/

•'""'\

\I\
\\
I,

N'

\

\

(7~

'-

I

.\

.-~ )

"'"'--·

---·- -·--

.... ·- ··-·-- -··--·---- --·-·-·

·-------- . -··-----·-- ---- -----·-----··-·- ·-··

. ....... ·- ·

..

,,.

....."')

'

,,.,._

_,,.,.,.--~

--

'

..

,.... ,._
=

-'-"'-=-~---...

-~-__:__:._::_''---~~- -~:.,-:i.:-~--·--::_;,....:!~
'--~:--'~--:;--;:;:(:

-~--::--·

1,/

-;--~

.

·-<~

pp·I

_ .....

~

-

-r-----<4>.

.~

"
,

/

I

l

.

,.....

- -

-

-

/
I

I

.....

~

'

/

I

•

_....

-·

-

-

-

--

.._,,

-

:
-

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--

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'f'

...

,

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/
I

/

.

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,,.,

...

-

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.,

--

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I

.~~j;~--

. . -- , , ..· , ,·, .~--'"'", ·-·~ . .. -, . e : .. ·,_ '··
J~41 ~xes 'ofJ~- ~~.~fx~.~W~~1V;ith:J,h.e,:·po,ver~~of, tl}p:s.· r.e~_li},!~

·:;;_;;t;1ng:._atte9t10g.~_t? '\v!_
1_at_has~ occurred, ~v 11~ y"eryJ !3_oon
'"·i,i: b' ~-"' . ---- d 'b " h .". . .
.
' ''. ..... --~ .. ,.,- ..
·; .~. ~· appre~mte
.; Y.: ''t e;mst!'uctor.
;:0:.. :. ~ . ,::~. ,;-:·· -~-l~~}··

~t~~~~2l'he3g'- lis~J;§Rburn:s,i:ie:
Cp- assed Di:c)un'cl
:. th"e· -p··'~·V.
arty·:~\
.r•.~ · . . _, ,..,,., ,•..,
~:'of,
·.~-':'
8

.• . ; ,.<:

~ b~_·
e,x~iii ine.d by<eacl1_;iri~!ivjd1]at* :;;,_-,~ -·: ;;{:;.-._ ,:::;./
1
. .'1 .EAclilin~~Jt~Whaff:i~:J:haLwhich·.;.1 :,: hold iri· my ?-~
'4t~ .~nd 1 ,;~~~~-~@:?jt~;~({~~)~{~:~·~;}~'~!i:~::{~:·:~"~:-;41~';:):\(.
~:V'-C~ULDREN •.-t~~'Pl!lC<i~Qf-<f'glass A;'.t~.. :/~·· :· -~ .· ..;J'.
'

;,·_.,

,. '

'·

·: 1.,

..,,....,_,

1

.

/

•

..".::

•. ·

.

·_:"'T~~oJ~~~·~Q~6::;t~~-~,~p~1!}~t~_<i-: ~iB.!:d~:.'., gl~~;~~J
(~~,~- !_~a~_!?.%}.b S-~~"'.;;':\_'.n~e~~!J1 ~;~lfPr£!°""~'., g}~s~ :~,~µ e~qn

~h~\~l~t~;!~'Y,~l~~;t~s Jlhf!-s,, P,_re~f!_n \~%t't!;?~~1pe -:~~ ~£}e,

c;!~ss }1-S ~~-e-- ~~~J~~J~f:;Jhe::lf:)fl_s-0:1!_tJ-.;Xo_u_:;have" all_';-:

xammecl'th1s' glao;s ;·.what do you observe .? What ;7.

~ )in'-y_ou:~ay)h~t.-.i_(i~ ~:t~J i;;,.:.'.,. '\::~~ ~~:: :- i:;,' >;-~. ;;;:~:/f
~ 1;_,.qm!'n~·JPJ.V·:-.'.~::I~)s.:;pri~rit: .__(:·,.,_· ·· -· , . '· .'_ ·>'. . ~,- ·:

-~~~~;'
. By_~ihi~;j~e;~--~?ci~::3~-dJ~i~u~(i;1 the·cJa~ i~'c~ll:d upo~ ~;-Tc:
"to :exercise' his'own~poweis):in .the ohject presented ~" the sul). ;':; _ -~

sequerit 'questio'ii~ i bf' thil'°ieacher ' tend only to ··draw out 'the -~.. :,•
deiis"ofJ!he' chil<lh•ni!'ai1d;'~~correct : them •if: Wl'OJ)g.,' :· '' -·L .:>""·
·~ ..~--"•\-"·~~,~- ·""-~:"'"_<.- ... ,.... .,, .. ,_·.·,
~~--~}··""
<

--

.!'-.;..

'

- .·

'

· _ ; ,_,·•

:- tThls::question :-is:·• ptit- instead · of · asking,:· " What are its .' ;; ,-:,,
'ua!ltiesJ"-.~bec~use_ 't\1e__chil_d ren ' would nqt yet;~ iu. "iillproba- ,_' :~(;;;
ility;.-uiideriJtand 'the~ meaning of the <term, hutby,its frequent ;f ~;:.
_-•"· ~J:~;-i:rition , t_°- th_e 'ims~ers: ~°, : ~?/~'°~11~.sti?;n,'.~!lrny_jyill · ~hord}". . ·'' .'c-7~
~?-' <'·: :ne_fom;Jmnz;e~ 'Y~th 11._,' · ~ · :- , - "
_._.
"i', ,:;...,;?

j~~~~\~~l~~~i~';i,~}:.&

.

'<:

L:essol'i xx111._.na1ur.

It is du]],
· hara. ·
solid.
dry.

I

:,.(~.

soluble.

:: :.

~-

.', !}i ,

~

LJ:;ss_oivxxm.
.. .
. .
.
·.·· .
. . , • -""'1li; Op ,.,,~ O~~ 21!_~.

.·.. ,· .· PIEoli] o.z;. 7'.fIS

;'" -

.
Qualities.
It is b1·~wn'. -:_ '
. rugged•
. opaque•
... dry. · .

inflarnrn.able.
stiff.
· ·
inside srn.ooth.
Solid,
durable.
fib1·ous.
duJJ. ·

.

..,'.

' ".° ·

;_-

___

·:·..

. '.

,:
\

SECOND SERIES.
.

\'

,_,

~

'

FAM I LI AR 0 DJ EC TS.

· :FAMILIAR OBJECTS. ·
. ..... '
.,

~

.... '@ID
•(

.'

- ·

•

~

·1

-

'

'

I) ~

''

J. \ t(

I \ ..~ .

·~·
I'

SECOND SER I E S. .

I

\.::!!JJJ,

.

~ .·:,.. A .Cube ' of
-· Wood. . ~

. ;- "'

7
... .

A Grain of Coffee. :_ .

•'\

. :_., o~
· .· · r;·;':!/~.~·-.;,
:

~

·:

:

:

- t

.8

~

•

A Penknife.'._ .'

/'

. ~.... ·

•

~

'·

An Err•·"""
bb r

A Pencil in use.

A.- Key. ;

• J

.

'

-. , -:-.·

.· 1 ::.

- v -.

~/~~:. ..; -: ~ .

,,_

,·

-

..

. A Thimble.

-

·~ ·1"'.

- - \·:·~ -·

· a2 ;
. A P in.

.-- ..
.'
..

~

"

A Candle.

ti.

A Pen .

.
• .. : ~~~· '4Ny. ..

·. frr ...,,
:rt

.

Aft
'. ~ ...

A Cup.

.>· • LESSON . I.-A .PIN.

-t it ~ill

, ·,,'

"

SECOND SERIES.
' '
· ~~

.·

lNTRODl{£fOR1;
I'

REMARKS. - --

- ~;;f
·•ie

be ~ 'u~eful e;~rcisc for the children to
chtssify the_ various qualities, with which their
m_inds ;ire· now ._stored, ·under the _heads _of the
:different senses by which they are - discerned.
They _will soon perceive·· . that some may_be discqvered by either of two senses; for example,
fluid; solid, rough and·the varieties of form, which
may be ascertained, either by sight or feeling :
t.itute _nnothc · · · ·
is
. theso should
,,,:'. obvious, t - -

IN this series the children should Le much ex- · ;~1
- e1·c~se<l 'upon the qualities already remarked, but _,~:
which should now be presented to them in other -~
objects. This repetition combines with the :id- .;:,
[ ;, _- vantalfoe of fixing the knowledge acquired, that of _;--~,
, :- 1- enabling them _to_ form the abstract idea of the -~~
· quality · ·
· ' · ,- '
- - · -''l"""
<_ _ , ._;· _ Havi ng had all their senses brought into action, ~~
,t1~ey may be i~p. to aetermine by the exercise or- ~~
f --- - '' hich any particular property was observed: thus, _r·-'l, -. · How did you find out that glass was transparent 1 '-'~,
By my eyes. ' What can you do with your eyes? - _See! Seeing is called a sense. Can you obtain
.. _: , : an :idea of a quality except by the sense of sight 1 :;:.
. «:; -:- · ~Ill your _sight discover to you that a rose is -~~.:.:. -_ od?i·ous 7 Hinv would yo~ ascertain this quality 1 ·':_'
- ~ ~y what se?s~ 1 By smelling. The sense of smell- ·;~~
mg. _ By s1m~Iar questions the class will gain u . r
clear concept10n of the several senses, and their .
opcrat_ions. They 111'!;}' next proceed to the ob.
--· servat10~1 of the organs of sense. Thus, lly what
natural mstrument_are: you able to_see, hear, &c.? -·~E~::;,:.
By _eyes, ears? :&?. Any natu~·al instrument liy
which somethmg is performed, IS ca.l led an organ. - What are the eyes? Organs. · Organs of what
- Bense 1 Organs of sight, &c.
0

I<

41

._ .. 42 .·

43

SECOND SERIES.

. Uses.---To keep together the parts of our dress ; _._
or whatever we wish to be united only for a time . .-~;~

-

-

-.'.~~ ~
=~"•

·~

LESSON II. :
··-.·

I

· - · ·The ·c~b~ ~iirc~nvey to the ·class a go_o d 'idea'>..
of a. eurfu.co; they will obsorvo that I.ho ouhiido is .. ;
divided into several parts, an<l may learn that the -<~boundaries of a solid are called surfaces. c _._
• '-'-.::1: '
.r · Parts . . ::.;-- - '
Qualitie~.
·. "-.;
The surfaces. -- ' ·
It is hard. '"
edges . .:- · ·•
light . .
- solid.
' corners• · ·-----

··_''

· ~---· · ..
:>;~:, ~,

._. -

. ·· brown.
~

smooth . ·
;<;ti:
_ .,, , ..:. .
.... ._ . inflammable. ' :.;>
· -<::'./·";: "-~=:·
opaque. :··---._J:
·::<~:'~_.:.
:·"'the surfaces are flat: . .
:_-.:;,
. ._
.·" · ·.
· square,. · · ~-.::.
-~ ."-" · : ,'.---'. : ,_«: )·' · ·_ the edges are straight. ·:--~. ~ -~i:-;,
. · ·:· . · · . : _ . . -' : ;- the corners are sharp. _.··.:, -~ ~~ ·

'

-:

-. · ·

, ~', · /'',<. ~}':'.LEris°.N ! rt .· -'·

... , .

,'·:f

, · '····. . . uNouT
~:". ·.:,·. · '.The :~ew id~a~- pre~e1~te·d ,~to -th~-: ~hildr~~ : in·~~­
f
Att

LEAD·PENdn.. .

.

(. _ ~his ,Jesson are the ends, which_ ai:c flat. surfaces\~;;.
- ·. nnd the . ,curved surface: from · this - object they,.:_ •
. .. th~tefore 'be,c~me acquainted w_ith the form cyli~- -~·:
-. dr1cal. ·,; r'/;'· • ·.:.
'"-.".".
·Parts:· '
·: Qualities. · ·. ··
The surfaces.
,
·. It is hard.
· :ends.
o<lorous.

Qualities. . _
long•··.
solid. ·
opaque.
;._.. inflammable.
.
dry • . -~" "
: -· :. ".:. reddish~ .....·
'· veined. ·
one surface is curved.
:~ ·. -... , - ·. the ends are flat. ·.
. . · ,_- c.i rcular.
. · ~- form .cylindrical ..-_
· · · the ' lead is black. · _._ ·
brittle. . "
.
. ·. friable. brig ht.
.. se~.-For wntmg, · drawing, &c. ·_ Let the
. ,P~ren point out ·,on ··wh~t occasior~s (l pencil is.
Je[~rab l ~ to a pen. :· : . .· ·.
·~

.·< ,·-._ · · ;. ·_

~

·-~•

°'

. .- I

' ·LESSON ·IV.

.
-~ ~:,_ r¥ji·_;. ::;
. ...

~1 _.. ,.

,_ ,, - , .:

.

.

"·

.•'

,.- •

.·:.(" ~ -:

. -~~" _;

.,. ,.A :.pen leads to.' the · 0'.bservatio.n of· 1-ha~y -parts; ·
·ctJ1d ·also presents opposite qualities in its different ·
"''.!lrts ... : . .: .·..
·
'" · ., :- ··-··
Parts. ··
~ ·: · · _. :: . .; :~ · .· Qu~litie~• .. ,-~ .:. · ·
h~ '.quill. ·,
.; : .. ,:_ Tlie .quill i'?_.tra~s~a~~~t. ·
££~~ ~haft.
, ,,.: - . · · -· · ·-:· cylindrical • .
-:--~~feather.
.
. hollow.:- · · .
-?~ lamime, or parts .Qf the feather. b~ight. ·;
·,;,: pith.
, ··"-· ·
_.,
hard.
:;,.;'. nib. . .
· ·
0

,.};~ sp)it. '
' ..t:,.r~.,, -I. •

It ;.;:±/ .

~

I,

•

~ .

:

.

\".

...

r

·•. LESSON · VI.-A CHAIR.

SECOND SERIES.

'

Parts.
shoulders. : "

~- .

skin. ·

Qualities.
horny.
·the shaft is opaque; · ·.:'s
angular•. ·.. ·... :(•"
solid. '
,.
":.';
white. ,
stiff. · · ·'
.
hard. · , . :~)grooved. ·. ·: _,·.~
. ..
, the pith is white. · .
• ..• I
. - spongy:_. . . . :;;
_·.. porous •. '. -: . ;'-'"'"' .
.· elastic. ·.· , . · :~.J'
.,·
• c. ~o~pressible:·,; ·
:. :. ': '\ ' . · soft. · ·
· ..<.::.,. , ·

~,

·/ surfaces. ·

,. '

,. ·- ·groove.

inside •.·
· outside. ·,

'·

.t

.. . .·

.

~

,.

-.
~ .-. ~<·

,....,.~

~·

.,

.

.. ·:··.:
..

:.=; ·i. --··~- : ?~:~-~ -~i.E~s~N ; v.
'

1·;

-

>·:

:-_... ·~

•.·

. -.I>~ -

·:....

_,".

)

•

~.~

•

-

•

" .A: ~ WAX ' CANDLE, ,_.,.

,_._ - .•· ,· ·:': .. ,_
-

; !;•

!J;;.,

..;:

,-.J "•

....

·.,
..
•

'\~

This object .recalls)he idea of.' the form cylin>·
._· drical,' gained .in a previous lesson, and presents ~
.
i \': :;,:: the pec~liar_ parts of. the ;candle i_tself. ..
· · ·~·
! • f'>:-:.~\"
p~~t~~ '
:,';~~-: ·Y Qualities~ - ....
.:. :: , The wick.' ~ ~-~ ;; . , , : It is cylindrical.~.
·.·; ·:: < ·wax. '~· ·
'- .. -,- hard.
·
' ··
»~-- . --.( surfaces. "\ . :_. ·
': opaque.
_
ends. · · "·. " -_ · · ' - . ' · yellowish white.
~·
curved surface. -:· . _Wax is sticky.
· ·edges.
. fusible.
. .
· . top.
.
')'he wields inflal)lmable. ~.·~
· ·.~ ' bottom; :
··
tough.
" middle. _
white.
porous.
·'' · '. inside.
outside•-< · - ~ ~~
flexible._
-- ·~
- .~:- · trse.-To give light . .

.··".: ··:/ . '::

:·... ;

'

·

•

1

. .•:

~

'

.

'

'\

-...~· '
·'-

'--- -

J

....-.
... .

~

;r ~:.

..

'•

.. 45

· LES~ON VI.
.
.

.

. - j

•

.•

A~:.ciIAm.
-~r~-.t:

':?Z.d

.

-;~his, and several of · the succeeding lessons,
,, .' ~c~osen on account of -the great variety o_f the
· rts of the objects.
...~ ..;.,
~;:

..

.

..

Parts._.

The back.
· front •
seat •
top.
bottom •
frame.
legs. ·
straw.- .
edge~ •.
·: Upper'part of seat.
· under part of seat.
bars.
surfaces. ·
corners. ··
,,Jtis obvious that the qualities . are not named,
a$n hey _would depend_ so entirely upon the kind ·
f chair' chosen for the lesson.
~":Jt is a useful exe · · " -

. .:-:.•'.' ';: ..r:-,
~-~:. ~~~=---·-;'-·.~,;<-~--=-=~~=~· _· -

1').

46 .

.L.

-

;_.

·,

-- .·
~

Parts.
The outside.
inside.
edges.
corners.
binding.
·paper.
back.
•,
sides.
top.
bottom.
title-page.
preface.
introduction.
contents.
end.
leaves.
pages:
margm.
begi1ming.
type.
·le(ters.
numbers.
stops.
words.
sentences. ·
" .~ syllables. title. - . -lettering.
- stitching.
lines. ·-\

Qualities.
It is oval.
white.
har<l.
e<lible.
nutritious.
opaque.
shell is brittle.
smooth.
thin. ,_- ,__

_/~_ Parts.
he' shell.
skin.
white.
_ ·yolk.
-·-:~ : interior.

The white

liqui<l when raw.
solid when boile<l.
semi-transparent when raw.
opaque when boiled.
adhesiYe.
sticky .
insipid.
Yolk 1s yellow.
liquid.
soft. ·
opaque.
_odorous"'
-,v,_ "i;iapid. ,--.- .--- :: · --

...
. ,'.

IS

_<"i_:.. '.7 ~ .. . ... ' ....( .• ,. ~ •.:":·'":, ·~~ -J~·-;;:-.·'='

• • •"';:.>- ••

. ·.·

·, ;,

_:...·~.

• .• ;

...

=....,..

.. ..

I ,

•· ...

.

~-·r: ·~·f::~..::.· '~

'

. ·~!.

.·:.

}•

,.

;·

..

.

·::-3 :.-·";, Qualilie$. :::z; ·:·:~;~;;_ --

\. Part.'1·. -The inside. ,. - c:
·r

outside·. ;;~

.... . ... ·.
'

~

~.

---···!;.

7

· ,- · It is hollow. '~-'":.--. ,:- ·=:
· ···

'·-.

· : silv.er. ~:: :_-=-i:.~. ·~p..:~r:

·~ ~~~· . ' ·. .,~}. ... ;, .~·:. ...~· :; .;.~~ . ..· ~~

( l .~~.

47

-AN
, _ EGG.

;A;,,,Jl.001{.

I

0

·•
LESSON VIII.

LESSON .VII.

J

----=-~--===

---==-=-=-:

LESSON VJII.-AN EGG, A TIIIJIIIlLE

SECOND SERIES.

I

-.•· - .

··

-.

..
S~COND

1

·· Parts . .-...
top.
.

.' indentation~. -

cy lilldrical.
white.
bright.
opaque.
hard.
curved.
Inside is smooth.
Outside is rough.

A KEY.

Qualities .

Tl- -,..,..

::"~ grooves.

py·

I

I

~---~----

edges.
surfaces.
corners.

'- LESSON X.
·Parts• .·.
The handle.
blade.
. .·. plates.
grooves.

4f)

LESSON XI.

Use,._'fo preserve the mi<l<lle finger froill being",
)ricked_in .1fPl'k~n~ wit}} a l~eedle.
"'

I

cur.

Qualities.

nm.
·1·.

LESSON XI. XII.-A KEY, A

,

botto.m . <i
· border.

SERIES.

Qualities.
The blade is steel.
bright •

cold. ·
hard.
- back of the handle.
reflective.
back of the blade.
opaque.
point.
brittle.
ed~e.
tho front edge is thin.
spring.
sharp.
rivets.
the back edge is blunt.
pivot.
thick.
heel.
handle hollow.
• flat.
Usc.-To cut.
'rho other qualities depend upon the kind of
!tnifc shown.

It is hard.
stee l, or iron.
bright.
cold .
opaque.
smooth.
stiff.
liable to rust.
part of the barrel is hollow.
the barrel is cylindrical.
the ring is curved.

LESSON XII.
= A

Parts.

. J··'

~

The bowl.
handle.
upper nm.
lower rim.
bottom.
inside.
ontside.
edges.
surfaces.

cur.

Qualities.
It is hollow.
hard.
glossy.
curved.
smooth.
glazed.
c old .
hri ttle.
thin.
useful.
The rim is circular

50

.

SECOND SERIES.

Parts.
LESSON XIII.
A GRAIN OF COFFEE.

Parts.

Qualities.

. The surfaces.
- If roasted it is brown.
hard.
curved surfaces; flat surface.
c1i.sp.
groove.
sapid.
edge.
aromatic.
stimulating. :..
agreeable to':~
the taste • .,.;
pulverable, ·.~~
or may be~
turned into '
powder.
:{ ·
solid. \
If unroasted, dingy yellow.·~
in odorous,
without
· smell. · . ,
disagreeable ·~'..
· to the taste.·.
Use.-To make a beverage, or drink.

LESSON XIV .
.A=1?AIR~OR

Parts.
The limbs.
Lows.
Llacles • .

/

LESSON x1v.-scISSARS.

SCISSARS ,

Qualities.

It is steel.
bright.
reflective.

· shanks.
rivets.
pivot.
points.
surfaces .

51

· Qualities.

It is ltard.
opaque.
cold.
useful.
solid.
the blades are pointed.
one surface flat.
tho other curved.
front edge sharp. ·
back blunt.
bows are curved.
.: ·· Uses.-The children should name the kind
materials which scissars will cut, and point
ou( the different manner in which knives and
scissars cut.

of

(,:~·~-' .

'- '
"'

i,. .·

THIRD SERIES.

THIRD SERIES.

FAM IL I AR 0 BJ EC TS.

FAMILIAR OBJECTS.

2D ·
An Acorn. : .

A Pine Cone.

o_~-r/v (,~:

8.

A Laurel Leaf.

-·.·
,.,. ·&.-""
.

.

An Oyster. ·

~

A Piece of Honey-Comb.

'

.

A Butter-Cup.
. A Cent.

Cl

t,r.

A Watch-Glass.
. i"

•M

'/ ~--

i

/r-(/1--?t ve-e.eo
I

/J ls

/L
~,·

.--.

.

'J

.Z/

..
:r,··•.'..

;?~_ ~o

what constitutes the essential difference
' etween the two will understand the terms natural
and.·artificial. If ~ome fruits or flowers are place<l by
~th:0 ' quill; their attentiol_l may be directed to the
r ::Cdistiqction between ammal and vegetable sub... tances: The comparison of the quill with an
nse~t, wil(elicit the ideas of animate and inani-

7'HIRD SERIES.

INTR03)UCTORY REMARKS.

a.te:

soncs tho chilclrcn rnny Lo guided

"..!-,. , .

ualitics which call into exercise >
~~:.: . .: Parts.
onnexion with the senses. Thus ~;1\~"~:"'~
··i~ .a preceding lesson.
v.:
owrng tliem at the same time ah object in itS-:{·.
na nr and in its artificial state, as · wo_ol and ;_
. woollen - cloth, ·and qu estioning them as · to the.
difference- of· the two, they will readily conceive\ ·
the ideas of natural and artificial. In this manner.'.
.they may be led to remark the distinction between {
· foreign and native, exotic and indigenous, animal; t'
. vegetable, mineral, &c.
. · ·: '
Having also been long exercised in observing~
and naming the qualities of objects, they may ~;
now be called upon to give an explanation of the ~··
terms they use, and by assisting them to trace : ~
their derivations, the teacher will add to the }'
interest of the lesson. · For the use of the in.-· ,,,
lltructor a few explanations adapted to the capaciti~s )
of children nro given at tho end of the Volume • ., '

1·

.

.

.

,

.. ;;_ .

LESSON .I.
A QUILL.

55

LESSON 1.-A QUILL•

,,
Ideas to be developed by this lesson-natU1·al, :-~"
artificial, animal, vegetable, animate, inanirna_te•.\ .
A pen should be shown at the same time with '.· ·
the quill. Then the children being questioned ,-

Qualities .. .
It is long.
stiff.
.useful.
natural.
inanimate.
animal production.
The barrel is transparent.
hard.
elastic,or springy.
bright.
yellowish.
cy lindncal. _
hollow.

light.

.

'l'he sfiaft is feathered.
white.
stiff.
hard;
opaque.
solid.
angular
(Tl" ,..-

56

THIRD .SERIES.

LESSON II-A CENT.

Children may bo lell to temark t110 difference.
· which heat produces on animal and -vcgetabl~
substances both 'in appearance and smel_l. · • ·1.

LESSON II.

The teacher now .requires the class to_give a.Ii
explanation in their own words, of the terms they;
··
·
"' · · · - · · '. used.
TEACHER • . "Useful." Give me examples of:•
· words of the same termination.
;~
CmLDUEN. Careful, &c.
,,,
. TEACHER. What is the force of that terminaL'
·
· ~?tion 1 · ·. - .

I

r

{

I

C11rLDREN. It expresses the quality in a great~
· . degree.
'~·
'I'EACirnR. ' ·· What is the opposite of useful? .
CmLDREN: · Useless.
_·,,.
TEACHER. · · Give examples of this termination.:·..
TEACHER. From what is natural derived? :}',
CmLDREN.-· Nature.
::..
TEACHER. From what is "inanimate" derived 1;c;
CnILumm. From in, which has ·the sense oLa
not, and animate.
·~\
· TEACHER. Animate is derived from anim.a, a' -.
Latin word, which signifies life. Transparent ist~·
. derived from trans, th1·ougl1.; and parens, appear.::..
ing. Give ·other words derived from parens, ap.".,,

pearing.

·

CuILmurn. J\ ppore11t, Apparition.
TEACHER. "Cy Ji udrical." From what 1s it
derived?
CurLDREN. Frnm cd i n<lcr.
TEAcmm. Cylinder is derived from the Greek
iwA.1vSw. (kufoulo) I roll.
0

57

A

CENT•
in this lesson, mineral,

Pm·ts.

,The .surfaces.
edges.
impression.
image.
superscription.
reverse.
date.

Qualities.
It is round.
flat.
mineral.
metallic.
opaque.
bright.
copper.
cold.
reddish brown.
fusible.
hard.
odorous.
artificial.*
useful.
heavy •
durable.
uneven.

, , .. Made from copper ore, the sulphur forced off
~..,. by smelting. Starnpt by a die wh ic h is caused to
·::f fall upon the coin with great v10lence.
._.. ,. The class should be !eel to remark. that thottgh the "·ork'-.. :'manship is artificial , tho sub8tunce is nnturnl.

!)8

THIRD SERIES.

. LESSON IV·-::-AN Al'l'LE.

Renw,rlcs on words.

"Mineral," from what derived 1 Mine.
"Metallic,"
Me tat
"Fusible,"
to fuse.
.
" Artificial,"
lat. Arte, by a.D;;
art; and lat. facere, to make:
· " Durable,"
lat. dumre, to ~~
last.
TEACTIER.

.

Do you .know any other words <le~~'

rived from durare 1
CHILDREN.
Duration, during, endure~ , :

?,f'

: 11

LESSON III.
MUSTARD SEED.

.,1,11

~~

Ideas to be d.eveloped by this lesson,-indige~:i
ous, pulvera.b?e·
·
.
. :·',,,
Qualities.
1'

It is pungent.
dull.
yellow.
opaque.
hard.
dry.
pulverable.
natural.
indigenous.
vegetable.
spherical . .
solid.
stimulating.

'\ ;·

50

Remarks on 1'Vords.

. ·•.....
~

~~fl~ungent," from what deri ve<l? Lat. punge1·e, Jo
"'{~(prick.

· ·
,
·
.
";pulverable," from Lat. pulvis, dust.
. n~igenous,'' from the Latin indigena, native, or
~produced in a country.
,
i". . . . .

· 'k:~t''.:"''
..:'at1 ·,~. ,,

·'~tt>
·:\··
·;;.:.,.

1

,·~

-·

LESSON IV •

..

·~~t;>.

' AN APPLE.

Qualities.
It is sphm~ical.
bright •
odorous.
colored.
opaque.
natural.
ye_getablc.
,, .
Jmcy.
hard.
mce.
solid.
pleasant ..
The eye is dry.
brown.
shri vellcd~
pips or seeds are brown on the outside
when ripe.
~ white in the inside.
pointed oval.
. hard.
br~ght.

~:1;::~~-~-·

60

THIIlD

\ '· ·,"

. - .. .~ .

.

~SSON V• •. ..- _

- .- ."

. . .·. . ... -· .. . .

-.

iEssoN v. v1.--oLAss OF A ~\TATCH, suGAn. · _ 61 ··

SERIES.

~~r.~

The core is thin.
etiff.
yellow.
hard.
semi-transparent.
~."¥
cellular, or divided into cells: ·

::t:~_, · ·
.. ..... -

•

. 'h,"•'-,,
_._... ')

,.

•

·.:.::r~

'.'•· ·

.,_ Qualities:
Remarks on W01·ds.

I

, It is artificial.
:" trunsparont.
:· brittle.
. ...... · .
.- -! -.,
" .' ·.. :;. bright.
·. '
. . . ... .
. ' ··' :•thin • . -.
; - ·- . · /; . -·.· ...
. '. · '.· bard. · .
·.,:. <clear: ·. ~ ,. ·· · ' ·. · ·. - · ·,
·r
. . cold . .. ~ ·
· ·· ~- : ' curved. ;
··
: ,,- useful: : ·. :·.. ··
·s· Upper .surface convex. ·_ · ·
.. , Under ·surface concave • . · · ·.
· ·"·
. "Edge circular.···
Uses.-To preserve the hands of the watch from
ing inju~ed, and to keep the works from du~t~~-~t:,. _. ~.~
~· ·~~.- -· ~ .-:
z;~:. 0 ::..
LESSON ·VI.
.. . . :.('
..;:-_- ·~ ~
.·'"'·';~:.,·';!J~· .,...
.'' .BROW!j... SUGAR:
~
.. - ' " ~ .. ; '. ;' '..~, .
.
•
';
•
" ' deas to be ·~eveloped, for,eign, imported.. · o .',
~?( '~>._
Quali.~ie;. : · ~-~ ··~:'..-\~>:..· >~
,~;; .
.. .- . . It,is brown.' · . . . ,. ,... ~ ,: .::: ·.,
>;'J c;·' gr.an..u. lo us. : .. -... : · · . ~:·:,,.

"Spherical," from what derived 7 Sphere.
TEACHER. Give instances· of similar termina· \ ·
tions? ·
.,
CHILDREN. Cylind.rical~ critical, conical. ,
"Odorous," from what derived 1 Lat., odor s:
·scent. ·
_ · .
.
- ~1
TEACHER. · Give · instances of similar.
tions 1
CHILDREN. Porous; numerous.
. "Vegetable," from what derived 1 Lat. vege- ~
tare, to grow·as a plant.
·
·•·
. TEACHER .. Name other words derived from this 7.
· CnILDREN. To vegetate, vegetation.
· "Juicy," from what derived? Juice. ·
TEACHER.· Give some other instances in which ·~
the names of. qualities ·are derived from those of.';,·
substances in a similar manner 1
·
· •·
CHILDREN. Stone, · stony ; milk, milky; water .
' '.
wa tery.
.. .
·
· · ·,,
"Semi-transparent," from what derived 1 Semi,~·; :
t:ans, .through, and :parens, appearing.
. TEACHER •. What is the meaning of semi 7
CHILDREN•. Half. ·
· ·

~

-l'

t:•. - :

-'l,_

·..:·

•·•

:.·

: ....

J

-

••

"-~ ~·-

.. . . •\ . _.-

·4 '
-

---

.)

"~ ;J.tl ··:i',~

.

,~-<.-~.:·

·~

·".· .-, :

..

·~4! . Tli~ children should lie asked whether there ·are any
artii to this object peculiar . to it ; and ns there are n ot '" ·
'. CQnsideration of the pnrts hnd _baaer be om; .. . .
•.j.

)';;~I•

:

'

£'1

.

• ••

·.. ·".

. -'. :.
,... ··:·::...

62

... ·,:

· .'ltllRD SERIES. ·

i!;o'

, , : -: : , ,_ soluble.
, : >: " ; · fusible.
opaque.
-useful. ,-'f
· " .. vegetable substance.
'··
· artificial.
·
foreign.
sticky.
imported. ·
.: moist.
· -..,·'.. Us~.-.To sweeten_our food.

.,

,.·~ -.

. _)

~

\

~ --

~

hard.

~ut is !~=~~~-. .,.: .

'

t~~

("

'

\

'- '..1. •

LESSON .VIII. , ·

!l-~marlcs upon Tyords• .

· · "Gra~ulous," derived from· granule,.
,:i'mal_l ~'.".
grain.
. · . · · . · · '. · · . >. . " · · . . .. . .:~··
. ~. "Imported," Latin p9rtare, to carry, and in, into~;~;
. .·: _:' " Exported,,,-from ex, out, ;md portar~ . . ' ·.' : :~5 ·
· "Soluble/'' from Lat. solvere; to loosen, because,.;.~
_ the partic]es· may:heJoosened from each other byt

· ~. ···' · ·

liquids~·:; >;~<
':''J" ···:·

-

··. LESSON VII.

