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YOUNG COMPOSER:
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A GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR & COMPOSITION.
I

HENRY . N.
A.UTIIOB

or

~AY,
••

"LOGtO,n ".A.RT OF DISCOURSE,,, "ART

or

COKP081TION,,, "ENGLISH

LITEEATUllE," ETC.

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NEW YORK:

OIIARLES SORIBNER AND COMP ANY.
18'70.

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PREFACE.

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Entered according to Act of Congre~s. In the yenr 1870, by
IIESRY

N

DA'·

In the Clerk's Office of the Distrbt (;ourt for the District of Connecticut.

Tms work has been prepared on the principle that
iustruction in Grammar and Rhetori c, and n1so training
in Composition should ever proceed from the thought.
The stu~y qf the grammar of one's \·ernacular tongue,
,
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to be satisfact~ry in its results, must be synthetic, not
· ' analytic f · and synthetic not in the sense of being
1merely cumulative of words, wor.d-building or sentene<~building simply by piling up element upon ele..:Uent of mere sentence-forms, but synthetic in th~ !ienf?e
of ·embodying thought in its diverse forms)n fit forms
of language. Grammar should be stu.d ied not merely
· or predominantly that one may interpret well, but that
~he may speak well, and write well.
; :·· This is the method of nature and experience. 1Ve
,-speak that we may communicate thought: we have
~t the .t bought; then comes the form of expression. _
~e thought is the vital, organic, germinant element
<; of. all rational dis~ourse.
•~-Further, .the form of the thought determines the
form. of language. There · are just so many and just

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PREFACE.

PREF.A.CE.

Ruch grammatical ancl rhetorical forms, because there
are just so many nnd just such forms of thought to he
communicated.
The forms of Grammar and Rhetoric are consequently intelligible only, as the forms of thought which
have determined them are first understood. Etymology treats of the "partq of speech," as they are called.
But why there should be any "parts of speech," why
such parts, why not more, mm not be understood at all,
unless the forms of thought which give rise to them
are apprehended. So what the legitimate function of
each part is, and ·1'{hat its relation to the other parts,
can not be comprehended except by a like reference to
the thought. Jfthe various forms of the thought which
ha\·e originated the various forms of gr:unmatical and
rhetorical expression are first presented, one by one,
then it will be seen why its respective form of expression is necessary, and why it is as it is. The
whole philosophy of grammar opens itself thus easily,
naturally ; and the study of grammar be~omes attractive and satisfying in all its results. In the same way,
training in composition becomes rational, simple, :rnd
also attractive. The pupil, beiug put upon the specific
form of thought, proceeds readily and intelligently in
the exercise of embodying it in a suitable form of
language.
This mcthou meets t11e difficulties which the pupil
encounters iu these studies, and guides and aids him
through them. In composing, his one great trouble

is, oup of t~e confused mass of thought in his mind
.
.
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to get hold of just that part and just that form which
. he .i~ to embody in his ess::iy. This done, and essay. wr1tmg becomes as easy as writing a letter to tell a
friend of an interestiug incident, to describe .a scene,
or to urge a request for some favor. Criticism be- ·
. comes easy and intelligible. It is all disposed of in
t~e one question: is my language the proper expression of my particular thought in relation to my object /
.i n,writing?
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This method .effectually prevents the fatal vices unM:oidably incident to the reverse methodof beginn.ing
with word-foi;ms,-with the analysis of sentences and
~hetorical style. . This last method leads at once to the
. '. ~JFalting of. the : word above the thongl~t; and so to
timpty verbiage, to words without ideas sounding
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'
· _sente!1ces devoid of· meaning, turgid rhetoric without
.
· .... ~~tional aim or object.
, , , .:., Once more, this method leads di~ectly and assur, · : edly to the great object and end of true education and
' i.! ~raining. It _develops and trains the thinking power
~· 1,tself. It bnngs the mind of the pupil directly to
. grapple with the matter of thought; and necessitates
~"'. ~~h~ exertion of his best power to grasp and shape it.
. ·!t, how.ever, guides every step by introducing him to
. · ~he several forms in which he tl:)iuks. It trains th~ mind
1 '~.t~ work under its own laws, by leading it to the sue, ;~ssive study of all the general forms in which its
,: , ~iwer to think can be called forth; for the forms of
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PREF.ACE.

language and discourse are but the body-forms of
these inner modes of thought. Thus the best anJ most
effective mental discipline may be secured from studies
in grammatical and rhetorical synthesis,-in rightlyframed exercises. in the cornposition of the sentence
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and of discourse.
As to "the· plan of the book, it may be observed here
.t hat of the three sizes of type used, the largest is employed for the matter to be committed thoroughly by
the pupil ; that of middle size is for matter to be read
and well understood by him ; · a~d that of the smallest
size is for matter chiefly for the teacher or the more
mature pupil.
_The definitions, are given with the utmost care to
logical accuracy and precision, so that no correction
shall be needec\ in the maturer stages of study. For a
single illustration, a personal pronoun is not defined to
be "a word used instead of a noun," as it is commonly
but loosely, not to say erroneously, defined; for this
definition does not distinguish it from other words which
niay be used just as well instead of nouns, nor does it
point at all to the trlle · origin and use of this part of
speech, which is to distinguish person. In every sentence there is expressed or implied, besides the subject
or mutter spoken of, the matter of thought or attribute
spoken of this subject, and the asserting element itself,
the _entirely independent distinction of the person
speaking, the person . spoken to, as \vell as the matter
spoken, or the proper matter of the sentence. Gram-

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PREFACE.

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matical Person marks these distinctions, and a distinct .
class of words are introduced i.nto ]anguage for the
purpose·, which are called personal pronouns. The usual ,
definition is no ·definition at all, and only serves to ·
. ·: slide : the pupii and the teacher along easily over an
ill-understood subject. The snme looseness. may be
abundantly exemplified in other parts of grammar.
· The arrangement of the exercises is to introduce
· · the pupil successively and singly to each form of .
th6nght that is characterized by a peculiar form of
expression in . language. - They are designed to lend
· him to correct and ready thinking as well as to correct and ready expression, or more exactly to lead him
to good expression through good thinking. For a
single ill,u stration, the exercises introduce, in the
strictest logical order, to all th~ higher !:'pecies of attributes which the human mind can think of :iny subject.
The pupil is thus, unconsciously to himse1f, trained to
habits of thinking aright and freely, as well as methodically of any subject that may ever occur to him. He
. .is trained to become fami1iar with every possible class
: . of attributes, and to think them in exact logical order,
:;:·· jet with unconscious freedom. This, it need not be
'11. - said, is the one grand end and distinction of a perfect
• . · ' ine.ntal culture-to think readily, correctly, and me~
·:iho~ically of any subject with accompanyiug power to
- ... put ·such thought into fit 1angunge. The very com.'inendable object which has prompted that new class
' of worthy text-books in Object Lessons is aimed at

PREFACE.

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in these exercises,-.trai11i11g the pupil to observe, while
training him to think and to speak and write aP.cu·
rately arn1 in order.
•
The author's "Art, of Composition" covers the same
ground {tS this treatise, only in a_ fuller way :1011 for
in.ore advanced students. The read er is referre<l to
that for a fuller treatment of grammatical principles. ·

CONTENTS.

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· INTRODUOTORY LESSONS.

_,,.

LESSON I.

. . §§ 1-3.

PAGE

1

THE SENTENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '.' •••

LESSON II.

§§

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'-9 • . POINTS AND CAPITALS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••

LESSON III.

§ 10.

6

THE ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.••• ... •• .. •,·.. •••

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. §§ 11-14.

LESSON IV.
THE NOUN..................................

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LESSON V.
THE ADJECTIVE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

8 -

LESSON VI.

,

THB VERD ..••••••••.••••••.••••••••••••••••

9

LESSON VII.
RULES FOR THE FORMATION 01' WORDS ••• ••·•••

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'CbNTENTS.

CO~TENTS.

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CHAPTER II.
PAGE .

A.OTIONS. , , , ••••••••••••••••..••••••••••••••• • • • • • •. • • •

RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION AND

63

CHAPTER III. ··

GRAMMAR

.ABSTRACT NOUNS ••••••••••••• •• ••••••••••• : •••• •. •......

39

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. P AH.T I.-PRIMITIVE SUBJECTS OF THOUGHT.CONCRETE NOUNS.

PART III.-DISTINOTIONS OF NOUNS.

CHAPTER I.

CHAPTER I.
J'AGB

SINGLE 0DJECTS.-PROPER NOUNS ••••••••••••• ,, ••• , . ....

15

.;'<~;NbUNS.~UMBER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• • ·., .• •• • • •· • ·, • •·. 42
CHAPTER II.

CHAPTER IL
COMPOSITE 0BJECTS.-0LASS. NOUNS ••• , , ••• , ••• , , ..._., , , , , ,

., . NOUNS.-(}ENDER •• .• ••••• ··: • ••••••••••••• • •• • ·• •• • • •• • •• ·

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21

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: . . NOUNS-CASE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
·.;_\,
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CHAPTER IV.
COMPOSITE 0IlJECTS.-MASS NOUNS •••••• , •••••••••• , , • , • •

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PART IL-ATTRIBUTES.

PART IV. ~MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE
SENTENCE.

CHAPTER I.

CHAPTER L

QUALITIES .. •••.••••••••• , •••.• , ••••• , •••••• ,,,.••.•,.,.,,

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dHAPTER III.

CHAPTER III.
COMPOSITE 0DJECTS.-COLLECT.I VE NOUNS.......... , •• ,.,,.

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f S'i1BJEOT·MODIFIERS.-ADJEOTIVES •• , ••••• , ••• • • • ... • • • • • • •

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CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

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CHAPTER VIII.

CHAPTER II.
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PREDICATE-MODIFIERS.-VERB

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Au:X:XLIARIEs.-ExPLETIVE~.-I.ERJECTIONB ••• '. •••••• •.; ••

!NFLECTIONS.-ADVERBIALS.-

0BJECTS OF VERBS ..••.•.•.... ·.••.••••.•••.••••..•••

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CHAPTER IX.
CHAPTER III.
COPULA MODIFIERS.-MOOD.-MODALS.. • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • •

COMPOUND SENTENCES ••••.••• . •. ·······••••••·••••••••••

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CHAPTER

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COMPLEX SENTENCES •••••••..•••••••.••••.••••••••••••••

138

PART V.-ABNORMAL FORMS.

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CH.APTER I .
NATURE AND DIVISIONS ••• ' ••.••.•••••.•••.•••••••••••.•

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CIT.APTER XI.
EMOTIVE SENTENCES •••••••••••• .••••••••• : • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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-CHAPTER II.
ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE NouN.-SUBJECTS.-PREDICATES ••

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CHAPTER I.

CHAPTER III.
ABNORMAL FOR1IS OF THE ADJECTIVE .••• , , • • . • • • • • • • • • • • •

CHAPTER
.AnNOHMAL

Fom!S

VI.~CONS~RUCTION.

117

~· DIVISIONS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .• •••••••

CHAPTER II.

IV.

OF THE ADVERD .••••••••••••••••••••.•

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125

128

145

.A.ltRANGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; ••• , •• , •••••••••

158

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PROPRIETY•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

167

CHAPTER V.

CHAPTER VII.
CONJUNCTIONS .•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

CONCORD•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ;· . • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • •

CHAPTER IV.

CHAPTER VI.
PREPOSITIONS ••••.•••. , • , , .• , • , • , •••••• , ••• , •••••• , • • • • •

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CHAPTER III.

CHAPTER V.
ABNORMAL FORMS OF MODALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS.
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PART VII.-EXPLANApON.
CHAPTER I.
l'AOI!:

GENERAL YIEW...••.••.••.••..•••.•••.••••••••••••••••• 179

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·~:: ·' INTRODUCTORY . LESSONS~

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CHAPTER U.
NARRATION ••••••••••••••••.•...•••••••••••••••••••••••

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CHAPTER III.

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LESSON

DESCRIPTION ••••• , • , •••••.•••••••••••• , , , , , , • , • , , , • , , • • 193

,. § 1.

I.~THE SENTENCE.

we think, we think of something which
an object, or an object of thought.

"WHEN

~·called

,\. ·.An 0BJEOT OF THOUGHT is that of which we

.....
.: Thu~, i(I thhik of John, or the sun, or an apple, ·

think.
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. John, the fmn, an iipple, are objects of my thought.·

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'. ORAL ~xERCISE.

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·Name some objects of thQught.

; '• '§ 2." Further, when we think of an object, we think
. something about that ohject. When I think of John,

.±tliink something

about John.

I think, perhaps, be

is tqll; or perhaps that he is .st1·ong)· or that be learns
fast. ·That which I think of an object is called an
•attribute; · Thus, tall, sM·ong, learns fast, express attributes of the object of thought, J oho.
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.An .ATTRIBUTE is that which·is thought of an

object.
,f • • • ,

•-..ORAL EXERCISE. Name some attribute of John;
of an apple ; of the sun.

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IN'.l'RODUCTORY LESSONS.

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§ 3. vVhcn we speak, we assert some attribute of an
object. Such an assertion is called a sentence. Thus,
"J olm is tall," is a sentence.

A SENTENCE is an assertion of some attribute
of an object.
ORAL EXERCISE. Form a sentence about John.
Form sentences about an apple; the sun.
])lame some objects, and form, sentences about tlw1n.
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J,ESSON IL-POINTS AND CAPITALS.

§ 4. IN writing, sentences and parts of sentences are separated from one another by means
of Points and Capitals.
§ 5. 'ifiere are four points used to separate
sentences and parts of sentences from one another :-The Period (.); the Colon (:) ; the Semicolon (;); and the Comma (,).
§ 6. The
another.

PEiiIOD

separates one sentence from

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POINTS
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llanie some other objects and some attribute o.f each.
Name tlie att1·ibutes express eel in the following sentences:.T olm is studious. The apple was s"·cet and jnicy.
Venus is bright. Y c1ms shines. The horse is frisky.
DobLin prances. John stndies diligently. Ile took
his book home with him. He will recite ·well ton101Tow.

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.A.ND CA.PIT.A.LS.
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CoLoN, the SEMICOWN, arid the Co11n.IA separate t~i3 parts of a sentence from one another. The
~ .Colon separates them :inos.idely; the Semicolon less
.
; 'widely; and the Comr:na least widely.
~·

' · . ··. EXAMPLE. -Elephants often assemble in . large
. · troops; and as they march, which is mostly in quest
of 'food, the forests seem to tremble under them. In
. - .their passage tl1ey bear down the branches of frees,
:. . ; wbi~h, . together with roots, herbs, and leaves, are
~:..~ their common food: they have rio objection, howernr,
:- to grain and fruit, but \Vill not eat either fish •or flesh.
_In, I\ state of captivity, they will drink ale, wine, and
. spirituous liquors; for which, indeed," they seem to
have a particular predilection.
:.·~~/!!.~ .., ~· ·~. '
:t ....

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\ § 7. . CAfIT.A.LS are ·a kind of large Letters.
~ ...T~ey~nr~f;us_ed at the beginnings of sentences;
· and also at .the beginnings of names of indi-.
viduals in sentences.
··:·:~ .."ExAMPLEs.-On the .third day of August, 1492,
). Columbus · set sail. The retreat of General vVashing~on left the English in complete possession of Long
~lslancl. ·
· ·
·
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·' . § 8._ ORAL ExERCISES. Name the Points used, and
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-;.,_ correct tlie ..faults in Punctitation and in the use o.f
in the following extract:-

~:_ Capitals
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the course, of philip'R war, which involved, al,most all the indian tribes in new England; and among
• othe1:s those in the neighborhoocl, of hadley. the 'Inh!lbitants thought it proper, to observe the first of September, 1675, as a day of fasting and prayer; while

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INTRODUCTORY LESSONS.

they were in t11e church and employed in th eir '\Vorsl1ip they were surprised by a band of sarngcs; the
people in stantly b etook themselves to their Arms,
·w hich acco n1ing to the cnstom of th e times they ha<1
carried with them to the chttrch; and rnshing ottt of
the house attacked their Invaders. The panic, 11mler
which, they b egan the conflict was h o wc H'r so g reat
nn d their number was so tli sproport,io11 c(1 to that of
their enemies t hat they fonght donbtfolly at first aml
in a short time b egan ev idently to g ive way.
At t hi s moment an ancient l\fan with hoary locks of
a most v e11 crable and dignified aspect; and in a c1 ress
widely differing from that of the Inhabitai1ts, appeared
sttddenly at their head; and, with a :fiqn voi ce, and an
example 'of undaunted r esolution re:1.11imated their
spirits led them again to the co nflict; and totnlly
routed th e san1ges. '\V h.en the Batt le was end ed the
stranger di sap peared ancl 11 0 p erson knew when ce h e
bacl come or whith er he had gone. The relief 'ms so
timely so sudden so 1111 expected and so provil1en t,ial,
the appearance and th e retreat; of him who fnrni she<1
it were so unacconntablc. hi s person was so di g nifi ed
and comm anding his r esolution so superior and hi s
inter fe reuce so d ecisive that th e Inhabitnnts witho11t
auy .ommou exercise of credulity, readily belieHd
him to be an angel sent by Heav en for their prese n-ati on. n or was this opinion serious I y controverted
n i1t il it " ·ns discovered. several years afterward, thnt
goffe and whnlley 11 ad been loclgerl in the hou se of mr.
ltnssel 1. Then it was known that t.hei t· deliverer was
goffe \Ylialley lrnvin g become . superannuated some
time before the event took place.

.

ELEMENTS
OF THE
SENTENCE
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, . § 9. W RI'ITE~ EXERCISE. ffi•ite, fi·om dictation U'!f
.'the teacher or by one ofJJ/ie clasiJi:an extract f1·01n some
. prose writer, sepcwatin1' the Sentences and Part.~ of
. , ('Sentences by the use ofp~oper Pc>iiitiJ and of Capitals.
-~B~ER~ATIO~.-The pr~ctl.ce .ln th~ u se or these fonr Pointe nntl. of Cnplt.~le
abouhl be eo.tborough; .th11t neit her pupil nor teacher sh11tl ·be troubled In future
eserclses from this source. See Art of Composition for 11 fuller . treatment or

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Punctuation. ·
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o.Thet S~iccir.: of a'·:·aentence is that of which we .·
~a~\ as in th~ sentence, "John is ~all," John is the

"' adbject~· being that of w bich I speak.

·:-+.J!f-ffl~,, . i.<./ ?". ·· ~ ·. . . .
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:·· .: The: PnEDICATE of a sentence is the attnbute whwh

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~ ia ·~s~~~ted ~f the subjec.t. T all is thus the predicate
"'J.J J'•"i .
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in .the
sentence, "J obn is tall."
c ....

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,~The CoPULA of a .sentence is that element of it
- . which ' asserts; as, for example, is in the sentence,
J!.'J.John ··is · tall." In the sentence, "John runs," the
· · as~ci:ting element .is in the worcl 1·im,q combined wit.h
~ .the , predicate. . The subject, the predicate, and the
,, .;~op'Ula ·are . ~oinetimes all combined in one word; as,
~- ,; " i.Ml}un, John."..

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Ons 1mvATTON'.-Thls lesso n may be omitted in the first. stndy. It Is lmr rk tl
h er e to in11icnto that there is n diffor encc b~ tw ec n Jlred i crr l e nn d nllrill!lle,
"'l1ich terms tho pupil shonltl bo cnrcfull ~~- ·11"11 ni::ain st co nfou nolln!!'. Ind ce<l , it 1nny b e r c rn nrk e<l h e r r,'!hat
li rc o111ca
to n se t enns that h nve orighrnted i1
·i1<4'~~1 wh ich t Ill' 1li s linc1 io n!' clo
ll ot correspond cxnct1y with those w •
!'it lw :.':\1h• ln gn t111111 n1' . Thu~ tln.ob}ect, a nd the phrase ol~}e.ct of tltou.011, r1 ;! 1Ha1 t~ t11 P ~y t'li nlo"y. d P11nt\ 11 ;..: 1\
corre lat i ve of cousciou.sn es.~, (It' cou.~ciow~ 1wli)cc· f. Jl 1·n· nl :-io ori:.!l11nt c~ tlh~
t erm attribute. The terms &ub)ecf.,J>redicale. n111l cop 11/•t 11rl!!ln :dc In l.11c:lc;
they nro the three n ecessary e1" m ents In nil proper th onl!ht, th.- l:i\\"8 nn•l forms
of ;vhi ch it is the prov in ce of Logic t o tt·nch . A ]1!'_\' d1o l11!!kal ott1·iln1fe j· nrresponcls closely, but n ot exactly with n logknl prt•dlen tc ; .i11st '" l''Yl"i"'l"e:icnl
object cor1;:sponds to a cer tnin extent 011ly with Ut e l11~ic:1 l term "'''!ircl. f'o
th e g ·runn1ntical t e rm noun corresponds ton crrt atn 1k ~ rec only with th ~ pR.r-cholo.:;i cal term objec~. or o~ject qf t11011!Jhl, nnilfl.he lo:::ical term ""'!i erl; ns thn
grnn11n:iti cal t e rm rttljecti.ve on ly to a p nr t.i n1 Px l c·11t. co rr~'~poi11ls with thl• te r111 !'\
a.ft1·ib1ite n111l pred·i cate; nn d th e te rm 1;erb wilh the logical term copula.
But no o~ject can be n ?t0tt1• nnl e~s it can be use<! '" lo r; ical 811./Jject; no ol l ribute cn n be nn nrlj t•cl.iYe unl ess it ca n lie n 7wedicat-. ; nrnl no " ·orcl cn n be n
ve1·b unless in som e of Its Inflected forms It cnn cont:iin n loi!i cnl cop ula: It
is necessary in gramm ar to u se t hese t erm s fron1 oth er departm rnt!' of kn ow \ .
edge for pu rposes of e xplanation. While th ey sh oulcl be 11sccl no furth er thnn
n ecessary, so far M used, they should be used so ns to prcvr nt confnsl1t n nnd

1~111. ,~-:;n<·ti111 rs

rn·cc>~~n ry

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LESSON IV.-T1rn N ouN.

§ 11. Tim object of which we speak is expressed in
a word called a JYottn. Thus, wh en I say "John
walks," the object of ·.vhich I speak is expressed m a
worcl-J olm-which word is called a Noun.

AN OUN is the name of an object; as, J olrn,
the Sun, Grass, '11 rut11.
§ 12. 01tAL ExERCISE. Name the Nouns iii the
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followin g sentences :-Mary is yonng. The tree is large. The snn shines.
Alexander conq uercd Asia. 'l'he trees begin to blos·

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THE NOUN.

INTRODUCTORY LESSONS.

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som. Birds carol. Honesty is the best policy. · Peter
has crone to the war. · There comes Richard. Loud
.,,.
roared the torrent.
After Christmas comes NewYear's Day.

OnsnnvATtON.-The term no1m Is nppll ed not only ton worcl expressing nn
o•j ect or which some nttrlbute Is nsse rte<l, but nl so ton word , however u s<'<l In
the sente nce, t hat denotes nn object of whi ch we mny nssert nn nttrlbnte. Thus,
In th e sentence, "Johti struck l'<·ter," I'eter is n no~rn. ns.. '.'·ell ns ~olm. So
nlso, In the preceding sente nces, A8ia, polic y, 10(?.1", R1cha1·d, Ohristma .~. nro
nouns, nlthough nothin g is nsserted of t h em In those sentences. . They nre b r ro
n ot subject-words. It is clenr, l1owcve r, we cnn u~e th e m ns subject-wor<l 5,
au<l connect predicntes with them; th nt is, ns sc rt nttt"ibutes of tbo object which
.they denote.

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13. ORAL ExERCISE.

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Name all the Nouns in the

:fo~llowing sentences, and 11iention which of them, ex, press objects of i?hich something is asserted:"/ ~.J;IistQ'ry ·teac)les.by example. The storm increased
· With the night: The qreaking of the masts, the straining· and -g1'oaning of bulkheads, as the ship labored
- in the welterfog sea, were frightful. Across the ocean
.-. came -a pilgl"im bark, bearing the · seeds of li fe an<l
death. First, were paraded the Indians, painted ac. cording · to their savage fashion. After these were
.{ borne various kinds of live parrots. After these fol. r·lowed Columbus, on horseback.
§ .14. W RIITEN ExERCISES. lV?·ite sentences, each
, containing a 1wim denoting an object of which sonie
attribute is asserted j also sentences containing nouns
which are not itsed as subject-words.
:MoDELS.-Goorge ls lndustrlons.

Ills fnther g11vo Jnrues a pony nnd snddle.

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8

LESSON V.-THE

ADJECTIVE.

§ 15. TnE attribute wl1ich we may assert of nn object is often expressecl in a word callecl am Acljective.
An ADJECTIVE is a wonl expressing an attribute of an object ; as, " John is tall."

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In this sentence the word tall is nn ad1·. ccti,·e ' beexpressing an attribute of the object John. So,
in the sentence, "The grass is green,'' ,r;reen is an adjective, because expressing an attribute of the object
grass. But when I say "tall .John," "green grass,''
tall and rrcen arc 'yords expressing attributes; they
are, therefore, eq nally adjecLi \·es here.
~anse

§

J.Vmne the A(ijectives in the
fl)llowi11g sentences, mentioning the ol{jects of u:hich
they expn;ss attributes;Jn mes is busy. The sun is bright.. The green grass
is pleasant. The bright snn is painful. The sea is
rongh and boisterous. The rough ancl boii:;terous sea
is frightful. l\Jy fothe1•, a wise and grave man, gave
me serious and excellent counsel. My chief companion is a very venerable man, who is ever with
Sir Roger, and has lived at his house in the nature
of a chaplain above thirty years.
Furnish yonrr-elf with a rich yariety of ideas. Acqnaint yonrsetf with things ancient and modern; things uatnral, ci\•il, and religious; things domestiu and 11atio11al; tl1iugs present, past, ancl future. It may be
laid down as an unfailing and universal axiom that all
pride is abject and mean.
16. 0JtAL ExEiteISES.

are

.,.....

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1.-A verb may consist of savorRl words: RS, Ilas come,· Tuid
iolU come,· may have come; is coming; will be done; shall have.
&felt dun•; can have been doing • . Buch expresslous mny be regnrded ns one

" :'i!'OBIDVATIOK

' ; tom•;

fOmpDfttll WOt'<l.
£ 0BBEBTATION 2 •....,-0n

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the other hnnd, t\S bns been stntE'd, the copnln nnd the
" ' • p-edlcnte are often united In R single word: RS," John hunger8 ;" "The sun
, ;> .,A,iau.'.' In nn expression of comrunnd, the whole sentence mny consist of but
one word; ns, Speak I Go I

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INTRODUCTORY LESSONS.

10
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rn.

0RAT, EXERCISES.

· . " FORMATION OF WORDS.

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Name the verbs in the fol-

lowin,r/ sentences :The grass is green. Sirins twinkles. Jam es has
gone.. Home was sacked. The fire is brig ht. The
citizen obeys. John whips his top. The shower r eviv es the grass. The grass "·as revived by the shower. The clouds pour down torrents of water. John
will finish his task before dinn er. James is studying
his lesson. Robert must have left t own before noon.
It raint:i.
OnSERYATION.-In namin g th e verb, nll the Tl"Ords, if there be more thnn on~,
which nre nccessnry to ex press nil tho asserting element, 8ho11ld be give n. ThuR,
In the se nte nce, " H o will be studyin(J nt that hour," the whole asse rtin g element is not expressed ln will, nor in will be. The verb Is will be studying.

Assert so1nctliing of tlw fallowing oldects :Peter; Italy; .August; Carlo; V cmis; Columbus ;
Ca~sar; Mercury; Africa; Athens; Jerusalem; Malta;
vVerlnesday; Autumn; li'ebruary; Bucephalns; Dobbin; Ficlo.
§ 20. vV ltlTTEN EXERCISE. TVr·ite sentences assertin,q so11iething of a Nonn denotin_qA person ; a place ; a part of time ; an animal ; a star.
MoDELs.-Autumn nppronehes; Dobbin prances.

lVr·ite a sentence asserting o.f some individual
object that itLi ves; acts; runs; speaks; has gone; will come; is
satisfj ecl; will be starved; must be divided; may rise;
can he forgotten; is passing.

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;FORMATION OF WORDS.

INTRODUCTORY LESSO:N" S.

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est, ladvship. J3nt drier anc1 driest, are forms
authorized by u sage. ·
OnsEnVATION.- Y fln nl preccd etl by n. vowrl is not ch :111grd; ns, ·n·~t y.rl, ,m o.n·
d.ela.y.~, pla.yin(J, aayly, aay~ty. E~crp l /11icl, paid, urid, snilh, slam ,

ey.•,

.,t,ild, daily.

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HuLE IV . I e fin al is clia11gcc1 int o 71 lw l'ore a
Rufli x b eginnin g 'vith i j as, l yin p, t:i;ing, fr om

lie, tie.
R uLE V. A sin gle/ final, and/ b efore e final,
1)ecorne v 1)efore a s uflix b eginning with a vowel in many words ; as, beeves, thievish.
0BSERYATION. - Thi s prin cipl e wns once n grn eml one. nnd w ns, nppllccl :o 8,
:ind th :i s h en rd in thi ll., as wc\l ns to J. ' Ve cnn lllll s ac·c ount for su ch cl cn vntion s ns thfove from thief; believe from beli~f; brazen from bi·a•B; b,.en tlre
from u1·e11th. T he prin ciple wn,, tlrnt the chnrnctcrs f nn<l ~ r<' presrntcd ~'I>l­
r ntes !!enernll y, but r epresented pht.h ongal or voenl so111Hl R \Jrl'.ll'e "'. ' we ls. 1
t h e :l'l~gt<lnr lif, pronounced life, beco m e l~fe•, pronu1m cerl lives, 111 the plurnl,

hn•:

an d the verb l(f-a n was pronounced livan.

Ru r,E V I. Wor d s ending in a d ou.b1 e lelt er
drop one on taking a suffix b eginning ,vith th at
letter, except Zl b efore less j a s, seen, agreed,
fii lly , hnpression.

But p all-less, hu ll-less,
R.ULE VII. C takes le b efore a suflix beginning
-with e, i, or y j as, traffi cked, f rolicki ng, garli ck?J.

V III. Many
unaccented, preceded
th o vow el b efore a
v mvd other tktn i j
RU L E

dis astro ns.

words ernliu g iu er or ur
by b, d, g, 1!' or t,.drop
suffix b egmmn g with a
as, C?.Imh r oiis, traitress,

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ORAL

EXERCISE.

13

Correct · tlie e1'-rors in

~ apeUirig in tlie following sentences, and giVe the

· "Evei:judgei.ng others kindly, yon will be judged by
.,. othe~ kindly. -·The colors were changable. I was
'sadened. by. the sight of so much trifling. John was
· $
etudycius, and never freted or complained of wearyness
·"-over his books. After untieiug his sack, he divided his
•~ty fare with his hungery dog; in fact, he gave him
e d~intye~t ,morsel. ·. I descryedfrom the top of the
• a number of monkies frolicing in the jollyest way.
e 'valli~s' \vere very mudy, and our horses draged
~ ly'i!o~g. : The knot that is tyed in treachery will
be ooaed_by jealousy. · Virtue alone is happyness beeJ'.are. ~~pl9ied in reduceing the monies of
•1011)8~W ~ue standard.. The chimnics were smokeing
. . ~e '~lyest;fires,"o( the' morning. I baged my
and hurried,home. ·~, The name of l\Iacanlay will
te. ~o. lbw.~!aceJ.n~ the long roll of English worthys.
'fever· ~uarrelling ,with our neighbors, we are ever
oreas~ing th~ -hardships of life. The war had one
oat desii-eable effect, that of nniteing partys that had
ver 1?_~.en disagr~ing> Believeing fully what I am dereing: I shall ever feel myself impeled 'to direct my
_liv'cing ·accordingly. They readyly complyed with the
· :,. telDlS 'which were offerred, and at once redresed all the
. ~jncye_with which they were chargable . . We met "the
· ~c_al'Ij~rs ~omeing the way we were going, who t old us
,;th~~ .the cavaliers had taken all their moveables. He
' JVhQ. forgeteth his neighbors in the cxtremitys of their
'""°'distress, will himself be forgoten when his 1ieed shall
·~ be criing for help. His mimicing was of the merl'yest

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INTRODUCTORY LESSONS.

order. He was blameable for trampling 11nt1cr foot all
the d.ec~ncys of social lifo. 'Vlio slt11ncth tli~cnse
hootteth at remedys. llcforing t.o his C'arlycr t.ryalf;,
he counselled a patient eml11 rc:t1H'l! of' prese nt hardships, and. the maintenance or a hupcin g i:: pirit under the
hcavyest burdens, ancl the stonnycst skycs.

.RUDIMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION
AND GRAMMAR.·

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. · ~ P ART I. -· PRIMITIVE SUB.JECTS Of
THOUGHT.- CONCRETE NOUNS.

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CHAPTER I.

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OBJECTS.-:-PROPER NOUNS.
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§t2_8._)Yn~N . ~e first think, we think of a single
object. ' If·· any such · single object have a name, that
· · uame is;called in Grammar a Proper Nuttn.
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· object; as, Jolin, 1lfars, August.

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· § 24. Any object, whether person or thing, may be
expressed by a proper noun. The names of the two
· brazen pillars in Solomo1~'s temple, Jachin and Boaz,
. :, . are proper nouns.
Thei·e are, accordingly, many kinds of Proper
Nouns; as many, indeed, as there are kinds of objects.
It will be convenient to have in mind the following
lea.Jing classes .
· 1. PERSONS ; :u;, John, lVasldngton, Jitlius Cresai·.

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PRIMITIVE SUB.JECTS OF THOUGHT.

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2. ANIMALS;

as, 1'owze1·, Dobbin, JJfouscr.

3. PLANETS and STARS; us, JJiercury, Sirius.

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4. TmNGS; as, Stand-by, applied to a RtafT; JJionitor, applied to a war-vessel; 1Ywmes, appliell to a

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nv er.
5. PLACES ; as, Afrfra, Paris.

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6. Tnrns; as, JJfonday, J anuary, Christmas.
7. ScrnNCES, A1ns, ancl PuRsurrs; as, Grammar,
Rhetoric, Ai·ithmetic, Comnw·ce.
8. IDEAS; as, Space, Time, Etemity, 1h1th, Beauty,

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Goodnes .~.

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On~1mvATION.-lt must be borne In mind thnt the snmc word mny be nsrd
fo1· diffe re.nt

prn·posr~, nnc1so1nay in sutnc uses hen. Proprr Nonn nnll ln olhc•r

uses be n Common Noun.

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It ls" Proper Noun only wh en npproprintc<l ns the

nnmc of nn lnclil'idnal ob,icct.

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§ 25. 01ur; Ex1mcrnEs. JJiention oldects o.f eacli
class enumernted in the preceding subject by tltefr
n ames as Proper 1Yow1s.
Dr!fine a Prope1· JYou.n . . JJiention th e dU}'erent kinds
of Proper J'louns.
'V mTr,1':N ExERCISE. lVi·ite sentences asserttng attributes of ol:jects er17Jresse(l by Proper Nouns o.f each
class.
MooxLs.-December Is ::olcl. Eternity will bring full retribution

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matter; th ey th erefore belong to th e class cnll ecl body
as w ell ns to t11at c:tlled pl1(,J/ et. They nlso hnTe t h o
comir.o n attribute uf g ivin g forLh li g ht; nnd ns the
cl:i ss of o11jccts t hat, g in' for t h li g ht, is cnllc1l Ly tho
name lwninrr1'y, t hey belon g to t,l1i s <'la ~R nl so ; lhl'y
arc lumin aries, as well ~.s plau ets :1lll1 hoLli cs. 111 tl10
Rarne ·w ay, ,James, ancl J oh11, and Samuel ha Yc t h e
common attribute of learning at school J. th ey may be
collec tcll into a class b ecau se th ey .11:w e t hi s com mon
attrihut-.') , and t h e n ame of th e class scholm· is a classnoun. But they are all sons of th e same fat.her; t.h ey
hnse th is common att ribut e ; nnd so t hey may Le co llect ed into· anoth er class-brothers. Th e name of the
class m·other is a class-u onn. So th ey hns e commo n
attributes by which they may be collect ed in to mauy
ot.hcr classes, as boy, cousin, nep hew, p er,wn, biped,
spellel', reaclel', writer, and others.

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~ch oln1·, n boy,

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n broth er, etc.

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29. ORAL ExEUCISES .

Name the Class-n ouns in

the f vllowin,r7 sen tences:-

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Immense hrau ch cs were shiv ered from t he l:trgcst
t rees ; small ones were entirely stri pped of th eir leaves ;
tl1 0 lo1.1 g g rass was bowecl to the earth; th e waters
were ,vhirlecl in eddies out of the little riv ulets; birds,
leavi11g their nests to seek shelter in t he crevices of

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Oi1'>:nYATION.- 'I'wo things nro t o be enr kept In mind: fir•t, clnosr s nro
compos"cl of sin;;lc objects by r enson of som o nttrlb uto, or ntlrl l>11 tce, or th ose
obj ects; secondl y, thi s attrib ute, or ntlributcs, mu st belong In comm on to every
object in till' clnss. Ilc11 ce it Is t hat every object m ny be cnllcd by th e nn m c of
the cla ss. Jam es is n sch olar, h ecnu sc h o hns th e nttribute of a scholnr-l cnrn·
In g nt sch ool. A clnss-noun is often cnll ed _!'common nonn, b ecn11 se it is 11 nnme
co~ m on to nll lhc obj ects in th o class. He n c~ It ls, also, nny objP.ct mny belong
t o ns mn11 y d iffer ent cl:is~cs ns il hns nttribntcs In comm on w ith nny other
object ; nnrl mny b e named by ns many differ ent elnss nam es. Jam es, thu s, Is

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.· COMPOSITE OBJECTS.-CL.A SS-.S ouNk

PRIM:ITlV E SUBJECTS OF THOUGHT.

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. ·;, Mention other class-nouns, and answer in a simila?·
.~•oay in respect to eacli.
·,..;:-· § 30. Point out, or mention, several objects that you
~'~ aee or can think of that belon7 to the class chair.
) . _.:: M~ntion the attribute iohicli is common to each of

f :!0

these objects, ancl on account of wliich yoit call it a
chair.
llfention o1jects belongint; res71ectivel.71 to tlie classes
u amecl hook, table, house, t1og, l1orsc, tre(', 1lo wC' r.
JJ£ention the att?-ibute, or attributes, wliicll are common to the objects in each of these classes respectively,
and on account of wliicll tliese objects are gathered
into t!wse classes.
J1fention otlier class-nouns ; name some objects belonging to each / nmne also the common attribute.

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CHAPTEH III,
NOUNS.

1Vi·£te out names of
classes, mentfoning some of the single ~bjects belonging
to tlw1h resp ectively, and the comnwn class-attribute.
Supply Class-noims, as subjects, to the Verbs in the
followi;7.[J pm·ts of sentences :HITTEN EXERCISES.

Blooms; grows; swim s; walks; fe els ; i.s moving;
has been conquered; was produced; ·will be mad e ;
" ·as discovered; is promised; will be multiplied; revolve in their orbits; c::i.n be mentioned; is mild; is
woolly; is teachable; is sca1y; is web-footed; is longnecked; is square; is hig h; is heavy; is long-lived ;
is prickly; is bulbous; is brittle;. is ripe; is green ;
is purple; is sweet; is fragrant; is rough ; is elastic.
On,;Rtn"AT ION.-Tho noun will be apt to occur In nnswer to the intcnogntlvr,
A s, ii' l nsk myself," Wh:it blooms?" the wor<l will be npt to occur to
llH.: ,-~' The flow er.,,

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PIUMITIVE SUBJECTS OF THOUGHT.

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:Mo1>F.L.- - Tli c fi rr pc11t crcq•s; I.h o grupr. IR ronn<l.

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of the .smaller

. , birds, whose extended flanks are so often seen to heave
up out of the abyss of the heavens until they appear

as countless
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as the leaves ·of the forest.

At present

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§ 35. \V RITIEN EXERCISE. SupjJly Collectii1e l{ou11s

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as su1dects to the follo wing parts of sentences :-

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Co11te11decl; clam orell; fl ew; ra.11 t ogc tlH'r; wnA
statio ned ; w ere bought; w e r.e fonml; gat h er ed tog:..:thcr; marched ; was till e d wit.h th e songs of l iinls.

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Collective 1Yuu ns, d e11 oti11g,- I, Per-

so ns; 2, Animals; 3, Thiu gs.

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s warm s of' h oney-b ct•s ran p;e t hw11gh the 11 olil c grn\·eA
an<l forests tha t skirt :111<1 i11t c n°Pet th e prniri ('s. ~h:nks
s wim with grl'a.l y(•lol'ity, :1t1il o l'tl'11 in Y:< s t.11111ltit.11d (•s ,
pf: p eciall y wh en p11rs11i11!; ?< h11 :ils 11!' t>I h l' r fi s h. A )':ti r
of th ese binl s ln1ilt, tll('ir II(' :-< \, 011 t h1: t:il l1·st. tn·e in :i
littl e ci ulllp i11 t he r(':t r o l' tlw ~·: 1r d1 • 11 . 11 l' rc tlt l'y
rai sed t heir littl e fan1ily, and 1·111 1ti n1wcl to (il l th e
gro r e with t h eir \1·:nldi11gs till t h L' :1p11rc•: H·l1ing "\rinter <lrO\'C them, \rit.11 :1 wl1 (1 le t rn n p (If' n ·l:tt ion s, lo
m ore gc ni:i.l ski ('s. A p:-tl'k (If' 11·oh <'s, n1n s1·d l1y th e
n oise, gave el1asn ; lJ11L 111 y t.rn s t y P.k:il l's kc• pt nH' 011t
of the ir r each t ill, as I. nc:ired rn y ho111 c, a co111il c
o f s ta.g -homnl s, h ~1yi11 g forion sly fro111 lh1 •ir kc 1111 1· lR,
fri g l1t<'n e<l back m y pursue rs i11t.o t.h c forest. You
slia\l l1av e a d oze n, or a round S ('Ol'\', i(' yo u will Lut
deliver m e from this vil e c re w. '.l.'h e :1 sst• 111lil y 1r a8
ea ll L'Ll t o onle r , and a q11 ornm lil' in g 1'0111111 to
prcscnl, pro ccc(le(l Lo busin ess .

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PllJMITlVE SU B.JEG T ~ OF Tl! OUC: IIT.

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l\l onF. !.B.- Th c nrmy fonght.

The mnllltucle shunted.

CHAPTER
COMPOSITE OBJECTS.-

IV.
MASS-NOUNS.

§ 36. OBJECTS m a,y not only Le thought as mero
_individuals, or as collected into classes or groups, but
also as masses. Air, thus, is a mass; wate1 is, also a
mass. The names of snch objects . are called ~Iass- ·
nouns.

A Mass-noun is the name of a mass.
OnSERV A.TION.-A

clnss-noun, if it b as a singular nt )e!l'St, mny nlwnys be
ltnown by its admitting the incl efinitl' article a or an b efore it t o d enote one
·of the obj ects lnclu<led und.e r the clnss; thus, achafr, mi oak. A coll ective
noun does not nd mit the nrticle to denote one of the objects of the gro up, ~s we
C11n not sny afor eat to d en ote one of the trees In the forest, but we mny nse tho
Indefinite nrticie or the numeral one with n word d en oti ng one object in th e
group; we cnn sny "a sheep in the tluck," or" ong of the llock.'' In the case of
11 mnss-nonn, th ere are no individual objects thought of as makin g up the m ass.
We can speak of a pa,.t, a port,ion, using some word denoting a part of n magnitude, not of n number.

§ 37. 0R.A.L EXERCIS E S. ]{a.me the Mass-nouns in
, the fallowing sentences :Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. Ice
'is frozen w a t e r. Exogenous pl a~ts have bark, woocl,
nud pith. The bloo cl is purified by air take n into the
lungs. Spirit is active; m atter in e rt. Smoke is a
proc1nc t. of combustion.
\Vheat an<l rye will germinate in a single day; mustard requires three clays;
lettuce, four; while parsley r equires fifteen. Passion,
I see, is catching. Knowledge is power. ·

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l'ItU.llTIV1£ SUDJECTS OF TIIO\'.Gll'l'.

Ji.Tame thre~ JIIass-nouns tlwt arc,-

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1, Minerals; 2, Gafcs orV:ipors; 3, Ycget:tblcR; 4,
Animals; 5, Spiritn:d olij ects.

i\I

§

8111i1ily 1lfirss-11ow1s a.q
subjects to tlw fvllvwintJ pu rts (!( i<c11t c11 ces : 38. \VmTTEN Ex1rnc1 f' 1·:s.

:.Mel ts; is di ssohefl; i'(':tlt e r s; ri s1·s ; no11risli cs; lA
form ed; will 1Jcn1l; 1..- ill freeze; think ,: ; lil<·P1l s ; is
sweet; is bi·ight; is d11ct ii <'; is f'11sil.!<·; is eo111h11stiblc; is brit.Lle; is plialile; ii' hard; is dull; is str:itifiecl; is goot1 for food; is Lr:wsp:m.: nL.
JIIoDEt..-Grn ss withers; tho 11 ~ht is <k:t thk ss.
Onsr::u.,TATION.-The fonr class es of ohjects nnm c<l in th e prccr<l in!'.! :::t>C'tin11!\
Th ey nro cxprrssccl in a 1·la s~ of
worcls which nre c:'d lc <l ('oncre.te.r;i, and whi c h c o11~1it11tc: u11r pf th"' two g r:1111 l
didsi o11 s of 11 01111s in language. Co ncrc h.•s nn• s in gle or co m posit.('. f:incli~ Cflflcrctcs cx prr sse(l i11 s in .~ l c words nrc Prope r No nn ~. ('un1po~it r cnll<'ITIP~ arc

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thefoVJwing classes respectively:1, Of Persons; 2, of Places; 3, of Things.

