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_ENGLISII

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GRAM~IAR~

MADE EAS.Y TO

'rHE TEACHER AND PUPIL.
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OlUGINALLY COMPILED
FOR THE USE 0!'

WEST-TOWN BOARDING

SCHOOL~

PENNSYLVANIA.
I

.BY JOHN COMLY.
If

.T he Thirteenth Editil:>n Corrected and much Iropro\·~q1

PHILADE:J.,PHIA: .
.

. PUilLISHED HY

• J •\•

KIMB~R

,

f..ND

SHAUPU:~_S,

No. 93 Market-street. !
J. Hnkcsunw, Printer.

:1823.

. ..
-. . .

Eastern District of P enn . · i:i., to wit :
.
BE IT n~~~'lEMB t:HED, Th at on the eighth
f"-A./'t
da of J\fay, in the forty -fifth year of the I~de­
{
SU L.
r!nd ence of.the Unite<l States of
l...rv-V
A. D . 182 1, Kimber and Sharp~ess, of the •iu
district have d epos!tcd in this office .the tit!~ of a book,
tl;c rigi1t where.of.they claim as proprietors, m the words
following, to wit:
" .E'n lish Grammar, made easy to the T eacher ancl
Origrnally compii1. for the
of W estTo wn Boarding School, ennsylvama. By John
Comly. The eleventh edi ·on corrected and much
impr01·ed."
.
Tn conformi ty to the Act of th Congress of the United
S t>< I es, ' nt.tuled
:
• "Au act for the encouragement dofblearnk
i.n by S<'curing the copies of maps, cha;ts, an . oo s,
togthe authors and proprietors of au ch copies, durm~ tt~e
tim es th erf'in rnentioued."-And also to. the a:t, entit e '
" An act supplementary to an act, ent1~l e d, An a~t fo~
th <" encouragement of learning, by securmg the cop.1es u
ma ' • charts , and books, to the auth~rs and .propr;etors
of ~uch copies during the times therem mentwn~, .a nd
exten<l.mg the be nefirs thereof
.
. to the harts of· tdt>s1gmng,
"
no-r• vin<r and etching h1stoncal and ot er prm s.
o,..... '"
p CA~.DWELL, .
Cl ~fJ?e Efifern District f Peru1Sylvama .

~

~mei;c.d

Pn~il.

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i:!.XC

PREFACE.

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,.:
IT may be proper to observe, that the author
;' ~.:. of this compilation has studied so ' to abridge
t ~2 and ar1•;1ngc the definitions and rules necessary
1
\ -~ to be committed to memory, as not to burden
the· pupil; and yet, by the frequent 1·epetitlon
and ·a pp lication of them in par·sing, to render
them clear and explicit. As it is found that
no ad ~· antagc arises from burdeni.n g the memories of children with a multitude of pr¢cepts
which they do not comprehend, the compiler
has interspersed a riumherof examples for parsing, wh erei'n, after a frw of the definitions are
committed to memory, they may be rt>peated
and explained till they are well ui1d e1·stood, as
well as more deeply imprinted ~n the mind.

an~~

11

A~ior '. '· f;ho ic i.; n
r1 l~..
t ..

1rre ·r-1. ,l:V·J:·

.. \ ..,.

As rightly unders :anding asentence depends
very much o'n a knowledge of its grammatical
coustruction, it is of irnportance that the stu··

9

ORTHOGlU.PU:Y.

PRKFACE.

drnt sl1ould be able to resolve it into its component par ls, and to ascertain whf'tlwr these arc
A clear and
.and of

.. the s ucceed ing work. and it is hoped a pro1ier
attention to them will lie fotind ve1·y bcnelieial
to the lea rn er in acqui1·ing a knowl e dge ~· the
Jang-uagc.
·
·
.
111 the eleventh edition, sev'<·ral a11di·a: io1ii{
have lJ ee 11 made it~ the dcfi'nitions of tl~~~ pai·ts ·.
of speech and thrfr sub<livisii:i.n s, in 1ird(·r to'.
i·c ntlt•1· th e m more rxplic:it. Soine s.irpcrfluous ·
i1 .,(t:s, kc . liavt' li'ecn omittrd, and th e number ·
of cxnmplrs !'or pa1·1'i11g, and of false S) 11tax,
l1as bt' t'.u irn:r1·asPd. ln the conjugation of verlJs..
in th~~ ::;11h.1u 1H:ti ve mood, ri11Cl in th e correspqnding rules vfS ) tlt<tX, it is bt'liev cd," such cha11g·es
Jiare been made, a s will greatly diminish, if
not e util'cly rcnH)ve. tl1c diffieulti es which ti1est~ .
pa t' lS of the suli,;etL have ltitl11~rto prese'nti:><l.
•1.· COJ}'lLY.
;

.. " '

.I

1.;hanire.d into i before an additional syllable, as lwly, holiJLes• ; , xcept "'hen the next syllab le begins with a vowel;
as, de11y, dc11yin,g-. But when y at the end of a word is
pr .. cetlcd by a \'Owel, it is very seldom changed by the
additional syllable .
. RvL~ 3.

.

E fi :·,\l, ore at the e ncl of. " word, should be omitted
when a syllab le is added whicil b egins with a vowel: as
love, iovi11q-, ~c. except after c and g soft, before able and
ible, as se1'Vice, ke1·v.:C• able: But if the additional s.yllable
begin with a t.'<lnsou:rnt, thee shouhl not be omitted: as
p~acefitl.
. .
T he words duly, truly, awfu.l, judgment, abridgment, ack uowledg111ent1 are ex..:uptio!1s rn this ru,Je.
·

itULE

A consonant at t he end of

4•.

,.

a·word, preced,e d by a single

vowel, should be .doubled on the additio,1.i,of.a syUable beginning with a vowd·; as ,6egi.11, beginni+ : • &c. '
But .if it be preceded by a diphthong,, .or the .a-::c;:ent be .
on tb .. preceding sy llable it sh'ot.ild reirnun single ; as, toil,
toiling , <lijfe1-, difference, Uc. ·' ' · i
:r ' H.ULE 5. ·. ·. , •·.' t ·: ,
ords ending in <l<:~uhle .l,' having· ne.is, less, ty, or .f!.tll,
added to· them, generally oniit one z,: .as jitlne.i s, skilful.
But words ending in any other double 'letter, retain both
when th<:se syllab les are added to them ; as liarmlessnes•,

''V

curelessnes~·. .

.• .

~·

·

· .

.

. ·

·

6.
' ·Vor<ls derived from words ending in ce oi· ck:, are written with ci in the additional syllable, as !J"ace,gracious, &c.
Those derived from wo1:ds e nding iq d, s, tJr se, should
he spelled with si; as descend, <lesc!'/IS/011. ;·.• c. and those
HULE

front words e ndin g in t, or te with ti'.; as, sect, sec:tiou, l\:c.

except

Slt ch

as are tlerirnd from words encl,ing in mit, or

v ert, \\."hich t:i.k e si; as omit, omission:. _..;

··

7.
Words take n into composition, . often drop those letters
whi ch al'e superfluous in tlwir simp l e~ ; a.~ /l(yu!J1LI, also,
RULE

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}~ N GLCSII

GRAMM .Ht,

The following Hules show the most useful methods of
<liYic.li11g wore.ls into syllables.
RULE 1.
A sin gle consonant between two vowels must be joined
to the latte r; as be-gin : except the letter x; as ex-ist, Ike ..-·
:me.I words compounc.led; ai; up-on, <lis-ea.se.
Rur.r. 2 .

Two consonants proper to begin a word, must not be
scp:ll·atec.1; as fa-hie: llut whe n they come between two
vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must'
he <livic.led 1 as un-dcr, In-sect.
RULll 3.
When three consonants meet in the middle of a word
an<! are prnpcr to begi n a word, if the preceding vowel
h e prnnounccd long, they must not be separated ; a.s dethr<>n e. But when the vowel of the preceding syllable is
l>ron ounued short, one of the consonants must alway1 be
joined with it; as dis-tract, dis-prove.
RULE 4
1\' hen three or four consonants, which are not propei:.
to bt·gin a word, meet between two vowels, the first COIL·
sonant shoul<l always be joined to the preceding vowel;
as com-plete, con-strain.
Rou 5.
~
T we vowels, not being a diphthong, must generally be
di vided into separate syllables; as ere-ate, deni-al.
RuL v, 6.
Compoun<led words must be traced into the simple
words of which they are composed, and divided accorclingly ; as i;ood-ness, O\' ei·-power.
RULE

7.

Grammatical terminations are generally separated; as
teach -es t, lov-cd.
T he best :rnd most general direction for dividing ti
sy l\;1bles in spe lling, is to cl1vide them as tlley are 11aturi1lly
•t:p«rat~d in .a right pronunciation,

t

ETYMOLOGY.
'rl1e second part of. G1·ammar iR Etymology;
which treats of the different sorts of, words, or
11arts of speech, and their variations.
The na~es of the parts qf speech, are Article, noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, participle,
adverb, coi;ijunction, preposition, and interjec·
tion.
ARTICLE.

An article is a pat·t of speech placed before
nouns. 'l'hc articles are a or an, and the . .
NOUN.

A noun is the name' of any thing that we cau
sec, heat·, taste, smeJI, feel, 01· discourse o(;
as man, apple, fire, -virtue. ·
ADJECTIVE,

An adjective is a word used to express some
quality or proper·ty of a noun, or to show the
extent of its signification ; as good, wise, this,
that, one, two.
PHONOUN.

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun;
as, The boy is diligent; he im1n·oves.
VEirn.

A verb is a part of sp~cch, which .sig,i;Ufies
to be, to act, 01· to recei-ve an actipn; · a~, I'. a~, I
lo-ve, I am lo-vecl.
·
· ·
l ' ARTICIPLE.

A pa1·tici11Ie is a word dcl'ived from a verb,

l:NOJ,JSJI GRAMMAR.

'.,

iudustrious, an adjective.

ADVERB.

r,ecs .. .... ..... ... .... a noun.

I

An adve1·b is a word used to modify the

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""i'E'J.'YMOLOGY,

Jlartaki11g of the nature of a verb and an atljccti ve, and is genrrally formed by acldiug ing, eel,
d, t, or n, to the verb. -

m e anin.~

of a ve rb, participle, adjective, or
a noth e 1· adveru; as He acts prudently.

t~tw·n .... .. ........... a

verb.

CONJU.1\CTION.

to

A con.i1111ction is a word: used
join words
sr nt c 11C\'S to1;Pther, and<to show the manner
of' th eir tlepcndancc on each other; as and, but.

l:o ......... ......a preposition.

I' llEPOS l'l'lON.

th eir .............. a pronoun.

OJ'

A pre position is a word used to show th e

hive .. ..... ... .. ...... a noun.

rel at ion of different wo1·ds to each other, and
g·c 111'1'ally points to a following noun or proiwun ; a s 'in, u:d!t, to.

loaded ...... .. a participie.

lNTERJl':CTION.

An inte1j 1·ction is a wortl which expresses a
!j11dd cn em oti on of' th e mind ; as Oh! alas!

with ...... .. ... a preposition.

As so on as th e pupil has committed the preceding
<l d in itions of t he parts of speech to me mory, he may be
e:,Cl'cised in • .tt<s 1,rn, or applyin g th e m to t he different
\ronls whid1 co mp 0se a se nte nc e, in the followin g man-

Th e in<l11stl'ious . bees l'eturn to th eir hive,
lo a1Jtod with hon ey aud wax.
·
..
T he .. .. ... .. .. rm

art~cl e.

An article is a part of sp eech
pbce rJ !){;fore nouns,

houey .................. a noun.

"

An adjective is a word used to
express some quality 0r prop <'rty of a noun, or to show
the exte nt of its signification.
A noun is the name of any
thing that we can see, hear,
taste, smell, feel, or discourse
of.
A verb is a part of spee ch
which signifies to be, to act,
or to 1·eceiv e an actio1l.
A prep0s;tion is a wore! usecl to
show th e re lation of diffct·e nt
words to eaci"i oth er, anrl g-enerally poin ts to a followin g
noun or pronoun.
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun .
A noun is t h ~ name of any thingtb at we can seP, h<·ar. &c.
A participle is a word derived
frum a verb, part aking of the
nat ure of a verb, ancl an adjecti ve , and is ge nerally furmed by add .i.i;- 1.1 1g , ed, d, t, or
11, to the verb
A pre position is a wot·d used
to sl1 o w th e re lation of different words to each other, and
g~ n e ra lly poi 11ls to a followihg- nou n or pronoun.
A noun is t he name ofanything
that we can see, hear, taste,
f.:c.

a:i d ... ...... .. a conjunction.

A co11junction is a word used
to join wor;) s or se::tences
tog ether, and to sfiow the
man ner of their clependanc"
on each ot her.

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14

~TYMOLOGY.

ENGI.lSll GRAMMAR.

Wa.x. ...........-......~ ..a noun.

A noun is the name of :my thing
that we c~m see, hear, taste,
smell, ~c.

EXA~1PL"ES FOR PAUSING.

A house., a garden, a firld, and a m eadow.
An apple, an orange, and a iilum are wholesom<' fruits.
The rainbow on the clouds, is a beautiful
sight.
.
.
.
An obedient son g1 ves JOY to Ins father and
mother.
Shady trres form a delightful arbour in the
heat of summer.
A peaceful mind mak es a serene countenan ce.
.
John is an industrious boy, ; he studies his
le sso n diligt'ntly.
.
His brnth er sent him a kmfe, a book, a box
ef wafers, and a n inksta nd.
James r·ode on a fine horse, and went from
Dal'liy to Phila1l clphia in a11 hour.
How s\Hl'tly the liir·ds sing.
.
I saw him once, and perhaps I shall see lum
a~ain shortly •
._ By promoting the welfare <.1f bis n eighbours,
h e gained their es teem.
Sbe bought her needles and scissu1·s of the
pc1llar who was here ye s te rday.
Oh , pe ace ! how d esi r·abl e art thou!
Sarah w1·ites very n eatl y , aml s1iells he1'
words correctly.

15

'rhe school was very large, when William

l eft it.

OI<' THE NOUN.
A noun is th e name of a11y thing that we can
sec, !war, tast<', s111 ell, fed, or discourse of;
as, man, apple,.fire , "Otrtne, &c.
Nouns are sometimes divided into proper and common.
A nnun proper is the name of a particular person, place
or thing; as, William, 1.ondon, Brandy1uine.
A noun common is the name of a sort or species of
things; 11s, mau, rive1., city.
A noun which iv tl1e name of' a company, or body of
p eo pl e , is called a collective noun, or iiuim of multitude 1 as
fam ily, a;,sembly, cammtlte11.

OF THE PRONOUN.
A pronoun is a word used instcad_,of a noun;
as, "The boy is dilig t'nt; he improves."
Tl11·r e are t href' kin i:s of pronouns, personal,

rclafrve and interrogati<.,e.
P~ltSON:\L.

I, thou, he, she, it. a nd their variations, are
called personal prnnou ns.
RELATIVE.

TV!w, which, what, a11t..1 that, aro call ed relative pl'Onou11s.
INTEH110GA TlVI~.

W ho, and somcti111es what anu which, ar·e

l ti

.E NGLI SH

GltA~HLl.H.

ETYMOLOGY.

call :.d infr1·~·01;ativ e pronouns wl1 r n used iu
,
as k in ;~ fl uest1 11J1 s.
IVhoeTt r . 1clw te-vcr, and som e times w hat.
a n~ call ed compllund r elativ e pl'Onoun s · tlu~y
r r pr·<'s r nt a nou11 and r elativ e pronoun. '
•
T n:~noi;·a:ive pron ou ns are the sam e ;is r elative, onl
tl~en anteced e nts can not be <let1;rmincd till th e ans.we1. t.•~
gw cn to t h e que stion.

F. X .l.Hl'L ES "FOR PAll S J N (; ,

I n 11.'liich the di-vision

ef the pronmms slwnl!L

/J r

repcafod.
. . w. ·11·
! iam

·s a wi·se ma n. he act s pru de ntl v.
1

"\\ 1lham .. ...... ... .. a n oun.
is .. · .... .. .............. a ve rb.
a .. .. .... .. .. .. .. ..an art icle.

wise .... .... .. 1~: acljccL,·c.

man .......... .. ..... a n oun.
h e, a pe rson al p l'onoun .
acts .. .. .. .. . ......... a ve!'b .

I
·~

\

prudcntly .... . a 11 ad\' eJ'b.

A noun is th e name of any t hi ngthat we can sec hear &c
A vei·b is a part ~f spe~ch "~ h i ch
Sif;nifics to ~e, to act , or lo r,._
ceive au actwn.
An_ article i~ a part of speech
pmced b efore nou ns.
.A n adjective is a wort! us('d t o
express som e 'luality or prop erty of a noun , or t o show
the exte nt of its si:cnihcation
A nou n is t he n:ime ,; f·any thing
we can see , ;-. . c.
J, th<Ju, lie, sh e, it, a!'e call ed
p erso nal pronoun s.
A ' :erb is a pat"t ofsp<.'ech whicli
s:g·rnfi cs tu he, to act, o•· tf.J 1·(; ·
ce; V f' an aclion.
A n ad\'e rb is a wcml used t L>
modif.)" tl·, e meani ng or :c ve rb,
part1c1 p le, "djtctiYo . o:· ><noth cr aclver h.

17

'fhc diligent farmer generally raises a good
crop.
·
Jam es and John went from the city to Darby
in a chair.
Thomas is a man who is very useful ; he is
kind to poo~ people.
The earth is the Lord's, and the fulnc ss
th e l'eof.
Thou art a friend whom l love sincerely.
Th e true worship of Goll is an imp01·tant and
awful servi ce.
Who is like unto the Lord in glory?
The book which I bought, is a very valuable
treatise.
.. ..
William Penn, who foun·ded Philad elphia,
was a ve ry pious man.

---

'!'here are four things belonging to nouns
and pronouns; namely, person, mi-rnber, gender,
and case.
PERSON~

There are three persons which may be the
s ubj ect of a discou1·se.
The first person is the person who speaks;
as, I, w e.
'I'he seconcl person is the pe1·son or thing s110krn to ; as, thoii, child.
The third person is the person or thing spok en of; as, he, she, man, city.
J\toun• :n·e always of the third person, except wl1en llll
:tdclrcss is made .in the second person,
B~

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E'l'Yl\IOLOGY,

ENGLISH GllAMMAlt:

:..nu, a conjunction.

A eo11junction is a word used to join
words or sentences together, and to show the
manner of their dependance on each other.
thou, a personal pronoun, of the second person singular.
I, thou, he, she, it; are called personal pro·
nouns.
The second person is the person spoken to.
The singular number implies but one.
are , a verb. A verb is a part of speech which signifies
to bo, to act, or to receh·e an action.
happy, an adj ective. An adjective is a word used to express some qu11lity or prop erty of a noun, or to
show the extent of its signification.

Nl!:\IBER,
'l'J1~1·e arc t
·
.
plur!il.
wo numllers,
the szngulwr
aua

The singular uumlier in11)11·e -, but one; as
book.
v

'hr-pluraln11mbct·exp rr.sses more tlian
·
as '1books.
one;
T! 1 ~ plural numb er of noun ·
addi ng s or es to the sin rr I . s is regularly fonn ed by
,, u a1, as, book bo•,ks b I b <
' its,, """e<.
n ut man v phtrals are formed irr '.
f oot! f Pet ; ciltld, children.
egularly ; as mair, melt_,
It the sing ular e nd in .1 rec ,d d
plural must en<l in i~s .y
b e e by a . consonant, the
g 11br e nd in f' or re th ' '. leauty, bea"ties. If the 8in.
.•
J'
e p 1u1 a must e nd
.
:.
,. woij, wolves &c . .
.
in ves' as, kn:ilvt
k: wves
oth
ers.
'
· ' except r ehef, i·ejn ·ooj, and som e

'F lattering friends are worse than open enc-

,I:

rnirs.
Thy bl'oi her and thou art very industrious;
you study d iligP.ntly.
,
Children, be obedient to your parents, and
h onnur them.
How greatly the kind offices of an atfcctionatc chil1l · gladden th e hrart of a par1•11t,
especially when sinking under age 01· infirmi-

Some noun s haYe no plural . as ·w
.
.
Some h:n ·e no sing ular . as u' II
heat, r!Je, p1tcl1, gold.
So me ~r~ used alike ir~ b 1e uws, lungs, to ngs, scisso1·s .
fcr a , hose, means .
oc t numb e rs ; as sheep, 'deer ,
Some a prcar to have a Jura!
· . .
tli e si ng ular numbe r. as P
termmal10n that are 11 .,
'

news, mea=les, odde, gallows..

ties!
They and we have need of more stability
anll sohriety .

EX01l'LBS FOR PAUSING

ef

I n which t/1.e pei·son tind number
nouns and
p1 onowis slw nld be tlifmcd.
Tli e p erson and Ill mo er of relative
.
11ronouns a;·e ne.,
tcrn1i11 cd only by their an tcced ents,, w1t
Li which t h C' \'
~ g- n: e .

S ar·a h a' ntJ ti'IOU

[LJ'I' .

happy.

'S al'::h, ·n
a nou u,. of tli c th i•"'I
· g u 101·
, person s•n
; , JC t 1
.1ml persru is th e person or ti1in
-"
.
lh e srng- uhr uu <11 be r implies but one~ spok e,;\>!

•

CA S !'~.

,,.

Case is a change 01· diffc r r ne:c in thr. ter mination or situation of a 11111m 01 · p1·011oun.
Nlluns and pr1mo1.H1s h :H'l' th 1·Pt' casl's, the
1w mi naf'i've, posscssi"Vc, and ollj~ct·i:vc.
Tli e nominative case is simply the nam1>. nl'
<1 tiiill !!,;, or the state of a 11oun 01· pronuu11 wh en
it i ~ th~ suli,icct of a vcd1; as I walk.

'

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21

ETY:VIOLOGY.

20

'fhc 11ossessivc case denotes pro11erty or possess ion ; as tlty hook.
·~he

possessive case of nouns is generally formed by
adding • with an apostrophe to the nominative or an
apostruphe only in the plural number when the ~omina­
t ive ends ins.

1'!1 e obj<'ctivr ease is the state of a 11oun or
}ll'011oun, wh en it is the object of a transitive
' 'r t·b, })articiplc, or p:·cposition; as l tau[;ht

li er.
Th e objective case of nouns has th e same form as the
nomi native, and is only di sti nguished by the relation in
wluch it is use<l, or its ~ituation in the sentence.
b ENDER.

Gender is the distinction of sex.
TheN
are three genders, the r1wsculinc,je11tininc, and

ncntcr.
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.

ENGLISH GUAMMAU .

Th r masculin e ge nder denotes animals of the
male kind.
·
Th e feminin e gcmle1· denotes animals of the
femalr kind.
'.f'hl~ neuter grmkr iB applied to things that
are neith er male 1101· fr.male.
So rn e nouns, natlm1lly neuter, are, by a figure of speech
callC'<l pe1'so11ification, converted into the masculine or
fom inine: ge nd er. Snu, t im ~, death, .-leep, are masculine .
J::urth, moou, boat, vesst:I, city, church, counby, nature, g u11.,
wlltl h, .fo1·t111ie, &oul, ship,.fidr/lc, and virtue and vice with
th t> ir different species, are feminin e.
·
'
Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; as .l'arw1t,
d ild, ,·011si11,jiicnd, s ~1"t •t111t, neighil(J!fer, per1;011, &c.

DECLENSION
NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

llr'

I

:\ noun is declined in the following manner.
Singular.
Plural.
Nominative case, book.
Noin. books.
Pnssrss ive ,
buok's
Poss. books'.
Ohjt·ctiv c,
book.
Obj. hooks.
Singular.
Plural.
~ 01l1. ma n,
Poss. man's,
Obj. man.

Nom. mt>n.
l'. 'oss. men's ..
~nen.

Obj.

Th e p ersonal pronouns are thus declined.

I, the first person.
Plu .. al.

Sin~ular .

Nom.·-r,
P os~ .

my, or mine,
Obj . 111 e.

Sin ti:.
:N11m •..th n11,

OUl'S,

Thon, Ilic second person.
.
Plt11·.

t!i .v, 01· thine,
Obj. th ee .

:P ol '>'>.

Nom. wt>,
Poss. onr or
Obj. us.

N orn, y e ol' you.

Poss. your or yours ,
Obj. you.

B e, she, it, t!te lhird perso11.
Ile, masculine g e ndrr.
Plur.
Sin~.
). hf' ,
Norn. tlH'}' .•
' Iii;;,

I ,.

111m.

Poss. th eir, o.; · th eirs,

Ob.\ . th em.

·

22

ENGLISH

ETYUOLOGY.

GRA~BlAP..

'J'h at is a relative pronoun, when it may be changed
to who or -which; an adj ective , when it is- follow ed by a

She, feminine.
Plur.

Sin~.

N orn. s he,
l'oss . hl'r, or hers,

01.Jj. her.

noun expressed or understood; in all other places it is a
conjunction.

Norn. they,
J>oss. th e ir, or thcil'!i,
(I hj.

them.

.·

It, neuter.
Plur.

Sin g.

No m. thry,
rrn;s. tht'i1·,

N orn. it,
Poss. its,
Obj. it.

01.Jj. th r m.

'Vh ere th ere are two forms of the p ossessive case, as
thy or thine, th e fo rmer is u•cd with a noun , the latter
wh e n t he nou n is unde rstood, bu t not expresse d.
Th e noun se{f, is frequently join ed with the person:U
pronouns ; as himself, herse(f, its.e.' f, ourselv.e~, you1·s~l::.v&,
thcmseh•es, and expresses e rnpha~is or opposit10n, or form s
wh"t so me call a recijn·ocal jJ1'011oitn; but such compound
pronoun s are still prop erly t erme d perso11al p 1'0n ou11.,.

Th e r e la1ive who, and its compound i.vho-

evcr , or w hosoc'Ver, arc thus declin ecl:
S in g . and Plur.

Sin:?;. a nd Plur.

No rn. who,

N om'." whosoever,

P : ~ss .

Poss . whosesnevrr,
Olij . w homsocvr1·.

wh ose,

0'1,i. \\·horn .

IYhi ch, what, and that, lw.Ye no yariations :if case, an d
:nT used alike in both nu mbers .
/Fho relates to person~, and which t o_thill,'JS; they have

no Yariation by numher or perso n. wh ic h is known od .
-er·" ·
by th eir :rntecede nr nouns or prononns_.
That relates eith er to p ersons or th lllgo, _and l;n {
rnint< l in n.~imh e r, gender, and p erson, by its ant ·
i1011n ,w; pronou1r .

...

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING,

In t-which the gender of nouns, and the gendel'
and case of pronouns should be dtjintd.
A good boy loves his book,
A, an article. An article is a part of speech placed before a noun.
g-ood, an adjective. An adjective is a word used to e xpress some quality, &c.
boy, a noun, of the third p erson singular, masculine ge nder.
Th e third person is the p erson or thing spoken 0£.
The singular number implies but one.
The masculine g ender denotes animals of the male
kind.
loves, a. verb. A verb is a part of speech which signifies
to b e, to act, or to receive an action.
liis, a. p ersonal pronoun, of the third p erson singular, masculine gander, possessive case.
I, thou, he , she, it, are called p ersonal pronouns.
Th e third p erson is the person or thing spoken of,
The si ngular number implies but one.
Th e masculine g ender d enotes animals of the male
ki nd.
Th e possessive case denotes property or possession.
book, a noun, of the third person singular, neuter g en·
<lcr.
The th ird p erson is the p ersoR or thing spoken of.
Th e singular number implies but one.
The neuter g ender is applied to things tha• are
neither male noc female·.-

ETYMOLOGY.

ENULISJI GlU.Ml\JAil.

She rrjoiced to see her father and. mo~her ..
William was a very good boy ; lus !hspos1tion was mild and affable.
Jn all h!'l' conduct, she manifested her prudence and sobl'irt.)'.
.
Tli e count1·y, the valleys and the mountams,
the rive!'s and the sea, proclaim the goodness
of' Goel, who giveth tlwm beauty. .
Narrow is the way that leads to hfe.

ADJECTIVE.
An adjective is a word ust' cl to express some
11 uali ty or. pro.11t·1·_t~ of_ a noun, or tu s!1ow l~t~
extent of its s1g111hc<1twn; as good, wise, tins~

that. 011e, two.

.

Most adjectives are varird by comparison.
'l"ltere a1·e C<Hnmonly reckoned thr1·e ~egrecs
of eom parison; the positi've, comparatrve_
, and

.rnperlati1 e.
.
. . . If'
The positive degree 1s the adJect1ve 1tse
simply; as hard, seft. good.
'l'he co111parllti"Ve degree incr1·ases OJ' lessens
the sig11ification of the iiositive; as lwrder,
srift.cr, better. .
.
• , ,
Tlie s1171erlafrve degree mcl'rasrs 01 I<_ssrns
1

the s io·11ititation of tltt• positive t" tloe highest
m· !O\~~~ s t 1le g1·re; 11s hardest, sojffst.. be1>t.
Aclj ccti{,es are r eg-ularly compared, when the oomparafi ve ,\,.grce is.fom1t;cl by the a<ldit.i on of r or er, and the
supcrbtin by st or es;, to th e . posttive ; as
. .,
P ositi ve.
Comparati ve.
Superlatt\ e.
Jarg·e,
larger,
larjjest.t
small ,
smaller,
smalles.-

.25

Or, by prefixing the adverb mure, for the comparative
degree, anc.l most, for the sllperlative; as
Pos.
Com.
$1;p .'
\vise,
more wise,
111 ost wi !': e.
virtuoui;,
n 1urc.· virtuous,
1nost. v1rtuous.
The cnmp a1·~ti\'e <l<·gree is sometime> t~.rm c:ci Dy prefixing the adverb less, and the superl:i.~ive by le" st; as
·
Pos.
Com.
Sup.
aSr.;able,
les~ am:able, ·
least amiable.
least able.abl e,
l.e ss abl.e,
Monosyllabk·s, for ·t he most p-art are con;iparecl by e1 ·
and ~st; and cEssyllables by mo i,, and 1110•1; as rn ilcl,
milder, mildest; frugal, more f,·ug·al, .most frt; gal. Soine
dissylJables e nd:ng in y or le, or such ·as are accented on
th e last syllable, easily ad.nit of being compared by er
and ~st; as happy, happier, happiest; able, abler, ablest.
But words of more than two syllables are nearly always
compared by mo"e and most.
. In some words the superlative degre e is formed by :>dclmg the advel'b most to the end of them; as 11ethei·most ,
utte1·1Jiost, uj1pe1·most,j01·e1w;st, &c .
Some adj t:ctiH:s m:iy be compared with equal propriety by a· anu est, or by more and most. ln such cases the
easy flow and per:;picuity of the style should be regarded .
The following adjectives are irregularly compared.
Pos.
Com .
Sup.
Good,
better,
best.
bad,
worse,
· worst.
litt le,
less,
least:
much, or many, more,
most.
nearer,
nearest, Ol' next.
near,
lllte,
later,
latest, or.last . .
fal',
farther,
farthest. · · ·
Adjectives which cannot be inereased or decreased in
I.heir sig·nificati0n do not admit of comparison ; as all, any,

·1·01tnd, squa1·e.
One, two, three, . twenty, .thii'ly, &c. are sometimes

called numeral cuijectiws, , .

c

lS

ETYMOLOGY.

1-:NGLTSH GRA '1 \UU.

The n10st accr,ptahlc sacrifice is that* of a
contl'itc heart.

VERB.
A vc1·u io; a part o~· spcf\c l1 wliich signifirs to
he, to act . or to re.<:!'1ve an action; as Jam, I.
lore, I am lrroed.
·
. Th c1·1: a1·e tlt1·cc kimlo; nf verbs; . a~ ti-ve, pas$We, and nenter.
'\n ad i\·e vr1·h < '- XP!'C iS .'~: · s tlie :'l ction of its
SUU,ICCt or ll O!l1ir
nti\·p '· as .I I .j1 ,.·,
·-o ,.·i {l'S
,
'
'~
Ayas: iv 1: '" ' I'·' . sig-nifit< th;\[ 'its suhjecL>r
nom111nt1vr 1s p a<:s tvt'!, a1i r! 1·rcrivrs .a11 action;
as PPt.'1· is b:>:ifr :1.
·
·· ·
A fll'lltl't' vr i·li rx ·1w ~· ss,·s n:r ithep action nor
pa ss inn. ll'1 t si ,11111\· l..Pit r<?;. <H' a. state 01· condition •Jf lw!n~: <is 1 nm. ·,- sit.
w

\..

,

'

, . .R.J~rl;11 71!.esf01: t.,';t'. rn:~'.;.; s;. ,/ the pupil in dis.ing111.s11 1ng tlu: d·1 ff1~ ,.od hin f!s o( verbs. .
) .-.Ti ti'.

JJ f'

·;._rd J; il .

'

Wp wi>re favoured,

j

T h ,.v ;:tl'e fai ur lti.

l

Ji,· l.in ' tl in •,.. ; ,, , T L,·v :i.re wise men. ·
.Lun t·s ·rl'ails ,."I'" . v... li. ·
Yo 11 a 1·r; du .t'i n·;i !]1 tli r; m. ·
lfo 1 · ~. H(' l ' fl ·1 t ilir r ' 1' tot.
The. task was pr~·- fo,.m .- d.
1'ht' hnok J i~ s .- ,•t !1;f?. ra UJ r .

\

I

! .•

* That,
:;-ula1·.