·-·

_::;-__ ~

~

Parts. .
, ... •The ~~p • . \.·· ,,
berry. · stalk • ..

.

~

: • .,
·;:,.

.....

~

.:.'.)-

·. ·. Qualities.
It is vegetable.
.inanimate.
natural,

-

_bright.
solid . .
~up is. brown.
de is concave.
. smooth. ·
e is rough.
- brownish.
. scaly. _,· .
is circular.
,

\

,: Obtained from the Sugar Cane, .\\
vated in'. the ·.East · al)d West Indies,
·,._ ·~ --. . .Southern StatesJ c
-.

63

..

qJCsw .

,

;,c-"

".

••

e~ point of the ,., .. ·.

• .· .._ r

}

\ .

i'.f;i~:~~- ·~ESSON ~in._.:.:1ioNEYCOMB •. '
, '.'Par.ts. ' . . .
Qualities~ ., .

.. . ·· ..:,·. ·'

. '·.' ' It-is sweet.

_.

.-.

.:{

A ' PIECE ; o:F : HONEYCOllrn'.
•

/'~·

•

';;- " :_ __

l"'

·Qualities: '·
"'· It is natural.
ivisions.
· animalproduction •
.~il ' '
··,
uges. :.. ' " .
light.
or base of 'cells.
....otiom,
,
.fusible •
.me.rs.
sticky •
semi -transparent.
yellowish.
thin.
compressi blc.
cells hexagonal, or six.,
.cornered. ·
regular.
hollow .

64

THIRD SERIES.
LESSON X.-A BU'ITER CUI'.

;'

~

.. .
~

-·

-,
..

~

-··

-~.

.

: '

LESSON IX.,
• , 1,".

65 '

. LESSON X

:·

,.
BU'I:TER CUP •

· . Ideas "to be developed by .this lesson, are
., talline,
amorphous.
.. ·
..
• •·
.' • r'
'
•

Parts•.. ·
..
The surfaces. . .
edges.
. ..middle. ·
crystals.
grains •.-'
pores. · . ~~ . ·-:-.. ,. .

·.,
Qualities.
": It. is white.
' ' , , sweet. '.<. ' sparkling.
'. _ : crystalline.
,,,,... ·-solid.
'. . '···· fusible. ·'
,.
soluble.
· ·
·,. -It~.
shapele.ss or amorphous~~
lrnrd.
·
·{[.
,refined.
...
-~ · · nutritious.
,, . . . . useful.
friable.
opaque. ·
artificial.
vegetable.
,.
brittle.
·_· Brought from the Indios in its rnw state • . Re·~.
: fined by ~ugar-bakers, and sold by grocers in loaves'.: ·
of a comcal form. · ·

-

C I
_.. t

· ·Remarks on Words. ·
',-:· ·"Crystalline," ·derived from crystal.
.
"Amorphous," Greek a ·(a) not, and ·
1
(morphe) shape. "Nutritious,'' Lat. nu,trio, I nourish.
-.

·-:-;·,,
-:·

.

'."

.

.,,,rirts.

)_

.: -_ Qualities. · ·

· Pet~J~~-:C- ·-.. 'lt is veg~table.
. · . - ~~~~iQs or edge~.
· inanimate.
up.,_• .'': · . , ...
concave •
.,~fil;'of . cup. .
,
natural. · .·
~ii.mens. · · ·:.
·
odorous.
'£istils." · .
petals are yellow. . · .
t~k.:~ '- · .
·
glossy' in the inside.
dull on the outside. ·
lace 'of insertion. ·
circular.
ns ide. :. .
utside. .
ppinfe<l at . the place
~;faces.
·· ·' · of insertion.
"" . . , .
-~: ' ·. strip~<l."
".
opaque •
. pliable. ··
Leafits greenish.
·.
' thin.
memb~annccous.'
. . ·semi-transparent.
1 .' ,Pointed.
S,talk green. : _ ~
. i .
grooye<l.
angular.
stifi: _ ·
·fibrous.

()(]

· ,. ~····:: -.· · TlllRD 'SEIUES,

...,..

•

.

...
-

-

"·i:.:· ~··:-

'.

!""''

I

'

LESSON~., xrr.•~.AN. OVSTER • .

·_.·

..:.
-

· LESSON Xt .

LESSON XII. -. .

.

'.

:, ' · Parts.

·Qualities. . ' .

· The Hcacl.
"
It is animate.
·"
natural.
·eyes. ·
~.. , .-...,: .. feelers or palpi. · · · · ·· .' hemispherical. ;.··
·; ... . · horns or antennre. elytra are red. · · : · · . . .,
· wings.·
.
spotted.
··· '
· . bright. .· ·. wing cases.. or elytra.

..

~</ t!;~~x.~ .- ~:·-·r:·t;~:~-'..,-· ·· -~ ;~~~ie ~

; ·~..-. body; .. :, ·:: , . -.
"
opaque.
),· back. ,o::':-~.:·:> ':· ~_stiff. '
'. : spots. , ; · .- ~ . " , . outside convex •
. .· surfaces.. "·:~ ·, · · · · inside concave.
margin/ .
.one margin straight.
claws. ,.:•,"' .
. the other curved.
· · - { · _: . · the wings are .membraneous •. ·::·
' :.:
·
_.. pliable.
· -~
'
··
thin.
. . transparent.
. -. .
.
fragile.
: · · ' the body oval.
~

.- ·- :/ --

·-

-...•,.
:

,."' . . ........
... ._. ""' ·"

~

.

black.

· the leg;S are jointed.
··
short.
black •

..
. ·.·.

~

-... .. -·

.. .

, <

e~ valves·. _.
~~:hinge;~·
') outside.
:::. inside.
''.: margin.

_.

.

.6.7

·,,

...

........•

'

'r-

;

.. ·.

..' .· . Qualities.

It is animal. - . .
opaque.'
marine.
. ." 11.atural.
- - valves circular.
' ~;.~ impressions. , .. · . : '· _ hard •
\~ mollusca, the living part. stiff.
·.-':~ cale& .or laminre.
. · pulverable. ·.
\ ~~~ ~ .. ·
'outsLdes rough. · ·· · ; : ~
Y,;."·:.::
. ~ •.· :. ··sc~y orlaminated,
~· .. ·
·· . irregular. . ..
. dull.
· dingy brown.
-uneven.
inside pearly.
· _ bright. , ·
smooth.
_ . ..- slightly conc.a.v,e • .
cold.
·
· · ~ mollusca soft.
· ·
· edible .
nutritious.
' cold.
. ·smooth.
-lubricious. "

: ,

j·

i•'

••

' ·

.

· .. 'i'IIIR:l> SERIES.

,.

J

/,,·

; ,'

·"

,'. ,,~SSON XIII.
,; .-~' , '

: · ,· '} Parts• ."
-"' - . ~ Scales, ,
Se~ds. ·· -

LESSON .XV. ·

.• .

'PINE 'CONE,

Qualities;

· ... ~it is-brown. ~

<.

. opaque.
- top. '. · ·.• ·
hard.
. place of insertion • .< ' ..:" vegetable.
" fibres. · ·
'.:, ·.' " . · natural.
.outside. " .,,
conical.
·: . foside. · , ' > · ·:.. .
· · ·.~.inflammable. · " ·
:; surfaces. " -~ ,..-". ~ .:- - .odorous.
' ';
c, stalk.'
·
scales hard •. ·
«:, ,outside brown . ..·
· ·•
"'.:· _-,~"";· · . pointed at tile top.
· ,.,._ ·F" "· · -· ' · rough. · · " ·
··
inside of sc~les chestnut-c~Ior.
.., '" ·, ' '-:-' '·:· "< · ," shaded:
' . : .._ " ,.
. .. '·~. • -r-.•:: ', ".,
• •.. :~-~·;'

.· Qualities. -Upper ~urface bright.
·, · under surface dull.
· · oval.
.
· :- ' smooth.
'. '
pointed.
vegetable. :_
....: ._,.
odorous. . , ..
opaque.
. · bitter.
stiff. - -~ -· - ·
slightly toothed.
<-- long.
J "
·
'
margin curved.
·rib straight.
· _· raised, ·or keeled on
· > the un(ler side.
~rooved . on the . upper
side.
.. veins curved.
~

~ _

-!:. . ·

0

• -

·~ ~

·f

. >·\: ~sspN

,:
.~- . .

.. 1:

'

XJV. "

'!

.

"I

:~· surface. · -·
·.~· :;:··· ·· ··
.·::_ p~ints ~f hair.' -: ··

Qualities.
It is animal.'

.~,

:

hairy. ·- ,."_ _,..
· inanimate. - · ·
,, . ·.. . -.
·.:;<.:.
hairs flexible.
.'
:..
- . slender.
': -.;
soft.
'.'"''·• .
. .
. ·straight.. . .
· , , :. ·
_;, , , · , . - ' . : pointed. -< , ·; ~
The color 'and other peculiarities to be decided :
: by the specimen presented. ·
·' ·
'
••

~

'> •;

1

LESSON XVI.

.·..._,:

..,, ·,

'

~

A NEEDLE.

' .
•

,4

•

'

,•!

.

I .·
• ~ '

69

XV. XVI.-A· LEAF, A NEEDLE·

.-{,

•.. 4',

P'_ .. · - Parts•

·The eye.
shank.
point.

Qualities.
It is mineral.
metallic.
artificial. ~.

I~

·., __ .

~.

-~

.

.,
'

/

.
'

I

V..-1

'-

-

'

~

70

'l'IIIIW

The middle.
· · top. ·

.
··'

{~~/·~ ~

_, .·.;'.,.

\'

)

,

....

>; .....

•

-"I

•

I

••

:

·...
,.

'

•

•

. . . ._:..

·.

,.

bright.
cold.
taper .
pointed.
slender.
useful.
fu sible..
. . ;.1,
.gray or steel. c:olor. ~1 '
...
';[..,\'.!
. .:·- --- 11ard • .
: ,(!;...; · - · bri_ttle. · .'.· _- . ... .'
·.' sohd. · · · ~ ; · . -"· '~
· · steel. · , .::· ·
.·.

· . Ma~~~o-f -~~~';1:\vhich is a preparation of iro'n,,
having been. subject to great extremes of.heat apd
cold. . .
.. ..
y
' ' Ji.
.- ~ .
~ ,LESSON XVIL"
'.

. ~ >·

'

.

·.

A STONE. :··

. ldea to be deyel0ped-ino1·ganized.
.

.

LESSON

:·~IL~~EN.

It is opaque.

,.-.

··....

,'\: ..« . ',.

SEUIES.

'".~

S·,

To give)he class an idea of "organized", and.
· " inorganized," a plant might be shown with th.El ·
!tone; a_nd _ similar questions to the . follow~n1;{<
given.
. ' . · · · .· . · . - ·
· ".
~
TEAcH~R. If I 'pt.it. thes-e' two jnt~ the -~artli~ ·
-_ ... . and visit them in a month, what great difference
·'.· '. . · should I perceive in them.? ·
· · · : · ·- ~-~.
· · · CHILDREN. The plant will have grown ; the
' stone will have remained the same size. · ··:. · .... '{.
TEACHER: ..How did the p~ant increase 1. - . ..:i::
" .CmLDREN; It.absorbed moisture. ·
'. ::. .
· :.
· · , TEACHER~ . By w_h at ~<:Jans 1, .

· :AcHEn.
•

.. "

t

Through its . ro~ts and pores~
Did this nourish only the roots and
• / ·• ·

0

" s'I ; •.~'.' ·
O"r e

71

XVII.-A . STONE.

•

-

·

' HILDREN. No.
\
_
.. .Ac1rnn. You are right; the sap · was · pro·
~- ~ed, ';.\vhich cfrctilated thr~:mgh the · plant by .
-'~a'ns of vessels~ · ·You remember why we called
~?~eyes, cars; &c. organs 1 · ·
· ·
'ipIIILDUEN. They .arc natural instruments, by
iQh 'something is effected.: . . : .· · - _ ·
~mrnn. What would . you therefore call the
es, vessels, &c'. of vegetables_? ' .. '.
C~IILDREN. _ They· are .organs. ;,_<' • •: .
,EAcHER. A . body possessing organs is called . ·
anized : name 'some organized bodies. , , ....· .
.
:·ilrLDREN. - A tree; an_insect. · . · ~- : -·.,., ;· ·
~~ACHER. What syllable, placed before ·a word,
E!Xpresses the absence of-a ·quality? . ' ... "
_
· - · ··
- ·
· HILDREN. In. ·
.·A.c1rnR. What would ·you_·call a body wbicb
,;(l~stitute of organs? :
.
~
· HILD REN. Inorganized. · ' ' ·
Mention some inorganized subEart_!i, water. · · ·

· _,.

Qualities
~

•,

.

-

of .Stone.'
- . . .

It is. hard. ·,-. "":
·

·cold. ' .- . ·.:. .
· i~organi_zed.
. opaque. ·
mineral• ._ · ·
solid. :
· n:it•·--"

.- ...

.

;\

;·.

_;

-

., '"',7,2. -

TH1RD SERIES.

It is shapeless or amorphous. ·~·. '.;;
inanimate.
- · -~ -- ' -~
!

,:.. .

. Remarks on Words.

FOURTH SERIES,
SPICES, (GROWING.)

"Inorganized," · derived from Greek
(organon) an instrument•

.

~·, .

···t.
..

~-·

.
"

.

,

......

I,

.

'··

. ..

The. Cinnamon,

7

--

'\

74 .

FOURTH SERIES.
FOURTH SERIES.
SPICES, (GROWING.)

z,. .

DEER.

·S.

~ ;·!'

Nutmeg.

./.

. ..:. "fO

:·_~EER ·is extensively manufactured in most of
cities and towns • . Ale and Porter, which
a,.re·rnanufoctured from nearly the same materials,
~r~ very much used in nil parts of our country;
a.nd ·the use of malt liquors will probably increase ·
: : ~n:, proportiol'.1 as ardent spi_rits arc luid aside.

o~r ·great

--£..
>
"'·'
/'

-

-

-.

-.

'--".

. ~ ''

F 0 U RT H S E RI ES.
OIL.

· FOURTH SERIES.

.,
----IN IL

.'I

·..

I
~-· Tit~ ol1 Used for lamps .is genera!l# .?.btained :~
from the whale; although the oil of othe( animals .,.
is soinetirnes used for this purpose. The hardy '·"
Whalemen of Nantucket and N ew Bedford pene<
frate the remotest parts of the Pacific Ocean iii ~
search of whales, and encounter a · great variety .:'~
· of dangersj and "hair-breadth escapes" in cap·:";.
h.ufog thent;
-~

L~_How little are\ve accustomed to r~fiect. on · the
utility of this liquid!
Ink is indeed a necessary
article in civilized life, inasmuch as it is made the
,.:;m'eans of preserving nearly all that we hold valuable . .· Could all the ink at present on· paper be
'instantly auniliilatecl, the world. would be thrown
into a state of confusion more terrible than was
. ever occasioned by war, famine, or pestilence.
7*

,.,.
FOURTH SERIES.
MILK.

!- . \_

.

. ', .- ., '------=-----__ -

.- ·tNTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

I

iil°!i
1e ig 1cs exercises o our
, ·' MrL~· ·:ls dne ·o~ the .most useful of ult articles~ ·
, .~~son. .
et this habit may_be cultivated in chi! • .
· of food ..· .It' is our .ch~cf nouri_shment in infancy, :
, CI.r.e.n much more early than is usually imagined,
and ·debility; .nnd it l~ used in the composition'
} 1fraining them to arrar1gc their ideas. -With
of some of the most gratefu l aliments with which· ·
.
i)J.is
view the spices have been chosen as forming
' dur tables are furnished.--'"The possession of a t;,t
. a;:~connecte<l series of objects. The metals,
cow has often saved a pool' family from utter fa• .;
· · ti_q uids, different kinds of wood, grains, · &c. are
mine. _We :;;hould loo!~- upon the gentle and hnrrrf•;~ .
:~g9od subjects for similar I e~so 11s. ·
.
less ammal to wliom we arc in<lcotcd for this nr;
·;.)'The
children may now be led to consider more
ticle of food, as one of the real benefactors otf. · ,,'fully the senses themselve~. having already <lemar;,.,._
;~::
_j,ir,mined by which of them they discover the pres....'.
·; eµce of any quality. The first lesson is drawn
·. ut for the use of the teacher, the substance only
..~f the others is given.
TEACHER. Do you understand how you gained
;the knowledge of various qualities?
. · :;: _CHILDREN. Ily our sen,_ .. ~

·.r

.
FOURTH SERIES.

80

~·

fa·

TEAc1rnn • H?w do you know when n thing
. red or blue 1
CmLDREN. By sight.
..
. TEACH~R· If you were blind, could you forIP
a correct idea of color? Is· there any other mean
of gaining this knowledge?
. ·.
. {'
CHILDREN. No.
__..,t
TEACHER. 'l'rue ; and to ascertain this point ~ar,
blind person was once questioned as to whut ~o:
tion he- h~d of scarlet : ho said he thought that i , '
must be like the sound of a trumpet. . lt is obvi
ous he had no correct idea of a quality discovertt:'
bl_e by the sight, and he could only compare ·1~
with one that he had acquired through the mediur:µ
of another sense. Can you tell me the reas<?n wh~
persons born deaf cannot speak ?
' . ..,.~
CHrLDRE~. They cannot imitate sounds, hl:l:.
· cause they never heard any.
·
· .,
TEAC_HER. Since then deaf persons have no
correct ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color'
how did we acquire them?
·· '
CiirLD~EN. By m eans of the senses of see_ing;
and hearing. _ .
.
.
-·;, '
".TEACHER.
How then do you suppose our~ •
mmds become stored with ideas?
~~
CmLDREN. '.13y the__cxercise oLour senses.''*' -~.~
TE~CI~En.. I-t11inl~wc may com!m ·e th~_m~
ofn n rnfant rn. s?r_ne respects to an empty box~c _
P?Iile of contamm g many things, and into this th
different senses ei:npty the treasures wh ich -the
collect from -fheC>Djcc fs upo n \vlnc h they act:":;-;

.

-

-1;t)_
at~'. '.

* It is p.ro.bable that chil<lren woul<l not at once arrive
this conclusion; the Teacher must in that case lead them to ,..
it by easy questions.
·~ ;!-"',

./>. .

LESSON I·-FEELING on TOUCH· .

81

~tfyQu ,,m~st not suppose that these materials
e,P~in there unemployed; the mind wo:ks upon
em";:: ',rhus if you have once had the idea .of _a
pg'formed in your mind, by seeing such an am' ill :t when a dog is mentioned you can recall the
-~~; ~nd fancy one immediately, as if it were
iesent ·; your mind will also perform the same
.oy,e rati9n when a quality is spoken of which you
'JiRd ·.previous~y seen in son~o object. ~gain, if
jo(l·;:see a, <log unlike any you hav~ obs~rved
f'{>'r~;'., you compare it with the sp ecie~ with wlnch
-oµ · are acquaiutecl, and mark the difference beeen . them. · If I say that I have some green
ap.e r, cannot you at once imagine the color of
'h ich I speak ?
.
CiiILDREN. Yes..
~ACH:im. · _Did you th e n e xe rcise your sight 1
CHILDREN. No.
tT~ACHER. How then could you have ·the idea
"green?
HILDREN. It was in our minds.
\fEACHER. _··By what m eans did you fi rst obtain
· idea?
CI!ILDREN. By seeing something g reen. ·
.TEACHER. And what retain ed it in your minds ·1
CHILDREN· Our memory.
TE.AOJrnR. w·e will no\~ c onside r each sense

?e-

~rately.

LESSON

i.

PEELING OR TOUCH.

82

83

FOURTH SERIES,

CnU..DREN. It seems all over our body.
-).
TEACHER. Do you not find spme parts that do
not possess the sense of feeling?
.) 1
CHILDREN, Yes, our hairs, nails, teeth.
.
TEACHER. And in other animals wha.t part;
are found destitute of sensation?
·
. CHILDREN. The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers ·:
wool, hair, &c.
.
· 'l'EAcmm. What wor<l w~ul<l you use to eii»
press the absence of sensat10n? Whitt syllable
prefixed to a word gives it a negative meaning 7,CHILDREN. In.
·
· :'.W
TEACHER. _ Well, what word will ·express th"
absence of sensation.?
CHILDREN; ---Insensibility.
.TEACHER • . The parts then you have name
are insensible, and with the exception of these~
the sense of feeling exists everywhere throughout!
the body. Tell me '\.Vhat qualities we can discover
in objects by this sense.
·
CnILDREN. That th ey arc hard, soft, rough,' ·
smooth, long, short, sharp, blunt, round, square ·
· cylindrical, conical, h eavy, light, fluid, liqmd, dry';i
wet, hot, cold, &c.
·
TEACHER. By what general term would
express such qu;dit ies us roun<l,
cal, &c.?
Ciur,DREN. By shape.
TEACHER. By what general term would
express such qualities as large, small, &c.?
CHILDREN. lly size.
TEACHER. By what general term would yoU:i
express such qualities as rough, smooth, &c. 1 . ;~;.
CHILDREN. By kind of surface.
·· V
TEACI!ll1R.
Ily what general term would

r.

ten aBy kind of substance.
EACHER. By what general term would you
press such qualities a~ ~ l avy, light, &c.1
CHILDREN. By weigli' -.~
TEACHER. Now arrange the qualities which
discover by your Feeling, tinder these five
'e.i leral heads of shape, size, kind of surface? kind
ff substance, w eight.
· he children having performed this pal:t, the
acher may mention the following facts.
.EACIIER. The quickness and accuracy of this
· ~e . of Feeling, is, we find, much increased by
~rcise. This is exemplified . in blind persons ;
"ny of whom are enabled, in a great measure, to
mpensate their defect of sight by an exquisite
nsitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to posss~'.' this in a remarkable degree. · They have
;en ~ observed, even after the loss of sight, and
··;.~h .their ears and nostrils stopt up, to fly through
··!ricate windings and . passages without striking
~inst the walls, and also to avoid lines and cords
aced in their way. The expanded membrane
hat serves them for wings is prooably the seat
of this delicate sense of feeling; it fits them for
octurnal and dark abodes. The pal pi or feelers
o.( insects possess tlic sa1m: quality very acutely,
nd this enables them to explore the surfaces of
bodies in search of food, and warns them also of
Ji approach of danger.
·
:The class should be required, at the conclusion
~ tlle ' l$i(sson, to draw up some account of this
nse,' mentioning where it resides, what qualities

ou

-~

~

;;~ii:_?•, ~ -\":_'f: :' ' .

.. .
84

FOUU'l'H

s1rnms.

an'

fall within its c~gnizance, and to recapitulate
incidental information received during the lessoqi

,:-:: .. ·.·~"" ;:r.LESSON ' III.~~1EARING • . , ,
'\·~......... ~·~,; ·····''
...--~·;.·· .. ·
.. ~

o}.ts ' ~niodificatiops;:

.. _'85

of'color, size, ·and 'shape.

'.t' may ~ be ·ascertained' either by touch or

h\;::' as those of si~e, fo.m1, kind of surface, and
stance~ < ·.. - \ -"
. ,,,_
~ . ... •· .
.<-.J.~~·r·

~:r;\J >~

SIGJIT,

;,;;,i
· .: '\ l\ ,,,. ..

. Tho eyes uro the orgau:; of · sight, nn<l . are .
beautifully adapted for the office which they have
to perform. They are so constructed as to ·alJdWI
us to see things at a distance, or near; to confin
ourselves to the inspec tion of one object, or'fo
take at once a large sphere of vision. The par£
of the eye which admits the light may· be ex~
panded or contracted, according as the rays ar .
more or less powerful. This is remarkably e~·
emplifi~d in the eyes of the cat an<l of the owli
Indeed nothing affords a more striking proof of th.
kind providence of God than the peculiar forma
tion of the eyes of different animals, eac h exactl
suited to their peculiar modes of life ; those ·Q
moles, fishes, and birds, are remarkable illustra,•
.
·
·r·
tions of this fact.*
Of all the s~nses, that of sight is in most fr'e
quent and continual exercise. .It fills the mfoq
with the g~eatest variety of idea~, which it gather'
both from the works of nature, and the writing'
of the wjse and good of all a.ges. ·
"':"
-~ _ The qualities we discover by this sense an~ '!
transparent, semi-transparent, translucent, opaqu~1
glimmeting, bright, dark, sparkling, dull, and th~
*The Teacher should here fully explain to the. class · th~­

circull)Bl<lllces referred to, um! give' other similar iu_~tnnces, :~.
I

•

\

I'\:.

·-~

·. -

LESSON III.
-~

.

,;i?;\' ,.: .· ~ ...)IE~~~~:
'

-.

.

-, _·,_, : . . .

_1,ls::ears ·are the ·organs of this sense ; iu many
mri:,Is1 'the ~ external form· is that of a trumpet,
16h''. is' best adapted for gathering the sound, and
nghfg) t to a focus; in man it contains." many
volutions and channels which receive the vibrafrs~:of airrin every direction, and convey them to ·
~:drum of the ear which is the actual seat of this
· se. ~-.· ·
,.
·..,.: · ...
formation ~f the cars of animals i;' bcau.~lly: accommodated to their peculiar habits of
' ~.c?' Iri' beasts . of prey" the trumpet part is in• """ed ' forwards ; easily to catch the sounds of those .
iare pui·suing. ·· ·But in those animals whose
'eC~eans of protection is flight; these organs
,:;'turried backwa'rds, that they may be -readily
priz.~d of the approac_h ·of their enemies.
The ears a.re the medium through which all
sations of sound reach the mind: without them
..:) hould be deprived of the advantages of verbal
ti:uction, the pleasures of conversation, and the
rms .of music. · ·
·
··
he ·inotion of the.parts of a body, or the . col-·
R~ ~of one body agains( an<)ther, occasionS'· a vi- .·
'tiori ' in ·the · air which is similar to the effect
-cli.lccd on water when a:· ston'e is thrown into it
}[Clesucceeds circle tilithc power of motion is

he'

"'·,··-

a

~~~:-·\-.:
.-

FOUilTII SEI?rns.

,--:.-~·: . .-:

exhausted: and just as any light substance lvithfb
the influence of these undulations is agitated _b:
them, · so when our ear is within reach of these
vibrations of air, the sensation of sound is prodti,
. ced. * _The chirping noise of the ericket is occ.
sioned simply by the constant friction of a Iittl
membrane against its wings. When - two bodi~~
are rubbed 'or struck ' together, we are in man
· cases able to determine, _by the sounds · emitted
. the nature of the substances brought into contac~
Different sounds are occasioned by -the collisio~
of metals and that of wood, the sound . producell
..... from hollow bodies from that resulting from sol(
ones. -· There are ·various kinds of · sounds ·: ·.'·
shrill, deep~'grating, harsh, loud, soft, harmonio~~
. ·. sweet. ~ Animals produce different sounds. T~
. · .·.:· cat mews, the dog barks, the lion roars, the ·. ass
. -~_;_· ·.. ;. brays, the cow lows; the horse neighs, the roo
' caws, the goose .cackles, the cock crows, the fl
buzzes, the bee hums. Man speaks, laughs, cr.ie~
. '· ·.shouts, grqans, whistles, sings. ··
·:!
.·

. ·~~

.

....·

·~

.

.....

. '. ,

.

.-

'•

·~ ·:-:_

'R: ....·.~:'

LESSON IV.
SMELL." '

·. 'fhe nose 'is tlie organ of this sense ; its ca~i·
.
. ;_"_ti~s are_lined with a thin metnbrane. which is suj>.,
--. ; __ ._ plied with ner_ves connected with a principal -on
/ ';'. · ~:.: :whic~: is ~ss_e_:?tial . to _the percep_tion of smell.~.-:~~
.

•.

.

."~:>~~

.

~

'

..,

-~rhis ~~count . m~r ' npp~~r.

.

-

. ... \..~,.

ab~ve:t~

i.; ...:- - ..
..
at '. the first sight,:
'·
- - . comprehension of children: a class, however, which-- ha
·:.r:
·gone th.rough the preceding exercises, was found fully capabl~
of'unu~rst~nding"it. '
- .
·
. ·
· ~~-~
;. J·

~'-I J.

) •,)I J t

J

'

I

I: '~ l

.'·

. ,.··

~,-

'-

'\.'.

1i:O~

this

LESSON_V·--'l'ASTE.

sou.re~

. '··.

.

, 87 ·

we derive all our ideas·. of ·

.a~;Y>~Though · not so important- to man as ·the

.t er:'s'enses; yet it .adds, much to ' his pleasure;
• :°'d~l~Q many animals it is essential, dir.:Jcting them
- ,the ,search of their food. The scent of dogs is
~- uliarly'.fine, ·and on this account th~y are em- .
·
· yf)d in the chase. ·. .-··:-·. :- .
P<lor ' is· produced by exceedingly small parti.,_es'1'called cfiluvia, · which escape from odorous _
~o~ies· ; _-, these ·di ffuse themselves in the atmo- .
Ii~ere, and .whenever . they . reach the olfactory
:lie~ves, they occasion ·the sensation -of smell.
. eatpromotes the escape of these particles, which
re~-Of.. a' volatile nature; ·hence when · the sun
-~'!P}l~~ ~ brightly, vegetation scents the air with its
agrimce •. .
.
._

...·.

·.-r"

.
~~·

..

. LESSON Y~

-.

.
T.ASl'E;,~.

·

_..

·-·~.

..

:-"

..

~·

. ' ·~·::. :,. •••• ."? '

_;he·, mouth is the :. organ· ~f taste.. . l'he skin
thin ' the mouth is fine and more delicate than
"'"ilf."·."of the rest of the body: · it is supplied with a
¥~eat/riumber of ~loo~ vessels, '. and covered with
11p;11lmcrnblo pnp1llro, · or small protuberances.
Sa'pid bodies, or bodies 'which have :a . flavor,
-~ny~ver, before they e_xcite the sensation of taste,
require .to be moisteQ~d by' .the saliva. In · grassM!ijg~animals, the papillre are defended from the
aetion ·of the stiff bristles of grass and corn by a
tr~ng skin, which being full of holes, allows the
ars~"olved juice to . reach' tne seat of taste. ,,, ...
· rin.cipal -qualities discoverable - ..., ... ,. ·
iftei, ·. sweet, acid
:· ,,/

...~~~

88

FOURTH SERrns.

•.

'Thero nrc many others which <lcrive their nam~
from the substances in which they exist. , · ~
Many of the animals have some one · of .t
senses . in greater perfection than man ·has, b.
there is no ammal in which they all occur in -t~
same degree.
. ·.t•

89
is co.nservati ve, oi· fit tff preserve things.
.:·<> ~' ,_·- dry. : ·
·· ..
· ,_ ·.
·
·_;·.. : '. '' dull. .
,>.::: • , - sapid. "·
·. :.. >··/
.;:-;::. " . pungent.
·,~ ·- ~: ;' odorous.
aromatic.
medicinal.
wholesome.
· useful.
. _....,
stimulat.ing._·
I

SPICES.
~ESSpN ~· .
;.-

· PEPPER • •

~

I.

'

,;

.

"

LESSON
VII·-NU'l'l\IEG.
•

',pport, and is therefore generally .pla~ted n~ar
~e . thorny bush, among the branches of which .
'W.,.q re~ps like -ivy_. ·· 'It produces berries, which
w~~ m clusters: they· are ,,first .green, . become
·~d'
::they ripen, and . black when ·dried. It
in the countries '.which' lie -between the
.

.

•
,- ••.• ,c ,i It is hard.
,._. : ~;·.
:/ · ·-·J. vegetable.
•
.-.•.-! • • · , _ .~ .;-;•, ·~~
foreign.'*'
.. ·-··· · tropical production.
wrinkled.
,. ·
spherical.
rough.
·..·
black.
'•

"

'Th~··~~pper pla~t, i~ -.a· creeping· shrub requiring

.,

·:··.... Qualities'<![
Pepper~·'
·'
'•

• '.

·tw..

-: It·

,.

:- :...-

,.

.

...
- ,..'•

-as

rows

t'

·;

. , ~....
"·

J..ES~QN

_vu:

.'

• TEACHEn : ·

we get it r

.

CHILDREN. '

If it como from

n

foreign

It comes in a ship.

' TEACHER. Th!s, is called importing; nnd sending out:ot".• our own country 1s called exporting. _What do we call th
.,' exchnnge of productions?
·
_.·
·. ~ ·. • CmLDREN. Trade or co:1merce.
·
' TE~CH?t~.:.: ,And _,yhnf nr~_ ~he people ,called who carry
, ~' .on 1 · . ~ .•
·. ,
.
• ·•· . ..
-. ·
CmLDREN; .: Merchnnts.
.

...

'•

· . _Qualities. · ·
.. It

ts sapid. .

.. '

-_.
hard:. :· ·.··:"
· ...
ovat · :,:.,~:. . ..
dingy brown .>:.: · . · ·.. .. ·
'· "
dull. - · ·;. ,-.c/ :'«
~-_ . : '· opaque. ·· .. ~ ·
. : __ : dry; ·-· ·
\.· Surface 11~ .: -

~- ~ --~-

{)O

r'

f/t: ·.

FOURTH SEUIES.
It is natural.
inanimate.
. foreign.
.
tropical production. '
pungent.
·
·
,,
conservative.
pulverable.
,
agreeable flavor • .. "··

•

•

-,

,.

"'

~

~:,~~'

nromo.tic.

·

· odorous.

. Nutmegs ar~,the kernels of a fruit growing . i.~·
-· · several islands in the East Indies ; they are. sur,
rounded Ly. the spice called mace, and external!~
.: by a husk, nBout half an inch in thickness: Wh~
' the fruit is ripe, the husk open's at the end, an~1
. ' displays a network of scarlet mace . . After · ~h,
· mace is carefuly stripped off, th ere· stili rem~n~~­
.a ' woody .. shell,' which surrounds the _n utmeg.
The husks are · taken off in the woods; and th.·
mace carefully removed with a knife. · The .im_t~'
are ·first dried in the sun, and then placed 01i;: l:l
frame ofbarnboos over a slow fire, until the ker ·
nels, ,on being shaken, rattle in their she~ls:.../\'.
.

. -

· ··' ·Remarks on words.

"'::~.::
- r:.·

,,,.

" · "-_,.'

VIII.-;,.,;~E. ··

LE"80N

:·

.

91

IIILDREN. Yes. · · · ·. · . ,·,
· . · ·.
,
EACHER. Are all .'things that are odorous also
matic 1
•,
:,," • ' '
,
CHILDREN. No. ' ' '·:, '·· ..... ' r ' ' ,, '
E:ACHER. Is an onion odorous 7 . . ·~·~CHILDREN. Yes.
EACHER. Is a·rose odorous?
Cn1LDnEN; Yes. ,.
·
Tl!lAOIIEn. · Are these smells nlikQ.7
CHILDREN. No._· , .. ~ ·7 ·
•
"
.
··
'. •.
· EACHER. Does 'the ter_m, odoro1;1s rnclu~e every .
iii.cl of smell? ·
:'. .. ,· ·.- ·
'·
CurLnnE:r-;. Yes. r~ ~
'
"
·. ' . -· \ .
. EACIIER: ' A 'term which includes an ·. thc v~­
eties ·of· one kind
quality or substance, is
.t led · ;;- generic term,-whilst that . which -marks
7
~~~'.; of · the spe<;i~s is :; called a specific . term.
' , hus · in natural · history, the term dog ·stands for
~"ti~ genus,· and Spanicl is ~ species of that genus •
.' Give examples of genenc terms, and of a spe1Ac. t~rm applicable to each of them.
,
CHILDREN. Odorous, fragrant-colored, red~igµ, Chinese production.s. · . ·. . __. . ·.
.The class should deTermme m succeedrng les·
vswhat terms are generic, and what specific.

