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.ANALYSIS, AND GRAMMATICAL COMPOSITION,
ADAPTED TO THE

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USE OF SCHOOLS AN.D PRIVATE ST UDENTS ,

BY JOHN FROST, A. M .

.,

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l'ROFESS OR OF BE LLES LETTRES IN THE HIGR SCHO OL OF PHI LADE LPUIA;
~UTHOR OF " EASY EXERC ISES l1l COMPOSITION," " IUSTORY OF

THE UNITED STAT.ES," "AMERICAN SPEAKER,"

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&c. & c.

P H ILADELPHIA:

THOMAS, COWPERTHWAIT & CO.

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1842.

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Entered, acoofding to the Act of Congress, in t~e year 1842; by
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J'OHN FROST,

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of tho clerk of the district court of the nited States in
· · ofl> ennsy 1vama.
and for the eastern d1stnct

..

IN the title-page! thi~' book is ~ailed " A Practical English
"'·
Grammar." The Aut'h or has endeavoured t ive
o
·
.
just claim to this title, by rende~g it strict]
.
throughout. He. has observed that most of · mars now in use appear to consider the English language
as having been formed not for the 'purpose 'o f being spoken
and\ vritten, but merely for the purpose of being parsed.•
Accordingly, parsi~g - is m~de the grand' object of grammatical instruction'; and it is considered, ·that if a boy
can parse correctly and fluently, he is a good gram- '
marian. The' consequence. is, that pupils toil for years in
English grammar; learn to parse with great fluency and
exactness; and, nevertheless, violate the most obvious rules
of• grammar in almost every sentence which they speak
or write. Many of them ar:e deep in the theory of syntax,
who are wofully deficient in the practice of orthography.
This, deficiency is not the fault of teachers, but of the textbooks which they are under the necessi ty of using; and
it is precisely for the purpose of remedying the evil and
giving a more practical character to grammatical instruction,
that the following work has been pre ared.
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•The A~tbor would not be understood to disparage p!ZTsing , as a
grammatical exercise. It. is ueeful in its proper place nnd proportion,
and it ha:s received its due 11hare of attention in this work.
(3)

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· PREFACE. · ,

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sary ~o assig
parts of the subject
in other gramma rs.
Orthograph y has been more folly treated than usual; and
copious exercises
·
. A faithful inculcation of the
general rules or spelling, b
eans of exercises of this
kind, \Vill occ ion
a;,, aving of time to the learner.
The most obvious rul esar.e perpetually violated by those
who have neglec!_ed this species of exercise. The rules .of
construction ;:ire much shorter than usual; and the rules of
arrangement* are more numerous and particular. ,
·
T.he su bject of Derivation, which is now claiming so large
a sha re of attention from teachers, has, for the sake of conv niencc, been thrown into an Appendix. This portion of
the book w i!i by no mea ns be deemed supe rfluous, by those
who have wi tnessed the delight with which young persons
. address themselves to the study of the origin and history of
words. Its utility . .in forming accurate habits of thought,
and giving a mastery over language, is universally admitted.
The article devoted to this subject will be found more sys• The. nme ru les of arrnngemcnt which are found in the Author's
"Ea~y Exercises in Composilion," arc used in this work.

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tematic, full al\'d ,~;i{ct, than any treatise, ·comprised in so
small a space, -~vhich has y~t app~ared. The \~riter would
not express- himself so · strongly 'on this subject, if it were
n
· ·fact that this article has been copied entire from
'
.
M'Culloch's Gramm . To'. the same work he is also · in-.
deb
e.finitions, rules, and exercises. He
would have adopted also Mr. M'Culloch's vfows with respect
to the classification of adjectives and pronouns, and the
conjugation of verbs, but he was desirous to leave the prevailing system of English grammar, introduced by Lowth,
and disseminated by Murray, and his other commentators,
untouched; and,to innovate only where he believed that the
. methods of fnsttUction could be improved.
'
The e
rules .designed to be committed to
memory, have been expressed with as much brevity as was
deemed consistent with clearness and simp)icity; and the
practical Exercises appended to each separate branch, have
been made as copious and varied as the limits of a cheap
school-book would p~rmit . .
From the same work to which the author acknowledges
himself so lar ely indebted in every part of this volumee copies the followi ng article, as
e supplement to this Preface.

ar.
It is desirable that the pupil , before proccedir1g to study grammar
systematically, should possess as niuch previous acquaintance wit h the
subject as will enable him at least to distinguish th e four principal P arts
of Speech ; and this preliminary information the teacher should atte mpt
to give him by oral instruction, in·the course of his daily les5ons in reading and Spelling.
In usin

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PREFA:CE.

vi

PREFACE.

l

their signification, and to llilS'\'(Cf all ,questiODS that may be put. in regard .
to the m.
.
.
It may· perhaps be thought, that the exercises w?i?h are subjo1hed to
the various sections , afford such means of ascertammg the progress of
the learner as ou..,ht to supersede the necessity of teaching those sections
themselves co.tecl~tically. But experience will prove. this supposition to
be erroneous. These exercises are, indeed, designed as 0. trial of the
pupil' s knowledge and acut~ness; but they are ~ecessarily too general
and limited to· afford a sufTicient test. And 1t will probably .be found,
that a child may be able to perform them nil, who has 'bUt a vngu.e co.m·
prehension of 't he prin'ciples, and a scanty acquaintance With the leading
·
facts of the science. '
I t may be proper also to guard against the error of supposing tha.t the
1
exclusive or even the chief end in view, is to make the pupil acquamted
with' the. ;r'actice of parting. Were this all that is designed, there would
be no neeessity for calling in the aid of a text-book, lll!I a knowledge of
the distin<ruishing
'properties of the different kinds of words, as well as
0
of their s yntactica.l connexion, might be communicated with sutlicient
accu racy by mere viva voce instruction.

~and write it with propriety.
n teaching from the following wor , 01fferent met ods may be followed· and the type in which it is printed wi:J be found so varied and
dispos~d, as to afford the teacher considerable .facilities in adapting his
course to the scholar's acquirements, and the time that can be allotted

\o the study.
.
If the master wishes merely to communicate a general knowled ge of
the subject, or if the period for study is limited , he may satisfy himsel.f
with what appea rs in the large type, and that part of the small which Ill
necessary to exemplify the rules.
.
If his pupil ·has no previous knowl edge of the science •. an~ is no~ re·
stricted as to time, he may tak e the large type with its illwitr!luons,
{omitting, however, the introductory section, headed "N nture and Ob·
jects of Grammar,") as a first course; and leave the r~maining small
t ype to be taken up, along with the introductory matter, in a second and
suppleroentnry, cours-e.
.
If the scholar has adequate preliminary knowled ge, and possesses the
command of time, tho best plan w.·
!allow the order of the wo~k;
in which case - with rupe<:t to t
10 pupil, after bavmg
studied it so as to understand its meaning, s ould be required to ci>mmit
it accurately to memory ; and with r~pecl. t
mal!.e it
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the subject of frequent perusal and examination, in the ~nme way as is
often done with reading lessons in eeminariee. It is only in this way
that the whole science can be brought fully before the .s tudent in its due
proportions.
T eachers who have previously employed text-books in wh ich ~pelling
of UJ(J rd~, derivation, and arra,.geme,tt of word1 in 6en!ence6, are dP-ep!ttch·
ed in a few pnragraphs, will probably object to the grcnt spnce allotted to
these subjects in the present work, and feel disposed to omit the m, e:ther
wholly or in part, in the process of tuition. But it is hoped th!\t this
expedient will not be adopted without mature considerntlon. There is
no branch of grammar of greater practical utility than
An
acquaintance with its detaila is of incalculable moment, eepecially to
those who have no prospect of obtaining a classical educntion ; and the
teacher cannot confe r a greater benefit upon mere English scholars, than
by requiring them to get accurately by heart the leading roots, prefixes,
and affixes, of the language. Nor i8 an acquaintance with the ge neral
rules which apply to the ~lling of words, and their arrangeme1•t in
sentences, unimportant. Arrangement is' a part of Synta-i: as essential
as either Concord or Government ; and the general law6 of spelling will
scarcely be deemed useless by any one who remembers that the design
in including Orthography in a course of grammar, is ' not so much to
teach the art of spelling, as to impress upon the mind the ge neral analo· .
gies which prevail in this, as in every other branch of the science.
With re spect to the mode of teaching the detail& of th e grammar, no
specific directions can be given. But it may be suggested generally, thnt
much explanatory information, which no text-book can supply, must be
given by the teacher in the courRe of instruction; that the pupi should
be required to find out additional illustrations of each of the definitions
and rules ; that he should not be allowed to pass any section until ho
has thoroughly mastered it; that the knowledge thus acquired should
be impressed upon his memory by frequent rnvisals and repeti tions; that
the exercises should be written out as well as read by him ; and that he
:should be constantl y called upon, in the course of his ordinary reading,
to apply his grammatical knowledge to the explanation of all the varieties
of phraseology which may happen to occur.

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CONTENTS.
I .~TRODUCTION :

Origin and uses of Grammar .. .•• .• . •• •.. ..• . ..•.•...• P ugc 13
General description of English Grammar .. ......... . ...... . . l !J

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ORTHOGRAPHY :

Le tters ....••..•.•••..••..•••.•.•.....•.................
Syllables-Spelling ...•.•.•...•.•.......... , ............ .
Final Letters. . ..... .' •....•••.•.•••.••.•................
Aug ments ....•...•.....•.•••.•.•••.•.••...... . .. . . ......
Compounds, ·&c. ...... .... .•....•..•......... . ... .. ......
Exercises on Orthography .•...•...... . ......... ... . .......

20

22
23
24
25

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ETV~lOLOGY :

Classifi cation of \Vords-Noun ...•• .... ............•••....
Article-Adjective ..•.......••. . .• .................••....
Pronoun •..........••..•.......... . ••................ . .
Verb .................•........••....... .. . . ........... •
Adverb .. .• . .•••.••••.•... •.• ...•.•.•....... ..... . . ... . .
Interjection ...................... . ...•. ~ .....•.. . . .. . . ..
E xercises on the Classification of \Vords • .. . . . ......... ·..... .
Additional Exercises .•.....•...... ... ....................
Exercises to be written by the Pupil ......... • ... •. ........ .
Wonos:
Innection of NounsNumber . .. ..... ... . . .....•• ....••. .. .•. ...... . . . ... ..
Gend er .• .. .... . ........•....... . .......... . ...... . ...
Case . ...... .. . .. ........••.•...... . ..... .. ... ... .. . . .
Inflec tion of Adjectives . . . • . . • • . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inflection of P ronouns . . .....•..... . . .. . . .. . . .... . . . . '. ...
Inflection of Verbs .... .. .. ........... . . . .... . .•. . . . ... . ..
Inflection of Compound Verbs • . ..• .......•... .. .. . . ... . . . •
In fle ctio n of Active and Passive Verbs ...... . ..• ....... . ....
Moods ... .................. .... . ...........•... . ... ..
Tenses . . .•..••••••.••• , • , •••.•. , .• , .•..•.•.... .. .. .. •

2'.J
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33
35
37
113
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INFLIWTroN oF

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Conjugation of the Verb
Conjug ation of the Verb
Conjugation of the Verb
Conjugation of the Verb
Conj ugation of the Verb
Conjugation of the Verb

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Case . . .. . · ··· ·· ·. ······················'·············
Exercises to be written .......... · · ... · · • · • · · · · · · · ·
On the Adjective . . ...... .... .. .. . ... · ... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Exe rcises to be written ........... .... · ... · . · . . · · · ·
On the P ronoun ... .. . ... .. . · · . · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
Exercises to be written ........ · · ..... · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
On the Verb .......... . .. ··.·····.······.·.. ············
Ex~rcises to be written ........ . .... · '. : . · · · · · · · · · · ·
· Derivation .. ... .. .............. · .. • ... ····.·.. ... ··•·· .. ·

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Position of Adverbs ..•..•.....•..•.•.... 1 •••••• •• ••• • •• •
P osition of Prepositions ...........•.......•••...........
P osition of Conjunctions .........•..............•..... . ..
E xercises on Arro.ngem~nt ...•.•... : . .. . •.. .. • . ..... .. ...
E xercises to be written . . . .... ..•.. . ..... ... ... . . ...... ..
Enrcises in Syntactical Parsing . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . .
P unctuation .. .... ... .. .. , .......................... . . .
Exercises on Punctuation . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . • . . .. . . . . . . .

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W OllDS :

On the NounNum ber .. . ...............•... · .. · .• ···.•···• ·· ·•··· ;
E xercises to be written •••..•........•..• · •. · · · · · • • ·
Gender .. . . .... ... ....... . '. " ....•.....•. ····••·······
Exercises to be written ........... · . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · •

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95
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100
100

102
102

104
106
112

SYNTAX: .

R ules of Syntax .. ..... . · .. · · · · · · • · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • · 115
R ules of Consttuction ........ · . · • · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 115
Subject and Verb .. ... .... .. . . · ····· ·· ······· ... ········· 115
116
Object .......... ····· ······ · ·· ····· · · · ·········· .····•·
Nouns an·d Pronouns . . .. ... . .. ··· ·•······ · ·· ··· ·· ··· ···· 117
A rti cle .. . . ....... ........ . ..... .. ...... .. ·· .......... . 119
Verbs . .. ....... ; ... , ......... .... . ........ ...... .... .. 1 19
P repositions ........................... • .. . ... . · . .. . . . . 121
Conju nctions .........•........ · .. . •· .. ···. · · • · · · · · ·. · · • l "" )
I nterj ections .... · . · . · · · • · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 123
E xercises on Construction .. . . · · · · . · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · · 123
M iscellaneous Exeroi~es on Construction · · .. · · • · · · · · · . · · · · •. 128
Ex~rcises to be written .. · .. · · · · · · · · · · · · · • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 130
R ules of Arrangement . ... . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · • · · · · · · · • · • · · · · . 139
S ubject and Verb., .. ... ... ... ...... ··:······· · .······ ·· 139
Verb, and its Object ......... ····.····················•·· 140
Position of Adjectives .•. ... .. ....... .. ·.··· · ·· .. ·•··· ··· 140
Position of P ronouns . . ·· ·· · · · · · · ··············•········· 141
Posit.ion of the Infinitive and the Auxiliaries·· ·· . · .... · · · · · · 141

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To Have ....... : . · ., .. · · • · ~ · · • • • · • 74
To Be ... ... . •··· . •. ·· ····· .' .·· ··· 77
To Love- Active Voice • · · · •. · • · · · · 80
To Love-Passive Voice .. · ········· 83
7o Know- Active Voice.···.······· 86
To Know- Passive Voice.·······• : : 90

En:RCISltS ON THE INFLECTION OF

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CONTENTS.

CON,TENTS.
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Pnosoov:
Versification ............•....•. , . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Iambic Verse , .... . . ... . . .. . . .. . .... ..•........ ........
Trochaic Verse . • . ..•.. ......... .. . •.. ...... ........ .. • .
An apiestic Verse ............................... . . . . . ...
P oetical License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exercises on Prosody •..•.... ·... : . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . .

141
142
142
143
145

150
154

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162
164

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A PPENDIX:

Derivation ...• ..... .. ...... ; .................... . .. . . , .
O rigin of W ords .......... l , ••••.• : • • .' • . • • • • . . . . . , ••.• .
Orig in of English Roots .....•... , . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .
Sepa rable Roots .........•...•..........•...............
1
I nseparable Roots ..........•.........• .' . . •. .. . . . . ..... . .
L atin Roots found only in Coml>osition ...•. .... . ... . . . .. . ..
G reek Roots found only in Composition ... ... .. . ·. ..... . ... .
P repositions and Conjunctions ... ·.. . ... .. • . .... . ..........
Origin of English Derivations . .... ... .... ...... . ....... . .
P refixes . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

169
169
170
171
174

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184

187
189
190
Affixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . • . • . • . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . 1~2
Primary Sig nification of Words ........••.......... . ...... . 198

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INTRODUCTION.

THE ORIGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR.

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IF, in conversation, we 'should hear a person use the follow-

ing expression, ''Him and me are brothers," we shou ld say
t hat he was speaking incorrectly, and that he could not have
received .a good education. The person, thus censured, might
inquire in retu rn, "·why his lang uage was incorrect, since it
was quite plain and intelligible?" The answer wou ld , o[
cou"5e, be, It is incorrect, because it is not according to the
principles of Grammar. He might then reply," What is this
Grammar, which undertakes to direct .how I must speak, and
what words I must use, in order to be considered a person
of good education 7" We might then reply to him with a
definition of the-subject of this little volume.
Grammar is a science and an a11: as a science, it explains
he principles _and usages of language ; and it is the a rt of
speaking and writing correctly. There are many who un derstand it as a science, but do not practise it as an art. It
is our purpose, in the following pages, to aid the pupil, as fur
as may be in our power, in becoming a proficient in both
these respects.
The person of whom we have already spoken, m ight pursue his inquiries a little farther, .and say, " Whence does
Grammar receive its authority? Did it exist before language?
Did people learn to speak by it at first T'

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Give a specimen of incorrect language. Why ie it ,incorrect 7 'What

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INTRODUCTION.

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·we should answer, By no means. Language ~xisted long
before Grammar was invented; in the same manner as animals, plants, and rocks existed before the sciences of zoology,
bota~y:· and miner~logy were invented. ~s the animals,
plants, and rocks a're the' subjects of these sciences, so words
and phrases, which have been sanctioned by national and reputable usage, are the subjects of the science of Grammar. It
derives its authority from the accuracy with which it determines what is, and what is not, the usage of good writers and
speakers.
This brings us back to the point from which we started ;
and enables us to show that the expression above cited is incorrect and ungrnmmatical, because it .is contrary to long established usage among educated people, who speuk the English

As this is _a question which often arises in the minds of
young-· pupils who have not the courage to put it to their teachers, we will endeavour to answer it fully .
,
In the fir t place, it is not easy, nor is it always possible for
~ ' a spea.ker or writer to make his language intelligible '~ithout
{'(_) conforming to the rules of grnm mnr. ·w here 1he subject on
.
which a person speaks or writes is difficult or intricate, it is
absolutely necessary to use grammatic11l language, in order to
nvey his meaning clearly to the mind of the hearer or
reader.
. In the next place,the principles of grammar having been
~adopted gener~l consent, t~e~ are the best _means whi~h we
\.!::)have for interpreting or expla1rnng the meaning ~f- ~-~-en o~

b!

is Grammar? Did lungun gc exist before grammar? 'Yith wJ:nt scien.ces
is grarninur compared?

\\'hnt is the first renson ns~1gued tor leurnmg

'

ORIGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR.

15

written language. The importance of conforming to these
principles may be thus illustrated . If a piece of wri ti1'.g, for
example a contract, or a man:s will, were executed in such a
manner as to admit of two different interpretations, one ungrammatical, giving the advantage, to be -derived from the
contract or will, to John; and the other g rammatical, giving
the advantnge to Thomas, the law of the land, which deter. mines all such matters , would decide in favour of the g ram matical interpretation; and would, consequently, give the
advnntagc to Thomas. It is easy to perceive, the refore, that
the disposal of a fortune might be made to depend upon the
grammatical interpretation of a sentence.
· This illustration is sufficient to show t~at it 1s useful and
important to understand grammar sufficiently to be' able to
confom~ strictly to its ~ules in writing.
But the utility 'of grammar is not confined to the correct
execution of legal instruments.
It is also an indispensable qualification for tho$e who
seek distinction in literary pu rsuits; and it is ncccss;i rv tri the
respectable discharge of the commonest offices and tru ,- :.-< 111
business. The clerk, the trader, or the mechanic, as well as
the author or the professional man, will meet with difficulties
and mortifications .at every step of his career in life, if he is
una ble to write a correct and handsome letter, or draw up a
neatly composed report or memorial.
Ag~in, one should learn grammar to enable him to form u
just critical estimate of the English and American literature,
and to relish its beauties. If he does not under:;tand grammar,
he cannot pronounce with confidence whether this or that book
bE:correctly written or not ; still less is he qualified to decide
respecting its rhetorical beauties or blemishes; because gram mar is the introduction to rhetoric, and no proficiency can be
grnmmar 7-the secor:id? . Give the illustration. Fm: w_ha_t is 14rnmma_r
an indispensable quuhficulion 1 In whut other pursuits 1s it ncce ~•ar y 1
How docs grammar aid our judgment respecting the merits of books f

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INTRODUCTION.

ORIGIN AND USES OF GRAMMAR.

made ~iil ·.the _I'a tter..'study witho_ut a previous acquaintance with
the fo rmer • .
It i~ al so important to understand and apply the principles
. of gram
ar.in qur, common conversation; not only because Iit
.
ena,bles us _to .make .our language understood by educated per.s ons, but because it furnishes the readiest evidence of our
ha\•ing ~eceived a good education ourselves, enables us to
converse with intelligent · people on equal _terms, and, to a
c_ertain extent, furnis hes us with a· passpo~t to the best society.
;.Every science reduces the objects _o f which lt lreats into
,_.,~ertai~ classes, in which these objects are arranged according
to_the pegree of res~mb l ance which they bear to each other.
To .a person ignorant of botany, the innumerable plants and
.trees which fo rm the subject of that science present a com·
plete chnos; nod he is unable to determine their properties, or
· e ven ;emember the names of a thousandth part of them; but,
by means of regul ar classification and systematic arrangement, the science of botany has rendered the study of plants
an easy and agreeable task; and one who is acquainted with
it is del ighted with its sim pl icity ~nd order . .
In like . manner, to a person ignorant of grammar,.the many
thousand words.in a language, the relations of those words 1to
each other, . a~d the laws which determine their correct usage
in Rpeak.i ng and writing, present a subject of much perplexity
a nd doubt ; and, in attempting to write his own language, Jie
is alway uncertai n whether he is expressing himself correctly,
or exposing his want of knowledge by pal pable blunders. On
t he other hand, the person who is acquainted with the science
· of ·gramma r, having seen the words reduced to a few comprehensive cla8ses, their relations pointed out with accuracy, .and
the proper, method of using them strict! y determined by refere nce to the ·practice. of, reputable writers, is never at a loss
what word to use, or how to place it, in order to express him-

se'.f correctly• . All such questions have been clecided by the
·
science.

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To what is g rammar the introduction? In whut other respectB is it
iznportu.nt?. Why is clMsification necessary in science 7 Howie it use~

17

The application of taste to fine writing-the clete;mining
what form of expression is elegant or coa rse - belon.gs pro, perly to rhetoric, which treats of the higher e1forts of compo. s1t1on. It is the province of grammar simply to determine
what is correc{ according t~ the usage of reputable writers.
A sentence may be grammatically correct which is not written
accordin g to the laws of rhetoric; but a sentence cannot be
rhetorically correct which ·. violates the ru les of gram mar.
G rammar, therefore, as we h.~vc already remarked, is abso- ·
~utely necessar?' as an introduction to the study of rhetoric; it
lS, co_nsequently~ indispensable for any one who would attempt
the higher beauties of cqmposition.
·
i

fully applied in grammar 1 What is it the provi_nce of grammar to determine 7

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1. GRAMMAR is the science which exhibits, in a systematic
form, the leading principles and usages of language. ,
2. Grammar, when applied· ~9,_pra~tice, is filso considered
as an art; and, in this poiP,t of view, it is defined to be the
art of speaking and wri~ing correctly.
3. In languages which ·' h~ve' both a written and a .~pokfm •·_
fotm, the usages of the former, rather than of the latter, de·
termine the rules of
grammar.
1
4. The writte~ is alway~- more perfect than the spoken
form ofa language. Conver~at.ion being common to ~he .u n­
learned a~d · ignorant, as wefl ':ls the educated classes of
society, admits of many liberties w hich are no ionger permitted when the language is -reduced to writing. In this
_c:ase, it becomes nTcessary t_o _conform to the usa ge of ,the
best write rs. It is upon the practice of such .w riters that the
ru)es of g rami;nar are found ed. '
· ··
5. Wr,itten Jang_u~ge 'c onsists of a succes.si ~:m of sentences.
6. Sentences are composed- of words, W'6rds are com·pos~d of syllabl~s, ahd syllables ofietters ; so that .the gram.mar of ,a ,written language trea~s of_l~( ters, syllab'.es, words,
and sentences.
7. ZNoLisH GiuM~AR exhibits, ~n a systematic form, th('
principles and usnges of' the English language; 'and, when
.applied to p~ac.tice, H is, the 51-rt _pf spe~king and writing the
·English langl!'a ge correctly. '_
8. It is div.ided into four parts: ORTHOGRAPHY, ETYMOLoav,
· SYNTAX, and PnosoDY.
· ·'
' · 9. Orthpgraphy treats of letters,. syl}~blcs, and the spelling
;_9f,words. .
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aH -a , sci~nce 7-2. As an arl? 3. ~hat
._ is said of written language 1 ,4. Upon what are the rules of gr_-d.mm~r
:-·founded 1 6._ Of what ~foes the grammar of a written language treat 1
1. Deline English Grammat 8. How is "it di\.iaed? 9. -What is tho

. , 1. ,W hat is grammar considered

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ORTHOGRAPHY.

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I

Etymolog'IJ treats of the classification, inflection, and

derivation of words.
·
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11. svnta,x treats of the proper method of arranging words
so as to form sentences according to the usage of the most
approved writers..
· .:
12. ~rosody treats of the ttructufe . of poetical composition. '

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PART I.

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'O RTHOGRAPHY ..
13. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and the spe!I-

tng ~f w'ords.

·

I. LETTERS.

a

14. A letter is mark or character representing an ele· n-ientary sound in language.
·
·
15. T he English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters.
16. l.etters are divided into vowels and consonants.
17. A V owel is a letter which makes by itself a perfect
'
sound.
18. A Consonant is a letter which cannot be sounded
without a v owel.
19. A, e, i, o, u, (and w and y, when they do not begin a
word or syllable,) are vowels. .
20. The remaining nineteen letters, (with w and y, when
_they begin a word or syllable,) are consonants. ·
The distin'ction of letters into vowels and consonants arises from the
structure of the human organs of speech. The sound3 produc~d by
•' "··:the openings of tho organs, and wh'ich may be prolonged without
changing th.e ir position, are represented by the vowels ; the sounds
mibjeet of Orthography 7- IO. Etymology 7-11. Syntax 7-1 2. P~~ody 7
' 14. Define. a letter. 15. · How many in English'. 16. How d1V1ded7
17 ~ & Vow~L_;.18. A Consoilnnt. 19. Which are vowela 1 ~

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LETTE~S.

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produced by the joinings or shuttings of the org!lll8 are represented
by the consonan!s.
Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels, according ns 1he
articulations, or joinings of the organs in the enunciation of them,
are more or less close. Tilus k, p, 11nd t, which wholly intercept
· the voice, as in the syllables ek,'qi, et, are called mutes; b, d , and g ,
which admit a short prolongation of sound,_ as in eb..,ed, eg, are called
semi-vowels.
The consonants have also received different nnmes from the orgnns
chiefly employed in uttering them. Thus, p, b, J, v, are named
labials, or letters of the lip; s, z, dentals, or le tters of the teeth ;
d, t, gingivals, or lc1 tcra of the g ums; g, j, le, palatals, or letters
of the palate; m, n, n11Sals, or l e tt er~ of the nose ; l, r, linguals.
or letters of the tongue. But, as more than one organ is concerned
in the 'utternncc of almost every consonant, these names are no.t
strictly, but only generany, applicable.

21. The union of

,thong.

two vowels in one sound is called a Dipli,..
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,:

W hen both vowels are heard, the. di phthong is called proper; as oi in
voice. When only one is heard, it is called an impr"'J>Cr diphthong;
as ea in eagle.

22. The union of three vowels in one sound is called a
Tnphthong.
The . diphthongs in English are numerous; the triph1hongs are only
three, eau, ieu , and iew . U, preceded by g, is never reckoned p~
of a diphthong or triphthong, but treated as if it were pnrt of the q.

23. In :written compositions, t.he letters .,have two formscaptal.s and small letters. ·
24. Capitals are used only at the beginning of words in
particular situations.
25. Small Zellers form the body of the composition.
26. The following are the situations in which words are
~gun· with capitals ;_
·
The first word of every sentence , whether in prose or verse; the first
word of 'every line in poetry ; the first word° of a quotation in 11
direct form; the names of the Supreme . ~eing; all prope r names, ,
and adjectives derived from prope r names·; the names of the days
of the week and of the months of the year ; any word which the
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._Which consonants? 21. Define Diphth9ng.:_22. Tri phthonir. 23. How
many forms have letturs 7 24. 'When are capitals used 7 25. Small letters? 26. Describe the situations in which words begin with capitals.

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SPELLING-FINAL LETTERS.

· ORTHOGRAPHY.
writer may think v_ery important, as the Reformation, tlie Rcvo·
lution ; the pronoun I, and the interjection 0 ; and general).y, also,
th'e name of an object personified, ns, "Where is thy sting, 0
Death!"

l· I. SYLLABLES.
27. A syllable is a single sound, represented by one or
more letters; as a, an, and, wand.
" 28. In every syllable ,there must ·be at least one vowel.
. 29. Words of one syllable are called Monosyllables; words
of two syllables; Dissyllables; words of three syllables Tri$'/)llables; and words of more than three· syllables, Polysyllaoles.
T he best mode of dividing words into syllables is to follo w, as nearly
as possible, the divisions made by the organs of speech in accurately
·
pronouncing them. Thus, hab-it, ham-let , cru-el, m1-i-mal.
The only case in which it is allowable to adopt a different mode is
'· · .when the pronunciation is anomalous or peculiar. Thus, in such
; . words as vicious, co1tdition, & c., where ci and ti are pronounced
like sh, the division is vi-cicru3, con-di-tion, not vici-ous, con-dil.i-on.

IIL SPELLING .*
30. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper
letters.
The spelling of the English lnngunge, in common with that of alL
living languages, is regulated chiefly, though not wholly, by the prevailing mode of pron unciation.
The chief anomalies in Engli.3h orthography proceed from the number
•To T ttAcm:11s_:_The rules and exercises here given arc of n 11trictTy
practical chnro.ctcr, and nre, of c.oursc, designed t'? nccustom the pupil
to correct spelling. Every teacher will use them m the manner which
his own judgment may dictate. I wou~d, however. _suggest that, at
first, the pupil should be required to write the exercises, a~d ~erely
refer to the rules in order to write them correctly. In reviewmg the
grammar, it mny bo expedient ·for the pupil to _commi_t the rule~ to
memory. The importance of spelling corre~tly will_ fu rnish a sufficient
"ind ucement to the most indolent learner to mcur this small. amount of
. fabour for the purpose of acquiring so necessary an accomplishment.
~7 •. What is a syllable 7 28. What must there be in every s~llahle?
· 29. H ow are words classified with respect to the number of thelr ayil'&-

,bles 7 ··30. What is Spelling 1 •

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of silent consonants, and the impossibility of describing their situ·
ations by any thing like general rules.
. The following instances of words in_ which the consonai1ts b, c, d , g ,
and /,, are silent, will exhibit the nature of English usage on this
point:Tliymo
Handsome
Gnat
Debt
Indict
Asthma
Dumb
Victual&
Groundsel
Reign
Subtle
Scent
Knowledge
Impugn
Heir
Phlegm
Rhetoric
Fieldfare
Bdellium
Ascend
Almost the only orthographical usages that approach to such uniformity as to·-warrant the deduction of general ru les from them. are those
which respect the final letter8 of words, and the mode in which
augments, or additional syllables, are appended to them.
J , F.INAL LETTERS. '

I. ...E .is the principal final. vowel in English words ; and
final e is always silent, except in a few monosyllables,-me,
1oe, he, she; a few words in' ee, as, free, tree, r efugee; and a
few terms of foreign origin, as epitome, synecdoc he.
2. All the consonants are used as final letters, with the
exception of j, q, v, and c and g soft.
3. T he final letter of a word is, in general, Pither a silent
e or a consonant, according as the vowel contained in the
final syllable of the word has or- has not its long sound.
Th as, made, mad; mete, m(!t; pine, pin; note, not ; tube, tub.
From this general pri,nciple, however, there are some deviations:-

(1.) The words have, bade, a.re, were, gi.ve, come, one, d011e,

love, with some others, end in silent e, though the preceding
vowels have not their long sound.
(2.) Words .ending in the consonant h do not admit a
silent e after them, though the preceding vowel be long.except, sometimes, w.hen preceded by t; as bathe, swathe,
tithe, clothe.
(3.) ·Words ending in two differe.nt consonants do not, in
general, admit a silent e after th.fm, though the preceding
vowel be long; as mght, bo!t, host: such words as horde,
bronzP., change, haste, &c., are exception s.
4. Words whose final syllable contains a dipQthong do
not in general admit the silent e.after them; asfait'h, grir!,

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SPELLING-COMPOUNDS.

h'idt; tOii: The exce})~ions are such wotds a.S beline, per-

~eive, reno'lf.nce, rejoice, &c.
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. , 4: Iii Monosyllables, the firi'al corisonarit is generally single, except in viord.s ending inf, l, or s, preceded by asingle
vowel, which generally double the consonant.
Thus we write rub, bud, frog, oh, liam, tin, nap, Jiir, pet, fo:r, pltiz,
each with a single conson.a nt·; but we double the consonant in 1taff,
stiff, scoff, stuff; all, ell, /till, roll, skull; man, leas, ltil1, lou,
truss . .
.
'.!:he words in which this rule does not h~Ici are chiefly the following:
-----ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, err, J!Urr, butt, buzz; and if, of; as, gas,
_has, was, yes, is, his, tkis, wis, ~s, thus.

5. In words of more than one syllable, the final consonant
is generally single, except in words· ending inf or s, preceded by a single vowel, which double the consonant.
Thus we WTite syllabub, cinnamon, sini.<ter, &c. ; but we double the
.
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consonant in di..•taff, mastiff, rebuff, l~rass, &c.

6. The use ~f c hard as a final consonant is peculiar. It is
used as a final letter only in words of more.than one syllable, and in these only when preceded by i, or ia; as, music,
maniac : in monosyllables, it is a1 ways accompahied by k;
as lack, deck, tn"clc, lock, lnclc, except lac, zinc.
2 . AUGMENTS.

c soff, it is changed into i

before

8. Words ending in y, preceded by a.' vowel, generally
retain Yr upon taking an augment; as boy, boys, boyish ; coy,
coyly. But words ending in y, preceded by a consonant/
change the y into i before receiving an addition; as fancy,
fanC1ful; ready, readily; except when the addition is ing or
,i sh or 's ; in both of which cases the y is retained; as, carryi.ng-1 babyish.
·

1.- Words ending in silent e, upon assuming an augment,
generally 1ose the e, if tJ1e augment begin with a vowel; but
retain the e, ·if the augment begin with a consonant.
l

Thus, silent e is cut off before able , ible, ing, i-<h, &c; ns cure, curable; ·sc11se, sens1ole; place, placing; slave, slavish; but is retained
'. beforef1tl, less, ly, ment, nesi , &c.; as peaceful, guileleu, clouly,
·

,

The ' principal deviations from this rule are in the cases of the augmentS able· and 01is . \Vhen silent e is preceded by v, or by c or g
soft, the e is retained before able; as moveable, peaceable, chargeable.
.When silent e is preceded by g soft, it is retained before oua; u,

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Words ending in ·ty, upon assuming the affix ous, cha1;ge y into e ; ns,
' beauty , beauteous.
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. 9. Words which end in a single consonant preceded by a
smgle vowel, on receiving an augment begin ning with .a
vowel, either double the final consonant, (or preserve it
single,) according as the Jast syllable is or is not accented. I
If the 'l!Jast syllable be accented, (or if the word be monosyllabic,)
the consonant is doubled upon assuming' an augment· as begin
beginner ; glad, gladden. · But · if the accent fall on ~ny ~ilabf;
except the last, (or if a diphthong precede the final consonant) the
consonant is not doubled; as o_ffer, offering; dtfeat, defeated.•
The words apparelled, cancelled, caviller, coralline, co1msdl-Or, cnrs talline, duellisi, jeweller, levelling, libeller , revelling, rivalli;ig,
traveller, are not spelt in accordance with this rule.

10.\Vords ending in a doubie consonant retain both conassuming .the augment, whether the augment
begm with a vowel . or a consonant; except words in il,
which . generally drop one l before ·taking an au gment
beginning with a consonant. . Thus, scoffer, oddity; fulness,
cMllness.
·
·
son~nts ~pon

When words arc increased by appending to them such additions 118 1,
ed, er, est, i11g, able, ible, 1m, i~h, Jul, 01u , ly, y, ment, neu, &c.,
they und ergo changes, in i:ertnin cnses, in their final letters ; the
change varying. according ns the final letter is a vowel or a consonant.

incitement, pale11e'ss .

courageous ; and when pre~ded by
ous; as grace, gracious.

3. COMPOUNDS, &c.

11. Compound words are generaily w1itten in the same
way as the simple words which compose t hem. Thus,
herein, uphill, hereafter, recall,· &c.·
• In some ingtances, the a~cent of; .~ord is chancred in order to adm it
the augment ;-'-in which case, the acccntontion of th';, au umented not the
orig-inal word, deter°'.ines the spellinl?" Thus confer; c6nfernu;~ ; repr,
rf:fe ~en~e ;_ pr~f~r, preferable; m etal, metallic; med.al, medalli011. Overlooking · 1 h1~ c1rcum ~tance, Rome gr'am!llar'lans have th ought it neces11ary
to treat. conference, referem;e;preferablt, metallic medallion &.c. os if
they were de\-iations from the ordinary tUie.
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ORTHOGRAPHY. ,
But <there are· many deviations from this usage,.especially among words
which end in ll; as," albeit, almiglity;·alr~ady,' aUo, altogether, alway11,
•. withal, bulrush, fulJi.l, caref1tl, liandful. "

~12. Tl~ere are many 'English · words which m,a y be used .

with propriety in two different "l'ays.

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,Thus, the words connectfon and connexion; enqu:ire, inqztire; fa vour,
' favor · l10no1tr, honor; inflection; injlexfon ,· . negoti.ate, 1iegociat~;
&c., are used indiscriminately, by ilie best 'm odern writers.

"

13. The deviations from analogy in English orthography
are so numerous, that they can be fully acquired only by
a: practical acquaintance with the usages of the language.
The followin g are some of the most frequent:. In adopting .French words, it is the genei:al usage of the language to .
' : change the French termination tre into ter; accordingly we :write
chamber and charter, instead of the French chambrc and cl1artre; but
. we still retain me( re, nitre, i<ceptre, upulcltrc, spectre , and theatre.
. We write author without u, but retain the u in honour. ·
Muveable and im:riiovable are both established usages ; so are tameable
• " and blamable.
•· We write equalize with only one l, a~d tranquillize with two, though
the primitive words equal and tranquil both end alike in one l.
. Defence and o_ffence are established usngl'.s; but their deriv~tives are
defensivc and o.ffensive.
.
·
Vie write exceed , proceed, and succeed; but, though the Latin cedo be
t,he ro<?t of all alike, .we write accede, recede, secede.

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EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
LETTERS.

Rectify tlie

error~

i11 the use of capital letter3, in tltc following sen. tences :The Great phocion, one of the most celebrated personages among the
Ancient grecians, wns condemned to death by his ungrateful Countrymen; And,, when about to drink the fotul H emlock, wns asked if ho
had any thing to say to his Son. " bring him before me," said He.
"my Dear Son," sn.id phocion, "i entreat you to serve your country
.. with as much Fidelity as I have done, And, above all, to forget
' that an unjust death was the Price with which She recompensed My
services."
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EXERCISES ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
.he dies ! The .Fnend of Sinners dies !
lo! salem' s Daughters weep around ;
A solemn Darkness veils the skies;
' a sudden tremhling shakes the gtound.
say, "live for ever, Glorious king!
born to Redeem, and Strong to save!"
Then ask the Monster, "where's thy Sting 1
And Where's thy 'Vic'tory, boasting grave 1"
SYLLABLES.

Divide the following words into syllables:Abjure, ancient, arrogant, ashes, bluster, capricious, cherish, coalition,
coeva.l, conviction, debase, delicious, effi cacious, fe rocious , filter,
filtr~oon, gardener, impregnable; intrepid, judicial, momentary,
musician, nuncio, onion, optical, perversity, quaternion, reverential,
society, solidity, tergiveri;iation, transient, unanimity, union, veri·
. similitude, _worshipped, yellowish, . .zany.
SPELLING.

Correct tJ,e false spelling in the f ollnwing . words, by introducing tlie
silent CQ1lMmants that are omitted.

Dout, dum, cl~, com, crum, lam, lim, num, sutle.
Asend, descnt, musle, sene, sience, septre, zarina.
Hankerchief, hansel, grounsel.
.
Benin, desin, ensin, fQreir, nash, poinant,
Agast, onest, rapsody, reumatism, rubarb, Tames, Tomas.
.Explain why eadi. of /Jie Jallowing words k a silent e as the find letter.
(See Rules I, 2, 3) : -

Alpine, blade, cone,' divine, fete, guide, hue , pique . .
Grotesque, festive, passive, precipice, courage.
Come, done, give, have, more, were, lathe, tithe . .
Correct the false spelli1ig in thefollowing sentences, (8ee Rules 4 and 5) : -

The trees budd, the bees -humm, and tile fishes leap in the nett; let
us al hasten to fil our pitchers with thiss water before the eb of
the tid.
You cannot place too much stres upon learning to spel properly.
Time is like a river stil appearing to pas away, yet stil coming onn.
Thiss 's trangerr bass been able to amas wealth, though he came to
our country with onfy his staf in his hand.
Unroll that rnapp, ·that 'l may follow·the course of the canall untill i.t
fal into the sea. Now hold it til I pas my finger along its course.
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.ORTHOGRAPHY. .

CLASSIFICATION' 'OF WOR.DS.
CiJrrect the spelling oj the following words, (ue Rule 6) : - .

Attac, eccle~·iastick, logic,:k, musick,
. trac, .zinck, zodiack.

As the lark "with varyed tun .
Carolla to the evening loud,
1\-fark th e mild resplendent moon
Breakking through a parued cloud.
Linnets with unnum:IJerred nots,
And the cukoo bird with two,
Tuneing sweet their mellow 1hroates.
Bidd the setting sun adieu!

nap~c, schismatick, sic, terrifick,
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.Ajfi:t: th~ augmar.ls ing, ed, .to the ;following words, (~~e Rules 7 & 8) : ·r: amuse,
.
analyzEl • annoy, behave,
calummate, charge,
A mp l11y,
.
· ice defy,
·
dedicate, destroy, efface, flay, fortify, humble, menace, ~eJO •

· ~ble,

Alfi t·'0 the following words such of tlie augments,
i?le, en, ish, ful,
•X
ness , &c. ' as their 11ignijicatwn will allow . them tq
1y' y-, ment , .,
ous,
take, (see Rules 1 & 8) : .

.A ble acknowledcre allege, allow: allay; ample, appellative, battle,
be~uty blasph:rn'e, body·, bone , branchy, busy, cognosee, f.commenc e' cure dandy, deduce, deface, du ty, drone, elope, envy, o~ce,
'
'grace, knave, igno.ble, i.ssue,
·
· • JU
· dge • measure ' pny,
fury, godly,
JOY_
plenty, space, lame, usury, white.
AjJiz to ;he following word:r ed, er, ing, or sucl• other of the augment.
. '
· ·
they will admit, (see Rules ~ & 10) ~•

.

.,

ul' aver' begin' ca'per, cav'il,

'A~~~~~it:~~te;r:iit', 1/bel, per~it',

a•

entrap', jew'el,
rebel', refer', spir'it, nansfer'' trepan',

vis'it.

A w~s man ifs nefivehr _Jes ~oi~
The finn o a 8 18 •

~:;' ~~~e~~n~~

ap·~7ying
:I"'

the rulM:-

Caney.
Byplaiful
defering
repentance, we become tho

I

· 31. Etymology treats of the
ood the Derfoation of words.

destroi~rs of our o.wn

hap·

c:1~~:~:· 11edatness of manner; be servicable to others_; live harm!:~ ;
avoid wilful e~·i.11; be always obligeing: These qualuys are ~11
desire::ibte.
bli ·
A favorr confered with delicacy doubles the o gallon.
But . 0 ' how alterred was its sprighllyer tone
Whe~ Cheerfullrress, a nymph of healthyest hue,
Her bow across her shoulders fiun.g,
Her buskins gemed with rnornmng dew,
Blew an inspireiog air, that dal and thickett rung;
The hunters' call, to Fawn and Dryad known.

Cl~S'ljication, the I'!fle&wn,
·,

32. The words of the English language are divid<'d into
eight classes, called Parts Qf Spee.ch.
' 33. 'I'he names of these parts of speech are, Noun, Article,
Pronoun, Terb, A.dvei·b, Preposiuon, Conjuncli-On, and Interjection.

which he balances his

body. in youth i11 hotter than comelyness ; an d diligence thllll a
Modeety
'

ETYl\fOL.OG.Y .

I. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

de~rep'it,

· sen··t-~es ,
Correct the false spelling m. the Jo llo1ot11g

PART II.

y

\ NOUN.

34. A Noun is a word which is sim~ly the name of
Qbject; as, boy, school, lesson, obedience.
35. There are two kinds of No-uns, Proper and Cammon.
36. Proper Noum~ denote the names of individuals only;
as, John, Pliiladelp!iia.

an

37. Cornmcn Nouns denote a -whole kind' or species; ak
man, city.
•
38. Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals from
t he rest of the sp~cies. Common nouns are applicable to
any individual of that species.
31. Of whnt does Etymology treat 7 32. How Qre the words of the
English language classified? 33. · Name the parts of speech. 31. What
is a noun 1 35. How many kinds of nouns are there? 36. What are
proper nonns 1 \Vhat are commoo nouns 1 38. How arc proper noun:t

3*

30

ETYMOLOGY.

;.

1

CLASSIFICATION OF WORD S.

39. Proper .nouns are classed as common nouns when
they are employed to describe 'more than one individual.
Thus, "the Howa.r ds," the "Stuarts," being descriptive of
classes of individuals, may be considered as common nouns.
It is the sa me in such expressions as "He is tne Cicero of
the age;" "he ·is a Hercules."
40.~The na~es of qualities, conceived as ~xisting apart
from the substances to which they belong, are called Abstract
Nouns; as, hardness, gentleness. '
1

ARTICLE.
)

.

41. An_article is a word which is used to limit the signifi.
cation of nouns.
'
42. The words a or an, and the, are the only articles in the
English language.
·
43. A and an were originally ae and ane, and .w ere
probably used at first simply to convey the idea of unity;
as ae man, ane ox. They still express the idea of unity; but
less emphatically than when they were written after the
ancient fashion. ·
44. A 'or an is called the indefinite Article; and the the
de.finite Article.
ADJECTIVE.

45. An Adjective is a word which 'qualifies a noun; as
good, tall.
46. An adjective expresses the quality of a noun not
simply; but as conjoined with the noun ; and is therefore
never used without a noun being either expressed or under~~

.

.

47.' Thus, tallness, goodness, grea.tness, and the like, which
express properties or qualities simply, are not adjectives, but
abstract nou1is; though tall, good, and great, which qualify
nouns, and cannot be used without them, e~her expressed
.or implied, are adjectives.
used? 39. When ore they classed as common nouns? · 40. Who.t is
.an nrticle 7 41. What th e only articles in the En glish langnnge 1 42.
Whnt were a and an originally 7 43. Distinguish tho definite from
the indefinite article. 45. Whnt is an . adjective 7 46. How doe• it
~xpress ..the Jjuo.lity of a noun? 47. Give c'xamples. 48. H ow are

81

It is probable that all adjectives were originally nouns; and it some tim es ~appens that nouns are used ih our lang uage as adjectives ; as
gold ring, coal fire, sea water, g/,ip slore3. Among the "."ords _u sed both as udjc ctives and no uns nrc Cliri.<I ;,,n ,
c~ld, cunnrng , dwwe, evil, liquid, missionary, orig inal, prii:ate ,
nl'ual.

..

48.. Adjecti~es are divided into two classes : Adjectives
denoting quahty, and Adjectives denoting number.
49. Adjectives denoting quality are such as good, bad
'
large, great.
. ~· Adjectives denoting number are called 1Vwner al Arl;ectt-~es . . They are divi~ed int.o two kinds, Cardinals and
Ordinals.
·

'·.
-, · ~;,;

., ':

51. The Cardinals are those which simplify or dE'note
number; as one, two, three.
· 52. The Ordinals are those ~hich denote or?er, or number in succession; as first, s.econd, third.'
PRONOUN.

53. A Pronoun is a word which supplies the pkice of a
noun; as 1·t, wMch.
Thus in the se~te n ce, "J.ohn said to his brothe r, J rcrpiest yau. to
wal k to th e •c11 y, and bring me th e book whi ch I ord1-•r t:' d , " J , me,
you , and wlac71 , n ~e pronouns or relative wor<ls, whic h refer t 0 th 0
word
. 8 " J o h n, " b rot J1er, " and "book" respec tively , and supply
their place.

· 54•. The word to which
relative or .4ntecedent.

a pronoun refers is called the Cor,

This correhtive is ah-:nys either a noun, a word or wor<ls
in sig nification to a noun.
'

·. J
ent

CIJUlHl

5_5. ~ronouns are divided into Personal, R elati·ve, and
Ad;ect1.ve.
·
56. The P ersonal Pronouns are /, thou, he, she, and it ;
and their plurals we, ye or you, and they.
adjectives divided_ 7 _49. Give _e xamples of adjectives <lcnotinrr qunlit .

f,

5?·. What nre nd1ec~1ves denoting number called? 50. Ifow6 are t1 1
d1','.1ded? 51. ~ 1 veexnmplesofcardinnl s.-52. Ofordinal•. 53, W hAti~

a. pronoun 7 Give me an example. 54. \Vhat is mcnnt by the corrc lat1ve or ant:~C'dent of a pronoun 7 What must it be? · 55. H ow nre
pronouns <jmded? 56. Which are the Personal Pronouns' l Which j,.

..i : ~
~

'

::~,

_,.,

{r

:".: '·
!

---- -32

ETYMOLOGY.

I is called tho pronoun of the first person, which is the po'l"Son
speaking .
.' Tltou , the pronoun of the second person, denotes the person spoken' to
or addressed.
· He and she are pronouns ~f the third person, denoting the person
spo ken of.
It, a pronoun of the th ird person, denotes the thing spoken of.

5i . T he_Relative Pronpuns are, who,' which, that, as.
T hey arc so called , because thei r ·refe re nce to their correlative iB
generally more direct and immediate th an that of the other pronouns.
Thus, in the sentence , "The scholar who disobeys the master dese rves
· punishm en t," the reference of who to scholar is so obvious and
imm edi ate thtll th e co rrelative ~annot be mistaken.
Wlw is app lied to persons ; wkicli , to ina'nimate things ; tliat and a~,
indisc riminately to persons and things; as, has generally tho word
~ucli fo r its corrclu1 ive.
TV/iat a n<l 1cliether are Compoll n rl R elatives, wltnl being equi valent to
- tliat wh ich, or tl<01' wliich; whctlier denotin g which of th e two.
TViioevc r and 11·/i 11l cver are simply the relatives who nnd what. with the
affix ever u<lJ t: <l, ih orde r to render iheir application indefi nite.
lV710, which, and what, when used to ask a question, are commonly
called lnterrogn.I ive P ronouns.

