e; wh il e a fe ll ow-criminal, who h ad boiste rously quaffed
a health to the King, was confin ed by the legs in th e latter. 5°
Side by s ide, on th e meeting- house steps, stood a male and a

At noo n of an autumn al clay, more than t wo ce nturi es ago,
th e English colors we re dispbyed by th e s tandard -bea rer of
th e Salem tra inband, whi ch had mustered for martial exe rcise
und er the orders of J ohn En di co tt. It was a period wh en
th e relig ious ex iles were accustomed often to b uckle on th eir
ar mor, and prac ti se th e handlin g of th eir weapons of war.
Si nce th e first se ttlem ent of New E ngland, its prospec ts had
never been so d is mal. The dissentions between Ch arles t he
F irst a nd his subjec ts were then, a nd for seve ral yea rs afterwards, co nfin ed to th e fl oor of Parli ament. The mea sures of
th e King a nd mini stry were rend ered more tyranni call y violent
by a n oppositio n, whi ch had not ye t acquired sufficient co nfid ence in its ow n streng th to resist royal inj ust ice with th e
swo rd. The bigoted and haughty prima te, La ud , Arc hbishop
of Canterbury, co ntrolled the religious affairs of th e realm,
and was co nsequently invested with powe rs which mig ht have

'°

15

. £JS~ M--~·. -

144

J N VENT/ON.

female figure. The man was a tall, lean, h aggard p ersonifi cation of fanatici sm, bearing on his breast this label, -A \VANTON GosPELLEH, -which betokened that he had dared to
g ive interpretations of holy writ unsanctioned by th e infallible · ss
judg ment of the civi l and r eli g ious rulers. His aspect showed
no lack of zeal to mainta in hi s heterodoxi es, even at th e stake.
The woman wore a cleft stick on her tongue, in appropri ate
retribution for h av ing wagge d th at unruly member against the
elders of th e church ; and her countenance and gestures gave 60
mu ch ca use to apprehend that, the mom ent the stick should be
remov ed, a repetition of the offense would demand new ingenuity in chastisi ng it.
The above-mentioned indi viduals had bee n sentenced to
undergo th eir various modes of ignominy, for th e space of 65
one hour at noonday. l3ut among the crowd were several
whose punishm ent would be life-long : some, whose ears had
been cropped, like those of puppy clogs; others, whose chee ks
had bee n brand ed with the initials of th eir misd emeanors ; one,
with his nostrils slit and seared; and another, with a halter 70
about hi s neck , which he was forbidd en ever to take off, or to
conceal beneath his garments. . . .
Let not th e read er arg ue, from any of th ese evidences of
iniquity, that the tim es of th e Puritans were more vicious than
our ow n, when, as we pass along the very street of this sketch, 1s
we discern no badge of infamy on man or woman. It was the
policy of our ancestors to search out even the most secret sins, .
a nd expose them to sham e, without fear or favor, in the broadest lig ht of the noonday sun. W ere such the custom now,
perchance we might find materials for a no less piquant sketch So
than the above.
Except the malefac tors whom we h ave described, and the
diseased or infirm persons , the whole male populati on of the
town, between sixteen years and sixty, were seen in the ranks
of the trainband. A few stately savages, in all the pomp and 8 5
dignity of th e primeval I nclian, stood gazing at the spectacle.

NA NN A 7'JON.

145

T heir flint-headed arrows were but childi s h weapons compared
with th e matchlo cks of th e P uri tans, and would hav e rattled
harmlessly against th e s teel caps and hamm ered iron breastplates which inclosecl each soldier in an individual fortr ess. 9°
Th e vali ant John E ndi cott g lanced with an eye of pride at his
s turd y fo ll owers, ancl prepared to renew the martial toils of th e
clay.
" Come, my stout hearts! " q uoth · he, drawing his sword.
" Let us show th ese poor heath en that we ca n ha ndle our 9S
weapons like men of might. Well for th em, if th ey put us not
to prove it in earnest!"
The iron-breas ted co mpany straig htened th eir line, a nd each
ma n drew the heavy butt of hi s matc hlock close to hi s left foot,
thus awa iting th e orders of th e captain. But, as Endico tt 100
glanced right and left along th e front, he discovered a personage at some little distan ce with whom it behooved him to hold
a parley. It was an eld erly gentleman, wearin g a black cloak
and band, a nd a high-crowned hat, beneath which was a velve t skull-cap, th e whole being the garb of a Puritan minister. I05
This revere nd person bore a staff which seem ed to h ave bee n
recently cut in th e for est, and his s ho es were bemired as if he
had bee n travelling on foot throug h th e swamps of the wilderness. His asp ec t was perfectly that of a pilg rim , heighte ned
also by an apostolic di g nity. Just as Endicott perceived him n o
he laid aside his staff, and stoop ed to drink at a bubbling fountain which g ushed in to th e sunshin e about a score of ya rds
from the corner of th e meetin g-house. l3 ut, ere the good man
drank, he turn ed his face heavenw ard in tha1ikfulness, and
th en, holding b ack his g ray beard with one h and, he scooped 11 5
up his simple draught in the hollow of the other.
"What, ho! good Mr. Williams," shouted End icott. "You
are welcome back aga in to our town of p eace. How does our
worthy Governor Winthrop? And wh at news from Boston?"
"Th e Governor hath his health , worsh ipful S ir," answered 1 20
Roger Williams, now resumin g his staff, a nd drawing near.

146

NARRAT/ON.

.!NVENT'.!ON.

"And for the news, here is a letter, which , knowing I was to
travel hith erwarcl to-cl ay, his Excellency committed to my
cl1~rge. Belike it contain s tidings of much import; for a s hip
arnvecl yesterday from England."
Mr. \Villi ams, th e minister of Salem and of course known
to all th e spectators, had now reached the spot where E ndico tt ~as standing und er the banner of his company, and put
the Governor's e pistle into his hand. The broad seal was
impressed with vVinthrop's coat of arms. Endicott hastily 130
unclosed the letter and began to read, while, as hi s eye passed
down the page, a wrathful change came over his manly co unte nance. The blood g low ed throug h it, till it seem ed to be
kindling wit.h an internal heat; nor was it unnatural to suppose that l11s breastplate would lik ewise become red-hot with 135
the a ng ry fire of the bosom whi ch it covered. Arriving- at the
co nclusion , he shook the letter fi erc ely in his hand, soL that it
rustled as loud as the ft ag above his head.
"Dlack tidings th ese, Mr. vVilliams," said he ; "blacker
nev er came to N cw England. Doubtless you know th eir 140
purport ?"
"Yea, truly," replied Roge r \Villiams; "for th e Governor
co nsu lted, respecting this matter, with my brethren in th e ministry at Bos ton; and my op ini on was likew ise asked. And his
E~cellency entreats you by me, that the news be not sudden ly
nois ed abroad, les t the people be stirred up unto some outbrea k, and thereby give th e King and the Archbishop a h andle
against us."
"The Governor is a wise man - a wise man and a me ek
and moderate," said Endicott, setting his te eth g rimly.
"Nevertheless,. I n:ust do according to my own best judgment. There 1s neither man, woman, nor child in New E twland, but has a concern as dear as life in th ese tidings; and ~f
John Endicott's voice b e loud eno ugh, man, woman, and chi ld
shall hear th em. Soldiers, wheel into a hollow square ! Ho,
good people ! Here are news for one and all of you."

145

1 50

1

55

The soldiers closed in around th eir captain; and he and
Roger vVilliams stood toge ther und er the banner of the l~ecl
Cross; while the women and the aged men pressed forward,
and the mothers held up th eir ch ildren to look End icott in the
face. A few taps of the drum gave signal for silence and
attention.
• "Fellow-soldiers, - fe ll ow-exiles," beg an E ndicott, speakin g
und er strong excitement, yet powerfully restraining it, "wherefore did ye leave your native country? vVherefore, I say, have
we left the green a nd fertile fi elds, th e cottages, or, perchance,
the old gray h alls, where we were born and bred, the churchyards where our fo refathers li e buried? vVherefore have we
co me hith er to set up our own tombstones in a wilderness?
A howling wilderness it is! The wolf and th e bear meet us
within h all oo of our dwellings.
The savage li eth in wait fo r
us in th e d ismal shadow of the woods. The stubborn roots of
the trees break our ploughshares, when we would till the earth.
Our children cry for bread, and we must dig in the ·sands of
the sea-shore to satisfy them. Wherefore, I say again, have
we sought this country of a rugged soil and wintry sky? vVas
it not for the en joyment of our civil r ig hts? Was it not for
li berty to worship Cod according to our conscience?"
"Call yo u this li berty of consc ience?" interrupted a voice
on the steps of th e meeting-house.
It was the Wanton Gospe ll er.
A sad and quiet smile
flitted across the mild visage of Roger Williams. But Endicott, in the excitement of the moment, shook his sword wrathfully at the culprit- an ominous gesture from a man lik e him.
"What hast th ou to do with conscie nce, thou knave?" cri ed
he. " I said liberty to worship Goel, not license to profane and
ridi cule Him. Break not in upon my speech, or I will lay th ee
neck and heels till this time to-morrow! Hearken to me,
friends, nor heed that accursed rhapsodist. As I was saying,
we have sacrificed all things, and have come to a land whereof
the old world hath scarcely heard, that we might make a new

160

165

1 70

175

180

18 5

190

149

.INVENT.ION

NARRATION

world unto ourselves, a nd pain fu ll y seek a path from hence to
heave n. But wh a t think ye now? T hi s son of a Scotc h
tyra nt - this gra ndso n of a papistical a nd adulterous Scotc h
wom an, whose d eath proved that a golden crow n cloth not 195
always save an a no inted head from the block " "Nay, brother, nay,'' interposed Mr. W illi ams;" th y words
are not mee t for a sec ret chamber, far less for a publi c street."
"Hold thy peace, Roger W illi ams ! " answe red Endico tt,
imperiously. "M y spirit is wiser than thin e for th e business 200
now in h and. I tell ye, fellow-exil es, th a t Charles of England,
a nd Laud, our b itterest persecutor, arch-pri est of Ca n te rbury,
are resolute to pursue us eve n hith er. Th ey are takin g counse l, saith this letter, to send over a governor-general, in whose
breas t shall b e d eposited all the law and equity of th e Janel. 205
Th ey are mind ed, also, to es tablish th e idolatrous forms of
E ng li sh Ep is copacy; so th at, when Laud shall ki ss th e Pope's
to e, as cardin al of H.ome, he may d eli ve r Ne w Engla nd , bo und
hand and fo'ot, into th e power of his mas ter ! "
A d eep groan from th e auditors, - a sou nd of wra th, as well 2 10
as fear and sorrow, - responded to this intelli ge nce.
" Look ye to it, brethren," res um ed End ico tt, with in creasin g energy. "If thi s king an d thi s arch-p relate have th eir will,
we s hall briefly behold a cross on th e spire of this tab ernacle
whi ch we have builclecl, and a hig h altar within its wall s, with 2 15
wa x tap ers burnin g round it at noo nday. vVe s hall hear th e
sacr in g be ll , and the voices of th e Rom is h pries ts say ing th e
mass . B ut think ye, Chri st ian men, th at th ese abom in ations
may be s uffered without a sword draw n? without a shot fired?
with out blood spilt, ~ea, on th e very stairs of t he pulpit ? 2 20
No, - be ye strong of hand and s tout of h eart ! Here we
stand on our own soil, whi ch we h ave boug ht with our goo ds,
whic h we have won with our swords, whic h we have cleared
with our axes, whi ch we have till ed with th e sweat of our
brows, whi ch we h ave sanctifi ed with our prayers to th e Cocl ns
th at bro ug ht us hith er! :w ho s hall enslave us here? \Vh at

have we to do with thi s mitred prelate, - with this crowned
king? W h at h ave we to do wi th England?"
Endicott gaze d round at th e exc ited countenances of th e
people, now full of hi s own spirit, an d th en turn ed suddenly to 230
the standard-bearer, who stood close be hind him.
"Offi cer, lower your bann er ! " sa id he.
Th e officer obeyed; and, brand ishing his sword, E ndi cott
thrust it th ro uo-h
th e cloth, and with hi s lef t hand, rent th e R eel
b
Cross compl etely out of the banner. H e then waved th e t a t~ 23 5
tered ensig n above hi s head.
"Sacrileg ious wretch!" cried th e hi g h-churchm an in th e pillory, un able longer to res tra in himself, " thou hast rejec ted th e
sym bol of our holy reli g ion!"
"Treason, treason ! " roared the royalist in th e stocks. 240
"H e h ath defac ed the King's banner!"
"B efore God and ma n, I will avouch th e d eed," a nswered
Endicott. "Beat a flourish , drumm er! - shout, sold iers and
peopl e ! - in hon or of th e ensign of New E ng land. N either
245
1-'ope nor Tyrant .h a th part in it now ! "

B.
Th e second selecti on is fr om Stevenson's Treasure
Island, Chapters XXXI. and XXXII. Allowance must
be made for th e fac t that it is part of a lon ger story.
Only a few fac ts are necessary, however, to understand
most of it. Six pirates are in search of a treasure that
has been buried by the noted buccaneer, Captain Flint,
with wh om they had formerly sailed. The leader, Lon g
John Silver, som etim es referred t o as the sea cook, is
at a disadvantage in the expedition because he bas but
one leg, but is represe nted as a man of prodigious

.INVENT.ION.

streng th. Th e story is t old by a boy wh o was h eld
captive by th e pirat es.
Sample Q?test ions. - Mos t of th e general questi ons suggested
fo r selec tion A s hould b e asked in connec tion with thi s story.
W hat diffe rences in th e narra ti ves are acco unted fo r by the fact
th a t in thi s selec ti on th e plot interest is stronger? A re th e
desc ri p ti ve passages used fo r d iffe rent p urposes in th e t wo
s tor ies? \ Vha t is th e reason fo r th e desc rip ti on of th e cou ntry
th ro ug h whi ch th ey p ass, lines 54- 65? fo r the desc ripti on of th e
vi ew, lines r 50- 16 1? fo r th at of S il ve r's appearance and mann er
of acti on, li nes 296-329. Th is is, on th e whole, a n improbable
plo t ; how is it made to see m pb usible ? F ind cases in whi ch the
sce ne a nd se tting har moni ze wi th th e ac ti on of the s tory; cases in
whi ch they co ntrast with it. How does th e s tory beg in ? Can
you sugges t a ny oth er way in whi ch it mi g ht have begu n ? S tu dy
movement carefull y. A t wh a t po int in th e s tory is the moveme nt
slowest? a t wha t po int is it most rapid? W hy? How is it -made
slow ? No te all th e ways in whi ch th e reader is prepared to learn
of ( 1) th e find ing of th e s keleton, ( 2) the g hostly vo ice, (3) th e
fin al d isappoin tment.
\ Vhy do th e se ntences average sh orter in th e passage, lin es
323- 337 th an in that, lin es 34- 65 ? D o yo u notice any d iffe rence
in th e kinds of words used in th ese two passages? Co mm ent on
th e use of th e word " quite," line 50. Comm ent on th e use of
sail ors' cant ; of other slang and p rofanity. S tevenso n has a
te nde ncy to make his paragraphs short. Can you find any case
in which two or more mig ht be tter be combined ?
\ Ve made a curi ous fi g ure, h ad any one bee n th ere to see
us; a ll in so iled sailor clo th es, a nd all but me a rm ed to th e
tee th. S ilv er had tw o g uns slung about him -- one before a nd
one b ehind - bes ides th e g rea t cutlass at hi s wa ist, a nd a pistol in eac h pocket of hi s sq uare- tail ed coat. T o complete hi s
strange a ppeara nce, Cap ta in Flint [a parrot] sat pe rched upo n

NARRATION.

hi s s houlde r, and gabbling odds a nd ends of purpose less seatalk. I had a li ne abo ut my waist, and foll owed obediently
after th e sea cook, who held th e loose end of th e rope, now in
his free hand, now between hi s powerful tee th. F or all th e
world, I was led like a dancing bear.
Th e o th er men were variously burth ened; some carrying
picks and shovels - fo r th at had bee n th e ve ry first necessary
th ey b roug ht as hore fr om th e H ispaniola - o th ers laden with
pork, bread, a nd brandy for th e midd ay mea l. . . .
W ell , thus equi pped we all se t o ut - even th e fellow \vith
th e broken head , wh o shoul d ce rtainl y have kep t .in shadowand s traggled, one after anoth er, to th e beac h, where th e t \\'O
g igs awaited us. E ven th ese bore traces of th e drunken foll y
of th e pirates, on e in a bro ken th wa rt, a nd bo th in th eir muddi ed a nd unbaled co nd iti on. Both we re to be carri ed along
with us fo r the sake of safety; a nd so, with our numbers
divid ed between th em, we s et forth upon th e bosom of th e
anc horage.
As we p ulled over, th ere was some d iscuss ion on th e cha rt.
The red cross was, of course, fa r too large to b e a g uid e ; and
th e terms of the note on th e bac k, as yo n will hea r, admitted
of so me a mbig uity. T hey ran, the read er may rememb er,
thus : " T a ll tree, Spy-glass S hould er, bearing a point to th e N. of

10

15

20

25

30

N. N . E.

" S keleton Isl and, E . S. E . and by E .
" T en fee t. "
A tall tree was thus th e prin cipal m ark. N ow, rig ht before
us, th e anchorage was bound ed by a plateau from tw o to three
hundred fee t hig h, adj oining on th e north th e slop ing so uth ern
shoulder of th e Spy-glass, an d ri sin g aga in to ward s th e south
in to th e roug h, cli ffy eminence call ed th e M izze n-m as t Hill.
Th e top of the plateau was dotted thi ckl y with p in e trees of
vary in g heig ht. Every here and th ere one of a d iffere nt species rose fo rty or fifty fee t clear above its neig hbors, a nd whi ch

35

40

J NVENTI0 1.\1:

of th ese was the particular "tall tree " of Captain Flint could
only be decided on the spot, and by th e readings of the
compass ~

Yet, although that was the case, every man on board th e 45
boats had picked a favorite of his own ere we were half way
over, Long John alon e shrugging his shoulders and bidding
th e m wait till th ey were th ere.
vVe pulled easily, by S ilver's direc tions, not to weary th e
hands prematurely; and, after quite a long passage, landed at 50
the mouth of the second river - that whi ch runs clown a
woody cl eft of th e S p y-glass. Th ence, bendin g to our left,
we began to asce nd the slope tow ards th e plate au.
At th e first outset, heavy, miry g round and a matted, mari sh
veg etation g reatl y delay ed our prog ress; but by littl e a nd littl e 55
the hill began to steepen and bec om e stony under foot, and
the wood to chan ge its character and to g row in a more open
order. It wa s, ind eed, a most pleasant portion of th e island
that we were now approaching . A heavy-sce nted broom a nd
many flow ering shrubs h ad almost taken th e place of g rass. 60
Thi ckets of g reen nutmeg trees were clotted h ere and th ere
with th e reel columns and th e broad shadow of th e pin es; and
th e first ming led th eir spi ce with th e aroma of th e oth ers.
Th e air, b esides, was fr esh and stirring, and this, und er the
<·s
sh ee r sunbea ms, was a wond erful refreshm ent to our se nses.
and
outing
sh
shape,
fan
a
in
,
Th e party spread itself abroad
leaping to and fro. J\ bout th e center, and a good way behind
th e res t, S il ve r a nd I foll owed - I teth ered by my rope, he
ploug hing , with d ee p pants, among th e sliding g ra vel. From
tim e to tim e, inde ed, I had to lend him a hand , or he must '"
have mi ssed his footin g and fallen backward clown th e hill.
vVe had thus proceeded for about half a mile, and were
approachin g th e brow of th e plateau, wh e n th e man upon the
farth es t left b egan to cry aloud, as if in terror. S hout after
sho ut cam e from him , and the oth ers began to run in hi s 75
direction.

NA /W A T.!ON.

153

"H e can't ' a' found th e treasure," said Old Morg an, hurrying p as t us from th e ri g ht, " for th at 's clean a-top."
Ind eed as we found when we also reached th e s pot, it was
'
somethin<r very different. At th e foot of a pretty big pine,
'" in a gree n creep er, which had even partly lifted
and involved
so me of th e small er bones, a hum an skeleton lay, with a few
shreds of clothing , on th e g round . . I believ e a chill struck for
a mom ent to ever y heart.
"H e was a seaman, " said Geo rge Merry, who, bolder than
th e res t had bo-one up' close, and was exa mining the rags of
'
clothin g . " L eastwa ys, th is is good sea-cl oth."
" J\ y, ay,' ' said S il ve r, " lik e enough ; yo u wouldn 't look to
fiml a uishop here, I rec kon. l3ut what sort of a way is that
for hon es to li e ? 'Taint in na tur'."
Inde ed, on a second g lance, it see med impossible to fan cy
that th e body was in a natural pos ition. But for so me disarray
(th e wo rk , perhaps , of th e birds th at had feel uµ on him, or of
th e s low-g rowing creeper th a t h ad g radually e1welop ecl his
remain s) th e man lay p erfec tl y s traig ht - his fee t µointin g in
on e direc tion, his hands, raised a bove his head like a diver's,
pointing direc tl y in th e oppos ite.
" 1 've taken a notion into my old num s kull ,'' observ ed S ilver. "H ere's th e co mpass; th ere's th e tip-lop µ 'into' S keleton Js lancl s ti ckin ' out lik e a too th. Just tak e a Gearin g , will
you, ;i] ong th e lin e of th em bon es. "
J t was clone. Th e body pointed straig ht 111 the directi on of th e is la nd , and th e comp;iss read dul y E. S. E. and
by E.
"I thoug ht so,' ' cri ed the cook ; "this here is a p 'inter.
l~i ght up th ere is our lin e for th e pole star and th e jolly dollars. But, b y thund er! if it do n' t make me cold insid e to
think of Flint. This is one of liis jokes, and no mistak e.
Him and th ese s ix was al one here; he kill ed 'e m, every man ;
and th is one he ha ul eel here a ncl lai ll dow n b y compass,
shiver my timb ers! Th ey ' re lon g bon es, and th e hair's bee n

So

85

9°

95

100

105

11 0

154

155

JNVENTJON.

NAA'A'A J'JON.

yellow. Ay, that would be J\llardyce. You mind Allardyce,
T o m Morgan?"
"J\y, ay," returned Morgan, "I mind him; he owed me
money, he clicl, and took my knife ashore with him."
115
"Speaking of knives," said another, "why don't we find
his 'n lying round? Flint warn't the man to pick a seaman's
pocket; and the birds, I g uess, would leave it be."
"Uy th e powers, and th at's true!" cried Silver.
"There ain't a thing left here,", said Merry, still feeling 1 20
round among the bones, "not a copper doit nor a baccy box.
l l don't look nat'ral to me."
"No, by g um, it don't," agreed Silver; "not nat'ral, nor not
nice, says you. Great guns, mess mates, but if Flint was living,
this would be a hot spot for you and me. Six they were, and 125
six arc we; and bon es is what they are now."
"I saw him dead with these here deadlig hts," said Morgan.
"Billy took me in. There he laid, with penny pieces on his
eyes."
"Dead - ay, sure enough, he's dead and gone below," said 130
the fellow with the bandage ; "but if ever sperrit walked it
would be Flint's. Dear h eart, but he di ed bad, did Flint!"
"Ay, that he clid ," observed another; "now he raged, and
now he holl ered for th e rum , and now h ~ sang. 'Fiftee n men'
were his only song, mates ; and I tell you true, I neve r ri g htly 135
lik ed lo hear it since. ] t was main hot, and the winciy was
open, ancl I hear that old song coming out as clear as clear and th e dea th-haul on th e man already."
" Come, co me," said Si Iv er, "stow this talk. H e 's dead,
and he don 't walk, that I know; leastways, he won't walk by q u
clay, and you may lay to that. Care kill ed a cat. Fetch
ahead for th e doubloons." vVe started, certainly; hut in spite
of the h ot sun and the staring daylig ht, th e pirates no lon ge r
ran separa te and shouting throug h th e wood, but kept side by
side and spoke with bated breath. The terror of th e dead 145
buccaneer li acl fall en on th eir spirits.

l'artly from th e damping influence of this alarm, partly to
rest Silver and the sick folk, th e whole party sat down as soon
as they had gained the brow of the ascent.
The plateau being somewhat tilted towards the west, this 1 50
spot on whi ch we hacl paused co mmanded a wide prospect on
eith er hand. Before us, over the tree-tops, we beheld the
Cape of the Woods frin ged with surf; b ehind , we not only
looked down upon the anchorage _and Skeleton Island, but
saw - clear across the spit and th e eas tern lowlands - a g reat 1 55
fi eld of open sea upon the east. Sheer above us rose the Spyglass, here clotted with single pin es, there black with precipices. There was no sound but that of the distant breakers,
mounting from all round, and th e chirp of countless insects in
th e brush. Not a man, not a sail upon th e sea; the very 160
largeness of the view increased the sense of solitude.
Silver, as he sat, took certain b earings with his compass.
"There are three 'tall trees,'" said he, "about in the right
lin e from Skeleton Island. 'Spy-glass Shoulder,' I take it,
means that lower p'in t there. It 's ch ilcl's play to find the stuff 16 5
now. I 've half a mind to dine first."
"I don't feel sharp," g rowled Morgan. "Thinkin' o' Flint
- I think it were - as clone me."
"Ah, well, my son, you praise your stars he's dead," said
Silver.
"He were an ugly devil," cried a third pirate with a shudder; "that blue in the face, too!"
"That was how the rum took him," added Merry. "Blue !
well, I reckon he was blue. That 's a true word."
Ever since th ey had found the skeleton and got upon this 1 75
train of thought, they had spoken lower and lower, and they
had almost got to whispering by now, so that the sound of
th eir talk hardly interrupted the silence of the wood. All of a
sudden, out of the middle of the tre es in front of us, a thin, high,
trembling voice struck up th e well-known air and words: 180
" Fifteen men on the dead man's chest y o-ho-ho, and a bottle of rum!"

-

/NVENT/ON.