2. Of th?-ee Olass-noim.s of each of the following
.
classes respectively:1, Places; 2, DiYisions of Time; 3, Minerals; 4,

.Vegetables; 5, Animals; G, Rational Beings.
3. Of three Collective Nouns in each of the f olloiiJ- .

· ing classes :-

·

1, Living objects; 2, Inanimate objects.
4. Of three llfass-nouns.
2

<'nmpose tl eit he r of(l) p:i.rts th nt r:111 lw m ra ~ 11rl"• d, c1111 s til11li11~ ~ 1 :1~s - n o11 11~: u r

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aerting 1ornetlii1ig of three Proper Nouns of each of.

fnnn a gr ncral class ol' objehts of t.hooght..

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§ 39. A CONCRETE NOUN is the name of nn ol>j cct.
wltich we first t hink of as subj ect hadng a11 attriLntc.

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('2 ) parts that can h e 111unhe r e <l wltho11t bt·in~ d:t!->~(' d . ron s litnlill!.! Co llt·rt ir o
!~ot111g; o r (3 ) p:trts Uia.t nre ga ll1 cr<·<l in lo tho s:un c class, c11 11 .~ t.il11ti11z C ln ~~11011ns. Set\ Art o f Co mpo si tion, App <' ndlx, No. fl. ('on r rt~ l r 1101111 ~ nrr, tn

fact., orii;inal snbjcct·nouns: tlrnt is, names of obj eels ,,f w hi ch sum c lhing Is
p,ssorted.

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Os~rnttv ATI ON.- -Thc sn.mc wn}'(l, it sh o nl<l be .hornr. in 111i1ul , rnny h e\ in 01w
11 st·. n Proper Nou n; in another, a Cluss- n onn; in 8till n11 olh C'r , n C11ll1·rtivc
Noun, or n ~.taSR-nonn. Thus, when I say H Alrx:rnd r r wn s ri l!l'C:t t g1·ncral,', I
u se th (' word "Alexander" ns rt proper noun. \\'h en 1 s rty "An All'~nn<itr
would hav e fuil ell ht s nch a ca1npai:.rn," I u se th e word lo tlrnot e n l'ln ~s. I 11
th e e-nrn c w ay, I 111 ny sny u " '" ate r i s fluid," u sin ;z th e wnnl ~·water,' n~ n m :1 ~~ ­
noun; or 11 Hnin w:1tcr is soft,,, n ~ ing the same word as n. clns.s-11onn. 1t is th o
u se of the word in sp cn kinf!, nut tl1 c fonn of th e wonl ~ s it... is ~ iv c n in the d if:tionury, thnt 1lctc r111i11cs whether it hclon~ s to th e one or the ol1ier of 1he different classrs of 1101\n s ;-w h ether Jt i8, in n given case, n. rrcprr noun, n C. ln ~B·
noun, n Co lh~ c the noun, or n Mnss -nonu .

§ 40. 'V uITrn:N

ExERcrn1~s.

1. H"J·ite .~cntences as-

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COMPOSITE OBJECTS.-MASS-NOUNS.

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QUALITIES.

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hence BUblliv\ded Into the two cl!tsSCS: 1, QUALITIES; 2, ACTIONS. Moreover,
w~ think of objects either In th eir rell\tions lo 'somo time or pince, or In their
relations to some other objects In Um e or pi nce. ltelatlune, hence, nre subdlvlrled lnto the two clnsscs : 1, COND ITIONS; 2, RELATIONS PROPER.
· Still further. Properties nre divided luto,1. INORGANIC, or Bltch ns belong to merely mnterial objects; ns,,rocks, snnd,
air, wnler.
2. ORGANIC, or such ns belong to ol>j ects In the vegetable klngtlom; as, trees,

PAUT lL-A'l''J'RIBU'rES.

ehru bs, plnnts.
S. SENTIENT, or such as belong to the nni111a\ kingdom.
·- 4. SPIRITUAL, or such ns b elong to rnllounl bein gs.
IJ. ATTRIIlUT~~s OF QUANTITY, Jtnma a l pnd Spacial, or such ns express

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QU AJ.JTI ES.

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imhj e'c t as having a sjnglc attribute; as, The
br(r;ht.

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s1111~ is

0.IJSF.IWATWN 1.-It is not m rn nt, wh e n it is sn ld thnt nnr fl i·ft thot1~ l its t"ko
~n s111g le s11h.11'r ts ns lrnvi 11 g sin gle ntl ribnt.r •, th nt th rso llrst thn11 <:ht; nrc jt1st
111 t111 s Vl' l'hal fo rm, or that th C' y nrr c oi11pl<: t c n11 d p r rfc l'I .. ll i:; tilt r cm:dflS tru e
thnt wh eu ""' t.hiuk, we nhrnys think o f n subj1•o•t "" hndn !: "' nttrilrnt e ; nn<l
if th e tlio11 ::d1t. hL· p 4.: rrrc t n11d c~11t1pl e tr. 1 '~· o a ~ ... 1·rt th o nt11'iliut.e of th n fHthj rr: t

,;I.tr!:

Mm·cov:":• 0 111· fi rnl t.hnn ;!hls 1trc nrrr"":i rit y nf sin ;! lo ohjccts nn<l ,; 11 ;:d n
b,'1tes. l hcse mn y be se p:1ratr1l nfter word; \mt primitively th r y nre si n<: lr.
'lhc nsserlin g cleme nt, it s h oul<l l'e remnrk c cl, lH1w evc r, d oes 11 nt :ni~c t\11 nft c· r
so1.nc pr~i:.p·css in u s in g lnngungc. Tho child sn.ys: u Sngnr s w cct,n b<·forc Rayi ng
u Sugar 1 .q s w<"c t .11
OnSER VATI ON 2.-Attribn tc8, like suhj ccts, nrc of cllll'rrc nt cln s•rs. IL ts lmportnnt tlrnt. t.hc pupil, in lenrn\11;: to co mpose ns in learning tn think, Rh•rnlc\
k11nw wh at these classes nrc; shouttl k11ow that they compr ise all the allributes
lh :it co n be thou ght of an y snbj c,..t; nncl tlrnt th ry ""'' hmailh· <!i sli ngn ishc<I
frorn on e nnother. Il e shonl<l, moreover, be nuul e so f!lniili:\1· with their 11
that .he slrnll ~ e ver confound t)1cm: thnt he slrnll !Jo nh lc flt oner , wh r n he Is
to th111k o'.· wr~tc full y on nny Rllh,icct, to procee tl m r lhrnl ica lly nncl ltJHkrntnntlin ~ lr to t11 sco' rr nnd prcsrnt its attribu tes fre ely nnd occ urnl (' l\'. go as t o kn<HV
\h~t he. has P'"'~rntc<l the prop er attri butes, and all of th ree atlriLUll' S thnt his
oh,1 cc·.t Ill tlnnkrng or in writin g- r cr1ui1·es.
Attri bu tes ore <livi<i cd, In n.fcr cncc to the mod e in wbich wr th •111 k tl
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. 1r m,
1n u c a sSC' fJ.
hus, wh e n w e think of an ob,i cct, we thi11k of it e ith e r ns Jia·dn,..,.
a propr rt.r tn itsrlf, or ns !Jcln.c; In som e relntion. 'Ve hav~ th ns the two gen en~
clns"cs ot ntlrl l> ut.cs : 1, Pi:Ol'Rlt'l'IY.S; 2, Jh: LA1'111NA. Bttt \\'C think or obj ec ts
either ln res pec t vf whnt th <'Y 11rr, or In resrwct of whnt they do. J'ropertles nre

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numb er or' mngnltud e.
• Thls enumcrntion of the sprcies of properties ls not propc1)y grnmmntlcol;
It ls glven to fnc\lit11to the ex ercises In composition, whi ch nJ.J,ys Imply obser• , vatlon and thought. The class tfl cntlon Is one 'of ftt111lnmentlll jmportnnco, nnd
- • every pupil should bo mad e fomllinr with It. Th<'l'C wlll be little difficulty o'n
the part of the t ench er to mnk e clenr the cll sti nctlnns. ,It must be r emembered
ever thnt obj ects of the hi gh er clnsses not onl y hnv e the properties belonging
to .that clnss exclusively, but nlso those or the lower clnsses. .Man.thus ls not
only splrltunl, bnt he Is sentie nt nncl orgnnic, ns well ns material. So no nnlmal
0

· § 41. \.VrmN we firsL thiuk, we thiuk of a s in gle

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Is not only sentient, bnt orgnnlc, e.tc.
Qnnllti es nre, when asserted 1•f th eir nhj ecte, more opproprlately exprcssetl In
· Engli sh In th e form of ndj ecti>es; ns, "Th e S till is bl"i(Jht." Acti ons nre nssertecl
ht the form of v erbs; ns, "The st111 ·shi nes." Condi tions nre npproprintely
expressed In the form or \Ill' part.id pk; nF, "The s11n is Bhini n(J ;" or by nn
acljunct; as," Th e sun ls abo 1Je the ho,.;zon." In English only condltlons <•f
- nctlon or of activity nre expre•scr\ ln v erbs, whlclt 111 :iy also denote nttribut<·s
_of action; ns, "The flow er f ades." R elntlnns m·e likewise, for the most Jl3l'l nt
Jenst, expressed by verbs of action. Such verbs ns equal, exceed, etc., nre exi" crptlons. · For this r eason no special exc1·clscs nre given In verbs expressing

~-

oondltlon nml relntion.

§ 42. Every object of which we think has some at.... tribute, or attributes, which make it what it is.

Such

~ attributes are called Properties.

PROPERTIES are attributes that belong to an
:-, object in itself. Bright, round are attributes
' ..;'. of property belonging to the sun.
· .§ 43. Properties are of two kinds: 1, those
· :~ which denote Action ; 2, those which do not,
~~ put are simply Qualities.

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QUALITIES.

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Properties hence are ei tl1<~r Aclions or Qnalities. In the sentence, "The s un ]s ,,·:uminp;,"
wannin,q is a property of action . In t 11 0 f'<'lltcncc, ' i The sun is wa rm ," warm is a property
of q nality .
§ 44. An attribut e of C~ 11ality is grnernll y C'X1iressed by a word callecl in ~tnrniar all .Lhlj ective. See § HJ.
§ 45 . OnAL ExErrcrsEs. I. P oint out t/ir>, <l<ijccti ves

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A'l'TRIDUTES. I

·that express att1-ilmtcs (!l Q1wlity £11 the ji>ll01,,i11r1 sentences, and name th e suljects to which each <(/' th ese
attributes belon,r1s :There h as b een a pl easant rai11, n:11 <l Lhe g i-:1ss is
g ree n ag ai n. Upon q uiLti11 g Ll1 c pl:1i11 , Ji n mi g ht li:t\'l~
lPft a g reen a nd fo rt.il e soil, aml n cli111 :.ll1' w:irm n11d
pleasin g . As he asce rnl s, th e g ro11111l ass 11111cs a m ore
ru sset color, t he g ra ss l> cco111 es 111 o rc mossy, and the
" ·eath cr more m oc1eraLc. ' V he11 he is st.ill hig her, Lh e
w eathe r b ecom es 111or c co]i], and th e enrl h more l>arrcn. Sir Philip l\Ionl:urnt was yo un g, lwau t if'ul, since r e, hr::is c,-au En g lislnn a11. A wi se 111a11 will make
h aste to forg ive, l>ccansc he knows t he true value o f
ti me, and will n ot suffer it to pass :rn·ay i1111111H~ce ssary
pain . It is a g reat vir t ue in good-natured y o11 l h to l> c
able to say NO . Yo ung peo ple set out 'ri t h fals e
n otions of h appin ess ; with gay, fairy-la111l i111a g i11 nt io11 s. ' Vlioen :)r woul\1 be r eally h app y, mnst lll akc
t he dili gent arn1 regu lar exercise of his nupcrio r pow ers
11 is el1 id atLe11 tio 11. Th e great i11 co n ve11ic11 ee of p11 IJI ic
education a rises from its b ein g dan ger ous to m orals.
, The simples t form of extern a l grnwl cur appears in the

·- -vast and boundless prospects presented to us by nature.
• . C'owper's "Task" was at once descriptive, moral, and
satirical. The descriptive parts everywhere bore evi. ... .dence of a thoughtful min cl an cl a gentle spirit, ;is well
'. as of an observant eye.; and the mornl sentiment whi ch
·. pervaded them, gave a charm in which dcscript.h-e
• poetry is often found " ' anting. Life- bean; us on like
:the stream of a mighty river. Onr boat at first glides
'down the narrow channel, through the playful mnr- .
muring of the little brook arn1 the winj:.1 ing of its
~ grassy

border.

' " § 46 .. ORAL EXER CISES. n. ]{anie the adjectives
·· .expressing properties offonn in the fallowing sen. .t~nces :.._, , . 'T he ball is round and h e::i.vy. 'The road was wind~ ,ing and roug h. I sa"· a tall, rough, cone-like mountain just b efo re me. A dark cloud was coursed over
i by zigzag streams of dazzling light. There was a
;square open place, in the mitlclle of which was an
. arched portico. A spiral staircase led up to the top
of the round tower.

. - .,· .

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"~ 'Nctme some object that is curved ; some object that
.. ·is oblong; tliat is convex; concave; pointed; oval;
t1;angular; jagged ; forked; serpentine; scallopecl;
bell-shaped; tapering; star-like; furrowed; wrinkled ;
curly ; feathery.
Mention the form of a book; a dollar; a p encil; a
flute; a wh eel; a corkscrew; the gal>le of a l10use ; an

"gg; a door.
§ 4 7. W RITTE~ ExE RCIS.ES.

Write mtt sentences

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att?·ibuting soine quality of form
oldects.

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to six

Mon1ns.-Tho tt·cc Is rou11rl-loppc1\. 'l.'.rnlow Is uulong.

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ATTitlDUTES.

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48. 01tAL ExE1wums.

Puint u11t the (l(\jectives .

'31

".'-uNo :' bird, but did her' shrill notes sweetly sing.
"1'oud thunder to its bottom shobk the bog, ancl the
.hoarse nation croaked, God saYe King I~<ig. Then,
,'~er . some gruff muttering with himself, he cried.
·.::fi:J)umb
be thy voice, an~ mute the tuneful Htri11g.
... _
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.
~.. · · Na11ie some sound that is loud., soft; high, low;
rough, smooth; musical, discordant. '

expressing attributes of culor in the .following sen·
tences :.
If thou woulJ.st view fair l\Ielroc:;e aright, go Yisit it ·
' § .51. ORAL ExERCISES. Name tlw w?jectives exl)y the pale mooulight., for the gay beams of lightsome
,,/ pressing sonie property of oclo1· in tlw f o}low ing sen·
day, gilJ. hut to flout· the rnins grny; "·hcu the broken
, tjiices·:arches are black in night, and each shaf'tc(l oriel glim- .
' · ,..Wafted citron scents the balmy breeze. W"here
rners wl1itc. 1\ly l\Jn,y of lil'e is fallen into tlie scar, the
y ellow leaf: They put OU him a purple roue. The ! ~·~tbe green bower, with roses crowned, in showers its
: ffiigrant foliage sheds. Gather from the fragrant
foatlicrecl hearse ancl sable train, in all its wonted ·
·ehhib. the aromatic balsam. vVe find among their
statf', shall wind aloug the village l:l.lw. 1'hc golden ,;
·~·"''ct:etions the sweetest perfumes, and the most foticl
sky Jiad changed to a dun color. Corn;itlcr what sort
The sweet smoke of the odorous incense asof a worltl it -..vo11kl be if all flowers were gray, all
. cended up out of the angel's hand. Bees bring their
leases black, ancl the sky brown.
'oney redolent of spring. vVhile frying gums, cast
1\ !(.1 me some o1Uect that is red; some tliat is ora11ge; ·
und a fragrant mist of spicy fumes.
"ell ow· •rrcen · hlne · indin"O · violet· crimson· saffron· "
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· ~: Name some object, the odor of which is sweet; punolirn; rnssct.; auuurn; gray; sorrel; dun; purple. "
Tell tlw color of the sky; the ocean; a pea; a lemon; . '. "gent; musty; rank; m11sky.
~ · ' § 52. ORAL ExE1tc1s:Es. Nanie the adjectives exthe larkspur; tho buttercup; the lily;
pressing some rn-operty of taste in the following senwren ; a mole; an eleph;_1: 11t.
~

....,~

.

·3-'dors>

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·;.

§ 49. 1Vi·ite sentences ·attributing ear:h

<{f

the seven ,

colors of tlw rainbow tv as many cl~ff'ercnt ol~jects.
IFi·it(l seven sentences attrilmti11g some col01· tu
rnany oldects dYf'ering in color.

§ 50. 01tAL ExEnc1sEs. ]{ame tlte adjecti1Jes expres:.dng some q·1uility of sound in the following smt- ·
tences :-

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tences:-

.., A dram of sweet is worth a ponncl of sour. The
, · rlckly pear thri vcs best near the sea, especially where
·the sand is saltish. The juice is very tart, yet pleas~nt if sweeten eel with sngar. One kind has a cold and
aci.d juice which no heat of the snn can sweeten. . All
en are agreed to cnH vinegar sour, honey sweet, and

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aloes bitter. Jihere Titan still his loclrn in luscious
nectar steeps. "'The jelliecl cream or cnstnnl, daiutiest
food, for Tbyrnis she prepares. The water of the ·
'L ake of Lucm1ia, by report, at times hcco111<'Lh sweet,
and at other times so salt :wll ln-:icki~h that; uo rnan ·
can drink it.
Nanw some oldect that is spicy; pnugcut; peppery;
lnsciom1.
§ 53. · ORAL ExEIWISES. j\71.une the arUect!'.vl-"S expressing some property <~f tonch hi the followi11 ,fJ s~n­
tences :Out of the roughest marble, the.sculptor, stroke by
stroke, chisels out the smooth, soft brow, aml every
rounded fe::itnre of the face. The sofLest body will
resist the coming together of :my other two bodies.
Mime some ol/ject that is rough; smooth; sharp;
soft; prickly; thorny.
§ 14. vVRITI'EN ExETICISES. 1V1·ite three sentences
att~·ibuting some prope1·ty
sound to some object j
Tltree attributing some property of oclorj
Tli1·ee attributing so1ne property of taste;
Three ctttributing some property of touch.

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CIIAPTE I:t II.

,

/

.ACTIONS.

~- §. 55. AN attribute of action is generally ex-

.~~ssed by a verb ; as, The sun warms j J olm

.;'studies. ·

.

.

' l'. .
'
•0B811RVATION.-lf
the nltribnte Is nsserted of tl1e subject,
It is combined
the copula, rind tho verb proper Is nsed; ns, The sun bnrmi : If it is not
rted, then a form derived from the verb, called the pnrticlplc, is used; o.s,

lth

. ......l>Uriii11·(J sun.

ll'he

.·": :" § 56. ORAL ExERCISES.
.following sentences :.

Point 01d the verbs in the

,,

·.: John runs. The moon changes. The house shcl"~;s: James saw: Columbus discovered America. The
bii·d e,arols. The bells ring out a merry souncl. The
wi~ds howl. The thunder rolls. The tree blossoms.
·h~ · serpent creeps. The stone supports the ladder.
_;,.;~e great sun looked down upon it; the vertical
~ b-eams drank fiercely of its shrnnken water. So say, 0,
~ he descended to the court,' fhrng himself 011 his
arb, and with a small and saddened train passed
lirough the gate which we yet survey. At the head
of the van-guard rode upon a palfrey the Bishop of
Avila. . I had longed to know its condition. Often had
· beheld thii? brilliant world. The sun )rnd risen upon
the bills. I can not brit congratulate you. All these
~right hopes will r.oon, one by one, be fading away.

''

't:.

34

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I would have given twenty lives for an advocate.
Naught so reluctant, hut in it must go.

§ 57.

ACTIONS.

ATTRIBU'l'ES.

JYiwie the verbs e':l')J1'essin,r;
p1·operties o.f visible action in tlie .following sentences;_,...
A light flashed across his pat.h. The fire blazed
cheerily. The green blade twinkl es iu the sun. Iler
rising beauties Hushed a higher bloom. Now, morn
with rosy light had streakell the sky. Anrora purpled o'er the sky with blushing light. If the young
tree grow crooked, when it is old a man shall rather
break it than straighten it ; and I think there is 110
one thing that crooks youth more than such nnl awful
games. They then rounded it, and smoothed it, and
compacted it iuto a ball that could be easily handled.
Anon he rears upright, curvets, and leaps. Merrily
they twirl the spindle ronml \Ve were forcerl to cut
our cables in all haste, and scait1pcr away as well as we
could. Dances like a round top, aiid reels, ::u1,c1 hobbles.
The globe shall faintly tremble rouml and backwanl
jolt. The soldiers' counsel was to kill the prisoners,
lest any of them should swim ot~t and escape.'. Men
once walked where ship~at anchor ride. Ye that iu
waters glide, and ye that walk the earth, and stately
tread or lowly creep.
·
Name the verbs expressing active properties o.f .~vund
in tlie fallowing sentences :Deep in those woods the black-cap and thrush
still hooted and clanged unweariedly. The t.rcc-toad
chimed in with its lolll1, trilling chirrup; aud frogs
from the pond and mill-brook, croolecl, chnbbed, and
ORAL EXERCISES.

35

" croaked. . Every inan there cried and clattered what
· ~.he ~ pleased. - The thutiders bellowed over the wild
-'''"waste
of. waters. The morninO'
stars sang too-ethe1·
'
0
0
'
· . ~ud all the sons of God shouted for joy. No martial
· J UUsic would havewelcoh1ed him in notes of rapture, as
_ they rolled along tlie Atlantic, and echoed through the
va,~ley of the Mississippi.
_; . N_ame the verbs exp1·essing active properties o.f taste,
· . odor, and touch, in tlie .following sentences :,Ji,
.7The tartness of his face sours ripe grapes. The
,".- ~n'.e _
s macks of the cask. Gentle breezes swept over
,,:."bo!mdless fields of flowers, and scente<.~ the air with
. · .th~,sweetest perfumes. It is to no purpose to fret at
·~· ..1!,is chains and fetters, which will but gall him the
•. ~ore. His pleasant words tickle the car, hut deceive
. t~~ heart. A .torrid sun scorches thro11gh the year. I
can laugh, langh heartily,~when' the go11t cramps my
joints.
I feel a prickincr,
a stra1we
1wickincr
· how it
• .
0
0
.
0'
1ngles !
. ~;j ·58.- WRITTEN EXERCISES. Compose sentences
• as.serting o.f some object sonic active
- . ,.r
.Property o.f color; o.f form ; of. motion ; . of sound;
· ''Of: touch ; o.f smell ; .o.f taste.
·
.
Y.
.
. ) § 59. ORAL ExmwrsEs • .Niune the verbs expressing
:.'?Juanic propertfrs o.f action in tlie .foll01oing sen~•nc.es :'~ Pere~nials are plants which live on year after year;.
~ost die down to the ground before winter; but some
1f p~~·~s of the stem are always kept aliYe.
The lily,. · .~lossom develops in all its glory ·without toil of its
<i.w n; its flower-buds slumber in the protecting bulb
&

..

/"

ATTRIBUTBS.

ACTIONS.

through the cold winter, and in summer unfold in
beauty for our delight. Plants l1aving stems that
grow outside, especially those that Ii ve year after
year, almost always branch freely. Some lcan·R l1:we
ribs that radiate from the foot-stalk, a11t1 vci11s that
branch o.ff from these ribs. Flowcr-lmd s blossom 011t
in the order of their age. Plants grow as t hey nssimilate or digest the food which they absorb from the
air, water, and th e earth. The honeysu ckle t 'dn cs
round the casement; broad, spreading oaks shade the
lawn; apple-trees in rich variety ripen their fruit 111
the orchanl.

. anywhere, opens its shell, protrudes its foot, and feels ·
·around for a snitabla spot; this being selected, it se.·cret.es an adhesive fluid, and spins a sufficient number
of threads to serve as anchor-cords.

36

"The monarch o:ik, the patriarch of the trees,
Shoots slowly up, anrl sprearls by low rl ~grco~
Three centnries he gr ows, nnrl three he stars
Supreme in st!lte, nnd in three more decays."

;

1Vame the verbs expressing sentient properties of
action in the fallo wing sentences :Th e spider feels far off its trembling web. Th e
snuff-taker smells the snuff with one nerve, and feels it
tingling with anoth er. The islanders would not swal- .
low a drop of the liq nor; theJ simply tasted it, and
returned it with strong expresRions of diR~n st. Gigantic birds stalk along the sancl::i, ~r wade far into the
water; while bird s of lesser sir.c float upon the lakcR,
or Rcre::un disconhnt over the na1Towc1· se:ts. Cattle
aml b easts of the fickls graze ou the plai11 R; the thickRkinned rhinoceros wallows in the marshes. Ye that
in wat ers glide, anrl ye that walk the cruth, and stately
tread or lowly creep. The wolf's perch bites at every
thin g , ancl preys on all th e finny tribes within its
reach. The mytilus, when it is about to station itself

37

. · Name tlie verb,s expressing active spfritual 1n·operin tlie .following sentences:-

. t~es

. · · Then he would stop and tell them what tl~ sick
child had said last night, and how he had longed to
be amoug them once again. The schoolmaster took a
seat beside the sick child and whispered his name.
'l'he . boy sprang up, and criecl that he was his dear,
kind . friend. "You remember my garden, Henry?"
whispered the old man. The boy smiled faintly.
Here, too, they worshiped, and prayed. to the Great
Spirit. He had not written his laws for them on tables
of stone, but he had traced them on the tables of their •
.' hearts. The poor child of nature knew not the God
·~.: of revelation, but the God of the universe he acknowl. edged in every thing around. If you prefer the latter
·, course, as I trust yon do, encourage emigration. I
' ) love to listen to the falling of snow. I know nothing
-86 wonderful as the shooting of a crystal. Do not
suppose that I complain simply because I wish to put
,myself into notice. vVe love to read, talk, sit silent,
,-. eat, drink, sleep, by candlelight.

· :. Name tlie verbs expressing attributes of quantity in
.· : the f ollowi11 g sentences :.
· < Nothing could equal the stranger's surprise. The
, ~Bi.des of the gulf were perpendicular, and extended
• ' :completely round. His successes exceeded his ut; .' most expectations, yet fell ever short of his swelling

/

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desires. There, Siddons, in the pride of her maj estic
beauty, looked with emotion on a scene which surpassed all the imitations of the stage. Ile had outstripped
all his early competitors.

§
I"

ATTRIBUTES.

60. vVmTI'EN Ex1mcISES. 1Vl·ite sentences contain-

ing verbs, asserting of some object some active inoi-.r;rmic
property; of some organic, some sentient, some spiritual property; some attribute of qitantity.
.

§ 61.

H71·ite out all the attributes of all classes, whether• Qualities or Actions, you
can think of, which may be asserted of tlw .followin,q
objects, arranging tliein in the orcler in wliicli they
liave been presented, viz. : First, Inorganic, incl1tdi11 r;
tlwse of.sir;lit, sowid, odoi·, taste, ancl touch; secondly,
Organic ; tliirdly, Sentient~; and .fmtrthly, Spin:tual ;..:_
·w--mTTEN ExERCISEs.

Silver.; glass; clock; book; rose; strawberry; hand;
heart; hon; ox; fish ; man ; farmer; sailor; printer;
sculptor.

•

CHAPTER UL
ABSTRACT NOUNS.

§ 62.

've wish to say something of an attri. lmte, and thus make the name of the attribute a
. subject-word, a derivative form of the word is used,
called an Abstract Noun, or simply an Abstract.

j,

WnEN

An ABSTRACT is a noun derived from a word
denoting an attribute. Thus, from bright is derived the abstract brightness j from grow, the
·abstract growth.
§ 63. Attrilrntes are of fonr classes: (1) Qualities,
. (2) Actions, (3) 1Conditions, ( 4) Relations.
Hence, AbstraCts are of the four classes: (1) Quality-nouns, (2) Action-nouns, (3) Condition-nouns, (4)
, Relation-nouns.
·
Ons1mvATION.-Nouns denoting nbsolnte ·quantity, ns grea.tn es.9, nre more
conve ni ently classed und er Qunli ty--nouns; 11nd those denoting rebtivcqnnntity
unrler Relation-nouns.
'l'here are certain tcrmlnntlons which arc u sed originally to denote ntt.ributes.
Although In the progress of th e lnnguage, nnd especially in the free ndmlsslon
of w01~lb into it from foreign Jnngnnges, these distinctions nre obscured, yet It
will be foun•l of grent service to foclllty nnd correctness In expression, to be·
come familiar with them so far ns Is prncticnble. The following mny be Ind!·
cnt<"d ns of Jc:ullng importance:QuAJ.ITrns nre d enoted by (I) Anglo--Snxon ness; ns, goodness. (2) Latin ice,_
· t·y ; ns, m.aliee., deldlity.
,
ACTIONS nre appropriately expressed by the terminations, (1) Anglo--Snxon
ing, th, t; 1ts, rising, t1·11.th (l'rom to trow), rift. (2) I,atin a.ye, nee, ion., numt,
'IW6;

;.
~

-

ns,ferri.a.ue, cleli1iera.11ce, lli~e r8ion, deRcription, t•efinement, captwre.

/

'I;l

STAT>:S or CoNDIT!ONS nre denoted by (1) Anglo -Srixon l1oo<l, ship, dom; ns,
boyhood, hm·dship , tlit·alldom . (2) Latin acy, 11 cy, nee, 1tde; ns, pl'i'Ca cy,
turlm lency, penitence, solit11d e.

§ 64.

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Ex1mcums. ./>lame ol1jects to wldeh the
. follo wing q1talities ma,y be atti·ibutcd :vVisclom; boldness ; smoothness; heaviness ; hardness ; blueness ; softness ; sweetness ; quickness ; density; timidity; credulity; magnanimity.
Nmne oqjeets to wliidi the fallo wing actions may
be attribittecl :•
Breathing ; growth; drift .
Tillage; acceptance; science; suspicion ; persuasion ;
creation ; enticement; seizure.
Nmne objects to .wliich tlie following conclitfons may
be attribitted :,
·
Childhood; ripeness; wanlsl~ip; freedom.
Lunacy; occupancy; convalescence; lassitude.
1vame objects to which tlte followin,r; relations may
be attribittecl :·
Foundation ; centi·; boundary ; inclosnre ; foreground ; Oi)position.
Priority; concurrence; anticipation ; seniority; minority; postponement.
ORAL

§ 65. vYmrrEN

\I

l

ABSTRACT NOUNS.

ATTRIBUTES.

40

Construct sentences
containing the fallowing abstracts denoting qualities:F eebleness, tardiness, rashness, closeness, justice,
cowardice, civility, dignity, ferocity.
Con1>truct sentences containing tlte following abstracts denoting actions ;Bidding, winding, growth, trust, hindcrance, extenExER,CISES.

41

sion, mission, circulation, mention; desertion, improvement.
'· Construct sentences containing the fallowing abstrcwts denoting conditions:" N cighborho9d, knighthood, kingship, censorship,
.freedom, earldom, hmac}' , degeneracy, vigilancy, occupancy, afiluence, absence, lassitude, solidltude.
Construct sentences containing the following ab- ·
stracts denoting relations :, Excess, preference, antecedence, inferiority, remote_;pess,.comparison, equality.
:

MoDBLB.-Honesty Is always best.

,properly bo desired.

Superiority to others In virtue may

I

/·

NOUNS,-NUMBER.

43

RuLE II. If the last letter of the
si1wular
can not
.
b
unite in one syllable with the regular plural termination ( -s ), insert the connecting vowel e j as, arch-es;
...._
gash-es, atlas~es, box-es.

PART III.-DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

CHAPTER I.
NOUNS.-NUJ\lllER.

§ 66.

we w1ish to speak of more than one
object of t11e same kinll, we use often a different form
of the word. Thi s is the distinction of 11011ns in reP.pect
to what in Grammar is called J.Yu mT.re·r.
WnEN

is the di stinction ofnouns as denoting one or more objects.
NUMBER

§ 67. There are 1n English two N nm bers, the
Singular aml the Plural.
A noun de110Li11g itfl obj ect afl taken but once ifl of
the Siugular Number; afl, Jliilton, waler, army, tree.
A noun denoti11g its object as taken more t l1an once
is of the Plural Number; as, JJiiltons, waters, armies,
trees.

§ 68. The noun is changed in its form to denote
more thnu one. lleuce the followi1w rules for formi1w
"'
b
the plural. The first rule is the general rule; the
others arc specific rules or exceptions.
HuLE I. To form the plnral noun, add s to the singular; ns, star-s, ship-s, virtve-s, race-s.

R uLE Ill Fjgill'cs, letters, signs, and symhols, used
· as words, to form their plurals insert an apostrophe
before th e s j ns,· 5's, n's, B's, + 's, [J's, *'s j the m's
·were all in italics.
.Rur,E IV. In compound words and modified words
the plural sign is aflixccl to the leading object; as, step./ at her~, horse-tkieves, brothers-in-law, cousins-german,
. kni,qhts-templar, the Generals Shernian, the brothers
S?nith, JJiessieurs Tlwmpson, the JJiisses Johnson,pilletsdoiix.

§ G9. ExcE PTIONS. 1. Nouns endin g in o, preceded
by a consonant, insert e b efore the plurals j aP.;he1·0-es,
echo-es, cargo-es. But canto, cluodecim.o, fresco, grotto,
halo, junta, lasso, memento, octav o, po1·tico, quarto,
sirocco, solo, two, tyro, zero, omit the e j as, cantos,
zm·os.
2. Nouns e1Hling in y, preceded by a consonant,
chan ge th e y into i, and add es: as, sky, sides j duty,
duties j colloquy, colloqufos. If preceded by a vowel,
they are r eg ular: k eys, valleys, moneys.
3. Th e fo ll owi ng 11on11s change for :ff' into v before
es : beef, cal}; el}; halt; ler~t; loa,f, self, shea,f; s/ie{f,
stcrft~ thiej; whai;f, 1co?f; /..:ii ife, life, wife.
But . compon11ds not ncce11 ted on th e final syllable
simply a<lcl s, .ns flag-sllf/f8, distajfs ~· so house-w~fe-s
is pronounced lmss(ts.
4. The following no1111s are irr<:gnlar: man, men j

/

woma11, women; foot, f eet; to oth, teet!i; goose, geese;
mouse, 1nice ; louse, lice ; ox, oxe;1,; cow, !cine; sow,
swine; child, chfldren; brother, brethrnn.
5, Tho following hav e two plural s in clifferrnt signifi. catious: die, dice ancl dies; p ea., peas ancl p ea.sc ;
p enny, pen~~e ancl pennies ; brother, bret!iren an cl brothers; genius, genii ancl geniHses; m ediwn , media ancl
m eclimns; index, indices and indexes; vertex, vertices
ancl vertexes; vortex, vortices and vortexes; stamen,
stam ens and staniina; phalanx, phalanges ancl phalanxes.
M a ny nouns from foreign lang uages h ave the sam e
plurals as in those lan g uages ; as, from the H ebrew,
cheritb, cherubim ; seraph, seraphini.
FIW.M THE GllKEK.
Antilhr sis, nnUtheses.
Aph eli on, aphelia.
Aphi s, nphid es.
A psis, npsi dcs.
Cnn tlrnri s, cnn thnri cl es.
Cn ryuti<l, cnryatides.
Chrysalis, chrysnlicl r •.
Criterion, criterin. •·.*
Dimresis, <1 irores<:s.
l:phemrris, e ph ~ m e rlcles.

"

F.xn nthemn, exnnlhcrnn tn.
Jl cli.x, heli ces.
llyp'c>lb csls, hypo th eses.
Mclnmorph osis, nH•tamorpho!ics.
Pnrenthesis, pnren theses.
Phnsis, phnscs.
Ph enomenon, ph enom enn.
Sto mn, stomntn .
Synthesis, syntl1c8es.
Th esis, theses.

FROM l'HE LATIN.

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NOUNS.-NU 1.lB ER.

DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

44:

A.bscl ssn, nhscissru. r.
Acldrndnm, ndden<ln.

Apex, npicrs.
App Pnclix , nppend iccs. r.

Algn, Alg-:P.

Aquaritun . n<p1nrfa.

Alu111nrL, n\ 1111111a•.

AH•nri~ ,

Alnmnn s, nlnrnni.
A n:i lysiR, 1t1mly s«s.

Antorn nto n, nntomnta.
Axllln, uxlllw.

A11i1nnlcul11111 1 11 11i 111al c11lu.
An tn, nn tre.

A xis, :tXC'R.
]Ins Is. hnsPs.

Antcnnn, nnlennm.

Cn lenlns, rnlcnli.

•Those

'll'O !'lls

hn> ln g

1·

nsc:1ritlt• a.

nnnexed to them, hn>e nlso rrgulnr plnrnls.

~

l\Inxlmum, mnxlmn. •
Med ium, media. 1'.
]\[emornndum, m cmor1md11. r.
Minsmn, rninsmntn.
J\linlmuru, minima,
J\foduluR, m oduli.
J\Iomen tuu'l';-mument11.
Nni nd, nnladcs. r.
Ncbuln, nebulte.
Nu cleus, nuclei.
Oasis, oases.
Oboius, oboll.
Ovnrium, O\'Rri11.
Ovum, ovn.
Pnllnclium, pnllnclla. r.
P 1illinm, pnlliB.
Pn11 ncc :t, pnnneero. r.
J',.pilla, pnpi! lll'.
l'nl'!1cli on, parhelln.
P olypus, polyp!. r.
Pupn, pu prc'.
R ndlus, rndii. r.

Cnlx, cnlcee. ·1'.
Cnlyx, Caiycc s. r .
Cnndelabrum, cnndt• lnbrn.
Contumvlr, centu111vi"1.
Cicndn, clcndw.
Cirrus, cirri.

Olnvle, clnvcs. r .
Cl oncn, cloncn'.
Collyl'iurn, collyr.il\.
Corypheus, coryphei. r.
Crisis, crises.
Criterion, criteria.
Cumulus, cumuli.
Curriculum, currlcul11.
Datum, dntn.
' D ecemvir, tl eccmvlri.
D cnnriuR, tlcnnrll.
Deslderntnm, desidcratn.
Dictum, di cta.
Discus, di sc!. r.
Dnumvir, cluu mviri.
Eflluvium, etlluvla.
Emeritus, emeriti.
Empol'inm , emporin.

Hndix, radices.

Rhombu s, rh ombi. r.

Errntnn1, c rl'n.la.

R ostrum, ro strn.

}' ocus, foci.
Fornrnen, fornmin n.
F orm ula, forrnnlre. r.
Fulcrnm, fulcrn. r.
Fungus, f1111gi. r.
Genius, genii. r.
Genus, genera.
Gymnnsium, gy mna~!a.
H erbnrlum, herbnrin. r.
Hippopotnmus, hlppopotnmi.
H ydra, byd rre. r.
Inmbus, lnmbl. 1'.
I gnls fotnus, lgnes fatui.
Incubus, lncnbi. r.
Index, Indices. r.
Lnminn, lnml11 re.
Lnrvn, lnrvm.
]~cgurnen, lrgum Ina.
Lustrnm, Ju strn.
Mnculn, mnculw.
Mngus, mngl.
Mnusolcum, mnusolen. r.

Snrcophngns, sar cophngi.
Scholium, scholi n. 1·.
8chlrrh us, sch irri. r .
Sensorium, sensori11. r.
St'pia, sepi re.
Septum, septn.
Bpectrnm, spectra.
Speculum, specula.
Stndium, stadia.
Stnme n, stnminn. r.
Stigma, sliglllntn. r.
Stimulus, stimuli.
Btirps, stirpes.
Stmtnm, strntn. r.
Buccerlan cum , snccedunen. r.
Byllnbus, syllnbi. '"
T erminus, t ermini.
Tumulu s, tu111ull.
Tympanum, tympnna.
Y ertebrn, vertehrOC'.
Vertex, vertices. r.
Vortex, \'ortioes. r.

t '.

45

46

DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

•

'

lfll0!11 Tim FltEN CJ!.
Alcl-<lo-camp, nlds-de-camp.
Benn, bcnnx.
Billct-doux, blll cts-doux.
F lnmbcnu, tlnmbenux.
Gcn-d'nr1ne, gcns- d'ar1ne s. ,,_

Jet d'enu, j Pts cl'cnn.
l\lad i~me, mesdam es. r.

ll! onsieur, m ess ieurs.
Mnrcenu, morccf\ux.
Platca n, pl:\tcau x 1
Houlcnn, ro 11l cn11x.
Savant, snvn ns.

Tnbl cnn ,

t<lbl cn u~ .

FROM THE ITALIAN.
Lihr~tt<1,

Bnnditto, b<lndittl.
Ciceron e, ciceroni.
Cici ~beo,

cicisbcl.
C'onversniione, conversnzionl.
lmprovisntore, improvisntori.

Soprano, soprani.

V irtuoso, virtuosi.

1.-.AlmB nnd riclteB were orlgin!lll y singulnr nouM, spelled
a/.inesse nnd 1-icltesse. When taken in n singn lnr sense th ey mny properly bo
regarded ns in th e singulnr nnmbcr; ns, "A,,ked rrn alms."-Acts iii. 3; "Whnt
is the riches [ - richrwss) of the glory."-Col. i. 27. llut tbcr mny both bo usecl
In " plnrnl sc rtc; ns, "Th in e :ilms [- nlm sdccds] nrc come up."-Acts x. 4;
"Y onr ri ches [- possession s] !\re cnn·uptcd."-.Jn•. v. 2.
On sEn VAT!Ol<

·I

~i

lihrett. I.
Sc1ulo, send!.
Soprnnn, soprnn~ .

I

ljl

il
I ~

,!

' VonlH frurn th r Cn~ t·k f' THling- in ic.'l. for tho most pnrt fl c notlng sciencPs, ns
1nafh t mai'icA, opf1"c:~, rth-it:.r:t, sPe m to hn.vo n plnrnl form, hnt. mny l>c used ~ithe r
111 n. si ngul nr or n plurnl S<' ll SC', nccor<l ing ng th C'y cJC'note th e e.cienco or the objects

ll

;j
I~

11
1;''

I
!J:

I

,,"'

!;

of whi ch th e ~c i e n ce I.ren ts ·; ns, "Physic", thnt Is, Phy ~ i ca l Scicncr, trrnts of
nrntt «r;" ' · l'hy ~ l cs, that is, l'h ysicnl things, nre lrnrn ecl throngh n diffe rent
lll<'rlimn from that throu gh which we 8tudy m etnphyKics."
A ·m ends, n ew.! , pains, likewi se hnvo n plnrnl form, but hnv c either n 8ingulnr
or plural sense; more commonly the former.
B ellon·s nnd oa.llows, like bi!Uards, hy8teric.,, m easle .., odd,q, ton(JB (tongues), scisso1w, slt6fl1'8, nnd 1W(Je8, nrn rea l plurnl s, but bein g npplicd senrnlly ton single objrct, mny be used ns if of the singulnr numhcr; but the plurnl
Is prefernhl e.
OnsrmvATION 2.-Sornc nouns do not vnry th eir form to express lho plurnl;
:is c,11won, cattle, dee1", head, sail, .s almon, she~p, shot, trout. Others nre
used in the plu ral in both si ngular antl plmal forms; as ji.~h. in the plnrnl fish
and .fish.es. 801110 have no si ngular, nt lcost, in a pnrt of th eir slg nillcntlons;
as-

Ahor i:.dncs.
Ann:il s.
A ntipoclrs.
Archive•.
A•sets.

Rolles- lettree.
Bellows.
Billinrcls.
Bitters.
Bowels.

Jlrccch Ps.
Cnlencls.
Cntt.le.
Clothes,
Colors.

14:7

NOUNS.-NUMBER.
Compnsscs.
Consols.
Corrigenda.
Cortes.
Crnmpoons.
Crnstnct a.
(~nstou1s.

Debris.
Drawers, n gnrm ent.
. Dregs.
J•:nv es.
Etribcrs.
Entmils.
Envh·ons.
fnuces.
Fili'ngs.
. Gnskins.
Goggles.
Goods.
Greens.
Hatches.
H cnd-qnarters.
Hose.
Hysterics.

\

I<l os.
Infnsorln.
Jackboots.
Lees.
Letters.
Llterntl.
Mnrnninlln.
:Manes.
lllnnncrs.
Mn tins .
'Minntiro.
Morals.
Nippers.
Nones.
Nn gm.
Nnptinls.
Obsequies.
oq,ies.
Pnmpns.
Parnph crnaiin.
Pin cbers.
Prlncipin.
Proceeds.
Ravelings.

Hcgnlln.
Scissors.
Shambles.
Sh~ars.

Sheers.
S°'fTers.
S pcctllcles.
Statistics.
Suds.
Sweepstnkes.
TcenR.
Thanks.
Th ews.
TiclingA.

Tongs.
Trousers.
'r,vct>zcre.

Vermicelli.
Vespers.
Victunls.
Vitals.
Wnges.

Withers.

