-

iiii

5

GRAMMATICAL SYNTHESIS•

. TUE

ART OF ENGLISII COMPOSITION.

UY

HENRY N. DAY,
AUTIIOR OF "LOGIC,'' "IlIIETOlUC," "lUIETOLaCAL rRAXIS,''

ETC.

"lie who thinks loosely will wriro loosely."- Col<ridg1.

NINTll EDITION,

IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR, & CO.
PU/JL!S IIERS,
NEW YORK Mm ClHCAGO.

,.

)

'-·

PTIEFACE

F >l' 1:1:n::'\n: l1:1s 1l ccisi rcly l'''O \' C<l tk1t tl1 c study of
Hl1 d ori t: must rC'ganl the
tli 1•11.'.:l1t 1l 1:1t is lu lie "' l'n''S•:•l in l:111g u:1gc ns th e rnling
Gr:1: 11111 :1r, C'o11q11 1., i1io11 . and

&ntered according to Act of Congress, In th• ,ear 1867,
ll&XRY N.

"1

1·l1 ·:1 1t ·1 1t i11 di -.. (· 1 11t J >· t ·~ ·-

DAT,

i11 .~

i. I.ho Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Di.strict of Connectl9112

11ri1,.. i1il•"

it . . 01 ·~· :11! i l ·, ol'i .~~· i 11ali 11 g . aw1 dl' tcnni11-

Tl w l'l'\ 1· r" tl of' 1l1 i.<, till : JHttfi ng f(; :·11·anl

., f 11 11' 11<1r:I. 111' ' '.11,., :ind 111:tl; i11g 1l1is Ili c prrnn in<' ttt aml
~ · ~ ~ ! ~ ~ ! ! : ~ ~ ~ ·!;!~ .~ o ! ~j~· ~ ·~

i?t

tll! ! ~ ! ndy , h :h c :t \! '-= 1~ 1 l th

f':ii luru in tl ic.'t: lir:lll cli <•s ut' inslrncti on.

1
_•

g 1 • Jl (' r~d

This lias occa-

~ i o n L· d

1l w ;,'.<' ll\'l':il rqH1 g nan cc to tli c sttHl y of Grammar
:ind of 1:!1 ctu ri e, :111<! to t:xc rcb cs in Composition . Such is
thi: i<','.:iti1na tt• <· 11\·,·t of tl1 i.< unnatural rn cthml of procctlurc.
Tl w11.J 1t is tl 1c org: 111 ii: rit:il l'ic111e 11t of la11gunge arnl of
di .s .. 11 111''<', tl1:1t h:1 s dd L'nnin e(l th e fur 1ns of \r ord:;, the ir
ki11 il .' , rlwi r us<'s; tlt:it lias d1·t crrnin c<l tl1 e structure of tho
Er·nt(·11eP, its f'urn1 , a111l rit e relati ons of its p:uts.

Tlic stu<ly

of !:11 1;.:: 11: 1.'..'. •! :t111l th e st1 1dy o l' Hltl't o ri e, as well as nll c xerc1.<r'.< i11 Cunipositi on, or i11 tl1e con stnH.: tion of discourse
g1·11L' I:t! l.1·, shrn tld, tl1 e refo re, lie grou1Hle<l i11 th e th ougl1t.
T l11: 1;,n ns of tlt r111 ;.::!tt m11st lie known Ldi.J re th e forms of
aIVERSm E, CA~nnrt><JB:

!:1 1 1 .~'.1 1 :1.'..'.• '

in 1rl1 ic!t tl1t•y an! t.o lie cntl1rnlil'1l e:rn lie kno\\'n.

l'ISIOTYP&D ,\NO pr.1:s'ti'n tl'

1:1•:,: i11 11i11.'..'. 11·i1.h t.ltc tl10u,'.\'ht , :rn•l prrx'C'L·ding fr om tlt:it to

U. 0 . UOUG!I!O:i A~IJ COMPA~f .

tl 1i: t'urn is 1Yltich :ll'L' f'nrui sl1 l'1l in l:t11;;11:1,:;c fur the suitaLle
cmliutlirn c ut of the tlw11gl1t, we

'

"

82309

pr0 ~e ed

11aturally, easily,

-- :v

'.).
t

rnEFACE.

v

rnEFAC£.

satisfactorily, because eYcry step is in intelligcucc and in
order.

'Vc

u1ulerstallll why 1·;c arc to use thi s form of

bcl1rccn lhc sulij cet ancl th e predicate, :rnd the various form~

For the stu<ly of a foreign lan-

of IH)l'(ls, of modifying c lements, of verbal expression gen-

gu:-igc, th e a11:1lytic metho<l, which is the one g enerally in

cr:1lly, g rowin g out of this di stinction, is definitely pre-

use, is the suitalil e methotl; for th e object of the study is to

se nted aml recognized cvcrywl1erc thro ug hout the e ntire

expression and not tha t.

learn how to ctlL1 cc the thoug ht fro1a the fonn of wortls in

clc 1·clupm ent of th e work.

which it is e mbotli ctl.

in Grammar " -Itich is -but dimly recog ni zed in existi ng

Dut in the study of one's own

This is :lnothc r vital di sti11 c:tion

ton gue, the cornma1uling objec t is to learn not how to get

trc.1 ti;;es.

the though t out, but how to put the th ought into lang uage ;

l' rcd icalc-1ronls, th o tlistin ct ;ons of noun s ant! of adj ectives.

arnl it is against nature to begin with the study of words,

lt:nc liee n \'c ry obsc ure, 0r roncous, :w<l a ltoge th er un satisLtcl1Jry.

of style.

For one " ·ho speaks English, to strnly the Gram-

mar of the English language acconling to the method or
our common systems of Grammar, is most unnatural.
A leading peculiai;ity of this work is, accordingly, that it

H e nce th e eb ssiflc:-ition of su hj cct-\\'onls and of

Tl1 e stu <ly of l:rnguagc as a h istorical protln ct and grnw th
is rccp11t; :irnl sys tem s of Engli sh Gr:rnrn1 a r, in ge ne ral use,
lt:-i n: l1ad Jj11J o reg: ml to th e clt:L1Lges tlt:it ltavc Lee n taking

develops the wh ole art of Compositi on, th e wh ole science

pla ce in our lang uage.

of Grammar, from th e thonght.

It begins, eyer, with the

IJrcn co11 <lcmn ed as irregnlar, wl1ich yet aro legitimate Eng-

form s of th e thought, a!Hl th en inquires for the forms

li sh ; other form s ha ve Leen allowed, because in gen e ral

which the Engli sh lang uage, 111uler th e guidance of thought,

use, hnt left uncxplainetl; ancl still othe rs appro ved that arc

has furnislwd for t.h c e xpression of these form s of thought.
The f111H!a111 ent:il distincti on bet1Yeen thought itself and

ll e11 cc, form s of ex pression ha ve

in d irect opposition to the very genius of tlic la11gnage.
Tlii s treatise has Leen elaborated in the light of our earliest

the matter of thought, betw ee n thinking aml tl1at of which

li te rature, and of its history onward.

we think, so esse nt ial to nil correct thinking an<l speak ing,

tant \rnrk, it is allowable to remark in thi s conn ection, ye t

yet so generally ol1scurc1l or ig norc<l, is defi nitely tlrawn

n·1n :l i ns to be done in the his torical in tcrpretation of our

aiul m:t i11t:Li11 l•d tltro11gl1 out.

l:t ngnagc and literature.

T!tis tlistinction solYes somo

A large a nd impor-

of tl1 c lllfJ't serious clitl'iculties that prcsc11t th cmscl1·cs in

J n Lhc co nstruction of this work, morco,·c r, tl1 e most dili-

gra n:r.:itic:tl st1 11l ies, such as th ose that occur in th e trcat-

ge nt care !tns bee n taken to be guided by tl1 e stri ctest

me11 ; " f till: Ye rb; i11 tli c tlist riliuti on of motlifying clements

me thod throughout.

Lit tlL: ;e nle ncc ; in the di scrimination of preposi tions and
conjtt :v~I ion s.

ea rl y training than matter -

N e xt, th e broa•l <listin ction between the ohject of which
we th in k, and that \\'hieh we think of it, -

tho distinction

is sltulictl.

1\Icthocl is of far m ore import:in cc in
the mode of stmly than wl1nt

Rig ht me thods of thinking a rc of the first con -

ser; nc nce to all mental grow th.

E speciall y is it of importa11cc titat the mind in training should Le habitmtcrl to a
steady growth - to a constant mh·ancc and progress, in

vi

Pl!EFACE.

wl1ich wl1at ha~ been done shall eyer be helpful to wl1at is
to Le do11e.
Introductory exercises arc presented at the beginning to
initiate re:ulily into the metltolls of the study, aml to i11troduec to some ' tcc:Jmicalities of general use.. The llcfi11itions
urnl principl es arc here gi\-en in more rudimentary forms, but
in harmony with the foll cr forms presented in the Lolly of
the work. The more important teachings arc presented in
more con spi cuous type. The beginning stmlent may find it
expedient to pass over the smaller type until the review. It
has been dccmetl necessary to introduce more in explanation
and vindication of the views that arc offcrell than "·ould bo
proper for an elementary treatise, but for their variance
from preval ent <loctrine. The great advance recently mado
in Logical Science, on whi ch Grammar is immelliately
foulllletl, has rernlercd necessary more of this explanatory
matter tl1an it is to be hoped 'viii be required after this
great science - tl1is science of sciences - becomes more generally m:derstood. Ilithcrto systems of English Grammar
have shown little acquaint:wcc 'rith Logic.

CONTENTS.

INTRODTJCTORY EXERCISES.
CHAPTER I.
PAID

§§ 1-9. Tim

)

SENTE:<:CE

CfIAPTEP. II.
§§ 10-19.

ELm!ENTS OF THE SENTENCE

§§ 20-30.

CONCRETES •

CUA PTER III.
8

CHAPTER IV.
§§ 31-48. AnsrnACTs

13

CHAPTER V.
§§ 49-54. Pno:;:ou:;:s,

IlELATIYES

21

CHAPTER VI.
§§ 55-59.

l\!oDIFYING WORDS

24

CHAPTER VII.
§§ GO-GG. Fonlt-Woims

25

CHAPTER VIII.
§§ G7-i2. PrmAsEs,

CLAUSES •

CIL\PTER IX.

§§ 73-iS.

FomtAT!O~ OF

Wonos

28

CONTENTS.

Vlll

CONTENTS.

ART OF COl\IPOSITIO:N.

PART III. -1\lODIFYTNG

uo•
§§ 7D--88. GEXEitAL DIYISIOXS

ELEJ!E~TS

OF TIIE

SE.'.\ TEN CE.

36

CH APTER I.

§§ 1"8-171. NATUHE AXD Kl .NOS OF' i\loO!FY l.NG ELE"E.NTS

PART I. - SDIPLE OBJECT.

88

C II AP T ER II.
~§

172-la2. MoDIFIE HS OF AX OllJECT.

AoJECT I\' Es

01

CHAPTER I.

§§ Sn-101. Nouxs- DIVISIOXS •

ClL\ PTE P. lll.

39

§§ rn3- 200. J\ [o nll'ICA TIO.NS OF TllE PrtEOICATE.
CHAPTER II.
~§

lOt

1()2-107. Nou:xs-NU)!IlE ll

C TIAPTEr: l V.

CHAPTER III.
§§ 108-113. Nou:xs -

GE:<DEn

l:ELATIVE MoD-

ll'I CA 'l' lOXS

§§ 201-227: J\fonIFIC,\TllJ.NS l:W TllE PI:EIJI CATE
FLECT IO:\S OF TII E VEHB

•

ITSELF.

C l! APTER. V.

C HAPTER IV.
§§ 114-lln. l\oi;xs - CAsE

ll<

.

58

~ § 223- 243. ~loDrF I CATtox s OF TllE Prn:ni c ATE nY Aov ErtIHALs .

127

-A IHE l:ns
CIIAPTEP. V.

§§ 120-1:>3. PEI:sox - P Enso:uL Puo:-ouxs

61

Cl L\PTEI: V I.

§§ 2-1-1-250. Mon1FrcA-rmxs OF TIT E Pnrm1 c,1Tr. 1x ITsE r F SEPA I:AL:LV

A:>;D

1x I'.E s t·ECT

OF

Or:JECT

132

CHAP T EP. VII.

§§

PART IL-PRINCIPAL ELEi\IENTS OF THE
SENTENCE.

~5 1-271.

~!ODIF I CATIO.N S Ol' nm Cort:LA

137

CHAPTER I.

§§ 114-1.J2. ELDIE.NTS A.ND Dl\'IS!O.NS •

PART IV. -

70

AD.NORMAL
CHAPTER I.

CllAPTER II.

§§ 272- 2/G. CrrAnAcn.m ,\ .ND D1v1swx s OF AnxomlAL F omrn.

(§ 143--HG. Tn r: St:nJECT .

-1·\ n:'1-\V oi:Ds .
CHAPTER III.

n u1-1Go.

Tnr: rr.coi cATE •

79

HS

CHAI'TER II.
~§

27i-2!Jj. AnxomtAL Nou:-;s

CHAPTER IV.

§§ 1Gl-1G7. Tn E CoruLA

FOR~1S.

151

C HAPTER III.
• 81

~§ 2nG- 307

Anxo mrAL AnJICCTIYES

WJ

x

P ART Vl.-A:NALYSIS.

CIL\PTER IV.

§§ 308-312.

AnxOI: )IAL ADYEl:l>S •

~§

Ai: xo r.)!AL llf oD.\LS

xi

CONTENTS.

CONTE::"TS.

PAGI

UGI

lti9

§§ 413-122.

D EF I::<ITI ON :

249

Ruu:s

CITAPTEP.. V.

313-317.

• li2

PART VII. - SYMBOL IS~! OF THOUGHT.
CIL\PTEP.. VI.

§§ 318- 3n

CIL\PTEP.. I.

li5

l'r:Erosrrrnxs

~§

421-·131.

GE:'.<ERAL

258

Vrnw. -D1vrs roxs

CHAPTER YII.

§§

CHAPTER II.

• 173

323-3~3 . .CoxJt:XCTIOXS.

§§ .1:;2-4 39.

SnrnoLs OF Souxo

§§ H0- 449.

SnrnoLs OF S1c l!T

§§ ·l::i 0-433.

SnrnoLs OF S)IELL, TA STE, AXD T oucn

• 2G3

CIIAPTEl1 VIII.

H 331-343.

CIIAPTEP.. III.

AL"XILI.\I:IEs, ExrLETIYES, lxl'EI:JECTIOXS

2G8

CHAPTER IX.

H 344-349.

CO)lPOt:XD SE:'.<TEXCES •

• 187

CIL\PTER :X.

H

191

350-3:;:;. CO)!PLE:<: SE:'.<TEXCES •

El!OTl\"E SEXTEXCB

CITAPTER V.

•

1C5

279

CHAPTER VI.

§§ 1::i7- 4G L

PART

• 276

§§ 4G-i-45G. SnrnoLs FRO)! GE:<EnAL SExsE

CHAPTER XI.

H 3Gf,-J58.

CIIAPTEP.. JV.

232

SnrnOLS OF Co::<DITIOS AXD R ELATIO S

CIIAPTEP.. YII.

V.-CO~S1RUCTIOX.

286

§§ 4G2- 4GG. LAws OF SnrnoLs

CHAPTER I.

H 3G9-362.

197

DIYISIONS

CHAPTER II.
~§

PART VIII.-E:XPLANATIO.N.

• mg

363 385. Coxcorm .

CTIAPTEP.. I.

CIL\PTEP. III.

§§ :!SG-398.

217

Ar.I:AX GE)!E:ST

§§ 4G7-47-1. GE:<EnAL Ymw. - DrnsIONS

CHAPTER II.

CIL\PTEP.. IV.
~§

I
I

2aI

227

399-!0G. P1: o rn1ETY

CHAPTER III.

CIL\PTE!l V.

t§ Vi-412.

PI:E CISI O:'.<

• 238

239

~§

486-191.

NAnnATto:<

•

2~6

.----·---··
CO NTENTS.

xii

CHAPTER IV.
PAGI

§§ 402-407.

DESCillPTIO~.

§§ 408, 409.

ExuMERATIO~

300

CHAPTER V.
AXD Drsrosrno~

• 302

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

CHAPTER VI.
§§ 500-505.

304

Drvrsro~

-+-

CHAPTER I.

CHAPTER VII.
.

§§ 50G-511. p AI!TITIO~

30G
TIIE

APPENDIX.
J.

lit;~CTU ,\TION •

II. C1,As s w1cAT10~ OF Nouxs
III. Pu; J:,\l.S OF Nouxs
IV. TnE E ssE:<TL\L XATURE OF
V. TnE VEnn
VI. Gn.urn.\TICAL ilfooD
VII ,

SELEcnoxs Fort ExERt18E8

~:33

337
THE

CoruLA

33~

SEl\TEl\CE.

§ 1. \Vrrr:;-.r we speak " ·c asse rt somdl1i11g of an oh
jcc.t. Su ch an asse rti on is calll'd a 81'1lll'J/ Cf' . Thus,
'·'John is a scholar,"" .Jol111 st udi 1.'s," :ire Sv11tt'.1H'(";.
A ;)El\TEl\CE is an assertion of sm 11ctl1i 11 g H'~] H:cling
an oLject; as, "The s un is bright."
§ 2. Th e Sente nce is made up of three cleme nts :
1. The o~ject of whic h we speak, called the Sul!fect;
2. That \Ylii ch

\Y O

3. The assertion

asse rt of it, ca.ll ed thr' p,.,,d,>rrtf;

it se ll~ called the

Copula.

Tim SUBJECT of a S en tence is tliat of whi ch we
speak; as, "John studies," "The sun is Lrigl1 t."
Th e PREDICATE of a Sentence is tl1at \\·hi ch is asse rted
of tl1 c Suhject; as, "J ollll is a scholar," "The sun is

bri!Jltl."
Th e Cori:;v\ of a Sentence is that clemen t of it
wl1ich asserts; as," John is a scholar," "The sun is
bright."

§ 3. In speaking, Sentences and Parts of Sente nces
arc sepa ra te<l from one another hy means of Pauses
r.ml l11flertions of the Yoice.
In \\Titi11g, Sf'11tcnces arc separatcll by means of
Points aml Capitals.
l

2

·\

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

THE SENTENCE.

§ 4. There are four Poil1ts used to separate Sentnnces
nnd the Parts of Sentences from one another. They
are, 1. The Period (.); 2. The Colon (:); 3. The
. Semicolon (;) ; 4. The Comma (,).
·
§ 5. The PERIOD separates one Sentence from
anod:er.
EXA'.\IPLE. - " Be kind ancl loving to one another. Honor
your minister. Be not bitter nor harsh to my sen·ants. Be
respectful to all.. Bear my absence patiently and cheerfully."

§ 6. The CoLON, the SE'.\IICOLO::><, and the CoMMA
separate the parts of a Se~1tence -the .Colon most
widely, tl~e S.emicolo!1 . less ·" '. idely, ,the Comma least
widely~ · ·
·
·
·
·
·
EXA.MPLE. - " When I came to my castle, for so I th ,nk
I called it -ever after this, I fled into it like one pursued:
whether I went over by the ladder at first contrived, or we~t
in at the hole in the rock which I called a d~>0r, I cannot
remember; for never frighted hare fled to cover, or fox to
earth, with more terror of mind than I to this retreat."
" Genius will not' furnish him with a vocabulary: it will
not teach him what word most exactly corresponds to his
i<lea: it will not make him a great descriptive poet, till he
has looked with attention on the face of Nature; or a great
dramatist, till he has felt and witnessed much of the influence
of the passions."

§ 7. CAPITALS are a kind of large Letters.
a:re used at the beginnings of all sentences.

They

EXA:\IPLE. - "If they make no impression, it is because
they arc too vulgar and notorious. But the inattention or
indifference of the nation has continued too long. You are
roused at last to a sense of danger• . · The remedy will ;ioon
be in your power."
. I1· ·
Capital~ are also used at

the beginning of the names

3

of individuals, and of leading words; as, John, Oato,

Ouba, JJ:londay.
ExA'.\IPLE. - "All my calm of mind, in my resignation
to Provi<lence and waiting the issue in the dispositions of
Heaven, seemed to be suspended."
~ 8. On AL ExERCrsEs.
Name the Points used in
the Appendix No. VIL, and correct the faults in Pun ct·
uation, and in the use of Capital Letters in tliefollvw
ing extracts : -

/

However, as I went down thus two or three, days and
having seen nothing I began, to be a little bol<ler : ancl to
think there was really nothing but my own Imagination.
but I could not, persuade myself fully of this; till I should
go down to the shore again, and see this print of a foot and
measure it by my own and see if there was any similitude or
fitness that I might be assured it was my own foot; But
when I came to the place first it appeared Evidently to me,
that when I laid up my boat, I could, not possibly be on
Shore anywhere thereabouts Secondly: when I came to
measure the mark, with my own foot I found my foot not so
large by a great deal.
l\IY uncle Toby, was a man patient of injuries -not from
the want of courage - I have told you in a former chapter;
that ·he was a man of courage and I will add here; that
where just occasions presente<l or called it forth, I know no
man under whose arm, I would have sooner taken shelter Nor did this arise from any insensibility, or obtuseness of his
intellectual parts for he felt as feelingly, as a man could do
- But he was of a peaceful, placid nature no jarring element in him - all was mixed up so kindly within him; my
,uncle Toby, had scarce a heart to retaliate upon a fly.

§ 9. W..n1TTE~ EXERCISE. Write, from dictaticn by
a teacher or 'l:-!J one of the class, an extract taken from
some prose writer, separating the Sentences and Parts
of Sentences by p1·oper Points and Oapitals.

9

CONCRETES.

J

'

'

Name tliree Class-nouns denoting, 1. Persons ; 2. Places ; 3. P eriods of time ; 4. Divisions
of the earth ; 5. Vegetables ; G. Animals ; 7. Objects in
the room;

§ 22. \V RITTEN ExF RCISE. Supply Class-nouns, as
subJ el!ts, to the Verbs in the following parts of Sen·
tences.
0

CHAPTER Ill.
CONCRETES.

· § 20. Onrncrs that arc cla~ses, that is, that contain
individuals under them, are expressed in words called
Class-riouns ; as, African, island, planet, dog.
, . CL.ASS-NOUNS are names of classes.
OnsERV.ATro~. -Any one of the class may be denoted by th< nrme of
the clnss: ns an African named Han11ilrnl; an Island calleil Cutia; a planet
named Jupit er; a !log nameu Carlo. lla11nibal was an African; Cuba is an
Isknil; Jupiter is a planet.

N rrn,. the Class-nounP i~

§ 21. ORAL EXERCISES.
tlze following seri_tences : -

·

The trees i.n winter are naked; withered, and bare ; - they
are like dry bones : in 'spring they are covered with blossoms
and green leaves. The dog, the horse, the elephant, and
some birds, are teachable and intelligent; As we approached
the river, the Arabs, who were acting as ·our guides, sudden)~
stopped. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets,
as the planets move in orbits around the sun. 'Ye are af·
fected with delightful sensations, when we see the inanimate
parts of the creation, the meadows, flowers, and trees, in a
flourishing state. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays
a figure, a proportion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art.
Days crowd upon days and minutes upon minutes. The
Japanese are a very jealous people. The Esqm..uaux have
high cheek-bones, .and small noses ; and the eyei. .ue deeply
seated in the head.

Blooms; grows; swims ; walks ; feels; is moving; has
been conquered; was produced; will be made ; was discovernd; is promised ; will be multiplied; revolve in their
orbits; can be mentioned; is mild; is woolly; is teachable;
is scaly ; is web-footed ; is long-necked ; is square ; is high
is heavy; is long-lived; is prickly; is bulbous; is brittle; is
ripe; is green ; is purple; is sweet; is fragrant ; is rough;
is 6lastic.
Ons1>nYATION. - The noun will be apt to occur in nnswer to the interroga ti,·e, What f As, if I ask myself, "'What blooms?" the woril will be
apt to occur to n1e, - "T he flower."
Mon EL. -The serpent creeps; the grape is round.

~ 23. Obj ects that are composed of a num her of individuals grouped together, and arc yet not cla~ses, are
expressed in CoLLECTIVE NOUNS ; as, army, flock, con-

stellation.
CoLLECTIYE NOUNS arc names of groups.
OnsEHYAT!O:-<. -The name of the whole cannot be i:h·en to any one of
the obj ects denot ed by a co llecti\'C 1101111, or noun of multituue, as it is sometimes call ed, as it ca n be in the cu' e of those denoted by n class-noun . 'Ve
cannot say u Stephen is nn arm.,·," as we can say" Stephen is a mnn," although Stephen mny be one of the objects uenotet! as well by "urmy" as
by" man." 'Ve can always distinguish by this a collective noun from a
das:.rn0un ..

§ 24:. ORAL EXERCISES. Name tlze Collective Noiins
in the following Sentences, and mention of what kind of
indfri.Juals each is made up: Th) army was sadly neglected.

The assembly

W:\ll

ta

- .
..

. :·,

10

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

COXCRETES.

multuous. A large company collected around the prince.
The trib" ')f caterpillars called surveyors sometimes support
themselves for whole hours upon their hind-legs. A herd
of buffaloes can only be kept in order by a guard of mounted
keepers, armed with lances. 'Vhales are found in companies,
but mostly µ1 pairs. A belt of trees and shrubs conceals the
..fence. The out-houses are placed in a group of shrubbery.
A dozen .o r· more, perhaps a score, of apples lay under the
tree: .Swarms of bees were found in the forest.

·])lame three Collective Nouns dery.otii1g, 1. Persons ; 2. Animals ; 3. Things.

§ 25. W RITTE~

Collective Nouna
as subjects to the following parts of Sentences : Fought; shouted; was divided; ran together; was well
matched; assembled; is introduced ; has bought ; surrounded
them; were diseased; was approaching; were sworn in the
customary way; will ~uffer greatly; was.autho1:ize<l; is composed.
·
Moni;_L. -A company :was fonnecl; the Tnn nic black.

§ 26. Objects .that are regard~d as composite, but are
not classes llOL; groups, are expressed in words called
Mass-nouns; as, earth, water, air, light.
· MAi::s-:xouNs are names of objects regarded as mere
masses
.
· .
·
\
§ 27.

Name tliree Jl.Ias.s-nouns that are, 1. J\Iinerals ; 2. Gases or Vapors; 3. V egetablcs ; 4.
Animals ; 5. Spiritual objects.

§ 28. WRITTE~ EXERCISE. Supply lJiass-nou~is a·3
sub/eels to the following parts of Sentences : l\Jclts ; is dissol ve<l ; scatters ; rises ; nourishes ; is formed ;

will bend; will freeze ; thinks; Lleccls ; is sweet; is bright;
is ductile; is fusible; is combustible; is brittle ; is pliable;
ia h:-.rd ; is dull ; is stratified ; is goo<l for food ; is transpa·
rent.
l\foDEL. -

EXERCISE • . Suppl!J

0RAI. ExERGISES.

Name the Mass-nouns in

the following Sentences : Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. Ice is
frozen water. Exogenous plants have bark, wood, and pith.
The hloo<l is purified by air taken into the lungs. Spirit
is acl iYc; matter in ert. Smoke is a product of combustion.
Wbeat and rye will germinate in a single day; mustard re·
quires three days; lettuce, four; while parsley requires fif.
teen. :; Passion, I see, is catching.
·- "" ( "-.
•:;,:'.

' ...
I

.

,1'.

11

Grass withers; th ought is d eathl ess.

The four dn sscs of ol~jrcts n nmc<l in the preceding sec
or th oug ht. Th ey nrc cx p rc:o1sc tl in a
class of wonl:i which · nrc··cn-lled C1111cr1·ft':-t, a nd whic h constitu te ~llle of the
two grnntl diYis io ns of noun s in la ng uage. Concretrs a rc sing le or composite . S in g le concretes cxpre~sc1 l in ~i 11 µ-le word:i a rc Proper N"ouns
Compo$ite c<J nc retes nre compo,ed ei lh cr of ( 1 ) !'arts thnt cn n lie 1111111bered
without l.Jeing cla!'sed , co1_1 ~t ituting Collccti\-e Xuun s ; or (t.) Part s that can
be m easured, constituting- l\fo g.i;:. -11 o l111 s; or ( !l. ) Part ~ that are g-athered into
the same class, cons litutiuo; C lass-nouns. Sec ,\ppcrnlix No. II . Concrete
nouns are, in fact, suUjcct-uouus; that is, names of oUjects of whi t h some·
thing is nssertecl.
OnsEH\'A TIO:<. -

tion~, form a general c l<.1 ss of u~jcch

§ 29. A Co:xcRETE NOUN is the name of an object
of which we m ay assert an attribute.
OnsEHY .\TI O:<. -Th e $ntnc wort!, it shoul<l be borne in mind, may b~,
in one 1.1$e , a Proper .:\oun; in another, a Class-noun; in ~ till anot her, a
CoJlecth·e N n1111, or a l\Iass-noun. Thm; when I f'riy ".Alexantlcr was a
grea t general,'' I use the worcl 0 Alexa nder" as a proper nou11. 'Yhen I
say "An Akxander would have fo iled in ~ uc..:h a campaign,' ' I use the
word to clcn ote a cla~g. 111 th e sa me way, I m:.iy say ·• \\·atcr is fluid,"
using th e won l " wntcr '' ns a lll.il ~!oi- 110.1n ; or " Hnin water is ~ofl, " usi ng
the f.Hmc wor1l ns a clar-:s-1101111. It is th e 11 ~e of lh e word in ~pr~uking, not
the form of the word as it is iri n n in the dic tionary, tliat d e termines
wh eth er it ~clun gs to the one or the other of the different cln$ses of n ouns;whether i"t i~, ii; a gi,·en case, n l'roper noun, a Class-noun, n Collect.iv-a
noun, or a l\I a~s -noun.

' § 30. \VmTTEN EXERCISES. 1. Write sentences asBerting l'OrhP.tlti1;g of three Prope1· Nouns, of each of tha
followinp classes respc1:tivelu : ·-

12

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

(1.) Of Persons ; (2.) Of Places; (3.) Of Things.

2. Of three C!ass-n~uns of eacli of the following
·
·
,
classes respeetivel.y : - .
(1.) Places; (2.) Divisions of Time; (3.) l\Iinerals;
(4.) Veg~tables; (5.) Animals; (G.) Rational Beings.

..

3;

Of tliree Collective Nouns in each of tlie following
~lasses: ·
(1.) Living objects; (2.) Inanimate object.a.

4. Of three Mass-nouns. ·

.

:-.~-

CHAPTER IV.
ABSTRACTS.

t 31. To every object of which we can think, there
belong one or more attributes. Of these attributes
there are four classes, namely, - Qualities, Actions,
Conditions, and Relations. Nouns expressing attributes
are called abstracts .
§ 32. Qualities of objects are expressed in nouns
called Quality-nouns ; as, sweetness, hardness, clemency.
QUALITY-NOUNS express quality.

§ 33. ORAL EXERCISES.
in the following sentences : -

, ._

\
I

I
I
I
I
t

Name the Quality-nouns

Air owes its fluidity to heat. The magpie is noted for his
loquacity. If the great Newton could utter such a sentiment, how much more becoming are modesty and humility
in us. Some bodies possess so little elasticity, that they are
called non-elastic. They gave themselves up to severity and
rigidness of life. So that it is great weakness and silliness,
and not conscientiousness that prevails with these men. Wo
were charmed by the tunefulness of its notes. There is an
interest that is beyond the disorder and mutability of the
present world. The juice had ari agreeable tartness, though
but little flavor. Timidity, though similar to pusillanimity,
i11 not so reproachful. All this rose from infirmity, not
wickedness . .. The Creator is willing mankind should servti
tl1emselves .of all his creatures' various excellences, in their
•trength, weight, light, sweetness, warmness.

-·---14

'.

15

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

ADSTRACTS.

Expi·ess Qualities of objects in tlte fol!ou·in[J classei
fw appropriate nozms: -

enoo for sacre<l things. Vegetable growth is etfectccl by the
absorption of fluicls by the roots ar.d the circulation through
tho stem to the leaves. At last I fell into a qrow$e, as if
a•iug to sleep by the musical pattering of the rain npon th~
roof. The magpie had been occupied all the time in profonnd meditation; and, at last, broke its long 3iJence by a
perfect imitation of the flourish of trumpets it had heard
The acquisition of the lesson , however, exhausted its whulo
stock of intellect. If a ball be dropped perpendicularly on a
sruooth pavement, the reh.<mnd will be to a certain point in the
line of descent. There _is auother mn.tter requiring explanation. Our next conversation will be about the density of
bodies. The peculiar moanings of the turtle-dove are only
its wonings of its mate. His friend gave him good counsel
and earnest admonition.

The tree; the acorn; the fowl; the serpent; silver; iron
the voice ; the feeling ; the word ; the blow ; the wish ; the
motile.
MonEr.s.-To the olive bdongs bitterness. To the ro•e belongs colcr.
To the lamb belongs playfulness. To the comet belongs briyhtwss.
Ons1mv ATm:<. - For assertions of quality the udjecti,·e form is the mos&
natural, ns, " The oli,,e is bitter." We have iu English fow, if, iu fact. anJ
verb-fonus that cau be us~!l for this purpose.

§ 34. ·w RITTEN EXERCISE. Assert some Quality
of each of the following obJects in both forms, by a noun
and by an adjective : Paper ; the pencil ; the color; the picture ; the counte
nance; the dress ; the cloth ; the painting; the writing ; the
addition ; the spelling; the manners ; the speech ; the sleep;
the thirst; the position.
MoDEL. - To the rose belongs fragrance; the rose is fragrant.

§ 35. Actions are expressed in nouns called Acti'.on·
nouns, as creation, the act uf creating; race, the act
of running; ' ascent, the . act of ascending; growth, the
act of growing.
ACTION-NOUNS

§ 36. 0 RAL

express action.

EXERCISES.

Name the Action-nouns in

!

the following sentences : -

Animals are sensible of the treatment they receive from
us. The remembrance of his misdeed made him falter. In ·
the arrangement of its leaYes the plant is mathematically
precise. The revolution of the earth about the sun was disbelievecl as irreconcilable with the Scriptures. The continual wearing of the rain had made a deep hollow in the rock,
By the exercise of the mental faculties, man is distinguished
from the brute. Close attention and perseverance can conquer even natural defects • . The jcster,,has selclom any rover•
I

' As~i·t some action of eacli of the following o.?Jects : John; England; _man; the dog; the rose; gold; grass;
chair; book; mind; passion; avarice; knowledge.
Monm.s . - To Alfred belongs fore,ight; lo the Yiolet belongs blooming;
to a magnet belongs attl'action; to intemperance hclongs degradation.
Oos1mvAT!O:<. - " ' hen an action is asserted of an object, the form with
the Yerl> is more naturally employed; as we sny, " Th e magnet attracts,"
rath er than "To the magnet belongs attraction." Bu t the meaning is the
same. In both cases we alike assert an attribute of an object.

§ 37. vVmTTEN EXERCISE. Assei·t some Action of
the following objects both in tlte form of a noun and also
of a verb:Fire ; the sun ; the heart; the eye ; the seed; the ho:-:ie;
the ox; the book; the architect; the soldier.
llfonELS. -To the _landscape may lie attributed, or belcn.!:\'•, gratifbt.tion; the landsca pe pl enscs; to hea~ belongs ·cx pan, ion ; heat expn nrl ~ ; to
the sl~dent may be attributed attainment of knowledge; the student learua.
1

§ 38. Conrlitions of objects are expressed in P..ouns
called Condition-nouns ; a~, silence, poverty, liealth..
:''(" Coirnrno~ ·NOUNS express condition.

'-...,: •

·;

16

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

ABSTRACTS.

Ons1mvATIOY.-Conditions are of three classes: (1.t or place j as, .. Rome
in Italy;" (2.) Of time; as," The departure was on Thw ·sday; " (3.)
Condition in the more ordinary sense, as answering to the interrogatiYe
How? as, " The boy is in health;" "The ship is in.decay; " " The business
.was tran~acted in quietness and in order."
It will be noticed that Italy and Thursday in the above examples are orig;nnlly Proper r.1Juns. But as designating places and times, such words
'mqy be used, as here, to express conditions. · As before intimateJ, worda
II{: uncomn:vnly have divers uses.

OnHr.VATION. -The state or condition of an object may be .expressed
lu otl1er ways than by simple nouns. The noun with a preposition , as," The
nation is at pt act; ,. and the participle in ing, as, "The lamb is frisking,"

111

·~ 39. ORAL ExERClSES.
in the following sentences : -

are tho Corms most (Ommon. Words compounded of a noun and the p1e5x
a, which is the fragment of an obsolete preposition, signify ing fo or on, are
alw expressh•o of condition; as, "The boat is adrift;" " The child wa.:
culup."

§ 40. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Assert some crnilition
of each of the following obJects in each of the dijflrrent
f 01·ms mentioned : -

Name the Gond·ition-nouns

~

James; the ship; the cloud; the oak; the book; the
heart ; ; the head ; the ·sport.

The Parthenon was at Athens. The Coliseum is in
Rome. . The battle was in l\Iay. The bird is in flight. It
. will soon be in rest. At night many leaves are in apparent
sleep. Swans are fabled to sing most sw~etly in death. A
.market. woman used to give herbs to an elephant while at
work. · The elephant one day, in a mood of frenzy, rushed
into the market, and drove all others away, but took the
.child in his trunk and bore it away in safety. The queen
bees are in perpetual conflict with one another. Vines
climb in rank luxuriance upon the trees along the road.
'When in fermentation, the skins of the grape which rise are
stirred .down, to give the wine a high color. The fermenting .tubs' must then be under close cover, for the skins become sour if in contact with the atmospheric air. John remained in silent reflection for a long time. \ They commenc'3
their voyage in great hilarity. Some people are always it.
trouble. .
·
I
·

MoDELS.~To

§ 41. Relatio~s . of objects are expressed in nouns
called Relation-nouns; as, superiority, succession, suitableness, discipleship .
RELATION-NOUNS

express relations.

§ 42. ORAL EXERCISE.
in the following sentences : -

The horse ; the ox ; the grass ; the sky ; the sun ; the
wintl; the pen; the paper; the clock; the knife; the street;
the grain ; the bread.
The wortl desired will be suggested in answer .to the ques·
tion : In what place, time, or condition', i1 tl1e ol?ject 1 · 01
in answer to the interrogatives Where 1 · When 1 How 1

the door belongs decay; the door is decaying; the door ill

aJar .

Assert some condition of. each,. of the following ob.)°eds:-

"· MODELS. -To the eagle belongs hunger; to Chicago belongs prosperity.

17

1

Name the Relation-nouns

A dollar in paper currency should be in equality of value
with a dollar in coin. The nearness of France to England
makes intercourse easy between the two nations. The ancient law gave the younger sons and daughters of the king
precedence before all peers. His fickleness is the chief
hindrance to his success. All communication with him was
on account of his waywardness suspended from that time .
The behavior of John was in striking contrast with that of
his brother. We state our experience and then we come to
a manly resolution of acting in contradiction to it. Its usefulness and subserviency to the purposes of piety will be ex·
hibited. When the being of the state is endangered, resistance to ~~e person of the king is justifiable. The genuino
effect of a nearer view of infinite excellency is a deep senso
of o~ own great inferiority to it.
,.
~

18
(

ABSTRACTS.

INTRODUCTORY . EXERCISES.

1. PnoPER NouNs, denoting individual objects;
2. CLASS-NOUNS, denoting classes ;

Assert relations of tlte following obJects : -A coin ; a tree ; rice ; the air; the citizen ; the child ; the
magistrate.
"
· ·' '

8. CoLLECTIVE NouNs, denoting groups;
•1. MASS· NOUNS, denoting composite objects of spacial

l\Iotn:r.s. - To the dollar belongs usefulness in trade; to the shrub belongs inferiority in size to the trne; to the spirit belongs control over.the
body

parts.

§ 47. Abstracts are offour kinds:-

OnsEI!YATIO,.. - Relations may be attributed to objects in the form of
Abstract Noun>; or of Verbs; or of Adjectives; or by means of Prepositions.
Relations ex idt in time, ns " Alexander succeeded Philip; " in place, as
"Spain adjoins France;" as cause nnd effect, or nim and object, as" Heat
expands iron;" mu.l in degree, u John outrun s Jame.::,"

h

John is swjfter

· than Jam eg.'' They are readily expressed in Vertis compounded with Prepositions which retain their proper force in the compound; as, outbid, overbalance, undermine, circumsc,.ibe, countemct, exceed, interline, tmnscend.

§ 43. WRITTEN EXERCISE. · Assert some relation
. of each of the following ob:jeets in each of tlte forms
mentioned, - by an Abstract Noun ; by a Verb ; by an
AdJeetive : . Copper; granite, the grape; cotton; agriculture; paintin'g; commerce; law; government; avarice; wealth; study..
l\IoDELs. -To icad may be attributed utility for many wants in life; lead
outweighs ironz lead subserves the wants of man; lead is servicea_blo for
our wants.-'
·
.

.§ 44. Attri-butes, when regarded as objects, are expressed in words called Abstracts; as, 'ipalking; sleep;
sweetness; equality.
\
An ABSTRACT is the 'name of an attribute when regarded as an object.
OnSER\"ATio:-i.-An Abstract Noun nnd nn Adjccth·e hoth e~prcss attributes; bnt an Abstract expresses an attribute of which we can assert
10me other attribute; an AdjeetH·e does not. Thus we can say, •'Sweetness is attractfre;" but not" Sweet is attractive."

~ 45. Nouns are of two classes : .. 1. CONCRETE NOUNS, denoting subjects in thought;
· ~'- 2. ABSTRACT NOUNS, denoting attt-ibutes in thought.
• 46. Concretes are of four kinds :;- ··-· '~ '' ! • ...,.~ ·

.

.,1·

;

.

-

19

1. VV ords denoting QUALITIES;

~

2. Words denoting ACTIONS;
3. "vVorcls den~ing CONDITIONS ;
4. \Vords de~10ting RELATIONS.
§ i8. "vV RITTEN EXERCISES. Form sentences in whie'A
sornet!ting shall be asserted of each of the following
Concretes : John; So~r;t~~; Cicero; Sir Isaac Newton; Benjamin
Franklin; the Sun; l\Iars; the Amazon; Italy.
Bir<l; fish; serpents; mountains; stars; tables; knives .
Forest ; army ; class; convention; mob ; corps ; clan;
bundle.
\V oo<l ; air ; heat ; space ; mind.

•

Form sentences in which each of tlte following Attributes shall be asserted of some substance : Runs ; strikes ; burns ; hurts ; thinks ; feels ; makes ; di·
rects ; learns.
Quiet; moving; standing ; falling ; calm ; trouble<l; contented; frisking; flying; silent; distant; indignant; petu"
lant.
Tall ; green ; heavy ; elastic; fragrant; quick ; impulsive ; kind ; rash.
Below the sun ; behind the hour ; exceeds one hundred ;
excels his lea<ler ; greater than you imagine.
Form sentences in which some quality, action, condition; and relation, shall be asserted of the following
Ooncretes : -

,/

20 ~

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

i. Grass ; 2. Rock ; 3. ,Cloud ; 4. Star ; 5. Person ; 6.
Mind ; 7. .Army.
llloDEL.- Grass is soft; grass grows; grass is dry; grass nourishes

animals.

!

Form sentences in whicli one or more of the following
Attributes shall be asserted of some Proper Noun, Class. noun, Collective noun, and .Ll:fass-noun : 1. Size ; 2. Shape ; 3. Color ; 4. Weight.

I

l1IooE1.s. - Cresar is small; is deformed; is of dark complexion. The
house is large; jg square;-~ white . . The constellation is large; '.s dipper·.
like; is brjglit. Sni.oke jg curling; is dark; outwe:ghs common air.

·1:
• 1

i

·l
i

CJIAPTER V •
PRONOUNS.

§ 49. IN speaking, there is ever a speaker, a person
spoken to, and an object spoken of. For the convenient
expression of these several elements of all discourse, a
class of words called Pronouns are employed. As instead of saying " The speaker gives the speaker's book
to the hearer," we say, "I give my book to you."
A PRONOUN is a word used to distinguish the speaker,
the person spoken to, and the obj ect spoken of.
I, my, me ; we, our, us, denote the speaker or speakers.
Thou, thy, thee,· you, your, denote the person or persons
spoken to.
He, his, him ; she, her ; it, its; they, their, them, denote tLe
object spoken of.

•

§ 50.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Point out the Proriouns in

tlie following sentences : I

They soon lost sight of him. We loitered along the way
at our pleasure. Thou wilt deserve thy crown. Their path
lay through the forest. I will bring them my bridle with
your horse. Her stay was prolonged. You will need protection. She will never deny them any thing. They will
bring with them in their carriage my books in your satchel.
We -will th~n study our lessons together.

§ 51. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Construct sentences,
each containing one of tlie above Pronouns.

22

INTRODUCTORY EXERCIS1<:8.

§ 52. In speaking it is often needful to present again
an object already distinguished as speaking, spoken to,
or spoken of, in some new relation of thought. This
need is i:net by a class of words called Relative Pronouns.
A RELATIVE PRONOUN is a word used to denote an
object already named in the sentence ; as, " The man
deserves well who does well." Here who denotes the
object already named as man.
The Relative Pronouns are who, whose, wliom,
which, that; as.
What includes in itself both the object and the relative ; as, "What he will engage in, I know not ; " - a
sentence equiYalent to "The business tlrnt he will engage in, I know not."
§ 53. ORAL EXERCISE. Pointout the Relative Pronouns in tlte following sentences : He is like a beast of prey, that destroys without pity. Of
them to whom much is given, much will be required. We
valtJe most wh-at costs us most. They know not what they
do. They are principles which I detest. His companions
are, not such persons as his friends would select for him.
There are persons for whose good we would gladly labor.
No such reasoning as that will satisfy my mind. It is easy
to find some one whom you may befriend. The man that
can please no one is indeed miserable. ,r
§ 54. "\V RITTEN EXERCISE. Construct sentences, eac~
cont1iining one of the above named Relatives.

-,,

'
CHAPTER VI.
I

llODIFTING
WORDS.
,

~ 55. Wn:EN we wish in speaking to confine th"
thought to a part of an object, we often make use of
a peculiar class of limiting words, called adJectives ; as.
" The wild pigeon ; .! 'The tall tree."
An ADJECTIVE is a word used to limit a noun by an
attribute.

§ 56. When we wish to limit the thought to a part
of an attribute, we employ a peculiar class of lim1ting
words, called adverbs ; as, " He was nobly generous; "
"They had lately arrived;" "He lives here."
An ADVERB is a word used to limit an attribute.
§ 57. When we wish to limit an assertion we use a
peculiar class of words, called modals; as, " I certainly
saw him; " "I shall probably go;" "I may perhaps
be present."
A MoDAL is a word used to limit an assertion.
The following words are properly modals : Assuredly, certainly, doubtless, forsooth, indeed, indubitably, positively, truly, verily, undoubtedly, unquestionably,
not, necessarily, haply, perchance, perhaps, peradventure,
possibly.

§ 58: ·Words so used to limit an element are called
Modifying Elements, or Modifiers, while the words
limitecl by them are called Principal Elements.

•-:.

24

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

§ 59. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out tlte AdJ°ectives, Ad·
verbs, and Modals in tlie following sentences: A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir
np anger. It was a cold autumnal evening ; Mrs. Simons was
busily sewing, and Louisa sat anxiously regard0er father.
I felt very giddy while swinging from side to side, and losing
rapidly the cheerful light of day. It certainly appeared a
long journey. I was amazingly tired. Daylight added possibly to the effect. "Perhaps we shall go yet,'' said his father. The young and the old, the rich and the poor, the wise
man and the fool, the brave man and the coward, all shrink
from death.

I

I

I

,i

CHAPTER VII.
FORM-WORDS.

§ 60. THE classes of words hitherto described all expreaa
eome notion, as of an object or an attribute or assertion, or a
significant modification of an object, attribute, or assertion.
They are hence called Notion-words.
There is another class of words which are not used for
these purposes. ·· They are used to help out the expression of
the thought by indicating some relation of notion-words in
the sentence. The nature of this relation determines the
classes of these auxiliary words, which, in order to distinguish them from Notion-words, have been called Form-words.
They are used thus : 1. To express the relation of an object as either limiting
another object, or as an attribute; as, " A citizen in Rome ; "
" H e went to Athens ; " " Dependent upon his father ; " " The
ring is of gold." In these phrases, the words in, to, upon; are
introduced to show the relation of the objects, " Rome,"
"Athens,'' "his father,'' to "citizen," "went,'' "dependent;"
and of to "gold" as attribute predicated of "ring." Such
· Form-words are called Prepositions.
2. To express the relation of sentences, or parts of sen-,
tences to each other, as to be connected in some way in
thought; as, "The storm beat and the house fell;" " Poor,
yet making many rich ; " " Fearless because innocent." The
words and, yet, because, here show a connection in thought
between the sentence "The storm beat,'' and the sentence
" the house fell ; " and between the parts of a sentence
"poor''. and "fearless," and tho parts "making many rich "

26
I

:1
ll['
t
,,

INTRODUCTORY EXER.ClSES.

and " innocent." Form-words of this kind are called (}on,.
iunctions.
3. To express various relations denoted in the Inflection
of words. Here belong, ( 1.) The words used in the Inflection of Verbs, usually called Verb-auxiliaries; as, " I may
say;" "They will go." (2.) The auxiliaries of comparison,
more, most, l<Jss, least.
4. T::> express a mere rhetorical relation, as in the case d
the use of particles to show that the order of the sentence is
invcrtet' ; as, " It is foul weather to-day ; " " There will be
gladness in that hour." · "It" and "there" belong to a class
of Form-words vaguely called Expletives, as they neither add
to the thought nor modify it in any way.
5. To express the relations of the thought to the· feelings
of the speaker; as, "0 the folly of delay ! " ".Alas! he fell."
These Form-words are called I'E_e1;jections.

§ 61. A PREPOSITION is a word used to show the
relation of a noun when used as a modifier or an attribute; as " He went fi·om Londoµ tO Rome;'' " The
tree stands near the stream;" "The wheat is ready
, for the harvest;" "The sun is· in the heavens.''
· § 62. A CONJUNCTION is a word used to connect
sc1!tences or parts of sentences; as, "The night come_s
on and the storm still rages ; " " Just b'lft merciful ; "
" Generous although hasty."
·
·
§ 63. · AuxrLIARIES are words used in the inflection
of words; as, "He will come;" "They should go;"
\< Tltey are learning to help;" "More nice than wise."
§ 64. EXPLETIVES are words without significance,
used _to show certain rhetorical relations ; as, " It is
time tlw.t we go;" " There is rest in the grave."
§ 65. INTERJECTIONS are words used to express
feeling ; as, " Alas I he dies ; " " Lo!. he comes I " ---: ·

FORM-WORDS.

~ 66. ORAL EXERCISE.

27

Point out the several kinds

of Forrn-words in the following sentences : They waited but for a few minutes. The dead, and his
cruelty to the' dead, were alike forgotten. Hail! holy light.
It was long before he came. And shun, 0 shun, the enchanted cup. The most desolate in populous cities may
hope, for Charity has not quite closed her hand and heart,
and shut her eyes on misery. "Pshaw! pshaw! child," said
the sly thief. He would not eat nor drink unless he was
solicited. It was in vain that I insisted upon knowing his
purpose. Thus, forlorn and distressed, he wandered through
the wild. Yes.! if the life and death of Socrates were those
of a Sage, the !ife ::md death of Jes us were those of a G()(t

-

__... :

PIIRASES AND CLAUSES.

S Adverbial, when they modify attributes; as," He
arrived unexpectedly to us;" "The sun was rising in
tl1e east;" " We searched the stream where the boat
was last seen."
4. JJ:lodal, when they modify the copula or the asserti\•c element of the sentence ; as, " The events
might in a certain contingency have happened;" "If.
it l1ad been necessai·y, he would have sacrificed l1is life."

i .

CHAPTER VIII.
- PHRASES. -

.' I

CLAUSES.

§ 67. IT is often necessary to use more than one
word to express an element. The expression of an element in more. than one word is either a Phrase or a
Clause.
A PHRASE is a part of a sentence consisting of two
or more words without a verb expressed or implied ;
as, "A cluster of i·ipe grapes."
A CLAUSE is a part of a sentence consisting of two or
more words, and containing a verb expressed or implied ; as, "I will go, if it be possible;') "I will go, if
possible."
-,

Phrase, it will have been seen, differs from a Clause
in ·this respect, that it contains nothing either expressed or implied of the
thought-el ement of speech - nothing of the proper Copula-element. The
Clause always contains this element, although it is often not fully ex·
pressed. The distinction is fondamental and of high importance to correct
\
vpeaking and writing.
0BSERVATION.-A

',.

29

§ 68. Phrases and Clauses, in respect of their use in
the sentence like single words, are of four kinds: 1. Principal, when they express a subject, predicate,
or object of thought ·generally, or the copula ; as,
u 'flu rising sun was now penetrating the rnist; "That
their arrival was not expected is clear."
2. Adjective, when they modify objects of thought ;
as, "The s'lowly rising sun ; " " The sun that was slowl!I
ming. • • _
·,, /
......

§ 69. Phrases, in respect of their form, are ·::>f two
kinds: 1. Adjuncts, consisting of a Noun and Preposition;
ns, "A cluster of grapes;" "The two bright birds
walked aboutfor afew minutes around the image of the
children, or stood 'quietly at their feet."
2. Case Independent, or Absolute, consisting of a
Noun and Participle; as, '"At ten o'clock, my task being finished, I weilt down to the river." This form of
the phrase may be called the Independent or the Absolute Phrase.
§ 70. Clauses, in respect of their form, are of three
kinds: .1. Those introduced by a Relative Pronoun; as,
" The man who discovered the mine Imel diecl ; " " He
that dwelt here is gone."
2. Those introduced by an Adverb; as, "I-low he
heai·d, I have never known ; " " I cannot conjecture
why he acted thus."
3. Those introduced by a Conjunction,· as, "It was
not possible that he could ai·rive in time;" " He will
,find out whether it is true;" "I saw he was gone," the
Conjunction in this sentence being omitted.
§ 71. · ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the Phrases and
the Clauses in the following extracts, and tell whether

30 .

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

PilRASES AND CLAUSES.

Principal, Adjective, Adverbial, or Modal.
Then go
over the extracts a second time, and name the Phrases in
the form of Adjuncts and in tlw Case Independent; and
the Clauses, whether introduced by a Relative, an Adverb,
01· a Conjunction :J-

8. The Verbs ;
9. Tho Adjectives:
10. The Adverbs;
11. The l\Iodals ;
12. The Pronouns;
13. The Relatives;
14. The Prepositions;
15. The Conjunctions;
16. The Verb-Auxiliaries ;
17 The Infiniti~es marked by tho si!!Il to;
18. The Words of Comparison marked by more, mall 1
kss, least,· '
rn. The Expletives ;
20. The Interjections ;
21. The Adjuncts;
22. Each Case Independent;
23. The Relative Clauses; '
24. The Adverbial Clauseg;
25. The Conjunctive Clauaea

The returning autumn. A lone Indian. W as seen Etanding. He must of necessity have been standing long. llo
stood at the consecrated spot. The fire of his . eye. The
E agle of the Mohawks. A deep groan burst from the soul
of the savage. For thirty wearisome years he had watche<l
that oak with its twining tendrils. The tree that he hail
planted was dead. The white man carries food to his wife .
and children. \Ve shall comprehend it when we know how .
the morning-stars sang together. To one who goes out in
Nature with his heart open, it is a pleasant music. There
was no creed that he did not profess ; there was no opinion
that he did not promulgate. If my heart were great, it
would burst at this. \Ve had not been long in the camp,
when a par ty set out in quest of a bee-tree. He did not
come, notwithstanding he had so sulemnly pledged his word
to be punctual, till the exercises were nearly finished. The
hour having been spent, the company dispersed. \Vhether
the old dame enjoyed or merely diffused that comfort, was a
problem. When he had finished, they sank on their kneel!.
\Ve at length came, the sunken plain having been crossed,
to the edge of the crater.

§ 72.

wRITTEN

EXERCISE. -·

lfrite out by them-..

· selves, 1. The Proper Nouns in Appendix No. VII.;
2. The. Class-nouns ;
3. The Collective Nouns;
4. The Mass-nouns ;
5. The Action Nouns ;
6. The Condition Nouns;
· .7. The Quality Nouns;
'-· 1

31

FORMATION OF WORDS.

gin and of Euphony.
the following -

33

We have from these principles

RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF WORDS:

RuLE I. The parts. of the word should not be taken
from different languages.

Cf.APTER IX.
FO!UIATION OF WORDS.

~ 73. WoRDS are formed from other words in three
ways:1. Ily Composition;
2. By Derivation;
3. By Inflection.

§ 74. Compound words are formed by uniting simple words without change; as, steam-boat, windmill,
headstrong.
OnsERV ATIO~. - For directions whe.n to use the hyphen, see § 550.

~ 75. Derivative words are formed in three ways:1. By a prefix ;, as, fore-go ; under-bid;
2. By an affix; as, change-able, covet-ous, civil-ize ;
3. By an internal change in the word ; as, live frorn
Z.ife, bond from bind.
I,

~ 76. Words are formed by Inflection m three
ways:1. By an affix; as, love-st, call-ed;
2. By internal change in the word ; as, bade from
bid, sunk from sartlc;
3. Dy auxiliaries, forming ca composite word ; as,
more exact; may love ; shall have loved.
~·

I'
!'.

§ 77. In forming words, certain principles govern,
of which the more important are those of Cognate ori- .

OnsERYATTON. -The necessities of speech allow certain infracticns o(
this rule, and particlllarly in the case of words more familiarized to Engli•h use; lhlls' we add the proper English suffix -ness to Latin stems, as
nobU!.ness. Bllt the rule is yet one which has sway to a large extent, nnd
ehoulcl not be disregarded without authority or reason. In the use of prefixes, thus, the negative prefix un- is nrnacular, while in- is of Latin origin; we <lo not say, therefore, £mcise or une'L'itable, but unwise, inei·itahle;
nor insc,.ew, trndispose, but un screw, indispose. So in suffixes, -ness is vernacular ; -ity is Latin. Accordingly, we sayinsanily, but unsoundness.
In many cases, from the .same root or stem we have different derivative
forms giving shades c f meaning more or less different; as, gentility, _qenlleness; humility, humbleness.

RuLE II. A silent E final is dropped before a suffix
beginning with a vowel; as, loving, ripen, rider, brutish,
curable, carousal, guidance, pasturage, combination.
Except words ending in ce or ge before a or o ; also,
words end ing in ee, oe, and ye; as, changeable, courageous, serviceable, fleeing, hoeing, eyeing.
RuLE III. A single consonant preceded by a single
vow el in a final accented syllable, is doubled Lefore a
suffix beginning with a · vowel; as, robbed, dragged,
petted, gladden, shedding, bagging, controlling, omitted,
furgettest, foppish, muddy.
OnsEHVATJO:<. - \Vords ending in an unaccented syllable, also qas and
;al, do not double the final co nsonant, as labeled, 11rnr~elous, .qnseou~, salify,
nrnclc·r ~ baron ess , rivetin,q.
But we ha\·e C1'J/SiaUi11e, meta/line, coralline,
tranquillity, these words in the original languages from which they are taken
havin g thtl Jetter doubled.

RULE I_y. Y final, preceded by a consonant, is
changed 'into i before a suffix not beginning with i; ns,
lilies, liappier, decries, raciness, bodily, fanciful.

a

FORMATIO:N OF WORDS.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES.

I
I1

i
I

1

Except in a fow monosyllabic adjectives, a11d before
5uffixes -sldp and -ling; as, dryly, shyest, ladyship. But
drier and driest are forms authorized by usage.
OesERVATIO:<. Ytinal preceded by a vowel is not chan;:recl; u, tOCJy!j\
moneys, deluys, playi119, yayly, gayety. Except laid, ]Jaid, said, •aill1, sl«in,
staid, daily.
'

HuLE . V. I e final is changed into y before a suffix
beginnin g with i; as, !ying, tying, from lie, tie.
Ru1,E VI. A single.f final, and.f before e final, be·
come \ before a suffi~ ~ Pginning with a vowel in many
words ; ·as, beeves, thievish.
·
principle was once a general one, anti applied to
'Ve can thus account fur such derivations as thiei-e from thief ; beliere from belief; b/'((zfll from brass; breatltt
from breath. The principle was that the characters/ nml s rep1·ese nteu aspirates generally. but represented phlhongul 01~ ,·ocal '0111Hls before Yowels.
Thus, the singular li/: pronounced life, became l(fes , prououncetl /ices, in the
plural; and the Yerb /if-an was prunouncetl iicc.,.,
0BSEHVATI O:<. -This

I
I,,I1
,11

1, and

th

a; heard in thin, as well as to f.

RULE VII. vVonls ending in a double letter drop
one on taking a suffix beginning with that letter, except ll Lefoi.:e less ; as, seen, agreed, fully, impression.
But pall-less, ltull-less.
Rvrn VIII. 0 takes k before a suffix begi nning
with e, i, or y j
trafficlced,frolickin11. garlicky.
Rur.E IX. Many words ending in er or <>1· unaccentc<l, preceded by b, d, g, k, p, 01· t, drop the vowel
Lefore a suffix beginning with a v~wel o'ther than i ,·as,

as,

cumbrous, traitress, disastrous.
~

~

78.

Correct tlte P-rrors in tlte
ortlwgrapliy of the derivative words in the following sentences or pltra~es, and give t!te rule: OitAJ, EXERCISE.

The fertilness of the soil was a decisive consideration in
tho purchase. The glanceing of his eye and the hriving of his
band both betokened the feeling which was movcing his heart

35

They were gladened by the return of the tra \'ell er. There
was a strange forgetfullness observeable in him. The chimnies were smokeing, the men in the streets buryed their ears
under their furs; the snow creaked beneath the wheels, all
ind1catei11g to the eye and the ear, as their close and warm
carriage hurryed through the town, with what rapitldity tho
temperature had been changeing during the night. The fade ..
ing and dieing leafs in the forest testifyed to the war.eing of
the year. Such whimsical wonders lose their effect when
mimiced in ground artificially layd. A beggar begs that
never lieged before. By much planing and ruuing he at last
succeeded in haveing one of the men acquited aud the other
expeled from the .realm. The attornies at the bcofoincr ca\•·
"'
illed at the conditions, but finally, after counselling"' together,
cancelled the old contract and submited to the terms of the
new agrement. He very stuclyously surveied the matter, and
in a very pcacable manner signified his assent to the arrangement which was iu fact very ·advantugous to all the
partys. Desire to resemble him in gooclness maketh them
unweariable '.lml eyer unsatiable in their lon crincr to do all
manner of good. Th<! .;tring was uncapable of h~rmony.

l

;

.

I

I•

GENERAL DIVISION.

THE

ART OF COMPOSITION.

--

GENERAL DIVISION.

§ 79.

WHEN

we speak we utter Thought through a

word or words.
' There are two things to be considered, accordingly,
when we speak or write: (1.) What ·we speak, the Thought ; (2.) How we speak,--:-- the Words or
Expression.
§ 80. ·when we think, we think of something, which
is called the Matter of our Thought.
The Thinking itself, or the Thought proper, is one
thin" and the Matter of Thou"ht is anoth er thing.
~·
~
The tw"O together make up what is called the Thought
expressed in words; that is, the Sentence, § 1.

§ 81. The :Matter of Thought consists of two things :
(1.) That of which we think; (2.) That which we
think of it.
"
That of which we think, that which we think of it,
\nd the thinking itself, make up the three necessary
elements of Thought.
These three elements, properly united, form the Sentcmce proper; which can contain only these three ele·
men ts.
§ 82. Either of these three. elements taken sepa•

37

rately in <lifferent sentences may appear in a broader
or in a narrower form ; in other words, these <:!kments
may eithet• of them be more or less limited in use.
When thus limited, they are said to Le modified; and
the parts of the sentence which are used to limit them
nre called mocli(ying parts, or modifiers; while the clements themselves that are thus limited are called Principal Elements.

§ 83. The Expression of Thou ght in words is either
in forms originally provided in L anguage for this pupose, or in forms that are borrowed or deri,·ed.
The Elements of Exjlression are accordincrly either
e '
'
(1.) Normal .or Regular; or (2.) Abnormal or Irregular.
Further, most words have a meanin" of their own·
e
'
but some words only show relations either in the
thought or in the .expression. Words, accordingly, are
of two cl asses: (1.) Notion- Words; (2.) Form- Words.
Once more, the expression of an element of Thought
may be either in the use of one word or of more words
than one. If more words than one are used, th ey form
a Phrase, .if they express only matter of thou"ht
· and
e
•
a Clause, if they express thought itself.

§ 84. In speaking, it is necessary to put together
these elements of Thought and of Expression in a
proper way. This process of putting together the
elements of a sentence is called Construction.

. § 85. Corresponding to this process of Construction,
ts that of Analysis, which is the process of taking
.apart the elements which have been put together in
Construction. This is necessary in ord er to detect the
faults in .~xpression, or to assure ourselves that the
sentence is correctly expressed.

>·.

i

i
-1
i

II•

i

I

1

.i

d
:

THE ART OF CO::llPOSI'fIO~.

i38

§ 86. We utter our thoughts to others through . lhf\
ear the sicrht or other sense. In other words, we use
sen:ible i:ag~s or symbols, through which we e.xpress
our thoughts. We, in fact, for the most part? tlunk. to
ourselves through these sern;;ible fo1:ms. Tlus .ruttmg
of thou<rht into sounds or other sensible forms, is called
b
the Symbolism of Thought;
§ 87. Once more, the thou~ht w~1ich we wish to
express may be complex ; and 1f so? it may . be n_e~e~­
sary to present it part by part. Tl11s s0parate ~xh1b1tion of the parts of our thought- this unfokhng of
thou<rh1t - is called Explanation.
0

I
~

i\

••

~ . ~ 88. The distribution of the Ar~ of Compos1tion
>-"will, accordingly, be into the followmg departments,
namely: p ART I. Matter or O~ject of Thought ;
"
II. Principal Elements of t.he Sentence;
"
Ill. Modified Elements of the Sentence ;
IV. Abnormal Elements of the Sent~!'IClt' •
"
V. The Construction of the Sentence;
"
"
VI. The Analysis of the Sentence;
"
VII. Symbolism of Thought;
•• VIII. Explanation. ··
\

...,

.

,l

PART I. -OBJECT OF 'THOUGHT.
-+--

CHAPTER I.
NOUNS -

DIVISIONS.

§ 89. AN OBJECT

OP THOUGHT is that of which
think.
It is expressed in language by means of the Noun.
A NouN, thus, is a form of language expressing that
of which we think. In bri e f~ it may be defined as the
name of an onJect of thought; as, James, tree, cluster,
light, spirit, w·islt, sleep, sweetness, equality.
WC

OnsEHYATI0:-1 1. - It will be noticed that the definition here ginn differs from that under§ 10 in the addition of the words" of thought ." Xouns
arc na mes of objects only as thought. Language, imleed, unh·crnally deals
with objects not strictly and immediately as they are, but mediately, as
they are thought to be.
Further, th at which we think of any thing is as truly an object of thought
as that of which we think; the predicate, in other words, is as truly an
object of thoug ht as the subject. Thus, in the two sen tences, "John is a
bip~<l" aud "John is tivo-footed," biped and i1co-footed arc alike, in acertain sense, objects of thought. But when we speak generally of nn ohject
of th~ught we mean that which can be used either as subject. or as predicate
indiflerently. Now the wore\ two-footed cannot be used as a subj ect of
a sentence. 'Ve cannot say" Two-footed is an animal," as ,.,...e can sav ' . .\
biped is an animal." In this way a noun is distinguished from the .predi·
cate-adj ccth·e, ca lled by some grammarians the 1wun-adJcctfrc, in di stinction
from the no!ln ·sllbstantive. A noun, therefore, is nlway~ n subject-word;
that is, a word which may be used as n subject in a sentence, and always
denotes thnt of which we may assert something. It may lie med, indeed,
&9 a predicate, or in modi~1· ing n subject or pre1\icate, or enn in modifying
a modifier; but it is ever a word which can pwperly be useJ ns a subJect
ID a aentence.

~o

NOUNS -

OBJECT OF THOUGHT.

OBSERVATION 2. - Whenever wo think, the matter of our though! consists, as has been stated, of two parts: (1.) That of which we think-the
subject; (2.) That which we think of it-the attribute. Now we may
wish to make the 3ltribute itself an object of which we shall think something. Thus, we first think, "Grass is green," in which, gJ"ass is the subject and green is the attribute, the two together making up the matter of
our thought. But we afterward wish to speak of the attribute itself, and
to assert somethlng of it, aud we say, " Greenness is prevalent in s:;iring."
\Ve have thus two classes of subjects in thought: (1.) Those which were
originally thought as subjects, called Conci·etes; (2.) Those which were
originally thought as attributes, called Abstracts. These latter change their
form g~nerally, although not alway•, in order to be used as subject-words;
that is, to become nouns, properly so called.

§ 90.

Nouns

are

of two classes :

(2.) Abstracts.
§ 91. CoNCRETES

(1.) Concretes;

are names of those objects which

we originally think as subjects.
Concrete nouns are of two classes:

(2.)

Individual Objects ;

(1.)

Names of

Names of Composite

Ob-

jects. ·

Times; as, January, Mnnday, Youth.
Persons; as, James, Geoi·ge.
Animals; as, Fido, Do!Jbin.
Heavenly Bodies; as, Sii-ius, Venus.
Sciences and Arts; as, Logic, Galvanism, Music.

§ 93.

Composite Concrete

Individual

Objects are expressed in

A . PROPER

Hence,

1

words

·

NouN is the name of an Individual Ob-

ject of Thought ; as,

James, <J.arlo, Mars, Spain,

Thursday.
OBsERVATION.-A Noun is Proper, strictlyspeaking, only when it is a
name appropriate-if. to the individual object. When a Composite object is
!imited by a mo&' fying -ivord to an individual, as, T!ta! man, the sun, some
man, the whole expression denotes indeed an imlividual object; it is not,
however, a normal .Proper Noun, which is a single word appropriated to a
tingle object. The following are the leading classes of objects for whicla
. language furnishes Proper Nouns as names, namely:1. Spact, Time,- the primitive conditions o~ all thought.
9. Placea; aa, ~frica, Vuuviua.
· '---;

are of

three

1. Masses;
2. Groups;
3. Glasses.
ILLUSTRATION. - Of the first class is the object expressed by the wozd
111an, when viewed as made up of the parts head, body, limbs. The parts
are here viewed as filling certain portions of space - as extended.
Of the second class is the object expressed by the word ai·my, when
viewed as made .up of .parts that may be counted as one, two, three, etc.;
that is, as so many soldiers.
Of the third class is the object expressed by the word man, when viewed
as made up of parts that arc individuals, having some attribute or attributes in common, as 1·aiicmal• .. See Appendix No. II.
Composite Object viewed as made up of

spaci:1:l or extended

Parts, is

expressed

J.1fass-noun; as, man, regarded
head, body, limbs; water, regarded as a
called a

in a

word

as made up of
mass made up

of this, that, and the other portion.
Hence a

MASS-NOUN is a

1

called Proper Nouns.

Objects

classes: -

§ 94. A

ILLUSTRATIO:S. - We may think of an object either without reforence to
any parts of which it is made up, or in reference to such parts. So far as
it is thought without reference to any parts, it is viewed, if a concrete, as
individual; if an abstract, as simple. So far as it is viewed as haviug
parts, it is to our thought Composite.

§ 92.

3.
'·
5.
6.
7.

41

DIVISIONS.

garded as a mere mass; as,

name of an object re-

water, air, spirit, thought.

OnsEnVATION. - We think of spiritual objects as we think of material
objects, as in space, and as filling certain portions of space. We think
thus. of mind, spirit, as we think of wate1·, air, breath, as if they had extension. When so regarded they are proper Integrate Wholes, and are
expressed in proper Mass-nouns.

§ 95. A

Composite Object viewed as made up of

.simple numerical parts, or parts that may be
one by one, is expressed in a word called a

Noun

; 'as,

army,

cou~teJ
Collective

regarded as made up of parts, in this

ease' .soldif.r!I, that may be counted as one, two, three,

;~'

42

etc. ; forest, regarded as made up of a number, or as a
group of trees.
Hence a COLLECTIVE NouN is the name of a group,
as, army, flock, herd.

§ 96. A Composite Object, viewed as made up of
parts having the same attribute or property, IS expressed in a word called a Glass-noun.
Hence a CLASS-NOUN is the name of a class; as, m:m,
tree, star.
f

OnsEnYATIO~

NOUNS -

OBJECT OF fHOUGIIT.

1. -A Clnss is formed by uniting objects that have a com•

mon, that is the same, attribute or property, or properties. Thus, as we obaerve that llfercury reyolves about the Sun, that Venus re\'olves about the
Sun, and that llfars revoh·es about the Sun, we gatner the several suhjects
in these sentences having the same predicate, into one, and thus form a
class which we call Planet. Such a union of subj ects on the same predicate Base, is called in Logic an Extensive Whole. Such au object is ever
a class. The word expressing it is a Clas•-noun.
Because a class al\\'ays regards this predicate Uase as belonging
lllike to each of the indivi<luals or parts making up the class, the classname may be correctly applied to every part. Thus, every individual making up the class man, may be called a man; as, Joh n is a man. This prop, erty distinguishea it from a Collective Noun, which expresses an object
to whose w:ts the name of the whole cannot be so applied. Thus, John is
one of the parts-one of the sohliers-tbat make up the collective or
groupell whole, army; but we cannot say, John is an ai·my. Man is a
Class-11oun; A1.,ny is a Collective Noun.
'
A Collecth·e Noun, it may be further observed, is but, a plural noun expressed in a singular form, with a more or less definite indication of the number inte.nded, and of the mode of union. Thus, f01·est means simply trees
of a certnin number and in a certain relation to one another; dozen is twelve
units; brace is tu:o things.
OnsEnYATIO~ 2. - Certain terminations originnlly nnd appropriately denote, respectively, particular kinds of concretes. The following are of leading importance to be distinguished: 1. PERSONS nre denoted by the following terminations: A.'}ents; (1.) Anglo-S3xon; ns, man, ar, e1·, ee1·, frr, yer, Bter, or; Female, ess; ns, ca1·mnn, beggm·, 101·i/e1", auctioneer, clothier, 1amyer, teamlter
aailor, hos/tu. (2. ) Latin and French; ant, mt, i•t, fre, ary; Female, ina,
iz; as, auailnnt, 1·t9ent,jforist, captfre, notary, b. eroine, tzecut1iz.
Objem of Action, by Latin ee, ate, ite; as, grantee, aswcinte, farorite.
!L Dmu1UTl\'ES arc denoted by (1.) Anglo·Saxon, et, el, ie, l:in, let,lin9

DIVISIONS.

43

ocJ:; u, caaht, aatcliel, minnie, lambkin, streamlet, seedling, liilioc1'. ('I.)
Latin cle, 11/e; as, particle, globule.
3. PLACES 1chere nre denoted by Latin ary, ory; as, library, dormitory.
4. Scrn::<ci<s and TuEATISES nre denoted by Greek ics oric,logy, gmphy;
as, optics, /09ic, 9eo/09y, 9eoymplty.
6. CLASSES are denoted by Anglo-Saxon ard, kind; as, laggard, ma9"
l:ind.

§ 97. An attribute, when to be used as a general
object of thought, is expressed in a word called an Aostrnct Noun, or simply an Abstract; as, brightness viewed
as an attribute of the sun; truthfulness, as an attribute
of George Washington.
Hence an ABSTRACT NouN IS a noun expressrng an
attribute.
§ 98. Abstract Nouns are of two classes: (1.) Na mes
of simple attributes; as, existence, wkiteness; (2.) Of
composite attributes; as, intelligence, composed of ob~er­
vation, reflection, and the like.
OnsETIVATrn;,;r. - Grammarians have not furni shed particular words to
di stinguish names of simple attrilmtes from those of composite attributes,
as they liaYe to mark these distinctions of sin gle and composite in conc retes.
The diHtinction is, howe Yer, obvious, although practically not so necessary.
The classification of abstracts given in · the n ext section includes all abstracts, simple and composite alike.