I never h ave seen men more dreadfully affected th an the
pirates. Th e colour wen t from their six faces like enchantment; some leaped to their feet, some clawed hold of others;
l\:Iorgan grovelled on the ground.
" It 's Flint, by - - ! " cr ied Merry.
The song had stopped as s l!clcl enly as it began - broken
off, you would have said, in th e middle of a note, as though
so me one had laid his hand upon the singer's. mouth. Coming
so far throug h the clear, sunny atmosphere among the green
tre e-tops, I thought it had sounded airily and sweetly; and
th e effect on my companions was the stranger.
"Come," said Silver, struggling with his ashen lips to ge t
the word out, "this won't do. Stand by to go about. This
is a mm start, and I can't name the voice: but it's somebody
skylarking -- some one that's fl esh and blood, and you may
lay to that."
His courage had come back as he spoke, and some of the
colour to his face along with it. Already th e others had begun
to lend an ear to this encouragement, and were coming a little
to themselves, when the same voice broke out again - not this
tim e singing, but in a faint distant hail, that echoed yet fainter
among th e clefts of the Spy-glass.
"Darby M'Graw,'' it wailed- for that is the word that bes t
describes the sound - "Darby M'Graw ! Darby M'Graw ! "
again and again and again; and then rising a little high er,
and with an oath that I leave out, " Fetch aft the rum, Darby ! "
The buccaneers remained rooted to the ground, th eir eyes
starting from th eir heads. Long after the voice had di ed away
they still stared in silence, dreadfully, before them.
" Th at fixes it ! " gasped one. Let 's go."
" They was his last words,'' moaned Morgan, "his last
words above board."
Dick had his Bible out, and was praying volubly. He had
been well brought up, had Dick, before he came to sea and
fell among bad companions.

NARRATION.

185

190

195

200

205

210

215

157

Still, Silver was unconquered. I could hear his tee th rattl e
in his head ; but he had not yet surrendered.
"Nobody in this here island ever heard of Darby," he mut- 220
tered ; "not one but ·us that 's here." And then making a
great effort, "Shipmates," he cried, "I 'm here to get that
stuff, and l 'JI not be lJ ea t by man nor devil. I nev er was
feared of Flint in his life, and, hy the powers, I '11 face him
dead. There's seven hunched th ousand pound not a quarter 225
of a mile from here. vVhen did eve r a gentleman o' fortune
show his stern to that much dollars, for a boosy old seaman
with a blue mug - and l1im dead, too?"
But there was no sign of re-awakening courage in his followers ; rather, indeed, of growing terror at the irreverence of 230
his words.
"Belay there, John!" said Merry. "Don't you cross a
sperrit."
And the r es t were all too terrified to reply. They would
have run away severall y had they dared; but fear kept th em 235
togeth er, ;wcl kept th em close by John, as if his daring helped
them. He, on his part, had pretty well fought his weakness
clown.
"Sperrit? vVell, maybe,'' he said, "but there's one thing
not clear to me. There was an echo. Now no man ever 240
seen a sperrit with a shadow; well, then what's he doing with
an ec ho to him, I should like to know? That ain't in natur',
surely? "
This argument seemed weak enoug h to me. But you can
never tell what will affect the superstitious, and, to my wonder, 245
George Merry was greatly relieved.
"vVell, that's so,'' he said. "You 've a h ead upon your
shoulders, John, and no mistake. 'Bout ship, mates ! This
here crew is on a wrong tack, I do believe. And come to
think on it, it was like Flint's voi ce, I grant you, but not just 250
so clear-away like it, after all. It was liker somebody else's
voice, now - it was liker - "

,.

159

INVENTION

NARRATJON.

"By the powers, Ben Gunn!" roared Silver.
"Ay, and so it were, " cried Morgan, spring ing on his
knees. "Ben Gunn it were! "
2 55
"It don't make much odds, do it, now?" asked Dick. "Ben
G unn 's not here in the body, any more 'n Flint."
But th e older hands greeted this remark with scorn.
" \Vby nobody minds Ben Gunn," cried Merry; "dead or
ali ve, nobody minds him."
r"'
2
It was extraord in ary how th eir sp irits had return ed, and
how the natural colour had revived in th eir faces. Soo n th ey
were chatting together, with intervals of listening; a nd not
long after, hearing no further sound, th ey shouldered the tools
and set forth again, Merry walking first with Silver's compass 26 5
to keep them on th e right line with Skeleton Island. He had
said the truth ; de ad or alive, nobody minded Ben Gunn.
Dick alone still held his Bible, and look ed around him as he
went, with fearful glances; but he found no sympathy, and
Silver even joked him on his precauti ons.
270

east a nd west, and might have been entered as a sailing mark
upon the chart.
But it was not its size that now impressed my companions;
it was the knowledge th at seven hundred thousand pounds in
gold lay somewhere buried below its spreading shadow. The 290
thoug ht of the money, as they drew nearer, swallowed up th eir
previous terrors. Their eyes burned in th eir heads; their feet
g rew speedier and lighter ; th eir whole soul was bound up in
that fortune, that whole lifetim e of extravagance and pleasure,
that lay waiting th ere for each of th em.
295
Silver hobbled, grunting, on his crutch; his nostrils stood
out a nd quivered; he cursed like a madm an when the f1i es
settled on his hot and shiny countenance; he plucked furiously
at the line that held me to him, and, from time to time, turn ed
his eyes upon me with a deadly look. Certainly he took no 300
pains to hide his thoug hts; and certainly I read them like
print. In th e imm ediate nearn ess of the gold, all else had
been forgotten ; his promise and the doctor's warning were
both things of the past; and I could not doubt th at he hop ed
to seize upon the treasure, find and board the I-fisjmniola 305
under cover of night, cut every hon es t throat about that
island, and sail away as he had at firs t intended, laden with
crimes and rich es.
Sh aken as I was with these alarms, it was hard for me to
keep up with th e rapid pace of the treasure-hunters. Now and 310
again I stumbled; and it was th en that Silver plucked so
roughly at the rope and launch ed at me his murderous glanc es.
Dick, who had dropp ed behind us, and now brought up the
rear, was babbling to himself both prayers and curses, as his
fev er kept rising . This also added to my wretchedness, and, 315
to crown all, I was haunted by the thoug ht of the tragedy that
had once been ac ted on that pl ateau, when that ungodly buccaneer with the blue face - he who di ed at Savannah singing
and shouting for drink - h ad there, ·with his ow n hand, cut
down his six accomplices. This grove, that was now so peace- 320

lt w:is fin e open walking here, upon the summit; our way
lay a littl e clown-hill, for, as I h ave said, th e plateau tilted
towards the wes t. The pines, g reat and small, grew wide
apart; and even b etwe en th e clumps of nutmeg and azalea,
wide ope n spaces baked in the hot sunshin e. Striking, as we 275
did, pretty near northwes t across the island, we drew, 011 the
one han d, ever nearer under the shoulder of the Spy-glass, and
on th e oth er, looked ever wider over that western bay where I
had once tossed and trembl ed in th e coracle.
The first of th e tall trees was reached, and by the beari ng 280
proved the wrong one. So with th e second. The third rose
n early two hundred feet into th e air above a clump of unclerwoocl; a g iant of a vegetable, with a reel column as big as a
cottage, and a wid e shadow around in which a company cou ld
hav e manreuvred. It was conspicuous far to sea both on the 2 s5

160

INVENTION.

fut, mu s t then hav e rung with c ries, I thought; and e ven with
th e th oug ht I co uld beli e ve I heard it ringing sti ll.
\N e were now a t the marg in of the thi cket.
"Buzza, mates, all together!" shouted Merry; and the
foremost broke into a run.
325
A nd suddenly, not te n yards furth er, we be held th em stop.
A low cry arose. Silver doubled hi s pace, digging away with
th e foot of his crutch, like one possessed; and next moment
h e and I h ad come also to a dead halt.
Before us was a g re a t excavation, not very rece nt, for th e 330
sid es had fallen in and g rass had sprouted on the bottom. In
this were the shaft of a pick broken in two a nd th e boards of
several packin g-cases strewn around. On one of th ese boards
I saw, branded with a h ot iron, the name Walrus - the name
of Flint's ship.
335
A ll was clear to probation. Th e cache had b een found and
rifl ed : th e s e ven hundred thousand pounds were gone !

CHAPTER II.
DESCRIPTION.

Definition. - Description has already bee n defineJ. as
an attempt to produce a picture in th e reader's mind
by means of lang uage. It deals with objects, not, like
narrat ion, with events.
Difficulties of Description. - D escription is harder to
write than narration, because it puts words to a us e
for which they are not well fitted. Narration presents
events, which come one after another, in lan guage, th e
parts of which come one after another. In reporting
a ball game, for example, one play may be recounted
in one sentence, anoth er in the next sentence, and so
on. In descri ption the task is very different. If the
co mposition is to produce in the mind of the read er a
picture of any object, say of a building, it must tell all
th e details in such a way that they will not only be
understood, but also remembered until the end. Th e
reader cannot construct a complete picture until he has
finished the description, and he cannot construct a picture out of details that h e has forgotten. Any part of
the description that is not remembered until the end
will be not only useless, but worse than useless, s,ince
the reader will have expended upon it mental energy
that he might have ·used for something else.
161

162

INVENTION.

DESCRIPTION.

It will thus be seen that language is best adapted for
recounting events, and painting and the similar arts for
representing objects. It is hard to tell a story by means
of pictures. In fact, it is impossible to give more than
an outline of a narrative in this way; and the attempt
is seldom made outside of the comic papers. On the
other hand, it is fully as hard to give an exact picture
of an object by means of words. The ideas conveyed
hy description are necessarily imperfect and incomplete.
Even a poor photograph will give a more accurate idea of
a building or of a landscape than will the best description that can be written.

being pictured too definitely. Each reader has his
own ideas concerning them, and is a little shocked
when an artist portrays an entirely different conception. Many persons object to having novels illustrated by pictures of the characters, because they
are sure not to agree with th~ artist's idea. Some
one has said that if we had an exact likeness of Helen
of Troy we should not think her worth fighting over;
but I-Tomer has described her simply as a most beautiful
woman, and each reader imagines her beautiful according to his own ideas.
Subjects of Description.-Any particular object may
be taken as the subject of a description. By a particular object is meant one or more individuals - not
a class. Thus, we may describe any particular clog,
telling his size, his color, and any other individual
marks. If, however, we write a composition on The
Dog, giving characteristics that are common to all clogs,
our work is not really description, but exposition.
It is not necessary that the object described really
exist - it may be imagined by the writer; but it must
be a particular, not a general conception.
The commonest subjects for description are material
objects; and the characteristics oftenest described are
those that may be seen ; but sounds, odors, and flavors
may also be presented. Description may also portray a
person's character, and his feelings or states of mind.
The Point of View. - In describing material objects
close attention should be paid to the point of view.
Just as a photograph can show only those details that

This is not the same as saying that the photograph is preferable to the description. The latter may introduce a variety of
ideas associated with the obJ·ect, and start trains of thouaht
that
b
the former would never suggest; but if only accuracy and dcfini teness regarding material facts are wanted, the photograph is
the better.

It is because of the difficulty of conveying exact
ideas by means of description that illustrations arc
used so freely in merchants' catalogues, text-books,
works of travel, etc.
When Description is at an Advantage. - Sometimes
the vagueness of description puts it at an advantage
as compared with painting, photography, and similar
arts. Some objects, such, for example, as scenes of
torture, are so horrible that a picture of them would
be too vivid and would repel the reader; but a description may be made as vague as is desired. So some
poetic creations, such as angels and fairies, lose by

DES CR .lP T.lON.

I

65

.lNVENT.lON.

were in sight from the point where the camera was
placed, so, strictly, a description should be confined
to what can be seen from the standpoint that the
writer chooses. Details of the rear of a building
should not be given together with those of th e front.
Things that can be seen only on close inspection should
not be mentioned if the observer is supposed to be a
mile away.
vVhat is of ten called a description is rcall y a series
of distinct descriptions combined in one article, as if
several photographs of an object were mount ed on the
same carcl. If the subject is a building, there may be
views from th e front, the rear, and one or b oth sides;
and also views of the interior. All these arc n ecessary
to give a complete id ea of the object. The caution to
be observed is to make plain each change in the point
of view. It is not always necessary to say, bluntly,
that the standpoint is about to chan ge, but the reader
should always know, in some way, when a change takes
place. If lie docs not, he learns only a confused mass
of details, which he cannot arrange so as to make a
mental picture.
Strictly, then, a description should be from one or
more fixed points of view; but in practice it is sornct imes found necessary to adopt a point of view that
is continually shiftin g, as when th e writer att empts to
g ive an id ea of th e scenery along a road. Descriptions
with a moving point of view can never give clear pictures. The r eader cannot t ell th e relative positions of
objects unl ess he know .; all th e turns in th e way, and

the rate of motion. This device is used only to produce a general impression, such as a traveler often
wants to give of the scenery of a country. D escription is also used sometimes to picture a moving obj ec t,
and show how it moves. Such descriptions approach
narration.
S1~r;geslions

for Exercises. - P ick out the chief descripti ve
in th e s elec tion from S Levenso n, pages I 50-1 Go. JI ow
dcfinilely ca n you Lell th e point of view in eac h? No li cc how
n at urall y and unobtrusively the point 0£ view is shown. Find a
case of a shifting point of view. How does the picture that you
ge t from this description compare for definiteness with that from
lines 15 0- 161? ls what is said of th e men, lines 183- 186, clcscription or narration? ln the d escripti on in the selection from Hawth orn e, lin es 22-86, page 143, is the po int of view more or . less
defi nitely shown than in most 0£ the descriptions in th e selection
from Steve nson? Can yo u sec a. reason for th is?
pas sa.~es

l

vVrite, i1ow or when you h ave read a. little farther in this chapter, a. description of the ex teri or 0£ your school building, vi ewing
it from at least two points. 13e sure th a t you mak e th e change of
p os iti on clear. At the same tim e try to mak e an easy transiti on
from one part of the d escription to another. Do not let th e
reader Ice! that the parts are e ntirely disconnected.
For practice in d escription with shifting point of view, write
on th e scenery along some road yo u h ave traveled, or along th e
banks 0£ some river on which you have sailed. Remember th at
the object of such a description is to give a general impression,
and choose details accordingly.
Write a p a ragraph describing some animal in motion.
sure to write d escription, not narr a tion.

Be

Number of Details. - vVe have already seen that the
read er of a description must not only understand each

166

167

INVENTION.

DESCRIPT.lON.

part as it is presented to him, but must remember it,
and at the end combine all the details to make a complete picture. The d etails should not be many, for if
th ey are the reader will forget some of them, or at least
will have such difficulty in remembering them that
h e cannot put them together and get a clear picture.
Descriptions are more often faulty because they have
too many details than because th ey have too few.
Inde ed, it is impossible for a single lon g description
to be successful. Most long descriptive composit ions
will, on analysis, be found to be in reality several
descriptions, either of related objects or of different
views of the same object.
Choice of Details. - The number of d etails that can
be seen in looking at any complex object is very great.
Since so few can safely be given in a description, the
problem of selection is very important.
As descript ion deals only with individual objects, it
is usually unn ecessary to give characteristics common
to a whole class, In an exposition the reader would be
told that a bicycle is a vehicle with two wheels, a frame,
cranks, pedals, etc . But it would be absurd for a boy
in describing his wheel to say that it had these parts;
th ey arc implied in the word bicycle. He should take
these essentials for granted, and mention individual
marks - such as the color of the enamel, the height
of the fr a me, the style of th e handle bars, etc. If,
how ever, the reader is not familiar with the class to
which th e object d esc ribed b elongs, the writer may
g ive some ge neral charac teristics. A description of a

palanquin, if intended for readers in this country, might
mention details th at are common to all palanquins.
It is seldom that all even of the particular characteristics of an object can be given in a description. The
choice among them should be .m ade according to the
object of the description, and the reade rs for whom
it is int ended. If it is to g ive a casual observer the
means of identifying an object, the most striking or
notic eable features should be chosen; for example, the
markings of a lost animal, or the color, nam e plate, and
perhaps the style of handle bars of a bicycle. If the
object is to give really valuable inform ation, th en significant facts should be selected-what a fa ncie r would
call the "points" of an animal, or the details of construction of a wheel.
In d escriptions of subjects that appeal to the imagination, details should be chosen for suggestiveness
rather than for real value. The writer of such a
composition wishes, not only to paint a picture of an
object, but to arouse in th e mind of the r eader recollections or emotions that shall cluster around this picture. When the emotions are aroused the imagination
works more vigorously, so that a proper choice of suggestive details makes it easier for th e reader to get the
effect of a d escription. Partly for this reason most
descriptions that take a high rank in literature have
a suggestive elem ent.
When the object described is familiar to the read ers,
one or two features can often be found that will call up a
more vivid picture than would pages of d eta il. There

lNVENT!OJ\t.

DESCRJPT!ON.

is something about almost every old schoolhouse that
stands out foremost in the minds of former pupils, and
th at, if it is mentioned, will call to their minds th e whole
building. If the actual scene that is being described
is not familiar to the read er, advantage niay be taken
of his familiarity with similar scenes. The success of
Dickens's pictures of home life, of Christm as festiviti es, etc., is clue largely to the fact that he introdu ced
details so much like those that every one knows from
his own experience.

th e attention, or, if the details are chosen for importance, on what fact most other details depend. Choose
this as a starting point, and let other details follow in
th e order of their occurrence. If the description is of
a building, begin at th e basement and proceed story by
story to the top, or with one ex trem ity and proceed to
th e other. If the subject is a lanc.l scape, move fr om
for eground to backgro und , or from right to left, or vice
versa.
Sometimes, in descr ibin g a complex obj ect, it is
well to g ive first an outline, as an artist makes a
sketch before he finish es any part of th e picture.
For example, it might be well to t ell th e height and
general style of a building before g ivin g the details of
any part, or to t ell the general distribution of wat er,
meadow, woodland, etc., befo re ent erin g upon a full
description of a landscape. When the description is
short this is unnecessary.
Use of Comparisons in Description.-Brevity is always
to be sought for in description, and one way of ex pressin g an idea both clearly and brieft y is by th e use of an
apt comparison. In giving an id ea of size or distance
it is often clearer to use a comparison th an to give
dimension s in figures. The cookbook rarely mentions "cubic inches," but it speaks of "a pi ece of
butter as large as a h en's egg" or the "size of a
walnut." A similar plan is valuable in describin g
a distance hard to estimate because it is meas ured
under unfamiliar circumstances; for example, g reat
heights, or dist anc es on th e water. It is bett er to

168

S11,1:;;r;·estions .for Exercises. - vVhat is the average leng th of
th e d escriptions in the selection from S teve nso n, page r 50? ll ow
many separate descriptions in th e second and thi rd paragraphs of
th e selection from Hawthorne, lin es 22- 63, page 143? In eac h
of th e descriptions in th ese two narrat ives, pages 142, 15 0, arc the
d etails chosen because they are striking, or important, or s uggestiv e ? Why, in each case?
·write three short descriptions of a pet dog or other animalone as if he were lost a nd you were adv ertising for him , one as if
lo g ive his real value as a spec im en of his kind , one suc h as yo u
would p ut in a letter to an absent brother or fri en d who knew th e
clog and was fond of him.
vVhat characteristic of your schoolhouse would be best to
suggest a picture of the building to former students? vVrit c a
description intended to do this. Write similar suggestive desc ripti ons of other well-known objects in your neighborhood.

Order of Details. -Care in the arrangement of details
may make it much easier for the r eader to get a good
picture from a description. Th e general rule is tha t
they should be arranged in th e most natural order.
Decide what part of the object would first attract

JN VENT/ON.

DESCR.IPJYON.

say that a stream is twice as wide as another weJI
known, or that a tree is as high as some steeple, than
to a-ive th e dimensions in rods or feet.
I~ is of ten difficult to describe the form of irregular
surfaces or solids. This is best clone by means of comparison, if an apt object for comparison can be found.
Ind eed, many compound adjectives, such as kite-shaped,
cup-shaped, etc., imply a comparison with well-kno\~n
objects. Comparison may also be used to advantage 111
describing colors. vVomen know th e names of colors
better th an men do, because of their habits of dress.
In a work intended for readers of both sexes, it is hardly
safe to use more than a few names of colors, and these
the most common . Find some fam iliar object nearly the
color of that to be described, and make a comparison.

·w rite a parag raph describing the form of som e irregular solid
_a rough stone or an odd-sh aped potato. See if yo u can use
comparison to advantage.

170

Su,ggestions for Exercises. - Study the choi.ce. 0£ starting
point and the arrangement 0£ details in th e desc npt1~ e pa.ssages
of the selection from Stevenson, page r 50; espec ially 111 the
passag·e, lin es 147- 161. Study also the third paragraph of th e
story ~by Hawthorne, lin es 42-63, page 143. Th'.s illu~trate~ an
exceptio n to the rule that details should be g iv en 111 stric tl y
consecutiv e order. \Vhy is it best to mention th e culprits who
are undergoing punishment, in th e order chosen by Hawthorne?

171

Details gained _through Other Senses than Sight. Our vocabulary is very rich _in words for describin g
sounds. Many of these, such as "bang," "crash,"
"murmur," "hum," are imitative - that is, the sound
of the word suggests its meaning. vVords may also
be combined to make imit ative phrases and phrases
that, while not strictly imitative, suggest by th e ease
or difficulty of pronunciation something of the sound
they represent. For exampl e, "the murmuring of
innum erable bees," "loud-roaring storms." Th ese
phrases are most often found in poetry, but may be
used in prose. If th e popular vocabulary for des cribing sounds is not sufficient, it may be supplemented
by using some of the more familiar technical t erms
of music, such as "staccato," etc.
It is rarely necessary to say much with regard to
odors and flavors. These arc described by means of
a few simple adjectives, and by comparison.

·write a d esc ription of some favorite landscape, making it as
full as you think the av erage reader could follow. Decide carefully what is the best place to begin, and g ive your reasons.

S11J;_gestio1ls for Exercises. - Descripti ons of sounds are usually short. Find as many as you can outside your text-bo ok, and
bring theni to class. How many of the words are imitative? ls
comparison used ? Make a list of all the imitative words that you
can think of.

P ick out all the examples of comparison in the desc riptive passages, pages 180-191 . \Vhat is gained by the use of each?

Write a description of the sounds on the playgro und at recess;
of the noise of some factory with which you are familiar.

Let the teacher cl raw some irregular figure on the blackboard;
cl escribe it, first without, th en with, the use of comparison.

Descriptions of Characters. - Description may present not only material objects, but also characters.

!N VFNT/ON.

Dy character is meant the mental and moral qualities
of a person . The phys.ical appearance of a man or
a woman may be of great use in revealing character,
but it is not itself character.
Character cannot be learned directly by th e senses.
We do not perceive a man's generosity or his capability for affection as we see his eyes or hear his
voice. Throu gh our senses we learn certain signs,
and from these we judge what the person really is.
Since character must be inferred in this way, there is
a chance for great difference of opinion as to what
a person's mental and moral characteristics arc. The
same actions are often interpreted by different persons
in different ways. Probably no man's acquaintances,
or even his friends, agree exactly as to his character.
It is probably because character is hard to estimate
that the adjectives applied to it are so vague and indefinite. When we wish to express our approval of a person we are likely to say that he is "fine," or "nice,"
or "a good fellow" - expressions that all mean about
the same, and none of which means much in particular.
Even our more specific words, like "noble," "gen erous," and the like, convey very different meanings to
different persons.
There are two chief ways in which a writer may
describe character. One is by using descriptive term s,
such as have just been discussed, the other by giving
facts from which the reader may judge of th e character
for himself. The first of these ways, as has been seen,
is always somewhat vague and inexact. But it has the

DESCR/PnON.

173

advantage of being brief, and for this reason 1s often
used where exact or delicate portrayal is unnecessary,
or where a longer description would break the thread
of a narrative. It is also used to introduce a description by the second method.
There are several kinds of facts that may be given
as indications from which the reader may judge of
character for himself.
·
1. Personal A_ppearaucc. -The appearance of a person is often a consiJerable help in estimating his character. The face usually, though not always, reflects
something of th e mind within. Details of dress are
also valuable. Ruskin once said, "Tell me what you
like, and I will t ell you what you are," and nowhere
does a person show more plainly what he likes than in
his dress. When a writer is describing character in
this way he should remember that personal appearance
is not character, but a means of judging character, and
should introduce no det a il that is not clearly signific:mt of some mental or moral quality. For instance,
in describing dress he should mention those things that
indicate the wearer's taste, not those that show whether
he is poor or wealthy.
2 . Actions and l-Vords. - When we meet a person
that we have never seen before, our first impressions
are usually drawn from his appearance, and these are
quickly confirmed or changed as we watch his actions
and hear what he says. Both the ideas that a person
expresses and the language in which he expresses
them are often significant. Of course many actions

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.lNVENT.lON.

D ESCJ.'J .l' JJON.

and words show little of character; only those should
be reported that clearly indicate the qualities which
the writer wishes to bring out.
3. Personal 1-fistory. - Sometimes correct inferences cannot be drawn from appearance, actions, or
words unless the history of the person described is
known to the reader. Profane language from th e lips
of a man trained amid surroundings of refinement and
culture would indicate more serious defects of character than if usecl by a W estern cowboy. If a person
avoids all society, we n eed to know something of his
history, _in order to say whether this indicates a surly
disposition, sensitiveness caused by some great grief,
or some other characterist ic. Personal history is of
little value by itself, but sho uld always be g iven where
it will supplement other methods of description. When
it is employed it usually is placed before actions and
words, and so1'netimes before personal appearance.

peculiar that the description will have th e effect of a caricature.
Sec how complete and accurate a des cription of some character
you can give by means of desc riptiv e terms; by appearance; by
words and actions; by all means combined. vVrite descriptions
of several characters, and decide what methods are best in each
case.

Suggestions for Exercises. - In the story, page r4 2, what
passages give an idea of the character of Endicott? of Rog-er
Williams? W hat methods are employed? How definite an iclca
of the character of each do you ge t? vVrite in your own words a
description of each character as you conceive it.
The reader of the selec tion, page r 50, is supposed to be
already acquainted with all th e characters; still, some means of
judging them are g iven. Pick these out and discuss th em.
Go through some novel or short story approved by your
teacher and mark all the passages that give an idea of the character of the most prominent person.
In choosin g a subject for description of character it is well to
take a person who has some marked qualities, but who is not so

Did yo u describe any characters in your short stories?
how? See if you can improve these descriptions now.

If so,

Suggestiveness in Description. - The final word on
writing description may well be the advice, Be suggestive. Suggestiveness may be ga in ed by choosing
details that call to mind much besides themselves, and
by using language that conveys much in little space,
or that stimulates the imag ination. A single wellchosen adjective often makes a whole p icture viv id,
especially if its effect is not weakened by the proximity of commonplace adjectives.
Suggestions for Study . - P ick out the suggestive details and
th e suggestive express ions in th e desc riptive passages, pages q2q6.
Sample Questions .- Page 143, line 23, why" banner" instead
of "flag"? Lin e 33, what is added to th e description by th e use
of th e word "grim " ? vV hat is th e use, in the description, of th e
sentence "The blood . . . doorstep," li ne 36? vVh y arc th e culprits introduced in the picture in the next paragraph?

