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BULLIONS'S GRAMMATICAL SERIES.

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ANALYSIS,

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PAl~SING AND COMPOSITION:
WITU DIRECT REFERENCES TO

THE COMMON SCHOOL GRAMMAR
AND

ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR
OF DR. BULLIONS'S SERIES.
ALSO ADAPTED TO

ANY CORRECT GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
BY
v

...

JAMES CRU,IKSHANK, LL. D.,
A8815TANT SUl'EltlNTl\NDJl:NT OB' 801100L8 1 DROOXLTN 1 N, y,

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NEW YORK:
PUBLISHED BY SHELDON AND COMPANY,
498 AND 500 BROADWAY.

18 70.

·-------------------Slll!Ll!ll&•t•••ll

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Entered, ncconlh1g to Act of Congres;, In the year 1869, by
JAIIIES CHUIKSIIANK,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Unlted States for the Son them
District of New York.

COLLEGE AND SCHOOL TEXT BOOKS.

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EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS, PARSING AND COMPOSI'l'IUN, .fiO
BULLIONS AND lofOJlRIS'S LATIN LESSONS, • • • .
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PREFACE.

THE design of this manual, as its title indicates, .is
not to furnish an independent treatise on language,
but only to afford an additional aid to its study and
use, in connection with the standard grammars to
which it refers.
The first part enters fully into the structure of the
sentence, and by familiar examples, carefully selected,
illustrates most of the combinations which the English
sentence exhibits.

The frequent references tb the

excellent and almost exhaustive treatises of Dr .
Bullions will serve to refresh the memory of the
pupil in the principles therein so ably stated, and iii
many instances, it is believed, assist him in a more
thorough mastery of their

applica~ion.

It is believed

that the sections relating to the structure of derivative words will be found of practical value, embracing(lil)

IV

rn small compass all that is most needful in that
department.
The second part gives a series of selections which
will be found profitable for analysis and parsing ;

CONTENTiS.

whilst the references, especially in cases of unusual
idiom or construction, will materially aid the begin~
ner, and serve to impress them practically upon his
mind.
In the third part an attempt has been made rather
to suggest some practical methods in composition,
than to present either extended and tiresome exercises, or an exhaustive statement of the laws of rhetoric.

The formal study of that art requires a separate

and more pretentious treatise.
BROORLYN,

1869.

PART I.
ANALYSIS.
•.• The flgure~ in full-faced type refer to the Sections.
PAGE

1-6 . . , • • . •
DIVISIONS OF THE SUBJECT, 7-14. , . • • .
:Relations of Words, 1/J. • • . . • . • . • .
Exercises, 16-17. • • • • • • . . • • • .
Definitions, 18-33 . .•
The Sentence, 34-36 • • • • . • • • ' . '
' · · • •
ELE~rnNTS OF, 37_:.40: : · : : : : : : : : : • • • • • • •
CLASSJ:<'ICATION OF, 41. • , , ••• , , •••
I. Forms, 42-46 . . ·
·
·
II. Knture of the Aflir:n~tio~: ~1~9.
III . . Number of Propositions, 150-152.
81.ngle Sentences, 153 . • . . • . . . • . .
'rABLE OF CLASSIFICATION, 154. . .•
The Subject, 153-158
SIMPLE AND COlllP~;N~,·
PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS,

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a9: : : ••• • • •• •• •• • •• ••

Xhe Predicate, 60-615 .• . • • . • . • • • .
E,XTI~NSION o~·, 66-68, , , , , , , , , , ,
SIMPLE AND CO~IPOUND, (J() • •

The Circumstance, 'i'0-71 . • . • •
The Parenthesis, 72. • • . • • • . •
Xhe Object, 73-77 . • . • • • • • .
Xhe Attribute, 78-81, . . . •
SECOND OB.TECTS, 81!, 83.
Conipound Sentences, 84.
1. COPULATIVE, 88-90.
2. DIS.JUNCTIVE 1 91 1 92.
3. ANTITHETIC, 98-0[;, ,
•• ILI.ATIVE, 96 . • . . . •
ABHIDGED, 101-107•.

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CONTENTS.

CO>JTI~NTS.

P.rnr.

Com-J1lex Sentences, 108-130 ..
CLAUS1':8 IN, 108-11.1.
Forms, 112-119.
Substantive Clause, 120, 121. ·
Adnominal, 123, 124.
Adverbicil, 125, 126. · • •
Connectives, 127, 128.
CLAUSES, '!'able of, 129. •
Examples, 130. • . · ·
Abridged and Extended Sentences, 131.
POSITION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES, 134.
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES, 135.
INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES, 136-140. ·
Dfrections for Analysis, 141 . . ·
l\IODEI,S OF ANALYSIS, 142. • • • '
EXAlllPJ,ES FOlt ANALYSIS, 143. •
B11les of Syntax (Summary), 144 . . •
'l'HE SUBSTANTIVE, 145-151.
THE PRONOUN, 152, 153.
'l'HE VERB, 154-157.
Tim Anvmrn, 158 . • : •
CONJUNCTIONS, 1.59. . •
THE PREPOSITION, 160,
INTEit.TECTIONS, 161. • •
Words, 162 . • . . • • • • ·
CLASSIFICATION, 162-164.
PARTS OF SPEECH 1 165-177.
PARSING, 178. . • • • • · • •
'!'ABLE OF PARTS OF SPEECH, 179.
UsJ1;s OF THE PARTS OF SPEECK, 180.
Noun or Pronoun, 180 . •
Verb, 181-185. • .
Relative, 186-190.
Interrogative, 191.
Adjective, 192.
Adverb, 193, 194.
Conjunction, 195-200 . . • .
ANALYSIS OF THE VERB, 201-210..
The Auxiliaries, 211-221 .. • . •
The Subjunctive l\Iood, 222-224.
St1·ttct1we of 1Vor<ls, 225.
P1rnFIXES, 230. . .
Saxon, 230. I. •
Lntin, 2,10. II. .
Greek, 230. IIL

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Btrttcture of Wo,,.ds (continued).
l::)UYF'lXKS 1 234. • •
LATIN ltoOTB 1 235. , , , , ••
Verbs, 235• • • • • • • • •
Nouns, Adjectives, etc., 236.
.ANALYSIS oF W01ms, 237 .. ••
Literal and 'l'ropical Meaning, 238 .•
COMPOUND WORDS, 239, 240.
General Exercises 241.
SYNONYblS 1 242, • • • , •

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103

103
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119

120

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53
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05
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08

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71

72

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81
82
82
82

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85
811

86
88
91
95

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II.

