l.VDIA_\;A STATE SERIES

OOMPLE'l,E

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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WVAllO COt.LEiE LllllAl!'f
GIFT Of
8111N AND COIPAllY

ore. 2s, 11n

PREFACE.
THIS book is d es igned to follow the Elementary English
Grammar of th e Indiana 1'i'tale Seri'es. At the same time,
it constitutes in itself a complete one-book co urse for more
adv:mced pupils.
The fimdamental principles on which the smaller book
is based form the ground work of this volume as well.
The aim has be en in all cases to impress upon the pupil's
mind the fact that the th ought is the essential thing, and
that la ug uage, importan t ·as i t is, is but secondary to the
idea t o be expressed by language. ·
It is to be r egrette J 'that to o often pup ils lose the real
benefit of their st udi es by the p erv erted u se they make of
them. To them a rule is a di.cag rccalJlc ncceiisi ty, no t a
Y:th1ah1 1; :till in their \1ork .
Thi-; h1><>k :1i11h to sh•JW tli:t t th e 1n1q1 11 ' •~ (Jf rules in
p-r:urn11:1r i-; solely to make plain an11 cll'ar ll1c )'rinci1,lcs of
LLl-: LL1i g i1:1 ;::l: . Ill. orJc:l· tu accon1pli : : h thi .~. c:H1, c\·cry s~cp
1.-' ti1 o ru11glily cxplainc11 :rnll il\1i-;tratc ll lidurl' any rul e i-o
i!IYCJL
The p11pil i3 not allon·erl tu l1arn a definition, a
rnk, or a forlllnla un til lw ar: t LL11ly ft::ds the need of i ~­
until he has thoroughly mastered the tliougl1t unclcrlyin;
th0 "t,::0 : r1~ , ;~ nrl 13 ~h1° t0 ?.rrn ·(·iatr· t}1r_. far:t t. h:-1.fo lt i:;, after
~t1!, "wh:1t ufl '\\':~~:3.. th •'-Jught> but nr,_'er ;::,n \Yell cxprcs sc U. •)
Jr thu ~ bcc n r:~ C'~ to 11-irr: a rri\· ilc ,; c r:ither il1 ;-~ll a h11rdrn .
On tlie other l1and, when a, rule o r clcfinitwn is once
nustcrt:Ll, tlic pupil is not perm1lt c·cl tn throw it a.- ide ll" "o

4

<

PREFACE.

mudi use1ess matter-as so mething he onlysiudied for th e
sake of study-but each subsequent defini tron or rule is in
effedl a revie w of those preced ing.
In the anal vs is of sentences it is to lie not.ad that the fo rm
diffm.5 from that presented in th e elemen tvy book. Th e
pupil should clearly understand that there is no p ec uliar
,-i rtm in any on e system of diagram s. All are good if th ey
mala> clear to th e eye the relations of the various parts, and
pupis should be encouraged to devise nffi" methods for
t heru;el ms.
SJDcial att enti on is call ed to the gradatian and l iterary
chancter of the sentences selected for awysis, parsing,
etc . . 'l'he design has been not merely to me such as would .
best i-llustrate the point in vi ew, but also fo inculcate a
love for good lit erature by silpplying none but excellent
thoights. Thi s is the case throughout the book, but
csperially so in the section on Prose Compusition. Here
it hm bee n d ee med wi se r to girn at length a few of the
great lit era ry selections rath er than to inclml e a number
of shi>rt extracts, t oo shor t t o sen e either as good illustratims or to show the style of the au thor.
In the sect ion on L etter \\·ri tiug a few characteristic
modns lrnve bee n given.
Dne space is given to Punctuation, and its i'mportan ce in
detenninin g gra mmati cal relations is clearly set forth.
r i,Jcr the J;ca tl of '· Erro:·.~ to he .\ roidrd." the ~ tuclcnt 's
aif1;_>1-t- inn i_; ca ll ed l •> lll<lllY poi nt,;: \\ hic:l1 r1onld be :.ipt to
C.SC[!JC his n ol iee.
Tie book cl oses with n brief r1is ctFoi011 of th e princip1 es
of Y-rr.,ificnt ion.
lt is dedicated t o t he cl1ildrcn of on r pttHic scJiool~ in
the !Dope that it may ligl1ten th eir labo rs and h t:l p them to
ma ~ r the in t ri cacies of ou r lang uage.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PA GE

l\I EAN!SG

AND

OBJECT

URA~O!AR.

7

0RTBOGRAPUY .

!)

COllPOS!T lON OF W ORDS

9

'V ORDS AND TUE SESTESCE
ETnIOLOOY.
CLASS!FICAT!0:-1 OF \VoRUS
The N oun
The Pronoun
Th e Verb
Th e A<ljcctivc
Th e A<lverb
The P reposition
The Conj unct ion
The I ntcrj ec ti on
PARSISG .
DERil"ATION OF \Vo1ws .
PROPERTIES
TlOSS

AS!J

1\lou1;·1cA-

:\°0L·\~-( ; ~:~<l1EH. :\~·1 1 ~i " .\!BJ:i~

l'A Ol'!

T c n ~c

OF

11
13
13
13
1i
19
21
~;)

antl Mo<le Expla inctl
Tense Dcfin etl .
l\[oclc Defin ed
Conjugation,
Conjugation of " T o Learn"
Deriva ti on and C la ~ses or
Verbs
Irregul ar V crbs
Voice of th e Verb .
Conjuga tion or "To Be "·
antl "To Ile L oved"
TIIE
ADV ERB _;_ PROPERTIES
ASU l\IOD H'ICAT!ONS

1\ol' s s

'o"

ANI>
ANJi

·lG
,'j

t

82
84
87

88
!);'j

10'?
:--1PI-:CI.\T.

\"IL\\-

CJF

n: :-;n:

P 1w su1: :s-s-l'r: 1t-

T HE

~!-:\ -

10.)
110

1'.\ :;r:

Df:c u:s ,; 10:-; 01· l'r.o :-;ol·:-; ,;

Tur: A llJECT 1n:-1'1tuPLHTl1·:"
A!\l> 1\loua·1cAT!ON:S
Ts E VERB
Number a!lll Person

7G
77
'i8

27
THE P1tEPOS ITIOS - PROPER·
30
TIZ.:S .
97
33
THE co,-Jl.' SCTION - P ROPER·
34
99
TIES
43 Tn F. I NTERJEcn o:s- - p RO l' ERTIES.
102
47
GEN ERA L \ ' 1EW OF Tiff: S 1·: S-

])P.u:; •.Ji·.\·.-.:-(; L\!11". lt .\~· IJ :;1 .\!}lf;J{ .

72
75

1 {: l
:lfo L>JF!f:l("

117

G.:J
G!l Nous l\luorFJrns.

121

NouN Srn5TITL'TES

123

G9

6

TABLE OF COXTEXTS.
PAGE

ADJEcTn-E ll!oDIFIERS
St:BST!Tl"TES .

PAGE

AXn
CoxsTRt;CTro:; OF Co:s:sECTIVES 185
. • 128
Errors to be A ,·oideJ.
188

.ADVERB MODIFIERS AXD Sl"ll·
Pu.scTUAno:; .
133
STITVTES . .
Definition
136
MoDIFIERS Disnxoi.;Isui::D
Kinds of Marks
The Comma.
141
FoRl!S OF SE.sTE:;cEs • •
The Semicolon .
14-1
ORDER OF ARRA:;GDIEXT •
The Colon .
147
ABBREVIATED SrEEcu •
The Period • •
152
Ax.~LY SIS OF SE.sTE:SCES
The Interrogation P oint
1.52
Simple Sentences . .
The Exclamation Point .
~ 154
Compound Sentences
The Dash
155
Complex Sentences .
Capital Letters.
Compound Complex SenCurves
. . 155
tences .
Brackets .
. • 161
SY.STHESIS .
The Apostrophe
The Hyphen
Co.ssTRUCTIO.s OF THE Nol!IXAQuotation l\Iarks
TJVE. . . • .
164
The Caret
Punctuati on
. . . . 165
.
Errors t o be A voided . . 165
PROSE Cmirosnro.s
.
Co.ssTRt;CTio.s OF THE PREDICompos ition of the Sentence
CATE
167
Variety of Expre~;o ion
Punctna t ion
168
Affirmation .
Error,; t o be A voi(le(l
lG!l
Denittl of Contrnry
Co.ssTRi:ciro:s OF K OU!i' llfo DIP nra phrnsing .
FIEl\S . .
171
Strnetural Chani'es
Punctuation
li2
Errors to be A vo iJ.etl
li3 Com'Os1rro:-1 1:; SERIES.
Desc ripti on
Co;-;sTRliCTIO:< OF .ADJEcn 1·E
X arrnti on
MOD IFIERS
175 . Exposition
Punctuati on
177
Argum cn ta t ion
Errors t o be A voided
178
LETTEit \V!UTI:\ G
Co:;sTRt;CTIO:; OF ADVER BIAL
l\fodels
MODIFIERS
180
.. Punctuutiou
182 PROSODY
. .
Errors to be A voiJ.eJ.
18;3
Principles of Vel'5ification .

fJ.

mo
190
l!l2

rn:i

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

l!l7

ms
l!lS
l!l9
199

200
200
201

201
202
202

202
203
204

204
208
213
213
213

2l!l

221
22:3
23 1
24G
257
262
263
268
268

1.

MEANING AND OBJECT OF GRAMMAR.

OUR language is called the English language, because
it originated with the people of England, and is spoken
by the American and other descendants of the English
people.
There is a proper, or correct, and an improper, or incorrect u se of speech. Good English is that form and. construction of English speech which is used by the majority
of the cultivated people who speak and write the language.
This manner of u se is called established 11sage.

The words of the liingu a_go iuc grouped i11 classes, separated acconling to the likeness and difference of their u ses ; just as animals and
plants arc <livi<led into classes by likeness and <li!Ieren ce of structure
an<l use. One kind of words is foun<l to be employed for one purpose,
and another kin<l of wor<ls for a different purpose. Forms of expressi£rn, consisting of several words, are in the sa me way classified according t o use .

By obsen iug the nscs of different classes of words, practical laws, or principles of use, are disco Yered, according to
which the words and expressions of · the languag e arc employ ed so as to secure the best objects of speech. From
these principles, rules are formed, to guide the spea ker
and writer in the correct use, and to aiJ him in avoiding
. the incorrect use of the language.
Principles and rules of speech are not inYenteJ by any

20-1

'K

PROSE CO~IPOSITION.

Composition is tl: e puttin in
·
e rules of
grammar.
s we rnYe seen, correct nsage is not a result
.. of grammatical r egulation; on th e contrary, grammar is
but a systematic record of existing usage. Written English
presupposes familiarity with:
..
1. The mechanical requirements of orthography, punctuation, the u se of capitals, e tc., and
2. The simple grammatical rela t ions of ag ree ment and

·

II

depend ence.
These have been foll y set forth in the preceding pages.
In its best forms English prose composition represents
thought (I) correctly, (2) in an orderly mauner, and (3)
agreeably.
·
Just ~s the se nt ence is th e unit of speech, so it is al so the
unit of thought ; a. sentence being but the expression of a.
co mplete thought, or of what is called in log ic a proposi tion. To any form of di scourse a series of thou ghts, and
therefore a series of sentences, are necessary; hence, prose
composit ion nat urally divid es itself }nto
J. The composition of the sentence, and
2. Composition in series.

''

!52. · COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE.

Th e sen tence r eq ui res (1) accuracy of expression, a nd admits of (2) variety of expression. Accuracy of expr_tAion is
most commo11ly violated by
T. Tautology,_ or the ·needless repetition of the same
meaning in different. words;

,,, -

CO~!POSIT. IOX

ENGLI SH OR.HD!AR.

OF THE SENTEXCE.

20.'i

2. Improper ellipsis;
3. Confusion of word s deriv ed from the same origin, but
<lifferin!!' in sio-nification
n
'·
4. Ambiguity, or such choice or arrange ment of words
as leaves the meaning doubtful.
•J

•

Exer"clse 60.

In each of the followin g sen tences, point out th e words
that are tautological.
Tell why these words should be
omitted.
1. "Let observati on, with ext cn<led view,
Survey mankind from Ch ina to P eru ."
2. Rvcry one of them nil was prese nt.
3. Columbus was a bold sailor an<l navigator.
4. Ile walked from Iluff11!0 to Albany on foot.
5. They recline<l in the umbrageous sha<l c.
G. The vanquishetl en emy were conquered and sub<lu cd.
7. I shall 1ie \·er again r epea t wha t I have nlreatly f'lli •l heretofore.
8. Ou r ancestors, who prece<led us, were anxious !or th e welfare 0 (
th eir d esce ndants, who were t o follow them.
·
. 9. The landscape, 11s far !is ;the eye can reach, is cove r e<l all o\·e r
with snow.
· ·
.
10. " Th e dawn is overcast, th e mornina lower<
And h ea>ily in_clouds brin gs on
d ay.;;

the

11. Arn ol<l was unin:' rsally ~ hunn c d hv a ll men
12. The trees furnish us \\:ith ,; hallc in °su111 mer, .allll sup ply us with
fuel in wint er.
·
13. The reason of liis nbse nce wa~ on acco unt of ill ness.
14. He inherited the pro p~ rt y by ·a b equ es t iii th e will of his deceased
fath er, who was no more.
15. Ile divi<le<l his property 'equ ally Let ween his t "·o sons, both
sharing nlike.
.·
lG. The thirt een coloni es unit ed toget her in one co1i1m on go\·ernment.
·
17. This wa s th e first beginning of th e Am eri ca n Fnion.

206 .

CO:'IIPOSITIO_X OF THE :SE.XTE~CE.

EXOLISH OR ..UUU.lt.

Exercise 62.

18. The plaintiff, Mrs. Bardell, was a widow, who~c hu sband was
dead.
19. Do not use needless and supP.rfluous words when you speak
orally.
20. Both Ca~snr and Cnssius swam together in the Tiber at the same
time.

21. " :Milton! thou shouldst be lidng at this h our!
0, raise us up I Heturn to us again!"
22. E\·ery bank check should a)1Vays be imlorsed upon the back.
23. •· l s life so dear as to be purchased at the price of chains and
sla\·ery? ''
2-l. "Shall we resorl lo e ntreaty and supplication?"
2;). "Shall we acquire the means of effectual resistance hr lying
supinely on our backs ? "
26. At the end of long yrar~ of l11bor the work _wll.s fin~lly terminated.
27. \Vords having nearly the same meaning are called synonyms,
and differ but slightly in signification.