§ 99. Attributes are of four classes: (1.) Qualities;
(2.) Actions; (3.) Conditions; ( 4.) Relations.
Hence, Abstracts are of the four classes: (1.) Quality-nouns ; (2.) Action-nouns; (3.) Condition-nouns;
(-!.) R elation-nouns. See Appendix No. IL
Onsr:n\' ATION. - There are certain terminations which are used origi·
oally to denote attributes. Althoug h in the progress of the la nguage, and
C!pecially in the free admission of words into it from foreign languages,
these d ist.inctions are obscured, yet it will be found of great service to facil·
"ty an<\ cmTectness in expression, to berome familiar with them so far as ii
1oracticable. The following may be indicated as of leading importance: QuA LITil<B are denoted by (l.) Anglo-Saxon ness, as, goodness; (2.)
Latin ice, ty; s.s, malice, deuility.
A.CTIONB ure 11propri~tely expressed by the tenninatiom, I 1.) Anglo-

OBJECT OF THOUGHT.

44

NOUNS -

as, rising, truth, (from to trow,) nfl. (2.) Latin age..
nee, ion, ment, 1n·e; as, ferriage, deliverance, dive1·1ion, description, refin ement, capture.
.
STATES or CoNDlTIO:SS are denoted by (1.) Anglo-S:1.xon hood, ship
dom; as, boyhood, hardship, th1·al/dom; (2.) Latin acy, ncy, 11ce, ude; &II,
p1-ivacy, l1J1·bulency, penitence, solitude.
Saxon ing, th. t

~ 100. ' 0RAL EXERCISE. Name obJects to U'hich the
following qualities may be attributed : -

Wisdom ; boldness ; depth; duration ; smoothness ; hcavi·
nesg; hardness; blueness ; softness; sweetness ; quickness ;
density; timidity; credulity; magnanimity.

Name M>Jects to whieh thefollowing actions may be at.
tributed : - Breathing ; growth ; drift.
Tillage ; acceptance ; science ; suspicion ; persuasion ;
creation ; enticement ; seizure.

Name obJects to wliich the followiri:g
be attributed : -

•

cond·~tions

may

Childhood; ripeness; wardship; freedom.
Lunacy ; occupancy ; convalescence; lassitude.

Name obJects to which the following relations may
be attributed : Foundation ; substratum ; superintendence ; center; bound·

ary ; inclosure ; foreground ; opposition.
Priority; sequel ; concurrence; ·anticipation ; seniority;
minority ; postponement.
Preponuerance ; equality ; disadvantage ; preeminence ;
decrease.
Production ; construction ; extinction ; suppression.
OnsERVATION.-ln a relation there must of course be two terms. Io
these exercises, accordingly, both should be expressed as in these moolels:
The foundation of the structure was a wall of brick and mortnr. The pr•
Jominance of caution over other q unlities was a striking characteristic.
:

..

. ..,

\.

DIVISIONS.

45

§ 101. WRITTEN EXERCISES. Construct sentences
in which tlie following words shall be used to denote their
obJects as qualities: Feebleness, tardiness, rashness, closeness, justice, cowardice, civility, dignity, ferocity.

Construct sentences in which the following words shall

be used to denote their obJects as actions: Bidding, winding, growth, ruth, trust, plaint, porterage,
stoppage, severance, hindrance, extension, mission, circula·
tion, mention, desertion, improvement, disbursement, nurture, conjecture.

Construct sentences in which tlie following words shall
be used to denote their obJects as conditions : Neighborhood, knighthood, kingship, censorship, freedom,
earldom, lunacy, degeneracy, vigilancy, occupancy, affiuence,
absence, lassitude, solicitude.

Construct sentences in which the following words shall
be used to denote their obJects as relations: Excess, preference, antecedence, inferiority,
remoteness, attention, comparison, equality .
l'lfoDEL. -The dullness of the axe delays the work.

neighborhOOI~

·-.,.,.

NOUNS -

!1;1)

I

~

't..!

!'';I," ]
1:1

i

11 I

!ii
i1
i,.

I

1'i
'I

l:r

;·:J
I! ·1!1!
I

~·

:~!

! i

r 1[!.I
i 11
I

'~
1~

I

1·
m

iui

lf;~ r
i!iJ

'ji!:l
'~

~i

!
:11:11
11'

'

:1~1

I1~ i

I i !~
i ~!I

t'

~

~!

I'
i'

! ;•

47

RuLE II. If the last letter of the singular ~annot ..
unite in one syllable with the regular plural termination ·
(-e ), insert the connecting vowel e, as arch-es, gash-es,
atlas-es, box-es.

!'"

i!:

NUMBER

CHAPTER II.
NOUNS -

NUMBER,

t

102. vVE may wish to express one object singly,
as one individual, one mass, one group, one class, or
more than one taken together. This gives rise to the
distinction of nouns in respect of number.
-:
· If the word denoting the object presents it as single,
it is said to be of the singular number; if it present the
object as consisting of more than one, it is said to be
of the plural number.
There are, accordingly, two classes of nouns in respect of n~mber, Singular Nouns and Plural Nouns.

§ 103. NUMBER is the distinction of nouns as denoting one or more.
There are two Numbers, the Sincrular and the Plural.
A noun denoting its object as tal~n but once is of the
Singular Number ; as, Milton, water, army, tree.
A noun denoting its object as taken more than once
is of the Plural Number; as, Miltons, waters, armies,
trees.

. § 104. The noun is cl1anged in its form to denote
more than one. Hence the following rules for forming
the plural. The first rule is the general rule; the
others are specific rules or exceptions.
RuLE I. To form the plural noun, add 8 to the sin·
golar ; as, atar-a, aliip-a, virtue-a, race-a.

Ons1mvATIO:-<. -This is a mere principle of Euphony. It applies also
to the inflection of the verb. In the English it prevails to a !ar less extent
than in the classical and modern European languages.

RuLE III. Figures, letters, signs, and symbols, used
as words, to form their plurals insert an apostrophe
before the s; as, S's, n's, B's, +'s, [J's, *'s; the m'a
were all in italics.
RuLE IV. lri compound word!> and modified words
the plural sign is affixed to the leading object ; as, step! athers, horse-tliieves, brothers-in-law, cousins-german,
knights-templar, the Generals Sherman, the brothers
Smith, Messieurs Thompson, the Misses Johnson, billets·
doux.
OBSERVATION. - We find such expressions as men-singers, women-singers, men-cliildren. Such use, howeYer, is antiquated.
In such expressions as" the Generals Smith,"'' the l\Iisses Johnson," the
meaning is: the Generals of the name of Smith; the l\Iisses of the name
of Johnson. Emphasizing the title is more complimentary and respectful;
hence the preference to such forms as "the General Smiths," "the Miss
Thompsons."

§ 105. EXCEPTIONS. (See Appendix No. III.) 1. Nouns
ending in o, preceded by a consonant, insert e before the
plural s; as hero-es, echo-es, cargo·es. But canto, duodecimo,
fresco, grotto, halo,Junto, lasso, memento, octavo, portico, quarto,
sirocco, solo, two, tyro, zero, omit the e ; as, cantos, zeros.
2. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change
the y into i, and add es ; as, sky, skies; duty, duties; collo' quy, colloquies. If preceded by a vowel, they l!J'e regular;
as, keys, valleys, moneys.
The· following nouns change for ff into v before es: beef,
calf, elf, l1alf, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, sl1elf, staff, thief, wharf,
VJolj, l71ife, life, wife.

48

OBJEC'f OF THOUGHT.

But compounds not accented on the final syllable, simply
add s, as flag-stajf-s, distaffs; so house-wife-s is pronounced
hussijs.
Formerly distaves, as, -

.

I

1.

"The women find him not worthy of their distaves."
Beaumont and Fletcher.

4. The following nouns are irregular: man, men; woman
women ,· foot, feet ; tooth, teeth ; goose, ge~se ; mouse, mice ;
louse, lice ; ox, oxen; cow, kine ; sow, swine; child, children ;
brother, brethren.
5. The following have two plurals in different significations : die, di"ce and dies ; pea, peas and pease ; penny, pence
and pennies ; brother, brethren and brothers ; genius, genii
and geniuses; medium, media and mediums,· index, indices
and indexes ; vertex, vertices and vertexes ; vortex, vortices
and vortexes ; stamen, stamens and stamina ; phalanx, phalanges and phalanxes.
6. Many nouns from foreign languages have the same plu·
' rals as in those languages ; as, from the Hebrew, cheruh
cheru'1im ; seraph, seraphim.

.I

FROM THE GREEK.

Antithesis, antitheses.
Aphelion, aphelia.
A plis, aphidcs.
Apsis, apsides.
Cantharis, cantharides.
Carya!.id, cary11.tides.
Chrysalis, chrysalides.
Criterion, criteria. r.•
Direresis, direreses.

Ephemeris, ephemerides.

.

Abscissa, abscissre. r.
Addendum, addenda.
o\Jga, Algre.
Alumna, alumnm.

Exanthemn, exanthemata.
Helix, helices.
Hypothesis, hypotheses.
l\Ietamorphosis, metamorphoses.
P arenthesis, parentheses.
Phasis, phases.
Phenomenon, phenomena.
Stoma, stomata.
Synthesis, syntheses.
Thesis, theses.

FROlI THE LATIN.

Alumnus, alumni.
Analysis, analyses.
Animalculum, animalcula.
Anta, antm.

• l'hose worda having r. annexed to them, have a1ao regular plurala..

NOUNS Antenna, antennre.
Apex, apices
Append ix , appendices. r.
Aquarium, aquaria.
Ascaris, nscarides.

Automaton, automata.
Axilla, axillre.
Axis, axes.
Ilasls, bases.
Calculus, calculi.
Calx, calces. r.
Calyx, calyces. r.
Candelabrum, candelabra.
Centumvir, centumviri.
Cicada, cicadre.
··

NUMBER.
lgnis fatuus, ignes fatui.
Incubus, incubi. r.

Ind ex, indices. r.
I. ami na, 1ami.uaJ.
Larva, larvre.
Legum en, legumina.
Lust.rum , lustra .
llfacula, maculre.
:Magus, ma~i.

llfausoleum, mausolea. r.
1\faximu01, maxima.

Jlfcdium, media. 1·.
l\Iemoranrlum, memoranda. r
l\liasma, n1iasmata.

Cloaca, cloacre.
Collyrium, collyria.
Corypheus, coryphei. r.

:Minimum, minima.
lllodulus, moduli.
l\Iomentum, momenta.
Naiad, naiad es. 1·.
Nebula, nel>ulre.
Nucleus, nuclei.

Crisis, crises.

Oasis, oases.

Criterion, criteria.
Cumulus, cumuli.

Obolus, oboli.

Cirrus, cirri.
Clavis, claves. r.

Curriculum, curricula.

Datum, data.
Decemvir, decemviri.
Dcnarius, denarii.

Desideratum, desiderata.
Dictum, dicta.
Discus, disci. r.
Duumvir, duumviri.

Effluvium, effluvia.
Emeritus, emeriti.
Emporium, emporia.

Erratum, errata.
Focus, foci.
Foramen, foramina.

Formula, formulre. r.
Fulcrum, fulcra. r.
Fungus, fungi. r.
Genius, genii. r.
Genus, gen~ra.
Gymnasi um, gymnasia.
Herbarium, herbaria. r.
Hippopotamus, hippopotami. r.
Hydni., hydne. r.
Iambus, iambi. r.

'

Ovarium, ovaria.
Qyum, ova.

Palladium, palladia. r.
Pallium, pallia.
Panacea, panacere. r.
Papilla, papillre .
Parhelion, parhelia.
Polypus, polypi. r.
Pupa, pupre.
Radius, radii . r.
Radix, radices.
Rhombus, rhombi. r.
Rostrum, rostra.
Sarcophagus, sarcophaai
Scholium, scholia. 1·.
Schirrhus, sch irri. r.
Sensorium, sensoria. r.

Sepia, sep ire.
Septum, septa.
Spectrum, spectra .
Speculum, specula.
Stadium, stadia.
Stamen, stamina. r.
Stigma, stigmata. r.
Stimulus, stimuli

49

-'

50

OBJECT OF THOUGHT.
Stirps, stirpes.
Stratum, strata. r.
Succedaneum, succedanca. r.
Syllabus, syllabi. r.
Terminus, termini

Tumulus, tumull.
Tympanum, tympana.
Vertebra, verte brre.
Vertex, vertices. r.
Vortex, vortices. r.

J<'ROM THE FRENCH.

Aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp.
Beau, beaux.
Dillet-doux ll'billets-doux.
Flambeau, fl nmbcaux.
Gen-d'arme, gcns-d' armes. r.
Jet d'eau, j ets d'eau.
Ma<lamc, mesdames. r.

~lon s icur, messieurs.
l\Iorccau, morccaux.
Plateau, plateaux.
Roulea u, rouleaux.

Savant, savans.

Tableau, tableaux.

FROM THE ITALIAN.

Damlitto, banditti.
Cicerone, ciceroni.

Cicisbeo, cicisbei.
Conversazione,

conYer~azioni.

Improvisatore, improvisatori.

Libretto, libretti.
Scudo, scudi.
Soprana, soprane.
Soprano, soprani.
Virtuoso, virtuosi.

0BSERVATIO!'I' 1. - Alms and 1·icl1es were originally singular nouns,
' spelled almesse and 1-ichesse. When taken in a singular sense, they ma'
properly bo regarded as in the singular number; as," Asked an alms." Acts iii. 3; "What is the riches [=richness] of the glory." - Col. i. 27
But they may both be used in a plural sense; as, " Thine alms [=alms
deeds] are come up." - Acts x . 4; "Your riches [= possessions] are corruptcd." - Jas. v. 2.
" ' ords from the Greek ending in ics, for the most part denotin g sciences,
as mathematics, optic.<, ethics, seem to ha ye a plu ral form, but may be used
either in a singular or a plural oense, according ns they denote the science
or the objects of which the science treats; ns, "Physics, that is, Physical
Science, trea ts of matter;" "Physics, that is, Physical ' things, are learned
through a different medium from that through which we study metaphyttics.''
Amends, news, pains, likewise have a plural form, but have either a
singular or plural sense; more commonly the former.
Bellotes and gallotes, like billiards, hysterics, measles , odds, ton,qs, (=tongues,)
1eisso1·s, shears, anti wage•, arc real plurals, but being applied severally to
,, single obj ect, may be used as if of the the si11gulm· number; but the plu·
ral iG preferable.
0BSERYATIO!'I' 2. -Some nouns do not nry their form to e:ocpress the
plural; as, cannon, cattle, deer, head, •ail, salmon, sheep, shot, trout. Others
arc used in the plural in both sini;ular and plural forms; as,fisli, in the pin·
ralfislt and.fi•he.a. Somo have 11~ singular, at le.:isl, in a part of •heir aiir
-Difications; as, .,.
\_

,

NOUNS Aborigines,
Annnls,
Antipodes,
Archil-es,
Asset•,
Dclles-lcttres,
Bellows,
llilliards,
llitters,
Bowels,
Drccchcs,
Ca lends,
Cattle,
Clothes,
Colors,
Co 111 passes, .

Con>ols,
Corrigenda,

Cortes,
Crampoons,
Crustacea,
Customs,
Deliris,
Drawers, a garment,
Dregs,
Eaves,
Embers,
Entrails,
Environs,

51

NUMBER.

Fauccs,
Filings,

Gaskins,
Goggles,

Cioods,
Greens,

Hatches,
Head-quarters,
Hose,
Hysterics,
Ides,
Infusoria,
Jacklioots,
Lees,
Let ters,
Literati,
l\!ammalia,
llfanes,
Mann ers,
]If at in s,
Jllinutire,
l\Iora ls,
Nippers,
Nones,
Nugre,

_Nuptials,
Obsequies,
Orgies,
Pampas,

Paraphern!!.lia,
Pin chers,
Principia,
Proceeds,
Ra,·elings,
Regalia,
Scissors,

Silamliles,
Shears,
Sheers,
Snuffers,
Spectacles,
Statistics,
Suds,
S wecpstakes,
Teens,
Thanks,

Thews,
Tidings,

Tongs,
Trou sers,
Tweezers,

Vermicelli,
Vespers,
Vietuals,
Vitals,
'Vages,
Withert

~ 106. ORAL EXERCISES.
M ention the nouns in the
Bingular number, and also those in the plural number, in
tlte following sentences, and give the reason for so regard,.
ing them:-

John is absent. The man was insane. The mountains
were high. The. ores were rich. The oats were ripe. The
grass was green. The molasses was made from the sap.
The scissors are sharp. The errata were numerous. These
are the stamina of a good character. ·what do you think
of his hypotheses? He places the scholia separately. He
made careful memoranda of his observations. What formu~ do you apply ? What does he say of th<> qebul:e ? He

52

,I
'I

"

OBJECT OF THOUGHT.

NOUNS -

describes the oases of the desert. To what phenomena does
he allude ? Wbere shall we look for true criteria? I have
spoken of the larvre. The eccentricity of an ellipse is the
rlistance of the foci from the center. We have an example
in the radii of a circle. He penetrated into the arcana of
the science. He was negligent of his manners. The wicked
shall drink the dregs thereof. He plays billiards excessively.
The market was filled with goods. He had had no victuals
for thirty-six hours. He returned at vespers. He was
wounded.in th';; lungs. Whatever is sold in the shambles,
that eat. Le~"tiim grind the shears. He killed the sheep.
He caught a fine parcel of fish. No parallel can be found
in the annals of the world.· He had none of the Min of
the country. It was buried in the ashes. The conclusion
was drawn from questionable data. The cattle can be sold.
Courts-martial were held. The fathers-in-law were reconciled. The antennre were long. He studied hydraulics.
He examined the larvre. As to his hypotheses, all his
hearers disagreed with him. He scrutinized the phenomena.

-"

Correct the errors in the following sentences
Their heros were celebrated in song. The delaies were
fatal. The shelfs were high. The elfs were sporting.
Among the cherubims. The stratas were thin. The kines
were all over three years old. Economics were pursued
with other sciences. The wharfs were overflowed. The
cantoes contained over five hundred verses each. The media
was unexceptionable. The data was false. All the pm1ctili- '
oes of ceremony were observed. The monies of the country were changed. The chimnies were tall. The folioes
were all bound. There were eight porticoes, arranged in
twoes. The childs were neglected. The foots were sore.
The seraphims had harps in their hands. The vertexes of
,he two figures were equi-distant from the base. The price
wu two shillings and six pennies. He was an alumn!'

·-

NUMBER.

53

of the institution. He lived on potatos. I heard distant
echos. Twelve bodys of the victims were found afterward.
The Misses Potters were present. The brother Smiths had
enlisted. The Generals Jacksons took command of the re·
spective divisions. The neighbor \Vashingtons were reconciled. The cousin. Allstons went together. The prooves
were decisive. The dwarves were absen t. He never crossed
his ts nor dotted his is. The octavoes were as large as ordiuary quartoes. No, mementoes were preserved in any of the
folioes. All the regimental flag-staves were broken. Four
spirital media, so called, were there. He addressed the
brothers of the association. The brethren Townsends were
omitted. There were five loafs. Politics are properly ranked
among the sciences. The dice for casting the coin were badly
cut. The poem contained twelve cantoes. The beaus of
the company were elated. The flower had six stamina.
The arcanums of the temples were exposed. The strives
of the chiefs were ruinous. The crop of potatos was
abundant.

§ 107. WRITTEN EXERCISE. Construct sentences
having in them the following words, changed to their
plural forms : Folio, valley, surf, genus, madam, turf, portico, two, entry,
seraph, alumnus, genius, chimney, fresco, m, 50, soliloquy,
tornado, postman, son-in-law, the bookseller Smith, the Miss
Wharton, memorandum, man-slayer, step-son.

NOUNS-GENDER.

•

CIIA~R ID.
NOUNS -

GENDER.

t 108. OBJECTS of thought may further be distin• ·
guished as having or as not having sex.
.
'N or<ls denoting objects of the male sex are said to
be of the Masculine Gender; those denoting females
are said to be of the Feminine Gender; those denoting
subjects that have sex without indication of which sex,
are said to be of the Common Gender.
Words denoting objects that have not sex, are said
to be of the N euter Gender. We have thus the following definition.s and divisions.
§ 109. GE:N"DER is the distinction of nouns in reference to the sex of their objects.

§ 110. Nouns, in respect of their Gender, are of
four classes: (1.) Masculine; (2.) Feminine; (3.)
Common; (4.) Neuter.
A noun denoting an object as male, is of the MASCU•
LINE GENDER ; as, John, boy, drake.
A noun denoting an object as female, is of the FEM·
lNIN"E GENDER; as, Mary, girl, duclc.
A noun denoting an object as having sex, without
indicatinrr
of which sex, is of the COM.MON GENDER;
0
as, child, parent, sheep.
A noun denoting an object without sex 1s of the
NEUTER GENDER ; as, tree, b(lok, stone.

55

§ 111. Nouns may distinguish sex Ly their form in
the following ways: 1. By change of termination; as, heir, heiress; abbot,
abbess; hero, heroine; testator, testatrix.
2. By prefixing or affixing a sex-word; as, man-servant, maid-servant; he-goat, she-goat ; cock-sparrow,
hen-sparrow ; land-lord, land-lady.
3. By words of different or1grn; as, boy, girl;
uncle, aunt.

§ 112. The more common mode of forming the feminine from the masculine, is by adding ess; as host,
hostess; priest; priestess:
Nouns ending in or or er, often drop the o or e; as,
actor, actress; tiger, tigress.
A few words from the Latin ending in tor, change
tor into trix; as, administrator, administratrix.
The following are more or less irregular : Abbott, abbess.
Bachelor, maid, spinster.
Beau, belle.
Iloar, sow.
Boy, girl.
Bridegroom, bride.
Brother, sister.
Buck, doe.
Bull, cow.
Chamberhin, chambermaid .
Cock, hen.
Czar, czarina.
Dog, bitch.
Don, donna.
Drake, duck.
D_uke, duchess.

E arl, countess.
l''ather, mother.
Fox, vixen.
Friar and monk, nun.
Gaffer, gammer.
Gander, goose.
Gentleman and lord, lady.
Hart, roe.
Hero, heroine.
Horse, mare.
Husband, wife.
King, queen.
Lad, lass.
Landgrave, lanclgravine.
Male, female.
:Man, woman.

.

. - :~~:#t.:f.~:~··: . "' ~ -,:;.:-_. . - .c_ ":. ;.

~

l
.j1
,)

~
·~

~.

~·

I .

I

•

t

r

56

OBJECT OF THOUGHT.

~fargrave, margravine.
l\Iaster, mistress.
Negro, negress.
Nephew, niece.
Ogre, ogress.
Ram, ewe.
Signore, signora.
Sir, madam.
Sire, dam.
Sloven, slut.

NOUNS -

Son, daughter.
Stag, hind.
Steer, heifer.
Sultan, sultana.
Swain, nymph.
Uncle, aunt.
Votary, votaress.
Widower, widow.
Wizard, witch.

§ 113. ORAL EXERCISES. Name the genderB
nouns in the following sentences : -

Write out the masculines of the .following words : Lady, niece, witch, vixen, roe, anoess, infanta, bride. lass,
drun, hind, landlady.

of the

Correct the errors in the following sentences : I

Among the ladies of the household were a duchess, a
chamberlain, a marquis, a viscountess, an earl, a baron,
four peers of the realm, a princess, the dauphin, the young
czar, a landgrave, and a margravine. He divided the males
from the females, placing in one field the oxen, the ewes,
the bucks, the heifers, the geese ; and in another, the females, the pea-hens, the he-goats, the fillies, the drakes, the
young does.
WRI TTEN EXERCISES.

tAe f ollowing word11 : -

57

Arbiter, czar, don, gaffer, director, duke, prince, earl, dauphin, executor, hero, landgrave, marquis, sultan, peer, viscount, negro, friar, testator, tiger, votary, beau, drake, master,
sir, gentleman.

The aunt was absent. The duke and the duchess were
elated. The wizard deluded his victims. He exiled the
monks. His niece was an heiress. The tigress was enraged. The sportsmen brought back a roe, a buck, a wild
goose, a hind, and a pea-hen. There were in the company
a queen, a duke, a viscount, an earl, a marquis, and an
empress. The witch escaped. He punished the sloven.
The bridegroom was sent for. The donna was at home.
The testatrix had omitted the seal. He had nothing save
one ewe-lamb.
.

GENDER.

Write out the f eminines of

NOUNS-CASE.
Lalin,

51Xj

these

langu1;·~a

havi ng, respcctinly, in nse so many clilTcrent

romn for expressing the rclutions of case. The Anglo-Saxon lmif:uage

CHAPTER IV.
NOL-XS -

CASE.

• 114. OBJECTS are distinguished not 01ily in respect
to their own nature and their relations to other objects, but al so in respect to their relations in discourse.
Thel'e are two classes of these relations ; one, the relations of the obj ect to the other parts of the sentence;
the other, the relations to the person speaking. The
first class of relations furnishes the distinctions of Case,·
the secon<l, the <listinctions of Person.

§ 115 .. Case, in grammar, is the distinction of nouns
in respcc.t of their relations to the other parts of the
sentence.

§ 116. In the English language there arc bnt three
different \Ya)'S of exprcssing case ; one callee! the Nominative Case, expressing the relation of sul!ject; as,
Joltn studies his lessons ; one called the Possessive
(Jase, expressing a limitation of some obj!.!ct spoken of;
ns, Joltn's book; one called the Objectivt3 Case, expressing an object of an action or relation; as, John brnught
the boolc t-0 me.
·
Onsi,:nYATJO~ . - Tf we were to de termine the number of cnses in reepcct to the thoui;ht it, clf, there 1rn11IJ cYitle11tly be as many n• there are
d;Ircrcut rc1atio11!-I or cla~~c~ of rt'lation s to be distinguh:hccl in the senter.ce;
and there wouhl lie, occorclingl.'·· the ~ame cnscs in oil lnnguni;c•. If we
dc?etminc lht·m, J1owc\·(·r. i11 rc:-:pert lo the fonns in nctunl use, the ~ystem
of cases woul<l rnr.1· in clitrcrcnt la11i.:11ng•s. Jn point of fnct, the Sanskrit
\aucu:tgo Lias, inclutling tho \'()(•atil·c, eight cases; the Greek, five; tho

''

bad, besides the nominative or sulijcct-form , the three modifi cat ions called
t.ho Genitive, the DatiYe, ontl the Accusative or Obj ective. Of th ese, the
modern English retains only the Genitive, now more commonly called the
l'os.•essh·c, except in th e pronouns. In the la rger part of nouns, the AngloSa.."ton Gcnith·e ended ins, preceded by the connecti ng vowe l e, sometimes
by n, nnJ also by i or!/· The apostrophe, which wr.o introducc1l to mark
tho omis!'ion of the connecting vowel, was not in use to ma rk the posses·
th'~ until the Inter stages of English lit erature; not, indeed, till ofter
Shakc.•pcnre's time.
Tho Genitive Case properly denotes that of the two terms of a rclolion
from whicl1 the r elation is tho ught to proceed, and is called from thi s, the
Whence Case. The Obj ective Case d enotes lhe other term of the relation or
that II> which it is thought to proceed, and is hence called the Whither Case.

§ 117. The .Genitive or Possessive Case is forme<l by
adding s with an apo,s trophe to the simple form of the
noun; as, Peter's book.
Plurul nouns ending in s take the apostrophe only;
ns, the girls' class-room.
EXCEPTION. For the sake of euphony, the 's is sometimes omitted after singular nouns en<ling in the sound of s,
especially if they are not monosyllables, or if the next word
begins with that sound; as, For Justi'ce' sake; Peleus' son.

OnsEm• ATIO~ 1. -The apostrophe properly denotes the d ropping of a letter. As sign of the Possess ive Case, it indicates ·that the connecting vowel
ie dropped. It was once used also in the case of plural s ; as, "those i11nmomto"1 of abstracted beauty;" "about chimrera's." - B erkeley's Aldphron,
printe<I in li32. This use is still continued in the cnse of signs or characters; as, "These o's are counterfeit." § io,i, Rule III.
OnsERVATIO~ 2. - We find in enrlier writ.er. not unfreqnently such cx;rressions as "Sir Sntyrane his steed," for Sir Satyrane's steed. B en Jon•vn, who died in 1637, le~ among his papers an able trcati~ e on Engli ~h
Grammar, in whi:t. h~ calls this" m onstrous syntax." It arose, doulitle>s,
from the desire to emphasi ze the object, just as the nominative wa~ often r&ocated in the form of the pronoun, as in Cowper's "John Gilpin": -

"So 'fair ancl wflly,' .John he said;
But John he cried in Yain."
But by a mistake in regard to the origin of the form of e:<pression, in suppoeing that the liis in such cases was another way of writing the genitive,
formerly ending in i'ain words ending in z,s, s!., g,and ch,asprfoci"' !.oore,

;

60

OBJECT OF THOUGHT

the usnge became ;ery general of writing "John bis book;" a "monstrous syntax" indeed, although sanctioned even by Addi•on.

§ 118. OnAL EXERCISES. Name tht cases of ths
nouns in the following sentences : Many men mistake the love for the practice of virtue.
Action and contemplation are in no way inconsistent. ThA
good man's treasure is in himself. Order is H eaven's first
law. l\Iens' opinions vary with their interests. And Evan's,
Donald's fame rings in each clansman's ears. How wretched
is that poor man that hangs on princes' favors. Let all tho
ends thou aim'st at be thy country's, thy God's, and truth's.
She suffers from her tyrant brother's blaze.

'· Correct the errors in the following sentences : Mans highest knowledge is himself to know and Him
that formed him what be is. Despairs long sigh and Griefs
convulsive sob. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care
are Natures gift's for mans' advantage. The picture of her
son's does not much resemble him: Socrates's teachings
wer~ in advance of his age. I lmve not read Horace' epistles. Neilhe~ John nor his brother's scholarship was very
high. The peace of Westphalia closed the Thirty Years War.
King J ames' translators revised former translations. The
measure gained the king as well as the peoples approba~
tion. Moses rod was turned into a serpent. For goodness's sake, do not go. I expect to visit his brother's John's
monument.

§ 119. \VmTTEN EXERCISE. Construct sentences
containing the following rwuns in tlie Possessive Case : Forest ; ocean ; judge ; chance ; vice ; coach ; peeress ;
'Vatts; girls ; city; lynx; oxen; artist; my brother Au·
gustus; Bolton the carriage-maker; Robert Burns ; Catha·
rine Philips; Sir William Jones; Demosthenes, the Atb&
Dian statesman.

CHAPTER V.
rERSON. -

rERSONAL rrroxouxs.

§ 120. OnJECTS of thought, further, are dist ingnished
into classes in <liscourse in r espec t of their r~btions
to the speaker. · As an object, the speaker is distin·
guished from the person spoken to, and also from the
oL3ect spoken of. .\ Ve have thus what are called 111
grammar the distinctions of Person.
These distinctions are conwniently reprcscnte<l in
language by a particular class of words calle<l Personal
Pronouns, having no other meaning in themselves orirrinally but to distinguish objects i~ their relations
Bpeaking, spolcen to, and spoken of, an<l applicalile alike
to all objects thought of under these several r ela tions.
They serve, indeed, incidentally and derivatively to
prevent the repe tition of the noun ; but this i~ 'not
their proper office or object in language.
~ERSON. in grammar is the distinction of objects in
then· r elat10ns as speaking, spoken to, an<l spoken of;
ns, I am your friend.
A PE~tSONAL Pno~ouN is a word used to express
grammatical person; 111 other words, to distinguish the
epcaker, the person spoken to, and the object spoken of.

:s

§ 121:' There are Three Persons, which arc called
respectively, Tlie First, Tlie S econd, and Tlw Tltird

Persons.

62

onmcr

OJ!

·rnouanr.

'J.'110 l" lltRT 1 .EltSON urnrks tliu pe1·son speaking;
Tl10 SEGONJl P1rnsoN mal'kH the person spoken to;
'l'l10 'J'. lllltll 11 mtSON marks tliu pcr~on spoken of.
1

1

PEHSON. -

PEitSONAL PllONOGNS.

63

lions of an oltlect to the parts of the sentence (§§ 114,
115), as in the fullowing Paradigm of Inflections: FIItST PERSON.

~

122. Pronoun~, like nouns, admit of the <listinc
tion of m1111Lel', a1Hl hnvo peculiar forms for the si11gu·
lar and tho plural respectively. Corresponding to the
Singular of the First person,

I, we have the plural form

Singular.
I,
l\ly, l\Iine,
Me.

Nominative.
Possessfre.
Objcctii:e.

'we; to tltou, ye or you; to lie, tliey.

SECOND PERSON.

011s1mvATIO~. -

In tho English language, the plural form of the scconci
person, you, is generally used uJ,o for the singular, and th e proper singular
form, thou, is used only in solemn address, as in prayer to God.
Formerly, ns is the case now in some other languages, the second person
singular pronoun, in English, thou, was used in familiar address, as to intimate
friends, as well as in religious worship. Hence as treating persons with un·
due familiarity is one mode of expressing contempt, it was used for that
purpose. Thus Coke, to insult Sir Walter Raleigh at his trial, cried, "AU
that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation; thou viper! for I tlwu thee,
thou tra itor! "
It i~ customary for n sovereign to use the ffrst person plural form instead
of the singular, when he means only himself. Thus, the King of Frznce
in his treaty with the United States in 1778, uses this language: - "·i;-o;
such is our pleasure. In testimony whereof, we have hereunto set our seal. ·
So rc,·icwers ant.I edito rs use the plural of the first person. They write a
if personating thr.ir readers and as their organ, just as a king personates th1
nation. In public worship, the use of the plural in prayer is proper, as th1
epcaker is but the mouthpiece of the a.•sembl.v; in the discourse or addres.t
to the assembly, it is improper, although not uncommon.

§ 123. Pronouns of the third person are, likewisci
distinguished in respect of gender.
The masculine form is he.
The feminine form is she.
The form fu1· objects without sex is it.
The plural form is the same, tltey, for each of the
~hree singulars of the third person.
• § 124. Pronouns are, moreover, like nouns, distin :
guished in respect to case, which expresses the rela,

Plural.
'Ve,
Our, Ours,
Us.

Nominatii,e.
Possessii:e.
Of:jective. ··

Plural.
Ye, You,
Your, Yours~
You.

Singular.
Thou,
Thy, Thine,

· 'Thee.
THIRD

P~RSON.

Plural.

. Singular.
MASC.

FR :\(.

Nominative. IIe, She,.
Possessive. Bis, H er, Hers,
Him, Her.
Objective.

NEUT.

It,
Its,

It.

They,
Their, Theirs,
Them.

OnsF.R\" ATION. - Th ere are two forms, it will be ohsen·erl, for the po11sessi\'C case, except in thr masc ulin e and n euter ~ing-1ilar of the third peraon.
The shorter form is usc(l lwforc th e n ou n which the prono un limits ; th6
longer wh e n it is sepa rated from the lirni tell noun; as 1 " It is my book;"
1
The book is mine;'' "Th e ~cat~ are th efrf:, not !10111·s.''
The furm s mine and thine were the on ly forms 11:--ed in the f'nrli cr s tages
of the language. Th ey now appear in our earlier lite rature, as in th e Scriptures. They are, llence, sometimes use<l. in sol emn discourse, in stead of

the •horter forms.
·
The plural of the second person 11as, al so, two forms n the nominal;ve
ca.."e, - ye and you. Th e earlier form was JJ e. It is hcnte use(l in more elevated di ~co ursc. The tendency to do away with inflections in th e h111guage
n,~olvcd in it for a while th e c:onfnsion of ye an L
l you, wt.ieh originu ll y were
distinct, the one a s ubj ect-form, the othe r nu oliject-form. \Ve ma.v ncrount
in this way fo r the u<e of ye. i11 the objectiYe, by Miltnn , as," \\'ill dcRtroy
re both," as well as by other writers. The u ~a g-c now i~ lo reg-a rel ''ye " aa
1hrays in the nominati\'(~, if U!'cd at all. " rou . , is used b both cnses Sit
"ell u in both numbers. Poetry and dramatic literature are alluwcd the .
- ·or,thaold forms; as:-

64

Ol!JEC1 OF THOUGHT.

PERSON. -PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

" Scene.s of fond day-dreams, I behold ye yet."
" So you must ride
On horseback after we." - Cuwpei·'s "John Gilpin."

It has been n question whether the forms, my, mine, tliy, thine, etc., should
be regarded as posse"iYe adjecth·es or as personal pronouns iii th e possessiYe case. This question would seem to be settled hy the consideration that
these forms denote not qualities, but rebtions in the ohject; that is, desig·
nate a case. ''JIis •peech" corresponds to the expression "parti.ian'•
apee.ch," not to "pm·iisan speech."

§ 125. The Personal Pronouns are compounded with
11df and selves, as follows: FIRST PERSON.

Nominative and Objective.
Oijectfre.

Singular.

Plural.

l\lyself.
l\Iyself.

Oursel ''es.
Ourselves.

SECO:SJ? PERSON.

Nominative and Oqjectfre.

Thyself.

Yourselves.

THIRD l'ERSON,

Nominative and Oqjective.

Himself,} _
Herself,
Themselves.
Itself.

Ex,rnrL ES. - I went myself.
He himself did the deed.
OnsERYATION. -

The work explains itself.

When the proper plural form of the Personal Pronoun

Is used for the singular, sP.!fis use1Ii a•," You, .luhn,yourse!fare in fault;"
"Done by 0111·se!f, the King;" "While e1liror of thbjournal, we announce
tursclf as individually re'ponsible for enry article that appears.''
Iloth of the forms one's self and onese(/ are in use. The former is the
oldeT and more proper form; the latter is n contracted form and more current in familiar discourse. Itself was formcr:y written it self, in two
words.

§ 126. ORAL E::rnRCISES. Name tlte P e1·sonal Pronouns in tlte following sentences, mentioning at tlte same
time the respective person, gender, number, and case: I ha"'ls searched.

I have found it.

Having resigned his

e>fficc, he retired. They searched every room : he was gone.

65

Wo could not aid them; but they were in a condition to help
u3. The book is ours ; the satchel is theirs. As you wish
it, I will go. " Cast thy eyes eastward," said he, " and tell me
what thou seest." Those lips are thine; thy own sweet
smile I see. · 'T was for your pleasure you came here, you
shall go back for mine. Yourself shall be accommodated as
well as your brother. I shall be there myself.

Correct tlte errors in tlte following sentences : As for meself, I am indifferent which course be '...'lkcn.
They came on behind John and I. Samuel anJ me went to
town, yesterday . . He praises hissclf. The book is yourn,
not his, nor theirn. By authority of ourselves the king. We
used the privilege of an editor and took a free passage for
ourselves and our good wife. Their's is a sad case. The
effects of the act do not end with it self. They prostrated
their selves before the king. The difficulty will cnre its self.
This lot is ourn ; that is hisn. Our's is a great land ; a
great nation must here raise up its self. It is not her's but
yourn. Our wife has tied our cravat too tight. ·we have
spoken thus far in this discourse of the external circumetances of this transaction ; I now proceed to consider its
•ea! nature and character.
~ 127. WRITTE:N EXERCISE.
Construct five sentences containing, eaclt, one of tlte following inflectimis
of tlte Personal Pronouns: -

First person in each case and number;
Second person in each case and number ;
Third person in each case, number, and gender;
Compound form.with self in each person and number.

§ 128. An object of thought once introduced is often
conveniently presented a second time in a new relation
!Jy the use of a class of words called Relative Pronouns,
or, ·more briefly, Relatives.
Ii

'}

GG

.

PERSON. -

OBJECT OF THOUGIIT.

RELATIYE PRONOUN is a word used to denote an
obJe':t already named in the sentence ; as, " The man
who is ever speaking of himself we naturally dislike ·"
"H,e that is
. a Ireac·fy corrupt 1s
• naturally suspicious." '
1he ANTECEDENT of a Relative Pronoun is the object to which the pronoun refers. Man and he are the
antecedents in the examples given.
§ 129. The Relative Pronouns are who in the nominative

wh~se in the possessive, and whom in the objective case, <le·'.
notmg persons ;
·
Which, denoting things, although formerly applied to per·
sons;
·.. That and as, denoting both persons and things ;
W~iat, a c~mpound relative, including both antecedent aud
relative, eqmvalent to the thing that ; as, "I know not what
he says."

9 131. When the object is not known, but sought
after, it is presented in interrogative sentences by a
class of words called Interrogative Pronouns.
An INTERROGATIVE PRo~ouN is a word used to
denote an unknown object in an inte rrogative sentence;
as, " Who will go for us ? " " Whose book has he
brought?" " Whom will he take with him ? " " What
will he do?" " Which is Jupiter?"

. § 130. Who, wlwse, whom, whicl1, and .what are compounded
with ever and soever; as, whoever, whosoever. These com·
pounds generally include both antecedent and relative. as
" 'W_horn:er transgresses the law must suffer the penal;y; ,:
eqmvalent to " He tlwt transgresses," etc.
Who is also compounded with so,· as, wlwso.
Wlwse formerly was applied to things as well as to per
&ons; as,1
"I could a tale unf~ld, whose lightest word," etc. -Shakespeare.

,o,

,

/

67

clauses, especially after demonstratives and distributives; as,
" Earthly pleasures, wltfr!t are short and uncertain, canno&be the highest for man ; " " These pleasures that are from
earth," etc.; " It is of all the troubles that have been reporteJ, the most embarrassing.''
2. 'Vhen the antecedent embraces both persons and things,
or is of doubtful application ; as, " The cities and their inhabitants that escaped from this desolation," etc.
3. In elliptical expressions, and especially when the preposition is omitted ; as, " The last time that I saw him ; "
"He was the last tltat came;" equivalent to "He was the
last of those that came."
4. 'Vhen who or which has been already used in the same
sentence, in . order to prevent ambiguity; as, "In the city
which had gates that had been celebrated for their number,
size, and costliness.''
5. After same .

-!1-

Ct is not 'now used thus so freely. .r
.As was originally a conjunction of comparison 1 bt:t has
.iome, by an elliptical form of expression, to stand in the place
vf a relative. It is so used, however, only after same, such,
and as.
_'l}tat generally may be used as a relative wherever who or
VJllich may be, except after a preposition. It is generally to
be preferred in the following cases : 1. To distinguish definitive adjective clauses from epithet

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

.'

The Interrogati\'e Pronouns are who, whose, whom, which,
what. They are distinguished from the relative pronouns only
by their use in asking a question.
What and which are used as adjective interrogatives: M,
ll What book and which pen will he t.ike ? "

9. 132. ORAL ExERCISFS. Point out the Relative
Pronouns and their antecedents, and also the Interroga·
tive Pronouns in the following sentences : -

68

OilJECT OF THOUGHT.

.If you h~ve a fri1md that will reprove your faults and
foibles, consider that you enjoy a blessing which the king
upon the throne cannot have.
lif;o labor and be content with what a man hath, is a sweet
He who begins soon to be good will be likely to be very
good at last.
He whose ruling passion is love of praise, is a slave to
every one who has a tongue for detraction.
N.o man hath a thorough taste of prosperity to whom adversity uever happened.
_He that forecasts what may happen shall never be surprised.
Wthat g~od morals are to society in general, good manners
are o part1cu ar ones.
You have obliged a person; very well, what would you
have more?
7
1\ hat.ever can please, whatever can charm solicits his
attention.
·
'
- Who will say there are no pleasures in know ledge ?
Aud, after all, _wha~ is there in life that may be justly
reckoned of su!Iicient importance to move a person to a vier
lent passion ?
And which is the nobler benefactor patriot and philanthropist ?
'
'
·w hose work is this ?
, 'Vlwso rnocketh the poor reproaclieth his l\Iaker.
. !his undertaking, so noble in its beginning, so illustrious
m its progress, so promising in its future results must bo
sus~ained, whosoever or whatsoever may stand i~ the way
of it.
1Vhat man has done, man can do.
Such of the combs as were entire were placed in campkettles to be conveyed to the c!1campmcnt.
As many ns were of that persuasion united in resisting
t.ho government.

1

PERSON. -

PERSONAL PRONOUNS •

69

GJrrect tlte faults in tlie following sentences : They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. This is
the country whose boundaries you were to trace out. Sid·
ney was one of the wisest and most active governors which
Ireland had enjoyed for several years. He is like a beast of
prey who destroys without pity. Flattery, whose nature is to
,foct0ive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder.
He wa,; the ablest minister which James ever possessed.
The child, whom we visited, has recovered. Humility is
one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. Taey
nrc the same persons who went out in the ship. The people
and the cattle w'I1ich were on board were saved. l\Ioses
was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. Of all what he said he could not prove a particle.
This is one of the duties which require circumspection.
His speech contains . one of the grossest calumnies which
was ever uttered. How happy are the virtuous, that can
rest on the protection of the powerful arm, who made the
earth and the heavens? The man is prudent which speaks
little. Not a creature is there that moves, nor a vegetable
that grows, but what, when minutely examined, furnishes
evidence. This is the same article which I saw yesterday.

§ 133. vV RITTEN EXERCISE. Construct five sentences containing Relative Pronouns relating to persons ; five relating to things; five containing Interrogative Pronoun:;.

ELEMENTS AND DIVISIONS.

PART II. - PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF
THE SENTENCE.

CHAPTER I.
ELK'IIENTS AND DIVISIONS.

. § 134. WHEN we assert any thing of an object of
. thought, we are said to judge, - to form a judgment
of it. Such a judgment expressed in words is termed
a Sentence, and also a Proposition; as, The grass is
green; The sun shines.

§ 135. In every judgment, and consequently in
every se11tence or proposition, there are necessarily
three elements, namely: 1. An object concerning which we .m ake the asscr·
tion, called the Subject;
\
2. That which is asserted of the object, called the

Predicate ; .
· '
3. The assertion itself, called the Copula.

The Subject and the Predicate are called the Terms
of the J u<lgment. Thus, in the sentence, " Man is
mortal," man and mortal are the Terms; and in the
sentence, " The grass is green in the yalleys," the
grass and green in the valleys are the Terms.
OnsERVATION 1. The necessity of the concurrence of
these three elements in every judgment is self-evident. The
form, however, in which the judgment is expressed, may

71

sometimes seem to indicate the absence of one or more cf
tl1em. All must nevertheless be implied when not fully ex
pressed. The proposition "It rains," Latin "pluit," contains
in disguise all of the three elements, and is imperfect only
in form.• They are all contained in the one word pluit or
rains ; for the word it means nothing and is a mere exple~
tive (§ 339). There is contained an object of which some\hing is as8erted, rain; also, something asserted of it, reality or existence; and, moreover, the assertion itself. Phdt,
rains, means something more than rain, more than raining.
It is an asserting word, while also it contains the object of
which something is asserted, and that which is asserted of it.
The copula or asserting element is the life of the judgment, and cons·equehtly of the proposition or sentence. If
not expressed, it is necessarily implied in every proposition.
Only as there is a copula, that is, only as there is an assertion, can an object of thought become subject or predicate.
See Appendix No. IV.
OBSERVATION 2. "\Vhen it is said that every sentence
must contain an assertion, the word must be understood to
be used in a wide signification, to include negation, interrogation, command, and the like. So when it is said that the
copula expresses identity, it must be understood as applying
not only to the positive form of the sentence, but also to the
negative, and thus including non-identity or difference. To
avoid cumbrous expressions we may sometimes use language
in our exposition of the sentence, which might, if construed
strictly, imply that there are no sentences but those which
positively assert sameness or identity. In such cases, the
express.ions must be taken in a wider sense, as inclusive of
all sentences, negative and interrogative as well as positive.
OBSERVATION 3. Essentially, the copula is merely the
expression of the identity or non-identity of the subject and
the predicate. See Appendix No. IV. As this identity
may be either total or partial, we have two classes of proP'
ositions.

\.
76

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

J\Ir. Gladstone conceives that the duties of government.a
are paternal.
He never considered that governments were made for
meu, and not men for governments.
It was a wonder how he contrived to keep his treasury always empty.
\Vas it to be rich that you grew pale over the midnight
lamp?

•

"Salt of the earth, ye Yirtuous few,
" ' ho season human-kin<l;
Light of the world, whose cheering ray
Illumes the realms of mind;
'Where misery spreads her deepest shade,
Your strong compassion glows;
From your l>lest lips thP, l>ahn distills
That softens mortal woes/'

. It is by words, by tones, by gestures, by looks, that affection is won and preserved.
He who neglects these trifles, yet boasts that, whenever a
great sacrifice is called for, he shall be ready to make it, will
rarely be loved.
·
·
The wirn ones tell us that it is intellect that has done it.
\Vhen intellect exerts itself, - when it thinks, and invents, and discovers, - it then labors. Through the medium of labor it does all that it does.
,
Evil indeed must be the disease which is not more tolera1
ble than such medicine.
Ilelease them not too rashly lest they curse their freedom
and pine for their prison.
The soldiers forgot that they were citizens, and the orators that they were statesmen.
If tbe Commons impeached Hastings, all danger was at
IUl end

CIIAPTER IL
TIIE

SL'BJECT.

§ 143. THE SuRJECT of a sentence is that of " ·hich
11omething is asserted ; as, " Grass is green ; " "John
performed his part wisely."
§ 144. The subje ct of a sentence is expressed in thl'
nominative ·case "(§ fl6) .
§ 145. The subject of a sentence may be modified or
unmodified. It is unmodifi ed when expressed in a single
word; as, "Birds sing ; " modified wh en expressed in
more than oue ; as, " Th e long-expected summe1· came;"
"Threatening clouds dark en th e sky."
Th e word which is limited or modified is the principal part ; and the other words arc the modifying part
of the subject.
§ 146. ORAL EXERCISES. N ame tlte sul>jects of tlte
several sentences that.follow, and mention whether modified or unmodified : Ons 1mYATt0X. - The sul>ject may be readi ly determined if the question
be asked, Of what is something asserted in the se11te11ce "?

l\IonEL. - "This position of affairs clitl not last loug." The subject is
tlris positi<m qf n.flicirs, as it is the an swer to the l\Uc;;tion, Of what is it a111erted, that it did not last lvn9 f It is modified by this and nf n.fficirs.

Joan sprang from the ground. His pretty litlle nephew,
Arthur, had the best claim to the throne. People are not
sufficiently anxious to be correct. In the whole business of
the world, truth is of great importance. One part, one littfo

80

81

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

THE PREDICATE.

"John is a man;" "Plato nn<l Socrates were Athenians." In all such
propositit'!IS the aose rtion dec lares the subject to be included under the clas1
tlenotcd by th e predicate . The meaning is simply this: the subject ns an
individual or a species is one of the indi\"i,!ual s or one of tl1e •pecies de·
noted !Jy t!Je predicate. If the predicate be modified in suc!J case, it can
accordingly be modified only by detini.!ires (§ 173.)

§ 151. The Predicate may appear 111 language in
either of three several forms : 1. Pu RE, that is, by itself; as, "The sun is brigld;"
or,
2. "\VnoLLY coMBIXED with the copula; as, "The
oun shines;" or,
3. p AllTIALT,Y coMHJNED with the copula; as, "The
sun quickens all things." In this last fo1:111 the copula
is combin ed with only a part of the predicate.

§ 150. Abstract Predicates may be of either of tho
four classes of Attrit11te3: -1. Qualities ; as, " The sea is salt; "
2. Actions; as, " John is strilcing; "
3. Conditions; as, " Th e bird i~ resting; "
4. R elation s; as, "Nine is moi·e than seven."
On sE!lYATIO:-<. - An abstract predicate, expressed separately from the
copula, is of a nature midway between a nonn nnd an adjective; and on
this is grounded the name sometimes giwn it, of 11ou1z.<uijectfre. \\"h en I
e,.y, " Socrates wa s morta l," I m ea n that "the attriliute o f mortality b!llonged to him" - I predicate that attri!Jute of him . And this a ttriliuto is
as truly an obj ect of thought i11 the one case as in th e other. Dut it is no.I
in the first case definitely represented as sepa rat ed from a con cre te. It
points to a concrete to wh ich it may belong : it is nn attribute implying a
concrete. Y et it is not, on the other harnL explicitly connected with such
a concrete, as is the proper acljectirn. It does not m od i(y th e subj ect or any
other noun, and shou lLI not I.Jc parsed as suc h a modifier; for this, a lthoug h
a common practice, hs to confound a modifie r with a predicate, and to oYcrlook the di sti ncti,·e n ature of a predicate. The mere circumstance that in
languages larg~ ly infl ected , the abstrac t pred icate, when stan ding disconn ected from the co pula, is an ndjecti,·c in form, and agrees, in it s terminations rnnrkin g gentler, nurnber, and case, wilh the sul.ijcct, has no force
against the correctness of tbis view. When I say, " ;Socrates was mortal,''
- Socmle.<fuil 11101·/alis, -the subject, Sucrntes, is riot modifietl as a subj ect at all by the predicate, mortal; but of Socrntes, as an unmodified
subject, the attribute 1110,.tal is predicated. It is the very object of the proposition to attriliute this 11zo1·talif!J to Soe.-ates - a subject before this attribution unmodified. The attribute-atljectirn no more modifies the • ubj ect,
than does th e verb-attribute, died, in the sentence," Socra tes died." Nor
Is the predicate in this cnse to be regarded as a modifier of some noun und erstood. To say" Socrates is mortal," is a very different thing frcm

saying "Socrates is a mortal man;" "a mortal creature;" "a mortal
being." There is just the d ifference that there i• between saying that
" Socrateo belongs to a c!a,s," and that "Soc rates has the qualities of that
class." If the one propos ition mny be logicn lly derind from the other,
they present very distinguishable truths. No one can foil to recognize thi
difference between the proposi tion, " Socrates was mortal,'' and t!Je propoo
aition, " Socrates wne a mortal."

§ 152. Concrete Predicates can be only in the fint form.
Accordingly in all propositions of the second and third forms,
tho predicates are abstract.~.
§ 153. Abstract Predicates of either of the four classes
may be in either of the three forms ..
OnsEHYATJO:S. -In the EngHsh la11g11agc, ho"·ernr, ns. olrn in so_me
oth ers of th e ludo-European family, ::o n rbs occur with predicates dcnotmg
ualihr simph· of the' second or third forms. Such won!s ns harden s, if
q t
otin'"' ·s;ate incl11de the idea of becmnin.IJ, besi des that of qtrnlity. In
DO ( en
l:"'t
•
,
•
I . 1.
. l . r ff

J:

other languages, such words occur; as Latin emu et,

1s

w ute ; 1·1gc,

1s

s

1 •

§ 154. Abstract Predicates may be expressed either, 1. Jn combination with the copula; as, "The sun enlightens;" or,
.
2. Separated from the copula either in the form of a<lJeCtives adJ"tmcts, adverbs, infinitives, or clauses ; as, " Tlic sun
'
' • ;. ""'Tl 1e ~ un is
is brigllt
; " "The sun is above t 1.1e 1wri::on
tltcre ; " " The sun is to rise ; " " The sun 1s whe:·e it may

now be seen from tlte bottom of the valley."
§ 155. Qnalities are properly predicated in the English
·
language, uncombined with
the copula ; as, "Tl 1c sea .is
blue ; " "The lion is fierce." They are generally exprcswd
in the form of the adjective.
OnsEnv;. no:s. - If the form of the noun i• taken, the s;:;nificance of
LI? sentence is changed. The predicate then is to be reganlcLI as a con·
wete; a s','~ The lihn is ficrcene~s itself," an Iden tical Propos iti~n; ''Knowledge is 1m•·cr," that is, krwu:lcd!J' is one of the class of ~bJccts named
pnoer. Iu th:.S lust example, a force i~ gh·en to llie expression very d1fferG

;'

82

· ' tnt from that gi>en in the form" Knowledge is powerful." Or still bctt~r
perhaps, as in the preceding case, the proposition may be Yie";ed ao ai:
ldentical Proposition, in which the subject, knowledge, is identified with the
predi1"ate, power.

§ 15G. A ctions are more commonly predicated in combination with the copula ; as, "John ran,-" "The lightning
flashed."
Onsl!Il\"ATI0:-1. -

Most verbs in Engii sh express action.

§ 157. Conditions are predicated in nouns with preposi, tlons, that is, in adjuncts ; as, " The sea is at rest,·" " Tho
lion is asleep," (= in sleep ;) they are also expressed in adverbs; as, "John is here,-" also in participles; as, "The sea
is resting ,- " " The lion is sleeping."
They may, also, be predicated in union with the. copula, as
in a large class of the verbs, which, as there is no object implied, are called Intransitive; as, " The sea rests,-" " Tho
lion sleeps." But here condition is expressed under the
form more appropriately expressing action.
OnsKHYATIOx. -The preposit ion in ~uch expressions as" The sea is at
rest," "John is in debt," must clearly be regarded as indicating only the
general relation of subject and predicate. lt expresses no relation between
lhe predicate at)d the copula; between rest, or debt, and is, in these examples.

§ 158. Rela tions are predicated either combined or uncombined with the copula.
If the relation is immediate or direct, it ".is properly combined ;· as, "The enemy outnumbers us."
\1
If the relation is mediate or indirect, it is properly uncombined ; as, " Salt is useful for many purposes."
If the relation is immediate and one of action, it is more
commonly coml>ined; if of condition or quality, properly uncombined ; as, " Frost benefits the soil; " " Frost is beneficial
to the soil."
1. -This view of the different modes which language prellC1'ibes for predicntin,.: the different classes of attributes, explains to us the
grounds of the peculiar force or significance severally belonging to these
modes. ""hen I say thus: "The 8"a rt31s," I expregs a condirion or state
~der the form properly belong ing to au action-predicate. I use an expreaaion tha~ properly ascribes 11ction to the sea. When I aay "The ua it ~
Onsr:nYATI0:-1

83

THE PREDICATE.

PlUNCIPAL ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

rut" I express proper concfltion, but it is in truth not an origi.nal mlflnal
ron:.. 'Vhen I say "T he sea is restin g," I predicate proper "0111 !111<111 by tbe
proper normal form It is more forcible than th e seconil form - a l 1:est. It
is less 80 than the first-rests, us ex pressions uudcr the furm of actwn are
generally more forcible th an others.
OnSEllVATION 2.-The predicated a ttribute mu st be regarded as the
· orii:;inal ground of the nttrihute-adjedir•; used to limit or modiiy an ?bject
of thought. Only as an attrihnlc cnn lie supposed to ha,·e uee n predi cated
of an object can it be assumed to limit such object. The pre d1c~le-adJ cc t."'A
if thus the original ground of the proper lnmtmg a<lJ ec!Ire. \\ c can tlnnk
"the dark cloud," only as we may be su pposed first to ha\'C th ought CWUda
to be dm·k, and so have been aule to assert" the cloud is dark ."

~ 159. ORAL EXERCISE . Point out the Predicate in
each of the following sentences ; say u'7ietlter it is a Concrete or an Ab~traet, and of whicli kind ; and whether it
is Pure or Combined, and if combined, whether wltolly
or only in part : l\[OIH:L. - "These instances should satisfy." The prcrlicutc ig ex prc>Sed
in the words "should •atisfy;" it is au abstract expressi111; uctiun, and
wholly comuincd with the copula.

Charlotte was an artist. His name was George. Ho
might have been an orator. H e studied his lessu11 s well. No
one came to his assistance. The British Parliament is composed of king, lords, and commons. Passion is the drnnkenness of the mind. Although great has been his disol>c<lience,
yet, if penitent, he shall be forgiven. H ealth is preferable
to riches. History is the most popular species of writing.
It adapts itself to the highest or the lowest capacity. He is
now about to set his superhuman shaft upon the string; he is
t.:; become dreadful in his invective.
No monumental column is there. The chosen hour for the landing was when
the moon should have withdrawn her light behind the horizon.

§ 160.

\VmTTEN EXERCISES.

'which the p1·edicate shall be, 1. A Proper Noun ;
2. A ,1!.rss-noun ,8. A Cvllecti1:e No"..l.n ;
4. A

Class-82"3 0 9

Construct sentences in

-

-

... \ .

----, ---

--. -,...- - ·

- ,, ..... -

84

PRINCIPAL ELDIE~TS OF TllE SENTENCE.

Construct sentences wlticli shall predicate some quai.

ity of tlte following sub:jects : Fielu, mountain, acorn, coral, figure, complexion, avarice,
sympathy, beneficence, prosperity.

Construct sentences which shall predicate action of the
following sub:jects : Hero, leaf, rock, sound, air, heat, storm, grief, recollection,
wish, traue, government.
Construct sentences wlticlt shall predicate condition or
Btate of tlte fullowing sub:jects: Clock, plow, wheat, head, foot, memory, desire, fear.

Construct sentences wlticli slwll predicate some relation of tlte following sub:jects : Benjamin Franklin, l\Iount Etna, London, leatl, gold,
smoke, hail, ignorance, sloth, ambition, summer, lauguage,
&rt.

CHAPTER IV.
TUE

corn.A.

§ 1G1. Tim Corm.A is that element of a proposition
which expresses tlie relation of identity, or non-itlcn•
tity, total or partial, between the subject an<l the pre<l·
icate.
The Copnh~ is,' acc-~rclingly, the asserting element of
n judgme nt; it is, of course, the Yitai, essential element,
so that 'vhen there is no Copula expressed or implied,
there is no asserdon, no judgment, no sentence.
§ 162. The Copula, if expressed in words, is always
expressed in the Yerb.
OnsF.H\'ATtox. - The Copuln is sometimes not expressed at. all.

I

\

I

ft may

be expressed IJy a sig n; as, H Two aml three= fh·c ,,, Hut wh en cxpresscJ
in word ~, it is in the verb . The 11ornial verU e n~r contain s the copula of the
sentence; and may ulwnys Uc tli:-o ti11guis.l1t:d and known Ly thi s character·
istic. See .-\ppe111lix No. IV., VI . lleu('e tile followiu g tl etini tion, to which
that gi,·c n, § 17, is cquirnlcnt, as is also this: The \'erli is the copula ex-

pressed in language.

A

VERB

is the asserting element of a sentence.

§ 163. The Copula is Pure or Combined. It is combined when unite<l in the same wort! with the whole or
n part of the predicate O 151); as, "The snn shines;"
, "The water lws frozen;" "The fields are clothed in
green;"_ "He !tad studied <liligently.''
OnsmffATI OX 1. -A• the copula expre5'es the identity, in whole or in
part, of the subject nn<I the pre1licate, any wont whith can properly express
this idcntit.''• may with prnpril'ty be regarded as a pure copula. The following nrlis are thWI proper copula-words, expressing the copula un•

86

PRL."'iCIPAL ELEMENTS OF THE SEJ:-. TEKCE.

TIIE COPULA.

combined with the predicate: To be, as, "The sun is bright;" lo equal, u
"Two anti. three. equnl five;" to make or to make up, tof o1·m, to compose, to
etmstitute, and those wonl• which express the identity of the parts with the
whole; as," Two and three mnke five;" "Oxygen and hydrogen ccmpose
water; '' to contain, to include, to comprehend, to invult:e, nnd those words
whicl! express the identity of the whole with its parts; ns, "'Yater contain•
oxygen and hydrogen;" " Great Britain includes England, Wales, and
Scotlanrl."
OllSEitVATIO:'; 2. -A judgment may be regarded as complete or incomplete; as determined or undetermined. When undetermined, it may be exprci ie.d in the form of a quoi:.tion. Tint~, "John is studious," is a com•
plet2d, n <leterminec\ judgment.
Such a judgment, when expressed, ie
called a Cate.'}oric"I Prt>position; "Is John stuc!ious?" i" an incomplete,
an unJcterm;ned judgment- u doubt. Such a judgment, when expressed,
IS called an !11fo-rl'gative Proposition.
Further, I may judge affirmati<·ely or negath·ely; I may assert "John is
studious," or" John is not studious." There are accordingly Affirmative
and Negati\·e Judgments.
·
'fl1eso Inst, morconr, may ench be determined or undetermined, and
accJrdingly be expressed in po~ith·e assertions, or as questions; as, "Is
John studious'?" "ls not John studious?"

§ 164. There are four general forms of the Copula,
and four corresponding kinds of sentences: 1. The Affirmative; as, The sun shines.
2. The Negative; as, The sun does not shine.
3. The Affirmative-Interrogative; as, IJoes the aun
shine .'2
4. The Negative-Interrogative; as, IJoes not the sun
II
shine?
§ 165. The Interrogative expression properly transposes the subject and copula, placing the copula first;
as, Lovest thou me ? Is he absent? IJocs he depart ?
This form of expression is often introduced by a
words called Interrogatives. There are thus, 1. Interrogatfre Pronouns,· as, " 1V!to struck
blow?" See § 131.
2. Interrogatfre Adjectives ; as, " Which book
bring?" " Wliat business <loes he follow?"
3. Interrogative Adi·erbs; as, " Where has he
" Wlty did he go?" " How will they bear it?"

class of
the first
did he

'teen?

87

§ 166. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the words con•
taining the Copula in each of the following sentences; say
w!tetlier it is Combined or Uncombined; and whether
Affirmative, Negative, Affirmative-interrogative, or Neg. ative-interrogative: MoDEL. - "Virtue is the universal charm; " rs is the coi::ila uncombii>ed
and affirmatirn.

The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful.
Piety and virtue are particularly graceful and becoming in
youth. Truth and candor possess a powerful charm. 'Vhcn
will they arrive? Every heart knows its own bitterness.
He <loes not live within his income. Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds. '~7 hat has become of
decency and virtue ? ·whose works are these ? They are
Cicero's, the Roman orator and patriot. "Why <loes he wish
for clearer evidence ? To whom was the prize awarded?
The council did not agree. The sea had been smooth for
several days ; it was now becoming rough. Where is the
monarch who dares resist us? Virtue confers the highest
dignity on man. Do I put my faculti es to their best use?
·wm he not keep an account of this? B efore her steps
walketh prudence; virtue atten<leth at her right hand. Observe those who have listened to temptations. Are they not
meager? Are they not sickly? Are they not spiritless?
Perhaps they began, Lut did not I carry it on? They gave
the provocation ; but did not I take it? Should I allow myself in any little froward humors? Should I not be ashamed
to appear peevish and ill-natured? 'Vhy was I born a man
to sec the sufferings of wretches I cannot relieve? Why
was this heart of mine formed with so much sensibility?

§ 167. W RITTE:N EXERCISE. Construct tliree sentences witli Copula uncombined; three with Copula comn11cd; three Affirmative, tliree 1Vegative, three A.ffirmative-intcrrogative, and three Negative-interrogative Sentences.

NATURE AND KINDS OF li[QDIFYING ELEMENTS.

89

Mon~i"IERS arc words used to limit the meaning or
relaticn of wor<ls.
INFI.ECTION is a change in the form of a word to limit its
meaning or its :elation in the sentence.

. ,P AUT III. - MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF
THE SENTENCE.
--+--

CHAPTER I.
NATCTIE AND KL... DS OF llIODffYING ELE)lENTS.

one of the three principal clem ents of
the sentence may be modified in 'mys more or less pe·
culiar to each, in or<ler more precisdy to express the
thought.
Such modifications are of two kinds: 1. One of mere form, to indicate the r ela tionsl1ip be·
tween parts of the sentence, as between the Yerb and
its subject.
2. The other of significance. In this case a word or
a part of a sentence is simply limite<l in its meaning to
e. narrower import.
\

§ 168.

ANY

OnsERYATIO:s'. -A• there is not for cYcry form of thought a form of ex•
pression furni shed in lnngunge, it becom e~ n eccs~a ry often to burrow fbrms
of cxpre"5ion ulready in use. WhPn w ord ~ in use nrc too limited, form\Tor<ls (§ 272, Ouserrntion 2) nre '"c<I to rnnncct or ccmbi11e them. \\' hen
they ore too imlefi 11itc, either limiting words or changes in the form of tho
wor<l arc rpsort ed t o. We ha1·e, in this way, moditicalions by modifying
'l\"onl~, nu<l modifiratione by Inflection.
The won! or part of the sent ence modified, in distinction from the modifying part, is callc<l the pl'incipctl
'l'he principal part, when n single wonl u<ccl as subjcd, or pre11ic1ttc, or
cr;-ula in n sentence, is •omctimcs calle<I the Cnm111111tical s11bjerl, prrclicnle,
or ropuln; while the whole element, comi•tinit of this pri11cipal part nod all
the word~ that mvdify it, is sometimes calle<l the LogicaJ. :.ubjrct, predic<Ut,

I'""'·

or copula.

OosERY.\TIOX. - For the sake of c011Yen ience, auxiliaries ar~ treated "
parts of the one word which is made up of them and the principal word1
and rnodificatious Uy auxiliaries are acconl iug ly regard ed as I11fl ections.
The modil"ications of th e subject in reepecl of its form to show its rdalioo
in the sentence ha,·e been sufficiently trea ted in the chapter on dil'isioo nf
nouns in respect of case, Part I., Chapter iv., §§ 114-116.

§ 169. Th e modifi er of the subject, and so of any
ol\ject of th ought that may be used as a subject, is an
adjective modific.atio1~ ;
That of the pred icate, or of any part of the sentence
that may be used as a predicate, is an aluerbial modifir.ation ;
That of the copula, or of any part of the sentence
th at may be regarded as primitively a copula, is a
moda.l modification.
§ 170. There are three classes of Modifiers: the
Adjective; the Adverbial; an<l the Modal.
An ADJECTIVE is the modifier of a subject-word, or
noun (§55).
An ADVERBIAL is the modifier of a predicate-word

l§ 56).

.!

A MonAL is the modifier of a copula-word (§ 57).
§ 171. J'IIodifins are either deri ved from the matter of the
tl10ught, that is, from the subject or prellicate, or from the
thought itself, that is, from the copula.
They consist of single words, or of several words takev
together.
If ·consisting of i;everal words, they arc call eel, when derivetl from the matter of the thought exclusively, mod1f!li'ng

·:- -. '

90

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENC~.

phrases; when derived in . part from the copula, modif!Jing
clauses. See Int. Ex., Chap. viii.
OnsEn\• ATIO:N". - If the verb is not expressed, as in such expressions a&
"if poss.ible," "a!though with caution," the term clausal or ciuu.<al plwaae
is s?mehmes applied to them, to distinguish them from proper cluusrs iu
which the Yerb appears but does not express an actual judgment. S..
i U-0. They are. properly elliptical clauses.

•
CHAPTER 11.
MODIFICATIONS 01'' AN OBJECT OF TIIOUGIIT.-ADJECTIVE!I.

§ 172. As in the several kinds of composite objects,
masses, groups, and classes, the parts differ in their essential
nature, the limiting words or modifiers so far differ. Thus
the modifier of a mass-noun must limit to a spacial or extended part; as, " Much water," " Little water; " the modifier
of a collective noun must limit to one or more of the numerical
parts; as, " One of the army;" the modifier of a class-noun,
to one or more of the individuals, or of the varieties or
species that make up the class ; as, " The book ; " " Sei:eral
men;" "White sheep;" "1lfortal body."
Of these examples of the various kinds of modifications
of subject-words or nouns, the one last given, "mortal body,"
differs from all the others in this respect, that while the first
given all limit in respect of the quantity of the object in the
stricter sense, that is, limit to a spacial or numerical part of
the object, the last limits in respect of the quality of the
object, that is, limits to one of the attributes that make up
the object body. Thus, when we say " white sheep," we generally mean a certain kind of sheep which we wish to clistinguish from other sheep that are not wliite; but when mi
say "mortal body,'' we do not ordinarily mean to distinguish
mortal body from body which is not mortal, for all earthly
body is mortal. 'Ve wish only to 8eparate that particula1
attribute of body calied mortal, from other attributes, as e»
tended, organic, and the like. 'Ve ha\·e thus two kindt> of
adjectives: (1.) Those which limit in respect of the Quantity

;·

92

lllODIFYIKG ELEMENTS OF THE SE~TEXCE.

including kind, of the object; and (2.) Those which limit iD
respect of the Properties or Relations of the object.

§ 173. Adjectives are of two classes: 1..Definitives, which limit the ol~ect as to its quantity
or km<l ; as, "Much money;" "Six men; " " Those
trees;" "Learn ed men."
2. Epithets, wliic.:11 limit the object in respect of its
attributes; as, " The righteous Lord;" "The leafy
oak;" "Jocund spring;" "Happiness is found with
the purring cat no less than with the playful kitten;"
"I ha¥e seen tempests when the uoldi119 winds
Have rh·ed the knully oaks."
OnsF.IffATIO:-<. - This distinction, but little recognized in "·stems of
Grammnr, and, perhaps, for thnt. renson, !30mewhnt uufUmiliar, i~ ..Yet one of
great import~ncc in onle1· to co1Tecl aml frc·e expression. A Jirttc thcu nht
wnJ fumiliarize the distinction. It is plain that when I say" the ichile
kitten," I mean or<linnril~,. to distinguish one of this color from .. one of some
other color. llut in th e >entencc ~uot e d abO\·e, the writ er does not at all
intend to distinguish pla!J!ul kitteus from those that arc not playful; he
wishes to fix the atteution of the reader on one of the attributes that belong
to all kittens - playful.
It must. be borne in mind that the same " ·orcl may be u>ecl either as a
Defiuiti,-e or as an Epith et. Thus when Spenser
Thcu cmno the
jolly summer/' he uses the nlljectivcj11//!/ not as n Deli nit i\·c - not to in di
cate what kiud of a summer he meant, but as an Ji:pith et to iudicate upon
what attribute of th e summer he wi shed the attenti(ln clirec tc<I. But when
I say" It was a j olly summer,'' I mean to lleline a ~ertai11 ki11cl of s ummer.
An accurate writer will ever disti11guish between these two uses of atljectives, although language, from its imperfection, may not enable him always
to show clearly to the reader wliich one he intended.

,;Y'> ''

§ 174. Definitives arc of three classes:1. Numerals ;
2. Demonstratives;
)

1

3. Attributives.

§ 175. N mrnnAJ, AnJECTIYEs designate how much
or how many of the parts of the composite object are
meant.

MODIFICATIONS OF AN OilJEC"I

JF THOUGHT.

va

They.include two classes: 1. Tile De.finite Numerals; as, all, botlz, evei:!J, each, eitl1er i
tho negatives, no, none, neitfter, together "·ith the canlinal
numbers, one, two, etc.
2. 'l71e Indefinite Numerals; as, some, few, sei·eral, certain,
d' >ers, sund171, any, enough, only, many; much, little.
OnsEm",\TIOx.-Of the N"umernls, much and little arc 11'e1l pro pcily to
limit masswnotms; that is , to limit in $pacial or geo metrical rtth er thun jo
proper numerical quantity. Tl"hole, snme , any, nwu.'Jh, on /y, ;, re ·J scd in
both ways. Lar!Je, small, OIHl th e lik e, properly limit , likewise, massnouns. """c shoulct, indee(l, for th e most rigid exactness, tli!'.itingubh modifiers of m:i ss-nouns from those of collccti,·e aml plural noun s. But most
.of these a dj ectins are applicabl e to both; and it is rrcqucntly necessa ry or
com·enient to <lcnominate 11 class from ouc of the species. \Ve ha Ye called
nil modifiers whi<;.11. limit either to spacia l or to numerical parto, thus, Kum eral Acljecti,·es.
Further, e1.: ery, each, eithei·, ?lone, neither, are disfin~uished from others of
the class as dist1·ibutives. Erery denotes that all of the parts contaiuccl in
the object are tak en one by one. Em h is used of an obj ect containing two
as well as more parts; it is the clistribnti,-e of both alll1 all. Eith c1· limits to
the one or the other of two parts; is the nlternat iYe of both. One anothel"
is the alternative form of all; 11011e, 110 one the negative of all; neitlw-, of
either.
The numerals generally may be used as nouns without further indication
of the objects to which they properly belong. We may rn ppose in such
use an ellipsis of the noun . Gerwin, dirers, sundry, only, arc not thus usccl
as noun s; and any is not used by itself as a subject, but only as the object
of an action or relation. E"rery, no, are u ~cd as n ouns only in connection
with one; as, ei·e1·y £1ue, no one, contracted into none.

