-

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THE

PRA CTICAL

ELEMENT S O F RHETOR C

WITH ILL USTRATIVE EXAMPLES.

BY
JOHN F. GEN UNG, P11 .D. (LE1rs1c)
PRO F ESSOR O F RHETORIC IN AMll ERST

COl. LEGI!..

BOSTON, U.S.A.:
GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS.

1890.

(\

.I '

t .. '!..

TO
my friend and coll eague,
EntC'n.:d ~1t.: cn rclin~ tn 1\ c t n f Cnn.~rcs~ . in l1 1c yc ~r 1S86, by

j<lll:\ F. GE>iU>i\.,
in th e Office.:. of the Libr:uian o f Cong ress at \Va~hingto n .

in p!easan t recollection
of t he poin ts we have d isc ussed and t he pians
w e have made togethe r,
1n th e sphere of st udy to w hich thi s b ook
aspires t o contribute.

TYPOGRA1·1 n· 11v

J.

S.

C" ' 1111<G

l'1.:E~S \\·0 1.: ..:: 11 v C1;-.;'.'l

& Co. , HosTON , U .S.A.

& Co.,

Bo sToN,

U .S. A.

I
!!

f.

I

CONTENTS.

T'\ L f"..

Introductory.
1Jclinit iu n of !\ hctor ic
J\.hcti>ric ::is J\cbpt::itiun .
l\hdoric ::is ::i n J\ rt

3

l'ro,·in cc a nd Di-;t ribut iun uf Rhetoric

6

P.\ RT I. - STYLE.
Cha pter I. - Style in G e n e ral.
J>efi niti o n of Style

ij

J\ J::ipl at ions of Styl e

17

Q ual iti es of Style .

19

Principl e o f Economy

Chapte r II. - Diction.
I )clrn it io n o f Dicti o n
SH "l'l' >N
1.

Ir.

I.-<.J1oicc of
P resent l.isc

11r.

I ntel ligible Use

J \'.

Schol:.trly Use .

SECT1u:-<

J.
11.
'111.

l

\V n rd -;

Accurate Use

39

JI. - The Characteristics of Poetic Diction
Poetic Tirev ity of Exp ress io n
Poet ic Archaism s and No n-Colloquialisms
Poe ti c Picturesqueness

v. l'vet ic l\cg:ird fur So und

55

..
( ·1 >.\ . '/'/·:.\TS.

CU,V7'ENTS.

\ JI

l ':\ {; r:

S En I\>:'-! 1 I l. -The Ckir:ictcri , 1ics :ind T:·pcs of i 'ruse l >i cti on .
!.·
11.

Ch:u:1ctcri , tics of l 'r ns e l >iction

1'ypes of
i \·. -

~;l · CTJ":--;

f'r o ~c

"'_,

I >ict ion

The I Ji c t ir>11 uf Spukc n J li sc uurs<:

ll.

The l >ict ion uf \\'ritten 1Jisco urse

Jll.

J\nti•ptc, F o reign, Cullo<[u i:il , :ind Di:ikct Dic ti on

l\' .

.11bintcn:mcc of the Tone of .D isco urse

l.

PA RT II . - INV ENTION.
Scope o f In\'ention

its.
I.

Speech

11.

lb h its of Ul>servatio n.
Ifol1its of Thought

I. -

Funtbmcnt:il

~ ruc <:s,c s

I bhits uf Re:1d itt g

11 0

Colloc:ition

I l

]\' .

T'ros pc ct i ''c 1-:cfcrcncc

\'!.

IO')

S yn t:1x

Retrospect i ,. <: l'cfnence

i

Chapter II. - General Processes in the Ordering oI
M aterial.
S1·:1: n u:--i l. -

I , ,

,) .)

Correb ti o n

Theme and Sul1jcct
Statement o f the Theme

Conjunction:il Relat io n

The Title

:Ncg:iti,>n .

SECT!< >N TL -

1·111.

Suspcn-<io n

l.

/\ ugrncntat ion

11.

x. Condcns:1tio n

XII!.

The Concl usion .

Euphony .

Ill.

\Tc ans of l'rescrving Co n t inuity

S1·:Cr111:--i 11 l. -

xiv. Rhythm .

J\rnpli llc:it ion

1. Uses of J\mplitication

SECTJO:" II. - The Sentence

r. Structure of the Sente n ce

The Thre e Fun d:lmc n tal Fkrncttls o f the Pl:i.n

The De velopment

I n\'<:rsion

Definition

Const ru c ti o n of the Plan

(;,;nc r:ll l\lecl1:1nism uf th e l'lan

The Int r oductio n

Xl. Repetitio n
XII.

lktermin:itio n of the Th<:me

Dclrnitivn of Theme

\'II.

lX .

220

Th e l\Tcntal Ihl>its th:it promote Invention

Fig ures that promote Em phasis

Ill.

1· .

In vention :is :i. Natural G ift

Figures that prom o te Ck:1 rncss :1nd Conc ret eness

Choptcr IV. -Composition.

l I.

217

Chapter I . -The Basis in Mental A ptitudes and Hab-

Classilication a nd I >csc ript ion o f the '.IT ust Tmport:int Fi;:ures o f

1.

'.2 i 0

S2

( ~cn c r:l.l ~n g gc~~i o ns

SLCT!():\

<2ualitics and S tru ct ure of the l':i r:igr:iph.

II. Kinds of Paragraphs

lklini tio n

1I.

' eccss ary Qu al iti es of the Sentence

lklln ition

Choptc r III. - Figures of Speech.

1.

1

SECJ'l(l:'-1 l i I. -The P:irngraph

l >ictiun :is l lctcrminc,] by ( Jl1ject and C..kc:isin n

1.

Tl.

III. Kinds of :Sentences .

172

I 72

11.

!\leans of 1\m pl iflc:i. tion

111. J\ cceSS\lr i<:s uf ;\ n1plil1ca li o n

24'J

c·o, v 1I:,\· 'J'S.

1 11

( ·u, \ ' 1·1~'/v' TS.
l' ,\•.j

::;hapter III. - Reproduction of the Thought of O thers .

The Object Expounded

I nterprctation

)02

Exposition Intensive , or Definition

Abstract .

Exposition Extensive, or Div is io n

Paraphrase

307
310

1v. Translation

31 5

1.
11 .

111 .

11.

~cii.:nce

=::hapter IV. - Invention dealing w-ith Observed Objects: Descriptio'n.
J.

I 1.

Description in its Princ iples

Popuhr Exposition
326
326

i\r echanism of Descriptio n

328

Suhclual o f Descriptive Dct:1 ils

334

Disco\'e ry o f Facts: Testimvny an<I 1\ uth v rity

Accesso ries of Description

33S

1nfercn ce from P:irticula1·s : Induction

Ex:ic tions o f the Ohjcc t

1n !'rose Lite r:iturc

34 7
350
35 1

In l'o ctry

35 2

Description in Litcr:iturc .

Simple Narr:11ion

.

356

363

O\\'CS to

I >cscr ipti o n

Inft:r cnce fr om Cenc.:rais: Dcduc ti u n
11.

Pr uof of Truth by Disproof of Erro r
By 1'.ecluci11g the Is· m: to an Alt e rnative
l:y

J~ dtttat i u n

368

Suggestions on O rde r of Argument s
I\'.

Debate

Chapter VIII. - Inventio n dealing w-ith Practical I s sues: Persuasion.
1.

The Principles of Pcrsu:ision

I [istory

37 1
37 1
373
375
375

Biography

37S

1 ndex of Subjec ts .

Fic tion

379

Ind ex o f the P rincipal Quotations .

Drama

3S1

S y nchroni s m of E\'cnts

l nterwovcn Plots

Chapter

.

N :irration in Literal ure

VI. - Invention

dealing w-1th Generaliza-

tions: Exposition.
l. Exposition in its Elements

..

~t ~q
) ~

\ Vh:tt i\rgu111cnt:1tio n oll'<:S tu Expositio n

355

Co11iliin :1t ion of ?\:1rr:1ti,·cs

Pro o f o f Truth Directly

J 11. The Body of Arguments

:\fo ,·cm cnt in ::\':irrat ion
\\'h:1t ?\' :irr:ition

I.

355

Mc.:thocl of N:irr:ition

111.

C hapter VI I. - Invention dealing with T r iths: Argum e ntation .

IJetinitio n of Descriptio n

De!initiun o f 1'\:irration

11.

and Sys tcmati1.cd Thought

Crit icism

:::: hapter V.-Invent ion dealing vvith Events : Narra tion .
J.

Exposition in L itcr:iture

The.: :-;pcaker's ;\lli:rncc ll'ith his /\ucli c n cc
The Sl'c akcr's i\ chie ,·cnH.:nt of his Olijcct
11.

Oratury
Cha racte rist ics of O r:ito ry in Gen e ra l
Kinds o f O r:itory

+P
4.J.i

PREFACE .

A

BOO K

on so old a subj ect as rhetoric can scarcely hope to give the

world much that is new.

But old t hings, in proportio n to their li\·in,:;

value, need from time to time to be newly defin ed and distri b uted,
their perspective and emphasis need to be freshly dett.:rrninecl, to suit
ch:rngi ng conditions of thought; this we find abun dantly recognized in
the subjec t before us, in the rapidly increasing n umbe r of text-book s
that arc appearing .

To which number the p rese n t \·olumc presumes to

add o ne; and in setting forth its aim am1 s tandard would select for
remark a single word of its title, -

the word practical.

By prac tical cleme nts arc here meant, broadly, those elements which
may be applied, as the result of the teach e r's guidance, to th e actual
construction o f literature.

In this sense of the term, s·o me clements of

rhetoric, th ough very real and valuable, are not practical, because the
ability to employ them cannot be im parted by tcachin; .

They have

to e xi st in the writer himself, in the peculiar, in cli\·idual bent of his natu re.

No teacher or treatise, for instance, coul d ever e ndo w the student

with Milton 's sublimity, or with Sterne's clus i\·e \Yi t, o r with Dacon ·s
weig hty sententiousncss; and any a ttempt on the studen t's part to
work up these qualities by rule would be only a contortion .

Othe r

clements are not practical, Lecause all that can be clone with the m is
m erely to discriminate and define them . The student c m burden him self, for instance, with the names of some two hundred and fifty figures
of speech; but when he gets beyond the name and inquires :-ifter t he
usage, he may safely omi t two hundred and thirty-fi ve oi them as
fluous, -

~uper­

they are merely t hose spontaneous and u nlabored modes

.. :1

f

,( expressio n of which De Quincey s:iys, "the r:ick would not have
(l rccd any man to do otherwise."

Still other elements there arc which

1rc no t practical to tc:ich, bec:i.usc they have to be discovered.
.i i H.:r

The

pri lCiples of literary taste, for instance, the subtler music of rhythm

nd fan cy :rnd aliusion , arc obtained only through a special sense devcl'ilCcl by long and minute discipline ; they may come some time , but not
•rclimrily through the cbss-room .
ru m the p resent treatment.

Such arc the elements excluded

To say they arc unpractical, however, is

:o t to s:iy they arc useless; it is merely to confess th:it they are incom1ninic:ihic.

They belo ng, in

:i.

word, to a deli cate and diffi cul t science

- the science o f criticism, rather than to what is here

s ou.~ ht,

the ar t

1f con::.truc ting.
Lite rature is of course infinitely more than me chanism; but in pro>o rtion as it Lccomcs more, a text-book of rh etoric has less business
1·ith it.

Jt is :is mcch:inism that it must be taught; the rest must be

,.ft to the student himself.

T o this sphe re, then, the present work is

,·strictcd : the liter:iry art, so fa r as it is amenable to the precepts of
. text-book and to I he demands of a college course .
The best w::ty to discern wh ether

:i.

rh etoric::tl principle is true and

•r.lc tica! is to study its effect in the concrete.
10\v

\Vh en the student sees

it looks in actual application , he cannot gains::ty it; it is no rnore

heo ry !Jut fact.

J\nd all the more su.~gcsti ,·e is the inst::tnce if it is not

n::tnufacturccl for the occas ion but t::tken from thost.:

nivers:illy current

1·1 irks who;,<.: writers h:ul neither the fc :u nor the worship of rhetoric
,,.1.ore their eyes .

hlr this re;-ison, it li;-is liet: n deemed essential in

1

1is 'Jook to iliustr:1tc every important point by copious examples from

tandard iitcr::tture; ::tncl though these b::ixe incre::tsed the num ber of
>af:CS beyond what was originaliy contempbtcc , it is bel ie ,·cc that the ir
·,tlue will more than atone for t he space they occupy .
/\ ,\ llll•: 1:s-1' , MASS., June 25 ,

1887.

"J hope th::tt your professors of rhetoric will te::tch you to cu~ci \·:,t<:
that golden art- the steadfast use of a langu age in wh ich truth et n Le
told; a speech that is strong by natural force, and not merely l· IT1.:c< i\c
by declamation ; an utterance without trick, wit hout affectation. withuut
mannerisms, an d without any of that excessive am bition 'Yhich ovcrleaps itself as much in prose wr iting as it docs in vtlier ~hin g,; ... -

Jolm

Morley .

INTRO DUCTORY.

Definition of Rhet oric. - Rhetoric 1s the art of a<lapting rli scourse, in harmony with its subject and occasion, tu the require ments of a reader or hearer.
The word discourse, as it will be used throu ghout this treati~e,
is a ge neral term denoting any coherent literary prod11ct ion, whether
spoken or written.

I.
Rhetoric as Adaptation. - Literary discourse, properly ronsid ered, docs n ot e xist for itself alone; it is not soliloquy, b11t a dete rmin ate address to re ade rs o r hearers, seeking to impart to them
some information or thought, with accompaniment, as occasion
requires , of emotion or impulse . Hence, whatever is thus im parted must striv<.: after such o rder and expression as is ucst fitt<.:d
to have its proper power on men; consulting their c:1pacities :md
susceptibilities, it must determine its work by the n.:q 11 ircmen ts
thus necessitated. The various problems involved in s11ch ada1itation constitute th<.: field of the art of rhetoric.
Th is idea o f ada ptation is the l>est modern rcprcscnt:iti \·c of
the orig inal aim of the art. Having at first to de:tl only wi th
hearers, rhetoric bcg:rn as the art o f or:itory, th:it is, of con\·inci11.c:
and persuading by speech; now, however, when the art of printin g has greatly broadened its field of action, it must fi.t itself to
readers as well, must therefore include more li terary forms and
more comprehensive objects; while still the initial char:tctcr o
the art survives, in the general aim of so presenting thought that
it shall have power on men, which aim is most satisfactorily expressed in the term adaptation.

}.\'/'/d i/)( ·1"'/"0A' !'.

Distinguished by this Characteristic from the Sciences on
which it is founded. - J\.hctoric is mainly fou nded on two sci encL·s, logic an d gramm:1r. ";\Tow it is l.Jy the sense," s:i.ys I Jr.
Ca rnp l>cll, "that rhetoric holds of logic, and l.Jy the expression
that shl: holds of gr.:unmar."
Cramrnar im·e stigates the uses of words, a nd the structu re of
phr::iscs :rnd se nte nces, with a \·icw to ascertaining what arc the
fa cts of the bngu:.igc; and when these are presented ~o a. · to
show what is correct in expression , its end is accompli shed .
Rhetoric, :1lso, emph)ys the facts of the language to secure g rarnrnatic:1] co rrl: c tnc s~; hu t this only l.H.:cause discourse c:111nu t be
cffectld wi thout it. l\or d ocs rhetoric sto p with mere co rrec tn ess
of expression . TT:ising :111 end to acco mplish beyond si1np!e 11ttcr:incc, it must seek al so clc::i rnl::s, or he:rnty, or force uf style, according as thesc •j tialiti cs m:1y best SC JT C tu give tho ught its fitting
power. Further, wh ile the sphere of g r:i.mmar extends only as far
:i.s the sentence, rhetoric discusses also t 1e structme of par:i.gr:i.phs
and l:ugcr sect ions, and so on through the \·arious details of :in
entire d iscourse .
Logic inYcstigates the laws of though t, with a Yicw to determinin g its exact ancl cons istent sequ ences ; and, like gra mmar, it is
content with clisco\·cring ::rncl present ing the fac ts of its provincc.
l~hetoric, :i.lso, must obsen·c the laws o f thought, beca11sc the ends
of discomsc fail if these :ire tr:i.nsgrc sscd ; but thi s it docs only as
its hidden beginning. \\'h at it h:i.s found lJy k1gi cal processes to
l>e true :i.nrl co nsistent, it se eks farther to nuke lucid, or attrac tive,
or coge nt, or pcrs11 as i\T, in order to g:t in men's :1ttcntion :i..nd inOucncl: them .
Thus thought on the one sidl: :i.nd expression on the other,
t:1king the distinc ti\T <1u:ilities that :1d a ptation imposes on th em,
coml.Jine to make up what Dr. C::imphcll calls th e so11I and the
l.Jody of discourse .
In what Ways Discourse may be adapted. - i\s dictated by its
thought and occasion, three gcne r::il a rl apt:i.t ions of dis ' 011rsc. arl:
tn he noted, correspond ing to the three divisions o f man's sp iritual

/ N TRODUCTOR Y.

·'

powers, and giving rise, as either of these 1s p reclomin:intly c onsulted, to three broad ty pes of literature.
First and most funda m en tally, discourse of wh:itc\·er kind mu st
adapt itself to the reader's understanding; that is, it addresses :rnd
c-ompcls his powe r of thought, wh ether hy imp:uting inforrn ::i tion
or by convinc ing of truth . Common idc:is require, fo r the most
part, merely such simple presentation as this ; and the preclomin::incc of this appeal to the intellect gives rise to the g rea t >Ody of
e very-day literature - history, biography, fict ion, essay~ . treati ses,
criticism - include d un<lcr the general name of l )id:i.ctic l'rcJsc .
·ccondly, some kinds of ideas come to the wri tcr intensified liy
emotion or glowing wi th imagination ; and hen ce, in their prc~en­
t::i.tion, while they must still consult prim:nily the reader's 1rncl e rstancling, they address themselves most directly to his sen;-,iliilities,
to make him feel the thought :is well as think it. Of such ad:iptation to the emotional nature, the purest outcome is Poetry.
A third class of ideas comprises such as, from their importance,
or from the occasion of their p resentation, require a definite deci sion in the hearer's conduct, ancl hence, employing pcrsu::ision as
a means, culminate as an appeal to the wi ll. T his kind of d iscourse, as it has the highest ohject, must seek to enlist :111 the
spiritual powers, imp:uting alike th ought, emotion, and impute;
and results in the most complex literary type, 0rato ry .
S1 1ch are the three comprehensive types of discourse, evolved
fro m the effort to adapt thought, in various ways, to human powe rs.
Of their occas ion and princ iple it is essential to tak e au:o11nt.
though it is not to be supposed th at they inust nccess:i.r ily remain
unmixed. A g rea t part of the life and interest of any lite rary work
m ay arise from the fact th at, whil e one type predominates, s11 ch
clements of others may be introduced as sh:i..11 makc tl c thought
inOuence and satisfy the whole man.

II.
Rhetoric as an Art. - Rhetoric, h ere called an art, is sometim es defined as a science.
Doth d esignations :ire true ; th ey

/.\" !RO/J{ "C 'J 'UA' 1·.

JX J'!.'OlJl 'C 'f' UN L

merely re g:ird the sllbjcct in two different ;ispects. Science i ~ systcrn:ll i1...:d k no11·ledge ; i 1· then the Lms :iml p rin ciplcs of d isco ursc
:nc ..:x hil>itc d in an ordered system, they ::tppe;ir in the ch:uac tcr
<>f :L science , J\ rt is kno\\"kdgc nude efficient by skill ; if the n
rlwtoric1l h ws an d p rincipks arc ;ip pl ied in the ac tu:Ll co nstru cti o n
()l di:;co 11rs\..', they 1Jecomc th e " ·o rking rules of an art.
,\ cco rdi ng to its prcdornin;int character as an ::crt or as a sc ience,
rheto ric rn:iy lie regarded :is o f two kinr s : constrnctivc rhe to ri c ,
" ·hich is cor cerned 1Yith the producti1111 of discomse; ::cnd critical
rhetoric , 11·hi< ·h tr:iccs the bws of discourse through the stlldy l)f
\\'Orks of litcr;1tml·. Th e present rn:rn11al, ha1·ing princip:llly in 1·ic w
th<.~ pra<'ti<·:tl ends uf co11strncti1·c rhetoric, sL!rh from the defini tio n
" ·h i<·h Yic1 ·s rhctu ric :ts :in :irt.
Art and Aptitude. - ,\ rt in exp ression is exactly ::cnalog<ll 1s to
:lrt in p:iinting, o r mu sic, or h:rn d ic r::cft. J\ o one beco mes really
e minent in these pursuits without first possessing some natm al
apt itude for the m; ;ind just so, trn e ge ni us fo r exp ress ion mu st to
so me extent Le born in ::t m::cn. Some perso ns c:m not hope , eve n
by tr:ii nin g, to ::cttain eminence as writers. There is in the highes t
litL'r::try wo rk a g race ::cnd free dom th ::c t cannot lie imparte d by
rnlc s. H11t tliuugh ail cannot ]Jccomc grc:lt writers, ::tll c:i n at lc.:i.st
k ;1rn to express their th ought di rec tly and ll'itho11t ;irn hi guity j no r
is there ::cny excuse on the sco re of 1ntme for crndeness and in ac c11racy in spee<·h .
h1rthe r, j11st :is in these o ther arts one docs not think of stoppin g
wi th mere inborn ;1 pti t11de, l>11t de1·clops :11Hl discipli nes all his
\Hl11·crs l>y prc <"cpt :ind t rainin g; so in the :trt o f expression cin e
need s hy f. 1ithf11! st11dy and practice to get beyond the po int whe re
he only li 11f'f'c·11s to wr ite \\' ell, :llld atl:lin that conscious po we r
Ol'cr hngu:igc ;rnd thollg ht \\' hich gi1-cs him prec ision and grac e in
ad:1pti ng rn e:lns to ends, anrl line d iscrirn in:Lti un in choos ing ::crnong
h is resources. This is rhe tori c:Ll a rt, and th is :issure<l power its

these th re e t 1ings : either from the p retence to feel 11·h:lt we do
not; the indolence in exercises ne cessa ry to o1Jtain the power of
exp ressin g the truth; o r the p res um ptuo us in ~ i stcnce upon , and
indulgence in, our own powers :ind d elights, :incl with no cue o r
wi sh that they shou ld l.Je useful to other people, so only they be
admired by the m."
This, writte n prim:irily wit h reference to painting, applie. ll'ith
equal fitness to the lite rary art; and th e o rde r in ll'hich the fat1lts
arc named corresponds to the frequen cy of their occurrence .
First :ind commonest, insince rity. By this is not mc::cnt th.1t
ll' ritcrs intentionally m;ike p retence of fecling wh :lt they du not.
i\'o ne the less truly, how ' \·er, th ey nuy fall into in;,in cerity :rncl
11 meal it y, lJy uncon::,idcrcd use of co m-en t ion:il isi 1b, qoc k c \p res ·
siu ns, outworn figures, and the like. Young writers especially arc
li able to em ploy such rc::cdy- made :ind stereotyped rcso11rccs, witho ut stopping to th ink ho w muc h o r how litt le they mc:ln ; ;rnd
th us they co mmi t th emselves to wha t docs not represent their
gc lll1i ne th ought. - Secondly, " ind olence in exerc ises necessary
tu ul>tain the po wer of ex press ing the truth ." T his huit is the
spec ial ternpt:ttion o those to whom culll[)Os itio n co11 es ca<;v ·
, '
th ey th ink the ir clc1·crncss 11·ill ob via te the necessity of <fol ipline .
Thu s the very inn ate aptitude whi ch is so full of prom ise m:1y be co me a snare to them , through bein g 11ndernlt1ed . 1t is to lie
rL·mem IJcre d that th is .:i.rt, like eve ry othe r, lus its tee hn ical itics,
ll' hich rl' •jlli rc and rcp::ty ;il l the dili ge nce a nd mi11t1 te 11 css (,f care
that can ]Jc expend ·d upon them. - Lastly, rhctoric:tl 1·,rnity.
Tlii s cu111cs from being SP taken with li tera ry device s :ind artifices
as to r::cte form be fore thot1ght; an d it m:Lnifests itself in m:Lnneris m ~ , af ectat io ns, tri cks of style, a nd th e like. It nrnst ak a\·s he
bo rn e in mind tha t rh etoric docs not exist fo r itself. liut 01~ly :is
the handm .:i.id of the trnth which it seeks to make liv ing in the
mi nds .:i.n d he:L rts of m en.
Initial Difficulties of the Art of Rhetoric. - These :ire just such
as Off 11r in th e l>egin nin g of every art: t he di rtlcu lty, to 1r it, ()f
makin t; skille d ach ie ve111cnt takc the place of c rn dc, undisc iplined

·I

v:tl \IC .

Sour ces of F ailure,-" All fatal faults," says R uskin, "in art
tlut might h;ll·e been o the 1w ise good, arise from o ne or other uf

~

I
\

""I

l

j
l

j

~

·'

JNTJWJ)U("J'UR } '.

ffurt. To submit one 's work in composition to rules is to regubte
he free crc:i.ti\·e impulse by critic:i.l processes ; J.ncl this, un til the
.Titer gets used to it, is apt to c he ck al1ll chill the flo w of tho ugh t.
:q;inn.ing thus, liter:uy wo rk is too self-consc ious, :i.ml the a rt o f
he discour:-;e too :i.ppa re nt. But such a self-conscious stage in the
..-ritn's CXjllTience cannot well IJc :is oide<I ; it is me re ly :i. sign that
he :irt ·s nut flllly mastered . Soo ner o r btcr rhetoric:i.I rnlcs must
•c· learned, either from precept or fr o1n expe rien ce; fur they :i.re
H>t ar1>itrarily irn·entcd, :1s something that :1 11Ti te r may treat as he
1·ill , l>1il. discrJ\'Cred :111d dedllced fwm cnnfcssedly good us:i.gc, as
•rill( ipks that mus! he ohsen·e d . The ques tion the refore is,
.1·l u:the r the \l'l' iter 11·ill k:i.rn \\·it hollt rnlcs, l>y !Jlll nd cring ex pc n·n ce . or t:i.ke ,,·h:it the :ippro1·ed procedure of othe rs h:is fo und to
ill' li ~st. Nor c:in the am,1Ye r be d oubtful. The true ll'ay is to
, 1ilirnit to rhetoric:i.l h\\'s and methods; :ind thou gh these m:iy in
1ii e beginn inrr be olJ lru si 1·e and tyr:i.nn ic:il, by d ili gen t practi c e
1hey

'

"'

wi ll l1ccume seconcl n:ilure .
The crowning excellence of skilled expression, :is all acknm...J <:dge , is naturalness. 11ut sue 1 a n achievement, \\·he rein e1·e ryth ing
:-. l'<:illS in its right pbce an d deg ree , we call also :irt1st1c. 1\rl :i.l its
hi<>hes
t anLl nature :it its truest are one . T he resu1t :ippc:irs
Q
.
j, Jcally free from pains :i.m1 effort; this, however, not l>ccausc art is
n ut present, but because the art is so perfec t as to l1avc concealed
its processes.

II .

Province and Distribution of Rhetoric . - The art o f rh etoric ,
in its c:nclc:ivor to a dap t disco urse to the rcq11ircm c nts o f th e
reade r or hcaicr, mnst n:iturally tak e for its p r01·i ncc all the pla ns
:rnd nroccdures incluckcl in the c onstrnctio n of :i. litcnry work.
i n s~ cloi ng, however, it cannot undertake to legislate for individ ual c:i.scs. Its bus iness i.· merely to poin t out the reso urces :it t he
1n itcr's comrn:ind, \\·i th the menta1 haliih nL·cc ss:i ry to the maste ry
()r tl,"
... . 1-1,i. '· (·111J
.. to b•·ive caut ions :l"b ainst whate ve r is um.k illed . an d.
1 rn~uhptcd. Beyond th is, in all the act11al wo rk of authorshi p , 1t

l

f/1/i 'R OJJUC T ON Y.

m ust lc:ive him to his own powers :ind j udgments . Rhetoric c:1nnot m ake :i. \\'riter; it c:i.n neither enhance the l':i.lue of his thuiit;'.it
nor imp:i.rt real c lnr:i.cter to his exvression; it can only Lring him
to the p o int where, if he h as :i.bility, that ability m ay rightly prove
itself. 1n :i. \\'Ord , its province is to supp ly such directio ns for sdfculture th:1 t the a utho r, ha1·ing submiaed to its guidance, may be
al1lc to utter h is concept ion s con fidently and with sclf-reli:t:1 cc .
In the co nst ru ctio n uf a work o f liteDture \\' e d iscern tw11 differen t lin es of menta.l :tcti vity, 11·hich, star ting from wide ly sqi:i ratcd
points, corn-c rge to :i. commo n resul t in the corn1;1ctcd 1•rodu c t.
The one is the line of thought, o r m:i.ttc r ; the other the line uf
expression, or m:inn cr. Of cou rse :i. quest ion of expression mi1~t
often irn·olve the q uesti on o f thought :ilso, :rnd z·iff <'rrsa; so tlw
two lines of stud y must continu:i.11y tonch :ind intcr:1ct; 1Jllt on ti1e
who k they arc d ist inct enough to furni ~ h \\'hat is perhaps the "iillpks t ll' ork ing h:1s is fur the di st ri hntion of the ar t. T he 1•ri:1"i 1• 1• ,
(Jf rheto ri c therefore g roup themselves naturally aroun d t\\'<> ;min
topics : style, whi ch dc:ils wi th the express ion of di scu11r'-l', :u11 I
invent ion, ll'h ich dc:ils ll'i th the thought.
Style. - U nder thi s heading arc discussed the \· a ri ons rhet11r ical prin ciples that are de1·eloped fro m gr:imm:i r: ho w to use ""'rd~
:i.n<l fi gures, :incl how to b uild them toge ther so ~to im r:u t t<J the
wh ole a desired power :in cl c1u::i.lity. The sph ere uf the 'rnrk <Jf
style is th e constrnc tion o f sentences :i.nd par:ig r:tphs . Herei n ;n1·
co mprised, it will IJc oliscrvcd, the more meck1n ic:1l fc:it11rec: cif tlH·
:irt, features too often shu nned on accoun t of their drync ;,c: . J .ut ,
lik e th e p rosai c tech ni cal ities o f every :i.rt, clem en ts tlnt cm k:ht
be spared, pri nciples th :i. t nrnst accomp:i.ny the ll'ri tc r at e very stc]>,
wh:ite ver the fo rm of his undertakin g . N o r is the dryne ss so lllll< h
re:il :is fanc ied . Detai ls of npressio n arc rep ulsi 1·e oniy to Li:c:
lazy o r the li s tless; let the writer once feel the great rK·c;s ;1:« l
impo rt:in ce of hi s subjec t, :ind every wurJ that goes tu incrc:;~ , ,
its effectivc ness is fu ll of interest.
Invention. - U nder this he:i.din g ::i. re co1111 iri scd, ruughiy ~ii,·:ik ­
ing, the various features of discourse that a rc developed frurn lugic :

s

f.\"/RO/J[,(,J'QN l ".

ho w to work out a l ine of thought from its cen t ral theme through
ih outiinc to its fl n;:tl amplified form; :i.nd how to selec t, arrangc,
:ind modify i l fo r thc requi rements of the Yarious iitcr::iry types.
Obserw, th e sphere of inv ention, so far as invention can lx: ta ug ht
liy a treatise, is only partly ind icated in the derivation of the
word; n or can it l..Je concerned so much with the question what
material to !ind as with the question how to find it. All the work
of origin::ition mu st be left to the writer himself; the rhetorical
Lcxt-book can me rely treat of those men tal h:i.lJits and powers
\\·hich gi n: firmness a nd syste m to his suggcst in~ fa culty, and the
prin c ipks and prvccdures involve<l in t he determination of any
literary form .

·

·...

I.

STYLE.

STYLE.

" Th e 0 ty lc "' h ic h dc:i.ls in lo ng se ntences or in short sentc n ~cs , o r in dee ll
liic h h:ls :lll)' tri c k in it, is :l b:l1l styk .. .. T in: best thin~ which, to my mi nd ,
.\ -<

c,·cr \,cen s:i.id :lliout ,;ty lc " ·:is ,;;1i d in :i md:t phorical \\' :ty, the writer de -

1 nin;~ th:ll the style ,;]1ou ld .

:lS

it we n:, invvlve a nrl d i,;p by the sulij e tt-m:i ttc r,

, ihc drai•cry in a cunsum111 ale sta t ue fol<ls ov er and a rv un <l t he fig ure ." --

·,., . .·l rtliur /ldps .

Order of Rhetorical Study. - It is with d esign th:i.t tlie o rder
here fo llow ed is ch osen for the two m ai n di\·is ions of :i. rhct•>r ic:il
c u m sc, - that the p:trt relating to · c:-.;prcss iu n jlflTedcs t he p:•rt
re l:.tt ing tu the thought. Fu r th is co rresponds t u the lugi1:;tl order
wh ic h all ar ts, as well as th e :irt of d isco urse, nrn-,t uh:;cr\·e . T he
fi rst ca re in e very :i.rt is d evo ted to te c hni ca l d et1i le,, I•> tlH N '
m inu t i ~c uf t reatme nt whic h, it rn :iy be, e scape n otice in the pn fectcd wh ole , but wh ost.: p r..:s..:n cc o r a bse nc e m:i.kes all the diff~.:r­
en cc lictwe'-·n sk ill :i. nd c rn de n ess. " In all ;uts, " s:tys Fd11111:1 d
C la re n ce Stc d1n :111, 1 ' ' the 11 :i.t11ral ach· a nce is fro m detail to gc ner. il
e ffec t. 1lv w seldom th use wl11> l>cg in wi th a ],ru;u[ tn ·:t lm rni .
wh ic h ape s m aturity, ::tcq ui re suLscqtt e n tly the m inu r graces thc1t
alone c:m fin ish the p erfe c t wo rk ! " F ru m this ru na rk he gut:~
o n to d esc ril>..: a p oet of t h is ce nt ury (Te n nyson), 11'11<> in the k ·ginning of hi s ca ree r "ckvote cl him sel f, wi th the ..:;igcr spirit (IC
yo1 1th , to rn :i.stc ring th is e xq ui site a rt, :ind wro k ed h is tl1•Jll ;.;!;h
upo n e xp ress ion , fur t he cxpress iun 's s:i.ke . And " ·hat cl ~'-', ., ,\fr.
S tcd 1n:in th en pe rtine n tl y :lsb, " sh ol1ltl one a ttemp t, \\·i th s111:ti l
expe r ien ce s, liulc co nc ern fo r th e re:i.l wo rld , and le ss ()]1sen·:1ti o n of it? "
F oll o win g then th is natural ord e r, it is irnpo rt:i.n t th :i.t the si11 dent of c o m pos iti on b egin ,,·ith th o rough in vc ,.; ti g~lt i o n of tl1c resourc es o f express io n, a nd wi th dilige nt p r:tc ti c..: in th e m , j us t ;1s
t h e mu sic ia n 1Jeg in s wi th fin ge r cx e rt'i scs, :i.ml th e art is t with drawin g fro m models. Such in iti ;1l d isc i11line is valu a bk b oth in ihe ll
:ind in it s resul ts ; fo r it is th e l.1est :tllll directest m ea ns
:iw:ik cni ng that insati able d es ire for accur:i.c y, in statem e n t and 1n

ur

I

"\' iL:luri;cn J 'ucl ~ ... p . 156.

S7' l ' /J:'.

j2

t ho u<•h t wh ich is t he in d is1)Cnsa blc accompa nime nt of ho nest
"' ' that feeling whic 1 fo rb id s the au tho r to rest unt il bo th the
writing,
e xp ression a ncl t he idea, both style a ncl inv ention, arc confo rm ed
thro11gho ut to a stern ly c hosen st 111Jarcl.
Nor is this tech n ical p ract ice in style to be con fi ne d to the fi rst
period o f t he li ter:u y art, as if it could b e mastered onc e fo r all
a nd then neglected . Rather, it is p resen t a \\·ays, in th t.:: co nstru c t ion of ev e ry ph rase and se n tence. Its order is logical ra th er than
chronolog ical. In e\-cry li ter:ny undertakin g, aml \\' ith care for it
in,-rcas in g in stead of d im in ishin g , the sk ille d \\'ritcr's ft1 nclarncnta l
b 1JL> r is ckvo tcd to pa t ie nt m :rn:igcment u f details aml p:i.rt ic ub rs,
\\'C::i•"h
i1w
of word;; ' sifti n 0rr a nd sha11ing
o f mi nute consid erat io ns,
~
~
....
un t il \\'ith unh as ti;1g pain s e veryth ing is fi tted to its phc e. And
th e result o f such dil ige nce is inc reas in g fine ness o f taste for express ion, a nd i11cn :;h ing keenne ss of sense fo r all that co nt rili ut es,
in h o we ve r sm all deg ree, toward m aking the utterance of t hough t
p e rfe c t .

...

S T YLE JN CLN.t:R.·JL.

CH A PT E R I.
S TYL E I N GE N ERAL.

I.

Definition of Style . - By style is meant, in ge ner:i l, nn nnc r nf
e xpressing tho ugh t in b ng u:i.ge ; :i. nd mo re p:t rli rnhrl y. uf gi \ in.~
it suc h skill ful express io n :ts inves ts th e idea with fittin g d ign ity :mil
di stin c ti o n.
So m e modes o f exh ilJiti ng fac ts, as in s tat i;; tics , refen..: ncc- t::Lk;.:,
for rn uLc, :rnd thc like , a rc too rn dirnc 11 tary tu ad11 1il tlit: idea ()f
!itylc. T he re ca n he no d egre es o f e ffect ivene ss in the presenLltion o f them , no r is su c h effe c ti ve ness luo ked fo r; th ei r i;1lcrL·:-,t
c e n tres solely in t he thing that is sa id . A wo rk c ha r;1<:tcr i1.cd 1>Y
style d erives e<1u:i.l imp orta nce fn nn the p :i.rtic uLu manne r of ~:1 :;­
ing a th ing : the re is a force o r .'.l. fe lic ity in the use o f Lrn:;ti:1g ,·
that adap ts the th ought to the o cca sio n, :i.n cl g ives it ft1ll ne ss and
p ower. That is, th e re must b e some dign ity o r di ,; tin t'liu ;1 in the
exp ress ion Lefore we c:i.n beg in to est imate it as style . 1~ y its ~ t ; lc
the th oug ht is mad e to st:rnJ o u t :1s adap ted to act up o n men .
N OT E. - Tu' iiittst r::i.te hvw g rea t a d iffere nce there may l;e i n the rn:innn
nf sayin g a th ing , and how mu c h a tli u ught rn ::iy h e c nr iche ri i>y i:' ' iyk , ,., ·t u ·
p :1rt: the f., llu win g passages.
I. Tlt e ii r, t, q uut ccl fr v rn t he ]\;ur th A111 cri c:rn l ~cv i c1V , lus o ccas io n .. 11 iy 1.,
g iv e stat is tics, an d hen ce con ta ins little if ::i ny thoug h t of sty le : " I have statecl the t::ix::ilile \'alu c c; f all the pro pt: rty o f T c: xas at s; , liu11 •i rt'«
a n<l thr c:e mi li io ns uf l1'1lla rs. Let 111 e c:num eratc, in roun u nu mi1cr', a fc\\' , ,f
th e items whi ch go to make up th::1t sum.
" T he bn tl is co untc ci at abo ut two hu nd rer.1 ::i nti for ty·SC\'c11 111illi·>11s, niot
incl ud ing ei g h ty- six millions fo r to 11·n lc•ts. Cat tle sta nd f,,r c ig h h '·<>ll <.: millio ns; horses, th irty -two mil lions ; sheep, ni ne mil lio ns ; a nt\ h11;:;" , t11·u :i :i :lio ns. Th e assessed va lu e of railroads is fort y 111illi t1 ns . T he merchand ise uf
th e State is p ut down at twe nty -n ine mil liuns ; a nd the 111c•nt:y ull h;i nd, l \\T J.."..:
mill io ns a nd a hal f."

STYLE I N CENJ;;R AL.

SiTLE JN CLXERAL

14
2.

The sccontl, quo tct frum I.o wcll's "Fi reside T r:wels," deals inde ed with

a siin plc thought, but n ot ic e how mu ch the :iuth or's mind adds to it fr o m ih
own resources, in play o f fan cy, fig urative suggest i\'cness, ri uota ti o n, allusi o n,
so tha t the id e a is enriched by the sp:uklc :tnd pby of m:rny associated
idc:is: " \\'hen our dinne r came, a nd with it a flask of drowsy red J\ lc al ico, lik e
ink with a susp ic ion of life-bloo d in it, s uch as o ne m ight fan cy Shakespeare
tu have tlippcd his quil l in, \\'e h ad our table so placed that the satis fac tio n o f
uu r hun ge r migh t be dissensualize<i hy the view from the ,,· im]O \\'S. i\la ny a g lutton has c:ilc n up farms :rnd woodbn cl:; and pastures, :inti so did we, :i.:sthet ically , s:iucing our Jrilla/11 :in d fl:i ,·oring o ur 1\ katico with brnlsc:ipc .

lt is a

fi ne th ing wli en \\'<.! can :i cc ust o m our :\il i1n al appct ill:s to r;o o•l soc iety, whe n
body and S(• til (l ih: ma st er ;in, l ser vant in :111 ,\r ah tent ) 'it duwn together a t
tLe s:irn c hua rd .

This thuu gh t is f<>r cc d u po n one ,·c r y ufte n in It a ly, as one

pic nics in encli:inte,1 spub , " ·he re T1n:igi11:iti on :incl Fancy play the p :irts o f t he
uthcc n \\' a il crs in t he fairy -story . a nd sc r \'e us \\'i lh cou rse a ft e r course o f t heir
clhcrca\ di,h cs . ~c.:n se is s::it is ti ecl \\' ith lc:ss and simple r fuod when sense and
s pirit :ire fr<l (,igctJic r, :ind t]1e fea st o f the ],):\ \ 'CS :ind fishes is ']lrt:ad fo r US
a11c \\' . If it lie i1111 •· •rlan t fur a :;t:ilc t•) educa ll: its lo "'er classes, so is it fur
u-.; l'nson::iily to instr11c t, clc,·:itc , and reline o ur senses, the lowe r cbsses <>f
uur J>r iv:tk liudy -p,i l itic: , atH l \\' hicb , if icft t< l the ir O \\'ll brute in s ti n c ts, \\'ill dis <•r der <ir <ksiruy tl1c \\'h u lc C<lllllll On\\'ea lth \\'i th !lam ing insurrcct i<nL"
Bct\\'ccn t hese t\\' o opposi te poles uf e xpressio n lies the lir oaJ a n ti divcrsilic<l dumai n o f literary st yle.

:\ mong pra<'tical people th ere is some times a Jis pos ition to
de c ry any endc:n·o r afte r style , :iml along with it :iny stud y o f
rheto ri c , a s if a ll h at! to do o nly \ri th tr icks and subtk ti\.:s of express ion , or 11·ith c un ning artifices of logic . J1bin and d irec t sta ternent, with oll t ;nt, is the f:tv orite plea of su e l people; li ke the
h·a nklin in he ( ':u;tc rl )(lry Talcs, th \.:y take for g ranted that com mon spe ech is exclude d fro m the province of rhe to r ic : " J\t my higyn n y n g first I yow biscch e,
II a ve me e xcnsecl of my rude spech e .
I lerne,\ nevere r etho ri k ce r tey n ;
Th y n g that I spe kc it moot he lnr e a n d pleyn."

This plc::i. merely ictrays J. wron g iclc:t of wh::it style is. Pbinncss
:ind directness, even ]Jarencss of statemen t, belong, in their pbcc,
a s truly to style as docs elegance; indeed, these apparently si m ple r

15

q11alitics arc often t he mosl d iffic ult to obtain . "To i)ress to the
se nse of the thin g itself with which one is cl eal ing ," s:1y-; 1\ latthcw
J\ rn olcl, "not t o go off on so me collateral isstH.: about the thin[.'. . is
tht.: h ardes t matter in the wo rld ." T he criterion o f :t style i-; !11rn ished first of :tll by the requi rements of the s1 tlijcct-111 attc r. \\ 'hilc
t he e x pression of so m e iJea s m ay s tu p \Y ith pb inness, othn ideas
mu st take higher q ualities . So me though ts are f'J·se 11 lirrlly ,;c:111 ti fu l
or s1 tlitlc, and scorn :t bal d :rnd rudimentary stat e ment; others a rc
in th e ir 1ntme ru gged o r p o ndero us or in c is i\'e, and th\.: furce o f
the express io n mu st correspond. Style is just the skill iii ada pt.1. ion
of expre ss ion to thought.
That manne r of express io n is all -im po rtant is sho 11·n l iy th< he
li te rary works th::it s ur vi,·c their age and become cb:-;~ ic. The ;1r0 -

cluc tions that tak e the ir place am o ng th\.: " ·orld's 11ndy ing tr~:::i.~11rcs
of lit e ra t11re arc i11,·ar i:11Jly an(l excl11si ,-c ly such :IS po ~;s, · s~ c1:1i 11c11t
m e rits of s tyk. :\ll others, though th ey deal wi th the ..;;um: t h•n1.~ht,
an.~ , so to say, m elted h:J.ck into the bullion of rud irncnt.11 ick:is,
un til their tho11 1'.h t, masterfully e xpressed , is fitt ed to Ji,-c .
\U1ilc, ho11·cn.' r, we speak of tho1 1ght ::ind o .prcss ion ::is two
thi 11 gs, it is to l )\.: rem e m lie n::d that style is n u t to ]Jc rcg,mlcd a-;
separable fro m the th o ug ht. IL is n u t, an d cannot ]Jc, su111ct hi 11 g
add e d fro m wi thou t. J\n y s 11c h th ing 1Jrough t in as a fi nery, t ir :t
m e re dev ice, betrays its unfitness at once. If it is nut req i iircd J.y
the t hought, it docs n ot rightly belon g to the styk . For the s tyk
is the tho ught, freed fro m c ru deness a nd incompleten ess, an d prc se11te d in its intri ns ic power :ind beauty.

And the wr iter's ,.:iijm ·mc
c ffu rt is direc ted, no t so rn 11 c h to the quali t ies of sty le in thcrnsch cs ,
as to th e d cm~1ncls of h is subject, in o rder to br i n g ou t in its fuli1h:ss
w hat is esse ntially there .

How far Style is Communicable. - Tru e as it i:; th:it the st;k
is t h e tho ught, it is equally true that the s tyle is the m an . l\ o tw()
persons have the same way o f look ing at thin gs .

Ea.ch \\·;·: tcr

wklt he writes; so
tha t the vigor o f his act ivities, the ea.rn estne:;s of 11 is com·ic t irms.
the gr::tce of his fanc ies, live ;tgain in a rn :rnncr of cxprc;;s iu11 tha t

irn p::i rts somet hin g of h is o wn person::tlity to

.\ '/') I I·. / .\! i J .". \ "h R .-11..

would !Jc nat m :-i.l to n o on e else . His style is th e mirror of hi~
mind and ch:-i.racte r. Thus th e re is an ind ivi d uality in C\·ery rn:-i.n 's
style wh ich is inc o m nrn n icablc. The g rac e an d p ower of it can be
fel t an d interprete d, but it c:rnnot wcil be imi tated , - or a t leas t
an y im ita t io n i::; sure to be we ak a ncl ins incer e. J\n auth o r' s p ec 11 l ia;. m a nne r rn:1y forni sh va lu able suggestio n s, lJy wh ic h o th ers m:iy
imp rov e t he ir o wn sty le ; a vigo rou s th inker m ay even set a pattern
or wri t i n~ fur hi s ge n e ra ti on , and th us rnatcr i:tl ly in tl uen c e the g e nera l sty le o f hi s :-igc ; 1 ]Jut ye t, b e yon d all th is, every man who
'"o uld write \rit h powe r mu s t see k hi s ow n n atural e\prcss ion , m us t
lie hi rnscl f, in :-in in d i,·idua lity as in co rn rn unic:-iiJ lc as lie sec s in the
work of othe rs.
Hut whi le the p erso nal q ualiti es a rc in co mnrnnic1lllc, th e re arc
featu re s o f style tha t may lie tan g ht :rnd a c'luircd. be in g bq,~ L· ly :1.
matte r of disc ipl ine and care. S u<:h a rc the g r:rn1m:1ti c al and l11gical principles uf e \ press ion . 1\ o t ev ery o ne c:m lea rn to \Hit e in
a m:i ste rly style; 1J1 1t c ,·ery o n e ca n lea rn to wr ite h onestly, c an
cl ear h is bn [.iu:1gc of a m l> igu it ic s arn l in c on sis ten c ies, c:i n 11 n learn
fa lse a n d \· 11lg:1 rc t:1s lL's. l·~\· c ry one can fu rm th e h :t11 it o f wei g hin g
\\-o rd s a n d c o 11 ,., trudi o ns, and of rn :1king hi s thoug ht dire c t and
d e fini te . 'fh esc :tre lowe r q 11:1lit ics o f s ty le , it is true; but they
:ne fttnd :1111cntal, :rn<l indi s pen sal1le to the hi g her. J\n d when o ne
h:is acqu ired tlH:se, he h:1 s a t le ast the m e diu m of m1/11! express ion,
" h ich a ll need , and wh ich is a ll th a t m os t p eople Juve _occa s io n
for .
The i111 pc rson:1i fcatmc s Clf :-i tyk , s1wh as :ire d e vel ope d fm111
g r:rnlln: tr and 1,,g ic, it is "·i th i11 the pn.l\·incc o f a tcxt-1Jook t1l
~ c:t c h . 1\ c co nlir~gl y s1w h :1. 111 :urn: tl :l.s th e p resen t c oncerns itself
\\·ith the sh:1p i11g u f hn g1 1:1 :;c to tl~o u gh t , and 1rith po intin g out the
\" :1lt1c J ll(l u se u f the \·:1i;iu us re so urc es or e x p rc~ s i on, fro m th e c ho ic e
o f word s up to the n m s tructi un of an en tire d is c o urse . In so doin g
it nuy also :,; i\·c coun sel rq;:ml i11g li te ra ry hab its a11J meth o ds in
J

Of tl ll" "·r itn s of th is c t: nt u r:• . \L tc:Htl:t )' is pc rh~p s i li c m ost rC' m 1trk:1blc ill us~\ ! t1rc th . u 1 Clll '' eil l ~ l.; e:-.li 111 a tc.:d, 1h 1.. · 1.: urrc n t :-.t_\'1 1..: 11f \\rit ing,

tr.itiu n of tl1i~ L1L t.

c!:.pc1..·i,dly ill j 11utn .di .... 1ic ~ind 1 1~ · ri 1 11li\·,i\
in ll'i t·:-..t, ~in1·1 · Ji .. 11 r-., 1 .~ :. 1,· 1 ·

!;)

li11.·r.~ i u1T , h: 1 ~ prPft ti'( l in 1.: r i , pn <· ~~ :11 1d

1l 1c \\ uJl, ! l1 i'i ,- i ,:~ 1 • r o u s :1nd p o i nh :d . . . 1.· n tt:n ccs .

17

ge neral , m a y >;ho w the writer how to educate his th in ki ng po 11crs ,
rn:iy p ut hi rn in th e wa y to clc\·elop a pmc tas te. S11 c h is the t:i,.,k
recogni ze d in the present course of rheto rica l stu d y.

Il.

What Adaptations of Style are Essential. - Three L1c:tu rs
arc to be noted as necessary in the perfect ad :1p tat io n or :lily ;;t y k ,
or an y qu ali ty o f style , to its purpose . To sati s fy th ese is th e 11., 1rk
of s kiil and c ;i_lc ubt io n in a ny parti c ular c:i se, but abo it de pend s
fully as mu c h o n the write r's general culture.
r. The writer needs to have a just feeling (1f th e rc b t io n l iel ,\Tl' n
s tyle ::rn cl thou ght. Just as th e re are differe nt p lanes of th inking,
so th e re :ire different levels of style . Some th o ug ht is common an< I
h o m e ly, a n d a ny attempt to dre ss it up in s pknd or of h11 g 11:1ge
makes it appear taw cl ry. So m e thou g ht, and the C\ pres;; i<m g-i\·cn
to it, ne e d s to b e seve re, scn tt.: n t io us, p re cise . O the r tho ught t he re
is that re q uires a ll th e resourc es o f fan c y and im :-i.gcry th a t c:rn lie
empl o yed. The nat ure of the thought is in deed t he fi rst d id at u r
of t he style; lrnt to obey its di c tates unerrin gly, and mak e rn :-i111 w r
an swe r p e r fec tly to m a tt e r, is th e res ult of n o little sk il l.
The perfe ct a djust me nt o r style to thoug ht depe nd s m a in ly o n :t
m at ured :i nd e du c a tc(l taste . Su c h taste is devel o p ed. h y fa m iI i:tri t y
w ith the usag e o f the b es t w rite rs, a ncl b y watc hful care o ve r o ne's
01rn sp eech .
By his d a ily h::t1Jits o f readi ng an d conv e rsation . if
th e y :ire ri g htly reguhted, one may form almos t inse nsibly a ii tc r:uy
in s ti n<"t, whi c h c nahk s him to dete c t at on c e a fals e ncJIe in n prl·ssion ; he feels when a word adds a real poe ti c t o uch , a nd whe n it
is only tin sel; or wh e n a prosaic word flats the ton e of :in im pas sioned passage; or when a colloquialism im p airs the digni ty o f a
seve re and elev:ttc d t ho ug ht.
z . The writer nee ds to reco g nize the relati o n of th e sty le to the
re:iclcr. Most t ru ths belo ng to all men, and ne e d to be cx p resscc l
in a style that m ay lie u11dcrs tood hy all; b ut so me, whii" h :ire
techni c a l a nd b elon g onl y to a c lass, m a y o n occas ion he cx p rl:..;..;l·1 l
in the lan g uage of that cbss. Thinking readers take sp cc i:tl ]>leas-

i

SJTJJ:: JN CL\I: l" .·11..

lS

m e in scTere and precise e x p re ssion; irna~inati \·e readers louk ftJr

l•c ar rested l>y
a fbnn of 11·i t ::rnd pungency, o r liy the co n ficlcntial tone of a co n -

:rn<l \·altic the graces of style ; cursorr reade rs may

versat ional rn:rnner. :\ ll s11ch things the writer mn st remember, :e nd
see k to ad:q1t his wllrk tu the capac it ies and po11-crs of his r ead ers .
The fault is ofte n mentioned of an o rator's speak ing O\·e r the heads
0 [ his aud ience : the complaint means that he is too i nnex iblc in
hi s indi1·idual ways of thin king aml d ues not simplify fur t he n ee ds
of others th::rn hirns1..'lf.
The write r c:rnnot ca:-, ily go astr:1y in ~ecking to adapt his \Yords
to minds of ordi n:l ry cqi:1city _; :rnd th is he rn:1y the more sakly do
because, wh ile the unlearned r<..:<j 11ire pl.iinness of SJ>Cet·h . the t ruly
c1il ture d arc the bst tu despise si1 11pli t·ity. To df1..:ct s1 1ch aclaptatiPn, leading authors ha\·e found it of g reat a(\l·:rn tagc to writ e as in
tl1 e present·c of :111 :rndi1..:nce, to i rn:igine thcmse h-es con 1-c rs in g w ith
;1 person pf :1\·er:1ge intc· ligence, w h o rnnst !Jc rn :1<le tu a 11p rec i;l lc
the thu 111.J1 l accordint.; tu its nat11re . T his is indeed the lntcs l :m<l
sim11lc-.;t ~l 1:1sis uf di sc:Jursc, - tu \\Tile :is one would speak .
3 . The wn l<..' r need s to nnkc his style adcqu:itely r qin's1.:nt
Jiini-;clf.
]; 1· this is meant that he is lo present h is ideas :rnd co n' idi\lns f1il!;· :rnt1 natm:illy, 11·ithoul di sac h·:rntagc from an impe rfectly mastered mL·dium uf commu ni cat io n. T he ability to do this

II
Il

SITU:; IN GENERAL

J ')

The adaptati on of the wri ter 's sty le to himself depends nniniy
I t c:urnut come ,,·1th th1.;
first a tt empt, no r \\'i th the second; it is th e re s ult only uf ;. •nc;
o n d il igent and pa instaki ng practice .

labo r, :rncl patient suhclual of t he int ractable clements of c\j1rc,;,i 1 111 .
u nt il th ey become an obedie n t 1\·orkin g -tool. rc s11ondi 11 ~ to e1-cry
to u c h, and represent not only the writer's tho ught Lut him :;cif, in
all the rich endo wments of bis nature .

III.
What Qualities a Good Style, apart from its Individuality,
should have. -The c a rdinal quali ti es o f a good style rn ;t y lie
reduced to thre e, which arc h ere given in the o rder o f th ei r lini versality and importance .
I. Th e first a n d indispe n sable quality of a good style is C lear-

n ess.

Generall y it is enough if the writer elevate his cfforts simply to
bein g unders tood ; let th is he secured, and othe r '[11;1; il ic:-; \1·i11
come la rge ly of themselves . Such pbinness, such ck a rn es-.; , is \lie
fo undat io n on which all othe r qual it ies arc liuilt; lon ·c ()I°- ckgan< c
of sty ie cou nts fo r little, and seems indeed uul uf ph n~ . un:c~~
::\ u r i~ 1t
Quintili;rn

is lly no means the e:1sy matter it see m s. The wr ite r may h e
"l tm in·r
with th e iJe:iutv
or importance of a truth, and yet his
0
.,
:ittetnj>t to 1..'\Jircss it rn:ly r e sult, with h is liest effo r ts, only in
stilte
( t Llll''ll:l''e
. I re may in com·ersatio n he perfectly
f r1",,- 1·(1 :111'1
...
.
t)
:::-->
flt;•:nt and natm:ll, and yet write a pedant ic or lifel e ss style .( The
Lrnlt lies in irnpnfed o r i ns u ftlcic n l tr:1ining. His powe r O \ T r
c\ p ression needs to be so develop ed lJy culture, nee d s to be co me
sn truly :i. second n:itnrc, that his \ni tten words may lle a spo nta-

there is clear c on cep tion and e x press io n und er it.
enough for pcrfcct clearness that a s tyle be in telligi!Jlc.

nc uu s, undimmed rellcct iun of his mind's wo rkin g .

aspects .
I. Precis ion , or fa ith fuln ess to the th ought.
:\ \\cll-m :i.stcretl
an d clea rl y de fined tho ught gi,-cs the im pulse to careful wu rk
with the meuium of expression ; hence its outcom e is preci sion of

~

·

~.

puts the id e::i l still highe r. "Non ut intcllcg ere possit, sul ne
omn in o possit non intcllcge rc, cur:incl nrn;" n ut hngu:ige th:i. t 111:1y
be un de rs tood, b ut lan g uag e tha t cannot fai l to be understood, is t:ic
writer's tru e aim .
The quality o f clearness, a cco rdin g a s th e w riter's U'111ern is
pred ominantly wi th the thou g ht or with the rc:idcr, takes t 11·u

~

U ntil such

mastery is att:tined , his style d isguises, not repre se n ts, himself.
1 " Tum Bi rc h is ns bri s k as n lice in co nvc rs:1tion; hut n o soone r does h e take:' n
·
J it· s li"
n 1 ti 1. lil 1·1 J1 ..._, co1ncs a tor11crlo to hin1 , nnd benumbs :lll hi s f. tc u ltie, ."
pcu :n
• \l 1 ,
-- N(,.'!J/1.Irk 1tllrihut,-./ / (1 f ) r . Jo !tn san , JJo .r7JJt·f/ '.1 l .1>t;· .

style.

I
!

S f' l "/J:' IX CF.. \ "I: !1'.·l f..

rcq11ired, therefore , is, st1Hly of the pl)we r of \\·ord s, o f their
dynamic or si1~::-;estin: q11:tlitie s ; :uid study of the position of
\\'Ords, until the \\·ri tL' r c: 111 feel a11d ctlcubtc the effect of c\·e ry
s111alksl t·h:rnge i1 1 tlH·ir :nr:rngc111cnL It is 1\·ith speci:.i.l relation
to tht: •[ll:dity 11C ("rt"t.: ~h:1l the :bse rtiun holds, \ \ .ords arc things .
Cl1 1sely cunne•·tcd \\·ith force of e.\jHession, :irnl ge nerall y a
11ro111ote .- of it , is l 1re\· it y. .\ st rong im p ress i9 n ne eds in mos t
1·:i,;es tn lie a q11id.;. i111prcssi o n . Occasio ns sometimes ri se, there fore , where there i:; a c bsh be l\rccn force an d clearness , F o r
while cic1rnes:; dc11nnds the presence Clf p:uticks :rnd oth er Sllhu n i1 ate 11·ords th :t\. 11·hi k they arti c ubtc the th o llgh t, tend also to
n1rnher ih mon·ml·11L (()rec tkmanils that these he c 11t d o wn or
dispensed \r it h, :is Ct r :h may Ll', in onkr not to cnkl'llk: the i111 p<1l·t:rnt word s . ] 11 s11C h cases, \1·hen on e q11:1lit;· crn be seemed
llnly :it su rne e\]ll·nse to the o ther, ti1e particubr o l>ject in \·ic w
nrns t dete rm ine the decision . Th e \niter mu s t consider whether
th is ol 1ject c;m lKst lJe promoted lly fu lln ess of statement, or lJy
'i go r llf impression .
~ - ,\ s rcLtted to t he thought, force is a higher quali ty, less
:1m en:i!Jie Lo rules . :\ co mmonpla ce ~uhject cannot h e rn :idc
forcilJlc liy manip1ilat io n of wo rds; t he effect is only a conto rt io n .
( ) n the othe r h:rnd, a strong sul>jcct scorns :inguicl expression; it
li:ts a po wer :rncl a cogency in itse lf that co mpeb c;nnc stncss and
<111ickcned feeling in th e write r. Ilis duty in this respect, thercf,)rc, is more with himself th an with his methods; he is to seek to
llc so in h a rmony with h is sulJjcct tli :1t his c01w ictio n t>f its irn p o rta n ce sh:11l n o t fall below its clcrn:rnds. :\ nd the r esult uf s1 wh
harmony is a general Yi gor and Yiril ity o f e\ p rcssion, more \.':1 :-i ily
fel t than descril>cd, wherein every wo rd SC \.'ll1 S tu have .its m a rk
:tnd lo take deep hold o f the aut ior 's in ner iifc .
3. :\ s related to the w rite r himself, force m ay be regarded as
t lie will-quaiity of style . It comes m ost genuin ely whe n it is
sought only i11direc tly, - ll'hcn the writer is d e termin e d to m:1kc
the reade r tli iuk as he docs, and thro11·s the who le e ner;;y of hi s
nature into the atta inment of hi s obje c t. T his calls in the cl eq>es t

>'

. ._)

sense for the culture of cha racte r; the writl'r mu~t th ink < iusl· iy.
look upon things imlcpen dc ntl y, and cheri sh trli< ' 1·urn·ictio:1" .
Let the se ]Jc secured, :rn tl the writ e r l1:ts the best i1J1p1il ~c to :;1 . 1~­
te r those rnorc me chanical features th:lt api'e:lf in t he 111_-ri.cded :1n .
II I. T he q ual ity of s ty le supplemen ta ry to clearness and force is
B ea u ty .

An id ea may he sta ted with pe rfe c t c lc:trncss, may m:i kc ;fr.;1 1 a
st rong impressio n on the reader's mind and heart; and ;·ct 1 1~a: 1 y
of the details may sti ll lJe a n offense to his t::i.ste ; o r a cnidt: nprcss io n and harsh com hi na t ions of so un d may i rn pa ir the \ k~i r,:d
effect liy comp ellin g attenti o n to dcft..T ti1·e f1irrn. :\ ny such <ii "t11rbing clcrnc nt is a l>lc mi:;h in the style. N o r is it :in o l°!"l·1ist.' t"
the c11lturccl reader a lo ne . ]·\·cry one may i.Je :tll'arc th:tt :l styk
is crnde, thollgh he may no t lie al1 lc to loc ate ort..' .\ ]•bin thcc:1t1 s•_· ;
and 11·h c n an id ea is e.\prcsse d with supreme feli, ·ity c1-cry u11,_· 111:1y
appre c iate it. T here is need ed, therefore, in u·cry 1\· L·ll-l"ni~t..·d
style, a n cl c mt:nt o f beauty, to make the style a s:ttisfacti oi1 tt• t he
reader's taste, as wel l as to hi s thought and corn·i c ti un .
Jkau ty in style is lJy no m eans synonymous wi th urrurn cnt; s"
fa r fro m it, inde ed, that the question of clcg :mccs and <kcur.1 tio:1s
o f style is here left \1·ho lly o ut o f the account, Lclonging as it iJ, ,\.·,.;
r athe r to the peculia r suscept ib ilities o f a sulijcct, o r to tl1e C\ •· cpt ional endowments of the writ e r' s mind . T h e <p u li ty o f ]1ca11ty h
fond a m en tal ; su pplcrncn ta ry in d eed t1i the ut hers, and u 11 g erlll i 11t·
nnlc::;s they al so a rc p resent, lrnt j11st as n ecessa ry a :-; tlwy arl-.
I. /\ s regards its m ec hanical adap tedness tu ti1c re:1<k r 11r
heare r, th e q uality of l>cauty d e p e nds m ai nly on s()11nd . Thl·
w riter nee ds to be on h is guard :i.gainst successions llf sll:i111 i,
hard to pronounc e togeth e r ; a ga inst jingli ng rec11rrc111.·c ur t l11 ·
sam e so11nd; and agai n st harsh con scc utions of accented or 11:1acccntcll sylbl>lcs. Further, he needs to g 11ard :l(:'.:lin ~ t li1t1 liL·~
and abruptness in c o nstrnct iun, and ag:l inst ill li:ibnce in cl.111 ~1 ·~
o r p h rases rehtetl to one an o th e r. In a m ml, he is l" :1i 1n at
smoothn ess :i.ncl rn clud y of C\ p ressi u n, so h r :h the:-;c 1\·il l n11t
i mpair m ore im po r tan t 11ualit ics .

I;~

L·I

S'l' l '/J

/ .\· r,·;.:.\ ·1:·!.'. l l ..

S T Y /J;; JN

The readiest training for this qt1:il1ty of style i~ to subjec t one'::;
work constantly to the tc;::;t of rea di ng aloud . Prose char:ictc ri ze<l
Ly l.Jeauty requ ire::; a disc ipline of the ecir, as truly as cloes rnu sic
ur poetry. It is inJeeJ a test in whi ch much reliance rn:ty Le
J,bced, th:1 t a pass;1ge should soun d rightly.
2 . /\s n.:btcd to the thought, 11eauty, eve n mo re tkm fo rce, is
:1\Jo\·e the reach o f me re rnk,; :rn d prece p ts. J ust as a fo rceful
style is the sp onta neous result ,,·hen the idea is inte nsified hy ea rn~st co m·iniun, ~o beauty is the re,;ul t whe n th e id ea is \·i,·ilied
l 1\· the i rn:t" i11,t t ion . i\ o de1·icL'S or meth ods can of thc mseh·es
"'
i•rudlll c tl1l: qmlit y; its idea lies in the ;1erfcct h:mnony of th e
fun ~l with :t true ta,-,te and llt>ctic: sc11,,il1il ity. Sometim es, thc rcC\lrL', iie:u 1t \. takes the shape ui ~ r:1nJ1il ,, im plicity : su meti mes the
,,tre ng th and e\·en t 1e rn gged ne ss of :1 p:1ss:1ge i,; its tru est lieauty;
:rnd sometime,; no ri chne ,.;s of culo ring and irn:tgcry can lie tuo
eblioutc . The thou ght, :ts it li\·es :111d works in a c ultiv ate d i111 :1L::i11ati\J11 , i,.; the di ctato r uf the furrn .
~ The e:-.tennl indications of such beauty :ire, harm ony of suu nd
an d sen se, rhythrn , :rnd J•ictm e,.;. 1uc11 ess of word a nd fig ure .
These, Leing :ilsu the clistincti,·e features of poetic dict io n, :uc
thL' q11:dities in \1·h ich p rus c :tpjJrO:lches nc.:an.:st to poetry . l\·c
fin< thcrcfure th at tu satisfy the dem::tnds of beauty, as tl1e
thuugh t re'i11 ires . prnsc uft e n l 1urrows poetic resources.
3. :\ s rl·l:ttL·d to the \\' filer hirnsclt~ licauty is the :csthcti c q11 ality <lr style : :111 • I c:tlb fu r nil ture in L1stc :tncl in perce ption uf the
lill1,,i•: ,ir wu 1·d :111d thu11 ghl. J\k ch:111i cal devi ces a rc of little
\\·o rl h u n lcss the writer ]us a real susn:ptili il ity to l>cg in with ;
no r can the ,,ense of beau ty lie imp:ull'd from \Y itho ut. .i\ny beginning of stwh :l se nse may hu\\' en: r lie i11def111 itcly devel u ped ;
l>es ides, the \\Tite r rnay l>e un:rn·arc of his innJ.tc powe rs 111nil the
right di sc ipline awakens them . There is no reason, therefore , in
th e case o f :1ny one, fo r ne;.;kcti ng such culture.
The best cli ; cipl ine fn r the xs th ct ic se nse in style. is famili:irit y
with wh:lt is l1L':U1 tiftiJ in Jiter:l tl!re . i:v :l J:tw of ll:ltl\ re he \\'Jio
dwells lul1it11:1l ly :111 1ll 11 g lw:u1t if1il thc)l l .!~hts \\'ill 1 vcrn11 e i111l,11 ecl.
1

GENE RA/,.

in mind and feeli ng, wi th their beauty. Let the wr iter sh un, alike
in writin g and in conversation, whateve r is g ross an<l deformed
an d vulgar, le t h im see k to app rec iate what the worl d ·s t:t,,te has
pro noun ced sati sfying, :1.11c he wi ll soo n find him self pos,,es,.,1ng
susceptiliili tics unsuspected l 1efo re .
Summary of the Qualities of Style. - Before lca\·ing the dis cussion o f this subj ect, it is essen tial to note ho w intimately the cardinal qu:1.lities v f style arc d epend ent on c:t.ch othe r. So interlinked a rc they th at a ny one o f the m in its pe rfecti o n nece ssa rily
involves to a greate r or less d egree the others, an d each may
alm os t be described in terms o f th e ot he rs. So we may s:ty of
force, th a t the first mean s o f sec urin g it is clcJ.rness, :ind afte rwards its m ore d ist inc ti\·e d evices; ancl o f bc:.i.uty, th at its lirst
ek n1 cnt is clearness, its second, furcc . And may it not indeed lie
sa id that the simple pe rvas ive quality o f clearness, - ckarncss t o
th e mind, cle a rn ess to the co m·ic tions, clearn ess to the sensiuili ti es, - is the truest sec ret o f arti sti c e xpress io n?
T o be ge nui ne, the quali ties o f force and beauty, in thei r h ighc r
si g ni ficance, mu st come for the most part unsought rising 11:1t11rally o ut of t he cluracte r and demands of the sulijcct-rn:ttter. h
is p recari ous, th e re fo re, to work fo r them dire ct ly ; the encle:1\·c1r
is ::tpt to result, if force is sought, in a violent style , or if hc:iuty,
in a ffe ctatio n. L et th e sim ple aim lie, perfec t fidelity to the
though t, in its fullness and impo rtance, as it mus t lie i 111p~lrtcd to
a re:i<l er, and the h igher qu alities will no duuut come in sati~rac­
tory measure of th emselve s.

IV.

The Principle that makes these Qualities of Style Practical
-Economy.- Sincc He rbert Spencer wrote hi s essay on "The
Philosop hy of Style, " studen ts o f the subject h:ix e uni 1-crs 1ily :1• ·
cepted h is conclusion therei n reached, that the central pri11ci11ic
of a good style li es in the econ omizing o f the re,1de r' s att e11ti011.
The ideal of wr it ing, :is he states it, is " to so present icle:t~ tli:tt
they may be app reh e nded with the least j>\lss il11c 1ne nt:d e ffurl. "
In explan a ti on 1\fr. Spe nce r says : - .

S7 T f.F I N

I,

"Rer·ard
incr :uw
::i.c; ::i.n aJ1]):J.ratt1s of S)·m 10 b fo r t iic conv
.:-:> u:1cYe
.;:_-_--.
., 1·ance <> • thougl t, we 111 :1y sa y tha t, ::i.s in a rncch:rni cal ap p:1ra11s . t he 111o re simple :l!ld the b e tte r :i rr:rngecl its p a rts, the g rea te r
, il l he the c ffc<; t p rod1we cl . I n e ither case, wh::i.teve r fo rce is
ii •sorb e J by th e m achine is de d uc te d fro m t he result. /\ reade r
ir liste ne r has ::i.t eac h mome nt out a limi ted am ou nt of mental
'< >\\·er a.1·a ihblc . To rec Jgni1.c an<l in te rp re t the symlJols p rc··11 tc d to him . requ ires part of th is power i tu ::i. rran ge a nd com •ii te the images su ggestetl requ ires a fu rt her pa rt ; ancl o nly that
>:l!t whi c h remains c::i.n be tbcd fo r re;ili1. in g t he tho ugh t co n :<'ye d . Hen ce, thL· rnu re t ime :1n d :i ttent io n it ti kcs to rec ei 1-c
111 <1 u nclerst:i n d ea c h senten c e, t h e le ss ti m e :ind atte nt io n c::i.n b e
~ i1· e n t o t he co nt ::i. in ed ide:i ; a nd t he less 1·i1·iclly will tlut id ea be
·nn c eived ."
.l 11 ac co rd an ce with thi s p rinc iple o f econo m y, the fo regoi ng
:u :d ities of style m a y !Jc lir ieny rcc:ipitub.tc <l .
1 . E c on o my of t he re:ider 's intc r p re t in g po11-c r.
T his nny be
.;eC"med, acco rd ing to oc cas io n, in t1r o w::i.ys.
Fi rst, i1y gi1·ing th e re:t< lcr less t o do; t h::tt is, by rcducin _:; t he
(ii lll c1d tic s o f th e rne c h:rn is rn of c xp rcss iv n to :l. rn in im11rn , so th:it
il l the rea der's ene rg y m ay !Jc emplo yed in rc:il izin g the th o11g h t
itself. Th is, " ·h ic h is ill 11strated in the p ::t r:.tg raph fro m !\f r. Spe n «e r q uote d alJ O\ T , is the e co no my e ffected hy the \·a rious m ea ns
em ployed to sec ure clearn ess
s tyle .
Se co nd ly, !Jy st irn11 l:i ti11 g t he read er to do more. T his m l'ans o f
(· cu no rnizing p u11·er is f11lly as Y:1!11 al>lc :is the othe r, :ind not l o he
i;;nu red . \ \"h a t is t oo eas ily o !Jta ined is too chc::ipiy h eld, in li te r:t: me as in eve rythi ng e lsl'.; and n o t infreq uently :l. thought is p rize d
tlic m o re from so me effo rt m ad e to m ::iste r it. In the m attcr of
(' (' o norn izing atten t io n, then, the \Hite r m11 st ]Jc wise; an d if
ins tead o f clearing awa y e very difficu lty he u ses sn c h e xpress io n
;1 s wi ll J.ro use in the r eade r so m eth ing of h is o wn c rea ti1-c en e rgy,
h is olJject is e1·en m o re effect ually secu red . Stro ng ::ind su ggest ive
l:t ngu agc, vi go ro us imagery, sk ill fu l gro up ing of im por ta n t ideas, a re
th 11s a seco nc l m e ::ins o f economi zin g in tL'r prct in g pu wc r. These
liclong to th e ge ne ral q11:il ity of force in style.
(_"l

or

CE,\'E RAL

2. E co nom y of th e reade r's se ns ib ilities.
hy fo rce an d p:irt ly hy h e:rnty of style .

This is secured J>a rt iy

F irst, when a n e mo t io n is o nce roused in the reade r econonl\'.
requires th:l.t it be 1\·isL' ly co nse n ·cd ancl utili ze d . T h is for l Ji d~ . :-,,r
e xam ple, fol io win g a n irn J.gc o r ap p eJ.! l.Jy o ne less 1·i1·id or 1· 1.L'.u ro us ; t he prog ress sho uld r:ith cr be u p wa rd, to grc::tter inte res t :rnd
stre ngt h. lt for b ids, eq11ally, foll o wing o ut eve ry st rik ing sut;gcc. t ion
to its ut m ost; if th e reade r's mind is qui cke ne d, kt it have some
s ha re in co nst ru c ting the th o ught, a nd n o t ha1·e a ll its J.cti on t~ m:­
stallcd . T his fa ult, \Yh ic h is kn o1rn as " writ in g a subjec t to t he
dregs, " is one o f th e sures t m ean s of d cJ.d c n ing in te res t. T i1e
ac ti vity of th e rcaclc r',; s11 ggesti ve facul ty sh ou ld )Jc 11 ise iy m,1i11 ta inecl; it is a real ec ono my of his fccl ing a nd p o we r.
Second ly, the read e r's se ns ib ilit ies a rc eco nom i1.ed IJy cu nc ii i,t tin g his ::esthetic se nse. W hatn e r ja rs o n h is taste , o r h is fe el ing
of fitn ess, is so m u c h of an oLstrnc ti o n to the id ea , :l.nd con sequ e n tly uses up so mu c h of hi s c n c rgy fu r noth ing. Th e rnc·:rns uf
pro m o t in g t hi s eco no m y ha1-c been menti o n ed u nd er t he hcJ.d ui·
!Jea uty of s tyle.
)

Th e la ws o f style , whic h th e fo reg o ing c hapte r h as d L'llned :n
ge nc r::i.l te rm s, it wi ll no w IJe the l rn~in e ss of th e rcst of !'a rt 1. t•>
apply in det:ii l. Fo r su c h :1 purp ose as thi s, t he 1ari ous i nq 11 ir i1..· ~
co nc e rnin g s tyic m::iy be corn-c n ie ntly g muped in tu two c L1 s~ c ' , ,f
proble ms : th e fi rst co m p ri sing wlnt n:lates to th e m:tter i:d o r "t rk .
wh ic h c bss subd i1·iclcs itself ::ig::iin into W o rd s a nd 1-'ig m e-: : .t i:c
seco nd compri s in!! wha tc1·e r relates to the liu ild i1 wt'> to"ethcr
(' :
0
th ese m ateria ls into lite ra ry fo rm s. J\ cco n l in g ly, t he s uL•je ( l v lstylc in d e tai l, ::is di sc ussed in th e fo ll o wi ng three c hap ters, 11ill include : ~

C hapte r IT .
( 'ha pte r TI I .
Chap te r IV.

f)/[//(1 1/,

F1:i.: 111 <s

t:/ Sp ad1.

Cu 111 f' /I S i/1.11 11.

DICTION.

1'11L' C/10/CF: OF //'OR/JS.

SE CTJO K

29

FrnsT.

T HE CHOICE OF WORDS.

CI-I J\ I 'T E R I I.
DICTION.
11

of Diction. - The word diction i.· th e n;:i.mc gi \-cn tu

or department of style which has to do wi th \1·unls, 11·ith the choice of \\·onJs, ]Jllt ::i.!so, in a gc ncrJ.J way,
ntkn tly uf th e distincti\ e dct:1ib of compos ition, wi th
1li1 and :i.rr:rngemenl of \H>Hk :\ writer 's diction, then,
·.1ll y spc;:i.k of it , i,; the ki nd of words he h::i.hitually em!l\"C)' his th oughts ; 1\·hich 1\· rt s we l11Hl. in ::i.ny c:i.se .
d ing tu the writer and the kind of Jiscutirsc, :i distine tn th at cnalJlcs us lu cbssify them ::i.s a kind of dictiun .
,thlir has his peculiar diction, :i.nd so has C\·ery kind (I{
i{ut ueyond thesc indi1·idu:1! and class cha racter istics
") :1 general stJ.ncLm l o f diction, whi ch e\·ery \\" riter mw;l
hat strnc an!, o r id e:i.1, is perh::i.ps licst cxprcsscd liy the
\"; tl1c \\'riter must sec to it th ::i. t be keep his mothc r:1 lied; :ind this by ol,sen·ing, in :ill his choice of bnb\\"s of < cri\·::i.tion, us:i.ge, adaptcdnes-.;, and taste .
i""" o; the st:tntl:in l :i.rc owing to 11":ll1L of culture :incl
in th,· gcnn:d J.:.110\l"lcdgc :in d use of wo rd s, or in the
11ire nwnts of the discu11rse in h:incl .
11irc rncnts of pu re and fitting d ic ti on will lic discu ssc <!
1 ions : on the choice o f \\·ords ; on the charJ. ·tc ri stics
li ct ion; on the char:1ctcristics and types of prose dic \ll1 diction as dctern1incd l1y olJject and occasion.

"fr Lhen.: is o ne thing in this worid," s:iys De Quincey, "that .
next aftl:r Lhe fbg of his country ::tnl its spotless honor, should l>e
wholly in the eyes of :i. young poet, - it is th e /,111.~'11age of his
cou ntry. He shuulJ spend the third p:irt of his life in studying
this Lrnguagc, :inJ culti1·:ning its tut:il resources. I [c s 1u1lld he
willing to Ji luck out his right eye, or to c ircurnn:w igate th e glul>c,
1f l>y such :i sJ.nifice, if hy such an exerti on, he could ;:i.tuin to
grea ter i1urity, preci sion, compass, or idi omJ.tic cnewy of Jiction."
Tl.1is is ;"[10kcn prirnJ.rily of the _poe_L ; ]Jut it is li:ml~ an cxagger:it1un u1 the 1dc::tl of th e consc 1cnt1ous prose-wrile r. Th l'. inll>ortan ce of c:trc, patie nce, scrupulous minuteness, in the studv 'a nd
cho ice uf \1·urcb, cann(Jt c:lsily uc overst:ttcd; it is ];y suc h :i. . lul>it
alone tktt crn in ent authors h:ixe written \\"h:tl the \\"urld cuuld a ccept :is trnc and trn st1\·orthy . S11ch authors, as inr Jliiry :illl":iys
J-C\ c:tls, ol;,;cn·e rigid ruks :md ~tand:m is.
1\ t th e s:une time, it is to l>c rcme111Lncd th:1t mks arc to ]Jc
the wri te r' s sc1T:1nh, not hi s tyra nts; their use lies, nut in bein g
::i.pp:uenl :is mk s, li11t in guiding to results that h:n-c the fre cdun 1
and c:1sc of nature. T he man is to be c\·e r :1lJu\·e his rules; this
hO\\"l"\·er no t liy di srcg:Lrdin g them, - rather ];y su rn::i.stcring them
that they cease t<> llc rncrc external prccqJts :ind l>ccornc his
readiest mode of working.
Thc fol!O\\·ing arc the pri11cip:1l rules :ind cautions tu lie obscn-cd
in thc choice of words.
I.

,\ C"CUIZ.\"IT l i S I ~ .

Un de r th i head arc gi \"C l1 those rule,; \\'hich refer in gcncr:tl to
the t::i.sk of fitti11g the wo rd to the idea·J of rcmu\·in•'
h' 1wb 111'oC,
,.· .
• t:>
therefore, un th e one side, frum the looscncs,; and cxaggcrati<>ll o f
ordin:iry speech, :ind un the other, frum incorrectness owing to

. ·' ..

/'J/L' C/10/lE OF IVO/\/JS.

THE CJJO/CE OF IVU!i'lJS.

"n1.' ss '.'lnd ignorance. Th e y arc niks fur literary habits and
fully as rnnch a s for pro cedure in indi,·idual cases.
n the cho ice of words , let the paramount con sideration be
css .

is, scck t o say precisely \\'hat the thought requires, neither
This dern:rnds oi course close scrut iny of me:rn1n d independence of cmrent fashions in words.
It is disas '<l r ;1 \\'riter to tak e up ,,·ith the i:izy ideJ. th::it a worcl is "not
· ·;.;h l L11t near l'nu11gh " .: nor c:<n he ::i.lfonl to :-idopt wit hout
11.1 ti n \Yha l '· c\·c ryl1od y says ."
TI is st::rndard must be abso not \\' h:1L \\'ill du, hu t what is exactly com rnensuratc with

1\

nu r less .

. >tight.
;" -Thc follo"· ill g cases \\'i ll exemplify the: most frcciucnt ,·iubtions uf
....... ; -

1.,-..liin.t:; use nf ,·:-igac epit hets, as hc:ard e spec i:i.lly in ardent co1ll'e rs:i.T li ·~ f.ilb \\·ere ,·cry Jin<. :in cl all the scenery abo ut them is elc.f<lltl. 1\ t
.. ;, al'" o ne: c :-i n get a ;;n111d dinne r; at least ll'hilc \\'e "·ere there \l'e
/lo1di..!ly." The,e ,,·onb really ha,·c n o definite meaning, as here used '
-., ig 11ilicant qu:tlity is attr il >u te d t1.l a dinner th :m to tl1e s ublimest n::ttural
' h"icc of ,,·cmls a little as ide: from llt'.:ir proper meaning, and all the
·1i, Jc:itli11g 1.ccause 011/y a little 1nong ; ''I fc was greatly n,(,£;rn7'llfrd by
· urr en n: ., ; h e re the n1u re p roper " ·ord 11·.,ultl he "1·cxed" o r" ex as "\\' li ne ,h:tll I lie fi ,,i./,, t" tind this p:iss:igc o f pvetry? ,. -here
· .. is i11 1pr• 111 nly used fu r" lii .. cl;-.· ·
i .uilts le> 11·hic h yuung 1«ritns arc es1wc ia lly liaLlc :m: . gencrali1in ~~ too
. 1 :11 i n~ : il1i11;..:--:- ti•l) :d 1-..,1; l1ll·ly, .1nd 11 ff. li:u1d 1·'\ . q: ~: t' r :1 til1 1l.
IH ·lc 11l

t' .....

-;;\ys) :

u· rhcrc :tn; Y L'!' Y go1\il

/rt 1')S
1

l ·: ,:n111'h;'-;

tll.\t Cli :tllll' r

\\' :1 ....

a

1:111 e .'' Thi~ is l uo al >:<olute a q:itcment : st rung enuugh \\'U t1ld lie,
,. :i r e S<lt11 e i11di,-atiu11s, ., de. "An attclllpt to j11st1/v th e treachery pf
j, t ,\rn uld. "
This " ·as certainly a hardy :ittc111pt: lmt t 11e trncr title
.11

tu:d c:nilc:t\'Or ll'ould 11a,·c been," .-\n :ttlc111pt to c.rln11t<1I< t he treach-

.t.l·.

'.' ee k to have at comma nd more than one expression for the
thi ng.

tha t sc,·eral furms of expression arc in eYcry CJ.SC to be
:1·tl; this, of l·ourse. i..; J. matter th::it mu st be determined by

l

.> i

uccasion. But it often happens that if the \\'riter has n ot th ought
broadly and deeply enough to have more than une opressiun ~·() :
his idea, the one th at he has will be meagre . "The one a; •t
word" is very generally the result of long cogitatiun :rnd d1.:kttc
between alternative locuti o ns.
Recog11i;,i11g this Ltd, l'rni ncnL
wri ters have often culti,·:ctcd, as a pri\':lte discipl in e, the h:1liit <>f
putting things in m:rny different \\"a)'S, rin1.;ing changes in nprc~­
sion, softening and strengthening, forrn:1li1.ing and roli"'l11i:ili1 in:_: .
conden sing and expanding, m aki ng se n:rcly acc11r;1tc :rnd 11u!.;i1 1,g
freely loose . Such a hahit is of 11ntuld ,·alue a,, :1 mc:11io; ut" Lunil iarizing the literary workman with his touls.
Nun:. - It often happens t hat a ckise th inker ha s :rn idea tli :1 t n o , in;..:I.:
w o re! is adcr1uate to exp rc:<s; and t he c., :u:t tl1ought 111u,t lie g :11licr c.! a-.. t: .<·
r e»ulta nt of sc,·cral a l'i'rnxinuting \\'Urd s. ]:"r cxam1lk ; "lL i, : me tl .. 11. .. :I
these criticisrns were \l'rittcn some years ago, and in the 111c: anti111c a tc11•k nc 1·
tow:trd a bette r stale o f tl1i11gs has begun tu »li uw it,elf. Hut at 11rc,;e11t it ,·,
only a IL·u d,·u,y, a sy111flo111, :t jureslt11du7.i.Jiu.::,".' 1\th.Jtlicr c:-. ;1 nq .Jc: "'~ ·> ~1. J.., 1 1
Shakespeare no d oub t J•rojcc ted himself in hi:< Oll'n c rc:aiicins; l1ut tli•i>e crc:t1

tions nev er b eca1 11l: S\) 11 c rfc.:clly di.1· e11.~·a.~··{_·d (r ui n lii1n, ~ d cl/1jt·,11·-: ·" · ,,r, ~ \ -.; 1!;t·y

used to say, exlri11 sic,i/, tu him, as to react upo n hi111 li ke re:i.l all.I evcll a lie 11
existences."