11\"ritc sentences
•
• lo show the correct 11 .o"e of eac Ji won1 o f
the follow111g pairs. Consult Webster's Dictionary.
1. adherence, adhesion
:.!. affec t, ·e flect
3. completion, compl e tenc~ s
4. complex, complicate1!
5. contemptible, contemptuous
G. _consequent, consequential
7. ch·t:lcnsion, declination
8. detract, distract
!l. iluplicat ion, duplicity
10. e xce pt, acce pt
11. exprctation, expectancy
12. human, humane
13. illusion, delusion
1-1. immigrnnt, emigrant

1~.
v

lG.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
2?.
23.
2-1.
25.
2G.
27.
28.

·
· imperious
unperial,
ingenious, ingenuous
luxuriant, luxurious
momentous, momentary
negligence, neglect
noted, notorioHs
obsen-ancP, observation
occupation, occupancy
oppositr, apposite
popu lar, populous
prevision, provision
principal, principle
remission, remittaiil-e
sensible, sensitive

Exercise 63.

Exercise 61.

Recon stru ct each of the following sentences by supplying
the improper ellipses. Tell why the omissions are improper.
1. He drove a span consist ing of one whit~ and black horse.
2. · The ri ch and poor are concerned in good gov e rnment.
3. Our language is desen·ing special study.
4. He was greater as a poet than a philosopher.
5 . 'We ham neve r, and do not now, believe it.
6. l\:no~ledge comes to us mainly through the eye arid ear.
7. Jt nRs he ~aid s.o.
s_ B·.' cardu \ ,l")rnt yo\l clo !lJHl \ (' ;\\"C 1ll\ c1onc.
!l. Th• S•'IFRiinn of 111111"<'1' j, lt·'S 1li-tre'oing tha11 nf t hir:-.t.
10. Tht: Yl'ry ynnn;; anc1 ultl U'::'t?1J nfT\:.__:ti1-111:1te t-a.r~

Write sentences to show the correct u se of each word of
th e following pairs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5_
6.

•8.
D.

10. healthy, hcaltliful

acccsson·, accessarv

admissi~n, admitt~nee

captivat_ion, captivity
co mmander, commandant
complementary, complimentary
conficlent, confidant
counci l, counsel
d epository, depositary
clifTcrcnc:c, Ui'fc rcn ec

honorable, honorary
inclustrious, industrial
informer, informant
n ecessary, necessitous
re1·e rse, converse
sa nitary. sanatory
stationary, stationP-ry
JS. \l"Ol!lallly , woma11i;;h

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

Exercise

64.

(' orr rr -t tlir r11nbig11ifirs in thr follnwin'! scnlcncc:o.

reasons for your corrections.
L Th i:; pap«r has th e larg-P:'t circ11l:itio11 in the Cnitcu States.
I hu\·e Leeu unxious lo .::ee you for u 1011g ti1ue.

~.

(;ire

220

C0lf P08ITIOX IN SERIES ..

E:S-GLISH ORAlD!AR.

9. "By foreign hands thy dying eyes were closed . "

10. "Under a spreading chestnut-tree
'fhe Yi!lage s1nithy stantls;
Th '.) smith n mighty man is he,
\Vith large and sinewy hands."

Exercise SI.

Substitute the gra~matical for the rhetorical order, snp~
plying ellipses, · but retaining, with this exception, the
language of the selection.
0

.t\:no:-;y

0

OYER .C.£SAR

s BooY.

Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest,
(For Brutus is un h onorable man;
So are they nil, all honorable men;)
Come I to speak in C:esar"s funeral.
Ile was my friend , faithful and ju;;t to me;
But Brutus !'ays h e. w~s ambitious:
And Brutus J:5 an honorable man.
H e hath brought many eaptiYes home to Rom e,
\Yh ose ransoms <lid the general eoffe!'S fill:
Did this in C:t':>ar see m ambitious?
\\' h en that th e poor 11ave cried, C<I'.sar hath wept;
Ambition sh ould be made of sterner stuff;
Y et Brutus says, h e was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honorable man.
You all did see, that, on the Lupercal,
I thrit"<' pre;.<•nt e•1 him a kingly crown,
\Yhich he diJ. thrice rcfnse. Was ihis ambition?
Y ct Brntus sa!·s he was amliitio n~ •
.And ~!In' . li e i~ an ho n ornl1l c· 11 1a11.
l ~ j)(· ak 11 vt [(1 11i ~ 1iru n: what Brutus ~!Jak e ,
But here 1 nm to speak what l do know.
If you haw t rar:', prepare t n oh e<.l the m now.
You all Jo know this mantl~: I rtw cwLer
The first lime c\cl' C;t•:sar put it on:
'Twas 011 a. summer's evcuing, in hi:s leut,

2:H

That da.y he overcame the Kenii ;
,
Look ! in this place, ran Ca.~~ius' dagger through ;
See, what a rent the envious Cusca made ;
Through this, the we ll-beloved Brutus stabbed ;
And, a·s lie pin.e ked hi s· cursed strel away,
Mark how the blood of Ctesar followP.d it.
This was the most unkindest cut of all ;
For, when the noble Cresar saw liim stab,
Ingratitude, more strong than trait ors' arms,
Quite rnnqui;heJ. him, then burst his mighty .heart ;
And, in hb mantle mulling up his fn<:c,
Great C:l'sar fell.
Oh, what a fall was thrrc, my countrymen !
Then I, and you, and all of us fell down,
\Vhilst bloody treason flourished over us.
They that have done this <lred nre honorable,
And will, no d oubt, with rc11son answer you.
I came not,' friend s, to steal away your hearts;
I am no orator, as Brutus is ;
But, as yon know me· all, a plain, blunt man,
That love my friend ; and that they know full well
That g;we me public lcii.Ye lo speak of him .
For I have neitli r r wit, ·nor words, nor worth,
Action, n~r utterance, nor the power of ~pcec h,
'fo s tir men's blood . . l only Sp€ak right on :
I tell you that which you yourselves do know;
Show you sweet Ca'sar's wounds, poo r, poor. dumb mouths,
And bid them speak for 111e. But were I Brutus,
And Brutus Antony, . th e re were an Antony
"Vo uld ruffle up your spirit s, nut! put a tongue
111 en•ry wo un1l of Cu·~ar. th at >'h ou ld Ill O Ve
The stoues of l{ome lo ri ~c unJ. mutiny.

53.

COMPOSITION

IN SERIES.

\\'ritten discourse is generally cou.:;iJerecl uucler four
heads:
1. Description,
2 . ~urratiou,

EXOLISIT ou.nrnAR.

3. Ex1>osition, and
4.. Argumentation.
Description is that form ·Of discourse which explains a
part icular object not viewed as changing:
The explanation of Chicago as it is now, or as it was at
any gi,·eu time, would Le description.
Narration is that form of di scourse which explains a particular object Yiewed as chang ing.

Ii, in explaining the city of Chicago, the writer t ell s of
its first settlement; its g rowth into a Yillage ; into a city;
its partial d estruction by fire; its rebuilding ·; its rapid
e .xteusion since, etc., his exglanation takes the form of
uar.r.tti on.
Exposition is that form of Ji sco urse in whi ch the nature
of a gene ral id ea is explained.

An e xplanation of the common d enominator would be
classed as expos ition; an explanation to make clear the
idea of the penin snh would be expos ition; a sermon on
"The Katnre of Faith" wonld employ this form . of discou rse.
. Argumentation is that form of disco urse in whi ch a proposition i;; mad e, and the grounds for th e truth of th e statem ent. a rc set forth.
A la wy er for the d e fense assumes the proposition "::\Iy
client is innocen t" and se ts for t h eYiclence to sup port the
prnposit ion. A pupil writing a corn position may assu Ille
t ho propos iti on " United States Hi story is the most n~t ­
able of our studies " and proceed to g ive his reasons· for
thi.nkiug so.

I n both cases the form of di::icourse employed is that of
. argumentation.

CO::l!POSITION IN SERIES.

l.

223

DESCRIPTION.

Description explains a parti cular object by setting forth
its attributes as fixed, n ot as chang ing as in narration.
But good d escriptive di sco urse often contains some n ~trru­
tion, just as d esc ription is a necessary part of narration.
Yet we shou hl at once class ify an historical work as narrati ,·e, and Irving's treatment of Westmin ste r Abbey as
desc riptive.
.
The knowl edge needed for the bes t d escriptive writing ,
must come from perso nal obscrrntion. Comparison of one
thing with another naturally suggests itself as a fea ture
of this kind of composition. Adjectives play so important
a part that taste may be freely employed in tl1e choice of
word s. 'rhe arrangement of the several parts of the discoprse may be greatly varied. Obviously, however, un outline of the broader features of anything to be J escribe<l will
precede a represe 1itatio11 of the <l e tails.

Exercise 82.

Tho work with the selections gi rcn, of ei t hcr clescri pt ion
or nrrrration, sh ouhl be <lone according t o tl1 c follow ing
plan:1. Study the selection carefully, to obtain the thought
as a whole .
2. Det errni11e what th e object cx plain cr1 l>y t ho select ion
is, as a wh ole. For example, in the rng!fest et1 explanation
of Chicago by a narration of i ts growth , many pas~agc~
explain in g its distinctive features , in cludin g descriptions
of streets, parks, pnblic a11<l prirntc bt1ildin gs; etc. , would
be found to occur. But a :o tutly of the entire narration

224

CO~ll'OSITTO:S-

EXGLISH GHAlD!AR.

oucrht
to enable the reader
e
. to determine that none of these
.
constitute the whole which is being explained; but that
the city · ~f Chicago is the whole, and that it is being
explained by setting forth its attributes as varying at different times; and that this is being done in such a way as
to make the idea of change prominent.
3. Decide what the author's purpose was in writing the
selection. A writer may explain an object in order to .
gi,·e the reader information in regard to it; or his explanation may be intended to call forth some feeling; or his.
purpose may be to lead Ids reader to perform some action
or make some choice. The purpose which the writer has in
mind will d etermine the natw'e and number of the attri butes to be selected in order to explain the object in such a
way as to accomplish the purpose; it will also decide in
what order these attributes s)10nld be given, and what
language should be selected to express them.
How the choosing of one or another of these purposes
would affect the explanation of the object may be seen if
we think of three writers explaining the Chicago fire, but
each selecting a different purpose. The one who wrote to
girn information would t ell how and where the fire origin ated, how great a territory it burned OYer, what buildings
and businesses were d estroyed, how many families were left
homcles3 . etc. He who 1rro te to call fo«th the f0i:·lings of
b. :r ror anLl a\rc arising iron1 the co11tcr11piatio11 of tLc scene
would picture tlic lurid glare_, the roaring flame .,, the hi.'·' in g
f1f tlie \\aler, the cries and lame11tatio11s of the: liomck~s,
etc. The writer whos1:• purpose "·as to indncc his readers
to contr ibntc to tlw relief woultl picture tlte smvkiug
ruins of homes' ancl ln1si11ess houses, t11e homeless and
desolate families crowded into the parks, chiidren halfchJ :mu :ouffcring from· liuliger, wu11w11 witl1 chilJ1Qi
dqJc11Jc11t up011 tl:em lw 11ailittg the lu.::.:: of their all, mt:tt

IX SERIES.

who seemed aged in one 11.ight with the weight.of the calam·
ity, etc.
4. After the purpose of the writer ha.q been rleci<lcd
upon, con sidet' the parts separately to determine:
a. If t.hc attributes which haYe be en selected are
those best fittcu to ~ccomplish the purpose.

b. If necessary ones have been omitted, or u nneees- .
sary ones g1 vcn.
c. If the order in which the attributes arc given 1s
that best adapted to accomplish the purpose.

d. If the lang·uage is well adapted to accomplish the
purpose of the writer.

5. Rewrite the selection, or any part of it which may be
decided upon, in.the pupil's own lu.nguagc.

Exercise 83.

'l'he following sketel1, by \\'ashington Irving, of a Dutch
farm house is wholly de se r'i pti vc :
Th e slron"'hohl or Yan Ta~se ll wa>: situatC'tl Oil th e banb of the
Jl ud, 0 11, in :ll<' pf tltrH' gn' Cll, ,)1eltPr1'd , fc·rtile nook' in wli ir.11 thr
l>titch fanu1·r .. ; art' ~0 fund uf n1_·..;tli11:.:. ..:\ grv:d. cl;11-tr•_'" ~J 1 1' ~'<id 1,r_.;
broad bn11i L·ltt·.::; o\·c·r it , at th~·· fnoL of wl:i('h lnilJ lil ed tq' n ~pnii; of til e
~oftest n 11 d swcctc::::t v:a t(· r, jn ::,. little well forrnrl1 of r1 barrel. :l :id t!: l 'Il
"'ril,
,,-,orLlinn- <JW'l\" thr"u c1 ~h tli t~ C'(~ra~:-:, lt1 a 11~·igl!L1Jrin; L;· ;, . , ~. tli<lL
• <
l~ ·· 1 u.
]11 11ihler1 along among- nlrlcr.' an1l lh,·arf will'' "' ··'·
lbr<i hy t:i..· fa rm·
hnusr was a Ya=--t barn, that 111ight han~ ~e1·\·L·i1 for a. church. C\·c ry
windo\v ancl crc,·ic..:c ul wltiL:h :sct::uh;J l>Lii'::'ting forth with the t:-t-a.iure.:5
of the farm: the flail was Ltio;ily r csc.i111H1i11g within it fr,-,m n;nrning
to ni,,ht· s;allows and nunlins skimmed twittering abont the eaves;
and ~ow~ of p igeon,;, ;onme ,;·ith one e ye turner! 11p, a ..; if watc:hin;;. t~c
lrt:ather, svinc wi~ll thl'ir lit.'.all:::i un1l~r th t.·~r wing...:_, (,if burh-d in ttll'Jr
I\.

•

-,

' •

'.

EXGLISIT GP..OD!AH.