:.of

,';!/ j,io... ·••. -

•

·· ·
" .Odorous," ·" aromatic." .
.,
·'
TEACHER. ·Why is nutmeg said to be odorous?
CHILDREN. Because it has a smell.
'·
·
_·. -~ · TEACHER. Why aromatic ?
C11rLDREN. Because it has that pungent smell:
··
distinguished. by the name aromatic.
. -· ,~,
TEACHER. Are all things that are aromatic also~­
odorous 7

'

.

'

LESSON VIII.
.··,.MACE.

Qualities.

-·

It is pungent.
agreeable fla or.
aromatic.

.

·. - ~ ~.-.

,,. ..-,_

J-1

.

· •. • ·...

'

-, , -· FOURTII SERIES.

· . . · dull • .. "·

·;:"'.

--~ ~-,~:'!~.· ~@t:~;e\: ~
.c __

:.:?·'°; ·'

' -. ,< '. . .: . .fibrous~,
·1

·

,

'·.•

.

brittle·. ·
. foreign.
• tropical.
:.-, . natural.

.- .

• c'" · ;c

·.:.:

)

r".

.

,···.'.- inflammable •

. : ·. medicinal.
_, ,; · . . dry. --. • · .
..- .- · ·· .·'-.;. pulverable.

.:~'

·.' •'

r ·, _

->

·, Mace is tl~~ ·covering between the shell or'-thnutmeg and it_s .external husk.
·
:·' '_;'
.

~':.'·

~. ·-

.. ·

.

' /If

-'·

TE-:tOHER •.·. " . F~reig!1." -Should you 'call mac
~ foreign product10n, 1f you were in the place of
··, _1ts growth 1 . . ·
: ., : . CHILDREN. No.
" - ~EA?HER." Should you call it pungent and ar
_ •· --- _. - -- · ·.
matic, if you were there ?
. . ·. CHILDREN. Yes. ·
·
- - TEACHER. · Can it be mace without ,being for.-..
& eign 7.,. ·
·..
CmLUREN. Y
~
.

.

'·

· · Remarks on' Words. ~ -.. ,
r

'

- :.-.;<.

J

,

. ,,.··1-.

-

'

'. /

"}"

-~··

_,...~~ --::~.~" ·: --"~~: lllembranaceous, or composed _
- :~ ·membranes.
' :. . '-.. .,,.
· _: conservative.
0
,
• ·;imported.
_;/·:~-· ::· · sapid.
': - '. .· ;_,_:· stim~_latirig.

"·'.

93
·-

Can it be mace without being pun'f~nd_ a~omatic 1 .~ ·: ·:····., ;: · ·:. · •. · . ·, ·
, HI}'.-D_REN. No. -~
- _,,
.
_po~~ qualities whiCh"determine any thing to hat it is, are called essential, from the ' Latin
;•rto be. . · . .·, . ·
··
ualities which are not essential are .called
~- . .
.
idental. .
hilt' qualities o( mace· are essential 1 . )laf qualities of mace are accidental 1 ·- ·
,_~t>·.•,

>·

-

. . . -~

EACHER.

:··· · -~·- -:: ~">-.< it. ~ ~~~n.ge ~olor. ~
.-

'

. ,.;~:~::~ >: J;.ESSON
' 1x.--'cINNAMON.
. -"f~.:. . ~,,, ', ~ .
,.., '
' ), ' .. ~. .
.'

~.

.

/

.

,

.

:-

~

/

'

',

.
LESSON IX •
·~--:_·.-

j .C INNflMON•.....
..:-.!>.:-<~~

.:..:.!':-.. \...

...:.-<... ;.· ..... ·.
-.~·

_Qualities. -··

·~--- '

'.~ It is light brown, ·and gives ~~me

··
thin.
- brittle. · ·
conservative.
aromatic.
pungent.
-... -agreeable flavor •
,: •;·' opaque.
i.. -. :: hard.
.· sweet. ·
· -- · inflammable.
-. dry.
vegetable.
natural.
foreign.
inanimate.
light.
-

...-

to a color.
·

'

-

~

.

. -· ·.· ...,.' ;;···
XI~~ALLSPJCE,
'•

.•

. FOURTH SERIES • ..

..

LESSON.

stimul~ting.

o

Cinnamon is the under bark of the branches
a tree of the lau~el tribe, g~owing in Cey Ion -an .
M1-llabar. The branches of three · years ol
furnish .the best cinnamon. · The outside bark.i
scraped · off; the branches are then ripped u
_lengthways with a knife, and the bark is gra<luall
loosened till if can·. be entirely taken off.· It i
'<
then exposed to the sun, which has the effect of
...:.:;<. curling it up. The pieces of bark so curled ar ·
: : . called quills, and the smaller ones are inserte
4 -. · • into.the larger. · ~ ·-; _·;-- _· .
·
·· ·
·~· · ·

l ·

,

••

•

-----:----.-=-,-;_--;;;;---.:,~-:.....:..t~· -· ·,,
';

.. -: -· . - -:

Remarks on Wo1·ds.

-. ·'-- ~

.

.. .....,

-

It is. pulverable. ,
medicinal:

.- -··

. . ···r-.· . ·05 ;
.
<

~

~=. I"

•

·1-:..._

Quaiities~

. '·; 1
,•. ~

'.

_,.·- ~-

' .,
.

·~

.

It is .fibrous.'
' knotty
sapid.
rough.
jagged.
inanimate •
vegetable.
tropical. ·
,

r.·

.

, .,

>

•

It is foreign.
. , aromatic.
. pungent. , _
_' dry. ·.. h
· dull. ·
..
. -·-·
..•
·. solid. -,. .. · hard. ,,
. conservative.
light. ·.
· yellowish brown. ;
eulverable.
·medicinal. ·
··. -:. .
_ ,- stimulating.
wholesome.
·'"· opaque.
• . inflammable •.
Ging~r is the root of~ plant resembling a reed, ·
hich grows both in 'the, East and West Indies.
he_:· root does not strike to a considerable deptli;u f, spreads wide. When: first dug up it is soft, ·
!!,d t eaten : by the Indians· as a: salad. That in'rided for exportation is placed in bundles, to be
r~ed_in the sun. .
·
·

LESSON.· XI.
·,ALLSPICE. "
J ... ·

, · ;,,.. ·.

... Parts.
._ : .Q~alities .
1
e inside.
··
· It is aromatic.
outside. ·
· ' odorous.
". '::· skin. · _
pungent.
' seeds.
spherical.
partition of seed-vessel.
. brown.
point of 'insertion.
·
speckled.

v

96 '.

.

· FOURTH SERIE!:!.

organized. ·~~··
'natural.
vegetable: ·).
inanimate. · ·
·dry; .
: opaque.· ,•:.
. tropical. · •;, -

:>

'·, ~ .

~.i t•

dull. · ,
· -... stimulating,;
hard. :, ·' -,. ·.,;
inflammabl

·..
. t:
-:

..

:'

,..
: ~ ."-.'' ~.
.

l

-

of

'

_,.. ..., 1

I;.:;:

•

<(

~-

:

'

:; '

' . ' :. . >~: LESSON
'· .

~':. ·

'.~,·._w ,• •

friabl<;i.~;·;/"

sap1"d . '· '··.- >_'
'.··
-- wrinkled. - :
.
.
'· ·.·. - .--"'-------....,. ~ f-·· conservative
~
. , ,.. ·~- . Allspic-e or Pimento is the dried berry a sp·
' ~~: cies of myrtle indigenous ir{ the W e~t Indies·; ,: _'
· is-a' most beautiful and fragrant tree, producin
. numerous b'unches of white flowers, to which su,c
· -· \ Ceeq the berries; : the~e an~. gathered by the han
_:.. ' and ,' spread out )n the sun to dry. In this oper~ _'
\
tion they l6se :their former color and becom~
-· ~- ~ . brown.' , When the seeds rattle in the shell they;;'
1'"/ · are known _to be .suffic:iently dry, arid are pl.lcked :
-;:"2: in bags for' exportation;", Pimento · is . considered·
,.:-,',;., ·:- in-its flavor to unite : that ~f 'several other spice, 1
'
an<l Iias thence been called allspice. ·
·
~

. l..

. , ~.-·,· . _~ .

'° -~-

~

· ···

~

XII. .. ' . .

'J:i~.-)

':

€liOVESe ~~

,. ..-.

-

·-. Parts:'-.

,.,

.-.

>

••

. Qualities.
.The ·calyx or cup. ' ·. It is aromatic~ , '
· tube. ·· : · · ·
. odorous. ..

"' -

'<

·, .

<: ·

,.

;.

j

.-

~

•

..

-

· ·1 \.
·. "

07

eafits of cup. ---oints of leafits.
.ud: .·
siirfaces. e_dges • .

importe~·,':'.'
'

·,

LESSON :xn •..:,....cLOVES • .

.j;>.~

. _, ..

·;'. >

_

.' pungent.' ·· ·
brown.
organized.
· natural. ·,
vegetable:
inanimate.
dry.
' opaque.
tropical.
imported.
dull.
. stimulating.
hard.
'inflammable.• •
· ·conservative • .
_. bud spherical.
·tube long. · . _
··
leafits __P.? inted • . · . _ · .'

.·, >:

Cloves ·are ·the unexpanded flower-buds · and
yx of ,a species of laurel which grows 'in the .
. ~s1;'Indies. · At a certain season of the year, t~e,
.2,\re;~tre~ _ pro~uces . ·a profusion of flowers m
" ust.ern : they are gathered before the flower .
·lii,;." 8;·\vhen· the four points of' .the calyx project,:
) he ;petals. are' foldeq one . over the other,
rmjng a bud about t'he size of a pea. After they
1 gathered they are exposed for .some :time .. to
e)moke of a wood fire, and then to the rays of
':'~un. ~ '. .
. r . •
. .
.
. .
At the conclusion· of the lessons on the spices,
'.·,children ·should _be called upon to mention
-se qualities which they had found common to
{ as aro~1atic, pu_ngent, dry, tropical, stimu,Iat.
_'_9

,'•

98

..

,:: .
· · LESSON

•·~

FOURTH
SERIES.
.

'·

ing, vcgetaole. · 'l'l~en let some other similar ~u
stance be presented to ·them as mustard • .:
'TEACHER. ' Is this a spice 7
CHILDREN. No.
·
TEACHER. Why not 7
..
CHILDREN. It has not the qualities of a spice·
TEACHER. If I showed you a substance wit~.
-which you were not previously acquainted,- arid
you found that it possessed the essential quali.tfoi .
of the spices you have exumineu, what would yo1.(
-consider it to be 1
~·
:-:~
CHILDREN. A spice.
. ._ .. ( '. ~:1;r,
· TEACHER. ·~ To. ~hat then ~ do you apply ·th.a
term spice 7'·
·
- ·
-.
· • < .- ~:­
CHILDREN~ _·_ '1'<>._a · set of natural producti~-'
possessing certain qualities. ·
. ·· . / ·'~; ..
TEACHER. When a number of . things i a:
·: ... arranged together, each having similar . qualitie
-~
what would you.call the coll~ction 7 What woul
· · you ca}l a ..number of boys who_are placed -~t.
gether because .. they are n_e arly _,equal in lrno
ledge 7 · .·· · . ·
·
· . - •·,
· CHILDREN. ·. A class. ,
-.::
TEACHErt. What then may ·you call a coll~
tion of substances that possess the same qualitie . .
>~·'.·:}!;
-- CHILDREN; __ - A class~ . - ,
- TEACHER. What may you call all substanc~s
which are aromatic, pungent, tropical, &c. 1 · _;_CHILDREN•., "A class. ·
.
· ,
.. TEACHER •.. And what is' the name of that .class
- CHILDREN. · -· spfoe;
· '
· ·
TEACHER. · _What then · does the term spic
express 7
_ -',:·
__
CHILDREN_~ · ·· A class of substances possessi. ·
~
.· . the qualities aromatic, pungent, &c.
·c - •

·

·

'

v

.

'

•·

,.,

-·

.

'

'

· - :.;. 99 .

·'rell me ~all th.~ ;su~st~n~es belong- .
to · that class . . ·_._ ·· -<. ,:_ ·,... ·_-. ~ .. , . • · .: ~. ·
,, :Hi~DRE~. · Pepper, nutmeg, ·mace, _cinnamon,. - · ·· . : · _ ·>· ~ · ·
ger, allspice; cloves. :· ,:- .
Tii;ACHER. · Are all the substances of this. class - ·
._,E.4..CHEn.

~:~D~~;;sr.N~~-} .·"> '.\} . ·:

· .. . _-~-:~·>: _-:~~- :·

.

. How can · yo_u . tell. one_ spict} · from
other? -:-. , . :'"·.~.- · - "· '-... ., ' . ·. : .- - .... ,
CHILDREN·'._ · They nll differ .in some particular."
~EAC~E;t?· ~ame the particular circumstance
ich d1strngmshes ench •. ·.... . : ~ '
.--. ·:·.· : · •· • .
C.ir1~DREN. Ginger is ~ a <root; - pepp~r . is . a
rry; nutmeg is a kernel; mace is the ,_ memnac~ous covering of that kernel ;- cinnamon is ·
;irk; pimento _is a seed-vessel ; clove is a cup
:·flower, bud.. . . . ; ., , · ... ·:-.· ,._. .·
·
· ··
·. .......

·.

: >;

-

XIll.~WATER~;. - ~

'

• •

~

'

L

. ON LIQUIDS.
.•Idea ,to be developecl,. in~ompressible. :-: _.·.
. -

.

.

.·· ~

.

.

' .·" .;: ~:·

~",

...

.

\

.~

...

-"·
~

.·

_LESSON XIII. -

• ·1.

ef

Qualitie's
Wate; .
It is - fluid~--~ / . ;:;'F.: ,_.;
-_-,

.

•.- . '.

"·'

'-.

_· :. . transparent.
' . _.- · clear. ·'· ::' ··"· colorless. ·. ·
· ::"·'.· ·_liquid. . '·

.

.....

,.

"_._,, ._

.->-~· .. ·. ~
.\

,/

.. '

.......
·

~

.. ,

100

LESS_O~ XIV .~OIL .' ·

FOURTH . SERI.ES~

It is useful: '
bright. ·
·· · ·incompressible. ·
reflective. :_
··drinkable.
wholesome;
tasteless. -.
cold.
.,
: inodorous. •.

. ,··

'··

. : . ·~
~

.

rain~

.

'·

•

~ .... ~ ,-.,
~-_.J_

..·

.

~·¢::

. - ..

•

~ ·..

·

\
\

,... .

......

-·

4

·
. , ...

'.·

·~ .L

r

·:,·

. I

.

LESSON :xiv. ,, . .- .·. ·:-.

~
:...•

~

'

hail.

'

"'

.

'

•i

,_..~, :..~.~ snow.

· : .. ,

ponds. ·· ,
springs •.

, .

~

ice.
~\

•

··

. -~~.:~

.· .-:··. --~. , Dijferent States of Wate;.
1 ·

'

pper..ations of. Water.~It :purifie-s, evaporates,'.
..ezes, qu_enches thirst, cools, finds jts own level, ·.
hetrates, ·fertilizes, is .a ,,solvent, . ebbs;·: flows '
~~Pg':lishes fire, separates easily into parts-which
·
\lme a spherical form. ~·
...,~~~: ..... :··_-, .- ..... ·. ',.... ...·. - ~~).

l10t springs • . · , ."
stagnant.

I-_

.

••

r1 vers . . ~ .· ~ .... ·

· rain.
sprin'g• .
sea or salt.
./',_·.
.·. .. . river;
...

...__ ._,

Ocean • .1 ' sea,\,
lake.· ~ ,

'

..,'. , .:." medicinal.

..

. '

. Natural Collections,, of. Water.

Dijferen~ lcinds of Water.
.,--,;-

.

.

; ·: _.. · ,·. · solvent.
refreshing.
inanimate.
penetrating.
. '
purifying:
··.··cooling:
fertilizing.
he~vy. ·. . ·
some waters medicinal,, ..
'

·•.

mist. .· ···~i <· .: '.~:. fogs. · , ·.: ·...··-, : ..' ·... · •
·•. Cloud . ~'
. vapor. ,..' ..~- '
· dew..·. . (
steam.

,· .

' · ·. "' · · nnturp.J.

l

:· ~-

M

'•

/~:'..

... .oxt • .:Jl:".
•.
-·-

?-

•''

* .. .

..

' ·t '· ~:-~' _._,. ..

..·- .1•_.

·=. - .. ·:

Qualities oj;' o~z.·,.
It is fluid: . ,;··.
·yellowish.
semi-transparent •
soft.
·
·
liquid.
· penetrating.
emollient, or softening. ·
9

., ...

-

·102

~· FOURTH SERIES.
~

It is greasy.

--~,- . ~

~

.·

~--:;,

·i_": '·

--~ ::~'. Remarks on' Words. ·'
, ' .

~
:;.·

~

•

J

,.

I;.:, '

j

•'

.

• ,

•I

>'.

•

.

-

':~
'

.. :

\

'

"

''. Em~llient,'' derived from Lat. mollis, soft_; ~:;
. . :::.-,~ ·:' -..>:i :-:·,; >)~: ~ , ·. .

...:• ..:·

$:-~i: ;

• . -

- •.-·_

.

\: •

l

·: -

t

•

~ LESSON XV.

~--·· ·

(

~;

•.

'"

· BEER.

'

"

-·'.

,B~~r is composed . of. m~lt, hops, . an<l water

~iFid together. .·'I-lops are th~ bloss~ms of a

eeping _plant, very· much · culttvat~d m . Kent:
. ~;' place where"' it gro\Vs :is :?aHed a hop-yan~.
' h~:.' tub · in which · the' malt 1s first steeped _is
\I.~ d 'a. inashing-tu_b . ; __tli"a~ ~hi<?h l,to~df_the beer
·· ·. made, a vat.
· . -.
. .
· ..
alt is ·. made of' barley 1 by . the follo\\'1ilg pro--~~·~;-;-. A: -9uantity oCbarley ~ is so~ked in water '
t two or three days ; the water b<Ung afterwards
tali'l.ed off, the grain heats spontaneously, swells,
becomes sweet, and .· is in a state -of ferentation. vegetables, in th e process o(_decom.
·,~iti~n, _undergo several <legree.s of /ermentaon; ·the first-that above · <lescnbe d~1s called
he·{'saccharine fermentation; from the sweetness
t'7i}r9duces. · ·In conse.q uence ·of. this decompo ·
ition 'which is similar Jo that winch takes place .
·'~'se~d in the ground;·_ the barley begins~, t:0
rout . but this :vegetation is stopped by puttmg
\J'}·n.io'a kiln where it is ·well dried by .a gentle

ursts·,.·

eat:·. ,.

\'!:!:"
'

.;

Qualities. '
" It is liquid. ·
fluid.

.·· 103

.

·: · ' It is orange color. · ·
':'.-: · .. ·
fermented.
- · - ,.
- artificial. <~! ·. ,, ~ ··
· :.
useful.··,,. ;'.
-~
'vegetabl_e ·pr_9duction.' : /
odorous.
·
· semi-transparent. ·_ ..
"
·
~;::..._<-~.
·. slightly intoxicating. · .
:.z-:>.: ·. ~:·

The veget~bl~: oil is expressed or pr~ssed OQt
• " from olives; and .comes chiefly from Italy and th~ .
south ofFrance. It is also expressed from 'nufs
. ,a nd other fru°itf and seeds.
. _
· · · . ,._
· . The, animal· oil comes -from the whale and seal,
and is contained ·in-the blubber or fat. · · Ilirds ar '
furnished with. little bags of oil ; this they _appli
· to their feathers, and the .wet trickles off. . Thi ,
provision is.,very important ·to those birds ·whicU
,. are much · in .the water, preventing it from· pe~¢':.:
· trating their feathers, and thus keeping them
the' element)n
which -they reside. ?l
!ight€'.r
:tl1an
..
. ... '
.
...,

. . ~ "r· .:->·· ·-

LESSON.. '.' xv;_:_BEER.
.
. .

'

)~" :·

, ...:-. useful. · -'., .light• . ..
.·· ·;>_:· thick::- '.
. · . ·· ,· ·.· · · . inflammable.
Some-oils are vegetable.
· Some·are animal.
When bad, rancid.
· ·
· . odorous. ·

-:

;.

.•:

'

' .

.

"

,,.

,

.

':"''I.'

104 .

FOURTH SERU:S.

:·.

LESSON
.
.. . ,._ . .. .XVII. :"'

LESSON XVI.

,.. ..

-

1
'·':· •.• , -

orange brow,n color.
liquid. ' ·. ·
.fluid; .
·· ·' · , .·· yielding to the touch •.·
-~ '~~ .,,_~=p'enetrating.
··; . · ...
· ' · ..... '
· stimulating. -. . · · .
..:
· · · -- : :. vegetn,ble.
,. ·
... solid; as occupying space.
. .
: ·artificial.
· · medicinal.
· ". odorous. ·.
::: useful.
··<· conservative. ' ·
· ·se_mi-transparent.

-~: Uses.-T_
o flavor food; for pickling; for -me~
cine.
:~ .1·_._ .- . :.
·
.
-· - · ·· . · •
: · \ _:

·.It is called Vinegar, from the 'French; Vina
· gre. ·':Vin, wine~aigre; sour; because it is fre~
quently procured from wine. The fermentatiori
by which · this acidity .is· produced, · is called th ·
acetous fermentation, from Lat. acetum, vinega ·

'l

••

.· . ·;,:
~ -!;'t

~

,··

~"c

~-~>·

It is

yell~wisI~ •.· ...

,/1

.

'•

J

..,,

~·

-

'

. ...

·

:-, ::
bight .
. ..
..... .
::.~ . :. fl~id.. • . ": .." . .. . '
liquid.·-.-.. ·· · • :> · · ·fermented. · · . •.' : ·. · ..
··
spirituous;":'. . ·,_ '. ··
~; ':·. -, . · ~ intoxicating. - ::, _: :·
·. · ' heating. '.' ' : -. :·:· " ,
· vegetable. <_ ..· ;': · · '
artificial.·. :. .c·•· ·
semi-transparent. ~· ·.
. . sapid. · ·. :. · medicinal.·
, . ·· stimulating.
_·. :·· .. clear.
_,
.,
strengthening. · .
. ·~ · ..
· ' . solid, occupying a space. · ~<.

It is acid.

··l -

-

..

· Qualities. ·. ·

Qualities.

'.

~

._, FOR~IGN W~ITE .WINE.

~ ~INEGAR.

. ..~ . _~... .~_; . .-:~ ·_\· ~ -< '

::•

?..r: ·-~
(.·-- *.

, :_-

r

·- • •

>

·.Yieldiilg tO the touch: · < ···~· : ·,'. ·, ·
:,,·~ · -·;,:~·'!. -.'. .~ f-~-~;l ,;> -.,·.-· . . ;, 1~- :_-.'~;: . "".•
"

...

.ine 'is made from theegrape:;· the 'fruit of: the .
'e"~ which ,is cultivated· :in : Vineyards. :_::The

. S.~i:i'_of its gathering is_-calle<l the:Vi71:t'!{Je,-.. ~he
. pes, . when gathered, · are . placed ··m ' ~ . 'YI?e·
-~~s~, hy 'vhich the juic~ is expressed: th1~ J~Ice '
dergoes a · formentat10n, and b~com~s wme . .
.'is;' which is the second fennentat10n vegetable
'a tter undergoes, is called th e-'vinous fermenta-_
·-· , from it1:1 producing wino.
·
·

106

. ' li'OURTII SERIES.

Ll!;SSON XIX.-:-l\IILR:, . '-

LESSON XIX .

.. LESSON _XVIII.

~

.
. ' INK." -··..

-

Qualities. . ·

It is blac]\.
bright.
usefol.
opaque.
artificial.
liquid.

- . ·· · ·
- ast~ingent, or contracting.
fluid.
. .
· s?lid'. as occupying a space.
yieldmg to the touch. poisonous.
· · · ·
Ink is made of galls, gum, ·sulphate of iron, ·a~~l
water. Galls are ~xcrescences, or bunches taken-!i
fro~ the oak; they are occasioned by an inse~·t
. which. .wounds the bark of the tree, and lays.'.ji
. eggs · ~n the aper~ure .. - The · torn vessels ' of ~ the
tre.e .discharge some of their contents, which- hahl
cmng, form a protuberance, which becomes a (J(i.
_: fensive covering for· th~ eggs. " The insect ha.vi1f ·
burst _. from the egg, feeds, during its larvre -state
011 this substanc~, throurrh which it eats -its wa-:/
~hiJs~ assu1!1ing i~s pe~fe~t form. Sulphate ofiro'
is a <;hssolution o~ iron m sulphuric acid, and when
apphed to the a?1d of t?e galls, it becomes quit
black, upon w~1ch quality the great utility of in
depends. -:. · - ·
-··

.
.· ..
..;,

-

.

...

-

.

.

·'··

·. -101

. .-

. .· ~!~;1i· : ; ·.: .{. "-'· ..

· · Qi+aliil.e8.

:e;: .'~It i_s wflu1d.
h.ite-. :~:· ..
.

. ~,-~;; ·' ' '

· -::.
-·

liquid.
wholesome.
·. mce • . ~ ·' ·
animal substance•
'natural. ' ·-.. · ;' ;:
. .. opaque • . . . ·.

'

'

.·

~-·

~

· soft.

_·

..... '·

,

--

--~·.

· ·

smooth.-·. .
_
· ·· · yielding to the touch.
emollient. : .: ,
__ ;:L · · · · solid, .as o_c~upyi~g a space.
when fresh, warm. - · ··:-- ; _. . ·
·.
·'·;;.< - ··
nutritious.
..... ~ · ...-•
... :·
, -~. -~~·. ---·
. -. ·-: <.: .
,.,. ses.~For animals to "feed their :yoimg -· (all
~.ni~Is .that do so belong t.o the .class. Ma.mm~lia);
for, ma~mg cheese, butter; to drrnk. ~ -: , -~-. ;.. ·.' ·
C~ws " are tho _ani1?als, t.lrnt' in ' general° supply
ilk 1to man. Invalids drmk the milk of asses.
.n~Tartary . they. use . the milk : of ' mares; in
~it:lerland ·: that of · goats; ·in :· the --'northern
mi~tries . that of rein-deers; . in 'Arabia _that of

.- .; . . .-. :-_ .. ,. , .">.._, -.
,r ~~~:

transpare ,
·colorless, the milk is white;
the milk is sweet, &c:
·
Liquids are distinguished . by qualities that
separate ' them very . defi~i.tely . from . other sub•
stances. They · may · all become solid, they a~~
all fluid, incomp~es.sible ·; : t~eir parts easily sep1,J.•
rate, forming -,into '.i;iph~res ,or __ drops; they pen'e
trate into the pores of ;substances; and they fin
their own level;C:>' This Circumstance cai:i easilx
. be proved to · the "pupils by means of a ,syphon •
1
• ••
Having . named . the... properties_ common to , al
. , ~ liquids, the class should also be' required to men~
tion the qualities peculiar_to each, as in the less.oq
on spices. · ::;~. . : ', . ·. _: · · . : . >· ':\.t
;o .·. .

. ''\.
: \ _·

-

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.. .·''.
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~p:ci·~~~ ~f,Mqrc~;y-iri~·cth~· f'?rm ~f: ~u~P~(i~~::;:·. ·
-;~-·

~.

~ ~

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·A Specimen : of .

· Silica or Flint, .·

10

.

.~.· · . '·~.!":" ...... '.:. ~

..._.. ~~'.
.... -.... ··.·-_

- .· ..,:,_......
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..:.· ·-/ . ~:V11 ·

FIFT.H SERIE~. .:·-_·:':_
:"?·:: ,_,.. ~·
jo,. '

,,.

.. METALS,

:

"'

•

;. -

• ,

' '

... :-·

FIFTH SERXES.

&c::.

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~ .

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, :\"A. Speci~en
of Rock
Crystal,
."' I ;;~-..
• ' •

_:;• :

. ••

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(Silica).·•
.·

'·~ ...:· .r;~;~y .

.J~~~-

.
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.,

. : A Specimen of
.'· . ~ative_ ~ilver. ·...

A S1;ecimen of''
Spnrry Le_ad Ore.

...... ,.
~

,, , -~r"S., ,, -~~~~~:.:,,;f.0~~~~~-~
. ConK is the 'e xternal bark of- a · species~: of:oak
_b ich\~x:ows _in · Spain, Portugal, and -9t_hei"·s_~~th-·
ifri'.:Po1:1ptri.e s ·of· Europe, : and is 'clistiriguislied~·by .
'th_e · (ungous. texture · of-·its bark, ·an~. .the ; leaves
"o~!ng'~everg:een ; obtong;: 8:omewha~ 0~a1; 4ownypnd~~neath, and waved. - The prmc1pal supply
if { cQi·k is_' obtained from _Catalonia _in Spain. ·
lte .. afOV~ Gut ~eprescI]ts a cork tre<:;_. ~ ~y,· · .: ·:
t~~. :--,~

..

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. flFTH
SERIES.
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-:

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. ~· ·.. ,..

.....

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;.·(::.~

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~~~~,~~~·1~"'"'=- "';.". .;, ':"~ ~.: .- ·' ~ ,·0..:_.i......,.\. ~ ~:. :-_·
....

\ ·' Wo~L: is .on~- of-the·; mo~t-extensi~eiyu~~;ul;;·~·
~·\' 1:.: · ~icles' in ·existence.·> The .·Sheep . which furnis .
wool ate raised chiefly in .·the · northern ·. arid · tern
.,::• .· . perate regions of' the earth. Much attention h ·
·:-;\~---~ ba.!n p~id ip the ·.United · States
improvir1g ~ o.·
,;~· :.;:· :._Sheep; .; hrthe :-introduction of foreiO'n :varieties
,::;;:<,~;~:: n_nd t.~e' Merinoes · and Saxon Sheep :have:·no~·:·b" _
·,_-";{~):·~:· come. q~ite · c?mm9n. · Still · immense -quantitie"
··,._,~-1-..-.~ pf ·..~o?l ,,~ont.mue ..to : be imported ·from .. (orcig
.- countries, for .the sppply of ()Ur numerous factories
of; ·.woollen cloths. - · ·'· ;-:;
.• -;·

.t - ·

to·

":',.~::

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··.: : .' ,, ~ .., ':' ·

',\;<:•_,-,:

.·, :_ , FIF''l'II SERIES .. ·.

~·both

ia -·its "raw, an<l in it~ .m~n~fact~r~~f:sf~t~ .'Thus, in the lesson on flax, the plant: itself; ~. (
· fibres _when<separated. from the stem, the thtea
_ :: when spun; -and the various substaiices into wl1ic ·
·.-'. '" it is ma<le, may be brought before tho class/a'"'
,: i -. likewise pi~tures· of the machinery erl}pl()yed';_·
· . ··: - - ·. ' .· /. ---~:l;
-. , these op~rat10ns. . _ -. . \
..,- '_,':.Many o~ :,_the· lessons in the follo'_Vi~g ,: serf
. . will contam. too much matter to be present
··_:- ~-- ·.at-one time to the pupils, and mu-st therefore ·
.

>.~ :,.~div~~~~·( ~-:·f;-~-:--~·-F~\~
,......

..;:.,.

, '

~. ·

,: _-. :::? _<> :. .:

-·

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....