BELEOTIONB FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
F.XERCISES IN PROSE.

I. Select Sentences, 243.
II. Select Paragraphs, 244.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
·vnI.
IX.

123
• ... 1~6

Morn! Reflections, 245.
'fhc Hill of Science, 246.
The Importance of a Good Education, 247.
Order In tho Distribution of our Time, 248.
'l'he Pleasure of acquiring Knowledge, 249.
The Uses of Knowledge, 250 . .•
Character of Washington, 21>1 • •

128

13l

135
13(;

138
141
H3

EXEHCISES IN POETRY.

I. Select Sentences, 256. •

147
150

II. Select Paragraphs, 2157.

III. The Union, 258. • • . .

153

lM

IV. ERrly Recollections, 259 . • . • .
V. Flowers the Glfl; of Divine Beni!;IJ.ity, 260.
VI. To the Ocean, 261 . • • • • •
VII. Description of a Storm, 262.
VIII. Ode to Peace, 263. • ••
IX. The Ruins, 264.
X. Summer Morning, 265 ..
XI. The Land of Dreams, 266.
XII. The Ralnbow,,261•••••
XIII. Hope triumphant In Death, 268.
XIV. The Hermit, 269 . • • . • • . . .
XV. Procrnstlnnt.lon, 270 . . . • • • .
XVI. Uond to Il11ppiness open to All, 271.
XVII, Hymn on Review of the Seasons, 272.

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CONTENTS,

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Ex1mcrn 1r,s IN rotr.THY (contfntt ed).
X y 111. The· Order of N uturc, 273. • · · • • • •
XIX. Invocation to Light, 274. • •. · • · · •
XX. Discourse between Adam und .Evo, 275.

l'A<IY.

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ANALYSIS, PARSING,

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III.

AND

COMPOSITION.
276-280. • •
I . Framing S entences, 281. • · ·
II. Copying, 282, 283. • · · • ·
JU. Dictation Exercises, 284. • • •
IV. R eproduction, 285. • • • • • •
v. Impromptu Composition, 286.
I. Paraphrase, 287, 288. • • •
Exercises, 289. • . . • · • •
VA m ETY OF Exr1rnss10N, 290, 2 91 .

DIFFERENT METHODS,

C1·iticis11i, 292, 293. • • •
7'hc Essn11, 294, 295. • ·
Exntnples, 296. • · • · •
L ct te1• 1JT1·itiny , 297-302.
Style, 303-307. · · • •

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• • • · · · ·
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CHOICE OF WORDS. •

Perspicuity, 308.
Purity, 309. · •
Propriety, 31 0. · •
.
Precision, 311. · • • · · · · · ·
STR UCTUJUr, OI' SRNT!r.NC tr,S , 312 ·
'"'
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Clearnc.~ s and Precision
- ~· I ·
Unity, 312. II. · · · · · ' ' . '
Sfrength, 312. III. · · · · ' ' . '
Harmony, 312. IV. · · · · · • ·
Fiy1wative Lanyua.ye, 813-319.
Varieties of Style, 820, 321. • •
Puncttuit-ion and Ca11itals, 822.

.•••.

CO~fPOSITION.
181

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181
185
185
187
188
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20 1
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PART

,

I.

ANALYSIS.
[R-EFERENCES. - The foot notes answering to the references in
the text are, lat, to the paragraphs in Bullions's Analytical and
1 .l~ractlcal English Grammar (A. & P. Gr.), and, 2d, to the Les- ·
·aon• in Bullions's Common School Grammar (C. S. Gr.). The
figures in parentheses in the text refer to the Sections of this book. J

1.. G1•anunar has been definecl as "the art of
spe~king and writing correctly." 1 The stU..d?J of

g1•a1tl/lnar, therefore, should result in skill in the
use of language.

Grammars can not make language :

' they can only interpret it.
1

2. From the exaniination of language as
. ~e find it in the use of the best speakers and writers,
·we discover the forni, office, and const1"uction·
of words, whence we derive general principles
nnd laws.
A. & P. Gr.-13.
C. S. Gr. - I L es son 1.
(1)

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ANALYSIS AND !'AHSING.

Sole, or responsive each to other's note
'
Singing their great Creator? Oft in bancls,
"While they kept watch, or nightly roundinu- walk
"With heavenly touch of instrumental sounds
In full harmonic number joined, their songs '
Divide the night, and lift our thoughts to heaven."
Thus talking, haucl in hand, alone they passed
On to their blissful bower - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - There arrived, both stood,
.
Both turned; and under open sky adored
The. God that made both sky, air, earth, and heaven,
'Vlnch they beheld, the moon's resplenclent globe,
And starry pole. " Thou 1 also mad'st the night
Maker Omnipotent, and thou the <fay,
'
""Which we, in our appointed work employed
Have finished, happy in our mutual help
'
And mutual love, the crown of all our bliss
Ordained by th ee ; and this delicious place,
For us too large, where thy abunclance wants
Partakers, and uncropped foils to the grourid.
But
T thou hast promised from us two .." race, '
o fill the earth, who shall with us extol
Thy goodness infinite, both when we wake,
And when we seek, as now, thy gift of sleep." Afilton.
A. & P. Gr.-1112G.

~

PART

I I I.