§ 70. ORAL ExERCISES. 11.fention the nouns in tlie
sinr;ular nwnber, and also those in tlie plural nwnber,:
in the following sentences, and give tlie 1·eason f01· so
regarding them, :John is absent. The man was insane. The mountains were high. The ores were rich. The oats were
ripe; The grass was green. The molasses was made
from the sap. The scissors are sharp. The errata ·w ere
numerous. These are tl1e stamina of a good character.
·'Vhat do yon think of his h ypotheses? He places the
scholia separate) y. Ile made careful memoranda of
his ohservations. \Yh at formnlm do you apply? \;1\TI1at
does he say of the ncbnlru? He describes the oases
of the desert. To what ph enomena does he allude?
Where shall we look for trne criteria? I ha,·e spoken

/

48

DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

· of the lai·vro. The eccentricity of an ellipse is the cfo;tance of the foci from the center. ''Ve liave :rn example
in the radii of a circle. Ile penetrated into the arca11a
of the science. He was negligent of his mann ers. The
wicked shall drink the dregs thereof'. He plays bil- liards excessively. The mark et was filled with goods.
He had had 110 victuals for thirty-six hours. He returned at vespers. Ile was wound ed in the l1111D"S.
b
'Vhatever is sold in the shambles, that cat. L et him
grind the shears. He killed the sheep. H e canght a
'fine parcel of fish. No parallel can b e fouucl in the
annals of the world. H e had Bono of the coin of the
C<jmtry. It was buried in the ashes. The conclusion
was drawn from questionable data. The cattle can be
sold. Courts-martial were h eld. The fathers-in-law
were reconciled. The antenn ::e were long. He studied
hydrauli cs. H e examined the larvro. As to his hypotheses, all his hearers disagreed with him. lie
scrutinized t~1 c phenomena.

Correct the errors in the foll~win,q sente;ices :Their h eros were celebrated in song. The delaies
were fatal. The shelfo were hig h. The elfa were
Rporting . Among the cherubims. The stratas were
thin. Th e kines were all over three years old. Economics were pursued with other scie11ees. The wharfa
·w ere overflowed. The cantoes co11tai11ecl over five
hn11drecl verses each. The media was un exceptionable.
The clat~i was false. All th e pnn ctilioes of ceremony
were observed. The mouies of the cou11try were
changed. The chimnies were tall. The folioes were
all bonncl. There were eight porticoes, arrangecl in

NOUNS.-NUMBim:

49

The childs were neglected. The foots were
, · sore. The seraph\ms had harps in their h:tilds. The
..: vertexes of the two figures were equi-distant from the
' base. The price 'vas two shillings and six -~ennies.
He was an alumni of the institution. He lived on
potatos. I heanl distan.t echos. Twel:e bodys of
the victims were found atterwarcl. The Misses Potters
w~re present. The brother Smiths had enlisted. ~he ·
. ,Generals Jacksons took command of the respective
· ·-. divisions. The neighbor 1rV ashingtons were reconciled.
-. The cousin Allstons went together. The prooves were
. decisive. The dwarves were absent. He never crossed
his ts i10r clotted his is. The octavoes were as large
as 01:dinary qnartoes. No mementoes were preserved
in any of the folioes. All the regimental flag-staves
· )~ere broken. Four spiritual media, so called,· were
' there. He addressed the brothers of the assoc'iation.
The brethren Townsencls w ere omitted. There were ·
. five loafs. Politics are properly ranked among the
• sciences. The dice for casting the coin were badly
~ut. The poem contained twelve can toes. The bea~1s
~f the company were elated.
The flower had six
~tamina. Th~ arcanums of the temples were exposed.
·.The strives of the chiefs were ruinous.

.,

.§ 71. WRITIEN ExERCISES. Construct sentenc~s
··having in them the following words, changed to their
" plural forms:··. Folio, valley, surf, genus, madam, turf, portico, two,
·entry, seraph, alumnus, genius, chimney, fresco, m, 50,
soliloquy, tornado, postman, son-in-law, the bookseller
Smith, the Miss Wharton, memorandum, man-slayer.
3

/

NOUNS.-GENDER.

51.

§ 75. Nouns may distingush sex by thei1'.,form in.

CH.APTER II.
NOUN S. -

GE NDJm.

§ 72. OBJECTS of thonglit tnn y furth er he distinguished as ba,;ing or as 11 ot hnsin g sex.'\Yords deuoting objects of the male sex nrc f':1itl to
t be of the JJiasculine (/ender; those dcnoti11 g fe males
are said to b e of the F e1ninine Genller; tho se clcnoting suuj ects t hat have sex, without imlicntion of whi ch
sex, arc said to be of th e Common Gendm·.
yVonls dc11 oti11g obj ects that ha\·e uot se x, arc said
to be of the Ne11tet· Gender.

"' '

'

I

!·I

§ 73. GJ~ND:E R is th e di stinction of n oulls in
r eference to th e sex of their ob.i ects.
§ 74. Nouns, in r espect of their Gem1er, are
of four < ·.las~es: (1) J\[a 3c11 li1 u.'; (2) FP111i11i11P:
(3) Comm on; (4) Neuter.
A noun d en oting an object as male, js of the
l\IASCULINE GENJJE1~; as, John, boy, drake.
A nouu d enoting an object as female, is of the
F E111ININE GrmDJm; as, 11Iarv, .rJir1, dnck.
A noun d enoting an olJj (~ c t as havin g sex,
without frHlicati11 g of Yv· l1i<..~h sex, is of the Collll\ION GEND:rm; as, cl1,ild, pare-rd, sllcep .
A noun d enoting au object without sex is of
the NEuT1m GENJJ im; as, tree, book, stone.

the following wax ::__
'
1. By ch a nge of termination; a.s, h eir, heiress; abbot,
·
abbess; hero, h eroine; testator, testatrix .
2. By prefixing or affixing a sex-word ; as! man-servant, maid-serv(mt; /w-,qoat, she-goat j cock-sparro1c, ,
· - hen-sparrow; land-lord, la n d-lculy.
3. 'By words of (liffercnt ori g in; as, boy, girlj uncle,
. aunt. ·

§ 76. The m ore . common m ode of fo rm ing the fominine. from th e rnascu linc , i ~ liy a1ldi11g ess; as, host,
hostess; priest, priestess.
. N ou n::i endi ng in ur or er, uflen drop Lhc o or e; as,
acto1·, actress; tiger, tigress.
A few w onl s fr o m the Latin ending in tor, chnnge
tor into t1Lr,; a:,, udmini'.strator, adm inistratri;i.;.
The fol lo wi11 g arc 111ure or less i rrl'gul n r :A bboU.. ~h b!'S S.
Bachelor, maid, spinster.
Ika u, bell e.
Bn :t r.

;Q11\\' .

Rri<i Pgroom, bride.
Rroth,•r, sister.
null, cow.
Clrn1 11berl uin, cha mberm aid.
Cock, he n.
Czn.r, cznr lnfl.
Dn!!, bitch.
Dou, donnn.
l>rnk e, duck .
Duk e, du ch ess.
Enrl, cou ntess.
Father, mother,
F ox, vix en.
Frbr nnd monk, nun.

!;:Ifft ' !'. c-:1l!lll l l" I',

()ander, goose.
Gent.le.mn.n n.nd lord, Indy.
11 :irt. roe.
II C' rO . hc·rol nC'.
JI or Re, runrc.
Hn sbnnd, wife.
Kin~ ! qn een.
Ln<l, ln s•.
L anOgra n\ l::llldgravlne.
?.hi~, female.

1'-lnn, womnn.
iJargrrwc. tnnrgrnvlne.

M°'ter, mi sti·~--.
N egru, n(l'gress.
Nt"ph ew , ni ece.
Hmn, ewe.
Signore, sig nora.
Sir, mndnm.
Sire, dllm.

I

52

DISTINCTIONS OF NOVNS.
Sloven, slut.
Son, dnnghter.
Stng, hind.
Steer, heifer.
Snlqn, sul tnna.

Swain, nymplL
Uncle, n1111t.
Votnry, volnrcss.
Widower, wi<low.

Wiznrd, witch.

§ 77. ORAL EXERCISES. Naine tlw genders of tl1c
nouns in the following sentences :The aunt was abscn't. The duke and tlie duchess were
elated. The wizard deluded his victims. He exilecl
the monks. His niece was an heiress. The sportsmen
brought back a roe, a buck, a wild goose, a hi11tl, and a
pea-hen.
There were in the company a queen, n.
duke, a"'viseount, an earl, a marquis, aud an empress.
The witch escaped. He punished the sloven. The
bridegroom ·was sent for. The clouna was at home.
The testatrix had omitted the seal. l [e l1a<.1 nothing
save one e>ve-lamb.
Con·ect tlie erro1·s in the f allowinr; sentences;Among the ladies of the household were a duchess,
a chamberlain, a marqnis, a vi scountess, an earl, a
baron, four peern of the realm, a vrinccss, the llaurhi11,
the young czar, a lanclgrave, anti a margraYinc. Ile
cl i vided the males from tlte females, placing in one
field the oxen, the ewes, the bucks, the 11eifers, the
geese; and in au other, the females, the pea-hens, the
he-goatR, the fillies, the drakes, the young (locs, and
the steers.

· § 78. 'VRITIEN ExEIWISES. 1Vi·ite out tlw feminines
uf tlie f ollowinr; words:Arbiter, czar, don, gaffer, director, duke, prince,
earl, danphiu, C'xccntor, hero, 1all(lgravc, marq1iifl, snl-

NOUNS.-GENDER

tan, peer, viscount, negro, friar, testator, tiger, votary,
beau, drake, master, sir, gentleman.

·write out tlie mC!,sculines of the fallowing wor..ds ; Lady, niece, witch, vixen, roe, abbess, infanta, bride,
lass, dam, hind, landlady.
·

•

NOUXS.-ClSE.

55

-. _ Plural nouns .ending ins take the apostrophe
· only; as, the guls' class-room.
·· ExCE1:fIO~.-For th e snkc of enp hon:r, the 'sis .so1:rn-

'·

times omitted nftcr sin g 11!:1r 1101111s ending in the so.und
of s, especinlly if th ey nt e not mo11osyllabks, or if the
next word bt>g i11~ " ·ith thnt so1111(l; as, For justice'
sake; .P eleus' so n.

CHAPTER ill.
~OCXS .- C.\ SE .

·§

§ 79. On.r.r:(;rs are furth er ,fo:ting 11ic;!J erl in recp ect to
their r elations in disc ourse. Th ere nre t,,·0 c b~ ses of
thesfl relations: one, th e r elations of the olJj c<"t t o the
other parts of th e sentence ; th e other, th e rC'i:1ti t> ns to
the p erso n speaking. The first class of relatio11s l'lll"nisl1Ps the distin ctions of {_,'ase ; th e ~ccom1, tl1 c di stim:-

J.'\~w1e

tlte cases (If the
.

:Many mc1i mistak e the lorn for the practice of drtue. Aetio11 nml co nt C'111platio11 arc in 1w wny i11consiste11t. Tlw good 111 nn 's trcas m e is in himsC' lt: Oi'tfor
is Heave11's lir:-:t l:rn·. J'lcn's opi11i o11s Yn1T wi t h tl1eir
interes ts. Anil EYan's, D o11a lcl 's fame ri;1~s in e:ie h
clansman 's cars. How 'nct ch(' d is thnt ~ pn n r rn:111
th at Jiau gs o n pri nces' fayors. L et all t lH· ends tl1o u
_ aim'st at Le th y eou nt r y's, tl 1y Goel';;, nml Lrntl1's.
She suffe rs from li er ty rant l>rothcr"s Ll:izl'.

tio11 s of P m·son.

§ 80. Case is the distinction of n o nns in
r espec t of their r elations to the otlwr parls of
the sentence.
§ 81. In the English languagu th ere are three
t1ifferent ways of expressing case : on 0 en ll er1
the Nom:inati ve Case, expresF~ing th e n~lation of
subj ect; as, J ohn stwlies his lessonf!; 01w called
the Possessive Cr1se, e.x_µress iug a lirnibti on o f
some other o l>j ~ct spo lrnn of; as, Jolz n's l )OO k ;
one calleu the Objcdiz:e Casr>, 1·xpn·;.:~ i 11g an olJ.i ec t of an action or relation; ns, J olrn 11ru11gh t
tlw buok iv me.
~ 82. 'l'h0 Cl e11itive or Possessiv e Case is
fc) 1~rn e d by a 1l c1ing s with an npostropltn to t he
sirn ple form of the noun; ::is, P eter's book.

83. OR,!.L ExERCJSES.

nouns in t!ie fvllo11Ji11g sentences:-

. Correi:t tlt e errors in the fullowi11:1 sentences :-

Mans l1igl1 cst

k11owlr~dgc

is him:<clr t n kn o w nnd
·-~~ Him tliat
" ·hat h e• is. D ('" pairs lo1w
si•rh
. for111C'•l liilll
.
CJ
an dG n efo co11nil s1ve sob. A mothers ten<krnrss nnd
a fathers care n1c Nat ures c:ifL's fo r m:111 s' all' :lllt:wc.
- The picture of li e r so n' s do;s no L much re>'c 111lil c 1ii~u.
Socrates's teaching s w e re in nd,·ancc o(' l1i s ap;e. I
have not rf'arl llora ec' episLlcs. ?\ l' ith cr .J"h11 nor
his brother's sclioh rsl1ip w:1s H'l"Y high. T he peace
of vVest,ril1alia c losed t h e Thirty Yl':H s \\'ar. 1( in g
James' trnn sla tors re\' isl·d former t ran slat ion fl. Tho
measure gainecl the king as well ns th e peoples appro-

j

,::"!

i

l,,
i

1
11

I
!

56
;(

DISTINCTIO~S

OF

•

~OUNS.

bation. :Moses rod was turned into a serpent. I ex.Peet to visit his brother's Joh n's moi:ium ent.
§ 84. T\mrrE~, EXERCISES. ~ stru ct scntcnc.es
containing the follo1ci11g nouns rn th e Poss e.~s n·e

Case ;1Torest; oce:rn; jnc1ge ; ch:mcc; vice; coach; p eeress; \Vatts; girls; city; lynx; o xen; artist; my hrother Augustus; Bolton, the carri:i:;c-makcr; HoLert
Burns; Catl1arinc Philips; Sir William Jones ; Demosthenes, the Atlienian statesman.

CHAPTER IV.
PERSON.-PERSON AL PRONOUNS.
1•

.~- ~ § 85. OBJECTS of thought, further, are distinguished
·· ~ in respect of their relations to the speaker. As an
. object, the speaker is distinguished from the person
• · spoken to, and also from the obj ect spoken of. We
• have thus what are called in gramfnar the distinc, tions of P erson. These distinctions are conveniently
represented in language by a particular class of words,
, "; called_ Pe1·sonal Pronouns.

in grammar is the distinction of objects in their relations as speaking, spoken to,
" and spoken of; as, I am your friend .
.A PERSONAL PRONOUN is a word used to dis_tinguish the speaker, the person spoken to, and
the object spoken of.
·. § 86. There a1~ Three Persons, which are called,
PERSON

~ respectively,

tlie First, the S econd, aud the Third

Person.
The FIRST PERSON marks the person speaking;
The SECOND PERSON marks the person spoken to;
The THIRD PERSON marks the person or thing
11poken of.
§ 87. PRoxouNs, like nouns, admit of the distinction of number, and have peculiar forms for the sing11--

.dI
'.I

l

rli'
i\/

s•

58.

§ 88. Pronouns of the third person are, likewise,
distinguished in respect of gender.
The m ascnli11e form is lie.
The feminin e form is she.
The form for objects without sex is it.
The plural form is the same, they, for eneh of the
three singulars of the third i)erson.
§ 8 9. Pronouns are, moreove r, like nouns, c1 istinguished in r espect of case, which expresses the rehtious
of an object to the ]_)arts of the sentence, as in the following Paradigm of1nflections : -

Plural.
\Ye,
Our, Ours,
Us.

Singular.

I,

No1ninativ e.
Possessive.
Objective.

My, l\linc,
:Me.
SECOND

PERSON.

Plural.
Ye, You,
Your, Yours,
You.

Sin,qitlar.
Thou,
Thy, Thine,
Thee.
THIRD PERSON.

Plural.

Singular.
~use.

F E)[.

J.Vominative. He, She
Possessive. His, Her, Hers,
Objective.
Him, Her.

I
!1
I

!
Ii

0BSBBVATION.-Thcre ·are two forms, It will be observed; for the possessive
except In the masculine and neuter singular of the third person. · The
, eborter form Is used before tbe noun which the pron oun limits; the longer
when It Is separated from tbe llmltecl noun· ss "It fs my book·" "Th b.00 k
~ ~min~,·" "'rhe seats are their8 , not your;.,, '
'
e
The forms mine and tltin e were the only forms usec\ In the ear Iler atnges of
the language. Th ey now nppenr In our enrll er llternture, ns in th e Scriptures.
They nre, hence, sometimes used in solemn discouree Instead of the shorter
forms.
·
'
The plur:il of the second person h~s. al so, two forms In the nominative
caee,-11e nnd you. The earller form wns ye. It is hence used In more 1 _
Tated discourse.
ee

:SEt:T.

It,
Its,
It.

ca10,

I

They,
Their, Theirs.
Them.

/

·§ 90. The Personal Pronouns are compounded with
adf and selves, as follows : FIRST PERSON.

Singular•
.'lf<?minative and Objective. :Mysel£
SE COND

•

THIJW

Plural.
Ourselves.

PERSON.

· lfominative and Objective. Thyself:

F.IRST PERSON.

Nominative.
Possessive.
Objective.

59

.

lar and the plural respectively. Corresponding to the
singular of the firnt person I, we have the plural form
weJ· to thou, ye, or you; to he, they.

•

• PERSON.-PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

Yourselves.

P ERSON.

Ncn:iinative and. Objective. Himself,}
, '
Herself,
Themselves.
Itsel£
EXAMPLES.-! went mysel£
The work explains
itsel£ He himself did the deed.
. . Oll&EBVATION.-When the proper plural form of the Personal Pronoun Is
for tbe singular, eeif Is used; ns, "You, John, y 01trBelf nre in· fault;"
Done by <YU1'8elf the King;" "While editor of this j ournal, we announce
~1e{(ns lndlvldunlly responsible for every article that appears."
. Both of the fo rms one's self and oneself nre In use. The former Is the older
and more proper forru ; the latter Is n contracted form, sncl more current in
lunlllar discourse. Its elf wss formerly written it self, In two words.

:eed

§ 91.

ORAL EXERCISES.
1Yame the Personal Proin the following sentences, m entioning at the
aa~ time the respective person, gender, number, and
case:-

nQUns

"

. I

60

':

I have searched. I have founcl it. Having resigned
his office, he retired. They searched every room: he
was gone. We coul<l not aicl them ; but they w ere in
a condition to help us. The book is ours ; the Ratel1cl
is theirs. As you wish it, I wlll go. " Cast thy l'.)'l'S
eastward," said he, "and tell me what tho11 Rl'l'Rt."
Those lips arc thine; thy own sweet smile l sec.
'Twas for your pleasure you came here, you sl1all go
back for mine. Yourself shall be accommoclat.ecl as
well as y~n brother. I shall be there myself'.
Correct tlie er1·ors in tlie followin,q sentences :As for meself, I am indifferent which conrse he
taken. They came on behind John ancl I. Samuel
and me went to town yesterday. He praises hissclf.
The book is yourn, not his, nor thcirn. By authority
of ourselves the king. vV e used the privilege of an
editor, and took a free passage for omselvcs :rncl 011r
good wife. Th eir's is a sacl case. The effects of the
act do not end with it self. They prostrated their
selves before the kiug. The difficulty will cure its self.
This lot is onrn; that is hisn. Our's is a great Janel;
a great nation must here raise up its self. It is not
her's but yourn. Our wife has tied our cravat too
tight. vVe have spoken thus far in thifi cliscour8e of
the external circumstances of this transaction; I now
proceed to consider its real nature aucl character.

§ 02. 'VRITTEN EXERCISE. Gonstructfive sentences
contcdninfJ, eacli, one of the inflections o.f tlie P e1·sonal
Pronouns :First pe rson in each case a1Hl mnnbcr;
Secom! person in' each case and nnmber;

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DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

PERSON.-PERSON AL PRONOUNS.

.

....

,. 61.'

Third person in each case, number, and g.ender;
Compouftd form with self in each person and tntmber. •

§ 93":" An object of thought once introduced is :often
... convenfontly presented a second time in a new rela~
tion by the use of a class of words called Relative
_ Pronoims, or, more briefly, Relatives.

.

.

A RELATIVE PRONOUN is a worcl usecl to de·
note an 0 bject already namecl in the sentence ;
as, " 'l'he man who is ever speaking of himself
we naturally clislike ; " "He that is already
corrupt is naturally suspicious."
The ANTECEDEN'.r of a Relative Pronoun is
the object to which the pronoun refers. §Ian
and he are the antecedents in the examples
given.
§ 94. The Relative Pronouns are wlio in the nominative, wliose in the possessive, and whom in the objective case, denoting persons;
lV!iicli, denoting things, although formerly applied
. to persons ;
That and as, denoting both persons ancl things ;
lV!tat, a compound relative, including both antecedent an cl r elative, equivalent to tlie thing that j as, "I
know not wliat he says."

§

I

R

95. lV!w, wliose, wlioni, wliiclt, and wliat are com-

pounded with ever and soever j as, whoever, wlwsoever.
These . compounds generally include both antecedent
and relative; as," lVhoever transgresses the law must
suffer the penalty;" equivalent to " I-Ie that transgresses," etc.

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62

DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

Jl'/w is also componndccl with so). as, 11Jhoso.
TVhose formerly was applied to things as well as to
persons ; as,"I could n falc unfold, whose lightest word," elc.-Slwkespea 1·c.

' so fre ely.
· It is not now used thus
As was originally a conjunction of coniparison, lJnt
has come by an elliptical form of expression to staml
in the place of a relative. It so used, howc\' cr, 011ly
after sanie, such, so, and as.
That generally may be used as a relative wherever
who or which may be, except after a preposition.
§ 96. vVhen the object is not known, but sought
after, it is presented in interrogative sentences, by n.
class of worcls called Inte1·1·0,r1ative Pronouns.

An lNTERIWGATIVE PnoNOUN is a worcl u sed
to denote an unknown object in nn iuterrogntive sentence ; as, " l:Vlw will go for us ~"
"lVlwse book has he brought~" "TVlwni will
he take with him ~ " " What will h e do ~ "
"Which is Jupiter~"
The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whose, whom,
which, what. They are distinguished from the rclati ve pronouns only by their use in asking a question.
lV!iat and which are used as aclj ectiYe interrogatives; as "TV!iat book and which pen dill he t:tke?"

§ 97. ORAL EXERCISES. Point out the R elative
Pronouns and thefr antecedents, and also the Inter1·0,qative Pronomis, in the fallowing sentences :If you have a friend that will reprove your faults

PERSON.-PERSON AL PRONOUNS.

63

and foibles, consider that yon enjoy a blessing which
the king upon the throne can not have.
To labor and be content with what a man hath is
a sweet life.
He who begins soon to be good,, will be likely to be
· · very good at ·last.
He whose rnling passion is love of praise, is a slave
to every one who has a tongue for detraction.
No man hath a thorough taste of prosperity to
' whom adversity never happened.
·. He that forecasts what may happen sl,iall never be
surprised.
· "Vhat good morals are to society in general, good
. manners are to particular ones.
.
· You have obliged a person ; very well, what would
you have more?
Whatever can please, whatever can charm, solicits
his attention.
·who will say there are no pleasures in knowledge?
And, after all, what is there in life that may be
.. justly reckoned of sufficient importance to move a
person to a violent passion?
And which is the nobler benefactor, patriot, and
.philanthropist?
·" "Whose work is this?
vVhoso mocketh the poor reproacheth his Maker.
This nnuertaking, so noble in its beginning, so illustrious in its progress; so promising in its future results,
must be sustained, whosoever or whatsoever may
stand in the way of it.
, . Such of the c,ombs as were entire were placed in
r
. camp-kettles, to be conveyed to the encampment;

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DISTINCTIONS OF NOUNS.

'\iVhat man has clone, man can <lo.
As many as were of that persuasion united in resisting the government.

Correct tlie f ailY,ts in tlie following sentences;They which seek wisdom will certainly find her.
This is the country whose boundaries yoti were to
trace out. Sidney was one of the wisest and most
active governors which Ireland had enjoyed for several years. He is like a beast of prey, who destroys
with~1t pity. Flattery, whose nature is to deceive
and betray, should be avoided as the poisonou::; acltlcr.
He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed. 'l'he child, whom we visited, has recovered.
Of all what he said he coulcl not prove a particle.
How happy are the virtuous, that can rest on the protection of the powerful arm, who made the earth and
the heavens? The man is prudent which SlJeaks
little.
§ 98. \V RITIEN ExERCISE. Constriwt five sentences
containing R elative Pronouns relating to persons ;
five relating to things j five containing Interrogative
Pronouns.

PA.RT IV..-MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF

THE SENTENCE.

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CHAPTER I.
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KINDS OF MODIFYING ELEl\IENTS.-ADJECTIVES.

§ 99. ANY one of the three principal elements of
the sentence-the Subject, the Predicate, and the
Copula-may be modified in ways more or less pecu, liar to each, in order more precisely to express the
, thought.
Such modifications are of two kinds : 1. One of mere fonn, to indicate the relationship
between parts of the sentence, as between the verb
.~ and its subject.
2. The other of significance. In this case a word
" oJ;,a part of a sentence is simply limited in its meaning
to a narrower import.
are worJR u::;ed to
relation of words.
MoDIFlEHS

limit

the

p1ea11ing

or

INFLECTION is a change in the form of a word to
'
limit its meaning or its relation in the sentence.

§ 100. The modifier of the subject, and so of any

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66

1:

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j

rl

ii

1i
111

':Ii

jl
ii
11i11

I!
I

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1'

J!i

1'!
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I:

§ 102. Adjectives are of two classes :1. Definitives, which limit th e objeet as to
its quantity or kim1; as, "]lfuch money;"
" Six men ;" "Those trees ;" "Learned men."
Epithets, which limit the object in respect of
its attributes ; as, "The righteous Lorc1 ;" "The
leafy oak ;" "Jocund spring;" "Happiness is
found with the pu,rring cat no less than with
the playful kitten ;"

I·.

"I have seen tempests when the scoldi11a winds
Jlnve rived the knotty oaks."

11

OnBF.JtVATION.-This <listlnctlon, but littl e reco:;n lzcd In Rystems of Grnm·
mnr, nnd, pcrhnps, for t hnt rcnson, somew hat unfo111ilinr, Is yet uno of grent
hnport.nnce In order to correct nnd freCI expression. A little thought will
familiarize tho distinction. It is plain thnt wh en I say" the white kitten," I
menu ordinnrily to distinguish one of this color from one of some other color.
But in the sentence quoted nbove, the writer does not nt ull Intend to distin-

1:
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67

'gulah plc~yf1tl kittens from those thnt nre not playful. He wl~hes to fix the
. attention of the reader on one of tho nttrlbutes thnt belong to nil klttcnsplay/1tl.
It must be borne In mine! thnt the snrne word mny be usccl either as n Definitive or ns rm Ep ithet. Thn s, wh en Spenser snys, "Then cnme the jolly summer,"
· he uses the ndj ecth•e }oily not ns Defin itive-not to indlcnte what kind of n
' summ er h e monut-but ns nn epithet, to Indicate upon whnt attribute of tho
summer he wlshecl tho nttention directecl. But when I any" It wns a jolly
summer," I m enn to define n certain kind of summer.

§ 103. D efinitives are of three classes :1. N ·nrnerals ;
2. DC?nonstrati'ves ;
3. Attributi?lCS.

§ 101. 'l'here are three classes of Modifiers :
the Ad}ective; the Ad'verb·i al; ancl the JJiodal.
An ADJECTIVE is the moc1iJier of a, subjectwor<l, or noun .
An ADvmrnIAL is the modifier of a predicateword.
A MODAL is the modifier of a copula-word.

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KINDS OF MODIFYING ELEMENTS.

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

object of t\1011ght t hat mtty be useu as a subj ect, is an
adjective modification.
That ·of the predicate, or any part of the sentence
that may be usecl a~ a predicate, is an adverbial modification.
That of t,he copula, or of any part of the sentence
that may be regarded as primitively a copula, is a
·
1nodal modification.

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§ 104. Nul\IERAL ADJECTIVES designate how
much or how many of the parts of the composite object are meant.
'l'hey incl ucle two classes : 1. 1'/w Definite Nwnerals j as, all, both, eve1·y, each,
either; the negatives, no, none, neither, toge.t her with
, the canlinal numb ers, one, two, etc.
· 2. The Indefinite Numerals j as, some, few, seve1·al,
1
certain, divers, sundry, any, enougli, only, many,
much, little.

.;

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,_. OnSERVATIO!<.-O f the N um erals, 11wch nnd little nre usecl properly to limit
mass-nouns; that i8, to limit In spncinl or geometrical mther than In proper
• · numerical quantity. Whole, some, any, e11ouoh, only, are used in both wnys.
Lat•ge, small, nnd tho like, properly limit, likewise, mnss-nouns.
Further, ev.,·y, each, either, none, neillie•", nre cllstlngulshec\ from others of
th e class ns di stl"ibnti1Jes.
The num cmls gcnemlly mny be usccl ns nouns without further indlcntlun of
..th e ohjects to whi ch th ey properly uelong.
•
,<:. To thi s ci:tss-numcrnis-bc longs whnt hns bee n call ed by distinction, the
• lndejinite ai·tfole, a or an. In this use, it bns come to drop then l>efure consonant sotm tls, wh il e it is still written an In full before vowel sounds. In nccordnnce with th i! pl'inciple, It ls writte11 and sounded.an before a silent h, as,
.. an hon est man; also before nn nspirnt.ed h In un unaccented syllable, as the
consonimtnl powl'r of the Jetter is th en wenk, as an historical essay,· an

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MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

.

hypothesis. But before nn nsplrnted h fn nn ncccntc>d sy ll:\blc, thC' general
prin ciple a.ppllea, nnd it is written without the n; ns, a history; a hypothetical case. For nnalogo ns rcnso ns. th o n. Is omittc,1 in writin g und in pronnn cintion before tho co1¥onanti zc1l sound of 1f rmd of w ns so un tied nt the begi nning of words; as, a youth, a 'l.tmr, sttch a one (ioun).

§ 105. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJE CTIV ES point out
the p:uti cular parts or intlivi<lna.l s 11w:wt ht th e
composite ~bject; us, tkis, that j these, those.
OasERVATION.-To this class belong• whnt has been call ed the definite article, THE.
'!'his nrti. mny be u!!ed with or without other mo<llflcrs; ns, the 111a11., the
brnvtJ ?Jtan. It tl emo nstrntes, thnt Is, poinf.s out, the pn.rtic ul nr . tndiviclunl
rnrnnt in the c lnss man; b1'<vve mnn. It sometimes dcmonstrntcs th o Bpcclc8;
na, " 171.e finll. swhns.,,
To this cla.ss-Demonstrntfres--n.lso m:ty be ns sl g nccl those ncljcctlvre which
determine which o f the individmds contained under the ge ncrnl object nre
mcnnt by referring th em to the pnrtfcnlnr p1nce or time to which they belong;
ns, yonder, adja.cent ,' fi >r11ie1·, laite1'.
H ere belong, moreover, Ordinal Adj ectives, so called ; ns, first, 3econd,
tldrd, etc.

§ 106. ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES limit the
noun in r espect to some species contained
under it through some attribute ; as, "Dark
clouds ;" "An ill fortune ;" " JJ1aliciou,s passions ;" , " An unyielding firmn ess."
§ 107. EPITHETS are adj ectives which limit
the object to some of its attributes ; as, "Bal11iy
spring ;'' ''Fiery Mars ;'' ''Silent flowers."
§ 108. ORAL ExERCISES. }lfention the Ac?jectives in
the fallowing phrases, and name them as JVumerals,
.Demonstratfoes, or Attributi:ves. .Distinguish, also,
.Definitives froni Epit/iet.q, and Jl{od1j'ying A cijectives
from Predicate-adjectives :Three royal messengers. That lofty eminence. Six

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69

KINDS OF MODIFYING ELEMENTS.

hundred years. · The eighty-fifth year of the government. An unimportant abstract. A former message.
The latter date. That excellent man. Either circumstance. Any portion. The eight-hundredth year of
·_ the Christi:in era. Playful wit. Three centuries.
t B11rba,rous tribes. The voiced expref.ision. There was
a .p eculiar, a more than human solemnity. His voice
trembled on every syllable. On the fifth d:}y of the
moon. The arm-chair of dozing age. Stern-eyed
justice. The spirit deathless in its very nature. A
single human b eing. Great was the love which poor
silly I had for this little kitten.
u O glorious malice, dearer than the prize 1

Frnil hour, which one frail minute could destroy. 11

The giddy multitude are not always judicious in
, their ;:tpprobation.

Correct the faults in the fallowing expressions:An highway .was there. An heart of evil. A
··open door_ A hussar. Many an one. An humorist.
An humble roo£ A honorable man. A heir-loom.
An wiseacre. A Hibernian. A hiatus. A heroic act.
A herbarium. An heroine.. An hierarchy. An
l'Iebrew.
It was strange kind of goodness. The pleasure
· attends benevolence. A mercy is God's attribute.
The prosperity in a nation endangers t11e good m01'als. I will walk in the ways of the righteousness .
The copiousness of expression is to be acquired. The
gravity is ballast of soul. The memory is treasur~
· house of mind. Do nothing in the passion.

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-'

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

Tbe rich and poor are alike mortal.* It has been
tbe ambitio1i \>f good and noble in all ages. The
patrician and ple~eian were equally con cern ed. The
North and South have common interests and common
destiny. Tb e old and young may alike profit by experi~1c e . H e regards the crie8 of th e widow ancl
orphan. How do the duties of a g ood wi!C, good
mother, and worth~ matron, well performed, dignify
a woman ! Gratitude regards the giver rather than
gift. The desires may be ci assecl as twofold: the
animal and rational. All min erals hav e th e common
properties of fracture, the deg ree of hardn ess, and
th e specific gravity. Th e perch, the mackerel, and
pilot-li sh belong to the sharp-finn ed onler of fi shes.
The class of quaclrnrnans includes the ape and baboon.
The frog nnd toad b e ~011 g to the order of batrachia.
Th e stucly of English la nguage is making daily advancement.

§

Jlfodify t/1.e.followi'.ng
words by D efinitives of each class:109. vVIUTIEN EXERCISES.

Acorn, horse, cloud, tree, a11imal, shrubs, feet, cha.nee,
virtue, decision, doubt, hypothesis, yellowness, hygrom ete r, heir, hallucination, wilderness, yonth, antipathy, yawl, hour-glass, horizon.
·
JJfo d~fy

.the aboi·e, and also the .following, by Epi-

t,hets :Humility, g ratitude, obeisance, animosity, hosanna,
magnanimity, sentence, rebukes, wreaths, thrift, stn•The definitive should be rrefixetl to each distinct class, to prevent ambl·
gully; thus, tho 1'ich a.nd the poor.
·

...

KINDS .OF MODIFYING ELEMENTS.

71

pidity, recital, membran e, trutl1, a mbiguity, revelry,
- testimony.
.

•

§ I 10. In order to a still more precise expression of
· ·. the thong ht, it often becomes necessary to limit the
modifier itself. Thus the adj ective comes to be modified; a111l this i11 two ways:, I. Absolutely, or without express reference to othe~·
objects or other attributes; as, "The will-i11,ql,11 obedient;" "Ent-irely empty;"" E xceedingly rich." This
kind ofmodification is by adverbials.
Z. "Relativ ely, either in degree or in quantity, as
compared with other obj ects or attributes; as, "A
metal richer than gold;" "The lo11gest life of all."
This r elative modification of the adj ective .is called, in
Grammar, Comparison. It is effected by inflection.
GR.A.llIMATICAL COMPARISON is the relative
modification of the Adjective.

§ 111. 'l'he Adj ectivA may b e of either of three
forms: the Positi1,e, the Comparative, and the
Sup erlative j as, tall, taller, tallest.
'rhe POSITIVE FORM is that in which the Adjective is not relatively modified.
• 'l'he Co111PARATIVE Fomr is that in which the
Adj ective is relatively modified in the relation
of its object to some other part or parts.
The SUPERLATIVE Fomr is that in which#the
Adj ective is relatively modifi ed in the relation
of its object to the whole of which it is a part.
OnBEI!-~ ATION ..-Bl'icrcr definition s may be giv en or these forms or comparison,
which, with suffici ent precision, distinguish. them from ono another ·1 thns'l'hC PostTIYF. FORM uf the A<lj ecth·c ls its form when relntively unmodifled .

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MODJ,FYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTJrnCR

The Co>rrAnATIVE Fo1rn of th.e Adjective ls its form when modified relatively
to other pnrt ~ .
Tho Surr.1n.ATIVF. FonM of I.ho Atljcctl vc ls Its form when rno<lific<l rclotively
to the whole of w11'i ch its object Is• pnrt.

§ 112. From the nature of grammatical comparison,

KINDS OF MODIFYING ELEMENTS.

On!!ERVAT ION 5.-It hns been n question wh ether tho use o.f the Comparntlve
form is proper fn such no expre ssion ns "Tho tnll cr of the two." In the classlcnl languages this use is allowed; nnd it ls fonnd In the best forms of English
titernture. In th e exprC'ssfon u Tho tnllest of tho two," the whole class is regarded, but the clnss hero Is mn<le up of two. There cnn be no objection to
this .form of expression In tho principles of thought, as we may think of two as
s class.
Onsirnv ATION 6.-Some adjectives from forefgn languages, particularly ftom
the Latin, which were proper comparatives, are used in English ns nrljcctives
of relnU.on, being followed by to, not by than. Such are anterior, posterim·,
prior, ulte1·l01•, Bttpe1·ior, inferi01\ interior, e-;r,terior; a.lso minor, major,
junior, senior, '"btch do not admit either than or to after them. It IB generally incorrect to prefix to th em the words of comparison niore and most,
le8B and lea&t, or to n<ld the termlnnttons r nnd &t .
In the .!!nme way superlntlves from other languages nre used in English as
positive.!!; but tt ls not tn good use to join to then1 the super1o.tlve sign, except
In rare cases for emphasis: as, maa;imum , minimwn., aupreme, extreme, ulti-

On sEltVATION 2.-The follo,ving adjectives nre irreg nlnr in their compnrf ..

!•~or e,

F~trthcr,

Supedatipe.
" ' orst.
Best.
! .. eas t.
:Mos t.
Aft.cr mo sl
}.,arther, forU wrm os t.
li'irst, foremost.
Furthest.
Jlind111ost., htndermost..

(Forth, ndv.),
lliuil,

Former,
Further,
Hinder,
Hith er,

Hithermost.

Iu,
Lntc,

Inn er,
Later, bUcr,

Inmos t, Innermost.
Lntcs t, Inst.

nt~

4.- Gencrnlly, the formation of compnrntives nnd superlatives
In er nnd est, from positives of m ore thnn one syllable, is fne!egnnt, nnd such
forms are to be nvoide.d us "benutifulest, ,, "hopeful cst," "profitn.bler,'' u nbom!nablest." Dissyllables ending In an accented syllable or In l• or y, nro exceptions; ns, 1'f.m,ote1·, oentle8t, holiest.

son:-

J3et te.r,
I .. ess,
]!fore,
Aft.er,

Upper,

73

OnBERV.ATION

OnsF.r..VATION 1.-If the pot:5itlvc form end in y, this letter is chnnged tot
1.wf'ol'c e7• nnd e8t; ns, ha:p py, 71.appim·, happiest.

Worse,

Nenrer,
Nether,
Oldet·, elder,
Oute.r, utter,

Lowest, lowermost.
Nenrest, next.
N ethermost.
Oldest, eldest. ·
Outermost, uttermost,
most.
Uppermost, upmoot.

OBSERVATION 8.-A number of snpcrlntives, bosldcB those in tbe above llst,
nre formed by nddlng mo8t io tho positive form of tho ndjectlve, or to nouns,
'p!·eposttions, or ndverbs; ns, eastern1nost, topmost, hithe1'1nost.

wise, less w1'.se.
§ 114. 'J'he Superlative Form adds st or est to
the Positive, or prefi xes most or least/ as, Positive, wise, Superlative, wisest, most wise, least
wise.

Gomparntive.

Near and nigh,

Up,

§ 113. 'l'he Comparative Form adds r or er to
the Positive, or prefixes the word more or less/
as, Positive, wise, Companttive, wiser, more

P ns Uive.

Lower,

Old,
. Ont,

the following genp·al rules are at once deriv ed:1. Tlie Compai·litive should be used onl?J when its
oltjeet as one part is com:pared with- another part or
with other parts.
2. The Superlative shoitld be usecl only when its
object as a pai·t is compared with the whole.

1'. :1:1, ill, evil,
(;o(l{l,
J.ittle,
.Much or mnny,
Aft,
.Far,

Low,

mate.
~

Words, moreover, that nre superlative in their own meaning, should not,
genernl1y, receive the elgns of comparison; such ns chief, final," and slso
nume-mls nud demonstrntlves.

§ 115. ORAL EXERCISES. Distinguish the several
. forms of compariso~i in the Adjectives in the fallowing
sentences :John was tall; taller than either of bis brothers;
the tallest man, in truth, in the town. A less ohjec4

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:MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

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tiouable, if more clifl'Lcult courne, woulcl have b een to
r emove .;h e hincl cmn cc. An abler or an :rng ricr co mbatant. could uot easil y be fo und. Th e nea rel't as well
as t h e r cmot cs.t brnnclies wer e loaclctl wi t h fr11it. The
v eriest chi.ltl could not have Leen g uil ty of :i wo r~c or
a sillier blum1er. Th e to ng ue is like :i ra cc-l1 orsc,
whi ch nms t he faster th e less weig ht i t earr.ies. lJis
chief con cern ancl hi s high est cnj oymc11t was to b e
app roYed by his Creator. M11ltitut1 es in the mol't ohscmre statious arc not h !SS cager in t heir pett.y broi l ~,
n or less tormented by their passions, t han i(' prin cel y
h onors were the prize fo r whi ch they contend.

Correct the errors in the f ollowing sentences :Ile is a p erson of the most g reat; abilities. H e is th e
p owerful cst man of his company. Th e knife wa.s the
usefulest in st n1111 c11 t h e hall. H e soon fo rm ed an advant~gco n se r conn ect ion. Th e ::uniablest d ispos iti on
secures rnof' t r egard. The fa rt hcrcs t t1i sl::in uc. T he
worser qualities. The lattc rcst ed itions. Th e lo" ·e r~ est strata. Th e furth erest position . Th e him1 c~ t of
· the fl o<"k. V irtue co nfe rs t he s11 pr c1ncst di g ni ty on
m an. H e wn s t he mo re junior of the sons. I th ough t
hirn t he mcmoraol est of those forg otte n marg rar es.
Ile is recog ni zable as one of t he r cmarkabl est of m au], incl. H e was t he b cantifnlest, l1 opcfuk ~ t; of li ttle
<l rn 111111 t'l"S. 'fh cy wer e the ~ reat est gc•ncrnls of n 11 y
oth ers in t h e arm y. Th e fairest of h er d:111g htNB,
Ev e. The yo un gest w::is t he co melyest; t h e li t tl est
was the ami aules t. Th e di ~<pu te was a m ore minor
a ffair than t h e blows h e iull icted. It was the ex th' lllest cold or th e se::i son.

'
CHAPTER II.
PREDICATB· MOIHFIIU:S. -VE Itu-INFLECTIONS.-ADVERHIALS .

§ llG. T1 m1m are three distinct r easons for modifyin g the predicate in disco urse : (I) 'fo sh ow to what
subj ect th e predicate refers; (2) to embody in it or
combine with it the copula, for which clemen t lan guage
g enerally fails to sup ply a special fo rm; ancl (3) t o
limit the mea11i11g of word s when t hose precisely expressin g th e tho ug ht are wanting.
§ 117. Tho rnodil1c~tti o ns of the Predicate are
threefold :1. R elatively to the su bj ect;
2. R elatively to the copula ;
3. In itself.
§ 118. H,elatively to th e s ubj ect., t h e predicate may
b e modified either as to its form or as to its signifi• cance.
Th e m odifications in r eRpect of f onn gi\·e th e di stin ctions of n wnber and p erson, an cl ar e fo r the pu rpose of sh ow ing more distin ctly the r eference to t he
subj ect.
Thus in th e sentence,-1

u Money nn<l mo.n n mutunl falsehoo<l show,' -

the form of the verb, show in stead of shows, indicates

,

,

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

76

that it refers to the subjects money and man, not to
th e word immediately preceding it, falsehood. And
in tlte sentence, "Thou didst it," the form didst shows
that the verb refers to the subj ect thou.
~

110. In English , the first p erson singnlar is
11ot rnarkcll by n11y speei:tl fonn, ox(~ept oJLly
iu the verb to be, which has am j the second
person is clenotecl by st, as love-st, lovedr-st j the
third p erson by s, or in old forms th, as l01Je-s,

?ave-th.
The plural has no special forms ; as, singular,

I love j plural, they l01Je.
1'hese five are irregular .: art, wast, wert j
shalt j wilt.
See§§ 136, 187 for the full inflectio n of tho verb In th e lndi ca ti1•0 Mood.

§ I 2b. ORAL E xm:c1sm. J.Yaine the P erson and
Number of eacli verb in t/ie f vllowing sentences:He is kind. I am glad. 'l'h ey are studious. John
lov es his books. Th ey assist their companions. He
Ii ves in state. Seest thou a m an wise in his own eyes?
Iron sharpeneth iron. Faithful are the wounds of a
friend. Slothfulness casteth into a deep sleep. \Vhen
thou goest, it shall keep thee. He was absent when
the clock struck. Yon were tardy.
Forni the Second P ei·son Sin,qulai· and the Third
P erson Singular of the follo1oi11,q verb,•, applyin!J in
each case the rule f or forming words, § 21 : Fib, throb, shed, plod, bestnd, pin. H.ule II.
Fly, fancy, eddy, remedy, bandy, edify. H.ule III.
Frolic, mimic. Rule VIL

1

VERB INFLECTIONS.