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-

·-. ~ . ·;~-~- ... ,·. ,,.·. . ,,. ... •'": '- ,·. -:
~. - .·.- .,: ..-·-:-·~~1
_:;_'.:··" .L eather ia _th; :·prepared ski~ of ani~als rtl~~
. ,( ' .of ' cows, . oxen, · ~nd horses,- is . chiefly .used fo
· shoes ; .that of· k1<ls, ·goats, and <logs, ~ for glove ·
and also shoes; and that of calves· for book bin
.
, _ ,_
. i~g~ · saddles," 4arness, &c. ;,:2 ' • > The. _u nprepared skin is called a hide ·; , the fi~
'·.-'.-.,.:. operation'. it:undergo'es is soaking in lime-wat~r''
~Sf: -~l~anse . it.from . grease and other impurities; th
.. -.; .·::, ha1,rs ·, are ·then· removed by a -kind of k11ifo, tho
>:--' .oil ·and greas·e '. are afterwards . more completer
~:''.:_(ext~acteg · ~y.·'.alkali, 'or diluted . sulphuric" aci.d.
:."!; AJter .this .It - 1~ taken · to the tan-yard, stretche
~.;:,.·>over a pit and covered with tan.; ,in this '.· state :i'
~~,_-;' re'ma~ns. about. _two months. : But if the leath.e
~5'.·>, be inti;indedJor.the upper p_a.rfof shoes, seats . o
. : saddles; .a[}d s~ch :' purposes as _do not . require": ~
-·. to. be very strong or · water-proof, it is first sen
to_the currier: · his, work ·is to; scrape it, · rc<lucing
,.

-

.

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I

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..

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115

·C> '-;-:.:'. >·: ·,

• - _'.'~~,::;:. ~} ;.~~ ~ .

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·.· t:z~~~~:~:' : ~,-~
0

. _. . -< :,
.
.
~ "_-.. ';.~ <_t.:·.
,· ~

.,_..._,

·c· _ :>': .,- ·

:'- LESSON · Il·:.;.;_,CORK•-.· -' ::· ~-

: ·~~-~~~equal · d;gre~ -of ~hickness, mii:l ·-als~ ~o
r~H supple by_oil. or- grease, · The; skins··a~<( arined. -. Tan-· is ·· the -_bark' of the,:oak, pos·\
l~g;ta ; remarkable" degree of~ :i-sfringency; :it_ .
~~quently con,tracts -the ·:.pores _
o f -the -leather,
{i:end~rs it impervious :to ~vet. : The ·· qu~lity
"ch"the . leather thus obtains from the _tanmng, ·'
;'.biried' with -its durability0 and ~_uppleri'ess,. p_ar· ·
_I,.~fl!~-~~~pts. ~-t· f~i: :slioe_s;'_ boots_~ ~,c~

-· . -

.'·: · f 'LESSON: I •

'·

t: ~_:·~;_';.~ :-~ :_~~--'. f:_~_:;_~.- _.:_·_~·. ,·.·.>_-;; . . ~

,'.f#f{_ ;·:,'. ·-. ·: '·»/ ··: ..., ·•· < ·, .-

.

- ~~· CORlt· ~·~ r

.. r'

'

··., •
_.,.,.

.

--

. . ..

· •
.__,.

,:-~~ ~ . ·.:~ ~:. ~. - : ; -~ ;~-. ~.·~~:.~::: ;;::~.~~-~-~ ;_~:; ~·-:~~· ~-- :/)r~)<~ , <-~ .~:- ·• Cork :is ' the ' b!lrk :' of~a;;! kind:
oak,'--growi9g
~~~y':in Spain ~ JVJ:ieii~it is tak.en f.rom}h~' tree;
~ark)s~~pt :io~~it~d_inally' . and' at t~e .~extrem· . '
''.of: the -· sht,··- mc1~10ns . are·"made _round_' the ·.
'' ~' i"" it• is· then.' easily .strippc(Foff by ·means ' of'"
· urv~d ·- rmife/' with--' a:. handle - at both "ends.- .:.·
en .the :bark-is -taken frorTI ; the . tree;· it-.is piled . - .
iP.' a 'ditch or-_pond; and J1e?-VY stones are placed
'il:i(ir(order
!latten ~ it, - Afte1-' b~irigdrie<l,; it-~· · ·
' lightly •. burnt,:~th~i,'.' packed;Jor 'exportat_ion: ·.
, q~-principal .,µse .>of ·cork -is ,to stop · bottl~s t fQ_
r•
ifaJ1·purpo~e if ,is fitt~~ by'~ts ~lasticitr;~a. pi?~e .
. ather larger than . the neck ofthe ·bottle,,. bemg .
,t• '>l< rted intd it/ the :tendency it has to"resunie_; its
rtiier::shape cause~ '. it"\~ompletely to · fiH,\ip the 1 -erture, ·and · exclu_de ;;the · air: > Being· lighter ,
,. · 7water :· iCis '' very 7useful ~- to · those who ~'~re _
iirning -fo .- swim; ·.' by _· buoying .·them up ; ·if is ·
,,iio:·employed in ._the · ~con~t1:uc;tio1~ of ')ife~b.oats,
~ ;,_the flqats of fi~lnng ne~s. · The Spaniards

oL

.to

,.

...

,,_.;

.

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.

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:.~ ;..

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.; ·:..

.

-

_.- 116
- :~-·_.· - .._:,·
FIF.TII . SERIES.
.
. . :.
' .'.·
- make lampblack -~f it." 'fho men
cutting ancl preparing it for sale
cutters. ., . . _ · · ·· · · . .- ·. · '
.... - · '
'··
--~

..

'

I..

•

:..

'

·-·

...:;s~~~f~~· )'~;}.~·;~\~/;;?

~

·.·. ·_. )~E~ON III._
.-:~.'...

•

#

: . INDIAr~"nunnE·~~ . . oR GuM
~ -.

•

·~

• •••

-~--:..;...:-.
~·. :;,;}.

ELASTIC.

·. ~

:1

.

. . _.:. . .--:.-·Jt
.· ~ndian -Rubber. is the thickened or h~r<len~;
-_. Juice of a . tree-which grows in _South America.
··In order. to proc1,1re .it, _the Indians make· incisiOns
_.. -." thro~gh ~~e. oark of the tree in ·wet weather; ''an&
~ m1Jky. . JUICe , ?OZes-: OU~, ~hich is : spread . ove
.·'·... .-. !Iloulds ~L~la~; when th_1s 1s dry, a.second ' laye'
>'/-_- of. the .._l~qUid ·IS- put on- It j this operation is: re.
~':t; pe~t~d till the Indian Rubber is of the thickness
.'\-: : ,reqmre~I. ~ After this it is plac;ed qver the. smok
;\.-· .: .~f :~urning ve~~tables, which l1ardens and darken '
· ~·_.-it. ~ . ·The ·Indians; con':'ert it into bottles ·; boots
· . Th e - pnncipal
·
· ·' to'..'· which·'}:· . '· and
. . · fl am b eau~..-' uses
mdian rubber 1s· appl~ed ·he~e, _are, for the effa.'~ing
: ·'./.' of ~lack-lead marks,' for cricket-balls ' shoes· 'for
~'.'.:.-· ,, flexible · tubes, · syringes, · and ·other · instru~en(
t?:· u~ed by surgeons ·. and ·chemists. · : 'Cloth :·of ·:aif
, , : ._ kmds may be made impenetrable to· water if · irri!
·-::- : \ pregnated -~vit~ the fresh juice of the indian"rubbc~
. .. ~ .tree. Inchan · rub)>~r -cut very thin, 'is n~w 'also '
used to _sheath th.e bottom of vessels, ·and is ·an''
''. · ·_effectu~I-preserv~t1ve :from· the inju_ries ·or shelr
.

.

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.. · fisl,i. , .--" ._.

:. ,,_._, .. , · ·~ . · __

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._,

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;

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,

,,, -·- , .. ,,:~·~ ~~~~~~-%~<~- .:· ,;;"<.:/~:Cc>-."'.:: ,. a

pon'ge is' marine production ;'-it was formerly µpposed , to be a ·vegetable;· but .t he· opinion now
~.!Jerally · entertained ·~'is, that_' it is a h\1-bitation
corfstrlicted by a little worm, one ~· of the · species
onsi<lered· to occupy · the · 1owest mnk --in : the
kingdom.· .} t isJour;id adher~ng to v~~ious··
anne·· substances •at · the .. bottom -of ' the : sea,1'~e?ially Jn~ the Mediterra~ean; it is_ pr~cur~d..
l)~~yers,- ,-'Yho ar~ early tramed to t~1s ha~a~d­
us1--~mployment. Sponge absorbs fluids rnp1_dly, .
~d~·y.iel~s · tl~em · again ~ wh~?- compres_sed ;·-_this:
· ,PP.§!tY-, occa~ioned ·it to be - freque~tly saforated _
-,1th:myrrh and wine, and' giyen to persor;is .suff,er-".
g~~,t4e.· punishment _of crucifixion, _.-• in ', "order to_..
. !i~~ate ·their pain / and subdue_ the · in_t~lerable ·
lliJs(w~ich _ is · the cqnsequence. of- their '·agony. ·
· ii~this custohi the sacred historian refers : in the:
"{fory '.°of~·our blessed _;L~rd' i but ,- his - unrelenting
13ecutors; instead of offering h,im 'the enliv'e ning
ortjon'_ of.inyrrhed wine~ which was rarely_-denied .- .
o the ' vilest malefactor, ,. "filled ·a sponge with:·· · · ·
1_pegar, and put'it upon.hyssop; an(Lput ifto his
- -~
.,r-Hth.', -·~ '!he - 0n~r _of '!'.i_r~egar was : considered, .
~!!hJ.ong : the - Jews, , as an mtolerable outrage to .
~
e'tl.ir. :feeling.s. .It" is . alluded t? in 'the following_.
~;.
assage, · which at the · same time, foretold the
~
uture . sufferings of ,the Redeemer ·_of mankiJ-1d.
~rt _. epro.a9h hath broken ·mine_heart, and I am ~ull· . .
~
f:_I~_eav,i~ess, ~ a~c~ I -1?.ok~d for some to: ~~kep_1ty,
j\
. ·"
,1
"

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:

:; .: : 118 _'.· :; ~ .. - . •. ; FIFTH . SERIES.

. . :f

'· ''
·•.

. ,' ' but . there· was': none;· : ~~cl - for c·~m(orters,: b~.t: .
. :,: _. foun? none~' :rhey gave me also ~all for rnj~'Ja '
,,,._,., and m my thirst they gave me vrnegar) o dnn
<· ' :. Psalm lxix: 20 21.< > · · ·, ; · · '' · : : · ~ · ·-'~-:;' ·".

:i~~'/:'; ,;z::~:: '.{

t :~ '.::~ ...' . 'er~ .•.

-;:· -.· -.:: '"''-· ""'~ .... . ~-,~-:,;,
,.·.
...

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\

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..

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:, I '

'

~LESSON
. '

V. ·

I"•.

"J ,,

· .... : .': · Camphor is ·the ~peculiar juice of a species ·b:.
· ·. laurel called the caniphor tree, ,which is abundan'
" · in China, in Borneo,· an.cl ·in Ceylon. It become.
thick or concrete, by .exposure· .to the.air. :; It"i '.
· remarkably inflammable, and is used by the'Indian .
princes to give light in t~eir ro01,ns. It is pungen(;
volatile, acrid, and ·strongly :. arqmatic. "·• · ~The!)e..
'.: : ·'. 9ualities have rendered it u·seful as· a me_dicitj.e,
and in sick-rooms to· prevent contagion.' It is al(
placed in collections to keep off the '.smaIHnsec •·
that prey 'upm_i the.specim,ens.
·
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Horn is the hard s~bstance. that· forms the .fr~~
'i:.'i;,: , al' projections of horned animals ; these_' are ·-a
):C'"\~·:·gramini_ vorous,* i. e. : eating grass . . This ·~ su
•

. ..

.>;I

} -?:': st~nce, when boiled, becomes, a soft jelly;a!ld ca.

<'f;:--::·· be moulded · into any shape. · ·By a·" peculiar p(
~~·~
,f::\: ces~ i~ ·is re.n.. dered."~
semi-tfanspare_nt;~
and·'
whe' .•
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·1 ··--.. Froi:n 4t. gramen, grass, voro, I cnt. " ,: ;__.'."":..
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•..3~dji~~~~-thin_':· 1ami~re-~ or .'pla_tei , ~.is ·e~ployed .--~-

._

1

'

c>·''.'.:

CANDLE:·

~e~~ ·,,9f ._glass for . !anterf!s. ·.It ·:w.as ,-tpe~' first .·

_sparent ·substance · used . for. ·windows. •It •is
employed -~ for·.: combs, - handles ? to
¥<:;~ . an~ forks, occasion~lly for drinking '. Uten- . ·
~\~nc1. rnkhorns. It "was formerly .· in . much
Ji,e~· request than· no}v; :glass · having been ·subt .ted;for.it.
·-~· ..:,,.
·:"
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OAMI'JIOR,

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'·'~ !~ ;~;'> z~c·;;"J~!f~~ ~'\;

.-~~ON ·yu; vru.-'.sHELL 'LAc; WAX

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Jiell · lac ·is the production · of · a" little: ·insect

;.!:l_l.le~d :· coccus ' lacca,- which__feeds ·on: the Indian·.''

~Jt~e ~ ;_"-:on ·this

plant »it :·' also {>laces · its• - egg~~r.~
or;~11?~ a cell~ around :th_em· from · a viscid liquid,'·· )~h. 1~. contained ill' its own .body;' it hardens in - .
~sun, and in this state is the .substance called . .
· tjc~,· ~ lac; when brokeii '. into. sinall'°grains~ .'it is ' ..
· ~HeP, seed lac; and; if melted and formed into
ipn llaminm or folia,, is shell lac. ·.· ·It is the prin- · . :_
1 it_l ingreqient in sealing-wax and varnish,. and . ,
.~ployed in japanning•.~ . Its ·usefulness arises ·
_jts being fusible, soluble, and adhesive. · · : · , . , ·
1

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. LESSON' VIII.
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. ax is the produce ~f the i~1du~triou~ . bee ; i~ ..
'substance which is secreted in' . their bocliesc" .
~::,of.. which. they construct. their cells. · " Whe~ · '
.. honey is taken out of tho comb, tho latter is :

. I

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.{20 ' ·,- · . .-· .'~ >--'.;FIFTH s'E RIES. ~
. --. . ·.
.
~ .
.
.
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melted, and afterwards · bleached · by exposure:~
the air.·:' In making candles of it, wax in a liqui
·· state -is poured ' jnto -leaden ·moulds in the centt:
. of which the -wick · has - been previously- fixe" 1
·.· The wick is made of cotton or flax, and wh
lighted .the melting wax nses up its fibres
feeds the flame. :JI, ·
'

·., ,:··. .. .,,..,

; ;- . ·~ : ··

'

.•

IX.

"·' "- :'

.'---_ ... · ·(·: - LESSON
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-~~:...~::·· ,~ : -.. •~: . .

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'. ' ,. GLUE .. ·," ..

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._ .Glue ka 'stiCky· s.ubstance,

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used as · 1 cein{
:· The best' is obtained from the skins ·of anirria
-~. generally~t~e~ shavings, 'parings and strips; w4i9'"
· - have ·-been rejected by the ·currier. ,. An infe ·
' )ind is procured from the hoofs, ·sinews; &q~
~ miimals: ~ . It is prepared by stf!eping the skiri~S° .
· two or th,ree days in water, - then : l:ioilirig it tiJ_ ]
.- becomes a thick jelly; · whilst hot, it is _st!·ain,,e
:·;. through .osfor baskets : ·the · pure glue - pf1s~ .
· . through the interstices, leaving . the impuritiesi~·
" ·": the ~ baskets. It is · then melted a' second. tim,~
-., "poure_e,l into ·squ~re frames or moulds, · and pliic~ .
: "~ in ,the. ai:'gradually 'to· ~ool and c?ngeat ·:· WA:~.
. used it _is melted agmn. Glue is usM : by .'c r
· ;" r.~nters ; joiners,•hatters, bookbinders, &c. · . ~-·
'. A glue_ prepared 'from fish, · particularly'·.
,· whale, is called isinglass, .and is used for culinat
· purpos.es,· and .for ' refining ·wine.
.- ·,~,;{
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LESS(IN _x.-cOFFEE~

•

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· ~· ~e teacher will find this a favorable oppor~un'ity '9(~
plnimng the nature of cnpil!ary ut~action. ..
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LESSON X.
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--: _,·_ ·.,·._ . .

Coffee is tho seed . of a plant growing prmc1•
olly:' in ·Arabia and the West Indies; the flower
.,,.~einb)es : white · jessamine, .a~d ~he · .leaves are ,,,..i f.green;, the fru~~ 'Yh~n .ripe i~ _hke ; t~e _ cherry; ·.·
tzg~n~rally contarns -_two. cells, .sometii;nes __only
;~and- each cell has a s~ngle:seed, . wh1ch __ ~s ~f
.ihemispherical · ·: shape• . When ' mat.ured, · i~ ·is
tber_gathere.d by the hand or s).iaken f!om the
·~~s, ·and placed on floot.'3 for the sun to d.ry the .
. µlpy .substance which surroirnds tpe seeds • . The
:-1,{in~· is : broken by heavy rollers, and afterwards
""ifloveCl by winnowing• . ·In or~er to prepa~e the
:ffee' for a beverage, it must be roasted till it be- _
mes ·; of a dark . brown color and extremely
d'Orou~ after which if is ground, and either inri~ed boiled in water. -- It is remarkable for its
re'tystimulating property ,.which is said to have ·
to 'its discovery • . ~ Some 'goats, who browsed
«!>~ . this plant, were ob~erved by the: goatherd to
be,. exceedmgly wake~ul;. and_oft~n to c_aper about
Ik ·t.l~e night; _the pnor of a neighbormg mona~­
'µ-y, wishing to. keep · hi.s :monks ·awake ~ at. their
:atins; tried if it would produce the same effect
· pon .t hem as it . was · observed- t.o ~o _upon t~e .
oats : hi.s success led to the appreciation of its
·" · '
.
·alue.
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· ;:, .. ', .. :" FIF'l'II SEUIES.

.· .· ...
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pl~;1tgr,q;W:

,· : --;.- Tea is an infusion of the leaves of a
. ing in China and Japan. It be.ars a fiower'';r
sembling ' the wil<l rose; tl?e leaves are .narrO, .
pointed, an<l serrated. . The plant grows onlt "
a stony soil, and at the foot of mountains .. an
rocks, exposed to a southern ~spect. · There~1
great art exercised in gatl1cring an<l <lrying ·t.
leaves, wl1_i~h are afte~·wards _subjected . to,)h~.\~
pors of bo1lmg. water; to moisten them. . In' th1
state tliey· are )ai<l Upon plat!3S. qf metal, whi.c
bejng exposed to · great' heat, cq.use the· 1eavesJ
• .. . ?Url Up in the ma1~ner they appear When · bioqg_'
-..> := · ~· mto.- our market. Green tea is the pro<l1,1ce :. q.
~ : t11e same ··plant as bla1;k ; · the difference · of .. j
qualities arises froni the leaves being gathered ..i'
. . ·a different stage of' tl1eir growth,_ and dried . up~'
· pl_a_tes of.copper•. ,· · ·: ...· . :. .
~ '.~f

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~ .. LESSON .xn.
-"/ ·'. SAGO."

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LESSON XII. ' XIII.--SAGO,' RICE. ' .·_ .
.

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Sago is the pitch of the ·sago palm, a tree indi
genous to_Japary and the rocky dry mountains
Malabar.
.
;
.
· It is hardly possible to imagine a plant ~or'
graceful in its foliage, 9r more beautiful when "i°'
fruit than . this . species · of palm. TJ1e foliation'
.· whicl1 .sligl1tly resen~b~es that of tlie fern, is place.
. -~.

·~ 23 " ;
~. ~
•.: ' . - . .
., he Gitem in tho , manner of the feathers.Of a
qt'tl~cock, forming a g1ga~tic basket of the most
ac·{ ul form; ·at the bottom of this is the. salmon9loi:e(f~.fruit, resembling, - both -: in shape ·'and '.
xtur.e;> the coxcomb, but : of a . pale_buff c_olor,
:n~~infog 'to brown ...._ 'I'hefruit.is :a <lrupa; that is, ·
: .Utsurroun<le<l by a pulpy: substance (as a plu~.)1\"':.nut is eatable. T~1e growth of this pl_ant at ·
' .i:·~is-·slqw: it · appears · for some · time _a 'shrub ic"kly set with 'prickles; as it increases in height,
· loses '·its ·thorns• · ' When the tree . has reached ·i·
·
'ht~·rity, a \vhiti~h 'powder passes through the .
· '-"o f the leaves, and sticks .to,.their extremities. ·
'\Jthis .intimation· of .the- trees being · .filled with
Malays
them doyvn n.ear
· roo_ts,
Clfd1v..1.de them u:ito several sect10ns, .whu::h are .
110 into ·quarters. : The . bark is · woody and .about
• }f~"Ph:).n ~hic_kn~ss ;.'i~.. .the.-ce_ntre of th~ · stem_..
. ~'.if~t' gummy pl t~, . which forms ~he ·: sago.
-lfi~)>~thy· suqstance b~rng scooped out, 1s _d1Jute_d
".ure, water, and strarned·tJuough n bag. of fine_·.
lotif~;:which' separates the 'gummy fro~ the Ine~ly ..
. ~$~~; -~~.'!'~is Ia.tter_having· ev~porated pa~t of.its
01st1ge;.1s put rn earthen . vessels, where it dries
i.. ;~ar<lens- into little gloq.u les. Sago~is extremely
tritious
and wholesome, and. forms an excellent
'\.., >C'
t die_t for. invalids. ·. ·.. . · .
.,/. ·
..,t.;t,7 \,... .

.LESSON XI.

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· LESSO.N XIII. .. ·
ItIOE.

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. ke\ is -.the grain of " a '. kin<l of_ corn ·w1ucl_i
ws:very abun<lantly in China, the )yest _Indi~s,
.iSouthern States of ·North · AmerICa, · and m

..
·'

124

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.~).: ;.: . _. :· . · · ·,.·;- ._,:: :·x. · ... ~·~-~t~1It~:1~;·'-~\>~>

FIF'1:1I SERIES;

South America. ·It will not thrive without. mii~
- 'moisture, and therefore comes to the greatest p~
fection in marshy lands. The cultivators o( ri<;
. · always inundate their grounds, .and the higher,{ ,
· water rises the higher the plant grows, the e, ·
· · always · appearing above the ':Vater. It requif~ ..
as much heat to mature the seed, as it :doe
'moisture to nourish the plant. Rice grows fo.
. spike · rcsembli1Jg . oats. · In · Indin the worn,~
. ··. · thresh.· .and prepare the : rice, which is ~ a .,y~~.
laborious_ . employment. . Brahmins live :; al~c:> .
... ; entirely upon it, their religion forbidding,~hell\H~
. ~" ...,use · of animal food. Rice serves not only for foo .
· but is also manufactured into paper, aqd ve~s~l~
. which resemble china or alabaster. .· . .
·'.1,.
.
....
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· .... LESSON XIV.
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, There are several kinds of paper, viz. Egyptum
_· ;paper, ma?e of~ r~ecl called P~pyrus, growing "?~
> the banks of the Nile, from_wluch paper takes) ·
.!wt
name. ·
, , ,
·
·
·
.~...
. ... Bark. paper is made of the inner· rind of ~ree
· ·. ~; -Cotton paper _ · > ·: cotton •. · . -'.:.: ~ , ,;":
·. · ·: ._1 - IncombustibJe paper
asbestos! · . · ·
· · · -· ... ._European paper ·:
~· .. linen rags •. ·
'.. Indian paper ~· ·. - ·
silk rags. .
rice. :
.
.., ,
. ·· Rice paper ·:.. ·.-".~.
· Coarse brown paper
the ends o_f ropes. ,-~
..~ A,~efi.c~n· straw
paper straw •. · · · · · . . -~-~
.. ,,..· . . . . . . '"'
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e··· fourteenth centi.Jry; · It ..1s '. m~de · ~f lmen
'"': ·'- these ·are· first ':carefully · pick~d ,and .sorted,
''t<ling ~to 'their qual~ty :; .the)'. arr :_theq.:re?uced
~lipulp-· by a :_ Ill:ach1pe, .~ wluch ; coqs1st~ of a .
l f cylindrical'. piece : of . wood, rnto whic_
h · a~e
te·n~d 'piates of.steel;' ground very .sharp:· this .
fi~ed ·iri"'n trough into which !!1e .rnB"s are put
Gt-a 'sufficient ' quantity of water. :.' :A.t·· the .·
··--i;n':'.of:'the .tro~gh j s ia; plate :with~: ~t,e.e} 2 ..hars _·,·
ii.~ 'r.ou,nd sharp': the e!1g~r:ie b~mg.tur~~d. ro~nd .
i'tli~: considerable , velocity ; ~ an~ . the !.ag~; pass1pg
· duglr 'the two··: sefs · of iron· pl~tes ··are :' torn .to
iflJe's ' ,..and ·in the course . of.. four ·hours are re~
cf~cid.~to· a pulp. ·· The 'motion_ of t~e engine causes
;,~\~~t~r .fo the _trot1gh ~Q circulate, ~,and by ~hat ' .
'tans ·constantly-returns ':th~ stuff t.o the_. engme. _ · ·
• ""'~:~iro~gh ' is ' fed with:_.,clear 'water 'at: on.e end' '
"Jllie tlie dirty ·water ·is·-carried off at_the other
'6\1gh hole defen.d_e,d with wire gratin15. to P.re-t'the':Cscape of. the pulp also. From _this, wl~1ch
~aJ1 ¢d_ ~h,e ._w'!:shfng~e1wjne, the rulp pa~~~s.:1?.. a
"!~~ ( of;.:puri.ti anil. w!1.1_tern:)ss to . ar10th~r en1p11e .
mJarlr:' co_.pstructe.d, :. apq ·>.ca,Ved .· t~rn ,. bea.ti1!g~- !'he ·only difference ·of tlus ·operat10n
grir·tlie;forrncr is, that the velocity is increns~d,
~~-:·th~t ' it . is . n·o lqnge.r necessary to introduce .
resh'-\vater;.the pulp jlaving})E:JeI1 .a~ready .c_l~~nsed
}.cfrn its i~purities." : F~om 'he!1ce ~~~ pass!'Js rnto a
~-rge v~t .· c.onncct~d w1!h. bo1lers,. a!1cl the heat
roduces a degree o( consistency: Jt IS afterwa~ds
··,-pv_ey,ed into s~aller~ ~essels, i~ ; each · oPw~JCh
·a 1 wh~el called an~ agitator, ~vh1ch preven,ts the
'~!.il: ·fr~~ . ·sinking .. to ~le bottom. · I?~~ .: ~hes~
•':1
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;i_h;: ba~~er· '~as.' fi;~_t i~t:~~odu~.~d·:.·i~to~~E~g~a~d

·a

PAPER. -

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.(,·~<-. ~.i ~·-:.: LEsSoN ''xrv.;:..P.APEn.'. :~:(:~;~. ·. · 125

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FIFTH SERIES.

:·_. ~1'~· .

~ /~·~....

':·vessels n workman dips a mould, a kind "o f si~'v
the size of the paper to be made, and about;'·
· ~ inch deep; ·the bottom is ·formed of fine . br~
·- · wires through which the superfluous water passe
'!'.he ·skiJl . of the workman . consists in taking 'i l,i
just so much 'pul~ as is ~ecessary to form .:.t&'
paper of a proper .thickness. Another workman ,
s.tationed to receive fr()m the first the mouldf';-Ou
of which lrn ,turns· the ~heet upol'! .a felt ~r woolW
. cloth; another :woollen .. cloth 'is . placed · upon~~ .
ready ' to receivE'. .~ the next sheet. · Th.us . · ~h~­
. :· · proceed, · placing alt~rnately' paper'· ang fel t;;li}
·· · · they have ·made · six_. quires· of paper~ . . ., 'l'his:
- then .wheeled to the press, .'where great.I.for.c~;~.
~~,' appl. ied,-ancL·th~- water jg squeezed fron{it." Af~Et
.:· -- this · the .' paper is · separated from the ·· felt, ;_9n~ .
· . ··· ·sheet · is laid upon " another, and it undergoes~ · .
. .· -' second pressure. · -This operation -is ' repeat~
\. _' · five or " six ' times before it i~ : sized;':. and \'.~~ '
, ·,· .slieets are separated from on_e ' nnother betwee'
. _ . each application of the screw- pres~. They ·:a.;e
· afterwards hung up to dry '-in roorps· where th.~i:'
. : . is a fresh. c_urrent o~ air .. In . this ' stat~ ,!hejni.l?~~:J~
:;.:.· _ · a_bsorbenthlce blottmg paper; to ·fit'-t for_wntu:i. ··
··:: -.,· it is 'sized. Size is made·· of vellum'I(< shavin ·
:-. boiled'. in .< wat~J:;· ·with white ~ vit~iol, ~ ·an·d . alu .·
: . ·finely pounded: , After the paper · is 's ized, : it_~:
'~ (;. ag~in pres~ed four or :(ive times,' and h~ng tip.~t
' ' ' dry as before.- It is then told ' into quires, ,and sen
< '.: ;' t9 the stationer, who prepares it for sale. ; ·:: : _·,';:
_;> , ~ t It is probable -_that skins :Were .the first supstan{;
{\,:--~ __. upon_:~h_
ic.h characters
were ''. written.
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•:-· . . ' ; ••

t)>.·'~:··,' . . . . . - ' ;·~ :.. ,..._·1

terW~;ds' in· pot~ _or '~~u~iblcs 'of pip~-' clay in. the ·

· :':

'elr/ d,fur.nace, is fit f~r t.he:opera~ion~ of blo~mg.t· __ : "
-

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.·, ,· t''.::

.,. GLASS • .

..:"'' ·'· . . .

~;

: .. -~>·< ·::;..~:Y. "(,

. :" ... -'<~>. . '

.. Glass is, made from an alkali a.nd sand ·or .flt
which a1~e subjected t~ the action
fire. '.. Tli
mixture is said to have been discovered accide'nt.
uJly in Syria by some merchants, who were driv;!l!
by stress of weather uppn its shores. They :~a,·
lighted a fire upon the sands to cook lheir foo~'i
· · · ·the fir!=J was made of the plant called kali, whic.
»·. grows on the sea-shore; the sand inixed with :~H
··. · '. ashes,· became'vitrificd by the heat, and ,glass· w~·
~. ·· ." produced. , ·The ·merchants observed the effect:o
:. · the-. union. of these · two substances, and thus ..
··' , fur~is~ed the:fl.rst hint for the: making 'or g!~~
Which has since been .carried tQ SUclJ great·
·. fection. : 'fhc ::first ·place where the manufac(t.i.:~
.
of glass was.carried on was Sidon in Syrip.. '· En-.
·· · , land · is_ no\v much ·celebrated for its glass. -,, TljFI
,. . . qualities :w,hich _render. glass so valuable are, t1i11t
·<. ·.' it is hard, tra~1sparent, · incorrosive, ·· not 'bdng :;~f•.
fected by,any ·substance but ,fluoric. acid, and tha
whell" fused i( becomes so ductile ai1d plastic' .ti!(
it may be · moulded into any form, which it"·wil
. r~taiil when cool., It can be_cut by tl~e dia~?,Ji@
· only. There are three sorts of furnaces .used .:m
. making glass:·: One to prepare the ·frit, a ·sec-~n".'
.to work the' glass, and a third to anneal it. · After.
having properly mixed the ashes and sand,· tliey· .
· are put into ' t':':e- first furnace where they · af
burned or calcined for a sufficient . time, and'
come what 1s called frit. ! This · ~oing - qoilo

of

wa
per

be'

.•
~

·..

'.

! ~.

,.

• •

t

••

•

·~ tannealing .furnace ·1s .mteµded to cool the gl_a~s ·. '..;"~
rY.1gradual_ly' fo.r, if .i f be expose~ to ,~~e ~o!d. ~~r:;. : ·::
.mediately . after being ~ f?rmed , m!o ~ :ut~1:1s~ls? , it . ·. -~
Jitfalrinto a ; thousan<;l;
P!E'.C.es, as_1f.. st~~_ck
.h.Y a , .
~----· -'-• . . - _.
·.;;. . . .,
·- •... ~.-· . ·-·.. ~
:: '-~ _:,. . .;:'1 -~

'~;;;;~: ;l~~s ~~~ ·i~~~~t~d,~ ~~i~ ·~fol~~~·~(~ca ·
e "used for windows~· ·_;- ,_ .. ;, .. :.~~''.'-r' ' .
~.::.'. _: :~ ·.· l. ... ·. .
_.. . :.; ....... ' •
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LESSON .xvn.·"

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. <-.. ~,~ '" ·. .•

. .. •· mfil:.~~~. .:.')· : '}i}r.>

Wh~l~bqne .is ·taken' f~o~ . th€'. · jaw.bon·e·:of ·:the

··a le; the largest animal that .-now· m.hab1ts ~ur ...
li!.b~, and whose ~ mouth,.occup~e_s_ a third .part. of ~
The
.?aught m the
--' .nner.
' .. When
of the. fish ··is ·ascer
. the vicimty
.
b t ..
uied 'by the water wh~ch it spouts up, six. oa. s
·~dispatched , from the. vessels employed m this
hery, ,with. si~ rowe1:s i.n-each, anq a ~a-q· called .
1f1:iarpooper, .armed 'Yitl~ a forked mstrur~ent
lle.d a". lmrpoon ;'to_this is affixed ~ r.?P.e, at the
th~r "end of which · is a gourd; this ' mstrument
'B:ving ·been'. ·darted into · the whale,: .the -g?urd
'ii._rks· the·· spot wherq ~h~ ~w,ound~d..amm~I d1sap~
.,,.ears.
.. ,...,.··'·The whale when. . struck
. · ·dives with· . sucht
· ~lcicity into the sea, that it is nece~sary to ~_we
~'>rope which' he d~aws over the sid~s of ·th.e
'ciaf to prcvc~t its takmg _fire, and the fi~herm~n
·n'd "it.necessary'. to let go the rope for a ti!11e, till .
.,e~ whale .be spent, otl.1erwise, he would smk .the
·\ by }li~ .ext.re ~e_vio_lence •.. T.he _whale .cannot ·

~fl-1bodJ.:.

. ~\~·

.. -·

'

f,''·
~-:~ ..~: ·: . . -.

\...,;,_'

whale~ ~r~

.

1

.

f?llowm~

.

.;
' .__ . Fl~!I ,S ERIES. :

,, -

,_._

~ \;_~,

-. . rema1_n long under ·· water; · he : soon · reappe_n s
spouting . up _blood, and · is ,a gain · attacked 'byJH
h~rpooners, who, · after repeated · efforts; , dispafd:
hu1.1. ~~hen dead, . they cut him up; the ,:-:(at
wlnch Is called blubber is stowed ·into cask's
and oil is afterwards ·procured from · it.' · ' Th
bone is . used ·_ as · a :·stiffener, for whips, bow!i
-- bludgeons, &c. The · -chief whale ·fisheries- a't
- on the coast o( Greenland, and in other parts o'·
the northern -seas. · -.
·
" <·:t" ~

..

.:iYt

- -~. LESSON
-XVIII~
._ ,·, · ... . -.
.. .
.. . .

·- - · ...\;,:

, :, ·.. ·..·. '" .'f · · ·
...

.

',

.....

,

/

..... -:: .

''

_''' BREAD,

Bread is composed ()f Hour, yeast, and a littf'
_salt, 'kneaded together \Vi th wate1; into. a soft past_
<·, called dough. , Flour is most frequently made ,o
,"o' •. wheat, which when taken from · the 'barn is firs
-. , thrashed; the - instrument employed for this." )ur
-~: -~- pose is either g. flail, or ·a thI;ashing-machine ;:_:th
~;>: ~rain is· nex.t separated f~om the ch~ff by winnow
}ix~: rng, -,a_nd the." forme.r is <::onveyed ·. to _the -miU
;1::;, -~where hy grinding it is convei-ted into flour\ :ttr
- ' i : : skin of . thEil '. grain when ·: separated is called ·
_-: when le(t with the.flour/ it niaJrns the flour br~wn
, ~·:_.er ~'and · coars_e·r, -~- T!ie - yest is_ _the -fermentatfo"
-~· ;;__'which rises to .t~he top of new beer; it penetrate
. · ~- - the dough,- disunites the particles, ·causes them ~t "
rise, and thu_s mp.kcs the bread light . .·It is simi~
lar in its effeets,to: the leaven mentioned in Scrip:
· ~ure, which is sour dough penetr~tirig- and chang~
. mg the state of Jhe . whole mass. ·,Our Savior. call
-~
' ,"·· .
..~
. .
' :-...... ~ .
•>

bran

...

,, ·,:'

1

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•

,I

_..,!::J~:jt~~~i~,i~~~y;~~!;;.?.

~.;, ;, :; -LE3_SON -_ XIX.-SUQAR. -;·.-·,'->; 'Y-'-'· >:q131, ;).·_.>:'.
s~~--.,~:~· ·. ~. ·. . .; ,,. ~-<J :; ~,~·,·-~.-r·:' <"~; . 'J!!~.;:~::\tf~~~~;- .'°.l><~-·:"1'.°""-':, :

J! it_!Jl3 br~ad of_. life,;;tl~e .:no11i:ispn1en:t br~a:a :::~:,'

,~,r. Qgr .· podies, · represe_n tin'g )n: ~~ f'1-int ·degl=e,-t _~-- ·, :·
19_µn_sl!_m~nt: :I-Ie, affords -our · s_o~Is:;.when_;- he''~- ~: ·

>

'}h_ezµ -w1th the hid~en'- manna, of'. his 'wo,rd j '•. '·
. -~from its nutritious ,an'd ·w11olesome ·proper/ 1..·: ·~­
_,_ s, <_>ften _termed -the staff _of; life, ":and :is_·fre,;~·\: _ - '~
_Jly;«us_ed.to $ig~ify .food_.:ir~ t. geperal.'"-'~·A ,.iii-ali~~\ :;,·~·· .;
, l,ls-: SaIC~~ to earn ·~ his ~bread 'and We· pray fo'r •'.- :,: . j
::(Jailybreud.
- ·_,_,:.-:,- -' ··· .'_. ,,.,-, ..... .• 1·::1:t.- -~- ·:
Y~~- oats/ 'and barl~y,': :Jndian ~~rn aud· '. b~~{-\: '·:·~:
_a~;-_'are :so!netimes-_made ' Into bread. -' ... :0:,.:"/~~·-·(~·'..;t: 1:
1

~',*'."':· ' .,iL::~;:j)·tt~;i;~~llf~\

·g!lr is the produce o(. the StJaar-cane -· a ~plarlt ~: ··
West' Indies> : - _:·
Jl~~i,.• e s~ut ernmost states of the:;~ Union : ~~-·A :_-::.' ' .- j
· i o_f-· c~11es .. in : blossom presepts a~beautift~l) :< ·_
-t
· ;.,~:th«;i '- stem 1s ,· a ' jointed ·-culnius : or'7 reed°"..;,. -~ _l
_/;rip<d_~ i~ of:a bright'gol2en : hue/_·g~owini~> _· ·_.
_ . ~Hong narrow pendent' leaves. :'' -. The flowers ;·,:~'> · '.
· _, r 1,ike a plun10 of whito/eathets tingefwitl~f-·'. · -::1
.~ ..f.{ he-lea_ves afford 'food -for· the cattle; when?.'' · _,
·- .d!Q~ cane · or. s_te!ll .is ':gathered--ll:nd Gon~eye_d :·~ · . ~ mill, where 1t is pressed -between .- two-iron 's. '·· · ·
~11aers; -t~e- Juice is received ·into a. t.rough~'-· a~d ~· ~- -:- · !
·1: J hence 1t Is conveyed to a boiler,· into which ·:,:·
· - -i
c~-:quick-lim~ is thrown; this;: uniting 'with: the 1 - .!
m_ous -particles and th~ · sljperabundant-a_c id;
, ,.- }V~th them to the surface and is skimmed 'off.
. ~- the sugar nearly boils, it is strained off
~;:· . .
'
. . . '
.'
. . . . ..
.
.
•'·,
.
~· ~ ";'... ':"' . . '. ..
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.>il~""tihng, prinhcipallyin-t he East :nd

l

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FIFTH SERIES·· - , ' .

,

· ·

.~k

· .. i~to .another boiler; wher!'J.'.it un<lergo~s the·?'!
pro9ess as befqre: .. This is repeate<l ~ix•or .s
- times, when it is received -into coolers~ which
:'shallow .wooden ' vessels. · In · these :the : ·s
· ·forms into grain~, separating itself fro~ the~.
lasse.s; when dry ;.·it is ' called raw sugar,·· and
. ·- barrelled for exportation. The process ;of ~·~:·
-. verting it into white or refined -sugar,·' is?
." ... business of .the sugar-refiner or baker; ·he · b .
'" ·.: it over again, . putting bullocks' blood and wh.,
·, of eggs into it to cleanse ·it from its impuri_ties:.'
.· ' Th'e pl~nter is the cultivator of the sugar-can~
.The merchant imports it. The sugar-refiner c_J!r
. ~ verts it into white sugar~. - The grocer 'sells :f·
' sugar in retl:iil: quantit~es.
-' · ·.•i - ··\t•;
1
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." ·

.

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.,

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~·

~
--. LESSON. ·-· xx.·
.. . .
· . . ;-_,
'

-.

-...... HEMP..
-.;

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...
.

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- ' - '· :..
. -~~ ~:.

. ·' '-:.. ,· .

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_ .. · _:>" Hemp .is obtained 'from ·an. annual plant .w·h
'. ~jhrives in a rich · mois~ soil in temper!lte ,clim~
~:r. · ·.,.It is much.cultivated -in some parts.,..of Engl
, ._· . . and '. the United . States; and, in Russia it · fo
· ·. ,.c_one of the: chief urticles 'o f com~erce. :.The·'~t
:~ · , _ -:.~;, mainly consists of a tissue of fibres joined ~og~t
' , .; ··, by a soft . substance ' which· easily . rot;;. '. At~.
~, ,·:· . _'_:: proper seaso~ ips gathered and s!eepeq in :w~J
·.: . . · .-,·~ then ,beaten m ·order toloosen the bark from"
_:::_. -~~ -0:· fi_bres. ;·:· This -is· completed.. hy an 'operation' caf
.::> · _-; • ··: carding, performe(Lwith · \an instrument.'.<ies~
· · . < ~ling a_9omb. ,~:: 1tis':next, ~pun, and the~
, '..mto .. the: -hands. of the_ropemaker or weaver~7
cording to .the us~ _ for which it ,is designed. ''i

pa:

.-

..

f.·" . ~•. '. -- ~···

.

LESSON

_4().;extreme

133

'xxr •....:..FLAX.

""

- .

\

.

.

·- - - .

toughness; pliability, l!-nd duraty:of hemp, fit it peculiarly for purposes where
t ~ ,~trength _is required, as ·the cordage and
)e '.; of our vessels, and fishing nets. · -If is
,puted that the sails a.pd cordage of a first-rate
,,,. ..~~f war, require as much·hemp for their con~ :~ct~on, as would be the yearly produce ·of four
,.red and twenty.four acres of
.land.
· · <.
.
... ..
,.~~· ; ~r· ..
~.,,.

LESSON _XXI •
FLA.x.".·• ·

·.....

·.~ ~

.. Jal: is a slender annual plant with a hollow ·
stem, and bearing a delicate -blue flower.
r.(),m its fibrous bark we ~procure the comfort of
~ ~n, the beauty oflace ;_our vessels by its means
,«:? ' wa~ted across the 09ean, and even its rags are
ad~ rnto paper~ In the book of Genesis we
·ad.~t~at Nual~ slept'beneath a tent. · Egypt also
~_' early · attamed_ a wonderful perfection fo the ufacture of Lmen. · The seeds of the ' flax
: : rn~tch liked by ·birds, and · produ~~- an oil
Wd. ' linseed. oil; -.from Linum .· the botanical
, e, of the plant. When the flax is gathere.d, ·it
, ~posed for some ..time to the influence of the
, :~ to ripen the seeds; which . are afterwards
: _T\lshed . oul:, and the oil is pressed out, or ex:
..t~~s.~~d from them. · Tho ;stalks are then loosely
,CI .':In bundles fastened to ·poles; and .· placed · in
gnl!nt pools, where ' they are left to steep for
,_µt fifteen days. ·-By the fermentation which
1!~.s, the _bark or flaxy su~st~nce becomessepa•
C;3d, when the stall~s are , tpmly spread •on the
·;.,.: I·
. ·12
· . ·. ,': ,- ·
~rous

-·"

\.

134

FIFTH SERIES.

135 ...

xxn. xx1q.-cQTTON' WOOL·

. grass, in which state they exhale a very disagr.ee
able and pernicious odor. After this operat~Q'
they are beaten with a mallet, which removes th'
pulpy substance and loosens the fibres; these a'.r
then drawn through a comb with coarse iron teeth
and afterwards through one with finer teeth. Th
refuse is called tow, and is the substance usel"t
m~ke packing cloths, and for the calking '~·
.ships. The operation of spinning which ne ·
' succeeds, is' drawing out several of the fibres an
twisting them; this was formerly done by me;{
of a distaff, but now it is performed in a mor
expeditious manner by machinery. · Weaving,_;] '
the final operation; it may be regarded as a fine
kind of matting. To perform it, the · thread~
which compose the length of a piece of cloth are
first disposed in order, and strained by _wcights 1t
a proper tightness; this is called the warp. Thei~
threads are separated by an instrument called'7
reed, _into two sets, each composed of every other
_thread; and while by the working of a treadl~
_each set of threads is thrown alternately up aii
<low~, the cross threads called the woef or
are rnserted between them, by means of a littl
instrument, sharp at both ends, called a shuttl~
which ·the weaver brisk Iy throws from one .hana
to the other, and which carries the thread with i
This. is the most simple kind of weaving. The
quality of the flax depends upon the soil in
which it is cultivated : but the finen ess of the
thread. in some degree also upon the dexterity of
the sprnner.
·
· 'f

we·

·'
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·<~·.~#

.

'

',

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.. .·-..
..
..
.,. '
,

·'·

LESSON XXIL :

·,:

1 ....

·' COTTON.
'

.·

-.

~The. cottqn plant is cultivated in t~e East

and .

es(-: Indies; jt produces a beautiful ·yellow
&w:~r:·. and the seed vessel is a pod containing a
'.h\te downy substance which surromids the _seed.
J~_i13~ is picked by the hand, and separated f~om
he/ seeds ·by a machine which at the same time
66s.ens its fibres; afterwards it is packed ·in ·large
. -~g~; _and sent by the planter to the manuf~ctu~er.
It':l.is' then carded ; that is, wound upon cylmdt1cal
cards ' worked by. machinery; afterwar~s . it is .
rqyed, by which process the loose fibres are ' re- .
mov~d with . an instrument resembling a ·: comb;
t-~is 'then twisted and drawn out into threads -or ' ·
and ·s?nt to the .weaver: · It is made into
Jn.l)shns, .calicoes, stoclnngs, quilts, corderoys, &?.
· ,~e"machinery . employed in the Un!ted St~tes m ,
\ t!ling, roving, ·and spinning, is quite admirable,
an(:t: occasions our cotton goods to be mucn sought .
aft~r:'/: In India ~nd China some· of the ' plants
. rod.bee a buff . ~otton, of which nankeens. are .
.;, iiufactured.

.

j.rri;:

LESSON XXIII.

,\

WOOL.

manufactured from wool, is par.
to cold countries; it does not

.: :.~ft:\.:~~~=\:-.t;~~);s~:;;~~r~~t§tf¥~~t¥~~~:~;~.
136 '

FIF'l'H . SERIES,

communicate warmth, but being a non-concluct:o
of heat, it prevents that of our bodies from e,s
caping. Wool is the hairy covering of she~ir
and is taken from the living animal in the surri
mer season ; the operation is called sheep-sheai.
ing, and the wool in this state the fleece. - T~~
wool of the Spanish sheep is particularly ·fin f
in that country a flock often contains a thousati
sheep. · · ·
- .": :.t'.l'
The first operation performed on the raw WQQ.
is to pick and sort .it; this is particularly needf1:1l
as the same she€p produces wool of vario~'.
qualities. ·It is n'ext cleansed from its impurit~!').
and committed to tll.e wool-comber, who by mea~
of iron spiked comos of different degrees of fin~
ness draws out the fibres, smooths, and straighteB~
them. It is then prepared for the spinner w)lp
forms it into threads, the more twisted of whic ,
are called worsted, and the less twisted yarn • . ~
is then employed in the manufacture of ever",
. description · of hosiery, stuffs, carpets, flanne.J~),
blanket, and cloths. England manufactures. ·,s,
much woollen clothing, that it was formerly con-.
.
'"'
. s1dere<l
the staple commodity of that countty
and to mark the estimation in which it was held
the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack. -~T4~·
woollc!1 manuf~c:,turcs of tho United Stntcs nr~
becommg very important.
··

·< . ~:

LESSON .. :ionv.~ILK~ '

, • . -, .. _, .t.1:37~--

....

1 - ~ ~i~ tlie production ~f.
~at~rpillar, ~'?~con. 'fi'"[t~~.'-the coveririg in .whic.h . it envelope.s ,~tself, .
Jl[1f 1~ changes £1:°.m. tl~e. }ar~a .st<tt.e_to th.~t. ~f:;~~e ,
salis. c;. From ·: tlus map1mate . C~'}q~tH>l,1 ,:;~~ : ,
~;;s,~'ls_·· a'' moth:, -"a.~.~ ' havir~g .lai_d~ its~. ~gg,s, <.lt; . -,
:1ceases · to ex 1st. _. When we , cons1~ler . 0 th~t; •
rllost luxurioi1s and sple11J id.
is 'th~· pr~; : ..
. ioi:t of a· worm / how :a.re we led"to admjre the,; :·
~-i ·:·~·n<l . wis<lom,.:'of· th.a t ' J3.eing~ 1vh_9 .~vork_s :. by (
. - ~·. .
~
-t- • · , ·~. ~ ·- ·...... •- _ ...._ ~ - 1.i·-·
'h insignificant me~ns -!. . .- ~; .· · - , ·· . -~: . :: ::~ . · :·
· ~e'''cocoon 'or web ·octlie 'silk~':"orm- is an· o~al 1
" ~1(silk,; which l.t.has:'spun" op Cot ~ ~ :subst~ce_.
rl t'i/d)1i..'its own' hody.· ~:: The sha(~_es, of,_the sdk_.
y,ff.rom ·' (he . pales~·- s,t~a:v:~9!or , to~· deep · y~llow.__1
*a ·"state of 'nature th(;;) .s ilk-worms fa.rm then ~o-..
" 00~~'-upo'n.-;·the M;.u lberry-tree_·itself, 'Yl~_ere..,~hey ,
~'tH ike golden. fr\li !f' 3 midst_ ~hi( lc~v,.cs; r.~t
t bldcr :climates 'of Europe will ,not",apow of.
ei/ beil)<J'. re~red ·_ir1' t11e : 01),e n 'ajr . .... They · iue "in
O~~qt~cnbc-~ ' kept '-Jnf\vm;m ·'._lmf airf l:OOil)S;: 'rind '
U'\vitli'"1milberry-lcavcs till they am fully gro"rn.
-ll~y cha1io-e thci1;"skin·. several times 'while.'_ they
~in the 'c~terpillar state~i : at length they .b ecome
-~full . of the silky matter' that' it ' gives. thon;t a '
16-\vi"sh tinge; ·· they then cease-to eat. Twigs
·.:.:now placed over tlicm upon l~ttle stage.s of > . ·
1,clfoi·work, on. which they immechately b.eg1,n ·to
"·I;;~ thcir- webs .. When · these are ,fimshed, : tho ·
~~~::;_.;: ·. . .
12