CO.\IPOSITIOX IX

bosoms. 1rnd oth r rs ~wrlling nn<l cooing nnd bowing about t.heir dnm es,
were eujoy ing the sunshine on. the roof.
Sleek, unwiehly porkers were gmnting in th e rq>O"C arnl almn<lan ce
of their pen;, whellce rnlliell forth, now a1HI then, troops of ~m·king
pig>;. as if to ~nntf the air. A ~lately squadron of ~llowy geese were
riJi ng in an a1ljoi11ing pond, conrn_ring whole fleets of ducks; regim ent:; o! turkt'ys were gobbling through the farmyard, and guinea- .
fowls fretting about it, like ill-tempered hou sewiYes, with their peeYish,
discontented cry.
The dwelling was one of those spacious farmhou ses, with hi;d1-riggeJ ·
· but lowly-sloping roofs, Lui It in~ the style ht1nde1l down from th e first
Dutch settlers; t!Je low proj1!cling C'~l\'es forming fl piazza almig th e
fron t, capable of bC'ing closc1l up in b11d Wt'alh cr. Under this were hung
flail~, harness, rnrious utensils of hu~bandry, and nets for fishing in
the neighboring ri\·cr. Benches were built 11long the !"ides for summer
use; and a great spinning-wheel at one end, arnl o. churn at ·the other,
showed the various uses to which th.is imi}ortant porch might be devoted. From this piazza the wandering Ichabod entered the hull,
which formed the center of the mansion antl the place of usual residence.
Here, ro"·s of resplendent pewter, ra1iged on a long dresser, dazzl ed his
eyes. In one corner stoo11 a huge bag of wool rC'ady to be spun ; in
another, a quantity of linsey-woolscy just from the loom; cars of Indian
cont, anJ strings of dried apples an<l pcflch c ~, hung in gay festoons
alon~ the wall, mingletl with tho gand o f reel pe pper;; : allll a <l oor ldt
ajar ga,·e him a pce•p int o the Lest parlor, \rh crc tho claw-footNl chairs
1md dark mahogan.1· t:1blcs shon e like mirrors ; andirons, with th e ir
accompanying sho \·ei ~1Hl tong~. glistene<l fro1;1 their eo\·C'rt of a~para­
gus·to ps; mock ora!lges and conch-shells decorated th e mantelpiece ;
strin ~TS of variou s-colored Linls' eggs were suspended aLoYo it ; 11 great
ostrich-egg ,,-as hung from the center of the roo111; an1l 11 co rner c·11pk1ard, knowinc:ly ldt o pen, di,;pLl>·cJ immense trc:isnrcs of old sil 1 ..:r
an1l \\"t: ll -lnt:·n1lc·(l L"bi11a.

Carlyle',;; >'ketch of tl ie perwn uf FrcLkri ek tl1e Great Q a
notabl e piece of dc:>cription. Pro cee d us in the last exereEc.
He i,; a king ewr)· indi of him, though with out the trapping;; of

ii.

227

king. PrC'sents himsi'l f in 11 Spartan simplicity of •esture: no crown,
lin t an old military cocked hat; 110 !'<:eptre b11t one like .Agam<'mnon's,
a walking-stick cut from the woo1b, whieh ,-e nes alm 11.s a riding-;;! ick;
an<l for royal robes, a mere soldier's lilue eoat with re<l fa<"ingo<,-coat
likely to lie old, 1111cl sure to ha\·e a good deal of Spani>h snutI on the
Lreast of it; rest of the apparel dim, unobtrusive in color or cut, cndin;; in high o\·cr-knce military Loots, which may be brushed, but are
n ot permitted to br. blackened or varnbh ccl.
_ Thr. 11111t1 is not of g01.l-like physiognomy. any more than of impo,ing
stature or cost.ume: close-shut mouth with thin lip~. 1•r.ominL· nt jaw~
and nose, l'PCelling Lrow, by no m eans of Olympian height; het11], howen• r, b of long form. n111l l1as s11pl'rlati\·c gray <'yes in it. Nol whnt is
callc1l a bea11liful man; 11or yet, by nll uppcnrnnce, what is callc1l fl
happy. On the contrary, the faee bear:; evidence of nurny sorrows, as
they a.re termed, of much hanl labor llone in this worlll; and sccn1' to
anticipate nothing but more still coming. Quiet stoicbm, eapuble
enough of what joys there were, lrnt not expecting any worth mention;
great unconscio11s and ·some co!lscious pride, well tc1ilpered with a
cheery mockery of humor, arc written 011 that old face, which carries its
chin well forward, in spite of th e "ligl1t ~loop about the neck: no;;l',
rather flun" into the air, umkr .its ult! cocked hat, like an ol1l snufiy
lion on. tho ~\:i1tch; Hml sueh n p:dr oC eyes as no man, or lion , or lynx
of that ce ntury.bore cbcwhci"l'. acconling to all the tcsti1i10ny we haYe.
:;\l ost exccllc-nt, potent, brilliant._ eye,, ~wift-llarting us th e star~. steadfa st a s the Mlll; gr:.ry, we sni• l, of the azure-gray col or ; large l'nough,
n ot of glaring ' iZl'; the lrnhit 1utl C'Xpression of them vigilan ce and penetrating sen..;c. Th!J voi <·P. if hr ~pPak to yoll. i,; of similar 1•hy, iog1111n1y :
clear, mel odious, 11n1l 'onoro11~; all tones are in it, from tlrnt of ingt•nnOlls inquiry, grncef11l :.;ociality, light-flowing LantL·r (ratl1er pri ,· kl_r for
11w:J. part), up tu tlvfi11i k won! of cnmmaml, up t o cl""''bting wuril of
i·t.:1iu k e altt l

n·pr ul1~i.tiur1.

Exercise
Exercise 84 .

~EHIES.

85 .

In this piece Aldrich de scribes tho mechani cal p~ut of
tho sculptor's \rnrk. Proceed a 3 in th e b st t-Xl'rt·iou.
THE ~IAKI);"G OF A

l'n:n: or

STATl"ARL

On a tall circular table, thP top nf which fP\oh·e,; e11..:ily on 11 pi\·ot.
thl' s('nlpt.o r first r r Pcts what i ; l'"lll'd a ,-kc•lt'ton. Thi..: is ' i111ply 1111
bn. C. GR.-13

.. . ....

228

...... '

.... "'!'

• . ~ ._ •

-

•

EXGLTSH ORA"!tnIAR.

upright of wood , the heig ht and thickness of which are d etermin ecl by
the size of the work proposed.
The upri g ht passes pcrpcnclicularly through the lmst to gh·e strength
to th e n ec k ; a cross-piece s.e n es t o i;upport the shoulders. Thi:s
slight fram e bein;; fa stened securely to the table, the sc ulpt or builds
up around th e cross with modeling clay a rough imitatio n of the
hu ma n head an<l sho ulc lcr:;.
With a hun dred little wo0tlcn tools of a ll sorts of shapes, th e sc ulptor goes to work , scrapin g off a bit of clay here, stic king on a piece ·
th ere, n ow punching th e thing 'vith his thumb, now rakin g it wi t h a
ki nd of woode n tooth-bru sh, till after n while-say un hour or s6-;thi,; lump of inanimate clay begins to a ss·u me an absunl rescm blunce·
t o the person wh o:;e J.ik eness is being taken.
This is th e fir :;t sitting. Day ~ ft c r du~· the work goes on, the sitter
growing more tired, th e sc ulptor more int e re:::tetl , a111! th e bust more
life-like ; until, gazing on the moti onless face, the story of Pygr::rnlion,
who model eel a statue with such · wonclerful skill that it came to life
one d ay, see ms 11fler all n ot to be so very improbable o. legend.
V.'e will suppose the bust completed in clay. This, to us, is its m ost
interesting stage. The clay bears the real touches of th e sculptor : it
is a creat ion fresh from his o wn hand. Moreover, his work generally
ends h ere. From th e cbly moclel is 1irnde a plaster cast or mold, anc.l
of cou n;c in obtain in g this molt! th e rn och·l is tlest roved. .Aft er th e
pl&Ster bust is cas t, it is pl aced in the han<ls of a workm an, who executes 9:n exact copy of it in marble.
Exercise 86.

The fo1lo \\·ing eliarad('rization of Lincoln occurs in
Lowell's Commemoration Ode:
Kat11rC', the~· ;;Rv , cloth dote,
.'\nil Cftll nnt nwkr a m:tn
Sa\·c on 5-0lll l' worn-on t pl :1n,
Hrpraiinc; 11> hy rote .
F c' r l,1" 111 her Oj,J.\\"orl<l 1n olds a s ide she threw,
And, ('hon-.:in.~ ~\\"l't'>t <·l:ty frnm th t· bre:~~!
Of th' nnnh:rns tcr l \\·c~t,

\\-ith stuiT 11ntaintr·rl :'}11ipecl ll hero new,
\Yi-;c, stear!fa:'t in lh r· >l rl' ngt li of God, a11rl true .

COlf POSTTJOX I:\" SERIES.

229

How beautiful to sec
Once more a shepherd (Jf mankind ind eed,
\Vho l on:'d his charge, but never loved to l.cacl ;
One whose meek fl oc k the people joyed to be,
Not hirc•l hy any c heat or birth ,
Ruthy his ck11r-grainccl lrnrrrnn wort h,
· A nd Lbne ol<l wi,«10111 n f >inccrily.
His wa_~ no lonely mount 11in- peak of mind ,
Thrusting to thin nir o·cr our cloucly bnrs,
A sea-mark n ow, n o w lo"t in YtLpo rs IJ!irnl :
Broa<l prairie rather, g,•nial, lcvcl-li11e1! ,
Frnitful ancl fri e ndly for nil human ki111! ,
Yet also nigh t o h eave n UIHl loved or lofti est stars.
· Nothi11g of Europe l1 C' re,
Or, then, of Europe fr onting 111ornw1uL1 still,
Ere any 110.lllCS o( se rf o.ml peer
Could Nature's equal sc heme d eface ;
Here was o. type o( the tru e cider ra_ce,
And one of Plutarch's men t alked with us face to face.
H e kn ew to hiclc hi s tim e,
And ca n h is fame abide,
St.ill patient in hi ; ~ irnpl e f ~ ith sublim e,
Till th e wi~e yea rs dcci1lc.
Great captains with ll:cir g un ;; and cl rnms,
Distu rb our ju,igmc11t for th e hour,
But at last ~ i !e i 1ce cnmPs ;
Thc.<c all are gone, 111lll. ~landing lik e a !o\;·pr,
O u r chi ld ren sl1n ll bcliolrl hi> fame,
Th e kimlly-ea rn est, hritn', fore seei ng mfln,
Sagaciou". patient, Jrcacling prni:;c, not bL111 1l',
Kew birth uf u11r n e w soil-tli e Jir:; l c\rn cricu11 .

Exercise 87.

Proceed with the sdccliun ac co rrling to th e g eneral
directions.

EXGLI S H GILUDIAR.
THE TAJ AT AGRA.

The Taj is built on the bnnk or th e Jumna, rather more than a mile
t o the eastward of the fort o! Agra. The entrance is a superb gateway of ::-and:;tonr, inlaid with orname11t s and inscription s from U1e
K oran ia white marble. The gate to the ganlen o! the Taj is beautiful in design. Passing under th e open <lcmi-rnult, whose arch hangs
hi.:;h nbO\·e you, an avenue o! 1lark Italian cyprrsses appears before
y o u. l>o wn its center sparkles a long row o! fountain;;, eac h ca,;tin~
up a sing le ;;:Je11d1•r jet. 011 h0th ~i<l t>s flw palm, th e banyan, and th e
frath cry bamboo min;;lc tht'ir folia;;t'. Th e ;;:011;; of liirils m re ts y0ur
ear. arnl th e odn r of ro:'t's 11nd le111 011-fl owe rs "Wl'Cte11:; th e air.
llow11 :;u ch a Yi:' ta a111! on·r :;u1·h 11 foreground ri"<·s th e T11j. It is
an octago nal buihlin;;. or, rather, a s<1narc with th e co rn ers trun cateJ
an<l each side precisely simi lar.· lt stands upon a lofty platform, wit!:
a minaret. at eac h corner, nllll thi s,. again, is lifted on a Yast t errace of
solid masonry. ·An Oriental J ome, swe lli11 g out boluly from th e base
into nearly two-t hirds o! a sphere, and tapering at th e top into acrescent-tipped spire, erowns th e edifice, rising from its cent er with four
si milar t h o ugh mu ch smalle r 1lomcs at the corners.
On rae h s id e th en' i; a grar11! r 11trancc, forrn cJ by a s in ~le p ointe<1
arch rising n ea rly t o th e cornice, nrnl tw o smaller areh es (one placed
a 110,·e t he other) on r ithc r ·ha nd . The height o! the bui lL!ing from i t::
base to t he to p o! t~1c <lnme is 2u2 fret. The material is o! th e pure:;t
wh ite ma rbl e, littl e inferior t o tha t of Carrara. It shin e:; so daz zlingly
in t he mn th a t you ca n scan:ely loo k at it near at ham! exce pt in the
m orning and cYe nin g. E1·e ry pa rt, en•n th e base ment, th e d ome, an d
the u pper g a lle ri es of th e minarets, is inlaid with ·o·rrmmental desi~n s
in marbl e o f Jiffermt co l o r~, principa lly a pale-brown um1 Llu i:;h-1·i; let
Ya ri ct y.
Great :is are t he Jirnen sions of th e Taj , it is as laboriously linished
a ;; one of t hose Chinc:;c caskets of iYory and ebony whi ch a re n ow so
c:o mmoa in Eu rope. Arournl all the arches 0f th e portals and th e windo ws, nro untl the cornice and th e dome s, on th e walls and in th e pa~ ­
~a~e:;, arc in laid c hapters of . the Koran, the lC!!tcrs being e xqui~te ly
formc<l o f black marble. It is a sse rted that the wh ole of the Ko~n is
thus inla.iJ in the Taj ; an<l I ca·n rcaclily believe it to be true. Th e
building is perfect in e\'ery part. Any 1lilapicla l ions it may h ave suffered arc so we ll re~tore<l that ull traees of them ha1·.e d_isappeareJ.
The <l ome o [ th e Taj contains an echo more sweet, pure, and pro-

CO)Ii'O:llTIOX

I~

SEl:!ES'.

l on ~cd than th at in th e Raptist ery of Pim. whi ch i> th e fi nc,: t in
Europe. A single music-al tone utter r d Ly the voice floats and ,-o 11 r~

u1·c rh eaJ i11 a long delicious 11111!11lati on, fai11ti11g awav so slow I\' that
you hea r it aft er it is ,:ilcnt, as you " l' P . or :'t'l' lll to >'Ce, -a lark vot; ha 1c
been wat ehi11i;, aft er it. i ~ swall o wcLl up i11 th e Llu e of h r<ll" en .The hall, 11otwithstnl1<ling th e preci ous mat e riab of whi~h it is built
and t.hc clahoratc fini :;h o f its ornament,:, ha s a grn1· c and soknrn elTect,
infusing a peaceful serenity of rni11<l. s11c:h as we fee l wh en contem plating a happy d eath. Stern, .unimaginatiYc per,:ons ha1·e liPe n kn own
to burst Sll<hl e11Jy into tears on e 11t cri11g it, lLllU Wil<'>c \" er CUil lJeholJ the
Taj without feeling a thrill th.a t ser11h the mois ture t o th e ere has no
sense of Lca11ty in his so ul. 'l'lw real eost of th e Taj and. buildings
attac: heJ is es timat ed at fifteen million d ollars.

Exercise 88.