COMPOSITION.
276. C01nposition is the art of expressing our thoughts
by means of language.*

277. Gra11u1utr becomes an aid to composition when, by
its study, we are made familiar with the laws of language,
so as to be able readily and correctly to apply the11i.
'

'

278. In order to cm·rect and elegant writing, four
things are requisite : 1. An adequate lcnowle<lge of the snbject we propose
to elucidate, embracing its facts and its relation to other subjects
of thought, i. e. the material of composition.
2. The second essential consists in a clear and methodical
a1•1•angmnent of the ideas we wish to present.
3. Thorough acquaintance with the language
in which we write, embracing its lexicology and grammar.
' This, in its highest sense, can be acquired only by large experience and a careful and critical study of the best authors.
4. Such familiarity with the JJrinciples of style as will.
enable us, in the form of language used, and in the general man~

* ,JnRt :tR spoken lang-1rng-e iR rn~ed prncticnlly for mnny yenrs before nny
formal nttempt ls mnde to t ench it, so the Im.bit of writing should be commenr.rd ns Roon nR t11e chlld can read the simpleRt RPntences and master
thr form A of the Jdtrr~.
llfnrh practice Rhonlcl then ensue, wl1ich the Rkillfnl tenr.h<'r wf11 not 'hit
to tnrn to g-ood nccount. RO that the pupil will, nnr.onRrionAly, nncl :tR a
prrt of thr cii~cipline of the prirnnry Achoo!, form the habit of expressing
his thoughts in writin<r ns well as in speech.
.

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183

CO:\ll'OSl1'10N.

FHAMING SJrn'l'ENCES.

ngement of our theme, to conform to the requirements of a correct taste.

3., Take a sentence in its sim,plest for·1n (35) (grammatical subject and verb), and expand it.
( a .) By adjectives and adjective adjuncts, to limit the subject

279.
then, is a J'J1'actical
art , w I1ose Iie 11 t
· <l . Composition,
.
'
gUJ e. is expenenee, requiring eulture, study, and thou rht in th
~elect10n ~n<l preparation of its material, antl care and~ <l
o
In arrnngmg methodically the different d' . "
f
JU g~1ent
<l .
lVlSIOns 0 our SUbJeCt
an m unfolding them in logical order.
'
~~O. In t~aining the pupil to habits of correct and clrgant'
wntmg, a variety of means may be used, among which we instance the following: .
. 1.
. . The framing of sentcnces, a f ter specific
models to f: il
rnnze the l~upil with the use of certain sentential elem~nts. atn •
2 · Copymg from the best authors.
3. Dictation exercises.
4. Hepro<luction.
13 · Impromptu composition.
6. Paraphrase.
7 ·. Formal essays, including, also,· lett.crs and other forms of
.
ongmal composition.
8. . The critical st uty
] o f s t an d nrd author~, in stated exercises,
to discover and. correct errors and infelicities of expression; nnd
the reconstruct10n .o f such portions as arc faulty~

I. Franiiny Sentences.
281. 1. ·with a given subject, which may be either

a 11 ingl c word or an extcn<lc<l phrase or clause, let the pupil write a
proper predicate, as follows : House. Hose. The good man.
The house stands by the side of the road.
The ?·ose grows in the garden .
A good rnan will be loved hy all.
2. With a given predicate supply a proper subject; as, - - - - grows in the m eadows.
- - - - plows hii:; fi eld.
- -·- - is queen of England.
- - - discovered .America.

'!·

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(123).
(b.) By adverbs, adverbial phrases, or clauses (125).
(c.) By words, phrases, or claus es, to limit the object or the
attribute (66).
NoTE· In exercises of this nature, an important element is
their freshness. A skillful teacher can r eadily furnish material
as it is needed, either upon the blackboard, for oral or written
exercises, or by dictation to the pupils. Such n ew; fresh material is to be preferred to any prepar ed beforehand in the textbook. The latter is almost universally dull and irksome, and its
study is looked forward to as a task.

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II. Copyiny.
282. In this exercis e, absolute aecuracy should be aimed at
- the acquisition of such skill as will r en<l er the pupil positive
and certain in the mechanical e~ecution; while at the same time
he cultivates neatness and dispatch in penmanship.
283. The work of copying may be variously supplemented by
familiar questions as to the 1u eani ng of the author, th e u se of particular words or phrases, or it may lie ma<le an exercise in analy sis
and parsing.

III. Dictatfon E xercises.
284. The value of written exercises in mastering the orthography of the language is universally conceded. Th ey 1tre of no
less importance, considered as a means of making the pupil familiar by practice with the forms of language, and giving him
facility in the mechanical part of co mpo sition, as well as affording the very best drill in punctuation, the u se of capitals, etc.

General Suggestions.
1. Jlfethod. The class being properly seated, as for recitation,
with slate and pencil in hand, the teacher r eads deliberately, and
distinctly, and slowly enough for all to follow, selected sentences,

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184

COMPOS lTION.

or a continuous narrative,* adaptc<l to the capacity of the pupils.
The exercise should 11ot he too lo11g, awl a111plc time 111trnt bo
nllowccl for thorough corrPction and diticussion.
2. When the writing is co111plcLc<l, the pupils change slates,
an<l the teacher, with one of the sbtes in hand, revises the entire
work.

(a.) The spelUny. The teacher pronounces the words in
order, or such of th e m as may be deemed sufficient, and each
pupil in turn spells a word orally, the class meanwhile noting
upon the slates all errors of spclliug.
(b.) 1'lte punctuation aud use of capitals receive
similar attention, in such form as the ju<lgment ~f the teacher
may suggest.

( c.) Familiar questions upon the 1neaning of particular
words or phrases are not inappropriate for the most elementary class, and may be made both interesting and profitable.
(d.) If th e class is som e what advanced, attention may be given
to the analysis of <le1·i,,v ativc wonls:
( e.) Exercis es, as occasion mny scn' c, in t1•ansposition,
substitution of synonymous wor<lti or phrases, variety of expression, grammatical analysis, etc.