ILLU STRATIVE SELECTIONS.

It has been seen that, since there is a limit to the
number of details that the reader can comb in e into a
picture, long single descriptions are impossible. The

176

/NVENT'/Ol1Z

DESCRIJ,TJON.

selections that follow mu st, th erefo re, differ from those
g iven to illustrate the chapter on narration, since the
best narrative method can be seen only in examples of
considerable length. The passages that have been chosen are int end ed to illustrate th e actual use of descriptive writing in lit erature, wh ere a brief description is
introduced in a narrative or ot her composition, or where
several short des criptions arc combined to make one
long descriptive passage. Of the passages given, on ly
thos e that deal with characters can be said to be single
descriptions. Study of descriptions should n ot be co nfin ed to th ese select ions, but students should th ems elves
find illustrat ions for each part of the precedin g t ext.

Pick out th e narrative passages in this se lec tion. Do th ey
help the desc ri ption in any way? How does the clioice of details
co nform to what has been said, p age 166 ? In ex tract II. are any
ge neral characteri stics g iven? If so, why? Comment on th e
order of d etails in each description. Does the author fo llow any
other order th an th at of contig uity ? Find illus trations of a ge neral outline, as mentioned on page r 69. Comment o n th e expression "fortelesque,'' lin e 1 r, ex tract II. ; on lin e 2 7, same selection.
Try to rearrange the details in some of the pangraphs.

A.
The first selection consists of two passages from
Ben l lur, by General L ew Wallace. A noteworthy
charact eristic of all description s by this auth or is th e
clearn ess with which th e point of view is shown. Passage I. consists of two v iews, exterior and int eri or, of
th e sh elter in which Christ was born . Selection II . portrays an eastern house. Three principal views of thi s
subject are given - one of th e exterior, and one of each
of the two courts; and a few minor details, su ch as
those of the gate and of th e passage, show the relations
of the more important parts.
Sample
reader told
know what
north sides

Questions. - In how m any of th ese d escriptions is the
th e point of view? ·w hen it is not told , h ow may he
it is? Why a re only the windows on t he west and
of the hous e mention ed, line 1 3, extract I I. ?

177

I.
The building was low and narrow, projecting but a littl e
from th e rock to whi ch it was joined at th e rear, a nd wholly
without a window. In its blank front th ere was a door, swung
on enormous hinges, and thi ckly daubed with oc hreo us clay.
W hil e the wooden bolt of the lock was being push ed back, th e
women were assisted from their pillions. Upon the opening of
the door, the keeper called out,
" Co me in ! "
The g ues ts entered, and stared about them . It became
apparent immedi ately that th e house was but a mask or covering for th e mouth of a natural cave or gro tto, proba bly forty
feet long, nine or ten hig h, and tw elve or fifteen in width . .
T he lig ht strea med t hrough the doorway, over an un eve n flo or,
falling upo n piles of g rain and fodder, and earthenware and
household property, occupy ing the center of the chamber.
A long th e s id es were mangers, low enoug h for sheep, and
built of stones laid in cement. There were no stalls or partitions of any kind. Dust and chaff yellowed the floor, filled all
the crev ices and hollows, and thickened th e spider-webs, which
dropp ed from th e ceili ng like bits of dirty linen ; otherwise th e
place was cleanl y, and, to appearance, as comfortable as any
of the arch ed lewens of th e khan proper.

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/ / \lVENT.lOlV:

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t

I I.

The building fronted north and west, probably four hundred
fe et each way, and, lik e most pretentious Eastern structures,
w;1s two stori es in h eiµ;ht, and perfec tly quadrangular. The
street on th e west side was about twelve fe et wide, that on
th e north not more than ten; so that one walking close to th e
walls, and looking up at th em, would have b een stru ck by th e
rude, unfinish ed, uninviting, but strong and imposing, appearance they prese nted ; for th ey were of stone laid in large
blocks, undressed - on th e outer side, in fact, jus t as th ey
were taken from the quarry. A critic of this age would have
pronounced the house fortelesque in style, except for th e windows, with which it was unu sually garnished, and th e ornate
fini s h of th e doorways or gates. The western wind ows were
four in number, the north ern only two, all set on the line of the
second story in such manner as to overhang th e thorough fares
below. The gates were the only breaks of wall exte rnally visible in the first story; and, besides being so thickly riven with
iron bolts as to sugges t res istance to battering-rams, th ey were
protected by cornices of marble, handsomely executed, and of
such bold projection as to assure visitors well inform ed of the
people that th e rich man who resided there was a Sadducee in
politics and creed.
Not long after the young J ew parted from the Roman at
the palace up on the Market-place, he stopped before the western gate of the hous e described, and knocked. Th e wicket
(a door hung in one of the valves of the gate) was opened to
admit him. He stepped in hastily, and failed to acknowledge
th e low salaam of th e porter.
To get an idea of th e interior arrangement of the structure,
as well as to see what more befell the youth, we will follow
him.
The passage into which he was admitted appeared not
unlike a narrow tunnel with panelled walls a nd pitted ceiling.

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DESCRIPTION.

179

There were benches of stone on both sides, stained and polish ed by long use. Twelve or fifteen steps carried him into
a courtyard, oblong north an d south, and in every qu arter,
except th e east, bounded by wh a t seemed th e fronts of twostory houses ; of which th e lower floor was divided into lewens,
whil e th e upper was terraced a nd defended by strong balustradin g. The servants co ming and go ing along th e t_erraces;
th e noi se of millstones g rindin g; the garments flutt erin g from
ropes stretched from point to point; the chickens and pigeons
in full enjoyment of th e place; the goats, cows, donkeys, and
horses s tabled in the lewens; a massive trough of water,
apparent! y for the common use, d eclared this court appurtenant to the domestic m anage ment of the owner. Eastw arclly
the re was a division wall broken by another passageway in all
respects like the first one.
Clea rin rr the second passage, the young man entered a sec.
ond court,"'spacious, square, and set with shrubbery aml vmcs,
kept fresh and b eautiful by water from a basin erec.tecl n:ar
a porch on the north side. Th e lewe ns her: were lugh, :~·y,
and shaded by curtains striped alternate white and red.. I he
arches of th e lewens res ted on clustered columns. A flig ht of
steps 011 the south ascended to th e terraces of the upper st~ry,
over which g reat awnings were stretched as a defence against
th e sun. Another stairway reach ed from the terraces to th e
roof, the edge of which, all around th e square, was defi ned by
a sculptured cornice, and a parapet of burned-clay tilin g, sexanaular and bright reel . In this quarter, moreover, th ere was
ev: rywh ere observable a scrupulous neatn ess, which, allowing
no dust in the angles, not even a yellow leaf upon a shrub, contributed quite as much as anythin g else to the deli ghtful ge_neral effect; insomuch that a visitor, breathing th e sweet air,
knew, in advance of introduction, th e refinement of the family
he was about calling upon.

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180

DESCR1P7'lON.

INVENTION.

B.
The next selection is from Addison's Remarks on
Italy, and deals with Vesuvius. This is what is usually called a long description, since it is all concerned
with one general subject. On analysis it will be found
to consist of some passages of description from a shifting point of view, and some brief descriptions from a
point of view plainly indicated.
Sample Questions. - \tVould a change in the paragraphing
make this selection easier for the reader to follow? \Vhere
would you make paragraph divisions? Is any part of th e selection not truly description? \tVhat passages would you class as
description from a fixed point of view? as passages from a shifting point of view? \Vould more details make the description
hard to follow? . On what principle are the details chosen?
How would choice of details differ in an article on the same subjec t by a geographer? by an artist? Does the author suggest
questions regarding Vesuvius which he fails to answer? Find
the comparisons in the selection. For what is each useful?
This mountain stands at about six English miles distance
from Naples, though by reason of its height, it seems much
nearer to those that survey it from the town. In our way
to it we passed by what was one of those rivers of burning
matter, that ran from it in a late eruption. This looks at a
distance like a new-ploug hed land, but, as you come near it
you see nothing but a long heap of heavy, disjointed clocls
lyi ng one upon another. There are innum erab le cavities and
interstices among the several pieces, so that the surface is all
broken and irregular.
Sometimes a great fragment stands
like a rock above the rest, sometimes the whole heap li es in a
kind of channel, and in other places has nothing like banks to

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181

confine it, but ris es four or five foot high in th e open air, without spreading abroad on either side. This, I think, is a plain
demonstration that these riv ers were not, as they are usually
represented, so many streams of running matter; for how
could a liquid, that lay hardening by degrees, settle in such a
furro\ved uncompact surface? \tVere the river a confusion of
never so many different bodies, if . th ey had been all actually
dissolved, they would at least have formed one continued crust,
as we see the scorium of metals always gath ers into a solid
piece, let it be compounded of a thousand heterogeneous parts.
I am apt to think, therefore, that these huge unwieldy lumps
th at now lie one upon another, as if thrown toge th er by accident, remained in the melted matter rig id and unliquifi ecl,
floating in it like cakes of ice in a river, and that, as th e fire
ancl ferment gradually abated, th ey adjusted themselves together as well as their irregular figures would permit, and by
this means fell into such an interrupted disorderly h eap, as we
now find it. \tVhat was the melted matter lies a t the bottom
out of sight. After having quitted the side of this long heap,
which was once a stream of fire, we came to th e roots of the
mountain, and had a very troublesome march to gain th e top
of it. It is covered on all sides with a kind of burnt earth,
very dry, and crumbled into powder, as if it had been artificially sifted. It is very hot under the feet, and mixed with
several burnt stones and cakes of cinders, which have been
thrown out at different times. A man sinks almost a foot in
th e earth , and generally loses half a step by sliding backwards.
\tVhen we h ad climbed this mounta in we discov ered the top of
it to be a wide naked plain, smoking with sulphur in several
places, and probably undermined with fire, for we concluded it
to be hollow by the sound it mad e under our feet.
In the
midst of this plain stands a high hill in the shape of a sugarloaf, so very steep that there would be no mounting or descending it, were it not made up of such a loose crumbled earth as
I have before described. Th e air of this place must be very

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JJESCRil'T!O N.

INVENTION.

much impregnated with saltp etre, as appears by th e sp ecks of
it on th e sides of th e moun tain, wh ere one can scarce find a
stone that has not th e top white with it. After we h ad, with
much ado, conq uered thi s hill , we saw in th e midst of it th e
present mouth of Ves u vio, which goes shelving clown on all
s id es till above a hund red yards deep, as near as we co uld
guess, and h as abo ut three or four hundr ed in th e diam e ter,
for it see ms a perfec t round. This vas t hollow is ge nerally
filled with smoke, but, by th e advantage of a wind that blew
for us, we had a very clear and distin c t s ig ht of it. Th e s ides
app ear all ove r sta ined with mi xtures of white, g reen, reel , a nd
ye ll ow, and h ave several rocks standing out of th em th a t look
lik e pur e brimstone. Th e bottom was e ntirely co ve red, and
though we looked very narrowly we could sec nothing lik e a
h ole in it; th e smoke b reaking throug h seve ral imp ercep tibl e
cracks in ma ny places. The very middle was firm g round
wh en we saw it, as we co ncluded from th e stones we flun g
upon it, and I q uestion not, but one mig ht th en have crossed
th e bottom, and ha ve go ne up on th e other side of it with very
littl e clanger, unless from some accidental breath of win d. Jn
th e la te e rupti ons thi s g reat holl ow was li ke a vast cald ron
fill ed with g lowing and melted matte r, which, as it boiled over
in a ny part, ra n down th e sides of th e mou nta in , a nd made five
such ri ve rs as that b efo re- menti oned. In proporti on as th e
hea t slack ened, this burnin g matter must h ave subs ided within
th e bow els of the m ountain , a nd as it sunk very leisurely, h ad
time to cake together, a nd for m th e bottom whi ch covers th e
mouth of th a t dreadful vault th at li es un dern eath it. T he
next eruption or earthqu ake will probably break in p ieces this
false bottom , a nd quite c h ange th e present face of thin gs.
This whol e mounta in , sh aped lik e a suga r-loaf, h as be en
made at seve ral tim es, by th e prodig ious qua ntiti es of ea rth
and cind ers, whi c h hav e b ee n flun g up out o( the mouth th a t
li es in th e mid st o f th e m, so th a t it increases in bulk at eve ry
eru pti o n, th e ash es still fa llin g cl ow n th e s id es of it, lik e th e

sand in a n hour-g lass . A ge ntl ema n of Naples told me, th a t in
his me mory it had gained t wenty foo t in thi ckness, a nd I questi on not but in l e n .~ th of ti me it will cove r the whole plain,
and make on e mounta in with that on whi ch it now s tands.

50

85

c.
The third selection, en titled Over th e Brock.en, by
S. T. Coleridge, is also a traveler's account of th e
asce nt of a mount ain. It differs from th e one last
g ive n in b e in g almost wholly from a shifting point of
view. As a result, the picture conveyed t o the reader
is nowh ere so complet e and exac t as, for exampl e, th at
of the crater of V cs uviu s, page 1 82 . . It may, how eve r,
be more vivid, owing to th e pic turesqueness of the lang uage empl oyed. The use of ad jectives in this selection will repay careful study.

55

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65

Sample Questions. - Comm ent on th e om ission of words
fr om th e se ntence, lin es 3-7. O n wh at p rin ciple a re th e deta il s
chosen? How mig ht th e ch o ice of details have differecl if th e
a uth or had paused b efo re each importa nt scene and described it
from a fixed point of view? Could th e order of d etail s b e in a ny
way ch anged? P ick out the fig ures of sp eec h. A re th ere any
co mpariso ns th a t a re not fig ures of speec h ? Co mm ent on the
suggestiv eness of th e s tyle. P ick out th e five ad jec ti ves or adjective expressions th a t a re most suggestive to yo u. vVhy is eac h
sugges tive? How are sounds c escribed?

7"

75

So

I

T h rough roads no way rem emberable, we came to Gielolclsh a use n, ov er a bridge, on which was a mitred sta tu e with a g reat
crucifix in its a rm s. The village, long and ug ly; but th e church,
lik e mos t Catholi c church es, interesting; a nd thi s b eing vVhitsun
Eve, all were cro wding to it, with th eir mass books a nd rosari es,

JNVENTJON.

th e little babies co mmonl y with coral crosses ha nging on the
breast. Here we took a g uide, lef t th e vill age, ascended a hill,
a nd now th e woods rose up before us in a v erdure which surprised us like a so rcery. Th e spring h ad burst forth with th e
suddenn ess of a Russian summe r. As we left Gottingen th ere
were buds, a nd h ere and th ere a tree half gree n ; but h ere were
woods in foll fo li age, di stin g ui shed from sum mer on ly by th e
ex qui s ite fr es hn ess of th eir tend er g ree n. 'vVe entered th e
wood throug h a beautiful mossy path ; th e moo n above us
blending with th e evening lig ht, and ev ery now and th en a
nig hti ngale wou ld invite th e others to s in g, a nd some or other
co mm only answ ered, and said, as we suppos e, " l tis ye t somewhat too earl y ! " for th e so ng was not continu ed. 'vVe came to
a sq ua re piece of g reenery, co mpletely wall ed on all fou r s id es
by th e beec h es; again e nte red th e wood, and havin g trave ll ed
abo ut a mil e, emerged from it into a g rand pl ain - mountain s
in th e distan ce, but ever by our road the ski rts of th e g ree n
woods. A ve ry rap id ri ve r ran by our side; and now th e nig htin gales were all s ing ing , a nd th e tender verdure grew paler in
th e moonlight, only th e ·smooth parts of th e river were still
deeply p urpled with th e refl ec tions from th e fi ery lig ht in the
west. So s urrounded a nd so impressed, we a rri ved a t Prele,
a d ear littl e clu ster of houses in th e middl e of a se mi circl e of
woody hills; th e a rea of th e s emi circle scarcely broader than
th e bread th of th e vill age.
vV e afterwa rd ascended another hill, from the top of whi ch
a la rge plain ope ned b efore us with villages. A littl e vill age,
N euh of, lay at th e foot of it ; we reach ed it, and th en turned
up through a vall ey on th e left h a nd. Th e hill s on both sid es
th e vall ey were prettily wooded, a nd a rapid li vely r iv er ran
th ro ug h it. So we went for about two mil es, a nd alm ost at th e
e nd o f th e vall ey, or rath e r of its first turnin g, we fou nd th e
vill age of Lauterb erg . Just <l t th e en tra nce of the village, two
s trea ms co me out from tw o cleep a nd woody coombs, close by

DESCJUPTJON.

10

15

20

'5

3"

35

185

each othe r, meet, a nd run into a third deep woody coo mb oppo- 40
s ite; before yo u a wil d hill whi ch see ms th e e nd a nd barri er
of th e valley; on th e ri g ht hand , low hills, now gree n with corn,
and now wood ed; and on th e left a mos t ma jestic hill indeed th e effec t of whose s im ple outlin e p aintin g could not g ive, ancl
how poor a thin g a re wo rds ! We pass throug h thi s neat little 45
tow n - the maj esti c hill on th e left h and soa rin g ove r th e
houses, a nd a t eve ry interspace yo u see th e1whole o( it- its
b eec h es, its firs, its rocks, its s ca tte red co ttages, an d th e on e
littl e pasto r's house at th e foot cmbosom ed in fruit-trees all
in bl osso m, th e noisy coo mb-brook cl as hing close by it. 'vV e 50
lea ve th e vall ey, or ra th er, the firs t turning on th e left, fo llowing
a st ream; a nd so th e vale winds o n, th e ri ve r sti ll a t the foot of
th e wood y hills, with every no w a nd th en other sm<lller vall eys
on ri ght a nd left crossing our v ale, and eve r b efo re you th e
woody hill s running like groves one into a nother. vVe turn ed 55
and turned, a nd enterin g the fourth c urv e of th e vale, we founcl
all a t onc e th a t we h ad b ee n ascend ing . Th e verdure va ni shed!
A ll th e b eech trees were leafless, a ncl so were the silver birch es,
whose boug hs always, winter and summer, hang so elegantly.
lJut low down in th e vall ey, a nd in littl e com1)a ni es on each 6°
bank of th e river, a multitud e o f g ree n co ni cal fir trees, with
h erds of cattl e wandering about, alm os t eve ry one with a cylindri cal b ell around its nec k, of no inc o nsid erabl e s ize, and as
th ey moved - scattered over th e narrow val e, and up amon g
th e tr ees on th e hill - th e noise was like th at of a g rea t city in 65
th e stilln ess of a Sabbath morn in g, wh en th e b ells all a t once are
rin g in g for church. Th e whol e was a mela ncholy a nd roma ntic scene, th a t was quite new to me. Again we turned, passed
th e smeltin g houses, which we vi sited ; - a scene of terrible
bea uty is a furnac e of boilin g metal, d ar ting, every moment, 70
blu e, g ree n, a nd scar let li g htening, like s erp ents' tong ues! a nd now we asce nd ed a steep hill , on th e top of whi c h was St.
A ndri as Berg, a town built wh olly of wood.
\ Ve descend ed ag ain, to asce nd far hig h er ; and now we

--.

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h~-~_,~~tT'

1~·~

--

•

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-;::-~.........,-H7"

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-•

...,..........--••

--.~--i.-

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;-,.;,;;.;:,:~;;;,=..,._-=-·::=----, -~~="=---=....,..,,,...~-:·"'- ~"~-_.._~. .-=""___,,·W•_,,-..,.,_~:: - -~-:-"":""'_ ,,,..,;.,.,._,. • ~ •

186

I NVENTION.

came to a most beautiful road, which winded on th e breast
of the hill, from whence we looked down into a deep valley, or
huge basin, full of pines and firs; the opposite hills full of pines
and firs; and the hill above us, on whose breast we were winding, lik ewise full of pines and firs. The valley, or Lasin, on
our right hand, into which we looked down, is called the Wald
Rauchenbach, that is, th e Valley of th e Roaring Brook; and roar
it did, indeed, most solemnly ! The road on which we walked
was weedy with infant fir-trees, an inch or two hi g h ; and now,
on our left hand, came before us a most trem endous precipice
of yellow and black rock, called Rehberg, that is, th e Mountain
of the Roe. Now again is nothing but firs and pines, above,
b elow, around us! How awful is the d ee p unison of th eir
undividable murmur; what a one thing it is - it is a sound that
impresses the dim notion of the Omnipresent ! In various
parts of the de ep vale b elow us, we beheld littl e dancing
waterfalls g leaming throug h the branches, and now, on our
left hand , from the very summit of th e hill above us, a power·
ful stream flung itself down, leaping and foaming, and now co ncealed, and now not conceal ed, and now ha!{ concealed by th e
fir-trees, till, towards the road, it became a visible sheet of
water, within whose immediate neig hborhood no pine could
The snow lay eve ryw here
have perman ent abiding place.
in company with
glimmered
on the sides of the roads, and
the waterfall foam, snow patches and waterbreaks g limm ering throug h th e branches in the hill above, th e deep basin
below, and the hill opposite. Over the high opposite hill s,
so dark in their pine forests, a far high er round barren stony
mountain looked in upon the prospect from a distant co untry.
Through this sce nery we passed on, till our road was crossed by
a second waterfall, or rath er, aggregation of little dan cin g waterfalls, one by th e side of th e other for a co nsiderable bread th,
and all came at once out of the dark wood above, and roll ed
over the mossy rock frag ments, little firs, growing in isl ets,
scattered among th em. Th e same scenery co ntinued until we

--

....

DESCRIPTION.
75

came to th e Oder Seich, a lak e, half mad e by man and half by t1 0
nature. It is two mil es in length, and but a few hundred yards
in breadth, and winds betwee n banks, or rather through wa.lls,
of pin e trees. It has th e appearance of a most calm and maj esti c riv er. J t cross es th e road, goes into a wood, and th ere at
once p lunges itse lf clown into a most magnificent cascade, a nd 11 s
runs into the va le, to which it g iv es the name of the 'Vale of
the Roaring Brook.' \ Ve d cscen cl ed into th e vale, and stood
at th e bott;m of the cascade, a nd climbed up again by its side.
The rocks over which it plunged were unusuall y wild in their
s hape, g iving fantastic resemblances of men and an.imals, ~nd 120
the fir-b0twhs by the s id e were kept almost in a swm g, which
I
b
unruly motion contrasted well with the stern quietness of t le
hu b"'e forest-sea every where else.

So

85

90

D.

95

ioo

ro5

l

The following selections illustrate methods of portraying character. Th e first is from Irving's Tales
of a Traveller ; the second from Macaulay's essay
on Warren Flastings. A better illustration of the
ways in which character is portrayed may be found
by go in g through any good novel, as suggested on
page 174.
Sample Questions. - ·w hich of these portrayals of character
aims to give th e most compl ete picture? vVh y is it that so much
of perso~al history is g iven in I.? Why cou~d not the. character of
this young German have b ee n described mamly by his words and
actions ? In I I. what method is chosen to portray th e M ussulman ? Wh y ? In th e paragraphs that treat of the Hindoo, is
there anything that is not true d escription? Note the extent to
which comparison is carried in this selection.

188

JNVENT£01V:.

I.

Go ttf1:ied Wolfg an g. was a young ma n of good fa mil y. He
had st udi ed for some tim e a t Go ttinge n, but being of a vis ionary a ncl enthusiastic cha ra cter, he hacl wancl e r ~ d in lo th ose
wild and speculative doct rin es whi ch have so ofte n bewild ered
Cerman ~tud e nts. His secl uded life, his intense appli ca tion,
a nd th e smgular nature of hi s studies, had an effect on both
n~ind and body. Hi s health was impaired ; his im ag ina tion
di seased . He had bee n indulg ing in fanciful spec ul ations 011
spiritual essences, un ti] , like Swede nborg, he had an ideal world
of his own around him. H e took up a notion, I do not know rn
fi:om what :ause'. that th ere was an evil influence h ang ing ove r
him ; an ev il ge nius or sp irit see king to ensnare him and ens ure
hi s perditi o n. Such an idea working on his melancholy temts . }-f e b ec am e
perament, produce d th e mos t oo-loo my ef"'ec
i
haggard and cl espo nding. His fri ends discove red th e mental , 5
malady preying upon him, and dete rmin ed that th e bes t cure
was a change of scene; he was sent, th erefo re, to finish his
studi es a midst th e splend ors and gaye ties of Paris.
·Wolfgang arriv ed a t Paris at th e breaking out of the revoluti on. The popular d elirium at first caught his enthusiastic 2 o
mind '. and he was captivated by th e political and philoso phical
th eo ri es of th e cl ay: but th e sce nes of blood which fo llowed
s hocked hi s sensiti ve nature, disg usted him with soci ety and the
world, and made him more than ever a recluse. He shut himself up in a solitary apartm ent in th e Pays Latin, th e quarter of 25
stud ents. There, in a g loo my s tree t not far from th e monastic
walls of th e Sorbonne, he pursued his favorit e speculations.
Som e tim es he spent h ours toge th er in th e grea t librari es of
1-'a1:is, th ose cataco mbs of departed authors, rumm aging among
th eir hoards of dusty and obsolete works in quest of food for 30
hi s 1~11h e.althy appetite. H e was, in a ma nner, a litera ry g houl,
feed 1ng 111 the charn el-h o use of dec ayed Ii terature.
\ Vo lfgang, thoug h s olitary and recluse, was of a n a rd ent

DESCJUl' T ION.

temperament, but for a tim e it ope rated merely upon his im ag inati on. He was too shy and ig nor ant of th e world to make any
advances to the fair, but he was a pass ionate adm irer of female
beauty, ancl in hi s lonely chamber wo uld often lose him self in
rev eri es on forms and fac es whi ch he had see n, and his fancy
would d ec k ou t im ages of lovel in ess fa r surpassing th e realily.
vVhile hi s mind was in this exc ited and sublimated s tate, a
dream p roduced an extrao rdinary effect up on him . It was of a
fe male face, of tran sce ndent beauty. So stro ng was the impression mad e, that he dreamt of it again a ncl again. It haunted
hi s thoug hts by day, his slumbers by nig ht; in fin e, he became
passionately enamoured of this shadow of a drea m. This lasted
so long that it became one of those fi xed ideas which haunt
th e minds of melancholy men, and are at times mistaken for
madness.

35

40

4S

I I.