The fol!owing selection is taken from Ining's cJescription of Westminster Abbey:
I enterc1l from th e inner court of W e>tmin ste r Scho0l, throu gh a
long . low, vault ed passage, that hail an alm <J,:t sulit l' rran ean look, Lei11g
<limly lighteJ in one part by eireular pcrforatio11s in th e mas:;i1·e wall;:.
Throug h thi s clark aYcnuc I h(l<l .iL 'rlistant ri ew 0! th e C'l obtcr,:, with the
fi g ure of an olJ Ycrgc· r, in hi s bla1:J:,: guw11, rn oYi ng along their :-had owy
vau lts, and seeming l ike a specte r frnrn one of th e 11 cighbo rin g tombc<.
The approach to th e abbey th ro ug h lhc,:c gl oo my rn onastic r emain~ prepares the rninLl for it s solemn co nl cmplat iou. Th e cloiste rs still retain
something o! the quiet anu seclusion of form er <lays. The grny walb
are di scolorc1l by da mps rin <l . crumbling with age ; a coat of hoary
moss h as gathered onr th e in sc rip t ions of the mural monum ent::, aml
ub~cured th e d ea th's-hea<ls an<l other fun erea l e mblems.
The sharp
touc: hes of th e chisel are gone from the ri ch tracery of th e arclies ; th n
roc:es whi c: h ado rn ed the keyston es .ha1·e lost th eir lea fy Leauty; enrything bear.; marks of the gradual <lilapidation s of lim e, which yet has
some thing touchin g anrl pleasing in it s ver)' decay.
As I pacccl th e c·lobtcrs; sometimes eon tcrnpla ting thi s minglet! picture of glory a11< l <l ccay, arnl ~ornctimt>s l' IH1c:worin g to decipher the
iri::<t: riptions on the tombsto nes whie.h fnrn1e11 I he pa,·eui ent beneath my
fret, my eye was attracted tot hrcc figures, rudely caned in rclicf, Lut

233

EXGLTSH GR.UDIAR.

CO)lPOSfTTOX IX SF.RIES.

n ea.r!v worn awa\· by th e foots teps of many generatio ns. They were the

chapel to chapel. The day was gradually wearing away ; th e di stant
tread of loit ere rs about th e abbey gre w lc;,s and le:<s fr eq uent ; th e
s wee t-t ongued hell was ~ umm o ning to e\"c 11i11g prayers; and I saw at
a di$tan ce tli c ehoristcr,;, in tl11•ir white ~ urpli c e:;, croo;:'ing the ai:;Je
nnJ ente ring t he ~hoi r.

23'2

cffi g i~s of three ~f th e early ahhots: th e epitaphs wf're entirely effaced ;
the names al one rem aine<l, ha\·ing 110 <loubt been rcnewe<l in hitcr times.
I pursue<l my walk to an urehetl Joor opcni11g t o the inte rior of the
abbey. On entering here, the magnitude of the lrn il<ling breaks fully
u pon the rnin<l , eontrus tcd with the vaults of the cloist ers. The eyes
gaze with wond er at dn stcred columns of gig1rntic dimensions, with ·
nrd1cs springing from them to such an amazing height. ; and man
wanderin g about their bases shrunk into insignificance in comparison
with his own handiwork.
I passed so me time in Poets' C_orncr, whi ch occupies an end of one
of the tran;c pts o r cro% ai ,;les of th e abbey. The monuments are
generally simple, for the li,·es of lit erary men afionl no st riking them es
for the sculptor. Shakespmre nnd .\<l<lison ha,· c statues erecte<l to
the ir memories ; but the greater part ha,·e bust s, me<lallions, an<l sometimes mere inscriptions. N otwith~.tanding the simplicity of these
rnemori:d s, I Jia,·c always obser rncl that the vi:;itors to the abbey remained longest about them.
From Poets' Corner I continued my stroll towards that part of the
abbey whieh contains the scpnkh ers of tli c kings. I wandered am ong
what once were chapel s, bu t which arc now occ upied by the t ombs
an d monuments of th e great. A t e1·ery turn I met with some ill ustrious name, or th e cn;;nizan cc of some powerful hou;oe rcno wnc<i in
history. As th e <:ye chrls in to these du sky cham be rs of death, it
catches glimp;es of qnaint effigies ; some kneeling i n niehe:;, as if in
d c,·otion; other s :;trctched upon the tombs, wiSh hands piou;;Jy pressed
t ogether; warriors in armor, as if reposing after battle ; pre lates wi th
cro;;iers and miters, and nobles in robes and coronets, lying as it were
in state. In g lanc ing o,·cr this scene, so strangely populous, yet
where e\·ery form is so ~till an d silent, it seem s a lmost as if we were
t r eadi ng a m ansion of th at fablcu city wh ere e,·cry b('ing ha rl IJ('en
sudde nly transm ut ed into sto ne.
"-bile wa ndering about th ese gloom y vanlls and silent aisl es, st uJying the records of the clea<l, th e sound of busy existence from witho ut
occasionally reach es the car-the rumbling of the passing equipage,,-i hc
rnurmnr of the multi tut.l e, o r pe rhaps the light laugh of plea5ure .. ltfhe
contrast is striking with the <lr.athlike repose around; and it has a
strange effect upon the feelings, thus to hear the surges of active li.fe
hurrying along, and beating against the very walls of the ~pulcher.
I continueu in this way to mo\"e from tomb to t omb, nuJ from

Suggestions for Descriptive Composition .

1. The physi cal features of th e State you live in. (Co nstllt your text-book.)
2. The strnctnre 'arnl functions of th e eye, th e lungs, or
any other bodily orga n.
:3. The appearance of this class-room.
4. The qualities aucl uses of any ohject or ut ensil that is
familiar to all.

II.

KAH!tATIOX.

In this form of discourse a particular object is explained
by setting forth its attributes at a given time, and at a
subsequent given time, but" th e mind 's energy is centered
on the change. It is eriJen t ,'t herd ore, tha t L1 esc ri pti re
bnauacrc
has a n ecessary })lace
in narration .
0
0
'
The <li stin 0a ni shina
fea
t
ure
of
narrati on will be found to
0
be th e author's purpose to represen t the ol.Jject which he
has chose n for explanation as exhibiting a constant change
of attributes.
There are hYo prime rerp1i , ites to exrellenre in narrnti\·e,
as in any oth er kind of compos ition: .
1. The theme, or subj ect writt en about, must be known,
mu st be familiar to the write r. It shonld be thought
about, t alked about, and maste red, before it is written
about.
2. The theme should excite the interest of the writer. The
thin~s we lik e to do are the things we <lo be5t. H ealthful
action is pleasuraule.

234

:EXGLTSII GRA)DfAR.

CO)!J'OSITIOX IX SF.Hlli:S.

EXAMPLE OF NARRATION.

TIIE WRECK OF THE IIESPE!tCS.
II. \\".

In the selection which follows, Fr:mklin narrnles his
first experiencE's in Philadelphia.
I walked up the street, gazing ahout, till, near th e market-hou se, I
met a bor with brca<l. I ha<l rna<le many a meal on bread, an<l, inquiring whe~ he got it, I went immediately to the baker's he direct ed me
to. in Second Street, and asked for biscuit, intending such as we had iu
Boston ; but th ey, it seems, were nol ma<le in Philndelphia. Then I ·
a ~ ke<l for a threepenny loaf, and was told they had none such. So,
n ot considering or knowing the llifference of mon ey, and the greater
cheapness nor the names of his bread, I bade him gi\·e me three penny- ·
worth of ·any sort. He gave mC', acc<mlingly, thre e great puffy rolls.
I was surprised at the quantity, but took it, and, having no room in my
pockets, \~alke<l off with a roll under each arm, and eating the other.
Thus I went up Market Street as far as Fourth Street, pa.s_sing by
the door of Mr. Read, my future wife's father; when she, standing at
the door, saw me, and thought T made, as I certainly did, a most awkward, ridiculous appearance. Then T turned and went down Chestnut Street. and pa.r t of \\-al nut Street, eating my roll all th e way, aml,
coming rou nd, found myself agai n at Marke t Street wharf, near th e
boat I came in. to whi ch I went for a draught of th e rh·e r water; and,
being filleu with one of my rolls, gave the other two ton woman an1l
her child that came d own the ri\·er in the boat wi th us, and were waiting to go farth e r.
Thus refreshed, I walked again up the street,\vhich by this tim e had
many elean-<lrcsse<l people in it, who were all walking the same way.
I joined them, and thereby was led into the great meeting-house of
th e Quuker;;, n ear the market. I sat tlown iunong -them, am!, aft er
looking round awhile an <! hearin g nothing said, being very <lrowsy
through labor and wnnt of rest th e prece<ling night , I fell fa st a slee p,
and continued so till the meet ing broke up, wh en one was kind enough
to ron:::e me. This ' was, th erefore, th e first house I was in, or slept in,
in Phila<lelphia.
Exercise 89.

Proceed with the narrative of shipwreck as indicated m
Exercise 82, page 223.

L o sGt"ELLo w.

L It was th e schooner lle:•pern-;

Th 11t sailc<l th e wintry 5~ :1:
And thP. skipper hacl taken his li tt le daughter,
T o Lear him company.
2. lllue were her Pyes ~s th e fairy-flax,
Iler cheeks like th e dawn of day,
And her Lo:<om white as th e hawthorn buds
That ope in th e 111011th of l\fay.
3. The skipper.he stoo<l besi1lc th e he lm,
His pipe was in his monlh,
A11d he wat<:hc<l how the n cring flaw did blow
The smoke now west, now south.
4. 'l'hen up and spake an old sailor,
Hau saileu the Spanbh Main,
"I pray thee put into yonder port,
For I fear a hnrricune.

5. "Last night the moon ha;) a golden ring,
And to-night no moon we sec ! "
The skipper he hi e\\· ·a whiff from his pipe,
And a scornful laugh laughed he.
6. Colder and ]owler _Liew th e wi11tl,
A gale from th e northca5t ;
The snow fell hissing in th e brine,
A n<l th e billows fr ot hetl 1i kc yC"ast.
7. Down came the storm, aml ;;lllote anrnin
The vessel in its streng th ;
She shu<lueretl and pau sed, like a fri ghted steed,
'!'hen leaped her cable's lengt h.
8. "Come hither t com e hith er ! my littl e daughter,
And do not tremble so ·;
For I can weather the roughest gale
That ever wiud di<l blow."

235

2313

co:UPOSITION IN SERIES.

EKG LISH GR.UnIAR.

17. The breakers were right beneath her bows,
She drifted a dreary wreck,
And a whooping hillow swPpt the crew
Like icicl es from her deck.

9. He wrapped her warm irr his seaman's coat
Against the stinging blast;
He cut a rope from a broken spar,
And· bound her to the rna~t .
IO. "0 father! I hear the <.:hurch.l.Jells ring.
0 say what may it be r ..

18. She ~truck where thC' white' an(] fleC'cy wa,·es
Looked EOft as carded wool.
But the cruel rocks, they gored her side
Like the horns of an angry bull.

'' 'T is a fog-bell on a rock-bouml coast! "
And he steered for the open sea.
11. "0 father ! I hear 1he sound of guns,
0 say what may it 1.Je ? "
"Some ship in distr~s,;, that can not Jirn
In such. an angry sea ! "

19. Her rattling shrot1d~, all sheathed in ice,
With the masts went by the board ;
Like a vessel. of glass, she stove and sank,Ilo ! ho ! the breakers roared !

12. "0 father ! I see a gleaming light,
0 say what may it be 1' ''
But the father answered ne,·er a word,A frozen corpse was he.

20. At daybreak, on the bleak sea-beach,
A fisherman stood aghast,
To see the form of a maiden fair
Lashed close to a drifting mast.

13. Lashed to the helm, all stiff and stark,
With his fa ce turned to the skies,
The lantern ~learned through the gleaming snow
On his fixed a11d gl:tssy eyes.

21. The 61\lt sen was frozen on her breast,
The salt tears in her eyes ;
And he saw her hair, like the brown sea-weed,
On the billows fall and rise.

14. Then the maiden clasped her hands and prayed
That saved she might be ;
And she thought of Christ, who stilled the "ave
On the Lake of Galilee .

22. Such was the wreck of the Hesperus,
In the midnight and the snow !
Christ save us all from a death like this,
On the reef of Norman's Woe!

15. •.\nd fast through the midnight dark and drear,
Through the whistling sleet ai1<l snow,
Like :;. sheeted ghost, the vessel swept
Towards the reef of Xor111an's \Voe.
16. And ~ver the fitful gusts between
A sound came from 'thtl land ;
It was the sound of the trampling surf,
Ou the rocks and the hard sea-sand.

237

Exercise .90.

The following extract is from Hobertson's account of the
4)

discovery of America:
About two hours before midnight, Columbus, standing on the forecastle, observed a light at a distance, and privately pointed it out to
Pedro Guttierez, a page of 'the queen's wardrobe. Guttierez perceived

238

ENGLISH

GRA~DfAR.

it, and calling to Salcedo, comptroller of the fleet, nll three !'a'" it in
. motion, as if it were carried from place to pllU'e. ..\littl e after midnight, the joyful sound of" Lan<l ! land ! "was hParJ fro11·1 th e Pinta,
whid1 kept always ahead of the other ships. But h1ivin g bee n so oft en
deceived by fall acious appearances, every man wns 11ow become slow
of belief, nml wai tc<l in all the anguish of uncertainty anJ impatience
for the return of <lay.
As roon as· m orn ing <law11cd , nll doubts nnJ fears were di spclleJ.
:From ew ry ship an island was seen about two lengues to the north ,
who;;e flat nnd Yerdant fields, wel~ stored with wood , and watercJ with
mnny rh ulcts, presented the a:-pcct of a delightful country. The crew
of the Pinta instantly began th e Te Deum , as n hymn of thanksgiving
to God, and were joinell by those of the othe r ships with tears of joy
and transports of congratulation. This office of gratitude to Heaven
was followed by an net of justice to . their commander. They threw
themseh-es at the fe et of Columbus, with feelings of self-condemnation,
mingled. with reverence. They implored him to pardon their ignorance, incredulity, and insolence, which had created him so much unneces..-a.ry disquiet, and had so often ohstructed the pro>ecution of his
well-conce1teJ pla n ; and passing, in the warmth o! their admiration,
from one extreme to another, they now pronounced the man whom they
had so lately r c,·iled aml threatened, to be a perso n in~pired by Ti eiwe n
with sagacit y and fortitude m ore th an human, in order t o accomplish a.
design :;;o far beyond the ideas and conception of form er age5.
A s roon as th e ~un arose, all their boats wcr~ manned and armed.
They rowed towarJs the island with th eir colors displayed, with warlike m115ic, and ot her martini pomp. As they approached the coast,
they :::a" it co,:ered with a multitude of people, whom the novelty of
the spectacle had drawn t ogether, whose attitudes and g es tures expressed wonder and asto nishment at the strange objects whil:h presented thcm~e ln: s t o their view. Columbus was the first Europea n
who set foot on t he.Kew ·world whi ch he had disco vered. Ile landed
in 11 rieh dress, a nd with a n1i.k ed swo rd in hi s hand. His men fol·
lowed, and~ kn eeli ng down, th ey all kis~ed Lhe gro und which they ~
so long desired to see. They next erected a c rucifix, and, prostratffi'g
thcmsehes before it, returncd thanks to Gori for conducting their
,·o.rage to such a happy issue. They then took solemn possession of
the couufry for t he crown of Castile and L eon, with all the formalities
which the Portuguese were accustomed to observe in ~cts of this kind
in their new dise0Ye1;es.