IV. Re11rocluction.
285. Among the most important auxiliaries to composition,
especially in the early stages of the pupil's work, is 1·e1n·oduction. For this purpose may be use<l brief narratives, or
familiar oral lessons in naturaJ hi story, liiograpliy, trades, etc.
As a stated exe rcise, the t eacher, or a 111emher. of the cla~~,
may read a short narrative, or oth er selection, or relate a story
or incident. The pupils th en write out from memory in their
own language the substance of what was r ead or relatc<l to them.
*

In th e first efforts at writin g from dictation, the exercise mny conRlst
of <letnchcd won.ls from the spclliu g-book, or, better still, from the rcail-

i11 g

l e~so n.

'Vhen the pupil cnn write with a :.;ood drgrec of rnpi!lit.y, t.hc 1llctntlo11
exercises shonlcl. for th e lllO~t p:irt, c111iirncc conti1111011s diHconr~c- tho
selections bciug adapted to his capacity, and exhibitiug the best moclcl8,

PARAI'HRASK

185

This exercise should at the first be brief, but may be extended
as the pupils actp1ire skill.
.
The daily Jes ~o ns of the school room, in geo~r~phy, lu~tory,
etc., will furnish additional material for such Lmef essays m repro<luction.
.
ln sulJs equcnt lesso ns, an outline may be given by the teacher,
and the pupils be encoura.gc<l to enlarge by adding such information as they themselves possess, or can derive from other
sources.

v.

Ini1n·01nptu Composition.

286. For the purpose of giving r ea<lin ess and celerity in
compos1't'10 11 , 'an<l comp elling abstraction. of the mind
. from every
other interest save that in hand, there is no exercise of greater
value than that of inip1·01nptu cmnposition.
.
1. .Jlethod. Let the pupils of a class be seated in order, with
slate and pencil, or other writing material in hand. When nil
•arc in r eadiness, the teach er announces a simple theme nllap~e d
to the capacity of the class, anu at a signal all begin to \~r'.tc .
At the expiration of three, five, or t en minutes, upon the g1v111g
of another signal, all cease. No emendations arc now to Le
made.
f I
2. The teacher may now call upon one and anotl.1 er o t ~e
pupils to r ead what th ey have written, anu when a littl e conh<lcnce has been created by experience, th e pupils, and aften~arlls
the teacher, may, in a kindly spirit, criticise the. several performances an<l ma.kc such suggestions as see m pcrtment.
3. After a tilllc, the:;e iinpro111pL11 excn:i:ocs 111:1y be ma~l c a
<lrill preliminary to a mon~ ·<'lahorate essay on the same subject,
to be writte n out by each pupil.
4. The time allotterl, and the particular methods employed,
may be varied as each teacher's genius and cx1Jerience, and the
wa;1ts of the class, may dictate.

VI. Plwaph1·ase.
·2s'i'. Paraphrase is a f1·ee tJ"anslation, by whicl~ the
sense is ·expressctl in othe1• language, and may be amplified.

lG *

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186

COl\IPOSITION.

288. The following cases may be adduced: l.. By

"I know hini

t·r a1isposition of words, as the active for the

passive, or the passive for the active voice. as G au l " - " Gaul was 'conquered
'
" Cresar
' conquered
.
Ly Crosar."
(a'.) 'I he active form is to be preferred: (1.) When the object of a transitive verb is an. ft ·c
lowed Ly a substantive; as, m 111 ive fol·
"H e intended
.
to purchase a house . " not "Al wuse was inten<le<l to be purchased
'
b l. "
(2 ) '\iVI
. . .
Y um.
.
1en the ObJeCt is a general term ]" "t d b
or clause fo llowing; as,_
' imi e . Y a phraso
"He saw the
·
·
. ~ e cessity of prompt attention to the matter." not. "'I'!
ie necessity of pro
t tt
.
'
him."
mp a ent10n to the matter was seen by

~,3:), When

the object is a propositional clause; as ~
He knew that the battle had been lost. " n 0 t '
"" 'Tl
It was k nown by him that the battle had
' been lost. " or iat the battle had be e n lost was
. "'
• kn own Ly I 11m
(b)
Tl
·
.
ie passive form is preferable in the followin.
.
(1.) When the agent is followed Ly a lony 1·elat·· g elases. as, ivc c a use;
"He was admitted into this institution l
.
h ad been his father's old t f' .
Jy some gentlemen 'vho
'
cs n ends an<l who 1 ·' 1
over his interests."
'
Jau ong watche<l

(2.) When the agent is not kno
.
.
stood to be persons in T
l
wn, or ummportant, or under" ,
genera ; as,_
:
•
"~he H.oma.ns were considered goocl soldiers."
t may easily Le conceived I
"The righte
iow reluctant we were to return "
ous are held in
1 .
•
2. B ti
.
. ever astmg remembrance."
Y ie expans'lon of a w d .
traction of a phras '. t
.
or mto a phrase, or the con" Dil .
e m o a smgle word; as, .
.
tgent boys improve ?'apidl " - "
. ..
improv~ with great ?'apidity." y
Boys of diligent hab1'ts

ConsH~erable amp lifi cation may be

under tins heall.

3 · The expansion

tences; as, -

an

d

admitted in the exercises

contraction of

187

EXF.lWlSES .

·

clauses in sen-

to be a wise man " - " I know that he is a

wise man.''
" When Ccesar had crossed the Alps, he passed into Italy" " Jiaving crossed the Alps, Crosar passed into Italy." (B. G.

649, 650.)
4.

Changes of words or phrases for others of the same

meaning.

G. Recast of sentences, using any word or style, so as

to convey the meaning.

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Under this head, change verse into

prose. (See 291. III.)
6. Taking a given sentence or expression as a

thenie or text,

to be expanded at pleasure.
This last ad.mits of great variety of exercise.
.,, fi
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Exmw1sEs.