This prin c iple g ives great import:mc:c to the study of ,,ynonyrn s.
The m:-tstery of synonymous expressions is import:-int, first, Lcca usc
of their points of rc;e mhbncc . Fur oft1.'n the \\Titer need s to
repeat a thought; or \\'hi lc he is cbliorating a s1il1ject th e i'ri n<·ip:tl tcr111s 11111 s t ()f llLTt· ssi ly rcn 1r m:iny ti;~\L' S l>l'forc :ill j>h:1 ~c·s <>f
the idea arc trc atcrl . In su c h c1ses the TL'itcr:itio n uf one kn11
is clumsy an d rigi d, and the tho11ght seems iioo r; and the constant problem is, h o w to find \\'Ords that nn y Le sul1sti lute d ::ind
preserve substantially the same m ean in g. Besides, skillful nri :ttion of the express ion cnrichcs the th ought l>y adding new aspc c ts
of it.
EXAMPLE. - The fvll o wing sentence;; fr um ;\ht the"' :\rn o1<1, wl11> is a mas ter of skillful repetition, ll'ill illustrate h o w he \':t ries the cxprc:<sio n uf a
repeated idea. The subject is !\lacauby's Essay o n ]\] ii ton .

,...-:·.:-.
;. ..
.~

i....·

"·

·~·~.,:;:-,.

•

r.

··· '.

l'JJE CJJOICE OF IVU RDS.

Tl/£ CJJOICF OF IVORDS.
er who only w:i.nts ( ,7 ) rhdnri,:, :i. rc:i.dcr 11·ho 11·:i.nts ( h) :i. pane·
e l'nrit:-ins, wiil lin<l wh:i.t lie w:i.nts . J\ re ader wh o "·:i.nts (r)
. 1
1·
· t l
·1-ltis. wo1·ld
he ]Y1l11~!1le
to ali tin: \\·orld ,. a nd
_l
~
h
I 1 .)C ( 1:--:-tppon1 C< .
,·u uitl fc-cl, 1wt pk :i.scd , hut dis:i.p['uintcd , hy the F ssay 0 11 ,] /,//,• 11 ,
t lut tlic rc:idcrs wh u scck fu r (c') crit ic ic;m arc o lr cmcl y few;
.-:i.,k rs who ,ee k fur (,1 ' ) rltct ur ie, u r wl:o st:ek fur (//) pc1i sc c• r
iiL tltcir own ::i lr e:i. d y c; , \:1bl is hccl likes :i.nd disiikes are c .xt:c i~ely
wei·cr tltc r c is :1 111ultiiudc o f r c:i.ders, cl o u blkss, fu r 1rl1 u111 1l

Jlu

,

.

\"

tu li:l i·c iltei r cars tiekk.I " ·itlt ( .i'' ) fine rhet o ric; but the tick 111~
ri,>us re:Hk r i111paticnt. . . . llut a llis in terestc,\ re:i.clcr, wlwse 01111

J")

33

may determine the most significant distinctions m the t hought;
th ey :ire often the delicate hinges on 1rhich it turns. l'erh aps
there is no 11·:i.y in ,,· hich :i. thought is so frequently m:i.de to di verge from the truth, :i.s in the careless or unadvised u se of a
nearly synonymous express ion .
F.x.\~11 · 1.E S . - The fnllo11·ing :1rc i11s ta 11 ccs ,,f line discr imin ation Let ween
nc::uly sy11ony m o us words. Fr ulll c·arl yk: "I[ <.: was :i. man th:i.t J.r,iught him self mu c h lJdu rc the wc•rl.I; cu11fcssc.I t h:i.t he eagerly coveted }11111-. vr ii 11>:1t
were 11ut p oss ible, 110/,>ridy ; vf which bttcr as he ga in ed far 111orc tl u :1

tu hc.u J'urit a ni , m :rntl \lilt o n gl o ri :ied , hut (< ) tu get_a.t the
lhcm, 11·i11 sur,·h· \ ,,: diss:1ti,1icd . . . • l Ju1n:i.n prog re ss c on'1't' 111
1
·i n c r c~~i.; ·int·1 lC Il\l..,n \ ,c.1., r t'i 1i ,,c ' w\ 1,) ' ce:i.sinntt to l iv e 1w.. t 11e :i.nnn:i.
.

s ee me d l1i s d ue , the pul ilic were inci ted , not c,n!y by th e ir n:i.tural love of
s ca 11cla l, lrnt lJy :1 spcc i:tl gro11n d o f envy, to s:i.y wh :1tevcr ii! u f him c uuld lie

rnd tn reel th e pk.bt1rc'i " f si: 1he o niy , come to p:nlicipate 111. '.h e

r11 11 oro11 s wor,b, o nl y they mu st nut he confoun <kcl 11·i th mere s" norous unc'<,
still lc:ss w ith p !tr:i.sc:s that , in st<::1d of 'u p pli.:rni.:nling the se nse, c11cu111l 1cr it."
"ln verse he had a p omp which, excellent in it;elf, bcc:i.me fo111p,?us11ess in

t1

lire :i.ls•>, ::tn•l tn f 1n tl c11jm·rnent in the thi11 gs ,, f tl1e min•!.
I he
·l:-' ]l f .l
,, •I I 1 ·~t
v·'-·r)· c\i,niniin:i.ti1w
(,/ 11 ) l\.hctor ic, h ri lli:rn t \\Til l
. ~l
v
'
h .
•l

sudi perso ns pleasure fur its o"·n s:i.ke; but it gi1·cs them plc:i.s -

<> rc, whe n it is cmphiycd (1/ 11 ) in com men llatio n vf a . Y1ew of life
·n the whule t he irs, :i.nd n f men :incl c:-iuscs 1q lh "·h1d1 t11cy ::ire
1 ' ul with the in crc:is in•'
·
numhcr of th<1se who
!l ~ y 1 11p:t tl 1) . . . .
r.
.
j )

'!J C ·111 t C l'.
-t ·ol •11·re , th e numb e r of those :11'u in cn: :<ses, " ·ho h :i.Y 111g
i CC 1 l •l
Ancl it lc::ds th em
1 "" 0 11 " ·itlt it f.illu 11· it \\·here it lc::t<ls thern .
:t,.,is the ir husi ~ess ( 1·'") to k::trn the r e:i.1 truth :1hot1l the im1wrt::t~ t
•l · ,. .. ., 11 l hcH'ks "·hich intcrc·st the 11u111 :1 n millll. F o r thus is

1

·11
tu he ::tcq uircll a stock u f so u ml ideas ,. in ''"hich the nrnte.! ""'

' l l llt- ~,

(•1111;

• l

\

'

.

moYc, :i.ml which ;i ]c, 11 e c:i. n gi1·e to onr 1udg111ents .sec urit ) :in.cl
T<> l ie s:1tistled wi th ( 11 ' "

')

1·111c \\Tiling :i.11out the ol•Jccl uf ones

"'q'.

1 ( Ii"") h:i.ving it pr:tisc d or hl:un ec l in :i. ci::" r'.l:rn cc with o ne's
. -1 ·1.,. ,·t11 ~ 11 y conve nti onal trc:i.tmcnt o f 1t " ·k1tcYC1", 1s at th1~
t I \;-. \ 1-.t.:S, \\ l
,l

ro\\·t h seen tu he futile-"
.
1-c the expressit>ns here m:ukcd :is co r re;;p,rnding. ::i11 <1 co n ,; 1<lc1: ]i,11v
c liuth v:1ri cs :i.nll rn:i.kcs m o re dc:i1ttitc and significant the three 1."cas,
i:rnegyric, :incl c riti cism . l·or furthe r consiclcr:itio ns on 1\. cpct1tton ,

nn cnt al J'ruccsses, p. 1 Go.
11astery

of synonyms 1s e<1ually important, seco ndly, lie. t heir po ints of difference . Very few wo rds in o m bn;«.; C:\.3.Ctiy alike in mca.ning.
L1·cn wh e n t erms dcri1·e.d
ffcrent sott rces st::i.rtc<l syno nymous, th e y h a,·c c ome rn
f time to l>e ernployed fur different purposes o r sh:Hks o f
1
,. ;\n d these very points of differe twc, fin e as t !H:y :i.rc ,

said ." -

Fru111 J:i.rncs l\.11ssdl Lowell: '" Tltc L:1tin h:i.s give n ns mus t of ou r
.·""''·

his i111it:1to rs."

Syn onyms employe d for their likeness promote fkxil)ility of expression; cmployccl for their unlikeness, delicacy :ind pre c ision .

.,.

3. Cultivate the habit of observing the derivation and hist o ry

'

of words.

Thi s ha bit, while :i. source o f delight in ihe lf, is of gn.·:1t sen·ic e
in pro moting t he assured mastery of bnguage . J\ 11·orcl w ho;. c
ety mology is k no wn defines it~c1;; the wrilcr feels its force int11i tively, and need not depend o n a <lic:tion:uy. A word that kis
passed through changes o f meaning is f11ll of s11ggcc.ti1-cness l>y
reaso n of ih hi sto ry; l>llt while it is more signifi cant 11·hcn ski llfully u sed, it is also more liable to misu se . \\"e cannot d epcn(i
o n our kn o wledge of ety mology alone . T he very ch:in ges a word
has suffered have :tdded to its meaning new :tnrl :-;ul;tlc aspcch
tlut c:i.nnot lie c:isu:tliy discerned; they must be studied.
EX,\ ~11 · 1.E S .

- The f" \!,, win g cx:1111pks will illustrate how i111pvrt:1nt o r s1g -

nifi c:i. nt thi.: vrig in an cl liic;lciry u f :i. 11«ird 111:1y lJ<.:comc in the wri te r's uc;:ig,..
1. Dnivati <>n . \:i.rlylc tlrns use s the cleri1·a ti on o f t11c 1Yord I-:i11g: "Ile is
called R ex . I\ eguht<>r , R C<i: rn1r ,1wn nam e is still better; King, ;, ·i; 11J1 i 11.~·.
whi ch means Crn- nin g, 11 1,lc-m~n .
The finding of your A!>!cmall :i.ncl

·,

;.

....

.H

F l I/; CJJ UJ Cl:

0F

TIJL CJJ <) JC/-;

If" ON I 1S.

" B ut wh e n h e sp:ikc an ti clwer'd his Table Round
\V it h l1ugc divin e and co m fort:llilc \\·ords
lkvn n d my to np1e to t1·ll lli •: c - l lid 1c lcl
Frum c,·c to eye tl 1ro' a ll tlH·ir Ord e r fLtsh
A mom en ta ry lik e ness of the K ing."

gett ing hi m inn:slcd wit ii t he syml•els ej <il•/11/r . " ·il h dignity , 1rnr >l11p \ 7i'(lr/ft.
sh ip) , n>yal ty, k in g!H)11d , o r wh C1tc1·c r " ·c C'lll it,

St>

th a t/,,• m a y adually h a1·c

mom to guide a cc o r d ing to hi s facul ty uf d u ing il, -is the l 1usi 11c,~, well or ill
;icc ompl is lic d , o f all su c ia l p ru cc du re 1rh :il s<Jc 1· cr in t hi s wo rld!"

1-

OF IVOND S.

I .owe ll

thus cc rnstrnc ts a felicitous dc linilion o n lhe ki s is uf :i dcr i1·at iu 11: ''A s up c rs t itiu n , as its n a 11H.: im ports, is so mething t hat has bee n ldt to s ta n d o ver, lik e

II. Pl\.ESENT USE .

un li n is hecl hu,;i n c.:ss , fr om on e se ss io n u f t he 11·c >r ld 's :c•i/01<1,,·011 e/ to th e next."
2.

l l ist•iry .

Ci !ibn n thus deduces t he.: lii slo ry of a people fr o m th e hi s tu ry

, ,f a 1n1 r d : •· The u11 <1t1eslio 1uli k c1·idcn cc o f langu:ige a ttests the desce nt u f
th e Hulg:i ri :rns fr om the o r ig in al slock o f t he Scla vo n ian, o r m u r c p ro perly

Sia vo ni a n, r ace ; a n d the kind r ed krnds o f S c rvian s, J.>os ni:ins, J ~:isc i an s ,
( ·ro:i ti :i ns , \Vah chi a11s , et c ., fol !,111·cd either the st :i nd:in\ o r the cx:tml'lc o f th e
leading t ri b e. ] ;rum th e E u xine to the ;\Jri :1tic , in the sta te of captiv e s, n r
sul1j c cts, or aliics, o r cne 111ie s, u f th e Cr eek e m pire, they OYCrsp read the h nd ;
aml th e na li u 11;d ;1j>pc l la t iu n of the

S J. 1\

1-v s h :ts l1cc n dc.:grade 1\ liy cha n ce o r

111;tlicc from the sig11 ili c:1t i<> 11 o f glory lo lli:tt o f se r vitude ."
4 . Enlarge y our v ocab ulary by dili g ent study of usa ge in the best
·writers .

Dict ion:iries :rnc books of synonym s arc incli spcnsahlc in t heir
,,· ay, 1H1t the y cannot irnp::irt the in ner life :ind deli cacy of words.
\\. u nls a rc the veh icle not only o f thought but of se ntim ent a nd
emot io n ; but t his th ey can be only ::is intcn,·o\·c n with other
word s. Th us al one can they ge t beyo nd the merel y intell ec tu Jl
~itlc of la 11 g1 u g e, J nd from its defined mc:rnings prO\·ide fo r " its
o ften Lir more vitJl und efi ned J ssnr::iations. " No finene ss o f
us:1ge c:rn lie :ic'l ui red from th e dicti1 i11:n y :ilnnc; th e g r:1t·e Jn d
power, the suli ti litics and flexibil iti es of words , ::ire sn ;n l1illy only
a s they arc fitted tog ether, in actu:il litcr:iturc, by th e m asters of
c x press ion.
Ex,D!l' l. ES . - "'My clea r s ir,' excl:i im cll General \"ayne, w ith a ce rt ai n
r otund emph as is, ' I am h ap py lo see y o u! ' " \Ve fe el the meaning o f "rot u nd ·• here; li ut h o w much o f it ]1aYe we o htaineJ from th e flict io n :iry dcf1·

n itio n - "roun cl , c ircula r , sphcric:il, - hen ce co m pl e te, e n tire" ?
Jn th e following p:iss:1gc fr o m Tenn yso n, c o nsi1lc r h o w mu c h m o r e s ignil'i·
c an t th e w o r d" b r g e" is, tha n any dict io n:ir y co uld make it: Th is is qu ot e d , not :ls jus tifyi ng Carlyle 's deriva tio n o f tll<' 11·o rcl, whi ch :ts m:1 tti; r of fact is inc o rre ct , but as ill us tra ting ht>\\' s ug_,;:es1i1·t· a derivati o n may be made.
l

Unde r this head come the considerations that should in f1uence
the writer on a ccount o f th e age o f wo rd s : h e shou ld admit only
words in good standard prese nt usage. Langu:ige shows its life as
do all living Lhings ; it is continually slough ing off oid Jocutivn:;
for " ·hic h th e n: is no fu rther use, and continually assimi bting new
express ions, :is grow ing th ough t o r di scove ry o r irn·ention d emands
th e m. In language as in life, also, t he re arc fas hi o n~ :rnd ali"c.: ctations. There co me every yc::ir into cmrent speech cp hcm ..:ral
terms, colloq 11iJli s ms, slang, lb.sh an d cant expre ss ions, ,,·hich snn .:
a brief purpose and the n di e, unle ss, as happens in r;1n: c.1~c~ . :1
r eal need exists fo r them . These cann o t find pb ce in qancbnl
litc r:iturc ; nor cJ.n any newly co in ed wo rd be a ccq1tcd unt il it
has been well trie d , and adopted 1Jy genera l consent.
The foll owing four rules in clude the chid cJ.uti ons to lie 0 11scrvecl reg:ndin g present use .
5. Beware of words too new to have a recognized place in t he
lan g uage.

Th e word beware, in its olcl se nse ;,,. 1t 11ll)' , is perh:tps the lw st
int 1ic:tt ion of tl:e \\Titl' r' s proper allit11t c toward such 11cw tc rtn s.
Such wo rds m ay, in a g iven case, subsc n ·c a rcJl 1wcd :111d lie
destined to beco me stand a rd ; but :lt least, ,,·atc h thc 111. " I;c n"t
the fi rs t b y wh o m the n ew :ire tried," is l'op e's rn ;:i. x irn . T( ilil'y
arc to li \-C, there is al.J unclant time to use them; if nut, they arc
bette r le ft alo ne .
ExA~11·1.1 ·: S .

-The wre tc h ed w o rd "en th use " see ms to be

~gli t i ng

f<> r a

place in st:ind:inl u sage , :ind as y et n o l> n c ca n 1c ll 11·h at the sc•Jl•d "·ill lie ;
at present il is a w o rd to he sh unn ct l. - A few years ag1) t. he "" ' ' rd "tt:kg r:im"
w as n ew and much talked of; lJ ul it s uppli ed a nee d i n tlic iangua gc -. ncl

'l '/IF: Cl/ Of( 'F
came l •l he fr eely usc <l i>y :ill. The i"'·enti,rn r,f ;he telcph•-·11<.: J, r,111ght
\\'ith il the sug;.:c,l ion of a c111Tc'p" 11 tiing \\'llrd" tckp hc:m ": l>1!1 it i-, d1n1 i>tful

s•l<J ll

thi~

whether

w ill e ver l><..:cu n1 c

curr~nt.

6. Be sure of ample justification befo re coinin g ne w formations
or compo un ds.

is tu lie rc111c111l1cred t h:i t. tlw11gh l:rn gu:igc is :i. s:K rc il ht:ri t:igc , to lil· cheri s hed :rnd gu :inkd 11 ith :ill soli<·itudc , yet ;1fter :11\
Jt

it w:1s nude l<> r man, 1H >l
]H l\h

:l

(, ;i· !:1ng11:1gc .

111 ;rn

T here is thcrci'urc

fi'l'l' d ()\1\ ;111 d a 1·:111tillll \() l 1C oh,.;c n ·ciJ 11·ith r cg;1n l \() n '\\'

fonn:lliuns .

]'.ccll hC b 11 ;_;11:1;,;1 · is ;\ li 1· i n.~ org:111i,.;111, ;111.\ th<Jt1ght

is \i 1·in g, there rnu s l l>c ile:-..il> ili ty . ;1d:1ptatiun, lil>nty; and so, nnt
infre• [ltcntly ;1 jt1n 1·tmc

u f t h()\ 1:-; ht uccurs 11·h c rc

the rn;t<; te rf11 l

1nitcr has t o 111crh· hi ,; 11· o rd, from 111:1tnials :1 l re:tc ly cxi ;-, tin g . and
1Yhc r e such :1 nc"· ('(1in:1 gc , th1l\lgh se n·ing o n ly th e present occas i<>n . m ay l1e prl'<'isely the nws t effecti 1·e word possible .

Ex.1~11· 1, F,;. -The fvll11\\·ing , W'Ctl liy l'rv kssor 1knry l>rumrn.irnl . 1s a
th a t th e ::iut1 w r himself 11·ould perh:1ps ne,·er h:lVe ncea!' ion to u'e :i g::i ill,
nor 1,· 0 u\d it e,·cr be put i11to a cli ct iu11:iry: yet il li b its idea :is Ill> uthc r word
cuulcl d<> : ";\ u tHl<.: point is :is<;::iikd . JL is tlie wlwk s,·,tem "hit:h when
cu rnpa rcd ll'ith the <>t he r ::ind '"e ighc.\ in it ., l1:ihnce is f11 u11<l wa nting. 1\n
n ·c " ·hieh ha,; 1.,,,kt.:d :1 \ the i'1rst c:in not l• H•k tq><>ll this. T o dt) that , and rc >t
i,'1 the cn nt crnp h li o n, it l1a<; llrst lo 1111 <01/111T itself."
Tiic fullo 1\'i11 g , from 1 loll'ells, gi1·es a sh:iclc of me:in ill g that 11 0 c'isting
"" 'rd w :is :\cl t:• iu:·ttc lo express : "l~ nt for the time l•t·inr; l 'cne lnpe was a s
nea rl y c r:1Z cd a,; 1nigl1t he: hy th e c"1nplic:1t iu11s ,, f lier l" ''it io 11, and fl' C<.: in·d
he r vi sit<> rs \\·i :h a piteuus olist r:icl itin wh ich could nut f:iil uf t\lnc h ing ];ru n1 -

\l'llr<l

fiehl Corey 's Italian sy 111j>rrllr d i<i >111 ."

OF //' OP /IS.

EX1Hll'l.ES. -The fo llo wing m:iy s\a ncl a<; illustratio ns o f tWer-ii:b t)' c .. in ·
age: From \\'. Clark l.:ussell : "This , coupled with the fast- sp reading gl•r(llll ,
and the \\'i ld t u 111M.j i o 1lir>r11 an cl the fierce c racking of !lapping n11i,c> . frig ht e ned hcr."-V rom \!rs. \\'h itncy: "The summe r joy dist i11 t te.! fr v l!l th·~ yc .1 r,
like a glo \\' ing jc1l'cl, hy its ver y sett ing lict11·ee n the: bleaker cha nges.-· - ·1 he
follo wi ng, fr u m :i n.:l'i<.:w ar ti cle , excmplili(;s a somew ha t pcd :intic cu<l •lln ,,f
co ini ng adject ives: "Th ere is no end lo this chaptn of .wtlic•rr"r f 111i,(»r·

tun e."
To n cll' fonn:itions and compound . mad e in

lrnrn o ro:1,; spi rit

such dev ices a rc the iirst to lose !l ~t1· o r and ~011nd ('l w :1p :inil :1 ;·t ific ia l.

It is only tlic a\Jou n di ng freedom of a com·ersationa l s tyle

th a t can jus tify them.
Ex11~11 · 1 .F.-.: . - The f.,JJ ,nYing, from Di ckens, \\'ill scn·e t0 illn<tr:it e hnm•' ro us furm :it ions : "l le r spirits rnse co nsicl c r.1l ily, <>n heh• ·ld ing tloc..;e g .... .J l\·
prep:ira ti u1p;, ::ind from the nothingn ess .,f gotid works , o;he p:1"cd tu the
tlri11,i;1uu u f ham and toa't with grc:it chc:crfullle,;,." - ".\ mid,;t th e g-::ncr:il
h um o f mirth :in ll C\llll'e rsatio n that en sued , the re was :1 lit tle 111 an "·ith ::i l' "ff::
s11y-notlr i11,;--to·m c-or· f '/l-cv 11t1"l<lict-y ou sort of con n tenance, who rc: m:iincd
ve ry q ui cl."

,,.m,.-

7. Be

suspicious re garding curre nt news paper an d collo quial

t erm s.

In the di s cussion of public and p o litical quest ion" , a.s :il,,r i in the
li , ,.<J
fo r whi c h th ere is only tr:i.n s icnt occasion; and Im ;t 11·hilc t lit·y
may e nter e l' cry one' s speech, o r he bandied alJ011t liy the 11t·11·..,-

s hiftin g ph:1ses of the p e ople's life, express ions arc frl· q11e11tly

papc rs, and then be cas t aside and forgotten .

O n the other h a nd, s ll c h license o f coinage is \·cry p rccar iuus .

:1.

more liberty mu s t be a ll o\\'ed; th ough it 111:1y he rcm ;1 rkl·<i th:1L

Some of thes e ;n :11·

be mere slang; othe r s, at least w hile they arc in ti c 1"< >.!:;1 1c.

m:i~·

The p:i.ss io n fo r n ew form s rnay 1; ecomc :i. rn :rnne ri sm ; a nd the

seem sp iri ted and felicitous; :i.nd othe rs again i 11ay im « ih-c niri()'i·,

write r , suppos in g that his t ho ug ht is t oo o ri g in:il fur ex is t ing f<Jrrns,

etymologi cal a n a logies and cru den esses .

111 ~1 y

ca ut ion rega r ding s11ch ephemeral terms is, b e sus1ii c ioll ,;; do n"t

eas ily d en:lop

:i.

fondne s s for 1·:1g:u ics i:1 language fo r th e sake

of s martn ess and pun g e n c y .

t

nlcss , then , the need uf a n e w fo r m

is iinper:iti 1· t'. :rnd the wr it e r kn o 11·s w ell hi s u11·n pu 1,-e r :rnd th e
pOl·nty of t he present y ocal11tlary, he 11·ill do \Jetter t o hold th e
n urit )· o f hi s 1nothn- t o n g11L' s acred :1g:ii nst i11nu1·ations.
l

•

Thl' 11Ti t1:r\ 1mi1· t• r,:1l

fall int o the u se of them un:i<hisedly.
Ex . D11·1 I.' . -The full u\\'ing newspape r ler llls may, sumc ,,f tlic 111, lie!'""''·
ing i11 to st::ind::ir.I u<;age, hut they 11·il! at lea' t ill11stra ie th<: f,.,.,..]"m ., f i•·• irn :>l·
is m: "I.a~t 11 iglit the Third N':it ic1n::i l Ba nk w:is b 11 >'.~'lll ri .: o l. " " ;'llr. J:l :rn k ,

.,,

7l!E

''

CIJOJ U~

Till. C/I O!CF OF IVOR/)S.

OF //' (_' /,·J>S

liL· wcll-kn o \\·n ,.J// r11 fi n11n!isl, suicided yest e rday m o rning ." "The mctn kt'i
" :\11 cttlc:npts al bu//rl,•: i11,)' fa iled ." "Last week a par ty
.r r <S1ll'F Nl i o11isls were 1/0'<1ii11.:.' in the Ul.\ .'\ o rlh burying -gro untL "
The rnllowing coll 1Jq11ialisrns arc from De Q uin cey , whu "·:is sometimes
·.1 rdes>' : "l'un r Aru:u cannut ]i,-c, and ca nnot d ie - so th:lt he is in :111
:imighly fix ." "JZeaily ,\r o :n is too 7'0111 -l'ainisfz , and seems up lo a li ttle
rc asun ." "Dut all t h is we men of sense know to he g11111mo11."
,.·e n olrrnli!<il."

.\ \\·o rd may here lie s::tid to stmknts, from the wri ter 's poi nt of
1· i1..·11" aliout current sbng. Th:i.t it is spirited, spi c y, extreme ly
1·1 1nn·nie nt, is conceded . That the use uf it is rep rehen sible as a
;1 gain st the p urity of the language , t he \ISLT of it himself is not
:1"11· ti • ack11011·inlge . B i1 t the mos t depluu],]c feature of ;;i:rng,
11ot u ften real ized, i,; th at, l>cing u sed on e \·cry admi ssil ile O•<"asio11,

There is ::it present a stron t_( effo rt un the riart o r schob.rl y :ti <th ors
to r ev iv e so m e of the hearty o ld Saxun ex11rcssiu11s that h;wc ua~'cd
out of c urrent: 1i,;c; an d this is cornme nd:tl>lc, for many o f t;, ,. ,c
te rms arc too good tu die . Study o f t he early English frum ::in
e::irnest desi re to cnbrge :in d di\·er;;ily the reso urces of cxpre::;s io ;1
is ce rt::ii nly ve ry valt1able. Hut fon dness for uid wo rds m ay abv
he, like fo nd ness fo r old chin:i, ::i fa-,hion, a craze; and \\'h en
writers ::idopt them as a mere affectat ion , their style l1ecornes
::irtifi c ial and fanciful, and loses its carnc::;tn e ss and powe r.
III.

,: 11

.in d so not as ::i \Thi e le of definite thought lrnt as :i. substitute f()r

it . ;;11ch uncons id ered hng11age causes an affa!!i11g poz·cr(i• of
St::inding for so m::iny things, it rnc::ins nothing; while
it ocrnpics the place of \1·h::it should be defi n ite and signific:m t.

; ·r' i'illlll!tr/'l' .

The s tudent sl1ould cons ider whethe r he can ::ifforcl, out of mere
fu n or mental indolence, so to starve his resources.

.N

T\:TELLICinLE

u:-; c.

The ad::iptatiun of the 1\·ord to the ide:1 , which c::ills for :i.cc ura te
use, has its limits . The \\'Ord mu:ot :i.bo ]Jc adapted tu t:1e rn dcr _;
a nd in general tht~ read er must lie :-.upposed not :i k:tnH: d i11:rn.
but a ma n of :i.1cr:tgc in format ion and intell ige nce. Su 1h1~ 011] 1·
safe standard for gencr:1l lite rature, ::is rcg:i.rds the ki11d uf " unls
chose n , is ordinary popubr us::ige.
g. Do not emplo y in general literature word s peculiar to some
limi ted section of the country.

8. Do not, out of mere affectation, indul ge a fancy for quain t o r

U nder such words arc included d ialectic
provi n c.i;:il isms .

a r chaic te r ms.

There is little ten de n c y to use words too old to lie current, or
th at have a qmint effe c t, except from :i.ffcc tat ion; bu t from thi s
1·:111 sc , in some st:1 ges of the ''T iter's culture, the tende ncy is
c uns ir krahk.

i11

1\1 >TE. - T h e :t ffc ct :tt iC> n nf c•ld terms is rerktps most n o tice:tlile now·::t-<hys
the C'1SC o f olLl cu nncc l i\' c:-:. an d :v h·erl 1:-:.; :1:-: 1 /,.,.,.;,,; 11 t t.', /t.,-r1d-; 1,·11/urr·,ji1r-

1 i,·n!101r, d ·1', ;·ai fr , i11 s,11•!'1 . 1i,1ft'.i'.

()11·in;; t• > the inilLu:: ncc of B ibli ca l dic -

1'on , r cli!~ i·rns lilc r:ttnrc of\ c n l:tk cs ;rn a rck1ic tin~c . " ·J1 ich w ith lack of taste
1•ic1y eas ily dcgcn c r:ttc in to c:rnt. Tlic '' Ji,,ly t1>11c" is n ot much r espected

no"·, in literature th:tt seeks po \\·cr.
SunlCti1ne~ a1so ~u ch 1\·o r tb ~1' /11:._..hl,y1·!:•/l, s;t•a i11 -;1 ·i~rht, q uoth, y e ( for the) ,
1

.1 ·' (rur that ) . a rc use d fm· s rn ::t rln ess u r h t11n<> r"u ' e ffec t. Ch ::t rk s L:t111! 1 was
11 111c !t ,: i1·c11 t u Sitch qu:1int n cssc<:, p :n tl y fr \J lll hi s pl'c tt li::tr \urz t uf hum v r,
p: trtly fr o n1 the i11 0111 ·n c c of old \\Til e r .' .

pecu li:tritics

and

'fhese m ay of comsc he used with intent , as in .'.l. cli::ilcct talc, to
illustrate t he manner o f ;;peaking in sv mc particubr se ction , or :u
prese rve t he "lo<:al colo ri ng"; hut t o use th em thron g h i,r.;n()r:l.tH'<'.
or ca relcs~; n ess, in a p roductio n int e 111lcd f'rn· the genc:r:1] i' Ul1lw, i:;
to put too g reat :i. lJ\lnlcn of interprctatiun on the rc:uicr.
Provinc ialisms outside of their O\\"ll district Juve the cffed of

slang.
J·:x ,Dll'!Y S OF J't(o1·r;-;1;1 ,1r .r s:-. 1s .

-The f,,]]owing exam p le.;

Irunt's "J'ri nc iplcs uf \ Vritt c n Ui scour,;c " :

"r ic

is very

~.re

d,., .,.,-.,

t :tl.:cn fr u m
(in t ll(' 'iC!l' t'

of good- n ::tl urcJ ); "he too/.: h im l o ,J,,"; "lie f 1; •e rs ( rcscn 1blcs ) his Lither .. ;
)'O ll , ,.;11 " ; "r will ta l.:c it /.:i n d uf yuu .. ;
liy it" ( <'<>mp:uc , hu\\·c vc r, :cs(» 1hi, bs t c itati u n, the iuJJ,,"';" ~ '.

"he is ::t !ildy c h il i!"; "T ra/.-011

"l set

11 0

.1/1•1"'

frum Pr in cip:tl Sh:.tirp ~" I n his cslima\c u f u1 1.: 11 lie ( \Vun ls"·ort h) sd "'' s/,>r1

'F f//·. t '/I UI l 'L

7'111-:

(} F II Cl!.' I IS.

\\'hilc oth er s ~n.; hccu1ning rc cog·

" vnlg:nisn1s .

Fx.Dr1·1.1-:,;. - 1n the fullu \\"ing e:dracts the ital ici1.t:<l \\' v rd~ and turn.; , .f
expression ha\'e th ei r ,.;ig ni lic:incc in the fact th:\l tl:ey :uc the pccui i:1r lt-rn 1i·
nulugy uf su n1c ,cit: n e e "r systc 111 of ide:is.
}'ru111 i,: :dph \ \":ddu l·:111l'r,;.,n : "T J1<; .i;, inc t iro1/,t/iv11 s n c •: n r1·.; t 11 .. r

'. [OOd.

lin i(''.11 \L'rrns :uc terms peculi:u to some p:irticub r dcp:nt ,, 1· scil'nn: ,,r thought <•r i11clu s try; i11di ,.; >Cll":lllk therdv re 111
•11·1\ splwr<-'. ll\Jl l«> r the !11t>Sl p:irt unk11011'11 l>llh ide .
,\I i till~ S in\L'nded unly ft>!' :l jl:lrti('llhr c\;tss uf rc:i.dcrs, u!'
· the tl:rrns pct ·11kt r tu th:1t cb,.;,; c;11111\ il 11·cll he dispc11 sed
1\iey :tre l>l>th the diret"test and the rnu ~l :1 cc m:itc th: 1t ca n
1:ilo)'l'(l. 'l't) di scard the 111 in gcncr:1l lill:ratmc, in th e case
ii •ject \<> 11· h i ·h they !>clung, is indeed :1 rnakcshi't; 1H1t n o ne
· ,,; it is a nccc;,sity . 1·:1·cn in the case of p opula rizing a
t '. the \\'ritcr shuul d \\' urk fur the sma lle st numllcr of tcchni-

lingt~r.

tilr

tlh'

\\·liit.:h sc~111s .
ll~ }L\\'C i111..:;...,c..,..,t·d

I".

... ;rik in.,· use o f techn ical o r ;;cmi-tcch11ic:11 terms in 0« t:ncr~tl
tme i,;""' l~JLlll<l in th e writin g s uf suc h n1en as Emerson and
ics . Li1111luye d to illu~tr:ttc ideas in uthe r dqi:i. rt mcnts of
~h t, t he,;e terms ha,·e the fu rcc uf :.l figu re uf s pecrh, and are

i:-, fo r c\·cr

·r hc

a :l11111ghl, :i.11d

,,.~,. ld i:-;

lurn~ t~) :t

tlin11g l1t :--!.~: 1in .

111i 11d fr1·(· if'ila!t•d,

::u1d tLe -;·.·.'.1·

c~c:tping :-tg:l. in int u tl1 c ~la te l1f fr ee !l11 )u ght.
\Ir

tlic intlu cn~c

>I:in

tJll

tlic 1ui11d,

i1n 11ri....;1)11cd, 111 :11 1

l1 f
t

! lc 1ll: L· 1:j1_·

n a :.ural ubjl' ct-.: , "'·hv!l it·r

1y ,· . 11//i::,,·J,
1

1n an

;·<"-;c:/

1
1 ,_

r: ·1·,

spc:iks to man i111f<'rs,. 11<1frd."
From Oli,·e r \ \'endcll l lul1nes ; ".\ 11 uttered iliornght , my fricn• l, the j\., fcssor, s:iys, i-; uf tl 1c nature o f an ,-_1 o·,-t/,i11 . lt,; 111:\IL' ri:ib h.t ,·c heen Lt k en
in, a11d ii:l\'C a ,·/c·d u/1>J1 111 1· .:_1·:;:1,·111, :i nd ltr't' J/

arnl dom e its ofiicc in
It n1 ay he 1nilk ur

one

\ 'Ct h>n 1

;-,~11, /t"d

011 J,y it : it ha..;

1

i r, ·u/.: /c· ,/

mind l1cfure it is gi\'en 11ut fur lhc l>cn eli l o·f "';"".'tu either n1ind "i ; l1ut , in ei ther

C:1~c ,

it i-..

:' 11nlt.: :~1i1 ._:_:

whi ch th e pruduccr has hrtd the use of rtnd c:111 j•:irt ll"itli. .-\ 111 .111 i1h:! :1c:
ively tries le> get rid of his th unglit in co1wer,.;:\t :c111 Ill" in prin t S•i '""n '" ic i'
mrtt ured; lrnt it i,; li :ird t,1 get at it :is it lie> i111 /,,., /,/,·J, :\ mere f •'lc11/i, t!i.'.1',
the germ of a ger m, in his inlcllc::ct."
JI.

Do n o t u se an unnaturalized foreig n word unles s you arc

sure it exp resses an idea fo r which there is no fitting term in En r; li sh .

I )jt·y 1l 1Hl11n ;

< 'hc l t1ni.1n , ( 'r1Jl11dili.u1. :u1d ~.t 11ri :\ 11 t·l:.n.tc!cr ... .
··111i.t rly . 1:1n11n;1li;u 1 fe.ltur c of :-t j1:\i r tif tu-.. \\-.. gr.,,t ing frt nn pcr :-. i~tc11t
~'.1 , :tt..!,\ in . the lt· hthy 11...; ; 1~ 1 :·u,, wlii!"t C'-' ... c1t1i.\lly ~.n l ri ~\ll i n ih 11..,tcc)\dg:·,
: """·"ly the loi·c.,11<·:11·c ,·crtci n·.t'. of :1 J-"i , >. J.ut p:\il ·llcs uf a ( 'ct:i ce:u1
11iol :1 pc..:nb r stc rnu-:1c w111i .tl :11•iiar:ilus re se 111l1li n~ th:it uf the Orn ithu -

'" ith

i11 , ·dr 11 1: .'i, 1 n 11(

i 11 01:;..a11i, · \H. <":!.."1 111i:rd .

\11·1. 1. oq.· '.-; ('J J·:'.\Tl 1·1 c T1·: !(\! !;\'01.0t;y , - The fo•lln\\'ing, t~,kc:n fr om ( ·:u ·, •· (""111p:tr:tli\'c l'l:y , i,,\,,i-: y," \\"ill ;;ho)\\' ho\\' liulc a dapted is technical
o t" gcn n:1i rc.1 tkrs. (The :rnth<J r" ~ it ali cs :1rc 0111iucd .)
1c s:imc furi 11alitrn co nt ai ns rennin s uf the 1Zhy ncosa ur us, \\"hi ch , \\' liik
·oil y t.;:111ri.11t in ils general strnc urc, l1:Hl the h.. rny rnandiJ,lcs, and
.\,- 1n:111y "t I ( '\" ch:w:i.-tcrs . ,,f the Cheluni:i. Fr1in1 the s:in1e ur rt su me11r

1'SSl· 111 ·c:

v irtue :1.n J p u ngcn1.:y

1

the· r1. ·11 1~i 11~

"0.'":ttnrc j.., the

as lee hccli llH..: ~ water ;i.nd J~:1~ .

r!lls iu~::iil>k, and s hould gi1e much care tu npbining str:tnse

li.1\·c

!I

terms as c:i.n be coun led o n lo l >c underst.ood and e njoyed .

Do not use t ech nical terms where they are not likely t o be

11i 1· t i11r CjHH:\1 , we

UF WUN/I .\'.

often ,·cry s11ggcst ivc . '1"1e u se of them tln1..; is :i. c0rn1> li111ent t oi
the i ncreas ing culture o f people in gcner:ci , ren>g11 i1.ing :i.s it dul' o;
that lea rned and scientific id eas arc becoming more widely knu\1·11 ;
ln1t, of course, to 11 se the m wi t.h true effect, th e au tho r ne eds to i >e
w ell a w:1rc of his liberlie,; and lirnih, in o rder to choose o nly ,;u< Ji

. or strtlinn, little liy lh oisc ' fur m:ilitic,; ' " hi.: it h:\\'e Ilee n 111isnrtmc1l
•!l ") .
ll m:iy here lie re 111:1rkcd llnl, owing tu the increased fa cility
11u nicrttion l1C l\\'cen one p:irt .,f the country and :inulhn, m:111y word~
1\·i1: ci;1t ::1.rc p0.ss ing intL• gvucl usage,

('!/(}/Cl~-

I
l

FXA~ll'l.l ·:s .- "

.\ kee n oli,;cn·.:r 111ight ha1·c

-:1 jt.' !IJh'SSt..' < 1 ra.~"'t' u s,· ,

'i l'l' I\ :dHJ!l l

hi 111

hu t hi s tnanncr \\':l.S fr:tnk and pk· asing .P
\\';\;-; un the :1 11i z· i ~·1 · .'' ''I Tc enjoycl l hi"' oliu11z (1'111 J1:~ ..11ilrtlt' .. ,

' " ll lO ' ,;,; ;,.;

1·

J _,

vrv

..

r

11nc

l

The mos t rcp rc he n sil lie :-tffecU t iun, whi c h needs o n]\· a men t i1 >11 .
is to interlard une's 1niting ll'ith foreign \1·unb and ]>h;·ases j1;~l t()
show off one's farnl!i:-trity \\'it h the b n g uagcs thus Lo 1-ru11·e d (ru m .
Su ch affe c tation is si mply ntl garity. Scarc ely less Yul ga r it is, l<>
parad e \\'cll -\\' Orn ·b ssicai q uot:;tio ns \\'ith the :1ir of schubrli iH:s,; .
as if th ey r ep rese nted c:--.:ten :-, i1-c r t.:>l':-t rc h 011 the J •art o f the \1·r it i::r.

.....

)

TJJJ:· C/J () / CE OF W ORD S.

42
A close stndcnt o f a forei gn bngn:i.gc, h owe ver, who kno ws its
crJ.t ure :mil cm fed its spirit, uitcn iinds iJ<.:J.s more closel y fitte d
w.::1

: :. : ::::~

\'.1 ·.:: .'. :

l.'..:t :,~u::;i:.:

L .1. in

h'.~

1..w-:1 .

The

d· :·:··~rcn mediu m

12 .

S eek to u se b oth S axon and C las s ical de r ivati v es for what they

a re worth , and be not anxio u s to dis c ard eithe r.

Frvn a co ml :i.ri~·::.in o :· 1·,b~J.~ cs contJ.inin:;' iffcrent --:· ~ ·-· ;:>:, c '.· :~'
:·:- _·:-:. ~ ·:-:_r; :~ , 1 --:.:..:...:.'...1 ::•)1.:_:-,·e...; ,_: <:: :- .-=. ... __
.
.

0 f \,_-_ ~:~ · ~ ·.: :-=·. :: · :
...

-:

-· - ---·
. - --- - -----.
-_-_-::-

c ~-·-

-- --. - -. - -... - ...... - - -- - - . - -

- --- . -

.

:.

- - --·- - --. -· - -· --·- .. :--

~

....:..."'.::~--~-

__,._ _ - -- ..:..

r: :--:--: ...._ -_-_...:..: :.:-:

~-

.

.-

l 0'. n: \\·rilcr =--~ ;_l\: y ·r:. l:':l uv·:n l.1r•::-~: . ~c: ~1"J 1 _1 ie t=4c :.:i ~y , 2:-J\ :·.·~ \\ ~ .1 r.;-. 1

that inost uf his i<.k:ts m:ty find so n <.:l'·he re in Ln gli~h :tn a ppruxi rn :1tcly clusc expr essio n . Hc s id es, if his skill can trJ.n sfc r :i. new
and \·alt1:1b e rnc:111ing to his o wn Ye rnar.ubr, he is enrichi ng its

sage.

stores of tlw ug 1t, buth fur hirn,;clt" am for o thers.
\\. unls used in tran.:1, or cit:ttiu ns <>f f1J rei g n literary e x pre ssio ns,
rn:1y s01rn:ti 111c,; lie fitt ingl y use d in ,,-,,rks ol\1·ionsly intcndcll f\l r
rc :Hlcrs tu whom such terms wi ll be f:trnilia r an <l suggest i\·c. Th e
write r th ns p:1 ys a compliment to the culture of his n ::ide r . 1\T r.
I .owcll m:ty be rnentione<..1 as o ne wh o c:trries thi s 11s:i.ge to th e
\·ergc , p erhaps so metimes :i littl e beyond the ve rge, of admiss ibil ity.

tiu n.

, ·., 1·1-:. - J\ spec imen p:ir::igr::iph m:iy lie cile<l rr um Lowe li ·s "Fires ide
Tr:\\'c!s '': "\"uu ::ir e in ]\.omc , 0r course ; the sf!i r ro s:l i<l su, lhe dos-anic·rt
l,uwt:cl it , and the posti io n swo re it; but it is a l~ omc o r mo<lt: rn ho uses,
mwldy s treets, dingy caffi's, c ig:ir -smukcrs , :i1Hl Fren c h soldie rs, the ma nifrst
junior l• f Fl u rc nce . An ti yet full uf an::ichrnni si ns , fur in a little wl1ile yu u
the column o f 1\nt o n inus, f1rnl the } )''.'-'""'' in :in :inc icn t te m pi<: wh os e:
furrowed l' illars shuw t h r o ugh the re cent l'Ja,ter, :ind feel :1' ir y un ~:iw the
st :ituc of i\l inL:rv:i in a J':uis b o nn e t. Y u11 arc drin:n t•> :t hu tcl wh ere all the
1
IJarh:ui:u 1 Lu1gn:l;...:c:-; :u~ spo l'-<' ll in 1)11<.: wild c un ~_:lo1ncr :-ttc l )y tl 1c r"o111 111iss i( 11 aire, lt:tvc yu Hr diunc r \\' bu lly in 1:n·nch , :tnd wa Le lht.: 111·,t 1n urning dn::t 111ing of the Tei1lh Legio n, to set: a r t:g inH:nt o f ( J1,1ssc urs ,/,· ri11 CC: ll ll <'S trolli ng

]':\SS

l1y ."

I V.

~Cll<>l.. \l ~L \.

l·:-;F.

Above the reqniremcn ts of :1ccuracy, :i.gc, :i.nd phi nn ess, there is
:i. use of words wh ich e \· in ces th e \ni te r's culture : his intim::ite and
dcl ic:it e kno wle dge o f hi s resourc es, his disciplined and edu cated
tast e, :incl his imlcpcn le nt chuic\· <Jf wh:tt he i1 tclligen tly r ccog ni1.es
:is bes t. Such m:i.y be called sclwbrly use , and may l>e obse n ·e<l
111

the followin g four rules.

-- .

NvTl·:. --: Th is fact m:ty b e ill uslr:itcd J,y co mparin g a p a~-;agc wh v<c w r, r,1~
:tre p rcdo nun a ntl y S :ixo n with unc th:it freely uses w ur .l s u f Uas, ical 1 kri 1·;i !.

I n the first, fro m l;unyan·s l' ilg1inl's l' rogrt:,s, the a!iJllist pure: S,l\,,n

ch:i r:ict<:r is li ke the n:<tural, n ns tudic:d, co n vc rs::iti u 11.1l bn guagc uf Cilll11lH>n
m t<:r cuursc : in
" Jr;- o w l I1ey ',1ad n o t go ne fa r, but a g rea t mi st :i nt! a d .1rk css fell tll><
1
th .c m all, so that they could scarce fur a g r e::i t while sec the unt: lhe utl 1c r.
\\' h c re fu re they w ere fo r ced for so me time to fe el fu r one :rnuther by wu rJ, ,
fu r they walke <l n o t by s ig h t .

B ut a ny o ne must think th at h er<: w:b l•ul s•.•rr y

go rn g fur the b est o f th em all, hut ho w much wo rse fur t he: \l.L> i1lell ::ind chli dren , wh o bot h of ft:ct and hcarl w ere hut ten de r · \· et so
·\ t ,,.""
·
· "- , tli·.\ ·l tl l r11 l\J.' I I

,,f 11 1· 111 tl11• ·1 Ji- 1tl!t -~dl·
the m up behind , they made a pretty good shift tu w :ig :ilung. T he 11 ;i 1-

the encouragi ng w o r ds o f h im th a t led in th e front and
'

..

j

._I,_

w~s

;j,i,

her e ve r y ,,·e:i risom c t hrough di rt :ind slalih in t:ss . :'\u r w:is the re '"" ,1 ;i
th is gro u nd so much :ts o ne i nn o r vi ctua llin g -h ou,c. therein t" rcfrL·,Ji tlie
feebl e r Suri . ! !ere th
·rnd
,i.,Jiin"
' '>DC.:
. e refo re w:is g rnn ti n o,.. and 11ulfirl"
h
•
:--.
r-. · \ ',·1 1lit'
t11m hk1h ove r :t ln1 s h . :i n ot h cr sli ck s fa st in th e di rt·, a
• 111 '1 ··11,.
l
~
t ·J11·1! 1
ll t'll , ~· 1l lH'
o f tli e rn , l1 >S l th ei r shoes in th e rlli rc. \\' h ilt: u ne c ri "..... s. o tit ' I ."dll (JI)\
1 \./ \ ;
a n ulhcr ' 11,,, wh e re •:n e )..u 11). •a1 1' I ::\ ti11r
· 1l, ·1·11c IHl "i lH..::-; I1a \· c gut ~ u c h Ll ." l
O il Ill e, I think [ c; urnol g<.:t aw:ty fru 111 the m ."
.

:tll•

Ji,

1

I

:,1

2:

In the second, fr o m De (2u in ccy, whil e t he b o dy o f t11 c passage mn st , tiil
be Sax
fu r tl1cs:1...:.t1>
I
r
. . o n , wo nls o f T.:it 111 :ind G reek o ri g in ..::ire free ly c·l1 <JSCn
p rec 1sw 11 , and t hese gi \·c to the style , wh e the r desin-ned'
1)· o r nu.t , ::i ccrt.un
·
,,
form :il :ind lc:i rn ed air: " E~· e 1:y proc ess in :'\at u rc unfulds itsel f th ro ugh a su cce ss iu n o f phcn \\mcna.
Nuw, 1f 1l b e .g r:intcd o f th e :irti st gene r:ill1•
·
.. ~ , th:<t
.. o f ..al'1 t 'n ·1s 1no v1ng
scri·c-; he
ca n :i rrcst_:is it.w e re b ut so mu c h :is fills o ne instant of ti me, :-tnd with r c.~: 11«1
to the p a rnl c r 111 p:irticul::t r, th at e ve n this in suhtcd n~nrncnl lit: c:< n cxhi liit
<Hily un de r one sing le a s pe ct ur ph:is is , - it then l1ccfllllCS e,·ident th:\l in the
selcct iu n u f t his singlc in st::i n t ::in J uf thi s si 11 glc :is pcct, t uu mu cli ca re ' call nu t

Tl/lo'

Cl! U!<.; !~

UF W()J,·f)s.

TJ!E CJJO! CL . OF If'O!i'!JS_

'°

g1~'anli< scale . . . . \\'c cann o t su m up the merits of the sl11/t'llclu u J 111 ,1
cun~ists or almut t 11 tJ

b e t:. ke n th:.t each ,h,tll lie in the hi;;hc<t p•i,;-;ilik dc:;.:rcc 111cg11 :. nl in its m c:< n·

on a

ing; th;tl is, slul l yield the utmo'l ran ge tu the :<Cll\'itics o f tl1e im:.gin:.tivn.''

of ]Kt per whi c h lies l1cfore u s liettcr than liy s:.ying th:.t it

thousand clvs<.:ly pri n ted <JU:<rtu 1•a;.;es , that it o cc upies 1irtce11 hundred inc hes

\\'hat these two classes of \\·o rds arc g1 •t >t l fur, rc spec tin:ly, is

c u b ic mc:.s11rc, and th a t it 11·eig li s si,ty p vunt!s :11·v ird upt!is."

lunger and m o re so norou~, they arc often better adapted to make
volume of ~ound corrc!->poncl to \'(1lu111c o( sense; :rnd tl\\I S they
frequently sn\·c \\'ell the higher rc <111 ircments of poetry ancl or:ltory.
:\ •,·11·: . - Tint cbs,ical deri\':tti\'t::;

:lrc.;

u,;cd in tlie interc , h .,r >ll 1> re k:tr11ct! ,

p:tnic.:ul:tr, prt.: <:i,;e tJt,,ught is cvido.:11\ rr.11n the :.lw1·<'. q twt:t tio n frll11t I le t~uin­
ccv : -

cun~id cr .

'' i-n ... \tl:\tcd ~· '

u

f, ir inst:in cc, the

wor d~

11

:-;uccc~s i o n, '' "plicn n111cn:l.,n '' arrco... t, "

;1sp~ct,' ' "ph~ sir..., ,' ' '' acti\'itic~ , ''

"i 111:1gi11:1liun ."'

In tht.: fullo\\'-

S)lirt(

1"

J·:-.pcvi :dl v do n<>t int!1ilc:c :<n1· f.tnta st ic prdcrcm·"

~.Lx o n. th· two grc..:at win!; <.; P ll wh iL·ii 011 r 1J1 ;1g ni ficeol

a n sp:tr l' rll.: itl u:r.

T.:ttin or .\n glo-

Fn gli-..li soar s and s in .~-..; we
and a dcli -

'1'l1e cu 1n l1inatiu11 g i\'L"" 11'l ;11 1 . tftlt 1cn 1 t' pf sy n11n~· 111t ·~

c ;1<'y uf t1i-.cr i111inati o n '"<: has nu unmi_,cd idiom c a n

tie E -.5,1y<' p. 8 1.

r,,,- ..:ithn

'It"" ." -

1 liggin,;o n," J\t la n·

or the
Sl'll,:e
than
Would "«re
a l Sc
ale.,
" J1 tl"e
111"'" "
.
.
.
M
..
.
..
'
2:"J
<. l.,J:" .

J: l) r Cllj1JIJU-.,
· . -

ex:<mpJe s Ill iiJu,t rali on or the tw o g rea t Clements u f our hll"U''
f'" SC c• ] '·11'1
...
,.., . ib ... , .
·~
1,
"Com posit io n Cr:.rnmar," pp . 205-229 .

If thc.re.qui rcments of precision ::i.nd fineness ::i.re not cspcc:i::dly
present, it is better to keep ::is near ::i.s pos~il1lc to th e S:t.\ oll IJ:tsis
Ot the J:i.ngu::i.ge, ]JCCll!Se th:tt is the speech Ot co mmon j> l'Ojllc,

~ml se ems less studi1.·<l.

Besides, if o ne's style is p rcd omin~tntly
Saxon, the more lc:i.rnccl deriva ti ves occasion:i.lly used for J. particubr purpose kn·e a greater effect, being more noticeable .
13. Beware of the false ga rn is h of "fine writin g ."

By "fine \ITiting" is meant the use of pretenti o us terms fu r
trivi ::i.J ideas, o r the attcm1>t L)· hi <:>" h-soundin
" J::i. 11 _,,, 11 ._,~
·1 ,, .. t U \1re:-Sl!
1
.
<:>
J
so meth ing th :tl need,; u11ly commonpbce express ion. Cndn ihc
same hcacl 111:ty l>c re ·konecl al~o th e use uf snap~ of trite q1 1ut.1 t1on, \\' ell -11·om poeti c lucutions, and shallow att<.:m ph :Lt i.t<Ttiuiisncss . i\11 such devi ces are s imply a m e lancholy rc1·el:ttion uf the
writer's lack of taste; while also they s in ::i.gainst the accuracy :rnd
dignity of the language .
I1.1. USTl,l\TJ1>:-;. -The t\:ntlency in impcrkctly or fal.'icly e tluc:it<.:•l j't.:uj'k lu

s ay cu1111u•lll tl1i n gs in tine langu:1ge rn:.y be c.;xc.;1llpli1ied l1y \li e r.,ilu 11 ing,
Uicken s : -

r,.., 111

" ' .\\' il lct, ' said Sulumvn L>:ti,y, whu h:.tl cxliilJilet! so1 11 e in 'ii:tticnec· at tlit.:
or tiV Ul\\\·orthy :\ Su bjec t O rl the ir lllO l' C.: illtcresling tJ1Cl!i •', ' 11 hen
Mr. Cht.:stt.: r cam e tl1i, 111urnin g, did he t>rdcr t h<.: large r u 11 m? '
.

lll(rtl S ltill

' J l c si,1;11iji .. d , sir,' s aid

ing , rr oll\ \!a ca ul:ty , Ct>ns i.Jer Jw w 11\UC!t .Ji,tinc t it>I\ is gi1·cn tt> the ide a i>)' the.;
S1>1\llr1Jt1,; I .:<I in 11·urtls : .. The \l'livk l11!0k, a11d c.:1-ery t.:t1 mpu11cnt p:<rt ur it, i-;

Jn" ui .. a nti c

s eal~" :<nd " sllljiendous m:<ss , " th e.; vu lume uf t he w1 >rcl better "'pr e~~ th..:

indi c ated L>y their rebti\·e places in tl1c hi,; 1iry ut' the langtugc
Cbssical dcri\·ativcs arc just as indi sp ensa!Jlc in their way as Sa:rnn. 1
Corning as they did Liter into the bngu:1ge, ,,·h en its framew ork
\\' .ts already construc ted, these wo rds indicate that a want exi st ·d
whicl1 t he Saxon f'Oukl not s11p1 ily, a w~rnt c rea ted hy adv:mcing
anti refining thought . lZou ghi y s peaking. then, the thc:> of the two
kind:> or dcriYJ.ti\·es may lw gi\·en :tS fu]lo 1\'S : I. Saxun dcri\·::i.tin'.s constitute the fournbtion of the language .
Being the earliest \YOrds, they stand for the pri111iti 1·c ideas: they
arc the \'; unls of the family and the home and the everyday relati ons of life. They arc thcrcfure t 1c natmal terms fur common
intercourse , for simple and din:ct emo ti ons, for strong a nd lic:uty
sentime nts . Saxo n is especially the b11g11:tgc of strength; ancl ih
sho rt \\'ords, and sturd y sounds juin 1rer " ·ith its homely meanings
to gi1·e it im press and cogency.
~ . I lcri1·::i.ti1·cs frolll the ] ,atin and Greek exp ress the sub tler di stin ctio ns in the th ought ; they cn:1lilc th e 1nitcr to come m o re
closely to the exact oprcs"ion of his iclc:i. They co ns titute the
more lc:Hl1c(l clement of the hn guagc . l~ cing al so in ge nera l

15

J11lrn,

' th:<t he 11·:.nkd a b rge <t/' <ll·tmoil.

\' <.:,.

Ce rt:.in ly .'"
In th e fvllu win g Dickens m akes v ne u f l1is cli ·tr " , .t,·r" .-,y· ., ,. u 111111 1>1111 Iace
tlun g in :< Y<.:ry prdcnlious way: .

.

.

.

•

• i ....

.....

.,

.... . l

.....

."' Unde r the i1npress ivn ,' said i\lr. :\li c.1wl1e r , 'th :<t )"<n ir j ><.: r ei~ rin at iun s in
t h1: rn etnlpvlts k11·e nut :<s yet l1t:L' l1 e'te 11 s i1· c , :t11cl tliat )'•lll rnight fi:ti·c S1> :J1 e
t1in1culty i11 pcnctr:.ti11g- the arc:rn:. ur the .\lud..:r11 J; abv lu11 iii the directi1111 uf

Ti/ ~

'f ill~

C!J O! <"E OF ll'ONf)S.

CJJOICL OF W O/i' / ! S.

·.· l', o::ill -- m
· ·, l1or,
t' s.
·:i.i <\ \lr
11 cc ,
. - ·\ lic:-1 wl,cr ' i11 :i.nothc r hur,t
. uf contidc
.
th e: l1ty
·
If
l
·I
I\
\
l
l"'
t
1 c:ill this cvcn 111 g'th::it vou 1rn ght lu'c yo ursc s 1a
IC 1::1p ,
' ·
, ::111.I
in,ta l,ytrn in the kno wledge uf th e 11c:i rc>'t w:iy.' "

idioms express id e as ::is n o thi ng else co uld du; a n d certainly th e y

"Fine \\' riling" is to be d istinguished fr o m t he intcntio1nl 11 sc

studied :rnd cherisher!, not indi sc ritninately ln1t w isely, as i'rL·., cn· ..

of ex:iggcratcd term,; fo r humorous effect.

Unc m eans of e xpress -

ing humor is by the use o f ,,·on ls a littk m o r e p r ct e nt101h than th e
·
'
J·
Uf t1 11. · k ind of \\Titinu it m a y lie s:rn l th:tt
OC C:b on 0Clll:l l1l " ·
"
b
,
only :i ctlltu re1 1 tas te can maste r it, as a bo o nly a cul tured ta s te_
( ··' tn J. Ud"e
::--

of ih lirnih :in d justil-1c:1ti1rn; hen ce tt is p rec1notls fu1

:111 u npractin.: d h:rnd.

l ·~X.-\\ll 'U: . -The ful\u\\·ing is fr om ] fawth ornc, who cxcclkd in this fe licit y
uf

l ~ ngu:,gc :

-

.

.

1

.. T he c hil.J, sLuin g with rou11 1l eyes :1L this inst:rnc:c of l1ber:i.hty, wh uily un•rn :e.I c ntc: d in lii s /iu;:;< , _,/cri,· 11 ,-,. if <"Olt-sfi ,,f s, took the rna 11 of . g111 gc r\,rc. d, a 111 1 ii ui tted the prem i,-es . ::'\•J sooner h::id he reached th e ~1tk w ::1lk
(!iii!~ r,11111 ;;,,tf th:1t he was: ) th a 11 Jim Crow's head \1·:is 111 his mouth . .\ s
he li:i <l nut been careful to shul the: duu r, I ft.:] " -iliah was at the p:i. 111' uf clvs·
in" it after h im, with a pet tish ejac11h ti <> 11 vr t"·o ab out the truuliksvrnc 11 css ., f
y•~ing p et>pk , :rncl p:i. rticuhrly of si.i:i.11, lH•ys . She had j u.' t pbcc1'. ':11wt hc: 1:
o", \I h e n ,1g:i 1n
the
11 ,·,/ J1111 ( r v :« :it the w1nd
1·rprc .1 t' JJ t al,
t ·•.:' <'f ti.·i. l . 1-' · 11 ,.~-u
,
_
.
.
_
sl1<n-h1.;ll tin klcd ebmorOlbly, aml aga in th e <luu r 1Je 111g thrust op1.; 11, with l h
1
· t.1c Jt:r,
· I· :111 <] J·ar
tl1e s·rni
wli u,. prc cl 1aract<.:ris
, , dis. c\o-;ed
.
• • e stur,ly lill k urcl11n
.
·
] \
\ . l · · · ·· t
Th·l i.,- u 111 f.s a11d
d 1s(o/,•
ra t 1011. <'/
c.:iscly t w u n unutcs
~lgo , 1;11 n1 :ll c 11 :-; cx1.
.
. .
the 0 11111 /bi:! }·1I st, ,15 yd h ardly co1t s1111111111 t,·.I, were cxc ced111 gly v1> 1lik "''vu\
his

l llUU l h ."

· 1

1

"

g11af; C·

fn ce rt ain stag es of cuiture the young \\Titer is :i.p t to ~cg:i. nl
e ,· crvth in g t h:i.t presents :rny ru g ge dn ess of dict io n, o r th a t 1s n ot

1 t1 y

l r: ui~p::nc~

con for med to g r:i.mnnti c:i.l ru ks , :i.s :i. _1 Jkrnish ;

~rncl

he is ten1pted tv smoo th everythin g do,,·n mtu p rup nct y aJl(l P 11111 . l'lll in so d o in n· he rnay easily thrv11· :l\1·ay so me o f the
11<.S:i .
}
~
Tl
~ tron crcst :rnd most ch :ir:i.c teristic feat ures o f t he langu a ge .
ic

idion~')

of

L11gli ~h ,

t hvsc t urns

ur

e x pression w hi c h h:1\·c

Jdiorns arc th crL·i!1rc \() lie

ing the s trength :rn<l ch:irae ll:r of th e 111 othc r-t o11 .:;1 1e .

" i-:,·c 1·y

good w r iter," s:i. ys .l .anclor, " h:i s much id iom ; it is th e life :rnd
spi rit o f bn guage .: :i.nd 11ont.: such c\·cr entc rt:tin ccl

:1

fear or :ip-

prehen s io n that s tre ngth and Sll1Jli1ni ty were t u be luwe rc d :llld
w eakened by it "
EXAJ\II'l.l·: s nF l1H0\1 . -Sumc uf Lh c comm onest thi ngs in (1\l r bng u.1:.:c
arc idio 1n:i ti c, ancl seem ho mely and n tlle sometim es tu a L1,tc onl y 1•:ir1 :;·
fo nn ccl. T h ·r e i; :ipt tu Le a stage, f"r insta nce, ll' lic n the k:: ·i1·1i-.::; i, ;,,
cha nge" gt:l usc1l ''tu " be co me :icc:usto111cd,' ' i>eca use the Litte r 1•.11"' 1·' 1..- ·:,·r .
" 1\ l l1:l ll i n~ lin ct i\·ely tri es to~·«·/ rid u f li i:-; thuu gl1 t in cu1 n cr ..... t 1i1111 ~i r 1·rin : "' '
soon as it is m:it ured " ; here " g et rid uf " i-; 111u ch better th.111 " ;_:i,·e i 'Iii >ii , i! \.
to.'' S11 also such an e xpressi on a,; "l ung-tric<l fr iend if mi11 .- .· · ti,.•u.:.;lt :1
cloulilc po~s cssi,·c , :i.nd strictly spc::il; ing ::i solec ism, is idiumatic a nd .1.J 111 i"il··c: .
" I\ g re at deal " is as gv1> il as ",·ery mu ch.' '
l\11 id iun1at ic exp rc,-s ion will n•>t c.bily \,ea r to lie di' i.lcd; it 11rno., t 11 1.. 1('
together if it move a t al l ; e.g. "The ch ild re n pui nt to lii11 1 as the .. i·l 11 1i,1·r.
Mtt u f whose w:iy it is licsl to l e</, ~i ncc the re is 11 " tvll i11g Ii""" he 111 ;1 :: ·- li·o1·:
hi s spite if he is ::111 gcrcd .'' 11 crc " k ee p" al \l lll: is different in 1tic::i11i11;: fr•, 111
"keep" wi th " o ut"; so the id io m sho uld lie kept toget her.

15. U se no expres sion thou g htle ssly, o r mere ly beca u se
you r o wn

indepe ndent

it is

rec ogni ti on uf it s

i1t -

ness .

,v ·1 cc ly th e s tro n " and ho m ely idio ms of th e lan~

expressions, 1..Jut growths of t h e soi l.

current, but from

\\':1s c1·cr stwh a homely ,ul•j<'d s•> C\•1111'· 1· 1c 1Y ,j •.• ,L·ril•cd licforc?
14 . Ch er 1s

:ire n e:u t o th e everyday lx1s is of the language, not manuCtct ll iTd

grv \Yll

,y ith the pe ople and a rc u nlran:;b talilc, arc tv l.Je Yalued.

lljl

M:i.ny

Thi s ts a g cner:i.1 rnnsidcr:ll io n, a plea f1l r ~clf- n·li : 11wc :1 11.\ i1 1• k penclencc, 11·hich is mea n t t o c:o ,·c r a ll th e pre c eding nik,; _

\ l. 111 y

curre nt express ions there :i.rc whi c h, w hile th ey rn :i.y in <kc d l •L'
accurate enou gh and in good us e, :i. re employed b rgc ly :is rn<':· c
counters, s u l;s t itutes fo r th ought) just l;ccaus e t hey :ire 11 c:1r :1t
hand, and obv i:i.te the need c1f loo kin:; up some c:qm.: s ~ io n 11 H•rc
fittin g .

S u ch th o u g htless use in th e <:be of sbn:; ln s :1lrL·ady liccn

spoken o f ; here it is to be n oted further th at c \·en a g <1ud cx J>rcs sion m ay lo se its po wer ];y 1..Jeco min g worn; :rn d if it r c i'rc s1: n:,
no th ough t on t he writer's part. it w ill 11<>t l1L· st r<> n:,; t •J :11, :1k 1· 11

·l 'J

/ '() /-.U C /) / (F/O.\.

Som e d isc ussion of the cli ct io n of poe try is necessrt.ry, ho11-c,cr,
both in itself co nsid ere d , an d o n account o f its re lat ion to the
d ict io n of prose. The charac te ristics o f the latter m:i.y he seen
m o re clea rly in th e light o f so me thing th ::i.t furn ishes a co nt r:i.st, o r
al least a ma rkcll d istinctio n. Fur ther, and \\' hat is of m o re im po rtance, so m e types of p rose style app roach, in \·:uy ing d egrees, tu
p oetry; th ey spo nt:i.neo usly t:lke o n p oe ti c form s, 11\llre or Jc,;s
m arked , :lcco rd in g to th e m ood in wh ich th ey :lre \nit te n. Tt i-;
essen ti al therefore to know the ve rlial fo rms di stinct i,·c (Jf 11octi1;
disco urse .
\ Vhen \\'c spe:1k o f p oet ic d ic ti on, howev e r, it is not to lie understood th:i. t poet ry m ust take o n the cln r::i.c ter isti cs h e re n:i.rncd .
in o rder to be poe try . l\rany trn e po em s a rc writ te n \\' ith l1ut fc,1·
traces of th ese pc c ul i:i.r ities; wi tness, fo r ex::i.rnplc, T e nnyson',.;
idy1. "D ora," :i.. p:i. r:1 g ra ph o f whi ch m ay h e re lie qu oted , to shu w
how simple and plai n poe ti c lan g uage m ;:i.y be.

. '-.
. . of tri tc c:-\ pn::s:-i ions
.
l
Such un lh1nr;.rng nsc
.
.
thou~hl in th e rc::ic er.
f · l !l1"11t h::is its c~rnl tci rn s
\ ,
. )-'y er , <lcp::irtmcn l o 'H o'
. ., .
is c::ii\ccl ({/II ! .
.
y
.. . l
tions rn::iy becom e ,l \e n. . . • · rT '
Th ese we1l -\\ orD ocu
,
f . \ .. r ·::i.son thc v ofte n need to l >e
:1nd pnr::iseolo;:,) .
.
\ . ·n ter . o1 t 1 h e ,
J
t::i.\Jk tyr::i.nn y to l 1c " , \ ' f , ·'1er C\ 'C l\ if not a \Je tt e r exprcs. . h cco JV a rcs1 '
.
I
\1rok e n ll jl :ll1 (l ie p '
' .
. . -\ \' nnrks of 1n cl e pen< c nt
·
. . .1 ' 1 kt h is wo1l1" "1 0 \
'
·
.
sion . Th e write:. " \ O l\ ll .
1 \ .. wl \Je c n fused ane w in th e
, . t ·· no th:n " t 1::i. l 1,1s J
thin k.i n•' :ll1ll ll)1.__r,1 c
"'
1· .•· 1 unv the n l >c old, o r
""' .
. I
l\i · chose n llf t l O I
·1
fire o i his o wn inrnc . . .
"
• ·tl \... st it is i1h own .
ne w ; 1J\\ ' • ~ · 1·

..
ll the ,, u \pit " the s:trr<:<l
lw:t ·~ ncces~:u ' tLl c:t
t
•
.
nc1t :t ·) · l
. t ·\ · ~" ,irn\>k :t th i n g :tsgo, a\ll' ay ~
\·n _)\\°<..:.. )\.)\\ I ) • \ ) .
.
, l·,, . no r ncc<l :t n1:tn ,..-1H' ' i .
.
. l\ . \ :. ,. cou 11t c r k 1t p rese nt.

[;,1xs-r1~.\Tlt ' '.\ . - ll

i;

1

<\ (

~ '

.
l1:t' c
1\ll'11l

'

-

"

"hen c1npl o yc• l n ow .
1 l
l'(\s \\' c\1 i>11 ce :tsl;c1 l r.
• ·

nnl

)rt r :'lil w :-t'-' once c~ cc ,

\

.

"· ve n 1l h;' \\':t y .
· I"
·
) ·c f 1 c,Jincss v f deli g ht
o
'
. .
.
il :t\\'akc ns n o n11 t
.
. tl e e x·1 r c:-.~1o n " as ,
.
n: goo<.\ 3S .1
, 1
t

.

1 111'.lgi n ~t i u n in

.

f . , ·t : . 1111crns iu<.t 11 ul 1l i,hc d, " 1s th e r e
Ji>hnson
" cc1 a.il
.
1 .. .
.
. ·1
r ·1·,\ ic.\ the ll uc l< >r , " t
h

1...,·

t1n·n1., .

? ,,

\~ .

1y

" \\

.

L'."

e
10 n1 o rc

,-,1 1,

. '.

1111~1~i11~\ i un

.

l l\

.
-'
. i:t"rn:llton , 11ul il is l
.
. .
.
in them , .. hat ,c as 111 ,.,
l . d iction t oo i,; n nl hh "" n.
· 11
\ · the echu . :\ n,\ 11s
1 .,
"Hllltl
l,; ' :111t Ill
l 17 ,.,,. 1·-f: ·<f111w/,·d !ilt't1«-' ·
.
f
'
· ·n .,
~J11
/ I() , \ '

('

,.

.

H' l C

/11111 ,

1h .\n

\ \' .

\; :1,·e

c

•

seen . . ·ln'lc-rtibc.·11 1111 t(IH " ' .
.
l.
c •· he trite 1ucutHHl
,.._
, .
·.
ntion:ll 1,r c:\1.;.1ng-up >1 l
.
.
\ 11n g ~go .
The f11lh> \\' ing seems to lie .l n 1.1,e . \ ·fl. ·t i' c:'l <.ih· fc:lt : ·• ;\ o n n c ,nil
..
\ 'he g• \\" <; C l
.
•
. J.
" ll'ith oul k t o r li indr:t n cc . a n 1 ' . \ 1'. l 1 ·in• ' tcn <b to "'h at is h o ly <u 1/ 1·
.
. '1 , wh u1c n:-i t ur c ,,f t l1c. iu it:-. )l ~
' . •,
.
. . : '\'ic l)' t u d<>tili c il.
11 11 cst1n n th.ll ' '" .
. ' f · - \ l \ \'U \l 1d 1IC il l
I ! ·t •'r u..._...,•..
c'> / ,· ' " ' st1 '•''
j

()/ {,

l

)

•'

\
1

THE CHf\.n A CTERIST

res

OF PO ETIC DICTIO N .

. . I" 11 . o ne of the rn:i.i n di rect io ns
.-\1.Tit1 iL:<; ir poetry repre se nts i1 c.t )
l t ·ts ··l f to m en the
. 1 cs i n its endc::i.' o r to :11 :1 t> i . L
.
' . i.
tkit li tc ralurc 1.1.... •
_ \ . ·' tl . the ~cope o f thh \1oor.. .
, ..
- . f 'b o nly p.u t '> l \ 1 11 11
d1;.cuss1o n o l il J,
. . ·l . . ··1l f ··lturcs of p0etry, ,l ie
. . , tl , rn ore \\\Cl urn< . '-·
l
-:\ lctrc ::irnl i h) rnc , \e
. . . 1 . in di rec tly rcb.tet to
.
.. · 1.,. . 1 \JeC:l\\Se thn· ,\H OJ\)
.
· .
here kfL uncnnsi c '- '' l"
.
..
·1 . ·l i . the cc nt r::i. 1 m otive
o f 1ir-tctit::ll :1d:11> t:tt1on '' \ J( l "
that pro11
J cm
'

\

",\ nd J >0r::i. to1ik Lhc c hi ld , ::i.n d \\' Cnl h e r \\'::t)'
:\ c ross the " ·heat , ::tn (l sat u po n :t m o un d
T hat \\' a s unsv \\'ll , whe re ma n y popp ies g r e w.
]: a r ufT the far me r ca m e int o t he fi e ld
1\ nd sp i<.:1l he r n o t; fo r n o n e o f all h is m e n
U a re t ell him D o ra w::i. itc cl wi t h t he ch ild;
;\ nd D o ra w o uld have r ise n :tnd go n e lo hi m,
1\11t h e r h c:'l r l fail't l l ie r ; an1l tl 1c rc:t pcrs r c::i. p 't l,
J\ n d th e :-<1 1n fc: ll, a nd :d i tl1 c h nd \\' :'IS d :tr k .''

Herc th e s i111 plc t:tlc is po e ti c in itse lf, a nd re• ji tircs IH l '·i ''-" 1. 1i
sple ndo r of \\'o rd or irn::igc ry . \\'h :i.t we a rc to cons i\kr in the
present sec tion , ho we \·cr, is, ho\\' , on oc c::i.sion, p oet ic di r: cion is
at !t'berty lo dfro ge f rom Ilic ((J1i1111 1111 usage of prr>.\t' . I t is, :1i-l n
all , only in ocus iu n::i.l \1·ords :md c()t nhin:i.t io ns that the t11·u sq>:ir:i.te; th e g rea t 1Jtd k of us:i.gc rcm ::i. in s com mo n to bo th .
T he m oti ve o f poe tic; d ict io n is redu c il 1lc to :i.. si ngle ]irinc1p1c .
As poe try is the b ng u::i. gc of em o tion :i.n d irn::i.gin:1tio n, ih \·crli::i
peculi a r ities p ort r:i.y the spo nt:i. neo11s c nde:i.vo r to make utt cr:i.ncc
more e ffect ive, ei th e r in i rn pressive ncss o r in p i ct urc ,.;q tic nL· ss. Tn

'......

1

·01-.

nc

POE TIC DIC TJON.

l ·i rhtcnccl b.ngu;-igc, -

. ·cl l)ocllc dictio n is ic .g
'
l . ·nsc ol• 'uc;-iu t.) th ::tt
. rci o" n

;i, \\OJ

111

of the fc rv u r ::tnt :-.c .

. f
l l ,. " ·ho rn the ,\cq" ,.
" The: w11r ,\ " f the uc '·
l . "th
•.
. Ll ·~t r obe~ it in h ngu:1gc Kne.1
i he l\\\\~IC 1 '
I'

the result in words
.
l

the 1)oet's mine .

.
l
·\ . wu 1l.l :ne s111 re1,
' ie
. . ·1 l"

ct n1l bcn> nu the " o1 .
.
.
.

\.

·ti.O i1

. . o f iioc ti c ' ic
'
• .. n in ch::tra ctcnsllcs
The iu\\011·in g arc L11c n. ,.
·t. ·'s n:itural d in .: rgcnc c
, . .
. l, . corre -.;ponu111g to poc J) .
.
.. .. . . .. ' \'\ t •\-. :c onlc r is ' 1 ,\'.'> :l'.iC.cr
)1 ".,11»Cll in .in OJ1 cl .
life
\ 1a l " "
. '
frorn the bng11::tgc of co n:rnon
·, '. )"cto n1 "?-l ic hac1," a poem
1s l ·
l . o r \ \ o rds1Yort
t ::t in e1l h y th e st\1()
. .
1 , ., rn v1lcratc rcmon: tJ 0 111
1

.

l . 1 l ·ct

"

•

'

I
~
I

i

- •

.
st::tnd in [:'., in styk arn su '. c. '. f· · m this ,,·o rk th ::tt the first t\\O
r, . . chicf1v ]iv citation:-. Ill
.
-1, r0sc .
• • i:i · . . ...
· l1"rc
·
.. ,,
" f" cxcm1 Jlificd .
r•i. \ .en
~
.
» ~ \\ '\ \"lCtL'fhlil.'.i ~
o
11 ui 11 c · ·

:< t on ) ,,

L

.
'
E , r ess1on f
Poetic 'Brevity o
xp ..
. 1·

.

·1·1 , first and easie s
H.:

l

.

.. . 1 >C J1'l11JC\

where the subjccl-rcl:ttivc is om itted ; "\\'hence n eed to hravt:ly di shclic:vc repo rt
Through increased fai th in Athing /\ reports belit:,"

ni >c·rt)'
·

,lS fl. j>l c . c

\·

::t.<hcr\i:; 1 ::trnl rebt1YC S 111«) '
• ··11 1 , ,. .1\ k< l btcr.
:)uc h wons,
'
1·
· ·\-; thC\' \\l
JC' '
·
l 'f
of wo rd s ; syrn\10.ic '' OJ\. :
. .
·c· ·sc;·ni11' uncrnph;-itic, ;-in( i
.
. ·1tc office, :11 e nc L. . .. ,
frorn their s u\ 1onlin.
l t) ·li··w the se nse .
f \\ · · · tcn1 ' ' · ,.,
~.·crl with scnqrnluth \1 nc"'.'>

\\

c

.,

c

.

l\ H: l i,· 1 >il·ti nn . !ll:'l.n:· Y:t 1u:1

.
f this '"'t1011
0 11
1 l 'l t\ ll' pn·p.n: tt ion o
. .
1. i · ·h 1 p ...,-.. nn~ 11-.r
arc 1.,;,,.11 fro 1n .\1iho\ \ a n1.l Scciey's .. ""~ •~ ..

\ 1 . ,,wi::e,<ions
i c .
. :·

. \ I· t " '\'k .
l ·.11~ 1, . ., l
.

ExA~!PLE S . I . 1\ hhrcviati on, or choice of shorter form: " The hills which
he so oft had clim bed;" "\\'he n ;\lichael, telling o'a hi s years; " "!:1 <
yet th e boy had put on boy's att ire;" "Th ough na11.i.;ld was ldt untitJnc:.,
.• 'T W cl'c' IJct lc r lo lie u umb than to talk thus."
2. Owissiun. a. Of the ar ticle: "\\'h ·n/\day w~1 s go r>e;" "S<Jmc in j ury
clone lo /\s ick. lc, 1\!la il, or/\scythe;" " :0:ot fea ring toil nor/\length of weary
clays." b. Of conj uncti,·c part icles : "But Asoon as Luke co ul d stand ." c. ( >r
rel at ive: "Even if I could speak of thin gs/\ th o u canst not k now (If;"
" Exceeding was the love .r\ he bare to him."
Th e omis,ion o f the rel a ti\'c is less fr e'} uent in \\'ordsworth tha n in some
others; no r d oes he make :my omitted or condensed co nstruction vi olent.
Compare with him so me passages fr om Browning: -

"Yo u have th e s unrise now. ,\ jo ins truth to truth ,
Shoots liic and substctnce into death and vuid,"

·t r)' to hci " hten bn g ua ge is
c'loJt o poc
"
11'en
in
the
-,pont.rncou_:i
'
. . . . t1 i. \Jcc1.usc p oe try
\.
l ::tl.il irc1·i ::t.t iun ' i s
.
.
,
the \ i\1c 1t y of c o ndcns:lll On a1:l
p , .. ::t d is ti net ion rn11st 1lC
, t
]cn uth1ncss .
-, c i c '
·
.
1 .
is n.1tu r~111y :wcrsc o
o
.
. . 1 )t s yno nymous ,,·ith 1cne,t l '
. .. ·n cxp rcs:-.ion is J' .,
.
l .. n:uk . 1 .cn~t \1iness I
.
. . .
- or 1on" words in t ic111
J
1 1'' cunstl uctions
o
l . ..
nor docs poetry slrnn OJ. t>
• ' ·11"//t <«i//11>1t! f orce; ::t.nl it is
cs·
is 1nc1Jll u .~
.
·
1
·
. ·l . •. ]~ )' 1cnbt 1111
. :, .
. ·1 . . f conne Cl10 l1 :1i •<''
sc 'c:-..
.
. . . nll wonb partH LS o
oftenest app:ncnt in tl:osc sn. 1 , tl;o\l"ht 1lllt the jo ints uf the
.
' . ·l const itut e not tic
o
. , ·t ··kin"
r cbtion, w ni11
.
.
. . r- ·t ··th t hese bccausc , sii
"
'
·
'\)
·rt
•c-..1i1:-.\\i
'
l.
h
1'oct ry i.:1 KCS ll L • . .
.
. o r snlJon in:tles
t 11oub • ·
. . . " ,oint-.; . it ck:ns ;t \\ :l. )
·
.
.
. . ' t docs f1>r the :-.\1 0 11:;, J
J t1 . c:bC o f irnpoi t:i. nt
.1:-. i
. • . . t
thc in.
n
H.
·
. 1vs Jl1'<1g11.s:-. <>
.
, .. tr)' con1\·h:1\1·1·1·r i111 l'Ll• .
c\
.. 11•· 1l1J<k lll llH: t1· 11 ing, \h 1~
'
. . · i· \ 1t')' 11 1.t \
~
· \ · · \.;l) \ll1 C11 C\ l.
'
\\' \l\l " · ,\.
'
.
. it its \lllf \H>SC .
.
. .
len ses t>r co111 pnun d s_ to :-.u
·1 . 1nrticks .
ConJtlllC li o ns,
L
.
. .
· 11 r '\Tiles i 1r unH s
•
.
.. . ·1· . .
l\1ctll· d 1<l10l1 ,t )' c
l .. . . .._ ·ntativcs of t11i-, i ,tss
J.

SI

n11·uo.\·.

wh ere the arti cle anrl the ohjcct-relati1·e are o mitted ; "For how co ulc\ sa ints and ma rtyrs fail/\ scc: truth

Streak tile ni ght's l1lac kn ess? "
where the sig n of the infinitive is o mitted.
is so fr equent as to he a ma nn erism.

Browning's omission of the rclat i,·e

2 . Poetry uses more fre quently than docs prose the possess ive
for brevity's s;ike; as, "1>y the strcam!ct' s edge," "w ith m orrmu's
dawn," " his Heart and his I-Jcart's joy." In p rose the possessive
is mostly c:onfined to personal nouns :ind some few idioms like th e
one in the foregoing sentence ("for bre1 1ily's sake") ; beyond
these it is :ljlt to h ec:ome a n affectation .
3. Poetry exercises greater libe rty than prose in nuking co m pounds for an occasion .
ExAMl'l..ES I N " J\T1 c 1LAEL." "Surviving comrade of u1U'ounlcd hou rs."
"Did . .. 07.'crl•row brge 5pace Le nea th." "ilrings hope with it, and f or <i•arJ!ookin,i; th oughts." "Turned to their cleanly supper-board." "\\'ith Lu ke
that evening t!titlzer711ard he walked."

The te ndency to join two wonls into one by compounding is
close to the ftirth c r tendency to condense im port:rnt wo rds o r
choose short forms for them; this is seen especially in the frc -

F O l~'TIC

J' OL Ti c.' / ;Jc"'TJO,V.

q u en c y, so g reat as a1 m ost to beco me the rn\c , m tl1 whi c h poetry
le aves off the a d ve rbial term inati o n; as a/lrrn fo r alternately, srn rrc
fo r scarcely. In othe r parts of spe ech, :ilso, t erminations a rc often
d iscan lcc.l; as in lis t fo r listen, z1alc fo r valley, 111<n~i;c for m:irgin .
Th e above examples are m ostly take n, with design, from p oetry
pitchet in a rather lo w key; in poems ''°here the passion o r picturesq ueness is g re:ite r, o f course th e boklncss of the e ffec ts is

A \\'bole pPcm is so me ti m es written in
. . , ,. .
char:1ctcr of ils s u \1j cct
\ . ..
J
a rch a ic rnc t1o n, as suite,\ t .. lh1 ·
· · 5 cx:1rnp c o f tlih \\'i ll ' \f
· .
..
o ls un g " may he men ti o ned t h e 1· t . 1· . '
J.un . o 1T 1s s ., C-1~:\!r<l !he
)
1rs SIX IllCS o f \1·h1 -]1 1 ']\ . ..
V
·
·
c ' ·1 1n fi 1ca1c tl Jc t< •nc
o t IC whole.
f l
"There w as a <l w<:ll in o" of KiI1<>s
~ - c 1·c tl lC 'VO r} d W 'S ·
1
. ro o f ·.1 wcr
." ax
.
, et' n o.1d;
D uk cs we re the do o r-wa rd s 11 n , :1rH I tlJe
"· ll :tfl' wd w 11!1 ·r;n id ··
E~arls we re th e wri•,...' hls t\ J,~, i 11J. .0 1q.; 1it .1t a n J ··1 '
E.~r!s' wiv es \vc re t-he w e"'(\ \ .·1ng- \,·on11·
,
'
c s 1 vcr nai k d ib di HHS :
n, qu een . • I <T } , - +
•
And th\' m :1s ters of it
, .
f
s l au,, it< JS s, rc\l":d lls lloor'
s so .1g--c ra t \\' e n~ th e n1.1 <rl - 1
.
The sa ils o f tl .
.,
f ·
·
.~ Jlt es. m e n th ;i l c·:" I
1c s to 1.11 o 1Ja11 1e a down t he bi e ke r in11
b 'I) 1
1-.l .s·l . ..

tl . .

c orresp on ci i ngly inc re:ised .
FX ..\ \ll'l.F.~ 1> F

i 11.c de e p ."