:i

pronomin al a.<lJ'.:ctive of the third n erson sin1•
··

Joseph desired to lie remembered by thee.
Thomas rode so fast that we couhl not over,.
take hun.
I hav1' searcl1t~ d, and have found it. The
, garden was enlarged.
~~~.·

---

Active verbs are either transiti-ve

01·

intran-

sifrve.
An active verb is transitive when the action
passes O \ er from the subjl'ct 01· norninat.ive to
an obj ect, or following w_iun or lll'Onoun ; as
"J amcs reads his lesson.;t;
In this example, the action of the verb reads, passes
from the subject or nominative James, to the noun lesson,
which is its ohj ect : therefure-the verb reads is a transitive
active verh.
Th e object of a transitive verb may be. known by answering the question <vlio or what with the verb ; thus in
the sentence "John loves play," the answer to the question "What does John !eve I" is play; therefore p lay is
'the object of the transitive active verb loves.

An ac:tive vc•Tb is intransitive \\h ,• n thr action does not pass over tu an objf'ct, but is confined within the verb; as ,' "The birds ft)."
In this example the action of flying does · not pass over
to any object, but is confined to tht: verb; therefore the
verh fly is an intransitive active verb.
M1rny active verbs are used both in a transitive and intransitive signification, the construction only determining
of which kind they are ; thus in the sentence, " She reads
well •" the verb reads is an ititra11sitive active verb, be'Cause no object is expressed or clearly understood, on
which the action of the verb passes. Rut in the phrase,

c

)3

31

I::TYMOJ.OGY.
,j.l)

·.

i
\

I
i

l

I ·

E~GJ,ISH

GRA:\HIA.R.

"S he re::ids her lesso n; " the 1·erh >«?atls is tr:rnsitiYe; the
act io n passin.:; over to the nuun {r-.,·s6 tL
Sometimes the obj rct of a transit1vC'.: verb ~ s un<le rstoed
but uot expressed; th!s does not ::ilte r the natt\J'.:: of the
verb, where the object is ckarly implied.
Betwee n Ycrbs active and 1Le1tter, there is ::i slow gradation from activity to in::ictivity; to Jefine this, and m;irk
ex:tctly its sev<;ral steps, is a very nice point. In ;;-enernl
th e sc,11sc and construction must det<>rmine the rkg-ree of
activ ity or in:tctiv1ty, and accordingly they must be ranked
with active or neuter Yerbs.
.
Some verbs are used both in an active a1ul. ne uter sig.
nilication, which is d etermined only by the constructivn;
as in tile phr:ise, "The cur1ai11s hang." The verb ha11gis :< neuter verb, e xpressing only ,i state c>r manner of be·
in g·, but in the phrase ••~h e hangs the cu1tains," the
vc:rb h ru\g-s is a transitiv e active verb.
That an ac:iun may termin::ite on some object, or, that
it may have no effect on 1111y thing beyond the actor or
a g·c 11 <, is also evident. lle11ce active ,-erbs are properly
<l11·ided into tm11sitive and i11tr1msitive, w11ich d enok the
passi1:g oYer, or not passi ng over of the action to au ob.i cct. But c<s lieuter verbs express no kind of action, but
simply being, existence or a state of being, there can b e
no propr;ety i11 calling th e m i'llt1·a11sitive verbs; and to
rank intrnnsitive active verbs with those that are strictly
ll CUkr lnUSt t e nd to "p~rp]ex rather t han assist the
lea rne r." For, after a pu pil has learned that a verb sign ifies to do, an<l that to iJ,, !s active, how greatly must h e
b e p e rp le x ~ d and ernbanassed when he is told that to
-.-Mlk', to la11~1, , to'""'• !l:c. are neuter verbs 1 Yet Sl1ch is
111<: clistriu ut.io11 of verbs in many dictio naries, and admitte d by loo n1a ny "uthors and teach ers.
1r 0111· cleti r1 ition of a ver tJ, and the an·angement of
1r111hiti7..·e or intran ·.'itive acti·ve, passive, :i.rnl neuter verbs,
arc.: propuly unclerstoo11. we ch not conceive that t!i e
cLik1·ence, as s1i.11e app1·ehen1l, b etwee n verbs ~·b~olutel.\
11c:1!1:I' (n,p1·essi11); no kinLl of a~tion at all) and those in'.1-.1nsi1;,.,,1,,, aclive (expl'cssin3· :1ction) CRll be" very dif1i
ru:l i J Uc asce rtained.''
1

VerlJs arc p1·i11ei pally conju;:;atrcl liy the help
of auxilia1·ies; as be, hwce, will, &c.

I

. l
-- :
"re do be have shall, 7oill,
The princ1pa aux1 1i:u1~s- ~ •
• '
~: h h
with their variations, and must, w1uc
as no

1nc y, ca1i,
variation.

d and

•

To verbs lielung number, IJCrson, moo, '

tense.

NL'"'ll:lER AND PER~ON.

V c·i·bs h ~ Ye two nurnbl'rs, the singular and
ltmtl • as "''lie reads, IJiey reacl"
..
p 111 e~ch number there arc three persons; as

8i1w;ular.

,
L

First person,
Second person,
T: :ird p·Tson,

P~ural.

-

I love,
L ' ' e love,
Thou lovest, 2. You love,
Hi• loves,
s. They love.

bj.

The second person singular is regularly_ formed
a:·•
ding st or est to the first p erson, e:s:cept l\l some o t e
auxi ·i:i ri es.
. f h
_ form as the
The third person singular is o t e same d
~ t
first except in the indicative mood present an pe ec
tcns'es-wltere it e nds in s ,or th.
.
b . I ve no va'Fh c differen t. persons m the plu1 al num . ~ r ia
,· riation of endi ng, and are :ilways like the fust person sm
,.u1"r except in the verb be.
T
. h
g ,\,1: c 1~ a . verb is compounded with an aux1 '3:ry ~ .t e
d.
to e x\WL·ss the ud-l erent
·
auxiliary only changes it~ en ing
- . . l
ame . if
"
. ,
the princip"l yerb remains t 1e s
•.
p et ,011s, ,rn<1
. .. .
c. •
1 chan "'es 1t~
there are scver!ll anx1ltar1es, the ill st on YI I '
1
e n cling ; as "I lwve lovecl, thou hast lon~d, 1e u.s O\ ec_.
thou mi:J1t s! ltave loved," &c.

l

J\IOOD.

'. \'food is a pat·ticular form of the verb, sl1ow -

I

I

32

ing the
in which the being' action , 01·
. manner
.
p assion 1s rq)l'es r nted.
.

,,,,

}·~·
f;

ENGLI SH OR •.\.MMAR.

.~

The nature a11d use of a mood consist in the changes

w~11ch th e ver9 undergoes, to express various intentwns
of th~ mmd, and various mod1ficat1ons and circwnstances

.

of act101\.

,•

". '~

Tla e1·e are five moods; the lndicati\'e the
Imperative~ the Poteutial, tlrn Sul.Jjunc tive: and

~

the lnfiniti,·o.
The Indicative mood simply indicat~s or declares a tliing; as I see · th ey know • or asks
.
' know?" '
a qucstwn;
as'' Dost thou
Th e Imperative mood is used fn1· commanding, exhorting, i11treating 01· pe rmitting; as
'' D r part thou; mind y e ; go in peace."

~[
•

. The Imp erative mood is used only in the second person
both num bers.

• \ ll

Th r ~otential mood impli es power, liberty,
duty, WJIJ, or ol.Jligation ; as " l can walk •
th eJ should know."
'
. By thie mood :.lso a question may be asked; as " !\fay

I go r" " Cou ld he understand /"
T he p otential mood may be known by the auxiiiaries
:;pay, cmi, ·must, vug ht, could, -would and .1f1ould.

The Sul.Jjun~t~v e mood rcprrsents a thit1g
a coi:uhtrnn, supposit.ion, or contin.gencJ, aml is prrceded by a conjunction, ex~
llresscd or und~ rstood, aml at.tended by anoth er
v erb ; as 'i l1 he were good, Le woaltl bo
-0111l r r

!lappy.

33.

E T Y MOLOGY . ·

Th e in.fi nitiv e mncul expresses a thing in a
ancl . unlimited' rnar111 er, without any
di stin c1i 1111 of numb er or person; · as "To love,.
~r 1w 1·a l

to walk."

,

OF TENS J>. ,,

'rense is the 1listinction of the time in which
an action <ir e vent occurs.
Th er e a1·e six tens1's; th ~ Pre.se nt; th e Imp erfr ct; th e P erfect ; the Pluperfect; ·thc First
and St . co·nd Futu1;eA.
··
·
Th e prt· st> nt tcrq; e r epresents ar1 action 'or
erent as passinf,!;, or existing at th e tini e in
whieh it is . m<>nti•rned : · as "I write; he is
low d ; th ey think."
" . ,( "' ,.;·.
"

0

The pre.sent ten!le is also used ii\ sp ealQrg of actiqns
conti nued, wi.t h occasion'al intermissions, to the present
ti me 1 as '' Ii'e frequently rides; i she walks out every
m or11ing.' · It is e\·en sometime s applie d· to r eprese nt the
:ictions of persons long . since dead,. as transactin g at the
prese nt time ; , ~ s Seneca 1·easons ~v e ll ;" " Only by p n de
cometh conte nt ion; says Solomon. '
. .
W hen the prisent tense is preceded ~ by th ~ : word~
-.uheu, ''t.'f(J 1·e, after , till, ..as soon aR, it is someti tnes u sed to
p oi nt out the reb ti ve time, of.a foture :action , as brough t
into p r•·sent v:ew ; as " \.Vhen the stage ar?·ive,., we shall
he:tr fr <>m home ;" " Before he r eturn s he wi ll p robably
h ear t he n e w~ ; or at least soon :tfter h e arri·ves."

T is e i nq~e 1·fr ct .t rnse is use d to s lso.w that.the
adi:111 or 'evc·11t took pl ac <', a ~ or clu1·ing a
p1·1·iod 11ft imf\ full y p:1st; as 1 wr~ te,ycst c r:day, ..
Tl:c perfr ct t e nse indicates tl><it t.lte ac;t~011

ENGLISH GRAMMAU.

or crrnt occurred within a period of time
which lias not yet fully past; as She has written this week.
This tense as well as the imperfect, denotes a thing as
past ; but this in such a manner that th e action or eveMt is
c onn ected with the present time, !<nd <h ere is still ac·tually remaining some part of the space of time to slide
away, 11·hcrein we declare, that the thi11g has been done ;
as "I have seen him to-day ;". whereas the impe1fect
t ense denotes the action or<·vent as fully past and finished,
in such a manner, that none ef the space of tin)e remains
\¥herein it was done; as "1 saw him last week ."

Th!\ plupc1·fcct Tense repres ents a thing, not
only as past, but also as prior to anothe1· event
or point of timr which is past; as She had
written hr1· letter bdore he arri-ved.
The first future tense r<'p1·cs <' nts the action or ev«>nt as ye.t to come; as "The su11
will rise to-morl'OW ;" " I shall see them
again."
Th r second future t f\nse in1imat<'s that the
action 01· CH11t will be fully past or accom11lishctl, at 01· before a future time, action 111•
ennt, to which it r cf'cr·s; as " I shall ha-ve
tlincd befor e one o'clock."

OF THE PARTICIPLES.
A parti cipl e is a 'yord derived from a vl'rb,
1iartakin.; of thr nature of a v<'rb and an a1ljectivc, and is generally formed by adding ing,
ed, d, t, or n, to tlie verb.

ETYlllOLllGY.

There are three participles; the present or
acti-ve, the perfect or passi-ve, and the compound
perfect ; as from the verb low, are derived the ·
participles lo-ving. lo-ved, and ha'Ving lol)ed.
The j11·esent or aclive participle is fanned by addingiiig to the verb, and expresses an action or event as begun and not ended ; as " I saw him labouring in the
field."
·
..
When this participle is derived..from an active verb,
it is called an active participle; but when it is derived
from a neuter or passive verb, it is called a Jn·esent participle.

·

The p erfect or Jiassive participle is generally formed by
adding ed, cl, t, or n., to the verb, and refers to a.11 action,
passion, or event, as perfect and finished ; as " A man.
f,eatecl with liquor."
This participle when derived from a neuter or intrans'. tive verb, is culled the pe1Ject j1articiple, because intransitive and neyter verbs do not expres~ a passion or suf.
fering.
~'.I..
When these parti ciples do not convey the idea of
tim e, they become adj ectives, and express the quality
of th e noun to which. they relate. In -general when they
are placed' after nouns they are porticipleJ, aud when
faey precede nouns, th ey are adjectives of quality. Thus
th e phrases, "A man /o,,ing to give, as well as receive :"
".'I. person moving in haste, heated with liquor," contain .
participles giving 1he idea of time : but in the eitpressions, " a loving child," "a moving spectacle," " a heated
imagination," the same wo~ds mark the qualities referred
to without any regard to time, and are properly termed
ruljectives.
The crn11po1md pe1Ject participle is formed by prefixing
the auxiliary havin.I! to the perft:ct'or passiye participle,
thus, loved, having lover/.

Participles sometimes perfortn the office of nouns, and
are used as such ; as in the following inst~Ges : " Th!:'
''~.~·iimin_q :" "a goot! 1mtkrstrmtliiig. "

~NGJ.ISH

When energy or positiveness is intended, the auxili:rry
·
Sing.
Plur.

A present or aclil'e participle, or a compou nd pr 1·fl'ct partic:iplt>., prec:eded h:: an 2l'ticle, or a noun or p1·un••tirt in th r possr!'lsive
case, becom·e s a noun, and is properly calletl a

dp should precede the nrb ; thus ;

1. I do love,
2; Thou dost love,
S. He doth, or does love.

participinl 1t u1.t,1t .
Of the Co11j1tgation of Verbs.
The conju~aiirm of a ve1·1.J is tlie reg-ular
comuina ti<m and anan~rem e nt of its several
mood s,

~1·a1ses,

nurnh ers

Plur.
1. We loved,
2. You loved,
3. They loved.

Sing.
1. I loveu,

im p1 ·1·foet tr 11..;e of th e in Ji r: ative mood and
the pnfect oi· passive pa1·tici vk , by tl;e addit i<••1 of ell or ;i to i:lw j>l'Psent. te11sc;
p1·cse nt,
l iP:f ; im pc1+.:,,L, J lo"Ved ; prrfrct pa1·ticipl e,
lo·;:;eJ,; !host' w\,ich 1 ary from th is nil c, are
C>dle1l i1Teg1.Znr; a,: p;·r.8. I 7J:Titc ; imp e1-f. 1

2. Thou lovedst,
3. He loYed.

as

Or, by prefixing the auxiliary did to the
present tense; thus:

written.

Sing.

2. Thou didst love,
3. He did love.

Love.
lnd. pres. Love.
Imp. Loved.
Ped'. part. Lovell.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
The imlicative mood simply indicates or declares "
thin~; or asks t1 question. It is used in all th e tenses ;
thus. :

Plur.
1. We Jove,
2. You love,
3. They love.

Plur.
1. We did love.
2. Ypu did love,
3. They did love,

1. l did love,

l;onjP g a '.ion of th e regula1· active verb,

Prese nt tc11se.
Sing.
1. person, I Jove,
2.
Thou lovest,
3.
He love.th, or loves.

3. They do love.

ed, to the present; as love, l8ved; thus :

<Hl• ) !lJ:Tb.J Wl.

tlh~

J
;,

1. We do love,
2. Ye d"> love,

Im perfect tense.
The imperfect tense, in the indicative mood
of all regular ~erbs, is formed by adding d or

Y(c. i'iis arc r.alled reg11litr. when they form

1.u1·!Jtc; pedect pan .

S'r

ETYMOLOGY.

GRAMMAR.

·'

Perfect tense.
The perfect tensr, in the inllic.a tive mood, is
formed IJy prefixing the auxiliary have tO the
perfect or passive participle ; thus :
Sing.
Plur~
1. J have loved,
f. We have loved,
2. Thou hast loved,
2. You have loved,
3. He has lov ed.
3. They have lovell.
Pluperfect tense.

.

Thti pluperfect tense in the indicative mood
D

ENGLISH GRAMl\JAH.

ETYMOL<JtlY.

is fo~·mrd hyy_refixing the auxiliary-had to the
pass1n· pal't1c:1ple; thus:
Sing-11lar.
Plural.
1. I had loved,
1. 'Ve had loved,
2. 'J'hou hadst loved,
2. You had lond,
3. He had loved.
S. They had loved.
First future tense.
Th e first future tensP in the indicative mood
js formed by prefixing the auxiliary shall or
will to th(• pr<'sent ten se .

shall ha-ve, or will lia-ve, to the perfect or passive participle; thus:
Singular.
·1. I shall have loved,
2. Thou shalt have loved,
3. He slrnll have loHd.

Plural.
1. We shall have loved,
2. You shall have loved,
3. They shall have loved.

S hall in the first person singular and plural, simply
fore•ells; a.~ "I slu•ll go abroad;" " We shall dine :i.t
hom e " in the seco nd and third persons it promises, com·m ands, or threatens : as" thou shalt havo it;" "Ye shall
go;'· " He shall answer for it."
Will in th e first p erson singular and plural, expresses
resolution imd promising : as " I will strive to learn :"
" \\' e will amenq our ways." In the second and third
p erso~.s it only fo~<-tells ; as " Thou wilt repent of that
folly : " They will have a pleasant walk."
These definitions of the auxiliaries s/,all and -will are not
t o be 11nderstoorl of interrogative sentences, in which, for
the most part, their meani!ig isjnst the reverse .; also when
the re1·b is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt
or uncert:<inty, their signification is.somewhat d ifferent.
~in~1ilar.

1. I shall love,
'.2. Thou shalt love,
3. I-IP sliall love.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
. The imperative mood is used for commanding, exhort·
ing, entreating or permitting : and as the p erson or persons commanded, exhorted, &c. are always unders~ood tp
be present, this mood is used only in the present tense,
.a nd the address made in the second persori only; thus:

Singular • .
2. Love, or lo-ve thou.
Plural.
2. Love, or lo-ve you.

Plural.
1. We shall love,
2. You shall lin·e,

3. They shall love.

Seconrl future tense.
'The second futul'e t<'nse in the indicative
mood, is formed by prefixing the auxiliaries

,.
I

POTENTIAL MOOD.
The potential mood implies power, liberty, duty, will,
or obligation : which is expressed by the auxil.iai·y may,
~an, mwit, might, could, -would or should.
This mood is
used in all the tenses, except the.first and seco1Ldfutures.
The auxiliaries m<1y and might, express the lib erty or
possibility of an action or event; as "It may rain." "He
may go." "They might have made more improvement!'
Can and could express power : as " He can read better
than I ; " " Th ey could go faster if they chose."
.llfust denotes necessity or ob!ig(ltion; as " Thou must
itrive to learn ;" "We mu•t attend at the time a·ppointedY
TYonld denotes inclination or will, ai1d should, obligation
or duty; but they both vary their import, an<l are often.
med to express simple events.

ENOLTSH GRAHMAR.

Present tense.
The present tense in the potential mood is
formed liy prrfixing the auxiliary may, can, or
m1ist_. to the present tense of the infinitive
.rnoou; thus:
Sing·.
Plur.
1. I may love,
1. 'Ve may Jove,
2. Thou mayst love,
2. You may love,
3. He may love.
s. They may love.

Imperfect tense.

;
'.'

I~ .

The impPrfect tense in the potential mood is
formed bJ pr·rfixing the auxiliary might, could,
:vonl.d~ or slwnld. to the present tense of the
1nfimt1 ve mood; th us :
Sing.
Plur.
1. I might love,
1. We might love,
.2. Thou mi .~!itst love, 2. You might love,
S. He might lllve.
3. They might love.
Pe1·frct tense.
The perf!:ct tense in the potential mood is
formed by prrfixin_(!; the iwxilial'ies may hwve,
c~n ha-ve: '~" 1mist lwve, to the perfoct or pas··
s1ve. par·trcrple; thus:
Singular. 1. I may have loved,
2. Thou mayst have loved.,
S. He may have loved.
Plural.
1. We may have loved,
2. You may have loved,
;1. They may l1ave loved .

ETYMOJ,OGT.

Pluperfect tense.
'
·
The pluperfrct tense in thf' potential 0tood
is formed by prefixing the auxiliarirs, might
hwve, could ha'Ve. would ha'Ve, 01· should ha.,i:,
to the pe.1-fr.ct or passive participle ; thus:
Singular. 1. l might have loved,
'
2 .. Thou mights! have loved,
3. He might have loved.
Plural. 1. We might liave loved,
2. You migbt have loved,
3. Tlwy rni;.difha.ve'-lovcd.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
The subjunctive mood r.-l?reeents a thing unde: :t c?ll~
dition or contingency, al'ld 1s preceded hy a .co11JunctiOJ;).
expressed or understood, and attended by another ve1·b.

Present tense.
Sing.
1 If I lov(·,
2. If thou lo vest,
3. lf he loves.*

Plur .
1. Tf we Jcive,
2. If you love,

:L If they love.

Imperfect tense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. If we loved,
1. If J loVt'd,
~- If you lo\'cd,
2. If thou lovedst or loved,
3. If they loved.
3. If he loved.
First future tense.
The firi;t future tense is formed by prefixing
• Some writers use the singul:ir number in t~e .present
tense of the subjuncti..-e mood, without any variation ; . as
"if I love, if thou love, if be love." But this usage m11~t 1
be ra:i1ked amo11g5t the anomalies of oui· language<

DZ

\

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PresE'nt or acti_ve,
Loving,
P erfrcr or i1assi vc, Love·d,
Compound pe1-fect, Having- loved.
Conjugation of the irregular active ve1·b,

write.

A s every verb of the subj11nctive mood is attendl"d by
anothct' verb i.n the indi_cative, tl1e imp erative, or potential
lnootl, and this attend:ng verb fix es the time with sufli.
cient clearness, it is common in the use of th e future
tense of the subjunctive mood, to make an c;Jlipsis of the
atLxili;,ry. Thus, instend of sayi1~g, " ff h e aha.fl arr~:ve
tlwre in time, he will go in the stage," we say "ff he
Mive there in time, &c."
lNFINITIVE MOOD.
~Ii:- infinitivr moo<l exp resses a thing in a general and
unl:m,tcd mannn, witl10nt any distinction of number or
pei-svn. It i~ genemlly prt:cedecl by the prep osition to,
and is used only int he present and p erfect teases.
f'l't:' !.·H~ llt LC J : ;;~,
'! 0 ~ 1J \'C.

Tn ha vc loved.

PARTICrPLES.
'I'hc present or acti ve par·t.iciplc is fornrnd

ft.1et or passive 11artic1t1le.

·

,

INDICATIVE MOOD. ;o

7/lOo ri.

by add i •1g ing to the ve ru.
'l'he pe1fect <,r passive jJa rti t: iple is gerwl'alJy formi•d U)' f\Cldi!1~ et[, d, t, I ) !' 1t, tO i!Jt' \ '(' )'')•
Thr ("H'1 p·: nuri p-erfoct J.H•. rti1· ~ pie is fo1·med
by 1•r·dh· i11:>; t.i1e a ini!iary ha:vin5 to the per~

·
Ind. prt>!l. Write. Imp. Wrote.
Pel'!'. part. Writt~n.

The three µiecedin g tenses of the subjunctive mood,
are all that ~Lr,. necessarily connected with the rules of syn·
tax. Bat the ·,thertenses, currespond:ng w~th rliuse of t he
~ndicative or potential mo0d, when p;·,,ced1·d by a con.
JUnct1'm and ~tt•mJed by another verb. ·,·xpressing con.
<l1tw n, or contmgc-ncy, shoald be parsed in the wbjunctive

Pt.:rfrct tense,

45

ETYMOLOGY.

the auxiliary shall, slwnltl, or will, to the pr~
sent tense nf the infinitive mood.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I~ I (shall) love,
1. If we (shall) love,
.2. It thou (shalt) love, 2. lf you (sha ll) love,
3. If he (shall) love.
3. rr th~)' :'sha ll) love.

f

t'

I

Present te11s1•.
Plur.
Sing.
1. We write,
1. I write,
2. You write,
2. Thou writest,
3. They write.
3. He writes.
Imperfect tense.
Plur.
Sini;.
1. We wrote,
1. l \\Tote,
2. You wrote,
2. Thou wrotest,
3. They wrote.
3. He wt·ote.
P erfect tense.
Plur.
Sini;.
1. T ha\, . written,
1. We have written,
~.You have written,
2. Thou hast \Hitt e n,
s. They have written.
3. He has writtr11.
Pluperfect tense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. We had written,
1. I had \Vl'itten,
2. Thou hadst written, 2. You had writ'ten,
3. Ht> had written.
3. Tl1ey had w1' itten.
• The definitioru1 of the moods nnd tense11 _mlly ,Proper·

fy be given by the pupil, through all the "®Jugation~

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

First future tense.
Plur.
1. We shall write,
2. You shall write,
3. H e shall write.
3. 'l'hey shall write.

Sing.
1. I shall write,
Z . Thou s halt write,

Second future tense.
Sin15ular. 1. I shall have writt en,
2. Thou shalt have written,
3 . He shall hav e written.
Plural.
1. 'Ve shall have written,
2 . You s hall have written,
3. Th ey s hall have written.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Sing ular.
2. Write, or write thou.
Plural.
2. 'Yri te, or write you.
l>OTENTIAL MOOD.

l'reseut tense.
S ing:.
1. I may write,
2.. T hou may st write,

3. H e may write.

Plur.
1. W e may write,
2 . Y ou may write,
3. Th ey may write.

lmp Cl'fect t ense.

[.
i )

''

Sing.
1. I mig ht write,
:2., Thnu -mightst write,
.3, He might write.

Plur.
1. W e mi g ht write,
2. You might write,

s. 'l'hey might write.

~TYMOLOGY.

Singular. t.
2.

s.

Plural.

t.
2.
3.

Perfect tense~
I may have written, .
Thou mayst hav e written,
He may have written.
'Ve may have written. ·
You mny have written,
Th ey may have writte.n.
Pluperfect tense.

Singular.

1. I might hav e written, .
.2. Thou mightst have written,

3. He might have written.
Plural.
f. We might have wri.tten,
2. You might have wr1!ten,

s.

They might have written.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD·

Present tense.

Plur.
Sing.
i. If w e write,
1. If I write,
2. If you write,
2. If thou writest,
3. If they write.
3. If he writes.
Imperfect tense.
Plur.
Sing.
i. If we wrote,
f. )f ) w1·ote,
~. If thou wrotest or wrote, 2. If you wrote,
3. If they wrote.
s. If he wrote .

I
{

ENGLISH GRAM~UR.

ETYMOLOGY,

Future tense.

. }

Sin,g.
Plur.
1. If I (shall) write,
1. lfwe (shall) wr·ite,
2. Iftfwu (shalt) write, 2. If you (shall) write,
3. Ifhe (shall) writr. 3. If they (shall) write.
JNFlNITIVE MOOD.

Present ten., e,
Perfect,

To write . .
To have \~ritten.

PARTICIPLES.

Pr·rsent or acrivc, Writing.
Pel'fect or passive, Writtrn.
Compound 1ierfect, Having written.

Conjui:;ation of the auxiliary or irregular

11cutcr verb,

be.

Ind. pres. Am.
Imp. Was.
P1·rf. part. Brem.
lNBICA TIVE MOOD.

Sing.
1. I am,
2. Tliou art,
il. He is.
\'

Sing.
1 I was,
2. Thou wast,
.>. He was.

l~resent tense.

"

Plur.
1. 'Ve are,
2. You are,
3. They are.
Imperfect tense.

2. You were,

s. They were.

erfect tenl?e.

Sing.

Plur.
1. We have been,
2. Thou hast been,
2. You have been,
s. He has been
s. 'I'hey have been.
.Pluperfect tense.
Sing.
Plur.
t. I had br,en,
1 We had bee11,
2. Thou hadst been,
2: You had been,
s. He had been.
s. 'l'hr,y had been ..
1.

J

f1ave been,

First future tense.
Sing..
Plur.
1. I shall be,
1. \Ve shall be,
2. Thou shat{ be,
2. You shall be,
s. He shall be.
3. They shall be.
'
Second future tense._
·Singular.
1. I shall ·have · been, '
2. Thou shalt- have been,
3. He shall :liave been; ··

.

·. Plural.
1. 'VP shall hl\VI\ . been, . .
2. You shall ha"P' b1· en, .
·s. They RhaU hjl~~ . ~ren.

Plur.
1. We were,

1

IMPERATIVE

MbOD.

th~u~

2. Be, or be you.

Sing.
1. Be, or

be

Plur.

'

ENGLISH GRAM:UA"R.

E TY .U OLOGY,

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present tense.
Sing.

Plur.

1. I may be,

1. We may be,
2. You may IJe,

Thou mayst be,
s. He. may be.
s. They may be.
Imperfect tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I might be,
1. We might be,
2. Thou migl1tst be,
2. You might be,
3. He might be.
s. 1.'hey migt" be.
Perfect tense.
Singular. 1. I may have been,
2. Thou mayst have been,
3. He may have been.
Plural.
1- We may have been.
2. You may have bf\en.
3. 'l'hey may have been.
Pluperfect tense.
Singular. 1. I might have been,
2. Thou mightst have been,
s. He might have been,
Plural.
1. We might have been,
2. You might have been;
a. They might have been.
;.?.

'r

-..

I.

I'

S\JBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

i>1·esent tense.
Sing.
1. If I am,
2. If thou

art,

3, If he is.

Plur.

1. If we are,
2. If you are,
3. If ihey are;

Imperfect tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I was,
1. If we were,
2. If thou wast,
2. If you were,
;I. If ht> wao;.
. l . If they were.
The imp e1fect form of the verb be, in the subjunctive '
mood, is frequently nsecl to denote present or future ·
time ; it th ~ n tak es the following form in the different
numbers an<l persons, viz.

:::iing.

Plur.

1. If l were,
2. If t.liou wert,
S. lf he were.

1. If we were,
2 . .If you were,

s.

If th ey were.

Future tense.
Sing.
1. If J (shall) be,
2. If thou (shalt) be,
3. If 111~ (shall) lw.

Plur.
1. If we (shall) be,\
2. lf you (shall) be,~
3. )f they (shall)

be.\

\

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Presrnt tense,
Pel'fect,1

To be.
To have been.

PARTICIPLES.

Prrsrnt,
P erfect,
Compound perfect,

Being.
Been.
Having been.

OF PASSIVE VERBS.

A passive verb signifies that its subject or
nominative receives an action, and It is formed

from the transitive active verb, by am1exing
the perfect m· passive partic'iple to the anxiliary be, through · all its changes of mood, tense,
number, and i1erson; as from the trunsiti-vt: acE

50

ENGJ,JSH GRAMMAU.

ETYMOLOGY.

ti-ce verb love is :<; nncd th e passive verb aim
loi:ed. was lo1:nf, &c.
P assi,·e verbs may b e d istingnished by th eir always admi tting of th e pre-position by or with after them, witb a
nou n or pronou n, ex pressin g the agent by wh ;ch the
subject or nom inative is acted upon ; as "The rr.aster is
/01·ed by me ."

Conjugatio n :;f 1he passive verb, be loved.
INDI CA TIVg MOOD.

')

~

h ·csc ut tense.

Sin~.

T am .lov 1·d,
.2. Thou art fo,·ed,
S. He is lov ed.
:1.

·'!,

Plur.
:1. ' Ve are l1w e d~
2 . Yori are loved,
3. They al'c lovetl.

Imperfect tens e.

Sin!!;.
Plur.
:1. I w :1s l1.1vrd.
1. ,y,, wer e loved,
2. Th111; w as t lovr.d,
2. Yo u \\·e r e loved,
3. He was lo ve d.
3. They were loved.
Prrfrct -te nsc.
Sing ular. t. I ha v•· br.t>n hvecl,
2 . Tli o11 li r<st bP r n l:Jv etl,
3. Hr has li «i: n love <!.
:1. Wf' !rn re l.H·1•11 lo\'\·tl,
Plt11·al.
2 . Yo n ha,·1- b1· e11 lo\' ed,
Th: ha ,-t· bn· n Jovetl.
Pl •• y ·rf-:> .:~t : r Jl S i'-.
Singular. 1. l hc.~ d :,c1: :·1 ii ;\ 1:rl,
2 . ?.l:'l'I l::~vtf .°' .· ~~:t·· '·t ~ O\'r. d,
0

~.

1

"

iJ .

111) i L-h~ D ec.~; !i:·;~/ ·J J .

Plural.

1. 'Ve had bt'en loved,

2. You had been loved,
3. They had been loved.
First future tense.
Singular. 1. J shall be loveiJ;
2. Thou shalt be loved,
3. H c shall be love<l~ Plural.
:1. We shall be loved,
2. You shall be loved,
3. They shall be l~m~d.
Second future tense. ·
Singular. :1 . J s hall have been loved,
2 . Thon shalt have bee_u loved;
3. He shall have he'en loved.
Plural.
:1. W c shall have bt:e n loved,
2. You shall have been loved,
s. They shall have been loved.
nIPERA TIVE MOOD.

Sing.
2. De tho11 lov ed.

· Plur.

2. ,Be you loved.

POTENTlAL Moop.

Present tcnse~Singular.
:t. I may be loved,
2. Thou mayst be loved,
s. He may ue loved.
Plural.
:1. 'Ve way IJe loved,
2 . You may be loved,
~.

They may be loved.

:ENGLISH

.

1

GRA~BHR.

Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding
the present or active participle to the auxiliary nE th1·ough
all its Yariations; a> "l am writing;" " He is sittir.g."
This mode of conjugation has, on sorri'e occasions, a peculiar propriety, as it expresses the continuation of an action
or state of being, and contributes to the harmony and precision of the lariguage.
Example of the verb Lt:J.R~.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present tense.
Singular.
Plural .
1. I :i.m learning,
1. "' e are learning,
5!. Thou art learning,
2. You are learni11g,
j ,
He is learning.
3. They are learning.
Imperfoct tense.
Singular.
' Plural.
1. I was learning,
1. '\Ve.were learning,
2. Thou wast learning,
'.1. Yon were learning,
3. He was learning.
S. They were learning-.
·
Perfect tense.
·
··
·
Singular. 1. I have been learning,
2. Thon hast been learning·,
3 . . He has been learning.
Plural.
l. \Ve have been learning,
2. You have been learn,ing,
3. They have been learning.
Pluperfect tense.
Singular. 1. I had been learning,
2. Thou hadst been learning,
3. He had been learning.
Plural.
1. \Ye had been learning,
2. You had been learning; .
3. They had been learning.
Fii·st futme tense.
Singular. 1. I shall be learning·,
2. Thou shalt be learnin"',
3. He shall be learning.
:Plural.
l. We shall be learning,
z. You shall be learning,
3. They shall be learning· .
~

Secon'cff'uture tense.
Singular. 1. I shall have been learning,
~. Thou shalt have been learning,
3. He shall have heen learning.
1. We shali have be.en·learning,
J.'lnral.
2. You shaH have been learning',
:3. They shall have been learning;
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singufar.
Plural.
'.::.Be thou le'lrning.
2. Be you learning.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
: Present tense.
Singular. 1. I may .be learning,
'2. Tt1ou mayst be lear1iii.11:',
3. He may be leaming.
1. We may be learning,
Pluta!.
2. You may be learning,
3. They may be learning.
Imperfect tense.
Singul:tr. 1. I mig;ht ·be leari1ing,
2. Thou mi,g[\tst be learnin~,
3. Ile m.ight be learning.
1. We might be learning,
Plural.
2. Yo<t might be learning,
3. They might be 1eai:nii1g.
Perfect tense; ·
Singular. 1. I m:iy have been learning;'
2. Thou mayst have been learning-,,
3. He may .have b.een ·learning.
Plural.
J.. We may have been learning.
2. You may have been learning, .
3. They may have been leaming:.
Pluperfect tense.
Singular . .1. I might hav.e been learning,
2. Thou rnightst have been learnina"
3. He might have been learning.

So

ENGLISH GRAMMAU.

E'l'YMo.LOGY.

1. We might have been learning·,
2. You might have been learning-,
3. They might have been learning,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present tense.
Singular.
Plural.
1. If I am learning ,
1. If we are learning,
2. If th ou r.rt. karning,
ti. If you !ll'o k aming,.
3. If he 1s learn ing.
3 . If they are learning.
Irnpcifect tense.
Plural.
Singular.
1. lf' l w as learning,
1. If we were l earnin~,
2. If thou wast leaming,
~. If you were learning,
3. If they were learning.
3. If he was learning.
Or, when th e imperfect form ref;;rs to present or fotm;e
time it is thus conjugated.
Pltira1.

Singular.
Plural.
1. If l were learning,
1. If we were learning,
2. lf llwu wcrt learning,
~ . If you were learning,
3. If he were learning.
3. lfthey were learning.
Future tense.
Singular.
Plural.
1. !fl ( shall ) be learning,
1. If we ( shall) be learning,
2. If thou (shalt) b e learning, 2. lf you (shall) be learninl:',
3 .. lfh u (shall) be learn ing. 3. If they (sh:;,ll) be learning.
IN:FINITIVF. MOOD.
Present ..... To be learning.
Perfect .. ... To have been learning.

1·• I

!· •
l •~- I

I I\

·1

.
I

)

\

'>\

r
!

\ '.

PARTICIPLES.
T're6e nt .. ... J,earning. Perfect .. .. . Been learned .
Compound pe rfect ..... Having been learning.
A s the Indicati ve and Pote ntial moods are freq nentlJ
used in asking quest.ions, wherein the 11uxiliaries are •e. p aratt:d from one another, or from th e principal verb, hy
the interposition of the subject or nominative, and some .
times other words-in order to give the learner a distinct
id en of th e d ifferent forms of conju gation, the follo\1-ing
ex·:m1ple of 11 verb con,iugakd i11ter1·1J,q"<1tivel:y is :iubjoinetl.
0

Of the active verb learn.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
1 Person, Singular number.•
Present tense ........ Do I learn? &c.
Impcrfect ... .. .. ...... Did I learn? &c.
l'erfect tcnse .. .... .. l.fave I learned? &c:
Plupe1fect.. ..... ..... Jf.ad I learned? &c.
l'irst future .......... Will I learn I &c.
Second future ...... Will I have learned I Uo .
POTENTrAL MOOD.
1 Person .. .. ... Singttlar number.
Present tenset ...... May I learn I &c.
Imp<:rfect ............. Could I learn I &c.
P crfect ................ Can I have learned I &c.
l ' lup erfcct ...... .... .. Could I ha,·e learned I &c.
Of the jJassive verb be loved.
lNDfCATIVr~ M.OOD .
1 P erson ....... Singular number.
l'reeent tense ........ . Am I loved? &c.
I mperf ect ....... ....... Wa~ I loved? &c.
P rrfect ..... ............ Jhve l been loved? &c.
Plupe,.f'ect ....... ..... Had I been loved? &c.
Fin t fut11 1'e .. ......... VI<' ill I be loved I &c.
SecomJ fu tm·e .. ...... Will I have been loved~
POTENTIAL MOOD.
I'1·ese11t tenu .... .. ... ~fay I be loved? &c.
1111/JP1' fect ............ .. M1ght I be loved ' & c.
P e1:fect .... .... .. .. .. ... Jorfay I have been loved? &c.
P luj1erfect .......... ... Might I have been loved I &c.
A ver l.. may he conjugated negatively, by making use of
the adve rb not betwee11 the auxiliary and the principr.J.
v"rb, or bet wee n the first and second auxiliru·ies, where
th el'e are more than on e, through ·all the mood~ and·
t ens::s., except the infinitive : as "l do not fear; J d id not

* The leru·ucr should repe~t the verb through all the.
persm1s, in both numbers.
'flus ten~~ is aM.o w.sed in exclamatory sentencei;.

58

J::NGLTSH GR.lM!llAR.

fear; I have not feared; I shall not have feared ; Fear n~t,
er do not fear;" &c.
OF IHRl-:GULAU YEP.HS.

J>resem.
bind
bite

Impe1fect.
bound
bit
lJ!ePd
bled
blow
bkw
break
broke
breed
bred
bring
brought
build
built, n.
burst
burst
buy
bought
Cast
cast
catch
caught, .R.
chide
chid
choo~e
chose
cleave, to adhere, cla.ve, U.
[to sticlc.
cleave, to sj1/it
clove or cleft
cling
clung
clothe
clothed
come
came
cost
cost
crow
c rew, R.
creep
crept, U.
cut ·
cut
Dare, to ve?1 t·u1·e* d urst
deal
dealt, R.
d ig
d1.g" R.
do
di1l
draw
drew
drive
drove
drink
dmnk
dw ell
dwelt
Eat
eat
:Fall
fc.-11
feed
fed
fe el
felt
fi g ht
fou ght
find
found

ltTr.~ular Vt't'bs an· of various sorts.
t . Such as have the present and imperfect tenses of the

indicativ e mood and the perfect participle the same : as
Present.
Jmperfcct.
Perfoct participle.
cost
cost
cost.
put
put
put.

2. Su ch as have th e imp erfect te nse and perfect partici·
pie th e same, but different from the present te1rne: as
Present.
Imp erfccf.
Perfect part.
abide
abode
abode.
bleed
hied
bled.
3. Such as have the present tense, the impe1fect tcrn;e,
:me! p ~ tfc ct 01' p;1.ssive participle different : as
Prese.nt.
Imperfect.
}'e1fcct part.
arise
arose
arise n.
blow
ble w
blown.
The foll owing is a list of th e irregnhir verbs, aa they
arc now g·c n ~ ra lly used. Those mal'ked with an H, admit
also of the r('g ulur form of conjunction.
I'rese11".
Imp erfect.
A bide
ab orle
am
was
arise
rirosc
a wake
a woke, U.
ll car, to h1·i11g fo1 ·1h, bare
bear, to cart-y,
bore
beat
b eat
b egin
began
hcncl
bent, R.
b eho ld
beheld
b creaYe
ber.,ft, R.
b eseech
besought
bid
b:iclc, bid

P e r. or pas. part.
abode.
bee n.
:<risen.
a waked.
born.
borne.
b eat, or beate11
begun.
be nt, R.
beheld.
bereft, R.
besought.
hitiden, hid.

59

l:'l'YMOJ,OG Y. •

'

I

*

!

P erf. or pas. part.
bound.
bitten, bit.
bled.
blowr. .
broken.
b red.
brought.
built, n.
burst.
bought.
cast.
caught, R.
ch.idden, chid .
chosen.
cleaved.

cloven, cleft.
clung.
clad, It.
come.
cost.
crowed.
crept, R.
cut.
dared.
d ealt, R.
dug, l{,
done.
drawn.
dri ven, drove .
dnrnk. ·
dwelt, H.
ea ten.
fallen.
fed.
felt.·
fought.
found.
IJare, to chall e11ge or defy, is always regular.

!

ti :2
·P resent.
slink
slit
smite
so w
sp eak
speed
spend
spill
~p in

spi t
spLt
~µread

Sj> t'.n g

stand
steal
st\~k

St1'lg
stink
stride
strike
string
Stl'J \" e

st ro w, or stre\v
swear

swcut
'<

s well
I

I.

swim
swing
Ta ke
kach

I .'
•

J

\ !

l[

/:

":

tear
td l
t.h 111k
thrive
thro w
thru st
tread

Imp e1fect.
slunk
slit, IL
smote
sowed
spoke
sp ed
sp ent
sp :lt, H.
spun
spat
split
spread
sprang, sprung
stood
stole
stu ck
stung
stunk
strode, or 11trid
struck
strung
strove
strewed, or~
strewed
swore
sweat
11welled
swam, iWUm
~wung

took
tnwght
tore
told
thought
throvc, }{,
threw
thrust
!rod

63

ETYMOLOGY.

ENGLfSU GRAMMAR.

Present.
Wax
wear
weava
weep
wet

Perf. part.
alunk.
slit, slitted .
smitten.
sown, R.
spok<.!n.
sped.
spent.
spilt, R.
spun.
spitten, spit.
split.
spread.
spnmg.
stood.
stolen.
stuck.
St•mg.
stu11k.
stlic lden.
struck, or
stricken.
strung.

win

wind
work
wring

striven.

\.

f

Perf. part.
waxen, ft.
worn.
woven.
w"pt.
wct.,R.

n.

wrung, H.

won.
wound.
wrought, or~
workt:d.
wrung, or
wringed.
written.

1

wrote
write
In the preceding list, many of the ~om pound in·egula.1'
verbs are omitted; snch as, b.•(al, bt:s/JPak, .,,.;stake, uve~­
throw, c. whid i follow th e same form :is the verbs fall,
sp eak, take, throw, &c. from wh ·ch they are formed. As
sum ~ of th" fll'" c ed ing ve rb s may be conjugated regulal'ly
as well a,, i11·eg«; i,.rJ y, custom and judgme11t·must determine to which r.mn th e pret;'. r~nce is to b" given. Those
wh ;ch are i~rt> gular only in fac r.iliar wr·:tmg a11<l discourse,
and which »re i'm prc;p el'ly t.;rminated by t instead of ed,
are not iH;;c:rted. Of t bis class are /earrit, &pell, hitchl, · : c.
the us~· of which t ermination should be carefully a.voided
in <:Very sort of composition, and even 111 pronunciation.
Tlwse l1nw ever must be carefully distingu ishetl from those
necessary anrl allowable contr><ctions, which are the only
est!\hlisncct forms of expression; such as dwelt, lost, felt,
~c. w·ords th~t are obsolete have e.lso been cimitted;
such as hulpe11, holdeJ1, g at, •'Ula"!i• &.c.

J

strown, strowe<l,
litrewed,
sworu.
sweat.
swollen, n.
swum.
swung.
taken.
taught.
l ol'n.
told.
thought.
thrrven.
thrown.
th.rust.
trodden.

Imperf.
wnxed
wore
wo·ve
wept
\\•ct
won
wound
wrought,

~

~XAMPLJ:;S

01' PARSI.NG,

In which the di-vision of -oerbs, moods, and
tenses. should be distmgtiished, and the dljinitions
r ~p. · atul.
1.

I

Hr rf'a<ls wr.Jl.
He, a personal pronoun, of the third per5on singular; nommative case.

ETYMOLOGY .

ENGLI SJI GllAMMAU,

I,

i~~uthhed

Know ye yourselves. Live peaceably with
all men.
She aan rl.'ad very well. They may improve.
If thou couldst ov e rtake' him, be might retu I'll.
It mav have remainrd tht>re a long time.
You s l10uld have considered, that he has not
had so good an opportunity as you.
.
He would have gone with us, if we had mvit.e <l him.
To rl'ad well is a ' 'aluabl e attainment.
To hav e conquered h:imself was his highest
praise.
lly promoting the w elfare of other me~, they
atl nrnce d 1heir· own.
•..
Hr appears discouraged, although he is ad~
mired fur his irnp1·ovemrnt.
James was sent to market this morning, and
he h as not h f'e n see n l.Jy us since.
V i1•t 11 c will he rewarded, and vice will be
1rnnis hcd.
.
Be ye i11ti·e ated to forsak e vanity, that yon
may bc p1· eser v.c d from trmpta(iun.
I may have l.J ee n d ece ivrd _l.Jy him.
To h°e tl'llstc,d, w e must b e virtuous.
Haying been d escrte <l, he became disco uraged.

&e.

are. called personal pronouns.
. ir person is th e p erso n spoken of.
''
e s1?1,rular num ber im plies but one. .
I he no minative. ca:>e is s' rnply the name of ti .
1
~~~~~~~t~~\o~e~~'.oun or pronou n, when~ j; ~
rc:;l\ds, an act ive verb, of the indicative m I
An ac•i\' e. ver_b expres3es th.e ac~~' :~e~~nt teb~se.
1
ur no1111native.
su ~eet
Th e: .' :;rl ic;ct,ve mood aim ply indicates or d I
tlnng.
.
ec arcs &
The i)l'csen.t t en8 e represents an acti on r
ll " W pa",' ''6 or existing at the ti
. o li:ven_t ~s
ll'C' 'lti oned.
me in w uch 1t 1s
Th