a

.I

attire

*

_;'.~{/'. ~:·: ~··,: . :-.2~ .-.·-~>~~~·:·z:·~~:~:~·:~/·~~\~.-~~,~-'>-~?-':~:~J}
,.:.,, 138 ........
. ·:

~- · ··

·.. ,

:· ;

FIJi"l'H " SERms ·" ... . :'

· ·\r.·~·-.. . '· ·, ..

• _... , ·'.'

.

-~ ·.:Y.,,•1'1<1 .
". • ,·.:;~tc

. ;.:: ~ sill{ ~s wound off, which when unravelled, measure
. , ·· from sovcn lmndrod .to one thousand feet. r-. Afte .
~;.;,,. separating the downy' matter on the outside calI~
.: · .flos,' the cocoons ' are 'thrown into warm water'lt~
· d~ss9l_ve. _the glutin()us particles 'which had cau~~­
,. the silk .to adhere, :and the ends of. the threaa
being found, : several ·are. ·. joined together...i ifn'tl
. wound upon a' reel ;'·this is called raw · s,ilk::f'~(
. next undergoes some operation to cleanse j t;· and
· render.it more supple, _n(ter which ·it is Jwist~a
' into threads of different ' ~egrees .of finern~ss' as
.quired -Oy the weaver; ' in . this state it is callit° '
.. ~ . _thrown silk • . The excellence of silk as a materia
.\; ·· Cbnsists in its stre.ngth, lightness, lustre; and itii
'."·" being capable of ·.taking the ·-finest dyes. ,· Sil~ ·
>:. · may be made ·into !.,substances varying in t_hick~­
:_ :; ness, from the finest transp~rent gauze; ·to -~the'
. '.~~. richest velvets_and brocades. ·. The English m~1i'u~
faqtur~rs ·:· are:,-.chietly. ~ supplied:· .wit_h ~ silk;t;Jrom
'·\>~.-China, ~ l1~rsia,·, ~nd Italy. ~:·France '. is : the''. mo~t
<_::· northern 'climate·· in wl1ich. silk is produced 'in •ari
~~?-·- quantity. '. -~ The•· manufacture -of · silk ·is - alrea(:l
the .United States. ·., :. ; ,::.', i,·.:~-..._..::i,·;::
. . conunencedin
:>">~ ;·;~:~· ".:.: ·-:': :-' ; :: .•.
. . . . ....
:">·. : ..: - , - ' . . (. :' ..
. .. '.. :r......

're

<> , ·

r

· :-< =~ ·:. ~~<;~. .:, ).~<,i;EssoN :.xxv. ·
·.·•

.... _... · •

.

-'~··

..

•• ;

.. .

,.

·. -:.

·..-· c_OURT . PI.-'\S~En. : .

._:.

......

~t~

; .... _~ ,_, ·. _(: .'~;·

. .
:•, .;. _, ;_; . . :·/ ··< ._ . . . ~ ' . .· . . (. ·. ·-. .~'f
. · '. Court-plaster.· is · a : black, ··adhesive; thin , sub:.
:~ .... stance, applie_d . to ~wom_Ids 011 the; skin, · to protecC
._) .- the_in from tl;ieir:itul'.ious effects qf the.air. The foC.
·:'.'. '·"·: low~ng is the ~ann,er of: preparing it: ·a thin blac
:,;~_,:' 88.rsnet is s~1:~Jched on - ~ fram e:; \a warm_sol~tio'
.

.

I

.

.··"140

••. .

..... . .

•

·:>:"' ~r;I·~1

F'IF'rH SERIES., : .
.

.

'i¥it:.+~.~~ ....·_ .

< • · •

r

!

'

~~ON
xx~rq •.xx1x.-cHEESE,
PUTI'Y. ~141
.
.
. . ,,.
.

:Sf"

.: -.;

, -·

/f·-... -... ··
~'

,oy

.

'

......

"f;, ,

·~- whole is · then · covered with white · paper,
·· . ' which is placed . a coarse blanket or canvas:·:i>
filled with straw;·· When the fire has heated~t
kiln, a board, on which is a weight~ if{ pl~~
. , . ·.. upon the blan~et and ·presses the saffron toget]1~
It is used ~s· a medicine;: ~en'. ing as a slight \o~~
· and to _exhilarate the spmts, also' to flavor. cal( .
. and to form a yellow ·dye.
, · - , '· . · · l.~~-.
1

>,· ·

~..,~~./""··'·-

/-",, .. :

.~·.

,.

,.

l:

.. .
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I

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: ~.

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7

'·

.

: ' ,....

1~

1..'

•

... ' 'LESSON XXVII .
~ .· . -~~ ,
'• •
. . ; .I • ,; .

,,,

., '. ·. ..~/L
,...

~

'~,
"\ .:;:"-:',:: ... ·',:·';
• -

',

,

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::. •

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~~~,,

'

· DUTT.ER. ,

".'~-~ I: ·:---· .
',. .. ·'." ·:)'~~'
· " ·Butter is an unctuous substance prep~red f~o~
· dhe tnilk of' the cows. ,. When milk has been';~
, , · lowed to starid a few hours,· a thick rich.'substanc
called· cream rises to the sni·face. ,· This ~ is ' ski' ~
. med qff, and by bejng briskly agitated is conv.e rtl .
. .. . into ,butter~ The ·inatrument by which 'this -ope..
,..· ··: ration ·is · performe<l · is :.cal led a churn,· .a _cettai '
'.·, :.· · .degreEl ·of heaf assists ;the process • . 'fhe': butf ·
~ ... . that is required to :be kept ·any le11gth of timei~j
:·<'.' · -: salted · and packed in, small ·tubs or barrels. ' ;·,.n
1('"1..,,{
· · .: ,. sides th13 "butt.e r: there is another substiinco'r:r
,:; · :- · maining in tl~e.- c_lmq1, .which is called butt~-rm_il~
: >"- ; The person who tends the cattle ·js called ·a CQ~
herd: and t~e plac_e where.the milk ·js kept.. i,:.·-'.. · dairy~ : • :~:-:_; .·
·
· · · ··
·
. ':· . .

•'•..

•

· ·

'

...

I

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< ,

I..

•

'/." '

•

,._ '

~-

\

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. ........ ·.....

: LESSON . XXVIII.
. l'. ~.

:.

'

.. ;:.<: _·" ( .

.

.'

- .

.. .
. - . /_.; ~\"

, heese is prepared from inilk which is coague'd:· by mixing it with ;:t. liquor called rennet,
is made by steeping the inner membrane
(t. n ~' cnlf's stomach in water; the cur<ls thus
orllied are a white solid substance; they . are
~pa_1:'.ated from the ~hey or :water! particles, .and
'tlienepressed and dned. A color IS ·usually given
~}~heese by saffron or by ~ substance called
nnatto, which is the seed-vessel of a shrub grow"'3 ''"in ,the West Indies. ·
··
·

.:.ch

i .• .":

'· ..

:..·.r·

LESSON XXIX.

~.

' PUTTY • ...
.

. -··
_... -

.

· utty'·'. is a · soft unctuous .s ubstance ': which
ardens by exposure to 'the · air, and 'is used by
·ra~iers : to cement · the · glass · to window-frames.
if'iS'composed of linseed oil and whiting, some~ .
me~ with the addition of ·white lend. .The
hH_ing is ground into a fine· powder, and ·the oil
d ·white .lead are worked into it,· till ;ill the sub'.'.'
""n?.es_are thoroughly incc;>rporated tog~~her._ ~-;~-.. · ·

.

;

~

:

-

.

:

'

-

'.)~<~'."(;·_ ,• ~
.., ..{.: '

. 142

FIFTH SERIES•

'

'."C< ·'..

-. ·. : -••• r

LESSON XXXI.-FELT· _

' - ·•. '

}43

.iefly"u~ecl by hatters: :T .he operation of ·:f~lting
p~:inds upon a peculiar construction in all hairs,

LESSON XXX.
STARCII.

Starch is a substance obtained from sever
mealy vegetables; it is generally prepared fro
whea.t by the following process. The wheat ;:·
put into tubs of water, un<l exposed for some day$]
to the heat of the sun, which brings on a degn?
of fermentation: the water is changed twice:;f
day. Hav_in~ by this p1:~cess become sufficien.t!~
softened, it is poured rnto large canvas bag "
which are worked or beaten, in order to separat"'
the husks from ' the mealy particles, which are
received into an empty- vessel. Fresh water :'.is
again poured upon them, and after this has beei
well shaken, it is left to settle ; the water.··i~
poured _off, and the sediment which remains ·:at
the bottom of the vessel is starch : this is formed'
into · small pieces and dried. · Starch, with th~
addition of smalt. or stone blue, is used to stiff~n
linen ; it is also formed into a powder for the hail '
Starch or Fecula is the nutritive . part of most
grains and roots ; it may be extracted in · ·
siderahle quantities from potqtoe.s.

LESSON XXXI.
FELT. 1

' Felt is the substance of which hats are mad ·
It is composed of hair~; those of the beaver

~~h however smooth and even they may appear,

ve':jn

reality a tiled or- scaly texture on the
· The scales ar~ so placed, that . they
the finger drawn along the hair from the ·
the point, but present a. resistance ·when ·
· yed in a , contrary direction. In -consequence
:' this peculiarity, if a hair be seized in the
giHe between the two fingers ancl rubbe<l, the
J)vill gradually recede '. and . t.he point will ap.
.a~h ,the fingers, ex~ibiting a progressive motion
:,ards the root; the imbricated surface, prevent; an. 'motion in ,.the opposite way. • J;roin ~ this
~e~ty, hairs, when beaten or pressed together, ·
egiii':' to move in the direction of the· root, and
~(<disposed to catch hold and twist round each
· her, and thus to st1ck into a close mass, which
~caHe<l Felt. Curled hairs entwine themsel~es .
~e-. closely into one . another than · those which ·
) straight though flexible, as these latter recede
In the root in a direct line. · The hatter how.
finds , them very useful : he spreads . th~m
,r) the.. surface .of his coarser cloth, and when ,
'""'~ Sj3d, these fine straight hairs moving in the
· ''f.~~()t!~n of their roots form :_a coating; their base !
G~ipg · inserted in the _. felt, while their oxtre.µiies ' remain free. It is in consequence of this
,en9ency to felt, that woollen cloths increase in JP.~J.kness, and contract .in length and bread th, -by
~emg washed; and that they do not ravel ·· out
· hen cut • . The Zetlanders, availing themselves
4f'.) hi~ peculiar construction of hairEt, felt · their
09J~.by putting it into narrow inlets of j he isea1
.uffa~e.
i~ld to
~~t,} to

··hl

~~<.

.

r~F::::·.~. '".
;·.} 44 - ·.

FIFTH . SERIES.

-~}:

.it

motion·~..

: where it is exposed to the continual
the tides.. . , .

LESSON XXXII.
PORCELAIN.

Clay and flint are' tho chief inrrredients in · tli
manufacture of porcela.in, from tl1e coarsest
tery to ·the finest semi-transparent china. ' T
c~ay · m~lws it work ~asily into shape, the ..H&l
. !Ilakes it hard and a little glassy. The followill'l
is the usu~l process ~arried on in the Engh~
manufactones · of Clnhaware. · The flints ··ar
fir.st re~uced to powder by th13 action of fire, the
. !111;ed · m certain proportions with Cornish gr,,
~te, and · ground t?. a ~ery fine powder; .w!l.\2
is ~oured upon this mixture, ·and it is . twic
13trarned through silken seives. It is the.n. boif
till it is of the consistency of cream 1· and th
· >watery particles being evaporated, it b ecomes.;·
. tough paste. - A portion of this substance is ~the
placed . upon a turning wheel; and moulded ': ]) ·
the · ~iand with a precision and · rapidity~ ~-tha
practice only .can give. This is the manner.':'i
which vessels of a circular shape are formed ·'.,.\'
bowls, · plates, cups, and saucers. Utensil/·~
other forms a~e made i~ moulds of gypsum, . th.
pores of which. absorbmg the moisture of the
clay, the vessels are contracted in size and thu

po

I

'

. . :.; :

· ' *~he two principal. ingredients of granite· are silex · "
. alunune.
_ . ..
\
- ... i~1~

.)

•

..

LESSON XXXIIo~PORCJ!JLAIN.

:, 145

iJy. . loosened from the mould, Each vessel
,t,llµs/ formed is pla&ed in a separate clay: case,
~~e} ft.irnace is filled with these, and then bric~ed
closely up, and they are subjected to a red heat
'l'. "~;r .
hours.
Tl1e temperature is
. then ·
.10;·'~ sixty
gra<lually lowered, an<l when the porcelain is
. W.~thdrawn, which in this state is called biscuit,
11~1i,~ a .whi~, dull, porous substance. This process
· ently diminishes the size of the vessels; whicl)
·;this state readily receive the blue color, called
~ tjpalt; . it has the appearance of a dirty grey till
1,~~ed. · The glazing consists of lead and gl1!.ss,
9u!'.ld to a very fine pow<ler, mixed in water
9~ some other ingredients which are kept secret,
.,. , a/ biscuit is merely dipped into the glazing,
j)s, then baked again for forty hours. It is
o~ _ready to receive all the other colors, and the ·
~ldi,?g, which t.he P.a'ttern may requirep It i~ ·
~~.n .baked a tlurd time for ten hours or more,
· i"tly, the gilding is burnished with bloodstone"'
r"-agate, and the .qhina is ready for the ware.room._
~he colors are changed by baking, appearing Vf?f'/.
i erent whenfirst laid on.
:
.
.
~:'· -~.':.
)•,

·~ '>

,~.

'" .

13

_,

146

~·~~?,· .

FIFTH SERIES.

. .. ·.·. .,.

';.I} ~ :.' 1 '.· ' . . LESSON XXXIII.~GOLD.
. ~.~f:~, ;- . ·.
. . .

ON

,· ..~

In these lessons on the common ~etals, it .

·

147 '

.·"

. <\" .

t-is ductile. 2. .
_
~~'~ .tenacious,-hold ing ·together .strongly· · 3. ·
·:A·/ heavy. 4.
'
· · · .. .<';!:. ' in<lesttuctible, i. e. it cannot be destroyed. '
• i" ,~j-..;,, c fusible.
~'·:~::.. · incombustible, i. e. it cannot be bu!.nt ,ex- ·
~;;;;·hi::;.;. , cept by electricity.
· ·. · _
: ''.:..;_;:.~ ~ · soft, compared. with other metals.
.
.
:-- .·
. •'\ )•t·
.1r.. ·. p1·iab Ie.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

M~TALS.

-

ls

necessary t_o present the specimens to the class ·i
thoir sovcrul natural und arti liciul states, that is't
say, the native, the ores, and the manufacturd' ,
metals. The teacher would find the interes(o
the pupils awakened by the examination · of th:
several substances, and consequently that the ·
would be more inclined to recci vc with profit th4
information conveyed. T!iq plan of wri~ing down
the list of ·qualities has been arrain adopted with'
tlrn metals, as t1rny lead to a ne~ range of ideas,
and form so decid edly the characteristic distin~~
tions of the substances.
·· "·

..;.ty.

'

" :1

•

_compact.

f"''· ·. yellow.

·1:·· solid.
.., .....
, '.: ' opaque . .
.... :, t . \.,
<~: ·brilliant.
.:\ ~-...
'..·;(<.reflective.
..
J;" sonorous •
.it ,,· · metallic.
· . ·· .
·. ·. ·· ··
~~1." Not affected by any acid, but aqua reg111:·* ~ ..
. ·,.:{ii-. .
'
..
~

'

•)

·-~

•., ,.j•!

LESSON XXXIII.
GOLD.