·77

Nib, begin, glory, levy, parody, grub, shun, club,
physic, study, qualify, testify, shy, weary, occupy,
hurry, pity.

Correct the ·e1Tors in the following sentences:He dare not disobey. w ·hen was you there? The
number of inhabitants do not exceed forty thousand.
H~ is as strong as.I is. · The goods was sold at a high
price. Thou, who art the Author of life, can restore
it also; thou doth thy own pleasure, and ever ordereth
wit:ely. vVas you certain of the fact ? They was ,
going along the street, when the bricks was falling.

§ 121. WRITIEN EXERCISES.
Construct five sentences with verbs in the Second P erson Singitlar;
J.ilive with verbs in the Third Person Singular;
Five with vei·bs in the Tliii'd Person Pltwal.
Uonst1·itct sentences with the f vllowing verbs in the
Second Person Singula1·, and also in the Third Person
Singitlcw :Am, was, shall, will, care, mov e, rest, caU, bed,
threaten, plot, cast, inherit, fan, dip, caress, fix, loved,
curbed, laugh, lend, help, think, accept, get, peril,
)fiel, ferret, clog, drug, dread, linger, wrap, throb,
slip, mar, purr, envelop, forfeit, intermit, play, cloy,
apply, deny, obey, cry, harass, forego.
OnsF.nVATION.-Relntlvoly to the subject, tho pre.Jlcnto Is modifiod as to Its
eignlficnncc In two wnys: (1) Oon01·etely, when It respects the subject ns to
kind, or by o. noun; a8, u She wnlks a q-u.een ;" (2) Abst1·actz.y, when it respects ·
tho subject no to attribute, or by nn ndjoctlve; ns, "She wnlks calm nnd majestic."
.
Relatively to the copuln, the pre<liMte can not be modified In slgnlllcnnce, bnt
only in form, nnd In this wny only ns It Is combined wlt.h the copula.

/

-----------------~---... 78

MODIFYIN G ELEMENTS OF '.I' ll I~ SE~TENCE.

§

1 22. The P redicate may b e mod ified in itself
either as a whole or in its p~uts.

Thus .in the sc 11 tc11 cc, "Tcneriffc w:ts fo rmer) y :in
activ e volcano," tile prcdic:tte as :i, wl 1ole is moc1ifiec1 4
by the t ense clistiu ction in t li e impc rfoct was, and also
by the adv erb.formerly_,- it is mod ili ('1l in its part,s by
the :tdject,i \ "O active 111 otli(y i11 g t he pa.rt vul<:ano.

§ 1 23 . The predicate as a whole is m odifi ed in lang nage in two ways :1. By changes in the wo rd itself, t hat is, by I nflect ion ; as, I love, I lovecl, I was loved;
2. B y th e use of other words, th :it is, by adverbial.~.
§ 1 24. Th ere are only two modi'li cati o11 s of tl1e predicate in itself exprc8sc<l in Ll1e E ng li sh Lm g nnge by
appropriate inflections or changes in th e form of the
ver b. Th ey arc,-1. Th e modifications of the direetiou of an action or"
r elation as to or j -1-om the subj ect, cal! e(l the modifica-

tio11 s of Voice ).
2. Th ose of th e time of the p redicate, called the
m odifications of T ense.

§ 125. VorcE expresses the direction of the
action or relation as to or from the s ubj ect.
§ 126. There are two Voices, the A ctive and
th e Passive.
Tile A cnvE V uw:u; expresses the action of
tJrn prel1icate as p roceeding from the snbject ;
as, I strike tli.e ground.
The PASSIVE VorcE expresses the action of

#

VERB INFLECTIONS.

79

· the predicate as directed to or upon the subject ;
. as, The ground is struck.
§ 127. Tlle p ASSIVE VoICE is foimed from the
· Active by prefix ing the passive auxiliary, to be,
' to the past participle of the verb ; as, to be loved,

I am loved, I was loved.
·§ 128. 'fENSE is the form of V erb-Infiection to
express the time of the predicate as present, .
pat3t, or future.
§ 129. 'fENSE is either simple or continuous . .
SIMPLE 'l'ENSE expresses the predicate simply ; as, I wrote.
CoNTINUOUti TENSE expresses the predicate
as continuous ; as, I was writing.

§ 130. TENSE, whether simple or continuous,
is Present, Past, or Futitre.
The PRESENT TENSE presents the· predicate
as of the present time; as, I write/ I arn wr'iting.
PAST TENSE has thrne distinctions,_.:._tlie I1np erfect, the Pe~fect, ancl the Pluperfect.
.The I MPERFECT TENSE expresses the predicate as simply past ; as, I wrote/ I was writ-

ing.
The PERFECT TENSE expreSSElS the predicate
as past, and with a refer ence to the time of
speaking ; as, I liave written/ I have been wri t-

ing.
The PLUPERFECT TENSE expresses the predi-

-----80

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF

-- ~_..... --

TJII~

...........--....

VERB INFLECTIONS.

SJm TENCE.

cate as past, and with a r eference to some iiast
time ; as, I had written ; I lwd been writing.
FUT URE TENSE has two distinctions, called,
r espectively, the Futur e ancl the Fidure P er-

f ect.
The F uTURJ~ TEN RJ~ CX ]ll'<'RReR tlin pn·<li cato
as s imply future ; as, I shall write ; J sli.all be

W?"iting.
The Funnrn PmtFECT TENSE expresses the
predicate as future, but with a referen ce to
some future tim e ; as, I sliall have written; I

sliall liave been writing.
OnSERVATION.-If further modtflcn.tions of ttm o nre to be c~prcs sc<l, recourse

must be hnd to ndvel'binls.

§ 131. The Simple Past tense, :ind also the P:i.st
· Participle, appear in two forms: (1) In the R cr;11lar
l i'vrin, or what is sometimes called the lVealc Conjugation ; (2) in the Irregitlar Form, or the Strong
Conjugation.
§ 132. The R e,qular Form adds d, generally with
the connecting vowel e, to the simple form of the
verb; as, hear, Im perfect heard). learn, learned; end,
ended. lf euph ony requires, . when the connecting
vowel e is omitted, as is the case after all merely
breathed or aspirated letters, the d becomes t / as,
sleep, slept.
§ 133. The Irre,qular Form changes the vowel of
t he sim pie form to make tlic I 111 pcrfoC't a.J\d tl1c l':issi ve
l'arti ciplc; as, drink, dranlc, drunlc.
In tl1is conjugation, tl1 e Passive Participl e is fre-

·. quentlf formed by adding n or
risen.

81

en~· as, rise, rose,

§ 134. In the Inflection of Verbs, there are three
forms upon which other forms are built. They are
. called 1'/ie Fundamental Forms, or 1'/ie Principal
Parts. These arc,1. J.7ie Sim.p le .Present; as, love, liear, write;
2. 1'/ie Simple Past, or Imperfect ; aR, loved, lieard,
wrote;
3. The Past, or Passive Participle; as, loved, lieard,
written.
§ 135. J. . IST

OF limEGULAR

V EHBS.

· O!lBERVATION.-Those words In the list which are marked with nn r ha-.e
_also the regu lar form:!!. The ltaliclz ~ d form& nre less in use.

Pr•sent.
Abide,
Am or be,
Awnk e, r.
B enr,
Dent,
B eg in,
Bend, r.
B ereave, r.
.Beseech,
Bet, r.
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Build,'"
Burn, r.

Past.
Abode,
Wns,
Awoke,
Bore, ba·r e,
Bent,
B egnn,
B ent,
Jlereft,
Besought,
.Bet,
Bid, bade,
Ilnund,
Jlit,
Jlled,
Blew,
Broke, brake,
Bred,
Brought,
Built,
Burnt,

Past Part.
Abode.
Been.
Awnked.
Borne.*
Benten, beat.
Begun.
Bent.
Bereft.
Besought.
Bet..
Bidden, bid.
B ound.
Bitten, bit.
Bled.
Blown.
Broken, broke.
B1·ed.
Brought.
Jlulit.
Burnt.

• Jn the sense to bt'in(f f ot'lh, the passive pnrtlciple o! thi• vorb is bot·n,
when not foll~wed by the preposition b/f, aud the agent expressed or untlcr1tood.

4*

/

82
~.

I

I
I

I

,

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.
Burst,
Buy,
Cost.
Catch,

P aBtPa1·t.

Pa8t.

Pre3cnt.

B oug ht,

Burst.
Bought.

Cost,

Ca ~ t.

Cnug ht,

Caug ht.
Chidd en, chid.
Chosen.
Cl cnv cd.
Clo vC'n, c left.

Bnrst,

1•.

Chide,

Cienvo (split),

Ch id,
Chose,
Clrzme,
Clove, cleft,

Cltng,

Clnng,

()lun g.

Clad ,
Cnme,

Uiud .
Cou1 e.

Choose,
Cleave (n.dh cro), r.

Clolhe, 1·.
Come, be-, overCost,
Creep,
Cro w, 1·.
Cut,
Dare* (venture), r.
Deal,
])lg, r.
Do,
Drnw,
Dream , r.
Drink,
Drive,
Dwell,1·.
E ot,
Fail,
F eed,
F eel,
Fight,
Find,
}"'lee,
Fling,
F ly,
F orsak e,
Freeze,
F reight, t' .
Get,
Gild ,
Gird. r.
Ghe,
Go,
Grave,

Griod,

1-.

Hnve,
Henr,
Henve, r.

Cost,

Cost.

C r~ pt,

Crept.
Crow ed.

Knit,t'.

Crew,
Cut,
D urs t,

Cut.
Dared.
Denlt.
Dug.
Don e.

•

D ealt,
])11 g ,

Did,
Drew,

lJraw11.
Dreamt.
Dr:rnk, drunk.
Drh•c· n.

Drcnmt,

Dr:rnk,
Drov o,
Dwelt,

Dwelt.
Entc n, eat.
]<'ullen.
]<'ed.
F elt.
FoughL
F o und.
Fled.
Flung.
Flow n.
F orsa ken.

Ate, cat,
l<'eil,
l<'ed,
F elt,
F ought,
}.. , ound,
Fled,
Flung,
Flew,
~F o r sook ,

J<~ ro zc n.

Froze,
Freighted,

J.l'rnu ght.

Got, (!Otten.
Gilded, gilt.

Got,

Gilded, gilt,
Girt,

Girt.
{Jlv c n .
Gon e.

Gn. vt~ ,

W ent,
Ornv ed, .

Grav en, graved.

Ground.

Ground,
• Da,.e, to challe1iqe, 11

Pas~

PrM•nli•
Gron.·,
Hang,• r .

llew, r .
Hide,
lilt,
H old,
Hurt,
K eep,

c lav~,

VERB INFLECTIONS.

Kn eel,

r.

Know,

L3do (load), r.
Lny (to pine.), inLead,
Lean, r .
Lonp1 ' "
Leave,
Lene\,
Let,
Lte• (recline),
Light, r.
LOSC',

Make,
Mean,

Mee t,
Mow,r.
Pay,
. P en• (tnclose), r.
Prove, r ..
Fut,
Qutt,r.
Rend ,
R end,

Rid,
Rid~,

Grew,
Hung,
Jlnd 1
H eard,
Hove,
Hmved,
Jlld,
lilt,
H eid,
Hurt,
K ept,
Knelt,
Knit,
Kn r- w,
Lnded,
L aid,
Led,
L ea.nt,
L eapt,
L eft,
Lent,
Let,
J... n.y,
Ltt,
L ost,
Mad t>.,
Meant,
Met,
Mowed,

Paid,
P ent,

Grown.

Hung.
Hnd.
Henrd.
Ifoven.
Hewn.

lll<iden, hid.
ll!t.
H eld, holden.
Hurt.
Kept.
Kn elt.
Knit.
Kn o wn.

LuJ e n.
Lntrl.
L ed.

Leant.
LC' apt.
Loft. ·
L ent.
L et.
Lnin.

Ltt.
Lost.
Made.
1'-Ie~mt.

Met.
Mown.
Paid.
Penl

Pro ved,

P roven..

Put,
Qnit,
Rend,
!fo nt,
Rid,

Pnt.
Quit.
Rend.
l!e nt.
Rid.
Rod e, rlclclen, rid..

U ocl e, t•-id,
Rring, rung,

Ring,
ltise,
Rlve,r.
Run,
Saw, r.

83
PaBtPart.

Uosc,
Rived,
llnn,
Sn.wecl

Hung.

Risen.
Rl\'CIL

Run .
Sawn.

r~gular,

• Ha1'(), to take

lire, Li•.

to deceive. n.nd P en., to 1"rite, nre regulRI'.

81

MODIFYING
Present.

ELEMENTS OF THE SENT EN OR
l'ast.

Prrnt Part.

Bald,
Saw,

Scr n.

S('<' k ,

~ong-ht,

80 11 g h t .

Scc th<', r.
Srll ,
81.· 1111,
St•! ,

&d,
Solrl,
81·nt,

Roll d e n.
!>ol<l.
Den i.

f:.ct,

~d.

Shoo k,
Rhnpl· d,
Shan·d ,

i-:l nt n: n.

1·.

Shave,.,.,
Shear, 1·.

Sh eel,
S hin e, r.

Shoe,
S hoo t.,
Show, r.
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,

Sing,
Sink, .
Sit,
Slny,
Sl cr p,
Slide, r.
Slin g,
Slink,

Slit, 1•.
Sni eil, -r .
Smite,

Sow (scatter),'"
Speak, beSpeed,
SpC' ll , ""
8pencl,
Spill,,, ..
Spin,
Spit,*
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stnnd,
t) la\"C1 1'.

S hca r ml,
8ht:-1I,
Sho n e,
Shot I,

Shot,
8 howcrl,
Rhrr d ,

f-'h:1k t·n .
f-'h :q 11• 11.
~ h o rn.

~l\f~ d.

Shnnr.
Rho11.
Rhot.
Rh ow n.
Hhn~ c l.

8 hru11k , !lh1· 1t 1ikon.

Shru nk. shrank,
Slmt,

Sh nt.

S:rng, s nn g,

Sung.

Sunk , snnk 1

Sunk.

Snt,

Sat.

Slew,
Slrpt,
Slid,

SI opt.

Slung,

Slung:.

Sl unk,
Slit,
Smelt,

Smote,
Sowed,
Spoke, spake,
Spetl,
Spelt,
Spent.,
Spilt,
Spun , .':Jp<ui,
Spit, 8pat,
Split,
Sprcn1l,
Sprnng, sprung,
Stood,
Stove,

• Spit, to put on a spit, is

Pt'tB(#t.
Steal,
Stick,
Sling,
Stride,
Strike,
String,
Strive,
Strow, r,

S:iid.

Say,
Be(\

8h:ik<",
8hn p t.·,

VERB INFLECTIONS.

Slain.

Sli<l d cni slhl.
S lnnk.

Slit.
Smelt,
Smillen 1 am it.
Sown .

Spokr n, Rpoke.
~ p 1·1 1.

!:'pr l t.

f::. pr nt
f-!.11ilt.
Sp111i.

Pa.t.

Sprung.
Stood.

Stove.

'

Stolen.
Stuck.
Stung.
Stridden, otrid.
Struck, &tri ck~n.
Strung.
Striven.
Strown.

Sfrowed,
Swore, Bwm·e,

Swc:ir,

Sweot, r.
Sweep,
Swell, r.
Swim,
Swing,
Tnko,
Tench,
T op.r,
Tell,
Think, be1.'hrive, r.
Throw,
Thrust,
Trend,
- Wnx (grow),
Wenr,
Weave,
W eep,
W ot, r.
Whet,r.
Win,
Wind,
Work, r.
Wring,
Write,

Sworn.

Sweat,
Swept,
Swelled,
Swam, s,1.-um,
Swnng,
Took,
Tnu ght,
Tore,
'fold,
Thought, ,
'l'hrove,
Threw,
Thrust,
Trod,
Wnxed,
Wore,
Wove,
Wept,
Wet,
Whet,
Won,
Wound,
Wrought,
Wrung,
Wrote, 10rU,

.

Sweat.
8wept.
Swollen.
Swum.
Swung.
Tnken.
Taught.
Torn.
Told.
Thought.
Thriven.
Thrown.
ThrUBt.
Trodden, trod.
Waxed, wai.Dl!n.
Worn.
Woven, wove.
Wept.
Wet.
Whetted.
Won:
Wound.
Wrought.
Wrung . .
Written, writ.

136. The Irregular Verb To BE is thus intlecteo
in the Indicative Mood:-

§

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Pa&t, Wss.

I'r<•Mil, Am.

Pa~t

Pa..tio!plt, Been.

PRESENT TENeB,

Plura-1.

Sin{}u,la.r.

lat Person,
2d Person,

rc~ :il:ir.

Past Part.

Stole,
Stuck,
Stung,
Strode, otrld,
Struck,
Strung,
Strove,

S pit. 1;p ftt f!/n .

Split.
8prcnd.

85

8d Person,

I ·nm,
You ar<',
Thon art,
He ie.

1

1.

2.
3.

We nrc,
{ Yon arc,
Ye nre,
They are.

I

I

i~

-,

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

86

'

IMPE'BFEOT TENSE.

Sino7tlar.
],

I was,
{You were,
2l
Thou wnst1
lie was.
8.
1.

2.
3.
rr.nFECT

].

2.

8.

VERB INFLECTIONS.

l'l111t·al.
'Ve were,
{Ton wcrt?,
To wr.rc,
They were.

1.
2.

8.

87

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Sin(J1tlar.

I loved,
{You loved,
Thou lovedst,
He loved.

1.
2.

8.

Plural.
We loved,
{ You loved,
Ye Joved,
They loved.

PERFEOT Tl!lN8E.

TY.~Sli:.

l'ltt1'1fl .

Sinonl111·
I Jrn.vc been,

I.

{ Y 011 hnv o been,
Thon hn8t br.cn,
ll c hns be en.

2.

1.

'V c

hnvc IJP1.•n,
{Y o u havo lJ cc u,
Ye hnvc been, .

a.

2.

8.

They hnv o bee n.

Plural.
We have loved,
2. { y OU hri VO loved,
Ye hn.ve loved ,
8.
Th ey hnvo loved.

Sinoular.
I have loved,
{Yon h!lvG Jovecl,
Thon hnst lo\'ed,
II e hns loved.

1.

PLUPERt"EOT TENBK,
PLUl'F:RF"ECT TENBJt,

Sin.oular.

Sin(lztlar.

1.
2.

8.

I.

I bad been,
{You hnd boon,
Thou hadst been.
He had been.

2.

3.

{

I' l1u·ril.

L

" ' o hml h <'cn ,
~011 hnrl bee n,
1: e bad hec n,

2.

8.

They had been.

2.

8.

1.

I shnll be,
{You will be,
Thou wilt be,
He will bo.

2.
3.

Wo shall be,
{You will be,
Ye will be,
They will bo.

2.
3.

2.

].

{You will have been,

2.

'l'hou w ilt hav e been,
Ile will have been.

8.

8.

P l·nral.
We shnll havo bcl'n,
{You will hnvo been,
Yo w ill have becn 1

I shall Jove,
{ You will love,
Thou wilt lov e.,
He will love.

1.
2.

8.

They will ba""rc bee n.

He

lov e ~.

2.

s.

We shnll hnvo lov cfl,
{ You will hnvo luvc1l,
Ye will h:lvc lovccl,
They will bnvo lo ved.

PASSIVE VOICE.
MOOD.

2
·
8.

Sinuular.
l nm loved,

I.

You nre Jove<l,

2.

{ Thon nrt lovecl,

lle ts loved.

f'JlESF.NT TENSE.

8.

Plural.

1.

INDICATIVE

1.

INDICATIVE MOOU.

Y ou Ion\
{ Thou hncet,

Pl7tral.
W e shnll Jove,
{ You will lov e,
Ye will love,
They will love,

rnESENT TENSE.

ACTIVE VOICE.

2.

2.

s.

H e will hnve loved.

in the Indicative Moocl : -

Slnu11.lar.
I love,

1.

Si11aula1·.
I shnll ha\·e l on! <l,
{You wlll hn,·o lov C'.11,
'rlrnu wilt hn vo lu,·ccl.

§ 137. The Regular Verb To LoVJ!: is thus inflected

],

s.

Plurnl.
We hnd lovei-1,
{ You h nd lo ved,
Ye hncl 1ovcd,
They had loved.

FUTUlm PEltFKCT TF. NSE.

FUTURE PERFECT Tl:-:NSE.

1.

2.

Sina·u la.r.

1.

Plnral.

Sinoula1'.
I slrnll lrn.vo bec11,

1.

FUTURE TENSE.

FUTURE TENSE,

Sinurtlar.
].

I bad loved,
{ You hnd lovc1l ,
Thou bn.dst loved,
Re hnd loved.

Plnral.
V{e nre loved,

SYou nre lo ved,
l Ye nre loved,

8.

They nro loved,

1.

We were loverl,
{ You were loved,
Ye were loved,
They were loved.

IMPERFECT TF.NSR.

1.
2.
8.

I'l7tral.
We Jove,
j You love,
) Ye love,
They lo,·o.

Singula.r.
1.
2.

8.

I wns loved,
{ You were loved,
Thou "-'&st loved,
Ile wn!\ loved.

J>l·u ral.

2.

8.

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF

88

P.ERFF.CT

'l'HI~

T EN8F..

Sinoular.
1.
2.

8.

I hrH·e been loved,

1.

{ You hB \"'C been lov ed,

2.

'l'bou hast been loved,
H o bas been. loved.

3.

Plm·al.
W e hnve bee n lovc<l,
{Yo u hn ve bee n love <l,
Yo hn\·c bee n loved,
Th ey hn vo been loved.

rJ.U Pf.:RFF:CT T F.NSE.

I'/11,.a/..

Si·n aular.
1.
2.
3.

3.

We hncl Lee n l ovc1~ 1
{ You h:ul been lovc1l 1
Y e Juu l bt~c n lo vr d,
Th f'y kvl hccn loved.

l.

J'i.UJ Ll!.
\\o"c is irn ii Lo loved ,

1.

I hncl been loved,
{ Yon had bee n lov ed,
Thou hadst bee n loved,
U c b ~d been loved.

2.

SinrplftU',
l.

2.
8.

l sl111li Le- lv"ed~
{ l." vu wil i be lov ed,
Thou w ilt b e lo"\"e,1,

2.

H e will be lovecl .

8.

) } nu wi ll be love<!,
I Ye will be loved,
Th ey will be lo,·eu.

F UTURE T'F.RF ECT TF:!"F.Jt:.

2

·
8.

1 shn ll

h~wc bPt'll l ov~ <l.

i "Yo n w ill h n.vc bee n loved

1 T h"n

wilt h01·r been lo·; etl,
H o w ill ba,·c bee n loved.

1.

2.

:J.

"~ " ~ h fl ll

ha,.,.. h·'"n lnvPrl .
{Y ou will h an ~ bee n lo ved,
Y l· wil ! ll :n·c brrn lo ved,
Th (l y w ill have b een loved.

§ l ~8. OnAL Ex1mcrsEs. Indicctte th e T enses fa
the f ollmcin.r; sentences, and also the Time as contimtous or sucGess ive :I am writing . Ile walked two mil es b efore he
brcakfastc<l. Th ey drank too freely of icetl water.
\Ve h ad not gone far before it began to min. You
will ha ve seen him before you receiv e my Jetter. They
have all forgotten their promise. Ile will not show
himself to-clay. H e has built his house. They durst
not d eny it. Th ey abode there six mouth s. No one
has begun. I b esoug ht him to go. The wind blew a
hurricane. He had brought his friei~cl with him. The
storm will have caught him b efore h e leaves the forest.

89

It crept slyly up. He had driven the cattle under a
shed. You 'will hit the mark if you aim well. She
had knelt before the altar. I knew my lesson, before
the clock had struck. J ohn hacl swept the hall. He
won the prize. The veterans led the attack. A bittern ess which the h eart only kn oweth; a joy with
which a str:t11ger intcnncddlcth not. They will, ce rt.aiuly, when they sec the consequences or what they
have done, lie sorry, and wpl, also, when tltcy haY e
oµporL1u1iLy, ask fv rgive11e~:;. Tl 1e 1;]1 ip wa:; rnu clt
st.r::i i11 e,l hy \.li t> ~l0rn1 , l•n t il rt>a c lte<l ite porl· li11 ri ll y,
wi Llt011 I. Ju,;,-. Dy Ll 1e t. i111 H t . l 1i .~ n ·;whes you, I.li t 111 e,;sage will h:ive lJccn pnhli shc•l. They hatl not hcen
better instructc11. The former colon ies liavc been
recognized as independent states.

I'lu.l'al.

Sing ular.
1.

VERB INFLECTIONS.

SimTENCK

Onrrcr> t

thr>. frr11{t.< in the f ri 1lfl1ni11;; .<r;11te11r>rg : -

Ile has abillecl ther e a Ion~ t ime. Th ry been here
often. I ltacl awok e and had arose from tny lied hr fore thP hell n,rn g. Thry hrg1111 wm ng. I li c•s('C'e li crl
him not to J o it. Th ey blowe<l the trumpet long a111l
loud. The p olice brnn g him to the f't3tiun. S he h3d
catch ed a cold. Th orn p ~o 11 was chose co rp oral. Th ey
co i;ne h ome a n hour a.go. The C'[Lt creepcd up very
.softly. Uc d one the j ob ycslcrrlay. IIc l1ra11·e1l hi 8
clagger. They druuk 11 0 eid er. I h all Jrov e t.he sheep
. i11 to t he p:isture. Th e 11uy lm1l ate green apples, and
had fo ll sick. The bird ltas forso ok its nest. The
st.ream was fr or.e ov er. The h orse had w ent home.
Th e v ine growed asto nishi11g ly last year. I ha ve
h earn tell. The vessel laiJ in th e stream. Ile m eancd
well. I had no sooner rose from my becl, t han the

90

MODIFYING E L!n!E NTS OF Till~ S imTENCE.

water run in streams o\'er the fl oor. I had never saw
such a sig ht b efore. Th e earthquake h ad shook clown
every house. Ile had showed all his wares. She has
:;poke but once. The man had st oic tw o watchc\ m1cl
ha d swor e h e was not g nilt y. Five were to o k pnson crs. T he solclicr s hacl w ore ont t heir 1' 1i OC'R, arnl the
captain had wrote for n. fr csh suppl y. Frnm L.he
dra11· cr in whi ch it. ki.<1 laid f;o long forgotlf'll. I int ended to ha\·e writ soo n. The n.sse mbly had took a ·
r ecess. Th e ri ver hall sank b e low ordinary low ·watcr
mark. 'J'he sale had foll urr great! y. He h:itl c:11ne
some h o11rR before. Ile hail 1;1istoo ic the won1. \'on
w:1s t h en~ ycslt'nhy; and tlwy b ee n the re t n- <la y.
Th e murd e rer was couricLL·•.1 lJy a jnry, scnlenccLl hy
the court, aml hun g by lh e ~ hcriff.

§ 1 30.
tencc.<·

\VH11TE'<'

J1>rn1:1·1;.;E s.

,,,,,.7,, ,•nn t"i;;i n:/

~ 140. The second way mentioned, § 123, in
which the Predicate in itself' mny be modifi ed,
is by AllverlJials.

AN ADV:EHBIAL is a lllOl1ifi cr or an attribute;
as, "Ho is strictl.11 houest;" "lle act<~d clis-creetly;" "He acted hi a discreet ?1wnner."

§ 14 1. The n o rmal arhc rhi:1J is a single \\'Ord , a nd is
called simply a n advei'b. Ot l1 er predicate modiliers
arc ca lled generally mfrcrb ials. They in clude adved1ial phrases a11ll cufrcrbial clauses, as well a8 sin gle
· \H>rds.

AN Anvmrn is the 11o nnal modifier of nn
attri lJll 1e.

Co11stn11't jiN' sn1-

§ u:z. Adn:rbia l nlot1ifiers arc of two general

nn r 1j' the jr1llo1ri11;1 rcrbs in

(__,'1 >ntiu1u111s. 7'/n1'' : ~

cJa,St'S :-

[. Tltn~<' nf l'n >) JCl'l!J;

J:'icc in tlu! U11j>t'Jj;.:ct, 'tense, ~Successive 7'inic _;
Fice i11 f/,,, /'e1;1i -,·t;

F'i ne in llw Pl1tpe1:fect;
.Five in tlie .1"11.turc;
Ji'ive in the Ji'1rtnre l'ci:fect;
Olrny; recc1Jc; r::wso111; forget; buffet; traY el; delay; r~pl y ; bear; begin; break; h ew ; forg iY c ;. 1Hi:1g ;
stick; striv e; f'm it e; f'f'Pt he; Rhakr~ ; show ; lw; fall;

fell; teach ; tliri vc; kneel; mow; seek ; b c:;ecch;
~lt 0 ; u· ; <>lui11k; fly ; Jicezc; cl1ousc.

Construct five sentences each containing one of tlw
A ctive Verbs in the above list expi·essed in the P assive
·voice in each Tense.

91

VEIW INfLE CTIOC\S.
~

2. ThtlRl' of Hel,1t ion.

§

lJ ~l .

Predi cate Mod ifiers of Pro perty arc of

t11·0

ki11d s :-1.

•

_Jl/tl}I?/(/','

2. ~)/ltUf{ily.

§ 144. AD\'Ell.BIALS OF ]l.L1.NNER arc groumlecl up on
th e intcrn~d :tttribult•c, or those of qual it y rJJHl action;
as, heavily, clearly, wisely, la11glti1117ly, intelli,qcntly.
T lwy all"l\'er Lhe l!Uet<llv ll, lluw !

§ 145.

A vvmw1.ALS Ol•' Q,u A .N TITY

1. Of Amrnm t;
~.

Of JiJxtent;

include those,-

a", 1,n·:r7;;, rir'My, abundantly.
a A,

widdy.

·I'.
,-.!

-

"'

... '"""'.................._

MODIFYING ELmIENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

!):3

3. Of Jf'reqiiency; as, often, once, seldom.
4. Of Intensity; as, vehemently.
They answer the question Ifow m·uch .'l' as applied
to magnitude, content, number, ancl clegree.

§

14G.

ADVEIWIAJ,S

OF

HELATION arc of four

kinds : 1. Of Condition;

Compai·ison;
Dependence;
4. Of Order.

2. Of
3. Of

§ 147. ADVERBIALS OF CONDITION include those:1. Of Time, present, past, and future, ancl also successive ancl continnous; as, now, then, when, formerly, hereaftei·, repeatedly, m eanwhile.
2. Of Place, absolutely, as, there, here; and relatively, as, hence, hither, whence.
§ 148. ADVERBIALS OF Cmrr.amsoN respect relations
to other predicates; as, eqitally, sitborclinately: "He ate
excessively," that is, as compared with what he should
E'at; "They fought most gallantly," that is, as comparell with other fighting.

§ 149. ADVERllIALS OF DEPENDENCE incluclc those
which respect the relation,1. Of cause

and q"(j'ect; ::is, hence, th ence;

2. Of reason and consequent; as, therefore, conse-

quently;
3. Of motive or aim, and result or object; as," He
labors for fmne ;"
4. Of means and end, in the three just-mentioned

~-------------""'···---·-ci>~:"

•

•,,.-_!_

VERB INFLECTIONS.

- .I

93

relations i' as, " The stream was crossed by a raft;"
"The tree is known by its fruits."
OnBERVATION.-Thcre nrc no normnl n<l vcrbs of the Inst two vnrie tles.

§ 150. ADVERBS OF ORDER include the proper Ordinal Adverbs; as,first, secondly, thirdly, etc.; and also
such as, next, further, furthermore, again, finally.
§ 151. Some adverbs are relatively modified by
means of grammatical comparison in a way similar to
that of adjectives, by adding i· or er for the comparative, and st or est for the superlative; as, soon, sooner,
soonest.
They arc also relatively modifiecl by the auxiliaries
of comparison, rnore, rnost; less, least ; . as, nwre pi·oba~
bly, most probably; less probably, least probably.
OnsERVATION.-The fo llowing nre irregular :-Fa1·, ja·rtlie1-, farthe8t; forth.,
. further, fu1· tltc ~ t; ill, worB6, worst; Uttle, le86, least; ntuck, mar8, m.ost ,·
well, beUe1·, best.

§ 152. ORAL EXERCISES. Point out the Adverbials ·
·and the Adi•erbs in the following sentences; indicate
also to which class they belong, ancl name the predicate
which they modify:We were clearly and particularly shown how the
w~rk was done. Th e birds sin g sweeLly. We often
!'
resolve; we rarely fulfill Still waters are commonly
deepest. He has been mnch deceived. They have
been long absent. He spoke with a clear and full
voice. Th ey showed us t he work with much patience.
He was here yesterday, and will return to-day at two
o'clock. Ile labored excessively upon his task; it w::is
therefore well don e. On all occasions she behaved with
propriety. l\Ientally and physically we are curiously

I

. ------.-..- ~-····-~ --~--

,

94

........- · _ _ _......,_...,_
. . .,3·"'
'"_ _...
.. ....
__

.

VERB INFLECTIONS.

AIODIFYlN G ELEMimTS OF THE SENTENCE.

and won<lerfnlly formed. The task is already more
than l1alf done. First, I am to show the nature, and,
f'Pconllly, the importance of this virtue. I shall for
that reason warmly befriend him.

B 153.

\Vi:n-rJm Ex1mc:1sEs. Co11sl1"1tct .five sentences
mvdijie<l by Adverbial,., and jive by
.Adverbs of manner.
Five eac:h by AJvrc;rbials and Adverbs vf qw1lity.
Five each by Adverbs of condition.
Fit•e each by those of comparison.
J ,-'i:ve ecich by those o.f dependence.
Five each by those of order.
witli

p1 ·edh:r1tc.~

§ 154. Predicates denoting action or r elation necessarily imply an object. But this object. may be expressed or not; and, if expressed, it may be either
imm ediate am1 c1irect, or remote a nd indirect. Grammarians 11ave, accon1ingly, distinguished those verbs
whi ch have an obj ect that is immediate and direct a!l
Tr ansitive, while those Yerus whi ch either have 110
object expressed or necessarily implied in the form of
the sentence, or have only an obj ect that is remote
a1H1 indi rect, t hry have rlcnominated Intransitive.
Th ns in tho sentence, "J obn strikes the ground ,"
strikes is a transitive Yerb, for it is fo ll owed by the
immediate object, ground. But in the sentence, ".T ohn
leaps upon the horse," leaps is intransitive, for tho
ohjcct is r epresented only as r emote and inc1i1·cct.
G enerall y, if the object be i1nmediate aml direct, it
follows tl1 e verb without a preposition; if remote and
~nclirect, a preposition is introduced ; and, converf!'3ly,
if there be no preposition followinrr t he verb the
;:,

-

'

/

95

verb is to re regard eel as tran sitive; if there be, it is
intransitive. The on ly exception is that the remote
object is sometimes placed without a preposition between the Yerb and the immediate object; as," John
gave hiin t he book."
Any vcrli t hat c:rn take an imm ed iate ohjt•ct, except
perhaps a i>roper factitive verb, may be uAed intransitively, that iR, may Le used with no such object
exp1·e;;seL1 or II ece:;:;arily i111pli ec1 .ill tl1e f(}rlll or Lhe
sentence. In other words, it is not necessary in the
case of any ycrli al ways t o mollify th e action in
respect of the kind of object which it respects. The
verb \ ogive, thus, is as necessarily transitive as any
except proper factitive verbs ; but it may be used intransitively; as, "He that giveth, let him do it with
simplicity." On the other hand, grammarians teach
that any intransitive verb, except the verb to be used
as a mere copu la worcl, may take an immediate and
direct object that specifi es the kind of action expressed; ·
as, " John 1•1tns a race."'
A Transitive verb differs, th erefore, from an Intransitive verb in this respect; it may be fo llowed by an
object that is external to the action expressed by the
verb, and that is also immediate and direct. An
in transitive verb is. one that either takes no object
ex.termil . to the action of the verb, or takes an object
that only defines or limits the kind of action meant
more specifi cally in respect of the action itself~ not in
respl-\ct of the object of the action.
A Transitive verb that is foll owed by no ohject, or
only by a remote or specifying object, is said to be
used intransitively.

96

-

-

- - --

MODIF YING ELimEN'l'S OF 'l'HE SENTENCE.

VERB INFL1WTIONS.

§ 155. A TRANSITI VE VERJJ is one tbat may
be limited hy an immediate ouj ect external to
the action d enoted by the verb ; as, "John
gave the book.''
An lNTRANSI'L'IVJ~ Vmm is one tliat can not
l>e limited h.Y a,11 forn1 ct1iate o l>j uet cx temal to
the action denoted by th e vel"b ; as, " J ohn
ntns;" "He lives a q uiet life."

a good song. Th ey sold the house for a large sum of
~oney. He lived a long life. He dealt him a heavy
blow. The government made him treasurer. Esteeming him judicious and faithful. The people chose
Vir<Yinius
and Pom1l0nius tribunes. He painted •his
0
house \vhite. They pronounced him at first an impostor, but he provea him self honest. We account
the wise ma n happy. He asked me a question. He
took them all prisoners. He made his tent a p alace.
I hav e fought a goocl fight. H e fought the enemy
valian tly. They fonght for glory. They deem him a
f)I se pretender. They brought him a sword. And
now she sits her clown ancl weeps. Slow tolls the village clock the drowsy hour. Franklin considered
the word to have sprung up during his residence in
Europe.

§ 156 . Verbs are modifi ed in respect to their object
in the following differe nt " "a.ys :1. Hy a specifying ouj ect ; as, "John rnn s a race)·"
" Ile strikes a blow,-" "Ile g ave a giji,- "
2. By a passive obj ect; as, "John strikes the
gi·ound)· "
3. By a remote obj ect; as, "J ohrf run s to the goal,-"
"John gave her his book;"
.
4. By an obj ect of i·esult; as, "Ile run s for the
prize;" "Ile went to see his friend;"
5. By afactitive obj ect : ( I.) Of q"ffect; as, "Ile made hi s brother remember
lt i.~ kindness; "
(2. ) Of kind; aR, "He made l1is lirother his part·
(3.) Of attribute; as," Ile made his brother rich."

§ 157. OnAL Ex1~nc1sgs. Point oitt the words exprcssi11,r1 oldects of action in th e ji1llowi11g sentences,
and state to which class of objects they respectively
belong:Tell me thy name. Bring me the book. H e taug ht
J ohn arithmetic. H e painted a fin e picture and sang

5

...

97

I

L.JI.....- ......

- -- COPULA MODIFIERS.

CIIJ\PT!<: Jl lJT.
COPU LA MOlJIFlJrn S .-l\l O OD. -MOJl,\L~.

§ 158. Trrn Corm.A may be modifi e<l absolutely or
in itself onl y in two g eneral ways : (1.) In d egree or
intensity: (2.) In kind.
The co pula i8 1nodifi cll iu deoTee only by 11101hl s ;
as, "The report is certainly tru~;" "Th e s un clearly
ha~ risen."
.• Th e copula is modified in kincl in two g eneral ways:
(1.) A s necessary. (2. ) .As contingent. But both of
these moil cs of the copula may Le further suL-motliliecl.
Th e various modes of the copula are expressed in
bnguage in two ways: (1.) By infl ection. (2.) By
modal~.

Th e modes of th e copula expressecl by inflecti on, are
c:;i,llccl in g rammar the moods of th e verb.

MooD in Grammar, is the inflected mode of
tl1 e copula.
§ 159. '!'here are in English four moods: the
Indicative ; the N ecessary; the Potential; and
the Imperative.
§ 160. The Indicative Moocl expresses the
nn111odificd form of the copula; as, "TJw s uJL

shines."
§

1Gl. The forms of the Indicatirn arc:-

99

1. The Affirmative; (1.) Simple; as, "The sun
shines;" (2.) Emphatic; "The sun does shine;"
2. The Negati,,e; (1.) Simple; as," The sun shines
·.not;" (2.) Emphatic ; as, "The sun does not shine,·"
3. The Aflirmative-Interrogative; as, "Does the sun
shine .'P " ·
·'
4. The Negative-Interrogative; as, "Does not the

sun shine?"

§ 16 2. OnAL ExERCISES. D isting1tish the varieties_
of th.e .Iiulicati!ie JJfuod in the .following sentences:\
The leaves fall from their boughs. Great actions
encourage greater. I have profes~ed me thy friend.
vV!tat ~ ready ton g ue suspicion hath? Specious
names are often used to shelter vice. Each present
joy or sorrow seems the uhief. I ~.m not covetous ~f
gold. Old m~n clo proph esy upon it. Are yon sen' ous in your qnestion? Do you mean the copula of a
judgment? Have you not marked, when he entered,
'how the multitude retired at his approach? The sea. i;ons came :iml went. There h:i.ve not been wanting
Vi vial 1i1i11tls to mark this as a fault in his .characte~-.
1Ji t1 ye not hear it? No! 'twas but the w111d. It is
accomplished. The deed is d one. vVhat means this
m:irti::tl array? vVill he make a covenant with th ee?
· ' Ga vest thou the goodly wings unto the peacock?
Hath t,h e rain a father? Or who hath b egotten the
drops of dew? Hast thon perceived the breadth of
the earth? Dost thou know the balancings of the
clouds? He does not act wisely in this. Do yon
think nothing of the families which are left behind?

1

11

I
I

I
,I

I
111

111

100

101

MODIFYING E LEMENTS OF '.l'flE SENTENCE.

COPULA. MODIFIERS.

Doth GoLl exact diiy-lalJO I', lig ht deni ed? GoJ. doth
11ot need either mau's work, or l1is own g i!'ts.

.. 1. . By the forms of the Imperfect Tense ; as,
" He were a fool if he accepts th e offer ; "
2. By the auxiliaries may and can; 1nigkt,

§ 16 3 . vVRJlTEN ExEIW JSl<;S. Construct .five sentences
each exp1·essing an A.fjirmative Simple Ji1clginent;
Five e.'l.·pressing an Affirmative Emphatic Juclgnient;

.Five expressing a l"le,qative Simp le Jiu~rpnent;
Five expressing a N egcllive Emp hatic JucZr;ment; ·
Five expressing an A,fjinnative Interrogative Judgnient.

'·

Five exp1·essi11g a 1Vegativc Interrogati'.vc J w lgment.
§ 1Ci4. 'l'rrn NECES8 A HY l\fooD expres::;es the
c'l ssertion modified as n ecessar.r ; a s, "The sun
:•1iiist

shine."

OnSIJH\YA't lON.-Thc onl y form or this tn 00(1 in En gli sh is the inlledlon ldth
&h e a ux ili ary 1nust, which Is now nc vC'.r u sed ns n principal n~ l'b,

§ 105. T1rn POTE NT I AL l\fooD exp resses the ·
contingent form of tlt e cop ula ; as, "The sun
may rise ;" " It were a g reat pity ; " " TVoiild
h e were here.''
Orun:ttYATf ON.-Contin gen t .Ju dgm ents mny be s uh -m o11l fi C' cl by nuitin g w ith
t h e Pun• Jml g m en tt-eilh r r n d esire, or n i:lctr rm i nnt ion or t he wil l. ' Ve hnv e,
t hu s, th e d is tincti o n of Co ntin ge n t Jud g m c:1 t~ in lo,1. Pt1.l'C; c:qw<'ss in g t~ pure co n ti ngC' n t ju c~ m (' nt;
2. Optati·ve ; expressin g njudgm cnt modifi ed by wi sh or d esire;
3. ConceR8i ve ; express ing n judgment m otlif.l e tl by p c rmi s~ iY e " ·ill.
Th us, wb r n I say 1 n H eav en mny smil e on th eir endea vnl', 11 I exprei;;s n mere
rnntin g(' nt judgm ent ; t h at i t is possibl e H en.v a n m:iy s Hiil C'~ n ot neccssnr il y
in1plying nn y w ish or JH' rmission o n my p ~1r t. \Vhcn 1 sn.r , ".Mny llenven
B111 i1C', ' ' I ex pl"CSS t he jndg-llll'llt cmbolli ed in n wi s h or c\ ('sirc.
I m ny, more ove r, express my will in th e form of nlluwnncc or co nccss i(J n; ns, "John may
~ tJ now, fu r ho has fini sh ed his tnsk."

§ 166. The Potential Mood is expressed in
two ways :-

" , cbuld; 1001dd, should.
§ 167. ORAL EXERCISE. .Distinguish the varieties
' o'J' Contingent Judgments as Pure, Optative, and
Concessive in the following sentences :Many poets may b e found who have condescended
to the cares of economy.
' The most busy m an can not always b e occupied
with,bnsiness.
May ti1y best blessings ever last!
He who wonlcl think the "Faerie Queene" childish
and romantic might relish Pope.
Between the pei-iods of birth and burial, I would
fain insert a little h appiness, a little pleasure, a little
. ·peace; to-day is ours, yesterday is past, and to-morrow
may nev er come.
, We .may observe that g reat power ancl strength
exerted al ways raise sublime ideas.
H e can live to Goel ancl his own soul, and at the
same time attend to all the la wful pursuits of the
, • present world.
. You may believe I entirely disagreed with him.
I ·wo.n ld therefore ~xhort you earnestly. For who
wou'lcl slander him ?
Could Mr. Hasting s have been condemned to infamy
· for writing this book?
But this error, might, perhaps, arise from a want
of due attention to the foundations of human judgment.

/

- -- 102

103

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE S EN TENCE .

COPULA MODIFIERS.