0

well, :in ~ <J · ~ rb.
I

'.

'

Sa,.ah is a Yirtuous woman • I
much.
'
esteem her

i_

VPI")

TIJt1t1 impt·ovest daily, aud thy exampl

co111·a.i;-1·s •>I hP;·s.

I;
t

l
Q

/:

f

,·t
~

.

f

•

\Yr, curnplcted our jom·ney yester 1I

WPr·r
'

gfad.

·

e

ay,

.

en.
an·'
u

:r1ie· !Joys caml" home to-llay • they hav <l
cetve1l mr· g t·ratly.
'
e e-

'lr ~~1eb

'."t\sl wi d en thl! letter, an<l she wishes it
rn stage.
H'.1 h ~d ~h'cn up tlie lnoks, befo r e [ went
A rtrr tlt ey I , J
•
•
<lepa1·tP d. .
J;.1 waited a long time they
~

Hi <> frars

~ S{· :. , pe.

will detect him ' b11t

0

he shall 11t>t

lie~:.•; l~~~~,~:t.~~.~ ~i111~ 1 ~~~vc ag1·eed on a report

On thn11 h:. wa tehl'ul.
a.nu 1earn wisdom.
.r

I

65

OF ADVERBS.;
An ad verb i~ a word used to n-iodify the

mprovc tliy tin1c,

F

f

2

66

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

IDPanii1g r1f a verh, par·tiei le
. .
an<1'hPr vrrb. a--· 1J
t
· P ,, a<IJechve, or
S
- ' ,., ~e ac s prndcntty
o1nr, atlvrrbs are compar"d • :
soonr1., snrinr>st ·" " ft
f ·· ' as " Soon.
'rlwirn l'nding- i~ ly
c'.n, 0 h•nrr, ofte nest."
3
most; as .. '~'isely m'01e, co'.~p'alr·e.d by more and
• '
e ''IS!. y, most wisely."

°,

' '

Adverbs may be ranked cl . •
of which are the following
e1 several classes, the chief
1. Of nwnber: as Once t. .
l .
2. Of order .
..
' wice, t ll"ice, &c,
&c.
. as Fnst, secondly, thirdly, lastly, finally,

'.m

I•

f;

I

I:.

)t

;' I

3. Of /ilace: as Here ti
where, everywhere so•ne' h1ere, where, elsew here, any.
· I· I
' · w ere nowh •re I
·
rn,
lit ier, thithe1-, wliither, u \\:ard
~ ' ierem, there•
'back: w:u·d, wh e nce he
tip
' ,lownward forwarJ
4 ( f
• nee, ien ce whith
'
'
• .> limo J1resent: as now t d: & ersoever, &c.
5. Of time past: as Alreatl O· ay, ec.
limg since.
...
y, before, lately, yesterday
6.
Of
time
to
come
.
as
T
"
"' Ii, by and bv, presently
·
o-morrow
-"
i'm
i· '1 h ere..,ter,
hence•Ort
" .
.,
mec iat" y 8·c
()
7
. •
r !;me rnrf,jiuite: a3 Oft
.f
' • ..
ftun es, soon , se ldom dail w
_ten, often tnnes, some.
ever, nevf"r, again, &c. y, ee'), yearly' always, when,
8. Of 'Jllaiity: as Much little
.
.
mu ch, how great, al>unda;tly, &c~nffic1ently, enough, how
9. Of maimer o1• qualit 1 .
.
.
quickly. Adverbs of
/{_. as Wisely, foolishly, justly
~c· ner·ally formed by ;,i~~- ty are very n_um~rous; and ar~
pi es, or by changing 1 . m7 ly to adjectives or particich eerfu lly ; a<ln1i1·abJee u~o. ~'bl as bad, badly ; cheerful,
.i.e.
' a maa Y ; agreeable, agreeably
10. Of doubt: as Perha
.
,
IMiance.
ps, peia<lventure, possibly, per.

'kf

•

l 1. Of affirmation. : as Veril

t.ndeed, rea lly, &c.

12, Of 1•e uttm •
00

l\<r,,

." '

N

t

l

.

y, ru y, certainly, yea, yes.

• as . ri.y, n,o, not, not at :JI, in no wise,

ETYMOLOGY.

67

lS. Of 11t1rrogatio11: as How, why, wherefore, whether,
&.c.
14. or compai-iton: as Better, best, more, most, worse,
worst, less, least, very, almost, alike, &c.
Ml\ny adverbs are fanned by !\ combination of several
-of the prepositions with the adverbs of place, where, her~,
there: '.ls whereof, wherewith, &c. hereW. hereby, &c.
therewith, 1herefore, &c.
·
An adjective becomes an adverb, when it docs not ex·
press the quality 01· property of a ·noun, but simply the
manner of a verb : as open thy hand 'uide.
.·
Sometimes an adjective is included with U1e adverb ;
as ever¥ wziere, any -.uhei·~. &c. spmetimes a prepoiition
and acljective are t:iken as an adverb : thui, in vain, iri
earnest, &c. express the same thing lli vufoli•; eai"Xc1tl1&c.
A preposition and noun sometimes become t.n ad¥erb ;
·
as at length, by no meana, &c.
A preposition and adverb are aometimes combined al
an adverb ; as at once, at be1t, at rnolt, &c. · ·
·
Some adverbs :ire composed of the article a prelixed to
nouns ; ui; a-side, a-thirst, a-sleep, a-shore, a-ground, &c.
A preposition becomes an adverb whtfo it hu no object.
expressed or understood, or, when ,i_oined with a verb, and
necessary to complete th e sense of tl1e verb : as to c;ut
11p, to give o·r:er. The busine89 was attended to.
The worcl therefore is an adve1·b, when, without join·
ing sentences, it only gh·es the sense of; for that rea1011.
When it conveys that meaning, and alsa connect&, it is a
conjunction : as " He is good, therefore he is happy." The
same obsen·:..tion m:i.y be extended to the words con11que11tly , acco1·tli1wly, and the like. When thewe are subjoined to and, 01:"joined ta if, 1ince, &c. they are adverbs,
the connt·xion being made without their help : when they
are ~10t u;ie<l with any other connective, th1:y may be calle!J
conJunct10ns.
There are many words that arc 1ometimes used a1
one part of speech, and somefones another, the sense
arid coni'truction only dcterminil1g to ·which cla:J~ they

cs

E:NOLISH GR.,L\L\IAU.

ETYMOLOGY.

'

'i

belong. T hus the won] much is sometimes a noun, so1ne·
tinws "n ad.1'ecuve ' •.1u d some t 'im es an adve!'b . "" •11 'tl\e
p l '""'""
.
' "' .
n1011
~~· i1as"\\
b~h ere :'~uc !.l .' ~ gi~·ei.1
, m1~c/,, is requiri:d
' mrtch
tl fi . .• . . ~en ex1_ie nded; 1t rs 1111t cJ1 better tO go." 1n
ic _11 :·h example it l:i a nou n in th
cl
and m the third an adverb. '
e secon an adjtctive,

OF CONJUNCTIONS.
,A conj unei ion is a WO I'd u;icd to join words
o1. se11lrncr.s
Ul"'t't!w
.
.
.
.-. ·
· r • '·11ul· tri ~·.·I !OW ti H· man1wr n! rl:err dq>t•t11!encc on each oth er. as and
but, &c.
' '
'
Th
' · .
c p1'tnc1pal conjunctions are, although and a b
.
'
' s,
e·
cause but exce1 t f I t
th· t '1
'1 . ' ' or, cs, nonvitlist.an•lino- nor or than
~ .'' roug· '•unless, \\·bethel', if yet.
,,.
, '
'
I ht:l'c are. sc-.·e.l'al othe r words that are sometimes . k
ed \\' ~th conJt111.ct1ons, an~. so met i•n1;s with adverbs
an ..
po s:: ;~i~s. \Vhen they sene only t 0 · ;
. .
pre.
arc · ·
·
··
J'J.I\ >t'.•1tenrcs frey

o:

,
<.O.llj~•nctJons: su.~h a~ a,g-cuu , albeit also l
.d
;_
.
- , '· ,, , .moreo1. . e1· nevm·tfu,le"s p t : d, 'Jesi, es , P.r..':ie
. '
:nnce, the- n, thr:11,ce, thereiore, wlwre~s: ruvu1e 'save, seetng,

1l0wt--?.'1'r ;, .. , ·e

concerning, down, during, except, fqr, into, from, in, of,
on, upon, over, round, since, through , throughout, .to,
touching, towards, under, underneath, within, up, with,
without.

OF INTERJECTIONS.
.\

An inte1:jeetion iFl a word which expresses a
sudd en emotion of the mind ; Oh! al.as!
The interjections are comprised within a 'fery small
compass. They are of diffN"ent sorts according to the
different passions which they serve to express. Those
which intimate earnestness, pain, Ol" grief, are 0 ! oh!
ah.' alas.' Such a.s are expressive of contempt, pi•h ! tush!
Of wonder hd~-h ! r•·ally ! aure / strange! Of c11.lllng, hem I
Ao ! ••ho ! Of aversion or disgust, .foh ! fie! a111ay ! Of requesting silence, hush .' hi1t .' Of a call of attention, lo !
behold ! hark : Of salutation, 1oelco111e :' hail ! all hail! Beaide~ these there are many others 1n too freque11t u.ae,
which it ii; unneccs511ry to enumente.
·
EXAMPLES , OF P.\RSING,

OF PREPOS ITIO NS.
A )ll'l' !J!>sitio n is a wr:i·d use d to sh
ti
.
f' .•·ft·
ow 1e
1"( 1·a.i 1011
o u'.1 <·1·ent wo rd s to eac h oth er
ti
generally p r11n ts to a folln1\·ing 1101111 or' P~~~­
noun; as "Ile wentjrom Darby to Pltiladel1il1i a."
The following- is a list of the principal prepositions.
.
about, aflC:'r, against, amidst, among at liefore
l
ll' un ' ielow, beneat8, beside, between, bey~nd, D);:

tbrri

In which all the parts of speech and their
'Varions di-visions and modifications should b~
de.fined.
Tr11P. cheerfulness makes a mari happy in
himself, and promotes the happin ess of all
around him.
B eauty is a short-lived flower, which is easily
withered. A e;ultivated mind is a treasure"
which increasf's iwcry morn eut; it is a rich
soil, which prmluccs an hundred foM.

ENGLISH GUAMl\lAR,

Industry is nrcdful in every c1mditio~1 of life;
w e cannot, wit110 :.t it, ac·t in any state to the
)Jp11!'fj( 01' Salisfatti<:ll Of Otl1t'1'8, Or to (JUI' OWp
ad vantage ailCJ cornlort.
Kt:ep -no cornp.1ny with a man wlio is given
to detractiPn.
. Molll'sty af\n1ys nppcars graceful in youth;
it tloubl1'.s the lustre of ncry virlue which it
seems to hide.
He wlw every 1JH1rning plans the trans~ictions
of the dn y, an<l follows out tl1at pla11, r•a n1cs
on:~ th1·c·ad that will ,i.;uide liim throngh the
lab.ninth of the mnst busy Jifo.
We should always co11sider l:ww mueh we
l1 avc more than we want.
Tilt' sun which sc· c rns to pl' t·form his daily
s!::1gl's U1ro11gh th e slry, is, ;n tl1is resprct, fixed a11d immn·f'a blc.
Vi1·1 "l'. is tl1!~ uni\"f'rsal prrparation for every
ho1v1u1·aule station in life.
_
.A. ,.,us picious spirit is the source of many
Cl'l::i"s a11d cala;!liri t'. S in the \Vor·ld.
Comrn;rn failin;;s a1·e th e st1·011gcst lesson of
mu !na l fu1·be.arauec.
Ti me, always precious, can n e ver he more
so f han in ou1· rarly y<':Hs. The first id1•as
n:iak e the str1J11gc8t and most lasting im pressuins.

Bi•·"'!' f!te Lnrd, 0 my soul; and forget uot
all his lJ e ncfits !

SYNTAX.

'71

SYNTAX.
Syntax treats of the agreement, govern- ·
ment, an<l pro1ler art'. angement of words and
sentences.
There are two kin<ls of st1ntcnces, simple and

compo-und.
_
A si1nple sentence Las but one subject, and
one finite ver·b expressed 01· implie<l; as" She
reads well.''

I'

A compound sentence has more than one subject and one finite verb expressed or understood, and consists of two or more Rimple
sentences joi ued together; as "She reads well,.
but she does not write well."
,..A. phrase is two or rqpre words rightly put
together, making somettmes part of a sentence;
and sonwtimes a whole sentence,
Ellipsis is the omissfon of so.me word or
words in a sentence, in order to avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our ideas
with ease and elegance i 11 fe\v w,ords.
.agreement is that similarity w,hich one word
has to another iu number, person, mood, tense,
~ender, -01· case.
If
Grrvernment is th3t influence which one part
of speech has over anoth~r fo causing it to be
in some particular mood, tense, or case.
To point out the proper uses of the different parts of spcPCb, and to avoid or correct
errors in the language, the following Rules

72

:ENGLISH GUAMMAR.

with the annexed Notes and Observations are
necessa1·y.
RULE 1.

.,

Wh~n a noun o~ v1·onoun is the subject of a

verb, 1t must be 111 tl1e nominative case· as
"The bird fli1~ s ;'' ,; we "·alk."
.,
Thr subject of a vel'b may be known by answering a
questwn with w ho or -what before the verb ; as "The boy
lear~1s ; " "who learns 1" answer, the boy : thus boy is the
iiubj ect flf the verb learna.
The subject or nominafa·e is generally placed before
the verb: ~s _" .lfe walks ;'.' but sometimes it is put after
the. ~erb, 1f It IS of a simple tense, and between the
:mx1hary and verb, if of a c<>mpound tense : as
.L When a question is asked, a command given,. 01• 11
wish expressed : as "Behevest thou this p · "Go thoit ·"
" May
be happy in _h er ~hoice . "
•
2 . \\hen a suppos1t10n ia made without 11 conjunction
exp1:esst"d before the verb ; as " Had J been there, he
wou1<1 not h;;vc gone."
3 . \:hen a neuter verb is used; ail "On a sudden ap·
pcar~ c l Lhe qu een .·•
1
4. •!: hen th e adverb here , there, then, thence, hence, or
thus p1 r- cedes the verb ; as " /Jere am 1 ;" " 'J'hen went
.Murik ca.; " 1 '1111&saith the kw v."
Non . 1 . There shonld be no nominative case in a
~emei.ct w1tho.it. a verb expressed or implied, except it
1s -<driresoed 111 th e second person, connected with a
parti cq:ile- 1ll'l•:pendeJ1t, or following a neuter verb. In
ttie iollow •11g >~ ntcnee the nominative /.e has no verb
e · prtssed or unclcrstood to an~wer to it; "He that will
le."'.·~· .l~t ~.'m learn.'' lt shouhl be, " Let him learn that

•/'e

WJu :.1

•

~ll fl .

~.· .J'«l. :J .. An adjecti,•e, 1yithout a noun expressed, hav-

m5

udin1te an1de btfore 1t, 1s used as a notm and is
.i 1 lhe th,rd p<:.rsu u plural : as " The sincere a11e
alway5 t-St(Ot:!llt:d /' "Providence reward. tile go~d."
.IH:

g e li cJ"all j

RULE 2 .

SYNTAX.

Examples ef False Syntax.*
Thee must be more attentive to thy studies .
Him who is careless and inattentive, will
not improve.
Th ey know how to write 'as well as him ;
but he is a better grammarian than them.
Them that oppress the poor to increase
their ·riches, shall come to want.
Her that is virtuous, deserves esteem.
Whomsoever is con-tented enjoys happiness.
Who made the noise? Me .
Him that thinks twice before he speaks once,
will speak twice the better for it.
.
He admonished all whom he thought had
been disorderly, to be inore watchful in future.
RULE 2.

A verb must agree with its subject or 'norftinati ve in number and person; as "He improves;" '' th e bit·ds sing."
·
A phrase or sentence is sometimes the subject of a verb, and is always in the third person singular : as "That it is. our dut~ to promote harmony among mankind, adnuts of no
dis1mte."

* :For the form
ilix.

of corr·ecting false syntax, soe Ap.p tn·

G

ENGLISH GRAMMA.ll.

TIULE

3.

SYNTAX.

•.

75

NoTE 1. Everv ve1·b, exce pt it is in th e infinitive mood,
~hou l d have a suuj .· ct or 11 omini<tive expressed or und,·r~tood. The fo l1 01ving se ntence is therefore inaccurate:
•H e: \\':ls a nrnn \\·hom I h11{h ly e steemed, and was gene1·:1ily he love•l by those who kn ew him.' It should be,
• and who wns generally be li>ved .'
N oTP. 2. When a neut er verb is placed between two
nrnins .of cLffcrc:nt numbers, it should agr e e with t.hat"
w hich :~ mor,· n!iturally the subject of it: as ' 'The wage1
ef sin is tleu.lh .'
Altho~1gh the verb generally a-gTecs with the preceding
110 m11rnt1ve, yet when the non1111 atin: following it is ex·
pressi ve of som P pr101·ity ot' existt' nce . or a.nte ce· lent in
idea to :hat which p1·,·cedes the verb, it is more prupe1:ly
th t· subject oLt, anrl the st> nt e nc<" might r ead ily be tr:rns•
p osed. Thus in the fol lowing e xamp le ; 'The cans ~ of
hi s failure was th e h en\')' losses he haJ sustained : ' it is
e,·iclc 11 t that the losses were prior to the cause in irlea, and
th ert:fore should be the subj ect of the verb; thus, 'The
cau se of his failure were th e heavy losses,' &c. Or, 'TJ1e
Leavy losses he had sustained were the cause of his
fa ilure.'

Not one of tlr'c m whom thou sees clothed in
purpl (', art· ltappy.
N11thirlg hu t va in arHl foolish pu1·s uits <lclig!1t ·su mc pt· rso ns.
.
The 11111111.H' r 111' stars that a1·e, at any one
tim1·~ , v isih le to tlte naked eye, do nut much
exc1~ cd a tli11nsanil.
4 va1·iety of pl eas in g ouj ccts c harm the eye.
To li v1~ sn~ t t'l' ly, .ri1;htcuusly, and pioui:;ly,
are l'C'<(llir,ed or ail tn 1.: n.
Tht' f;i){owi ng ti·ratisC', togC't lt er with those
which accompany it, we r e wl'itten many yea1·s
ago, for· iny own sa1isfac1 ion .
T11 do .11 uto all men as we woultl that th ey
in s imilal' ci1·ctn11stancrs sho uld do unto · us,
const itu te the great pl'irwipl e of vir~uc.

False Syntax.

' Vhen a verb lia s two or· mor n i'l11lijects connectC'd uy 'th e canjunction and, it mu st a~1·ce
wirli th em in 1!1t·. plural u111nll e r; as "Peace
and plenty au grea t. !Jlessings.'' ·

The g il'ls was he re _rcstt'J·<lay.
'l'ho u sho uld li e 111 01·e dilige nt in attending
to thy stu<fo:·s.
G;1 ·at pain s has hrrn takrn to littl e purp<tSC,
Fr,·quent commission of sin hard e11 111 e 11 in
it.
'l'hr r·c is many occasions i11 Iii'<', in which
s ilo ·nce and simplicity are marks of tt·ue wisdom. ·
I-IP clan~ not act co nll'a ry to hi s instru ctions.
Wltat a\•ails n1c ht·st Sl'lltiments if people
<lo not Jim s uitably to them? ·

R uLt:: 3.

The r eason of this rul e is evident, it b eing only a pa1··
ticular modification of the last ; for wh ere two. or more
nom inat'1 ve s are conn ected by thi: conjunction and, they
a1·c equi,·al ent tu th e plur:il number, und.require t h e verb
to a!F"C with them. It 1• the same thing- whether. the
subj e cts art' of the sing11lar or plura.l nuruber, 1.1rov1cled
th ~ y are connected by · the conJu11ct101~ awl.
Som~ ~ u­
tho,·s have thoug-ht, that wlit>re the 11ommat , ve~ nre of tne
singll l. r numbc· r, a1u l convey ne:trly the sam e idea, or axe
sca1·cely distinguishablf' in s:cnsc:, :i ncl e ve n som e tm1eY

when they are very Jifferent, it is allowable lo put the

i (j

J;~<;LISII

GRAMMAR.

verb in the si;1g ulor numb er ; as "Tranquillity and paaee
rh1•elis there ; " "Harmony and love i.• preferable to disco.rel :incl hatred." Ilut it is e ,·ident.ly contrary to the first
prin ciples of grammar to consider two di sti nct ideas as
one, howcyer nice may be their shades of differenc e, and
if there is no di fference, one of th em must be sup erfl~ous
and 011g;ht to be rejected. llut in cases wh ere the sub:
jccts co nvey d ifferent irleas, and th e verb is intended to
li e appl1ccl to :my one of th e m, or to each of th em separately, th ey should be conn ected by th e conjunction or,
and come under Jtule ,Ith. Thus in the following sentence, th~ copnlatil'e _conjunction and should Il e .changed
to th e 11's.1unct:vc con.1unction or· ; "Sand, :ind s:ilt, and a
mass of iron , is easier to be:ir than a man witliout understanding-."

1

I·

t

No·J E L '\Yh c n the nominatives are of differeni p ersons,
the verb _must agree with th e second person in preference
to tl1e third, an<l with th e first in p reference to eith er : as
" Thou and she laugh too much." In this example the
, -erh laugh agrees \\'ith its Bominati,·e 'thou in th e second
p erson, ancl with its two nominatives thou and •he in the
plural number.
No T E 2. " ' hen the aclj ective each or e-oery, relates · to
t 11·0 or more nou ns of th e si ngular number, th e verb must
agree with each of th em in th e si ngular numb er, though
connected Ly the conjunction and; as "Every leaf, and
ei-ery twig, teems with Jjfc."

False Syntax .
Soh1·iet.y and humil: tv kad s to honour.
Patic11c.c and d iligc~ce o\·e1·comes difficulti es.
B um ili ty antl k1wwl cdgc, wit h poo1· apparel,
exce ls pi·id c ancl ignorance un der costly atti re.
' Viscl om, vii·t uc, and happiness~ <lwell s with
tl1c lrnmhle an d pnrc in !i ('.art.

RULE ,j_,,

.

77'

SYN TAX.
~

The planetary system, uoun<lless spa ce, and
th e imm ense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonisl·11n ent.
What sig nifi es th e counsel and car e of precept01·s, when yo uth think th ey have no need '1t,·
of assi stan ce ?
Time anrl title waits for no man.
Th e inqui sitiyc arid c u1·ious is' generally
talk at ive.
.
'
To uc of a lJUrc and liumul e mind, to exercise h1•ncvolence towards oth~1·s, and to cultivate pi ety towa l'<l s Gr;d, is the s ure means of
becoming peacl'ful and happy.
, Humiiity ant! lo ve, wbt cver obscur·iti es
may in voh·e t• c li~· i ous teucts,, const itutes th~
essenre of tru e 1-e ligiun .
And so was also James crn tl John, the so ns
'of Zcu edec.
Much dor s ltuman prid e and self-compla·
ceu cy l'('fjUli'C CO !TCCtinn.
neLE 4 .
'Yhrn two or rno1·e suuj ect.s of the singular
numu cr are conriectcd l.iy the conjunction or or
nor, tl w veru mu s t ag1·ee with each of tlwm in
the sing11l i11' 1111mu c1·; as "James or J ohn intends to p;o wit h us. "

As each of the nominatives refe rs to the same verb,
without a ny d ependence on the oth ers, it is ev ide~ 1t that
the vc1·b must at;Te e with each of t hem in the smgul:i.r
l'\u mb er.
If the aclj e11:live no, each or every ,_ precedes several no ·
minatiws, the cfl~ct is the same ai 1f they were conn~_c t·
C\

'_ENCLISR GUAMlU.R,

.'

crl by the l:onjunction or or nor, and the verb must ag1:ee
with each of them in the singular numb er: as "No prop e nsity, 110 desire, no faculty of the soul, 1uas givea in
v.ain."

' .

Non:. '\' h en !nbjects of the singular numb er and of
cliffcn:nt persons, are conn ected by the conj unction or or
1101·, tli e verb mu st agree in person with that to which it
is nParest ; as "Thou or I am in fault."
In th e anangcment of a sentence , care shoulcl be taken
t o pl:L•,c t hat nominative next to the ,·el'l.1, which occasio ns less harshness in the pronunciation. Thus, "Thou
oi· 1 :tm to blame," is preferable to "I or thou art to
hb1ne .''
The same verb is to be understood as applied to all the
nr;minat;vcs !11 their respective persons; and p erhaps it
won ld oftf'n be better to repeat the verb, especially when
til ci'c arc but two 11ominatives: thus, instead' of saying "I
or t i1ou ar t to blame," it would h e b etter to say, "Either
J am to blam e, or thou m·t;'' or, "Either thou art to
hbme, or l am.~ '

False Syntax.
~eithe r lie 1101· hi s son were to be found.
l1;1:m·a1~cc or neg!i;;ence l1avc caused this
mistake .

·'i

I

l

. W ealth, or Yil'tu c, nr any valuable acquisitw n, are not atta inable by idle wishes.
.
T!:1n·c arc many faul ts iu spelling, which
11 cith c1· analogy no1· pronunciation justify.
A!tart r eply, a pro1ie11 ec,s to r e lu1kc, or a
(:a pt.ious dispositio n, at'e e;1pablc of embittering
domestic life.
.on th ~~;e c:.iuses dcpen<l all the happiness or
misery tt!c:t <'XislB among; men.
'Vl1cn sickness, infirmity, or calamity affect
nq_, rh e sinecrity of frien!bliip is pro\•ed.
--~· ......

---

.

U~LJ:: '' '

Si' KT.AX.

Man's happin ess or misery are, in a great
measure, put into his own hands.
Whatever he und ertakes, either his pri<le or
his folly <lisgust us.
Have thy b1·other or. sister been consulte'd
on the occasion?
RULE 5.
\Vh en subjects of different numbers are connected uy the conjunction oia.or nor, the verb
must a"rcf•. with the plural, which should be
placed ~1 e xt to it; as "f:Je or they were o.fl'e11ded by it."
The si ngular n~mim~tive .or nomi~1atives severally refer
to the same verb implied, m the singular numb er : and
therefore in parsing, the verb must be nnderstoocl as applied to each.
NOTE. '.Yhen the nominatives are placed between the
ouxiliary and the · p rincipal verb, as in interrogative sentences, · the plural nominative should be placed next to
the auxiliary ; as " Are they or I expected there /"

False Syntax.
Neitl1c1· they nor he was p1·esent.
Either the boys or thou wast in fault.
Neither riche s nor 11ovcrty was injurious to
him.
He could not tell wheth er two persons,
one had assisted him in the transaction:
The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of
riches, has choked the s eeds ol' virtue in many
a promising mind.
They 01· he have much cause to be displeased
with the. trnatment received.

or

SYNT.\l.X.

The p eopl e rejoices in that which should

so

EYGJ,JSll GR ,U1'JA.ll,

RULg

6.

Som(' parts of the ship and cargo were recon~ rl'd, but neith e1· the sailors nor the captain
was savnl.
\Vilc tht' I' one }lP.l'Son or more was concerned
in tl11~ b 11si rws», docs 1111t yet a ppt>.ar.
E1t.llf'r til l~ driver, tlie htn·scs, or the carriage
was out of ordc1·.
RULi.; 6 ..