§ 176. To this class, numerals, belongs what has been
called by distinction, tlze indefinite arti'cle, a or an. Etymologically this article was originally the cardinal numeral.
But the necessities, or at least the conveniences of speech,
demande<l a ready way of converting an abstract into a con::retD. This want is met in the indefinite article. Thus in
the phrase "J\Ian is mortal," mortal is an attribute and of
course an abstract. By inserting the indefinite article, so
that .the phrase shall read" J\lan is a mortal," mortal becomes
_a concrete, a class-noun.
This use of an, that is, as a definitive, limiting the objecl

94

MODIFYING
ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.
I

as to its sphere, but not as a demonstrative which indicates :
which one is meant, distinguishes it from the definite article
the, which is demonstrative (§ 178) ; and to mark this distinc·
tion it is called the indefinite article. It is, however, essen·
tially a definitive, although not so precisely defining or limiting as the definite article the.
this use, it has come to drop the n before consonant
sc~nds, while it is still written an in full before vowel
so:mds.
In accordance with this principle, it is written and
sounded an before a silent h, as, an honest man; also before an aspirated h in an unaccented syllable, as the conso·
nantal power of the letter is then weak, as an ..historical essay ; an hypothesis. But before an aspirated h in an accented syllable, the general principle applies, and it is written without the n ; as, a history; a hypotl1etical case. For
analogous reasons the n is omitted in writing and in pronunciation before the consonantized sound of y and of w as
sounded at the beginning of words ; · as, a youth, a war, such
a one (wun).
.,

MODI FICA TIO NS OF AN OBJECT OF THOUGHT.

In

§ 177. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES point out the
particular parts or individuals meant in the composite
object ; as, tliis, tltat; tltese, tltose.
1

§ 178. To this class belongs what has been called the defi'
nite article, THE.
This article may be used with or without other modifie.s;
as, the man, t11e brave man. It demonstrates, that is, po·ints
out the particular individual meant in the class man; brave
man.
It sometimes demonstrates the species ; as, " The jifh
swims." This sentence, it will be seen, is ambiguous; as
the definiw article either indicates that the word fish is here
used to denote an object originating in the thought, a class
or species, giving the meaning that one of the attributes,
·a part of the Base on which the class fish is formed, U.

•

.,

..,,.

95

noin11m~zg; or simply intlicates that the word is used to denote some particular fish with the meaning that it actually
swims. In one meaning a general property of the class is
intlicated ; in the other, an act is asserted of some individual.
The article the is always, however, a definitiv&, as it lim·
its the noun in respect to quantity.
A definitive prefixed to a proper abstract word changes it
at once to a class-word. Thus in the phrase, " The justice
of which I speak,'' the article suggests a particular kind of
justice. In the same way the article placed before adjectives converts them into concretes; as, " The busy and the
active."

§ 179. To this class - Demonstratives -also may be assigned those adjectives which tletermine which of the individuals contained under the general object are meant by referring them to the particular place or time to which they
belong ; as, yonder, adjacent; former, latter.
Here belong, moreover, Ordinal Adjectives, so called; as,
first, second, third, &c.
~ 180. ATTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES limit the noun in
respect to some species contained under it through
some attribute ; as, "Dark clouds ; " "An ill fortune ; "
"Malicious passions;" "An unyielding firmness."
~ 181. EPITHETS are adjectives, which limit the object to some of its attributes ; as, "Balmy spring; "
· "Fiery Mars;" "Silent flowers."
0BSERY ATION. - Rhetoricians prescribe vogue rules for the use of epithets,
indicating the want of a clear und erstanding of th eir nature. Dr. 'Vhately,
thus, directs that an epithet should be used onl~· when it either will explain a metaphor, or when it expresses something that is implied , but not
likely to be noticed by the hearer; that is, should be used only when neces1ary: The distinction between definiti\·es and epithets will guide better to
the use. As a composite ohject ma.\• be made np of indidduals or of propertieP; as, for instance, 1tar may denote either a number of bodies. or 11
complement of properties, as material, heaTJenly, iliining; the obj~ct r:iay

97

l\IODIFYIXG ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

MODIFICATIONS OF AN OilJECT OF moUGHT. .

.be limitccl in eilher of these respects. We can occor<lingly define or limit
by designating which or how many of the bodies inclu<l e<l in the class, by
nsiug a clefin ili rn, or limit in regard to the property to which we \\'Ould particularly direct attention, by using an epithet. Aud I.he same law applies to
the use of both kinds of adjectives; numPly, - Limit as the pnrticula1' object fo .<peahn9 requires. If the noun indudcs under it more indi,·iduals
or more parts, or more species than the object in spenkin~ requires, the definiti,·e a<ljecth·e is to be used to limit it to such part as is desire<!. If the
noun indudcs in it more attributes than it is desired to ham prominently in
view in speaking, an epit het which sh all direct to the particular attribute
to bo made prominen t, is to be used.

It was strange kind of goodness. The pleasure attends
bencrnlence. A mercy is God's attribute. The prosperity
in a nation endangers the good morals. I will \rnlk in the
ways of the righteousness. The copiousness of expression
is to be acquired. The gravity is ballast of soul. The mem·
ory is treasure-house of mind. Do notl1ing in the passion.
The rich aml poor arc alike mortal.* It has been tho
nmbiti1m of goocl and noble in all ages. The patricia n and
plcbci:in were equally concernecl.. The North aml South
haYc common interests allll commo n destiny. The ol<l anu
young may alike profi t by experience. lie rcg;mls tho
cries of the widow anu orphan. How do the duties of a
good wife, good mother, an<l worthy matron, well performccl,
dignify a woman! Gratitude rega rds the giver rather than
gift. The desires may be classed as twofold : the animal
and rational. All minerals have the common properties of
fracture, the clegree of h:mlncss, ancl the specific gravity.
The perch, the mackerel, and pilot-fish belong to the sharpfinnc<l orcler of fishes.. The class of qu:ulrumans includes
the ape ancl baboon. The frog an tl toad beloug to the order
of batrachia. The stutly of Euglish buguage is makiug claily
advancement.

96

~ 182. ORAL EXERCISES. Menti~n tlie Acl,jectives in
tl,efollowing phrases, and name thern as Numerals, Demonstratives, or Attributives. Distinguish, also, Definitives from Epithets, and Modifying Ad,jectives from
Predicate-ad,jectives : Three royal messengers. That lofty eminence. Six lrnndrcd years. The eighty-fifth year of the ~ovcrnmc11t. An
unimportant abstract. A former message. The latter date.
That excellent man. Either circumstance. Any portion.
The eight-hundredth year of the Christian era. Playful wit.
Three centmies. Barbarous tribes. The voiced expression.
'fhcre was a peculiar, a more than human solemnity. His
voice trembled on every syllable. On the fifth day of the
moon. The arm-chair of dozing age. . Stern-eyed justice.
The spirit deathless in its very nature.\ A single human
being. Great was the love which poor silly I had for this
little kitten.
·
"0 glorious malice, dearer than th e prize!
Frail hour which one frail mii;ute could destroy! "

The giddy multitude are not always juclicious in their approbation.

Correct the faults in the following expressions : An highway was there. An heart of evil. A open door.
A hussar. l\fany an one. An humorist. An humule roof.
A honorable man. A heir-loom. An wiseacre. A IliuerDian. A hiatus. A heroic act. A hcrbarium. An heroine. An hierarchy. An Hebrew.

~ 183. \V RlTTE~ EXERCISES. j_lfoclif!J the following
words by D efinitives of each class : -

Acorn, horse, cloud, tree,' animal, shrubs, feet, chance, virtue, cleri:i on, doubt, hypothesis, yellowness, hygrometer, their,
halluciur.,ion, wihlerness, youth, antipathy, yawl, hour-glass,
horizon.

1lfodify tlie above, and a,lso the following, by Epithets: Humility, gratitude, obeisance, animosity, hosanna, magnanimity, sentence, rebukes, wreaths, thrift, st.upillity, re<:!ital,
membrrinc, truth, ambiguity, revelry, testimony.
• The dcfinilirn shoulu be prefixeu to e~ch distinct class to prP.vent am•
blgllity.
7

98

:MODIFYING ELElIENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

§ 184. In order to a still more precise expression of the
thought, it often becomes necessary to limit the modifier itself. Thus the adjective comes to be modified; and this in
two ways : 1. Absolutely, or without express reference to other objects
or other attributes; as, "The willingly obedient;" "Entirely
empty; " "Exceedingly rich." This kind of modification is
by adverbials. See § 228.
2. Relatively either in degree or in quantity, as compared
with other objects or attributes ; as, "A metal richer than
gold;" ,. The longest life of all." This relative modification
of the ~djective is called, in Grammar, Oompari'son. It is
effected by Inflection.
In Comparison, the object modified by the adjective is
rompared with other objects in two ways : l. Courdinately, that is, as an indi vidual or class with
·•her individual or individuals, or another class or classes
. • the same rauk or order ; as, "John is taller than James;"
:"ohn is taller than his brothers ; " "The vultures are larger
·,;an the falcons."
2. Subordinately, that is, as one of the class with the
whole class itself; as, " John is the tallest of the brothers;"
"The vulture is the tamest of the birds of prey."
These two modes of comparison furnish the ground for the
two ways of modifying the adjective relatively, called the
Two Forms of Comparison - the Comparative and the Su,'~rlative. The adjective when unmodified relatively is said,
in order to distinguish it from the modified forms, to be of the
Positire Form.

MODIFICATIONS OF AN OBJECT OF THOl Q

'[T.

§ 185. Comparison may be between differe ~t attributes o~
het ween different modifications of the s_ame attnb~te. a;Ji:'~~;i:
d.ffi
t objects . as Afore nice than wise'
[/
~etweedn
t1,
ere~
.
d
eeds
.
;,
H
er
larrre
charity
not
freer
is t.
in wor s t1an in
,
o
give than meek to bear."
h Ye nn inst ance in which the com
In the following from Shake>p.eare wed ad.ff . t attributes at the sam
parison is between different objects an
' e1en
" Oh

time: -

~be is

Ten times more gentle than her father's crabbed.''

~ 186. When the modification of the Adjecti~e is rel
· sa1·cl t o be by Comparison.
.
. is
ative the mocl1ficat10n
.
··{'
'
· the r elative mouncaGRA:llillIATICAL
Co111P ARISON is
tion of the Adjective.
. respect
·
§ 187 Comparison, m
of ob'~e cts ' is either with a
·
1 class . . There are f t1relms
part of the class or with t1ie w 1l~ e .
three forms of the adjective distmgmshed m respect o
ative modiiication : v
1. The relatively unmodified, called the Positive .L·orm .
as tall, bright;
0
'2. The modified relatively to a part, called the ompara

tive F orm; as, taller, bri'gltter;
11 d th Supe1
3. The modified relatively to the whole, ca e
e
lative Form; as, tallest, brightest.
emark etl that comparison mny be e:x
OnsEnVATIO:<. - I t should be r
as well as betw een rurts ol
pressed between parts of masses or groups,

~
1 tatement this doctrine of Grammat
classes.
For the purpose of a more orma s .
• .
ical Comparison is repeated in the followm:; section.

OnsEn\' ATIO:<. -The forms of comparison ha,·e been someti mes called
de.'J >'ees; and definitions han been gil·en which make the supe rlative form

to diff3r fro111 the compara ti,·e in denoting a h igher degree. This is nltoget~ 3r incorrect. In the se ntences " Moses was mee ker than all other men,"
and ••~loses was the meekest of men," we discoYer no such difference of
degree. There arc two fundamental relations of th ou6 ht , that of Whole to
Part., and thnt of Part to P1m. The two forms of rclath·e modification, thal
is, the two forms in comparison, nre determined by this twofold relationship;
the one being that of subrdiuatiun, the other that of coordination.

§ 188 The Adjective may be of either of three. forms:
the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative ; as,
tall, taller, tallest.
. I .
h' h the Adjective
The Pos1nvE FoRM is t iat 111 w ic
is not relati\·ely modifiea.
.
.
· h 1 Ad'cc·
The CoMPARATIVE FoRM is that 111 wlnc tie
U

100

llfODIFrIXG ELEMEXTS jF THE SEXTEXCE.

tin is relative ly modified in the r elation of its olJect to
some ot her part or parts.
The SuPERLATIYE Fmrn is th at in wl1ich the Adjecti\·e is relatin:ly modified in the relation of its object
to the whol e of which it is a part.
Ons Er. \-.\ TIO:-> .

-

Dricfc r ll1.' fi nitio11 s nm.,· lie g-inm of these forms of com

pnri~o n wl~ c li, with s uJliticnt preci.:lion, lli.:;tiugubh tlicm from 011c :111other;

OF TJIJlGIIT.
l\IODIFICA TIO NS OF 1\ "" ODJJ'CT
·
Positfre .

Compnralit"e.

F ortl.l , at\\·.,)
Iliutl,

F11rtli cr,

1

Jn,
Lat e,

Low,
Near and nigh,

lhu s -

•.
'1

Thc Pos nrn:
moditi .,<J.

For~ ~r

of the Atljecti1·e is it s fo rm when rcb li.- ely un-

The Cc1~rP.\l :.1T rY E Form of the Adj ecli1·c is it s form when m odified relati1·e ly to oth er part s.

Out,

10J

S lf prrla tiee.

f11rtl1e <t.

·~

Jlinder,

11 inc\ 11 111 ~ t, li imlerrr.::et.

llithcr,
] 1111er,
Later, htt er,
].owcr,
1\ t•a rcr,
J\ei licr,
Ol d er, el11cr 1
Out er: alter,

]li1h cn1104 .
] 11 111u:-;t, inn erm ost.

1~ I
·. I ,

Late<! , la.<t.
J, 0 ,,·t:< t 1 \11,,·c nnost.
l\ ( ·ar l' ~t. next.

l•

1\ e l l1t·r1110 :-> t.

(lliler, <: ld e.<t.
Out cr mo . . 11 ultcnno:;t, ut,

1-1~

,,:'
I

I I

T!: c St:r'ET<LATI\'E fmnr of the Acljccti1·e is its form when modified r elatin ly lo the whole ot' whicl1 its object is a part.

§ lS!l. From the llature of g rammatical comparison, the
following general rules are at once <lcriYc<l: 1. J'lt e Comparatil'e sliv11ld
used 0111;; u11cn its object as

ue

one part is compared 1cill1 a11ol/1cr part or zcitlt oilier parts.
2. Tlte S11pcr1atfre sliou/d be used on1!J 1clien 1"ts ol!Jecl as a
part is compared 1citlt tl1e 1cl1ole.
r

,1.

§ HlO. The Compara tive Form ndds i · or er to th e
P ositin·, 01· prefixes tl1c \Y ords more or less ; as, Posi·
ti vc, wise, Cornparati ve, wiser, more wise, less wise.
§ 1 01. The Superlative Form adds st or est to the
Positi\·e, or p1:efixes most or least; as, Positi\·e, wise,
Su pcrl::tti\·c, wisfst, most wise, least wi.<w.

I

OnsEI~Y,\ Ti nx

1. - ff t he po.i.: ifi\'e form end in ?J, l11is lt~ !f er i~ changed
and l'St; n~, '"'J'JJ_1r h11pi1i1·r, hnppies!. See§ 77 . li :dP IV
0J:SEHL\TIU X 2. -Th ~ fo! L, ..... : n_:.;- :1d.) i"i"1i Y1 - ;,r\ ii
l ll tl1 1_·i r l\.\IL·

to i

Ucd~1rc

p:.tri;;o n:

(' I'

- ~-

P ositiet .
D ad, ill, c\·il,

Good,
Little,
Mu ch 0r many,
Aft,

Far,
Fore.

r·n,..'r'l"!""r'r'i ·r .
' " 111.,..:r_> ,

Ht: ttcr,

S1 1 , ,f,:11 ~; 1.·e .

'\\" Obt .

Bt· ~ t.

I .es~,

Lc:rn t.

M11rc,
Ai'rtT,

AnL·rm o:-".t.

l':irl hc r,

Fu rm er,

~l<i>t.

Fartl1 l• r, f.1rthern1ost.
Firs t, forc 11w ~ t.

:•

I

I·

l\IODIFICATIOXS OF A~ OD JECT

MOD I!<'\ !NG i LDtENTS OF TIIE SEXTEXCE.
except ii.1 rnre cnscs for empha sis ; a~·, maximum, minimum, supreme, r:r..
tr e111e, ult111wt11.
" ' l nb, m oreon~ r, thnt are s 11 pcrla ti,·e i1 th ei r ow n meaning-, should not,
genera lly, f l't:C i\·c Ili c sig- 11 s of co 111pari ~o. 1; such as cl1i e:. /,jiual; and a lso
numeral s m1J. ll emo11 : > trat i\· es.
1

,-

§ 102. 0

Distinguish tlte several
f orms rf compariwn in thP- A djwtiues -in ?u: fo llowing
IL \ r. ExEll CI SES .

1

St

Ji /

I

or

Tl l t)CGl lT .

10 3

The y ounges t was th e comelyest; th e li ttlest \\':I S the amiablest. His more ulterior objec t \\'as to reach ,\ t lw11<:. The
di spute was a more minor affair tli::rn tlic ul o1rs he iulli ct-Od.
It was the extremest coltl of the seaso n.

~
I

1,,.

I1

,...

...
I ~

/ / -~ · ·

,JoL!i \Lt.:; La il : La11er d1an P id,~r (if his brothPrs : !.hf': t!lllLru tir , Hl the tO\Yn.
...(\. 1e6:::i uL iecLiu 11aLle, if inure
diffi culL co urse, \\'Ou]Ll lmrn been to rem~ve the hiudr:rnr.r..
..Lin ~!Jl cr or a l1 ;..LJig:ri t r t..:u 1uLat a11L eo u1<1 11n t. P~ !-3- iiy b0 1i)und.
1~111.:. li i '.; 1_ ;·~-,.. ~. H~ ,Vt.;! :t'."i 1!:{· r{'mn rr::-.:r.. hr~nr'!J,-.:::; 1sc·rr-, !1 !, ·d

. i

~·~i- 1J1a11, itr

\ \ ] i; , · f 1

I

11

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:'> I u : :1i :1'1 •
1!,,

i

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(Jl[-' • ) '

r·.·,c;:il
Lt ! l 1

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11

i (,_. . -.;

j ] I IJ'

! 1 [, ,,.,

!I I /1 ,. f .

•/I';,/ f/

: q1 ~~1·1 )\ .('i[

lH'

1 1i l'-('i!l'1'

l11J'il J1· 11 1(·1!

1!1( ·

\\ \_' j'I

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J 1l' l / 1

I

1: i ]]('; ! i 11.
'J'l11 • : lfl\ !:1 11)(' , f
! i( I ] I ~ 1 '1 " i '. .
,J. T L._ L11tl1uc.:2 l d i2UllCc;. Tlw 1" u ' ""r '!'"'-: ;;;,.,.
t· 1 l i ti 1iJ1:--.
' l .lw 111\\'1'1'1' <! :--11«1 1· 1 _ '!'] 1, . ! ' 1 1 1 · 1~:1
,, !.
'J I
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F\ I : i " ·

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to

lii 1 l ..:.t

I '' :1 1· Li .,;]<

l! '

c:t!T l1'

1·11. 1 '1.\-111~·11L \\ : i-;

·:..._t

1:, : \

i l 11 I !:

'1 :

11 1;-;i

l•l l

"

I I"

11 : :1:1.

l 1! I! I

1\I:1r.~ r:t \·t·.-<

! ]I t '

\\';1 ·..;

11 !i, l: \ (

1]

11 !1'
I Jrl , - I

] ] ] I >J'I'
f I

j' 1 I

, J 'l) 1i1 lj'

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f \! )-

(if' \ llf'
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tI - ~ I

I ft· i _..; i-1·1·11:__;,-11i1:tLli~ :l s nn1· (ii· tl:t· !'1'1l l:t l'k: tlJl .,t
<A' 111 :11 ii,i11•1. ff,. \\'T--.: 1 ~ lf' l1 1' '.l1 1ri1'1il1 ·.<L !11 11 1(•!'1il i
ri! ' !!tt!c
ri rnnHl 1 fil'~ .
'l'!!~ ; ~·~~ t c~ t !~~a :~i1r.nr;1 Gf t c n-:p0rrtt u r v \\ii~
nit1 1-== i_v-~c\ Cll <H' ::::re es . ' i"i lf!Y Wf' f'(i th ·-· r~n'.1~1t0.::t .~-·-· nf=· r·:d~ of

any others i11 tlte :trmy.

1

Th e fairest of her dau ght ers, Eve.

;;- ;r

,.
,I

105

MODIFICATIOXS OF Tm: l'P.ED! CATE.

ln lik e nrnnn cr th e refe rence to th e proper .; ubj ccl is iuuicalcu by the fo rms
of the vcrU k Lh c fol lowing \·c rses : "Some pious t..l rops the closin g CJC rcrLui rcs."
11 H igh s tati ons tun1ult, but not Uli s:-: , create.~ '

CIIAPTER III.

"'

iOODIFI CiTIOXS 01' TIIE l'HEDICATE. -

I'.ELATIYE ~IODif'I•

cxrwxs.
§ : Q:J. '~l!E'. tE rll'C tJircc di~tin ct r r,asons for ITIOl]i fy i1 JO' the
prccl '.catc 111 d1 sc;i 11r;;e : (1.) To sltow to wlt at s uhlcct" tlio
prcl11calc r cfo rs ; (:!.) To cu1liolly i11 it or colll binc wi.tlt it tli e
copula . for wliieh c!l' llie 11t h1wn·wc
w•1i e:1 ...t II y {'a1·1 s to
·. supp Iy
• ..., ·,,,, ,.,c
a ~pcc 1 :1 l forll!; :111d, (:J.) To li1ni t tl1 e 11u~:u 1 i 1 1![ of 11 ·o rd ~
\\'l 1e 11 th ose f)rcc: i' ·cl)· l'-:
· .. ··
I
I
]
.. ·
.
· · fi! C,S lll![ l ie t IUIW 1t :il'C 11··t11t111.r
Tl
·
~
"'
.
.
::o ·
•
JC prcd1 cale 111a.1·, ac:co rdi11g ly, lie 111 odil icd c itli e r rclat11·c;.r t<~ tlt e o_tJ 1cr clt'lll e11ts of t!1c se 11tc nce, 01· in it self.
h c la 111·e ly, it 111:1y lie rn oililicll eitlicr ia r espPf' t. to tli P rnhj cct or iii r c.;1,\.;cL Lu U iu copula.

9 l!:J-!.

T l1c modifi ca tions of tltc I'rcd icatc arc three-

fold:-

1. R e lative ly to th e s nhj cct;
2. Rl'btin· lv
. . to tli c cn1111l"u ,·
3. In i tself.
§ 1!J;). Hc!:tti 1·ely to
,,. cate m ay Le
. tl1 c, s11 I >J·ee t , tl 1c prc111
m ocl illc:d e ith er as to its form or :1 s to its si!.!":iilica n.-:t ·.
'1 hc n1 od ii ica tions in respec t of Jf-'nn g i ,.c t !ic di stin ctions
of 1111111.{m.· and JIPrsrm , a111l arc for tl! e j)lll'jlO.c,c 0f' s J10\V!llg
•
more d: stlll ct.ly th e 1efe rcnce to the sulijcct.
Th us in the se nt ence, 11

2\lonl'y and man

:l

m ntu:\l fal schoo LI $/iow ,·' -

lhe ~ form o f tli c Yrrh, ~!tr111,• inqe:H I of sll()w$ , ind il'af cs t h:tt it
aubJccts 11w nry a11tl mnni uot to Ili c won t im1111..·diatcly prcccdi11 g

refer~ to the
it,ji1/jthl)()<}.

Ons.EHYA T ro~. -Th e n: rcre11t c of th e p rc:llit-;1tc to its own suUjert is in ..
G. k atcd ir1 Jang- Ha ge. to a g reater or l e~:- c xtc 11 t 1 by !' )ll'l:ia l f{,rm~. 111 t h ose
i<lll ! ~ trn gL·s wh ic h arc lc1rgt' ly i11tl i.:t·f ecl, t h is rcl\!n ·nl:e i ...; illtiica tl.!d by l' lia11gcs
in th e p n:d it:a te in rt• ..:.: p<'l't ( L) To tile J H·r~o n or tli c ;-;11 l1jctl in th e thrco
grand dis tine tion s o f .~f'<'H !.·;n,r1i ::p1il;tn tu, a1 id .";mken '!!'; (2.) To th e :-:ex c f
til e s ulijn· t ; :.11ul , ( :3.) To th e 11111111.J cr tl e1wl1:d in th e ~ 1il1j e d a s on e o r m ore.
The E ng li;-; h la11 gu ri.;c n:1ai n:"j Uut a part uf tla:s c 11 wd i1it:a tin11 s i11 th e fona
of th e pn.:di c.1tc. I t r vjeds c11tin.:ly tli u::>c of sex . 1t retains Uut few of the
otl1 cr;-;.
T o i11 !li ca tc the rc f'c rcn cc of til e pn·di c:ll c lo it s s11l1_j('cf, tlH' E ng !i :"- h Ian. .
g11n~c c li :1 11~cs th e Co ri n ~ ,,r th e pn.:d i1·al c in n· . . pr· d lo tl 11.· p P r ~1111 11f lhe
euhjl:cl, hu t 01ily. iii tlic . ~ i u~n l ; 1r 1111111l 1t:r. T o i11di cat c its rcfe rL'IH:C. to a
tmi 1jed i11 tli c Jir:-;l pe r!"iu!I , li 1nL i ~. lo tlii.: 11 c r ~u 11 ~ 11 t.:a ki1 1ry , il U::t.:.:i tl11..: lo...:rniinatio11 m, ln1t pnly in 01w \\" cJnl, am i :i:-:, ·• I ;1111."
Fur tl 1e ~ cc o11 d p c i.-.. 1111 il c 111p lu.\ :; iln~ ll:itli i i i.li iull ,;/ 1 ,.];; 1..l 1 i.; ;1. 1.1...: ...l to
th e gene ral t e ll !'C fon n, as, tluiu lm:e-st; th ou l11re1/-.r:.l. I r IH:c e:-::-: <.1 ry l'or euphony, Ili c <.:olllH'<· ti11~ nl\n:I is inse r t ed ; a s, tlwu.f;11;.1,~ l ; and t he gc 11 erJ. l
·n:J cs of' cup !w ny in t!:e fonnation of' 'nin!:-: l! :u·c h L' ?'C fttl ! npp !! ;· atiu!L Int.
Ex., Chap. ix. T his co1111ccti11g vowel i:; so m e ti:n ~::-, n.:plttccd by an npostrnph"; ;1.:;; , /};;; :;. /,:;;",::·sf .
Th e lh·c foll o wing auxiliary YcrUs a rc sl ig htly irregu lar : ar/ 1 wa st , u:e rt,

.I
'I
It
' I

f

shnll, 1l'i/I.
Fur th<;..• thin\ p c r~o n th e F.1 1.~l!:••li lnngn:igc employs th e tcrm i11n tion s, or
in anC'ient and i11 ~o lcmn ::: t,·lc, th; :1~. he lvn-:; ; t,;od lun:t!t . " 'h e n th is
ntldctl . til e co1111 ccli11g yow~ ! e is i11 :-:;c rteli if cupliuuy r equ ires; a s., bids,
bicldc:ih ; 1·uUs, ruUln ll1.

I·I

§ l~Jt.i. To mark the reference of th e prcllic:ttc to i ts subj ect through th e 11umber of o hj cd~ d e110Lt:Ll liy tl1e sul>j cct
ns one or mo re, th e E11glish la11gu:1ge mak es no change in
th e ph1 r:1l from th e p1·opcr t P 11 s 1~ -fn rm s; as. ice lorn: they
loi-cd. Hut t he a uu 1·c 11:111wd di stin ctions ot p c rs~m being
('On fi11r1l tn the singu l:11-, so J:1r se n<' to diqi11g11i sl1 tli 0 nnni\n;r of tlHe Slll >jecl. Tl111:; th e s i11 "ll c: luccs" imli c:tt cs botl.J
th e thin! person alll1 the singular irn mbcr.

JI

,i
;

~ HJI. ORA L E:rnncrsE:o. Name tlte P erso n and
N i1111bi:r of each i·erb in the fl)l/owi11g sentences : -

Ile is ki11t1.

I am glad.

They arc studious. J ohn loves

.

J

..-..

- ~;---;---·-----

(

106

MODIFYING ELEllENTS OF TUE SENTENCE.

biii books. They assist their companions. He lives in state.
Seest thou a man wise in his own eyes ? Iron sharpeneth
iron. Faithful arc the wounds of a friend. Slothfulness
casteth into a deep sleep. When thou goest, it shall keep
thee. He was absent when the clock struck. You were
tardy.

Form tlte Second Person Singular and tlte Third
Pfrson Singular, of the following verbs, applying in
each case tlte rule of euplzony (§ 77) : Fib, throb, sheet plod, bestud, pin. Rule III.
Fly, fancy, eddy, r emedy, bandy, edify. Rule IV.
Frolic, mimic. Rule VIII.
Nib, begin, glory, levy, ninnie, parody, grub, shun, club
physic, study, qualify, testify, shy, weary, occupy, hurry, pity:

Correct the errors in the following sentences : He dare not disobey. ' Vhen was you there? The number of inhabitants do not exceed forty thousand. He is as
strong as I is. The goods was sold at a high price. Thou, .
who art the Author of life, can restore it also ; thou doth thy
own pleasure,- and ever ordereth wisely. 'Vas you certain
of the fact ? They was going along . the street, when the
bricks was falling.

§ 198. W RIITEN EXERCISES. Oonsttuct five sentences with verbs in the S econd Person Singular,·
Five witlt verbs in tli.e Third Person Singular;
Five with verbs in tlte Third Person Plural.
Construct sentences with tlze following verbs in the Second P erson Singular, and also in the Tltird Person
Singular : Am, was, shall, will, care, move, rest, call, bed, threaten,
plot, cast, inherit, fan, dip, caress, fix, loved cll!'bcd Iauo-h
'
' drug,
0'
lend, help, think, accept, get, peril, level, ferret,
clog,

lllGDIF ICA T!ONS OF fIIE PREDIC.\TE.

l07

dread, linger, wrap, throb, slip, mar, purr, envelop, forfeit,
intermit, play, cloy, apply, deny, obey, cry, harass, forego.
§ HJ!). Hclatively to the subject, the pred icate is modified
as to its significance in two ways: (1.) Concretely, when it
reEpects the subject as to kind, or by a noun; as, " She walks
4 queen;" (2.) Abstractly, when it respects the subject as to
a:tribute, or by an adjective; as, " She walks calm aud majestic."
On sE BYATIOX. In the examples given, it is plain tha t the n10tlifying
words a 'Jlletn, and calm n111l "''!iestic, do not modi(r th e nrb u·oll.:s in the
same way a~ 9rac<furlJ1 m o<liti cs it in the expression " S he waJkg y rncefully." There is n mani fest reference to the sullj rct in the former cases,
whil e there is none in .th e la,;t. We find the t wo kincls of mo1lilications
eometimes in the sa me .sentence; as," Such a on e beats ubout him, UlceJing, hungry, nml COll\"tds iY ely." Bleedin,r; nntl hun.'Jl'!J modifj lhc predicate here in respect lo the sullject; conru/sfrely docs not respect the s ubject
at all.
llnt these modifiers do not b elong to the subject; thry pertain ex dusi,·cly
to the predicate element. The meaning is not at all, "S uch a bleeding,
hungry one beats nUout him conYtdsi\·cly." And any unaly ~ is that disposes of them as modifyin g the subj ec t, or separat es the m from the predicate clcmenfa, mi s!'-es th e true sihu ificance of the e xpress ion. Th ey are
modifiers of the predicate, but of the predicate not in it self, but rclati,·ely
to the subject. E,·ery one must see that in th e senten ces " \Ye came in
unexpcc teJ.,1 1 and u \Ye came in un ex pected ly," the modifying word in
one cn<e refers to the subject; in the other, does not refer to it.
Further, these m od ifi cat ions of the predicate rela ti,·ely to tlte subject
which abouml in language, are necessarily of one of the two cla"es dete rmined by the respecth·e natu re of a subject and a predicate, th e one
being concrete, or that of "kind," and denoted by a noun; the other abstmct, or that of" attribute," and d enoteLl by an adjecth·e.
The expressions "Dido, the queen, walks," "Dido walks a quern,'
"Dido walks queenlik e,' 1 0 Dido walk s maje~ ti ca lly ," g i,·c di ~ tin p; tii ~!iae fe
1hades of meaning. The first presrn ts the s ubj ect as llHHlified - limited to
h e queen, of whom the action is th en asserted . Th e second is n ea dy
~q1 :iYnlcnt to" Dido is a <p1ecn wa lking ;" the word queen being empl oyed
10! to limit th e subject, but to express a concrete predica te of the subject.
·r. tho thin!, queenlike be in g here reg•mled as an a djecti-..e, the predicat e is
IOL a concrete, but an attribute, and the thought is turned upon the person
'u. so fur as 'JU eenl!J, not 11po11 the action, 1calki11_r7. In th e last, the action
~self, 1cnll.:i11!1, is mo<lifictl, bein~ characterized as mffjestic walkiu.fJ.
Thrsc "'"'' be d eemed to be nice distinction~; but they are 1li>tinctions
fhicb. MS * e n·cd or not, mark the difference between accurate and ele-

108

MODIFYIXG ELEMENTS OF fl-IE SENTENCE.

gnnt expression. ~n the one hand, anil inacct ~catc and inelegrnt expression
on the ~thcr.. I hey mil tli>posc of some questions ·that h:n·e pro,·okcd
much d1:sl·11ss 1on; as whether it is correct. to say '· The sin· luokcll dark . "
"Ile st?Ol~ m~ui;i119;" "The grass smell!'.fn·.,:/t and sn·<~el,'' mul how :he
~·ords. 11~ _1tuhcs ~ho1'.l<l be pnrscd. These words certain ly nrc not u<ljec~1ns l11111t111g th~ sulJJrcts; nor arc they nch·crlis. They limit the predicate
m ~~c~1 case, !Jut carry n reference to the suujctt. Stridly ,peaking, they
patt ..•~e of. the n ature of concrete pre1l1 ca k~, which as co ut rctc 8 1113 ,. bo
moddicd :uhC'r Uy dcfi11itiyc~ or C'pithets, that i::c, either concrt:tch r 0 ~ af.>...
strnctly; Ill other wunls still, iu the manner of suliject-wunls or ~f prc<lt•
cnte-wor<ls. § 1IO.

CHAPTER IV.
M.OD1FIC.A.TIONS OF THE PREDICATE IN ITSELF. -INFLEC•
TIONS OF THE VERB.

§ 200. Hcloth-cly to the copula, the predicate cannot bo

modiflc<~ i~ signif~cance,_ but only in form, and in this way
only as it is. combmed with the copu!:i. These modifications
ha\·e been al re:idy considered (Part II., Chap'.ers iii. and iv
§§ 147-:-167.)

.,

§ 201. THE Predicate may be modified in itself either as
a whole or in its parts.
Thus in the sentence "Tenerilfe was formerly an active
volcano,'' the predicate as a whole is modified by the tense
distinction in ~he imper(ect was, and also by the adverb formerly; it is modified in its parts by the adjective active
modifying the part volcano.

§ 202. The predicate as a whole is modified in language
in two ways : 1. By changes in the word itself, that is by Inflection; as,
I love, I loved, I was loved ;
2. By the use of other words, that is, by advermab
(§ 228).

\I

§ 203. There are only two modifications of the predicate
in itself expressed in the English language by appropriate
inflections or changes in the form of the verb. Thfoy are, 1. The modifications of the direction of.. an action or rela. tion as to or from the subject, called the modifications of
Voice;
2. Those of the time of the. predicate, called the modifications of Tense.
§ 204. Verbs, in the earlier stages of language, combined
, the copula with the predicate, which originally expressed the
attribute of action. Now action may be viewed from either
of two points, - either from its beginning or from its end;
either frpm, its squr,ce, qr frolll; its object. All action, thus,

110

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

may be regarded as proceeding from the object spoken of or
to it. It, of course, becomes desirable to distinguish easily
these two relations of the attribute of action to the object
spoken of. Language meets this waut by furnishing different forms in the verb. Thus in Latin, the form amat, he
loves, expresses the action as proceeding from the object ;
while the form, amatur, he is loved, expresses the action as
passmg to the object spoken of. This distinction is that
technically called Voice.
It will be remarked that voice does not respect the copula
at all. It has no relation to tile judgmen t expressed in the
sentence. It is confined to the predicate of the ~entence;
and indicates which of the two possible directions of action
from or to the object spoken of, is meant. This distinction
is possible, of course, only in the case of verbs expressing
the attributes of action or relation. In other words, only active verbs, so called, which include the two classes of verbs,
these predicating action and these predicating relation, admit
of the distinctions of voice.

§ 205. VowE is the form of Verb-Inflection to ex-

press th~ direc tion of the action or relation predicated
in the sentence as from or to the object spoken of. Or
more briefly- V 01cE expresses the direction of the
action or relation as to or from the subject.

§ 206. There' are two Voices, the Active and the

Passive.

The ACTIVE VoICE expresses the action of the predicate as proceeding from the subject; as, I strike tlie

ground.

The P ASSIYE VoICE expresses the action of the predicate as directed to or upon the subject; as, The ground

ia struck.

, § 207. The PASSIVE VOICE is formed from the Act-

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE IN ITSELF.

111

ive by prefixing the passive auxiliary, to be, to the
past participle of the verb, as to be loved, I am loved,

I was loved.

§ 208. TEKilE is the form of Verb-Inflection to express thr: time of the predicate ; as present, past, cir
future.
~ ,·s an altered form of the Latin wo1d
Ons1mvATJON. - Tl 1e word te''°e
time.
·u t
. Tue distinction between the tense modifications nnd those of 11100<1• wi
cnce lie recognized. Tense respects t.he predicate; muod, tlic copulJ. of s

k.m 11 u8 1 whicl sig11ifics

iJ:

judgment.
.
.
. .
t
t and futm·e.
The first a nd obvious dislind:un of tnne 1s u1to presen '. J~as , . . , .
W ·• mav howenr still further di\"ide these primary d1\'ls10n~. /he t;me
f • pa;t 'or of a fu,ture c1·cnt may ue regarded not only as snnp y _pas or
n
ofutur~,
that is, irrelatil"cly to any othc1 ?'·e11t; 1JU t a I·>0 re lati vcly e1tlier to
the time of speaki ng or to the time of some other event.
.
·
Still furtlier an event
may be rei;ar d e d e1"tiier ·.-" nply as havmg transd"
'
. as in
. proo"r ess · We may found tense- 1spired or as tran~p
irin g, that 1s,
n
tincti~ns on this view of time, either as measured off into stages or as ro -

tin,~ol~i~e we may multiply indefinitely subdivisions of tliese

general divis ion• we yet can have no other distinctions of time or tense_ thai,'. '.l10sebdo:
·
.
the''two kinds
mentioned; tune
as presen t ' pas t ' or fut 11 re. ' with tue1r su 1visions res ectivelv and time as measured off or as contrnuous.
.·
The
'of time for wuicli tlie Englisli language has pro1 ided

di>~nction;

spec ial forms, are: h " h do not-the
1 Those marking continuousness of time, and t 1iose. w IC
con;inuow;; as, I mn w1·itin.q; and the simple; as, I write.
2. Those into the .
I wrote i
• •
(2) Past with three sub-diYisions: (a. ) The m e1~live, a(s,) Th rel
'
.
1-· . as ' I have
e
•
(b . ) ·The relative
to the time
of spea'1ng,
. wntten; c.
.
ti
t . as J had 10rttten.
ative to the tune of some o ier even '
'
. . (b) Th relatfre; I
(3.) Future: (a} The irrelative; as, I shall umte,
.
c
ihall have written.
. .
..
._
We have thus the following distmchons and defimllons.
(1.) Present; as, l 10rite.

§ 209. TEKSE is either simple or continurn:s·
SrMPLF. TEKSE expresses the predicate without re·
llpect to continuousness; as, I wrote.
CONTI:!!' ucus TENSE expresses the predicate m the

,-,"'. ··

112

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF TH'·•'
.,.' SENTENCE..

Mpect of continuousness
·
. .
' or as m progress; as, I wai,

wn.ting.

§ 210. TENSE, whether simple or contmuous,
.
is
P. resent, Past, or .Future.
h The PRES.ENT TENSE presents the predicate as of
t e presen,t time; as, I write; I am writing.
PAST 1 ENSE has three distinctions, - the Im er
f8:Jt, the P erfect, and the Pluperfect.
'P •
. Tll1e IMPERFECT TENSE expresses the predicate as
sunp y past; as, I wrote; I was writipg.
The PERFECT TE
·
:\'SE expresses the predicate as
.
past, and ~1th a reference to the time of s eakin .
I liave written; I have been writing.
p
g' as,
The PLUPERFECT TENSE expresses the predicate
as past,. and with a reference to some past ti
.
1
had written; I had been writing.
me ' as,
. FUTURE TENSE has two distinctions called

ive~ the .Future, and tlte .Future Perfe~t.

' respect·

.
e FUTURE TENSE expresses the predicate as
Slillply future ; as, I shall write . I shall be
't .
The F
p
'
wri ing.
•
UTURE ERFECT TENSE expresses the predi.
c.ate as future, .but with a reference to some future
~ime ; as, I shall have written; I shall h
b
..

zng.

·

.

ave een writ-

1

OBSERVATION. - I f further modifications of .
recourse must be had to adverbials.
.
time are to be expre88ed,

l § 211. Tl~e Simple Past tense, and also the Past Particip e, appear m two forms : (1.) In th R l Ji~
h t ·
.
e egu ar orm or
w a is sometimes called the rrre
k 1.,on7uqatwn
n
·
.
rr1a
. (2) ' I
the Iirregular Form or the "''
n ·. ·
.
'
·
n
'
.:Jirong von1ugati1m.
§ 212. The Regular Form, or the Weak Con·
t'
adds d, generally with the connecting vowel ,e to th~u~a I~n
form of the verb; as, hear, Imperfect heard · learn lee simple
,
, arne< ,

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE IN ITSELF.

113

end, ended. If euphony requires, when the connecting
vowel e is .omitted, as is the case after all merely breathed
or aspirated letters, the d becomes t ; as, sleep, slept.
Ons1mv ATION. - The tendency in the language, and especially in this
country, is to use the form ind or er!; and instead of such forms as leant,
lNl'llt, t"st, ble111, dreamt, lecrpt, 1·oast, dropt, to write leaned learned, tos.<ed,
blended, d1 ·emned, etc.
The form in I is general ly more ancient, and more energetic. It is ge'lerally to l e preferred wh en the participle is used as a si mple adjecti,·e, as .ll
C'ompound s; a,, tempest-lost. Jn the following words it is still preferred : dres/, dmelt, meant, slept, slit, smelt, spilt, split, sweat, swept, wept, wet, whet,
wont.
In the following both forms a re used: bendecl and bent ; be,.eaved and
be 1·~ft; blefSe.d and blest; burned and burnt; gilded and gilt; girded and
gi1·t ; l.:neeled and knelt ; passed and pa~t; p enned and pent; rapped and
rapt ; un·apped and wrnpt; 1'eaved and rift; spelled and spelt; spoiled and
1poi lt, worked and wrought.
The following fon~s are..found in late Briti sh writers of high reputation.
They would hardly be admitted by correct writers on this side the Atlantic: Establisht, cherisht, vanisht, polisht, pickt, ti·iumpht, m111·kt, checkt, outgalkpt, promist, possest.

§ 213. The Irregular, sometimes called the Strong Conjugation, changes the vowel of the simple form to make the Imperfect and the Passive Participle; as, drink, drank, drunk.
In this conjugation, the Passive Participle is frequently
formed by adding n or en; as, rise, rose, risen.
In many verbs the passim participle has two forms; one like the Imperfect and one in nor d; as, awoke, awaked; besought, beseech ed ; got, gotten;
beat, beaten; bid, bidden; bit, bitten; ch id, chidden; clejt, c/01:w; eat,
eaten; held, holden; rode, ridden; shrunk, shrunken; struck, st>'icken; trod,
trodden.
Duplicate forms occur also in d and n; as, graved, graven; hewed,
heu1n; mowed, mown; proved, p1·oven ; 1-ived, riven; sawed, sriwn; shaped,
alwpen; shaved, shaven; sheared, shorn; shined, shone; showed, shown;
1/ided, slidden ; sowed, sown; stro1oed, strown; weaved, woven.

§ 214. In the Inflection of Verbs, there are three forms
upon which other forms are built. They are called Tiu
Fundamental Forms, or The Principal Parts. These are, I. ·The Simple Present ; as, love, heCJ;r, write;
·2. The Simple Past, or Imperfect; as, wved. heard. wrou,
a

).

. "'

Jll ..

8. The Pu.st, or Passive Participle; as, loved, heard, written.
OnsF.r.VATION. -The two Inst forms are derived from the Simple Present, and in the greater numl>er of verbs the two are alike; as, Past, mooed;
Past Participle, moved.

§ 215. The Present Tense in the Indicative l\food appears in the simple form of the verb. It is varied to express person and number; as: -

First Person Singular,
Second "
"
Tltird "
"
Plural in the three Persons,

love ;
lovest ;
loves.
love.

§ 216. In the other Moods the auxiliaries are varied, but

somewhat irregularly, to express Person ; as, First Person Singular,
may, can, shall, will, must.
Second "
"
mayest, canst, shalt, wilt, must.
Third "
"
may, can, shall, will, must.
Plural Forms,
may, can, shall, will, must.
§ 217. The Imperfect Indicative is the Simple Past, varied to express person and number; as, Singul.ar, loved,
lovedst, loved' ; Plural, loved.
§ 218. In the other
are irregular.
First Person Singular,
&cond "
"
Third "
"
Plural Forms,

l\foods, tho forms of\ the auxiliaries
might, could, should, would.
mightest, couldst, shouldst, wouldst.
might, could, should, would.
might, could, should, would.

OBSERVATION. _:..These forms are more commonly employed to express
the contingent judgment wilhout reference to past time; as, "I might go, if
I 1could," is equivalent to the forms expressing present time; as," I am
able," or, " I am pcrmilted to go, if I wish.'' This is in accordance with
the general fact in languages, that the forms of the Indicative Past are
borrowed to express the contingent judgment; the detem1ination of time
being left to he gathered from the connection.

. § 219. The Perfect Tense in the Indicative Mood ii

115

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE IN ITSELF.

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. ·.

formed by the auxiliary, ltave, pre fi xe d to the Past Participle; as, I have.loved. d .
fi es the Potential auxiliaries
In the Potentrnl Uoo it pre x
I
have lo1:ed .
,
may an d can to the Indicative form; as, may
J can !tave loved.
Plu erfect Tense prefixes the forms of the Im§ 220. The
p
T
have to the Past Participle :
f, t Tense of the aux1 iary,
'
d •
per;~ d 'loved . I might ltave loved ; I must have loi:e .
as, ta
'
h T nse auxiliaries
§ 221 The Future Tense prefixes t e c
l
·u
6hall an~ will to the simple verb; as, I shall love; te wi
lc;ve.

§ 222 The Future P enrect T ense prefixes
- the

T

ense
. I auxl ll
iliaries ~hall and will to the forms of the Perfect ; as, s ta
have loved ; fte will !tave lovld.
§ 223. LIST OF I RREGU LA. R VERBS .

Abide,
Am or be,
Awake, r.
Bear,
Beat,
Begin,
Bend, r.
Bereave, r
Beseech,
Bet, r
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,

Abode,
'Vas,
Awoke,
Bore, bare,
Beat,
Began,
Bent,
Bereft,
Besought
Bet,
Bid, bade,
Bound,
Bit,
Bled,

r

.

. the li•t
with
Those words m
- which arc mnrked
.
OusERVAT • •
~
The italicized forms nre less in use.
have also the regular onns.
p ·t
Past.
P ast m •
Present.
IO>! -

&D

Abode.
Been.
A waked.
Borne.*
Beaten, beat.
Begun.
Bent.
Bereft.
Besought.
Bet.
Bidden, bid.
Bound
Bitten, bit.
Bled.

•
•
I'. th the nssiYe participle of !his verb is 00,.,.,
•In the sense to bri"!JJor • .. P
d the agent expressed orunderwhen not followed by the prepY!1tion 6y, an
atood.

!'1

:,1
I
~

·I

116

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

Pruent.

P<1$t.

Blow,
Blew,
Break,
Broke, brake,
Breed,
Bred,
Bring;
Brought,
Build, r.
Built,
Burn, r.
Burnt,
Burst,
Burst,
Buy,
Bought,
Cast,
Cast,
Catch, r.
·Caught,
Chide,
Chid,
Choose,
Chose,
Cleave (adhere), r. Ckzve,
Cleave (split),
Clove, cleft, clave,
Cling,
Clung,
Clothe, r.
Clad,
Come, he-, 01JerCame,
Cost,
Cost,
Creep,
Crept,
Crow, r.
Crew,
Cut,
Cut,
Dare• (venture), r. Durst,
Deal,
Dealt,
Dig,r.
Dug,
Do,
Did,
Draw,
Drew,
Dream, r.
Dreamt,
Drink,
Drank,
Drive,
Drove,
Dwell, r.
Dwelt,
Eat,
Ate, eat,
Fall,
Fell,
Feed,
Fed,
Feel,
Felt,

Paat Part.

Blown.
Broken, ln-ou
Bred.
Brought.
Built.
Burnt.
Burst.
Bought. ~
Cast.
Caught.
Chidden, ch.id.
Chosen.
Cleaved.
Cloven, cleft.
Clung.
Clad.
Come.
Cost.
Crept.
Crowed
Cut.
Dared.
Dealt.,
I
Dug. I
\
Done. \
Drawn.
Dreamt.
Drank, drunk.
Driven.
Dwelt.
Eaten, eat.
Fallen.
Fed.
Felt.

• Dare, to challenge, is regular.

MODIFICATIONS OF TJ:IE PREDICATE IN ITSELF.
l'rt.3ent.

Past.

Fought,
Fight,
Found,
Find,
Fled,
Flee,
Flung,
Fling,
Flew,
Fly,
Forsook,
Forsake,
Froze,
Freeze,
Freighted,
Freight, r.
Got,
Get,
Gilded, gilt,
Gild,
Girt,
Gird, r.
Gave,
Give,
Went,
Go,
.. Graved,
Grave, r.
Ground,
Grind,
Grew,
Grow,
Hung,
Hang,* r.
Had,
Have,
Heard,
Hear,
Hove,
Heave, r.
Hewed,
Hew,r.
Hid,
Hide, .
Hit,
Hit,
Held,
Hold,
Hurt,
Hurt,
Kept,
Keep,
Ifoelt,
Kneel, r.
Knit,
Knit, r.
Knew,
Know,
Laded,
Lade (load), r.
Lay (to place), i?f'- Laid,
Led,
Lead,
Leant,
Lean, r. _.
L eapt,
Lear, r.

111

~

Past Pai·t.

Fought.
Found.
Fled.
Flung,
Flown.
Forsaken.
Frozen.
Fraught.
Got, gotten.
Gilded, gilt.
Girt.
Given.
Gone.
Graven, graved.
Ground.
Grown.
Hung.
Had.
Heard.
Hoven.
Hewn.
Hidden, hid.
Hit.
Held, holtlen.
Hurt.
Kept.
Knelt.
Knit.
Known.
Laden.
Laid.
Led.
Leant.
Leapt.

• Hang, to take life, is regular.

I\[

118

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

Pre«nt.

Pait.

Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie• (recline),
Light, r.

Left,

Lent,

Let,
Lay,
Lit,
J...oi;e,
Lost,
Make,
Made,
Mean,
l\Ieant,
Meet,
l\Iet,
l\fow, r.
l\Iowed,
Pay,
Paid,
Pen• (enclose), r. Pent,
Prove, r.
Proved,
Put,
Put,
Quit, r.
Quit,
&ad,
&ad,
Rend,
Rent,
Rid,
Rid,
Ride,
Rode, n'd,
Ring,
Rang, rung,
Rise,
Rose,
Rive, r.
Rived,
Run,
Ran,
Saw, r.
Sawed,
Say,
Said,
See,
Saw,
Seek,
Sought,
Seethe, r.
Sod,
Sell,
Sold,
Send,
Sent,
Set,
Set,
Shake,
Shook,
Shape, r.
Shaped,
Shave, r.
Shaved,

'

J[()DIFICATIONS OF THE PB EDI CA TE IN ITSELF

Pall, Part.

l\Iade~

l\Ieant.
l\Ict.
Mown.
Paid.
Pent.
Proven.
Put.
Quit.
Read.
-Rent.
Rid.
Rode, ridden, rid.
Rung.
Risen.
Riven.
Run.
Sawn.
Said.
Seen.
Sought.
Sodden.
Sold.
Sent.
Set.
Shaken.
Sha pen.
Shaven.

• Lie, to deceh-e, and Pm, to write, are regular.

Past.

Pr~unt.

Left.
Lent.
Let.
Lain.
Lit.
J_,ost.

....:

Shear, r.
Shed,
Shine, r.
Shoe,
Shoot.
Show, r.
Shred,
Shrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide, r.
Sling,
Slink,
Slit, r.
Smell, r.
Smite,
Sow (scatter), r.
Speak, be~peed,

Spell, r.
Spend,
Spill, r.
Spin,
Spit,*
Split,
Spread,
'Spring,
Stand, -Stave, r.
Steal,

Sheared,
Shed,
Shone,
Shod,
Shot,
Showed,
Shred,
Shrunk, shrank,
Shut,
Sang, sung,
-· Sunk, sank,
Sat,
Slew,
Slept,
Slid,
Slung,
Slunk,
Slit,
Smelt,
Smote,
Sowed,
Spoke, spalce,
Sped,
Spelt,
Spent,
Spilt,
Spun, span,
Spit, spat,
Split,
Spread,
Sprang, sprung,
Stood,
Stove,
Stole,

119

Pad Part.

Shorn.
Shed.
Shone.
Shod.
Shot.
Shown.
Shred.
Shrunk, shrunlcen.
Shut.
Sung.
Sunk.
Sat.
~lain.

Slept.
Slidden, slid.
Slung.
Slunk.
Slit.
Smelt.
Smitten, smit.
Sown.
Spoken, spo'U.
Sped.
Spelt.
Spent.
Spilt.
Spun.
Spit, .pitten.
Split.
Spread.
Sprung.
Stood.
Stove.
Stolen.

• Spil, to pot on a spit, ia regular.

120

;MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTEN'CE.

Present.

Pa.st.

Stick,
Stuck,
Sting,
·Stung,
Stride,
Strode, strid,
Strike,
Struck,
String,
Strung,
Strive,
Strove,
Strow, r.
Strowed,
Swear,
Swore, sware,
Sweat,
Sweat, r.
Sweep,
Swept,
Swell, r.
Swelled,
Swim,
S wam, swum,
Swing,
Swung,
Take,
Took,
Teach,
Taught,
Tear,
Tore,
Tell,
Told,
Think, beThought,
Thrive, r.
Throve,
Throw,
Threw,
Thrust,
Thrust,
Tread,
Trod,
Wax (grow),
Waxed,
Wear,
Wore,
Weave, .
Wove,
Weep,
Wept,
Wet,
Wet, r.
ffiiet, r.
Whet,
Wi.n,
Won,
Wind,
Wound,
Work, r. ·
Wrought,
Wrinir,
Wrunir,
~
~
Write,
Wrote, writ,
§ 224. The Irregular Verb To BE is
fudica.tive l\Iood: -

MODIFWA'i'IONS OF THE PREDICATE ' IN ITSELF.

Pa&t Part.

8tuck.
Stung.
Stridden, strid.
Struck, stricken.
Strung.
Striven.
Strown.
S
~ worn.
Sweat.
Swept.
Swollen.
S wum.
Swung.
Taken.
Taught.
Torn.
Told.
Thought. ·
Thriven.
Thrown.
Thrust.
Trodden, trod.
Waxed, waxen.
W orn. '
1
Woven, wove.
Wept.
Wet.
Whetted.
Won.
Wound.
Wrought.
Wr
· ung.
Written, writ.
thus inflected in the
_·

121

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Past Participle, Been.

Past. Was.

Present, Am.

PRESENT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

1st Person,
2d Person,

Sd Person,

I am,
You are,
{ Thou art,
He is.

We are,
You are,
2. {
Ye are,
3. They are.

1.

IMPERFECT TENSE.

Plum!.

Singular.

W e were,
You were,
2. {
Ye were,
3. They were.
1.

I was,
You were,
2 {
· Thou wast,
3. Hewas.

l

PERFECT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

I have been,
You have been,
2 {
· Thou hast been,
3. He has been.

1.

W e have been,
You have been,
2 {
· Ye have been,
3. They have been.

1.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

Plural.

Singular.

I had been,
You had been,
2 {
· Thou hadst been,
3. He had been.

1.

W e had been,
You had been,
2 {
· Ye had been,
3. They had been.

1.

FUTURE TENSE.

Singular.

1. I shall be,
You will be,
2; {
Thou wilt be,
8. He will be.

Plural.

We ~h~ll be,
You will be,
2 {
· Ye will be,
3. They will be.

1.

~

122 ·

_.

·--- ~-·

~..J.v~

l\IODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE•. -

THE PREDICATE IN ITSELF.
MODIFICATIONS OF

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

],

I shall have been,
2. { You will have been,
. Thou wilt have been,
8
He will have been.

FUTURE TENSE.

Plural:

1.

We shall have been,
2. { You will have been,
Yc will have been,
3. They will have been.
§ 225. The Regular Verb To LovE is thus inflected in
&Le Indicative J\Iode, successive time~

Plural.

Sing11lar.

'Ve shall love,
you will love,
2. { y e will love,
3. They will love.

1.

l.

I shall love,
You will love,
2. { Thou wilt love,
3. He will love.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Plural.

Singular.

ACTIVE VOICE.
b~:C'.\TIVE

PRESENT TENSE.

I.

Plural.

I love,

].

I shall have loved,
You will have loved,
2. { Thou wilt have loved,
B. He will have loved.

1.

l\IODE.

Singular . .

w~

love,
2. {You love,
Thou lovest,
Ye love,
He loves.
3. They love.
DIPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

1.

Pl!tral.

I loved,

1.

2. {You loved,
Thou lovedst,
8. He loved.

We loved,
{You
loved,
2.
Ye loved,
3. They; loved.

PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.

I.

I have loved,
{You
have loved,
2.
Thou hast foved,
8. He has loved.

INDICATIVE MODE.

PRESENT TENSE.

1.

We have loved,
2. { You have loved,
Ye have loved,
3. They have loved.

I.

I h:id loved,
{
You
had loved,
2.
Thou hadst loved,
8. He had loved.

I am loved,
Yon are loved,
2 {
• Thou art loved,
3. He is loved.

IMPERFECT TENSE.
Plural.

Singular.

w e were loved,
you were loved,
2. { ye were loved,
3 . They were loved.
1.

I was loved,
You were loved,
2. { Thou wast loved,
3. He was loved.

1.

PERFECT TENSE.
Plural.

I.

W e are loved,
You are loved,
2. { ye are loved,
3. They are loved.

1.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Sin.qu/ar.

Plural.

Singular.

\

\
Plural.

We shall have loved,
1.
d
You will have love ,
2. { Ye will hav~ loved,
3. They will have loved

p ASSIVE VOICE.

2. {You love,
8.

123

·we had loved,
{
You
had loved,
2.
Ye had loved,
B. They had loved.

Singular.

I have been loved,
you have been loved,
2 {
• Thou hast been loved,
8. He has been loved.

1.

Plui·al.

We have been loved,
1.
d
You have been love ,
2· { Ye have been loved,
3. They have been loved

124

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE IN ITSELF.

PLUPERFECT TENSE.

had struck. John had swept the hall. He won the prize.
' The veterans led the attack. A bitterness which the heart
only knoweth; a joy with which a stranger intermeddleth not.
They will, certainly, when they see the consequences of what
they have done, be sorry, and will, also, when they have opportunity, ask forgiveness. The ship was much strained by
the storm, but it reached its port .finally without loss. By
the time this reaches you, thfl message will have been pub-·
Jished. They had not been better instructed The former
c0lonies have been recognized as independent states.

Singular.

Plural.

1.

I had been loved,
2. { You had been loved,
Thou hadst been loved,
3. He had been loved.

1.

We had been loved,
You
had been loved,
{
2
· Ye had been loved,
3. They had been loved.

FUTURE TENSE.
Singular.

I.

125

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

I shall be loved,
t. { You will be loved,
Thou wilt be loved,
I. He will be loved.

~

Plural.

1. We shall be loved,
2. { You will be loved,
Ye will be loved,
3. They will be loved.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.

I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved,
You will have been loved,
{You will have been loved,
2
::t. Thou wilt have been
·
Ye will have been loved,
{
loved,
3. They will have been
:S. He will have been loved,
loved.
l.

§ 226. O _RAL EXERCISES. Indicate the Tenses in
the following sentences, and also the Time. as continuous or successive : I am writing. He walked two miles before he breakfasted. They drank too freely of iced water.1 We had not
gone far before it began to rain. You will have seen him
before you receive my letter. They have all forgotten their
promise. He will not show himself to-day. He has built
his house. They durst not deny it. They abode there six
months. No one has begun. I besought him to go. The
wind blew a hurricane. He had brought his friend with
him. The storm will have caught him before he leaves the
forest. It crept slyly up. He had driven the cattle under
a shed. You will hit the mark if you aim well. She had
knelt before the altar. I knew my lesson, before the cloc1'

Correct the faults in the followin,g sentences : He has abided there a long time. They been here often.
I had awoke and .had arose from my bed before the bell rung.
They begun wrong. I beseeched him not to do it. They
blowed the trumpet long and . loud. The police brung him
to the station. She had catched a cold. Thompson was
chose corporal. They come home an hour ago. The cat
creeped up very softly. He done the job yesterday. He
drawed his dagger. They drunk no cider. I had drove the
sheep into the pasture. The boy had ate green apples, and
had fell sick. The bird has forsook its nest. The stream
was froze over. The horse had went home. The vine
growed astonishingly last year. I have hearn tell. The
vessel laid in the stream. He meaned well. I had no
sooner rose from my bed, than the water run in streams
over the floor. I had never saw such a sight before. The
earthquake had shook down every house. He had showed
all his wares. She has spoke but once. The man had stole
two watches and had swore he was not guilty. Five were
took prisoners. The soldiers had wore out their shoes and
the captain had wrote for a fresh supply. From the drawer
in which it had laid so long forgotten. I intended to have
writ soon. The assembly had took a recess. The river had
sank below ordinary low-water mark. The sale had fell off
gr•mtly. He had came some hours before. He had mistook

126

. MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

the word., You was there yesterday; and they been there
to-day. The murderer was convicted by a jury, sentenced '
by the court, and hung by the sheriff.

§ 227. WmTTEN EXERCISES. Oonstruct five setit~nces eac~ containing one of the fallowing verbs in O<mttmuous Ttme : .F~ve i1: the I mperf ect Tense, Successive Time;
.Fwe in the P erfect;
.Five in tlie Pluperfect;
.Five in the Future ·
.Five in the .Future' Perfect.
Obey ; reced~ ; ransom ; forget; buffet ; travel ; delav •
reply; bear; begin; break; hew; for<Tive. wrin"'. t" k. '
"te
h
.,- '
" , s ic ;
strive
. ; smi ; seet e ; shake ; show ; lie ; fall ; fell ; teach .
thrive ; kneel; mow; seek; beseech ; shear ; shrink . fl :
freeze ; choose.
' Y•

CJ_onstruct fi~e sentences each containing one
~ctzve -rer~s in tlte above list expressed in thu
11we Vcnce in each Tense.

ef thtPaa-

•

CHAPTER V.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE IlY .A.DVERCIALS. -

.A.D•

VERBS .
~ 228. THE second way mentioned, § 202, in which
the Predicate in itself may be modified, is by Adverbials.
•
An ADVERBIAL is a modifier of an attribute; as,
" H e is strictly hon est ; " " He acted discreetly ; " " He
acted in a discreet· manner."

§ 229. The normal adverbial is a single word, and is
called simply an adverb. Other predicate modifiers are
called generally ad1:erbials. They include adverbial phrasea
and adverbial clauses, as well as single words.

An ADVERB is the normal modifi er of an attribute.

\

§ 230. Modifications of the Predicate may be of either of
four kinds corresponding to the four classes of Attributes, Qualities, Actions, Conditions, and Relations. It will be more convenient, however, and at the same time more in accordance with the general teachings of grammarians, to recognize but two general classes, - one embracing those of
the internal attributes, qualities and actions, which may be
called adverbs of Property; the other, embracing those of
tho external attributes, or those of condition and relation,
called generally adverbs of Relation.
§ 231 . . Adverbial Modifiers are of two general classes: 1. Those of Property;

2. Those of Relation.

·':;.

128

MODfFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

§ 232. Predicate
kinds:1. llfanner ;
2. Quality.

MODIFICATIONS OF PREDICATE BY ADVERBIALS.

Modifiers •of Property are of two

§ 233. ADv1mmALS OF l\fANNER
the
attri?utes, or those of
heavily, dearly, wisely, laughingly, intelligently.
They answer the question, How ?

~nternal

qua~:; ::~u::~:n ~pon
. as,

§ 234. ADVERBIALS OF QUANTITY include those, 1. Of !"mount,· as, largely, richly, abundantly.
2. Of 'Extent; as, widely.
3· Ot Fre;;uency ,· as, often, once, seldom.
Of Intensity; as, vehemently.
Th_ey d answer the question How much .? as applied
.
to
11iagmtu e, content, number, and degree.

129

2. Of reason and consequent ; as, therefore, consequently ;
3. Of motive or aim, and result or object; as, " He laoors for fame : "
4. Of means and end, in the three just mentioned relations ; as, "The stream was crossed by a ra}Z;" " The tree
i• known by its fruits."
OasERVATION.-There are no normal adverbs of the last two varieties.

§ 239. Adverbs of Order iuclude the proper Ordinal Adverbs; as, first, secondly, thirdly, etc. ; and also such as, next,
ru1 ther, furtltermore, again, finally.

"!·

Sc11EME OF ADVERBIAL PmmtCATE l\Ioo1F1Ens:- I. hi whole,""
Proper ; I I. In respect to parts.
Proper Predicate :Modifiers: - I. Adverbs; II. Adverbials.
I. Property:
1. :Manner.
2 . Quantity; (a.) amount; (b.) extent; (c.) frequ ency; (d.) intensity.

§ 235. ADVERBIALS OF R ELATION are of four kinds:_
1. Of Condition ·
2. Of Cornpariso~ ,·
3. Of D ep endence;
4. Of Order.

II. Relation:
1. Condition; (a.) Time, successive, continuous; present, past, future;
'. b.) Place, in , to, and from.
·
2. Comparison.
3. Dependence; (a.) cause and effect; (b. ) reason u.d consequent; (c.)
moth•e and result; ( d. ) means.
4. Order; place, time.

i

2~6. ~DVERBIALS OF CONDITION include those: • if _Time, present, past, and future, and also successive
an d contmuous . as now th
eatedly me
h' ·z '
' en, when, fiormerly,,' hereafter,. re
.P
, anw i e.
2 . Of
h. 's.pace, absolutely, as, there, here; and I relatively as
hen ce, it11er, whence.
' '
of Co mparrson
·
th§ 237. Adverbials
.
respect relations to
o. er predicates; as, equally, subordinately: " He a t
swely " th t ·
e exces~
h'
a is, as compared with what he should eat . "'fl
iong
t
most
galla
tl
"
h
·
'
my
incr
n :y, t at is, as compared with other fiahto"

o

~ 238. ADVERDIALS OF DEPENDENCE include those
which respect the relation,_
1. OJ cause and effect; as, hence, thence ;

§ 240. Some adverbs are relatively modified by means of
grammatical comparison in a way similar to that of adjectives, by adding r or er for the comparative, and st or est for
\he superlative ; as, soon, sooner, soonest.
They are also relatively modified by the auxiliaries of comparison, more, most ; less, least ; as, more probably, most probably; less probably, least probably.
OnsERVATION. -The following are irregular: - Far, farther, farthe&t,
( "rth, ft1rlher, ft1rf/i1!$t; ill, woi·se, worst; little, less, least ; much, more,
most ; well, better, best.

§ 241. Adverbs of Property are readily formed from adj tdiv es by adding the suffix -ly (=like), subject of course to
the laws of word-formation. See Introduction, Chapter ix.
F.xamples: Joyful-Zlf, great-ly, late-Ty, happi-ly, gay-ly, dry-ly.
Some adverbs are old genitives or possessives in s or es,
9

, •:'I

')

· 130

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF 'l'HE SENTENCE• .

ce

now in some cases written
or se, and in a few words passing into st,· as, denoting Quantity, once, twice, thrfre; denoting Condition; as, else, hence, thence, whence, since, besides, midslnps, unawares, inwards, afterwards, sideways,
whiles, whilst, always, betimes, sometimes.
Some adverbs are compounds of . original nouns and prepositions ; as, a-shore, a-foot, a-tltirst, to-day, be-sides, in-deP.d,
up-stairs, under-hand.
Other parts of speech are used in their own proper forms
as adverbs. Thus Nouns, by the omission of the preposition ;
. . as, "He went home yesterday," equivalent to to lwme on yesterday,· Adjectives, as "Drink deep,·" "Dripping wet;,.
Verbs, as,.." Wltiz went the arrow."
v

. ·. § 242. ORAL ExERQISE. Point out the Adverbials
and tlie Adverbs in tlie following sentences, and in the
first extract in tlie Appendix No. VII. ; indicate also to
wliicli class they belong, and name tlie predicate which
they modify : - ·
We were clearly and particularly shown how the work was
done. The birds sing sweetly. We often resolve; we rarely
fulfill. Still . waters are commonly deepest. He has been
much deceived. They have been long absent. He spoke
with a clear and full voice. They showed us the work with
much patience: He was here yesterday, and will return to:
day at two o'clock. He labored excessively upon his task ;
it was therefore well done. On all occasions she behaved
with propriety. Mentally and physically we are curiously
·and wonderfully formed. The task is already more than
half done. First, I am to show the nature, and, secondly,
the importance of this virtue. I shall for that reason warmly
bP.friend him.

§ 243. 'y!l.ITTE~ Ex ER CI SE. Construct ft ve sentence11
with predicate.a modified by A iverbials, and five by Adflerb11 of manner.
""' 1
-...... ,.

MODIFICATIONS OF PREDICATE BY ADVEIWIA LS •

Five
Five
Five
Five
· Five

each
each
each
each
each

by Adverbials and Adverb; of quantitv.
by Adverbs of condition.
by those· of cornparison.
by those of dependence.
by those of order.

131

134

l'tIODIFYLXG ELEl1EXTS OF TUE SENTEXC.:E.

135

MODIFICA TIO XS OF PR EDI CA TE n; ITS PAl!TS.

takes an object that only defines or limits the kirnl of action
meant more specifically in respc(!t of tlie actiou itself, not in
re$pect of the olvect of the action.
A Transitive verb that is followe1l by no ohjcct or only by
a remote or specifying object, is saiti to he usell intransitively.

'-

§ 248. A TRANSITIYE VEnn is one tliat may be
limited by an immediate olucct cxtC>rnal to the action
denoted by the verb ; as, " Jolin gave the book."
An IxTRAXSITffE Vmrn is one that cannct bo
limitcJ by an immccliate ol(jcct external to the ::.ction
denoted by the verb; as, "John runs;" "He lives a

·quiet life."

tlrnt mny be tnken of n predicate
of modilkatiun, nrc l18 folluws:-

.•hen un netion or rclutin11 in rc·~pC'ct
1. lt mny he without 111oditicatio11: n~, \'The sun $/1i11t.~."
2. It muy "'' nmtlitietl in re,pect to Qunliry, c.r Couditio11; M, "Tl.e sun
1hine.s: brigllll!J -in the hean"n.<t."

3. It may be nwtlitictl in rc,pcct to the kin1l of action or relation; M,
"John runs a hard rare;" the modifier here lieing a noun without u pre po·
lition, arul appropriarely callc1l //ie •pec!f!1i11!1 ol!i«·/.
4. It ma_v he motlitic<I in re,pel'l to the ohjcct whid1 !he action or relation
proper)_,. ancl immctliately n·gartl:; or aims ;~t; us, u John strikeS tl1e !Jl'Ulllui."
This i~ callcil rhe 7m.«fre objn I.
6. It m:1y he motliti(·tl i11 rc~prd to a remoter recipirnt of the action; as,
"John ga\·e the book to me." This is cal1e1I tl1e 1·emote '!1itcl.
G. It may be motlitic<I in re,pcct to effect or result; °'• "He g-a\·e the
book to me.for s/urly." This is !he 0iect '!f rcsiill:
\
7. 8till furth er, !Ire action may be \'ic:lre!I in tire relation of its effect upon
another net inn or etfPct; a~, ".John mnkcs hi::t brother beat :he .r;rawid;"
"He calls his dnA' Carl";" "Ile bni'lrcs Iii~ clothes cl-. .111." This rcla.
tion i• c:illcd tire Faclitire relation, 1111d the ohjec:t, in reference to whid1 tho
verb i~ 111oditic1I, i.~ l'itileJ the .factitire '~iecl; bent t/1e !/l"r>uml, Carlo, aud
clean, bein;: lhe filcrirh·e ol~jecl~ i11 the~P- scveraJ sentences.
This factiti,·e motlitication Lf the nrb is in some c.1ses effecterl bv n
. chnng-e in the wor1I it>elf. Thus, to fdl, t? lay, to 1«1i•e, lo &el, are factitlvcs
of to.f'tll, to lie, lo,.;.,, In •ii.

l'nctiti.n s :rre fonnl'tl from arljecrh·c• or participles, clrieO.'· !17 a<l<ling- the

n~,

lo dt'f'Jl·en., to 1"f.rl-4en, =to make tlei'p, 1o maA·e ·r ed.

They nrc, aJ.,o, represcnle<I b_1· other Yerbs;
COUit kl

lelfrn, lo

• '.

,

. t[f

•

-

lntra:i~itivc n.•rl1~~ num.~o\· er. ai~e H~t~' . ia.r1

. . ' •.

,,

. " a I srt1H Ill\ ::;e!f hoarse;,, •• It cnt:rl 1tiwlt t11 slee_r- . .
tire
action, lhb factitivc 11w<lilirntw11 rs by

.,rlect~> ~-nnther

ou:f

determine.,

.
I'
l .. •itin·ly· ns "He 'ran l11msc1.

'

•

a' crb •

"He matlc !Jim :<Jn!ok.''
•
•
.
•
If it i~ an(lthcr thi11g, the factith·c mod1ficat10n is by a noun,

c::.

a~,

rui,

to lead1, to nmbul =te

CU11lft lo 1·eme11J1e':'·.

Thu factitin: mo<lilicntion i•, uiso, expressc<l ;:i full by appropriate w:irua.

113•

u IIo

1 11 1

m~~ej~ ;: i 1~ :~,:~~;;;.ibntc, !he foc :i:h·c motlificalion is by an

adjcclh·c-attn·
lie puinkd the lmx Mae."
_..
utc;
. nw,· be llHH rti
1 in more or
of
d1flcrrnt
The a.'
i;::ame n e 11ou
I Cl
l I . w:iy1
If
.
• ,
. ·. ~ '' 111 his cell he irn:Pniouslv rrpn~scntCl i1m se
in the same
sentence,
us,
.
~
.
. " I I i:ot rdl
. .
t as a dl'lim or mali ce for its compa:'s1on.
n ' . . .,
to the g ~vcr11111cn •. •
.
· I/ ,.;.11n1
l'fvitv• in rc~pcct uf c_·o11Cli1ion; i11f/t'11i11u:;l!J, of qu?l1ty ~ /itm~e. (t vt'
mo1
1 ..
r:i
"v· . zts cumpas.~wu ' a s OuJCC
1 . , ·t.'.t',
factith·dy;
tu tile !JOt'ernmenf, as remote UJJH:
b

q

~

u

le!'-~

th{'~C

rr~n~e

OnSEll\".\Tro~. -The possible ,·icws

· IUffix en;

r.
cnm:t1·nin, oblige;
·~twee,
dt1''Jlllirmft• />rvd·u111, 11rono1111ce.

to cause, mnke, occa.-;inn, compe'I

II

JW.!Jt; mwtt:, <1 '

.,,,z.

of rcs111t.
. .
".
"John
him fl
Wiren the tnOLlifi~ntion i· hy sprc1(y1ll!/ ''.J<'CI: n,,_ .
,,, rr. I 'n tlto
d ~, rf a watch." thi:'i c1bjret it~clf 111ay Uc lurtl~l~ r ll~Ol J Ju ' I .
..Jes 'o(
nn
of thuu;;hr; '"· m lhi; cxa111plc, oy
fticPn;ljecti,·c i:rr/11111,/e, llll<I nl ' o by the :Hljnuct r!f' 11 '""''":
ft
ex·
,
.. ·I\ .c u hjct:t
of un ad1on,-, nrc I o den l . t
The. "pcdfriw,. ol>1cct
ant I t IIC pas!-!
.
class of \·er Us ; as, H Ile tau;; it lie u9 t pressell. t cl''"~t
/;"" he~ •~rler a eertai11
.

u:/cer!/i~io

111-, ; ii(i·in~

ol~ject

l

te1·s ;" ., He a ~ kc<l ./(I/Jn n ynestiun."
.
. t1
la'-'siva
The,· 111:n· citltcr of them Le proper!,,- made the_,''.'bJeCts_ lll . '~ 1,•Ju/111
.
-f II IC. ,-c1·b·, whHc the other remain
s a~ mo1lity111g- uli1cct, a . . ,
\"Otl'e 0
•
<l J /. "
was a~kc<l the question;,, '· Tlie r;uest.tu11 was as kc.
l'. ln. .
. •. • .
. The re mote nUjcct t•annot, thu~, be mndc the suU.1cct JU the p_a~~ l\ c '.01ce.
'Yhcn a11 actio~l is to he wodilil'li Uy Uoth :o'peci1yug :-inti p'.1:-;:-:1\~~ _uh,J~cts.
the one placc1l last i' ofl·c11 expre'Setl with the help of a p1c~~;;rro1~, n~
"He st;uck a del'bi,·e blow upon Iii:; nrfrtrsary°s flank;" or,
- e s rue

a•h·cr,nr~"s lla11k Ii!/'' iltrisil'e /;/01;." ,
laced immedintely nfter
In lil·e m·mner a rc•mote ol11ect. which might be p
.
ft
I .
"'
,
'
. . .
k
ti
re po..,ition if placed a er l l C llll•

bis

the verb without a prep<»tlton ta ·e• ic p . .
f ·r." but "He g-avo
me<liale ohjcet; a<. "lie g-an "''the Lest ot the rui '
the uesl of the fruit tu"'""

. .