Two candidates stood out prominently fr om th e crowd, eac h
of th em the representative of a race a nd of a relig ion.
O ne o f th ese was Mahornmecl Reza Khan, a l\Iussulman
of P ersian extraction, able, activ e, reli g ious after th e fashion of
hi s people, and highly estee med by th em. In England he mig ht s
perh aps have been regarded as a corrupt and greedy politician.
Dut, tri ed b y the low er standard of Indi an morality, he mi g ht
be co ns idered as a man of integrity and honour.
His co mpetitor was a Hindoo JJrahmin whose nam e has , by
a. terrible and melancholy event, been inseparably assoc ia ted 10
with that of vVarren H asting s, th e Maharajah N uncomar.
This man h ad played a n important par t in all th e revolutions
which, since the time of Surajah Dowlah, had taken place in
Beng al. To the consideration whi ch in th at country b elongs
to high and pure caste, he added th e we ight which is derived 15
from wealth, talents, and experience. Of his moral character it
is difficult to g iv e a notion to th ose who are acquainted with
human nature only as it appears in our island. What th e Ital-

lNVENTION.

ian is to the Englishman, what the Hindoo is to the Italian,
what the Bengalee is to other Hindoos, that was Nuncomar to ,.,
other Bengalees. The physical organization of th e Be1walcc
is fee ble even to effeminacy. H e lives in ~ constan t va~Jour
bath . His pursuits are sedentary, his limbs deli cate, his movements languid. During many ages he has been trampled upon
by men of bolder and more hardy breeds. Courage, indepencl- 25
cnce, veracity, are qualities to which his constitution and his
situation are equally unfavourabl e. His mind bears a singular
analogy to his body. It is weak even to helplessness for purposes of manly resistance; but its suppl eness and its tact move
the children of sterner climates to admiration not unmingled 3o
with contempt. All those arts which are the natural defencLe of
the weak are more familiar to this subtle race than to the Ionian
of the time of ] uvenal, or to the J ew of the dark ages. What
the horns are to the buffalo, what the paw is to the tiger, what
the sting is to the bee, what beauty, according to the old Greek 35
song, is to woman, deceit is to the Bengalee. Large promises,
smooth excuses, elaborate tissues of circumstantial falsehood,
chicanery, perjury, forgery, are the weapons, offensive and
defensive, of the people of the Lower Ganges. All those millions do not furnish one sepoy to the armi es of the Company. 4"
But as usurers, as money-changers, as sharp legal practitioners,
no class of human beings can bear a comparison with them.
With all his softness, the Bengalee is by no means placable in
his enmities or prone to pity. The pertinacity with which he
adheres to his purposes yields only to the immediate pressure 45
of fear. Nor does he lack a certain kind of couraa-e
which is
b
often wanting to his masters. To inevitable evils he is sometimes found to oppose a passive fortitude, such as the Stoics
attributed to their ideal sage. An European warrior who rushes
on a battery of cannon with a loud hurrah, will sometimes shriek so
under the surgeon's knife, and fall into an agony of despair at
the sentence of dea th. But the Bengalee, who would see his
country overrun, his house laid in ashes, his children murdered

DESCRlPTJON.

or dishonoured, without having the spirit to strike one blow,
has yet been known to endure torture with the firmness of 55
Mucius, and to mount th e scaffold with the steady step and
even pulse of Algernon Sidney.
In N uncomar, th e national character was strongly and
with exaggeration personified. The Company's servants had
repeatedly detected him in th e most criminal intrigues. On 6°
one occasion he broug ht a false charge against another Hincloo and tried to substantiate it by producing forged clocume1~ts. On another occasion it was discovered that, while
professing the strongest attachment to th e English, he was
engaged in several conspiracies against them, and in particu- 65
lar that he was the medium of a correspondence between the
court of Dehl, and the French authorities in the Carnatic. For
these and similar practices he had been long detained in confinement. But his talents and influence had not only procured his
liberation, but had obtained for him a certain degree of con- 70
sicleration even among the British rulers of his country.

EXPOSITION.

CHAPTER III.
EXPOSITION.

Definition. - Exposition is the form of composition
that aims to explain (expound) any general term or
general proposition.
A term consists of a word or of a word and its modifi ers . J t
calls to mind a sing le idea. A proposition, or sentence, consists of
at least two terms, one of which is affirmed or denied of the other.
Thus, "man,'' "tall man,'' "tall man with the white bat, whom J
saw yesterday,'' are all terms. "The man is a merchant" is a
proposition containing two terms, "man" and "merchant."
A general term is one that denotes, not a particular object,
quality, or action, but any objec t, quality, or a c tion of one class
or kind . "Sailor" is ge neral, "Columbus" is specific; "Sailors
lo ve adventure" is a general proposition, "Columbus discovered
America" is specific.

Exposition is readily distinguished from narration
and description because these forms of composition
always deal with particular subj ects. It is distin "
g uished from argum entation by its use, which is to
explain or make clear, while argumentation endeavors
to prove the truth or falsity of a statem ent. Often it
may also be distin g uished by th e fact that argumentation deals always with propositions, while exposition
may deal either with propositions or with terms, more
often with the latter.

193

The Processes of Exposition. - There are two main
processes in vol vecl in the corn pl etc exposition of any
term - defi nition and division. The former enables
the reader to di stin g uish between the objects or ideas
denoted by th e term and everything else; the latter
names the subclasses into which. th ese objects or ideas
may be separatell. Definition might be compared to
the process by which a surveyor runs a line about a
plot of ground, and thus separates it from the adjoining tracts; division may be compared to the cutting
up of this area into blocks, streets, and alleys. For
example, a definition of rhetoric should show what is
and what is not includ ed in that study, and should,
especially, distinguish rhetoric from related studies,
such as grammar. A division of rh etoric shows that
the t erm includes style and invention, and, if carried
farth er, into what subclasses each of th ese is divided.
Where found. - Exposition is a very common form
of writin g. D efinitions in a dictionary, articles on
abstract subjects in an encyclopedia, many text-books,
and a great variety of misc ellaneous essays and longer
works are exposition. Exposition is also used in connection with other forms of composition, especially
argumentation. In almost every debate it is used to
interpret the question, and often to make clear the
arguments. It .; may also q e us ed as an accessory
of description. , In the selec tion on page I 90 what
Macaulay has to say, not of Maharajah Nuncomar
in particular, but of the Ben galee in general, is
exposition.

I

195

EXPOSITION.

194

INVENTION.

The editorial article, the book review, and some
other kinds of writing, while not necessarily exposition,
are so likely to contain much of this sort of composition that they will be discussed in the present
chapter.
The Process of Definition. - Strictly, a true definition must establish the exact limits of the meaning
of a term, so that any one who understands the definition can tell exactly what the term does and does not
include. Unfortunately, language is used so loosely
that such definitions are hard to frame. The word
definition is generally applied to any statement that
gives even an inexact idea of what a word means.
The best way of showing the exact limits of a term
is by means of what is called a logical definition. In
this form of definition the term to be defined is first
ref erred to its class, and then some characteristic is
given which distinguishes it from all other members
of that class. The class to which the term is referred
is known, technically, as the genus; and the distinguishing characteristic as the differentia. For example:
Term defined.

Genus.

Differentia.

A square

is a plane figure

with four equal siclcs
and four right angles.

•

On inspection this definition will be found to be strictly
exact. There are no squares that are not plane figures,
and all plane figures with four equal sides and four right
angles are squares.

In the most common form of logical definition the genus is
given before the clifferentia; but the differentia may be an adjective modifying the genus. For exa111ple:
Term defined.

Differentia.

Genus.

A triangle

is a three-sided

plane figure.

The advantages of the logical ?efinition are its brevity and the ease with which it may be tested to see
whether it is exact or not. The disadvantages are
that it is often hard for the writer to frame, and for
the reader to understand. For this latter reason most
text-books, if they give short definitions, enlarge on
them ; and careless pupils sometimes commit a ·definition to memory without taking the trouble to study out
its meaning.
In framing logical definitions the chief trouble is to
find a differentia. It is easy enough to say, "The horse
is an animal--," "Rhetoric is a study--"; the
difficult thing is to find a characteristic in which the
horse c1iffers from all other animals, or rhetoric from
all other studies. Many definitions are in the logical
form, but are inexact because the particular characteristic chosen does not distinguish the term defined
from all other members of the genus. If we say,
"Rhetoric is the study that teaches the use of language," the genus "study" is good, ·but the additional characteristic is not a differentia. It would
serve to distinguish rhetoric from arithmetic or botany,
but not from grammar. Great care should be taken
not to confuse these inexact definitions in logical form
with true logical definitions.

197

INVENTJON.

EXPOSITION.

Wh en it is unn ecessary to g ive more than a rou gh
idea of th e meaning of a t erm, or when it is des irabl e to supplement a logical definition, various methods
are used, chief among which is the g iving of synonyms.
As has been seen ,1 perfect synonyms arc very rare,
and exac t definition by synonyms is usually impossible.
Still, a fair id ea of th e meanin g of a word can often
be convey ed by g ivin g another that means much th e
sam e. The chief advantage of this kind of definiti on
is its brevity. It is almost th e only meth od that ca n
be employed in a pocket dictionary. But in spec ti on of
almost any page of such a work will show illu strati ons
of its inexactn ess.

" Odi11m , hatred. We exercise !ta t red/ we endure odi11m / in
this sense the former is acti ve, a nd th e latter passive. vVe speak
of h av ing a hatred for a man, bu t riot of h av in g an odi11m toward
him . A tyran t inc urs th e ltatred of all good men, a nd, l>y his
ac tions, brings upon himself th e public odi11m . The odium of a n
offense may som etim es fa ll unjustl y upon o ne who is inn ocen t."

The fo ll ow ing a re tak en alm os t at random from such a work:
horny, h a rd; hig h, lofty; journalist, a write r ; onse t, an assault ;
peel, sk in; rud eness, vulgarity.

\Nhen the synonym is compared with th e t erm
defin ed, a nd th e differenc es of the two a re pointed
o ut, th e m ethod bcco.mes mu ch more exact, but loses
its chi ef advantage of brevity.
Th e following are from \V ebster's International Di cti onary and
illustrate thi s me th od in its briefes t form. S uc h co mparisons arc
often ca rri ed to consid erable leng th.
"Satiate, satis.fy, co11 tcJZt. These words differ principally in
degree. T o co1tlen t is to make contented , even though every
desire or appetite is not g ratifi ed. To satisfy is to a ppease full y
th e long ings of d esire. To satiate is to go furth er and fill so
comp letely that it is not possible to receive or enjoy more. Wh at
satisfi es g iv es us pleas ure ; what satiates produces disgust."
1

S ee p::tge 4 5.

Another method of h elping the r eader to und erstand
a t erm is by g ivin g examples of objects that it denot es.
vVh en used, by itself this m ethod is likely to be unsatisfactory, because there is no way of t ellin g what are
th e acc id ent al and what th e essential features of th e
example g iven. If a for eig ner asked for a definition
of the colloquial t erm "cl ud e," it would do 1i ttle good
to point out an example, unl ess the inquirer were also
told whether the charac t erist ics that make a person a
dude are matt ers of dress, manner, stature, int ellec tual
attainments, or occ upation. Exampl es us ed to supplement ot h er definiti ons are of g reat valu e. vVhen ever
it is possible, a lec turer on botany or g eology shows
spec imen s of the plants or min erals of which he speaks,
and his hearers a re thus able t o see how th e examples
really correspond to the definition. Sometim es it is
aclv a nt ageo~1s t o mention examples of obj ects not included by the term defin ed, a nd show h ow th e de fin it ion does not a pply . In th e introdu cti on t o this book,
page 1, it was shown how th e definition given for
rh etoric did not include g ramm a r. See also th e definition of sent ence unity, page 53.
A log ical desc ription is a n exposition of a general
term in which are g iven a numb er of ge neral charact er-

INVENTION.

EXPOSITION.

istics - that is, characteristics possessed by all objects
that bear the term name. A logical description of
" bicycle " would mention the fact that a bicycle has
a frame, · two wheels, pedals, cranks, saddle, handlebars, and other parts common to all bicycles. It must
be remembered that logical description is not really
description at all, but a form of exposition.

Division. - Division is the process of exposition by
which the class of objects denoted by a general term is
separated into its parts. In a complete exposition of a
term it naturally follows definition; thus, in this chapter,
exposition is first defined, and then divided into definition and division.
Exact and complete division is called classification.
The most important requisite of classification is that
the sum of the classes exactly equal the whole that
is divid ed; in other words, that every object denot ed
by the term expound ed shall be accounted for in the
classification, and that no object so denoted shall be
included in two classes. T1rns, the division of angles
into right, acute, and obtuse is a classification, because
all angl es belong to one of these classes, and no angle
can belong to more than one of them. A classification
of triangles into right and oblique is good; but not a
division into right, oblique, and isosceles, since isosceles
trian bcrles must be either right
or oblic1ue. In divisions
'
which include the same object in two or more classes
the classes are said to cross each other.
Every perfect classification must be based on some
principle, that is, on differences in some characteristic possessed by all the objects denoted by the term
expounded. The division of triangles into right and
oblique is based on the kind of angles. Isosceles is a
division under a classification based on the relations of
the sides. The fault in the division into right, oblique,
and isosceles is that the same principle is not followed
throughout.

Suggestions for Exercises. - Find ten log ical definitions rn
your text-books. Name the parts of each. Show that each is a
logical definition.
Find, in text-books, dictionaries, or elsewhere, ten definitions
that have the logical form, but that are inexact. 1n what particular is each inexact?
Select examples of definitions by synonyms from some small
dictionary or book of synonyms. Decide how near each comes
to giving an idea of the meaning of the term defined. Can you
make the definition exact by comparing the two terms and showing their differences? Try it. Choose ten words from the list of
synonyms, page 47, and write a paragraph defining each.
Find in some text-book on science illustrations of logical
description. (Botanical keys furnish good examples.)
Write logical descriptions on the terms "<log,'' "sewing
machine,'' "country school." Write a true description of some
particular dog, sewing machine, country school. Compare the
true and the logical descriptions, each with each.
Frame definitions, exact if possible, of the following as you
understand them: a "fly" in baseball, an" off-side play" in football, " love " in tennis, a " recitation period " in school.
Define the following, and amplify the definition by giving
examples, real or imaginary, and showing how the definition docs
or does not apply: a worthless novel, a patriot, the true sense
of sportsmanship, a practical study, ben eficial ph ysical exercise.

199

INVENT.ION.

.EXPOSIT.ION.

Classification is necessary in th e exact sc iences and
wherever a complete treatment of a subject is desired.
For many purposes, however, minor classes need not be
considered. In such cases partition is us ed. PartitiOn
is incomplete division. A writer on United States politics mi ght speak of the parties in a certain campaign as
Republicans and Democrats, and disregard other parties
if they were of too little importance to influ ence the
result; or the students in a school might be divided int o
freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors, even though
there were a few irregular students who belonged to
none of th ese classes. In writings not intended to be
absolutely exact, partition is often to be preferred to
classification on account of its brevity.

Divide the following terms, each in more than one way if possibl e. Make each division a classification if th e nature of the
subj ect permits. Name the principle on which th e classification
is based. Under what circumstances would a partition be preferable to a classification ?
(r) The students in your school; (2) the residents of your
commu nity ; (3) the books in your school library; (4) studi es in
your school; (5) amusements common in your neighborhood.

200

Suggestions for Exercises. - Which of the following are classifications? ·w hich partitions? Which defective classifications?
vVhat is th e principle on whi ch eac h of the classifications is based ?
In what respect are th e defec tive classifications at fault?
1. The departments of the United States gove rnment arc
executive, legislative, and judicial.
2. Mankind is divid ed into Caucasians, Mongolians, Ethiopians, J\f alays, and S lavs.
3. American colleges are of two kinds: those suppo rted liy
religious denominations ancl those supported by the state.
4. The inhabitan ts of th e United States are whites, ncgrne<;,
and I nclians.
5. All our voluntary physical activities may be classified as
eith er work or play.
G. Thought may be exp ressed by: (1) spoken language; ( ~)
written language.
7. Offe ns es against the moral law are sins, crimes, or misd cmeanors.

201

Exposition of Propositions. - Definition and division
are methods of expo unding general terms. Gen eral
propositions are usually expo unded by expo unding such
terms as might be obscure or misleading. They may
also be expounded by repetition in different forms .
This latt er method is th e less formal, and is likely to
be us ed in speeches, sermons, and popular writings
where a series of definitions might repel the reader.
When a proposition is expounded by repetition the
res tatement is usually put in such form that th e
original proposition is not only made clearer, but
also expanded or modified.
The first sentence in this chapter, page 192, is expounded by
explaining th e meaning of th e expressions "general term" and
"general proposition." If these are understood, the sentence will
· be perfec tly clear.
The following bri ef exampl es will illustrate the exposition of a
proposition by repetition. Note that the idea is almost always
amplifi ed at the same time that it is expo unded .
"The joys of parents are sec ret, and so are· th eir griefs and
fears. They cannot utter th e one, nor they will not utter the other."
"Men, like peach es and pears, grow sweet a littl e while before
th ey beg in to decay. I don't know what it is - wh eth er a spontan eo us cha1ige, mental or bodil y, or wheth er it is throug h experi-

203

INVENTION.

E,,'(J'OS!TION.

ence of the thanklessness of critical honesty, but it is a fact, that
most writers, except sour and unsuccessful ones, get tired of fincli11g
fault at about the time when they are beginning to grow old."
See also, page 190. Note the repetition in the exposition of
the character of the I3engalee.

Write paragraphs ex pounding the following by division: ~I)
Athletic sports; (2) The duties of students; (3) Language stuches.

202

Some Forms of Exposition. - It has already been said
that under the head of exposition are included th e typical forms of several common kinds of writing, including treatises, text-books, theses, essays, book reviews,
and several more. Of these, only those that are adapted
for practice exercises will be considered here.
I. Expository Essays. - Essays on general terms or
general propositions are- usually exposition. Thes e may
be formal, with logical definitions and exact classifications, or popular, wi.th partition and definition by synonyms, examples, etc. The nature of the subject and
the character of the readers must determin e th e method
of treatm ent. Such essays may, of course, contain an
admixture of other forms of composition, but exposition
generally predominates.
The chief difficulty in choosing a subj ect for an
expos itory essay is to find a topic in which the read er
will be interested and on which the writer is prepared
to say something of value. The mistake is sometimes
made of choosing something wholly beyond th e author's
capabilities, so that the entire essay is but an echo of
what has been found in books.
Suggestions for Exercises. - vVrite expository paragraphs
defining what you mean by: ( 1) a sneak; ( 2) a fair examina ti on
question; (3) success in one's s tudi es.

Write expository essays on the following, employing all the
processes of exposition so far as possible: (1) The ch~racter of
an ideal friend; (:i) Advantages of following the fashions; (3)
Disadvantages of followinp; the fashions; (4) Methods of reading;
(S) Benefit~- of athletics; (6) I-low to ttse th e encyclopedia. vVrite
also on subjects of your own choosing, approved by your t eacher.

Editorial Articles. -The editorial columns of any
good journal are set apart for the expression of the
opinions for which the paper stands. Some of the
articles that appear in these columns are simply statements of facts, and as such are narration or description ;
others are almost purely argumentation. The typical
editorial article, however, consists of comments on some
recent occurrence. The occurrences thus referred to
are, of course, subjects for narration, and are often
treated by narration in the news columns of th e same
paper in which the editorial appears. The editorial
article usually aims, however, not at giving information, but at calling to mind or makin g clear some general principle. Thus, during the Spanish-American
war, many events in the Philippines or Porto Rico
were narrated in the news columns of the daily papers,
and at the same time were referred to in editorials to
show the advantages or the disadvantages of territorial
expansion on the part of the United States.
An editorial article is exposition in so far as it presents a general truth, even though it may have been
suggested by a particular occurrence.
2.

JNVENTJON.

EXPOSITJDN.

Editorial articles can best be studied in current
issues of the better daily and weekly papers. Examples that might be given here would be so far out of
date that they could have little interest for the members
of a class.

Suggestions for E x ercises. - Criti cism should be indulged in
sparingly until th e critic has read enough and ~hought e~ough t~
form definite opinions regarding literature. A little pract1.c: may,
however serve to show the difficulties that confront the cnt1c, and
the need of thorough preparation. vVrite a review of some sto~~'
essay, or longer work, approved by your teacher, making the cnt1cisms an application of your own standard .. -~ o matte~ what th e
subject, express your own opinions, not cnt1c1srns denved from
reading.

Suggestions for Exercises. - Write a number of editorial
paragraphs or longer editorial articles, suggested by recent
even ts in your school ; others suggested by events of more
general interest. Do not choose the event and then try to find
a principle which it will illustrate, but rath er choose event and
principle together; that is, choose no event that does not at once
seem to point a moral or to illustrate some general truth.

3. Book R evie1vs. - Book reviews, and indeed all
criticisms of art and literature, are exposition in so far
as they apply to a particular work the general principles of literature or of art. Anything that is said
about a particular book as such is, of course, not
exposition. A reviewer should have in mind, before
he begins his work, a conception of the ideal book or
article of the class that he is to review. If he is to
consider a novel, he should decide on the characteristics that a perfect novel must possess, so that he
could, if necessary, write an essay on "The Ideal
Novel." With such a conception in mind, he may
then take up a particular book and see in what
respects it conforms to his ideal, and in what it falls
short. Any review will, of course, contain much particular information about the book in hand, but if the
predominating idea be the application of principles,
the whole may be classed as exposition.

205

ILLUSTRATIVE S E LECTIONS.

The selections that follow are chosen to illustrate
methods not forms, of exposition. Students should
themsel~es find illustrations of essays, editorials, book
reviews, etc., and of exposition as it is used in connection with other forms of discourse.

A.
The first selection, a set of introductory definitions
from Gray's Lessons in Botany, illustrates both definition and division.
Sample Questions. - Are the definitions given in tl~e logi~al
, divide each into genus and d1fferent1a.
c
f orm or no t .? If tl1 ey are
Js the division of the subject of Botany a classification or a p_artition? Judging from the last paragraph, does the book t~ _which
this forms the introduction treat botany by way of part1tion or
classification? vVhy is the last paragraph less concise and matter-of-fact in style than the first three? What definitions_ are
expounded after they are given? How? Are they amplified
at the same time? To what extent?

206

INVENT/ON:

Botany is the name of th e science of tbe vegetable kingdom
in general ; that is, of plants.
Plants may be studied as to th eir kinds ancl relationships.
This study is 5,"ystcmatic Botany. An enum eration of the
kinds of vegetables, as far as known, classi fi ed according to
their various d egrees of resemblance or difference , co nstitutes
a ge neral S.ystem of plants. A similar account of the vegetabl es of any particular country or district is call ed a Flora.
l'lants may be studied as to th eir structure and parts. This
is S tructural Botany, or 01g anograplzy. Tbe study of th e · 10
organs or parts of pbnts in regard to th e different forms and
different uses which th e same kind of organ may assume, the comparison , for instance, of a flower-l eaf or a bud-scale
with a co mmon leaf, - is vegetable Morpholo.i;y, or 1irorp!tol(ll:,Tical Botany. The study of th e minute structure of the pa rts, 15
to learn by th e mi croscope what they th emselv es are formed
of, is Vt:.r.;t!lah!e Anatomy, or /-lislology; in other words, it is
Microscopical S tructural Bo tany. The study of the ac tion s
of plants or of th eir parts, of the ways in which a plant li ves,
grows, and acts, is the province of Plzysiological Botany, or , ..
Vi;r.;etable Physiology.
This book is to teac h the outlines of Structural Botany and
of th e simpler parts of the physiology of plants, that it may be
known how plants are constructed and adapted to th eir surroundings, and how they li ve, move, propagate, and have th eir 2;;
being in an existence no less real, although more simple, than
th at of th e animal creation which th ey support. Particularly,
this book is to teach the principles of the structure and relationships of plants, the nature and names of th eir parts and
their modifications, and so to prepare for th e study of System- 30
atic Botany; in which the learn er may ascertain th e name a nd
th e place in th e system of any or all of th e ordinary plants
within reach, wheth er wile\ or cultivated. And in ascertaining
th e name of any plant, the student, if rig htly taug ht, will co me
to know all about its general or particular structure, rank, and 35
relationship to other plants.

EXPOS.lT.lON.

2 07

B.
The seco nd selection, from Sir Philip Sidney's
Defense of Poesie, is useful as a study in division.
It also shows the use of logical description, and of
definition by example and, in the fourth paragraph, by
comparison.
The style of this piece will r epay study. How far is
the antiquated effect ·produced by choice of words? by
sentence structure? How great a change would be
necessary to make it modern in tone?
Poesy, th erefore, is an art of imitatim1 ; for so Arist~tle
termeth it in th e word µlµ'Y/uis; that is to say, a represent111g,
counterfei ting, or figuring forth: to speak metaphorically, a
speaking picture, with this encl, to teach and cleli,~ht.
.
Of this have been three general kinds: the cluef, both m
antiquity and excellency, were they that did imitate th e in co nceivable excellencies of Goel; such were David in the Psalms;
Solomon in the Song of Songs, in his Ecclesiastes, and Proverbs; Moses and Deborah in their hymns; and the writer of
Job ; which, beside others, th e learned E manuel ~rrernellius ~ncl
Fr. Junius do entitle the poetical part of the scnpture; agamst
these none will speak that hath the Holy Ghost in due holy
reverence. In this kind, though in a wrong divinity, were
Orpheus, Amphion, Homer in his hymns, and many others,
both Greeks and Romans. And this poesy must b e used by
whosoever will follow St. Paul's counsel, in singing psalms when
they are merry ; and I know is used wit\~ the fruit .of .com~ort
by some, when, in sorrowful pangs of then- death-bnngrn g sms,
they find the consolation of the never-leavi.ng goodness ..
The second kind is of them that deal with matter ph1losophical; either moral, as T yrt;cus, Phlocylicles, Cato ; or, natural, as
Lucretius, Virgil's Gcorgics; or astronomical, as Manilius and

10

1

5

20

208

EXPOS.IT.ION.

.INVENT.ION.

Pontanus; or historical, as Lucan; which who mislike, the
fault is in their judgment, quite out of taste, and not in the
sweet food of sweetly uttered knowledge.
But because this second sort is wrapped within the fold of
the proposed subject, and takes not the free course of his own
invention; whether they properly be poets or no, let grammarians
dispute, and go to the tlzird, indeed right poets, of whom chiefly
this question ariseth; betwixt whom and these second is such a
kind of difference, as betwixt the meaner sort of painters, who
counterfeit only such faces as are set before them; and the more
excellent, who having no law but wit, bestow that in colours
upon you which is fittest for the eye to see; as the constant,
though lamenting look of Lucretia, when she punished in herself another's fault; wherein he painteth not Lucretia, whom
he never saw, but painteth the outward beauty of such a virtue.
For these three be they which most properly do imitate to teach
and delight; and to imitate, borrow nothing of what is, hath
been, or shall be ; but range only, reined with learned descretion, into the divine consideration of what may be, and should
be. These be they, that, as the first and most noble sort,
may justly be termed "vates"; so these are waited on in the
excellentest languages and best understandings, with the foredescribed name of poets. For these, indeed, do merely make
to imitate, and imitate both to delight and teach, and delight to
move men to take that goodness in hand, which, without delight
they would fly as from a stranger; and teach to make them know
that goodness whereunto they are moved; which being the
noblest scope to which ever any learning was directed, yet want
there not idle tongues to bark at them.
These be subdivided into sundry more special denominations;
the most notable be the heroic, lyric, tragic, comic, satyric,
iambic, elegiac, pastoral, and certain others; some of these
being termed according to the matter they deal with; some by
the sort of verse they like best to write in.

c.
2

5

n

3

35

4,.