' Vl1cn th e S'.1hjec:t is a noun of rnultitnde
wli ie h ennv c ~· s unity of id e a, tile vrdi should
aµ; l'et: with it in til e Hinµ;ular numh e r; as "The
m•'-l't.111µ; was b1·.!',t' ;" but if th e noun convevs
plu1·ali ty of idt·a, th e verb must be in tl1c
pl nl'al 111.11n lw r; as •·the committee were divided i11 fH'nti 111e11t."
I n most cases wh en a noun of mnlt itnde is used as the
snhj ect of a v~rb , we dGtermi ne whe th e r it conveys unity
m p lmal 1ty ol id e:t by constdc nn 0o- the natu re of the verb
i: s~ l f. _l f th ~ ,·c rb is su{:h :i' to re prese nt t h e whol e rn11nb er of tn <h·idu«is included by the 11oun, as acti ng in con·
c e rt, or ex>0tJ 11g as on e ??dy in th e same state , w t! say the
n oun conv eys unity of idea. But when the ve t·b indicatc:s "diversi ty of se ntiment :.u nongst those ind ividuals,
or an.~ cl1ffcrc 11ce 111 th e11· actions nr states of be ing, the
noun is ~ aal to co ll vey phmdity of idea . Co nseq L1en tly a
noun of rn uh1tud e, wh :ch 111 one cn.se would require a
vc1:b t o be "'. the singulu.7' numb er, may in another rer1111 re a verb 111 the p lural numb er ; as "The commit tee
ocrn/1i es th e room." The committe e w ere of different
scnt!n1en ts _,,

False Syntax.
'l'_h e chur·c:h liavc no power to inflict corporal

pu llisl 1111r11ts.

cause s111Tow.
The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought
to be, the obj ect or the shephc1·d's care.
In the days of youth, the 1uultitude eagerly
pursues plcasul'C.
'fl1r coul't ha ve just ende1l, after having sat
through tl1r. tt·ial of a \'el'y Jiing cause.
Th e fami ly was all wdl when we left home

yesterday.
No soci ety are chargeable with the disapprov ed cnmluct of particulac· memhers.
. i'he committee was divided in sentiment,
and they have referred the business to the general mccti ng.
Why do this generation look for g1·cater
evidence, when so much is ah·eady given.
The council was not unanimous, and they
separated without coming to any conclusion.
Never were any other· people so much infatuat ed as the Je\\ ish nation.
1

Rur,~

7.

A pl'onoun must ag1·ee with its antecedent,
th e noun which it represents, in number,
gend er, a1Hl person ; as " This is the friend
whom I love ; he is a worthy man.''
01·

A pronoun is sometimes used as the r epresentative of a
phr:i.se or sentence, and, in such cases,. it is always put in
the third person singular, neuter g e nd er.
Anim:tls of ev ery species have their distinctions of sex;
and if
attE'nd strictly to the rule g-iven abO\•e , ev ery

'n."

SYNTAX,

ENGLISH GRA.MMAR.

..

•'.

pronoun which rPfers to them must be either in the mas.
c ul ine or fc;n ;n .ne g·(~ 1Hl e 1·; bu t th e co tT e ct usage of the
b .11 gu :ig-c is ;:5 uch , t h ~tt w h e- n a pronoun refe rs to t he na. me
of an an!mal , the sex of ·w hic h is n"t speci tiecl, it is gene·
r:dl v fHtt in the ne uter g e nde r ; as in th e following examp les : " !l e fil ed at th e de•. I' ancl w 0Hn<lerli1 ;" "The child
has lost both its p:trents ;" "Ti1e lam b hat! stray e t! from
t he Ho(:.k, anfl at last it pe r ished for want of sust e nance."
lt 1 s~ h rn vever, n f' Cl~ ~ s 1.t1·y to obse rve , that wh e n a pronoun
r c f'~ rs lo th l~ gt· 1H·1·:d t e rm, ju: 1·so11,, lio n, lw r·se , dog, rw,g k,
3 1H l some o t h e r~, it ;s a lw:, ys use d in the masculine g·e nder.
No ;·r. 1. Ti [(' re lative pro noun wlio should only be ap·
pli etl to p t·rso11s 0 1· in t dli g·ent bcir.g-s: an cl whic/i to little
c h il dre n, a n: ma ls, 0 1· i1:an imat e th111gs. ~{'h a t may be ·ilppl '<·<l e 'th<.· r to persons o•: th ings; lrnt after an adjective
of th e sttper ia:: v6.. cles-ree.' th e a<l,i ective sa!11e, or wly:n
p en<ll1s n, a k e !Jut pan of th c- an teced ent, it should be
u sed in p r-.:fe 1e nce tn wlw or w!ti c/i. :1. bo in interrogative
5e (J k nce s, th at slw uitl gc ner<tlly b~ prc forred.
N :rn: :2. \Vben t lH- use of " JH'nno<tll would occasion
any a r11 b1gulty rn t l1e Sl~ llte_ n ce , th e noun slH) ~1ld be re-

p e"tc d . "We see th e be<llttiful variety of colour in the
rain-bo \V, and are !eel to c:i nsid er the cause of i t ." Here
th e St' 11te ncco is lef t arnb i6·uous by tl1e use of the pronoun
it. It is .,nc er lai:i wl1ether th e v al'iety , the colour, or tl!e
rai ,,-bow itse lt is th e o l,j ec t of considerati on-the noun
V<l>"iety slim:ld havC' bee n r e pe ate d; thus, "and are led t<l
consi der th e c:iuse of that v.u·i ety."
N OT>. 3 . Wlk n a relat ive pronoun is used in the same
sen tenc e with two <)!'more 110111,s, a nd refers only to one
of th e m, tu i!l'ev ent amb iguity, it should be placed as near
t o tha t \•: hich it is intended to represent, as th e co nstruction oft lt e se nte nce' will admit. The following sentences
arc the refor e inaccurate : "There are many p c:o ple in
Ch ino, wnose support is derived alm0st e ntirely from
r ice ." "He is li ke a beast of prey, who is voicl of comp ,_,.,i o.:." <'hey sh ould be, "In th e e mpire of C hina th e ro
a re d) ,<.CV peop le wlJiJse support," &c. ancl "He who i~
vo. J of corn pass;on, is like a b east of prey."

83

4.:

NoTE
When a relative pronoun i~ preceded . by two
antecedtnts of differ<' nt persons, connected by a n e uter
verb, the i-elative and verb may g·enerally agree in person with eith er; but when on" of them has been preferred,
that ag1·ee me nt should be preserved th!'Oughout the sentence. The latt er :rnt ec edent is g e nerally pr('ferred ; but
when a p e rsonal pronoun, referriug t.o either of the a ntecedents is use r! in th e latter part of the se nte nce, the relative ancl ve rb must sgre e with that to which this personal
pronoun refer s.

I

/i

NOTE 5 . Th e pronoun what should not, in any case, be
U5cd instead of th e conjunction that.
. No·n 6. Persoml prnnouns, being used immediately to
supply th e place of nou:1s, sl10ulcl not be e:;:prpssed in the
s:une simple se ntc- nce with the nouns which they repre5ent. Th e follo wing se nte nces arc therefo1·e c1T<meous.
"The king he is just; " "Disappointment and af!lictions,
howe ver d isagreeable, they often improve us;" "Jame»
his book."
'

False Syntax.
I do not think any pr rsun should be rensured fo1· Lein.!!; can·ful ,,f their t'Pput.ation.
l\t- heu:a took g·1W11Jly raiment, whirh \vas
with li<w in th (• hou'iP, and put th em on JacDh.
Each of thc111 in ttn·ir ltll' H r•~ ceive the benefits to which tlwv a1·e e111itled.
·
NeitliP1·of 1he~1· men s• ·!" ms to have any idea.
that their opinions arr ill-f,1unded.
i:<:v<>ry prrson, whatever be J hcir station,
should attend to the duties of til\ )•ality and reli,gion.
~Ld each of us cheerfully bear our part in
the grneral burden.
If an auimal should be taken out of its in-

ENGLISH

GlU~DU.l~.

RULES.

stinct, we should find him wholly de!wived of
understanding.
An orator's tongue should be agreeable to
the ears of their auditors.

UULE

9.

SYNTAX.

~

8JI.

and grandeur: and it will render its possessor
more honourable.
·
·
lluLE 8.
. A void haughtiness of behaviour and affectaWhen a pronoun refers to two or more antion of manners, for it will assuredly . bring
teccdents connected by th e conjunction and, if . thee to disgrace.
,
. ·
should ag1·oe with them in th e plural number;
· Observe thy father's commandment, and the
as "John and James are esteemed for their
law of thy mother; bind it continually upon
virtu e."
thy heart.
Non 1. Wh en a pronoun refers to two or more ante·
Pride .and va!1ity will ever render its posses".edents of different persons connected by the conjunc·
SOI' despicable In the eyes of the wise.
tion and, it should agree in p erson with the second i.t1
- Coffee and sugar are imported from the
preference to th e third, and with t he first in preference
West Indies, and great quantities of it are
to either; as "Thou and he should govern yow· puused every year.
.
·
sions." Here the pronoun yom· agrees with its antece·
RULE 9.
dent pronoun thou, in the second p erson, and with its two'
antecedents thou and lie in the plural number.
\Vhen a pronoun has two or more antece.::
NoTE 2. When a noun is used to represent two or more
· den.ts of .the singular number, connected by the
J>receding nouns or pronouns connected by the conjunct
tion and, it must agree with them in t he plural number;
con.iunc 1011 or ur nor, it must agree with each
ru; "Joseph and Thomas are brotlie1·s.''
of them in the singular number· as "Jam es
Non 3 . When se veral anteced ent nouns connected by ·
or his brother intends to favou; us with !tis
the conjunction and, ars preceded by the adjective each
company,"
or every, the noun or pronoun refoni ng to them, must
False Syntax.
agre e with eac.h of them in th e si ngular number; as
"Every member of the body, every bone, every joint, and
Either knowledge or vi1·tuc is preferable t<>
every muscle has a p eculiar office assigned it. "
' riches ; strive th erefore early in youth to at1

- ~ . False Syntax .

His politen ess and good disposition were, on
failure of its effect, cnti1·ely changed.
Religion and knowledge exceed wealth

tain them.

D t>s pis~ !1° infirmity of mind or body, nor
any eomhtwn of life; for they may be thy
own lot.
Either work or play is preferable ·to idleness, . because they furnish us with healthful
exercise.
H

-~ -=-

-·

RULE 11.

ENGLl!!H GRA.'1'.MAR.

RULE {9,

A man may sf'.e a metaphor or an allrgory
in a pidure as wt'll as 1·ead them in a I.wok.
A or an is called the inrldinifr article, because they 1·date to one or a ki11d, but nut t()
Olll' in pal'tic11la1·.
\Ve are not sui·h machines as a clock or
a ward1, which will muvc only as they are
moved.
RULE 10.

'Vhrn a pronoun r<·l'us to a noun of multitude whid1 eo11ve,\s unity •if idea, it must be in _
tlw sin~ular numbn ; but if th e noun cnnveys
pltu·alitJ of idea, the 1wonoun must be in the
plural numher; as •.• The. nwrting was large,
anti it hf'ltl tlHee hours:" "The council were
di\•ided in their sPntiments."

False Synt£Lx.
'Vhcn the nation com plains, the rulrrs should
lisfrn to thrir voice ,
The crowd was so great that we had much
diflieulty to pass through tlwm.
In the !lap; of youth, the multitude t>agerly
purs11e pleasure as its chief good.
The cumwiltee wPre dividl'd in sentiment,
a11d it has referred the business to thr gl'ne.ral
rnel'ting.
The company was very small at first, but
they inc1·raseil daily.
Why do the p•»ople rejoice in that whick
should give it sorrow ?

SYN'l'AX,

87

The school was adjourned; and they have
not llcen collecled since.
RULE 11,

Articles antl adjectives relate to nouns expre.ssed or nnderstood; and the adjc~ ctives this,
that, one, two. must agree in numoer with the
uouns to wil1eh I hey r·elat1"; as•' A wise man;"
" Thi.s liouk, those liool\ s~ "
·
·
An adjective is usually placed before the noun ta
which it relat~s; as " .\ /Jious man ;" " How amiable a
woman." But in the following ciJ·cumstances t\1" adjective is properly placed after the noun to which it relates;
as,
1. When something depends on the adjective, or when
it brives " better sound, especially in poetry; as " A
man generous t9 his enemies ;" " Fruit pleasant to the
eye ;" " The tree wa;; three feet thick;'' "The genuine
cause of every deed divine."
'.J. When the adjective is emphatical; as "Alexander the
g,.eat ;" "Geotg<' the third;" "Wisdom unsea1"chab[e,'°
3. When several adj<:cti\"es bdong t'o the s:•me noun .; a11
"A wo1nan di~wreet, nwrleat, aensible, and virtuous ."
4. Wh en th e adjective is pr~ceded by an adverb ; as ",\
hoy diligently iud11st"i•lt8u .
·
5. When the verb be in any o( its variations comes between the noun and the adjective, the adjective may
frequently either precede or follow it , as "The man is
happy;" or "HafJp.11 is the man who chouses wisdom.~'
" The

sc~ne

was delizhttul."

6. When the acljective exµresses some circumstance of
a noun that is the object of a transitive verb ·; a!t
"Learning should make its possessor 111ore virtuoU11
and uuf11/."
The ar,icle commonly precedes the adjecfrre and noun;
as "A learned rnan :" l.iut after the words C1ll, mC1ny, s•,

:EN GJ,ISH

GIU:ll~AU.

as, !ww, too, _an~ p erhaps some others, it is placed be·
tween the adjective and noun; as "l'ull many a gem of
purest ray serene." In th is example "many a gem,"
:efcrs to many gems separately, and not collectively." "He
is ~oo careless an ~uthor ;". " How great a pity."
fhe article the 1s sometimes usecl before adverbs of the
comparative or superlative degree, in or<ler to mark the
degree more strongly, or to define it more precisely: as
" The more I learn, the better I like it!"
Note I. The article a should be used b efore words be·
ginning with a consonant, or u "uuncling like yu, and an
befo~·e :i vowel, or h not sounded ; as Jl man, an orange ; .
a unicorn, a n hour.
_.N'ote 2. W~en a si ngle thing of a kind is to be determrn~d, the article a or an should be used ; but when a
particular person or thing is referred to, the article the
should be used; as "A happy man." "The farmer's
boy."
.
. Note 3: A noun used in a general se nse, or in its widest
s1gndlcat10n, should nut be preceded by an article : as
" Man is mortal." "Patience is a virtue."
. Note 4. When the number or quantity of any thino- is
rntended to be expressed in a positive manner, the article
~ or an shnuld be used ; but when a negative meaning is
mtcnded, th e article should be omitted: Thus, if I say,
". She spok.e with a little res"rvc," my meaning is positn·c ;. but 11 l say, "She spoke with little reserve," my
mcan111g 1s negative. " Fe w were pleased," and ".11 few
were pleased," convey very different ideas.
.Note 5. The noun mean signiH es a mediocrity or middle
stale, :md should not be used to express a cauu, or the
i·easoll or i11strnmeut of an action ; this should be expressed by the noun means, wh ich, with some oth er noun.; of
a ~imilar construction, does not change its termination
on account of n_umb er, and the acljectives this, that, &c.
~!wul<l :ig-ree with 1t accordingly as it refers to what is
~mgular or plural: as "lly meim• of ad,;e1·sity, we are
1mpr?ved :" "James was ind11st1·io11s, and by this m'erni~
acqu1recl \l"ealth ."

SYNTAX•

89 ·

)l/'ate 6; The pronoun them should not be used as an
adjective to any n~un : as " Give me tlioae books;" not
" tlien. books.,,
In some cases it is difficult to determine, whether the
pronominal adjective these or those, or the pro11oun they
~r them is preferable ; as " Those that sow in. tears shall
reap in joy, or th.:y that sow," &c. "14Je do not wish to
be acquainted with them who are given to detraction: or,
with those who are given to cletractioQ,. · ln such sen·
tences, the easy flow and perspicuity of the language
should be chiefly regarded .
·
.Note 7. When the adjective thia or th<:se, is con·
tr:isted with that or those; this or theae should refer to
the latter, that or those to the former word, clause, or
·· sentence ; as "The path of ,virtue, and the road of vice,
:ire open before you : that leads to happiness ; this, to
misery."
·
Note 8. Adjectives which· convey a comparative or
sup erlative signification, and such as do not admit of in·
crease or d iminution, should not be compared, nor any
double comparisons admitted ; as "Virtue should be our
chi ef desire;" not chiefestl
Note 9. A singular noun should not be m;ed with a·
plural adjective, except in some technical phrase where
the nnun coveys the idea of plurality ; as "Twenty sail
of ,·essels ;" " Ten head of cattle ."
Note 10. When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, or other words, which wiodify its meaning, that
which more nearly relates to it should be placed next to
it ; as '' A rich old man;" not " An old rich man." '
We sometimes meet with an a~jective applied to the
wrong nou~ ; as in the phrases, "A new pair of shoes ;"
"a guocl piece of land;" "the two next classes." The
shoes are new, not the pair .... the land is good and not the
piece.. . .It should be, "a pair of new shoes·" "a piece fJf
.£Oood land;" "tht! ne:xt two classes.''
'
·

'

112

~)0

:ENGLISH GUHL\IAI{,

llULI:: :I.!!,

False Syntax .
1 ha vc not ~ccn my p;u·cnts; tlris six montl;s;
Please to g1 vc me that scissot·s.
'
Those so1·t of fa vou1·s did real injury un<let:
the appea1·a11~e of kindn ess.
We do not approve of thes e kind of pracotices ·
a.s they do n1't comport with a guarded educa~
t1011.

In ste ad_ of impro\·ing you1·sclvcs, you have
bee n playrng this two hour·s.
. Thos e kind of' intlulgenc es softens ancl in~
Jm·es the mi11tl.
RULE

12.

"\Vhen two nouns, 01· a 1wonot111 and noun ·
nre_use d together, implying prnpcrty or pos~
scs310n~ the latter goven1s th e former in the
J>ossess1 vc cas e ; as " Sarah 's l.Jook ·" ,, Oii
eagl es' wings ."
'
The. posse,s,sivc ~ase is frequently omittccl through an
el11ps1s; as
;\'1y lather and mother;" that is "my fa th
an c~ my mother." The goveming- nou n is J{kewise oft:r~
om1tt'."d: as "This book is mine.';" that is, my book.
Non ! · ' Vhen several nouns m1mediately follow one
another m the possessive case, the apostrophe and s
should be annexed on ly to the last, and understood to ti1
rest; as "My father, mother and uncle's advice." B ~
when some word or words intcr>'e ne, the possessive si un
should be a~nexed to each; as "they had tbe physician9s,
the surg~on ~· and th e apoth ecary's nssistunce."
NoTi: - · Little explanatory sentences should not come
!>etween the p ~ssess1ve case and the noun which governs
1t. Th e following sentence is improperly constructed .
"She was rnnch pleased with the countryman's, as sh<;

SYN 'l'A.X.
t~lled

91

him, ohlig·ing disposition." ,It should be, "with
oblig ing di~position of the countryman, .~s she called
!nm."
·
No-r~ 3. A phrase consistin'g of several \vords, is sometimes used "s a proper name, or to ex press an office, and
when goverm:d in the possessive case by a following noun
expressed or understood, the po sses~ive sign should be
annexed to the last word ·only, although it may othenvise
be in the ebjective case; as " The B ishop ~f London's
book. '
" The captain of the guar<l"s house;''
Non: 4. A clause or part of a sentence, beginning with
a present or active particiiple and usr.d as one name, or
to express one id ea or circumstance, govern s th e noun
or pronoun preceding it in the possessh·e case ; as "Much
depends on this rul e's being observed." " Advantages may
arise from the pu.pil's composing f1'equ e11tly."
No'.l'>: 5. 'W hen the possessiv e cnse has an unpleasant
or awkward sound, it should be ch anged to the objective
case, nnd governed by th e preposition qf : as "It was
signed on the Committee's behalf"-should be "on b ehalf '
of the Commi ttee ;" "His house's situation," "The situation of his house ." 1
·
.
Non: 6. When the additional s of the possessive case
occasions too much of a hissing sound or difficulty of pronunc;ation with the following word, it niay be omitted,
ana the apostrophe only retained ; as "For rig hteousness' sake ;" "For conscience' sake."
.
NoTE 7. When the preposition of precedes several
nouns or pronouns successively, occasioning a harshness
in th e pro nunciation, one or more of th em sho uld be
changed to the possessive case ; as "The severity of the
distress of the son of the kin g, affected the p eople,"
should be "of th e king's son."
.
No1·E 8. To distinguish the sense and express the idea
of property, the possessive case is sometimes used after
the preposition of when the governing noun is und11rstood and not expressed, and a plurality of the same
kind supposed to belong to the p ossessor ; ·as "a book of
my broth er's;" that is, "One of my brother's books.'' But
tl~ e

ENGLISH GRAMMAU.
' l!I

I

RULR

i8.

when this plurality is not implie1l or clearly understood,
the possessi1•e case should not be used ; as "A protile Iii'
his friend," uot of "his friend's."
.

False Syntax.
Thy ancestors virtue is not thine.
A wise mans anger is of short continuanre.
Thv fathers offl'nce will not condemn thee.
"'i~doms JH:ecepts al'e the good boys gl'Catest
delight.
.l:fast thou read Cowprrs Poems.
The gir·I:> hooks we1·e kept in I.letter order
than the boys.
RULE i3.

'Vlien a noun or personal pronoun is used
to explain a preced i11g noun, it is in apposi
tion with it, aud m11st bt· in the same case; as
" Paul the apostle;" "Jam es, he who was

l1e1·1'," &c.

Dy apposition is understood, something added by way
of illustration, or in order more fully to define and ex·
plain the meaning or sense of' the subject.
Non; 1. \\' hen words of the possessive case that r.re

in appo1;ition, follow one another in quick succession, the
possessi ve sign should be annexed to the last only, and
understood to the rest; as " :For David, my serv:rnt's
sake." But when th e i;overning noun is not expressed,
or the sentenc e ext.entle<l, th e possessive sig·n should be
annexed to the first only; as "I left the parcel at Smith's;
tjle bookie lier amt &tationcr."

RULE 1'i•.

SYN 'I'AX.

93

False Syntax. ,
I gave my book to James my cousin, he who
was here yesterday.
·
'I'liis ho1·sc belongs to Samuel, the carpe11te1·, he who liuilt the house'.
.
· Augustus, the Roma~1 emperor, . 111rn. who
succeeded Julius Cesal', IS va1·10usly described.
These books a!'e my fri end's, him who kce11s
the lihra1·y.
The estat e was left to Simon and John,

the two eldest sons, tltey that had been to
Eui·opt·.
.
..
.
Art thou acquainted with Clarissa, the m1llin er, she whom we met in our walk this
morning?
RULE H ..

'Vhen a noun fil' pl'Quoun is ad.dressed i_n .
the second person, or connected with a p~rh·
ciple as its subject, it must be in the nominative case.

l

False Syntax.
Hirn having rnded his discourse, the assembly <!isprrsrti.
.
Them heing willing to improve, the study
was J'P111lr.red ag1·rrable.
.
H e1· bei:ig absent, the !J11s111css was attended
to by othc1·s.
Th ey all had liberty to go, us o:ily excepted.

1

ENGLISH GRA!l'.C!\L\.R,

RULE

15;

'I'lic sun's haviug t·isen, it liecame very
wa1·m.
They wr.rr. all more or lrss censurable, her
011ly l'Xerpted, who was \' ery ci1·c111nspect in
ht·1· coucluct.
Th el' haying liern unwatcliful, the work is
rendt1·c<l mOl'e difficult.
RULE 1.7,

A vel'l> of thr impcrfrct tense must not be
cotrnPc.:led with an auxiliary; and thr 1wrfoct
01 · passi vti partici plP 111 ust not lie used ins lead
of' tlw irnpcrtec1 tense.
'Vh e n several nrbs folio\\' one another, having the
iam e nominativ .. , th e auxiliary is fr equently omitted after
the fi rst t hrough an c>llipsi•, and unde rstood to the rest:
a s "H e has ;;o ne ;i.nd left me ;" that is, "He ha s g one,
and has le ft me " Somt ti mes t h.- au xi liary is used alone,
and the pl'inc! pal verb om itt..d throug h an t:llipsis; lli
"\iVe s11CCt"" ".'d e d, b u t th ey di d n <.,t; ' t '1at is, "did 1wt succce•I." " T hey m11st and sha ll be r e w!irded ;" tbat ill,
"Thry mu ~t /Je i ·t•w m·Jetl~ and, " &c.
NoT1.. Th " rnean; ng ofa passiv e or neuter verb, should
n ot U•: e xp1"essc<l by a11 act ive \'<·rb, nor that of an active
V~ l'b , by a ne11ter or passiv<' fol'm
T he fn ll,, w:ng· <' xamples ar e improp er in this respect ;
"Il e laid by the fir e all 11 ig·ht. " Laid is an active verb,
used lo cx p1·v"s a cond ition of be ing; it should be , fay.
" V·. l1 at. rt:g·:tl ves tme nts ca n wirh them compare;" u be
~ om/Ja rt>tl." ' ' He wa.s en ter ed into th e co nnexion," " hatl
"" tere<i." "The house is to build," " to be built."

.False Syntax .
H sonw !'\·cnts had n•>t frll out vrry 1111ex:·11ccledly, ! should have ueen pr·escnt.

RULE

16.

SYNTAX.

!)5

He soon begun to be weary of h~ving nothing

to do.
I was in London a year, and seen the king
last sum1rwr.
He w1·ites as the best authors would have
wrotl' on the i;ame subject.
. ·
He would have went with us if we had asked
him.
They have chose the part of honour and
virtue.
The house was shook by the violence of the
stonn.
He had wrote and read \jlllCh on'the subject.
I seen my old frit>nd last wt-ek.
'l'hey who ha\'e bore a part in the lahour,
shall share the reward.
By too ea~ c r a pursuit, he run a great risk
of b•·ing disappoinfed.
Wlwn thP l'lllrs havr been wantonly broke,
thPre can bl' no pica for favour.
He would not havP WPnt , if he h'ad known it.
You who ha VP fot'sovk your friends, are entitled to no confidence.
RULE

16.

A transitive vrrli, or its active, or com.
pound iwrf'ect pa1·ticiple, governs the notm or
pronoun which is its object, in the objertive
case: as " I praise him." " On seeing them.,
we r ejoiced."

RULE

i7,

and Jofm were j1resgnt at the iransaction."

NoTE 2. An intransitive verb, or its p articiple, should
not have a noun or pronoun after it as th e obj ect there·
of ; as " He afierwards rep ente d him of hi• folly ," hi1r1
should be omitted after the intransitive verb 1·epented.
The object of a transitive verb is frequently omitted
through an ellipsis ; as "I love and fear him ;" that is, "I
love him, :md I fear him." " This is the man they love;" ·
"whom they love."

False Syntax.
He that is idl e and mischievous, reprove
s h a1·ply.
Y 011 are dis pleased with me for admonish-

ing ye .
Ifo inv ite d my brother and I to see his
ga1·de n.
H he will 11ot hear his bC'st friend, who shall
we send to admonish him ?
Th ey who have lauonrecl to mak e us wise
~nd go11d, are th1· prrs1111s who we ought particularly to love and r esp ect.
'Vhateve r oth e rs do, Id thou and I perform
Olli' duty.
Who did th ey send on that important embassy ~
Ye, who w er e cl cad, hath lie q11icke nccl.
He and th ey we kno w, but who are y~u?
W e s hould Juve , fca1', a11cl obey th e. Authot'
of our be ing, even He who lias power to rewa rd or punish us for cn r.

97

RULE 17.

:ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Non 1. A transitive verb often has for its object a
phrase consisting of several words; as " H e said Jamea

SYNTAX.

N enter verbs and their 'participles, followed
by a noun or pronoun, must have the same case
after as before them; as " He is the man; or
I took it to be him."
As neuter verbs express only being, or a state or condition of being, they cannot wi th propriety, be said to go•
vern ; and it is manifest that a noun or pronoun following
them can only express the subject in a different form, or
under a different name or term, and must. therefore be
in the 111me case as the one preceding, whether nomina·
tive or objective.
NoTE. Passive verbs and participles, followed by a .
noun or pronoun, must have the same case after as before
·them; as "The ch.ildwas namerl Thomaa,"
But instances of this kind rarely occur, the following
noun or pronoun being generally governed by a preposition understood: as "He was appointed overseer ;"-to
· the station or office of overseer.
Relative pronouns, instead of following the yerb, precede both it and the toun or pronoun by which their case
is reg·ulatcd ; as " He is not the person who he appeared .
to be;" 01· b ettei·, "He is not the .p erson that he app eared
to be.''

False Syntax.
Thou art him who sold tire books.
I believed it to b·e they who raised the report.
B e composed; it is me, you have no cause

for fear.
I cannot tell who has thus befriended me,

unless it is him from whom I -h ave received so

many favours-.
I

98

ENGLISH

GilA~HiAYt.

RULE 18.

It was not me who made th!' noise.
I would act the same pa1·t, if J were him, or
in his situation.
He so n111ch resemhlt>d his h1·othrr, that at
first Si!;ht I took it to h1· hr.
It tould not have he en her, fo1· she always
acts disereetlv.
H e is not the person whom he ap1ware<l to

br.
Al'll·r all thrir 1wofcssions, is it possihh• it
wa s t/1 1· 111
It. rni;;lit have hce n him, but there is no proof
of it.
Ir it w;is not him, who do you imagine it to

have been?

19.

SYNTAX.

ThP infinitive mood is governecl by thr preto; cxrept that the activt• verbs bid,
dare, fed, let. make, need. hear. :H11! see, with
tlll'ir· pa1·ti1'. iplrs, go\'e 1·n ve1·uo; f'ullowini; tht>m
in till' i11fi11itive 11111011, in wlril'h cast' thr prep 11siti'ln to. should IJP umith"d ; as ''Cease to do
evil:" " Biel him beware."
pn~ition

'Wh en seve ral verbs of the infinitive mood are connect·
en by a conjunction, the pre position to is placed before
th e first onlv, an <! understood to the rest; as "It is our
duty to fear God, and keep his comman.dments," "and to
keep,' & c.

Th e infinitive moor! following the verb see (signifyintr to t:.k ~ care of) and the n !rb dare to challenge,
shollld be preceded by the preposition I~ wh.ict\ goverllil
it; as "I will see to have it 1lone~·~

9!)

False Syntax.
l need not to solicit him to do a kiud action.
And th!' n111ltituil<'· wonclered when they saw
the lam e to walk and tlw lilind tu see.
I thi11k I should 1111t dare to do it.
Tl11»y 1w<'tl 11nt to go at this time.
I bade him to shut the uoor.
.
It is the diffen·nce of thrir conduct which
mak1·s us to approve the one and reject the
other.
'Vr may see som11 prrsons to behave very
_prudently on such occasions.
RULE

RULE 18.

'.'ioT E.

RULE

19.

· In the use of the fir'st futurr tl-'nse of the subjtinetive moo1I, au <·llips~s of'. th.e nu_xiliary is

freq11 .. r1tly rnadP.; hut rh1s.rllrp11cal f,,rm must
nev1· r he used when there 1s nut a direct referenc e to futu1·e time.
False Syntax.
Thou,gh the fact be-cxtraorclinary, it certainly did hapµni.
No 01w en!!,·a.f!,'•'s in that business, un!Pss he
aim at rqiuta i ion.
1f he hut i11ti;11ate his uesire, it is sufficient

to p n1d 11t1 · 01J 1· di r ncr.
II' he sp .. ak only t1l display his abilities, he
is llllWlll't lrv of' at'ft•ntion.
H he ue in health, l am content.

100

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

RUJ,E

20.
RULE

Though th e des ign be laudib.le, it will involve him in much anxiety.
If thou censure uncharitably, thou deservcst
no favour.
\ Vhcthcr he think as he speaks, time will
show.
tr thou give liberally, thou art entitled to a
lib e ral reward.
U nl ess th e statemcnl deceive me, my estate
is consitl eralily improv ed.
Though he be high, he liath r espect to the
lowly.
RULE 20.

When the verb to be, in the imperfect tense
of the subjunctive mood, refors to present 01•
futur e time, it must have th e tmme form in the
singular numb e r that it has in the plural, eJ,cept that th e s econd pe rson sing ular is changQ~
to wert; as " We r e I as wealthy as a S( •u~li­
se a dream. " -But wh en it r f.frrs to p,a s t tim e,
this form of th e singular· uumli er shotild not Le
used.
NoTE. ·when any active or neuter verb , except the verb
to be, is used in th e imperfect tense of the subjunctirc

mood, t o refer to prese nt or fotttre tim e, it must have the
same form in the secon d person singular, that it h :i.s in the
first or ~hird p erson ; as " If thou loved him, thou would1t
treat him cli fferc ntly."
·

False S ynta x .
\Yas I to e num erate all hel' rirtues, it would
look like flatt ery.
.

21.

SYNTAX.

1(')1

A lthou~h he were thy friend, he . did not
justify thy conduct.
As t hr govf'l'lll'SS were present, the children
be ha\l'd prnpt·r·1 y.
.
\Vas lw e ver so great and opulent, this conduct would dPlias<'- him.
It would lie well if the report was only the
misrPpre !H' ntatiun of his enemies.
H he were there he can give us an account
of the tJ'ansaction. ·
Though l was perfect, yet would I not presume.
Yet that was vain, if dreams infest the
gra ,·r.
.
H he were guilty, there is no evidence ofthe
fact.
\Vas man to liv e coeval with the sun, thcpatl'i ard1 pupil would be teaming still.
J wo1il1l rhat tl1011 wast either cold or hot.
Oh' tltat: thou wast as mv broth er.
Re 1;1 rn1lwr that thou wert a servant in the
land of Egyp t.
RULE 21.

·Verbs co nnected by a conj unction, and the
nominative not r epl'ated, s hould' agree in mood
and te nse, and the sam e form of tense; as" He
came and dined with us;" but if there is a necessa1·y change of tJ1e mood or tense, or if the
verb passes from an affirmative to a negative
I e

:1.U2

'. ENGLISH

GRAM.~IAR.

RUL~ 22 .

10~

SYNTAX .

•

·'

form, or tile contrary, ,the nominative should
be repeated; as "They might have been ha1111y, and they arn now convince<l of it;" "She
is rich, lint she is 11ot contented.''

whethe1· 1m1wovc1l or not, will soon pass
away.
Uank may confer in1lucnce, but will not necessarily pro!luoe virtue.

Non. Participles connected by a conjunction should
be in the same form, and when connected with a verb,
should be change d to verbs of like mood and tense with
that t o which they are connected ; as "By app•·ovinr and
fir actising virtue, we g:i.in esteem." "To be kind to
others, and do ing as we would be done by;" should be
"and do as we woulcl he <lon e by. "

RULE 22.

False Sy ntax .
If thou sincerely desire and earnestly purs ucst virtu e, she will be foun<l of thee.
Did he not sti·ive to · improve his mind,
and dilige ntly laboured to i11crease his know1ed~ e ?
H e would 11eith cr.do it himself, nor sutfere~
anothe1· to do it.
He docs not want conrnge, but is defective

in SCll8ilJi lity.
Lcarni11g-st1·cngth ens t he mind, and, if properly appli ed, will impi·ov e our morals too.
He might have been happy, and is now fully
convinced of it.
He is very wealthy, hut is not happy.
She was once proud, liut is now humble.
"Ootli he 11ot leave the ninety and nine, and
goetls into the willlc1·11ess .to seel' that which is
Jost?"
•
Our se ason of improvement is short, and

In tlrn use of verb~ and words that in point
of ti mt~ r elate to each othc1., the order of time
should be ouservt>d.
In order to apply this rule with f~ci.li~y, it will be necessary to atte nd strictly to the dehmt1on o~ the ~ensei;
and th e conjugntion of :verbs as they are given m the
etym ology. If these be well ~~ed upon the m<"IDO'.Y• ~he
applic:..tion of the rule, especia~ly to vet·bs of t~e md~ca­
tire and subjunctive. moods, will present but lit~le difficulty.
.
Jf we wish to denote an action or event cotem~orary
with the time of speaking or writing, or if w_e wish to
assert a fact, which, if true at any former penod_, would
also be tru e at the prese nt, or any subsequent time, we
shoulcl employ a verb in · the pre•ent t~nse. ·,1f we speak
of :m action which was performed durmg any da,y,, wee~,
month, year, or oth er period of time ante,cedent to that 1.n
which we are sp eaking, a verb of the imperfect. te.nse is
necessary.
.
.
.
Hut if in sp eaking of an even~ that 1s past, we wish to
refer to a ~riod. of tirn.e that mcludes the. present ; ·as
to-day, this we.&c. we m11st use the verb m the pel'fect
tense.
..,.
·
.
· d
When ~ speak of an action or event which tr~nspire
befor,e some othe1· event qr p.oiilt of time that lias passed,
:mcl to which we refer, we mµst t\se a verb 9f the plupe1'~ ~~ .

.

.

.