Cn:lll'• )l' \ !l~ .- From

:-;h:1\; c'J' c:n e : " th e 11 l:u11y s·<l'illJ.n/i ,y-

F r om Tennyso n: " lo;•t- f,,y,if t •> the lc:1st w ish uf th e k in g" ;

''the pe:1k lia : r"h id.lc n ."

'Fr o m J;ro"'ning : "the ,·fv11d-cuf"s \,ri m " ;

The fo ll 0 11·in"
l')·r
;:-, 1 fro m
,
u n ,s. ",\.._~.1·11.1Lle l I tr I I " .1
11
t he anli•1uc: _
' " ' ' ' a n :irt i l1cia\ in1ii:<li ,, of

"yet

" \Vh1 lo m 111 /\l h 1o n' s isle ll 1crc dw el t
I
\\' t
.
,
a youl 1
,JO n c Ill virtu c s wa1·s di d t:1 ke d el ig ht.
Hut .' JWn t h is. i.:i.~
1 , s.. in
·
ri· o t m o~ t u n c<n1tl1 '
;\nd 1· rx'd
w it h llllJ· ·t '.1 l<>t:
"' drowsv ea r o f ' "\ . 'I
.
<\h
" .
.
;
. 1g JI.
.. : m e . m soo th he was a s ham <:lcss w if"hi
CI Jildc: Ilarol d was lH.: hight."
"' .. . •

hu m:1n :1t the red-rip<' of the hc :1rl."

IL

Poetic Archaisms and Non-Colloquialisms. - Th e n ext step
that p o e t ry takes, in its ernk avo r to heighten lan <•tt a gc: a1)o,·e
prose us;1ge , is to emplo y "·ords elc \·a ted abo,·e e\'eryday assoc i:1tions, a n d th us more c o n gcn i:1l to the fcn·ill a nd irn agi nati \' e
region in whi ch poetry m o\'e S.
I. A very natur:11 p o et ic irnpub c is the employment of :n cha1sm s. 1\, a rchaism ( fro m th e Creek. 1ipx1.tl:os, 1>/J, a11rir11!) is a
wo rd , o r more co m monl y a fo rm, olde r than c urrent use, an e xp ressio n that , th o 11 g h in te11 igi1Jk , is n o longer employed in o rdi nary
unemotional d isco m sc .
T he ttn co rnmonncss of a n :i. rchaic .expressio n, a n<l its associ a1inn s ()r :1g1~ . fit it fo r 1he hi?C,h n :rnd pmn air of Jl( >c \ry; f, ,r the
un usual fo rm rou~cs just the :1l\ent ion need ed t1.J elc ,·atc the
reader's m ind abo \'e th e co rnrn o np b ce, and to s eek. \\' h:1t th e worJ
co m ·eys m ou : th an is in\' oh·ed in mere assertion .
E XA :lll'l.E:; OF A KCJL\ iS:l lS. -

From \\·o r<l s worth's ";\lichae\ ": " E;o;c c cdi ng
" \ Ve

\1·:1s th e \o \'C h e ba r<" t•) him " ; " ..f//1e il o f :1 stern, unbc n 1\i n g mi nd";

k11o~unt,

ha\'e , tiwi;
:1no th<: r 1'in-;111:1n." Th is hst ex:1m p\e , repre senting th e
pro n oun o f the seco nd pe r so n s in g ular :1n d the o ld ver1>:1l forms in -/'/It a 11\l
- rsL, gi ,· cs a n arch:1is m

serious poel r\' .

very c o rnn wn , m o re th e rule t h:1 n t lie exc ep ti o n, in

DIC TI ON.

oe2 t. The
l sa meJ fe e ling that re ig ns in the use o f :1n h:1 io, 11is k.1<l·;
P , ry a so to s rn n <ullo qui a l e xpressio ns.
]Jel o ncrs
.
. ,\ , colloqu1al1sm
•
o· to 0 ..i <1.in,uy
states ()J mind : it
sougnc
and
u1wal
u
cd
CXJ)
ress
io
n
l·
isI 1111 >
•
•
..
' .rng n:t i:.:e :i s i l ,,·c 1". i
oetry,
rn
the
nature
of
the
case
i.
t l
~
11 \Ill< re· '" ·
1
nature
11 '
'· ' ~ e\a e( ; its ex c c·pt i•>11 :1 i
. .
ca s ior unn snal a nd unsullied lan 0rr1 1'.' ne : .~ n <1,
111 cert
I
•
"o ' ·'
C \' <:Jl \\'hen .
. . . , i·r
. . 3111 o we r io rrns, it e mpl o ys th e bn r'U3 " e
a 11m1ted e xte nt it r ·fi , . .
.
. "' "' of <oi nmrn , ,;,c 1<)
.
'
c me s i t ::rn l1 rr1\·cs it a to , l
i
r cht io 11 s to
] · ·1 · l
° · ' ne a >O\T t.ic
J>ro,;1i1 ·
, ,
·
Wl l <. 1 Jt lC 1OTlg'~ .
·

cl .

. . to c ' >l l orp11. ;1· I \ :ln •~ u arre sholl's · 1.. Ir.
NuTE. -Thi s :l\' Cr, c n css
I.
n :111 impulse to tin <\ un h ·"
l o ." .
. I " ' 11 1 [II'<> I\ :\ \ ' ' .
.I
.
·
• ac " n c ve t 11·o r.\s for I)
. ·. \ . .
.
o lowi ng lllS t :1n cc s fr o 1n "\ l ich:i ·\ ,, . :, \
i.
r OS;).1 c t 1111~~ .... : :'"t '- in !lit ·
( J·
·
"c
· : t tnc ch u r c h J .. ,
l'rl 111,,,. for hi1n"
J
f .
_, "'' ' !11,·1· ·"'"..', · , , - '•;. _
".
"
.
iii , <.::I < o
•Ool; :I co !lcct iu n ) ; "\\' here he ;. . ..
•: ',,
11ch
(c o ll u 11u1 :1 l p r >SC . l l
.
.
·' '' ··' "" '" "'·' :"
f ld"
' . ''•>Lt t s::i.y gu t v e ry n c h ) . " 7Ul'u ,.}
.
o
(the common pret e rit e is w or/.:,·d) .
'
u., i t :l l t li c shcep -

c· "(.

2. In the :l\·oi 1!:1 n ce, o r i·cr y
do11'! can'! I 'll /,· 'II
l J
'
'
• "
, :i 111 t 1e
vi:1tion '/is, for it is \l'\ii c h ..

l

.,

.

,

i ian 1/ s, is corrc:sp u11d i11" ly
o

b

5p:1ring u se o f co m ·. .. . .
i.
.
.
.
'
c rs.tli un.1\ :1 .. 1.r c 1·1.1t1"'". ".
li ke . J t i · r:itl,
· · "'
I, . . . ' l ~ , .1c r r c 1n:1r k:1 ble that tl1c oi ,' ·r1 ·c ~s use < In ord 111 ;irv I''' - , " l .
.
., .
. 1
. ,
. '' c ,, n, LUJ l'cc r , .>1 ;· '"

IJ H1 t c n ~ttu1:i.

as

;i.

puc t 1c ~d_,l , r c \·i atiu n .

\.·

!'OF Tl!.

J' OETIC DICTI ON.

/l/< "J'/ 0 ,\'.

.
t 1 o w Slnkc -:n
c·uc sho11·s his fine sense
l L is inslrnctt1'C to no c 1
.
"
.
•
"
· '
·1 •
. .
,.
.t
.11ich t.hou"hl of different kmd,, l1elongs,
i· 1 ic d1fl<.: rcnt r eglllns u 11'
"' .
.
For
his dr:i.m::is.
ll .ll l"'le rn
·1 1•' ·1ltcrnation of n :r:-;e :111\ 1 pro,;c t • 'o '
.
1 .
1
\.
~ '
r
j ·
. ·l ch ·11"lcter,; :-in\ l io
r ' \ ct:u"
o f e1·cr1·<
, .' l'J life,
.1 1111non ancl c l1 l 1Ynis 1
' '
., '
· f
·\
. ll . "1\ 11rose. ]Ju\. frrnn this , :-ind not 111 rcq11c11L y
" l'll1jJl\l1·,; ( () \l\1\ll, ' . J
l ' . . . t' . lt
..
, .. , , . . . , the e\pre s:-; ion ri ses :-;pontane o1 1s y, ,1s sen imc1
1 the s.1 111c scene,
.
. ..... . ,
l' l t ic di ct io n and
'-r·:i.rcn<ll1kr 1ntudram.1t1c1c1 sc .
cc
:it l Sj>e:l. t-.. e S ,
'
\
\
., ,\\rnp 1 .1~1 l <ti
l: -1·111 n h·11e
c·1"
1 their well-dcf111e1 ,;p K r e.
.
.
~-

"\11!T.- I

-

.

, f·

h 1\l1n\\ll~~

he

The \lcrchant uf \' e: n icr , "'ill illustrate how
~

IlJl11

.

.

.

.
.
'r~rs pt'<>'ie ·uul ,·crsc. i::d, v ~1~c :-i rc un • 1t,:c:1~11)11 lll 1t' f"\lt: . .
.
~
i .
.

.Y f "' 1l
.

\ '

T tb ink the he ~ l

l' h" ll\'"n t.i c: ""r' .
l \c
-·1. ' J......
l di.., c our~c g row cvn11nent\ a'
. , . . f "it \\'ill ~lt(•rtly turn lllt>J ~1 c nu, an <
.
.
.
.
· \ tlt ·m i •re·parc f,ir d111 ne1.
. .
.. l .
1.. L c "
l P >llC onlr hut l\~rr1)\:-. .
( .o in , ~1n:t l, 1>I \
t::
·'
·
.·. \
. sir· they ha\'c all ,\,ll1\:1Clts.
/ .<1 i111 rd1• t . l hat b ' .. nc, . ,
.
., .
' then hi,! them p rcp :1rC
''1
H1ell y T' ill"d ) wh:1t a w1 t-snapp1: r arc) uu .
\ I
.(l )"(J/ :../1
] [ >\\"
t

! .t1 r,·11 ".;11 .

d

I

t'\'Cl

···111
~·

0

,
, is the \\' Or <L
on 1Y CO' er
_ . \\'i'll )'O \\ co \'er then , si r ?
] . ,, , _l' /I ..,ti
1
.
·o ~ ir neither· 1 know my < uty .
/,,1111u·d,J! . ::\ul s ' · '
. ' .
. .. _.
\\'il l tho u shu\\' tltc whuk
1
. l 1·1 11· ·· <·p·1rrcll1n" \\'t lh Q<;c.1'1"n.
I ·rn1 - t' . \ c • ' ~ r "
"
l
l · m:1n i n lti>
·'
•
. .
.
t? 1 l'r:\\' tltcc , 11n.l crsl:1 n• a\' am
,
. "
c tl . \\"l 111 ·u 1 111-.tan .
l
\
' " ' t 1 " ' 1y ·
·
l. \ <\
c )\·er the ta b\ .,., ,c r\'e 111 u1e
Lli n lncanin~: ~·> ld lhy fei ln w ~ ~ >li \ iCll l t
'
\
. •
ill c,. 111 c in I•> din ner.
.
. .
,
'
_.. .
l . ll l . scr\'\: •l in : f,,,. tlte mea l , si r, it
ic:tl , :ull \\c:' 1
/
}
'
·
th
·
t·\\11C
Sil
il,1.l
J C.
1
/ .<11111ce I " ·
"
c ·
' · ' .
\'
· "'l"· let it lie as hum •> Ur>
:.1ll l l\: Cv \' c rc1l ; f,,ryuurcuming1ntv <111ncr,01r,
·'
[F:.iit.

inner.

J .1111 , r,·li•/. Ti>.1 t

rl'

l

i11 l l' L'it:-'

'.-,h .dl

.

j, tlonc ton s ir·

go \' c rn .

.

his " ·11 rds a rc ,u 1tc1

f.,ir,·,, :, i. () dc:i.r di~c r ctiDn, l \1 ~ w
Tlic f.,11\ l\.\th l'l.u1t.-•l in ltis nH'l\H•ry
;\

\ - ·111 l \ ,], , l,11,,w

o r h•" Hl \ \ \1r1 .... . . '
'<
1, tl· 1 ~~~ t ~t:1n•l
in l•cttn p\:\cc ,
t l1:111Y pll l1 ,
·
·

.\n

:\rinv

. . . ; , l \ 1"1',, "..... l1i1 n ) th.1t fu r a tricksy ""'nl .
( 1::trlll:...il
•ll, Jcss1c:1?
J lcf,· t i11.: niatter . I I o w cheer " ~\ tltt
. .
-,,\·
Jj()\\'
J'( •t H1 S\\'ect, say thy ''\Ht1llln ,
J\I
, "
• '
.i )
\low ,Jost tl1u u iikc the Lor el 1\as,anws \\'I c .

J 1·ss ir.r . 1':1-.t all c~pressin ~-. 1t i:- very meet
Thc 1.1ml '\'.,h:'ani•> ]i,·c: ;i11 it prrgltl life;
" sue· h :\ l1lc"i'ii11g i11 hi:- \.1• 1y,
!..ll r ' l1 ·1,·i1l
.
~· .
1
l le li nds the j.,,·-; u f hc:l\'C ll hcrc on 1: :1 rt >;
"nt!t he:,\,, n»l ttlc:u1 it, then
.,
. \ tH I l 1 l' 11
·
,,
j n r c:i~ d ll 11c. ~ l.\ \) 111 \ I Jll'\·cr C•\llle "' ltc~ •e11.

ll

III.
Expression heightene

for the Sake of Picturesqueness . -

With thi s feature of poetic diction we enter upon the clur: t1 terist ics foun<l in the m ore fe n ·id and a11il1it iuus types of po eu·y.
Being of su ch nature , these types nJ.turall y seek such w o rd~ :is
will yic!J the utm ost ob tainable o f beauty or s11;:;.:;esti1· cnc~~ - T he
read er',; ima g in a ti o n is dire ctly ap pc:tlcd to, by langu:1ge arl:tpkd
to make il active, that he may, as it were, cooperate wi th the i'"l't
in creating a picture of the object or id ea p o rtrayed.
The folloll'ing ::i.r e the c hief means ' mpl oye d to g i\·e Lu1 ~1 1:1;.:e
tl J.t he ighte ne d q~1J.lity h e re called lJy the gene ral na me oi' JW turesquencss .
I. Poet ic pictmes<lueness 1s sought first o f all Ly ima gny or
word-pain ting. \\'o rcls that contain figurati1·e suggcsti 1·e 11 e:-:,; arc
preferred to pbi n, specific terms to ge nera l ; sim iles and de ~Uijl­
tive compari so ns an.: fr eely introduced, a.nd oftt: n r e1·ellcd in :-ipparently for their o wn sake merely, anrl follo11-ccl out at lc11.~th
whe n ever the beauty or lJolJness of Lhe design may be en h:rnccd
thereby.
NOTE. - The pict urin g p owe r o f w o rd s, s0 muc h hc ttcr fc\t th an d cscrih" l,
may here Le i ll ust rat ed liy an cx:imple, fr o m Tcn11ysc1n's "Lotus Eaters. "

" ' Co11rage ! ' he said , and pointed toward tltc land,
'Tl1 is m o untin g \1':1\'l' \\'i ll roll 11 o; ,Jwrcw:trd so on ."
Jn tl1c aftnn oo n t li"y c: tnw unto a l:tnd
I n \\ili ic li it st.'t'nh·d .dw:ty'-' aft~-rnno n.
J\ 11 roltnd th· · ('<l:1'.l ih" l:i11 .~ :11id air did S\\'OO n,
Hrl'atl1ing- lik1· 0111..· t l1:1t il ;1t h a \\'t:ary

dn·a11 1.

Fu ll-face d al><> ,·c the v:\ ll('v stood the moon ;
And like a d o wn\\'a rd smc.kc . th e slender s tre:lm
A long th e cliff to f:tll and p ause and fall did S<'Cm .
J\ Janel of stre am s I so me, like a do,1·nward s m o ke ,
S low-dropping H·i ls of thinnest l:l\•;n, did go ;
J\nd so me· lhro ' wavering ligh ts and slr:idows lirok<',
J..: olli ng a sl umlirnu s ~ l1 cl:\ uf fo:im 1,c:lo\\'.

Tl "·y ' ""'tit" g-h ·am in.t:: rivn " ':l\l':trd n o w
Fr<> tn ti"" i111w r land : f.tr off, tlr r<'c mo11nr.1in -to ps,
Tltre·t· s ilen t pinn a cle!-- of a .i::cd s no w,
~t ood sun,l'l-flll,lr't l: :ind dcw 'd with s lr o \\'ny dro r,s.
lJ1•-<'i 0 111J1 the SlJaJO\\'\' pint: :dJUVI' th e \\'\.J \' t'tl e·o pS•'."

'·;··

'

!'OE TJ C JJJ C TJON.

J 'O/~· 'Fl<. /lie 'TJO .\'.

"111t ny E ngland," " the r/011g!t ty D ou g las," "the bo!J Sir Bedi -

O f c ourse prose employs im:iscry t no , lrnt o n ly for :-1 11 ul te r io r

verc " ; :tdj ec t ive an<l noun m a k in g one t e rm in divis ible fo r the

<)1licc t to illust rate o r c rnp h:1s i1.c th uught tha l alrL:ady ex is ts in li tJ
'
.
.
I1
eral fo rm . Poetry goes Ltrt hL·r, :rnd e rnp lu ys 1111:cgcry tll g1\· c s11 .tu th e tho ug h t ; it i,; fr L·q llc n tly th e c :1se th :1t the th o ug ht

s filll ff

t hL·

i rn:i~e .

ti,·c

~1 r

purpose :tn d to ne o f t he poe m in \\' hi c h the y occ ur.
Seco n dl y m :ty b e ment ion ed what 1\·e m ay n a m e drcor al/z·,· ij'i-

1.i

t/1c/s.

:1 nd C:ll1 11 llt L''.ist 11 itlwut it.. \\·c !"ind :1c -cu rd i11 Mly th :tt
m:ul\' iLlc:ts ;ire introd 1wc d in t(> puct ry t h :1t i>u t fu r tlwir i111:1~i 11a­
pictu n.:,;quc

,;tt~gesti\·enes,;

,,·cntld nen.: r find 11 h ce ii i lit\' r:t-

idea Ly a dding p icturesq u e ' [ll :tliti e s.

I'
I
I

;i •:c n cics o f e x p re ssion ; its presen ce indic:-1tes th a t Y1go r :rn_d
k~cnness of pc rc e ptiun wh ic h i-; m ost tlis tinc ti\·e o f the poe llc
e xc mpli -

CJL' ( l.

\.'i rs t , wh :l t :ire c: i led 1·.1ff11/i,d 1/il!t d s :ne nsc cl t u e xp ress so m e
.
1 l .
]
· · · " ~ • '/ \\ .. l \·c.; " " 1i 1/11 /1'
'1 nality :tlr..::tc ly \\)\'() \'C( ill t lC l\ <l llll J , \S
" I
'
. '
.
·11· " .. ..,. · · 1 ,-1..,tll'·cc; " .. th1· .1/tc11/' ~\\' o r d . " T h ('s e , n :-1 1n1 1l g a
\.,

,!.. {(' 1

1• ·

I

·

,

.

thi ng l iy its ch:1u cte r i1. in g q1l:ll it y . silllp ly 1Jri11 g o u t into p r'.JJ1l ln cnec wh at wo uld o th e n ,·i,;e l ie untlwu gh t of frurn its oliv 1u usn..:ss .

I

11

th e sam e c hss \\·ith these may he m e nti o n e d :t p e c ul ia r use

or ci 1ithcts . n ota1Jl y
:1C

In th e lines ,-" 1\·i th

/111s.1-r

heale n w o rk o f m oun ta in ch a ins," and ' ' they ro amed t h e t!lli 1i,->
fi eld s togeth e r ," bot h of 11·h ic h a rc fron p ro .se wo rk".,, ,,.c, r c·c·_ u~
. ,-

l'llct' s free: crc:1t i,·L· i1111111be .
.
,., _ ,. \ sccun d rnc :ui s of po eti c p ictu rcsqu e n e,;s is the e m pl,>y- l f J '1tl1 .•
.\ " " Jlith et tn :l)' lie d..:f1rn: d a,; a d c,;c ri p tin:
1l1e Jl V l ' l \.: L. • " ~
•
. t . . . tl ·it 1· · l l> ,..1)· ·111 ·1dj. ..:d i,·c n o t e ss L:ntial to t h..: 11111 /i ·r 1
:1l 1JL'. < · I\ C ,
•
..,
·' ' • '
,
·
.
.
s /aiu liilg of its s ui>s t:u 1ti ,·c , \Jul ( :i,; t he tkri \·:1tJ u n of t he \\·u nl ,
frurn t,;;Z and T,'(), .1.L . / 11 11i/d / 11 . implies) ad .l ed 111 o n e r t u t,l.\'l'
11
r i1. in ,..,"· fc :1 t urc , so me cu lu r111 g , o r s t .n k. . ·ci· · >t. \·" •)r clnr1ctc
..,, n t1e 1I cs 11 1 v ,
.
,
,
inu; a.ccurnp:ll1illl(·nt. Fpithd ld()ngs thcrc fn re to th e mo re \ ' J\' Jd

1\11

T hes e , which c omp r ise l>y fa r th e ~ r c at cst p ro port ion, :llld

esp ec ia ll y in m o d e rn po etry, :e re emp lo ye d to g ive c le ments uf ]1k
a rnl col o r not n c c ess:c rily in volved in th e ol1je ct ; t h e y ,·n r ich th~·

turc.: . ..\ s a c o ib1.:• ueiK e . pm: t i< · im:1gery i,; no t :i h,·,1ys e:h)' '. '> re1
duce tu rniti \·c : there ,,ccrns n o l•l;..:i1 ·al n ecessi ty c ll lin g l11 r 1t ,
1
·
J
·
·
. ..() ", nd no t oth c nr isc . exr -cp l the
rnir any e :-. pbn.1uun ,,. iy 1l h
"

mo(Jtl .
· \
J
h , d..:fmed a. n d
Thre c ki nds o f cp1 t 1ch 111:1;- i..:re c

~-

' '

in J LL\\ ll Cl' :e nd t h e e :trl y lla1bd s, :.1.S :1 con st:rnt
orn p a niment of thei r n o un s, w it huu t s p cc i:il r.c fcrc nc c to th..:1 1:
1

!"ill1L'SS un a m · gi,-c n (wc:1sin n . T lrn s . :\ c h ilk s is " swift- foo te d
whe n h ..: i,; s itti ii:c, in co u n c il or sleep ing . :1s \\·1.:l l ;i,; \\'he n he is ru n,
·
I I
"
·
-..: t( 1 \\·· · 1 · , ... · ' /11·i··lil-n<'J ·\ Lhenc ," .. 1<1!ti1t-c1n11t'1 1111 0 ,
11111 g . ,_,u u , 1,1 v
·'
_
•

nizc su c h s u pe raddcd features in the q> it h cts .

It is in J;Odry,

ho\~· ­

evc r, t h at e x p ress io n s like th ese arc m o re natural; an d wh e n thn·
occur in prose i t is so me e xc e pt io na l p rose , a k in in sentim e n t :i.n;l
fc.::el in g t o poetry . I Io w ri c h p oe ti c lit e rature ofte n is in epi the t 1
may he

ill u~t ratcd

by the follo wi ng, from Ke:J.ts' s "Lamia" : _

" l' pu n a time , lie fo re thef10J' broods
I )ro ve :\yrnph ::>.n <l Saty r fru m the f r u.<fer o11s wouds,
Ht.:fu re K in g Obe ro n 's br(i;lit di adem,
S cep tre , an d m antle, clasp 'd with dc:uy ge m,
!:ri g h ted aw ay the D rya ds a nrl th e Fa un s
F ro m rushe s ,i:r1' o t , a nd bra kes, and ro~us lip 'd la wn s,
T h e e ve r- smitten l f ermcs emp ty left
l I is ,:;1>/dcn thro ne, be n t warm o n am or ous the ft:
Fro m l11j;J, O lymp us hacl h e stule n li g ht,
<Jn t liis side of Jo v<.: 's clo uds, tu <.: sca pe the sight
Of h is g r..: a t summuner, an d made ret reat
Tntu a fu re ' t o n l;1 <.: sho res o f C ret e ."

Such e pi t het s m a y so m e t im e,;, hy a li c en ~e ve ry ra re in prose , lit.:
u sed wi t h ou t t hei r substant ives ; thus, :Milto n
" the r/1y," fo r wa ter :J.ncl b ncl .

has " the t!an/..: "

Som e tim es a l:;o a n e p ithet may l',c

usecl su listan t1 vcly an d be m o difi e d hy a seco nd ep ithet; as, "the

bret',zy blu e ," "th e s!tcr:to l dead ," "the dead v:cst of th e n igh t. "
::rhirclly m a y be ment ion e d what arc c all ed pl1rase cfd/1 ,·!J·, ~p1thets e m 11lo ycd , 1.Jy way o f c o n d e n sa ti o n , to su ggc ~ t o r imp ly :rn

td ea whose full e xpressio n w01 1ld re1p 1ire a phrase o r clause .
epithets arc tes te d by inquirin g how mu c h th e y i1wo lve .

Such

SS

!'OF.TIC f)fCTIO. \'.

!'O!:·n 1· IJI CT/Oi \ '.

The fullowing examples ,,· ill illustr::i.te them .

that is certainly wo rth ,
] ·
remem Jenng, thou gh there m:iy be exc cr)tions in its application .

" F\'cn 01/ i ou s J lrydcn wan ted, or forgo t
The last am! g rcatc,;t art, the art to blot."

m e:i.ns
. of. p oetic
. pic tures<1ue ncss
..' or. "l l c'::t s·t o.r poct;c.
1· -r
.
~
·
lh.111 " 1y t11/1crcnt
frum their
current acceptatio n. "It · . d i. .1, ..
°
.
..
• " .. .
.
IS OUut css t 11e ]>r!\ J1cgc uf ;[
rpoet,
. r.s.1ys
. J\r r. S. H . H11 tchc r, " t o force 'a we) rd lJae.i.... , J. lnng- the
IJ1c o its o wn development, in th e direc tion of .t.
t
l
,
· · ·
1 s c ) ' lllu 1)''). or <1t
pnm1trve us:wc " T .
l
"'
, •
. • "' .
. 11 0 o r t iree exampl es rn::tv be g 11-cn .
Fro m
l e nnyson : •

r.3·. /\ .third

<L

< 1s tm ct1on, consi s ts m us1n!! words in sen"e" str·1. ·
0

Ilerc the epithe t is equivalent to" though he was copio ns, " implying that in his great wealth of cxprcssio n Dryden could han: afforded to strike out the poorer pas,;::i.ges, heing ::i.ble to snpply their
place wi th bet te r.
Consi d e r h u w much that wcll-chose n word
"copious " stands for. In the lincs,

0

.
"T.i1·e-yet live Shall sharp est f"tlt os bli"ht us k no"'in" '11
I •1·ri:: needs fo r lift; is possible
"'
' wi ll - 0 "
to

"?\vt so when swift Cam illa scours the plain ,
F lies o'er the ttnbo;di ng corn , an <l sk ims along the main," -

the full sense im 1l ied in th e ep ithet is· ' 11· hich had no t t ime, as she
p:issetl o ver it, to bend beneath hc r." l\ o ti c e that the m c rc desc ri ptive epithet" swift," in the first line of the cou plet, is not susccpt iLk of suc h expanded sense . The follo wing, from Keats, is a ve ry
boid and striking example : " So those two b rothers, with the ir 1111trtl«rr J man
T\.oJe past fair l'lvrencc," -

where hy the wonl "murdered ." as the context sho ws, the poet
means "whom they were aliout to murd e r," o r "murde red in
:rn ti c ipat ion ."
Phr:tse epithet belongs more to poet ic hre1·ity th:rn to poe ti c pi ctme<> que n ess; ln1t it is discu ssed he re, in orde r tint it m::i.y ;1ppear
with the othe r k in ds of ep ith et. 1t is the kind most natur:tlly used
m prose .
The man age ment of epithet furnishes o ne of the most d e li cate
indi cations, especially in prose style, o f ::t \\Tite r's tas te or la ck o f
tas te. .:\\Try effecli\·c instrumen t o f pi c turesqueness , it is also a
pre ca ri o us one, ancl requ ires m\lch caution and re straint in prose,
o r th e styk may c::i. s ily he loaded down and become tawdry. 1 It is
the recogniti on o f this fact that has led some wri te rs to g ive the
somewhat sweep in g ad vice, "Neve r use two adj ectives where one
will do; never use :rn a dject ive at all whcrc a noun will do"; :.id vice

0

Live happy."

I
I

Here "pathos " is use d in the old Creek se nse o f sllffe ri n"
Another example from Tennyso n:_
"'
"n ot that tall felo n there
\ \Thom th o u hy sorce ry or unhappiness
Or some device, l1as t foull y overthrown , .. -

wh ere " unhappiness" is used in the se nse of unlu c ky
. ' .,.,
.·
11
dent. 1'11e io
r II
·
· from Bryant: "1 or .:icc1o wrng
is
"Ki nd wo rd s, remembered \'O ices once so S\\'eet
'
Smiles, ra cl i:int lv nu :igo
J\n d features, th e g rc7i t

so~l 's nppn ro1t se:it ...

Herc the
l "
wo n
apparent " h::i.s the sense of m ak in g .'.lj)j1<..:ar or !11 ·
evident.
Such li be r ty with words is almost tie , .. · .
.
·
1 ex e1us1 ve prero;;-:ill\"C uf
poe~ry_. . J\n exa m ple, fro m Charles La mb, will show J :· . .

mg it is in prose : -

101~ estr.111g-

. "\Vh ilc childhood, and whi le dreams ru/11ci .
.
imagin:ition shall not ha"e sp read h I I' .
"/; chilclh ood, shall lie left ,
er io y win gs tot:illy to fly the earth."

~his _c:rnnot l>e quoted as a mode l e\·en from
L.:im b; its j 11st ificat1on m hi111, if it h;.Js any, is <.foe to the
" self-pl eas ing qu;1i11t11 css"
which was his ::tvo wed idiosyn c rasy .

POETIC DJ CTJO.\'.

l'Of."7'/C D!CJJON.

IV .
Expression modified for the Sake of So1md . -

" I n a so mer sc~on . wh a n so ft was the so nnc
I shupe me in shro udcs · as J
,
· • · a s11cpe
were '

J\ s the fun cb-

me ntal form of poetry is based o n a rcg11br arran ge ment o f \\'Ords
:1cceirding to acc ent and art icubt ion, it is olJYious t Jal th e clement
uf sound i1hys a much m o re pro m ine n t part in p oet ry tha n in
prose . l\lodilic1tions exacted by rnctn.: and rhyme it is not in our
pru \·ince h\.'.n; to discuss; apart from these, however, p oeti c dicti o n, in its general choic e of \\' Ords, is brgcly inOuenccd by t he
desire for ca,;y or mus ical o r descripti \· e articuhtion.
1 . Regard fo r euph o nious sound is ofte n man ifest in the choice
or modilic1ti\m of prope r names . ":\ llJi o n" fo r E ngland," Erin"
for lrcLrnd, "Caledonia" for Scotland, "Columbia" for :\ rncrica.
were originally adopted mainly for thei r im;1ginati \·e and unwo rn
assuciatiuns; ]Jut their form indicates that the co ns ideratio ns of
euphony abo were prominent. Tennyson, in th e e p ilogue to the
ldyls of the 1\:in g , rhanges the name :\fallory to l\falleo r, prolJJ.bly
the l1elter to sati,.Jy his ca r. :\lilton's car was \·cry scns iti\· c to
the sound
names; he has" arnrniral " for admiral." C herso ness "
fur Chersonese, "Or ·u" for l forel>, "Chemos " fur Che mosh, and
many more . l k uftcn makes a passage mus ical 1..>y the nam es he
chooses.

or

" From Arach osia, from Ca n<lao r c:.i.q,
From i\farg i:rna , tu t he Jf yrc:rn i:rn cl i ff~
O f Caucasus, :t n<l dark Iberian dales;
From A lropatia, and th<.: n eighbori n g 1>l a ins

Of A dia lJc n c, J\lcclia, ;ind the sout h
O f :-:usiana, to B:tlsara ' s 1"1n:n ."

In h.tbi1c as a n hc: n :initc . v 11 /.1 I f
i. •
.
u Y u wo r.:es.
\\ ent ' ''}'de in this 7/lu rld . wo n drc:s to her c:."

With th is cum11:ire the followin" s t·rnza fro
•

<:> · •

••

::i.llitcr::ition :ind asson::mcc . Alliteratio n is the name g iven to a
near re currenc e of the same initial sonnd . It is a \Try natura l
device in Fnglish; the early poetry of the bngnJge was all allit erati \"C, and no cloulJt the tendency li \·cs in th e genius of th · literatmc . Tt may lie interesting to compare a passage of the olu
::i.lliterati\·c Yersc \\·ith the refinecl use of a ll ite ra tio n in ou r day.
Th e fulluwi ng is fro m "The \'isiu n u f · 'ie rs the l'lowm:1n " : -

S . l J11rne: --

Ill , Will

" \ \'hen
t hc: hounds o f sp ri n o" a• rc: o· ·1 i1·1·n1 c1.·s .l r 8.ces
, .
:· l he: m o thc: r o f m un lh s in m eado w ur plain
'
l il b..t he shadu ws and 11 ·in dy placc:s
1

\ \ ith /i , p o f /c: a 1·es and r ipple u f rain.
And the /Jr o w n /Jr i1d1t
nig ht i11gale amorous
'
<>
ls half assuaged fur lty lus

}'or th e Thrac ian shiJlS anrl the ; ·
. .

'

.

,.

u rc 1g-n .J 3Ces .

l he to ng ueless ,·ig il, a n d al l the.: pain."

In this htt

,'

I
I

I

I

'

I

. . · ... . : _e r ,ex.a mp e the alliterJ.tion is no more ol1trusi\·c L11t
exists .lS ,l )J;i_Ji.Ji1Jden music in the Strnc t111· . f l
.
. . .
.
·
. .
C 0 l l e \TrSl' .
A ssonancc,
in its strict te c hni cal sense is the
.
name g11·en tu :i
re .
f l
. '
cn rrcnc e o t Je same \·owe I so und . , . • , .
f
,
setting in wh ich it is found: ~s ,
' Jrr\.'. spectl\·e o t he: c-cm sn nantal
"Tlic grov c.: s of Hlarney
Th ey are so channing."

I n a p opu la r se nse , howc \-cr, the
word is ofte n use d as nearly
synonymu11s \\' ith rhym e . In lio th
senses of the \\"Ord, assonance
.enters la rge ly in to th e body of t he
ve
rse, as well as at th e end~. J.
as,
"lfuw sari and l1ad a n d m;id it wa.~ ­
Hut l h e n, h u w it was s we et! ,,

1\ ssu nJ.n ce and allite rati o n arc combined in

z . Poetry takes g reater liberties than docs prose in employing

(,J

P O I~

l'J\OSJ·: J)J (. 'f'!O.\ '.

'/'l e' JJ /1.: 'J'/ O.\·.

Such spontaneous features of t he poet's art as these furn ish co ntinual illustration of th is remark o f Thomas \ \' cnt1\·o rth T! iggi nso n :
" \ Vords arc av:i.ilable for something whi ch is more tha n knowledge .
v\Tords afford ::t more cklicious music than the chord s o f :my instrument; they arc susceptible of ri c her colo rs than any p a inter 's
palette; and that th ey should lie used merely for the tr:rn sp<ntali \l n
of intelli g ence, ::ts a wheelbarrow curies Lrick, is not cn ut1gh . T he
highest a;.pect of literature assim ilates it to p:1inting and nrn~ i · "
Beyoml and aLo ve all the domain of use lies beauty, a nd to a im a t
this makes literature an art."

t ion c<l .

The subjec t of the h:i.rmony of so110d :1111.l sense. j,; :l.
- n~l o nly ::t fc\Y ex:i.mpks c::i.n b e gi1'Cn here , pnnc1pally
l>ro:Hl one; . L ·
.
.
••
It \\·ill l>c taken up
\
. ' of Sll"" estin" h ow imp ort:in t it is.
.. )y \\ ;i.)
. <='0
°
.
. .' . (' ' l
:i·n b.ter on in its rebl!on t u 1110:01.: us::toc.
l
::tg .. 1 ' .
'.
- . . . . l , . 11 >ul se to m ake yoc:i\ soum s
Very iutmal 111 poetry, lll st. is l 11.: 11 l .
I tl . f l\owin "'
re produ ce the movements arnl so1rn1b o f n:tt_rn:c: 'n·/ 1,~·h::.h m11:~
.
.
1 , . ·0T1nt comlJ111at1 o ns -'/' .t1Ht -' '
fo r ins tance, t 11.: cons '· . . ,
,
>loye<l to <lt.:note slowness
l>\.'. p run ounc e<l son11.:what s\O\d) ' ::tre c 111 l
aml reluct::tnc e of m o veme nt: -

..

,.

to the woumlccl h.rn g .
" S o slr ot1c l e \)".~t....··k slow
·

6.)

·1

. 1 r 11 .· .11 1 \' ·t change
in t lC ll > O l\l "' >. · ·
Oui.ckn ess an1 11·r.
111.: ,,~ ~,
ic cx•)rcsscd
·1
rhy~hrn from an i:trnlJllS lo a tril>rac h: ~
."
(l'

u{
~

"Then wo nl <l he wh istle ra fzd a s any \:1rk.

· l
so 1nJ echoing
The ful\ u ll'in g is ::t rcmark::tlik i111it:1tion ot a 1ea,·y : '
a n10n g ro cks : -

.

:;ml , high :1hc)\·e, 1 he:1r cl the in hh~t
\ the " fe:-t l e c h o !hp
The stee p sb le·qn .nry, :111 •
,., . .
' . "
i\n,J huffct r,,u nd the hi \b, fr (•ln l.Jlu!1 tu L11ulL

" 1Tc

~ poke;

.

·tr'· ma\' ln; c< p 1ally felicitous in maktng corn·
nu t sec ond 1)' poc J
;
.
• f mi ml st·1tcs of n:i.ture,
. .
.
r . . ., l ·01rn<1s portr:l\· st;i.tc;; o
' .
u\ !1 :ll1011 S Oi \ Ul.c1 s
.
. .. \ . • t . In the foll o win g, f,,r
. 1 ·l . .. c tc rs of c o rn l>1 nc< c1 ens.
or gcnc 1~1 l 1.ll.1
.
\
r
. 1 ·1n<l weather is indi <:atc<l l>y
.
l ' . h t "1cSS 1lol l O i Jl111)( ..
•
'
l
111st:1.nce, ( c:-,1'. c1 . '.'
. . l 1· . . l the intcntion:illy lun .
.1 '\ t · 111 t'H.: t]1111 llK , .llH
' · thL: lu rs h s1 '1 :1.11 s
'
.
• .
. . " ~ . ___
.
.
. l i'l -r w::tnl of rh\'th111 in the Lt;;l 1me
.
:t!litcrallvn an L t L c
•
..
i

.

c

"1 It: is ll " l he r e : \•Ill fa r :; \\' :-ty .
T h e n •1 ise ,, f life b e g in~ :-tg:1 1n ,

.

:\11 1\ g h:l>lly th n/ th e <hi1.1 \ing r :1lll "
\, rc:1kS the b\ank day.
• \1..o\c·l '-.trecl
n
Lne
·
0
.
.
·1
1
iploycl1 >V 1lilto n to portray
,\ \in c ,1·ithout rhythm is s1rn1,ar y e'.1
u : .
·
• f the n:bcll 1ous a.noels· the sll'ift arnl utter rot\L o

"h e:-tdl o ng themselves th ey thr e"·

. 11 t h e ,·cr"e

,,f h e :1,·e n:

ct c rn:il " ·r:it h

h
. .,
J)O\\·n f IO I
/iur11! aji1·r t!um fv !lie bot/o/llltSs /zl .

.
.

.

on l;\1n cl:tn1 e n t:1\ Processes. p . 1<J8 .
.
"
" ' l ' 'l\l)\' C \)11 ' :-; ln i\Tclll OI"i.llll: ;1 ~tud~' . p.

l

St •1• St'(.'t\ 0 1'

~

l.. Jt'l\\ll1 g ,

..

(

. ,,

( l_PCJ .

I

SE C T I ON

T 111 J<P .

THE CHARACTERISTICS A ND TYPES OF P ROSE
DICTI O N .

Tru:: di stinctive q ualiti es of prose d iction an.: suggcsti \·cly ind i.
cated in the derivation o f th e word p rose . It com e.- from th e
Latin prostt, a contracte(l form of prorsa, which itself is a cont raction of the compoun<l pro-versa,- an aJje c t ive, femi nine in
form because the noun to be supplie d is the feminine orali11, di:-;coursc; the whole meaning, therefo re, "straight-forward di scou rse ."
T he name wa:-; first g iven, no dou 1>t, be cause , instc:i.11 of l11rn ing
and beg inning an e w wh e n it has reached a certain rn eas1 1rcd
length (its contrast, verse, versus, mea ns a turnin .~) , the lin e keep-;
straight on, as far as there is roo m for it. Hut the charac te r is tic
straight-forward is capable also of another appli cati on . J'rosc di scourse is straight-forward in two se nses : In n ot changing t he natural order of words ;
In n ot departing from the co mmon use of words.
Thi s is another way of saying that prose is the hng 11agc of ordinary ideas and sentiments; it is t h e form that unstudied sp eec h
asstnnes . None the less, howeve r, it is open to unlimit ed s t\ldy

6.'i

l'R OSL D!C T/U,\'.
!'N OSL JJ! CTJOY .

K n "' the £'.realest of
is :-tn J .-. .
, l . . '1e 1't" . tl· is ;s shown 1ly the bd th:ll in t he h1 stury ot en: 1)'
'\(' 11e\·e1, ' ~ J " · " .
•
]
f
·1.t,
t . Jl··ose ;s ·1 htcr develo1nnent than Jl<lct ry, ;111il hy t 1C :le t
1 era rn e
' . " , .
.
.
·
· ·itcrs 1n ·1ny p;cnerall< l11
th at the nurnlicr of tra nsccm1enl prose \\ 1 '.,
'
. .. ., ( fa int io n's hi ston» is mu c h snullc1 th.rn
and in t 11e w l1u 1c cu1,1;-,c ' · ·
··
t he n umber of its eminent poet' .
.
.
· ·
. . . ,co"nizc s it rncrcl v as :i. fui 111
The al>O\' C de scri ptio n ot pruse 1c :::, · ·
. .'
. .. ·
Poctrv is n111 ch b roader th:m this: it inc hH ks no t
u f C\jl fess l011 .
; ·
.
,.
o nly furrn l>\ll matni :1 l :i.ml tlrnu.~ht; . \\· e cannot red11~:.~_ 11_to mc.1e
. ..
f ·01·< \ · " I1 il inn«es . l he ]>roper :-tnl!thes ts lo prose ,
nwc11:1n 1sm o \\
s ·'
·"'
.
. .
. ·l · .
t j)Oetr)· hut ver-.;e o r metrical corn pos1l1un' \\ 1ilc
.
..
t l 1erL· fo re, ts no
'
· '
.
.
· 1
to th e co m prehensi\·c te rm po et ry the nc:lrc st ant1.the.s1'.; (no s 1 ~~ g ~
wore e\prcsses it flilly) is perhaps sci e nce, taken . tn i~" -.m ost oe n
cral se nse of kn o wle dge o r in stru c tion prese nted in OILlu .
·

:i.ncl development, :i.rnl perfcc:t1on

·

·t ·

111 i

L '

L

•

•

•

_

•

I
f

I
I

]. C!!. \l\. :\ CTl:I.: !STll.S UF l' l.:US L I J!C l'I<>'.\ .

T'icsc have in u rc:it parl lie cn suggested in the preced in g p;tge.s,
1
""
·
f
\ . I 1 ,. co ntnst 111
di rect1 . in the m ks fur the clw1ce <' \\·O rts, .lIH '1 :
• .
1
T' .,. . . l hn\\· eHT to !JC hrollgh t
· 1·
the section on pt)e l w <ll ell\lll .
l1c; ne ct ·
.
'
.
,
\L> [.'c thc r in :1 l ir ief orde red s111nrn:1ry ; and this in:iy l'.e t\,)11c .tlll,
'
\ · ·l . . . of words a rran " cmcnt o l woHb, ,1nd
der the three nc :H s , c 10 1ce
· ·'
""
c unne \ io n of wu rds .

l.

. of Wor·ds. - ' l'hc rul inl.'. , st;111d:ircl u f l·lwin', to
As to Choice

.
l ·(\· . 1, •d j-.; uti litv. This,
·l · ] ::i 1l o th ·r consi< ler:i t io ns arc su 101 111•1 ' ' ·
1
\\ 11L 1 ' ' .
c
.
. .
. ' . . r ·( ' \I is h e( I fro m
het·ausc it is tbe ch:nad t:n slic ol prPsl ' ,is ( is ing .
. , .. · 11 not fur the mere e\pressio n's sake but
\·erse to use e\jll essl\l
.. "
'
.
l · .: .. _ to in -.;t ru ct or com rncc,
.
.
'
.
.
..
.
:ilw:l)·s \\·ith some ulte rlt)r ell< in ' i c\1'
, ..t h ·n·ture is idc.ill y an
L
' ·
-.
. · · · , · · or 11ersu:1.de . rts L'\ pi-c ssin n .
o1 m1 p 1css , .
.
1
. l . f·,, o n occa-. 1o n
instrnmc nt to l>c sk illfully w1eld ed to t 1:it en < ' i ce . . .
. , ..
. , .. of hn 1't""'e or elL«•:rnc L', te rsen ess 0 1 f1dlncss,
. ·. .
· o '""'
"
t o un p 1uy j> la111ncss
.
· ·
1
•
•
• . .
<T ndin" :1s any o f these qu :i 11t1es
sunpl1 c 1ty or elauor.1tcncss, :i · '
o .
. .
_ . . -.
may commend themselves as most prac ucil1y 11scful for its pu1posc .

· This character of prose <lic ta t cs that for the sake of clc:uncss
worcls be tak e n from ordinary life and fro m the recognized usage
of the clay. The a rch aic and alJLreviated fo rms of poetry a rc
therefore not natural to prose ; if in any prose they arc found, it
is such prose :i.s seeks confessedly to produce poetic effects. ~I)
also an y far-fetched o r cunning ly m an ufac tured terms that with d ra w attention from the idea to the form arc a lllcmish, because
they o bsc ure t he utility t hat in some appli cation should govern
every wo rd.
If picturesq ue language is employed in prose, it must likewi se
have its justification in utility. Pi c turesqueness may be pa rt of
the info rmation co m·eycd; or it may be needful in order to gi ve
an asserti o n due di st inction; if so, it is sought for its practic:il use .
So also epithets, whi ch in prose , as has been said, :i re so easil y
overdone, m ay be kept well wi thin t he boun ds of good t:lStC, if
they arc always estimated by the power or effectiveness they add
to the thou g ht.
NOTE. - To il lustrate h o w pict ure sq uene ss may be a n integr:d p:i rt of the
informat io n co n veyed, o ne or two e xamples, take n fr t"n Abbvlt an d See ley's
" English Lessons fo r English Pe ople ," may here be given.
It wo uld hardly be !itling to use the ex pres:.ion "Emerald hie " in o rdi nary
prose, a s, for in stance, "Par li ament, d urin g this session , was main ly occupied
with the Emerald Isle " ; but the expression se rv es a useful purpose, by reaso n
of its very irn:i.g in ative char:i.cte r, in suc h a sen te n ce as, " 1\ ccustomed \r) t he
arid and barr en deserts o f Ar abia, the eye o f t he r eturnin g 50 rl ier r c~tcd with
pleasur e upon the rich, brigh t vegeta ti n n o f t he 1-:me ralrl !sic." Again, the
esse n tial epithet in " J fe <lrcw l1is /1nj;h t swunl" is c\·i,kntly only a lii t of use less finery; bu t in the se nt e n ce, "La ughing at the peasant's extemp0 r i1ed
weapon, th e sold ier <lrcw hi s own b n~i;h t swor<l," the epithet is a help in sh ar p ·
cning the antith esis and makin g th e information m o re vivid .

It is thus apparent that the stan dard of utility mu st be ..-ariecl
accord ing to the kind of info rmation conveyed . "The re a rc two
k inds of thin gs," s:i.ys Walter Bagc h o t, 1 "those which you need
o nly to zmrlerslanrl, a nd th ose which you ne ed aiso t o imagine.
l

Bagchot. Liter:i.rv Stud ies, Vol. I I. p.

241.

That
·l

::t.

11 CJ. -

man l)ought nine h11ncl rcclwcight o f ho ps is an intelligible
.
l 1,o t w·rnt th e h o]lS del in eated or th e man desc n!Jed;
) Oll C 0 I

•

that he ,,· ent in to society su.l!'.gcsh :111 inqu iry--: yo u i\·:rnt lo kno 1~:
, ·oc··;c •y , 1..1 ~ lik e and h o 1,· far he w:.is littul lo !Jc there.
\\' 11a l tl 1 c :-..
l 11 the bttcr c:.isc , ac ccm ingl y, the \\'r itcr begins to have occ asion for the picturing po1Ye r of wo rds; h e m\lst employ language
more arnliitiously and stri k in gly, fo r the sake of a m ore complex
l

l

,

.,

,

effect.

I J.
As to Arrangement of \Vords. -

Prose arranhcs wo rds accord -

in « lo the rc'lui rcrn cnts of directness and emphas is.
.
.
0
111 poetry the exi genc ies of metre sometimes ne cess 1lalc arlJ'.· l · 1·\ more Ilract wal rc;ison is
tr;iry changes .Ill t l1c ore l c1· o f \\ores.
r equ isite in prose diction . \' a riations fro m the n:i.tur:i.l order arc
indeed no t · infrequent, ln1t they justify th c rnsch·e s tn :lie g1:eat~r
st rength o r m o re corn'C:nienl gro \l pi ng of ickas. If ;in 1rn·crs1 o n _is
· - causes
]
· 1~+
· 'Osed
arc, t 1a1
· , th e cha· n hcre is· . m ade m
int roduc ed . or it
on L'r t<> put im portant clemen ts of the lh o ught in crnphatw places;
and this <)r C'<lllJ'SC m;1y lJe a des iJL' f:l.tllln ror the sak e or SOI11 C
· l UI'1· t.
that c:mno t so defend itself
llK·t·1011 . ·\ ny. •·irranr•ement
• ~
spC('J;l
is s ure to sound either c rude or affected.
t l Mlkr uf I he verbs ( the
·
l
I'\• •TE. - 1 n the fol lo\\'ing ~cnt c ncc tic
lll'·c r cc
.
.
.
. .
. . I · . . ) ·1. 11 >t c:1llc 1\ fur J,y a11 y ' l";c i:tlly 1111pass1011cc\
' '
.
'\\\xilurv lwf" r<.: thi; su 'JC<.l
.
,
1
l
1 t · . l thc effec t is ;.im\'lY nudc11css : " J mkcd, lll
ch:ir:iclc r of l 1c t 1<>ug 1 • •1 11 '
·•
•
r.•·
•.
. ls r111 i ·-.c tnc c rn so me char:ictcr a likeness
n c:wly :ill of Ceo rgc Ll1ol s no1c
"
•
.
.
·
· (. . \olcn Cl'Cn /ta s t/1!' <£• rllf r mfused, p erha ps unconto their creator : m •11 cni
.
·
.·
·
sci<>ush· , somethi ng o f h er o wn pe rso nali ty." The r:1t1on:ilc uf inversio n m
· ·11 \
· ,, ],ter· S"C '-'cct io n on F umbm cn tal T'rocesscs, P· 165.
p rose w1
le gl\t: 11 ..
, · ~ ·'
c .
• .~
d eup o ny is a. considera/\fte r cl rn.:ctness a.rn 1 101 cc .u c se em ,
·
tion ; a nd an arrangement th:1t en hances the agrccah~c rhythm~'.
a sente n ce often augme nts its other dc s1r:1hlc qn :d1t1e s. Care is
needed . h O \l'C\'C r, n ot to sacrifi c e furrc to sm oothness, and not

to employ artifi c ial forms at the ex pense of truth.

67

l'N OSl: JJ! C"!IO/'l.

FR OS!'. JJ! ( I / 0 /'v'.

(,(,

I I I.

As to Connexion of Words. -

Prose connects words 11y C.\pressing a.JI the particles or rebtio n and all the suliordinatc elc mcnts :i.s fully as may ];<..: req1 1i site fo r pcrfer:t clc;1rncss . Jn tl1 i-.;
respect it mu st be more cop ious and sc rnp11luu s th a n p oet ry ; it
must often give at length wk1.t poetry ten ls to shorten or o mit.
N OTE. -To illustrate h o w much an\l \\'hat kin<l of m atcr i:il, that m~y he
abse nt from p oe try, must be pre ent in p rose, let us en rlea1·o r lo exprc~s the
thought of th e fol lowing stanza fr om Bro wning in such prose as, by th e o rdi nary st:rn cl<t.rd, will be a dequate to give the iJea its prope r fu llness : -

"' \V!t y fr o m th e wo rl d ,' fcrishta h smiled ,' should thanks
Co to this work of mi ne? If wort hy pr:tise ,
Pra ised Jct it be and w<.:l co me: as Vt~ rse ranks
So rate my verse : if good thi.:rci n outweig hs
.<\u ght fa ulty juclgl'd, j11dgc justly ! Justice says :
Be just to fact , o r blaming or approving :
But -generou s? No, nor lo vin g l '"
In clunging this to prose, of co urse we must occasionally substitute a prr>sc
The ad dcc l matte r is put in brackets.
"Why," [said] Fcrish tah [ "'ith a] smile, " sho uld than ks be r cndcrcc\ by
the world for this wo rk o f mine? If [it is J wurthy [o f] p ra ise , le t it be
pr:iisecl, ancl w cicome . Let them [simpl y] rat e my verse as ve rse runs. If
[w h:it is] good in it o ut1,·e ig h. [ "'ha t is ad -] jud ged [ to be] fauhy, [le t the m
:it all events] judge justly. Ju tice (lc mands [me rely ] that they hon c'ily :icknowledgc [wh a tc1·cr is] fact, wh ethe r [in] bl:.tmc or [in] :ipprov:il ; l•ut
[ that they sh o uld be J gencr1rns? Nu; [it d oes nut d em:ind t hat .J, - n ur
[that they should be] lovin g [either]!"
Here it will i>c see n th:it th e \\'(J rcl s to be supplied :trc :ilmosl cx \l 11sin·ly
particles, - th a t is, wo rd s of subordinate r:ink that supply tlic conncxi 1,ns and
sh:idings of the th o ught.

word or idio m fo r a p oetic o ne.

To understand this disti n c tion l.Je twecn prose anJ p oet ry, we
need to take note of the two classes of whi ch t he wo rds o r any
language arc composed, - called by Professor E:i.rlc prescnti ve
and symbolic words . 1 The pre senti,·c :.ire those which by themselves present a definite conception to th e mind; su ch are nollns,
verbs, and in lowe r d egree adjec tives and :.iclverbs. The symbolic
l

Ea rle ," Philology of the Eng-lish Tongu e," pp.

218

sqq.

!'NOS! :· JJ! C7 I ON.

GS

J'ROSL

({)

JJ/C 'J"JUN.

words a.re those whi c h by th emsel ves contribute n o thin g to th e
th ought , except a.s spn/111/s of some prese nti\·e idea o r of som e
relation betwe en idc:is; such :ire pronouns, :trt icks, preposit ions,
conjunctions.
This distinction m the offices of words i~ he re rn e n t ion e<l in
order to direct :ittcntion espe c ially to the im portrn ce o f the syrn liol ic clement in discourse . 1n the skillful use o f th is cle m e nt li es
t he se c ret of finenes s :incl flexibility of b nguage . ~yrnliol ic wo rds,
in thei r endle ssl y \·:tried oftices of m odify ing, conn ec ting , color ing
the tho ught, :i.rc wh:i.t m:i.ke pro\ision "for the ligh te r touches of
express ion, th e Yaguc tints, the nnishin;; points . " He nce it is
mo:-;t\y by the se that we estim:ite the efti ci cncy of :i. bnguagc :is
an in :-; trumcnl of thought; for inst:rn cc . the :i.n cicnt Gree k langua ge, un iH·r:·dly a ccou nt c tl the m ost lkx ihlc of tongues in its
ad~tpt~tbi\ i ty to all intric:i.c ies of the id ea, hoids that positi o n c hi efly
l)y Yirt.uc of its fine and copious symbolic ekrnent.
The English langua g e, from its lack of intlccti o ns , must b e corres pondin gl y mo re sc rupu lous in its \\ o rcls o r relatio n. T he syn t:tx beco m es rno rc co mplex in p ropo rt io n as the e tym ology is more
simple; and thus the art or l>uiiding \1·orcl s toge th e r, so that o rder,
relation, and modi!ic:1tion shall l ie adcqua.t eiy pro\· icl c <l fo r and
managed , is that \v h ich, in i-:ngJi:;h, makes perhaps the m ost
strenuous c~a.ctions of the writ er' s skill. This is especially t rne of
prose \H it ing, \\·h erein clearness is the param o un t con side r:i.tion;
no t only the word s clwscn . i111t \1·klt e\· c r l>cl o ngs to the consccuti o n :ind rnutllal d ependencies o f the tll\lugh t, g1ies t(J g i1·e co mplexity to his problem.
11 . T\TL:-; ()!·

l'J\.U:-; E u1c-nO:\.

Three ge n eral types of prose di ct io n m a y h e re be desc ri be d , to
so me one of whi ch any literary \H>rk in prose i,; to be mo re or Jess
p redominantly re fe rred . Thc :-;c th ree types correspo n d roughl y to
the three rund :trnc nt: tl qu alitic-.; of style . - a. ri sing . :1s do they,
fr o m the predomi n ance, in an y p:1ss:igc. of th e pu rely did:icti c
m ood , or of qllickcned em ot ion , o r of a.ctive irnag ina t i<111 . Tt will

be. see
t en d e nc y, a.s t hese successive moods gcl\Trn the
. n. .that
. the
•
cl1 s~ou 1 ~c '. _'.s LO nuke pro se approach in in c rca:-;ing degree toward
poclic
.
.
.
i. 1 . . .ci1c
-· lton; until ' l1l t he thi. rd o r 1rna.g111a.t1\·c
ty pe, it is ('a i:i.u e in skill fnl h:rn ds of a, h ·,111 c11w to th .
,
.
'
Tl , .
. . b
c Vet ) verge of poet rv. I
iese
t)
pcs
ot
prose
a.re
here
reinesentcd
f -· .
·
.
'a.~., cl·" 1c~ to t i.1e , 11H. 1( 1< I
o wu t111 g; Llllt the autho r's mood itsi.:l f it sl'1Ol1l l 1 . . .
.
I .h
' t - · cl
'
·
l uc 1ema rhe1
c.l.e lc1<lm111e
» c.t. I t is
. on ly to a !i111. .
., ., by ,the exac tions of t i1e s.u t lJe
1tcc
has chu ice of m odes of t re·1t
, t ·1·1 1e k·1. 11d
f ] q,1jcc· tha. L he
·
• lllcll ·
o .. t ' 1011 g i t conta111s
potenti
a
lly
it
.
o
l.
.
.
.
" wn l ic t10 11. J\ n .impa ss .ion ed
fo .r inst anc
e, canno t well co ns is t wi th 'a. Sil
. 1l ti C. th Oli gJit 1·
,t 1ca
1. c1ncnt,
·
.
co uc
· impass ion ed it m ust h:'1s c ';i ce rt"" 1.11 ]·.ugeness a1H l un i\-crs:t lit v
of · idea,
,... m :111 nc r
l · sncf h as \IT sec in the topics o f ontor.
'
) · I 11 111-..c
a su_ iJC~t
·] o. s.·c\-cr_c th. ought o r sc ie nce is inc.·11).·tlilc o f an y great
a pp1oac l t o irn:ig111 a t1ve ex1Hessio11 . t l1e <l.1c t1o
. n o f l>Oct i
h as its ow n sphere .
c prose
•

L

•

·

•

,

ty j ) e~ i1·1.ll 1Jc adduced a n
ustra.ti vc passage furnish inb" , as n earl y ...."S poss1ulc,
· i.
a pun.: e xampl e o f its type.

.

11 U n clc_r ca.ch of the th ree fu ndamen tal

J

I

I.

. .
The Intellectual Type . - The fi rst
. _ c11et1on
nn\'
· t\_..1)C of p10sc
t Jrns .1') .e..named
,
because
it
is
the
nat
-·
l
I·
.
.
.
. 111.1 .rng ua;;c ot one who . is,
a.t
him
s imply to hi s rndc
r' s in t e·ll,cc·t., sec
. k· 1n
. rr, tint.
·. l dt 1e::isrng
· c
. self
.
'
is, o. m1 orrn,
..
It .is. a. n enl!rcly
. .
" ch r.
. . rn s tru ct ' o r com· inc,c.
sccon
ma
tte
r
w
he
th
er
the
read
e
r
fe
els,
fa
nc
ies
is
e
x<'i
ted
l>y
t11,
ti
·, t)
.
t . . .
'
. e )()\ l"I\
OJ n o ,, it is nu t s1wh thrn1gh t ;1s nee d s a ny reccjltion !Jcycmd ~ .:
mg unucrstoocl
·1. l!.a 11sm1tt1n
· · ff 1. I "''-' ·
. . Th e inte res t ce ntres· iii m e re)
"' < ',ts
from o n e rn 111cl to a nothe r.
U.ndte ..
r ·..this
type falb th e "ureat l>od ,v of ]JI.OSe
. <l.lSCOllrSC. J ts
· ,
c u1 a.c
c1i:,, t1 cs .n eed
not \Je e n.lawed
o n l1crc, I >emg
,·
-r] f·
,
"
cn.d c nt
has
been
s·1·tl
.
.
·
.
c. no ug 1 ~iom,· ." Ji.it
111
. .·
·
·' '
p1 c11 o us secti o ns. \\-onl,;
. j e.t,
, . j1encc
'
.
arc
, . c. h OScl1
· ~ .\\. 1th jll 1mary refere nce
- tO th,c 1c
tn' c ru!mg
test
.. . 1 may lJC used'·.
,· JS p 1c c .1s10 n ~rnd clea rn ess. Fi "rr ure." o f s1 iccc.1
c111g
n
atmal
to
a
ll
styles,
b1
1t
m
e
rely
in
t
he
ir
ilh1
s t rati ... .
0 , , .. , . ,
Tl
· , \ c c :i 1i:tc 1. t ,- .
an_d co nn exion
o f wo re1s· a rc managed s1rnplv
.
,
.H:: a. n, ,m
• 'be mcnt
..
·
w l( 11 i efcrcmc t o c t o nurny of th e rc:l(
• l L·r ' .,
~ 1·1 1t.C··1·1I ,.L·t 111
· ,C.: jlOll.lT
.
. j

I'RO S L~

70

!J/ (J'/0, \-.

:i.1' o- r:ulcs of this type of p rose , fro m

Of course the re nny 1)C , ' 1

.
f 1\u1wa11 to the highly frn1 s IH:(l l1:i.1ancc
b

•

·

.

. •

.

.

,.
.· 1· "t.
th e un stu<.1ctl :-,1111]_) iu yo
,
.
.
. .
. .. ~ .
l . l t. ·1\i the olij. e cl .IS f11nd:u11ent:i.ll ) the s.rn1e,
of J\lacau :i y' >ll tn ,
.
•
I . .. , d.
. ·ff t , 1\ ' to the rn tcllcct, the unt u ::. t.rn
to :1d::i.p t id e::i.s the m os t e cc iu )
. " 1iowers· , of the re ::i.de r.
ing :ll1ll re aso11111
0

.
'.:), t h e ,- 5 "Life of ;\clson ," the task is
Jn t he f1il\OWll1g p ass age, fr o m .LU )'
f.
e1l
'.: u cffurl
.
. f .
. . n in the pb1 11c>t Jalll;!ll agc , <l ,\ ll cv I • •
simply t c> g1\"c n1 o lln::i.tw '
: ··r,· bv poetic <lc ,·iccs; the s ul, ject co nm:<.:d be rna<k lo excite mlcrest, or to ' 11 l ' '
·
·
. in lereq :wd lica n l 1·.
. .
t~un s its O \\ n
· · · _ .
·. .
. . t hat the l~riti;; h fkd mi g ht h e tl1s lln" 1t ]1acl 1>ce 11 Jl:1 rl uf :\ <.:hull" p ra ; e r'
.
I
l ]
~ · · ttill>' :lll CX C
ll11jl e
.
•
l .
• "n the
Yi c tcH\" \\ h ic h he ex1•e c Cl .
'
,..
.
l . t . : ::i.se 1·1ring u pn n the /i',"!011irt11l• I,-, s u ppo sin g
gu1 s hc1l h) huma .1ll; J
himself , he \ \\· 1cc ga '"e un e n-. "cc.·
.. . , . i' r "'. s \ 1.- carried n o
l
. • r 11'-' \\' i"' rC '-' \ 1~ i1 \
\ ' · o1:- ·
"'
that shc h :<<l st r nck , be ca use ic r g 1c:1 , i-;u
. . . 1\ c' f·,c· l
J-"t·,,, n t his sl1i1'.
f · · tly "\'c crt ·1 1111ni-: '
· ·
n:<g , there W;l' 110 m ca 11s \) 1 ni' '~". ' :: . . . ,·his (i cath . :\ ]>:ti \ lirc<l frum he r
whi c h he ha •l t h us t~1· 1 cc spla r c< .'. tic . rc~c1J~c :;1c \\YO Ye sscls , \\·as n o t m o re than
. . ti' " ·'ii c h rn the t 1e n s 1 ua1 111 '
.
1 I
1111 uc n- ' \ ' '
'
l 1
l - h .. "·as sta rnl111" struc ' ti e
· t :trt o f the <cc
\'. \\' lcrc
c
·
· ·
b '
r
f1f1..:c n yanb r u m tna P·
'
.. f . .
· t in the h eat o f
his left s h o uld e r, :iliout a qu:<r lt: t .1 tct o n e, Jll'
.
.
. '
el'aulct tc on
.
J . . f ·e on t he s11nt " ·hich \\':IS co,·cr c<l with his p oo r
' l.
I le fcl\ \\]'< •!\ 1 1~ ac '
. .
.
1
f . t.
rr >111 him tu r11111g r o u111 'saw
a c io n.
• ' \
]
l l ar ]\· \\'ho w as :1 e'' ' C\' '' ' '
•
·
' ' ·'
f .
. t 1 ·t J l a r d\· ' sa i<l he .
sccrctar )' s "<>O< ·
. .
l .
' The ,· Ji:1 ,·c du ne <J I me a :is '
, .'
. 1 . , mY Ji:<cklione is sh ot
three me n r ah ing 11111 u p .
, . · 1,
·
\
·
r
•
.
'
\c s
l C r ep 1IC«,
,
'
1
• ] h n]' e n ot ,' enc< l :troy ·
· ·

f
. , t 1 sin •' his 11resencc of mind , hc obse r l" ed,
th r .. u g h.'
·
·
l
)''. n o t o r a n10111cn u . ,.,
.
\ cl eve n n < . .
.
l
l· l' . th :i t the t ille r r o pe s, whi c h h a t
r V \\ C I C cart\'\llg )1 \111 c\0\\"11 t 1C .1 < <.ltr , .
] ] \ •
a s tic,
.
. , ·]· . . \ •11\ Prde r c<l th a t n C\\' o n es sl]\)u I >c
.\ • , ..a,· '"er e n.it yd J <.j> .\l<:I ' a.
11cc n s,1 0 , a • · • , ·
·
.
I , . , . l ,. t hc e r e \\' he tu o k uul
'
.
.
tl ,
t'1 ·1t he m1 "h t nt1l >C seen '·
.
"
\ l..
. . ] I 'Id ht: li nt ,·,,nce :dc.\
r <1 \"C i111m<"di:1tcly ; icn · '·
.
\
1. f . 1 ·o\TH...:1\ }11..., f.\l'l' ;ll l • ll "t ~Llf"' .
.
h1' h:\11.J a: r1· i1 v , .1111 c
l" \ I ' ..·l n 1•' "" " "\ ,] rn it h:iv c h a d
I h<"'t:

1

·\

.

.

[

1 \

>f

fro n\ t1 1c

l'l ll' lll\' ,

-.11~: :\ n < ·

l C•

·

'

,,:\• gc' u
w 1'
, f l . 1 . ttl . f T r af:tl t•a r. T he cockcathC t1l rc c e i1·c ''"ith '"rro ,,· t he n ew, « t ic i.1 c o
1 .. , I ]" ·s h e \\' as
i
.·
.
l ~ , 'ln< l d\· \n1 r tri c n i O YCf w H ise JVl I C: .
..
1•i t "·:\s c ro,,· ,k« \11 \h \\ UU !H c<> ' l l '. l,.,
a in \let in th e mi, b hi pm cn's
·I
lifC1c ulty cu11\'e)'c 1l, an< :\ll U\ ll> n '
'
";t \ "'me '
.
.
.
tl '\t th e \l" o\liHl was m ortal.
\,c r tlL 1t w:is '"" n pcrcci,· c1! , upon c ~;rnm.~\'.~ ?a1>~·ai n ll an h , the chaplai n,
. . . . 1 \\" C \'<'' \'\· :is cu n ccalc•l frulll a cx cq
•
.
.
.
I \ ll,, , 10
,,
11 1 . . ·lf 1 c in " cc rt:1i n fr o m the sens at io n Ill
,.
1
att
-n1h11ts
c
1111,sc
'
'
,..,
'
1
a1H l t 1ic mc 11 ca · c · · ·
.;tl · his h r c·1st that no
.
l , tT ·h pf 1Jll)tHl he felt 1n o ine11 l 1Y " 1 11 n ·
· '
his 11 :1ck , :111'\ t 1c ,,.11s ·1 1 .
. .· t · l 1lnt th e sur"C•lll sh o 11 ld ka"e l1i 111, and
l
-, '( uld :\V:'\l 1\ 111 , 1 11 ~\'-. l t
'
•
l
i\l rn ::t n cart ' , . , .
. I 1~
. f l · ' f . , saicl hc 'yo u can du no t 1·
atten d to th ose t" ,,·\wm hc irn g it Jc use ll '
u 1,
•
'
•

l
I
I
i

l
I

71

/'R OSI·." JJ! C T!ON.

All t hat coul<l l1c d one w as lo fan h i11 1 ll" ith p apcr, a nd frequen tly t•i ;.;i, ·c
him le m o nade to allc Yia te his intense thirs t.

I l c w as i11 great 1ui11 , :-.1 11 : ex -

p ressed m u c h anxiety fo r th e <.:l'ent of the actio n, which n o w began t" dc1; :ar c
itself.

J\s o ft en as a s hip st ru ck , t he crew o f t he l'id.ny hurrahcu; a 11 .i at

eve ry hurrah a v is iLle cxl'rcssiu n o f j oy g lea m ed in the cy cs :in d 1nar kc d the
cou11tcn ancc o f t he clyi11g hero .
Nelson d c,, ir e<l to li e t11rncd upo n his r ight side , an d sa id , ' 1 \\'j ,]i T li:1 .i
fen T shall soon be gune .' De:1th ,,·:is, ind e ed, Clj>i,! ly ~: · ­
1 Tis a r ti c uhl iun iww became di flic ult; \,ut he w as .J i,tinct:,·

n o t left the d eck;

p roac hin g .

li c ard to say , ' Thank C ,1d , I ha vc do n e my dut y ~ '

T hcse ll' o rd s he r l·pcat-

cd ly pronoun ced : and th c y \\·en: t he la s t wunb which he u tt ere d .
pi red at t hi rt y n1inutcs aft l~r four , thre e hou rs and a r1ua rt n

I le ex-

afte r hc h:1d

rc cc iv cd h is w ound . "

1

r.

The Impassioned Type. - This type of p rose, :1s the n:um: ind ic:itcs, is th e o utc ome of strong a nd e xalted emotion . l t i,; ; «.:r haps m os t pmc:ly represe nted in o rato ry; and d eals wi th the ;.;re.tl
truths th :i.t com e h u m c , :is Lo rd Baco n says, to m e n's "l >1hi m·s~
anll boso ms," th e important tn 1th s with wh i,·h a rc c ut1ne<"t cd tlie
joys and sorro ws, the hop e s :incl fc :us, th e affe l't iuns :rnil i1itncsh,
of all men .
The e m o tion that rules this typ e o f prose lc:uls sp o nta;1l·(i1 1sl y
to some o f the characte rist ics of poetry . T his is seen, f,>1- 011 l·
thin g, in a te nde ncy tu sh11n len g thy :inrl <·0111mo n 1ibc t: \\"1111k :lll<i
hl>OrL·d connexi t>lls :111d rL·l:1ti(l11 s . Se nmdly, thnc is (ll>scn :! i ,;, .
:i. tcnd c 11C"y tu hciglitt" n Ln g t1:tgc, Ly e m pluyin g \\·ord s of ~t1·iki :1.~
a nd irnprcss i,· c <Jl tali ty. T hirdly, a de cide d rh yt l1111 is e\·i,Jcnt, Jll>i.
regular a nd meas11re d, like poeti c metre, lll! t none th e k ~s a trnc
o bseJT:J.n ce of the sm;n d and Y:i.ri cd cade nce o f wonk T lrn,;
this type alh·an ccs a step to wa rd poe try, liy liurro\1·in g not yd the
poetic voc:il)Llbry, l>11 t someth in g of poetic structure .
The fol1 0 1Ying, from Danie l W ebste r' ,; O ra t ion o n th e J: unke r J fi ll ;\ l unu ment, \\'ill e xen1pliiy the g cn cral el e vated to ne uf imp ass iu11 c d d iscou rse: ·" VE N J·: l<AHl.E ;\JI·:>! you l1avr: co 1u e

(hJ\,\'rt

to us fr u r11 a fu rnlcr g en cr :·!iilill .

M

i ng for n1c.'

Heave n has J,n unt cn usly lcngthcned o ut you r liv es , that you mi g ht l.c li<, ld tl 1i'
joyous day .

Y o u are n o w where yo u stou•l Jifty ye ars ag o , t his very h uur, wi t h

I '1" OSI'; DIC TIU/v'.

/'f.' OSF f)/CT I O. \ '.

vuur brothe r s :ind y o 1;r neighbor, , s lwulde r to shu uldcr, in thc strife fur your

heightens and makes servicealik every endo wm ent of tJ.ste and
fine literary instin ct, while in turn the expre ss ion o f passio n is
regulated and kept in bounds by them.

12

~uu lltrl' . LcJi,,lcl, hu w alt e red 1 The s:ime hc:wcns are in Jeed ove r your
ltc a ds ;' the same ocean rol b a l your fret ; \,ut all else h o w cha nged! Y o u
}:c :H J~ O\V no ruar o f hustilL cu111 u n, yo u sec nn inix ed \·olu 1ncs of s1nul;:c a11d
ihim: ri si n g from liu:-n ing Charlc,-i.111·11. Tltc g ru und slrC\\'ed with the deac\
and the dying : the irn p etu <> us ch:irgc ; the skady :rnrl s uccess ful r epulse; the

i3

III.

lo ud c al l tu rc pc::1kJ ::1ss:Hill; the ,11rnrn 1rnin g v f all that is 1nanly tu r cpc:itcd

The Imaginative Type.- This is a type of prose dict ion in whi c h

r cs is t:in cc ; a tlwus :tnd hus1rn1s frcl'ly a n d fc:irlcssly liare tl in an i ns t:rnt lt1

very few have achieved em in ent success, requ iring as it docs the
fin est ear and the most unfailing taste in the resources of lan guage.
It is the kind of style that shapes itsel f, with more or le ss artist ic
fit n ess, when the writer deals with an imaginative th eme , and shJ.pes
his conc e ptions in the fancy rathe r than in the severity o iogic .
In this kind of writing language is used somewhat :i.s a mu s ical
instrument, to arouse and g ratify the reade r's imagin ation liy irn:a ns
of euphonic sound and imagery . Poetic resources, lJoth of struc ture and vocabulary, are freely drawn upon. E spec ially noti ce::.d>ic
a re epithet and picturesq ue langu:-ige; also many of the archa ic
and quaint form,.; o f poetry. The tendency to rhyt hm is still mo re
marked than in the impassioned typ e , ,,·hilc always harshnc:-,s and
crudeness in consec utions of sou nds a re a\'oidccl.
Notc<l representatives of this ki nd uf prose writin g arc l )(:
Qu incey, JZuskin, Jeremy Taylor, and Milton.

\\'liatci·er of tc:rr ur t here may lie in ll' :t r ant\ death ; -all t hese yo n have \rilnessc.;d , lJ\tt y•rn " ·il1H>S t hc 111 11" nt<>rc.

1\1\ is l'eace . The heights of yonde r
lliclr t} poli~, il:-> fp\\ ·c r;o; ~1nd r1Ju!"..;, whi ch y 1>U th e n S:l. W tilled with \Vive s ~lll ll
cliil ,lrcn and c o untry111en in d ist ress and ter r o r, and 1.wL ing wi th un11ller::1l1le
c m ut iu ns f, .r th e i, sne of th e cu rnh a t, ha,·c prcscntccl y o u to -Jay with tl1c sight

.,f its wh<> c lup p:' p op u ht iv n, c u 111c ou t to wck<>rne a ntl greet yo u 'nth a
uni ,·crs:i.\ jul iilc c.

y ,, n,Jcr prou1l s hips, by a fcli,:it y u f Jl'" iti1rn ::ip prupn:ite ly

lyin •-. at the fu o t of this m o nnt, and se em in g fu ntlly tu cling ::iround ii, arc nut

1 ; 1 c:t~is

o f ann oy:rn c c to y o n, hut yn ur co untr y's Oll'll mc:ans of dis t inctio n and

dc kn c e .

,\1\ is pc:i. ce; and C11d h:b gr:i nt c<l y ou thi s sigh t of your co untry's

h:r p pincss, e re yuu slumbe r in the g r:<'·c.
and t<J p :r rt:tke the r e wa rd ,, f

"'' lll'

l [<: has allowe d y•iu t" l1e huld

p a tri o ti c tnil ;; ; and he has allull'Cd us , your

s<> ns and r o unt ,-ymcn, t <> m eet yo u he r e, ::tllll in t he name 'l f thc present
·
· ti lC' 11',\ 111"'- ,,f ;·<·t11· cu11 n t n·,
in thc 11 :1111 c uf liLerty , to thank
l-',CIH.~ r~l tlt)n, lll
.

yuu '. . . .
l:ut :di ! ] Ji 111 '. t h t: lir'<t i'. rc:tt 11 iarty r in thi-; grc:it C:111St' ! l f iin ! thc p rcrn:iture ,·icti •n "f his u11·11 s1.:lf-dn·o1ing h c: art ! l !i111 '. the head of our civil
c u uncils :r m l the dcst i11 cd lc:u\cr (if 0 m milit:iry l >an <ls. \\'h<Jm n o thing brought
Ji ith c r i,;,l tlic un1 111cm·hal1lc li re "f his " "·n spirit! ·1li1 n ! cul off 11y Providence.; in the h uur "f <J1Tr\\' h c h11 ing :uD.icty ;111 ,! thi c k gl"om; fa llin g <.:re ht:
saw the st :i r "f his country ri, 1·; 1•11u ri11 g 0:1t hi s gc11c!'l) ll S hluo<l lil;e ll'alc r,
1
] 11·f11 re h e 1"1cw whether it w 11ul , I fl'rl ili1c :i hnd ,,f frt·<'du m ur 11f J,, rnd:i ge -

h u ll' sli:;ll 1 s trugglc w il h the l'lll \•li,, 11< t h:it s tiilc tll<' 1i t le r:rn c<.: 1>f thy n :unc '
Our pqo r w ork m:iy J't.:r ish ; hut t it inc sh:rl! endure'. This m u nu111ent m:ry

The fo!Jowing, fr o m Rusk in's "Sto n es of \ 'eniee," carries this type o f prose
to the v e r y verge of p o et ry .

"\Ve know that genti::ins grow o n the Alps, :rnd olivcs o n the 1\ pe nnines ;
but w e do n ot e n oug h co n ce iv e fur o urse lv es th a t variegakd mosaic uf the
world's s urface which a bi rd sc.:cs in it s mi grat ion, that d iffere n ce L>ctween the
d istric t of the gentian and o f the olive w hich tlic s tPrk an d the swallow sec
far off, as t hey lean upo n the sirocco wind. I.ct us, for a m oment, try to ra i;,e

moulder :rw a y; the su\ id groun cl it r ests u pu n may sink do wn t o a k,·cl 1nth

ourselves e ve n a b ove the level o f their flight, and ima gin e the :'>1 e<literr:rncan

the sc:r; 1nil thy memory ,h:rl l nut fail '.

lying beneath us like :rn irregula r lake, ::i n J a ll its :rncicn t pro montories sleep-

\ \'hcresocn: r amung me n ::i hc:nt

shall he fuuntl tb :rl l>c:its to the tr :rn,pnrt s uf p:tt ri ,,tisi1i a n d liberty , it s asp ir:1-

ing in the sun; here and th e re an ::ingry sp o t of thunder, a grey st a in •> f

tiuns sh:ill l>e tu cb irn kintlrcd "ith th y spiri t '."

s to rm, moving up o n th e burning field ;

Of su ch prose as thi s it i,.; tu be n.:rnarkul th:tl it c:urnul well be
:to: in c()ld l il1 1u.J : l" lie .c:c nuinc it rn11 s l lJC the
spun~:m co u,.; ;1 ttcr~tnn: uf emo tio n :tn d \kq i co111·iC'liu1 1. The
fcn·id and gc1 1erou c: ]':ts>' iui1 , fil lin g t!w spc:ik e r's h eart and will,

111 , 111 11(.1d1t r 1·il.

and h e re ::int! there a flxc1l wreath

of white volcan o smoke, surrounclc<l by its c ir cle o f ashe s ; bu t fo r the m ust
par t a grea t peacefuln ess of light, Sy ri::i ancl G reece , Italy an<l Spain, laid
like pieces of golde n pavement into the sea-lJ lue, c hased, as we stoop neare r
to them, with bossy h eak n w ork of m o untain cha ins, and gluwing softly with
terraced garde n s , :rncl flowers heavy with fr :r nkinc cnsc, mixcJ amon g masses

PR OSE DIC FION.

J'l\OSL' LJICT/O.\".
of laurel, and or:rngc and plullly palm , th:i.t ah:i.tc w ith their grey-gree n sh:i.dows
tht: Jnirnin " of the m:ublc rocks , :tllll <Jf the icdg c s o f porphyry slup 1n g umle r
l ucent sa n~L T he n let us pass farther to wanls the n o rth, u n til we sec the
vrient culors ch:rnge gr:i.<lually int<> :i. ,·:i.st belt u f ra iny green , where the pas turt:s ul S \\' itzcrland, and jl<>Jlbr \':i.lleys of Fr:rn cc , a n d dark fu rcsts o f the
l>:uiul>c.: and C arpat h i:i.ns stretch fw m the mouths o f the l .oi rc l<i those o_f the
\'u ig'1. see n through clefts in g rey Sll' irls (Jf rain-cl oud and flaky Yells o f
the mi st o f the b r vvk s, spreading lo w ::d<lng the pastmc bnds : ::tnd then,
farther n o rth still , to see the ea rth hc:i.\' e int<) might y m:isscs u f h:aclc n rock
and heathv moor , lionkri 11 g with :i. h r n :-1d \\· ask uf gl110111y puq >k tha t belt of
intn irre••1il:i.r
and gri,]v~ isl :rncb amid st the
.
:-.,
:-f.1c J' l an1.. j .\\ ·1..J ~) cl , ".~ ll<l SJ>iinkrin"
northern seas, l Jcatc n by storm :in•l ch il lc<l liy ic e-drift, an 1l to rmen te d by
fur iuth pul ,cs o f co nt e n ding ti de , unti l th.: roots of t h e _las t f.urcst ,; fail fr om
<lll)Ullf.!" t l H.: 1l ·111 r "'·incs
~\
, ~::i.nd the ln11 wc
:--. r ,,f th e nort h w111d l>1l es their peaks
in tu barre nness ; and, a t bst, th e w'.11! o f ice, <lur:1l 1k like iron , set s, ,lcath -

likc , il' white teeth '.lg01i n st us out 11f the p ular t\\·ilight."

I n this p:i.ssage we arc :i.warc at once of the writer's somewhat
d ar ing in cu rsions into the poetic realm . manifest Ly words and
structure aiike . It may be interesting t o poin t ot tt some u f these
characteristics borro wed from poe try . J\ o t ice . fo r ins t:rn ce, how
much is introduced for word -p :i.inting : " I'romontnric s sf,-,pin,r; in th e s un"; " ::t gr,-a! f' t'lll't/ 11h1 ,·ss tif light "; "the
nf the ni >rth wind,.; a stl s its -:<'l1il:· l «rl/1 ~g~ in '.' t us " ; " .~'Tc~l' s1t··1rls

l i :ll/ '"l' I"

,,

.

l

l

of ra in -clo ml :i.n ll Jla~y -;.•,-ils of /h,, n11 st of the , roo ,s.

"

Ep ithet: " .")irol°c"O

,,·itHl '';

0

anci,· 11 / p r o n 11 1n to riL' S ··;

" .rold<n

p 3. \'c1nt." nl ";

"fer-

j l:'1.ltn , . · •' l lf co1I s;i 11d ' ' ~ ' ' c1 r i ,· 11/ cp {; r s "; " rainy
! g~1 r c 1c11:--i. "., "flullll'
.
·
'
.
•
.
"
,, r
ti.
Ill
"'r
".
" ii i\!> the ·!<'<J·l• ·l u e ." 1\ ll th c,c epithets arc u l the
green ;
111·11 '.... 1
l
•
dccu r::ttivc or desc ri pt ive kind.
1

1 ·1 1 (1 '1

Alliteration : · o f 5/ ,1 rm " ; "/•cl«.'
" 1\ grey s / ::tltl
' · '·' /,ea te n " ·ork "; " l•itcs tll e ir peaks into
barrenness" ; " mixcil a im ing m ::-s,,c~ of laurel . a nd u r:rngc ::i.nd flumy palm ."

Rhythm cncro:Khing on m etre: " All its a n c ic.:n t promonto ri es
Sleep ing in t he sun."

75

" II ere and the r e an an g ry spo t ,,f thunJc:r ."
"\\' ith bussy L>eatc n w ork of m ou n tain c h :i.i ns. "
" S p reading k " v alo ng the past u re la nds ."
" By furi o us pulses of co nte n d ing ti <le ."