.

<

••

't .•

In ~uch c;..;:prcgsions HS ·'and tnp it ns ~nu .,;o,. 1
, o· L.'Jc ct , u"1r<l ltadn'"o its antccc<lcut .implrc<l
1: pec1·ry111g

J:

Ill

r~O'ardc<l a,
•. : f the

to be

the aet1011 o

\"erb.

§ 24!>. Yerbs are modified in respect to their object in the
followin" different ways: ·
I. By" a spec(fyi11,q ohJect;
as, ". J oI i runs a race ; "
" He strikes a blow;" " He gaye a g(ft f
. ,,
2.- Bf a 7wssh·e ohject; as ",John stnkes t!te ground' "
3. By '\ remote objed ; " as, "John ruus to tlte goal;
.. John
oan: lter his book;"
. 0

!:

138

MODIFYIXG ELEJIEN'TS OF TUE SEXTEXCE.

DEFTXJTIOX
• . ..

-

JllODIFrCA TlOXS OF THE COPULA -

G rammar is tlie mocle of
of tl1e
·
sen t ence as exOr mo1·"~ b1·1·env.
"1
. I
llJ • ' ' OOD IS t JO

]\I
.
. oon m

t l w copula or
. assertm...,
o element

I by mflection.
pressec
..
fl
m ecte<l mode of the copula.

OnsERYATIO:<. -There arc as many o 1 .
lnflcctrd forms of the vcru tli ·t·
. .I .· ~ "' s in a lan~11ag.1 as there are
s 111.!?ms 1111 " rt a~ to th e
d
f I
10
. " . •·
mo e o t 1e co pula.
Tl num l>cr an<! kind of mootI s -van· Jll
cl1fforc11t Jan•rur11r
Tl
.
gent. cnpuln is su b-mcu1 ili ed in most.lan""llllf" , .
.o . · ~c~.
le c.<'n l'.n·
flcc!Jon to mark its modilica tiun uy the ~rill,.,e·.j·t~ ~I C) h.n e a •prcrnl m115 is called the Impcrat:ve
mood.
·

" 'c han thu• in th e Eiwlish lann-11an- I
pre ;•cd h~· 'P"cial inttccti~ns a,'111" .,c tic four forms of the copula exunmodiH ed form· 2 Tl
'
'~o n sc<Juently, so many mood.: 1. The
' ·
1c nceessarv 1orm . 3 Tl \
t'
The imperati,·c fo rm The •c
<l. f"
' •
i c con m:;cn t generally; 4.
.. con orm thnt cxprc·s·
ti
·
8
· 111~
'
·
te ncces~ary cop.
uI a, h a~ rccei\"e<l no distin 1..
c " e llnmc probabh· ueca
II
1 .
'
c
guages h:ul 11 0 ~pccial form ft "t 1 •
..
'lltiC
1c c 11s~1c11 I Jan..
.
'
or r unt mntlc u•e of ti c
II 1 I .
.
W>lh modals or prirn:ipnl ,·erhs
.·
..
. i so-ca cc !'11 ~p 111ct1ve
b
e" pn.'ssm'r ncce ... ~ lt\" But in E 1· I
ave a special form in tbe use of ti IC aux.1
" I':1ary must.
.. • •
. ng rs I wo

§ 259. There arc in En•Ylish four moods : the Inclicative; the Necessary; "'the l)otential; and the
Imperatirn.
§ 2G.O. ("fi
The( Inclicatirn Moocl expresses tli e
t~nmoc

as

n

·t·

uSSCl IOU

et . Or, tl1e Indicative Moo<l is the un.
mocl1fietl form . of the copula.
• ,,
' • 'as
· , " 'fl 1e· sun s7.unes.
J

Ons>:1""ATIO:<.-The Indicati,·c !\To I · ~
In" r enli11 B
.
rs o ten reprcscntctl as express-

°'

th~u .. ht. ~~t to11tt,l1setrt1cl·tly ", "'".•ld111~, reality uelon;::s only ".to th e matter of
lf;,;e t · not

~·

r

1

.

definit ion of this mootf, th7rr it l~sin,1ply ~t:c~~%~'::; ~::~~ t/1e ,~opu la. The
terpretetl n • cmphaqizing the a1h·crb ;;m ,/,
. ca cs, must.. I..>: _inme:tn ti. t ·1
.
I g, so us to make the del1111twn
1
No V ''\.· ','""c;t• ""'.''''!!•that i•, without modili cnlion. Sec Appendix
. .
or t re rnfl ectron" of lhe Ycrl> to b . b I .
§ I!" ! . of the 1'
1
,_ . •
e, Ill t o nthcath·e ~loot! see
- ,
'\egu ar n.•rv, S 225.
t
h

'

1011" 1t

2 fil. The forms of the Indicative are:_
J as, "TlIC SUO shines •"
rThe Affirmative·1 (1)• 's·!Olpe;
·.mphatic; "Tltc sun does shine;"
'
2. The l'\co-ativc
·' (I .) s·imp lc; as, "Tl ie sun s'11·ne•
"'
not '· " ('>-· ) E<..mpI iatic
· ; as, " The sun does not shine ·" " •
3. The Affirrnative-lutcrrogative; as, " Does ~he sun
thine f"
§
2)I.
( ·

'·

JIIOOD.

139

4. The Negative-Interrogative; as, "Does not the sun
shine ?"
Oos1·:r.\· .1·110:< 1. -The secon<l anti third person• sin~ular of !he anxili:try
do, nre now more common ly written dost aml doth; while the yerb, when
tt5cd usu principal \"erb, mak es doest nml doe.th in these persons. This distinction, h o wc\"cr, was not earl_\. i11trmluccll into o ur lorn guagc.
OnsEB\' ATtnx 2. ·-Th e form with the auxiliary do is now used:1. In atlinnntirn proposition•, only fur empha-;i". l'orm erly it. was common in poetry; now, ir ad 111i ssil.J lc at all, it is 011ly Uy a license; allowed to
the necessities of poetrr. The use or it implies a weakness iu the power to
expre'8.
2. In interrogatiYc and ne~ath·e propositions generally; us, "Doe3 the
sun shine '!" u Dues not the sun shine'!" "The sun dues not sh ine."

~ 262.

Distinguish the varieties
of the Indicative L1{ood in t!te following sentences : OR .\L EXERCISE.

The leaves. faH .from their boughs. G rcat actions encourage greater. I have professed me thy friencl. " ' hat a ready
tongue suspicion hath? Specious names are often · used to
shelter vice. Each present joy or sorrow ~eems: the chief.
I am not covetous of gold. Old men do prophesy upon it.
Are you serious in your question ? Do you mean the copula of a jrnlgment? Have you not marked, when he entered, how the multitude retired at his approach? The sea·
sons came and went. There ktvc not been wanting trivial
minds to mark this as a fault in his character. Ditl ye not
hear it? No! 'twas but the wind. It is accomplishell. The
dee1l is done. 'Vhat means this martial array? " 'ill he
make a co,·e1rnnt with thee? Ga vest thou the goodly wing'!
unto the peacock? I-lath the rain a father? Or who hath
begotten the drops of dew? Hast thou perceived the breadth
of the earth ? Dost thou know the balancings of the clouds ?
He docs not act wisely in this. Do you think nothing of
the families which arc left behind? Doth God exact uay\abor, light den ied? Gou doth not ueecl either man's work
or his mm gifts.

§ ·203. \VRITTE~ EXERCISE. Construct jhie sen·
tences, each expressing an Affirmatite Simple Judgment,·

140

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

Five
Five
Five
Five
ment;
Five

e:rpi·essing an Affirmatiiie Emphatic Judgment,
expressing a Negative Simple Judpment;
expressing a Negative Emphatic Judgment;
expressing an Affirmative Interrogative Judg-

MODIFICATIONS OF TIIE COPULA -

THE NECESSARY

Moon expresses the asser-

tion mo<lified as necessary ; as, " The sun must shine.'-'
The only form of this mood in English is the inflectivn
with the auxiliary must, which is now never used as a principal verb.

§ 265. T1rn POTENTIAL Mooo expresses the
tion modified as contingent. Or the Potential
expresses the contingent form of the copula; as,
sun may rise;" "It were a great . pity; " "
he were here.''

asserl\food
"Thti
TVould

OnsF.nYATIO:<. -Contingent Judgments mn~· be sub-morlifie1l by unit,.
ing with the Pure Jntlgmcnt either a desire or a determination of the will.
·"'e haYe, tlrns, the distinction of Contingent Judgments into,1. Pw~e; expressing a pure continge11t jmlgment;
2. Optatire; expressing a judgmenl moditicd by wish or desire;
3. Concessive; expressing n jutlgment modified by permissive will .
Thus wl1en I say, "Hen,·en may smile on their enden,·Or," I express a ·
· mere contingent judgment; that it is possible Heann ma.1; smile, not necessarily implying any wish or permission on my part.. When I s:n·, "l\Iav
Hea1·en smi le," I express the judgment eml.totlied in a wish or <iesire. ·I
may, moreoYer, express my will in the form of allowance or concession; as,
"John mny go now, for he hns finished his tnsk."
Tl:ese Yarious forn1• of the Contingent .Judgment may be sti ll further
modifietl. The Pure Contingent Judgment nrny he mo1lificd by uniti ng
with the mere judgment an int!ieatinn of its grounrl in the wry relation of
the sul~ject to the predicate. " ' hen I •ny, ".Tolin is reroYCring fast; he
can walk out," I not on ly express a juclgment of the po, siuilit.)C-of John's
walking, but I nlrn exprces the gronnd of the poRsibilit~·. namely, his
own strength or ubility. " ' hen I .n~-, "I with<lrnw my prohibition; ,Tohn
:nay go," I express, besitles the mere contingent judgment, nlw its ground,
the allowance of my will. These distinctions are expressed in our languagt
by the use of ·1iffercnt forms.

141

The Optnti<"e Form mny nlso be modified accordini; as the w!5h it ex·
presses is mere wish, or is a prayer.
.
.
.
The Conccssive Form mny also be mod1fied, accord111g as the Juclgment
Is rather n concession, or a ]Jermission; an allowance to have or hold, or an
ftllowance to <lo or act.
This form borders closch· on the Impernth·e. Both forms express contin
gent jmlgments, nnLI both.jud;;m~nts motlifie<l by will. The only difference
is that in the Imperath·e the will seems to predominate over the jnclgm ent
rather than merely to mo1lify it; the jud~ment is losl in the overpowering
e:-:pre ision of will, of purpose, determination i - the expression is perempt.on'. \Ve find, ncconl in gly, in many languages, the potential forms used
for .the fir&t nn<l thinl persons of the [mperntive. In like manner, perinission and concession, as well as exhortation, freely borrow the Imperative;
and soften:ed command takes the milder form of the Potential.

expressing a Negative ifnterrogative Judgment.

§ 264.

:'.IOOD.

t

....

§ 2GG. The Potentiul l\lood is expressed in two ways: I. By the forrris of the Imperfect Tense ; us, " He werd
a fool if he accepts the offer ; "
2. By the auxiliaries may and can; might, could; would,

should.
On s tmYATIO~. -It is to be remarked that in thi s use of the forms of the
Imperfect to express a contin::;ent jutlgment, the proper tense-si::;nificntion
of the form is droppetl, a~ in the sentence, "Ile were a fool if he accepts
th e offer," the wont u·ere, although of the form of the Imperfect, has no
refrrcnce to past time.
This Imperfect form of the potential was formerly much more in use than
at present. It is more en ergetic than the form with auxiliaries, and is
found more in poetry; and also appears in some popular expressions, which
grammarians haYe ignorantly condemned. '"I had rnther walk than ride,"
is equirnlent to, "I would rather haYe walking than ridin::;;" ltml being
the imperfect usetl to express n contingent judgment, and equivalent to
rcould /wee. So, HI had as lief," "I had a5 soon," are exemplifications of
the proper pot ential. Tl1e object of" had" in such cases wns once expressed
in the infin iti\·e, without the modern si::;n to, which the infinitil·e formerly
did nut take. "!lad ns lief go" was thus as grammatical as "l\Iake him
go,'' "Ilit.l him follow."
.
'fhese potential forms haYe a s!ightly diYcrse significance. The imperfect forms are only a more cne1getic forn1 than would. They express o
contingent jmlgment in the purest form, and w ithout reference to the sub-

ject.
.
.
!>fay points to a con tingency that is extrinsic to the subject; while
can p:>ints to one thnt is intrinsic to th e suhjl'.:.t; ns, u John mny go' ' im·
pli~• that external hindrances arc remo,·ed; "John cm1 go," that he has
la: him.elf abilit\· to go.
Would uprc~es primarily a rcrerence to a contingency intrinsic to the

142

JIIODIFYING ELE:\lENTS OF THE SENTENCE.

1ubject ; an cl sl1011hl, to one extrinsic, ns of external obligation or r.ecesBity. \\"hen usetl as pot e ntial uuxiliarics, Uwy rctni11 something or this
primary distinc tion, as is the case wh en th ev are used ns te n ~e auxiliaries.
Tim•, " He should show mere \· if he woulJ outain mercy:" "He would
show mercy if lie wished m e re.~·."
.. ·
The coutingeut co pula mrHlifie.d by desire expressed in what has been
caller! the optatil-e moot!, is expressed rather 11: · th e imperfect form 1nd the
auxiliary uioy. It abo tran$poseo the sen tence; as, u O u·ere he still ulh·e ! "
11
~lfny HcnYe n rcwnnl him."
In the sen len ce "\'."011ld God [had died for th ee," we ha,·e a true opta·
tin form in the usr- Jf the Imperfect 11'nuld. lt ex presses a de,ire that God
had will ed Dadd' s death rather than Absalom·s, Cud heiug_the grammatical subj ect of ?l'Ould.
The un inflcl'te<l form of t 11e Yerb was formerly 11'ed to ex press contingen cy; :md this use is retai ned i:i more familiar and colloquial expressions;

as," Co not my horse the better,
J must become a borrower of the nig ht." - Slwke.<pea.-e.
" Be this n• it may, his works at first cnj oyetl a wry small ~ hare of popularity ." - ..1/acrrn lay.
Go 81Hl /Je in these quotations bolh express contingent judgments.

§ 267.

Distinguish the vai·ieties
Optatfre, and Conceseiiie in the following sentences : 0RAJ, EXERCISE.

of Contingent Judgm ents as Pure,

l\Iany poets may be found who have condescended to the
cares of economy.
The most busy man cannot always be dccupie<l with busi1
ness.
\
l\Iay thy best blessings ever last!
He who would think the" Faerie Qneene" childish and
romantic, might relish Pope.
Between the periotls of birth and burial, I would fain insert a little !tappiucss, a little pleasure, a little peace.;, to-day
is ours, yesterday is past., and to-morrow may uever come.
""e may observe that great power and strength exerted
always raise sublime ideas.
lie can live to God ancl his own soul, and at tl1e samo time
atteud to all the lawful pursuits of tho present world.
Yo!J may believe I entirely disagreed with him. ·

llIODIFlCA TIOXS OF THE COPULA -

I wonl<l therefore exhort you earnestly.
al.amlcr hirn ?

1\IOOD.

H3

For who woul.:l

",\ml T. perhaps, may 'oothe this heart,
]11 thi11ld11,g too of th ee;
Y l't tlu·rc wa s ro11111l thee such a tla,vn
()f lig-ht nc"cr :--cen l1efurc,
A s fa1u·y 11cn~ r cou hl ha,·c <lrawn,
Aml ncyer l'an restore."

Conlll l\fr. Hastings have been eomlemneu to infamy fo1
writing this Look?
But this error might, perhaps, arise from a want of due
attention to the foumhtions of Im man j11llgme11t.
" ' e should do well to translate this woru u·ar into langurwe more iute!Hgiblc to us.
Dy my counsel, we were best put Lack again, nnu tell the
earl wl1at we !Hwe seen.
l\Iay it please your grace.
Such a man were one for whom a woman's heart should
beat constant while he Lreathes, and break when he dies.
Death better were ; death did he oft desire.
'Vould God it were even.
I \YOuld there were a sword in my hand.
0 that there were such a heart in them.
0 that thou wert as my brother.
A man might have all these qualities and yet not be IIotspur.
'Ve shoulu expect that the corrnption of poetry woul<l
~commence in the e<lucated classes of society.
It cou!tl not possibly have been missed much longer by the
most heedless inquirer.
We should suLject our fancies to the government of rea·
son.
Almost all difficnlties may be overcome by diligence.
rrhat were against me.
Hume's History, be its faults what they may, is now ono
great eutiro work.

J

·-.
144

..

MODIFYING ELEMENTS OF THE SENTE~CE.

He were no lion, were not Romans l1inds.
Hea,·en hinder that such a one, etc.

§ 268. WRITTEN EXERCISES. Construct five sen·
tences each expressing a Judgment asserting a possible
·event;·
Five witli a Judgment expressing a wislt or desire;
Five witlt one expressing a concession or permission;
Two sentences showing that the contingency expressed
respects tlte ability of the su{~iect ;
Two showing tltat the contingency depends on something else than the subJect.

§ 269. Th e htPERATIYE Moon expresses the assertion modified as peremptory will; or, expresses command.
It is expressed in the form of the uninfleeted verb when
its subject is in the second person, and· by the irnperative
auxiliary let, when its snhject is in the first or the third person ; as, Co! D epa1t ! "Let there be light;" " L et us go."
OnsF.RYATION 1. -Th e word let is stiJI used as :i principal nrb. A close
atte ntion will hence often be necessary in order to dete rmi ne whether it is
used ns a m ere im perat i,·e auxiliary or in itfprimitirc 111ca11i11g'as a principal verb. Thu$, u Let th e man go/' is ambiguous; for ,let may l>•.! regarded
as a nrb in th e imperati\"C mood, c~uh•a lcnt to pennii, and thus l>c in the
second person; or ns an auxiliary of go, with 1111m as th e su~j cct.
Some grammarfrtns recogni ze no impcra ti,·c in th e first and tl1ird pcr~on s ;
and accordingly regard let in such expressions ns the above as nlll'ays in the
second person. Th ere is yet nothing in the nature of th e case that forliids
tile subject of th e impcrnti,·e mood being in either person. St ill, ns the
person nddrcsse<I woulcl lie the most natural s ubj ect in cases of uttered will
or command, tf1e impcra th·c primith·cly and more frequently npprars in the
second pcr:<on. The first pl'rson would rnrcly lie th e subject of co111111a nu;
this p )rson of the word is nccorclingly more commonly ex pressed by bor1owed fonns o f language, as by the proper potential, as in th e Latin eamt••,
Italian andimno, le t us go. The third person is m ore common; ns, '' Be ·it
10.'~ - Latin," Ne quis emtrl," let 110 one hny. Mo reove r, the proper poten ..
tial is a milder expression than the s hort impernth·c form.
OnsF.m·ATJn:< 2. - The imprrntirn jucl;;mcnt-rrndily borren·s the auxil·
laric& of future time, •lwll nntl 1Dil/. Or, more rurrectly, the~c ti.rm•, 11.all and
tllill, orii;inally principal \'crlM, have been used for both thc.e purposea, to

MODIFICATIONS OF THE COPULA -

MOOD.

145

.
i1re time Slinll has cca<ed to be used n• a princinpress tct!l ancl alRo fut
j
"Tl c ift th o11"h small u:ilt thou repal verb; but 1ciil is st il! so usct; ~s,
i
g
·- e , -. l nt to be tcilling . .
. ·r " where 1cill is in t he imperatl\"C m ood , and i~ CfJUI\ n e l
l of 1imc
cen '
f b I v nls as nuxiliaric~ both of mom ani
'
The double u se o ot I ' o "
".I
1 · '"ty
"
'c
•cc the blunder
• !=i'l1T in onler to U\'Oll nm Hg' 11 .. •
·~
•
ren<lc rs r1_1re n~ces.. • . I familiar story or the drowni11:; man wlw IS
from conluu1ul111g. _th en1 1:1 '~ ~c Yill be tlrow11cll · n ohoc h · shall help rnc," mrcprc!"entcd ?S cry11l1g ou' t '~I ~h ·1H be drow~rtl; 110-hoclv will lielp me."
l of !=iavin o- as ie mean \
.. '
T
. the
11lcn <
~ " h I . . ] <r t the copnlu is molliticd Ly the aux1 wry; !ll.
l:i the m1~ cnsc tic J~ll :::>men '1· 1· I In ;h e (m P: ca se we ha,·e the dctt:i·m.rnnti
e
predicate
1s
1;
;
0
mnc
1
ie<.
·
"
..
·
t
1
ot
' ~ waker expre
. , ~sN
- I·.
h. icr,
of tho
, m the ot her ' si111plc f 11 tm·if!J, with no rcspec
· cc r1
onI ·
..
. . 1.t to be so · Th e confusion i~ a co mmon one · u1 fi
<lctcnn1111n°·
w
us.
. , arn I is
. "ma1
, ·k c·d •as a pro"incial uarbarism or impropriety, or
tain.1111
loca
l1tics
't
, be re~anl e tl as eit h er.
. . .
w·u
'
principle rc;;ula!ing th e u"c of these anx1liar_1es:
'
erlyonnu
expresses a mod itictl j1ulgmcnt with the firs t person, u

~~a~epcat tlie
~enerally

pr~p;

futuritv with th e secon d all(\ tl11nl per,011';
.
. ~
' 'ilh the seeShait properly anti g-enerally r_xprceses a lll ?'.lifictl JLid,,mcnt '
cl nd thin\ persons, but futurity mth the. fn,t.
onl'~ Id I hould arc tli..;tin1rui s hed in a sirnilar way.
rou .nnt.· sle however ..docs
t=•
• t
t' ·c .sentences. nor
not hold good Ill
Ill crrogn n
,,
prmc1p
' \Jc th ere'/" "I will sec that he shcill not want.
1n Tho
clauses;
as, ,: S'rw /•L ti wu
Simple futurity is expressed in tlicse examples.

§ 270. ORAL EXERCI SE. ]Ji.~ti1.1guish tlie differen t
varieties of Judgments in tlte followmg sentences, naming tlte respect·ive JYioods : We cannot be happy but in the society of one another.
"His heart, from cruel sport ~s tran g e d ,,~rn uld bleed
To work the woe of any hnng !lung.

I. ook round and survey the various beauties of the_ globe.
Reflections like these woultl not allow me to despair.
"0 g-nide me to the humble cell
"'h crn Hesignation Jo,·cs to dwell."

"Whoever woultl be really happy must ma~e the regular
· powers his chief attenand diligent exercise of his superior
-- ~
tion.
llut who the melodics of morn can teu:
" Ile. has been at Mecca," says one; "you may see that
by his clothes."
I would thnt ye nll sp:ike with tongues.
10

_.-,~-

146

-

MODIFYING ELiillEXTS OF THE SENTENCE.

· How enchanting must h:i-ve been the day-dreams of a mh:d
thus endowed.
But why shoul<l I his ~hiklish feats displ:iy?
\\'ho, some say, shall rule the laud hereafter, which God
hinder.
' Too faithful heart! thou ncnr canst rctric,-o
Tl1y withered hopes; conceal the cruel pain."

Let me, therefore, exhort my opponents to take this subject into tl1eir most serious consideration.
'Ve must not conceive, however, that habit is powerful
only in strengthening evil.
That benevolence is iu itself virtuous, may, indeed, appear
to require proof.
" Ile could call spirits from the vasty deep," and they would
come.
If fortune had turned him into a fiel<l of clover, he would
have lain down and rolled in it.
"Bright niaY the 'acred touch remain
And chee(t11ce till we meet agaiu."

Thou shalt do no murder.
In a rural retirement, what could I do in the winter evenings, when no society interrupted, hut reall or write ?
" 0, sir, but my father may go free ? " earnestly asked
Grace.
\
'
1
But these men, it may be said, were only deep thinkers.
The seal is set ; now welcome, thou dreacl power !
"Light be the tnrf of tin- tomh I
May its Yerdure li ke ~mcrnltis be.
There •houlcl not be the >hntlow of gloom
In aught that remi11ds us of thee."

You must not even expect that he will be what y JU aro
now •
. In short, you must not attempt to enlarge your ideas, or
pol~sh youi.:_ taste, or refine your sentiments; but must keep
on m one beaten track, without turnin" aside eitl1er to the
right hand or to the left. " But I can°uot suPmit to drmlg-

MODIFICATIOXS OF TIIE COPULA -

~IOOD.

147

ery like this. I feel a ~pirit aboYe it." 'Tis well ; be above
it tl1<.:n; on ly clo uot repine that you arc not rich.
Is knowledge the pearl of price ? That too may be purcliased by stea<ly application, a11<l long, solitary hcurs of
study and re11ection. Bestow these, and you shall Le wise.
God help us! what a poor world this would be, : this
were the trnc doctrine.
Launch thy bark, mariner!
l\Iake me an outcast - a beggar ; place me a barefcoted
pilgrim on the top of tl1c Alps or the l~yrenees.
'Come, Di~·appointmcnt, come!
Gently, mo!o\t g-e11t!y on th.' · Yictim's hcnll,
Consu mp tion , lay thi11e ha1ul ! Let me decay
Like tlic expiring- lamp, 1111scc n nway,
. An\l .s 9ft!y go to slumbl!r with the deatl. 11

The principal virtues and vices of a woman must be of a
private arnl domestic kind.
Let young men be kept at the greatest distance from bad
company.
"0 scncl her sure, lier stcnll}" ray
To regulate my doubtful way."

1 only bow and say, "l\Iy Gml, thy will be done."
Thou shalt love thy neighhor as thyself.
'Tis no use talking to me, mother, I will go to l\Iri:. P.'e
party to-night, if I die for it.
'Vhat method had he best take?
He l1ad better return early.

§ 271. 'VRTTTE:N" Ex1mcISE. Construct five smtences e;i-pressing Unmodified Judgments ;
Fi"c e:rpi·essing Contin:;cnt Jud!Jments of eaclt i•ariet9
and of eaclt form.

CHARACTER AND DIVISIONS OF AilNOR:l!AL Fomrs.

149

noun. Wh ile there is n tliffrren re in import nn cl "'·e in thr•c two ~els of
te nus, thry y ery often nrn y uc u scil eqna lly well to mark the di , tinction
here spok e n of- that of primiti\·e rri;.ularity and irregularity in th e for m

PART IV. - ABNORMAL FORMS.

CHAPTER I.
CilARACTER .AXD DIVISIOXS OF AilXORJIAL FOP.llS.

§ 272. Tim forms of language in which the various kinda
of thought are expressed are of two kinds called Norma.l
and Abnormal.
·
'
O~s.F.RVATIO:X 1. -:-For nll the •peci:il forms of thought we do not find
Drovision of nppropnat? form s of speech in language. Hecou rsc is consequently h~d to liorrowrng. Forms, in other wunl s, proddc1l for one use
:re. cmplo) ed for other uses ha,·ing no form s a ppropria ted to th em. 'Ve
thus forms that may lie call ed normal, that is r eg ular form s anu
t . ose tha.t are abnormal, irregular. It must n ot lie su~poscd ' tha t the' dist1~ct1on is absolutely cxn ct and unvarYing. Some form s mi,rht witli cetam
oli;ects
· 'IC\\,
·· • "uc rec k·oncd ns normal,
·
'
•· ·
111
•
J
while, with ot, h er,,ol>iccts
they
might propc1fr
I 1 as aunorma
'J. •The use of a proper, ,·crli-form
'
.
• ue reffar
... <et
for a n oli,1cct of thought, that is , the use of a clause in st ead of n noun we
m ay rega rd ns n~r alinonnal ; while th e use of a participial to limit a ~oun
may
m .mi e Yiew a s no1·ma 1, 111
· another n •ew ns abnormal. It
. u ,i rcffanlctl
o
will be n'.ost com-_c m~nt for the study of the Eng-li>h language to regard all
n~~:sj '°~~s, ad;cc.t'.1·c~, ad1·erlis, moilals, ex pressed in single wurus or
'~'
tie a1 of auxdianes, and employed for the proper uses of these sc,ve: ~I parts of,8pc.c ch, as nor'.nali anti to treat other forms ns alinonnal. l'art1c1plcs ma)' with n sccrnmg propriety, be treated as b elonging to th e ab.nor1n11~l cla5", as they nrc nrL-fonns used ns ndjcc til·es · alt holl"h in use
we mgh as co mm on nnd familiar ns adjectircs thcms~h·cs ·f1
pound Sentence, C hnp. ix., and the Complex Sente nce c1·.·np IC ~'.",,also 11 t · 1 · ·1i1 1.
• x., '"
f
~ ma< rn1 ssi y, ue treated uncl cr this head, as not• the normal
fon~
~ t •:, c'.1tc ncc proper • . Wh en, likcwiRe, the feel in g prcdominnte• 0 ,·er the
"· ou? it 111 the express ion, the sentence takes on an a Ii normal fo1111 as '
,..e bnotn·e Sentence, Chap. xi.
'
n
Thi.; di ~t in c tion , .which w e ha1·c indicated by the terms normal and al>ftOn1'.wl1, nu;:ht not mapprnpriatcl~· perhaps lie indi ca ted u1· the tc11ns "ran•
ma 1cn and Iv ·c I Tl
·
·
, "
. It b
II ·,"'.
n m1gle word dcn otin;:: an ouject of thon,.ht
m1g
·
b" 1 e en C< md1fferentl ) · n nonna I or n gra111mnt1cnl
nonn • while if '"the
o ~eel were cxprcsseu liy several wonL! it woulil \Jc on nlinor~1al or logical

:H

c

i'

a:

""

of expression.
OnsF.HY ATIOX 2 . -For aicling in the exjlTe"ion of the thoui;ht, recourse
ls oOen hnd in lan gnnr;c t o the use ofwonh which ori;.6nally ('Xprc~~ obj ects
or attributes, but whi ch, in the progrc!"s of lan~uagC', hccomc appropri~tcll to
th is particular purpose of h elping- out the supply wli cn normal for ms a l'e defi cient. 'fhcy come thus in some cases to lose th eir pro per original sig-nific.ancc, nml s ubsen·o on ly thu now use for whi ch they arc lrnrrowct\. Sncb
wonts nrc cnll ccl f "orm-1conls, or ftc·la1h·c " \ffd:-', to tl i:-<tingu i;"h th em from
words expressing notions or mo<litications of not ions which arc called ~<r.
tion-wonl::;, or rrincipal wont s. A gr11cral Yi cw of Form-words is g i\·en in
Cbnptcr Yii. of the lntroiluctory Exercises, §§ G0-6G.

§ 273. 'Vords are of two classes acconling as they do or
do not of themselves signify some subject or attribute, or a
modification of .suoh subject or attribut e.
Not·ion-words denote a subject or attribnte, or a rnoclification of a subject or attribute. They include nouns, yerbs,
adjectives, and ad v.erbs.
)?orm-ioords do not of themselves denote a snhject or attribute, or a modification of a subject or attribu te, hut are
used to denote relations of notion-worLls or modifications of
them by thought or feeling.
OnsEnV .\TIO::\'. - Smnc word ::: 1 originally n ot ion-w0rd s dC'notin~ subjects
or prcdicaf (•s. ha,·e come t o be m~c d ns mere rxprcs~ i o n s of th e copula.
Such nrc is, coutoin, equal, e tc. Hut it i:" c.l ccmc" l u111H'< 'Cl"~ a ry to cumber an
elementary treati ; e with this distinction b eyo nd this ge nera l indication of it

§ 27 4. Form-words are of the following classes : -

1. Those that indicate relations of objects of though t,
calleil Prepositions ;
2. Those that indicate relations of thought, called Con
Junctions;
3. Those that help out infl ections, called Auxilia,.Jes;
4. Those that indicate some rhetorical relation, called Expletfres;
5. Those that indicate the thought to be determine<l or
ahaped by some feeling, c:i.lled Interjections.
§ 275. Form-wo-ds, themselves, may be distinguished as

150

ADXOIDIAL FOR.\IS.

normal or almormal. Thus we have normal prepositions, as
in, at, orer; antl normal conjunction s, as and, but, because.
We h:we prepositions that may Le regarded as ah1ormal, as
concerning, notwitl1standi11g, according to, by reason of, for ·
t!te sake of; so abnormal conjunctions, as, if so be tltat, i'nas~
muclt as.
§ 27G. Prepositions with their nouns form that kind of
phrases called by grammarians Adjuncts.

· An AnJ1.:xcT is n phrnse consisting of n preposition
and the noun denoting its object; as, "Love of gold;"
"He went to Rome."
01'SV.H\".\Tln~. - One n•ljnnct may includ" i11 itself another adj:mct
mb-n!odHie1; us" lu this Ulunsiun •!/ di.itreu."

u 1

CHAPTER II.
lBNOR)l..\.L FORlIS

OF Tirn XOt:X. -

St:BJECTS. -

PRED-

ICATES.

§ 277. TnERE are three cl:1sscs of abnormal nouns used
as sJLjects or generally to tle11o:c olijct:ts of thought: 1. .Atljecti ve '~:onls, usctl to J.euote objects of tliought ;
2. V crh-forms ;
3. l\Iarks or signs of objects.
§ 278. Atljectivcs with the article the arc used as nouns;
as, "1Y1e riciuus fall into troulile ; " " The more modest are
generally the more desen:iug;" "He hath given to the poo1·."
OnsEBYATIOX. - 'Vord~. originnl1y ach·crl>s, hnt U!'ctl ns adj ecth·cs, are
al so u ~etl as not111s; n ~ , h The j lrr-1!U. amon:-; the nations." Such expres
sions, fur the most part ut lca:;t, ha ,.e come into use through a kind of Ellipsis.
4

§ 27!). Of verbs used as nouns there are two classes : (1.)
Participials; (2.) Clauses.

§ 280. A PARTICIPIAL is n derived form of the
verb used not for :1$Serting but for expressing either, 1. An object of thought; or,
2. A modification .of such an object.
Participials, accordingly, arc either, 1. Noun-participials ; as, " To thinlc 1s to act ; "
" Thci1· sending the message was the cause of the
trouble ; " or,
2. · Adjectiire-participials, more commonly called
Participles; as, "The advanc:·ing army ; " "The e;rpc :tetl messenger."

.,

152

ABNORllAL FO.RMS.

AilXOR~IAL

a. .ifs Ofiect of an attribute of action or

§ 281. Noun-participials are of two forms: 1. Tlie Infinitive; as, To tltinlc, To act;
2. T!ie Gerund; as, "Their sending the message."

153

relation ; us, -

(1.) J',1ssice, "Yet to be loved makes not to love again."
-:/'rllll!JJOll.

§_ 282. The Infinitive is a nonn•participial, having
for 1.ts form that of the simple verb, generally with
prefixC:'<l; as, " To tltinlc is to act."

FOIUIS OF THE NOL"N.

w
•

. OnsEnY ,\ TIOX 1. - In such expressions as " lie went to seek his brother "
it may seem dillicul.t to sec how we <:an regard the expression lo seek as ' 1
noun. .But the d1thculty Yani,hcs as we consider th a t origiually in such
exprnsswns lo ":"~ ·~ proper preposition, and the nrb-form, ns seek in this
~nse, ,~-as n partic1p1al noun - a gernncl. In the Anglo-Saxon, it had the
mfl~c twn of .the g-e1·t111t~, c01Tcspondin1; to the Latin form ad quwrendum.
He1e, acconhng-ly, seek 1s to be parsed as an infinith·e ancl object of lo. In
~~ 3 sentence "To seek is to tiud," to seek and lo find arc alike proper infio·
•tins ; the one the subject-noun, the other the predicate-noun; and to it
to ~e re.ga r<lc.tl as. th e mere si~n of tl~e infinith·e. The dropping of the
An,,lo-Saxon 111fimt11·e termmatwn, wluch regularh· was in an ·is /ielp-an
~o help, hus.ma~ e it necessary to retain the lo as tl;e sign of ti;~ inliuitiv~
m modern Enghsh.
OnsEP.\".\Tl<>X 2. ~Th e infiniti,·e is always to be regarded as a noun.
It now appears sornctnncs with the particle lo prefix ed . as "Tu seek is 10
n/"'
' came to seeC
fi < , ~•H I some t'11ncs wit. I1out; a~, '' llid him depm·t ,·"' "IIe

Jn ~he firot exa mple the tu is a mere sign of the i 11 tiniti,·e; in
la.is a proper .preposition, and, hence, not a sign of th e infini·
ti\ e, as it denotes the rcl:it1on of remote object-here the relation of seek to
cam~. . In lioth for11_1s. 1.lic iufiuiti\·e is, in construction and use,. a noun.
But 1t.1s a n?Lm-part1c1p1al- not a normal noun, sinl'c it takes an immedi·
ate object without a preposition; as," To setk the lost was his erralld."
·
the lo•t.

t~1~ last,_ th e

. Ons.EHYATIO:"I 3. -The ~ig~ .of the inlinitiYe-lo- is generally omitted
\\hen 1t stnnds after the act11·e forms of th e nrbs bid, in the sense of com1naml, dare, fed, find, hai·e, hear, J,elp, lt:t, mnA·e, need, 7;lease see and its
,. 8~-nonyms i a~, " He bade him d<ipart;" "The\~ helped him 1·is~." "I saw
hnn fall; " ''.I pe1:ceh·cd the apples fall;" ;, They obsern<I ;he smoke
n:ore up the SHie of the mountain;" "I noticed the boats ylide down the

stream."

§ 283. The Infinitive is used in all the 0O'eneral uses of a
noun. It is thus used, 1. As sul?fect of a sentence,· us, "To die in such a strug•
gle would be glorious."

2. As Prdicate; as, "To know a man well were to l..7W11 "
hl:uself."

( •• ) Of R~sult; as," Ile came to seek the lo~t; 11 "Able to
'11181'."

(3.) Factitfre; us," Overpowering numbers forced him to
t 11rrt11 d er."

f

2~ t.

The Infinit:ve has four forms, two of which are

tl•:c, two passive: 1. Prcs;:mt Active; as, to liare;
2. Past Active ; as, to ltave had;
8. Prl'scnt Passive; as, to be liad;
•· Pust Passive ; us, to ltave been liad.
OUl!lt\',\TIOii i. -· ~I'here. ·is one form of tile inliniti,·e noun which
~ to I.Jc pu ssi ug out of u ~e, if not to be entirely ubsol ctc in more elegant
dbto ursc. It is introduced by.fu1·, which seems here to have lost its proper
Am:e u a prcpMition and to have become a clausal conjunction (§ 328).
Tbua 'll'O fitul in l\liltun: "For his opponcntg then to skulk , to lay Jmbush_ , . , to k eep a narrow bridge of licen sing where the challenger should
tliongh it Uc n11or enough in soIUiership, is Uut weakness and cowardlc-e In tho wars of truth." The particle .fu1· in such cases set·,·cs no purpmo but to soften the abruptness there would be in introducing the infinilh'O with its suuject as togc t lter formi11g n logical subject. It is naturally
derh·cd from such forms as thi s: " It is difficult for us to understand;" that L,, "<litlicult for our un<lcrstamling-," where .fur is a prrposition. But
the particle has come to be of no significant force whate,·c1·, a11d is of the
Mme class of words as it in th e phrase'' It is an important fact," and the1·e
la the phrn•c "There is a rest; " and the clausal particl e lhf/t. The
f'onnal Auhjcct of skulk in the sentence <JUoted, is oppone11ls. The expresalon la equi,·alcnt to: "That his opponents should then skulk," etc.; or,
•The skulking of his opponents then," etc.•
There i• n si.nilar use of the preposition of, which mnst be regarded as
. II\ unauthorized proYincialism. Thus Thackeray: "It is not snuuuish <!/'
persons of rnnk of any other nation t? employ th eir knife in the manner al. hided to." The sentence is equirnlcnt to: "That persons of rank of any
ttl:er nation should employ," etc., is not snobbish.
0DJKRVATION 2. -There is nnot.1er use of the infinitive which is Ti!rt

.

• SJK'nscr uses the particle before the infinitirn without subject ex•
...-~
_~:-._

.,...

.. :~;!.

il. ·

· ./.

u No l!lhnme to Atoop, one~s hcnd more high to rear,
And, much to g:Un, a little/or to yield."
Faery Quune, D. V. cm. st. 19.

<·· --

.

... .

.
-- ....
~

154 -

AilXORlL\L

FOR~IS.

frequent an .I leirilimntr, lhnt is •on:cwhat pcculinr. lt is tliat cxprc•sir.g
Jt i!" closely nlli e<I to tl1e iutiui th·c ex
pressin h object of result, I.Jut is d en rly tli:-;ting-~i s liabl e from thnt. It i~ used

futurity; a~," The lh1y is to arr~·vr.''

primaril~· as a predicate~ arnl is propl'rly tu be regard ed us an almorma1
form of the prctli("ate. D c riratin~ ly it i ~ u~ell ul~o, like mall,\' otlH r rret.li·

catcs, as ~n acljecth·c clement to mo•W:Y an ol ~j cc t of tlu111;;hl. It muy be
characterized from its especia.1 use in llrn scnlence as the 1"ji11itire •if J'u-

11.,·it3 .

§ 285. ORAL EXERCISE. IJistinguislt tlte Iii.finilivi>s in
the following sentences, and state wlietlter tlw to, itltencvc-r
it occurs, is a Preposition or a Sign of tlie I11finitive: -You like to hear from me. To spare thee now is past
my power. Pope was not content to satisfy, he desired to
excel, and therefore always endeavored to do his best. I
was yesterday very much. surprised to hear my oiu friend, in
the midst of the service, calling out to one ,John :Matthews
to mind what he was about, and not disturb the congregation. The general good sense antl worthiness of his character make his fri eutls observe thP.se little singularities as foils
that rather set off than hlemi:sh 11is good qualities. To relieve the wretched was his pride. H e matle them give up
their spoils. Sir Roger lets me rise aud go to bed when I
please, Lliuc at his own table or in my chamber as I think
fit, sit still aml say nothing without bitld,ing me be merry.
He felt the pangs of dying enter his soul.\ To require Jess
from others than is commonly done in order to be pleased,
an<l to be more stu<lious to please them, is anothn rule of
greater impo.r tance than is easily imaginetl. "'hen I see
their hurry from couutry to town aml then from the tl•Wll
back again into the couutry, "~urely," say I to myself, "life
is vain." All our knowleuge is ourselves to know. "re live
with thP.m ; we hear them talk ; we mark the vigor of life;
we sec the scene gr:ulually change. The wis<l(lm of the
prudent is to uu<lerstanu his way.
" For not to hnYo been 11ipt in Lethe lake,
C:oulJ suvc thu sou of 'fhctis from tu die."- Sptfl#f'.

AilNOmIAL FOK\IS OF TUE NOUN.

155

· To Le without language, spoken or written, is almust lo be
without tho11g}1t.
To be neglecte<l by his contemporaries, was the pen'.l.lty
which he paitl for snrpassing them.
For n. prince to be reduced uy villainy to my <listre.ssful
circumstances, is calamity enough.
" For me to Llevisc a lougiug an<l say he lies l1ere or he
lies there, were to lie in my owu throat." - Slwkesprare.
"Nothing was more frequent than for a bailiff to seize
J::ick hy the shouhlers." - Swift.
·
Hope comes with smiles. the hour of pain to cheer.
"Thou dcuiest thee to know the way." - l~·anslation of
Erasmus' Paraphrase, Edition of Li-1 8.
The messenrrer
who was to be sent from Paris is to arrive
b
to-morrow

§ 286. vV RlTTF.~ EXERCI SE. Construct tltree sentences with I nfinitives in each of the fuur furm.~, Prcsen!
Active, Past Active, Present Pa ;;sive, Past Passive.
Construct ten sentences containing Infinitiv es witlwut
the sign " to."
§ 287. Th e GERG"'n is n noun-participi al in the form
of an inflection of the nrb; as, "J(eepin.IJ his wealth
was more difficult than acquiring it;" "He "·as justly
punished for bei'll[j found in sud1 company ; " " From ,
having been detained by this accident, he lost th e opportunity of seeing them."
§ 288. The Gcmnd has four forms : two actin ;
two pa ssive: .
.
.
.
1. The Present Actwe; "From obey mg fa1tl1fully ~o
comma nu;; efficiently j ,,
2. Tlie Past Aetfve; " From lwving obeyed faithfully,
be commancls efficiently; "
3. The P1·esent Pc1ssive; "From bei119 thus rommanded, he obeys promptly; "

•

156

157

ABNORMAL FOR:'IIS.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE NOUN.

4. Tlte Past Passive; "From having been thus commanded, he obeyed unhesitatingly."

ls the true reasonable end of studying the art> and sciences.
Some men's attributing too much to human reason, has made
others attribute too little to it. By unscrupulously taking
tho lead in its wildest excesses, he obtained the absolute
guidance of it. " By trampling on laws, he acquired the
authority of a legislator." - Jlfacaulay. " By the well-ordering and rectifying this church." - Chillingworth. "The
making plain that truth." - Jd. "The imparting scientific
definition to the immemorial doctrines of the church, constituted the defense." - Farrar. " 'Vhich [an antecedent impression J impeded the lending an impartial ear to its evidence," - Id. " The casting out devils, the raising the dead,
the healing the sick." - Id.

§ 289. 0RAJ ExmtcisE.
in the following sentences : -

JJistinguish tlw Gerunda

Till by cherishing C::csar, an<l throwing into his hands the
only thing which he wanted, arms and military command, he
made him at last too strong for himself. The resolntion 'Jf
seeking refuge in Egypt, finished the sad catastrophe of this
great man. Their appearing "foolishness " is no presumption against this. It is from our finding that the course of
Nature, in some respects and so far, goes on by general laws,
that we conclude this of the rest. True knowledge consists
in knowing things, not words. Instead of commenting upon
this fable, I shall take occasion from it to compare the different stations of life. They reproach him with being denied
the common rites of sepulture. "The memoirs of Captain
Carleton· were read even by Samuel Johnson without a suspicion of their being other than a true history." - Berkeley.
What if this grievance of gentlemen's spending several years
in learning and unlearning this jargon be all a grimace and
a. specimen only of the truth and candor of certain minute
philosophers, who raise great invectives from slight occasions, anrl judge too often without inquiring? The remov·
ing prejudices against an opinion is not to be reckoned prejudicing in its favor. I can never think that there is any
connection between truth and falsehood, no more than I can
think a thing's being unaccountable a proof that it _is divine;
though at the same time I cannot help acknowledging it follows from your own avowed principles, that a thing's being
unaccountable or incomprehensible to our reason is no suro
argument to conclude it is not divine; especially when there
11rc collatLral proofS of its being so. I cannot comprehend
why any man should conclude against the truth of the gospel, from Josephus' omitting to speak of it, any more than
frorn. his omitting to embrace it. The supplying which want

'·

§ 290. Clauses are us~d as nouns, and form a class which
may be called Clausal Nouns. They are used as subjects, as
predicates, and as objects of an action or relation : I. As Suqject; " That the earth revolves upon its axis is
now a truth of rudimentary science;" " W7zy he went is not
known ; " " Who has gone is in doubt ; "
2. As Predicate; " The proposition was, that wffrage
ought to be universal;" "The subject of inquiry was, who
came and whence he came ; "
3. As Object of action or relation ; as, " We judge that
he died;" " I do not know whether tlzey were there;" " He
traveled that he might inform his mind as well as improv11
his health;" " He waited long after the hour had expired;
until, indeed, the twilight had gone."
•
OnSERVATIO,,.-The last example but one is a proper instance of resulting ob~~ct; the object here of the action expressed in traveled. This kind of
object gcnerallv requires the preposition for . Accordingly we find thi• preposition in old authors before a clause, expressing this kind of object, a.s in
Chaucer, v. 2881: "And for the people shulde seen him all ."
. The following prepositions are now used be.fore clausal nouns: -After,
oesides, ere, except, excepting, in, notwithstanding, save, since, till, untiL
The clausal sign that may be omitted with nfte1·, ere, exCPpl. notwitl:.tr111din9, sin~e, till, until; it must be expressed after be.ides, excepting, in, 1are.

Clausal Nouns a:e of three classes : -

::..

'j.,,_w

158

159

ABNORMAL NOUNS.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE NOUN.

1. Those introduced by the Relative Pronouns who,
whose, whom, which, that, what, and their compounds ;
2. Those introduced by the Clausal Adverbs, whe~
where, whither, whence, how, why, with their compounds;
3. Those introduced by the Clausal Coujunctions ; that, if
tohether.

breathed a wish that he might see his wife before he died;
I did it that I might benefit him. Go quickly that you may
meet them.

§ 292. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the respective
kinds of Clausal Nouns in the fallowing sentences : I ask, gentlemen, what means this martial array, if its pur·
pose be not to force us to submission? Corruption imagined,
indeed, that she bad found defects in this statesman. In the
second encounter, the Templar aimed at the center of his ·
antagonist's shield, and struck it so fairly and ·forcibly, that
his spear went to shivers, and the Disinherited Knight reeled
in his saddle. I scarcely know how I can describe the im·
pression, but it seemed to me as if something strong and
stately swept around those eternal towers. I feel that I do
not and cannot describe this mighty ruin. I can only say
that I came away paralyzed, and as passive as a child. It
matters not whether our good·humor be construed into insensibility or idiotism. It was evident that they all thought
alike, and thought contemptuously of _the apparition. At
length the sun arose and filled the heavens, and clothed the
earth with his glory ; how he spent that day belongs not to
this history. Just as she went down, while her bow was yet
recumbent in the dark purple horizon, it is said that an angel
appeared standing between her horns. ·who can tell, when
he sets forth to wander, whither he may be driven by the
uncertain current of existence, or when he may return, or
whethP.r it may be ever his lot to review the scenes of his
childhood? The alarm was scarcely uttered before we were
upon her. It was some time before we could put the ship
about. It was a fine sunny morning, when the thrilling cry
of "land ! " wns heard from the mnst-head. His illness had
ao ipcreased that he had taken to his hammock, and only

§ ~93. The third class of Abnormal Nouns consists of
marks and signs of objects. Characters or symbols of any
kind that can be sounded or written, letters, figures, words!
phrases, etc., may be used as nouns ; as, "A is the first letter
of the alphabet;" ••A counterfeit five;" " 9 is the ! quaro
of 3;" " Healthy is an adjective;" " The whole is equal to its
parts, is an axiom;" "A," "five,'' "9," " 3," " healthy," and
" the whole is e<lual to its parts," are all nouns.

§ 294. ORAL EXERCISE. Name tlte different kinds
of Nouns in the following Sentences : The tree grows. Charles was absent. The sun shines.
Planets revolve about the sun. The orbits of planets are
elliptical. The nation· prospers. Society .advances.
Mind is immortal. The memory sometimes fails. Patience is a virtue. Hope animates.
Water runs. The air is cold. Space is boundless. The
sky is clear. Time passes. EYents thicken. Praise stimulates.
Forbearance is praiseworthy. To be forbearing is praiseworthy. Sleep is refreshing. To slee p refreshes. Indifference is wrong. To be indifferent is criminal.
Action is natural. To act is natural. Acting is natural.
Song is pleasing. To sing pleases. Singing pl eases. For
him to sing is uncommon.
John's departure was sudden. His going was sudden.
For him to depart was unexpected. That he should de·
part, surprised us. That he is gone, is certain. That he
will return, is doubtful. That Columbus discovered America
is not claimed.
The transgressor suffers. He that tranRgresses, suffers.
Whoso transgresses, suffers. "iVhoevcr tranrgresses, sdfera.

160

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE NOUN.

ABNORlllAL FORJllS.

Tho star twinkles. That which twinkles is a star. Right ia
safe. Whatever is right is safe. That which is right is safo.
I know the sufferer. Who suffered I know. ·whom he
injured I know. By whom it was done is in doubt. The
perpetrator is unknown. Him that cometh to me I will in
no wise cast out. The suppliant I will not reject.
Its destination was uncertain. 'Vhither it was destined
was uncertain. His traveling-conveyance is unknown. How
be traveled is unknown. The reason of his going is ascer•
tained. Why he went is ascertained.
Adverbial propositiuns of place express the where, the
whence, and the whitlier. The Anglo-Saxon language had
no j in its alphabet. There were no tens among them.
B,f, and u, before a vowel, were often interchanged; as in
ofer, ober, ouer. He answered · without an 1f or a but. A
peradventure of escape is encouraging. Dot every i and
cross every t. The thought of an hereafter appalls him.
Welcome ever smiles, and Farewell goes out sighing. For
the yeo-heave-o, and the heave-away, and the sighing seaman's cheer. 'Vhen the child is waked with "nine at
night." . .
Our country folks in Hampshire call almost every thing
he or site. A mower calls his scythe a she ; the plowman
calls his plow a she ; but a prong or shovel is called a he.
Their says-bes and says-shes are proverbial. When all that
is shall be turned to was. Upon an estate's falling to him.
The subduing prejudices and acquiring true knowledge.
Whatever we perceive, whatever we remember, whatever
we are conscious of, we have a full persuasion or conviction
of its existence. It is the vague anticipation of a brilliant
future for the child and of how deservedly it will become an
object of the world's admiration. Mark you his absolute
shall ? Thine is a strain to read among the hills. Many
such like a.s's of great charge. Who lets I dare not wait
upon I would. ·without any cautions, qualifications, ifs ot
ands. In all push and pull there is counteraction.

~

2%. \V RITTEN

161

Construct five sentence3
containing Infinitives.used as Nouns;
Five with Gerunds ;
Five with Clausal Nouns introduced by Relative Pronouns;
Five with Clausal Kouns introduced by Adverbs ;
Five with Clausal Nouns introduced by Conjunctions;
Five with Clausal Nouns depending on Prepositions;
Five with Predicates in the form of Adjunct8;
Five with .Adverbial Predicates.
11

,~- -

EXERCISE.

ABNORMAL FORMS UP THE ADJEU11VL

•

CHAPTER

III.

A.DNORMAL FORMS OF THE ADJECTIVE,

§ 296. ABNORMAL modifiers of the noun are of two
cnds:1. Words other than proper adjectives used as adjectives,
and dropping their own proper nature ;
2. W or~s so used, but retaining their own proper nature.
ILLUSTRATION. - In the phrase "mountain rill," the word mountain,
Priginally and properly a noun, is used precisely as an udjective to limit the
noun rill, retaining nothing of its proper nature as a noun. So in the
phrase, "hither Gaul," the word hither, originally an adverb, is used to
limit the noun Gaul, but loses its proper function as an adverb to modify
an attribute. But in the phrase "The rill on the mountain," the word
mounta.i n does not drop its proper force or nature as a noun denoting an object of thought.

§ 297. Words other than proper adjectives maybe usedas
adjectives to modify objects of thought, losing in such use
their own proper nature.
\
I
Nouns are frequently used thns ; as, "A mountain rill;"
" A fairy vision ; " " Sunset scene."
Adverbs and prepositions are sometimes so used ; as, "The
under cu~rent; " " Hither Gaul; " "The tlten administration."
Verbs and phrases are used in the same way ; as, " The
let-alone policy ; " " An out-of-the-way place."
0 BSERV ATIO:-i. - All such words and r hrases are logical adjectives, that
I!, are modifiers of objects of thought, an I are to be parsed as such. They
are one kind of abnomrnl adjectives.
It is often necessary to introduce a special form to prevent a doubt which
might arise whether the modification is one of property or of relation. Thut
• glau .Aouu may signify a hcnue made of glau or a houu for m111:i11g gZtu.

163

a property or a relation. Tbis ambiguity is removed by the use of a hyphen
to indicate that the modification is one of relation. Thus 11 glaM h<mse, without the hyphen, is to be presumed to denote a house made of glass. But if
a relation is to be signified, and there can be any doubt as to the meaning,
the hyphen should be used. Thu•, a glass-house, with the hyphen, means a
lwttsefor glass. So" a fancy store" means a store having thep1·opcrty of
fancifulness; 11 fancifully built or mTanged store. But " a fancy· store"
means a store for fancy articles. In the same way," a slave trader" mean.a
a trade7· who i3 a slave; while "a slave-trader" means a trader in slave.
(§ 550).

§ 298. Words other than proper adjectives may be used to
modify objects of thought, retaining their proper nature.
They are used either as demonstratives, attributives, or epithets.
'

§ 299. We may modify the object by the use of the noun
m three ways, namely:1. By .Apposition ;

2. By Case;
3. By an .AdJunct.
§ 300. We modify by .Apposition in two ways : 1. By using another name of the object ; as, " Stamboul,
Gbnstantinople, was now in sight; " " The mountain Horeb."
2. By limi ting the object itself; as, '' Goodness, an attribute of the Deity."
Nouns thus used to modify other nouns are called APPOSITIVES.

§ 301. The noun may be put in apposition with another
noun either with or without the conjunctions as and or

·as," Memory, bosom-spring of joy!"

"As a poet, he cannot claim a station in the first rank."
" Systematic education, or elementary instruction in the
various departments of literature and science."
0nSERV-\T'<1'.< 1. - There is a liability to ambiguity in the use of the conjunction er, ari•ing from the fact that the diajunction it expresses may
respect <!:tf,_:en! objects or only different names of the same object. In the
last case or.!;. 1B it employed ~·ith a noun in apposition. In the senten~

164

165

ABNORMAL FORMS.

ABNOR:IIAL FORMS OF THE ADJECTIVE.

"I saw before me two gorillas or chimpanzees," it is left in donbt whether
the speaker means to say he saw two animals of two different species, or two
animals that may be known by one or the other of two different names. ·

which a mere attribute, whether of quality, action, condition, or relation,
ID&y be predicated separately from all expression of the copula.

OnsERVATIO::<r. -The noun may be in apposition with a sentence, a clause
or other part of a sentence, when regardell as an object of thought; as
"The young cavalier was guided to the water-side by the pensioner, who
showed him considerable respect - a circumstance which may be considered ns an augury of no small consequence." Here the word cii-cumstancc
is in apposition with the preceding clause.
\

305. The forms of the verb are used in modifying an object of thought in three different ways: .
I. With a relative, forming an .Adjective-clause,·
2. .As a Participle;
3. In the Infinitive and the Gerund.
The participle or adjective participial (§ 280) is of foll?
forms, namely: 1. Present or simple active, loving,·
2. Perfect active, having loved;
3. Present or simple passive, loved, being loved; Mid,
4. Perfect passive, haring been loved.
ExAMPLE,S . Of. VERB-)IODIFIERS.
I. Definitives.
The man wlto loves virtue;
The suffering child ;
The soldier to be shot was rescued ;
The chalk/or marking tlte box was missing.
2. Epithets. Man, that was created in the divine image ;
Man, aspiring to angelic heights;
The brave general, to be daunted by no danger, led the
desperate charge.
The address, i'n i'ts observi'ng all the proprieties of the occasion, was commendable.

§ 303. The English language furnishes but one form of
modifying objects of thought by Case, other than those expressed by pronouns. It is by the use of the possessive
case ; as, "John's book."

OBSERVATION. - The forms with the infiniti'l'e and gerund are properly
adj uncts.
- Among the relati'l'e or clausal modifiers of nouns are to be reckoned
clauses introduced by adverbs; as, "The place where they laid him; " " The
year tchen I was there."

§ 304 . .An object of thought is modified, further, by an
Adjunct; as, " Love of country,·" "Honor for tlie brave ; "
" The general in the field."

§ 306. ORAL EXERCISE. JJistingui:;h the Normal
and Abnormal Modifiers of each of the obJects of thought
in the following sentences, and indicate them as IJefini. tives or Epithets : -

OnsERVATION 2. - The preposition of is used, also, before nouns that are

in their essential naturo appositiv0s1 as, "The island ef Cuba;" "The
task of translating the Scriptures;" " Th at picture of his."
Still another kinll of appo•ition ls in the use of such adverbials as namely,
l'o wit. These are used chiefly before appositive phrases or clauses.

§ 302. Appositives limit or modify in two ways: 1. By referring to some higher class to which the limited

object belongs, and thus excluding it from other classes ; as,
" Peter, the .Apostle."
2: By referring to some lower class or individual, or by
specifying some attribute to which the attention is to be
limited; as, "The eccentric movements of war, the marching
and counter-marching;" "The human form, God:s image, is
mutilated." In the former case they limit by referring to the
whole of which the object is a part; in this latter case they
limit by referring to some part to which the view is to be
confined.

OnsERVATJON. -The adjective, as a modifier of the noun, is properly to
be regarded as originally n predicate-attribute. 'Vhatever may be assumed
to admit of being predicated ns attribute of an object, mny be used to mod·
ify such object; ns every modifier of nn object must admit of being prcdi•
, cated aa attribute. We may have, therefore, adjectives in any form ill

',! •_' ' The authority of civil government is a subordinate authvr''~1ty.

i66

167

ABNORMAL FORMS.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE ADJECTIVE.

Faith makes an instrument of torture and of shame the
.adder of ascent to paradise.

has suffered much or dared much that the world mirrht be
free from any of the ills which disgraced it.
"'
I ha;e ~ver been ~rotected from such ai;prehensions by
my belief m a very simple truth - that diffused knowled"e
immortalizes itself. A mind at liberty to reflect upon
own observations, seldom fails of entertainment to itself.
There is not a breath the blue wave to curl. He has a mind
~ discourse on that theme. Voltaire, who might have seen
him, speaks repeatedly of his majestic stature. I am at the
point to die. The French_ a mighty people, combined for
the regeneration of Europe. The great golden ea<Yle the
"' away
'
p~1'd e and th~ pes.t o~ the parish, stooped down and flew
with somethmg m its talons. Few augured the possibility
that the encounter could terminate well for the Disinherited
Knight. Toward night, the schoolmaster walked over to
the cottage where his little friend lay sick. He entered a
room where a group of women were gathered.

" Some feelings are to mortals given,
With less of earth in them than heaven."-

1\'.ly connections, once the source of happiness, now im•
bitter the reverse of my fortun~ .
There never was a specimen of manhood so rich and en·
nobled as David, the son of Jesse.
Bring flowers, young flowers, for the festal board.
It does not flow like Shakespeare's style, nor dance like
Spenser's.
Wb.erever space is concerned, it is dear that amplitude or
greatness of extent is necessary to grandeur. ·.
That benevolence, the moral link which connects man
with man, is in itself virtuous, may appear to require proof.
Love, hope, and patience, these must be thy graces.
The very idea of abstract benevolence, of the desire to
do good, is hardly to be found in any other code or system.
I shall not attempt to trace the happiness upward of the
larger -animals - an ever-flowing pleasure, of which close
observers of their habits can appreciate the amount.
"From brightening fields of ether fair disclosed,
Child of the sun, refulgent summer comes.''

\

That vastness of thought which fills the imagination and
that sensibility of spirit which renders every circumstanC".e
interesting, are qualities both of Homer and of Milton.
In Milton, who was skilled in almost every department of
science, learning seems sometimes to have shaded the splen·
dor of genius.
These form the most numerous rank of men that can be
supposed susceptible of philosophy.
There is no one who can read the history of any of these
heroes of the moral scene whose life has been one continued
deed of generosity to mankind, without feeling that if there
be virtue on earth, there has been virtue in that bosom whie&

its

" Onward! there are ills to conquer:
Onward! while a wrong remains
To be conquered by the right;
While Oppression lifts a finger
To affront us by his might.''

The parade of it can only serve to draw on her the envy,
and consequently the most inveterate hatred of all he and
she fools.

§ 307. WRITTEN EXERCISE. JJiodify the following
Nouns by Abnormal Modifiers, in each of the forms specified below : John, Peter; Smith, Washington.
The ox, the camel ; the ocean, the mountain · gold air·
.
'
' '
~ngle, ~1rcle ; year, month ; heart, memory; judgment, feel•
mg ; v_1rtue, fortitude ; goodness, justice.
Power, economy, character, custom, college, asylum, idolatry, eloquence, slander, habit, intemperance, emulation, in·
atruction, care, riches, contentment, authorship, genius.

168

ABNORMAL FORMS

I. BY THE NoUN: 1. in apposition; (1.) as a demon
· .l
strative or attribute; (2.) as an epithet;
2. By case ,·
8. By an adjunct: (1.) as a definitive; (2.) as an epi-

thP.t.

II. BY THE VERB: 1. with a relative; (1.) as a defini- .
tive; (2.) as an epithet;
2. By a participle: '(I.) as a definitive; (2.) as an epithet ,·
8. B!j the t"nfinitive, and the gerund.

CHAPTER IV.
ABNOIUIAL FOR;\IS OF THE ADVERB.

.

t

§ 308. AnNOirnAL modifications of the predicate are of
threo classes : 1. Other parts of speech used as adverbs ;
2. Phrases;
3. Clazises. " ·
§ 300. Other parts of speech are used as adverbs, to rood·
ify the predicate ; as, I. ./'louns ; '' He went home;"
2. Adjectives; "Right early; "
3. Participles ; " He rocle seated between two officers ; ''
"They went away sorrowing,·"
4. Infinitives and Gerunds; " Convenient for 01:erseeing
tho work;"

\

"Smiles with altered air
To see thee climb his clbow~hair;"

\

5. Prepositions ; " He went down."
§ 310. ADVERBIAL PrrRASES are: I. Adjuncts; as, " The sun sets in glory;" " All this,

Sculpture has embodied in perpetual marble;" " Easy to
see."
2 . .Nouns witli participles, forming the Case Independent
or Case Absolute, so called ; as, " The convention adopted
the measure, a considerable minority opposing it;" " They
aaile.d up the river, the tide being in tl1eir favor."

. :.-r

)

.

· § 311. _CL.A.USES aroused to modify the predicate both in

--.
170

171

ABNORMAL FORMS.

ABNORMAL FORMS OF THE ADVERB.

respect of property and of relation ; as, " He did :zs he waa
directed;" " But at the nuptial feast, when all sate down, the
bride herself was wanting;" "They Rtood where the combatants fought their decisive battle; " " Holland is richer today than she was when she sent her navies up the Thames."
Ons1mv ATION. - In this last example there are several adverbials to be

1cape, gradually to disappear, the mind can receive no solace
biit from its own ideas · and reflections. Not many generations ago, where you now sit encircled with all that exalts
and embellishes civilized life, the rank thistle nodded in the
wind, and the wild fox dug his hole unscared. After this
bustle of preparation, and amid the silence which follows it,
Henry .B rougham takes •a slow and hesitating step toward
the table, where he stands crouched together, his shoulders
pulled up, his head bent forward, and his upper lip and nos·
tril agitated by a tremulous motion, as though he were afraid
to utter even a single sentence. It seems easier to do right
to-morrow than to-day, merely because we forget that, when
to-morrow comes, then will be now. During her wane,
while inferior luminaries were brightening around her, he
waa' growing fainter and smaller every evening.

distinguished. The whole clause in Italic.• is one, modifying is 1-icher; the
closing part from when, is another, modifying was - rich being ·understood;
up I.to 1'hnmes, is a third, modifying sent
It ahould be borne in mind that the modifier of any attribute, word, or
phrase, is an a<lverbia!. The primitive attribute is the proper predicate.
From the predicate is derived first the adjective limiting an object of
thought; and, then, the adYerbial, sub-modifying a predicate; or, at still
lower grades, either an adjective or an adverbial derivative from a predi· cate.
Adverbials, accordingly, in all the form•, except those of nouns, adjectives, and participles, are used to modify adjectives and othef adverbials, as
well as proper predica tes. Thus we have adverbial modifi ers of adjectives;
as, "I-Ian! to understr111d;" " Fit j&r accomp/ishiny his purpose;" "Active
in and out;" "Faithful at his post;" " Successful, his means being consi.de·r ed;" "Prompt when his country called."
In like manner we have adverbials modifying other adverbials; as," Hard
to understand in any satisfact01·y degree;" "Faithful at his post whenever
his heollh aUmoed."

§ 312. , ORAL EXERCISE. Point out tlie Abnormal Adverbials in the following sentences, and name the kind, as
well as also tlie predicate or attribute word or phrase
which they respectively modify: \
.
They rejected, with contempt, the ceremonious homage
which other sects substituted for the pure worship of the
soul. He understood by their signs that they wished to be
informed whence he came. She herself drew the design of
that monument with her own -hand, and left it. with me when
. she went away. Cowper said, fifty or sixty years ago, that
he dared not name John Bunyan in his verse, for fear of
moving a sneer. ·we live in better times. Admirable ae
the natural world is for its sublimity and beauty, who would
compare it, even for an instant, with the sublimity and beauty
of the moral world. When life begins, like a distant land•

ABNORMAL FORMS OF MODALS.

•
CHAPTER V.

.....

~ 317. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the JJfodals in
the following sentences, and name t!te kind, and also the
Copula used, which t!tey respectively modify : -

§ 314. Modals, further, are in respect of their form of
three classes : '
1. Single words, or Proper Modals;
2. .llfodal Phrases;
3. Modal Clauses.

\

§ 315. Modal phrases are in the form of adjuncts; as t"n
fact, in truth, in verg deed; or of the case absolute ·'as
"0 ur opm10n,
. . sueh a state of things being supposed would
' '
be very different."
'

§ 31 G. l\Iodal clauses are indicated either, l. !3Y modal conjunctions; as, alt!wugl1, albeit, notwitlt.
ttanJwg, ltowei·er, unless, except; if, provided; whereas,
rince, seeing, because, than, w!tetl1er ,· as, ".Although lte slag
me, I will trust in him; " "However improbable th1 1tatemenl

mag seem, the judge decidecl in favor of the criminal;" " If
it were nc-t so, I would have told you;" or,
. 2. By a transposition without a conjunction; as, "Were it
not so, I would have told you ; " " ]fad he inquired, he woul<l
have learned."
OnsEHVATI0:-1. - It is obvious that judgments admit in their own nature
of being modified indefinitely, as the contingency and necess ity expressed
may be more or less relati\'e or absolute. l\Iorco\'er, as the modilicalion
!Luy be of the judgment itself, or of the form of expressing it, and may
also be mental or material, relath·e to the subject or predicate, or irrelatirn,
and, still further, if irrelatil•e, may be a pure judgment, or j ndgment modified either by the desire or the will of the speaker, we may have various
comliinations of modifications of the same judgment. As in the sentence:
"The trutl. might possibly in a certain sense ha\'e been dimly apprehended
by the human reason, .had the spirit maintained its original purity." Here
we ha Ye four moclifications of the one judgment: 1. In the potential
auxiliary might; 2. In the proper morlal, possibly; 3. In the formal modal,
in a ce1'tain sense; 4. In the conclitional, had the spirit, etc. These are all,
as modifiers of the copula, to be carefully distinguished from the adl'erb
dimly, which modifies the predicate.

ABNOR:l!AL FOR:lIS OF MODALS.

§ 313. ArrnomrAL modifications of the Copula are, in
respect of their significance, of three classes : ·
1.
Those
simply
indicatin(J'
the
character
of
the
assertion
•
•
0
ID ~~ahty or degree;. as, not, _certainlg, truly, verily, really,
positivelg, absolutely, indeed; also, in certain ·. connections,
naturallg, readilg, easily, in truth, in verity; more, much
more, no more ;
2. Those indicating contingency in higher or lower degrees ; as, perltaps, peradventure, possibly, probably; i"n all
probability; by possibility,·
3. Those indicating necessity in higher er lower degrees;
as, necessqrily; of necessity.

173

,.

He that is his own foe, will assuredly be destroyed. By
suffering we may possibly avoid sinning; but by sinning, we
certainly cannot avoid suffering. He of necessity remains
weak who never tries exertion. If you would teach secrecy
to others, begin with yourself. Though good sense is not in
the number, nor always, it must be owned, in the company
of the sciences, yet it is fairly worth them all. Bid farewell
to all greatness, if envy stir within thee. His estimate of
human nature was probably not very high. The main
points have been infused so early, that, be the proofs ever
so plain, it is a hard matter to convince a mind thus tinctured and stained. If Luther had been born in the tenth
century, he would have effected no reformation. We may
die, it may be, ignominiously and on the scaffold. 'Vould
you listen to conscience, it would tell you whether you really

I

174

ABNORMAL FORMS.

do as you would be done by. Were you omniscient, you
might be allowed to rule. If he had gone farther, he might
have fared worse. Had he gone farther, he might have
fared worse. Would you break any spell that worldly feeling or selfish -sorrow may have spread over your mind, go
and see the Coliseum by moonlight.
The angle A is greater than the angle B; much more is
it greater than C, which ha11 been proved to be less than B.
Can the branch improve when taken from the stock which
gave it nourishment; dependent spirits can no more be
happy when parted from all union with the F ather of
Spirits. Whether he confess or not, the truth will certainly be discovered. Our season of improvement is short;
and whether used or not, will soon pass away. We might,
did our limits allow, refer to the metaphysical argument.

CHAPTER VI.
PREPOSITIONS.

§ 318. A

PREPOSITION

is a word used to show

&·.1me relation of an object of thought; as, "Love of

gold ; " " He went to Rome."
§ 319. Prepositions express a twofold relation of objects : 1. As attributes or . predicates ;
2. .As limiting or modifying adjuncts.
We have, accordingly, either, - 1. Predicate Aqjunct1,
or. 2. Modifying Ad:functs.
ILLUSTRATION. - In the sentence," The sun is in the
heavens," the preposition in serves to indicate the predicate
of condition. In the sentence, " The sun rises in the east,"
the preposition indicates that the east is used to limit or
modify the predicate rises.
OrsERVATION 1.-The use of prepositions to indi cate limiting words is
derived from the use of them to indicate a predicate. Just as enry adjective used to limit a noun must be supposed to have been originally a predicate, so phrases with prepositions used to Ji·nit objects of thought must be
supposed to have been originally phrases expressing predicates. At least,
only so far as such limiting phrases can be used as predicates in sentences
haviug the objects they limit for subjects, are they admiHSible in language.
·we can, thus, use the phrase in the heavens to limit the sun, as the sun in tft
heavens, only as we can say the sun is in the heavens, using the phrase as a
predicate.
OnsEHVATION 2. - Prepositions are used in compounding verbs, both in
anion with the simple verb, as over-tax, and separately, as reJoice in, despair
ef. That these last forms and others like them are proper compounds appear• from the fact that they are used in the passive form; as," llis life was
despaired of."

· .,. § 320.

Prepositions are, in respect of form, either single

176

177

ABNORMAL FORMS.

PREPOSITIONS.

words or phrases ; as, at, bg, in, upon ; hard by, close upon,
in the midst of.

among, amongst, bP,hind, below, beneath, beside, be.1ide~ beyond, oppoaite.
3. TIME : After, since, till (formerly used also in relation to place), until,
during, ere, pending.
4. SouncE, and h ence QUALITY, PossEss10,., CAUSE: Of, off, out of,
beca use of, from.
&. DtHECTION: Down, up, about, round, around, to, into, unto, toward,
towards, against, along, across, athwart, through, thro11ghout, through to.
6. OBJECT: For, to, of, about, concerning, regarding, respecting.
7. CONNECTION: 'With, besides, among.
8. EXCLUSION: But, bating, excepting, notwithstanding, except, saYe.