· When we wish to speak of au event that is yet to come-,
without limiting the time for its accompti,shmen~, oµl' ';er~
shonld be in th e .first fi1.t11re ~iense; but 1f we wish ~o mtI·

SYNTAX.

10·1'

E NOT.TS!r G1L\:\f •

•

n,,., . 1hat it w: ll be ful ly acco,11p li sh ed at*r before some
p:t ( c :ilar p o ;nt o f fut 1:i·e t ime t i1'\t we specify, the verlt
he !n th e secrmdfuture tense.
Th e pi-e c"d ::H; ob'lf:r,·ations, wh ich " "" found ed o n the
d 1·fi n iti n: 1s of t h (, tc· :1t.:t.: s, are app l i c~b }e to mo~ t verbi in
th e i n d~'" ·" ." a c.< l ,1 1lij ul'c live moorls. It is tr ue there are
somr.. c 1<.;t si n W!1itl 1 ct1st11m h as sanctio n ed the.. use of the
p r· ·, ~· 11 t 1· ~· 11se in t h e ind:c:.iti \·c inood, in r e fe rring to fu ..
t 11rc timt·, rts in th f' fO !! owing· sente nc e . "l w•lJ go l i
soon ' s the 'tai<e al'rh:""·" B11 t e xam p les of th 's kind are
11 ·1t \'(' I'\ ' m rnu:: ro 11s, <tnd tlH;Y mu:;t be con~1dered as ano~
ln 1 ~:·'l

ur <:xcertiou:; to tlie ·ge neral

r ule, and not as miJi.
it.
Cp··".' the use of U1e differe nt t e nses of the potential
m ood, Jt Js n<>t possd;le to be ve1·y exp li c it in our observa.
ti ons . Th ey are all usr-d, in ma ny in sta nces, to refe r to the ·
ti mes sp•·c .fied in th e d e fin itions; but t he time t o which
th ey r efer is fr eq11 ently detcrn1ined by an at tend>•g verb,
OJ' o : lH:l' wo n!. Fc,1· cx:1rnpl c, when we say, "He muy
ro," it ;s unrl er., <ood that h e no w has p cnnis,ion, anc!
t here fo;· c- t ht' ,.eJ b rleoo tes p1·esc nt t im e . Hut if we say,
' ' He 111ay possili ly ~·,, t u -1no1Tn w,' ' \Ve make a distinct
r C'fe1·e1'.ce to fi :tu1·e ti•11e. Similar observati ons migb t be
made 011 verbs in th e im/IPlject an d perfi:ct tenses of the
p :ite 11 ti"l moo:l. It :s th erd'ore ev icl,, llt, th at 111 the use
of \'c1·bs in tl 11s m.iocl, w e mu st be r c·guh\tccl by circum.
~ trnces wi1i•J1 it wr,;1 J.l 110t be prncticabk to notice in
ni:.J ,,·s

t A.t ! n~· :q~:1: n~t

tJi e~ c: ;.;· t n~· r:,l n~·is en· :.Ltions.

Non: !. A Ye rb of th r: infin it ive m ood, present tense,
sl1 011 ld :~~ \\·:1 ~'s b ·· 11 sed tu <l (~ n o t e sn111 et.hi ng cott.:rnpora.ry
With 1.!1e tin 1e O!°~h~ prr·ced ;ng V<~ J ·b , O.iJbSCC[U ellt to it;
a '' r m:•·nckd to vo ." Rut to rk n•\le s·omet~ng :.nteced ~ nt t D tl:e tim~ of th e precc·.li 11;.:· v•·r b, tl1e .J!e1frr:t te nse
ot Lhe infi11 it-. v1- mo •id slio11lrl l> e ' " " d : as "It wo uld have
g in:·n rn t· g reat pl e nsn n · to h a11e Ht'en h in1."
"J inte1vi ·I to h:n-e wrh ten lu -;t week,'' is a very com·
m 1, ". [J ht·as:•, :h r- i1ofinil :vc m.,o .I heing in th e p• st time
ns 1'.'f· ]J ;,5 lh<:> ver b which it fo llow .• : b<1 t it is ceri.. :iuly
wroug ' for ho w lvug soever it now is si nce I thou,!J,t of

10S

writing', to write was then present.to me, and m~t still be
considered as p re sent, when I brmi; back ~~la~ time, and
the th oughts of it. It should therefore be, l mtended to
v rite last w eek."
N 'O TE 2. All verbs expressive of hope, desire, inte11tion,
expectation, or comma11d , sho uld be followed by the present te nse of th.e infinitive mood, and not the perfect; as
"I desired t o go ; He expected to see me."
NOTE 3. The t ense of th e verb ought{ is determined by
the verb of the infi ni tive mood wliich fo lows it. If, _ther~­
foi·e t he ve1·b ought· is intend ed to refer to past time, it
mus~ b e follow ed by t he p er fect t ense of t h e subjunctive
mood ; bu.t if it is lntend ed to r efer to present or future
time, it m nst be fo ll owed by .the pre sent tense of the same
mood.

False Syntax.

I hav e \Vl'itten to my friend last week, but
have yet r cceive1l*no answer;
. .
If he arrives in time, he will go to the city m
the stage.
H e is a person whom I r emember these many
years.
Afte r we visited th e city, we r eturn ed, content a nd tlia11kful, to our retired and i>eaceful
habitati on.
.
.
•
1
At tli e tim e of hi s r etum, if he is expert m
hi s bu si ness, he will find e mployment.
U nless he learns faster, he will Lie no scholar.
No qnc wi ll cng-nge in that business, unless
hr. aims at r eputation.
.
.
Howcv c1· that affair terminates, }11s conduct
will be unimp eachahl e.

106

ENGLISH GRA):JMAR,

RULE

C nti l rq>n1tan r:c c·ornpu~t's l1is mind, he will
Ul' ;1 s! r a 11 .;•.'l' to JH·an·..
. Hi .; S•'<1-si : kw·ss was so ;;rrat, that I often
fc,u·ed li e w1111id i:a ,·:• di1•d hdi11·e 0111· a1:rival.
I l1are <:a111 p;;si'ii"n 1111 tiw rnultitudr, because
th ry. c·11 111.in111'. with 111 e now thn·"· claj .~ .
. Aftl' l' ii1s .J :i t11·ni·y . lie \\'as much changtid
fl' •J lll "ha t hf'. was lJ P!'11 r '"
Tltc m x t new Jt:a t"s day I shall be at school
tl1 n ·c .\ <'-a1·s.
l p11rp:1se lo so to Ili c ci i v 11 1·x t wc:rk: and
aft··: · I ii av<' fi11i s i1 1d rny husitH'SS tl1uc, t~ p1·0Cl ' f l1 to i lw s11urhern states .
. J u:1 11 wid 1·am his wages when his service
JS ('.<11!1 plfot<•d.
.
I t: "'"fJ'tin·tl so much care that I feared I
slwui<l lHlvc l o~ i it !iefore I rcach<:cl home.
Ru1.E 23.
\Vlirn an a rljr.c tivc 01· ad1·r rb is nsP d in a
co: n.i:a 1·is11 11 bd \\'<: 1·n two p· · 1 ·s1111~ 01· thin.~s
1
011 ..1 , it '" "'1dtl IJ1· 111 th n c:n 111 ,,a1·at1ve d1' !:>l't'e;
b ur. wltr11 t'.il'l' C 01· m :• f' P a iT irn pli l' d, rill, sup<' rla •1v1· sll!H1l<1 lir 11s1·d; a.:; .. J.,1111 is tuLie.r tlian
.L1:11 es" "This is tl1 ~: best [H· 11 of tlie tl1ree."
Non: 1. Th e acljccti " es all, -qthers, &c . should not be
u sed w he n :t c r1 rnp:u·1su11 1s intc ncl ed betwee n two p e 1·som1
01· things fl ~ ily : as '· H <' was wise. J' than ult inen,' ' should
be '' thai! ·: ·y nrn.!1 ,' ' 0r " 1h ~u 1 a ny other man .''
.
N ern : 2. Th v 11' ·.rh • ad ot 1;er , and th e preposition be.
twee11, shoulcl be uscJ in rcfo.Lion to two person> or thinjit

101

SYNTAX.

ZS.

only: as "The two girls resemble each othe1·.

There is

much s.imil .~r: ty l11:;" uet'll tht'm.'' But w l··<·u thrt·e or more
are impli e d, the \V nrcls lJ1l,..' a1iot /,er, a• 1d tl ~c prt:· positiun
among shoflld be l1' <-d; as "Th~ b<1il <l:- rs of Hab<::l ''"'~rr­
stc1ocl not fJ11t' 1woth 1· · ,. hn gu ~ ge ; \Vll ich prod11ced niuch
conft1;o;i\)/l rn.•1JJ11.'{ th e m."
N 1.1 TE J . \·\ ' h e n au a<lj c ctlve or ndverh of tlH' compn.l'ative d egTee is nse cl in a cnrnp :i·te st: nt ~ nc e , it m-i~l h e
follo wed by th e conjunction lftt1.n ; as "J anH.: .~ '. -; ·1: 1.ser
thmi his bruth t: r; ~ ' '' Tbey ccune soanc1· tlw.. i t we exi1ect-

td."

False S1;11 tr1x .
Hr is t11P stro11~1 · st nf !hf' two.
Thi s is til t' lwn".:1. :ippl1' 11f th e tltrr.r..
Ja111 1· s Hnd San1u\'I ar· r hl''l tli•: 1·s : <1r•1l tho11!ih
James is the eldest, Sam 11l'. i is the· ta!kst or the

two.
'
\Vliich of tl1nsfl tlii-re kit 1·s is flip hi r:-11'-r?
Hi!< pat'l'nts ftH\Ut·11tl.\ visite<l him h; it hi~
motlwr, 11111eli t he ot'tPllPSt.
• Wl1ich is the beHt reader, 'fhonias 01· his.
liisfr I ' ? .
Thi' falllr savs, "The oak and willow once
bad a cli s putr, ~\· hich was tlw st1·01-1gl' st."
Sa11111d and Thomas arl' studying- g-1·amma1·;
but as 1hp hrt1·1· is tlJ1• most dtlii.;Pntof tlw two,
. ·]w will p1·oualily atlai11 the knowledge of it tho

i.

llOOll t' Sf.

,

A talt>nf of this kind woultl, prr·haps, prove
the likcli rRt of a11y other to succeed.
Ruu: 24.

When a present or active, or a compound

108

ENGLISH GUAMMAR.

perfect participle is preceded by .a~ article, it
must be followed by th e prepos1t10n of, both
of which slr:ml<l li e used, or both omitted: as
"By the cxer .::ising of the body," or" By excrcisin s i he b.. tly, IH'alth is promoted."
NoTE. A present or active, or a compound perfect P.at·
ticipl e, pre;;L,ded by a noun or pronoun of the possessive
case, re qui1·es the preposition of after it; as "Much dep ends Oil 1112ir observing ofth!s rule ."
.
An active or present pait1c1ple, preceded by an article,
or noun or pronoun of the possessive case, becomes a
P••l'ticijiiul "?u11, . an~l as such ~an~ot govern a i:ioun or pronoun followrng 1t, rn the ohJect1vc case ; this should lie
i;ovemcd by the preposition of, which shoul~ generally
follow the participial noun ; otherwise the article or possessive should be ommitted, and the word parsed as a pre·
~ent or active participle .

False Syntax.
By the exercising ' ou1· judgment, it is improved.
.
.
It is an overvalmng ourselves, to reduce
every thing to the na1·row measure of our own '
capacities.
.
By observing of truth, thou wilt command
esteem, as well as secut·e peace.
A person cannot be wise or good, without
the taking pains for it.
'l'hc loving our enemies is a divine command.
Learning of languages is very difficult.
By reading· of bovks writtr n by the best authors, his mind became highly improved t

JtUl~E

25.

SYNTAX.

109

The 110t attending to this rule, is the cause,
ofa very common e1T01:.
RULE 25.

An acljecti\'e should not be used instead
of an ad ~erb to express the manner of a verb, ,
or the dcg1·ec of an adverb, or of another adjective.
NoTE 1. When connected with an adjective or adverb
not ending in ly, the adverb exceeding should nave ly added to it ; as " Exceedingly proud :" But when the adjec·
live or adverb with which it is connected has that ter·
mination, the ly should be omitted; as " She behaved
exceeding indiscreetly."
NoTE 2. An adverb should not be used instead of an
adjective, to express the quality or .property of a. noun;
as '' For thine often
infirmities," should be, " thy fi·equent
1
infirmities."

False Syntax.
He acted agreeable to his promise.
He speaks very fluent, but does not reason
very coherently.
The task was the easier performed, from the
cheerfulness with which they engai.;ed in it.
He conducted himself very unsuitable to his
profession.
She writes very neat, and spells accurately.
He was so deeply impressc tl with the sub.icct, that few could spea k nobler 11po11 it.
Alas! they are miserable poor.
He was extremely prodigal, and l1is properly is now nearly exhausted.
K'

110

E NGLT~H

6 JL\ M~ HR.

RULE

26.
R ULE

Ru1. t: 26.

_T,\''.'l or mor·e ncgat iv•::

wortls should not be
w.•rr
t c· ,in
" " nie
•
... tlit'· ·"
. sin 1p I •..' St' llLClice,
to 1•x p r~· ss a
m .., <1. l • t: m; · anin~; " " '· I can do no 111. ·r e ·"
not.•· I rwinnt ;Jo 1w mur·c."
·' · '
Tw o

n e g-:l.~ i ve

wo"ds used in th e sa

.. 1~:- part of a sen. .. \: · .a'. e : a s
" d o,1r;t knov.: ·no
Wu I l I . ' ..
a:) l .h1 ~ 11 0 \\. s •1 m ~ mrJ1' t!. " U11t it
1
\ I c_
h : , ,, 1 -t:" r to e xn res ·
fi
ti Ye u· " . • :. .
' · ' "" a . nn:1t.oi: by an atfirrnat e nce , u1·r- v..: j,.::J.1 to an nJi: . fl " lT
n w 1·e . ·, :·.;

ti 1\

~a tn t'

-.:·,\>

. :~ 1 1 ' ·~ .
~ e p arat e nt' g-: ~1. : 1 ~: ., .
:!\ 01 l . l. \'\. il i "ll t'\'0 . •
.

th e s:-..n-1.: ·w ·1 t ·1.1c · ~ .11 rn u 1!: i1 ~g-;.uive words are used in·
.
. '.'.
c lO <· X '] l' (' S~ '-l pos=t·.
. .
th .·1:·1 ~ i~ -\~i1 ~ : rr t: 11 :"·1·aJl \· I 1 • . . • -· . • l\C mc:::1.1 11 ng·, one of
th "" t' . . . "
"· ><.: 30. ned to :rnod1cr word and
.1 e1, .'i o nie t ' ll' ''' t or ·1.
. . .
.
'
'Of c .\ r'1l :~ ., , ... l . d ·, ~·
' " a .:' 1"-' ;i :i i r.g a.i :J dd1cate v::t.r iety
"!" :.. . . . ·:/1 '. s
t i ;.;.t un lrtqu en tly J.ap1>c11s ·" tlrnt '1s
~,' · ·· ·/ ' :J /I., .t-1 hupr e11s.'·
·
,
a ~-. ·~·:'."'.\ . ·:· ,\n .- g •tt i"'' w.i r<l ; lwnlcl not be us<:<l to express
. l · ll 1l ~· \ '. g
nor a - . t
<l
1111:: :\ n i !l ~' ;:-; int e1vl:: ·t. a . [!~':[~ 1 · " ~ '1\ror whcre a neg~ai tvc
rJ11Cnt · ~ not " n · :' '."
\0
ic were ever so elot \ e; r so e 1oqll e n t.. ' '

1

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Fals e .z;ynlax .
1 t l1.i1.k
. I can
' no t Itf' I I> Ill· rn no mm·c>.
. so nl'J '\·h as this
.N (1• !11. 1•.,.,fr fl l' YI'
, .1••,, t1"· ~ ct. 1- 1 I I11m
of Ii is fri 1•1Hl.
•
. I Iii ll •>t i11t e l'rupt me thyself nor let no one
d1s l .. :·! 1 m:; t'•' tit"'IU" nt.
•
'
LJ,.a · h llf'\' !'I' spa r ,. th llfm f' .
I i·;i nnot p; ivl' no rno1•t• fin· it.
Be
'> t1PS'i,11or t a k
. ii ·.
·e1101;ha penorse mblance
(l fl
{ I S l~ IJ (!H'. .
TI1l !'l (·,. 1.<l 111· 1

Ruu~ 2 7.

ve~~l11 , ~'~~' f' I'~ :ih.o~il<l nnt be pl ace d betw r n a

111 ' ·'·l·nP 111 rn1t~v e
· wu1c 1 goycrns it.

mootl and t he preposition

28 .

SYN'i'AX.

111

Non: l. Advf'rbs should be placed next to the words
they a n• inte nded to l:mit 01\ qualify, when the construction of the sentence will admit: generally b efore adj ect<l'es, ,,ft." r \'t' rbs active or nenter, :incl frequently betwee n the au xi\j:i.ry and th e v<: rbs, or be1ween the first and
second :lllxiliari c:s: "A ve l'!J prude nt woman .... . She beh:tve" diureetly, nnd !s mnch admired.."
NoT F. 2. The aclvC'rb 1tot sh o•.1 ld follow the conjunctions
who:h'"" or, wh en a c011trast is intended: as "He would
. . prucced wh etht-r lw obtai ned permission or noi .-"-not
"wJ1eth cr h e obtain l'<l p ermission or 110. "
Nll'r>: 3. 'vVhen motion tow'1rtls a place, or from it, is
implice <l, th e adverbs -whither, /,ither, and thitl>P-r, are more
prnp e 1· iJ1an where, here, and there; as " Whither shall we
go?"
NOTE 4. Th e adverb ho1u sh ould not b e used before the
conj unction that, or insteacl o.f it; as . " lie was informed
that h e· 11111Si- go; ' not" ho1u that b e must go." ·
Non: 5. "r he aclv<' rhs wher e, here, an<l there, should not
be used for wh,,.ehy, herein, and therPin: or where a prep osi tion ancl re:ative pronoun would b e more elc'f,'an1 and
exprcess've ; as " An acco•mt was drawn . in which (not
tuht•re) their sufferings wer t' re pr~se nted.'' "The city
w lre1 ·ein, or in 7u/Ji.11 they <lw t lt," not -whe>·e.

False Syntax .
' Ve 01q.;!it to thankfully receive the many
ble1;sin~s with which we a1·e l'avouretl.
Pl ease to not interr~ipt me. ~·
'Ve should strive to daily improvy our precious time.
She is sa i<l to excellently have performed
Lei' p :11·t.
To always k eep in view the unce1·tainty of '
tim e, is the way to rightly est imate it.
RuL~~

28 .

A preposition governs the noun or pronohn

JrnGI.ISH GR ...UHIAn.

which is ils ol} c ·t .
"I ga ti I ~ c m th e objective case,· as
'- ve te JOok to him." ·
A preposition frequent]
mcn ccs wi th an aGtivc
~· g:overns a phrase that com.
taste by rerulinq the worJ,;~> icip~e; as " H e improved his
Non: J. Th'e pre ositi 1 g_o~c aut f,or s. "
th e preposition to
I o1 }01 should _not be used before
1
"She was sent to brin~~i1.eg~~~~ ~,the J~~nitive m?otl ; as
NoTi; 2. J\!ore than one H' ' .•n?t for to bri.1g."
same nou n o1· p1·onou ·! ltll lepos1t1_on_ refeJTing to the
<f J
n s eiou
l except in forms
' aw, o1· where great
. t >e avo1de
.
<'
_lowing se ntence is fa~l ty _xa~h1.1ess is requisite. Th e fol.
borrows n o assistan. ce fi. .in is r~spect : " Thom'h virtue
1 om yet 1t may
· tl ,
" of ten b"'c accomP,ame "!/the ath ·antages of f'
t.1e ac.h-antages of fortum.• an f~ u ~t 1t shou ltl be "jiwn
Non 3. Different relatl~n~ !I ierr:."
be expressed by difle"ent
an.cl. d1flerent senses should
\\·ith the same verb a·r prepositions, though conn ected
·11.
' ' CJect n·e or no11n
"To converse
,.,, 'a p erso_n 11po 11 a subject,~ &
; as
·we are disappointed of a 'tl . c.
and cannot obtain 1·t " d d' llng, wlien we ex11ecte d it
h
' "n · 1sappo' t d ·
.
•
we a~·e obtained ii, and find . d • II e m a thing, when
p e~l:<twn. ln some cases it i;t . oes not answer our exwb1 ch of two preiJOs·t'
h
difficult to determine to
·1 " F
i wns t e prefercnc . t b
•s
.xpert ut, and exp erth a th . " ' c is o e g iven;
antl perspicuity of the 1, '
i~ig, c-<c. The easy flow
.anguage 111 su ch cases should be
chiefly regard ed.

fv1i·

Nor>: 4 . The ,>; reposition amon 51
for e t!t e aclje r:,, cs eacl.
.
_:g 10uld not be used bel'eymg unity o.r idea. '• eve1 !J, elther, or other words con . NoTi: 5 · A p:·cposi tion should
it i;_o\' erns, w!t en th e co t
. precctle th e word which
ad .t .
.
ns ruct10n of the .
.
m1 it, a nti shou lcl nc,·cr b . I
sentence will
tc ncc, whe n it can b e avoid ~ ]l aced at t he end of a sen.
it ;" 11ot " 'Vhom dicl .!1
.ec : as " To whom did he gi\'c
e g1\'e Jt to ?"
•

.
False S71ntax. ·
Who did nc g i1·c t he book to?

RULi'. 29.

SYNTAX.

113

He placed th e suspicion on somebody· in the
company, J know ~wt who.
Who dit.lst thou receive that intelligence
from?
Do ('S th e boy know who he. spoke to?
Assoeia te not thyself wiil.i those who none
can speak well of.
I hn1le it is not I who thou art displeased
with.
\Yhat concord can s·u bsist between those wl10
commit crim es, and th ey that abhor them?
From the c:l1arncter of those persons who
yon associr,te with, ~our own will be estimat ed.
RULE 29.

In' thr. use of }lrepositions, and words tt1at
dr.p r nt.l on each oth er, particular care should
bL• tak en to ex press relations by appropriate
wo 1·t.ls, and to maintain a regular and ~lear
con s tl'!1 ct ion throughout the sentence_._
This rul e is intended to apply to such. L'.=s in tile
langna!!·e, as cannot b e brought under 1hose more d efinite.
Errnrs are fr equently made in the use · of prepositions.
for th<' conection of which, it wonlt\J>e difficult to form
expl icit ru les. AnJ yet til e student1 i(llio has his attention
draw n to th e subject by a few ·c-1!'.l!@Ples ,properly varied,
will soon acqui re the power of pointing out such errors,
and correcti ng them with facility.
Th ere a1·e so me words that frequently require certain
oth er words to correspond with them in the subsequent
p art of the se ntence. Though .often r equires yet as a cor·
responding \rnr<l, especially when the sentence is long .
•Veither is generally followed by 1101· l :md -whethe-i· P -l

K.

2

J;NGLlSU GRA.\l.'11.AH.

cit/1er by or . So sometimes requires as, and sometimes
tlwt, to correspond with it. Jt would, however, be diffi-

cult to give p:u'licufar directions for th e use of such words,
without making our observations very diffu se. The student
must, th creforn, he i·egulatcd in this respect, as in others
intended to be included under this general rule ; that
is, by nc'cuute observations on th e practice of co1-reGt

\Vriters.

The following exampl es of faulty construction, with
the errors pointed out, are subjoined for further illustrat1on.
"He w~s reso]yed of going to the city to reside ." To
be reso!Hcl of doing a.n action is· improper; the relation
h etwecn th e resolt1tion and th e action not being clearly
e.xpressed cy the prep osition ~ef, whi ch denotes possess10n or co:1scquence. It shoul d be "on." .
Th e relation or con nexion expressed by the prepositions
in the followi ng sentences is not clear and applicable. "In
cor.1pliance to his injunc tions: " "wit/; his iajunctions."
"He became reconciled with his lot ;"" to his lot." "Such
busin ess as· comes into th eir notice;" "under th eir notice."
"A beauiifol fie ld and ti-ees" is not proper lang~1age;
the articl e a, aud 1he adjectiYe beautiful having- the same
!'elation to the noun t1·ee.•, as to the' noun field; but it
woulrl he absurd to say "a beautiful trees." It should be
"a beautiful li eld and fi ne 1rees ;" or "beautiful fields
:md trees," an<l the c onstruction is rendered clear and
r egular.
"Th is de.dication may serve, for almost any book that
h as, is, and shall be published." fn this sentence the aux'.
i!i3ries, has, ;,, and . s!tc.l/ be, equally relate to the verb
pnblished. ll nt it \voulcl be manifestly improper to say
"a11y book that l.rzs jntblisli~tl"-and "is published" is
unn ecessa ry. Tt shoulcl be " any book that has been, or
tha t shall be published."

False S ynta x .
We sl1ould c11tertaiJ1 !JU prr.j11r!ice to s imple

and ru.s l.ic pci·sons.

SYNTAX.

115

The lirst proposal ~vas essentially different,
an<l inferior to the second.
. · .
,
Solid peace and contentment consist 11e1the1
in beauty or riches.
. .
·
Several alterations and additions have been
made to the work.
.
.
Her souri ety and silence is no dero~ahon to
ber unde.rstauding. ·
.
This ·11lace is not as pleasant as we expecttdAs far as I am aule to judge, the book is
well written.
"
·
N cithet· has he, nor any other pe.i·sons, suspccood so mucli dissimulation.
·
. The king of France or Eng,land was to have
been tlse umpil'c.
·
We can folly cpnfide on ~one but the tru 1y
good.
,· ,
·e
Sincerity is as valuable am1 cv1:-.1 mo1
valuaule than knowledge.
.
Whatever we do secretly' shall ue displayed
an<l heard in the cl earest light.
. ·
.
We are often disappointe.d of thrn&s, winch,
·
.
· - · l intich. en1oyment.
before
possession,
promise:(
.
I hav e no occasion of hss s ~w v1ces •. .
He was accused with haying acted d1shonour-

ab!fiwu:;ls tls e J>ractice is conformable with
custom; it is not wari•antablc.
. .
.
Many l1a vc profited fr~m1 good advice.
. The· tl caf man. whose cars were opened, arnl

Hu

l':NGI,ISH GRA~H:TAU.

UULE 30.

his tongue loosened, duulitless, glol'ifie<l the
great Pl1.1 sician.

Ruu: 30.
Interjections require the objective case of a
pronnun of the fil'st person, aft1·r them ; as
;, Ah ! rn.c ;" hut the nominative of a w11111 or
iwo11uul1' of the second 01· third versun; as
•• Uh ! thou;" &c.

False Synta:x:.
Oh! thee, who a1·t so unmindful of thy duty.
Ah! w1·etched I, how uni;r1dcful !
. 0 !. happy them, surrounded with so many
ulessm.i;s.
Hail! thre, that art highly favoured.
How swiftly our timll passes away! and Ah!
we-how little concerned to improve it!
Welcome thee, who hast been so long expected.
l'romiscuons examples of false syntax.
Neither the }lens nor the ink was on the
talile.
T1·ach me to feel anothers woe.
By nereising of our memories they are im-

pl'oved.

Wisdom a11d vi1·tue is superior to every
rtl11i>t' endowment.
Those are the men who I saw yesterday.

SYNTAX,

117

Neither riches, or honour, nor knowledge

can lie compared with vit·~ue.
. .
.
If he lll'efer a virtuous hfe, and 1s smccre m
his prot'ess:ons, he will probably su.ccced.
He has been spoke to on the subject. . .
Although "William be a poor man, he 1s vu·tuous, and deserving of esteem.
·
What si;;nifies good opinions when our practice do not correspond with them ?
Them to whom rnuch is given, will have
much to answe1· for.
The human mind cannot be long without
some food to nourish the activity ofqis thoughts.
The indulgence of harsh dispositions are the
introduction of future misery.
l intend to set out on my journey to-morrow if the weather proves favourable.
Iie does not want courage, but is defective
in sensiliility.
You and 1is c11joy many privileges.
Prccl'pt nor diseipline is not so forcible as
example.
He writes as the best authors would have
\\'l'Ote Oil t!ie suuject.
I need not to solicit him to do a kind action.
Whate vcr others do, let thou and I act
wisely.
There is no condition so seGure, as cannot
, admit of change.

SYNTAX.

H'S

ENGLISH GRAM~IAR,

If it were l1im who acted so ungratefully.,

.
Him descending the precipice, they all fol- be is dopllly in fault.
lowed.
He ifl a pe1·son of property, but docs not

I

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Neither the clock 01· the watch keep tim~
wrll.
·
Be composed; it is me, you have 110 cause
for fear.
By curbing of our passions, they are sub. ·
dued.
Did he not fear the Lord, arnl besought the
Lo1·d?
Lr.arning strengthens the mind; anrl, if pro.
pel'ly applied, would improve our. mornls too.
The p1·operty of Jam es, I mea11 his booka
and f111·nit 111·e, were wholly destroyed.
Not one in fifty of those who call themselves
1leists, unde1·stand the nature of the religion
they reject.
·
His s<'a-sicknrss was so great, that I often
fearer! he would ha\'e <li ed bdiwe onr anirnl.
How rnud1 is real vi1·tue and merit exposrd
to the hardships of life.
That celchrnte<l work was published nearly .
ten yeal's lwforc its mel'its werP understood,
Il:ning thus l.Jeµ;an to thr1iw offtlw restraints
of reason, he wassoon hurried into deploralile
eXC:"SSCS.

' l'hou.i;h the fact be mysterious, it is worthy
;llf a.ttr.11tio11.
1f it wa~ poss i!Jle, they would <lcceive the
very elect.

possess the esteem of his neiµ;hbour·s.
He has t1·avellcd much and passed through
many stormy seas and lands.
lf it was so, why should not my spirit be

troulilt·tl ? ·
Co11stantin11ple was the point, in which was
cunct,ntrated the learning and science of the

world.
liahits must be acquired of t~mperance aud
of Rt'lf-denial, that we may be able to resist
pltasu1·t', and to n1dure pain, when either of

them i11te1·frre with ou1· clutv.
The error of 1·esti11g wh1;lly on faith, or on
works, is one of those st·ductions which most
eas!ly misleads men; under tlrn semblance of
pil't y, on the one hand, and of virtue on the
oth i-1·.
lt is an invariable law to our present conclitiQn, that cvl'ry pleasure that are pursued to
m ·o1s, conveTt themse.Jves into poison.
Pc1·idl's gained such an ascrndant ovei· the
mi111!s of the Athenians, that he might be said
to attain a monarchical power in Athens.
Affiurncc might gi\'C us respect, in the eyes
of the vul~ar, but will not recommend us to
the wise ~nd p;ood.
'fhc eherrful and the gay, when warmr.d by
pleas ure and by mirth, lose that sobriety and

1 :W

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l:?IOGLlSU GIUMMAR.

s~lf-denial, which is essential to the support of
v1l'tue.
How much is real virtue and merit exposed
to suffer the hardshiµs of a stgr·my life.
There are principles in man, which ever
have , and ever will incline him to offend
These men were ur11l e r high ohligatio~s to ·
have adhered to their friend in every situation
of life.
A great mass of rocks thrown together by
the hand of nature, with wildn<'ss and confu~ion, strike the !nind with more grandeur than,
if they were adjusted to one another with the
accuratest sy rnmetry.
When we succeed in our plans, its not to be
attributed always to ourselves; the aid or
others often promote the end, and claim our
acknowledgment.
A_ll the po\~er of ridicule, aided by the desertion of friends and the diminution of his
estate, \~ere not able to shake his principles.
He Will one day reap the reward of his Ja.
hour, if he is diligent and attentive. Until
that per·iod comes, let him be contented and
patient.
'l'hc conduct which has been mentioned, is
one of those artifices which seduces men most
easily, under the appearance of uene volence.
Not a creature is there that moves, nor a
' rsctablc that grows, but what, when minute-

SYNTAX.

1-21

Jy examined, furnished materials for pious admiration.
If Providence clothe the ~rass of the field.,
and shrlters ancl adorns th(' 1iowers that every
when· grows wild amon gst it, will h~ not
clot he and protect his servants aud children
much more.
J intc· nded to have finished the letter before
the l.learer called, that he might not have
been detained; but I was prevented by company.
Exam71les ef improper construction adapted to
the Notes under the several R1iles ef Syntax.
He thiit bath a mind to work let him work.
Two nouns, when they come together, a!1d do not signify the same thing, the former should be m the possessive case .
Many words, they darken speech.
The cares of this world, they often choke the growth
of virtue.
The generons never extols their good actions:
.
These goods we have just brou ght from Pb1ladelp_hia,
and arc of the same kind with those which were sent from
New York.
The cause of his failure was the heavy losses he had
sustained.
His chief occupation and enjoyment were reading.
Every plant, every flower, and every drop of water,
:ibouncl with living creatures.
Every desire of the heart, every secret thought, are
known "to him who made us.
Either thou or I art the person alluded to.
Neither Thomas nor thou will have liberty to go.
Were the globes or the map injured by the accident !

1..

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'"J

Those are the birds whom we call oarnivorous.
·who of his neighbours came to his assistance!
Moses was the mee kest man whom we read of in the
Old T cst•mc nt.
~e is a wise man w~ich thinks well before he speaks.
'.I he; wluch seek wIGdom will certainly find her.
The woman which we saw is very amiable.
Hnn1il ity i~ one of the most amiable l'irtucs which wo
ca n possess.
"\Vlio is she who comes clothecl in a robe of light
ween?
. Th e men and things which he has stuclied, have not
1mprn1·ccl his mor:ds.
?.hny will acknowledge the excellence of religion who
<::rnnot te ll wherein it consists.
. Jonat ha n (bmissc<l his s:n·ant wit~out any inquiry,
11-ho had ncve1· before comm itted so nnJust an actio n.
I do not doubt but what he did it for the best.
Th ou art the friend that hast ofte n relieved me, and
that has not dcsertecl me now in the tim e of peculiar
neecl.
I am the man who. ap proves of ~vholesome discipJ;ne,
and "ho recorr:niencl 1t by my pr:ict1ce r.o others.
Thou a nd thy brother, as well as several otliers should
be more caref'ul of th en· conrluct.
'
s ,,,n.1t'i, ".11.-1 thuu, and I, have studied dilige ntly, and
yo1!1· lesson 15 now pr.~pare<l.
Gnf, l unct si h·er a1·e but the serv~nt of a wise man.
J·: 7cry membe~ of tl~e bod;y, every bone, joint an<l muscJe, .1ave a pt c rl1ru· 0P.1ce assigned th e 1n.
I !.ope I sh.,11 be 1·e:3dy in less than <l hour .
.'\ n union in d1at which is 1w1·manc11t.
\V e have within us" intelligent principle.
\\'. 1sest "!Hl be>t men mr.y sometimes be mi staken.
.T11e upr.ght man is guided by the fixed principle of
mint.I.
W ear~ placed here for a trial of our virtue.
A man is the noblest work of the creation.
. He h.as he- en much censured for conducting himself
with a little attention to his business.
1

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12S

SYNTAX.

:ENGl,TSH C:IUM:WAR.

His fault was accompaniecl with so little contrition and
oonclicl acknowledgment, that he found a few persons to
interce rle for him. ·
Charles was extravagant, ancl by these means became
poor.
.
.
Ry the mean of adve1·s1ty we are often rnstructed.
.
Jacob was industrious, frugal, and discreet, and by this
means obtained prop erty and reputation. . · .
.
Which of them two persons has most distmgu1shed himself?
Them hooks are very much abused.
ln the city we are entertained with the work_s of men:
in the country, with those of Providence ; that 1s the provinco of nature ; this of :u-t.
Tlic Eng Esh an~ the ~·rench ar~ neighbours : these a1·e
islanders : thus e, mhab1t the co1ttmen_t. .
Yirtue confors th e most supreme dignity on man.
A well cultivated mind is far more preferable than rank
or riches.
·
.
He came from the extremest part of the contrncnt.
Jane! is much more happi er than her sister.
She made forty pou11cl of butter in a . week.
The w,d\ was twenty foot h!g-h.
That is a very g-oocl piece of grouncl.
}'lease to c:i.1 i the two fa gt classe>.
Thqmas ha,] purchased a new pair of shoes, ancl a pai 1·
of new boots.
.
It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to sutl:er
grt·., at calanl.ities.

.

.

.