58. T he Adjective Pronouns are divided into three kinds,
viz: Demonstrative, Distributive, and /ndefim"te.
· The D em.rmslrativc Prononn.~ nre ·tliis, tltat, and their plurals, theM,
those. T hey nrc used to point out emphatically the objects to which
they refer.
,
T ho D istribut ive l'rononn ~ arc, encl1 . every, either, nnd n.fli.thrr. They
denote th e pe r~ons or ·things which mnke up n number, as taken
soparotcly or di~tributi v c l y .
T ho l11d1finirc T' ro1101111~ are .< omc , otl1rr, another, any, and .•uclt . .Anothr r i ~ ol/. rr \\' ith tho indefi nite nrticlo mi prefix ed.
•
V E HU.

59. A Verb is a word which affirms or asserts; as, stn"lce.s,
wallc.s, is.
~~~--~~~~~~~-~~~~~-

t he pronoun of tho first person J - Tho second 7 - The thi rd 7 57.
Whi ch urc the relati ve pronouns? Why nro th ey so called? Give
an cr.n m ple. T o wh at is whti appl.icd 1 ·which are the compound
relatives ·1 \!Vliut is the effect of ever at t he end of who and what 7
When a re wlio and what c ;1ll~d - lntPrTO{la.tive Pronouns 7 58. How are
the Ad jecti·:e pronouns divided 1 Which are Demonstrative 7- Distri.
butive 'I -Indefinite 1 5!). Whal is a Yerb 7 Give an example. 60.

,

.'

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.

33

Thus, in the sentences "John walks;" "James strikes the table;"
"The bny is idle;" walks, strikes, and is are v erbs .

60. As the noun is the word in, a sentence which names
the thing about which we speak, so the verb is the word
which asserts or declares wha~ vie say concerning it.
61. Verbs are divided into Transiti've and I ntransitive.
62. Tra n;.,·i1·ve Verbs denote that kind of action w hich
passes from the agent to something else.
63. Intransitive Verbs denote that kind of action or state
of being which is limited to the agent or subject.
Thus beat, love, kill, are transit ·ive verbs, as expre? ~ i ng a kind of
action by which .1he agent affects something besides l 1i m ~ e lf. S it,
aleep, stand, are intransitive verbs, as denoting simple being , or .
' action limi ted to tb e subj ect or agent.
In dictionaries, the words active and 11ellter are invariably used to dis . tingU'ish tbe transitive and in transi.l.ive verbs. It is customary in
grammars to use the terms transitive and intransitive , partly because
they are considered more accu,rate and expres~ivc; and partl y
because the word active is u sed in grammars , in oppo~-i t io n to the
word passiv e. The distinction ·between these two words will be
considered in that part of this work which treats of th e inAectious
of verbs. In the mean time, the pupil •ill suffer no inconwnicn ce
by using the word act iv e as syn_onymous wirh tra 1'sit ive, and n r 1:f rr
as synonymous with intransitive. The uniform practice in c!:r tionaries and in general literature has authorised such a use of the
words.
·
ADVERB.

· 64. An Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, an
adjective", or another adverb; as, "He reads well; she is
'Very gentle; I will go mo.<;t willi11g.ly."
65. Adve rbs se<'m to perform the som e office to V<' r hs,
adjectives, and other adverbs, that adjec tives perfo rm to
nouns.
Thus, in the sentence " Cicero was eloquent," the icrm eloguen t,
being n word used to modify the noun Cicero, is an "rfjectivP ; but in
. the sentence" Cicero was e:cceedingly eloquent," the tcrmr:rcrrdingl_v,
· being a word used to inodifx the adjective eloquent, is on adve rb. In
Explain th e office of the verb. GI. H'ow are verbs divid ed ? 62. W ha t a re
Transitive Verbs? G3. Wh at are Intr'a nsitive Verh8? Give example•.
How a-re the terms active an d neuter used in dicti onari es? 64 . \\.bat
is an Adverb.? 65. How is it used 7 Qive examples. 66. W hat does

'Hf''

. r ·

•

CLASSIFICATION OF w 'oRDS.

. ETYMOLOGY.

34

like manner, in 'the sentence '. ' Cresar' fought bravely," " bravely,"
as modifyin" the verb "fought ," is an adverb.

a;

66. The
;~i:b serves merely to express in on'e word
what may always be expressed by two or . more w.ords.
Thus, had \ve not possessed such words as here, there tlnther,
' eloquently, 'we co1:1ld have expressed th~ ide~s conve!ed by
,them, by using the'equivalent phrases, in this_p lace, m that
plac e, to that place, iii an eloquent manner.
. PREPOSlTION.

67. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
which one thing bears to another;· as," Death entered i nto
the world ~y sin."
Prepo~itions are so cailed from their being generally put b,cfore other
wor<ls.

68. The Prepositions in most common use are,- About,
above, acroi;s, aj'ter, against, along, amid, am.idst, am?ng,
amongst, around, at, · before, behind, below, beneath, besid~s,
between, betwixt, beyor:-d, bid, by, down, except, for, from, in,
into, 11ea.r, niglt, of, off, on, out, over, round, save, thro~h,
throu.g!wut, ·to, towar,ds, under, underneath, up, upon, with,
witliin, without. '
69. A number of prepositions \Vhich are of great use in
modifying the words to which they are prefixed, are called
inscparaulr? prepositions, from thei1~ never bc~ng use<l but as
parts u[ othe r words. Such are, a , be, con, m'.s, pre, g·c, .sub ;
as in ufoot, befall , conjoin , mishap, prefix, regam , subt ract, &c.
CON J UNCTION.

70. 'A Conjunction is a word ~sed to .c onnect words and
sent~nces. .
.
· . 71. The Conjunctions in most general use are, and, also,
either, or; nei.ther, nor; though, yet, but, however; fo r, that;
'. because, since; therefore, tt.Jhcrefore, then ; 1]; unle(Js, lr,st.
:,

·-,

'

::in adverb exprcs:1? _67. What'is a Preposition 1 "':_hy so call~d? 69.
Which arc th e prepositions in most .comm~n ue~? 10. What ls a con.
junction 1 7 l. Which are the conjunctions rn most common use 1

35

I NT ER J EC TI 0 N .

7z. An Interjection is a word used to express sudden
emotion.
They are so called,. because they arc g•)nernlly thrown in between the
pµrts of u sentence without any refer~ncc to the structure of the other
P,a rts of it.

73. The following are the chief Interjections :-Ah, alas;
pshatt.J,jie ; ha, ha, ha ; lo, hush, huzza, 0, oh , heig ho.
Some verbs , nouns and adj ect ives, uttqed by wa y of cxciamation, in
a ,dctadwd manner , are classed among interjec tions: ris, hail! welcom e ! strange ! '

74. The learner \vill perceive, by the above classification
of the words of our language, that the Noun is the principal
part of speech; , that it is tbe only one which expresses a

distinct idea without the help of any other word; and that
all the other parts o[ speec;h are employed to denote the
actions, qualities, and rcbtions of the Noun. The whole
subject might be familiarly treated thus. 1\'ouns ::ire the
names of persons or things; adjecl1"1:es express the qual ities
of those persons or -things; verbs express their actions ;
ad·perbs, the modifications of those qualities or actions;
J>r epo.~i/'ions express the relations of nouns, and conjunctions,
their connections. Pronouns supply the places of nouns, to
avoid the inconvenience of repeating th em too frequ ently;
Artfrles limit their significa tion; and finally, fl iterjections
express the sudden emotions of persons, o[ whom the names
are nouns. Thus, all the other parts of speech have a direct
relation to the noun; and derive all their importance f.-o rn
this relation. By keeping this important fact constantly in
view, the pupil will find the task of understanding grammar
greatly simplified. Even in performing th e following e xercises on the classifi cation of words, he will frequently be
enabled to determin~, wi'thout hesitation, what part o[ speech
72. vVhnt is an Interjection 1 Why so co lied? 73. 'Vhi ch nrc the
chief interjections? G ive exa m ples of otbcr pnrts of •peech occn sionnlly used as interjections. 74. Which is th e principnJ part of speech 7
Descri be th e offices of the other parts of speech with rela tion to the noun.
How may you disti ngui sh the parts of Epccch? What g ives law to

' ... ~. ,.

t'·

)I

•i:';

36

ETYMOLOGY.

EXERCISES.

any word is, by inquiring how it stands related to the
noun.

37

That is used

· d
·
.
. as a emonsfranvo pronou.n, a re lative pronoun and a
con;unct1on
Thus ' "I wi·11 t han k you fjor tl1at book." "I
'
_
•
will
thank you for the book tl.at is beside you." .. I b "' a
,
·11
hand me the book.,,
•
e., 1at ) ou w1

Some wor!"ls, from the .different ways in which they are used:, belong
sometimes to one part of speech, sometiniea to .another.*
The sam('l word must originally have been, both in import and use,
only one part of speech. Presen t usage , ho~ever, gives laws to
grammar, not original import. :
The chief words, 'which belong 'sometimes to one part of speech,
' sometimes to another, are, as1 but, eit!ter, neither, rn.uch, more, 11101t,
that.
·

As is used both as a relative pronoun and as an adverb. Thus, " Only
such punishment is inflicted as serves the end of government." "A•
great as Cresar.'"
I

·

'

EXERCISES ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
I. THE NouN.-Give instances OJ..r wortw
_1_
u·hich beloiw to the
class Nouns. ·
,,
DU,tingui.sh between Comm

.

But is used both as a preposition and conjunction. Thus,- " Nothing.
·, but religion can give true peace." " John lives in London ; /rut

.

E1:tJ1e:r and neither are used both as adjectives of number and as conjunctions. Thus, " Of these two books I will take either." " Either
speak truth or keep silence.'"
·
Much, more, and most, arc used both as adj ectives and adverbs. Thus,
· , "tu rn.ost towns much m oney has been collected, but rn.ore ought to
haye been collected for so good a purpose." "Most certainly; but
I am much gratified with what I have got , the 1rwre so as I did not
expect it." ,

.

grammar? What nro the chief words which belong somc}imos to one
pa.rt of speech, sometimes to another ·1 \Vhnt iR said of as? - but?- ·
·either, and neither ?-much, mor~, nnd most 7-that? . How do you di11. tinguish a Noun ?-An adjective of quality 7-A Verb ?-Adverb?Preposition 1

1\T

in the follow inf( un -

lencea : -

London is the chief city of Britai~. ·
The, fit~t .Jting of Israel was Saur, the son of Kish.
· · of Moses: thcv
·T he children
. ..; • · of Israel left E gyp t un d er t he gmdance
d .
rece1vea the law at Mount s· ·
'Id ·
· mru, an so;ourned forty years in the
~· dern~ss of Arabia. J oshua was ·their conductor across the river
or an mto Canaan, the promised land.
T~ first twelve emperors of Rome are distingu ished by the nnme of
::esars. The first of them was Julius C1Esar, a. man equa.lly illus:tus as a general, a historian, and an orntor. He was alike the
' e.:i:ander, the D.emosrhenes, and the Xenophon of his age.

James resides in Edinburgh."

•The following simple directions have been gi,•en for enabling the
pupil to distingui~h the principal parts of ~pccch ; thoug h it is better
when he is ablo to di stin g uish them by a know ledi:-e of their discriminatin g properties without the help of rules:A .word tha t can properly be· lldded to the phrase, I am thi,iking of, or
I am tltinkina- of the, is a Noun. ' ·
A word J.l~n t will take the noun thiNg or things nller it, is nn Adjectitie of 'lunlity. ·
A word that will take before it, the pronouns I, tliou,- he,· or we, is.a
·· verb . .
·N·
\V:ords thnt nnswer to the questions how? how muclt? when? or where?
joined to a verb or an adjective, are Adver/,s,
Prepositions may be disting11 ished from · conjunctions by their admitting alter, them the words me, us, him, them, &.e.
'

z p roper' ~ YOuns

on an(

.

.

~ THE AoiEc-rrvEs.-Distin,,.,,,;sh
between rn
uou11s and ilJjec"~·
.

tiv~s in the following sent{mcf!.s :-

Diligent scholars learn rapidly. ' ·
•
Obedient children are dear to their parents.
Verdant fields appear at a distance.
Flower;; beautiful and fragrant were offered to her
King Alfred was good and great.
'
The river is deep, dark, and rapid.
Distingui.sh betwee1i Abstract No~n., an.a Adiectivcs • , 1 r ll
"
•7• tne Jo owing
, sentences . :~ .

Happ~ are mer~iful 'men, for they sh~II obtain mercy.
T: me~kness of Moses, the J?lltience of Job, and th e wi~dom of So loon, ave been celebrated in every age. 1-V e should be m k
d
WlBe, and patient, like th em.
.
C'e • an
. In w~nn weather, we complain of warmth·,· .
ld
plam of coldness.
·m co weather, we com •
The external elegance of that mans1'on
nat~re of its internal arrangements. ·

18.

surpassed by the elegant

.~

.

- ·f

' •.
I

38

ETYMOL O GY.

There have been many excellent and generous m e n; but how rare is
such generosity and excelle nce as Howard disp layed !

Distintruish when the f ollowing words, Christian, curining, e vil, good ,
missionary, divin e, original, are lVouns, and when Adjectives, in tlte
follow·i ng instances :-

The Christia n ·re ligion :is little u~derstood by m~n'y ,a man who calls
himself a Chris tian.
T he enemy was cu·nning ; but bis cunning was nothing to that of our
commander.
'
How can ye that are evil do good 1 but, alas! good m en often do evil.
He went out as a missionary to the heathen ; but he had little of the
missioi;rnry' spirit :-a g reat divine, he had little of the divine spirit
either of the ~riginal missionaries, or of the gre at Original of our
holy . faith .
·

3.

THE NuMEIU L A n°JEGT IVE. - Distinguish Nouns, Adjectives
denoting quality, and Adject~ves of number, in the f ollowi11g
sentences :-

A good bo;y lo ves his book.
An ope n coun tenance inPpires confidence.
The Fo)\th , the Tny , the Tweed, and the Clyde, are .the four principal
rivers of Scotland . .
Many u flowe r is born to blush unseen. T hat ne w palace is not so
picturesque as tliis old c«~tle.
Some of th e grentest perso nages of antiqui ty were men of one virtue
and u thousand crimes.
·
The parrot is a foreig n bird , of beautiful plu mage. It can be tau ght to
prono unce a groat ma ny words and even sen te nces. B ut all its
agree able qualities are conntcrbalancod by_th.at inclination which it
has to gna'~ and dest roy eve ry thing you' pu t within its reach. This
bird is fo und in flocl1s in the woods of se veral warm co untries. It
mu.kes a nest in nny hollow tree which it can fi nd, and it Joy s but
fe,v eggs, commonly only two or three.

4.

'l'HE PRONOUN. - H7rnt clo the Pronouns he, she, his, her, it,
and they, r efer lo r espectively in the f ollow,i ng sentences 7

'l'he huntsman ' wighed his dogs ti) take th e wa ter. At first they
refu3ed : but at last th ey crossed it, he fo ll owing on horsebac k .
The st reet wns originnlly nam ed afte r a lady of rnnk; but, as site did
not choose that it should bear her nam e, th e name was changed into
that of n famous general: he, however, was never consulted in the
matt er.

EXERCISES.

39

Point out lhe Antecedents or Correlatives of who, which, that , and as . in
the f ollowing sentences.

js

The ba rk u·lticlt
stripped from the oak is used in tannin g lcuthcr.
Som;i oa ks are said to be older th an the oldes t rmm tliat evr·r iivi:<l.
Th e fruit u·h icl1 g rows upon this treo i!I called an ocorn . There are
men in some countries who eat acorns: In this counrry, the oniy
animals (/,(/'/. now feed on them are pigs and poulrry; thou gh such
men as originall y pcop[ed Britain were gl ad to use th em .
Supply th e blanks in the f ollowing pas~ages witi, Relat i ve Pronouns ,
d istinguishing wh en who, and when which, ought to be u.< ed.

T he fuel
is most com monly used in th e Bri tish J ~lan d s is cnal.
It is dug ou t of deep pits in th e ear th by m en
arc called miners .
Long ago, th e fou l air
collec ts under g round u~cd sometimes
to be set on fire by the lamps of the miners, and to blow up. to the
ereat hazard of the lives of ull
w ere in the min e ; but th is has
seldom occ urred since the celebrated Si r Humphry Davy
devoted mu ch att ention to th e s ubject, found out a kincl of gauze
k eeps in the name, and prevents it from ig11iting the foul ai r.
Supply th e blanks in th~ f ollo1oing story with oppropriatr. I'ro11ou1's : -

Three fr iends ent ered into partnership; Ch ~ rlc s gave tho shop as
contribution to
general stoc k; D avid agreed to lll{tnngc th e bu s iness ; thus giving
tim e nnd tale nt s as
con tribution; Edwurd
advan ced the m one'y to. buy goods for fillin g
After C:l rrying on
the busi ness fo r some time in u manner thnt refle cted credi on rhe
man ager, and brought gain to al] ,
, suddenly lost both shop und
goods by a fi re that broke out in
neighbourhood ; nnd it cnme to
b e a question am ong th e partners wliich of
had ·inc nrrr d the
g reatest loss: "We have alt lost·equally," nrg ucd David, "for
each co ntri lrntC'd equa ll y to
genera l stock, nnd all is ~:onr ."
"K ot at all," rep lied Charl es ; "I have los t
shop, ccrtai 11 !y; anrl
Edward has lost
money ; but
, D avid, have lost on!\' your
tim e :
tnlen ts fo r manage ment, ,
form ed th e other po.rt of
your cont ribution, s till remain unimpaired ; nay,
nrc imp rO\'Cd
by th e exercise th ey have received in conducting
b11~ncs1<. You
are, the refore,_not to be conside red as · a lose r to the ~a n1P- e:o:lcnt ns
Edward a nd have bee n , but ra ther as one
is a Jd1to r ro ihe
fir m." It is fo r the ingenious reader to de te rmi ne which of the
parties had the advantage in this argument.

.,

...........--

--~

·'.

40
/

5.

EXERCISES.

ETYMOLOGY.

THE VEr.n.-Distinguish Nouns, Adjectives denoting quality,
Adjectives of numlJer, Pronouns, and Verbs, in the following sentences:,..,.

J oh n is a tall bo y : he has three sisters.
Our master· strikes the table three tim es:·
That horse gallops nt the rate of twelve miles an hour.
T he ·su'n sets.
Q ur hearts are deceitful.
T he diligent scholar surpasses his competitors, and stands leader in
his class. '
An idle boy· grie~es bis teacher, disappoints his parents, and ruins
<
himself.
I love my pare nts , ~y preceptor; arid my lesson: you are idle; you
neglect y~u r duty; you deserve punishment. 1

Distinguish Verb., from Adjectives in tlte jollcwing sentences: The
Tho
'\'iT e
'l'he

meadows are joyful : the little hills rejoice.
sh adows of the long nigh t lengthen' about us. ·
m ourn at the mournfu{ tidings.
whole famil y nre sad: their sadness saddens us.

DUitinguult between Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the. follcwing
,.
instances: .A fflict, arise, begin, beg , bite, bleed, cleave, creep, drink, ent, fall,
fiy , go, g row, hang , hear, k now, lie , ride, ring, rive, run, scatter,
see k, sell , :;have, shine, sink , smite, stride, strew, swim, tnke, tear,
think , th row, walk : wax, weave, weep, win, word, write.

d~t ingtt i~h wltm the word in italic&itr a Noun ,
when an Adjective, and when a Ve,rb.
Thy friends are in the garden; they walk from ttxilk to toalk.
So ·great i·s th e heat given out by the burning pines, that they lteal
the w hole surrounding air.
T he fig ht still continues; they breathed a little, but now they fight
ugnin.
So rich and fragrant , the poets tell us, is the smell o( the spicy fields
·of .Arabia Felix, that the mariners who navigate the coast smell
them far out at sea.
This damp night might be expected to cast a damp over us; yet we
·'
damp not our nrdour. A calm has succeeded the storm, oad agE1in
· the ·ocean is calm. It is prope r that we calm our fears also.
If you labou r dii!gently you will not lose your labour.
They lwpe to gain wealth, and the hope of gain sweetens labour.

<,. t/tP, faUow ing

u11lenccs ,

41

0

They are of hum ble ranlc, but they rank high in the estimation of
th eir fe llows. · This flower is rank.
He shoulq moderate his wishes, and be content with moderate gains.

6. AnvERBs.-fn each of the follow·i ng sen tences tl1 ere is an
Ad·verb: point ·it uitt; and state, in., each case, 1chfrh part
of speech it qualifies, whether an Adjective, Ver/;, or olli cr
Adverb.
The ma ster twi ce corre cted John.
Your lesson is not sufficiently prepared .
T he boy who lat ely entered schoo l is now at the head of his class.
You act fool ishly; you r conduct is truly mournful.
Tha t story is not true.
·
That is ,not ver y w isely said ; you certainly deserve pun ishment.
This is too ba<l; such misconduc t will very speedi ly find you out.

7.-Sentences in wMch all parts of speech occur, to be parsed
·
with ·rejere11ce to the clasS'lficu.tioit of th e words.
God besto wed on man the facul ty of speech for great and im portant
pu rposes: _but, alas ! we frequently pervert it to th e worst purposes.
A lexander the Great had a hig h esteem fo r knowledge nnd learn ing.
He used to say, " He was more obliged to Aristotle , his tu tor, for
his learning, th nn to Philip, his fath er, for his life!" 0 what a pity
he devoted his life so little to the le~ rning he so greatly !o'ved !
T he tong ue -of the slande rer is a fire whi ch blackens whateve r it
touch es- which directs its fury on the good g rain e<]uall y as on the
chatf,-which , wherever it rage ~, produces norhin g but dcrn•:ntio n
and ruin. 0 how vi le a character is the sland ere r! 'flie tong ue is
nn inestimable blessing ; but he pe rv erts and prostitutes it.
\Vord s descrip tive of natural sounds generally ben r som e rcsemblanro
in their sonnd to what th ey rcp rcRo nt. We call a cc rtnin bird th e
cuckoo , from thc ,so und whi ch it emi ts. We say of th e wind , at one
1imc, th u1 it whistles, at ano1 her, it roars. \Ve say of serrcnt ~ , they
hiss ; of flies, they bl1zz ; of falling timber, it r.rashes. 0 f the stream
we say, it flows; of the hail, it rattles. In all which instances there
is obviouslY. a manifest rese mblance between ihe word and the thing
signified.
At noontide hom<.
The imprison'd inmates of the school rush fu rth ,
And sport th e happy interval away.
Upon the sward they gaily spread th eir stores,
And , happy ! fee d upon the simple fare.

4*

.:

~~--.._

. ,-._.

,._,,..,~'!--

.-,....._

_1!·;.,}

-*'-':',-.'r'fA
-~

.:. .
42

-

-

_,·

']i. J

:-·~. ,.

ETYMOLOGY.• "t1
·""'.f-:•(,,.
...
1

43
~l''

In mid.st of them poor Redbreast hops ·unlu~rm:d;

'

For they have read, or heard, and wept to hen;.,~·.
The story of 4ihe Children in the \Vood,
And many a 'crumb to Robin now· they throw.
0 Caledonia! stern and wild,
Meet riurse ~r&'.a poetic chilrl!
•
Land of bro.wn ' h~ath and shaggy wood, ·
Lund of the mountain and the flood,
Land- of my sires! what mortal hand
Can e'er untie the filial band ·
That knits me to thy rugge_d strand !

8. Jnstanc~ of the same word used as dijferent parts.. of

.

'!;

speech.

My book is as good, as large , and 'as carefully kept, as any in the
. school. It is such as the master is sure to approve.
Mnny men are obliged to be content with such accommodations ai
they can get, not s~ch as they wish.
'
.
He hath .not grieved me but in part. · He hns injured nothing belongmg
· to me but the basket; but he has destroyed the whole of your
fishing -tackle.
.
.
I will take eilher road at your pleasure. Either you or I must do it.
Do you say that ne·ither is attentive _? neither the boy nor the girl 1
I cannot go beyond. the word of the Lord , to do less or more.
As the 'sun sinks, the stars appear more and hwre; but more etare ·11re
invisible than nil that yet appear. ·
He \vill love most who has m.o$l forgiven.
Read tl;at book again.
Read the book tlwt I gavo you~
Read tli'{U . book., that you may become wise.
I tell you that llwt man is innocent.
Bleesed is the man that consideret.h the poor.
Eat that you may live ,' and live that you may do good.
.
Forgive us our trespass, as we forgive them that trespnee against UI!!.
T!tat you should have reason to mourn, i::i grievous to me.
·
.
T!iat star that shines above us, for as little as it seems to be; ie larger
than either the moon or tho earth: it is bttt a sparkling diamond in
appa~ent magnitude ; but in real magnitude, and probably, also, in
use, it is . a world.

.....r.,,_,..A'D DI Ti 0

NA i

Ex ER c I s Es.

The inconvenience whi ch I hnvc suffered in giving instruction in rhetoric and

comt>Ot!:~

tion to euch of my pupil~ as ha vo never beoa much accustomed to write gr11mmnticnl
~xerei@c1 , hW!!I induced mo. in preparing this work. to ·rumit1h n lnrge numb-Or of excrdseo
to bo written. To render th.-e exercit!<!s ns eaey 1111d ogrocu.hle 11• 1>o••ible, ! rcoort to I he
u,.o of pictures. The nid which thegc pleasing' oW-Octs give the pupiJ, by 'mgg~t.in:;

idena to his mind, hns been rendered so apparent' to me, by the use of Uui li Ltle vol umo
en titled '" Easy .E xmcioeo in Composition,'' that I nm · folly convinc<.-d of the propriety of
URing thorn , not on}y io the scholar's first atte mpt! at comp0sing the mes, but i11 •he more
•imple p rocea~ of writing grnmmaticnl exercise•. Thi• is the only a11<>iogy whir,h I deem
my brethreo and friend s, the instructors of youth, fo r 1tO eJ1:tra ordi~
nary a proceedioii .. tho in troduction of pictur"" into a p ractical treatite of Eogli1l>

it neceB&ary tO ofter to

Grammar.

75. As the exerdses to be written by the pupil sh ould be
not merely detached words or phrases, but com plete sen. tences,_it _is necessary here to explain _what is meant by a
··sentenc.e.
76. A sentence is a collection of words so arran ged as to
form a complete proposition. In ordPr to form a complete
proposition, it is n.ecessary, in the first place, to have a subject, or, in other ·words, something to speak or write about j
and, in the next place, to speak or write something about
that Bubject. 'J'.he su'bject, therefore, is that concern ing which
something is spoken or wrfrten.' That which is spoken or
written concerning the subject is called the pred£cate.
Thus, the. phrase " A.good boy," docs not constitute a complete sen-

tence, because it -contains no predicate; but the expression, " A
good boy loves his book," constitutes a complete sentence, because
it contains both a subject and a predicate.
·

77. The subject, being a thing, must, necessarily, be expressed by a noun, or a word or words ·equivalen t in signification to a noun. Thus, in the se'ntence above, the word s
" A good boy," form the subject.
78. The predicate must aiways be a verb, or .a clause con. taining a verb, and equal in amount to a verb . . Thus, in
the sentence above, "loves his book, 11 the predicate.
'

is
.

76. Wh nt is a eentencc 1 Wlint is necessary to form n cornplctc proposition?•1 What is meant by the term Subject ?-By PrPr/icate 7 Give
exhmples of an imperfect and a· perfe ct sentence. 77. "Wha t must tbr.
Subject be ?-78. The Predicate 7 79 . How may a sentence be rendered
imperfect 7'

:;

;

'

ETYMOLOGY ...~. {":

44

'·

,

:

EXERCIS~S .

45

79. A sentence . is imperfect when .it , cont{fins a word
which implies that an additional clause is required to com·
plete the sense. ,
.
By examining ' the following sentences and parts of sentences with
·reference to thei r explanation, 'and pointing out which among them
ure complete, an,d which are not, the pupil will readily learn to distinguish between them,~and to apply' the dis.tinction in writing grammatical exercises.
A great hero. A great hero is not al ways a good ma~ .• ' The boy who
studies. The boy who studies diligently. ' The boy who studies
dilige ntly inay hope to beco·rnc a good scholar. · A hpuse built of
stone. The house 'is built of stone. When vVashington arrived.
vYhen vVashington arrived, th e enemy retreated. The days being
short. The days b.cing short, afforded little time for amusefl)ent.

Chasing

ll

Dntte rfly.

Write sentences relnting to the objects in this picture, introducing
nouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs.

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL.
[ln writing the fo llowing exercise•. tl;e pupil is not rcQ11ired to confine him1elf lo th"
part.ti of speech enumerated under each, but ho mny uee others also.)
. I

Tho hnnd-orga.n Player.

_Write s-entences relating to this picture, including noun3, articles,
adjectiva, verbs,
pronouns.

and

Evoning Sport.

Write a uumbcr of ehort sentences, the ideas being suggested by the
abo~e picture,' the words employed including noum, artides, and
verbs.
'

.

:MODEL.

The b.oy plays.

The father observes. The mother smiles. .The
sister enjoys the sport. A pipe lies on the ta ble. The sister Jeana
on the table.

Autumn.

Write sentences relating to this picture, including 11oun1, verbs, adjectives, nnd prepositions.

·.

..,
EXERCISES.

ETYMOLOGY.

46

47

'

Tho Collage Girl.

Write se~tences incl uding nouns, verbs, adjectives, and conjunctimu.

I
A Ride.

Write sentences including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and relative pro·
nouns.

Ch inchilln1.

Write sentences
jections.

includin~

nouns, verbs,pdjectivu, articlu, and interTho Villag~ Inn. ·

Write eentcnces includi.ng noun~, verb1, adjective11 , and adjective pronouns.

Playing with the

P~rrot

nm! tho Dog.

'
_\V
rite sentences ~n«luclifJg nouns, ve rbs , arljectives , and adjecti1'fl pronouns.

The Casket.

Write sentence; including all the different parts of speech,som'e being
introduced in one S'1Iltence and some in another:

;:

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

·E TYMOLOGY.

51

•
fossils ; as, marl, c'lo.y; and names of abstract ~d moral qualities;
•

:

'

,;

'

~

f

•

,

t

•

•

I

:FROM Tira LA TIN.

Animalculmn •••• animulcula. .Genus ...· .• ••. •• •• · · genera. •
Apex .... : • •••.. apices.
lgnis:fa~uu~ ... ;· .. igne_s-fatw.
Appendix ...•..• appendices. Lamma ..•..•••... lammre.
Arcanum ..•.••.. .arcana.
Miigus ..•..••. ••.. magi.
Medium ....•.' •. ·. . medii.
Axis . . . • • • • • • • . . axes. ,
" Memorand~in ..••. memoranda.
Co.Ix ... ~ ·. .•• .' • .,. co.lees. ·
Radius ........... .' radii. .
. Datum ..•.• ·'· ... data.
Stimulus •...• .'••.. stimuli.
Desideratum .... desiderata.
Stratum. ·•.... ... .. strata.
Effluvium ....... effiuvia.
V erteX: ..•... •.. . .'. vertices.
Erratum .. ••••.. errata.
Vortex . . • . . . . . . . . . vortices.
F OCUS • • • • • • • • • • • foci.
FROM THE HEBREW.

Cherub ........•. Cherubim.*

Seraph ....•••••••.. Seraphim.

FROM THE FRENCH .

Beau •.•••• ••••.•.• beaux.

Monsieur . ..•..... messieurs.

FROM THE ITALIAN.

Bandit .(_ ••....... banditti.
Banditto 5 . .

D ~·1e ttan te ...... ·... d1.lettanti.
.
.
V 1Ttuoso ..... . ..... virtuosi.

6. Some nouns are entirely anolJlalou~ in the ·formation of their plurals ; thus,Cow ...• ... •. ~ ..... kine.t
Foot . ...... . • . : •. .. feet.
Sow
. .. . ..... ...... . swine.
Goose ....... .... • .. geese.
Tooth ••• . .... .. •••. teeth.
Louse . : ........•... lice.
' Mouse .. .. . .. .. .. . . mice.
7. Some nouns are used alike in both numbers; as, deer, horu, 1heep,

as, gravity, benevolence.•
.
·
There are some common nouns, on the other hand. which have no
singular; for example, nouns ~xpressive of what nature or art has
made double '; tui, scissors, snuffers'; and nouns descriptive of ohjects
which nre not easily conceived without a reference to a plurality of
parts ; as, att.nal...~, archive3, ciespers.
1'.rhere are also some nouns having a plural termination, which, from
~cir being exprelJ!iive of either unity or plurality, admit of being
used in either numbor, according to the view of their meaning pre·
sent to the mind of the write r or speaker, when he employs them.
The following are those most commonly used : Alrns,
Hydrostatics,
MctaphysiC8,
Pneumatics,
Amends,
Hysterics,
News,
Politics,
Billiards,
Mathematics,
Odds,
Riches,
Economics,
Means,
Optics,
Statistics,
Ethics,
Measies,
Fallis,
Tactic&
Hydraulics,
Af.echanics,
,Physics,
II.

GENDER.

SS. There are three Genders, the Masculine, the Femi.mne,
and the Neuter.
89. The ma.sculi.ne distinguishes male animals; the femi,..
nine, females ; the neuter, things destitute of sex.
As there nre only two sexes., there ought to be but two genders, the 1fiasadine nnd· the f em£nine. But it has been found convenient
to add a thit'd, the neu,tcr. t This word signifies n eith er. and tht're.

• "Cherullim an·d S eraphim are re.al He~rew _Plurals; but such is the
propensity in men to t~rm rcgul:ir inflections m langu11g~, that these
words are used in the singular, with regular plurals, cherubims, seraphims. Jn like manner, the Hebrew singulars, cherub nnd seraph, have
.
.
.
.
obtained regular phtrals." - WEBSTER.
t If kine was originally cowen, and swine, sowen, wh1c~ th:1r sound
would seem to render not improbable, they belong to exception 3d, rather
thnn to exception 6th.

• It is; to. be observed, however, that nouns of the above classes take
a plural ro cxpr.ess varieti't!S oftlKJ eubstanoos donoto<I by them. Tims,
we can say, toh(J(lts, golds, clays, graciitics; when we wish to describe
odiffilrent kinds of wheat, &c.
t AU things inanimate are . considered aa neuter, except in cnRN
where, by an easy analogy, the imaginat ion col'leeives of tl10m as animated, and assigrni aex to them. This mode of giving life and ~ex ta
things inanimate, is nca.rly peculiar to our languag~,'and forms one of
\its strtking beauties. But it is not easy··to reduce the usage of the Inn.
gunge, <m this point, t<J fixed rules. lnckcd, fancv, more than nature or
rcus~n, may be traced in the regulation of the matter; and tlie same
object may be fo un d described as sornctimes of one gender, ar.-0 sometimes <>f another. Th<! nearest approa<:h to uniformity of usage is in
the words, sun, deatfl , tim_e, and names of great rivers, which take the
masculine; and in the words, moon, m.orn, qhip, ~artlt, u·hich take the
feminine -gender-

~xamplcs from the Latin-the H ebrew-the Fre?cb-the Italinn.
,, '(6) Give exumples of anomulies. - (7) Of nouns used m both numbere.

What remark is mallc on proper nou n's T- On some commo,n nouns 7-0s.
aouns used .in either .nwnber 1 Give exam pies. 88. How many gcndera

=me.
Proper names have necessarily no plural; but. there are also some
com11101& names which want the plural. Of tl11s kmd are names of
grains; as, ry~, wheat; names of metals; as, ir01t, gold; names of

..

. -·.~ ~ ,

&;?

•• · \. ; ·ETYMO:LOGY.

fore intimates that \ he objects to which it is applied are neither of
the masculine nor of the feminine·gender. ·
The English nlmost .the 'only .Janguage which, in th!l distrif?ution of
' ' . Gend~r, fol~ows_thilorder,:of nat~re. .
.. .

is

90. Some noun.s, which are apphcabie ·to either sex, are
be .ofth~ ·c~mmon• gender ;* as, parent, cousin.
91. There are three·modes of distinguishing sex. ·
·'. 92. ·( L ) DistinCtion of sex is most commonly expressed by
a change of termination to denote the feminine·gender.
93. T he feminine terminations most frequently used, are,
ess, ix, a, ina, and ine.

'sajd to

Originally, the termination e11s was ~imply added to the masculine;
but, latterly. the fe minine, thus formed, has, for convenience. of utterance, been variously contracted.
T he following words still retain the whole masculine : Mruc.
Fem.
l'>Iasc.
F em.
A uthor .... ... ... authoress.
Mayor .......... . mayoress.
Baron ....... . .. . baroness.
Patron ........... patroness.
Pee'r . . . ... ....... peeress.
Count · ........... countess.
Dauphin .... : ... .. dauphiness • . Poet ............ ~ poetess.
D eacon . .. ~ ....... deaconess. Priest ... .. . •..•. . priestess.
Prior ... •. ... : .... prioress.
Giant ....... .•. .. gian tess.
Heir ........ .. ... heiress.
Prophet ..•.•••... .Prophetess.
Host ..... . .... .. hostess.
Shepherd . : ....... shepherdeBI!.
Jew. ~ ........... J ewess.
Tutor ..... ....... tuto'ress.
Lion .. '. ....... ~ - lioness.
Vi~ount ......... viscountess.
. The follow ing have undergone contraction: Mcuc.
FB11l.
Masc.
· Fem.
Abbott .......... abbess. t
Adulterer ....... aaultress.
Actor . .... . . .. .. actress.
Ambassador ..... ambassadress.

!s

• Tho oppcllat ion "common" gender
sufficientlr. <f_cscriptive of
1mch a. word as parent• (in the plural), winch nc.cc•eariiy includes both
the masculine and the femin ine. But for tho smgular, parent, and for
such words as cousin, &e., "eit!ter" gender would be a .more . correct
· appellation.
t T hese feminines must have been, originnily, nbbotesR, nctorese,
'adulteress, &c. Duches•, and marchioness, hove not been formed from
· duke, ;nd marquis, but from duch and' marchion.
are there 7' 89. H ow are the p:enders disting uished 1 What is said o{
the E nglish language 1 90. W hat is meant by the common ge~.dtr_'f
91. H ow n:iany modes of disting uishing sex are there 1 92. Wh1~h. ls.
the fi rst and most common 1 93. Which are the most usual femmme·
'terminations? .Give examples of those words which retain the whol&

INFLECTION OF· WORDS.
!If use.
Fem.
A rbiter ........ arbitress.
Benefactor .... . benefactress.
Chanter .. .. ..• ~antress.
C onductor •. ••• conductress.
Duke . .. .. .... ducb.css.
E lectGr .•.. .... ~lect resf!E mpernr .... .. e mpress.
G overnor . .. ... gGvemess.
Hunter ....•... huntress.

Ma3C. ,.

Fem.

Lad ....... , ... . l.ass.
Marquis.'-. .'. ·••• marchioness.
. mistress.
·Protector • .·•.. protcct ress.
Se!imstei;.;o,
- -· .. seams tress..
.·.
.~ ;
I
S
d>ngster
... : .. songs tress.
S orcerer .. ~ - •• sorceress.
Tiger . . .... ... 'tigress..
T~aitor .• •• ·-~-. ~raitress.
Master ~ ••.•. :

The words which express the feminine by the termination i.r, are of
Latin origia, thus: Masc.
Fem.
A druinist:rator. administratrix.
Director> ..... directrix.

llfa~.

Fem..

E xecutor ••.. •• • execu t~ ·
Testator .. ...... . testatrix:.

"I'ho'se ~hi?h express the' feminine by the terminations a, i-na, and i-,
am also of foreign origin, and are few in num~r, thus: J.fasd.
Fem.
C zar ......... .. czarina..
Hero . . . . . . . . . . heroine.
Landgrave . ..•. landgravine. -

])fasc.
Fem. .
Margrave .. . .... margravine.
Sulta11 . . .• ••. • . • sultan<01..

94. (2.) Distinction of sex is also expressed by a ditfurent
word being e mployed .to denote the feminine, th as : .l'tlasc.
Fem.
Beau .. .- .. . .. . . .. belle.
Boy ... .... ..... . .. girl.
B rid egroom .... ... bride.
B rothei' ... .. ...... sister.
Buck ... ... .. .... . d oc.
Bull . . . . .......... cow.
B ullock ........... heifer.
Colt ....... . ...... filly.
·Drake . .' .... . ...•. d uck.
Earl .. : .......... . countess.
Father ...... . .. ' .. mother.

Masc.
F em .
Ga!Ter .....•...• . . gum mer.
G andt;r ........ ... goose.
Han., . . ... .. . .... roe.
Horse . ........ . .. mare.
Husband .... . .... wife.
King .... .. . .. . . .. queen.
L ord .. . . ....... .. lady.
Man . .. ! ... . ..... woman.
Monk . ... .•. . •... nun.
Nephew · . ...... . . 'niece.

Ram .... .': ....... ewe. '

~a~culine. Of those ',~·h.ich 'have u~der~on~ ' contraction. Of those.
wl11ch express the fo mmrne by the term10at1on iz. Of t!mse which
express. the feminin e by t.00 termination in a, ina, ond inc. 94. (2.)
What 1s the secon~ mode .of d!st..inguishing 11e:r: 1 Give exam plea.
5*

.

.

.(

·~.

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY., '

54 '
Jriasc. f'.

"; · Jvlasc. .

>.. slut.. .

Sloven ~~ :. :r• •.•.

' ·'
Son •••' -. ~ .• . ·.'..: . ·. •. "daughter.
.
Stag . :·...... .. .. . . ~ hi nd .
"l

)(;;;...

101. The possess-ive is formed, •in , th.~hsingular, by adding
s, with an apostrophe before it Cs);* a~·; .Father, Fat her's.
102. The possess-ive is formed, in the plural, by adding
only an apostrophe; as, Fathers, Pather§'.

.Fem .....

Uncle :. ..•.•••.... aunt•
· Widower ... ! . . . . . widow.
Wizard ••........ witch. ·

~~

Wh en the noun ends in s, ss , ce, or.any other termination which docfl
no t easily admit of a hissing sound after fr;"the posser;sive is for med
. by simply annexing the apostrophe without the letter$; ni<, "for
- righteo u3ness' sake , for conscience' sake."
\Vhen the plural does not end in s , the possessive plural is formed in
the same manner as the possessi ve singular; as, men , men' s.

of

95. '(3.). Distinctldl]
sex.is also sometimes expressed by
prefixing a sepa~·ate word to indicate the gender, thus: Mas.c.
,Fem.
He-goat . .... she-goat.
Man-servattt . maid-servant.

Ill.

55

]'lase.
Fem.
Cock-sparrow.:. hen-sparrow.
Male-child ..••.. female-child.

.·.:

""\.,'

·,,,,. .

103. A noun is thus declined: Si•tgttlar.
Fa ther . . . ..
PoM . F ather 's . ..
Obj.
Father .....

Norn.

CASE .

96. . There are three Cases, - the Nominative, t_h c Posses·

Plural.
Fathers
Fathers'
Fathers

Singv.lar.
Plural.
Man . .. ... . .•• Me n
Posa. Mnn's ...•...•. Men's
Obj .
Mart . . ..... ... Meo
Nom.

Give, and ·the Objective.
As th o only relation of nouns which is expressed in English by a change
of termination is that of ownership, or possession, there are, strictly

IN FLECTION OF ADJECTIVES.

• speaking, only two cases, the noun in its simple form, and the noun
with ·• the possessive termination ; as, 'boy, boy' 6 .

91.'' The noun is in the nominative case when it .is the
name o( the person or thing which acts, or is spolcen of.
98. The noun is in the possessive case when it expresses ~
ownership, or possession.
·
99. The noun is in the objective case when it is the name
of the person or thing which is the object or end of an ac·
tion or movement.
Thus 1 in the sentence - " James strikes John's horRe ," Ja mes, as the
arre nt, is in the mm1inative case; John's, as expressing the relation
of o'vnership, is in the posseuive; and horse, being the name of the
ohject , • i8 in the objecti-oe.

100. The nominative and objective are both expressed ·-py
the n<;>.un in its simple form .
• When a. noun doe11 any thing, it is called the agent, and when
something is done ~ it, it js called the object.

95. (3). What is the third mode of disting-uishin g sex 1 Give dam.
ple~. 96. How' man y ca~cs are there 7 97. Wh~t" is meant by the

nominative case 7 98. What is meant by the posses1nve case~ 99. Wbut
is mea nt by the objective case 1 Give an example of ea?h, in the same
sentence.
How are the nominative o.nd objecuve exvressed 1

ioo:

.•

104. The adjectives which admit of.inflection, are such as
denote qual ities susceptible of increase, and a fe w l\umerals.
105. Adjectives wh ich denote qualities susceptible of increase, admit of inflection to express comparison.
· IOG. There are three degrees of comparison, - the PMitive, th e Comparative, and the Superlative.
107. The positit'e is expressed by the adjective in its simple state ; as, hard.
- ---- ---·-- -"' . It has been suppo8ed that the ter mination ('s) of the En gJ i,fi possessive, is a contraction for the possessi,·e pronoun his. Thn~, "Joh n · ~
book" has been sa i<l to be an abbreviation of " John his book ." But
· th is opin ion is evidentl y erroneou•. The te r mination ('s) can not al.
wuys be resolved into the pronoun liis. W e cannot resolve " queen's
crown" into " q ueen ·his crown," or "children's bread" into "children
liis bread ." The fac_t seems to be, that the -En!glish possessive terrnina.
tion is one of the parts of our language which we have preserved from
the Saxon. T he rasul termi nati on of the Saxon possessive is es, or is ;
as appears in such phrases as " Godcs sig ht," "kin gis crown ." The
progress of change in the termination seems to have been es, is, 's.
l 01. How is the pos~e •~ive formed in the sin gular? 102. How in
tbe plu ral? - How when the noun ends in s, ss, or ce 7 - \Vhen thn
plural does not end in _.? 103. rTow is a noun decl ined? 104. Wh at
nrljcct.ivcs adm it of inflec tion 1 . 105. Wbat adj ective• are comrarcd "/
106. What are the degrce8 of comparison 7 . lv7, 108, 10'.l. llow are

.-

•"'

56

INFLECTION OF' WORDS.

ETYMOLUGY. ·

'.

adding most either to the positive or to the comparative; as, hind,
hindmost, or hindermo&t.
·

108. The comparative denotes a greater. degree of the
quality' expressed by the positive ; as, harder.
109. The s'uperlali-ve denotes the greatest degree of. the
quality, expressed ,by the posili·ve; as, hardest.
110. The comparative is generally formed by adding r, or
er, to the positive; as, safe, safer; tall, taller.
11 I. The superlative is generally formed by adding st, or
est, to the positi'Ve ;· as, saJe, safest; tall, tallest..
. .
1
112: The foll?wjng adjectives are compared irregularly: -

There is also a species of comparison made by adding the nffi x ish,
whi ch lessens the signification of the positive; as, black , black u h;
w h.ite, w h.itish. • In this form the adjective is called a dimim'l ive.

INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS.

114. The Pronouns which admit of inflection, are, the
Personal, the Relative, the Reciprocal, and the Demonstrative.
'

Good . .. . •••.• .. . better •.. •..•. . . .• . ... best.
B ad (

; ~~il

5

'.

.......... wors? ..• .. .. . •• .. ..•. worst.

115. The Personal Pronouns admit of Number, Gender,
and Case.
116. ~hey are thus declin~d: ~

Little . . . . ...1.••• • less . . . . . . . . . . . • • .... least.

~:r~~

}. . . ....

more . ... .... .. ...... most.

First Person Masc. or Fem. ·

F ar ........... . .. farther ........ . ...... fa rthest.
F ore . ... ..... . ... former ........... ... .
In . ..... . • . ...... inner ....... . . .. .•..•.
Late . . . ., .. .'.• . ... ·later .. ... .. .. . .... . . .
N ear • . . .. .. .. .. . nearer . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .
O ld ... : . : . .... .. .. older or elder . ........
Out . ........ .. ... outer ................
Up .. . ... . ....... upper ..... . .. . . .. .. . .

51

' Sing.
Plur.
Norn. I ........ .. W e t
Pou. My or mine Our or ours
Obj. :Y.le . .... . .. Us

foremost or first.
inmost or innermost.
latest of' last.
nearest or next.
oldest or eldest.
utm ost or outermost.
up most or uppermost.

Thirrl P ers. frlasc.

Si11g.
Plur.
Norn. H e . .• . • . They
Pou. His .. . ... Theiror theirs
Obj. Him ..... Them.

113. Adjectives are also compared by prefixing the words
more and most to the posit1·ve; as, gentle, more gentle, most
gentle . .
It would seem, from the diversity of usnge which prevails, that it is
left to the e·ar nod taste to determine whether the comparison should
be expressed in any ·particular instance by a change of termination,
or by prefixing more and most .
Adjectives of one syllable, and dissyllablc adj ectives in y arid Z~ l?ure,
,are generally compared in the former way ; adj ectives of more1 th~
two syllabics, and dissyllablcs which do not end in y or le pure, Ill the
lntter. ·
A few adjectives fo rm th eir superlative by addin g most to the comparative; as, nether, nethermost; lower, lowermost ; and a few by

.

Second Person Jl:lasc. or Fem.
Sing.
Plur.
N<rm. Thou ....... Ye or you t
Poss. Thy or thine Y ou or yours
Ohj. Thee .. .... You

Third P ers. f', m.
Sing.
Plu r.
N<rm. She • .'.. . T hey
Pou. Her or hers T hei r or theirs
Obj. Her . . ... .. Them

• The words, prior, exterior, inferior, superior, ulterior, &c., whicll
forr:n of L a ti~ comparatives, are not to be considered com ra rat1ve 1~ English. Besides wanting the termi nation of the Engl ish compnralive, they are not followed by than, its distinguishing mark.
.t The idea expressed· by th e plurals of I and thou, is not the sa me
with that expressed by the ph1rnl of nouns. Jn noun~, the plnrnl is
equiv a l e n~ to the_singular repeated. Thus, bovsis equal to boy+IJoy+
boy, &c., rn defi mte ly. But we is not equivalent to I+ I+ I, &.c., but
1o I_+ others, joined with myself. In th e Rome manner, ye, or you , is M l
equivalent to thou+tlwu+tlwu, &c., but to thou+others, joined with
you . .
~ave_ th e

------ - - ---------- they distin guished·7 110, 111. J:Iow are _the compnrntive and BUJ?Crla·
tive form ed 7 112. What adJ ect1ves are 1rrcgulnr7 113. What 1s the
other mode of compari~on 1 W ha t gencrul rul e is given respecting the
two · modes of comparison 1 When is 111ost used as a termination ·1
" I

What is indicated by the termination ish 7 114. ·which pronouns n<lmit of inflection? . 115. Of wh at do the personal pronouns nrlmi t?
116. Decline I - Thou - He - She - It. 117. Decline Who - Whicli.

'

•.\

\

•

.
INFLECTION OF WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.'

5S

1 .. · \

Third Person Nfuter.
.
* Norn.
It ................ ·•. ;. They
·' Poss. Its•-:-•.•. · y· ....... ~ .: Their·or theirs
Obj. " It ... .., ... : ... ......... Them•

117. ~ Tl~e..., Rel~tives, who and wldch, are thus declined: Norn. Who ......... Who

Sing.
Plur.
Nom. Which ...... Which

Poss . Whose ...... ·Whose
Obj. Whom ...... Whom

Poss . Whoset ..... Whose
Obj. Which .. : : .. Which

Sing.

Plur.

118. The Relatives that, and as, admit of no variation. ,
l 19.' The R~ciprocal Pronoun, self, has, in the plural, selves.
' ~ "'f' ..' '120. The D'emonstrative Pronouns, this, and that, have,
for their plurals, these and those.
The Indefinite Pronoun, another, is the only adjective-pronoun which
admits of variation to express case - another's being the possessive
case.

INFLECTION OF VERBS.

121. Verbs admit of infie~tion to express Numher, Person,
. . . . . ' ·.
and Time. ,
122. Verbs have two Numbers, the Singular, and the
Plural · as, he loves, they love.
.
-,.
123. Verbs have three Persons, corresponding w~th those
of t he personal pronouns; as, I love, t4ou Iovest, he love.~: ·
124. The on)y distinction of Time, or ,T€nse, made by injlection,t ls into Present and Pant; as, I love, I loved.

.'

·--;: The ohlique caseR of the personal pronouns are so .di~erent, in some
inst.u nceF, from tho nominative, that they must have ongmally belonged
to di ffcrcnt words. .
t \Vhatever g rammarians' i:iay .say, it docs not admit of dou~.t, that
tohose, as the possessive of wlnch, 1s th~ general usage of th~ \an~a~e~
t The pupil will recollect that inflecti?n is ~hat clian{fe of :~ermina­
tion which words undergo to express their various relat10ns. T~~ variations in the signification o( verbs, prod~ced _by the. use of the a~x1!1ary,
'or generic verbs, are not, strictly speaking, mf!ect10ns . . T~ey will be
brought into view under t_he head of !NFLXCTION OF CoMPOUND VER;J!S•
118.' What is s:i.id 'o f that nnd as? 119. What is ·said of self? . 120.
What is said of the Demonstratives? - Of another? 121. . ~hat do
v•irbs express by inflection? 122. How n:a~y ~umbers ~ave ve~b~ 1
123. How ma~y persons 1 124. What d1st.mclloqs of time _ar.e ex-

59

The present tense ·denotes that the action,' or state, expressed by the
verb, is in present time. The past tense denotes that the action, or
. state, expressed by the.verb, .is in past time.

125. Verbs also admit of inflection to form the Present
and Perfect Parti.ciples.
126. T he Present Participle is formed by adding ing to
the verb, and denotes that the action is proceeding; as,
loving, walking.
127. The Perfect Participle is formed by addin g d, or ed,
and denotes that the action is finished ; as, loved, walked.

'."·i

In strictness , the participles are not parts of the verb, as they <lo not ,.
imply affirmation, but are merely adjectives, formed from verbs.

128. Verbs are divided into Regular, Irregular, and De-

fective.
129: Verbs' are regular \Vhen the Past tense, and Perfect
participle are formed by adding d, or ed, to the present; as,

Present.

Past.

Perfect Part.

Love . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loved . . .. .' ........ Loved .
Walk .............. Walked .......... . . Walked.

130. Verbs are Irreg-ular when the Past tense, and Perfect participle, are formed in. any other way than by addi ng
d, or ed, to the present; as,
Present.

Past. ,

Perfect Part.

Write ..... .... ._ ... \V rote .. ........... vV ritten .
Do ....... ........ '. Did ................ Done.

131. Verbs are Defective when they want one or more of
these three parts; as,
·
Pres<mt.

Past.

Perfect Part.

May ............... Might
Must ... ..... -- ~ - . . Must
pressed by in fle~tion? '\.V'hat d~es the . Pl'e~ent . tense denote ? - The
Past? 12.5. What participle8 are formed py inflection ? . 126. How iR
the present participle formed 1 127. How js th e Perfect form ed ?
128. How are verbs divided? 129. When are verbs rrg-i.1lttr? 130.
When are verbs Irregular 7 131. ,When are verbs Defective?

t.

.

...

. 60

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY. ._ •

134. There .a re, at least, one hundred and seventy irregular verbs in the English language; but there is some unlformity e ven in: their irregularities.

132. Regular Verb~ are thus inflected : -

TO LOVE.
Love • . • . • . • • • • . . • • . • Loved ....•••.••.••• ·.. Loved.

135. Some reject ed, in the past tense ·and perfect participle, from the difficulty of making this termination coalesce
with the verb in its simple form; as,
Present.
Past.
Perfect Part.

Present Te:nse.
Singular.
Plural.
h t P er. I love ....... .. . ...•..• .•. l~ t Per. We loYed,
2d Per. 'i\hou lovest. .. . ........... 2d Per. Ye or you lov.ed,

Cost . . ... ... .. ..... . . cost .... _. ...... .. .. _. cos t.
P ut ... ...... .... ..... put : . .... . . '... ... ... . put.
Sp read . . . ... .. .. .. . .. spread . . .. .. . ,. ....... spre ad.

3d Per. He, she, or it loves, ( . . .• . 3d.I'er. They love.
or loveth
)
.

136. Many have ght in th e past tense an d perfect participle; as,

Past Tense. ·
.

S ing.

,

Plur.
1. I loved .. ..................•..•...... 1. We loved,
2. Thou loved st .... . .. . .. . . . ......... .. 2. Ye or you loved,
3. He, she, or it loved ........• ..• ..• ; . ' 3. They loved.

Present.

.

Present.

133. Irregular Verbs are thus inflected:-:-

Present.

· P ast.

.

.

'Perfect Par-t~

Write •.•.•. .. ....... .. . \Vrote ..-........... ..... - ~ Written.
.. :!

Present T ense.
Plur._ ,
1. I · write .. ....... . . . •....•... . . ....... 1. We wnt.e ,
2. Thou writest .... .. ~ ......•.......... 2. Ye or yon write,
3 . He-, she, or it writes, or writeth ... -~ .. 3. They write.
....

Past T ense.
Sing.

Plur.
1. I "''Tote . . . ..•. ......... . . . ... ....... 1. \Ve wrote;
2. ·Thou wrotest .. .. ......•.. . . . . ...... 2. Y e or you. wrote,
3. He, she, or it wrote •..•..•....... .• . 3·. They wrote.

Partfriples.
Pr~ent •. 'W~ting ... • , ................. Perfect.

Written.

132. How a.re Reg~lar verbs infle cted 1 133. How a.re Irregular verb1

Past.

Perfect Parl.

Freeze ......... .... ... froze ............ .. ... froz e n.
Show .. . .... .......... showed ..... . ... . .... shown .
Smite ..... : . ......... smote .... ......... .. . emil[cn.

138. Se veral verbs in ing retain the Saxon, u ng, in t he
past tense and perfect partic,iple; as, ·
Present.

Sing.

c

P erfect Part.

137. Many retain the ol d participial terminati on, en, or n,
instead of adopting the mod ern ed; as,

Prese7tt.' , Loving .... .". ; .....•......•.... P erfect. Loved.

TO WRITE.

Past.

Bring .. : ... . ........•. brough t ..•. -. , ... : . ... brought.
B uy ... . .. : . ..._.. : ..•. bought ....... . ....... boug ht.
Carch . . \ . . .. ... .. ... . caugh t .... .' ... .. ..... caug ht.

(.

Partici.ples.

.. l

Some of the irregularities are mere abb re viations; as, cupt , fo r
creeped; frji, for leaved; liad, fo r /,a·ved.

Perfect Part.

Past.

Present.

61

J:asl.

Perfect Purl.

Cli ng . ..... , ... . . . .. ·.. clung . .. .. ... .... .... clung.
Fling .......•...• .. .. . flung . .' ..... . .... .... . . flu ng.
Ring ...... ........... rang
ru ng . .. .... ... rung.

or

139. The follow in g is a list of Irregular Verbs-.: "' The most convenien t 111 odo of reci tin g these ve rbs i• for the 1eachrr
to give the Present Tense, or simple form of each verb, and the pupil to
give the three parts, in answer.
inflected 1 134. How many irregular verbs arc th ere in tl1 c Cn!(Ji,h
language 7 13.S. G ive exam11les of those '\'1-hic h reject rd 111 tl 1c r ,"t
tense, from the difficulty of making this termin at ion co:tlesce '"it11 t.he
verb in its simple form . l:lG. G ive examples oflh•>sc }i,,,·in g [!!tl in tl•e
past tense, and pe rfect pa rticiple. ' 137. Give examples of t hu•e rclain ing the old participial terminat ion in en. 138. Give examples of tl1o•e
which retain the Saxon ung , in the past tenSc uud p~r!cct participle.

6

•'

------------------------------------=~·-,-

62

----...-~

ETYMOLOGY.

Present.

P ast.

-~

INFLJ):CTION OF WORDS.

.Perfect .Part.

Abide ....••..... abode .•....•.. 1 ••• • •• abode
Am •... ..... .. .. was ............• .' •. ;. been ·,
Arise ....•.. . ... ." arose .. ... ... .. .. .. .' . nrisen
.Awake ......• .•. ,awo ke , or awaked •... awaked
' Bake .. . . . . .•.... baked ... .. . ....• • ; ... 'baked, or b11ken
Bear, to IJ'ringfort/1 bore, or bare ......... born
Bear, to carry •. . : bore, or bare ... ... ... borne
Beat . . . . • . . . . • •• beat . . . .............. beat, or beaten
· Become ...... :. . . became . . . . . . . . . . • . . . become
Begin ...•• :.: . •. '; . began .. ~ .•. ~ - .. ~ .•.•. begun
,
Behold .... .•.. ; . beheld ........•..• . .. beheld, cir behold~n
Bend , .• . : . ....•. bent, or bc ncie.d .. ; .•. bent, or bended ,
Bereave .. . ...... bereft, or bereaved . .. bereft, or bereaved
B eseech ... . .. . .. besought . ...... . ..... besought
Bid .. ..••....••. ·• bade, or bid .. • . . .•. .. bidden
Bind ............ bound . . . ........... . bound
Bite . ....... . .... bit ........ .......... . bitten , or bit
Bleed ......... .. . bled ......... . ....... bled
Blow .. .. ... .•. .. blew .. ·. .. ... . . ... .... blown
Break .... ~ .. . ·. : . broke;· or break .. ·..•. broken
Breed .. . ...·...... bred . . .............. ; bred
Bring . .. .. ....... brought ....... : ; ...•. brougb,t
B uild ... , ...... . . built, or builded ,.' . . .. built, or builded
Durst .. ; ...... ... burst ............ , ... burst
Buy ..... ." ...... . bought. . ... ... ;·. . ... : bought
.Cast ..... .• ; • . . . . cast · . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . cast ·
Catch ...... .. .... caught, or catched . . .. caught, or catched ·
·
Chicle ....... .. . . ch id . •. . ....•........ chidden
Choose . ... .. . .. . chose . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . chosen
Cleave, to adhere . clave, or cleaved ... ... . cleaved
C leave, to split . . . clove, clave,. cleft ... .. cloven , or cleft
.
,.
1
C ling . . ... . .... :. f lung . .... . .... . .... . c ung
Climb . .. ...... . . climbed, or clomb .... chm bed
Clothe ....... . , .. clothed , or clad . .. . .. . clothed, or clad '
Come • . •. . . . . . . . came .. .. .... . ... . . . . com'e
Cost. . - . . . . . . . . . cost . .... .. .-. . . . . . . .. cost
Crow ... ... ...... .crowed, or crew .· ... . . crowed
Creep . .. ..... . .. crept ...... : ..... ·..... crept
C ut . .. . . .. .... . . cut . .' ................ cut
Dare , to venture . . durst, or dared .. . ... .. clared
Deal ';'. .... , . . . . . dealt, or dealed .. .·. . . . dealt, or denied
Dig ........ ."••.. d11g, or <ligged .. . ... .. dug, or digged
Do . , . . . • . . • • • . . . did . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . done

Present.

Past.

63

Perfect Part.

Draw .... .. '. .. . .. dre w ... . ..... . .. . ... . drawn
Drink ·. · .... · · . . drank ... ... ..... . .... drunk , or drunken
Drive . . . ......... drove .... . .. ... ... . .. driven
D well ........... dwelt or clwelled ...... dwelt, or <lwelled
Eat . . . . . . . . . . . . . ate .................. eaten
Fall · · · · . . . . . . . . . fell . ; .. .... ...... . .. . fallen
Feed . .. . ... ... . . fed . . .... .... . .. . . . .. fe d
F eel. ....... ..... felt .. ..... . ... ....... fel t •
Fight . . . . . . ' ..... fo ught . .. ..... . •..... fought
Find .. . ......... . found .......... ... ,... found
Flee .. .. ·•..... , .. fled .. ... . . ..... . •.. . . fled
F ling ... . .... . ... fl ung . . ...... . ....... flung
F ly.. . . . . . . . . . . . . flew . .... ... ...... ... flown
Forbear .. ....... • forbore , or forbare ..... for home
Forget . •.•....... forgot ...... . . ......... forgotten, or forgot
Forsake . .. ; ...•. forsoo k ...... . .. .•. . . forsaken
Freeze.. . . . . . . . . . froze.. . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . frozen
Get .. .... . ..... . got, or gat. . . ...... •.. gotten, or got
Gild . ......... . . . gilt , or gilded .. . •..... gilt, or gilded
Gird . .... ... .... . girt, or girded .. ..... . gi rt, or girded
Give ... .. . ... . .. gave . . . . . ....... . .... give n
Go . . . . . . . . . . . . . . went . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . gone
Grave . .. ....... . graved .. . ............ .graven , or graved
G.rind . ..... . . . . .. ground . ......... ·'• . .. ground
Gro w . ... ... . .... grew ............ .. . . grown
Hang .. . .... ; .... hung, or hanged .. ·.... hung, or hanged
Have . . . . . . . . . . . . had . .' . ... ... ... .·. • . . • had
Hear . . . . . . . . • . . . heard . .. .•. . .•.. ' • . . . heard
Heave . .......... heaved, or hove .... .. . heaved, or hoven
Help ... . . ...... , helped .... .. .... ... . . helped, or holpen
He w ...... . : . . . . hewed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hewn, or hewed
Hide .. .. .... · · . . hid .... . .... .. . . .. ... hidden, or hid
Hi t . .... ... .. . . .' . hit ..... ... . .... .. .... hit
Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . held . . . . . . . • . . . . • . • . . held, or holden
H urt ............ hurt .. ..... ...... .. .. hurt
Keep . . . . . . . . . . . . kept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . kept
K neel . . .. . . .. . . . knelt ...... . . ........ knelt
Knit .· .. · . . . ... . . knit, or knitted . .. .... knit, or knitted
Know .. . . . ..... . knew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . known
Lade . . . . . . . . . . . . laded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . laden
Lay . . . . . . . . . . . . . laid ........... .... ... , laid
Lead .. . . . . . . . . . . led . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . led
Leave ...........· left ........... ~ . . . . . • left

~ -~

;

·.

L.-~

'

~ i' "

-.

---

jl,

,

64

.....

·,

~

.
INFLECTION OF WORDS.

E 'T Y M OLOGY.

Prt!$·ent. ,

Past.

Perfect Part.

Lend • . . . . . . . . . • • lent . . . . . • . • . . . . . • . . . lent
Let. .........· .... le t .. .... .. .... . ..... let
Lie, lo lie down .. lay .... . ... .. .... ·;.':. 'Iain or lien
Lift ·. .... . • ..... . 'lifte d, or lift ... .. ..... lifted, or lift
Light . ......•... . lighted, or lit •.•... ... lighted, odit
Load ' .. . · · •.. •· .. loaded .. .. . ... ....... ' loaden, or loaded
Lose . . . . . . . . . . • . lost . . . . . . . . • . . • . • . . . . lost
:Make .. , . . . ....•• made. .....•...•. ·•. .. " made ,
JVIean · · · · · · .. · .,. . m eant, or meaned .'. •. meant, or meaned
l.Vlec t ........ . ... met .... .... ' ......... met
Mow ....... .' . .. . mowed . .... ., ........ mown, or mowed '
ray ........ .. ·... paid ....... .. . . ..... . paid
Put .. ............ put ..... . ............ put
Quit .... .. ....... quit, or qu itted ..... .'. quit
R ead . . • . . . . • . • . • read . • . • •. • . . • . . . . • • . read
Ren d ...... ... . .. ren t ... . .. ... .... : ... rent
Rid . . . . . . . . . . . • • rirl.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . rid
P. idc · . · · .... ... · rodo , or rid ...... ... .. ridden, or rid
Ring ............ rung , or rang . .•...... rung
R ise .. . . . . . • . . . . . rose .. . • . . . . . • . . . . . . . risen
R ive .•.........•• rived . . . . • • . . . .. . . • .. . riven
Rot · · · · · · .. · : · · · rotted· " .. .. .... ·. : . : . ro tted, or rotten
Run; ............ ·r an ·" . ..... .. ... .. ... run
Saw .. : ... · · · · ... · sawed . ......... : ••.. sawn, or sawed
Say ..... .. ..... . said . ......... . ...... · said
See .. ... .... -. .•. . saw . .. .... .... ....... seen
Seek ......•... •. sought .•.... '. . . . . . . . • sought
Seethe ... ... •,.... seethed, or sod . .. .. . . sodden
Sell • • • . .. . .. . . .. sold . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . sold
Send . . • • . . . . . . . . sent . . • . . . . . . . . . . . • . . sent
Set ..... . ... , .... set. .................. set .
!';halco .......... . shook ............. . .. shaken
S hape · .... · . .. .. shaped .. ··· . .. . . . . .. . . shaped, or shapen ·
S hitv e ............ shaved. · · · .... ....... shaved, or shaven ·
~hea r ............ shea red, or shore .. :-... shorn
Shed ...... .... .. shed ... " .... ......... shed
Shine .. ...... .... shone, or shined .. . ... shone , or shined
Shew .. ' · . ..... .. shewed . ...... . ...... she wn
Show.... .. • . . . . . showed ...... ,. ....... shown ·
Shoe ... .. .. ... ... shod. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . shod
Shoot .. ........ ... shot . . ..... ... ...• ... shot
Sh ri nk .. ........ ·. sh runk, or shrank . .... sh runk
Sh_red . . • . . . . • . . . shred .. . .... .....•... shred

Present.

Past.

Perfect Part.

Shut .. •.... . ... .. sh ut ... . . ..... ....... shut
Si ng ............. s ung , or sang .... ..... sung
Sin k .... ......... su nk, or sank . ... . ... . sunk, or sunken
Sit. ............ .. sat . • ..•. ....... ... .•. sitle n, or sat
Slay ........ . .. .. sle w ........ .. .. ; ... . slain
S leep ...... . . .. . . slept . ..... •.... .•.... · slept
Slide .......... .. slid . • . . . . . . . • . . • . . . • • slidden
Sling . ..... .•. ... slu ng, or slang'. . . .. . . . slung
Slit ............. . slit, or slitteil . . •• .. ..'. slit, or slitted
Smite ..... . ... · .. smote .......... ...... smitte n, or smit
Sow ...... · ·. • .. · sowed ...... .... ..... sown, or sowed
Speak ........... spake, or spoke .... . . . spoken
Speed . . . .. .. .. . . sped . . .. . • . .. . . • • • . . • sped
Spend ........... spent ...... .. ........ spent
Spill .... · ........ spil t, or spilled . ....... spil t, or spilled
Spin ... ....... .. . spun, or span ......... spun
Spit ... · · · ..... : . spit, or spat .... ,. ...... spit, or spitten
Split ........... .. split, or splitted ....... sp lit, or splitted
Spread ........... spread· .' ..... ... ..... . spread
Spring ..... . .. . .. sp rung, or sprang .. ... sp rung
Stand ... ........ . stood .. .. • . . . • . .. .. .. stood
Steal . . . . . . . . . . . . stole . ... . ....... . .. .. stolen
Stick .......•.... stuck ...... .. . .... .. . stuck
Sting .. ...... . .. . stung .•.... ... ...... .. stung
S tink . ......... . . stunk , or stank .. ... . . stunk
Stride .......... . strode, or strid . .... . . . stridden
'strike ....... . . .. struck ............. . ~ sttuck, or stricken
String ....... .. .. strung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . strung
Strive,. ......... . strove . ... .. '. . .. • . • • . striven
·strew, or(
strewed, or(
S'
Strow
5 ..... . strowed 5 · · · · · · · ! · strown, or ( :~;~::
Swear •• : .. .. . .. swcire, or swaro . . . .. . sworn
Sweat .......... .' sweat .......... : .... . sweat
Sweep . ... . ...... s wep t ..•.....•..... . . swept
Swell .. .... .. .... swelled ............. . swelled , or swollen
Swim .......... .. swam , or swum ...... swum
Swing ....... ... . swing, or swang .••... swung
Take . ..•...... .• took .•... ... . . •.••... taken
Teach .... . .... .. taught ............. .. taught
T ear ... .. ...... . tore, or tare • • .. .. .. . . torn
Tell .•••. ~ ...... . told .................. told
Think .......... . thought . . . . . . . . . . . . • . though t
Thrive . . . ....... . th rove, or thrived ..... th riven

6"'

65

.
66

'

E TYMOLO GY.

Present.

Past.

Perf ect Part.

Shall, denotes duty or obligation in general, and, by inference, f utu·
rity; as, "He shall obey me," "I shall write, to-morrow."
Will, denotes volition or intention , and, by infe rence, futurit y; as,
" I will, be thou whole, " " He will write to-morrow."
May, conveys the idea of liberty or permi.ssion, and, by inference , con·
tingency; as, " He may go if he ,will," " He may have written or
not. "
Can, has the sense of is able, and denotes power or ability in general;
as, "I can write, though you cannot."

T hrow ..... . . .. _.. threw .... .. . .. ~ . ... _.. thrown
Thrust.-•. • ... .• . ~ thrust .. .. .' ...... : ..... thrust
Tread ........... trod, or trode ....... ; . trodden
Wax ...•..... . .. waxed.' .. , .. . .. .' .... waxed, or waxen
· Wear ..' .. . . . . . . . . wore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • worn
Weave ....... . .. wove .. ... .. -. .......• woven
\ Veep ... . -.. •... > wept•. .. .... .. ...... . . wept
\Vin ... .... . .•. . . 'won ...... ... . ...•... won
Wind .......... ; . wound, or winded ..... ,wound
Work ...•. .... ·.. wrought, or worked .. wrought, or worked
\Vring ....... _.... wrun g, or wringed .. . . wrung, orwringed
Write .......... . wro te, or writ .... .... .written, or writ
\ Vrithe ......... •· writhed . ... . ....... .. writhen, or writhed

Past.

.:.

142. The Generic Verbs are th us inflected :-

TO BE.
Present.

Perfect Part.

Past.

Am ..... . . .. ...• •.. was ...... . ....... .. .. . been

140. The Defective Verbs are the following; and they are
generally irregular, as well as defective : Present . • ·

67

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

m¥

. P erf e.ct Part.

Present Tense.
riu ~

1. I am ....... ... . . ........ . ... . .'. .. ; I. \Ve are,
2. Thou art .. . : .. .. . , ..•.. ,... ... . . . . . 2. Ye or you are,
3. He; she , or it is ..................... 3. They are.

Can ... .. .... .... could . .. ........ _...•.
Forego . ; ..... ......... ................ forgon~
May .............. might .. .. .... ....-.. . .
:Must . ... .... ·... . must . ... ... .. ..... •• Ought . .. . .. .. .. -. ought . ... .. ... . ... . . .
Shall ............ should .. ... .. .. ... . . .
\ Vill ... '. .. . ...... would ........... . .. .
Wis ... . ... .. .... wist .............. ,. ..
Wit , or Wot .. . .. wot . ... ..... . ...• . ...

Past T ense.
Sing.

P lu r.
1. I was .. ................... ..... .... 1. We were,
2. Thou wast ......... .. .. .. ........ .. 2. Y e or you were,
3. He , she , or it was .................. 3. They were.

Past T ense Conditional. '

141. The Irregular Verbs, be, do, ha·ve, and the Defective
Verbs, shall, wi:tl, may, can, are perhaps of greater use than
any other verbs in the language.

(When used to assert contingent or conditional existence."')
I. I we re . . . . .. .. ....... , . . .... .. . . ... I. We were,
2. Thou wert .. : .... .. .. . ..... ........ 2. Ye ·or you were,
3. He , she, or it were ................. 3. They were.

They are called Generic Verbs from the extreme generality of the
ideas they expre·ss; and to distinguish them from such verbs as love,
wrile, which, being expressive of more limited ideas, are called

Participles.
Imperfect.

Specific V e rb ~ .
To be., denotes being or existence in general ; as, "He is," " He is old,"
"It i« writt en."
To do, denotes action in general; as, '"'I do wrong, " "I de write."
To have, denotes pos!e.<sion in general; as, "I have knowledge," "I
have written.".'

Being . . . ..... .. .... ... . .... ... . . Perfect.
lnfinitive.t

Been.

Ile, or to be.

•The verb to be iR the only one in the E nglish languuge wl 1ich has
a simple conditional form. In the case of all other verb-s, the form, wh cri
it occurs, is purely elli ptical. ThuM, " If he say so, it is well," is un
elli psis fo r " If he shall say so."
"Though he slay me, yet will I trust · in him," is an ellipsis for
-"Though he should slay me." .
t The infinitive is g ive n in the conjugation of the verb tr1 be, bcca n ~o
it is the only instance in which the ir!finitive is different in form fr um

140. Give n list of the Defective Verbs, with all their parts. 141.
Which nre the moot useful verbs in the lang uage 1 Why are they
called Gtneric Verbs 1 Wh at does to be denote 1 To do l 7o have 1

Sl1aU 7 Will? May 7 Can 7 142. How is the Generic Verb to be inflected 1

[

i.,.

--.. ...----

' .
"
.

·,.

68

ETYMOLOGY.

.TO D O.

SHALL.*

Perfect Part.

Past.

Present.

Present Tense.

D o .... . .......... . ; .did .. ... . ..... .... . . . done.'

Present T ense.
Sing.
.
Plur;
l. I do ·... .. .. .. . .... ·...... .. .. . . ·.. .. : 1. '\Ye do, ·
2. Tbou doest or dost.. . . . . .. .. . . .. • . . . 2. Ye or ·you do,
3. He, she, or i~ doeth, _d_oth, or does . • •• 3. They do.

Past Tense.
Sing. .
Plur.
1. I did : . . . . .' .. . .. ; .. .... .... ......... 1. We did,
2. Thou didst .. .. .... . .. .. .. . .. . .. .. ~· 2. Ye .or you did,
3. He, she, or it did .. ..... . ....... .. ... 3. They did.

Participles.
Imperfect.

Doing . ....... . . . ..... .. .. ...... . Perfect.

Done.

TO HAVE.
Prese'n..t.

.

Past.

.

Sing.
Plur.
I. I shnll .. .. ...... ... . . . . .. ... . .... ... l. We shall.
2. Thou shalt .. .. .. . ... .... .. . ._ . ...• . . 2. Ye or you shall,
3. He, she, or it shall ............. ...... 3. They shall.

Sing. : .
Plur.
1. I will . ... . . ... . . ... . . ... .. ...... .. .. '1. "IV e will,
2. Thou wilt. . ........ .... ...... . .. . .. . 2. Ye or you will,
3. He, she , or it wi.ll . . ........... . . ... .. . 3.· They will.

Past Tense.
S~~

Present Tense.
Sing.;"
Plur.
l. I have .. . .. . ..... . ........ . . ;.: ... .. 1. W e have,
2. Thou hast . .• . .. '. . ... ... .. .. .. . . :.. . 2. Ye or you have,
,.; 3 .. He,, ehe, or it hath or has .• •. . ·:. •.. .. 3. _They have.

.

? .

Past Tense.

1. I bad .. . : .. ~ .. .... . .. .. .. .. : ... . .. ·. l. We had,
2. Thou hri.dst .... .. .... . . .... ; •...... . 2. Ye or you had, ·.,
3. He, she, or it had . · .. . ..'. .. . ••• .. .. .. 3. They had.

Participles.
Imperf ect.

Having .. ·· .. . ...• .. · ...... ... . . . . P~rfect .

Had.

the prese11t. tense. But it is more than probable that even this verb did:
not originally furnish an exception to the universaf usnge of tlie la~ - ,
g un.ge. The present tense, I be, thou beest, &c., is used by old writers; '
and it is still used (with perhaps .the except~on of ber.8t,) when doubt or
contingency is to be expressed. Thus, "If thou be the 'Son of God, \:118~
thyseif down." '.:- .
·
-------------~------·--

-·

·------ - -

Jiow is the Genern Verb .t11 do inflected 1 The Generic Verb lo havet

"

WILL.
Present Xense.

Perf ect P art.

'

,.

Past Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I should . . . ............. ....... . ... .. 1. We should,
2. Thou shouldst .. .... ... .. . . : ... . ... . . 2. Ye or you should,
3. He, she, or it sho uld .. . .. ... . ·~· . . . . .• 3. They should .

Have . . •. .. .. .. . . . . . .. . hii.d . . . . . . •.• • .. : . • .. .. had.

.,.

69

INFLECTION OF WORDS .

Pfu~

1. I would ... ... ......... . .... .. . ..... I. We wo uld ,
2. Thou wouldst ................._. .... 2. Y e or you would,
3. H e, she, or it would ....... . . . .. . ... 3. They wo uld .

" S hall is a derivative from the. Saxon sceal, I owe, or, I onght, nnd
signifies, "it is my duty." It is used in this se nse hy our old writers;
as, for in stance, by Chaucer, wh en he snys, " The faith I shall to God ;"
that i~, " the faith I owo to God;" nor hns it ever yet lost its orig inal
Bignification. "Thou shalt. not kill," is, " thou oughtest not to k iil."
But as all d uties, thou gh present in respect of their obligation, must bo
futllro .in their pe rfor mance, so, by a natural transition, th is word, wh ich
strictly predi~ntcs only present du.ly, has come to be used as " a note of
futu re t.imc." 'Hence it is described, in the text, as expressi ve of duty,
and, by inlercnee, of futurity . 'Will, in like manner, only expresses
present intention ; yet, as tho perfor man9e of present intention is necessarily futu re, it is employed to note futurity. "I shall wr ite," in st rictness, intimates no more th an it is my present duty to write; but the
phrase is universally inte rpreted ns if it .meant to intimate that I am to
write at some time now future. " He will write," in strictness, inti mates
no more than that it is his present intention to write ; but the sa mo
interpretation is universally put upon it as upon the other phrnsc. The
difference between the present application of shall and will is clea rly
stated by \Vebster : shall is merely future in the first person, and imperative in the other two; wi th will, the case i:S exactly reversed.
- __Y------~-· HOW

is the

g~ne ri c

verb Shall inflected? -

-- -

-

-

How is Will inflected 1

70

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.

The generic verb s have obtained the name of Au:r ili.ary Verbs, from
being used, principall y, to form compound verbs.
Compound verbs are esse ntial, in order to enable us to express those
add itional tenses and modifica tions which langungcs of a more artifi cial structure ex pre ·s by inflection.
In conseq'uence of the facili ty it, affords for formin g compound tenses,
our language , though li mited in t~ nses form ed' by inflection, is rich
beyond most languages in tenses form ed by com bination.
W hen combined wi th other verbs, our generic verbs serv e the same
purposes as the inflec tions of the simple verb in la11guages which
have numerous inflections.

MA Y.
Present Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
I. I ;nay .. . ·. .. •.. ~ .• •. ....•.. ...• . •.. l .. W e may·,
2.· T houmayest ' ..... '. .. : .... :' •..•.... 2. Y e, oryournay,
3. He, she,. or it may •••. ..•.•. •.• •·... . 21 They may.

Past Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I mi~ht ....... ·.... , ............ , . .. l. 'Yf e might,
2. Thou mightest .'.. , .. ........... : , .. 2. Ye, or yo:u mjght; .
3. H.e , she, or it might •.•••.•.•..• , .•• . 3. They might.

E NGLIS H.

Present Tense.
S ing.

P lur.

,

'_\

H ere, did, shall, and mig!.t, correspond to, and se rve the sume purpose
with , the flexional terminations, aui, era f, and erais, in F rench , aml
ebam, am, and erem, in Latin.
ACTIVE

I I. IN f LE CT ION OF COMPOUN'D VERBS. ·
143. Th e generic ·verbs are most commonly used in combination with other verbs, ' which are joined w1th them to
limit their signification.
:
· .

VOICES.

MOODS.

- -- - -- ---·

.'

-~1·.

.:,.

lioo. WI generally undo retood, ia here given.

144. T he generic verbs, wh en c;ombined with other verbs,
for m what .are caJJed Compoimd Verbs.
'' ·
T hus, 1 hav e ·loved, 'I ltad writ ten , I shall /1ave walked, I mig~t'. Jia~e / '
How is tho generic vorb ltlay inflected ? - H ow is Can intlect~d 7
143. H ow are the generic verbs used? Give an example. 144. What aro

PASSIVE

Jn givin'g the infl ection or corn po und verbM, it hn1 been deemed neccesarr , in the pre1cnt
w ork , to confo rm to th o usual orro.n ge ment of rn11 od1 R.n'1 t e n ~s , hy whi r, h th a • imple nro
exh ibit ed in C<1nnexion with th u com po und fo rms of 1ho vc rbw. Before proceed ing to ex·
biLit the moods nnct WnscMin their usual order, an explo.nation vftbeir menning Boc.l inten-

Thus, if I an y, 1 can, I uffirm thut I huve power or ability in general,
withou t limi ting it to any particular kind , or application of power.
But if I subjoin th e specific verb , w r·ite, and say, I can write, I restrict in y affirmation to my power to .write.

·

AND

145. Compound T ransitive verbs have two Voices, or
Forms, - the Active and P assive.
146. The Active Voice is the form which the verb assumes
when its · subject, or nominative, is the agent; as, "I have
struck"
147. The P assive Vofre is the form which the verb assumes when its subject, or nominative, is the object o( the
action; as, "I havo boon struck."

S i11g.
Plitr.
1. I couid •.. .•••.. •. ...•••.. .. ,. , .•• .. i." We could,
2. Thou could st. . .•.... .... • .. . .....• .. '2. Y e, or you coulcl, ·
3. He, she, or it could . . .... . ••. : .. . ... 3. They could.

.

L A.TIN.

can~

Past Tense• .

been struck, are compound verbs .

FRE NC H.

I d id speak ...... . Je parlais ............ D icebam .
I shall speak ..... J e parl erai . . . .... .... D icam.
I might speak .... Je parlerais .. ... . .... Dicerem.

C1I N.

1. I can ........... .. ......... . . . ..... 1. W e can,
2. Thou canst •.• . ••.. •...• • . .•.• ..... 2. Y e, or you
3: He , she, or.it can.: •. : .••.•.•.•. . .' .. 3. They can.

71

~ ·

148. Mood, or mode, is a fo rm of the verb, showing the
manner in which the action is represented.
compound vorbs 7 · Give an example. Wh at are auxilia ry verbs?
W hat is the use of compoun d verbs 1 In what is our lnnguaire rich 7
What is the use of the generic verbs in com bination with other verbs 1
Give exam ples of French and Latin in flect ions com pared with th e E nulish combinations of generi c verbs, with the irregul ar Ye rb Sperzk. 145.
How many voices have Transitive verbs? 146. Define the Active
Voice. 147. Define the PassitJe Voice. 148. What is meant by mood,

•

"
I

72
."

.ETYMOLOGY
.
.
. .

INFLEC11'0:r: OF' WORDS.

149. There. are five Moods, the Indicative, Potential, S-ubfu ncti've, Imperative, and Injinit.i·v'e.
150. The Ind-icati've Mood simply affirms or declares a
thing; as, I love ; .I am loved.
lG l. The Potent£al Mood is the form of the- verb which is
' used for assert'i ng the possil!ility, Hberty, power, will, or obligatfon to be, to do, or to suffer; as, I rnay go or stay; I can
write; I would walk; \Ve should respect the laws.'

As the essence of the verb consists in affirmation, the infinitive is not
strictly speaking a part of the verb, any more than the participles;
it is more properly a noun, and it was formerly called the nolt~ or
name of the verb.
The Infinitive Mood is a simple form of the verb, like the Imperative ;
nnd it is included in the arrange ment of the compound forms for the
same tea.son.
TENSE.

155 The Tenses are modifications of the verb which mark

·

For convenie nce the forms of this mood are arranged under different
tenses ; but in strictness they appe ar to have very little distinct ,reference to time. For example , in the fo rm of th e present tense there
.;_ .
is nothing to indicate that the action is not referred to a future' nnd~ ,· ~~ ... 4.
even a re.mo te time ; as, I may have permission to leave college :to-' iii., .~
<lay, next week , or next reur.
. • .,.:.-,,_;;

'

;·

J~

the distinctions Of titm~.

'J, -~ , · 156.

There are six tenses, including those expressed by
• • ) • •: , ' infiectibn alone, ahd t hose expressed by t·h e' use of au xiliary
• • '. •"!.> 1,":f>'t generic verbs. They a re, the Presentl the Imp&ftr.t, the ,
P~Ject, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the SeOOnd
152. The Subjuncl1'·ve Mood represents an action under ·,--':.~·· .. ~~. ·~·~ : Future.
a condition, motiYe, wish, or supposition. It is generally
.: ~ ' '~ '
157. The Present Tens-e ·denotes. that the action or state
preceded by a conj unction, expressed or understood, and
'i '
expressed by the verb, is in present time; as, I love.
a ttended by another verb; as, "If ye love me; keep my com· 158. In order to give grea ter force to the affirmation the
rnandments."
,
Present Tense occasionally assumes what is called an Em153. The Imperative Mood is the form ofttw verb which is
phatic .Fbrm, by the use of the auxiliary verb do; as, I do
used for commandipg, exhortihg, entreating, or permitting;
write.
as, Obey me ; Remember thy Creator; !fear, 0 Israel ; Depart
159. The Imperfect Tense denotes that the action or state
in peace.
expressed by the verb is past; as, I LO'V ed.
P erhaps it is more accurate to limit the definition of th~ Imperative
160. The Imperfect Tense has an Emphatic Form., similar
Mood to''commanding , as· It will be observed .that in euch of the above
, ·,
to that of the PreRent T ense; as, I did write.
exam ples the verb assum es the form of command.
' i!i
161. The Perfect Tense rep;esents an aotion a:ii ·completed
Th e Imperati ve Mood is a simple fo rm of the verb, having no inflecat the present titne; as, I have written my letter'.
tion . In th e following u1-r1mge ment of the mood und te nses, it will
162. The Pluperfect Tense denotes that the action or event
be found with th o compound forms, in order that the pupil may
has taken place at or before a certain time past; as, I had
recite the whole in connection.
left the city before he arrived.
154. T he I 1iflm.tive Mood expresses action or being in a
163. The First Future Tense denotes an -action or. event
general manner, without a ny distinction of number or 'perwhich is yet to ~ome; as, I w1:ll walk; He shazi·depart.
son ; as, 'To lot'e ; to write.
164. The Second Future Tense denotes- that an action or
The preposition to being generally prefixe d to the verb in this mood, is J•.,,
event will take place at or before a future time; as, I .1hall
called the sig<n of the Infinitive.
·
~ ~;.!
hn/ve finished my theme at siX o'clock; He wilt hd'IJB arri'oed
- - ---.:-- - ' - - - -- - -·- - - - ' - - - - - - -- --_,,_.. ,.,U; "
+be!"or~ t~~gates will be shut.

, .1

;~

;~

.

• ~

f•

-~

""J::.]; .:

or mo<le? 1'1\) How many moods arc th ere, nnd what are'.:their~.·::f"-r;~;j;
· < • ••:~·
nnmo~ 7 150.
cfine the Indicati ve Mood. 151. 1 ,he p otentia l MoQd • •-•'!'"'·~,..,:
J 52. The S11hj11.nctivc Mooe!. 1.53. The Imp nntive Mood., 154. .The :: ~ <i~
J11'initivcMood . What is the si:rn of the lnfiuitivc ?
-.~, , \ · '
v•
-

,,-. ...,,.,-,

. ·

.:15a: vv.. ~ n11.tDare th_e Tensa.,s 7 156. How mnny Tenires are there·? Name
taem. 1"' 7 • escri be the Present Teme. 11>8. ,ts Emphatit! F<>T"m. 159.
T:OeJmperfect. 160. Its J?Jmplwt·ic FQrtn, 161. Tlte Perfti:t. 162.
The Pluperfect. 163. The Firat Fut!K8. 164, 'The Skond Fliturr.
~

7

..

:

..

.· .1

,.,'

·.

.,

I

;.

...:-";I;"
-~

,-

74 ·

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.
·'

Imperfect Tense- ·Emphatic Form.

co' NJU·GATI ON • .

,165. The Corijugati~~
a.verb is ' the enunciation of its
several modes, ·tenses, numbers, and perso~s, in their regu·
Jar order.
·
.
'.
.

of

I

The· term Conjugation is sometimes applied to the naming of' its
three principal parts, viz : the present and imperfect tenses, and the
perfect patticiple ; as, Present, go; Imperfect, went; Perfect Parti·
ciple, gone.

166. In the rollowing pages the generic verbs, ha11e and ·
be, the regular verb love, and the irregu·l ar verb know, are
•:onjugate<l. The verbs love and know being active or transi- :.. ;.•,
t ive, are C?njugated in the passive as well as in the active ~
_voice.•

. TO HAVE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense, ·
Sing.
,
Plur.
1. I have ................ : .. 1. ·we hllve, ·
2,. Thou hast ....... .. . .. .... 2._ Ye, or you have,
3. He, she, or it hath, or has. : 3. They have.

~

. '

.

Sing.
Plur.
1. I did have .. •.. ••••.••.. •. 1. We did have,
2. Thou didst have ~ •.......• 2. Ye or you did have,
3. He·did have . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. They did have.

Perfect Teme. · .
Sing.
Plur.
1. I have had .....•...•.•.•.. 1. We have had,
2. Thou hast had. . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Ye or you have had,
3. He baa had ............... 3. They have had.

Pluperfect Tense.
S_iug.
Plur.
1. I had had .• . . . . • • . . . . . . • . I. We had had,
2. Thou hadst had .......•..• 2. Ye qr you had had,
3. He had had.. • . . . • • . . . . . . . 3. They had had.

First Future Tense.
Sing.
· Plv.r.
1. ' I shall or will have . .
1. We shall or will have,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have . . . 2. Ye or you shall or will have,
3. He shall or will have . . . . • 3. Tooy shall or will have.

Seeond Future Tense.

Present Tense - Emphatic Form. ,
· Sing.
Plur.
1. I do have ... :1. . .. .. . . . . . . 1. We do·have ,
2. Thou dost have ............ 2.. ,Ye, or you do have; ·
3. He does have~ ... . ........ ,3. They do have.

Imperfect' 1 Tense.
Sing.
,
.
' Plur.
1. 'I had ..........•......... 1. We had,
,
2. Thou hadst ............_. . • 2. Ye, or you had, '
3. He, she, or it had ... •..•.. 3. They had.
,.

Sing.
Pltir.
l. I shall have had .......... I. We shall have had,
2. Thou wilt have had . . . . . . . 2. Ye or you will have had.,
3. He will have had .......... 3. They wilt have had.

I

·~

IMPERA Tl".E MOOD .
Prese'Tll Tense.
Plur. ·
Sing.'
2. Have or have thou or do ~ 2. Have or have ye or do ye (_
or you have.
S
thou have .•••. ;;.- .... S