This type of p rose is so e xc eptional, and ex cellence in it 1s so
rare, that it is adduced n o t so m uc h fo r imitati o n :i.s fo r study. Jt
'annot 1Je m ade 1Jy rule an d p recept; :i.n<l the attem pt to pr01 lucc
it, unkss a rea l p oet ic fe el in g compels it, results on ly in artificial
worcl-m onge ry.
Mixture and Alternation of Types . - In the <li :-;c ri1nination of
th e foregoi ng ty p es of d ic ti o n, it is not meant th a t c \·ery literary
·wo rk ought ne cessa rily to co n for m throughout to :i.ny one type .
As matter of fac t \\'e find many works either of m ixe d type or
passi ng on occ:i.sion into v:i.rio us typ es, according to mood and
subject-matte r. · In :i.n o ration, fo r in stance, th e pre\·ailing typc is
intellectual, being d ue to the effort to convey and enforce t hou ght;
and from this it is di rect and n :i.tural , as feeling becomes greater,
to ri se into the l:i.n guage of p:i.ss ion . J\fuch of De Q1 1i11('{.:y's
and M ilton 's p rose-poe try rep rese nts a mingl ing of t he impass ioned
and the imaginative .
The intellectual is the fundamental type, the others comi ng in
merely :i.s occasio na l a id s. Emo tio n an<l imagi nati on ha\· e po wer
in prose style on ly :i.s th ey have a Ga.s is of wcll-d.Jrne<l thou gh t; if
they exist only for themselv es, apart from thi s, they are empty.
N OTE. - I n the follo ll' in g, whi ch is m ost ly in a light conversa tiona l t•111c,
a nd o f th e simple intellec tu al type, notice how n atu ra l it i,, whcn an im agi11:1ti ve dcscriptiun is introduced, to lapse int o a m o re ilo ll'i ng styk and cml'l.,;·
ep ithet aml p ictu re sque wo rds. The m o re im aginative par t is cnclo>ed in
b rackets.
" The attractions of this spot a rc n o t num erous . T here is su r f-bathing all
al o ng the oute r si d e o f the L>each , :i.nd good swi mming o n the inn -r . The
fi shing is fai r; a nd in still we at her yac htin g is r :ither a fa,'o ri tc am use m ent.
F urthe r than th is there is litt le to be sa id, save th at the h o tel is co n du cted
upo n liberal principles, am! the soc ie ty g cner:i.lly select .
Ilut to the love r o f n at ure - aml wh o has the co u rage to :l. \' O W himsel f
aught else?- the sea-sh o re can n e ver be m o n oto n ous . [The swi rl and swee p
of ever-shifting waters, the flyin g mist of foam L> reaking away int o a gray and

O CC..I Sl <JY .-U

f ) ! C 'l'IUY.

ghostly d ist:ince rlo wn t 1c hc:ic!i . the etcrn :il drone u f ucc an, min g ling itself
wi th on e',, t:il k by <l:i y and \\' ith t he li gh t da nce-music in the parlors by nigh t
- all thes e a rc :tct iv e so urces uf :i p assi,· c pleas ure. 1\ nd tu lie at le ng th upon
th e ta "·n y s:t nd , \\':t tch in g , th ru ug h hal f- closed eyes, th e hea\' ing w:i,·cs, that
m o un t ag:i inq :i dark bl ue sk y " herein g re :ll siln:ry m:tsscs 1>f cl11 ud lluat idly
u n . whiter t han the sunlit sai ls tl1 a t fade and gr" "' a nd fade ;ilu ng the horizon,]
\\' l:ile som e fair da msel ,it> close i>y. rc:td ing an cient h:t llads o f a simple metre,
u r olde r ieg en ds o f lo \' e :i n1I ro m:in cc - td l me. my eate r o f the fas hi o n:tblc
lvt,>s, is n o t th is a divt:rsio n wel l wo rth your h:iving?"

SE c T1 0 :-.: Fo u 1.:nr.
D I CTION AS DETE R MINED BY OBJECT AND
OCCASION.

fo rego in g cbs,; ifi ca ti o n o f t he types of prose dictio n has
cuntcrnplatcd d ictio n as it :i.nswers to the suhjec t-mattc r and the
\1-riter' s correspo n d ent m ood. It rem a ins no w to cons ide r what
cha racter is t ics di c ti o n, o f ,,·h a tc\·c r type, nrn st take . in thc writer's
l'ff!lrt to ad:1 pt him self to h is re:i.d ers or h earers ; that i.-;, how dicti o n is mad e to an swer m ost cffcctually to its oi>jc c t an d occ:i.sion.
TH I·'.

I.

The Diction of Spoken Discourse. - The sta ndard with which
all wri ti ng Lcg ins is natur:i.lly and p ro perly the spok en word.
\\'ri te as you would spea k, is the safe univcr,.,a l rule . Th a t is, ai m
:ll so met hi ng of the dirc c t11ess , the si1111 .Jic it y of structure, th e life,
th :l t bei ong id cally tv co rn-crsa ti on. If too g reat d eparture is
rn :-u lc from t hi s s ta nda rd , the style be comes c ith er pedantic or
,,·eakly sent imental. In no wa y ca n th e \Hiter bcttc r promote
ck:uness a nd stra igh t- fo rw:i.rdnes s o f style th:i.n hy keeping consta1itly in mind wha t are the nc cd s :-i nd r:i. p.1 c itics of :in aud ie nce.
I; ut while in ge n eral thi s is trn e , the r irr um stan C'CS of spoken
discourse m akc some c h:u:1etc ri~tics irnpe r,1ti 1·e, wh ich written
c.liscourse in its di fferent c ircu mstanc es may tre:lt wit h more free -

O C CA SJ UNAL DICJ'!UX.

7i

do m, and at thc same time gran t some lioc rtie s d e ni ed to writ ten
di sco urse . What th ese arc may b e gath e red fro m th e o .casion
and requirements o f a n onli n:uy co iwersation .
i. The spea ker mu st make hi s m eanin g intc ll 1gil1le :i.t once .
must arre st th c attentio n and arou se the in teres t uf' his a udi e nce
fro m the outse t or his di scourse; o th erwi se the olijec t is los t alto gether. Hence, the sent e nces, or :u k:ist t he di ffe ren t m cm l>crs
aml masses of the tho ught, nel'.d to Le short :ind d irec t ; th e
p oints of em phas is n eed to lie s trongly mark ed; and often -.:om e
p o inted manne r o f e xpressio n, su c h :b a nt'thl'.sis, cpigTarn, o r
s triking rncta 11hor, m a y be employed tu uring the th o ught out in
stronger relief.
2. The speaker nccd s to l>c mo re care ful th an thc writer to
re peat important thoug hts in di ffere nt tl'.rms, or, :is is often 1 ec essary, in id entical terms. The matter of spo ken disc o urse is
generally su c h t ho ug ht as needs to ue n o t only m:i.d c clear bu t
enforc ed; and both the se requ ireme nt s m a ke it impo rt:rnt •hat
the main p o ints be re iterated, held up in d iffe rent li;;h ts, subjected
to var ious ill ust ra ti ons and clu c idati o ns, until the y h:i.ve i 111~1rcsscd
themselves on the mind o f e,·c ry hearer.
3 . Spoken d iscou rse will bea r to be more irregular and alm1pt
than written ; <leclara t ivc sc nte n ccs a re inters persed mo re frecly
with e xcbrn:1tory a ncl intcrrugati ,·c; trains o f thoit gl t a rc so me times introd uced sugges tively, and broke n off fo r t c h ea re r to
linish. The speake r can safcl ie r lc:l\·e his style less fmished, lic cause h e has all the ad1·antagc o f gestu rc, cxprl'.ss io n of co un te nance, a nd modulation of 1·oi ·e, to supplement it.
4. Often also a slight s:i.crili c e of liter:1l t ruth to \' i\'icln ess - in
o th e r words, a so m e wh :i. t s\1·ccping or exagge rate d c:xprc ssio n is qui te admiss ible in sp o ken di scourse, a n d no t mi sle adin g . l>ccause this want of ex:ic tness easi ly correc ts itself in the o ccas iu n
and circ um stances . Wh a teve r is mo re th an str ic t truth the he:irer
n:i.tur:i.lly adjusts to the sco rl'. of emotion. By thi s is no t rne:int
that the choi c e of expressi o n in s p eech m a y lie k. s ca reful ::i. nd
calculated than in writing; a !Jungling in accura cy is imdmissil1k

7S

OCCA S I U.\'.-11. / JI C l"/U.V.

O CC.· I S! OX .-J L JJI C /"10 .\".

a ny whnc ; b ul inas mu c h as the ch oi ce is dete rmined by the
d o uble req uirem ent o f ck a rn L·ss ;ind \"i \·id ness. the bttcr qu::tlity
111:1y o perate to tra nscend ac c urac y in simply the 0 11<" di rection oi
inte nsity .
The fu l l,"' in g , fr.i111 Cha r les J :une s Fu~ , 11·ill illthl r:ite ,·c ry s tr ik ing ly th e
irn jlcl U<> US, irre gu h r n :i t ur c o f <'' lt' ll l)"' r :in co us spt:ech .
" \ \" c.: must ke c.: p l \, n1:i p arl<.: fo r , , ,11 1c t i:nc lu ng e r a t \\":t r, :is :i st:ile o f proCr:ic io us ( ;"d , , ir . is \\' ar :i s t:itc.: u f pru l, :it i.1 n )

li:\liPn !
li.: 111 '

I s it d an_ge ruus fu r n :ll iun s ln li ve in a111ity

Yigilan cc, yo ur pul icy. yu ur

c u n 1 11\\ Jll

p u wc rs

l •y putti n g :1 n c.:n d l u t he.: ho 1T•H S uf 11·cn )

pf

11

h pea c e a r:is h sys-

!t h c.: :ic h (l l h e r )

A re yo ur

11 b :-; c n ·:l tiu 11 , lo be t:\.ti 11 g ui shed

Ca nn o t this s t:1t<.: u f p ru lJa t io n be as

\\" c.: ll u n d e rgo nt: \\"itll<JUt a 1ld in g tu the cal ;1ln g nc o f lrnm:i. 11 s u fferin gs ? But we
mu s t / ,111s,·.' \ \" h:i t 1 m thl t h e 11•>Wc.:i s o f C r c :i l l ~ri t a in lJt: tu rn u u t, h t: r best
11lornl sp ilt, h er t r <.:asun; 11·.1 ..; ted. th a t y nu may m:ikc :i n c xp c:r irne nt? l' ut yo ursel n:s -

u h , lh:i t yu u 11·" u ld p u t ,· u u r sc h ·cs in the fiL" ld u f li:i. tlle, :i n d lea rn to

ju dgi.: u f t h e s o r t o f h o r ror s th :i t
lc a ,_;t h:i n :

Y" ll exc ite !

Tn fu rm e r \\" :t r s :i m :i n mi g ht :it

fct:l i n~T ' "<1 lll C i ntc rc:<;t, th:it s en·c rl ' " lia l::in cc in h i<; mi n d the

SlllllC

i111J1ressiu 11S 11·hic h

:1

,_;ct:nC o f C:t rn :1ge a n d of d i.::tlh lllU ' t in fl ict.

] f :t

l\l;\ 11

h aJ

lH:e n prese nt al the i>:ittlc o f 1;lc 11h c in1, fu r in s t:i n c <", :in cl h :i tl i n •]ltiru l the
111 <11 i,·c of t he 11e1tt lc, t he re w:is no t a s u ld i<: r cn,t.'.:tge d \\"h o cu ul,! nut h a ve sa ti-,lil'<l Iii, cu r ios ity, :i11tl c.; ,·c n pcrh:ips :il Li y c,J h is fet: i ing s -

t hcy \\'t:rt: fig h tin g

t" rc jl r <.:ss t h e u n cont n >l lc.\ :im liitio n o f t h e Cr1111 .! ,lfc• 11.irq 1" '·
" ·ere: p rt: ,_;ent

Ill' \\'

:it

:1

lic.:ld ,,f , l:t ug l1 tc r, :in.\

\\" CJ" C

w 1..: rc 1ig }1tin g , ' Fig h ti ng? ' w o u ld l>c th e :i. ns\\'c r ,

:t re / < 1 11 .r iil.~'· '
:ig., ny

0

' \\"h ;· is th:ll rn :i n e xp ir ing

0

\\"h :i t m t:a ns th is i111 1•hc:ihk fury ) '

' luit c wr \) ng. -.. ir:

J;u t if a m a n

t u in <J uir c fu r w h :it th ey

' they

:i. r e n ut figh tin g,

th ey

\ \" h y i-; t h at o th e r \\"ri t hing in
The :i11 s w l' r mu s t lJ e, '\'ou are

y ou d c(t: i\T y 1111 r-.;cl f. ~l"hcy an.: ll •> t fi g h ti1q.,:- .

J) o no t distu rb

t h e m ; th e y ar e m crc l;· f <llf< i ll,!,' . T h is m:i n is no t cx11 iri 11g \\' i th :igo 11 y, t h:i l man
~

Th " y :i re nu l a n g ry w itl 1 <111c :i n u tli c r: th ey

,,f •1u .1r rel ;

Intl t h l'i r co1 un t ry t l1i11k s t he re , h uul d he a

i..; 11<J t <i l':t cl: he is o n ly p:iu, i11 ).;
l 1:1 ve 11u \\'
p :i u s t:.

ll <I

ct uo.;e

;\ 11 t h:it y o u se c, si r , i-; n nt hi ni:: l ike ligh t in g : the re is n u h:mn , nor

cru e lty , n v r bl uo d s h e d in il \\'h:lle\' c r; it is 1w th in g mo re t h:i n :i f vl it irn l pmm!

1t is 111erely tu t ry :in cxpe ri111c n t. [, ) ' c c \\" ht:thc r l : u n :i p :irte \\'ill n o t b e h ave
hi 111 se lf lo c tter tlnn h e re to fo re: an d in t he m c:i n t imc
p:i u s e in pure fric111bhi11 ~ '

\\" C

y1n1 r,;eh·cs th<.: :1dv11ca t<.:o.; <•f o rdn?

Y w 1 t:ikc u p :i ,; ;· -; te ll\ c:ilc ti lat e d t o u nc iv-

ili1.e t h e " ·u rl d , tu t ra n 1p lt: 0 11 r el igi"" · tu still c i n th· h c:irl n o t me re ly th e
g<"n c r•l' ity , ,f n o l 1k
th e

p r usccu t iu n

yc> u."

S<"llli llll' n l , l 111 t th e affc:c t i.. rh o f suc i.d n:it u rc , :inJ in

o f th is sy , tc m y u u s i•rca J

Discourse written for Public Delivery. - Altho11gh th e idc:J.l
of s poken discourse is th:i.t its e xp ress io n be e x tctn po ranc o u ~ , a
brge p roportion o f suc h di scourse is, a nd wi ll c oll ti 1 uc to lie,
\\'r ittc n and read o r rec ited in p ulilic. Wi th so me iitcr:i.ry t:J.s b.
as for inst::m c c p11Lilic kct uri.:~, thi s is in d eed a lm ost a n cc e o-~ity :
a nd d o ubtless the ternpc r:11nc nt an d habits of thou,;h t of a g rea t
m:rny p u bl ic speake rs a re such th:.it they ca n repres ent the: mse H' S
he ller by wr itten and rcacl d iscourse tlun uy p ure ly e xtempo raneous u tte ra nc e .
The chi e f m ot ive fo r writing a spoken di scourse in fu li be fo reha nd is th us e xp ressed h y H.usk in in one of hi s le ctu res o n a rt :
"Do n ot think I a m sp cJk ing unde r exc ite d fee lings , or in any
e xa ggerated terms . I ha \·e w n 'tlm the wo rd s I use, that I may
kn o w what I say, a ncl that yo u, if yo u ch oose, m ay sec wh::i.t T han:
sai d_ ''
The thing m ost ne cessary to ])e r cmc mbcre cl, a nd yet ofte nc-; t
di sregarded , in such writing , is, th a t it mu st su bjec t itsel f unre se rvedly to the sta nchnl of spoke n di scourse _ T he q uiet m oo d of
the writer in hi s stu dy m us t Le co nquered a nd replaced I •Y th e
vi go rous moo d of th e o ra to r in th e presence of h i: a ud ie nc e. ~cn ­
tencc s must b e sim ple and p o inted; the distan c e l.iet ll"e cn pause-;
shou ld b e sh o rt ; a nd the heare r should n ot be m ad e to ca rry :t
burde n of though t in mind ll"ait in g fo r its result o r :ipplicatio n .
The same n ee d cxi:;ts fo r judi c io us repetiti o n as in purel y ~ p rikcn
d iscourse. I rreg ulariti es of s tyle, and especially the e xaggerat io n
due to in te ns ity, arc natur:1lly c: nn sid c ra hly to ne d do \\'n ; fo r t he
aud ience, see ing the wri te r's ma nu sc rip t bef1J r c h in\ wi ll unco nse iously req uire of him the wel l-co nsid e red utterance of written
d iscourse _

h :t\'C ag r eecl to a

.\11 .J i..; thi,; th e \\' :t)' , si r , t h :il yn u art: t 11 show

lc rr u r :i ncl dt: su bti u n :iruu n<l

7 ')

The foll o w in g , fr o m o n e o f Car d in al Ncw m ~, n · s se r m o ns , \\" Cll iil u st r:itcs th e
~i m plicity, the d ire c t n ess , th e ski ll fu l r e p e tit io n an d :i rnpl ific a t io n o f th o ught

n eccss:iry, th :it a h c :irc r m ay r cc ei,·c a n d u n de rs t :111 tl it at o n e h c.:~ ring.
"The re :ire tw o wo rl d s , ' t he vi s ible a n d the in vis ili lt: ,' a s the C r eed s pc:i ks,
-

th e w o rl d w e se e, :i nd t he w o r ld w e d o n o t s e c ; :i n d t he \\' o rld "' h ic h 11·c

<lo n o t s ee a s r e ally exi sts :is th e w o rl d w e d o sec .

J t r e:illy e xi-; ts, th ough we

{) ( .(AS! ON. ·1I. /) / ( ·y-roN.

80

see it n ot. T he wo rl <l that we se c 11· c kn o w to e xist, l•Nrr11 sc we see it. We
ha,·c b ut to lift up o ur eyes and loo k a round us , a nd we ln vc pro(Jf o f it : our
e ye s te ll us . \Ye s ec the s un, m 0 on and sta rs, ea rth a nd sky , hi lls a nd valkys ,
\•: no ds and pb ins, SC:b and r i,· c r,;. :\ n.J again, we sec men, a nd th e wo rks of
me n . \V e sec c ities, :cml sta te ly ln1i ld ings, and the ir inh aL itanls; men runnin g
t ,1 a nd fr o , and busyin g thc ms c h«;s to provide hr tliem sch·cs a n d th eir families, o r to acco mp lis h g rea t des ign s . n r fu r th e \T ry ln1sin css' s:-i. k c . A ll th at
m eets o ur eyes fu rrn :; one 1n 1rld . It is a n in1 1nc1isc ""'rl .\ ; it n :ac hcs to the
s L1rs .
T ll<lusa n <l s o n t ho us:111d s <•f yc:u,.; mi g ht 11·c " \•C ed up the sky, and
th o ugh we we re swift e r tkrn th e lig ht itself, m: sho uld no t re ach them ali.
Th ey arc a l d istan ces frn m u<; g rc·:n e r th:111 any tha t is ass ig na ble . s,, hi gh, so
,,-i dc , so d e ep io.; t he 11·o rld; :111 d yet it al s<J cn111 cs n c:i r a n <l c l use to us. It is
C\Try whcrc; an rl it se e ms t• 1 k:w c n n n11 >111 fo r :-i ny '•lh<:r world .
An d ye t in sp ite o f th is 11 11i ,·e r;; :i l wo rl d 11·li ich we sec, ther e is a not he r
' '·"ri d, qui te ::is f: tr- sp rc ::idin;:;, 'lui tc a s close le> us . and more "' o n duful; another
\\' or ld all ar o und us , th <• ug h 11·c sn: it nu t, a n d more 11-.1nd c rful ih :i n the wo rl d
\ 'CC se c , f, 1r t h is r c:iso n if fu rn•) o th er, th a t 11-.: do n o t se e it.
1\ ll arnun d us
ar c nnird > cr1c~ s ohjL:c t~ . con 1ing ~n d g1)i11 g, w :t tclti ng , w urking ur " ·ailing,
w hi ch we ;ce n o t : this is th a t ei ther world, which the eyes reac h n vt unt o, but
fai th only ."

IL

The Diction of Written Discourse . - T hree cli:uac teri sties, in
\Ylii ch \H iti11 g di ffe rs fro m spoken di sco urse , may here he nam ed.
r . It mu st li e more exact than spe ech . The word s ch ose n
mu st e xpre ss neithe r more nor less tha n the t houg ht; and ofte n
stateme nt s mu st be guarded and qualified in order to be kept s;i.fe
within the 1Jou nc1s of trnth ; fo r th e wri te r nee ds to say only what
h 1~ c:m sta nd liy , ha \·in .!:.: no opportunity of or:tl c:qil:mati on or
correct io n .

IL mu st he less un g1 1arclcd ;md ellipt ical tkrn speech . It is
more :- p :u-111~ 111 the 11 ~ c of suc h contr:i.<' tions :ls d, 1n '!, crrn' I, it's fo r
it is, /1,".1 fo r he is, I 'll fu r I \\· ill , :rnd the iikc . It mu st often be
scrupul ous in s11p plyi ng p:1rti clcs wh ere con \· crsat ion is free r to
o mit t he m: as . " ,' /! wh:1 t liom \\' il l th e tr:1!11 sLlrt?" ft mu:-;t al so
di scml m:rny o f the shor t, 1·lliptic:il , i11 0 .1ct phrases 11scd in speech.
3. \\.rilin g is less v:iri ed in cu nqrn ct ion , :rnd ;tl the s:unc tim e
more complex, t k rn <;pce ch. Lc~ s \·;1 ri c d, IJ c c:rn se it mu st keep,
2.

SI

for the most part, to one to ne of discourse ; hence interrog:it io n,
excbmation, anJ other me:ins of v:lriety and vivi d ness, are less
nat nr:ll to writing. More complex, because suspcnsi\·c structure ,
long se ntences, ::rnd involved mocl ific :::i.tions of the th ough t, c::m be
more safely employed, since the written or printed p:lgc is the re, to
be studied at leisure .
NOTE. - S uch a lo ng-j o i ntcll se ntence as th e following fr rim Di d ens, w•1u ld
he intole rab le in sp o ken d isc o ur ,-e ; the speaker "·otild be c o nst antl y o ut ,,f
breath between p a uses, to say n ot hing o f the i nvoluti o ns of clauses an •l
phrases.
"The storm had lo ng gi,·cn place to a calm the m os t p r o fo und , an rl th e
eveni ng w as pret ty far :-i1h·anced - ind eed suppe r w ::is OYer, an d th e pr oces<; .-,f
di gestion proce e di n g as Lwo ra b ly as, under the infi uence o f c o m pl e te t ra n quility, cheerful co nversati o n, anJ a m o de rate all o wanc e o f b ran d y and 11·a tn ,
mos t wise men convcrs::int with the ::in :> tumy anJ fun cti ons o f the l111 n1an fr:ini c
will conside r th at it o ug ht to have p roc eeded, when tl1e thre e fri c nd5, r•r a>
one mi ght say, lJ o tlt in a civil ::ind reli g io us se nse, ancl with proper <l c fcrcn cc
nnd reg ard to th e h o ly state of m:i trim o ny, the tw o friends (:\lr. anrl ) lp;_

Bro wclie counting as no m o re th:in one) , w e re startled by the n o ise o f ln ud and
nngry thre a ten in gs he ~ o w stai rs, whi ch pre sently att a ine d so high a pi tch , :wd
were conveyed besides i n la ngu:ige so tow e rin g , sa n guin ::i ry an <l fcro c iLlll >, tk• t
it c o uld hardly have been o.;urpasscd, if th ere had a ctually l•vc n a S :i racc n's
head th e n present in the c: stabii ,;l1111cnt, s 11 pp() rt cd on the s i1oul clcrs an rl '11 r mounting the trunk o f a re:il, live , furi o us, and m os t unappe asable Sar:icc n ."

Some great writers, not:lbly Durke, have contemne d the id e:: i. of
any difference between spoke n and wri tten diction, and m;i.intai n
th:::i.t everything written should con form to the st::tn lb.rcl of speec h.
Dut it mu st he rcrn c mhc red th:lt Emk c's .•/'ad1, be in g th e utl er:llln::
of an extr:::i.ordina ry mind, is hard ly to be Liken as the rc present:itive of average speech ; :m d furthe r, that the acknowled ged d efect
of hi s great addresses by precisely in the fact th:lt th ey were too
mnch like wri tte n di sco urse ; t hey exacted so much though t and
were so ri ch in im:lgery th:::i.t th ey were heard with compar:::i.tivc
indifference, whil e in their printed form they becam e En.; !i:-; h
classics. It would have been better, th erefore, at kast fo r hi s
immediate purposes, if Burke Ind bee n more obsen·ant of the lib ert ies and limits of the two kind s of discourse.

OCC.-1SJ 0, \',-/ L J.J IC 1 ·1 (}, V.

OCCA S /0/1/AL D I CTJ ON.

Bu t while ;i.s matte r of fact th ere arc rc::tl diffe rences between
writi ng :i.ml s peech, it is p rec;i.rio us for .the writer to coun t on them
so fa r ::ts to exc use neglige nce in h is 1n it tcn s tyle . He needs to
kee p care ful ::t ml con,; tant w::ttch ov er th e life and int ere st of his
d ictio n; for if it b eco m es ped a nti c or over-involved, the reason is
li kel y to be that he h:is u nco nsc io usly surrend e red him self too
free ly to the libe rtie s o f h is pe n, ::tnrl needs simply to turn :rncw
1.ow::tn.l the stam.b rd of the s poken word.

ed ucated people, is often inco rrect. Th e no1·cl-wri te r, m co nstructing his di a logue, mu st so stee r be tween a bsol ute accuracy
of bnguage - which wo uld give to hi s co nve rsatio n a n air of
pedantry - and the slovenly inaccuracy of ord in a ry t:.tlkers which, if closely foJ!owecl, would offend by an ::tp [l c::tr:incc of
grimace - as to produce upon the ear o f hi s readr:rs a. sr: nsc ui
reality. If h e lie quite rc:1l, he will seem to ::i tternp t to be funn} .
If he be quite correct, he will se e m to be unrea l. . . . In all
this," he says a little fa rther on," human na ture m ust l ie the 11u1·c lwritcr 's gui d e . B ttt in fo llo wing hunun n:it urc he mw;t remelllllvr
that he does so wi th a pen in hi s h::tnd, and that th e re:uk r w lill
will appreciate human nature will also demand a rti st ic alJility :in cl
literary aptitude ."

III.
Antique, Foreig n, Colloquial, and Dialect Diction . - Of these
irregubr v:ui et ies o f d iction t he d etai ls must be left, of course, to
the wri ters who m ake t he m :i spec ialty, in::tsmu c h as each writer
nrns t fo r the mos t p:trt nuke t he b ws that he observes . A word
may h e sa id , ho wever, co nce rning the universal prin c iple th::tt condit ions such \1·o rk .
I n wo rk o i th is kind t wo fe atures ::tre to be obsen·ecl and reconci led with each oth er. First, there must be faithful ness to the
usage po rtraye d; a n cl th is is mai nt ai ned not by the empl oyme nt of
c1tch -w o rds an cl tri c ks o f styk , but o nly by thoroug h absorption of
the th o ugh t :rn<l sp irit o f t he :i.;c , people, or hn gu::tge with wh ich
the style is con nected . nu t seco nd ly, thi s faithf1i1 representation
m usl ]JC m odified by the cb irns of prese nt intel ligib ility; a literary
art must lie snpe ri rnposc cl 11·h ich sh:dl mak e the style re:i.dable in
tl1i:-: tLi y a nd Lind. Li tcr:i.ry rcproil1 w ti ons o f this kincl, therefore,
:1rc nut :il,,;ul utc lmt rcb ti vc ; tlwy 111 11sl lie tun ed down for the use
of aver:ige read e rs .
,-\ s im ila r r econc iliati o n o f o ppos i11:-; chims m1isl he ma<lc in
constrnc ti n.t.; o r repor ting di alugu c. On this p o int the wonJs of
1\ n thony T rollope , d esc rib ing h is own art, m ay perhaps bes t be
qu o t<.:cl. 1 "The ordin::iry tal k o f orclina.ry people," he says, "is
carried o n in short, sl1 :up. ex p ress ive sentences, which, ve ry fre11uc n tly, arc never cornplctt-11 , tlh: h n.;ua.gc u f which, e1·cn among
l

:\ntli onv T roliup.-'s 1\ 11toliiog r:i.p li y, p .

~ r r> .

SJ

IV.
Maintenance of the Tone of Discourse . - Th is is a poi n t , .r
great importanc e, and call s for t he cons tant ex ercise of a niltivated taste.
Every li tera ry wo rk strikes a c e rta in keynote,
elevated or colloq ui a.I or humorous or se1·ere; and while it is
often an elcg:rnce and advan tage to rise on occas io n into a h ighe r
strain, it is unfortunate to fall unadvi sr:dly l>elow t he a.d o]ited
standard. This is most no ticea lJlc, pe rhaps, 1vh en pros:tic wo rds
and turns of express io n occ u r in a passage of poetry. " Prose on
certain occasion s," says Landor, " ca.n bear a g rca.t rlc:1 l of poetry:
on the other h:mcl, poe try sink s a nd swoo ns und e r ::t muder:ttc
weight of p rose ." So also the sudden app earance o f a slang () r
colloquial express io n in a severe d isc ot1 rse, or of a commrinpl:ic v
passag e in a sublim e di scourse, p rocl11ccs an e ffec t as o f a. n.lttr:cl
note in music, d ifficu lt to desc ri be in wo rd s Lut insta ntly fel t liy
every cultivated reader.
NOTE . - Jn the follow ing stanza of poetry, we feel the decidedly pru:,,11c
tone of the italicized lines, as compared with th e rest: -

"S o from the su nshin e and th e gre en o f lov e.

vVc: cntt:r on o ur sto ry's d.ukc ~ part ;
And, t l1ou.rlz t!u h orror u/ it 7,•,;// 111 <1y 111ove
An impulse oj r epll/,'ltilllCC i11 t he ht·art,

OCC. I Sf 0 .\'.·1l

JJ<.; URES OF Sl'I: ECJJ.

fl! CT!ON.

.ss

) d Id us t!i m l , th:1 t, as tlw r .. ·s n :rn gh t :1b01'C
'l"h c :11l -t 'l1lhr:1.i..: ing atn1 0~ 1 ,1w n· o f ,\rt,
~ CJ abo thl'rC is n:\ 11g il t tll;l t f.tl b ln· io1,,·

I l e i· ge n erous rea ch , thol!gh grim ed " ith gui :t anti woe ."

c r r;\ PTFR

~, 1 in the follo"'ing p:tss:tgc the ul•jection to the it:tli c i1.c1 l \\ Ords is not that
t he \' :H<: iiH;<lrrccl, l> ut that th ey fal l he!.>\\' the lc Yc! ., f tlic: 1t: s t of the p:.is·
,a ,;e : "The task was indee d mighty, lint L u ther \\':lS a g iant among men.

N ~r was his fat he rbnd entirely out <f s.•1I<.

The lifc·ksso ns of \Vyckliffc

and 11 uss h ad not been ios t."
A few v c:trs ago a Ycry amus ing little: \Jiograpliy , "·ri ttc n in English by a

;.i .. s t:<rn' c, \\'a s puh!i,h c 1l in C:tlcutt:<;

n:1ti,·e J 1; 1

:tn«l the m os t ludi c rous faults

in its ,ty le ,,·ne du<: to tl1c fa c t th:<t the w r ite r, h:tYin g olit::iin c·l. :tH his.~vords
. ..l \ 1·l C..L1· U 11 •e \ 1·\·
Ji"·!
se nse
o f the diffe re nc e uf to ne :tnd sp in t m lhlfcrcnt
~ ,
,\ ... 110 ·
·
f l.• ) 111

. ·
.
\\' i. 1 1·i. le
n 1·uye r ii i·tl c~1 , r essions hclungi ng tu the most
1· .1... i 1·u 11 ,.
••• ,
• , ,
t
•
·
• •
.
cu r io ush .li ":n r tl:rnt s tra ta u f th o ught \\·e r e j\\lllliletl toge ther.
l he fullml'lni::
tw o or (Jirc c ,cntcnces \\' ill i\l us tr:itc tlii,. "l [is C1rst ln1sincss, o n mabn g an

c~ p rcs:.;11.1 11 s .

i ii co me \\' :1S t n ext r icate his family fnnn the diffi cult ie s in \\'hi ch it h:td l1ecn
b tely en"-r:1 ppc<l , :ind to re s to re hap11i11e ss :-tnd s un ,hine to tlwsc sweet :ind
\\' e ll -bclu n:d faces on \\'hich he ha c\ 1wt see n t h e s u ft :<nd fa sc rnat111g be:ims
uf :t simp<r fu r

11! :\ ll)' ,1

grim -vi s::igc1l yc::i r."

"It wa s :ill .:tlong t h e e:tse, :tnd it

is so lljl t <> thi s ti:11c \\'ith the Li entc n:tnt ( ;,wcrno rs, to g1v~ se:tts to non-p:o·
l
·
, (,,.] 10 " r·e 01· \\'ere :ts if ,·01-l< ,,r th,· r nn_rl, or m othe r w ords, Na·
f t· ~~ l O I1 :1. IllC 1
·
r 1 · J · -" 1 1 status) in the Cu un c i I."
"1 I c t hen c:tme
in his • ch:tmber
ti\·cs t ll ) !g 1 SOC L - • ·
.
I

•l

'

•

.

'}

tu ta ke his \\' Ontcd t ini n, and fel t :1 slight hca.l:\che , w\11ch gr01du::il1y aggra·
vated and l;cc :t mc su un cu n t rul\.d,k th at lie fell Ille" loa d unJc:r a harrow."

,,f

'

TH.

FIGURES O F SPEECH.

Definition . - A figure of speech is an intcntinn:1l de\ i::i.tiu11
from the plain and ordinary m ode of spe~1king, fur th e s:ike <>f
greater effect.
The fac t that figur:iti\'C bnguage deviates from ordinary expn.::;sion is not to Le taken as a n argument against its natur:i1nc ss. 1t
is just as spo n t:ineous an d :in.less in its pbce as :iny m:inncr ' ,f
. peaking, for cultured and uncultured alike; Leing the natur:il
re. ult of the effort ~o illustrate anll \ t\·ify wlnt the write r or spe::i.kcr
has to communic:ite .
Nor are figure s o f speec h to be reckoned :is mere or11a 111, ·111>
of discourse . They gene rally add beauty to the style, it is true·;
but if they arc introdu ced for no ot he r oLject than thi s, cspcc; ;tliy
in prose discourse, the employment of them is a lJlcrni sh . T l1L·
same rule hol<ls with them :i s with other embellishments ol sty k :
noth in g is really an embellishment except as it is uscfui t()11-.1r d
effect ing the purpose of the discomsc, - that is, in makin g the
thought conveyed more clear or vi\·id or emphatic .
I.

General Suggestions regarding the Use of Figurative Lan guage . -As to the use of figures in ge neral the following cautions
arc to be n oted .
I. It is to 1.Je borne in mind that fig ures of speec h arc not the
real thought, but only helpe rs to the though t. The subst:in ce of
he discourse, its leadi ng id eas, must exist and be clc:i rly liroti ght
out apart from them; then, if they arc once introduced, the y
"ulfil their proper su1Ju rdimtccl office.

Ff <;UR l~· s

S6

Ff (,'UR!~· s

OF S/'EFCJI.

A p reliminary quest i n often to he determined, therefore,
is, wh ether in any p assage the thought 'r ill profit b y fi gurative
expression , or "·ill stand be tter 11· ithou t it.
For so metimes an
ide:i is so pal1d1lc in ihclf that a fig urati1·e illustration would be
only an im pert inen c e; ~<>metimes also a though t, espec ially if it
is one o n whi ch nrn,·h o f th e d iscourse depends, n eeds to be put
as b:ucly and plainly :is pos~i h lc . Thi s is particub rly to Le heeded
in arr'0 11 111ent:1til't.: discourse.' in wh ich no t in frcq11e ntly fi g ures arc
rnist:ikcn for :irguments, whereas they c:in ne\"L:r ]JC more than
2.

i111istr:1tio11s o f a rgtnnc nts .
. C:ne ,;hould lie ta ke n th:1t the fi g me he a rc: tl il l1 1s tration of
3
th e thought, not a n1ere c ffurt of the fanc y. 1t is a lilcmish if its
use is not olll·io us, or if it is Ltr-fctc hc d, or if it di\'Crts attention
to itsel f apart fru m its nrnditi1111i11g th u11gh t. :\ suml test of a
f1gme's usefulness is its n:itm:tln e,;s ; it 011~ht tu ri se spo nt:in eously
o u t uf t he subject, as if it 11·e1-c the on e ne cc:;sa ry fo rm of ex.pres,;1on . T his ideal can b e atta inell only by earnest e ffort to give
power to the th ought .

OF S!'FE Cll.

c' -

•1 /

NOTE. - Dr. E. A . A bbott, in hi s "Shakcspe:irian C r:imm ar, .. thus e 'emp lifics this point: "E"ery a <ldii icrn :i l d etail increases the im probabilit y t li:i t
the correspondence of the wh,llc compar ison ca n be sustained. Th us , if h: ing
R ichard (R ich. TL 1· . 5. 50 ) h:id b een co ntenl, w hile musing o n the m :i nner
in which he could count time by hi s s ig hs, to say' For now hath T im e nu de m e hi s numlicring clock,'
the re wo ul <l have been little o r n u offe n se again st taste. But "'h e n he <.: <>ntin ues ' i\ l y thoughts arc minut•·,, :1 nd \\'i th sigh s tlwy j.tr
Their watches o n unto mi111· Pves, th<.: out\\·:irrl wa l<'h ,
\V lien: to rn y finger , lik" a d ial's !"'int,
} <..;

p o i ntin,l!" :-.ti ll, in l'k.l lhi ng tli1 ·111 fr1JJ 11 ti •:t r "'i .

Nuw , s ir, th e so 11nd tl1;1 t It'll' wli:ot l<0ur ii is
/\re t:lan1 uro u 'l groan s\\ hi c h s t rikt~ upon my Le:11 1,
\Vhich is th e h e ll' we have ::in excess of d <.:t :iil whi ch is o nly juslilied liec:1use it ilJu , tratcs ti1c
chara cter of one who is alw:iys ' st ud ying tu cumpar.:,' an <l ' h :i111mc1·ing ._, lit '
unnatural comp:iriso ns."

TL
Classification a.nd Description of the Most Important Figures

Jn the ch:i r ::ictcr o f J\.i 11g Richard ii. ~hakespl'a r c po rtr:iys a !en·
dencv to m::inuf:icturc fa r-fct ch c<l and ebl><•r:<k c1111ccit,;, as a me re play of
L1nc;. and 1rnt from any 11 ccc"ity .,f the sui1j c,;t s :ilio11t \\'hi ch he is speaking.
1\<>TF. -

Sum.:tinics the King lintls his p roi>krn tuo hard for him: "l l1:t\' 1 ~ IH_·e n ~ t 11d~ in .~ !11'7.U I may d 11t1f t71't"
T h is pri !-> Oll \\hen· l liH· 11nto the " ' " Id :
:\ 11cl for l1•' C:t11 ' " 1hc world i> pr> ptil n us ,

of Speech . - J\s accordi ng to the :ilJov<: definition fitiures a.re
empl oyed for the sake of g reat er effect, the most practica.l cbs~i ­
iication for the p resent p mpose is acco rding to th e effe ct they :t re
ndaptcd to produce. On this l>:lsis the figures here d efined fal l
naturally into two classes : fi gures th a t prom ote cl earn <.: s-; :ind
concre teness, and fi gures that prom o te emphasis.

1\ nd lwrc i s n n t a cri·.it11rc· b11t 1 ny ~c l f.

I

C:ll\llOt

de>

11 ; yd

/'//

ft ,1111 111 ,-r

it

0 11 1."

F.ffcct i,·e anrl pract ic;i.l fig ures uf !'pcech :i re n ot :<pt to be the result of a

"'h :i.n1n1c ring-0ut " process.

4 . ,\ fi gu re of speec h n ncc introdllC C<l may lose its power by
being too bbo rcd, or carr ied too much int o detail. Beyond a
certa in point, of which in any c:isc the \\' ritcr' s judgment and good
taste must be a ware, it cc:i.ses to ca rry use ful significance and
becomes fantastic , artifi c ial, a conceit ; o r else so elaborate that
the rcacler can no longe r c:i. rry it :tml its illu stra ted thought together.

J, FIGURES THAT l'l\. ( J:.toTE C U ::\1-: N"J ·:ss A7\L> CON"C l.:.J·:T J·: \" EC.:C.:.

Principle of this Class . - A figure of speech promotes clc:Hne s or conc re teness by assoc iating the obje c t of though t wi t! 1
. me other object, so that eith<.:r by wha.t is assoc iated o r b y t he
implc juxtaposition the tho ught gai ns. And thus the gain may
be in clearness, when the asso ciated object is something Letter
lnown ; or in concretcne:s, wh en the assoc iated object j,; less
b. tract ancl ge neral, mo re impressive to the senses. Both of
these q uali ties are usually ]Jfesent, in varying proportions; and

IJCCNFS OF S ! 'F / J.11.

IJCCNLS OF Sl'LE C!/.

sometimes the c:hoicc lic t1re en figures, cspcci:llly between simile
:rn<l metaphor, is dcterm incd 1iy the (l uestion whi ch shall predornin:tlc, clea rness or concrete ness, f,ir the cikcti1·cness of the passage.
The follo11 ing :ne the ni os t important figures of this class, ar1..~1nued
lll'O•'ressi1·el)'
n v" wi th the sim1ilcst.
b
J.~"
'be••inni
v
Synecdoche and Metonymy. - The mo st elementary association is rn:Hlc l>y naming , not the 11·holc ol>jcct, but the part or
::iccornpanirnen t of it which is of significance for th e writer's purpose. This gi1Ts rise to the fi g11 res synccdoche and metonymy,
;1 h ich, because t hn· :lrc esscn ti :1 lly al 1kc in princi pk, arc here
dcscrib.:d to~cthn. Syncc duche lets some st rikin g part of an object stand fur the \\'hole, or, kss frc']ucntly, the wh ole for a part.
T\fctum·rny n:trnes, not the object, Lut sornc :lspcct or accomp:rn irncnl of it su closely rcbtcd i11 idea as to be 11at11rally interchange-

Simile. - The re:lcliest means of illustrating an o!Jjcct or action
is by representing it as like someth ing else . When such cu1n-

SS

al>k wi1h it.
These figmcs, using as they du 1ncrely the ~ig nifi c:111 t or scrviceahk feature of an olijcct, promote curn : re tcnc~ s by choos ing what
is most eYilknt to the scn;;c", or ckarness hy choosing wh::it most
strongly impresses the mind.
EX ,\:'>ll' LLS.-These figures, and th e a1h·ant:ige flowing from 1hern, may
perh:tps l•e sl lie excrn11iilictl from J lt:rl1L"rl ~pcnccr's "l'hil\lsophy of Style."
Svnccil •ic hc. "The at!v:tntage somet imes g:t incd by putting a p:irt for the
wh r,ie, is due l<l the more con venie n t, n r m o re :iccurate , presentation of the
idea. l f, itJ> tc:1tl " f s:iying ' a fleet .,[ ten ships,' we s:iy 'a fleet of ten mil,'
the picture ,, ( :i gruup u f ,·e sseb :it '"·::1 i,; rnun: read ily suggested; and is so
l>cc:lnsc the: :-.;tils

(_·1111 ...

li tutc the

111tl-.:. l

cun "i,ic w_ius p;"u{:;

qf

\'c ss cls so circumA

·''i 1/\ \\' 11 u\ 1i n:ry lil,cly 1t: 1ni11d us uf n .:ssels in
:\ g :1in . to s:«', ' :\11 !:•111J, l<> the putllJ•'.' is l><: llcr tli:rn tu ,;:iy , 'All mm

st:UlLT •I : wlit·n·:\-.; tlii..· '-' 11r1l

,j, 1ck .

t,, the p u 11 1ps'; :is it sui,;;.;ests tht' ll\en in the si•c«i:il :>tlitu.\e intended, and so
];ringin.~ ·.!.,'TilY l1 i1ir .' \\'it h ~orr1 1 \\" l\> the gclYC,' is another ex~

saY CS t:ffurl .

prcs>iun, the effect t•f 1vhich h :-ts the s:-tn1 e c:rns c ...
)lctull\'lllY. "'The lrnv m ur:ility ,,f //1,. /.,1r,' is a p!tr:1se buth more brief
:\thl more, si~ni 1ic :1nl th:rn 1l1e litera l "nc it st:tnds f" r. A l1clief in the ulti·
111 ;'ltC' suprcni:'\c y of intc lli~cncc o\·cr i ~ nitc fnrcc, is con\·cyed in a 1nore con-

crete , arHl lhercfvre nwre re:d i1.a l1k f"rm, ir we sulist itute the pen and the
s-;uo rd fl>r the two abstract tcnu~. 'l'u :--:1y,' I:cw:\rc vf drinking!' is Jess effective th:in 1,, s:ly , · lle "arc .,f the J,.,ltlc ~' '"1d is"" clc:i rly lie cause it calls up
a less ~11ccilic

in1:1gc .'

1

S'J

pa rison, made bet11·ecn objects of different cbsses, is ckfinitc ly
exp ressed, it is C:llled a Simile, - which word is sim ply the nelitcr
singular of the L:lt in adjective si111tlis, like. The comp:uison is
oftenest denoted lJy the word !tl:c; but as, so, .Just as, si111ilrtr /11.
and many more expressions, may be used for the purpose ; and
sometimes the form::il term of compa rison may be omitted.
EXAlltru:s. - I. Similes definitely introduced. "He sh :ill be iii:" a tree,
planted by the rivers of water. " - " ( >f the t11·0 kinds <1 f compo~ition int •1
wh ich history h:is been thus di1·idcd, the one may/,<! c1•1J1/<1red tu a n1:ip, th e
o ther to a painted bndsc apc ." - " Sh e tn ld me her stury once; it w<1s " s 1/
n gra in of corn th::i.l had l>ec n ground and l1oltcd had tricLl tu indi viduali 1e it se lf hy a special n a rr ;1Ji,·e." - "llis ( I .0 rd lbcon's) understanding r o on !•/,./
the tent which tlte fairy T'aril1anou gave tu l\ince ,\hrnetl. Yold it : and it
ccmecl a toy for the l1a111l of :l bdy . S11rcad it; a nd the armies uf 11u11.,:r(ul
. ultnns might repose beneath it s s h:irle."
2. S imiles without co111p:iring wo nl. "Tno much indu lgence due~ " ' ''
Sl rcngthen the mind of the young ; plants raised with tendern('s~ are scld"'"
st rong." - " Of course a poet must represent his age :ind haLitat; a ( ;rc-c i:i r;
temp le bes id e an ,\J lcghanian trout-hruok might be luvely, lrnt surely \\·uu l-1
be out of place :ind date."
From these examples it will be seen th at \\'hat m:ik es a simile is its friNciplt of comparison, and not its mere external mark.

Two or three additio nal remarks need tu lie made al10ut this
figure of speec h.
1 . There :lre comparisuns whir :h arc nnl called similes, nur arc
they counted as figures uf spCl:ClL T() lJc a sim ile, the cump;tri,;.,11.
3.s intimated above, m ust be l>et\\'(.: cn ul>jects of different cbss t:·<
Th ns, to cornp::ire a chariot-race with a boat-nr,e, events of t he:
same class, is no simile, such ::is we see when, in the Bible, chari<>ts
:ire said to " nm like the lightnings." It is the actual liken ess
d ·ducecl from essential unlih:ncss that makes the figure.
z. Simile, Leing the great i1111strati 1T figure, is cspccially :1d:111ted
to promote clearness of thought and expressicm; nut ,.;o well
ullapted to force and p:ission . l Icnce it is more natm:ilh· 11scti in
the Jess ernotiun al k in ds or discourse . \\' hen men an; under strong

.F ICUR!;S OF SPEECH.

Fh; C NFS OF SPEEC!I.

90

e1 iotion they :ue not likely to inuu lge in comp::i risons; they strike
:i.L on ce for th e more trenchant me tapho r.
U n the other hancl,
irn:lgi11:ui 1·e prose, as :tlso poetry, is 1·cry co 11 g c ni::il to s irnik. The
n·:1son is t>]J1·iu11s: sirnik, presenting ::is it cl ue s a. kind of pictured
ill1 1-,tr.1Lic>!l uf the thought, supplies i'kas ing rn::itcri :tl fur th...: imagination to d ll' cll upon .
3 . Th...: .'fi"Fit of a pass::ige illu st rate d liy simile is often indicated
l iy the obje c t tu 11·hich co rnp.iri son is m::ide . Tim s there are
clc1·atin g similes, dq~r:1 din g si miles, h u m o rous si miles, :rnd the
like; 11·hich se n 'C, Ly the d...:li catc t u rn s uggest ed in the figure, to
indiette the feel ing wi th which the wr iter rcg:mls the object.
FX .·\~n ·t.ES . - The fuilu\\'ing \\'ill il\uslr.ile h o"· a certa in Sj>irit may lie im·
parteJ l<> a passage hy the k ind of comi'a ri su n m:itle.
1. Simil<! of ,ulilim ity (fr ll m '.\lillon ) : " On Ilic n:h ~ r sick , ~.1t:i.n. ab rm" d.
CvJ; .. c1in!,; all his 11 1i,:.;h t, di l. 11.·d stood ,
J.lf..c '/ ,·11 tT 1jf or. fti,n, UfH'l'l l10\·n l:
1 11..:. st;t 11r1 · i1·:l1.: h1·tl the ... >,.y , ~lnd o n l1is vn· . . t
S.!t

l lurror p lll n1cd ."

2. Di,-par:iging "i1nilc (frn rn F.u,;kin ): "\\'e h:i\'C:' g<•l in tci th e way, :imot1g
othe r mc•dcrtJ 11Tctl'hl'd11css" ' · of trying t•i 1l1:1kc " ·i n, l'' "' .,f kaf diapers, at1tl
o f s tri ps ui t11 i,: ed re d :rnd yel low lund-;, !.1ul, in g !ilr !11< f '1ll< r11s (JJ l' 11rrn11/
fd~r ''" ti:<' /1'f' .f Clir islmas calt's ; lrnt c ,·cry ca,;em cn t of old glass con ta it1ed

_:; . ll11rnor <>ll!' simile ( fr um Jli ckc ns ) : "The ut111· o ntc1l lines \\'hi ch
m nmc nt a ry p:i,;,iu n k id r ule d ill :\Ir. l'i \'kwi!'l,\ " k:i r :1 11.I O]'etl liruw gradual ly
n1 clterl away, a" h i-; :"11111g friend 'l "'\,c , Ill.-< ti1< 111<1rl:s of a /.i,1d: /,·1111-fenn'/
bt 11 eu llt t/1,· sojicn i11.::," inj/11 ,· n t c fl/ fn d i ,1 r 11!1bc·r."'

:\ close r a ssocia. ti on
rn:tde when, ins tc:td llf comp:irin g
/Jt'l1 tijl' the t11·0, liy takin g the name
the one fur the other.
This figure

of ol>jects t h::in >y simile is
one thing \\' it h ::inothe r, we
o r :bst1mi11g t he attrib utes oi
is narncc.l met:i.phor, a term

rkrin:d from the Cree k words /lff'~ :i.nd ,f,(fJ "'· to c::irry ove r, transkr; indic:iting the re fo re exactly what t he fi gu re is, a transfe r of
meanings .

EXAM Pl.ES. I. The assoc iated objec t directly n amed.
":-.lusic is b0th
suns!tin.: and irrij;a lion to the minrl." - "The man who cannot '''under, wlw
does not h:ibitua ll y wonder (a nd 11·urship) , we re he Presid ent uf innu1ncr:1i>le
R oyal Societies, :ind carried the wh ole ;\lcca ni q uc Celeste and I ic gel's l' l.illl""
pliy, and the epitu 111e uf ail Laliora turics a n1l OIJscrvato ri es wi th : hi: ir rc '<iil' .
in his siugk head, - is lm t a I'11 i r of .'>f<'<'lac/,·s b"li ind 10/1 i< Ii tli"re i s " '' /c)'<."

••\Ve mu st no t mak e a scarecrow of th e la\\',
Setting it 11p t o f.:ar th e bin.ls of prey,
1\nd let it k cq> o nc shape , till c ustom mak e it
Their perch, and not tht:ir te rror." "
2.

The associated object t:iken fur grant ed, its attributcs being ass umed .

A man assumes c har:icleristics o f a cat: " Hut I beg of yo u, my dear he ld,,
do no t kt my paternal zeal prevent you fr um giving y uur Yi i: "· s ~l 11·ays and
freel y. If I seem to be stirre <I up at first, Oil bc·i11J,' s/rJ!..«., f ti"· w1w1,,- ~i." ')'. yu1 1
may be sure it is o nly a l<'lllforary el«ctrica! s1111f fi11. f, I s/i,zl! sou11 /!" furr ing." - In the fL1ll o wing a single ,,·ord surtices to assoc iate the o\ ,ji:ct n,unc.l
ll'ith the sun, whose spots arc inYisibk fr o m the excess of light : "There :irL·
poems whi ch w e sh ould Gt: inclini: tl to J e,-igna te :is faul tles<;, or :is di.-1igurL"l
only by lilemislics whi c h p;iss unn o ti ced in the g ene ral bf,z ze of ex cellenci: _''
3. Metaph<>r, like simile, may l>c u,;c(l as an instru men t of disr:uage1ncnt.
or humor, o r SlllllC p:nticul.tr Sj >iri t o f the l' ass:lge : e.g. "l 'i e r re J:.i:·I·· "r«le
enormous fo li os, o ne sees nllt LIB wk1t m o tin: l'rin cil'k; l it: nu11·c1l un f,ir<.'.l'l'I' .
a miglity !id<· of dit<-li · ~imlt" r; an <! even died nu wing, ll'ith the pt:n in hi-; Lan.I."

The fo llo wing remarks and suggestions reg:trrlin g the use .,f
nietaphor arc of im po rtanc e.
Metapho r is the commonest ::ind most spontaneous of ali ti1e
figures. L:rn gu::ige is full of it. 1\ s it nam es obje c ts lly te rms th at
are more conc rete than the li tc rai, it is especi:llly ad a pted to gi1-c
fo rm an d tangibil ity t o al>strac t ideas; indeed, the ,·octbu bry of
mental ancl m o ral qualities consists ve ry largely of w o rd ~ th:1t arc
l' .

a s.tint ·s hi..:.tury .''

Metaphor. -

9i

or have lJce n metaph o rs. " \\' e should often Le at a loss," s:iys
Professor Je von s, "how to descr ibe a notion, were we 1wt at Jili erty to employ in a metaphori c al sense the n:ime of a111thin « s11fri"'
c ient.ly resem1Jli ng it.
There wo uld Le no express io n fur the
sweetness of a melod y, o r the brilliance uf an haran gue . unlc ~s it
were furni shed by the taste of honty and the ]Jrightncss of ;1
torch ."

92

NCUNE S OF Sl'FE CH.
;..:, en:. -

\ Ve a rc \·on t t o a ss ume th e exi -; te n ce o f a ce r ta in anal ogy between

th e relatio n s of t he min d an<l t h o se n f th e l,.><l y. ft is by virt ue o f such :rn a logy
th a t \\"e use s uch e xprcss icms as," a strik i11,,' thuug ht ," ' "a r ay v f h ope, "' " a
j/1 11dc of du u bt, " " a j/a ;/i v f \\"i t, " " el.> ullit io n s o f :rngcr ."

93

F ! l; UR ES OF S l'EE C/I.

4 . The prin ci pal c:tut iu 11 n eeded i n the u se o f m e ta p ho r is, to
avoid m ixin g o ne m e ta1 1h o r with a n o th e r.

Such c o n fus ion of fig-

ures is one of the mos t c o mm o n fau lts o f ca reless anrl slo \·enly
t h in k e rs .

It arises fr om gi \·in g too little atte nt io n to the s ucn·s -

:i.n d 1Jy :t s mu c h as it ga ins in lm:\·ity, it is na t urally b et te r ::td a ptc d

sive i111 :1g e s th a t n u1Yd upo n th e ]Jra in , and i,; a vo ided by sit1 1j>ly
s urren d erin g o n e's th o uL!:hts to the p ic ture s uggested unt il it j,

to p ro du c e a fo rci ble and \"i\·1d imp ress i,) n.

w ro u gh t out a s far as n e eded.

l\lctap h urmaybc n .:gank<

2.

in u n e light:i.s :i.co nd e ns <·d s imi le :
I Icn c c it is m o re u se •I

The h o mely o ld cau ti o n applical> lc

to all style is of spe c ial s ign ifi c:i.nce here, -

"Have y o ur th ou g h ts

in imp:1ss io n ed d isco urse , and in dr::t matic poe try, whi c h is th e
p o etry o f p a ssi o n a s d is t inguished fr o m · t h e poetry o f fa n c y .

alJo u t you ."

J\ u TE. - This fa ct m:iy lie ill ust rate tl by t:ik ing a n y metaph o r a nti e xpanding
it to a simile . The g rea te r d ifTus cne ss o f effe ct is apparent a l on c e. F o r
in st :t n ce, cum p:i.re, " J ng r:Hit u d c ! th o u m:t rlJlc· he:1 rt c<l fi e ntl ," "" ith, " 1ngra tit ud c I thuu fie n d \\"it h a he art lik e rnarolc ." The passio 11 o f th e line lll a kes
th e s im ilc unc o ngen ial.

Ex A ~ 11· 1. 1 :s . - "Th e very re cogni tio n o f th es e o r :rny o f th e m h y the j m i.-pnulcn ce of a n a ti on is a m url:d 7vuun.I to the Ycry l.-1~1 · sto 11 1• upo n "" hich the
wl w lc :u eh u f n11 ir::dity rcpu,;e, ."' - " T l1 is wo rlJ with a ll its t ri:1ls is tli c / 11r11 ,11,·
thrnu g lt wh ic h the so ul mu , t pass a n d be i/,-;:e/uf,·d lic fu rc it i-; n fe fu r the nnl
\\"Orl d ."

3 . Som e times simile a nd m e ta p h o r a r united in o n e e xp ress io n,
the t hou g ht bein g in t ro duc e d h y t h e o ne ::incl carr ie d on liy tl1e
o the r.
By t h is c o mbi na t io n o f fi g ure s the illu strati\·e qmlity o f
!-. imilc ::ind the vi gorous direc tness o f m e ta p h o r a rc b o th, in s om e
d egree, secured .
J-:x . 1 ~ 11 · 1.1·: . - T he fullo \\"i ng is fro m a c o m·c rsa ti o n he t\\" ee n the sisters Jrene
:i nd l't:n elo p e in l l u \\"c lls' ·· J..:.i se o f Silas J .apha m" : "' Oh , h u w C:lll )" ti ll lre:lt me su ! · n1 u ane d the s u!Te rn . '\\" l1a t do yo u m e:l n,
1\'. n ?
' I gu e~s l"d 11<.:tter n ot tell )"\Ill.' sa i,l l'en~· ln p e , w :i k l1 i11~ Ji n /ilr 11 ,.,,/
,~ 1. :y i 11.l.."" -:{Ii/It a 111 ou. sc.
If )'P n' r c nll l c11 111 ing lq tc ;i, it \ \"11 lll1l ju :-. t c :-..i..: i t c y 1~u
1

l u r nothin g .'

T iu

111 0 11 s ,·

m n:ln e.J an (l w rit heel up n n th e li ed .

' O h , I w o u ldn' t treat yo u so !'
T !te cat se atc<l h e rself a cro ss t he room , a n•l as ke 1l qu ie tl y ' \ \"e ll, w h a t could )'<) U cl o i f it \\":JS :'-lr. Corey? Y ou C(1 11ld n" t co me to tc:1,
yo u say. B ut he' ll e xc us e vo u. J\·e to ld h im yo u h aJ :1 h e:1 d :1ch e. \\'h y, u f
c1n 1rse yo u can't co m e ! It \\·u ul d l> c tou l1:t refaced . Hut yo u needn't lie
trnu l1lc d , J re ne; I' ll <l u m y b es t to m :1 k c th e tim t: iuss l'k a s:rntly fu r him.'
l !ere tl.·e 1·a t ga \' e :t IP\\" tit te r, a nd !lh· 111 1· 11 , , · g irde d it-e lf up wit h a m u 111en ·
bry cuur:ige :lml self-res pe ct.
• 1 slw ulJ t l1ink yo u wouhl h e :ish a m ecl tu <:w11 e h e re and le a,;c m e su.'"

T he fu llo w ing gi1·es inte n t io n all y th e ludi crou s effec t tha t is prv<lu ced wl1c n
a n un t:du cated " ·r iter u-, es w ha t a re a l o n c e h :1ckn e yed e xp re ~si u ns and n 1 i ~e d
met:1plw r: " I write to yo u in a st:1 tc o f mi n<! tha t I really :lrtlly k n v "" w h ~ t l
am ab o ut , l1u t l C:lnn o t in rl ur e m:1king n o effo rt t<> d ear up the p1fi 11,(' ,,;,, , ..
whi ch t he events of th e p:i.st fatal aftern o on has nzised bdwixt u s."

5 . !\ k in to th is fa ult is th e inju dic io us o r th o ughtless m ixtn re
of m e t:1pho r ancl litl.' ral s t::i te mcnt, whi c h either pro dtr ccs t he effe c t
of bathos o r e lse fills th e wh o le p a ssage w ith c onfu s io n .
EXA\ll 'l.l·:s . -Th e fo llow ing , from D ryde n, cl escri l1i ng the \q·iting ,, f dr:lm:l,
is a sudden dr u p int o ba th os : "\\"hen thu s, a s I lll a y s::iy , befu re th e u ~ e .,f
th e lu: ub toll {', ur k nuwl c dg c.. : ci f t h e co 111p ass , J w ;is sa ili llg in a

\ ' ; 1... t

IJ (T :ut ,

with u ut u th t: r he lp tl1 a n t he ]> <> le-sta r uf the: an c ients, a nd tlu ru hsof t!u I i ·,·11 1!1
s!a.;'1: a m o ng the m od e rns . "
ln th e fullnw in g . in w h ich th e re is b e tra ye1l an e ffo rt at s n1arl nt.:s s . "h ere
d ocs hi s to ry en d a n1l m<:l:lphor begin?-" The object o f the co n, p ira l1Jr' \ \ ":t '
to put l1et,t-cc n th irt y :i. n d fll rty b a rre ls o f g un po wde r in to the ll >i 1H·. :111<1 t<>
blow thc King :i.11 1! the Prin ce (Jf \ Val es, th e lo rds and th e I.i,;h u]1', tu :11 .. 1n<.
They short ly foun 1l a ce llar wh ic h answe rccl their pnrpose bette r. l lc re tl1ey
l1:i.n kcd up tlieir ba rr e ls und e r :t susp iciu us c1u:rn t ity u f cua l am! ut her fue l.
\ Vhen the tra in w a~ b id , it led , ho\\" e l" t.: r, t(J themselv es, anti wh e n tli t: t: xp lu T hey \\'t:rc scaltert: d tu the Cv u r
si o n came, it was und er their own fee t.
\VinJ:.;. ''

FIGURES OF S!'Fl:Cf/.

Ifl,' CRf:..'S OF S J'FFCll.

Personification. - T hi s fig ure endows inanim:itc things, or
1lis t r:1ct id c;is, wi th ;ittributcs of life a1 cl mind . It is c losely
,· htc.:cl to the p receding f:gurc, lx:ing inJeed , in so me of it:; uses,
111 crely lJerscrnal metapho r. The l:n gl i:-,h language is especially
u Liptcd to cllecti ve iie rsonil1c:it ion . 1Jec:1use it is not cuml>erccl,
'ik c Latin, Creek, :111d Cernian, with the in congru ities of gram"1: tlic:1l ;;ender; su when personality is attributed to something
:1.111irn:l1e, :rnd it is thus endowed with gL·rn!cr, the fact is signifi.1 11t :rnd stri kin g.

Christian life arc portrayed und er th e fi gmc of a pilgrimage fro m
the "City of Destruction" to the " Celestial City."
The advantage of ailegory, as a means of corn·cying a bstr:-tct
truth, is twofold. First, it m:.ikcs the thought concrete, as cloes
metaphor, l>y representing it in the guise of ohjects of se ns e ; :rnd
secondly, it lends to it the aid of story, whi ch is the easiL·st anrl
most interesti ng of literary forms . A co msc of abst ract t)1()11 gh t
must be plann ed in logical scc1ucnccs ; as all ego ry, ho \1·e\·c r, it i s
planned acco rdin g to a plot.

'I

FX.\ \ll 'l.1-:s . - " I lu ,..- c: J .. ,,k fo1 r T rnth ? slir is n11t the inh:1 hit :lll t uf cities
''' ' 1kli;,:ht, in ,·1.1 111••r; si1< ,1c ;ib upo111 th e: ca ll!l :rnd rn ed it:1ti1"<.: :1~ l >i:rn:1 upo n
i<1 1dy nl inn 1 indul~c nt in hcT c h. t:--lity ~ cn co ur:1gi11g ~ n1 odc::- t, J.nd re q uiti ng ~

titl1 iul lu\'l:.· • - ". \ nd then c :1 111 c a uta mn, \\'iii> !1is immense burden of :1pplcs,
lr1 •ppi ng thelll cuntin u:illy fro111 h is u1·n h den slwu ldcrs :is lie trudgc ll :ilung."
h:1d ncl'C r lost her y0111h ;
di d u111 lu<>k 1h ru11 g h cli 1nr11•·r 1·1·cs ;
Or Lo,·..: out pi:n·'J II itlr g-r.u;it> ll ' i 1c- .
Hec:rnsc lie ft:lt so f1x'J in trn1 li."

" \' l'l I [ope:

Sl:c

The tbC of 11crsonific1t ion i~ in g i\·ing concrctenc~s to abst ract
.! - : ;\ L' c1n l l>l1C L· i\·c m::c:1 m o r L· \ 'i\ idh- w h .11 nu. \· he ~ c cn or
~~·l : t!Lu1 \\: 1.1 : 1-- in t.'rL·i _\· ~1 :-- u!i_jt•t ·t u f thtiu,:_: iH. It~ ahu:'L' i:; in
· ~: ,jl'_\'i>1,c: it \ 1 line nu t ' JH o f c1 >11ncte 1H:ss o r ,- j\·idn,·,;,; rc:il ll· calb
: :t : 1·hL"t]>l'ilill2,!" it frurn :1 1 r.w tic:il u~c to " tlut :1lph:ihcti1' pc r.;1i(i1 ·:tti on whi · 1 L'll1i\·c1h :tll ~t1\ · h \l'Ortl s :1,; l lunger, Soliu1d c,
'1n·,Jrn11. l iy the c :1s y 111:1gi1- <>I° ;111 initial c:1pi t: d. "
1

1·: . ·- 111 till.· full 1, w i11 g "t..:1 1l c n n: tl1 ~ n· j.._ 1111 ot·\ ·a·. . i 11 11 (t1r p~ r~ u 11il1 c: lli u 11,
r i..; ~n ylliing g:1 inc d by it, in c lc:1rn c.:ss , c unc.: rct c nc ss , o r yj,·id ncss : "'I t is to
i11,Lirly mc: n that the wo rld O\l'CS h er pr ug ress in ci,·ilizat ion and cultu re."
!ii-; illus rates t l1e chi ef tendency tu ab use u f pe rsuni1ic:1t io n by young \l'ri tcrs,
\'· 1 !'

11~ in g it \\'h e ne vcr the wuri d, o r ou r ll:lli o n, u r lr:1'k , o r sc ien ce, o r lite r:itu rc
1l1e s ul •jec:t u f r ca1:1rk.

Allegory . - In this figure a co m sc of mo r:il or mental tru th is
•ll('ei ,·ecl under the fo rm of :t f1111cLu11L'llt:tl 111<.:laphor. and follu wed
1t into dl't:ti l :h a 11;.trrati\'C . Thus, ill the most famo11s of ;illc.:go' ·:-; . ] :unya n's J 'ii gr im',; Prog re ss, the t riab and ex periL'llCCS or the

1

95

ExA~It· t . t ·:. -The fulloll' ing sce ne:, fr ,, m t he l' ilg ri1n's l' rogre:;,;, ll'ill i llu,t r ~ic
th e principle o f th e allcgnry, :1nJ the dt1nl1k lll eaning un d erlying it. Th e i·iigrims, Chri sti:in :ind J l " peful, arc ju:;t departi ng fru1n the l Jclc:ct:dilc :\l •J\1 11tains.
"\Vhen they 11·ere :il Hl ut to d ep:irt, one of th e Shephenb g :\\' e tiicrn :1 n"i "
o f the way. An o ther o f thelll hid them he ll' :ire uf the F htt ere r. The thir• I
b i<l them t:ike hee d that they skep nut o n thL· I-:n ch:1 ntcd Cruun.J. 1\1 1d the:
fourth h id th em C od -spc:cd . :-;o I a\\' o k e frnm my dre a m.
Ami I slept a n.J drc::1 mecl :ig:1in, :1nd s:i w the s:i me twu pilgrims guing d,> 11·11
the m< >n ntains :11ung th e highw:1y to w:irds th e city . . . .
So they wen t un, and lg11 o r:in ce folluwed . T l11' y we nt then till they c:11 11 c
:1l a phce w he re they S:1W :i \\' '1)' put it-; elf intu th c: ir way , :1nrl seem ed " ·i1h:1i
to lie :is ,trnigh t :1'i the \l'ay \l'hich th ey shuulol g•' ; :1nd here: they k new n" t
which of1he t11·0 l• Jt:1ke ,fnrb11th SCClllt:d straight licfn rc t hem ; thc rc f. ,re h n1 ·
th ey stood still t1J conside r. :'\n.\ as thq' we' re thill k in g al 1ou t the 11· :11·. lie h• ol•I
a m:ln bbck uf fl e:. h, h ut Ct1\'Cred with :1 very li.t.; lit rol1c, C:1 !1J e t<l them . :1n ·l
asked them \\'hy th ey stoud the re. Th ey ans ll' cred tl iey wer e g "ing to tl1c
Celest ial City, l111t 1.11 c w no t whi ch o f th ese W:l)'S to take. 'F11llo w 11 w,' ,;·ii d
the 111:-in, ' it i' tl1i1hcr that I :1m gt1ing .' :-;., th ey f,. lluwed l1i11 > in il1t: way t li:1t
lmt nt1 w t: :1 11\ e into the r<J:ld, \\'hi ch by d .. g rc es t ur ned, ::llld turn e. 1 them " '
from the c ity th :1t they d esired to go to, th:1t in littl e time th ei r fa ces were
turned aw:iy fro m it; yet they foll o we d him . But hy-and-hy, hef11 re th c: y ;1·crc:
all':ire, he le<l them bo th wit hi n the cump:iss of a n cl , in whi ch they were
hath so ent:1nglcd, th:1 t they kn ew nnt wh:tt lu do ; :in1l with th:it th e "' hite
robe f,:Jl ofT the hh ck m:i n' s h:1ck . T he n they s:iw wli crc they \\'ere. \\' hc re fore there they lay c ryin g some time, f11r th ey co uld not ge t then1 seh·es out.
Chr. Then s;iid Christi:ln tu h is fellow, ;-\ uw d o 1 sec m yself in :1:1 err"r.
Di<l n ut the shephc:r.l s l1icl us lie\\':1re uf the Fl :t llerers ? As i,; tli e s:tyi11 g ,,f
the \\"i se m;in, su \\'e h:1ve foun•l it this (h y, ':\ ma n th:it fl:itterelh bis neig h bor sprc:idcth :i net fo r his feet.'

Fl< 7U NFS OF

')(;
//,'.;~' ·
They al su g:t\T us a nutc uf directilins al,u ut the way, for our more
<. ure finding thcrcuf; but therein we h:wc al'(' furgoll c n to read, anll !1ave n ot
kep t o urselves fr urn the ]':-tth'i u f th e <k'itroyer. I !e re J):i\·id w:1s wiser than
we ; for s:1ith he, ' ( <1nccrni11g the wen ks of men, by th e wun l uf thy lips I
li:w c k ep t me frnin the p:1tl1 s ,, f !he dcstr.,y<:r .'
Tht:s they h y hewaili 11 g tl1e111sel\'c'i in th e net.
At la,;t t;1cy espied a :-;hining O ne coming tn w:.wl' them with a whip o f
,,m :cl l c"r.J i:i hi ,; hand . \\.hen he \\·as c"111c t" th e pbcc \\·h ere they were,
he asl<c:,J them \\·he nce th ey ca me, anti wh :1t thc v ditl there . They t•ild him
tl1ey " ·ere p uo r pi lgri m' g u ing lo ~i •rn , liul were k.J out o f thei r w:1y by a
l1la ek m :rn, cl u thccl in wl 1ilt', ' ,,.h,> 1,j ,\ u,;,' S:1i.\ the ;-,' fu ll <1 w him, for he was
g .. in g thitlte r t"" ·' Ti1t·n s.1ith he wi th th e whip,' lt j , Flatterer, a false apostle,
th:it h:ith trnn <. fu rm cd him sel f int o an angel n f ligh t.' ~ o he rent the net, and
let the men out . Then said he tn them, ' Fullu\,. m e , tl1:1t 1 may set yo u in
yo ur w ay ag.1 in .' ~o he !c .J the m ha ck to the w:iy whi c h the y h:id left to follo w
t h e Flat te rer. T hen he a;.; k c.\ them , saying , ' \\°11erc cl i1l yon lie the last night ?'
They s;1id , ' \\' it li th1~ shepherds up•m the J lclccl:tl 1\ e '.lt>nnt:iin'.' :!Tc a sked
th« m tlicn , 1i th«y h.1.1 n"l 11f th nsc shepherd,; :1 n11tc u f dircct in n fu r the way?
They an swere d . '\· cs .' 'llu t did you,' "1i.J he,' \\·hen Y•>U w ere at ::i. sta nd,
p :nckout:rn1l rea <I Y•> ttrnu te? ' Thcy:ins\\-ercd,':\°o .' J[c:tsked thc111, '\Vh y?'
They said the y f<> rg11t . T fe :i,;kc.! ni.>re u vc r, lf the ,hcphe rds did n u t hid them
!.cw:i r c o f the 1-°lattcrc r) They answere d , 'Y es : hut we d id not im:i gi ne,'
0

said they,' th a t th is finC-SJH>l«: n m :i n had lic cn he .'
Th en I s:1w in 1ny .l r e;un th :it he cumm:t n• lc1l the1t\ tu lie dnw n, wh ich whe n
they did, he c h:i>tisnl th em su re , to tc:ich the m the g""d w:ty "·here in th ey
-,hn uicl \1·alk : and :h he cli:tslise tl tbem he s:i i•l , ' ;\ s m:1ny :ts [ Ju,·e, I rebuke
:i nd ch:1sten ; lie zc:1 l•rns, thcrcfu rc, a ncl rqH.:n t .' Tl1 is dcrnc, ]><.; bid them go
• >1 1 their w:ty . and take good heed tc) ti1e u tht:r clirccti o ns <>f the shepherds.
~o they th anketl him fu r all hi s kindne ss, :in ti went softl y along the.: ri ght way,
"ingin g."

Allegory h:is alw:iys l>cen a f:l\·oritc n :hidc fu r mor:ll tru th .
There arc varioll s n10dif1c:i.tio 11 s of the f1 g mc.. such ;is Par::tbles,
FaL>les, j\po logu es, whi ch, being \\'L•ll enoug h ddine(l 111 ~my dictio nary, need not ]Jc further d iscriminated here .
ll.

l·lLU~l ·: :-;

TJL\T P\(<J\l1>ll: UIJ'll:\:-;J s .

Principle of this Class. - :\ figure of speech promot es emphasis . n ot l >y :issoc i:1ti 11 g :i. nothcr idea more conc rete or m ore picturL'S <J lll', lml 1Jy c:tlling uut the thought itsclr into greater disti nction,

S!'/:· 1~· 01.

through some pe c uliar manner of expressing it. .\ s s imply stated.
the tho ught :i.ppcals only tn the understan d in g; as expressed iigurativcly, it is thro11·n , so to s:i.y, 11pon the reader's feelin gs, :llld
thus its effect is hei ghte ned.
The following arc the principal fi gures to lie mentioned under
this hc;id.
Exclamation. -The most spontaneous expression of emot ion
is by excbmation . This is to be distinguished from int erjcc t iu n:i.l
word:; (as a/1, alas, jic, lw.\11 ) , wh ch Litte r arc n o t figmcs oi
speech. Excbmation as a fi g ure of speech is the express ion o f :i.
thou ght, just as it is stron gly !cit, not l>y a logical affirm :i.tion, l>ltt
by som e abrupt, inverted, o r ellipt ical constructio n . The \·al ue of
thi s figure cons ists in the n:i.turalness with whi c h it answers to the
emo tion within and the occ;ision wi thout . Its abuse is in em plo ying it when the rc:i.d er cannot he supposed excited cn ollgh to
appreciate it s propri ety ; at the beg inning of a lite rary wor k, f,,r
instance, before the suhjcc t h as :i.cqui rcd a momentum, :i.n ex cbrn atory style would almost inevit:ibly seem forced .
EXAM l'LES . - I\ote the difference in effec t beh1·ecn tlic t:1me asscrti ••n,
"A man is a m ost wonderfu l creatu re; ncil1lc in reason, infinite in fac n lti cs, ..
etc ., and the same tru th held up tu \'it:w, as it were, liy ex cb matiun: " \Yh:i l
a piece o f work is a man! how noble in reason! hL•W infinite in focu itics'
in fo rm and mov ing how ex pres; :mu admira},ic ! in actio n h ow like an an;.:cl 1

in apprehension how like a god·!"

Interrogation . -This figure is the natural result of the cnde:i.vor
to enforce a \ivid ly realized th 0twht. The impui se is \'Cry direc:t
to p ut such an assertion in the form of a question.
Here, as in the preceding case, distinction is to be ma<lc lictween figurative :lnd unfi gurat ive uses. The figure interrogation
asks a question, n o t for the purpose of ol.Jtaining in formation, nor
even as a n indication o f doubt, but in order to assert stron ,l.;ly t he
reverse o f what is asked . It presupposes the id ea :is s 11 ccrt;iin
that the r eader or heare r rn:i.y be challenged to gainsay the af:irmation; and in this, its character as a virtu:il challenge, consists
the emphasis of the l1gme.
H the ::rns wcr were le :;:; than al.i-

'J')

sulu tcly ('ertain, t he '11 1 e~tiun \\'011ld d\.'gcne r:lle into a com111-

drum .
Lx,\~!l'JXS . From Burke: "\\'h:tt ! Centlcmen , \1·:-is I n ot to foresee, or
fore$ecing \l':lS T no t to cndc:n ·or lo s:we you from all these multiplicd mischiefs :lnd disgr:-iccs) ... \ \":ts J :ln lri <hnnn on tli:tt d:-iy th:i,t 1 boldly \\'ith;;[1)(ld onr pri de? o r o n the tlay tha t 1 hung rl o ll'n my hearl 1 and wept in
shame and silence o ver the humiliat io n of c;rcat ]~ritain? I became unpop ular in EnglanJ fur the one, and in 1rcbnd for the other. \\"hat the n? Wh at
ol1ligat io n Jay un me to lie popular?"
Th e follu\\'ing, from Thackeray, ill us tra tes how nat ur al it 1s to expect the
cont rar v answer tu an orato ri cal intcrrt1 g:tt ion ; the ansll'er gi1·en, not being
th e rC\'Crsc, is ;;omc'"h a t e,tranging. "\\'h:it is it to be a gentleman? ls it
tl' h:i 1·e l1>fty a i1 11~ , , ,, k:11 l :i pure life, t0 keep yo ur hon n r \'irgin; to h:we the
csti ·l·m o f )' •l11r fcll" " '·c·iti1cn s, :-1 111 ! tlic lul'(: uf you r tlrc,idc; l1J l>c:-i r guod fortune m•:ekly; tii s nff•: r e\'il wi th con st:111cy; :rnd through C\'il 11r good lo maint:ii n trnth a i11·:-iys? ~l"rn· m e the hap1•)' man wh·~s e li fe exhi bits these qualiti e:;, a nd him \\' C will s:-il ute as gentleman, ll'!i :ltc ,·er Jii , r:ink may be; show
me the prince ll'ho p ossesses them, :-i nd he may lie sure o f our love and
loy alty."
Herc we naturally expect, "Is it not lo h:tve lo fty aims," etc .

Apostrophe. - This fi;ure, as is indi cated in the derivation of
th e \\"O rd, co nsi~ts in /11n1/11g fr(lllt t he natural course of the thought,
in 1\·hich a person or thing i~ spoken of, to address it directly, as
if it were present. \\" hen t he obje c t acldrcssecl is inanimate, the
figure apostrophe im·oh·es also personification .
The emphasis of this fig-me results from the fact that an absent
ol>jc ct is so Yi\·idly concei\'Cd as to lx:comc, a s it were, present to
the sen ses .
LXA~tl'LE .

- The follo\\' ing apost rophe forms the peroration of Webster's

o ratio n on " The First :-;ct tlcmc nt o f!\ cw Fngbntl ."
"1\ rh ·ance, then , ye fu ture generations! \\" c would h 'lil you, as you ri se in
yo nr long s uccess io n, to fil l the piaccs which we now fil l, and to taste the
b lessin gs of exis tence where we are passing, ancl soon shall ha\'c passed, our
011'!1 human dnration.
\V e bid yo u wclc,> me to this plc:-isan t land of the
fathers . \Ve bid you welcome to the hc:-ilt hful skies :-ind the verdant fields of
J\cw England. \\' c g reet you r acccssi" n tel ihc g rc:tt inheritance which we
have enjoyelL \ Ve welcome you to the blessi ngs of good gove rnment and
religious liucny. \\"c welcome you to the treasu res of science and the de-

lights of learning. \ Ve \\'elcomc you to the tr:inscend cn t Sll' CCts of d nnH'"1ic
life, to th e happiness of kindred, :-ind pa re nts, and ch ildre n. \\"c wt:lc<1lll c y«n
to the imme a sura bl e blessin gs o f ratiun:-il existen ce, the i1nn1 o r ta i l1t1pc ,.f
Christian ity, and the light uf c1·erlasting truth!"

Hyperbole. - .Thi s fig-urc rnag-nil1cs olljects lJeyond their na tm:i l
bou nds, in order to make th em more iinpressive or m ore \·i1·i<i .
Its use lies in l>cing undcr,;tood for \\·hat it is - an cx::i~gcratiun :
the reader easily rnak<.:s allo wan ce fur \\'h at tr:rnscends the l1tcral,
and, attributing the excess to emot ion, receives it \\·ith som e thin g
of the S.'.1.me emotion. Its ;-ibusc consists in no t an swering intimately to the spirit of the passage: O\·ercloin g the p ass ion, it 1Jccomes bombast; employcJ \rhcrc no proper emotion exi sts to c:i.1!
it forth, it is li1di crous.
According to the spirit that gives ri se to the figure, t11·0 use~ fJf
hyperbole rn:i.y !Jc distinguished, The first, whi ch re ~ults from
strong and earnest feeling, :i.s in co nte mplatin g \\'h:tt is su];]imc or
what produces sorrow, m:-iy be c::illed im p:i.ssioncd hyperbole , The
second, which results from the Yivid conceptio n of some ch:i.r:-i c tcristic of an ol,jcct, and the writer' s spo ntaneous effort to dcsc ri lic
it according- to the effe ct on his 01\·n mind, m:iy be called Jescriptive hyperbole . Not infrequently thi:; latte r use is humorou s.
EXAMPLES. r. lm p:issi o ncd hyp c rlil>l c.
From O ssian: "J s:-iw their chief, tall as a ro ck of ic e ; liis spc'1r th e J,b,t1 ·d
fir; his shield the rising moon; he sat on the sho re like a cluud uf mist u11 the
hill."

From Milton; "So froll'n"d lh c 111i.r::h1y 1·1 >111hatants th ;it hell
Grew d:trker at the ir fru11 n."
From David : " Saul :111d J o n:1tl1:-i n 11cre lovely and pl easant in tl)t'ir iiv cs,
J\n<l in their death th ey 11-cn: no t di"idcd.
They were swifter Jh:rn eagles ;
They were s trongc r th a n lions ."
2, Descripti1·e hype rbole .
From De Quincey: "The g ro om S\\'Orc he \\' OUId do anything T wi.,h e.! ;
and, when the tim e :i.rrived , ll'ent up stairs to l1ring my tru nk down. This l

\ 1!0

rJC URJ:.S OF Sl'J:.'ECJI.

J-J(,'l'RLS OF Sl'EL CJI.

Jn the fullu win g , fr o m :'olacaulay , the irony consists in desc ri b ing the deep·

fc:ued was beyo nd the st rength of any one man : however, the gro o m \\'as a
man

e st evi l in term s b elo nging to the good .

O f .·\1 lantc:1n ,Ji .Ju Ide r' fit tt) \ •car
T he weigh t of rnighticst munarchics ;

·· Jt m:iy well I.Jc cuncei ,·cd th at, at such a time, such a nature as th:1t oi
J\Tarllio nrngh \\'Ou ld ri ut in th e ve 1·y luxury of uasc ne ss . I !is fu nner t reason ,

and had a luck as s/ 11ri1• 11s as S11lis!• 1t1y J'/,1i 11 s."
1: rn1n F \'. l~<>e : "\J r,; . Hruwn wa,; he a•: y in every sense of the word; and

t hu ru uglily furn is h ed ll'ith all i.h:tl m akes infamy ex11uisitt.:, phLcd l1irn under
the dis ad 1·antagc wh ich attends every a r tist frum th e ti111 e th a t he produces a
maste r p iece . \' ct his se co nd grea t stroke 111 a y excite wonder, even in t h•1sc

\l'ith her hu ge pe r".1 n enc;bed in ao·<S uf s iik :t nd ft.: ,t.1<> ned with 11 0 n1d uf
l1l:t ck bee, ,}n: ,,· :id.lied al>u ul :111 .J s milcJ :ind n ndc kd good-naturedly al

cveryb uc1y and t.: \·cr ytli in g .11
h ·o m l !:t11·th orn c: "ln th e w :iy o f furni tu re", there we re two t :ibles : o ne ,
con,t ruclcd with perplexi ng intri cac y and c~hil 1 i1 in g rrs 111an1· fut a s a rc11li·
/ <.!,- ; the othe r rn u,;l delic:1kly \\Tt>ll gl1i, with f1l t1r lo ng :ln1l o.,k ndcr legs, so
appa rent ly fr:1ii tli at it \\' :l' a lm ost in crcclil,lc ll'h at a len gth of t ime the :rnc icnf
tea- table kid ,;tu11d upo n tl1em-"

Irony. - Thi:-; fi gure expresses the contrary of 'vh:.i.t is me:rnt,
there being so mc thi ns- in the tone or m:.i.nn cr to sho1\· the spe:.i.kcr's
rc:il drift. T he st1·e ngth of the figure cunc;i,;ts in ih lJeing c;o unanS\\'eralilc that no duuht cm exi:-;t ur the falsity ol ll"h:tt it assumes
as true. It is a kind ol rt·r!11d1°i1 arl a/1111 rJ11111 .
EX.\\il'l.FS . - - 111 t he fullu\\·in g pa s,:1ge Tln ckc r:iy rcg :rnb tl1c guilt u f the
l'r in ce-,s St1p hi:t l l1>ruthe a as <, u ll ul<> ri u u,ly .: ,·i.ic nt tint he 111 a y sa fely call

her innoce nt.
" l l uw that p c r\'\' r,;e fidelit y of ;>:t,•io :i pur,;ucs th e ,·ilbin 1 I [,J\\' ni :iclly
true the 11·u m an is , a nd ~ l •"" :'h t1 1 1111.Jin.~ly she lie ,' She lt:ts i>e\\·itcheJ t\\·u ur
th ree pc rsu ns wlw h :t 1·e t:ikcn her up, :-in .I t lr ey \Y <rn"t ldic,· e in her \\·ro ng .
l .i ,c :'olary 11 f S cotl: urd , ,; he !'111 1!s adhe rents ready tu co n o.,i'i re ft1r lier c,· e n in
h istu ry, a nd pc111'k \\'hn h:t,·c to de.ii \\'ith her :He c h:trn1ed, ;in d fa,;c in atcd,
a11d !1<.:de ,·il lcd . l f"w 1lc ,·1 )tcdly \!i s,; S 1ri cU .111rl has stu ud !"· \lary" s in no·
ccn c c ! .\r e there n t1l sc11 rc~ (.)r \:i.di c'"t i n t\ii;-; audience: wiiu \H'r"ii:--t in it tuo?
I 11n u1.: e11t ! I rcn a..:nil1c r : 1~ a li"y !11 1\\' a g rt.:;•l p:tr:y j' L' r ~i:...tcd i11 dcc L1ri11g
Caru lin e of J\rn1io;11·ick w :1s a martyred :t 11gel. Su 11·:is I kkn p f Cre ece in nocen t. She n e ,·e r r:1 11 :t\\' ay with i':1ri.; , t he d:rngc ruu:< Y"ung T ruia n. :Olene·
1.111,;, he r husl>:in d , il l-used her; and there \\' as ne ,· c r ~Il\' s iege u f Troy at all.
'.::\c1 \\' as 1\iuchca rd's wife inn ocen t. S he ncl'i:r peeped intu the clo ,;et ll'hc re
the other wil'CS were \\·ith t he ir hods <1ff. ~h<· n nc r rlrnppc rl t he key, or
stain et! it \\'ith bl ood ; an d h e r \mothers \\'ere r1u ite r ight in linish in g J;l11c ·
b e ard, the cu wardly lirntc ! \"cs, C :m il ine u f l:rn n ;;\\·iek wa s in nocent: a nd
;\ L\.J:1mc Lalfargc: 11e 1·c:r pu i,;un c:.J \in ht1,l•:i111l ; :rnd \ l:l r y u f Scutlan 1l never
hicll' up hers ; a nd j'•hi r :-;.,1, hia [l u rt1th ea w:1s nev e r unfai th ful; an<l Eve
n c\·e r tvuk the a pp le -

it ,,·as a Cu\\'ardly f.1l1ricativn uf tlie serp en t\."