\Ve should do well to translate this word war into
la11g 11 agc more intellig ibl e to us.
l\fay it pleaRe yo ur g ra ce.
Such a man were on e for w h orn a woman's heart
should beat coustant while he breathes, and break
wl1 c11 li e di e~ .
:UL'atb better were ; death did he oft desire.
vVould God it were even.
J would there wei·e a sword in my hand.
0 that there were such l\ h eart in them .
0 that thou wert as my brother.
A man might have all th ese qualities and ye t not be
Hotspur.
"\Ye should exp ec t that th e cori·uptiou of poetry
·would co mmen ce in the ed ucat ecl classes of society.
It conk! not p ossibly have been rnissell mnch longer
by the most heedless inquirer.
"\Ye should suhj ec t our fa ncies t o th e g O\·ernment of •
r eason.
Alm ost all clifiiculti es may be ov ercome hy diligence.
Th at were again st me.
Unme's History, be its faults what they may, is now
on e great entire work.
He were · no li on, were not Homan s 11intls.
Hea ven hind er th at sneh a on e, etc.

assertion modified as peremptory will; or, expres~es cornmancl.

§ 168. \ Vm r n m E xEncTsEs. Construct fi ve sentences, each expressing a ,judgm en t asserting a p ossible
euc11t;
Fiv e with a .fuc~r;ment expressing a icish 0 1· desire ;
Fiv e witlt one ea:pressing a concession or p ermission.
§ 169. T1rn

hIPERATJVE

l\fooD expresses the

. It is expressed in the form of the uninflectell verb
when its_subj 0ct is in the second person, and by the
imperative au xilia1·y let, wh en its suhjeet is in th fl first
- or the thinl. person ; as, Gu I JJepai·t ! "LrJt there be
light;" "Let us go."

§ 170.

Exmw1sEs. Name the moods of the
verbs in the followin.q sentences :ORAL

N ature will nev er be betterecl b y any art till that
art \~com es nature. You may deny the story of
miracles, but can y on d estroy the miracle of the story?
'Do not hear from yourself wh at you would b e loath to
hear from others. If you love peace, a Yoid censures.
A<Ye commencleth friendship. Let not your face belie
y;ur h eart. Goel forbid that I should glory. 0 had
the wings of a dove I Hacl he been here I shouM
have seen him. If 'twere done, when 'tis done, then
'twere well it were done quickl y. I had fainted unless I
had b elieYecl. It were wise for the king if the blood
now shecl had b een thought rL snfli.cient expiation for
th~ offense. Ile will tell you that " whatsoev er is, is
. ~right." Some are and must be gre.ater t.han the rest.
· _. How unexpected mnst have been lus arnval. Such a
course can not but encl in misery. l\1a y the smiles of
Heaven r est upon you! 0 my son Absalorn ! would
God I hacl died for thee, 0 Absalom, my son ! \Ve
·· should alw ays speak the truth. I had rather walk
than ride. \Vhoever runs may read. Let not your
heart be troubled.

'i

I

104

MODIFYING ELmIENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

§ 171. "\VmTTEN E XER CIS ES. Construct fiv e sentences
expressing Unmod~ftecl Juclg111 ents.
Oonstr11ct fi ·ve expressing Con tingent Judgm ents of
ectcli lcincl.
H1::vmw

OF THE

D ocni.1 Nr:

<W

V:r: rms.

PART V.-ABN ORMA L FORMS.

A YEim cx prc ~ses :<11 aL1. ri b11 Lc o f' actio n o r rl' lat ion
combin ed w it h t hf copt1la o r assc r ti 1 1 g· <· l·~ m c nt.
A T HAKSITIYF: 'V mm m'.l y hr li mih' rl Ly J ·.1i rccL ·

CTL \ P TE!t T.

1J l 1j 1TI .

.

,\11
l' l' ' f.

f'. Tl : l ' . S llllJ·:

~ i1 1.i(' '' I ,

111lli·;-;-..:

i1

\ . r: 1:1: .-:r 11 11"1 I 11· Ii 111 i ! •.,I J, .1 :1
IH·

\'O Ji'E C' ..\ } ll' ( ·:',l;C' >i tJ11 ·

,Ji -

:1:-:11(·1 · i !'yi11~· 1_i l >jc1..: L
<lir 1'('!i1_H! ol'lltt • :tc · !ir1 1t :l.-.;

t(~

1Jl'

fru1 11 tin· ~ul'.i r ·d.
\:, . , rnr:r. :-i 11.J 1' 11:..: 1•\ ,; 1.,11 1.. 1111:11 .• 11L j. r-11111·11·r li
brlnn0·.'.
T 1n : s1·:

l ' \j>l"i ' '' ''t'"

ll1r• l i"I• ' ,,(" tl11· :: 1.li>>1 1.

.\L""'11 " ·\J•1 «·, ,.,,.,, 1!11 · 111•:·11: ·il· 11 1" :1'"•·1·t i •11 "1· '" '!'111 :1.

~

17\?.

T111: fr1rn 1-.o ,,r·

1:111": 11:1<.;" i11

11·l1ic- li

tlir' y:irin110

kinrl' ,,r· 1li ri 11c:·li1 :1rf' 1· ': 1irf'ssr•d :11·c (Jf 1 wo ki 11rls, c:illc11
1'{ormrrf :11irl . I fm nnn11 f .
flns!~i:\· . \T l ••'."" . ~ F 11 r ~il l

t !i\'

~'l'" · r ·i .1 1 f;irruc: r,f

t lin 11".Clit \\' P 1!' 1 iwt f\ nd J1r 1n·i1;j,iJJ

i:< crin.<:-crp1('11tl:;· l::••l t o
1:,-, l'J!l"' . i11 1dl1 (· r W••r• I". 1•r••\l1l•·1I j, ,r Olli' 11c:.(' ::r<• 1mi>l• 1 y1 ·d f11r
oth er ll Ci •'S )i;1•; i 11:-:; 11 0 f c• r [)l'l. :\ f 'j1~·11j,ri:L !1 · r[ j., \ ]~•'I ll. "\\' 1' Ji;\\" • · t i\u:< f .,l'ill<; t l1 :1 t
m:v,· ht' (':i. '.! ·· d n0 r m, :i. tlut i :~ . r e :.::1 1 : r f1 q111~ , ~: : 1 1 ! t hn :;,, t 1 ~:i.t :1r r!f,· 1 0)','1l rl .
trr ,:[..'.~Jhr . It 11 p 1 : t lH•t f. ,--. ." -llj tj Hl "-•' d 1 ~:.1.t. tl w ili :-; tinrtln11 \::. n; ,:;o lu t, ·ly c~:.rt ~ n d
nn, :\ ryin ~.
f·lrTll'1 n1i'.;~; t , .,,;i t h r0 r t.: i:1 nbj.--. rt .c:. i n y i r w~ hr 1"-"r· ): nnr·1l ~"
nn r rn:-.1. \'.-]1 i: " . 1\i t !1 rofh' r nl 1.i 1'< '1". t !1 · · ~· ?11;'.":~! 1 i •r" l"Tl y h·' r1 ·:::n , 1··d :1"' :~ · p n t · m;il. T)i ,,
, ,f :1 11r11p :·r y crl1 -f· •:
. t! ~,, n ~-e
of :1. cLlll"'' i n '-'t ·_' :til f 1f a w n111. \\ ' 1' 111·n·
·:0: 1 i l ·· t :1 ,~
('f
n p ar t.ic ip i: tl t.o Jii nit a n o nn rn :ty lw 11·:.-::ir•l•.·•l i r1 ~ 'I I' '
r11•rr 11: tl. i11: t 1t1,;lJ,1
vi ew· n .'i :~ hl l l• l''.11'.ll.
l t 11 i:t
tlH• c t
1: t i•''." P1'--· '.-'!~ 1 ,: y i'f t i.• · C)l'_.:: l>li
br:!'.!'. 1 ~ l '.:::f' t n r cz~1rd :tll nnail~ . y1'rl•.'1 . :1rli '('1i':'
lll'Hb:-\. '' -"JlrC''.'- ~'(' r l ! 11
~ngh" w •·r.J c; r >r \'.·i:h j)ic ai d .-i f :1<:\i:::iri.
:11:d 'r:11\1 '', 11 f": · t J:,. 1•11 1p«:
r,f
these ~e ,· 1 - r .'11 p::rf~ of '~ flCC'('li , :1:-; 11nrr!1:d: :\l :d L1 t r •·:H •t l1 r f••ri 1 1 ~ :1 c;. :1Ji n.,nn :11.
F i:r: li c r. f,ira i i! in:- i:i t b c 1 · ;q1rc." ~> l · · : 1 d tl: r' C1,, •:::: l1t.
i.c: dtr·n I :1rl i '.l
]nll!..'.11.'1 !..'.t' t 11 thr- w;, . ,,f 11-u ril .., \\-liic!i o:·):;i11:ili:1· •
, · ;_-.;. 0 1
il ·lll<':: . l)l!t
which. in th 1' prn:: r es:. n f bn!:ll-'1'..;C' . lwc11111 \' :q') '!'" j ri :1 t . d li> t hL.:; J1 :1rt i(· 11'. '.~ r 1°·:;· -

of appr•J[ir i :lf 0 fr,rr 11::, o f' :-:p,'(Tli in h :i ::n:l'..'. (' .

l : !·1 ' 1i 11r:; l:

lto r r nw i i ·~

1

1

1

1

1

posc of )1(' 1\•in ::,:- (11 1t t h e

thus i n :; 11 11 w

~ll!' J• l y

wJi ,·n 11,ir· 11 1· tl f,,lrl!l S a :0

d · ·/i d ,~11t .

T li "Y

l' 1'1 :1,•

c:~::; f' ~'

t n l•l'.-'-1' t hr· i r i ' l' " ] "-'l' nri;.::i! 1: t! si '..'.ni lii-:111 1·•·, :tnd "- l il •:;vn· (! n rily
the nc ;\- l FC' fnr -n·l i ich t hr·y ri r1_' hn1·;·1».\·r d . ~·:r: !1
ilrf' e·Ll i<·r \ 1- "11 ·,> .; - 1r·r,rdx,

or l tC>!a ! ion \V••rtl:'l., f q i li~ii ll ~'. !li<:h !!10111 fr•'ln \\ -. i ,.d'\ f'-'= ! '!' f·5"i11'.! n .. ! i"!lq Pl'
rn o d ifi. ca t.i\Jt ~ s uf nnti rJn;, 1 \\·bi c h .'1rc' c 1ll·,'·l "'.'~ 1 ·! i,,;1-".\·nnh, u r l'; in r ; jn l 1·;n:· '.;; .

§

173. \\' o rd s m·r ,,r two da«scs accon1ing a:' t lit·y
~)·

-·

... -·--

10G

DIVISIONS OF A.BNOinIAL FOR.MS.

ABNORMAL FORMS.

dofor do not of themselves signify some subject or ·
attribut;e, or a modification of s nch subj ect or attribute.
JYotion-worcls denote a subject or attribute, or a
m odification of a subject or att;ri!J11t c. They inclmle
11ot111 R, verb~, :l<lj cct ivc•R, an cl all 1 ·c rl• ~.
l 1'ur111.-words du 1101. or t.lie111scl r es dc11 ule a suuject
or attribute, or a modification of a subject o:· attribute,
but are used to denote relation s of notiou-wonls o.r
modifications of them by thought or feeling.

§ 174. Form-words arc of the following classes:1. Those that iudicatc relations of objeclr; of thought,
called Prepositions;
2. Those that indicate relations of thought, called

Conjunctions;
3. Those that help out inflections, called Auxilia-

ries_:
4. Th ose that indicate some rh eto ri cal relation,
called Ea:p letives;
5, Those that indicate the thought to be d etermined
or shappcl by some feeling, called Iiiteijections.

§ l 71i. Form-word~, themselves, may be distinguished as normal or abnormaL Thus we have normal prepositions; as, in, at, over: and normal coujunctious ; as, and, biit, because. vV c have prepositions
tbat m::iy be r egarded as ab normal; ::is, concerniug, notwithstanding, accordiur1 to, by reason '!t; .f'or the sake
of: so abnormal co 11j1111ctions ; as, if so be that, inasmuch as.
§ 176. Prepositions with their 11011ns form that kind
of phrases called by grammarians Adjuncts.

107

An ADJUNCT is a phrase consisting of a preposition' and the noun denoting. its object; .as,
"Love ef gold; " "He went to Ronie."
0DSERVA'rION,- 0nc ndjunct mny Include fn Itself nnother ndjunct no a 1ubmodlfter; ns, "In tbls mnnslon qf dist1·esa. 11

·'

I

I

•

'!
I

ABNORYAL FORMS OF THE NOUN.

,
UHAPTEH IL
ABNOJtUAT, FOJUl[S

01~

'J'JJg NOUN.-SU U.JECTS.-l'J!ITDI-

CA'l'ES.

§ 177. THERE are three classes of abncrmal ua1111s
used as subjects, or g enerally to denote objects of
thought:1. Adjective words, used to denote obj ects of
thought;
2. Verb-forms;
3. Marks or signs of objects.

§ 178. Adjectives with the article the are used as
nouns; at:, " The vicioi1s fall iuto trouble;" " The
more modest are gen erally the more desei·ving; "He
hath given to the pooi·.
On s EnVATION.-Word ~, orl ~ i n nlly n1l ve.rbs 1 but used ns n<ljcctivcs, nl'c al so
used ns nonns; ns, u Tbc/a1··n.ffnmong tl10 nations.,, Snch c:xprcssions., for the
most pnrt nt Jen.st, have come into use through a kind of E11ipsi~.

§ 179. Of verbs used as nouns th ere arc two clas8es:
(1.) P::trticipials; (2.) Clauses.
§ 180. A PAJ:TICIPIA I, is a c1eri v<'cl form of
th e verb usecl not for. asserting bnt for expressing either,1. An obj ect of thought; or,
2. A modification of such an object.

109

Participfhls, accordingly, are either,1. Noitn-participials; as, " To tliink is to
act; " " Their sending the message was the
cause of thP, trouble ; '' or,
·
2. Adjective-participials, more commonly
called Parti~iples; as, "1'he advancing army;"
· ,, "The expected messenger."
, § 181. N oun-participials are of two forms :1. Tlie Infinitive; as, To think, To act;
2. Tlie Gerund; as, '' Their sending the message.''
1

'§ 182. The Infinitive is a noun-partidpial,
having for its form that of the simple verb,
~ generally with to prefixed ; as, ''To tlti?'ilc. is to

act."
OBSERVATIO',,.-Tho Infinitive Is .nlwny• . to be regnrded as a noun. It no'v
appears genernlty with the particle to prefixed; ne, " To se.~k ls to find; 1 ' but
eomctlmes without; ne, u Illd him d'et:at·t,·,, "He cnme to seek the lost." In
the first e~nmplo the to le n mere sign of the lnfinitivo; in the lnst, the io is n
proper preposition, and, hence, not n sig n of the inflnitlve, ns tt denotes the r{']:\·
' tton of remote object-here the re1nlion of &eek to came. In both forms the
infiniti ve ts, in construction Bnd use, R noun. But It ts a. noun-partlclpbl-nOt
. a normal noun, since it tnkes nn tmmcdla.te obj ect '"ithout n prepo5ltlon i ns,
u 1'o aeek tJig lost wo.e bis crrand.11
· . • Tho sign of t~e lnfinltlve-to-ls genernlly omitted when It stnnds nfter tl10
active forms or the verbs bid, In the eenso of command, dare, feel, find, ha.v e,
hear, help, let, m.ake, need, please, Bee nnd its synonyms; ns, "He bnd e him
depcu•t;,, u They helped him 1··i se;" HI enw him fall;,, u I perceived the
npplesiall ; " u They olUlcrvcd the smoke move np the side of the mountain;''
u I noticed th e boats glide down the stn·nm."

§ 183. The Infinitive is used in all the general uses
of a noun. · It is thus used,1. As subject of a sentence; as, " To die in such ·a
struggle would be glorious."

111

ABNORMAL FORMS.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE NOUN.

2. As P1·edicate j as, "To know a man well were to
know himself."
3. As Oqject. of.an attribitte of action 01· relation j
as,(1.) Passive, "Yct to be lovctl makes 11 ot; to lpve
again. "-1'ennyson.
(2.) Of R esult j as, "Ile came to seclc the lost;"
"Able to conqiter."
(3.) Factitive j as, "Overpowering numbers forced
him to surrender."

then proceeded to recount the incidents of our perilous
journey. He led us into the thicket to watch the
spotted doc browse on the springing foliage. vVe
heard them tell the sad story of their wrongs; and
felt that we ought to afford them the relief and help
they asked of ns. To refer all pleasure to association
i~ to acknowledge no sound but echo. It was not
'possible for her to arrive in time to see them die; not
even to see them buried. Sad was it for the oereaved
mother not to have been allowed to take a last look
of her loved ones. I seemed to have lived my childhoo11 over again.

110

§ 184. The Infinitive has four forms, two of which
are active, two passive:1. Present Active; as, to lwve j
2. Past Active; as, to lu;ive had j
3. Present Passive; as, to be had j
4. Past Passive; as, to ha1Je been !tad.

§

Point ont the Infinitives
in the following sentences, and state whether the to,
whenever it occitrs, is a preposition or a si,qn of the
Infinitive :I hope not much to tire those whom I shall happen
185. ORAL EXERCISES.

not to please. The general ordered five reg iments to
march at once to the scene. I bade him return home
and avoid all exposure. He made the messenger tell
the whole story of the plot, and expose all that were
concerned in it. To adorn and clothe necessary and
important truths is to cover them, and that to obscure
them. He went to London to procure a proper outfit.
He is expected to return to-morrow. To be dexterous.
in danger is a virtue; but to court danger to show it
is weakness. They plied every art to pacify him. I ·

§ 18G. 'VmrrEN EXERCISES. Construct three sentences with Infinitiv es in each of the foiw fonns,
Pres_ent Active, Past Active, Present Passive, Past
Plis.~ive.

Construct ten sentences containing Infinitives with~ut the sign " to."

§ 187. The GERUND is a noun-participial in
the form of :tn iutleciion of the verb ; as, "Ii:eepfrig his wealth was more difficult than acquiring
it;" "He was justly punished for bei1ig found
in. s uch company ;" "From having bee'ri de.; tainecl by this accident, he lost the opportunity
of seeing them."
§ 188. The Gerund has four forms: two active;
two passi vc : 1. 1'/w Present Active j "From obeying faithfully,
he commands efficiently;"
2. 17ie Past Active j "From having obeyed faithfully, he commands t·fficiently;"

ABNORMAL FORMS.

ABNORMAL .FORMS OF THI~ NOUN.

3. The Present Passive j "From being thus com-\
manded, he ob eys promptly;"
4. Tlie Past Passive j "From having been thus
commctnclecl, he obeyed unhesitatingly."

as well as impl"ove Ms health j" "He waited long
after the hour !tad expfred j until, indeed, t!ie twilight
had gone."

112

§ 1 89. OnAL EXERCISES. Point
the follo wing sentences:-

o~tt

the Gerunds in

By omitting the . conjunction in English a writ~r
often adds to the energy of his style. I can not help
mentioning here one character more. Tli ey continued
questioning
him. In honorinrr
God and J oiiw
his
._,,
..:::>
·'::>
work, pnt forth all thy strength. 'J'he following them
about and j esting with them, affords a ch eap and innocent amuserueut for the boy population. By reason
of his having enjoyed so many honors before, hi s new
di stin ctions occasioned uo agitation of spirit. He had
a way of holding himself; a way of walking, a way of
swelling his chest and rearing his head, which deceived·
the eyes of the multitud e.

§ 190. Clauses are used as nouns, and form a class
which may b e called Clausal N onns. Th ey are nsed
as subjects, as predicates, and as objects of an action
or relation:1. As Subject j " 17iat t/ie eartli revolves upon its
axis is now a truth of rudimentary science;" " 1Vlty
lie went is not known;" " 1Vho ltas gone is in doubt;"
2. As .Predicate; "'1.' he proposition was, that suf.fi·a.ge ought to be wiiversal;" "The suuject of iuquiry
was, who came and whence he came; "
3. As Object of action 01· relation j aR, " 'Ve j nclge
that he died;" "I do not know whether t!icy were
the1·e;" "He traveled that he might ii~fonn !tis rnind

-

' ·'

113

OnBERVATION.-Tbe foll ow ing prepositions nre no'v used before clnusa.l
nouns :-After, before, bee llles, ere, except, e:xceptlng, in, notwlthstnndlng,
6(1.ve, ethco, ttll. until. Th o clnusul sign that mny be omitted wt th after, bef'ort-,
ere, emcept, 1iotwitltstan<li110, a-ince, till, 1.tntil; It must bo expressed art.er
besides, exceJJting, in, aa,vo.

§
.

191.

Glaitsal Noims are of three classes : -

1. Those introduced.by the Relative Pronouns, who,

lcltose, whom, which, that, what, and their compounds;
2. Those introuucec1 by the Clau sal Adverbs, when,
w~e1·e, whithe1", whence, how, why, with their com·
pounds;
3. Those introduced by the Clausal · Conjunctions,
that, if, whethe1·.
. § 192. ORAL EXERCISES. Point out tlte clausal 7wuns
·· in the fallowing sentences :That they should have so little prudence and
forethought, he could but consider as the effect of disordered intellect. A better reason was; that I bad predetermined not to g ive him a single sous. But admit!ting that this hope should be accomplished, what do
you gain? Why he tarriecl so long, no one could con. jecture. Who · shall then shelter and befriend him?
Alas! he can not tell. The prisons in our own land
could probably tell us that they have scµ,rcely a solitary tenant, who hau not broken over the restraints of
the Sabbath before he was abandoned to crime. No
one who has observed how heavily the vacuities of
time hang upon minds unaccustomed to think, will be
at a loss to make a just estimate of the ad vantages of

ABNORMAL FORMS.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE NOUN.

possessing a copious stock of ideas. If we consider
how m1~ch literature enlarges the mind, and how much
it multiplies, adjusts, rectifies, and a rranges the ideas,
it may well be reckoned equivalent to an additional
sense. The only question is, whether yon choose to
reach t hi s point by slow gradatio ns. E re the C hristian could avail himself of this mishap, his 11imblc focman sprang from the g round. The Crns:Hler felt that
the confidence of the lHoslem mad e him ashamed of his ·
own doubts. After I h aLl contemplated these things,
I turned my eyes toward the top of the mountain.

Forbearance is praiseworthy. To be forbearing is
praise worthy. Sleep is refr eshing. To sleep refreshes.
Indifference is wrong. T o be inclilferent is criminal.
Action is natural. To act is natmal. Acting is
natural. Song is pleasing: To sing pleases. Singing
please$. For him to sing is uncommon.
J oh n' s departure was sudden. His going was sml·' aen. For him to depart was imexpected. That he
should cl ep\trt, surprised us. That h e is gone, is certain. Th at he will r eturn, is doubtful. That Colum. bns discovered America is n ot claimed.
Th e transgressor snffcrn. Ile that transgresses, suffc1l vV hoso tran sgresses, suffers. "\Vhoever transg resses, s uffers.
The star twinkles . That which
twinkles is a star. Right is safe. vVhatever is right
i~ ;,<ale. ThaL w l1ich is right is safe.
I know the sufferer. "\Yl10 suffer ed I know. \\rl10m
b e i11jurel1 I know. By whom it was clone is in cloubt.
The perpetrator is nnknown. Him that cometh to nw
Twill in no wise cast out. 'l'he suppliant l will not
rej ect.
Its des t ination wati um;e l'Lain.
\Vhi th er it was

114

§ 19 3. The thinl class o f' Alm ormal N onn s consists
of marks and signs of objects. Char:wtcrs or symbols
of any kind t hat can be sounded or written, le tters,
fi g ures, wonls, ph rascs, etc .. may be used as n ouns;
as, " A is t he first, le tter o f the alph abet;" "A counterfeit jive;" "() is the square of 3 ;" "IIc(T,lt/iy is an ·
adj eeti 1· e;" "171c whole is equal to its JNrts , is an
a xi om;" ".1 ," '',("'"," "n," "~," "/i.N1'th.v ," anfl "the
1cli c·lc i2 LJ c'cd [._; [/, p •.!i'!.!,.. arc ~t ll 1rnu11 3,
§ 191.

QgAL

ExErwrsEs.

1\fa me the different kinds

of -1.Yuuns in tlw fullu winy sentences;The tree grows. Ch:ules was absent. Th e sun
s liin rs. l'l:11~t:-; n •1·oln• al>n11t th<' sun . 'l 'hl' <•rli its of
pbncts an· l'll i1 lli•·al. Tiu• 11:1ti<111 i•rn"i><'l"'. Sn<· icty
: 1t1\· :llH'.<, S.

'" in.I is im111n rf :1l.
Thl' rnr•1n<H'}' su111l'l i111cs fail~ .
l':it i<·1wP is a Yirt1H'. Tlnpt' :111i111ates.
\\' at.e r rnns. Tile air is cold. Spn<·e is li01mdlcss.
'l'l1e sk1o· is elcar. T ime p:1sscs. _Eyc11ts LhickL·n. P ra ise

fllimulatcs .

..

115

dc8ti1w<1 "·:1~ 11n cPrl:1i11.
His traveli11g-< ·n11v ey :i11<·e
;s 111ilrnn w11.
lT<>w li e t.r :n·<'l l' tl is 1111kn u11·11.
The
l'L'a" Oll o[" l1i s gn il< ,'C; j ,; :l"C 1•rl :1i11< d .
\\'Jiy li e \\" C ll l j ,;
:!Sl'('l·i:1i111·•i.
A1h·l'rl •i :rl 1•rnJ"''1 t i1111,; ,,i· phn~ c.xpr·c,;,; the Jl'/i • l' r' ,
tl11· 1r-/1r·11•'1', :111•1 tl1<• J1)1il!11 r, Tl1r' ,\ 11 g1" -!":t\l>ll 1: 11 1·
'-'.·11:1·_ ~ , , Ji :1•i 11" _i i11 ih :1Jj'i1:1Let.
'l' ii l 'l'C "\l"<'l'l~ 11 0 ( Cl!s
:1i:in1 1g tlH •111. ]!1 · :11 1:r11· <· r••d "ll"itlin11t an 1f ur a 11111 .
I )nL <'H'n· i :rnrl e r<> :<-; ('\ <·ry t. TiiL' tl1<>11glrt of an
hcrcaJt e r ; ·l'l'alls lii111. \Y,·lr·uJUL' n·er smill·s, :111<1 F'al'l'-

116

ADNOR~CAL

FORMS.

well goes out sigl1ing. For the yco-hr:wc-o, and the
heav e-away, all(l the sighi11g seaman's cheer. \Vh en
the cl1ild is waked with" nine at night."
Our country folks in Hampshire call almost every
thing lie or she. A mower calls his scythe a she; the
J>l ow rnan calls hiR pl ow :t she; lm t :t pron g or Rliovcl
is callctl a he. Their says-hes a nd says-shes arc proverbial \.Vhen all that is shall be turned to was. The .
snbcluing preji1dices and acquiring true kn owledge.
\Vbatever we perceive, whatever we remember,
whatever we are conscious of, w e have a full persuasion or conviction of its existence. It is t,he va.gnc
anticipation of a brilliant future for the child, and of
how deservedly it will become an object of the world's
admiration. Mark you his absolute shall? Thine is
a strain to read amo11g the hills. Many snch like as's
of great charge. \Vho lets I dare not wait npon I
would. \.Vithout any cautions, qualifications, ifs, or •
ands. In all push and pull there is conn terncti o11.

§ 195. \V mrrEN ExEtWISES. Construct .five sentences
containing Infinitives usecl as JY01tns;
Five with Gerunds;
Five with Clausal Noitns introduced by Relative
l~ronoitns;

Five with Claitsal J.Vouns introduced by Adverbs;
Five with Clausal J.Voitns introduced by Conjunctions;
l •'ive with Clausal ~"1\rouns depending on l'rcpositions;
Five with Predicates in the form of Acijwicts;
Five with Adverbial Predicates.

-

CHAPTER III.
• ·'

ABNORMAL FORMS OF TUE ADJECTIVE.

§ 196. ABNORMAL modifiers of the noun are of two
· kinds:1. Words oth er than proper adjectives used as adjeitives, and dropping their own proper nature;
2. Words so used, but retaining their own proper
. nature.
§ 197. Words other than proper adjectives may be
used as adjectives to modify obj ects of thought, losing
in such use their own proper nature.
Nouns are frequently used thus; as, "A rnounta.in
rill;" "A fairy vision;" "Sunset scene."
Ad verbs and prepositions are sometimes so. used;
' as "The itnder current,·" "Ilithe1· Gaul;" "The tlien
. '
. administr ation."
» Verbs and phrases are usetl in the same way; as,
•" The let-alone policy;"
.
'
" A n out-of-t1ie-way
p l ace."
§ 198. W orcls other than proper adjectives may' be
used to modify objects of thought, retaining their
proper n:iture.
' They are used either as demonstrative..•, attribittives,
or epithets.
§.i 99. vVe may modify the object by the use of the
noun in three ways, namely:-

--118
1.
2.
3.

ABNORMAL 1''0RMS.

ADNORUAL FORMS OF '.!.'HE ADJECTIVE.

By Apposition ;
By Case;
By an Adjimct.

§ 204. The forms of th e verb arc ttsecl in modifying
an obj ect of thought in three t1iffer ent ways:1. TVith a 1·elative, forming a n Aiijective-clause;
2. As a P articiple;
3. ,In the Infinitive and the Gerwul.

§ 200. vV c modify by Apposition in two ways:1. Dy using anot her name of th e obj ect ; aR, "Stamboul, Constantinople, was now in sight;" "The mountain IIoreb."
2 . By limi ting the obj ect itself; as, " Goodness, ah
attribute of the D eity."
Nouns thus used to modify other noun s are called
AProsrTH' Es.

§ 201. The noun may be put in

ap po~ition

with
another noun either with or without the conjunctions
as and or; as," Memory, bosom-spring of j oy!"
"As a poet, he can not claim a station in the first
r ank."
" Systematic education, or elementary in struction in
th e various departments of literature and science. "
OmmnVATION.-The noun mny be In appositJon ' "ith n senlence, n clansC', or
other part of n sentence, wh en regarded ns an obj ect of lh onght ; ns, 11 Tho
yo un g cnvnller wns g ui<led to the wntcr-slde by the pensioner, who showed him
considerabl o re spec t-a clrcumstanco w hich mn.y be co nsl<lcrcd ns nn augury
of no small consequen ce.,, H ere the word ci1·cu.1nstan.ce ts in apposition with
th e preceding clnuse.

§ 202. The English language furni shes bnt one form
of modify ing obj ects of t hought by Case, other than
those e xpressed by pronouns. It is by t he use of the
possessi vc case ; as, "John's book."

§ 203. An obj ect of thought fs modified, further, by
au Adj unct ; as,"· Love of country;" "Honor for the
brave;" "The general in the field."

110

The participle or aJj ective participial is of four
form s, namely:1. Present or simple active, loving ;
2. P erfect active, having loved ;
3. Present or simple passive, loved, being loved ;

· aid,
4. Perfect passive, havi11 ,q been· loved.

·

ExAMPL EB OF VERB-~OD l FJERB.

1. Defin ·i U·vea.
The man wh.o loves vi1·t!1e;
~rh e suJTerin(l child ;
'l'he soldier to b ~ shot wns r escued;
'l'ho chnlk .fm· ?na1·kin,7 the booo wns mi ssing.
2. Epitli et.s. Mnn, thnt ·w as c1·eated ·in th~ div-ine imaoe ,·
Mnn, aspirin(] to a.nuelic Jieiohts ,·
'l'he lmive gener:il, to be daunted by no dan(ler, led th e d espcm.te r,h~rge;
'l'he nddress1 i n its obser·vinu all tlie proptieties of tlt e occa8ion1 wns commendnble.

-

O"nsERVATlON.-The forms with th e Infinitive nnd gernnd are propedy adjun cts.
_
Among t he relnti ve or e1nus.'\l m odifi ers of n on us nre 'to be reck one.d clau ses
Jn trocluced by ad verbs ; as, u The place 10Jiere tlte y laid hi1n;,, u The year
tohen I Wll8 tl1.e1·e,''
1

§ 205. 0RAJ, Ex1mc1sEs. .Distingitish the .A'01·mal
and ·Abnormal Modifiers of each of tlie objects of
tlw11r;ht in the following sentences, and indicate them
as Dqftnitives 01· .Epithets :Once upon a t ime, in the leafy covert of a wild,
woody dingle, there liv ed a certain little brook. In
the year's fre~ h morning , delicious May or ripening
J nnc, if a lig ht breeze but stirred in the ha wtborn

120

ABNORMAL FOR).[8.

tops, d ow n on the dimpling water came a shower of \
111ilky bl osso m ~, loadin g the air >rith f"r:i g r:L11 ce. By
the midni g h t tap e r, the \\Titer lligL~sts hi s m ed ita t ions.
The streams of lava which they e mitte•l r oll c<l down
into I.h e · lake and min g led with t h e rn c lt et1 mass;
Almof<(". n.11 t he peo ple in t.h c 11:1.ri sh were lo:uling in
1.hl'ir nt C!l.<1 0 11' hay on t.Jw f' :1111 C day of rnid s11mmc r, SO
<lryi ng was th e suns hiu c anll the wind. The g reat.,
go ld en eagle, t h e prid e allll the pest o f' the p:1rish,
stooped down, and flew away with something in its
t a lon s. In this town a Swiss general s11rpriset1 :incl
took prisoner the A 11 st rian con1111a1Hl e r, who h:ul mnrdered hi s father. By this mighty peop le, the Swiss
have lost t heir country, t h e country whi ch they lo verl
so long . He was no me rcenary wretch, strivin g for
t he spoil of the vanquished. Even look in g fonrn.rd to
a s in g le day, the spirit may sometimes foint fr om an
anticipation of t he d11tic ~ , the labor~, th e trials totemper and patience that may be ex p ected. The light to
g11 ide us and the a rm to he lp 11 s arn from above. 'fhe
few r e maining trees, clothed in the fanta sti c mourning
of autn111n; th e lo ng line of heavy clour1s, m e lting
:t\ray before the coming sun; and th e distant monn1:1in, seen through the blue mist of departing t\\· ili ght,
a lo ne r emained as h e had seen th e m in his boyh oo<l.
Th e musi c from the caroling of the binls and the murmuring of the brooks is a pleasant nrnsie.

§ 20G. ·\\Tim.TEN Ex1mc1sEs. J1fodiJ:11 t/i.e following
1Yow1s by Abnonnal 11fodffie1·s, in ea cit of the f orrns
,<pec ffied below :John, Peter; Smith,

·washington.

.ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE ADJECTIVE.

121

The ox, the camel; the ocean, the mountain; gold,
air; angle, ci rcl e ; year, month; heart, memory; j11df.iment, feeli11g; virtue, fortitud e ; goodness, justice.
Po\Yer, economy, characte r, custom, coll('g<', asylum,
·· idolatry, cloq11e11ce, f'bnder, h ab it, intcmpcran cc, cm11latio11,' i1JRLnwtio11, care, ri cl1ef', co11 t,c11tmc11t, antbor·, "ship, genins.

I. BY TilE NouN: 1. In apposition: (1) as a de.monstrntive or attribute; (2) as an epithet;
2. By case;
3. By an adjunct: (1) as a defi ni t ive; (2) as an
epili.et.

II. DY TUE V ERll: 1. lJTith a relative: (1) as a definitive; (2) as an epithet;
. 2; By a participle: (1) as a definitive; (2) as an
·epithet;
· 3. By the infinitive, and the gerund.

'

MoDELS.-Jobn, Jn.mcs's brother. John, tha.t noble fellow. John's book.
John of Antioch. John of excellent memory.
John who wrote the Apocnlypse. John who wns Inspi red with his mnstrr's
gentleness nnd nffcction.
John thrown into pri son. John, burning with indignntton, clemnnded fire to
be cnlled do\VU from heaven upon thC'm.
He wns n John to be envied. He wns n John for rebuking ns well ns for
e:dlortlng his di sciples.

6

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE ADVERB.

123

posing it j" " They sailed up the river, the tide being
in their f avor."

CHAPTER IV.
A llNOH~lA L

Fo.1:m;

Ol•' 'J'l!E ADV lt HU.

§ '207. Ar::-<o tDL\L rn0.Jilil'ati•J1Js of t lif' pre•lie:lfe areof t hree classes : Other pa.rts of S]Jecch used
2. Phrases ;
3. Claitses.
l.

a>~

aduerbs ;

~ '20 8. OLhcr pa rts of speech are nsecl as ad verbs, to
modify t he predicate ; a s,1. l 1Cinms; " He w ent home ; "
2. Al(jcctivcs ; "Riy/i.t early ;"
3. P ai't icij!les; "He n1,1e scr!tf!d between t.wo offi cers;" "They went away son·owh1g; "
4. I nfinitives anr1 Gernnds _; "Co nvenient for ove1·seeing t.h e wor~ ; "
To see

"Srnil· ··" wi lh All 1., n -·1l air
cli mlJ hi s elbow-clinir; 11

the~

5. Prq)(}sitim1s ; "1-fe wenl

§

1I11.e11. ' '

209. AnvERm,u . P 1wAsEs :ire : -

1. A c?juncts ; . as, "The snn ~ct.s i11 .'Jlory;" "All
t,hi s, Sc ulpture 11 as e mbodi ed in p e17Jetu.al marble ;"

"]£asy to see."
2. Nouns with . J lm·t i c~ i;• )lr~ , fo r111i11 ~ t he Case Incle-·
p endent o r Case Absolute, so call ed; a~, "The co 11v ei1tion adopt.et1 the 111 ea s u1·c, a co1 1siderable 111.ino1·ity op-

..

§ 210. CLAUSES are used to modify the predica te
bot h in r espect of property and of r elation; as, "He
did as he wa.s directed;" "Bnt at the nuptial feast,
when all sat llown, t h e 1iri<l c herself was wanting ; ''
"~'Th ey stoocl where the combatants fou_qht thefr decisive battle; " "Holh ml is ri chPr t o-rhy than she was
when she seii.t ha navies up the T h'cimes."
§ 211. On:\L E xEnr'Ti'E. P01'.nt out the Abnoi·mal
A dv erbials in the foll ow ing sentences, and na.me the
attr~ute word 01· p hi·ase which they respectively modify :They rej ected, with contempt, the ceremomous
horn.:tge w hieh other i<P cts substituted for th e pnre
~ "-o r~hip of the ~"'11 . He und e r.~t.oo<'l by tli eir siz11s
th a.t. th e y wi shed to lJc illformerl wh ence he ca111('.
She he rsel f d rew the design of th :it mon n nwnt. wi•li
h er o wn han d, and left it with me when she \·1·e 11t
away. Cowper said , ti tty or sixty y ears ago, that lie
dar rd not. n :i.me .J ohn Bun>:an in hiR verse, for fe ar of
n10ving a sneer. '\Ve Ii ve in helter times. J\rlt:nirn!.Jlc
n~ t.hr. 11:ttu r ::tl world io: for its !'11hl imity a m1 ];c~wt y,
" wh o would compan" it, even for a a iusL:rn t, 11iLh Llie
sublimity a nd b eaut y of t he mo ral world. Wh en life
b eQ:in s. like a distant landscape, g racl na ll y t o disapp e~r, the mind can r ecei,·e no solace bnt from its ow n
ideas aml r eflections. Not many ge nerations ago,
where yo n now sit encircled with all that exalts and
embellish es civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in
the wind, and the wild fox clng his hole unscared .

I
124:

ABNORMAL FORMS.

After t hi s bustle of prcparn,tio11, antl amid th e silence
whi ch follows it, Henry Broug ham tak es a slow and
l1 csitati11g step toward the table, wh ere he sta nds
crou ched together, his shoulders pnll ed up, his head
bent forward, and his upper lip and nostril ag itated
by a t.rcmu lous motion, as though lie were afraid to
111.tcr eYcn a sing le sentence. Jt l' C'<' 111 s easier to do
rig ht to-monow than to-day, merely becau se 1rc forget
t hat, when to-morro 11' comes, th en ll"ill be no11·. During
her wane, while'inforior luminari es were brio-htcn•
0
rng around her, he was growing fa in t.er and ~mailer
every evening.

.CHAPTER V.
ABNORMAL FORMS OF MODALS.

·-

§ 212.

.

modifications of the Copula arc,
in ~espect of their significance, of three classes:. 1. Those simply indicating th e character of the assertion in quality or degree; as, .,wt, certainly, t?·uly,
verily, really, positively, absolutely, indeed; also, iµ
certain connections, natitrally, readily, ectsily, in truth,
in verity ; more, miteh more, no nw1·e ; .
2 . .Those indicating contingency in higher or lower
degrees; as, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, probably;
in all pi•obability ; by possibility ;
3. Those indicating necessity in higher or lower .degrees; as, necessarily; of necessity.
AnNORMAL

§ 213. Modals~ furth er, are in respect of their forms
of three classes : 1. Single word;, or Proper ll:foclals;
~ . llfoclal Phrcises;
,. 3. j_lfodal Clauses.
§ 214: Modal phrases are in the form of adjuncts;
as, in fact, in truth, in very deed; or of the case absolute; as, " Our opinion, such a state of tliings being
supposed, would be very diffe rent."
§

215. Modal clauses are indicated either,---:

1. By modal conjunctions; as, although, albeit, not-

•

126

ABNORMAL FORMS.

withstandin,r;, lwwevei', wiless, except j ~/; provided j
whereas, since, seeing, beccmse, titan, whether j as,
"Altlwugli lie slay m e, I will tru st in him;" "However improbable t!te statement may seem, tli e jnd gc decided in favor of th e criminal;" "If it were not so, I
would hav e told you;" or,
2. By a tr:insposition without a co11j1111 ct.ion; aR,
" 1Vim~ it not so, .I wo11kl li:i.v c Lol(l yon;" "JJ[id lze
inq ui1·cd, lie wuLilLl li;11 e lc;arned.''
~ 21G. Ori .11, Exm:c:!frn.
Point 011t t!1 e ;Jfor!rds in
tlw ji1ll1111·i11;1 scnlenr·e::, and 11r1mc tli ~ k ind, rn1 d also
the Uopu l1t 1l8cd, wl1id1t/ury1·e·'jH!1 ·tfrely mudi):1 :-

He tlia l is ltis 01rn iC.'r, \\·ill :1Ss nrcdly be d es troyed.

Dy s u!l\:ri11g we rna.y p uss ilil y al'niil Fi1111ing; lnit. hy
~i nning w e

cer tai nl y can n ot ayoill s 1ilfori11~-. lle of
11c ccs,: ily rcm:1i11 s 11·c:1k. 1,-lio 11cYc r tries C:_';<. J"Li u u. If
y 1_111 wuttlL1 tcaeli scere"y !1> nlh 1·J"s , l"''.'.·i11 1Yith ynnrself'. Bi•l .f arew c ll to alt grentness, if cuvy ~Lir within
thee. Jli s estim:ite of · hu1n::w 11:itnr<0 w :i.s probably
n ot Ycry hig h. If Luther had b een born in th e t enth
century, li e wonld have effected no rcfo rnrnti on. We
may die, it rn:iy be, ig nomi nious ly a11cl on t he sc:1ffuld.
\vnuld you li s t.en t o co11 ~;c ie11n', it 11·n1tl1l !1·ll yon
11 l1dlt e r ) u tl 1·cally d u a;; y u u 11·u u l._] lie d v 1ie lJy.
\ Vere you omniscient, you mig ht be allowed to rule.
Jf he h :ul t:lrro u c farth e r, he rniultt
Ji :i.yc. for e<1 \\·o rse. ·
,_,
J hr! li e i~·o iw fartii e1: he mi g ht. kt1't1 fan'<l " ·nrne.
"\Vu<.tld )' Pll bre:1k :rny spe ll lli:tt wor!11! y f'ul·lin; or
Re lfi sh sorruw rnay have sprc:i<l over your 11,1inc1, go
and Re·e th e Coli sc nm by moonlight.
The angle A is greater than the angle B; much

..

Al3~0RMAL

FORMS OF MODALS.

127

more is it greater than C, which has been proved to
be less than B. Whether he confess or not, the trnth
will certainly be discovered. Our season of i1~1prove­
ment is short; and whether used or not, 'nll soon
pass away. _vVe might, clicl onr limits allow, refer to
the metaphysical argnment.

CHAPTER VII.

('I L·\ PT E !"? V f.

CON JU"!'<CTT O~S,

~ 217.

.A P1: 1·:1'ft :-; JTl<J N" is a 11 0 11[ i1 s0<1 to
s]1ow snrnerela!ion of' an 011,ir-•f'I or 1lio11g·ht; as,
"LOYA t?f gol(1 ;" " lk "\\"l ' ltl - to nn111P ."
§ 21 8. Prcpusilio1t s arc , in !'f'S JH'r t r.f" f" rn 1, (•it. lier
s i1igle words or plira;.;r·s; as, ut, 11y, i11, 11;1on; h ard by,
close u:pon, in the midst of.
0Bs1~1:VATION . -Th c fo l lowi11 g is :t li s t nf !h e pr<' p ns ition~ c hi c lly in 11 so 11: tho
En~li s h bt1~nn ,!!c, di stl'ihulc1l in rc~ p cc t of th e diffe rC'11t cln sscs uf r e lations
wJJi ch tlJ C'y Indicat e : -

1.

an d Trn E: A l, :iftrr, hc fnrf', lJctw ccn 1 betw ix t, l · y~ fr o m, in ,
11i:;h , next, pa 3l, l o, v•ilhin , wi l h o nt.