Qualities.
It is perfect as a mcttd.
malleable. '11, I.

*A

.

,,

solid piece of gold and some leaf-gold should be pre;
sented to the class, and the exlreme lig;1111ess and thinness o ·
the leaf may be feit.
1'EACHER. How was the gold made so thin? '
CmLDllEN. It was beate n out.

I

' -".!' TEACHER. With what 1
· · ·
• ;· CmLDREN. · With a hammer.
. ·\All things that can thu~ be extended by beating, are called
' lleable, from Lat. Mallcus, a hammer. .. . "· ·
· .
TEACHER. . Could glass be thus beaten out 1. Could chalk r
amphor? '\Vhat quality prevenls them fr?m being i:nalleable 1 -·
f CmLDREN. Glass is brittle. ' Chalk frmb le.
- ·. :TEAc1rnn • .What quality in gold then r11ndors it mallenblet ·
< • °CHILDllEN. Its being tenacious.
• ... ' · · · 1 • " "
r"' ¥ TEACHE!l. What other quality in gold arises ~rom 118 be'ing tenacious 1
·
·
' .Cmu:mEN. It is ductile 1
."
TEACHER. Ductile is cleri_ved from Lnt. Due~, I lead. ,
'

4>;qj •

..

• Y,ir• Aqua regia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid
. 'a nd nitric acid. ·

.

148

·LESSON. xxxn1.~GOLD·

. FIFTH SERIES • .

. It is .a pcr[cct metal, because it <locs not I~se
any of its weight when fused. _
, ·
. When_ t~c children understand fully the diffe,
ent qualities, the teacher may mention to them
the f~cts that illust.rate th~ . extraordinary degr~e.
in winch the peculiar qualities exist.
. . ~;:
I. ''Malleable." A grain of gold the size-;~i
a pin's head, ;111ay be beaten out to cover a spac~
of 50 squuro inches.
; . .~·
2, "Ductile." A grain of gol<l can be draw
ou~ to covet a wire of 352 feet in length ; ~a
gumen can be drawn out to reach ·nine miles and
a half, . .
""~"
· 3. . "Tenacious.'; A wire of an inch in di~
~mete,~ \vill. supr,ort 50~ po_unds with~mt breaki~g;
4. 'Ve1ght.
It is nmeteen tunes . heaVIer.
-~.~,Ji.
than water of the same bulk.
.:if
· · Uses of Gold.
· . ,$,
I

·-;;:

. . :When alloyed* with copper, gold is used -as
Com : and for. orn~mental purposes; its ' beauty, :
and its not bemg liable to rust, fit it for the latter.:·
.· . ;.,
purpose.
·
·
.
.
T~e gold us~d in coinage, called standard gold;~.
consists of a m1:i:ture of gold and copper.
-·;,
. Oold thread is made
covering silk or silvei..'i ·
with gold beaten very thm.
· ·
· '!:;;.,t
.
.
/
';~~ ·

?Y

'* The combinations

0

of metals with ench other are called .I
i~ ~hemistry, qUoys, but this term is commonly employed to]:
tles~gnate those substances which lessen the value of any with .:.
which they are united.
· · . - .~
'

-~;

ild{~g is ,the art of covering the surfac~· o~ a '.. ·, 'stance with uold: this is effected. by applyrng ·,
'fther in the ~tate of ' a leaf, or liquid gold.' . ·· ' ·· <·
·Quic.ksilver dissolves gold, and unites ~ith_ it,'
, nd has from this circumstanpe been used rn gild.:~g~:buttons, ·an effe~t which is . produced - very. ·
iaptdly ·by the followrng process. : The met~ls are .
. -~:iced together, and the buttons immersed m .the
c·ompound. They arc then exposed to great heat,.
· Y:',:which the mercury is evaporated, nnd the gold
·!i~l~ft upon the buttons. :
. . ;- ·.· :.Jrhe purple color ·used rn porcelnm 1s obtame.d , , ·
gold.
. . .
. .
'
·.' .. ,· .·.
Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth . block ·
' f::~arble fitted into a wooden · frame · about ". two
,df.~~t square; on three sides th ere is a high,ledg~,
.. nd the front' has a flap of leather attached to · It
r hich . the workman uses as an apron to pres~rve
~· fragments that fall off. ·.Th~re .?-re tl~ree )unds
f.- animal membrane used m the operat10n. · -For
' t~~laying · · with .the gold the smoothest·' and
osest vellum is procured; and when the .gqld
-~~·omes thin, this · is . exchanged for . much finer
'\· ·in· made of the entrails of ;oxen prepared for -_· >
js ·p urpose, and hence call~d gold beaters~ .skin, ._:
d · the whole is covered with parchment to pree~t the hammer ~from injuring it . .. After the '_
'old. has been reduced to a sufficient degree:.. of
inness, it is put l?etween paper which h~s been
· ~11 smoothed and rubbed with red bole~ rn order
~ 'prevent it adhering to the gold.
·' '
·

.m

J l
~ =·

.

.

,

.

* Bole, a kind of earth.
13*

150

FIFTH SERIES,

Geogt'apliical and Geological situation of G()
.

'

'

·-J.
-~

'

Gold is found principally in hot climates, eithe
native or as an ore. A metal is called natiVe
when ' it occurs in nature pure, and an
when
mixed with other substances. Gold is found )11,
mines in Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. · Part of t~
Western coast of Africa is called the Gold Const
from tho gold <lust ln'ought down by the native .
to trade with. A great quantity of gold is oh:
tained in the form of fine sand from American
and African tivcrs; and in small quantities from
the Danube; the Rhine, and the Rhone : it
is supposed to .be washed down by the mountaih·,
tol'rents. 'I'he wandering tribes of gypsies em ' ·
ploy themselves in washing it from the beds of:
the European rivers. The Himlaya mountains ;i1
Asia are rich in gold. It sometimes occurs i~
the veins which run thtough the mountains, and,
sometimes in rounded masses in soils that are~
evidently the ruins of rocks. The mines which,·
formerly yielded the largest quantities of gold . .
\vere those of Peru and Lima; the principal o_f~i
Europe , are those of Hungary and Saltz burg. The,_
mode of extracting gold from the ore, is by re•'.; .
ducing tho wholo to fine po~<lor nnd mixing iti ·.
with quicksilver. 'l'he latter unites with every ·_·:
particle of the gold, but being incapable of form\1(
ing a combination with any but metallic sub~~~ :
sta11ces, it separates the gold from the earth with,
which it is intermixed. _The quicksilver which;,
has absorbed the gold, is then evaporated by1t
means of heat, leaving the pure metal in the 1 ·

ore

LESSON XXXIV.

" '

' - ~ . .. -.t ·. ,;

..........

"':

SILVER.

·,

'

Qualities.

. . ... -.

;
:·.I:"

~~'' It is malleable. I.

\ .... , -

~

·

r

ductile. 2,
. tenacious. 3~ :.
heavy. 4. ·
· indestructible.
· fusible.
.
soft.
flexib]e.
perfect metal.
· -< . opaque.
- -· ...
white.
' · solid.
. '. tompact. :
-,-.- · · natural. ·
subterrafltJOUB production.
brilliant. ·
· "
'·.,.
reflective.
· ,.
sweetly. sonorous. ·
. · ...
.· ,
., .
not affec_ted by commbn .ac1js.
-,{;·~~ Malleabl~.'" Silver can be re.duced to a ·
in~ess nearly equal to that of wluch gold is
'iipable.
·,r

I

~t

•

; .

i!'

152

FIFTH SERIES.

· · 2. 1 " Ductile." It can also be drawn out to .t
finest wire.
·
3. "Tenacious/' A wire one-tenth of. an inc
in thickness will support 277 pounds withou
breaking.
·
4. "Weight." It is about eleven times heavi~ '
than \Vater.
;:,

Uses

ef Silver.

<\.
.'''i
Silver is ' combined with copper for coin; S'tll
render it harder and better adapted to re~eive '
fine and sharp impression on being cast. O:.·Tb
same alloy is employed for ornamental purpose~
·Silver is-used much as a casing to copper ute .
sils, to prevent the injurious effects of-µcids, or'.('
render them more plcasiHg to th e sight. · The mos~
permanent plating is effected. by taking two. Hij
plates of silver and copper, 'the form er in the pro
portion of one to twelve of th e latter; a little po~
dered borax is placed between them to promot"
the fusioq ·of the two metals, which after bein"
exposed to a white heat, will be found firm!
united; this is passed between rollers ·till th '
whole is of the proper thickn ess for the lnte~dtJd
manufacture.
·
. ·:
~.Silver ~issolved_ in ~L~Jua· fortis (nitric' aei~) .
yields crystals, wlnch herng afterwards -melted, i_ .
crucibles, .fq.rm what is called lunar caustic . . This
prepar~tion, is of · considerable value in surgic'~)
operat10ns_.being employed to burn away prou
flesh ; ·and also for consuming warts, wens, an~ ;
o.ther excrescences on the skin. Indelible or pet· ·
manent marking ink~ used for m~rking linen, ~,~ ..'
.

..

';~

'' .. -

·.

.• ·- ·~: ..

_. ·;..

.

.(:··, ''. . LESSON XXXIV.--SILVER.

·. .

153

" ~by dissolving nitrate of silver (lunar caustic)
· 'ater and adding gum.

The yellow color

~~loyed in porcelain painting is obtained from -

. Ver ' , '
-,-~-;tr-

'

•'

i9Jogical and Geograpliical
~..~~~~.:.

,-,: _· ,

'

•

.

'