45

The next selection, an essay of Bacon's, Of Goodness,
and Goodness of Nature, is an exc ellent illustration of
the way in which exact thought may be presented in a
fairly popular way.
Sample Questions. - Make a plan of the essay. ·what is the
theme? How many methods of definition are used in the first
1 2 lines?
Find examples of propositions that are expounded.
How is each expounded? Comment on the use of allusions and
references to other writers.
Compare the style of this essay with that of the preceding selection. How does the antiquated effect in this differ from that of
Sidney's prose? How does sentence structure differ?
I take goodness in this sense, the affecting of the weal of men,
which is that the Grecians call "philanthropia"; and the word
humanity (as it is used) is a little too light to express it. Goodness I call the habit, and goodness of nature the inclination.
This, of all virtues and dig nities of the mind, is the greatest,
being the character of the Deity: and without it man is a busy,
mischievous, wretched thing, no better than a kind of vermin.
Goodness answers to the theological virtue charity, and admits
no excess but error. The desire of power in excess caused the
a1wels
to fall·) the desire of knowlecl~e in excess caused man to
Q
fall; but in charity there is no excess, neither can angel or man
come in clanger by it. The inclination to goodness is imprinted
deeply in the nature of man; insomuch that if it issue not
towards men, it will take unto other living creatures; as it is
seen in the Turks, a cruel people, who nevertheless are kind
to beasts, and give alms to dogs and birds ; insomuch as Busbechius reporteth, a Christian boy in Constantinople had like to
have been stoned for gagging in a waggishness a longbilled
fowl. Errors, indeed, in this virtue, of goodness or charity,
L•

5o

55

10

15

210

INVE NTION.

may be committed. The I tali ans have an ung racious prov- '"
erb, "Tan to buon che val niente" : - " So good, that he is
good for nothing" : and one of the doctors of Italy, Nicholas
Machiavel, had the confidence to put in writing, almost in plain
terms, "That the Christian faith had given up g ood men in
prey to those th at are tyrannical and unjust"; which he spake, , 5
because, indeed, there was never law, or sect, or opinion did so
much magnify goodness as the Christian religion doth : therefore, to avoid th e scandal and the danger both, it is good to
tak e knowledge of the errors of a habit so excellent. Seek the
good of other m en, but be not in bondage to th eir faces or fan- 3"
cies ; for that is but facility or softness, which tak eth an hon est
mind prisoner. Neither give thou /Esop's cock a gem, who
would be better pleased and happi er if he had had a barley-com .
Th e ex ample of Goel teacheth the lesson truly ; " He sendcth
his rain, and mak eth his sun to shine upon the just and 35
unjust"; but he doth not rain wealth, nor shine honor and virtu e
upon men equally : common benefits are to be communi cate
with all, but peculiar benefits with choice. And beware how in
making the portraiture thou breakest the pattern : for divinity
maketh the love of ourselves the pattern: th e love of our neigh- 4"
hors but the poi·traiture : " Sell all thou hast, and give it to the
poor and follow me" : but sell not all thou hast except thou
come and follow me ; that is, except thou have a vocation
wh erein thou mayst do as much good with little means as with
great ; for otherwise, in feeding the streams, thou dryest th e 45
fountain. Neither is there only a habit of goodness di rec tee!
by right reason ; but there is in some men, even in nature, a
disposition towards it; as, on the other side, there is a natural
malignity : for there be that in their nature do not affect the
g ood of oth ers. The lighter sort of malignity turn eth but to a 5"
crossness, or frowardness, or aptn ess to oppose, or clifficleness,
or the like ; but the deeper sort to envy, and mere miscl1i ef.
Such men in oth er men's calamities, are, as it were, in season,
and are ever on the loading part : not so good as the clogs th:it

EXPOSITION.

211

licked Lazarus' sores, but like fli es that are still buzzing upon
anything that is raw ; misanthropi, that make it their practice
to bring men to the bough, and yet have never a tree for the
purpose in their gardens, as Timon had: such dispositions are
the very errors of human nature, and yet they are the fittest
timber to make great politics of; like to knee timber, that is
good for ships that are ordained to be tossed, but not for builclinohouses that shall stand firm. The parts and signs of gooclo
ness are many. If a man be gracious and courteous to strangers,
it shows he is a citizen of the world, and that his heart is no
island cut off from other lands, but a continent that joins to
them: if he be compassionate towards the afflictions of others,
it shows that his heart is like the noble tree that is wounded
itself when it gives the balm: if he easily pardons and remits
offenses, it shows that his mind is planted above injuries, so
that he cannot be shot : if he be thankful for small benefits, it
shows that he weighs men's minds, and not their trash : but,
above all, if he have Saint Paul's perfection, that he would wish
to be an anathema from Christ for the salvation of his brethren, it shows much of a divine nature, and a kind of conformity
with Christ himself.

55

60

65

70

75

D.
The fourth selection is from Huxley. Though it
deals with a serious subject, it shows a somewhat
lighter m ethod of treatment than have any of the
preceding extracts. Notice the amount of repetition,
illustration, and amplification. In lines 8 5- 9 I are some
terms which may be unfamiliar. They allud e to customs in English universities. Find out their meaning.
Sample Questions. - What is the author's favorite method of
definition, as shown in this selection? Does he anywhere use a
logical definition? How man y kinds of education does he men-

212

EXPOSZTZON.

ZNVENTZON.

lion? What process of definition is illustrated in the next to the
last paragraph? From the style of this selection, would you say
it was written for hearers or readers? Why?
What is education? Above all things, what is our ideal of
a thoroughly liberal education? -of that education whi ch, if
we could begin life again, we would give ourselves - of that
education which, if we could mould the fat es to our own will,
we would give our children. Well, I know not what may be
your conceptions upon this matter, but I will tell you mine, and
I hope I shall find that our views are not very discrepa nt.
Suppose it were perfectly certain that th e life and fortun e of
every one of us would, one day or oth er, depend upon his winning or losing a game at chess. Don't you think that we should
all consider it to be a primary duty to learn at least th e names
and the moves of th e pi eces; to have a notion of a gambit,
and a keen eye for all the means of giving and ge tting out of
check? Do you not think that we should look with a disapprobation amounting to scorn, upon the father who allowed his
so n, or the state which allowed its members, to grow up without knowing a pawn from a knig ht?
Yet it is a very plain and elementary truth, that the life, the
fortun e, and the happiness of every one of us, and, more or less,
of thos e who are connected with us, do depend upon our knowing something of the rules of a game infinitely more diffi cult
and complicated than chess. It is a game whi ch has been
played for untold ages, every man and woman of us being one
of the two players in a game of his or her own. Th e chessboard is the world, the pieces are the phenom ena of the uni verse, the rules of the game are what we call the laws of
Nature. The player on the oth er side is hidden from us. We
know that his play is always fair, just, and patient. Dut also
we know, to our cost,· that he never overlooks a mistak e, or
makes the smallest allowance for ignoranc e. To the man who
plays well, the hig hest stakes are paid, with th at sort of over-

j

ro

15

20

25

3o

213

flowin g ge nerosity with whi ch th e strong shows deli ght 111
strength . And one who plays ill is checkmated-without
haste, but without remors e.
My metaphor will remind some of you of the famous picture 35
in which Retzsch has depicted Satan playing at chess with a
man for his soul. Substitute for th e mocking fiend in th at pi cture, a calm, stron g angel who is playing for love, as we say,
and would rather lose than win - and I should accept it as an
4°
image of hum an life.
Well, what I mean by Education is learning the rules of this
mi ghty game. In other words, education is th e instruction of
th e intell ec t in the laws of Nature, under which name I include
not merely things and their forces, but men and th eir ways;
and th e fashioning of the affections and of th e will into an 45
earnes t and loving desire to move in harmony with those laws.
For me, educa tion means neith er more nor less than this. Anything which professes to call itself education must be tri ed by
this standard, and if it fails to stand the test, I will not call it
education, whatever may be th e force of authority, ·or of num- 50
bers, upon the other side.
It is important to rememb er th at, in strictness, th ere is no
such thing as an uneducated man. Take an extreme case.
Suppose that an adult man, in the full vigour of his faculties,
could be suddenly placed in th e world, as Adam is said to have 55
bee n, a nd th en left to do as h e best mi g ht. How long would
he be left uneducated? Not five minutes. Nature would
b egin to teach him , throug h the eye, the ear, th e touch, the
properti es of objects. Pain and pleasure would b e at his elbow
telling him to do this and avoid th at; a ncl by slow degrees th e Go
man would receive an education, which, if narrow, would be
thoroug h, real, and adeq uate to his ci rcumstances, though th ere
would be no ex tras and very few accomplishments.
And if to this solitary man entered a second Adam, or, better
~till, an Eve, a new and g reater world, that of social and moral 65
phenomena, would be revealed. Joys and woes, compared with

•
\i

212

EXPOSITJON.

INVENT/ON.

lion? ·what process of defi nition is illust rated io t .
last paragraph? From th e style of thi s selec tion,
it was written for h eare rs or readers ? \V hy?
What is education? Above all thi11 ~s , what il4
a th oro ughly lib eral ed ucation? - o f th at c<ltK:\t
we could begin life again, we would give our!i<'hedu cation which, if we co uld mould th e fat es to <.
we would g ive our children. \V eil, I kn ow not .-h
your conceptions upon this matter, but I will t ·II y~
I hope I shall find that our vi ews arc not \' Cry d s l
S uppose it were perfectly certain that th e lifo :and
ev ery one of us would, one day or other, dcpcnrt
ning or losing a ga me at chess. Don't you thi nk tbit
a ll consider it to b e a primary duty to learn :\l le t
and th e moves of th e pi eces; lo have a noti n
and a keen eye for all the mea ns of g i\'i nl! and f(liff!fi-F a
ch eck? Do you not think that we should look with
bation amounting to scorn, upon th e f ;it h er who
so n, or the state which allowccl its m ember.~. 10 gr
out knowing a pawn from a knig ht?
Yet it is a very plain and eleme ntary truth, tlut \
fortune, and the happin ess of eve ry one of u ~ , :tnd.
of thos e who are conn ecte d with us, cl o cl cpc111l upO.tt
ing some thing of th e rules of a ga me infinit e! · mqt
ancl complicated than c h ess. It is a gam • wht
played for untold ages, eve ry man a111\ \\'0111:'111
of the two players in a ga me of his o r h<' r c wn.
board is th e world, the pieces ;ire th e ph nomttt.
verse, th e rules of th e game arc wha t we c:tU
Nat ure. The pl ayer on th e ot her side is hidclt!n f
know that his play is always fair, just, :rnd pal i fi
we know, to our cost,· th;it he nc\'cr O\'crlook "
norancc. To
makes the smallest allowance for iir
b
plays well, the high es t stakes arc paid, with tla.u ,

or

or

213

generos ity with which the strong shows deli ght in
An d one who plays ill is c heckmated-without
but wi thout remorse.
metaphor will remind some of you of the famous picture 35
Retzsch has depicted Satan playing a t chess with a
Subs titute for the mo cking fiend in th at pie• calm , stron g angel who is playing for love, as we say,
Id ra th er lose than win - and I should acce pt it as an
of human life.
4°
what 1 mean by Education is learning the rules of this
~a mc . In other words, education is the instruction of
cc t in the laws of Nature, under which name I include
ly things a nd th eir forces, but men and th eir ways;
fash ioning of th e affections and of th e will into an 45
~n<I lov ing desire to move in harmony with those laws.
ed uca ti on means neither more nor less th a n this. Any"bkh professes to call itself education must be tried by
;ml, and if it fails to stand the test, I will not call it
n, wha teve r may be the force of authority, or of mun- 50
n the oth er side.
important to rememb er that, in strictness, there is no
log as an uneducated man. Take a n extrem e case.
tha t an adult man, in the full vigour of his faculties,
sudde nl y placed in th e world, as Adam is s aid to have 55
th en left to clo as he best might. How long would
ldt uncclucatecl? Not five minutes. Nature would
teac h him, through the eye, the ear, th e touc h, th e
of objec ts. Pain a nd pleasure would b e at his elbow
. hlm to clo this and avoid that; a nd b y slow degrees th e 60
Jd rece iv e an education, which, if narrow, would be
11. rea l, and adequate to his circ umsta nces, thoug h th ere
no ex tras and ve ry few accomplishments.
l{ to this so litary man entered a second Adam, or, b etter
L' vc • a new ancl boreater world, th a t of social a nd moral 65
r.
na, wou ld he re vealed. Joys a nd woes, compared with

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214

INVENTION.

EXPOSITION.

215

d
\,1

which all others might seem but faint shadows, would spring
from the new relations. Happiness and sorrow would take th e
place of the coarser monitors, pleasure and pain; but concluct
would still be shaped by the observation of the natural co nsc- 7"
quences of actions ; or, in other words, by the laws of the nature
of man.
To every one of us the world was once as fresh and as new
as to Adam. And then, long before we were susceptible of
any other mode of instruction, Nature took us in hand, ;rnd ;s
eve ry minute of waking life brought its educational influence,
shaping our actions into rough accordance with Nature's laws, so
that we might not be ended untimely by too gross clisobecli ence.
Nor should I speak of this process of education as past, for
any one, be he as old as he may. For every man, th e \\'Oriti !!.>
is as fresh as it was at the first day, and as full of untoltl 110\'elties for him who has the eyes to see th em. And Nature is
still continuing her patient education of us in that g rea t uni\'crsity, the universe, of which we are all members-Nature having
no Test-Acts.
's
Those who take honours in Nature's university, who learn
the laws which govern men and things and obey them, are the
really great and successful men in this world. The great ma ss
of mankind are the "Poll," who pick up just enotwh
to ,.,«ct
b
through without much discredit. Those who won' t learn at all .,,
are plucked; and then you can't come up again. N aturc's
pluck means extermination.
Thus the question of compulsory education is settled so far
as Nature is concerned. Her bill on that question was framed
and passed long ago. But, like all compulsory legislation, that •a
of Nature is harsh and wasteful in its operation. Ignorance is
visited as· sharply as wilful disobedience - incapacity mee ts
with the same punishment as crime. Nature's discipline is not
even a word and a blow, and the blow first; but th e blow with out the word. It is left to you to find out why yom ears arc ,..,
boxed.

The object of what we commonly call education - that education in which man intervenes and which I shall distinguish
as artificial education - is to make good these defects in
Nature's methods ; to prepare the child to rec eive Nature's 10 5
education, neither incapably nor ig norantly, nor with wilful disobedience ; and to understand the preliminary symptoms of her
displeasure, without waiting for the box on the ear. In short,
all artificial education ought to be an anticipation of natural
education. And a liberal education is an artificial education, " 0
which has not only prepared a man to escape the great evils of
disobedience to natural laws, but has trained him to appreciate
and to seize upon the rewards, which Nature scatters with as
free a hand as her penalties.
That man, I think, has had a liberal education, who has 11 5
been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of
his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as
a mechanism, it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold,
lorric
en<Yine
with all its parts of ec1ual strength, and in smooth
b
b
,
working order; ready, like a steam engine, to be turned to any 120
kind of work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the
anchors of the mind; whose mind is stored with a knowledge
of the rrreat and fundamental truths of Nature and of the laws
b
of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life
and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by 125
a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience; who has
learned to love all beauty, whether of Nature or of art, to hate
all vileness, and to respect others as hims elf.
Such an one and no other, I conceive, has had a liberal education ; for he is, as completely as a man can be, in harmony 13°
with Nature. He will make the best of her, and she of him.
They will get on together rarely; she as his ever beneficent
mother; he as her mouthpiece, her conscious self, her minister
and interpreter.

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ARGU111EN1iA 1'I ON.

CHAPTER IV.
ARGUMENTATION.

Definition. - Argumentation is th e form of composition that is used to prove something. It has already
been distinguished from exposition (page 192). It is
closely related to persuasion, but differs in appealin g
purely to the intellec t, while persuasion appeals to the
will. Arg umentation aims to produce belief, persuasion to produce action. For example, the demon stra·
tion of a proposition in geometry is argumentation ; an
exhortation to unite with a certain church or to vot e a
certain ticket is persuasion.
Formal argumentation is employed before courts and
in legislative bodies and political meetings. ; by sciL·n.
tists and theologians who support their theories ; and
in practice debat es, as in a literary society. Th e prac·
tice of arguing informally is almost universal. A large
proportion of our remarks in ordinary conversation give
reasons for believing the truth or falsity of some s t at e.~.
mcnt. These arguments concerning the weather, the
chances of victory in a game, or th e best way of spending a half-holiday are of exactly the same nature, and
are governed by th e same principles as arc those
addressed to the supreme court in an important cas •.
At the outset of this study it should be fi xed in mind

r

that argumentation is an everyday form of discourse,
which every one employs, and not a matter simply for
lawyers and dialecticians.
The study of the laws of thought and of correct
methods of reasoning belongs to logic . Strictly, rhetoric deals with argumentation only to show how arguments may be presented in the most effective way.
But it is impossible to treat this subject without considering to some extent the broader qu estion of what
arguments may properly be used. Some suggestions
and cautions in this chapter th erefore belong to logic
rather than to rhetoric.
Propositions. -The subject of any argument must be
a proposition. No one can argue concerning a term,
such as "George vVashington," "territorial expansion " · but if one of these terms is made part of a
'
proposition, there is at once chance for argument.
For example, we may debate concerning the statements, "George W ashington was the greatest American statesman," "Territorial expansion will be beneficial
to the United States."
Some questions are so familiar that they are implied by giving
only one term. It is not un common to hear 0£ discussing "the
tariff," "woman suffrage." The us e 0£ these words is a brief way
of implying such propositions as "A protective tariff is best for
the United States," "\Nomen should be allowed to vote."

Need of Definite Statement. - In order that any argument may be profitable, it is necessary that th e proposition be clearly and definitely stated. Men who fall

INVENTION.

into discussions regarding politics, religion, etc., often
talk at great length without really knowing on what
points they agree and on what they differ. Indeed,
they often shift from one question to another without
realizing that they have done so. In formal debat es
the question must be stated beforehand; but even here
the chance for confusion is considerable. The best
plan for any one who engages in an argument, oral or
written, is to state to himself, in the plainest ancl simplest form possible, exactly what he is trying to prove.
. Propos!tio~s for debate may be stated as resolutions, as qu cs·
t1ons, or 111 s1111ple declarative sentences. Thus, we may ha\'c,
"Resolved, that the studies of the senior year in the high school
sl.10uld be elective," "Should the studies of the senior year in the
h'.gh school be elective?" "The studies of the senior year in the
~ 11 gh school should be elective." In any case the real proposition
1
s. the .sam e. A supporter of the affirmative should place before
h~s mmd the proposition, "The studies of the senior year in th e
!ugh s~h.ool should be elective"; a supporter of the negative, the
propos1tton, "The studies of the senior year in the high school
should no.t be. elective." Each will be less likely to go astray if
he keeps m nund the exact proposition that he is defending.

In argumentation it is essential that every step be
accurate, or the conclusions will be worthless. It is
especially necessary that the proposition, about whi ch
the whole discussion centers, be expressed so plainl y
as to be free from even possible ambiguities. Often :i
~ingle statement cannot be made sufficiently clear, and
m such cases the proposition must be expounded, usually ~Y. expounding any doubtful terms, sometimes by
repetit10n. See page 20 r.

ARGUil!fENTAT'ION.

219

Burden of Proof and Presumption. - If a supporter
of any proposition is addressing persons who disbelieve
in his position, he must bring forward enough positive
arguments to overcome their hostility. The necessity,
or duty, of doing this is known as the burden of proof.
If he addresses persons who are favorably disposed
toward the proposition, the advantage that he has is
called the presumption. The burden of proof and the
presumption arc thus on opposite sides of a question;
and the burden of proof may be defined as the necessity of overcoming a presumption in favor of the opposing side. Thus, if a writer maintains that the United
States should elect a Republican president, he has the
burden of proof when he addresses a Democrat, the presumption when he addresses a Republican.
The position of the burden of proof should always
be considered in planning an argument. An advocate
on whom the burden of proof rests must bring forward
arguments to outweigh, not only the arguments brought
against him, but also the presumption. One who has
the presumption in his favor needs only to answer
opposing arguments. If he succeeds in doing this, the
weight of the presumption will win his case.
When the object of an argument is to change the
real opinions of the readers, the position of the burden
of proof and the presumption may usually be determined by seeing which side of the question they favor;
since human nature is such that men usually lean
toward one side or the other of a question as soon as
they have even a slight knowledge of it. If the argu-

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220

.INVENTION.

ment is addressed to persons who are supposed to be
impartial, the case is somewhat different. A judge or
a juryman is supposed to lay aside all prejudices and
previously formed opinions, and to render his decision
after weighing only the arguments submitted to him.
In such cases the position of the burden of proof is
determined by a few generally recognized rules. It is
a principle of law that a man is considered innocent
until he is proved guilty; and the burden of proof
legally rests on his accusers, even if he has been captured under circumstances that leave no real doubt of
his guilt. The presumption is also in favor of any
existing institution - the form of government in a
country, the rules of a game, the course of study in a
school. If a debate were held on the question, "l\csolved, that the United States Government should be
in the hands of the Democratic party," the persons
chosen as judges would be supposed to disregard their
own beliefs as Republicans or Democrats, and to give
the presumption to the party in power at the time.
When no other rule applies, it is customary to say
that "He who affirms must prove"; that is, the bur·
den of proof rests on the af-firmative. In a debate on
the question, "Resolved, that fire is more destructive
than water," those who claim this evil distinction for
fire must bring a preponderance of argument, while
their opponents need only take a defensive position.
If the question were changed to " Resolved, that fire is
not more destructive than water," or "Resolved, that
water is more destructive than fire," the relative posi-

ARGUMENTA T'JON.

221

tion of the burden of proof and the presumption would
be changed. It is clear that a burden of proof determined entirely by the statement of the question, and
not by the nature of the ideas under discussion, is only
a technicality.
Kinds of Arguments. - The classification of arguments is a matter for logic rather than for rhetoric,
·and is too difficult to be much considered here. It
may be worth while, hpwever, to mention the division
into inductive and deductive. Inductive arguments are
those in which the order of reasoning is from the less
general to the more general. In inductive reasoriing
the conclusion is larger, or more inclusive than the
premises; hence it is by inductive reasoning that the
sum of knowledge g rows. We say that the sun rises
in the east, because we and other persons have observed
the phenom enon so many days in the past. From these
known cases we reason that there is a general law that
cove;·s unknown cases in the future. We say that the
day following a clear sunset is likely to be fair, because
this has been found to be the case in a majority of
observed instances.
Deduction is the process of reasoning by which we
pass from a more general to a less general truth. In
deduction the conclusion is always less than the premises, and is included in them. This form of reasoning
is used, therefore, not to add to the sum of knowledge,
but to apply, or make available, knowledge already
gained. Thus, if we admit that "Sports that give
moderate exercise are especially adapted for students,"

222

INVENTION.

we may conclude that "Tennis is especially adapted for
students," since this affords moderate exercise.
Deductive arguments are usually shorter than indu ctive arguments of equal conclusiveness, and are to be
preferred when an author is addressing persons who
agree with him on general principles. A minist er
reasoning with members of his own church regarding some point of practice would use deduction, sin ce
his hearers would agree with him on the general principles of their faith. A revivalist exhorting persons to
become Christians often has to use induction, since his
hearers may not agree with him on any general truths
which can be taken as premises. In a discussion r
the proposition, "Manual training should be introdu ced
into high schools," a debater uses induction when he cit es
examples of schools in which manual training courses
have proved valuable, or when he points to individu als
who have received benefits from training received in
such courses. He uses deduction when he starts wit h
such general assumptions as "The high school should
give its pupils whatever will be of greatest practic'll
benefit to them," or "Education should include di:·
cipline of the muscles as well as of the mind," and
then shows that manual training courses do g ive what
is of greatest practical value, or are necessary to dis j.
pline the muscles. Often these general premises mu. t
themselves be supported by inductive arguments.
As a process of reasoning, deduction is more exact
than induction, since if a deductive argument is Ill
proper form the conclusion must be just as tru t: a

ARGUJ11HNTA 7'JON.

223

the premises. On the other hand, the results of deduction can be no more sure than those of induction, since
they rest on g eneral premises, and all our general truths
arc based on induction.
Arguments arc also divided into direct and indirect.
Direct arguments, as the name implies, proceed immediately to the proof of the proposition. Indirect arguments tend to prove the proposition by disproving
its opposite, or by answering objections -that may
be brought against it. Direct arguments are on the
whole briefer and less liable to error, but indirect
arguments are often more striking. In a debate, or
any extended work of argumentation, both are generally used.
Place of the Proposition in an Argument. - It is
usually the best plan to state the proposition at the
beginning of an argument. This gives the reader a
chance to see at once what the writer is about, and
makes it easier for him to grasp the force of each
argument as it is presented. vVhen the subject is
hackneyed, as is the case with some social and political questions, the interest of the reader may be better
gained by withholding the proposition for a little time.
Some preachers prefer to announce sermons on wellworn themes by fanciful titles; and do not show,
even by the text and opening remarks, what the discourse is to be. When the readers are strongly opposed
to the proposition and will not give its supporters a fair
hearing, it may be best to present arguments without
telling what they prove. A reader may thus be led to

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224

INVENTION.

a conclusion that he would have refused to consider if
it had been stated first. Th e cases in which the propo·
sitions should not come first are, however, cornpara·
tively rare.
Order of Arguments.-Th eoretically, the best arrange.
ment of arguments as regards strength is to beg in with
a striking arg um ent to attract the attention, and to close
with the strongest argument of all, by way of climax.
\Ncak arguments, if any arc used, should be placed in
the middle. This order often needs to be chan ged, on
account of other considerations, among which arc th e
following:
( 1) Arguments that tend to make the proposition
see m plausible should be placed first. Th e first step
in convincing a perso n that a thing is true is to
show him that it mig ht be tru e. When a man is
accused of a crime, th e prosec uting attorney endeavors
to show a motive or reason for his committing it .
U nlcss such a motive can be found, conviction is very
diffi cult.
(2) It is usually best to place examples after oth er
arguments that go to prove the truth of a proposition,
because if an example is placed first, the reader may
have difficulty in seeing what it is to prove; ancl he
cannot tell so well whether it is an important example,
or only an exception to a general rule.
If a debater maintained that a college education is co ncluci\'C
to success in business, he should first show how and why such an
education would help a busin ess man, and then cite exampl es o{
college-educated men who had succeeded in business.