COMPOSITION IN SERIES.

239

Exercise 9 I.
>

Redu ce this story in verse to th e prose form. Reproduce
from memory, proceeding as in previous exercises.
A

LF.AP FOR LIFE.

Old Ironsides nt anchor lay,
In the harbor of Mahon ;
A desJ calin rested on th e bay,
The wa,·es to sleep had gone·when little Hal, the captain's 5on,
A Ind both brave and good,
In sport, up shroud and rigging ran,
And on the main-truck stood !
A shudder shot through eYery Yein,
All eyes were turned on ·high.
There stood the boy, with dizzy brain,
Between 1 he sea and sky ;
No hold had he nboYe, below,
· Alone he stood in "air.
To that far height n one dared to go;
No aid could reach him th ere.
We gazed-but n ot a man could speak l
With horror all aghast,
In groups, with pallid brow and cheek,
\Ve watched th e quh·ering mast.
The atmosphere grew thick and hot,
And of a lurid hu e,
As ri,·etcd unto th e ~pot
S tood offi<.;crs anJ crew.
The father came on deck : h r gaspt>d,
"0 God ! thy will be done ! "
'l'hen suddenly a rifle grasped,
And aimed it at his so n :
"Jump far out, boy; into the wave I
Jump, or I fire ! " he said ;
"That only chance thy life can save I
Jump! jump, boy ! " He obeyed.

24-0

ENGLISH GRAl!MAR.

COllPOSITION IN SERIES.

He sunk-he rose-he lived-he movedAnd !or the ship struck out ;
On board, we hailed the lad beloved,
With many a manly shout.
His father drew, in silent joy,
Those wet arms round his neck ;
Then folded to his heart his boy,
.And fainted on the deck.

Took from his store or sheaves a generom• third,
And bore them gladly to his brother's heap ;
And then went back to sleep, and happy dreams.

Exercise 92.

A

TALE OF

Two

BROTIJERS.

Abram and Zimri owned a field together.A le,·el field hid in a happy vale.
They plowed it with one plow, and in the spring
Sowed, walking side by side, the fruitful seed.
In harvest, when the glad earth smiles with grain,
Each carried to his home one half the sheaves
And stored them with much labor in hi~ barn~.
Now, Abram had n wife and seven sons·
But Zirnri dwelt alone within his house.'
One night, before the sheaves were gathered in,
As Zimri lay upon his lonelr bed
And counted in his mind his littie gains,
He though.t upon his brother Abram's lot
And said, "l dwell alone within my hou:e,
But Abram hllth a wife and seven rnns ;
And yet w;, "hare the harvest sheaYCs alike .
He surely ncedcth more for life than I :
I will arise, and gird myself, and go
Down to the field, and add to his from mine."
So he arose, and girded up his loi ns,
An<l went out softly to the level field.
The moon shone out from dusky bars of clouds,
The trees stood Llack against the cold blue sky,
The branches wa,·ed and whispe red in the wind.
Zimri, guided Ly the shifting light,
·
I\ ent down the mountain-path, aud found the field,

&:

Now, that same night, a.s A brn m lay in Led,
Thinking upon his blissful state in life,
Il e thought upon his brother Ziniri\ lot,
And said, •·He dwells within his house alone;
He goeth forth to toil with few to help ;
He goeth home at night to a cold house,
And hath few other friends but me and mine"
(For these two tilled the happy ,·ale alone) :
"While I, whom Heaven hath very greatly blessed,
Dwell happy with my wife and seven son~,
Who aid me in my toil, and make it light.
And yet we share the harvest sheaves alike.
This surely is riot pleasing unto God :
I will arise, and gircl . myself, and go
Out to the field, and borrow. Crom my store,
And add unto my brother Zimri's pile."
'

So he arose, and ginlcd up his loins,
And went down softly .to the level field.
The moon shone out fr~m sihe r bars of clouds,
The trees stood black against the starry sky,
The dark leaves waved and whispered in the breeze.
So Abram. guided by t he doubtful light,
Passetl down the mountain-path, and found the field,
Took from hi;: store of ~heaves a generous th iril,
Antl ackletl them unto his brother"s heap;
Then he went back t_o sl~ep, and hapr_y <lreams.
So the next morning with th r early sun
The brothers rose, and went out to their toil.
Arni when they came to see the heavy sheaves,
Each wom]erctl in his heart to find his heap,
Though he hadgi1·en a third, was still the same.
Now, th e next night wen t Zirnri to the field,
Took from his store of shea,·es a generous share,
IND. C. GR.-16

241

242

CO~!POSITIOX

EXGLISII GR.·UDL\R.

And placed them on hi s brother .Abram's heap.
And then lay down behind his pile to watch.
The moon looked out from bars of silvery cloud,
The cedars stood up ·blac k again st the sky,
The olh·e-branches whispered in the wind.
Th en Abram eame down softly from his hom e,
And, looking to the right and left, went on:,
Toori: from his ample store a generous third,
And laid it 011 hi s brother Zimri's pile.
Then Zimri ro~e, and caught him in hi s arms,
And wept upon hb neck, und kissed his cheek :
And Abram saw the whole, and could not speak ;
Kcitber could Zimri. So they walked along
Back to th e ir h omes, and thank ed their God in prayer
That he had bound th em in such loving bands.

Exercise 93.

This selection from Goldsmith's works is partly narrative
s.!ld part.ly descriptive. Proceed as in previous exercises.
I perce i1·e<l. about fonr yrins agr\ fl Ltr!.'.P spirk'r, in one corner of
my room , making its web, and, though the maid fr equen tly le1·eled
hPr fatal broom against th e labors of the little nninui l, I ha rl the good
fortune then t o prl•1·c nt its rk,o t ru cti nn. :mil I may fay it more than
paid me l1y t!H: ei:tcrtainnwnt. it afTonkil.
Jn thr\''l' da.y-3 the ~1\" Ch \\·as 'vi th ii:(_'rrr 1i ~ •1i:' dili.;::::n\'C cnmp;l'tr>d: rtnr
eould 1 a\·c·id t hinki ng that the in.~ ect :-:eemeil to exult in ii...;; ne,,· nh.1di:.
Jt in•quentl:-· trn1·er>e•l it r1111nd, <'X11111in(>11 ihe 'tr... ngih of en•ry p!lrt
of it, r eii r<>d int.o i ts hole, anrl ea.me ou t. very frerp1enLly. The first
t·nem~-. howe1·e r. it har1 to encounter was another and a much larger
spider, which having no web of its own, and having probably exhausterl.
all its stock in former lab ors of this kiml, came to invade the property
of its neighbor. Soon, then, a terribl e encounter ensued, in which the
in-rnder seemed to ha,·e the victory, and the laborious spider was obligP-d
t o take refuge in its hole. Upon this I perceired the victor using e'}!Jy
art to draw the enemy from his strbnghold. He seemed to go off; out
quickly r etu rn ed, an<l when he founJ all arts nlin, b egan to demoli sh
the new web withou t. mercy. This brought on another battle, an<l,

243

contrary to my expectations, the lahoriou;; spider became con'lncror,
and fairly killed hi s antagonist.
Now then, in p!'aceahle possession of what wa~ j11;;lly its own, it
waited three d11ys with .the utmost impatie JH:f', repairing the breeches
of its w eh, anrl ti1king no snstc1)11 n re that I could pc rcell'l'. At last,
however, a large blue fly fell into the s narr, mul st rng;;-bl h a rd to get
loose. The spider gave it leaYe to entangle itse lf as mud1 a;; 1;os$ihle,
but it seemed to be too strong for the cobweb. I rnu~t ow n I was
greatly surpri:ie<l when I saw the spider irnmetliately sally out, and in
·less than a minute weaYe a new net round its capti q;, by which the
motion of its wings was stopped , am1 when it was fairly harnp•~red i11
this manner, it was seized aml draggetl into the hole.
In this manner it !iYerl , in a precarious state, and Xaturc sremed to
h a ve fitte<l it for such a life ; for upon n. $ingle fly it rnb~istetl for mor~
than a week. I 011cc put a wa~p into th e ne $t, but when the spi1ler
came out in orJ er to seize it as usual, upon perceiYing what kin<l of an
enemy it hn<l to deal with, it insta ntly broke all the bands that hel<l it
fast, and contriliutel\ nll that lay in it s power to di se ngage so formidahlc an antagonist. 'Yhen the \1·asp wa s at liberty, I expected the
spider wonl<l ha1·e set about repairing th e breaches that were made in
its net;_but tho:>e it seems were irreparable, wh~rcfore the cobweb was
now ent ire!~· forsaken, 111Hl a nc:w one begun, whic:h was completed
in i he IL'll:t! t i111r.
I had 11ow a mintl to try how man}· C(lhwcbs a ;;ingl e i'pi.J,.r cnul•l
furnish; whrreforc I <lrstroyr1I thi:>. a nil the i1i...:ect i'd ah011 t another.
\\"hen I tl c· .- tr•Jn·d the otli1'r ahi". i t ,; wh"l •: O't<K·k i'ce11H·1l entirely n:ha1t,tecl, an1l it C<.)[]l d :cpi11 nn 1:1<m» The· arh it 1:1atlc' u-e of tn i'll!'1"--,rt: it~t· lf. nnw d"I~rivcd c f it . .: ~T CH~ n11·;u1~ r1f ~i;L~l .,tr' IlC(', wr'rt:' in d1:cd
~urpri~ing .
I ha-,·c ~cCil it r 1 •~ l up i~::: h~g.s lil-:c a L:di, n.nd l;c ll<(•tirJnlcss for hour;:; tn,::!'r: tlicr. Lut cautinu.-dy watching all the tin1 r: \\'hen a
flr happcncrl t o apprnach :oufficicntly near, it woul cl thrt out all at
once, and often seize it;: prey.
·
Of thi s life, howe1·er, it rnon began to grow weary, anil r csoh-ed to
inni.de the po,session of rnme '"other spirier, sinc'e it conlrl not make a
web of its own. It formed an attack upon a neighboring fortification
with great Yigor, and at first wns as vigorou "IY repul>ed. Xot daunted,
however, with one defeat., in thi s manner it continued t o lay siege to
another's web for three days, and at length, having killed the defendant, actually took possession.
. ·when smaller flies happen t o fall into the sna re, the spider does not
1

i

IN" SERIES.

E~GLI S H

(~J: ..UDIAR .

CO){POS ITION

:sail > out at o nce, but Ycry patiently wait s till it is s ure o ( them: for
~bo~ltl it immediate ly approach, the t error o( its appC' arancc might giYe
t he cap tiYe ~trrngth sutli c icnt lo g et loose; ib habit the n i:; t o wa it
I"'t iPn t ly. till. by u se less s truggl e~ , the captive h a s w11..<t cd al l i ts
..
s t rength, and thr n it beeo mes 11 certain all<! easy co ngu e~ t.
The insec t I am n ow <l esc ribing livC'd three years; e q •ry year It
c h anged it.s skin and got a new set o( !ego:. I h a ve som eti1 urs pl uck ed
off a leg. which grew again in two o r three days. At fi r:; t it clrPad cd
my approach to its web ; but al Ja:; t it becam e so familiar as t o tak e
& ft'!:' out of my hand, and upon m~· tou ehin g any part of th e we b,
-woui cl immediately leave its h ole, prr pared either for d efen se o r an
11.U a c k.

Exercise 94 .

The following extract from De Foe combines narration of
experiences with desc riptive passages. .Make end ea»or, m
t he reproduction, to use English as direct and simple as
t hat of the text.
I had n ow a greRt cmpl ny mrt1 t o n my hand ,,- lo mak C' , h y snm e
mea n s or ot hC' r, SOlll L' earth e n YC ssrl,;. Th ese I s o r e ly 11 eetl etl. Lu t
coul n ot think h o w t o m a k e th em . H owe Ycr, r em e m be rin g th e h ea l
o f thr clim atr , I fel t ~ arc th a t i( I could fi nd th e ri g ht ~o rt o f cl a y I
;ohou l< l h<' nbl e t o ~ ha p•' ~\•rn r ro n ~h po t:< o ut of it. an <l ti n · th .; 111 i n tl1('
~1 n . ·r he:-:t> wuu ld Le ha rd ew_•u~ lt nod ~tr •.lf!~ t·l_l1i11 µ- h t(• l 1t ' rlr han-.11in ..:::::!
a nd woul J hohl nny thin g tha t \rn~ tlry, ~ ueh us c or11 a11 tl Ill e-al.
1t wo uld m ake yc•\I 1•it y lllL'. (•r ra l hN la1 1;,: h al 111 c, to l;now h ow
:::an y R\r b ra:·J \\' a y:s I t oo k tu ra i ~ e t li i ~ ] -''1~te: wh a t -- id , 11 1i -.- l!H j•"l l,
c ;:::)- thir! :: ~ ! 1 :1 ~ 1t. k· : hnw J11: tt! _Y (if t ht· m f.::·Il ~ n , Rl !d }v-.,,. r~ ::H~ :• fe>ll n! il .
ljh: .:.: l.,1y l ! ll l lJt· i: ::.: :-- ii lf 1· I H 11 1;..: lt ;. ~ l :t·<i.r i t .~ l ·\\!i ·,;· ._, ; ~ );:_ : L . ..
,, ,
t"n:!(' ;:!?d h y i lit>

.! ! re;\ \

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245

S ERIES.