~~~~-,-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

• Some neuter verbs are occasionally used in the _passive form ,by ~
irood writers ; as, We are come ; they are gone.
, ,,

POTENTIAL MOOD.

165., What is the Conjugation of a verb? How is the term Conjuga: ·
tion sometimes limited ? , 166. What verbs nre conjugated in the .foV·
lowing pages 7 , Wh ich of them hnvo tho passive form 1 -Are neuter ·
v<:rba ever used ·in the puaivo form 7
·· • '

Plu.r .
Sing.
1. I may or can have ...... . 1.. We -,m ay or can have,
2. Thou mayst or cariat have . 2. Ye or you may or can have,
3. He may or can have ..... . 3. They'may qr cil.tl have.

'

,/

' '-

Present Tense.

il

'
._:: -:J
{\

,
..... . .
INFLECTION OF WORDS.

Imrerfect ~~·
Sing. '
f'lur.
,
1. I might, could, .iwould .or : 1, Vff.l roiglH, .c.Qu,l,d, -w,~q ~
shoi,tld .have,
' sboul<l. ~~.
2. Thou migl1tst, couldst, 2. Ye .ai: yp,u -might, · cp1,114:,.
wouldst or shouldst have~
would or should have,
3. He might, could, would or 3. They might, could, would or
should have.
should have.
Perfect.
Plur.
1. .We may or can have had,
2. Ye or, you may or can have
· had,
3. They may or cq~ nave 4ad•.

Sing:
1. I may or can have had,
2. Thou mayst or canst have
had,
3. He may or C!l1l have had.

f luperfect Tense.
Pfor.
Sing.
1. I might, could, would or .1. We Jl)ight, could, would · or
should have-had',
.
2. Thoi: 111\gptst, · coul~!!J,
;1yo~ldstRr ~houlda·t ha,te

. 'had,

. .,

I

'

f

3. He might; could, would or
should ·have had,.

should have had,

.

·woul<;l. . or ~hould' 'lillve
had,
3. They might, could, would Oii'
shoiµd
have ·had.
.
'

Per.feet Tense.
Sing.
Plttr.
1. If I have had ... , ......... J. If we have had,
2. If thou hast had ......•.... 2. If ye or you have had,
3. If he has bad . . .. . . . . . . . . . 3. If they have had.

Pre.sent Tense. ·

Sing.

.

First Future Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I shall or will have . . . . . 1. If we shall or will have,
2. If thou shalt or wilt have .. 2. If ye or you shall or will have,
3.' If he !thali or will have .... 3. If they shall or will have .

Second Future Tense.
Sing.

, . Sittg.
Plu.r.
1. If I do have •..... ·..•,. . . . . 1. If we do have,
2. If thou do have • • . . . . . . • . . 2. If ye or you do have, .
3. If he do have . , •.••.• ·>.· •.. • 3. If 1,hey d,o have.

INFINITIVE MOOD .
Present.

To have .................. Perjed.

Plur.
1. IfI had · ~· •...•••••••..... 1. If .we had-,
2. lf thou ·hadst . • •• •• • • . • • • . . 2. If ye or you had,
3. If he had ••••••••••••••••• 3. If they had.

To have had.

Participlu.
Present, or Active. Having . ........ Perfect. Had.
Compo1'nd Perf~ct. Having 11ad.

TO BE.
J

IND IC A trvE MOO D.

Present Tense. '

Imperfect Tense.
Sing.

Ptut'.

1. If I shall have had ...•.... l. If we 'shall have bad,
2 . If thou wilt have had .. .•.. 2. If ye or you will have had,
3. ,I f he will have had ........ 3. H they· 'Yill have had.

Plur.

Present Xense - Emphatic Form.

· Plur.

l. If I had had .... .......•.. l. Tf we had had,
2. If thou hadst had ......•.. 2. If ye or you had had,
3. If he had h_ad .•.••..••. ~ ·· . 3 . . If they had had.

. 1. If I have .. • • .. . . . . • . .. . . . 1. If we have,

2. If thou have . . • • • . • . • . . • . • 2. If ye or. you have,
3. If he have .......... : • . . . . 3. If they have.

''

Pluperfect Tensr>-

.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . .
S~ng.

.

2: Ye or Y()U. might;'., C01J.ld1

Imperfect Tense - Emphatic Form.
Sing.
Plitr.
l . If I did have ............. . l. If we did'have,
2. If thou didst hav~ ...• ,.. '" . 2. If ye or you did have,
3. If he did have.. . . • . . .. . . . . 3. If they did have.

Sing.

Plur.

1. I am ....•.•.. . •• .•.•...... · I. We are, 2. Thou art . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 2. Ye or you are,
3. He, she OT it ia ••••••••..• 3. They are.

7•

.,u-~ ~

---:c- ,-------...,...--------,,_.------ - l,

/

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

111fRerftc.t. Tense.
Sing.

Imperfect Tense.
.._

PluT.

I. · I was ·.•..•. ··.·i ·,•.•.•• ., ••_•. 1. We. w11rl1,.
2. Thou vvast .•• •••••• •: •• •.-.• 2. Ye or you were,·
3. He ~as ............. , . .... : 3. 'l:~~Y w.~r~,
·

Perfect Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
I. I have been . . ........... .. I. We have been,
. 2. Thou hast been • :.. • • • . • . • . 2. Ye or-you have been,
3. He halh, or ·ha.!i been ...... 3. They-have been.

,.

'

.1

Pluperfect Tense.

~ Second Future Tense.

Present TentJe.
Sing.
Plur.
2. Be thou or do thou be •• •.• 2. Be ye or you oT Jo ye be.

POTENTIAL

MOOD~

Pre.sent Tense.
Plur.
Si1ig.
1. I may oT can be ••• . .. •... 1. We may or can be,
2. Thou mayiit·or canat be .• • 2, Ye or you may. or can be,
3. They .may, or, cap. be, ,
3. He may or can ~

been,
3, They may or can have been.

Pluperfect. Tense.

first Future Tense:

•'.

' . Plur.
1. We may or can have been,
2. Ye or you may or can have

Sing.
Plur.
1. I might, could, would, or l. We might, could, would, or
should have been,
should have been,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,
wouldst, or should st have
would, or should have
been,
been,
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would,
should have been.
or should have been.

,Si:ftg; .
.
Plur. ,
i. I shall, OT will be.••••.,: ... .. 1.. We sht¥1 or will.be,
2. Thou,shak or wilt '. be ... _.. 2. Ye or you shall or wilthll,
3. He shall or will be ••••.. : 3. They shall oT will be.

IMPERATIVE MOOD .

Perfect '.fense.
Sin-g.
1. I may or can have been,
2. Thou mayst or canst have
been,
3. He may or can have been.

Sing.
Plur.
I. I had been,. . . ...... .. ... : • 1. We had been,
2. Thou had~t been . . • . .. .. .. 2. Ye or you had been,
·
3. He had been .. ~ ••• . • .. . : .. 3. They had been.

Sing.
.
PluT.
1. I shall nave b_een ..•.•• . .•• . 1. W e shall have been,
2. Thou wilt have been . . • . • . 2. Ye oT you will·have been,
3. Ile will have bee~ . ......•. •.• 3. ~hey will have been.

Sing.
Plur.
1. I might, could, would, or 1. ,W e might, could, would, or
should be,
!lhould. be,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Y e or you might-, could,
wouldst, or shouldst be,
would, or should be,
3. He' might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would,
should be.
or should be.

''

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present. Ten6e.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I be ... . ..... ... .. . .... . 1. Ifwe be,
2. If thou be.. • . • • • . . . . . . • • • • 2. If yo or you be,
3. If he be . . . • . . . . • • . . . • . • • • 3. .If they be.