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289. Change the following into the passive form: 1. "False accusations can not diminish his real merit."

"Them that honor m e, I will honoa'
"Religion gives order and liberty Wjthe world."
"The audience r eceivrd the nc'~ play with rapturous applause."
"The armies of the French emperor overran th e whole country, and stripped the poor peasants of all their possessions."
2. Substitute phrases or clauses for the words in Italics: " Good men are only free; the r est are slaves.''
" lfidden dangers are always the most difficult to avoid-:"
"The wise man applauds . the most virtuous; the rest of the

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worlcl him who is richest.''
" Diligent and persevering effort will easily accomplish any

desired end."
"The honest man will be respected."
3. Extend the following abridged propositions : " 1Vhat to do I know n ot."
" The 10ar being at an end, the troops were disbanded.''
"vYc hold these principles to be self- evident."
"God rewards the qood and punishes the bad"
"This vigorous measure was an unexpected blow to the Parlia-

-

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188

ment. The power of tl
. sistible."
ie crown became at this time irre-

4. Change the words
d I
same sense.
a.n p irases in Italics for others of the
"Never hall
. . . of the elem t "
"1·
• I beheld such a wa11ing
nteg1·ity is the best d , f'
•
en ·s.
"E
' .
eJ ense agamst the ills of life "
very
man
is
known
by
111'
s
.
.
.
l
.
.
p1 incip es "
" G1 ve me a ntired
life
a
l
.
·
' peacefu conscie
z
and virtuous actions and I
.
nee, wnest thoughts,
"
.
' •
can pity Cresar."
All things were made b him
.
.
thing made that was m d '~
' and without !um was not anya e.
·5. Recast the following t
.
''Let an ti
.' o express the same meaning: ~ ier man praise thee, and not thine
stranger, and not thine own lips."
own mouth; a
"vVithout reputation, gold has n
1
.
beauty no charm age no
o va ue, stat10n no dignity,
reverence."
•
to ·~~rh;i:~!~~::.~, of America

***

celebrat~

189

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

COMPOSITION.

that clay which gave birtli

\.

.

(6.) "If it wants justice, that greatness of mind which shows
itself in clangers anll labors is blamable."
IL (1.) "Let us not conclucle, while dangers are at a distance and clo not immcuiatcly approach us, that we are secure,
unl ess we us e the necessary precautions to prevent them."
(2.) "Unless we u se the necessary precautions to prevent
dangers, let us not conclucle, while they are at a distance and
do not immedhitely approach us, that we are secure."
(3.) "Unless we use the necessary precautions to prevent
dangers, let us not conclude that we are secure while they are
at a clistance ancl do not immediately approach us."
( 4.) " Let us not conclucle that we are secure, while dangers
are at a distance and do not immediately approach us, unless we
use the neces sary precautions to prevent them."
( 5.) " While dangers are at a distance and do not immediately
approach us, let us not conclucle that we are secure, unless we
use the necessary precautions to prevent them."

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291. Similarly transpose the following: For other examples, see 243, 244.

"I am willing to remit all that 4y>ast, provided it may be
done with safety."
" Ile who maclc light to spring from primeval clarkncss will
make order, at last, to arise from the seeming confusion of the

· Variety of Expression.
v;~~~yThie ~ll~wing. exam~les * will serve to exhibit the great
. o J o11ns m wluch the same thought ma~· be

pressecl : -

"

cx-

I. By t 1·ansposition of clauses:
I. (1.) "That greatness of mind wl·11'cl1 sl·1o•·vs
' itself in dan-'
gers and labors, if it wants justice, is blamable."
(2.) "If that greatness of mind which shows itself . d
an l l b
·
.
·
m angers
• < a ors is v01d of justice, it is blamable."
. (3.) "That greatness of mind is blamable, which shows itself
m dangers and labors, if it wants justice."
• C4. )_ "If that greatness of mind is void of justice, which shows
itself m dangers :inrl labors, it is blamable."
. (5 .) "That greatness of mind is blamable, which shows itself
m dangers and labors, if it is voicl of justice."
· -~~~~~~~-

* From ll!urray'R

!Cnglish Exercises.

I

worlcl."
II. By the use of synony1nous clauses, phrases, and words:
I. (1.) "He who lives always in the bustle of the world lives
in a perpetual warfare."
(2.) "To live continually in the bustle of the world, is to live

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in a perpetual warfare."
(3.) " By living constantly in the bustle of the world, our life
becomes a scene of contention."
( 4.) "It is a continual warfare to live perpetually in the bustle

rJ I

of the worlcl."
( 5.) " The hurry of the world, to him who always lives in it,
is a perpetual conflict."
(G.) "They who are constantly engaged in the tumults of the
world are strangers to the blessings of peace."

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C0:\1POSI1'ION.

THE ESSAY.

II. (1.) "A man of polite imagination is let into a great many
pleasures that the vulgar are not capable of receiving." -Addi.rnn.
(2.) " - - - - - - a great many pleasures not open to the
vulgar.''...

In the same way vary the following : "The spirit of true religion breathes gcntle~ess and nifah!lity-::
"The advantages of this world, even when mnocently gamed,
· are uncertain blessings."

III.
(1.) " The Lord rule th me; and I shall want nothing·
'.
He hath set me in a place of pasture;
He hath brought me up on the water of refreshment·
'
He hath con verte<l my soul." - Douay Bible.

.