Th is mcasme g-a1ned the su permtenrlent, as well as the
teacher's approbation.
Th ey very justly conde mned the pl'Odigal's, as he was
.~:i.llecl, extravagan t conduct.
. .
,
,
Thev were takc· n to the captaa1 s of the gnard s h?u ,e.
The. time of Wi1liam ente r;ng ©n busmess soon arrn'c<l.
If we alter th e sit<1ation of any of the ~ords, we shall
presently be sensible of the melody suffering.
Th e world's gove rnment is not left to chance.
If ye suffer for r ighteousness's sake, happy are ye:
Auel he cast him s ~lf down a~ J esus's foet.

:U4

1,.

:ENGLISH GRA:\:IMAR.

The extent cif the prerogative of the king of F.nglan<l
is not fully :i.scertaine<L
Thi s picture of my fri end' s does not much resemble
him.
Hobert was an intimate acquaintance of l1 im.
T he cloth was purchased at \\'ilson the storekeeper's.
He sole! the hides at Sn~ith's, th e tanner's and currier's.
.And h e went and laid do wn to rest.
"What reg·al ve,tmcnts can with them compm·e."
After th e storm was cea>ed we set forward.
And the king sat him down to eat.
It will be very difficult to :•gree his condu ct. with his
profession.
They acted ll'ith so much r esi=rrc that some pecple
doubted th em to b e honest.
If thou wrotest as well as thy broth er, thy teacher
would not compbin of the e.
If thou Jo,·edst him, thou wouldst not treat him disre·
sp ectfully.
If thou studiedst atten tively, thou wouldst soon acquire
a knowledge of the subject.
To be moderate in our vi ews, and proce eding tempe·
r:..tely in the pursui t of them, is the way to attain snccess.
" ' e ha1•e done no m ore th an it was our duty to have
clone.
It would han given me g reat satisfaction to r elieve
him from his distrcssecl ,;it uation .
'Ve found him better than we expected to have fournl
him.
I always inte nded to ha Ye r ewarded him for hisser·
vices.
He knew it was his dllty, anc.I h e ought, th erefore, to
do it.
This school of :di others has bette1· regulations.
He divided his estate between his live sons .
The wine.I no sooner blew, but they hoisted anchor and
set sail.
Th ere was no other road but the one we went.
H r; was exr:ectling- ca1·eful not to g-iYe offe nce.

·a1nn 011~ a.rn1::i<>p II! ·~' .\~s
mp ! <1Jtp lF>l ll!M s.\a11\l ,\ IH{l
pull Sfl!lf G•f.L
'J ~Hn IJ•W ·lj lf!A\ JlfS pull 'aJlll
·\lU 11sv l a.rn.1aH!llllW 111rn ss . i upt:o~ •1::ins t)l!A\

a1n pml l)lJ\l'J

S·J l'! ·\oJd Olli\\
'llfl!l'!.qtull\l Jl! ;)'l( ,J 4;J!lf ,\\ SpHfqo
'pu1rn JI! ll!l!J:.1 ll .10 JHGI ll .JJlfl!:1

!;<JJlHHlO[d pull Sp.IV.A\ .lllO JOj
Sfll ;)SO.ld

·uo!~q;1.1

JO

an.q

;i;iuass;i <14l Jl'1l!lsuoa OAOf puu Al!l!UlllH

JO

'AJ.isnpu!

ti)a11po.11l 1nn

•••

<>Jll

a.1nsv. ,11d yuu 1uamaA0Jdm1
•;:>Sll:J "lAIP~fqo '.Ill{

·11ilu!s uos.r::i<l p.r~in ;np .10 •uoriHuo::i unou u .. +tn>llllU"lUO:>
·.r;:i qurn11 .1qn1Ju ,s at11 ll! 1ua1p JC! 1pr.;:i
\{l!A\ ;i;oi.1.\l" lSntu q.1aA aq\ '.;on uo!pun['uoa
;,41 lq p;i·p;iuuo:i '1.i1l .r:iqUinu .PlJn.Ru!s
;:i41 JO sp.1['q ns a.1nu1 .IO o,\q u;HJA\ 's,\us
IJ:llll '' 'l!lf' " l"ll 01 ,jju!p.ro:i:ir. '.rn1n.llu!s
Uu>.1;,_d p.l!l!l .1q1 ll! .mown1 .10 '/IJ'llant ;)A!l
-l!u~1u1,u s11 q11A\ 1lu!" "·'.81l ';isu;il iu;is:i.r<l
. 'pocu11G!Jlla)od atpjo'q.1aA "-'!Pll 3A!l!SU1l.q u·········;iA!il 11110
·1 ap •a
01 •lJqiia;l.llir. 'an.1.li llJJJ q.i;iA :lljl 01 aA.1~uu
·!lllO[l '.1qn;Ju!s uos.1;id p.!!'ll ;np JO unou 11 ....... . ·.rnonoq
"UO!Pllllfuo:i ll .......... ..... JOU

·y

;)(11}1

1Ju!pJO:J:Jll «1".'3 UVJ q.T:!A ;Jl[l Oj :JhllllU
•!UIOll 'JC[rLlJU!S UOSJad p.l!IJl "lll .JO UllOU ll" .... '"""l!W?<>.~
•uo!punfuo:> ll ....... ""J;:)l!l!<>N
0\

·~11.1UJ

·lllJlllOi> g,qS uu<i .rnuuo11 .mu

lfllUJA\ JJl!ll<l N:

•q.1;iApll Ull ...... •••• •• ""ll<I.\\
•qJ;:iApll Ull""""" .. ,... ,.AJ~A
·.r;iqmnu
[11.Injcl <lljl 11! UirilJl tjl!A\ :i:i.121l 1Sl1Ul l! 'puv
UO!pun[\io:i a41 ,\q. p;:ip;;iuuo:> sp<i["qns

80T

:126

E~GLISll

SYNTAX.

GRAMMAU.

Men who grasp after 1·icltr.s arc n e ver sa.
tisfi <' ll.
He is a happy man, who has; a friend.
Alms ~iven .":it h ostrnt;1t.inn di scover pride.
1 lwu art a ln e nd to whom I am highly in<lehtrd.
·Vi1·f ue will be reward ed, and vice wlll be

APPLICATION
OF THE PRECEDING RULES IN PAllSING.°"

E x amples, which in Rnlc 1st and 2rl may be
reveated.
'Vh e n thou awakest it shall tracli thee.
'Vhen .... ...... an adverb.
Thou ..... .....•. a p ersonal pronoun of the seconcl person sin.
gnlar, nominative to the verb awakes!,
agreeable to Rule 1st, which s:iys, When"
noun or pronoun is th e ~ ubj ec t of a verb,
it must be in the nomin:itive ca~e.
awakest. ...... an intransitive active verb, of the indi,.ative
mood, present tense, agreci ng with its nominative thou in the second rcrson si.igular, accorcling' to llule 2d, which ~ays, A
verb must agree with its subject or nominative in number ancl p erson .
it.. ....... . ..... .. a personal pronoun, of the third person singular, nominative to the verb alwll teach,
agreeable to Rule 1st, which says, When
a noun or pronoun, &c.
sl1all teach ..... a transitive active verb, of the indicative
m·ood, first future tense, agreeing wjth its
nominative it in the third person singular,
according to Rule 2d, which says, A verb
must agree with its subject or nominative,
&c.
thee ...... ..... .. .. a personal pronoun of the second pe:3on
singular, objective case.

They eame, as we had desired; and they
were gladly received l>y us.
He went, he saw, he conq11el'ed.

* The Rules of Syntax have been constructed so as to
embrace all the varieties that ge nerally occur in parsing;
but as our language is acknowleclgecl to be exceedingly
:mom:tlous, the notes annexed to the Rnles are so framed
l\S to include most of the irregularities that occur in composition. Hence, in parsing abstruse senten ces, it 1my
be necessary t-0 refer to them.

pu11ished.
She may ha ve forgottrn me; but I shall always rrmemb er hcl'.
Let us improve ourselves, while we have
upp ll'tunity.
1

Scest thou not that humility makes a man
honourable?
~~ho can preserve him sr lf from danger?
lo see the sun is pl .. asant.
SECTION 2.
1

Examples, in which llulc Sd and '1th should bt:
repeated.
Thomas and John read very well.
Thomas ......... a nonn, of. th~ third person singular, one of
~he nominatives to the verb 1·ead, accorclmg to l{ule 1.
and ............... a conjunction.
John .......... ... a noun of thr;> third person singular one of
~he nominatives to the verb l'ead,' accordmg to Rule 1.
read .. ......... .:m intransitive active verb, of the indicati1·e
moo~, p_rese nt tense, agreeing with its two
nommat1ves Tlwmas and John in the third
pe~son plural, according to Rule 3cl,
1dJJch sa)'s, \Vhen a verb has two or m01·e>

S'YNTAX •.

Self--conceit, presumption, and obstinaev,
blast the prospect of many a rising youth.
John, James, or Joseph, intends tu undertak e the husi11rss.
St1·e ngth and weapons cannot avail, where
condu ct and cou 1·a1;e are wanting.
The earth and the moon r evolve round the
sun.
A cil'dc, a squa!'c, a triangle, or a hexagon,
pleases th e eye by its regularity.
SECTION 3.

Examples, in which lluie 6th should be repeated.
Th e family wel'e all well yesterday.
the . ............. the <lefinite article.
family .............a norrn of mttltitrrde, conveying plmality of
idea, nominative to the verb were, according to ltule 1.
were .... ... ...... a neuter verb of the indicative mood, imperfect tense, agreeing with its nominative
jiimily in the third person plrrral, according to Rule 6th, which says, When the
subj ect is a noun of multitude which conveys plurality of idea, the verb must agree
with it in the plural number.
all .. ..... .. ....... an adjective.
well ... . ... ....... an a<ljective.
yesterday ... .. .. an adverb .

Thi~ a;;scrnlJly have passed several excellent
law s .
A great numb er docs not always argue
stre ngth.
The B1·itish Parliament is composctl of
Kings, J,ord s, an<l Co mmons. ·

130

.ENGLIS!l GIUMMAl{,

S'YNTA.X.

The people <lo not cotlSI<. Ie t• th
. true interest.
· cu·
Ma1:iki11d, in pa1·tieula1· I
ta.1rs Ill s11c:h eliinates. ' iave many ad>anJ It(· ,\ •«U-1) llH'('. f.i11~ \\ '1 !1 \' Pr I· •
And tlic u1 u1titucl.- \l·'· t1ol i · . ly atge.
which thl',} saw rt111l iw •:< d. I e, at t.hotiio tl1ings
SEc·1111N 4.

E x amples . in
1 tiwh.ir!t lfrir 7th,. "th
•· ., 9th

A

.

.

L

11 0111a11,

wli11
.

t~ ~lwuld

be upplied.

· .1ui1us,
.
1,,, v II

a11d

'

. l.Je es teemr<l
wiil

A ... ........ . an :1r~!clc.
•
wuma11 ..... a noun of lhe th'ir d p e r ~o n s111g11lar
.
.. .
• nomtnat1re
to the verb w;I/ b
e esfreuwrl, accordiug tn
Hui e t.
who ........ "a rch, t'ive pronoun, !\g ree ing "i t! .
nn11n '"','""" in th. ti . · l
lits .antecedent
n1i!li 11 c o·1·11 'ler ·• ct ll~ c p erson s in g u1ar, fe.
.
" ' • ~ cnr•n ng tu lt1 11 7
says, ,.\ fl l' ll ll Oll'' m,. , 1 , , r
. ~ , whi ch
dwit11 its ai t
t n ~ , •;r ·t lH: r101m wl1··ic h·•;it ee
...
. . l e ce·
h e r, g'f' ncler and

h ·· ·

tt pn·st' nt_s in num·

.
th e ,.cl'b a·, accord 111; ~~n ; a11c_l noirH native to
is . ...... ... .. !\ ne11tt" r ve rb o f .,.·
'. Hui e L m oo<l
. . l <"' "·1n1licat1ve
te nse, agTcei ng w•th its
. . .
, present
•
th 1·cl per/\cn .: r ~ •
num 111:..iuve who, in the
v1~·tuou , .. an :trl jcct;n:. •• llg1..la1·, agl'eeab lc tu l{ulc 2.
\\' 11l be ~stvcn
. n · vc-1·b f Li · .
1 "· ' [ · .. " pa ss1
•
iir..;t f11tt1i'~ t t:ns C", (q.:,
. .rl.~' e1n
<! o-t wt
e.rncl1catiye n1oocl
t 11 t
.
. '
. r> . ~ 1 s n om111ah \'e
"tlFd111z 11 in the Lfr r ·
1
t u i(uJ e 2.
. ' ' p t lSo!l sin1.;-ular, ag-re~able

'l'h1 ;.,,111,.,
· '" .,, 11( I .ti H'

f}ue1•11 l1ad p ut .111 tlieirro!J es.
'I:h e .... ... an «1·tic le.
k ing- . .. . ....1 11011n" f .1'1e thin] p erson si n 1
r. om1r1 a\l\'cS to th~ . ·b . gu ar, one of the
H•.Il e 1.
vei hucL /mt, according tn

lln<l . · ... ·. a conjunction.

1S1

tl1e .. .. .. ... an !\l'ticle.
11uecn .. ... a 1101111 of the third pcrsou singular, one of the
n ominativ es to the verb fwd pu1, according to
ltu lc 1.
~~d put .... 11. tr:insitive acti ve w rb of t he indicative mood,
plupcrf1<ct te ns<-, agru:ing with its two nominat'1ves , /...--in: and qun"lt, in the third pt:r!ion
plural, accorcling to Huie 3.
on ...·........ an ac\v,·rb.
their ......... a personal pronoun, agi·eeingwith its two antecc<lents kt 11g and queeu connected by the conjunction rmd, in the third person plum!, accordi11g- tu lluk 8, which says, Wh e n a prono11n refe rs to two or more :mt<'c <"d ents connected by th<! conjunction and, it should agree
with them in th~ plural number.
robes ...... a noun of the third person plural.

Wht:at or rye, wht·11 it is scorehe<l, may supply
the J>lace of coffee.
Wheat .... a n oun of the third p erson singular, nominative
to the verb m«y supply, according to Rule 1.
or .... ...... a conjunction.
rye ......... a noun of the th:rd person sing·ular, nominative
to the ' 'erb may supply, according to Huie 1.
when .. ... an adverb .
it ....... .. .... a perso nal pronoun, agreeing with itR anteced ent wheat or 1·ye, in the.thin! person 8ingular,
11 euter, agreeable to Hole 9th, which says,
Whe n a pronoun has two or mo1·e antecedents
of the singular number, connected by the con·
j unct ion or or nor , it must ag1:ee with e:.lch of
th em in th e singuhr number; and nominative
to the verb is scoi·cherl, according to Rule 1.
is scorched .. a passive v.:rb of the indicative mood, present tense, agreeing with its nominative it, in
the third person singular, agreeable to llule 2 .
may supply .. a transitive active verb, of the potential
mood, present tense, agreeing with its nomi·
native ,.heat or rye in th e third p e rson singular , according to Huie 4th, which says, &c.

l::N GL l Sil t:HtA :\'l MAU .

tl.c ... .... ... an article, &c.
place. ... .. .. a no un of the third person singular, obj ectil'e
case.
of. .. .......... a preposition.
coffee .. ..... a noun of the thil'd person singular.

Th e

wliom we ;;a 1\ t111 s 111" 1·11ing, and
us of our fri e nd 's i11tlisposition,
mt ends to call on hi s way hom e.
~am e s was of a meek f•>rgivi11g- temper, by·
which he acquire!:I th e este e m of all who knew
him.
It _is not tli c utte ri n.~. nor th e hearing of
ce rtain wo1·ds, tha t cons t1t11t cs the worship of
t he Almighty. It is th e heart, that praises or
prays.
!he committee was ve ry la rge, when this
p o111t was decided, and its jud~;ment has not
bce u call ed in t/ uestion.
T lt c fa i1· s ex, wh ose task is not to mingle in
t he labours of publi c life, hav e th eir own part
a ssig n ed t he m to act.
Co m pass ion is a n e motion, of which you
should neve r be asha m ed.
H e who form ed th e heart, certainly knows
wliat passes within it.
ma11

~v ho told

SECTION 5 .

E x amples, in 1chich Rule 11, 12, 1 3, and 14,
should bt repeated.
A wis e m a n's anger is of s hort dura tion.
:\ . .. . · ....... :i n article, relafo1i; lo the no'.m m1m 's , agreeable
to Hu le 1 l , wluch sa y~, A 11:1cks and adj ectives

re late to nouns expressed or understood.

SYNTAX,

133

wise ... .. . .. an adjective relating to the noun man'a, agreeable to Rule 11th, which says, Articles and
adjectives relate to nouns expressed or understood.
man'i ...... a noun of the third persop singular, governed
by the noun anger in the possessive case, according to Rule 12, which says, When two
nouns, or a pronoun and noun are used •to·
g eth•r, implying property or possession, the
latter governs the former in the possessive
case.
anger ....... a noun of the third person singular, nominative
to the verb is, agreeable to Rule 1, and go· ·
veming the noun man'B, in the posses3ive case,
according to Rule U, which says, When
two nouns, or a ·pronoun and noun are used
tog·ether, implying property or possession, the
latter governs the former in the possessive
case.
is... ... .. .... a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, present
tense, agreeing with its nominative auger, in
the third person singular, agreeable to Rule 2.
of.... .•..... a preposition.
short .•..••. an adjective relating to the noun dura tio11,
agreeable to Rule 11, which says, Arti cles
and adj ectives relate to nouns expressed or
understood.
duration .. a noun of the third person singular.

Hope, the balm or°Iifr, sooths the soul.
Hope .. ... . a noun of the third person singular, nominative
to the verb sfJoth1, by Rule 1.
the .•... . .. .. an article, relating to the noun balm, agreeable to Rule 11, which says, Articles and adjectives relate to nouns expressed or understood. •
balm ... .... a noun of the third pers<iln singular, in apposition with the noun hope, according to Rule 13,
which says, When a noun or personal pro-

M

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SYNTAX.

135

1.1oun is us e~l . to e~plai? a preceding noun, it
They knocking. the ilnor wa$ opened.
1s m appostt1on with 1t, and must be in the
.
ersonal pronoun, of the third per~on
same case .
l hey .... ... ... ... a plural,
P
· · case, _connected with
nommative
I
of.. .......... a pre position.
the participle k11ocki11.rr, agreeable to l{u e
life ....... ...a noun of the third p erson si ngular.
14th,
which
says,
When
a
noun
or
pro•
~outh s ...... a transitive active verb, of the indicative mood,
n nun is addressed in the s_econ<l J.>erson,
present tense, agrt•eing with its nominati\·e
or connected with a partic'.pl~ _a~ its s':1b·
lwj1e, in the thir<l p.,..son singular, according
,
j ect it must b e in. the nommative case.
to llule 2.
an Rcti~e participle from th e verb l..'"1wck.
the .... ... ... an article, relat ing to th e noun soul, agreeable ' i.~nock"n
1 g · ... ··
·
h
I
accord
to llule ll , which says, &c.
the .............. . an article, relating to ~ e noun <oor,
•
ing to l~ul e 11, which sa~· s, &c.
.
~oul. ......... a noun of the third person singu lar.
door ............. a noun of the third p erson smgular, n~m~na·
M_y son, give tnl' thy h1·al't.
tiv e to the verb was opened, accordrng to
Uule 1.
.
.
,\Cy ...... . .. a personol pronoun, of the ·first. person singular,
1 _1m·
.
eel a P""s; ve verb, ·of the indicative moo<,
governed by th e noun son, :n th e possessJVe
was open . •.
. ·e~fect tense, agreeing with .its nomrnacase , according to Huie 12, which says, &c.
five tlour, in the third person smgular, ac·
son .........a noun addre !IS~d in the second person si11gu·
cording to Hule 2.
Jar,. nomin ative case, according to Huie 14,
wl11ch says, when a noun or pronoun, is adA regular an.d virtuous education is an in·
dress,,1l in th e seco11d p erson, or connected
estimable bll'.ssmg.
."
d
with a participlt: as its subject, it must be in
Our foml, and our raimen~, ~u~ hie, an_
th e num inati»c case ; ~ nd governin g the pronoun my m tire possessive case, according to
our health, are the gifts of Divine ProVl·
Hale 12, whi ch says, &c.
'
<let11'.e.
t
"11
i;ive ..... ...a tr:msitive active verb, of th e imperative mood,
If our desires be moderate, our wan s w1
ngre<•ing with its n ominative thou under·
stooil, in the seco nd person singul ar, accord.
be few .
i11g to Ruic 2.
Every hea rt knows its own sorrows.
me .. .... ... a personal p1·onoun, of th e first person singular,
'l'hc book was plll'Chased of James, the pedobject ive case.
ler. him who was here last Wt> ~k.
.
.
thy .... ... ..a personal pronoun, of the second perso n sinTlw childrr n being pleased with their studies,
gubr, .governe<l by th e no11n heart, in the
posscssl\·e case ; ag reeable to Jtule 1"2, which
th e task was m•1rP easy.
say st &c.
heart ... .. .. a nou n of the third person singular, obj ective
case ; ~nci govemi:1g the pro1rnu n thy in the
possessive case ; according- to Hule l ~, which
.<ays, &c.

My Mai· fril'll<I, how art th.011?
" iilliam, the Conquc1·or,. was a very powerful J.l l'illt'l'.
At lcni;th the little animal's fears being

SYNTAX,

iS.6

137

ENGLISH GRAMMAU.

abate~'.~ni] his appetite quickened by the scent

(If the ~ ictuals, he arose, and, with trembling
ventured to eat.
'
Men and bl'ethren~ what shall we do to be
saved?
1;" wants are daily, and the fomptations
w1~ c I draw ot1r minds from God, arc also
daily ; and on both these accounts ought out•
prayers to be daily also.
Ca_i,n aud Abel, the first two sons of Adam
an~ Ev<., pu_1·surd vt•r·y dilfrre nt occupations
Carn was a til ler of the ground. but Ab I •
'
e was
a k ·"t'pe r of s 11erp.
]· A man, w}iose mind is stored with useful
"nowleclgc, may be \'ery serviceable to his fcll ow-cre aturt·s.
1'eaeh mt• to feel anothr1"s woe
tl MJ: son, a?pirP not thou to pubiic honours:
iy wealth wil l sl't ther above insult.

?

SECTION 6.

Examples, in which Rufo 16, 17' and 18, should
be repeated.
He advised them to s1· 1I their possessions.
He .......... a pel'so· nal. pronoun • 0 ft!le th'1rd person srngular
.
nominative to the ''erb adviaed agreeable to'
Rule 1. •
'
.
advised ... a im
tran~itive active verb of th . d'
. mood,
erf t
• .
e. m icativc
he pin ~ te~se, agrecmg with its nominative
Ht;le
e ~~~d person singular, accorcling to
9 w ic . says, &c. and governing the
-,
pronoun them , .m the objective case, a eeable
tn ltulc 16' which s~ys, A tranwitive ve~, or its

:i.clive participle, governs the noun or pronoun
which is its objeet, m the ohjective case.
them ....... a personal pronoun of tlw thir<l p.-rson plural,
governed by the. transitive verb ad.vised, in the
objecti,,e case, agl'ee:1.ble to Huie 16, which
says, A t ransitive verb, or- its active parti ci ple,
go~·erns th e ' noun or pl'onoun which is •its object, in th e objective case.
to ............ a preposition, governing the verb sell, in the
infinitiv e mood, a!{ret:able to i<ule 18 , which
says, The preposition to governs the infinitive
mood.
1ell ...... .. .. a transitive active verb, governed by the preposition tu in the infinitive mood, according
to J{U] e 18, which says, The preposition to
governs the infinitive mood: ancl governing
the noun pos•essiun• in the objective case,
agreeable to Rule 16, which says, A transitive
verb, &.c.
their ...... ·. a p ersonal pronoun, of the third person plural,
governed by th e noun possessions in the pus·
sessive case, agreeable to lt11le 12, which says,
Wh en two nouns or a pronoun and noun are
used together, implying property or possession, the latter governs the formel'. in the possessive case.
possessions .. a noun of th e third person plural, govern ed
by th e transitive verb sell, in the objective
case, according to Rule 16, which says, &c.
and governmg the pronoun their in the possessive case, agre eable to Huie 12.

LP! us impr·nl'e ou1·selves.
Let ......... a transitive acth·e verb of the imperative mood,
agreeing with its nominatiYe ye or you, understood, in th e second person pllll'al, according
to Huie 2; governing the pronoun ,,., in the
objective case, agreeable to llule 16, which
says, &c. and governing the verb impi·ove in
the inlinitive mood, a~recable to Huie 18,
M~

ENGLISU GRAMMAR,

SY.N'l'AX.

which says, The verbs bid, dare, feel, let, &c.
govern verbs following them in the infinitive
mood.
us ............ a personal pronoun, of the first person plural,
govemed by the transitive verb let, in the objective case, agreeable to Rule 16, which says,

A lilUe bed of carnations perfumes a whole
garden. This flower is t~1e emblem of a perossesses both wisdom and goodness,
son w 110 P
·1· t tl I
l
and who knows how to cone1 ia e ie ove am
respect of his fcllow-cr.eature.s.
.
The mind, unoccupied with ~seful I~nuw­
le<lgc, becomes a magazine of trifles and fol-

&c.

improve .....a transitive active verb, governed by the verb
let in the infinitive mood, agreeable to Rule
18, which says, The verbs bid, dare, feel, ~t,
&c. govern verbs following them in the infinitive mood: and governing the pronoun ourselves in the objective case, agreeable to Rule
16, which says, ~c.
ourselves .. a personal pronoun, of the first perion plural,
governed by the transitive verb improve in
the objecti~·e case, agreeable to Rule Hi
which says, &c.
'

J arnes was an honest man.
James ..... a noun of the third person singular, nominative
to the verb was, according to Huie 1.
was ......... a neuter verb, of the indicative mood, imperfect tense, agreei!'lg with its nominative Ja111e1
in the third person singular, according to
Rule 2.
:rn ...........an article, relating to the noun man, agreeable
to Rule 11.
honest .... an adjective, relating to the noun man, according to Huie 11.
man ........ a noun of the third person singular, nominative
following the l)euter verb 'Wa1, agreeable
to Uule 17, which says, Neuter verbs and
their participles followed by a noun or pronoun, must have the same case after as before
them.

'l'each thy child to be obedient, and he will
bless thee.
Let us hearken to the precepts of vfrtnc.

lies.
b
·
d
Virtue refines the affect.ions, ut vice ebascs th em .
.
t To be satisfied with a lit~le is grca w!sdom. He that increases Ins treasures, 111crcascs his anxiety an<l care.
.
The highest lea1·ning is to be wise, and the
greatest wisdom is to be good.
Guard well thy thoughts; our thoughts are
heard in hcavl'n.
_
Let us be animated in the pursuit of . useful
knowledge.
SECTION 7.

Examples, in which Rnle 28, and 30, should

be repeated.
She acte<l so pn1dr,~tly on all occasions, that
she was uni Hrsally beloved.
She ....... a pei·sonal pronoun, of the third person singular, nominative to the verb acted, agreeable to
Huie I.
. d' .
acted ...... an intransitive active verb, of. the _m ~cative
mood, irnper~ect tense:, agreemg with its no·
minative she m the tlurd person singular, ac·
cording to Rule 2. ·
so .. '"" ' ,, .. a con,iunction.

ENGLl .~H

UUAMWAU,

pl'Udenlly . . an adverb, expressing the ;n~nncr of the verb
acterl.
on ........ .... a p1·e po•itio11, governing- th e nonn occa 8inr1 in
tl1 e objective c~se, ag-ree abt c to [{ule 28, wl;ich
says A y re p."s.1t " m _gov e1·1os th e noun or pro·
nou~ wn1ch ts it s obJ e ct in th e obj,, ctive case.
all. ....... . ...an ad.iect.v e, relat ing to the noun occasions, according to Hulc 11.
occasions .. a nolln of the_t hird p erson plllral, govcmccl by
the p rcpos1t1on on 1~1 th e obj ective case, ag re eabl e to Huie :28, whic h says, A prepositi on govern:;, &c.

th at .. ...... a co11j 11nction.
she ...... ... a personal _prnnolln, of the third p erson singu·
far, nom 111atn·e t o the verb was beloved, ac·
cord!ng to lfol e I.
was ......... an aux.Eary of the ve rb w as beloved.
un!versalty .. an adYt'rb.
bcloY cd, was bdo,. ed, a passive ' 'erb of t he indicative
moocl'. i111 pe 1fect tt> nse, agree in g wi1h its no·
n1111atl\·e she Ill th e th11·d p erson singular, ac.
cordrng to llule 2.

J:!e has act1·d wis ely and p1·1ulrntly in this
1Jus111Pss, sr> that he cannot li e justly <;ensui·c<l

l1y his cua1pani111 ;S.
'
A c·111s;ant hal>it of uupl'ofifaule amusPmrnt,
rrlax t•s 11ie tone of tlw mi11cl, ant.I ri-ndet·s it
totally i1wap:-1hle of applic a ri ·• n t.1> st11r!v.
\\' li 1) a1·f: thnu, 0 Ulan! that p1·es111;1est on
tlty own wisdom.
Tl1n11sli he fall, yet he shal l not he utterly
casr ""''·n.
Ol1 ' 1l1n hu1111li ll lio11 to wltich vice a11d folly
r edu ce us .
•

SYNTAX.

141

Promiscuous Examples of False S~11flix, to 1be
corrected and parsed by the preceding Rules.
Virtue anc\ mutual confidence is the soul
of friendship.
Wh ere these are wan.ting,

dis~ust or hatred often follow Jiltle d11fercnccs.
An army 1wcs ent a painful sight to a feeling
mind.
Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of
sense,
Lies in three wort.ls, health, J>Cacc, and com pete nce.

·we have s ubjected oursel ves to much expense, that thou may be well educ.atcd . .
H e acted conformable with his rnstructwns,
and cannot be censured justly.
Temperance, more than medicines, are the
prope1· means of curing many diseases ..
No p e n •on could spr ak sti·onge1· on this sub ject, 11 01· brhave n" blcr, tha~ our young ad vocate for tile c ause of tolr.rat1on.
The people' s happiness is the statesmans
ho11our.
If it were them who acted so · ungratefully~
ti i;y wc1·e doubly in fau lt.
This is the pe1·son who we are so much
obliged to, and who we e xpected to have seen,
when the favour was conferred.

1 j. ~

ENc;J~ TSU

GltA:\BIAH.

SYNTAX.

Hr is a prr·s. on o f ,i;r·ca t ]ll'o1irrb· I •t ·'
not I'1,;"ssrss
ti
J • 11.
uoes
· · · ir rs Iel' Ill of his lll'ig-hhoui·s.
1 11.iw n·1 t \I lwt he I' C harl' s was ti
tlHll'.
IC auV hot I u•11l1 •1·st1111d '1t t u lll' Iie.
\ h1·11 wr ser lrnd lll!'ll to UP I
JH'OS jlt'l'OllS in till' \V IJ l']d it ·,
IOllfl)'lll'Cd, and '
lll

('llt t

·

II Vll'llle,

'

'

S St>rlll' I ISCllUl'a"C·
b

W< ~t ~s no~ ~he utt e ring nor the hPar·ing crrtain

. 1 . 11 ,, .. C11 11 •n 1tutP thr w111·ship or thr Al
.
·
pr·arsr: s or· p1·a1 s
, . .ie ieart accnm pa nil's not thr. \Yords tf .
a1 c ,s1.mk e n, WC olfrr a sacr·ificc of' r I
1at
.N1·1thcrfl a tt·er c11· eont c 11111 the rich
oos. or 'I
g1·c·at.
'1e
If Providence clothe the grass of thf' f ·I l
and shdtcrs atHI adorn;; tlie Jlowrrs ti . t . '' c'
.
wlir1'r ,,.
· Jct evrry
. , ' . " 1·ows l~' I 11I am1111g- it, will lw not I ti
:1 1.
" " otect J
J 'J·'
co . re
more?
us c ll ut·en anti SCl'vants much
m1g'' ity.
, .t t Iiat
Ir
, I It i"" tltl'
. , l icar

' in!rn<lr·tl to have finishPd thr Ir· . . ,
.
th r hearl'r call rd that I
. I
ttr1 befot e
cl t·.
.
' ' ie m11; it not havp bce11
r "11nr.tl, but I was pi·<·i·i·ntc·d b
,

Tl1is t·1sl · v· . 1
the
,. ;'i'11ln~i:~s l~i;fi

el1·.
Tl

.

Y

co111pa11v.

· · ::~l('ll' ,)Jl'l'li>r11wd, r;•,>111

'·
\\· Jlf: I Je t>n~agrd ju it
witl i~ . ,~:'.111~01'.1'Sf' of JlPopl t' wc•t'•' sr; ~;·eat that
i

r

l 1.! C11 I)

wr passed throu~·h th('rn, '

'l'wo
. I .
"' · J' 1:
>1 inc1p es 111 lruma11 uatu1·e r r i"'n.
,_, 1.; l-lu1·e to lll"'C
"' '
.., ., a111 I reaso11 to l'estrain;

Nor that a ?;Ood, nor this a ball we call;
Each w01,ks its end, to move or govern all.
A circlt·, a square, a tl'iangle, or a hrxagon
please the eye by their 1·egula1·ity, as beautiful
I

fil?,'JJl't ' S,

~ 'J'hc·1·c was much spoke and wrote on rach
side~ of tht~ qul'stinn; but I have chose to take
llal't with 11eitlw.r.
·
Oh! thcr, my voice inspire,
'Vho touch'tl Jsaiahs hall11\Hcl .lips with fire.
Evl'ry thin~ that we lwre enjoy, chan·ge,
dl'cav, and come to an end.
Tl1e p!Pasure or pain of one 1mssion differ
from that of a11othf'!'.
Slw was vHy rlf'sir1111s to have ~one home
last wel'k ; hut wr wislJPrl her stay longer, ancl
shP c11•nplir1l with our rrcp1rst.
D"si1·es anrl wishe.s are thr first spring of
aP.tion. \\' hpn tlwv bf'comf' t'X!ll'bit>int, the
whnle nf th e cha rac;tf'I' an• likti to bP tai11trd.
It wo11l!l havt' givf'n me great satist'al'tion,
to rl'!ie\' f' him from that 1list1·rssNI situation.
'" e ha\'f' dnne no mo1·r~ than it was ou1· duty
to lrnvP. donr.
N net WP Pk is t1w time for hqldin~ the an·
nu al m1•Pt irl!r.
No ow 1•;1gac;es in that businf'<;!-1, unlrss he
aim at rf'\Jllh1lion.
I shall \valk out to-day, unless it rains.

L i· ~

!>:\GLI SH G lU. ~L\IAU.

l'UNCTVATION.

140

OF P UNCTUATION.
UuLE 2. When the connexion of the diffe1•ent parts of a simple sentence is interruptPun ctuation is the art of dividing a w ··tt
compos·r
· t
11 en
ed by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually
.
I wn I~ ·o sentences, or parts of sente nce~, by points or s tops, for the purpose of introiluced before the beginning, and at the
markrng th e differ ent pauses whic h the sense . end of this phrase: as "I r emember, with g•·atitude, his goodness to me ;" " Hia work is,
and an acc urate prouunciation r equire.
in many respects, very imperfect; it ls, thereti T~e ~omma r eprese nts th e short est pause·
fore,
not much approved." But when these
ie em1colon, a paus e doubl e that of a Com'
interruptions are slight and unimportant, the
ma ; the Co!ou , dou hi e that of the Semicolon:
comma is hette r omitted : as "Flattery is cerand th e P eriod, doubl e that of the Colon.
'
tainly 11ernicious."
OF THE C OM. M A.
E x amples.
. H ULE 1. Wi th r es pect to a simple se nteuce
Gentleness
is
in
truth the great avenue to
th e seve 1·al .word s of which it cons is ts have s~
mutual enjoyment
H e ar~ r elat10n to ea.ch oth er, that, i11 g eneral,
Charity like the sun brightens all its ob,.
no pn111ts ?re r equi s ite, except a }H:' r·iod at
jeets
.
th e ~ rn~ of it : as " Th e fear of th e Lord is the
Advice should be seasonably administered
bcgrnn111g of wisdom."
RULE S. \Vhen two nouns occur in the
A simpl e se nte nc e, however, wh en it is a
same construction ; or two or more adjectives
lon &· on e,. and th e nomin ati ve case is aceombelong to th e same noun ; or two or more verbs
Jl'.m1 ed .with S? \'c1·al adjun cts , may admit of a
have the s ame nominative, and immediately
pau se imm edia tely before th e verb: as "To
follow one anoth er; or two or more adverbs
be totally indiffhe nt to praise or censure is
immediately s ucceed on e another, they must
a r eal defec t in ch a r actl' r."
'
be s eparated hy commas; as" Reason, virtue,
E x amples.
answer one gre:at aim;" " Plain, honest truth,
'.fl1.c te ar of r cpenta11 ce hrings its own reli ef.
needs no disguise," &c•
. It is lwnourahl c to be a fri end to th e unforExamples.
tun ate.
Discomposed
thoughts agitated pas~ iQns
. '~'h e in.dulg~ u ce of ha r·sh disposi tions is th e
and ru1llcd temper poison every pleasure of
1nt101l11ctrnn of fu tnre mise ry.
life

11;6

F.NGLISH GRAMMAR,

PUNCTUATION.