situa~ion
.•

o.(, Si!ve_r.
r

·•

•

:.:f'Silver is found native and as an ore, in mines
America is 'the country richest in
Sil~-e~ ' niines. ·. Ids also found i!l Saxony, Bohe,ir~a; .' Norway, Hungary, and En~land ;, but the
Pf~e(of Me.x:lco and Peru · furmsh annually .ten
ti'ines 'more than all those of Europe together• . So
' oisonous ' are the exhalations from the m_ines of .
'_·_~ru; that' many th_ousands of Indians have perish:_
·a~in them, and the cattle that graze· on t}le out·are affected by their mapgnant ~apors • . .T~e
g~n!ity . found in Englan_d is not great; it is
taken:from the lead mines of Cumberland, Corn·'.Wall and Yorkshire ..· A large blnck was found
~~r~eyburg .in Saxony, upon wh_ich_Duke Albert
took his dinner. · When melted, it yielded 44,000
' ounds. of pure silver.
.
, ..
"' he ' ores of silver are very numerous, and va;
o~~ methods are employed in different countries.
tQ~ ~eparate it from the ore. · In Mexico and .Peru
li~·:!".i mineral is pound ed; roasted, washed, a.nd
tn1'fi'. mixed \vith mercury, in vessels -filled with
,~~t~r ' a mill being employed for the purpose
~~~re perfectly .agitating_ it, whic:h thus. causes _
. em -to · combine. ~h.e silver ~mtes with the
-,~rcu~y,· and being submiHed to ~rnat, th_e latter
·~ evaporated. · The -_pure metal is then melted
and
cast into bars
'
. or mgots.
.

Md.veins.

iae

•

154

. . :!:~ ·:·
l'.• ', LESSON

FIFTH , SERIES.

,

I

'

"
155

XXXV.-Q,UICKSILVER.

!t.J(~is capable of <livi~ion, by the ~light~st

p~~ i:nto an indefinite number of particles, .each

herical shape.
' ,·
The brilliancy of metals ·is · so peculiar and
lb ,that it is called the metallic lustre. :--·

LESSON XXXV.

·

: ..

8¢;;~'.
i ~·}.

1''

.;~,/;:

Qualities.

;

.... , ·.

.:..'·-··

Uses

of Qu~~lcsilver.
/

.

Q~icksilvcr penetrates a11d softens other inetals,losing its own fluidity antl formi11g n kintl of pnsto ·

It is 11cnvy. I.
fluid. 2.
cold. 3.
divisible. 4.
*volatile when heated.
white.
· brilliant. 5.
opaqu e.
least tenacious of all bodies.
dilatable by heat.
medicinal.
natural.
inanimate.
mineral.

~.all,~cl ;1 an Amalgam.

This affinity or attraction
"at';it ' has for the .other metals m·akes it exceed'.useful in separating them from substances
'th ~·~ hich they are fol!,nd combined; they leave
~ es.e 'to unite with the mercury, and this geing
~olati_lized, the pure metal remains.. It is easily
!3Ct~d by the atmosphere, and is on this account
sed., in Thermometers · and Barometers.* · The
·h.ermometer is an instrument constructed .in the
!{ollo~ing' manner :-a" tube of glass . terminating
,~a ,' hollow ball which contains mercury, is
lunged into boiling . water, which ' causes the
~e.rcury to expand and rise to a certain . height.
· ~- t4is point, which . is called · boiling heat, the ·
b~'_is broken off and hermetically sealed ;t the

giy

• I. "Weight." ·Nearly fourteen times heavie
than water-the heaviest known fluid. ·
:-.;;.
2. "Fluid." It ah~ays rctai,ns its fluidity
_?ur temperature, but II~ countncs near the pol~~·
it co~geals, and then is malleable, ductile an
tenac10us.
· ·-.'
3. "Cold." It is the coldest of all' fluids
the hottest when boiling.
- - '
'

'iq

*Volatile, from Lat. Volare, to fly.

~

~!: ~

QUICKSILVER OR MERCURY • .

~~- ..,

...
Ii') •

~

' '. Ilnromet~r from (Jrzpo> (ooros) weight nml p.trpov (mctron)
ensure.. 'l'hermomotor from s,ppo> (liol).
·.t" .
'
'
t In order to seal any thing hermetically, the neck of a
lass tube is heated till on the point of melting, nn-l th en with
"pf!ir ·of hot pincers it is closely twisted together, by which
eans the ai r is excluded. Hermetically is ·derived from
..rrrmes, a name of Mercury, the deity of ancient mythology·
.•~o' was ·thought to preside over the arts, particularly chem~~?:::,:'

.

'

156

~_J;.ESSON XXXV.--QUICKSl~VER.

FIFTH SERIES.

freezing point is then ascertained, · and mar~~
and. the intervening space graduated. The T~ij .
mometer, by thus marking the expansion <rtn
. contraction of the quicksilver, indicates th ~-.' '.
crease and decrease of heat and cold in the :;i~
mosphere.
·<
To form the Barometer a glass tube open,.
one end, and filled with quicksilver, is immers'
in a bowl con~aining some of the same fluid,
Part of the mercury in the tube flows into th
cup, leaving a space to which the air cannot g'iij
access, consequently there is a vacuum. .The' a
mosphere, when heavy, acts upon the mercury~~
the bowl, causing it to rise in the tube, and whe '
light, the pressure being removed, allowing if:'!P.
descend. The ·Barometer, by thus showing :tli
weight of the air, indicates the probability of w~
or dry weather. · For when th e atmosphere '.;i .
light, it no longer supports the vapor and cloud
which float in it, and they consequently desce:~ ·
towards the earth; . but when the air is mor
dense, they are borne up, and we have fiJ'
weather. The elevation of mountains is also~ ai
certainea by means of the Barometer for as it"'i
!mown tha~ the rarity of the atmosphe~e increas~"'
m proport10n to the ascent, the height is casif
calculated.
· '-r :
~uicksilve~ is also used for coating mirro~~
This process Is effected in the following manner, ,
~ sheet of tin foil the size of the plate of gla;
Is placed evenly on a smooth block of stone."
over this is poured some quicksilver, which · t'
carefully spread upon it with a feather or rubberl
of. linen. Tin in amalgamating with · mercur)r,
quickly forms an oxide of a black appearance '.i

...

,' , : ~1157 . ~°:<· .

s l;>~i~g ,;ernoved, · more of the fluid ' is'pour~d .
' '~ifrr" The glass is then held horizontally; arid
J,t)l.(slid over. the amalgam, sweeping. before .
~ f!;:superfluous ·mercury, and any more oxi_
de
i.Jbit:~!¥1ay :have formed. · Weights are then placed
!P.~A', the glass, and after having remained sev_
e ral
,Xs~\t,h13 mixture adheres firmly and fo~ms '- the.
Qµi:ror. ,. · .·
··
.. -_
. -. ·, · .
:/ Vermilion, used in -. coloring sealing-wax, and _..e.·"'m~<lieine called culomel, are preparations of .
~· · ~etal. ' ·
- .
- .. - , . · · • ' ·: .. -"- ·
. ..·

~'

. ..·.

.

and Geological ..situation - of..-·'.:
Me1·cury.
· r ·•... ...• '. . ,-,. ' · :. _.
•
~

~

." ..ercury is found i11: the native state · in
·Iob_q les- or drops in the cavities of mines; ' but
•td .s '. most frequently' combined .with :.· sulphur, ··
~r.ming the' mineral called cinnabar, which is of
'.ed· color,' ·
;.. . :
·
".
: ..... ' ,,; '·· '
quicksilver mines of ldrc~ are. said to yield
.!!ually 100 ton11; those of Spam still more; but
'i( rri!. ~es . of Petu are the richest. ·. · · ·: ·i · ·•.
~he mines of Idrea · were accidentally - dis,ered about·three hundred : years since. <'That .
.·iof the country" was" then much inhabited by .
opers; and one of the men, when retiring from
~ork '- in the evening, placed · a riew ·tub under '
·~.c;l.ropping spring, to .try if it would hold water, p.<;I ~~hen he came in the morning .he found it so_
'Q_i!,v,y _that . he could · scar~ely move it. · · On ·
·· .i.u11ination, he found a shining ponderous fluid
{ the bottom, which proved . to be quicksilver.
h'3n this· circumstance was made known, · a

·.qie

14 .

.

'

\

158

,•

l~IFTU

SERIES.

society was forme<l to discover and work the inin
from whence the . mercury had issued. In sorri'
parts of the mine, it flows in small streams,';~
that in six hours 5J.S much as thirty-six pouri ·
have been collected. lu other parts of the mi
it is diffused in small globules.

8:,-· .. .

~f.;Weight-lt is eleven times he.avier ·than
'er; rather heavier than silver. : · · -~ · ;:,,:; fr melts at a much lower temperature than
·other metals.
·
It
is
the
softest
of
·all
metals.
;::
.: .
•·'_;

· Uses

LESSON XXXVI.
LEAD.

Qualities.
· It is heavy. - I
fusible. 2.
bright, when first melted or cut.
malleable.
.
ductile.
very soft. 3.
pliable.
· livid, bluish gray.
" easily calcined, that is, reduced '
heat to a friable substance.
solid.
sometimes amorphous.
crystallized.
opaque.
mineral.
tarnishes easily.
inelastic.
natural.
It makes a gray streak on paper.
· It boils am! evaporatPs at a great heat.

: ;:1:fo

LESSON :·xxxvI.-LEAD.

0
"'' · / ' 1

of

,·

Lead.· ·

he .ci1lx* of lead is the. basis· of many colors,
,ich ·are obtained from it by different degrees .
f)ieat. Red lead and white lead, so I;rJ.uch used
•:rpaints, are ' the cf!.lces of lead. , They are
.uble '. in oil, and · are ·all very poison_ous, · and
· ojfoasi9n the ill-health to whid1 painters ~ are · subje~t., Any acid will extract a poison . from le?-d,
,. ,.,d .therefore .the use of it should be . avoided in
. linary operations. . It is employed ·in glazing
·"d' ·pottery.
-_.•When rolled between iron cylinders 'to a reuisite degree of thinness and uniformity, lead
'· i:.~t~ployccl to'. cover the roofs of hou.ses · and .
Jiurches; though, in case of fire," its :melting is · .
l~nded with much clanger. .. It is also '_used for
"~tters ttntl pipes of ~ouscs, and for cis.t erns and
_eservoirs for water, because it does not rust.
- 'It~st is occasione<l by the oxygen uniting with a
Infal_tal; but the · oxygen of the · water . having · a
r~~ttfr' affinity for hydrogen, its other q_onstituent,
'Calx is the <lross formed on the surface of lead, when
e1ted. This name is no\v generally applied by chemists to
Qse substances which have been reduced by, burning to a
iiible state. The operation by which this effect is produced
~c11lled

,_f"·

calcinatio11.

\.

·

·

~- .-

.... ~- -""' .'<-~:

~,:·~~~:~ -~- ..
"i '"t~

160

"~ .. ·"' '

than for lead, it- does not separate
to unite with thif! metal.
:'1
The great softness of lead, and its being: ~
easily fused, are the properties which have broug)
it so much into use. The persons who worl~?l
are called Plumbers, from the Latin, plum'f11!-m_
lead. The solder they use as a cement is:;''.11
alloy of lead and tin, in the proportion of -t,w.o
parts of the former t<;> one of the latter. · :f:t
Great quantities of lead are consumed ..
making shot. The metal for this purpose ~1i
alloyed with arsenic, to render it more hard aq~
brittle, and capable of assuming a per(eq~T ,
. spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropp~n, .
the melted alloy .in to water, th rough an iron ·: d.
copper frame, perforated with round holes, whidi
are larger or smaller, according to the · size_t~e
shot are required to he. Mixed with antimon, ,
lead is used for printing-types; and; with tin a1,1
copper, it forms _pewter.

m

Geological and Geographical situation of. Lea~•
.

. ... - :

! ; :"",~.'.'_; .: ·i,

FIFTH SERIES.

.

~

~;;

· Lead abounds i.n England, particularly in tl_i,
counties of Derby, Northumberland, Somerset~
Cornwall, and Devon, and in ·wales. It is plenti.
fol also in Scotland, Germany, France, aQ41
America. It is very much doubted whether it is
ever found native; it occnrs frequently combined
.
· ~·
with sulphur, when it is called galena.
The lead mines of Missouri are perhaps th. '
most important in . the world. When the ore j~·
brought out of the mine, it is sorted and was?e.~;
I

--

'

-

LESSON .XXXV:I·-LEAD.

. . ,.

- ,-

..

'· ·

..1()1
-

-s;f~e~ it from-dirt and rubbish 1 it is then spread,

nd ·ll]~~ best piece~ arc separated. After the ore,
y~pi,cking and washing, has b~er_i sufficie~t~y
cleansed from extraneous matter, it 1s roasted m

~kfiid of kiln,' t.o free it from the sulphur usually mhl~ed with it.

The next process is t() mix it . ·

i'ih.''a ·quantity of coke,t and submit it · to lhe

''~ltilig' furnace. In this there are tap-holes, and .

•hen the lead is melted these are opened, to allow

Wto run in a fluid state into an iron vessel.

The

ilr~~s which floats on its surface is skimmed off,
- arid.'the metal is taken out by ladles, and poured
·- ~ '!l'to. cast-iron moulds with round ends. It is then
· -al.led pig-lead, and is fit for use. , · ·
~~·

...:. < ~ -

:

'

.
I .

~

.•

.:''1.~sting. is the process by which the v?latile parts · or'an

·e'iire evaporated. Smelti11g .is that by which_ the pu~e n:iet~l
~·separatf)d from the earthy particles combn~ed ·with 1t m
'e"ore. ·This is done by throwing .the wh,ole .mt_o ,a furnace,
";i' ;mixing :with it substances : that will combine with. the
""?thy parts; tho metal being tho heavi?st, f~lls. to ·the
bOttom, and runs out by tho proper opcnrngs, m _its _pure
inetallic state. ,
' ··
Coke is fuel, mad0 by burning _pit-coal u~der -earl~, and
· :· enching the .cin<len;: ..is charcoal 1s_.111ade w1.th wood., ·

! .\. ft

I\.:-;.\. ' • '
·~

.<J~ ' . . '
:."'····

•

~

'

•' •

•
. ~

..

·... ·,'

•

. ~ .

.:r

I '

1(32

FIFTH SERIES.

LESSON XXXVII. COPPER.

·Qualities.

It is heavy. I.
·

tenacious. 2.
very sonorous. 3.
fusible.
elastic. 5.
·capable of extreme divisibility.
malleable.
_
·. ductile.
compact.
opaque.
orange brown color. mineral.
_
sometimes crystallized. ·
- amorphous. brilliant.
reflective.
·sapid.

4:

. liar<l.
odorous.
•.··.solid.
medicinal.
easily corroded.
useful.

•

. -'1

•
•

: ·,_
'

,

~

:

-;

.

.

.,1

·,

.

-

'; (

'l

.·..

. Uses of Copper. . ..·
. he ': uses of copper are numero~s and im" rtant.: ,-When rolled into sheets between 'iron
' y)inders, it is ·used to ~over the· roofs '-·or houses, ·
~)pecially arsenals and manufactories, where there
·s!..::Iiability to fire. The bottoms of ships are ·
ci)ppered, in order to make them sail faster and
tb~-p~event shell-fish from perforating the ·wood.
111tes qf copper are used for engravings; which >.
-1..,~l'done· with a sharp -instrument or by corroding
· th~m with aqua fortis.* ' The copper is covered -_
j th' wa::r, and the' design · sketched upon it-with ,
ppinted instrument; . the aqua fortis reaches the :
QQpper just in thosq places whcro tho .wnx ·has
~Im removed . by the sketching, and eats into it.
~pper is much used (or cooking. utensils, but
li;~at _c are is necessary, - for , should _any · acid or
fortis (strong wator) is nitric acid diluted with

164

.. ··. ·:

FIFTH SERIES •

even. water be allowed to stand any · time m ·i ·
vessels, a poison is extracted; but while boilj'
this evil does not arise. It is customary, In
to prevent any danger, to line copper vessels .~
tin. Verdiwis is a rust or oxide of copl?_er, ?s~&JJ
prepared from that metal by corrodrng If'\V,.
vinegar. There is a large manufactory at l\IQh
pelier in France, wh ere ve rdi gris is prepare.~~i
the following manner :-copper plates and h~
of grapes are placed alternately one upon anotli~
the latter speedi.Jy corrodes the surface of :)§
metal. · The verdigris thus formed is scrape4 ·:~
· as it collects on the copper; it is afterwards dr-i '
and packed in casks or bags. It is chiefly .~,1,11
. • '. ployed ~n dyin_g, and is a mos~ virulent poi~9,A
Copper 1s used m the manufactones of gun pow~~ ·
because it does not like iron give out sparks"rn'.
· collision. There are several alloys of copp'' :\'~
Brass is the most important: it is cornpounded:.p
zinc and copper, in th e proportion of three P~! "
· of the former· to on e of 1he bttcr. This is a vc ~
beautiful and useful sul>sta11ce; it does not ru\,
so easi ly _as copper; is more ductile than e itl,~
that metal or iron, an(l is th erefore used in th!
construction of musical and mathematical instru.•
men ts, and in clock work. Sieves and blinds
woven of brass.wire of extreme fineness.' B~~s ·
is used botl \ for purposes of ornament and us~
Bronze and the metal of which cannon are madi
are alloys of copper with tin. Bell metal is.· thi"
parts copper"and one tin.

'ol

at

.op~-~r is ou~d in •Sweden, Saxony; A;nerica, ·.· 1
. a~Great · Britain~ - It w;is well known to t~e anI
ie1-ts~~·· the ·Bible speaks of the work~r~.?~:: br~ss
· I.·
~f~rithi:dlood.
· : ·
..
· ··
J · \
.-~ (i~ found in a great variety of. 'forms; some.· I .
\rii~s"in masses of pur~ metal, but mor~ frequently
.
ifmoined with other substances, particularly sul1, t
hu·r.~-.· The copper mines of Anglesea are very.·
'
rd~u-ctive ; they are situated on !he· top ._of ' a
mountain, and form an enormous cavity more than
600-~: yards long, 100 broad, ' ~nd 1~0 d~ep. ~ !he
reff iS : obtained from the mme either by pick•
~~s
by blastin/iS the rock wit!1 gunpowde~. - ·. It ;
··then · broken with a hammer mto small · pieces, ·
operation which chiefly employs worn.e n and
liildren. After this it is piled on a kiln, to the
'pp~r parts of which fiu!;ls .. are · attacl~ed,, t~at_ coll?'·
unicatc with sulphur chambers. 'I he k1l9 is
c6vered, and the fibres lighted in different p_arts
·th~fthe ore may undergo the process of roastrng._
·'1'hi·whole mass gradually kindl~s, a~d the . sul·
'fiu'r.which is coinbine~l with the ore is .e xpelled ·
·n_f!J.mes-·by the heat, and is _conveye~ . through ..
~-:;~lues tO the · sulphur chamber. , Tins p~ocess .
oocupies from three to ten ·months, . accord1.ng ~o
"''~ '. size . of the kilns. When the operation__~s
iii>~plete or the ore is f~eed from the sulphur, it
's isubmitted to the smeltrng-houses, wher~, by the
ntense heatit undergoes, the pure metal isforc~d
MHn a fluid _state~
·
.. ~· ' ·. '·

f

or.

,. ~·?'1,:- ....; ...

·'

,..

:.

.,

. :. -

~-

'- .

166

. FIFI'll SERIES.

LESSON XXXVIII.
IRON.

Qualities.

It is elastic.

I.
ductile. 2.
heavy. 3.
tenacious. 4.
malleable.
liable to rust. 5.
sonorous.
mineral.
fusible.
hard.
vr,ry fusible.
livi~I gray-color.
bright.
reflective.
solid.
. ··
susceptible of a high polis~.
cold.
"·
sohietimcs amorphous.
crystallized.

I. In the state of steel it
of all metals.
- 2. I~on is ~ore ductile than gold; it may'
drawn mto a wue as fine as the human hair. ·.'

LESSON xxxvnr.-IRON • .

/:frt is the lightest of the common metals ~x: ·
!Ji~;~in; between seven and eight times heavier
·.
.
· )hvater.
/.' Most tenacious of the metals. ,A wire about
..~:t~nth of an inch in diameter will stipport .550
qµnds without breaking. ·· ·
· · : · .. ·
·:~ The air is composed : of two ingredients,
ygen ·a nd nitrogen; the former having a greater
nity for iron than for nitrogen, attaches itself
lf it, and then forms the oxide of iron; commonly

,,. ·J~~)~ust.

1. ·

Uses of. Iron.
Iron ·is the most useful of . all the metals, . and .
:µ?very early became acquainted with its value. · ; .
pses speaks of furnaces of iron and oL the ores
'which it was extracted. By means ·Of this
·~ial the earth has been cultivated, houses . and.. ·.
·Hes built, and witho.ut it few arts -could be_prac- '
sed • .: Iron is used in three states, cast iron,
rqu.ght iron, and steel. 'Vlien reduced to ·a
"' ·uid '· by the action of . the smelting-furnace, .
.~t~is ·received in furrows made in a bed · of.·
si~d! . the larger masses which _have flowed into
·n:e~main flmows are called sows, the smaller pigs,
l.Of~iron.
' In this state it takes the name of ca,st
t' .......
1!.~n, · and from the process it ha~ underg?ne- it is ·
ij~cQme extremely hard, and : havmg lost its ten~­
city; ' it resists the hammer and the file, and is
~ry.1 hrittle; it is of a dark gray or blackish color.
i: i~ .used for the backs of chimneys, grates, boil-·
i·s,' pipes, rail-roads and common cannon-balls. , ...
Cast iron is converted into wrought iron by a
ocess called blooming; it is thrown into a fur-

om

"·•)

'

. 168

. : '.

)

FIFTH . SERIES.

. ;~.

nace an~ kept _meltecl by the · fire procluce<l'qll
combustibles; it remains in this situation > ~
about two_ hou_rs,_ a :vorkman being continuallli'
employed ~n s~u~-rng it, until, notwithstanding - ~ ·
heat.to which 1t1s expo~ed, it acquires by degre,
cons1ste~cy _and tenacity, and congeals intO'*
lilass which IS no~ malleable. It is taken oue~
the furnace while hot, and violently beaten.
lnrgo h~m.mer, worl_rnd by· machinery; in thi'
manner lt lS formecl llltO bars of iron. 'J'he valtl'
, of ~r~ught _ir?n in machinery, and tools of all'..tl'
scnpt10ns, is rncalculable.
.· y·
S_teel is prepared from wrought iron in the ftl
lowrn~ manner_: the bars of iron are kept in con
tact with bu~mng charcoal for several hours :;in
earthe~ crucibles, from which the air is excludedfi
SteeJ, if heated to redness and then suffered ct'
co~! slowlf, becomes soft ~n~ pliable; if plunge.
while hot 1!1to col~ water, 1t is rendered suscepti,
hie of a high polish, and acquires such extreni
hardne_ss a~ even to scratch glass, while at th.
same time It becomes elastic and brittle. Its soft
ness. an~ ductility may however he restored r b"'
. h.eat~ng' it again and co?lirig it slowly. · Stee(~~
nes 111 color under· the rnfluence of heat; first"!f
a~sumes a straw color, then a light yellow, purp'i&
v1?lct, red ; deep blue succeeds, an<l last of alf'i;
bnght blu~. These hues indicate the differ.e'rt
ternpers which steel acquires, from that proper fo:.r,
com1!1on ~!es, to that requisite for the fin~It!l
e~ashc spring of watches. Steel is used for al ~
kmds _of_ edged tools, in which keenness is nece~·.
sary .: 1t is also much employed for ornamental pur'fposes, on accou~t of the elegant polish whichj
is. capable of talung. In medicine steel is valu

h1

..
jJ., ...,.

LESSON ·XXXVIII.-IltoN. .

. r- .

..

.

.. '

.-109

~

; '

.

.

Q~~ ~a.: tonic.

Waters which pass over iron .and
~_gme _impregnated with it, are called chalybeate '
at~rg;: those of Tunbridge and Hampstead are of
is~iature. · Steel is a combination of iron, · and
,,,l}}all portion of carbon. Cast iron contains a
,.~~let proportion of car~on, and is probably sat'!!!ed:-with it. Cast iron is . converted . into
._ .
~ light · iron; by: burning away the carbon;· and
bolly depriving it of its oxygen. ·· · •:
.•
, _umbago or black lead, which is employed · in .
tli~j~.anu_facture of pencils, is an ore o_f ir9n; con- ··:· "
:ta~mng nme parts of carbon to one of:the metal: · , ...
gJfic~ent is found _in Cumberland to supply the '
.r~qe of England. . The bronze color . used.· in
..~~celain painting is an oxide of iron. Mete,oric
ones, which - have been the subject of· so much
· njecture, and which are now generally believed
'}J:>e .. ejected from volcanoes· in the. moon, are a
ecies .of iron ore.
. -· . . .
,.
) ron i~ very valuable from the magpetical prop~i¢s i_trnay acquire. - By these it enables cthe
. ~riner_ to steer across the ocean, the traveller to .
·:~~t)1is course with safety in the .pathless desert,
~· ri..d;-:.t he: miner to gui<l,c hi.§ rese.al'ches after' sub- ..
erraneous treasures. -- 'I'he loadstone · or natural
·m..~·gnet,, is an ~xide of ir,o n; it communicates ·its
, .Q}Ve.rs to' !Jurs of iron or steel; when . placed in
'.o~~act with them . . The artificial magnet .is now
al:ivays used; as it possesses and retains all the
IJ>;operties of the loadstone. The qualities which
' r~n.der it useful, are 1st, its attractir:ig iron, and
its polarity, or the power by w_hich·it points
.the poles when freely . suspended. · _One end in~riably turns to the North, and the other to the
uth, except when it approaches the pole, when
.
lli

-1

qs·

+.

170

FIFTH SERIES.

~ 111_-._, :.
.

•.

I

...
•

the directive power ceases altogether, which ciF
cumstance constitutes one of the great <liflicultie
in navigating th e Arctic R egions.
'{'
The opposite poles when presented to ea9li
other' are attracted at one encl and mutually
pelled at the other.
· ·'i~
The mariner's compass is a circular box, 'ih.
which a magnetic needle is placed in such a mU!l~
ner that it can move in every direction.
· ·~

'1

- :.

Geological and Geographical situation of Iron,.~

mineral.
. reflective •
. · sonorous, making a crackling noise.
·
dilatable by heat.

Iron is the most universally <liifused of th~'
metals. It is everywhere produced in greater.pr·
.' less · quantities ; but England, France; Sweden,
·. and Russia, are richer in this metal than the othe .
· countries of Europe. It is very rarely if ev:'e
found in a native state, but generally asan oxide
or in combination with Sulphuric or Carboni.
Acid.

.,

-'.~;:·:

,,

)~.

!'"';.;.

TIN.

Qualities.

It is heavy.

I.

. soft. . 2.
malleable.
ductile.·
fusibl~.

white.

3.

' I

· :·: It is seven times heavier than water, though
·:·
.
·htest of the ductile ' metals. .
2~:·Jt · is softer than silver, but harder ·than
ead··,'
·
·
~, ~~ Tin may be. beaten into sheets the' lOOOth
~ilifHL an inch in thickness.
· '

•··...:..;.

LESSON XXXIX.

I

.j

re·

';·

I

'

!fses of '!}in.

~ ·

/fin is chie~y employed in the manufacture of
U)inary utensils; they are . not however made
f."-~solid tin, but of wh at is called tin,...plate, which
s'~Hhus prepared. ' Thin iron ' plates ,are . first
eansed completely, by washing them in water
nf sand ; they arc then dipped into melted tin,
af,te~wards steeped in water mixed with sulphuric .'
~i.d. · This process causes the tm not only to .
.. ver lhe surface of the iron plate, but to peneate it so that the wffolc mass becomes of ' n
liitish color. . Pins are made of brass wire .
n1 ned. When tl~ e pin-is formed, a vessel is filled
ith · str~ta or layers of tin. plates between the
~·

'

'

'

172

- FIFTII SERIES.

brass pins; the vessel is then filled with water -~~
some tartaric acid, by means of which the ti!111s
dissolved, and after five or six hours' boiling, tlie
pins are found uniformly tinned. It is the ziifd
of the brass which .has an affinity for the tin, .ana
forms the union which takes place. The pins_,a_re
afterwards polished, by throwing them into a tuo
. containing a quantity of bran, which is set' in.
motion by turning a shaft that runs through i!B
centre, and by means of friction they become·
perfectly bright. The uses of tin in economic .
purposes are very various, particularly when laid'
over other metals, as in stirrups, buckles, &c
The oxide of tin is used in dying.
)
Ti11 forms alloys with several other metals '.
These compounds have been mentioned before•
as bell-metal, pewter, bronze. Tin leaves .am9:l
gamated with mercury, are used for silvering an!l
·
, .,,,"
plating other metals.
.. .i
Geograplii<:_al and Geologica~ situation

of

Ti~[~
~:: 'I

Native Tin is .never found, and its ore is of less
common occurrence than that of iron. Engla114:'.
Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the larges'
quantity of this metal. · The tin mines of Corn'!
wall were well known to the ancients; and th
Phenicians traded with the Britons for it Ion'
before t_he birth of our Savior. It is always four\u
as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper; .
It occurs chiefly in veins running through grani~~'
and other rocks. When it is taken from the mill_e;
it is broken into small pieces, and streams :of;'
water passed over it, to free it from the earth. .
particles with which it is intermixed; it ~s. the.

LESSON XL .
COl\IPAUISON OF METALS.

old; a perfect metal, .is the most precious.
:;· ·
most compact.
.
heaviest.
';weight is betwe~n nineteen and t"'enty _times
t of water.
,r:<: : •.·
_Si_l_ver, a perfect metal, is next in value · to gold
useful ; its weight is betwel:'.n ten and
e}eyen times that of. wat.er .
.
. ';?' Quicksilver is fluid.
~ ~i' < :. ·
easily volatilized. · .
~{;< , ·:- "
· immalleable.
; ~·J.t.s' weight is between thirteen and fourteen times
' . hat of water . .'·
' ." -~-,-._ ..
,· ; ..
'
\ Copper is the· most sonorous.
~/
elastic except iron.
~· weight is between eight and nine times that
_ d ·~~ore

'('

-~ :water.
""'~ -r·

Iron is the most elastic.

seven and eight times that

' f { ; "<''" '.: ': ,.,~ "":-;;,:' :·~C:: ~,z:'{-~;~·~'. ;1 .
17 4

FIFTII SERIES.

Lead is the softest.
most easily fused.
Its weight is between eleven and twelve
that of water.
, .,,_
·· Tin, next to.lead, is the softest of the metai~~
it ~lilates . most by heat; it is the lightest, .it~·
weight bemg only seven times that of water. { t•

LESSON XLI.
ON METALS .IN GENERAL·
-

--

--- ..........

.......

__
~

~etals are s~mple elementary• bodies, distf·
gmshed by berng heavier than all . other sub.
~tances,-by possessing a peculiar lustre whic ·
is called tlte · met°:llic ~ustre-by reflecting lighP
and heat,-by
opaque ' fusible ' nialle
. their bema
b
. a bl e, te1!ac10us, du?tile, and generally elasti~~~. Upon this -last quality seems to depend theidit:
ness for exciting sound, or sonorousness. MetalBi
. are capable o~ unit!ng with one another in :i stat~
of fus10n; this umon is called an alloy • . ICiS
· remarkable th~t by these combinations, metals undergo ~ cons1dcrnblc chu11go in their properties "'
and acquue new ones not belonging to either -of,
- them when not united. Thus the weight of the
a.lloy' or the .two metals -in combination, is some~-~
times very different from the weight of both the, .
metals , tak~n separately: an alloy of silver with-·
~opper ~r tm, or one of silver or g:o~d with lead;~
1s heavier thai;i . the same quantities of those¥.
m~t~ls uncombined. Their ductility and malle; '
al11l1ty are changed and generally impaired, the

~LI.-ON METALS IN GENERAL~ ~i75 ' -'.. \ .
)?/becoill:ing brittle. This is ~ery re~arkably :~
1
t··:·LESSON

the' case with gold and lead, when umted; the
- I
)/;!~er· of which even in the trivial proportion of
11 :'
~~f a grai_n to an ounce. of gold, rend~rs th~~~ass
:\ , , 1
J.nte destitute of tenacity. '. .
·" . ·. .
.. \ \
.J 1e hardness of m_etal~ is : ~aried by combu~a- ~ · 1 ~· \
. ~,-;.;,:.Gold, by combmatlon with ·a small q~antity . · · · · i !
[Q~ copper, and . silvei:i by a minu~e proportion of -,_ · . I I
rthe~ same metal, acqmrc· such an mcre~e of \lard· .' .
I
· - ~~,that these additions are always Jnade ·to. gold , · .]'
silver which is to be ,expqsed to wea:r• : ;By a ' .'t . "\
mall addition of gold; ' iron is said to gai~1 .. so .. : · 1· 111
·Dfuch ' hardness, as to · be even superior : t.o ~t~el · ·
pr·. the. fabrication of cutting instruments~· >,'_': ..:. : . . ~·
\
'""~Cha~ge of color is a common eff~c~ of the-union
i
. :~etals .with each other• -Arsenic, for .example, ~ ··. \
J;uch .resembles steel, , and copper, which has a . - ·
~~.~9lor, afford b~ their unio~ a compound,,~whic~ '
,j)e~rly the whiteness of sil.v~r..
·~· . ·:-: ,,-:. ·
I:.·:~~ .G .

. -~~~.~ ~ ..

. .

n·.;order to·ascertain how far the children had
· ined the knowledge ~ communicated to .- them
these . lessons, the. following · questions_..were :
th~m to answer in. writing: . '' ,:,.~ - '::~ "·flue
ft ~~...........
.'•'. l:'.
·_. - - ......

en

t

• • ••

,

..

. ,_ .
~-.:"

~·

.

;

•·.::--'

-,

..

_, ~
•.

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.--

'!

·,

".

l

. 170

1

t'~f>: ... Q.UESTIO~S _ON THE METAL~: . __ . · 177 .-_ : . , , il

FIFTH SEnrns.

s;~,rWhat <lcgrcc l)f .tenacity doe~ it pos,s.ess 1 ' - . '·. . :
4';'.:What are the chief uses of s1lver1 · : :
·,
!
.,}~Vpon . what qualities do the use_s · c;>f_. ~il.ver . ., ' ;
e 'ei1d? ,
.
..
. . _, _
,1
6.•'::Describe the operation of plating•.·' -·'>· · ~· .
::
, ~7~.'.' 1What · is lunar caustic? and what -ii.re its ·
I'

QU~STIO_NS ON THE METALS.-.

~ies f
GOLD.

1. What arc the chief qualities of gold 7
2. What 'is its weight?
.
3. Give a proof_of i_ts ductility.
4.
tenacity.
.
5.
·
malleability. .
··.'.· .
6. Upon what other quality docs its malleabiliti
depend?
·
··
. 7. What qualities are directly
malleability?
· 8. What is an alloy ?
· 9. Why is gold ·alloyed for the
coinage?
10. What metal is used as its alloy?
11. How are buttons gilt? .
.
-<:1
· 12 . .Describe !he n~anner of forming leaf gol ' ;13. In what states is uokl found? . . . .
·!
14. What is an ore? "'
·
15. What is meant by a native metal ?
· -~~,
16. In what countries is gold found?
. / '
. ~ 7 ..What people . empl~)y themselves in sepa: .
tatmg it from the sands Qi the European rivers 1.'

>x

~.-- ,. f'.~ti: .
I

_:<.~~··

SILVER.

1. What ~r~ the ~hief prollerties of
2. What is its weight?
'

~~'i');!.~

sil~er1 '..·:
"

.

· ·.:~

: .. · ·

1

·•

•

- • ·

'.

•

•

.:-~- _. -·:--<·

.

a

" ~~.:: Give geographical and_ geological acC~J!nt_.
·of-·silver?
-···
.:
·
"9..-. Why are gold and silver called per(ect
etals 1
:Pi:~·~;~~

.

-;1-i ~ ':..

QUICKSILVER.

f ....
.......
!'. ·What are the uses and properties .of quick·.'!-;.~
•

l

'

•

ver? , · · ,
.2: What is its weight?
· · · ··
In what respect is it remarkable as a. liquid 1
·4~ , Wl1at effect does heat protl1:1ce upon it? •.
5_. ·under what circumstances does a change in ·
: 't~~·qualitie_s take place? and what is the. change 1 ·
6. "What is an arnalgam.1.
. _' · ' ·:-- _7~~ 'Mention the uses :of quicksilver • .,,
..-;-.- ·· .-=~~-8:~ What are the. propert~es that fit . it for a
,,~ro~eter 1
,
. .·
.
·W9.
What for a-thermometer 7. '
lfrr
1.
';.~J,l'\10.: How ·is a barometer made 1 and ~-:what is

:a..

·is ·use 1

--

· ·~- · · ·.
·1L How is a thermometer made 1 and 'Vhat is
_,
s_
u.s e.'!
.· :·
. .
.
f.12. , What color is obtained from quicksilver 1
13. -. Where is quicksilver found?
'·
_.
·
.;:-~ia; What circumstance led to the di!_!covery,of ·, · . h~e . mines of ldria ?_
.... · • :- ·-,__:· ._;- ·.' ··

178

.FIFTH · SERIES. ·

QUESTIONS ~N THE METALS.

-

;..

)

I. What are the remarkable

,;'-.\

• :

-

"

•

.JI

_-,

•i

3:

2. What is its weight and degree of tenacity;?,
3. How is it proved to be capable of extrem '
. divisibility?
· ·
..
. 4. What are the uses of copper ?
· 5. What is verdigris? and how is it made 1 . ·
. 6. What is the danger incurred by employi.
copper in kitchen utensils 1
1 ',iifi
7. W hat are the a11 oys of copper !
·. . <
::tit
8. In what respect is, brass preferable 'tQ1 ,.,
copper?
..
··
.
·
·- ''~
. 9. Where is copper found, and rn what states?;,
IO. Describe the copper rnines in Anglesea, .
and the manner of extracting the metal from the '
~

,,.,.~

'" <"".
.·.:.,:.;Sl

'

I-•: ,• •
.

I

!

1

o:.

I. Wl;at are the chief qualities of copper 7 ".

.

IUON.

• ..

~

COPPER.

.

.

;? What are the chief qualities of iron 1
·
}-- .W hat quality does it possess in a higher.. ree than any other metal? "'
· '.",._
"
3F:What
is its weight and tenacity 'I. .
· 4',-.='W hat are the .different states in which. iron
• :t=
used?
·
5. How is cast iron prepared 7
What ure its qualities und uses 1
7~ : How is wrought iron prepared 1
s~:--- What are its qualities and uses 1
9. · How is steel prepared?
_
O•. What are its qualities and _u ses?' '
11. What is meant by the temper of steel? ..- .
l2 ~ What is plumbago? .and what quality.makes
· seful?
·
'
.What is the geographical situation of iron 1·
.and in whatstate is it found? , ·
·

2. What is its weight?
3. What are the different effects of heat u
lead 1
4. What are the chief uses of lead?
5. Why is it used for reservoirs of water 1.
6. How are shot made ?
7. What. is tho use of tho oxides of lea<l 7
8. What are its alloys 'I
- 9. In what state is lead found?
10. ·what is lead called when found
with sulphur.
I I. Where is lead most ab·undant?
12. Describe tho process of roasting a
smelting.

~.

• ~ " : ·.!.l,... .. ........ • ~

, • .,~L,

LEAD.

:I

:\
I

• \ J ;\

:, l'

. I; ·
. \ 0

]'

·1 1.J,

l ;1,,
I;. !'II
.

J

1I \\'

"I :

., i
I.

I

- ~.i:I

. l ;.\

. TIN.

1.\

~>what are th~ chief qualities of tin 1
:-; What are the ' uses of tin ? · ,·'/-. .;<.How is it prepared for use 1 . ,< How are pins tinned?._ · · 1- ·
~·..·Wlmt is block' tin 1 . .'

I

(,

,.,, . .'

'

\

..
"

··1

~

-

/;'

.·

.~

I

.

'

·,I

.'
\

".

·, '

~

,.

.-.~ :~?:~. :~~-·~~~~;~·~~·~\·~:~:7i~:7:;~,(~~~~~r;f'.?(~~~ .
180

FIJi'TII SERIES.

LESSON· XLII.-Lnrn • . . . . . >':t~I
.. .
•,
. ...
.

;i.. "•/,
~

·~ones

LESSON . XLII.
LIME.

.

.

substance called Lime is never found p~
in natur~, owing to · its great affinity for carbon~ .
acid* and water. All the earths of which lim
'forms the _basis are called calcareous, from ~
. the Latin for -·lime. -. It is the most universal!
diffused of all si1bstances, and one of the ' ~0'.
abundant; it is computed that it constitutes··dn
_eighth of the crust of the earth. · In this ·d(
tribution we have great cause to admire ~: t11 .
gracious providence of our Heavenly ·Fat!( '
as the utility of lime in various arts, in agricultur
in manufactures, and in medicine, is very gre_~"'
Lime united with carbonic acid in different pr
portions, forms common lime-stone, chalk, marbJ
&.c.; with sulphuric ·acid 1 it constitutes gyp~ii
or -alabaster ; and with fluoric acid, fluor'
.· Derbyshire spar. These are its most "interest'
combinations with minim1l substances. It ent
·also into the -composition of animal matter/
shells, bones, and th ~ 'hard coverings of inse9
TIIE

ca_,

~~--~~~--'-~~~~~~

· * Carbon

is charcoal in its purest state; · i't ·.is ·:··;
·. abundant in the vegetable kingdom, and is chiefly obtni
from wood. - United with oxygen, it forms carbonic_ncid;
.

.

'

.

\

'

.

-

contain 80 pnrts in.100 lime; nnd '· ~he · · ,"
-:shells of birds, 9 parts in 10. ':
· · · · ·.'
'
•1 ure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone,.,
1' 1
·yr-means of burning. For this purpose alternate
' i
.. ;irers of calcareous earth and fuel are arranged
·~a kiln ; a fire being kindled, the carbonic acid
I
- ~"d:\vater become volatilized, and are _driven off, ·
L\'
·,_.a~ing the lime ·pure. , · In this state it is called
;j
uic1c-lime, and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent,
\
I
nf"1sible; corroding and destroying animal ma~.
:. rf.~~)Vhen water 'is ' poured upon it, it. swells;
ls.~~into a powder, and gives out' great. ·heat. , ' , ::
..lfi ~:'last operation is ·called: slacking the ~ lime: - .. ·. !
.· -,li_~ ; water - combining r"with the lime , becomes ~.
p~id (.and the heat ·is occasioned by1 its changing :
f~2iif
a ·'fluid . to a solid, state~ fo1: in· doing this) t.- ~
01
'8.rts'".with . its - caloric: . The· uses . of . lim.1:F ·are ~
~iiril¢~~us · ;rid ~ importa~t. · !t . is · ~ormed\_into · :~,9xtar, the ce~ent. \l&e~ 1.i} b~ildmg. · ·. · Th.e )n~i.e, .
nqing-slacked, is made mto a paste by'ten'lpermg ,
' t,'f:with :.watcr; to this -· is .: added ·sand, .-··and
:io~eti;nes chopped hairs; as it. dries it ·becomes ·
.i )
~oli,d,;_hard,\arid clt.Jrablc. Examples h~ve_: been ~
"liE own, of ' buildings "a · ~housand · years old,-- fo . ·
· · ich the mortar is •as hard as the stones which it .
I

1

Ites,. ~·::

.--~~ :

..

·. s a manure, lime

.

-t ·

~·: -..

· - .. )·

~- ·, · ~'·.;

the'" .

is' ·useful in' loosening
. enacious nature . of ' some soils, ' llnd _rendering
~~,m ·. more . friable and · receptive of . vegetable ··
hres; . it·· also · facilitates - the dissolution: "and
ui,refo,ction of animal" and .vegetable " substance~
f.;;which mould is chiefly composed, _and ·gives) t .

..

· ~\

;pqWer ~ of acquiring· 'an¢i ·· fetaining mo~ sttire·, so ~ -..: : · :- '·

'ed~~sary

to the

·1·.

.\

l

:1

growth~oJ vegetaI;>les. ,-~ ~~fle ·fs . - ., . ~ \
I

I

I
!

....

l

·; :0:· -::~:t.-:s:r:. ; ·

' 182

FIFTH SERIES.

-,.:

also employed in the manufacture of sugar.,-·$·
deprive it of a portion of its acid. 'runners ,.
it in removing hairs from the hides, and cleansi'
the_m from fat and grease.

Carbonate

of Lime.

Lime occurs most frequently combined w.i
carbonic acid in different proportions. The · ge ·
eric term for these substances is Carbonate ~;<)
Lime. They vary much in appearance, but ~a ·
' · agree in the following properties ; they readi
yield to the knife; neutralize acids (the char~c
teristic properties of eac h being destroyed;) aq
have a weight two or three times greater . t~ ; .
that of water.
·· .,:a;;
.. Limestone occurs in almost every country, an
produces hills of some eminence ; it is verJ:
abundant in England; it is use<l for making m~r~
tar, forming roads, &c. Different kinds of Lime;.,
stone are used in building, as Portland ston~,
Bath stone Oolite. The form er has been mucfi
employed in several of the principal buiklings_:Ln
London, as St. Paul's, the Monument, and sonie
.of the bridges. ' Some limeston es are soft, wheji.
first . taken from the quarry, but become ha.(
.
.:
when long exposed to th e air.
Calcareous spar is th e purest carbonate of lim'
It occurs . Loth amorphous and cry s talliz e d, ·~
transparent, shows a double refrac tion, or makel!
a small opject seen through it, appear doubl e, an'4
takes the form of. th e rhombohec.lron, occ urring~i,.
eight hundred varieties of this figure. Carbon!!.{.
"' of limo is often found in stalactites, which ;are
long -pendulous masses. They arc deposited
.

~ :

·.-~._;~

LESSON .

·-

XLJ~.· LIME • ......._.·, ·_' ~~8~ . ·. :· ;:f '. i
~.

.

... .:

..~ I 1

roril';~ater loaded with- particles · of ~arbonate - 'of' _· '. _,, ; I
Ume1:·.: th. is trickles through fissures . m rocks] or . . i
" ' - "in the roOlS
~ 0 f · caverns, & c, 'l'lle water ., · ,. , l I
eviees
1
ya~orates and the particles of lime gradually·
•L;
Jr!Ltden; cl~op· succeeds drop, -till a long irregular.
~ ·\
~tib'ti'_is suspended of a most grotesque appea,rance •.
· hen carbonate of lime occurs of a very close- ·
·ained .texture,- it is called 7nat·ble; being sus- .
~tible of a high polish, it ·is much used·.f?r orrunental ·purposes, as chimney-pieces, pillars,
'f '!fl':
.
.
.
• .•
• . . .'
• • ,•
statuary.
· . ·. _ .:
Cliallc is another carbol}.ate of- lime, _ not so · ·· ... · :
enerally , OCCUrring . aS lime tone,,· but Very abUn~ . '
I
in the south-easteni counties of England,
·· , ·i 1
.)p~ · wJ'l.ich . it stret~hes ~n · a · continu~d line, . . \ ' 1'
~~rmrng 1ts noted white · cliffs,_ a~d pas~rng over · .
., . ,
lb.Prance appears on the opposite coast. ~t fo~ms
- 1
"'ills · of ·a moderate . elevation, characterized . ~y- ·
tl}eir: g~ntle slopes and. rounded summit.s, arising
·'
fi>in:this substance berng of too soft _a nature to
<
esist the effects of the weather · upon i_ti-~ · ' T~ere_
'
'e)two be~ls of ch;ilk, the upper one d1shngm~h-· •·
\
~!.l;)y.· containin~ par~llel ho~izontal layers of· ~mt .:_. _ 1 ·:
·ajth : many petnfactrons ; -_and ~he · lower : ?emg;. ...
1
'g~~~itute . of both . . Chalk, is wh1te, dull, fn~ble, .·· ·. -~~ I
.' .
meager to-the touch, adheres to the tongue, ,lS of
an,.earthy fracture; always a~orphous, and opaque~
. . 1
Jqs"usually dug f1:om pits~ but in ·some ,rarts of..
··
Kent' they undermme the s1des c;if the lul_l, then · .
j
~!g~~-_ trench which is fill ed with. water, this ~oak- >. · ~
.\I·
ing:··ip, loosens the masses; which co~sequently '. •
Wlf~?\' Most of ·the uses · of chalk : are near_
ly -t~e . . .
I
· me>as those of limestone;" when freed from _its . ,
I
_arser particles 1 it forms whiting. ··
'1

I

rdant

1
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4

•

·~· ,~:.t~r impregna~ed wi~h calcareo~s s~b.~}~nces, :
'."\J·\~:

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184
FIF'rff SERIES. "
. ,is occasionally <lcpo~i ted on vegetables, clothi~l·
them with a stony co.a t; this incrustation is · call'
·ed Tufa.
': i;:.£
· - Gypsum is a sulphate of lime: i. (j, a combin'11
tioh of sulphuric acid with lime. It is mu_d •
· softer than marble and more easily worked: ·id i
sometimes of a beautiful. transparent whiten ·
when it is called alabaster, and is made into va~
nn<l of.her ornaments. The gypsum, which "i
l'ery abundant in 'the neighborhood of Paris;':iB'.
, of a yellowish color. When heated it pulverize~
nnd water poured over it, is quickly absorbed)
forming a paste which dries and hardens ' vet· ~·
rapidly. This is the Plaster of Paris so much
used for casts, · statues, &c. When mixed with
glutinous substances, it forms stucco and plaster ~
.

·~ )·

.

. !'~~.I

'

. LESSON

XLIII~
-~

'

.

~

,,

SILICA. - -

.... A l~rge: number ~f the rocks with whicb.:'ur
earth ·-abounds, . and a great proportion of com
pound earthy substances and minerals, have sile
~... for their chief ingredient. It- seems to form : tq~
solid basis of the crust of ~he· globe, giving firrp~
.. · ,. -. ness and du~ability to t~e mountai?s by whic~
I - · they have resisted the vanous revolut10ns that th,
<' . earth has undergone. It is found in its gre~te '
" purity in rock-crystal and qum·tz. It is .the hasis.
~ .
of almost all the mineral substances, which ai:~
~ ,
. sufficiently hard to strike fire with steel. The~·~ ·
•1·
substances are called silicious, from the latin sil~ . ·
a flint;' because)lint is almost entirely compose,

~

-.

,.

. ;. LESSON . XLIII.-SILICA. ·

~·

:.';1.85 -. '

1

ni~ious 'earth. Sil~~ forms u'large portion' ~f

l

\I

ite, enters in considerable proportion into' the .
omposition of slate ; ' it is also the substance :- . -.
9£¢~~onstitutes sand · ai:i.d . generally the shingle" ; · i
.. he":. sea-shore. It _is _very· 'hard, striking .fire ·. : · i !
Ji~ stee1, and scratching glass; . it ha~ neit~rn~ : . .. .
t~: nor smell; when · perfectly pure (m which · - · ., , I .
. te;: iUs, however, never. found -in nature) it is
-.~ 1:
1'
fifusiblc, but when heated with an aikali, -it·unites · :ith': it, . melts and forms glass. In consequence
t'~J:iis property, silica)1as also been called vitrifi- >· .,
~; earth, from vit1·um, the .Latin for glass. It is
faffected by any of the acids except the fluoric~
Coninion sand is a granulated silex, gen~raUy
~;a· white or yellow color.
In the torrid regions
f;'..t,\frica and Asia there are ·immense tracts of
~.sert covered only with sand so fine and dry as _"
,1
·J' be movable with th~ .wind, and ·forming · into
\
~'Ve<(like those of the ·sea. · The wind sweeping .•
'r sahd from the surface continually,:the succes·ve ~waves form mountains of sand. These -are
}.~c,,ess~ntly shifting, and ?ften overwl~e~n1 _the
.
·.··'I
•' I
ii.v.e lhng caravans. ·Sand 1s of great utihty. : dt
-lers··:into the composition 'o.f mortar. ; . It · pro··
·,....
u'<;es.,.ihe vitrification of glass and porcelain, and
''fhardness· has caused it to be much used ._in
1,

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'

. otiring kitchen utcrisils. In agriculture, · it · is ·· .· ; i ,
.lued as a manure; it gives lightness to clayish

· 9 heavy ,soils, and assists in the work of ~ filtra- ·
·
·
.·
·~sands~one is formed of grains of silex cemented
gether, producing a.. solid rock, though of a very
·
·"
·able nature.
pomnion flint contains of. silica ninety-seve·n
rts )n one hundred. It is generally of a· grayish
·.,:".·
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186

·

FIF1'11 SERIES.

Mlor, ·approaching ?ften to black, it is opa~:;,~-­
but translucent· at its edges. It strikes fire iitj
collisi~n, an~ is on this_ account used in gun-locX
From its bcmg one of the hardest substances·: ·
nature, it is often taken as an c;nblcm of mo(
_ha~dness. It is found principally in beds or str~(
in chalk formations. It is used in the maniil
facture of glass and porcelain, in the constructi~~
of buildings and walls, and it also forms excelleli :
roads.
·
.. '

LESSON XLIV.
~ .

.

.· -

·':

. · ALTJMINE OR ARGIL •

.,. ..:..__ ___. ..: . .. - .

·.~·

.·

·x;i,;

· ·, ' · This substance obta~nod tho name of Alu~iii~
from its forming the b_ase of common alum, ·a.fin:
· argil, from the Latin ,argilla, clay, on account ~f;
its being tho constituent of ·all clays, which .'a~e
therefore termed w·gillaceous earths. Their di~
' tinguishing qualities are, that theJhave an earthy
texture, give otit a peculiar odor when breathed.
upon, which has been thence called the argill~..
ceous odor; they adhere to the tongue; are nev:"
found crystallized, but . sometimes slaty; are g~n
erally opaque, and their weight is about twice as
great as that of water. When tempered witli
water, most argillaccous substances become soru
tenaciou_s, a~d plastic,* but shrink and harderi'b~
the application of heat. Alumine is never found
pure in nature: it is considered to be the mo~·
plentiful earth. next to silex.
·
'
"*

.

.

.

. . . ... ,

. Plastic, from 11'>.ao-uw (plasso) to form, moans here e11Sil
moulded into various forms.
.
··
·
' ·- .., i
..·~·

•?J .; ·:;."•'

.' LESSQN,· LXIV.~ARGIL.
'

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<- ~187 : · .. ~
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'(JO'ftl.mon clay is a n~arly equal adinixttitei;.pf . ,-:-_ .
~mtQ.e and _s ilex: it is ·found · iµ most ·countries, ·- ~·: ,
1is" v~ry valuable' in :yarious arts; f~r -tMs.e·it' ~; · .•
p~cuharly fitted; as it may · be · moulded .mto . .· ~· 1· '
-·~form, which it retains ,unchange'd after '. .eX:· : ·,," · ; \
~ure to · heat. The beds of lakes, ponds, '.:and ... . -_
p~_ings; are almost entirely of clay : 'instead of - · , , , i
J9wing the . filtration of water, as sand does, · it . ·
I
~):ms· an impenetrable ·bottom, ·ahd by this · means '
l
' water is accumulated in the caverns of the eatth, .
.p!od.~cing those natural .reservoirs, whence springs 1
i~jie and spout out at the surface. · ·clayey soils - · ' 1
ii!";conseq uence of their . absorbing_ arid retaining ..
:I
, ',_9jdsture are he.avy and sticky. · Clay is·.often •.
\\
U§,e·, :·:.by the poorest ~lasses ~f. societ:r in. forming
., e.ir:1.mud" cottages~ . · . Loam 1s. ' an · arg1llaceou~ · ': i ·11
,.0>~~a.nce, containing a great · proportio.n of__sari~, , i ·
·im4,1s.generally found upon.a bed of sand • . ·It is · · .
" ~ ~:substance, of which bricks ·and tiles are con- .
:I
ucted ; when well . baked . in . a kiln, or . in: the
. \ :\
it_. becomes very hard and durable. A proof
"
. \
·;;(,this is furnished in the existence at the present
.~n~y,: of_ trose .mighty Egyptian Pyramids, which .·
- are,_.generally supposed to have been the _work of
J}e: Israelites ,in their, bondage',
..:
· C.\~· orcelain clay is that employed in ·our china
,·
l!i;iUfactories; it absorbs moisture rapidly, and
:~omes · very tenacious when kneaded. · It is ·
~·
.. .is!i.hguished from other days by the finene!ls of ·
-~;.texture, ·its friability and · meager touch. ·· A
!>~ai:ser. kind called · Potters' clay, is use.d__in the
. -- · ,- .· .
king of common eathern ware.
~:A,..P,otJiei; description of clay is called Pipe clay
. 'I
foni its being used in the man_ufacture of pipes
' i
-~~ ~ : yery ·pl;istic, and ' is cast in a cy~indrica~
I

l

sµp,

>.-- ;:'

. ··-

188 .

FIFTH SERIES.

·, QUESTION:S ON .

mould, a. wire being afterwards run through it
form the hollow through which the fumes of tf
tobacco are inhaled ; when baked it becolli~s
hard and white. . This clay is also used in cei
tracting grease out of different substances. ·Ful
lers' eartlt is another argillaceous substance simi•
larly employed.
·
"-'-'."c~
l

--~~~

Tho soil ·or mould which covers our fields ·and
gardens, contains more or less of ·these thre ,
~ubstance~, alumine, silic~, or lime. They occui ·
m very · different proportions; the best soils ar '.
those which_ a~e a m~xture of all, for they corre~·t
and keep w1thm thei~ due proportion the qualiti~~·
of each other ; · thus rn a clayey soil, filtration T
carried on · b~ means ?f sand, while clay on the
~ther hand gives consIStency to a sandy soil, an '
' hme loosens the texture of heavy lands, and
corre~ts the coldness w~ich the.retaining of watt;i
occasions. How beautifully may we thus trace
throu~h nature, contending and opposite qualitfo' · _
workrng together to form an harmonious whole~ '
The fertilizing property of our soils, however;·
gr~atly depends upon the admixture of decaye
ammal .and vegetable matter.
·
·. ·~

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EARTHS,\

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~{~h;
i§ lime nev:::~nd pure iri na;ti;el .•
j ,j
;;,~What name is given to the substances con.\!
Jng lime, and from what is .the·name derived?
J

1

.~;~a;:7nc\~:1v;~~~:1s ~i~er.a,l~ ~o.f, ~?ic~.- ~ime
:'; From what substance .is pt,u e lime

c~~ts~r~ be the p~oc~ss.:. .

_l,; ; .\

gen~rally

. : . .. ·. ·' '·: :> -~ : ·:- ; ·
• ·;5_:.:.what is the operation of slacking_ lirne, ·and
·'·":' effect produced? · · '.: : ', · · : ..
,;.' Name the different" uses of lime, · with ·the .
p.,orties that fit it for those uses. '" . ~- '; - '. ..~ .:~: .... :_
:. ).;W·hat is a ca~bonate of lime? c<t . _ .. .
,",tMontion the different cai·bonates· of . lime~- ,,
'o~ ;;.Wliat qualities·do they all 1~oss_ess
f ; :Describe the cµlcareous .spar. · . : -- ·: · ->
'2~-::What are stalactites? describe their iorma~ ·
0

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3.>What is marble,· and how used 1 ·- · '"
'4;::-'. Describe chalk; its situation, qualities, and
earances. ·
.·
. . ··-. ,~ . · '.. ·.: ., :.
5:'":What is ~ alcareous tufa 1 ... · :· =. · ' .· . :~ ·
6/ Name the limestones used in· 'building.
7. ·~. What is gypsum, its qualities, and__uses 1
l

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,190

~·. '

FIFTH SERIES.

LESSON .XLV.-COAL.

··-.'_.

:9.2

SILICA,

.1. In what minerals is silica found
greatest purity ?
2. Why was it called silica 1
2. What are the earths called that
silica 1
4• .Whut other. nnmo is sometimes given. 'i~
them, and why 1
'!.·'
. ?·. What . are the distinguishing quaJities o.
s1hc10us earths?
·
·
·
· .6. What ·are their chief uses ?
7. What is sand 1
· 8. Where do~s it abound, am~ to what misf~~­
tune are those liable who travel rn the countri
'.:
where it abounds?
9. Describe common flint, ~nd name its use '
IO. In what ge<:>logical situation is it found 7_
"!

ALUllUNE OR AR GIL. ·

i'.

1. Why_is clay called argil? . why alumine.

2. What are the distinguishing qualities _o

alumine7
·
3. What qualities render it so useful in ·
arts? ·'
4. Name the different argillaceou.s earths. :..
5. Name their various uses.
·
6. What is loam, its situation and uses 1
. _· 7. How is porcelain clay distinguished?
.
· 8~ What clay is used in the manufacture ·- ~£
c01mnon earthenware, and how does it differ from
porcelain clay 1
'
~. t:··

191

What clay · is used in the manufacture' of
·pes; and how are they made? · ··
. - . ·
0 ~: What Clays are ~sed for e~tracting grea~e 1_. ' .
I : ·Why are clays used _for the· bottoms · of ·
. es, canals, &c. 1
, . ' '. ..·
" .~· ._: · . ~ \, · ":: . . :
"~~12.' What kind of soil does clay form 1 .". · ·: ..,:·
.. ~·1:' ·..

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co.AL.
':'!

I

LESSON XLV .

.,':.

V'

,. 1

'.

'•

~O~al ~ay be considered as a mineral, both from '

I

I:

ls subterraneous situation, and the qualities which - ·
'
jt,P.'ossesses; many circumstances however justify
·1
ne''now prevalent -opinion that it is of ·vegetable ..
!
E'rigin; · the followipg are perhaps the most con-•- ·
1
"i ftJ'.?i"ng. · Carbon, 'which is t!1e chief cons!i,t uent . · . ;
on:__~ll v~getable · matter, particularly wood, com- .
..- ,
.P~f.es . ·three-fourths of this · substance . .'· Coal is
·also found in the various stages of mineralization. ·
.. ometimes it possesses a completely fibrous tex- ...
~,e and : ligneous appearance, even the knots of ~ ':
QO~l.-being d~scernible, whilst the same' bes! pro- .
µc~s .s pecimens of perfect mineral coal. · That
I
I
hich preserves most distinctly the chnrnc.tor or-..
I
oo.<l, is found at Dovey near Exeter.
~· I
. '.ln confirmation of this opinion is the fact, that'
I I
i ri)reland ~standing "forest has . been discovered .
i
I
aflhe depth of one hundred feet below the soil.
I
. ; .9~this we may add the inflammability of _this
_u.bstance, the numerous vege_table remains and
~.-'P.ressions that accompany it, and that . it has
~ver qeen ·discovered above . the line to' which

a

~'t:~

. .· .',.

.. .

..

192

FIFTH SERIES.

: ;\1,

vegetation rcach.c~. · It is of a hlack color, brigH~
?nd frequently mdescent,* the structure is slatrJ
it occurs always amorphous; it is very combustt
ble, a quality which few minerals possess. Ttle
pl~ces · from whence it is taken, are called c;;fi.~
mines; they .abound in many parts of Englari~ .
and have mamly contributed to the wealth of cou~
co_untry. Both the persons employed in ' th.a.
mines, and th~ vessels which transport the co~)s
are .called colhers; the place where the trade'
?arned on, a colliery. 'l'he access to coal mine
is generally through a narrow, perpendicular tti'
nel, called a shaft, up which the workmen · hh·
coal.s are · drawn by machinery. The mines ~ ·
'Vh1tehaven are some of the most extraordina' .
in t~e world. The ·principal en.trance ~ is by f
openmg at the bottom of a hilI throurrh ,a Jon
sloping passage, which is hewn in the ;ock =~ii
leads to th e lowest vein or bed of coal: th'e-- d&1
scent is chiefly through spacious 0i:ralleries int"
secting each other, formed Ly the excavatioi{of,
the coal, large pillars of which only are · left,~(.
support the ponderous roof. These mines ar
very deep, and are extended under the bed of ttfr,
se~, even to where tl~e dep th of the water is ~~
· fic1ently great to admit slups of burden. · In these
mines there are three strata of coal which ·-H
considerably apart from one another, and ~ar .
made · to communicate by pits. Miners are~· frec
quently impeded in their progress by veins::a•
hard rocks called dykes, and the coal is seldom
found in a di~ect l~ne en the other side of the~

r

·-·~

*Iridescent, exhibiting .a variety of colors like the
from Greek 1p1aos- (iridos) of a rainbow.
·

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·'

· FIFI'H .SERIES.

~

LESSON XLVI.
GRANITE.

.
Gr.a?ite is a comp_o~ncl rock,' formed by an ~g~
,, gregat10n of the grams of quartz, felspar, ancl mi
. ca. , The · proportions· -in. which these componi$n
parts occur, vary much. · Felspar is the predorih
nating, us mica is the least considerable of the1
ingre~ients •. iThe grains ·are ,also · of cliffore»
magmtucles; . when . they !!re large, the granit~i
of a very coarse texture; but sometimes they·' ~r1
so .small, as almost Jo gi~e the 11ppearance· ~ o~
umfc::>rm · mass~ '.:. These · circumstances occasion
. great variety in the- character of gr~nite .. ,. WI{
hornblende occurs in the place of mica, th.e roe
.. : is ca1led . Sienite. ·. Sorpe felspar is liable ·to · d-~·
.. composi.tion, _and when this i.s the prevailing_. s~.
. . ._ .. stance m . the rocks, they yield · to the effects· 6
r'' ~-;: · . the weather,' and become more or less of a rou~cf;
t:~~ ; '· form: but when .·the granite is hard and close:
:~~~-:--_ ~rained; whic~ is-more usually -~he case,"they '.ril
··:. · ·rn . bold promrnent peaks, g1vmg gran<leur·'_a~d
}\-,:: - bol~ne.ss to the scenery • .Granite i~ found in .ITJ.~P2~ · ···. , .. countnes . where th.ere are mountams Of any - co~
'-; , · . .si<lerable elevation. · It forms the lofty Grampi1;1 .
':'.; · .__-, Hills .in ~cotlan'd ; and the logan or·rocking st.Qn~\
:> .. . . of Cornwall are. imirnmse blocks of this materia ·•
,, c: ·:: -Granite is :valuable on account of its great ' -har!t,
· · \;_:-_ ·:.. _. 'ness and durability, is used for mill-stones, ~roug~~
:,
and steps, the streets _o f London are paved witlij ,
and it is employed in architecture . . · Waterlo''·
::·:~
B. ridge, one of t~e fjnest specimens of art, i~ ""~p. ·~'.. . : etructed of gramte. ·
..
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~lt' is a- ~ineral su_bst~nc.e,~b'eautifu.lly~white~· . ·'
, . ~lipg, ~and ctysfalljne; it
~9ulous, -: and of - a saline ·

is solublej fusible, >
flavor;": There-·' are
.e:v:~r-al ~.varieties ·of ·this useful mineral which are ·
.J~~,ipgu~shed by the -~i~er~nt situations. ii)'which •· .
li~x, are found. The prmc1pal are sea-salt · called
·-1~~{b'.1-:Y~salt, which ·is · produced from · the:ocean; .
~~~;:~e~t '~comes from Portugi,i.l :. salt drawn· from ·
Jlf~~,~~,spn?gs: and rock salt, \vhich is dug· otit of.. ··
..P,¢; .~arth. :4mongst. the ·most extensive salt 'mines .
'iJff$i.~~o _' ~~i~covered;_ ar~ those _at Wieli~ka, :a pie• · ·
sql1e ' .httle town· situated on- the sides · of a
~~iPJI~. v~lley, about eight' miles from· Cracow~ the
~.t~f:'.c;ity of foland. · The ·traveller ' who visits -'
i~f~~<su\Jterran_e?us : deposits of. salt, being fur:· ·
·:1~~~ _with a gmde and two· lamp-bearers, ·, is -let _.:
.:V.n a·.shaft_of_ a~out 150. feet by'·a rope. ::A(the · ~::
~IWr'.' 9f.90 _ feet · he : an;i ves · at the 'i·ock ·.of ' pure'-r
·: ;
~¥,;.qf~a".dmgy soot color, here a.nd there glistening'
··,
i
· p;qe)1ght of the l_amps.;: The.swing is now 'aban~
d'Q,r'l.~~' ;and t_he _ear -is · assailed ·' by the 'busy sound.
\.-• I
J?e.~;;/na~to?ks, and wheelbarrQws;''in· every '. ..
_~-~l.O_Il'. .:~ ~his ·I~ the fir-st jl.001: of a_large,cavern· .
Jiµ:nmg _-_ m .different' -' parts : the · stable, · ·and :
!i13ty.( horses, · quantities of salt,'- some <in bare ··
_.
~s'es_,-;; some in ~asks ready to be .hoisted to the. · ·
j~a...qe; '. stores of implements for the miners, &c.: .
IS '.: ~-X,_?avation is .about 100 feet · long; and 80 ..
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SERIES. '·
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:~:· ·:·:t}'.
~-: >..:~