(2.) " The Lord is my shepherd: I shall not waut;
He rnaketh me to lie clown in green pastures;
He leadeth me beside the still waters·
'
He restoreth my soul;
He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his
name's sake." - English Bible.
(3.) " The Lord is my shepherd; no want shall I know·
I feed in green pastures, safe folded I rest;
'
He lea<leth my soul where the still waters flow
'
Restores me when wan<lering, redeems when oppressed."
-1'Jontgomery.
(4.) " The Lord my pasture shall prepare,
And feed me with a shepherd's care;
His presence shall my wants supply,
And guard me with a watchful eye;
My noonday walks he shall attend,
And all my midnight hours defend." -Addison.
IV. (I.) " The sun had scarcely begun to shed his beams
upon the summits of the snowy mountains which rise above
Granada, when the Christian camp was in motion." - Irving.
(2.) " The Christian camp was in motion as soon as the sun
had [or, wh en the sun had l'l,Car~ely J begun to shed his beams
upon the snowy mountains," etc.
(3.) "Early in the morning the Christian camp was astir."
( 4.) "A range of snow -capped mountains rises above Granudn.
Their tops were scarcely illumined by the ri sing sun, before tho
Spanish force broke up their camp and prepared for the assault."

191

C1·iticism.

.....

292. Take a selection from some standard author, and hy
apt questioning, or otherwise, discover its points of ~xcel­
lence, as well as its defects. At the first, select some important particular as the sole object of scrutiny; follow this by
others; and ·when the class is advanced enough, let the exercise be made more general.
293. The following, among other points, may receive attention: 1. The right use of wo?•ds, to convey clearly the sense.
'
2. Active for passive, or passive for active form.
3. The position of clauses.
4. "Whether sentences are too ~use. What improvement
can be made by condensation.
. .
.
(a.) Change of relative clauses for adJectives or adJunct
phrases.
(b.) Change of 1nmnbm•s in compound sentences for dependent clauses.
. .
.
(c.) Change of conditional clauses, subst1tutmg an mfinitive or a participle with the case absolute. (131.)
5. Whitt improvement can be sugges~ed in the general nianagmnent of the theme.

The Essay.
294. The regular composition of themes or essays, requires
that the pupil first have a thorouyh knowledge of .the subj ect he proposes to discuss; that he carefully consider the
Vf,1,1•ious heads under which it should be arranged, as
well as their connection, and their dependence upon each other.
2!)/;. Mr. Graham* suggests the following outline of "the

* Art of Composition, p. 226.

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CO::IIPOSITION.

various Tiea<ls under which subjects for themes are generally

2. PRONUNCIATION.
(a.) lntlections. (b.) Gestures.
3. THE CHARACTER OF LANGUAGE

treated: " 1. The definition or proposition. 2. The judgment or opinion. 3. The cause or reason. 4. The confirmation. 5. The
simile or comparison. 6. The example. 7. The quotation.
8. The conclusion."

the following are suggested: -

•

IL On Contentment.
Characteristics of a contented mind. Temptations to discontent. Contrast between a contented and a discontented state of
mind. What is the end of our being? therefore, motives for
contentment. Comparison with the condition of others. The
wisdom of Providence. The daily blessings of life. The power
of habit upon mind and body. The evils of discontent. Deducti on.
III. On Govermnent.
Definition. Its origin. N eccssary effects of anarchy . . Ear-.
liest mode of government- whence deduced. What qualities
give one man power o\'cr others? Different forms of government. Illustrate or define each. Advantages, disadvantages,
etc. ·what government in this country? Its advantages. Conclusion.
'

IV. The Rise and Progress of Language.*
I.

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Letter Writing.
297. No kind of writing is less subject to the rules of art

296. In addition to the examples presented in the grammar, 1

Definition. The results to its possessor. Why? Is it a natural quality, or acquired? lleflections. May courage be perverted? Conclusions.

'
CHANGED.

4. Tim STYLE OF EARLY LANGUAGES.
(a.) The employment of figures.
(b.) These reasonings
confirmed. (c.) The origin of Prose.

EXAJIIPLES.

L On Courage.

193

LETTER WRI'l'lNG.

l

than that of correspondence. More than any other, letters are a
transcript of the individual life, and exhibit the chara.cteristics
of our imli viuual sty le .
There arc, however, some general fornis which good taste
and usage enjoin. Among the points to be noted are the following: 1. The date, including generally the name of the place from
which the letter is written.
2. The address, whic11.i1ay also embrace the name of the
person or party for whom M ' letter is intended.
3. The body of the letter.
(a.) The introduction.
(b.) The information we design to communicate.
4. 'The co1npli1nenta1·y closing and signature.
5. The folding and superscription.

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298. The following are examples : -

fXlzool:!yu, cYf':

°If·

g,(;t,7· 8~, 1809.

d?. ~ ~~~?Jt<J, &7.,
<?i'dve!t:uul, eJ.
9lfeai c;::!Jii .•

LANGUAGE.

(Body of the letter.)

(a.) Its signification. (b.) Its present state. (c.) Its origin.
( d.) The first method of com urnnicating thoughts. (e.) '.l,'he
principle upon which langnage was formed.

tll~·;y

*

Hlair's Rhetoric. Lecture VI.
A. & I'. Gr. -11166.
C. S. Gr. - 1 Lesson 80,

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_/olfw1 /f»t,N.

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#.

ry.

'f~lkmeJ,

Hl5

COMPOSITION.

STYLE.

Or thus:-

letters especi:illy, simple, direct, and perspicuous - so as to be
readily and perfectly understood.

&7.,

302. The superscription, occupying the lower half of the

0'/eveland, (!).

envelope, should always be carefully and plainly written.
following is an example : (Body

~f

I

The

the letter.)
Stl\mp.

!Jli!e,ftect/ut?Y-

1

701-t,teJ,

/olfn/ /one~.

Another form : -

fl"
(Body of the ktter.)

tj/ouz o&dumt elI,zvan /,

/olZv/

<:ff.

~ r/7';.ilt.:.Zm.<,

,/onM.

&7.,

<tf~ve/and,

&.

299. The pupil should study neatness in the mechanical arrangement of the different parts of the letter, so that the effect
shall be pleasing.
•!JOO. No carelessness or slovenliness in penmanship is en•r
admissible. That some eminent men are thus slovenly, only
goes to show that they are by so much less eminent.