H.7

Conscious guilt renders us mean-spirited ; When thy friend is calumniated openly and
timorous and base
boldly espouse his cause
An u1wight mind will never be at a Joss to
Benefits should be long and gratefully rediscern what is just and true lovely honest membered
·
RuLE 5 , When pai·ticiples are followed by
and of good rrport
The man of virtue and honour will be trust- something that clt·pcnds on them, they are geed relied upon and esteemed
nerally separated from the rest of the sel)tence
A true friend unbosoms freely advises justly by a cum ma: as "All mankind compose one
assists readily adventures boldly takes all family, assembled under the eye of one compatiently defends resolutely and continues a mon Father."
friend unchangeably
Examples.
The great business of life is to be employed
in doing justly loving mercy and walking
True gentleness i~ n~tive feeling heightened
humbly with our Creator
and improved by pl'll1c1ple
.
'l'o live soberly righteously and piously comThe path of piety and virtue pursued with a
11rehends the whole of our dut,r
firm and constant spirit will assuredly lead to
happiness
.
.
·
· d
RULE 4. Two nouns, adjectives, verbs, par.
Human affairs are rn contmual motion an
ticiples, or adverbs, closely connected by a
fluctuation altering their appearance every
conjunction, do not require a comma. But if
moment anrl passing into some new forms
the words thus connected have adjuncts so as
considerably to lengthen the parts, the comma
RuLE 6. When a conju11ction is divided .by
should be used.
a 11hrase or sentence from the verb to whwh
it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually
Examples.
a comma at each extremity : as " They .set out
Vicissitudes of good and evil of trials and
early, and, before the close of day, arnvecl at
consolations fill up the life of man
the destined place."
W c have no reason to complain of the lot of
Examples.
tnan or of the world's mutability
Gentleness delights above all things to alTrue friendship wiJl at all times avoid a
leviate distress and if it cannot. drr up the
careless and rough behaviour
falling tear to sooth at least the l?rie.vmg he~rt
Wherever christianity prevails it has ihs-

ENGLISU GRA.MMAR.

PUNC'l'UATION.

couraged and in some degree abolished slaRuLE 9. Nouns in a11position, that is, nouns
vel'y
added to other nouns in the same case, by way
W r. may rest assured that by the stea<ly }JUl'of explication or illustration, when accom~
s-uit of virtue we shall obtain and enjoy it
• panied with adjuncts, are set off by commas :
RutE 7. Ex11ressions in a dfrcet address,
as " Paul, the' apostle of the Gentiles, was
are soparated from' the rest of the sentence by
eminent for his zeal and knowledge."
·. ,
commas: <1s ''I am obliged to yon, my friend,
But if such nouns are single,, ,or 'o,nly form
.
fur you1· mauy fa'•ours."
a proper name, they are not divi~.e.d :.' ~s '' ~a~.l
the apostle."
· · · ·· ·
Examples.
Contimrn my dear cbild to make virtue tI1y
Examples.
11rincipaJ study
Hope the balm of life sooths us unde'r e~ery
To you lnJ worthy benefactors am I indebtmisfortune
.
. .. . .
·
ed under Providence for all I enjoy
Content the offspring of virtue dwells ~oth
Como then companion of my toils Jet us
in retirement and in the ac.tive s~enes ?f hre
take fresh courage pe1·severe and ho11e to the
·The patriarch J os.eph 1_s a~ 11lusti:1ou~ exend
ample of chastity 1·es1gnahon and fihal affecRULE 8. A noun or pronoun connected with ·- tion.
'' ·
·
a Jlarticiple as its subject, should be separated
RuLE 10. Simple members of senten~es con- ·
from the br;dy of the sc·ntence by commas : as
nectecl by comparatives, are for the :most;part
"At lrugth, their ministry pc1·fnr11HH], and
distinguished by a comma: "As .,the ·-hart
race well rnn, the.y luft t.be wol'ld in peace."
pantcth after the water brooks, so doth · my
Examples.
soul }lant after thee."
"
..
If the members in comparative sentenc~s are
Pi>ace of mind being secured we may smile
short, the comma is in general bett~r omitted :
at misfortunes
as " How much better is it to get wisdom than
Virtue aliandoncd and oonscience reproachgold."
·
·
inl? us we become terrified with imaginary
cnls
Examples.
To prevent further altercation I submitted
Nothing is so oppo11ite to the true enjoyment
to the terms proposed

NZ

BNGLISU ORAMMAlt.

of life as the rel-axed and feeble state of an indolent mind
Tile frit-mliihips of the wo!'ld can subsist no
long-e r than interest cements t hem
. Nothing more strongl}' inculcates resignat1011 t!ian the experience of our own inability
to guide ourselves
·
l~~.I·E 11. When words arc placed in opJl0111t10n to each other, or with some marked
variety, thay should be distinguished by a comma: as
"Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet not
dull;
Strong. without rage; without o'erflowing
full."
'
" Good men, in this frail, imperfect state,
are o~t~n found, not only in union with, but in
oppos1t1on to, the views and conduct of one
another."
Sometimes, when the word to which the
last p~·eposition relates, is single, it is better ·
to om1~ the ?om ma l!efore it: as ''Many states
'~ere 111 aU1anco with, and under the protection of Rome."
_The same rule and restriction must be applied when two or more nouns refer to the
s~mo preposition : as ''Ile was not only the
krng, but the fatbe1• of his people."

Examples.
•
TT e who is a stranger to industry may possess out he cannot cujoy

FUNCTUATION.

1H

Contrition though it may melt oug~t _not to
sink or ovN·pnwer the heart of a Chnstlan_
I1ll1· cui·ios;ity an inquiaitive and meddlmg
spi1·it often iuterrupts · the good order and
breaks tht> ptiace of society ·
.
· RuLE 12. A remarkahle expression, 01· a
short obscl'vation, somewhat in the manner of
a quotation, m~y be r1ropcrly marked with a
comma: as "It hui·ts a man's pride to say, I
do not know."

Examples.
Vice ifl not of such a natm'e that we can
say to it Hitherto shalt thou come and no
further
One of the noblest of the Christian virtues
is to Jove our enemies
We are strictly enjoined not to follow ·a
multitude to do evil
RULE 13. Relative pronouns are connective
words, and ·g enerally" admit a comma hefor·c
them : as "'!'here is no charm in the female
sex, which can supply the place of virtue."
But when two members are closely connected by a relative, restraining the general
nut ion of the antecedent to a particular sense,
the comma should be omitted: as "A man
who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue
the most innocent wort]s that can bi put together."

ENtUlSH GRAMM.U!.

In this example the a8sertion is not of "a man in ge·
neral," but of "a man who is of a detracting spi1•it ;" and
therefore they should not be separated.
. This rule applies equally to' cases in which the relative
1s not exp rcsse~, but unde!"lltood : as " It was from piety,
;-;~r~ and u.rrnffected, t~at his morals derived strength ."
rhrs sentime nt, habitual and strong influenced his
whole conduct." In both of these examples, the relative
and verb, which wa•, are understood.

PUNCTU.ilTION.

15S

oBe another, are also dividl'd liy commas ·= as
" To relieve the indigent, tn comfort tlrn af·
fiicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the
deserving, are humane and nolile employments.''

Examples.

Examples.
If we delay till to-morrow what ought to be
done to-day Wl' overcharge the morrow with a

It is labour only which gives the relish to
pleasure
~h e gentle mind is like the smooJh !rtream
which retlt'cts every object in its just proportion and in its fairest colours
In that unaffected civility which springs
from a gentle mind there is an incomparable
charm
H e who is good before invisiule wituesses
is eminently so before th e visible
R ULE fll,. A simple me mber of a sentence
contain ed within another, or following another'
must be d~stinguished by a comma: as "Very
often, wh1~c w_e are co?lplaining of the vanity
and th e e nlsot human hfo, we make that vanity ·
and we inc1·easc those evils.''
'
If, however, th e memb ers succeeding. each
other be very closely connected, the comma is
unn ecessa ry: as "Revelation has informed us
in what manner our apostacy arose."
. Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common dependence, and succeeding

burden which hf'longs not to it
· By whatcVl't' mcmn1 WP may at first attract
the attention . we <:an hold the esteem and
secure the hi-arts of others only by amiable
diRpositions and the accomplishments of the
mind
If the mind sow not corn it will plant this- ,
tles
Graceful in youth is the tear of sympathy
and the heart that rnPlts at the. tale of woe
He who formPd the heart certainly knows
what passes within it
To ~e humble and modest in op,inio~ to be
vigilant and attentive in con~uct to d1st~ust
fair apyearances and to restt·am 1·aMh desires
are iostruct.ion11 which the darkness of our present state should strongly inculcate
RULE 15. When the verb be is followed by a
verb of tuc infinitive mood; which, by transposition, might I.JP made the nomiuative case
to it, the former is generally sepa1·atetl from
the latter verb, by a comma: as "The most

ENG.L ISJI GR.UfMAR.

iobvious remedy is; to withdraw from all asso- ·
~iations with bad men.''
·

Examples.
The greatest misery is to be condemned by

our own hea1·ts
·
The greatest misery that we can endure is
to be condPrnned hy our own hrarts
Cha!'frs's highest enjoymrnt was to relieve· '
the distressl:'d and to do good
1•
The higl11·st e11joymt'llt that Charles ever
expel'ieneed was to l'e!icve the distressed and
to do good
Ru1,E 16. When adjuncts or circumstanoes
/
are of importance, and oftl'n when the na- ·
tural orde1· of thrm is inverted, they may he
separated by commas : as " Virtue must be
fonued and supported, not by unfrrqurnt acts,
but by ~aily a11d r c pPatrd exertions." "By
threads innumerable, our interests are interwoven."
·

Examplc_s.
..
If opu_Ience increases our_gratificatioDs it incr eases 111 the same proportion our desires aud
demands
By prope r managrment we p1·olong- our time
wc li\'c more in a few yaars than otlwrs do in
many
In your must secret actions suppose that you
l1aYC all the world for witnesses

JjJUNCTU..l'l'ION.

HiS

In youth the habits of indqstry a1•e most
easily acquired
RULE 17. Where a verb is understood, a
comma may be ~t>ncrally intrndu?ed: as '.'F.r om
Jaw arises secui·ity • from security, cur1os1ty;
from curiosity~ krnl\~ledge." In this exampl~,
the verb " arises" is understood before "curiosity" a'nd " knrrn·lrdge," at which words a
considerable pause is necessary.
This is a general rule, which, besides comprising some
of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases not deter·
mined hy any of them.

Examples.
Providence never intended that any state
here 11hould be either completely happy or entirely misrrahle
.
•u the spring put forth no blos~oms rn summer there will be no beauty and 111 ~utumn. no
fruit So if youth be trifll'd away w1tl~riut unprovement manhood will be contemptible and
old age miserable
.
RULE 18. The words 1iay, no, hence, again;

first, secondly,fonnerly, 1iow, lastly, once mor~,
abo'Ve all, on the contrary, in the next place, in
short and all othe1· words and phrases of the
same' kind, must be generally separated from
the context by a comma: as " Remember thy
first and best friend ; JormerlJ/, the s~pport o~
thy infancy, and the guide of thy childhood'

156

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

now, the g_uardian of thy youth, and the hope
of thy coming years."

E x amples.
Be assm·cd then that order frugality and

econom ~ arc t.l1e necessary supports of every
:personal and pr·ivat e virtue
.
H er e e.ve ry thing is in stir and fluctuation
iherc all. 1s scr~ n r: steady and orderly
Som etimes t1.1111dity and false shame· .prewnt ,, ur. oppos1~g v itious customs frequently
cxpcctat1011 and mt ercs t impel us strongly to
comply
In many of the . foreg-oi ng rules and examples,
a.t
reg:<rd must b~ paid to the length of the clauses, anf'tlic
p rop ortion which they bear to on e another. A careful
attent1011 to tl!e s_ense o_f any passage, and to the cl
e~sy ~ommuni cati? n of it, will, it is presumed, with~
:ud of the prei;eding rules, en able the student to ad .uat
t he proper paws es, and the p laces for inserting the com~as.
OF THE SE MICOLON.

Th e ~e micolon. is us ed for dividing a comp ou11rl s1 ·11tence mto two or mor·e parts not 80
closely c:o11n ected as those which are separated
by a comma, nor yet so little dependent en
each oth e r, as those which are distinguished
b) a c:olon.
Wlw n the preceding memb er of a senfon cP docs not of itself give a complete sense,'
but t! "·Peuds on the following clause, and
som o flmt~ s wh en the s ense of that member
would be complete without the concluding

PUNCTUATION.

15-7

one, but the latter depending on the former,
·the semicolon is used; as in tl1e following examples : "As th e desire of approbation, when
, it works according to r eason , i_mproves the
aminl.Jl e part of om· species in Pvery thin~ that
is laudable; so uothing is more destructive to
them, wh en it is governed l.Jy vanity or folly."
" Straws swim upon the surface; but p earls lie
at th e bottom."
'

E x amples.
That darkness of character where we can
s ec 110 heart those foldings of art through
which no native affection is allowed to penetrate present an object unamiable in every
s eason of life but particularly disagre eable in
youth
Th e path of truth is a plain and a safe path
that of falsehood is a perpl exing maze
Modesty is one of the chi e f ornaments of
you t h and has ever b_een esteemed a presage of
rising w.erit
Life with a swift though insensible course
glides away and like a river which undermines
its blinks gradually impairs our state
L e,•ity is frequently the forced pro1luction of
folly or vice cheerfulness is the natural off.
spring of wisdom and virtue only
r erson s who live according to order may
be compa1·ed ti; the celestial bodieR which
move in regular courses and by st~ted laws
()

ENGLJ8H GlU.l'lMAR.

PlTNCTU_lTION.

159

wl1ose ~nflueIJce is beneficent whose
. , ore he had long contemplated and admired
operations . is state his possessions would seem t9 lessen
ai·e quiet and tranquil
and his cares wou!~ grow
, ,
OF THE COLON.
"- • .
RULE 2. Wilen several semicolons have
h I h~ col~? is used to divide a scndnce iiitO
r~ ~I mo1 C Jla1·ts, Jess Connected than tJiose ' preceded, and a still greate1· pause is neces~; ~·c i are Hepa1·ated by a semicolon; but not ary, in ordel' to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied:
so ~idcpcndent a~ sepal'ate, distinct sentences
as "A divine legislator, uttering his voice
.
ULE 1. When a member of a sent~u •
I~ complete in itself, but followed by some su~ from heaven; an almighty gove.rnor, stretch. in,g forth liis arm to punish or reward; informeme~~al remar·k, or further illustration
t
~u ~ect, the colon may be properly admit- ing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for
}e . -as "Na tu re felt her inability to extricate · the righteous, and of indignation an'd wrath
ierself from the consequences of uilt · I th 1 awaiting the wicked: these a1·e the consideragospel reveals the plan of divine in~rpos. •t· , e . lions wliich overawe the world, whi.cl~ support
and aid."
1 ion
integ1·ity, and check guilt."

fiIJ

or

Example~•

. The tlire~ 9reat en~mies to trauquiJlity ~re.
vice superstition and idleness vice wh" b ' • ~ .
sons and disturbs the 111ind with bad IC . po•-•
s
. t.
I.
Pll8Sl0118 ..
upers t1 ron \I' 11eh fills it with r'n1a .
t .·" ~
r
"di
.
g.!Jlary erors I eness which loads i• with tea.·
..
'
and disgust
•
10.u sness
.

~Vh~n ~ve look

forward into the year which

~s ~grnm~g what do we behold there All my
ret u·en is a Ll.ank to our view a .dark unk nown pres ents itself
Happy would the poor man think himself iC
1ie could cuter on all the treasures of the rich
and hap11y for a shoi:!t time he might be but ll.e-

Examples.
By doing or at least endeavouring to do
our duty to .God a'n d man by acquiring a humble trust in the mercy and favour of God
through J csus Christ hy cultivating our minds
anrl properly cm ploying our time and thoughts
by governing nur passions and temper by corrrc ting all 1111reasnnablc expectations from the
world a!Hl from men in the midst qf worldly
business habitual ing ourselves to calm retreat
and serious recol11•ction by such means as these
it may be hoped that throughthe Divine .blessing our days will flow in a stream as unruffled
as the Jiuman state admits

166

l:NOLISH GRAMMAR,

RuLE 3. The colon is commanly used wheu ,
an example. a quotation, or a speech, is in ,
trod1r<"f'd : as_ " He was often heard to say : _
havo done wnh the world, and am willing to
leave it!"

Examples.
Th~ scripturt>s ~ivc us an amialllc r~pre­
sent.at1011 ot tho D e ity in th ese words " God is
lovo"
All our comlucl towards mon should be influe11ecd lly this important 111·cccpt "Do unto .
others as you wouhl othe rs should do unto
you"
•
Pl1ilip (JJ king of Spain when he dr~w near
the r~c! of his days Sl'riously reflecting on bis
past lif e a11d grratly affected with the remembranc· t· of his misspent time expresse1l his deep
rc r r ·r i11 thr11r trrms "Ah! how happy would
it '" 'e uce11 fill' me l1ud I spent these twenty- · ~
tl1t·1·e )"l'al's that I have held my kingdom in retirem e nt"
,
. . ·
OF THE PERIOD.

'Vh en a s e nt ence is so complete aod inde- .
pendent as nut to ue co1111ected in construction
with the followiug sentence, it is marked with
a period.
A p e1·ind may sometimes be admitted between two se nt e ncl'S, tboui;h they are joined
by a conj1111ctio11. For tho quality of the point
1loes 11nt al ways depe nd on the connective par-

l' UNCTUA'I'ION.

161

'ci11Je, hut on the sense and structur~ of scnnccs: as, " Recreations, though they be of
innocent kind, rcq uire steady gove~·nment, · ;
keep them within 'a due and limited .111·0.v ince.
ut such as are of an in·e1;11lar and vitinus narc, are not to Il e g overned, but, to be llanish1! from every w ell regulated mind."

E x amples.
The allscnce of Evil is r eal Goo·d Peace
uiet exemption from pain should be a con·nual feast
·
W1wl<lly happin ess ever tends to destroy
self by corrupting the heart It fosters the
ose and the Violent pa-ssions It eng~nders
oxious hallits anrl tain ts th e mind with false
elicacy which mak es it feel a thousand u11al ev il s
We ruin th e happin ess of life when we atmpt to raise it too higli A tnlernble and com- .
rtabl c state is all that we call prnpose to ourIves on E a1;th P ea ce and con te ntment not
liss nor transpo1't arc tlie. foll po1·tion of Man
crfectj riy is reserv ed for FJe aven
.
If we look around us w e shall perceive
at the whole unive rs e is full of active Powrs Action is ind ee d th e g enius of nature By
otion and exel'ti<l(ll the syste m of. Ul'ling: is
resernd in vigour By its different parts al•ays actin,g in subordination one to another
he perfection of the whole is carried on The

og

162

ENGl~ ISll

l'U N CTU A'1'10N •

GILB:IMAJ(.

h~a vr.~1ly bodies perpetually revolve day and •
nigh~ 11iecssa11tly .repeat their appointed c011rse ~
Co11~11Haal opcmtwns are going on in the earth

and rn the waters nothing stands still

OJ lite Dush; Notes

ef ·Interrogati01i

clamatiou,

1·c.

" ·

and Ex- · .

THE DASH,

'I'hc Dash, though often used improperly
by hasty an_d incoher_e nt writers, may be iutrod u ced w1 tl1 propriety, where the sentence
~1·c·ak s .off abruptly; where a significant J>ause
JS r equired; 01· whore there is an unexpected
tum in the sentiment: as "If thou art he, .
so much .r·e.s pected once-but, oh! how fallen!
!tow 11.eg ra~led !" " If acting conformably to l
the .will ?i ou1· _C reator ;-if promoting the
welfare ol mankind a1·ound us ;-if securing · ·
.o ur own happi1wss ;-are objects of the laighest
mon.1e nt : then we are loudly called upon to '
c ultivate and extend the gl'eat interests of reli g ion and vfrtue.,,
INTElUlOGATION.

A n_ote of In~errogation is used at the eud
of an _rnt~rrogative sentence;~ that is, when a
qu estion is asked; as " W!ip '. will accompany

me?"
Questions which a tierson asks himself in
contemplation, ought to be':. .terminated Irv
.

165

. . ts f interrogation: as" Who aclorne.d the

porn
o with such exqu1s1te
. . b eauty.'"
hcavr.ns

. ..

A point of intenogation is impropet' ~·ter s;n~ences
w'hi'cb are not questions,_ but only e:i:preGS10ns o a mi.ra.
nd ·exceltion or some other emot10n. /
"'How many instances have we of chastity a
e in the fair sex!"
,·
!enc note of interrogation should not be employed, m
A
h
' t ·sonly said a question has been asked, and
cases w ere i i
.
where the words are not used as a quesh~?,·
"The Cyprians ask ed me , wby I we!'. . r
't h uld
To give this sentence the mterrogat1ve iorm i s o
be expre·ssed t hus :
~"
., The Cyprians sttid to me, 'Vhy dost thoµ weep . .
EXCI.A~'lA'l'lON •

Th e note of Exclamation is appli.ed to ~x1n·cssions of sudd en cmotio!1, surpr1sP, gnef~
.
<-c and also to invocat10ns or addresses .
JOY•'"
· friend! this condu ct amazes m c 1·"
as ,, My
;, Bless the Lord, 0 my soul; and forget not
all his benefi ts!"
It is difficult i.n sor.1e cases, t o distin;-uish b etween an
. iterro ative and exclamatory. se_nte1~ce ; but a sentence,
1
~ whi~h any wonder or adm1r:i.bon 1s expressed, and no
m
·
\' d may be always pro·
answer either expcct<'d or nn~. ie ' lam:ition . as "How
perly t erminated by a note of exc"' "Wb~ can suffimuch vanity in the pursuits o men ·
·
1,.
(<lently express the g~oduess of our Creator . •
PARENTH ES 18.

A 11arc11thesis is a clause containing so~1e
·
neccssary in f.onnat10n,
or us cful remark.' mtroduccd into the body of the se1~tencc ?b.liq,~ie;
ly, and which.may be omitted without rnJulrn::,
the constrnchon ; as

16ir

J.:NGLISII GilA~nu. n.

165
1'UNUTUATION.
"Know tlica this truth
know)
(enough for man tQ
As in riper years all unseasonable Returns
"Virtue alone is h p .
.
o the levity of youth ought to be laid aside
Iftl1c incidental calaprne,ss below."
,
. .I
use Je sho ·t
and admonition which equally belougs to both
co111cu t' with the rest f ti
I , or perfectly
the sexes still more are we to guard against
prope1· to use the i:r te s~ntencc, it is not
those intem11 erate indulgences of pleasure to
The fullowin.<; inflta!ice:nthetrcaJ characters• .
which the young arc unhappily prone
Jicr us es of the parentl ar~ therefore inipro( who saw) his wonders . '~f's:-" Speak you
The bliss of man could pride that blessing find
l'.l~net. (as the Creat~1·1~1a ie deep." "~very
Is not to act or think beyond mankind
·
' ·arn) is most probably . I sh.made notlung in
111 ta 1ted."
Prnmiswoz's examples for Pmictnation.
Examples of the Dash I. t
.
~
Il cauty and strengtl ' n crrogatum
He who shuts out all evasion wheu be pro~
.
'..., c.
and piety ho1Y lovely . t tclo111b.1ned with virtue
· mises loves truth
nl. ·
Ill JC sight f
The laurels of the 'Varrior are dyed in
J' .1.as 111.i; to l1 cavc11 pecur
1
~ men how
wit_h evrry temptation ;~r y I~lcasrng because
blood and bedewe<l with the tears of the widow
tardy walk in the pat! f .:lcv1ate they volunand orphan
·
, . I'll r
' I 0 uuty
Thg ga1·dens of the world produce o_nly deci•
Ive to-morrow" will
.
duous flowers Perennial ones must be sought
To-moITow is too late ti
wise man say
What is th e re in all . ti ien ive to-day
.
in the delightful regions above Roses without
the enjoyments of I
. tc pomp of the World
thorns are the growth of paradise alone
. com11aralile LIXUJ
P assron
t
1·y the gra t.1'J'ication of
The
Almighty from his throne on earth suro t 1c tra
·1 d .
'
a g~olI conscience
nqu1 cl1ght of
veys
. 1 o li e down on the Jil/ow
Nought greater than an honest humble heart
rn t cmpe:ance in beu efic: encc aftelr.a d~y spent
A llilrnlile heat·t his residence proooune'd
swePt 41
an< Ill 1i1ety how
His second scat
Where thy true treasure Gold says not in
"\VIWe wait
, t·11
i to-morrow t b
" iy not to-day Shall we b o e liappy alas
me
.•urc we s hall be he I . e younger Arc we
And not in me the diamond Gold is poor
hc c'llnc feebler and a th;er Will our passions
He loves nobly I speak of friendship who is
our ove of the world Jes~
not jealous when be has partners of love

f·

J1

•

I

166

ENGLISH GRAJrUIAH,

167

J>U.NCTU.A.'l'ION.

·when Socrates was asked what n:ian ap. York, ·the Andes, the Delaware, the Sea:proached tl~e nearest to perfect happiness lip , hoi·se.
answered 1 hat man wl10 has the fewest wants _ s. Adjectives derived from the proper nar_nes
D IRECTioNs
of places: as " Grecian, Roman, Enghsh,
Respecting the 1tst of Capital Ltttcrs.
French, Italian."
It w~s for111er!y the custom to bcg;in every
6 . Words of particular imp?rtance: as "The
110un with a capital: but as this practice wa~
Reformation; the Rcstorat10n; the RevolutroublL'Some, and gave tlw w1·iting or pr,inting
tion."
.
.
a crow.ded ~nd co11fuse<l appearance, it ha's
. 7. The fit·st word of a quotat10n! introduced
~e~n d1seo11tin~1e1l. It 1 howcvci·, very pro- aftei· a colon, 01. when it ~s in a .direct fo1:m:
,>ct to he.i;in with a c;ap tal,
, as Always remember this- anc1en~ maxim:
1. The first word of every book, chapter,
,, Know thyself!" Our great Lawgiver says,
Jetter,, not e. 01· any othrr piece of writing• . ->. "Take up thy cross daily, and !ollow. me.''
2. I'hr first word after a period; and, if the
But when a quotation is brought rn ohhquely
two se n~cnces lie totally independent, after., a . , after a comma, a capital is unnec~ssary: as
note of 111terrogation or exclamatioil.
.«:. Solomon observes "that pride goes before deBut if a nu miler of inte1To.i;ati ve or exclama~.
strnction."
tory sente~1~:cs are thrown into one general
The first word of an example may also very
group; or it the · con st ruc~ion of the lattrr sen- ,
propel'ly begin with a capital, as "Temptatences deprnds on th1· former, all of them extion proves our virtue.".
ccpt th r first, may begin with a small lctten:
8. Every noun aml prm~al wo.rd.m the tia_s ".H!1w long, ye simple on rs, will yr .
ties of books: as "Johnson's D1ct10nary of
s1111pl~c1ty? and. th e scm•n1•1·s drliisht in thc.i~; the English Languag_e ;" '~ Thom,~on's Seascor111.11g ' and fools hate kn11wledge ?" "Alas!.
sons;" "Rollin's Ancient Hist?ry •.
l1ow <l1tferrnt ! yet how likr~ the same!"
,
9 • The first word of eve1·y lme l~ po_etry.
3. The apprllations of the deitv; as God,
10 • '!'he pronoun J, and the in~erJect1on 0 ·1
Jehovah, tlie A~mighty, the Suprr~mr Being,
are written in capitals: as "I write;" "Hear,
the Lord, Providence the Messiah the Hoh:
o eai·tl1 '·"
.
·
Spirit.
'
'
•.
Other words, besides the preceding, may
I.!.. Proper names of persons, places, citi~s. .
begin with capitals, when ~he! are r~marknlrects, m0untains.• ri,·ers, ships: as Geor~r:.
ably emphatical, or the principal subject of

!s,

'*"

Jove

t'

composition.

.

.

1tiS

ENGI.I SH GRAMMAR.

PROSODY.
Prosody teaches the ti·uc pronunciation of
\~ords, and comprises accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, au d tone.
ACCENT.

Accent. is the laying of a particular stress
of the voice, ?n a certain letter or syllable in
a word, that 1t may be better heard than the
rest, or distinguished from them : as tahle delight.
,
QUANTITY.

. The q~ ant!ty of a syl1able is the time wbicb
18
ocd.cup1e~ hm pronouncing it; anti is ,consil 1ere as e1t er long 01· short.
A ~owe! or sy11,a ble is long, when the accent is on th e vowel; which occasions it to be
~ lowly joined in pronunciation with the followrng lette1·s, as " Fall, bale, house." .
A syllal>Je is short, when the accent is gn the
co~1 so na~t J whi ch occas ions the \'O\\;el to be
quH:kly .1omcd toijt c succeeding letter or letters: as " art, bonnet."
A long syllable requires double the time of
a s ho1·t one in pronouncing it: as "Mate mat·
nute, not."
'
'
.EMPHASIS.

By cmph~sis is me~nt a strongc1· arid fullet·
sound of voice, by winch we distinguish some
wo1·1~ or words on which we design to Jay a
particular stress, and to show how they affict
tl~e rest of the sentence: as "His subjects fear
thm, lint H1ey do n11t lrrcr, him-."

169

PROSODY.

l' AUS~S.

Pauses or rests, ir: speakitig and reading,
a1·c a total cessat.ion of tlw' voice, during a p1wccp\.1liJ.., and, in many cases, a mcasuralile
s11ace of time.
TONES .

Tone:; consist in tht•. rnorlulation of the voice,
the llutcs 01· variations of sound which we cmpfoy in th e ex p1·ession of our .sentiments.
CHARACTERS .

Th.e following clrnrnc:te1·s arc frequently
used in composition.
An apostl'Oplie, marked thus 'is used when
a wm·d or sylhhlt: is contracted: as tho' for
though : lov'<l fo1· lov ed.
A Carat, marked thuR A shows where a word
01· words should he place1I. that have heen
strive

omitted ; as Thou shoulJst

to impl'Ove.
A

A Hypli t" n, which is thus ma1~ked - is used
to join syllables, or compou11d words together;
as con-strnin, to-mor-row, ink-pot.
The Ac ute acce nt marked thus 'denotes a
short syllal>l e, as fan'cy .
The Grave accent thus 'denotes a long syl'lable : as labour.
The prnper mark to distinguish a long syllalll e is thi s - : as " Rosy;" and a short one,
tlrn; v as " Folly." This last mark is called
a Breve.

p

:170

!:: ~G LISH

APPENDIX.

GRAMMAU.

A Di ::el'esis thus mark ed ··, shows that two
rnwels form separate syllables: as" Creator.''
A Section is thus mark ed ~·
.
·
A Paragraph, thus ~·
A quotation has two inverted commas at the
llf'gi1111ing, and two direct ones at the end of a
pi11·ase or passage : as
"The p1·oprr stud y of mankind is man ."
Crotchets or Brackets serve to enelose a
pa1·ticular word 01· sentence. They are marked thus [ J.
•
An Ind ex or Hand (]:? points out a remark·
abl e passage.
;
A B1·acc } unites three poetical lines;

~r

conn ects a nu .m ber of words, in ·prose, wi.th
one C'.om mon te rm.
•
An asterisk or little star* directs the reader to Sf}J11e note in the margin.
An Ellipsis is thus ma1·kcd - - : as
' ' K--_
- g," for King.
An Obelisk, which is marked thus t, and
I 1 arall els thus n. togeth er with the lettrrs of
the alpliaoet, and figu1·cs, a1·e used as refere nces to the mar·gin.
For further information on the subject of Prosody, and
th e laws of Versific,ttion; with the various figures of
speech, the reader is r eferred to Lindley Murr:;.y' s English
Grammar, Hutchins' Gramma1·, a nd Sheridan's Art of
Read in ~.

t;O RRECTIONS OF F ALSE SYNTAX.
AD AP TED TO THE RULES.

U nll el' Ruic t.
'J'h ee must be more attentive to thy stutlie•.

Not p roper, because tl;e pronoun thee is in th e objectiv e case, an<l is the subj ect of ~he verb m118t b~ :. But wh~n .
a nonn or pronou n is tlw subj ect of a verb 1t u_iust be m
the nominative ca.se, agreeable to Huie .1. . Th e1efore thee
shouH be t/,ou , a personal pronoun, nomm.ative case : thus,
Thou must be more 1ttentivc to t.hy st\ld1es . .
Jle who is carele ss and in a~tent1ve will not 1mp~ove .
'J'hey know how to write as well a! he : but h e 1s a bett er grammarian than tl.ey.
.
. .
.
'l 'i,ey that oppress the poor to increase ~heir riches,
shall come to want.
·
Sh e that is virtuous d eserves esteem.
T'Vlwsoever is contented, e njoys happ iness.
'Vh o macle t he nois e I ] .
.
lie t hat thi11ks twice before he sp eaks once, will speak
twice the better for it.
.
H e a•.l moni shed all who h e thought ha<l b ee n disorderly,
to be more w:itc hfol in f11tm;e·

Und er Rul r 2.
'T he girls 1oas her( yesterday.
Not correct becanse the verb 1oas is in the singular
numb e r, and 'its subj ect or nominati ve girl.,. is _plural.
Hut ag1·eeable to Rule 2, a verb must agree w1\h its sub; ect or nominative in numb er and p erson. Therefore W M
"should be -we1·e, a' verb of the plmal nnmber ; th tis :
'The girls wn·e here yesterday.

:2

173

APPENDIX.

.APPE.N DIX'.

Tho rt •h03.i/d be morB diligeHt in attmdi11g to thy itmu'er.

'flterefo1·c leads sl10uld be lead, n verb of the plural nllll'l·
ber, and the sentence will stand thus:
Sobriety and humility load to honour.

Not corre~t, becaus~ the verb elwultf be is in th e plural
nurn~e'., or ffrst or thml person singular, an cl its subject
t/,ou 1 ~ 111 lhe 6econd person singular: l:l'lt agreeable to
Hui e 2, a l'erb must agree with its subject in number a.rul
pe.r~on. The sentence shonld stand thus :
l hou shouidst be more diligent in attending to thy
studies.
Great pains have been talce11 to little purpose.
:·:i-eque nt commission of sin hardens men in it .
. I her.e a1'e many occns:ons in life, in which oilcnce and
wnp hc1ty are lllarks oftrne wisdom.
ll ~ Jares n.o t act con trary to his instructio ns.
·" hat avali the best sentiments, if people <lo n 0 t r .
suitably to them!
1vc
Not one of them whom thou seest, clothed in purpl ·
happy.
~u
.Nothing df/ights some persons, but vain and foolis.h pur·
suits.
The number of stirs that are, nt any one time, ,·isible
to the nak ed eye , do es nut much e xceed one thousand.
-!', Y<\.'"1ety <•' ple:<;ing objects c!1a1-,ns the eye.
Io live soberly, righteously, ancl piou~ly ia 1·equired of
all men.
'
The fol.lowi ng treatise, together with tho~c which nc-•
company it, was wrilten many years ago, for my own satisfact10n.
To do nnto all men as we would that they, in &imilar
circumsta11 ces, should do unto u• w11 stitutes the great
principle of virtue.
'

ende r Rulr 3.
s ,,f>,.iety and humility leucl!i to h.ouo111'.
Not c o n ~c t, because t.he verb leads is in the singula r
numbe r, and has :wo subjects, sobriety "nd humilit!J connect ed by th r cor.,1unchon a11d: But agreeable to l<ule 3
~v h e n a v~ 1·b h~s two sub~ects conn:cted by the conjunc:
c1 on wul, it must :•gree with them m th e plural number.