ARG UA1ENTA TJON.

225

Some Cautions regarding Arguments. - That the
process of reasoning is a difficult one, and that th e
danger of being inaccurate is very great is shown by
the diverse opinions held regarding religion, politics,
and similar subjects. With exactly th e same facts
before them, thoughtful men draw entirely different
conclusions. No very defi nit e cautions regarding fallacies in argument can be given without th e study of
log ic and relat ed branches of phil osophy. A few ge neral su ggestions foll ow.
1. B e Su re t!tat T erms are always used i1l t!te Same
S ense tlirouglwut a Discussion. - The greatest danger
of confusion arises when the different meanin gs of the
term resemble each other, but yet have important differe nces. Thus " education" is used to mean, sometimes th e knowledge de rived from books and schools,
sometim es any kn owledge, no matter how derived,
sometim es not the knowledge itself but the training
and culture that com e from a proper assimilation of
knowled ge. It would be unfair to say : "The state
should provide facilities for every man to acquire an
education. Travel is a necessary means of acquiring
an education. Therefore the state should provide facilities for every man to travel." A person who gave his
assent to the first proposition would be thinkin g of
"education" in a sense different from that in which
the word is used in th e second. "Athletics " is taken
to mean, sometimes all systematic physical exercise,
sometimes only thos e sports in which there is an element of contest, such as football and boat racing. In

226

INVENTION.

an argument concerning the need of encouraging ath·
letics, there would be a chance for grave misunde rstanding unless the term were consistently used.
2. In arguing from One Case to Anotlzer, be Sure thnl
tile Cases are Similar in Important Respects. - Because
two persons or objects are known to be alike in several
particulars, it is by no means certain that they will be
alike in all. Yet this argument from one case to another
is often the only one that can be employed in reasonin g
on tbe practical affairs of life. When a business ma11
thinks of making an investment, he is guided by th e
success he and other persons have had in similar investments. If his reasoning is to be good, he must deter·
mine exactly what were the causes or conditions of
success or failure in previous cases, and how far these
causes and conditions are present in the case und er
consideration.
Vie may argue that if A, a man of mature age and cxccllcnl
ability, completed a course of study in three years, B, a man or
equal maturity and ability, can complete the same course in the
same time. Here the particulars in which the men agree arc
causes of th e result inferred. It would be foolish to draw the
same conclusion from the fact that B resembled A in height,
color of hair, or place of birth.

3. Be Careful to distinguislz D egrees of Probabilit;•.
-Argumentation is used to establish, not only abstract
conclusions, like those of inathematics, but general laws to which there are exceptions, and even mere possibilities. The mistake is often made of assuming that what
is probably true must be true. If we find ice, it is con-

ARGUMENTATION.

227

elusive proof that the temperature of the water from
which it was formed has fallen below the freezing
point. If we see crape on the door of a house, we
assume that some one within is dead; yet this argument is less conclusive than the former, since the crape
might possibly be put there for some other reason. If
we see a clear sunset, and argue that therefore it will
not rain on the following day, our conclusion is still
less certain, for experience has taught us that signs
of the weather, though they can be depended upon
in the majority of cases, are yet subject to many
exceptions.
Suggestions for Debate. 1 - The most common and
the most helpful form of practice exercise in argumentation is debate on some carefully worded question . In
the conduct of a debate the following cautions may be
of use. Some of them are repetitions of what has been
said on argumentation in general.
1. First, make Certain, and state in tlze Bn'efest Form
for ;1our Own Convenience, exactly w!tat you must prove.
- Do not commit the mistake of taking up unnecessary
matters. If you are assigned the negative of the question, " Resolved, that Lincoln was a greater statesman than Washington," you are simply to prove that
"Lincoln was not a greater statesman than Washington." You are not obliged to show that Washington
was a greater statesman than Lincoln, though if you
can do this it proves that your case is even stronger
1 Jn these suggestions, indebtedness to Genung's Practical Rhetoric is
obvious.

.
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228

ANGUJl!ENTA 1'.lON.

lNVENT.lON.

than is necessary; and you have nothing to do with
Washington as a military commander, or in any relation but that of statesman.
2. Determine the Position of the Burden of Proof !£ this rests on you, prepare to assume the offensive, anc.l
outweigh not only your opponent's arguments, but th e
presumption as well. If the presumption is in your
favor, you really need do nothing but answer the arguments brought against you; but it is best to bring a
reasonable number of direct arguments in favor of your
own side.
3. Do not waste Time on unnecessary or Tril1i11/
Points. - It is an old saying that "There arc two
sides to every question." This means that on any
question worth debating some arguments on each
side are unanswerable. It is best, both as a matt er
of fairness and a matter of policy, for a debater openly
· to concede to his opponents the a rguments that he
cannot answer, and to endeavor to outweigh them by
unanswerable arguments on his own sicle.
Some arguments that might be answered are so trivial that it is not worth while to waste time on them·
and when the tim e of a debater is limited, argument s'
of considerable weight must often be left unanswered
in order to take up those of still greater importance.
4 . Remember that t!te vVimting of a Debate docs 1101
1tcccssarily slzow t!tat a Case is really pro11ed, b1ft 011/_J•
t!tat an Opponent is overconze. -Some men have skill
"to make the worse appear the better reason," but no
amount of wordy plausibility can alter th e truth.

5. Tlte Position of the Answer to an Opponent's A rgu\.

nients, or, as it is teclznically called, the Refutation, in a
Debate, is often a Matter of Considerable Importance. Since the first and the last of any discourse make the
strongest impression, these positions should, as a general rule, be occupied by direct arguments in favor of
the debater's own side ; and refutation should come in
the middle. It usually gives a bad impression, however, for a debater to begin his argum ents without
some reference to the speaker who has preceded him.
Perhaps the best plan, in the majority of cases, is to
refer briefly to the arguments of the preceding speaker,
conceding any that are unanswerable, perhaps answering any that can be disposed of in a word, and indicating that others will be refuted at a later time.
Sometimes, however, the opponent will have made
such a favorable impression on the judges or the
audience that a debater must answer his most telling
arguments before he can secure a hearing for his own
side of the case.
Sug,r:estions for Exercises. - Find inductive arguments to
support the following propositions: (1) In America it is possible
for a man who starts life poor to become wealthy; (z) Honesty
is the best policy, in business or in sports; (3) Perseverance is
the greatest requisite for success in life.
Find deductive arguments to support th e following: (1) Every
person should cultivate the habit of reading good literature; (z)
A system of elective studies will always be popular with students;
(3) Business men would oppose a constitution al amendment providing for an income tax.

231

INVENTION.

ARGUMENTATION.

Write a number of argumentative exercises on subjec ts
approved by your teacher. Designate each argument as induct·
ive or deductive; as direct or indirect. Outline th e essay bcfor ·
you begin to write, and be able to give reasons for the arrange·
ment of arguments.

study of the different kinds of arguments, and will also
show som ething of the method of planning shorter
pieces of argumentation.

230

ii

Hold class debates on questions previously assig ned by you r
teacher.
For both debates and argumentative essays choose, as far as
possible, subjects of present or local interest, not stock question s.
Proposed changes in the course of study or the system of exa mi·
nations in your school, the advisability of entering certain ath lctic
contests, political issues of the day if not too complicated, :i ml
many other subjects that you discuss in everyday conversation
furnish the best possible questions for arg um entation. If a
question is desired on which most of your information must he
gained by reading, the following list may be suggestive : Diel
Bacon write the Shakespeare plays? The advantage of cbs·
sical vs. scientific education. Was John Brown's raid rnor:ill y justi·
fiable? Should the United States gov ernment purchase and cont rol
our railways? Are colleges under the control of reli g ious clenomi·
nations preferable to state institutions? Should the president of
the United States be chosen by popular vote?

ILLUSTRATIVE SELECTIONS.

The simple processes of argumentation may be seen
in almost every conversation on matters concerning
which persons differ. The planning and arran g in ~ of
arguments in such a way as to carry conviction regard .
ing a complex question can be fully illustrated only hy
speeches and writings too long to be quoted here. T he
selections that are given will furnish mat erial for some

A.
The first is a translation of part of the speech delivered by Socrates after his cond emnation to death.
Notice the arrangement, by which the conclusiveness
of the argument is so clearly shown. This illustrates
what is technically known as a dilemma - that is, a
form of argument in which it is shown that one of two
positions must be taken, and that no matt er which of
these is chosen the conclusion is the same.
Sample Questions.- What is the exact proposition that Socrates
is proving? Make a plan of the selection. Classify th e arguments
as inductive or deductive; as direct or indirect. Why does Socrates
mention Homer, Hesiod, Ajax, etc. ? Does Socrates assume the
burden of proof, or does he reason as if he had the presumption?
If a person attempted to overthrow this argument, at what point
would he begin?
And now let us reason in this way, and we shall see what
great hope th ere is that death is a good. For death must be
one of two things: either he who is dead becomes as naught,
and has no consciousness of anyth ing; or else, as men say,
there is a certain change and a removal of th e soul from this
place to some other. Now if there be no consciousness, and
death be like a sleep in which the sleeper has no dreams, then
were it a wonderful gain indeed. For I think that if any one
were called upon to single out that night in which he had slept
so soundly as to have had no dreams at all , and , setting against
it all the oth er nig hts and clays o[ his life, to declare, after clue

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thought, how many had b een better and sweeter than that on e,
- I think, I say, that eve n the great King himself, not to sp eak
of any private person, would find these so few in numb er th :tt
they mig ht easily be counted in comp a rison with all the oth er •s
days and nights of his life. If d eath, therefore, be su ch :ts
this, I call it a g ain; for all eternity, indeed, would thus appear
no longer th a n a sin g le nig ht. But if, on the other hand , death
be a transition to anoth er place, and if it be true, as has bee n
said, that all who have di ed are th ere, what, 0 judg es, could he "°
a g reater good than this? For if a man, being se t free from
those who call themselv es judges here, is to find , on arriving
in Hades, those true judg es who are said to administer judgm ent in the uns een vvorld, - Minos and H.hadamanthus and
Aeacus and Triptol emus, and those other demig ods who were ,.
just in this life, - will his transition thither b e for th e wo rse?
What would not any one of you g ive to converse with O rph eus
and Musaeus and Hesiod and Homer? I, a t leas t, wo ul d
gladly di e many tim es, if this b e true; for to my thinkin g th at
state of b eing would be wonderful indeed, if in it I mig ht have J<>
the chance of me eting with Palamedes and Ajax, th e so n of
Telamon, and other hero es of the old en time wh o di ed throu gh
unrighteous judgment. To compare my · own suffering with
theirs were, methinks, no unpleasing task; but best of all woul1l
it be to examine and question there, as I have clon e here. an d u
discove r who is r eally wise, and who thinks hims elf so but is
not. What, 0 judges, would a man not g ive to C]U estion hi m
who led the great army against Troy, or Ulyss es or Sisyphus or
the thousand others, both men and women, whom on e mi g ht
mention? To dwell and converse with them an rl to qu es ti on
them would indeed be happiness unspeakable! F or assuredl y,
in that world, at all events they do not put you to death for
doinrr
this·' and not only in other things
are th ev
far h;ippicr
b
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J
than we here below, but, if what is said be true, th ey arc th cr ·
immortal for the rest of time.
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B.
Selection B differs entirely in tone from Selection
A, and discusses a very different question. It is a
reply of President Lincoln to persons who criticised
him for issuing the Emancipation Proclamation. Not e,
and if possible ~ccount for, the free use of the rhetorical question. Can you detect any weak points in the
argument?
You dislike the Emancipation Proclamation, and p erhaps
would have it retracted. You say it is unconstitutional. I
think differently. I think that th e Constitution invests its
Commander-in-chief with the laws of war in th e time of war.
The most th at can be said, if so much, is, that the slaves are
property. Is there, has there ever bee n, any ques tion that by
the law of war, property, both of enemi es and fri ends, may be
taken when needed? And is it not needed when ever taking it
helps us or hurts the enemy? Armies, th e world over, destroy
enemies' property when they cannot use it; and even destroy
their own to keep it from the enemy. Civilized b ellig erents do
all in their power to help themselves or hurt the enemy, except
a few things regarded as barbarous or cru el. Among the exceptions are the massacre of vanquished fo es and non-combatants,
male and female. But the proclamation, as law, is valid or ls
not valid. If it is not valid, it needs no retraction. If it is
valid it cannot be retracted, any more than the dead can be
brou~ht to life. Some of you profess to think th a t its retraction would operate favorably for the Union. Why better after
the retraction than before the issue? There was more than a
year and a half of trial to suppress the rebellion b efore the
proclamation was issued, the last one hundred day ~ of which
passed under an expli cit notice that it :vas c01.rnng unl: ss
averted by those in r evolt returning to th e ir allegian ce. 1 he

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INVENTION.

war has certainly progressed as favorably for us since the issue
of the proclamation as before. I know as fully as one can know
the opinions of others, that some of the commanders of our
armies in the field, who have given us our most important victories, believe the emancipation policy and the aid of colored
troops constitute the heaviest blows yet dealt to the rebellion,
and that at least one of those important successes could not
have been achieved when it was but for the aid of black soldiers.
Among ~he commanders holding these views are some who have
never had any affinity with what is called abolitionism, or with
"republican party politics," but who hold them purely as military
op11110ns. I submit their opinions as being entitled to some
weight against the objections often urged that emancipation
and arming the blacks are unwise as military measures, and
were not adopted as such in good faith.
You say that you will not fight to free negroes. Some of
them seem willing to fight for you - but no matter. Fight you,
then, exclusively to save the Union. I issued the proclamation
on purpose to aid you in saving the Union. Whenever you
shall have conquered all resistance to the Union, if I shall urge
you to continue fighting, it will be an apt time then for you to
declare that you will not fight to free negroes. I thought that,
in your struggle for the Union, to whatever extent the negrocs
should cease helping the enemy, to that extent it weakened the
enemy in his resistance to you. Do you think differently? I
thought that whatever negroes can be got to do as soldiers
leaves just so much less for white soldiers to do in saving th e
Union. Does it appear otherwise to you? Dut negroes, lik e
other people, act upon motives. Why should they do anything
for- us if we will do nothing for them? If they stake th eir
lives for us, they must be prompted by the strongest motiv e,
even the promise of freedom. And the promise, being maclc,
must be kept.

ANGUMENTA TJON.

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c.
The third selection is a section from Macaulay's
Essay on Bacon. This is also, on the whole, indirect,
but contains many passages that, taken by themselves,
are direct.
Sample Questions. - Make a plan of the selection. What is
the exact proposition that it supports? Pick out the passages that
are direct arguments; that ·are indirect. What is the proposition
proved in the third paragraph, lines 36-65? Is it proved by
induction or deduction? For what purpose is it proved? Is the
argument of which it forms a premise inductive or deductive?
In general, does Macaulay seem to prefer inductive or deductive
arguments? If you were to reply to this, which would you attack,
his inductive or his deductive arguments? Why?
The grounds on which Mr. Montagu rests the case are two:
the first, that the taking of presents was usual, and, what he
seems to consider as the same thing, not discreditable ; the
second, that these presents were not taken as bribes.
Mr. Montagu brings forward many facts in support of his s
first proposition. He is not content with showing that many
English judges formerly received gifts from suitors, but collects
similar instances from foreign nations and ancient times. He
goes back to the commonwealths of Greece, and attempts to
press into his service a line of Homer and a sentence of Plutarch, 10
which, we fear, will hardly serve his turn. The gold of which
Homer speaks was not intended to fee the judges, but was paid
into court for the benefit of the successful litigant; and the
gratuities which Pericles, as Plutarch states, distributed among
the members of the Athenian tribunals, were legal wages paid 15
out of the public revenue. We can supply Mr. Montagu with
passages much more in point. Hesiod, who like poor Aubrey,
had a "killing decree" made against him in the . Chancery of

'

INVENTION.

Ascra, forgo t decorum so fa r that he ventured to designate
the learned persons who presid ed in that court, as {3acnX~as 20
8wpo¢ayovs . Plutarch and Diodorus have handed down to th e
latest ages the respectable name of Anytus, th e son of J\nth emion , the fir st d efendant who, eluding all th e safeguards whi ch
th e ingenuity of Solon co uld devise, succeeded in corruptin g a
bench of At henian JUd£es. \ Ne are indeed so fa r from burud"JS
.....
in g Mr. Montagu th e aid of Greece, th a t we will g ive him
Rome into th e bargain. \ Ve acknowledge th at th e honourabl e
senators who tri ed Verres received presents which were worth
more th an th e fee-simple of York House and Gorhambury toge th er, and th at the no less honourable sen ators and K ni g hts 3,,
who professed to beli eve in the alibi of Clodius obtain ed marks
s till more ex traordin ary of th e esteem and gratitud e of th e
defend ant. In short, we are ready to admit that, before Baco n's
tim e, and in Bacon's tim e, judges were in th e habi t of rece iving
g ifts from su itors.
3;
But is thi s a d efens e ? We think not. The robberi es of
Cacus and Barabbas are no apology for those of Turpin . Th e
conduct of th e two men of Delia! who swore away th e life of
Naboth has never been cited as an excuse for the p erjuri es of
Oates a nd Dange rfi eld. Mr. Montag u has confou nd eel two •"
things which it is necessary carefull y to distinguish from eac h
other, if we wish to form a co rrec t judg ment of th e charac ters
of men of oth er countri es and other times. Th at an immoral
action is, in a particular society, generally considered as innocent, is a good plea for a n individual who, being one of th at H
society, and having adopted th e notions which prevail amon~
his neig hbors, commits th at action.
But th e circum stance
th at a g reat many people are in th e habit of committing immoral
actions is no plea at all. vVe should think it unjust to call S l.
Lou is a wi cked man, b eca us e in an age in which tolerati on was s·•
generally regarded as a s in, he persec uted hereti cs. We should
think it unjust to call Cowper's fri end, Jobn N ew ton, a hypocri te and monster, b eca use at a tim e when the slave-trad e was
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237

co mm only consid ered by th e most respec table p eople as an
inn ocent an d beneficial tr affic, he went, largely provided with 55
hymn-books and handc uffs on a G uinea voyage. B ut the
circum stance that th ere are twenty thousand thi eves in London,
is no exc use for a fellow who is caught breaking into a shop.
No man is to be blamed for not making discoveries in morality,
for not findinCT out th at somethin g whi ch eve rybody else thinks 6o
b
.
to be good is really bad. But, if a man "does that which .he and
all around him know to be bad, it is no excuse for bun th at
man y ot hers have d one th e same. vV e should b e as~1a~ne~ of
spendinrr so much lim e in ·pointing out so clear a d1st111ct1on,
6
but th a; Mr. Montagu seems altogether to overlook it.
5
Now to a pply th ese prin ciples to the case b efore us; let Mr.
J\lontagu prove th at, in Bacon's age , the practi ces for which
Bacon was p uni shed were ge nerally co ns idered as inno ce nt;
a nd we ad mit that he has made out his point. But this we defy
him to do. T hat these practices were co mmon we adm it. But 7°
th ey were common just as all wi cked ness to wh ich th ere is
stroncr temptation always was and always will be com mon.
The/were com mon just as theft, cheating, perjury, adultery have
always bee n comm on. Th ey were common, not beca.use people
did not know what was righ t, but because people liked to do 75
wha t was ·wrong . They \Vere comm on, thoug h prohibited by
Jaw. They were common, thoug h condem ned by public opinion.
They were common, b ecause in th a t age law and public opinion
united had not sufficient force to res train the g reediness of
powerful and unprincipled mag istrates. They were common, as So
every crime will be common when th e gain to which it leads
is great, and the chance of punishment small. But, th~ug~1
common, they were uni versally allowed to be altogether un1ust1fiable; th ey were in the high est degree odious; and, though
many were guilty of th em, non e h ad the audacity publicly to 85
avow and defend them.
We could g ive a th ousand proofs th at th e op inion then entertained concerning these practices wa s such as we have described.

238

.INVEN7'10LV.

But we will content o urselves with calling a single witn ess,
hon es t Hugh Latimer. His sermo ns, preached more than ,,..
seventy years before the inquiry into Bacon's conduct, abound
wit~1 the sharpest invectiv es against those very practices of
wl.nch Bacon was g uilty, and whi ch, as Mr. Montagu seems to
thrnk, nobody ever considered as blamable till Bacon was
with th e qs
punished for th em. We could easily fill twenty parres
0
hom ely, but just and forcible rhetoric of th e brave old bishop.
\ Ve shall select a few passages as fair specimens, and 110 more
:han fair specimens of the rest. " Omnes diligunt mmtera.
,fhey al! love bribes. Bribery is a princely kind of thi ev in g.
fhey will be waged by the rich, either to give sentence aga inst 100
th e poor, or to put off the poor man's cause. This is th e nolJlc
theft of princes and mag istrates. Th ey are bribe-takers.
No wa days th ey call th em gentle rewards. Let th em leave
th eir colo uring, a nd call th em by th eir Christian name-bribes."
A nd again: " Cambyses was a great emperor, such anoth er as ' "S
our master is. He had many lord deputies, lord presidents,
and lieutenants under him. It is a g reat while ago since I read
the his tory. It chanced he had under him in one of his dominions a briber, a g ift-taker, a g ratifi er of rich men· he followed
gifts as fast as he that followed the pudding, a 1/andmaker in '"'
his offic: to ma~e his son a great man, as th e old saying is:
Happy is the child whose father goe th to th e devil. The cry
of th e poor widow came to th e emperor's ear, and caused him
to flay the judge quick, and laid his skin in th e chair of judgment, that all judges that should give judgme nt afterwar.cl 11 s
should sit in the same skin. Surely it was a goodly sign, a
goodly monument, the sign of the judge's skin. I pray God we
may once see the skin in England." " I am sure," says he in
another sermon, "this is scala i1lfer11i, th e right way to hell , to
be covetous, to take bribes, and p ervert justice. If a judge " "
sl~ould ask me th e way to hell, I would show him thi s way.
F~rst, let him be a covetous man ; let his heart be poisoned
with covetousness. Then let him go a little further and take

ARGUMENTA TJON.

239

bribes; and, lastly, pervert judgment. Lo, here is the moth er,
and the daughter, and th e daughter's daughter. i\. varice is the 125
mother: she brings forth bribe-taking, and bribe-taking perverting of judg ment. There lacks a fourth thing to make up the
mess, which, so help me God, if I were judge, should be ha1lg um
t?tttm, a Tyburn tippet to take with him ; an it were the judge
of the King's Bench, my Lord Chief Justice of England, 130
yea, an it were my Lord Chancellor himself, to Tyburn with
him." We will quote but one more passag e. "He that took
the silver basin and ewer for a bribe, thinketh that it will never
come out. But he may riow know that I know it, a nd I know it
not alone; there be more beside me that know it. Oh, briber 135
and bribery! He was never a good man th at will so take
bribes. Nor can I believe th at he that is a briber will be a
good justice. It will never be merry in E ngland till we hav e
the skins of such. For what neede th bribing where men do
140
th eir things uprig htly?"
This was not the language of a great philosopher who had
made new discoveries in moral and political science. It was
the plain talk of a plain man, who sprang from the body of th e
people, who sympathi zed strongly with th eir wants and their
feelings, and who boldly uttered th eir opinions. It was on 145
account of the fearless way in which stout-hearted old Hugh
exposed the misde ~ds of men in ermine tippets and gold collars,
th a t the Londoners cheered him, as h e walked down the Strand
to preach at Whitehall, struggled for a touch of his gown, and
bawled, "Have at them, Father Latimer." It is plain, from the 150
passages which we have quoted, and from fifty others which we
might quote, that, long before Bacon was born, the accepting
of presents by a judge was known to be a wicked and shameful
act, th at the fin e words under whi ch it was th e fashion to veil
such corr~pt practi ces were even th en see n through by the 155
common people, that the distinction on whi ch Mr. Montagu
insists between compliments and bribes was even then laughed
at as a mere colouring. There may be some oratorical exaggera-

.INVENTION.

ARCUilfENTA .?YON.