I1t. M· 1·:

1H:>~1 r ,

0 11

1

np on,

2. 1' 1.Ac r,: ;\h:1J!, alm :1nl , :1h(! \'C', und e r , o n'r, mi1 l , niid:-t, nmirl, nrniilst,

nm ong, nm o 11.!!!3 t 1 b c11in il , b(·lo w, bcnC':i. t h, lws !d C' , bc! id t.'!'I, h L'r o111l, CI J•p os itc.
3. T1.,rn: Aft t' I', s inCf', till (furmnly uso d n l:; o in r •.: bt1o n tv pbc t.: ), until,
<lnrln:::". f' r<' , rwnrlin !;.
4. 8 0 U1te l·~ . an<l h en ce Qt;AI.ITY , P ossESSJON, CA USE: Of, off, 011t o f, bcc;i.uso
o f, fr (1JU .
5 . DIIU'.C TI O;{ : D o wn, up, :1 l 1n11!, ronndi :lri"'> 11 !Hf 1 f n. i nl n . un fn ~ t'\\\' ,'1.f d, to ·
wnrrls, :1 2;:l in :-:- t. :l.] Dn g , a cro ss, ath wart, t hr011 g- h, lh rnn !!"hont , t h rnn~h to .
6. 011.1 Ef:T : J \ir, t•J, uf, n.b uu t, CIJIH'C l"Hillg, n >J;an.lio g. r e;;1i1' c ling.
7. C•i .-..::;1.:o !Tto:"'i: \Yi!h. l 1e "' i d\' ~: . :111 1 .,11~!.
8. E:r.C' t. ll SIO:": Bu t.. h ali fl!!. l ' Xet· p ti n!!, n n lw lt h::; t:tn f lin~. r' \" r l" pf , Fl"\ YP .

~ 21 !l.
111:1y

ht•

T!tf' ohj 0ct of the pn·po s il j,1 11 i11 :rn a <lj1mct
in any kin<J OJ" ! ll)lltl, nuntt:d 0 1'

('~pr C'S~(' <\

:1 lrnnnn <1 l.
0 11s1·: 1t\"ATf(l:-l° . - Ev •.' J11.J1r:t :lf'!l In t he forrn llf !'f('1li r" tf •' :1 d j1lllr l s 1n :i r l• 1~ u~cd
nft r r prr pns iti o ns; nR, "lnstC':i.d () f i n sh ors :" ll !•'. n lr:tt1(:f' in at f.'i ,r ~rt.le· 11
1
' In tl.10 cuun.s aud h:i. I! ~ o r IC'g i6 l11. ti o n ins t ea d of{ , the.. fi dd8 of lJJ~t:e.· 1
'

§ 220. A Cox.1nNcTinN is a worc111sec1 to rndi cate SOllH) relation in th e thought itse lf; as,
"Ik lw s 1wr•n dilip;Pnt, (!Jld h e wi ll pmb al ,Jy
succeed;" "He ·will succee1l {/l ie be dilig ent ·"
' ' H e was dilig ent but nnforiuuatc."
§ 221. Uonjunctions are of three general
classes:1. Co-ordinate/
2 . .Llfod(l'j; ing /
3, Clausal.
§ 222. Co-ORDI N ATE CONJUNCTIO N S connect sentenc es, or like parts of se ntences. Th e y are of the follo\Ying sp e <'i e;o; : L Coputo ti1J es : :1n<l , als<1 , too , both , lJ csiJes, lik ewise , forlh c r , f'11rthcnn o r0 , n wr eoY e r.
2. D isj 1111 ,·/i1·cs : o r, n o r.
, 3. 111t ~ ns/1 ,es: 1·\·<'n, yc:t , n:1 y .
4. A dvasf! tiu cs : lrnt, though, allH'it., although, except, urilc·,;s, nevertheless, 11otwithslandi1rg, ho11· e ,·er,
st ill, only, yet.
5. Illativcs: s ince, seeing , hcc<111sl', for , as, wherca ~,
then, so, th erefore, \\'hercforc, accordingly, couscqucnt-

ly, hence, thereupon , whereupon .
G"'

.....

~30

~_

. ...,........

.....

li.BNOR1Lll...L FORMS.

G. Comparatives: as, Lliau.

§ 223. The r cb tio n of simpl e co-orr]ination may
exist b etween whole Re11tC'nccR, or evC' n paragraphs or
ch apters; nntl also between a n y like clements of a
scntcucc.

§ 224. J\lomyn Nii Co.N.J UNCT I ONS :ire usc•l to i11 ,li ca.Lc c la uscR as muLliGcrs. Th ey a rc chiefl y Gundilfonals; as, if, JJl'Ov ided, unless. Th e ad ,-crsativcs a.re also
used to indicate clausal parts of sentences as modiGers;
as," The event, though possible, is h anll;' rirobab lc."
§ 225. so~m Cr.AURALCON.JUNCTTONS simply\ndicate
that cl::i.uses arc nsed as noun s to denote objects of
thoug ht.
Such Clausal Conju11 ctio11 s a re : 1. That, used wiLh a Categorical Proposit ion ; as,
" 1'/iat h e went is certain."
2. lVlwtlter, ·used wit h a n Inter rogative Proposition;
as, " lVhethel' h e has arrived is not known."
3. If was formerly u sed with an Interrogative Proposit ion; but this u se is now not so common ; as, " I
know not if it be so. "
4. Lest, used b efore a clause deuoting an obj ect ; as,
"I fear ed lest they should arrive and find us unprepared."

§ 226. On.AL ExmtCISES. Point out t!te several kinds
of Conjunctions in the following sentences:Though he was a ma n shut up within himself like an
oyster, and of such a profoundly ref:lecti ve turn that he
scarcely ever spoke except in monosyllables, y et did
he never make up his mind o n any doubtful point.

CONJUNCTlOi\S.

131

But on my asce nt, tho ngh I loohrl all the whil e upward, I was Lrcmhlingly ali \-c to the fact that I w:-is
getti ng into hi g her danger. l3 11t n either wo rrl s nor
example co ul1l sU1y t heir fli g h t. ' Di;fcrnl ]\[rJ,,co11·
ag:ti 11 st all, whether fri c11<l or foe. The pain of burning, if i11 sLa11ta11conR, is lH:licvccl t.o Le LuL Hlight-L ut
a mome11tary shock to the 11<'1 ·vo uR syste m ; lrnL as a
protracted m ethod o!' cxcc 11Lio11, it mnst h e cxcce1lin g ly distressin g. But to yonr country, if nec<l h<',
you owe yonr life; a ncl though in that life is m ine entwined, y et I would giYe up a.II Lo insnrc my co11ntry'8
weal. I am rl ebtor b oth to the wi se aml to the 11nwi ~C'.
H e was m ore r esolute than wise. Never Rpcak unl ess
yon have something to say. Ile loved hi s co untry,
notwithstandin g she had forgotten his services. Y c
Ah all n ot cat o f it, lest ye di e. I t rnst him, because I
have tried him. Since these g reat trnths arc b cyo 111l
all question, let us li ve by t h em. I weep the m ore,
· because I weep in vain.

..
.A.UXILI.A.RIES.-EXPLETIVES.-INTERJECTIONS.

133

§ 232. The Expletives are : -

CHAPTEg VIII.
AUXILIARIES.-EXPLl~TIVES.-I NTELt. TECTIONS.

§ 227. AN AuxrLIAiiY is a word used in the
inflection of words ; as, sliall see ; may see ;
more righteous.
OnsERVATION.-The word which is infl ected by th e nl<l. of the nuxiliary ta
c:ill ed the principal word. The two tog eth e r form what Is rcgnrded ns one
word-a. composite word. 1lfioht liane bum. loved, thus, Is regarded M ono
word.

§ 228. Auxiliaries are ot two classes:J. Verb Auxiliaries, used in the inflection of verbs;
2. Auxiliaries of Compa.rison, used in the inflection
of adjectives an cl ad verbs.

§ 229. Verb Auxiliaries are:1. 'The Emphatic: do and its inflections;

2. The .Passive : be and its inflections;
3. 1ense : have, had; sh1ill, wW;
4. Jlfood: mnst; may, can; inight, could, would, .

shoitld; let ;
5. Ii~finitive: to.

§ 230. The Anxiliaries of Comparison are more,
most_; less, least; as, moi·e right eo n~, least important.
~ 23 1. AN EXPLETIVE is a word withont significance in itself, used to indicate some relation
in the expression.

1. For, usecl to show that the infinitive with its st1bject is used as a subj ect of the sentence; as, "For me
to resist would be madness."
2. The Rhetorical Expletives it and thei-e, used to
show that the sentence is inverted'; as, "It is certain
that he knew it" = "That he knew it is certain;"
" 1'here is a pleasure in the pathless woods" = "A
pleasure is in the pathless woods;" or, "A pleasure
in the pathless woods is."
3. The Interjectional, used to express a feeling,
.
, 'llJ!iat; as, "TV!iat I" said I, " does Virtue then reside
:- in the vale?"

§ 233. An INTERJECTION is a word expressive
offeeling ; as, Oh I Alas I
§ 234. Interjections are of two general classes:1. Those originally e:-i:pressing nierc feeling; ns, Fie, psliaio;
2. Those originnlly ex pres~ing some object or nttributtt, but subsequently
used to express feeling ma.i nly.

or th e first clnss mny

be enumerated the following P.pccies : -

1.. Those eropre&8ingfeeling genet·ally ,· as, 0, oh, ah;
2. Tho8e emprt.88ing joy,· as, Io, ha, huzzn, hurr:i, hey-day;
8. Sor1'<no; ns, Abs, welnwn (old);
.,.,.
4. Aversion Q.11d contempt; ns, Fie, fy, faugh, fob, pisli, pshaw, fudge, poh,
pooh, tush, tut, whew; nroynt, avaunt;
5. Bu1"[J1'i8e or cu1'ioslty ,· ns, lluigb, bey; eb, Ju, la; oho, hnhn.;
6. A call (JetMra.lly; ns, Ho, so ho, hallo, holln, hoy, ahoy, hem;
7 . .A call to silence; ns, Hu~h , hi st, whi st, mum;
8. Calla to an.im.al,s; ns1 Whoa, haw, e tc.

Of the second class nr• :1. Inte.nliives; ns, Jnd rc d, truly; zounds, sdcnth (nbbrcvfations of' u Dy hla
:wounds," u By hi s <l<'uth "),with forms of ncljnmtlon;

·2. lVordR <if yreetin(J a11-d paf·tiny; as, I-Intl, welcome, goo.<l-morning, ndteu,
. good-by, farewell, etc.;
8. lVm•dR of pt·aise or censtwe; as, Good, brav o, well-done; ~hn~ne. e.te.;
' ·. Word8 qf incitenient c>r ch.,,king; ••, On; hold, sort, ete. . .

-

- - ... - - COMPOUND SENTENCES.

CHAPTER IX.
COUPOUND SENTENCES.

§ 28n. A Co11n'nrrnn R 1rn-Ticw_'E e0nsist<;1 of
two or more simple sentences ; as, '' 'I'he war is
over and peace lms come ; '' '' In the best books,
great men talk to us, give us their most precious
thoughts, and pour their souls into ours."
§ 236. The simple Beutences that make up a compound sentence may Le j oined,1. By a conjnnction; as, "All otl1 er points and
duties arc relatiYe and subordinate, as parts 01·
means."
2. By a r elative; as, "Those great masteer of pedantry and jargon have coined several systems, whicli
are all equally true, and of equal importance to the
wor!Ll."

§ 237. Compound Sentences are of dilferent kiud:i,
according to the relation between t he simple sentences:1. COPULATIVE; as, "For all his dat·s are sorrows
•
J
'
allll his travail grief; yea, hi s heart taketh uot rest in
iJIC nig ht;" "He co nfessed his crime as well as his
compaui ons; " "N othi11 g can stand t he test of his
correct jtidgmeut, which is equally severe to poets
and parsons; "

•

135

2. DISJUNCTIVE; as, "I am greatly deceived or he
was present;" "Either the universe had a creator or
it exists by chance ; "
3. ADYERSATIVE; as, "The wind has changed, but
it continues to rain;" "He is poor, yet he gives
freely;"
4. lLLATIVE ; as, " Matter is in itself inert; therefore
there is a mind that moves it ; " " I am at peace, for I
have done right ;''
5. COMPARATIVE ; as, " Young men are fitter for
execution than they are for counsel."

§ 238. In compound sentences there is often an
ellipsis of one or more of the three principal elements,
the subject, the predicate, and the copula; as also of
the Conjunction and of the Uelative. As the sentence,
"John and J a.mes crossed the bridge," is equivalent
to the compound sentence, "John croslled the bridge,
and James crossed the bridge."
In the following sentences t here is an ellipsis either
of the Conjunction or the R elative: "Thy chains are
burst, thy bonds are riv en ;" "Other foundation can
no man lay than that is laid."

§ 239. Members of a simple sentence of the same
order, whether clauses, phrases, or single words, are
united like sentences by conjunctions into compound
members. vVe have thus the following classes of
compound n1embers of sentences:1. Co11rouND CL.A.USES: "If he !tad been present
and liad not pa.i·ticipated in the distu1·bance, his case

would be different ; "

13G

.ABNOR~IAf,

COMPOUND SENTENCES .

FORMR.

2. Co:arPOUND PHRASES ; as, "A God aboue us and
for us is the God we n eed;"
3. CollIPOUND SunJECTs; as, " J ames and John are
w ell matched ; "
4d. CollIPOUND PREDICATES; n~, "The air is oxygen
an nitro,qen; "
5. CoML'OUN .LJ COPULAS; as," To uc diYi11c, Uc is
and niitst be; "

it. In the one case they are blasphemous; in the other
futile. Not. the rich are happy, but the good. N ature
forces on our heart a Creator; history, a Providence.
He r etui·ned to Athens, where he continued his studies.
She is more talkative and lively than her brothet, but
not so well informed, nor so uniformly cheerful. It is
easier to build two chimneys than t_o maintain one.

G. Cu1u·••l.'.'1J :'lf u1111·11-: E..;; :1' , ""//,,. po1 J ,u/ rm •!

diligent mau prospern; " " 'The sl(fferi11;; but -virtumts
poor claim our sympathy and help;" " The wisely and
greatly good."
On~RrtVATION 1.-Cnre wil1 often be rrq11isit(l in ortl cr to di~tingu ish wlictJi cr
th eo i:e nte nce Is n compound sen t ence, or contains o nly co mp o u1 Hl ckrn e nt.s.
Thns, u tlohn nn<l .Jnm cs 31'C c1ili g~~11 t'' is f\COlnflOlllltl f)('llf.!'n ce, linvin g lwo distinct subjrcts, ns it m en ns, u John ls di li gt' nt; .Ja111(' S Is dili g-c nt." But u Juhu
nnd Jam es nre united ,, is a simple se ntence, with a co 111pound subj ect ; for tho
predi ca te Ctln 1wt be nflirmrd of cnc h scp:uately , but only of the twu mdted.

OnsmwATI ON 2.-It is t o he home in mind, furth er, t hat the rel ative cl:lusc,
wheth e r prono111inal or adv e rbial, nwy Le USN] ns we ll in m od ifying ns In connecti ng sc11tcnccs. A close in,·csligalion will often bo ncccss:i.ry, in order to
d ct crm l11 c in witkl.i W•ty it b u ..,~J .

§ 240. 0RA.L EXERCISES. Point oitt t!ie m embers of
tlie followin,q Compound Sentences or Compound
P arts of Sentences :I was equally pleased with his sister, whom I wished
to see very much, fo r her g reat celebrity in her brother's
science. She is very little, very ge11tle, very morlcst,
and very i11ge11ions; :tllll her ma1111 crs arc those of a
person unhackneyed and unawed by the world, yet
desirous to meet a11d retu rn its smi les. Be strong- and
choose aright. l\'.lan proposes and God disposes. Either
these books add to the Koran, or they merely repeat

-

137

,.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

CHAPTER X.
COMl'J.EX SJcNTHNCJcS.

§ 241. A COMPLEX SENTENCE is o:,e that contains a single sentence, whether simple or compound, combined with elemeuts that are foreign
t o it.
§ 242. A sentence m:iy Le complicntNl in three
ways: eith er (l) Ly joi11i11g wiLli it references to the
s pc~k e r's mind or lllu<le or spC'aki11g ; or (2) by joining
1~,iLh it references to the mind adllrcsscd; or (3) by
joining with it reforcm:es to other sentences.

§ 243. A sentence m:iy he complicated with reference to the conHntmicating rnim1 in two w:iys : either
(1) with r eference to the mode of thong ht; or (2) with .
reference to the mode of expression.
The forms of language in which these references are
expressed arc such as these : 1. "As I judge;" "As I have been accustomed to
thiuk;" "To be candid;"
2. "Briefly;" "summarily;" "in a word;" "in
common speech;" "if I may say so ;" "so to speak."
§ 244. A sentence is complicated with reference to
tbe mind addressed, in all forms of address; as, "ll:fy
lads, I have done;" " 0 thoie that with surpassing
glory crownecl," etc.

z

139

§ 245. A sentence is complicated with refetence to
other sentences, in three ways:1. In Q,u otatfons; as, "His soul," obsei'ves a Spanish wi·iter, " was superior to the age in which he
lived;" "The air," h<?said," is piercing cold;" "The
time," I say, " has come."
2. In the use of Conjw1ctinns; a~ ,­
Oontiimatives; "Moreover, by them is thy servant
warned ; " "He went, also, to Athens;"
Dif;j1111 ctives ; "I would, otherwise, have aided him;"
"Ji,'lse, hi s conclu~ion is f'alRe;"
'Advas ati1Jes; "J le ruRlied, not1oithstancling, into
the mi rlBt of the strife;"
Illat£ves; "TIT/wriiforc, 'Ye conclude," etc.; "Let us,
then, be faithful to ourselves."
3. By Parentheses; "AnLl thou haRt walked about,
how strange a story, in Thebes' streets."
OnsERVATION.-Such words nnd -phrases ns fu.rthcr, Beconclly, in the .first
continnntiv('~, nre ln thc·ir prope r nA.tare ntlverb1nls,
and mrly correctly be reg nrd ed ns modifying some verb understood. They nre,
howevf'r, u . . e.d ns connf'\cli vcs j that is, thry perform the pnrt or proper conjunc·
tfons.· Ilul it is clear th ey nrc not parts or the sentence proper.

place, usl'tl ns ordinnls or

§ 246. On.AL EXERCISES. D1:stiuguish the kind of
Complex S entence in the fallowing selections :I love thee, Winter, all unlovely as thou seem'st.
Few speak, wilcl, stormy month, in praise of thee.
The question is for Lucy to consider, continued .Jonas,
whether 131Je ongltt to go or not. Accordingly, as soo11
as he commenced speaking, the company all rose and
left. Therefore, in a case of such moment, let no false
shame prevail over you. _For, to return to our statue
in the block of marble, we see it sometimes only begnu

110

AlJNUmlA.L .!!' OHMS.

to b e c hipped, sometimes rough-h e wn. 'Whence , tL en,

is this incrc:1 scd love of lite which grows npon ns ;vit h
o nr y ears? Mothe r, h e faintly said, com e n c:tr m e. I
i;ay, tl1 L' 11 , E ng larnl is not ag rii 11 st 11H. L11ok, i1 1 a ,1·nnl,
at, Prnt.ci< t:wt lrela11c.l . I IP h:id , it-. R <' " m ~, a w:iy o f
l1 o llli11g hi111 Rc ll: I le gaim•cl fr om I l<·:i1·e11, 't w:1s all
h e wished, a fri elHl. Ve r y frrn· rn cn, prop erl y speak ing , li ve at present ; m ost a rc prqrnring to liv e a nother
tim e.
The cul t iv ati o n of cotto n has t h row n m o re m o ney
in to Egypt t h an it has seen for m:1n y year s, w e h a d
almost said , ce ntnri ei<. I t is not oft e n t.hat a n E11gli sh 111n.n, let; a loll c a n Eng li sh l:trl y, li\'rs am o n g motlc rn
Egy ptia11 R. l\Jcn rca sn JH'<l li t•tLe r, for <':\':1111pl <', in t.h c
t iIUc of Eli zaL et h tl1a11 in L11 e time o f .EgLc r l. l\'itbin
c e. r t:1 in limi ts, therefo re, poct.r y ma y Le improv ing
while tbc p oc li cal fac ulty is d ecay in g . Th e fi rst works
o f t he imn g inn t ion are, ns we ha vC' sn irl , p oo r nnrl rn rle.
The ir g reat predecessor;:, i t is trnl', W('J'e as harl c ritics
a s th em scln' s. It is trne, 11011·c•\'t•r, th:1t in thP ~ 1·irit
o f t h e hom e! y adage, w e 11 eetl 11 o t go t Ii roug h the "hole
t o get at i ts fl avor. T ake my wo rd , i t is th e most
s uccessful a nd pleasing m eth od of co n viction. T hey
h a ve ·wh a t t h ey call th e sublime, t h at is, a sty le proper
Jo r p oetry. Be th is aR it wi ll , h e c mpl oye rl th e shears
to good purpose. "I w onl<l not choose,'' ~:iys a French
l'hil• >soph C' r, "t.0 sPe :i.n 0!1l pn~t. p1ilkd np 11 it li which
I had l1 L'r' 11 lo ng :1e•111:1intcd." '

CIIAPTim Xl.
EMOTIVE SENTENCE.

§ 247. AN E11rnTIVE SENTENCE is one which
expresses, instead of a judgment, a feeling or
an• object of feeling; as, "Joy, joy forev er I"
cro the thought tltat thou art saJe ! " "How
hcttvy falls the foot of Ti me ! "
OnsRrt\'ATION. - An emotlvc s e ntence cn n b P. dist l n~tilshc<l from ~ prop<'r

sentence which cxprcs se ~ feeling onl y by tlJis, thnt us th e feeling predoml nn te s
over th o thou,!::ht, the }'roper th ought-el eml'nt-the judgment, wh ich, ns we hn\"O
see n, 1s th e vi lal e lement uf the n ormal se ntence, is not cx pres_scd in nny proper
form.

§ 248. Emotive
classes:-

s enten ces are

of t h e follow ing

1. Simple Jtxclamatory, or Inte1;jectionals j as,
Strange I nronde1:ful I P ossible I Sorrowful I
2. Complex Jtxclamatory; which co m b ines an expression of the emotions wi t h th a t of its object; as,
"O j (l ~· I ih nt in on r C'flll 1ers
18 so 111 cthl ng t hat d u l h lin'.''

"0 'tliat I harl died before thee! " "0 th e d ep t h
of the ri ch es Loth of t h e wisdom and k nowledge of
God ! "
3. Addresses ;

,
142
0

ABNORMAL FORMS.

EMOTIVE SENTENCE.

Thon glorious mirror! where lb' Almlgbty's form
Glasses itselffu tempests : in nil tlml',
Cnlru or convulsed-in breeze, or gnlc, or storm,
Icing the pole, or in the torrid clim e
Dnrk-br:i.ving 1 boundkss, endless, unU. !ublim c."

Strauge coutraJiction in our nature, to which even
the wise are liable I
\\Tretch that I am, shall I plead the example of a
vile worm of the earth for Jisobeyiug the commanJs
of my Saviour?
0 l1appy bond that seals my 1·ows.
0 that I knew where I coul(l find him!

4. Rqflections j as, "How Leautil'ul upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth good tidings I"
"How di<l I hope to vex a thousan d eyes!" "Too
flattering joy!"

§ 240. ORAL EXERCISE~. Disti11,quish the k:inds of
Emotive Sentence in the follow1:11g c:-ctracts :I never dealt better since I 1yas a rn::l-11; all wonld
not do. A plague of all <;011·::mls ! Let them speak.
" That a drcacHhl sight!
0 for breath to utter what is like thee I
How frightful the grave! how d eserted aml drear!
0 what a pang of perfect blessedness transfixed
her heart from that faint, feeble cry: "It lives! it
Jives!"
Oh ! that glorious globe the skylark talks of. How
delightful to enjoy his notice!
Towns sacked I whole cities wrapped in flame!
",Jnst Jlenvo n J Eny, Is this the bny
\Vhich w:urlors gnl n? Is thi s cnl lcrl Fnm c ?,.

0 that those lips had language!
Sad soul! she could not be beg uiled.
'\Vho were they, wl1ose screams were heard louder
th:rn the roariug cle111e11tR, imploring tl1at aid 1\'11ieh
no human power conkl afford them? His wife and
chilrl ! Ult I heart-rending agouy !
\Vealth ancl power and prosperity, how peculiarly
transitory and uncertain I

.

"

j

PART VI.-CONS'l'RUO'l'lON.

CHAPTElt II.
CONCORD.

CHAPTER I.
DIVISIO NS.

§ 250. IN the Constrnction of the Sentence two
things need distinct consideration:l. The snpply of the necessary rn: ttcrials;
2. The act.nal c0nstrncti11g of these mat0rial.s, so as
to ex pre~s curreetly and clearl y the tho11ght.
Th e grammatical pri11 ciples reg11 lating the supply
of materials are: 1, Propriety; 2, Precision.
Th e grammatical prin eiples regn latiug t he actual
construction of the materials of the sentence when
supplied a.re: 1, Concord j 2, Arrangement.
The four parts of Construction accordingly are:1. CONCORD ;
II. ARRANGEMENT;
TIT.
IV.

§ 251. WHEN an object of thought is made the
subj ect of a proposition, its conn ectiou with the verb
is shown by its b eing put in the nominative case.
·Hcnoo,
The sn liject of a sentence, or clause, is put iu
the N omin:itive Case.
l~XCEPTIOX -l n the first :rnd third persons of lhc 1mpcrntivc, ,.,·hen formed
by tllo auxiliary let, th e subject is in the Objective Case ; as, Let me rise; let
thenifall.

§ 252. The subject of an infinitive is put in
the Olijective Case; as, "For 11w to act thus, is
'base ingratitude ; " "For rne to dra\Y those
conclusions without knowing that I do so,
seems altogether incompruhcnsiole ; " "For
rne to say a solclior lies, is stab bing."

J'j(l)['EIKJT;

PRECISION,

§ 253. 'l'he subject of a gC'nmd is put in the
Possessive or Gt'nitive Cas(); as, "I \Hts opposed to his \Hi ting tlw lctkr;" "lVlwse
rn1wli11g them a lJOu t their ltc:u1s hath c1 ulled
those wl10 in quickness exceeiled their mas' ter ;" "They became sensible of their having
incmTPd great danger.''
7

·•

14G

§ 254. ORAL Ex1mc1sEs.

Correct tlte faults in t!te
cases of the subjects in the followi11g sentences:Him ancl I will come over to-mo r row. She is not
so tall as me, but tall er t han him. It is not fo r Rtwh
as us to sit with the rulers of the la1Hl. Them that be
prontl shall he brougl1t low. "\Vho111 <lo yo1 t R11ppose
met us at the g:ite? To prevent it breaking into open
violence. I can not forget him mentioning one other
fact. The report was witlcly spread of the steamship
Pacific being lost. 'Without the messenger going to
them at once, t hey will be in clanger of fallin g into tl1e
open pit. For he to hoas t is riaiculous. Hy m C' ngrecing to go with him, he consented. A greater in stance
of a man being a blockhead, I do not know. Th e
·whole need 11ot a ph ysician, lrnt t hem that arc sick.
You are a much g reater loser than me.
·

§ 255. Tlte pure or uncom l>iued predicate is
put in the same case as the subj ect; as, ' 'The
criminals were tltey tlienisel?Jes .''
OBSERVATION 1.-Tlic principle app lies nlso t.o n pnrtof the impure pre<li cato
stand ing in the factitivo re lation; as, 0 The criminals were said to be tll ey
them8ebves.,,

Ons1m.v.ATt0N 2.-It nlso npplics to the inllnitivc phrase, ln which th e su bj ec t
of the infinitive is in t he obj<'ctivc case; ns, HI kn t:w i t to lJc them."

3.-Tli e gcru n<l tnkcs its prc<lkatc
I wns n.wnrc of its bein g him.11

Ous&It\' ATION

ns,

11

147

CONCORD.

CONSTRUCTI~N.

11 011 11 in

the olJjcclfve

cnRe;

of the e~pr('fl,!'h\n wf're ex r~ln !'i vely r<'gnr<lccl, or. nt least, to bo cnscs to which tho
principle might 11 ot sefl m to hnv e full npplicntlou.

I. vVhere a vcrL has several subjects of different
persons or numbers, it takes the person and number
of the nearest; as," "\Vhcther thon or I am in fault;"
''Ile or they are to be promoted ; " " No wars nor
any rumor of wars disturbs my quiet."
II. The lead in g subj ect determines the person and
number; as, "They as well as I w·e to be regar clecl."
This principle outweighs the forego in g, wh en the
two co me in conflict. Indce<l, strictly s1•0rrki11 g, t he
se~ornl subj ect may properly in such cases be regarclcd
as the subj ect of a Yerh t o be un de rstood.
This rule has a special applicat ion to cases where a
distributive is introduced. If the distributive is made
the lending subject, the verb takes the singular: oth. erwi sc t he numuer of the principal word. Thus :
"\Vhen 111 y female regim ent is drawn up in array,
u pon m y o-iv ill rr the word to handle their fans, each
~
;:>
.c
. h
of them shakes
her 1an
at me wit
a sm1·1e ; " ",.l'l icy
have, each, their distinct laws and revelations."
III. A coll ective noun, when sin g ular in form, takes
a plurnl verb, if the thought turn s upon the in d ivid uals of which it is composed rather than upon the whole
group as one ; as, "The assembly were from different
communities."

§ 256. 'l'o show its reference, the verb is put
in t he sam e p erson ::ind numb(:n· ns the s nbj ect;
as, "Thou art the ma n ;" "They were the
offenders.''

OnsF.nvATION.-'l'hc numeral collccth•cs, ns t hey may be called, such ns dozen,
score, hund1·ul, tlwusmut, etc., ns th ey tnk e n sl nguln.r defi nitive, ns one
doze n,'' u a score," n tJu's hundrc<l,'' u that t housru11J nre clcnrly in t ho singular

OnSF.R\ATTON. -This prinriplf' is gencrnlly to lie Interpreted in refere nce to
the mea11111g rn.th er than lh eform. of the ex pression. \Ve lrnvc, therefore, tho
f,iJJ11wlng- rnlcs, w1lld1 might F.e<• m to ho excr ptiollf\ t<1 the priucii,J~, if th(' form

IV. A compound subj ect, if d enoting hut a sing le
person or thing, takes a si11gnlar verb; as, "17te states

11

11
1

form· nnU when used to clenoto n unity, tnkc n sin gu lar verb; ns, 11 My thou·
sand ,iB the mcnn<' st in M.nnn sseh; 11 . " One doz en now costs fifty cents." If
tak en ns • plurnllty, t hey tnke 1ilnrnl verus lik e other colleet!ves.

CO~STRU GTJ ON.

148

man and tlw orator at last sleeps/" "'The sdwlar and
the poet was also the Cliristiau and tile patriut."
I!f~ .,fA1:K.-S 1 1c h

etc.

sc11lc 11 cr:i nrc <' <jnlvnlcnt l o

u

Ir 1• who w:is Iii <" f:!n! i's rnan ,,

Th e wo rds nrc vlrt11 nlly nppHslth•l'S, nntl d o not

149

CONCORD.

dcnul~

d ilh:rt'nt

uhj(•cts.~

V. A co mpo uncl su lJ.i cct, if ta k011 di ~lril > 11t ivr·h ·,
tal,c.·s :i. sin g1 d:1r \'f•rl>; :i.s, "F~u·h 1n1111, ou·h u•<>mo; 1,
each cliild has a cluty to dis charge; " "Sr11dy or play
is, for this hour, at yo ur option ;" "No man, no set of
m en is authorized to impose snch a law." 13ut in
s uch ex press ions as "The Graces ea.ch th eir se veral
miui st ry h:i.d lent," the cli strilrntivc eucli is an n,p positive, and 11 ot the grammaticn,l s11uject 'Ji' th e vcru.

§ 257. OrtAL Ex1mc1sm;, Correct the faults in Con·
cord in the f ollowing sentences :I t was him that was chosen la st year. Tb e re was
m a ny li g hts burning in th e ch:cmbcr. I kn ow it is her.
J ames or I is to b e se nt. Th e com p:rny wns a lmost
all sick wiL!t fovcr. Th e mcC'tin!!; \\'C'rc cli Bnrd('n·tl in
o p ini on. Each mnn , (':1c·l1 11"un1:t~ l1 :.Lvc a <lc ·s ti 11 y to
fulfill. Six rn o11 t hs' i11tcrc,:t arc c.l uc. It ca 11 11 ot ]Je
m e. Th e " I'l easm cs o f :M e nw ry" were pulil isl1 cd in
1792. Th e H ouse li a1·c d ccirl ed 1he question. EYery
li111h a11rl feature a ppcn.r with itR ::ippropri:ctc g ra ce.
To liv e soberly , ri g hteo usly, and pi o 11 8ly, arc required
of all m en. H e <hrc not act contrnry to his in structi ons. Th e m echa nis m of clocks a ntl watches were
t otall y nnkn ow n a rcw ce nt uries ago. U re:it pain s l1 :1s
been taken to rcco 11 cil c t he parti es. The f'i n•· cn• is
a hrn.ys esteemed. There is many occasions in life, iu
w hich silence and simplicity is trn e wi sdom. The supp ort of so m any of his relations 1vere a hea\'y tax upon

his industry; but t hou knows be paid it chcerfnlly.
And t he fame of this person and of'lii s won<lerf'11l actions
were tlill'usccl throug hout the country. I n unity co11·
eists the welfare a11cl secu ri ty of e ycr y society. Goo<l
order in our affairs, not mere saving ~, protl11ec g 1·c:1t
- profits. 'J'lie J(,Jlowing 1n• at . i ~r', t.og<'tlin \\·ith t hose
that acco 111pa11 y it., were w ri ltc n m:111 y yea rs n !:!:O. Th e
religion of th ese people, as w ell as t heir cnstoms am1
manners, were strongly misrepresented . I kn ow it
was th em. I or him arc to go. Eith er thou or I are
greatly mi staken. Whether one p e rson, or m ore, was
conccrp ccl in the bn sinef'S d oes not yPt a ppP:ir. Th e
church hav e 11 0 po\\'cr to infliet c<Jrpor:cl p1111i slim e11 t.
The remn:cnt of the p eople w ere d riH~ ll into exile.
The committee were composed of m embers of both
parti es. Th e possession of our sc;1scs enlire, of onr
limbs u11injnrccl, of a so und unclerstnncling, of fr iends
and compa nions, are often overlooked . It is not m e
yo n injure.

§ 258. To sh ow their refere nc·.P, pronominal
word s are put in the same numl1e r, geu ckr, and
person as th e words for which t hey stand; as!
"I that spcrlk to you."
"'Whe11ec and whnt nrt thou, cxccrn.Llc shape !
'l'liat da1· 1st"u

T is of n lady In her c:irlic:st youUi.' 1

1

Ons F.RVA-r1nN 1.-ln np1 il y in a tlil ~ princlp!c, rf'frrrnee rnu..-t i::en<'rnlly be
ma.de t o t h o forlll o r t he (':'\J>l'('SSio n . Thu s l hf' plum! fnr111 \\you," whi c h is u~ru
'~h en only n single l't'rson is ndllressctl . fl'(111ires. the plur:il H r b nnll pronoun.
1
Tb ere nrc cxcC'ptions. lwwC'H' r, ns we s:i.y 1 ' yunr~rlf," not" ?1our1u,lres," when
only one pC'rson is m e~rnt. "Our.~elf '' is :dso suml'li111 cs n ::;c tl.
Th o plurnl pron oun of th e first 11c rson is used wh e n only one lrnJlddu:i.l is
1

men.nt, in t wo cases:-

150

CONS'l'RUC'l'ION.

CONCorrn.

1. As th e plura l of di(lnity. 'I'hns n. i:H>,·creign nscs the plnml we., ou.r, us
'vhcn speaking of him self in formal trrrnsnct Ion s.
2. As tbc plnrnl of rcprcsr. ntation, ns wh e n an essay ist, o. re vi cwc r 1 or nn cdl·
t qr uses th e plural ns if h e w ere th e mou th ·p iccc of oth ers.
Aftl.'r many a in the snme clansc, the pmnoun nnd the vc·rb nro nlike fn tho
singular; but in R. subseqncnt cln11so or se ntence, tho rcfer(' nCe mnr be rather
to th e se ns e j ns, u Many n h C' ro lcr y8 down ht/8 11 ru i but t!1 ei r 11rtm c.1J shnll be

are martyrs. Each Honse Rh all keep n jonrnal of its
own proeeedii1gs, mid publi sh th e same, ex ce pt such
parts as in t,heir j11Llgml·11t rcqnire secrecy. He o!forecl
a great rc co mpcn Rc t<J \Yl10 111 s oe,· c r would h elp l1i111.
Each of whi c:h have st:unpetl their own impress 011 the
cbarncter of t he people. Y 011, J ohn, and I, will e:ich
titke your books. Those m en whi ch w ere engaged in
the plot were all put under arrest. If any one has
forgotten hi s part, let them now study it. Everybody brought their contributions fo r th e relief of the
s.utforing.

O osF.RVATJON 2.-In th e fl gnrntlvo rxprc:;1~fon 1 th n gcn<kr i s Jnw f'nlly clrnng·
eel i ns, 11 l s this th o chnrnctcr of Bri ll s h ju s t.I ce ? J\ r e th car. lur fo nturcs? Is
this het• countcnnnco? ls this lter gnit or her mlrn?,, Jn s nch cases, car.o
should b e tak en that th ere be con sistency in th e u se of th e ge nder.

OBSERVATION 3.-Whcn n. verb nnd n pronou n nro to Uo 11 SC'.d, Uoth rel:it.ing
ton subject t.hnt rnny be t nk c. n In eith er number, th('y s honld h o put In the snmo
nnm hcr. lt is in correct, thu s, to sny, u The comm unity is r cs po nsilJIP. for whn t
themselve:~.,,

Omn~HVATT0N 4. - Rucl i tifl"~ n!'i lfl1·il.1<h i]\ (!rncc, mrr.Jc.'"lf.IJ, <'tc., l ab-~ Ycrhh fn

th e lhir1I perso n sing nl nr, bnt 1ironou11 s in th o mnsc nlln o or fr1 1il11!11<' gf'n cl r r, nnd
not ln t h C\ rwutcl', ns C<rnsi." l<' ncy mi g ht seem to rf'quirc. Thu~, " This imitnti on mu~t hn,·c st uck n li tt le with yo ur lonl f'> hi11 1 1t:l101.1< 11 ,qr <J t o exnmine things
by n. bette r sl.:rndard;,, 11 Jli s g rncc rt.'pcatr cl ly plecl i;cd himsrljto th e ll onsc. 11

OnsTmVATION 5.-A coll ectiv e noun tnkcn ns n singular nou n is to be regnrtled
ns of the neuter gende r; as, 11 Tho nrrn y did it self ho nor.,,

OnsERVATION.-Thc prnnona of the fi rst perso n is put in tli e ol•j nct ivc case
11
Ah me. I 11 U.Jf e 111i scrahl e ! 10

In exciam:-..tp r y scntt.>nces; ns,

~ 251. Appositives must be put in tlin same
case with the no uus which th ey modify; ns,
"The carlh is th e Lonl' s- li is ·w ho matfo it."
~ 202. An obj ect, when an action or a n·btion expresseL1 iu .a verb· or an ncljunct is to bl)
limited by it, should be in the Objectirn Case ;
as, "Th e JJation hon oreL1 them/' "The lot fo ll
upon !t.hn /' "He p;ave 11w tl1 n l)()ok."

011~1mvATI O N 7.- \rhcn th e n 'forc11cc i s to llr'o or ni o r c sin gu lnr o J.j ec ts, the
pronoun is fn t he pln ra l 1 if lh C'y n ro t aken cnllcclivel.r, lrnt in tho s ing-ulnr ff ,
tak en di strib 11 tlvc l_r; ns., 11 J<1hn and Jn111e s gn·ni up thf'ir wnlk;" "E:1ch mnn
nn d hoy t nok ()ff hi8 h'.1t ; 11 1 • Fr:tn "r 4 •r E 11g h11d w i ll l•·nd hr r :iid. "

ODSERVATION 8.-The c01npou1Hl r cbti'rcs 1 wh.oevet\ et c., s hould ho put In
th o case in which th e relativ e wouM be if th e compomul w en"' reso lv n l in to tho
nntecedent and th e rclntivc; :ts, H Whome-vcr llrn cap fitt ed m ig ht wc<tr it; 11 not
1d1oerer, bc c:rn~e w he n r esolved the scntC'nco would be," lle idw ni the cap,,,
etc. There Is s tri ctly aa elli psis of the subject in 1mch C.'.lses.

259. 01~ Ar. Ex1rn.r; rnEs,

_Pa11lt8 to be correl'lcd :-

I do n ot think nny on e s hould i11e11r <'<'11 ~ 11re for
Lcing tender of t.h cir r cp11t::ttin11. Each of' th l' m shall
11c rewa nl ecl in tlH'ir tnrn. But sl1 c frll a h11 g l1i11g
like one out of their right mind. If an Ari stoll c, or a

. !

§ ·2GO. UompellaUves, or o11jecLs addressed,
- are to be put in the N ominative Cast>: ns, "0
thou eternal One !' ' '' 0 pardon me, t11mi piece
of bleeding earth !''

OnS F:RVATI ON 6.- Jf tho objects referred to nre of rllfTcrcnt p~r::;n n ~, Urn pronoun tnkes the firs t perso n rnthcr t hnn th e second o r third , nnd tho second
rath er than the th ird ; as, " J oh n ~nd I will t~ik c ow· books ; you n.n<l Jn.m es
will tnke you.r8. 11

§

I

· :1 1

Pythago rn~, or a Galileo, suffer for t(1cir opinions, they

prec ious.,,

takes place nmong

151

0B SF RVAT IO'." 1. -Th c p ~l's h·c 0J.j 1·ct, !h t• ~jl('Cifying (ll •j (· ct, ;in 1l tl1e fortith·e

4..

object fo ll ow the Yerb wilh u ut llH' pr C'pOf'>ition; tl1t• re1nutc ohjrct if BC'Jiarnt c(l
from th e vnb rrrp1ir(' 8 the pre poM itinn; a ~ ," llt' g 11\'C' me th e lwok; 11 u Ile ;; nl~
th e bnok tn -nu."
Such exprcseion s as 11St: ndintr of th e m s uch pro!lt.aUIC' g1wst2 '' ( Bnn yan), nro
nccorrl in gl.r fault y .

·1

.-,..,.··

152

....
153

CONSTRUCTION.

CONCORD.

OnsERVATro:t 2.-Thc prcpo ~itlon is often omit.tell before n.n object cxprcBscd
fn the infinitive, or n clause ; ns, 11 \Vort11y to he lnvl'd;" in thl::; case to being
not a preposili11Jn 1 ?rnt the s ign of Lhc inflnitivC':; "None so poor 10 flo him r cl11
t~ r c ncr j
" n~' scrving that he shoulcI he h clt.l ln vcrpetnal relllt'mbr:mcl~ by hi!
count rymen."

On8ERVATIO•.-The principle extends nlso to phrases which tnke the sign or
the possessive on the finnl word; ns, u The kingd om of Gmrs sake i" u ':he
Caliph of Bngdn.d\5- divan;,, "Mnxirnilinn, the Emperor's p!l.lace; 11 '~ 'fh~ ]i,m·
peror Maximilian's palace." But this use is inelegant when the phrase is long
or the reference t o the principal part of it is obscure, nnd tlle form of the
expression shou ld bA cb=ingcd, ns hy subslltntl ng nn n1lj11nct.
If, howcn'r, tho pur;sf'sslve phrnsc be placed nftc1· tho word which it llm i l~
tlie princlpnl word of tho phrn so shou ld takn tho i:ilgn of tho possessive; ns, 1 1 I
cllned to ~dny nt JlC'lnvol's, tho rort11g11cao Envoy.,,-Swift. 0 The pnlnco wns
Mnximillfl.u's the cmp('J"OI". "
On the sam e gronn<l, if the po~SC! SSive phrase is composed of scvernl noun~
nil nllke relating to the Srtmc object, t he Inst only takC'S the sign of the poSSC'S?.ivc; ns, 1~ Jnmes, Peter, nnd Henry's father.,, But if rclnting to different objects,
the sign of tho posscssi vo must be nflixed to en.ch; ns, 11 P eter's nnd Henry'&
rather. 11

Oi;sv.nYATION 3.--Thc g r mtHl t~ prop r 1·T y follnw c 1l hy thC' p .1.<>~ivo oh.Jcct
wll. Ji out n IJ1'1' pn~it.Jnn. nut :IS tlw /.!l't'l\ l!Cl-fnrrn ln lll(/ 111:1.V l1 · ~ lt l111nl.1' l y li e 11 scd.
1l rnpping- its :::-1•r11 111ll rn 1•lt:ir~1e : h•I', In wlilr•h c:lsfl tlrn oli.J cct limiting

n~ :l 1101111 ~

t.lt1• 1101111 11111 ::; 1. dt•Jlf'Htl 011 :1 prep11s lll~111, t h H l1·111J,·n1·.y of bl1· hn ~ lll'rn tr> rt'ganl
this for m ns :t 11 ou11 unless tl1 C': gTrn 1itliv<J ollar:t cf.(•r is elt·:irly in tt-n(h•d. Th~1s 1

"The sc1Hlin.!; _of lhc m<'S~(' ll ~1·r 11 Is g-<'n c rally lt> b l· Jtl"(' fcrn·d to" The sending
the 111C's~c n,;.:- r r. ,, This Inst f11r111 is not, howe,·r r. ~s ~omc writern se e m to tllinkt
t111gnmunaticnl; for it has th e support of the b1.~s t u sage.

§ 263 .