Patience and ,\iligence, overcome difficulties.
.
Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excel pride
and ignorance under costly atti re.
Wisd•.m1, virtue , and happiness, dwelt wit'h the humble
:m<l pure in heart.
The plan etary system, boundl ess space, and the immense ocean, affect th e mind with sensations of astonishm ent.
'Vhat sig nif!J the cou nsel :111d care. of preceptors. when
youth think they have no need of assistance!
Time and tide wait for no man.
The inquisitive and curious are g~rlerally talk~tive.
To be of a pure and humble mrnd, to exercise benevolence towards others, ancl to cultivate piety towards
God, ai·e the sw·e means of becoming pe!tccful and
..
.
happy .
Hu mility and love, whatev er obscurities ma:r ~nvolve
l'cligious tenets, conytitute the esse nce of true religion .
·A mi so w~i·e also James :md Jvhn the sons of Zebedee.
Much do human pride and self-complacency require
corrcc;:tion.

Unuer Rule 4. ·
.,1Veitl1e1· l<e 1w1· his son were to he found.

Not proper, because were is a verb of t~e plur~l n~1m,
be1", not agreei ng in number with each of lts nommattves
/1e and so11 , connected by the conjunction nor. But when
two or more subjects of the singular number are connected by the conjunction 01", or 1101., th<; verb must
al'Tee with each of th em in the singular number, agreeable t o Huie 1. Therefore were should be wa s, a neuter
verb of the indic:itive mood, imperfect tense, agrceins-

.P 2

174

APPEJ\DIX:.

A P.PENDJ:X,

wit h its nominative he or son iu the third person sin.,.ular.
thus:
<>
•
Neither he nor his son was to be found.

tiave cfiokecl the seeds of virt~e in many a promising

Ig norance or negligence has caused this mistake.
\y calth, or virtue, or any valuable acquisit;on, ;, not
attainable by i<lle wi shes.
. Th ere are man~· ~aults in spelling, which neither :maJogy nor pronunciation just!fies.
:\~art ~eply, a proneness to .re buke, or a captious <lis.
pos1t10n, iu capable of emb itt enng domestic life.
On ~h ese causes depe11ds all the happiness or misery
th at exists. among men .
. Wh.en si.ck.ness, infirmity, or calamity ajfecll us, the
s111cer1ty ot friendship is proved.
. Man's happiness or misery, ii, in a veat measure; put
mto Ills own hands.
·
. Whatever he undertakes, either his pride <.or hi~ folly
disgu~ts

us.
lias thy brother or sister been con1ui.ud on the occasion/

Under Rule 5.
Neither they nor he was p1·esent.

Incorrect, because th.. verb -was is in the sing~l:u11 ~ mh 7 1-, and is precede rl hy two subjects · they and he,
of cl1fl erc nt num.bers, connected by the conjunction noi·,
ancl the plural 1s no: placec~ n~ ~t to it. But, agreeahle
to Hui e .S, when subjects of different numbers a.re conncctccl by the conjunction nor, the verb must agree
wi th the plural, which should be placed next to it. Therefor e was should be -we1·e, and the sentence should read
thus :·
Ne ither he nor they were present.
Ei ther thou or the boys were in the fault.
Neith er poverty nor riches were injurious to him .
. H e c?nl'.l not trll whether one person or two, bad assistc·cl lum 111 the transaction ..
The deceitfulness of riches, or the car~: of \his life,

mind.
. l
d . b. ,
He or they have much cause to be <lisp ease wit the
treatment received.
.
Some parts of the ship and .cargo were recov~re.d; but
neith er the captain nor the sailors were s:lved.
Whether one person, or more than one were concerned
in the business, does not yet appear.
Eith er the driver, the carriage, or the horse• "tVere ont
of order.

Under Rule 6.
The church have 110 power to inflict c<Jrporal punilhments .
Not correct, because the verb have i~ in the plural
number, and its subject church is a nonn of multitude that
conveys nnity of idea: But agreeabl~ to Rule 6, whe_n the
subject is a noun of multitude which conveys umty of
idea, the verb must agree w.ith it in the singular n~mbcr.
Therefore have should be hru, and the sentence will read
thrn:
· ~
The church !.cu no power to inflict corporal pums ....,
men ts.
The people rejoice in that whicl1 should cause sorrow.
The flock, and not the fleece, is, or ought to be the ob ject of the shepherd's care.
Jn the days of youth the rnult\tude eagerly pursue plea.sure.
The court hai just e11decl, after hav!ng sat through the
kial of a very long cause.
The family were all well wh.en we Ii;ft home yesterday.
No society is chargeable with the disapproved eonduet
of particular members.
The committee were divide.cl in sentiment, and they
11ave refe!'l'ed the business to the general meeting·.
Why Joea this generation look for greater aV1dence,
when so much is already given?
The council were not unanimous; ans they 1eparat\'i1~.
without coming to any eonclusi<m.•

:l 7ti

Ileligion and knowledge exceeci wealth :mcl grandeur,
and they will render their possessor more honourable .
Avoirl ha11ghtin ess ofb chavi oar, and affectation of man·
nt'rs, for they wi ll :issuredly bring th ee to disgrace.
Obsen-e thy father's commandment, and the la\v of thy
moth er: bind them continually on thy heart.
Prirle and vanity "·ill ever render thefr possessor des" ·
picable in the eyes of the wise.
Coffee anrl si1gar are imported from t;he We~t Indies,
and great quantiti es of them are used every year.

N~ ··c r w.0 • any other p eople so much in1~t uatcd ~o tliu

'J C\\'1s

1

i

nation.

...

·~

....

U 11der Rule 7
1 do not lhi11k a 71y per.Mn sho.uld be. cen:urer/ for being care-

I\r
•

Ju l uf the1.1· 1·eputatio11 .

prop er" beca11se th e pl'onoun their is in th
I riil
1111111 Jn, an cl its a11tece<le nt />".
· ·
I e Pu
J>ton oun must agl'c c· wit h its. t' ' so11,, is smi;u ar : Hut, a
I
l
.1 n eceucnt m number «en
' e1" ant p e!'son, agreeab le to Rul e 7 T l
,. ' b . •
shottlcl be Ids , thus :
•
·
1cre1ore then·

ca~c~1,~ 1 1 :'.~~,,~l; i;~kl·l~;:;;i~71 rson

Un<kr Rnlc 9.

should be censured for being

"
b
.
th e 1'.~e ecca tolok ~uocl l y raiment which was with her in
. use_, a1H pat it on J acob."
Each o! them in h ' t
. ·
lie is entitled..
.s urn receJves the benefits to which
Neither
of. tli--e se men uems to have any idea ·that
· hi·.
. .
op1n1ons are 111 iound ed.
•

tl1~;d~~fe;~7~;1'1· ~~hat.cv<ler be
.

0 .0 11

an

hlis station, should attend to
mora 1ty.

Let each of us cheerfully bear h18. pat·t m
. t h e genernl
·
burden.
If an animal should be taken
f . . .
dep ri ved of u~~te~ta::~i~~stmct, we
. : n dmt·ato!''s t ongue sho uld be agre eable to the ears of

sho~1ld find £t wholly
l ll3 au

1

or~.

,

U n:le1· Rule 8.
lfis Jwliten ess an <l

~oot

z r.1·uposit£on

i7i

·APPENDIX.

Al'PE~\'DlX.

-u:cre, on f ui.h11·a of its

ejject, rn!fre/y c/umged .
1mproper, became th e pronou n ii.• is in th e 8 in,,.·ulm·
It.
llllll 1Jc r ' nnd has
·
"' two 'ant ece cl e n ls, jJoltteneas
and d"1posi-

t'°"', co nnected by the conjunction a1UI : Hut a c co rdin~
Jo h ule 8, when a.pron_oun refe rs to two :mtec~dents co;:_
_le~;ed by th e CO !lJUnCtlOn a11tl, it mus t a"TCe with th em
m te j1l11ml num ber. Therefore it• shou lc.i"ue ti e' .
"
son al pronoun
.
.I .
' ir, .1 p c •.
nes; and ti ' j '. agre7 1ngl· wit l its two antecedr. nts, j10/ite• I-I'
/" 0 ·"1'°"• int ie th ird person plu ral tlnis:
''· " 15 L i:i 0 . itene.ss and gocd clisp:isition we.r e ~n fa ilure of
1
... cir c1 Cct, <:11tuely ch:rng('d.

Eithe1· /.."T! owledge or vfrt11e is p 1·efera ble to riches: strive,
therefore, early i11 youth to attain them.
Not proper, because them is a pronoun of th e plura1
number, not agree ing in number with each of its ante·
cedent s lcno-wledge and v irtue, eor.nected by the con·
junction or : But when a pronoun hns two or more ante•
cedents of th e singular number, connected by the con·
junct ion or, i\ must agree with each of them ip the sinr;11lar number, agreeuble to Huie 9. Th erefore tlie'ill should
b e it, a persona·! pronoun, agre eing with its antecedent
J..'11owled[Je or vi1·t11e in the third person singular ; thu s :
Either knowledge or Yirtue is preferable to riches .;
strive, th erefore, early in youth to attain i t.
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition
oflife, for it m:ty be thy own lot.
Eith er work or play is pr1:fcrable to idleness, becau5e
it fim1i•hes us with healthful exercise.
A ma n may see a metarhor or an alle6ory in, a picture,,
as well as read ii in a book.
A or an is called th e indefinite article, because i t re,
/ates to one of a k '.nd, but not to one in i;articubr.
' Ve art: not such machines as :i.-clock or a "':atch, which
will move only as it is moved.

L nde r Ruic

rn.

fVhm the na tio11 complains t_he 1'1ders should listen to theii:
voice.
Not correct, because the pl'onoun tl1efr is in th e p in.-

., ... ,,

.H'£ l':~]) IX.

~I()

Al:'1'£NDIX.

ml number, :incl its :mtecetlenl 11atio11, is a noun"~ ~llll­

tiiu<lc, conv eying unity of idea : But, agreeable to Rule
10, when a pronoun refers to a noun of multitude which
com·cys unity of idea, it must be in the singular number.
Th erefore th e sentence shoul<l rcad thus :
' ·\ 'hen th e nation complains, the rulers should listen, to

ils voice .

Th e crowcl was so great, that we ha<l much d:fficiiJ.~y
to p:iss throu g h it.
ln the days of :roulh, the multitude eagerly pursue
p lcnsm e as th eir chie f g·r,otl.
Th e committee we re diviclcd in sentime nt; ant! tliey
luwe 1'1'ferred the busin ess to tl1 e g e neral meeting.
.·.
The company was very small at first, but ii increased
dail y.
' ·Vliy clo the people r ejoice i1' that which shoul~ 'g-ive
tl1.em sorrow ?
Th e sehool was adjourn ed ar.d ii lws not been c~l/ectea
~i n cc.

Un<lcr Rule 11.
I lun:c n ol seen my Jiarcnts this aix mo11t/,,;,

J\'ot prop er, because titis is an adjecti,·e of the singular
number, and the noun mo11ths to which it relates, is pl~
ral. Dut the :tdjc ctiYcs this , that, ('< c. must agree in numb er with the nouns to which they r elate, agreeable to
Hui e 11. Th ere fore this should be the>e, an aclj~cti1•e
re l1ting to th e noun month s an<l ag1·ceing with it in the
pltll'a! munber; tlws:
/
1 h:tve nol see n my parents these six months.
Pl ease to give me tl.ose scissors.
·
Th at sort of f;lVours clicl real injury uncler the appe!!.i1an ce of kinclness.
vY e do not appi·m·e of this ,kind of practi ces, as it docs
11ot con;iport with a guarded eclucatio n.
lnstea<l of imprnving yourselves, you havt> been playing
these two hours.
T !tis ki nd of indul£"ence srifte11s and injrt.res the mine).

17 !)

U n<lel' Rule 1:1.
'J'liy ancestor$ virtue is

1l Ot thine.
·
which is usecl
Not correct, b ecause the n?1111 aac~s 1o:s, ·s not in th,e
. t to sigmfy possess10n, '
.
,.
with the noun v;r uc
. · t Ritle 12 when two
1
..
possess1\'e
case : But' accor<
. I111g
:- o ossession' the 1atter
nouns are used tog~ther, imp ynig p
Th~ senteuce
governs the former 111 the possesslve case.
should reacl thus :
.
.
Thv ancestor's virtue is nut thme ..
A wi se man's :rnger is of'shoi:t contmuance.
Thy father's offence will n~t cond~m~~~~:egreatest deWisdom's precepts are t e goo
'
·
·
I
light.
, p
Hast thou re:icl Cowper sk o~n~s ·better oi·der than the .
The girls' books were ep 111
.
boys'.

Unde1· Rule 13.
[ g ave my boo/c to James, my cousi-n, . he -wlio 1uas here
yesterday.
. ..
th
rsonal pronoun he, is m
Not cor rect, because he P:n James which it is u~ed
the nominative case, an~ t t'? ~o c:ise.. But according to
to explain, is in the obJeC ne
·,
;d to explain a
Huie 1 ~, when a .P~rs?nal P~~i~~o~ v.'.~t~sit, ancl must be
preceding noun, it is ;,.n ~pp· Id be him ant! the sentence
in the same case.
n e s LOU
'
.

read thus:
.
cousin him who was'
1 gave my book to Jame~, my
here yesterday·
S
the carpenter, Mm w~o
This horse belongs to amue1.'
··
built the house.
·
who succeeded Ju.
Augustus, the Roman Em!Jeror, /ie
,
·
· '
lius Czsa.r, is variously defs~nbclef· 1 · who J-eeps the liThese books are my r1en . s, i1s " . ,· : .. .. ,..

brary~
The estate

John the two
cld1:st
was l e ft to Simon
. :incl
..
·
sons, them that had been to Europ<".

180

API'ENDI X.

APPENDIX.

Art . thou acq.ua·
· 11 Cla11ssa
•
rn r·e d wit
Uie ·u·
.
w h om we met m our walk this morning!
nu iner, hBr

ing- to Jlule 15, the perfe<;t parijciple· Jl\U~t iwt :be µsed

Und er Rule 14.
Ilim havin""
· discourse,
"
tlie assembly disperaed.
" ended Ii is
Incorrect, because th e pr
. . .
ens~ and ·
. onoun !u m JS Ill the obiective
. •
JS connected with th~ . · · 1
. J
"'. its subject : But whe n a
~ p:irticip e h:ivzng ei1ded,
w1t!1 " participle as its b _noun. or pronoun is con nected
11
tivc case. The s~nt<' n/ (''c~d it must be in the 11 4 mitiaH e having ended h. .el. s 1011 stand thus :
. ,
,
I S ( JSCOUl'se the as . .
bl d"
·, '
>em Y 1sµcrsed.
1 'he!J being willm to im
agreeable.
g
pro\ e, th"' study was rendered
Sh < bting absent, the b ·
.
other,-..
usmess was attencled to by

Thc-y all had rh
1 t t
The sun haYin ~r Y ? go, 1"e only excepted . .

·

g 1 sen, Jt became verv ,1·arm
·
..
1 1.ey were all more or less
.
.
c::cl, wl;o was verv circumsp ·tcen~urnble, she only exceptT ho'' har in o- ·b
ec 111 er conduct.
more diffic ult." cen unwatchful, the work is· rendered

Under
Rule 15.
.

.

.{( some ev~1ts !.all not .·[<eII out Vl1"Y imexpectedly' I ahould
have been {lrese111 .

Not correct, because th e v b r. 11
• .
pe,·'ect tens(-, is conn ected w ~r J e~ . w~.'ch Js in tbe irn~.. :.. ,,,,.i,:e to l' l 15
ith th < .111x1Lary had. But
··
· •
•U e
, a verb af ti
_,.
'
ne t he c.o nnected with a11
·1· ie impen ect tense must
• anx1 iary. Pell sho lrl b r. U
an d t ll ~ se 11tence read •hus .
u
c ,a en,
lf some events had 1; 0 t j. l/
should have h<? en present. a en out very unexp ectedly, I
,
N He """" begun to b e -u;eary

. notliinlj to tlo .
of l1rn.-111g
ot proper, because the
rfi
. . ·
·
used instead of the ·m
f
p e ect p art1c1ple begun is
1 per ect tense 6ega 11 _. But, accord-

:•

1Si

instead of the imperfect tens.e . ',fhe ~1!,l)l<:nio.e sho.u ldl'.eari.
thus :
·
Ile soon began to b e w~ary of ha.v ipg JlOt4\ng JQ do.
1 was in London a year, a11<;l sww .the ki.l!g la11t ~~1ne r.

H e writes as the best authors would have -written on the
same subj ec.t.
He would have g one with us, if we had asked him.
They have choseri the part .o f l\onour .and yirt1.1e. .
The house was .shaken".by t,be vi0 le11c<e .ofth.e &tlirn1.
He had 'written and re?-d much on the subject.
.
I saw m y old friend last week.
They who liave borne a p:ii,t .i n ,the ~a,b,01¥", ~ .sruu·e
the wwar<l.
.
. ., .
By too eager a pµr,~1.1i~ he ,ra7.' a {;T.e.(l.t ri,l;k pf beili.g disappointed.
.
Whe n the rules \1ay,e ;~eel:l ~l!l\l~Q)l}y> /JrokCJJ, .there can
be no plea for favo:ur.
.·
He would not have g_gJ:C., jf J;i,\l ,4ail.li:no\v.n.it. . .
You who have for:safc.f!I. yo yr :f;iends, are entitled .to no
confiden ce.
·
·
Under Rul~ 16.
J

••

IIe that is idle anti mischievous, reprove #i a.rJ>l!f.·

Not correct, b ecause the pronoun .. he .is ~\1.,ti;e npminative case, and is the object efthe tran~it~ve verp, :reprove :
But according to Rule 16, a ti·i1.11aitive verb governs ,Uie
noun or pronoun, whicli js its obj t<c,t, .in '. ~}t!'J.objec.~ve
case . The sentence should read thus: · ; ~n ·
Ilim th~t is idle and rajschi~~~U,s, · r,~prpv5! .&ll~Jy.
You are di spl ea~ed with 111e f9r a<lmoI1is1;ii11g yqu.
H e invited my brother and ,,ie tosee ·)ti~ gai::d.eii·
If h e will not hear his best friend, l"lwm $llull we ~~d
to admonish him.
·
·
They who have laboured to make us wise and good,
are the· p ersons whom we ought p articularly to love and
r espect.
Whateve1· others do, let thee and me perfo.1"JD ·Ot1r .duti··

Q

APPENDIX .
Al'I'.ENJHS.

Whom did they send on that im
You who were" dead h· th I
p_ortaut embassy ?
Hiim an d tttem
1
'
we kno1
'" b le qu1cke1le d .
1
·we should 1 • Ii
' ut who are vou?
.
o1 e, car, and ohev ti •A

ing, even Him who has p
. , le uthor of ow· beever.
ow,e1 to reward or punish us for

Under Rule 1 7 •
-

1 /w u art him who sold the b k

Not pro per, b ecause 11im is .
. · oo. s.
t:ase, foll.owing the neuter verb p_ronoun 11~ the objectiyc
the nommatiYe th;Ju: But
art, which is preceded b
noun or pronoun must h neulter verbs, followed by ;
fore them, agree;ble to n~re t le s;ime case :Uter as hebe 11~, a personal pronoun oe 17. ~herefore him should
}}Ommative following tl1 ' f the tlurd person sin~·'··
.h
h
e neutre verb t tl
i;......,,
'l o1! art e who sold the b
ar , ms;
I believed it to be th .
ooks.
Be composed, it is I _em ow ho raised the report. .
I cannot tell who ha~ {h u h~ve .no cause to fear.
ite from whom I have re.::ei~!d 5 efriendef:d me, unless it Is
It was not I who made th
~ many avours.
I would act the same . e .noJSe.
ti on.
part if 1 were lie, or in his situa.
He _so much resembled 1. .
took 1t to be ltim.
us bi other, that at first sight, I
It could not have been 8h
creetl~··
e, for she always acts disHe IS ncit t!Je person w!to 1
ter, He is IJU ~ the person th t lle appeared to be; or betAfter all their profes . ~ . 1 ~ appe.ared to be.
It might have heeu ·t 0 ~ 5• 15 it po_ss1ble it was tliey ?
If it was not 1 _ 1~' ut there is no proof ofit.
b
ne, .vnom do
.
.
een; or better lf it
you 1rnagme it to hal'e
was.
'
was not lie, who do you think it

Untler Rule 18.
1 uccd !wt to solicit him to do a k. d
> ct c .,. t b
Ill action .
01

. cc '

cc ause the verb solicit in the inJinitir c

1'83

1nood, following the verb need, is attended by the preposition to: But, according to Tiule 18, when a verb in
the infinitive mootl follows the verb need, the preposition tn should be omitted. The sentence should read
thus:
I need not solicit him to do a kind action.
And the multitude wondered when they saw those
that had been lam e, walk; and those that had been blind,
see.
I think I should not dare do it.
They need not go at this time.
I bade him shut the door.
It is the difference of their conduct, which makes us
approve the one and reject the other.
We may see some persons behave very prudently on
such occasions.

Untler Rule 19.
'l'fw11gh the fact be extraordinary, it ce1·Hiinly did happen.
Not correct, because the verb· be has the form of the
elliptical future tense of the subjunctive mood, and refers to present time ; But, according to Rule 19, this elliptical form must not be used when there is not a direct reference to Jutw·e time. Be should be is, a neuter
verb of the present t ense, and the sentence will reatl
thus:
Though the fact is extraordinary, it certainly did happen.
No one engages in that business, unless he aims at reputation.
If he but intimates his desire, it is sufficient to produce
obedience.
If he s/1eaks only to display his abilities, he is unworthy
of attention.
Ifhe is in health, J am content.
Though the desi gn is laudable, it will involve him i11
mw;h anxi et.'··

-~llJ?ENDIX.

J.f tholt censwcst un charitably, thou descrvc st no fa.
\'Olll'.

\'l'h eth cr he tlunks as he sp eaks, time will show.
If thou gi·c·est lib erally, thou art entitled to a liberal reward.
Unless th e statement decei-..·es me, my estate is conside.rably improv·e d.
Though he is high, he hath re~pect to the lowly.

Und er Rule 20.
ll'as 1 to enu mer ate all her -;:frtucs, it w o1tld look lik:e fiat-

t"ry.
Not. corre_ct,_ b ecaus_e the verb w as, which refers to present t:me, 1s 111 the 1mpe1fect te nse of the subjunctive
mood, and has not th e same form as that used in the plural Aumbe r : But, acco1·ding to llule 20, when the imperfect tense of the verb to be, in the subjunctive mood, refers
t o prese nt time, _it mu~ t h nv.o th e same form in the singular number that it has m the plural. The sentence should
read thus:
W ere I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like
flattery.
Although he -was thy friend, he <lid not justify thy con..
duct.
As the governess was present, the children behaved
:tiropcrly.
Wcte he ever so great aml op ule:ot, this conduct would
d cb:;se him.
It would be well if the r ep ort -were only the misrepresentation of his enemies.
If he was there, he can give us an ac count of the transa£tion .
'1'hough I -were p erfect, yet would I not presume.
Ye t th:tt were vain, if dreams infest th e grave.
lf he was guilty, there is no evidence of the fact.
/Vere man to live coeval with the sun, the patriarch
pupil would be learnill!i still.
t \\'011 1<l tlrnt th on "'Crt ei th e1· cold or hot.

.\PPENDIX:.

185

Oh ! that thou -wert as my brother.
11emcmber that thou wast a servant in the laml of
Egypt.

U ndc1· Rule 21.
lJ t!tu11 sincerel!J desire, an~l earnestly p ursuest v irtue, she will
bej ound of thee.

Not correct b ecause the verb pursuest, is in the 1n- es~: 1 t
tense and is ~onnectecl by the conjunction and, wit .1. 1e
verb desfre, whi ch is in the first futt~re tense.(the au.xil1ary
shalt understood) and the -nominative thou is not repea\
cl. llut accorclina- to Rule 2 1, when verbs are connectc<
~y ·a coi:junction, ~nd the nominative not repeated,hth~~
must agree in moocl and tense. The sentence s ou
re ad thus ·
·
1
If tho~ ~incer;>IY desire and earnestly pursue virtu e, s.1e
will b e found of thee.

1

S he was once p1·o~ul, but is m~v humble.
Improp er, because the no:nin_a tive she_ is not '.·epe atcd,
t he verb is being necessanly m a d1f!e rent tense from
t he verb wr:s with which it is connected by the conJuncnut according to Rule 21, when verbs are cont .1on vr.lt t.. .J.>
,
• •
h
.
·y chano-c
n ected by a conjunction, if t ere is a n e ce~s:u Tl · . " _
of tense, th e nominative must be rcpeatec .
ie ;;en
t ence sh ould read thus :
She was once proud, but s!Le is ~ow l_n nnble . . .
Did he not strive to improv e his mmd, and diligently
labow· to increase his k nowledge ?
.
H e would neither do it himself, nor s11.ffe1· another to

J o ;i~ does not want courage, but he is. defective in se nsibility.
. d , aml , 'f
i P roperly :ipL earning strengthens the mm
lied it wi ll improve our momls too.
.
p H~ might h::iye been happy, and lte is no w fully con·;·ince cl of it .

1.S<i

Al'PENIJIX.

J Jc is \"cry wealthy, but he is not happy:
"Doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and f'O into
1he wilderness to seek that whi ch is lost!"
~
Ou r season of improvement is short; antl whether improved or not , it wi ll soon pass away.
Hank may confer influe nce, b ut it will not necessarily
r.i ro<luce r irtuc .

Unde r Rule 22.
1 iJ(l •·e 7;;rt."llc~ :o my fi'it?nrl l'.lst ·;ueck, but lun,.e ye_t receit't"d
'i1fJ

t l/1 SW :!l' .

. :'\ot COJTcct, be<:;ause the verb ltavewritte11 is in the p erkct tens<' , anti r efe rs to a periocl of time th at has fully
f: 'ssc·cl : !J ut, :iccorcling to H.ule :22, i11 th e u s.: of a verb
ancl " ·or<ls, that in point of tim e, r e late to each other the
osder of tim e must be preserv ecl. The sente nce sb~uld
rcatl tlu1 s :
1 '""ote to my fricncl last week, bu t I have yet received
no i..nswe r.
1./ he arri r·c;; in time, lie ·;1:ill 30 to the city in the stage.

Not correct, because th e ,·e rb m·,.i,;cs is in the prese nt
t f' nse, :tnd refer_s to future tim e : but, :u;cording to Hui e
22, Ill t!1e use of verbs and words, that in point of tim e,
:·e lat e to caci1 oth er, tbe order of tim e should be observed.
Th e se ntence should read thus :
If he arri_ve in time , (shall being understood) be will go
to t he city 1n the stage.
H e is a p erson whom I h ave rememb ered th ese many
y c:irs.
After we le ad visited the city, we r eturned, content, and
thankful, to our re tired and p eaceful habitation.
At the tim e of hi • r eturn, if h e be exp ert in his business, he will find employment.
Unlcs.> he lr11rn faster, he will be no sc hol ar.
~;o one will e ngage in that busine ss, 1111l ess he azm at
re putati0n.

187

Howeve t· that affair terminate, his conduct wi!l he un imp eachable.
.
.
.
U ntil rep entance shall have co111posecl 111s l')Und, he will
h e a stranger to p eace.
.
His sea-sickness was so great, that I often feared he
7Uould die before our arrival.
I have compassion on the multitude, because th ey have
contin?1ecl with me now three days.
A fter hisjournty, he was much ch:rnged from what he
fwd been before.
The next new year's day, I shall have been at school
three years.
I propose to go to the city next w·eek, and afcer I shalt
hav1:.fi11i.1heclmy business there, to proceed to the Southern
States.
John will have earned his wages, when his service shall .
be completed.

It re quired so much care that .1 feare d I slia:dd lase it
before l reached home.

Under Rule 23 .
JI.: is t!ie strongest of th e two.
Not correct, because the adjective stro11gest, whi~h _is
11 sed in a comparison between two persons only, 1s m
th e super /uti<:e d egree. Hut, acco'.ding to Huie 23, when
an :i.dj ccfr:e is use d in a comparison between two person s only , it must be in the . comparativ_e d~g r ee. Th ercfqre .,trnngest should be st1'ong er, an adJCCtivc of the comparative degree, thus :
He i~ the stronger o-fthe two.
This is the best apple of the three.
J ames and Samuel art>. brothers, :md though James is
th e elde,., Samuel is the t11lle1· of the two.
Which oi those three kites is the highest?
His parents frequently visited him but his mother much
the ofte ner. Or, much morefl'r.<juenll!J tfum. his fath e1·.

..

·

1S8

APP£NHJ X .

·which is the better rcacler, Thomas or hi& sister!
The fable says, "The oak ancl the willow once hacl a
dispute which was the strong C't'."
Sa~uel ancl Thomas are stuclying· grammar : but as the
latter 1s th e :;-wrr. diligent of th e two, he will probably attain the knowledge of it th e soone>" Or, as the latter is
more diligent tl~an the fo>'m er, he will probably att:iin the
knowleclge of1t sooner.
A talent of this kincl woulcl, p erhaps, prove likelier than
any other to succeed.

Under Ruic 2 -L
B y the exercising tJU1·jwlgment, it is imprrn.:cd,.
Not correct, because the preposition of does not follow
th~ active participle e.1: e 1·~ising, which is prececled by the:
article t!te. But, accordmg tu Rule 24, when an active
participle is preceded by an articl e, it must he followed
by the preposition of; both uf whi ch should be used, or
both omitted. The sentence should read, thus :
lly the e.xerci si ng of our judgme nt, it is improved.
Or, the article the should be omitte<l, thus :
By exercising our judgment , it is improved.

APPl:N~IX.

189

Under Rule 25.
lie acted <lf{1'eeable to Ids p1·0111ise.
Not proper, because the adjective ag'reeable is used ingtead of an adverb to express the manner of the verb .
acted. But, according to Rule 25, an adjective should
not be used instead of an adverb to express the manner
of the verb . Therefore ag reeable should be ag reeably,
:incl th e sentence read thus :
He acted agi·eeably to his promise.
He speaks very flu ently, but lie docs not reason very
coherently.
The task was the more easily performed, from .the cheerfuln ess with which they engaged in it.
He conducted himself"very unsuit11bly to his profession.
She writes very 11eatly, and spells accurately.
He was so deeply impressed with the subject, that few
could Bpeak more 11obly u::ion it.
Alas ! · they are miserably poor.
He was extremely prodigal; and his property is now
n ~arly exhausted.

Under Rule 26.
I think I cannot help him no more.

1l is an uven-aluing of ourselves, to reduce every thing
t o the narrow measure of our own capacities.
Tiy observing- tru th, thou wilt co1Timand esteem as well
as sec ure p eace.
~ "~ person cannot be wise or good, without taking pains
! Ol' 1t.
T he loving of our enemie:; is a divine command ; Or,
/&ving our enemies.

L earning languag-es is very difficult : 01-, 'l'he le:u·ning
languages is very difficult.
ily reading books written by the best authors, his minJ
became highly improved.
f,
Nut attending to this rule is the cause ofa very common
.:·:T" l' ; Or, want ef attention to this ntle, Uc.
~f

Not correct, because the two negative words, 11ot and
arc used in the · same simple sentence to express a
negative meaning. But, agreeable to Uule 26, two negative words should not be used in the same simple sentence to express a negative meaning. The sentence
should he thus:
I think I can help him no more; Or, I think I cannot
help him any more.
Nothing eve,. affected him so much as this misccmduct
of his friend .
Do not interrupt me thyself, nor let any one disturb
my retireme nt. Or, N either interrupt me th!1seif, no1· let

110,

o ny one, efc .

n eath sparcth none .

APPENDIX.

Al'P£NDIX.
T c:rn give no more for it. Or, I cannot give any mart
,''01· it.
Il e hon est mu/ take no slrnp e 01· semblance of disguise .

U nder Rule 27.
I Ii: 0113·/,t to tlum/..:fi:l(y 1·ec<il'e . tlw many hlessings with whic!t

What concord can subsist between those who commit
crimes, and them that abhor them?
:From the character of those persons witli whom y~m
associate, your own will be estimated.

Under Rule 29.

we w·e ./ avoured.

Not proper, because the adverb thankfully is place<!
between the preposition to and the verb rec.;vc, which
go verns it. .llut, an adverb should not be placed betwee n a verb of the infinitive mood and th e preposition
tu whioh governs it, agreeable to Hule 27. Therefore
the adj ective tlumkf11lly should precede the preposition
in, thu s:
·
We ought thankfully to re ceive the many blessings with
\\· hich we arc favoured.
P lease not to interri1pt me.
_
'Ve shouicl strive daily t<J impron• our precious time.
She is said excellen tly to have perfom1ed her part.
Al ways to keep in view th e unc ertainty of time, is the
\\':\)' rightly to estimate it.

U nder Rule 28.
I V/10 did he g ire the book to .'!

Not correct, because the pronoun who is in the nomitza:'ivc case, and is the object of the µreposition to. But,
accordi ng to lh1le 28, a preposition governs the noun or
pronoun, which is its object, in the objective case. The
se nte nce should reacl thus :
To whom did he give th e book?
H e placed the suspicion on somebody in the company;
I know not on wlwm.
P rum whom didst thou rece ive that intelligence?
Docs the boy know to whom he spoke ?
Associate not thyself with those of whom n<Jne can
s·Jea k well.
· I hope it is not I whom tli on art cli splcased with. Or,
·"•itl1 '""""" thou al't dis/>lcascd.

11 ·c sho idd entertain no pr~judice to simple and m stic p81'sons;.
Not correct, because the relation between the v.erb c1_i- ·
te1·taiti and the noun jn·ejudice in the. former part of the sent.en~e, and the noun persons in the latter part, is not:
appropriately expressed by the preposit!~n to. Il~t, . ac'-­

cording to Rule 29, in the use of prepositions, particular
care should be taken to express the relations by appro•
·priate words. The sentence should read thus :·
We should entertain no prejudice agafnst simple and:
!'ustic persons.
·
'l 'liejit-st proj;osal

-w®

essentially different, and i nf erior to the
second.

Not correct, because the relation between the adjec;.
t ive dijfere~1t and the noun proposal (understood at the
end of the sentence) is not clearly expressed by the preposition to . But, according to Rule 2_9, in the. use of prepositions, care should be taken to express the relatwns
by appropriate words. The sentence should read thus;
The ·first proposal was essentially different f r<nn the
second, and inferior to it.
S olid p eace and contentment consist neitliei· in beaul!t 01·
.
riches.
Not c01Tcct, because the c.onjunction or is used to ~Ol'.•
respond with neither. Hut, agreeable to the observat1?11s
under Rule 29, neit!iet· requires 1iu1· as a corresponding

word. The sentence should read thus :
Solid peace and contentment consist neither in beauty
nor riches.
·
Several alterations have been made in the work, anti
some additions to it.
Her !!Obriety and silence m·e no derogation fi·om her
understanding.

Al'1'£1'U!X •.

This place is not su pleasant as we expected.
So far as I am able to judge, the book is well written.
Neither has he, nor have any other p ersons suspected
so much <lissimulation.
The king of f'r:u1ce, or the k-ing of England was to hnve
been the umpire.
We can carefully co.nli<le in none but the truly good.
Sincerity is as valuable as knowledge, and even tmore
valuable.
Whatever we <lo secretly, shall he displayed in the
clearest light.
'Ve are often disappointed i1I things, which, before
possession, promised much enjoyment. ·
I have no occasion f or his serl'ices.
H e was accused ufhaving acted dishonourably.
Though the practice is conformable to custom, it is not
warrantable.
Many have profited by good advice.
The deaf man whose ears were opened, aml whose
to ngue ··uas loosened, doubtless glorified the great physician .

Under Rule

so.

Oh.! thee, who art so w11JJi11df11l of thy rluiy,

Not proper, because thee is a pronoun of the second
person, objective case, following the interjection Oh!
Ilut int e1:jections require the nominative case of a noun
or pronoun of the second or third person after them,
agreeable to Hule 30. Therefore thee should be thou, a
p ers-onal pronoun of the se oond person singular, nominat ive case, following the interj ection Oh.' thus:
Oh! thou, who art so uhmin<lful of thy duty.
Ah! wretched me, how ungrateful!
Oh! happy they, surrounded w,i th so many blessings.
Hail! thou, that art highly favoured.
How swiftly our time passes away! and ah! us, how little concerned to improve it 1
'Velcome than, who hast been so long expectetl.
THE E N D.