,I
I

tion in what Latimer says about the Tyburn tipp et and th e si.c;n
of the judge's skin; but the fact that he ventured to use such ""'
expressions is amply sufficient to prove that the gift-taking
judges, the receivers of silver basins and ewers, were rcga rcl e1l
as such pests of the commonwealth that a venerabl e ·-divin e
mig ht, without any breach of Christian charity, publi cly pray to
God for their detection and their condign punishment.
,1,s
Mr. Montagu tells us, most justly, that we ought not to
transfer the opinions of our age to a former age. But he ha s
himself committed a greater error than that against which he
has cautioned his readers. Without any evidence, nay, in th e
face of the strongest evidence, he ascribes to the people of a 1 1,,
form er age a set of opinions which no people ever held. But
. any hypothesis is in his view more probable than that Bacon
should have been a dishonest man. We firmly b eli eve that,
if papers were to be discovered which should irresistibly pro\·c
that Bacon was concerned in the poisoning of Sir Thomas 1 75
Overbury, Mr. Montagu would tell us that, at the beginning
of the seventeenth century, it was not thought improper in a
man to put arsenic into the broth of his friends, and that we
ought to blame, not Bacon, but the age in which he livecl.
But why should we have recourse to any other evidence, 1M
when the proceeding against Lord Bacon is itself the Lies t
evidence on the subject? When Mr. Montagu tells us that
we ought not to transfer the opinions of our age to Dacon 'sage,
he appears altogether to forget that it was by men of Bacon's
own age that Bacon was prosecuted, tried, convicted, and sen- 1 ~ s
tenced. Did not they know what their own opinions were ?
Did not they know whether they thought the taking of gifts liy
a judge a crime or not? Mr. Montagu complains bitterly that
Bacon was induced to abstain from making a defence. But, if
Bacon's defense resembled that whi ch is made for him in th e ,,,,
volume before us, it would have been unnecessary to trouble the
Houses with it. The Lords and Commons did not want Baco n
to tell them the thoughts of their own hearts, to inform them that

they did not consider such practices as those in w~1ich they. l~ad
detected him as at all culpable. Mr. Montagu s propos1t1on 1 95
may indeed be fairly stated thus : - It was very hard that
Bacon's contemporaries should think it wrong in him to do
what they did not think it wrong in him to do. Hard indeed;
and withal somewhat improbable. Will any person say that the
Commons who impeached Bacon for taking presents, and the 2 00
Lords who sentenced him to fine, imprisonment, and degradation for taking presents, did not know that the taking of presents
was a crime? Or, will any person say that Bacon did not know
what the whole House of Commons and the whole House of
Lords knew? Nobody who is not prepared to maintain one 205
of these absurd propositions can deny that Bacon committee\
what he knew to be a crime.
It cannot be pretended that the Houses were seeking occasion to ruin Bacon, and that they therefore brought him to
punishment on charges which they themselves knew to be 210
frivolous. In no quarter was there the faintest indication of a
disposition to treat him harshly. Through the whole proceeding
there was no symptom of personal animosity or of factious
violence in either House. Indeed, we will venture to say that
no State-Trial in our history is more creditable to all who took 21 5
part in it, either as prosecutors or judges. The decency, the
gravity, the public spirit, the justice moderated but not unner~ecl
by compassion, which appeared in every part of the transaction ,
would do honour to the most respectable public men in our own
times. The accusers, while they discharged their duty to their 220
constituents by bringing the misdeeds of the Chancellor to
light, spoke with admiration of his many eminent qualities.
The lords, while condemning him, complimented him on the
ingenuousness of his confession, and spared him the humiliation
of a public appearance at their bar. So strong was the con- 22 5
taaion of good feeling that even Sir Edward Coke, for the first
tiJ~e in his life, behaved like a gentleman. No criminal ever
had more temperate prosecutors than Bacon. No criminal ever

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ARGUll1ENTAT.lON.

had more favorable judges. If he was convicted, it was because
it was impossible to acquit him without offering the grossest ' l"
outrage to justice and common sense.
Mr. Montagu's other argument, namely, that Bacon, though
he took g ifts, did not take bribes, seems to us as futile as that
which we have considered. Indeed, we might be content to
leave it to be answered by the plainest man among our readers. ' H
Demosthenes noticed it with contemp t more than two th ousand years ago. Latimer, we have seen, treated this sophistry
with similar disdain. "Leave colouring," said he, "and call
these things by their Christian name, bribes." Mr. Montagu
attempts, somewhat unfairly, we must say, to represent the , ~
presents which Bacon received as similar to the perquisites which
suitors paid to the members of the Parliaments of France. The
French magistrate had a legal right to his fee ; and the amount
of the fee was regulated by law. Whether this be a good mode
of remunerating judges is not the question. But what analog-y 'H
is th ere between payments of this sort and the presents whi ch
Bacon received, presents which were not sanctioned by law,
which were not made under the public eye, and of which the
amount was regulated only by private bargain between the
magistrate and the suitor?
Again, it is mere trifling to say that Bacon could not have
meant to act corruptly because he employed the agency of men
of rank, of bishops, privy councillors, and members of Parliament ; as if the whole history of that generation was not full of
the low actions of high people; as if it was not notorious that 'SJ
men, as exalted in rank as any of the decoys that Bacon
employed, had pimped for Somerset and poisoned Ovcrbury.
But, says Mr. Montague, these presents "were made openly
and with the greatest publicity." This would indeed be a strong
argument in favour of Bacon. But we deny the fact. In one, ,,,.,
and one only, of the cases in which Bacon was accused of
corruptly receiving gifts, does he appear to have receiv ed a
gift publicly. This was in a matter depending between the

Company of Apothecaries and the Company of Grocers. Bacon,
in his Confession, insisted strongly on the circumstance that 265
he had on this occasion taken a present publicly, as a proof
that he had not taken it corruptly. Is it not clear that, if he
had taken the presents mentioned in the other charges in the
same public manner, he would have dwelt on this point in his
answer to those charges? The fad that he insists so strongly 270
on the publicity of one particular present is of itself sufficient to
prove that the other presents were not publicly taken. Why he
took this present publicly and the rest secretly, is evident. He
on that occasion acted openly, because he was acting honestly.
He was not on that occasion sitting judicially. He was called 275
in to effect an amicable arrangement between two parties.
Both were satisfied with his decision. Both joined in making
him a present in return for his trouble. Whether it was quite
delicate in a man of his rank to accept a present under such
circumstances, may be questioned. But there is no ground in 280
this case for accusing him of corruption.
Unhappily, the very circumstances which prove him to have
been innocent in this case prove him to have been g uilty on the
other charges. Once, and once only, he alleges that he received
a present publicly. The natural inference is that in all the other 285
cases mentioned in th e articles against him he received presents
secretly. When we examine the single case in which he alleges
th at he received a present publicly, we find that it is also the
single case in which th ere was no gross impropriety in his
receiving a present. ls it then possible to doubt that his reason 290
for not receiving other presents in as public a manner was that
he knew that it was wrong to receive them?
One argument still remains, plausible in appearance, but
admitting of easy and complete refutation. The two chief
complai nants, Aubrey and Egerton, had both made presents to 295
the Chancellor. But he had decided against them both. Therefore, h e had not received th ose presents as bribes. "The
complaints of his accusers were,'' says Mr. Montagu, "not

ARGUMENTA TJON.

244

245

INVENTION.

that the gratuities h ad, but that th ey had not influenced
1-.o
Uacon's judgment, as he had decided against th em."
The truth is, that it is precisely in this way that an ex tensive
system of corruption is ge nerally detected. A person wh o, by
a bribe, has procured a decree in his favour, is by no mea ns
likely to come forward of his own accord as an accus er. I le is
content. He has his quid jwo quo. He is not im pelled eitha J"'i
by interested or by vindictive motives to bring th e transaction
before the public. On th e contrary, he has a lm os t as stron ~
motives for holding his tong ue as the judge himself can hav~.
But wh en a judge practises corruption, as we fea r that Bacon
practised it, on a large scale, a nd has many ao-ents loo kin i..: out , ,o
in different quarters for prey, it will sometim~ happen th~t he
will b e bribed on both sides. It will som etim es happen that
he will rece ive money from suitors who are so obviously in the
wrong th a t he canno t with dece ncy do anything to sen ·e th em.
Thus he will now and then be forced to pronoun ce a.t.:ainst a J•S
person from whom he h as received a present; and he mak es
th at person a dea dly enemy. The hundreds who have got wh at
th ey paid for remain qui et. It is the two or three "·-ho h:w c
paid, and have nothing to show for th eir money, wh o arc nois\'.
_ The memorabl e case of th e Goezmans is an exa mple of thi~.... >""
Beaumarchais had a n important suit depending before th e
P arliam ent of Paris. M. Goezman was th e judge on whom
chiefly th e decision depend ed. It was hinted to Beaum:m.: hais
that Madame Goezman might be propitiated by a prese nt. I le
accordingly offered a purse of gold to th e lady, wh o recei\·ed it ,,s
g raciously. There can be no doubt that, if the dec isio n of th e
co urt had bee n favourable to him, th ese thin .~s would never
have been known to th e world. But he lost his cau se. Alm o~ l
tl~e whol e sum whi ch he had expended in bribery was im mc.
d1 ately refund ed ; and those who had disappointed him prob- JV'
al.)ly thoug ht that h e would not, for th e mere gra tifi cation of
his malevolence, mak e public a transacti on which was di scrr dit·
able to him self as well as to th em. They kn ew littl e of him.

He soon taught th em to curse the day in whi ch they had dared
to trifl e with a man of so revengeful and turbulent a spirit, of 33 5
such dauntless effrontery, and of such emin ent talen ts for controv ersy and satire. He compelled the p arliament to put a
degrad ing stigma on M. Goezman. He drove Madam e Goezman to a conve nt. Till it was too late to pause, his exc ited passions did not suffer him to remember that he could effec t th eir 34°
ruin only b y disclosures ruinous to him self. vVe could g ive
other instanc es. But it is needless. No person well acquainted
with human nature can fail to perceive that, if th e doctrine for
which Mr. Montagu contends were ad mitted, society would be
deprived of almost the only chance which it has of detec ting th e 345
corrupt practices of judges.

PERSUASION.

CHAPTER V.
PERSUASION.

Definition. - Persuasion has already been defin ed
(page 216) as that form of composition the aim of whi ch
is to induce the hearers to act. Persuasion may be
written ; but it is most commonly spoken, the typical
form being the oration.
How Men are persuaded. -Writers on mental sc ien ce
classify the faculties or powers of the mind und er th ree
heads : the intellect, or reason; the feelin gs, or cmo.
tions; and the will. The will exercises direct con t rol
over all actions not purely involuntary. We perfo rm
any action because we will to do so. It is to the wi ll,
th erefore, that persuasion is address ed.
Fortunately, however, no person can influ ence the
will of another person directly, unless, perhaps, hy
hypnotism. The will can be reached only throu gh the
intellect or the emotions, usually both. A very strong
emotion may sometimes produce blind, unreasoni ng
action, though this can hardly be called volunt ary.
The intellect probably never brings about an act ion
without the aid of some emotion, such, for example, a.11
a sense of duty. In every sane act, from the grea t " t
to the least, the influence of th ese two fa c ulti es may be
traced.

Our forefath ers signed th e Declaration of Independence because, ( 1) they felt a patriotic desire to serve their country, ( z)
their intellects were convinced that this act was the most effective
' means of rendering such a service. You probably spent your last
' half holiday in a certain way, (1) because you desired to have the
most pl easure that the day would afford, (z) you were convinced
that the method you chose was the one that would g ive this maximum of pleas ure. Possibly, how ever, th e ruling desire was of a
different nature - to give some one else pleasure, or to regard the
wish es of your parents. Some desire th ere must have been, unless
your method of spending the clay was literally forced upon you.

Of the two faculties, intellect and emotions, the latter is the more closely connected with. the will. We
all do things that we desire to do, even when our
reason tells us that they are not best ; and we all
neglect to do things that we know we ought. In other
words, our feelings are able to overcome our intellect
when there is a contest between them.
To sum up, we may say that the object of a persuasive speaker (or writer) is to reach the wills of his
hearers through their intellects and their emotions. It
is not always necessary, however, for an orator to
appeal to both these faculties, since one or the other
may already be in the proper state. Sometimes men
are convinced of what is right, but do not act because
of laziness or apathy. In such a case all that is necessary is to arouse their feeling of duty. Sometimes
persons are desirous of a certain end, but in doubt
how they can best attain it. To induce th em to act,
their intellects must be convinced that the course proposed is th e most advantageous one.

I'

INVENTION.

In persuasion, the intellect is usually reached by
argumentation; and the interdependence of persu :'l sion
and argumentation is so great that one is someti nH:s
classed as a variety of the other. The fe elin gs arc m1 >Sl
often appealed to by means of narration and descri1:..
tion - a story or a word picture arouses the emoti on.
of an audience more quickly than docs any oth er cl e\'i cc.
It is a common experience that stron g emotion and
strong intellectual effort arc not easily possible t ogether.
For example, it is hard to be very an g ry and t o ma tcr
a difficult lesson at th e same time. Either th e fr cJ.
in g of anger dies out as the att ention is turned t o th •
lesson, or the lesson suffers from the presence of the
emotion. It is important, therefore, that in persu a ion
th e emotions be not so strongly arous ed as to int erfe re:
with th e clear workings of the intellect, or th e int ellect
so taxed as to drive away the emotions that arc des ired.
Argum ents used in persuasion should not be so Jont
nor so abstruse as to absorb all the h earer's mcnt. I
energy. The briefer and more obvious forms of argu·
mcnts, such as thos e from example, arc best suit ed ( r
an oration. The fact that persuasion is usually spoken
rather than writt en is another reason for the use of
lucid and obvious arguments.
Since an orator cannot employ the most exhaustive
and conclusive processes of argum ent, it is often nee •
sary for him to ask his h earers to take some statement _
on trust. For this reason, as well as for oth ers, he
should have the sympathy and confid ence of hi s hearer •
M en readily beli eve statements made and con clus ion

PERSUASION.

249

drawn by a person toward whom they are favorably ~is­
posed, but they submit to close scrutiny ~very asse.rt10n
of one whom they dislike. The reputation of bemg a
great orator is often a disadvantage, since it le~ds th e
hearers to resolve that they will not be moved by flights of
eloquence. A reputation for ability in all other dir~ctions,
an cl for hon esty and candor, is greatly to be desired.
The intellectual and the emotional elements of an
oration should usually be intermixed, not placed in
separate sections of the discourse ; in general, the first
part of an oration should contain more of the intellectua!,
the latter part more of the emotional element. This
rule may be departed from in case it is necessary to
arous e persons from apathy, or to overcome hostile
emotions before an appeal to the intellect can be successfully made.
Kinds of Oratory. - What has been said applies
especially to typical oratory - that which ~ims
produce definite, immediate action. Persuasive discourse is not all of this sort. Three kinds, or grades,
may for convenience be distinguished.
.
( r) The first is what has been called the typical form
_that which is intended to move the hearers to some
definite and usually immediate action. To this class
beloncr addresses in parliamentary bodies urging the
b
.
hearers to support some measure; campaign speeches
in which voters are urged to cast their ballots for some
particular man or party at a coming elec.tio.n ; an~ ~er­
mons that exhort men to adopt the Christian religion,
or to unite with a certain church.

:o

lNrENTJON

(2) Oratory of the n ex t grade is intended to call forth

habitual actions, or actions at no specified time. Thu s,
a preacher may exhort his hearers to be truthful, uot
on any especial occasion, but always; or a Fourth of
J_uly orator may take for his theme, "Show your dcvo.
t10n to your country whenever opportunity arises."
Oratory of this kind is less likely to be effect iv ',
because if is hard to make on the hearers an imp rl.'S·
sion that will last until occasion for action comes.
(3) The third grade of oratory includes th ose form s
of composition that are ranked as oratory rather fro m
their form than because th ey have or are intend ed 1
have a.ny real influence on the will. Such arc many
after-dmner speeches, and most school and college
orations. These adopt the form and mann er of orat ory,
but seldom induce the hearers to take any action.
The Diction of Oratory. - The notion is common
that the difference between an oration and an essay is
largely one of style; and that the oration must co nt ain
a consic~erable numb er of figures of speech and flowery
expressions. This id ea is entirely wrong. Th e diff crcnce between an essay and an oration is e ntirely one o(
object, not of form; and an oration should di ffer in
diction from other compositions only as the subject :ind
occasion call for a difference. Persuasion contain s an
:motional element, and often this is naturally cxprcs cJ
111 somewhat heightened language ; but thnc is no
reason why oratory and high-flown diction should he
considered as inseparable. In persuasion cn:11 more
than in other kinds of dis co urse, th e onlv safe nil c• i~

PERSUASJON.

251

to adopt that manner of expression which will seem
perfectly natural to the h earers.
Suggestions for Oration-Writing. - It must be borne
.in mind that school orations are at a disadvantage in
bein g only practice exercises. The true orator must,
in order to do his best, have something at stake, or at
least be vitally interested in the end that he wishes to
attain. The writer of a school oration often lacks this
interest in what he is saying, and as a r esult his phrases,
no matter h ow well turned, sound hollow and unreal.
The first su ggestion, th erefor e, in the choice of an
oration-subject, is to take something in which you
are really interested - som ething on which you would
like to carry a message to the world if you were in a
positi on to do so. If you make such a choice, you
may succeed in writing well, even though you know
that your production can have little real e ffect.
A second sugges tion is that you choose a subject
that is capable of an oratorical treatm ent. Avoid
writing an exposition or a narrative and calling it an
oration. Th e theme of persuasion can always be expressed in an imp erative sent ence. If you start with a
biographical subject, like "George Washin gton " or
"Benedict Arnold," your real message must be an
exhortation to action - perhaps "Be patriotic," like
th e one character, or "Avoid disloyalty," as the other
did not. Facts regarding the life of a man may be
given for the sake of the lessons they teach, but not
for the ir own sake. If the subject is some social or
economic nroblem. tbe oration must be, not simply an

'

·,I

I

.INVENT.ION.

exposition of conditions and theories, but an exhortation to do whatever the speaker believes should be
clone.
The final caution is a repetition of what has alread y
been said : Avoid a strained or high-flown style. · Because Patrick Henry or Daniel Webster, speaking in
important crises, on questions of great moment, was
compelled to use striking figures and high-soundin ~
periods, there is no reason that you should do the sam e
in discussing a less weighty question at a less tryin~
time. If you feel your subject, some of the emotional
parts of your discourse will naturally be expressed in
impassioned language ; but you should use no expression the force of which you do not feel.

ILLUSTRATIVE SELECTIONS.

The selections that follow are necessarily brief. If
the time of the class permits, longer orations of Burke,
Webster, and others should be studied.

A.
The first selection, a well-known speech ascribed to
Patrick Henry, illustrates oratory of the first cbss ·that which aims to produce definite, immediate action.
H enry had introduced in the Virginia convention of
I 77 5 a set of resolutions providing that militia be rai sccl
and that "this colony be immediately put in a posture
of defense." The speech was in support of these rcso-

l'ERSUASJON.

253

lutions, and its theme, addressed to the members of the
.
convention, was "Vote for these measures." A t t 111s
tim e, though all felt that a crisis was approaching for
America, independ ence, or even armed res istance, had
been little talked of ; and the idea of open conflict with
the mother country was abhorrent to most Americans.
A strong appeal to the emotions was necessary, therefore, to overcome this preconceived hostility to the
speaker's object; but the intellectual element is not
wanting from the oration.
The word " Sir," addressed to the presiding officer,
is used throu ghout the speech, in accordance with a
custom now almost obsolete. In analyzing the oration,
the student should rernei11ber that it was called forth by
an extraordinary crisis, and th at the occasions for the
use of so intense a type of oratory are very rare.
Sample Questions. - Make a plan of th e oration. Distinguish
throughout the selection the portions addressed to the intellect from
those addressed to the emotions. Comment on the first parag raph.
\i\Thy was it best to begin in a quiet manner? ·w hat was probably
gained by adopting, at the outset, a conciliatory attitude toward
the speaker's opponen ts? vVhat kinds of arguments are used in
the address to the intellect? What emotions do es th e speaker try
to arouse? vVhy d id he not beg of hi s hearers to vote for the
resolutions, instead of contenting himself with saying what he
should do?
Pick out the allusions to the Bible. What was the probal)le
effect of th ese, and of tbe frequent referen ces and appeals to
Goel? From what source is the expression, lin es roo-ro r, tak en?
Comment on its use.

254

/NVENTION.

PERSUASION.

Pick out and comment upon the fig ures f
I
a source of wea kn ess or of stretio-th .
o specc 1. Arc thcr
rhetorical ques tion used so fre( ue~tl !o th e. oration? \Vh y is the•
C han<Ye
. f I
. l
y. Is it used too fn:qtJ ·ntly?
o some o t 1e ques tion s to de I - t'
the effect.
c a1a tve sente nces, a11cl note
N
I.
. .
.
o ma n t irnks more hi <r hl than I I
of the patnot1s111 , as well as abilities f ti
.o y
'o
men who h
.
' o ie very worthy gcntlcave Just addressed the hou se But l'ff
often see th e same subject in different l~a ;1 t .
c I . ere nt men
hope that it will
b
.
o s' and, th erefo re, I
me n, if, e ntertaini;~~\s ~ thougl_it_ disrespectful to th ose gentle- s
s ite to ti . - I b <
do, op11110ns of a charac ter very opposhall speak fo ti
1e11 s,
without
.
. . <
. r 1 my sentiments freely and
r es e1ve. This is no tim e f
. .
before th e H
·
.
or ceiemony. 1 he qu es ti on
ouse is one of awful mom ent to this co untrv
F
J.
or
my own p a rt I co nsider it as n I .
freedom or slave
l . <
ot img less th a n a ques ti on of "'
<
ry ; anc 111 proportio t ti
s b. t
l
n o ie ma <rnitudc of th e
u. Jee oug it to be the freedom of the debate o 1t . I .
is 0 11 y in
this way th a t we
·
1
< • : •
can 1ope to arrive at truth , and fulfil the
o1eat respo ns1b1ltty which we hold t 0 C d
I
Should I k
b k
.
JO · anc our CO tJntrr.
. .
eep ac my op mions at such a tim e ti . ul f,.
of <Y1v1ng offen
I I Id
, '' ou..., ' car •s
o
se, s lOu co nsi der myself as g uilty o f ~rc ·1 so n
:~i~l:r:~:; cotn~ryi and of an ac t of disloya lty towa rd the maJ~sty
' w 11c 1 rev er e above all earthly kinrrs
Mr p
·d
· ·
t;, · •
. res1 ent, it IS natural to man to indul <re in th e 'll .·
of hope
vVe ar
t
I
b
I us1ons
and list~n to th: :o:p ~~ s/ut our eye~ agains t a painful truth, ~.,
beasts. Is ti . I g . . t 1at ~yren, till sh e tra nsforms us into
11s tie pat t of wise men, enga<red in a er
arduous stnw<Y]e f
l'b
?
t:>
' ,..,rea t a nd
oo
or I erty . Are we disposed to be of the
b
num er of those who, having eyes see not and I .
1av111g cars
l ,
I
·
'
' '
s1<~l:~1.t~1:1~'? tl~ t'.1111g s wl~ich so nearly concern th eir t c;np~r;·,j :s
~~1 my pa1 t, whatever anguish of spirit it nn .
cos t, I am w1Il1ng to know th e whole truth . to know ti
' j
and to provide for it.
'
1c worst
MR . PHESIDENT. -

(T .

th e\ have bfut one l~mp by which my feet are g uid ed ; a nd th a t is
amp o exp en ence
I I
f
.
.
rnow o no way of Judg ing of the

Jo

255

future but b y the past. And judg ing by th e past, I wish to know
what there has been in th e conduct of th e Dri tish ministry for the
last ten years, to justify those hopes with which gentlemen have
been pleased to solace themselves and th e House ? Is it that
insidious smile with which our petition has been lately received?
Trust it not, sir; it will prove a snare to your feet. Suffer not
yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. Ask yourselv es how this
g racious recepti on of our petition comports with th ese warlike
preparations which cover our waters and darken our la nd. Are
fl ee ts and armies necessary to a work of love and reconciliati on? Have we shown ourselves so unwilling to be reconciled,
that force must be called in to win back our love? Le t us not
deceive ourselves , sir. These are th e implements of war and
subjugation; th e last arguments to which kings resort. I ask
ge ntlem en, sir, what means this martial array, if its purpose b e
not to force us to submission? Can gentlemen assign any
other possible motives for it? H as Great Britain any enemy,
in this q uarter of the world, to call for all this acc umulation of
navies and armies? No, sir, she has none. Th ey are meant
for us ; they can be meant for no other. Th ey are sent over to
bind a nd rivet upon us those chains which the British ministry
have been so long forging. And what have we to oppose to
th em? Shall we try argument? Sir, we have been trying that
for the last ten years. Have we anything new to offer on th e
subject? Nothing. W e have h eld th e subject up in every
light of which it is capable; but it has been all in vain. Sh all
we resort to entreaty and humble supplication? vVhat terms
shall we find which have not been already exhausted? Let us
not, I beseech you, sir, deceive ourselves longer. Sir, we have
done everything that could be clone, to avert the storm which is
now coming on. We have petitioned ; we have remonstrated ;
we have supplicated; we have prostrated ourselves before the
throne, and have implored its interpos ition to arrest the tyrannical h a nds of the ministry and parliament. Our petitions have
been slighted; our remonstranc es have produced additional

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

/ NVEN 7'JDN.

violence and insult; our supplications have bee n disrega rd ed i
and we hav e b ee n spurned, with contempt, from th e foot o f th e
throne. In vain, after these things, may we indulge th e fond
hope of peace and reconciliation. There is no longer any room
for hope. If we wi sh to be free - if we mean to preser\' e i"
in violate those ines tima ble privileges for whi ch we ha ve been so
long contending- if we mean not basely to abandon th e noble
struggle in which we hav e been so long engaged, and which we
have pledged ourselves never to abandon until the oforious
obj ec t of our contest shall be obtained, we must figl ;~ ! J\n 75
app eal to arms and to the Goel of Hosts is all that is left us !
Th ey tell us , sir, that we are weak; un able to cope with so
formidable an adversary. But wh en shall we be stronger?
\~ ill it be the nex t week, or the next year? Will it be when
we are totally disarmed, and wh en a British g uard shall be i:, ,
stationed in every house? Shall we gather streng th by irresoluti on and in ac ti on? Shall we acquire the means o f effec tual
rrrr i1w th e
res istance, by lying supinely on our backs ' and hu bb
......
.
e bound
hav
shall
enemies
d elusive phantom of hope, unti l our
us hand a nd foot? Sir, we are not weak, if we mak e a proper s5
use of th e means whi ch th e Goel of nature hath placed in .our
power. Three millions of p eople, armed in the holy cause of
lib erty, and in such a country as that whi ch we possess, arc
invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us.
Besides, s ir, we shall not fi g ht our battles alon e. Th ere is a ?•
jus t God who pres ides over th e d es tini es of nati o n~ ; and who
;vill raise up friends to fight our battles for us. The battle, s ir,
is not to the strong alone ; it is to th e vigilant, the active, th e
brave. B esides, sir, we ha ve no elec tion. ]f we were l>asc
enough to d es ire it, it is now too late to re tire fro m th e co nt es t. 'I S
There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery! O ur chain s
are forged! Th eir clanking may be heard on th e plains of
Boston ! The war is in ev itable - and le t it come! I repea t
it, sir, let it come !
It is in vain, sir, to extenuate th e matter. Ge ntlem en may 100

I'ERSUASJON.

257

cry p eace, peace - but there is no peace. The war is actually
begun! The next gale th at sweeps from th e north will bring
to our ears th e clash of resounding arms ! Our brethren are
already in th e field! Why stand we here idle? ·what is it that
ge ntlemen wish? \Vhat would th ey hav e ? Is life so d ear, or
peace so sweet, as to be purchased at th e price of chains and
slavery? Forbid it, Almighty Goel! l know not what course
o th ers may take; but as for me, g iv e me liberty, or give me
d ea th !

rn5

B.
The second selection is the concluding paragraphs of
George vVilliam Curtis's address on The Duty of the
American Scholar to Politics and to the Times, delivered before th e students of Wesleyan University,
Middletown, Conn., in the summer of I 8 56. Before
taking up the oration, recall to mind the political
events of the preceding year, and the issues before th e
people in the presidential campaign that was then at
its height.
Th e greater part of the address was historical and
argum entative, and reviewed the questions of the day
in a manner suited to the class of hearers for whom it
was intended. Almost all of the appeal to the emotions is included in the few paragraphs here reprinted.
The selection must be judged, not by itself, but as the
conclusion of a long address.
Sa mple Questions. - Whi ch of th e three kinds of oratory is
this? \ Vhat is th e th eme ? Is it anywhere d efi nitely expressed?
Comment on the kinds of arguments in the first parag raph, rem embering that these are really summaries of what has been stated or

.IN VE N T.I ON.