.:. ·; '> broad, (beside:thc stabI~;) an<l about ~Ofee\_~j
:- - :From hence a long· gallery 12 feet high by · ~_1g
. broad leads towards · the- interior of ' the - m,i ; .
while lateral avenues branch off in various d~i:e~
tions each named after some, Austrian prin.c e;c.i
prindess, and-resembling more in appearance)~
avenues of some ·subter'raneous palace, tha!J : l~
: passages of a mine. · A flight of steps .co~d~~~
.- down another 100 feet to the secondflo01·-,· 1!1 t.~

· tlosccnt tho Lctl of StLlt

it-1

iul;orrupto<l by .u

nn~·r~)'.;;

· stratum of pure clay, sometunes by a m1x_tur~,;.~1
salt and the same earth ; these strata _are ,).~
phi.~es very curiously curved, as though a i:olli~,g
wave had been arrested in its course and preser~,f
in its. original form. The miners are here fourt.
at work, some hewing pillars of salt from the _ro~~
some cuttinO' them into masses for home c.o,i:i
sumption, and some stowing the masse~ in barr~J
for exportation. ··- The cavern on t1~1s floor ~t,~,
rather smaller than the first: it consists of on~
· spaCious hall, and ~as. no ' pillar to support. ; t,~
roof
· -.·
. · '·
.· -·· · P~·~ceeding ·on this subterrnneous journey; •t~.
.. traveller arives at a wooden platform, from w.hen¢.
he · looks do1v11 upon .-an abyss,*which the siinpl;.
lights of the conduc~ors f~il to ill~minate, tho~~;
·the spars of the mmoral rcflcctrng ~ho ray~ ;o
light, produce ·: a · novel aud bc'.luhful . o.fieQ
When princes · or other great personage~ v1s1~.:.~ ,
mines a _chandelier of crystal salt, wluch ban
iii · th~· centre~ is · furnished with 150 lights,{tJ.~~
· displays a stupendous cavern, having the app~lJ.• .·
· _- ance of a castle in ruins ; at the bottom are . ~orp
- · rows of seats rising like the be11ches of a theat_
. opposite to which is an orchestra; here on . g~~.
·,'

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;~~~~~:~~f.~~~·-·. 1.~~~~:;1:~~~:: ~r~,;r~~:s~J.§~~~tl'~f!>f~
;''f.\•: < ·•LESSON. XLVII~--:-SALT. ·. ·. : >-<;;j,.} f:!1 , !';,:

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a.irs ·of slo:~ ·an.d >v' 1,·:

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Qf3iqns . ~ :srnall band play .a f~w
· ""~~~e'.~ IT}US~c,_.which ) ias ' a. m?st.. ~ingula; : :_eff~ct;;\;:;·
~rnwny; with t~e surroundmg:- sc_en~~;;· +,.o ng,_ /f.".
1
, · 'ries, and flights of ;steps, .aH spa~10us ~~no_ugh;:-.;J:"'..'. ~
· ·1~·\.V free cours~ :.to .the .fresh air, lead. ~{)ep_er. '>t'.:
;dAepe~. 'in the '.: salin~ ~ock ;· the, ~ce~~i~9q~ ,; ~:.:\<
J~~..¢ri.' X!l:f,te~l by.a c'a~~1'nJup , o~ 'Y?.rkw_e.~.' :and··.~?./ ;
m~~,alopg:. th_e ".: gallen_e~ , .wheelJ.P~ :, .th~i.r-,?.l.~!tl~ ·~·f,·r: I\
'~ tsjfulh)f salt,: each .w1tlqt_s lamp m ·fr9nt. ': ,On ·- ·• :
/{toii.rtli··.fl.001" thoro : if? n. Ii tt.lc subterrnile?us · _: .
~,:~:nuou.t 80 fo9t long .uml 40 broad, o,ve1:_wh!,cl.i . . \I
' trio us · personages ,ate . ferrie,d: ·on:·, rafts : oL fir ·~: ~ :> 1
'• ig.h ted. by nµtl}ei·oi;i~,. fi.am~cau:X._:~>;I,Iere, te.r- : :.,~. ".~ 1
' ~~-~ : the , bed of,green 'salt,' the, q10.s.(:co1~~.o.i:i ;: ~.::-~·;_. \
.f.a.wl~~ea~iest to ._ be: ~~~t._:_,:Tl~at next: ~P;,,.1t q~ ;, '>~-d .
~-<!•SpJsa:,salt, :wlpch .' JS harde! ar:d_ ~9~.e::-?~o~e . ;-/. ·:::
n~_d ,-::, and ne_xt spcs e.eds · a white.:. a~~ ---~n~r .,._ .' ..
'iictvariety . . ·Th~s : p~rr.· of . the mrne' Jfi .79.Q-::·.~ ;.-·:~:~
:-b~JO\v:. the' surface of ihe earth; : 30Q .'.fe~t '.9§·~' · .;;~t :
jhI~ t4.isJie~ the · ~nest ·_crystal :; s~lt, .~hic~:":is ~<c .~~: ·
·ched ·..,hy -.long flights of:- steps _ and .- ~nclgie.d ::_ ·;
'rie~;:·}!':The cavern': ·in JVhich it .is found " is/syf~ · - ' ,, i \
~:~6tly~ sp~cious · for , ~ .l~g~m,ent: ~ ?f:_ soldi~rs .. to·.:- , . \
rf<i1'.WJ he1r m
. a?muvre~ /.~ :1~·-/ Th. 1s -1s the, cret;p~: ..
~,~r,(of,~]~e ·rm.n.e =-:.the ~a1r :•~- qmte _ pure, }a~h.~r < \", ·:
- Ei~.Hha1~ ·~· that c: oL·-the- · open ._ day, _ ~ti,t~ mp.ch :_ «.. :-;,· \
, yn~T,': t~ari':it.is: a?~ufhalf-~~ay down .:;_:;The re• ·' \: 1 I
. rn;ts. through a <l1Hcrent series o( com_dors ru~d . ·: ._
a e'riis • . On the .third 'floor •is a;simple :tomb:of .. ·I
\Viih 'the· name oitlie 'late .Empei·or otAu~_tria .:_: ··.. · ·~ \
~-~~e,4 :: witl1 l~uers of...wood') ie.atly .gp.t; -;'y.,On._::t , \
cond floor 1s a-large saloon w:1th all - ~l:J.e im~ . ~·;
nl.~b'ts o( m)i1ing and -the mode- of'let~!pg;.them_'_ . ~ I
v_n·:with rrien and -horses exhi_b~ted - ip_ . ~r~nspa· :· -.. : __I
if~ }_on_ the -first: is a ' chapeJ ; ·e_resenting ·_an_/'.,_-;; I
·-:'.~-'. ." :
17 'ii<
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SERIES.

)~~;;~~,p'.i\/::·i~~1~!f~~1

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altar, · ~ta_tue ·of .th~ Vi~gin, crucifix, nn<l figu1 ,, ·

< :. - of Casimir I. and lus wife, all cut out of the sol"
salt;. before the ch~p?l is a small pulpit inJ _'
Gothic •style . . To v1s1t the whole of this extrao
dinary and extensive mine, with all its gallerj'
and caverns, no less a _distance . than 300 mil
must be traversed; · ·,. . ·
. , · The salt . used in Erigla~d· is chiefly obtain
from the sea, ·or salt: brine sprinirs. · The sali
water is admitted .into. open shalh~w trenches
being exposed' to the\ sun ·or artificial heat~ ,th,. .
wat.er is evaporate.di" and th~ salt is left in a.~r:f'
talhne state. · ·. · -· .."; . · ,• · . . ". .:. · · > .. · ' ~:· · ·'"'
.... There are salt springs ;nd: extensive -· ma~tif{
.tories of salt· ar:Salina in New-Yorlt and in v:ar
,ous other places:_in ·the United States . .- .-·:: .·'- '<Af
··· The conservative properties of salt -render.i(i'
valu!lblefor economical purposes, and . its ,stifu ·
lating- flavor ~n .correcting the insipidity 'of'Jo6'.
When fus~d it i,s used in glazing ·pottery; •· It~4:
. . va}uable as a 'manure,. on ac.c ount of its; pr9mo~Lll.
. the growth of vegetat10n; · .·.·
~~; '._:'
. , !twas employed in all the.Jewish cerer~orif
. _ bEnng emblematical of purity and incorruptibili
. '. . Our _b lessed Lord calls his disciples · the salt":.
,1,,_
the earth, thereby signifying to them ··that'befri
J,,
seasoned wi.th grace .themseivcs, they' should se"
son and punfy others, cornmunicatino' to them'\"'
principle which will preserve them from tlie col:;
ruption
that is. in the world."
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-~'" . LESSON ' XLVIII •.;;..:.,.stATE.; '"''-" ;:" ' .:5·;;.:1'99 ~'.'.~.::")k

.. .t

.X6>~:. ·~- .· .: : · :}~ ~::>>i;<'.;c~.;::.'::~~'.i:&J:#:~~:·:···~~:~

i\ .

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LESS9N.)f~YJII~ · . i !'.·"".~fc;!t~:~.,.~;" "~".('\

~~~->'-:·"" . _·,._ s~!f~:~,., ' -~:·~,. \;.'.~~~;;j~~·Ji~}/_ ~-~>
late is a mineraf substance; it.is-.neverfouild ·
~tallized, though it is of a foliated struet_ure. ; ·it ._
' itlier.' of a gray, bluish, or. blackish/ color';:-and
,-p~que, dull and brittle/ >; It_consists. chiefly' of'_ ;. .
. fne/)Vith a small quantity of silex •.· It;is dug .;· .: ; 1\
. ,:,;quarries
. ;:wh. en. .fi rst tak eo f rom t.h e~,' i't is;:,_
.
-;·\
£~rativ~lr s()!t,::i..b!:l~ · becom~i:r'~l~ar~?,b:Y. :.~expo.: : ; ~~-- i
·;t~_the: ipr. i...: -It is used .for -wnt\ng, ·!fo.. r<~~~et- .: -.':
,,-~~;'.,.....
. ;:'h_ou~es::~·:_
- . '" I [l '.."or d. ~):'; ·.f.,'? /~-.. · .~"
;an d, ;:'fior.·.rop fi ng
·:; "
)l,ip::::i jt~... fitness ·, for..·.the ;. 1am~r.; ptirpose;~dt::,is ,~;f ;
'g he4;'iis""s?on: asjt-,is .ex.cavated';)t _is.:.then;~u( ,'.;,j:.r{; ;
~wilter for some days,:·;.1f after bemgwell .d,ned ·:·J : · .
'.ff'ound· to i have· increased -it1-weight; -;it' jsJai4 f:- )·J;-.: '
·~~·unsuitable ·~dr~:t11Ei purpos~; the fri~J..ha'.:vp1g ~:·<~<·;: ,

oy~d'' thatit . ,,vas, po_rous. ' ~l1c~~. slahf~'"'.o~ld 11~~_:.,(0:::
:}Y;.,al~ow water t? p~ss~ ~hrough i.t an~ so,9e.stroy'-:; < .;: :I

J1e~°W()C>d-work of.Jrn1ldmgs, but it:~vOl~ld .. ~als,<>; .P~ . : ---." \
'1e'-<to '-be covered with lichens · and / moss,'f'i n ':'.,
!
}~~ u~nce '. o(tpe . mqist~~e which it :i~_e·t~i~-$~·,{If,.(. ·i
· u_ality)s ascerta,iped \ to · be_; gqod tj~ ~i~~7sp1g- · · ;;, '
,~w~.ll··pla ~~s ~~~1: 'roofi~.g; O:'J'h~ . ttles, a~~;fl(~~e1!eCJ: '·/ ;::7;·
e:rafter;; ,by pegs dnven through hol.~~ .w_h1c~e --~~ ,,
~~d:;~en~· previ'ous1y · 1ni:tde·:, in them '; . th_e·eilge· or : > .. :
e>Is:Iai·dover the other' in-the sam~· iha-_h~gt a~'th'e ···;, ~;·:
)~~·~_r ~sh.e~; .· :: $lat~ \v hicli ·is~ d~rlt~c<)l?~~~;· c_Jrri~~?. ;-,-~ ..
J,-and_sohd, is the-best adapted for wntmg upon. :- ... , f.~
~9.r<l~:fr to prcparn tlic 's late for this purpose,"it is · ., .-_ '
~ildered · smooth 'with an iron .instrument; · nnd \it . ~-' ".
f~hen _fg1:ound ·with ;s~ndstorie;· and slightly pol-·:.;
ed. / That which is softer and more ·friable is . '. _
e<~ ·for pencils. '
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· ._ l<'IFTII SERIES. •·:._

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LESSON XLIX.
·' - · CORAL.
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·Corals ·are. the secretion~ ~ade by polyp~.,m
sects, inhabiting the deep ; they sometimes-_ '.'.f
sume the forms of branches, of the most beau-trn
· appea:ri,m ce ; sometimes they reseu1ble beads ~ti:u ·
in a necklace; whilst others prese nt . a more ~~o ·'
solidated mass, but are all perforated with por~.
.~or~ ·or less-rninute; ,the. habitations of _the .J~~§
architects~ ~· · ... · .. · . :
.·
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· ; .: .\-: .
Among · the various phenomena that the wo~_k
: bf creatioq open to our view, there are perhaP.
· · none more calculated to·excite astonislunenL·an.·c
. admiration~ than the vast coral reefs that ·1:is;;:.u
· from the deep, and ut times even constitute island~,
1'hey are produced . from a calcareous m.at}e
which e:irndes _from the coralworm, and hard~­
. ing forms at ?DCe their h~bitation and their ma1:1,.
solemn. Tins -creature is of ·the class of zo.
·. phytes, the lowest grade of animal life, the ' l~n.
between it and the yegetable kingdom. They or~ l
work under water, so that the coral reefs never. .
· rise above the level of the sea; when the . tide"~_:. . ·. retires; they appeat to be dry compact rock, r~g~ ~
['> . ged, and perforated ; but when the returning
·fi , ·-' waters wash its sides, a most interesting spectacl ·
of active life is prcsent€d, and countless myriad
. of various shapes_and colors protrude themselv,¢
. from the orifices, and · the whole edifice
teeming with life and animation.
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that which sepjlrates into giaips or sni~ll pe.rticl~~- '~;;-.a.nulous;
snnd ;·:· ·
· · .. ·: , __.,..,.: :--; ., · - ,_ .. , -·· '· "; ·. ~. -.· '·, -. .- I

DICTIONARY.
. ..

cif!fi tha~ which pr;sen~ ~ strong ·resistani::e til'the. t~uch_. .'. · · ,. · 1
· ricated,· that which is arranged in the ' manner of the: !Jles . ··' ' ..

~

- Absorbent, that which sucks up liquids, as sponge.

A'. siJ

stance is never abso.r bent wi_thout being at the same tin(
porous, for if there were no pores the fluid could not en~f
the · substance. · All substances are ·in a degree poro~.
~ut "'.e on_ly nttribute the .quality to those· in whit:h.Jft
IS obv10us.
·- :
·
·
: -- ... ~<tJ
Adhesive, that which is composecl of pnrticlos, not only unitin
· firmly together,' but which join thomRolves lo othor a~.
stances. 'l'hus gum, when placed between two P.iecee:t!l
' · '.-, · :· paper, ·a ttaches itself .to ench, nnd causes ·a .union betwee" ·
·
-·
· the ·two; · >
Aromatic, tha:t which ·h as· a pungent spicy smell.' .
· Astringent, ·contracting, causing soft substances to_ contract.·
· ;; :-.
Bright,· shining.
' -·· ·
., ,.
Brittle, that which is easily broken: hard substnnc.es only a~e
brittle. ' · ·
· -,. '~ '
Concave, any portion of the internal surface of a hollow sphere:
Conservative; that which preserves.
- ...~
,_.
Convex, any portion of the external surface of a sphere.
Cylindrical, a form·having two flat and one curved surfl!,
o.s a ruler. .
·
,
· -.
.Ductile,
that
which
is
capable
of
being
drawn
out
into
Ieng
•.·
Dull, that which absorbs the light instead · of reflecting it. ·::,.
Edible or Eatable, that which is fit for food .
· ·.·~
1---Elastic, that' which, when bent or stretclied, returns to i
le_·
original position.
- , ; .
..
,·: ~·
',. "" ._ Effervescent, that · which bubbles up from internal commoti
:~.' · Exotic, that which is not produced in our own country. · ·:
·, Exporlc<l, that which is sent out from our porlB.
.. Fli.tl, n surfuco is flat that lies evenly between its boun<lari
·' ns the ceiling, floor, &c.
: ,
~.t':':':: Plex_ible, ihnt w?ich can be bent e_asily.
Fluid, ·thnt_: w~1.ch has. parts.. easily separable,
· ;. · about• .. , .. -· . . . .
;-.: · Fragrant, that which has an agreeable smell
Fri~ble, that wh~ch crumb!es easily.
'
lt~
FusiMe, that which melts m fire. ·
·
'·
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·,.;: :- ,...
t .
t>
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'i>fta:liouse · . · : · · ··

,

.' -/·· - :: · ' ·'-' '. :,.,,J' : J
:whicl1 ; e;sily · r~~eives: · nnd." i;~t11in.!1'.~a~
i
· ~;e~Ssion·~ ~r':."~:
-_-.-: . : .' -1~~-~ ~~ .. -~_~,- ~ \: ··:;J._,·· ·~'"·- ~-~ .. ·.:: -~.._:1·:· -i~"·.IPP.~ed,c tliat which is ·?i-oi;ight into ·our ports'. : "" :.;-:{ ·.' : ,. " - . · · \
_P,.essibl_e, t~~t . ~l.uc~ cann?t ' b~ ;[~~~~~ ;;T,!<'~- a ., sm~~l~r ·
·, _i

un· ··

1 -"~e~sible, \ that

JD{>&.ss- yr:' -: --. ...J

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productiol?- of.~ c~untry.1 · ·· . ., 'l
1
,. ' pi1'1 term is applied ·co ve$etaules, us nath:e , ia npplie\l ti> .... • l

r.lfenou3, that which is t,4e. natural

~ ·;~~~~,~~~~ -~h~;~ ~~ n~-~~el~:: ;~ .:-<.:_ ·\-:?;:"\~:~:·:·,~~~::·; . -" -J

~~;:that w~w~ IS arran~~d ~n tl~in co.ats or lamu1,re, : · : .. _ ,. j
id,:;:properly . s1gmfies · tha! whi!)h }B m_elted ;-; nny thmg, ~
·
liich ~we can drink, or which forms · into . dr9ps. ::... Air, is a · ~- ·
·•
fil'cl~\~ Water is both -fluid "and liquid; when we speak '.ofi~.=. · ' j
1
~a sti-e.a m or ' current, -it ·4s :properli called , a ·fluid; ·, bui .'.
)i~IVwe speak ·of it" as '. passing from ' a congealed (9 ·a d~~ :·.·_ .~ . _;
l!\)l:ved J!tllie, it_should properly be called a liquid. :_·.-~· '· ..' ;~ , ; · ' J
~·'-'ifying, ' th~t '".4i~li· ma.~~s _t~ings appear large,.- !~8:J.l ~hey : '·.. ~., .,:
actually are.- . -.:· ·_. ,'' ·:.·-:t· ~ .. ".>
. . '. . - ~~ .. ~- . ·~ ·- . 1
" (eizble,.-that -which _is capable of· .great exte.nsion. when, ·.·_ :-: ~
b'~~t;;~, -without the particles .being separated 'by .the-opera:
· ·on.}· Thus a grain of gold cnn. be beal(ln out ti) a sh!lCJt of .. .
-'
~ treke "thinness. -·. -. · · .,
·' · ' ·" · · . ,' .. · ., : . : _· '· . : ,\:
. j9~~c, Jhaht which~ hhas thtae !'ature ohf me~lhs. · t , ._-,.-.
· , , ::., :'.;
~t:~tp,tt:s, t at "'. 1c .· con ms muc __ .~ouns . a,iep ·. ___ :. ; ~- . :· , . ,
1
, · -~ll,~~· that which has _any sm~ll. ;~
"·,~
~ue~:~_Jiat through wlu~h I_I!>~hing can ~!J _B?~n. ,_;;-,;:. ,_ . :f';--> -'. -,, \
~ .. the ·formof· anegg. · · ·.. - ·· ···
,.,,. .. -- -,. .-.--.- . . "~!
~ ~fC,· i_hat which can be folded easily, into -plajtM, .- Thus a. ',. ·
1
dung twig is flox.iblo, linen is pliable. ·
· - . .. · ·
i
.~iU, : that which is.full of small pores or holes. ::
'
·' ;;
If, .~r!lbJe, that which can be reduced to a powder. · . _
:·. _:i,\,
. ent; _that which is warm to the taste.
· ~ ', · ·''
·
ecli~, ·· reflecting 'or giving hack an ' image; this quality
epends up0n~ the .for~er. .. A river that is bright ~ellect.s
. ts banks. :
· - .' _ ·' ·.. ·_.
, ·
., - · :: ./~ ·· ·
apid,, t)lat which has a flavor. · ·
•.·
_,
Jt'.-~ns;mrent, that~ '."h,ich is _seen. through imperijc~)' _ ..
1

0

•

·

·

._ , ; , .

·

?{~';"';::~i·

\•.t.

I,

•

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•

<

~

•

•

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·A~iiL:.\. :z;2b~:.~:

:·

• :

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._._ '.

-.. 204

'4•.

-·; - ,

;·

DICTIONARY• : ·

: Soft, ti.int which yiol<ls lo -tho lot;ch. .

-·

~t·
· . "Jl •

· Solid, · that which is composed of particles ndhering_<'.~ :
together ; in this sense it is opposed to "jlui.d.- -· •_, \ ,\ ·_
So'lid, that which filis up n space; in this _sense it is op
to hollow.
·
Soluble, that which melts in a fluid.
Splterical, the form of a sphere or globe.
Sparkling, that which does not present a continued brigh
but one intei:rupted, as in sugar.
_
- ~. ~
Tenacious, that which is composed of particles uniting · firml .together. Thus gum being tenacious, the particles cn~QI
··-_ easily be separated, nnd on this account it nets ns a cemen
Glue being more tenacious nets as a still stronger cement.:·
Tough, ·that which is capable of being bent or stretched wi _ '·
' out l,irenking.
; -:
·
· · - ·, · - ·
· -~· :. Translucent, that through which light only cnn be seen.''.
Transparent, thnt which en~ be seen through.
- - ·-~­
Tu~~1'.•. n . holl()~- -cylinder.

THE END.

--

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