OBSERVATION. - Words usually deemed prepositions occur in certain
fonns of expression in which it may be <liilicult to determine whether they
are to be considered prepositi'lns, or adYerbs, or conjunctions; ns in tl,e sentence: " Is there n God to swear by, and is there none to believe in, ·none to
trust inf" u He walked ac1·oss;" "He passed over." Such expre~sions
are elliptical adverbials. In the first sentence, the expressions arc equivalent to "Is there a God by whom to swear'?" In the last two, the objects
of across and nver are to be understood, which with the prepositions form
adverbials modifying the verbs.
In such sentences as "He went notwithstandtng it stormed; " " He went
afte1· the stor .n h2d passed;" notwithstandinq and after may more correctly
be considered as prepositions with their objects expressed in the clauses
thnt follow them, than as conjunctions.
Such expressions as at once, forever, till then, from thence, are adverbial
phrases, consisting of prepositions and words that were orfginally nouns or
pronouns,. but now ha Ye the form of adYerbs.

§ 321. Prepositions are, in respect to their origin, derived from notion-words of the different classes.
By, nigh, save, through, till, are thus supposed to be de-..
rived from verbs.
Notwithstanding, concerning, during, except, and others
are from participles.
In, out, to, of, are supposed to have been originally adverbs.
Aboard, beside, are examples of considerable classes of
words from nouns compounded with the primitive prepositions, a for an or on, as in the phrase I go a:fislting, and be,
now written by.
Into, unto, witliin, are compounded of primitive prepositions.
Compounds of prepositions with adverbs and adjectives
ue numerous; as, witltout, along, below, beyond, tltrougltout.
OBSERVATION. -The following is a li$l of the prepositions chiefly in
nso in the English lnngunge, distributed in respect of the different classes
of rci~tions which they indicate: 1. PLACE nnd Trn E: At, afler, before, between, betwixt, by, from, ID
on, upon, near, nigh, next, past, to, within, without.
SL PLACE: Abaft, aboard, above, under, o\·er, mid, midat, amid, amidat,

§ 322. The object of the preposition in an adjunct may
be expressed in any kind of noun, normal or abnormal.
OBSERVATION. - .EYen phrases in the form of predicate adjui1cts may be
used after preposi tions; as, "Instead of in shoes:" "Entrance in nt the
gate;" "In the courts and halls of legislation instead of i n the fields of
battle." Prepositions were more freely used formerly before clauses than at
present. Thus Spenser: "To that their faces most fou le and filthie were.' '
So Il&rrow: "That we in lik e cases are not mo,·ed doth arise from that we
have very glimmering and faiut conceptions of those matters."

u

CONJUNCTIONS.

CHAPTER vrr
CONJUNCTIONS.

§ 323. A CONJUNCTION is a word used to indicate
some relation in the thought itself; as " He has been
diligent, and he will probably succeed ; " " He will
succeed if he be diligent ; " " He was diligent but un-fortunate."
OBSERVATION. -A Conjunction differs from a Preposition in this: that
a pr~position ever points to a relation between an object of thought and a
'?od1.fier or an attribute of it; while a conjunction always points to a relation 1? t~e tl1~ught itself. This relation to the thought may be either of
two d1~tmct_ kinds: that in connecting. or in modifying.
ConJ_unctions .e.xp.:ess relations between different thoughts, by connecting
them 1~ one. I h~y connect sentences, principal elements of sentences,
mod1fnng e~e.men~s of _all kind~, and e.-en mere form-words. They differ
from prepos1t10ns m tins: that m connecting they indicate at least a movement of th?1~ght from one o~ject or relation to another, implying distinctness or d11lerence; whereas prepositions indicate only a limitation of a
single object or relation. Thus in the sentence, "John and James have
arrived," we have. distinct objects presented, and the thought exhibited as
pas.sin? from one to th~' other; ~e have a double monment of thought;
w~1le ·~ t?e sentence, John unth James has arrived," we have but one
object )muted or modified by the adjunct; there is but one movement of
thougl'.t .. The_ difference here is slight, it is true, but we can recognize it·
and tlus 1s an mstance of the closest approximation of the two classes 0 {
word• to_ each_ other: _Gene r~lly the difference is wide and easily recognized.
The conjunction ongmates m the thought, and indicates relations in that·
the preposition originates in the object of thought, and indicates relation;
In that as a whole to some one or other of its parts.
The other us~ of Conjunctions is in modifying the thought-element of a
B~ntence, as to its ground or condition. It indicates, in this use, the relation. of a clause or a clausal phrase to the copula; as, "I will go, if it br '
possible;" "I will g~. if po,sible."
While there is the rau:cal distinction indicated above bet.ween the con_unctio~ lllld the prepositiou the one grounding itaelf in the thought, the

179

other in the matter of thought, it should be borne in :nind tlut ~re lation or
modification of thought may ofCen Le tran sferred to the matter of thought,
that is, to the object, with a hardly noticealole cha nge in the meaning of
the sentence . · Thus, "Alexander was possibly conqueror in the battle,"
may be changed to the form, "Alexander wus possib le conqueror in the
battle;" - the contingent modification expressed by p ossibly and possible
being transferred from the thought to the matter without much affecting
the import of the sentence. So the same word may be regard ed as a preposition or as a conjunction: h None bul John went." If bnt be referred to
the thought, then it must be regarded as a conj unction , and the se ntence
be equivalent to: "None but he went," in which form of the sentence
we mu~t supply a verb, that is, a form of proper thought. If, however,
/nu be referred to the matter of thought, we must regard it as a preposition,
and tr.~at the sentence as equivalent to" None but him went," where hirn
is object of the preposition. So in" Save only he," save is a conjunction;
but in " Save only him," it is a preposition.
Tbe same principle of distinction applies to parts of sentence>. If the
relation expressed by the form -word be betwee n thoughts as in proper
clauses, it is a ·conjmiction; if between objects of thought, it is a preposition. In" John and James went on a pedestrian excursion," we have a
conjunct.ion, the and referring the mind to an actua l or represented assertion; here, to the assertion expressed in the verb wrnt . Jn ''John with
James went on a pedestrian excursion," we have a preposition, the word
with referring the mind to no affirmation, but only to objects of thought..
If sometimes the re seems to be little if any difference in the meaning , the
distinction is yet fundamental, and can always be a;ipreciated in accurate
discourse
As might naturally be supposed from the fact that form-words are derived from notion-words, in many sentences we can consider them in either
light. Thus in the sentence, " Hinder me not, see ing that the Lord hath
prospered my way " (G enesis xx iv. 56 ), the word " seeing " is properly regarded as a conjunction, y et it might be regard ed as a participle having the
clause as its object.
Jilol wilhstn.ndin,q is, like but, sometimes a preposition, :sometimes a conjunction; as, "lv...otwithstanding the storm;" '~ Notwilli st.anding it stormed." In
the sentence, "J.Vutwitltstanding that it stormed," it is more correct to regard it as a preposition, fort.he conjunction that indicates that the clau se is
to be tak en as an object. The one or the other form of expression will be
adopted acconling as the speaker wishes to turn the attention on the thought,
the affirmation, or on the object.

§ 324. Conjunctions are of three general ciasses: 1. Coiirdinate ;
2. MfJdijyin9;
3. Clausal.

I

f'
i

ABNORMAL FORMS.

5. CooRDINATE CONJUNCTIONS connect

CONJUNCTIONS.
senter.~es,

parts of sentences as modifiers; as, "The event, though pvssible, is hardly probable."

1-xirt.S--ofsentences:-- They are of the following spe· .
cies:1. Copulatives : and, also, too, both, besides, likewise, further, furthermore, moreover.
2. Disjunctives: or, nor.
3. Intensives : even, yea, nay.
_ 4. Adv_er_sativ_~s: but, though, albeit, although, except, unless, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however, still, only, yet:~·-·
·--- 5:· lllatives: since, seeing, because, for, as, whereas,' then,
so, therefore, wherefore, accordingly, consequently, hence,
thereupon, whereupon.
6. Comparatives : as, than.
§ 326. The relation of simple coordination ·m ay exist between whole sentences or even paragraphs or chapters; and
also between any like elements of a sentence.
EXA)IPLES.

1. ObJect of thought. Air is a fluid ; Air and water are
fluids.
2. Copula. It is true ; It is and must be true.
3. Predicate. The sun is round ; The sun is round and
bright.
\
4. Modifier of Object. The wise ifan ;_The wise a11d
good man.
5. llfodifier of Copula. He may have erred; He may
possibly and probably have erred in his opinion.
6. 11-Iudi.fier of Predicate. The sun was totally eclipsed;
The sun was totally and visibly eclipsed.
7. Sub-modifier. The wisely and greatly virtuollb have
been the highest benefactors of the race.
8. Form-word. "in and through him."
§ 827. l\IoDIFYING CONJUNCTIONS indicatti clauses as
modifiers. They arc chiefly Conditionals; as, if, provided,
tmlen. Tho adversat.ivos are also used to indicate clausal

01'SERV ATIO)I. - Except and save were formerly used as conj unctions of
this clas3; as, "!?or except we had lingered, 3urcly now we ha<l returned."
- Gen. xliii. 10; " Can two walk together, except they be agreed'! "-Amo•
iii. 3; "There was no s tranger with us in the house sace we two in the
house ." But these words are now generally u!oied as prepo:sitio11s, with the
clauses as their objects. Originally such expressions were i11sta11ces of the
case absolute. Thus the phrase," Except these bonds" (Acts xx,·i. 2G), is
in the Latin ,-ersion, "Exceptis his i-inc·ulis," and is translated by Wiclif,
"outakun '= ont-taken) these bondis."

'

§ 328. CLAUSAL CONJUNCTIONS simply indicate that
clauses are used as nouns to denote objects of thought.
The Clausal Conjunctions are : 1. That, used with a Categorical Proposition; as, " That
he went is certain."
2. Whether, used with an Interrogative Proposition; as,
" Whether he has arrived is not known."
3 . .lf was form erly used with an Interrogative Proposition ; but this use is now not so cornrnon ; as, " I know not
if it be so."
4. Lest, used before a clause denoting an object; as, "I
feared lest they shoulu arrive and find us unprepared."
OusERYATIO~. - Th al was originally a demonstrative pronoun. lt came
easily to be used to indicate that a form of words properly expre,s ing a
jndg ment, was employed to express the judgmen t a s represe nted, that is,
as a mere object of thought. " That he was present," tlius, properly means:
"That proposition, nam ely, lie was present."

§ 329. Conjunctions in respect to their origin, are, like
prepositions, derived frJlllLO_ther parts of _speech. _
Thus we have,. 1. From Prepositions, besides, but, for, before, since;
2. From Adverbs, accordingly, also, as, now, yet, still,
otherwise, as, however, nevertheless, likewise, consequeutlyi
therefore ;
·
3. From Adjectives, that, both, either, neither, or, nor
-whether;

•

_· ....

182

ABNORMAL FORl\lS.

4. From Participles; notwithstanding, provided, saving;
seeing.
5. From Verbs, if, though.
OnsERVATION. -Wor<.ls used as conjunctions arc, many of them, alao
used as other parts of speech. This is apparent from an inspection of th~
Ii.st giYcn aboYe.

§ 330. Two or more Conjunctions are often used in con•
nection ; as, and besides, but also.

§ 331. They are also used in correlation; one in one of
the related members, and another in the other.
Examples of the correlative conjunctions, are : As - as ;
as - so ; so - as; both - and; both - and also; eithP.r
- or ; neither - nor ; whether - or ; although - yet; although - still ; although - nevertheless ; although - notwithstanding.
§ 332. They also appear in abnormal forms as phrases or
as clauses ; as, at least ; as well as ; forasmuch as ; inasmuch
as; if so be that; insomuch that. Such forms of expression are conjunctfre phrases or clauses.

~ 333. ORAL EXERCISE.
Point out the several
7cinds of Conjunctions in the following sentences : We live in better times ; and we are not afraid to say
that, though there were many clever men in England during
the latter half of the seventeenth century, there were only
two great creative minds.
Man delights me not, nor woman ; though, by your smiling, you seem to say so.
l\'ly lord, we had no such stuff in our thoughts; but we
smiled to think, if you delight not in man, what scanty entertainment the players shall receive from you.
The effect which he produced depended less on his perw
sonal qualities than on the circumstauccs in which he was
placed.
In these circumstances, the sciences improve rapidly, and

•

CONJUNCTIONS.

183

c~iticism among the rest; but poetry in the highest sense of
the word disappears.
Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it lest ye
die.
'
What rests but that the mortal sentence pass?
Its qualities exist since they are known, and are knowu
because th ey exist.
Under the Ptolemies, Egypt recovered much of its pros•
por:ity, albeit theirs too was an alien rule.
That there should be more species of intelligen t creatures
above us than there are of sensible and material below us
.
'
IS probable to me from hence : that in all the visible corpo·
real world, we see no chasms.
If this .be proba~!e, we have reason to be persuaded that
there are far more species of creatures above us than there
are beneath.
And yet of all those distinct species we have no clear
distinct ideas.
'
Still, however, she preserved her humility and shamefaced·
ness, till her crescent had exceeded the first quarter. Hitherto she had only grown lovelier, but now she grew prouder
at every s:ep of her preferment.
The support of their cattle made the article of water also
r. very important point. And, therefore, the book of Genesis will furni sh us with frequent instances of violent contentions concerning wells.
If education has been rightly conducted, it will teach the
man to suffer with dignity, with honor, nay, with profit.
He may even gain honor by the exertions made to prec
vei1t, or by the disposition shown during the deep adve{&it:r

-""

..
AUXILIARIES. .

§ 338. AN

EXPLETIVES. -

EXPLETIVE

IXTEI:JECTIONS.

185

is a word 'vithoqt sirrnifi·
0

cance in itself, used to indicate some relation in the ex-

pression.

'
!
I•

I

I

CHAPTER VIII.
Al"XlLB.IlIES. -

EXPLETIVES. -

INTERJEOTIONB.

§ 334. AN AuxrLIARY is a word used in the inflec_lion of words; as, shall see; may see; more right·
eous.
-Tho word which is inflected by the aid of tho auxiliary
called the p1·incipnl word. Tha two together form whut is regarded as
one word- a composite word. Miyht have been loved, thus, .is regarded aa
one word.
·
OnsERVATIO!'l.

18

§ 335. Auxiliaries are of"two classes:1. Verb .Auxiliaries, used in the inflection of verbs ;
2. .Auxiliaries of Comparison, used in the inflection of adjecti ves and adverbs.
§ 336. Verb Auxiliaries are: 1. The J?mphatic: do and its inflections;
2. The Passive: be and its inflections;

3. Tense : have, had,· shall, will;
4. Mood: must; may, can; might, co~ld, would, should;
/et ,•
I
I
5. Infinitive: to.
OnsERYATW:-<. -These auxiliaries are likewise used in their proper
primith·c signification, except &/1111/, must, may, miyht, could, and should. It
is n&::•Jssary carefu lly to distingui' h between these two uses.
Tl e sign of the lnfinith·e to differs from the other nux ilinrles, as a form·
;voro from a notion-word. 1t primitively point~ to a relation in the sen·
tence. lt was in fact a preposition haYing a gerundh·e noun as its object.

§ 337. The Auxiliaries of Comparison are more, most,
less, least; as, more righteous, least important.
OLSEll\'ATIO:-<. -These au:o:ilinries nre nlso used as principal words; it
la, therefore, important to keep th.., twofold use in view, in order to avoid
error in expression.

§ 339. The Expletives are:-

1. Ji'or, used to show that the infinitive with its subject is
used as a subject of the sentence; as, " For me to resist
would be madness."
2. The Rhetorical Expletives it and there, used to show
that the sentence is inverted; as, "It is certain that he knew
it"= "That_he knew it is certain ; " " There is a pleasure
in the pathless woods " = " A pleasure is in the pathless
woods," or, "A pleasure in the pathless woods is."
3. The Interjectional, used to express a feeling, what; as,
" What I " said I, " does Virtue then resi<le in the vale ? "

§ 340. An INTERJECTION is a word expressive of
feeling ; as, Oh! Alas !
§ 341. Interjections are of two general classes : -

1. Those originally expressing mere feeling ; as, Fie,
pshaw;
2. Those originally expressing some object or attribute,
but subsequently used to express feeling mainly.
§ 342. Of the first class, may be enumerated the following species : 1. Those expressing feeling generally ; as, 0 , oh, ah ;
2. Those expressing joy; as, Io, ha, huzza, hurra, hey·
day;
3. Sorrow; as, Alas, welawa (old) ;
4 . .Ai:crsion and contempt; as, Fie, fy, faugh, foh, pish,
pshaw, fudge, poh, pooh, tush, tut, whew ; aroynt, avaunt;
5. Surprise or curiosity; as, Heigh, hey ; eh, lo, la ; oho,
haha; .6.' A. call generally; as, Ho, soho, hallo, holla, hoy, ahoy.

hem.

186

ABNOHMAL FORMS.

7. A call to silenr.e ; as, Hush, hist, whist, mum ;
8. Calls to animals; as, Whoa, haw, etc.
§ 343. Of the second class are : 1. Inlensfres; as, Indeed, truly; zounds, sdeath (abbrevi.
ations of "By his wounds,''" By his death''.) , with forms of
adjuration ;
2. Words of greeting and parting; as, Hail, welcome,
good-morning, adieu, good-by, farewell, etc. ;
3. Words of praise or censure ; as, Good, bravo, welldone ; shame, etc. ;
4. Words of incitement or checking; as, On; hold, soft,

etc.
OnsERVATIO:s.-1\Iany of this second class may often be treated as parts
sentences, and be parsed as Ycrbs, or adjecth·cs, or M n~un•,
to be connected in thought with words not expressed.

or elliptical

\

\

•,

CHAPTER IX.
COllPOGND SENTENCES.

§ 344. A CoMPOGND SKNTEXCE consists of tw1J .1r
more simple sentences; as, "The war is over and
peace has come ,; .'' '.' In the best books, great men talk
to us, give us their most precious thoughts, an<l pour
their souls int~ ours."
§ 345. The simple sentences that make up a compound
sentence, may be joined, 1. By a conjunction; as, "All other points and duties are
relative and subordinate, as parts or means ·; "
2. By a relative; as, "Those great masters of pedantry
and jargon have coined several systems, which are all
equally true, and of equal importance to the world."
§ 346. Compound Sentences are of different kinds, accord·
ing to the relation between the simple sentences : 1. COPULATIVE; as," For all his days are sorrows, and bis
travail grief; yea, his heart taketh not rest in the night ; "
"He confessed his crime as well as his companions;" "Nothing can stand the test of his correct judgment, which is
equally severe to poets and parsons;"
2. DISJUNCTIVE; as, "I am greatly deceived or be was
present;" "Either the universe had a creator or it exists by
chance;"
3. ADVERSATIVE ; as, "The wind has changed, but it
r.ontinues to rain;" "He is poor, yet he gives freely;"
4. ILL.A.TIVE ; as, " Matter is in itself inert ; therefore

'·

188

ABNORMAL FORMS.

there is a mind that moves it ; " " I am at peace, for I have
done right ; "
5. COMPARATIVE; as, "Young men are fitter for execution than they are for counsel."
§ 347. In compound sentences, there is often an ellipsis
of one or more of the three principal elements, the subject,
the predicate, and the copula ; as also of the Conjunction
and of the Relative. As the sentence "John and Jame~
crossed the bridge,'' is equivalent to the compound sentence
",John crossed the bridge and James crossed the bridge."
In the following sentences there is an ellipsis either of tho
Conjunction or the Relative: "Thy chains are burst, thy
bonds are riven ; " " Other foundation can no ma n lay than
that is laid."
·.

§ 348. 1\Iembers of a simple sentence of the same order,
whether clauses, phrases, or single words, are united like
sentences by conjunctions into compound members. We
have thus the following classes of compound members of
sentences: 1. co~JPOUND CLAUSES: "If he liad been present and
had not participated in the disturbance, his case would be
different ; "
2. co~IPOUND PHRASES ; as, " A Gbd above us and for
us is the God we need ; "
\
3. ColIPOUND SUBJECTS ; as, "James and Jolin are well
matched;"
4. COMPOUND PREDICATES ; as, " The air is oxygen and
ni'trogen;"
5. Co)IPOUND COPULAS; as, "To be divine He 1"s and
must be;"
6. Co)IPOUND l\IODIFIERS; as, " The prudent and dili'grmt man prospers;" " The suffering but vi'rtuous poor
claim our sympathy and help ; " " TIM wisely and greatly

p><I."
Onu1w ATIO!( 1. - Care will often be requisite In order to distinguiab

COllIPOUN::> SENTENCES.

189

wheth er the sentence is a compound sentence, or contains only compound
elements. Thu•, "John and James are diligent" is a compoun d sentence,
having two distinct subjects, as it means ".John is diligent; James is diligent." But "John and James are united" is n simple sen tence with a
compound subject; for the predicate cannot be affirmed of each separately,
but only of the two united.
OnsERVATIO~ 2. - It is to be borne in mind, further, that the relath·e
clause, whether pronominal or adnrbial, may be used as well in modifying
as in connecting sen tences. A clo se investi ga tion will often be necessary,
in odE r to determine in which way it is used.

§ 349. ORAL EXERCISES. Distinguish the Relative
Clauses in the following selections as modifying, or as
forming compound sentences, or parts of sentences : 0 soft are the breezes that play round the tomb. I have
roamed where the hill-foxes howl, and eagles cry. Uneasy
lies the head that wears a crown.
Thou scalp'st thy victim
while his pulse yet beats. Study Nature, whose laws and
phenomena are all deeply interesting. Peace rules the day,
when reason rules the mind. 'Vhile the subject starved, the
beast was fed. ·what is more wonderful than the human
eye, that sees all around? vVar is a tremendous evil to
which many have unhappily resorted. Cherish true patriotism, which has its root in benevolence. Columbus was sent
to the University of Padua, where he acquired such knowledge as was then taught. Macpherson, who has given us
some highly original images, spoils half his work by forgetting that his bard was a Gaul. Without fairness of mind,
which is only another phrase for disinterested love of truth,
great native powers of understanding are perverted. The
father of history was Herodotus, from whom we have an account of the Persian War. The age of miracle~ is past.,
while that of prejudice remains. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. He visited Paris, where
he continued his investigations: The book may be com·
mended even to the tender mercies of the cynics, who may
learn something from its large-hearted charity.

' Distinguish tl1e kind of Compound Sentence, or Com-

190

ABNORMAL FORMS.

pound Member :>f a Sentence, in tlie following selections : Since thou art but of dust, be humble and be Wise. What
stronger breastplate than a heart untainted! They fly, or
maddened by despair, fight but to die. Age shakes Athena's
tower, but spares gray Marathon. Short views we take, nor
see the lengths behind. Down bend the banks, the trees de·
pending grow. Scarce could they see or hear their foes. I
lisped in numbers, for the numbers came. He had neglected
or sacrificed their dearest interests, but he had struck their
imaginations. When Columbus had fini~hed, they sank on
their knees, and raising their clasped hands to Heaven, their
eyes filled with tears of joy and gratitude, they poured forth
thanks to God for so great a providence. The sensation,
though' it was very novel, was exceedingly delightful. If
they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and
poets, they were deeply read in the oracles of God.
He left to his infant successor a famished and miserable
people, a beaten and humble army, provinces turned into
deserts by misgovernment and persecution, factions dividing
the army, a schism raging in the court, an immense debt, an
innumerable household, inestimable jewels and furniture.
Virgil has, all along, kept his eye upon Homer; in many
places, he has not so much imitated as he has literally trans·
lated him.
Such a medley of contradictions, and, at the same time,
such an individual consistency, were never united in the same
character.
His step was then firm, and his figure er(ct, though he
seemed old and wayworn.

CHAPTERX.
'JOlIPLEX SENTENCES,

~ 350. A COMPLEX SENTENCE is one that contains
a single sentence, whether simple or compound, combined with elements that are foreign to it.
ILLUSTRATIO~. - In the actual communication of thought to another
mind, whether in.spea\ling or in writing, three elements concur:-(!.) The
mind eommunicatin~; (2.) The mind addressed; and, (3.) That which is
communicated. This last ele1nent is the sentence properly and strictly consitlered. The presentation of the other two in discourse is thus foreign to
the proper sentence, although it can be joined with it. When it is so
joined, the proper sentence becomes so far complicated. It is complex.
The same takes place wlien reference is made in the sentence to some other
sentence.
Grammarians, who have treated clauses as a subordinate kind of sentences, have defined a complex sentence to be one contafuing a subordinate
sentence, that is, a clause. But this view leads to error and to confusion.
For, as has been shown in the preceding chapters, all such so -called subordinate sentences are but modifying members of a peculiar class, and can,
like other modifiers, be assumed into the sentence to modify one of its three
principal elements. A sentence is no more complicated or rendered com·
plex by the assumption into it of such a modify ing member than by the assumption of nn adjecth·e, or an ad,·erb, or a modal. A thing is complicated,
not by the introduction into it of its own proper elements, but only by
mingling it with elements that are foreign to its own proper nature.
\Vhether a sentence is to be regarded as complex or not, will oflen be
indicated by the arrangement of the '~ords, the punctuation, or the supply
or omission of particles. Thus, "I believe he will return to his country,''
is a simple sentence," He will return to his country" being object of" believe." But the sentence: "He will, I belieYe, return to his country," is
complex. Often the sentence is ambiguous ; as, "In an investigation of
this kind it must be confessed we shoul,L proceed with great caution."
Punctuating with commas after kind and confe.<sed, the sentence is complex.
Without such punctuation, it is doubtful. \Vhile an insertion of the clausal
particle "that," indicating that the part "we should proceed," etc., is an
Qbjcctive clause, vrnuld make a simple sentenre. For further exemplifi·

,,
!
192

193

ABNORMAL FORMS.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

cations, the following sentences are simple: - "It can not be questionea
that we are on the Yerge of a long and terril>le conflict;" "I say again
that we must seek peace by all worthy and honorabl e means.'! But
the following are complex: - " 'Ve are on the verge, it cannot be questioned, of a long and terrible conflict;" " V{ e must seek peace, I say again,
by all worthy and honorable means."

''. .Adversatives; "He rushed, notwitl1standing, into the midst
of the strife ; "
lllatives; " Wherefore, we conclude," etc. ; " Let us, then,
be faithful to ourselves;"
3. By Parentheses ; " And thou hast walked about, how
strange a story, in Thebes' streets."

§ 351. A senteuce may be complicated in three ways:
either, (1.) By joining with it references to the speaker's
mind or mode of speaking; or, (2.) By joining with it ref.
erences to the mind addressed; or, (3.) By joining with it
mferences to other sentences.
§ 352. A sentence may be complicated with reference
to the communicating mind, in two ways: either, (1.) 'Vith
reference to the mode of thought; or, (2.) With reference
to the mode of expression.
The forms of language in which these references arc ex·
pressed, are such as these : I. " As I judge ; " "As I have been accustomed to
think ; " " To be candid ; "
2. " Briefly;" " summarily;" "in a word ; " "in common sp~ech;" "if I may say so;" "so to speak."
§ 353. A sentence is complicated with references to the
mind addressed, in all forms of address ; as, " My lads, I
have done; " " 0 thou that with surpassing glory crowned,"
I
etc.
§ 354. A sentence is complicated with references to other
sentences, in three ways : 1. Jn Quotations ; as, " His soul," observes a Spanish
writer, "was superior to the age in which he lived; "
" The air," lte said, "is piercing cold ; " " The time," I say,
"has come;"
2. In the use of Conjunctions ; as, Continuatfres ; ".Moreoi·er, by them is thy servant warned;"
" He went, also, to Athens : " •
.Dit:junctives; "I woul<l, otherwi1e, have aided him;• .
" Else, his conclusion is false ; "

..

OnsF:RvATI0'1. -Such words and phrasea as f arther, secondly, in the
fi,.stplac e, nsed as ordinals or continu atins, are in th eir proper na ture adverbials, and may correctly be regarded as modifying some ve~ understood.
Th ey are, however, used as connec ti ves; that is, th ey perfor::l the part cf
proper conj unctions. But it is clear, they are not parts of the sentence
proper.

~ 355. OR~L EXERCISE. Distinguish tlte lcind of
Complex Sentence in the fallowing selections : -

I love thee, Winter, all unlovely as thou seem'st.
F ew
speak, wild, stormy month, in praise of thee. The question
is for Lucy to consider, continued Jonas, whether she ought
to go or not. Accordingly, as soon as he cornm~nce ll speaking, the company all rose and left. Therefore, in a case of
such moment, let no false shame prevail over you. For, to
return to our statue in the block of marble, we see it some·
times only begun to be chipped, sometimes rough-hewn.
vVhence, then, is this increased love of life which grows upon
us with our years? Mother, he faintly said, come near me.
I say, then, England is not against us. Look, in a word, at
Protestant Ireland. He had, it seems, a way of holding himself. He gained from H eaven, 'twas all he wished, a friend.
Very few men, properly speaking, live at present; most aro
preparing to live another time.
The cultivation of cotton has thrown more money into
Egypt than it has seen for many years, we had almost said,
centuries. It is not often that an Englishman, let alone an
English lady, lives among modern Egyptians. Men reasoned better, for example, in the time of Elizabeth than in
the tim'.l of Egbert. 'Vithin certain limit5, therefore, poetry
may be improving while the poetical faculty is decaying
13

'

194

ABNORMAL FORMS.

The first works of the imagination are, as we have said, pool
nnd rude. Their great predecessors, it is true, were as bad
critics as themselves. It is true, however, that in the spirit
of the homely adage, we need not go through the whole to get
at its flavor. Take my word, it is the most successful and
pleasing method of conviction. They have what they call
the sublim e, that is, a style proper for poetry. Be this as it
will, he employed the shears to good purpose. " I wocld.
not choose," says a French philosopher, " to see an old post
pulled up with which I had been long acquainted."

CHAPTER XI.
EMOTIVE SENTENCE.

~ 356. AN EMOTIVE SENTENCE i~ one which .ex
presses, instead of a judgment., a feclmg or an object
of feeling; as, "Joy, joy foreYer ! " "0 the thought
that thou art safe! " " How h eavy falls the foot of
l'1me i"
OnsERVATIO~ . .::... An ..emoti,·e sentence ·can be distinguished from a
p<oper sentence which ex prc•ses fcP lin g, only by this, that ns the f~e ling
predominates over the thought, the proper thought-elem e11t- the Judgment, which, as we have seen, is the vital clement of ~e normal sen tence,
·
is not ex pressed in any proper form.

§ 35i. Emotive sentences are of the following classes : 1. Simple Exclamatory, or lnterjectionals; as, Strange I

Wonderful! Possible! Sorrowful I
2. Complex Exclamatory; which combines an expression
of the emotions with that of its object ; as,

\

\

"O joy! that in our embers
Is something that doth live."

I
'

" O that I had died before thee ! " " 0 the depth of the
riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God! "
3. Addresses ,·
" Thon "lorious mirror! where th' Almighty's form
Gla;.es itself in tempe,t•: in all time,
Calm or convulsed - in breeze, or gale, or storm,
Icing the pole, or in the torrid clime
Dark-headng, boundl ess, enclless, and sublime."

... ,.. ;

4. Reflections; as, " How beautiful upon the mounta.ine
are. the feet of him that bringeth good tidings ! "
" How did I hope to vex a thousand eyes ! " " Too flat
tcring joy I "

196

ABNORMAL FORMS.

§ 358. On.AL EXERCISE. Distinguish tlie kinds of
Emotive Sentence in tlw followin!J extracts: I never de~lt better since I was a man ; all would not do.
A plague of all cowartls ! Let them speak.
What a dreadful sight !
0 for breath to utter what is like thee!
How frightful the grave ! how deserted and drear !
0 what a pang of perfec~ blessedness transfixed her heart
from that faint, feeble cry: "It lives! it lives!"

-+-

CHAPTER I.

"In winter, awful thou! with clouds and storms
Around thee thrown, tempest o'er tempest rolled,
Majestic darkness! "

Oh! that glorious globe the skylark talks of.
lightful to enjoy his notice !
Towns sacked ! whole cities wrapped in flame .

PART V. - CONSTRUCTION.

DIVISIONS.

How le·

"Just H ea,·en ! say, is this the bay
Which warriors gain? Is this called Fame'/ ,.

0 that those lips had language!
Sad soul ! she could not be beguiled.
Who were they, whose screams were heard louder than
the roaring elements, imploring that aid which no human
power could afford them ? His wife and child ! Oh ! heart·
rending agony!
Wealth and power and prosperity, how peculiarly transi
tory and uncertain !
Strange contradiction in our nature, to which e>en the
wise are liable !
Wretch that I am, shall I plead the example of a vile
worm of the earth for disobeying the commands of my Sav
ior?
0 happy bond that seals my vows.
0 that I knew where I could find him !
" nut, oh ! the lnurelecl fool! that doats on fame,
\\'h ose hope's applause, whose fear'• to want a nll!De;
0 fami shetl soul, which such thin food can feed!
0 wr~tched labor, crowned with surh a meed."

§ 359. IN . the ..Construction of the Sentence two thingii
need distiuct consideration : 1. The supply of the necessary materials ;
2. The actual constructing of these materials, so as to express correctly and clearly the thought.
§ 360. The grammatical principl es regulating the supply
of materials are, 1. Proprietv; which regulates the ki nd of snpply, a11rl requires that each element of the sen tence be allowed its own
and only its own function ;
2. Precision; which regulates the quantity of suppl y, and
requires that so many, anrl only so many, of tlie materials
of expression be used as are requisite for the clear communication of the thought.
§ 361. The grammatical principles regulating the actual
construction of the materials of the se11tence when supplied,
are, 1. Concord; which looks to the Form of the expression,
and requires that the elements of the sentence be presented
in such form as to show their mutual relation ;
.
:2. Arr'Zngement; which looks to the Position of the
: 'i' materials in the sentence, and requires that the elements

198

CONSTRUCTION.

be presented in such order as to show their mutual re·
la ti on.
OusERVATIO" 1. -Th e English language relies far more on the second
of these principles of construction than on the first - on the position, than
on the form of the expression. In this respect it contrasts widely with
many other languages which are largely inflected. The fo ll owing ser.tence
from Horace is not complicated or involved to an unusual degree; certainly
ia not obscure• "Ego nee studium sine di\'ite vena,
Nee rude quid possit video ingenium : nlterius sic
Altera posc it opem res, ct conjurat amice."
Rendered word for word into English, this sentence reads : " I neither study without a rich vein
Nor rude what can seP. talent: the other's so
Each demands help thing, and conspires kindly."
The connection which the Latin indicates by intlection,-,the El\!;lish can
show only !Jy position, thus:-" I neither see what study without a rich
vein, nor what rude talent can (avail); each thing so demands the t~'.nr'i
help and kindly conspi res (with it).
On SER\' ATIO" 2. - It will be more connnient to consider the !as• two
of these prin cipl es first. 'Ve shall, therefore, in treating them, reverse the
order in which they have been named.

(

t •

CHAPTER II.
CONCORD.

§ 363. WnEN an object of thought is made the subject
of a proposition, its connection with the verb is shown by
its being put in the nominative case. Hence,

The subject of a sentence, or clause,
Nominative Case.

IS

put m the

OnsER\' ATION. - As in Engli'h the only proper cnse-distinction of nouns
ls tJ:nt of the possessive or genitive, this rule has its chief npplicntion to
the pronouns.
ExcF.PTION. - In the first and third persons of the Imperati,·c, when
fonncd !Jy the auxiliary ltt, the subject is in the Objective Case; as, Let

§ 362. The four parts of Construction are : -

me ,.ise; let themjall.

I. CONCORD;
II. ARRA1'iGE3IENT;
III. PnormETY;
IV. PRECISION.

Ons im v ATIO"· - 111ethinks and methou,1;/it are not exceptions, nor are
they instances of incorrect expression; but, like mesee_1~lS, are compoun~ls
of the old dative pronoun me with impersona l verbs. I here were once ID
the Iangunge 1n any such e:·q>r(;ssio11s, whi ch have now become obsolete.

\

§ 364. The subj~ct of an infinitive is ~ut in t_he O~­
jective Case; as, "For me to act thu s, 1s base 111grat1tudo · " "For me to draw those conclusions without
'
.
knowincr that I do so, seems altogether incomprehens1ble ; " '~For r>w to say a soldier li es, is stabbing."

§ 365. The subject of a gerun.d is put in the ~osse~s­
ive or Genitive Case ; as, "I was opposed to liis wntin O" the letter; " " Whose mauling th em about their
he~ds hath dulled those who in quickness exceeded
their master;'' " They b~came sensible of their having
incurred great danger."
01'8ltRVATION. - The reason for the apparently except ion al rule, that

·'·

200

201

CONSTRUCTIO~.

CONCORD.

the su~ject of the gerund should be in the possessive case, is tha~ ~he noun.
character of the gerund, which is a participial(§ 287), predominates over lb@
verb-cl'.aracter; and therefore it takes its limiting word, when a noun in the
~-~
I
The _expression, "Without himself being aware of the fact," is not an
exception to the rule; for "himself" is properly to be regarded .is an unin.
~ected wor:l. '.fhus we say, "He himself was there," where "himself" is
m the nonunatl\·e.

t.erior member stand to each other in the relation Jf reason
and· consequent, if existing, without it being determined
whether they really exist or not.
The, report was widely circulated of the steamship Albion being really lost.
It could not be expected they would believe without · the
gospel being preached to them.

§ 366. 0RAI~ EXERCISES. Oorrect tlte faults in the
case of tlte subJects in tlte following sentences : Them that be wise shall be happy.
John and me went together.
Him and James staid at home.
He was older than her.
They traveled as fast as him.
Whom did he think was abseut?
I do not know whom in the whole company entirely ·cs· .
·. caped injury.
'Whom do you suppose were left behind ? John and me.
Them that honor me, I will honor· and them that de-.
spise me shall be lightly esteemed.
'
Nor hope to make others such as me.
·whom they suppose is drowned.
"J"
Whom three hours since were wrecked upon this shore.
He earnestly protested against them embarking in the en1
terprise.
This did not prevent John being inaugurated Duke of
Normandy.
The accident was the natural consequence of them having been detained so long.
By me being kind to him, l won his confidence.
A great embarrassment arose from the re"'iment refusing
r.o reenlist.
"
In it knowing the world, the mind is developed.
. I have done so in the conviction of me doing what
nght.
It is merely enounced that the prior member and

t

§ 367. The pure or uncombined predicate is pnt in
the same case as the subject ; as, "The criminals were
they themselves."
OnSERVArIO~ 1. - The principle applies also to a part of the impure
preclicnte standing in the facti!i\·e relation; as, "The criminals were sairi
to be they th emselves."
ODSERVATIO~ 2. -It also applies to the infinith·e phrase, in which the
subject of the infinitiv"e ·is in the oujective case(§ 364); as," I knew it to be

them.''
Ons1mYATIO~ 3. -The geruml takes its predicate noun in the objective
case; as, " I was aware of its being him."
As a participial noun . and in its noun-character, the gerund takes its subject in the po>sessh·e (§ 365) . As, thus, in respect of the subject, it surrendered its verb-character to that of the noun, so in respect of the predicate
it surrenders the verb-character to the influence of the phrase in which it is
the principal part, and takes the noun after it in the objective case, which is
the case of the adjunct.

§ 368. To show its reference, th e verb is put in the
same person and number as the subject; as, "Thou
art the man;" "They were the offenders."
OnsERVATIO~. - This principle is generally to be interpreted in refer·
er.ce to the meanin.'l rather than the fvrm of the expression. We have,
therefore, the following rules, which might seem to be exceptions to the
principle, if the form of the expression were exclusively regarded, or at
least, to be cases to which the prin \pie might not seem to have full appli·
cation.

I. Where a verb has several subjects of different persons
or num hers, it takes the person and number of the nearest;
as, " Whether thou or I am in fault ; " " He or they are to
be prorll""oted;" "No wars nor any rumor of wars disturb1
my .q~et." -

202

CONCORD.

CONSTRUCTION.

II. The leal1ing subject d~termines the person and
ber ; ns, " They as well as I are to be regarded.
This principle outweighs the foregoing, when the two
come in conflict. Indeed, strictly speaking, the second subject may properly in such cases be regarded as the subject
of a verb to be understood.
This rule has a special application to cases where a distributive is introduced. If the distributive is made the leading subject, the verb takes the singular; otherwise the num- .
her of the principal word. Thus: "When my female regiment is drawn up in array, upon my giving the word to handle
their fans, each of them shakes her fan at me with a smile;"
•·They have, each, their distinct laws and revelations."
III. A collective noun, when singular in form, takes a plu
ral verb, if the thought turns upon the individuals of which
it is composed rather than upon the whole group as one; as, ......
"The assembly were from different communities."
Onsl!R\"ATIO:'<. - The numeral collectins, as they may be called, such
as dozen, Sf01'e , hundred, thousand, etc., as they take a fl:ingular detinith·e as
"one. dozen," "a score," "thi~ hundred," "that thousand," arc cl~arl; in
the singular form; and when used to denote. a unity, take a singular verb;
as, '• l\Iy thou!'and is the meanest in l\Ianass("h;" " One dozen now cost'
firty ccnt,s." If taken a> a plurality, they take plural verbs like other col-,
lectives.

- IV. A compound subject, if denoting but a single person
or thing, takes a singular verb; as, " 'll1e statesman and the :
orator at last sleeps; " " The sclzolar and tlze poet was also the - ~
Christian mid tlze patriot."
. ··
RE)IARK. - Such sentences are equivalent to "He who was the states-,
man," etc. The words are virtually appositins and do not denote differ·
ent objects.
·
'
'

V. A compound subject, if taken distributh·ely, takes a ·
&ingular verb ; as, " Each man, each woman, eacli child lias a
duty to discharge;" " Study or play is, for this hour, at yonr ..
option ; " " No man, no set of men is authorized to impose
such n lnw." But in such expressions as "The Graces each
their 11everal ministry had lent," the distributive each is
appositive, and not the grammatical subject of the verb.

an •.

§ 369. ORAL EXERCISES.
predicate to be corrected : -

Faults in Gonconl

203

ef tM

It was him that Horace ·wal pole called a man.
We wn~ glad to hear it.
He thinks he is to do as he please.
There was more persons there than I expected.
I knew it was him.
He dare not do it.
The horse and carriage was sold.
Has the articles been sent away? .
John or I is to go.
He or they is in fault.
The hose was well knit.
The regiment was tall.
The company were large .
Tlrn assemblage were numerous.
It was a sick population.
The council were divided in opinion.
The society were distracted.
The party were brilliant.
The odds were in his favor.
The Acts of the Apostles were written by Luke.
The bare recital of these horrors and atrocities awaken
inextinguishable abhorrence.
These abominable principles, and this more abominable
avowal of them, demands the most decisive indignation.
"And all the way the joyous people sing•,
And with their garments strews the paved street."
"Iloth our remedies
Within thy help and holy physic lies."
" "'hiles I threat he lives:
Words to the heat of deeds too cold l>reath gives."

The moon's rays, during each twenty-four hours, pass m
uortherri latitudes from ten to thirty storms, not one of
which are indebted to her for their existence.

204

CONSTRUCTION.

That meu often act as fools in regard to their higher i.nt.e.l'ests are beyond question.
From what sources these reports originated, have been
diligently investigated.
"\Ve see not the several leaves which in the one, nor the
several blades of grass ')'hich in the other, each contributes
its effect,
The authority of the father and of the mother are concurrent.
The audience was gratified.
Every bayonet and every sword glisten in the sunlight.
The man or his counselors is to be censured.
I understood it to have been he.
You was invited to be present.
It is his strong passions that has proved his ruin.
John and I was away.
There was sold in the market to-day sixty head of cattle. '
I W<1'uld not have done it, if I had been him.
Either disposit10u or power were wanting.
The number of soldiers in arms were more than two thousand. ·
The jury was agreed.
A large part of the productions , consist of wheat and
I
barley.
\
\
"Vas you refused a hearing?
The motives, as well as the action itself, is to be taken into
consideration.
·
The legislature have adjourned.
The public is invited.
He, the idolized general and patriot, the learned scholar
and profound philosopher, the revered philanthropist and
Christian, have fallen.
The greatest warrior of the age, conqueror of Italy, humbler of Germany, terror of the North, contemn the fickleness
of fortune in the memorable boast, " I shall go down to pos-terity with the code in my hand."
·

CONCORD.

205

Each hour and moment are to be improved.
John or James have gone.
Either the futher or the son have been deceived.
No treaty and no signature are able to bind them.
t\.nd so was also James and John, the sons of Zebedee.
for if the blood of bulls and goats, and the ashes of a
\~ fer sprinkling the unclean, sanctifieth to the purifying of
thu flesh.
tiood order lil our aifairs, not mean savings, produce great
pi·oiits.
l'he religion of ti1~se people, as well as their customs and
manners, were stra11gely :nis1cpr.osentcd.
Compassion rnou11ts to a degret muci1 higher, if its objects
nre both hiin >vlio suffers and him who originates the suffering.
Here be them that perceive it ancl that c;_u:~h.'.y toL..
She or I are lost.
"And grief that young Octavius with Mark Antcoy
have made thernseh·es so strong."

A rusty nail or a crooked pin shoot up into protli~ie3.
Consider how notoriously our opinion in secular ruatte:O.
are affecteO: by our prejudices and passions.
The phy~ics of tne Pythagoreans possess but little scieutific val ue. 'l 'heir ethics, also, are defec£i ve.
But eac,h oi t!:iem have stood under separate disadvantages.
~ 370. To s~ow their reference, pronominal wo:·ds
are put in the same number, ge'l<ler, and person as the
words for which tht'y stand; as, "I <hat speak to you.''
"'\hence and what art thou, e..:ecrable shape!
That dar'st" " 'Tis of a lady in lier earliest yoGth."
1. - [n applying this principle, reference m11>t generally
be made to the form of the cxpre•sion. Thus the plural form" you," which
ia used when only a single person is addressed, requires the plural verb and
pronoun.
OnsEnYATION

·.--=~-

20(}

CONSTRUCTION.

There are exceptions, however; as we say " yo urself," not" yov.rult!u,'
whe.n only one person is meant. " 011rself" is also sometimes used.
The plural pronoun of the first person is used when only one inclividual
is meant, in two cases: 1. As the z;l1<ral of di9nity. Thu• a sovereign uses the plural we, our, m,
when speaki ng of himself in formal transactions.
2. As the plural of representation, as when an essayist, a reviewer, or au
editor uses the plural as if he were the mouth-piece of oth ers. It is this plural of representation which sometimes appear~ in pulpit di scourses, but improperly. Probably the tirst use sprang out of the second - a king con·
ceiving himself as sp~aking in behalf of the State, the body of citizens,
and as representing them.
After many " in the same clause, the pronoun and the verb are alike in
the singular but in a subsequent clause or sentence, the reference may be
rather to the sense; as, "Many a hero lays down his life; but their namei
shall be precious."
OnSERYATIO:< 2. - In figurati\-e expression, the gender is lawfully
changed; a•, "Is this the character of British justice·? Are these her
features .{ Is this her countenance? Is this her gait or her mien? " In
such cases, care should be taken that there be consistency in the use of tbe
gender.
OnsERVATION 3. -His was the r egular possessive or genitive of the
neuter, as well as of the masculine pronoun. Its was introduced at a late
stage in the formation of our language. It does not occur in our recei\·ed
version of the Scriptures; but his is used instead; as," If the salt have lost
nis sa1•or" (Mat. v. 13); "The fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind." So,
&Lio, freq,uently in Shakespeare; as, " In such a time as this it is not meet
That every nice offense should bear his comment."

OBSERVATION 4. - 'Vh en a verb and a pronoun are to be used,' both relating to a subject that may be taken in either number, they should be put
in the same number. It is incorrect, thus, to say, "The community is responsible for what takes place among themse/ties."
Ons1mvATION 5. - Such titles as /01·dsldp, grace, majesty, etc., take verbs
In the third person singular, but pronouns in the masculine or feminine gen·
der, and not in the neuter, as consistency might seem to require. Thus, .
"This imitntion must have stuck a little with your lordship, who is used to
examine things by ~ better standard;" "His grace repeatedly pledged
•imseif to the Hou~e."
OnSERVATIO:< 6. -A collective noun taken as a singular noun is to be
·egarde-:1 a o of the neuter gender; as,'' The army did itself honor."
OnsERVATION 7. - If the objects referred to are of different pe,.,.ons, the
takes the first person rather than the second or third, and the secVild rather than the third; u, " John and I will take our books; you and
.li.:'11198 will tako your1."
, · ~noun

CONCORD.

207

O~simVATI~N 8. - When the reference is to two or more singul:tr ol>jects, the pronoun is in the plural, if they are taken coll ectively, but in lh ~ .
1
•ingu:ar if ·taken dis~rilrntively; as," John and .James gave up t/1 eir ~ulk i
w Each man and boy took off his hat;" "France or England will lend
lier aid."
OnsERVATIO:< 9. -The compound relati1·es, w/wevei·. etc., should be put
m the case in which the rclatirn would he if th e compound were rc>ol.ved
into the ant~c cd e nt antl the rel ath·e; as," ~V!tomever th e ca p fitted might
"ear it;" not zclwever, because wh en resolved the sentence woul<l Le," lie
wltmn tne .c ap," etc. Th ere is strictly an ellipsis of the subj ect in r.uch
r.ascs.
~

371.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Faults to be corrected: -

He cannot see one in prosperity without envying them.
John and James are faithful to his studies.
The active mind of man seldom rests satisfied with their
present condition.
The committee were divided in its sentiments.
No one should incur censure for being tender of their reputation.
You, who was present, are a competent witness of the
transaction.
Let each esteem others better than themselves.
By discussing what relates to each particular, in their order,
we shall better understand the subject.
One or the other will take their turn.
Either of these arguments will gain for themselves great
favor.
Each of the four neighbors had their dwellings burned.
They which seek wisdom shall certainly find her.
There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard.
The mind of man should not be left without something OD
which to employ his energies.
The plaintiff's counsel now had a hard task imposed OD it.
He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity.
If any one has been slighted, let them make it known.
Thou and James and John may divide the apples among

'hem.

208

CONSTRUCTION.

CONCORD.

My brother and I, together with two cousins, were at their
respective tasks.
I perceive that thou art a pupil, who possesses bright parts.
but who has cultivated them but little.
"You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song,
Till nobly rises emulous thy own."

H e alluded to Nero, who is a name for ull thut is cruel.
Neither of us were absent.
Thou art a friend that has often relieved me, and tha'. has
n )t deserted me in the time of need.
Thon art rny father's brother, else would I reprove you.
Every person, whatever be their_station, are bound by the
duties of morality and religion.
Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition
of life, for they may be thy own lot.
Each man of the county came with arms in their hands.
The use shows how mankind is obliged to this gentleman
for their knowledge.
Every body is bound to do diligently all the good they
can.
How :was a foreign language to be learnt as long as either
party could only speak their own?
Every body can offer up their prayers for those who need
them.
\

§ 372. Compellatives, or objects addressed, are to be
put in the Nominative Case; as, "0 thou eternal One!"
" 0 pardon me, tlwu piece of bleeding earth I "
OnsE1"· ATIO:<. -The pronoun of the first person is put in the objective
r.a.so in exclumntory sentences; as, "Ah me!" " ..ilc miseraUle !"

§ 373. Appositives must b e put in the same case with
the nouns which they modify; as, "The earth is the
Lord's - his who made it."
OnsJ':RY.\TJOY. - In such expr~ssions as the following, "Tho earth is the
Lord's- its creator nncl ruler,'' "creator" ancl "ruler" arc not proper appo3it.ivea.

Tho se:ltence is elliptical and fully expressed it woulu

be," Tb1

209

tart:i is the Lord's, who is its creator and ruler;" or, "Ile is its creator ar.a
ruler."

~ 37 4. An object, when an action or a relation expressed in a verb or an adjunct is to be limited by it,
should be in the Objective Case; as, "The nation
honored them; " " The lot fell upon him; " " H e gave
me the book."
OnsERVATro:s 1. -Th e pnssh·e object, the spt'cifying- object, and the factitin object, follow the n.rb without t he preposition ; the remote object if
oeparated from th e nrb requires the preposition ; as, " He gave me the
book; 11 1 ' He ga,·e the book to me."
Such ex pressions as" Send in g nf th em such profital>le guests" (Bu11yan),
a.re acconlingly fault)•.
O nsE HVATfO~ 2. -Th e pn•pnsitinn is ofte n omittc<l before a n object ex pressed in
ili finiti\re
a clause j as, lo \V or: hy lo l>e lu\·cd; II in this case
to l.Jeing not a preposjtion Uut the sig-11 of th e i11!i11i ti,·e; "None so poor to
do hin1 reverence;" '"DN1en·ing- that he s hou ld lJe hcl<l. in perpetual remembrance by his cou ntry11 1e11 . .,

the

or·

OBSEHYATIO:S 3.'-The ge rund is properly followed by the pa'5i ve ol>j ect without a prepos ition. But a s th1~ ~ertt1Hl - for 111 in in.r; may legi timately
be used a s a noun, droppin g- it s ge r t111d i,·e character, in w h ich case the ob-

ject limiting the noun must depend on a prepos ition, the ten<lency of late
has been to regard th is fo rm as a noun unh.·ss the gerundi,·e character is
clearly intended. Thus, H Th e send in g of the messenger 11 is generally to
be prefe rred to "The sending the messe nger. " This !a~t form is not,
however, as some writers seen1 to think, ungrammatical; for it has the support of th e best usage

§ 375.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Faults to be corrected: -

He invited my brother and I into his garden. They who
he had most injured, he had the greatest reason to love. They
•ook the back street, shunning him and I. Do you know
who you are speaking to? This book was given the king
and I, at our coronation. It is the only time we ever read
of Paul and he meeting together. You saw Cassio and
she too-ether. Uarkland, who, with ,Jorton and Thirlby,
Jdrnso~ calls three contemporaries of great eminence. '\Vho
once again I tender to thy hand, 0 thee villain !
14

.·
CONSTRUCTION.
"Him shall never come again to me;
Ilut we shall truly one day go to he,
Lest there be no solace left for thou and me."

The enemies who we have most to fear are those of ow
own hearts.
.We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to.
eternity.
He did not know who to suspect.
Who did they send to him on so important an errand?
He who committed the offense, you should correct, not I
who am innocent.
"\Ve should fear and obey the Author of our being. Even
he who h~s power to reward or punish us ·forever.
Esteeming theirselves wise, they become fools.
By observing of truth, you will command esteem as well
as secure peace.
The
changing times and seasons, the removinoand settino
.
0
0
op kmgs, belong to Providence alone.
To poor we there is not much hope remaining.
Does that boy know who he is speaking to?
All must give account each for hisself.
Between him and I there is some disparity of years; but
none between him and she.
H e spoke of Solomon, he who was the wisest of men.
And will you condemn me to a cruel death - I who so
often risked my life for yours ?
Who should I meet the other day but my old friend?
l\Iy son is going to be married to I don't know who.

~ 376. The subject of an attribute, when the attribute is expressed by a noun or gerund, should be in
the Possessive Case; as, "Joltn's eagerness; " "His
dirdosure of the secret;'' " Their presence ; " "Our
111feriorit_y; " "Her delaying the messenger frustrated
the scheme; " " Things growing to themselves are

growth'B abuse."

CONCORD .

211

•

· Ons1mVATION 1. - This principle extends to proper concretes as well Bl!
to abstracts, when the concrete is concei\·ed of as something attributed; in
other words, as something that may be predicated as belonging to the
limited noun. Thus we say "Raphael's picture," when we wish to modify
or limit pictm·e, as that which may be attributed to Raphael, either a. his
possession, his production, or as his origination i in other words, as that of
which he is the owner, the producer, or the orig inal. The attribute of a
subj ect and the object of an action or relation, can neither be properly expressed thus in th e possessi,·e case. H ence the impropriety of s uch .~xpres­
Bions as" In ou.r midst;'' '' Th eir separat ion ;,, " God's loYe," in tlie sc nso
of "in the mi<lst of us;" " the separati on of them;" "the love of God."
At all enn ts, the use of the so-ca lled objective genitive has di rnppea red
from th e best recent English literat ure, however allowable it may have been
m fOTm e r times.

The principle extends also to phrases wh ich tak e the sign of the posses&the final word of a noun or adjective; as," The kingdom of God'~
flake;" "The C~liph of Bagdad's di\·an ;" ;; ~faximilinn, the Emperor'il
pa.l ace;" "The :Emperor :M aximilian's palace." But this m;e is incl<•gant
when the phrase is long 'or the reference to the principal part of it is obscure, and the form of the expression should be changed, as by s ubstituting
nn adjunct.
If, howenr, the possessive phrase be placed afler the word which it limits,
the principal word of the phrase should lake the sign of the possessin; as,
" I <lined to-day at Delnvol's, the Portuguese Envoy." - Swift. "The
palace was ·Maximili an's the emperor.''
On the same ground, if the possessi,·e phrase is composed of se,·eral nouns
all alike relating to the same object, th e last on ly cakes th e sign of the possessi,•e; as," Jam es, Peter, and Hen ry 's father." Ilut if relating to different objects, the sign of the possessive mu st be affixed to each; as, "Peter's
and H enry's father."
"·~on

OnsERVATio:.i 2. - In such expressions as" That lot of Mr. J oh11son"•,"
"This tongue of mine," the preposition qf is to be viewed simply as a sign
of identification, as in the phrases" the quegtion of order, 11 "the island of
Sieily." The expressions are precisely e~ uirnl ent to" that lot, to wit, Mr.
J ohn son 's," "this ton g ue, that is, min e. " It is incorrect to suppose a plural not expressed, as, "of l\fr. Johnson's lots," "tongue of my to11,<Jues," no
plural being supposabl e in the latter exam ple. See § 301, Obs. 2.
OnsERVATIO:.i 3. - It will be obsen-ed that twu distinct principles come
in to modify the rnles of the possessh·e. One is clearness, the ot her is e uphor.y. Clearness thus forbid s putting th e po<sessive sign on " word far
removed from the principal part of t he possessive phrase; for the n r_v obj ect of affixing the sign, which is to show the reference of the limiting part
nf the .l'entence to th e part limited , would be defeated. Euphony, also, is a
principle that governs enrywhere in lnnguago, howenr subordinately to
• other principles. Tl ere may be doubt, sometimes, whether one or another
uprcssion is preferable. No general rule can be framed that will dispos'

212

CONSTnUCTION.

of evuy possible form of expression. It must suffice to lay rlown the fol·
lowing rules in reference to the modification of a noun by case: 1. The modiJj-ing noun takes as its si;:n 's, with an apostrophe, except
that after plural nouns ending in s, only the apostrophe is added.
2. But one sign is necessary if it sullicicntly mark the noun as a modify•
ing noun; therefore in a phrase or compound possessive, the sign may Ii.,
placed on the Inst noun.
3. Clearness and euphon~· are to be sctured b.v changing the form of ex·
pressioa if necessary. This may generally be done by the use of the preposition of. Thus instead of saying-" The composition of water was ascertained by Dr. Priestley of Birmin9/wm's l.xperimenls,'' it would be better
to say, "by the experiments of Dr. Priestley of Bi1mingham."
·

§ 377.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Faults to be corrected:

These orations are Cicero the most eloquent of men's. 1
bought the cloth at .Jackson's the merchant tailor's. I will
not for David's thy father's sake. This house is l\Ir. Smith
the governor's. The heaven of heavens is the Lord thy
God's. l\lens' dispositions bend before occasion. A mother
and a father's care is Natures' gift for mans' advantage. It
was the children and their sole surviving parents' misfortune
to be cast upon the charity of others. l\Ioses rod was turned
into a serpent. These poems are Chaucer, the great early
English poet's. Both the physician and the surgeon's advice
is required It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant
general's.
OnsEr.v ATIO:-i. - 'Vhen senral modifiers nre 'to be introduced thev
sbtluld be used in harmony with one another, and with the rest of these~­
tence. This general principle has diverse applications which may be separately considered.

§ 378. The time indicated by tense-inflections should be
in hannony with that indicated by other parts of the sen·
tencc. Thus, "I have been sick yesterday" is faulty, inasmi•.ch as lwve been expresses reference to present time, while
the ot.her modifier, yesterday, denotes past time. It should
'o>e, "I was sick yesterday." So, "I expected to have gone
IA> New York yesterday " is faulty ; for liaue gone' indicates
past time, while expected looks to future time; we cannot ex•
pect what is pas~. Likewise, "Ptolemy taught t.hat the

CONCORD.

213

earfl.l was in the center of the universe," is faulty, because
was expresses past time, iVhen no reference to time should hC:i
expressed.
Unlike some other languages, the English language does
not refer the time of a dependent verb to the time of the
principal, unless in the case of an infinitive. Thus we say,
using the infinitives, "I confessed myself to be guil ty; N "I
confessed myself to have been guil ty of playing truant the
day before.". But in the use of a clause, we say," I confessed
I was guilty ; " " I confessed that I had been guilty of tru
ancy the day before."
~

379.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Faidts to be corrected : -

In the reign yf H.enry II. all foreign commodities have
been plenty in England. He was absent this whole week.
This letter will reach you when the\ telegram that goes be·
fore it has arrived. That writer has given an account of the
manner in which Christianity has formerly been propagated
among heathen nations. They proposed to have visited
Rome the following year. The Supreme Court decided that
subsequent legislatures could not revoke charters granted by
previous legislatures, except in accordance with the provis·
ions of the charters themselves. These men were umler high
obligations to have adhered to their friend in every situation
in life. After I visited Europe, I returned to America. The
voyage has not been so stormy as we expected it to have
been. If the acquisitions he has made should have been
misapplied, he will be responsible, not his teacher. The
most ianorant
tribes of men, when they have looked round
0
on the earth and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing
their origin to some designing cause. Next l\Iarch I shall
be livinn- ten years. · He was in great haste, from fear that
he should have been tardy. Remember that you might be
disapI;Jointed in your plans. He will return, if he could find
a conveyance. Studying for years under the best teachers,
be is proficient in the art. The acalephs, or jelly-fishes, havo

-.

~:~ ~
·.;:-

214

215

CONSTRUCTJON.

CONCORD.

lived in the earliest ages of creation. They would readily
believe this statement, if they can break away from their
prejudices. Offices are not created that politicians might
plunder the treasury. He said be is in great haste and must
be excused. He declared himself to have been innocent of
the charge now brought against him. He professed to be
very studious the day before ; but admitted that on that day
Le has been negligent. They stoutly maintained the sovereignty of the State to be par3rmount, but freely acknowledged that obedience to its authority at that time is unjustifiable. One would be apt to think that it would have been
more reasonable to have said, we have done no more than it
was our duty to have done. .111ust it not be expected that
he would have defended an authority which· had been so
long exercised without controversy? His sea-sickness was
so great that I often feared he would have died before our ·
arrival.

~hoti breakest not any of the rules. He is so sensible of his
guilt that he dare not reply. I have toiled hard that he lives
at ease. I told him that I will go. I promised him that if
he came back to-morrow I shall reward him well for his
promptness. Lord Hubert must be classed with Descartes
rather than with Bacon, though chronology forbids tlle idea
that he can have learned any thing from Descartes.

§ 380. When an action or relation is to be modified
by a clause in respect to its object as an object of purpose, the ve rb of the clause should be in time either
future or indefinite in reference to the purpose ; as, "I
will see that he do it ; " " He managed that they should
\
arrive too late."
OnsERVATIOX. - When the clau•e ~xpreSlles an object which is not one
cf purpose on the par·t of the subject of the principal nrb, the verb in the
clause may take pre•ent or <iefinite time according to the meaning to he
conveye<i. Thu•, " I will see how he does it; " "I will see how he will do
it;" "He manage<i that they arrived too late."
The rea•on of the rule is plain. A purpose looks to the future; its object
must therefore be represe nted, if at nil, in time future to that of the purpo•e; a•," I will take care that he shall attend to it." But the expression
of this time of the object may be withheld; and in this cnse the forms of
ths ve:b that are indefinite as to time are employed; as. "I will take care
that he atte"d to it." nut it would lie clearly incorrect to say," I will take
care that he attends to it."

§ 381.

OR.\L EXERCISES.

Faults to be corrected.

He will take due heed lest he miscarries.

Be careful that

§ 382. A modal clause modifying a conditional verb
expressed in the form of the impe rfect tense, takes the
sa me tense ; as, " Were he penite nt, he should be pardoned;" "Next new-year's day would be a happy
occasion if ou'r friends could be all with us again."
In other cases, it is either in indefinite time or such
as the sequence of time requires ; as, " I can go, if it
be pleasant;" " I can go if it shall be pleasant;" "If
he repent, he will be pardoned ; " " If he will repent, he
will be pardoned ; " not, " If h e shows penitence when
his father shall see him, he will be pardoned."
§ 383.

0RAJ, EXERCISE.

Faults to be corrected.

Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, unless he advances more forcibl e reasons. I shall return
on Monday unless it rains. Though he be high he hath respect to the lowly. Though he were her friend, he did not
attempt to justify her conduct. If he does but intimate his
desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. He will,
on his return, find ready employment if he proves expert in
his business. Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast
clown. Was he ever so great, such conduct would debase
him. Was I to tell the whole truth, I should not be credited.

§ 384. In compound sentences or compound mem·
hers of sentences, the forms should be alike, in order
to show tl1e union.

.-...

216

CONSThUCTION.

Tl1is principle has application wherever a choice is allowed in the modes of expression. The followin"' instances
of faults in respect of .this rule may be particularly named:
1. In the union of the antique and the modern styles;
UR, " He stoppeth not to consider his ways and presses on
thoughtlessly to ruin."
2. In the union of auxiliary forms with simple forms ; as.
" Did he visit Rome and forgot that a Brutus ever lived
chere?"
3. In the union of plural with singular forms i as, "Thou
livest worse than the heathen, and they mi"'ht
teach yoit
0
wisdom."
4. In. the selection
of pronouns; as, "He that weio-hs
.
., the
matter 1mpartrally and well, and who also considers," etc.
5. In the union of proper adjectives with adjective clauses;
as, "His piety was genuine and fervent, and that mino-led
0
with the whole ·course of his thoughts and actions.''
6. In the union of nouns and adjectives as like parts of a
compoun<l predicate; as, "'Vhen ignorance is not willful and
sin.'?

§

385 ~ ORAL ExERCISF..

Faults to be corrected: -

The glory that fills imme"'lsity and inhabiteth eternity.
Thou art the l\Iessiab, the Son of God, who was to come
into the world, and hast been so long promised and desired.
Then did the officer lay hold on him and executed him
imme<liately.
He finds a law written upon his inner being, and which is
imperative.
Thou art a fri end that hast often relieved me, and who
has not deserted me now in the time of peculiar need.
He is a man that approves of -wholesome discipline, and
who recommends it to others.

(

CHAPTER III.
Al~RANGE)IENT.

§ 386. GRA:IBIATICAI. ARRANGE)lENT respects, 1. The order of the principal elements of the sentence,
2. The order of the subordinate elements in reference to
~.1ch other ..and t.o'. th~ principal elements.
§ 387. The logical order of the principal elements of the
sentence is: first, the subject; next, the copula; and, last,
the predicate; as, "The sun shines;" "To acquaint us with
ourselves may be one use of the prece pt;" "That his care
for his works ceased at their publication is hardly credible."
011sEt<YATIO"· -To thi s general rule there are many exceptions, as
other principles come in to modit)' the applicati on of it. The rule should
be obse n·ecl, howe\'er, unl ess in n clear case of exception; nncl especially
shoul<l not be departed from when clearness forbids,

1. In interrogation, the copula, or a part of it, or the
interrogative word or phrase in the predicate, is placed
first ; as, "Are our consciences so tender?" " Cun you aid
me with propriety?" " Wz'.ll you be permitted to go?"
" What a careless, even deportment hath your borrower? "
"How often is the labor of years thus lost forever? "
2. Imperatives take the subj ect after the copula; as, "Be
tbol~ my guardian ! " " L et the world scoff."
3. Conditional clauses without conjunctions take the subject,after the copula; as, "Could they have been contented
with moderate employments and moderate gains, they might
have prospered in their business ; " " Had they been wiser

218

CONSTRUCTION.

they would have escaped the loss;" "Be they ~ver so sharr,
they will not outwit him."
4. For emphatic distinction and in passionate expression,
the predicate or a part of the predicate may be placed first;
as, "Beautiful, no doubt, are all the forms of Nature;"
"Around thy hills and mountains cling, like gathering mists,
the mighty memorieJ of the Revolution;" "Upon us, then,
peculiarly, devolves the duty of feeding the fires upon that
kindly hearth ; " " Here floats the same banner which rustled
above our boyish heads."
On sEnVATION. -To soften the repulsiveness of an inversion of the logical ord er of the assertive sentence to an English ear, when emphasis or
passion does not prompt it, the words 1/ie1·e and it are used to introd uce tho
sentence. They are mere expletives when so used, having no meaning,
and only serve to indicate a depa rture from the regular ord~r of construction. Th ey cannot be parsed, fo r they in no way affect the thought. See
§ 339. " There lies, upon the other side of the wide Atlantic, a beautiful
island, famous in sto r.1· and in song." " It is reported that the troops are
disbancled." " It will be said that our passion s are not in ·our power." " II
is imagined by many that whene1•er they aspire to please, they are required
to be merry."

5. The order may be inverted in order to show a reference to the preceding sentence ; as, "This he did habitually."
6. The logical order, once more, yields often to the demands for consistency; as in the sentence, "Silver and gold
have I none," emphasis having inverted the order by placing
the object of the action first ; the subj ect and verb also in
consistency change places, - have I instead of I ltave. So in
the following sentence there is a similar inversion : "Whoso
sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed."
7. The restrictions of poetical composition render neces. eary much wirier departures fro:n the proper logical order
than is allowable in prose discourse. In poetry, moreover,
form rules, and this principle of form requires various deviations from strict logical order in which clearness is the
contrulling principle.

ARRANGEMENT.

§ 388.

OR AL .EXERCISE.

219

Faults to be corrected: -

. .mto th e so l"t
a . mind va.
If ·a man bnng
1 ary re t r eat of acre
o
.
cant, unimproved, where no knowledge dawns_, no ideas rise,
whi~h within itself has nothing to feed upon, many a day,
heavy and comfortless, he must necessarily pa~s.
..
This we question, at least as it has always m1pressed with
a feelincr of melancholy.
·
Than° the analoo-ies just given I know of none stronger.
0
•
t
Than this no inquiry can be of greater mteres ·
The risin 0cr tomb a lofty column bore.
Both Silo this and Jordan did excel.
" But stings and sharpest steel di ~l far exec:~
The sharpness of his cruel-rending claws.

From their errors of education, all their miseries have
proceeded.
.
If there be any first principles of wisdom, 1t undoubtedly
is this: The distresses that are removable, endeav~r to remove; bear with as little disquiet as you can the d1stresse&
which cannot be removed.
War at that time there was none.
Into this hole thrust themselves these Roman senators.
.§ 389. The most general principle of arrangement in re
gard to the subordinate elements is, that the rel~ted part-8
should be placed in the closest proximity, accordmg to the
degree of relationship.
OnsF. nv ATION. - This "eneral principle should ah;ayslgovern, _1mldletss
·
· ·
f rom '.
t
t may .nt e h o
Borne other
clearly come in" to impose n deviation
he demands of Emphasi•s, or t11ose o f E' up hony and Harmony. ' excep
f th w en
denrne,s, which is the govern ing principle in the construct10n o
e &n1

te~:; ~ ~~;~'.~i~ ~~-~~Isl as

1
for Harmony, thus, the modifier ?{
ma be' laced after the predicate ; us, "Habits must be acquire o . em·
y . p ,, of self ·' enial " The reirular onlcr in compound modifiers,
perance anu
·u
·
"
·
It
ti
igbtalso mav be chnngcrl, so that the most important m thoug' or ie we
leat 'on tiie ear shall be placed last.

~ s~ ~ject

,..,.,

220

CONSTnUCTION.

§ 390. Modifiers should be placed as near as may be
to the prin c ipal parts which they modify.
They should also generally precede.

§ 391. Simple definitives, and those which express
properties of the object, must generally precede; while
definitives by adjuncts and clauses, and also those which
express rel a ti ons, usually. follow the ir nouns.
Epith ets may also, like modifiers by .relations, follow
their objects.
ExA)IPLES. - Three thousand brave men were there.
The per~on who told me her story had seen her at a masquerade. An elevated genius employed in little_ things appears
like the sun in his evening declination. Every inhabitant
of a town, trader or otherwise, was liable to be claimed by
the curia. The questions of fait!t and doctrine became mor1>
complex. Agriculture and commerce, insecure as to their
accumulations, wealc and exposed, declined in this chaoti:}
condition.
'Vhen •several adjectives precede the noun, epithets generally sholdd be placed nearest the noun ; and then of the
definitives the most generic in order. Thus Lamb says:
"Even ourself, in these our humbler lucubrations, tune our
best measured cadences," placing the epithet humbler aft(\r
the definitives these our, and measured after our best. If the
epithet belongs only to the object as limited by a defi nitive,
it must of course precede the definitive; as," The noble English cavalier;" the epithet noUe being limited to English
cavalir.r specifically. So we say "a tall young man," because we wish to specify one who is " tall " from among the
larger class of "young men." If, however, we were speaking of two classes of men, tall and sliort, and wished to desi~nate one of the former class who was young, we should
say a 9ou11g tall mrm.
Dcfiniti\·es, demonstratives, and
numerals generally, precede attributives; as, "These many
thrifty trees."
·

221

ARRANGEMENT.

. pr111c1
. . p1e 1s
· ti1:1 t ea ch Jimitinrr
1110 eon trollmg
o word
_ should.
·m:t
immediately
the
next
higher
class.
It
should
be re·
l1
·"
maJke<l
that this principle of arrangement <l oes no t. respect
.
conound
adJ"ective
modifiers,
whether
the
connectmg
comP
· .
t
mat
junction is expressed or not. A rhetonca1' no a gram
.1ca1 p11n
.· c"ple
determines
the
order
iu
which
the
several
1
,
J" a<l.
jectives that are brought together in a compound a Ject1vo
phrase should be arranged.

?ut

§ 392. Adverbials should ge nerally precede
ever
be closely joine d with the attribut~ 'rnrds wlnch they
modify; as, " They habitually ascribed every event. to
the ":ill of the Great Being, for whose po~vcr nothing
was too vast, for whose in spect ion nothmg was too
. te .' " "They
read in the oracles
mrnu
. w e re deer1l!J
J
1 ,, of
God; " " The explanation m ay eai;ily be founf.