301. The style should be easy and natural; and, in business

Style.

3Q3. The manner in which we express our thoughts is called
style.
304. The same thought may be expressed in a vciriety of
ways. (See 2!JO.)
305. The character of ou1• style, though determim•1f
chietly by our manner of thought, is susceptible of cultivation,
or may be more or less modific<l, in view of the ejj'cct we design to pro<luce upon those whom we a.duress.

306. The ·requisites of a good style are, that such langnnge
be used as shall convey our ideas clearly to the minds of
others, and at the same time in such a dress as, by pleas'iny
and interestiny them, shall most effectually strengthen the
impressions which we seek to make .
.107. All the q-iialities of a yood style, says Blair,*
may be ranged under two heads, perspicuity and orna'liient.

* Rhetoric.

Lecture X.

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196

COJ\lPOSITION.

Choice of Words.
308. Perspicuity consists in the use of such words as to
convey to others the exact ideas intended. It comprises purity,
propriety, and precision.
309. Ptt1•Uy consists in the use of such words and such
arrangement of them as are consistent with the illi01n of the
language.
310. P1•01n"iety is the selection of such words as , according to their established 'U sage, most clearly, forcibly, and
elegantly express the sense intended to be conveyed.

I

311. P1•ecis,i on rejects superfluous w:,a and carefully
discriminates between words usually accounte
nonyntous.
The following examples will serve for illustrat10n : Custom, habit. Custom respects the action; habit the actor.
By custom, we mean the frequent rep~tition of the same act;
by habit, the effect which that repetition produces on the mind
or body. By the custom, of walking often in the streets, one
acquires the habit of idleness.
P1·ide, vanity. Pride makes us esteem ourselves; vanity
makes us desire the esteem of others. It is just to say that a
man may be too p1·oud to be vain.
Entire, complete. A thing is entire, by wanting none of its
parts; complete, by wanting none of the appendages whicl,1 belong to it: A man may have an entire house to himself, and yet
not have one complete apartment.
Surprised, astonished, amazed, confo1J,nded. - I am surprised
at what is new or unexpected; I am astonished at what is vast
· or great; I am amazed at what is incomprehensible; I am confounded by what is shocking or terrible.
Let the pupil similarly dis""Criminate in the use of the following, and write sentences illustrating their proper use : Austerity, severity, ri gor. Desist, renounce, qu it, leave off.
Haughtiness, disdain. To distinguish, to separate. To weary,
to fatigue. To abhor, to detest. To invent, to discover. Tran-

'1

STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES •

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quillity, peace, calm. A difficulty, an obstacle. Wisdom, prudence. Enough, sufficient. To acknowledge, to avow, to confl·ss.
To expect, to hope . Occasion, opportunity. Character, rC'putation. Position, attitude. Haste, speed, hurry, despatch. Weary,
fatigue. Esteem, appreciate, value,_prize.
1. The language, both as to the selection of words and the
arrangement and connection of clauses, should be adapted to the
natu1'e of the theme.
2. As a general rule, sh01•t wo1•ds are to be preferred, and
of Saxon rather than of Latin origin.
"No man may put off the law of God" is better than "No individual is permitted to defer compliance with the obligation imposed upon him to render obedience to God's require1ncnts."
3. Sometimes the dignity and majesty of the theme, on the
principle of "sound adapted to the sense,'' requires a more pretentious form of wortls.

StrucJlfe of Sentences.
312. In the i.::tructure of sentences attention should be
given to the following: 1. Clearness and precision. 2. Unity. 3. Strength. 4. Harmony.
I. Clea1•ness and precision, in addition to the se le ct ion of proper words, demands that they be so placed in relation
to each other as to avoid any am,Uigttity. Liability to error
in this particular is most common: (a.) In the position of the a<lverb 1 (193);
(b.) In the arrangement of subordinate clauses an<l

plwases 2 (134).
II. Unity requires that every sentence have but one predominant object of thoitght. When there is no dependence
or relation save that of natural sequence in discourse, successive
propositions should be stated in separate sentences.
III. St1•eiigth may be defined as such a disposition of
A. & P. Gr.-1986-948. 2754-759; 817.

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the several words and members as shall bring out the sense
to the bes t aclvantnge; as shall rend er the impression which
the period is des igned to make, most full and c01nplete,
and gi \'e to every word and every member their due weight
and force.
1. Reject 1'ednndant words and members.
2. Arrange the 1nost i1npo1'tnnt 'Wo1·ds so that the collocation shall bring them into prominence.
3. In the arrangem ent of the several 1ne1nbe1·s and
clauses, a weaker proposition should rarely follow a stronger
one, and when a sentence consists of.
o members, it should
generally close with the longer.
4. In complex sentences, especial!) .ose contain~ng conditional clauses, the subo1'dinate clause should generally
stand first, and the sentence should close with the principal
statement. Compare the following:~
"A man will keep my words, if he love me."
" If a man love me, he will keep my words."
"He was very sorrowful when he heard this."
" 1Vhen he heard this, he was very sorrowful."
5. In long sentences containing a number of limiting phrase~
or clauses, care must be taken that the expressions most nearly
1'elated in thm.tght be brought the most clos.e ly to-

gethe1'.*
G. A void closing a sentence with an adverb, preposition, or
any ·inconside1·able wonl; as, "Generosity is a strong virtue, which many persons are
fond of."
7. In co11ipa1·ative sentences, and in those in which any
res e mblance or opposition is to be expressed between different

*

S'l'lWCTURE OF SENTENCES;

COlll POSITION.

Herbert Spen<'er cites-the following as an instance:-

Fmtlty Arrangement. - " A modern newspaper statement, though prob-

ably true, would be laugher! nt, if quoted in a book as testimony; but the
Jetter of a court gossip is thought gootl historical evidence, if written some
centuries ngo."
Correct A1Trmgement. - "Though probably true, a modern newspaper
Rtatement quoted in n book a8 tcRtimony, would be laughed at; but the
letter of a nourt gosMip, if written some centuries ngo, is thought goocl
historical evidence."