PER SUAS.!ON.

implied earli er in th e address. vVhat kind s of arg um ents :l rc
used in th e succeedin g paragraphs? vVhy? \ Vhy docs l\ l r.
Curti s continually speak of himself as a yo ung man, and use the
pronoun " we " wheneve r poss ible ? Wh a t emoti ons d ocs he try
to aro use? \ Vhat is gained by th e refere nces to th e li cautr of
1\ l icldletow n a nd th e surroun d ing co un try ? vVhy docs th e spca.k cr,
in th e nex t to th e last paragraph , make a direct cx lrn rt at i\ln to
ac ti on, while Patri ck He nry carefull y avo ids ;rn y su ch a 1~ p c :d ?
l'i ck out all p assages that are calculated to appeal especiall y to
college s tuclen ts.
D o yo u ask me our d uty as sch olars? Gentlemen, th o11g ht,
whi ch th e sc holar represents, is life and li berty. Th ere is no
intell ec tual or moral life with out liber ty. T herefor e, as a man
must breath e and see befo re he ca n study, th e scholar mu st
have lib erty, first of all ; and as th e A meri can scholar is a man
and has a vo ice in his own go vernment, so his interes t in poli ti·
cal affa irs mus t precede all oth ers. H e must b uild hi s hou se
before he can live in it. H e must be a perpetual inspirati on of
fr eedom in politi cs. H e mus t recog nize th at th e intcll i.t:ent
exercise of politi cal rig hts which is a pri vilege in a monarcll\·, ,,,
is a duty in a rep ubli c. If it clash with his ease, hi s rc ti r~­
ment, hi s tas te, his s tudy, let it clash , but let him do hi s dt1 t\'.
Th e course of eve nts is in cessant, and wh en th e good dee d .is
slig hted, th e bad d eed is done.
Young scholars, youn g A mericans, young men, we arc all •s
called upon to do a g rea t duty. N obody is releas ed from it.
It is a work to b e done by hard s trok es, and everyw here. I src
a rising enthus iasm, but enthusiasm is no t an electio n ; and I
hear ch eers from the h eart, but che ers are not vo tes. Ev l' ry
man mus t la bor with his ne i ~ h bo r-in th e s tree t at th e 11! 0\ll•li , .,
at th e bench , early a nd late, a t home and abro ad. Ge nerally
we are concerned , in elec ti ons, with the measures of g overn ment. Thi s time it is with the essenti al prin cip le of .~ov c rn m c nt
itself. T herefore th ere must be no doubt ab out our leader. I l e
<..J

'

.....

'

259

must not prevaricate, or stand in th e fog, or us e term s to court 2 5
popular fav or, whi ch every demagogue and traitor h as always
us ed . If he says he favo rs th e interest of th e whole country,
let him fra nkly say wh eth er h e thinks th e interest of th e whole
country de ma nds th e extension of slave ry. If he declares for
the U ni on, let him say wheth er he m ea ns a U ni on for freedom 3°
or fo r slavery. If h e swear by th e Constitution, let him state,
so th at th e humblest fr ee laborer can hear a nd understand ,
wh ether he believes th e Constitution means to prefer slave labor
to fr ee labor in th e national representati on of th e T erritori es.
Ask him as an hones t man , in a great cri sis, if he IJ e fo r th e 35
U ni on, th e Consti tution, and slavery extension, or fo r "Liberty
a nd uni on , now and fo rever, one and inseparable."
Scholars, you would like to loiter in th e pleasant pa ths of
study. Every man loves his ease - loves to please his tas te.
B ut into how many homes along this lovely valley cam e th e news 1°
of Lexing ton a nd Bun ker Hill eig hty years ag o ; and yo ung men
lik e us, studious, fo nd of leisure, young lovers , yo ung husbands, young bro th ers, and sons, k new th at th ey must fors ake
the wooded hillsid e, th e ri ver meadows golden with harv est, th e
twili brrht walk alon£ the ri ver, th e su mm er Sund ay in th e old
45
.
church , p arents, wife, child , mis tress, and go away to un certam
war. P utna m heard th e call at his ploug h, and turned to go
without waiting . ·wooster heard it and obeyed.
Not Jess lovely in those cl ays was this p eac eful valley, not
Jess soft thi s summer air. Life was as cl ear, and love as beauti- 5°
ful, to those youn g men as to us who stand upo n th eir graves.
But b ec ause th ey were so dear and b eauti ful th ose men went
out, b ravely to fi g ht for th em and fall. Th roug h th ese very
streets th ey march ed, wh o never return ed. Th ey fell and were
buried ; but th ey can never di e. Not swee ter are the flow ers 55
th at make your valley fair, not g re ener are th e pin es th at g ive
your riv er its name, tha n th e memory of th e b rave men v~ l10
died fo r freedo m. A nd yet no v ictim of th ose d ays, sleepmg
und er th e ,a..,., ree n sod of Conn ec ti cut, is more trul y a martyr of
~

INVENTION.

Liberty than every murd ered man whose bones li e bleaching 6n
in this summer sun upon th e silent plains of Kansas.
Gentlemen, while we read history we make history. Bcc:rnse
our fath ers fought in this great cause, we must not hope to
escape fighting. Because two thousand years ago Leo nidas '
stood against Xerxes, we must not suppose that Xerxes was t.s
slain, nor, thank God ! that Leonidas is not imm ortal. Every
great crisis of human history is a pass of Th erm opy la e, and th ere
is always a Leonidas and his three hundred to di e in it, if they
cannot conquer. And so long as Liberty has on e martyr, so
long as one drop of blood is poured out for her, so long from ; o
that sing le drop of bl oo dy sweat of th e agony of humanity shall
sp1jing hosts as countless as the forest leaves and mig hty as
the sea.
Broth ers ! the call has come to us. I bring it to you in
th es e calm retreats. I summon you to th e g rea t fight of Free· ;s
dom. I call upon you to say with yo ur voices, whenev er th e
occasion offers, and with your votes wh en the clay comes, that
upon thes e fertile fi elds of Kansas, in the very hea rt of the
continent, the upas-tree of slavery, clrippi ng death-d ews upon
nation al prosperity and upon free labor, shall neve r be planted. 80
I call upon yo u to plant there the palm of peace, th e vin e and
the olive of a Christian civilization. I call upon you to det ermine wh ether this great experiment of human fr eedo m, whi ch
has bee n the scorn of despotism, shall, by its failur e, be al so our
sin and shame. I call upon you to d efend the hop e of the ss
world.
Th e voice of our brothers who are bleeding, no less than of
our fathers who bled, summons us to this battle. Shall th e
children of unborn generations, clusterin g over that vast western
empire, rise up and call us blessed or cursed? ll erc arc our ""
Marathon and Lexington; here are o ur hero ic fields. Th e
hearts o f a ll goo d men beat with us. Th e fight is fier ce - th e
issue is with Goel. But God is good.

PERSUASION.

C.

Th e third selection is the address delivered by President Lin coln at the dedication of the national cemetery
at Gettysburg, in November, I 863 . As an example of
th e more quiet, self-contained t ype of American oratory,
it has few equals. It is, of com~se, of the second kind,
mention ed on page 2 50.
Not e that very few figur es of speech are us ed. N ote
also that the first two paragraphs are g iven up to
th e plainest, simplest statement of fact. Th e lack of
everything resembling ornament gives g reat weight
to th e style. Diction, style, and plan of the address
will r epay careful study.
Fourscore and seven years ag o our fath ers brought forth on
this co ntinent a new nation, con ce ived in liberty, and cleclicated
to th e proposition that all men are created equ al.
Now we are engaged in a grea t civil war, testin g wheth er
that nation , or any nation so conce ive d and so dedicated, ca n
long endure. vVe a re met on a g reat battlefield of that war.
\Ve have come to d edicate a porti on of that fi eld as a fin al
res tin g-place for th ose who here g ave th eir liv es that that nation
might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should
do this.
But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedi ca te - we cannot consec rate - we cannot hallow - this g round. Th e brave men,
living and d ead, wh o struggled here, have consecrated it far
abov e our poor power to add or to d etract. Th e world will little
note nor long remember what we say here, but it can never
forge t wh at they did here. It is for us, th e living, rath er to be
dedicated here to th e unfinis hed work which th ey who foug ht
here have thus far so nobly advanc ed. It is rath er for us to be

10

15

..
!I
Ii

i'

262

I.: !

INVENTION

I'

I

h ere dedi cated to the great task remaining before us - that from
these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for
which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here
highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that
this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and
that government of the people, by the people, for the people,
shall not perish from th e ea rth .

I

I\ I

!

1,:

20

i

I"

INDEX.

Absolute construction, to be guarded against, 26.
Abstract ideas relieved by concrete, 1 I 5.
Actions used to portray character,
173.
Adaptation of language to reader,
49·
Addison, selections from, 63, 180.
Adjectives, how emphasized, 93;
in description of character, 172;
in suggestive description, 17 5.
Adverbs, how emphasized, 93.
After-dinner speeches, 2 50.
Allegory, 100.
Alliteration, 52, 118.
Ambiguity, 50; caused by words
of two meanings, 7 1 ; by careless
construction, 72; danger of, in
argumentation, 218, 225 .
Analysis of compositions, 70.
" And " not to be used for " to "
with infinitive, I 17.
Anglo-Saxon vs. classical words,
77.
Antecedents of pronouns, 24, 25.
Anticlimax, 11 2.
Antithesis, 101 ; expressed in balanced sentence, 109.

Apostrophe, 99.
ARGUMENTATION, 216; aided by
exposition, 193 ; distinguished
from exposition, 192; used in
persuasion, 248.
Arnold, selection from, 67.
Article, omission of, 88.
"As," omission of verb after, 88.
Association, laws of, 81.
Authorities for good usage, 34.
A wk ward expressions, 118.
Bacon, selection from , 209.
Bacon (Macaulay), extract from,
2 35·
Balanced se ntence, 108; danger
of excessive use, 1 16.
Bathos, 112.
Beauty, soo Ease.
Deginnii'1g, of a sentence emphatic,
92 ; of a narrative, 136.
Ben Hur, selection from, 176.
"Bible," when capitalized, 33.
Biography, 121, 123.
Book reviews, 194, 204.
" Bookish " words, 78.
Books, capitalization of titles, 33.
Botany (Gray), 205.
Burd en of proof, 219, 228.

I

INDEX.

INDEX.
Burke, selectio n fr om, 64.
Business affairs as subjects for
narration, 125.

Conj unctions, 10 5 ; corrc lat i vc,
107; omission of, 89.
Constructio n, chan ge of, 107.
Contiguity, law of, 82 .
Continuity, Jaw of, 81.
Contractions, 40, 4 1.
Contrast, figur es based o n, 101;
between sce ne and se ttin g in :'I
s tory, 136; and lik e ness, law
of, 82.
Correlatives, !07; followed by
same sentence element s, i ·I·
C riticism, a form o f exposition,

Cant, 40, 41; in narra tion without
plot, 1 29.
Capitalization, JZ·
Carlyl e, selection from, 66.
Case, mistakes of, 14.
Ca use a nd effect, law of, 82.
Change in meanings of words, 45·
C han ge of cons tru c tion, !08.
Character, descriptio n of, I 7 r.
204.
Charac te rs in narration, interes t
Curtis,
selection from, 257.
in, 131; number of, 134.
Choice of d etail s, in desc ription ,
Dashes, use of, 31.
l 66; in narration without pl ot,
Death (Socrates), 231.
127; in n arrati on with plot, 137.
] )ebate, suggestions for, 227.
Circumlocution, 78, 86.
Deduction, 221 .
C lassical vs. Saxon words, 77.
D
efense of Poesie (Sidn ey), 207.
Classification, 199.
.
Definition,
193, 19-1.
Clearness, 50.
Deity,
capitalization
of wo rds clc·
Climax, 1 r I.
n
otin
g,
32.
Coleridge, selection from, 18 3.
D epe nd en t clauses and phr ase ~ .
Collec tive nouns, number of, 12.
position of, 7 2.
Colloquial exp ressio ns, 40.
Derivation,
and spellin g, 9; \'alu c
Colon s, 30.
of,
44
;
do
es not dete rmin e valu e
Co mmas, 29.
of
words,
77.
Comparison of adjectives and adDESCRIPTION,
161 ; dis tin g11ish ctl
verbs, 26, 27 ; figures based o n,
from
na
rra
ti
o
n, 1 2 1 ; from expo ·
96; in d escription, 169.
sition,
192;
logical, 197 ; s11h·
Complex n a rratives, 139.
jec
ts
of,
161,
163; in persu a·
Com plex plots, 135·
sion, 248.
Compound terms, number of, l I.
Diction, in na rration, l ZS; in per·
Compound words, formation of
suasion, 2 50.
plural , 14.
Dictionary, use of, 35·
Conditional clauses, position of, 94·
Differentia, in logical definition,
Confusion arising from language
194.
with two meanin gs, 7 r.

Direct arguments, 223.
Direct discourse to avoid a mbiguity, 2 5.
Discoveries, names for, 37.
Division, 193, 199·
Double possessive, 47.
Duty of the American Scholar to
Politics (Curtis), 257.
Ease, 51 .
Economy, Spencer's theory of, 49.
E ditorial articles, 194; 203.
Education (Huxley), 21 r.
Effect and cause, law of, 82.
Elegance, see Ease.
Emotional element in persuasion,
2 49·

Emotions, 246; conflict with intellect, 248.
Emphasis, 91 ; differs from force,
51; of parts in a paragraph, 65.
End of a sentence emphatic, 92.
Endicott and the Red Cross (Hawthorne), 141.
Equivalents for relative, l 16.
Essays, 202.
Euphony, see Ease.
Exaggeration, see I:lyperbole.
Examples, in exposition, 197; 111
arg umentation, 224.
Exciting occurrences should be
told rapidly, I 39.
Exclamation for emphasis, 92.
EXPOSITION, 192; dis tinguished
from description, l 63, 166.
Faculties of mind, 246.
Familiar ideas grasped more readily than unfamiliar, 76.

Familiar scenes in narration without plot, 1 24.
Feelings, see Emotions.
Figurative quality of language,
98.
Figures of speech, 96 ; mixed,
100; in p ersuasion, 250.
"Fine writing," 78 ; in narration
without plot, 129.
First of a series emph a tic, 91.
F lavors, description of, 17 1.
Force, 51.
Foreign nouns, number of, 13.
Foreign words and phrases, 39.
General terms, should not encl a
series, l 13; when to be preferred
to specific, 76.
Genus in logical defin ition, 194·
Gettysburg Address (Lincoln) , 261.
Goodness and Goodness of Nature
(B acon), 209.
Gottfried Wolfgang· (Irvin g), 187.
Grammar, l 1 ; differs from rhetoric, l.
G ramm a tical constructions must
be made plain, 72.
Gray, selection from, 205.
Green, selection from, 83.
Harmony of scene and action 111
narration, I 36.
Harsh expressions, l 18.
Hawthorne, selection from, 141.
Henry, selection from, 2 5 2.
H eterogeneous senten ces, 54.
Historical present, 19.
History, 121, 123; of words,
44

266

INDEX.

Huma n interest, in narra tion without plot, l 26 ; in n a rration with
plot, 134·
Huxley, selection fr o m, 2 l I.
Hyperbole, J02.
"-ics," number of words e nding in,
I 2.
Idioms, 46.
ILLU STRATIVE SELECTIONS, argume nta tion, 230; d escriptio n,
I 7 5; expositio n, 20 5; n a rratio n,
141; persuasion, 252.
Imag in atio n and description, 167,
I

75·

Imita ti ve words and ph rases,
I 7 I.
Indirect argum e nts, 223.
Indu ction, 2 2 1.
Infinitive, ambiguous use of, 7 5;
as equi valent for rela tive, 1 16 ;
split, 11 7; te nses of, 18 .
Intell ec t, 246; conflicts \Yi th feelin gs, 248 .
Intellectual eleme nt in p ersuasion,
248.
Inte rest in subjects for na rration,
1 24 , 1 30.

Inte rrogatio n, 101.
INV ENT ION , I 2 1; definition of, 3·
Inve ntio ns, names of, 37.
In ve rsio n of sentence for emph as is, 92.
Iron y, 10 2; implied in a nticlim ax,
II 2.

Irvin g, selection fr om, r 87 .
LANGUAGE
Nvli'nc.: <1r.

ADA PT im
'l'ITfi'

TO

1~ 17A nr.D

TllF.
A()

LANGUAGE
DETERMI NED
nv
USAGE, 8.
Las t of a series emphatic, 9r.
Laws of associa tion, Sr ; la w of
cause and effec t, 82; co ntig uit y,
82 ; continuity, 8 1; lik eness and
co ntras t, 82.
Laws of mind de te rm ine mi es of
rh e toric, 6.
"La y" and "lie," 22.
Le ngth, of paragraphs, 58; of
sente nces, va riety in, 11 6; nf
wo rds, varie ty in, 1 r 5.
L etter to Dissatisfied F r iends (I.in ·
coln), 233 .
L etters, narration without pl ot , 1~ J·
Likeness a ncl contras t, fi g ures
based o n , 96; law of, 8:?.
L in coln, s elec tio ns fr o m, 233, ~6 1.
Literal a nd fi g urat iv e cx pr e,.;s i nn~
co nfused, I oo.
L ogic, 3, 2 17.
Logical d efiniti on, 191 .
L ogical desc riptio n, 197.
Loose sente1.1ce, 109.
Maca ulay, selec ti o ns f ro m, 106,
189, 235 .
ilfaltamjalt Nuncomar (~Tacaub y),

189.
M eanin gs of words, ,14 ; chan gr!I
in, 45; d etermin ed by us age, 5.
Me taph or, 79, 110/1'. 97 ; mix ed, I oo.
Metaphorical quality of lang uage,
98 .
Metonym y, 79.
M ind, fac ul ties of, 246.
Mixed fo rm of se ntence, 11 0.
I Mi xPrl m i> t :inhn r «. rnn .

INDEX.
Modifiers, position of, 72 .
Modifyin g rela ti ve, 1 i 8.
Monotony, see Variety.
Mood , mistakes of, 23 .
M ovement, 89 ; in na rration, r 38.
NARRATION, 121 j dis tin g uis hed
fr o m descrip tio n, 16 1 ; fr om expositi o n, 192 j w ITH l'LOT, 130;
w JTHOUT PLOT, r 24 j in p e rsuasio n, 248.
Ne w words, 37.
N ews repo rts, na rration with o ut
p lo t, I 22 .
N e wspapers, inf! uence of, o n diction, 34.
Novel, 121 ; differs from romance,
132·
Novel terms fo rcible, 76.
Number, mista k es in, Ir ; numb er
of words, 8 5; of de tails in descriptio n, r 6 5; in narra tion witho ut plot, 127.
Object, h ow e mphasized, 92.
Obscu rity, 50.
Observation a id s in spelling, 9.
Obsolete words, 36.
Odors, description of, 1 7 1.
" Of," phrases introduced by,
sho uld stand near no un, 7 3;
too frequ e nt us e of, l I 5.
Omission of n ecessary words, 88 ;
of relative, II 6.
"Only," p osit io n of, 74.
O ra tions, suggestio ns for writing,
2 51 ; see P ersuasion.
Ora to ry, kinds of, 249; see Persuasion.

O rd er, of a rg ume nts, 224; of details, in description, I 68 ; in
complex narra tio n, I 40; in narration witho ut plot; 128 ; in
na rra tion wi th plot, 138; of
ideas in th e mind, 8 r ; of pa rts
in a n oratio n , 249 ; of parts 111
a paragraph , 6 r, 84.
Orthography, see Spelling.
"Ought," tense of, 19.
Q71er the Broeken (Colerid ge), 183.
Ove r worked expressions, 42 .
Paintin g compared with descriptio n, l 62.
Paragraphs, connec tio n be twee n,
107; divis io n of compositi o n
into, 59 ; length of, 58; pl a n of,
6 1; uni ty of, 57 ; use of, 57.
Pa rticipial phrases, p osition of,

7 3·
Participle, as eqni valent for relati ve, I I 6; loose use of, 24, 26.
Particular attributes giv e n in d esc riptio n, r 66.
P a rticula r o bj ec ts s ubj ects for descriptio n, 163 .
Partition, 200 .
Periodic sente nce, 109; excessive
u se of, 116.
Person al appeara nce used to p o rt ray ch arac ter, I 73.
Personal his tory used to por tray
cha racte r, 174.
l'erso nificatio n, 79, note, 99.
Personified names, capitalizatio n
of, 32.
PERSUASION, 246 j dis tin g uished
fro m argumentatio n, 2 16.

268

JNDEX.

Picturesq ue subjects for narration ,
I 25.
Plan, of composit ion, 70; of paragraph, 61.
Plausibili ty requisite in narra tion,
1 33·
Plot, narration with, 130; narration without, 124; requisites of,
134.
Point of view in descriptio n, 163.
l'osition, shows grammat ical relation, 72.
Possessiv e, as antecede nt of pronoun, 25; double, 16, 47; formation of, I 4; use of, 1 5.
Predicate , how emphasiz ed, 92.
Preparati on of the mind for ideas,
104.
Prepositi onal phrases, position of,
7 3; variety in, 1 I 5.
Prepositi ons, at encl of sentence,
94 ; omission of, 89.
Present tense to express universal
truth, 20.
Presumpt ion, 219.
Principle of classifica tion, 199.
Probabili ty, degrees of, in argum ent, 226.
Prolixity, 87.
Pronouns , antecede nts of, 24,
25; as connectiv es, 25, w5;
case-form s of, 16; omission of,
89.
Pronunci ation, determin ed
by
usage, 5; and spelling, 8.
Proportio n of parts in a paragraph, 65.
Propositi ons defined, 192 ; exposition of, 201; in argument ation,

217; statemen t of, 227; place

of, 223.
Punctuati on, 29.
Qualities of style, 50.
Quantity, numbe r of expressio n :o1
for, 13.
Question able words, kind s of, .)6.
Question s for argument ation, 217.
Quotatio ns, how punctuat ed, 31.
Rapid mo ve me nt, h o w sec ured ,
89; in narration , 1 38.
Reason, see lntcllect.
Redundan cy, 86.
Reference , mistak es of, :q .
Refut~tion, 228, 229.
];:.ela ted elements s ho uld be p11l
togeth er, 72 .
Relative, equival e nts for, I 1(1;
omission of, 116; rest ricti1·c
and modifyin g, 11 8.
Relative clauses, variety in, 11 5.
Remarka ble occurrenc es as suh·
jects of narration , 125.
Repetitio n in expositio n, zo1 ; to
show connectio n, 105; JU 1;111.
tology.
Reputabl eness of wo rds, J I·
Reputatio n desirable for an orator,
2 49·
Restrictiv e relative, 118.
Reviews, 204.
Rhetoric, defined, I ; deri1·ation o r
wo rd, 2 ; di visions of, 3.
Rhetorica l qu esti o n, 92, 10 1.
Rhyme in prose, 52, 118.
Rhythm, 118.
Romance , 132.

INDEX.
Romantic occurren ces as subjects
for narration , I 2 5. '
Ruskin, selection from, 64.
Saxon vs. classical words, 77.
Scene and setting of a narrative ,
136; interest in, 130.
Scientific terms, 39.
Semicolo ns, 30.
Sentence s, balanced , 108; loose,
109; mixed, 110; pe riodic, 109;
variety in, I 16.
"Se t" and" sit" distingui shed, 22.
"Shall" and" will," 20; "should"
and "would," 22.
Sidney, selection from, 107.
Similar cases, argumen ts from,
226.
Similar words, confusion of, 46.
Simile, 79, note, 96.
S lang, 42.
Slow movemen t, 90; in narration ,
139.
Social occurrenc es, subjects for
narration , 125.
Socrates, selection from, 231.
Sounds, d escription of, I 71.
Specific te rms, give rapidity, 90 ;
more readily grasped than general, 76.
Speec!t before the Vi?ginia Conven tion (Henry), '2 52.
Spelling, 8; determin ed by usage,
5 ; rules for, 9.
Spencer's theory of economy, 49.
Split infinitive , 1r7.
Sporting terms , 42.
Squinting construct ion, 72.
Stevenso n, selection from, 149.

Stories, hints for writing, 132; sec
Narratio n.
STYLE, 5; definition , 3; m odified
by author's personali ty, 2 ; principles und erlying, 5; in persuasion, 250, 152.
Subject, how emphasiz ed, 92 .
Subjects, for expositor y essays,
102 ; for narration with plot,
132; for narration without plot,
124.
Subjunct ive mood, 23.
Subordin ation of parts in paragraph, 65.
S ugges tiven ess in descriptio n, 167,
17 5·

Superlati ve degree, 27.
Syllabific atio n, 31.
Synonym s, 45; in expositio n, 196.
Synecdoc he, 79·
Tautolog y, 86.
T echnical terms, 39, 76.
Tense, mistak es of, 18.
T erms, defined, 192.
"Than," case following , 17; omission of verb after, 88.
"That," as res trictive relative, 119.
Theme of persuasio n always imperative, 251.
Time covered by a story, r 35.
Titles of books, etc., number of,
I 3 ; when capitalize d, 33.
"To" separated from infinitive,
I I 7·
Too few words, 88 ; too many
words, 85.
Topic of a paragrap h, where stated,
61, 63.

•

270

INDEX.

Treamre Island (Stevenso n), se-

lection from, 149.
Two meanings, words with, 7 1.
Unity, of compositions, 69; of
paragraphs, 57 ; of sentences, 53.
Universal truth expressed in present, 20.
Unusual ideas or expressions attract attention, 91.
Usage, 5, 8.
Variety in thought and expression,
I

14.

Verb, omission of, 88.
Verbosity, 86.
Vesuvius (Addison), 180.
'Vallace, selection fr om , 176.
vVebster, selection from, 62.
"Who" and "which " as re·
strictive and modifying relative,

u9.
Will, 246.

"Vv'ill" and" shall," 20; "wo uld"
and "should," 22.
Words, similar in form, 46; variety
in, I I 5·

ADVEI\.TISEMENTS

rfl-IE FOI\MS OF DISCOURSE
With an Introductory Chapter on Style
By WILLIAM B. CAIRNS, A.M.,
Instructor in Rhetoric in t!te University

of Wisconsin.

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Tms text-book, for high schools and colleges, presents
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author's meaning. A student needs to be cautioned regarding the use of slang, and hints as to the relative merits of
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