full o! barl ey $traw. " . Th P ~e two jaro-;," I th ought , " will h old my dry
c orn, a1Hl pe rha ps th e m eal whe n th e corn is brui l'c<l. "
Th o ugh I liar! hC'!'n so 11nfort 1rn a tf' wi th t hP larg-r jar>. yet I m1ule
se ve ral s mulkr thin gs wi t h be tte r s u cccss. -suc h a s litt lr fl at d ishes,
pit che rs, a nd pi['kin :;, a nd uny t h ini:;:; m y h an<l s t 11rn c<l lu,- and th ese
th e h l'a t o! th e su n bak e1l a ~ hard a ~ I co uld w i:; h . S t il l, n on e o ( th e:;e
nn swere<l m y purpo>e, wh ic h was to g e t n11 ea rth en Yessel th at wou hl
h old l iquid 5, and bear the h eat o( a fir e. Xow, it happened on e tlay
tha t I mad e u hotter fire than u sual for c ookin g my .m ea t; and wh en I
we nt t o put it o ut, nft c r I h aJ <l one with it, I !ounLI in the ashes o.
brok e n pi e\'e o ( on e of my earthe n wa re 1·es :<el s, Lurnl us hard as a st one
and as r ed us a til e. I was ag ree ably ~urpri se <l to see it, and ~ a id lo
rny :;e!f that ce r ta inly th e,-e ves,;c l:; mig ht 11e mad e to b urn wh ole i( th ey
would burn broken .' Am! th is se t m e to s tudyin g h ow I coul d a rran ge
my fire so us to nccom r;lish thi s.
I had no n otion o( n kiln, su c h a s potte rs u ~e. nor o! glazing the pots
wilh lead, alth ough I had som e lend ; but I placed three large pipk ins
nnd tw o o r three jars in a pill', one upo n another, aml h eapeu my fire·
"'00<1 all rouml th e m, with a g reat h eap of embe rs und ern eath. The
fire I pli ed with fr es h fu el ro un <l th e outsi1le and on th e top . till I saw
th e ja rs in s ide were rc<l-h ot t h ro ug h and th roug h , and I ob:-e n ed th a t
they d id n ot craek at a ll. \\"h e n I sav; th at th ey wr re clea r r Nl I let
th e m st nnrl in th nt. h eat fnr fi1· e or s ix h o u rs.
.At ]a ,;t I fou n1l th :lt O lli~ o r th e j n rs. t h ough it tl i1J not Crn ('k, h[[ J
lJC' " ll n t o nw lt 0r n m . T he O'an1 ] wh i·· h wa ..; rnix1•,J wi t h t h· · t·Liy ha• !
rn ~l t l'd l1Y t li e ' ioll' n(· c o f th1 · h»at . n n d won! d h:t1·,. rnn int" .!.:!:1.-c• if
I h ail g n.11c on. So I ~la r;l; ~ d 111 _1- fi re gr:1d 11 alh· ti ll t he earth enwn rc
bPga n t o !o:<c it.; r c1l cnln r : 1l 11d w:t!r-hin ;.: all ni .c.:h t-le.<t the firl' oll'rnltl
d i ~ nu t t uo fa 3l - l ha.\ i n tl1 " 1nn rn in .c.: t h rf' l' Y<' ry ;.:u(,, j ! • i p kin ~ . a z: d
twd jar...; , H~ ltar i1 bu r nt G. ::.. C1Ji 1\l Lr- tL':·.: i r vd . :t il ! {· l l'.' r_:f th .·t :: r •..' rf t·Ctl y
;..;l: ~ :~·-·1~ wit l1 tl: ·: 11 1··l >
. 1·t l ~ ;\ ! i , 1 .
1

1

EXGLISH GR ..UDIAR.

Fon

CLASS CO)!PARI SO ~.

1. Ja ckson's \ · ictory at Kew Orleans.
(Consult your
text-book.)
2. An epitome of Robinson Crusoe, P.ut I.
3. Any chapter in United States hi sto ry, abridged.
4. The reproduction of any narrative that occurs m
class-reading.

III. E:uosnrox.
Exposition has been shown to be that form of discourse
in which the nature of a general ·idea is expounded or made
cl ear.
By a general idea is m eant one whi ch applies to each one
of a class of objects. Wh en the 1·dea of the triangle is
spok en of, we h a Ye in mind those att ribu tes of th e triangl e
·whi ch m ust bel ong to <'Yery possible trian gle- an cn closcLl
fi g ure boun<le<l by three lin es.
Trian gles m ay haY e three acut e angles; or one obtuse
and two acute a n g les; or one ri ght an d.tw o acute :ingles.
They may be boun c1ccl by cunerl lines or s trai gh t ; may
haYe sides of equal or un equal l e n~th . But by th e i'.dea of
the trian_qle is m eant t h e iclca of th ose attributes whi ch are
esse n t ial t o th e t ri an!_'.lc, allll wh ich will b e founll in 0nry
triang le , no matt er how different may be ihe oth er a tt rilJutes beloHging io th e m.
If th e t erm triangle, as it is m ed to express a gen eral
idea. is consider ed . its meanin g \r ill be fo nnd to incln ~
certa i n attributes n ecessary to eve ry tria ng1e, an· l it w11'l
be apparent that it nrny be :ipplicr1 to cn·ry triang le that
co nld exist. Bnt, if fo thi s ge neral id ea one more attribute
-that of right-angled-is added , it wi!! be see n that, whil e
th e general i11ca has been ma(l e to mean more than it did

COl!PO S ITIO~

IX S ERIE S,

247

before, it can not 11ow be applied t o eve ry trian gle, but is
the general id ea appli calil e only to e>ery triangle which
possesses the n ew attribute right-angled. lf ~till another
attribute is adJed to the general idea , so as to make it
m ean a right -angled triangl e with two s ides of equal length,
it will b e apparent that the id ea we now h ~tYC is general
01ily for those right--a ngled triangles whi ch ha,·e the attri- ·
butc which has been a<ldcll to the general id ea, and that
the numb er of triangl es lo whi ch it applies is small er than
b efor e, since from this nnmb er have Lee11 taken all th ose
right-angled triang les whi ch barn no tw o siJ cs of eq ual
length.
No matter how small the class m:iy be. any idea which
will apply to every obj ec t in it is a general id ea.
It will be easy to see, from what has been said, that every
gencritl id ea may be considered as to two foatures-tl1e attribute.s in it, arnl the numbe1; of objects to whi ch it appli es ;
and that as the numb er of a t tri butes in a gene ral idea
in er eases, th e number of objects to whi ch it may b e applied ·
grows less.
.
In expositire <1i sconrsc the two principal m eans of exp1ainin Ccr the natnrc of the Daeneral i11ca arc cle ar definition aml
careful division into th e classes which it i11 clucles; a11cl a
st\l(l\' of wh :1t lias been sa id uncl cr th e general 1"rlea will help
tn sl;n11· wli:1 t ~liould br indu 1lc1l i11 :t di•fl11i t i11:l. a1!d wl1:tt
shonlL1 clceic1c th e eh,:,;es to wh ich the genera l it1e~1 which
we are treating applil'S.
A [rood definition nlw avs csta l J li ~ h cs the ph rc of t h e thing
r1efln~ J 1iy putt in g it i11 t;l th e snwllcsl k1101c11 class of which
i t is a part. 'l'hns, the definition of an adjcctiYc ,)1011lil
state first not that an adjedirc is rt 1cord whi ch. etc. , lJut
that an adj ect irn is a;1attrib ut ive 1cord whi ch; etc.; because
th e class attributive words is, or ought t o be, known to any
one ready to consider the Jcfiniti on of an aclj ect ive, and is

248

E~OLISR

GR ..Ul.llAR.

the smallest class to which the adjecti >e belongs. This is
always the first feature of Ii. good definition.
After this has been giyen, the writer should next decide
upo n and state those attril>ntes of the thing to be defined
which make it a general idea applicable to all the individuals of its kind, and which separnte it from the class of which
it is a part. In defining an adjeetiYC, the second step is to
state that particular attribute which eYery adjectirn must
ha¥e, and which at the sam~ time separates the adjective
from all other attribntirn words; i.e., its meaning affects
the meaning of a substantive. This forms the second feature of a definition. The definition of an adjectiYC is, then:
"An adjectirn is an attributive word whose meaning affects
tlie weaning of a substantive." 'Harn pupils define, according to these principles, peninsula, lal.:e, preposition, adverb.
. :But while these two features are sufficient to define the
term adjectfre, the nature of this part of speech will be
m ade clearer by examining adjectirns in order to ascertain
if t hey all affect the meaning of the substantive in the same
wax ; and, if they do not, setting forth the subdivisions made
upon thi5 b:isis, following the same plan with each of the
su bd ivi;,ions that was followed i 11' treati ug the adjecti vc as
a wh ole.
By this process are obtained th e classes of adj ectives and
the e xplanation of each.
Care is necessary in making diri sions that none shall bt
o m it ted t hat the basis makes necessary. If, in giving the
classes of houses on the basis of the material of which they
are com:tructed, the subdivisions are given as brick and
stone, th e classification is incompl ete, as frame houses a~
th ose of other possible materials are omitted.
It i:; often found that, by selecting different bases for
di•ision; different divisions may be made. Thus. selecting
the tise of the building as a basis, houses mi!!ht be diYided

CO)ll'OSITIOX IX SEIUES.

24~

into dwellings, business houses, churches. etc. It is often
well in explaining · a general idea to gi•e different subdivisions made upon ditrerent Lase.:;; but wlil'n tlii ~ is dom.
it is necessary to exerci se care tha t tli e su l.Hli ri ~ iu11s should
not only be complete, but al.so should not be t:•rnfused with
each other. To divit!e lrnilding;:; into brick houses, stone
Lui !dings, ch urchcs, etc. , won It.I violate th i;:; pri nci pie.
· Harn pupils classify the noun on the basis of the kind
of object it expresses; the veru, Oil the Lases of form aud
meaning ; the sentence, on the base;; of form an•l meani!1g.
The llature of a general idea may often be made clear by
the processes already explained; i.e., Ly a clear definition,
and careful division upon all bases that will scrrn the purpose of the writer.
·
But an aid in expounding an idea i;:; often fouml in the
use of comparison and contrast; and tliis is Eee11 to Le especially valuable when the id ea which is Leing explairlC<l is
compared or contrastetl with oth e rs of the smallest class of
.vliich it is a part. 'l'hc 1irono1i'n aml the noun both belong
to the chss ~llb8tantive, apd h ence must hare some attribute or attribut es in coni1i1011. But they mu st al so have
some differen ces or th ey woul<l be the sarne thing. It will
be found to be Yery valuaLle aid, in determining the nature
of the pronoun, to compare and cunlrast it:; 11H:a11i11g and
u se with the m eaning and 11;,; e o f the Honn , in ord er to
determine exactly what are tli c liken esses and differences.
It is necessary, in ma~ing such comparison or contrast,
that th e attributes in regard to whi ch th e two itleas are
compared or contrasted should be common to tl1 e entire
classes, and not to some part or parts only. Jr. can not be
said that the pronoun, like the lloun, shows it s case by its
form, because this attribute is not trn e of either all pro1iouns or all 11ou11s, iii though _it belongs in some degree in
Loth classes of words.
·

E:S-GLI::;II Glt.\lDL\l:.

CO)IPOSITIOX l:S- SEltlES.

llu t it can he said that. tl10 p rononn, like the noun,
expresses an object, and that the nonn names an object,
while the pronoun expresses the object without naming

divisions, and presents the m in su ch order, as will best
accomplish his purp o.sc. Oftl'n he 1loes not present all the
attribu tcs essential to the nature of the iuea, nor all the
subdivi sions which the i<lca includes, but only su ch as aro
best fitted to accomplish his purpose.
In expos ition written with l'ither of these two latter pur- ·
poses in mind, the \rritcr frequently choo:;es to expound
the nature of his subject by niaking known th e character of
some notabl e example or type.
}.fan •v 1ioc rns ' Sllch as L o ncrfell
ow's Evangeline, an<l
0
Hood's Bridge of Sighs, while consisting largely of d escriptions n.nd narrations, are intende<l to illu strate, :it least to a
decrree
general ideas-the
former showing
woman's devoo
'
.
~
tion, and the latter the world's lack of charity-and in so
fa~s they do this are cxpositivc in th?ir character:
: Often in prose di sco nr~e some attribute be1ongmg to a
class is illu strated by showi11g some i11Clividnal manifestation of it which is of a kind fittc Ll to make elea r all its essential feature s. Thu s, th e s~rrows. of poverty might be shown
by d esc ribing the wret ch ctl' life of some 01ie per so ~; t~1e
nobility of truthfulness might b e mad e clear by showmg its
effects upon th e character of some parti c ul a r person.
In snch cases, as has bee n b efo re said, the purp ose o f the
author tlcci<les th e kin<l of di:0course. If it lrn.s been wri t ten for the sake of makinf!: clear the condition or character
of the i11(li1·i,1nal, it is de;cription or narration. But if the
autlior l1a::; intended th at tl1e general shall be seen thro ngh
the parlicnlar, it is exposition.

250

it.
Sit ch carefnlly prepared a!Hl logical exposition of an i1lea
is to b e found, as a u sual thing, only in those cases in which
the author's purpose is to instruct, by affording to the
reader the clearest possible ,-iew of the subject, snch as is
to b e f ound in text-books and explanatory works, cn cyclopa~dia s, de.
::\lany of the text-books used ill schools are ex:.imples of
exposi to ry 1lisconrsc. Granwwr and Aritll7nelil: employ
exposition very largely; and, as the pnrpose in eac h is to
make clear general i1lcas, these subjects arc classed under
expositirn discourse. Geography and United States History arc not i 11 tendRd to make clear any general idea, but
to explain the natnrc of particular objects, and arc therefore cbssecl as tl esc ription and narrati on rcspe ctiYely. But
in e a c h of them will be found many passages of exposition.
Th e purpose of c xp o;;itirn di sco urse as found in t e xtbook s is to give knowledge; an<l h rnce the attri bu t cs
selec tcll for prese ntation , and t h e o rJ er rn whi c h they are
giYcn, together w i tli the la 11g11age w hi eh i;; used, arc
chosen wi t h this pttrpose in \·ie w, a11<l the t rcat m c11 t is maJe
as clear a11cl logieal <h pos.-;ibk.
\ri1L'n the wri tcr ':-; pttrp ust• in d lliks the influencing of
the feelings or the will, wry much more frcNlom in the
trcat::1 c·n t is :·illn11·a!Jlr. and ltrnrc, exrr pt in text-books :-iml
n;);;-•r E- :.;nLrn:it<•rY
.
. wnrk" . it i." not lt '!i :il in fint1 in e:qH hi-......
ti ·.-c c1i .;;r-r1tirs0 all the f eat ure.:; wh ie h h:we hccn cxplaincrrp
•~er t o fi:ul t h em in their st r ictly logical o rJcr.
Expositive
discou r se .whose purpose i;; to i11l1 11 e11e0 tl10 feel iugs or the
will is u::nall y to be fun11J in the fo rm of poetry or oratory,
and iu ;o uch cases the' writer :oeled~ :.:uch attr ihute2 and sub-

After a careful conoi1kraliP11 of the foregoing pageo:, the
pnpil should st ud y the following selections, ob:oerving the2c
directions :
1. Study each selection c:-irefully, to obtain the thought

as a whole.