9 393. Modals prope rly precede but should ever be
. . d wit· I1 t 1ien·. copu ]·,ls,• as , " These ' p1:rlwps,
closely J0111e
are foolish feelings."
If the copula is composite, the propet• place of the
modal is between the parts; as, "The task has pro~,a­
b.ly been finished; " " He has not been absent '.on~.
Ons1mv ATIO~. - When th e copula and the preJirnte are combmecl m.o.na
word
position of the modifier may often determine whet he~ it mlOLlihes
'
. b e P1ace d before the verb
the copula
or the predicate. I f it
.
? it will'f,more
the
sil. be taken to modify the copula; if after the nrb, it w1 11 moc ! ) "
ea I) t . Tl t1s in the sentence "Go1·ernment naturally forms itse~f,
prec 1ca e.
1 ·'
'
•
• •
t ., l ti in"' n tl1111g
II
m.1
1 01
d .fi the copula · The mea nin g 18, it i s I aI na
nal11>'a .y mo 1 es
r
·t If J'ut ia
. I t 0 b ex ected that government shou ' •Orm I se . '
forms itself natnra lly.' " the_ ach·erb
the
predicate. The meaning is: Go\'Crnment forms itself m a natural "ay.

riie

~~~::~';::::~'" Go~·e;n~ncnt

modi~es

§ 394. The object of an action or rel::ition shoul~ fo]..
)ow closely the word expr essi ng the action or relat10n ,
as "The· smith hammers the iron;" " The droughl
~
is ' fatal
tu the springing vegetation. ''

.

· ; 395. Objects stan<ling in different degrees of rela-

·::

222

ARRANGEMENT.

CONSTRUCTION.

223

tionship to the action, follow in the order of depend·
ence ; the passive object, first ; next, the r emote ob·
ject; and the object of result, last: as, " His fathe1
introduced him to his new associates;" " He attached
himself to their society solely for their benefit:''

tion.; secondly, those of Relation, including, (1.) Those of Condition; (2.)
Those of llelation Proper.
.
The highest degree of compaetncso that can be secured in subsen·1cncy
to these general principles, mark s the perfection in the constructwn of. the
sentence. To interpose elements so as to ouscure relation" or to widen
them unn ecessarily, and to make a subordil\ate part more prominent than a
higher part, are faults to be shunned.

Ons1m\'ATION. - To this rule, which should be obser\·ed unless for clear
reasons, th ere are many exceptions, as it yields read ily to other principle~,
when clearness does not forbid. Thus the remote object is, with a view to
harmony, often placed before the passh·e object; as," He gave Iiim tbs
book;" ~~It exerted upon society a pro<ligiou~ influence." So, also~ often
for emphasis the order is in verted; as," To the Bible he more and more
exclusi vely addressed himself."

~ 398. ORAL
le corrected : -

should be so placed as to show the relation.

§ H97. In complex sentences, the extraneous parts
should be introduced either at the be"'innin"'
or at the
b
b
first separation in the parts of the sentence ; as, " The
poet, Bays Schiller, is a citizen not only of his country
but of his time; " not, "The poet is a citizen, says
Schiller," et(' .
OnsERV:\TION. :-- ~n the appl~cation of this, as of all the rules of arrangement, as divers prmc1ples come mto play, there is large occasion for the exercise of judg ment and taste. Only gen eral directions can be giYen. In
~egard to the insertion of ext raneous elements, as in the complex sen tence,
1t may be remarked that the widest separation between the parts of the sentence is that between the principal elements: the next is that between the
principal modifiers of these principal elements; and then successi ,·ely in
the higher sub-modifiers. The extraneous element can seldom· be introduced between an ·. adjecth·e-element nnd n noun, unless the modu1 er is
placed afler th e noun; nor can it generally be well inserted there, unless the
modifier be an extended phrase or clause.
. In r~gi..rc~ to arrangement, generally, the gradation of gonrning prin·
c1ples is: First, clearness; secondly, emphasis; and, thirdly, euphony und
harmony m the verbal expression. The gradation in the sentence in reference to ils parts is : First, the relation between the principal elements, -the
;mbjcct, the predicate, an cl the copula, - which should ever be made to stand
out clenr and commanding o,·er nil the subordinate relations; secondly the
relations of principal modifiers; and then successively those of the ~ub­
modifiers. The gradation of elements modifying objects of thought is·
Fir11t, Properties, including, (1.) Those of Quality, and, (2.) _Those of Ar,.

Faults in arrangcrnent to

Under § 391. Whether a choice has, in any country, been
made altocrether unexceptionable, seems doubtful.
Manv a~sociations are united by laws the most arbitrary.
The bricrht two birds walked about for a few minutes.
"' a black pair of kid gloves, and a gracefully
He bought
fitting pair of. gait~rs.
The leafy covert of a woody wild dingle.
These rumors were mere rural libelous gossip.
An old, venerable, tall man just then broke in upon the
circle.
Under § 392. The houses of the gentry were supplied
not more plentifully.
Their literary stores consisted generally of a prayer-book
and a receipt-book.
You may find which way the wind sits more easily by
throwing up a straw in the air than any heavier substance.
vVe appear to differ in sentiments from each other often,
merely from the inaccuracy of terms.
From what I have said, you will perceive readily the subject I am to proceed upon.
Beautiful women possess seldom any great accomplishments, because they study behavior rather than solid excellence for the most part.
Ite prngress will be gradual and visible when considera.ble effects only have been produced.
.Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil
also.
It is imposs11'le continually to be'at work.
0

§ 396. Pronominal . words and all correlative words

EXERCISE.

.~·'·

224

.- ARRANGEMENT.

He was pleasin6 not often, because he was vain.
Under § 393. The same laws obtain through the whole
system, most probably, in which we are connected.
You have read the book certainly, but not with attention.
Under §§ 3!H, 395. Though virtue borrows no assistance
from, yet it may be often accompanied by, the advantages
of fortune.

ltfiscellaneous. A similar struggle against the feudal nobility to that of other conn tries.
The preternat ural operations of Gorl are likely to be regulated by similar laws, where we can trace laws at all, to
those which direct the order of Nature.
, Benevolence is, on whatever side we may contemplate tho
'aubject, a godlike vi rtue.
The not attending to this rule is the source of a very common error.
A great mass of rocks thrown together hy the hand of
Nature, with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with
more grandeur than if they were adjusted to one another
with the greatest symmetry.
By what I have already expressed, the reader will per·
ceive the business which I am to proceed upon.
'Vhat is human life to all, but a mixture, with various
cares and troubles, of some scatterecl j oys and pleasures ?
Generosity is a showy virtue which many persons are very
(
fond of'.
H e must endure the ·follies of others, who will have their
kindness.
It is not from this world that any source of comfort can
arise to cheer the gloom of the last hour.
It is ordained by Providen ce, that nothing shall be ob·
tained in our present state that is truly valuable, except it
be with difficulty and danger.
'Ve cannot doubt but all the proceedings of Providence
will appear as equitable, when fully understood and completely intelligible, as now they seem irregular.
H e offered an apology, which being not admitted, he became submissive.
The good man not only deserves the respect but ~he love
of his fellow-beings.
'Ve. should carefully examine into, and candidly pass judg·
1nent on, our faults .

Praise, like gold and diamonds, owes to its scarcity only
its value.
Study to unite with firmness gentle manners.
N ever delay till to-morrow, for to-morrow is not yours ;
and though you should live to enjoy it, you must not overload
it with a burden not its own, what reason and conscience tell
you ought to be performed to-day.
Form your measures with prudence ; but all anxiety about
the issue divest yourselves of.
·
They ·were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from
the house.
Under § 3!JG. I have considered the subject with a good
deal of attention, upon which I was desired to' communicate
my thoughts.
_
How will that nobleman be able to conduct himself, when
reduced to poYerty, who was educated only to magnificence
and pleasure ?
\
.Nothing whic~1 is. not right can be gre;t; nothing can be
smtable to the dignity of the human mind which reason condemns.

•

225

CONSTRUCTION.

Under § 3!J7. These instances may, it is hoped, be sufficient to satisfy every reasonab!e mind.
It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous, therefore, to re·
monstrate.
It was a case of unpardonable breach of trust and gross
diaregard of official duty, to say the least.
A pruden.t genernl will avoid a general engagement, gen·
eral1y. sp.ea~rng, unless his forces are equal at least in bravery
and clisc1plino to those of his opponent.

•

15

226

CONSTHL'CTION.

Gentlemen ire not requested to enter the ladies' cabin '
without permission.
All that glitters is not gold.
. The committee would further suggest some change in the
mternal arrangement of the building, as a large number of
seats have long been occupied by the scholars that have no
backs.
Solomon, the son of David, who built the temple at Jerusnlem, was the richest monarch of his age.
It appears . tl~at the~e are, by a late calculation, nearly
twenty-five mill10ns of mhabitants iu Great Britain and Ireland.
Neither can we admit that he was formed by himself without the greatest absurdity, or by mere accident.
?nder all its labors, hope is the mind's solace; and the situat10ns which exclude it entirely are few.
Hav~ng not known or having not considered the subject,
he declmed expressing any opinion.
She also befooled me for, as she called it, my inteniied .
desperate adventure.
The possession of Jacob Touson's, the publisher, heir.
.,

CHAPTER IV.
PROPRIETY

§ 399. GHA)n!ATICAL PnornrnrY, which requires that
each element of expression be used in its own and only its
own proper use (§ 3GO), has a threefold application, namely:
I. To the use of the proper element;
2. To the use of the proper infl ectional form ;
3. To the single use of the same element in the same sentence.
OBSEHVATJO:->. - A~ language does not furnish special forms of expression for all the forms and relations of thought, form• are often borrowed for
other than their oric,.·inal and proper uses. Th e English language h~, more
than some others, d~ficient in varieti es of special forms. Th e classical languages, tlw>, had forms distinguishing the subj ect a_nd the predicat.e of a
proposilion from the mere object of thought. Jn J.,nghsh, nouns m _the
same form are used both for object of thou1'ht generally, and also for ob3ect
when specially thought either as subject or as predicate.
T o meet this deficiencv in the early stages of 1"nguage, as we ha,·e seen,
abn ormal forms came inw, nnd recci,·ed the sanction of good use, and so of
grammar. Thus nouns are used as modifiers ; a8," Fancy sketches;" ~nd
verbs are used to express o~jccts of thought; as," That the sentence ~as ;ust
is admitted;" or as modifi ers, as, ''The sentiments which he uttered were
well received · " "I-le found, when he reforned, the whole company in the
highest excit~ment."' Other like abnormal forms have been specified in
their place. See Part IV.
Pred icates, further, bccQme, in the progress of language, separated from
their own subjects, and thus pass as general attributh·es, which now as adjectives are used to modify objects of thought; although in some languages
tliey assume distinct forms when thus used, not as predicates, but as general
attributi 1·es.
Auxiliaries, moreo1·er, are words transferred from their proper use to aid
in the inflection of other words. They, for the most part, sti ll retain their
Dri ginaLuse.
.
In this derived or borrowed use of the primitive forms of expression, we
have the prini:iples reguluting the element originally st' l in force, an1l mod-

'!;\

228

ified only so far ns 'the nature of the ca.e may rc11u1re. Thus the noun, ~
when used as a morlilier, still has, as its proper modifier, an ndj ecth·e, not
nn advert, as, " IVildjimcy sketches." The predicate form , when dropping
its proper nature as a predicate and become a mere attributive, is still modified by adverbials; as, "The brigltl(q shinin9 sun.'' And the fuudamental
dlnlinctions are never sub,·erted. The subject-word preserves its proper
charar.ter ever different from the predicate-word; the principal element, its
character e\·er different from the modifier; nud each, as a notion-word, different from the form-word. So indeed, further, the subordinate form s in
th~"" three leading classes of elements should, in correct expressipn, main.
t.11:1 each its own distinctive character; the proper noun, the mas~-noun, tho
collective noun, the class-noun, should be used, each according to ita p1·cper
nature; as, also, the subordinate varieties of abstract nouns. Tl1c princip.e
applies, al so, to the sul.>0nlinate kinds of modi(1·ing words, whether adjec·
tives, a1lverhiale, or modals; as, also, to those of form-words.
It will be notic~d that the principles of Propriety here presented nre purely
grammatical, and are exclusil·e of lexicography. The con sideration of the
proper use of wonts as determined by their special meaning, except, per'1aps, of fi>nn-words and correlatives, woultl carry us thfo11gh the entire
vocabulary of the language. The dictionary is the uuly suitable text-book
for this kind of propriety.

§ 400. The first principle of Grammatical Propriety requires, 1. That subject-words and predicate-words, concretes and
abstracts, and their several subonlinate forms, be used in the ·
sentence according to their respective natures.
2. Th~~t, in the use of modifying elements, adjectives mod·
ify only objects of thought; adverbials, only predicate-words,
and modals, only copula words; and the subordinate forms ·
be used each according to its proper nature.
3. That, in the use of form-words, prepositions be used to
show their proper relations between objects of thought; conjunctions, to show their proper relations between copula elements ; and all correlative words in their proper connections;
and that auxiliaries be used as inflectional helps, and not as
principal elements, nor as form-words of relation.
On3EitvA'flO:-f.-There is a considerable number of words which are
used for se,·eral purposes, sometimes as preposition•, sometimes as conjunctions, sometimes as pronouns. The8e words are ever on the increase in the
progrc•s of the language. A list of tho3e mo•t worthy of attention to the
lenrncr will not he inappropriate here. Words used both aa ad\•erba and
a.ijeoth-es are fur the most part omitted in thia liat.

229

PROPRIETY.

CONSTRUCTION.

· Wo1·ds us1d for different Offices ;n Spcecl1.

•

1.
f

.4-Article1 "A bont;" Preposition, "I go a fishing."
About -Ad verb, "He roams about; " Preposition, "He wrote about the
war."
,,
Above-Adverb "He soars above;" Preposition, "Above the earth.
After-Adverb:" He returned soon ajlei·;" Preposition, "Ile came after
~
n1e.''
·
"All hours·." Noun, "lier little all;" Adnrb, "And
All-Adjective,
cheeks all pale."
d "
As - Adverb "He is as proud as poor;" "As he p~sscd, the mens110ute ;
'
R
l
·
P
"Such
as I
Conjunction, "No longer as it was;'' e at1ve ronoun,
never saw before."
Before-Adi·erb, "It hall happened befo1·e;" Preposition, "Before the
Revolution.''
.
,,
Below - Adverb "He went bel·no; '' Preposition,'' Beloio !us rank. .
Besides -Ad,·crb, "All the work\ beside•;" Preposition, " B~sides !um."
Both-Adjective, ".Botlt generals;" Conjunction," Both krng und sub-

ject."
.
. "
But-Adverb," All are but dust;" Conjunction," But he was mistaken;
Preposition, "All but him."
.
By-At!verh, "Years ha,·e passed by;" Preposition," By the nnr."
Do-Auxiliarv Verb and Principal Verb.
Else-Adjecti~e, "\Vhat else can he do?" Conjunction," Else would I
give it."
,E:nou!Jlt-Adjective, "Erwuglt goods;" Adverb, "Well enou9h ; " Noun,
" He has enoltgh.''
Except-Conju~ction, "Except these abide;" Preposition, "Except these
bonds."

.

For- Preposition," For his interest;" Conjunction,
Expletive, "For him to act thus is shameful."

"Fi

· · · · ·

·"

or it 1s lllJllflOUS,

Have-Auxiliary Verb and Principal Verb.
.
Howe~er-Aifrerli, "Jlowevei· small;" Conjunction," llowever, 1t may not
be so bad as reported."
Indeed-Modal," It was i1uleed true;" Conjunction," Indeed, the proced·
·ure was a farce."
It- Pronoun and Rhetorical Expletive.
Let - Auxiliary Verb and Principal Verb.
· ·
" " t wt'tl·~ tnn,,d'n9
the rain;" Conjunction,
Votwithstanding - Preposition,
1
"The motion was carried, notw1lhsl<indm9.
Now-Aclverb of Time; Conjunction, "Now, Barabbas ~vas a robber."
Ovei·- Adnrb "All is ov~r;" Preposition," Ovei· the n\·er."
Shall- Predic;te Auxiliary and Copula Auxiliary.
..
Since -Adverb, "He has not been seen si1<ce;" Preposition, "Since that
time·'' Conjunction," Since this is so."
&-Adverb,;, So great;" Conjunction," So truth be in the field;" Inter·
jection.
Thal - Adjective, " Tl•al man; " Conj unction, " I think that they will be

:•o

here."

I

230

CONSTRUCTION.

PROPRIETY.

Till- Preposition, "Till next week;" Conjunction, " Till all be lost."

To- Sign of Infinitive and Preposition.
Too -Adverb, " Too hig h;" Conjunction, "He, loo, will be present."
Untll-Pfeposition, "Until morning-;" Conjun ction,'' Until he nrri,·e. i'
What- Interrogative Pronoun, "Whal news ?" Compound Hela tive Pro·
noun, "I know wltal he will say;" lnterjectioD.1 "What! might Rome
haYe been take.n ? '"
Whi1e -Ad,-crb, "IVliile taITying th ere;" Conjuri ction, "JV/tile the facts
showed th e contrary;" Noun, " Worth while;"·· Verb, " Let us wltil8
away this li fo ."
Who- Whose, Whom, Which, Interrogati\·e and Relath·e Pronouns.
Will-Aux iliary Verb and Principal Verb .
·Yet-Adverb, "A few yet remain;" Conjunction, "ret, is it a false con·
clusion."
Ons1m vATIOx. - We will exemplif.v th e principles of propriety in in·
stances of viola tions of them to be corrected by the pupil.. Th ese examples, in part, will be arranged in classes under the sen ral principles ; others
will be added promiscuously arranged.

§ 401. ORAL EXERCISE. Faults in . Grammatical
Propriety to be corrected :, L In use of Sul!J"ect-words and Predicate-words, and their
respecti'l:e 'Varieties.
Knaves and dissemblers have sometimes succeeded for the
time; but honest ancl true are sure to triumph at the end of
their course.
A pestilence broke · out in the army and it died with a
fearful mortality.
This devoting ourselves to God must be habitual.
Their speedy outstripping all competitors in the race was
now evident.
2. In use of llfodifying Elements.
The then government was tottering to its fall.
The far-off shore was lingeringly watched as it still re·
ceded from our view.
He acldressed several exhortations to them suitably to their
•espective conditions.
Thine often infirmities require it.
We shoulcl implant in tho minds of youth such seeds of
piety and virtue as are likely to take soonest and deepest
roo~

~

;

231

Of his conduct previously to this offense I do not now
complain.
Which of them books is yours ?
He hacl many virtues and was exceeding beloved.
She reads proper and writes neat.
His substance is near spent.
The assembly met agreeable to adj ournment.
The conspiracy was the easier discovered from its being
known to many.
He speak~ very fluent but is not very logical.
They generally succcedecl; for they .lived conformable to
the rules of prudence.
Such an amiable Llisposition will win many friends.
You must not walk too hasty.
'Vhether he will be learned or no, must depend on hi3 application.
H e acted conformable with his instructions.
No person cot1kl speak stronger on this subject nor behave
nobler, than our you ng ad vocate fo r the cause of toleration.
~fany people never learn to speak correct.
A talent of this kind woulcl, perhaps, prove the likeliest
of any other to succeecl.
He was the most eloquent speaker of any in the assembly.

3. In use of F orm-words and Correlatfres.
Form-words of Wrong Class. - Have you no better ex•
cuse but this?
Such use of another's . works is nothing else except plagiarism.
H e is arrived at length.
H e would not say whether he would or no.
Humility neither seeks the first place or the last word.
He has little more of the scholar besides the name.
From no other institution besides the admirable one of
juries, 'coulcl so great a benefit be expected.
Such writers have no other standard on which to form

. 'I

·.

232

233

CONSTRUCTION.

PROPRIETY.

themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and pop-:
ular.
No other employment besides a bookseller suited his incli·
nation.
Much preferable is wisdom than riches.
Milton was earlier and superior than Dryden.
They are determined not to go without you go with them.
This is a very different result than what was promised.
Wrong Prepositions. - This is a principle in union to our
nature.
He had a difficulty of fixing his mind.
I have no occasion of his services.
We should entertain no prejudices to simple and rustic
persons.
. He was accused with having acted unfairly.
The politeness of the world has the same resemblance with
benevolence that the shadow has with the substance.
Civility makes its way among every kind of persons.
I have been to London, after having resided a year at
France.
Their conduct was agreeable with their profession.
The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their
own power.
They had arrived to the same conclusion.
The general was attended with the governor.
He was also accompanied with his staff.
His practice does not agree to his preaching.
He was now called to a service different to any he had
ever before undertaken.
The goblet was broken in pieces.
I am glad on it.
The relation of town to country in France is singularly
different to what it is in America.
It was very foolish of him to give such an excuse.
Wrong Cunju11ctio11s. -Tho matter was no sooner proposed, but he privately withdrew to consider it.

It is more than doubtful if any real improvtment in the
condition of the people is taking place.
I cannot doubt but that he has reported the facts cor·
rectly.
She is seldom or ever in town.
They labored as though they thought they were to get pay
for their work.
She feared very much lest the storm would break befora
they could reach a shelter.
Such prevarication is 'nothing else but lying.
The terms productive or creative are very improperly applied to imagination.
Correlatives. -Neither flatter or contemn the rich or the
great.
His conduct was equally unjust as dishonorable.
No scholar of his age was as earnest and self-sacrificing in
the cause as he.
The work was not as perfectly done as he promised.
The government will return only such letters that are valuable.
No sorrow is so bitter but it can be mitigated by sym~th~

.
Prejudices so confirmed and inveterate as they will hardly
give way to the clearest demonstration.
§ 402. The second general principle of grammatical propriety enjoins the use of the proper inflectional form.
.
OasERVATIO~. -This principle embraces within its range of application inflection s of nouns and pronouns indi cating gender, numb er, nnd cnse;
inflections of ,·erbs both by internal change and by auxiliaries, the sign of
the infinitive, and forms of the gerund and participle, and also the forms
of factitive verbs, as, set, lay, etc.

~ 403. ORAL EXERCISE. Faults in 1·cspect of th~
use of Inflectional Forms to be corrected: I respect every mans judgment and follow my own.
, Cherubims and seraphims bowed in worship.
He had a book of memorandums.

234

CONSTRUCTION.

The book had two heroes and one heroess.
I seen them there yesterday.
He is old enough to take care of hisself.
They had went before I reached liome.
Had they knew it, they would not have gone.
He had a letter began and nearly half wrote.
I had often swam aeross the river before.
·was it practicable I would accompany you.
.As soon as we had drank tea, we were tempted by flno
weather to take a walk.
Protagoras .narrowly escaped bein<T
put to death for havina
~
~
wrote somethmg that seemed to contradict their received
notions of the gods.
His neighbor was fallen from his horse.
But at that time the rest laid so close that they could not
be apprehended.
I charge thee that thou dost hereafter keep thyself clear
of these grounds.
Provided they done nothing contrary to Roman discipline,
they might continue to hold their assemblies.
The ag~ of chivalry is gone.
The golden' autumn is come.
He is grown out of his stiffness and awkwardness.
§ 404. The third general principle of grammatical propriety requires that the same element of expression be employed
only in a single use or relation in the same sentence.

§ 405.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Faults in double use of

Elements to be corrected: These curiosities we have imported from China, and are
similar to those which were some time ago brought from
Africa.
\Ve must pay attention to what goes before, and this chapt.cr is intended to exhibit more fully.
I will give the book to whomsoever I shall find to be most
regnlar and will best prepare his lessons.

PROPRIETY.

235

I know not who will be faithful and we can trust.
And this is it men mean by distributive justice and is
properly termed equity.
If the acquisitions he has made, and qualified him to be
a useful member of society, should be misapplied, he will be
highly culpable.

§ 406. ORAL EXERCISE. Faults in Grammatical
Propriety promiscuously presented, to be corrected: The ship lays in the harbor. The court sets to-day. The
tree felled in the opposite direction. This is an useful machine. They have chose discreetly. He behaved noble.
Absalom's beauty, Jonathan's love, David's valor, Solomon's wisdom, . Ulysses his policy, Augustus his prudence,
Cresar's fortune, Cicero's eloquence. - Felltlwm.
" I like not Aristippus his doctrine." - Id.
" Saved in Mars his field." - Ben Jonson.
Averroes's resolution, majestie's patronage, Churches infallibility. - Oldllingwortli.
Words of Moses his law. Obligation of Moses his law. Stilling.fleet.
They were drove about like sheep.
I shall go if you will desire.
The stream has overfbwn the meadows.
I will be disappointed if you do not come.
My book is better than yourn.
There were a good many housen there.
I had wrote my letter when the postman came.
It was the most critical period of any in the history of the
war.
She danced beautiful.
This part of knowledge has been always growing and will
do so, till the subject shall be exhausted.
, He published an uniform edition of the Latin classics.
Yield for peace's and harmonys sake.
Money is easier acquired than knowledge.

236

CONSTRUCTION.

0 ! that he was here now.
He has no other meri t but that of a compiler.
All arrived at last safely.
Which is the greater of the American rivers?
The project was nothing less than a tempting God.
Of all conceivable plans, that is the worse.
They sat silently a long time.
John at that time begun to do well.
The birds sung merrily.
· Their clothes were all wore out.
He had n't ought to go.
He has little more of the great man bP-sides the title.
He acted conformable with his instructions.
He acted independent of foreign assistance.
No human happiness is so complete as does not contain
som~ imperfection.
Socrates has been more honored than any Athenian.
John lived to v. later period than any of the Apostles.
No men were fitter for such a service but themselves.
If he had have succeeded in the enterprise, much evil
would have been prevented.
He learned them to be obedient.
There was much spoke and wrote on each side of the
question; but I have chose to suspend my.decision.
\
I have writ with charity.
Had he have laid low he would not have been hit.
If I go I will deserve punishment.
I will be exposed to take cold.
If I go, shall the assembly be disappointed, do you think 1
He had not ought to talk in that way.
You had ought to help your brother.
He consented to set down for a while.
The whole adjoining valley was overflown.
He learned his pupils in nil the sciences.
He was bid go on his way.
Ho accused him with the fault.

PROPRIETY.

237

He did it as secret as he could.
[ uever see before such brilliant flowers.
They are remarkable forward boys.
Young twigs are easier bent than boughs.
When you writ last to me ..
I had the spending three hundred pounds a year in one of
them.
How could any man, in his senses, think the spreading such
notions the way to spread or propagate virtue iu the world.
The pursuing this subject in their own thoughts would
possibly open a new scene.
The not considering of this has been a fundamental and
perplexing oversight.
These same formulas would be a yoke of bondage and a
turning back the wheels of lawful and necessary progress.
Where his book was being printed.
It was ever heard tell of that a boy had been born with
breeches on.
We must believe it, for he certain said so.
If he do not return to-morrow, he will the next day sure.
He knows scarcely nothing of the language.
Once he has seen his mistake, he is prompt to correct it.
Directly they arrived, the dinner was ordered.
If I open my eye to the light I cannot choose but see.
Scarcely had feudalism, the boroughs and the clergy each
taken its distinct form and places than we see them tending
to approach each other.
After I had wed out the garden, I plowed the north lot.
He determined not to comply with the proposal, except he
should receive a more ample compensation.
Scarce had the " Spirit of Laws" made its appearance
than it was attacked.
The Infinite figures far less in the theater of mind and exerts a far inferior influence iQ the modification of thought
than the abstract.
Let the Union Lea.,CTUe, therefore, manage its reception

I"
I

I'

- ~33

CONSTRUCTION.

differently from what the previous ones have been man
aged.
I will contribute to it in any way which shall be in my
power.
Until this question be definitively answered, which it
never can, we must be unable to conceive the possibility of
the fact of liberty.
I should like to see person and property safe, which no
one's is here.
\
It cut a very different figure than in the Daily News.
Introducing n. scheme of thought that breaks loose from
Biblicn.l conceptions either of the first cren.tion or of the new
cren.tion in Christ.
It will be the beginning of August till his settlement takes
pln.ce.
It needs but to remember that, etc.
The manuscripts themselves would have perished, as severn.l had done.
"Which is the more plea.sing to recount, that, from the ficklen,ess and insensibility of mankind, they do not frequently
occur. -,
What does he but goes to his lord and tells him wl1at he
had heard.

CHAPTER V.
PRECISION.
§ 4.07. GRAmIATICAL PRECISION, which requires that so
many and only so many of the materials of expression be
used as are requisite for the communicn.tion of the thought
(§ 360), has obviously a twofold application, as these materials may .in __ quan_tity be in excess or in defect. The two
departments of precision are, accordingly, I. PLEONAS)I, or the use of more words than are requisite
for the orderly construction of the sentence;
II. ELLIPSIS, or. the use of fewer words than are admissible_for the orderly construction of the sentence.
§ 408. Pleonasm may be allowable or faulty. It is allowable, 1. For clearness and fullness in the impression of the
thought;
2. For the harmony of the expression in its effect on the
ear.
It is faulty when more words are required than the proper
construction of the sentence requires or is admissible for one
or the other of the two reasons just mentioned.
OnsER\'ATIO:<r. -In order to produce n fuller inpression of the though t,
ns in discourse generally, the sa me thought is repeated in different forms in
different sentences; so, in the sen tence, the parts are allowably often repeated under different forms. One kind of such repetition is in the use of
eynonJmous words. The English language readily allows this repetition
with happy effect in the use of synonymous words, one from the Latin, the
1>thcr from the Anglo-Saxon source of its vocabulary. Thus, in a familiar
manual of relii:;ious worship, we find such repetitions as these: "acknowledge and confess,"" dissemble nor doak," "assembl e and tneet together."
Such pleonasms are not ulemishes, but rather beauties, for the fuller impre9o

•

'""·'""
'

-

240

. PRECISION.

CONSTRUCTION.

aion of the thought. So, also, for harmonious effect on :he ear, rnch pleonastic use of words is allowable, and especially in cad~nces. where more
than elsewhere abruptness is offensive. The style of Cicero is ~haracterized
by this kind of pleonasm. So, also, the best English writers, and particularly those whose excellence lies in the oral Yirtues of expression. Thus
we find on almost any page in tho writings of Addison, such pleonastic cadences as" degeneracy and corruption," "that might appear li • ht or trivial," •' ruin and sorrow;" and in those of ~Iacaulay, "invectiv: an d derh•lon,"

H

satirists and dramatists," "justice and order, 11

h

labor and nttention,t

"worthless anti puerile." Such repetitions nre pleonasms, although tho
thoug ht may seem to be somewhat expanded, because the repetition is not
for the thought. but for the fullne ss of th e expression, or, as it is called, the
roundness of the period. They are allowable pleonasms. A strictly precise writer that limits his expression to the thought omits them.

§ 409. ORAL ExERClSE. Faults in Grammatical
Pleonasm to ·be corrected: 1. In Elements, Prindpal and Modifying. - It is ten
years ago since he left England.
If I mistake not, I think he is greatly improved in manners and morals.
These two boys appear to be both equal in capacity.
Whenever he sees me he always inquires about his friends.
I hope this is the last time I shall ever act so imprudently.
These points have been illustrated in so plain and evident
B manner that the perusal of the book has given me much
pleasure and satisfaction.
,
There can be no regularity or order in the life and conduct of that man who does not give and allot a due share
of his time to retirement and reflection.
That Plutarch wrote lives of Demosthenes and Cicero at
Ch::cronea, it is clear from his own account.
He may probably make the attempt, but he cannot possibly succeed.
As soon as Eugenius undertook the care of a parish, it immediately engrossed the whole of his attention.
It is above a year since the time that I left school.
It is difficult to unite together copiousness and precision.
The house is not as commodious as we expected it would

be.

241

The kinO' has conferred on him the title of a duke.
H e has been much censured for conducting himself with a
tittle attention to his business.
'Who, instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually intent upon doing mischief.
Ile honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise.
How soon did not my dream vanish?
And the joys of this li fe, how fleeting are they not !
What surprising and wonderful evidence of this is not afford ed by so-called sleep-walkers !
How differently does not death now appear to us !
2. In Inflections. - The chiefest of all the virtues 1s
charity.
Poverty is more preferable in all cases than vice.
Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man ; and should
be his chiefest desire.
A good and well-cultivated mind is far preferable than
rank or riches.
He treated him with the most supreme contempt.
Th~ most superior talents will not avail him in such a
cnsis.
He contented himself with a more inferior article.
3. In Form-words. - Their idleness and their luxury and
pleasures, their criminal deeds and their immoderate passions,
and their timidity and baseness of mind, have dejected them
to such a degree as to make them weary of life.
Their performance was approved of by all who understood it.
We need not, nor do not, confine his operations to narrow
limits.
There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity.
§ 410. Grammatical Ellipsis may be allowable or faulty.
It is allowable when greater force is given without sacri. flee of clearness :
It is faulty when the sentence is left by it obscure or am
biguous.

_,

II

f._,·i;
!·I•

f'
~

.,

I

,.

.

PRECISION.

CONSTRUCTION.
Ons1mvATIO:'i. - Brevity is generally favorable to force or energy or ex.
pression; and if clearness be not too much sacrificed, it is a virtue in style.
Ellipsis is, tuercfore, allowal:Jle when comistent with clearness.
Thus, in compound sentences and members, an element, repeated in
thought, is generally expressed but once; as, "James turner! and looked,"
instead of ".Tames turned and James looked;" " 'Vise and good men
alike," instead of " 'Vise men and good men nlike; " " The man who hesitates and doul:Jts," instead of "The man who hesitates and who doubts;"
"For the sake of peace and harmony," instead of "For the sake of peace
and for the sake of harmony."
In like manner in comparative sentences; "He is taller than I," instea<\
or' "than I am." So, "He sings better than his brother; " " It is more
than I can bear."
Ilut the ellipsis is faulty when the thought is lefi obscure or equivocal,

as,1. 'Vhen the parts of the compound sentence or member are in different
relations to the repeated element; as," Honesty is always praised by selfish
men, an<\ would be more universally practice<! if they were wiser;" b-,tter,
"and it would be;" "He was us tall, and, indeed, taller than his l:Jrother;"
better," He was as tall as his brother, and, indeed, taller;" "I ha\·e not,
and never shall consent to such a measure."
2. 'Vhen it is left in doubt whether it is the modifier or th e principal ele·
ment that is compounded; ns, "N'ational and social interests require it;"
better," National interests and social interests req uire' it;" or still better,
"The interests bot h of the nation and of society require it;" "The great
nnd good nppro,·e it;" better," The great and the good approve it."
In a complex sen tence, the parts that are extraneous to th e proper sen·
tence are generally elliptical; as, "The •trength, hmnMly speaking, of a
nation col1 sists not in its population or wealth or knowledge. " "/luma11ly
1penkin9" is an elliptical expression, inasnu1ch as it is not a complete sentence in itself, and does not modify nny part of the proper sentence.
l\Iany colloquial expressions are elliptical; 1as, "Good night, honest
Iago;" instead of" I wish for thee a good night."
In th~ single sentence, the subject of a verb in the second person of the
lmperath·e is generally omitted; ns," Come hither, Hubert."
The subjects of what a re called impersonal nrbs are otlen omitted; as,
"So far as respects this point, I have nothing more to say;" "Do as seems

best."
The subject of a participial may be om itted to avoid repetition, but no.
otheTwisc; ns, "On nrrh·ing at the hotel, he ordered rooms;" bnt in the
following sentence the ellipsis is faulty; "On arril·ing at the hotel, rooms
were ordere<l. 11
In free discourse, the relath·e is otlen allowably omitted; as, "All the
money there is iu the country will be brought into ~ ircu lation."
The article should be repeated before each noun in a series, if each is to
be taken distinctly or separately. If, howe,·er, they are to be. taken collectively or as a unit, and, also, if the second word is !Inly another fora

of ex

re!~ion

243

denoting the same thing, th e article ma): b;, omitted; as," I

horse_~'~'~'~'~;,'~~":·

met tfie boy and the girl;" "I md n_
ccics of faults in
The following sentences exempli f) a 'et.)b "ttions of,;' pen1lulum or bal·
ellipsis of the article ; "He coun ted equal'' '' 11· .· . " "He is a mad·
ence cq ua1ly the dead ant i \ rng,
" u R
ance-wheel ;
·,ever.
' d . ti ' lasses from which to select our
1nan or fool;" "The wise and goo me ie t.:
familiar friend; ."
. 1 Thus repositions after many
Form-words.are often allowably om1tte<.
. l·" .P t I of "H e ga,·e to
·
·
.
.
1,
He Cf':'\YC me a boo\.' 111s eat
,
."' .
. , .. d fram the nrb
verbs and adJeCtl\ es ' as,
b ol· " If the remote ol:J1cct Ill such cases is scpa1 ate
1 '·l
·
me a o \.·
. a~ H He g·i ve a v n 11au c
arljectiYe the prepositi on must l:Jc expresscc1' »
,
·r ·s
obr I· t Joh;1 on hi s leavin~."
So after some adjecti,·e: the prepos1 wn I
0
oo \. o
,
••
• 11 "lie · 3 lil·c ]us father."
omitted; "The lan<l is wort~1 .the_p11cc ,
"tt ;. a~ "l.le careful that you
the
prepos1t1011
is
alt.en
om1 c< '
'
'
I
Deiore causes,
b ,, The chuse thut yni< rerememb~r;,, "r~ake _ca re t~1~t :·o: c:~.•;1~;;\1~~\ cnre, wlii~h word s followed
memher is the object iespectl\el.1 lo . :f .t.on <f to inclicatc their relations
by normal nouns would req u!fe t ic p1 epos1 '

as ;l~~e~!~Junc(\onthc!I, used as the sign of a cla~:se, is often allowably omitted in free discourse; as, " I knew he had gone.

§ 411.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Faults in Grammatical

Ellipsis to be corrected : 1 Of Elements in Compound Sentences and JJ[embe1s.
lie is a person of great property, but docs not possess the
·
esteem of his neighbors.
Having once entered the fatal circle of pleasure, there was
no retreat.
J d"f
The ends of a divine and human legislator are vast y l ferent.
Let us consider the works of nature and art wit1l proper
cl t· k ·
attention.
.
fi rmness, n othinrr
'V1thout
.,, that is "'rrreat can. be un er ,L en ,
that is difficult or hazardous can be accomplished.
This intelligence not only excited our hopes but fears

too.So bold a breach of order called "ior l"itt1e seven'ty i'n pun
ishin rr the offender·
.
Tl7ese copies were made in the sixth and followrng century.
_,..--The rich and poor are alike m0rtal.
- Familiarity with vicious fosters vice.
I can assign a more satisfactory and stronger reason

·• · :

~' :: j;

·~f 1~. ~

' >i •:f

244

CONSTRUCTION.
PRECISION.

2. Of Relatii•es.
The knowledge he has acquired and the habits of arpll~
cation he possesses, will probably render him very useful.
We must pay attention to what goes before and immedi·
• ately follows after.
His conduct is not scandalous ; and that is the best can be
said of it.
'I1Lis was the person whom calumny had greatly abused
and suatained the injustice with singular patience.
The captain had several men in his ship died of the scurvy.
Iu the circumstances I was at that time, my troubles
pressed heavily upon me.
·
That is a property most men have, or at least may attain.'
He lingered many days in the condition I left him.
This is the way I do my work.
They may now bring themselves to a better end than ever
France would have brought them.
.
3. Of Form-words.
This author is more remarkable for strength of sentiment
than harmonious language.
They are now reconciled to what they could not formerly
be prompted by any consideration.
I must, however, be so candid to own I have been mistaken.
It is better live on a little than outlive a great deal.
I need not to solicit him to do a kind action.
Idle persons imagine, however deficient they may be in
point of duty, they consult at least their own satisfaction.
The soldiers were seen one by one mount the breastwork.
They are unworthy your attention.
Ho who neglects those trifles, yet boasts that whensoever
a great sacrifice is called for, he shall be ready to make i~
will rarely be loved.

§ 412. ORAL EXERCISE. Faults in respect of Gram- '
matical P1·ecision promiscuously arranged to he indicated
and corrected.

to

245

The people gained nothing further by this step, but only
suspend their misery·
.
I was filled with unbounded astomshment.
.
The anxious man is the votary of riches ; tho negligent of

pleasure.
.
f
d w11
How many are there by whom these tidmgs o goo ne
were never heard.
.
He discovered some qualities in the youth of a disagreeable nature and to him were wholly unaccountable.
Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as ~xample.
I shall, in the first place, begin with re~arkmg tl~e defects,
and shall then proceed afterwards to descnbe the excellences
of this pln.n of education.
He has destroyed his constitution by the very same errors
that so many have been destroyed by.
If young persons were determined to conduct th.emsclves
by the rules of virtue, not only would they e~cape. mnurner·
able dangers, but command respect from the liceut10us themselves.
b
· · h t h
He was of so high ar.d independent a spmt, t a e a •
horred and detested being in debt.
The sacrifices of virtue will not only be rewarded hereafter, but recompensed even in this life.
.
How a seed grows up into a tree, and the m:nd acts upon
the body are mysteries which we cannot explam.
\Vhy do ye that which is not lawful to do on the Sabbath·

iay?
.
'th f
I have received no information on the subject, nei er rom
him nor from his friend.
However clear and obvious the conduct wh!ch he ought to
o and resolut10n to set about
have pursued, he had not courarre
d
ill
By these happy labors, they who sow an reap w re·
joice together.
.
.
f
'N othing never affected her so much as this misconduct o
Iler child.

it.

-~

246

. .PRECISION.

CONSTRUCTION.

We have done no more than was our duty to do:
I have seen some persons to conduct themselves very dis·
erectly.
B! a multiplicity and variety of words, the thoughts an~
sentiments are not set off and accommodated; but, like David
dressed out and equipped in Saul's armor, they are encum·
bered and oppressed.
It is the difference of their conduct which makes us to approve the one, and to reject the other.
He is a much better writer than a reader.
She was really in that sad condition that her friend repre·
sented her.
This man, on all occasions, treated his inferiors with hauo-h.
·.
"'
tiness and disdain.
In no scene of her life was ever l\1ary's address more re.
markably displayed.
As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy a·
'
few persons pitied him.
'Yhoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneoo~~

'

His _cheerful, happy temper, remote from discontent, keeps
up a kmd of daylight in his mind, excludes every gloomy
prospect, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity.
Beware of drunkenness ; it impairs understanding ; wastes
an estate; destroys a reputation; consumes the body; and
renders the man of the brightest parts the common jest of
the meanest clown.
·
I cannot yield to such dishonorable conduct neither at the
present moment of difficulty, nor, I trust, under no circumstances whatever.
_Its stature is less than that of a man ; but its strength and
agility much greater.
Who is that person whom I saw you introduce and pre·
sent him to the duke?
·
There is not, nor ought not to be, such a thing as conltnlctive treason.

247

I have, nor shall not consent to a proposal so unjust.
He has not yet cast off all regard for decency ; and t his
Is the most can be advanced in his favor.
Temperance and exercise, however little they may ~e regarded, they are the best means ~f preserving health.
The favorites are generally objects of envy.
Statesmen who then gave luster to the Senate, have p13scd
away.
They are to number the trees in the order they stand.
Puuishments may, and often are innictcd on drunkards.
H e could not and ought not travel in that severe weather.
The past and future are alike to him.
.
Whom, when they had scourged him, they let !um go.
Nature made him a greater poet than an artist.
The empire of Great Britain has been gradually anu. ~ro­
gressively advancing to its present high degree of m::mt1me
prosperity.
Suppose one who had always continued blind be told ..
He does nothing who endeavors to do more than 1s allowe<l to humanity.
Whom ye delivered up and denied him in the presence of
Pontius Pilate.
'Vhether he has, or will advance the money, we do not
yet know.
It has, or will be announced.
Thou wilt not know when it comes, as little as thou art
conscious of the exact moment when thou sinkest into sleep.
Free from such chains as early habits, custom or prejudice
often bind the spirit.
It is concerning that that practical questio~s and discus·
sions constantly arise.
It is in names that we think.
There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever
will incline him to offend.
The Proven9al was liker to the Italian and Spanish than
to the modern French.

248

CO~STRUCTION.

. For lack of diligent observing the difference.
:My farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent
land, h:ving given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's
good will.
The dwarf had. like to have been killed more than once.
I cannot nor mll not read what I have written.
The reward is his due; and it has already or will h
er&
after be given him.

PART VI. - ANALYSIS.
§ 413. GuAmIATICAL ANALYSIS is the separation of a
sentence into its grammatical parts.
The grammatical parts of a sentence are, I. The three principal elements of the simple sentence,
the subject, the predicate, and the copula, with their respective modifiers; ..
2. The parts not belonging to the simple-sentence, as they
occur in the compound sentence and the complex sentence.
ILLUSTBATIO:'i. -;--The process of analyzing di scourse may profitably be
delineated in general terms before the particular rules of analysis are ginn.
The first step will he to fix upon the simpl e sentence itself. T o do this,
the part of discourse to he analyzed must first he examined, that it may be
seen whether it is a compound, a complex, or only a simple sentence. If it
be a compound sentence, each simple sentence must he taken hy itself in
order, and the character of the connecth·e, if any, whether conj unction or
relatirn, he determined. If a complex senten ce , then the character of the
extraneous parts must he ascertained, wh e~ h c r, (l.) forms of the speaker's
mind or of nrbal expression; or, (2.) forms of address; or, ( 3. ) references to
other sentences. Then the si ngle sentence is to he taken up, and the first
thing will he to ascertain the kind of Eent ence, whether it is categorical or
interrogative. nnd whether in either case it is affirmatire or nega tive. The
next sMp will he to na me the principal elements, subject, predicate, and
copula. Then the whole subject is to \le taken, naming th e principal noun
itself, indicating wh ether normal or abnormal, whether originally concre~e
or abstract, and of which variety; then the mod ifiers of the noun, nam ing
each, beginning wilh the principal one and following with each sub-mod ifier
in order, and al;o naming the cla ss of modifiers to which each belongs.
Then the predicate is to be treated in the same way; and finally, th e co pula,
whether in a distinct word by itself or combined with a part or with the
whole of the predicate. The whole process of analyzing embraces, thus,
!hree separate steps: (1.) Distinguishing the elements of compound a nd com·
plex discourse in sentences, nml,successh·ely, in parts of sentences; (2.) Dis·
tinguishing the three principal dements of the simple sentence; (3.) Distin-

ANAL1'SIS.

250

251

ANALYSIS.

§ 415. RULE II. Di5tinguish the sentence as categorical

gnish.ing tl~e !'10 1lificrs of cnch of these principdl clements into their re.
spectn·c pnnc~pa 1
. awl modifying parts, naming each cl~mcnt succcMivel
througl'.ont, with the sub-modifiers, if any; each mollifying elcme t to : 8
nametl ill connection witl1 its principal.
n ·

Rl;LES

OF

GRA)D!ATICAL ANALYSIS.

O!: interrogative; also, as atii.rmative or negative.

I

§ 414. RGLE I. Distinguish the part of discourse to be
anal~·zcd as a simple, a compound, or a complex sentence,
namrng the parts of the two latter.

, EXERCISES. - No monumental stone preserves his namo.
Sport leaped up and seized his beechen spear. Ah, hapless
hard to smother reason's ray · Fle ,,era zcd on
race
h"ll ! ye labor
.
i s rock-ribbed and ancient as the sentence. There is a
wor!d where there falls no blight. Thus bubbles rise and
vamsh on the deep. . Hadst thou proved re.c reant, all had
been lost.. No mon~trous height, or breadth, or length ap~
pears. His deeds, !us worthy deeds, have rendered him im- .....
mo~tal;
Herc shall the billows stiffen ancl have rest. Prosperity . I court thy gifts no more. Thon be<ro-'st in va1'n no
.t
1 l. I
,,
oo
•
'
pi Y me ts us 1eart. lhough cloucl5 thicken round us wa
heed not the storm. I heard thee say, but now, thou lik'dst
not th.at. The attempt, but not the deed, confounds us.
From labor health, from health contentment springs. . Plaid .
a~d plumage were tossed in air.
Rise with the lark, and
with the lark
to bed. Hold ' says the doer
we are sa tie f:rom
•
0 , ·
harm. It is well tl~ou learn'dst that lesson young. I thank
thee for the word ; it nerves my arm. T ell us, for doubtless
thou canst recollect, to whom shall we assiern the Sphinx's
fame? To him let thy heart aud hours b; given. There
must, therefo~·e, b~ a God, uncaused, independent, and complete.' Notlung IS more amiable than true modesty, and
n?thmg more contemptible than the false : the one crnards
virtue! the other betrays it. There is nothing, said bPlato,
so delightful as the hearing or speaking of truth. In the
next place, .the strength of the old parents fails. Fly, therefore, ~rom 1<llene~s, as the certain p:ll'cnt both of guilt and
of rum. Yours, then, is surely a lot peculiarly happy.

EXERCISES. - The modest man is seldom the object of .
envy. To mourn without measure is folly; not to mourn at
nil is insensibility. Our fathers,. where arc they ? No man
is entirely free from foibles. Employ no arguments with
the obstinately perverse. Could you, with a dish of dainties,
entice the tiger from his love "Of blood? 'Vill he never have
occasion to read, in a company of his friends, a copy of
verses, a passage of a book or newspaper? Oh! had I
come one moment sooner. Do we derive no felicity from
refined feelings? Is there no blessedness in beneficence?
Why is this pleasing, vast diversity of nature? Who reared
this vast arch ()ver our heads ?
§ 416. RULE III. Distinguish, in the simple sentence,
the subject, the predicate, aml the copula.
EXERCISES. - :Not a breath disturbs the deep serene .
Embroidered sandals glittered as he trod. His cause is just.
Towards the verge sweeps the witle torrent. Let your
sword be bared alone at wisdom's call. Accept'st thou in
kindness the proffered pledge ? Launch not beyond thy
depth. A k eeper of the chase, thy garb bespeaks. There
were few that did not weep. ,yarned by the signs, in baste
they shelter seek. 'Vl10 formed the paradise he never seeks.
There is not a breath the blue wave to curl. Time is the
warp of life, 0 weave it well. Observe; deliberate ; decide. Few and short were the prayers they said. Accursed
be the fagots that blaze at his feet. The higl1est meed of
praise he well deserves. Stand! the ground 's your own,
my braves. Flush in her footsteps sprang herbage anu fiow·
ers. P alsiCll now is the arm thou streugtheu'<lst.
§ 417. Rum JV. Distinguish in the subj~ct the princi•
pal part, whether normal or abnormal, and of what kind,
wlicthcr concrete or abstract, and of whrLt person, number
gender, aml case.

2.52

253

ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS.

If normal state, if concrete, whether expressed in a proper,
mass, collective, or class-noun; or, if abstract, whether an
abstract of quality, action, condition, or relation.
If abnormal, whether original adjective, verb, form, or
sign; and if verb-form, whether infinitive or gerund; and,
if a clause, whether introduced by a relative or conjunction. "

fieial ar tl treacherous. Further rfocussi0n i3 us:Iess. Joh~,
a. faithful subject and brave soldier, recei,·cd !us rewar:l Ill
the esteem of his people. His honor was great: ~ fn cu_d
in need is a friend indeed. John in trouble d1sm1sses h'.s
pride. " ' eak men, being crossed iu their plans, Yent thc'.r
malice on innoceut victims. A man to please every hotly is
of diflicult search. Generosity without wasting is a r'.lrO
virtue. A man who breaks his word bids others be fabc tu

Ex1mc1sEs. -

John runs. Water freezes. The army
The sheep bleats. Modesty is ever becoming. Flattery often wins where reason fails. The youth
of nations, as of persons, is the season of bold enterprise and
chivalrous daring. His competency for the act was called in
question. The luxurious live to eat and drink; but the wise
and temperate eat and drink in order to live. To have a
portion in the world is a mercy; to have the world for a
portion is a misery. . Bearing provocation is a mark of wisdom ; forgiving it, of magnanimity. That offenses come is
an incident of a state of trial. How we shall succeed in any
endeavor is uncertain. He who tells a lie is not sensible.
how great a task he undertakes. Always to indulge our appetites is to extinguish them. Faithful · are the wounds of a
friend. There is nothin" of so much worth as a mind well
instruct~d. Stupendous ~re the works of Providence. There
cannot be a greater treichery, than first to raise a confidence
and then deceive it. It is much to bear injury; it is more
to forgive it. There in long robes stood the royal priest
hood. · Around broken columns clasping ivy twined.
is on the march.

§ 418. RGLE V. Distinguish in the subject the modifying
part, whether normal or abnormal, whether definitive or
epithet.
If abnormal, by what other part of spe~ch or by what
phrase expressed; and if by a noun, whether by apposition,
ease, or adjunct; if by a verb-form, whether by participle,
infinitive, or gerund, or by a clause.
Ex1rnc1 ~Es . - Modest men are seldom objects of envy.
Faithful John is iewarded. Wealth distinctiollB aro

him.
• To put on arms when the enemy is in our quarters is the
mark of a fool. No man hath a thorough taste of pro.;per·
ity, to whom adversity never happened. He whose ruling
passion is Jo,·e of praise is a slave to every _one who l1as a
tonauc for detraction. There is a pleasure m the patl1less
wo~ds. It is fruc saying that we arc never too old to be
taught.

a:

§ 4l!l. Rc;u: VI. Distinguish the predicate as concrcto
or abstract. If concrete, proceed as directed for the subject.
If abstract, distinguish the principal part as to its class,.
whether of quality, action, comlition, or relation ; aml as to
its form, whether adjective, adjunct, or combined in part or
in whole with the ClJpuLt.
Distinguish the modifying part, whether modifying rela- ,
tively as to person, number, and significance, or irrcla~i~-e~y;
whether normal or abnormal; whether clausal, part1c1p1al,
or adverbial; whether in whole or in respect of parts, by
inflection as to voice and tense, or by adverbials; aml as to
object, whether specifying, passive, remote, or factitivc, with
each submodification undc1· its respective principal.
Ex:ERCISES. - John is a scholar.
John is a rl il igent
scholar. J ohn is studious. John ~tudies. J ohn stud ies diligently. John studies geometry. John studies geometry to
become an enrrincer. John outstrips all his mates. Jol111
will -succeed ""ell. He is atlvancing every day. He is in
l:he early stage of training. His studies being encle.d, he will

,_...-·----

254

ANALYSIS.

I

2bf>

ANALYSIS.

travel. He will make himself a learned man. He chargei
himself to aim high. He makes others envious.
Temptations cannot enter where the heart is well guarded.
I will go whither thou goest. We go that we may be in
time. By timely resisting them, the greatest evils may be.
overcome. To have the mind of a freeman i~ not to consider liberty as a privilege which a few only are to enjoy.
Economy is no disgrace. The great object of study is to fit
the mind to be an instrument of usefulness in life. The decisive test of genius is that it calls forth power in the soula.
of others. His grand excellence was that he was a true
man.
It is education that marks mental power as the talent of an
angel or the capacity of a fiend. There was great scarcity
of corn. However much he was persecuted, he loved his
persecutors not the less. Virtue being abandoned, we become terrified with imaginary evils. His father being dead,
the prince succeeded to the throne.

this is a world of plenteousness and beauty. Though fearless, truth is modest. l\IoJesty, were it to be recommended .
for nothing else, leaves a ma11 ut ease, Ly pretending to little.

§ 420. RuLE VII. Distinguish in the copula the principal part as pure or combined.
Distinguish the modi(ving part as to form, whether normal
or abnormal, by mood or by modals ; as simple, necessary,
or contingent; and if contingent, . as pure or as expressing
desire or will ; wi th submodifications. I

l\IoDEt.S Ol' A:-<ALY SI S. - Venus is b?'i,r;ht. Thi s is a simple sen tence because con taining but one as.'.ertion; catevorical, because asserting ; nffirmaiii:e, because asserting positively i ha,·ing for its subject, u Venu~, being
that of whidt something is asserter\; its pl'edic11te, u brig ht," being that
which is asserted of the subject; and its crpula, u is," being the assertive
ele1nent.
The s ubj ect, "Vr.nus,'' is unmodified: a p,.oper nmm, because appropri·
a ted to an ind iddual object; of th e !hi"'/ person, being 'poken of; of the
sin_qu,{rw 1uwWer, denoti ng Uut one ; of th e n eu!t!r gender, lleing name of
object w it hout. sex; m nn inalite cn..;e, beca use i t is lh e subj ect.
Th e predicate, " bright," i:::1 abstract ef qmtlity ,· uncombined; in tlie form
of mt a.r{j"ctfre; unmodified.
The copu la ," is," is uncombined nnd unmodified.

EXERCISES. -John studies.
John must study. John
may study. Study, and get the prize. He is certainly studious. He will succeed, if he studies hard. Speak clearly,
if you would be understood. If there were no cowardice,
there would be little insolence. Unless he put a bridle on
bis tongue, the babbler will soon shut himself out from all
society. '\Ve should be ashamed of many of our actions
were the world acquainted with our motives. It were no
virtue to bear calamities, if we did not feel them. The
world woul<l be happier, did men study charity rather than
revenge. Th.is, possibly, is a debatable question. Surely

§ 421. General Directions fCJr Analysis.
1. The character and use in the sentence of each clement
of thought, subject, predicate, and copula, principal and modifying part, and also of each verbal form , whether single
word, phrase, or clause, normal or abnormal, should be stated.
2. Elliptical expressions should be supplied.
3. Inflected words should be inflected.
4. The agreement and arrangement as well as the use in
kind and number of worJs shoulJ be referred to the proper
principles of constrnction.
5. In connection with this proper grammatical analysis,
the history of the word, its origin, le:uling paronyms, changes
in spelling and in meaning, may profitably be traced as circumstances may allow.

11

011sE1t\'ATr0'1. -The word'' is" here may be, howenr, taken to denotA
vrcscnt lime. If so, it expre~ses a part. of the predicate.
Jolm s."'t·dics. This i:- a simple, categn,.fral, rr.ffermatfre sentence\ ha,·ing
fc. r ita ei sment s th e su~jt:d 1 "John," the predicate; " studies, " the copula
~mb it1ed, in "studie:J."
Tile subject is tr.,atcrl a• the s ubject," YenuR," in th e preceding example.
Th e predicate, •l studic~." i~ a 1'<'f/ttlrrr tnrnsitit'e ''e1·b; denoting nb;;trncl
of nction: combiner/; mml~fierl, to re fe r tQ it~ suhject; of the third prrwn,
1iny.,far num!Jrr; in tht. ac·fir:e ruice., to show th at the net ion proccr.tls fr{'TJI
che 1ubject; prtaen! kn.ie, to show present time of action.

256

ANALYSIS.

The copula is combined and unmodified, being of the ind1califJt mc,o,I.
Venus, lovely star of ae11ing, now sheds lw· silver li!Jltt. This is a sentence simple, etc., as before. The log ical subject io "Venus, lovely star of
evening;" the pretlicate, "now sheds h er silver light;" tho copula is combined with part<!{ the zn·edicate in" sheds."
The subject is modified; the principal part., "Venus," is .'Jl"m11matical
1ubjecl of "sheds;" a proper noun, etc ., as uefore. Th e modifying part is
"lovely star of C\~e ning," cm appositive, being in its principal part a noun,
and m1 epithet, limiting its noun," star," as to its quality, which ls modified
by "lovely," which is also an epithet, and by the adj nnct "of evening," a
definitive, consisting of the preposition "of" and the concrete proper noun
"e, cni ng."
TLe predicate h as for its principal part "sheds,'' a t"'msitfre irngular
"erb, abstract of action, etc., like "studies,'' ns before. Its modifying part
consists of" now," an adverb oj"tinie, antl" her silYer light," denoting passfoe
object; the principal part of which, "light," is expressed in a mass-norm,
of the neuter gerulei·, third pe1·s011, siug.,/ai· nw11be1·, a nd is grammatical
ob;ect of" sheds." "Her" is possessfre case <>f the f e11ri11i11e pei·s1mal pronoun ° she," limiting" sih·cr light" as a definitive; "silver" i::; a d<'}initii·e
fTl()Jijie1· of "light;" abnor111al, being a noun used as an atljecti\"O.
Run, Jame.<, anti bring the ball. A compound sentence. consisting of the
complex sentence "Run, James," and the si mple sentence "bring- the ball,"
connected by the cop ul a th~e conjunction" and." "Run, Jnme.s,11 is a complex sentence, tbc part" James" being an address. h James" is a proper
noun, etc. The snuj ect " thou" is not expresscu. The predicate is "run,"
which is an inh·ansitit-e in·e,qulm· 1:e1·b, the principal parts being "run,
ran, run," in tlie second pe1'son, singular nwnbe1·, agreeing with the subject
"thou" miderstood. The copula is combinecl 2cilh the predicate in the word
u run," which is of the imperative mood, denoting contingency of wilt
7

§ 422. ORAL
t.mces:-

257

ANALYSIS.

EXERCISE.

Analyze the fallowing sen-

'

Samuel was asleep. A man must act. Youth may fancy
.Jfe one scene of gayety. He now, for the first time, casts a
look beneath him. The sun is now half-way down the west.'
Would you possess a source of the purest and sweetest pleasures? "Alas!" replied the adventurer, "I must submit to
the conditions of my enterprise." Our energy and our dependence are both in vain. If we had to walk a hundred
miles, we should still have to set but one step at a time; and
this process continued would infallibly bring us to our journey's end. Return with him, young reader, if thou art walking in the same dowµward path, lest his dream become thy

reality. The striking attitude, too, in which we stand to the
world around us, - a topic to which, I fear, I advert. too
often, and dwell on too long, - cannot be altogether omitted
here. Tully was not so eloquent as thou, thou nameless col~
umn with the buried base ! Alas ! the lofty city ! and alas ·
the trebly hundred triumphs! So may he rest; his faults
lie gently on him! The sun went down, nor ceased ~he c~­
narre there. I feel that I do not aml cannot describe thi11
0
mighty ruin.
For further exercises, selections in Appendix No. VII
may be used.
17

',,
I

GENERAJ, VIEW. -

....._

PART VII. -SYMBOLISM OF THOUGHT.

CH.APTER I.
GENERAL VIEW. -

DIVISIONS.

§ 423. WE ca~ communicate our thoughts to others only
through forms wluch both we and they uuderstahd alike ; _
which, in other words, are common to us and to them. These
forms are originally such as our senses can take in. Only
through these forms addressed to our senses could men communicate with one another ; and out of them, as taken to express thought, language is constructed. These forms, thus
taken to communicate thought, are not mere si,.,ns taken arbi~rarily, to . in<licate thought; they are, rather, ~ymbols; that
lB, they themseh·es, in some respect, chiefly perhaps but not
·wholly in r espect of the impression or effect that they produce, resemble the thought which is communicated throuo-h
0
them.
In order to the effective communication of thou,.,ht to
others, therefore, it becomes important to acquire familiarity
with the proper use of such symbols.
OnsE~vA;IO!(. -The original gronnd of all language, ns the m edium of
:ommurncatmg thought, is in the fact that all nature, all sounds, all sights
·~ th e world around us, are the expressions more or less immediately and
directly of the common Creator's mind. The world of objects around us,
t~e world of c~·cn t s, - the enrth, th e roch, the trees, the beasts, and the
birds; the motions of nil material things the snrnings of the ocean and the
circula~ion of the sa p, the gambols of tl1; lamb a~d th e flight of tiie swal·
low, with the natural actions of man,- are all n language through which the
Creator and Governor of the universe uttel'll big though ta. It ia a IW1guage

DI-VISIONS.

259

which man is created in the same perfect wisdom to understand , to ac\uire,
&!Id to use again for the utterance of his th oughts to his fe.llow-1~1 c n ..
The language of human speech is originally founded upon tl11s uninrsnl
.an g uagc, !l!lll developed out of it. However cha 1.g_cd, h_o":e.ver perfected, ·
every dialect is in a g reat measure const ituted of tlu s pnm~t1ve. langu~gc.
One of the chief beauties and excellences of disco urse con sists m the right
and skillful use of it. lie who would learn to speak and write intelll~ibly
and well, should early be initiated into t his natural imagery of 1hought,
and be thoro ughly trained in it. \\'e shall here be alile only to int roduce
into the first principl es and to th e most genera l Yi ews. But 1he mi11d once
started in this study, the learner will be drawn on by its attractirn character to the higher ranges of Yiew and to the advanced stages of skill to
which time alone can carry him.
Such symbols in language arc not limited to sounds aud Rights; we shall
ha,·e eYidence 1hat to the oojects of the 01her senses, - the touch, the taste,
the smell, -this hig h quality of im :lging or sy rnl>olizin g thought is not to
be denied. In truth , a great part of our i1lcas that nrc determin ed by our
joys and sorrows,' our comforts an<l our discomforts, whether inwarJ. or
outward, are expr·es.sell in symbols g iven u-; through th ese lon·er scns~s.
Thus most that we express of the harsh and bitter of life, its sweets nml 1to
gladnesses, are symbolized through these classes of objects. A ,-cry considerable part of the vocabulary of our language is, in fact, founded on
them.

§ 424. The natural symbols or images of thought are of

two general classes : 1. Those which are addressed to one or other of the five
senses ; as, sights, sounds, etc., or to the general sense of
feeling, as the hot and the cold, the exhilarating and the depressing, and the like ; and,
2. Those which are perceived or felt at the same time and
place, or in the same relation to other symbols.
ILt.USTHATION. - The sun is a symbol of whatever is thought, either in
its own quality or in its relation as of effect, to be round, bi·i.']hl, warm. It
is such a symbol because every man, as man, in the full e njoyment of the
senses common to human nature, alike ex periences these sensation s nnd the
effects properly due to th em. So that when I say to another, " The shi e l~
was ns the sun," I reasonably expect he will und erstand me to mean that 11
was round, or bright, or both , accord in g to th e circumstan ces, the connection of my words, or the object of my speakin g , becau se I beli e,·c he has,
like myself, the sense of sight, so that he can, and does in fact, perceiro
th ese qualities. So when I sar, "In winter as in summ er 1 li,·e as under
the beams of a sun tha t neYer declines," I shall at once be unclcrstood to
signify that I am ever kept in warmth of body or of soul, because the sun
)a yannini; t.:> all alike. In like manner, if I have been witll another in the

260

SYMBOLISM OF THOUGHT.

GENERAL VIEW. -

Bame place nncl at the same time, the objects with which we Loth were con.
ver.sant, an,\ which produced in us com111on thoughts, can be used to sym.
bohzc the~e common thoui:hts. Thus, ~neas comforted his companions with
lhc ~r?1111se of another Troy; for he nncl they alike had known what their
own I roy had been to them; what thoughts in reference to it hacl been, in
common, nwnkened by their hadng Ji,·ctl in it. Two soldiers who had
fought together at \Vaterloo, in after years cNild mo~t expressh·ely svmbolizc to each other any great ancl decisirn battle that either of th~m had
subse<Jnently been through, as a" Waterluo battle," or its result as a " IVate?·loo victor.'-." Thus are external objects and ennts symbols of thou,,.b.t.
Language primarily con sists, as has been statetl, of such snnbols.
"
These symbols, it will ha\·c been seen, are of two gener~l classes:1. Those which, addressing the same sense, produce like sensations in all
who experience them; and,
2. Those which arc experienced in the same place and time or in like re
lalions to other objects.
'
~not.her words, all such symbols of thought to be used for communication
or m dr~c.ourse, are foundeu either on identities of sensation, or ou identities
of conditwn and relation.

§ 425. Each of these two general classes may bo subdivided: the 1irst
lnto,1. 1:hosc whi.ch address the lh·e senses, properly so called; and,
_
. 2. 1 hose whrch address the sense of feeling generally, as in the sensatJOn of heat and cold, of muscular fatigue, of bodily pain or pleaslUe, and
the like.
The second into, 1. :1:110sc of p_ropcr co? di ti on or of the same time and place; and,
2. I hose .of like rclutwn to other known s.nnbols.

§ 42G. TI,ie symbols of the local senses are of the five

'classes:I. Sounds;
2. Sights,·
3. Smells or odors ;
4. Tastes or savors;
5. Toztcl1es.

\.

§ 427. The symbols of general sensation arc of three
classes, namely:1. Appetite, as of hunger and thirst;
2. . llealtl1, and its opposite, includin"
the sensation of pn:n
0
wearmess, lassitude, and the like·
3. Sensations of heat or cold, ~tmospheric . exhilarati'on or
depression.
~,

. ''

DIVISIONS.

261

§ 428. The symbols of condition are of two classes : 1. Those founded on identity of place, or, topical symbol.s;
2. Those founded on identity of time, or, cltronical sym. bols.
§ 429. The symbols of relation are of the following
·classes:1. Those founded on identity in respect of relation with
other symbols of sense ;
2. Those founded on identity in respect of relation with
other symbols of condition.
§ 430. Symbols, generally, are further divided into two
classes:1. Those that are OTdects ;
2. Those that are Properties of Objects.
·ILLUSTRATION. - \Yhen we say" His sl1icld was as the sun,'' ~r, "a
eunny thought," we use a symbol which is an object - the sun.
\Vhen, on the other hand, we say, "a bi·illiant melody,'' or, "the brilliancy of his thought,'' we use as a symbol not an object but a propertyb·r illianl.

This distinction is founcled on that fundamental difference between subject words and predicate or attribute words which runs through language.

§ 431. Still further, both object-symbols and propertysymbols are, in respect of the things symbolized, of two general classes : I. Those which symbolize material or sensible objects or
properties ; either 1. Those belonging to the same sense ; as, " His shield was
as the sun,". where one object of sight symbolizes another
object of sight; or,
2. Those belonging to some different sense ; as, "a brilliant melody," where brilliant, denoting a property of a visible object, symbolizes a property belonging to an audible object - a melody.
II. . Those which symbolize immaterial or spiritual objects
or properties ; as, " A sunny feeling," " A brilliant thought,"
where an object of sense, the sun, and a property of a sensi-

~

262

~- -~;.:

~

-

SYMBOLISM OF THOUGHT.

ble or material object, brilliant, symbolize :;:espectivcly mental
states.
OnsERVATION. - It will be convenient to recognize the kinds of sym·
bols thus determined as three gradations of symbols; tho first gradation
embracing tllose which symbolize objects of the same sense as the symbol;
the second gradation those symbolizing objects of a different sense from
that of the symbol; and the third those symbolizing a mental or spiritual
object.
These gradations, ob¥iously, are those of greater or less re,semblance between the symuol and the oujcct of thought symbolized.

CHAPTER II.
SYMBOLS OF SOUNDS.

§ 4132. WrrEN wishing to communicate to another person
a sound we have heard, or to state the fact that we have
heard it, or to tell of what kind of sonud it was, we naturally
represent it by. some other similar sound which we can utter
ourselves. The sound made by the wind, the rain, the thunder, the falling of rocks, the dashing of water, the rustli11g
of leaves, the cries of animals, we can communicate by words
that are like them more or less in sound. 'Ve say thus,
" The wind whistles ;" " The rain patters;" " The owl hoots,"
and the like.
OnsERYATIOX. - In these instances the sounds of the words which we
use to r epresent the sensations we have had of the wind, the rain, the owl,
are symbols of those sounds. Th ey are lik e them; they ure, in some respect, identical with the sounds which we wish to communicate.

§ 433. There are four properties of sound as sound, in respect of which it may be thus imitated. They are, ( 1.)
Quality; (2.) Pitch; (3.) Volume orForcc; (4.) Timeor
Duration.
OnsEnv ATION. - In written discourse on ly imitations in re"pect of quality can be directly ginn in words chosen for that purpose. Ilut th e other
prop erties of sound can be imitated in the continued pron unciation of discourse; and the expression can be made to vary with th e character of the
thought to be communicated almost indefinitely, through the judicious
choice of words ancl the construction of th e sentence in respect of the pitch,
force, and quantity of voice. Th e m elody and the rhythm of th e sentence
depend immediately on th ese properties. On ly exercises in respect of quality of voice will be prescribed here. They will sen•e to introduce the p:ipil
to this most important department of style - the selection of words nnd the
&rrangement of the sentence with a \·ie·..- to make the expression symbolize
or represent hy inutation the thought to be communicated.

264

snmOLISM OF THOUGHT.

§ 434.

Point out the words in the
following sentences which irni~afe the thought : ORAL EXERCISES.

The tree-toad chimed in wi.th its loud trilling chirrup.
They shake the serpents from their hissing hair. They shall
stand serene and fea rless amidst the crash of falling worldE.
The gay l_innets carol from the hill. The chirping birds
the
each mornmg tell the news of cheerful spring. Thou<Yh
0
heathen were so foolish to babble many words, yet were
they never so mad as to mumble and buzz out words that
they understood not. H e cut the cord which fa stened by the
foot the flitting bird. Flow, flow, thou crystal rill, with tinkling gurgles fill the mazes of the grove. As the twilicrht
begins you shall have about you two or three hundred fo;es
which make a marvelous wauling or howling.
"The solemn dcath-wntch clicked the hour she died,
And shrill ing crickets in the chimn ey cried,
" ' hile with logs crackled the fire."
"Yon set each gossip's clack ngoing,
Cell c\·er squal i1l ! where the scornful maid
'\'ill not. fatigue her hand; broom never comes
That comes to all."

The coursers neigl1. When he comes to describe the 0P.".cP.