101

'

i

f\
r•

who apl're cia tc all the merit of th e first. l .es t his adm ir e rs s h "uld i>c al1k tn
s;iy th:tt at t he time of tir e Rcvoluti1m he h;iJ IH.:trayc<l his Kin g fr um any
o the r t ha n scllish m ot ives, he p r oceeded tu be tray his cou n try ."

O ne or two further remarks on the fi gure Irony may here lic
mad e.
r. /\. pass:-tge not predomin:-tntly ironical in tone may oft1..·n lie
nude more spirited by :.i.n occasional iF011ical lo11c/1, whi ch, being
less ob tru sive, is co rresponc1ingl y more g r:-tce ful. Youn g \\'ri tns
who employ this de1· ice often betray their anxiety that their irun y
m:.i.y no t 1Jc mi ssed Ly m:irking such to uches \\' ith an in te rrog:tti onpoint enclo:-;ed in parenthesis; hut this is ordinarily qt1ite ne edless,
and in poor taste .
EX .-\~11 ·1.i-:s

oF

} i(I):\ !CA L

Tut : c 1I ES. -

1-'rnrn

Ch a rles Egbe rt Cra• ld1 •ck :

"!le iea n ed fo r \\'ard su dd en ly , and elLt tcheLl Pc:te liy the thr. ,at, and t ltc ,, \i[
m ::rn a nd

~ol omo n

ll' c r c fain tu interfe re act i vely to prel'ent t hat dvughty rnc 111·

her of the fam il y frurn he in g throttled on the sp o t. l'e n ding t he in frrd111 11,i;e
of tltesc a111r11itics, l-!.i c k T yle r i:ty mot ionless o n th e gro un d. "
From ;\ug11sti 11c l)irri:;ll (" ()\,ite r JJ icta ") : " Ile ( l \roll'ning ) p:i rtiai ly
fa il ecl; ;111<! the Hritish publ ic , ~ci!lt its <1ro1.1/0111cd ,;r,·11CJ·o.1 ity , .1111/ i11 <•rJo· , f
.ruJf'Ne , l o n 1<»11ri1,,··,· !li e o//;,.rs, has nel'er cc:ised gi rding ;it him, licc:rn' e
fo rt y-t w1l years ago h e pul1\i, hc•l, :it hi s ow n charges, a little li1H>k of t\\'o hu n clrctl and fifty p:ige, , w!ti c h eve n su ch uf then i as were then a\,Je to re ad c»u ld
n o t un clersl.and."

z. Irony, more especially in its modifi ed form of s::itirc or
innue ndo, is an edge-tool of \\'h ic h the writer needs to lie 1·ny
careful. Not only may the sat irical sp irit lJccome very cnsi:l\in.l.'..
and lead him to look upon eve rything with captious and cynical
eyes; but it almost inevitably gives hi s wri ting an clement ur
offense to simple :-tnd straight-forw:.i.rd minds. l'e11pk nny :ulrn ire
a satirist's wit and h :cnness, but more dec1ily they suspect and fear

;.J(;CR!:S OF Sl'L LCJ!.

Ffr;(/ RES OF S!'EJ':CII.

h im; even Th:i.ckeray, kind hearte d :i.s h is admirers know him to
have been, co n t r:i.cte cl s uc h an nn for tun:i.te ha]Jit of satire, on ccr-

opportunity for antithesi s , so c lea r an<l te mpting, seems lo have ca used the
historian, perha ps unthin k in gl y, to stretch the truth. It is la rge ly ?lbcauby's
inveterate te ndency to s trikin g anti theti c state ment that causes distrust in rca.J ing his hi stvri c:1 l \\'ri ti ng s ; dili ge nt in ve sti g at o r tli v ugh h e was , r eaders ofte n
lr esit a te to lean their w hl) le we igh t o n his a sserti11ns, for fear h e may h:1 ,·e
saerilicecl some mea s ure o f truth to fvrm .

102

t:iin s ubjec ts, t hat he is :i.po logi zc d for fully as mu c h as he is
p r:iised.
Th e fi gures o f th is c bss ye l to l>e n:i.me d p ro mo t e emphasis n o t
as b eing th e o u t c ome of so m e emot io n o r passio n, l iut a s cmlJo dyrng in so me form th e intellc c tu:il effo rt to gi\·e point and distinct io n t o the t h ou g h t .

Antithesis. - T h is l1 g ure p lac es oppos ite id ea s in juxtaposition,
for the pm)'osc o f heighte nin g th e ir e ffe c t hy c ontrast.
e;np 1asis co nsi sts in the fact that one id ea sc h off another.

Its

"l r yon w u uld seek t,J m:1ke one r ic h, st ud;· n o t to i11 r r ra sc
hi s s tore..:~ , bn t tn ,/t.JJ 1iJ1 i sh li is dc ~i n::-. . '
1: r u 1n \lac a ul a y : · ·rhc l uri ta 11s
hated !Jc0.r-l> alting, I H Jl h e c::n1 ~ c it g :1.ve J r1i 11 ti) th1.: hc:lr , h ul l 1e c au se it g;1 vc
f' l <' flS llr/' l<l the sp cct:1tn rs .'' - T he f, ,\]1) \\'i11g. fr u m Tennys\>n ',; ·• Lan cel o t anrl
Llainc, " descr ib es in a se r ies o f very h v ld antit heses L:1n c elut 's guilty Juve fvr
(J uee n G uin c Ycrc . 1: r,1m his si ck-b e d th e lrn igl1t is n .:gaaling Elaine, as she
l·: x . \ ~t > ·J.Es .

-

1

1

Two or three additional re marks need to be macle o n an tithe s is.
I. Sometim es a false a ntithes is rn:i.y be mad e, that is, :i. pby o n
words, antitheti c in form but not in se nse . Thi s ho 11· c \· c r i,; a
dn ice so artifi c ia l th a t 011 ly :1 ll'ritcr of the fi n es t ta~ t c ran lrc
truste d to a dopt it of intent; and when it uc c urs inath·e rtc nt ly it
had better be b roken up.

1

-

m in is te rs to him : " An d pc rn ch cnturc li :1d h e seen he r fi ro t
S he mi g h t 1: :1Ye m ad« th is :rnd tli:t t othe r wo rld

]())

EX A \ 11 ·1.1-: s . -

'l'hc fulluwing, fru1n '1'cnnys1H1

1

s

"(;lJdi\·a,'' i:-; :111

( " \ t n · 111t.:

example: Did n1 o rc , a1Hl und e rwe nt, and o n .: rc :1t n e ."

1 [ere u11t!er and cr..•er, w en/ and """ '" e xpr ess opp osit io n in so un d on!v, n ut in
idea. ·- The fvllu wing simib.r exam p le occurred inadvertentl y in a p ruse p ru ductiun : "This is a duty that \\'e a rt: too o ften tem p ted tv 07'a iovk u r 1111 ,/0· ·
value,,; and the ex press io n w~1s changed to " overlook or ,·a luc but lii;lrtiy ."

An o ther w orld for the si ck tn: \ n ; bnt now
'The '.111ack!c~ nf :tn old lu \·c :-. t r~1itt.' ll ' d li illl,

J /,: r /1<i11 o r ro efr d in dl l/1 ()//f l?' s/11[,d ,
~ · 1 11 J f u t/I. 111~(i1itl1/11/ l.:i/1/ hi m _(;:l.f( ly
0

/ r11( '."

T he :lli11se of :rn t ith cs is cons ists in w:i rpin g the trn e comsc of
the tho ug ht in o rd er to :1cco mnH >d :i tc it to :.1 strikin g j1111ctme of
t erm s. Th e tc11 de 11 cy t11 cxp n ·ss thot1 gh t :1nt itli c t ic ·al ly m:1y indeed
1Jc comc a tyranny to the writ e r, if not rigo ro 11 sl y regulated.
\\.he n fact yi e lds in the s rn:i.lles l dct-'. rec to :mtithesis, the figure
1Jeco rn cs a :s n:i re . "Those wh o l! Ukc :rnti thcse s l>y forc in g the
se nse ," says Pascal, "art: lik e th n;,c ll' ho m :1 kt: hb c winrl o ws for
t he sake of sym m etry . Th e ir rn lc is not to speak ::iccuratcly, but
to make :i.ccurate figure s."
'((HF.

-The an tithc,is 'l twted aJi ,,,·c fr•llll ) hca uJa ,· <l o uh tless m:1kes a

t" o abs o lut e an d s \\'e ep in g s t:i lc men t a lic> ui the Pmi ta ri,;. "'h e n it :tcc uses them
v f ha ti ng h c ;i r-baiting b e ca use it g:1 ,·c p leasure t,, the spec ta tors; but the

l\fu c h g race a nd po int m:iy l> e impa rted to :l passage l1y hi dtkn antithesis, that is , antith esis uno li trnsi\·e in form, but no ne th e
less real in its p o we r of settin g ideas m ·er a gainst e a c h other.
2.

Ex,"11·1.Es. - "Th ey we re engaged in the n o ble \\' Ork o f c a\l i11 g rnen 1,ut
of their h c atheni sn1, with its rnanifu ld <'t>l'!'uf'lio 11 s :1nd s upe r,t iti uth, i1 i!u tl1c
gospel pf j• uri~v :ind Ju ve ." - l"rurn ;\l utlc y : " :\ strange an1l ctJ 11 tr:t1ii..r"'Y
spectaclc ! 1\n army of cr iminal,; doing d eed ., which c o uld only l>e c xpi:1 tc .\
at the stake; an entren c hed rel,cllion, bea rdin g g ov e rnm e nt with pi ke, m:1tclr ·
Jock, j:1Yclin :1nd k1rri c adc, and all fur no nH>re dea(lly purp ose than to l is te n
to the precepts of the pacific Jcs u s."
3 . T he p rin c ip le o f co ntra st, on which antithesis is liaserl, ex tends to much broad er rcb t ions than arc indic ated iiy mere \' Cr! 1.tl
opposit ions an d struc ture of clauses. Thought, in c ide nts , char:ic :teristics, :i.re often prepared fur o r set off Liy something that p resents a striking contrast, and gives thus the lights and sh:ides, the

F/(,'("NFS OF

sr;.:;.:or.

cont r.:tc1ictions :rnc! i11 co 11grnitics. that «ontin11ally o cc ur to excite
interest in real life . :\ ntithc~is in this l>ro:Hkr si g nifi ca tion is one
of the most spl1 11t:rncous resu mccs of li tc r:1ture.
Ex ,\>l i'LL-Thc full u \\"in g . fr<>m P ic kens, ""ill ill us tra te hu\\" co ntrast rnay
1": ernplvyccl to m:ike a ,;ccnc ll f a n inc ident viv id.
"There w:1s :1 c crt'1in elde rly gc n tk m:rn wh c> li \' c,l in :1 co urt nf the Temple,
an d \\':1S ::t g re:1 t j ud ge ancl h"·c r u f pu rl " ·inc. J·: ,-cry d :i.y he dined at his
clu li a11d drank his liulllc •>r l"" ' uf pc>rl \\inc, :rn!l e\·cry 11ight came home lo
the Tem ple and \\" ent l<> i>ed in his l<>ncly ch'1n 1 licr~;, T his h:1d gu ne 011 many
yc:1r:-; wiihuut \" :1. ri :ilitJil , \\'hCn \)llt.,'. t1iglit ht: h:1d ~ r1t 0 11 CtJ llling horne, and fell
:rn.I cul his h ead deep, but i'arth· n ·c., ,·cred and grupcd al>u ul in the dark to
i1nd the c],)c> r.
\\'he11 he " ·as afk r\\· :1rds disc o\'er c d, d e:1d, it was clea rly
'"' t:d,Ji, Jic d by the m:1rl;s " f hi s h.1nds :d 101 1t tl:c rn<'1n that he 11111 ., t have done
so . ;\.'""thi s c li anced un tl1e 11 i~;l1t 1Jf Ch ri,t111 :<s F,·e . all(l U \'t:r hirn liveLl a
you ng fell<>\\' \\'h u h;-rd siste rs :i.nol yuung co untry-fri c nds, :rnd ll'h o g:we them
:i litilc p:irty tb:tt night, in the l'<lll r'e o f \\' hic h th ey J>hyccl a l Hlinclrnan 's
]luff. They pbycd that ga :n c, f,, r their grc:i.k r sport, b;· th e ligh t o f tbe fir e
unly; :ind unce, \\'ht'n they \\'en; all <p1ictly rl\';tl ing :1ncl steal ing abuut, :incl
the lilin.!rn:rn \\' :l~ trying tu l•ick 11Ht the p rcttic:sl ,;i<tcr ( f<>r whi ch I :i.m far
frL•I\\ J,l.u11ing him ) , S1>1 llei H1dy c ri c:d, 'r l ark ! The \11:\1\ J,c:Juw mu st he playing 1:ii n d111an 's BufT by l1i111st'lf t1J-night '.' Th c.:y li ste ned, a nd they l1car.t
"nrnd s nf Seline one fa ll in g abuu t and stu mblin g :lgai11st furnil11r<', anc l they all
l:rngl1cd at the con ceit, :lll•I we nt 1> 11 wit h th ei r pl:iy . 11\ <> re li ght heartecl a1HI
111cr ry th:l\I c \· e r. T hus , th1.sc t" ·" su different g:11ncc; u f life: :rncl cleath \\'ere
play cc l out together , blindfulded . in th e t\\·v set s u f chambers ."

Epigram. - This ftg ure employs in modifie d furrn the pri nc iple
o f co nlr:-tsl or antithesis, in un kr to g i\·c point to :l th o11 g ht.
T he term epigram h:is lie1·11 ;:o Lro;ully an d \':lri o usly :-tpjilied
tha t it lus n> 111e to ],c pup11brh· t:1k 1· n as 1rn·anin .~ :111y unt1s11:i.lly
]Jt tn ge n t \1·ay of putt ing thin gs . Thi s idea is. ho \\·L·1·er, too \·:-igue.
To ]Jc ep igr::unnut ic an e:-:prcssiun nrn»l kt,· e fundamentally two
qt:ali1ies : it mus t be b ri ef; and il 111u ~ t g i,·e so111c unc:-:pectcd
tmn t o the ide a . This btter quality is 1.Jitained in \'ariuus ways.
LXA .\11'1.l-:s. - The f1 >llowi ng "ill i!Jw;t rate sume "f th e 111 ea l\ s J,y ll'hich cpigral\11nati c p1)i 11t is sec ur ed .
1. J:y an apparent Cllntr:Hlicli•<tl.
" ( "c1 ns1• icu c> 11s f1• r its al•s<.:ncc."- "\' crh vs ity is c ur t-.1 liy a \\·iclc ,-ncal>uhr:-.· · - " l .angu agc is the :irt u f cunce a ling
th out;h t." - ·• l lc is sc• guu d that he is goud fu r nothing."-" l lerc: he straight-

FIC UR r:S OF SP.EEC!!.

JOS

way fell into new mi sadventure by co n ce i\· ing an m ulyi11g p assirm , that /,1strri
u11o·a! wed:s, for a you ng co untry \\'o l\1 a n wh o m h e found in ! I olbnd."
2. By emphatic assert ion of a truism .
" Fa ct is fact." an event." - "\\'h at l ha,·e \\'ri ttc:n , I h av e w ri tten."

" J l is co min g was

3. By a sudden turn o f the th ough t in a different sp irit. " ITe is full o f
informatio n - like yest e rday's Times .' ' - "II is memo ry (fu r trillcs) is r emarka ble , and (w here his ow n p erfo r ma nces are n ot in\'olved) his t:istc is e~ccl ­
lcnt." - "\Vhat that m a n d ocs n o t k n o w is n o t \\'o r th ]; nu\\'ing," " ·as unc-e
said admiringl y o f an e n thusi:lst in o ut-uf-thc- \l· ay learnin g. ' ' True, .. wa< the
reply, " and wh at he d ocs kn u w is n o t wo rth kno ll'in g ."
4. Dy seeming ir releva nce o f assuc iatecl iil e a. "\\"h c: re s 1lc1\\' fall,;, there
is a fre edom ." - " I .aph nd is too co ld a cu untry fv r sonnets ."

5. By play o n weirds. "Tl1 e ti 111 c \\'ill co me \\'hen Ameri ca, too, \\'i ll under stand that her ease is her dis<11H ." - " l\fy habit of "' r iting only to ?euplc " ·h'> ,
rather than h:i.,·e 11 othi11,i: fr o lll m e, "'ill to lerate 11 11!/ii ligs ." - " Thusc l:cl10r i<>u s
orators who mistake f<r.rpira!i u11 fur in spi ration."
In :i.11 the ahovc e:-.amplcs the e ~sc nti a l fc :i. tnrc u f the epi g ram - namely,
the element of su rpri se - is ea~ily detected.

The power o f ep ig ra m li es \·e ry brge ly in th e compant i,·e rarity
of its employment. It is too artificial , too ela borate, 10 l>e nnde
common; it should he resen·cd for those thou gh ts ,1·hich m:t·d to
lie compressed into espe c ially st riking :lnd rcme111licralilc ;,\:tternc nt.
Climax. - Th is f1 g ttre, \1·hi c h d epends upo n th e law that a
thought must have p n1.:;rcss, is the orde ring of th o ug ht :rnd expres sion so that th ere shall be uniform ancl evident in c rease in signifi cance, or interest , or inte n sity. The deriv at ion o f the ,,·ord , from

the Creek KAL/1-u.t, a ladder, suggestively indi c:ltcs th e ch:uac; tc r of
the fi g ure.
The c onstru ct io n of a cl im ax d epe nds m ore o n th e character of
the thought th:m o n the mec ha ni sm of ex p ress io n, and conse quently di rectio ns fo r the m an agement of the btter ma:» in a
g iven C:lse, g ive w:ly to \1·ci gh t ier considerations. l n gene ral , ho\\"e ver, it m ay be said th:lt 1 a s vo lume <ii. sot 1n d helps ,·olumc !• (
sense, sho rter and less sonorous words and con strnct ions ~h ()1 ild,
other cons iderations apar t, prec e de the lunger an d m o re so n() ru us .
That is the best cl imax where th e struc ture correspo nd s to t he
progressive intensity of the thought.

F!C URFS OF Sf'EECI!.

IJ <7URFS OF S/ '/:L C/f.

]()(,

V :tri.rns :tsp e c ls 11 r t!>t.: figure 111:-ty here he exemplifi ed.

EXA)ff' I. F.''- -

'li111:1x of iI1tc11~ity .

107

is tcr, and Mr. Vin ey 11 as m :iym uf the ol<l co r poration 111 :'<liddlcm:trch, 1\!rs .

The C<11 lllll< J1ily cited cx'1:npk, from l.' icc ro's oratio n

Casa ul,on, b orn Dorothea Hruukc, had taken ht:r \re ddi ng journ ey to l\.urne."

:igaillsl \ ' crrc s , being :tlso the ck:t re sl :rnrl must st r iking o f examples, cann ot

-The following, from l!c Quin cey's " i\lu nlc r Conside red as one: of the Fine

!.

(

11·cll !Jc umitkd h e1 e :

"It is

:>.II uulr;igc tv b in,! a l\.ull!an citiLe n; to sco urge

him is an :ttroci11us c rime; tu put him t<J <lc:t th is :ilrnust p:i t-r icid e ; but to
nucify him -

wh :tl shc<ll I c:t 11 it?" -

l"ru 1n lJr. Ilol m es : " I know it, I rc-

1>i icd, -1 col\cedc it, I confess it, T l'roch im it ."
Cli1n :tx.

pr i ~tH H.:rs ? ., -

L)f

"~u c h a dcr:lng cnic.:nt

~1s,

ir

i1nn1c tl i;ttcly en for ced, n1ust have-

rcdn cc <l soc iety l •J its lir ol c k 111<.: 11ts, :i11 d /,.,/ I»" di r rcl rollisiun of ,·011Jlidi11,i;
'fhc fl.tl e ffec t uf !' uc h in.td\·cr tc nt JH:glcct u( 11rog r css is uiJvious.

inlt'Ft'..; /s ."

' l\1·1J or thre e additinn;d ff111 ;1 rks on clirn; 1:-; 111 ;1y
I.

Su1rn; ti11 1L·s ;111 i11tu 1ti t >11 ;il :11it i 1·li11i: t '\ is

h e made .

e111pluyl' d to g ive

:l speci;1] <1 1i:tlity, usually 1111n:or <>r sati re, to :l sUteme nt. This is
virl1t::tlly a cli rn ::t:-.:: ])tlj]t on ::t ne1r princq,k; t k1t is, while it dccn.:ases m intens ity, it in cre::tst· ,; as uniformly in the sp irit th at gives
ri se to it.
ExA~11·1.i-: ~ . -

Fr,)111

~bc:lllby:

"\"ct these s tor ies arc now altoge th er ex-

Tiley h:t1·e i>ccn :tb:111du11ed i>y >Lltes 1nc n lo aldcrlllc n , b y alderm e n to
c !t.: rgy 1nc n , l>y c l c r gy111c n tu uld \\'tll H L'll , ;u11l l)y l·ld \\'~llllL' ll tu Sir J r~rcourt
plv<led .
] .ec:; . 11

-

"X evt:r tell m e of :Illy

1 set my fa ce ag:t i ns t it in to/,1 .

J-',,r,

if o nce a man ind ulges him self in murder, ve ry soo n he comes to think l it tle
of ro bli in g; :ind fr o m robbin g h e: rnmes next to d rinking a nd Sabbath-u rc:ik-

~trnctur~, cnrn..:~1 1 o n di 11g '' ilh

clin1:lx ,,f signdicance. Fruin
l\urLc : ·'This w:1s llllll:ttur:il. The 1e , t is in order . They h:i1T fo urnl their
pun:sl: rnclll in their s uccC:i" . I.:111·s u1·crtllr11ccl; trilrnn:ils sul,Ycrlc d; in d us try
11 it liuut· Yi ,c ;.•r; C· >
!l1111erce npiri n g ; tl1e r c 1·cn ue llll p:t id, yet the people illl·
l 'u 1·cri,lic·.J : :1 church 1•ilbg,·d, c<nd :t st:ilc n ,,t rL· lie 1·c,J; c iYil :tn tl milit a ry
an:trcliy 1n :ide the C\Jll Stit u t i\J n ,, r the Lin.c.:·1·1111 ; c1·erytl 1ing hum;:rn and divi ne
sa cri! ieed t u the id u l ur pnl.Jic credit, :tn.! nati o nal klllkruptcy th e conse'{llCnc·c; :tnd l <> cre>\\'11 all, the p ape r securities o f !lCll', prec:i ri lJ us , totter ing
j'vlHT, tl1e di,;cr,.,]itcd papn scq1rit ics of irnpo1-e r ishc.l fraud, a n d beggared
r01pinc, helrl o ut :i s :1 t·u 1Tcn c y f<>r the stq•jl<ll't .,fan einpire, in li e u u f th e t wu
gr c:1t rec <>gn i1.ed ']> c cit-,; th a t r eprc--cnt tl 1e b stin g e<> n 1cnli\l11al cre dit of mankill <l, " ·11ic li di s:q•j •c·:nc d and lii tl il><.:111,e\1 ,·s in the: c: :i rth fru1n ll'hencc th ey
c :i mc, \1·hcn tlic pr i11 c iple o f pwperty, ll'ii o se creatures :ind r cp rcscnt:tlives
t!icy :ire , 1•:01s systc:1nal ic::illy sul>l'ertc:<l ." 1t ll'ill lie u],;;erl'(:d how , :ts the
scn'ic a,h·a nces , senlen c c: s, and cbnscs ll'ithin :t sentence, in c r e:i'e unifor lll ly
i1 1 len g th.
3. ?\ cglcct <•f ciin1:ix, o r liath os . "\\"hat pen c:t n describe the te::irs, th e
bmcnLtlillllS, th e :1gu11ics, the 1111/111<1 /rJ u·1111 •11SIJull1c S or the unfortunat e
:? .

Arts," is a gnod ex:trnple o r his clabu r:<te humor :
speci:tl w o rk of art yuu are mcdit:tting -

Fr1nn l ~curg c: 1-:liut : "\\.h e n ( :c t> rg c the F u urlli W8.S st ill r eigning

01· er tli<: privacies of \\'in<lsu r, when the Uuk c of \\'cli inglun

11':15

P r ime l'l'lin·

ing , and fr om th:tt tu i11ci1 ility :tnd proc r:istination .

Once begin upu n tl 1is

d ow nward pa th , yo u never know wher e yo u are to st op.

M any a Jlla n h:is

d ntcd hi s ruin frum so m e murder o r other tha t p e rhaps h e thou ght little o f :it

the ti m e."

The 11c,~ra/io11 o f a cl imax is n::tt mally marlc in in.verse orde r ;
th e stron gest statement l.ie in g denied first. J\ cl im a x m ay ::tlso Lie
11irt1ta!ly n egati\'c; t hat is, some privative particle, such as wit/1 0111,
against, 1111/ess, rn::ty ope ra te to reve rse th e orde r o f s ta temen t.
2.

ILT.US"l'Rt,"t'IONS. -

I.

The action o f Alaba m a in seceding fr o m the Uni<>n

w as denounced hy J{cpu l.Jica ns ::is t he conse1 1ucn ce of "s udde n, ~ pa~mud i c ,

a nd violent passi u 1i."

l 11 ans\l'er ing this cha rge, t he o rder 11·u ul d na turally he .

"The a ct io n of Alaham:t ll'as nut due to \·iok n t passiun, n o r to spasnw.lic, ll< •r
C \' Cll t u s udd e n p::i,;si <>n."
2.

Th e fulloll'ing arc 1·irtua ll y n cgat i1·e : " The c hances ll'C:re rnill iv ns

!.) one

against i ts s uccess, agai nst its Cllf1ti nucd existence."-" 1\nd t hus he enlc'rs
p ublic life Lefo r e he h:ts :in y co m ·ict io ns, o r p e rcepti o ns , o r ri ght impr ess ions
even,
tru e citi ze nship."

or

3 . The l::tw o f cl im::tx , \\'hi c h begins with th e sente nce, exten ds
to all parts of a d isco urse . It is simply th e law o f unifvnn prngress, e mpl oye d to eco n om izL' the reader's inter preti ng and re::tl i1.i n;..;
power by tn crcas rng intensity and amp li tud e of t hought . ~ u·
p receding, p::tge 25 .

JOS

CUJl/'OSJ '/Ju.\·.

CHJ\ PTER IV.
COMP OSI TION.

Tilus far the consider:i.t iun of our su hject h:i.s h:i.d to do mainly
with the selection of m:-itcrial for style; fo r snch is funrbmentally
tlie task re cognized in choosing words and estimating figures of
s11ec c h. 1\s we k1\·c seen, this work of selection demands not
only skill J.nd judgment for the occ1siun, but ;:ilso thorough general
di sci pline in carefulness, patie nce, scholarship, and taste. We
come now to the lrnsiness of building this m:-itcri:i.l together into
li tcrJ.ry form s, - into 1ihr:i.ses, sentences, p:ir:i.gr:-iphs; J.nd here
the same d iscipline is required, only now the writer's attention is
directed to com b ination. Ont of the scattered elcmenh at comman d is to he formed a structure of thou ght, which is to lie no
c rnde congeries j umbled togctht: r as it h:1ppcn s, lrnt :i. unified,
coheren t, organic system . Jt is tu su ch skilled cornbin:1tion :i.lone
th;:it we c:i.n ri gh tly apply the n:1rn e style .
This p:i.rt of the writer's work h:1s its distincti\·e p rolilems.
I1 ow word s arc rebted to on e an other gr:i.rnrn:i.tically; how th ey
so11 nd together; ho,,· they rcfn to what precedes or prepare for
wh;:it fv ll O\YS ; how their positi on is so to h e..: determined as to
give them f,J1Te :encl di stinction in th e rnsch· c ~ or nnke them :i.
suppo rt to one :cnothe r, - snch •p1estiuns :i.s the se arise at every
ste p, q 11cstions to be answered only liy const a nt and studious attenti on to the logical re la tions of the thou ght.
I t is in c omposit ion, or wh :i. t may lJe called thought -structure,
that rh etoric shows its close relationship tu gr:i. mrnar, and :it th e
same time its funcbment:i.1 ach·:incc hcyon• I tk1t sc ience . Crammar discm·ers the facts of the bng11:igc, from \1·hich it formulates
the bws of correct expression ; and these b11s rhetoric must observe, liecause correctness lies neccssarih- a t the fou mbtion of all

FUNDA1Jf.ENT.-IL PRO CESSES.

109

intelligible utterann:, rhetori cal or other. But even in c mplvying
grammatical processes as working-tools, rhetoric imparts to th em
a new quali ty distinctively rhetorical, th e quality by " ·hi eh the y
hecome methods in a n :irt, means to a n end. That is, it is not
mere mechanism, but an issue aml a purpose, mu ch greater than
sentence-building or the manipubtion of a theme, th :-i t contro b
the rhetori cal combinatio n of words, - the purp ose , namely, of
adapting thought in harmony wi th its subject and occasion, to the
various requirements aml cap:i.citics of readers and he:ucr,;.
In discussing, therefore, th e processes of compositi on, we arc
to appro:-ich each principle, so to say, from its ope rat iv e sid t: ; th:-it
is, we are to view it- in the light of its adaptedness to promote
son1e e nd in thought or emotion, of its power toward making an
id ea, according to our design, clear or emphatic or felicit ous.
These processes have their roots partly in grammatical b\1·s and
principles; out th ere are also rn:-tny that go beyond :ind alJoH: the
scope of grammar, into the more distinctive regi o n (Jf rhctoric:i.l
structure.
Th is chapter on composition comprises three secti o ns : on
fund;irnentai processes; on the strnct mc of the scntcnr;c; :ind
on the structure of the paragraph.

SE C TION

F1HST .

FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES.
UNDER this he;icl arc discussed the most important fc aturt:s o f
grammatical and rhetorical comLination. These are con sidered
in themselves, as principles of expression, without refere nce tu
their agency in the construction of sentences and paragra p hs.
Some of the processes deal only with verbal coml.>inations; others
may opewte over a 1m>:ider field, equally applicalile, it may lie, to
a single sentence, paragr:-iph , or entire discourse; Lut so lo ng ;:is

110

F l XD. -1.lfF..\ .- 7 ~- l !. J'f.' OCESSFS.

the p r incipk 1s the same, and re(]t1ire:-; o n e mental habit for its
mas tery, it is Lest considered un dn o ne head , he its scop e b roaJ
or narrow .
!.

~Y:\T.\ \: .

Every cohe rent asseml>bge of word s has its nec essa ry adj ustme n ts of rn1mlxr, c:isc, mood, tense, :rnd the like , wh ic h are to
b<..: c a rcf\lll)' ol>scrn:d . .:\ ot all of thes e syntacti cal a rra ngements
can or need be noticed h ere; it 1Y ill he sufficie nt to disc uss m erely
tlHJse whert.:in the g r:im m atical pr inciple rcc c i1·es a sp ec ial sign ificmce o r muditic:itil in from t he rhctori c·al point of Yicw.
Concord of Subject and Verb . - T he stri ct obse rva nc e of the
s ra1nm:l t ic:l l rnlc tli:it a 1·e rh must agre e in n umber \\'ith its subject is of speci:ll rhetoricll im po rtan ce in cases 11·here , a mong a
nurniJe r o f 1nmls , t he exact s1ilijcct is to he dist in g ui shed . Oth er
cases occur 11·here the con co rd is to ]Jc d e te rm ine d m o re fro m th e
idc:i. than from the wo rd .
1. l'rolnlily the most frequent S<llirce of erro r in concorJ is,
11·herc cithn s0mc 1\·ord of difkre11t num lin, o r sc1·cral subordi. nate de ta ils, i11 tc n ·cni ng l>e t11·ec n the sul1ject ::rn d th e verb, m:.iy
(Jl>scure the 1·ie11· uf t he funne r, and :ltlr:1cl the H-rb to t he di ffe rent number s11,.;J..;ested . Thi" uror i" to he aniide d, of course,
o n ly liy kccpi11g thL~ e xact s1il1ject \\' ell in m ind .
ExA 1:1·1.1 -: s . --~ul•jcct

••bscurc1l l>y intcn·cning w1>r•l, : " T he e norm ous exLy 111:d... i11g thc1n fe el." " This l:lr_ge hu n1cste:1d , ill t:l udi ng a brge k1 rn and l>ea uti fnl ga rden , are tu
pcrhc 11 C .L!11\·cr111nc11h lu1;·" pr1>\'o l.. n.l ntt·n l 1l tl1in1, ,

j,C S1)Jd ll t.:Xl i!1tJi\tJi. ·'

~u!•jn:t "liscurcd ],,. tlet:i iJ, : '' J:u1 these 1\:rsun:1l ~ !1:rnuirs uf [J . S. Grant,
\\Tit!en as si1nply a ll.I 'traightf0rw:1rdly as his l1:1t11cs were fu ug ht , couched in
the mo't u np rctc n tiuus phrc1se , with nc1·cr a t1iuch uf grandiusity ur attitudi ni zing, h111i! ia r, 11 .in iely, e 1-en cumnwn in style, is a gn:at p iece o f li terature, be·
c:111sc ,L;rea t literature is nuthing 111r1 rc n " r less tha n the clea r ex pre ssion of
mi1 1•b 1h:1t k11·e sol\\eth in g g reat in them, \\'hctlic r reiig iv n, nr bea uty, or deep

ex JH.: ri cncc ."
2 . :-; ul>jects connec te d l)y conj1 rn ctio ns ufte n req uire careful
managemen t. i1cc~lll " C 11 h a t is g ra 1n 111atically u f u 11 e m1m uer may
somclim l's lie logically t h e oppoc; ite .

FUN D.·f Jll EJ\ "T.-1l

i'N O l "J:.'SS l:.:S.

111

Th us, singular subj ec ts c onne c te d by and may merely b e synonymous words r eite rating th e o ne su 1ij cc t, o r a c losel y co n nected
couple m aking up together b ut a s ingl e idea ; r equi r ing t herefore
a sing nhr ve rb . I n so m e cases a lso singular su bjects connected
by or m ay be m ore t ru ly a c onn ec ted than a di sjo in e cl co11pk, an d
r e quire eithe r a plura l \·e rb o r - m o re freq ue n tly - a recast.
.Ex ,\MPLES . - Sy n onymo us wo rds: "All t he fu rni ture , t he stock uf sh0p<; ,
the ma chi ne ry whi c h could lie fou nd in the re alm , W rJ 5 o f less value th a o
t he proper ty whi ch some s in gle p:trish es n o w co nta in ." I fere t he w ri tt:r
( Macaulay) e "i dcntl y vie ws the t hree s ubjects a s m aking toge ther 011ly a
si ng le idea , lici ll g p ra ctic:t! ly sy nnn yllwus.
Combin ed co u pl es : " The cumpnsiliun an c.l resol ut io n of fo r ces was largely
applie d by Ne wto n. " - " T he ebb a nd 11uw o f t he ti des is no w u nde rstood."
False di sj unct ion : " The Arm y o r the ·i\avy n 1t s7ucr lo th:tt descriptiun."
On th is se nten ce Professo r ]bin re mar ks , " T here is no real disjunct iun in
such a case ; the /\rm y do es n ot excl ud e the I\:tvy, th e predicate :tpplics tu
e ach an d to b oth ." T h is co nstr uc ti o n, h o wever, is un n ccess:tri ly all'k \\·anl ,
an d rathe r tha n use it the wr iter wo uld d o be tte r to recas t his se ntence.

3. Unless, h o we ve r, t he re is sp ec i::il re::ison to em phasi1.c the
un ity or plural ity o f t h e id c::i, it i~ wo rth so me pai nsta king to
avo id suc h c lash es in t he concord o f conn ected slll,jccts .
In
m ost cases th is can b e effected 11·ithou t di fficlllty , liy c-lioosing
so m e verb al form t ha t is n e utra l in n um lie r, o r by c hanging the
structure of t h e se ntence .
E XAMPLES. - The fullo wing ill ust r:ttes a no t infr er1uent c:tse : " Only :t few ,
perha p s only o ne, 7verc (o r ~<·11s?) l;cncfitec l. " Tb is clash m ay be evaded i 'Y
choosin g a ve rb with the sa me fo r m for buth numbe rs, - e.g., " recc i,· cd :iny
be nefi t."
I n the fo llowi ng ex am pl e, ll'here, " th o ugh the verb should forni:illy lie
sing ular, still the n um be r o f alt e rnate su bj ec ts is stro ngly s uggestive of plural ity," the d iffic ulty is evade d , as aliO\·e, by t he e mplo ym e nt o f a neut r:tl
verb : " T ruths th at wa ke

To pe rish never ;
W hi ch neit her listlessness, nor ma<l endeavor,
No r ma n, nor boy,
No r all tha t is a t enmi ty wi th joy,
Can utt erly abolish or J cslrvy ! "
T h e verbal form s with a uxiliar ies ar c uf espe ci:t l lbe 111 evadi ng clashes

( 1f

..·"'"""·---...----

--·~----·

___ ____
...

FU,VLJ.-J ,l!Liv' 'J 'AJ.

FUNDA.lf r~x l ~ · I !. l 'R OCF SSJ;'S.

11 2

4 . The num be r o f th e vc rlJ use d with a collective noun must be
cleterrninccl ac co rding to the log ic al p redom inance o f the singular
or the plu ral id ea. T h is is ofte n a n ire p o int to sett le, and sometimes in deed mu st he k ft tu th e \1Tite r's indi 1·idu:i l interpretation;
t h e rn :1 in ca11ti on, hO\n:,·cr, is, that t he p o in t /11' definitely settled,
n ot left without care.
·: :o:-11' LES. - " Th e Jewi sh p eu pk ;u« u

:i.1 1 fre e ." ll c re p lur:tli ty pre,J o 111i11 :i.t cs, the su l1jcct b c: ing the jc:ll'S re g a rded ;ts indiYidu cds. "An evil am!
::i d ultcr v us g c n c:r::it iu n s«,·1.-dli '1 flcr a s ign ." I k rc the ac ti <>ll is so collective
a s tu m :ik c a s in g ular ,·c rlJ s uit ,d Jlc .
In the fuilu \\' in g th e cu n cu rd of th e c ulkcti ,·e see ms to kwe b een clisreg ardcd , o r e lse n o t wi sely judged : "The st ud ;· of the nwo n's suria cc has been
c u nti nu e d rl<> ll' frum th e time uf C a lik<J, :i n,! of l::itc y e:i r,; :i whole class of
co rn p et c nt obsc:rv c rs /1 <1 s /,,·,·n d "'·u tcd to ii, so t li ::i t :i,;t ro 1w1n ers e ng :igerl m
0 1he r l1r anc l1cs h a ,·e u ftc ner lno b ::d ll ll this as a lield fpr occ:isio n a l hours of
r ecre:il io n w ith the te lesco p e th :i n m ade it a co n!>l :int st ud y ." 1

or

Tense . -- 1L is
speci:d rhc·t u rical impo rta n ce tu n o ti ce co rnl >in:c ti u ns of ten se,;, and modi r1ca t i()ns of te nse d 11c to the kind of
idea presen ted , o r to so me ]':trt in 1br effect sought .
5 . I n dcpe n<k nt c busc s a nd i11f111iti\Ts the· ten se is to he counted
rc:ht iv cl y t o t he p rin c ipa l assert io n, nu t :d >sulutel y in itself.
F x .- \ ~ 1 1· 1.1 ·s

- J n the se n tcn c<: , "l [ c int e nde d lo h<1; ·1· g 1> nc," the tense of
Ilic i11 tinit i,· c is in co rr e c t, l>e c:rnse it uu g ht to he C<llllllc:d, nut fr o m the prese nt
ti me , li ut fr u m t h e ti 1n c uf the i ntc:nli <> 11: and rel:ili\'l:l )' lo th :it lime it is
fui u1e , - '• Jic in lc nd cd / 1> ,;"<>. " - " ..\ n 1i S••, yo u 'cc:, the th ing nev erwouhl
Jia,· c 11cc n l nok cd int<l al :d i, ii" I h .<d11 ·1 h: ip pc n cd 11J ;, ,,~·" ( •,·01 dll\\'11 there."
- ' ' \:. >w riter wtHdd w 1it c.; a i><Jt1 k u11l ( ·~s ht· l/1111 ls il <flill lH...: rl'.ad." Say
e i the r, "i\\1 w r iter ':i'i'll,'' etc ., or, 11 u n lc . . ~ he.: t/Jn u.!...· /; / it 'it",lu /d," etc.
1 n the u,; c v f the \'Crb " ,;\ \\) ui,J iiLc ., the: mi s l:t kc i,; Ycry cu 111111011ly mad e

<if in ter c h:in ging the t e n se c•f t he p ri nci)' .d \T r h a nd th e in llnitive, - " I s!i ou/,/
/i /; ,· to /w ;·c sct: n hi m, " ins c:id .,f " 1 , !11otil d /J. 1;·,· liked to .<<<' him." This is
O\\'in g , 110 duu l> t, to t he di ff1cul1y ,,f p r•J ll 1i un c ing '' l ik er! I<>," when they arc
p lacecl t1>ge th<.:r ; :i d iffi cult y \1·h ic h . h1>\\'C\'CI', sh n u ld nnt lie ::i ll 1)ll'<.:d to make
t he Jifft:rcncc lJdll' c e n ac c ur ac y ::ind crru r.
T he fu ll o " ·ing senten ce , from

l'R Oc l:.. S.~ LS.

11 3

Howells, illustr:ites the co rrect use : "There were some qu estions th at sh e
would !ta ve li/.·"d to a s/.· him; but she had to con tent h e rself \\'i th tryi ng to
answer them wh e n her hu s b:in<l put them to her."

6 . G e neral and universal truths arc essenti ally timeless. In expressing them, there fo re , the present ten se is required, wh atever
the tense of the ac companying verbs .
EXAM l' J.1-:. - "I Ic pe rcc:: i,·e1l ck:i rly that !his \\' Orld i s g o verned hy an all wise a nd hen e llc cnt li.u le r." This truth, b e ing in n o w:iy a ffec ted liy the ti rnc
at which it is perceived, rc11u ires tl1e p re sent tense.

7. When a past occ urren ce is to be narratc<l wi th spec ial v i\·idncss it is often tre ::.tted as if takin g pbc c in the prcscnt. This
so-called "hi stori c p re sent" is a very effe c tual m c:an s o f gi ,·ing life
to a narrative; but it may also eas ily lJe overdo ne . I t is n o t t()
lJe employ ed unless there is a real demand for 'ivi dnc:ss; :ind
whe n onc e adop ted it should b e kept co ns istent t h rou g hout the
passage .
EXAMl'LF ~ . - I n the follo win g p :issage the h isto ri c pn:s cn l is ca r clc, sly
mixe<l with th e p ast: "The F~ o rnan s n o w l1<rn a'i<le in •1uc,t uf pro ,·i,; io ns.
The lTelveti:ins misloo/.: the m o vemen t for retr eat. Th t;y f'ur s11«, and g iv e
C :cs:ir h is chance. They li g ht ::it Jisadv:intage, and after a dc sp e r:ile s tru g g le

are defeate d ."
In the full o wing p:iss a g c, from Di ck e n s, the hist o ric pr es t:nt i,; ust.:d ;i,],·i,; e d ly
and skilfully, wi th n o ti ce ab le c:ire in ihc transition fr o m on e ten se tu the uthc r : - "Let m e re me m l1e r h o w it use d to !Jc, :i n d bring o n e m o rn ing b:ick a ;.;a in .
I ro m e into th e seco n d -bes t p arl o r :ift e r br eakfast, with my bo ok s, an d :rn
exercise -b o o k , ancl :i sla te . i'\l y m o th e r is rearly for me at h e r wri t in g -rJ e, k ,
but n o l ha lf su re a dy a s l\1 r. i\1 unbto ne in h is easy -c h a ir liy the wi nrl• )\I'
(though he pre te nd s to u e re:idin g :i b oo k ) , or a s i\liss !\lurd st on e, sitting
near my mother st ring ing steel be:ids." [ After a page or so o f thi s remin i, ecnce in the l1i sto ric prese nt, the story is b rought back to the o rdi nary 1w•t
tense o f narrati u n by the remark, beginning a new p:u:i g r:ip h J: "It seems to me, at this distance of tim e , a s if my un fo rtu n:it e stu dies
gener:illy too/.: thi s co urse ." [ :\ Ill! frum here on warJ the tense is past. ]

Shall and Will. -The ni c eties of idiom in the use of these
1

Fo r an f' XL'. Clk nt

d i sc u ~ ~ io n u f C unl·1lrd , 11 1•1 11 \ \ l1it' l1 Ilic :1lH1 \·e cxa 1nples arc

l:i.r.r,t•l y :Hl o pt ed . tli c ~tu de nt is re fer red to H . 1i11 ':--. " ( '111np<, ~ i t i u n Gra1111nar," p:tges

auxiliaries a ri se fro m the ori g i1ul sense of the words, still inhe rent
in them, an d rc g ubtin g their u s:cg e hy the fee ling o f p ro pri ety,

JH

Fl XI> ,-1.l! F .\"J'A !. f'N OC! :· ssES.

according as the 'niter predi cates the acti o n of himself or of some
second or third person .
"The radical sign i fie a ti o n of 7< 1// ( :\ nglo- Saxo n willa !I) is purpuse . intention, dctcrmin:itio n; tlut ur s!:all (:\ nglo-Saxon scMI,
011ght) is ubligation ." 1 To these p rimary mean ings we trace the
ra tiu;1ak uf us:1ge in the diffe rent pc rsons.
S. O!J li_i;;ltion imposed on self illlpli c:s that what ought to be
will he; hu1c e slut!/, in th e firs t person, is the simple auxilia ry of
the future . Im posed on others, it h:i.s the force of a command;
he nce, in th e second :rnd thi rd persons, sliall is the indicator of
::rntho rity o r n ecessi ty . l'urp ose o r l!ctc rrninatiun predicated of
self h:i.s force mere ly fo r what it s:1ys .: hence 1eill, in the first person , simply ind ic:ites t he wri ter's H llit ion . l'rcdicatcd of o thers it
implies, J,y a n:1tu r:i1 courtesy, fulfilment o f 1rhat is wi lle d; hence,
in the secon d :ind third pe rsons , 1<.•ill is th e s imple a11xili:iry of the
f11 t ure.
1

LX ,\\l l 'l. l·:s . 1. Sim ple future .
n . O l1ligaiinn hc cn rne anno un ce ment : "I
sht1!l set :1ho nt lhi,; \\"or k tP-nrn rr<i11·."
/>. \" ., Ji ti<>n irn plyi 11 g fulfil ment:
"\"u n 7i• ill n ot g•i i:lr in th is C<>nr, c ,, f :tel ion"'; "I le: 71'i// lie r ash, if he co mmits himself t1J tl1c u n certaint ies <>f thi s 111eas me ." ' l n nw't cases of w ill with
seco n d and thi rd pcrs1>llS th e ,·uli tinnal furce li:1' en tirel y gi,·cn place to the
fntnre .
2 . l> ctcrminetl future.
11. Hy the speaker 's Yn liti o n o n him self: "I w ill
fp]Jo w up t his quest, despite it s l1 anbhips and peril<' h. J:y obligation iml''"'ed o n an ot h e r, the dct erm in at iu n uf the spc.lk n p:lssing uvc r, as it we r ~.
tu th e per. <J n o r thing SJlU ken to o r uf, tilth ma k ill g .1/1,if! in s e co nd a nd third
perso n s mu ch li k e 71'i// in the first: " Ti llHl .1/1;1// 11< Jt hea r f:d!>e witn ess again st
thy n eighbor"; " Th e s tyle sh t1!! he s im ple :111.J i:rn1ili ar : b ut style is the
image o f character : and t he hal>its o f cn rn:ct \\" filing may p rud uce, with o ut
J:i],,,r o r de sig n, the a11p1.::nanl·e o f art a n d sln ih-." This hs t \\'as written l1y
(; iiJ! ,u n cun c crnin~~ the sty le of his p r<>jcde.J :\u t.,J• i1>gral'hy.
S/1a/!, with its in'lil icd ol>!igation , m ay h:tve 1n :u1 y degrees o f e ffec t, from
comm:rnd 0 r threat to mere p r o mi se . Sh,, 1i /d and :<wd.! fu! low the same rul es
as .<iu:!I ::wd 7i'i//.

1 Qu 0 icd frn111 '\' h i1c, "\Vo nls and their lT , ,., _.. p . 21f1 .
, \·o rd '.--, pp . 2r>.i - '2/J. j.., e:xcclk nt.
pp. 103- I TI .

m inn li:<.: o f

liis trc.1.tmen l of th ese

] 15

9 . The re is a fine use o f sltall, wi th the se co rnl a nd third persons, as a verb of exem plification o r p rophecy; e n 0t 1gh of its
original se nse o f olili gation being retain ed to give espe cial strc 11g tl1 .
certain ty, o r distin c tion to the predic ti on.
EXAM l 'LES. - "And what d o w e sec in actual life ?
Th ere slw !l he t wu
men, o ne o f whom has s ta r let.! o n the roaJ o f self-in1pr ovc n1 cn t fr <J1 11 a m :iinly
intellectual i ntere s t . . . ; the othe r has begu n with so me se nse of ( ;nd , :111 .J
of liis relati on lo I Iirn," etc. - "\" uu sh,tfl hea r the same pns»nS s:1Y 1li:1t
• Ccorge Barn well' is ve r y natural, ancl ' O th e llo' is ve ry natur:il, th a t ti1ey
arc b oth v e ry Jeep; and to them they a rc th e same kind o f thin g. "

Participles . - The p:uticipi al construc tion is a com-cnirnt
means of comlcns:i.tion; it also p romotes l1e\i \J il ity of sty le l 1y
obvi:i.ting the t oo const:111t re cu rrcnrc of pr inci p :ll verhs. 1:cin:.::,
h o wever, :i. subo rd inatc cl constructio n, it nee<ls careful :idj 1:~ t111 cnt
to the pr incip:i.1 asserti on o n ll"hich it d e pends.
JO. A frequent erro r of lnsty writers is wh at is c ilkd the '' 1;1isrelated participle," th at is, a participle e mploye d wit hu11t ckar
indi cation of the "·orll to 11·hi c h it lJL'l ongs. Wh en e ve r a p:u1 i1 ipial cons tructio n is used, the e xact n o un or pro nuun tu whi1 Ii the
participle is attach ed should appe:i.r, in an un arnlJ ig uot is posi tiun.
EXAMPLES. - " Being ex ceedin g ly fn n d u f hir •b. an a vi:uy is alw:1ys lo !11~
fouml in the grnun cls . " Herc th ere is no clue t u the p e rso n u r perso ns f" n'l
of bi rds , and the o nly w o rd to wh ich the pa r ticiple may Lie: g ra mn ::i ti ·~:\ll y

att ached is "aviary. "
"\IVh ile visiti ng St. Lo u is \\" it h him ( General Cr:rn t) "' hiic he was l'n.> i·
dent, he made a ch aracteri s ti c r c m:uk sh 1"v ing h o w littl e l1 is tli u uglih •lll"dt
upo n th ose events of his l ife which rna Llc su c h a dccj> inipr cs, io n up un (J tl1cr, ."
H ere the writer me a nt" \ Vhen I w a s vi s itin g St. Luuis," et c.

When: a partici p ial constru ction con stitutes th e fi rst parl ni a
sente nce, th e wo rd in the second part to whi c h it rel:itL·s i~ g,·11lT :tlly the su lJjcc t and takes the c hi ef p bce; somctinws, h () \ \ l"l"c 'i",
when then.: is no reaso nable danger of ambigui ty, it m:i.y h;1\"C ;1
place and o ffice less prominent, thou gh not re main Ull i..'.\[Jresseci .

:--: L·c ;t) i.; 11 , :'\ l1 ·l .'ni_, .. "~1n11 tnn.~ (1f English Prose,"

()n!y :1 11 out line fr1H 11 t!it" rl1cto r ical p11int of \'i t· w is g iven above ;
and cxcqnio ns mu , 1 IJe left 10 gr.1111111; 11-, " her ~ 11\cy properly belong.

•t ~:<gc

FUAD.-l 1l!ENTAL PROCESS!:S.

-Yrum Southey: "\\'ri l ing fur a Ji,·clil1 uod, :1 livcliho orl is all
h av e gai ned; fu r, havin g also S<J ll1 cthin g Lette r in vi ew, an d neve r,

EXAMPLE.

t hat f

J

I { ·.\ "fJ.·1.1/ L X T. 11. /'f.'O<"FSS F S.

I '

I L \ '/J. / , )/I::, \ ' TAJ. J 'R (}(. ·1-: s s c:s.

thc rcfurc, ii:H·i ng con rll"d l'"l 'lll.t rity , l! u r writ ten fo r •he mere ,:tk e of g::tin , it
h:is ll \Jl hcc n pu"ililc fur 111,· t u b y h1· anylh ing."
r 1. Tl ie parti c ipi al nrn st rnc tiu11 is g cnc r;1 lly ei tu ivalc.:n t to a
1·L11 1,;L· ; a nd ll'h e n e n .: r the ()1 11i ...... i,1n \\'<llll<l c:ut~c :unlJ ig 11 iLy or
\ · : 1 .~u vn L· ~,; , ih e <"() nj11 nc ti, 1: 1.tl rc Lt t i1 J11 uf the cb use sho uld Le
rl"l:1i 11 ed IYit L t he pa rti ci p le .
!·:x.1111·1 I· . - " J.:. ,·puhlic>, in :he lirsl i1ht.111 cc, arc nc1·c r desired fo r thei r
"" n s.1kc, . I .1., ll<>l th in k tlwy 11 ill li 1ully lie dc, irc.! :It :i.11, unaccomp:rn ied
l1y Cc>urdy g r :~l'l'S ~nd g\Jltd l 1 r L'cdi11~ .''
nH.::111 i!1.t.!' i". ·· l·( ·,

"" <:{· [tht·y .He ]

J

! ~· r e th e re.: i:) d<1 uht whe th e r the

u1L1t:,,.;un1 p:1 11 il'\ 1, .. 1>r ·'

1/

[ they are] unacco m·

J''1 nic.1 ,"" - :1 dtn11it whic h -,l1< •tild lie precluded Iiy rct:ii ning the conjun ct ion
prope r tu the cl.11i-e .

Infiniti ves. -

Error:-. in m o<li ry i11 g inlin i ti n~\ :rnd

111

mam ging

~e ri e,; ur i11fm iti 1-cs . ~t r e the 11l OS \ fr e1!\ IC ll t.
1 2 . Th e i11!l n iti 1·e ,,Jiuu ld nu t li e di1·id cd liy a n :u h·erlJ between
the p repu,,i tiun l o :md the 1-cri >. T he :11[11.: rlJ klu ngs to the whok
c:qi r c,.,~iun . and ,., Ji uuld the rcru re :-.t;rnd eit he r lJcfu re o r a ft e r, nut
lil the l11idst u r it.

J ·: x .- \ ~1 1 ·1 .h .

- (t ,luutcd fr.,11 1 .\ . S. I ! ill "~ F.lictPri c.)

/.r111 r·~1 · <1(.;1tic· _i1,· .· · -

•;u:tli !ic·a ti• ill' .,f :111 i.Ica . :i nd .tl •Jllce
i 111/ t1 j;'(/1~1· , ·,1 11 , ·1 · i ~·,· ~ uc h

r i.~lit l y

" l fc ',; not the nu n to

li e c :l'l it: r tu bea r a lu ng :ti! th e

'' · r ,J :: 11 .1Lli\·1..· 111i11d il 11 1.1y

funn it when named, th:in to firs t

idc:-i.. ,.

13 . \\ .he re ... cn: r: tl i n l i 11it i 1 · c ~ n• r-u r togctli n . th e ,,·ord on whi ch
e.1. <h one d q1L· nil ~ is lo l>c 111:ulc o l l\ · i o tt ~ . C:HL' in th is respect is
111:Hk 1H· • L· ... -..:ir,· J. 1· thL· f:w t tl1.1 1 :111 i11f"1111 tin· 1;i11 , 1 \1· i 11 ~ :i llt>Llw r 111 ay
wi th L"< i tl:ti C"U ITL'< [!le ~" i ll' e ithe r St1 !iurc li na lc lour COu rdinate Wi th
the other _; its offi c:e and ranK sho uld the refore be evi de nt.
:\1ir1·:. - ( >nc u r lll"O :ii.I .; 111 clearnc.;s may i>c ll H"ll ti•m cti. T11·0 in fini tives
eoiirdi natc \\' ilh each ot her 1n ay he cl•»t·ly CPJJn t'c tcd h)· t>lllitt ing the preposit1 u11 /,. 11·11h th e second. The dt:pt·11 ,k11 cc uf i11ti11 iti l' es 11t :1 y oft en he made
oiJ1·iott>', II hilt: lhe St: ll SC :tb11 i.; JIJ:to k ck a1cr, J>1· .Ji.;ti ll"Ui shi110-b uetween the
in fin iliv..: of ser1tt<.:ll t" e ( t<> ) :-tnd th e i11 li 11 iti 1·c "f J'llrl"''e ( in orde r to) .
The following, \\" ith it< t" <> ll1l1H' 11 I, i, t:-tl<cn fnim .\ lil1• 1tt's "l fow to \Vri tc
Cl t:ar lv." " · J le said th :-t t he wi ,1i, .. 1 / ,1 t:ikt· Iii, fri cn.J "" ith him to visit the
L'1 j'it.t! ;rnd I v study 111c dic i11c.' J ! ere ii i, duulitful ll' bt:tlic r the meaning is.

h

] 17

' J le said th at he wished to tak e his fr iend with him,
( 1) am! a lso lo visit the capital an1l stu dy meJi cin c,' or
(2) ' that his fr iend mig ht ,·isit the capi tal 11 11.I mi;,·ht rtlso st udy med1e:nc,' or
( 3) ' on a visit l<) th e capit al, a 11 d tit ,!/ li e alsu wished to ~ t udy rn c<lic inc.'"
J f in the abo ve cxa n1 pk s \\"t: a du p l the two aids iuenti o11 cd , the senten ce

becomes," U c sai d th:il he \\" ishc d to take hi s fri end with him i n or .l<'r to vi ,it
the capital and /\ st udy medi cine, " whi ch gives clea r sense in one aspcc . h ·r
other senses it m:i.y be necessary to tt>e 1/i, 11 fur l o, ur to insert co nj un ct ions.
J I.

COLI.OCAT IC ).\'.

Th e E ngl ish syntax 1 be ing de \"Oid of the aid that inn ection wou id
g ive in sh owi ng th e rcb ti o n o f \\' Ord s, is all the m o re depe nden t on
order and colloca t io n. It depend s o n the se fi rst of ::tll fo r clearness ; fo r a qu al ify in g c le ment m a y ha1·c its atta c h m ent ei the r i11
wl a t precedes o r in ,,·hat fo llows, a nd ofte n, if ca relessly p b cecl,
may wi th equal reaso n l>e cou n te d in e ith e r d irecti o n. J\ freq uent
proble m, t he refore, is, h o w to re m O\'e am b ig uity a n d g in:: t he
rnodifte r u111ni s t::ik:1hly t h e co nn ec t io n in ten ded . T he re rp 1irc mcnts
o f force, also, h a1·e their p roblems ; ru r the sa me <.: lcm cn t may lie
emphat ic in one ;1osi t ion and co mparat i\' c ly in si g nifi can t in an o th e r.
And th e ques tion h o w to g ive an ick a fo rce acco rd ing tu its irnpo r·
t:rnce is fo r th e m ost part :i. q ue:-.t io n o f pos it io n.
To secure both c learness a nd di stin c ti on it is im pe rati 1·e th ;1t
wo rds 1 phrases, a nd cb1 1scs g ra m111 a ti c 1lly c o nn ec ted sho11 ld J.c
pb ce cl as ne :i r togethe r as p ossilJlc, o r1 if se para ted, t hat t hey should
make up i n prominc 1w c fo r wha t t hey lose in proxi mit y.
Placing of Words. -- T he p rcv:1ili 11g pro lJlci n in t he coll ricati o 11
o f word s is th e pro ble m of e mph as is - h u w to plae e a mm ! !'o
that it sh all h a ,·e its prope r dis t in c tion o r lack o f di stinctiun 1 :1c ord in g to its s ig n ifica nc e .
14 . The n a tural p os iti o n o f th e s imple a c1jec: t i1·e is h efo re its
noun. Th is o rd e r or c oll ocatio n is so well cs ta uli shed th at " marked
diverge nc ics a rre st th e att e nt ion , and h ave, 11y reaso n of thei r
exce ptio n a l c h a racte r, a fo rce whi c h m a y be con ve rted int o :i use fu l rhe to ri ca l effec t. " :\ cco nli ng ly, i1we rsio n o f the natu ral order
may on occasio n ]Jc " 11 rupcr to puc try a nd hig h style ; an<l it is

J iS

F U1\!/)A ;1! / . NJ'. I I.

/ 'N UCl~· ss FS.

one of t he tr;iccs wh ich c:uly F re nc h Cll lture h;is left on our
Jitcr.:iturc ." 1
NnTF. - The ph c ing of the :vijccti \· e liy im"C rsio n a ft er its noun gives it a
p r o m inen ce al ion: t he no un; th a t is , t he in tc rc'1 cen tr es in the quality rather
th:1n in the thi ng <1 ual i1 ic. I. Th is m a y l1e se e n in e x:un ples like the foll o wing.
" J la ving b e en su cc ess iv e ly s uhj c d tn al l t h ese in flue n ces, o ur languag e has
bec o m e :ts it we re a s o r t o f ce n t re lo w h ic h li ea ut ies the m o.<t oJpusi!i: co n,·erge ." - " B ut :1l la s t, :rnd e ,·e n h e re, it sn :rn cd :1s if th e years of this loyal
a nd <.: :1gcr poet l1 ~u l fc: lic itics / 11u

111111 1_1• . "

l f enc e \\'e Ji11 d t h l' a dj cc ti,·e f., llrn1·i11 g its 111;u11 sn m t: ti nies when, by rcpcti·
t iu n or 11l hcn\·isc', t he n u un is :1 lrc:1dy S•• l' ""mi n c ntly before the reader's attc n t iun as to llc ed n•i s ir css, :rnd wh e n th e st ress is of use in multiplying
q ual i ti es ; as i n the f, ili u \\· ing , fr u m ]),-, J ••llll l '.ru, \·n: " 'fh c LrtJ \ \'d r .n tnd a cnup lt.:
1

( 1f

111a sruli11e 1n ainly,
f1 11l!crin g wildly ro und the

J ]')

16. The n;itural une m p hat ic p lace of an ;iclverbial word is just
before its verb, or b e twe en the p ;irts of a com pound verb .
plac ing of an adverb a fte r its verb gives it emphasis.
E XAMPLE S. -

L

T he

In the fuli o \\'ing senten ce the a d verb, while import:llll , is

not emphatic : "Each rnan g :1ins a powc.:r uf rca l i1.ing and jirm<r co n cei c· ing
those things he habitually d ea ls with, and n o t uth e r things." l kr e the r c:1 l
e 111 p has is is on the ver b .
2 . Compare now th e effe ct o f pla cing the a ch· erb after th e verb: " l lc
wr ites passio11a!e(v, be c ause he feels /.:<',:11<1· ; ;;wn'l•IJ ·, bec a use he fe el s ~ ·fridlr;
he secs too d 1!arly to lJe \' a g ue ; he is to o sni u ns lo Le o ti1>se ," e tc. l fcrc
the a d verL is so stro11g an t:lcrnent ihat in on e in st:ince ( " fo rciLly " ) it ev <: n
ta nd · alone .

(k1g s llgl 1ting is a Crtl\rd

\\' itli an ucl·:ts in nal a ct i,·e, cd1n p a~~ i t >11:1 t c
t1Htsi dc, a nd 11:-:.in g her t11 nguc :\ n d l 1a 11 d:-:.

\n11 11 ;1 11 ,

frtT ly up11 11 tli c n1e 11, tlS sn 111an y

1

i >r ut i·s '; il i:-; a c r t1wd r1 111111 ! 11r, , ·, 1111/' .J { / , a 1l il 111 0/i i/l · : a cru wd cenlri/'1,·/, 1/,
h ;w ing ib eyes :1n d its he ads all l1e11 t du\\'n wa rd s :1n d i1111':1rtis , to one comm on

foc us. n

r5 .

F{ i/\ ' / !./ M FN T 11. /'N O CESSFS.

p os iti o n o f the a rt i<·k, d c mons tr:lli\'C pro noun, or posse ss ive, 1s immedia tely before the :1 djec ti1T, 1r it h ;it m ost an adverb
b etween . T he re is a tenden cy, ho11·e1·cr, d ue to recent German
i11 il1 1cnc:e, to en c um be r th t: ar lje cti1·e \\' it h arlj un cts of its own, so
that " we n o t u n frcqucntly finrl a secon d ad1·crli, or an adverbial
p hrase, o r a nega ti 1·e, inclu d ed in the intcr1·:1 l hct11·e e n the arti cle
o r pro noun ;rnd t he s11list ;i,nt 11·c." Thi ~ s(rtl(' lttre is no t fully natu r;il i1ed , :rnd is i11 itse lf so c u111i 1r(i11s t h: tt the att itude of suspi cion
l O\\':ml it is s:1fc ,; t.
J 11 ,

Ex . "1 1·1.i-:s. - " T he , / odir<'i' of F1 1sto ·11 d ,·ri1·11 ti,1 11 , m onosyllable' Bosh.'"
T his sen te n ce , fr u m Th:1 c ke r :1 y , \l'<Ju ld p r1•l1:il il;· n ll t h :H·e Ilee n j nstificd hy hiru
jq an y hut t he m os t f:unili :n s ty k . -Tht: f11 ll11\\'i11 g i:< Imm a b oo k on Tiritt:rny:
'' 1 h ave now t r:wellcd t h ro ug h near ly evt:ry D cp:lrtmcn l in Fr:lnce, and I do
n"t re mernl ic r e \·cr m e etin g w ith a dirt y lied: tlii,-, I fe ar, cannot be said uf
uur !tappily in al! oilier rc.<}<'ds ckant:r i, land."

17. Of single-word adverbs, the one thJ.t n:rp1ires m ost ca re 111
pbc ing, and that is oftene s t mi spbccd, is 011!)'.
The dini cul ty
arises from th e fac t t hat <711 ~)' m ay h:l\c equ a l sig nif1c;111cc u du re
substa ntives, adj ec tives, ve rlJs, or adv e rbs ; and so if it is scp a c tt1.: d
from the word it m odifies, so m e word th a t co uld us urp its relatio n
is al most sure to in te rven e . Th e e ndea vo r should Le nu d e, the re fo re, to place it, if possiule, immediately liefure the word to which
it belongs.
EXAMPLES. - " For fifty m iles, the river co ul<.l 011<v he distinguish e d fr o m
the ocean by its caimness and d i:<colured water."
Stric tly speakin g . th is
mcn ns, "eoul<l be 11() m o re th :1 n di st in g ui s hed "; liut wliat is meant, and wh :t t
, ho ul<l he said, is," cou ld lie di,;t in g ui , hcd 011 (1· Ly, " cle . Tl is und u ul>ttdl y :t

fact , due to the so fre<ju e n t rni s i' h ~ i11 g "f " 11 (1-, t ha t p c opk 111ak e t he :J<ljll, t ·
mc nt of sense un co n sciously; lrnt thi s sliuu ld no t IJe taken as :t11 e xc use f,, ,.
the in correct usag e .
So metimes only is ::nvk wardl y used w ith an intende d uackwan.l refe ren ce , a n
o:fficc that the word alu!lt: wou lcl b et ter ful Jil. Fo r example: "The fir st t11 u
rm med only asce n <leJ tu the s ummit " ; whi c h me ans stri c tl y "d i<l nu lll<)rc
than ascend to the summi t, " im p lyin g th :1 l o thers asccntled h ig l1er tkrn th t.•
"The first tw o named alon e," ur , " O f the party, two a lu 11 c wc 11t

~u mmit .

to t he summit." In sp o ken di scourse one may sometimes trust tu in to n at i" n
an<l p ause t o make o n~v re s trict a word befo re , as in " I o nly am to lib mt: ";
b ut in written cum p o siti u n it is l1elt c r to a d here to the strict rule, th :1 t u n ~v
sho uld immediately precede the wo r d to which it belt•ngs .

FUNDAMLNTAL PR OCESSES.

F C . \ "JJ.1.if F. \'!'A I. l'J.' 0( I :.'>S I : S.

I . ~O

! 21

l n the collocation of phrases the prc\·:1iling prul)lem is. ho\,. to sec ure clea rn ess in the reference o[ the

of John Phillips accidentally shot as a mark u f affccti \l n Ly ],is brot h e r. '· '·The

plJ rJ.Se .
1 8. A g cniti,·c, o r o f-ph r:i.sc, being th e closes t of prepositional

me rely because the effect is ludi c rous; hut the fault is ju st the s::rn1e ill the
follow ing. "Sir l\Iorton Peto spoke of th e n u tion that th e nation a l del1t mi ght
be repULliated w itlt a/1sol11te co11to11pt." "l'euple have liecn crying out th at
Ccrmany nc:ver co uld I.J c an :<ggn:ss ivc p11wc:r a ,E;rt·al d, ·a l f ,,o soon. " " It is
cu rious to see h ow ver y little is s:till o n the subject treated in th e present css a;',
by the great writers 01z ; ·urispr udciue."

Placing of Phrases. -

relati o ns . sho uld i>c pl:lce d i1· possil>k irnrnedi ~1tcly :i.fte r the word
it rnodilies j :rnd e spe cial ly w ith Ill) \l"t>rd between, either noun or
vcr11, th:1t r :i.n usu rp t he rcbti o n.
Ex ,\~11·1.1 ·:s .

·-" ;\nd ""' 'r 't uf :di , the hca\'y p:tll

lil/11,(S

the c <>u n t r y. 1urn s th e 1>1 Ile sl"· to :1 d "l l l>r"wn, nnk cs d \\SL y sl1ado ws under th e
L·lm tops . :rnd hides the dist:rnce in ci tl 1in \'cil o f L 0nd\l !I fug ." The part
Let wee n tl1c ni ) UJ\ :l. ntl its gt: 11 iti \·t·, it:i.lic i1 c d :iLo \·t-, co nt:1in:-; :i. wor d ( " lantl ")
l1r11duce~ cunfti,; io n;

it nii,;ht lie re:Hl , "bnd ,,f J:irn1in g ham srn okt:."

"'l'hc ~ri rin.L;S :111t1 suurcc:-;

The fo regoing seem c :-; tre rnc c ases

o;·cr all tlte land uf

I:iriningh:inl s m o ke. wlii c: /1 , with a 11<>rihcriy \ri111 l, /1/uis all lhc colu r out of

tliat

lloard of Ed uc a ti o n has resolved tu erect a building large en ough to ac co mm <>date 500 students th ree st o ries high ."

J o f rn l) der n id c :1S, n1 o dc:rn syste ins,
and uf idl'.as a n ,] syskrns tli: li :\ re still to h,_, <.lcV<.:lop'-'d ." J !c:rt: tl1c ve rb comes
lict"·cc n tht; n o un ::i.nd its gt• ni ti,· c, a n d tl1c C (>ll Sl ru cti ~)n,.al hc s t in e lega nt, is
c:-;uis:dJli.: only on the gr<1 tt11d th at it is n u t likdy tu lie undersloo,l "were
-:e rT<' 1u1 sr·n/,

un sc·ale ol o f m udcr n i,kas."

adverbs as al least, al all cnntr, prollllh~r, t r·rlwps,
indeed, a re often pbccd ambiguou sly between t1rn emplutic
Such

elements of the sentence, where their inf111encc may be reck o n ed
either backward or for ward.

Such a pos ition is therefore t o be

sh unned.
EXAMPLES. - " I think you will find my Latin exerc ise, at nil e; ·n1ts, :is
good as my cousin 's ." Docs this me::tn, "'.ly La tin exerc ise al :ill cH:nt s ," u r
"as good as my co usin's :it all events"? Eilhcr uf these o rd ers "., ,uJ,! lie
unambiguous . "Ili st urh:in ce was not i11dad infr er1ucntly cause ,! by the Sllll\·
mary arrest of fugitil' e slaves in various p::trls o f the i\<Jrth." Jktter : '' 0•.i t

I<J. Phrases a<h-crbi:-il 111 ofiic c arc, perh aps of all sentencerncmbcrs, most lia l.>k to amb1gt1011s plac in g, and lJy consequence
n ot i n fr c11ucntly ludicrous in e ffec t.
h)r the a\·oidancc of such

infrequently, indee d , disturbance was caused," etc.

am li ig uity only the general rule ca n be g i\-cn "that what is to be
thought of f1rs l shoul d lie ll1L'n tio ned firs t, :i.nd tlnt things to be
tlwu gh t uf toge ther ~hould ]Jc 11bced in close c onj1mction." 1 The
question to l1e sl'l tlcd hy c:trefu l study in each indiYidual case is
the 11u est io11 of lll' :tr o r rcnHitc n.:b tiu11; ;1nd cullucat iun is to be

arises from the arnLiguous mixtun.: of dependent ancl prin ci 1d
ments of the se ntence.

m:unged a<·curdin.~ly .

junction may extend l1cyo ncl its own clau s e i 11 to t he n e xt rn :1 kc;
the proper COOrdin::tt ion of the second c]:rnsc :1 rn a ltLT of SUil\C

l'rn m a lcarlin i; ne 1•: sp:l]'<:r : "i~ ase - hal i man;i ge rs must lo ok
pk:ls:1nt \\' C:tlher and thinl; ,,f the <• p pnrtun ity ih ey ktl'e let slip to fill
tht:ir cuffcrs to ol'c ril o will g 7i'if,/ r111ytii in,,, (> 11t fl<as 1tr,·.'' I !e re so muc h inter' c n es bet we en the plir:ise ;ind wh :1t it rn ()(l ilics that a new word capable of the
l-::\A o!l'l.ES . -

~t this

s::tmc m udilicat ion h::ts inad1 c r lc ntl y slippe d in .

A frw 0tbi:r ex:lmplcs, in w h ich the sa me di s r c~;anl of ne::tr arnl remote

relation s may he di,-e crn cd, :1re here q uo ti.:d fnirn I 1udg, o n: "I Je blew out his
brain s afte r uiJd in g liis wi fe guod -1,y wi th a gun ." " En:c tccl to the memory

Placing of Clauses . - The chief error in the pla ci ng o f clauses
cle -

2 0. Dependent clauses introdu ced by if, 1111kss, t/u111J;/1, tli al, :i.nd
the like, should be kept clearly d istinct from princ ipal cl::tLhcs in
the same sentence . The fact that th e influ ence <ii° ~uch a ( ' <lll·

difficulty; either by cktnged o rd e r or lJy the u se of dircct i,· e pa rticles, therefore, sentence-members of like rank s h oul d lie grrnq 1ed
together.
EXAMPLES. -

be lost,

1/ the

" Th e lesson intended to he taught by the se man< c un cs wi ll

plan of operations is bid down t uo definitel y licfo rch:1 n d , and

the affair degenerates into ::t m ere rev ie w."'
lc~so n . .. and the affa ir," or "if th'-' plan

I s the coiirdin :it ion here - " tl ie
. and [ ifl t li e ;i!T:t ir ,. ? C· r-

rccted by change of order: " If the plan of operations is bi d d c•\\·n t1,r1 rlP l1 -

123

i22
nitcly lieforch;u1d, the ksso n inten tlcd . . . \\'ill lie l1Jst, :rnd the affair degen·
erates," etc . Or : "lf the plan of operatio ns is laid down loo clef111itcly
hdon.:ha nd, 11 11d the affai r dege1v; rat<.:s . .. the ksson intended," etc. Corrected (accurdi n g tu u11c sense) by partick : " Th e lcssu n intcncl ccl to lie taugh t
. . . \\'ill IJc ]u,l, if the pl:tn is bid d111vn loo defin ite ly lJcfure hancl, and thus
the ;tffair degene:"::tles ( wili dege ncr ;ttc) intu a mere rcvit:w.' '
"lie re plied tk1t he 11ishcd to hclj> them, an d int c n1lcd to make preparatiu1 1s ac1:u rdi11~ly ." Cur rcctcd liy rcpctitiu11 : "I [c rel'lied that ht: wishc1l to
help tlielll, a·nd tit.rt It« intended to make preparat ion s acco rdingly ." Co rrected
(:i.cco rdil!g tu the other sen,e) l1v p:i.rlick : " I fc repl ied thal he wished tu
help th c ll1, and i11cl«1·d he intcnd t: d tu m a ke pr ep :uatiun s accurc.li ngly ." The
i11 d,-,:./ cu\ ;rdi n:1tcs the l:i.s t clause \\'ith "he rep li ed ."
Espec ial care is to he taken o f a th at-clause <l'ithi1t a that-clause; f1ir
example : " Sume faint elcme11ts o f rea so n !icing disccrn il, Je in the brute it is
11 ot envugl1 tu pruve //lil t a p rocess is nut a p roce ss of reason, t/1111 something
appruaching lo it is seen in the IJr ult: ." I [ere a recast i;; n eeded, beginning,
"The f:ict th.i t sornctli in g app ro:ich ing ... is 11 o t c1wu .1.:h to pro ve," etc.

!TT.

ld:~Tl~()SPl·:l. rl\T

lffFFJ{l ~ !\' C E.

This term is here acl1>pted to designate the office o f any word
th:t t requ ires for ih in krpret:it ion sum e wo rd or construction preceding .
Under th<.: t e rm :i.re i11<l11dcd d e11 1onst ra tiv c pronouns
:rnd :uh·erlis, rehti1T prono un s :rnd adn:rl>s, and phrases of refere nce, - in gene ra l, wh ate ver is to 1Jc rercrred for its mc::rning to
:-in ::m tc ccilent.
Tn the wliuk r:rngc of cnrnpo"itiun the re is no process oftener
rnisrn::rn:tg\' t l th:t11 n ·t rns pect i1·e n·krc 1we . The mi s management
results JJOt from ignur:rnc e , but fro m h:tste :ind can:lcssncss ; the
writer, in his ardor to c ontinue his thou ght, docs not s tay to look
back , but trusts to clunc c for :icc uracy . It is of espec ial value in
this process to form the hauit, in the c:1Se of ::my backward referr ing word, of looking ]Jack a t o n ce a nd m:1king all necessary adjustments Leio re procecdi ng. Sue h ;1 hal >it once thorough 1y confirmed
need not ch eck o r rl"tard th e cmrvn t o f tho ugh t, and will save
mnch trou!Jlc u f reca s t ing :tfte nnrils.
1\11 n:. -Th:: range a n 1\ char a cte r uf rctru spcct ivc rdere n ee wi ll lie in dicated i n the su!Jjoi n cd tabul:tr view.

Ti\l\LE OF IZETJ\.OS PECTl VE l\.EFEREN CE.

LJ1·: ~1< J :\ O,T J{ ,\TJ\TS.
- -- -

I

l-:.i-:1xr11·1-:s .

------·-· - - - - - - -- - - - -

I. Person and Thin g - Reference .
h e s he it

tliey

th is

th at

the se

th ose

who
which

th e fu n ne r

th a t

th e bttc r

II. Place-Refe rence.
here

there

wltere

hence

1h1:nce

\\'hence

hither

thi ther

whither

·-- -- -- - - ------------III. Time-Reference.

- - - - - ---· - - - - ll U\V

th e n

-- - ------------- -- -wlte n while

From th e abo ve table it will lie se en that refere nc e may be mad e to a per so n o r thing, to a place, or tu a time; and that any uf the se ant ecedents 111.1y
be e ither definitely po inted o ut (by a dcmu ns tra ti ve ) , u r taken fu r grante11 (liy
a relative ) . Further, it \\'ill l1c noticed th a t \\'h e n lite ant ecede nt is point e d
o ut it may lie rccogni1.ed as e ilher nc :H o r re ni.i\e, :-i n •I h e n ce f11r each o f \h e
de mon stratives (w ith th e excep li o n o f !h e pe rso n:-il pronoun) there arc tw u
fo rms, to indicate these two vari e tie,; o f re lat iun . \ Vhe n th e antecedent is
t ken for granted, such 1liscrimin at ion is n o t so n ecessa ry.

Discrimination of the Antecedent. - Owing to the lac k of inflec ti o n in En glish, th e means fo r disc rimina ting between two or more.:
possible antecedents arc somewhat m e agre. The unaiJed pron oun
of the singular num be r, li e, sl1r, ii, has th e power of disc ri m inating
only between the sexes, and betwee n p e rsons and thin gs; wh ile
the p lural, tluy, can di sc riminate only Letwcen one object and sc \·-

J 21

naL

F (J,. \ "/U,J / h.,\ .,f '.·11. / '/.' Uc I.SSFS.

conseq 111.: ncc, in th e gcncr;d p roblem how to rem ove
~1ml.Jiguity or vagucnc~s ur refen: nee, q11e:-;tio11s or order, p rom in ence,
pro>;imity, re petition, :rnd the lik e, :1~~ume c:ird in al im port;rnce .
1\ s

:i.

i'\<>TE. - Be furc proceed ing to th e di sc uss i<'ll o f me a ns, it may lie d es irab le
lo gi\·e some e xamples illustrating tlic nwst fr e11 ue 11 t cases o f ca rele ssness, and
the mo5t frc 11ue11t de,·ices fvr O\Trcoming diliicult ics o f refere n ce.
1. The fullv\\·ing c.:xa 1nplcs will illustrate p,.c,·aili ng ca relessness in retros p ec tiv e refer en ce : " This is o ne of t he m o.-;t lifel ike an d telli ng p ort raits of
I l:i\\' tho r nc that has e ,·cr :-ippca rc d ." l It: re tl 1e \\T ite r see ms to mea n " o ne

- that !w s appeare d , " wh ile h i~ r<:a l me:rning must he "po rtraits tha t h,we
app<:.ued ." The a n tecedent is no t ar.cunt<:ly di,cr imi n:-ite• l . - " 1\ n old fri e nd
of ;\j r_ \\'alt;; , 1-:.,\ . ( hi111 se lf a n art ist) , ;e/i,1s,· pi ctur<."s arc n o w o n exhi Liti " n in the ;\letnipul ita n :'.l useum of . \rt. l1as fa ,·ored us with the fo ll owing
in tcrc:,;ting skt:tch e>f that r crn:uk:ti>lc p:iinil'r.' ' <2ue ry. whose p ict ures arc
on <.:"hil1it i•'I\ ? - " A l.trgc ,:apitalisl o r 'Y t1<lic:ik \\"ill somdi 1nes buy a ll the
\\·lic:1 t o r cotto n i11 t he 111 a r1".:t, and hul .J it u 11 ti l it s sca rcity :rnd th e g ru wing
n«ed fu r it en:tl1ks !1i111 to cll.l rg c w h:\t 11« ,,·ill f11r it. ·• l k rc th e masc uline
prv n.,un is made to do ihe duuJ.le duty o f a rn:1~culine ;rnd a neute r.
2 . Th e f,,!!uwing sc: n le n c e , fr o m :-; mollct t, n·i1h i1s co r rect io n b y I'rof<.:sso r
B .1i11 , w ill illust ra te so me o f th e wr iter's sh ift.-; fo r cle arn ess o f re fe re nce .
" The pedant assured /;is patron
that although !1r: c< •uld n<1t di,·e,;t the

" T he peda n t :iss ure d liis patro n
th :it alth o ugh/;,· co uld n ot <l ivest the

!Joy of the kno w iedge /i ,· had al rc:icly
i1n l1 ibc <l , u nless h t· wo uld c n1p u " ·n
him to disaLle his linge rs, ;,,. s h< n ild
cndc:wor , with Cud ·s help, to p r c:,·e n t
!.·i:, fu t ur e improl' e menL .,

boy u l th e knuwle d ge (a) a lready
imi>i lit:d, u n less (/.) !1<· <o"'·e em}o<u,_.,.,., ; tu d i,;1hle (<-) f /1<· little trid.·s/f r's
linger:.;, Ii« should cnde:-il'u r, w ith Cod 's
h elp, t<> 1ire,·en t (d) h is p11j11'/'s future
i 1n pn )\'CIHC ll l. .,

1 [ere it will l ie seen that tlic t:' •rrt: cln r t.11-<:, ;\:.;his t•l•je(I first of all to re <ecmstrnct the senten ce su that a ll the pron o un:; ma1· lie rck r:il1le lo a s ing le
::in tccc<lcnt ; a n cl th e rnc:i ns us e d tu a ccu m pl i-. h th is r e, n lt :He (11) O mi ssio n o f p ro n o un, a n d part ic ip ia l co n '1 ru c tio n;
(/!) Change o f con,; tru ct ion , a ct ive to p as -i ,·e ;
(c) 1\ntecede n t repeat e d 1,y :i dell ni ng te r m;
(<! ) An tec ede nt r epealed a g a in , by an o ther n:1 me.
21 . The m ost n:itural m c:ins o f po int ing ou t a n c:ir or remote
antecedent, o r of set ti ng di ffe re nt a ntece d e nts 01·cr aga inst each
uthc r, is th e em ployme nt o f d e111 011strat i1·es ; sec Table of R etro-

Fl ·,v;J..l.J! ! :X 'l'AL f'N Ol 'E SSL S .

125

spcctive Re fe ren ce . In using th ese, however, th e writer n eeds to
calculate wi sely how fa r he may trust to the reader's o r hearer's
a b il ity to !11i11!.: /lac!.:, :is these \\'Or<ls di rec t. Suc h d c monstr:iti 1-cs
should be allo wed lrnt s p::i.r ingl y in sp o ken style; in \\'rittcn style
m ore li berty rn::i.y be t::i.ke n, ye t here :ibo the write r's safest :ittitrnk
is cau tion, lest he p b cc the de monstrati ve too fa r from its a nteced ent.
EXAMPLES . - I . Th e fo llo \\'in g w ill illustr a te the se rvi ce a ble ness o f demo n·
s lr:l tive s . T o po int <>ut the nea r er u f t\l" O ant ececkn t:; ( fro m E . C. Stedma n ) :
" If th e y (B r itish poe t') h av e a fi ne r u nd e r; ta n d in g a n d a de fttr ha ndling of
the ir cra ft , th «s,· m ay b e p a rt ly a cunse 'luenc e o f the fa ct 1ha t n o t :'l lu 11 tgomc ry
a nd \ Vilso n, b ut K eats , and \Vo rcls \\' ort h , and T e nn yso n, and th e ir g reater
m as ter s, h a ve supp li e d t he m o d e ls v f a recent sc h oo l." Fro m Ca r lyle: "I.ct
Li be ralism an d a :\c w Er:i, if s uch is th e w i,; h , lie intro duce d ; only no cur·
tailm ent o f th e roy:-i l n 1o n cys ! \ \ ' hi ch /,1/t,·Y co n d itio n , al so, is pr ecisely the
impossibl e on e ."
I k re lh <: <lem o nstr a ti,·e is use d to h e lp o ut th <: rc:lati,·e . T l• po int o u t lhc r c.:molc r o f tw o ( fr u m J-:u ,k in ) : " ,.\u tl d o n 't f:u1 cy tl1al you
will lo we r yo ur se h ·c:s by sy m pathy with th e 10 1,·er crea tu re s ; you c:urn"t
1')'1lljla th ize ri g htiy w it h t. he high e r , u n less yo u do with those : b ut yo u li:l\'e to
sy mpathi ze wi t h the h ig her, too - ~ t h 'luec ns , and ki ngs, a nd ma rty rs, an d

a ngels ."
2. The foll o win g examples will ill ust ra te h o w d e m o nst rat ives may b e u<c'< l
to se t antecedent s O\T r a ga ins t e ac h o ther. i-' rom I'itl : " J " il l n ut ba rter
E ng lish co m me rce fur I1 ish slave ry; t/111t is n o t the p rice I \\' Oll lLl pay . nu r is
this th e thi ng I " ·o uld p urc liase ." F ro m E. C. S teelm a n : " ·rhe m ind an 1l solll
o f Tra n sce n (lcn tal ism see m ed lo fi nd thei r p redes tin e d serv ice in t he hn •l of
1hc Pu ritans. T he poet ry w l1ic h sp r an,g fr u m it hat! a m o re subtle ar •J ma than
th at w h ose di cla ct ic is m in fected tli c Ln g li s h L a ke sc h oul.
T iu· l .tli<r m:Hlc
prosa ic the \'c rse vf h111 11us pu<: ls ; o ut <1f lit e f•r 111 n· th e •1ui ckcs t i11spi rati<111
o f o ur down-East t h in ke rs s<.:e m ctl to grow ." I n bo th o f t hese examples t he
reade r o r beare r is co m pellc,1 to t hink hack " ·it h co n side rable :icnmcn, 1' t
o rder t o r e-arran g e th e th o ught a s t he dem o nstr a ti,·c s bic.l hi m ; this is \'.'h~t
makes s uch usage p re ca ri o us.