252

COlll'O:SlTIOX l!\ :SEJUJ::::;.

EX GLI S H GRDDIAR.

2. D ecide upon and state the general idea which the
writer expounds.
3. D etermiue the author's purpose Ill wri t ing the sele ction.
Since the treatment of a subj ect will differ wi th diffe rent
purposes, t he fur t her study of any selection will depend
u11o n t he pu rpose of th e writ er.
If that 1m rpose is found to be to give a clear kn o,rl e<lge
of the subject, the pu pi! shoulJ4. Determine and state to what class the writer h as
refer red the id ea in d efining it, and what di~tinctive attri. bu te or a ttributes he has u sed to complete the d efinition.
5. S t:ite the subdivisions the writer has made, and the
basis o r bases on whi ch h e has made them .
6. D eciJe, as far as they may be known to the pupil if
all the subdivisions which the basis makes necessary l~rn
been girnn, and if the different subdivisious have bee n k ep t
distinct as to basis.
7. If comparison or contrast h as been employed, state
wi th what it h as bee n made, and if the attributes whi ch
ha \·e been selec tcll as the grounds for the co mpariso n or
contra.st. :ire comm on to t he entire class.

If the pmpose of t h e writer is found t o be to produ ce
some feeling or to !call to so me action, th e furth er consideration of the select ion c:i.11 n ot Le made so definite, bul wou lJ
be somewhat as follows :
1. State the attributes whi ch the a11thor has 11 setl to
m ak e clear the nat.ure of th e id ea.
2. St~1te t he classes h e has mentioned. jf anL
3. If t!rn author has shown the nature of thti general"'
idea by u:;ing some ty p e or exan1 ple, state what particularw
?b~ ect is desc ribed, and what general i<lea thi s description
is mtenue-1 to explain~

Ko more spec ific llirec ti o ns can wPll lie giY c n fo r the study of the~e
form :< of Expositio n , as th e treatm e nt is largely u e t crmine<l by each
autho r for him sel f.

Exercl.se 95.

A:-i

Ex ,u11•1.i-: or E xl'l>~ ITIOX.
T HE X<Jl.' :'i.

A noun is a substantive wonl whi c h expresses an object hy naming
it; a s, book, Salem, cattle.
The n o un and prq n oun are al ik e in that both arP sub~tanl i,· p~; th at
is. h oth expr ess ob jects. lie, she, th ey , uml it e xprc~s objPc:I:.• ju st u,;
mu c h us Oscar, Edith, men. und dog ll o ; but th e ui!Ie rencc li es in th e
fact that the noun names tlt e objcct which it expresses, while the pron oun does n ot.
Th e object expressed Ly the name buy may nbo Le e xpressed by the
n a m e Oscar.
\Yhe n the nam e boy is u sell, th e, attention is gi,·e n mo't st ron g l y lo
those c h aracteristics o f th e object whi ch belong abo t o ew ry obj ect in
th e sam e cla:;s, 1111d th e 1111 1:1 e. thi1s u $'ccl may be u ; cd to express an y
ouject in th e c la:;s.
Bnt whe n this same objec t i ~ cxp re:;:;ecl by th e nam e O.<crir, great e r
atte nti on is g i,·en to th e charnc teri:;ti cs o f the boy wh ich lif' long lo him
as an indi,·iuu11l, and th e 1111mc thu s u ,;cd ca nn ot be appliecl to th e class
o f objects, bu t belongs extlusiYcly t o the inuividual t o who m it is
applied.
Thi s diffe n'nec i n th e charadni,.;tic-,; of a11 o\Jject wh ic h I\ nam e m:iy
express giYe5 r i:;e to the di,·i,.;i o11 of 1101111 :; int o two cl:i'"''·' :

L Prope r n ou ns-th o:<e which nam e th e nh jcd h1· ce11trri11g the
atte ntion upon it:; inclidclual r111alitie.s : ao . ] 111li'u110, !Jo.</1;11, lril!iam,

E st ha.
2. Commo n 11ouns-tl 10.-'e whi c h 1rnm e the olijl'c t h:• \·(•11tering the
attention upo n tho~e chantctcri .-;tic,; of it whi ch are co111m o11 t o all
obj ec ts of it s cla":i; a:;, sta t~ . city. /Jo'} , yirl.

C O~Il'OSITIOX

EXGLl ::i lI G ILUDIA H.
Becau~ of the imli,·i<lual character of the prope r noun, it has 110
HI bdi ,·isiom.

The common n oun may be th e nam e of an object' possess ing qualities; n.s, ma11, metals: or it may be the nam e of a quality which is
con:;idered apart from th e objects whi ch posse:;s it; ns, dilige11ce, use-

fuliiess.
Ilecause of this differ ence in the character of the thin g cxprt~ s~cd Lv
the common noun, it is divid ed iuto tw o classes :
I. Object-nouns, or common n o un~ which name ohject~.

2. Abst ra C"t noun s, or . co mm on n oun s which n ame qualities considered apart from obj ects.
~ common noun of th e first class niay name a single individual,
:'h1_c~ ma y stand as the r ep resentative of a class ma<le up of sud1
m~1nduals as, tree, brook, mountain : or it may n a me. a group of
obJecf11 co11.s1dered as one, whic h may stand as n r cpresc ntati\·e of a
~la&> made up of such groups considered as wholes; as, h erd, flock,

!

111ry.
Th is difference in th e character of tl1 e olJJ·cct n,1me d· Ly tiie o liiect·
1101111 gi\"l:- s ri:;c to its tli,·ision into two c:lasses :

IX SEHIES.

Exercise 95.

From th e 1criti11gs of JJanicl ffebst er.
'frne cloqi1cncc tloes not cn n,;i,; t in ~['<' l'c l1. It ca n not he bmught
fr om afar. Lalio r ·ancl lea rning m:iy t o il for it, but they will toil in
vain. \\" onls n11d phra~es ·may he mar~haletl in every way, hu t they
can n ot compa.~s it. lt mu st exist i ii th e man , in th e subj ec t, nml in
the occasion.
A fTected . pas:;ion, in te nse expression, the porn p of
d ecla matio n, all may aspire after it-th ry c:an not reach it. It comes,
if it come at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain fr om the earth, or
the bursting forth of volcanic fir es, with spontaneous, original, native
force. The graces taught in the sehoob , th e co:;tly ornament:; nml
studied c:ontri,·an cc:; of speech, ,;hock 111ul tli,;gu st men wh en their ow n
lives, and the fate of th eir wi1·es a1HI their c:hildren, un<l th eir eountry,
hang 011 the d ecision of the hour. Then, wonls have los t their power,
rhetoric is vain, nml nl_l elaborat e oratory contemptible. E,·en genius
it self then feels r clmkcJ uml suh1lucd, ns in the prese nce o! higher
qualiti es. Th e n, pntrioti~m is eloquent; then, self-devotion is eloquent.
The c:lcnr conception outrunning· the deductions o! logic, the high purpose, the firm resoll"(:!, th e <launtl.css spirit, speaking on the tongue,
Lea ming from th e eye, ir1formi11 g- every fc!lturc, and urging tho whole
m a n onward, right on warJ, t o )li:; ·o l1jce't-lhi:;, thi s i:; <.:loquence.

1. The cbss-no11n , whi ch names an ·indi1" id 11al · obj ec t, and m ay Le
appJi,,,1 t o e,·ery such ol.Jjec t in it:; c:lass; as, i ee, soldier, fl.sh.

Exercise

97.

An extract from th e works of Horace Bushnell.
2. Th e collC<' tiYe n oun , whi ch nam es a g roup of obj ec ts co nsid cre 1l
as ~ \\·.h ole, and may be applied to e\·cry such group in th e cl a~s to
winch it he longs; as, s1carm, Ti'gi111 e11t, school.
On accou nt of th e n~ture of th e id ea expressed by th e ah;,trar't n ou n,
no sulxlh·isions are made.
·
.

The above example of Exposition mns be use<l as a rrcrnlar exercise, and should be studied in ;ccordance 1rith ;he
suggestions jn the preceding di scussion of the subject.

Th er e nre many who will Le r ea•}Y to think that l ight is a nry
tam e and feeble in st rument l~ ca u sc it is noiseless. An ea rthquake, for
example, is to them a mu ch m ore vigorous nnd eJicc:ti1·e agency. II ea r
how it comes thundering through th e liolid foundations of nature. It
roc:ks a wh ol e continent. The nobles t works of m an , citic,;, monuments, and temples, arc in a momei1t" lc,·eled t o th e g rou nd or sw1.1llowed down in the ope ning gulf:; of fire.
Little do th ev think that the light of every morning, the rn rt and
silent Ii"ht
is
an-en
t m an •v time·s m ore powerful. But let the light
0
'
0
•
o( th e morning cease anc.i r eturn n o more; let the h~ur of mo~nmg
come an<l lirin'-' with it no <lawn--'the outcries of a horror- s tri cken
world fill the :ir, auJ mak e, as it we re, the da rkness amlilile. The

;n

256

EXGLISII GILUD!AI'-

CO~f POSITION

Exercise 98.

Prom the u·n:tings of Fisher Ames.
\Yhat i' patriotism ? ls it narrow affection for th e 'pot where a
man was born? ,\re the very clO<ls where we trc1ul cntitletl to this
ardent prcfel'\'ncP because they arc greener? Xo, sir: this is not the
ehamcter of the \"irtu c. ancl it soa rs high er for its obj e<:t. It is nn
e xt P11<led self-lo"'', min gling with nil the enjoyments o( life. an1l twi sting itself with the minut c:;t filam ent" of the hc·art. lt is thu:; we obcv
the laws of ~.o<: iety, l.Jccau'c th ey arc the law' of Yirtuc. Jn th ei.r
authori t y we :;;ec, not th e ttrray of force a111l terror, liut the n •11 crabl c
image of our country':; ho11 or. E,·cr~· goo1 l citizPi1 make~ that hon or
his own. and cheri:< he" it not onl.'· as preciou:>, bn t a> sm· rc1l. H e is
willi11g to ri:<k l1i :; life in it,; 1lcfc11sc, nn <l is co 11,c i1rns tha t he gain s
protectio n "hile he gi,·cs it; for wh at rig-hts of a citizen will be
<lecmcd in,·iolabl c wh en n state renou nces th~ pri11ciplrs that constitute
their sec urity? Or, if his life ~h o nhl not be inrntled, what would its
enjoym e nts Le in a country odious in th e eyes of strangers and di ;;honoreu in his own ? · Could he look with affection and veneration to
·!'uch a cou n try as his parent? _T he se nse of ha ving one would di e
within him. Ile would blu sh for his. patriotism, if he retained anq~
and justly, for it would be a vice. He would be a banished man iii
hi:> native land.

257

Exercise 99.

bea~ts

go wiill and frantic nt the lo:>S o( the snn. The >egetable
growths turn pale und die. "\ chill creeps on, 1\nd fr osty winds begin
t o howl aero...;s th e freezing ea rth. Colder, yet colder, is the night.
The \"itnl blood, at length, of all cn•at.ures. stops, congcalcll.
Down goes the frost to t.hc C'!lrlh's center. The hea rt o( th e sea is
frozell; nay, the earthquakes nrc themscl\"cs frozen in undPr th eir
fiery caverns. Th e wry globe itself, too, antl all his fellow-plan cb
that have lost their sun, are become mere balls of ice, swinging 5ilent
in the d>1rkne5$.
Such is the light that rc,·isits us in th e ~ilcnPe o( the morning. It
makes no shock or scar. lt would n_ot awuke an infant in the cradle.
And yet it perpetually new-creatcs th e world, rescuing it each morning
.a;: a prey to night and c:haos.

IN SERI ES.

Adapted from the works of John Ledyard.
I ha,-e observed among all nation:> that the women ornament th cmsel ves m ore than the men; that, where \"cr found, th ey are the same
kind, ci'"il, obliging, humane, tender bci11g,;; that they are Her
inclined to be gay aml cheerful, timorou s 1rn1l modest.
They tlo not hesitate, like man, to perform a hospitable or generous
. actiou; not haughty, nor arroga11t, nor supercilious, but !ull o(
courtesy and fond of society; iiidustrious, economicul, ingenuous;
mor~ liable, in general, to err than man , but in gencrnl, also, more
virtuous, anu performing more goo<l ucti oris than he. l never a<l<lressed mnclf in th e language of res pect and friendship to a woman,
civilizeu o;. savage, without recei,· ing a res pectful und fri end ly an ,; wer.
\Vith man, it has often been otherwi~c. Jn wund cring onr the barren
plains of inhospitable Denmark, through hon est Sweden, frozen Lapland, rude and churlish Finland, unprincipled Ru s:-ia, and the wi11e
regions of the wandering Tartar-if hungry, dry, colt! , wet, or sick,
woman has ever been friendly to me, and uniformly so; ancl, to add to
this virtue·, so worthy o( the appellation of bencrnlelice, th ese actions
have been performed in so free and .so kind a manner that, if I was
dry, I drank the sweet draught, and, if l.! ungry, ate the coar:;c morsel,
with a double relish."

' After the selection;; have been stn(lied, have the pupil s
,nit c simple expositions of general ideas, such as lake, ~nap,
lime-piece, schuol-ltouse, etc.

IV.

AlrnlmEXTATION.

Argumentation has hec1i. defined as that·form of discourse
in which a proposition is made and the grounds for the
assertion arc given.
·
_
The main purpose of a writer of such discourse is always
to convince the reader or hearer of the truth of the proposition. - 'l'his main -purpose may be the only ?ne; but_ in
many cases it is also desircu that through argnri1entat1on
Jso. C. Gu. - 17

258

r.O)lPOSITIOX IS SERIES..