Imperfect Tense.
Sing.
·Plur.
1. If I were . . . . • . . • . . . . • • . . • 1. If we were, .
2. If thou wert • • . • . • • . . • . . . • 2. If ye or you were,
3. If he were .. ; • • • • . • • . . • • • • 3. l.f they were.

Perfect Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I have been . . • . • . . .. . . . 1. If we have been,
2. If thou hast been.. . . . . . . . . 2. If ye or you have been,
3. If he hath or has been . . . . 3. If they have been.

·,
,•·

.80

.;

ETYMOLOGY.

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

Pluperfect 'Tense.
S ing.
Plur.
1. H I had been . . ..... ..... . 1. If we had been, ,
2. If thou hadst been .. ... . . . 2. If ye or you. had been,
. 3. If he had been . . .. .•..•... 3. If th~y had' been.

Imperfect Tense. - Emphatic Form.
S ing.
Plur.
I. I did love .. ·. . • • • • . . . . . . . . . 1. We did love.
2. Thou didst love ..... ...• .. 2. Ye or you did love,
3. He did love.. • • . . . • . . . . . . . 3. They did love.

First. Future T en;e.

Perfect Tense.

)

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I shall or will be . . . . . . . 1. If we shull or will be,
2. If thou shalt or wil t be . . . . 2. If ye or.you shall or will be
3. If he shall or will be ..... ·. 3. If they shall or wiffb.e.
'

Sing.

Second Future Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I shall have been . . . . . . . 1. If we shnll have been,
2. If thou wilt have bee n ... . . 2. If ye or you will have been,
3. If he will have been . . . . . . . 3. If they will hnvo been.

Plur.

1. I have loved .•.•...•.•••.. l. We have loved,
2. Thou hast loved . • • . . . . . . • 2. Y e or you have loved,
3. He has loved .............. 3. They have loved.

Pluperfect Tense.

I.

S ing..

Plur.

I had loved . • . • . • • • . . •. . . . I. We had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved .. t.,.. . . . 2. Ye or you had loved,
3. · He had loved ....•.• : •.••.. 3. They had loved.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pre&ent T ense.

To be ......... . Perfect.

Participles.
Preunt. Being ..................•.. PerfECt.
Compound Perfect. Havin.g been: ·

First Futwre Te.nse.

To have been.

Been. ·

Pl1LT.
Sing.
l. I sh all or will love ....... . 1. We shall or wi.ll love,
2. T hou shalt or wilt love ..•. 2. Ye or you shali' <YT wi ll love,
3. He 'shall or will love . · .. .. 3. They shall 0 1' will love.

Second Future Tense.

ACTIVE VOICE. - 7'0 LOVE.
IND ICATIVE .MOOD.

Present Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
1. I love ....... . ..... .' ...... 1. W e love,
2. Th ou lovest .. .. ... : ..... . 2. Y e or you love,
3. H e, 5he, or it lovcth or loves. 3. ':\hey love.

Present Tense. - Emphatic Form.
s ;n.g.

Plur.
1. I do love .. .. .. .. .... . ... : 1. We do love,
2. T hou dost love .. . . . . . . . . . . 2. Ye or you do iove,
3. He docs love.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. They do love.

S ing.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
Sing.

I'lxr.
2. Love, or love thou, or do( 2. Love, or love ye or you, or (
thou love ............. .. S
do ye love .... · ~ ....•... 5
POTENTIAL MOOD.

Imperfect Tense.
S ing.
Plur.
l. I loved . .... . .. : .... .. .... 1. W e loved,
2. Thou lovedst . . .. .. ...... . 2 . Y e or you loved,
3. H e loved .. . .. . , .•...... . . 3. They loved.

Plur.

1. I shall have loved.. . . . . . • • . 1. We shall have loved,
2. T hou wilt have loved... . . . . 2. Ye or you will have loved,
3. He will have loved ........ 3. They will have loved.

Present ·Tense.
Sing.

Plur.

l. I m ay or can love . : ...... 1. We may or can love,
2. T hou mayst or canst love . . 2. Ye or you m ay or can love,
3. H e may or can love ~ ... ., . . 3. They may or can love.

81

......
.
•.

-

-

--

....

-- -~-------

.,. ,

~ ··

----- -

.·
l.

82'

.,,,

ETYMOLOGY..

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

Imperfect Tense. - Emphatic Form.

Imperfect Tense.
Plur.
Sing.
1. I might, could , would, or 1. We might, could,- would, or
should lov.e ,
s.hould love,
2. 'J:2hou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could,
would, or should love;
wouldst, sho uldst love,
3. He might, could,.would, or 3. They might, could, would,
should love.
·
or should love.

or

Perfect Tense.
' Sing.
1. I may or can have loved,
2. Thou mayst or canst have
loved;
3. ,He may or can have loved.

Plur.
1. We may or can have loved,
2. Y e or you may or ca~ have
loved,
3. They may or can have loved.

Pluperfect T ense.
Plur.
Sing.
l. I mig ht, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should have loved,
sHould have loved,
2. T hou rnightst, couldst, 2. Ye or . you · might, could,
-would, or should i,.have
wouldst; or shouldst have
loved,
loved, ,
1
3. He might, could, would, or 3. T hey might, could, 'wQ\ild,
or should have loved:
should have loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD .

Present Tense. ·

..

Perfect Tense. .

I

Sing .
.Plur.
l. If I have loved .. . .... . ... . 1. If we have loved, ·
2. If thou hast loved ...... . .. Z. If ye, or you have loved,
3. If he has loved .. ...... . .. . 3. If they have loved.

Pluperfect T ense.

First Future T ense.
Sing.
Plur . .
1. If I shall or will love . . . . . . 1. If we shall or will love,
2. If thou shalt or wilt love ... 2. If ye or yo u shall or will love,
3. If he shall or will love . .. .. 3. If they shall or will love .

Second Future Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
I. If I shall have loved. . . . . . . l . If we shall have loved,
2. If thou wi lt have loved .... 2. If ye or you will have loved,
3. If he will have loved . . . . . . . 3. If they will have loved.

Present Tense. - Emphatic Form.

Present.

Sing.
Pltlr.
1. If I loved .. : . . . .. . . . . . • . .. 1. If we loved,
2. If thou lovedst. . . . . . . . .. .. 2. If ye or you loved,
3. If he loved .. •.. ; . • . . . . . . . 3. If they loved.
'

'

'.

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I hnd loved. . . . . .. . . . . . . 1. If we hnd loved,
2. If thou hadst loved.. . ...... ~ . If ye or you had loved,
3. If he had loved.. .. . . . . . . . . 3. If they had loved.

Preaen.t.

Imperfect Tense.

.·

"

S ing. '
Plur.
1. If I did love .. .. .. .. .. .. . . 1. If we did love,
2. If th ou didst love .. . .. . ... . 2. If ye or you did love,
3. If he did love . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. If they did love.

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I love .. . . . • .. .. .. .. .. .. 1. If we love,
2. If thou love . . ......... . ... 2. If ye or you love,
3. If he love . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 3. If they love.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I do lo\•e .. .. . . . . . . . . . .. 1. If we do love ,
2. If thou do love . ... . .. . .... 2. Jf ye or you do love,_
3. If he do love.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. If they do love.

83

INFINITIVE MOOD.
To love .. ..... . .......... . Perfect. To have loved.

Participles.
Loving .... . . . .... . ... . . . . . Perfect. Loved.
Compound Perfect. Having loved.

PASSIVE VOICE. - TO BE LOVED.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
Sing.
Plu.r.
I. I am loved. . • . . . . . • . . . . . .. 1. We are loved,
2. Thou art loved . .. . . . . . . . . 2. Ye or-you are loved,
3. He is loved .. . ....... . . .. . 3. They are loved.

•.

...

.. ..

--

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

ETYMOLOGY.

Imperfect Tense. _.

·r

Sing.
,
_ Plur:
1. I was loved ........ .·.•• : • • 1. We were loved,
2. Thou wast loved . . .. , . . . .. 2. Y e or you were. lOved,
3. He was loved . •. ••. .. ..• ·. . 3._They were loved.

Perfect Tense.
Plur.
S ing.
1. I have bee'n loved ... . . .. •• 1. We have beeh lOvecI,
2. Thou hast been loved ... . . 2. Y e or you have "been Ibved;, loved:
3. He has been loved . .... .. . 3. They have been
,·

Imperfect· Tense.
Sing.

1. I migh t, could, would,

or

should be loved,
2. Thou mightst; couldst,
wouldst, or shouldst be
loved ,
3. He might, could , .;.,ould_, or
should be loved .

Plur.
I. We might, could, would, or
should be loved,
2. Ye or yo11 might, could,
would, or should be loved ,
3. They might, could, would,
or should be loved.

Perfect Tense,
Plur.

Pluperfect Tense.
Plur.
.
Sing.
1
I. I had been loved .. . .... . .. 1. We had been !Oved,
2 . Thou hadst been loved . . . . 2. Ye or you had beeri loved.
3. He had been loved . . . . ... . 3. T hey had beeh loved.

First Future T ense. ·
Sing. .
Plur. '
l. I shall or will be loved . .... 1. We shall·or will b.e loved,
2. Thou shalt or .w ilt be l~ved. 2. Ye or you shall or wi ll be fov~d,
3. He shall or will be loved .. . 3. They shall or will be ldvM:"

Second Future T ense.
Plur.

Si.ng.

..

-

1. I shall have been loved .. . . 1. \Ve shall have been lo.ved,
2. Thou wi.lt have been loved. 2. Ye or ,you will .have been loved,
3. He will have been loved . . . 3. They will have bee'n loved. ,.

l. I mny or can have bee n

loved,

1. W e may or cnn have bee n

loved,
or you may or can have
been loved,
3. T hey may or can have been
loved.

2. Thou mayst or canst have. 2. Ye
been loved ,
3. He may .or can have been
loved. '

Pluperfect Tense.
Sing.

Plur.

1. I might, could, would, or

1. W e might, could, would, or

should have bee n loved ,
should have been loved ,
2. Thou mightst, · cou'fdst, ' 2. Ye or you mi ght, could',
wouldst, or sh~uldst have
would, or should have been
been loved,
loved,
3. He might, could, would , oT 3. They might, could, would ,
should have been loved . .
or should have been loved. -

IMPERATIVE! MOOD.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Presenl Tense.
Sin1r.

2. Be tho; loved',

Plur.

do thou (
be loved .. .. .......... 5
or

2~ Be ye,

POT~NTIAL

you lo~ed, ·01- do } , ·
ye be loved •. : ...... . . . j
oT

MO'OD.

Present Te118e.
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I be loved .... : . .. .. . .. . 1. If we ·be loved,
2. If thou be loved . . . . . . • . .. . 2. If ye or you be loved,
·3. If he be loved .. . .. . . ... .. . 3. If they be loved.

Present 7'ense:
P luT.
Sing.
1. I may or can be loved .... . 1. \Ve may or can.be loved,
2. Thou mayest or canst be 2, Y e or yo u may of' can be
loved,
loved ... . ............. .
3. He may or can be loved .. . 3. They may. oT can be loted., ·

Imperfect T ense.
Sing.
~lu r.
1: If I were loved .. ...... . . 1. If we were loved, .
2. If thou wert loved . .. . ... . 2. If ye or you were loved,
3. If he were loved ..••.. .'. . . 3. If they were loved.

s

65

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

• ETYMOLOGY.

86·

Perfect Tense•

Imperfect Tense.

., Sing .
, .
Plur.
I. If I have been loved • . . . . . 1. If we have bee,n loved, .
.
2. If thou .has\ been ioved . : . . 2. If ye or you have been loved,
3. If he has'been lo~ed . . • . . . . 3. If they have .been loved •. ·
.
:

'

Sing.
Plttr.
1. I knew .... .. _. . .. ....... ,. 1. We knew,
2. Thou knewest ........... . 2. Ye or you knew,
3. He knew . •..• :· ........... 3. They knew.

Pluperfect .Tense:
Plur.
Sing.
1. If I had been loved. .. .. . • .. 1. If W!'J had been loved,
2. If thou hadst been loved . . . 2. If yo or you had been' loved,
3. If he had been loved ...... · 3. If they had been' loved.

First .Future Teri.~e. . ·

Second Future .Tense.
Sing.
.
.
Plu;.
1. If I shall have been loved,
1. Ihve shall hav.e' been loved,
2. If thou wilt have been 2. If ye or yoi,I.
have been
loved,'
,
loved,
.
3~ If he will have been loved. 3. If they will h~ve been loved.

will

, · INFINITIV£ MOOD .
To be loved .. _. ..... ·Peefect. To have been loved.

,.

Participles.

Present. ·Being loved........... ; ; •.. • .••• -~ Perfect" ,Loved.
Compound Perfect. li~ving been loved. ·

ACTIVE· VOICE.- TO KNOW.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.

.·

S ing.

'

Imperfect: Tense - Emphatic Form.
Sing.

Plu.r.

1. I did know ............. .. 1. We did know;
2. Thou didst know ........ . 2. Ye or you did know,

3. He did know ............ . 3. They did know.

Sing.
Plur.
1.. If I shall or will be loved,
1. If we shall o~ will be lo~ed,
2. If thou ~halt· or wilt be 2. Ifye or you shall or will b4;1
· loved,
loved,
3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall .o r will be loved ..

Present.

$1

Plur.

1. I know ., ..•.•..... ,. .·.... 1. We know,
• 2. Thou knowest . ........... ,2. Ye or you .know, ·
3. He knows ..... .... ....... :r. They know.

Present Tense. - Emph:itic Form.
S ing.
Plnr.
1. I do know...... .. . .. . .. . . l. We do know,
2. Thou dost know ........ .. 2. Ye or yon do know,
3. He does know ...••••..... 3. They do know.

Perfect Tense.
Sing.
Plu.r.
1. I have known . .. .. • .. • .. . I. \Ve have known,
2. Thou hast known ..... : . . . 2. Ye or you have known,
~- He hns known ..•...• . •... 3. They have known.

Pluperfect Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
·I. I had known .. . . . . .. .. .. . 1. \Ve had known,
2. Thou hadi.<t know n ........ .2. Ye ur you had known,
3. He had known ............ 3. They had known,_

'

f.\

I

F'.irst Future Tense.
Sing. ·
Plur.
I: I shall or will know
1. We shall ur wiil know,
2. Thou shalt or wilt know .. : 2. Ye or you shall ur will know,
3. He shall or will know .. , . . 3. They shall o_r will know.

' '

_.,'•

...

Second Future Tense.
Sing.
,
Pl"r·
1. I shall have known ..•. ~- .. 1. We shall have known,
2. Thou wilt have known .... 2. Ye or you will have known,
3. He will have ·known ..•.•. 3. They will hav~ knowri.
IM~ERATIVE

MOOD.

Present Teme.
Sing.
Plur.
2. Know, or know thou, or ( 2. Know , or krlow ye o; you,(.
do thou know .•.• ~ .•. S
or do ye know.
5

.

'

:,1

.. ....

)

;

SS

.

ETYMOLOGY.

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

,•_,
•l

11!

'

·POTE NTIAL MOOD.
Present Tense.
Sing.

Imperfect Tense.
Sing.

Plur. ,

1. I may or can know : .•.... 1. We may _or can kpow,
2. Thou mayst or canst know. ·2. Ye or you ·may or can know,
· 3. He may or can .k now . ..... . 3. They maY, or can know.

''

.

Sing.

' Plur.

1. I might, could, would, or 1. .We .might, could, wou.Id, or
should know, ·
:. should know, .
2. Thou mig1'tst, couldsi, · · 2. Ye or you might, could,
would st, orshouldst know,
would, or should know,
3. He might, could, would, or 3: They might, could, would, or
should know .
should know.

Perfect Tense.
Pfor.

Sing.
I. I may or can have known,
2. Thou mayst or> canst have

known,
,
3. He may urca1,1 have known .

l. We may or can have known,
2. Ye or you may or 'cru1 have
known, ·
.
3. They may or can have known.

Pluperfecl Tense.

should have known ,
2. Ye or you might, could,
would, .o f should have
known, .
3. They might, could, would, or
should have known.

PrP.sent Tense.
Plur.

1. If I know . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 1. If we know,
2. If thou know .. ..... ...... 2. If ye or you know,
3. If he kno~v . .. ............ 3. If they know.

'

Present Tense - Empnatic Form.
Sing.

.

' Sing. ·

· · Pl-ar.

Pluperfect Tense.
Sing.

Plu.r.

l. If I had known .... ....... 1. If we had know n,
2. If thou hadst known . ..... 2. If ye or you had known ,

First Future Tense.
Sing.

Plur.

1. If I shall or will know .... 1. If we shall or will know,
2. If thou shalt or wilt know . 2. If ye or you shall or will know ,
3. If he shall or will know . . . 3. If they shall or will know.

Second Future Tense.
Plur.

If I shall have k nown . . . . . 1. If we shall have known,
If thou wilt have known .. . 2. If ye or you will have known,
·. If he will have· known . ... • 3. If they will have known.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
'resent.

Plt<r.

1. Jf I do know . . .. . . . . . . . . . 1. If we do know,
2. If thou do know . . . . . . . . . . 2. If ye or you do know,
3. If he do know ... ·..•...... · 3. If they do know.

. ,·
:--· ·

I. If I have known ........ . . 1. If we have known ,
2. If thou hast know~ .•...... 2. If ye, or you have known,
3. If he has known .. ·• . . • . . . . 3.. If they have known.

Sing.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

f·

Perfect Tense.

wemight, could, would, or

1.

sho uld have known,
couldst,
2. Thou mightst,
wouldst,pr shou_ldst have
known,
3. He might, could, would, or
should have known.

'

'

3. If he had known . . . . . . . . . 3. If th ey had known.

1. I might, could, would, or

Sing.

Pl1tr.

1. If I did know . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1. If we did know,
2. If thou didst know .. ... .. . 2. If ye or you did know,
3. If he did know.. . . . . . . . . . . 3. If they did know.

Pfor.

Sing.

'.

Imperfect Tense - Emphatic Form.

Imperfect Tense.
.S ing.

Plur.

1. Ifl knew .... . ...... '. .. . . i. Ifw(,l knew,
2. If thou knewest . . . . . • . . . . . 2. If ye or you knew,
3. If he knew ....... .... , ... 3. If they knew.

To know ........• . .... Perfect.

To have known.

Participles:
.c'resent. Knowing ..••• . ..........••.•••• Perfect. Known.
Compound Perfect. Havini known.

8*

·"

..

)

\

.ET:YMOLOGY.

INFLECTION OF WORDS.

- PAS~IVE VOICE.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

Present Tense.·
Sing.'

.

.

I,

'·

']. I um known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. We are known,
2. Thou art known .....'. • . . . . 2. Ye or you are known,
3. He is known . . . . . • . . . . . . . 3. They are known. ;

1. I may or can be known,
2. Thou mayst or canst b~
known,
3. He may or can be known.

I. We may or can be known,
2. Y e or you may or can be

known,
3. They may or can be known.

Imperfect T ense.

Imperfect Tense. · .

Plur.

Sing.

Plur.

1. I might, could, would , or I. W e might, could, would, or
should be known,
should be known,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Y e or you might, could,
would, or should be
wouldst, or shouldst be .
known,
.
known,
3. He might, could, would, or' 3. .They ~ight, could, would,
or should be known.
should be known.

1. I was known ..... . . ; : . . . . 1. We were known,
2. Thou wast or wert known , 2. Ye or you were known,
3. He was known .•.•....... 3. They were known.

Perfect Tense.
Sing.

Pfar.
1. I have been known . . . . . . . 1. We have been known,
2. Thou hast been known : . . . 2. Ye or you have been known,
3. He has been known ; ~ ..,. . . 3. They have been known.

Perfect T ense.
Sing .

· _, Pluperfect Tense.

1. I may or can have b een
known ,
2. Thou mayst or canst have
been known,
3. He muy or can have been
known.
·

P litr.

Sing.

Plur.

Sing.

Plur . .

Sing.

91

I. I ha,d been knovm . . . . . . .. 1. We had been known,
2. Thou hadst been known .. '. 2. Ye or you had been known,

3. He had been known . ..... 3. They had been known.

Plur.
1. \Ve may or can have been
known,
2. Y e or you may or can have
been known,
3. They may or cnn have been
known.

First Future Tense,'
· · Sing. ·

.

Plur.

Pluperfect Ten se.

or

1. I shall or will be know n ... I. W e shall
will be known,
2. Thou shalt OT wilt be known, 2. Ye or you sl)'o.11 or will be known,
3. He shall or will be known. 3. They shali or will be known.

S ing.

Second Future Tense.
Plur.

Sing.
l. I shall have been ·known,
2. T hou wilt have been
known,
3. He will have been known.

1. We shall have b~en known,
2. Y c or you will have been
known,
3. They will have been known.

.

';.

;

.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

, Present Tense.

IMPERATiVE MOOD .

Present Tense.
Sing.
l. Be thou known.... • • • . . . .

Plur.
2. Be ye or you known.

Plur.

1. I might, could, would, or 1. W e might, could, wo.uld, or
should have beE;n known,
should have been known,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Y e or you mi ght, could,
would , or should have been
wouldst, oT shouldst have
known,
• been known,
1
3. He might, could, would, or 3. They migh t, could, would,
or should have been known.
should have been k nown•

Sing.

Plur .

1. If I am known..... . . . .. . . l. If we are known,
2. If thou art known . . . . . . . . 2. If ye or you are known,
S. If he is known .. • . . • . . . . • . 3. If they are known.

.................-.....__

~~ .~~--

~

_ G2.

..

.....'-'........-~-....._.

~

)

ETYMOLOGY.

EXERCISES.

t •

Imperfect Tense,

93

What is the Number ·of the following Nouns 1
Berries, church, days, h_ills, lashes, mosses, nuts, pence, planets, ijiik.

Sing.
Plur.
1. If I was known . . . . . . . . . • 1. If we were k.nown,
2. If thQ!! wert known . . . . . • . 2. If ye or nm were known, .
3. Ifhe was .known .. .. ···'· ·· :3. If they were 'known.

Pr011-ounce and speiz th~ Plural of the following, Nouns: Ass, ~my, book, brush, chair, city, delay, d~ndy, envoy, fly, fox,
grandee, hero, horse, inch, jelly, knife, lake, monarch, n_egro, po.ss,
penny, queen, rebus, rostrum, scarf, ·stratum, watch, whiff.
.

.; ·
Perfect Tense.
:. S~ng.
Plur.
1. If I have been known' . .... I. If we hnve been known,
2. If thou hast been known,.. 2. If ye or you have been known,
3. If he has been known . •.. . ·3. If they have been known.

How do .wefqrm the Plur~l of,
Die, dwarf. dungeon, fife, fish, folio, genius, ·grotto, hoof, index, joy,
lamina, ox, pea, radius, seraph, sheep , tooth, virtuoso 1

Pluperfect Tense.
Sing.
Plur.
l. IfI had been known . . •. . . 1. If we had been known,
2~ If thou hadst been known . 2. If ye or yd ti had been known,
3. If he had been kndwn . .... 3. If they had been known.

CC/rrect the Errors in tlte following expressions: Two foxs, old fol ioes, sharp reproves, young calfs, tali footmans, they
are brethren sons of the same father, two dwarves, how many
swines 1 I have two foots, handsome ladys, idle boies, sturdy oxes,
volcanos ·are generally on islands.

First Future T ense. .
Sing.
Plur.
1. If I shall or will be known, , I. If we shall or will be known,
2. If thou shalt or wilt be 2. If ye or you shall or will be
known,
.
.
knoivn, · ,
3. Ifhe s}\all or will be known. 3. If ihey ~hali or will be !mown. ·

The foregoing Exercise• may bo recited orally, and aloo m&y be written. Tboee which
follow, referrinc to lho Picture», am to bo written.

Second Future T ense.

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL.

Sing.
Plur.
I . If I shall have been kno\vn, I. If we shall have been knm;
2. If thou wilt have been 2. If ye or you will have bee~
1
knOwn t · 1
kno,vn,
\
.
3. Ifhe will have been known. 3. Ift~cy will ha:-'e been known,'

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present.

To be. known .•. . : Perfect. To·have been known.

Participles. ·.

"

Imperfect.
. Being known . ,
Compou'nd Perfect. Having been known.
'1

,,

EXERCISES ON THE INFLECTION OF ·WORDS. Y::;,
I.

THE NOUN.
Point out which of the following Nouna admit of number : NuMBE.R. -

Ark, Babel, church, · Darius, elm, France, girl, hamlet, innkeeper,
iron.

Wolf Hunt.

Write sentences referring to this picture, including nuuns in tlte singu lar number, and nouns in the plural number, with verbs and ad}ec·
tivu.

..

-----------------'

EXERCISES.

ETYMOLOGY.

2.
·.......
: !

''

,1

GENDER. -

What is the gender of,

Boy, Charles, child, coUf!in, dog, father, farthin g, ,friend, horse, huntsman, inkstand, Ireland, joy, _king, lass, master, parent, quantity,
stag, widower . .

'Iii'

'·

f,onvert the follow ing Mascu line Nouns .into Feminine 'Noum, pr(J71()1J,nt:·
ing and spelling the Feminine: -

Drake, duke, earl, emperor; gentleman, hart, hero, host, hunter, lion,
male-child, master, nephew, shepherd, widower.
W rite sent~n~es referring to this picture, including nouns in the singular number, and tiouns in the plural mtmber,;with verb1, articles, and
adjectives. Introduce proper names , by giving names to the persons
represented in the picture.

Correct the Errors in the f ollowing expressions: -

Alexander, my sister. David is a widow. Eliza is a bridegroom.
Charles the Second was a bad queen. She was my bencfactoress.
How sweet a songster~ss ! Thia•ia rdy tutress. 0 the traitoress !
Look at that goatess.
'

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

H op-Gathering.

Write •sentences referring to this picture; including ninim in both num-:
bers, pronouns, articles, verbs, and adjectives.
'

I

' 11

+i

L

Charity.

T he Village School.

Write sente~ces referring to this ;icture , including ~min '(Joth number1, articles, pronouns, verbs , adjectives, and adverbs.

W rite se.utences referring to this picture, ind uding nouns in both genders, with verbs and adjectives.

f

•

1

...
9G

EXERCISES.

ETYMOJ;.OGY.

97

3. CAsE.-Point out the Nouns in thefollowing ~entences,
and mention in what
Case each. of them is.
-

f'

.,

)'

John struck the table.
John's horse kicked James.
My brother's ,dog bit me, but I. stoned my brother's dog.
The wall of the city shelters my father's house.
My father's house is sheltered by the wall of the city.
Men's thoughts are v~nity.
.

i

!

Decline the folUnn,i·n g Noun;, botlt orally and it& writing: -

Ass, author, beau, · Charles, hero; mother, parent, queen, ruler,
man.
.

. .

- ·-

Domestic Scene.

··::::::::............~

WO·

1-.:

•

Write se~tences referring to this picture, including nouna ·in. both g~
der1, with verbs and adjectives. Introduce proper noun1; .

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

•-

·~

Domc1tic Scene.
The Iloy ond the Geeso.

·

•

W rit e sentences rof~rrin g to ·this picture , including Mii~1
ders , with articles, ve rb~, adjectives, and pronouns. ·

Write sentences referring to this picture, includrng 1Ul'Uns in the nomi·
native; and nouns in the objective case, articles, verb11, 1111d adjective..

in bot1 gen•
1

·~·

..
Tbo Accusation.

Tho Proceosion .

.

Write Muns referring to this picture, including nouns in the ~rculim
gender, with verb1, arti.clei, adjcctit-111, a.od ]'l'oncnm1.

Write sentences incl uding noun.< in !lie nominative, possei;sive, and objective ccues, verbs, adjectives, and articles.
9

·, ;
•

..\

98

ETYMOLOGY.

· EXERCISES.

9!)

"
.,

· , ·G leaners.

· .-·

Write sentences including noitns ' i 1i the nominative and poueuive
<ases, articles , verbs, adjectives, and.prono1ms.

The llliser and hio Poor Relations.

Write 8Cntcnces showing the inflections of no1lns, in number, gC'llder,
and case; and introducing proper, as well as common nouns.
I

.',
~::-~~_::~:.::=
Tho Gni<lcncr.

Write sentences referring to this picture, introducing noun$, verbs,
adjective8, and article8, and showing the inflections of 1unm1, in n"m·
ber, gender, nnd case.

Fnony and Lucy· at Pin y.

Write sentences showing the ·i11Jlcstio1;s of nouns, in number, gender,
_and case; and introducing proper nouns.
·

JOO

ETYMOLOGY.

EXERCISES.

101

'T HE ADJECTIVE.
Point out the Adjectives, in tl1e.following li5,t, which a~mit_ of comparison: - .

A ble, beautifui, circular, cold, evil, few , four, full, golden, hilly, ·ill,
just, lon g, mournful, ninth~ open, right~ square, 1:1upreme, universal,
worsh ipful, worthy.
· · ·
TVl,at ·degree of comJ>a"·ison

are,

1·'

Anci ent, better, costliest, dreary , euvious, gayest, huge, lazy, more;
most, J.remendous, nex t, superior, uttermost 'l
Pronounce ·and Spell the oomparatives. and superlati~es of,

_Write sentences introducing 1wu11 .< , a rtidcs , a~d verb~, with arljec6v"tl
in the po_sitive an d comparative deg rees.

Bud, big, coy, cruel, faithful, grave, hale, ill, little, low, mud, pretty,
pure, true, white, worthless.
~ ' :" }

Correct the f ollowirig expressiiins : -

;,/,;

T he good scholar is hnppyer, os well os nttentiver than the idler.
Spring is the beautifullest season o(the' year; summer is the hotest;
winter is the gloo'myest; autumn .is the · Iivelyest. I have done it
the rightest way, and deserve the chiefest price. ~ohn ie littler, but
gooder than you.

Sickness.

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

Write eentonoos including noun~. vorbs, and articlss, with adject iva1 in
tile positive, comparative, and sttperlati~e degrees.

...

:

Tho Ped lar.

Write sentences ·r efe rring to this picture, including a<lject ives in th6
po11itit:e degree, nouns, article.•, u11J i;crbs.

Tho Cow.

Vhite sentences including nouns, adjective~ in the positive and compa·
ra!ive dcgree3, verb.•, art ides , and adverbs .

9*

.... ',.

r

~~·-~

~

ETYMor:ocY.

102

EXERCISES.

'·

103

THE -PRON OUN.
lVluzt kind of,Prd-rwun "is,·i~

Who, self, he, she; ,we, they, _that, whether; ohr, .their,.·which, what,
thy, thou 1
·
Tell the Perso1;, · N~mber, Gender, and Caae,

ef ~~t;h

·
Pronouns: - .
Him, us, I, them, .thine, yours, theirs, ours, ye,
I

of the following
\

he, she,

mine, we.

'

Parse tliefollowing sentence~, telling the Number, Gender, and Case of
Nouns; the d egrees of comp,a ·rison of the Adjectives; and the Peraon,
Number, Gender, and Case, of the I'ronouns: ..!.__

I love the boy who loves his lesson. ·
I dislike these idle fellows.
Charles nnd Dnvid are the best wrestlers, but the worst 6cholar11 in
their respective ciasses.
Tho girl who· gnincd_the third prize laet year is the head of her class ·
_ .
this yenr: she deserves the highes~ praise.
Many children, whose parents .are poor, attain-to learning, wealth and
'honour. ·
.
·.
: · ·
· ·
'
'
Good character, and good educ~tion, are surer rpads to eminence than
either large estates or illustrious birth.

The Stenm-Boat.

Write sentences showing the inflections of the relative pronquns in cau.

..
T ho Dome•tic Cot.

Write sentences showing the inflections of the demcnl6trative prcmoum
in numher. .

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN .

Srarting on a

Journ~y .

.Write sentences showing the iujlectio111 of the per&onal pr011<1Uru io

number, nnd ccue.

The Shepherd.

Write sentences showing tho injl.ectwns of tke personal, and adjectivd

pronou.111.

"
104

ETYMOLOGY.

. THE VERB .·
W71at are the names of lite f ollowing parts. of tlie Yerb?
\Vriting, learned, to love , run, _llattering, . haste.n, hastened, to move,
def~ated, conquering, strike but_l;ear me, come and try, come to try,
hatmg, defended. ·
·
Regular Verbs to

beinflected aft er tlte manner of•: to love."

A sk, a ttend , bestow, cancel, ~om.mand, corr;mend, conquer, defend,
dig miss, finish, gain, gua rd;, ltiarn, ,ordt:r, pleU8e, pray , prohibit, restore , walk.
:

lrregula~ Verbs, to.be inj/eded afl ; r the manner of" to write." .
Begin, blow, choose, draw , foll, freeze, fly, give, go, hide, know, .lade,
he, slide, ta ke, w ear , w eave.

Te ll the P erson , Number, lilood, and Tense, of

I struck; he is; we have ; th ou !~vest; thou art; I had; we were ;
• I wrote ; thou abodes t ; ye brou ght; I cast; you thrust; they shall ;
we would ; they are ; thou bast ; I bled ; I am; th.e y :fled; we shone;
they wept ; he were ; you were.
·
H e should fe ar: We had loved. You shall be writing . They may fl att er. 'l'hey' are smitten. It is ; old. Th ey could
r ead. We sho~ld have finis hed. They. w~re beaten . I d6 say.
The y ·will come . · \ Vo had beer\ playing. ; Thou hast ,b een trifling.
They are haste ning . T hey migh t rejoice. You ·can speak.
I do s peak. Thou art wri tin g. He shall have commanded. We did
rend. You mig ht w ork . The y had fini shed. '.fhou hast heard.
We may run . I had been S!)iling . . You shall be walk in g. I might
hav e been toiling . I can s top. He is injured. Thoy were - struck.
He could have hastened. vVo have been n•joicing. They had been
beaten.
·

I have w ritten.

Parse tlie f ollowing pa.~MfiCS, 1;ot only narninri the parts ~f Speech, but
t elling their Cas e, T cnsc, ,<$-c.
H e is the tc mpernte m an, whos e health directs his oppelite; who is
best pleased with wh nt best ag rees with him · wh o eats not to g ratify
his taste , but to· preserv e. his li fe ; w ho is th~ same at ~very t.nble as
a t his own; who wh e n he fe asts is not cfoyed; and sees all the delicncies before hi°" that luxury can accumu lat e, yet preserves a due
ab stinence amidst th em .
·
La R oche was a pr.otes tant clergyma'n of f; ,;·itz crland. He was a <leYOUt man, ns became his profoss ion. H e- pos~r~scd devotion in all
its \\'~rm th, but with ~ one of its a'pe rit y; I mea n that asperity which
m e n, called devout, somc ti me 3 indu lge in . Aill iction for the loss
of n .beloved wife brought 011 11 long and ling r rin g illnC'ss , for which

.

EXERCISES .

105

travelling was prescribed. His amiable da ught er and only child was
the companion of his travel s. Aft e r an ineffoctual and melancholy
juurney, he was returnin g home, wh e n he w as sudden ly seized with
a dan gerous Ji sorder, at a small tow n in France, where a ce lebrated
British philosopher th e n resided.
The sorrow for th e dead is tli e only sorrow from wh ich we refuse to
be divorced. E very other wound we see k to heal- every other
affliction to forget ; bu t this wound we consid er it a du ty to keep
open - this afflict ion we ch erish and b rood ove r in solitud e. · ·where
is the mothe r who woul d wi lling ly fo rge t th e infant tha t perished
like a bl os~ om from her arm8, th ough eve ry recollectio n is a pan g?
Where is the ehil<l tliat would w ill ingly for ge t th e most tend er <Jf
parents , tl1<Jugh to rememb er be but to lament 1 \ Vh o, eYen in the
hour of agony, over whom he mourn s 1 \.Vho, e ven when the tomb
is closing upon the rem ai ns of her he m ost loved ; when he feels his
heart, as it were, crushed in th e closing of its po rtal ; would accept of
consolation that must be bought by forgetfulness? - No, the love
which survives .the tomb is one _of the n9blest attributes of tho soul.

..

At Inst ·
The clouds consign their t reasur es to the fields;
And, softly shaking o' e r th e dimpled pool
Prelusive d rops , let all their moi sture fl ow
ln large effu sion o' e r the fr eshened worl d.
T lle s teal ing s hower is scarce to patt er heard
By such as w and er throug h the fo rest walk
Beneath the umbrageo us roult itu de of leaves.
But who can ho ld the shade whil e Heave n descends
, In universal bounty, shedding herbs,
And fruits , and flow ers, on N atttre'~ nmple lap!
Swift Fancy, fired , anticipates th eir g rowth·
And while' the milky nutriment distils ,
'
Beholds th e kindlin g country colo ur round!

'-

''

l 'll prove the word th at I hrivo mafle my theme,
ls , that that may be dmtUcd without blume,
And that that thnt thus trebled I ma y use ;

And that that that, that ' critics may ab~sc,
May be correct. Farther -the . Dons to bother,
Five thats may clo~el y follow one anoth er!
Fo r be it know n .:.hat we may ~afcly write,
Or say - Th at that th at that .that man writ was righ t 1
Nay cv'n, Th at tha t that that that tlwl has fo llo wed
Throu i:;h .~ ix repea ts , th e g rnmmar's n ; le has ha llowed!
And that that tl1 al -Lha't "that" tlmt tliat begrm
Repeated seven tirncH is rig ht ! - Deny ·~ who can?

'

'

-

<

I

, ...

106

-----------

--- - -

•.

ETYMOLOGY.

EXERCISE~.

107

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN.

':

The Eagle nnd the Tortoi•e.

Write sentences illu strating tl1 e i11Jlections of the verb to have, in the
imperative, sulj1mctive, and inji.1~itive TTWods.

The Traveller.

Wri te sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to have, in the
indicative mo<>d.

The trilvellcr has his cloak drawn closely about him . ,He had a hat·;
but the wind blew it away. He has had bo t sunshine on the plain;
he will l1ave rough winds to encounte.r in ascending the mountain ;
but when he shall ho.ve had the perseverance to reach the summit,
·
all his toils will be amply rewarded.

The Ilenr noel

010

Trnvcllen.

Write sentences introducing the participles of the verb to havB.

,._
....

Al

''

A Sea Fid1L
The Dog aad the Wolf.

Wri te ~entences illustrating th e i11jlcctions of the verb to have in the
potential mood.

Write sentences illustrating the injlectiom of the verb to be, in tho
indicative mood.

..

..

108

ETY;\10LOGY.

· .~

..
EXERCISES.

109

\

A Batlle.
The Eagle, the Ca;, and the Hog-:

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the in .
dicative mood.
·

Writ~ sentences illustrating the inflections of the verb to be, in the
potential, and imperative moods.

-~

.

;'•

.,

The Shipwreck.

Write sentences illustrating the injlections of regular verbs in the potm·
tial mood.

Write Qentcnccs illustrating the inflections of the verh to be, in the
ntb}unctive mood.

t ,,.,.

The Fox end. the Stork.

Write

The Aosassin.

senten~es introducinl:' the participles of the verb t~ bo.
"

Write stfote nces illustrating the inflections of regular verbs in the sub·
iundivt mlX>d.

. 10
,

..110

ETYMOLOGY.

EXERCISES.

Ill

;.

The Crow and tho Pitcher.

Write sentences illustrating the inflections of ~egula r verb1 i~ the iminrative and infinitive mwds.

A Battle.

Write sentences illustrating the inflection& of irregula r and regti/Dr
verbs in the subjunctive mood.

,.

,,

.i
.

The Prisoner..

Write sentences illustrating the injlect·ions of irregular verb. in: the
Death of Wat Tyler.

mdi.cativa mood.

W rite sentences illustrating th e i11flection1 of irregular verbs in the
imperatitJe and infinitive moods.

The Stork and

th~

Frogs.

The Wolf and the Crane. ·

Write se.htence·s illustrating th e inflections of irregular verb8 ~ the
potential mood.
'
~ '
I

•

Write sentences· illustra\ing the participles of regular an<l irregular

11e1W.

!

I~

ETYMOLOGY.
III.

118

SYNTAX.

· 175, A parenthetical, or secondary clause, is that which
depends on the principal clause; and generally modifies its
meaning. Thus in the following sentences the clauses in
italics are parenthetical: -

DERIVATION.

16i Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats of
the Origin and Primary_Si'gnifii:.at1'.0n of W ORDs.
[Aa thio part of Eti•mology forms a di°stinct oubjcci of study, in 11 great measure unconnected with tho ueual routine of grnmmntical instruction, it ho.s been separated from tho
romainder of thjs Treatise, and thrown into the Appendix, for the &reater convenience of
Te11cl1cra and Pupila.]
'

"If George would be ,,tttdious, he w.ould gain the prize.
becau.<e he is indolent."

He fail11,

176. Parenthetical or dependent clauses are sometimes
divided into Adjective, Relative, Participial, Connective, Jnterjective, Absolute, &c.
·
177. An adjective clause is introduced by an adjective; u,
" A man, diligent {n his business, prospers."

PART III.

178. A relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun; as,

SYNTAX.
.•

168. Syntax treats of the construction and arrangement

_ · of words in a sentence.
169. A Sentence is a number of i·o~ds so arra~ged as to
form a complete proposition.
·
·
Thus the words, "A boy too fond of piny,"· do not forrri a sentence,
because they do not C?ntain a distinct proposition. But, "A boy too
fond of play often neglects his lessons",'' is sentence.

a

"A man, who i.~ diligent i1i his business, prospers."

179. A partici':piai clause is in trod need by a participle; as,
" A man, devole.d to•his business, ·prospers."

180. A connective cJause is introduced by a conjunction ; as,
'.'A man will generall y· prosper, if he be attentive to liis business."

18 1. An absolute clause is independent of the rPst of the
sentence, in grammatical construction, as it includes what

is called the Nominative Case Absolute; as,

170. Sentences a1:e divided into Simple and Complex.

"The lecture being ended, the audience departed."

171. A si?nple sentence consists of one proposition; as,

182. A sentence is composf'd of a Subject and a Predicate.
183. The subject of a sentence is. that concerning which
something is affirmed in the sentence.
184. The predicate expresses that which is affirmed of the

"Time flies swiftly." "The music of birds and the perfume of
flowP.rs filled th e grove. "

172. A complex sentence consists of t\~O or more propositions combined, a nd the propositions of .w hich it is composed
are called members, or clauses; as,
"James , though he had read many books, was not a good scholar."

. 173. The clauses of a complex sentence are either principal or parenthel7'.cal:
,
·
174. The principal clause _contains the leading proposition
of the sent,ence, upon which the other clauses or members
depend.
·~~--------~-'---~~--------~-~

1'67. What is deri vat ion ? l GS. What is Syntax 7 169. Whnt i8 11.
se ntence? 170. How nr e se ntences divided 7 171. \Vhat is a simple
sentence? 172. \Vhnt is a complex Rentc nce? 173. How are the
'clauses o(a complex sentence divided? 174. What is the principal claiise?

subject:
Thus, in the sentence, ';The man 'walks," "the man" is the subject,
and " walks" is the predicate.
A distinction is made between the grammatical and the lo~ical subject
.

'

..o

175. What is a par~nthetical clause? 176. How are parenthetical
clauses divid ed 1 177. What is un adjective clause 7 - .Give nn exam.
pie. Why is this an adj ective clnuse 1 178. What is n relative clause 7
- Give an example.
\.V hy is this a relative clau se? 179. What is
a participial clause? - Give an example. Why is this a particip.ial
clause? 180. What is a connective clause 7- Give an exam ple. Why
is this a connective clause 'l 181. What is an ab~olut e clause ? - Givo
an example. Why is this an nb~olute clause? 182. What are the elements of a sentence 7 183. What is the subject of a sentence 1 184.
What i~ the predicate of a sentence 7 - Give c::i:ample•. What distinc.

10*

;

114

RULES OF CONSTRUCTION.

of a proposition. The grammatical, subject of a proposition i3 'the
leading n.ominative ens~ ofthe sentence which expresses the propo·
sit'ion'. · The logical. subject 'includes tho nominative case, and the
word or words by which its meaning is limited .Qr modified.

185. The subject may ' be :expressed
. . :·~

l. By a single no~n; as,

.

1

115

" John shot the bird."
"The knight claimed his pri$omr."

188. The object is often expressed by an infinitive, and
also by a sentence or part of a sentence; as,
"William loves to learn.''
" '\Ve should remember that we arefallibl~.' '

~

'

" George read.s ."

2. By two or more nouns; as,
"George and Iienry read."

RULES OF SYNT A....X.
189. The Rules of Synta.--c respect either the construction

S. By a pronoun or pronouns: ns,
. "I ~alk." " Yo1' arid I are friends."

or the

4. B}I n noun, joined with other words, to limit or modify its meani11g; ns,
"A canful and ,,tud·irrns boy will excel. "
"A man in a passion forgets the dictates of reason. "

S U B J E' C T .A N D . V E R B •

6.. By sentences, and clauses of sentences; as, _

190. RuLE I. The subject of a sentence, when a noun or
pronoun, is al ways in the nominative case; and the verb is
always of the same number and person with its subject.

" 'Remember St . ·Bartholomew,' was passed from m'a n to mnn." .
"'To gain freedom W\J.S the grand object." ·
.
I

.

.

of words in a sentence.

I. RULES OF CONSTRUCTIOI-<.

5. By the infinitive; as,
" To deceive w::-s his object."

.

arran~ment

Construction respects the form which words ass\Jme, in order to com·
bine grammatically with other words in the same sentC'nce.
.A.:rangement respects the order in whic.h words stand iu a i;cntence.

•

.

- ,

In all these instances the word8 printed in Italics are complex names

1. \Vh-en the subjec!, or hominative, denotes only OIJe thing, the verb
is put in the singular;· as,
: • John speaks eloquen tly.''
"He is mistaken."
· •John or James inte1ul.• to accompany me."*
"c~sar, as well a.~ Cicero, tVll.8 remarkable for his eloquence."
" Either he or Rhe is wrong."
·
" To forgive u div ine.''
"That such a mis(ortune should befall your house, and mar your
prospects, gri<e1Jes me exceedingly."

of the subject spoken ' of in their respective sentences. They are
therefore equivalent to nouns; an<.! were there single word11 in the
language capable of expressing them, th~se words would be nouns.

186. The predicate of a se:itence must always contain one
verb: it may contain more than one, besides other parts of
speech.
'
'
The following arc instances of verbs, and restrictive clauses, used as
predicates; "The ann.'I rctrcnl<>u ."
" Tlte ariny retreated in disorder."
" The army retreated in disorder, leaving its baggage and wounded in
~he hands of the enemy.'~

181. l/Vhen the verb 'o f tbe sentence is transitive, it has
joined with it a ,word or words describing the object of the
verb; a~,
tion is made 7 185. How may the subject be ex.prcRsed 1 18G. Whnt
· mu st the predicate conta in 7-G ivc example~. 187. When tho verb
of the sentence is transitive, what has it joined with it 1 188. How

.,

• It is an error to Rav, as is commonly done, that when different subjects are disjoined 'by ; eonj1~nction they are al.w:iys follow~d by a verb
in the singular; for the predicate may. be applied to the di ffe rent ~-ub­
jer.ts, and thr refore may contai n a plural verb. Thus we n•ually 1<11y,
"Neither -you nor I are in foult-," - ·not '"is' or •nm' in fault." The
Latin idiom is the same: "It! nequc ego,.· ncque tu, fecimus."
may the objed be expressed? 189. What do the rules of syntax respect? What docs construction re~pect 1 \Vh at does arran gem ent
refer to 7 1!.10. What is tb e rule for the nominative ca Bo anrl the
verb 1 - Give eirnmple5. · When is the verb in the singular ? -

·{

-~

·-

H6 ~

------

_________ __
...,,

117

RULES OF CONSTRUCTION.

SYNTAX.

2. When the subject, or nominative, deno.tes more than one, the verb
is put in the plural ; as,
" The birds carol."
"They are mistaken."
"Demosthenes and CiCero were great orators."
" Honour, justic!), religion itself, were derided by theile profligate
wretches."
" He and. she go in company .l' ·
"To be temperate in eating and drinking; to use ex·erciee in the open
air, and to pre8erve the mind free from tumulluous emotions, are the
best preservati vee of health."
3. Collective nouns are followed by, a verb in the singular or plural,
according as the idea of unity or plurality is meant to be expressed; as,
" . The army is on its mar~h. "
·
"The clergy are divided among themselves."
The person of the subject, or nominative, determine's the person of the
verb; as,
"I am at my post."
" Thou shalt not steal."
"John reads hi3 )esson."
Nouns are always of the third person, except when they are empJoyed
to" name the person addressed; in which case 'they aie of thil liecohd··
·
• ' ' · "·
person ; as,
·
" O~r Father who "att iri Heaven." ': •· : ·.: ·
· Relative' pronouns are of the snme person with their ct>rrelativee ·;· ail,
"I who am now present."
"Thou, Lord, who lcnowes~ the heart." · ·
" The Lord who seelh us."

Infinitives, and parts of sentences which are criiploy'ed as nominative•
to verbs, arc always reckoned the third person ; as,
" To be afraid to do evil ia true courage." · ·.'
"For sinners to be proud is the height of i~consistency."

of

" If ye lo~e me, keep my Ctnnmandm.enta."
"This is the man whum the king delighteth to honour."
NOUNS . AND

"''

i

192. RuL·E III: When two nouns, or a noun and pronoun

are used to denote the possessor and the thing possessed,
the name of the possessor is put in the possessi»e case; as,
"In my Father's house.'
" On eagles' wings."
" Thine is the kingdom."
" The child whose father is dead."
1. When the name of the possessor is a complex noun, or a noun made
up of two or more words, the last mentioned word only receives tho
sign of the possessive case; as, '
" Jt,[iu.s Casar' a Commentaries."
"John the Baplist' 1 head.'' .
" Oliver &- Boyd' 8 printing-office."
2. The name of the thing possessed, when it is obvious, ill often
omitted ; as,
"He weht to sec St. P eter'&, at Rome;" that is, St. Peter' s Church.
"I am going to the magutrate'&;" that is, the magistrate' s house.

193. Ruu IV. Nouns or personal pronouns, when added
to other nouns or pronouns, to explain them, are put in the
same case with them by apposi.tion; as,
"Paul the Apostle wrote to the Romans.''
·• The leader was taken, he who defied the law.''
"Brutus killed Casar , him who bad been his friend.''

194. RuLE V. Pronouns agree with their correlatives in
gender, number, .and person; as,
"The q1teen put on h~r royal apparel.''
" The river is swollen ; it overflows its banks.''
" The tree1 have lost their foliage.''
"Thou who art mighty."
"The b!'Y who writes the letter.''
"The letter wh"i.ch* is written.''

!

OBJECT .

191. RULE II. The ooject ~ of a trans'itive verb, when ex~
pressed by a noun, or pronoun, is put in the objective case; as,
When i8 the verb in the plural?- Giv'tl ex11mplcs. What is the rule for
collective nouns.? - Give exlLlllp!cs. What determines the person of
the verb 7 - Give examples. 'When are nouns in the second, und when
in -the third perion 7- Give exam vies. What is the rule for the per.- .
l'On of relntivc pronouns 7- Give examples. In what person are infinitives, and parts·of sentences, when employed as nominntives 7 -Giv& '
examples. 1'91.· What ia tbo rule for the object 7 . 192. What is ~

PRONOUNS.