of his imaginary doctor, he thwacks fourteen scripture:, h1to
the margin. Victor Ned eat tittering by. The wh t;r.~ incr
swine with coughs is choked. They with soft taps !Jea" tim~
· in every strain. Nell answered snappishly. The se<":t of
whiners and grumblers furnishes a very proper subje.,t of
ridicule. All that ever he did was not worth so much ~s the
twittle-twattle that he makes. He boasts his twangin 1.~ bow.
The partridge bursts a1ny on whirring wings. Ho 1cvcr
ducked at the whiz of a cannon-ball.
' The win1ls with wonder whist
Smoothly the waters kissecl,
" ' hispering new j oys to the wild ocean."
"\Yilh many a stiff thwack, many n bang,
Ilard crab-tree aud old iron rang."
"O'er tho

~-beat

ship the booming waters ronr."

SYMilOLS OF SOUNDS.

265

"The sih-cr-sounding in struments di<I meet
With the base murmurs of the wat er-fall. "
"Let screeching owls nest in your razed roofs."
"The owl at Freedom's wind ow s:reamed,
The screec h-owl, prophet dire."
"The littl e babe did loudly shriek nml s~ua ll ."
"Thump after thump resounds the con stant flail."

.This is the reason why we are so much pleased with the
pretty prattle of chiklren. \Vho moaned tl1e tedious night.
\Vho whistles out more content than the low-fort~ed
plowman?

Change the words in italic letters to others that shall
better symbolize the sense : I heard a . buzzing ~· there arc serpents here. Ile shook
his head and crashed his teeth for ire. I ha1·c more than
once observed in dogs, under an apprehension of punishment,
that they have 'v.rithed their bodies and yelped and bleated,
as if they had actually felt the blows. Hi s steed foams,
roars, neighs, and breathes out fire ancl smoke. They serve
balsamic cups to snorting lungs medicinal. The whizzing
bells the silent air do cleave. The young curs mewed most
piteously. The mourning dove hoots on the evening air.
Broad forests splash in the tornado's rage. The whistling
air among the branches roars. The famished eagle howls
and passes by.

§ 435. "\V RITTEN EXERCISE. Construct sentences
with SubJects as given below, and with Predicates symbolizing sorne Quality : Moo"ELs.-The swallow· twitte1·s; the wind is lwwlwg; the chattering
wren.

The goose - - . The duck - - . The cricket - - .
The - - owl. The - - pheasant. The - - bee. Tho
cannon·- - . The leaves--. The - - cricket. The
winds - - . The - - fly. The - - book. The
steed. The - - .breeze.

••

SYMBOLS OF SOUNDS.

266

SYMBOLISM OF THOUGHT.

§ 43G. Audible symbols are either, I. Ol!J°ect-symbols; as, " Thunder tones ; " "The crested
cock whose clarion sounds;" or,
2. Property-symbols ; as, " Shrilling note ; " " Twanging
bow."
·

§ 437. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the Oliject-sym·
bols and the Property-symbols in the following expressions: Dinning passions. Clamorous appetite. Piping hot. The
syren-voice of temptation.
The party are perpetually harping upon it, in vain hopes
that their importunate buzzing might sound something like
the public voice. The discordance of these errors·· is mistaken for a discord of the truths. In comparison whereto,
all other occupations are mere trifling or unprofitable fiddling about nothing. Father and son, husband and wife, and
such correlative terms chime and answer one another in people's memories.
§ 438. Audible symbols are of the three gradations men
tioned in the Observation under§ 431, as they may symbolize either, (1.) Other sounds; or, (2.) Other sensations, as
·
sights, etc.; or, (3.) l\Iental or spiritual objects.
OnsERVATio:s. - We ha\•e given copious exercises iri audible symbols
of the first gradation by themselves, as they are of a very peculiar character from the fact that human language is formed of sounds. This class of
symbols has rcceh·ed much attention from the investigators of language,
who, under a narrow view of the origin of words, have given to t'>iA department of their study the name llf onomatop11Jia - word-making.

§ 439. ORAL EXERCISE. Distinguish the gradations
of tlte Symbols in the following expressions : The tone of the picture. Appetite was hushed. Grating
colors. He rolled a while his silent eyes. Disproportioned
sin jarred against Nature's chime. It was their wish to see
public and private virtues not dissonant and jarring and mutually destructive, but ha~oniously combined. If any law

267

n do clash with the law of God. Desor command of ma f
hearts strikes chord:i of a
'
.
to tl1e key note o our own .
•
.
tmy,
und us or at least exdifferent key in the hearts of th?se aro d ' The music of
treme sixths, major sevenths, mmor secon sl.
s are yet all
1b
diner one . on our iarp
our life shal e a soun "'f . 'and we have but to tread
the loud pedals for tones o Joy,
G .
F ' e most
I k w not to what cars the e1mau .tm
on them.
no
t . hether to deaf ears or to long
loves to blow her trumpe ' w
Olleli-

:";. -

snrnoLS OF SIGHTS.

2G9

wliicli tliey belong, U'liet!ter of Color, of Figure, or of
Motion:-

~

CHAPTER ID.
snmoLS OF SIGIITS.

§. 440. VrsrnLE objects may he used to symbolize thought
m either of the following ways, namely:_
I. By their Color;
2. By t!teir Figure ,·
3. By t!teir .111otion.

1

§ 441. Visible symbols through properties of color, in·
elude those of proper color or decomposed light, as red, pur·
ple, etc., and those. of light and shade, or simple gradations
of undecomposed light; as, "A bri'g!tt thou o-ht . " " A d ·
feeling."
"' '
im
§ 442. Visible symbols, througl1
pr. oper t"1es of figure, m
·
~
clude,1. Linear, as, straight, crooked,·
2. Superficial, as, smoot!t, unei·en ,·
3. Solid, as, bull..71, tumid;
.
4. Those of llfagnitude, as, long, expanded;
5. Those of Order, as, regular, symmetrical.
§d 443. Visible symbols through properties of motion, in
cue,l
1. Those of Direction, as, upward, zigzag;
2. Those of Position, as, terrestrial, eart!Jy, polar,·
3. Those of Degree, as, quick, languid,·
4. Those of Order, as, prior, final;
5. Those of .llfode, as, flying, !toObling.

§ 444. OnAL ExERCISES. Point out the Vlsiblc Sgm6ol8 in the following sentences, and name tlie class ftJ

The very attempt tow:ml pleasing every body discovers a
temper always flasl1y.
A gush of joy streamed into his heart.
"WcnYe the crimson web or 'rnr,
For want of that accompli;hed virtue sphered
In my lo,·cd lonl.."
"Ilitl the deep
Hush nt thy pygmy Yoice her waYCs to sleep."
""With oanguine drops the wall;; arc rubied round,
And Nature in the tangles soft ill\·oh·cd
Of death-like sleep."
"We ha.Ye clone but i:;rcenly
In hugger-1nugger to iutcr them."

Sir John threw out his repartees about the table with
nrnch sparkliness.
Limning and flashing it with various dyes.
"Two i;cntle swains
Whose sprouting youth ditl now but ~recnly bucl."
"Waste, sanely valleys, once perplexed with thorn,
The spiry fir :ind shapely box ndorn."

O thou, who sweetly bend'st my stubborn will.
His mind is perverse, cam, and crooked.
To make our strait circumstances still straiter.
The double gilt of this opportunity yon let Time wash off
·"Her long, loose, yellow locks, like golden wire,
Sprinkled with pearl ancl pearly flowers between,
Do like n golclen mnntle her atti.-e."

No beauty beaming on his clouded mind.
Ancl yet 'tis flat idolatry to bow.
A needy, hollow-eyed, sharp-looking wretch.
"Dull graYc, thou opoil"st th e clance of yonthful blood,
Strik'st out the climple from the check of mirth,
And every smirking fcnture from the face."

With the earnest haste my tongue oft trips•

.........:-·--·--

270

SYllIIlOLS OF SIGIITS.

SYJIIDOLISM OF THOUGIIT.

Report speaks goldenly of his profit.

" God neYer meant that men should scale th h
Dy striucs of human wisdom."
e cavem

"The vision

"As the feathery snows
Fall fr~quent on some wintry day, when Jo\'6
!lath risen to shed them on the race of man
AuU show his arrowy stores."
'

I•' ~liall drop thes~ subjects of mortality.
I: rnnce ll'e11t 011, mdeed, but she sta<r<rered and
"""
reeled
dar the burden of the war.

Point out the Symbols of Figure, and state to which
class they belong, whether Linear, Superficial, Solid, of
"JJ'lagnitude, or of Order : UD·

Point out tlie Symbols of C'olor, and state wliether they
are of Proper C'olor, or of Ligltt and Sltade: Ope thy ruby lips.
"The rosy-fingered morning fair
W cary of aged Tithone's saffr;n bed
llad spread her purple robe thro ugh dewy air."
11
T
His head
Not yet by time completely sih·cred o'er."

It c:mnot .be. wondered at, considerinfT
the <rreenness of Ins
0
years.
·
o
The swan gives out his snowy plumage to the gale.
Hot Meroc, fruitful to n sooty race
And proud of ebon woods."
'

" Illoomi ng on," sai'd Al bano in a somber tone.
Suppose they fight and let a little claret it will harm no-

~~

'

Ida covered all with sulphury clouds.
.

bri~ht,

As with a smile more brightcnc<l, thus rcplieLl.''

";1'o prop thy tottering •!ate,
To float th ee o'er n reef."
" y cars, years, they steal upon us
Erase the gathering finger-mark~ of Time."

II

271

"By his glimmering sense

'Vear out thy youth with shapeless iuleness.
Purse-proud, elbowing Insolence.
Bloated empiric, pu!fed pretense.
Archly be looked, and slyly leere<l.
A good man, in a sudden auger, may go beyond the evenness of a wise Christian.
l\Iy will hath been used to crookedness and peevish morosity in ail virt~1cms"employments.
Despise the swellings and the diseases of a clisor<lered life.
He has here sunk into the flatness of prose.
These unfortunately fed with nothing else but the scragged
and thprny lectures of mankind and miserable sophistry.
I '11 quote him to a tittle ; let him speak wisely.
Time had worn deep furrows in his face.
To the well governing of a people, squaring fit laws for it,
and keeping it in good order, the nature and humor of that
people should be chiefly heeded.
Many more are hid from the narrow sphere of our re·
searches.
All kinds of false happiness fall within the compass of
these two - utility and pleasure.
"Aml then it scarce imports a jot
" ' hether the great world frowns or not."

First found his want of words."

Herc wave his amber locks.
~Iis _whole mind was blazoned over with a variety of glittenng unages.
" The lh·ing throne, the sapp'iire blaze
Ile saw."

Motives are not to be too scrupulously inquired into, while
actions are found to be laudable.
l': is no wonder that science has not outgrown the dwarfi.shness d its pristine stature.
Thus each quit other all old debts and dribbiets.

•

272

273

SYMnor.rsM OF THOUGHT.

SYMBOLS OF SIGHTS.

The late Emperor Augustus all the world rangeth in the
rank of fortunate men.
The l\facaronian is a kind of burlesque poetry, consisting
of a jumble of words of different languages.
The other party I headed myself.
But in comes a gentleman in the fag-end of October, and
does not hesitate in diameter to contradict this wise and just
royal declaration.

Reason is a ray of divinity darted into the suul.
Hexameter verse doth rather trot and hobble than run
amoothly in our English tongue.
. .
The worst is, Scripture warped from its mtent.

"The yery head and front of my offending
llath this extent, no more.''

Point out the Symbols of Notion, and state to which
class tliey belong, whether of Direction, Position, Degree,
Order~ or Mode : They so long dodged with him about trifles that Cromwell
was come to London before they were done.
You may catch him tripping if you can.
He walked with me in peace and equity.
I will run in the way of thy commandments.
" She raised her Yoice on high and sung so clear,
The fawns came scudding from the groves to hear.''

The prpper work of man, the grand drift of human life, i•
to follow reason.
There are different degrees of skimrp.ers; first, he who
goes no further than the title-page; secondly, he who proceeds to the contents and index.
·why, then, may some divers in the deep of Providence
say, doth God ordain no more good men and actions?
·we have seen what a mere nothing it is that this strutter
hath pronounced with such sonorous rhetoric.
"My unclulating life was as
The fancied lig hts that flitting pass
Our shut eyes in deep midnigbt.''

One dclighteth in mirth and the friskings of an airy soul.
'V~ must not ramble in this field without discernment or

chl1ice.

"Nor shun nor court the great,
your. trnest center is the middle state.''

The ideas were suited to my present wanderings of
thought.
It never penetrates through this disguise.
It still adopts the stab of crouching murder.
.
"\Ve must court, flatter, and fee them, not to mention the
trouble of dancing attendance.
Let us lift up ·our hearts with our hands.
A man has perhaps for a long time taken the full swing
of 11is voluptuous humor.
At this, they were so much staggered that they plainly
discovered their ignorance.
Alas! I am not any flickering thing.
§ 445. Visible symbols are either object-symbols or prop·

ertycsymbols.

~ 446 . ORAL EXERCISE. Distinguish the ?bJectsymbols and the Property-symbols in the following expressions : Silvery stream. A flashy character. Hazy thoughts.
Sunny disposition. l\Ieteoric fancy. Unclouded hopes.
The films of error. Starless despair. Glaring falsehood.
Double-dyed guilt.
.
.
The campaign was a blaze of glory'. l~1s policy was tor·
m his soul. And now
. b 11'ke Joy brirrhtened
0
tuous an d cm · ' .
1 h
•
does he creep and wriggle into acquaintance with al t e
bnwe gallants about the town . l\Ieander's . snaky flood.
His musical. compositions have a chameleon-like ch~racter,
. is
. ever s1u.1.tmg
.
which
i'ts hues · Lifo '-":lS colored wtth thed
rosy light of morn. Ile show& the early, undergroun
18

·---

274

SYJ\IIlOLISM 01'' THOUGHT.

springs of tlie mind from which the rivers of thought well
up to the light. They were resolved to see in his excesses
only the flash and outbreak of that same fiery mirul which
glowed in his poetry.
§ 44 7. Visible symbols are of the three gradations, as
t!iey symbolize either, (1) other sights; or (2) sensations
other than sights; or (3) mental or spiritual objects.

§ 448. ORAL EXERCISE. IJistinguisli in tlte following expressions tlie several gradations of Visible Symbols:Wheeling planets. Semi-lunar fardP.ls. Golden clouds.
The wavy fol<ls. His roun<led sentences. Ruffied spirits.
Bristling spears. Crimson shame. Checkered life. Your
sneaking, worming souls. His adclress was flat. His brow
was cloucled. Its d'1zzling imagery. Prismatic memories.
Evanescent hopes. The darkness of his mind. He holds
the virtue of the snaky woocl. The artist commenced with
a soft strearny note of celestial quality; and with three or
four whips of his bow elicited poi11ts of souncl as bright as
the stars. The lowest tones are formed in the chest, and
partake of the most somber hues. Hope let down her purifying light into the damp mephitic pit in which"he was now
panting and digging. He almost sank beneath the iron arm
of the world.

§ 4 4 9. 'V HITTE:::-< EXERCISES. Construct sentences
witli tlte SuT>Jects given below, and with Predicates from
Symbols of Sight: ·
Moor.r..~. -The steed .flies across the p/ni11.

The melody limped in et·ery

ttrai11. The tremblin!J wish. The dark surmisings. Its twi11k/i11!J eye.

I. With Predicates from Oqjects of Color. - The purpose
His feelings - - . The pronunciation was - - .
His cheek - - . The nprlcs - - . The pages of the book
- - . The - - desire. The .- - mess:i.i;:;e.

snmoLS OF SIGlll'S.

275

2. With Predicates from Figured Olfject~. - I~i,s actions
The _ _ policy of the administrat1011. lhe - mountain. His - - brow. His intellect - - .
France.
3. Witlt Predicates from tlie N otion of Objects. - The
--caravan. 1'l1e - - swallow. The eagle - - . His
·
- - . II1"s. t11" ~-course - - . Ilis purpose - - ;
am b .ltlon
. n - - . llis· _ _ sriirits. The verse - .
but his execu t10
The steamer - - . Their hopes - - .

'•

SYMBOLS FROM SMELL, TASTE, AND TOUCH.

~j7

iiI
i

A11y mirth is better than unmanly mustiness.
It falleth to very ticklish times.
"Lo! po,·erty to fill the lan(l.
That numbs the soul with icy hand."

CHAPTER IV.
SYlIBOLS FROJI Ot:JECTS OF SJIELL, TASTE, AND TOUCH,

. § 450.. SnrnoLs from sensations of smell, taste, and touch;
li_lrn aud!ble and visible symbols, may represent thought,
either through the objects themselves or through any qualities that characterize them ; that is, they arc either objectsymbols or property-symbols ; as, " lwneyed flattery," or
'luscious flattery."
§ 451. They also symbolize in the three modes or gradations: 1. Of sensations of the same sense ;
2. Of other sensations;
3. Of mental or spiritual objects or states by sensible objects or qualities.

§ 452. _Onu EXERCISE. Point out the Symbols in
the following sentences, and mention wlietlier tlwy are of
Smell, of Taste, or of Tuucli; wliethei· of Object or of
Property; and of 1l'lticlt of tlte tliree gradations : The fragrancy of charitable sentiments. The sweetness
of his verse. 'Ve are more sottish than the Troja11s if we
retain one Helena, any one beloved lust, any surrared'
temp·
0
tation.
A nectarcan, balsam kiss.
\Vith flattery's mannaecl lips assail the throne.
In vice there is a noisome i·ankness.
He is not tickled with greediness of renown.
The popular harangue, the tart reply.

He even descended to the meanness of a palpable lie.
One is driven to remember the roughness of the times.
This candied bitterest tortures with delight.
"Though his tongue
Dropt manna, and could make the worse appear
The better reason."

\Varro, instant, loving praise is the i;weetest cup that can
be put to a poet's -lips.
It is easy to observe how age or sickness sours and crabs
our natures.
Tartly ridiculing the pretenses commonly made for it.
" Some harsh, 'tis true,
ricked from the thorns and briers of reproof,
But wholesome, well-digested; grateful some
To palates that can taste immortal truth;
Insipid else, and sure to be despised:"
"Remorse stings deeper, and relentless Conscience
Pours more of gall into the bitter cup
or their severe repentance."
"And daintily I nourished thee
With idle thoughts and poetry."
"Riches and honors, then, are useless things;
To the ill-jndging palate sweet,
Bnt turn at last to nauseousness and gall."
"Amlin triumphant melody confess
The titillating joy."

What striking lessons have we had of the precarious t"i"l
ure of all sublunary possessions. The idea tickled my fa.ncy.
No sorrow weighed on your skirts.
~ 453. '\V RITTEN EXERCISE.
Construct sentence:i
witli the SubJects as given below and with Predicatea
/
that ar11 Symbols of ~ome Smell, Taste, or Touch : -

278
MODEL.

SYl\IIlOLISlU OF THOUGlll.
-Tho sarcasm was peppery. His benumbed foclin~.

His conversation - - . Tue music - - . Praiso ---.
The - - heart. The landscapo - - . Joy--. Ilia wit
- , ancl his temper--.

CHAPTER V.

snmor.s

FilOlI GENERAL SENSE.

§ 45.f. SnrnOLS from general sense embrace thrco classe,.,
or those,1. Of Appetite;
2. Qf Health and Disease;
3. Of Sensation.sfr~!1i Outward Causes.
The first class includes those of hunger and thirst, and their
several gratifications.
The <v-...:ond class includes such as those of vitality of spirits,
exhilaration, dcpre·ssion, freshness, buoyancy, languor, wcari:::ess, C>tfcrvescencc, agitation, convulsiveness, tremulousness,
and the like.
Th'l third class includes sensations of heat and cold, and
those of pleasure and pain from the contact of any outward
objerts with the body, other than those that address the five
special senses.
~ 455. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out tlte Symbols of
Grneral Sensation in tlie following sentences, and refer
tlwn to tlteir proper elass, as of Appetite, ete. : -

'.

Satiety, perpetual disgust, and feverishness of desire, attend
those who passionately stwly pleasure.
The inward glowings of the heart.
'Ve shall Le able to part with such pleasures without any
, <lisq'.lieting longings or hankerings after them.
In pleasure some their glutton souls would steep.
This may be imputed to the briskness of his fancy or to
an occasional indolence which spleen and lassitude brou~ht
!!pen him.

280

281

SYMBOLISM OF THOUGHT.

SYMBOLS FROM GENERAL SENSE.

Ought •hey not to be esteemed notorious fools, even destitute of common sense, and abandoned to a callousness and
numbness of soul?
The wickedness of this old villain startles me and gives
me a twinge for my own sin.
0 sharp convulsive pangs of agonizing pride!

real disciple of Jesus Christ to reprobate them as gangrenous
excrescences.
The mind runs after it with as much freshness and eagerness as if it had never done any thing.
Their duties are not performed with such sprightliness of
affections and overflowings of joy as they are wont, but are
performed droopingly and heavily.
:M:r. T.'s romance is cold even when it attempts wealth.
The vapors on his path of life condensed into a morning
fog, this again into evening clouds, and the latter, in their
turn, into chilly showers of rain. Sleep soothes and arrests
the fever-pulse of the soul ; and its grains are the quinine for
the cold fit of hate as well as for the hot fever of love. Both
these lights are reflexes, and it is nearly impossible to say
what tones may be assumed even by the warmest light reflected from a cool surface.

"Think the cruel strife,
The gnaw of anguish and the waste of life."

The fruits of liberty have the more agreeable relish after
the uneasy hours of a close and tedious confinement.
And tell _the secret of your mortal smart.
The inward chafings and agitations of his struggling soul
" .Let crabbed fortune now express her might;
And do thy worst to me, thou stinging spite."

He chafed, he grieved, he fretted.
The hectic of the soul produces one in the body; the man
from an inward falls into an outward consumption.
A careful heart that swelters in the flame. ·
From bard to bard the frigid caution kept.
"Devotion, when lukewarm, is undevout;
But when it glows, its heat is struck to heaven."

A good man would be loth to be tak&n out of the world
reeking hot from a sh_a rp contention with a perverse adversary.
Dost thou so hunger for my empty chair?
\.
Something is wanting to excite an appetite to existence in
the palled satiety 'Yhich attends on all pleasures that may be
bought.
They in the practice of their religion wearied chiefly their
knees and hands ; we especially our ears and tongues.
In proportion as we can suspend the exercise of all our
other senses, the livelinP-ss of our conception increases.
"And as with age his body uglier grows,
So his mind cnnkcl'll."

Instead of defending these doctrines, it is the duty of a

~ 456. WRITTEN EXERCISE.
Construct sentences
with the SubJects given below, and with Predicates from
Symbols of General Sensation: MODEL. -

The spirit pines in solitude.

The cankered heart.

The la,._

g11id verse.

His oration - - . The thought - - . Ambition - Hope - - - - . - - consciousness of rectitude.
fancy. Pleasures - - . Fears - - . - - friendship. .A
--purpose.

. ';".

SYMilOLS OF CONDITION AND RELATION.

283

He lookcll up from his road to the mountain where his
father had found him, as to a Tabor of the past.
Irving was forty-two years and some months old ; Scotland
sent l1im forth an Herculean man ; our mad Babylon wore
him and wasted him, with all her engines.
CHAPTER VI
SnIIlOLS OF COXDITION AND IrnLATION.

§ 457. SnmoLs of condition are of two classes: 1. Topical; or those founded on place ;
2. Cltronical, or those founded on time.
OnsEnYATIO:-i·. - The general nature of this class of symbols has been,
perhaps, sutlidcnlly explained. If we should wish to comm unicate to another a thought, whether a mere thought, or one 'embodying a feeling or a
pu'"!'ose'. we c?uld not do it more cffccti\'ely than by referring to some place
?r tm_1~ m w_l11ch we both had the thought in common. The thought being
1d~nt1fied mth the occasion, such a reference would at once suggest the
thought. It may be a singl e thought thus suggested, or a train of thought;
a mere th ought, or n thought or course of thought characterized by some
sensation or emotion, or some determination or endeavor.

~ 458. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the Symbols of
Condition ?°n tlte following sentences, and class tltem as
Topical or Chronical : - .
The horizon of their ambition. The infa~cy of science.
The boundless ocean of discovery. Dawnings of success.
'Vhere lawns extend that scorn Arcadian pride.
He has the eyes of youth ; he writes verses ; he speaks
holy day; he smells April and l\Iay.
Shall posterity reproach us with having found a Capua in
Lombardy?
There grew up out of all regions of his soul an evenina
0
Arcadia.
'Vhat a dark cloud-break out of the morning redness of
youth!
The four rivers of Paradise had, in one cataract, poured
down from heaven into his heart.

"Ile still an Eden bright to me
lily own, my own fireside."

Childhood has its Eden ; adolescence 11as its hours of Paradise.
§ 45!J. Symbols of rehtion are of two classes : 1. Those founded on their identity with some symbol of
sense in their effect on the mind ;
2. Those founded on their identity with a symbol of condition in such effect.
ILLliSTR.tTiox. - What is difficult is familiarly symbolized to us by reference to a mountain, as that object at once suggests the feeling and the
effort that are to be experienced in crossing it. Thus we say, "Enry
simple task was a 11wunt~1in. " In the same way a condition, either of place
or of time, may suggest the thoug-ht~ in so far a~ it has been associated with
the thought in the minds of both speaker and hearer. Thus we speak of a
task as being an Augean staUle; just as we might call it an Ilerculean task.
These symbols of relation arc closely nllicd to those of the other classes.
Thus when we !i;ay "an Eden sc_e ne," we may interpret the symbol .t:<.le11
as a visible object, symbolizing its characteristic property, as picturing to
the eye, for instance, peace and joy; or as a place in which peace and joy
were felt; or as one which stands in the same relation to the mind in producing certain •entiments as the scene to be d escribed. Often , thu s, the
svmbol mav be interpreted in either way. But this fact should not impair
i~ our min~ls the importance of becoming familiar with the several kinds
of symbols, which are so clearly distinguishable in their origin.

~ 460. ORAL EXERCISE.
Point out tlie Symbols of
Relation in tlie following extracts, and class them as RP.lati've Symbols of ObJect or of Condition: -

Strike now, or else the iron cools.
What if I be not known to the Nimrods of the world.
Our foster-nurse of Nature is repose.
"Let Hercules himself clo what he may,
The cat will mew, the dog will have his day."

284

285

SYMBOLISM OF THOUGHT.

SYMBOLS OF CONDITION AND RELATION.

It may be thou art entered into the cloud which will bring
a gentle shower to refresh thy sorrows.
Yet when the new life which we beg for shines in upon
us, there be who envy and oppose, if it come not first in at
their casements.
Is not the man who is furiously bent on calumny a scorpion?

fhe invigoration of success is - - . His memory is that
of - - . The beauty of the scene was - - . - - amuse- ·
mcnt. - - landscape. - - difficulties. Their griefs
were--. His were the dreams of--. --simplicity
of manners. - - perseverance.

"Our sig-hs are then but Yernal air,
But April drops our tears."

The vigorous mind has mountains to climb and valleys to
repose in.
.

"Ruin's merciless plowshare must pa~s o'er,
And barren salt be sown on yon proud city."

But the effect of those discoveries was to be more than the
indulgence of an ardent or a learned curiosity ; it was to
teach men to think on the great subjects of civil and religious freedom ; that shower of meteors not only dazzled and
delighted the universal eye with descending splendor, but
plowed up the old rigidity of a moral soil, long hardened by
thA heaviest ti;:ead of tyranny and superstition.
•'. Thou in the shadow of the Rock shalt dwell,
The Rock of strength."

Almost all other poets sink into twin4ling stars before
Milton.
\
They are like those divine promises which will answer
every case of difficulty or distress, and open any lock in
Doubting Castle. The part which those authors performed
for literature was rather that of l\foses than that of Joshua:
they opened the house of bondage, but they did not enter
the promised land.

§ 461. WRITTEN EXERCISE. · Construct sentences e:r;.
vressing by some Symbol of Condition or of Relation
Borne quality of the following subjects : MODELS. - His
WU a Vuuviui

plea.ures ore minute1; his joys weary houri. Hia bosolf

or burning passion.

.....

LAWS OF SYMBOLS.

287

§ 466. ORAL EXERCISE. Point out the errors in ~lie
use of Symbols in the following extracts, and tell wliich
of the three laws is violated : -

CHAPTER

vn.

LAWS OF SDIBOLS.

~ 4G:!. Trmirn are three general laws which should govern
the use of all symbols. They arc, 1. That the symbol be true to the thought which it symbolizes ; that is, be i<lentical with it in some respect ; this is
the Law of Truth.
2. That the symbol be such as can be readily understood;
this is the Law of Clearness;
3. That the symbol be harmonious with itself; this is tho
Law of Congruence.

§ 4G3. The law of Symbolic Truth prohibits .the use of any
form as symbol which <loes not beloug to the thought that is
symbolized.
JuxsTnATJOx. -Such expressions n' the following are not true to the
thought which is to be repref'c nted: " The tcind scr~amed;" "A SJlflrkling

iunset; " " Tlte icy pulses of his miserly heart."
OnsEnYATIOX. - In order to a rca1ly compliance "·ith this first law in
the selection and use of symliol>, habits of accurate ouserrntion are indispensable. The diYersc sounds ~iYcn ont l>y animals, l>y Lirtls, in the Yarying motions of inanimate obj ects, water, air, earth, roeks, etc., the Yaryi11g

forms presenle<l to the eye in all the multitude of Yi siul e objects and scenes
an<I motions, should be studied and carefully markeu, in order that thought
may be correctly syml>olizeLI.
•

§ 4G4. The law of Symbolic Ckarn~s~ pr0hibit,5 the use
of such forms as wonl<l uot be readily un<lerstoo<l by the
mind addressed.
§ 4G5. The law of Symbolic Congruence forbids the uniting of disagreeing parts into the same symbol; as," His keen
fulchion d1i11!.:s the wan ior's Ii vcs."

The twinkling moonlight. The laughing prec1p1ces of
rock and clamorous forests. The brayings of wolves and
chatterings of owls. I witnessed a scene that has rung in
my ears till now.
They hear so much evil blazed abroad.
Biel smilincr conscience spread her cloudless skies.
"' meteor which blackened all the horizon.
.
This menacing
Learn to understand the world, for it is a cozenage all the
way; the head of it is a rainbow, and the face of it is flattery ; its body is a shallow, and its hands do knit spiders'
webs.
But when the. white object began to raise itself slowly up,
he laid clown bis weapon and with three touches flew bolilly
over the uppermost octave of the stairs down to the countcrbass touch or step. Every night of dreams cut asunder the
falling planet-knot and with it his heart.
I was struck with an instinct of sorrow.

GENERAL VIEW. -

PART VIII . --EXPLANATION.

-

CHAPTER I.

·.GENERAL

VIEW. -

DIVISIONS.

§ 467'. EXPLANATION is that process by which we
commumcate thought to another mind for the simple
purpose of information.
OnsERVATION. -In explanation, we seek simply t.o form in the minds
of others a thought which we ourselves ha,·e of an object. In doing this,
we present the parts that make up the object as we view it in suitable
forms ~f words and of imagery. The thought is thus ever 'regarded as
co~1pos1te- as _made up of parts. Now as nny object of which we can
tlunk may b~ ~· 1 ewed as_ made up of different kinds of parls, we must ,-ary
our explanat10n accordmgly. There arise hence different forms or kinds
of explanation.
Ob~ ects of thought_ arc ":'ade up of different kinds of parts, according to
the different manner m which they have arisen in the mind. "\Ve nave in
fact, t~o general classes into which they may be distributed in this resp~ct,
ac~~rd1~g as the! are broug~t into the mind by what may be called the
ongma'.1ve faculties of the nun l, or by the discursive faculty, or faculty of
~om~an son .. I~ the first class, the parts of the object are gh·en in the obJCC.t ''.self as 1t 1s presented to us; in the second class.,the objects are the
art~fic1~l product" of ou_r own minds, being formed by combining or separating mto parts the obJects of the first class. Composite objects of thought
thus, are either, (1.) Integrate ; or (2.) Logical.
'
. .1-:urtl_1er, we n~a~- explain ~n object in either of two ways: either, (1.) Ily
m~1c~tmg ho_w it 1s ~elat~d rn its several parts to other objects; or, (2.) By
pomt'.n.g out its own mter10r parts. The first process is called by logicians
Dcfin1t1on; the second is Explanation in the narrower sense.
Further! an . int~gratc obj ect of thought is either single or composite; and,
If com~s1te, is either made up of like indi,·idual parts, and is expressed in
a collectn·e noun, as, a furut, an army, or is made up of continuous part.,
and ia expressed in n mass-noun, as, air, mortar.

DITISJONS •

289

. Ir such an object be single, it is, according as it is viewed under the rela·
tion3 of time or of space, either a cause, as in an action, an event, something changing; or it is a substance, or simply an object viewed without
change.
As the parts, by the naming of which we explain the object, are different
in these several classes, it beco mes necessary to proceed in different ways
in explaining them. There arise so many different kinds of Explanation.
Thus th e explanation of an object as cause, in other words of a single ac·
tion or e\'cnt, is by Narration; of an object viewed ns substance, is b.v Description; of a collective object, by .l!,'numemtion; of a mass-object, by
Dispositio1'.
A logical object of thought is formed either by combining different subjects having the same predicate, or by combining different predicates having the same subject. They are, accordingly, of two classes; one expressed
in class-nouns, the other in abstract noun s.
The parts in an object of the first class are, of course, the individual subjects which were originally united to form it. Thus, the parts of the object
denoted by the class-noun planet are illercury, Venus, etc.; or, as we may
haYC smaller combinations themselves combined to make still larger combinations, the parts may be taken to be, i11fe·l'io1· planets, s11pel'ior planets,
and the Earth. Explanation of an object proceeding by designation of
such parts is called .Division.
The parts in an object of thougnt of the second cla5s are those several
attributes, belonging to the rnme subject, which have been combined t<1
form it. Thus animal, viewed as an abstract, is made up of living, O>"ganized, locomotive, sentient, these attributes nil belonging to the same subject,
as hol'se, sheep, etc.; since we observe that a horse is living, a horse is organized, etc. Explanation of an object p~oceeding by designation of such
parts is called Partition.

§ 468. The processes of Explanation are six in number, namely: 1. Definition;
2. Narration ;
3. Deseription ;
4. Enumeration and Disposition;
5. Division;
6. Partition.

§ 469. An object of thought; when viewed as that
which is to be explained, is called a Theme.
thus the following definition: 19

We have

290
to

EXPLAN_\. TION.

TbHE Tn.m.rn in Explanation is the object of thou"ht
e cxplamed.
o

-In order to ea•v d
. .
it is necessar)· to ob•e .
· .. an correct communication of thought
. n e some general rules of
d
'f
'
plaining an object of thou~ht
. .
. proce ure.
hus, in exnotion of what object it. " . ',/~ p1e,_ent C'.lnfusion, we rnust have a clear
must ob5en·c the law o/ti,~.';. e~p '.t separate frorn all other objects; we
mention all the parts It ~.). .f gam, 're cann0t always, _in explanation,
fitted to our purp~•c: w
ecomes necessary to sel ect those that nre best
• ?nsEiffATIOx.

Further, the parts ,~hich :,.~~~~~e~~~~e:o~~j ob~~n·e the law of Selection
pror.er order: we must obsen·e the law~~~ ana <on must be presented in a
. give all th e parts that arc i·en "'t .
-~cthod.
Once more, we need to
'
.,m,, e m oruer
fully t
l ·
we must ob,>crrn the law of Co l t
o exp am the object:
r . . . . . .' . mp e eness.
n e' c1.' exercise m wntinn' the
'l I Id b
these fuur laws to his explana~lon. pup1 s iou
e led to apply each of

.
E § J470.t" Tliere are four laws to be observe(1 m
xp ana ion: 1. Tlte Law oif Unity1 • 2 m1 L
'g, z t ·
· , · .L ne aw
' e ec wn; 3. Tlte Law of JJfetlwd . 4 T!. L
Completeness.
, .
te aw

a II
oif
if
o

§ 471. The LAw OF UNITY requires that there be
but one object to Le explained. .
§ 4 72. Th: LA w OF SELECTION requires that such
parts only be taken as will Lest explain the object.
§ 4 73. The

LA w

requires that the
parts selected Le presented i"n ti Jell'
. d ue ord er.
OF Co llfPJ.ETE~ESS
_
.
II § l 474. The L-iw
.
reqmrcs
that
a tie parts required for the explanation le presented.
OF

METHOD

CHAPTER II.
DEFINITION •

' 475. DEFIXITION is that process of Explanation
by which an object is distinguished from other objects.
ILLUSTR,\TI0:-1. - 'Ve explain Mexico, as a part of ~forth America, by
Definition, when we distinguish it from the other parts of North America;
that is,twhen we give its boundaries. We explain the voyage of Columbus
in discovering Anierica 'tiie<'ely as an eYent by Definition, when we distingui$h it from other eYents; as when we bonn<I it by its «lutes in beginning
and end ing, all(! the places of its bcµ:inuing am\ emlin.~, with the direction
which it followed. We define m an as a logical class-object or concrete by
separating it from other objects of the cla•s to which it and they belong;
as, by distinguishing it from the brute. " 'c define rntionnl, on the othe1
hand, as a logical attribute-object, or abstract, by separating it from other
attributes belonging to the same subject; thnt if!., inasmuch as man contains the two attributes, i·ational and animal, we define rational by separat-

ing it from animal.

The object to be explained by Definition, it will be noticed, is ernr a
pa1't, and the process <listinguishes it from at.her parts which with it make
up some whole of thought. A definition of M exico, thus, regards it as a
part of North America; an<I the design of the definition is to separate it as
such part from the other parts which with it make up the whole - Nordt
Amc1·ica.
The mind, therefore, in defining, is enr put on the work of disconring
other objects which, as parts, with the object to b~ define<\ as another part,
make up a lari;er whole. All the general laws of Explanation are modified
accordingly in their application to this particular process.
The process here. described is to be distinguished from what is sometimes
callee\ ,·erbal definitit'>n. 'Ve may define a wore! either by naming its synonym, as when we define the word diurnal, by daily; or by referring to its
etymology, as when "·e define definition as a u9u11din.'l out. The process
which we are now considering is the definition of an object, not of a ioord.

§ 476. The Law of Unity in Definition requires
tbd but one object be presented for explanation, and

.....

--·~- -----~,--...,..,.------~~-~"""'-=

292

293

EXPLANATION.

DEFINITION.

that it be presented as a part to be 1istinguished from
other parts.

t and executes the
Hop!:. ts that principle which promp 8
~eat enterprises of human life.
.
478.
The
Law
of
S
election
in
D
efinition
require~
§
. ts or ]mes
.
that such porn
of sep:u.a t'wn be. taken as shall

§ 477.

ORAL EXERCISE.

Correct tlie errors in the

following Definitions : l\IonEL. -The Definition, .MassaclwseUs is one of the New Englana
States, which lies north of L ong l.<la11d SQund, is incorrect, for it includes

more than th.e object to be defined, namely, Connecticut and Rhode Island.

Mexico is a part of North America, and is bounded on the
north by the United States and on the south by New Granada and Venezuela.
Switzerland is bounded on the north and east by Germany
on the south by Italy, and on the west by France.
Youth is the part of life between infancy and manhood.
The c·olonial era of the United States history extends from
the discovery ofAmerica in 1492 to the Declaration of'Independence in 177 6.
·The tru11k of a tree is the part of it below the branches.
· The underpinning of a house is the part below the windows.
The steeple is that part of a church which is over the
portico.
A shrub is the vegetable growth that is distinguished from
the herb in being perennial, and from the tree in being of
a smaller size.
1
The sheep is the an,imal that differs from the goat in being
woolly :rnd not having horns.
Blue is the color between violet and indigo.
A hexagon is a figure having one more side than a pentagon and one less than an octagon.
The pupil of the eye is the opening in front through
which the rays of light are admitted from without, and is
bounded on all sides by the white of the eye.
Grammar is the art which trains the orator for the pulpit
and the bar.
Geography tells us of the earth and of the nations that
!nhabit it, their origin and history.

best distinguish the object from other objects.

§ 4 79.

ORAL EXERCISE •.

.

~oint out tJie errors in Se-

lection in the fallowing ·definitions : :E>elaware lies southeast of Pennsylvania, southwest of
Delaware Bay, and east and north of Maryland.
The Balize is a British possession lying northwe~t of th~
Bay of Honduras, and separa.ting Central America fro
Yucatan.
th
A week is a period of time one fourth as long as a mon '
d
and about the fiftieth·part of a year.
The House of Stuart occupied the throne of E~glan
from the last of the House of Tudor through the penod of
the Enalish Revolution.
The "trunk is that part of the tree which supports the
branches and adjoins the root.
The Torrid Zone is that part of the surface of t~e earth
which is farthest removed from the two poles, and is separated from the Frigid Zone by the Temperate.
The neck is in the upper part of the body, below the
head.

§ 480. The Law of Method requires that the de finition proceed in the order of contiguity or nearness,
and in a uniform direction.

§ 481.

ORAL EXERCI SE.

Correct the errors in Method

in the following definitions : and
N ew York lies west of Massachusetts, Connecticut,
l
.
d N
Vermont, south of Canada, north of Pennsy vama an
ew
Jersey, and east of Canada.
.
Porturral is a country situated west of Spam, east of lhe
, .Atlantic~ and in the southwestern part of Europe.

·::: ..

291

The antediluvian period of the world includes the lives of
Methuselah, the oldest man, and of Adam, the first man ; the
whole of the life of Cain, and a part of that of Noah.
The ox has horns shaped like a crescent. It belongs to
the order of anifuals called ruminants. It has no cutting ·
teeth in the upper jaw. It has two hoofs. It chews tho ·
cud, and lives on grass.
. The _capital is part of a column. It is that part of a build·
mg which rests on the shaft, or the main part of the column.

§ 482. The Law of Completeness requires that all
th: points or lines necessary to a full separation of the
object to be explained, be presented.

- § 483. ORAL EXERCISE. Correct tlte err.ors in respect of Completeness in tlte following definitions : Holland is a country lying on the North Sea, west of
Prussia and Hanover.
r
Connecticut lies south of 1\Iassachusetts and west of Rhode
Island.
· The Bourbon dynasty in France embraces the most brilliant portion of the history of that country, commencing with.
the reign of Henry the Great.
A generatiQn is a measure of human life.
A portico stands on columns. It is smaller and lower
than the house.
·
The cat is a carnivorous animal. It has sharp claws buried
in the skin, which it can extend or draw back at pleasure.
The honey-bee belongs to the insect race. It has four
transparent wings, a large head, and a trunk or proboscis to
extract the juices from flowers.

§ 484. Special Rules for Definition: 1. Define a place by naming, first, the l:irger place of
lfhich it is a part, and then its boundaries in order.
2. Define a perio<l of time by naming the longer period
of time of which it is a part, antl then its bcrrinninrt and ita
~

295

DEFINITION.

EXPLANATION.

c

3. Define an individual object by indicating first the whole
of which it is a part, and then the outlines that separate it
from the other parts.
4. Define a part of a class by naming first the class, and
the~ the attributes which separate it from other like parts of

l

the class.
5. Define an attril.iute by naming the composite attribute
of which it is a part, and then separating it from the other
parts.
OnsERYATJO:o<.-In defining an nttribute, it will often be founc\ most
convenient to name the class formetl of the objects that have the composite
attribute, ancl then separate the theme from the other attributes by naming
the parts of the class that ha,·e the nttriuutc. Thus, to define s1ceel, we
may name it as one of the attributes that uelong to flac01·ed olifects or to
tastes, and then separate it from other tastes. Thus s1ceet is that attribute
of a taste which belongs to sugar, to honey, and that class of objects. In
like manner, we may defineJnyyed as that attribute of a figured botly which
belongs to such objects as a saw, a crag.

§ 485.

WRITTEN EXERCISES.

Define the following

themes: As places : Belgium ; France ; Scotland ; ·Persia ; Chili ;
Indiana; New Brunswick.
As periods of time: A year; a lunar month; boyhood;
the antediluvian era; the republican era of Roman history;
the reign of the Plantagenets in England; the Carlovingian
era in France.
As parts of visible objects: The human arm ; the crown
of a hat ; the heel of a shoe ; the gable of a house ; the
trunk of a tree ; the proboscis of an elephant; the corolla
of a flower.
As parts of a class: A clog; a snake ; an oak; a lily ;
an apple ; a sofa ; an ax ; a book; iron ; a ruby ; marble.
As parts of a composite attribute: Round ; purple ; shri!l ;
cold; heavy ; elastic; swift; graceful; intelligent; forgetful

c

- .. ···- .. ----···-····-·-···

--"---·----·--·-·--·-----·---·-·~-· -Ell

NARRATION.

CHAPTER lli.
NARRATION.

§ 486. NARRATION is the explanation of an object
of thought as changing in successive time.
OnsERVATION. - We can narrate in either of two ways.
We can simply mention the periods of time in which the
changes in the theme severally take place. Thus we narrate the theme human life, by representing it as passing
through the several periods of infancy, childhood, youth,
manhood, and old age.
Or we may narrate by representing the theme itself in
its actual ch anges. Thus we narrate human iife as at first
weak and dependent, then as becoming stronger and bolder,
and finally, as waning and decaying.
The only difference between the two modes is, that in the
former case we ai e governed rather by a regard to the parts
of time, and in the other more by a regard to the part'! of
the object itself changing in those periods of time. The
difference is that between chronology and annals on the one
hand and biography and history on the other. In the one,
time is measured off into periods, and the events, so far as
relating to the theme, are stated in those periods successively;
in the other, the leading changes in the theme itself are given
as they occur, in successive time, without reference to defi·
nite periods.
These two ways of proceeding should not be confounded
or mingled together. The selection of the parts and the
. method should either be in the one or the other way ex-.

297

elusively, or one should be subordinate to the oth~r. Tho
history of England might be narrated c.hronolog1cally by
it off into centuries, or into penods measured • by
markinob
the reigns of successive kings; or historically, by narratmg
the successive changes which the English people passed
through. Or the chronological method might be adopted as
the governing method, and the historical method be .observe~
in conductinrr
the narration through the chronological pen·
b
ods, one after the other.

§ 487. The Law of Unity in Narration requires two
things, .
1. That there be hut one object to be explained ;
2. That it be presented only as changing in successive time. ·
§ 488. The Law of Selection requires that such
periods of time or such sta?e.s in the changing theme
be- taken as will best exl11b1t the theme to another
mind.
§ 489. The Law of Method requires that the succession of time be strictly observed.
§ 490. The Law of Completeness requires tha: all
the periods or stages in the changing theme be given
that are necessary fully to exhibit it.
§ 491. WRITTEN EXERCISES. 1. ~arrate tl~e following themes by marking off tlie Periods of Time in
wliicli the leading changes liave taken place : The
The
The
The
The
The
The

history of the world.
history of Rome.
history of England.
history of France.
history of the United States.
history of Mexico.
progress of the seasons.

_.,....

298

.-

EXPLANATION.

ThP, changes of t.h11 moon.
The phases of Ven us.
The life of man.
The growth of the oak.
TLe life of the butterfly.

2. Narrate t!te f vllowing lltemes by stating tlte leading
rtages of cltange : My last vacation.
l\Iy journey.
l\Iy course of study.
l\Iy last walk.
The life of Joseph.
The life of David.
The life of Socrates.
The life of Alexander the Great.
The life of Cicero.
The life of Robert Bruce.
The life of Lord Bacon.
The life of Galileo.
The life of Robert Burns.
The life of Sir Walter Scott.
The life of Charlotte Bronte.
The life of Julius Ca!sar.
The life of Napoleon Bonaparte;
The life of Wellington.
The life of Geor.,.e
"\Vashin..,ton.
0
0
The history of Ven ice.
The 11istory of the Crusades.
The history of the Netherlands.
The 11 istory of Switzerland.
The history of Polam1.
The history of Russia.
The destruction of Jerusalem.
The capture of Rome by Genseric.
The conquest of Wales by EthvarJ L

I

NARRATION.

Tho siege of l\ialta.
The English Revolution of 1 G88.
Tho French Revolution of 1187.
The American R1wolution of li7G.
The conquest of Granada.
The discovery of America.
The conquest of l\Ie:rico.
The conquest of Peru.
The destruction of Pompeii.
The earthquake at Lisbon in l i 55
The American Civil "\rar of 186J
The battle of Navarino.
The battle of 'W atcrloo.
The battle of Gettysburib-

299

.,,

301

DESCRIPTION.

CHAPTER IV.
DESCRIPTION.

~ .!l:r.Z. D .1;:;c RIP1'IOX is the explanation of an object
t t11ought regarded as a substance.
Ons~RVAT:ON. -Tho essential parts of a substance are
-ts Properties. To describe an object, therefore, viewed as
a substance, we name the Properties of which it is made
up. \Ve describe the sun thus, as round, brig!tt, etc. ; as
moving, attracting, illuminating, etc.
Description, also, includes the naming of the relative attributes of a substance, as greater or less ; nearer or more remote ; higher or lower in position, in rank, etc. ·

§ 493. The Law of Unity in Description requires ·
two things:1. That there be but one, and that an individual
object, to be explained ;
2. That the obj ect be presented as a substance having certain Properties, or certain attributes of relation.
O n s E P.YATIO:< . -Individual obj ects, it will be recollected, are expressed
in ]anguag e in two ways :1. lly pro per nouns, or words appropriated to them; as, John, Vtnus, France, Fi·idrry.
2. By words with Definitives; as, The Sun; Thi$ B ook; My Ilat; The
Tret which toe saw (§ 92 ).

§ :195. The Law of Method m Description requires, 1. That the parts of space <ir the properties selected
be presented in thcfr proper connection, each class by
itself, as visible properties together, audible together,
etc.
2. That the Properties and the attributes of Condition and Relation be kept distin ct.
§ 496. The Law of Completeness in D escription
requires that all the attributes that make up the theme
, as substance be presented.
The process, however, will be so far complete, if
onl'y all the qualities or only all the relative attributes
be presented.
§ 4 97. ·w RITTEN EXERCISE. Describe the fallowing
!ltemes by naming in order their several attributes : ~Iy class-room ; the church I worship in; the town hall.
My cat ; my dog; my horse.
My rose-bush ; my garden ; my play-room.
Mount Vesuvius ; ].\fount h:tna ; Mount H ecla.
The River Amazon; the Mississippi; the Danube.
The Caspian Sea ; the Dead Sea ; Lake Superior.
The city of Mexico ; the city of Pekin ; the city of
Athens.
The P arthenon; the Coliseum ; St. Peter's Cathedral at
Rome.
The character of Socrates ; of Lord Bacon ; of George
Washington; of Milton; of Cowper; of llyron.

§ 494. The Law of Selection in Description requires that such attributes of the object be taken as
will best exhibit the theme as a substance.

'

-··--·--· --

---·-·

,

-·----·----------------- --·

_

--- __......

ENUMERATION AND DISPOSITION.

303

1)efi11ite; and if definite, the actual number. Jn a mass·oliject he will in
like manner name the constituent parts of which the substance is composed.

§ 499.

WRITTEN EXERCISES.

Explain the following

themes,!. .As Collectfre Objects : --

CHAPTER V
ENC')IEUATION AND DISPOSITION.

§ 498. ExuMERATIOX is the explanation of au object
viewed as a collectirn whole.
DISPOSITION is the explanation of an object viewed
as a mass-whole.
A collective object is cxplainecl by naming the incliviclua.ls
of which it is composeu and the number, whether definite or
inclefinite, of such indiviclu:ils as compose it. Thus, army is
explainecl by naming soldier as the i11clivi<lual which is repeated to form it, and giving the number of such individuals in it, which is here indefinite. Week is explaine<l a.s
ma<le up of indivi<lu:il days, seven times repeated.
A mass-object is explained by naming the spacial parts
of which it is made up. J.lfan is explained simply a.s a mass,
by na.ming the spacial parts, l1ead, trunk,\ limos; tree, by
naming its spacial parts, root, trunk, lirancl1es.
OnsEtl\'ATtOx. -These processes of cxplnnation, it will be seen, arc ,·cry
sim;ile, 0111! h:n-c but a very limited range. llut it is deemed expedient to
present them for two •pedal rca•ons besides the general consi<lcrntion of
•:omplctcness: (I) . That the pupil may be made more conversant with the importa11t disti11ction lictwcen objects of thought, as denoted by proper nouns,
class·nolm~, collect i,·c noun s, a11U mass-nouns ; and, (2. ) Decause it is necessary in explaining such olijects to begin with presenting thei r own proper
nature a• composite intei;rate olijects, the full explanation being followed bJ'
some other pruce!"s, us description or nnrrntion. It is unnecessary to giYe
the general law• of explunntion as •pecially modified to th ese processes.
The pupil is simply cauticmed to i;ct a dear notion of the object as a collecth·e or a ma•s--0hj cct. Jn the cxplunution of n collcctiYe oliject, ho will onlv
DP.I'<! 10 name the i11tlid1lu11l ohjcct or which it is comrosctl hy repetition,
and atate tho Jtumlicr of iudi,·idunls repeated in it, whelhcr delillite or in•

Army; forest ; moh: rahhle : hrmie; crew ; gang ; gal~
axy; the planetary system ; curp~ ; squadron ; platoon ;
battalion ; clmnp ; shock ; sheaf; bevy ; flock ; herd;
drove ; swarm ; school ; span ; brace; yoke ; brood; coyey;
genus; variety.
2. .As llfass Olrjects : The ki1w<lom
of Great Britain; the United States of
:::>
America ; the Swiss Confederacy ; New England.
A tree'; a dwelling-house; a hat; a book.
The horizon ; the zodiac ; the zones ; the land portion
of the earth ; the "·ater portion of the earth.
Grammar ; a sentence ; a word.

~

.. .

I

..

.'~. l

DIVISION.

305

di11ate parts under the higher parts to ,...-hich they
respectively belong.

I .

CHAPTER VI.
DIVISION,

~ 500. D1v1s10N is the explanation of an object of
thought viewed as a class.
It is effected by naming the parts that make up the
class.

§ 501. The Law of Unity in Division requires that
there b~ but one class to be explained,. and that it be
explained by naming the parts tl1at make up the class.

§ 502. The Law of Selection in Division requires
that such divisions of the class be taken as will best
accomplish the object of the explanation.

Ous1mvATIQN. -The parts given in Didsion are c\esignated in res pect
of their relath•e rank or order by certain n ames. The following arc the
names 1trranged as the parts are prcsente<l in Natural History: Ki119dmn;
Class; Order or F amily; Genus; Species; Vm·iety; lndividuril.
These again are variou sly suLLliv;CcU: as of Vegetable Kingdom we have
the subdivision of Series , as Flowerless an<\ Flowering Series; of Class, subclass; of Orcler or Family, sub-order; of Tribe, .rnb-t1·ibe ; of Genus, subgenus or section.; of Spec ies, sub-species; and of Variety, sub-va,.iety. Tho
lowest part in Division, which cannot be subdivided, is bidi~idu(!/.

,I

.•,,
ij

9 504. The Law of Completeness requires that all
the parts of each order or de,;ree given in the Division
be presented.
~ 505. vV RITIEN EXERCISES.
·the fallowing tlLemes : -

Explain by Division

The kingdoms of Nature; the vegetable kingdom ; the
oak ; the elm ; the quince; the violet; the animal kingdom; the CarniVOl'OUS animals; the ruminants i the OX;
birds ; the thrush ; the duck tribe ; serpents ; insects ; the
senses.

_ILLUS'.'llATION. - Class-objects g enerally if not. unh•ersally may be distributed mto d"·?rs sets of parts. .Afan, thus, may be divided into male and
fermde: Caucasian, .Afo119ol, J.falay, Et!tiopinn, and American . 10/tite tawny
a?~ black: olJ and young; learned and 1111/ea,.ned, etc. On~ mod; of di'.
ns1on would ?c requ'.•ite for one object in explaining, and another moc!.i
for another obJect. 1 he n atur~li st, thus, would divide in such a "·ay as to
g:t one set of parts_; the moralist to get another. It is nece£sary, therefore,
e\ er to scl?ct_the kmd of parts that arc required for the object in writing.
!lloreo\:er it is ever necessary to determine how far the subdivisions shall
be cm:r1ed; for we may, after the first division of the them e, which will give
the highe~ or m ~re ge?e ric parts, proceed to subdivide any one of these;
and so on mdefi nitely, t.'11 la~guage fails to furni sh words by which to designate the !'arts. ~ometnnes it wtll be sufficient for all the purpoRCs of the
explunatwn to g"·e the first or highest set of parts; sometimes it will be
needful to carry the sulldi\·isions down to a thii'd or fourth or still lower
degree.

§ 503. The Law of Method in Division requires
that the higher orders be presented first, and the subor·

"I

,'

/,

,,

::•·1·:,

307

PARTITIO:Y.

connection with those of which they arc the immediate
parts.
§ filO. ThP. Law of Completeness requires that all
the attributes given in the several kinds selected bo
presented.

§ 511.

CHAPTER VII.
PARTITION.

§ 50G. PARTITION is the explanation of an object
t'f tl1ought viewed as a umon of attributes belonging
to some one subject.

.

lt.LUSTilATro:s. - ,Jfan, as an object of thought, may be regarded as.
made up of certain attributes, as well ns of certain kinds. It is ma<l.e up, .
in this Yiew, for instance, of such qnalitieM as up,.iglit, lwo:fooled; ns intelligent,free, and the like; or of certain actions, as walking, ealin!J, thinking,
clioo~i.n9, an<l the like; or of certain conditions, as in youth, in sil'kness, and
the like; or of certain relations, as dependent, Silcial, and the like.
e may
explain such an object by naming the seyeral attributes, as Qualities, Ac.
lions, Condi1ions, nnd Relations. Such an explanation is called Partition.
Further, it is plain that only as the attributes belong to some one subject
can they be properly. thought as united in one composite object.

'°

§ 507. The Law of Unity in Partition requires that
the theme be viewed as made up of divers attributes
that belong to some one subject.
I

§ 508. The Law of Selection in Partition requires
that such attributes be taken as will best accomplish
the object of the explanation.
h .r,i;sTl:ATJO:s. -As attributes are of various kind.•, ancl as any one may
be regarded as itself made up of other attributes, it is clearly necessa ry
that particular care be taken to $elect the kinds of attribute~, whethc:
Qualities, Actions, Conditions, or Relations, which nrc requisite for the object in writing, and, also, to determine how far the further partition of theso
Bevernl attributes selected shall be carric<I.

§ 50!>. The Law of Method in Partition requires
lhat the several kincls of attributes be presented each
by itself, an<l that tha smaller partitions be presented in

·wmTTEN ExERCJSES.

Explain by Partition

the following tltenzes : 1. By Enu11"11Cration of Qualities:
The dog ; the elephant; the rose ; the lily ; the diamond ; the agate.
OnsEHYAT!ON._-Thc pupil will find it m\1-nntngcous to ask himself, in
working out these exercises, such questions ns, '\' hat ca11 I say of the dog,
as lo size, form, colors 'l etc.

2. By Enumeration of Actions:
The sun ; the moon ; the horse ; the camel ; iron ; quicksilver; heat; light; electricity ; mag11ctism.
OusimvATION. -The pupil shoul<l nsk himself in these exerc:se>, Wh&t
does the sun do ·1 The answer would. lie, The sun warms, attracts, etc.

3. By Enumeration of Conditions:

'Vater; a plant; the ocean; the wind.
OnsEHYATJON. -The pupil should ask here such qu ~stion~ as, In ';:.at
conclition does water ex ist l The answer would. lie, \\ ater 1s somellllll'I
vapor, at rest, etc.

4. B!t Enumeration of Relations:

The planet Jupiter ; the stem of a plant; the sap in
trees ; the leaves; the hand; lead; gol<l; p:iper; steam;
trade ; government; political parties.
Ons>:n,· ,\TION. -The pupil shouhl n'k himself here, How is .Jn pit er related to other olijects? Tl1e answer wcnald be, .Jupiter is larger than any
· othel' planet; i ~ further from the sun than Mars; i" royally attended by
four satellites, etc.

PUNCTUATION.

APPENDIX NO., I.

309

The larger parts of nn extended history or philos,,rl1ical treatise, thna 1
mav be called buok.•.
iiooks may ue broken up into chapters.
Clwpters may be separated into sections.
Sections may ue still fur ther separated into parngraphs.
A section is sometimes indicated uy a word, as, Section, or by an abbreviation of it, as, "Sec."; sometimes by the character§.
A paragrapl1 is now usually indicated uy a ureak in the line ending it
and an indentation or" in~cut ' in the line beginning the next paragraph.
In manuscript, the character 'If is used to separate paragraphs, where
there are no break ancl indentation.
Enry correct writer will separate his discourse into such parts. Even a
brief essay or a familiar letter will generally require separation into the
1maller parts called paraf(raphs. They hel p the reader to notice the progress of the writer, as they mark the sta;:;es by which he proceeds, as mi le3tones mark off successirn portions of his road to the traveler, and also the
turns in the thought, as he advances from one point to another. The use
of paragraphs heirs. th ~. write,r also. They help him to remember that in
writing he should proceed steadily onward from the beginning to the end,
knowing not only whence he start• and where he is to stop, but nlso the
several Rteps he takes in hi s progress. EYery one, in writin g, and especially in beginning to compose in words, shou ld bear in mind that what he
writes must be expressed part by part- by stages distinctly measured off.
The st udy of punctuation will be of important serl'ice in making this notion, that all correct discourse is progressive, a practically controlling one
in composing.
1

--+--

CHAPTER I.
PUNCTUATION.

§ 512. IN all discourse, printed or written, certain
~haract~rs are used to show some'thing about its meaning winch cannot so conveniently be expressed by ·
means of words.

§ 513. These characters, called Rhetorical Points
as used for this purpose, are of two classes : _
'
1. Those which indicate a greater or less derrree
of
0
separation in the relations of the thouO'ht · and
'
b
'
'
2. Those which indicate some peculiarity in the expression.

?nSERVATIOY. - Besides rhetorical points, there are t~o other kinds of
pomts made use of in writing- and printing, which will be presented in a
oeparote chapter. fhey are the etymological points, ancl points for refer~nce. _Rhetorical points respect sentences or parts of sentences; ety,nolog1eal pom ~·· words or parts of words; points fur reference, places on tho written or pnnted paper.

§ 514.
1. Tl1e
2. Tlte
3. Tlie
4. The

The first class of Rhetorical Points includes
Period (.) ;
'
Colon (:) ;
S emicolon (;) ;
Comma (,).

OnsER\"ATIO!'I. - Extendecl discourse is broken up into parts, which are
larger o~ smaller, and are more or less subdi\"ided, according to the extent
of the d1SCourso.

•I

§ 515. Paragraphs are used to indicate such ~ead­
ing stages in the progress of a discourse as are less
marked than those indicated by sections or chapters.
Ons1mvATIOX. - An exercise in pam,ryraphing, or in breaking up discourse into paragraphs, will be foun d in § 553. Other exercises may be
added at pleasure by dictation or reading !:>y the teacher or one of the class.
The pupil in compooition should have his mind familiarized with this essential in correct writing, and be required to ureak up with caro his earliest
essays in composition into suitable paragraphs.

-§ 5 L6. A PERIOD is used to separate the leading
parts of a paragraph, called sentences.
OnsERYATION. - P eriod is a word deri\"Cd from the Greek, meaning a
. etrcuit; and, as applied to discourse, denotes a completed circuit of tlwuylit,
or sentence. From its use to mark the close of the completed thought or
the sentence,' the name, period, is derived to the character itself.

§ 517. A

is used to separate the leading
parts of a period or sentence.
COLON

SlO

PUNCTUATION.

APPENDIX NO. I.

OnsEnVATTO'l\ - Colon is a Greek word signifyin;_: member. Hence the
nse of !he term to <lenote the character which mark~ the close 1 fa member
of a seutcnce.

§ 518. A SEll!ICuLON is used to separate the leading parts of a member of a sentence.
OnsER\' ATIOX. - Semicolon, it will be remarked, originally means a
half member. It separates clauses and phrases.

§ 519. A C.o~rnA is used to separate the least part3'
of a sentence.
.
OnsP:H\'ATIOx._-Comma is from the Greek, and signifies what
~r separated. It 1s hence used to <lenote the mark of separation.

§ 520.

is cut off

Name tlie Parts and tlie
Points in tlte following sentences : •
ORAL EXERCISE.

Crafty men contemn studies; simple men admire them ;
and wise men use them: for they teach not their use ; but
that is a wisdom without them, and above them, won by observation.
Read not to contradict and confute ; nor · to believe and
take for gran tcd ; nor to find talk antl <liscourse : but to
weigh and consider.
Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed and
some few to be chewed and digested : that is, 'some books
are to be read only in parts ; others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly, and with dili(J'ence
0
and attention.
.
It is still re:ul with pleasure : the style is pnre and flowing; the classical quotations and allusions are numerous and
happy; and we are now and then charmed by that sin«ularly humane and delicate humor in which Addison excelled
all men.
Genius will not furnish him with a vocabulary : it wi!l
not teach him what word most exactly corresponds to his
idea, and most fully conveys it to others: it will not make
him n great descriptive poet, till he has looked with nttentio~
. on the face of Nature ; or n great clramatist, till he has fell
and wit.ncsse<l. much of tho influence of the passioWI.

311

A subject may arrest for treason : the king cannot ; for ii
the arrest be illegal, the party has no remedy against the
king.
The parliament rose : London was <leserte<l ; and Temple
retired to his villa, whence, on council clays, he went to
Hampden Court.
The sun is darkened, but it is only for n moment: 1t is but
an eclipse; though all birds of evil omen have begun to
scream, and all ravenous beasts have gone forth to prey,
thinking it to be midnight.
~ 521. GEXERAJ, Rum FOR Puxcru.-\.TION.
The
colon is to be used 1vhen ,the parts of a sentence are
widely separated in thought from one anoth er; the
semicolon is required where the separation in thought
is less in degree; and the comma when it is least, but
yet needing to Le marked by a point.
OnsEnv ATIOX. -As the degrees in the separation between the parts of a

Rentence Yary indefinitely in lh emseh ·cs, and also in relation to other parts,

the rules for punctuation cannot be lai<I down wilh absolule precision and
as of uniYerBal application. Thus a sentence consisting of 011ly two parts
might require only a comma; while if other parts were nu<le<l to it, n semicolon or a colon might be required.

§ 522. RuLES

FOR THE

t:SE

OF THE

CoLOx. RuLE I.

The colon is to be used fol' separating one member of
a sentence from a11otl1el', when it is necesrnry to separate the parts of those memLel's, or of either of them,
by a semicolon.
ExA)IPLES. -This is well to be weighed, that bolclness is
ever blind; for it seeth not clangers and inconveniences :
therefore it is ill in counsel, good in execution.
In neither case, therefore, was the independence of England endangered; in neither case was her honor compromised : in 1Joth cases her liberties were preserved.

§ 523. RULE II. The colon may be used for separating leading members of a sentence, when no con·

312

•

APPENDIX NO. J,

PUNCTUATION.

nective word is used, whether proper conjunction or
relative.

Methought I was in the midst of a very entertaining set
of company.
Johnson puts the case thus: The historian tells either
what is false or what is true. In the former case he is no
historian. In the latter, he has no opportunity for displaying his abilities.

ExA~Il'LES. -The offices bestowed on him were not matters of grace : every preferment was a homage to his virtue.
Or.sEnvATIO><.-In this example, if the two members were connected
by the conjunction but, a semicolon should have been used.

~ 526. RuLE V. A long sentence may r equire the
colon, although the separation of thought is not so
great as would require this point in a shorter sentence.

He was not received with those frowns which often undeservedly await the return of the unsuccessful general: his
co:rntry welcomed him with as much honor as if fortune had
attended his virtue.
His tragedies in rhyme, however worthless in themselves,
had, at least, served the purpose of nonsense-verses : they
had taught him all the arts of melody which the heroic couplet admits.
.r

§ 524. RuLE III. The colon may be sometimes used
when the members are widely separated in thought,
even if a conjunction be inserted.
EXAMPLES. - So much constancy in religious opinion may
seem singular among courtiers and soldiers : but it must be
considered th:it the inconsistency of men's actions with their
opinions is more often due to infirmity than to insincerity.
For truth is one: and all who tell the truth must tdl it
alike.
\

§ 525. RuLE IV. The colon may be used before
more formal quotations, before addresses, in case of
· changes of persons represented, and before extended
specifications and enumerations.
ExA~rPI.ES. - In 1597, he wrote thus: "Crafty men contemn studies ; simRle men admire them ; and wise men use
thf:m."
He bowed himself a little to us, and after we were set
again, he said: " ·well, the questions arc on your part."
You may read the relation of it as follows:

313

EXA)lPLE. - Inst!~ad of this, however, we do not find
tliat he has contemplated any other spheres for the application of this principle than those which have been so long
conceded to it- the formation of tas te aml the conduct of
education: . and, "1Vith !:egard to the last and most important
of these, he has himself recorded an admission, wl1ich to us,
we will confess, appears a full justification of all that wo
have now been advancing, and a sufficient answer to the positions we have been endeavoring to combat.

~

527. RULES FOR THE -USE OF THE SEl\IICOLON.
I. Th e semicolon is to be usell to separate parts

RuLE

of a sentence, if one or more of these parts are to be
separated into smaller parts by a comma.
EXA)lPLES. - Dr. B eattie answers, after Dr. Reicl, that
the mere existence of this instinctive and imlestructible be·
lief in the reality of external objects, is a complete and suffi
cient proof of their reality; that Nature meant us to be
satisfied with it ; and that we cannot call it in question, without running into the greatest absurdity.
Some of the gentlemen had means of their own ; but as
their funds became exhausted, they were under the necessi~y
of returning home for more.
He became master of the province of Ulster, and was solemnly crowned King of Ireland; but found himself amid
his successes obliged to entreat, the assistance of King Hoh

·-'

314

PUNCTUATION.

APPENDIX NO. I.

ert with fresh supplies; for the impetuous Edward, who
never spared his own person, was equally reckless of exposing 1-is followers.

§ 528. RuLE II. The semicolon, indicating a less
degree of separation than the colon, may be used to
separate leading memLers, when a connective word is
nsed.
It is foll of the conceptions of a vigorous
and poetical fancy, expressed in nervo us and familiar language ; but it is rendered harsh by unnecessary im·ersions.
Ile dismissed ' his army to the great increase of the general confusion ; and, finally, terrified by the recollection of
his father's fate, he resolved to withdraw himself from tho
kingclorn.
EXA)fPT.F.S. -

§ 529. Rum III. The semicolon is used to separate
parts of a sentence, if not so wid ely separated in
thought as to r equire a colon, even when no connective is used.
EXA)IPLES. -The wondering savages were won by this
benignity; they now supposed that the ships had sailed out
of the crystal firmament which bounded their horizon.
It is a question of pure curiosity; it never can be decided;
and as its decision is perfectly in<liffereut and immaterial to
uny practical purpo ~c, so, it might have been expcctt:tl tllat
the discussion should be conducted without virulenco or
abuse.

§ 530. RuLE IV. The semicolon may be used before shorter or less formal quotations, addresses, and
•peeifications or enumerations.

.

ExA~IPJ.F.S. - If he had been to make a sermon on tho
occasion, he wonl<l have cho~cn for his tel:t the wor<ls; "The
memory of the wickc<l shall rot."

..

315

J ust before the dawn, K amber Ali Beg galloped up, ex•
claimiug; "The enemy are upon us; rouse up ."
"Herc in cabal a disputatious crew
Each' evening ;ncet; the sot, the cheat, the shrew."

§ 531. R utE V. A long sentence may require the
semicolon, when th e separation of the thought woulJ,
in a short sentence, demand on ly a comma.
EXA)!PLE. Charles hall no itlea of sanctio1ii ng th:se
··
Lills and thus acknowledging the 1cg1t11nacy
o f tl i c \\"•11' wlnch
had brought him to this extremity ; but he knew that the
Scottish commissioners had strongly opposed them.

§ 532.

RuLES FoR THE USE OF THE Co:1n1A.

R0~ .E I.

Distinct members admit aml, unless short and d~1 ert,
re~uire to be marked off by commas, if not by !uglier
points.
EXA)fPLES. 1. P ersons o1·. things addressed: Cast your
eyes, sir, over this extensi,•e couutry. My lord, we have
stood here observing him.
.
._
2. Qi;otations: Their august cluef made that rcm~1 l,~b1e
.
'"l'l1at France stood in ner.d of strong mst.J.tudec1ara t10n,

tions."
·
" F' um1amen'!,hcse, he says, may b e better denommatc<l,
tal laws of belief."
.
.·
f I
. " he observes ' "for the mab1lity
o i·t 1e
" In compensa t1011,
.
astronomer to contra1 t l10se movements of wluch he stul 1es
the laws," etc.
.
.
•

' le•s there is a >rpnrntion of thonght, <Jnotnt1ons as
,_ tli · , "full of the milk ofhmnan
. tl
mm·1 · a~ 111 acve 1:s
such do not rc<Jmre ic co l" . '
·cquirc punctuation not othcrni<e
kinclness.'' llut a qllotcd p irase may '
OnsEtn"ATIO:S.-1. n ·

rv
·
not placed at
3 Postpositive Connectives, or 1...onncctires
. . oif the· sentence ·. One of his letters, too, begms
!he ·,ueginmng

ueedecl.

with this wretched quibble.
. .
.
'Ve are strnck, also, with several om1ss10ns m the pictun1
of a maritime borough.

316

APP~NDIX

NO. I.

In the first place, then, we shall find that all the great
poets have been remarkable for the occasional familiarity
and even homeliness of many of their incidents.
·
. "\Ve would confine this remark, however, to the descript10ns of external objects.
Experiment, therefore, necessarily implies power.
It is, accordingly, in some places, comparatively languid.
4. Ordinals: First, the nature and desirrn
of our callincr
0
0
doth suppose industry.
Further, it is a more immediate ingredient of this duty.
We. should; in fine, obey their doctrine by conformincr
our 0
practice thereto.
5. Modifying words or phrases, especially of sentences :
We scarcely
know, indeed, what lanrruacre
was then either
'
0
0
spoken or written.
This, no doubt, seeri'is both unreasonable and un 0crrateful.
This, we think, is a pretty subj ect for a ballad.
The following, tho11gh it has no very distinct object or
moral, breathes, we think, the very spirit of poetry.
For, with all our deference for the talents of the author,
.ve find it impossible to agree with him.
"\Ve never, at least, have happened to hear it surmised
that the~e is thought in t~e .elbow-joint.
\
OnsEn~ ATIO::'<. ~If. the modifying word or phrase is immediately con•
n:cted with the prmc1pal word or phrase, the comma may be dispensed ·
with.

6. Inversions: Of the Fable and its incidents and structue, it is perhaps superfluous to offer any-sketch.
That 1\lr. T aylor belongs not to either of these classes, we
'l.ccount a true praise.
The mathematical sciences, how pleasant is the speculation of them to the mind !
7. Parenthetical pl1rases generally: A rule which, like
the former, is closely connected with the faculty of attention.
It is scarcely conceivable, at first Yicw, what innumerable
benelits might be conferred on our fellow-men by an appli·

PUNCTUATION.

317

tiation, on liberal and Christian principles, of the riches
which we at this moment possess.

9 533.

IluLE II. The comma is often required when
there is an ellipsis.
Ex,nrrLES. - Delicacy leans more to feeling ; correctness, more to reason and judgment.
- He came, saw, conquered.

9 534. RuLE III. Words in a series of three or
more words, or when r epea ted, r eq uire a comma.
EXA)IPLES. - Beauty, truth, and worship, song, science,
and duty will all be .unfolded together in the comlllOll love
of God.
It is higher, purer, nobler.
"Ve do not hesitate to pronounce them a brave, a wise, an
honest, and a useful body.
Insensible to fatigue, to pleasure, and to pain.
Discord, discord, is the ruin of this city.
O dark, dark, dark, amid the blaze of noon.

9 535. RuLE IV. A comma is often required to
prevent ambiguity, when otherwise n ot n ecessary: 1. In t!te case of the use of the dt~imctive, "or."
/EXA)IPLE. - It makes little difference whether he studies
geometry, or algebra, or uranography or geography of the
heavens.
2. In the case of the use of relatives. If they are
used as definitives, the comma is omitted; if as epithets, it is to be inserted .
EXA1IPLES. - Definitive use. All words which are signs
of complex ideas furnish matter of mistake.
Integrity that is conscious of no taint shrii:ks from no