22 . T here a rc t wo laws of though t wh ich :tcco rd ing to occ:ision
may aid th e r e:icle r i n referr in g the prono un to its an tece de n t.
O ne is the law of Promin ence, liy whi ch the p ro no1m is in te rpreted
as referring to th e prin c ipal su bjec t of the antece d ent clause . T he
o ther is th e law of Proximity, by wh ich the pronon n is rcfn rc rl to

I ~r I

F U , \'J),./ .ll J,_:NT.·IL l'l< UC!:'.'>SES.

F l .,\.D A.1/E,\ . LtL l ' N OCF SS F S.

the ne a rest su1>j ec t. Th e cautio n is, not to rely on either of these
too implicitly ; their virtue in aid ing ck arncss of refere nce may
cas iJy lx: overrated .

24 . In the report of conversation, where in des ig na ting Lhc
interlocutors the clash of pron o un s is peculiarly li able to occur,
amb iguity may be removed, and at the same time vivac ity increase d ,
by q uoting each speaker's wo rds in his own proper person . \\'hen
the details o f s uch conYcrsation arc in any place lik el y to he uni nterestin g or not fully relevant, t he wri te r mJ.y condense by reporting
in the third pe rso n.

J 26

I ·:x.\~ l l' LE ~ . I. Prom inence.
"A t th is mo ment t he co lo nel came up and
to"L the plac e of th <.'. wv nn dcd gene ral. //,·ga ve vrdcrs to h:ilt. " Herc Lhe
renwtc:r no un is so m uc h m ore prv !ll incn t, lio tli in scn st: :mu co ns truction, that
: iv real a111l>iguity exis ts.
2. l'rox illlity . l:rom C. D . \ Varne r: "Sl•tnc p risons ha,·c a bad reputation
with th <.: cri111inal frakrnity, and I fancy t/1,y rath t:r >hu n the S tates where
l it<.I'<' c~i~ t."
I lea: lh t: wvrd " they" is sv natur:1lly C1>1111 tcd with lhe nearest
antcC<.:<knl ( " cri11 1i 1ul fr at ern ity") th:i t tht: la l<:r d e m u nstrat i,·e is clea r
e nvu gh , \\'ithuul c:l0,;c r d i,cr iminati o n , as bclvnging to the ot her .
·" One principle rn :uk to aid the other. " 1n this \\' :t r bo th \ h riu s a n<l
:-iu !la scr\'l:.J; :-iulh in crc::t s cd !: is (Snl b's ) rqrnt:1t iu n , :'> 1::ir i11s t a rni sh ed I.is.
Som e plc::td f11r !:im ( \ Luiu:-;, the las t n amed) :ige :ind illnc ,;s." Here, :is
J,,,th names :rn.: uf equal ;::nm 111 a tic::tl prv 111i ncncc, the intnjl rd ing principle
of the bs t pron<n:n is prn.,irnily . I n an imp ort:i nt re fe re nce, how ev e r, such
:1s thi s , the proximi ty shuuld lie :iiclcd, if p•»sililc, liy prom in ence . T his mi g ht
lie effec ted i>y putting ~u lh , in the secun d memhc r, in a subo rdinate cbuse,
tliu~ : " In th is w:ir Go th ::'l l ::t ri us an d Su!l:t served.
\ Vh ilc Sulla in c rea sed l1is
reput at io n, ;\ Ta ri us t:irni ;; h ed his. Su me p rcad f,1r h im ag e a nd illness." No le
h ow the re krc:n cc is a ided .

23 . In m any cases \\'he re reference is di ffic ult the ~rnte ceclent
needs to be re p eate d in so m e fo rm, in stead of bein g represe nted
Ly a pronou n; or th e repetitio n m:iy l1c made al o ng wi th the prono un . \\ ht:: n the rcpe:iti11g term is \\'i scly ch ose n, it may also
e nri ch the tho ught, lly a dd ing so me new ~rnd suggest ive aspect.
0

F xA:-11 ·1. 1-:s. - F rum :\[ r,;. Stu"'c : " It h;1d :d su a b rig ht n1 ::thoga ny lealahle , uvc r w hic h ,.,·as ::t \.,uking-gh;s in :1 gilt fr :i111 e, will1 ::t row o f little
:H.:hitectural li :1lb o n it ; <uhi, It /,•o!.-i 11,i;-,1.;I1ss \\' :1S al "'ays kept shrouded in
\\ liitc muslin :it all se::isons uf the yc:ir, vn accou nt o f :< trad itiv n that fli es
m igh t lie expected to a tt ::tck it fo r o ne or t \\'O \\' eeks in surnm er."-Frum
. \ rtli ur l Ic lps : " Jam cu nvin ce d that it is lik en ess, a nd no t cu ntr:ist, whi ch
l •rud uces thi s liki n~- Jil;eness, m::ir k von, in ><>me <:sscnt i:d p articul::tr, in
su rn e sub-strat um, a s I s::ii<l befo r e , in t h~ mi nd , w h i d 1 /ilin.~' is n ot ove rcome
Gy c onsiJe rab le dissim ila ri ty u po n tl1e upper >urLtcc.'' - F v r instance of
a mplifyi ng rc pe ti t iun s ec cor rected ex::tmp k , !':1 ge I :!.j , where " the little
tr ickste r " bo th repc;i ts :tn (l characteriLcs its au tecedcnt.

EXA~ r 1·r.E~ . -- "lfe told his fricn cl that i f Ii.: did n o t fe e l h el le r in half :i n
hour !11: thou ght lie h ::td belier r et u rn ." l kre t he am bigu it y is •1u ite in:-urrn o nnt:tblc. S:iy h o we ver, " I le tol d his fri e nd , ' If l (o r yo u) d o no t feel
bett er,'" e tc ., ::ind all is clear en o ug h .
The fulluwin g , from J\l o tley, wi ll illustrat e ho w, ac cor d in g to th e ch:i ractc r
of the thought an d t he need nf rapi d ity o r vi vid ness, the mann e r o f reporting
rn::ty altern::tte bet wee n d irec t :ind in direc t 'jllv t:iti o n.
" O n th e thin! d a y, Du n l 'r::i nc is \\' enl to take his lc::i,·e . Th e Dul; c J, cg gcd
him to in fo rm h i,; \ hjesty of th e imp::tt ic:n ce wi th wh ich h e was cxp c:c li11;.; the
arriv::tl o f hi s successo r. IIc then in form e d hi.; g uest that th<.:y h:id :ilrc:idy
beg un l o cvl lc ct t he ten th penny in Bral n n t, th t: n w-;t ul.stinate u f :di tl 1c
prov in ces. '\\.h :it do y o u s::t y to th at , Do n Fr::t nc is? ' h e cr ied, with exu lt:i ti o n . Alav:i re pli e d tlut he th o ug ht, n o ne the less, th::tt the tax w0uld
encounter many v lis t::icles , a nrl Leggecl him e:i rn estly to refl ec t. l Tt: :issu rcd
him, m o re over, th:i t he sh 0 ulcl , wi tho ut rese r ve , ex pr ess hi s op ini ons full y l•l
the King. The l>nk e user! the s::t mc l::tn g uagc \\'h ich D o n F rederic had held .
co ncern in g th e m o li\'es o f th ose " ·ho opposed the la x. ' 1t m ::ty he su,' s:1 i,J
Do n F ran c is, ·, hut at ::iny r::i te , all lnvc :igrec1l to sin g to the s::t mc lune .·
A little sla rtlcrl, the D uke rt:jo i11 e d , 'Du yu u d u ul>t that th e ci t ies wi ll kee p
their pro mi ses ? D e pend upon it, I ~h:dl !in d th e rnc'1n s tu cum pc I th em.'
' God g rant it may li e so,' s::tid 1\ bva, 'lrnt in my pum judgment y0u wi ll h::tn:
ne ed o f all yo ur pru1knce and of all yom autho rity.'"

Coordination and Restriction of the Antecedent. - I n the use
of the relative pron o un we recogni ze two di stinct o ffice~ as rcg:i rds
the antecede nt : coi.ird inat ive, rep re sented by wlw and 7l •l11d1 ; an d
restricti ve, re p resente d by !luzt .
When the c oordinate rebtivc is usecl , the antecedent is rcg:mlccl
as complete in se nse, and the clause introd uced by the relat i1·c
contains an additional assertion. The relat ive - who or wh ich is accordingly equi valent to a demo nstrative with a conjun ct io n ;
"and h e," "and this," " and these."

F UJ1:D .IJ!EN TA !. I'R OCE SSES.

12S

\\.hen the restr icti\·c rebci\·e is used, the antecedent has not
rcachcJ its complete sense, but sumcth in g, \\·hich the relative
cl::i.use supplies, is still ncccs"ary l1y 11·ay of n :stri ct iun or de fi nit ion .
;\n equi1·:iknt clause, therefore, i,; not so c::i.sy to giv e; but sometimes the rebti \·e - th::i.t- may be omitted, and its place taken by
an :idjective o r ph rase .
l :: x.\:-11'1. ES . I. Coi;rdinatc . - "JJut tlesh with the life
the bluocl thn cuf, sh:i.11 ye not c :i.t." i !ere the rc lati 1·c
acldition:i.1 ;i,se rtiun, cn;irclinate in rank wi h the princip:11.
~. i'.cstri<.:tive . - " 1\ncl there c:1111e a traveller unto the
s p:i.red to t ake o f his o"· n !lock, and uf lei, u"· n he rd , to
faring 111an that w:is cutnc u11tu ltim ; Lut tuuk the puo r
clresscd it fLir the rn:in that w:is cume tP !ti111 ." l kre the
complete in sense with•Htt the rc st ri c ti ,i n th.ct the rchti1·c

thereof, whicll is
cl:rn'e mak es an

26 . There :i.re ccrL1in dc!rn;:i.l.J]c c::i.ses where wlw o r wlud are
the only av:iibblc rcbti \-cs, as well for restriction as for coordin;:i.tion. It is not meant that in these cases there is no rest ricti ve or
coordinate Sense p rese nt, hut that the cl isc rirnin::i.tion of th:lt seJbC
by the form o f the rebt i\·e is waived because other considerati ons,
of euphony or cle:irness, arc stronger. The reader is left, in other
words, to make for himsel f the proper adjustmen t in the func ti on
of the rebt ive .
Tim PRJKC1PA1. C ASES O F Tlir s Kt:\!! E:\L' MERATED AND EXE\lPLIFIEJ>.-

ri ch man; a nd he
dress for th e waym a n 's lamb, :inc l
antecede nt is not
cbusc g iv es : it i,;

not rnan in genera l, hut the particuiar nt :1 n " tll:lt was come untu him."
3. ~l'lu.:: l\\'o in one ;-;.c ntcn ct: .
"l'hc.· p<;:tcc th 11/ \\':t...;. now 111;1.dc, 10!1 i r"h is.
ld1n\\'Jl ;1.S the i\:::cc uf \\'c~ tpli:lli.t, 111 ;1dt· ,, ,n :e ln q11 1rLu1t t:h:1 ngcs in Europe ."
1 lcrc t l1 c th:ih;l:itise c ompletes lhe 'cn st.: uf the antccc<ic11t : whil e th e which clausc rcbtcs a n c11· bet concerning it.- \' ut ice the clitfrrc nt implications of
11

lite rel:ctive" in the fu ll1J\Ying : "Fetch me the ii->uh t/1 11! lie on t he table, :111<l
th e pamphlet,, 7i•l1i1h you will ltncl on the fiu•1 r. "

'.25 . Th e distinct ion be tween cuvrdinati \·e and re strictive relatives
1s too little regarded by \\Titers, :incl the feeling of it on the part
of readers is correspondingly unclc\-clopc(l. It is a real and impo rtant di sti1Ktiun, lhl\\·cn.:r, and c:1p:tl>k , lty circful us:tge, oflicing
l1rou ght t11 murc gen cr:tl n.:cognit io n. The wrill:r o.h(Ju]d h::i.bitually
l'Stirn:tlc till' t' ~S t'Jlti:ll oflic-c uf c1«:ry n·l;1ti \·c he Cl1lj1loys, anll not
d epart frurn the st ri ct use c:\cq1 t u11 rL·:t! :11\\l dcti1nl1le occasion .
T\'"1tTE . -·rhc unjudgcd u-.: i.: uf -;1.•1':.0{1r .-:·1/ i( h i n~ re:--t1i ct in:: se nse is nut
infrc•1uctll!y ]' rocluL:ti 1·c uf l""iti1·c a;nl1iguit1·. Thu s, in th,; sent en ce," It is
rL· <1ucstecl th a t all tnc ml>e rs «f Coun c il, 7,./,,, :uc als" 111c111licrs of the La nds
C"mmitke , \1·ill asse 111l>lc in the Cuunc il· ru u111 ." - i, it 111 eant th:it all th e
11tc111l>e rs of the o ne arc alsu 111c11tl1crs <>f the •>ll:cr, or is ti.is a call for al l
nte rn l1crs of the Jir,l that happcn als•> tu lie tncntl•cr' u i the scco nu? - Not icc
the ~11nbiguity u f, " The h:!l u 11·s >i'll •', in L·1•11f.,r111it1· 11·ith t11c ir oath s , hall

re fused tl! su\JrniL tu this usurpe r, li :iil !1cc 11 clri\'ell fc> rth fr o m their quiet clo istcrs an d g:u1lcns." One sense is m:<dc liy phc i11g a cu m ma a fte r " F e llows,"
;.incl quite anuth cr liy suli:;t ituting //;,,/ fllr '' 11·hu."

129

Thc followin g arc the chief cx ce pti vn s to th e st ri ct discriminati\'e u se o f the
relat ive. The reasons fu r them may I.Jc reduc ed to the two cons i<leratio ns of
Eu p h o ny and Clearness.

I.

Eu 1·1 '"KY.

iV!w ur wluclt is o ften used t o avoiu an a cc 1111111latio n u f tlw ts, e. g.
\V hen th e antecedent is that: "It is that wl1id1 1 .Jctcst ";
\V hcn the antecedent is m o cli licd by that : "That rem a r k 7«hi, h I made
I.

yesterday" ;
\Vhc n a conju n t.:ti 1·e that occ urs near: ''A nd there can be fuund other
passages 7vhich sho w th:lt it was a co mm o n a nd ]'Opuh r.custorn ." In all thc'c
nses the m ean ing uf the rehti 1·e is re strictive, I.Jut euphony compels the
ch:inge.
Ho w obt ru s ive a se ries o f thats may sou nd is illustrated in tht:
follo wing, fro m De Qui n cey , "Egypt was the land that s helt ered the wr etches
//lat rep resente d the ancestors that had done the w rong ."
2. That sou nds ill whe n se pa rated fr o m its ver b an d from its ant ecedents,
nnd emphasized by isubt iu n : Th e re a re many pe r:;ons ti/flt, th ough unscru·
pulo us , are commonly good tempered, a nd that, if nut s tron gly in ci ted liy self.
interest, are rc acly for the most pa rt to thi11k uf thc int crc.:st u f their nci ghb" r,;."
I le re wlto w o uld lie he lle r .
3. Tlw t cann o t be p reccded liy a J>rc.:p0 s it io n, a nd hen ce th ruws the prep<>sit io n to the e n d . The followi11g is an extreme example : " It seemed to he
ne of those facts of existen ce tk rt she cou ld n ot get used to, n o r Jind anywh ere in h er b risk, fiery litt le bod y a grain uf coo l r esi g nati o n }ir.'' ;\ o t ~ I!
1. rcpos itio ns will bear thu s to st:i. nd :it the e nd, and especially lc>ng prep ositivns, or p repos ition s that m :iy also be a ch· c rLs . As matters u f fa ct the lilierty
is confin ed mostly to the p re pcJsi ti 0 ns /,1, fur, of, a nd by. \\'c can say .. Thi,;
is the rul e that I adhere to," bu t n ot so well "This is the m ark that I jumped
/Jqo11d,'' o r , "Such wer L: th e prej udi ces //wt he rose 11/}()'11e." And when these
prepositions :ire put in thc bucly v f the sente n ce, whiclt is req uire d :is the
rela tive, th o ug h with r es tri cti\' t se n se .

FUNJ),J,J/L ,\. J'AL !'RO CESSES.

130

F UND ..J.1/Ll l/i>IL i 'ROCLSSJ.::s.

JI. Cu:.'\:, c;1·:ss .
. Th 11 t :-ipplics to holh persons :-in<l thing" , :-in•l hence 111:-iy be somewhat
4

va<'ue wh en the antecedent clncs nut exp re ss "hi ch is mc:-int. I n such a c:ise,
"' \l tl 1C "~~c i 1~c
. , 1·,. l"'ct
ri ...... t i\'c , 7 ~ } ••o rn:-iy somet
irncs be used iur the sake of
t l1onn
......~
·
0
·
.
t tl H;. pcrsu
.
n. . .1:c>i· cxam\llc
·· "There :-i re 111 :-i ny mill io ns
pd 1nt111 ~: uu
,,
. in . India
,,/w w<Ju\,\ he utterly un ab le to pay a line of fift y rupee,;," etc. If 111 this c:isc
the.: antecedent wer e c·k :u, the r cslricli,·c rcl::tt i\' C wuul<l naturnlly be used; as,

7

131

JV/tat is a useful eciui\'alent for !It a l wh i dt , th ose which: "Let me repc;1t
to you what I have often sai<l, that what is worth d o ing nt all is worth du in g-

wcll."

3. The relative that may be omitted to advantage , when it is the obj ect uf
a verb, and when th e o missi o n liri11 gs th e :rntc ccclen t :in d the re lat ive clause in
jux taposit io n; for example, "The man 1 spo ke of," is bette r than "The m:-in
/h at 1 spoke of." "1Ji ckc ns 's actin g \\'as a part uf him sel f. l Jc th re\\' hir11 -

"The re :ire many mi\lifJn s 1:/ / o ·s,111 .c in India tho!," etc.
.
lt is fur the s:-ike uf clc:unc,;s a,; lo cli, ti n ctio n <• f person tlut pronom1n:tl
1·
·
.
l ."S
wrs•l tnl
1-.runt>uns. arc fullu,,·c•l hy 7i'/l(I : as, "Th ere arc
:-uqcctn'cs
\l ~l'.L
\. 1 . ·
·
! '
' ·· ct· c.
- /I.]so
" ~·d l wh•• ," "e"erv; one who,"
JJlfl!ll', alh:·rs, St'7't' r a , / l/ tl St, -; c_ ·11r\
.

self th oro ughly int o the ch:irnctc r t\he was imperson:iting, au<l thus maJc it
rcai." Here the relative is bett e r 0111itted th:in expressed .

etc.;. lJtit wh en things arc m e ant, n ot "all whi ch ," "muc h which ," etc., but

"As for actresses, it sure ly w o uld be the height o f un gcneros ity to blame a

"all that,'' "much tltat."

woman for following the only reg ular profession commanding fame an d fur tun c /\thc kin<l considerat ion o f man has left ope n to her." Jl c r e the phr:\ ;.c
"commanding fame an(\ fo rtune," betwee n the antccc,]ent :ind the rela tive
clause, d isturbs tltc reference, and the r elat ive o ught to lie retain ed .
For omission of t he relat ive in P oe tic D iction, sec prece ding, page 51 .

. There is such fre rpten t occtsio11 to use th e relative, and it
2 7
is so apt, wh en occurri ng often, to make the se nte nce move heavily ancl c urn]iroti sl y, tJi:1.t ;t ffl~I S \cr y of the t'tjll/7'<Tfi'lll.I° for the rc]ati-\'C is \·c ry irnpor\:lnt to the w riter. These equivalents may be
sough t for \'arious purposes .
f

E• ii: 1\',\1.F:\ TS FO J( 1\. 1·: 1.ATI n ·: E:\ L'~1 ic1,.\TED A;-.; ll i-: x F~t l'Ll FI 1cn. - The
·1
·-·
. •he co 1111110 11e·st
chssi\1e<l
·1cco
rcl i11L'
to the ohj'cct sought in their
Ol O \ Vlng ::UC l
·,
• ··
~
,_,

u se.

I. F"R
1

•

R Arrn1Tv .

lt is to be n ot ed that, of the t "·o r chti\' es, the restrict ive is the more

rapid ; :ind a s\o w-m o "in g Ci>ll slrnc tion may often he c.onsid c ral1ly li gh l~1.1cd
.·
- •o cmi1 lov1 a• rc-< t··icti,,c
in st ead
of
a cuurd1nate
c la use. I Ins
\iy rc casttng
so :is,
•
.
.
.
,
.
is cspeci:illy dcsira1Jic wh e n a rcbti\'e occurs w1th111 a relat1 vc . }or exampk:
· c <l c.,,.,
'"·1,, 11 I liotwht
o f a nun in ]·ranee, 7u/10 passed . years of .1011
C\ll'I O lh
,_,

,,. . l ·l S
11

tl \ C C(1 ncl'it -"hid1 is of Ill•""~ ,·a \uc th:in the lllate rial." I !e re th e con·
1·
·- :1 \'ttle
Ctll'i\. rull '" ln 1t nc>lic c tl1c t'rc:i tcr l1gl1tncss and rapt r 1ty
stn1 ct1· o n 1:,
1

ll\ Hll\

1'

'

·

1

....

,

nf, " 7u/w passed ye ars of tuil up o n

:1

.

·

brou~hl

II.

int•J

Example :

FOR Ei\ll 'lL\~1~ .

4. So metim es, in stead o f the coi>nl inatin g r ela ti,· e , a dem o n stra tive "'ith a
conjunctiun will better emphasize the su bject of its clause; fo r cx ::unplc : " Ir e
did his best, which was all that could b e expected," is n o t so strong as, "1l c
did his best; awl this w:is :ill th:it cou ltl l>e expected ."
5. A n egative statement may sometimes he much str engthened hy cm1'luyi ng
the word but :is a r elat ive; for examp le: "There is n o m ura l rule b11t l1e n<ls t•J
circumstances," is stron ge r th:-in, "There is no m ora l rule that d ocs 11 0 1 bcnLl
to circumstances."
"There's not a one of th e m but in his h ouse
r keep a sc rv:int fee' cl," instead of" in whose

III.

h o u ~c

T du

11 0 1

keep a sc n '::tnt fce'd ."

FOR VAJ( I J\TIOi': <,>I' I·:x1·1u·: ss 10 :-1.

.

cu11c<: it /l,1/ is of m o re value than the

mater ial."
. The r cbt ivc may ofte n lie ccrn11c 11 'cd by b e in g co mbined , in the same
2
""'rd, \\'ith a prepos ition , or with the :rntecc1lent.
.
.
Th us, <c•hl'rcin, 71 .f:.crdiy may li e use1l fur in <i'i1ich, l1y whuh: "Great v1r·
lnc s o ft e n save, aml alw:iys illustr:-ite, the age and n:it1 o n wherei11 they
appear."

\Vh c n, h ow ev e r, the anteced e nt an cl the relative clause arc n o t

j uxtapositi on thereby, the re lat ive wi ll not so well bear om issio n .

"Vet :111 cxpi ·ri t·n c1· i<.; ~111 :1rrh 1,,1,, .,-,.· !itro"

Gl eam s that untra,·c ll 'd wo r ld, whnsc ma rgin fades
For ev er and for e\'\!r when I move:."

This is an imporbnt consideration in itself, when the re is danger o f :iccumulating too many re latives.
6. A participle may often he used ins tead o f t he r estricti,·c rcl:tti,·e \\'ith
n verb; for exam ple: " \ \'e sh:-ill b r icny rnn ove r the c,·c nts r:ltc'lulin,r; tli c
c.o nqucst vuult! by that empire ," is mu c h better than "that attended" and
"Iha! wa s m ade." Th is cu n;truclio n has advant:-igc also o n the sc o re of
rapidity.
7. In some cases the infinitive m akes a co nvenient equi,·alcnt for the rcl11til-e; for exmnple : " IIc was the fir st to en te r ," in s tc:id of" J le \\'as the fi rst
Ilia ! entered."

FU,\ ·1J•. J.l/ l:X /',·If. I'!.' Ci c'/: S.)LS.

ll'.\ .I J..JMFNTII. l'/1' 0CFSSJ·:s.

S. Some tim es also a cu nditio nal or ii- clause may enable th e writer lo clo
:111·:1y with an ulitrusi1·e relatiq;; for cx:unpk : " The m an that does not care
fur n:t1~ic is to lie pitied, .. can lie wri ttrn (tho ugh not so fo rcibly) "lj a man
dues nut care fc>r mu>ic, he is to uc piti ed ... It is in lung se nten ces th a t this
t:•1t1i1·:1k11l will Ix fo u nd 111 m;t useful. 1

su re to cause its overthrow." Herc what h as been mentioned is n o t a course
of action, but an attitude; " this attitude" wo uld therefore be a m ore exact
reference .
2. Of i naccurate p hrasal refe ren ce.
"C od, foreseein g t he disorders o f
human nature, ha s g iv en us cc rt:<in passions and affections which ari se from,
o r whose objects arc, these dis n n lc rs. 0/ this sort are fear, resent ment, com·
passion." llcrc the thing refc rrc 1l lo is not a sort, a ntl is no t ri ghtly called
such. Better : "A 111 0 11g tluse arc ," etc.

i32

Recognition of the Nature of the Antecedent. - When reference
m aJe to a p receJing i<Jea, the referring clause should by its
fur rn or ftilln 1:ss, f11 rn ish an accurate rccogn ition, as well logical as
gr:urnn:itical, uf the word or ide:1 referred to.
zS . .- \ ml perh:1ps the most frc•iucnt quest ion is, whether reference is to be nude to a 1/ii'ng or a}td ; th at is. whether the gr;imnutical anteculcnt is .:i. word o r :1 c!:tusc . \\' hen the anteccJcnt
is a cl:rnse, it mtht generally he referred to hy more th:m .:i. mere
11rono minal \1· orcl; a dcCming 11·ord nrn~t he :i.dded to broaden
the reference .
i,;

Ex .1:1;1 ·1.;.:s. - "\\' hen an :\mcr ic:u 1 l111 u k i" republished in l·: ngbnd, it is
hcr:ddcd :1S a n"te"'"rthy c1·e11t in litcr:1'ur e."' !J ere it is not th e book that
is hn:ilticd but th e fact that it i,; rcpu!Jii,hcd ; h ence th e form of refere nce
sho uld lie , "1h ,· f1d is hcralt le cl ," or " /It ,· ,·:·01! is h cr:tldccl as n otew orthy in
liter.1turc."
The more cl c ti nite de 11 10nslral i1·cs tl1is :11 1d 1/i,1/ arc bette r ad:1pted th an
othe r,; t0 rt~ fcr tn :i f:tc:t; f,; r example : "I t w:1 s n"l p ns;, ililc to hre:1k the
cncmy"s line ll"ithuut running o n iioanl o ne u f their ship s. Hard y informed
:\clso n o f thi.> .'' Hut here also, the wri tt: r mu st gu:1rd aga inst ins uffic ient v r
a mliiguuus refl'. rcnce .
I·:q11:tl cue mu st ]Jc g1n~n 111 1111111ini.,' :in antecedent, to discriminate the exal't clnncter ur :1;;11cct of it f( ir the writer's purpose . 1\ spet·i:tl tendency to inac('11racy in this respect is often
see n in the use of such phrase:; a::; '"in this \\'ay," "of thi s sort,"
.:i.nd the like.
29 .

Ex.\:111·1.i-:s. J . ( Jf misnamed antt:ccdcnt . "\\'hen :t recogn ized urga ni zn.
li o n phccs ibclf in upposiliun t<i wh:<l the pcuple rc.~:1 r d :is the ir right, it cnd:tngcrs its 1111· 11 l'xi stcncc : a nd a Ct111 linu ai iu n (lf tl:i, ,·,,,11·s,: of action is almost
l In tl w p:ir:i ..:: r:< pli s on C:ll i ;rdinati• l n :in o! l~" ' i ric-t i on of tlic 1\nteccdcnt, mu tli
lwip h:-t -, l• 1·c 11 (k 1i\Td, l>otli in f•x:1rnp 1 ~ · .... :u1d " li l~) :t· .... tio n ~ . fr11n1 Al lb Ott's" J-lo,-v tu
\\ 'rile Ck:u ly pp. i7 - 11_ 1i a nd B~lln' :-. ·· \.~ u111pn ~ it1on Gr:1111111a r;· pp . 63- 85 .
1

"

I

I

13.)

30. There are cases, however, where it is desiral>lc to make the
reference a little va.gue, or r.:i.the r, more ge neral th an the antecede nt; for som etimes the antecedent ne eds to he treated as one of
a class, or othe rwi se broade ned, in or<l er rightly to sc n ·e the
writer's purpose in referri ng to it.
E XAMPLES. - l'\otice the difference in sense b e twe e n t/1is and su rh in the
follo win g exam ple , a lr eady q uoted: "\Vhen a r ccogni zcll orga ni zation places
itse lf in oppos iti on to w hat the peop le re ga rd as th e ir ri ghts , it endangers its
ow n existence ; :<nd :< co nt in uat io n of s1t,·h a n :<lt itude (tliis attitude ; is a lmost sure to cause its overL h row ." The wo rd su clt d raws attention not lo the
pa rticular d eetl, liut to the i>ind o f d ee d. - " I t may he we ll to m:i kc brid
me ntion of L awr e nce Sh eri ff, the fu under o f tl1e sc h oo l, th at so me of it> ca r Iv
histo ry may th r o11glt tltat be portr:<yetl." llc rc th e word tlta t r e fer~ mc,st
direc tly to "menti o n, " anti th e r e feren ce is loo d c tinit c. B ette r: " may
tJurdly be p ortrayed ," - the re fe rence being thus to th e fac t o f making
mention.

JV. PlWS! 'CCTIVE REFEREi'\CE.

Th is term cles ig n:i.tes the offi ce of any word of re ference, pro no minal or other, wh en the word or iclea fo r whi ch it stands 1s yet
to be ex pressed .
Prospective i t and thc1·c. - The idioms it is and tl1tFt is (or
/here are) , begi nnin g a senten ce or cbuse, arc th e commonest
for ms of prospective rderencc, and .:i.rc espec ially \·al u:i.Lilc as a
means of enabling the writer to g::i in emp hasis by im·crting the
grammatical order of slll>jcct :i.nd predicate . Tntroclu cecl first,
these words st:i.nd prO\· i ~io n :illy for the act11al subject; while the
latter, thus free to choose its pos ition, m::iy he placed where it will
have the greatest distinc tion.

Fl ',\"/) . I .ll l .. \ . /'. ·!I. /'R (}(/.S.\l :·s.
FxA.\Il'i . F~ . - "

Fl 'N IJ.- / ,11J:'NJ'A /, I '1" 0 CFSSFS.

ft is a neces,ity o f e\·cry m::urnf:i.ct uri ng and commercial

pcr>plc that their c nst•)111e rs s}]()ul d be Yc ry wealthy anll int e ll igen t. "

Here

tlic cl::utsc, .. that thei r custo m e rs ," etc ., "' hich is the r ea l subjec t, acquires n
d istin c lilln p r upc r to its im po r ta nc e liy J,cing placed after its pred icate," is n
ne cessity " ; and thi s is <.:ffected l1y 1n:1king "it" stand p rov is io nally fo r th e
s u bject.
Obscr"e ho w mn c h more emph at ic th e f,, l],) \\·ing subject, "a sing le clay," is
m:Hle by the opport uni ty affu r rle d l1y "tht:rc ·· vf pla c ing it afte r its ve rb a nd
thu'i delaying it to \\'ard th e end: "T!i"u lns n o t fu r the \\'hole. o f that time
J.ccn :1 ~ingic <hy uf m y life w he n it \ronld ha\·c i>ecn safe for m e to go south
uf :'l [aso n a nd [ >ixon's line in m y 0 \\'11 coun try ."
l 11 the foll o wi ng sen tence , t/i,·u l'rus;icct i,·e \ru11ld J,c useful i n changing
o r.Ie r so t11at lhc rebtivc cl ansc 111ight l ie i>r•>ughl n ea rer its a n tecede nt : " ft was
clear, hm\·c,· cr, th at the str ife cu uld nn·cr en d un til snnic deli11i ng line l1et \\' ccn
the pn"· cr ~ (If the King an d Ilic ]"' " ·c rs ., f tl1c l'.1rli :11ncnl ;,l1 o uld l1c d rawn ,

'"·n

\\'hic h nc ith" r i•:ir ty shuul.! stc1 •-" J:cttcr-" un ti l t/i cu sho uld be <lrawn
Sll111c delinin g line . . . O\"Cr wl1i c li," etc .

/\ s the wo rd t/ rn:iy rcfn h;ickw:i.nl :i.s well as for wa rd, care
h nee ded no t to employ it \1·h crc the relcrcncc is un certain, :ind
not to m ix its ret rospec tive :i.nd prnspccti ,· e offices un:i.dviseJ ly in
the s:irne passage .
.) r.

Lx ,1:.ti 'l.t·:s . -

E;·en wh e re n o real amhi,t;uily is c aused, the d o ul,le use of

it in the same passage" al\\'ays sug.~cst,; ihe i '",;,;il•ii it)' o f 11eing led astray";
fu r example : "fl w ould i1c aiJsur-.l tu m ak<.: anulhcr atte m pt; £t would uc a
m ere t hro wing a\\'ay o f m o n e y.'' l lc r c th e seco n d it, retrospect ive , so un ds at
Jie,;t awk\\·anl after its pros pccti ,·c u:-c. So in the fu llo\\' i11 g se nt ence, fr om
l.:uskin : "ft is pretty a n c.l ap]'r<>p ri atc; an.J , if it !J()as teJ of a ny o the r per·
fc ,·t iu n, it \\' 0 11ld L>c at the e xp" 11 sc of i t r 11r ,ipr icty ."
The f., JJ<1\\'i11 1~ . C»J>i<:.J fr .. 111 :l
ne ss in th e rni ,turc o f fn:i c ti n1h.
ma.Jc liy

:i.

'l" IJ 'c· r, is a n C\lrc m c exa m ple o f care lessIt i, :1 .J.-sc ri 11ti" 11 o f a tcn1pe ra nce speec h

il l'.\\

rupc-\\'alke r w hile h :rng in g in ihc air . "It

\\' aS

a sp eech not easi ly

f»r .i::<• tl e n , .Jcli\·cred as it \\' a'i frnm a jlt'culi :1r phtf•1r111, an d o n a su bject not
.,ft1·11 t"uchcd under the e ircun1<;l:111ccs. It 111 :1tk nit: think o f some othe r
thing', 011 the line .,( the sa rn<· 1h .. u~:l1t. The n 1i 11.J , the s<>u l, lias a g ri p. f t
may h o ld on .

It i;.; death n o t to clo so. f t is
fl is e h:1 rgeahlc with its vwn dc ~ t r uc ti o n if it does

us

l>y be ing expected and prep:ucd fur, it be ing noti ced so mu ch the
more when it co mes. The l>roadcr application of this fact will be
given 1111der Suspension; he re it is to be no ted that any me.'.l.ns liy
which a corn ing idea is ( cfinitcly refe rred to must obey the rc<]u iremen ts and cautions of prospec ti\"C refe rence.
32 . T he strong demonstratives, suc h as t!tis antl tl1csc, wll<:n
use d prospectively, serve to po int o ut a subjec t with g reat defini teness :.m d st re ngt h. T he pe rso nal p ro nouns a rc no t so naturall y
thus employed, and when emp loye J shoul d not kee p thei r subject
wai ti ng long.
ExA~1pr.i,:s. -

" This is

:t

faithful saying , and wo rthy of :.<ll acccpl:1li •rn, th :it

C lir i ~ t

Jes us came into the \\' Orld to sa ' -c sinners." llcrc tlie s:iy in g il!·«:l f,
wh ich is d ri ven furward liy t he p rus pectin; this, is nut onl y crnphasi:. ed l •y
pos itio n, b ut definctl lie fu r <.:hand as tu its impo r tance , 1.iy the in tcrn1c, Ji ;1ie
phrase.
The somewhat str a nge so u nd o f a p ros pect i,·e perso na l pro n o un is illust rated
by th e foll()wing : "Bu t such a use of lang uage, alt h liug h n ecessa ry tu a gou.l
style , h as n o m o re di re ct relation to it than li l' r daily Ji n ne r h:is to the 1.1lush uf

a b/00111 i11g bea u ty ."

33 . Numer:i.ls and particks of refe ren ce a re often used , :rnd
especially in spoken discourse, to nuke the art icubtion of the
tho ught clear, an1l to help the heare r g rasp its di visio ns.
The
cop iousness of su c h words of refere nce is to be de te rmined by the
difficu lty of the th ough t. The com mo n te nd e ncy is to give the
hearer or rea ckr too li ttle hel p in making fo rw:ml refe re nce explicit.
E .xA ~ lt ' J.I·: O F F x 1·1.1 CtT 1\. 1·: F1-: 1: 1-::-:c1>: . " Th e cap it a l lea d ing <J<H.:,ti"n'
on whi c h yo u m ust thi ,; d:1y dec ide a rc: 11i,._,.,. tcuo: First, wheth e r yuu ""gh t t"

co ncede; an d, saond!y , \\' l1at your co n cess io n o ug ht to lie. ( >n tlic· first ., f
Co ns ide r h ow clea rn ess is
ga in ed by these carefully supplied wo r ds u f n :fe rcn ce, Lu t h p rospec ti ve and

these question s we h'.1\'C ga ined so m e ground . "
-retrosp e ctive .

:-; u11H.: t irne s it is impc rati,·c .

rc~ponsible in t h e m atte r.
n ut h old on ."

Other Means of Prospective Reference. - F rom the fo regoing
ex:i.mplcs it is evident that a word or iJea may acqu ire distinction

v.

co1rnEL:\ TfON.

Many words o r fo rm s of e xpress io n a ppear in pairs, the one
member of th e pair su ggesti ng a nd req uiring th e o the r. Some
points conn ecte d wi th t his mutual relation ne ed here to be noted .

1.\{,

Comparison by Means of tllan, as, and Similar Words. The prc\·aknt error in the use of t 1csc correhting t erms is ambiguity and y:i.gucncss bet1\· cen the things or :i.cts compared .
3-+· In order to :1\·oid ambig11ity, it is ofte n ne cessary to repeat
verbs or preposi tions :i.fter !l1a 11, 11s, :rnd such \\'Ord s of co rnp:lrison,
::;o i.hat th<..: e xact gramm:i.tical re lation of the succeedi ng nuy be
clear .
Lx 11:-11•1.1-: s . - " C::irdin::il lZi c:hel ieu h::ite<l Huckin gh:un ::is si n ce rely ::ts the
Sp::tniarcl ( Hiv::t re s ." T his sentcnn: Ic ::i,·cs it un c:c rt :ii n \Vhcther the last name
is a s ubject u r an ol1jcc:t ; we m:ty read it ei th e r, " as .Ii ,/ the Spa niard
Uli v::i res," <•r, '' a s /"· ;,,,1,.1 the ~1i;rniard (lliv:i rcs." ' The verb that is to 11e

t:ike n nee ds to he supplied .
"I'k::tsurc :iml c~ c i tc menl h:i<l m <1rc allracti•rn fu r him than his fri e nd."
Tlcrc, accPr.Jing to the intended •n c::inini:; , ::t ,·crl1 ,,.- :1 prcpositiu n need s lo be
su1 >p licJ : " th::t n f.w his friend," o r," than liad hi s fri cn•I."

35 . In co mp:ning complex objects, c:u c is nee ded th :i.t the
points to lJe compared be co rrectly and exactly taken . Some ti mes,
through heedless ness, the comparison is given :is between ickas
that really have no co rrelati o n.
ExA~!l ' Ll·:s .

- " Few pages or English hi ,;lory rcc onl ::l 11101'( maYl:ed CO /lira st in the ch::t r:1 cter ::ind poi icy of t he Lngli s h C ;u,·e rn1 e nt tha n those which

re conl the reigns or Eli1.::1l;eth, the J::t, t uf the: Tud u r<;, ::ind J ::imc:s, the fir st of
th e Stu:nts ." 1I ere the cnmpar i"n1 is drawn :is if it were betwc:c n a "co ntr:i st .. :111.! " p:1 ~: es of hist<>ry. .. lktlt: r: ":1 rnnre nurkcd contr::tsl . . . th:1n
rxislni l,e:wc e n the: rci .t.:ns uf." ' etc .
";\,, a11th,H· c .. 111, ! ,,, ,,,.,. f1itlijidh f«j ''""'-'«ilt :i ch ar:,ct<.: r //,,,,, tl1is purtrayal
ti f ( 'unn l ( \·;n·i l1y Shelley ; :111d 1!111u g l1 llw s11!1j1 ·4 ·1 j..,. \lrl\ \·11r! li y , we can not
l1ul admire t lce powc:r " ·ith " hich it j., trcat t-.1." I I ere th e i11c,:1l"lncss in the
ulijcc:ts eumpa rcd mi g ht be: very e:1s il y corrcctccl-" than Sl1d/,~v kls for·
t r<1 1·rd the c:h:.r:.ctcr o f Count Cenc i."
H ow is the fo!lo"·i11g q ues tion to lie tle i •:itcrl) _" Re;;uh·ccl , that a college
gracluate is bette r fi ttecl for :\m cri c::t 11 c iti1cnship than :1ny ot h er."

Correlation by Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs. ·when t \YO ;iltern:i.tive or ob\-crse thongh ts :ue to he expressed , it is
gcneraiiy necess:uy to clearness, and especially if tli e clauses are
lengthy, to p repare fo r the seco nd liy introducin g at th e outset

F{ •. \ ' / J .. f,J/ EN T.I I.. l 'NOCL·S.'>J::S.

137

some correlative p:i.rti clc requirin g the alternate for its complement.
This necess ity gi ves rise to s uch expressions :ts ctilt<'r . .. or, neillu·r
. . . nor, Oil !lie one lwnd . .. Oil / /1e ot/1cr /11wt!, 110 / 011~1 · . •. /t11/
also, express io ns wh ose v:i.lne is best apprec i:i.tecl b y those writers
wh o think most of clearness in sty le.
EXA\ll'l.E.-Consider h ow ne cess:t ry it is in the foll ow in g se n tence t•> prepare the rc:tlle r frvm t he iirst fo r :tn altern::iti,·c : "\"uu must take this ex trem el y perilous course , in whi ch success is unccrt :1i11, and failure di sgroccfu!.
as well as ruin o us, or du th e li be rty of you r country is endangered." The
correhti,·cs, " F:itli<r you must t:ike . . . or ds,·," etc ., sa,·c much lial>ilitv It)
mi sink r p rel ation, and ub\'i::ite the 111.:ce:sit y o f currc:ct in g an imp ression fur; 11 cJ
and held for h::ilf a se nt ence .

36 . The words or, n or , n"t!Lrr, 11ci!/1er, althou g h originally dual
words, :trc freely exte nded to three o r m o re :i.ltcrnatives. It is
often clcsi rablc , for th e sake of Cll) phasis and clirn:i.x, to add some
in tens ifyi ng word after the first al tcrnat ive.
ExA ~ll'Lf::S. - :\ triple altern::iti,·e: "Log ic 11 ,·illi cr obse rves,
nor dis cove rs , hut pro ,·es. "

11 rw

invents,

lntensifie<l: "The Re ct1) r was n ,·itl1<'r hboriuus, 11 1'1· o\Jviuusly sc·lf-cknying, 11or yd ve ry copious in almsgiving." - The fullo\\'ing m:iy lie regarded :1~
an elegant w::iy o f m::inagi ng a triple ::ilte rn :1tive : " Fo r surer sign had followed, cit/;er h:1nd
Or voice, or e/Je a mut ion o f tin.: men:." l

37, Th e words no / on~)' and /111 1, or /•11! itl .-o,
should lie foliuwed hy the s; un e p:i.rt o f speec h.

w l1e1 1

<"<1rrebti1·l·,

EXAMl'LES . - "I [c 11 ot on ly g:i,·e m e advice but n l.10 hdf' .. is w~ ong .
\\"rite .
"!Ie gave me n ot only adv ice /lilt a lso help." \\' hat p ::tr t uf specd1 follo ws
these words is immaterial; but it is cssenti::il th::tl th e w o rds s h o uld lie fullo\\'ed
alike by nouns, o r verbs, o r p repositional phrases . "TTe spoke 11 ot o 11 1y fo rl ibly but also tas te fully ( :1 th·cr bs) , and this loo, n ot 011~)' licfo re a s 1u:dl audien ce
but also in (p repusitio ns) a l::t rge publi c meeting, ::t n ll his speeches were n ot
011/y s ucc essful, but also wo rthy of success ( ::idjeetivcs)."

1 The above r11 l1· , wi1li exam p l«s , is mos tly taken from l\:ii11's
Grammar."

" <;.,,,,1,,.sition

Fl'NDA.JILXJAL /'A'OCLSSLS.
Som e tim e' the also m:iy b<.; sep:ir:ited fr o m the but by considcr:itio ns uf
f, );Te o r cui'h u ny, f" r t.:x arnplc : " J: ut liy St.:cking the othe r thin gs tir~ t, as \l"C
n:tlttr ally d• >, \l·e m iss " " / 011 /y the K ingd1Hn u f Go<l, but th vse ot her things
c1!su which are tru ly :1tt:ii1H:J o n ly by aiming beyond th em.' ' J

3S . The :ldvcr l1s t"llllccJ, i"nj.rrl, /11 /n1//1, /(J br: s ure, :l!lll th e like,
:tre nrn c h used, IJy way o f c o ncession , to p rcp::ire for a com ing
:1dn:rsat iv e, /,11 /, :;!://, or _rd. Thi s m ode of co rrelatio n contribu tes
11l\1ch to the strong :rnd ck:i. r :irt ic ubtion of thought. Su1uctimes
th e inf111 en c c of the con ce.-s i\·e a<kcrl> exte nd s t hroug h a whole
p:u-agraph , IJefo re the correspo nding :i. t h-cr~a ti\·c is reached .
LXA:l !l'l.l·:s . - T hi s ki 11 d u f cvrrcl:itiun 11·ill lie nempii!ied fro m l\lac:i ulay,
who used it alm." t tu the extent o f m anne ri sm .

" 0:u w rit e r, i11dc,·d, has de line:ilt:d char:ick r m o re skillfully than T ac itus;
" It is lri1" th a t his vener:ition for a nti•p1it y prodn ce.J o n hi m su rne o f t he dkcts whi c h it proc!tICe 1l un th ose who
:trr in: t! at it Ly :1 ,·cry differe nt rua d. [Sente n ce of a mp lificati un. J } ',·/ even
hn e we )C rcc ive :1 d ifferen ce ." - "The fashi o n :il1lc logic of th e ( ;reeks was,

1111 : l1 is is n u t his peculia r glo ry ." -

Fl'.VD .n11:;,\ ' T.·l I ,

/' A'O C !'.SSJ~·s.

]3')

of re bti on . Il is of th e highest importance, therefore, that t he
write r h:we th e a bility, :tnd, who.t is e(1ually important, th e h;.t]J it, uf
estimating closel y, in every in stance, the kin<l and d egree of t hei r
influen ce .
The following arc t he p rin cip:i.l kin.Js o f con jun c tion:tl re lati()11 ,
d eterm ined o.cc onling t o th e ir r heto ric al s ignificance .
Coordinating . -- 1t is th e office of the se conjunct ions to " add a
ne w statement having the s::i.111c bc:iring as \\' ha t p rec eded."
LrsT. -Th e grc:it rc prcse nt at i1·c o f th ese: eunj1 1n cti u ns is ,\ :-."Ii. Th e ot her<;
are: also, yc:l , 1ikc\\'i ~ c, ~o , in like 111 a nn cr , ;:tg:lin , 1><:::-.idc s, ttn• ( Lill11\\ i1 1g
:ino th e r w o rd ) , fur ther, nt urcu1·c 1·, fnr thc: rin u n :, ad cl tu tlii ., (.ldd tu "bi c l1) .
M 1;0 is :in o ld-fa shi .. 11ed co nnecti1·c used tu in :rod uc e a state 1ne nt n o t c lusciy
connec te d ll"ith the pre ced ing .

1

i:1da.!. fa r fr•>IH strict. [ l':i r:i gra ili o f :implilicati"n.J Stil!, w here th o us:rnds
.,[ l..c c;1 and read y in te llects were co ns ta ntly em plnycd in sp e cuhtin~ o n the
•;u aiities 11f a c t i•rn-< :rnd on the p rinciples .,f g .. vcrnment, it 11·:is ii npossiblc
tha t hi,to ry shu uld rct:ii n its uld c haracte r."

Often this co rrebtion is crre c tcd in th e first menil.Jcr, without the
aid o f :-i parti cle, hy int roduci n t.; a tl1ou g ht so ob\·i uuslr pre paratory
tlu t the /1 11! is n:ltura liy suggested .
L X A .\l l" l .l·:' . -

39· Hy Lhc coorclin:iting sen se IS mea nt th:it these conju n ctions
continu e th e th o ught in th e s:i.inc di rect ion :incl t he s:1111e ro.n k .
The vari et ies of coo rdination wi thin these limits arc d etermi ned lJy
the aclvcrlJ ial im pl ic at ion of the co nj unctio n .
NoTE. - It is to be IH>lt: <l th :it conju ncti11ns arc m ostly tleri1· e1l fr om :i•' verhs, :inrl m:iy present all stages of uo<c , fr u m :ilmos l pun: ly cuh e rl ii:d 1..
almost purely cu n11ccti1·e; o r ni :ty !.e tt, ed un uccasi u n citl1cr as unc 1':11l .,f
speec h u r tli e uthc r. C a re is m:cdc d, fur ins tan ce , in the use ., f 'u c h a 11 u rd
as '' now," whi c h ;it tht.:: IH'g i1111i11g o f:'\ se nl c lll.: c is n1 u!i l natur.dly u1Hk·r~l 11il .!
as :i conne cti ve : if thcrcf"re a temporal relat iu n is m ea nt, it ne e d s tu lie tTj•rc·
scntcd !Jy ~ u c h :i phr ase a s" At th is ti111e," u r " 1\t p res e nt."

" l l e li:i s written 'c•mcthini:.: helte r. pc rli :ip<;, th:i n th..: best

!i i, t«1ry : 11111 he b:i:-; n 11l wri tten a gund hi~tc > r y ~ h<; i'." , fr1 nn lhc !ir..;t l•) tl1c.:: last

··11:,j•kr, :l11 in1'< ·111t 1r.'" - " ( >f the \' •HICi, e :ind ck g:i nt a cco1 n 11 t' uf l11c camp.1ii.:;11s o f l'.es ar Iii.tic can lie s:ii d . Th ey :ire in c1> 11lJ>:tra l,J c rn1iJcl s fu r military
•lc spatd1es; but histories th ey :ire n o t, :i nd do n ut p rcterH . tu be."

V I.

CO:\j U:--.'CTIO :\'AL l\.EL.\TI O:\.

J'\1.ore pcrh:1ps tlnn on o.ny th in g else, the progress, the flex ibility,
:u 1d the d elicacy of the writ er 's expre ss ion, arc dependent on the
.icc mate use of conjll ncti u ns. They 1n:irk en"ry t11rn, eve ry cha nge
1 l.:11 :.: a11d c >.an 1pks t'1ke n m os tly frurn :\lil10 1t"s ·· I lo w tu \ \'1 jte Clear ly."

40. /\ thought m o \·in,t.; in the same d irec tiun needs 0Cte11 to Le
inte ns ified in s1 1 ccec clin~ 111e1nl>crs, in o rde r that liett cr i'r().s 1·c ~~ ·
and climax may be secltfed . Connect"ves t hat also inten sify :tre
sometimes called cumu bt ive, from the Latin c111mt!us, a he ap .
NuTE. -

\ Ve sec this cu mubtivc fo rce i n s uch conn ec tives :is: m o re th .1n

this , espe cial ly, in g rc:itc r de g re e , :ill the m o re, much m ore, :ifl e r all.
L:ick uf c un1ubt io n is cxt.:m plifierl in the fulb\l" in g : "l111t :inythin g is belier
tlnn pcch ntry disp lay in g itse lf in \·erse , a 11 d in cnnnc cti 1>n wi th the :umc
of H o mer."
1\ s it stands, the seco nd me111lic: r is in , ign itican t: •.1·e expect
som e suc h co n nc:ct iv c as, "an Ll espaiully in cu nne ctiu n with the n a111 c 11 f
Home r ."

HO

.n : . \ ·1 >. I .JI 1~· x J'..J I .

/ '}i.'( ) (

"FSSFS.

FU. \'JJ.·l.Jf1·:. \ · F.·I l.. 1·1,·Ol

Subordinating . - These int 1« Jd ucc a c lau se, u r less fre1 iu e ntly a
se nte n c e, that is depend e nt o n, or in so111e way inferi o r in di stinction to a prin c ipa l. Th ey s11g.:;est c o ndition!', limita tio ns, exception s, :i.c cornua11 i111 e11ts of time, pLtce, an d ma n ne r, :ind the lik e.
I .1 ,;T. - If, pruvi ded : th 11u;; h, '1 lih o ug h . wh ·r c :1s, in :1s nrnch :!' , 1111lc>s , S:1ve,
<:xc e p t; when, w h ik; fnr, b c c:iusc:: t ha l, in orde r th :i t.

4 r. Wh a t s h o uld Le mad e subo rdin a te and wh at prin c ipal, is not
J.lways easy to determine; inde ed, t he art of subordinati o n is one
o t 1e m os t dcii c:it e and diffi c ult in the writer's prO\·in ce. 1k n ee ds
t he refo re, for the sak e o f p re c isio n, to g i\·c minu te ancl hab itual
stud y to the rcbtin: impo rt~rnce of his stateme nts, and arr:rnge or
construct them acco rd ingly .
I 1 . 1.1· ~T IUT l <> .'\ S . -

Imperfec t sulin rd in:iti o n o f idc:ts is s hown in the follow-

ing : "l ft.: nry \· . w:is o ne u f th "'" ft.: w yo ung men <I';,,, .r i c·e "/' t hcir yo uth to
c:i rn us:i l :rnd fully , w it h t hc rc su h·e t h:l t, wl1 c n th e~· :ire u lder, they \1·ill ~<.:tile
d u \v n tu :i stc:id icr li fe, 11n d , ..;,,, Sifi·u,·d in c 1rryi 11 g u u t t l1<:1 r lictl c r pllrj>ose ."
I [e re the t11·0 s ta tcments c:urn u l L' <J U:tl ly l!e m:id t: uf "fe w )'• l u 11 g men "; ind eed, it is unl y the latter that l' :l ll ri gh tly h c p n :dicated uf thrn 1. Th e fi rst
cl:i use o ugh t t h ere fo re to li t: so ' ulin rdin:i ted in >tru c t ure :is tu lie oliv iously

J•rl' par a to ry fu r the secon d ; thus : " I J enry V . was o ne o f t hu ;, c few yo ung
rn c n 11 ho, li.1; •i11g J;i;-.·11 11/ ... wi t h the r c: su h·e th at, etc ., ar/110 /li· s u ccci«I in
G1rryin g ou t their li cltcr purpos e:. "

,

Thc following sen te n ce :i p p ca rs in J-:ing J :i 1nes"s \·ers io n o f th e ?\Jew T es t:illlc nt : "J;ttt C od li e than kc,J l h:1l ye wc1 c th.: se n· a nt s o f s in , lrn t ye k \\'C
ol ieyc( fr u m the hc:irt t h:i t f<>n n o f cl, •cl rine wh ic h \1':1 ' dt:li,·erccl y u u. "

I !e re

it i' evident tha t th e t h :i11ks :ire du c not fc1 r ' ' l1 :1 t is said i11 tlie lir,; t c lau se but
P n!y fco r t hl' fact n1cnti<>11c·,f in th e S<T •>1 1.f. Tl1t· 11 1:1 J, ,.r, 11f tlc e f..' .n·i,c .J Vcrsi ll 11, r cc o g 11i1.ing t his, su l1u rd in a tc th us : '' J:ut th :ui!, , he tu Cod, tli:1I , 7, 1/i ,· rf'll S
ye we r e sen- a nts o f s in, ye hecan1e obcd ic n t frum tl1 c hc:ir l tu that form of
te a c hin i; whcreunto ye were deli1·cred." '

42 . If th e form o f the c onditi o n:i.I cl:rn se 1s used, it sho uld ex pre ss a real conditio n, ancl the k ind of conditio n inte nd ed . This
ought to g o without sayin g ; l n1t a tt ·nr c nc-y of rap id writers
n o w-:1-<l a ys to use the conditionin g p :1rti< ·k :i s a m e re convenien c e: fo r grouping loosely c vn ncc tc t id eas, makes the caution
nece ss ~ny.

·1~· ss 1:· s.

l·ll

EXA .\ ll'l. E. - Thc f"ilu ll" ing i,; r1u1Jlcd fr o m a lc::tding n c s ,;p:t}'Cr :
" The spcctacie uf the o pening night w:is . very li ri Hi:tn t, :ind the g uu d feel·
i ng un m istak:tlile. if t he licgi n ning is Ltv o rt:J liy fashi o n , :iml 1
/ fashi u n i-;
pruvcrl>i :tl ly 1i c klc, and 1
/ nH.: rc n:1 1i on:tl feel ing and p ri dc c:11111 ut su, tai n s uc h
:tn entcrp r i,;c pn1 n :t11cntly , it is t u li c re 1n c 1n l,t:rcd th :it il is no l upo n s uc h >llJ>·
p o r ts tli:it the :\1nni c:111 upc r:i relics ."
H ere it seem,; :it lirst sight that t he rc bti o n cxprcsse< I liy tlt r> ll,<''' wo u!t!
come n e:i re r the scn,;e in tcnt!c d; l!Ut :1 sulist iluti o n of that p a r ti cle fu r t h c ifs
r e veals thc fa ct th a t t h e: s ub u rdin :t tcd clauses an; :tfte r all n ut r c::il co nd iti o ns
of the prin cip:i l. The passage ca n l1c rc 1nedit:d o nl y liy re c:ist.

43. Sul1onlination Ly rn e:i. ns of a conjun ctio n may be :i.ug rn e nted,
that is, the subordinate c lau se made less emphatic, by condensed
s tru ctu re (Sec C o ndensati o n) wht.:re occasion permits, and by
in consp icu ous position of the subo rdin a ted clause . The op posite
m eans are relied on for nuki ng the co ndition emphati c.
l':XA~11·1.r-:s. - l\ote the di ffe re n ce in emphasis between tl 1c c v rHl itiu n :il
cl a us es in the f,>fl o wing cxamplcs . "Even so faith , if it ha 1h n u t works , is

de:id, !ic in g :ilo n c ." I ft:rc the if-cb nse :ittracts compa rativel y li ttle :ittc n tion ,
being lrnried in th e se n knee . ( :(1rn p:i re now the fu JJqwin g : 11

H ut no\\" farcwt•ll.

I ani goi ng

:l

l1 Jng \\ ·' Y ~

\ Vitlt these tho u S('i'' t - if imkcd I g" (Fur all m y 111 ind is cl u uded wit l1 a Joul 11)
T u th e ;, i.1ncl -v:di<-y of 1\ vilio n."
H e rc the if-cla use h:ts

:1 1\

emphat ic pbcc , lJein g afte r the r rin c ip:il :lS«er tin n ;

and t he co n J iti o n i:; m ack distinctive liy t he wurcl "i nd ecd ," :ind t he p :trc n·
th e sis fci llu"·in g .
The s u lio rclin:iting pa rti cle //"'"J,';, may he n:m o n :J frum the li c·g in 11 ing o f
its c lausc, \\"lien the re is uccas iun t<J lil ::t ke the cla use cmph:ttic; f,, r c: xa1 np lc : " ~ 1y

spir it longs for thee

\\: ithin m y trou b led b reast;
Unwo rt hy th ough I be
Of so cli1·inc a guest."
Comp:trc fo r emph:is is , " Th ough thi s lie madness, yet there is method in't ."

4 4 . SulJordinatio n inside of a. clause already su bo rd ina te requi res
c:1rcfu1 rn ::i.n:i.gemcnt. A seco nd suuo rdinate clause, if introduced
by the same conjunction as the precedin g , is in d a nger o f being
counted as coo rdinate with, in stead of su bordin a te to, the other.

h

I'(-.\ "/J..J.J! 1-."X l >t I
.

Ft -.\'JJ..1 .1/I·.".\'

" If tl1 e m:i. n 1r il n1:1l; <: fll ll rcsti tuli t> n r.f tlie ~t .ilc n ,.., · ·i Is

J-:x '.\ .\ JI 'i .J·:s . -

1/
he 1s l 1o nc~l
' .. . ,
.. ,

!'NO C F S.\I." S.

0

c ~1 ' r c ,-<cd

,-" ' l '
l'llrl' '' 'C t•> k·ld :i. 1 ·it . i·r
.
. . •c er J c, 1ic m:i.y ue p a rl fuc ll1e suliord 1n :i. l1 u n "'":d d lie ii «ltc r e ffe c ted h v :i. ti .
·
c.o n c d .
.
.
•
• 111>
·
. , 1 . -.. 1 . .
l<. ·1 c o n1unc~
l ltJll .
/ 11 •, 1,1, ii 1 n il,-, ,/ he JS h un<''l ·· e tc
'\ ti · . j •. ll · . · I
l
·
in li is

.

.

.- •

.

.

.

'

.

.

\I

LC

IU .\

lb

t IC rt:L.1.t 1un

:l1 1 :-;

u f the clau ses . - I lie p:i.rl1clc fr. •:·i ,.->J "°< •lll I I . , . ·I
.
·
•
< >c , 1h 1 '"! '' , lou prus:uc fu r
p u ctry; ],ut nut ice t h e fullu \\' in g : "B nt 1J 1nu -

~(thou

\ \ J]t

~1 "k l'.lln f' 't lv u n! o < ;, ,.j
....

the ;\ lrni 111i 1,· - th: tt t l 1n u art 1111n· a nd 11i1ri11l it ~ ..
,.., '
\· ,.,-ify t ii <' n 11<: w ill a •.1,1k" fu r 11 1,.,.

.·\nd

I~

11.

j'j,' () (

Fs. ·;;.:s.

JI.)

46. · Tl1c ad ve rs;-iti \·e r cbti o n is s uscepti b le of , -:iriou s degrees .
The stronge s t a th-crs::i.ti vc, /i rrt, when used excl usively, ::ts it ofte n is
by unskill ed \\Titers, gi ves a certain h:ml n css and lack of sh:1 de t< 1
the s tyle , whi c h might he n :li c,·ed l1y the more fr er uc n t us e 0f
softened a1h·e rs;-i tivcs, su c h ;is /1t11,y7•cr, J'd, 1,'l/1i/,., 1<.1/1tl"l'<ZS, whi c h
m ake the r cbtion less ol.itrusivc .

n 1:i k c s1q1p!ic.1t io n u1110

Fx1u11•u:s . -The effe ct o f the ex c l us ive use o f

,\> /·,·

.\n d ,,j JI

fl~S l U l"l:

th e lul)it.liiu n of

lfi.:r e ihc SCC«lld '. l ti H> r •rm a t 'lt> ll Js
.

lll:1 •

/,11/ ;v h·c rs:i t i1·e c:i.n J, e

shown only liy ::111 exlcnc k d p:iss:-ig c ; h e re a n example rn:i.y !.e :Hld 11 c e d ~11 , rn· ­

;Ii,·. rinli li «J il 'll t""" ."

in g h o w it m ay he u se d " ·he re th e rcbti <>n r e1 p1ircs ::1 soft e ned degre e.

:-...

"Thi><

soc ie ty was founded in 1S r 7, si n c e n-hi c h time it h a s d u n e :i. trul y n r.),le

I e <'<i1i;.;i , lc n 1ly wi th tl1 c· poet ic n:1t ure o f

wo rk in aid in g n ee d y appl ic:tnts fu r hel p .
little d i;:puscd l o suppo r t it."'

JJ 11t at. p r e,.:e n t the c hu rc h es s cc 111

Herc the n- o rd b 11t is t"o a b ru p t :i.n d q rl •ng :

better : "_.\l p r ese nt , h u<e«i'<' r, th e ch ur c he s see m li ttlt.: di ' p usetl l•> SllJ'l'" rl

Adversati ve . - T hese intro, l1 we :l n e w st:ile m c:nt con lrarv in
~ome n .:spect to the p recedin " .,, .

a see ming infe ren c e from it.

eith er •as· limi·t 1·11.,,,, ,

. as· arrest11irr
,·

<>t

b

l .!ST . - Th e r ep r e<;cnl :i tin~ o f :i.1h .-rs:i.1 1,c J' 'H lic lc -; :. 1. 1 T
Oil
·
" · ·
t'll
1c rs arc :
''
) t.: l, 1' ""'''<T, un ly, l>t.: 1e rlli l lc", llttl \\l l h s t.rndi iJI ' :H tlic san \. t' . f
:i. 1: tli: tl, afte r al l.
,..,, ·
· • " ime, or
Tii c W<>rd 1eoh«r.-<1s m ay h:i.n: "tl
I
1·
·
c1 ic r ::1 su Jo n lll:lt111g o r :1< 1'·c rsat il'c sense;
u r it 111ay coml ,ine tlie tw o .

f~

1 t ·
\ \'h e n the word /.•r

]•

:l SCCllling inference
reccwn g and turn the Lii o1 1ghl in oppos ite directio n be
s mc tli :it suc h in fe renc e i ~ n . 1tu nl
:ind th '-it tilC .H
. .J( IC ( l l(
· Iea' l·
• ' •
.

''"' '. ,

•

f1 0 111 cil C ]

, .

•

IS ll SC C cO :1rt'CSt

1

so 111c ll':1r ;1ntith e tic _; in oth er words, th:it the :uh-crsa li ve rcbt ioi~
1s rea l.
fn the ~c n !t·1H·c " f fc i" i'<>n r /,11 I

1 •• I
•
•
•
pr"u' . l •c a n t1ll1 es1s of
is n ::1l , l1cc:111 -<c il i>< n :ii11r:d to infe r •I "\ (
.
' 1.
::1 p oo r m a n
l u 11 1parc h o \\·evcr the f 'I 11.·111 .. " I
l ·
"' "
1-; •
.ul 1er s character
. '
'
\\';tS cn1 u ti u n:-tl :t. nd dog111 :1.t 1c . /1 ut cx 1...·cc<li nolv co ur;i1'tuus ,, Ir
"
,. I
" ,,
··
e re cou raae.
<>1:s · c o es n o t a ncsl :iny n atu r al in fere n ce fr u m th . ., . . . 1·
"
.
c , rcce1 1nr.;; on the co nI
·ll
/.
l
t rary it sc c 1ll s t" s1qlply ::1 ll 1C n1 g ht in t h e s :ime dircl"l i 11
.
1
.
.
u , ;'l. 1H
1e lilt / 1:1S nn
1ca 1 :Hh-c rs :il1 1·e 0f!1 cc . .·l11rl w t1 u !cl he m o r e ::iccuntc
(). ·f
. .
.
' · · ·
1 1 we were to take
.1s t h e 1J1fere n<:c t hat f.nthc r . li cing e m u ti llnal ::incl ""''in:itil· ,, ..1•
.1 ·
I
I -'.X. \ ,\ fl 'l. I·: <..; . -

"

.

.,

.,

.. .

l" " llll
l<J i' " " r
. Il I
l
" 11 11 < 1c n:inlilc .

h

'

'

'

.,,,

we c o u I cl s:1 y, " l .u tiic r\ ch :i ractc r was em o ti o n a l a nd d <lgi iJ'\l i· .

.

cc c.> ] 111g

I

y

n .1t1r:1geo us.''

·

l ,

1101II'
11 1J if' t' St'
1.

u11

t

1''

a so

'

cx·

it. "
In the follo wi ng senten c e :rn ::i cc urnubti o n u f !•11/s i-; pn."·c n tcil
it ~

which in

1,::

7; ·1,;/,- ,

llacc is a strong en(/\t g h ::idvc rsa ti'-c : ":\ ow t1• l1im th a t w1• r k\·th

is th e r c w:i.rtl n o t r eckon e d u f gra c e !•11/ o f <lt.:l1l; 71'/u 'lc' ( in't ·:i.d of f.11/ ) I•>
him that w o rk eth n o t bu t hclievelh o n him that justil idh the un gudl;·, hi:; f. uth
is counted fur ri ghteo us n e ss ."

Illative.- Thcsc c onjunctions ( n:ime cle ri\·cd rrom L:itin il/<1!11111,
in-ferre ) indi c a te inrercnce, effect, o r consc'J11e n c c .
LL " !'.

- Therefo re , wherefo r e , h e n ce, wh e n ce, cuns e• 1u c ntly , ::i c · o rdi ngly ,

th us, s o , then , so the n .

4 7. The J.:inrl o r i nfc rcncc' :lS incl icated by the ::i.ch· cr Ji al force I,(
the conj11n c t ion, is :i. rn:itlcr r equ irin g :icc m :itc th ough t, :l n<l l(lo
often Jdt loose. T he wo rd !111n, for ins t:incc, is so 111d imco.; m arl,.
to do duty in a \·aricty o r relatio ns, wh ere !lurcjurc, or acco rrlr"n.~·(1-,
or conscq11cn lly wou ld lJc m o re exact.
EXAMP LE . -

"Two em ot io ns w e re p a ramou nt

111

his e :igc r d es ire: h"I"'

that h e mi ght pe r fo rm the t a s k m o re tlw rnu g hly th a n h acl ::1 11 y uf hi s pn:dccesso rs, ::i n d fea r lest in any pa rt o f it h e sl 1u uld fall l1c luw hi s idea l.
Tl111 s,
bein g so p o wer fu lly impelled, h e suu n dist :i. nccd all c o mpe tit ors ."

TT e re

"thus, " whi c h pro p e rl y m e ans " in th is m:i.nn e r, " d ocs n o t e xp ress th e ex ac t
n a ture o f t he se 1 1ucnce, ::ind is ::ill the m(ire con fu sing fo r being ve ry ne a r t h e
mean ing.

The wu r d a ao r .lin.:,'l y w ould scc in lu lie 1u u rc ::ic c ur:itc.

F( ·_ u ). 1.11 F. v T ·t r. l'N U'-J:ssrs.

i II

The typical m eans of e xpressing simple negation 1s the advcrh
Special cbims of emphasi s, Yaricty, o r exactness often lead,
ho l\' c ver, to ccrl:lin modifications of th is ad~·c r b, whic h a rc here
;10tcd .

F UNDA 111ENTAI.

l 'ROCEs.~· ;'.· s.

HS

" Vet in my sec re t mind one way I know ,
N or do I judge if it sh:ill win or fail;
H1 1t m uc l1 mu st still be tri ed , wh ic h shall but fail ."

11 /i/.

Th e n egati o n m ay so m eti mes h e so fte n ed by !icing placed in a n incon s picu<>ns positio n ; fo r cx:impk : "l n ficti" n, 11 0 m or e tha n else whe re , m:i.y a write r
prete n d to be w hat h e is n ot, o r to k now wh a t h e knows n o t. "

Deg-rees of Negation. - Fo r so me pu rposes it is desirable to
i11tc11si!y th e n q;at ion , fu r o thers to soften it.
4S . Of the c Dm par:Hi \·ely mild nc gat i\·c //(! /, such acl r crhs as not
11/ 11!!, i 1t 111 1 «"i.11·, IT 11 tJ m t·1 111s, m:nk \·ari011s degrees and shades
nl intcns iC1c:ttion . T he mo~t cn cr6vtic, be c:rn sc m ost universal,
ncga ti1·c to
found in the: bn g uagc, is t he adject ive 1w , tak ing
the pLl<'c of the ath·crb .

Double Negative . - In Engli sh t l\' O negatives con n c tcd wi th
the s::m1c vc:rlJ annul e:tch o ther; that is, th ey :i.rc equiv.1l c nt to :i.n
afltrmal ivc. They cannot, the refo re, ]Jc usc d for the sa ke: of
stro nge r n egatio n ; but for m od ified affi rmat io n t he douuic negative
is exte nsively crnpluycd.
50. The \·aluc of the dou b k n egative :is an affirmative li es in
the fact that it expresse s a milder and more guarded de gr(·c: tha n
d ocs d irect afl1 rmat ion ; it is e m p loyed, accord ingly, in the inter ests of p recision .

uc

Ex.\:1 11·1 . E. l\utc the diffe rence in st ren gth lic l"·cc n the se two forms of
11t·g.1tirn 1: " Since the: f.lil, mere men :i.re im :dili.: in 1lii:; life pi.:rfcctly to keep
th .: <"llmm :i.nd ments o f C od ." Cun111:i.re: " ,\ ·o mere m :rn , ;;inn; the fall , is
al1k ," etc . Thi.: g reatc1· energy of 11 0 is partl y du e tu tl1e f. 1ct that it may
l':isily lie pbce d first in its cbusc , :i nd p :i r1 ly tu the Lict that the ne g:iti o n of a
'ul1jec t me:ins m urc than the neg:1ti (•n u f :in act.

Two or t hn:c examples fr o m l':irlylc , " ·h"' e ternlc ncy to negat io n was alwi ll i liuslra tc v ~1 ri uu...; lkg rc ·..; uf 11q..;~1ti u 1L
"~h all \\'C ~ a y . tlil'n , I l.rnt e"s effe ct u n the " ·uri. I \\':ts sm:-il l in comp arison?
.\", i/ -'•' : his arcn:i i:; Llr 111<>rc restri c lcd; l!llt :-ii"' it is far n oi>k r, clca rer ; i'L' r haps n o/ le ss, hut m o re im1 l<l rla11t."- "This :'-.hh umt.:I, then , we \\' ill i 1111 0
,,. ,- ,. c.rn,itie r as :111 ln :i 11i1v :ind The a t1 ical it\", :i po<' r conscious ambitio us
·. . \·11e..: 1n cr ; \\"C c:1.n11t"1/ c cnbidcr hi111 S<.> ." - " l f c i-; /~1· 110 111l·, 1 11s the tr uest of
l 'r<>Jlhl'l s ; but I .J,, l" lrTm him a Inti.: •>11 c .·• - ",\·o ll!ost g ifte <l eye can ex l1.111st the !' ig 11ilica11n: 1•f a11y ul1iect. '' - " . \·,, I >iklt :-i nti srn in th is i\ lah o mc t; it
1" :< l>11:;inc>-s nf l ~q1roli:1 ti u 11 :111d ~:1h· :1liu 11 wi th lii111; u f T illlc and Ete rnity :
h e is in deadly e:i.rncst :il>u ut it 1 ,.
?; 1 0~1 a ni~nncri15:11 ,

49. \V hcn a direct n cg:i.ti o n \Y Oulcl be too oht rusi\-c, o r \Yhcn in
a se ri es of neg:1li o ns \":Hi cty o f expre ss ion is desired, the n egative
lll:ty be soften ed . The usu:il way of doin g t his i,; by beginning the
':e ntencc o r clause with n 11 r, un correbt i\'C.
F XA~ !l'f F s . - "13 ut those \\'Cre s im p le, fnr lun :ile tinlt':< fur the yo u ng n11 n ' lt«l. "' lw too k l1is s11cc· e:<s rn "'k-< tly anti gh.Jly, " " ,. f.,rgot his wor k withal;
,1 11d lie Jh.>\\" c njuy<.:d a ~ c:t,~ .111 :h 1 1 \ H.: t i ~ as c\·c r ;1fl~ r w:nd c;1 11 1c t u bi 1n."

EX AMP L E. - "Tt is 11 <'/ i 111pr ubable that from th is ackno wle<lge1! po ,Y e r uf
p ubl ic cens ur e grew in time the pr:icti c c o f auri c ular C•J11fession ." l krc the
wri te r wi ll nu t com mit himself tu the un q ualified asscrti fJ n th a t such a thin.t.:
is p robable; so he ch ouses rath er tu n egati\·e the o ppo site. Th a t t he d <> u l.le
negat ive is ernplll ycd f\)r p recisio n, and su flens i nsteacl ur strengthens, is t' \ i-

de n t in th e fu ll L>\\'ing: " ~he w as not twen ty, pro/1,,/1/y handsome , a nd '"'' improha lily gidd y : lieing quite wi thou t e,·i<len cc, we can nut j udge w hat \U <.
ru mt>r and what " ·as truth ."
T his const ru ction m ay easily he ove r worked; n u tc fo r exam ple the ful J, )wi11 g : " Ye t it is 11 ,1/ 1111 rc111 ark alik th:it an e'pe r icn cn l ;uHl er udi tt.: Fri.:11 clrn1an .
not w rnli vc to art is ti c effec t, l1as ju .; t n o w sckcted th is ve r y spec ies u f charac ·
te r for tli e m a in fig11rc in a la rge por ti(J n u f a n claliu ra tc wo rk ."

5 r. Essentially the same princ iple is often
sake o f emphasis, in what is calle d J.itotcs .
double negati ve ; fo r, in a pbcc ,,·he re a st rongnaturally be expe c ted, it puts the negation of its
effect of stre n gthening the :issertion .

employed for the
T his is a Yirtua l
affirnuti o n wot1i<
opposite, with thc

From :'. I :icaulay : " Ire ( the Pmit:i.n ) h ad bee n wre sted Ly
delivere r fr om the gr:isp u f n o co111 111 0 11 foe. He had been r:in so med b y the sw eat o f n o -; 1 u ~ror ago ny , by the J,J oo d o f 110 eartlz!y sacri licr·.··
H ere, where we w u u lcl qu ite n:ilu rc1l ly expect su c h i.: xp rcss iu n s a s " o m n ipoti.:nt
EXAMPLES. -

110 <"Olll !llO Jl

•

I
l-17

Ft·.\ "/> . f.i!l . . \ "f'. I I . !'/"' )( I:SSFS.

I I(,

,.,.c iillll the a sse rtiun niuch llhHc st r1in g ly 111ad c l1y the negati o n of "c o111111on," 11 Ytilga r,"
"c:i.rth1y ."
The r<>rce <>r thi s nrn stru ct i" n lies in its sug_l: cst in!:'; mure th :in it s:1ys; hence
it i:.; mu c h use tl in innncnd•i.
\\ ' hen l ·a rly lc ~:1ys , " The l·:ditur is clea rly
II•' c; ·ii•/i :\l :\ ri,JdJt:, ·• it i, a !'hyfu\ \\':ty vr S:t ,·i 11g t k1t he i:.; r<: ill :trkal1Jy
ti!1tl1Se .

warm fi re ::it my fee t, I i>cgan to consider ho"· I loved the :rnth o rs of tlic>c

.Jeli\'c:n:r," " supe r natural :\i_:ony," " tran> cen.le n t sa nili cC' ,"

Il w:i.s rern:uked un• icr th e he:td of f' rospecti \·e Reference th:i.t
:tn idc:1 m:i.y :1cqt1ire di stin ctio n liy liein.; prepared for :i.nil e xpected.
Thi s principle is the basis of the sllsp cndc d, oth erwise callee!
pe ri odic, strn ct mc ; \\' h ic h consi sh in (k hyi 11.:; the sign ific:mt p::i.rt
t>f the: :t,,sertion hy i11trodt1ci11g licf1ire it preliminari es, condi ti ons,
:1rn1 the Jik 1-, r o nstrnctions tlut, be in :.; in their n:-iturc inco mplete,
rcft1se crn11ha,,is to tiicrn sc h·es , :rnd se n·c: ·to :\CC\lm uhte crnp lnsis
Cu r ,,·h:ll succeeds .
Field of its Use . - Suspension is usmll y understood :-is re fe rrin g
to lhc st rut : urc or cl.l11scs <l.nd se 11te11 ccs ; :ind it i~ to thi s :i.ppli( :1tion of it th:1L tlie n :u ne f'c'Fl'rJ,/ is di,ti11cti\·ciy ,c ;in:n. 1\ pniodic
:-, u1kl1<"C is Ulle in wh i( h th e i1 k:1 :111cl the gr:1111m:uic:-il st rn cture
:ire :tli~c inco1npkk until the en d is rt.':v·i1 ed; whi ch depends
thncf,lrc for di stinn ion on sume c·ssc11t i:li fe:1t11 rc th:-it is of purpose
d cl:lycd .
The s:unc princij .l e 1s cxtcns i\·e ly Clllpluyed, :1bo, 111 hrger
r \'htin n s , l1 L·i11 g :q•jili.- :1],Jc t 1> :u1y p : 1 ss. 1 ;~ " w hnc :l w"rd () J' id ea is
~, killCully

bouks ."

l f ere t he rt· :il assertion is n o t liegu n until the wnrd s, "l began tu

consider "; wh ::il precedes l1ei11g merely prcparalnry fur it.

I

2. Sus pc 11sc o f interes t in larger rehti u n s . "\V,1s t here then a ny m :rn, l1y
land o r se a, ll'lw mi gh t serve ::is the pu ct's type or t h e ide::i l h ero? ·ru ;i11
En g lish m an, a t least , this questi o n carri es its o wn reply . Fur Ly a s i11guL1r
cl es li11y E11 gh nd, ll'ith a th o usan d yea rs u f n oble hi st<lry bd 1i11 •l hn, h:ts
ch os en fo r her hc , t-!i el •1 ve d , rn r her 1uti onal he ro , 11t1t a n 1\ rmin ius fr illll tltc
age o f lege n d , n"l a J 1<.:nri <~11:itre fr u 111 the age ur ch iv,d ry, \,ut a ma n H"h1><11
men still livin;.: have sec 11 and k n .. wn . h >r, ind eed, En gl and a nd :111 tht: \\' Ori.\
;i,.; to t h is 11 1an were ur o n e :1ecord ; and wh e n in ,·ic to ry , on hi,; s hi p \ 'ict n ry.
Nelson p asse d a\\'ay, th e thrill whi c h sl1ouk ma n kind \\'as u f a nat ur e Sll c h :i :.;
perhaps w as never felt a l a ny other death-sn una ni111 ous was th e feeling ,,r
fri e n ds ::in cl foes that ea rth had lnst he r c rowni ng exampk nf in:pa:.;-.;iuned
scl r-d evotcdness and o r hc.:rui e h u nor.' '
l!cre th e Word" 0.° clsun" is SO C\·idently the goa l o r the r e:11k r' s waiting
attent io n tlwt it can lie ,;:ift:ly put in a s ul H1 rclina tc: reh t iu n, while th e em ph:1tic
elements o f it s se nten ce a r c left fr ee rur oth e r id eas .

Means of effecting Suspense. - The prin c ipal me:i.n s arc here
mention eel <1.ml exemplified, each by itself; th ollgh sc,·cnl different m ethods o f suspend in g the sense m :-iy Le employed in the s::unc
peri od .
52. For su spense the protasis o r antecede nt cbuse, introdu ced
by a subordin at ing co nj unct ion, as if or wl1l'11, is place d first.
Ext..:111·1.i-:s .-Thc s uspe ns ive effect of a s in gle if-cbuse m ay <,f C••ur' e \,e
add ed lo by a su cc ess io n o r co ncl iti (•l1S. ( )\,:.;c n ·e lh<~ effect in !he r,,l!owin g".

kvj> l li: 1«k w l1ilc :1t tlie ~:1 11 1e ti111c tl1 e ff: \( k 1"s :1tlc 11tio n

from Ca rd in al J\'e\\'man : "If t hen th e j)O\\'Cr v r SJ><.:ec h i, a girt '1 ' great a'
any th a t ca n li e n a 111e d, - 1/ ti1e ••rigin qf h ng 11 :1gt: is l1y '" ""Y ld1i! u,, 1p hnc;
even co nsidered l 1 l > c ~ JH1 ll 1in g :-.hu r t of di\·in l', ··-- 1
; · 1,y 1n c: u1 s (If W< i r ils tJ

l t is thus so111c1Yh<1.t :rnalogo\ls to the

sec rets of th e h ea rt are lmrn ght to light, pain o f suu l is reliev e d, hi,lden grief

is stimlllatccl to look fo r it.
,;; :11Ntt'111 cn t in :1 narratiq.: .

1

is car rier! off, sympa th y con,·cyed, co u nse l impa rt ed , expe rien ce rc cu rdcd , a 11d
wi sdom perpct11:1t ccl, -

FX.D I 1·1.i-:s . -

1.

Jn sc ntcnce-strll cl 11rc .

1( ·

"

(Jn

wl1:it e\· e r side \':e co n tc rnpble

1 f1.i11 c-r , '' h:1t J>rin « ip:dl y strik,·s ll S is hi., " "n i. k rlul i1w e nti u 11 ." I ft:r c the
\\'{/ rd'' i11\·cntiun,' ' \\·hich i:-; the nll >S l :-.ignil ic anl \\' 11 rd uf the ~c n te n cc , is studitHl:.;ly delayed to the YL' ry e nd. - "~ittillg l: t~l wi nter :1tn o ng 1ny hv oks, nnd
w:i llcd r .. 111H l \\'itli a il the ,.,,rnr,,rt :111d l"" 'k<"ti .. 11 "· hi~ h the y :111 •1 my fi res ide
cuuld affvnl 111e , ti•" it , :1 t :1iile ur high·1•i lcd l •uu ks at m y back, mv wri lingdc'->k 1n 1 O?l<.; side of 1nc , !"'<.H lH' !"'l 1cl\'cS till tlic LJlhcr , an•1 the fcL·ling uf th e

1/

by g re at ::iuihtirs t he m a ny :i re drawn up in tu lllli lv,

national ch:iractcr is ti~cd, a pe <)p le speaks, the past and the fulure, Ih c 1·:01, t
and the \ Vest arc b rought int o co rn m uni ca l iun "'ith eac h othe r, - if such
men a rc, in a word, th e 'l'okesm c n and p roph e ts u r the hu111 ;111 farni l", - it
will n o t an s wer lo m:tke light u r Lite rature or tu n cg k c t it;, study; rathe r we
may be su re tb :1 t, i n propurt ion as \\'C ma ~ ter il in wh ::\lc ver la ng u:i ge, an d imbibe i ts spi r it, we sh :1 ll o ur selves b ecome 111 our o"· n lll cas ur e th e mini st ers uf
like b e n e fits to utl 1crs, be they many or rcw , l >c th ey in the vliscurer or th e

F C, \ D. I .1 / F. \ "'f".·11. /'J.'r J( I,'S.\l.' S .