WI

• Formerly which was used in the mas~u~ine and feminin e, aa well
in the neuter gender, and conse~~~-'.~! Jomed with perso~~- as well

:or

rule res.p ecting the possessive case? What is the rul e
complex
nouns 7 When is the name of the thing possesse~ om 1ttr.d 1 . 193.
What is the rule for apposition? - ~ive examylcs. 194. W hut 1s t~e
rule for pronouns, and their correlatives? - Give examples. \Vhat ia

~

.'

'.

•~I

·1

----..

sY'N~A.-x. _:,

1. When the correlative of .the· pronoun is'.a ~la\ls'e; or patt of a sentence, th'e' pronoun is put in the neuter gerider, singular number, and
third person ; as,
" It grieves me to hear of yo1tr illness."
" She WllS over indulgent to /Ler children, whiclds a sin."
' 2'. ( Wh'-en n·ptonouh 'relates to two noutis' o~ prbnbune in different persons collectively ' it ta.kes the -first person plura1 in preference to the'
second'; and the second iri preference to the ' third· ; as;
"He and I shared it between us:'.'
1
"You and John are welcome; I rejoice to see you both."
" Y ou and he and I have our difficulties."
" Y ou and he have your doubts."

1:95 RuLEi·V.I: The' pronoun it, when the nominative·td a .

vertJ,. is often used ·indefinitely, and is applied to persons as
well as to things ; to the. first person and second, as well as
to the third; and to a plural as well as to a singular; as,

'

" It is the king."
"It is I, be not afraid."
"It was you who did it."
"It is these fetters that vex me."

'19s. RutE VII. The adjective· prono~ns· th'-is and· that,
Sgte'e in number with the nouns which they. describe; as,
"This:book," "that map," "the11e book!!;''. "those- maps.''
This rule is violated in such expressions as; "these kind of people,"
" those sort of things."
l. Every, though generally construed with a singular noun, is joined
to a plural noun when the things it denotes are conceived as forming nn aggregate; . rui, "e-very twt:lve year1;" th~t Is, e~ery perj.od
of twelve years.
2. All is joined with ·a singular noun, wheh 'it refers to quantity, and'
with a plural noun when it refers to number; 118;
"Six days shalt thou labour and do ·all thy work."
" All 1nen.are mortal."
as things. Such expressions as "m ighty men which were of old " are
common in the authorized ve~sion of the Scriptures ; indeed, the;e are
n ot many instances in the English Bible of who, applied to persons.
tfie nile when tho cp rrclative of a pronoun is :l clause· or part of a sentence 1 - Give examples. W hat is the rule when a pronaun refers to
two D<?uns or .pronouns in different persons? - Give examples. 195.
W hat ~s the rule respcc.ting t.ne pronoun it?- Give examples. 196.
\~hat 1s th~ rule respectmg ~Ins and tlwt? - Give examples. How is'
~1s rule violated 1 'W hat 1s the remark respecting .every? -Give
examples. - What is the remark respecting all? - Give exain'ples:

RULES OF .CON'STRUCTION.
3. Many, though significant of plurality, iii sometimes construed wi.th a

noun in the singular ; as,
" ]}[any a.flower is born to blush unseen."
4. More, when the comparative of.mucli, and denoting n greater quan-

tity, is joined with a noun in the singular ; but when the. comparatl'.e
of many, and denoting. a grea~er number\ it is joined vnth a noun m
the plural; as, "more fruit;" "more ~-"

A RTICLE.

197. Ruu VIII. ·The indefinite article, a or an, is prefixed
to nouns in the singular number; as, a horse; an orange.
198. RuLE IX. The definite article,- the, may be prefixed.
to nouns in the singular or plural number; as, the horse,
the oranges.
l. A, when combined with the numerals many and f ew , admits a noun

in the plural; as, "a few persons, a great. many men."
2 . A is used before words begi nning with a consonant, t.he long sound
of u, and vowels sounding like w. An is used before words beg.in·
nin g with a vowel or a silent Ji; as,
" A boy ; " " a unicorn ; " " many a one."
"Ano.com;" \" an \hour."

3. When two or linore houns or adjec.tives, descriptive of the same
thing, are.joined together, the article is prefixed onl y to the first of
them ; if the nouns describe different things, the arucle is prefixed to
each of them separately ; as
"I bought a black and white cow, which cost twelve pounds."
"I bought a black and a white cow, which cost ~Ii t welve pounds."
VERBS. ,

199. RuLE X. Some transitive verbs, as, give, .tell, send,
promi~e, allow, adJ:nif tw<;> objecfive, ~ases after .them, the one
denoting the object and the other the p~rson j .as,

- - --- -

What is •the remark respecting many?.:... Give examples .. - R esp?cting
more?- Give exam ples. 197. What is the rule respcctmi.r. tbe mdeUnite .article 1 - Give examples. 198. What is said of prefi xing. the d~fi­
nite article 7 -Give . examples. What Is tlie rule ~or . the article with
respect to two or more nouns or adjectives descriptive ~f t~e same
thin~~ - ~ive ,examples. 19!1. What is the 1ulo for ~wo objective ca110s
afier a transiti\'e verb? - ·Give examples. What ·1s the .rule .for an

- . ..
+ '

l20

•SYNTAX.

" He gave it me."* ,
· "He sent it us."*
"He allowed me great liberty.'!•
'.'He promised us many benefit1.''•
.•. rhe same verbs, especially in colloquial disMur~e, admit an objective
case after the passive voice ; as,
·
" r. was allowed great lioerty.''
.
' " She was offered th~m by her mother.'' .
"He was forbid the presence of the king;''

200.

RuLE

XI. The verb to be has the same case after it

as before it ; as,
" It is ·1, be not af~aid."
" It is he."
" You believed it .to be him."
" Wh.om do they represent me to be."

201. RuLE XU. The infinitive of a verb is always preceded
by the sign to, except ~vhen it follows the verbs, bid, dare,
feel, hear,,let, need, make, see; or the generic verbs, may, can,
•liall, will, and must; as,
"He ordered me to ltasten.'' -·
"He bade me go.'' , :
"I saw him strike the boy.''.
·Dare, when it signifies to challenge ,or defy, is 'also construed With
to; as,
"I ·dare thee
but lo breathe upon my love.'
.
. '

In 'the English version of the Bible, the verb to make is similarly construed; as,
" He maketh his sun 'rise.''

to

202. RuLE XIII. .Participles, when they retain the sense
of the verb, are construed as the -verbs to which they belong; but when they are employed as nouns, they are followed by of; as,

RULES OF CONST.RUCTION.

121'

203. RuLE XIV. Participles, when used as nouns, or as
parts ,of complex nouns, are frequently· preceded by a noun
or pronoun in the possessive case ; as,
"I am averse to the nation's- i~volving itself in war."
I

204. RuLE xv. When a noun or pronoun is joined with
a participle, without being dependent on any other word in
the sentence, it is put in the nominative case; as,
" TVe being exceedingly -tossed, they lightened the ship."

T his construction is commonly culled the nominative absolute.
The imperfect participle, without heing connected with a noun or pronoun, ofte n introduces an absolute clause, as an adjunct to a sentence; as,
"Generally. ipeaking, ,.the people are industrious.''
"It is not possible -to act otherwise, considering tho weakness of our
nature.''
The infinitive is nlso'sometimes used, in an absolute, or independent
sense; as,
" To speak the truth, we are all liable to .e rror.''
PREP 0 SIT I 0-N B ,

205. Ruu;; XVI. The object of a preposition,, when expressed by a nouri or _ proriouri, is put in the objective
case; as,
"He came behind me.''
'"The man with whom you are'1lcquainted.''
The preposition to is.often omitted, especially after the aJvcrl.i8 nigh ,
near, &c., and before the personal pronouns; as,
"He oome near the city," that is, "11.ear tn the city."
." He sent me the book," that is, "to me.''

" He is well situitted for gaining wi.,dom.''
"He is well situ11te·d for the gaining of wudom.!'

It is not improbable that all these expressions are ~lliptical; the
preposition to being understood before the personal pronouns.

"You and -J 'are schoolfellows ..', '
" ·The •master.'struck him nnd 'not .me."
- -- examples. 203. When does a participle gov~r~ the ~siie.ssivc case?-

objective c~sc after a passive verb 1- Give examples. 200. What case
has the verb to be ·after it 7 - Give examples. 201. When is the infinitive 'not preceded by the si(!' n to 7 - Give exompl~. Whnt is said of
. dare 7 - Of make 7 202. What is the rule for participles 1- Give

'

CONJUNCTIONS.

206. RuLF. XVII. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case; as,

*

l.

Give examples. 204. What is the rule for the nommatn·~ case absolute? - Give examples. 20.5, What is tht: rul e for pr~ pos1t10n ~ governing the objeotive case ? - Give ~xamples . When 1s t~. omitted?Give examples. 206. Whatdo .COllJUn.c4ons connect 7-Givc examples. .

ll

.

':'-

-,

---- -------,·- -

'

SYNTAX. ·
" You may do it as easily as!."
" He •will as ·soon punish you as me."
" You are· older than t"
"I love 'yoit better than him."
" Better it s~ould J?e yours 'than mine."
Tltim was fonnerly used a8 a preposition, and took an objective case
after it. Whe,n joined with a relative pronoun, it still retains its
character of preposition ; as,

INTERJE CTIONS.

EXERCISES ON CONSTRUCTION.

207. RuLE XVIII. Some conjunctions are employed as
correlatives to each other; thus,

Distinguish between complete, and imperfed S entences.

Sudden trust. Sudden trust brings sudden repentance. If the mountain will not go to Mahomet. If the mountain will not go to Mahomet, let Mahomet go to the mountain. If it were not for hope.
If it were not for hope, th e heart would break. In a calm sea. In
a calm sea, every man is a pilot. The easiest way to dignity. The
easiest way to dignity is humility. When bread is wanting. When
bread is wanting, oaten cakes are excellent. Mi l dnes~ governs more.
Mild ness governs · more than anger. D eride not the unfortunate.
\"line has drowned more than the sea. R eprove thy friend privately; commend hi m publicly. Being reproved. Being reproved ,
J ames beg,o.n to reform. The ship having sailed. The shi p sailed.
The ship having sailed, the insurance was effected.

lJoth is follo\ved by and; as, ' '-l3otl1 you mid I did it."
Either, by ~r; as, "I will either come or send."
N ci.ther, by nor; as, " Neither John nor James is fit for itY ·
Tlurugh or althougl1, by yet; as, " Thuugh he slay me, yet will I trust
in him.''
Wh ether, by or; as, " Wh ether he go or stay."

In li ke manner, the conjunction tl1at follows the adverb so, and the
adjective such, when it denotes " !lo great;" as;
"You have so incensed him that he will punish you .." '
" Their arrogance was sud1, that even good men turned away in
·
diag ust."
The adverbs Mt only, and not merely, are often followed by the con- ..
junction but, in connexion with also or likewise,· as,
'
'

Distinguish Simple from Complex Sentences; and, in the latter, Principal
from Secondary ClausetJ.

but he was also wise."

1

Successful guilt is the bane of society. Depend not on fo rtune, but
conduct. Idle folks havo the most labour. .If the cou nsel be good,
no matter · who gave it. H e who teaches often learns himself.
Where content is, there is a feast. Rewards and punish men ts aro
the basis of good government. H e that lends to all \\'ho will borrow,
shows greo.t good will, but little wisdom. H e th at spa res when he
is young, may spend when ho is old. If you wish a thi ng done, go;
if not, send. · Though James studies hard, he onjoys the play-hour.
Having complet~d his lessons, he claims his recreation.

208. RuLE XlX. The generic vetbs are o(len omitted
before specific verbs, when preceded by. the conjunctions,
if, though, unless, &c.; as,
·
"Though he alay me," that is, " though he should slay me."
" If th ou be affiicted, repine not," that is, "if thou 1houldst .be afflict ed.''•
• Such phraseologies as, ... he slay," "thou be," &c., are generally
considered as indicating the s? bj unctive mood; that ie, the form of the
verb peculiar ..to clauses which are subjoined to others by means of the
conjunctions, if, thouglt, &c. But it is plain that these conjunctions
exe rcise no influence over the verb. The reason of the peculiar fo rm is,
that the idea of contingency is present to the mind of the speo.ker or
w r iter, and is meant to be expresscd - ·(the same rco.son, indeed, that .
gives rise to the use of the conjunctions themselves in these .case1;1.) Ac.·

123

209. R uLE XX. Interjections are joined with the objective
case of the pronoun of the first person, and with the norninati ve of the pronoun of the second; as, "Ah me !" " Oh ye
hypocrites!"

· '. l Alfred, than whcnn o. better king never reigne~.''

" He was Mt only harmless,

RULES OF CONSTRUCTION.

'.

cordingly, th e form of the verb is tho same \vhen cnntin gency is expressed, whether the conjunctions be used or not. " B e you present, or
be you absent, I will speak," is as grammatical as "\V hcth cr yo~ be
preoont or absent." Beside!!, it is to be observed, that when_ certa1~ty,
vnd not con tingency, is expressed, the verb does not take tins clhptical
furm, though preceded by if, though, &c.

,.

. ,-1:

207. W hat conj unctions 'a re employed as correlatives 7 - Give exam.
plea. What is said of so nnd that ? 208. When are the generic verbs

omitted ? - Give exo.mples.
Give examples.

209. What is the rule for interjections!-

.

' ~·

'<
i·

..

" "f
F
)

,:

/.

EXERCISES.

SYN'FAX.

father and mother at home 1 Either danger or foar have brought
vou here. Coosar as well as Cicero were distinguished for eloquence.
The navy form our natural bulwark, and have often proved our
defence in time of peril. The youth 'is not so ""-ell educated 111 th is
~ountry now as formerly. Either John or ~is br~ihc_r got~ town today . What avails the highest ptofessions, if the life i8 not rn accordance with them 1 A variety of circ1.1mstances arc tQ !Jc taken mto
:account. My brother 'a nd him are ti>lerable scholan1.

(.

Give their appropriate _Names to ·the Secondary Clauses, in the folWIJJing
Seutences.
: :It i; a poor: art ·that maintains not the -artisan. · One that is perfectly
' idle is perfectly weary too, and knows -not what he would h~ve or
do. _He that give~ . to a grateful man, put!j out to . usury. A mechanic, well skilled in his trade, \las hi~ fortune. in his band. A rich
man, care.l ess in bis expenditures, soon comes to poverty. The
pilot, knowing the dangers of the· coast, kept off the shore. The
trav eller, having explored the country, ·returned .home. The enemy being fairly beaten, we kept the field.

- - - - - 0 thou my lips inspire,
Wha touch'd. Isai.ah's hallowed lips with fire .

.

These are the men who makes lon,g speeches.. Tbc terms are ' nl!I
moderate as is consistent with any profit. Has the goods been sold
to. advantage l , Amcrico. and thee did in each othe r live. To honour
your.parents, to rnverence your tca-chers, and to be obliging to your
school-follows, is the 's ure way to preferment. Sorrows, like a flood,
overwhelms me. The piisses!>ion of our senses entire , of our limba
uninjured, of a sou~~ understanding, of friends and. compani~ns.,
though often ove.r looked among the many blessings which'~ enjoy,
<leserve 011r liveliest gra~tude.

Oh ! sweet and beautiful is night, when the silver moon is high,
: :And countless stars, like clustering gems, hang sparkling in the sky,While tho balmy breath of the summer breeze comes whispering down
'the gle n,
·
And one swoel voice alone is heard - Oh ! nigbt is lovely then.
. 'But when that voice in feeble moans of sickness and of·pain,
But mocks the anxious ear thal strives to catch ·its sounds in· vain,
:when silently ·we watch the bed, by the ·taper's flickering light,
While all we l?ve is fading fast - how ·terrible night!

is

J

.

"

'

The daylight is fading fast. The sun has 's et. Many hands make
light work. To borrow on usury brings sudden beggary. The
man that is happy in all things, is more rare than the Phamix. Time
flies swiftly. TimP. ]oRt iR nP.vAr rr,cover d. · Church hells wr.re
brought into use in the beginning of the fifth centm:y. The rUisins
brought from Damascus arc remarkable for their ,size. George and
I are in the same class. Wealth, honour, and ease, are the rewards
of persevering industry. A conscierlce void of'olTence is a rich possesl!ion. A man came to the door, enten:d the house, and soon
expelled the inmates. A great warrior, without a sense of justice,
commits 'many wrongs. The love of praise is a powerful incentive'
to action. The great discoverer of America, with a!l, his claims to
the ·gratitude of his sovereign, was permitted to die in obscurity and
wiint.·
(See

Rule !.)-

Many men is deceived by false appearances. The state of our affairs
are very. prosperous. There is , in fact, no servants in the house.
Temperance and moderate exercise preserves health. Is your

'·

Sentences to be.filled up with Ver&s.

~ '

Dutingui.sh between tlie Subject and the :Predicate, in t~ jo'lWwing Sentences; also point out the Object, where it occurs.
·

Sentencu to be corrected. -

125

. '

There
)wo ~sential words in language. T he first
the noun,
or word by which a thing
named; the second
the verb,
which
the state or action of a thing. Fifty pounds of wheat
forty pounds of flour. The mechanism of clocks and
watcl1es
unknown to the ancients. In him
happily
blended true rligni ty , 'with eoftneb'S of manners. To live. soberly,
· righteously, and godly,
required of all men. Reli gion,_ vital
rnligion, the religion of th~ h eart,
the tr~e source ' of virt ue.
mere professions of excelle nce f
'Without a holy lifo, what
Neither of them
able to do oth erwise.
either of them
then to blame 1 His wi'stlom, and not his riches,
.
admirntion. His having so often offendud
th A rea80n why he
so severely punished. The mother, with her family,
left the neighbourhood. Their rel igion, as well as their manners,
ridiculed. ToWn or country
equally ag reeable to me.
Do thou, Lord, who
above aU, come to our aid. Will ths
Lord, who
above all, come to our aid,? That your conduct
so inconsistent,
most distressing. I nm thu general officer who
the orders to-day. I who
the orders to-day nm a
gern)rlll officer.

11

*

11,

'

'.

r

I

\;.

126

-~r-..

'

· S entences to be corrected. - '(Rule 11.)

Such folly will ruin .ye both. Who have I reason to love, if not my
father? H e and they we kno~v; but whom are you 1 They, who
worth and rank has exalted, deserves our respect. He eent they
who he thought to·bel~ng to his party. 'He invited my cousin ·and I
to spend the holidays at his house. They that I rebuke before nil.
You should punish the guil ty person, not I who is innocent. · What~
ever <?thers do, let you and I perform our part.

Sentences to be corrected. - (Rules II. to VII.)

The Duke's of Roxburgh forest. The king's of Great Britain's pre• rogativc. Thy fathers virtue is not thine. It was the men, wom en,
and children's lot to suffer much affliction. Moses rod was turned
into u serpent. I called at the bookseller. I had tho surgeon, the
physician, and the apothecary's assistance. The king and queen
put on his robes. Can any one be sure that th eir own trials will not
overcome the m. Behold the Moon! how brightly she shines; yet
the light is not its own. He had a companion whlch "c orrupted him.
The Despot .was like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity.
Spare thou them, 0 God , which confess· their aillll. There is not a
B!ate of Eu.rope who .does not ·keep ·a .body of troops .in their pay.
J qbn a nd y qu hav~ tak en it to themselves. My father 'and I enjoy
their meal togethe r. Y ou have taken our portion from James and
me; send it them im mediate~y. 'They ' were the he;etica that first
began to rail . . It were they that were the real offenders. Lie that
book upon the table and there let it lay. He has laid in bed all the
morning.
S entences to be.filled up wiJ.!1 Pr~O'U.ns. -(Rules II. to VII.) .

. You were told
was he ; but the truth is,"
was I. Who iii
thnt calls my name at this rate : I will punish
. , bo
who
he may. Females ,
duty it is not to mingle in public life,
' have
own part assigned
. I do not think any .one
should incur censure fo r being tende r of
reputation. My brother and I Jove
occupation. A friend has sent John and you
the presen t, in token of his love to
. He had an acquaintance
. poisoned his principles. The horse and his rider,
came
.. yesterday have departed to-day. They take the sun out of tho
world
. take friendship out of it. She took goodly raiment,
was in the house, and put
upon Jacob. He is a Nero,
is another name for cruelty.

12·,

EXERCISES.

SYNTAX.

Sentwcc~ lo be corrected.-, (Eulea V ll. -

V 111.- IX.)

This noble nation has, of all others , admitted fewer corruptions. I
have not been from home this twe nty years. T hese sort cf person
di8regard public opinion. Instead of im provin g yoursel f, you havo
been triflin g this tw o hours. How beautiful an house! 1t is a hoRpita.l for orphans. Every one of his letters benr this Jatc. Every
man'8 daily walk and conversalion displays his character. :K either
of these persons seem to think it possible fo r them to err. Earn
in their t urn receives the benefits to w)lich they are entitled . Tho•e
arc the kind of enjoyments that good men ~pire afte r. lle pronounced an oulogium upon the departed statesman . Each of us
have got some money. None of the B ritish ~oldier8 were able to
do it .
Sent ences lo be corrected. -

(Rules X . - XVI.)

He is really the person who he appears to be. It may be him, but it
cannot be me. I understood it to be he. It might have bee n her;
but there is no· proof of it. I know not who has done this liinclness
to me , unless it ,b~ him who has so oftt!n a~sisted me befor.e. It is·
better live on little than outlive a great deal. I need not to ~olicit
to do a kind action. This was betrayi.n g of th e trust repo~ed in him .
I ca nno t he lp regurdin g him as an enemy , and thou as a deceit fu l:
friend. He prepared them for the even t by sending earl y in1eiligence. By reading of good books, we arc sure to imprm·e ho1h our
mind and our morals. H im who )vas the most pow&rfa[. b,jiving
been defeated , the conrp1est of the rest was easy.
The bleatin g sl1eep with my complaints agree,
Them parched wi1h heat, nnd mo inflamed by thee.
S entences

lo

be corrected. - (Rule XVI. }

It is fo r I that the gift is intended. It is not you who I am di~plenscd
with . Do you know who you 8peak to? What f<'llow "hip ou ght
there to be between ye, who nre holy, and th ey who arc wickt-J 7
F rom he that is needy turn not away. Who didst thon obtain snch
strange information·from 1
S entence$ to be corrected. - (Rules XVII. - X VIII. - XIX. )

A great intimacy .subsist bet wee n him and I. You and me have en joyed many a plea..~H nt exc ursion together. , N either he no r her can
answer. It is neither high or low. I must bo so plain ro tell you ,
that you have misapprehended it altogether. He wa~ ai; distin-

'·

------

-

··128

;•

..

guish~d in his l? rofossion as he im agined: Ifo would not speak him·
self, nor Jet' any other speak. So ill-informed is the boy; that he is
- (]ualified for nothing. I gained .a son, and such il son as nil men
hailed me. happy. There was 'something so touching in the manner
in which he told his misfortunes, as affected -rrie more than I can
exp ress., If he does but touch the mou_ntnins, t,h ey will smoke,
Though .he robs me of my all, I shall not be -able 'to hate 'him. If
a man smite his servant, and he dies, he shall surely be put to death.
Though God be high, yet he hath respect to the lowly.

.(

MISCELLA~EOUS

129

EXERCISES.

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES 0 -N CONSTRUCTION.

Cor~t the Errors in tltefollowing Sentences .
Self-denial, and devot edness to God_. is the soul ~f real religion.
N ei ther of_them arc to be di spe nsed wi th. The story was no sooner
told, but it wns universally believed. All the power of ridic~le , and
by the desertion of friends, and the loss of l1is estate, were not. able
to conquer his spirit. De re ady to assist such deserving persons
who appear to be destitute of friends. Every friend who we confide
in change but God. It. is not t11e uttering or the hearing certain
words' that constitute prayer to God : The climate of England is
not so pleasant as ~hose of France, Spain, _o r Italy.
. ·
·
The ~oncourse of'people ,\•ere so gre:i:t as that with great difficulty we
passed through them. H _e· has already. made great progre~s -i n his
studies ; and, if his di ligence continues, he will scion fulfil tbe cxpec·
tati-ons of his friends. It is amazing his propensity to this' vice ,
against every principle of interest and honour. Whether virtue advances our worldly· int erest or no, we must' follow her dictates. I
have seldom seen such a beautiful flower. I 'h ave seldom seen so
beautiful flo we rs. I doubt not but that he will fulfil his promise.
O n your future conduct depend 'your future happiness or misery.
'Wos you present when the detail of his toils and sulferings were
lnid before tho meeting 1 Lycurg us, the _Spartan lawgiver, he forbade tho coi ning any met al mote precious than iron. Ily the pupil's
attainments arc the 'preceptor honoured, and the pupils themselves
encou raged. Not orie in a huodred of those who scoff at the Gospel
of Chri s t, know w!mL it is th ey scoff at: Virtu e pursues the lofty
tenor of its "way s, whatever be the diflfoulty that encompasses it;
and soone(or later it will have its reward. The more I see of his
character, I like him better. It is not only the interest, but duty of
youth to reverence their parents. The captain had several men
died in his ship. The Chinese lan guage cont ains an immense n umber of words; who, th erefore, would learn th em must possess a
power\ul verbal memory. Tlie sacrifices that virtue makes will -not

,:i
ven here. There is
only be rewarded hereafter, but recompense.,. e
d
d.
f
h' h they less un crstan ,
nothing men are more ignorant o , _or w IC f I D - . le precepts
'l'h' is one o t ·1e
1v11
than their own · c haracters.
is
which is entitled to special reverence.

Death's sable shades at on e~ o'er~ast t~eir eyes,
In dust the vanquished and the victor hes.
Though the manner of Thucydides be dry_and' harsh, yet, on great
he d;oplay
vast 110\vers of descn puon.
occnstons,
~

.

. r aragrap'is .

Supply lite Blanks i» llw following

-

d the wh o'e afternoon in the ch urchyard, am usmg;
I yester d ay passe
'
_
. 1 -ICt with. Mo~ t
with the tombstones and mscnpuons
n
h 1
I
b
-ed
person
l at .1c
of tbcm recorded nothing else o f t 1e . un h . h'
hole history
·
d
nd
upon anot er , t c w
born upon one ay, a
.
th·1t
f h' l'fe
comprehended in those two circumstances,
'
o
JS I
mankind. I could not but look_ uponf
common to
I d
brnss or marble, as a \lfl 0
these registers of existence,
had left no other memorial,
satire upon the departed persons,
born.and
they Uied.
t11at t h ey
otion of envy
'When I look upon the tombs of
great , eve ry en:
.- ,- . l1en I read the epitaphs of the bca uuiul, _nn} mor
dies in
•
w
·
f
.
. ·h
meet with tlw g-rw " t pnrr·n.•:-o-dinate dcstre
out ' " ent
.
- _ · .. {
\V llh conq.r;_, ::-:-1e> 11, " lr1 11
l icar ·
pon a tombstone, ·
.
-, . - , : . _
u .
f h
t
I consider the vam -} vi p.ev
see the tomb o t e paren s
. 'kl £ !! v. when 1 ~ee kin gs
. " £ those
we must qu1c Y o 0' ·
_
m"' or
h d
d th m
I consider rival wits
o- '
'd - h
l ing by those w o epose
y
.
-d
th h ly mon- that divided thP. wor 1 wit
placed side by si e,dodr. e o
refl ect with sorrow and as toncontests an
isputes,
'
f
k- J
- hment on the little competitions, factions, and debates o man ~md
iW
s I en r' read the several dates of the tombs , - of some
ie
1
I
~
~M
yesterday' and :>ome six h undr ed years ago, cons1
all of
be contemporaneit, and
our
dny w h en wo
appearance together.
..
·
h
th e faculties
of the ch'l<l
1 ' w cWhatcvcr
the d isposmons,
ther earlier
later in life, the business
of father nor - .
. l
well without the co-opcrauon o.f
t 8 can proccc d wise Y
'
d
mas er h
\Vho knows so well as
the road to the understan the mot er.
'· 11 -1
t encourn cro
h
d
the heart 1 \Vho has sk1l I rn
' o
.~
mg, t e roa
I
1 .
11as power and address liko
h · ·d d epress t 1e
t e t1m1 an r
d ·J
t 'born and confirm the irrr~olut c?
a mother's
sub uc 'ie .8 .u.i
· motion, and
Wl
with such exq111s1te art draw out r put Ill
r.
. io
. 1
,oodncss m
,a1rr·"l
direct ordinary or supenor_ powers' P ace g
.
.
b'd
m its most i cow1
_
d
and
attractive light, an expose

130

EXERCISES.

SYNTAX.

forbidding form·? In the case of those persons
have
unhappily deviated from the path of virtue, how many
been '
stopped, converted, brought ·back, by consitlerntion of maternal
feelings, and
the recollection of e~rly lessons, and principles, and
resolutions ! Having been trained u p~ when· a child, in the way
wherein
·should walk, the man calls
to remembrance in
old age,
returns to · ·,. andI
f~om
no more.
Hyenas generally inhabit.caverns, and other tocky places,
whence .
they issue, under cover of the night, to prowl fot food. · They
gregarious, not so much from any social principle,
from a
greediness of disposition , and a gluttonous instinct, which
many to issemble even over a sc~nty ·and insufficient prey. They
are said
devour the bodies'
they find in cemeteries, . and
to disinter
as
hastily or imperfectly inhumed.
seems, indeed, to be a peculiar gloominess and malignity 6f disposimanners, in a state of caption in the aspect of the hyena, and
tivity, are savage and untractable. Like every other animal, however,
is perfectly capable of being tamed .

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131

lEsop o.nd the Uo11.

Wri.te simp le sentences illustrating this picture.

(

EXERCISES TO BE WRITrEN ;BY THE PUPIL.

Tho Prinoo instructed.

Write simple and ~omple"X sentences illustrative of this picture.

The Tro.vollers.
~rite

a i1f!ple sentences illustrative of this picture.

..,

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MODEL.
'Jne tn:.vellers have found a purse. · They will divide the money.
One of the travellers holds the purse. He is kneeling. The other
traveller claims his part. They may quarrel. Mimey is the source
of many contentions.

The Fox aod the Rat.

. I

t

Write comple:i: sentences illustrative of this picture , introducing some
of the different kinds of complex sentences, as adjective, relat ive , &c.

I.

'

_____ __

........ _......__ ..........

..

l:l2 . .

SYN'I,lAX. ,

~,

EXERCISES.

;:··
The two Pota•.

Write sentences illustrating Rule I (the Subject and the Verb).

Ilirds of Prey.

Write sentences illustrating Rule II. (ObjerJ).

The Prince shown to the People by tho Kine.

Write sentences illustrating the

The Rescue.

uwu!- observa(wn; under Rule I.

Write sentences illustrating Rule III. '(Posse.,sive case).

._,'
'

~~-A General leading an Army to Ilattlo.

Execution of Lady Jane ·Grey.

Write sentences illustrating the tltird obser00:tion under Rule I;, respecting collective nouns. 1

Writ_e sentences illustrating Rule IV. (App<>sitio11i.

12

133

134

135

EXERCISES,

SYNTAX.

.•'

, •!'

The Fox and the Frog.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule IX.

Tho ·Priso ner in danger.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule V.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule VJ.

· King John signing

j

Labour and Ro•t. r

! ~

- ~

Mn~na

Charta.

Write aontences ilh1~t'mting Rule X.
. ,5

1,..
~

~
I

An

Eagngc m~.nt

at 8011.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule VIII.

The Petitioner.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XI.

,·

.._

~-"·•~Y«<i:li~~----.'"'°-....,,.,.,_,,,_

{36

--

..... .-------..

...

__,....,,_.,.~~ "'
:: l'Ol~"'-...--.;.<"J~----.,...

""''"-------~----

'.

EXERCISES.

SYNTAX.

137

.

Death of Cardinal · Wolsey',

'Write sen~ences illustrative of -Rule XII.

r:i.i:)i.

War.

g::J

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XIV.

.
I'

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A wi~dy Dny.

Write sentences illustr.atiYe of Rule XIII.
The Country llfou11e entertaining the Town Monsc:

·btr

The man could not prevent the wind from ta'/d~ig
his wig. 1 This
will .toach him th e necessity of tying it on securely. He will be
tired of r1mni11g after it. ·fie holds up his cane for the purpose of
0

catching

Write sentences illustrating Rule XV.

it:

The Deed Bird.
.

Tho W olf and the Lumb.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule X:IY.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XVI.

12*

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138

.

RULES OF ARRAN GEMEN T.

SYNTAX.'

13!J

II. RULES OF ARRAN GEMENT .

210. The words of a sentence may be arranged either in
the Conventional or R hetorical order.
211. Th e Conventional Order is that arrangem':!nt of words
which is most usual in the language.
212. The Rhetorical Order varies from the usual arrangement, for the purpose of rhetorical effect.
The conventional order is best suited for the ordinary purposes of
speech; as, narration, description, and reasoning.
T he rhetorical order is generally dictated by passion, emotion, or fancy,
and belongs to the higher efforts of eloq uence or poetry, or to those
compositions 'l'V here great aticntion is paid to rhetorical expression.

Edward, the Black Pri~ce , with his Prisoner, the King of France.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XVII.

213. The following are some of the lead ing rules of arrangement. ,

'.

SUBJECT

AND

VER B .

214. R UL E XXL In sentences conventionally arranged, the
subject or nominative case precedes the verb, in all cases,
except four; as, "James walks;" " Time is pret:ious."
The following are the four excep.tions to this rule:
1. When the sentence is interrogative ; as,
" Arc wealth and power necessary to happiness 7" ...
2. When the sentence is imperative ; as,
" Go thou to the prophet.''.
3. When the verb il'.' preP.P.OP.<l hy there, here, lience, then, tliwr, yet, M,
nor, n eith er, Mtch, herein, therein, 1cherein, &c. ; as,
"There was no rain.''
" He re are the companies."
"Hence arise wars and convulsions.''
4. A few phrases, such as, said 11e, replied tlunJ, are deviations from
the general rule, which scarcely deserve notice.

The Culprit.

Write sentences illustrativo of Rule XVIII. •

'"'

215. RuLE XXIL In sentences rhetorically arranged, the
predicate often precedes the subject; as,
"Forgot were want, disease and death, by that im passio ned throng. "

The Captive.

Write sentences illustrative of Rules XIX., and XX.

2 10. How may the words of a sentence be arran ged ? 211. Wliat
is the conven tional order 7 212. What is the rh etorical order ? \\'hat
is the conventional order suited for 7 - What is the rlictorical order
suited for 7 214. What is the twentv-first rule ?. What arc the fou r
exceptions 1 215. What is the twenty-st:coud rule ? :216. What is

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140

SYNTAX.
RULES OF ARRANGEMENT.
i
VERB AND ITS

141

OBJECT.

216. RULE xxrrr. ' In sentences conventionally arranged,
the transitive verb generally precedes Hs object; · as,

POSITION OF PRONOUNS .

2'20. RuLE X,"'{Vll. When the personal pronouns come
togeth er, the pronoun of the second person is placed before
that of the third; «nd the pi:onoun of the first person is
placed afte~ those of the second and third; as,

"I tread reviving passions down."
Exception I. When the object is n relative pronoun, it generally pre· · . .
cedes the verb ; as,
"I am the man whom you seek."
Exception II. When the object is preceded by s~ch words as, whatever, wl111.tsoever, &c. it precedes the verb ; as,
" .Whatever he designs,' he accomplishes." .
217. RuLE XXIV. In rhetorical. sentences, · the object,

" You and George may remain here, William and I wi H go to the
city.''
· ·

221. RuLE XXVIII. Th e relative pronouns, with their
clauses, must be placed as near as po,ssible to their antecedents.

when emphatic, precedes the verb; as,

,.

'

:·

Thus, in these lines, the relative is too far removed from the ante.. cedent:
"The rose had been wash'd, just wash'd in a shower,
Wlticlt Mary to Anna convey'd." ·

"Thy fruit full well the school-boy knows,
Wild bramble of the brake!"
This inversion often takes place in poetry ; as,
" Il ut suddenly a holy awe the vengeful clam~r still'd."
" The spotte~ pestilence with war, aw bile the feast had shared."

POSITION OF THE . INFl .N ITIVE AND THE A UXILIARIES . '
.

p 0

s I T .I 0 N

.

0 F ' AD J E c TI v Es •

218. Ru~E XXV. In con~entional sentences the adjective
is generally placed immediately before the noun which it
qualifies; as,
•.

" I requested him, if he vdlued my fri endship, to return."

"An old man." "A skilful physician."
1
There are four exceptions to this rule ; viz. ,
l. When the adjective is used as a title i as,
"Peter the Great." " Charles tl1e Twelftli."
2. When there are several adjectives joined with the same noun· 88
"A statesman, honest , capable, and fa ithful."
'
'
3. When the adjective is modified by other words ;. llS,
" A house full of pe!YJ>le.' \
4. When the adjective expresses measure or extent; as,
" A man six feet high." " A plain thirty m.iles square."
219. RuLE XXVI. In .rhetorical sentences, the adjective

often begins the sentence; a s,

223. RuLE XXX. In rhetorical sentences, the principal
verb often precedes the auxiliary; as,
" Go you must, and go you shall, let the consequences bo what they
may."
"Ilave it he would, cost what it might.''
POSITION

.

''

"Dear is my little native vale."
" Sweet is the remembrance of a virtuous deed.''

the twenty-third rule 7...._ W hat are the exceptions 1 217. What is the
twenty-fourth rule? 21 8. \V but is the twenty-fifth rule? - What arc
the exceptions? 219. What i~ the twenty-sixth rule 1 220. What i11

r~

222. RuLE XXIX. In conventional sentences the infiniti Ji
is placed after the verb on which it depends, though often
separated from it by other words; as,
"I requested him · to return.''

OF

ADVERllA.

224. RuLE XXXI. In conventional sentences, a d verbs
should be placed as nea r as possible to the words t hey
·q ualify. They are generally pl11ced before adjectives, and
often between the auxiliary and the principal verb; as,
"He was grcaJly mistaken."

l

.
l

,,i.
...

" John' has n ever been in Rome.''
th e twcnty-~cvcnth rul e 1 221. What is the twenty-e ighth rul e ?
What is the twenty-ninth rule 1 223. What iN th e thirtieth rul e 7
22,1. What i~ the thirty-first rule? 225. What is the tl1irty-sccoud rule ?
~2.

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142

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES.

225. RULE XXXII. Adverbs, when emphatical, may introduce a sentence, and be separated from the words they are
intended to qualify; as,
·

.

OF

:'I•

EXERCISES ON ARRANGEMENT.

226. RuLE XXXIII. The preposition is generally placed
immediately before its object; but it is also not unfrequently
placed ofter it, and even _'at a considerable distance from
it; ns,
' " For all these actions ·you must account."
"All these .actions you must speedily accoun~fo·r, before a high tribunal."
.

\Vith many n snare abounds the path to bliss.
The pnth to bliss abounds with many a snare.
Rouse nil your ·courage. \Vas he intelligent 7
Had he arrived in season, he wou ld have heard the new.a.
Comes he with the sword or with the olive branch of peace 7
U nnumbercd are tho blessings she bestowt1.
Ctcsar conq uered Dritain.
His enemies he won by clemency.
Great conquerors purchase fome nt a denr rate.
Great was his sorrow, when he heard the news.
Fallen art thou, 0 ! Son of the Morning.
Bitte rly did he mourn the loss of his friend.

POSITION OF CONJUNCTIONS .

227. RuLE XXXIV. . The position of.conjunctions _varies,
actording as -they conned ·sen fences,· or merely~ par~s of
sentences. · · · ·
"
'
~Such conjunctions as, than,· if, · tlwugl1, tltat, le.~t, unlesi, &c. which:
,

.-.

'

• •• '

connect clauses, but never sentences, tuko tho. first place in tho
clauses to which they refer; as,
" He is older than I."
" T!tougli lte came late, he wus.in season for the entertainment." ·
Monosyllabic conjunctions, except then, nro placed at the beginning of
the second sentence; as,
"He was undoubtedly an excellent schol nr ; bttt his acquaintance with
tho Oriental languages was not extensive."
" Your succo"s will depend on your own exertions; see, then, that
you aro diligent."
Conjunctions of more than one syllable,'with the exception of where<U,
' may be placed either at the beginning of the sentence or not, as ~he ·
1
sound may seem to re'juirc; .as,
.
·
" He was learned and honest. lVforeover, he was well skilled.in all ·
lighter accomplishments. It is not surprising, tltcrefore, that ho .
should have received the appointment. His success, however, is by
no menns certain."

226. Whal is the thirty-third rul e?
rule 7 -

.,

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PREPOSITIONS .

1

t_,,

Distinguish 1olticlt of th e following Sentencu are'arranged Conv~ntionally,
and wkiclt Rhetorically, giving the rules.

" 011ward ho won t, regardless of danger."
"Down, · ~'ith a- trem endous cr~sh, ·feli the building."
.-. ..
POSIT.ION

143

'.',

227. What is the thirty.fourt4

Correct the improper collocation of the words in lt.alics, in the following
Conventional Sentences.

Me he despises on account of my poverty.
There river.~ are in that country.
The nation their king deposed without an error a.<sig11ing, ns a
reason .
If you me would oblige, desist from my friend calumniati1w.
0
From me injuring , to in.mlt ho proceeded.
Cool is the morning, me and George a walk would re fre~h.
I and vV illiam are classmates; Henry rmd you occupy th e snmc room .
The town was invested by the army, which was .mrrounded by a lnjry
wall.
·
The house was destroved by fire wliicli I occupied.
Tho country was cove.red with verdure completely.
You nre roady to recite nciier.
Your lesson is not enough long.
T ran$pose the Prepositions in the following Sentence.•, /n as many ways
as the sense will admit.

I am the man whom you inquired fo·r.
Of this conspiracy Cresar' had no knowledge.
Frum wha t country he came I never inquired.
To him I of my hard' fate complained.
Such treatment I was not prepared for and it ts treatment which
I have never been accustomed to.

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144

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES.

Point out, in tltefollowi.ng Sentence., , thc,co11juncl ions. ~hich connect sent c11Ce.• , and ·tlwso which connect only parts of sentences ; also tl1c sent ences and parts of sentences :whiclt they resP,ectivo/,:y connect.

High on the throne of, royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus or of Inde ,
Or where ~he gorgeo us. Eust, with richest hand,
Showers, on her kings barbaric, pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat.

He thought that he should arrive in season; but ·.the rail-road cars ran
off the track ; and the . whole · train was delayed two hours. He
arrived , however, in the course of. the night . .
If th~ cost were duly estimated beforehand, natiQns would seldom go
to :war.
To become learned, you ~ust be diligent ; use, therefo~e, all the means
within your reach for acquiring knowledge; for unless you· are
attentive to this matter now, in your youth, you will remain, to a
'
.
certain degree, illiterate all your ·life time.
As you sow, so you will reap.
I would reply, ;f I thought his arguments sufficiently strong to require
refutation ; but he appears to me to. have refuted himself.
Unlus be will retire, I cannot remain in the room; but if be will go
out, I will stay. ·
T!wugh he wa~ eloqu~nt and learned, yet he was not · ~ ready debater.
..
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Hence! loathed Melancholy,
Of Cerberus and blackest midnight born,
In Stygian cave forlorp,
'Mongst horrid shapes and shrieks, and sights unholy,
Find out some uncouth cell.,
Where brooding darkness spreads his jealous wings,
And the night raven sings ;
There, under ebon shades and low-brow'd rocks,
As ragged as thy locks,
ln dark Cimmerian desert ever dwell.

.
.I

To him_who ·in the love of nature holds
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks
A ~ai;ious language; for his gayer hours
She has a voice of gladness, and a smile
And eloq uence of beauty, and she glides
Into his darker musings, with a mi ld
And ge ntle sympathy, that steals away
Their sharpness, ere h'e ·is aware.

,\

Pinnt"' of celestial seed; if dropp'd ·below,
Say in what mortal soil thou deign' st ~o grow: ·
Fair opening to some court's propitious shrine,
Or deep with diamonds in the flami,ng mine?
Twined with the wreath Parnassian laurels yieJd,
0 r reap' d in iron harvests of the field 'l
Where grows ! where grows it not 1 if vain our toil,
We ought to blame the · culture, not the soil.

145

EXERCISES TO BE WRITTEN BY THE PUPIL.

ContJcrt, by tran.•position, the follow i'. ng Rhetorical S en!ences into Convention.al S entences.

Great arc their nam es! Honoured and revered be their memory !
Associated with W ashington.nnd franklin, th eir glory. is a precious
possession, enriching our urinals, and exalting tHe character of our
country . Greater is the brighi example they have left us. More
precious the lesson, furnish ed by th eir lives, for our instruction.
From the charter of our independenGe , breathes a nobler counsel. To
our republic belongs a happier province. Peace we would extend,
but by persuasion and o .~nm ple , - the morn! force by which alone it
can prevail among the nations. Wnrs we may encou nter, but it is
in the sacred character .of the injured and wronged.

The Deer.

Write con.ventWnal sentences illustrative of the twenty.first rule of
arrangement.

13

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146

SYNTAX.

147

EXERCISES.

, Napoleon on St. Helena.

Write rhetor·ical sentences illustrative of Rule XXII.

MODEL .
Fallen is the mighty conqueror. Great was his s~ccess; but terrible
were the calamities which he brought upon the nations: brilliant
were his victories ; but not less signal and complete were the reverses which terminated his career. Sad and gloomy must have
been the thoughts which passed through his mind, as from his rocky
prison he surveyed the wide and restless ocean - fit emblem of his
boundless ambition; .'and 'o f the turbulent times which made and
marred his splendid fortunes.
'·

1-lcrnld forbiJdinK a Duel.

Write rhetorical sentences

illustr~tive

of Rule XXIV.·

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXV.

Queen Victorin.

Write rhetorical sentences illustrative of Rule XXIT.
'

The Higblander.
The Pursuit.

W£ite c011ventional sentences illnstmtive of Rule XXIII

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXVI.

<

148

EXERCISES.

.SYNTAX.

149

'.•

Dinner Time.

A Converso.tioa.

Write sentences illustrativ~ of Rule. XXVII.

•

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXX .

..I

.

Fi•hing with Spean1.

.;·

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXI.
Sport in tho Gardon.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XX:VIII.

The Ocelot.
The unstrung Bow.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXIX..

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXII.

13 '*'

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150 -

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

151

W no is a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent, M EN . Rule V. It is of th e third person plural, and nominative case to the
1
verb DESTROY. - Ro mar~ under Rule I.
D ESTROY is a reg ular uctive verb, of the indicati~e mood, prese nt tense,
third person plural, agreeing with its nominative wn o. - Rul e I.
A, is an indefinite article, prefixed to the noun CONSTITUTIO N. -Rule

VIII. '

The Baboon.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXIII.

(

The Lynx.

Write sentences illustrative of Rule XXXIV.

EXERCISES IN SYNTACTi'CAL PARSING .
"Thoee men, who destroy a hea1t.hful constitution of body by intern.
perancc , nnd an irregular life, do as manifestly kill themselves, 88
those who hang; or poison, or drowi1 themselves." ·
Mode of parsing the above sentence.

TnosE is a demonstrntive adjective· pronoun, of the plural number,
agreeing with the noun M EN . - Rule VIL (Recite the rule.)
M EN is a common noun, of the third person plural, and ,nominative
cMe to the verb uo KILL. - Rule I.

H EALTH FU L is an adjective quatifying the noun CONSTITUTION. Rule XXV.
CoNSTIT UTION is a common noun, of the third person singular, and
object of the verb DESTROY. - Rule II.
OF is a preposition.
B o DY is a noun of the third person singular, and object of the preposition OF. -Rule XVI.
BY is a preposition. .
INTEMPERANCE is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, and object of the preposition BY ..- Rule XVI.
A ND is a conjunction connecting the nouns INTEMPERANCE and LIFE.
- Rule XVII.
AN is an indefinite article , prefixed to the noun LIFE. - Rule VIII.
IRREGULAR is an adjective qualifying the noun LIFE. - R ule XXV.
LIFE is a common noun of the third person, singular numbe r, and
object of the preposition BY. - Rule XVI.
D o KILL is a regular active verb, of the indicative mood , present tense,
emphatic form, third person plural, a.,ureeing wi.th. its nomi native
MEN.~ Rule I.
·
A s is a conjunction, connecting its own clause of the sentence with the
· clause which follows. - Rule XXXIV.
MANIFESTLY is an adverb, qualifying the verb no KTLL. - Ruic XX.XI.
THEMSELVES is a pronoun, compounded of them .and the reciprocal
pronoun selves.* It is of the third person, plural number, object of
the verb DO KTLL. - Rule IL
A s is a conjunction, connecting its o~n clause of the sentence with
the clause which precedes it.
. .
THOSE is a demonstrative adjective pronoun, of the plural number,
agreeing with MEN, understood. - Rule VII.
W no is a relative, agreeing with its antecedent MEN, understood. Rule V. It is of the third person plural, and nominative case to
the verb HANG. - Remark under Rule I.
HANG is ~n irregular active verb, of the !ndicative mood, present tense,
third person plural, agreeing with WHO; - Rule I.
OR is a conjunction~ connecting its own clause with that which precedes it.
·
• See Sectidn 119, p:57.

:,

. . ------- -

-----~~-------....,.~---------·--------1.Jio-...--

·152

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES IN PARSING.

PorsoN. is a regular active verb; of tire indicative moad, iiresent te~e,
third person plural, a,,crreeing with WHO, ,understood. ~Rule l . .

Nor bays and broad-arm'd ports,
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride;
Nor starr' d and spangled courts,
Where low-brow'd baseness wafts perfume to tiride. No! -men , high -minded men,
With powers as far above dull brut.es endued,
In forest, brake , or den,
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude J
l'>Ien, who their dulie.• know,
But know their ri.glits; and, knowing, dare maintain,
Prevent the long-aimed blow,
And crush the tyrant, while they rend the chain, These constilule ,a 'state;
And sove reign law, that state's c_ollected will,
High over thrones, and globes elate,
Sits empri;ss, crowning good , repressing ill.
Smit by her sacred frown,
The fiend discretion, like a vapour sinks;
And e'en the . all-dazzling crown ·
Hides his faint rays, nni:l at her bidding shrinks.
Such was this heaven-lov'd isle,
Than Lesbos fairer, and the Cretan shore! No more shall F recdom smile 1
Shall Britons languish, and be men nci more 7
Since all must life resign,
·
Those sweet rewards which animate t!ie brave,
'Tis folly to decline,
And steal inglorious to the silent grave.
Sir lVilliam Jones.

OR. (Parsed as dbov!!.)
DROWN. (Parsed in' the same manner as POISON.) '
THEMSELVES.

(P1!rs11d as above, ex~ept that it is the ~b~ect of DROW~.)

Parse tl1efollowing sentences, giving the.Rules ~f Syntax.