EXOLTSH GR.ODL\R.

feeling may be inflncnr:cd. or action may Le produced. If
the statement, " The center of population of the United
States is now in sou them Indiana," is made, and re.a.sons or
arguments to pro>e its truth arc presented, th e purpose of
the writer would evidently be only to prom tl1c truth of hi~
asse rtion. Bnt if, in a politi cal campaign, th e proposition,
"Free trade with all nati ons is the best policy for the
United States." should be asscrtell, and arguments to establish its truth hrought before the reader or hearer, the purpose of the writer wonltl be seen to be , in addition to proring the truth of his propo~ition, to influ e nce the will of th e
rea<ier.
Argumentative discourse may Le addressed to three classes
of persons:
1. Those who are intent upon learning the trutli, and
whose minds h:we not yet accepted either the truth or
falsity of the proposition. To snch hearers argumentation
is addressed for the pnrposc of proving the trnth of the
proposit ion.
2. Th ose who arc 1'ndifferent, caring neither for the truth
nor the fal sity of the propos ition . Such hearers an:rumcntation attempts to conrincc of the truth , and infiu~nce to
its ado ption.
3. 'l'ho;;e who arc in opposition lo the 1irop osit ion stated.
·w ith these the purpose i" the same as with the last class,
bnt the argumentation often takes the form of d ebate, in
which argnmcnts arc given on bo t h siilcs, ea ch writer trying to estnb1ish l1is own Yic11· of the proposition as trn~.
with the addition~1 purpose of coll\·e r ting 11i3 opponent to
that Yiew.
\Yheu the secondary pnrpose_:lo influence the feelina'
or :he will-is present in the write r's mind, he frequent~
does not confine himself strictly to the statement of the
arguments which woulu establish the trnth of his proposi-

259

tion, bnt seeks lo attain this cml by other means. He oflen
introduces so me virid <kscription or narration, or some
direct appeal, whi c h w;ll prollu cc in liis hearers the \le sircd
ft·eling, anrl thlls le;ul to the clwicc ot· action wl1i ch it i:>
l1is purpose to i1Hluct: them to rnake or perform.
The forms i11 \1·hi1 '. h argumc nta tire di~cottr~c arc gen erally
met with ar c sermons, discuss ions in Cougrcss and state
leg islatures, trials i11 courts, prucee1h11gs of couYentions,
etc.
Since the composition of argllm c ntativc disco urse invohcs
principles that can be m ore a1ha11tageonsly considered at a
snLscqucnt pcrioLl of school work. the pllpil is n ot required
to write co mpo s ition of thi ~ class, llllt the further treatm en t
of it will Le confinctl to select ions of gooJ argllmentation,
which he is expected to stnuy nmler the following directions :
1. Study the

selection to olJtain clearly tl1c general
thougltl. ·
2. If it is not stated, determine what the proposition 1s
wh ose truth the writer is attempting to establish.
3. State what is founJ to'bc the purpose of the writer.
4. State to which of the classes i11tlicat cLl he assllrnes his

hearers to belong.
5. If other elements bes id es arguments haYc been intro<lncccl into tl1 c disco urse, point them ont, classify them as
b elonging to one of the other forms of discourse, and state
the purpo se of the \1-ril cr in using tl1em.

Exercise

1 00.

From the Works uf John Ji. Jfason .
Religion ltas nothing to do with politics! Where cliu yon_ learn
this maxim ? The llililc i:; full of dircd io11s for your behanor as
citizens. It is plain, pointed, awful iu its injunctions. on the ruler

2GO

E~GLISH

GR.UDUR.

an<l the ruletl as such; yrt 1·eligio11 ha.~ 1iolhing lo dfJ 1cith politics!
Yo u ure comnrnnde<l "in ALL your ways to ucknowle<lgc Him." •·In
t:nrnYTHI:SG, by prayer an<l supplication, with thirnksgfring, to let your
requests be known unto Go<l."
"And WIUTSOE\-Ell ye do, l:S WORD OR DEED, to do ALL in the name
of the Lord Jesus." Can )·on persuade yourself that political men and
measures a re to un<lcrgo no reYiew in judgment to come ? That all
th e passion and Yiol ence, the fraud and falsehood and corruption,
which pervade the system of party an<l bun-t out like ll fioo<l at the
public elections, nre to be blotted from the catalo<>-ue of unchristian
<lcc<ls, becttu;:e they arc politics? ,.Or th~t a rnini~ter of the Gospel
may see his people in their political career bi<l d efiance to their God in
Lrcuking th rough eH•ry moral re~trii int, and keep a guiltless conscience
u ecause religio11 has 11ollti11g to do 1cith p olitics? I forbear to press
the argument farther, ob~ e rving only that many 0f our difficulties anu
sins may be traced to this pcrniciou~ notion. Y cs : if our religion ha<l
had more to <lo with our politics; if in the pride of our citizenship, we
had not forgotten our Chrislia.nity; if we ha<l praye•l more anti wrangl ed less about the affairs of our country-it wou!J ha Ye Lee n infinitely
l>ctter for us at. this day.

Exercise

IO I.

THE Cox~nn: nox

s11ot:u1

J Alt:ES

hl.\Dlq)~.

BE ADOPTED.

I submit to yon, my ft>llow-c itizem:, the:;e co~siueratiom, in full
confluence t hat th e good sen~ which has :;o often marked your d ecisions will a llow them due weight ant! effect; and that vou will ne\·er
suffer <liffi cu.hie~. h owe,·er formidabl e in appearance, or. however fashiorrnule the error on whid1 they may be founded, to dri,·e vou into
th e gloomy and perilous scenes into which the athocat es for .<lis union
woultl conduct you. )Iearken not to the unnatural voice which tells
you that the ~ople of _.\merica, knit together as they are by so many
· cords of affeet.10 n, can no longer Ji,·e together as members of the same
fumil.y; can no long:er continue the m~tual guardia~s of their mutua$
happrnes;; i <'3n no lon ger be fellow-citizens of one great, respectable,
and fiouri,;h ing empire. Hearken not to the voice which petulantly
~ells you that the form of ·g on!rmnent recommended for your adoption
is a 110\·elt y in the political worlu; that it has never yet bau a place in

COllPOSITIOX IN SERIES.

261

the theories of the wildest proj ectors; that it rashly attrmpts what it
is impossible to accomplish._
~o, my countrymen, shut your ears against this unhallowed Ian·
guage, shut your hearts against the poison which it conveys: the kindred blood which flows in the veins of American citizens, the mingll'<I
blood which they ha,·c shed in defen se of their :;acretl rights, con,;ccrntci
their union, anj excite horror at the idea of their becoming alien',
rh·als, enemies. And iC novelties arc to be shunned, believe me, the
most alarming of all no.vclties, the most wii<l of all projects, the most
. rash of all attempts, is that of rending us in pieces in or<ler to preserve
our liberties and promote our happin ess.
But why is the experiment of nn cxtemled republic to be rej ec ted
merely because it. may comprise what is new ? fa it not th e glory of
the people of Am criea that, whil,;t they have pai1l n decent reganl to
the opinions of former times antl other nations, th ey have not suffered
a blind veneration for antiquity, for custom, or for name,;, to o,·errule
the suggestions of their own goo<l sense, the knowledge of their own
situation, and the lessons of their own experience ? To this manly
spirit posterity will be indebted for the possession, and the worlcl for
the example, of the numerous innorntions di splayi;<l on the American
theater in farnr of private rights un<l. public happiness.
Had no important step been taken by the leader:; of the Revolution
for which a precedent coul<l not .be · dbcovered; had no go,·ernment
been established of which an exact model did not present itself-the
people of the Unite<l States might · at this mom ent have been numbered among the melancholy vi ctim s of 111isguided coun sels; must, ut
best, ha\·e been laboring un<ler the weight of so me of th ose forms whid1
have crushed th e liberties of the res t of mankind. Happily for America-happily, we tru~t, for the whole human race-they pursueu a new
and more noble course . They accompli?hed a revolution which ha s no
parallel in the 1mnals of human society.' They reared fabrics of government whi ch have no model on the face of the globe. They form ed
the design of a great confederacy, ' which· it is incumbent on their suecessors to improve and perpetuate. If their works betray imi:erfections, we wond er at the fewne ss of them. If they erred most m the
~tructure of the Union, this was th e work most <lifficult to be executed;
this is the work which has been new-modeled by the act of your con,·ention, and it is that act on which you are n o w to deliuerate and <l ecitle.

EXGLISH

262

COYPOSITION IN SEHIES.

GRA~DIAR.

A

LETTER- 'SRITIXG.

The greater part of nil composition takes the form of
letter-writing. Th e p oss ible th emes and met ho<l s of correspond ence arc ns rnrious as human inte rest; are di.-erse ;
but, for th e m ec hani cal structure of the letter, custom h as
est<tbiish ed certain se t form s which arc few in number.
The letter proper* consists of six easily di st inguishable
parts, as follow s :
1. Th e heading, wl1ich gives the place where, and the time
when, the letter is written-;
2. The address, whi ch gives th e nam e, title, an<l r es id e n ce
or place of bu sin ess of the perso n or perso ns to whom
the letter is sent ;
3. The salutation, or greeting, wh~ch is familiar or formal,
according as the relations between writer and recipient
arc intimate or ceremonious;
4. The body, whi ch is the message, or substance of the
lette r ;
5. The complimentary close, which co rresponds as to the
formality with the terms of the salutation, and
6. Th e signature, or name of the writer.

FOR)IAL L-ETTEH.

14jobnson St.,
Boston, Muss. ,
ju 11 e 4, 1891 •
(Addrns .)

!vlessrs . Bro11m, Smith & Co.,
2943 Broadwa;', N. Y. City.
(Sa/ut<1fio1f .)

Gentlemen:
(Bod)'.)

Mr. Jobn Jones, of Bloomfield,
!ClWa, refers us lo _yott for information as lo
bis business responsibilit;·.

\

The place nam ed in the heading, and 'the signature at
the end of the letter, hould be plainly and fully set forth
in all formal lette rs, so that wh en taken together they
may co nsti t nte the expl icit address of a letter writt e n in
reply_
The address is s_o rn ct irnes put last, and at the lef t of the
signature.
Upon the envelope is written the superscription, whic\,
should be a copy of the address of the lette r enclosed.
-

* Notes of social ceremony, written in the third person, are often
printed accord ing to fornutla, and are not considered under this head .

•

2G3

tbis subject /bat

)'Ott

Any advice on

nza;' be able to give us

will be mucb appreciated by
(Close.)

Yours respectfully,
William Smilb.

E~GLISH

GHAlO.CAR.

265

CO)!POS ITION IN SEn.IES.

A

THE REPLY.

LETTER OF lNTBlACY.

2943 Broadway, N. Y. City_,

(Hea.dini;.)

Philadelphia, Penn.,

June 5, 1891.
(Sa/Jttalt;,,..)

Aug. 14, 1891.

Dear Sir:
(/;ody.)

Jn rep{y to J'Ottr inquiry _of J'eslerday,
(Salutati<m.)

we beg leave to sa;• !bat we have bad dealings

My dear Father:
. i

I

witb Mr. Jones for tbe last ten )''ears, and

(Body.)

You '!flill be glad /.() learn

Iba/ we should be glad lo exleud bim credit

that since you have been a'!Jsent from home,

for any amount.
( Clou.)

etc., etc., etc.

Yours respectfullj,

(Close.)

Brrr11m, Smith & Co.

Your affectionate daughter,

(Ada'ru.s . )

Mr. William Smith,
14

Johnson St.,
Boston, Mass.

Raebel.

·'
~ote that in this letter the headiriy- is incomplete, ·am.l that the
address is omitted, as Leing formal nml unnecessary.

266

EXGLI S II

c:HA~DIAn.

CO )!POS ITION IN SEHIES.

Tho titles most n sccl arc .A.fr., Jfrs., Master, .i.lliss, alll1
Jless rs. Jlaster is th e title of a la<l, and 1lliss of a you ng
or of an unmarried lady. 'l'lio titles Miss and Mrs. shouhl
he inclosed in cunes atH! prefix ed to the signature of an y
letter written by a la<ly to · a stranger, as a gu i<le to th e
prope r a<ldrcssing of a reply. M essrs. is a ti t le t o be pr:'fixed to tho name of a lrn sin css firm , or to the nam es of any
nu mber of associated gen tic men.
Am ong p rofessional titl es are Prof., for one wh o is or
has bee n a college professo r ; Dr. or ,lf.D., for a physician;
and R ev. , fora cle rgyman.
Jfon . is p refi xed t o tho nam e of any impor tant public
ofiic ial, but is purely a titl e of co urtesy. The Presi d ent of
the United States, u eetlin g 110 title but that of his office, i;;
ro addressed. E sq., orig iu:illy tho 'title of a landed proprietor and magi strate, Im vi ng lost its appropriate meaning
by i ndiscri min ate co m pl i men t, is in this country fa Iii ng
into di suse.

tors, pp. 2u:J-2C5) th e heading, address, salutation, close,
and siguaturo of a lcttc_r to:
1. A bu sin ess firm;
2. An intimate fri end ;
3. Y o ur t·eacl1e r.
Exercise 1 03.

Fill in the framework :
(1) Of your letter to an intim ate fri end with an invitati on
to visit yon ;
(2) Of your letter to your teach er with a statemen t of m:y
difliculties that you find in thi s exercise, or liav c found Ill
those which h ave preceded it.

Suggestions of Subjects for Letter-Writing.

1. To the librarian, r et urnin g a ce rtain book, and asking
that another book (nam e<l ) shall b e sen t to you "by
the l>carcr."
2. To th e publishers of Jlarp c_r's 1llaga zlne, ord ering that
p eri odical t o be 1;ent i.o tli e (g iven ) address of some

'l'h e salutations m ost cn mrn o11 ly used are Si r, Dear Sir,
Rev. D ea r S ir, JlI!f Dea r F riend, C!entlemen , Jliadam, D ea r
J[adam, L adies. ,lfadam is a p rope r form of salutation for
bot h married and un111 arri cJ laJi cs. In letters of intim ate
intercourse, Sir, 1l!ada 111, Friend, etc. , nati;rally gi \· e place
fo names and t itles of k inship or affection- as D ear J ohn,~V..I/ /Jctl r Frrth er, etc.
The complimentary close sli.,ultl corr.:;spo nll in it ;:; n~1ture
•itli the salutatio11. .\f 11c!i 11 .-;ed form;:; are Yours truly,
i -er!J trul.11 yours, F ou rs respectfully, Your ob1:dimt scr'P-'!1/f, .~-incerely 71011 r:c-, ) ·uur fri end, 1 ·our ajfr:chonafr son,

fri end of yours.
3. 'J'o your brother, who is nL se n t fr om h ome, ~ letter
writte n on th e occasion of se nding t o him a L1rthJ:1y

(-'.(".

"'

IV
Exorcbe

I 02 .

W rite an<l arrange in 1mitalilc r elati ve pos it ions (sec let-

2G7

gift.
·L '!'on friend in ?-;ew Y(Jrk, a n invitation to visit yoll at.
..,. 0 u r homC'. lJescnL c you r li umc, , tlie town _y uu liv e i11,
;t11d tl1 0 cou ntn· J' Otllld abuut it.
r). To yourself, a r;producti1_111 fr<>lll rn c1 11r1ry of ti:.:; 1::1J.'t
inl1: n ·...:t ill ::'. letter \"011 ]1;t1·e c 1·,· r n ·cc ivcd.
'l'o
y 011 r te~cher, gi.nng a brid a ccount (narrati1·e and
r:.
.
· t.1ve) of _)·our ex11crienccs duriucr_, the L::st va ca. d csc np
ti on.