OnAL Ex1mcrsEs. .1'1tults to be co rrected:-

\ Vho have I reason to lov e so mttch as thi s friend
of my youth. Ile wrote to my brother :1ml J, asking
1ts to help him. Ile a11d t.hcy we kno\\·, hnt 1Yho are
you? \Yho llid he len.rn t l1at from'? Docs he know
who he is Rpeak i11 g to? \VIH~n (lid you Cl' er know of
.John nllll he playing together? That will not do
for you or I. Ile ca11 not tell 1rho io go to. \Ye
arc -all accou ntab le, c:1 ch for hi s,cH: \Vhat agree ment
cnn there be between m en who commit crimes and
they who a11 thori;;e them? He gaYe John and I, each
a book. He that did the wroug, the laws should punish, uot I t hat rnfforccl the wrong.

§ 2G4. The subj ect of an attribute, when the
attribute is expn'ssecl by a noun or gerund,
shou ld be in the Possessive Case; as, "John's
cag8rn ess;" "IIis disclosurn of tile secr et;"
"Tli.eir prceence ;" "Onr iul'eriority;" "I£er
<.1 ehyi ng the messenger frustrated the sch eme;"
"'l'iiings grow ing to themselves are growtlt' s
abuse."

§

265. On.AL EXERCISES.

F ctults to be correctecl :-

. ~loses rod was turned iuto a serpent. Peter's,
Joh n's, and Andrew's occu1Jation was that of. fishermen. \Visdoms precepts form the good mans rntercst
and happinesfl. I bought the kniYes at Johnsons, the
cutl~rs. ·I got the book at Ton sons, an old-established
booksellers, and the publisher of many valuable books.
The gi rls school was better conducted formerly than
the boys. The peoples h appi ness is the statesmans
honor. Thomas disposition is better than his ~irothers.
OnBF.R\ATION.-Wh en sevPrn.1 modifiers are to be int.rodnced, they should be
nsed in harmony with one nnothe r, and with thC\ rest of the se ntenc"'·. This
general pri nciple bas d~verse npplicntions which may be sepnrnlely considered.

§ 266. The time inc1icatec1 by tense~inflections
should be in harmony with that indicated _by
other parts of' the sentence.
Thus, "I l1:we been sick yesterday" is faulty , iuas.m uch as have been expresses rcforencc to pre~ent time,
while the other modifier, yesterday, denotes past time.
It should be," I was sick yesterday." So, "I expectf!d
1•

•
154

--

CONSTRUCTION.

to have gone to New York yesterday" is faulty; for
have goi'ie indicates past time, while ex~Jccted look~ to
fnturc time; we can not expect what 1s past. Like-. .
wise, "Ptolemy taug ht that the earth was in the center of the universe,'' is faulty, because was expresses
past time, when no referen ce to tim e should Le exprcsse<l.
.
Unlike some other languages, the English language
<loes not r efer the time of ii depend ent verb to the
time of the principal, unless in the case of an infinitive.
Thus we say, using th e infinitiv es," I confessed my~clf
t o be g nilty;" "I co nfessed myself.to h"ve been guilt;'.
of playing truant the day before." B11t i11 th e use .of
a clause we say, "I confessed I wns g11ilty;" "I confe~s ecl that I had been guilty of tru:w cy th e day .b efore."

§ 2 6 7. O nAL ExmicrnEs.

F aults to be corrected:That writer has g iven an account of the manner in
which Chri stianity has formerly been propagated
among our heath en ancestors. I intended: to ~ave
written th e letter before he urged me to it. The
snmrncr has b<1en warmer than we expected it to have
hecn. After he yi sitcd Rome, he return ed to Sicily.
Always bear in mind that you might fail of success.
He will speak, if he could get the floor. Th e! wou~d.
listen t o the terms offered, if they can mortify their
i;illy pri1l c. He sai1l be is very unwell to-clay. Two
Yonrw o-entlcmen have made n discovery that there
was

Q H!11:2

'=' '='

11 0

Goel.

§ 268. \Vhen an action or relation is to be
modified by a clause in respect to it~ object as

CONCORD.

.

rtttr

155

an object of purpose, the verb of the clause
should be ill time either future or indefinite in
reference to the purpose ; as, "I will see that
· - he do it ; " "He managed that they sliould
arrive too late."
01;sr:RYATION.-Whcn tho clnuse expresses nn ohject wl1lch t~ not one of
purpo~e on the pnrt of tb0 subject of the principal verb, tho verb In llH' <" l:mso
mny tnk c pn•Sl'llt or deflntle time acconHng to the mrnnlng to be cnnvcy crl.
11
Thus. I will see how he do es lt; 1' 11 I will see how he w i ll do it;" u Ile
uuurngetl tba.t th ey ardfJ ed too lnte.11

§ 269.

ORAL

ExEncrsEs.

Faults to be corrected :--

He will take dnP. heed lest he miscarries. Be care. · · fol that thou breakest not any of the rules. I ha Ye
. toiled hard that he li ves at ease. I told him that I
will go. I promised him that if he came back to-morrow I shall rewarcl him well for his prornptuess.

§ 270. A modal clause modifying a conditional
verb expressed in the form of the imperfect tense,
· tr takes the same tense ; as, " Were he penitent,
he should be pardoned ; ' ' '' Next new-year's
'· day would be a happy occasion if our friends
·
n" could be all with us again.''
1
In other cases, it is either in indefinite tim e or
such as the sequence of time requires; as, "I
·_ can go, if it be pleasant;" "I can go if it sliall
be pleasant ; " " If he repent, he will be par. cloned ; '' " If l\e will repent, he will be 1xu·~ cloned ; " not, "If he slwws penitence when his
father shall see him; he will be pardoned."
§ ·2 71. 0 RAL Ex:EifctsEs.

Fault8 to be con·ected :-

"

ltl .&.

15li

CONSTRUCT ION.

Bo especially c::trefnl th a t thon givest n o offen se to
tl1 0 aged or helpleRs. Though he urges m o yet more '
earnestly, I sha ll not co mpl y, unl ess h e advan ces more
forcible reasons. I rdiall return on J\fonday 1rnle t~s it
rain s. fflio be but in li e:il t h, lam co ntent.. Though
li e wc ·re lier friend, IH\ cliil not :i.LL1• i11pt. to jnst.iry h er
co ndn ct. He will, Oil hi R r\'l.nrn, iind r l':i il y clllploy·
ment if he prov cB expert ill his hnsin css. Thou gh he
fall s, he shall not be 11tterly cast d o wn. \Va s h e ever
so g reat, such condnct wo11ld debase him . \Vas l to
tell the whole truth, I shonld not be crc<1i tcLl. If he
<loes hnt approve my en<l o:iYors, it will b e a n a mple
r e wanl. On co ndi tio n that he come~, I \\·ill co nsent
to stay.

§ 272. In componml se nt<mces or compound
·members of senteJt ces, the forms should be
alike, in onler to show the union.
Thi s principle has application wh crc Yer a ch oice is
allowed in the mocles of ex pn•ssion. The following '
instances of fa11lts iu respect of this rule m:i,y be -particularly namccl : 1. In t h e union of" the anliqne a.11<1 tl1c m odern
styles; a~, "Ile stoppeth not to <·011s il1c r his ways and
pres:>es on thou ghtlc~s l y to rni11 ."
2. In the union of :wxiliary forms with sim ple forms; '·
as "Did h e visit Rom e a11J forg ot that :i, B rn L11 s eve r ~,·
'
.
r•
liYCd there?"
,. •.
3. Jn t he uni on of plural ''"i th singnlnr forms; as, ' ·
"Thou Ji vest wo r~c than the h eat.hen, a ncl they might
teach you ,risclom."
4. In the selection of prouonus ; :is, " Ho tliat weighs

CONCORD.

157

the matter impartially and well, and who also considers," etc.
5. In the union of proper adjectives with adjeC'tive
clauses; as, " His piety was genuine and fervent, and
that mingled with the whole course of his thoughts
· and actio11s."
6. In the nnion of nouns and adj ectives as like parts
. of a compound predicate;· as, "When ignorance is not
willful and sin."

§ 273. ORAL ExERCISEs: Faults to be cor1·ected:Thc glory that fills immensity aucl iuhabiteth eternity.
' Then did the officer lay holcl on him ancl executed
him immediately.
Thou art a friend that hast often relievecl me, ancl
who has not deserted me now in the time of peculiar
need.
He is a man that approves of wholesome discipline,
and who recommends it to others.
If thou have promised, be faithful to yo_ur engage. ment.
There 1s no talent so nsefnl, or which puts men
more out of the reach of accidents, than that quality
generally possessed by persons of cool temper, and is
in common language called discretion.

~Ll

ARRANGEMENT.

159
.;,!

CIIAPTim III.
ARRA NGEM EN1:

§ 274.

GnAMMATI CAT, Anr:ANGEJ\rENT

r espects, -

1. Th e onl cr o f th e principal clements n[ the sentence ;
2. The order of the s11hordi 11ate elements in refer·
ence to each other and to the prin cipal elements.

§ 275. Th e logical ord er of th e principal clements of
the sentence is : first, the subj ect; n ext, the copul a ;
a nd, la st, the predicate; as, "The sun shines;" "To
acq uain t us with ourselves may be one use of the precept; " " Th at lii s care for his works ceased at their
publication is hardly cred ible."
OnsF:R VATTON.-To thi s i:;cn crnl r 11l o t.hr.ro nrc m nny <':'(C<'ptlnn~, ns other

principl1·s co me in to m od ify the nppll catio n of i t. The rnl n s hould be obsC'r ved 1
h uwcvr r, un l\'88 in a cknr case nf' cx<;c· pllo n i nncl es pecially s hou ld not be de~
parted from wh en c?carn css forbitls.

Exc BPTIONS.-1. In int errogation, t h e co pula, or a
part of i t, or the interrogative word or ph rase in the
predicate, is placed first; as, "A re our consciences so
t ende r?" "Cwi yon aid me with propriety ?" "TVill
yon be pcrmittell to go ? " " \Vhat a ca reless, eve n
d epor tment hath yo ur b orrower?" " How often is
the labor of years thus lost forever?"

2. Imperatives take the subject a~e r the copnla; as,
"Be thou my guardian!" "Let th e world scoff."
3. Co 111liti o 1!~Li clauses witl1011t conjun ctions take the
subject af'tcr the co pul a; as, " Co ulJ they hav e b ee n
co ntented with moderate employments and mod erate
g ain s, they mig ht lmve prospered in their busin ess; "
"IJ:.ul t hey Leen wiser, they woultl have escaped the
loos ; " "Be th ey ever so sharp, they will not outwit
him."
4. For emphat ic distinction and in passionate expression, the predicate or a part of the p redicate may
be placed first; a~, "Bca11tiful, no lloubt, a re all the
forms of' N at11rc;" "Aru1111tl thy hills and mo1111tai11s
clin g, like gatherin g mi sts, the mig ht y memori es of
the Hevolu t ion;" " U pon us, t hen, peculiarl y, d evo lv es
th e duty of fcc<ling the fires upon t hat kindl y hearth; "
"Herc fl oats th e same banner which rustled above our
boyish head s."
OnsF.nv ATI ON. -·To softe n the repul siveness of nu in versio n of the lo;;l c:il
or<ler o f th e n.i;,,sertlvc sente nce to nn English en r, wh e n e mphnsis or p:ission
<l oes not prompt it. th e word s there and it nrc u sed to ln trndnce the sl'ntence.
T hey nrc 1111..·1·e cxpleth· cs when 61) used, hnvln,; no mea n ing 1 n .1vl onl y se rve to
ln iJicate n il <' pnrtu1·c fr o m th e rt'gnlar order o f co ns lrnction. Tlwy c:rn not ho
pars1.:d. fo r th<>y in no w:iy nffcct th e t.bought. S ec § 232. u Tliere lt es, upon
tl1 e othe r Hitl c of the wid e Al11rnlic, I\ beautifu l isla nd , fomou s in story rnHl
song .11 u It Is r<' por tccl thn.t the tr oo ps nre di sl>:ui<l cil.,, u It will he snhl that
our passions nre not in o nr powt>r. ,, ~ 1 It is imag in ed by ma.ny thnt 'vhcnevcr
·
tlt c:J· us pire to 1.J cn.se, they nrc t'Cll llirc d to be mcny . 11

5. Th e ord er ma y b e in ve rted in order to show a
rcfo rcnce to the prccecling sentence; as, "This he did
baLi tnally."
6. The logical onler, once more, y ields often to the
demands for con sistency; as in the sentence, "Silver
and gold Laye I none," emphasis having inverted the

161

CO'.'\STRUCTION.

.ARRANGEMENT.

order b y placing th e obj ect of t he a ction first; the
sulij ect antl Ycrh a lso in co 11 ~ i stc 11 cy ch ange placesh avc I in stea(i of I luwe. Su in th e foll o win g se nte nce
th ere is a simil a r inY crs ion; "\Vh oso sheLklcth m:tu's
uloo d, by ma n shalt his bluu(l b( \ F<hc<l."
7. Th e rc~t ri c ti o n s of poC' t.i eal co mpositio n r cn(l cr
n e<'. ('i"~ :1 r y 11rneh wi ikr dq 1a rt . 111 T~ f"ro111 t.11 c proper
logie:d onlcr than is allo wal.l c i n prose tlisco11 rsL'. .In
poet ry, m oreover, fo rm rn lcf;, riml thi s prin cipl e of
form r equires vario us d ev iations fr om strict logical
order in which clearness is the co ntrollin g prin t:ipl e.

§ 278. Modifiers should be placed as near
as mn,y be to the inincipal parts which th ey
m odify .
They should also generally precede.

160

§ 276.

0 R AI.

Exmw1sEs.

Faults to be corrected :-

Fo r the last yea rs of m:rn the first must mak e provis ion.
Thi ~ w e <1ncslio n, at. least as it Las al ways impressed
with a f l.~e lin g of 111 elancho ly.
Th:rn th e a nalogies just gi n~ u I kn ow of none
stronge r.
Than thi s 110 in q nir y can b e of g reater interest.
Th e ri ~ i n g t omb a lofty co lnmn b ore.
Doth Sil o this and J on1an did excel.
H

nu t ~ Un g!1 nncl slrnrpcsl Fit crl di d fa r cxccccl
Th e sli :lrpn css of Li s cr uel-re ndin g clciw s.''

I-Var at t hat tim e there w ::ts 11 011e.
Into this hole thrn s t them sel ves th ese n oman senators.

§ 277 . Th e most ge neral p ri11 cipl c of' :i.rr:rn g <' lll!'llt. in
r ega rd to the s ubo rd imte <'k111c 11ls i ~ , th at t he r t'lalc~l
parts shou!J Lu ]Jlaccd i11 t he eloses t prox i111ity, aeeonlin g to the deg ree of rclatio uship.

§ 279. Simple definitives, and those whieh
exp ress properties of t he obj ect, must generall y
preced e ; while d eliuiLives by adjuncts anu
clauses, and also those whieh express r elation s,
usually follow their nouns.
Epithets may also, like modifiers by relatio ns,
foll ow their obj ects.
Ex:u1 l'LEs.-Three thousand bra ve men w ere t h er<'.
Th e p erso n who told me lter story had see n her at a
masq ucr:it1e. An elevated gen ius employed in li ttle
thin gs a ppears like t he sun in h is evening declin ation.
E\·c ry i11li al>ita11t or a town , trader or otltcrw ii;c, was
liabl e to be claimed by th e curia. The q uestio ns of
f aith and lloctrinc b ecame m o re co mplex. A g 1:ie11lturc a nd comm erce, insecure as to their accuinulutions,
weak and exposed, d ecli11 cd in t his cl1aotic co11di tio11 .
When s~ve rnl nilji.:ctin... s p rC'c f' 1fo th e noun, ep itbcts gen('ra ll y el1011hl he
p laco1l n c:u est th e n uu n; nn d. th C' n of t h o r1 eHniliv C's the 111 ost. :;cn<'ric in onk.r.
Thu s L:rnth snys: ' ' E vt·n (\\l r.5-c lf, in tli l'St' o ur hu1111Jlur lu c nbrali o n ~, t un e onr
l h.•8-t me:i.sun·d C:tll(, llt' l' S,'' pi:lcin .:: t h e qii t lt<"t l11unhl1.• r :i.ft1•r the dC' flnitln'S t hexo
mu-, nnil 111emwred aftc·r 011 r f1esf. If thC' l'pill1et 11c•Jongs on ly to th C' obj ect ns
li111i t1·1l l>y tl 1kJi11 itin:, i i Ill II St cif 1·n11rs1 · p n·cN!O Lli c dyfi1iiti't'C; R8, "The 110Me
l·: ng lish cfl.Y~l lia; ,, th e <' t•ilh l·l ·1111J,le h 1· i 11g lirn ite<l to E11 (!lf!~h ca1:alin · s1u'('iflcal1 y . ~n we :-::1y "n tall .\·onn _~ 111 :rn,' ' h e<"3.llSC W t~ wi!'l h to speci fy on e w!111 i ~
"tall" fn.1 1n :1111 011g Lh e l:i1 ·g1·r d as s pf ·· yonn'..:; 111 c 11.'' lf, h oweve r. w e w t·rc
FJ1<•:tl~i 11 .~ ot' I wo cl:\ SSt·R vi' 11 w11.
t

( ttl/

11 11 .I .~!101 I, an d w l shc<l t.o d et:.ig nnte on l' 11r

be f•ff!IWI' cla ~s who w:1s .\nun::, " L' ~l 1 n 1 d.\ :-: :l_,.

11 !10 11 11 !I t , 1fl

ma 11 . I )1 ·f! 11it i vcs,

c\1: 111 t1 11 s tr:1th·c s , nnd nu llll!I als l;l'll t: ral ly, 11r c Ct·dl' :itt r iLut i n ·s ; :u•, " T ia.: Sc 111 :u1y

Uni ft_v

Ll'cl'8. ··

Th e co ntrolling prin ri pl <' i5 th:'l.t C'aC'h limit in:::: w1Jnl shn 11 lil limit irnnH'cli:itc·ly

tho n t xt h ig he r class. It shou ld. bo remarked that Llli s pri11cip lc uf <llT~L n ge 111 c ut

162

CONSTRUCTION.

does not respect componncl ndjectlve moclltlers, wh ether the connecting conjun ction is cxprcssc<I or not. A rlwtol'i c:il, not n ~rnmmnlical l'•'in ciplc, d<'te1~
ml11 e3 th e orrlcr in whkh the sevl.'ral adJ1·cti,-es that nrc brought l<•gc lher In n
co mpound adj ectiv e phrnso should be nrrnng-ecl.

§ 280. Adverbials shon]d generall y precede
but ever be closely joined with the attri lrnte
1vords which th ey modify ; as, "Tlwy luzbititally ascribed eve ry eveut to the ·will of tlte
Great Being, for whose ])Ower nothi11g was too
vast, for whose inspection nothing was too minute ; " "They were deeply r eau in the oracles
of God;" "The explanation may easily 1e
fonnll."
§ 281. Moclals properly precede bnt should
ever be closely joined with their copulas ; as,
"These, perltaps, are foolish feelings."
If the cop ula is com po site, the prnper place
of the in odal is between the parts ; as, " 'l'hc
task. has probably been finished ; " "He has
not b een absent long."

§ 282. The obj ect of an action or r elation
shouk1 follow closely the word expressi ng the
action or relation ; as, ''The smith hammers tlte
fron;" "The drought is fatal to tlte springing
vegetation.''
§ 283. Obj ects stanc1iug in different degrees
of relation sl1ip to the action, follow in the order
of d ependence : the passive object, first ; next,
the remote object; and the object of r esult, Jast;
as "His father introduced him to his new as-

'

ARRANGEMENT.

163

sociates; '' ''He attached himself to their society
solely for their benefit.''
01>8!'.RVATION.-To this rule, which should be observed unless for cl enr reasons, ther" a ro mnny exceptions, ns it yields rendily to other principl es, when
cle3nwss d ocs not forbid. Thus the remote object is, with n view to hnrrnony,
ofte n placed before th e pnsslve object ; ns, "Ile gave him the book;" "It
c:xcrtC'd npon Hociety n. pro<ligi1n1s influen ce.,,

So, n1so, often for emphnsis the

order is Inverted; ns, "To the Bible he more nud more exclusively nddresseu
himself."

§ 284. Pronominal words and all correlative
words should be so placed as to show the relation'.
§ 285. In complex sentences, the extraneous
paHs should be introduced either at the beginning or at the fin;t separation in the parts of
the sentence ; as, '' The poet, says Schiller, is a
citizen not only of his country but of his time ; "
not, '' The voet is a citizen, says Schiller,'' etc.
Onsmn-ATIO:<.- Iu th e npplicntion of this, ns of nll the rul es of nrr:ingcment,
ns divers principles cmn c into play, there is laq;e occasion for th e exercise of
jndg m ent nnd t.aste. Only g"ncml clirectio11s can be given. The sentence
shoulcl be ns compact ns possible; nnd ca re should be taken not to obscure tlrn
thou ght by inserting eleme nts in wrong places.

§ 28G. ORAL ExERCIRES. Faults in arrangement to
be corrected:Under§ 279. The mansion was a new elegant house.
The two last ki11gs of this race were put to death.
Tl1e three first stanzas may Le omitted.
·we bought t,\,o black pairs of kid gloves.
Goel heapeth favors on his servants, ever liberal and
faithful.
"\Ve differ in our opinions often, only because we do
not alike understand one another.

CONSTRUCTION.

1 G±

Under§ 280. By grcat.m~ss I <lo n ot only m ean the
Lnlk o f any sing le object, l>ut the large ness of a whole
Y lCW.

I was engaged form erl y in that business, but I never
shall Le again co ncern ed in it.
Th e plan ets arc in m oti on pcqwtn:1lly.
From \\'hat has Lecu saill you will 1111<lerstantl r eadily
what must Le our conclusio11.
Not only w as he hnsily occ11pic<l, L11t pleasantly
aud s uccessfully.
vVhen favors arc confe rred speedily~ they are
d oublc(l.

Under § 28 1. They harl i11 vest ig ntcd the matter
with g reat carncstm'sS ce rt ainly, b11t witho ut much
success.
Ile would hav e acco mpli shed hi s ohjL'Ct in making
t11 e j o nrn l'J, p ossiLl y, if his crnrnd hnd n ot b een
secretly disclosed to his crH•mics.

Under § 282 , 2 83. In s uch cases, the pronoun is
govcrnccl by, and consccp1 e11tl y ng recs with the preceding w ord.
'Yhen we ha Ye l1a<l for lhc pl easures of Yirtuc a true
t aste, we can hav e 11 0 relish for tho se o f vice.
Th ese are the con siderat ions \\·hicl1 I l:t y m ost stress
11 pon.
l~i vc Ll1 <~ prai :::c li e tlesc·rn's t o lii111 , but ll o not withh ol<l lll l' rit <'d c<~ 11 s11 r c from liim.
Thi s g n ·a\. p oliti ci:1 11 rl c:-:i,.: l <'tl f'r om n11 tl renounced
hi s d esig ns, wl1 e11 he fonn cl tlt c111 i111prnctieau lc.

lincler § 284. Thon thys l'lf art g uilty of those same
sins, who no w co ucl emuest others.

ARRANGEMENT.

165

.. It is not reasonably to Le ex pected of such men, to
administer onr affairs upri g htly, as have themselves
procured their oflices by corrnption.
The Briti sh co nstitution stands like an ancient oak
in the wood, among tl1e nations of the earth; which,
after having overcome many a blast, overtops the
other trees ·of the fores t.
·

Under§ 285. A certain prince when he invaded the
Egyptians placed, it is said, in the front of his army
a uumber of cats ancl other animals which were worshiped by those peo ple..
Cautious of giving offense I shall l eave, therefore,
the illust ration of your virtues to other hands.
It would be unsafe, considering his profligacy, to
tru st him .
Such l:111g11a ge was extremely censuraule, regarding
it in its real character.
Edu catio n is as uecessary for woman in h er sphere
of action as for man in his, to say th e least.
.1Jfiscellaneous.-If L o nis XIV. was not the grca~est
kin g, h e ·was the best actor of m ajesty, at least, that·
ever fill ed a throne.
·
The emb::u·1:ass me11ts of the artificers rendered the
prog ress Ycry slow of t he w ork.
.
They arc no w engaged in a stncly of which they
hav e lon g wi shed to kn o w the usefuln ess.
'
The emper or r ct'n se <l to convert at once the truce
into a <lcfi11iti\·e treaty.
Pauses of ease nnd r elaxation, labor necessarily rcq uircs; a.i1d the Jcliei o11 s11 ess of case makes us comm only unwilling to retum to labor.

·111.011n-.-...--•ll!ltee..-w11o111ellllill'..__~,~-t.~_:.t..

166

CONSTRUCTION.

He who is blessed with a clear conscien ce, in the
worst conjunctures of human life, enj oys an elevation of
mind peculiar to virtue as well as dignity and peace.
The hand of indust ry may change in a fow years the
face of a co untry.
There is no talent so useful toward success in lmsill ess, or which puLs men m ore out o!' the reach of acci<.1c11ts, than that quality generally possessed by persons
of cool t emper, and is, in common language, called
discretion.
The deaf man, whose ears were opened, and l1is
tongue loosened, doubtless glorified tho great phyi:;1cmn.
This is the person whom we are so much obliged to.
Another passion which tho present age is npt to run
into, is to make children learn all things.
Valleys.are more fortile gc11crnlly than mountains.
Zealots seld om are distiuguished by chari ty.
Attainments nrnde easily are uot of much value oft en.
Knowledge is only to be a<..:quirod by application.
The good man not only de serves the respect but ,t l "
·love of his fellow-beings.

CHAPTER IV.
PROPIUETY.

§ 287.

which requires that
each clement of expression be used in its own and
only its own proper use, has a threefold application,
namely:1. To the use of the proper ·element;
.2. To the nse of tho proper inflectional form';
3. To the siugle use of the same element in the sanie
sontc11ce.
GuA11nrA.TICAL PROPRIETY,

§ 288. The first principle of Grammatical
Propriety requires : -·
1. That subject-words and predicate-words, concretes and abstracts, and .their several subordinate
. forms, be used in the sentence according to their respective natures.
2. That in the use of modifying elements, adjectives
modify only objects of thought; adverbials, only predicate-words; and modals, only copula-words; and the
s 11bonlinate forms be nsed each according to its proper
11at11ro.
3. That in the use of form-words, prepositions be
metl to show their proper r elations between objects of
thought; conju11ctio11s to show their proper relations
between copula clements; and all correlative words in

168

169

CONSI'H. UCTION.

PROPRIETY.

th ~ irpro~)e r conn ections; aml that auxiliaries be used
as 1~dl ecl10 nal helps, and not as pri11 eipal clc m e nu~ , nor

.Now-Adve rb of Tim e ; Conjnnction, ".Now, Jhrnbbns was n robber."
Ov6r-Adverb, "All is o·ver ;" P repo•itlon, "Over the river."
Sha /l--Predi cnte Auxiliary nml Co 11ulo. Auxiliary.
S ince- Advcrh , "He hns not been seen Bi nee ;" Preposition, "Since thnt time;"

as form-wonls of relation.
~n.~EltYA:rtoN-Thcrc . i s n. cu n sid c ralJlc 11t11uhnl' of w onh whidi are ll ~r. il for
6~ ' c,1 .il pu~poses, so 1:1.c l11 n (•g a s prc posili o ns. sn 111 ..tini(· i; n ~ t•n ii,i l llH' Lio r i.~. Homo
tim ts ns p1on o.1tns. I h esc word s :11-r• t• \·1·r o 11 tlu· iri r n ·n:-: u in th t· JWO" l'C' ~~ of th o
~ 1rng t!flg"C . . A li st of tho~e m ost w orth y of nll1· r~Lit1 n to th<' l<·:urn·r ~Yill not l

111appropr1atc. h er~.. " "''"ls ll Sl' d ),otJ1 as ad\'l•l'LS 1111<) n<ij<•c ll\' cs nre for
most part onnttetl 111 thi ~ li ~ t..

0'.:

Woi ·d B u8ed fo1· di;(!ere11t O.ffice.• in Speed1.
A-Arti cle, HA boa t; ., Pr·r pos iti o n, " I l!O a fo.dli ll !:.,,
.About-Adv r rb , " 1f p~ roa' ms a Oau'
t · ~ , p n ·po!i ·Jtton;
· ·- " Il c w rPt e about thc war ,,
.Ab
ove-A dn.· rb, u Il e i5 onrs aUor e; ,, J'n ·pos ilion, u~'f borf tli e <'lll'lh. ''
.
~/;er-~dv ~· rli , n Jl e l'Ct lll'll<'tl soo n t1j. e1·; ,, P n•pnRilion, u lf e <':Jill<' o/te.i· ni c ,,
l -A d.r ecL JVL', HAU hours;,, No 11n , u lJ c.•r liltl e a ll.,, A<lr••i·b 1 1 \J. I I k.
all Jl!dt•."
'
J
'-"
1
I
ll ('. l t-' l' ' S

.A s-.Aclvl'
l" U,
•
•

H

Co11Jl lfH' LIO l1
l:iaw
brfo rc.,,'

4: I
H e is n .~ proud •ns 1iooi··,,
1
,.. 8 JlC p :1s:~c d, tl 11• ITH\ 11 !-'li n11f.cfl ·"
14
No 10 11 o..... r r as it \\"l• S ,. , , p~ L·I·.1 rl\.e ]' 111111
. 1u11 , Snclt as I 11 cn.:I r
h

"B · ~

B efvr
c-At!H rb, " It !1a <l li:1ppC'u ctl /JeJ ore ,·" l're pu siti<•ll ,
l t1ti1rn.11
-'1,e l~lc-A d Y C' rb,

11

I JU

re tl IC, 1', e \04
.

ll n wr11t bchn f': ,, P n • po ~ ition, uR el m r h i~ r:nik .' '

~e8ule.s-- ~\d\·l· r U. 1 ~ Al l th e w orld bt.,' irlf!.~ / '' P n• iui ~ ition. l • JJr's id f !~ him,,
.Both- Adjt•ct h· <;, H)Jrdli g-<·11 e rnl s ; ~' Co 11j1111r~ lio11 , "Both king- :11 11 1 sulije~·t."

JJ1d-.1\ rh·erh,

i1

.All an· ilut <lu s t.; ., Co11junt.'Lio n

Pre p osition , HAii

/Jut hi111.,,

II]'

,

t I

>ll

.
lC w:is tn iE-l:i kt•n;,,

By-A<l v~· t:IJ, H Yt•ars ha ve pa s~.(' d by,-,, Pn·po:; iLi o n, H!Jy th <' ri,·cr.,,
D o- Au xiliary Yl'rli a11 d Pri11 eip:il Ye rh.
El."!e-Adjcet ~\'(' , _ 11 \\'J 1at el8e c:t n h e do?,, Con.i11111•tion, "R'IRe wonltl I ~.dn· it. " ·
Enough-A dJ ectin:-, 1 ;Enouah goods; " Adv e rb. " \\' 1: 11 e1lOUf/h 1,,, .Nuu 11 ' ' 11'

lJ :lS 81l01l(Jft .n

1

ETa}Jt-Co11j11ncti on, "1'-'xcept t hC'Ee nl.Jillc ·" l'rci•o "t·
l JondF>.' '

'

s 1 1011,

I.!

"E'Xcrpt th t•sc

Fo 1 ·-.Prc r: '. · ~~ition., 11 fi"or lii s f11 trrr·st;" Co nj nnctiu n, ~ 1 Fm· it fs inj uriot1 s ;,, Ex~
pl el1r c•, ·}u1· l11m to n e t thus i s sh a1111 •rnl. 1 '
Jf(!·v e- A11xili ;11·y Yl'r h a nd Prin c i pn.1 \° (•rlJ.
l l o 7teve1·-A,h·t'rh. " ll oiceve1' small; ,, Conju11 c li o 11, HffvltftCI ·, i t n 1:1y not lie
11
M1 bad :1s r <.' p ort(· d .
I nde ef/ - l\ l t1da l, H It w:i !-' in 1l eed t ru e: ,, c ·
·
w:i s :l f:ir ct!.
o 11.1 11 11 c t1 0 11 , " ln dce(l tl w proc cdut·n

Jt- I'rv11111111 and J ~lu • t o ri<' :i l Expl <' tiYr.
Le/.-An'.'>iliary \' c rlJ a11d l'l'i11ci1 1a l Y l·l'h.
J.rotw1'.tli standina-Prl'po sili on, '' .~\ ~o tni th.;ta1Hi i i1a tl10 nun;"
·
Co n.J unction,
H Th e motion was carril!d, notlt i t/1standi11()., ,

Conj 1111 ction, HSince t.bls is s o."

S o-Ad v~ rb, "So grrat;" Co njunctio n, "So trnth be In th e .field;" Interjection.
That-A dj ectiv e, "That mrm;" Conjunction," I th ink that they will be here."
'!'ill-Preposition," Till next w eek;" Conjunction, "'l'ill o.l l be lost."
To-S ig n of ln tl ni th •e a nd Prl'posltlo n.
Too-Adv erb," Too h igh;" Conjttnctlon, "lie, too, will lie present."
Until-J'reposltlon, " UntU 111 ornin:;;" Conjnnctiou, "Until he n1·rive."
lV/wt---lnterrogative Prououn, "What news?" Compound ]~Plntive Pronoun,
"I kn ow what h e will say ;" Interj ection," What I might Rome bnve been
tn.kc n?"
lVhile-A<l verb, "While tarrying ther e; " Conjunction;" lVMl e th e facts showed
the cn ntrn1·y;" Noun," Worth w hile;" V erb,'; Let us iohile nway this life."
ll'ho, Who Be, Whom., Whiclt-Jntcrrogntl ve and Hclatl vc Pronouns.
Wi ll-A uxlllnry Verb an<l Prlucipnl V erb .
Yet---Atlverb, "A few yet remain;" Conjunction," Yet, is it a false conclusion."

§ 289. ORAL E XER CISES. Fa·ults in Grammatical
P1·01n-iety to be corrected:1. In use of Subject-words and Predicate-words .
Careless and imprudent, giddy aud fickle, ungrateful and interested everywh ere m et us.
Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound.
Consulting of th e besl authors will make him learned.
It is dangerous playing with edge tools.
I'iety is constant end eavoring to liv e to God.
2. In use of Jlfodifying Elenients.

I expeet to take the soonest and fastest packet.
Ile reads proper, and 1vrites very n eat.
She had many virtues, aucl '''as exceeding beloved.
Few co u!J. speak b etter or nobler on the subject.
llis b ehavior prev iously to this outrage was not
exccptio11able.
The fruit tasted delieious.

---------

----...
171

CONSTRUCTION.

PROPRIETY.

All of them books are mine.
Th e h our is ncnr passc<l.
'Vheth er he will fl Uccced or no, is uncertain.
Ifo 1Yas the wi sest m:tn of any in the co1n-e11tion.
Th e virtues like his arc 11 ot easily acq nin.: l1 .

He had a taste of such studies and consequently
made great proficiency.
I had been to London the year befc?re; and was to
spend the snmme r at Paris.
Except he take great care, he will stumble.
He promised something more besides this.
No other bnt l1is own brother came in.
They can not doubt but that I have acted uprightly
in this business.
They are seld om or ever in town.
llis behavior was equally silly as migentlemanly.
Do you think this is so good as that?
They had no sooner risen, but they applied themselves to their studies.
'Vhcther virtue promotes our interest or no, we
mu st :ulherc to h er dictates.
Din•<.:tly the clock struck, the g uest appear ed.
Ile has not that self-eonfic1e11ce as is desirable.

170

3. In tlw use of F'o1·11Mcords and Cvrrelutil'es.

The matter was no sooner proposed, hut h e priYately
withd_rcw to consider it.
He has too much seuse aud pruden ce than tu Lecome
a clnpe to such a rtifi ces.
Snch m en as :1(-.t tre:icherou:::ly oug ht to h e a\·o i<lcd.
De ready to succo r snch perso ns 1vl10 need thy assista11c e.
\Vithont yon consent to it th e party will not go.
The election r es ulted Yery cliffore11t than he cxp ectecl.
N either d espise or oppose wh at thou dost n ot understand.
The weather is not as f:woralil e as we hoped.
A:> far as I am able to judgl', li e acquitted himself
well.
H e is already arrived.
The event wns dilforent to hi:-; ex p,cctat10n.
He has a difiicu It y of fixin g his a ttc11 ti on.
Th ere was n o water, and thuy sullered fo r thii·Rt.
. " Tc may profit from goo<l co un sd, ns well ns from
f;ood example.
Complianuc to soliciLatio11 s to e vil compa11io11s is
easy.
It is n, principle in uni so n lo our 11ature.
Ilis offer was aeccptcd of by his frie1Hb.

"

§ 290. The second general principle of grammatical propriety requires the use of the proper
i11ilectional form.
§ 201. ORAL EXER CISES. Faults in respect of tlie ·use
of Inflectional Fonris to be corrected:"\Visdoms precepts form the good mans interest and
happiness.
The strata was rich in minerals .
The serapltims veiled their faces.
It was a striking phenomena.
The sheafs were large and munerous.
The two fatl1er-in-laws were both present.
Ile prescribed thre.e spoonsful.

172

CONSTRUCTIO~ .

l\l:i,n iR subj ect to many woR.
A more healthier spot c:i,n 11arc1l y be fonnc1.
Th e forth eres t town on the borders was r eac h ed m
saf<·ty.
He c ~rrc1 for n oho<ly lmt hisscl f.
They hai l hegn11 \.1> lc:ffe the vessel, b efore any one
had came to tl1 cir rescue.
lfo ii:til went t cJ C harlesto n.
I throwcd my sto ne inlo t he a ir.
The ship l:iys in the h arb or.
IIe had l:1icl i11 l>c<l all th e mornin g .
They <lrn11k 11p all the li<pwr Llll'y eonlcl flllll.
.Joim 11cver tcl lecl me of it.
l f they tlonc nothing, they tl cscne 11 0 pay.
He bad wrote a letter to him :tbout th eir father.

§ 292. The third general priHciple of graunnatieal prnpriety r equires t11at the same elem ent
or e .q1ressio11 Le ernployecl only jn a si ng le use
or r ~la tion in tlte same seuteuce.
§

203 . OnAL K'\:El~C lSES.

.Ftwlts in double use of

elem ents to be corrected :Th c:sc r e111arks I offe r afler long and seriou s cons iclernt10 11. a nd sl1 ou l<l receive a <'.:rntlicl n1Hl pati011t h earJ i l .~~·.

Tl1c friclld thnt ri sitecl me aml l entcrtaincLl so freely
l 1a s h»lr:l\'c'd lll<'.
IL is cliili cult to fiJl(l a man that will Le faitlil'td and
" ·c e:111 tr u:::t..
I will wait her e till next month and tho steamer .
a.rri ve.

PROPRIETY.

173

§ 294. ORAL EXERCISES. Promiscuous faults in
G1·ammatical Propriety to be corrected:The court sets to-day. They have ate their dinner.
The army fought brave. The horses were drove on
board. The riv er had overflown its banks. His hat
is newer than yonrn. He had wrote these letters. He
was the best player of any in the country. She sung
sweet. Knowledge has been spreading and will do so,
while our free institutions last. An univenml peace
prev ailed through the world. vV ealth is easier ac.quirccl than kept secure.' 0 that h e was wise. He
h as 110 other claim but that of a suppliant in distress.
· Of all the soldiers in the company this is the taller.
For a l~ng time they set silently; till at last when
patience was almost exhausted, the performance begun.
·H e has wore out his heal t h in the service and hadn't
ought to enlist again. He acted worthy of his high
r eputation. There is no position in life so high as can
not be reached by th e waves of adversity. His whole
life was spent in doing of good. H e feared lest he had
come too late. His whole behavior was surprising
strange. Of all other proceedings this was the most
unpardon able. Socrates was wiser than any Athenian.
This is the best counsel which I ca n gi Ye in the matter.
If h e had hav e go ne the clay before, he woukl have succeeded. His father learnell him to practice his own evil
acts. The people had not ought to nm after demagogues.
I asked him to set down for a while. The freshet was
very great and all the meadows were overflown. They
accused him with the theft. The aifair was managed
as quiet as possible. The ancients never see such
wonders of in ventiv e a rt. J ames was easier gained

174

CONSTRUCTION.

ov er than John. The book i s printed very neat. It
was 11 ever hcanl tell of that Lh c sea l1at1 r ose over the
wharf. If it do 11 ot rain to-n1orro11, it will next d ay
sure. Once th ey are go11 c, w e c:rn 1w111:igc as w e like. .
He ~ved out th e b ord ers a11d t hen he pl:i11te1l the fl o wer·
b eds. Ile d eclared h e wo uld not leave t hem except
they promi sed to return t o l1is l1 011 sc. Tlie i11fl11 cne e
h e h a(l over the assembl y was frtr in forior in their estimation titan what hi s reputation wannnl l'<l them .to
exp ect. Th e bargain was broke just to s ui t l1i s wi Rhcs.
H e h all came a g reat dista nce. Th e " 'ar d o ne more
h a rm t l1au the plag ue. lle beseeched them n ot to
l eav e liirn. Any man which has his souses will tell
you b etter.
H e was far ahead of mn!Litud es " ·11 0, ciLhcr in our
01n1 or in other countries, liave b orn the 11ame.
IIe opposed th e most r ema rkable co rrupti ons of the
church, so as that hi s doet rincs w er e embraced by
great numb ers.
No p erso n was CVl'I' so p erpl exed or sustained the
m ortificatio ns as he has done to-clay.
.,
"\Vh cnce have there arose such a great variety of
opinions a nd tcneLs in r eli g ion?
The Lusi 11 ess was no soo ner opc11 ctl, but it was cor(_lially acquiesced in.
JU:my pcrso1rn will not b elieve bnt what they are
free from prejudices.

CHAPTER V.
PltECISION.

§ 295.

xequircs that so
many a nd only so many of the materials of expression
be used. as are requisite for the communicati(:m of the
'thought. It has obviously a twofold application, as
these materials may in quantity be in excess or in
defect. The two d epartments of precision are, accordGRAJl!ilIATI CAL P1tECISION

ingly,I. PLEONASllI, or the use of more words than are requi site for the orderly construction of t~e sentence;
II. ELLIPSIS, or the use of fewer words than are ad·
missible for the orderly construction of the sentence.

Pleonasm may be allowable or faulty.

It is

altowable,1. For clearness and fullness in the impression of the thought ;
2. For the harmony of the expression in its
effect on the ear.
It is faulty when more words are required
than the proper construction of ·the sentence
requires or is admissible for one or the other of
the two reasons just mentioned.

176
§ 206.

ORAL ExmwrsEs.

Faults i n Gr(llmnatical

I'lconasm to be corrected :-

'

~
I

I

'

PRECISION. -

CONSTRUCTION.

In th ese aud in s nch like cases "·e slt o11lc1 a (•n erally
s ttfl<.·r in onr a l111 s 11 011 c. to Ge " ·it11esscs but ll.im who
mu st sec P\'<' ry thinµ-.
I!. is an hour ~l go sin ce l1 C' ld't- .
Jt is rn o rc t l1an a year sin ce the ti111 c that li e co m111 c• nc<' d st n<l yi11 g hi s pr o fe~s i o 11.
Trn e beli eve rs of c yn y cla ss :uHl ck 1101ni11ation on
ear t It mak e up t he ch urch :t11cl p eo pl e of Go<l .
Those t11·0 ho rses see m to b e b oL l1·wt' ll 111 :1.tchotl.
"\Yh t·11e1·e r yo 11 :tpply yoursdl" Lo st.udy al ll':iy:-; g ive
your " ·ho le mind to i t.
I feel_ my self grate f"1d to my fri end f(1r all tl1 e many
in sta nces of ltis kinilu ess which lic lta s o f'tell shown
lnP.

It i;; cliffi cnlt ofte n to co mbin e togctl1 er clea rn ess
a ud ek g :wce.
I \\·cnt hom e foll of :i g r<':tt man y serious r efle cti ons.
Th e j ourn ey was by ll O means a s t ediou s as 'v e e'fr'
p ee led it would Le.
No i:; uch at.tern pt as that can p os::- i111 y l1 e success Cu 1.
Y c lrn ow ho w t lmt it is a11 11nla\1·f'1tl t hi1w.
,..,, .
U c 11 ever aCterward in all th e time 1 "·as with him
said nothin g more on the suhj ect.
From th ence h e co nclucletl that hi s wh o le prop erty
· was en t irely lost.
Th e~ m os t snpremc tli g 11ity to \\'hi uh lll:lll C:\11 attn.in
will fail t o r-.:a ti sfy hi s af;p iri11gs.
Th e pl cas nrus of the nudcrsta1Hli11g are m or e preferahl e th a n tho s ( ~ o f Eensc.
Th eir m ore 11llcri o r d esig ns were ne ver kuown.

177 '

We need not, nor do not give heecl to such counsels.
His spirit annonn cecl those general judgments which
are the incvitahle doom, as they are also the certain
con::-e<ptcnce of nn n.gc of profanity and depravity.
It is not only the cl11ty uut interest of young persons
to uc stndions and diligent.
Th e Chinese language contains an immense numher
of words; and who would learn them must possess a
great memory.
H e was a man of learning, knowl ed ge, and b enevolen ce ; and; ,rJrnt is more, a true Christian.
'
llow a seed grows up iuto a tree, :md the mind acts ·
· upon the body, are m ysteries which we can not expla in.
lle took up the points in the order they stand.
L:lws hav e and still are made against drunkenness;
It has not and ought not be misunderstood.
He narrated the past and present state of things.
The man was seen go around the corner and enter
the J10use by the side door.