" We find but few historians of all ·ages, who have been diligent
enough in their search for truth; it is their corr,imon method to take
on trust what they distribute to the public, by which meons, a falsehood once r~ceived from a famed writer becomes tradition!!! 'to posterity."
" The punishment of criminals should be of use: when a man is
hanged, he is good for nothing."
1
" The morality of an action depends upon the motive fro'm which we
act. If I fling half-a-crown to a beggar with intention to break his
head , .a nd he picks it up and buys victuals with it, the 'physical effect
is good; but with respect to me, the action is very wrong."
.. How difficult a thing it i~ to persuade a IDIJ-11 to re'ason against his
ow'n interest, though he is convinced that «;!qqit}r is, against him !"
1

•

t

~·-

"The aim of education should be t~ teach':us rather how to think than
what to think- rather to impro~e our minds, so as to enable us to
think fo r ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of
other men~"
"No entortninmont is so cheap as rP.arling, nor any pleasure so lasting."
" Rea~ not to contradict and confute, but to weigh arid consider.
Some books are to be tasted, others 'to be swallowed, and 11ome few
to be digested ; that is, some books are to be rend only in parts ;
others to be read, but not curiously; and some few to be read wholly
nnd with diligence and attention. Reading mnketh n full man, conference a ready man, and writing an .exact man."
"To do an ill action is base; to do a good one, which involves you
in no danger, is nothing more than common; but it is the property ·
of ti truly good man, to do great and good things, though he 'risk
every thing by it."

A State.
What cons titutes a state 1
Not high-rnis'd battlements, 'or laliour'd mound,
Thick wall, or mooted gate ;
Not cities proud, with spires and turrets crown'd,

Love of Fame.
The love of praise, bowe'er conceal ed liy art ,
Reigns more or lesa, nnd glows in every heart :
The proud to gain it toils on toils endure,
The modest shun it, but to make it sure ;
O'er globes and sceptres, now on thrones it swells.
Now trims the midnight lamp in college cells.
'Tis Tory, Whig; it plots, prays, preaches, ).>leads ,
Harangues in senates, speaks in masquerades.
It aids the dancer's heel, th e writer's head,
And heaps the plain with mountains of the dead;
Nor ends with life; but nods in sable plumes,
Adorns our hearse, and flatters on our tombs.
Young.

153

-~

·~ ~ ...;~~-

154

..• ...,a.c=.t-~ .......... ----------------------~-r-~

SYNTAX.

PU NC TUATION .

"Wo should ltonour, reverence, love and defend our parents."
" Give it to him, lier or me."
"You should conduct you rself lwnourahly, dutifitlly, affec tionately
and discreetly in this man er. "

PUNCTUA.TIO N.

10. RULE III. Absolute, r elative, and, in general, all parenthetioal clauses, are separated from the other parts of a sentence by comm as ; as,

I. IN speaking or reading a sentence, various pauses are

made, for the purpose of making the construction and meaning more distinct to the hearer.
2. P unctuation is the marking of these pauses, by points,
indicative of their length.
3. The principal points are the Comma (, ), the Semicolon
( ; ), the Colon (: ), and the Period (. ).

4. The Comma r epresents the shortest pause, ,and is often
u sed to mark the construction where very little interruption
o! voice is allo wable.
5. T he Se micol on marks a _longer pause than a comma,
an d separates clauses less closely connected.
G. T he Colon marks a longer pause than the semicolon,
and indicates a still- looser connexion between the clauses
which it separates.
7. Th e Period, or full point, is used' at the end of a sentence, to indicate that it is completed.
C OMMA .

8. Rm.l'l I. When a ·simple sentence is Jong, the subject
and predicate each consisting of a number of words, a
c omma is placed between them ; as,
"To be co nstantly apprehensive of unknown dangers, is a mark of a
weak min<l."

9. R u LE IL When two or more words, whether nouns, adjectives, prono un s, verbs, or aJ verbs, are connected without
the connecting word ·being expressed, the comma supplies
the place of that word ; as,
"Ilonrmr, dut y . 11ff'•·ctinn and interest reciuire<l the act."
l1 01u11aal1fr, rlnti ful, a.fJect·ionate and wise."
- -- --- - . ·--- - - - - -- - - - -- - - -

· " He was

L Why arc pan,cs u•cd? 2. What is pun ctuation 1 3. \Vhat nre
t'1e principal poi nts us<'<l in writing? 4. DcRc ri be the Comma. 5. The Semicolon. - G. Th e Colon. - 7. The Peri od. 8. What is the
first rul e fo r the use of tho corn ma? - Givo c:rnmplcs. !J. What is
the second rule fo r the use of the comma?- Give examples. 10.

155

"The cl.ock having struck tm, the mee ting was adjourn ed."
"The man whom you met at the party, is a Frenchman."
"We were' always successful, because we_ were c~refu.l.',' ,,
" The war even at the close, was not uruversally popu 1ar.
,
. ''
" He returns, I think, under very favourable ausp1ce8.
I,'

1 I. RuLE IV. Th e modifying· words· and phrases, nay,
however, hence, bes't'.des, finally, in short, at least, and the
like, are usually separated by commas; a s,
" The Romans understood libe rty as we:!, at least, as we."

12. RuLE V. Words denoting the person or object addressed are separated by commas; as,
"I write, m y friend, -in grent distress of mind."
" T hy dnughters, Columbia, are fair."

13. Ruui VI. A word or phrase emphatically repeated is
separated by commas; as,
"The people, the peoplo, if we are true to them, wi ll carry us, and
will carry themselves, gloriously, through this 8tmecle.''

14. RuLE VIL The word s of another writer cited, but not
formally introduced as a quotation, are separated by commas; as,
" Lord Bacon tells us that, }[e tltat ltatlt wife and cltildrcn, hath given
hostages to fortun e."

15. R uLE VIII. Words and clauses, thoug h closely cor.nected in construction, are often separated by a commn,
wh en contrast or opposition is expressed; as,
·•He came full of hope, and returned di sappointed."
\\'h at is the third rule for the n•e of th e comma ? - (~ivc. ex amr~lcs.
11. ·what is the fourth rule? - Give exnmpl~s . 12. \~ h at is the ti fU1
rule 1 - Gi ve examples. 13. Wh at is the sixth rul e ' - <:ive cxan~­
plcs. 1<1. Wh at is the seventh rule? - Give example•. l:i. What is

l;JG

SYNTAX.

157

PUNCTUATION.

16. RuLE IX. When the absence of a word is indicated in
rPading or speaking by a pause, its place may be supplied
by a comma; as,
" \Vant creates discontent; discontent, sedition '; sedition, anarchy;
and anarchy, despotism.''

SEMICOLON .

'

17. Ru LE I. When a sentence consists of two parts, the one
containing a complete proposition, and the other added as
an inference, or to give some reason or explanation, the two
parts are separated by a semicolon ; as, '
\

'' I cannot a3sent to the doctrine; for it is equally repugnan t to religion
and common sense. "
·

18. RuLF. JI. When a sentence consists of several members,
each constituting a distinct proposition, and having a depend ence upon each other or upon some common clause,
they are separated by sem~colons; as,
" He came immediately to the camp; inquired into the cause of the
m ee ting; brought the ringleaders 10 trial; and did not abandon the
afiair, till they were all convicted and shot."

semicolon, has its sense suspended till the last, that clause
is disjoined from the preceding by a colon ; as,
"If he has not been unfaithful to his king; if he has not proved a
trait.o r to his country; if he has never given cause for such charges
as have been preferred against him: why then is he afraid to confront his accusers?"
. The colon is rarely used in composition. It may, for th e most part, bo
dispensed with, without any great inconvenience .

,,
<

PERIOD.

21. Besides being used to mark the completion of a sentence, the period is placed after initials, when used alone, as,
D . D. for Doctor 'of Divinity; and after abbreviations, as,
Lat., for Latin.
22. The other marks most commonly used are the Dash
( - ), the point of Interrogation ( 1 ), the point of Exclamation ( ! ), and the Parenthesis ( ).
23. The Dash .marks a break in the sentence, or an abrupt turn; as,
"Great distresses are silent - penury depresses the spirits ns it emn·
ciates the body."

COLON.
I

19. RuLE I. When a sentence consists of two parts, the
one so complete in itself as to admit a full point, and the other
containing an additional remark, depending upon the former
in sense, though not in syntax, the connection of the remark wi th the preceding proposition is indicated by a
colon; ns,
"r'ain1i11g is a noble art: it should be encouraged as a means of national glory ."

20. RoLE II. YVhen a sentence, which consists of an enumeration of particulars, each separated from the other by a

----- - - -- - - - -

th e eigl1th rul e 'i - Give examples. I G. \Vhat is the ninth rule for the
uso of the com mu 1 - Give examples. 17. \Vhut is the first rule for
the use of the Semicolon 7-Givc an example. . 18. 'I'he second rule 1
- Give an example. 19. Wh al iR the first rule for the use of the
Colon ? - Give an example. 20. The second rule 7 - Give an exam-

24. The point of Interrogation is put after a sentence
which asks a question; as,
"ls it fancy, or is it fact?"

25. The point of Exclamation is used after sudden expressions of emotion; us,
"Behold! I bring you glad tidingR !"

· 26. The Parenthesis is sometimes used to enclose a remark
or clause not essential to the sentence in construction , but
useful in explaining it, or introducing an important idea; as,

j '·~·

y,: .~·

,-:,

" Let us, then (for we can no longer conceal the necessit y of such a
proceeding), ente r at once upon a full investigation."
pie. 21. What nre th e uses of the period?
points and stops ? - Explain their uses

14

22. \Vh:i.t are the other
.!

'

,,
} •.<

158

SYNTAX.

EXERCISES ON PUNCTUATION.

EXERCISES ON PUNCT UATIO N.

.

sand people employed in lead tin iron copper and coal mines these
unhappy wretches scarce ever see the light of the sun they are buried
in th e bowels of the eart h there they work at a severe and dismal
task without the least prospect of Lcing deli vered fr om it they subsist on the coarses t and worst sort of fare il1cy have thei r health
miserably impaired and their lives cut short by being perpetually
confined in the close vapour of these m al ignant minerals. A hundred thousand more at least are tortured without remission by the
suffocating smoke intense fires and constant drudgery necessary in
refi ning and managing the products of these mines.

(

Correct the Errors , and supply tlte Defects, in tlte following Sentence1:
COMM A.

Politics, is th e upplication of morals to social institutions.
T he peculiar character of the doctrine of Confucius is that nil, the
duties of man are presented us various forms of domestic duties.
Plato ; Epicurus ; and Aristotle ; were great, Grecian philosophers.
Irenreus Tcrtullian Origcn and Clement; of Alexandria were fathers
of the Church.
·
Time, and mon ey, industry, and talent: were thrown away, in this
useless purs uit.
He rose ; like the sun ; when he is shrouded in vapours, but he soon
burst forth in meridian splendour.
SEMICOLON.

He often comes; to see me, but he seldom tarries Jong.
Parrots like all other hooked-clawed birds walk awkwardly, they
m ake use of their bill as a third foot climbing and descending; with
a ridiculo us caution.
Owls move in a buoyant manner; as if lighter than the air, they seem
to want ballast.
Most small birds hop, but wagtai ls and larks walk; moving their legs
alternately.
Skylarks rise _:'Ind fall; perpendicularly; ns they sing, wood-larks
hang poised in the air, and tit-larks rise and foll; in large curves;
singing in th eir descent.
COLON .

He who po3sesses a treasure does not care to show it to nil the world,
he preserves it to use in time of need, you would do the same if you
were a true sage.
C orrect this fault, purge yourself from nll desire of pleasure, this will
make you much more useful than all you are trying to learn about
the ancients.
Point tlte following Sentences:
We scarce believe a thing when we are told it which we actually see
before our eyes every dny without being the lenst surprised.

I suppose that there are in Grcut Britain upwards of a hundred thou-·

159

·t

If any man informed us that two hundred thousand innocent persons
were confined to so intolerable a slavery how should we pity the
unhappy sufferers and how great would be our just indignation
ngainst those th at inflicted so cru el and ignominious a p un i~hmcnt.
T his is nn instance I could not wish a stronge r of the numberless
· things which we pass by in their common dress yet which shock us
when they are nakedly represe nted.
But this nu mber considerable as it is and th e slavery with all its baseness and horror which we have at home is nothing to what the
rest of the world affords of the same nature.
Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign
masters Pain and P leasure It is for them alone to point out what we
ought to do as well ns to determine what we shall do On the ono
hand the standard of right and wrong on the othe r th e chain of
causes and effects are faste ne d to thei r throne They govern us in all
we do in all we sny in nil we think every effort we can mak e to
throw off our subjection will serve but to demonstrate and to confirm it In words a man may pretend to abjuro th eir C'mpire but in
' reality he will remain subject to it all the whil e The principle of
utility recognises th is subjec tion and assumes it fo r the foundatio n of
that sys tem the object of which is to rear the fab ric of felic i1y by the
hands of reason and of law Systems which at temp\ to <Jnestion it
deul in sounds instead of sense in caprice instead of rea;.on in dark ness instead of light The happiness of the indiv idual s of whom
community is composed that is their pleasures and their secu rity is
the end which the legislator ought to have in view the sole standard
in co nformit y to which each individual ought ns far as depends upon
the legislator to be made to fashion his behaviour But wh ether
it be this or any thing else that is to be done there is nothing by
which a man can ultimately be made to do it hut ci 1her pain or
pleasure Plautus turned a mill Terence was a slave Bo_cthius died
in a jail Paul Borghese had fifteen different trades and s1arved with
them all.

a

f

i

·~~_,,.,~--~------------------------...----------~---~~~-

- --

..
160

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

161

PART IV.

ceive, that without the alternate percussion of accented and
unaccented syllables it woulcl not be harmonious. Thus:11. Some instances occur of harmony produced by the
quantity alone, apart from accent; as,

PROS O DY .

"Fuuntain.s, nnd ye that warble as y e jl i;it-."
"For Eloquence thl sii11Z; Sung charms ti,\< >c;isc."

12. But such instances are fe w: the accent, in the vast
majority of cases, determines the pronunciation, and consequently , the harmon y of th e line, without regard to the
natural length of the syllables. Thus:-

I. PRosoov* is that part of grammar which treats of the
structure of Poetical Composition.
2. Poetry differs in structure from prose 'chiefly in requiring a more measured arrangement of words, and in
admitting greater license in the application of them.
3. The measured arrangement which distinguishes poetry
·from pros,e is called Versification.
4. Th e applica tion of words, peculiar to poetry; is called
Poetical License.
·

" lfiirl' d he'adlung fla'm7rig from th' ethc'rerll ~l< y' . "

13. A V e rsc is a measured line consisting of a certain number of rerrular ret urns of accented and unaccen tc(J syllables.
14. Tl~e number of accents in a verse determines the
number of feet.
15. A foot consists generally of t1co, and sometimes of
three syllables, one of which is always accenterl.
16. It is called foot, because it is by the aid of the accent
which marks its principal syllable that we step alon g through
the verse in a measured pace.
17. The principal feet are the lamb-us, the Trochct:, and
the Anapaest.
18. An Jamhus is a dissyllabic foot, having the accented
syllal>le last; as, a do're.
19. A Trochee is a dissyllabic foot, havin g the accented
syllable first; as, n o'ule.
20. An Anapa:st comists of three syllables, the two first
un acce nted, and the last accented ; as, in tcrce'de.
2 1. Rhyme is the name by which we distingu ish verses
that a re closed by final syllables of a similar sound; as,

VERSIFICATION.

5. T he harmony of Verse depends upon the regular recurrence, at fixed intervals, of syllables of a certain quantity.
6. Syllables are either long or short; accented or unaccented.
7. A syllable is long or short according to the time oocu-,
pied in pronouncing it; as, tube, tUb.
8. A syllable is accented or unaccented according as stress
of the voice is placed upon it in pronunciation; as, dete'r,
i'njury.
9. The harmony of English verse depends chiefly upon
the return at regular intervals of accented, and not of long
syllables.
" Of mn'n's first di'sobe'dience n'nd the fru'it
O f thn't forhi'dden tre'e, whose mo'rtnl tns'te
· Brought de'ath into' the wor'ld and n'll our wo'.''

IO. It is only necessary to repeat any verse in English to per-

"Hope, for a season, bad e the world f:irctnP!l,
And Freedom sbriek'd-as Kosciusko f ell!"

* Prosody strictly denotes

only that musical tone or melody which
accompanies speech . But the usage of modern grammarians justifies
an extremely general application of the term.
1. What is Prosody? 2. How does poetry differ from prose? 3.
What is Versification ? 4. What is poetical license ? 5. Upon what
docs the harmony of verse depend? 6. W hat is said of syllableR? 7.
Aro syllables alwnys long or short ? 8. Are they always accen ted?
9. Upon what does the harmony of English verse depend? -10. How

iR its harmony pe rceived 7 - Give nn e_xnmple. 11. Is lrnrmony sometimes produced \Jy quRntity alone ? -Give an e xa mple. 12. Whnt does
the accent determine? 13. What is a verse? 14. W~rnt docs tli c nurnbc~
of accents determine? 15. What is a foot? l G. Wh y 1s lt called foot .
17. ·what nrc th e principal feet? 18. What is an Iambus? - 19. A
Trochee? - 20. An Anaprest? 21. What is rhyme? - Gl\"c e xam ple~.
I'

'

14"

'

'\•
l '

I

...

a

l'

I·

.

,

162

PROSODY•

PROSODY.

" A king sat on the rocky brow
'fhich looks o'er sea-born Salamis;
Anti ships by thousands lay below,
And men in nations :- all were hi.s !
He counted them at break of day-And when the sun set- where .weie they?"

28. This measure, commonly called the lleroic, has a
grave and majestic march , well suited to heroic argument,
especially if it be not fettered with rhyme.
29. It admits of some freedom for the purpose of gi ving it
va riety, especially in the beginning and end of the line. The
first foot is often a Trochee instead of an lam bus; and the
last has often a short unaccented syllable appc11ded to the
Iambus. Thus:-

22. Verses which have not this similarity of sound in their
final syllables are called Blank Verse; as,
" How still the morning of the hallow'd day!
Mute is the voice of ntral labour, hush' d
The ploughboy's whistle, a~d the milkmaid's song;
The scythe lies glittering in the dewy wreath
Of tedded grass, mingled with fading flowers
That yestcrmorn bloom'd waving in the breeze."

"'Tis Heaven itse lf that points out an here'uf-

I:'

23, How are verses
distinguished 7 24. Name the 1~os t common kinds. 25. Descr.ibc the
·Iambic verse. - 26. The Trochaic. 27. Give examples of Iambic verae

31. A verse of six feet or twelve syllables, called an
Alexandrine line, is occasionally introduced into heroic
verse, especially at the close of a passage; as,
Such as

••

I

Crea- I tion's dawn

I

beheld,

I

thou roll-

I est

now. "

I

32. (2.) A shorter Iambic verse is made from the former,
by cutting off one Iambus, or two syllables; as,
"Thon, Ste'll- I a, wa'st J no lon'g- I er yo'ung, I
When fir'st I for the'e l my ly're l I strung." I
" Thou ar't, j 0 Go'd, I th e li'fe I and li'ght l
Of a'll I this wo'nd- I rous wo'rld I we se'e:
Its glow by day, its smile by night,
Are but reflections cau!!ht from thee!"

" Dcpa'rt· I ed spi'r- I its o'f I the mig'h- l ty de' ad!
Ye who' I at Ma'r· j atho'n I and Leu'c- I tra ble'd !"

2'2. ·what is Blank Verse ?-Give an example.

l ti'r. " !

"Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow-

27. (1.) The most common and also the most dignified
verse in English poetry consists of five Iambic feet, ur ten
syllables ; as,

I

,,

"Burnt after him to the bottomless pit."

VERSE • .

" How sw'eet l the moo'n· I light slee'ps I upon' I this ba'nk !
Here will wo sit, and let the sounds of music
Creep in our ears ; soft stillness and the night
Become the touches of sweet harmony!"

,

30. Sometimes even greater irregularities are admissible; as,

~

.. Pcrha'ps l in thi's I ncglec't· I ed spo't r is la'id I
Somo heart once pregnant with celestial fire ;
Hands, that the rod of empire might have sway'd,
Or waked to ecstasy the living lyre."

~

!

"Da'ughter l of God and man, accomplished Eve."
"Ple'asures I the sex, ~ children birds pursue."

23. Verses are distinguished by various names, according
to the feet that prevail in them ; as, Iambic, Trochaic, AnaJ{cestic.
24. The two most common kinds of verse are the Iambic
and Trochaic.
25. Iambic verse has the weak percussion first, and the
loud last.
.
26. Trochaic verse has the loud first, and the weak la~t.
IAMBIC

163

..

I

33. This measure is sometimes varied, to adapt it to light
subjects, by the addition of two syllables, forming a double
rhyme; as,
"His brnw'n- I y ba'ck I and sid'es I Hercu'l· I
Support tho star and string cerulean .''

ran

of five feet. - 28. What is it commonly called? -29. How is it varied 7
-30. What are oflen admi•sible'/ 3L Wh at is a ver~c of six feet
called. - Give an example. 32. \Vhat is said of a shorter ver•e ' Give examples. 33. How is a double rhyme formed 7 - Give c;:amplee.

.i

.

I

IG1

I'ROSODY.

165

PROSODY.

34. (3.) Iambic verse is sometimes further shortened into
six syllables, by cutting off another foot; as,

4. It sometimes contains three feet or six syllables; as,

:· Though tho'n I the wa't- / ers wa'rp /
Thy sti'ng / is no't / so sha'rp." j

·"br' where I He'brus I w ' anders, /
Rolling in m eanders."

5. The Trochaic line most generally employed contains
iree feet, and an additional syllable; as,

l es

fa'r I or ne'ar , j
Or fa'm- I ous o'r / obseu're, I
Where wholesome is the air,
Or where the most impure."

"In pla'e-

"Ro' me be I er'ush'd to I o'oe wide I tomb,
B'ut be l st'ill the I R·o'man's I Rome."
"Li'ke le- l vi'a. I tha'ns a- I float
La'y their I b'ulw arks I o'n the
While the sign of bat1le flew
On the lofty British liuc."

35. The four-l ined stanza of Psalmody generally consists
of alternate Iambic verses of four and three foet; as,
" Lord, tho'u / did'st love I J em's- / ale'rn, j .
Once she' j was a'll l thine ow'n: I
Her lorn thy fairest heritarre
H e r pow er thy g lory's thr~ne. "

ANAPlESTIC

36. A residuary sy liable or half foot i;> often added to an
Iambic line, for the sake of variety; as,
" · And coun' t· /l ess kin 'gs I have i'n-1 to du'st I been hu'mb - /led,
While no ' t I a fr •ag· / mc nt o'f I thy ilc'sh / has cr'umb- / led!"
,I

"·waft, wa'ft I ye wind 's I hjs. sto'- I ry,
And on' / ye wa 1 / ters ro'll, /
Ti ll, Ji'k e I a RC'a I or g lo 1 - / ry,
It sprea' ds I from po' le l to po' le ! " l

TROCHAIC

38. ln Anaprestic verse, the interval between the accented
syllables is doubled, and the percussion falb on every third
syllable.
39. Anaprestic verse is, in common \.vith Iambic and Trochaic, of various lengths.
I. It sometimes consists of four feet or twelve syllables; as,

"And the w ' id- I ows of A •. I shu r are lou'd /in their wa•il,
And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal."

37. Trochaic verse is also of various lengths.
I. It sometimes contains si:r: feet or twelve syllables; as,
" O'n n I Ill ount •1in I ~trctch 'cd l be I ne'a th a / h'oary j w'illow,
Lay a sh1•phcrd swnin and vicw'd the rolling billow."
1

Ol'"

I

I wa'lk on I fo'ot or/ ri'de in/ ch'ariots;
All that dwell in palaces or garrets."

I

3. It sometimes contains four feet or eight syllables; as,
"On' they I rna'rch thou gh I to' self- / sl 'aughter,
Regular as rolling water."

I

"vVho arc the 'y
They arc fo'es

I

I that now bi'd I us
I to th e go'od I and

be slave's?
the frc' e."

I

3. It sometimes consists of two feet or six syllables; as,
" But his cou' r- I age 'gun fai' l,
For no a'rts I could avai'l."

I

40. Anap~stic verse admits of variety, as well as the Iambic and Trochaic, by taking an additional sylJable at the end,
and sometimes a dissyllabic foot at the beginning of the
line; as,
·
"On the war'm. ! cheek of you' th

in[i."
~4 . How is Iambic ,vrr~e ~_till further . Rhortcn ci!? - Give exampleN.
J7. G n·e examples of frocha1 c verse of six feet. -Of five foet. - Of four

I

2. It sometimes consists oft !tree feet or nine syllal.Jles; as,

ten syllables; as,

"A ' ll that

VERSE.

" F rom th e kna'vel',- land the fo 1 ols, I and the fo ' r« Inf •he fr mu ;
From the drudges in prose, and the triflers in rh y 1! 1c ."

VERSE.

2. It sometimes contains five feet

I brine;

l

I smiles and

r 'o-

I ses arc

ble'nd-

l

fce,L- Of three fee t. - Of three foet 11n<l one syllable. - 38. De•cribe
Anaprestic verse. - Give examples of the different varieties of feeL

,•

'

----··-- 1~,-------------~ ---~

166

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

" But his cou'r· I age ' gan fa'il j liim,
For no a'rts I could ava'il j liim." "I

I

5. In the use of conjunctions in pairs, nor is often substituted for neither, and or for ei.ther ; as,

"If e' er I in th y sigh't I I found fa'v-1 our, ' Ap'ol- j lo, I
Dcfu' nd I mo from nl'l I the dis' as· I ters that fo'l· I low."

41. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapcestic feet all admit of occasional intermixture; and many beautiful passages in our
poets cannot be scanned without the use of all of them.

The followin g are examples: " Hcsts ~ccu' r e I the ri'gh- I teous ma'n: j
J\t lt ' i~ I Redeo'm - I er's be'ck, I
Suro t' cn1'crgc

And mo'unt

I and

ri'se

I ngni'n,

f

1

I abo've I the wre'ek."
\er distor 1t I ed and pal'e, I

"A nd the ' re \ \rly the ri'd
"\Vith th e de'w \ on his bro'w \and the ru'st I on his ma'il." I
"Awa'ke I ' tis the te'r \ ror of war',\
The cr•es I cent is tos's'd I on the wi'nd."
POETICAL

107

...

"To them nor stores nor granari es belon(T
Nought but the woodland and the pleasi;g song."
"Remote, unfriended, melancholy, slow,
Or by the lazy Sche idt or wandering Po."

6. Poetry admits of great variety .of elliptical expressions,
and even allows the omission, in certain cases, of important
parts of speech. T hus, two words arc contracteJ into
one ; as, 'T was, for It was; 'Tis, fo r It 1·s; 'T u·iLI, for it
will; Jre'll, for We will.
43. Vowel s and sometimes consonants are elided to run
two syllables into one: as,
" T' alarm th' eternal midnight of th e grave."
" "\Vhate' er she bides beneath her verdant floor."
" The hunter-steed exulting o'er the dale."
"Till, at advantage ta" en, his brand
Forced Rod'rick's weapon from his hand."

I

LICENSE .

42. T he language of poetry admits of several peculiarities
in its grammatical structure, in order to fit it the better for
being formed into regular numbers.
1. Poetry admits of the use of words and phrases which
in prose woul d be accounted obsolete.
Such phrases give to poetical composition that rust of anti4uity, which
is a great beauty, if not carried so far as to make the diction uncouth
and ollsc ure.

2. Poetry admits of a bolder transposition of words than
prose: the rh etorical arrangement being as much the usual
order in the forme r as the conventional is in the latter.
3. Some words are lengthened by a syllable, and others
a bbreviated, to acbpt th em to the purposes of measured composition. Thus, for part, the poets often use dispart; for
· chairi, enchain ; for morning, morn; for valley, vale.
4. Poetry admits of a liberal use of nouns for adjectives;
as,
"Ami<l the greenwood shade this boy was bred."
42. "\Vhat iR P octic1tl License 7 Give inetanccs with respect to obsolete
words. - "\.Vha t is said ns regards transposition?- What is said about
lcngtlicuin g and ~hortcn ing words?- Using nouns for udjcctives?-

44.1\ouns are often omitted in interrogative sentences; as,
" Lives there who loves his pain?" that is, " Lives there a man."

45. Verbs are often omitted, especially such as express
address or answer; as,
"To whom the monarch;" that is, "To whom the monarch said or
replied."

46. Prepositions are often omitted; as,
"He mourn'd no recreant fri end, no mistress coy;" that is, "He
mourned for no recreant friend," &c.

EXERCISES ON PROSODY.
Scan the follou:i11g verse$ :--

The fiery courser, when he hears from far
The sprightly trumpets and th e shouts of war,
Pricks up his ears, and, trembling with delight,
Shifts place, and paws, and hopes the promised fight.

- ---

What is said respecting conjunctions 1 - Re~pe ct in g Ellipses. 43.
"What is said of vowels and consonants ? - 1'!. Of nouns? - 45. Of
verbs? - 46. Of prepositions?

·r

,.

. t

168

PROSODY.

, ;.

Should fate command me to the far thest verge
Of the green earth , to distant barbarous climes,
Rivers unknown to song ; where first the sun
Gilds Indian mou ntains, or his setting beam
Flames on the Atlantic isles; - 'tis nought to me,
Since God is ever present"""""'" ever felt,
In the void waste as in the city full ;
And, where He vital breathes, there must be joy.

APPENDIX .
DERIVATION .
D erivat"ion is that part of Etymology which treats of the
Origin and Primary Signification of words.

No longer Autumn's glowing red
U pon our forest hills is_ shed ;
No more beneath the evening beam
Fair Tweed reflects their purple gleam ;
Away hath pass'd the heather-bell
That bloo m' d so rich on N eedpath-fell ;
Sallow his brow, and russet bare
Are now the sister heigh~s of Ya.re.
Our native land -our native valeA long - a last adieu !
Farewell to bonny Teviotdale,
And Cheviot' s mountains blue.
T he battle-mound - the Border tower,
That Scotia' s annals tell T he martyr's grave -the lover's bower,
To each - to all - farewell!
Last came Joy's ecstatic trial:
He with ivy crown advancing,
First 10 the livel y pipe his hand address'd;
B ut soon he saw the brisk awakening viol,
"\-Vhose sweet entrancing voice he loved the best.
They would have thought, who heard the strain,
They saw in Tempe' s vale her native maids,
Amidst tho fostnl Bounding shades,
To some unwearied minstrel dancing;
'W hile as his flying finge rs kiss'd the strings,
Love framed with Mirth a gay fantastic round ;
Loose were her tresses seen, her zone unbound,
And he, amidst his frolic play,
As if he would th e charming air repay,
Shook thousand odou rs from his dewy wings.

[

l

The words of a cul tivated language, however numerous and apparently
un connected, arc found on examination to be reducible to groups or
families, and to be related to each other by identit y of origin and
similarity of significa tion.
T hus, the words, justly, ju stice, justif:v, juslifu:ation., juslic;ary, adjust, re-adjust, unjust, i11ju.• tice, &c. are all kindred words, connected with their common parent, just. In like manner, terrace,
t erraqueous, terren e, terrestrial, terrier, territory , int er , i nterment,
di.sinter, 1Jiediterra11 ean, rnbterranean, &c. are all connected with
their parent, terra, the earth.

Words a rc either Primitive or D erivative.
A Primitine word is not derived from any simpler word
in the language; as, man, just.
A Derivative word is formed from some word of g reater
sim plicity ; as, mrmhood, unjust.
The primitive words of a language are always fow compared with th e whole amount of its voca bulary.
The primitives of th e Greek, - one of the most various nnd copious
of languages, - do not, according to Dr. Adam Smith , exceed thrf'e
hundred : nnd Lord Monboddo even goes so far as to maintain thRt
its whole vocabulary is derived from five duads , or combinations of
two letters.
A language is considered perfect in respec t of etymological 8tructure
wh en its primitives are very few in comparison of its derivatives, and
wh en it has no t only all the latter but also all the forme r within
·
itself, and of its own growth.

Derivation seems to be an artifice of language to keep the
number of words within proper bounds.
Whe n th e enlargement of his knowledge requires the use of a new
word, it is nat. urnl for man, in8tead o(inventing at onc:e a ~ound altogether 11rbitrary , to greft a derivative, significant of 1h~ thing he
15

(lli9)

\

1,;

DERIVATION.

APPENDIX.

170

wishes to express , on some well-known stock: and the principle ~n
which he proceeds in selecting the stock and-forming the derivative,
is, to express things which are connected together by words which
have also a connexion with one another. '
The effect of this modification of old words in prf1venting the multiplication of new ones is well illustrated by the derivatives which are
em ployed to express number. We .give names to particular numbers to the extent of ten, and then·we turn back and reckon ten and
one, ten a11d two, ten and three, &c. giving names to the new numbers compounded of the names of the old. Thus,• thirt eeen (threeten), fourt e1J11, (four-ten ), fifteen (five-ten), &c. In this way we go
on till we come to twice ten, which is expressed by a word (twenty)
analagous to the names of two and ten. In like manner we count
three tens (thirty), fonr t ens (forty), &c., till we come to ten tens,
which is exp ressed by a new word (hundred). Then the reckoning
proceed" till it come to ten hundred, which is expressed (>y another
new word (thousand) : and so on, till we come to ten hundred thousand, which requires the invention of another new word (million).
Th us, by the help of derivation and composition, we arc enabled to
express by a fow new words all possible numbers, - which, without
such help, would alone have required a languag~ to express them.

ORIG IN OF WORDS.
\

I.

ORIGIN OF ENGLISH ROOTS.

The English language derives its roots from various languages.
The basis of the language is the Saxon, which was spoken in England
during th e time of the Anglo-Saxons. But the original stock, besides being greatly modified by use, has received large and constant
additions from other languages. The Danish and Norman invasions
successively introduced a few Danish and Norman-French words.
Subsequently, a great number of Latin and Greek words obtain~d
currency, as also so me French , Italian, and Spanish words. And,
more recently, many scientific terms, especially the names of natural produc tions, have bee n adopted from th e German ; as well as
many names of ne w commodities of commerce borrowed from the
countries whence they have been imported. The great maj ority of
our words , ho wever, are still either of Saxon or of Latin origin.
\

• E!l!'l•OT• and t?Celvc nre not cited as exa mples, becau•e the word ten doc• not
enter i n to llwi r com 1X>si tio11. Tiley probably owe their or igin to c0111bin uti<•llS
of the wonh~ leav c-a11 e (leti ne one) and two-leave, - meaning, that i n countin g a
collectio n of r. Jevc n or twel ve individuals, when the radix t1)n is counted otr. we
ltav• onb i n the one cusc, und leave two in the other.- See Lardner's CyclopaJdia,
Arithme(ic , p . 11.

171

The roots of the English language may be divided into
S epa r able and Inseparable.
'
Separable roots are such as have been adopted into the
language in the form of entire words ; as, lucre, from the
Latin tucrum.
Ins e p~rable roots are such as have been admitted only as
the '.~dical ?arts of derivative or compound words; as,
omni m omnipotent, from the Latin omnis.
Such roots as have been naturalized in the form of entire or separate
words have been. adopted into the language without almost any
change except a slight alterat10n or franeposition of thei r final letters.
But such as have b_ee n naturalized for the purpose of appeari ng only in
composmon as mseparable roots, have also lost their distinctive
character as particular parts of speech.
SEP .\RABLE

ROOT S .

The roots of the principal parts of speech are more easily
traceable to their origin, and have undergone more regular
changes in passing into the language, than those of indeclinable words.
The Saxon words, which form the basis of the lanQ'UaO"e
0
0
.
have undergone various cha nges in their grammatical structure as well as in their final letters.
All the Saxon cases except the possessive - where (' s) has tak en the
pluco of cs - have disappP.nrnrl ; the Saxon plural termination e1t
has been supplanted by s, except in a few words ; as, oxen, /1osen,
& c. ; the termination of the Saxon infinitive an has been dispe nsed
with ; as, forgive for forgivan; and the variations of tho verb in
the several i*rsons have also been materially changed.

The Lat1:n words which have been adopted have, for the
most part, suffered a change of terminati'on.
Thus, the termination alis is changed into al; as, from oricnlalis ,
oriental.
Atus is changed into ate; as, from 3f.atus , state.
Bilis is changed into ble; as, from laudabilis, laudable.
Crttm is changed into ere; as, ·from lucrum , lucre.
Ciu s and ctum are changed into ct; as, from aclus, act ; from ejfectu11,
effect; from edictum, edict .
Culus and culum are changed into cle; as, from circuln .. , circle; from
curriculum, curricle.
R n us is changed into ene; as , from lerrenus, terr en~ .

'

~··.

u
i'i2

APPENDIX.

Brus is changed into ere; as, from sincerus, sincere.
Gnus and gnum are changed into gn; as, from benigmts, benign} from
signum, sign.
ldus is changed into id; as, from candidus, candid.
llis is changed into ile; as, from docilis, docile.
Inns is changed into ine; as, from divinus, divine.
Iv is changed into ion,· us, from rcligio, religion.
lv1ts is changed into ive ; as, from activus, active.
N.~ is changed into nt ,· as, from innocens, innocent.
Ntia is changed into nee; as, from uientia, science:
0, w he n preceded by a single consonant, is changed into e; as, from
scribo, .<cribe; from conful.o, confide; from reviso, revise; from
altitmlo, altitude,
0, when preceded by a double consonant, is, together with the last
consonant, omitted: as, from committo, commit ; from compello,
compel.
Osus is changed into ose or ous ; as, from jocosus, jocose; from calamitvsus, calamitous.
S1ts is changed into se; as, from semus, sense.
Ssus is changed into ss; as, from recessus, recess; from remiuu1,
r em.us.

Ta.s is changed into ty; as, from cl1aritas, charity.
Ugium is changed into ugc; 'as, from ref'ugittm, refuge.
Unus is changed into une; as, from jejumt8, je}1tne.
Unts is changed into ttre; as, from securus, 8eture.
.Usus is changed into use; as, from usus, use. ,
Utus and utum are changed into ute; as, from arbutu•, arbute; from
statnt1tm, statute.
X1ts is changed into :r; as, from proliX1ts, proliz.
The Latin words which have suffered more than a change of termination in passing into English are chiefly such as have bllen received
throu gh the m edium of the French; as,
LATIX.

FRENCH. '

Ab, a wing
Aile
Auclor
Auteur
Bonitos, g()Q(lne.•s
Bonte
Bos, an o:r
Breuf
B revi s, short
Brief
Califncere , to wa rm
Echauffer
Canalis, a p;pe
Che nal
Canna, a. reed
Canne
Caput, the head
Chef*
Carmen, a song or incantation Charme
Catena
Chalne

ENGLISH.

Aisle
Author
Bounty
Reef
Brief
Chafe
Channel
Cane
Chief
Charm
Chain

•The.re c11n he no doubt thnt cMfi• from capJtt; becauee it can lie traced in old
writer• throui;b the succetll! ivc stai;c• of it~ progrc••.-c/iept, chep,chcf.

f.
i

173

DERIVATION.
FRENCU.

LATIN.

Colu\Jer , a snake*
Com put arc , to reckon
Cooperire
Cultcllus
Diauolus
Dignari, to thin,k worthy
Ebu r
Ext ranens, outward
Fe rc trnm
Ferox
Fidelitas, fidelity
Gigas
Gubernare
Gul:t, the throat
Incant are
lnimicitia
Lectarium, a lied
Levare, to lift
Lex
Macer, lean
Magiste r
Magnus, great
Medie:as, tfte middle
.Mirabile
Nomen, a name
N umerus, a number
Nutrix
Olcum
Pagan us
Panarium, a basket
l'ass u ~ , a step
Pauper
Peregrinus
Populus, tlie people
Prrepositus, placed over
Presbyter
P robare , to pr<roe
Pullus, a clnckcn
P u ppi~. the .•te·r n of a
Ratio, rcawn
Rccipcre , to recei~
Regpare, to rule
Rotund us
Sapo r, ta3te
Supcrn us, supreme
Tegula , a tile
Traditor
Visus, a sight

~hip

Couleuvrine
Comp te r
Convrir
Coutelas
Diable
Dcigner
Ivo1re
Et ranger
Bicre

Fer09e

SFeodalite

ENGLISH.

Cnlveri n
Coun t
Cove r
C u!lass
DcYil
lJeign
lvory
Stmngcr
Dier
Fierce
(Fealty

( F ea ulte
5
Geant
Giant
Go uvcmcr
Go'l'crn
Goule t
Gullet
Enchanter
Enchu:it
Enr11i1 y
Inirnitie
Litiere
Litter
Lever
Liftt
Loi
Law
Maigre
Meagre
Maistre, Maitre
Master
Magne
Main
Monie
l.Woicty
Merveille
MarYel
Norn
Noun
Nombre
Number
N ourrioe
Nurse
Hui le
O il
Paysnn
l'ca~ant
Panier
Pannier
Pas
Pace
Pauvro
Poor
Pclerin
Pi lgrim
Pe up le
People
Prevost, 11•.,w PrevotProvost
S Prebstre or Pres-~ p · t
(
tre , now Pretre ~ nes
Prouver
- Prove
Poulet
Poult , Poultry
Poupe
Poop
Raison
Reason
Recevoir
Receive
Hegner
Reign
Rond
Round
Saveur
Savou r
Souverain
Sovereign
Tuile
Tile
Traltre
Traitor
Vue
Vic\'q'

•Man y warlike iustrumcnta take their names from animalo; ns, ba•ili•k. Jal·
<:cnet, rantrori , &c.

t Lift i• from th e pr.rfc~t parti ciple of an obsolete v~rh t-.ve, as tl.rif: from
It is still used as a particivle iu two instance3 in the Bi hie.

15"

ti,.cw.

&

.,

The Greek words which have been naturalized have also
undergone, in general, a change of termination .
·
Thus , the termination ia is changed into y; as , from prosodia,prosody;
from apologia , apology.
~ lkos is c h anged into ic or ical ; as, from meclia.nikos, mechanic or

rner.hani.cal.
]~mos

is changod in to ism; ns , from aphorismn.~, aphorism.
Ogos is changed into ogue; as, from epilogos, epilogue.

Th e number, however, of Latin and Greek words which have been
adopted into English as separate words is comparatively small.
INSEPARABLE

ROOTS.

The g reater number 0f the Latin and Greek roots of the
En gl ish language is found only in composition.
T he changes which roots that are found only in co.mposit ion undergo, cannot easily be r educed to general rules;
but th e follo wing lists will sufficiently illustrate their nature:
LAT IN ROOTS
Root ond Meaning.

Acris, s harp
Aedes, a house
A cq uu s . equal
A & , aiiris , air
A c v u m, an ag e
A ge r , ai:,rri , a field
A r;ge r, a heap
A ..,o, I do, nctus, don P.
A fn, a \Ving
Altus, hig h
Am lcu .~. n friend
A mo , I love
Am or , love
Animus, mind

FO UN D O ,NLY IN COMPOSITION .
Represe ntative.

Exnmplo.

acr i
edi
equ! cqui

acri mon y
edi fy, edifice
equan imit y, equilibrium

a ert

aerial , a.erifor m
coeva l
agriculture

C'V

ag ri
agger
a1< ,act
ali
alt

a1nic, · imic

~am,

a71!Qr

exaggera te
agen t actor
1
alipca
exalt , altitude
amicable , in·i micnl
amiable, amqrous

a.n1·m.ate , unanimous, anz . .
1nadve rt
An n u~, a year
ann, annu , enni annals, an nnal, biennial
aquatic, aqneduct
Aq11a, ' vntf•r
a<rua. , aque
coercion
Arceo. I dnve away (cr cco ere
when compounde d )
ar
arable
Aro, a plou g h
art fu l, in ert
art , ert
Ars , ariis, art
artic ul ate
art i
Artus , the joints
asperity, cxa.<perate
A spe r, rou lfh
o.•per
audience , audit, audilory
Audio, l near, au<li tus, audi, audit
heard
augment, auct ion, author
A ngco, I incrcnsc, nuc tus , aug , auct , auth
aniln

1n1· r e a ~e d

Av :s, a bird
Bci\ tt1 ~ , i>l c~scd

avi
beati

175

DERIVATION .

APPENDIX.

174

aviary
bcal i lude

Root :tnd Meaning.

' Repr""6nto.tive.

E:c: nmple .

b elli g~renl , rebel
Bellum, war
lw/l i, bel
em lu:l/i,h
Bell us, beautiful
/,e/l
b1'l1.t'dic1 ion
Bene , wel l
hen c
i11 1bi/,c , win e-bibber
B ibo , I drink
bib
con1hinati on
Bi ni, two by two
l>in
l1ipl'd
Ti is, twice
bi
lirn ;ity , nhb r rviatc
B rcvis, Rhort.
lirrv
cudavc rou!'.4, casual, accident
Cado, I full, cn~u ~ . fallen cud, ca3u, cid
(cha nged into cT<l o wh e n
compound ed)
h omicide, inci.•ion, precise
C :rdo , 1 c ut, C!l'sus, cu t cid, cis
(changed in to cido a nd
cisus whe n co m po unde d)
Calor, heat
color
calori c
Cando . I set on fire, cen- cand, cens, cend incan de ecc nce , incen se , ins us , in flamed
cendia ry
Canis , a dog
can
canlll e
Cano, cant o, I sing
C(J11.f, cettt
canli cles, prcccntor
Cnpill us , hair
capill
capillary
Caput, capl1 is , th e h ead
cu;1it, cipil
capil al. precipitate .
Capio, I t;;k e , captus, ta· cap, capt, cip , cipi, capabl e : capt urn, a.nucipate,
ke n (cipio and ceptus cept
recipient, r cCl'pt1 on
wh en compounded)
incorrrraie
Career, a pr i ~on
career
incrirnatc, carniv orous
Cnro , ca rni ~ , Jlesh
earn
carc~s
C nrus, dear
car
e xcavat e , conrro·f'
Cav us , hullow
mu
recedt\ , succt·cd, t'On r c.~ ., iOn,
Ccdo , I g iv e place,
1(0, ced, ceed, cess
ac e r.".~
Cf',.S \I S, r:iv ing pltlCC to
n<'afrrate, cr.frriry
Cclc r , Fw ift
rder
CFn l ury, cr11/en11i id
Ccntum . n hundred
crnl
d i,,ce rn , secretion, discreet
C e rn o . I see , I sift, cret us , cern , cret, creet
siftc<l
cetaceo1rn
Cctc, whales
cet
succinct, precincts
Ci nr.t1 1s, ~r· in nho11t
ci11ct
cit e , C?'tation
C io, 1 cal , I s urmnon
ci:i
e xcla mat ion , proclaim
Clarno, I cr y out
clam , claim
d eclare. clarify
Clar us, cl cnr
clar, clari
Cl:rn<lo. I shut. clansns, claus, clud, clua cla1ts c , exclude , seclu sion
shu t (c han i;cd into cl1Hlo
an <l cl11 ~ 11s wh e n com·
ponn<l ~ d )

Cli no, I b1' nd
Clivus, a •lope
Co('lum, he av e n
C o lo . 1 culti vat e , cu ltu s,

cl in
cliv
eel
col, cult

culi i>a t~d

Comes, comltis, a com- comit
pan io n
Cupia, ple nty
r.opi
Cogun, I boil , coclus, cook, cod
boi lc <l
Cor, cordis, th e hea rt
corrl
Corn 11 n ho rn
corn, cornu
Corpus, corporis, th e bod y corpu .•,
corpor,
1

corpu

reclin e
decliviry
celestial

colony, culture
concomitant
copiou~

cook, d ccoclion
con rorrl , rurdiai
u nicnrn. r.orn11 r·np i:1
co•']'u.• cle , incorrora tc,
pulon t

~

,

.
'.

'

---~------------------------

~

17u

APPENDIX.

Root n11d Menning.
C rn~ , to~n1orrow

era.'{

crcd

<·r, ·11 10 , I burn
crrm
C r11 x, crucis, u cross
cruci
Ct ii>u, I li e (curnl.Jo when cub, cnmb
C'U lilflOllllJeJ)

Example.
Root nnd

procrastina te

Fi liu s, n son
Filurn, u thren d
Fi1.1ioo, I teig n,
fe ig ned
Finis, an end

incr emal iun
crur1Jy

ir1cubntion, incwn/1cnt

C11l 1•a , a fault, cul po, I find culp
rn7pablc, culprit
bnltw i1h
c1tra, cnr
curator, sinecu r e
Curro, I run
S cur, cu rr, cour, ~ i11c1tr, c1trric le, 011 ccoit r 1 exC nr~us, ~ r unning
(
CUTS , COUTS
5 Clt rsion , intCfCO?trse
Da1u~, gr v c ri (ditus when dit
addition
<' Olll puu mlcd)
Decor, <lccVris, grace, drcur
decorous, decorntion
i.Jcauty
D e ns, d··nt is , a 1ooth
d1•n t
d enti s t, rlrntifrice
Jl <) HS, <lei . a god
Dri
1J1' il y, rlPify
l> cxtc r, rigl ll-handed , clc- dc.cler
dext cri I y, dexl aous

jPr

f rrv

.fnuid , c!/erve8ce uce

ji.rlcl

.fidelity

fia

jili

jil
fi c tus, Jig , jict

jilamf'nt
.fi~mcn1.,

.fiction, .fictitious

fin

.fi.nnl./mite, de.finite, d efin-

ji$C

iti vt:
fisca l, cuPjiscale

·flat, jlatu
'ttect, fl. ex

jis.-11rc
i 11_/lution. jla lu le nt
rl:fi• rt. fltxib l.i

jlict

conflict

fi.<s

Flos, tlori~. a fl o wer
f/or
Flucru~. a wave
:fluctu
Fluo, .1 flow, fluxus, a .flu, .flux

jlori~t ,

floral
jluc/uat e
jlue nt, reflux

Jlo w111~

Focd us, l0ederis, a treaty,
Foro, I I.Jore or pie rce
Fo rs. fortis, c hance
Fo rtis, stron!?
Fossa , a ditc 11
Fossus , durr
0
Frango , I break , fra ctus
broken (fringo whe n
compounded
Frate r , a l.Jrotlr c r
Frigeo , l am cold
Fru ct u~. fruil
Fruo r , l enj o y
Fugio, Ifly, fui::ltum, to fly
Fulgco, l ~hin e
Fulrn e n, fulmlnis, light-

confrdcrate
peiforatr.
fortuiro11 s
f ortify, furl itude
fos..e
Joss
fossil
foss
frag,fract,fri:ng fragment,fract ure 'infrmge
.fnler

for
fort
f urti

fra t er, fratri
fri~

frncti
fru
fnf!, fugit
fulr:
fulmin

frat ern:i 1. .frnt ,. ; .. ide
.lrigid , r1:fr ig,·r:i ·1u n
fructify
jrui1ion
refuge , f11,g it ivc
TP/U /{!e[l t

fulminate

ninrr

Fund~, I pour out, fusu s fund, fus
pou rt' d out
Gclu, frost

111 ~ spo ke n

felicity
fnninine . e fjnninncy
f erry, ir:fcr, c irc11m(ercnce

~

filial, ufji.liate

daslwd

Vl'f

(die

Examplo .

Repre1entative.