•

•

199

objects, care should be taken to preserve some rese1nblance
in the language and construction.*
IV, Harmony in the structure of sentences is attained by
the use of such words as in themselves and in their succession
in the sentence are grateful to the ear and adapted to the sense.
I. In the choice and arrangement of words, without regard to
expression.
(a.) In the choice of words, wherever possible without obscuring the sense, regard should be paid to a pleasing succession
of consonant and vowel, long and short sounds. Long and
short words may very happily alternate, unless something in the
nature of the thought seems to demand a predominance of the
one or the other.
(b.) In the a1•rangmnent of words, a due regard being
paid to strength, as presented (in 312. III., ante), that arrangement is generally to be preferred which is easiest and most
agreeable to the organs of speech.
(1.) The l.est members of a period, and the longest and
most sonorous words, should generally come at the close of the
sentence.
(2.) Long and short sentences may appropriately alternatc.
(3.) Words should not, however, be used 1nere{Y for
sound ; such use weakens the force ; and affectation of harmony becomes a blemish rather than a grace.

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EXAMPLES.

"The Accusing Spirit, which flew up to heaven's chancery with
the oath, blushed as he gave it in; and the Recording Angel, as he
wrote it down, dropped a tear upon the word, and blotted it out
forever." - Sterne.

* 'l'he following is an elegant example of this rule from Pope's Homer:" Homer was the greater genius; Virgil the better artist: in the one we
most admire the m1tn; in the other, the work. Homer hurrieR us with a
commanding impetuosity; Virgil lends us with an attractive majesty.
Homer scatters with a generous profusion; Virgll bestows with a careful
magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his richr.s with a sudden .
overflow; Virgil, like a river within its banks, wit.ha constant stream."

I

1

I

'

200

201

cmIPOSITION.

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.

"We shall conduct you to a hill-side, laborious indeed at tho
:first ascent; but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly
prospects and melodious sounds on every side, that the harp of
Orpheus was not more charming." - Milton. "Education."

314. In p1·ose c01nposition, or ordinary discourse, figures shoul<l be spa1'inyly used, and never except when their
use serves to give vivacity, force, or beauty, or haplJily illustrate

II. The sound adapted to the sense, that is, such a choice
of words as to produce a resemblance to the sounds we mean to
describe, or in some sense suggest to the ear effects analogous
to those with which we seek to impress the mind.
EXAMPLES.

"And see ! she stirs !
"She starts, - she moves, - she see~ feel
The thrill of life along her keel;
And, spurning with her foot the ground,
' With one exulting, joyous bound,
She leaps into the ocean's arms! "
- Longfellow. "The Building of the Ship."
" On a sudden, open fly,.
With impetuous recoil and jarring sound,
Th' infernal doors, and on their hinges grate
Harsh thunder, that the lowest bottom ~hook
Of Erebus." - Par. Lost, B. II., Line 87D.
" Heaven opened w1d<>
Her ever-during gates, harmonious sound,
On golden hinges moving, to let forth
The King of glory, in his powerful ·word
And Spirit coming to create new worlds."

- Id., B. VII., L. 20S.

Fiyu1·ative Lanyuaye.
313. By fig'l;t,rative language, is meant a mode of speech in
which words are changed from their primitive or literal sense;
generally the expression of abstract or immiaterial iueas by
images or pictures from the 1naterial w01·ld. *

_* For a brief account of the most usual figures of speech, see A. & P,
Gr. 1045-1047.

what is said.
315. Sometimes an apothegm, in the form of sirnile or
metaphor, 1 presents a more apt and forcible statement than can
be made by any formal description. Of this nature are many
proverbs and familiar phrases in common use.
316. ·Figures ·should be natural, and adaptec}. to the
subject they are used to enforce or illustrate.

317. When a figure has answered the reasonable purpose of
the use, it must be discontinued - any forced extension of its
application should be avoided.
/J18. Literal and figurative language must not be blended together; as, "I intend to us~se words in the thread of my speculations."
The following is elegant and consistent: "In peace, thou art the gale of spring; in war, the mountain
storm." - Ossian.
319. :L'wo different figures should not 'meet on one
object; as, " I bridle in my struggling muse with pain,
That longs to launch into a bolder strain."
The muse can not be at the same time both a horse and a ship.
"No human happiness is so serene as not to contain any alloy."
" Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the
darkest ·gloom."
Several diffe1•ent figures shoulcl not gene1·ally succeed each other on the same object.

Varieties of Style.
320. Style may be characterized as diffuse or concise, lean
or copious, florid or plain, dry or rich, nervous or feeble, stately
or familiar, terse or loose, elegant or barbarous,* etc.
* A full account of the different qualities of style belongs properly to a
treatise on rhetoric, and can not be taken up in this elementary treatise.
A. & P. Gr. -11046. 2, 3,

.• """ - .

.·

202

COMPOSITION,

321. Among these, it is of special moment for young writers
to exercise sound judgment in the use of the two following: - .
1. A clijfttse style amplifies the thought, places it in a
variety of lights, and admits of a profusion of ornament and
illustration. 'Vhen too extreme, it is apt to become weak and
languid.
.-...,
2. The concise style expresses the!IJught in the fewest
wor<ls possible, selects words for their force and terseness, and
<leals in short, pointed periods. In excess, it becomes abrupt
an<l obscure.

Pwnctuation and Capitals.
322. The concise, but judicious, directions given in the
grammars of this series for punctuation 1 and tbe use of
capital letters, 2 make any resume of those subjects iri this
treatise unnecessary.
After all the rules that can be given, though copiously illustrated, punctuation is still a matter whose most valuable lessons are those of observation and experience.
A. & P. Gr. - t 984-1038. 2 77, 78.
C, S. Gr.-ILesson 77. 27s,