§ 297. Grammatical Ellipsis may be allowable
or faulty.
It is allowable when greater force is given ·
without sacrifice of clearness.
It is faulty when the sentence is left by .it
obscure or ambiguous.
§

2 98. ORAL EXERCISES.

Fciults in Grammatical

Ellipsis to be corrected:Justice eyes not the parties bnt cause.
I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me.

178

CONSTRUCTION.

Rank may confer influence ; but will not necessarily
produ ce virtue.
Th e old and young arc alik e subj ect to evil.
I s this the man yon say was present?
He answered us as he will you.
You can show me t he w ay it is clone.
How g reat, how wise, ho w gooc1 mn st he be who
made and governs the wh ole.
In t he circmnRtanccs I was at tha~ time, my troubles
pressed heav ily upon me.
These arts have and always "\Yill enlighten all who
atten t i~cly st ndy them.
If we co nsnl t t he improvement of miml or the health
of body, it is well known exercise is the g reat instrum ent of promoting both.

l

PART VII.-EXPLANATION.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL VIE"W.

§ 299. ExrLANATION is that process by which we
commnnicate our t houg ht of an object to another
mind for the simple purpose of information.
§ 300. An obj ect of thought, when viewecl as that
which is t o b e explained, is called a Tlieine.

'l'h P. Tu mrn in E xplanation is the object of
thought to be explained.
Ons1mVATION-W e ex pl:tln n th e m e to l\noth er mind by unfol<lln~ Its p:irt~
on e by one In or1for. As diffe rent themes hnvc dHTercnt kln1!' of p1\1·ts, we
have so m:iny diffe rent ways of proceedin g in Explanation. Of t.h"se, tb e two
primary mocks nrc those i n whi ch we n:irrnte som ething that lms happened, or
d escribt'I so mething that exists ,1r has e xisted.
Whe n we nnrmte, we follow t he onler of tim e; nnd the pnrt~ of the th eme to
be explai ned nre th e pnrts of the e vent thnt we narrate, or t!i e p:ir ts of !Im~ In
which the eve nt IIRppened. When we ch·scrilJe, we follow th e ordt·r of place, nnd
th,, ports o f t he theme nro t he nttrlbntco t hat tugcth~ r 111nke np t he object
'"hl ch we describe, or th t1 pnrts of pl :we In whi ch t he c l•j cct ex ist•. Tbese nre
tb e :Jl mplcst n111! must fundiun entn.I modes of Expln nat' un.
Thei·Q nre other modes of Explanation whi ch 11ro approprbtc tu other t.hnn
eimple objects. These nre tre11tcd In th e Art of Com positi on . nnd th e Art of
D iscourse. In th cgo trrntlses, th e grounds for the divi sions in lo th e cliffuent
kin1ls of processes ns they nr~ to be found In the nnturc of the object, or or t.be
parts which com[iose tho them e wlll be rouncl systrrn ntlcnlly 111·e, c·11 : (•1l,.

180

EX PLAN .A.TION.

§ 301. The two primary processes of Explanation are N arration and Description.
§ 302. There are four laws to be observed in
Explanation :-1. Tlie Law qf Unity j 2. Tke
Law of Selection j 3. The Law ef J.lfctlwd j 4.
The Law of C01npleterwss.

CHAPTER II.
NARRATION.

§ 303. NARRATION is the expla:o.ation of an
object of thought as changing in successive
time.
OllBEltVATION.-"\Ye can nnrrnte In either of two wnys. We cnn simply mention the perlo<ls of time In which the chnnges In the theme severnll y tnke pl ace.
Thus we narmto the theme h1tma11, life, by rcpresenth1g It ns pnRslng through
the BC \'ernl pcrlorl s of Infan cy, childhood, youth, mnnhood, nnd old nge.
Or we niny' narrnte by representi ng the th eme itself In Its nctunl changes.
Thus wo nnrrate human life ns nt first wenk nnd dependent, then ns becoming
stronger nllll bolder, then ns In i.ts fullest vlgO'r, nnd, ftnnlly, ns 'woning nnd
decnylng.
Th e only c\ifference between the two modes is, that in the form er case we nre
governed rnth er by n regard to the parts of tim e, nnd In the other mo re by n
r egard to the parts of the ohject Itself chnnging In those perlotls of time. The
difforence Is that between chronolc>gy nncl 1mnals on th e one lrnncl, nnd blogrnphy
nncl hi sto ry on the other. In the on e, tim e Is m easured off Into pcr!otls, and
the events, so fnr ns relnt.fng to the theme, nre stated In those periods succeselvcly; In the oth er, the lending chnn ges In the th orne Itself are given ns they
occur, In successive time, without r eference to definite periods.
Those two wnys of proceeding should not be confounded or mingl ed together.
Th e selection of the parts nnd tho m ethod should eith er be In the one or tho
othe~ wny exclusively, or one should be ~ubordlnate t o the other. The history
of England might be nnrrnted chronologically by mnrklng it off Into centuries,
or Into periods measured by the rei gns of succ<,sslve kings; or blstoric~lly, by
narrntlng the successive chnnges which th e English pe1,1ple pnssed through. Or
the chronological method mi ght be nd optcd ns the governing method, and the
hlstorlcnl method be observed In conducting the nnnntlon through the chronologlcnl periods, one after the other.

§ 304. There are two modes of narrating :-in
the one called the Clironological, the parts of
time are presented ; in the other, the Historical,
the parts of the event itself are p:i'esented.

·------

182

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·------------ -~ .. ....,...,..-

fr ...

183

EXP LA.NATION.

NARRATION.

§ 305. The Law of Unity in narrating requires
two things : - ·
1. 'That there be but one obj ect of thought as
the theme to be explained;
2. That this object b e presented only as subject of cliange.

4. 'fhe city of Barcelona is one of the finest cities
in Spai1i. It is a great manufacturing- town and comm ercial emporium.
5. ·w hile the pa-rley was in progress ~t the gates,
b etween the two commanders, the report was brought
that the Germans had entered the city and begun to
pillage the dwellings, and outrage the unarmed
citizens.
G. The commander of the city consented to adµiit
the English troops so that they might stop the pillage,
o_n the promise of Lord Peterborough to finish the capitulation afterward.
. 7. The beautiful city was nigh to destruction. It
had a noble cathedral with beautifully-painted win,dows. There was also a grand palace where the
archives of the old kingdom of Aragon were preserved, and one of the largest and handsomest theaters in Spain. The city had charming promenades,
particularly the rmnbla, and the walk round the ramparts. It had libraries and colleges and seminaries.
8. The English found the Germans calTying on the
work of- destruction. They forced them to give up
their booty, and to retire. They restored quiet and
order to the city.
9. Lord Peterborough then returned to the gatb
and signed the capitulation.

OnsmtVATION. - -lf I were to nnnatc ll1c lmrnl11 g- of n co ll ei:e, my th em e w o nld
b e The Colleae Bnrni11a. Jn th e nnrrnli on I :1111 sim pl y to te ll t.hc ~to rr of the
coll ege ns burn in ~, and I mu s t ne\"Cr clrop th nt one th em e fr o n1 ri e w sr; thnt it.
will be th ought I bnvo turn ed to som ething else, as th e imp ortan ce of ~ rlurnti o n,
th e dnnge rs from carelc·ss ness, or oth er s ubject. Nor will it he ~ 110icic • 11 t '" ' k c-r p
my thoug ht to the co llc·ge ; bnt I mu st keep th e th o 11i:ht 011 th e cp ll c-i:c ei mpl~­
ns burning. If I turn to describe th e clmnt r.ter of tJ1 0 building, il s ~itr, its
size, its co n vcnicncies, its bennty, I mus t clot.h is 011ly thnt I rnny lH·lt.t·r prr•r nt
the p rogress of th o burning. Thi s I rn ny do by 11nr ratin g what took pb cc i n
th e first h om-, whnt in t h e secon cl ho ur-, thnt is, hour by h our; or by , 0 rne o lhn
dl vis lo118 of tim e, ns what took pince h cforc th e nlnnn wa s gh ·e n, wlrnt aft er tho
nlarm nnd before the Orem cn nrriv ed, wbnt nftc nmrrl, sti ll prese nting- parts <:f
tim e, that is, by th e chronol og ica l m c thocl; or by tir e hi s torical 111 rt hocl , J>l'C·
scntln 2 one niter the other, t he kintlli11p; of th e fir e, th e s1wot.b er ec l sprt·acJi 11 g,
th e bu'.·sti ng ont of t h e flam es, I.h e prog ress from p:irt to l'nrt of th e bn ildin2 ,
th e dy in g out of the fir e, anti the rnln thnt follow s. Jn eith er case. in onler to
unity, my nn1Tnti vo mu st kr e p to th e one s nbjcct., th e coll rgt!- bnrning, nnd fol-

low it through fr om t h e beg i1111i11 g to t.lw e nd, e ith er by the su ccessiv e parts of
time, or by th e stagc•s in th e prog ress of th e tb111 cs.

§ 30G. OnAL EXERCISES. Correct t!ie faults in respect of 1m.ity in the following outlines of n arrative:'l'umm.- Siege of Barcelona.
1. Th e siege of Barcelona in 1705, by the E11glish
and Germans, und er L ord Peterborong h, the command er of the city being hard pressed, determined to
s11rre11der.
2. Ile asked a parley at the gates wiLh Lord Peterborough.
3. The citi7.e11s were riotous, and the besiegers were
very powerful.

TuEME.-1'/ie· Good Brother.
1. The son of a ri ch merchant in London, gave him-

self up to every kind of excess.
2. A large city abounds in vice.

The yo_ung, who

184

''

are not on th eir guard, arc exposed to t emptat ion on
every Rirl e.
3. The fath er at length <li ctl, l1 a d11 g so ug ht in vnin
t o rcelaim his so n, allll havin g in couseq11c11 ce di sin
heritcd him.
4. The p rodi g al was so affecteLl on hearin g of liis
father's death , tliat he rep ented of hi s vi ces and
reformed.
5. True repentance never murmurs at just rctribntions. The r eform ed prodi gal li ears of liis fa t her's
will disinheriting him, without auy dissatisfa ction or
complaint, admitting t hat he deser ved it.
6. A youn ger brother, wh o li ad beco me sole heir to
th e fath er's estate, on hearing of hi s brot her's refo rmation
b
. and good beha vior, sent for him, :rncl cmhracinrY
l n m t enderl y, admit ted him to th e foll share of th e
estate which h e had forfeite <l.

§ 307. The La, w of Selection in Narration requires that such periods of time or snch stages
of the ev ent narrateu b e taken as 'lvill b est exhibit the theme.
OnsEn VATTON.-"\Ve can not, ia wo r ds, repr ese nt any th in ::: as nc t un lly clinng -

ln g. "\V e ca n n o t r epresen t t h e actu al s preadi ng of t.h e flnm e, or t h o nctu nl
g l'o wi11 g of n. tree; or the nct1rnl cha11 g iug- o f n. JH• rson o r of n natio n. A11 we
. -:l o is to SP lect smn c pcri olls or som e stagf's of t he e ve nt in it s 1 n·11~ rrss, nnd
JJ : d fe a tl~ t he t h e m e ns ft is at C':ll'h of t hoSl' se\·f'ra l s ttCC<'S Sh ' <' ch1u1g-c·~. To sc lrc t
s u c h o f these s tages ns wi ll best ex lii b it th e t hem e will ofte n r<'< Juire study nn<I
sk ill. H e rn will li e, in <kecl, pc rh nps t h e c!Ji ef art o f th e n nJT nto r. Il e mu st
se lel' t th e u1 ost signill ca nt s tagrs, n111l if a ny t h ing th nt is n o t 80 c~scmti:tl t o th o
full nn <k rstnnd ing o f t he t he m e see m s in nny way <les irnh lt• fur th e cka rn css
nnd in te rest of th e nn1Tativc, it mu st h e in trodu ced in ci d c n tully, in p nssin g, o r
in subordi na t io n t o t h e tn or c s lg 11 ifica 11 t singes.
Jn th e (' Xt• rcises tha t hnmecl lntcly folluw, th e f:inlt s in r espect of Sel ection nro
t o be correct ed, not al ways by omittin g en tirel y t.l w s inges e num crnt cd thn t nre
less s ign lficunt, but by con necti n g th em as inci<lcnts with such ns are m orn
~:111

'

1'

NARRATION.

EXPLANATION.

185

1gnlfl.cnnt. The corrected examplo will have fewer le!!dlng stages ll)d!cated,
8
nnd the Jess algnltl.cant incidents will be placed In the proper connection with
them.

§ 308. EXERCISES. Con·ect the faults in Selection
in the fallowing narratives :TI-IEME.-Tlie Sto1·y of Regulus.
1. The Carthaginians had made Regulus prisoner

of war.
2. They treated him with great cruelty, loading him
with chains, and imprisoning him in a dungeon.
3. They kept him thus nearly four year.s. . ·
4. Having at length been conquered m important
battles both on sea and on land, in which they lost
many ~f their best officers and soldiers, they were
desirous of peace.
.
..
5. They took Regulus from his pnson to send him
to Rome to propose a peace, or at least to effect an
exchanrre of prisoners.
6. R~gulus was required to promise that he would
return t o his prison in case he should not be successful.
7. The Roman Senate were glad enough to submit
to the tern~s, that they might recover so noble a citizen as R egulus.
.
s R ecrnlus advi ses them to continue the war, as
Car.tha<r: was nearly exhausted, and by no mca.n s to
c onsc u~ to an exchange of prisoners, as the best of t~ie
Carthacrinian o!licers were captives at Home, while
"" only a few H.omans held at c art' 11age, .an d .
t here were
they were advanced in age and could be of but little
service in the city.
9. His counsels prevail.

fttgP

186

1£XPLAN AT ION.

N A.RR.A.TION.

10. Reg ulus returns at once to Carthage.

J nan Fernandez.

and fnemls, lest he should be diss uad ed from his purpose.
12. He knew he shoulL1 be pt1 t to the RC\'Crest torture
ou his rct t1rn.
1 3. He died under the most barbarous and the cruelest tortures.

10. Ile then 3.ttackeJ the city of Paita, the richest

TuEME.-Life of .Admiral Anson.

?ut

1740.

8. 011ly two vessels anJ 011e sl1allop 11ow remained
to him; the rest l1aviug been driven off or foundered
in the t emp estuous sea.

187

9. Anson repaired his two vessels in the island of

11 ..Ile does not tarry to take leave of his family

1.. George Anson was born in Staffon.1shirc, England,
Apnl 23, 1697.
2. He gave hims elf up from his boyhood to the
11a val se n ice.
3 . .,,Then commamling a frigate armed by his
mother's kindred, ho "·as pm·sncll by two corsairs,
escapcll, notwitli sta11<li11g the inferiority of his
force and the fttrJ. ot' a tenific sto rm.
.4. The king wa~ i11formell of the valor of the yo ung
sailor, a.11d made 111111 captain of a Ycssel-of-war of sixty
guns.
5. England declared " ·a r against Spain in 1739,
and so ught to take from that co untry its western
island s.
6. Anson was sent with six vessels, carry ing a. crew
of abont fot1rtec11 hundred men.
7. Ile was so much delayed in his departure that he
did not r eat.:11 Cape Horn till the sp ring equinox of

' _.

.-

Spa11ish city in South America.
11. H e took I'aita in November, 1741, aml rcLln cccl
it to ashes, car ryi11g away a large amon11t of booty.
· 12. H e then sailed for the Ladrones with the Centurion, the only ship remaining to him that was seaworthy.
1 3. He lost two-thirds of his crew by the scurvy.
14. The n eighborhood of the Spanish compelled
him to go to Macao, where, in 1742, he refitted his
ship.
15. Some days after he met a Spanish vessel, richly
freightell, and carrying a superior force to his own;
he at.tacked it, and took it a prize back to the harbor
he had left.
16. Ile received great bonDrs, iu consequence, from
the Viceroy of Macao.
17. H e r eturned by the Cape of Good Hope, and
landed in England, Jun e 4, 17 44, after a voyage of
three years and a half round the globe.
18. H e carried his spoils to London in thirty-two
wagons, accompanied by chums and trumpets, and
the shouts of th e people.
l!J. U c obtained the title of R ear Admiral of the
Blue the same year; and soon after, that of Rear
Arlmiral of t he vVhite.
20. Ile afterward engaged, off Cape Finistei:re, a
French squadron of six vessels-of:war and four othe1•
vessels returning from the East Indies.
21. The battle was obstinate .on both sides.

,,

t
I

~·
p

I

I

I

7

188

--

--NARRATION.

EXPLANATION,

22. Th e French comm::rnder snrrendered, saying to

Anson: "You h:we co 11q11e recl the Invincible, and
G lory foll ows yo u." These were th e names of two of
th e French yessels.
23. An so n w as mad e Vice Admiral of England in
honor of t.l1i s Yi eto ry; and afterward first Lonl of
the Admiralty.
24. In th e war with Fran ce in 1755 , Anson was
charged with protectin g an iuvasion of that country
by th e Eng lish forces.
25. Ile di sc harged his trnst wi th g reat l1erois111.
2G. Exha11::-ted b y Lit e fat.i g ues nnd ex pos ures of n.
voyage in 17G2, he died at L ond on a f<..•w days after
his return.

§ 309. The Law of J\1cthol1, j11 Narration, reqnires, 1, that the order of time b e s tri ctly follow ed ; and 2, that the less sig nificant stages
of the event b e groupl~ cl ·with the 111 0 1'(~ si gnificant stages with which they are connected in
time.
01'SEJt\"AT!ON.-Tbe second part of th is Lnw of Meth od hns ber n In pnrt nnti cipated, in presenting th e Jaw of Se k ction. The J cn<lin~ slngcs Ahonltl be so k cl<' d first, 1111<1 the Jess importnnt then be taken .one! conn cctcc l with tho others.
While mu ch cttre nnd study omy be required in th e selec ti on to d etermine
wh at nre the lending slnges, ns w ell as th en lo tl etcr111in e wh nt lr5s lmportnnt
s tn;cs shall be presentecl, t here will sli!I be core rcq ni silc in ploci11~ eoch in its
du e order of time. This is indis pcn sob!e to corr ect n nrr:1 ti o 11.

§

Col'rect tlw f aults i n Jl.lctlwd in
the f ollowing outlines of narrati ves :310. EXER CI SES.

Tirn~rn.-1 Yw

L ife of a Tree.

1. Th e Rtage of sccll.
2. The Lranehing from th e main stalk.

'·

189

3. The sprouting of the seeci in the earth; and ~he
rooting of the germ, followed by the upward shootmg
of th e ::-tern.
4. The similar starting of leaf and final\y of flower,
which is followed by the fruit.
5. The deposit in the_earth of the new seed from
the fruit.
G. The growth of the buds into large boughs with
their branches.
THEllIE.-Tlie Death of Thomas More, Oliancellor

of England.
1. More refused to recognize Henry VIII. as supreme

.-

...

head of the church. He was for this deprived of his
dignity, and thrown into prison.
2. He was condemned to suffer death by the severest torture.
3. His books, which were his only consolation, were
taken from him.
4. His friends exerted themselves to the utmost to
induce him to yield to the king; but without success.
5. The king commuted his sentence to suffer beheading instead of torture.
6. At the foot of the scaffold he asked a man to aid
him in ascending, that he might have the satisfaction
of ever remembering he had rendernd the martyr the
last kind service.
7. 'Vhen he laid his head on the block, he asked the
executioner to arrange his long beard so that it would
11ot be cut by the ax. vVhen the executioner expressed astonishment that he should .be so anxious to presene his beard just at the moment he was to lose his

---------------------·- ------- 190

EXPL.A.N.A.TION.

bead; he replied that he asked this, not for his own
sake, but for the executiorwr's, who might Le acc used
of ignorance of his clnty if J1e cut off the beard ·wheu
he was charged to cut off only th e head.
8. The same firmness and tranquillity he showed in
prison ,.,,-hen his wife conjured him to obey the king,
and save his lifo for the comfort of his children .
9. vVhen he received the mortal blow, he was
equally calm and firm.

§ 311. The Law of Completeness, in Narration,
requires that all the periods or stages of tho
event nece~sary to represent the theme be exliibite<l.
§ 312 . ExEnCISES. Correct the .faults in 1·espect of
Completeness in the following outUnes :Tnmrn.-T!ie Life of Josepli.
1. Joseph was the eldest son of Ifachcl.
2. At the age of seventeen he was sent by his

father to inquire after his brethren, who were pasturing their flocks at Dothan, near Shechem.
3. H e was aCtcrwnr<l i11 Egypt., where he interpreted
Pharaoh's drea111, and was rewarded by being made
governor of the lall(].
4. He receiv ed his father in time of a severe famine
in the l::tnd of Cann::rn, and provided food and a settlement in Egypt for his whole family.
5. His remains were carefolly taken by the Israelites, at the time of their exodus from Egypt, and
buried i11 the laud of promise.

NARRATION

191

1'nEME.-I-Iisto1·y of the Creation.
I.
2.
3.
4.

The
The
The
The
5. The
6. The

creation of light.
setting of the firmament.
production of the vegetable kingdom.
placing of the snn, the moon, and the stars.
creation of birds.
creation bf man.

§ 313.

vVR1TTEN ExERc1sEs rn NARRATION.

I. State in order the several objects recollected to
have been noticed in i·eturning home from school yesterday.
2. \Vrite down in order the studies pursued last
year.
3. vV rite down in order the occupations during yesterday.

lVi·ite out in order tlie leading incidents in tlie
Life of Moses ;
Of Daniel;
Of Den'1 0sthenes;
Of Julius Cresar;
Of Columbn·s;
Of George \Vashington;
0 f Na po Icon the Great ;
Of William Pitt;
Of vVilliam Cowper.
Jlfark

out into periods the
J_,ife of David, the King of Israel;
Of A lfred the Great;
Of Chancer;

192

EXPLANATION.

Of Robert Burns.

T he II1.story of th'e J ews;
The History of Rom e .
The History of En <rla:icl.
The History of the"'Uuit~d States
of .ti.1nen
\
.ca.
'

1VJ·ite
ln the
In the
In the
In the

CHAPTER ·III.

out in order tlie leadin.1 stagesprog ress of Creation .
life of a Bird .
'
l~fe of the Bu~terfly;
life of l\fan.

DESCRIPTION.

§ 314. DESCRIPTION is the explanation of an
object of thought regarded as a substance.

1Yarrate tlie f ollowin.1 tlwmes :1. H.cco ll cetiof1s of th e i11 eiLknts of !·1st
2 I~'
·
·

. _, xp cn e1rccs .of the la ~t y ear.
3. The Exile of Sibe ri a .
'
4 • Tl 10 i:iLory
C•
'
of Poe::d1ou tas .
5. Tbe Sto ry of Damon alll1 'Pythias.
6. The Story of 'Villi:w 1 Tell·
7. The Life of La<ly Jane Gre'y.
L

L

'

\'" C"t•
"

"

ion ·
'

OnBERVATION.-'l'he pnrts of nn obj ect of th ought rcgnrclc<I merely ns n subetnn cc nro tho nttrlbutes which bclo11g to It nnd mnkc It wlmt It Is, or the pnrts
of spnce which It occnples. When we describe nn object, nccordl11gly, we men ti on the nttl'ibutce of which it is compoged. We describe nn ora.1iae, for instance,
wh en we m entio n, on e by one, its nttributcs of form, color, tn ste, which nre
essc ntinl pro1wrti cs. Wo mention also, if necessnry for completeness In order
to nccomplish wbnt we seek in the descripti on, the relntive nttribntes, ns those
to plncc,-the prirticulnr localities where it grows; or to tim e,-the senson of
its ripening; nn!l nlso to other things-tho tree which benrs It, the things or
persons which mny be benefited by tho use of it.

§ 315. The Law of Unity in Description requires two things :1. That there be but one object or theme to
be described.
2. That the theme be presented only by its
attributes.
Ons EnVAT!ON.-In in terpreting this Jnw it should be borne In mind thnt It
appli es onl y so for ns description occurs in nu explanati on, nnd, ind eed, strictly
spcnkln g, only where descripti on is th e on e process. Even where the cxpl:lnnUon Is effecte d by this process of describin g, thnt is, by naming the attributes
of the theme, it is often desirnble or nccessnry to bring In nnrrntion. Just so
In nnrrntion, It is often necessary to describe. But th e Jnw of unity 1·equi res
that one or the other of the two processes be mride the governing one, n11<1 the
o ther be kept subordlnrite. As, for Instance, in describing an orange, th e hencls
or the description must be the attributes; ns, ·ro1tnd, yellow,j'Uicy,Bweet, m·o-

matic; g1·owin(l in warm countr·i es; r·i pening in Sicily in IJecembu· and

I

..
194

EXPLANA1'10N.

Januai·y, etc. If nn y thin::: or nnrratlrn should h .
prnpnf:ntion, nnil th e like,
of rh etorica l
etc., th ese procrsscs urn st bt> introdn ccfi onl. i1
. .·
s, 'nr let1 c~,
war. Whii<· ' t. t·
y Inn 1n c1<l l' 11lal nnd e11L o1«lin nto
1 I S I lit.', th c n~ fnrc, 1hat thc· :>c difft' rc nt irocc~"',
.
.
.
I
· · ~8 mo oft.cu n11d,
lncl cccl, nre m ore co mmonly t1J1i t
1
CV C' r Le r c r11(Jlnht·1·c cl tl1 ·1t o11 c <>1· Lrl' Htll th e s:1111c <'R~nr or cli ~;c·o 1n:::<', it s honlcl
•
IC 0
H ' I' lllll Rt i- •
. I ti
.
nnd th e pnrts whi c h It Jil'l'RC ·1·1
.
Jc 111 .tc o in g-on·r11111g- proc<'Fti
·- 1 H'M t1111 s t (riv<' the 1 .• I" " 1
•
1
1
n:i rrn1T11tlve m · d t·s •rip tio 11 is hr111wl t _,...
, .t .u 111 ,.., 1ca1 f'.
nrl.h t:' I', so for
mu st follow its <1 w 11 hw s · 1'11 "1 . ~' 111 s 11~1ord111:ilt• l y nud i11 c iil c 11 ta ll y. <'!H'h

o~

dil'ision~ ~~,:~1~.~11~~:\~~'~f l~s orl~l.a,

i

,

'

'

1,

tim es l11trod11cc :i.ddition wh

•

.l ~ Ill flll V lll'lllJmt'fi<' · iJ

•

· 11

II

t

.

1'1

}II fl I ('Ill

)(•

nlwn.ys n.11d or f;Ub tract aceo nli1w t

ti • . 1 '

.

1S Hilt'

~

.

· • ·
w o 111ay f' 11111 nI t .• j.
R ll' i.1 e 111 11 , li 11t. 11111 st

JllP< l '$!-I; ,
11f

.'

Law o f Unity· furbi<l s t l10 1' 11t 1"". u l' IC 1 11 tS o nddttfon oroft-; 11 Utrn('fion. Th e
.ern11n" llw of the I . ·t f I
of th e the m e. Ono or the otb . ~ "
.
'·" so JI a re nnd lh e ntt.r ilrnl L''
lendin g or governin a he" tls ·, Cr! l~f ~h.c sc J.:.rnd s of pnr ts rnn s t be tnk en fifS the
"'
"
• ( l\' ISlOllS of the (" . .
13 t
obj ection to making one kind tl1 e
. . .
. .'s.1.1. . 11 tl1 ~rc wil l t.e ""
~ O \ e 111111"" pnn c11tl • nr I fl 1
.
other ns suLordlnnle 'I'litis 1. ti - d
. "'.
« "
~11 111trod11cing the
f I
·
" 1e esenpt1011 hel
may be <l cscribetl hy its a ttributes 'I' I
t k f
o w o t 10 nn chor, ea ch pnrt
ie soc
or exn n11>l ' 11 , 1 I
.1
•
·

]

, ns sl l'm g h t. 2 cy lir1 Uri cril l
.

'

'

• • J ll

t

I .
,
.
l, l:IJ
f:.w c hu g at I.lie uiiddl • · 3 I .

placed in th e sau10 pi:rne ns th e nrms.

§

c,

)C < f'f.C fl lP1l-

' i o n or woo1l i 4,

ExER CIS E~.

Correct the fmdts in respect of
wiity in the follo w mg outlines of Description:316.

T1m~rn.-T!w

G. It ripens from June to November

THE11m.- Tlie State-.Fioitsei
1. It is built of brick, stuccoed.
2. It is oblong, with porticoes at the ends.
3. It was built ma11y yen.rs since by the State, under

tho direction of an architect who seemed to have rega.nlcd outward form more than internal convenience .
4. It ha.s been used by the legislature, by courts of
law, for meetings of the citizens, for barracks for troops
during war.
5. It stands on one side of the park, easily accessiLlc from tho street.
G. It is of the boric order.
7. It has suffe red g reatly from the element~.

§ 317. The· La.w of Selection, in D escription,
requires that such attributes of the theme, or
such parts of space be taken as will best accomplish the obj ect of the description .

Apple.

1. It is roun.cli sh, Yaryi11g in color from green nncl
y ellow ~o rec1J 1sh, fra gra nt, pulpy, a.11<1 jnicy.
. 2. It is supposed to be a nati ve of l'n les tinc. Lnt it
is now worthless ns a fruit i11 tl1at co un t ry
'
tree, witl1 .:·•. spreaJing
J 3 .l Th e_, n..pple-tree is a. ha rllv
J
ieac' :mu JS propagated from the seed
· one of· the most YaluaLlc
.
of fruits
I 4. . Tl ie apple. IS
tis whol e~ome.' nutritious, cool ing, and laxative.
.
5. It thnves Ill temperate reo·ions in all soil>: ·r
t
too dry.
"'
'
~ , I uo

7. Thero are many varieties.

195

DESCRIPTION.

4'

Ons EnVATION.-G en emlly, it will be nnnecessnry, If not Impossible, to enum erate nil the attributes of the them e. Sorne of t he importnot nnd even essen tlnl nttrihute~ mny nlre:uly b e known to the mind or ' m;ncls which we nre
n<1'1ressing; it woultl be supernuous to mnke n formal exblhit of such. In
these f: enernl exercises In tr:iinil1 g, th e pupil sho uld go over nil the elnsses
nttrlb11tes one by one, nncl cnreful ly ln<Juire wbnt nttribute th ere m:iy be In
ench class which should be named for the purposes of the description.

or

§ 318. ExERCISES. Correct tlie fattlts in re.~pect of
S election in tlie fallowing outlinr;,s :'f1rn11rn.-The C!iurch Bell.

.
1. vVeight, I,200 pounds.

2. Suspended on a yoke which
round by a rope over a large wheel.

1s

made to turn

196

EXPLANATION.

3. Inscribed with the date at which it was cast, and
with the names of the makers.
4-. Shrill-toned and n111sicnl · hut the tonrrnc or
""
elnpper often lies 011 the side of ' the bell and deadens
tJie SOlllHl.
5. The CLlgc is thin and smooth.
6. The color is ll1tll.

7. h is nrng for all chnrch occasions; for public
meetings of the citizens; for alarms; and e\·ery day
· at 110011, aud at nine o'clock in the e \·cning.
T1rn~rn.- 77w

Amazon.

1. The largc~t ri vcr of the globe.
2. Nearly 4,000 miles in length.
3. At a distnn ce of 2,:12 5 lllil es fro111 the sea, it is
three-fourths of a mile wide; a11<1 at its mouth one
h:mdrecl and (•ighty mil es.
4. Its d epth at the mouth is three hundred and
twelve foct.
5. The banks are steep.
G. Its current is from one to nearly four miles an
hour.

7. The tides rise with almost inconceivable rnpiclity,
presenting, sometimes, a wave twelve or fifteen feet
high; the roar i8 l1earc1 five or six miles.
8. It abounds witb fish.
9. The shores arc lined Ly forests fillecl wilh beasts
of prey.
10. The shores swarm wilh alligators.
11. There are

110 falls to interrupt ua vigation, except near the sources.
12. It has few bayous.

· DESCRIPTION.

·,

197

13. During the rainy season it overflows its bai;ilrn,
hi<rh
and submcrO'es
the land for hundreds
al thotwh
0
0
'(.
t:>
...
of miles in extent.
14. It is connected with the Orinoco through the
llio Negro.

§ 310. The Law of Method in Description
r equires:1. That, if the theme be described in respect
of the parts of place which the object fills,
these parts 1)e arranged aceording to their nearness to one another ; and
2. That if the theme be described through
the attributes, that these attributes be presented
in the order of the classes to which they respectively belong.
OnsenVATION.-lt is very plnin thnt If the description skip over from ono
part of the pince occupied by the object to nnother, there must be confusion
nn tl obscurity. It is necessary to begin with one pnrt, nnd then proceed to the
next ncijacent, nnd ·so on through the whole. It will be observed th11t the pnrts
of pince may be designated by proper local nttributes; ns, upper, lower i top,
bottorn, etc.; or by the pnrts of the object, ns In the exercise below on the theme
-the nnchor-the parts nre the ring, arms, etc.
In the snme wny, If the description proceed by the mention of tho nttrlbutes,
these attributes m11st be presented by the cln~s es to which they belong, the
Qnnlitl es by th emselves, nnd the ActiotJd by themselves, nnd so of th~ Condi·
ti uns nnd the !{elations. This Is the general rule. But innsmnch ns the same
nttribnte mny often be rcg:mlecl ns n quality or ns nn l\Ction, nnd ns consequently
lani;uagc does nut nlwnys furni sh words to distinguish them, only the .more
g eneral rule can nlwnys be obserl'e<I, that the Properties sbunl<l not he rntermlrwl ed with tho Relative Attributes. Generally tho Properties should precede
nnd ~he Helatlve Attrihutes follow. In describing the urnnge, we mention first
the properties of form nnd. color, and afterwnnl the nses. Further, In ~rder to
present the theme Itself, so th:it it may be renrlily understood what 1t is, It
may be expe.di erlt sometim~s to place the <>bj cct, thnt ls, state nt the outset ,
when and where It is. Thus, In proceeding to describe the Amazon, we mny
nt once Indicate It as a river In South Amel'ic!I; or, in d~scrlbing the Coliseum,
we mny begin by mentioning it ns a structure, now in ruins, In Rome. But in '

198

199

EXPLANATION.

DESCRIPTION.

th ~ earlie r exercises in Composit ion It will be best to follow tho g eneral rule
Btl'lctly. llforeovcr, ns In Narrntion, it will at flrnt be lH~ s t Bi mpl y to note 1lo wn

the attributes necessary to give the full information desired be presented.

tn ord er th e att.rih utcs wit,hont filling- out the r· s~ay; In otlH·r wurils, simply
write out th o outlines, nurnLcring tltetn in un l<! r.

§ 320. ExEncis1cs. Correct tlt e faults in method in
tlie following outlines of Description :-

§ 322. EXERCISES. Co1:rect tlie .faults in respect to
Completeness in the following outlines:TuE11rn.-A Needle.

T11 EJ1rn.-A J?i1· Cone.

Its parts are:· 1. An eye ; 2. A sharp pomt..
Its attributes are: I. Steel color; 2. Bright.; 3.
Brittle; 4. Of steel; 5. Used for sewing cloth and
leather.

I. Cylinclrical and co Hical;

2. Brown;
3. Covered \vi th scales;
4. Fragrn11 t ;

T1rn11rn.-Sit,qar.

5. Seeds at t h e h:isc of the scales;
6. Scales arra1wetl like tiles·

7. Iuflammahlc."'

1. \Vhen raw, brown.
2. Granulated.
3. Soluble.

'

T11 mrn.--A H'C1tch- Crystal.

4. Produced by boiling the juice of the sugar-cane. -

l. Tra11 sparent ;
2. Circular;

3. Brittle;
4. Tl1i11;
5. U scf1tl fo r protection from d nst and damp;
G. Convex 0 11 the outside aud co ncave inside.

'l'lw
1.
2.
~.

4.
5.

Tn EME.-An L.lnc!wr.
t
.
par ·s Ill a space are:Th e rin g;
Tlic :l,rJl}S;
Tl1c stock;
The fluk es ;
Th e Rha11k.

. § 322. '~'lie Law of Completeness in Descript10n requires that all the parts of place, or all

5. Good for seasoning many kinds of foocl.
6. Healthful.

.--

§ 323. ExERCISES. Describe, by enimierating the
parts of place occupied by the object or the parts of the
object itself, the following themes:1. An acorn;
2. A candle;
3. A bird;

4. An oyster;
5, A church;
6. The eye;

7. Ashoe;
8. A table;

9. Mount Vesuvius;
10. Malta.

200

EXPLANATION.

. De;~c1·ibe, by mentioning tlieir attributes, tlie follow·
ing t11emes : 1. A g rnp e-v ine leaf;

INDEX.

2 ...An npple;
3. A spo ugc ;
4. T ea;

THE FIGURES REFER TO . SECTIONS.

5. Yi11C'gar;

G. Tl1 e lion;
7. The colosi:;us of Rhotles ;
8. The P:trthe1ion at Athens;
!J. The TiLer;
10. :Mouut. Etua.

..Abnormal, 207-211 .
Adverbials, 140; Arrangement,
279.
Apposition, 200, 201.
Appositives, their Case, 261.
Arrangement, 274.-286; of principal Elements, 2 7 5 ; of subordinate Elements, 277.
Article, 104.
.Attribute, defined, 2; Classes,

D escribe tlie fvllo10i11g 1'/icm es :1, A pin; 2, A key; 3, A balan ce ; 4, Oil; 5, Vine·
gar; 6, Cork; 7, A bee; 8, A s11ail · !) The cn r · 10
'l'I1c violet;
.
'
11, G eorge vVasbin Clrrto'n ·' ' 12 ' SocrnL"s
.'
13, The true patriot; H, Arithmetic; 15, History;
16, Avarice; 17, Contentment· 18 A wise li fe · 10
t

•

'

'

~

'

\.. ...

'

t

'

C l11rnlry; 20, The Briti sh Parliament; 21, The GoYernment of t he United States.

41.

..Auxiliariea, defined, 227; Classes, 228; Verb Auxiliaries,
229; of Comparison, 230.

A

Capitals, 7.
Ca.~c Absolute or In<iepcndent,
209.
Ca,se of Nouns, 79-84; kinds, 81;
.Possessive, how formed, 82;
Case of Subject, 251; of Predicate, 255.
Class- nouns, defined, 26.
Clausal Confunctions, 225.
Clausal Nouns, 190, 191.
Coluct ive Nouns, defined, 32 ;
Kinds, 33; Construction with
Verbs. 256.
Comp(trl.son, 110-115 ; Three

Complex Sentence, defined, 241 ;
Forms, 242-245 ; .Arrange·
ment, 285.
Compound Members or Sentences,
237 ; , to b1t. in Harmony,
272.
.
'
Compmmd Sentences, defined, 235;
kinds, 237 ; Elliptical, 238;
to be in Harmony, 272.
Compound Subfect, Rule for its
Verb, 256.
Concessive Form of Mood, 165, Obs .
Concord, 251-273.
Concrete8, defined, 39,
Conf unction, defined, 220; Classes, 22 l; Co-ordinate, 222;
Modifying, 224; Clausal, 225.
Constructio:-i, 250-298.
<Jo-ordinate Confunctions, 222.
Copula of a Sentance, defined, 10;
Expressed in the Verb, 18;
Modifications, 158-171.
D efinitives, defined, 102; kinds,

Numerals,
Demonstratives,
Attributives, 103.
D emonstratives, defined, l 05.
Description, 314-323.
Distributives, 104, Obs.

Forms, Positive, Comparative,
Ellipsis, defined, 295; Allowabla
Superlative, l l I.
· or Faulty, 295.
Compeltatives, Case of, 260.
Completeness, Laws of, in Narra- Emotive Sentences, defined, 24 7 ;
Classes, 248.
tion, 311; in Description, 322.
9*

-202

INDEX.

E]1ithets, de fin ed, 107.
E xplanation, 299-323; Processes,
'10 l; Fo ur Laws, 302.
E xpletives, 231, 23:l.
Factitive Ol~iec l, ] GG.
Jilmiinine Gender, h ow formed,
7G.

Formation of lVordl', 21.

Narration, 303-313; Two :Modes,
304.

Necessary jJfood, defined , 164.
Numi'.natirc Case, 8 1 ; the Case
of th e Sn bjc·c t,, \!& I.
J.."urm.a.l Elcmeul~, 17 2.
Notion-tconls, I 7 :L
Nun11, d e li net!, 11 ; A lmormnl,
177-1 !Hi; and as nn Ac.lj cctivo,
J!J !J-202.

Nw!1bcr in Nouns, GG-7 I; In
v e rbR, 11 8, 119.
Gender of Nouns, 72-7 8 ; kind s,
lfomcrals, defined, 103; DeOnite
74; Forms, 7 5, 7G.
and l mlefiuite, l 0'!.
Gerund, I87; F orms, I 88 ; its
Subject iu the Possessive, 253.
Ol~ject of Tlw uglll, 1.
Object of Verb, l!i ,t; Specirymg,
Imperative Mond, 1 G9.
Pass i,·e, l lemote, of rc sulL,
Indicative .Mood, IGO; Forms,
Fact,itive, I 5G ; in Objedive
lGI.
Cnse, 2G2; A r ra ngcme11 t, 282,
I nfinitive, I 8 2; U~ c, I 83 ; Form s,
2trn.
184.
I njfrction, defin ed, !)!) ; of VerbR, m~·ective Case, 8 1 ; S ubject of
th e Jmperati ve, 2Gl; lnfini119, 120; of the Ve rb 1'o Be,
tirn, 25~.
l 3G ; To Lo1:e, Ia?.
I nterjections, detined, 233 ; Class- Optu.tive Mood, I 65, Obs. .
es, 23 4.
~
I nterrogative Pronouns, 96.
I'articipials, 180.
I ntransitive Verbs, 155.
P articiples, 180; four F orms,
Irreg ular Verbs, 13 5.
20'1.
P as;;ine Object, 1 5 6.
Method, Law of, in Narration, Passive Voice, I 26 ; how form ed,
1 27.
309; in Description, 31 !l.
I'e1fect Tense, 130.
~Jfodal, defined, IO 1 ; abnormal
P erson, 85; Three Persons, 8G ;
F orms, 212-2 I 6.
in Verbs, 119.
Modal Clauses, 21 5 ; Form, 270;
P ersonal Pronouns, 85.
Arrangement, 281.
Pleonasm, 295 .
~Modal Phrases, 2 I 4.
Pluperfect, Tense, 130.
.Jft1difying Conjitnclion, 2 24.
Modifying Elements, 99-1 71 ; P lural of Nouns, h ow formed, 68 ;
.Adjective, AdYerbial, Modal, l'oinls, 4.-9.
l 0 I ; to be in H a rmony, 266- l'osse.~s ive Case, 82 ; S11hject of
tli n C-crun cl , 2fi:3; and of nn
27 :l ; A.rrangemo11t, 277-2 il li.
Att.ribn to, 2r,1 .
Mood, d e li11 ed, J::i8 ; four kind s,
Hi9; Indica tive, IGO; Neces- l'olential Jlood, de fin ed, 165;
k iud s, l 65 ; F orms, 166.
sary, 1 G4; P otenUal, 165, lGG;
Ptectoion, 295-298.
Imperative, 169.

INDEX.

203

Predicate, dofinocl, JO; Modified, &ntence. llefined, :l; Elemr11ts, l O.
l!G-157; Three Grounds for Spec>fyinq Objects of a Verb, 15 Q.
Moditication, llG, 117; Modi- Subject of an Attribute, :!G4: or u
Genmd, 2ii:l; of a Seuiem:c,
fi ed in re spect of Form nnd
dcfi 11 ed, JO; in the N ominaSignifi ca nce, 118; in Number
.tiYe, 251 ; of Lhe Infinitivr.
a11d Perso11, l l!J; in itself ns
252.
1~ whole or iu its parts, 122;
lnflol'tiou by Voi ce and Ten se, Suho-rdinat~ Eleml-nls, Arrangeme11t. 277 .
J:n, 1.24 ; by Adverbial s, 140
-Hi3; in R <'spcct of Object, Superlative Form of A djecthc,
11 l ; Use, 112; Fornmtion,
l 5.J.-1 51 ; Construction wi th
114. .
Subject, 255.
I'reposition, defined, 2I 7; Form!",
!ll8; List, 2 18.
Principal Elenunts, 238; Ar- Te nse, de fined, 128; Simple and
Continuou~,
12!);
Present,
r:mgemcn t, 27 ii.
Pa st, imd Futnre, 130.
l'•ron'.lminat tVords, Concord of,
Theme, defin ed. :! 00.
25R; Arrangement, 284.
Pronoun, defined, 85; Numher Transitive Verb; ) 55.
of, 87; Gender, 88 ; Cn se, 8!);
Compounds with ,<:et;; DO ; Uni:ty. Law of', in Narration, 305;
Reluti ,·e, !J3-!J5; Interroguin Desc ription, 3 15.
tiv<', 96.
Prope;· Nouns, de fined, 23 ; Clas sVerb, defined, 1 S; Inflections by
e s, 24.
V oice, l 24-127; · by Tense,
I'ro11erlies, 42, 43 .
l 28-130 : Rep:ular all(l I rregl'ropriety, 287-204.
ular, J:ll ; Principal P a rts,
1:14; Lht of lrregul ar V e rb!',
Qualities, ltow expressed, 44.
l 35; Transitive aml Intransitive, :i.55; Modified in re spect
Rclatfre Pronouns, defined, !)3 ;
of Objeet, J:;G; Used as Noun,
enumerated. 94-, 95.
l i!J; Concord with Subject In
Relilote Oli,ject of a Verb, 156.
Numbe r and Person, 256.
Selection, Law of, in Narration, Voice, defined , 125; Active nod
Passive, 126.
307; in Description, 317.