Fiscus, the impe rial trcusury
Fissus, cle ft
Flalus. a p•ilf of wi nd
F lcc1 0,l bend, flr, xu 8, ben t
Fli ~o, I dash, flictu~,

D ico, I say, dic tus , said
diet
predict. dictate
D i e~ . Jay
ril:
dial, rliary, rn e rirliun
Di~nus, '''o rthy
di::n:i
dignity, di,,n itn ry
Diurnus, daily
dium,jou m
d iurnal , jn7trna l
Docen . I teach, doctus, doc, doct
docil e , doctor, dvctrine
t:iught
Doko , I grieve
dnl
conrlole
Dolo r, g ri ef
dolo r
dolorous
Domlnus, a m aste r
do min
dominee r, dnmittican
Domus, a hou se
dom
domes1ic, domicile
Don um , a gi ft
.don
donut.ion
Duco, l le:.d, ductt1s , led dnc, duct
ind uce, aqueduct
Duo , two
dn
dnal, duel
DuruR , hard
dur
du·r nble
Fliri11 ~ , druukcn·
ebri
ebr·icty, inebriate
EJo, [ ea l
cd
cdiblo
l :go, I
ego
rgoiis t
E111t1, I
buy, emptus, et:m, empt
red eem, exemptio n
lin11 g-ht
Exl e r, outwnrd
rxler
extr.rnal
J-'ulw r, n W•ir k man
fr1/Jr
fid,ri l' , fahri cnt.P.
.:-:n- ·lli;;. ras .v .
.focil, fowl. fic11.l fac1l1tme, facnlty, difficulty
J· ;i c10. l n1,,kc, fin. J nm .far/, f eel , fit, fie,
111:1dc', f;wt11~, rnaJ c (fic :IO /!/
factor, pe~fect, benefit, sonnd fiTr11~ wli c n compo11.fic, purify
pounded)
'r:allo. I deceive
foll
i nji'7l ib le, falla cious
1-;umm, a tc mpln
fan, Jane
prq("natio11, profane
1'an, to ~p e ak, falll ~ , hav-fa , fat
melfabl e, fate

f1 ·111.i1t

~l cn nin~.

F ilia, a daug hte r

crerlit, crerlulous, credible

C11ra, care

r:c:li.x; fo liciti, happy
l' •'1111na, a wonH1n
l-'<' ro, I carry or brin 0rr
l'"f'·n· , ~ o , l hvil
F1d~l i~. f,,i tlt l'ul
FiJv, l trudt

177

DERIVATION.

Ileprescntntive.

C r<'do, I tn1st

--

confide, di!ftdencc

I

Gens, tzr,ntis, a nation
(; en u, 11 knPc
Gero. I cnrr y , gostus, cnrri l'<l
Genltus, b ego tten
Ge nus , generis, kind
Glacics, icP,
Glomus, g lom c ris , a clew
Grad io r, I go, grnd11s, a
step T gressus , having
gone
Gram e n , gra mfois , grass
Gravis , he avy
Grex, g reo-is, a fl ock
H :.ereo , f stick, luesus ,
stuck
n~res, hrercdis, an heir

refund, ftt.•ibl e , infu.re

gel, geal, g elat

con{!rlntion, congeal, gela tin ous

f!P1l t

f!entil e
grnufl<>xion

f!"1tlt

ger,

ge~t

1H~ Hi,1:crc11t,

g1·3/ure, dig,.•l-

ion

{!en, grttil
f!Pnr r, genera
7lori
f! lomer
grad, grcd , gradu,
grcss

prn7r>T.y, progrnilor
dcf.'encrai e , gnicra1 ion
f!locial, f!lari;; r
ag:'lvmcrati•in
re1~o;rrarle, tll.'.'r_,firnt, {! r'l. duatc, ng,.!!rr$,.. 1o n

{! rrt min·i

Kraminivoruu~

f!Hl 'V

f!ravit y

f! TPf!
lier, ltes

.£.'"N' !.fariou ~. f'rr r·; w us

liered, herit

hereditary , inherit

ndht:re , 1.:o/,es 1on

..

APPENDIX.

178

Representative.
hal
l1"11 rio , l draw, haustus, lwust
Hool

~rnl

Meaning.

Halo, I breathe
drawn
IT 0 111 0 , a n1:tn

lwrni, hum
horl
llo1rr•,r , I exho rt
J.,s1ies, husp'ltis, n g uest lwsp it

!

1 l1 >:-ii 1 ~, Ull CllCl ll Y

host

1l 111>1us , t. li e gro und

ltttm

1d1~ in , tJi c S i.llllt)
] tr 11i s Jl rc

id en

l~rra : be low

111 sul a , a11 is land
I11tra , int 11s, within
It1·r, iti11er is, a journey
I tt· r11n1,

a ~ ain

Itu1n, tu gu

Jareo , I Le
Jad11", throw n ( j ectus
wl1<~ 11 co11 qlounde d)
J unu a, a ~a te
.i ug 11111, a yoke
.l1 11wt 11~, joined
J 11ro, 1 s wt•ar
J 11s, j u n~, right , la w
J u tus, a;;sis tc d
.T u v •~n i s, \t youth
Lace r , tor n
L ;1•rlo, I hu rt. lms ns , hurt
<li d• > nnd lisus when
C•il " po11 ndcd)
Lapis , la plcli", u stone
La tu~, ca rrie d
L;1111, , wid1 ·
La uS: iu tl'fis , a side
I ,1• g1i tus. an <L1nha .ssador
L1·go. l l><!q11cath
I.1 t' !! 11, I g athe r, J choose ,
l e n11~ , gathered
T"'!!" • l r1·ac.I, lcctus, r ead
J, <·ni~, gr nd c
Lentil"· gr·11 tle
1_,1 :\' i:-; , !i[! li t
L ev o, 1 li;..:ltte n, I lift up
L e x , lcgi~. a la w

1"1tn

infern.

insula, inwl
int er, ·i nti
it·i ner
it er
it

jn.c
ject
jan
ju,g
ju net
jur
j uris, juri
jtll
ju ven
lacer
lid , lis

Example.
exh"le, exhalation

exhaus t
homicide, liuman
e.xlwrt
hospitable
hostile
in/wmntion, post/iumoua
iden tity
igniLiun, igneous
i1tfcrnal
pe ninsula, in,•1.Zate
internal, intimate
ilincratc, it-inerary
iter ation
cx·it. circuit, transit, sedition
ndioce nt
i11}cct, conjecture

jani 1or
conjugate
ndj1mct, conjunction
conjure
jiumliction, j1iridical
adjnta nt, coadjutor
juvenile

Lacerate
collide, collision

la pid
lat
•
lat, lati
later

lapida ry, dilapidate
e lation, tmn slate
dilate, latitude
lateral, eq 111foteral

Legat

del egate, lf·gation

le•Y

leifaCy ' lCi[UlCe
allege , collect

lP.g, lect
lt-g, lect

z,,,,

lPnt
Lev , liev, lief
leu
leg is, lef!
lil,r, libel
Libc r, a book
libc r
L ihc r, fre e
libr
Lihra, a balance
licit
L icet , it is la wful
lign1un, lign
J , i~ llUl ll , \\'OOd
/ i.r /i CTa
L ig1" I l>ind
L11 1q uo, I leave , rel ict us li ~q u ,'~lict
Jt.t'1
/iq11.e, liqui
I .iq11 t'O , I rnclt
I ir i
Lt~ , li1i,, olril e
lit a
L HPra, a leuc r

179

DERIVATION.

le!(ihle, lecture
le.1iity, lenie nt
re lent
lPvity, relieve , r elief
e lenate, lever
lc~ is lator, lrgal
Uhrary, libel
li.hcrty, liberal, liliertino
Wmit ion, equilibrium

illicit
lif.! nnm.vitm, ligneous
ol,Z ige, ligrun "'t it
r el inquish, re lict
l i·1uefactio n, liquid
litigious
lit eral , lit erature

Example.
Representative.
Root nnd Menning.
locali ty, loco m ot ion
Zoe , lo<:o
Loc t1s, a place
oblo n~. lont: iiud e
long , longi
Longus, long
lo<jJLi, loquy, loqu, coll0<1uial , ul>/o11u y , loqn aLoq ui, to spea k
city, ven1 r i /111;ui ~t , eloculocu
ti on
Zuclit.: rous, illtt .~io n
Lu do, 1 play, lu s us, de- ludi, lus
ccivcJ

J.. utncn ,

lun1i11is,

light

Luna , th e 111 00 11
Lux, lu ci•, li t!ht
Mar: ics, lea niicss
J\laclda , a spot
1Y.lag nus, g rt ·at

J\la le. wi ck~d ly
J\lnndo, I bi d
Mundo, I che w
Mane o, I s1ay
l\Iano, I flow
JI.Janu s, a hand
Mar,~ , th e iw a
Mars, martis, the god of
war
Mater, rn atris, a mother
l\Iel, m ellis , ho ney
Melior, be tt er
Me mor, mindfu l
Me ns, rn c n1is , the m ind
J\l e rgo, I plunge , mers us,
plunged
J\1t'ti or , I rncairn rc, men!"US, n 1cnsurc d
Mille, n t hou~and

Miror , I g az e
J\lisc r, wre tche d
Mitis, mild
Mitto , l scnd, mi ss us, sent
JV!odus, a m easure
Moln, a mil ls1011c, flour
J\lrilcs, n mass
J\lullis , so ft
JVIon co, I warn, monltns,
warn ed
Mors, mortis , death
Jl.1os, moris, a manner
Multus , m any

J\l unitus , fo rt ilie<l
M unus, m unc ris, a gift
Murus, a wall
Muto, I change
]\at us , born
]\"a vis, a s hip
N ecto , I tic, nexus, tied
N ego, I d e ny
Nih il, nothing
N ome n, nomfo.is, a name
Non, not

lumi?&
lttn
luc

luminary

maet
ma cul
mogni
male, mal
mand
nuwd
man, main.

c11u1ciate

/u muic, s ublunary
lucid
rrw~n il'y

malev ul e nt, ma/,·c r~a tio n
command, mandate
m'm,/il,lu
permanent, remain

111.an

e1nana1c

manu, mani
mar
mart

manual, man ip ul at ion
marine, 1nariu1ue
martial

matrr, matri
mell
m elior
m ent
merg, mer3

mat ernal, matricide
mellifluous
nnielioratc
m emorable
m Pntal
c1nt:rgc im112crsion

m et, mensu

mete, co1nmen.4'11rutc

mill

mil/e nnjum
mirror. admire
miurab lc

m Pmor

nnr
111iser

1niti
1nit , m·is8
mod
111.ol
111 01

molli
111011 ,

monit

1

1n iti~uto

r e1nit. 11iission11 ry
mode, mod ify

emolurn c nl
I/lo/es t, demo/i "li
<'mollic nt, m olli l·y
uJmoui~h, nwnito r

mo rt

mortify, immor!al

1no r

moral
multi fo rm, m nlt itu do
munition
re munerat e
immnre
muta ble , commute
native, nal:tl

multi
mun it
1nuner

mur
mut
nat
nav
1: t]Cl ,

nex

neg
ni!til
nonnn
'TW1L

.

' ''

in11MC1tla!e

11a1;al, n1.rvi(!ntc
connl'rl , a 11nl'.£
ne.!,'a i ive

a 1;11ihilate
11omina l, <l c11 01r, inalc

nonentity

'

,

18.0

APPEND IX.
Root and

~lo anin~.

Nor m a, a rule
Novus , ne w
N ox , noc: is , nig ht
N 1d JO, I inarr y , n uplus ,
married
N ttdns , n aked
N ug a", tri fl es
N un 1c ru s, a n u m lic r
Nuncio , l tel l
N utrio, I no u rish
Oc to , eight
O eiilus , -th&J eye
0 !co , I smell
Omn is, all
Onu s , onc ris , a bun.lc n
Opto, I wi ~ h
Opu R, opc ris, a w ork
0 rliis , a c ircle
O mo, I d eck
O ro I be"
Os, o ri s , the mo u th

DERIVATION.
E xam(Jle.

Rep resentative.

norm.
1WV

no:r , noel

nub , nupt
mul.
nug

numer
nunci, no1mc
nutri
oct

oCltl
ol

R oot a nJ Men ning.

enormous
innovate, novice
equino.<', nocturn nl
connubi a l, nuptia ls

Pl e nu s , full
pl en
I'lt:o, I till , plet us, filled ply , plet
l ' lico, I fold
plic
l'l u ro, r w ail
plor
)'l11 rn liun 1, lr•ad
pl wnb , ]Jlu m
Pono, l place , posltus , pon, pos , p osit
pl need
l'op ulus , tl ie people
popul
Pon o, I car ry
port
Poto, I drin k
pol
p reda
Praeda , plunde r
I'ravu s , wick ed
pra v
Precor, r pray
prec
Prch c mlo, I take , preh e n- prehend, prehens
sus, taken
Preti um, a price
p rec i
}'roLo. l prvve
p rob
Prob us , good
p rob
Pud c ns, pude ntis, bashfu l ;mdent
Puc r, a Loy
puer
l'ug na , a fi gh t
pugn.
Puto , I lop , I thi11k •
put

<lc11ndc
m•g u1ory
numuation
anmwciuti on, renounce
11ut r i111c 11t
octago n, octave
ocul1 ~ t

olfactor y, redole nt
omnipote nt
omni
oner
on erous , exone rate
opt
ado11t, optio n
oper
opero~e, OJ>er ution
orbi
orb icu la r
orn
adorn , ornam e nt
i ne xora bl e , orator
ora
or
or a l, a doratio n, ori fice
oss ify
Os, os!Sis, n bo ne
o...-s
Oti urn, case
oli
otiose , n cgot ia te
( ) vurn , an eg~
0 11
o" a l, ouifo rm
Pac tu s, hav iug ba rga ined pact
com pact
Pando , I s preaJ, passns or pand, pass , pan s expand, compass, e xpan• e ,
pan s us , spread
Par , equal
par
parity
Pareo , I app ear
pa r
apparent
1'aTio , I p roduce
par
7>arent, vi v ipnrou~
Pa ro , I pn·pare
pa r, pa ir
rcporat iori , repa ir
l'as tus, led
past
p astor, repost
l'ate r , patris , a fathe r
pater, patri , parri pat er nal, pa t rimony , parri cide
·
Paiior, I suffe r , pass us , pati, pa.s.s
patien t, passive, pa"" ion
havitw Rulle rod
pallcity
Pauci, f~;w
pouci
pacific
Pax. puc i ~. peace
p11ci
i1117ircrah le
Pece u, I si n
ptcc
e xpecto rat e
P e ct11 ~. p c c1 o ri~. the b reast pector
p eculat io n
Pcculiu m, prop e rty
J'l'Cul
Pc cu11 ia, 1no11cy
71ccun 1:
.
p 1'cnnirtr y
e xpel , rcpnlswn
Pe l lo , l d rive uway, pu lsus, pd, pu.ls
driven
Pendo, r h :rng. I w eig h , pend , pens
depend, pendu lum, stipend,
pe11.~ive 1 con1pe 11 sa tc
pens11~, hung , 'v cighe<l
p enin s ula
Peno, a lmost
prn
biperl. p edes t nI
l'cs, pedis, th e foot
ped
Peto, I seek, pc ti tus, pd, pet it
ce n tripeta l, competition
0

.l

Sllll g" !Jt

Pin g<>, I pai n t, pi ct us ,
painted
P i:;cis , a fi s h, pi scor, I fis h
Pl ncco, I plca"e
1' lnco, I nppcn~e
Ple bs, the eo11 1111 011 pcopl<'

pa int , pict

]'rt inter, d epict

piscrt

21i.•ratory
pluri d

pl11c
p /11c
7ilcb

irn plarn b le
plt:bcian

re11frnish , plmi ; 11Je
supzily . co111pfrtc, expletive
C<l t1171lica1e
d· ·plo re
7•/u mhl' r, [i i um in at
d cponc , in1puse , position
popu la r

e x port, portab le
p ot io n
preda tory, dep redation
depravity
d eprrcatc
apprehend, comprehen3 ion
apprfciatc
prol,tible
probiiy
n 11 pud1"1tt

pni:rile;
1nt,!!'n ac io us , irnpugn

a mpu tate, reputation , dispute
P utris , rotte n
p utr
put re fac ti on
Quae ro, I ask, quaesltus , quir, ques t, qui- inqu. ir e, inqne."l, rcquls t ..
t iu n , qrwr y
so ug hl
sit , qne-r
Quass us, s haken (cussus cuss
disc nss, pewnss iun
wh e n compo u nded)
Quatu o r , fo ur
quad r
qnadrangle
Qu c r<ir, I co mplain
quer
qu er ulous
qu inq uennial
Qu in q uc , tive
quinqu
Radix, rndicis , a roo t
rudic
rad ical, e radicate
ramiti catio n
Ram us , a bran ch
ram
r a8 0 r , erase
Has us, scraped
ras
rat ·lannl
H.atio. nitiuni~. re nso n
ration
Rec tuR. s1raigh t
recti
reel ilin eal
Re;go, I rul t: , rectus , ru led u g , reel
rei:ra l, ri rt or
rel icu late , rft ina
Rete , a net
r eti
R ideo , I laugh nt, ris us , rid, ris
deride, r istli le
la ng li e d a t
r if.!
irr iga te
R igo , I wate r
Rodo, I
g naw, ros us , rod , ros
corrode, corrosio n
g nawe d
Rota , a w hee l
rota
rotat ion
R u m e n, rumlnis , the th roa t rnm in
rum in ate
bank r upt , l' r1tpti11n
H uptus , b roken
rnpt
ru.~ 1 i c , ru ra i
R us, rur is, tlie cou nt ry
ru s , rur
.~ o rrifice, COllS t'CTi.llC
Sace r , sacri, sac red
socri , seer
Sal. sal t
..al
wl i"e
S a lio , I leap, saltu~. !rapt wl i , sault, sil, salit:n t , assault, rc:.:ilc , rn .
(silio an d ~1ilt u s w lic n
s nit
suit
compounded )
u1l vatio n
::ia lvus, safe
•alv
sanct ify
S a nc tu s, hol y
sanct
sot ·i.<t'y , w t rate
Sati s, e nough
sal i.< , .mti
saturate
Satur, full
sat ur

IG

.•

18 1
Example.

Re presentative.

'

,. I

i

I

"

182

APP ENDIX . ~
Root nnd Mea ning.

~ c<leu ,

scd, s·id, sess

l sit. , HCciSus, sat

Seme n , se mlnis, se c<l
8c 111i, half
Se11ex , sc11is, old
Scnlio, r feel, SC! I S ll ~ , fe lt
Seq uor, I fol low , secu tus ,
having followed
S id us, s idc ris, a sta r
Silva, a wood
8i111r!is, like
!:)i111ul. a t the s ame time
Simiilo, 1 tei g n
S uciu s , a companio n
Sol, tlw s un
:::iulor, I comfort

Rtµro so ntntiv~ .

Ro ol and Menning.

E.t~mplc.

Reprc!entntivc.

Saxurn, a rock
Sca ndu, 1 .: li 111 b (sccndo
wl1e 11 co111pot1 11dcd)
Scindo , I cleav e , scis~ u s,
cleft
Scio, I kn ow
Scribo, I write, sc ri ptus ,
'vrittc n
Sc ru tor, I sea rch diligen tly
Sc,1 rra , a scoffo r
Scco, I cul , scct11 s , cut

sa:i:ifragc

Strno, [ pile up, stru ctus, slruct , slrue , stroy st ructu re, cons t ru e, <lestroy

scenrl

ascend

j>ilcJ up
S11il111s, a foo l

scind , sc-iss

rescind, rcscis.<ory

::iuild eo, l advise, suasus, .mad, suas

SCL

uience, presc ic nco
inscribe, scrijJturo

S11avi .-..:, sw t·c t

.<lulti

scri.b, script
scrnt
scnr r
~ ee l

sem·i n
.~('1/l.l

,f\ Clll

s ent, sens

seq1i, seciit
sirler
silv

.o::uav

S1 11 110 , l tuk e , s urnp t us, sum, smnpt
tak e n

scrutiny, irucrutalile
srn rrili1y
di snct, sec!arin n
sedc11t ury, uss irluous, presirlc, -~ ''·"sio n
di s s eminat~ , ·" e1ni1u\ry
um icircle
·

S111:!.{1J 1

I rise, su rrectus,

n s11n
Ta 11~4>,

to uch , tactus, tan g , tig, tac t

'l' urd11 ::;, :-:.l11w
'l' t' ''l1
1 cuvc r,

C~< 1v crc<l
1

1

tcctu8, t.-g, t ect

'T t: nqn1 s: t1·n1p0ri s, tin1c

silva,p
similft r, .•imilituue
simn ltunco us
d itisimnlation

sort
spcrs

assort , consort

sprci

.• pecific
.•pr,cio us, aspect

.-wpor

sorb, sorpt

disperse, uspusion

sp~ci,

spcct

Turpis , bn sc
l lhrr, fc r1i lc
lJ mhrn, a shado w
l ! nda, a wav e

Spon1leo, I promise, spon- sponrl , spons

spernlate
d espaate, despair
r espiration, expire (ec spire)
co nspiracy
re.<pond, response , .•po11so r

Un uR, one
l l rb~,

a ciry
l Jstus, hu rn t
l I1l lis , u seful
TJ x< •r, a wife

sns , pr o1 u iscd

sr il

clisl.il

st.ing u , stinct

cx t i11.1ruish , extinct

st ipul
stirp

stipnlnte
extirpate (ec-sti-rpatc)

~tat,

stature, di stant, so ls / ice

stant, stic

ing, stnt utn. to stand

S tringo, l bind , s trictus , .•t ring , strict
bound

astringent, restrict

tentt
t ep , tc71e
terr, t er

fes t
text
fol
t rah, tract

insurg ent, resurrcciion

ta 11gent, con/ i.t;uous , con la rd y, rc /arrl
intt·g u 111 c 11 l , pru lt'Cl

\.:- acca, a cow

Vaco, I am e mpty

·.

le11nity, at/nmate
tepid, tryJt'factio n
t. erraque ou s, inter

testify, at1 1·st
t exture , cont ext

ex tol
torltl OllR, e xtort
su litrn/i cnd, t rurtal.ilc, ex lrad

true!

tril11 ra1ion
intrude , obtrusion

tu.it

tuiti on , intu it ive

i llrb
I urp

turl1ulc nt, disturb
l1ir11i 1ud e

ul1cr

c xnlwrnnt

um.lira , itm.b r

1.unl1r11 ~co 11 s,

11nd

undnlau.. , in11 ndate
1111g 11.c nt, unrtiun

tr i't

l J 11 ~uo , I a11oint, unctus, ung u, 11nct
ru1ui111 cd

f-:l' t' ll

sprettl
spa , spair
s;1ir

con,*rumplion

deten tion

he iLl

loo k
T11rba , u crowd

S01lt'/1. l

a~.s u.mc 1

lcmporn l. contnnpornry
t cmpo r
dist en d, tent , extent, int ense
T cndo, [ strc tcli , te ntus , tend , tent, tens
RI rC'tchcd
T ('11co, l h old, t e ntus, ten , lai n, tin, t ent tenant, contain, continent,

senility
senlie11t , .•en~nti o n, dis•rrtt
ob.'t''{U ics , s ulis1·1;1L<!ll l , pcr secu,le
sirlacu l

somnifcro u!l
sopori li c
absorbent , ab.10rpl ion

s inml
l'£mnl

81W 1•i t y

t o cl
!fl rd

So 111n11s , sle~p
:-;,1por, sopii ris , sleep
Surbeo, 1 Ruc k in, sur ptus ,
Sl l C'k(•d in
Sors, sortis, a lot
!::ipar~us , ~pread (3pc rs us
wh r· n com µoundcu)
F;Jh.'Cit..: =-', a il1nn
Spcr:o , l sec , l'pec tu s ,

simil

.o::u rg, 311, rrect

h11rrh cd

social, .<o<'icty
solar, solstice
console
sole, svl it ud e, .•olilo•1uy
dis<olve, soluble , 1olu11011

Stillo, f drop
::>ting uo , [ put out , st in ctus , e x ting uis hed
Stipulu, a st raw
S ti rp.• , th e trun k of a tre e ,
o tlsp r ing
Sto , I s tand , sta n R, stanJ -

sluf1i fy
di;;suadc, pe rsuu.<ive

adv i" ·J

snci
sol
sol
~l)l u s, alo ne
.•ol, soli
:::iulvu, l lo ose , solc1tus, solv , sofo , solut
loosed

:-;pe ro, I hope
:-;piro, 1 breat he

Example.

!taXI,

T e 11 uis , thin
Tepco , I am warm
Te rra, th e earth
T co ti s, a w itness
'J' c xtu s , "·ove n
~l: ollo, I lift up
l OrlllS , tw1:.;!t'<[
'l'ra lw, I draw , tractus,
drawn
Tril 11R, rnblwd
T rnclo , I thrust, tru s us,
thru st
Tu cor, I sec, I protec t , I

S pcciila, a watch -towe r

183

DERIVATION.

umhre lla

u11 . uni

u11nnin1011~ , un if~)nn

u r&.< , ttrb
1l.<(

suburl1s, ur'1a11
combusti on

nl i l

nt il i1.y

uxor
var:c

vurri 11atio n

5 l'GC

( i1arn

u :ro r11111 s

varatit)n t.:ll cnnr y
ev(l n1.atr., l ·ornuln
1

Vnclo, I go

varl , vas , wade

inv11 d1.; , int'o si< •n, ·rcode

\ Tn~ur, [ wand er

Vrt{! , txlf! r

1·aga l1nnd, l'H,!..'ril nt

Valeo, I a1n stro ng
Vasto , [ lay was te
Veho, [ ca rry
V c ni o, I come , vent us,

t·al, vr1il

preni/1 •n1 , pre m il

vas t, was te
vd1i, ve11

d t' t•asla l ion, u·11ste
t Jd1ic le, con 1-rr1

vcn, vent

convt:ne , adut."nt

come

);·.,

18'1
Ro o t nnrl Mea nin~.

ver
·vert, ver$

revert, divers, versatile

ver

verity, aver
vr..•tme11t, invest
vetera n

Vf'St

veter

obviate , obv-io11s
providu, visil..olo

'Vt

Vi~il,

watchful
Vu 1c11, r conque r, vict us,

v id , vis
v'.gil .

v igilant

Vl1tC 1 Vll

inl!i1iciblc, victory

co1 1quere<l

Vita, Ii i(~
vit
\' ivo , 1 live, vic tum, to ·viv, vict

vital
v·ivid, survive, virtuuls

live
V uco, I call, vociit us ,
call e d
Volo, I will, I wis h
\'ol•i, I fl v
Volvo, { rol l, volut1Js ,

irrevocable, rcookc, voroltv c
volu n tary, be ne volent

rul lcrl
V oro , l dvvour
\ "ul g n~ , rhe rabble
V uls 11s , pull ed
LATI N

ROOTS

HAVE

vol

vol

volatil e
revolve , revolution

vo/-v , volttl

Vtt fg

voracious. cnrnivurous
milp-ar, di vulge

vitls

convulsion

vor

FOUND

PASS!SO

MEDIUM

voe, vok, vocal

OP Tl-IE

R oiot nnd l\1c1rniog.

ONLY

I NTO

IN

COMPOSITION,

ENGLISH

l

Fre nch.

r:J1rn11.p
C!tf:.re

Ch r. ri ~ h

Lex, la w

} ,oi

L iiiera rc, to free
O pu s, operis, a work

Iiv rer
CEnvre
J/ oi
Velope.r

Adjnurn
Loyal
Deliver

GH E EK

HOOTS

Ho nl 11ncl Mc iln in!( .

A(k lplius. :1 hrorl 1cr
A c rhlos, a co mbat
A rrlJtf l )S , a [Pad e r
i \ k.0?10, l hear
.J\.11t!i oi:i: , a flower
.l\nihr0po~,

Ar c hc~ .

a man

FOUND

Chompai!; n

Mana:uv re
Royal, vi ce roy
Envelop
ONLY

R c proscntative.

IN

C OMPOSITI O N.

F.xom1>le.

phil aclelpliia

a.rlclplt
alhlct

athZ..tic

agfJgU,

dt:! n1ap-ngue

acon.i;
a.nlho
1mthrop

acou.~1 1 cs

beginning, sovc- arch

antholog y
phi lrw.th ropy
h c ptarc/1.y, archbishop

n·i g nty

.A r i "tO~ , l1t' St

a risto

Ari1h 1n os , numbe r

arithm

a.ris tocrnt
arithmetic

As1 ro11, a Slil r

Miro

as tronom y

A 1 rno~, vapo ur

a /111 0

an to

a tmosphe ro
autograph

bapt

baptism

Autos,

~rdt

llapto, 1 <lip

Ch c ir, the h and
Ch ol (>, bile
Clirunos , time
C h ry:;os, gold
D1!1rn, te n
Dc• 1110s, th e people
D e ndron, a tree
D oxo, I will think, dedog mai, I hav e bee n judged , doxl- , an opinion
Dromo~, a cou rse
l>rn~. an oak
1>vn O. mis , pow0r
.E i.dos, a f;,rm
Epos, tL word
1~: re n 1os , a d1:sc rt
} :rgon, \vork
Etl 1os , a custom
Eu, well
G arn os , a marriage
Cas te r, th e be lly
Ge, the ea r th
( ;c no, I produce
Ccnos , kin d or race
Glo~sa , glotta, th e tongue

I

I

l1nrol1H' l<' r

bil,f iogra phy

bio
rhir
choll.

l1iogrnp li y
cJ,;,-.,g n'! phy

c!trono

ch rurw1 nc tcr

ch.r!Jso
rlera
d em , demo
rlendr, de11clro1L
dux, dogma

r/,r11:wlit c

d rom

h ippodrome, dromedary
rlmiJ , rlr!Jatl

drn, dry

c/1ofrr1c

d rr.uln 1rue

cpi1fr11~c, rln11ocracy
d,.111/ ret ie , rh o<l1lduudron
orthodoJ: , rlog matize

dvna m
e;do
ep
ercm
er{: , u.rg
et!t
en, ev
gcun

rl11na111.icR
k1,d~ irloscope

ga.~tr

f!ll.<tr ic , .a-r1stronomy
,L{fogrnp hy
oxygen, h yd rngtn

gPo
gen
grn
glos s, glot

Co11 ia , a corner , nn angle {!.O n
G r:unrna, a lette r, " ri ti ng gram
Gra pho, I write, g raph•\ a "i;raph
1

l':xnmp lo.

Jour, a day

V elo, l cove r

THE

F RENCH .

C am pt1 8, a field
C arus, d e;i r
Di11 r1111 s, daily

R ex, r('gi:-1, a king

WHI C H

THROJJOH

b,.irn
hi/,/io

Baros, wei ~ ht
ll ibl io11, u boo k
BiM, lift)

vernal

E xample.

Represen tative.

Root nn1l Menning.

R cpresent11tive.

Ver. tlic sp ring
V e rto, l turn, versus,
111rncd
Y crus, rrne
V cs tis, a g:tnnent
'-'i:ru ·, vcturis, old
Via, a w ay
ViJco, I see , visus, seen

185

DERIVATION.

APPENDIX.

epic, orthorpy
rre1ui 1c (hl'rtnit)
cnrrgctic , m etallurg y

ctli ieal
P1tlo1g y, eva ngel ist

biga.my

l 1f"te r ugr.neo11~

f! ln'"ary, ]Jol yglut
polygon
epif!ra1n , gramn inr

autograph, hy<l rogrnpl1y

writing
Gyros, a ci rcle

gyr

f!yraiion

I!agios, holy
Ifc ~·rito n , a hundred

l1 a~io

heca

Helios, th e sun
lfern<"ra , a da y
]l ep ra , seven
llcr l' ros , di ssimilar
H e x, six
Jlii'ro", holy
JI il'pos , a h,1rHO
] lu<l •iti, a wa y
l l o111 os , si111 il;ir
J lydor , wat e r
Jly g rns , wet

helion

/,,,g iog raphy
hera wmb
aphelion
c 11/iemer al

Jctl1ys, a fish
Isos, equal
Kakos, bad

1:chl!ty

herner
hrpla
li rtero
lii ,·r

hippo

li irrarc h v
h il'P"P'll:1111 us

lJtl
li om.o

lwnwlog-0 11 ~

l11tdro

lt 'frlroswticB

/1 !ff!TO

7i y1'rometcr
irht hyology

I SO

*

het erodox
!1t-x11 g 1)ll

cnco
J(alos, han dsome
J.-al
l\: a lyp10, I c.oYcr, kalypso, calypt, calyps
I wil l cove r
Kephale, th e head
crphal
Kosmos, th e world , orde r COS lfL
crac, crat
Kratos, strengt h
Kyklos, a c ircle
cycl

16

li q1tago n

I' Xl)(fo8

;.~operi m et rical

cacophony
kaleidoscope
upocai>/ptic , apoca1yp5e

h yd rocrpl11tl 11 ~ , r1·plm.lic
ni i <"rOcn~ m , cos met IC
aristocmry, uistocral ic
epicycle

:

I

- --

--- ~-----------.....----~----- -......

186

APPENDIX.

Root and Menning.
Rcprcscnl o.rivo.
Laos, the people
lai
J.i1h1ls , a 8tone
litlw , lit
L ogos, a wor<l, description log o, logy, log1'
Macllt:, a fi g ht
J\lctron, a measure
J\licros , Iii tie
Misos, haired
J\lonos, al,>r1e
Mor pht\ shapo
Mythos, a fuble
Na11s, a ship
N c kro><, d ead
Neos, new
N csos, an island
Nomos , a la w
N osos, ~ ic- kn ess
Oikco, I dwell
OllgoH, little, fe w
Opliis, a serpe n t
Opt o1uai, I see
Orn is, ornithos , a bird
Onhos, ri.,ht
Oxys, ac itl
Pais, paidos, a boy
l'athos , feeling
P e ntc, five
Petra, a stone
Phn~ein, to cat
Phil o ~. a fri t>n d
Phoh eo , 1 te rrify
Phon e , 1110 voice
Phrcn, th e mind
l' h1h on g os, a souuJ
Polemo~, war
J>ol co, I ~el l
Po li~, a city
P oiys , many
Pot i1moe, a rive r
l'seudo. I df'ce i1•e
l'yr. pyro~. lire
Knrk s, ~arkos, 11esh, the
body
~itos , co rn, fuod
:"kope o, I "cc
Sophos ,

,,,_i~c

:-:tc llo, I se nd
St rPp ho, I turn
c It!, <~istan t
1 cc h ne, art
'J'hnpto, l bury
Th r.os , (: od
Ti1h<'mi, l put, l suppose,
thr·s i~, a pof'l ilion
T opos, n pince
Zoon, an animal

;1:

m.ac/1
m elr, meler
rntc ro
nus
mono
morph
my tho

1wut
n ecro
n co
nes1M
nom
noso
oeci, oclti

olig
op/ii
opli
ornitlto
orf./w
OX!f

ped
pr1t/i

p ent .
p1•tra., pet ri
plwi;
phila, phil
phob
piton

phrrn
ph tlwug
pol em
pol
polis
poly
polamus

psendo
Jll/ro
sa.rco
sit

DERIVATION.
E~n m t>lo.

laity
lilhography , chrysolil.o
logomnt.:hy, c hronology, catnlogue
nauma.c/iy
geo metry, thermomelor
microscope
milanthropA
111onosyll11l1l e
m c 1umorp!tosis
mythology
11.aul.1ca(
necromancy
nrnlogy
P cloponne., •M
astronomy
nosolo/?y
nn1oec1, pcriocci, parochiul
ol iga rch y
ophiolog y
opti<!al
orn ithology
orliwgruphy
o.r:y~ e n

pedagogue
npar.!ty, a ntipathy
penlngon
pelralogy , TJ•trifaction
unth ropo11'm1<i
ph rlusophv. 71hi/anthropy
h y ti ro}'lwbia
e uphony
phrenology , plire1l8Y
diphlliong

polemical
bibliopoie
metropolis
polygon
hippopotmnu.,
puudo-apost le
pyrometer
sarcophagus

l el J

parasite
tclescnpc
.~ophist, philo.•opliy
apostle, peristaltic
peristrep!tic
tefrscope

tee/in
tapli

epi taph

SC0)1

soplt
stle, stal

slreph

u,,., thus

technical
al /wi ~1. cn l/m.!inst

th es is, thet

h ypothesis, hypot/ieticul

tO]'O

topography
zoBlogy , azote

Z00 1 'ZO

187

The Prepositions and Conjunctions are the most difficult
wor<l.s in the English language to trace to th eir origin, as
well as the most irreg ula r in the changes which they have
undergone.
F ormerly it was the .practi ce of grammarian s to dcscr ihe th c:e parts
of s p('ec h rath e r as the pegs and nails that fasten th e sc1'f'ral parts
of tlIC lan guage toge ther, than as parts or the language il8clf. • But
since the resear ches of Horne Tooke a nd Dr. J olin Jlunlcr havo
th rown light on their h is tory, it is unive r sally held that th e y are
abbr eviatio ns, corruptions , o r combinations of other word 8, c~pc ­
cially o f verbs and n ouns.
Th e leading prepositions arc of Saxon origin .

Thus,

.After is from afl, tho hint.! or back part of a thin g ; no w disused
except by seame n.
.Al1out. is from nhu la, the ve rge or ex trem ity o f a thing.
Above is from ufa, high.
Amid or a11tidst is compounded of a, on or in , and mirl, the middle.
Among is from gemong, mix ed, the perfect parti ciple of manga.11 , to
mix .
Before is compou nded of the imperative be :rnd the adjective furr.
Behind is compounded of the imperative /,e a11 d the adJPctivc hind.
B1.fmv is componndcd of the impe rative be and the ndjcc1ive low.
B enerrth is compounded of the impe rative be and the udj cctive 11cath,
low (from whe nce n elher and n ell1ermvst ).
Beside or besides is compounded of the imperative be and the noun
side.
B etween is compounded of the imperative be and the num eral adj ec tive

t wa in.
B eyond is compounded of the imperative be and goned, the perfect
parti ci ple of gan, to p;o.
JJ_yt is th e impe rative of fieon, to be .
Fvr is fr om foron, passing to wur<ls, conscl]uence or obj ec t; OR,
"They conte nd for victory;" t hat is, the consequen<.:e or obj ec t
bein g vi ctory.
F rom is from /rum, beginning or source; a.~, "Figs come from
Turkey; " that is, the source or beginn ing be ing Turk ey .
Near and nigh arc the adjectiv es 11ealir, nili , contiguous.
•This i• 1hc langungc eve n of Monboddo, the most philo"ophical of ou r old
grnm111arian s.
t Our nn ce1:.ito r ~ wrote eithP r be or by; ns. u Dam\' ilh-' be ri ght oue!H to hnvc
the h·ndin~ of tile nrm y." T iie force of tlli ~ p ri·pt)!-ii ti o 11 i:i to P ,lpn.- ~s PIH! tl11ng
fltJ Lh e ca11~('" o r nu: a11~ (lf ano th r, r ; a~ . .. D am v il lc by right ," lliat is , riJJltt being,

" oug ht to have the leading of the

nrmy."-TooK~ .

188

APPENDIX.

D Eil. lVA'flON .

189

Of* (generally pronounced ov) is from liavc, to possess ; ns, "The
ci1y of David;" that is, possessed by David.
Over is fro m 1~/cr, th e comparative of ufa, hig h; as, "He s tood over
m e;" tha t is, higher than I. Up , upper, uppermost, lmve the aarno

Jj is from 1he imperative g if or gifan, to g ·iv e or g ran t ; as , "l'f I
go; " 1h<.1t i8, "Gif or g ive, suppose, gran1,drnt l gu." . .
L est j g co niract ed for ll·.~ed , th e pani cipl e of lesa n, to d1~m1 :; s; as,
•· Take ,~ are lr.'t you foll;" thu1 is, "Take care; this bein g dis -

origin.
Sa.i:e is the imperative of the verb ~ ave .

mi.,.•ed, you fall."
Or is a cuntra cti un fu r tl1 e num eral adj ec tive ol!ta; as, "C :i,·e 1J1e
t•itha 1he black or the whi1 e ;" that ts , "G ive me one of th e lu·athc blac k, of/,er the whi te ."
S inre is th e pnrticiple of seon, to ~cc, nn<l is l'quivalcut to .< ce ing; as ,
' ' .',' inrc il jg RO ;" that is , "Scein:.t it is so."
Still is fr om s:dl, th e iuq)('ralivo of .<tel/mi, to s11ppO!'< f'; a~," Tl 1ough
l de~i rc d him to Jcpart, $Lill li e is not gone ;" that is, ' · S"J'pose or
re11;.,rk, he is nut go ne ."
Tf,,,l is from th ea r, th e perfect participle of tli erm, to a ~~ mn e or suppo~e; as , "l believe that your s ta te me nt is correct;" thut is, •·I
belie ve t/,e thing a.• .<1tmed , viz. your statement, is correc t. " Titat
is con ve niently conside red as alike an adj ective pronoun , a relative
pronoun, and a conjunctio n; but it is in all cases originally and
really a partic iple or adjective.
Tlt cu is fro m the prese nt part iciple of tliean, to assn me or suppo~c; as ,
"So th en, they that arc in the flesh cann ot please God;" that i~ ,
" So , as.<1lmi11g w /iJ:t. ha s been just advanced, they that are in the
fl esh cannot please God."
']'/1onf!h is from the imperative of tlw!tte, * to th ink or ~uppose ;
as ,
" Thoug h he was learn ed, he was mod est;" that 1s, "Suppose he
w as learned."
U 11 1as is from onl~.~. th e imp erative of onlcsan, to dismiss; as, " r-11less ye repen t, yo shall all like"• ise p t- ri~h ;" 1hat is , "Dismiss the
s1tppos il ion-yc repent , ye shall all likewise perish ."
l'rt is from th e im perativ e of gclnn , to ge t; a~. ' ' Tli ongli he ~lay mP,
yi:t will I trn st ·in him;" that is, "Suppose he sla y me, gPt or u&la in
t hi.•, I will tru st i11 him."

Through is fro m tl1ttruh, a door or gate ; as, "The eagle fli es throuxh
the air;" that is, the air being the passage.
Tlt oroug!t is of the same origin; also doo r.
T ill is cum pounded of the preposi tion to and while, time.
To is the same o rig inally with do, and sig nifies act or comple tion of
an ac t. It is oppos0 d to from, t he begi nn ing ; aa, " Figs come
.from Turkey to England;" that is, Turk ey being th e begi nning ,
En gl and the linishi ng or e nd.
Toward is compou nded of to and u:ard, the impe rative of v >arrli(m. to
look a t ; as, "I move towards the city;" that is , wi 1h my view
d irected to the city. 1Vard, to guard, is of the same origin.
1Vith is the imperative of withan, to join; as, " A house w ilt. a party
w all ; " that is , " A house, join a party wall."
TVit lwnt is from w itlmtan, the imperative of wyrthanutan, to \,e out.
JVa!wulen occurs as a preposition in old Englitih writers, anJ is still
used in Scotti sh poet ry .

The leading Conjunctions are nlso of Saxon orig in.

Thus,

And is an abhrevi ntion of anrul, the imperative of a11a1wd , to ncld; M ,
"T wo a nd two make fou r;" th at is , "Two add tw o mak e four."
As is th e Ra mc wi th es, equal.
JJut is from &u1, the imp erative of bolan, to s upcrndd; ne, " I ca mo
expecting to find yon, bu.t I wns di sappointed;" that is, "Adrl, l wns
Ji s;1pp uint c<l." "To boot" is of th e same orig in . Th e prepositi on /,,tl is an abb revia ti on of be ont, or by 01tt , and sig nifi es 1tnle3s
or .·.rr1·711 ; a ~ , "I saw nobody but J ohn;" that is, "unlesi;" or
" l'XCt'pt " Jl >Ji n.

Eit/,,·r i;; the ~arn c wi th the adjec tive either, one of two; as, "It is
eith Pr day or ni ~ bt ;" that is, "One of the two, day or nig ht.."
Eke is t he imp erat ive of eke, to udd; as, "John Gilpin w ns a citizen;
n train -band captai n eke was he ;" that is, "Add, a train-bum! cap tain was l1l'."
El.• e i ~ t he imp erative of n.lc.,an, to di s rni R ~; nR, " Giv e me th e book,
or t'ls e I will go ;" that is , " Omit to give me the book, n;1d I will
go."

• nr

i ~ ~n v a !'ll C i 11 its s i ~ n i fi c..atinn. tha t H nilly he 11 ~cd fo r mnn y of
p rpp 1;:-:ili1tll!'O . 'i'J11 1 ~. w e n 111 ~ay, a dP:-:cenila nt. nf or frnm .: a fri1 !n cl

tlle othr.r
of or to ,·

}1atr1•d 11f P T fur; (.I ll fl:'Z~UCi af (.> of Of V: ;(/l; hi:IOVC fi of or by, &c. nnt ]10."iSf','i;'i i "1&
is pr oh;dd !· it ~ o ri l.!i 11 n l ~ i [!" nirka ti o n , in com mon with that of the tcrminntion o(

the

pottl"t:'b~ ivc <'Ot=c,

to wh ic h it i:t et {ltival e nt.

I I.

OR I.G IN 0 F EN G LI S II D E Il. IV AT IVE S.

En(Tlish
Derivatives arc fo rm ed chi efly hy atta ch inf!" to
0
th e R oot, or essential part of a word, certain Prtji.rcs and
A_f!ixes.
A Prefi:r: is a particle placed before a root to rnry its
sense ; as, super structure, rebuild.
* Th is acco11 nt of llw11pll i~ from Dr. Jamie~on, who sa ys I hat I hr: f" ~ rn in_""rh ich
iL 0C'r 11r~ i11 our m n!-'l a11 cie nt MSS. is tlwcht and althocltt . Tuuk c Jt:nr cs 11 rv lll
the i111pc rat.ivc of tluijian, to all ow.

1!10

APPENDIX.

An 1l[Ji.r, or termination is a particle added to the root to
vary it s significa. tion; as, plentiful, darhsh.
A cl t! ri vativc fo rm ed by 1n ca11s of a prefi_x is nlways of the snmc part
of spe ech with its root , prov ided th ut root exis t us a separat e word in
th e la ng u::igc; a~, t urn , rel urn; nuvig at iun, circ1unnnvig utinn.

A deri vativ e for med by m ca11 s of an aflix has th e pnrt of speech to
whi ch it belongs dc tcn11i11 cdby the affix rather thun Ly tho root; ns,
Zif<', life less ; bro/h er, Lrothcr/y.

Prefi xes are chiefly prepositions, and are of as great
diversity c;>f ori gin as th e roots which they modify.
The fo ll owi ng are the prefix es of purely English or S axon orig in, \:i th
their import: A sign ifies on or in; as, '1-foot, that is , on f oot; a-bed, that is , iri lird.
lJe sig ni fies auonl; as , bt sprinkle , that is, sprinkle about; al so f or or
b1f11re; as , br:spcak , that is , .•peak for or uefor c.
E n s1g ni ties in o r on ; ns , encircle , that is, circle i n ; also, mokP; us ,
en k ciile , that i~ , mak e f erble. (En is changed into em in root~ be gi n ning with{, or p; as, emLark, empower.)
Fo re 8ig nifies befor e; as, f oresee , that is, see lirforehand.
llfis dr notes error or defect; us , mi.•d ecd , tliat is, a w"rong or evil rlcrd.
. O u t_ de notes excess or superiority; as , outrun, that is, 3urpau in nm·
nm~ .

191

DERIVATION.

'°"

O ver de notes eminen ce or excess ; as, overcharge, that is, to charg~
much.
Un, b fore an adject ive or ad ve rb, signi fies n ot; as, v.nwortl1y , 1.hnt i",
not wo rthy ; un, •before a ve rb, signi fies the undoing of the uct expressed by th e verb ; as , unfetter, that is , to lake o.Jf f<·ller., .
Fp de notes m ot ion upwards ; as, upstart; - al 8o subva3iun; ns,
v p sel.

1Vitlt s ig nilics f rom or again st; as , w ·ill1draw, that is, draw from; wit/,.
s tan t.I, that is , sla1Ld agaiw!t .

Th e fvl lo w ing :ire th e prefixes of Latin origin, with their import: ~ ig n ify from or awa y ; us, avert, that is, turn from; absolve,
that is , /o•Js e fr om; austai n, that is ,lwldfrom.
..c1d si g nit i 1- ~ tu ; a~. ad here , that. is, stick ti). (A d ass um es the various
for ms o f 11, ar., af. ag, al , a n , op , nr , as , at, aecorrlin g to the com ml'n cing le tter of the root. wi th which it iR joined; ns , asce nd, accede , nftix, aggran cl iw , allot , mmex, appeal , arrest, ass ume, attruct.)
.Am Fi g11i flcs ronn d alwut; :i ~ , a1nhicnt.
A nl•· sir.nifics bPf orc; as , ant ecede nt, that is, g oing befor e.

A , a&, n/,.• ,

/()():,.(]" is somc lill1 C8 prcfixed to a verb \\·ithout altering the sense ; as, loose,"•

Circum signifi es ·r ound or about; as, circnmnn,·igat (', that is , .<ail round.
C is signilieR on this .•irle; as , cisalpine , that is, on tl1i• s ide
A lps .
Con ~ ig 11i !ics lol{l'thcr; as , convoke, that is , call togPtiH' r. ( C on ta kes

tf,,,

al ~o the vari uu:; i U rn1~ ut' co , cog, cul, co11t, cor; as, co -operate , cog ..

natc , cullcc l, com1noti0n, corr elative.)
Co,.t ru sig ni fies ag ctinsl; as, contradict , that iR, .< peak ag u i11 st. (Con/ ra so m etim es tak es the form count er; as , coun1 aLula11ce.)
De s ig nili es down; as , dejec t, th:ll is, cast dou;n.
Dis signi tics a s und~r; as, di.sun.ct, that is , draw a .~11 nd l' r ; also neaa1ion or undoi11g ; as, disurm, that is , tuke armsfrom. ( Di.~ has ~ lso
the for ms of di and dif; as, div erge , diffu se .)
E, ex , signi fy out of; as , eg ress, that is, ga in!' out; r:i:clucl e . th at is ,
S ft U ( Oil! . (l ~, ex, tak e al so the form of CC , Pf; as , PCCC!llric , r/!l ux. )
Ert ra $igni li cs lwyo nd ; as, e:rlraordin ury, that i ~ , /;ryonrl ord irwry .
Jn, ucfor e an adj cc ti,·c , s ig nifi es 110/; as , inac1ivc, 1hat i~, 11 ot active;
·i n, li do rc a ve rb , sig ni fies in or in to; as, i1tjec t, tha t is , throw in or
into. (/n has ub o the various forru s of ig , ·ii, im , i r; as , ig noble ,
·i ll umi na te , i111port, irradiat e.)
lnlt'r ·ig nif-ics between; as, int ervene , that is, come /, el ween.
l1tt ·rl) signifi es lo wit/tin; as , introdu ce , that is, lf11d wit It in.
Ju.eta signifies 11ig lt to; as , ju:rtapositio11 , il1at is , po.< it io n ni;;h lo (a
thing-).
Ob sig nifi es in the tcay of or opposition; as, ol•stacle , th at i ~, Mnwthing
slun di11 g in th e wa y. ( Ob also has the vari ous forms of ac, of, o, op;
ns , occur, q(ie nd , omit, oppose.)
P er s ignifies t!troitf!h or thorong hly; as, p erforate, th:it is , bo re throug h;
71erfe c t, tha t is, tlwroug ld !J d one.
I'ust sig nifi es aft er; as , po.• tdiluvian , that is , afl 1'r Ili c .flood.
Pre, or 7rrre ,. ig nif1es b·:f<J rP; ns, predict, tlrat is , t ell {,, fore .
Pre/er, or prcet er, sig niti es past or beyond; as, 7irdernatural , that i~,
be11011 rl I he mn rse of nature .
1-'ro s iu., nil ics f or,forlh, o r forward; as, pron o un, that is, fvr a nmtn ,·
71rovoke , 1h at is, mllforth; 11roceed, that is , go fonra rd .
]fr ~i g ni flC's l1nck or ag ain; as , r etract, that is , draw back; r"1H1 ild, that
is,

/Jui/cl again .