· reasonable scrutiny.
Epithet use. All words, which are signs of complex ideal!,
furnisl: matter of cavil.

' .

319

APPENDIX NO. I.

PUNCTUATION.

, Integrity, that is conscious of no taint, shrinks from ntl :
reasonable scrutiny.

only another phrase for expressing that the office is never

318

vacant.
'Vhat a purveyor with this palate shall say to nectar and
ambrosia, may be curious as a question in natural his~ry.
2. Predicate. The only danger that was to be appre·
bended was, that their progress would be too rapitl.
The second great objection that has been made to the doctrines of Dr. Reid, is, that they tend to damp the artlor of
philo5ophical curiosity.

3. In tlte relations of tlie parts of a sentence.
ExAlll'LE. - It naturally assumes that form wliich is
most favorab~e to its beneficial influence, and has a tendency
to perpetual improvement.
OnsEHYATIOS. -

The omission of the comma after "influence" in this

exam pl~ wo ulJ. lead the reader lo connect "has" wilh "is" instead of
"ass ume ~;" to re~ard its subject as "which," instead of "it." Tho
~om110a d1scon1.ects 1t from the phrase immediately prcccdin"
and so refers
0
'
1t back to the prey;•ius phrase.

§ 539.

9 536. RULE V. Th e insertion of a connective will
often r equire the us~ of the comma, when otherwise a
semicolon should be used.
• ExA.~I.PLE. - ·The notalJles refused to give up any of their
1mmi;.111t1:s, and they were dismissed accordingly.
But without the cormectiYe, we sl10ultl write: The notab~es _refused to ~ i ve up any of their immunities; they were
dismissed accordmgly.
-

. 9 537. RuLE VI. A se nte nce, simply by reason of
its len g th, may be required to be broken into parts by
the u se of the co'mma, when the separation of the
thought would not otherwise require it.
\
~x ,~)lPLE. - Nor can any thing be more eloquent and
ammatmg than the view she has prescutetl of the ad mirahle
mecha~1ism antl steady working of onr constitution, aatl of its
ennoblmg effects on the character of all who Jim nuder it.
. Oi:sEt~\· ATIO:X. -The co~nma. nflcr '' co~stitution" would be unnecessary
l~ a slio1t er sc11tc1_1cc ~ ns, 1\0r e?11 n11y tlung l.Je more a11imating than her

view of our const1tnt1ou and of its et!ects on our character.

§ 538. RGLE VII. A comma may be rcquired,•when
not oth erwise necessary, by the use of o. proposition as
an object of thought.
Ex.l.m'LES. -1.

Sufv"ect.

That tho king never dies, ia

EXERCISES oN THE PornT s OF SEPARATION.

Correct the e1To1·s in the Punctuation of the following
par;;igraphs, giving the reasons for the corrections: ')

I-

The principle that whatever children learn, they should
learn exactly is of equal importance whether their lessons
be addressed to the memory or to the untlerstanding ; if the
business, in hand is to get by rote a passage in the Latin
grammar or the declensions of a Greek verb that business
ought not to be passed, over until it is perfectly accomplished.
The memory must not be oppressed by too large a llemantl
upon its powers; but the short and easy lesson must be so
learned as to be repeated without a fault and without difficulty ; if on the other hand the tutor's object is to explain a
rule in grammar he must take care, so to handle the subject,
as to leave the understanding of his pupil in a condition of
perfect clearness.
Hence there is no lack of such sayings as : a pin a day is
a groat a year.
Moreover in the intercou;se of social life it is by little
acts of watchful kindness recurring daily and hourly and
opportunities of doing kindnesses if sought for arc forever
@tarting up it is by words by tones by gestures by looks that
affection is won and preserved.
All ancient legislators says Niebuhr rested the result of
their ordi-ianccs for virtue, civil order and gootl manners on
securing landed property.

I'
320

They were reviled, they were spit upon, they were trampled un<I )r foot, every engine of torture, every mode of
death, w:,s employed to crush them.
Of \filton's mind the leading characteristic, is unity.
0, dear dear what a night it is too, it pours with rain and
blowJ a perfect hurricane.
Go up to her room then Betty, and see if she wants any
thing and tell her it's half past nine o'clock; said l\Irs. J--.
The servant, accordingly, went up-stairs; and knocked at
the bedroom door once twice thrice but received no answer.
His last worJs they say were, "In life and in death I am
the Lord's."
But above all where thou findest ignorance, stu.j:>idity,
brute-mindedness attack it I say, smite it wisely unweariedly
and rest not while thou livest and it lives, but smite smite in
the name of God.
The beauty, the eloquence and art of these collocations of
sounds and syllables the learned alone can n1;preciate.

§ 540. The second class of Rhetorical Points
cludes, 1. Tlte E xclamation Point (!) ;
2. Tlte Interrogation Point ('?) ;
\
3. The Dash(-);
.
4. Quotation Marks (" " and ' ');
5. llfark.s of Parenthesis ( ) ;
6.. Braclcets [ ] .

"'Vi th whom, alas! I fondly hoped to know
The humble walks of happiness below."

.When, lo ! a sudden blast the vessel blew.
When, hark! a voice sung sweetly through the shade.
Ohl haste my father's heart to cheer.

2. .After persons or things addressed: -

0 sovereign Blanc !
O Rosamond ! is love to be trifled with ?
Fair spirit! rest thee now.

B. After a wish or prayer: Give back the lost and lovely!
"Oh but for one short hour I
A respite, howe\·er brief I"

4. After c ::pressions of other feelings :
Oh me! that awful dream!
J

·" 'T is by its fruit the tree is known I
The test of truth is love! "
"The cottage homes of England I
Ilv thousan<ls on her plains,
The)• are smiling o'er the silvery brooks,
And round the hamlet funes."

....

" I assure you there are several left, and, delightful
infor·
,,
mation ! we shall have a fresh suppI y to-morrow.

in-

§ 541. THE ExcLAMATION 'PornT is to indicate
some emotion ; as, " \.Vhat terrors round him ~ait l "
1. .After interjections : -

321

PUNCTUATION.

APPENDIX NO; I.

§ 542. THE !NTERROGATIO~ ~OINT is used to mark
I

.

a quest10n.
Nineveh once reigned over the East; but where is Nine·
veh now?
If we value then as who does not value? our renown
'
'
1. ? •
among I!lankind ; if we exult, as who can help exu tmg . lil
the privileges which the proviclcnce of God has conferred on
\he British nation ; etc.

§ 543. THE DASH is used, -

.

1. To maik a suspension, or abrupt or emphatic turn
in the thought; as, " "I looked and prayed like thco - but now' Ile hung his bend."
" Here thou, ~at Anna! whom three rcnl~5 obey, ,,
Dost sometimes counsel tnko - and aomct1mea tea.
21

I'

,,
PUNCTUATI ON.

APPENDIX NO. I.

2. To mark a repetition of the thou"'ht
;:,
'· as,When the great Lrid1 is impressed on our hearts that God
sent his own Son into the world to save us - even to re·
deem us, by his death on the cross, from the pains of hell
and from the slave ry of sin anu Satan - our love cannot fail
to flow and abound.

3. To mark a suppression of words or parts of
words; as,"',,.alker! our ha t' - nor more he dci "'ncd to say
llut stern ns Ajax' specter strode av.ray~"
'

§ 544. Q uoTATION MARKS are used to indicate that
a word, a phrase, or larger portion of the discourse is
borrowecl..The double points (" ;,) are used in primary or

leadi11"' quotati ons·

'.ri1e"' siugle points' (' ') in secondary or inclucled quotations.
. Some may observe, on reading this story, " What a fool·
creature lhe guest must have been! and how improbable
lt IS that any should scruple to say.
. a·!SU crree•
• · 'The d1' "-1l IS
o.ble ; ' and ' I hate garlic ! '" .
"'
1
'.sl~

§ 5.45. MARKS OF p ARENTHESIS are ~sed to indicate t~1e e xtran eous member of a complex sentence.
1:'hcy rncl ose the part that .is extraneous to the proper
:;1mple sentence.
""hat was it that insulted Nature (to use no higher
name), and perverted her kindly intentions towards them?
Spl endor is a part of their station, as decent comfort (le~
us trust) of yours and mine.
Onsv.r.': ATto~. - . Mark~ of parenthesis nro now used much less thnn formerly. \\ hcrenr either a comma or n semicolon or even a la ·l .
erh·
•
' •lb
'•tan
prop• lic ntte•I, 1"t sh ou )·'u '·ue preferred. It is inuecu very
rare that
.
•·need lo lie usctl.
cso n:JU'. .

\

323

§ 546. 13RACK ETS are usecl like marks of parenthesis, to indi ca te the ex tran eous part of a complex sentence, chiefly wh en eith e r, 1. It contains another parenthesis indicated by its
proper marks or a quotati on ; or,
2. Wh en it is in serted in a quotation as a correction,
a comment, or an addition.
There is not a tittle of evidence : > f his ever ha.Ying written a lin e to discourage deserving. [In a letter to Bernard
Barton, Southey makes note of " the abuse and calumny he
bad to endure fo r opini ons he clid not hold and articles he
had not \-ritten."J
The poet then says, ·" H appy is he of earthly men who
has seen these [rites]. But he who is uninitiatctl, a11tl has
· no part in the solemnities, ne\·er has the same fortune [with
· the other], even when he is dead."
OnsERYATION. -The use of the two points last name<\ is n ot wrll set·
tied. There is a g-radation, it may be remarked, to be noticccl in them
somewh at similar to th at noti ced in the first class of rh cto1·ica l point•. If
the ex~raueou s matter is less forl· ign to the thought in the principal sentence, a comma mny be usell ; if remoYcll to a further degree or is lon g-er,
th e marks of paren th esis; if most rr motc, as whc11 the thou;::ht of another
1
miuu as iu correction, etc., the brackets arc used.

§ 5J7. EXERCISE

IX

PUNCTUATING

SEXTENCES.

Correct the errors in punctuating t!te follow ing sentences: How uncertain is human life?
Is this the character of British Justice. Are these her
features. Is this her countenance. I s this her gait or
•
1
tmen.
'Whal? might Rome then .have been taken, if those men
who were at our gates had not wanted courage for tht> at•
tempt ! Rome taken whilst I was consul.
·what motive could have such influence in their bosom.

324

APPENDIX NO.

r.

Wl1at motive. That which Nature plants in the bosom of
man!
To send forth the merciless cannibal thirsting fer blood.
Against whom! . Your Protestant brethren.
In the whole list of our English poets - we can only remember Shenstone and Savage, two certainly of the lowest
who were querulous and discon tented: Cowley indeed, used
to call himself me;ancholy- but he was not in earnest, and at any rate was full of conceits and affectations and haR
nothing to make us proud of him.

l'UNCTUATION.

0 change 0 wondrous change
How beautiful is all this visible worlJ
How glorious in its action and itself
' Vhy ou"ht the slave-trade to be abolished because it is
incurable i~justice how much stronger then · is the argument
for immediate than gradual abolition
All these mi "ht be rebuilt but who shall reconstruct tho
"'
.
fabric of demolished government who shall rear a~:llll the
well-proportioue<l columns of constitutional liberty

"I have not Joyed the world - nor the world me I have l]Ot flattered itR rank breath nor bowed
To ito idolatri es n patient knee, Nor coined my cheek to smiles; - nor cried aloud
In worsliip of an echo."

•

The remedies, which law has provided against the mischief of crimes J\lr. Bentham says, are of four orders · preventive - repressive - compensatory - or simply penal.
The volume is very small - and it contains all that the
distinguished author has written for many years. \Ve regret
this certainly: - but we do not presume to complain of it.
The service of the J\Iuses is a free service - and all that we
receive from their votaries is a free gift for which we are
bound to them in gratitude - not a tribute for the tardy
rendering of which they are to be threatened or distrained.

§ 548. Punctuate tlte following sentences : To such questions what must be the answer
Virtue alone is happiness below
Has the king a right to transfer his .crown
All these might be rebuilt
Help help he's gone
The landscape has his praise but not its Author
0 what a revolution
What ought then to occupy us
Arm arm ye heavens against these perjured kings

825

• r

ETYlIOLOGICAL l'OlNTS. -

CHAPTER II.
.ETYJIOLOGICA.J, POINTS. -

~

POINTS FOR REFERENCE-

549. ETYMOLOGICAL POINTS are used to indicate

something in regard to the formation, use, or omission
of. words or parts of words.
§ 550. They are, 1. The Apostrophe ('), used to show the
omission of a letter or letters ; as, Jo/m's,· 'Tis; There's;
Won't; "As 't were in scorn of eyes;" "I'll ga, my chief,
I'm ready."
2. 17ie Caret ('"), to show some omission in a manuscript;

327

those of property ; as, glass-house means house for making
or selling glass, not a house made of glass ; sick-bed, wood.
house, fat-dealer.
(3.) To separate parts of a compound word when the first
ends and the second begins with the same letter ; as, snaillike, co-operate.
., 7. The Period, to show the abbreviation of a word; as,
lat. for latitude; N. Y. for New York.
·

§ 551. Points for Reference are used to r efer the
reader to some other place in the page or the Look.
They are the following, which are generally used in
the order g iven, and may Le doubled if necessary: The Asterisk ("*) ;
The Obelislc or Daggei· ( t) ;
The Double Obelisk (:j:);
The Section ( §) ;
Parallels (II); and
Th e Paragraph (.,-r).

C'OID e

as, " The king is. to marshal us."
3. Tlie Di<Eresis, to mark the separation of contiguous
vowels ; as, preengage, cooperate.
4. 11farks of Quantity, to show that the vowel is loner
or
b
short, as miijor.
.
·,
•
5. JJfarks of Accent, to mark either the accentuation of a
syllable, or the intonation of the voice; the grave (' ), the
acute (' ), and the circumflex ( ·) ; as, bitu'men, insist', absence, gold.
6. 'l'!te Hyphen, used, 1. To separate syllables ; as al-gebra ,· 2. To unite the parts of a compound word. Its uses
under this head are diverse; as, (1.) To connect the parts of a compound not fully recognized in the language, or to remove doubt in connecting parts
of a sentence ; as, Jame-seeking,· " Grant-in-aid system ; "
" The nine-yearsj"oughtj"or diamonds ; " " The New-YorA
Directory."
(2.) To mark attributes of relation in distinction from

POINTS FOR REFERENCE.

1

Letters and figures are used for the same purpose.

l

'~

CAP IT AL LETTERS.

329

§ 554. vVords shoukl begin with capitals which com·

f

CHAPTER III.
CAPITAL LETTEUS.

mence,1. New sentences;
2. Verses of poetry ;
3. Formal quotations.
Ex ,urPLES. - Other allegories only amuse tho fancy.
The allegory of Bunyan has been read by thousamls with
tears. There are some go0<l allegories in Jolrnson's wurks,
and some of still higher merit by Addison.

~ 552. T~rn pronoun I and the i11te1jection 0 should
always be written in capital letters.

"'\"hatc'er thy lot, whoe'cr thou be,
Co11fcss tliy folly: ki ss the rod;
And in thy chaste ning- sorrows see

ExA~IPLES. -

He only replied, " 0 that I had known ~his
before."
·
I am not conscious, 0 Romans, of any crime by mo com·
mitte<l.

§ 5.53. Tho following classes of words should begin
with capital letters: 1. Names of persons, individuals, families, and nations.
'
'
2. Titles of dignity.
. 3. w orus of leading importance, as titles \ of books,
themes, and such as are to be made more prohiinent.
4. \V ords in a formal series of enumerated \)arts.
5. Names of objects personified.
EXA1IPLES. -This is the exhortation which l\fr. Has·
tings makes to his counsel; this is the character which he
gives of British Justice.
But I will ask your Lordships, do you approrn this repre·
sen talion? Do you feel that this is the true irnage of Justice?
The modifications of nouns are of four kinds, namely: by
Person, Gentler, Number, nnll Case.
Up the dewy moul!taiu Ilcalt.h is bounding lightly.

The hand of' God."

Dying, he hecp1eati1e<l to his heirs the ~word which he had
worn iu the war for liberty, and charged them "Never to
take it from the scabbard hut in self-defense, or in defense
of their couutry and her freedom."

§ 555. Divide into Parag1·aplts and Punctuate tlte
following essay, writin:; in the proper Capital Letters:~

an alehouse-keeper near islington who had long Ji vecl at
the sign of the french king upon the commencement of the
last war with france pulled clown his old sign and put up the
queen of hnngary under the influence of her red face and
golLlen scepter he continued to sell ale till she was no longer
_the favorite of his customers he changed her therefore some
time ago for the king .of prussia who may probably be
changec.I in turn for the next great man that shall he set up
for vulgar admiration our publican in this imitates the great
exactly who deal out their figures one after the other to the
gaping crowd beneath them when we have sufliciently won·
dercd at one that is taken in and another exhibited in ita
room which sel(lom holds its station long for the mob are
ever pleased with variety I mnst own I have such an iucliffcreut opiuion of the Yulgar that I am ever led to suspect
that merit which raises their shout at least I am certain to

33()

APPENDIX NO. I.

find those great and sometimes good men who find satisfaction iu su<:f1 acclamalions made worse by it and hi story has
too fre<1uently taught me that the head which has grown this
day giddy with the roar of the million has the very next been
fixecl upon a pole as alcxander vi was ente ring a little town
in the neighborhood of rome which had just been eva<:uated
by the enemy he perceiverl the townsmen busy in the market-place in pulling down from a gibbet a figure which had
been designed to represent himself there were also some
kn ocking down a neighb~ring statue of one of the orsini
family with whom he was a t war in order to put alexander's
effigy when taken down in its place it is possible a man who
knew less of the world would have condemned the adulatioc.
of these bare-faced flatterers but alexander seemed pleased
at their zeal and turning to borgia his son said with a smile
you see my son the small difference between a gibbet and a
statue if the great could be taught any lesson this might
serve to teach them upon how weak a found ation their glory
stands which is built upon popular appla use fo r as such
praise what seems like merit they as quickly condemn what .
has only the appearance of guilt popular glory is a perfect,
coquette her lovers must toil feel every inquietude indulge
every caprice and perhaps at las t be jilted in to , the bargain
'
'
true glory on the other h_and resembles a woman
of · sense
her admirers must play. no tricks they feel no great an xiety
for thev are sure in the end of being rewarded in proportion
to thei~ merit when swift used to appear in public he generally had the mob shouting in his train pox take Lhese fools
he would say how much joy might all this bawling give my
lord mayor we have seen those virtues which have while living retired from the public eye generally transmitted to posterity as the truest objects of admiration and praise perhaps
the character of the late duke of marlborough may one day
be set up even above that of his more talked-of predecessor
since an assemblage of all the mild and amiable virtues is
far superior to those vulgarly called the great ones I must

CA PIT AL LETTERS.

J

I

I

331

be pardoned for this short tribu te to the memory of a man
who while living would as much detest to receive any thing
that wore the appearance of flattery as I should to offer it I
know not how to turn so trite a subject out of the beaten
road of commonplace except by illustrating it rather by the
assistance of my memory than my judgment and instead of
making refl ections by telling a story a chinese who had long
studied the works of confucius who knew the characters of
fourteen thousand ~ords and could read a great part of every
book that came in his way once took it into his head to
travel into europe and observe the custo ms of a people
whom he thought not very much inferior even to his own
countrymen in the ar ts of refinin g upon every pleasure upon
his arrival at..a1J1sterdam bis passion for letters naturally led
him to a bookseller's shop and as he could speak a little
dutch he civilly asked the . bookseller for the works of the
immortal ilixofo\l/the bookseller assured him he had never
heard the book mentioned before what have you never
heard of that immortal poet returned the other much surprised that light of the eyes that favorite of kings that rose
of perfec tion I suppose you know nothing of the immortal
fipsihihi second cousin to the moon nothing at all indeed sir
returned the other alas cries our traveler to what purpose
then has one of these fasted to death and the other offered
himself up as sacrifice to the tartarean enemy to gain a renown which has never traveled beyond the precincts of china
there is scarcely a village in europe and not one university
that is not thus furnished with its little great men the head
of a petty corporation who opposes the designs of a prince
who would tyrannically force hi s subjects to save their best
clothes for sundays the puny pedant who finds on e undiseovered property in the polype describes an unheeded process
in the skeleton of a mole and whose mind like his microscope perceives nature only in detail the rhymer who makes
smooth verses and paints to our imagination when he should
only speak to our hearts all equally fancy themselves walk-

"
332

APPENDIX NO. I.

ing forward to immortality and desire the crowd behind
them to look on the crowd takes them at their word patriot
philosopher and poet are shouted in their train where was
there ever so much merit seen no times so important as our
own ages yet unborn shall gaze with wonder and applause
to such music the important pygmy moves forward bustling
nud swelling and aptly compared to a puddle i'n a storm I
have lived to see generals who once had crowds hallooing
after them wherever they went who \\;ere bepraised by
newspapers and magazines those echoes of the voice of the
vulgar and yet they have long sunk into merited obscurity
with scarcely even an epitaph left to flatter a few years ago
the herring fishery employed all grub street it was the. topic
in every coffee-house and the burden of every ballad we
were to drag up oceans of gold from the bottom of th.e
sea we were to supply all europe with herrings upon our
own terms at present we hear no more of all . this we have
fished up very little gold that I can learn nor do we furnish
the world with herrings as was expectP.tl let us wait but a
few years longer and we shall find all our expectations a her.
ring fishery.
"

.\

J

APPENDIX NO. II.
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUXS.

..... .

On.1r.crs of Thought orig ina te in the mind either through the F aculties of
orig-ina.I cognition - the Pc rcC'pt in~ nnll Intuith· e Fnculties - or through the
proper Facult.'· of Th oug ht-;---- th e Elahomti1·e or Di,cursil·c Facnlty - elat.ora tiug snch primiti,·c cog~_i ti o us. They nrc cYcr co~11itions - not rcaJ ol>·
j ccts. '\"hen such cognitions arc thoup;l it, th ey arc originally thought in a
proper j11Ugment, the primith·e operation of all thoug ht. In thi s primitin~
act of thought, an oujcd, we will su ppose for exemplifica tion, of External
P erception, f:.:1y th e plan et Venus, is Yiewcd in relation to so me one charac·
tcr belonging to it; it may be a chnrnc ter known th rough th e In tuitive Fae·
ulty as Existe 11 ce. The .i mlgme11t th en ernergns : Venus is : that i~, Venus
is existent. Or it may lie a character known through the faculty of P erception, as Brightness. The judgment th en em erges: Venu s is bright.
"'e ha,·c in eac h of thcge two judgments two objects of thought. Venue
and Existence in the first; V enus and Brightness in the second . So far as
thought, the two in each pair originate tog-et her in the same act; are
rqually primith·e, and are co1·relati,·e. The first in each pair, the subj ect
in rar h judgment, is Yicwed necessarily as n whole of which th e second or
predicate in each jutlgment is a part; the meaning being, Venus is, in
some one respect, in so me part of the Yiew or tho ug·ht, Existent, llrig-ht.
These characters, in oth er words, are but parts of the dews or th oughts
that may lie taken of th e subject- Venus. The gu\Jject, then, is properly
denoted a Concrete, and the predicate an Abstract, fo r it is but one charnct er abstracted for th e Yiew of thought from the complement of characters
that may be thou;:;ht of Venus. This gh·es the primary division of noun•
- that into Concretes am\ A hstracts.
Furth<'r, in this primitiYe judgment, tlic suhject, Venus, is viewed as one,
as indil·idual, nn<l in so far as a particular wo rd or name is a ppropriated to
such an indidtlual concrete object, the wonl is called a Proper Kame or
Noun.
· The predicate in such a primith·c jmli::men t is si mple. Ilut an object
may he \'iewe1I not only as indiddual or sim ple, that is, not only are ob ·
jects of thought in.di\"itlual l'Oncrctcs or E>im11le abstracts; they mny, nl so,
be Yicwcd as composite, and the net by which ohjects nrc compMed or
ma·le composite in thought mny be one regulated either more exclush·ely

•;'
,1

i!

:1

334

APPENDIX NO. II.

by the object viewed or by the nature of though t itself. Thus .a tom·
posite concrete may be viewed as cc.mposed of parts that are determined by
the exte rnal conditions under which all objects are thought , those of Space
and Time. The principle of connection here is not, as far as thought is
concerned, internal or essential in the parts that are composed or brought
together; but only one of external condition as belonging to the same
space or time, or producing the same effect. The parts thus lie out of each
0th.er. \\' holes thus composed are calle<I Integrate 'Vhol oA, and th o part!
of which they are composed are called lntegrant Parts. They are of two
kind.;: 1. Those viewed under the relations of Space, n,~ filling a certain extent;
as, air, 1oa ter, spirit, called Spacial \Vholes, the names of which are called
Ma ss-n ouns; and,
2. Those viewed under the relations of Time, consisting of on.e or more
ginn under the same conditions of time, or of cause, called Numerical
Wholes or groups; as, army, forest. Words denoting objects thus viewed,
are called Collective Nouns.
Another kind of composite concretes are proper products of th ought.
They are called Logical Wholes or Concepts: co~stituting, how~~e r, only
one species of such wholes, those calle.<l Extensive Wholes. I ~ ey are.,.
formed by uniting together the subj ects of different judgments havmg the
same predicate. This common predicate is called the Base of the C ~ncept,
and is the identifying principle by which thought is enabled to umte the
p<.lrts. Such wh oles are called Classes; and words denoting them are
CJllled Class-nouns.
The four species _o f Concretes, thus, are, 1. P1'ope" Nouns, or names of individuals;
2. ilfass-nouns, or names of masses;
3. Culleclive Nouns, or nam es of mere groups;
·\
4. Class-nouns or names of classes.
1
Abstracts bei~g originall): attributes predicated of some objects of
thought as subj ects, which must, from the .very natu~e. ~f thought.,. be
viewed either as wholes or parts, fall at once into two d1ns1011s according
as the act of thought, the judgment in which they severally originated,
viewed the subj ect as a wh ole or a complementary part, in reference to th.e
attribute. If as n whol~, the direction of thought i• inward, nnd the attnt.ute is internal to the subject. These internal attributes which may be
call ed Properties, are of two subordinate classes, according a~ the subj_ect ~s
viewed as Substance or as Cause; if the former, the attnbute which is
thought is a Quality; if the latter, it is an Action.
If the subject in the originating judgment be viewed as a Part, then the
direction of the thought is ou tward; an cl the attribute is external .to tl~e
subject. It may be of either of two classes, according as the rnbJect 1c
viewed under the one or th e other of the general form• of all thought,
Space and Time, gidng whnt are called Abstracts of Condition; or is
viewed in relation to other ll ei ngs, gi,·ing what are called Abstracts of
Relation. All abstracts are accordingly reducible to one or t.he at.her of
the four classca following, namely: -

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS.

33li

1. Quality-nouns;
2. Action-nouns;
3. Condition-nouns;
4. Relation-nouns, which may be further subdivided according as tney
resr-ect, 1. Space; 2. Time; 3. Extent; 4. Degree; or 5. Other objects in
space or time.
Abstracts, further, are Simple or Composite. But this di stinction is of
comparatively little importan ce in grammatical consicleralion. The ·term
Category has sometin,es been used to denote a Composite Abstract.
It will have been observed that the cla»ification of attributes has been
determined from subjects regarded only as llcing, that is, g iven to the
mind by the faculty of Perception, External or Internal ; other objects of
thought which may be mad e subj ects in judgments originate in the Intuitive Faculty, as, Space, Time , Th e True, Th e B eautiful, The Good, and
The Right; or in judgments. That is, abstracts treated as subj ects, furni sh
attributes that are entirely analogo us to those enumerated, and readily fa ll
into the same classes: · N·ouns denoting such obj ec ts are, in fact, all abnormal, except Space, and Time, these two being strictly Proper Noun s, or
words appropriated to individual objects of thought. All but these two arc
primiti ve abstracts, and are converted into concretes in the usual way, by
prefixing a definitive.
Abstracts, further, are divided into (1.) Proper Abstracts, that is, mere
attributes called so metimes nouns-adjective,, or noun s-attributi1·e, as, B right,
Ti·ue ; and (2.) Derived Abstracts, or a ustracts used as concretes, as, Bright~
ness, Truth.
Of abnormal nouns, two species are gi,'en at once, according as thP-y are
derived from the attribute-adj ective or from the verb.
1. The first species are form ed by prefixing the detinitive t11e to the adjective-attribute; as, u T!te true,"'~ The sweet. "
Of the second species of abnormal nouns, those from the verb-attribute,
there are to be distinguished, I. The Partieipials, embracing, 1. The Infinitive, as, " To think is to act;" and,
2. The Gerund, as," Their sending the message was unfortunate .. ''
II. The use of the assertive forms of the verb, embracing, 1. The Propositional Clause, as, " That he went is certain;"
2.. The Relative Clause, as, "Whosoever abideth in him sinneth not; "
3. The Adverbial Clause, as, "Why he went we do not learn; "
4. The Modal Clause, as," Whether he went is not known."
Nouns, then, in respect of their origin or of the manner in which the objects they denote have originated in the mind, are divided i.cto, I. Concretes, or subject-nouns; and,
II. Abstracts, or predicate-nouns.
In respect of the Faculty of Intelligence by which their objects are per
ce1ve<l, Concretes are subdivided into,.
I. Integrate Nouns, embracing the two varieties of, 1. l\Iass-nouns, or names of spacial wholes;
2. Collective Nouns, or names of numerical wholes.

,,
' I

"·

8SG

APPENDIX NO. II.

II. Class-noun•, or names of extensive 'Vholes.
Abstract8, in"')·espect ot the character of the subject thought. 11.S whole or
part, that is, in inlcrnal or external relation, nre di»ided into, I. Abstracts originating with subjects internally Yicwed, called Properties, nnd embrating the two species of, 1. Quality-nouns, or names of spacial or substantial parts;
2. Action-nouns, or names of time or causal parts;
Ir. Abstracts originating with su~jects Yiewcd in external relations, em-

APPEXDIX NO. III.

bracing,1. Condition-nouns, or names cf \ttributes under relations of space or
lime; nnd,
2. Helation-nouns, or names of attn lutes under relations to other objects.
In respect of their bcin~ of original or borrowed forms, thntJs, primith·e
and regular or deri,·ecl from. other uses, and so for irregular, now1s are
either,1. Normal; or,
2. Abnormal.
Abnormal Nouns nre,1. Originul atljecth·e attributes, transformed into concretes by prefixing a
definitirn;
2. Ycrl> attribute~, emhrncin~, (1.) 'fhc two l':irtkipi:ils, the lnfiniti\"e nnd the Genmd;
(2. "1 The asscrti,·e form• of the four ,·arictica: the l'ropositlonal, tho ReJ.
&tive, the .Ad\·erbial, :wd the ~lodal C.buse.

\

I

l

I
J
r

-

i,.

PL"GTIALS OF KOUXS.

:Mos·r of th~ cxrrptions in the plnral formation arc easily e'.'<plaine1\ in
the light or their his<ory. The An;.:lo-Saxon had b11t one character for tbe
fnnd v s ound ~, awl one for the s a111l z. \\'h en fullowi11g a ,-owe!, these
letters we re phthongal; otherwi se th(•y wC're a ~ piratc. The prc n1le11t ph1ral form W<\$ in cm, or, in later timcg, es. llcncc the st us a plural fot~na­
th·e, Juul the z son1Hl. But as the Yowcl prreet.l:ng fdl out in the progress
of the langua.!;e, antl the s was united with the lettrr precedin g the e, the
n:-::piratc power of the cliarndcr s was rC'storcc.l to it in most wonls. The
reason for writing- heroes an1l not h1·1·os, hi, tli11", to i1ulienlc bcyo11d a doubt
that the s hn s the z P011rnl. Cou ::;i!-i fClll'Y w<i11ld , ind eed, have required cantoes; L11t when word.-s of lhi~ tla ~!\ were i11fri11l11 cod, for thc~y nm nil from
foreign la.11g11n;.;t·~, thi!i JH~ <' Cfl~ ily wm1 11nt /i•lt. The ~ 11h~ lit11lio11 of' v for f
in knifi', etc., i• 111:<:01111t1,. ( for liy !he Jiwl • l11lr,d ll111l ll111 A11g/11 -S11xon f
1<n8 ~oundc1l like v IJeforr! n \"owcl; tliu• the A11g.-S11x. cuif 1;m11c1l 11.H plu·
ral rnifrtA, prono1111cc1l /.;nir:ru.
The ~nlJ•titution of the i for !J in the plnrnls of such words a' r,nmprrny,
companies, is cxplainc1l hy the fort I hat 1111.' i a111l !J were forn1crl.1· 11.,etl i11tcrchn11gcahly, ns bi nnLl by; mild mHI 111vld. SulJ>eq11cntly, the i was used
in the 111i1ldle of wonl •, !J nt the end.
Tl1c Anglo-Saxon, nbo, hOLI a mode of forming thc -plnral in ,. ; hence
our children; nls.o another in en or u.; hence our J..:ine. ox en, etc.; nlso, nu·
other Ly change of the \'OWel analogous to the strong lvnj ugation of verbs
hence our mice, jf:.et, e~c .
Riches mat! alms form erly ha<l plnrnls in es. Thus Chaucer: "Ily rict ..
esscs may a man getc him grcte frcnllcs;" " By- richcsses th er c01nen man)
goodcs." Ile use;:; al:-oo the sing-ul:lr fur111: "The rich es::-c that li astik cor.1
eth . to n man" ( Tnle ~( J!cli/Ji'/1.<). "Thi ' c oen i:;en cral ly the ul;nrs;-e1
and wcrkts of charilic, of hL•m that ha\"C tc111pnrcl richc~ses, or tli~creti :)."
In con~clliui::." "T!Jis ul111es~c shuillcst thuu do of thy prupre things."

'ii

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I

'I

Ii,.,

TIIE ESSENTIA~ NATURE OF THE COPULA.

J
APPENDIX NO. IV.

-

THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF THE COPULA.
. THE Copula is the expression of an act of the judgment -- the discure,1ve, comparati~e, or, a~ Hamilton designates it, the elaborath·e faculty.
Every such act 1s essentially a comparison; that is, a recognition that in
some one, or more, or all respects, two objects are alike the same identical
?r not the same, differeut. The copula, as the expression of a c~mparison'
IS hence the expression of a recognized identity or non-identity- differe nc~
between the obj~cts or term s compared. All assertion, every proposition,
~ver~ sentence,. is n~cordingly, in essence, an expression of a recogni zed
1dent1ty or non-ulentity between two objects.
But t_his identity or di~eren ce so declared in every assertion may be total
or par~1~!. The expresswn of a determined total identity is an ide.ntical
prop osi tion, so callee!. In such propositions, the two obj ects compared _
the subject ~n<l the pre_dicate - are asserted to be or not to be the same, in
sphere and '.n matter. They .may _differ, indeed, in th e fo rm of ex pression;
and we ham an absolutely 1<l ent1cal proposition, strictly speaking, only
when the terms compared are t"ue same bot li in form an<\ content· as
''.Joh~ is J~hn." Bu~,.leaving o_u t of view the form of expre,ss ion , a ~ela~
ttvely identical proposition may be exemplified thus: "His name is Joh . "
"The victor was Alexander."
'
n'
All other propositions express partial identity or difference· that is d _
clare that th~ objects compared are the same or different in res,pect to i:io;e
?r less of th eir pa~ts. These parts, between which the identity or difference
is ass:rted to subsist, are ~i ther those of an extensive or an intensh·e whole ;
a sub~ect whole or a predicate whole; a whole, in still other words, consider~~ m refe rence either to sphere or to matter. Of partially identical propositions, thus, we have two general classes : 1. Extensive, as, "Man is a mortal," that is, " l\Ian is the same as one part of the clas3 called mortal - "
ll. lnt~rtSive, as, "llfan is mortal," that is, " Man, as to one of the attribu~es
<'f which he is composed , is the same as mortal."
The copula is t?us s.hown to be simply and esse ntially idenfijicrrfion, 01
~he contra7. ~t identifies, or cliffcreuces, as an act of judg ment; that is
Juclgea as identical or non-identical two object•, totally or partially, eithet
In reference to an extensive or to an intensive whole.

339

This ·dew of the g eneral nature of the copul a in the propos ition 1s a necessary deduction from the recein d ex posi ti ons of logical sc ience .
It sho ul d be added to thi s general Yiew of the copula, that, as the mind
may be conceived of as undetermin ed in its comparison whether to recognize identity or non-identity, sa meness or difference, this stat e of the judgment as balancing, as in doubt, undetermined, is expressed in language by
means of the interrogative seGtence, which, of course , may be expressed
either rather in reference to the identifying side, that is, ojfirmrr tii-el!J, or in
reference to the differencing side, that is, negoticely.
All at!irmative sentences, regarded in their last analysis, are thus but express ions of identity , total or partial, betwee n the subject and the predicate.
Negati,·e se ntences differ from at!irmath·e simply by de ny ing this id en tity.
If this Yiew is correct, th en to represent the cop ula as expressing existence or ,.eality is erroneous. E xistence is som etim es combined with the
copula in the substantiv<! verb is, as in the yerse, "There is n plea.sure in the pathless woods."

Historically, the copula first appears in the Yerb den ot in g existence, but the
two notions are ' d earl.Y cl isti iiguish able. The one is of the m atter or object
of thoug ht; the other is thought itself.
Further, th e copula excludes from its very nature all relations to per son,
number, and time. These· are eith er only mo di~cati o n s of the pred icate
unite<l with the copula in th e t!amc word, as in respect. to frns e or time ; or

mere grammati cal forms to indicate syntactical relations, as those of person
and number. Thus, in th e sentence, " Thou g avest,' ' the subj ect is " thou,"
a word denoting the person spoken to. Be tween thi s subject and a certain
pred icate, here an act ion , there is asserted a partial identity - thou g it"in_r;.
This act of giving, predicated of thc>u as the subject, is modiH ed in respect
to time - the act was in past time. The tense of the verb "gavest"
thus modifies the predicate, not the copula. Ilut in the termina tion th ere is
fur ther indicated person -th e so-called second person or person addresse d;
and also number - a single person. But th ese mod ify nothin g but the
forms of the word, not the thought expressed, either as to its matter or the
act of thin k in g. Jn the Eng li sh language, conseq uently, in which th e subj ect must be expressed, except in imperati,-e sentences, nnd the collocation
of words is main!\' relied on to indicate the SYnt actical relat.;oP s, th e forms
to indicate numb~r and peroon in verbs have, .for the most part fallen away
as unnecessary.

f•

APPENDIX N'O. Y.

r

1.

...I
APPENDIX NO. V.
--+-G1:.1Jn1Am .1xs 8Ccm to ha,·e no settlc<l dew• ns to the cxnet nature of
the Yeru. ~lore generally they ha\'C tlclined it to be a 1c11nl o:pre5$ir.g
bcin.'J, nctimi, u1· p n .;.,"'ic.m. Many, hmvc,·cr, define it as a wonl e:rp1·essing
a.ffirmrtt;ml. This latter cla:-o:s of g-ramnrnrian~ Jo,: th e mnsl 1mrt seem. to
lose sight of their tlcli11i1io11 in their further treatment of th e vcrli .
" 'e lilul the 'ame confusion 011 th e logkal ns on the formal siuc of grammar. This is ""flkie ntly insta11ce1l in the use of the term predicate to inclutlc hoth the logical copu la 11111! the logical predicate.
Iii the prat·ti1·a l application of grammatical principles, we disco>er n like
confusion. .Alh·crl.Js nre often par~ed as moditYin~ the nction expressed in
tlie ve r!J, that i~, the log-ica l prcd icn te, which in reality only modi(,· the assertion , that i,, the: logical copula. E\'Cn Sir Wil liam Hamilton, in Iii$ "Fourteenth Lecture on Logic," has in,·oh-ccl in h is argument against the distinction of prnpositio11 s i11to pure a11tl m odal n fatal fallac~-, l>y ming in his
cxamr!c an nclvcrbia l n10ttifier of th e predicate, when his rca~on ing required one moclifyi11g the co pub or j ittlg- ment it self: Ile C'alls the proposition, '; Alrxruufrr cmu1uerecl JJr1riu.<1 h11nvrnb!y,' n modal. In this h e departs
from the tlcli11itinn h e hn tl j11 ~ t lJ!..:!IUrc hi\·cn of a modal, as n propo$ ifion in
wlaic:h th e aflirmation i:; rp1a lilie1 l. Hut honorahf!J, in this sentence, docs not
qua Iii)" the 11.ffi1·mati1111, that is, the jwl~m cnt; IJut o nly l(te crcl\un 1 conquering- that i,, the preilicate. If he hatl taken the propositi on', which is a
true m n1 lnl , Ah·xmuler perlwps cxmquererl Dr£ri11s, his reasoning woulU Ua,·e
been S<'C n to be inC"onclus i,·c.
The rnurce of thi" co nf11,in n l ies in the fact tl1at the copula and the pred:catc arc <.:1)111nto11ly unitccl ii1 la11g-11a~c i11 the f:.a mc word, coupled with the
f8.ct 1liat in th e lir!'t ~tag-cs of la11 g-11a~c the cop11la, ns the more nl.Jstract elcm er.t or thon;..:ht, docs n ot o btain for itself a uistiuct expression, but is left
to be supplie1I by th e mind nihlre<<etl.
'\' c nrc 11111kr the ncce!-':o:it.'· of t:hoo!-iin~ l>ch·.-ccn the two definitions: Tlte
r:tdJ is" tcorrl r:r1wessiug <~Oirm11li.u11, or. I.Jetter, nsse1·ti1m, nnll Th e t•erb is a
u:onl e:rpre1'.~i11.1J bdn,11, acti(m, 01• 7m.~:siu1t ,· or, to <'Xprc~s th e alter1rnth·e in
another form, The t'erb f:C/Jl'f.'Us llt e copula , nncl 171et-'<:J'b exp1't.'sses the 1u·edicnte '!f th~ j11rlfp1tenl. The prog-rc~R of g-rammatical f:('ience ha ~ reached a
sage when the 'lllOSt ion, whid1 or the'c lll'finitinns •hall UC a1•cer.t e1 l, s hould
be determinc1t. The rca~on!.4 for ac-c(•ptin;.,t the fir:-:t nre the li>llowing: 1. The copula conta ins, coufcsse<lly the essential life of the judgm'!nt
1

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341

The woril containini the "'serting element is w orth y to be called, by distiuctin11, l' the 11:urd" -i·t:1·/;wn .
2. 'C'nles3 the asserting cle m ent of the juilgmenl be atlmitt e il to ~e the
di st inctive diaraetcdstic of the vcrl>, tlu.•n gra mmar has no nam e for the
form in which the very essence and lift: of an expressed th ought is presenteil.
3. The oth er definition fails to di,ting-11i>h between a nrb nnd n noun.
" &m.'J," in the sense of sin,qiny, cxpre~st!s an action a8 truly a s sinrxs, and
sh oul d, therefore , according to t he tlcfi11ilion, lie pronounced to h e a verb.
This Is uut anot he r W3V of RU\' illg' t hat thi s rlelinition rloes n ut touch the
essen t ia l characte t· of ,;·hat is. ailmirteu to lie the nrl>; the other does.
'Vh crevcr there i:J nn asserting word, there is a vcrlJ; whrrcv cr th l're is a
word cx pre!'lsing bcin:!', action, nr pa;;;sion , it is not n cces~arily a verb. .
4. Ifwe a ccept th e tirst<lcfi 11 i1iun, "·e silall lie rn,·c1l from m11d1 confusion
of thought to which th e other d e liuition almo:>:t un :n·oillaUly lead=' us . \Vo
5hall l.Je enabled to lli:-:tingui..:h lictwcc11 mollili cr~ of th e jrnl~mcnt or as~ cr·
t ion a nd moclifiers of the predicate 01· or th e actiu n. This is a <listinction
of v ital importance in the analysis and al...:o in the cornp o~ ition of dist.:ou rsc.
If w e adopt this · il efiniii0i1 iif tte verb, \\'C sha ll n eed to sepa rate mern
,·erual forms from actua l nrlis. All partieipial5, so callcil, arc only no11ns
or ailjcdi\·e~, not ,·erb~, ns they express no assertion. This cla:;s embnwes
th e iuti11itivcs, 1 partiC"iples 1 gerunds, nnd supin es, ng, n l ~o , clanrns. All such
forms of expression are but C"orp~cs, n ot r eal j rnlgm ent:; ~ mrrc d ead ~orm~,
without the essence of usFcrtio11 s. It is of g- rent prnc·t1cal moment in tho
construct ion of tlisco ur$c to l>cnr in m ind th e tlisti11ction.
Con ,·cnicnce may ju$tify us s till in applyin.~ the term re1·b to the word
which co ntains th e copu la unit ell with th e prctlira tej arnl, nl:o'. n, C\·cn to the
form it self' when the essential ele ment of th e YCrb is sc paratctl from it. We
thu ~, with no <langcr of being rnisuntler£!.tood, speak of a cm:ps.e. as. a. man.
'Ye 53 , ., th e man was buried. But we sllll ulU m ~1kc a fatnl mi s take if, 111 our
formal.dclinitions of the term , we shouhl imply tllat man can lie mere body,
without 'Jlirit.
. .
It shou ld , perhap•, be aililed to the•c remark s on the p roper defin1t10n of
a Ye rb that. some lcarneil grammaria:is d e fine the ,·erli ns that part of
speech,whi"h a'se rts anti e xpre•ses an attriu11te. Thus Sir John Stntltla rd,
in his "Phi losophy of Lnn~unge .'' tlefincs the Yerb as Ha p~rl nf speech
tcldch t:.i911 ~ft'S au atlribllie '!f' som~ substance. r.oun~cts th e altn/;u~e nml. su~:
slance 1u tther, ancl asserts lite e::r1!'fe11re o,. no11-ex1ste11ce nf th e c1.nnectwn.
9
So, al!'o, hr. 1\ lan~el , in his "Prolrgomenn Log-ira," gives the Yerb a$ "a
combinall~m nf ntll'ibale and m:.serfivn." D11 t Sir John Stodclnnl conC'cfly
ma~r.ta i:!s th~tt '· n.sscrt ion is not on ly an C.f:.sc ntial b ut the peculiar p:·opc rty
or thi~ part of ~rccch j,, nncl that "its pcculinr nlHl cxcln.~in~ cl '. nracte ri ~ tic
\M the power o( sig11ifyi11g nssi:rticm."
ln nccordancc with 1111~, he F-:iy~,
§ 378, that " _the ycrb a~sert s or mnnirc ~ t ~ ?x i stenr~·· t•itlwr ~i111ply_o 1 f ~ ..
gcthcr with some attrilmtc of action or pa ~~ u~ n.'' 1 lie 011 1 ~· ~lefo i ·t 111 tint
teaching is that it erroneously attributes ex istence - reality t o thought,
while existence properly befongs only to the matter of thought.

GRAJ\U!A TICAL

APPENDIX NO. VI.
--+GRAl\Il\IATICAL l\IOOD.

WE have only one other modification of the forms of nrbs, in addition
to those indicated in Appendix No. IV. namely, the mood. Tbat this pertain s to the copula, the asserting element of the senten~e, and to the copula
excluskely, is beyond question. The sen tences, "John was stndfous,"
"John must ha,·e been studi ous," "John may hn,·e been stud ious," differ
only in re,pect of the j udg-ing act itself, - the thought, - not at all in
respect of the subject or of the predicate.
If we inquire now as to the possible ways in which the judging act itself
- the copula in itself- may be modified, we are at once shut up to thi•
limited view. First, the copula is either not modified at ·all except in degree or intensity, in which case we use such modals as clen1"ly, certainly,
and the like, or it is modi lied by an indication of the ground of the j udgment. If it is not modified at all, we ha,·e what is called the lndicn ti-re
lllood. If it be obje'i~ t ed to this. v iew, that to call an unm odified form a
mood is a contradiction in terms, it is suffi cient to answer that by the expression "Ind icative ~loocl " is meant only one of the forms of the copula
distinguished in respect of the mode of the judgment, one form being that
in which it is not modified at all. In exact analog-y with this, we speak of
nou ns of the neuter gender, meaning those which denote objects that ha,-e
no sex; nouns in the nominative case, which yet is a for m of the noun
that is no case; adjectives of the positive degree of comparison, m eaning
such as express no comparison; and in like mann er everywhere in classification. The 5rst step, indeed, in this process of classification, in distingui shing objects in respect of an_v attribute, is to separate them into those
that possess the attribute and those that do not. Thus we classify th ings
in reference to organism, ns or9anic and iMrganic; in reference to soul, as
animate and inanimate ; in reference to being vertebrate, as vertebrate and
in i:ertebrale. The objection thus has j11st as much force against the desig·
nations of inor.qanic, etc., as again st indi cative mood, neu ter g ender, po•i·
live degree , nnd the like, and no more; - it hn.• none at all.
If, in the next pince, the copula \Jc modified except n·s to deg-ree or inten1ity, it must be modified in reference to the ground of the j11dgment as being in the domain of thought i(S()Jf, or out of it. If it be in the domain of

~IOOD.

343

\bou ., ht itself, it is characterized as n ecessar!J; for thonght must accept all
Lts o;n procedures as valid, to q11estion whi ch would be absurd. The necessary mood is expressed by the auxiliary must and by such ~10dals as
necessaril!J, of necessil!f, and the like. It should be ad1led that a Jlltlgment
grounded on something that is really out of the realm of thought often
takes the form of the necessary mood, that is, the form of pure thought.
But this is a borrowed, derived. use, and the validity of the classification is
not affected by it.
If the judgment be modifi ed in respect to its g round , _as bei~g out of tl.ie
reaim of p10per thought, it is characterized as a contw.1e11t 1u1lg-ment, 10
opposition to one grounded in thought itself, which is characten ,,.d as necessarv. Such a judgment is expressed in the Potential "lood. If, however, ~till more specifically, the ground of the judgment is i11d ica ted ~s lying
in the will , we have the Imperati ve Mood; if in the des ires, we have the
moo(ls which appear in some languag-cs in distinct forms under the names
of the Optative, the Precati1·e, anti the like.
We ha,·e thus, in the Engli sh la nguage, the four modes of the copula expressed in distinct, peculiar forms, constituting the four moods of the Terb,
uamely : 1. The Indicative, expressing the copula unmodified;
2. The Necessary, origin ally expressi ng th e copula as modifier\ by it.s
ground beino- indicated as in the thought itself;
3. Th e Po~ential, expressing th e copula as contingen t, that is, as grounded
in other departments of the mind than the th ought;
4. The Imperative, expressing the copula as contingent more specifically,
as grounded in the will.
. .
.
.
This enumeration excludes the so-called Infirn tl\·e and Subjunctive
Moods. In reg .. rd to the forme r , it is suffi cient, perhaps, to say that in
English gram mars it is not now generally recognized as a mood •. ~ut ?n ly a
derivati1·e of the nrb, a parti cipial noun. It expresses no modit1cat10n of
the copula, of the asserting element of th e verb. It should , th erefore, be
excluded from the modifications which we have enumerated, for 1t belongs
to another class entirely.
The expositions of the Subjunctive l\Tood by grammarians are extremely
contlicting. One class, governerl, it would see m, by the etymol ogy of the
name limit the use of the SubjunctiYe ~loocl to modifying clauses express·
in o- c~ndition. A part of this class regard the oubjunctiYe as taking alike
th~ indicath·e and tho potential fonns; as, " If he goes," "If he go." Others
of this cla ss reject the first of these forms as a form of the S ubj uncti,·e, and
parse" goes" as in the lm\ icatil·e. Another class rank as proper suLjunctives, such forms as, "Death we1·e gain in such a cnse," as well as those
in subordinate clauses.
Now it is evident that the Su~junctive l\Iood, so called, nenr appears in
the English language in any peculiar form, but enr borrows those of the
Indicati,·e or l'otentinl; if under Potential we inch IC!e th1Jse forms sometim es called Conditional, as, "o~ath we1·• gain in such ll C•"e." It is C\"i•
dent, further, that in the u~e of the one or the other of these two fonns, the

314

APPENDIX NO. VI.

fndicalh·e anc ·.he Potcntinl. the •amc <listinctin menning or modificntion
is cxpre"c<l as :n !he use of the lutlicali\"e and !he l'ulc111inl i;<'ncrally i the
Indicnli\"c furm r:xprcssiug !he copula unmoditicd; the Potential ex pressing
the copula motlilictl ns contingent. In the clau se," If he i;oes," the verb
gOl!s is I11di\.. ;1ti,·c in sense as in form; while in the clau se, "' If he go," it is
contingent in se nse, ns it has the proper form of the Potential or Condi·
tional. \Ve need onh· to L>enr in miud thnt all language' incline to use the
uninft cctc<l forms rather than those fullv inflected in 1u11nber n nd person,
as they nlso use the past tenses rather ti1an the prese11t, when th e.'· would __
express contin;:ent jut1gmrnts, anti also those judgments in which the
copula is not n1:ulc prominent.
Tl:c r~ i•, the n, no Suujn!1cth·c l\foocl distinct from th e In<licath·c and the
Pvtcnli-11 ; for, 1. There is no form peculiar to it ; and , 2. There i• no pecnl·
iar mea11i11g tn be gh·cn it, as it is Irnlieati,·e or Potential in sense according ns it has the Intlica ti,·e or Pot ential form . To enumerate n di stinct
m o0tl simply on the ground of use in a clause, much more to do this simply
becnuse the Yerb appears in a condit io nal clause, is most unrcasonal>le.
llow umic:•ccsgnry, in the scntt•nce, H ll c were no lion , were not Homans
hinds," to cnll th e first wei-e a l'otcntial or Condi tional form nnd th e second a Subjuncti,-e; and how in con ~istcnt to make the distinction in such n
sentence, nnc l in the sentence," If he pro mises, he performs,'' not to make
ihe diotin ction at a ll, !Jut to regard l>oth promises an<l p eifurms ns a like in
the I11<lica1h·e ! All cn•cs of the occ11rrenccoft he supposetl Subjun cth·e can
be as fully mul ~ ati s factori l y cxplaiu ccl lJ.,. regarding them in the rc~pective
ca5cr., as lmlicath-e or Poten tial , as Uy Uringing- in an addition al mood.
If th e question Le one merely ol" na me , -1\·hethcr we call the contingent
mood of th e cr.jmla as exprcESctl in lani;ua;;e the Suhjun cti\" e l\Iuo<l, becan:;e that form is prcferrctl, especi ally in the Latin lan g- ua ~e , whi ch has
too nrn eh shaped the b rammatical expositions of our own langua;.;c, in snb.
ordinate propositio ns or clauses; or call it· Potential o r Conditional from the
notion of co11tingc11 cy expressed in the form, -then we migh t, dismiss the ·
discussion as tmimporlant . But more than n n1atter in non1Cnclature is
conccrnctl. Th e proper force of <':xprc~sion, the principles oflan ~ uage, the
cxpellitiug- the stmly of grammar l1y rcmodn,i.r the hindran ces and distraction s of e rror nn1l confusion, arc inYoh-ccl. The simple prin cipl e thnt the
cletcrminntinn of the moo t\ is to u c found, not in the ncciilt·nts or lit e external relati onships of th e Yc>rl>al \xprcssinn, but originally and primarily in
the intrinsic si;.:nHknnce of the moo<l it ~e 1 f as mo<li(,·in g th e copula of a
judgm ent, woul.l lill the fol!; that so 1lensely cnnlops the prornlent doctrine of the u•c of the Latin Subjuncth·e, and redL1ce the many pages of rule
on rule nml exception on exception . of most capricious and contradictory
teaching, t<> a !:tingl e pnrag-r:iph of cl ear, rational expo~ition.
In accor<lnncc wilh thc•c , ·iews of th e genera l tcntlcncy in la ng-uagc to
dist i11:.r11ish in its forms the modes of the copula, we may enumerate Uic following Yarietics of usc : I. Th e l11<licath·c form i• prcferrc<l, 1. " "hen the copula is to uc mndc prominent. that is, when the judging
sct ia to l>e cmnhasize.t; aa, " If thA sun luu ru1m, it is dark;"

GRA~BIA TICAL

•

l\IOOD.

3-15

2. Tn gencra.izcd truth s or facts ; ns, "If the sun sets uchind a claud, it
t18ualh· rains i"
3. \\'hen nJ contingency or ncccs> it~· i• to be expressed; as , "If he /it·u
as he profe:-:sc!', he is worthy to Uc followed;"
4. \Vhcu the n otion of tlelinitc tim e, i 111p l yin~ a real cnnt, i• to uc expressed ; a~," If it rains, 110 not go out ;"'· Hit shall be 1·ainin9 ," etc.
II. The l'otc11t;a1 fo 11n is preferred, 1. " ' hen any contingency is to Le px·prc•scd; as, "If· he rcfu,c, leave
him; if he comply, net wfth him;" u JVi:rc it true, it wo11l1l Ue ~d:wtl c r;''
2. ""hen indetinit c futurity, which ns s uch implies couliug-cucy, is to bo
expressed; ns, " If it 1·rrin, I shall not go;"
3. "·hen a com111 a11<l is to Le gi,·c n. or result nttainc<l; ns. "Sec that
thou du it;" "Take care that thou yitld uot;" "Take hcetl lest any man
decl't't'e vou · ''
4. ,V.hen 'the copula of a represe nted jmlgmcnt, in stcntl of l>ci n~ cmpha·
sizetl when the l r.dicnth·c is cmployc1L is rather to Le ousc tm' <I or ke pt out

of \·iew·. In thi~ case, the Eng li :-; h lan g-un:.;e, in i t ~ enrlicr s tag-c~, l ike tho
Latin, more commonly preferred th e Potential ~I oo (l; the la.t.cr En g lish inclines to the m~c of tli ~ lnclil-:ith·c: Th e ea rlier ,·cr:-; ions of the Bible ha,·c :
"The cock shall not crow till th o a li nre denied llll! thriec ;" while the !·~ing
Jnmcs's yersion has : "The cock shall not crow till thou h11sl <l e med mo
thrice." .Aml thi s \'en•inn ·has· '' I hon-c told yon before it caru," while
111odem usa;:c would incline to comes or aJ.al/ <u11•G·

347

SELECTIONS FOR EXERCISES.

' .·
APPENDIX NO. VII.

-

SELECTIONS FOR EXERCISES.

money to your mother; salute her in my name; and assure
her that I shall take care of her and you."
This story furnishes an excellent instance of the gratitude
and duty which children owe to their aged, infirm, or unfortunate parents. And, if the children of such parents shall
follow the example of Frederick's 8ervant, though they may
not meet with the reward that was conferred on him, they
shall be amply recompensed by the pleasing testimony of
their own minds, and by that Goel who approves, as he has
commanded, every expression of filial love.

I. AFFECTION TO p ARENTS REWARD ED.
FREDERICK, the late Kin<T
of Prussia ' havin!T
rtm<T
his
b
b
b
bell one day, and nobody answermg, opened the door where
his servant was usually in waiting, and found him asleep on
a sofa. He was going to awake him, when he perceived the
end of a billet, or letter, hanging out of his pocket.
Having the curiosity to know its contents, he t-0ok and
read it, and found that it was a letter from his mother
thanking him for having sent her a part of his wages, to assist her in her distress, a nd concluding with beseeching God
to bless him for his filial attention to her wants.
The king returned softly to his room, took a roll of ducats,
and slid them; with the letter, into the page's pocket. Returning to his apartment, he rung so violently that the page
awoke, opened the door, and entered. " You have slept
"'.ell,'' sai<l the king. The page made an apology, and, in
his embarrassment, happened to put his hand into his pocket,
and felt with astonishment the roll. He drew it out, turned
pale, and, looking at the king, burst into tears, without being
able to speak a word.
"'Vhat is the matter?" said the king; " what ails you?"
"All 1· sire,
•
" sm"<l tI1e young man, throwing himself at his
feet, "somebody has wished to ruin me. I know not how
I came hy this money in my pocket." - " l\Iy friend," said
1"rederick, " God often sends us good in our sleep : send the

II. ANECDOTE vF JOHN LEDYARD. -

I
I

\

l

Sparks.

After abandoning his missionary schemes, young L edyard
began to grow weary of college, and the more so, probably,
as his unsettled habits now and then drew from the president a salutary admonition on the importance of a right uso
of time, and a regard for the regulations of the establishment. Such hints he conceived to he an indignity, and fancied himself ill treated. That there was value iu rules of
order and discipline, he did not pretend to deny, but seemed
at a loss to imagine why they should apply to him. That
the whole subject might be put at rest, without involving
any puzzling questions of casuistry, he resolved to escape.
On the margin of the Connecticut River, which runs near
the college, stood many majestic forest trees, nourished by a
rich soil. · One of these Ledyard contrived to cut down. He
then set himself at work to fashion its trunk into a canoe,
and in this labor he was assisted by some of his fellow-students. As the canoe was fifty feet long, and three wide, and
was to be dug out and constructed by these unskillful workmen, the task was not a trifling one, nor such as could be
speedily executed. Operations were carried on with spirit,
however, till Ledyard wounded himself with an ax, and was
disabled for several days. When recovered, he applied himself anew to his work; the canoe was finished, launched into

848

349

APPEND IX NO. VII.

SELECTIONS FOR EXERCISES.

the stream, and, by the further aid of his companions,
equi ppcd and prepared for a voyage. His wishes were now
nt their consummation, and, bitl<ling a<lieu to these haunts of
the l\Iuses, where he had gained a dubious fame, he set off
alone, with a light heart, to explore a river, with the navi.
gation uf which he had not the slightest acquaintance. Tho
distance to Hartford was not less than one hundred and forty
miles; much of the way was through a wilderness, and i:i
several places there were dangerous falls and rapills.
With a bear-skin for a covering, and his <:anoe well stocked
with p~ovisions, he yiehled himself to the current, and floated
leisurely <lown the stream, seklom using his pad<lle, and stop·
ping only in the night for sleep. Uc told l\Ir. Jefferson in
Paris, fourteen years afierwards, that he took only two books
with him, - a Greek Testament and Ovid,- one of which he
was d~eply engaged in reacliug when his canoe approached
Bellows Falls, where he was suddenly roused by the noise of
the waters rushing among the rocks through the narrow pas·
sage. The clanger was imminent, as no boat could go down
that fall without being instantly dashed in pieces. "\Vith difficulty he gained the shore in . time to escape such a catastrophe, and, through t)1e kind assistance of the people in the
neighborhood, who were astonished at the novelty of such a
voyage down the Connecticut, his canoe was drawn by oxen
around the fall, hn<l committed again to the water below.
From that time, till lie arrived at his place of destination, we
hear of no accident, although he was carried through Revera!
dangerous passes in the river. On a bright spring morning,
just as the sun was rising, some of ?.Ir. Seymour's family
were stan<ling near his house on the high bank of the small
river, that runs through the city of Hartfor<l ancl empties
. tsclf into the Connecticut River, when they espied at some
distance an object of unusual appearance, moving slowly up
the stream. Other~ were attracted by the singularity of tha
sin-ht, and all were conjecturing what it· could be, till its ques•
ti~nable sh:1po assumed tho true nn<l obyious form of a. ca-

noe ; but by what impulse it was moved forward noue could
determine. Something was seen in the stern, but apparently
without life or motion. At length the canoe touched the
· shore directly in front of the house ; a person sprang fron;i.
the stern to a rock in the edge of the water, threw off a
brar-skin in which he had been enveloped, and behold John
L edyard, in the presence of his uncle and connections, who
were filled with wonder at this sudden apparition ; for they
had received no intelligence of his intention to leave Dartmouth, but supposed him still there, diligently pursuing his
atudies, and fitting himself to be a missionary among the
Indians.
However unimportant this whimsical adventure may have
been in its results, or even its objects, it was one of no ordinary peril, and ill~st~~ted·; in a forcible manner, the charThe voyage was performed in • the
:icter of the navi"ator.
0
last part of April, or first of May, and of course the river
was raised by the recent melting of the snow on the mountains. This circumstance, probably, rendered the rapids less
dangerous ; but it may be questioned whether there are
many persons, at the present day, who would willingly run
the same hazard, even if guided by a pilot skilled in the
navigation of the river.

·•

.-

III.

-

THE ALHAMBRA BY MOONLIGHT. -

W: Irving.

I have given a picture of my apartment on my first taking possession of it: a few evenings have prod~ced a thorou"h chan"e in the scene and in my feelings. The moon,
" then" was invisible, has gradually gained upon the
which
nights, and now rolls in full splendor above the towers, pouring a flood of tempered light into every court ancl hall. The
, garden: beneath my window is gently lighted up ; ~he orango
and citron trees are tipped with silver ; the fountam sparkles
in the moonbeams; and even the blush of the rose is faintl'
visible.

850

SELECTIONS FOR EXERCISES.

APPENDIX NO. VII.

I have sat.for hours at my window, inhaling the sweetness
of the ga.rden, and musing on the checkered features of those
whose history is dimly shadowed out in the ele(J"ant memo. 1
" midniO"ht
ria s around.
Sometimes. I have issued forth at
when every thing was quiet, and have wandered over "the
whole building. Who can do justice to a moonlirrht nirrht
.
h
"
b
m sue a climate, and in such a place !
in summer
. The tempf;rature of an Andalusian midniO"ht
"
is perfectly ethereal. We seem lifted up into a purer atmosphere ; there is a serenity of soul, a buoyancy of spirits, an
elasticity of frame, that render mere existence enjoyment.
The effect of moonlight, too, on the Alhambra, has something like enchantment. Every rent and chasm of time;
every moldering tint and weather - stain, disappears ; the
marble resumes its original whiteness ; the loug colonnades
brighten in the moonbeams ; the halls are illuminated with
a softened radiance, until the whole edifice reminds one of
the enchanted palace of an Arabian tale.
At such a time, I have ascended to the little ·pavilion,
called the Queen's Toilet, to enj oy its varied and extensive
prospect. To the right, the snowy summits of the Sierra
Nevada would gleam, like silver clouds, against the darker
firmament, and all the outlines of the mountain w,ould be
softened, yet delicately defined.' 1\fy delight, howeve~, would
be to lean over the parapet of the Tocador, and ga~e down
upon Grenada, spread ont like a map below me, all buried in
deep repose, and its white palaces and convents sleeping, as
it were, in tpe moonshine.
Sometimes I would hear the faint sounds of castanets
from some party of dancers lingering in the Alameda; at
~ther times, I have heard the dubious tones of a guitar, and
tae notes of a single voice rising from some solitary street,
and have pictured to myself some youthful cavalier, serenad.
ing his lady's window,- a gallant custom of former days,
but now sadly on the decline, except in the remote towll8
and villages of Spain.

Such are the scenes that have detained me for many an
hour, loitering about the courts and balconies of the castle,
enjoying that mixture of reverie and sensation which steal
away existence in a southern climate: and it has been almost morning before I have retired to my bed, and been
lulled to steep by the falling waters of the fountain of Lin
ttaraxa.

..,,_,.
)

I

I

I.

IV.

1'·

!)

•
I

I~'.

lj'

I:

Ji!!'.

'

351

.....

PROCRASTINATION.

-Young.

Be wise to-day; 'tis madness to defer;
Next day the fatal precedent will plead;
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of lifo.
Procrastination,. is the thief of time :
Year after year it steals, till all are fl ed,
And to the mercies of a moment, leaves
The vast concerns of an eternal scene.
If .not so frequent, would not this be strange?
That 't is so frequent, this is stranger still.
Of man's miraculous mistakes, this bears
The palm, that all men are about to live,
Forever on the brink of being born.
All pay themselves the compliment to think
They one day shall not drivel ; and their pride
On this reversion takes up ready praise,
At least their own: their future selves applaud;
How excellent that life they ne'er will lead !
Time lodged in their own hands is folly's vails ;
That lodged in fate's, to wisdom they consign ;
The thing they can't but purpose, they postpone.
'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool ;
And scarce in human wisdom to do more.
All promise is poor dilatory man,
And that through every stage : when young indeed
In full content, we sometimes nobly rest
Unanxious for ourselves ; and only wish
A.JJ duteous sons, our fathers were more wise.

852

APPENDIX NO. VII.

At thirty, man suspects himself a fool ;
Knows it at forty, and reforms his plan ;
At fifty chides his infamous delay,
Pushes his prudent purpose to resolve ;
In all the magnanimity·of thought
Resolves; and re-:esolves; then dies tho same.

INDEX.
r'

THE FIGURES REFEI? TO SECTIONS.

-+-

·\

I

..\.

~

J

_ IJ ~

- ' '!'
·u

n
I·:

'i.

J

~ ·-

Cant, 550.
Case Absuhtte or Independent, 69.
Case of Nouns, 114; defined, 115;
Kinds, 116 ; Possessi,•e, how
formed, 117; Case of Predicate,
367.
Clrrss-nouns, defined, 9G.
Clausal Cmy'unctions, 328.
Clausal Nouns, 290; Classes, 291.
Clause, delined, 140; Kinds, 141;
Forms, 70.
Collective Nouns, defined, 95; Construction witli Verbs, III. 368.
Colon, 517; Rules for its use, 522526.
Comma, 519; Rules for its nse, 53~ ·
538.
'
Comparative Form of Adjective, llB,
190.
Comparison, 18-1-192; Three Forms,
Positive, Comparative, Superlative, 188.
Compellatiues, their Case, 372.
Completeness, Law of, in Explana·
tion, 474; in Definition, 482; in
Narration, 490 ; . in Description
49G; in Division,· 504; in Partition, 510.
Complex Sentence, defined, 350
Forms, 351-354; Arrangement
397.
Compound M embers of Sentences..
348; to be in harmony, 384.
Compound Sentences, defined, 344
:Forms, 345; Kinds, 346; EllipU
cal, 34 7; to be in Harmony, 384.
Compaund Subject, Rule for its Yerk
3G8.
Brac'luu, 546.
Compound Words, 73.
Capital&, defined, 7; Rules for using, Concessive Form of JJ{ood, 265 Oba
Concord, 'l61. 363-385.
61ii-654.
23

A/JnJ1·mal Elements, 272-276; Nouns,
277-295; Adjecti,·es, 296-307; Adverbs, 308-312; i\Iodal•, 313-317.
Abstmcls, 31-47; defi.ned, ..45 1 97;
Classes, 98, 99.
A ction-noµns, defined, 35.
Active Voice, 206.
Adjective, defined, 55, 170; Classes,
173; used as Nouns, 278; Abnormal, 296-307; Arrangement, 391.
Adjective Clause, 305.
Adjtmct, 276.
Adverb , defined, 229; of Property,
including Manner and Quantity,
231-234; of Relation, including
Condition, 235-239; Scheme, 239;
Comparison, 240; Formation, 241;
Abnormal, 308-312.
,
Adue1·bial, 202; defined, 228; Arrangement, 392.
Analysis, 413-422; defined l!lld illustrated, 413; Rules, 414-l2b; General Directions and Models, 421.
Apostrof!he, 550.
·
Apposition, 300--302.
Appositives, their Case, 373.
A1·rangement, 361, 386-398; of Principal Elements, 387; of Subordinate Elements, 389; Gradation of
its Principles, 397 Obs.
A1'ticle, Indefinite, 176; Definite, 178.
Attribute, defined, 13.
Att1-ibutice, defi ned, 180. .
hi:ziliaries, defined, 334; Classes,
335 ; Verb Auxiliaries, 336; of
Comparison, 337.

._._-;.-_.

354

INDEX.

Conci ,ees, 20-30; d !fined, 29.; Classes, 91, 93.
.
Condition-nouns, defined, 38.
O:mjmzction, defined, 32:J; Classes,
324 ; Cofo·clinat i,•e, Kinds, 325 ;
llfodifying, 327; Clausal, 328; Origin, 32D; Connected, 330; Correlative, 331; Abnormal, 3:32.
Coustruction, defined, 84; Parts, 3603fi2.
.
Coi!rdinntfre Coujunctions, 325.
Copula ef n Sentence, defined, 161;
expressed in the Verb, 162; Pure
and Combined, 163; Four Forms:
Aflirmatin, Nei;ath·e, Affirmativc-interro:rative, Negative-interrogath·e, 164; Modifications, 251271 ; relatively to the Subject,
252; to the Predicate, 253; in itself, in De~ree by Modals, 255; in
Kind, as Necessary and as Continp:en t, 256; by Inflection and by
l\Iodals, 257.

~·

INDEX.

l

Feminine Gender, how formed, 112.
Fonnatio11 of Words, 73-78.
Form-words, 2i2 Obs., 273; Classes,
274.
Future Pei'fect Tense, 222.
Future Tense, 221.
Gender of Nouns, 108; defined, 109;
Kinds, 110; how indicated, Ill.
Gerund, 281; defined, 287; Forms,
238; its Subject in the Possessive,
365.
Hyphen, its uses, 550.

Imperative Mood, defined, 269.
lmpei'fect Tense, 217, 218.
Indicative Jlfood, defined, 260; For:ns,
261.
infinitive, 281; defined, 282; Use
283; Fonns, 284; of Futurity, 284
Obs 2.
Inflection, defined, 168; of Verbs, in
Number and Person, 195-198; by
Dash, its use, 542.
Voice and 'fPnse, 202-227; of the
D efinition, a Process of Explanation,
Verb Ts Be, 224; To Love. 225.
475-185 ; defined, 475 ; Special Inte1jections, defined, 3~0; Classes
Rules, 484.
341-343.
D efinitives, defined, 173; Kinds: Nu- lnterrogat~on Point, its Use, 541.
merals, Demonstratives, Attribu- lntei-rogatwe Sentence, 164, 165.
tives, 174.
lnteiTogr1tive JVords, 165.
Demonslratfres, defined, 177.
Irregular Verbs, 223.
Dericatice Word,,, how fonned, 75.
DescPiption, a proces,· of Explana- Jurlqmeni, d efi ned, 134; Aetna! and
tion, 402-4U7; defined, 492.
H'epresented, HO; Four Classes of
Dit.eresis, 550.
Represented Judgments, 141.
Dist1ibutfres, 175 Obs.
I
Didsion, a process of Explanation, Mark..• of Pannthesis, ~45; of Quan500-505.
tity, ·iiO; of Accent, •p50 • . · ,
.
Jlfass-r.oun, defined, 94.
Element• qf a Sentence, the Three Matter </f Thou!fht, 79-81.
Necessary, 135.
·
Method, Law of, in Explanation, 473;
Ellipsis, defined, 407; Allowable or
in Definition, 480; in Narration,
Faulty, 410.
489; in Description, 495; in DivisEmotive Sentences, defined, 356;
ion, 503; in Partition, 509.
Classes, 35i.
JlfoJal, defined, 170 ; Abnormal
.Enumeration and Di.'f>Ositinn, proc·
l<'crm!)_ 313-317; Cla•ses, 313, 314 •
esses of Explanation, 498.
.Mcdlfl Uau.<es, 316; Proper I•'orm,
Epithets, defined, 181.
382; Arranr;ement, 393.
Etymoloqical Point!, their Nature, Jlfudol Ph1·lfses, 315.
549; Kinds, 550.
Jlfodifying t :lements, 168-171; Two
E:rclrwiation l'oint, its uses, 541.
I\inds of Form and Significance,
Expla111:1tion 467-ii 11 ; defined, 467;
168; Adjecti\'e, A11'·erliialz..lllodal,
Six Processes, 468; :Four Laws,
169, 170; Single Words, i'hrases,
47~74.
or Clauses, 17 J; Conjunction•, 327;
Ezpltlicci, defined, 338; Kinda. 3J9.
to be in Harmony, 378-382; Arrangement, 390-398.
Fadilioe Object, 247-249.
Mcxxl, defined, 2.j8; Four Kinda, 2.w;

l
l

I

.J
i,

Indicative, 260-2112: N eoessary,
264.f Potential, 265-268; Imperative, 269.

Nrwmtion, a process of Explanation,
486-491; defined, 486 .
N eces.<arp 11/ood, defined, 264 .
Nomin.nti.;e Case, 116; the Case of
the Subject, 363.
N01·mal k:lement..., 83.
NoJivn-wnrds, 273.
N oun d efined , 80; Abnormal, 2772951; Classes; 279; used as Adjectives, 239- 304.
Number in Nuu11s, 102; <lefined, 103;
Formation of th e Plural, 104;
Number in Yerbs. 195, 196.
Numemls, defined, 175 ; Definite anq
Indefinite, 175.
Object o( Verb, 247; ,Spccify~ng •. f'.a ssive, Remote, 0f h cs ult, I•artttn·c,
249; in Ubjecli,·e Case, 374; Arrange me nt, 3U4, 395.
Ob[ecliol_ C""• 116: the Ca~e of t~e
Sulijecf\ of th e Imperative, 3u3
Exe.; of' the l11fi11iti ve, 364.
Optative ;)food, 2o5 Obs.
Parnqraph, 515.
Pal'licipwls, . derined, 280 ; Kinds,
280.
Pm·ticiples, 280; Four l'ornrn, 305.
P ILrtition, a proceso of Explanation,
506-511; deHned, 506.
P assive Obje1 I, 2H-249.
Passive v;,fr:e, 206; how formed, 11n7
Pn:fect Tense, 219.
.Perirxl, 516, 550.
.
.
P erson, 120; Three Persons, 121; m
Vertis, l95.
.PerSO!ial I'ronmws, 120.
Phmsc, delinetl, G7; Kinds, GB;
Ii,orms, GO.
Pleonasm, defined, 407; Allowable or
Fault .\", 408.
Plzrpufi•ct Tense, 220.
l'IU'ral 11(
how formed, 104.
Puints, 5t 2-54U; for Heference, 540.
0
ossessirn Case, 116, ao:J; Sulije!'t of
thr. Gerund, il65; and uf au Attribute1 37U.
Potmturl .lfonr/, define<\, 265; Kinds,
2li5 Obs.; Forms, 266.
Precuion, 3UO, 407-412; defined,
,07.
Pretlicnlt, defined, 147; Concrete or
Abstract, HS; Vuncrete, 149; Al>-

,v.,,,,,,,

355

stract, 150; Pure or Cumhined
151; modified, rn:l-%0; . Three
Grounrls for i\[odi lirntiou, 193;
Three 'Vnvs, 1ff4; modili etl in respect of f'orm and Sig-n ificance,
195; in Number and \'erso n, 195198; relaliveh' to Subj ect, concretely antl ab >trac th-, ·rnn; relati,·cl.1' to the Copula, 2110; in itself,
as a \\'hol e or in its Part<, 201; by
Jntlection liy Voice antl T ense, 202227; liv A11'·erbials, 228-243; in
Reapect of Object, 2H-250; Construction with Subject, 3G7.
l'repositiun, d en ned, 318: Tw'?f~Id
Relation, 310; l'orms, :320; Ongm,
321; L b t, 321 Obs.
Principrd Elements, 82; Arrangement, 387.
l'rn1101ninal Word.<, Concord of, 370;
Arrangement, 3fJG .
Prono u11 ,dcfi11ed, 120; Number, 122;
Gend er, J 23; Ca>e, 1~4; Com pound s with se!f, 123; l'ersonal,
120; I:clath-e, 128, 120; lutcrrogati,·e, 131.
Proper Nouns, defin ed, 11; Classes,
92.
P1·oposition, defi ner!, U4; Partially
Identical or 'fotallv ltlcntical, 136;
in Thoug ht or J.;"x press ion, 137;
Dcmonstrath·e, l\Iathcrnn.t1cul, 1n
Agg reg-a tions,· Definitions, Classifi!'ati ons, 138.
Propriety1 3GO, 399-406; defined, 3:J!J.
l'unctuat .vn, 512-549 .

<tuatily-11oun, defined . 3'?.
Quul!ttion 1'1arks, their Use, 544.
R~fei·ence,

Poiuls fo1-, 540.
Relatio11-no1ms, defined, 41.
Relative Pronouns, de tined, 123; enumernt etl, 129.
Remote Object nf a Verb, 247-249.
Rh et01"ical Points, 513-546.
Selection La w of, in Explnnntion 1
472; it; I>ctinition , 478; in Narration, 488; in Desc ripti on, 494;
in Division, 502; in Partition,
508 .
Semicolon, 518; Rule8 for its Use,
527-f>:Jl.

Se11le11ce, dcfinerl, 140; Elements,
l:l:;; l'crtCct or Imperfect, 139;
Ki111l•, Ha.
SpeciJVin!I Vbj<cl ef a Verb, 2!7-2"11

·I

I

356

INDEX.

Bub1ect of an Att,..bule in the Possessive, 376; of a Gerund in the
Possessive, 3G5; of n Sentence, defined, 143; in the N ominati\·e, 116,
144, 363; modified or unmodified,
145; of the Imperative in the Objective, 363 Exe.; of the Infinitive in the Objective, 364.
Sulxn·dinate Elements, Arrangement,
389.
Superlative Form of Adjective, 188;
Use, 189; Formation, 191.
Symbolism qf Thooght, 423-466; explained, 423; Classes of Symbols,
424; Five of Local Senses, 426;
Three of General Sensation, 427;
Two of Condition, 428; Two of
Relation, 429; Object Symbols
and Pr?perty Symbol s, 430; Three
GradatJons of Symbols, 431; of
Sounds, 432-439; of Sights, 440449; of Smell, Taste, and Touch,
450-453 • of General Sense, 454456; of Condition and Relation,

457-461; Laws of Symboh, 462- ·
466.
Tense, defined, 208; Simple and Continuous, 209; Present, Past, and
Future, 210.
Terms of a Judgment, 135.
Theme, defined, 469.

Unity, Law of, in Explanation, 471;
in Definitfon, 476; in Narration,
487; in Description, 493.; in Division, 501; in Partition, 507.
Verb, defined, 162; Inflections by
Voice, 203-207; by Tense, 208~
227; Hegular and Irre~ular, 211;
Principal Parts, 214; List of Irregular Verbs, 223; Tran sitive and
Intransitive, 248; modified in resrect of Object, 248, 249; used as
Noun, 277; Concord with Subject
in Number and Person, 368.
Voice, defined, 205; Active and Pusive, 206.
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