1-!8
more clisting uished w ali,s (J f life , - "hn arc un ite< ! lo us hy socia l ti cs, an<l arc
w ithin the sphcrc .,f our per sonal i nfluence."
Observe tl1a t afte r suc h a lo n g snspens i\'e p rcpar:it io n :1s the abo ve, the
a nsw ering :1sse r tiv n m u,l hav e hu lk a nd im po r ta n ce en o ugh to co rrespond.
Th e tffcct would h:w c b e e n ra the r a lm 1pl an d d isappo in tin g , for ex:i mple, if
t h e sente nce h:icl li ecn st oppe d a t th c \\' Dr.ls " o r lo n eg le c t its study" ; we
natu r :\lly c:-.pecl more . l o a ns\\'e r to th e chh1i ra te pr e fa ce . In the foll owing,
from Thum:is :-- r.. o re , thi:; feeling ·if cxpec t:it io n is r :iiscd just in o rd er that it
m:ly be ans\\'e red b y a s u dde n :in<l u ncxpeck tl turn in the th o ui;ht: ·· Gond rt';1clt'r, if you c't...·r h:'\.\·c !'Pc·n .
\ \"lw n l 'li1

1 ·lH1~

11.L"i t{· n ...

pi:ll1w,

tq I ii~

1 'hc n ll-r1naid-, , wit Ii tht ·i r tn· "" ' ..., gTec n ,

J >anting upon the
lfyou h,t\ •~·

'>t:t' ll

\\'l'StL· rn

billo\\' ;

at l\\'i li.1.;! 11 di1n

1

\\"l w n 1l1c lu ne: op iri t's ,.,.,J'•T-hym n
i:Jo:i ts \\' iid :dong 1!11.: win.Ji ng 'ho re,
If yo u ha ve se,·n 1hrn 11 ;.:h m b t o f'~ ""
T he f:iin· \ra in tl l\'ir ringl"h ll' l'a\'f; ,
(j l: ln cing a lo ng the ~pangh.:d gree n : -

If yo u ha,·c
Ct1 d b/,_·ss 111c /

~e ,·n
-;,e /i a t

all thi s , and m o re,
a dc:11' )'<Jlt'v c Sc..'Ol

/"

53 . J\n adve rbia phr.: be , ant! 1n co rre spo ndi ng ly increasing
deg ree a successio n of :-ich-crl>i:il pl r.1scs, m :i.y in li k e m ::i.nn er be
used to :-icc unrn b tc em phasis fo r the co nc ludin g m e mber of the
p eri o<l .
Ex A~ • 1·r.r:. - F ro m '> I nt le y: " Fr o m th e po m pous a nd th c:i tri c:il scaffolds
o f Fg m o nt :i.nrl J I o m , tu th e nin dl'c n halters prc p:i r cc l by :--hster };:arl, to
h:i n g up th e ch ief li:tk crs :i:itl li r c.: \\' l'I°< .. r J:r ussc.: ls <> ll tl1•: ir '"1·n thrc sho ltlsfrnm the l ·chc:iding uf the.: tw en ty n t.i.i,., " " Ilic I l <>r < ·-111 :11 kr t , in tl1 c.: o pe ning
,,(the (; overn1>1-'~ c:ircc r, lo t h e: r< >.1,ling :di1·c <>f l' it c.: 1i h "'"·c :tt its close -

11')

Ex t.~ 1 1 ·1.r . - " ,./a 11s/,>!l1,·.I l •l a la ntl al h o me wh e re e \·c ry h eigh t, ~ccn
d iml y in th e dista n ce , m ig ht p rn ,·e a c ath edr al to we r , a chu rc h- spir e, :i pilgrim',;
o ratory nr :it least :i. \\·ay-sid c c r vss , the reli g io us expl ur crs m us t ha ,·e <•ftcn
st rain~(j their s ight in u rde r to r ec ognize so me uhjec t of a simibr ch:i r:i.cte r. "

55. Su spen se is often e ffect ed by pla c in g the prcdi o le first, or,
wh at is of the s:-irn e p rinciple, the c h:-iracteri sti cs of an object
before the o l1jec t ibelf i::; namcJ.
E X.D I 1·1.1-: . Fr u m :'-l :itt hc w ,\rn old : " S p enser's mann e r is n o m o re I I rnn eri c th a n i, the m :in ner o f th e nne m o d e rn inh c ril u r L' f ~ p e nsc r · s hc:111tifnl
gift, -· tlito pot t, w!tu evid~ntl y ca 11ghl fr o m Spense r h is :. « c.:c.:l .111.! c;l')' · 'liJ 'i'ing
rn ov etn c nt, :i n1l \\'h o b a s ex qu isitely e m p lvye.! it ; a Spc.: nsni:i n g cn iu>, nJy . :t
ge nius l 1y n :t t11r a l en tl <>\\·111en t ri ch e r prolJ:1l1 ly th :in ev en ~ p c n sc r; tktt li~:h t
which sh ines "' ' une xpe cted a n d withtrnt fell"w in our cent ury, an Eli 1..LLc.: 1l1.t n

h orn to •i ht c , th e early lust and adn 1i ral1ly gi ft e tl Keats."

· Cautions and Suggestions . - \ Yhi lc the s uspe nsive stru r.tm,: is
useful fo r climax :i.n tl unity, and for irnp::i.rti ng a cert::i.in st::i.telin cs-; to
the style , it impos es o n the re::i.ck r a greater burden of inte rpreta tion th ::i.n d o o the r stru ct m es. The chief proble m , th e refore, is to
secure dir ec tn ess :i.nd s im pl ic it y.
56 . Th e p rin cip:1l o ution is :-igain st e xcess. 1\ s :d l t he snspen.
sivc de tails must he h el d in m ind u ntil the k e y -word is rc:i.chc<l, it
is casv to make the num b er too g rc:-it to b e r.:i.rriecl, :i.ncl the reader's a~tcnti o n is di ss ip::i.te d in ste ad of stirnubtcd.
EX ,\:\ll ' IY. - l n th e f,,J J,J\I ing, \1·hi c h is •1u ., tt: d fr u m a nc\\'spa p e r. th e a ccumubti o n ,,f dc ta ils li ccrni n:s a li n•1'> t ludi cro u.; 1,1\\':inl 1hc 1·1Hl: " ~hocked l.y
the suici .J to :u1 .! tn·: 11·l1 ny ., f a p r., f,·.;.;ccl fri L· n · I, c llil >.1 rr.1'sc.J J,y 1l1e l•r•· k '" '
c o ml iti •rn u f tl1 t: li: u1 k, in :11 ldc n cd J,y t he \\' ild cl:un <> r 11 f an cx ,·i:c.:d c1>n111111n i:~· .

fr,>n\ the block 1m which kl! th e ho >n••red lic:id uf :\n t.i ny S traalc n, to th e
obsc ur e c h:iir in \\'hich the ancien t gcntlc\\'ul11.lll ,if :\ mste n l:i. m suffe red de:ilh
for a n act o f vicarious m e rcy - fr om one.: year\ end lo :rnorh cr's - fr om the
most s ignal to th e m ost sq ualid sc en es of s:icrillcc, the e ye an d h a n<l of th e
g reat maste r dire cted , with o ut \l' e:irin ess, !he t :isk im posed by the sovereign."

stun g liy th· h:1 r, h rl'l"' rt s uf the :'\c w \' t> r k p apc r-;, drc acli n ~ Jc,t l•y r1·" "' "
of so m e t ec h n icalit y h i.; h o n o r \\'•Jul.I lie irn pcachctl , h a,·ing li n rn e th e tcrr ililc
strain fu r fo ur \\' C:lry d:i.ys , in a 111111ne nt, \\'illwu l th e s l ig h tc ~t pr e nwd it.tti·lll ,
fren zie 1! and in s ane, he co mm itted th e ,\c ed. " 1t \\'ill lie noti ced here th:it t he

54 . A partici p le o r arljective modifying the subject is a valuable
mea ns of effecting suspe nse ; the m ean s, however, most li::i.ble to
excess. See " J'::i.rticiples," p. 1 15, o.bove.

5 7. It is ofte n :-in advant::i.ge, whe n th e numbe r of su spe nsiv e
details is b rge , to in troduce the principal asse rtio n pie c em c::i.l,

prin cip:il me a ns .,f susp ense is th e p a rti c ipi a l conqru c ti o n.

j)etween th ..: rn..: rnb e rs of the se ntenc e .

,

!"

FlXIJ.-1.1/F,\"J'.-//. !'R OU ·:SSFS.
The f, JJJ,1\\· ing !'c1 1le11cc . ~l r i• · t ly pe r iodi c, is cumbrous : "J\t

59 . /\ prefac in g e xpress ion g:i.ins distinct ion or mom e ntum for

las t , witli n o sm'1il diff1c1il t;·, '1ftcr mu c h fa t ig ue, throug h deep rn ads, and had

ce rtain words or p:trts uf the tho ugh t. A'ot :i.l w.:t ys, ho 11·cvc r, i,;
such a dev ice of adv:mt:i. gc ; and it s need o r e xte nt rn u-;t be dct~r ­
rn ined uy careful j1td grne nt, or it m:i.y eas ily b ecome a supe rfl uity .

F X.\\li' l.l' . -

'"-c;i,thc r, -;or.' t<lillc ' /,1 o ,·11 · jtut r11r:r ·s ( n d." ( >h:--cn·c the! grc~te r ease and n:-tlll ·
r:dness u f the fpJ l,1wi 11 g : " .\t last. " ·ith n ll ~m :d l J ifiicu lty, a n d afte r muc h
f. 11igi:c , '"" n1nu , lhr11ui;h deq' r oads and J,a d weathe r, l u 011rjuur11ey's en.l." 1

5S . Care is to LH.: t:tken w h:1t kin d of :tddition is m:ide, if any,
:ilter \lie co111plction of :1 period . It shrnild not \Jc out of proport i. in to ,,·lJ:1t l' reced e'i, 111 l1re\ ity ur i11si gni C1crnce of rnc:ining ; and
tl 1 i,; it. i:> peutliarly k11Jlc to Le if it i::; a cbtt sc ]jegi1rni11 g with not or
~. ·Ii id1 .

EXA Ml 'l.ES. -The 11·u r,Js ii '1nd f/i ,·r e have al ready be en me11tioncJ un de r
prnspcctive re ference; lie re it is to be n o ted :iga in t hat t hey arc in thei r n :ll ur ..:

111crcly prefacing opressi v ns, 11scf1il iur tli c app rciach they make tu irnp urtan t
tlinug hb. Co mp are, f"r in stance, "I would n ut Lel ievc he listen ed tu n1v
vo ice," whi c h is c:q>a l1l c uf m o re th a n one emph:i,;is, with " 1 w"u lcl n ot lie ·
licl'e it w as h e that listen ed tu my vu icc ," ll' here the prefacing wurds d i,-ed
th e ernph asis.

J-:x .1111·1.1-:s . -T!1is ";,,n,c ;Hld ition" is crpially pre c,irious o n a n y lo ng sen·
k ne e . 11·h ct hc r sl 1ictl y l ": rio1.Ji c o r n "t.

The fu ll"11·in g c': un p lcs a rc quutcd

1il1uL
.. Thi~ rd"rir1 h:1s al rc .1d y h:e11 highly l> c11c li 1·i:-i l l" al l chsscs o f o ur CO Uil·

ird lll . \

~ tn:i ll

"

Jf//' I' <'

i .< a hd l1cre, ;d1 irh h c\l h :i,·e ba rl ey l u~'ll' e s , and twu
J\ il thi s idc:a c" uld li e

lis hcs; but ,,·hat arc they amo ng so m any? "

expressed rn urc bri c:lly, ".\ hd here h at h liv e h<Hlcy loa vc , ," et c ., but the
prefac in g words g :1in d isti n cti o n for it.
So met im es t h e pr e facin g s t'1 tem c 11t m :ty lie m o re c~tc nde d, a cunditi u n, ft1 r

' J'hc it :ili cized part

instance, o r perso nal e,pl:tnati o n. 1-'ur example : "If we rear! o f some il i11strio us line, so anc ient t h a t it k 1s n u L•eg in n i11 g, so worthy th at it o ug l:t lo ha1·e

••ught t u co me a flc r " :111 1u n g us" :rnd the r c "t the n be set off by but. .. :\ ftc r :1 l"ng and l<; • liu a~ journey , t he hs l part u f which was a littl e da nger·

ous enthusias m, or even th e i1a rrn lcss \'anity, uf th .. sc ll'h O a re al lied i n the

1 ,-,·me ii. :ind wi ll , 1 :u11 pcr,u:1dc1l, cncuu r :1gc :u11<1nc; us i11 d11s try, self-depend·

ci.ice, and frn g:llity , :ind ,, ,,/ , a .r -"""" -"'}·, ;ua slt ji//11 <'!.< ."

011 ing t u tile stat e u f the mads , we ,1rri vcd sa fely at Y o rk , wlL id t is a fine

<•t h

/cl I Oit 'IJ ."
The ,h ng c r o f s\ll·l1 :1 i <•U SC arldition i' t ha t it 111 .1 ;· intr od uce som e fad or
though t ll()t rccunc il::tl1k w ith the u111l y uf "e nlc11 ce structu re. Sec p age 176.

I

"It is :t m :1 xim of styk nniv crsally ." s:1 ys Professor Bain," that
c\·eryt hing ~hou l d h:l\'C hul k and promi nence according to its impo r l:rnn:." T hi s 1ir i11<'1 pk k:1ds the \ni ter to ~•ugm c nt, condense,
,, r iq>l·:tt, :1ccu nli11 g t• > th e rc•p1 irc 11H·11ts <>f hi s sul1jc ct -- 111:ttler.
The wo rd :\ ugrnL·11 t:1 t il)11 is he re l·hoscn to indicate intention:il
ru11ness of st:it c 111ent. nude in o rde r to g i\'C more time or more
emphas is to important c kmc nts of th e th ought.
Prefaced Statement. - It is a 11:i i1tr:1 l :tncl freciue nt impulse, in
th e c:1sc of import:rnt st:ttements, to rn:tk e ~ omc k ind of appro:ich
to them, uy words or cbuses not indi spens:i.ble to the se nse .
1

~ l'C disc nssio n of tl1i s sc nt (' nc1-, a nd pr i11 l' iple im· ol vcd , Spence r," P h ilosophy

uf ~t yk , " pp. 26 , -.:.7 .

S ec ab u Lk1in' ~ Rl ictu ric , p. 77 .

no encl , we sym p:lthi1.e i n its va ri ous for tu nes ; nu r c. u 1 we bb m e th e gener -

h no rs of its nam e ." l f c re o ur sympathy fu r t he fu rt11n es uf t he i:lu"lriuus
li ne dues nut re all y <lqic nd o n our readi ng uf it ; an1l tii e idea could lie all
exp re sse d hy beginn in g , "\\'c sympathize wi th the 1·ariu us fv rtur> e,,' ' etc .,
bu t the pre facing conditi o n al c lause gi 1·es distin c tion , and is inlrvdu ced fu r
that purpose.
Or:i to ry is parti c ularl y friendl y t u su c h prefa c ing st,1te rn c nt s ; as," I.ct 111 e
re mind the h o nornl1le g e 11t lcm :lll tl1 a t, " de . "I think I am ri gh t in maint a in-

ing th a t," etc.

Amplitude. - Nnt only :tl th e beg in ning, h ll t al sn in the

l> r1d y

of a se nten ce, the ll'nd e nc y is 11;1t11 r:il , on occ:tsion , to incrl':1sc the
number of words.
60. Of alternative gr:i mnnt ical structures, <' hoosc fo r :i.rnpli t11tie
the fuller; not, ho wever, 11 nlc ss the influ ence uf e \· ery added w(Jrcl
to inc rease the des in :d effect of the p:tss:1ge ca n he acrn r:itc:ly
de termined.
EXA MPL ES. - I.

Fo r am plitude, w or<l-:tdjunc ts may b e c han ge d to cbuse-

cljlln cts; for examp le : "This <: 'pedient sh oulcl emlJ udy [so m ethi ng that may
~ rega rd ed as] a real re q ui s it e to [wh at is in fa ct] !'u mome nt ous a r eoult."
He re the words in b rack ets rn:\y Le o f real use in s<>1 11c c ir c u:nst:i nces.

For am plitude. cu nj uncti uns ;ire sometin1es U'C d cop io usly, in orJc r to
r\•t·! due :iltcnlilln lo e\ cry dct.1il thu s co nnected; fu r example : "For I
i't·huaded tlial neither deatl:, 11 " r life, 11 1• r :rnt,:cl.; , 11 u r p r incipali ties,
1•tJ \\'cr:-i, n or thi ng-.; pn..''.'icnt, 11 or tl1in ~:-; tu C\i 111c , 11< >r l H. .:i .~ h t, nor depth,
.1t1y

uthc r t.:rc.tturL· ,

~it~ dl

Le a\,Jc

ii:-.

fr ui n th e ],1v e of

C\prc:-;~ion ~0111ct i 1111. ·'-' :tdd~

,,·11r,i...; 1111.: rcly t11 :iid

t i > :--.cp:n.t tt·

I...
in ur;tlv ry . ;unplitudt.:

,if

1;111 \ ·cn1c11l P f i:11.1gin:iti,·c p o\\·cr

uf a 1i~~:--:q_,! t.'.

Tl1c fulluwing j...; fr i.1n1 lJ :1 11ic l

1•,tc r: " a l\l\l"Cl' ( !lie l: riti,Ji h ujli re ) wl1i cli li:1" duttcd o,·c r the su r fa ce
i:c \\ livlc glula.: ,,·ith he r p1>'-i:-\c :..; -.. iu 11s ;ind 11 1ilit:1 ry p u :-:h~ wh n...;e 1n 1> rni11 g
111·· i•e:1t, ft1llo\\·i11g the sun, and ke q,i 11 g cornp:rny with the h u urs , circles the
ii \l·ith o n e: t:1i11ti1 1uu u' and u1 ili r ,>ke n "tr a in "f ti ·1e 111 a rti :i l ~irs u f 1-:iigla nJ ."

· !1i,; !·: . I '. \\'h i!'l'lc n ·n1 ;irks," l'c r h:ips

~

l.53

Fli XIJ.·l .l! FNJ' .. / I. l'NOCl:SSES.

Fl ·. \ "/J . 1.11 l .. \ · F.11. /'/,' ()( ·1:SS/:"S.

me rc rh d•Jric i;1 n lnight co nsi der

of fu li ness of heart, par:i.lkl to tlu.t \r hich m akes the merry boy
wh istle as he walks, o r th e strong man, like th e smith in the nm·cl,
flouri sh hi s club \\'hen th ere is no one to fight with ."
U nder th is h ca<l of :'\u g rncntation :-t rc to 1le c ons iJerc<l also
Red un dancy and C iru1rnlo111tion, which 111 :1y or nny not lie jt1stifi al.Jle, accord ing as th ey a rc the result uf sk il lful intent or of mere
c:-trelessncss .
Redundancy . - T hi s consists of addit io ns not essen ti al to the
sense, and beyond the rcq11 iren1ents o f th e g ramm ati cal con structi on. \\'h en it is merely ;1 n11d e repet itio n of what is a lready 111 1plied, espec ially in unim port:tnt 11·ords, it has no C\ c use .

·1 tluvus the wurd 'wh ulc ,' as a pp l ie •1 I• • ' glul ic: .' :111d 'u nlirukcn,' as fo llo w. co 11 Li11 u u us'; yet thi:y re.lily ~dd tu the: frm.:c a nd 111 aj e;,ty o f the expres-

EX :l ~ lt ' l.I ·: . - I n t he sc:nte nce , "Thev r eturned /1a d.: aga in l" the same cit)'
f r om wh e nc e they ca 1nc fo rth ," the five wo r ds in it a lics are redu nd ant gram ma ticall y : n ur i" there any excuse for them o n the sco re v f d ist in ct ion .

• 1. It is no t to llc ,;\1pp11se \'., howc\·er, th:1t :i.mplit11d e can be
:1t·i.::Ll \1·holly \1) rnk . l n :ti! ih re.ti cirl'cti\·l·11ess il nHht lie left
ti1e in ,.,tincti \"C SellSe u f a f1iJJ m in d ,ecki11g ih lie s\ indi1· idt1al
•l"•.·s;, 1ti11 . T () 1:u1>lc the \\·cmL.. u C Cardi11 :d \' e\\·11i:111, \\'r1rds
;, h thl'lrhL'h·es illu,-, tr;ilc th L·ir the1 11e : · .\rnl. sitH" L' tl1e tlh>11:..;hts :rnd re:1so11 i11 ,:..;s 1i!' ;111 :wth(l r h:t\"C, as
' "' ;,: 1id . :1 11ersu1 1:t! 1·lur.1c:ter. 111> \l.<illdn tli: 1t his sty le is not
_\· the irn:1ge uf Iii..; sulij e1·t. h 11l o f his 1ni11 d . Th at pomp of
.:~ 11:1gc, th;.it f11ll :i.nd tundul cl ictiu 11 . th:1t fL·licitousncss in the
•i1·e a11d e\1jl:isitc t1L·ss in the cu ll1w:t lion o f \\ ·, inb. \\·hich to prowri te rs SL' l'tn :1rt ifw i:1l. is l1 <1thi n:..; \'Isl~ l111t th e men· k1hit and
• o f :l lofty it llt'liLT\. :\r i,;tutk, in Jii s ske t< 11 ()( the lll:l);ll:ln i'i " rn:rn . Leib 11 s that hi,; 1·oi c·e i,; deep . h is mo ti o ns ,]011·. and his
t11 re comrn:rnding. Jn like manner, the elon 1ti<>11 of :t grc;tt
·lkct is gre at. 1 r is Lrn g ua ge l':O.j>resses, llOt on ly hi-; great
•:tt;h ls, !J11t his g rL';\t sel f. Certain ly he mi :-;ht 11 ~e fL' l\'LT \1·o rd s
11 he uses; 1n:t he krtili1.es hi s si111 jtks t i1 k:ts . ;111cl ge rm inates
' : L multitude of ck ui!s , and prulu ngs tl1 e 111arch of his sen1·cs, an<l ,;weL'jis rou11 d tu the f1d i di .q1:h1il\ of his lt :1 rm uny, as
,:,)c'i -;w'1 ·JI', rejoicin g i1 1 his o\\' n Yigo r :rnd ri d 111css of resource.
1y, :t n :u-row critic 1ri ll c:1ll it ,·crl>i:1 gc, \\·he n rL·:tllv it is a sort

62 . "Redundancy is pcrmiss ihk," says l'rokssor Bai n, "fo r the
sure r convt:yance of im portant meaning. fo r cmpha,,; is, an d in the
lan gu;:ige of pass ion ;ind po eti c embelli shm en t."
EX,\M1·1. 1-:s. - ·' \\'e ha,·e s<.:t:n with 011r ,yes; we h ave l1e;ud 7;• itl1 u11 r ' '"' " ·
T hese r edunrl :t11ci t:s give a rc:il C lll [>h~sis an1 l di sti1H ·tiu11. - l'ndcr tl 1is lic.1,I
cume a ls\J m a n y uf thc t:sscnti :d a nd rkcurat ivc epi t h ets 11 f p<>elry ; sec: l'" g,·.;
56, 57·

Circumlocution. - The nature of thi s is indicated IJy the dcri ,· u l
meaning of the wo rd - " talking :i. rou nd"; it is a diff1 1sc rn oJ e of
·speaking, whi ch cannot he remedied by cutting uut parts of the
passage , 1H1t only liy recastin g .
EX1Hll'l.E. - The

co m1n o 11ly 11u utt:d examl'le is a good examplt: uf needless

circumlocutio n: "Pope p r ufc:ssed to ha,·e 1ca rn e 1l his poet ry fro m Dryden, w hon 1, whene,·c r

an opportun ity 11·as presented , he p ra ised thniugh the wh ol e peri u d uf his existe n ce with u nva ried l ilierali ty ; a1Hl pe r haps h is cha racter m ay receive: s0111e
illustrat ion, if

:t

compa r ison Ire in o; ti t ut nl l1ctwcc11 !ti1n an d t he ln an wh ose

pu p il he wa s ."
This is i11t olc r:il 1l y diffu se' , :ind m,1y J, e co ndense,! thus : "r .. pe p r ufesse rl
himself tl1 e pupil (1 f I l ryden, \\" l1 ulll he Jr,st 111i opp\J rl unity uf 1iraisi11 g; ::rnd
his characte r ll\ ay J;e illustratt:d liy a c ump ::i ri so n \\"ith his n1 astc r "
1

1

Ci ted fr o 111 lhin's " Engli sh Co mpos iti o n :i11d l\ltcto r ic," pp. 71 , 72.

,.,.

;;

F UX! J. Ll/ h'. \ " /'.- 11. J'NOCFSSJ:· s.

FU,\ '/J..1 .l!L'N'J'.·1 I. J'RU CFSSFS.

63 . Circurnlorution is someti m es unplnycd to good advantage
f1l r l111 1noruu s effect. ln th is use of it , hv1,·e n~r, t here is rc<1uired
.~<><><I L1~tc :IiHl r·rne literary sense to k e e p it <listinct from the vice
(ll. "line \\T iti11g. "
Sec rireceding, p:1ge -\ 5·
Fx.1~11·1.i-:. -

Tlic f,,J1,.11·i11g, fr11111 (lli,·c r \\'cndcll lfvlrnc~ , is spoke n in the

:h'ill 1nc.l ch:-ir:-it lcr uf :1 11r,.fcss<> r : "Ti1cre i ~ 1111e clclic:tte po int T ll'i sh lo
wi th rt·rcrc n cc ! 11 1J! tJ ;1gc . f re fe r to t l1c \l"\C u[ di11p! ri t l!l t: dia which

~jlC~tk uf

c·11· rect the di rni11i ,Jic-.l rt'f1-.1<:1i 11g p•i11·e r,; vf th e lill111 ur s <>i th e eve, -in othe r
\\'unl s, ~IH.:ct:-tclc :-'. ''

G . ~ . C irn1rnl,wutiun

n•ay lie j ustili:liik :1!,;o ,,·hen it is use d fo r
\\'h:tl is c:11lcd F l!j >l1L'l ni srn . th:tt is, fur the ~l:1temcnt of :111 unpleasant or tkl icatc f.u ·L in suftc ned terms .I
F:-:.1 ~11·1.i-: . -T lie

r.. llu11· i11g,

\\' l1ich i.•. :u1 e" lr elllC C~:1rnplc , suggests that it
i-; e~sy t o c:1rry c ir c u11il ,;c:utiu n fl) r t his p urpus c ,,,· e r t1 1c jth li li:tl>lc p v int, an<l
111 ;li.,.c it lu dic r<lus : "' ·r1ie o nly thing we c\·(.'r lil~ ~u d l Jrcati1cd :lga in st his per!'- 1i 11:\l

ch~·u::tclL' r

i-.. the

su.~g e s tiun th:\t

hi-.. lP,·c 11f j11y\ll!S in tL·rcqu r se wi th

rcit:nd,.; S1> ll H.:ti111cs Jed J1i 111 i1 1t<) :1 sl igh t C.\c'<.:SS uf C\J ll \'i\' i:tl ity ."

Jn pi:1i 11 wo rds,

li e was incli11ed l" dr in k luu much .

strong im press ion is o ril in:ni ly

I

I

:i quid; imprcss iu n.
B1 1t in nrdn
that the qu ick impress iun shoul d be stro ng , ,,·hat is co nd ensed
should make up in d ire ctness and suggcsti n~ n css fur 1Yh:tt it ],)st·s
in volum e .
65. F o r e:-:p re ss in g strungly a nd in litt le sp:lce, d epen d more un
the noun a ml ,·erlJ than 0 11 qualii.1 crs . Th ese main clc1ncnts of the
passage arc ,,·hat <: t)n ta in ih rnm·c ment and si gnificance; other-;
limit or re st1·ict, ;i nd hy so 1rnwh :-tre ap t to 11·cak e n th e irn[> rc ss iu1i.
l::X ,\ .\J l ·1. 1 ·:~ . -

"l Ii ,; life \\·a s gentk ; :1nd t he ele m e n ts
:-:()

mi~·t!

;\ nd ,;:-iy

in him , that '\"atur e 1ni gh t ,;ta 11d up
(< ,

Th e s:1rn e pri11cipic that lc:lds the writer tn :rngmcn t so111e pass.1ges k :1<is him lu l undcnse others .
( 'n11dc11s: tt io n may h:\\'e diffcrL'lll l'ffL·ds , ;iccnrding lo the n:ilmc of tlte 11 1:tlter <·1i1 Hlc n scd. T1> ~0 1 ne th()ughh, tlw t1gh ts im-.
1·urla 11t in tliL'lll Sl' h°<.'S , it :itlds ~t n· n i::th, Ly con«c11trating their
s ig11ific:111 1·c i1 1t< 1 s 111: dl '" 1n1p:1 ss. ( ))1 ot livr tlH111 t;ht-= , tlic cornp:iratil'cly u11i11111o rt :111t p:nts of the p:1ss;1g-,·, co 1Hkn s:ition wo rks :in
tlppus ite cffcd .; it is a usclul rnean s vf putting the m in un obtru ~; i1 · c fur111, that tlwy may be passed on :r ra pidly and n o t usu rp the
i il:lle of leading cleme nts. It is esse ntial that t he \\'ri te r habi tually
rt ·< -. g11i ze :ind rnc:1s11rc l>oth of t hese effects, a s occas ion ri ses.
Condensation for the Sake of Strength. - There is a close alli:rne e licl\l'CCll ]Jrc1·ity ;llld Strength; ::ts has ]1eC l1 s:1ilf j>reVlOUS]y, :1
1

It ' ir1·11111l11< ·11ti1111
l'l1Jil ic:u i:-i11 t.

is n ci l tlii~ onlr 111 1· :1 11•1 , tl1otJ ,!..:l 1 pl'.rlt .tp 'i the ie:tclinJ.,!" mean s, of

L.\JHC ~:··d~ Hl..., 1·qt1.d l_y

\>1 ic l L11l

l Jf

!>1 d tc1H: d l!it.: , l1 1i 11i; ll L l)' lie used .

:dl the " ·"rld , 711/,

7i '11 S

a

111.1n .' "

Con side r how mu c h rn u rc is r e a lly s:1i d t ha n if ~hakcspc a rc h :11l named ],i,
qu a li t ies- " T hi,; '.\· a-; :1 ]':1triu1ic, con~cit: n l i uus , s ingle -he:1 rte.J n1a n ."
The fu llv ll'in g is , pw t e d f,-,,111 Trc,·elya n '; " F::u ly I l is tu ry vf C h :1 ries

Janic·-;

F ox " : " L o rd K orth . .. to1Jk « cc a s ivn o n th e n e\ t <h y l o exp re,;s hi s as>u r:1 n ce
that Si r C eu rgc h:1d SJ11•kc n in \\':1 rrn t h .

''\"v,' s:1id Savilc; '1 s p\)kc \\' li:\t I

thouglit h s t 11ig hl, and T t hi11 k th e sC11n e thi-; in <>rning .
h:1ve Lt:! rayed tl iei r lru -; t.

x. cn:-.:r lJ :>::-:.\Tt<>'\".

1SS

weak e n .

l w ili n ut s:1 y they

l l o nora hic n1c11d1 n,;
I ll'iil add nn epithets, licc a use t:l'itl 1cts uni;·

h~,·e

lietr:1yc d th,i r coun try cl) r ru p t ly , ll:tgitiu1hly ,

and sc:1mh lul!sl y ; ]1ut 1 du S:1)' t ha t they ha\' e ]Jdr:1yed tl1t:ir C< JUlltry, and I
stand here to n: cc iv e the pu ni shmc 11t fu r h :1,·ing sa id

S\)."

66 . 1\n o thcr aid to t h ~1 t c<rnden ~ at i on wh ich 1s also strength is
to write in p: trti cu br te rm s instead o f ge ne ral. }'eopk th ink in
particubrs; and \\'h en :111 idea is exp ressed to them in a gcncr:il
an<.l co mprchen -. i,·c tcr rn, their fi rst i n tnp re tati\c pro <css i-> I<>
translate it inlo :t j>:trtw1il :1 r c~:crnplifi c:ltion . \\-he n, hu,,c ,cr, t l1e
term is p:irlil·11br t<> ]icg in with , thl' y :ire s:l\«.:·d th a t proc ess, ,,·hik:
the class-idea fo r \\'hi ch t he \\'ord st:-t nd s read il y s uggests itself.
Ex ,H11'1.E . -

<...'un s i1le r h ow m uc h the parti c uh rs Sll ggc, t, :1n.l :1Cc:u rdi ngly

how m a n y m ure 11·vrd ,; it 1\'uul d t ake t o S:1 Y the same thin g in gene r al terlll ,; ,

iu th e fullo\\ ·in g tll' o s lan za s frn111 Te nn yso n: " c;od is law, S :l\' th e wi ,;i.: ; 0 So ul, 'lil t ! let us rejoi ce,
]·»ir if I k 1liu11 dt' r by l:tw Ili c tliun ckr is yd 11 is vu ic c .
J .: 1w j..,

Cod, :--.ty

Fur all

\\1·

l 1:t \ 'c

S< Hl ll~ :
p1J \\ 1·r

Ji.1

(;t,d nt ~lll , :-.a ys tli c fuu l ;
s tr:tigl d ..., Llfllw t1t i11a1n:.1u !. "

f,_; :-. 1·i' i ~ . l

•

F U.\'/)..! ,1 //~'. \ . J'A J'. l'R OCL~·sES.

FUX/J,.LJ! FNT.·f f , l 'JNJCFSSFS.
!n ti1 e tir,<t st:-im.:i ll'h a t i,; true of thunder is cqu:tlly true o f :-i ll n:itur:-tl op era·
ti0 1i,; , :-i nd t his \re un 1k:-t:111•l: ~ o il re:-illy

3. The a uxi li:Jri e,; "f a Ycri> lll :ty someti me s \1e o mi ttc1 l to adYan tage; as,

'Ji l fc co n duct' the o pcr:-i-

"The youug man tr1.:111hlcd n u t, n o r shivered," in s te ad v f "The y o un g m :-i n

ti1 rn s vi n at ure :11;c"n!i11g l<) asrc rt :1inab! e h\I·!', the hll's arc 11<1nc t h e kss !]is
In lib: 111:-inncr we read the seco nd st:rn 1.:-i thu s, ' FtJr

di d n ot t rc nil >lc, 11 ur did lie sh i,·cr. "
4. \\"li a t woul d 11 01 tur ally he g il'en in a subo rdi11:11e cla use m ay he cun -

:tll ,,.c c:1n sc<.: is jus t t he phe n1 1111 e n :i. C>f natur e ; cur io u s t h<.:y :-i re, as in lht:

dcn sed and s tn.: n g thcned by \.ci11g put in the imper :it iYc "r in a pri11 ci i' 01 l

l· :isc uf the rdr:1c li u n , ,f li ght , l Jttt no Cud is r c vcakd in th e 111.'

clause; as, "Stnj> \"irt<JC o f th e awful anthurit y s he d e rives fr u 1n the gencr :< I

1:1 :111ncr uf \l"l1rkin,; .'

111C:1ll' ,

re ve renc e ,, f 111 :inb nd, and

(17 . Figures uf speech . esp e cially metaphor, sy nccduch c, and

mclony111y, arc :1ids tu condcns:ttio 11 , express in g, as they ge ne rally
, l\l, much rnure th:ll1 cuu ld l> c gi,·cn in th e sa me "pace :tnd with
cqu:tl ,;u.~gc,;t in:111.:ss liy litera l ,.,t:1ternen t.
FX .\\11'1. J·:s . -T<) s:1y , "T he c a res :in d r cs p nns ii1 ili t ics of :t S•> Yc re ig n often
di st urb his skcp " i,.; kllg th y and n o t im p rcs, iY e ; \,ut s:1 y the s:unc thing in
,.;y nccci oc hc, " L.:ncas y lies the hc:id that \\'cars a crnw ll,' ' anr.l it is s im p le, di -

re ct, :llld s t ri kin g .
( '' ""idn abn he)\\· a 'vcll·ch osc n iigure rn a y Pp c n a s u gges ti1-c n css that may
st:111 d f1l r in dc lillitc ly ll H•rc cx1> rc,scd in full ; f« r cx:-i111pk, frnm .Larnli : "I
,-.,nft;,,; u1ysclf 11ttcrly 11n a\1lc tu :1pprcci:itc th :1 t l'c·icliratcd ,., Jj j"'!u:· in l l a ml et,
)"·g inning 'To lie u r n ut tu lie ,' u r tu tell " ·hcthn it lie guod, 11 01.J , nr indiffe re nt,
it h01 s !Jc c n su ha11cllc tl :ind f.t7c1·.I 11l•o 11t l iy decl.un:1to ry l>< J)"S a nd m e n, aml
/<i rn s1> i n/1 11111<111~1 · /rum its fi 7•i 11g fl<1 rt' :i n d principk o f co ntinui ty in the
J'hy , till it is bccumc tu 1n c a pc rfed <learl mcml1cr."

6:-i , .\ cc r t::tin stro ng a bru pt ness i,.; gi H'n to a t11ought b y c utting
clements that rnerch·, con n ect o r fill up, and by di,.;card ing
ci::tu~ cs

an<l limit;1t io ns ,

)' l> ll

ro b her u f h alf lier m:i jc,;t y ."

TJ,j, is c 11u 11·:1 ·

"If yu u s trip \"i rtuc," et c . - "Tli c \\'ind passct h o ve r it , and it j,

gC>ne," for, "A s soo n a.<" o r

" If

the \\'in d p::is,.; cth over it, " etc.

Condensation for the Sake of Rapidity. - 1\ pa rt from the general clc:-;irab ility of wr iti ng su rnL' pa,;,; a ~cs in more s.: nt c nti uus style
than ut hl' rs, there is a iso frcqtil'nt o cc:is i(ln, in the s:tmc passage,
to conden se one part in co mp::tri so n with anuthcr, in order that it
may Le more r:1 pidl y l•:hscd ove r.
69. Rapidity is ga in ed and stren g th o f impress ion lost hy the
use of a. g eneral and co mprehensi ve term as cqui,·a lcnt fo r a 11u111 ber o f particu b rs. Jt g i,·es a m o re incl11 s i\·c id ea, lJttt co i-rt:spun .Jingly less \·i ,·id. The write r has therdu re to c hoose bet11c1.·11
rapidity and vigo r.
EXA\l \' LES. -

:111":11·
,

, on( ' itional

lent lo

" I

re

devours /i/,'ra{ ;,,-,•, n o m:-i t ter o f wl1at kill d ."

general term is brief, :rnd sul.li c icn t fu r a rn p id touch .

Th i,;

If, h0w e \' e r , it is doirc d

to mak e the statement em p hatic a nd viY icl, the term i.; natur ally pa rti cub ri 1.ed :
"Nove b or se rm u n :;, p oe ms or hi sturics, n o m a tter 11·h a t, he d c 1·ou r s t hc"rn all."
The question 11·hc 1h cr any sc n tcncc -clcmcnt ma y best Le 1nitt..:n in a gen eral term ur in parti c11 brs i, d e termined rn us tl y I i:' it s i:npurt:rnce o r in ,.; ignili -

LX :\ \ll'l.J·:s. -:)u rnc <>f the ch ie f cisc,.; of t his \;i1Jd m ay h e e numerated.
1.

< 'ut1i11 }:

t1:1t i vl',

1..·() n .i 1 11u · ti ·111 ~ .

: t \ \ ' ;1y

;uh·vr"'i;ttin.:,

ll!°

urnitl cll with adva nt age.

\\' lil' n !ht: l ·,, 11j 1111 c li~in:d rclati t111 - c oi5rcli ·

i!Lt ti,·c -- is

..

'1'hc n

11! 1\'i v us,

tl1c

CtJ1tju11ct iu 11

lll ~ lY ofte n

be

1-'u r example: -

hc:111ty fl( )Wl'd ,

colony," w o uld he ludicruu s if p:uaphrascd thu,.; : "11ndcr ln cl i:t11 j>.tlin-gr.,,.,.,"
ami1l J\ustr al i:i n gu m -tre es, in t he shadow uf 1\fri c an mim osas, 01 nd beneath
C:inadian pi ne s ."

~ 1) ~tn.: ngtlt fir ~ t ill :ld l · :l. w;1y ,

thc.: n \\ i ~ du111,/\l 11>11 11r, ,1\ p lt·; l'·" 11n· . "

" Yun s:1y this; 1 rlc ny it, " is mu c h stronge r th a n " bu t l deny it ,' ' o r, "I,

011

lltr · <'l /i(· r iunul, deny it."
~-

ca nce. S u me cknicnt s it ''" o ulcl lie pedant ic to \' :1 rti c ulari1.c; the y arc '"'t
important cn«ll).;h t o hc01r it. i-'u r cx:rniJ<k, t \1e J<hr:1 s1: "in c\'n y l'.ri t i, Ji

Omissio n u f the :nticle often gin;s cv mpa c tll l'SS and st re ngth to a pas-

70. Fo r th e sake of a li g hter tou ch :i nd more r::ipid m o \·enw11t
the write r h as ofte n to c ut down sc11t e n c c -elern L' nt s from the c b11~1.·
fo rm to a word o r a phr::tse. T he h:tl>it of dui11g thi s wh cneHT

s:ig<: .

practica1Jlc is of great ,·ali 1e, iicc:rn se it k:1ds th e writer to "c::trcli
fur sugges ti,·e a nd si ~ nific;rn t wu rds, :ind tu prune down e1·cry

y v uni,: cars at the in ument uf uur tr:rn s it ! "

superfluous c onst ruc tion

\-'"r exa 1npk : "F:is tc'r th:111 cvcr:1111ill r:t ce we r:rn j>'.\,.;t them m tlUr
inc ~:nr: d 1 k lligl 1t.
Oii, 1,<'aving uf hurri c:in c s tha t i11 u s t kin: s• rnnclcd in their

Fl XI U .1/ F .\' IA/.
Till·:

C1F ·1 lll S J(l \I • 1-.\ l ~I J.:JL\' l

FXD IP!.l-

6. A parcntlH' ' is 11i:1y s o m e t ime s he u,;ed "'ith a ch ·antage t<) lire"ity; f., r

I. Tl1n e :m.! 111any adi1:cti vcs in the bng11:1ge w h ic h have IJeen eo ineLI

example," \\' e arc all ( a nd \\' ll0 \\'nnld not lie?) offendecl :it the treatm e nt "' "
have r ece ived ." It gi1·es the r1 ue st in11 (( h J mu c h p r o mi nence, as well a s m o re

( h "<".·h lll\ S

i' " l \\'11'.\ I .

Ii . -

IH

Ff 1N D_·I ill / o'f.: 'l A /. 1 'R0 CL'.'iSl :·s.

l'N Oc 'FSS!:'S.
ED A\l\

c<Jlli,·ale n h fcir c·b11'es ; th1:se, uf cn urse, can In: c111pl u yc J wi th g reat acl-

:-i,

,·:u1t:tgc .
~Uch

;\S

J-'.,r o:unple : " Tl ic extent and fnt ili ty u f the l\.ussian terr itory a re

t <J f'urni ., J1 fac ili t ie s uf itl Cl'<.: :1Se an.J eleme nt s u f >i trt:n g th

f/ ,• 11 i11 !Ii,· 7(', •r!.! , · ,~/''. ' '-' ·"

:\ >i ngle w u r.! 111:1y

rt.: p rese n t

'ic/1/,/1 /W 1111-

•· Th e ,ty k of t his hook i' 1{s 110 / " 1111/urc" 1/,11 / it ca n110! b.:

!!11 d. r.rlo1•d ": that i<, 1111i11 1d/J:~·i!•/,-. "T hi' is a c11rdi11a/ featu re <i f the in st itutiun ," s:tys :1' 1nuc h as, " Tl1i , is :1 fe at ure 1i 11 ~ ..;,;,;, f/111 ,·h d,/o /llr."
-·

'.l:uiy p:t rts u f a s t.1t ct11 cnt, in ~ tcad "f !ic ing expresse d i11 full, may be

gi 1·en liy implicat i1i n.

F ur exarnple : " ( ;1.1.Ji.1t11ri.d 'lJu\\'S ,1·c rc: fi r , t disco tll'-

:1;.:1.:.l. :111.J li:l.\lh· pttc ,j 1\•:n, l iy
,~ .·.

.

,

; ·_ -:. : ._. ..

i

:;

i : ~~ !

_.'i r;/ rf Ciu·iit1-,111i(1·." T h is
.-· ~··: . : ,~:i '. ::.e ! r:~:an =< i: i t: · ~'Ji\,"\ ~

tf1 . l:1<>1: 1111i : 111 ,·

· ;._.:::: in l 1·~ · :; ~~-·..:

i : ...: . . : .r: ·_f I. ': .r :.-: .1 L i ty ·.i. :l ... ;, .i ::1 .. ~. : > -:. ;-:r;: ~he r eL· r1..:, .. c:t c., or
" ( hri ... ti.tnity, l L111g , ,f ~ )1d1n :'\1 1i1.ing ~11:rit. di.. , c11nr.1.t.: ·. : <l, ·· ci. c.

:._·" 1l t

1

liarenthc:sc s arc, hull' e\'er,

tl ie las t clause fully

Cll1>1 1gh : " lo f11r ni, J, 1111/ar.t!/d, .! f.1cil itics fur the increa se u f her p o pula ti o n
:111<11i11 \\·u." -

lcngtl1in css , to append it in a scp:uatc :-i e1llcn cc.
(o he us1.:d ll'ith extreme ca r e .I

••

1

_). :\ } 1 lir~\SL>l'!iitht·t , 11r :'\ 11 :i11 1c ,, ( ~~i1nc ki nrl <:< 1n, :r 11ctc( l f1)r the occ:-ts ion,
1
i . . . ·Ctt.: ll a \';tiualil v 1111..·::1.n...; J,11tli 1lcq1Hk't h:lti·1 n and -..u.~.L!csti vcnL' '-'"; fo r cx:-t n 1plc:
" ~h:ill n11t th<.'/_.,,_.·, . ,, ,/11.'/ th" ,.,11·1!, .111 right) " I !e r e th e na ui e i, c •1uivale nt
Ly in1pl ica ti un l'' :1 clau't.: . '!'he fu1l<Jw iu .~ ~clltl'nc c is h.:ngthy : ":'\ ~ 1 polc o n

71. Ano ther mean s o f co nd e nsati o n 1s the ellipsis of such wo rd s
as can he spare d 11·ith ou t impairin g the clearness of the s tate me nt.
Here, h o11-c1·e r, the writer ne eds to be sure of hi s reason for
spar ing a word.
FxA ~ t

1·1.i-:s. -

r.

Ll lipsi ,; Ci f t he reb ti,·c f,ir cond en sati o n is c n mm0n.

curs m o;; t natur.1lly " h..:n the r cl.iti1·c: cl.t1he i, i1hi· le uf a
sci1ne othe r scn~enc~ · n1en~ i t' r J.~r~.:. l~: ... u: ·· r
1

prep<;~ici·Jll.1i

lin.:t:e : f r e\. J.I Ll :e: ·· \\"t: 1..n ··•

the i n:;t r uct ur.:! \\(.. re In .:t <·~· :- ... ,_. f ~-L ~ 3.rt · tiH:y :.1. i.~.: h t.

·· -

the r esol uti on ;\ \\'C l1a\' C:: taken , lint in t h e hand ;\ we h o ld."
pl es of o rni -;si" n o f rclatil'e ,

St: \.!

pre ce din g , pages 5 1,

2. Th e c1>11Jm u n s ul •j cct u f ,e ,·c r:1 l ,·e r!"'· a n•I I he co mm o n objec t uf !>e\'n.11
verbs or prepu,itions, rn ay uftc n he g i\' e n l,u t o n c1: fo r all; fu r c~amplc , " 11 c

11H·nt .tt ~t. I lclen :L "

" Ir e came to thi s city, :111cl \\·:cs imlu cc:d lo r c:sidc: in it."

C<>ll'f'".,.,,,.

·l · ' l'l 1c Ii:trticipi:d 1. '1 1 n "-t r uc 1i ~1 11 j, :1 \ .d u:dde 111 l':t :i . ;, of c 11 tl i11 ~ 1luw11 a «l:Htse;
\ 1 ft ' ~Tdi11;...: . Jl ·IJ-~t· 11 5 , ''i tl1 tl1c L1u !11111"' llwrc gi , c11 :1g.l i11 -., t aiul1igu it y.
·· ! li1·.\. .l,•11 <' 1,J; 1r -:l •ltc_'J/ t 'u· J -:l·,1s J.·11, ) . hl' l'l'tire.J .'' " l r. 1:J1 1c_' al uur doors
"-lT

( / ·/ . 111. .:/1

lr.n1tr' / ., :it 1i\lr d1111 r -. ) 1 he ...;cc.., 11 11 1!.111.~cr ni.~h .' '

F ur uthc::r exam-

13 1.

d ied ." -

" 'f'hc
<'./ .·I 11 sl< f'lit; m ig ht he expe cte d tu h(J ld differ1:1 1t langua g e
fr u rn ti1" /ri s1> 110· <'/St. l /do111." - Oliscn·e . s uch cpi t!tcts arc n v t effe ctive
wh l' n cl"'scn :is men: line ry ; they ll llh t !t.1 ,·c clu,;c rcbti•n1 tu the res t of the
ide:i ; f"r cxa111ple . "Tlt1: \!er r ;• \l un:t rch d ied i n th e: li fty-fuu rtlt yea r o f h is
:1;.;c. " \\"hat si.~ni lic:tn cc in th e n:t111c: " \ lcrr\' '.! on:i rc lt '' ;,,.,."? F o r phrase<" j'ithch . , c·e p r c:cnlin,t.:: . j':1g<: S7·

~ 1 .. l tlh ·r e 1 e ~: :.. : :· :.

ye t "'hen t h e r e<;t i,; ont: ,if humiiity in>tcad u f p r ide, a n.[ th e tnht nu m u rc 111

rni.c:h( I"' C\j'L'ctc.! '" h11l.I diffi.: rl'nt Llll,l:;ll:tgc "'lien he w a" ehtcd I"· the vi clur y .,f .\ u.;1nli11 fr,im ll'lt:1 t he: held" l1" n Iii: \\·:1s deprL· -~cd l 1y h is ,imp ri so nI :y th1: cu n s trnctiun u f t\\' o Cj' ith ct:; it is mu c h cu n dcnsc<l:

It •K -

phr:iv: · •r

resid e d h e re 11 1any yea rs, and , after he: had ll' On the c:: st cc m " f all 1hc cit i1..:n, . 1,

"JI<: ca me tu . and

\\' :\ S

in dnc t'll tu rc,; ide in , thi,; c it", " is s!i .. rtcr tl1:1n ,
Tl1is cu n,;: ruc :i .. n,

called t<:chni c:\l ly t he" spiittin g of particles," is tu lie: thcd u nly \\'itl1 gr .. al
caut ion, and with n o lo n g dc.:lay afte r th i.: parti c le .

Stime " ·ritc::rs c<rndenrn it

alt oge ther, o n th e ground, a s une wri ter exp re sses by an example u f th <.: ve ry
fault condemn e d, th a t "Elegance p rohibits a n arran geme nt th :1t thru \\'S th e
em phasis 011, and thu s causes a s u, pcn s illn u f th<: se nse at, a p a rti cle o r uthcr
unimport a nt w o rd."
The f, 1l l11wi11g "' llt<~ n ce , fr"rn Tha ckeray , illu s tr:itcs li"tl1 th e al .. 11· e nlC'11tio n1:cl m eaus uf c11 n1kn s:1t i., 11 hy clli1"i 'i. " <l11 \\\ :dne sday h e ( <;<.:"rg1: I \ '. 1
\\'as very alfrct i11nal<.: \\'it It th:ll

\\Td L lied

i :r 11mrne l, and u n Tl1ur,;,l.1:· fprg "l

'!"he 111ark uf the
t· 1111.i11n1·ti•11Lil rcl:,;i., n ( " tl1 .. ug lt " ) i, l:ne .. 1ni:1 c .J 111· p ol'li 1· licl' itsc . -The

him; ;\ cheated hi 111 \.!\'C ll u ut of a snuff- li" x \\'hi c h he ' '"·ed the P " or d .1nill': ;,
saw him years aftc rll'ard ' in hi ,; d u " ·nf. dl :i111l p o vnty, "'hen the 1,:1111-rupt

u se: uf :\ j':t1 t ici11le 11 i!li SHlijcct ll •J t :1 p:irt ., f the 11rinc ip:d s1 ·1 1tc 11<·c.:- :t cun sll'l! l.'ii< 1:t p:1r:t!k l to th e :\ l >i:11 i,· e :\i >-;u lu tc: in I .a t i11 - i-; f,.,·"i g n 1., t1 1c geni u>
\'f F11 glis !i, :t nd re11u ir c:-; caut ion ;1 11 d in11dt' Llti11 n.

Beau sent hi111 :rnuthcr 'i llltff-i ,ox with "l111c ,,f the snuff;\ h e use d (cl l< il'c, a' a

5·

:-;um c: tin1e s t\\'O s1:11tenc1:s 111ay lie: cu11d .. 11 , cd in tu 1)1\C liy appus1t10n;

f11r 1:x:\m ilc, '' \\ "e cal led at ()w h11u-; c:: pf

:1

l"T'1i 11 In " ·1t .. n1 " c l1:t.I let te rs of

intruduction," m 11siri. 111, and, what is m ur..:," ,1;.>1>d ji·i <'nd t" al l y o ung student s \lf mu,ic . '' T his is equi valent to , " 1 k " ·a-; a mu'<i c ian,'' d e .

piteo us toke n of rernc n1 liran ce and sulJ111i s-; i1i n, ancl th e king t o<>k the snuff.

a nd o rd e r e d his h <1 rses and d r1>1·1: on, and h a d n1>t the g r ac e tu nuti ce h is
companion, favo rit e, rival, enemy, superi v r."

,, j,j

Observe huw e a c h cllips i< im -

part s r ap idity.
l

Tbc abo v1: e xa m ple s arc mos tly ta ke n from J\ l.il.io tt 's " How to \\" rit e C lea rly ."

FlXD.-1.1! L, \ "/ ',,/ L

F ( XIJ..l. l ! /:,\' 'l'. I!. J'R O< L SSFS.

l (,()

In some form or other rcpet i<i<1 n 1s one of the most constan t
n ecessities in writ ing. The oiij ecls sou g ht thereby :uc various,
a ccordin g to the rn:.1tter r epe:.1ted .
Repetition of Vlords for Clearness and Voh1me. - Unde r this
hc:id \ YC :.1 re to no ti ce some of tl]() SC k"s promin e nt clements of
c:-;p ression \Yhi.-h arc eas ily n cglc ctccl ln 1t indi~pe n s:ililc t() clc:uncss.
72 . ;\word th:1 t is esse n t ial to the cunstru ninn of different mernl:vrs uf the sente nce slwuld lie rc]'L':t\\'d 11· ith each m e mlier, whenc1·c r its omissi11 n wo u ld cause a:n b igu ity or obscurity.
Th e fv ll,J\\'in g ~ r e th e J'r incipal case,; o f thi s ki n <l l\1 be noted: The sul>jec l o f sc ,· cr.11 ,- er\,, sli•Jtil<l he rep e a ted ll'h <: ne1·c r any word
e<>mcs l>Cl\\'een that could u:.;nrp the reb li •m; fo r example: "1 lc p rnfessc,; lo
l•c lielping th e nali<.1n, " ·h ic h in reality is >uiTc ring frurn h is fhti ery, and ( he ?

I

11r ''"hi -.:h ?) "·ill not permit :111;- o n e else tn gi"·e it adYice."
::.: . .Repeat a preposit io n afte r a ne \\' conju nction , if :i.n;· wo nl has int erven ed
that could g• >\'Cfll it<; ohj.:c t; fu r CX :1 lll j>k : " [ [ C fo rgets the g r:il itnrle lh:il he
owes to those th .1t help ed all his c11n1p:in i<.1 ns ll'hen he was pon r and uninOu·

li

;\ ,,-r 1-:. 1.

enti:il , :trHl ( t11) i1is un cic in p:1rtirnhr ...
3. A conjunct ion inl rc>dncing different cla11s 1~ s shnnld l>c rep ea ted wh en the
ch uses arc lon g ; fu r exam ple : " \\' hen \\' c lt>uk li:ick 111,on tl 1e havoc tlut
two hundr c1l ye:Hs Ji:1,·e m ade in the ranks l)f ou r n:t iill nal autho rs-and,
ah,,Ye all , (7d101) \\'c refer th e ir r:ipid d is:<1•J'C:1r:111 ce to the <]u ick succession
nf ne\\' C•' l\\]'d i«•r<.- \\'C c::rnncl t help Lcing dism:iycd al th e p r o ~pect th at
lies l>c f<>rc t he \\' ritcr' ,,f the prc·<-cnt day. " Th e nmi,,j,1 11 ,,f 7<"li n1 he re would
rnal;« the ""'"'11.J chnse p:irc11th c t ic~l , ,.,.J,r r«:is it "h " 1dd 1,e Cf>iir<linate with
th e li r,1 \\'h c n·c l:tu :< c . 1

73. \\"lien the first m e mber of
as for instance a subject o f many
clauses, so me sn mrnar iz ing wu rd
after it , as a brief repet it io n
membe r.

a sen ten ce is long and con1plex,
d e tail s, or a se ri es of conditional
ti r clause lus o ft e n to be used
prepara tory to the succeeding

FX A\t Pl.l'''- - r. 1\epe titi irn of sul>jec t. From >l:ica ul:\y : "To wri te hi s·
tury rcspcctal,ly - that is, lu a hhre 1·i.1tc despa tches, an d m ak e extracts from
J

The

:i \J<WI'

ex~ ni pl"'

ar " t:tkrn frnm

1\ I •li•>t l' s

" l low to \ Vritc Clearly," pp. 31, 32.

I
I

·.~

I
"

l'R OCJ:'SSES.

l6l

speeches, to interc;perse in due propo rti o n epithets o f praise an d :ihh orre nce ,
to draw up a nti th eti ca l c h a raclc.:rs o f great men, se tting fur th h o w many con tradi cto ry Yirt ues anJ vi ces they united, :in<l aboun d ing in 'with s ' an <l '\\'i th o ut s ' - all this is 1·ery easy."
2 . Summary o f sc ,·eral con d iti onal clauses. From Burk e : "If I h a,·e had
my share in any meas ure g ivin g '1u iet to priYate p rope rty and p ri,·:ite cnn science; if by my ,·o te I have a ided in sec urin g to families the best posse ssi o n, peace ; if r h a ,·e jnincd in r.:co n c ilin g kings to their su l>jects. an<! s ub je cts to th e ir prince ; if I have as sis ted to loos en the fo reign h u ldings o f the
cit ize n , and ta ug ht him to look for hi s protectivn lo the laws o f l1i s eoun ry ,
and for his C<> mfo rt t•J th e g 11()d -\\·ill o f his count rymcn ; - 1/ I hm·c th u s l al.-ot
my part with t/J,· /1a/ n/ 11101 iii the /,,-s t <'f / li, ·i r adi o 11 .r, I ca n s hut th e huuk :
I mi ght wi s h to reatl a page o r two m ore, but this is enough for my measure .
I have n ot l ived in ,·a in. "
In both the se e x:m1 ples the it:ilicized parts are summ:irics for brief repetition.

74. In or::i.toric:.11 style re pe tition of some word is often employed
merely to give requisite sound ::incl volume to the expressio n, or to
emphasize some important idea by iteration.
EXAMPLES. - I. Fur vol ume. Th e preceding q u otati o n furni shes :in exam ple: " If I have h ad my sh a re in any measure g i,· ing '[Uiet to private prope rty
and priv<zte con sc ience ." "A g reater trium p h of \\'i sdom an<l faith :ind conr age than even the Engli sh co nst ituti o n o r the: E nglish litur gy ." Th e rep etition

of the italici zed w or ds in these ex a mp les is n ot for dearness, but becanse the
repetit io n gives dist inc tion and ba l:\nce.
2. Fo r e mph:i.s is. From ;\! acauhy : "But what then? Can yo u re mo,·e that
distrust? Th a t it exi <;ts ca nn o t be d e ni e d. T ha t it is an evil m1111 ot /•,·de nied.
That it is :in in c rca;; ing ev il 0 1111u •t ;,_. rl<'11i1"d." - From th e sam e: " N,.' ""
therefore, whik en:rything al h o11 1e :ind al 1rnad f"rbodcs ruin t1, th ose wh o
persist in a h ope less stru gg le :ig:1in , l the spiri t o f the :igc; 11 n7t ', \\'hilc th e
crash of the pr oudes t throne of the co ntinent is st ill re sounding in o ur c~r s ;
tww , wh ile the roof uf a British palace affords a n ign o mini o us ~hel te r to the
ex iled heir of forty kings ; n ow, while \\'e see on every s ide :incicnt in qi tu tions subverted, and great societ ies dissolved ; 110111, ll'hilc th e h ea rt uf E ngland is still sound; n ow , wl1ile o ld fe elings and o ld associati o ns retain a p o ll'er
and a charm ll'hi ch may too soo n pass away; n ow, in this yo ur accepted time,
now , in this your day o f sah·at io 11, take co un sel, n ot of prej udi ce, not n f party
sp irit, n o t of the ig n o mi ni o us pr ide or :i fat:il c o nsisten cy, hut u f hi<.; tn rv,
o f r easo n, of the ages whi c h arc pa!>t, o f the signs o f this nrn st p urlent o us
time ."

FC.\'/l. i. 11 l .. \· /'.I!.

/'/"<!< '/~'.\ SFS.

FCX!J. l.1/LX'l'.·11. / 'NOCESSFS.

Repetition of Thoughts and Details. - In c ,·c ry di scourse there
:ne nll nH.TU\lS l':lS'i:1gL'S where t h e s:une tholl ghts k l\'e to reappe:ir,
it 111:1\: hL: s .,·e r:il ti mes ; or ,1·h e re a ser i ·s o f detai ls have to be
rl'jlea,ted in orde r. T he n ece ssity of suc h re petiti o n gi,·es frequent
uc( ·:1s •on f( •r the q 11e,,Lion , how t11 y,iry te rms ur order so that the
rL'Jietition m ay n(•\ lie too crtldc l• r Luo ()\it rn sivc.
. l: ut f; rst it is t() lie n () \l'\l th :tt ic:1ding ick:is, iclcas whose
75
n: p rcss i(> n has been re:i.ched 1\·ith qudy, :1s the exac t es t poss il>l c,
may best l ie rep e all " I in id e n ti l';tl terms , n ot ,·:trier1. Thi s needs
to b e s :1id , l iecrn se yo11 11 g \\Ti tns :n e often too a fraid of repetition,
::r n d lc:1n: m any ol their thu 11 g hts tu() ,·:1g ll e in conseque nce.
E x . 1:.11 ·1. F ~ . -T hi~ rn v(k o f rq •elit iu n

lll :lY

\,e CXl'. lll plil il'. d from Matthew

2.

Repet iti o n o f n :irr:iti,·e detail s m :iy he m:i.de

] (,.)

by mer e ,·:ir iat iu n o f

C\ ·

pressio n; n ot ice, for in s tan ce, hn "· in t h e foll o \\' ing tlie s;:ime thin g is said in
th ree diffe re n t w:i.ys : " ..\ d a y p :isse d a\\':iy ;:i nd his muthe r was m it t he r <' ;
11 nud1cr flew by, an d sh e c ame n o t ne:ir him; a thi rd e\·ening a rr i\' cd, :rn,J yet

he h:id not se e n her ; and in fuur -:iml -lw enly h o urs he w:i.s l o Lie >c pa r;:ited
from her -

perhaps fu r L'\'C r .. ,

F o r othe r examples o f \' ;i ri :i.l iv n 111 n .: pl'lili o n, sec preceding, p :i.ges 3 1, 3::.

or

77. I n the re p e titi on
a se ries o f details, the Jl1Vt:rse o rd er
sometimes taken , lo di sg ui se t he iteration.
EXAMP L ES. - "

JS

i\Take the l1 <art of thi s peo ple fa1, :i.nd rn a k e 1l1c ir ,·,,n

t')'t'S ,- le st I h e y >CC " ·i1h tl1eir •:l't's, an• l h e:i r 11·i1h t l»:i r
ta r s, and un dc rs t;:incl with the ir /1 0 1r!, :u1d c o nv e r t, ;:i nd be hc a lecl .' ' - " \'c' ,

h e:i.vy , an d sh u t th e ir

Arnold . who~c pe r fect fca rlt::-'s n c-..~ in u-...i ng the ~:un t; t i..: r111 s ~g:l i n and ag:iin,

the l ime is come wh e n th e t hre e fa c u lt ies will be di s unit e d , :i. nd th e ir SCJLH:1 -

:i' ,.ftcn :1s ucc;:isivn r i".:> , i,; o n e uf tlic m u~t c h :i r:i.ctc ri ,t ic fc:itures of his

tio n destroy th e s oc ia l, r l' l igiu1 h :i n d p ol it ic;:i l b o d y .

\\'hat "i ll h :i p pcn ~

:itiv n will p r oduce it s false J'l' " J>hcts , :ind the y \\'ill b u d sens :1 ti t1 11 .
st yle:.
" , brr11s .\ u rcli11s i,; not :i. g r eat \Hite r, :i. g rea t l'hilusnj'h y-mak e r; he is the

w iil p r o duce false pro 1ih cts , :i n d t hey '' ill p r a ise se n timent.

friend and a ider uf thusc w ho ,,·011ld i in~ in the sp ir it .

p ro du ce fals e p r ophets, a n d th e y \\'i ll c~ t ol 111ind.

l·:mcrso n is the s:une .

11c is th e fr ic n cl :i. n d :iidcr u r t hvse 11·hn wu u ld li n~ in the sp iril." -

" r rcmcm·

lie r !te a rin g hi111 ( \\' u r cb11·u rt!t ) '"' Y 1h :1t 'L uct !t c 's l'"et ry \\':ls nut inel'itahl e
c n n n gh .' T h e !'l' llla 1·k ;, >triking a n d trn c ; n u lin e in c; ,,ct hc , ::1s Goethe s~i(I
lii m -cl i , li11t its maker kn e w \\' t: ll h"11· ii c:i. mc the re.

\\'.,rdsworlh is right,

( ;Pe l h e '~ pne l ry i' " ' •t i nc ,·i t:i.1 11t: ; Jl< .t inc l' italik e nuug h. Bnt \·Vo rdsworlh's
po e try, when he is :it his licsl , is in c\'it a l >i e , :is in c vil :il1le a s Na ture h e rself."

76. Ofte n e r , ho \\'C \·e r, the \\'r ite r seeks so m e ,·:i.riecl te rm, which
m :i.y h e u n d e rstood fo r the S:'lme thin g, ::iml ye t makes the fact of
r e petit io n le ss ohtru Si\'C.
- T h i' kind pf r epet iti o n m ay ""111 111· \':n i11u' :i. s p cc t~.
r . \ \'h:i t i n the p r cn·ding is g in·n w ith :1 p:irti··ul.1 1 lcrm n1ay he re peated

i'\1lTF .

liy a g cn c r :il; or ;1 n in di,· id 11 a l m :i\' h e r efe rr e d tn l1 y the n a me of th_e cla. .
Fn r cx:rn iplc : " The r e ca m e :i.

,.,p,·r <' Ill " f

:\ nu \'. ·hen the h:i.rh:i ri :i.ns sa \\' th e

th e hc :1 t :i. nd fa ste n ed on his hand.

'i'f'll(' fl/11/IJ

/1,-,n/ h a ng

(J ll

his h:i.nd, they said

:-;" 11 •

~l'.nt i rn c :il

J\:n ,," ·icd.t::c "iii

T/1,, !t1!!t' r \\'i ll J,c 111·•·11 ·1

men, wh o rcsemlik ~ a t ;:i11 ; t!tr secn11.! w il l h e fan a ti cs, re ::1 d y to \\·a! L l"w:nd
vir t 11c , with o u t judgment o r rule; t!t" r>t!t ffs \\' ill lie wh :i t J fvm c r sa1·s tltc
o mp:i nio n s o f Ulysses lie ca rne, \\' he n u nde r th e i n fluen c e u f Ci r ce < ri ng .
F o llo w n e ith e r of their thre e rn:i.cl s, \\'lii c h, t:i.k c n s epar a tel y , L<J JJ dl tCl, 1-i «
fi rst to th e :i.hyss of m ;:i lcr ia lis m, t!t,· S<',·011 .I lo rny,t ic is m, and t!t ~ t!t i r.! l•'>
nth c is n1."

78 . I t is ve ry de si r:i.l>lc th:tt the th o ug ht sh o uld in some

11·:1\'

grow in the repet iti o n, o r at lc:1st change its :1spect; :111 d tu tlti,
end a term th at is e lllpha s izcd in the fi rst m ent io n ~ !i o ttld take :1
subordi nate pb ce in th e rcpct i1ion, :rnd 7·1·a 7·cr st7, so th a t c :t• 11
p::irl may in its turn recci\'c pnipn di stin c tion .
EX1\MPLES, - "

T h:i d , i11 dc <: d , 1,cg11n the L1sl<, :i11d l1t1d f1i /,: d; I li :id lie -

i;ur\ it a sec o nd t im e, ::1ml J i1ili 11,i: t1,,-.1i11, h;:id :iba 11du n c d

r>c n s :\lion of u tt e r clist ;:i,tc . " -

Ill \'

:i l lc rn p l wi1 11 .1

i\ u 1i c c h o w in th e f,, ll• J\l' ing , ; re 's i:; ' bid l1r't

:i m ong thernsel \' es , '7'\ n cl o u h t thi s nn n j, :1 m ur rlc r c r, \\'h o m . th o ugh he hath

o n the a<lverb , and th e n o n t he ,·cr l i: "In t h e l it c r ::1 ry mo\'cm c nt o f 1hc !,L·-

esc :ipc d th e se:i., yet ,·c n g c;:incc s11 ITc rcth n»l to l i,·e .

gi nning of the nin eteenth ce ntury th e s ign:il ::1ttcmpt tu nJJ~v

And h e shook off the

; i·azr

the

l•.-nst int 11 the tire, an d fe lt n o h :i nn." - " Tn r i,·i li 1ccl soc iety hw is th e r/1il/I·
,,. • thro u gh \l' hi-::h :ill th :i.t s m oLc (fo,., 11:irg«' it<c·l f th :1t u s e d to c irc ul ~te
1 1

mu\lc rn spirit was rn:i.de in En g land li y t11·c, members o f the aristoc r ati c class .

\];ningh the \\' hol e

l('mpl

h »llSC

:ind p n l n·e r v <>n c 's C\' <' '< ou t.

N o wonder, there·

f>1 re, th:i.t the 7·,. 11/ it-<L·lf , J;.,uld -;0 1n ct im e<, l~l'l a lilllc so oty."

lty ro n :ind Sh e lley . . . .

H ut l~ y r • 1 n :111<1 Sh el ley did n o t s uc c eed in thei r :it -

fr eely to apply th e 111udcrn Sjliril in
~UCC CCl\ in it."

h1 g li ~ li liter:i turc;

th e y c<1ulci 11• , t

F UND.·/ .ii LiV j',-1/,

16i

}'J.'() (

I :.':;s;.:s.

Repetition of Manner of Expression. - This is de sirable on the
principle of economy of the reader's attention .
79 . Elements of the thought th at arc pai rcll toge ther, or an·
"'"'er to each othe r, should have, if possib le , a similar construction.
Lx,\~11•1. i-: ,; . -

:\ <>ti cc, in the (,,Jlow ing , how the ::tm t·rHk.J cons truct ions pro·

mote the ch:::t r ness and 'lll""tlrncss uf the se nlc'n cc : " lie had gw'd reason lo

/•,- Ii<'''"' th:1t the <k hy '""s 11 <>l 11 11 11 <1·/,/01 ! ( 01cci.\c11t ai ) ln:t / r1·111t·ditritcd, and
_f1r s:r//•,·1s 1·11.:,.. \lu ~1tpp\1~c , or c1~e, f,, r lit;lic\·ing. ahuYc ) th ~l the fo rt, though
strong l><1th h• (Ir/ :1111111t1/11r11/,:,. ( n :<tmc ) . w uuld ln: fur ccd hy the lreac/1ery
<'.f 11.-~ g .. ,·ernn r ::tn..! the indd o1I ( ind<>knce of the ) ge neral to capitulate
witl1in ::t w ccl; ."
\\'h en there is a large nunihcr (J f rlctail< to m:ikc unif,.rrn in constructi on,
they m:iy wi t h clcg:rnce lie 1Jr, 1kcn inti > d iffe rent g:r •>11 ps. ( lbsen·e l1ow this is
clc, nc in ~he foll<> "' ing. from Car d inal :'\cll'rnan. T l11: gr,,ups of uni fo rm ebnscs

"I le \\'rite,; p:ls,ion:itely, l>cc:1u<;c he fccb kccr:ly;
forcil.Jy, hec:1use he concei"es ' 'iYidly ; i he secs t1HJ ci <'arly tu J,e ,·:ig ue; he is
too scriuus to he otiose : i lre C:1n :rnaly 11.: his subject. :llld therefore he is rich;

:1t-C indiok<l by lines .

he em h r:1ces it as a \\'hulc :1nd in its p:uts . and thcrcf1>rc he i-; cuns istcnt; ]re
h:is a firm h ul rl of it, :ind thcrcf.,re he i,; lurni>wu-; . I \\"li en h ii; irn'.lgi nati on
\\'ells up, it O\-crflo\\'S in o rn ament; " ·hen his heart is touched, it t hrills :1long
his Yerse."

So . Studious likcnc-;s ol co11strnction, :1idc(l fre'lue11tly l>y ;:rnti·
thesis, is a fa \· oritc m eans of ;,:i1·i11;; spec ial disti11 c tion to related
tho11ghts, 1Jy setting them i11 sha rp relic! aga in st c::i c h other. This
is ollcd Dalanccd :-)tructure .
1\"<>TF. -

Tautology. - Tautology is the repetition of the same sense in
differen t words . It generally betokens either c::irelessncss or poYerty of thought ; but in some c::ises it, or an approach to it, is
a<lrn iss ible .
ExA~fl'l.I·:s OF TA l'T<>T.'l<:Y. - From Till o tson: " Parti cul::t rl y as to the :if·
iairs o f this " ·orlt! , integrity hath m an y :idqnt:1ges O\'cr :ill the finc ::tnd :1r1i ricial w:iy s o f dissim u/,1tio11 a n d .idl'il ; it is mu ch th e plain er :in d c11 si 1·r, m uc h
the saflr nnd m ore Shtire \\':1Y ,,f dealing with tlre \\'Orld ; it h a< lcS' o f
trouhle and .!1/Jidt!(r· , <1f c 11 !1 111.~·lt'l11<'11t :ind /crp/,·.rily, u f d 1111.[[rr and lw:,,,. 1l
in it. The a rt s !>f .;,.,·<'ii an li 011111/11,' ' clo c .. rntinually grow " :eakcr, ant! less
rjft clual a nd scr;:•i 1·ttil1/e t ll them th a t use them."

8r. T he conpling o f syno11ymous words and phrases is admiss ible wh e n one wo rd docs nol express the full sense i11t c nd cd, ,1· hcn
greater st ress is needed on some prominent part, or in imp:1ss ioncd
la nguage .
"0o two ,,·ord~, • S :1)'~ Professor H:l.in, ":1rc exa c tly ~~· nr>r1 y­
mous fur all purposes ; one has a ,Jude th:1t t11e 1Jlher w:int s : and it m :1y t'.11, c
hoth lo g ive the \\'h ole n1e:1ning . J lencc we :1re a cc ust irnr cd t o suclr phr:is c-;
::ts 1 w::1ys :1nll me:1n s ,' 1 p:1ssi ng ;ind tr:1 ns itnry,' 1 s ul>jcct-matter.'"
2 . Fo r st re ss: "The liuzd :ind jr(l 11/ o f his {,ffcnding." "The c11d ;in •! dt ·
EXA;\t\•1.F:s . -

s(~rn.

tt rtsls." "For his s:1kc the :\ l rll ight;- ]i;id procl:ii 111cd his \\·ill hy the pm flj llw
1':7'1111g disl, and tl1c /wrf r/ Iii<' /rr'fl1d .. ,
2. Clauses. " They h :i l1itn:1lly ;hc ri hc d c,·cry e\·cnt to the wil l o f the Great
Bc ing, for 7. ilh< >S f' jt1 7ur r 11n.'/; / 11.;.. .; ,· •t1 s / 1't' -: ·,n I, ~fc 'r -:i·hf1SC in s/t (·t iv11 nail! ing ·;oas
tM mi1111h.'' "I fc remits hi' splcnd,,r. hut rct:1ins hi s m:i g nitu de; and pleases
rn0rc , though he lhulcs Jes< ·
3. Sentences . "1f the y \\'!'r e un:1c•:u;ii11tct l 11·ith th e " ·urLs uf phil osophers
:i:1d P"C ts . they "· e r e deeply r<' :i •l i11 tli c "r:ick> uf C t>.J . 1f tl1l'ir name5 were
n ut o ullll in tlie regi >lc r' 11f lin :il ·k tlrt'\' 11(·n; rcr.,rdcd in tlie l~ ook of Life.
1f th e ir <.tq),; 11·c rc n»l :l• ' <'<>lll\ >. tnir ·,1 1.1· :1 ')-•kn.Ji,! tr:1i1 1 .,f nw 11 i:il -; , legio ns l>f
n1i11i .-.; tcri n j.~ ~11gcls l 1ad ch~Hgc U\"( ·r tl1cn1. ··

1

11

3. Lan gu:ig c o f p:issin n . J' rum l'i tl: "T an1 aslonish1·d, I :1m slt1>d:.-d t• '
hc:ir such p r inciples co11.f:ssL-.i; to hear them a~1t>wol in this house and in this
co untry." 1
:.\ l f. T;\'VEJ\<.;TON.

Hal:\ nee m:1y occur betll'ecn phra<;c<;, cbuses, an<! <;c ntences. Th e

ftd lo\\"ing r:1 ~~ ;1.gc:-- wiJJ CX< 'nlpliry it in ddfvrcnl rcJ :1ti i) t1 S.
1. Phra se..:. . . . T'lic d:\ily c1inl<' 1npl:lt i111 1 r~/ J11_/'<"l'i11r i,,·/11.:..··.r :i.nd ,·fl'rna/ in·

I.

In prose, :is weil as i11 vcrse, th e writ er h:1 s fre1111cnt o c cas ion to
invert the g rammatica l ord e r of parts in a sen te nce , - to put \· erlis
before th e ir subj ec ts, olJjccts and p redicate ::ic.ljectivcs before t heir
verbs, or acherbial words an d p hrases at th e beginning o f th e
sente n ce . The purposes of such im·e rsio n are here discussed .
Inversion for Emphasis . - Eve ry wo rd in th e sentence has its
n:1tural pos ition, where it f1ilf1ll s its functio n, lrnt ::ittracts no speci:1l
atte nt ion. :'\ s soo n, 11011·e ,-cr, a~ the word, whatever it is, becomes
1 'Tl1 c ;t11< •\T r1 ·11L1r\.; ~ :11111( · :-,::111q1l1 · ~ 1111 'Ll\!111 ] 11 .~:· ~· :1r1 · taken fr u nt ! ~:tin's f..:_1J,·to1i 1

i'P· 68- 70 .

-

--

~66

167

'.'.predominating c c m c nt o f the th oug ht, t he itn') 11bl·

JS

natural to

move it out o f its ordinary pos iti o n . to ward t he l1L·g in ni ng o r e nd
of

th e

sentence; and the mere fact that it i ~

in

an u1111·0 11 tcd place

g i1·cs it dic:tinctinn.

.S2 . I1wcr,, ion fo r emphasis, iK'ing a fc:ttme m ore n :tt mal t o
irnp:1ss io 11 cd

styk ,

slio1 iid lie employed

sp:1r i11 g h ·

:-rnd o nl y wi t h

ul11·i ous justill1 ·:1tion; ot hern·i sc it m:1 y easily make the s t yle co n t o rted ;111d :1 rtil-1ci:1 !.
1-:x ,1~11·1 i-:s ••F l :-:n·:iz,,111:-.: . -"(;rcat is the my~tery of ~l'a c c,,1;.,.t'n/,· r is the
mystery •>f ti ml'. .. I !ere th<.: prt.:dic:ttc :1.ljn:1i 1·c (, m:idc c1nph:1l ic liy being
ph 1·cd fir.;t. - "Si/;·,·r and g .1/,/ ha1·e I 11 .. ile. " I I ere the ol .je cl u f the vcru
is ~imihrly cmphasi1.ed. - ••Cu I rnust .. ; "Lin it he ,h:1ll. " 11crc Ii.1th the
vcrktl root is cn1plt:b i1ed hy the unu-;u:tl first place , :ind the au\i li:1ry l1y bei ng
pbccll b~l. - " Hc h oid , " '' "' is the :icC« J•l c·d time." l!t: rc cn 1p liasis is g iven
liy i11Y c r-;i1> 11 t<) t he: :idYc.:rh . - "li«•m //;~ ,f,:ys n/ i11f n11y >fill li nge rs in my
c:irs this upcning "( :1 prose l11·111n hy :i L1dy then Ycr v 1.· cleli ratcd ." !f c re th e
;Hhcrliial p hrase is c ll'1 >h.t,i1.cd Ly cnm ing lir, t, :ind the ~ ul•jcc l, " this ope ning ," hy co rnin g :iflt:r ih ,·erli " iin gL'rs.' '

J:y th is is m e;rnt t he ch:mge of
made in adj1tstt11g th e ideas uf one c b11se o r se nte n ce to

Inversion for Adjustment.(1n lc r

an othe r .

a tt rac t l it e surnm:-iry u f 1lic 1n in 1hc seco nd tu t he beg inning o f its clause._
F rom l\u>km : " \\'e :ire all uf tis " ·ii ling enough l <'> accept dead truths ur
b lunt o nes ; whi c h ca n Le fitted harn1lc,sly into spa re ni ches, o r slir.JUdcd and
coffi ned :i t o nce (>ll l o f the w:iy; w e ho ld ing complace ntly the cemetery key, ,
a nd suppos 1n i; 11·c h:\\'e learned so mething. B ut 11 sap!i 11_,,, lrut!t, \\'itlt c:i rth
at tl s r uul a!!d lilossu rn 011 it s bra nc he s ; ur a lr oi d w 11 t tr uth , that can c ul its
way th ro ug h lrn rsand suds ; rn u,l me n , it seems lo m e , di,like the sigh t o r
c ntt: rt a1 111 nc nt of, 1f hy a ny mea ns suc h guest or vi sio n m ay be a voided ." IJcrc
the a t tracted ide:i is a cont ras ted o ne.

84 . Unless, ho w en.:r, some co n s idera t io n of emphasis or a djust me n t calls fo r i t, the mne 11 / lr<l clio11 of one w o r d fo r another is
n ot a suffic ien t r e a so n for inve r s ion .

ExA~l t' t. Es. - ·· L ia k by little we r,· tl1 eir apa rtm e n ts stripped o f ar ticl es uf
orn a me nt, p iece liy piece 7c•ns t he ir stock of furn itu re dim inished ; and the
fu ture offered th em no hupe.'' l lc: re a p ar tia l invers ion , so fa r, t hat is, ;io; l•>
place t he: ad,·erbs li rs t, is just i£iablc o n the ground o f emphasis ; hut to say fur llt er " 711<'1'<! th e ir :ip:irlmcl!lS st r ipped, " t.:tc., instead of "th e ir ap:trlirn.: nl-; 7Nri·
~tri pped," has no rc :isun hut t he attraction of the ;iJ,·erlJ, and so unds :irtilici:il.
Obse1TC that i11 an inipassiont:d sentence, wl1t:re all attractiuus :ire ,tr•l!i::.;n,
the co m1,1<:tc 1111·er,iun is murc nat11 ra l; as , "(dadly 7,,0 11 /,f [ go, a l!,[ fn:cly
would I offe r 11 1y~clf fur my country 's \\'el fare.''

Th e predulllinant ide:t of a pre ced in g ;,cntencc exerts

XI JL EL l '! f(J :\\".

::rn attr::t ct i,rn on t he sirn iLtr u r currc ,po n dc nt id ea in t he follow in g ;
and naturally the btter is drall' n t o t he beg inning o f its sen t e n ce .
83 . Im-crsion for adj 1ts trn e nt effects emphas is of t he ,,·o rd s disphced , as w ell as groups to gether r el:ttcd id1.::1s; and is t hus :t ve ry
Y:tlu:tl1k me:u1s uf 'ccuring r-ut1 li111tit y and sulJ\lr<lina ti o n in th e

art1 c t1la t iu n .

t h •iught.

te n ce ; a nd il is indeed s 11rpr ising h o w m a n y infeli c itie s or sou nd

l·:x A.\11·1.1-:s . - "I Ii.., friends l•1ok the ncccs«:1ry step~ f• ir phcing him as an
:ippn: nli ce at s11mc sh"pkeq1c1·, in l't·nrilh.
J '/1is lie l<111k cd lll h >ll as :111 indignitv. to whi ch hc 11·:is dctc1 min1.·.J i;1 n" casc l" >tilrniit." 1 lc.:n:: the second
sente nce t akes up the idc n tha t tl1c l•rcceding bid d1i111 1. ~ nd n1:1kcs it the
li:isi , of the nex t :is,c r1i.,11. - h ·ll l ll ( ·:1rdi11:ll :\c11·1n:in: "l du not cla im fo r
him ( the gre:it :iuth•n ) , :is ~11 c h . :iny gr1·:1l dq,th 11f lh"11 gh t, ur l1n:ad th of
Yic w, or ph i! <JS"!'h '· · o r s:tg:icity, 11 r knu\\·k.!;::c 11f hu111:ln 11 :1t urc, ur expe ri ence
,,f hu in :i.n lift ·. lh ullgh 11:·r·s:· t1 .,.Jili1 11 .11 ... . i/ 5 /i,· 111 111 · l.-.1-: ·f' . :nHf the 111urc he h:is
uf thcni the g n ::1ter he is ; 11<1 1 I ""Til•c I" l1i11•. '" !J i, cl1:1 r:ic tcrist ic gift, in a
l:ugc sc 11'e tlic L1nilty ,, ( i-:~l"" "' i "" · " I !ere the d c t:1i lo; i1 1 lh e lir,l clause

are admitted in hasty wr iting, o r by ;:in impe r fec t ly trained e ;:i r.

1

A lt h oug h on ly ::t compa ra ti1·e ly s m ;:ill propo rt io n of Jiter;:iturc

is

e ve r r ead o r r e c ite d alond , y e t it should al ways be com JOsc d w ith

d u~

r eg:1rd

t o its sound, :rnd st1l>jL'Cte d con t in t1a ll y t o the

tc~t of

Y iolat io n s of ct1phony a r c d 11e m ostly to in adve r -

. Sequence of Sounds . -

C;:is cs \\' he r e c :tu t io n is espec dly n ee d ed

m m a n ag 11J g s t1c c essi o n s of sounds

m:i y lie included un d e r tw o

rules.
85 . T he w riter shu11ld l>c on his guard a g a ins t so und s harcl tu
pro n o u nce t ogether, o r m ~1 ki n g a h:tr-.h co mLin:tl io n.
t he

~e n s e

a

\\'Urd con taining :t h :1 rsh so1 rn d

m ust

\ \ ' hen fur

!Je adopted,

s p ec ia l c:t r e -.hu1tl d lie devoted to rel ie vin g th e h arslrne-. s ]Jy the
choic e of t he a c co 1npanyi11 g w o rd s.

F U 1\'DA1l/L'N7'.-I L PROCESS.HS.

lGS
lLI.t fSTR AT! ONS. -

Some 11·l,,.,b , in thcrnsc h<:s harsh, c;rnnut well be uvoided;

:b " inextr ic:cli lc ,' ' "pi edgc il ," "adjlld)::cd ," " liftb ly " ; but whe n comlJ ina tions

of suc h w o rds occur t he h arshness is i11t1, lerahk. Try, f u r instance, s uch comb inati o n s as t he

fullo 11·i nf~ : "str ct c h c.l th rough" ; "high-ar c he d churc h";

"th ere is in the face ;rn i ne.if'licab k <'.1frcssion of sadness"; "an inner indi-

ca ti on. "
The same fa ult of harshness is sh o wn in a sequen c e o f una cc ented short
syl iablcs ; as in "primarily," "pcre mpturily," "c urso ri ly," "lowlily," " st:i.tel il y ."
1\ s an illu st rati o n uf th e co nt rast hct"·een h a rsh and e uphonious language,

co rnpa n: the foll<J\Yin;.:: line,
""T wa' thou that s mo o th'cl 's t the rough ru gg'd Leu of pain," 1

largely than does prose; yet for the btter also there is a considerable fiel d for the e mployment of such words a nd combi natio ns .
8 7. It is a fulfilment and not a transgression of euphony to
make the sound correspond to the sen se, eve n though it le ad to
the employme nt of harsh com bi nation s to portray a corresponding idea. The difference is at once d etec ted between a crude
harshness ancl a skil lful one.
ILL USTRATI ONS . - Obse rve what descriptive po\\'er th e italic iL.ed w urds have
in the following: "Tire hur r icane had come by night, a nd \\'ith one fell swa sh
had mad e an irretrievable sop of everyth ing. "
l kre the won.ls answer in
so und to the se nse.

The differ e nce between such words and o thers may b e se e n in altcrnati\'e
exp ressions o f the same idea. Compare fur in st:ince, "Th e wate r was boiling ,

wi th the full,,11· in g ,
"\Vh os c dw elling is th e light of setti ng suns ,"

and threw up a great fount0tn fr o m its mid s t," with, "Th e sfray "·as 1i;ss i11,1;'

or the followin g ,

hot, and a hu g e jd v f \\'a te r fi u rs t up fr u rn its mid s t. "
" The iir;ht th:n 1wvcr w:1', o n

S t:J

?\ ll tice h ow muc h mo re
vividness there is in" I fc p!u n ,red int o the ri ve r ," than in" I fe thr e w liim scl f
into the ri ve r "; in "The h o rse c a me p d/oping d o wn t he r oad," th a n in " Th e

or b nd,

T he eonsecr:lti1111, and the poet' s drea rn ."

h o rse came '1 ui ckly."