R el ro si gnifi es backv:nrds; as , rdro spcc t , that is . a looki 11f! unrk ll'a rd.•.
S e sig nifi es aside or apart; as , -'CCt! de , that is , go asid e ur apa rt .
k'i'in e sigll ifies w ithout; as , .<inec11rc, that is, v •ith out ca re or lnbortr.
(Sin e also has the form of sim and sin; us, simple (with o ut a fold ) ;
sin cere (wi thout mixture) .
Sub sig11ilics under or aft er; as, su/1-beadl e, that is , 1t11dt r- beadle .
(Sn/, ha s al so the forms of sue, .• uf, sit~ , s11p. 'us (l' or1 1rac tud fo r
.<u/,.•) ; ns , succeed , suffuse , suM"ges t, .<uppress , "t.<pe 11J .)
Sul1l er ~ ignifics under or beneath; as, s1tbterfuge, tbut is, a )ly ing under,
a shift.

192

APPENDIX.

DERIVATION .

Super sign ifies above or over; as, superfluous, that is, jlouxing over or
above. (Snper has also the French form, sur; as, surmount.)
Trans signifies over from one place to another; as, transport, that is,
carry ove r.
UJtra sig11i.fics l1eyonrl; as, ultra mundane, that is, beyond the world.

The following are the prefixes of Greek origin, with thuir import : -

1

A or an sig-nifies without or privation; as, apathy, that is, want of feeling ; anonymous, that is, willw1tt a name.
Amphi signifies botli or the two; as, amphibious, that is, having botli
li ves , or capable of living bot!t in land and water.

Ana signifies t!trongh or up; as , anatomy, that 1s, a cull'ing tl1rougl1
or up.
Anti signifies against; as , anti-Christ, that is, opposed to Christ.
(, ·Inti hn s so metimes the contracted form of ant; as, antarctic, opposite tu the arctic or north.)

~::t 1
.1/r
..lirrl
.Jlr y

.J.:r r { dc11 r1lin!! 1llc agc11t or doer
f:11t I( of u lJii11~.
Er
lot
Iva
Or
Ste r
.llt.e 1 den nti ng t fli! person acted 'UJ'Otl.
;.~·,,
and t:lpiiva lt-> 111 to the pa~ )lc
f-livc tcrrniuntion ed.

J

f'

.il!ft

;;~~C: or Eu cy
Jon

Is m
Jfle11t

•Mo11y

Ure
y
Dom I d

Ilypo sig11 ifi. cs under; as, hypothesis, that is, a placing 1lnder a supposition.
]\J<ta dcnoics chr111ge ; as, metamorphosis, that is, a change of .~lwpe .

I'o ra !-i i!.!" n iti 1· :-1 1u•nr lo or sidr. by .c:i(lea.'lf if for the purpose o.f rompori.~on ,
nnd l w1w 11 f.l11 111r · 1i111 1 ~H -'< ;milarity, and sonict irr1cs <:onf.ruricty; ns,
7J(trudy . 11 11urm im;lolcdfrom unolltcr; paradox, an op1:nio1Lcoulrary
to Ili c geJLcrul opi n.inu..

l
f

f.t•t.

Ling I

The A.fji.rcs ha.v<' probably, in common with the Prefi:re.v,
considNablc dive rsity of origin; but their origin, as well as
their import, it is more difficult to ascertain.

l e or ical

lle

J

·

111e
Ury
.IJte
F11l

1I

2::~~ ~ den oliug

f ull of or a/1u n<i<Lncs.

Synmcj

Jue
JJ/1lr,
Ible

!
!

denoting capaci t y in

a11

artiria

iJtn:JC •

dc not i11 g capacity

iii

a J>a:Ss i l' C

JJC11:;e.

L es:; tlt·11oti11g 71ri vat im1.
l.&!t dcu o ting a smaller degr ee (Jf.
.!/le )
Rtt I

·

·

.

..

cnot 1n g 1ur1st1icti nn .

~Jj,

J

J.-;e
he

<liminutjve terminations.

Ock )

t.lt! uoting to makt .
•

Ly denoting like in quality.
1-Vard Uenotiug in the direction qf.

The parts of speech which are formed from radical words by means
of afftxes arc, th e Noun, the Adj ec tiv e, the Verb, and the Adverb.

N ou NS de notin g the ageut, or doer of a thin g, ure form eJ from nouns
un<l verbs denotin g the act, by adding the affix es an, cwt, ar, ard ,
ar.' I• rt•r, f"1t.l, er, i.'fl, ive, or, slr.r; ns,
Fro111 <;11ard
guardinn

A ri" H"l
H r· ~

l'rri sign ifi c ~ round a/Joni.; as, periphr:J(is, that is, a ·r onnd about mode
of sprak iu g , a circumlncution .

S y n sig nifies lof!clli rr; as, synthesis, that is, a placing together. (Syn
has also the forms .<!f, -'!JI, sym; as, system, syllogism, sympathy.)

'

r de11 tlting of or µrrt11i11tng to .

1.-h \
f.ikef den oting likcn c...('s,
Ly

slat e of
bci 11g
takt•n ah::-itra..:tiy.

N1 °8d

Cle
Kin

I

<1cno1i11 g bein g or

Cata signifies down; as, catarrh, that is, ajlow·i ng down, a slight cold.

I lypcr signifies over and above; as, hypercritical, that is, over or too
critical .

!

.// 11ce or .llnr.y

Ilic

I

1

./Jr,y

lran .<parent.

~~
::!/
./1 11

.1r

li q
Sliip
Til
T udt
Ty ur ity

Epi signifies upon; us, epitaph, that is, 1tpon a tombstone.

l

The following arc those whi ch most frc4u e. ntly occur: -

A po sign ificB from or aiVtLy; as, apostasy, that is, a standing or depart arr from . (Apo !ms sometimes the contracted form of ap; as, apliclion, away from t!te s1m.)

Dia signifies through ; as, diaphanous, that is, appearing through,

193

H""' '"tnut

Mnrd1: r

l1n k1· r
11111rd1 · r1·r

l11 ·~j.!Uf

( ', I II f~ 1 f Ill

r·1 1111i 1r1111 -i t

l>ot e

do turd

Up1·ri.1c

01 wr; 1IJ\' ':

Ad vc r~ c

ndVl'fSHry

Jr1s1>cct

i11:-:p• ·t:t11 r

Chariot
Adl11-rc

c hariot ee r
adherent

ruu

vu11 sl e r

Nouns de noting the JICrson acted 117>on arc formed from noun s and
ve rbs denoting the act or object, by adding the aliix es at e, ec,
ite; as,
From P11tr.nt
TnJ sl

pot e nt.ate
trustee

I From nf!dlarn

.f uvuur

J11~d1:1111lte
fav \1tir 1tt:

N ouns ending in the afftxes er or or, and ce, arc use d i11 opp0~ition ­
the former denoting the agent, th e lau er the p e r~uu uctcJ upon; as,
assigner, assignee; indorser, iu.dorsee.

17

-

·------- --- --- -194

Nouns <lcno ti ng being , or slate of be ing , are formed from nouns , ve rbs ,
an<l adjectives, by addi1Jg acy, age , rmrr , ancy , eu ce, ency, hood , ion,
is1n, m ent, 1nony , 1u's s, r y , shi'p, tit , t nd1!, ty or ·it.y , ure , and y ; ns,
From Pirate
C11 11:; pire
l n tricate

Ho1 11l
D» tf!

pi retcy

From Contr it e

cn 11t r iti nn

co n sp 1ra (' y
i n Lric.iry
h.111dag:e

D 1:s pnt

•l eH p o t i~ 111

l'ara!l eJ

J1ara llt•li :-: m

1\ cl1 ie vc

Hch i f'Vl! lll t:' lll

dotH .~C

111<-rry
Acri1l

rn erri111 cut
acri111011 y

H· ·p1!nt
J:' ra l!"rilll t

ri·p1:1 1t unce
fra~ r a 11 ce

Ai"llLC

u t~u

J-:xp1·c ta 11t

1·\'1w1·t a nc y

ltiva l

l ·' ln!! r ;u1 t

lla !!r:tn<'y

F ri P11d
IJ,·c• p
Gn1w

ri valry
fr i1·ndsllip
d .·pl h
g r.1 w lh

A pt
Loyal

tt pl i tn de
) !1\1 a l iY

e11 1r! r g 1~ 11c y

J\ h ;;i 11nl

nlis11rdity

d 1· 1:1 · 1w\'

D11 rah1'~

hnyhmld

lfr.:dusc
ll la>ll: r
Jealu118

d11raliilit y
di :-:c losurc
111a ster y
j caluu t-1 y

A d hr •rt! lll

;ulh 1~ rc·llf'P.

C 11 11t! 11 le
Al1:-; ti11c 11t

c·c1111!1) l e 11 ce

/\ ~ t ! /11.

Eu1r·rg-c
f>r·nrnt
H11y
J.i kelv

Exlla.11 s t

nl 1;-;t i1 1c ncc
il ,!!f'.11('.Y

l il<Yl1 h11n<l
cxhaus t i1n1

I e 111~ ss

No u ns d e noti ng Ju risd ict ion arc form ed fro m nouns or adj ec tives , by
addin g dom or ·r ic ; as ,
F rorn Kin g

k ingdom

1 From

lli sllor,

bi ~ h o pri c

D imin ntive Nouns arc fo r med from the na m es of persons o r things,
l.i y adding cir, k in , let, li ng , ock ; as ,
F ro m Cnrpus
J.arnlt

SL re am

cnr p11flc le
l;u 11hk i11
stre au il ct

I

Fro111 Dt1 f k
llill

d11 r k l i ni:
!Ji I luck

uc n oti n ~~ rif or pertain ing lo a th ini; nrc fo rm ed from th e
nn rn e o t' the thing descri bed , by adding ac, al, an , ar, ary , e11, ic or
icu. l, ile, illc, ory ; as,

AnrncT11·Es

Fro m El1"'gy
Au t 1i 111n

l{r·p 11 lil 1e
( ' 1111:--1 d

1\l i1111 ,• 11t
\V ot1d

From

t' lPg i ur.

a ut 111nn ai
r1 ·p11 lil ica 11
r o 11 s11 la r
111n1 11 f'll ta ry

/\llt.""f' 1

nn.erl ic

C a no n

Cf\ll Cllli dll
i 11 fa 111 ilc

I nfa 11t
A da ma nt

E .\ piat e

nilania nlin e
e xpiatory

\\' 1) od c 11

A dj cc tiv ei! de11 r.ting " /,u ndrmcc are form ed from the names of the propC'r t y, l1y addin~ a/1·. . f u, /, ose, ow~, some, y; us ,
Fru1 11 ..\ rl ~·c t i o n
ll 11p1~

<_; lul>e

n1l; ·i:ti11 11atc
Ji np•· rul

I F rom Jf az;1rd

j; li JIJO.se

t.: lacl

hazardn us
gladso uie

i •i th ,

pithy

A dj ec tiv es de not ing lik eness are fo rm ed from nouns , by add in g ish,
like, l,11 ; as ,
r·hild i >h
Jo'rom Child
maide nly
j From Maide n
Sa 111t

:-:~1 t111 Ii kc

A djec tives de noti ng r11par iry in an acli·ve $Cnse are form ed from ve rbs,
l.i y addi ng ive ; as,
F rtJ in Acr,um ulatc

ncc:.11n11lative

A dj ec lives denot ing c11 p11cit11 in a pass ive i< ense a re formed fro m nouns
or ve rb s, by addin g ol1lc , ible ; as ,
·
F rom Detes t

I Fro m Con tempt

195

DERIVATION .

APP E NDIX.

contemvti ble

Adjectives denot ing pr ival io,. are fo rm ed fr om the n ame of th e thing
wan l ·i11 g , by add ing less ; as,
l;- rn tn Art

a rth· fls

I

F'rom Cau:o;c

r au ~ckss

D imi111llit·e A dje c ti ve~ a rc fo r med fr om otl 1c r adje ct iv es, by adding
isli; a~ ,
F ro111 D a rk

Jarl\i:-. h

J

F ro m B ro\\' 11

Lrnwn i:.:h

\'rims in vo lving th e idea of to make as a pa rt of' th eir signification are
fo rm ed from no un s a nd udj cc tiv es , by addin g al e, en, f y , ish, ise or
iz e ; as,
Fru m .i\ \ir n
l 't.·qw t 11a l

From P1ddi c

r111tti-.:h

111 •rp1•1n:1 tc

l'11 rP

p11 r1 i'y

k 11!!1 1W ll

l".p1 1'11 11 e

•·p11'tlll!~(!

H!; w k

lt!111'1{ 1_•11

f·:, 1ual

eq11alize

Ty pe

t ~ · p 1(~:

L1 · 11~t lt

V e r\.>s ending 111 en are ge ne rrdl y of Sa xo n origi n , en or an I.icing, in
tha t lan g u~ g c , th e sig n of the infin it iv e .

V erbs e nd i11 g in a l e arc ge nera lly of Latin o rig in; but the diEt ingui sh in g cha rac te ris tic of ve rbs of L at in o rig in is, that the y always form
t hei r past te nse a nd pe rfec t pa r1 icip lc in d o r ed, and are not in this
respec t s ubjec t to the ~am e irreg ulari ties wit h those whi ch are derived
fro m th e Saxon.
A nvE r. Bs de notin g q nalit y are form e<l fr om adje cti1·cs, by adding
l y ; us ,
F ro m A hr11 pt

nl. ru }'l fy

I F ro m l\ i nil

ki ntlly

A dve rbs de not in g i n tloe di rect ion of a rc lo r mcd from nou11~. adjec1 iv 1 ·~. a nJ o the r ad ve r bs , b y addin g ward ; as ,
F rn 111 lfn rne

\\'c,;t

hn111,.. w a rd
\\'l·:' l\\' artl

I f'rom

0 11

onw nrll

The Engl ish langua ge has, in ma ny instances, two sets
of Dcrlvati vc worda cxpressi ve nf the same thin g, the one
of Saxon, and the other of L at in ori g-in. Th us,
~' ".0:-l .

l. \ T I -.;.

FI A X 11 ~ .

1, .4. TTS .

F1 •ar!'•1 I

'1'1 11 1id
V 1·lw·i 1v
l·:11;·1 11 11;a t c
l-: d 1i'wr!
l'a1w11y

Jl t'l !!ld

Al 11111dr•
E x: 111i r11ate
A111111al
.l\• i111 ·1111 s
A ndirn r

~ ,\· it'l 111 ·~~

\ V01 11 a 11i :.: l1
H11ild1 nc
Fi..: w 111 ·:.;:-'

l.i r1 · lt · ~:;

\' l' arl y
\ V a1 1·ry

lkarc r

Th e b es t spe cimen s of pure unmixed Saxon arc proba bly to be fou nd
in "The Bil.ilc',. a nd in "The Pil g rim' s Progress ." Dr. J ohn so n's writin gs afford the best specim e ns ot' La ti nizcd English . The
Lati11 ized s tyle is th e more so unding , th e S axo n th e mo re fo rcible.

E nglish n ou ns a rc often of Saxon ori g in , while
spondin g adjectives a rc deriv ed froni th e La tin.

the

corre-

Th e n11mhcr of our in se parabl e roots being so g ri •a t , it necessari ly hap.
pe ns th at a con sirl c ralile proportion of o ur dc r i,·a tivc s come d irectly
* O f 1f1 r. tifly .dgh l w o r(ls ti f whi ch the Ln r<l. '~ Pr a ~: e r i s co w po:icd , the re are
onl y thrt:c w!Ji.c.: h are nol juun edi.atcl}' dcri\'aUle fr u1u the Sa x0 11.

HH3

fr om oth er lan '.:l uagcs , w ithou t having an y corre sponding primitives
in E11 giis li. Dut in no c lass of wor<ls is this so appa ren t as in adj ecti v e ~ fo r111 eJ d irect ly from Latin no un s.*
T he Jvlio w ing arc those w hic h most frequ ently occu r : f\: 11Ul\ :!I

J\1 ljcc t. i vcs from Lat in.
f 1lilial
( 'oi11c r111inou s
P t:t' l.o r n l

fro111 Saxon.

l'.1· . .: i11 11i 11 g
t ;•1t1n d a r y

Hr1·:i :-. r.
f 'an·:1ss

C ada ve ro11 s

C:t l
l \ Ht ll l r }'

l

Fe lin e
Rur a l /
ll-11 , t ir \

Prom

ini linm
coul P. rminu s
]J U fll~

crula.r•c r
J d 1.s

ru s

])q;;

V :11:d u c
(; r a1l 11 a l
i'111 r h id
l ': u 1i11 e

Ltr
En d

A11ri 1:u l a r
F 111 al

auris
ji.a i ..;

l-: 11 1•111 y

1f 1l:-; Li lc

ho~ t ;s

1·:r

Ur nlar

oc nlu .~

F 1t'! d

A gra ria11

ll;.{ CI'

F:1 1:! 1' r

l" l1H'k

D 1:! il:d
( ; rr!!: a r int rn

Fl 1111 r

l ·':ir1 11acc 1111 i:1

( ' n\V

j) .. !.:ff' f!

IJ i:--•!<l "'C

0•

G 11ard ia 11 :-!1ip
l l a 11 rl
ik nd
l l i r~

l

T11f •·lar
( T 11 t i:l a r y

worli 11.."'
c 11. u i ~

l

t utcla

.)J ;11 111a l

11J.a111lS

C apit a l
1\J1!rr e 11 a ry

711 8 Tf.CS

ca pttt

J•: r1 11 t: ~ t ri t1 11

f! l/tl US

1 ~1 ;i t ltl

I 11 :-: u la r

Ki1 d 11 : n

( ;1 1li 11ary
Lu dd
l..u 11 1i11 ous
L r o11i 11 e
P 11 l nurna ry

dom ns
i ,, .~ lt /n.
r uli11 a

.i't/ 1111 1! y

F rom

S1• n

\ Mar i 11 e
t r\ J;inti 111 e
f' a ti t11 ru l
ll iu ue ra l
J. ar c ra l

1na r c

~lt (' pit r. r d
~ li o u ltl e r
~ ldf :

I

JlflS l o r

h11m r r u s
fo f 11 :1

~ 1 ~ 111

\ " 1~ 1111 1

1· i •.; 11 :J

:--;u !d 1c r

f\lll1lit ry
Y1 ·n 1itl
:-; .. J:i r
F 11 rtiv1•
F .. 111 1Jra l

111i le :J

~ p r 111g
~ 1 11l

Tl1 d l
T hi g h
T oo ! h
'f rc a ry
\\"h ale

1't r

,;, n /

; urt u m
f P111ur

J>1· 11t al

tirn .'l

F eil c ra l

f 1ril u.:1

l'e la cco us

Cf l C

M•·n1 a l

So me no un s of Saxo n origin hav e t wo sets of a C!jC'ctives,
one derived immediately from the noun s, the other fr om t he
Latin. Thu s : -

di/.[ i f us

;:rc:r..
f <o-ina

J> r11 11 c:-:t ic

J ,'I II !! ~
J'1i n il

A djcct ivea from L ati n.

t 1nrrrr.

llou :-;e

l. J • l l l

N oun11 fr om Saxon.

g ,·11tlu."i

l l• tr se

J.1 "h l
l. i" ht

197

D ERIV AT ION .

APPENDIX.

lu.r.
lu rnr "
!co
711£/ lflO
'lll f! U ~

N o un s from Saxon.

A djec tives from Saxon .

F ro m

A djec ti\'C8 fro m L a tin.

Hod i ly

( 'n q u>ra l

C•JTJ'US

H1 1v

]h1\' i:o: h

Hn) t he r

H ri1 rl1c r ly
H11 rtl c 11 so m e
D a il y
J ),• atl ty
Earr l:l v
F uilwr.l y
F a 11 lt y
F i1·ry
Y l1·, hy

Pu1 ·r il e
Fra t1• rna l

f ra t f r

J\o1tly
B urd e n

D uy
D l'at h
E nrr h
Fa t he r
F a 11lt
F ire
Vle'h
(; la s ~

r, r i t~ f

r: la !' ~Y

Tl a ir
llutre d

(;n c ,·o us
ll airv
JJa t e.fu l

p11 er

( >11 e r ou ~

on 11 .:1
du s

Tli1 1r 11 a l
M orl aI

111 n r:1

'J', •r n ·:"l ri a l
l1 11 !1·r 11 a l

pa te r

( ·11l p a h lc

r11/p rr..

ff. rra

J j.!tl t' Oll~

1,!!lli:J

t 'ur n u l
V it r1·0 11 s

'l:it r u m

r 11 r o

l >ol n r o u ~

( ' a pi lla ry
( h li11 11 s
J ~ :il 11 h r i o 11s

d u/o r
capillu tJ

!

odiu m.

.P t!C1.1 11 iu ry
l. 1111a r

] " ;r,u ·11iu

l'J1111 11

ltt U fL

Jr c a It h

ll o: a 111 1y

.' I · 111t ll

Orn I

O.'$

l'\ 1 1 ~ 1 :

?t O.'l ll S

T l l•ftV C ll

H1 1t !.!

Na :-: a l
l.01·a l
V 1tl !!n r
A r111 n l:i r

Ji ea r l

1! 1\ ;d

l·:11 1t1 ll H1:o:;

11 o·a rr y
11 1·n \ ··nly
l Jo i pfu l
Jr· ; ·
1, 111 !! 1\'

c m. 11 /u.s

Cll n li a l
l'c l< ·,tia l
J\11 '.: il in r y
c;1 11 1·ia l
lt •·c :il

l , ;1wfl-1I

H a1 1i1-; tl
H1·i,: 11 la r

1·r1.1/i. .r

J ,1' £!':1 1

rr r.
/,r

j, I ft'~

1,1 \' •·lv

\ 'IIa

1' 1lfl

f ,fl Vt'!

l\'1n n
J\l o th c r

l,o \' t· l·y
J\ l 111 il y
l\l n r hcrly

Jl,"i ~ l1t

Ni ~ htl y

P i tch
P 1d11 t
Pr it'!" l
H ea !'lon
S ta r
f' ln•n g th
\V oe
V\' al1 ·r
W i ll

Pi t r. hy
r o 1111 r d

l ' I" " "
H :1ldd 1J

1:

Pt l

H 111t 1

l oc1_1 ,"l

JI ,. Ip

'1) 1f/J!tl$

fr '!
K 111 g
J.aw

a.1111 ul 11 :1

rrg 1tln

, • "In En di .-.;:lt , i 11 ~ 1 •-. a d of 111Urr ti. 1;intr 011r ow n n o un s, w e IHI\'C ho rr ow._..1, in
i111 11 w11 "' t' 11 1 1 111 h t· r ~ . n r~j n1 i1 · u.1 :-- 1 ~ 11 :-< fr11 1u o t lwr la 11µ 11 :1 ::?1'!'!, witho u t hor r o wi 11 !! t lu~
u 11 a tlJ"•· 11v1•d ~ 1 !!' ll :' of I llt' :-;1 ~ :: a Il l!' id 1J as ; hcc a11 ~e 011 r cHJT.h o rR f111 111d t lley ha d O<:<' H~;ic 11 1 fdr tl 11! forn 1t·r hr1t 11 0 1 for 111" la llP r.
An <l , 11 n t 11 t1tl f' rs t. a.1 1 d i11 ~ 1he 11 a 1.11rH o f
) i1 T1~ 11 a~1'. 1•r 1111 · 11 :i t11 r 1· 11f Ill e \' i ·r .' · lwtw fit 1111 ~ ~, w r rc r ec1 ; i \· i 11 ~ , t. hi ·y d id 111 tt i111 ~
p ro\'1! lli t:i r ' "''' I t l an c 11 :1 !.!' '~ l1 y th r· :-t itt ll i! 1·011 t ri va11 c4! wi t hi11 it:w ll', hut bo rr ow c.~t l
fr o 111 n lli ··r la 11 g 11 a i.: 1·:-: a ! 1 l ir1•\' ra 11 1 111 ~ rea 1l y ma de to liH'! i r h a nd .... Th 11 :-0, i 11 !'!ka d of
t 11 r 11i n~ :-: 1wh 11 11 11 11 "' a ..: ,ti11 J! r r , m i 11fi. Nf c, sl~ i u.. &.c ., in to adj ecti vHs , th e y ndoplt~t l
n dj1·t ·f r\·1•:-0 f11 r11wd fn 1111 1 h~ · c11 rr1·"'p11111li 11 g- n oun f-1 i n otlu~ r Jn 11g u a g"e!-l:; a :-i, di.f! i t rrl,
1w · atrtl . 1·;tul. r 11f a.11N1 11 ,>l , & r. . '1'111 ~ pr;wu ct.• is t h e 111 n rc l 0 he Ja 111 c n t c tl. n s i t. ha s
r 1· 11.1i-r ... 1 t ht· f ·:n!.! l i ~ h la 11;!1i;1g•· v t·rr d 11fic ult to b t~ iu·q11irc<I. F or , a s tli e 111a t1.Pr
111 1\\' ~ 1 1 11 11 1 ~ . w !i .. 11 a pn11r f.i ri:i ~ 1 11 · r ha ;-; Jc ;i rn f\d a ll 11! 1: nn 111 ri;: of thill !!S i11 LIJ e
E11!! li :- ll t 1•ll!.! lw . h1• 11111 :' t ;_!n t 11 o tlu· r l n 111!' 1H1j.r1•r; fo r i. l w wUNt i 11 Nl 1 u u 11 t·~ 11f ! ti c
~ a 1111 • t h i 1 1 !!~.
A 11 d • · \ ' \'1 1 :111 11 11 lt·arnt•tl 1i;1 1ivc c a 11 n eve r u1Hh"' r1Ha111 l tlw 111 ~ a ni u g
of o u c 'l ll,lrt c r o f tl 1aL whi ch i::: c a ll c<l !Ji s n a tive l Oll !) •1C .' 1 - Uo 1tN t: TuoK.K.

\ V 1rnrnn

·w ond
·w o rl d
Ye a r

17 *

~a l 11 t ar y

l

/\n 1o ro 11 1'§

M l l lU

cor

cerium
n un i nun
)!la ri e;1

n 1n or

Jlu 111an

hu mo

ma ter

~ 1 ; 1rr y

l\1atPrna 1
J\' nc (11rn n l
Hir111 11 i11 o ue
.P u11r t11 a l
f.ac Prtl n 1a l
J{ a 1io 11 a l
!"kl lar

:0: . 1ro 11'.z

H o hu~ t

\ Varl 1ke
\ Va t Pry
Wi Iii n it
\-V; lt11 a 11 ly
'\l\'oody
W o rl d ly
Ye a r ly

.l\ ln rt iaf

r ulw r
m ar.-:
n 11 1uz

J> r i1 · ~ 1l y

H1·:1:-:o n uble

1/ 0 X.

b1fu.mn t

p n rt rl um

snr rrdoa
rnU n
.'!f f'l /tJ.

Aqll l'O !I~

V1d 1111lar y
l: 1IC111i 11 a tc
S v l\' a n
J\lun d an e
A n nua l

1· u /1111 f f18

j

0

1' m 11tu

.'1!fl t· tt

m u nd 1a
an 11tut

-1!)8

APPENDIX.

DERI VATION.

Some de rivutives, from contraction, change of cognate
ll'tters, a nd similar ca uses, have undergone such alteration s,
th at their origin is :ocarcely discernible.

i

•
,'A

T hus , cn rf cw , the eve ning -be ll (literally, cover- fi re), is an abbrevi ation
of cover an<l f eu (fire), because it was the sig nal for exting uishing
fires.

t

Q uiver, that which holds or covers arrows, is another form of cover.

J

l
.j

I'roxy , o ne who is cl ep nte<l to supply the place of another, is a contracti on ofprocu racy (compounded of pro, for, and cum, care).

T he two p o in ~s wlii ch de termine the aflinity of words in respect of
origin, arc ide nti ty of lette rs and identity of 8ig nilicati on, or le tters
of the same orga n, and a signification obvious ly de du cible from the
same scn8c.

i

II . P R IM A R Y SIGN IFICAT IO N OF WORDS.•

Lang:uagc being intended fo r the communication of
thon ght, th e worrls of which it consists must each have a
certa in signi fic ation.
T he re docs not seem to be any necessary conn exi on be tw ee n words
and the though ts rhcy express. Th ey <tppear to have become sig n il1c a1-,t mere ly by usage; a nd it is. now impossible to ~uy in whut
manner the co nvc11tional con nexion betw ee n tho sig n und th e thing
signified was at first established.

ones, leads l1 im also to prefer using an ol d w ord in a new sense to
1he in venting of an add ition al te rm .
The w ords charity, convenat ion, o.ffcnce, p rc~· cnt, arc instances of
"'ords applied in th e successiv e acceptations at different pe riods of
tim e .
Charit y is used in Scriptu re as synonym ous w ith love ; it is now very
much res1ricted to libaulity to th e poo r.
Conversation is used in Scripture to sig ni fy citizen..<liip, nr f reeman sltip ; it now .commonly means familiar d i.<co1trse or int ercou rse.
0.0'encc, in Scrip ture , sig nifies a stumbl ing- block or occasion of sl um/1lint; ; it now s ig nifi es a caus e of dis7dea.mre.
To prf'vcnl, in Scri pture and in the En g lish lit urg y, mrans to go before
or ant icipat e ; it now ge nerally m eans to ol1slruct or liiwlcr.

T he signification of word s is either Primary or Sccon-da ry.
T he Pr-imm·y or r adical sense of a word is that in which
it is firs t used in language.
Th e S econdary or figurative sense is tha t whi ch is afterw ards s uperi nd uced on the prima ry.
A word can ha ve only one primary, but it may ha \·e va rious secondary mea nin gs.
Pome words are used in their prima ry sense only.
Some words are used both in their primary and seconda ry senses.

Originally all words seem to have been applied in one
sense only .
\ Vords, after bei ng introduced into a la ng\ iage, are often
c mploy cJ. in diffe rent and successive meanings.

T hns , to tran.•porl , signi fi es to carry acros .• from onr place to anoth er,

T hr snmc hius which leads m un to enrich la ng ungc rather by tho
rn od il ic;\ tio n of words alre ady in use than by the creation of new

Some words have lost their original an d retain only their
seconda ry sig nifications.

• Tit <' pn p il ~Ji 11 11 ld liP ca11ti o 1H•d again st. th e f'rro r o f!"t11ppoi:.; in g that tlw prese11t
mrrrni t'f! of \\·n r41!'1 i ~ t• 1 h • acqu irr d hy l c an1i11~ th e hi sl or y o f th e ir p£H li g ree . 1t
j..: fro 11 1 t::.; 1ahli :- !J 1· d 11 :-: :t l!c . n o t f' l y 111 oln~J, tJ1at the pr eci se 11wanin g of word s mu st
111• c:11h1·rt·d.
1·:t\'111 o to~ , . i!'I a 11,•f 1:itful i~uid t• in qu ~ sti n nR nhn 11t til e }iropril' t y 0 1·

TliuR, period, which primarily s ign ifies fl path rounrl al;mtt, fl. cirncit,
is res tricted to express a definit e porlio" of limr", or t/, e rnrl of u rer tain dttra.tion, or th e po·i nt which ~rks the end nf a complete s1·11 lence.

im p r o pri 1·1~· of 1 ·X prt.·.~:- i ,·~11 ti._.

wh i~ h is it primary m eanin g ; and al so to crirry into bn n i.< limrnt fl~
a f elon, and to carry away w ith pleasure, which arc eccond ar y
m eanings.

Tiii' i 11stnnce8 a : c l'e w i~1d e1' d : a ~ is w ell ~1 : 11rnrk•:·tl

The words which admit of th e greatest latiLude nrnl
variety of meaning are those which enter lar!!clY into composition as the radical parts of derivative or compo und
words.

f1v J)11c: :1ld :--=it-wart. 111 wl 11rli P. t y 11111l o ;.1J' fl 1r 111 :'-{ hcs d l 1:t·t 11al a11i i'l t.n g1111l e u ~ 1n
t-i .:.:111 c: th e 1•.\a ct ~ i u 11 i 1 ic 111.1 1 1n f1f :iu il 1 i;,!t1 flll ~ t r. nnR, or in dra w in~ tli c line lH! lwec n

,.xp r1·:-<:-:in11:-o which f-l l 1•111 to hf• nea rly c<p 1iv nl ent. fn ~1u; ll ca~1·~. 11 othi11 g can he
p;;:t ff'IV t r u ~t l'd to li nt t hat Ila hit of accurate intlu cti o 11 . wliu:h, l1 y tll e Ht.ud y of th e
Jnq:-: 1- :lpp rnn•rl in nd .. 1:-< , 1·l iri 1 ~ grad11 :1ll y n tHI in~ e 11 s ih ly th e pn~c i ~c n ot.iou:; whi ch
1

o q r hr·:.::t n111 h11r ...: ha\·1· a11 11 e .xt·tl to rlt cir phrn !"eo lo:,! y.

E ty 111 olnu icu l resea rches
l11 1\\' f' \'1• r . nf c-rf' a t 11"'11 . l11 1!t · p<' 11d t• 11tl~ 1 of 1.hPir h1: i11u: r.a lc11la t.t:d rn gratify a
11a!11ral a11il !i hPrn l r u r i 11 :- i1r . th1· v fur11i st1 i111p· 1r1a11t data fo r ill1~ :-: 1r a tin:.{ t.li e rni ·
crat1 •111:.:: nf m an I\ i nti. :-.ncl i h1• p(ocr1·:-os of lawf-1, flf n rt ~ . an d of t'o 111in e rr 1·· ; tli ey
tl!ro\\ l1!!l tl 11 11 ;1.. <·1 il1 ar ro 11 :-: tru 1· tio 11 ~ . il tHI th ey e nable n 111 nn lo nlt1 a i 11 a i'a1 11il i ·
uni v with tli1• 1! <'t1•·ra l 111 1•:u 1i t1 1!, a~ w ell af= t o acquire a rna ~ t c ry o ve r th e use of
h rs ian~11ri g"' \\· J11 d1 11 0 utlic r stud_vca n im part.

tHf' .

Thns , the ra<lical parts of th e followin g w or ds , al\ whi ch rcpre ent
pat er, a fathe r, have a d ifle rcncc of meanin g in each.
Pfltcrnal, be longing lo a fa1 hc r.
I'atrimon y, an inh eri tance acquired fr om a father.

j

200

APPENDIX.

P atriarch, on e who governs by paternal rig ht.
P a t ricia n, a nobl e man (<Jf the rank of pa.trcs , or senators).
Patr iot , on e who lrwe s hi s native or father land.
I'a tro nymi c , a family -name.
Fu.I ron, one wh o tak es an ;ither unde r his care.
Pnrri1· ide, un e wh o kills his fat he r.
P uu·r ·11<>i;tc r. tlw L ord ' s l'rayc r (so called, because it begins " P ater
no~ t cr, " that is, "Our Fathe r." )

The radi cal mean in g of a word, when disco vered, a ways
furnis hes the key which explains and reconciles the remotest
of its seconda ry significations.
Thu s , to let , whi ch sig nifi es both to allow and to hinder, * has its oppo-.
site m ea nin gs explained by a refe re nce to its root let, which sig nit1es
a slll ice 01· v ent lvr wa te r , which , of course, eith er allaws or obstructs
tho f1u wi ng of the w ater, according a.a it is ope ned or s hut.
In like n i~ nnc r, hea t and hflt r. , thoug h apparently un co nn ected in preec nt Rig nilica1i o11, arc fou nd to be recon cil eu ble wh en d isco vered IO
be both de riva tives of the same Saxon root ltactan, to ~t ir or agitat e ,
liritc and heal alike involving the idea of violent excitemen t.
So also r Pck , reckon , and r ig ht, th ough g rc:at ly vari ed in t heir appl ica tion , are all fro m a root sig nifyin g stre tc hing or s trni11ing. R eck,
that is , care, is a stretching of the mind towards an obj ec t; reckon,
b oth in its se nse of think and in its se nse of crzlwla te, i. al so a
~lrc t clting of t.he m ind ; and r ig id is st rait or .,tretcl. rd, whe the r used
in its primary se nse, as in the expression "/\.right line ," or in it!!
m etap horic al sense , as in the expression, "The Lord will do that

w hich

i~

r iglit. " 1·

M a ny of th e pr e po,it i o n~ ma y also be cit ed as ill us trations; thoir
d1 v c r ~l' and of1r·n op p o~i tc applications adm itting of explan ation from
thPi r prill<a rv 111P-anin[.( . Tints, for d e not e~ both in frrnou.r of (as,
"T he g ift is for a frll'nd" ), and in 07>pos ilinn to (ns, "It rains; for
all 1h::it. he ' " ill rid e ,"- that iR, "in opposi tion to nil tha t," or,
"not wi1hstand ing th e rain, he will ride." ) Dut the primary se nse
(fr o m farrw. to pa~s to wards) of pnssing or moving towa rd.~ a pl ace,
reco ncil es uu 1h 1<i~ ni ficat i o ns . The 111ovi11g or going towards u place

*

As. 11 P. 1.- 1 nh~ rrn ;"
in~ u11111 you ;· • tltal i ~."

thnt i~ . " he olfmnctl me to go." "I wa~ Jct from com1 wa s !lindt r ed." &e.
·
t TI H•sc c xa m p l" ~ ftr41Vf' ! hat worrl~ of rti n ~nm c .'!~ nf'ri c rn c n11in~ nrt' ofte n
f nurHI in V" f Y d 1 1li· r 1~ 11 1 i l p pli1· a1 1 11n ~ .
nut ~t.ill 111 n rr~ stri k in g ill1 1 ~ l r ati o rt !" o f t his
f art art · furn i ~ lwd !Jy t h· · a pplir:it io n nf w ord s of th t• :-: a(rw J!'l'IH·ri c 111 en 11ing- in
11

<lilft r rnt \11 11 u 11au• ' ~. TIH' :-a r11 •' w1 in l. fra p. is 11 :0-: i•d hul h i11 E 11gli:-: h anti in Ger·
nia u ; h11 t i 11 Ille 1~1 r11lt'r ir :-11!:11ili 1·:-:i !"li1 11pl y ro s,11 1·in J[; in th e latte r it :;;ig 11itil's to
r 11n. Jit1t i i 11 (;ri •1•k n n•I rn1 ff' 111 l.a tiu m1t on ly rf·prP:-:e ut th e !-111 1t11-• i dr. a 1 viz.
7Jrioril!I · ltt1I 1l 1•·y :1r" 111• : ... ;11 11 c \\11rlf...;. Y1>1 t h•• r; ,r11 lf' r "'~~ 11ili t'1'! 0;1 po.'{ itirm, and
n e v er pn1•r 1t_v in poi11t of t 1111 u nu-rt! ly : wh ile th e latt er h i cmploy~d l O d~no te

only pr1 1lrlf )' in p o 1111 of ti111 c .

DERIVATION .

201

or thing may citl 1er be in fri end shi p or in hostil ity. W hi ch of the
tw o it i8, in any one case , mu s t be dc tc rm1 ncd by th e conte xt ,- all
that the pre position expresses bci ug simply th e gain;; or moving
t ou: ard~ .

Vv' ords pass from original tu second a ry a pplications ac-

cordin g to fix eJ rules.
T he changes of mean ing w hic h w ords und ergo lH.: ing ultimately de pend ent upo n th e law s th at gove rn h uma n tho1> ~ l 1 t in the use of
arui trar y :;ii!ns , the co11ncxiu n bet w ee n the ori gi nal and eve ry succ essive ~cnse in w hich they arc e m ployed is necessarily fix ed. But
t his conn exion cannot ue always reduce d to fix ed rul es ; nor is it
eve n possibl e in all cases to trace th e prog ress of th eir meanings, or
to show by what steps they have passed from their prim itiv e tu their
present appli cation.
T he following arc the tran sitions that m ost frequ ent ly occur: -

1. \\Torcls which primarily denote the q ualities of sensible
objects are extended to describe th e analogous mental and
moral qualities. Thus,
Sour signifies p rimarily ac i(I; seco ndarily, a1lst ere or l'eev i~li .
A cut e (from acu.•, a needl e) signifies primarily sharl', opposed to blunt;
secondarily , ·i ngcnio1l.• , opposed to s tupid.
San pJ,inc (fr om sanguis , blood) signifies primarily rrd, lik e b lood ;
secondarily , ardent.

2. Word s a re often tran sferred from one object to another
\vhich has some rese mblance, real or suppo eel, to th e former. T h us,
The Lati n granu.m, a grain of corn (fr om wh ence the E ngl ish grain) ,
is the pare nt of ~ra11it e , a stone spotted ns if w ith grains.
Lens, a kind of len t i/P. or riulse , is th e pa rent of Im.<, a lentil c-shapcd
pieco of ~laRs or othe r transpare nt s uu stu nce u sed in optical scie nce .
Pyr, the Gree k w ord fo r fi re, is perhaps the parent of pyram irl , a lrnild ing rese mbling in shap e a flame of fir e.

3. Words of a generic signification arc ofi<'n restricted in
tl. ei r appl ication to a specific object or idea. Thus,
D e;st, wh ich primarily denot es one who has or admits a God, is the
nam e for on e who believes in a God but rejects C hr is tianity.
Prelate signifi es lit erally a perso n prefe rred or e levat ed ; but it i~
limit ed to e xpress an ecclesiasti ca l dignitary, a bis hop.

E1·ct or li te rally m ea ns a r rtler in ge neral ; bu t it is cu mm only re,t rict cd to mean eit he r , ns in F:ng land, a clc ri.: yinan of a certain rank, or,
as in Scutlantl, the head-mas ter of a principal sc liuol.

203

APPENDIX.

D ER IVATION.

4. vVord s w hich arc specific in their primary application,
often pass into general terms.

Parole , w ord of promise.
P arliamen t, th e great British coun c il.
Parlo ur, a room (fo r co 11 vc rsa1io n).
From the S axo n pocca (in Scotch anJ O ld Engli>h poke), a bag , are
d edu ced
Tock (in th e plural p()x). pustul e o r vesicle (o f t he ~ ha pe of a ba:;).
P ock et, u bafi inse rt ed into cloth es.
I'oaclr, to s teal game (from t he prac ti ce o f pulling it in u l•ag ).
From the Latin pondus, ponder is , u weight, arc ded uced
I' undaons, h ra vy .
Fondn, to we ifi h m e n tally.
Pou.11d, a s pec ific weight ; also u sum of mon e y, 20s. value , so called
fro m th e money being ori;;inally wt·ighf'd.
P ounder, a g un th at ca rries a bulle t of so many pounds , as a .~ i:. ­
pounder.
Pois e, to balance (a n·eifihl ).
From t he Latin pono, I put or place ; p osilus , put o r placed , are
d cd11 cc d
Position, situat ion.
Posture, attitude or place of th o body.
Po.~it ive, ce rtain (prope r ly or ce rtainly placed or .• et); al so dogmat ical
(ready to place or lay d own n o ti o ns with confidence ).
P ()st, a beam set er ect ; also any fix e d 71/ace or ~tati o n.
Post , mode of con veying lett e rs or of tra1' e lling uy m eans of horse~
placed a t different stages.
Postage, . paymen t for con ve yance of le tt e rs.
Rrpositor 11 , a place wh er e thing~ are d Pposited or kept.
Suppo.•itit;ozt.•, not ge nuine ; put by tri c k in th e p ince or character
bL·lnn g in g to anoth e r.
DPpo<1', to pu t down froin an ofllcc; to degrn<le , o r divest of.
lJqJOnenl, one who lny< down or g iv es e vide nce in a cou rt o f justice.
Ji ,.po:;c, re st ; literally plaCl'd o r laid hnc k (fo r r<'st).
J::.,.po.<e , 10 lay open ; i.;e nc rally appli ed to tir e (;xpos ure of evil.
I:.r1i'>1111rl. 10 i11 1erp.ret.
lorpo.•itor, 01;c who expounds o r int erpre ts .
Im pose, to lay on , to ch eat.
••
lmpo-<il ion, laying o n , c heatin g .
Impos t , a tax (laid on).
Impostor , o ne w ho c heats by a s~ umi11 g a fi c titi ous rharacte r.
Fro m the Latin primn<, fi rst, are dedu ced
Pr ime, e ar ly , .fir.•1 - rate.
T o Prim1:, to put th e .Ji r.<l pow d er in the pan of u gun.
I'rimtr , n jir.<t book for chil dre n.
l'nwicr, t he jir.<l m irn ste r o f stat<:!.
l'rimal<', the Jil-.•t or hi g hes t eccksiu~tic .

202

Of this description a re all prope r names which are u sed as com m on
11c1111s, and adjectives de rived from them. ThuR ,
J esu it, whi ch prinrnrily means a memb er of th e Society of J esus, is
ap plie d gener a lly to desc rib e a 1icrson of g rea t .. ubtlcly and c1wninr.r .
I'!tiliJipic, 1he no1<1c of the ora1iuns in whi ch Demosthenes inv eig hed
a gain~t Philip of llfoccLlun, is u sed to denol e invective in ge nera l.
But words of this kind a rc no t the on ly in st ances in which th e ten.
d r ncy to generalize th e sig nificat ion of te r ms is to be fuu11d.
Birch, the twigs of whi ch arc e mployed in some Englisl1 schools as
t h e i11 ~t rum cnt of pu11 iEhu1c11t, has co me to mean an i nstrument of
rorrrr:l ion in genera !.
Emol11mrn l , w hi ch primarily mea ns th e gr ist o f a mill, or toll tak e n
for g ri11din g , has brcn ge neralized to s ig n ify profit or ga·i n, whateve r
li e t!1 c source of it.

j

i

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5. In many words t he cha nge from one meaning to another consists merely in a slight deflection or difference of
application.
The following instances will illustrate the nature of the de nections by
·which words successively slide from one ori g in a l import to a variety
of fi.,urativc and remote appl ications: ·
From
Latin corpns, corporis, the body, are derived
Corpsr, a dead hody .
Corpou1il , of o r belo ng in g to the body.
Co rpufrnce, \Julkinc s~ uf body.
C1Jr11s, a /,od11 o f soldiers.
Curporal, a f'11burdi nat c military oflicer, commanding a small body
of ,, Jldi l' rs.
Corporal. io n . n liurly municipal.
From the La tin !tosp1·s. !tospil is , a host or g u esl, are derived

th;

lfo."1~ital1fc,

]f"o.~71;('1/,

U

kind to
T1 'f11 l,! f'

str:ingr.rR.
f~tf

tJ11•

~ ii·k.

Jlutd (for m e rly hn,;t<' l), nn in n.
lfost/rr , till' k<'epe r of th e horses at an inn .
Frorn 1hc Fn•1wli }our . a day, arc deduced
A·Uo11n1, w p11t off 1ill anoth e r d"!J ·
J unrn.n/ , a dia r y . and alFo a pape r or book publi sh e d periodically.
J au rne•/, travel li y land, origi11:illr th e trav e l o f a day .
Sojonr~. 1n rc,itk f;,r a 11111e, orig in a lly fur a da!J.
J o 1u11e1 1111111, a wor km an fur a limi ted 1imc, orig inally by the clay.
1

From till~ .1 :rc 11ch )Jr1 rl.-r.
l'arfr!J. an oral trca tL

lo·']"'"'" arc dcd11.: cd

J

204

A PP END IX.

Primit ive , ancie nt.
I'r'im (ii-um pri 11 1i1 in· ), fonmil, precise.
I'rimro.< e , an t!lr!y ilowcr in sp rin g.
From the Latin scna, old , arc dcJuceJ
.':.'~ll io r , cide r iu age o r in ofl ice.
Sif!nivr, u title or r c~ pc c t (g ive n orig in nlly to age) .
Si !late, a cou1!cil (i.1c cau sc composc J origiually a mon g th e Itoman s of
old men ).
S cwtlor , a publi c courwill ur.
Sire , foth l' r; nl "o a tirlc uf address to kin gs.

G. i\fany words owe their secondary sense
dentnl aml oflc n Ycry sing ular associations.

to

l

1;l
t

l
J

purely acci-

'I'li e fo llo win ~ nrc in ~t nncc s : Atlus . a rull cc ri· rn of m a p ~ , is de rived from Atlas, an African king ,
wh o , l'rl) lll hi" funducss fo r astronomy, is said to have supported the
h e:w c ns on hi s lin c k, and whose portrait in this attitude is often
p re fix ed to boo ks of mnps.
Cu/,,,z , a close in tr ir: ue , is said to owe its origin to the initial le tt er; of
th e names of Jive cele brated cabine t mini ste rs of Charles II.,Cl ifforcl, Ash le y , Buck ingh am, Arling ton, and Laude rdale. Cabal,
th e scie nce of the Rabbins , is a word of Hebrew orig in.
Clergy, tl1 e ord er of m en set ::ipart for the service of God, is from
cfrros (\. r. ), a lot or inh e ritance, probably because th e H e bre w priests
h ad a ~p ec ial lot or portion assi g ned them among the other tri bes.
Ciak , 011c who rrconls transactions in writing, a nd fo rme rly the us ual
nam u fo r a s c holar, is from clericns, a cle rgy man, because the cle rgy
WP. re al on e time the only persons who were fit for situations requir-

in g- lcarninr.;.
Dacryl , a 1uu t in verse , co nsistin g of one long and two short syllabl es,
i ~ fro1 11 (/11 Cl .'f/ ().< (f ;r. ), tl fi11 gc r,- a finge r consisti ng of a Jon g and
two ~h o n j oi111 s.
l'a:;··m. 11 heat l1<·11 , is from pr>f<ltS (Lat. ), a village ; because, afte r the
(" ~ J11l. li~ l11110, 11t nr {'. hri,ti a11 ity in th e noman , c m pirc, the hen th e n
!!l'ing d.- i,·,·n to vi ll agl' s nncl o:hcr parts remote from cities , were
cal led l'":funi, that i~. vi lla ge rs .
P on t iJ/', prir·st (in ] ,a tin pont~(ex, that is, bridge-mak e r), is said to have
l1 cc n ori ;~ i 11:illy a pplie d tu the mi nisters of re ligio n; because at Rome
they had t he ch:ugc of repairin g a particular bridge, which h:id also
Le en IJL1ilt l.Jy th e m.

T II E END.

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