86 . Cuc is m:cdc d al so to :trnid jingling rec urrences of the
s:trnc or s irnibr somids . :\ n in:1dvcrtent rh yme is such :t palpaLle
indicat io n of t ho ughtlessness tl nt it can hardly escape lie ing greeted
with a smile.
FXA~i t· 1.Es . _ "As I g:ved up nn t he m igh ty \l' o r k , 1 sa id to m yself, ' now
\
thc
ns is i nd eed sc·n 1 r ,•; curn e (: reek or C<•!1\c i\:r,; i:rn . 11 o th i11 g wi ll su bdue
1
/:er .' " - " The r i,·er li:1s its pr esent 11 11111( t he-''""' :'IS t he 1111111 « the Indian s
ga ,·c it."- " I fe felt 11/i·,1i.! t« !llin gk i11 su c h a ji·<11' .·• -- "Ther e is a n ordi11.,11 c,· uf 11 :iturc at w hi c h 11 1c11 uf gt"11 iu s :ir<.: pcrpctu :illy fr,·tt111 g, Lut wlll ch
due-; 11 111 r...: i,:tH Hi t l i :\ ll 1na 11 y Lt\\":-\ pf tl ic n ni \T r '.'l' tli :1t tli t: y pr:1i ~ c ; it is, th at

or di n a ! )' \Y L.llncn orili 11<1 ,-/1)· l 'rcfcr or,h no 1y 1ncn."

Sound and Sense. - /\ ;;rcat rn:tny 11ords in the language were
eviden tly formed as th e r csul~ o f :rn effo rt to nuke sound correspond wi th se nse, and ]Jc a ki nd of aud il >l c picture of it. Poetry
deals with such \\· ords, a nd especially 1rith cornLJinations wh erc111
rno\'crn ent :c ml arti c ulatio n produce this result together, more
J
"

1

On

;)ij,;

li iH', " li icl1 i,; a> cri licd

;--; 11 HJ tHh'd' ~ t ! ·

seem:; tu us

ctS

169

LO

a

c nu in

\ ir. Ho\\'y cr, De (lui necy rc 1nark.\

\\ 'uitld the tvt:lli of :t 1.Ti1cvclil1 ·

111

it ~p! i111 1: r unde r th at word?

It

if ) Jr. l\o\\·ycr', ver ses uught t u lil· !Jo iied lido rc they ca n l>c read."

Sa ys J'rofe sso r lJe \li lle: "Suc h is the n ature of hn-

guage that , if the !Jest possible wo rd lie c h osen, it will o ften pro ve to b e on e
of this descri p tio n. Th is choice o f t he b es t wo r d m eans p re c is io n, and h ence
the e ffort to be precise will o ften le ad to excellence o f another an d very diffe rent kind." I
For exam ples o f th is ki nd of us0ge in p o et ry, sec pre cedin g, p age 62.

XIV. RIIYTill\L

In speaking of the rhythm of prose, di stin ction must be m::i.de
between rhythm and m etre . The latter, which, as the name im ports, is m easurer! rhythm, is peculiar tu verse; but ::t n un meas ured rhythm, ever varied, yet never neglected, is equally nat mal
to artistic prose .
The nature and limits of rhythm in p rose are suggestively defined
in the following words, from Rolle rt Louis Stevenson : "The rn le
of scansion in verse is to suggest no measure \.Jut the one in hand;
in prose, to su ggest no measure at all. Prose must be rhyt hmical,
and it may be as much so as you wi ll ; but it must not be metri c:il.
It may be anything, but it must not be verse . A single heroic
1

De 1\T iile, "Elemen ts of Rhe toric," p. 273.

171

F U NJJ,./,J/L 1\ ·l. I L 1'1" 0l 'J:'SSES.

170

li ne m ay very 11Tll p:1 ss :tnd n o t d istmli t he so nH.: 11·hal brger stride
of th e p rose :-, Lyle j l!ll t Oll e foil owi ng a not her 11·i!l produce an ins tant i111 p ress ion o f po1·crt y, fh tness, an d di se nc hantme nt."
The poin ts Lhu s sugges led m a y ]JC fo ll o we d out in a few practical s 11 g;,;l:sti1rns .
Alternation of Accent a nd Pause. - T he b eg inn ings o f rhythm
in pros e arc due to th e s im ple ciCo rt ~o please th<.: <.: a r by the easy
flo w o f a c cented' :rnd u nac cent ed sy lbblcs, and by the musica l
n :g ub rity, yet 1·:uict y, of t h e nat ural p:i uses.
F :-:.1~11 · 1. i-. ~ <>!' l -:1 1YTID11 c AI. L.1\ Cl '.11;1·:. -

rhythm too reg ular ::ind uni fo rm. Th e 111an11er in wh ich acce nts
succe ed o n e ~u i o t h er, t he 11111,., so to say, of th e m o ve m e nt sho uld
be vari ed co ntinu ally.
J 1. 1.1 : ~T 1' A T l 1J :\ . -

" The earth co ve re d wi th a sa ble p a ll ,
1\ s for th e b uria l of ycstcrcl:i y ;
The cl umps of d a rk trees ,
I ts g ia nt p lL1nH:s u f fu neral fl' a th c rs
\\ 'av ing s a d ly to n n d fr o :
J\ 11 hu,h cd , all n o is c kss , and in d cc p re pose ,
~ : tl'l' the sw ift c lo u ds th at ,, ki m a c ro ss th e m oo n,
J\ n d the cau ti o 11 s wind,
J\ s c ree pin g ai1cr th em u po n tl1 e g round
It , 1o ps to lisle n, a nd go es r us tlin g on,
A nd s tops :tg:1i11, a n d follo ws, like a s a1·a gc
O n th e lr;ii i."

The ful lo1Yi n g , fr o m Burk e , has

mu c h mu, ~c of r h n h m : " Jn the rn 11 rn i11g ., f ou r days, 11·h c n t h e sen se s are
un\\·ur n and ll:n d cr , 11 he n t h e 11h uk 111a 11 i~ a ll'aL e in e1· e ry p a rt, a nd the

gl1 .ss uf 11 u1·el ty fn.:,, h u p o 11 all tli e ul •jt:ch t ha t s urru und u .;, h u w lively a l that
t im e a re u ur s cns:tti <l 11s, l iu t hu w false a n.i ina cc ur ate the j ud g ments we form

'- 'f thin g:-, ! .,
:\ 111\ t l1 c ful lu \\·i11g, fr o m Card in a l \' <.:11·111 a 11 : "The se:1 'i•>ll is c hill :-111 tl dark,
:u i. I lite lirc :1tli <> l tli<.: !llo rn in g i,; 1L1111p,

:1 11d

\l o re 1k :1 r t l• th e m th a t lu n <.: ii n rss, rn u re ch<.:c rful th a t se n·rity , am!

111urc h ri g h t t hat g l. iu m , th :lll :1 11 t Ji .. , e :i i.\ , a nd :1J' l'l i:i nc c" o f lux ury liy whid1
me n 11 u 11·ad ay s att<.: 111pt t u m :1k c p r. 1y cr k ,;-; .J i,:1g n ; e ahle t u th e m. True fa ith
d<>es n o t co 1·et c nm fo r ts ; t h ey \\'h11 r ca li 1.e th a t :tll'fu l d ay, 11·h e n th e y "hall see
JI i1n fa c e t <J face , ll'l:us e eyes a rc as a !lam e " f lire , II' ill as li t tle barg ain to
pr;;y pk:b:rnt ly n ow 8S t h ey ll' ill t h i11 k ,, f d u in g su t h cn. "

08 . The \\'riLcr n ee ds to h<..: on hi s g11 ard aga in st huddling
acce nted sy lblJlc s tog ethe r.
:\ st t c c e~s i o n o f 111o nosylbbk s, espec iall y, n ee d s c:iref11l m a n:1gcm c nt , in o n kr tha t the stress m ay not
Ldl o n to o niany word s in s11 cce s'i io n .
E X..\ ~l l ' J.t·.'i .

- ln th e " en tt.:ncc: ,

2
2

1
1

\\'l •r-; h ip]'cr'i a re fe\\· ; lrn t :i ll th is

Lt.: !i h th u'<.: "'h" ;n c li y pro fc ss iu n p cn itcn h a111l 1111) 11rn c r '>, \\' ;l!c h <.: r'i a11d p ilg r i111s.

Di ckens \\':t S e spe c ially l ia ble, in sn mc hi g h ly.wr ough t

p a ssag e s t o fall in tu m etre; an d wcl lni g li wh o le p a r:-1gr a ph s u f hi s may sometimes Le re ad as \'Crs e. l ;o r ex ;i rnpl c : -

" (;,,ud l.u rd, g iH u' 1.rc:i•l 11 0 11' ," all th e

,,·n r ds b ut" us" :-1re <.:m p h:1t ic , :irnl t h<.: <.:nun c i:i tiu11 is h e ;i1· y.

So ::tlso th e line,

" JI e re a ll the 1· e r«cs m a r ke d

I

arc s t r ict dr:-1mati c blank ve rse , 1l'hilc th e

co uple t rnark e d 2 h:-1s :-1 d ec ide d tro ch a ic e ffe c t." t

The unl itne ss o f su c h la n-

guage fo r urd in a ry pro se is manifes t.

Cadence . - Rhy t h m , o r th e b c k o f it, is espec ially n o t icea ble at
the e nd of ::1. se nte n ce o r p :irag r:iph. In s uc h p laces t he ea r re qu ires that th e se nse he brought to a gradual fall , not a sud den
halt .
90 . W hen ::1 clos ing id c:i. has Lee n pre p:ired fo r, liy suspe ns ion
or oth e rwi se , r hyt hm requ ires th a t th ere sho u ld h e vo lum e of so un d
corres po nd in g to its impo rta nce and e mp hasis .
EX A~11 · 1.b .

- The foll u11·ing se n ten ces ill u 5tr a t c.: t he d i, ::i g re caLle s o und o f

a n a b ru p t <.:n di n g : " Fami n e , ep ide m ics , r aged " ; "Th e s ul d ie r, tr a ns lixe<l by

"T hi n k n u t that slr e 11g t h l ie s in t he liig r llu11d 11·u rd ," th o ug h me a nt to be

the s p e ::ir, 7uri//1<·d" ; "A c h ill e s, b ein g a 1>pri , c: ll o f t h e d ea th u f hi s fri end,

111 d r ic:1l , is r va lly lu!ll li cr ing :1n d u 11rhy t l1111ic:1 l l•1..: :1 u'<.: t hnc is n u di s lril>ut ion

g oes to th e hatt lcfi t.:ld \\'ilh 1rnt :-1 r m o r, an d , "ta11ding by t he w:il l, sh outs."

11f '"ll j•ha , i,; . - The 111 1•nus yl bbi c l in e , "l ik" ih <.: ]., ,,., 1 , ,f Ilos ts, for lie 1s
i ~1 1 t H l h > u:-. ," o n tht: o th e r hand , j.,. nut in li : n111n11 i u 11s~ c vl ·r y se c o nd word is

these endings are felt tu l >e Ind, n u t J,eca use th ey are i11 :-1ecura te, bt1t be cau se

a cc<.: nt<.:d.

89 . \\' hik it 1,; very dc s iral1k to scc 11 rc smoo tl rncss and rhy thm
in prose, the write r mu st shu11 t he op pos it e fault o i making the

,\ Jl

they are tu o short: w e n :il m a ll y r e qui re rn o r e vulume and m ore rhythm i11
wur<ls tli a t in th<.: n1s c lv cs are su in1 p o rt:-1nt.
1 Example and re mark qu o ted fron 1 J\ l ilio tt :rn d
English l't:o p lc," p . 98.

~ee l e y's

"L::ngl i>h Less o ns for

/'/IE SJ:..'1\ "'f'J:·.\·c·E.

172

SE CTI O ~

S ECO ND.

THE SENTENCE .

1\ \rn :. - T he fu ll vwing sentence , q uoted fro m Angus," l lan d li oo k o f tl1•:
Jo:n g lis h T unguc," wi i illus tra te the wa ys in which the structure of a se ntcnct:
may IJe made c,rn1pl cx.
f' RE lll CATE .

S l "JIJECT .
I.

Defi nition. -

A sente nce is

J.

com l; i11 :1ti o n of wo rds e xpress ing

a sin g le, c o mplete t hough t.

ple te ness of g rarnrn:i tic:il rela t ions marks the se nte nc e . It is a full
circl e of d ependences. /\ fe w co njunct io ns imply a prc ,·i o us J.ssert io n , and :i. fe w p ron ou n : se ek th eir :rnt cccl e nts ou ts id e its limits ;
as ide from th is, C\-Cry r eb ti o n m u~ t \Jc fi nish e d within t he complete
sentence ."
The se nt en c e m:1y the refo re he regard ed :i.s the u n it o f styk;
tha t is , w !i:1tc ,·cr prolJ!c m s a nd p rocesses :uc im·o h- cil in g i\'ing to
style such q u:ili t ics ::i.s it o ugh t to Ji a ,· c , in ord e r to \JC perfectly
a d:i.pt e d to its purpose , ::i. re sa t isfied for t he m os t p :i.rt , in th e act of
giv ing ad equ ::i.te e xpre ss io n to ::i. s in g le, co m plete tho ug ht .
~TRG <...TL"

I.

Elements of Struct ure . -

1'1·: OF Tl I I·: SE \" TE:\C E.

F o r the s imple st e xp re ss io n o f a s ingle

t l101 1ght , two cle ment s arc re q u isite : the s ubject , t h::i.t ::i. i1o ut whi c h
s urnc thi ng is s::ii d; a n d t he pre d ic::i.te, tha t 1\· hic h is sai d about the
s 11l>jL:c t. 1Zedu c cd , then, to its must e lcrn c nt a ry fo rm , the frame wo rk o f :i se n ten ce c o n s i ~ts o f :i s u1Js tant in: :i.nd ::i. n .: rb .
Not ofte n, h o weve r, d o sen te nces re m:1 i11 \rit h t hese c le ments in
th l' ir si n pie form . T h e s ubject, o r t he pre di cate , or b o th , m:iy be
m o dified by wo rds, p h r::i.scs, or cbuses : o ne or bo th m a y be com p o1 1n d c d ; o r c,· c n o the r se nt e n c es . co\..in l i 11 :1te o r su bo rdin ate,
m a y \Jc com bi n e d with t h e m ai n :i sse rtio n; :tnd ~ o th e whole se ntence , while st ii l e ss enti a lly o ne thou gh t, may :1eq 11irc :i high clcgree
of co mple xi ty .
l

I3.1scom , " l'h ilosophy uf l<h ,· 1v1·ic," p. 176.

Jn Si111 p!r: Form.

"The amphith eatre
and enthusias m

was co nte111plated with awe;
broke fvrt h. "

" ,\ scn ten c L~ , " says Professo r lhsco m, 1 "is th e first c om p lete,
o rg:i nic produ c t of t h inking, J.ml , in its p r ec isio n :ind strength ,
rc ,·c :1·s the vi gor of the proc ess u nde r wh ici 1 it h:is ar ise n. J\ c om-

Ji 3

TJ/l:; SENTFA'CE .

2.

Lnlarp :d and E x /011/r:tl.

"I.Z c<luct.: Ll to ih naked maj esty th e
Flavia n a m p hit heatre
and tli c ir rude en t h us ias m

was co ntemplated with aw e, by th 0
],:u ba ri a ns v f the no rth ;
l,rvke furth in a so le m n pro v<: rl1i:i 1
ex p ressio n, whi ch is rec o rded in the
e ig hth c<: ntury, in t he fr agm ent<; u f
th e ve 11 c r;1l1le Bed e : • ,\ 5 lun g as t ht:
Co lise um stan ds, R o me sha ll sta nd .'"
- C ib/!011 .

Herc we sec th e re a r e really tw o main se n ten ces, t he seco nd of whi..:h, c x;Hes;:ing the Jir <: ct cun s<: quc ncc of th e ll r .. t, m ay be co unted with it as J.t:l unging
tu the sa m e co n1 p rc:hcn sive thuu g ht. Furthe r , tl1c m odifyin g cleme nts co ntain, besic.k s wo rcls a nd p h ras es, tw o su bo rd in a ted se ntences, on e a <:viirdin at<:
relative cl:1 ust: (' ' " ·hi c h is reco rded, " e tc .) , the o ther a n a pp os itive ( "As lung
as the Col iseum st ands ," et c.) , b oth mod ifying a n a lh ·erl1ia l ph rase ( " in a
so lem n prove rb ial exp rc ssiv n " ) . Fi nall y it is tu be n o ted th:t t e ve n t h is h , t
se nte nce co ns ists really o f a main senten ce and :111 :i,l vc rlii a l mod ify i11 g _s<: 11te ncc . The wh o le s tru c ture, "'hi lc perfec tl y lc g i1im:ite , thus bccvm t s ve ry
compl e x.

Each ph ra se :ind clau se t h:i t g o es to a m plify the s imple e le m e n ts
of ::i. se n ten c e lJccomes in its t urn a rc.:drn in it self, s ubje c t not onlr
to t h e princi p les governing its rc btion to the m::i.in a sse rtion , but
also to all th e b 1rs o f unit y and e mphas is that ope ra te in t he
stru c ture of :rny se nte nce . The laws o f the sen te nc e all g row o ut
of this s im pl e ::i.cljustm e nt, of p ::i.rt to p:ir t, a.ml of e a c h p :J.rt to the
whole. It is of importa nce , the refo re , th a t th e write r in th e whole
work of c o mposit io n keep c lose ::i.cc oun t of th e ske le ton str11 c t11re
of the sente n c e, "parse" it continu a lly as he goes alon g; :rnd he
will finJ himse lf g reatly aided in giving a clear and wcll -b:i.bnced
expression to hi s t hou g ht.

j

I I '
~

/'!J l e Sl.. \ .,! '/.' .\.CF

T ile fu rc0:;u ing d c sc ri lJcs the ele m c nt :u y st ru c ture o f a se nten ce.
T he re a rc ctscs w here t his struc ture is t ran sce n ded, a nd o thers
w he re it is le ft inco m p lete .
Pleonast ic St r uct u r e . - By this is mc :mt a struc tm e wh erein
fur so me pu rp ose o n e of the mai n cle men ts of the se nte n ce is
repe:ltc d .

1t h as a lre ady b e e n p o inte d out ( sec parag ra p h 73, p age 160)
th :.it fo r th<.: sake of c learn ess a cumpli cated su \Jje c t m ay be repea ted in

s11mm a riz in g wo rd, ge nerally a d c mo n s tra til'e , which

:.l

t he n is t re:1tc d :ls if it \\'Cre itst·if the s ulJjc ct o f the senten ce.
T his is nt:c e ss:1ry in t he ma na geme nt of a n u m lH.:r of deta il s.
FX A .\ ! l'l .E . -

'' (

;,,]d :rnJ cot to n , ii:111 k,; and rail "' ay s, c r v \\'tlcd pur ls :rncl

J"' P Lil u u,.; cili c,.;- l li<s< arc n u t t he c k 111 l' 11 ls th:ll c" n stitutc :\ g rc :ll n a ti o n."
l lc rc sv f:l r :is str uct ure i s cu 1h.: t: r 11 c tl

1

t l1c \\' u rd " lhc ~ c " nii gh l l>t.: u1ni ttcd,

l1ci 11g .t.;r a11rni:1ti c: dly s upc r th 1o us ; Int l fu r c ka rn ess it is val u :ilil c .

A plco n ast ic s t ru c ture is als o freq ue ntly e111j>lu y c d, rn impass ionnl b n gu:1ge , in o rde r tu grn : spcc i:d d is tin ct io n to so m e elerne n t of t he se n te n c e .
E X A \l l 'JY ~ . -

It,, ." " -

"Jr c

" l kn u w the e, 7i'hu llto u a r ! ." - " The h u,·, u h ! " ·here w:is
th:it h :it h c a r, to h e:i r . k t him ht::i r. "

L'n dc r thi~ h c.::i d 11 1:iy a b u lie m <.: n tiu nc d t hose c:ises wlien: t he s u l>j ect o r
t he vc.:rlJ is 1n :idc u :is,iv 11:i tc by itc.: r:tt iun ; :i , , ! , /m us t lie cu un tct.l guilty" ;
•· ;.;,;1, 11 , } d /,·11 i,.; l::ll•\'1., 11 tli c grea t, :1 111 ! is l1ccu n1c :i Ji:\l ,ita ti o ri uf devil s,
:\ll <l a li u ld u i' c ,·c ry un c lc :rn sl' iri t. :.ind :i li u ld uf c \·cry u nc le a n a m ] h a teful
li i rd ."

:111

Elliptical Stru ct u re . - T h is tcrr 11 is :q• p lit·d to th ose c ases wh ere
c ssen l i: d p:1rt o f t he sen te n ce, the s ul>j,· c t or t he ve rb, is left

U\l l.

()(co urse no e ssenti a l 1ur t c ould lie s:1fcly kft ou t if t he reader
cutild n ot :1l unce m e nta lly co m1 ilcte th e s lruc t url', o r if h e were
le ft u1H ·ntai11 c \:1ct ly \\' h a t tu s upp ly. nut whe n a sent e nce me rely
~i \TS dct :1ils i11 th e: sa111c li 11c a s s t1 g-ges tcd

liy tlie prc \·iu t1 s se ntence,

(J r \\' li en it ~ t:111d s lik e th e an swe r tu an illl plic d q 11 cst io n, the verb
nu y som eti m es l >e omi tte d ; :1ml ll' itli :1dv:mt:1g e , Lc causc a s the

T l!F Sl.,\ 'f'l .XO·.'.

l 7S

om it ted pa rt is no t pres en t to s hare th e re ade r's a tte n tio n, sn
muc h the m ore d istinctio n is imparted to t he cle m en ts rcma111111g .
E XAMl ' l .ES . -

bee n giv e n in

:l

I. Th e sim p lesl e ll ips is is \\'h ere th e p a rt ldt ou t h:is a l rc:idy
p r cv iow; c bu,.;e; fu r exa m p le ( fru m '.btth c w .\ rn u ld ) : " \\ 'ith

H. a phat:l's c h :i ra c k r J:yr u n 's sin ,.; u f nd ga ri ty :i nd f:t lsc cri ti c is m " ·u uld kt,·e
be e n illl poss il ilc, jus t :is w it h I' aph:-i c l's art J:y ro n's s in s u f c o lllm o n a nd \, :H I
workman sh ip /\ ."
2 . Th e n ex t is ellips is o n :icco unt nf a n eg a tive ( 110 .,,. Ju> 11<·) , \\' hi c h seem'>
to be s l rn ng e nough in it se lf to d i,;p c nsc \\'i t h t he suJ,sla 11 ti ,·c \'crh ; fu r ex;11 11 plc (fr um Joh n :ll , ir lcy ) : " \ ' .,lt:ti rc cnt c reJ tuo ea g e r ly in t•i th e inlcrc.:st:; u f
the \\' u rld, \\''1 S liy krn p c r a rn c n t t'"' c -.: cl usi,-cly sy 111 path cti c :i nd rc CCJ•ti ,· c a1:. i
soc i:il, to pbcc l1i:11scl f C\' Cn in im agi n at i,Jll l lrn,.; outs id e u f tlie Co> mrn u n c i1clc .
\ Vithu u t ca 1• ac it y f,, r t hi s , /\ n o Cllln e d y of thc first urd c r. \\' itli u ul sc n u 11s
co n sc iou s nes s o f co 11tr:is ts,/\ no h um o r th:1t en d ure , ."
3. ·1:ut th e s1il lst:in t i\'c \' crli i, c:i,.; il y left v ul, abu , in c:arry i ng o n a sc ri ,·s
o f ckt:i ils; fu r e xa m ple: ";\ gra \·e :ind p c a cd1d c u unt ry is \\'a rn ic kshirc a b 11 cl of gr ea t woods a n d h c :ivy f:il lu ws, wid e ,·ic \\·s an d slu w ,.;tr c:ims, ! •i g
trees :i nd r:i n k m cado "·s, lin e o ld h o uses , :ind , I d a re s a y , t he p rctti ot \'ilbg es in :ill En g lan d . \\' it h :il /\ an ai r o f sc tt le clness :111 d ali id ing , whi c h i'
ve ry re p oseful tv th e sp irit o f m a n in th ese res tless <lays , alth o ug h thi ~ t ra n•1ui l
a t m osp he re ln s its d a ng e rs too ."
4. Final ly, w h e n t he d c t:iils a r c eas il y r cfc: rre d lo a ve r b in t he p rec c din,l;
sen te n ce; fu r exa m ple ( :igai n fr u m Juli n ;\J ci rl cy ) : " \ \ ' ho d oes n o t k n u w t hi-;
temp e r o f t he m:in o f th e \\' Orl d , t h :it \\'v rst en e m y o f t he \\'Orl d? (/\) I [ is in exh a ust ili lc p :it ic ncc o f a \, uses, t h :il o nl y t u rn H.: n t o th e rs ; l1is :i pu l"gctic \\' u r.J
fo r be li e fs t hat m ay p c rh :t ps u o t b e su pr ec ise ly tr ue as o ne m ight w is h, a11 . I
i nstituti o ns t hat :ir e n u t :i lt og e th c r so usefu l as so me mi g ht t h i n k p oss il> k ;
his co rdi:il ity to\\'a rds pr ogre ss :i n d in 1p r<>ve 11 1e n t in a ge nera l w:iy, a nd Ii i>
co ldn c,.;s o r anti p :itli y t u eac h p r .. g rc.: " i,·e J>r"l'"" d in p a rti c ula r; h is p ig 111 y
h o pe th :it Jife wi JJ Ull C d ay JiC CU l>l e SUll>t:Wha t 11<.:ttc.:r , J>U llil )' sh i\'e r i11 g \..y t he
side o f h is g iga n tic co nvi c ti o n t h :it it mi g ht well be i nfi n itely w o rse."

I!.

t\E<.. T SSAR \ . Q u ALITI ES O F T l I E SE7\T E '.\ C E.

I n the m a n age m ent o f a st rn ct ure c :-t pahlc o f s uch 1.o m plc x ity as
is in dicate d a bove, two m a in pro\Jlc rns ar ise : h o w to preserve t h e
unity o f the scntc nc:e, :111d h o w to arran ge :111 its parts a ccord ing to
the ir in tr in s ic empha s is :tnd impo rt:1n cc.

7·11,1-: Slo. \ ' F F. \'< ·r

l / (,

rality of st.:ttcments, in ord er to prescn'C the due subon.lin:iti o n of
wh at is subordinate in thought.

I.

Unity of the Sentence.-1 Io\1·c1·cr intri c;1le the id ea e\presscd,
it is requi site th:1t in .'.l si ngle sL' nlcnt'e C\'(.:ry part be suhsetTient to
(lJle principal :iffirnutiun . \\ 'hcthc r th is :iffirn1:tti o11 is <lcfrnitely
e\p res scd, :1s the centrai idea to ,1·hich :ill Lhe othe rs :ne suborclin:tt e, or, ~is in a compound scnlcnc:c, is the im plied rcsulLa nt of
th e se1T r:11 co~i r.lin :ttc p :uh, - in :111y c:t ~ c the se nten ce mu st produ ce i111i ty oC imp ressio11 .

Faults to be avoided . - In the q 11e;,t io n ho\1· to preserve unity,
a caution is 11cccss:1 ry on both si d es .
r. ?-lost co m mo n i,; the fault o f running on the sent e nce c:irclc,;sly, ::Hlrnitting :ill colbtc ral idc::i s th:1t c:rn be cro\\'ded in, until
there arc se1·cral dis tin c t subjects of th1H1 ght, and no on e of p:i r:1rnou nt i111port:t11 ·e to which :ill rn~ty he o u11 ll'<1 :b su\JServicnt.
Su c h :i se 11 tt.:nn: is tcch11 ic:11ly called /1!'!, n~~n1rr111s . I t is not the
s:tll\C :ts .'.l 1011~ "e ntcnce ; it is r:1thcr a krn g sentence that bib to
produce unity of e ffect.
Fx,1:--11·1 .F.. -1n t1 1c fullu \\'i ng , cntcnc c, •1 t111kd fr,, m 1\ lihott , the distinct
,]i ,·i,icrn s of tlic 1li.iugl1t :trc i1 ~dic:tlt:d l> y :t nurk .
II

~rb i s grc~lt

:1 n 1l

guud

11 ):111

dict1

tlt'l

l i7

thi.;

l

;th ul Sc 11tc1ni)c r, 1GS3, lc:1v ing

lic hi11d l1in1 the 1uelll•1ry of 111:tny noli lc :td i»Jh , 011 11 !1 1111mcrc1llS farnily, I of
, \ -h(llll tlirc c w er e sqn..;: ! 1n1c pf th ci n . Ccurgc, the cldc;.;i , heir to hi s fa ther's
,·irtues, :is "·ell :1 ,; 1\1 his pri11,·ip:1l (:;.late-< in < 'u11il 1crh11d, \\line most of his
f.1tlicr\ p1'<> 1'er1y \\' !1 S siln:tlc, '""\ ,1i ,. r1ly :1flcr\\':u·.!,; ckctc tl 1n c111iier for the
c11un1y. I \\' lt icl1 k id f<J r <.,c\'(: r:d gc 11 (;rati1011 s returned this f:lmily lo serve in
l'arii:i111cnl."
l icrc there :1re :is rn :rny "' J",>11r distinct and c11 u:il subjec ts; t•l s:1y nothing
of the hct erogcnc:ous structt1re uf the in di"idu :tl cl:1uses.
2 . Equally g reat, :i.lso, is the opposite fat1lt of mak ing c:ich
:issert io n into :1 dis tin ct se nte nce. :\part fro m the dis::tgree::il.>lc
effec t of a series o f curt sentences, not :ill :isscrtions \\'ill bear to be
m :1dc so promin e nt. A s t:-ilem c nl merely c\pbn:1tory or qu::ilifying
fJ11.~lil to l >c s uiJordin :ttcd to ut li ns; 1H1t whe n p11l into a se:1tence
l1y it;;clf it h :ts ;dl the indication s of k in ~ C ()i.1 rdi n:ite in value. It
is uftL'll n cc c· ~s:1ry , tlicTl'f,, r,., tu 11 >:tke :1 :'c:11te1H·c cont:J. in a plu-

EXAC.!l' I.F. O F THE FAULT. - From Emerson: " A1t i111liz•idun l is an cnd<>so "
Time :rn,l sp:1ce, li be rty and necessity, truth :11HI though t, :ire left :it large 11 .,
lo11ger. J'\o"', the uni\·erse is cl close or puu nd. All thin gs exi , t in the. 111 :111
tinged \\'ilh tlic manners of l1is S<iul. \\'i th \\'h'.lt qu:1lity is in li i11 1, he infu,c s
:111 n:1t ure th:1t he c:rn rc:ich ; nor docs he tend tu lose himself in Yastne ss,
but, at how Ion .£; :1 cun·e S· Jc\·cr, :111 l1is rcg:n 1Li return int v his O\\'n ~,,.,.[ at
bst. 1 fc aninn\cs ;tl J l1e C:111, an.J he SCCS <111ly \\'h:tt li e anilllatcS. ff1·~01cf,i5 1 ·5

lite wor/J, 11 s //1,· ft:lri<'I d rvs his co u11/1 ) ', as a mufrri11! l•11sis f ur !tis ,·lta 1-,,d1·1"
and a tl!c,l/r,: f 1r a t ll on. n
Conside r \\'h'1t :1 ddour is m:1dc in the th ought l>ctwccn the first and th e

last sentences, p:trl of the in lcrmcd i:t lc st:1teme11ls being prclirnin :iry tu these,

or to c:i ch other, others app:i.rently independent. :\ sm:1ller num ber c.f sen tences, \\'ith can: to sulJurdinatc the p:1ru;, would m:ikc the thought clc:1rcr.

Rules for Unity. - The foregoing c:i.11tions wou ld seem to make
se1'.tencc u nity a somc\\'hat cbst ic q11:-ility; :incl inde ed, the only
u111vers:tl rule of unity th at can be g iven is, to " beware of distra<:ting from the effect of t he n1:J.in st:iteme nt by particubrs not imme diatel y relc1·:rn t." 1
A few furth er s1 1ggc,; tion s, gen eral :ind p;trticular, may, ]HJ \\'C i·e ~,
be given .
I. Determine first of :ill \\'h:lt is to he the central tl1 otwht
of the
t>
sentence, what the se nten ce is to e\i St for. If th en th e re arc to he
coijrd in atcd ideas, look that they l>e so closely :illied with the first
as to form a Luge r unity; if subo rdin:1tcd iclc:is :ire int roduced
see~ c::ircfully the tru e rn ~urncr and degree of s tJbordination,- 11;:
partJClcs or pos 1t1 o n. He cm.:ful, also, in m aking ::idditi ons to th e
main ::isscrtion, to seek such id eas as may be legitimately subordinated.
1
z . When a n added clat1
- sc g·I1·cs
. t 11C co nscriuc nce or t l IC o l)\'CJ'S C
of the prin c ipal; \\·hen it cxpbins, or exemplifies, or rcpc:its t he
idea of the principal; wh e n it is one of a number of clauses ha\ing
the same hc::iring; it 1n:1y ]Jc set off hy a sem icolon, btJt docs not
necess:irily 111:-ir tlie unity of tl1e sen ten ce .

Tiii~·

1/S

SLX'/'l::. \ 'CL.

17')

- T he f,,1!011 ing namplcs 11·ill illn>tr:itc r c btio ns of c buses.
" I I cncc , in speculat ing 0 11 this questio n [ sh al l ta ke thi;
:ts a re:isun::ibk assumpti1rn i"1r, t o f a ll, tlut th e catast ri lphe of :i state is ::io
cnrd i11 g t u its anlec e de n h . a n d its dc, tin y :iccu rd i1 1g l e) it s n atu n: ; n11d t!tere·

into :t lo ng re:t c h o f w:iter, whe re t he L>r ccz c ,,·::is in lr cr favor; an oth er sho u t

( ''"" t li:1t \\'c c an nv t ,- e 11t u rc 011 '1 11\' ant ici p:1ti•l ll uf th e i1 10'lru 111c nts o r the
""nd iti•n is ,,f ih 1k:1t!i , u1 1ti l 11·c kn\l\I' s .. n1 e tlii11 g :ii><>u t th e pr in ciple and the

i nfl uence, n1 , tlcd a m o ment o ver th e lrnlrushe s, an d then spcJ far '1 \\' ay do\\'ll

EX,\'.\IJ·1.1-:•; .

1.

Co n scr1ne nce .

, h:ira1:tcr ,,f its life ."
~- ( lhn'be . "T" k:un frvin Pt hers, y•>ll mn,;t l' lltnl:1 in
nr i one ii . . 1 c 11~ tn tli1 1-.; c \\'l: o nl he L·1111tc1nn-.; . "

:1

:mt! e:-:j>hn:lli•1n . " 11c (I lc ro d.,tu,; ) has ll'ri tten so methi ng
i·l 1te r, i'"rl:" l '" · tli:rn the l1cs t h i,t <> r y; l· u l he h:1s ll<1t \\' I it te n :i gno ,J histo ry;
lie is, fr ,, rn the l1 rst t•1 the h<t c liapt<.: r, an i11,·cnl<1 r."
"T hese prin ci ples do

111>t cq m c simply uf tlie"logy; the y in:ply tl •) s u pe rn atura l di-c ernrn cn t; th ey
11.l\' C 11 1) speci .il c11 nnc<'ti 1,;1 \\'ilh J.:c,·el:iti1> n ; t he,· :il m' '' l :Hi,;c o ut o f th e

liy l11 1m:i n pn1<k nce ~nd wi sdo m,
di \'i nc: i:J,uni n :1ti11n lie :1L,,cn 1, :in d they ~re rc cngni1.cd h y cumrn on

11:\ t urc p f th e
1h" u~;h :t

C:\S <' ;

t hey :ire: diclctted

C \'l'll

<:\'Ctt w h l' rc sc lf- intcrc:... t is n o t i irc :-;c nt t. o 'Jl1i ckc 11 it ; onJ, lhr'r <'for c,
lit<>ugli trn c , :llld ju-t , :ind g•1od in t hc m 'ic h ·cs . they impl y n uthing ,,·h:itevc r ::is
111 thc r cl igi n us p r ofcs..,i•'>ll of those \\'h u nu intain th em."

..., ,_.IJ...,t' ,

5. l.:epet itin n . "I I is gcntic n ess is m:ide J,c:i uti ful l• y :i g ranite \\'ill behi nd;
'11ul uf t he s tru n g com e ,; fu rth s \\' ec t ness.'"

3 . There :i. re some ki nds of sentences, ho ,,· c \·n, that, from the
1i;1ture of t hei r m ate ria l, ca nn o t so 11·cll grnup the ir cl:rnses by the
logica l :1'soci:1tions o f C1t h C, effec t, ol l\ -c r ~ e , repet itio n. a nd the like .
Tlie~e arc d c:.:criJlii\·e :rnd n:1rr:1ti,·c ~cntc n ccs, \\' hich dea l with
.. 1di1·id! ul 1~1ct:.: :111d tkr.1':' rchtcd LlftL'll L'nh· h · con t i::;-< 1ity in sp;ice

':: <t :n1 t r-JL- t'. Jnd th 1;;:: tn . 1kt.. . 1;.> r· i: J kind of
1J
~· : c~ , ~l :-- ~.>: the ( :1h· r·i!c rh. 1 ca n be ol>t he b r,:;er 11 re:i"' in t he :::ensc .

_;:~~ . . c;i :: n,~e , ~··\-~'~.!.:

.~:>~·r

!·.1r.1:; ;-.1t1h .
· : \··~.. 1 is . to choo~c
f:\ ..\\ fl

:.E. -

Co loss us of Rh odes, sm iling :ind h o ll' ing as h ero o f the moment, du ckc1l :ts
the m ain boo m swept round, :ind the sch ooner, Jc ;1nin g sli g htl y to th e plc as:rnt
the r ipplin g bayou ."

I I.

r<' ' l'ecl fur th e m;

~· ( \l""''"'e

4 . Chnses \l'itli 1·011\ln<• n he:uing . arHl C<>tl''<.'. •jllen cc.

of laughter drown ed the m a led icti o ns o f the muddy rn::in; l l1 c s:iils tilled :

1

Jn the f.Ji i" " ·ing . fr .. m ( ;e o rge \\' C:ib:e , the indil'idual de tails

,.._, scp:ir:tteiy uf tuu little c un;-;c •jUCncc to uc'<'lll •' ' sc nt<'ll <'C " ll\· thc rn se l\'es, and
. "t t:ikcn t11get h e r t he y In n : only the un it y u f ucc ur rin ,t:; close tog ethe r in

irnc·: :i u nit ,·. h o \\· c ,·c r. sufft1 ·ic11 l f1• r tlr<: I, ind., ( J11:1l cri ,d .
",.\ lld l! u \\· 11 p n1ns l\:1ptislt', c .. n :rcd ll' il li sli<11c" :rnd l•rcparc s to cast his
""'.icc tik s . Tl< c fi rs t 0 11 e fell wide u f thc 1n :ir k; the S<'iiv u nc r s \1·1111 g round

Distribution of Emphasis. - This im porta nt p:ut o f se n te nce
con stru c tion nny pe rh a ps best be introd uced by a general ru le : S eek so to p la c e words that they shall emphasi z e t he m s elve s; and
do not make th e interpre tation of a se ntence depe nd on the mann e r
in which i t is r ead.

Th is rul e suggests one or t\\'O remarks .
1. If a word d ocs not L>y its pos iti on emphas ize itse lf, the
writer make s hut a p oor :1pology for the fa c t l>y underlin ing . " In
good prose /' says Fre d e ri ck Schlegel, "eve ry word sh o uld lll'
underl in ed " ; hy wh ic h he m e:-ins, every wo rrl should be the ri g ht
word and in th e rig ht pbce . In p ropo rti on :is writers acl1uirc !-ik ill
and finene ss in the use of lan gu age they t ru st le ss to bring ing 011t
emphas is by th e use of italics, and more to the cogen cy o f p erfect
arrange m ent.
2 . If the intcrpret:ition of a sentence is n ot to depend o n a p:irticular rn :in ner of reading, it is of great impo rt:rn ce t h:lt tile writ er
be unerrin g in regard to t he n:l tu ra l and righ t rn:inncr of rcadin!-'.' .
No be tter :lid to the prope r build in~ of sentence...: o n !>c mc'nt 1oncd
t han ,;k ill i11 intcrprc t.1ti ' "-' rc:1di11;.:· . - h~· " hi,·h l t.Ttll 1- 111c.i• 1: .
readi ng trut gi1·cs 1,1 e 1·cry ,,·orJ . in it_,;ei1· :rnd in it -< r l'l.! ~ i.1 :1" t·)
ot her worJs, t he powe r anJ st ress 1110.;; t con-;on ;:int with the \1Titer ·s
idea. I h ::r \·e k no1\·n authors whose m ethods n( :'L'lltc'nce 'lrrtct11re .
ela borated with c:ire ye t radiolly 1·icious, could he tr:lccd direct ly
to a fal se sta nd ard of inte rp ret:it i1·c reading .
Emphatic Places of the Sentence. - Th e distribntion of emp ha sis is first to be d e te rm ined ins ide of the senten ce or clause, and
this by a recognition of the places where emph;:isis is m os t n:i t u rally conc;:en tratctl.

JSO

T!IF .'>I.XTEXCJ.::.

r. The natur::i.i emphatic pbces of ::i. se nten ce or cbuse are the
begin ni ng and the end, and it is here th::i.t we look for the most
irnp orl:rnt words . The quest ion ho w to g ive speci::d d istinction to
some part icubr word g ener:-tlly resoh-cs itself into the question how
to rn::i.kc it ocu1py one of these positions.
2. Whi ch of thes e positions a word must occupy, in order to be
11\0re th::m usu::tlly cmph.1tic, depends upon the place it n:i.turally
occupies in t he se nten ce. Thu s, t he princip::i.l su lijcct, belonging
natmally al the beginning, occupies that pbcc as a matter of
course, ::i.nd when there has no spec ial emphasis . To make the
suliject especially emphatic, th ere fo :-c, \\·e need to put it out of its
11 sml pos iti o n by driving it tow::mi the end . Aga in, the predicate
verh, aclje c ti\·e, or olJjc c t, whi ch belongs natmal ly in the latter part
of th e sentence, acquires e special di stinction l>y being placed at
the beginning.
NOTE . - The means em plo yed fur placing words out of their usual position
ha Ye already been describe,] and excrnpli lic<l under Pro spective Reference,

lSJ

t he verb, liy placing it bcfmc its s ul1jcct ; fo r in stance," There is n ot, an<l
there_1re<ier <e,1.<, o n this earth , a wo rk o f h11111an p o licy so well <lesc n·ing uf
ex ammat1on, as the 1-.:nrnan Catholic Churc h ."
are emphasized by their unusual posit i<J n .

llcrc both sul1ject an<l ver b

3 · A conditi o nal clause at the \Jeginning of the sentence, bei ng
a means of securing suspe nse , refuses ernp h::i.sis to itselt~ :rncl merely
acc umubtcs emphasis fo r the succe eding. T o give a conditional
clause spec i:d distin ction, therefo re, place it b st.
Ex ,Dr1·1.t-:s "" E ,\11·11.1 s 11.i-: 1J C1J:\1>1 l'lll:\AI. CL.AL1s 1·:. - " Of what co nsequence a re all the qualities uf a du ct rine, if that ductrinc be n o t c<i mmu nicated? and curnmu ni catcd it is n o t,

1/ it

seem to in<lic1lc th at we may have -

he n ut ulllkrst<)O<l."-"Thi s woul d
n o1y, a rc already poss csscrl o f _ :-tn

A merica n lilcr:1t11rc, cump'""d uf 1\m er ic:tn ma te ri als, fr o<•id,·J on!:• tliJl we
consent to ad op t the ' ~atur.J:iy i.:evicw's' co n cept io n of w hat litc rat:rrc is. "

4 . /\n ::i.ch·e rhi:ll worcl or phrase, whose t111c111phatic pbce is
\Jefore its ver\J, is emph::i.s ized hy being pbced at the end, and st i.l
more by be in g placed at the beginning.
ExA~ r PLES.

Suspensi•in, :i:id I nver s iun. Sec p rec ed ing, pages 13 3, I .-;.6, 165. A few ad·
ditional examples may be gi,·e n here.
1. It is to he notc<l that w hen the subject is driven to w ard the end, it may
s o metimes become t11 c gramnntical ul•jLOct uf a vcrh or pn:pusition , and still
remain the rhd1ni c al s ui>jcct, ur sul1jc..:t L> f rema rk. The subject may be thus

"In

change•l : J;y a prospecti ,·e W•1rd : "t )n " ·11:-t tc,·<: r side we contcmpl::ite Jiomer, 11•hnt
princ ip::dly ~tu; .. c'.' us is h 1·s 'i i'< i ni:'1· 1; id i11;·01lio11 ." ] l~r~ the wun l "what" is

and I think th a t certain r c~trictions ha1·c pccul i::i r ly limited pruclucti<ln in th~
field o f P oet ry, - the c hief of im::i ginat i,·e arts . " [I ere the emphasis of the
adve r bial phrase is aided hy i1n·crsi u n .

used 1•r·"·i s i111 1ally f,,r t11c '1il•i•·,·t , 1111til th·~ sul>it: ct is cxprc~"Cll.
J ~y si1-;pcnsi<1u : " (J n ' <:ekin.i.: f,.r s11n1c 1·l11 c tn tlit: !:1"· underly ing these
current 1n axi1 11 s , we rnay sec ~krduwcd furth in many of thc111, the i111por/a11a
r o 1do ·' s atto1li1>11."
llcrc the sulijcct of remark has by
the s uspen sio n become the gram111ati cal obj e ct.

f>fiw 11 0111i: i11,J..' tl1 t

Hy ill\·ersion : "The wages c. f si n is death. "

lT ere su bj ec t and predicate

have ch:rngc d phces.
2 . The same me a ns may be used in displacing the predicate ; indeed, the

same agency that emphasi zes the one often emphasizes the other, in the same
sentence.
Uy si mple inv ersion :- "Ilo s/1,·.I all tl1c ir s abres har e. " 111crciful."

"f.'!esseJ a re the

The pr<1spcl'li,·c tho·,· o r ii, whi ~ h cn1 phasiLcs the ·ul1jcct, also emphasizes

-

cons i derably." -

the end."
2.

1. , \ ch·er li at the end . "This pruceJure modifies th e re sult
"If he tak es this comse h e will surely come to disaster ; 11

Adverb at the beginning.

" S/o;e~r and sad~J' , 1-e laid him down.''_

110 1110.!<· rn (OI111t1y h:1s ide ,1l ity l1ccn m1) rc reta rded than in ou r o wn ·

5. "Jt may sornctirn ·s lie th e n:-itun: of th e cbttsc to refuse emphas is to itself; so th :1t, tliuugh pbccd at t he end, it docs not interfere with the importance of a p reced ing cbusc ."
ExA~ll'LE. - "ln the sc nt cncc, ' Dissipat itl n wastes h c:-tlt h , as well as tini c,'
the loose additi o n, 'as ,,·ell as time,' can not dep rive 'h ealth' o f the >t ress th at
would n atu rall y be p ut u pun it." I

Dynamic Stress in Clauses and Sentences . - Emph:-isis lus ;iJso
to be so distributed ::i.s to make clauses ::i.ncl sentences r ightly ::rn1

Remark and cxamplc taken from Bain '~ " Engli s h Compo~ ition and Rhetori c,"

P· I3$·

T!IE SFN'l'LNCE.

'l'/I I·: SF. \ "l'J·:. \ ·CE

] .\ 2

sirt~ r

to c:1rh other ; :rnd thi is don e hy proper recognition of the
dyn:imic stress .
The term dyn:1mic st ress is here :1 rlop tccl to indi c:1tc the concentration of <'rnphasi,; :i.t some d etc rn1 i11:1tc point. E1·e ry se ntence
;\;1cl eve ry cbuse h:1s its clyn:1mic point, from ,,·hic h its powe r anc1
~ignific111cc arc to lie reckon ed, which point should he :icc urately
note d l >y t he writ er, 111 order to d etermine the proper relatio n of
p.lrts to c:1ch othn.
T 1e follo11·i 11;; suggest ions arc of impo rtance .
1. \\' he n a cbuse or se nte nce take s its c11e from so me idea in
the prccedin~, it i.· i111portrnt th:tt the p reced ing id e::t thus recognized should lie mad e prominent by the dyn:irnic s tress .
i1.1.1·~ r 1u11·•~.-

l-'rm11 l lickc ns: "f t w:i : rcm :i rk:ililc , th:it :i.lth oug h he

( J::irn :ihy l'udg c) h:1 d i l1:it dim sc1h<.: o f th e l"ht , he s1i 11 gh 1 Put l!u gh\ dog,
:i.11.J tr .. >k him under his c:irc : :i. n d t h:i t he 11c1·cr c u ul.l lie tc111 1't ed i111 ,, I.0 11d,,11 ." llcr e the lir,[ chuse h::ts 11 .. t th e r ight 'tress f. 1rrk:i. r11 es,, l,e c:i usc wi1at
f., Jl11\\'s dcril'cS its signi lic:i.n cc frurn the di111 11<·s;; uf the vis i• m . nut the possessiun uf it ; and ti 1i, Licl uf di11111c'' is left <-1il" 1rt!in:itc.

l :y lll :ik ing it prou1i-

11 e nt the ~uccccdi11g is much hl'lll' r i'r<·1•.ire.i f., r :ind ex ph i net! ; t h us : "Jt
w :is r «111a r k:il .k that , a//h .•1(1.;/1 his so1s" •f th ,- f'.i st <i'< l .< su di111 , lie sought out

l iugli\ dug, '' e tc .
.\ in·•iucnl c.1u'c o f Yag ucnc's i,; the c<>upling n f :i. c111 1ju11 c ti1J nal relation ,
:idn-rsati,·e o r i il.l lin: . u11 \\'h:it is 111>l the Jll :ii n id c :i l1ut un ly a sulio nli rute
unc , .,f tht.: prc .. ct! in i; c h use. E x:1111plc frnm Cc ncr:il ( ;r:1 nl's ;\l c nwirs: "l
occup ictl :i tug fr1 i111 \\' hich T cn uid sec th e effe c t o f t he h:i1tlc t>n b o th sides,
wi thin r a nge <>f t he en e my 's guns ; l•ut :l s1 n:i.ll tu g . 1rith<>ut :i.rmamenl, was
nllt c:i.kubted t•> :i.tt r:ict t he lire of li:i.tteri es "' hilc th ey \\' l'J'C la:i ng :i.ssailcd
thcm-;ch·cs. " 1l c r«1h c :i1h·ers:iti1·c t:ik 1·;; its c ue fr nm "ll' ilh in r:i.ngc <if the
enemy's gu n s," 11·hid1 i,; l•ll> in sig11ili1·a n1 ly p hcc d f,ir suc h :i. u' c o f it. Noti ce
t he di fT· r c n ce uf. "The tug th :i. t 1 occu;•icd, f1«•lll ll'lii l'h l cu uld see . . . 1ras
"'ithin ra nge vf 1hc· cn1.:11 1y 's g u n< ; l•ut,'' clc. Of cou rs e . if stress is ne eded
on "l occul' icd ,'' a different re cis t is lv lie so ught.
2. \Vhen, in cl:iuses or se nten ces o f like co nstrn cti o n, :rn element !us o nc e h:td :i certain stress. th c:rc is no need of g iving it
the s:i..me stress :igain, except in oses where it is rl es ir:ible to em1 hasizc by itcr:it ion . It is be tter to pu t th e repeated id ea in a
s ubordinate rebtion, or ch:ingc it s o rder, so that the stress may be

l S.1

reserved for a new :ispcct of the thought.
gr:iph 78, page 163.

See prcc eJing par::i.-

ExA~tl'IY S . - F ro m C an o n F a rr:ir: "Thal D ryden w:i.s :i. great puel is undeniabk; th::it lit: clcscc r:it ed his p o wers :i.nd 11nrned them, li ke the in cens e
of 1srad, in uu hallvll'ed :,hri11e ,;, is nv less certain."
llcr c st ress is !;iid on
"is und eniable· · in the lir ,; t cb usc, and v n "is nv less certai n " in th e ~econd ,
two c0rrc,pv1Hling clement,; (if structu re, and not needin g to Le rnade su pr1>tn i11 e nt J,y the itrr at iu n. Jbvi ng c111ph:i.s i1.ed the preclic:i.te in the lirsl clause,

we may bette r lay the stress o n :i. n e w clement in the s econd; th us: "That
Dryden was :i. g rc:i.t poet is und e ni:i.ble; hut it is no less certain th at he dese crated his poll'ers :i.nll burned them, like the in c ense o f Israel, in unhalloll'ed
shrines."
An othe r ex:i.mp lc, fr vm Anth o ny Trvll o pe: "That s0me facts w e re stated
in accur:i.tely, I dv nut dv u ht; that many opinions ll'erc c rude, I am qui te :,ure ;
that I had failed t u 11ndcrsta1HI much whi c h T :i.ttc m pted lo exp lai n, i.; l"'" 'i hle ." 1 Jere th e lir,t twv cbuses m::iy fitly st:ln!I a s the y :i.re, I.icing a cli rll:t'<;
Lut :i. var iation uf st ress 1niuhl lie o f ad v:int:i.ge in the third: - "an t! it is
quite poss ibk that I had faile,\ to un de rstand ," et c .

3. In :i series of se nten ces the strc::;s should be vari eJ continually, so as to come in the beginnin g o f so me sentences anu at the
end of olhers, regard bein g had always fo r the two considcr:1tions:
v::i.riat ion of rhythm, and grouping u[ simibr id c::ts together.
EXA~tl'LE . - l n t he follow ing p:i.ss:i.g e there is muc h rnvn otony in the se ntences from the fact th:it all :i.re o f ne:i.rly the same len gt h, a nd tb:i.t in all but

one the strc >s is t hro ll'n to w:i.rd the end l1y means of suspensive phr:iscs
placed at tlte beginning. The p:iss:i.ge and :i.n emen<btion a re placed side l1y
side .
Centuries ago, uefvrc pr in ted b ou ks
and new spape rs were . known, there
was an a ge vf intellectual dark11css
and confu>io n. Between :i.ncicnt :i.nil
mod e rn c ivili 1atio ns , and separ:i ting
the o n e frum the other, this pe riud o f
<hrkne ss ex te n ds . Jn a 11·or1 Ll where
justice and liberty could not be found,
quarreling :i.nd li gh ti ng were almost

Centuries agu, hcfllre printed l1voks
and newspapers 11T rt.: knuwn, t hnc
w:i.s a n age of intelle c tual da rkness
and ..:vn f u:, ivn. Thi~ d a rk p eri od ll' as
the separnt in g er:1 betwe e n an c ie nt
and m o dern ci vi IiLal iun s . Justicc and
libe rty we re un known terms in lh <•sc
clays; the world's chief uccu pat iu 11
w:i.s <[Uarrcling and fight ing. A 111:111 's

th e sole occu pati v n. Phy s ic :il st rengt h
and the possessi o n of bnds d e te r-

p o wer was determined by his p h ysical
s tren gt h, and Ly the lands he p os-

mined a man's power.

sessed. From the poor peasant tu t he

From the p oo r

.

TllE SENTENCE.

lSI
pe:is:mt to the ki n g , th ere was
pe rso n secure in hi s po,itiun . In
cliti1ll\ to t he i11lern :\\ d i'< >r dc r,
lnrliari:rns were: in:cLiJJg frv <[ ll Cllt

no
:i1lt he
in -

v :1-;i u 11 :-; ~111d d c \·a:-'t.lti ii g lhc L1Htll try.

king no person w:is sec ur e ; plots and

tor would he more sincerely m o urned by his as soc iates than this courteo us

i nsurr c.:l·tii)n ~

gentl eman and devot ed and faithful legislat or."

di~t nrln~ d

e ve ry nati on

fr u111 " ·i1 hi11, ;d1ile fro m " ·it li ou t fre•1ucnl in ,·asi1J11 ,.; ,,f lia rli:ir i:rn ho rdes

c:ir.
I r.1. UST !(,\Tf\):'1 . - In the f,,Jlv \\'in g , taken fr o m :i leading n e \\· sp:1pe r, it will
lie seen th at the , c11 lcnces, with the s., ic e\cq1l i11n of tlic scc u n1l, :ire al l cun-

't ructc1l in p recisely the s:i111c \Cl)' , - e.1cl1 c"n'i ,t in g mcr cl y u f t\\·u as.,erliuns
\1y

lII.

K!NUS OF SLNTENC ES.

de1· a< tat<.:d the: lands .

True it is of litcr:tture as it is o f lilJcrty, th:i.t " eternal \·i gibnce is
the price" of a goocl sty le. Let the wri te r o nce con te nt himself with
setting d own rec urrin g thoughts nwrcl y as it happe ns, or n egle ct
tu calc ubtc th e rd:1lio n of part to part in the wh ole ti s~ t1c, and he
is almost sure to Lill into a m onotono us. 11·ootkn ~ ty l c , with sen ten ces all of one type, :i.ncl \1·i th s:irneness of st ress en~ rywhere .
The writ er c:rnno t 01: too sedulo us in te sti ng cvcry p:1ss:i ge IJy the

CllllllCCkd

185

17 !1./.

"The dc:itl 1 ur Se11ato r ;\ 11tliuny h:1 ;; b c,·n l1rng C\pe ctc1 1. <l!!d it rel<:ases
him fr o m :i ;;ulk 1in g wh ich \\·as h·y"nd re1ncdy . l le.: "·as a pulilic nun of
lu ng :in d hun" ralilc sen ice, whv lilled ci·cry ,t ,1tiu n t" " -hiL h he was called
with dig 11ity :rnd gr:u.:c . 1\s lh e c ditu r t>f lite l 'r"'·i,lencc Jou rn al, :i 1Hl Governur :-tn <l Scn:-ttu r. he w:1, the Jnu st i1npurt:rnt p•.ilit ical figu re.: i11 the State, 1111d
in hi-; dc:i lh Rhud e [,bnd losc.:s th e must s uccc.:;;;; flll pvlit icia n in he r 1i;story .
"I n 11lhc r ve:1rs S.:11:il111· :\ 11lh11 n y\ cri ' l' :rnd pun gc.: n t p :trag r:1phs in the
·joarnal \\' ere ~·ny n .. u[,Jc and in illl~ nti :il, .111J hi;; 11 apc r was <i 1H· o f the half:1,,,c n \ca.ling _jn urn :il, in :'\cw Fngbnd . lt \\":-tS by l':u:1g r::ip h'i rathcr than
\ ,y cl:d1u r:1tc c dit uri:d :uticlcs th:1t he prckr r1·d tu :ilfrc t 11p i11i 11 11, ,011! in the
Se n ate it \\'a s !1y lii s 1>1·1::isi"n a l brief 'i ''-'<T i <c>. ll'iii c li were <>fle n singularly
felic:it"u s, an <l twt l1y p:utic ipatiun in deli:1t c u r l•y pr1J iu 11 gc .J , .rat io ns, that he
tuok r~rt in tlit: p r \h.'ccd i 11gs.
" ]Jc w :-ts :1 dc 1·utcd pa r ty ma n, 011cl hi;; pul iti cil e xpe ri e n ce ::11111 j ud g ment
tn:i1 le him ::i w ise cuu nscl ltJ r. J\t hunH' he h:1d the rL·putat iun of a sh re1nl
m::i.n agcr , a11J l•is p:uty w ill n ot e as ily ii ml so \\' Cl l-tr:·1in c1 l a 1cJ tic r. \'ct for
:i lo ng tim e there ha1·c hcc n compbints th:J.t h is rule was tno absolute, a11d
- t h :1 t gn1>'l polit ics re •1u ir c cl mo r e frn:d om :rnd indepcmknce than his sway
l'nlllil lc cl . Senato r ,\ntli ony'~ suci.il sy nl[ •:1th ic.., a n•l Iii' !iit-r:iry tastes ma de
him :i very plc:is:i nt comp:ini o n, a 11d hi ~ c11nvns :tti"n wa s fu ll o f interest ing
pu litic a l relllini sc cm:c . Ile: h:id uecumc the Fath e r uf the Senate, and nu Sena·

Under this head will be discussed the nature and advantages of
long and sho rt sentences, of p eriodic and loose sentences, an<l of
the balanceJ sentence . Th e principles gove rnin g these lnv e already been g iven, in the sectio n on Fundamental Processes; it
remains merely to give the application of them in sen ten ce-structure, and to show how style 1s affected by the prevailing use of any
one kind of se ntence.

I.

Long and Short Sentences. - For the sake of variety in style,
the writer needs to exercise care that short sentences be prope rly
interspersed with long. It would of course be absurd to prescriLe
any definite lim it for the length of sentences, or to say in what proportion long and short sent ences should be comb in ed. All this
must be left to the writer' s disc retion and taste . Only it is to !Jc
remembered th :i.t a lo ng succession of se ntences of the same len gth,
whether sho rt o r lo ng, is we:irisorne; and besides, it im parts to the
style qualities not su ited to the sense. \Vhen short sentences predominate to excess, the style becomes flippant and abrupt, :rncl the
rhythm of it is lost. ·wh en lo ng sentences are in excess, the diffi culty of intcrpret:i.tion is increased, and the style becomes lumbering :ind heavy.
No-rn. -The following p assag e, fr u m :'II acaulay, will illu str:ite th e al1rupt
and disjointed effect o f :i se ries nf sh1>rt se nten ces .
" \Ne have ha d laws. \\'c h:i,·e liacl l1loud . ?\cw treaso ns h a,·e been cre:i te d . The press has hce n sh:ickled. The habeas-corpus act has been su,; ·
pended. P ubli c me et ings l1:ive he cn proh iliit e d. The event has prove(! th.it
these expedi e nts w ere mere palliat ives. Y o u are at the end of your p:1lli:1t ives . The evil remains. It is more formidable than ever. \Vhat is to lie
done?"
The followin g , which it is n o more th a n fair t o quo te also from Macaulay,
will illustrate the m ore agrccahle effect of se tting lo ng :ind sh"rt senten ces in
alternation with each other, and breaking thus the monotony of a long series.

'/ '!I le Sl.. \ ' /'LX c 'F

TJJL SE,VTLXCJ.:..' .
hi s mode o f defc.: nding T~a c on seem s to us by n o means lL:icon ia n.

To

ma n 's character f"r g ra nted, and then fr o m his ch:iractc r to infer the
'i' tal ity ,,fall Iii:< :1ct iu ns , i:; surely a process the ve ry reverse o f that
;, re cu111 rnc,l<kd in the :\cl\·u111 Urg a nuni. :\othi11 g , 11·e arc sure, co ulLl
,. ,i ~Ir. :\lu1tLq~1 t tu d e p a rt ~ u fa r fr .. 111 his 11 1a-,t<:r ':; l' reccpts, except zeal
l! t:rst cr's liun u r. \\"e shall f11lluw a differc11t cou rse . \ \"e shall a ttempt,
1c valua ble as,i:<t:1 11 cc which .\ l r. '.\l o u tagu has a fforded us, tu fr am e suc h
, 1u 11 L uf J;acon 's Ii fc as rnay cna hie ou r reade rs co rr ectly to esti mate hi s

NuTE. -

Obse n·c h uw, in t he fullo 11·in g, tl1c long seco nd senten ce gi1T s

s imply the details ampli!icatllry vf the idc:i cx pn.: ,~ed in th e lirst.

Th e qu u ta -

ti o n is fr ll 1ll Ca rdina l 1\ev man. ".\ntl, while: the many use language as they
find it, the man u f ge nius uses it i ndeed, lHtl "ul ij ects it witha l tu his u11·n pu rp oses, and rnuulds it accv rdi 11g t' ' hi s own pec ~iliarities . Tli e throng and sm·ccssio n uf ideas, lhuuglih, feeling~ , i1n::lg i natiun s, :l..;p\ratid n s, whi c h pa ~~ \\"i il11 11

·ter ."

him, t h e a !.s tract i" 11', the ju\ t:t) " "iti"n', th<:: cu rnp :ui ;. rn:;, the discr i111 i11atiu1h,
the co n ce p tio ns, whi ch ctrc 'v u rig in al in him , h is 1·i c 11·s uf extcrn:il t h ings, his
judgm e nt s u po n life , m a nn <: rs, and h istury, the exercises of his \\'it, uf hi s hu -

es o each Kind. - The tende ncy to wri te in long or in short

the ve ry l'uk1tiu n an d th r ubb in g vf h is i ntellect , d oes he im age furth , to all dues

nces is partly incli\·iclual, partly due to a prevail ing mode;
cs icks this, mu c h is due to the natural requirements of th e

he g i\'e ut te ra n ce, in a c v rre spu nding language, which is '"'' multifo r m as thi s
inward m c nt :\l ac ti o n itse lf and analt1gous t el it, the fai t hful expression uf his

1· t-m a tter.
Th e short senten c e, being c:1st1.:r to understand :-ind r emems L·s pcci:llly a dapt.L'd to pa ss:-iges 11·herc importan t points have
made , passages of definiti o n :rnd di scrimination, o r o n which
, o f the thought hin ges . The fumhrncnt:ll proposit ions that
:1nte the central nucleus of :l course of th ought, :-ind pass::igcs
11 11ury, :lre generall y exp r L~ss ccl in sho rt sentences .
·~· short sentence m a y o ftcn be use d to ad1·ant:-ige, also, fo r
1;;cs of cmplusi s, the s1 iccess i\·c condensed assertions being

in te n se pe rsu nal ity , attending on his u w n inward wurld of thuught a s its Yer;·

,1

man y hammer-strokes .

11. - \\"ha t o n e l\'llll ld gi " <.: in separa te sentences, anoth er wuulLI often
sc 11t c nc e -111 cm /,cn , which tl1c1n sch·es, i n ail but pu11 ct uat iu11 , are like
sentence;;, and c:xliii 1it th e hrc1·it1· anJ c r i~pness u f a sh u rt sentence.
,, ., fpr example, th e cffec:t uf tlie f"l lll 11·i ng dc! initi1·e p ::rss::ige, from Car ·
:-; ,· 11 111 :u1 : " Tliuu g l1t and 'l't.:c c h a1·c i11 ,;L·1i:rr:ild e fr v m c:ich other.
, :i llll c x1>:cs, iu 11 :rre l':Hb ui u11 c : sty k ;, a th i11ki11g uut intv language.
; ,,·hat I have l ie c n hying dv wn, :111d thi:; is liter at ure : nut t/1iJ1_i;s , not

mo r, o f hi s dep th, of hi s sag ac ity , all th ese in nume ra bit.: a n d incess a n t crcatiuns,

shad o w: so that we m ig ht as ll'Cll say that one man 's sha<luw is ano th e r' s as
th at th e style uf a re ally gifted min d can belong to any lint himself."

3 . Detween lon g sentences of detailed thought it is often ne ces sary to in se rt sho rt t r:rn s ition:-il ,;cntcnccs, suggesting the thou g l1t in
se nten t ious form, as a oasis for the lon ger trc:-itmcnt. There is,
perhaps, n o more fruitful c:tu se of "hard reading" tha n the
n eglec t to su p ply s uch compend io us m ea ns of tr:-i nsi tion and c uiln ection.
ExA~tt·1.tc. Jn tlie fu ll111vin g pass:1ge, fr u 1n l l urkc , co ns ider bow l!lu c h tl1c
cle a rness and e asy pr ug rc ss u f the thought a rc due t u the shvrt sentence~ i ntn -

spcrsed.
" \ .Vith< ll.ll furce , o r uppos iti. 111, it ( n atiun:1l chi,·alry) s u bdued the ticrcc n ess
of pride :ind l'""' L' r ; it ,,J ,Jig c d suvc r c ig n s t n s nl1n1i t l•> th e suft c<>lhr v f suci: d
esteem, C(lllljwllcd s te rn :i11t l1u ri ty t <> s11l11 11it tu L"kg:\ll ce , :\ll d ga1-c a <i<>rni11ati o n van•11ti , Jicr uf Jaw,, tu J,e sul1ducd J,~· 11 1a nncrs.
But 11 1•:0 ,,// i s lo /,<.
dlllJ1ged .

All tli c pleas ing iilus iuns, which m ad e pu11·er ge ntl e, and ul,cdic 11 cc

tli:1l sy m bvls uf th ings ; n· 1t on the uthcr h:1ntl me re 7;•11rds .: liut thoughts
«c d in bngu:igc." I Inc the wh vl c impn:-,ion is u f brevity. - The pas.f ,1iu1·t sentences from :\ l:r c:iub y 11uutcd alJOv e is a good example of

so ft e n p ri vate soc iety, arc t o lie dissuhed by this new co n rjlic r ing cinpi rc uf

" ·n tcnces crnpl" yed for empha , is .

ijght and reason.

The long sentence :lfTo nls roo m to amplify the sen se , by con1t ions ancilla ry to th e main idea; it is therefore se rviceable
1cro du ci11g dcuils Idling out a prc\·ionsly suggested thought.
ilc:o Le tt<..:r adapted to rhythm and c::t<k nce , and can be grad , ll10rc readily tu a cl im ax .

lib eral, whi c h h a rm on i1ed t he d iffe ren t shades of l ife, a nd whi ch, liy a ], \and
assim ilation, in cu r pu r:\tcd int u puliti -:s t he sentiments ll"lii d 1 lJL"a utify a nd
All ll1t· de<o1I iln>f'<' ' )' 1f 11)« 1s !" /,c r111id;· turn •'.ff 1\ ll
the superaddcd ideas, furnished fr c• lll the ll" a rdrube <.1f a lll•>r:ll irn aginatiun,
which the heart own s , :r11d the und e rstanding ra titics, as n ccess :rr y to cuver

th e defects of uur n :lkl'<l sh i1·ning n a ture , and tu ra ise it tu d ig n ity in uu r
ow n esl irn atiu n, a re tu J,e L''plodcd as a ridi c ul.1us, alJ, ur d, a ud anti q uatecl
fashion ."

'!'fl/~·

,';,';

SFNTl·.' ,\'CE.

'/'/fl~·

rem a in g r:.u nm:it ic:ti ly compk:1~, arc rnarl;ed.

II.

Periodic and Loose Sentences. - The p rincipie of the periocl!c
··11tence, 1Y hich is the sam e :is the suspe nJed sente nc e, h:i.s been
i1·e11, and i~s grannn:1lical instruments cxernp lifted, tlnder the head
,f' Susp ens ion ; sec pre ceding, p:igc 1 46 . From t he sect ion ren rcd to it \\·ill :1111w:t1· that a periou is a sen tence wherein the siglic:rnt cl e ment is deb)Td till the clusc ; and that, in ge neral, this
t rnct me is effected " ]Jy !.>ringing un predicates 1Jcforc what they
1c predicated ol, ;rnd. whi ch is 1·irtually a sim ilar process, quali1<::1lions befo re what they qualify; lettin g \ls know descriptive
·d juncts, r esults, conditions, altcrnat in:s, or::i.torical contrasts, of
:ilJjcc ts, s tates, or actions, before we formally know th e particular
1t!Jjects, states, or actions , contemplated Ly the write r. " 1
l n :i. louse sentence the prin c ipk uf sthpc nc,e is n ot observed;
111al ifying, explan :lto ry, :lnd prcliIT1inary clements arc added as
he y occur co the rni:id, after the ideas to 11·hich they belong, with
1•. , app:ncnt :i.ttcmpt at stt1dicd and an is ti c groupi ng .
Th e test of
ioosc sen tence is, that it may be qoppcd before the en d, somei11 1es in se veral places, :i.ml yet the par t already gi1·cn p reserve
1>rnpicte g ram mat ic:i.1 se nse.
:'\1>T l·:. -

Of rn odn n writer<;, ne Quincey make s the m os t cop io us use of

1

w period ic senten c e; and the fre que ncy of this structu re imp a rts, more than

·· w~ a n y ut ht..:r clcn1t:nt, tlic st:i.tciinc.:~s that is llPtcd as :t

dist in guishing feat ure

.r l: is siylc. 'fw,, L> r th ree e xa111ples will ill us trat e this type o f se nten ce in
le' l_!11i11cc' y . "L' 1><•11 Jt><:, :1S ll]""' others sc attered thi 11 ly by tens :1ncl twenties
' <' r eve ry tl>uns:rnd y..;;i rs , frll hl\I j•uwerfnlly :t 11 .I I"" c:trly th e visio n of
1ie ." - ":\n d if, in th e \"Cllu111 ]':1li11q1se st. ly in .c: aJJ><>ll).:'t tlic otlicr diplomata
f l111man arcJ1ivcs 11r lilir:uil'<, there is anything fantastic or wh ich moves to
t::;;h ter. :is oftl!ntime s there is in th e gro tesque c.illis iuns uf th ose successh·e
h..: mes, li :wing no n atural c o nnection, \\'hi ch !,y pure accident h:we consec niv"ly uccnpie d the roll, yet , in ou r 0 \\'11 lic:t\'Cn- crc ated p:il i111psest, the deep
n"111ori:i i p:i limpsest uf the lnai n, the re a rc no t and ea unot be such inc~
i,_·rcnces.''

The iunse sentence nuy he cxernplilic<l fr 0 m C:irlyle, with ll'hom it is the
·rl! v:tiling type o f structu re . The places \\'here it m:iy be slopped, :md yet
l

S!:'NJ'LNCL.

i.\Iiuto, ":'-Ltnu:il of Engli>h Pro>C Li terature," p . 4.

l :)')

"I [c (Burns) docs n ot ll'rite fr o m

h e:i rsay, liut frvm s igh t :ind t:xpe ric ncc; I it is th..: sce nes th a t he h as li''Cd
a t1d lauo rcd amidq. that he .!csc ri lics: I those sce nes, rud e a n d h umliie as
they a rc , have kindled i>e :rntifol cnwti o ns in his sou l, I nulile thou gh ts, a nd
dcll n ite re so lv es; I and h e speaks furt h \\'l1 a t is i n him, n o t fr o m any uu tll'ar.1
call o f vanity o r in terest, l1ut uecause h is he:t r t is tuu full to be silent. "

Advantages of each Form, and Cautions to be observed.
T he l1tn ess ul c ilhcr type of stnictme is to Lie dcte n11i11 c d paniy
l>y the s ulJjcc t-ma ttcr, and partly l>y the prev:i. ilin g spirit of the
passage .
I. The great ad 1'antagc of the pe ri od ic form lies in the Lt c t tha t
it keeps up and co n ce ntrates the re ad er's attent ion . This m :1kes
it eas ie r to pbcc qualifying words ri ghtly, ::i.nd !s thu s farnralJlc to
unity of struct ure, Lccwse all is gr0t1pecl w ith reference to the
suspended idea. Its general effect, whe n empluycd in brgc proportion to other types, is to im par t statl'liness and di g 11ity to
wcigl1 ty subje cts, aml to light sllhjects neatness an d fin ish. J n
irnp:i.ss ione d wr itin g it is ofte n useful as regulat ing and m o d e rati11 .~
the read e r 's emotion, hy ke ep in g th e tension o f mind uni form \Inti/
th e culminating id ea is re ached .
T he cautio n needed is, n ot to make the suspe nsi 1·e details too
numero us o r too abs t ruse; fo r suggesti o ns on this po int, see preced ing, pa ge q9. It is to be rem e mbered also that \\· e ighty
tho ught will, in ge neral, bear th e period ic structure better than
ligh t su bjec ts ; c:ue is nce<kd in the latte r, t herefore, no t lo introdu ce th e p e ri o d tuu brgc ly, for the rne rc:: sake of n eat ness.
2. The loose se nt ence h:ts tl1e adv an t;.i gc o f !Jei ng rn ure like
conversation, and hence more easy, less for mal. It is t hus espe cially acbptccl to the more familia r kind s of d iscourse, - to n:ura ti ve, le tte r-w ritin g, popubr add resses; lit e rary form s in which any
appe:i.rance o f artiii c iality is out of 1Jbce .
The te rm ! u1Js1· co nveys n o rep roachfu l se nse: th e loose sentence
is a type o f structure just :i.s legitimate and just as su scep tible of
artistic fin ish as the periodic . But it is the lollsc structnre that is
most na turally !lll/'Pcncd 11/Ji'll without effort; and the faults to Le

··'.r.

l9u

avo iJcJ in its us e :i.re th e faults due to slipshod th inking :i.nd carekss workm:i.nship, - n ~1 mely, rambling in coh eren ce :md tedious
dilution of the th o u:_:ht.
Combination of Forms. - It is not to be supposed th:i.t either
per iodic or loose se 11tcn ces make up the sole type o f st ructure in
;rny d is co urse. As a m:lttcr of fact the :lctu:i.l number of periodic
sentences is mu c h sm; dlcr th:m the n umbe r of loose se ntences;
and a co1111nntil'cly small in crease in their proportio n is s ufficient
to inip:u t the pec uli:<r effe c t of th e periuJic style .
r . Hy l hc lKs t \n iters peri odic sc nt l'nccs arc cons tantly relieved
l.>y loose ones; it \\" Ould in deed be h:trd to fine! more th a n two
peri ods in succession , except in cases where for some reaso n it is
desirable to make a serie s of sentences studiously alike in plan.
The re qu ir e me nts of the dyn:-imi c st ress, as already mentioned,
would necess itate \·:niation in struct ure.
l\'u l' E. - (Jl1 sn\'e )1<>11· tl1e ty11e of , enten cc is v:iricrl in tlie f.1l1011·i llg: first
:\ r:1t hc · lun g J'Cr i".J , t hen a ,h « rt in1 ern 1e diate senl<:ncc, and thir d ly a loose
:-- c:ld t_' ll1.: c . ·1 ·hc i 1. 1 ~-.. .1g e i-.. ipbit cd fn>111 l lean ~l a n ky .
" A n d th en, i11 tl1c 1lt-vp ,.,tilln e's of ti1t: .lc ,e rt ai r - un l.1 rnkc 11 by falling
,;trcun , u r nut<: .,f J,i,- ,\ , , ,r lr:rn1p uf IJ e:-tst , ur c ry ,,f man - can1e the whi sp er,
,,f ;1 n,icc as o f a gentle l1 r<: ath - ci f a ,·., ice"' ' sm all that it 11· :1 s al lllnst like
siknce . T he n he L1c11· th a t the m o n1cn1· was c1•J11e .
I le d rew, as was his
wont, h is r11u g h m:i.ntlc <l \ 'C f his lic:id ; h e wr apped his fact: in its a m ple folds;
he C llllc o ut frum th e shelte ring ruck, a nd stood lJC JJC :<t h tlit: ca,·c to receive
t he [ Ji\'ine C<Jlllnlunicat i.rns."

- · Nur is it oitcll th ;t t sentc ll ces a rc fu111ld conform in g rig idly
thru1 1giirn tt tu the pcriudic structure . The sante sentence, especially if long, m:iy begin \\· it h s u s 1K· n ~i \·e stru c ture :rnd remain
pe ri odic to a c:er t:1in po int , :ind t hen Le finish ed lo ose; :lnd often
clauses in a sen tence rn:ty be loose while th e general type is periodic , or ·vi'cr 7•ersa .
EXA \ ll'l.E. -The fuli•lll·ing senten ce, fr uin :\I :tt the w .\ rnulti, is strictly
l''·ri udic :is fa r as the 11·ur.l ""piniull," a nd J.,u ,; e fru 1n that j>u int on .
'' l thi nk t11at i11 Fllgland , 11:1nly fr,"" the wan t vf an :\ c:tdemy, partly
fruin :\ n ;1t io n:i.l habit uf intel lec t to wl1i c h t h;tt w.llll .,f :1 n :\ ca.le 11Jy is itself
due . !he re oi , ts t"u litllc uf ll'b:1t l 111:1y c:dl ;1 pu!ili c fu rce u f curred literary

7 I IL .~LN ?'/:,';\'CE.

1'J l

opinion, p ossessi ng within cer ta in limits a ckar sen se o f what is rij! ht and
w ro n g, s0 und antl un so und, anti shar p ly recallin g m e n o f ability and 1earning
from any flagrant mis di recti o n of these their advantages."

II I.

The Balanced Sentence . - The principle of the bal a nced sente nce has already been expbincd and excrnplifi c<l un<ler the head
of Repetition (Repe tition of l\fann c r of Expression, page 164) .
'When the different clement s of a compou nd se ntence arc made tu
answer to each othe r and set each other off by similarity of form,
the sente nce is s:-iid to be babncecl . The similarity of the balancing clauses lies partly in the gra rnrn:tti c:-il structure, and partly in
the alternation of emphasis . Antith es is is often ernployed :is an
aid in setting chuses over against each other.
NOTJ·:. -The llalan ced Strndnre h as b ee n s0 fully ex e mplified 1hat nnly ;in
example o r t11· 0 n t:e d lie g i\' c n here . In the folluwing se nt e nce the ba la nce i.;
effec ted li o th J,y siJ11ihrit y o f stru ctur e and antithesis: " J It: defend ed him wh e n li\'ing, amidst th e clamo rs of his cnemi c' ; an.\
praise.I him wh e n dt:ad, arnidst the sil ence of hi s fri e n ds ."
In the follo\\' in g ubse n·c that tlic m<1h·ria! fur 11ab n ced struc ture j,; supp lied
in the fi rst clause , am! the s ucceeding chuses are then Lalance<l agai n,; t each
other:" On the rich a n <l the clociucnt, on nolilcs a nil priest s, th ey lo0kecl d n \\'n "'ith
contempt: for they esteemed t he mse lves ri ch in a m o re precious tr easu re . :1.l1d
eloquent in a m o re s ul >lim e lan g uage, nobl es by the ri g ht of an earlier c re a t io n,
and priests by tlie imp os it iun of a n1i g liti er hand. "

Advantages and Disadvantages. - The lJ:-ilan ccd stru c ture is
easy to inte rpret and remember, in asmuc h as the sim ilarly con structed c lauses lend emp h:isi s to each other, :md make it c:i.sy to
fix the points that :-ire of most impo rtance. Bes id es, such a care fully built sentence, with its parts so in gc niou siy conformed to each
other, is a pleasure in itself.
It is in the use o f the bahncecl strn ctme, however, th:tt caution
against excess is most neccss:-i ry. Being the most :-irtificial typ e of
sent-ence, it should Lie used sp:-iringly, :rnc! on ly where it is needed

192

J'JIL

SF.\11~ . \'CE.

TJ'IL' l>IN..l(;/,'.IPll.

to gi\·e a p:i rticubrl y striking expression to :rn im portant though t.
While it is prominent, :md thus :i.pt, \\ he n often employed, to

SECTIOX

193

THlRD.

L1:i;!J(' the (' J.r . :: :' ~d~o ,_. ery c :1 sL1 ·: i:1 ~ ~o ~:~10~ e \'\·ho ernp1oy it
,-_ :-._:, : ·.-1~t:c1y .

Fl ·.J:n l ·:.:.: i rr ..:~:~ : !·:>:-..:: c rJ.·:a1 ; fr.Jr tric fa.a1ill ar n1eas·
me, thi:rc is .'.l tcrnpt:i.ti u n not unly tu ]J; da nce c:n:ry t hought, but to
add tautologietl aml otherwise questionable forin s in order to fill
out the se nse.
J\11T1·:. -

11·lic11

T i1e inh e re nt per il o f the kt!::i nc,·d "lrncl m c is due to the fact that

<Jlll' C

1l1c 11-ri :n" c1u 111<>rc.t ,.,.;11i it , 11 c i1lie r he 1111r hi,; rc:t11cr c::in su re ly
II'< irk

(':ti\

ln n a rrat ing co 1'J\'ersa tio n between different persons, the form o f a ne\\'

p ulse tu ::illu1\· so mething for the curi o us lJa la ncc u f ideas ?
J;ai:rn ccd st ructure, :111tithe,-is ( see pre ce ding, p:-igc 1 0~ ) , ::ind alliterat io n,
arc t hree dc·.-ices u f c x11rcssio 11 t h:1t m :i y e:1 ..; ily hecunH: a s na re to the write r.
T he fanc i ful and a r tilic i:1 l 11i:111 11e r u f \Hiting called J·: uph ui:; m, which h::tLl a
r :rn r iut.

\\ ':15

a st\' lc in \1·hich t hese three devict:s

The f"l l" ''·in g few sc11lL'11ccs 11·ill gi,·e a little ta:;tc of the style o f

Ellp!tucs : "Th<'rcf,, r c , my g •i<'d J·:up h ncs . fu r t hese d o u b t,; an1l durnps of min e,
e ilhcr rcmuve th e: «:n1sc oir reH::d it.

Th<> u h:1,.; l hi tli er tu f.,u 1Hl me a cheer-

fu l C111J1p:111 i" 11 in thy :11inli. and 1ww sii:tlt t h .. u lind
in tl ;y muan.
Cl,lllf,,rtcd .

If :tlt .. gc·thcr th " u m :i ,· es t

Jl\C

as carefu l with th ee

n 1,t lie c11reJ , yet may est tho u be

Tf tli e 1·e lie anything that either J,y thy fric:nds m ay he proc ured,

t• r hy 111 y li fe att:ti n l'd , Ilut

J\l'1\.

c itli cr he:il th ee in p:irt , or help thee in all,

1 pr"tcst to tl1cc \,!. ihe ll :1ll1e .,r :l rricnd, t h:1t it s J1:lll rathe r he g11tten w ith the
111 "' (Jr lllY l»>dy, th:i1 1 1."t liy gett ing a ki11 .c: d"11J. Th 1111 lJ:l sl tri e d me, there ..
r11rl ' !t'l t-.. t ll lt: ; tl lll\ l Ju ...,t lrl!'-.lt•tJ na; in 111 :11 1y rJ1i 1q...:-; , tl1crcf, ,r e try ll1 C in this
11 ne thing.

I nc,'<: r :: cc f:tikd . :lJJ• n n w i "'ill 11<• t f:iint.

tow::i n l the middle of the line, the open in g word.
par::igr ::iph is g i,·en to wh:it each int e rloc uto r says o r docs , irrcspect i\·c o f the

\\'1: lt"Lh l 1)u ro;eh·cs tu thi s lincly -tm11cd " : ntc nce, wi tho ut the im-

great r un in (,lt:e en Fli 1ahc th ' ~ tin1 c,

Mech::inic a lly, a paragraph is di s tinguished, lJot h in print and manu -

11·hich h::id lJee n be -

gun liy r fcnry, th e lllur de r c r v f his 11·i·:es , \\':1S C(l llt inu cd l·y Somerset, the
nrnr de rcr uf h i..; lm1thc r, :rnd cumplctcd liy Uic:1l )ct h, the nrnrd..:rc r of her
g11 cs t."

NoTE. -

sc rip t, by beginning on a 11cw li ne , and by indenting, th a t is, with <l ra \,·in g

T::ike, for ex-

tt:ll h o\\' mu cl1 • .i I he ,u1c1nc11t is L:Ll :ind l. 11 11· 11 1uc l1 rlict iJ ric.
arnple, the fvl lu\\'ing se ntence fr o m \!a ca ul:ty: "The

Definition. - A paragraph is a connected series of sentences
co nst ituting th e d evelop m ent of a single topic.

J; e i>ulcl tu spe::t k and

hl ush n ot ; tl1y sore is n cl t su :rngry b u t 1 c:u1 s:1h·e it , th e \l'\J U11 d nut su de ep
li11t T ca n se:1 rch ii, th y grie f n ot so g rc:i t li11t T ca n case it.

Tr it be ripe, it

shall l Jc lanced ; if it he lm >l< e n , it s h :i ll i>c: ta int e d : he it ne ve r so desperate,
it sh al l be c u red." :\11d s o o n, int<.:n11in al1 ly . 1\ g•>ud ex;im ple uf the artifi·
ciality th::it is ine vitable wh c::n t h e wrilt:r th in ks of fu rm before t hought.

amount o r natur e of the matter includ e d .

The amo unt ~rncl comprehensiveness of the material in cluded in
a parngr:iph v:uies greatiy, according to the le ngth and charac ter
of th e discourse, the office of the paragrap h, and the writer's individu al taste. Of a short produc tion a paragraph m:iy make up a
large enough proportion to be a main division of th e plan ; oftener,
however, it co ntain s a much sm aller section of the th o ught. And
a paragraph that m erely m akes a transition, or proposes a sin,::;k
idea as bas is fo r further deve lopment, would be mu ch shorter th:111
a paragraph of detail. What is of mo re importance th an the ic ngt h,
howeve r, - every paragraph should ha\'e a defin itive topi c and
structure, and not be left, as is too often d one oy writ ers othe rw ise
good, to rn :i.ke itself.
In clcterrninin g the le ng th of the p:i.r:i.grap h, n o t only the top ic
in cluded, !JUt the case of inte rpretat ion a nd the appearan ce of the
page sh ould be consulted. Every read er can recall how often he
has been re pelled from a book by the m e re fact that whole solid
pages occurred wi thout paragraph breaks ; :incl how ofte n he has
been attr:i.c tccl by an open and easy-looking p:ige. This is no mere
whim. Extended paragraph topics are a n eedless ourden to the
reader's min d and memory; and it is the fee lin g th at too much
is demanded of his interpreting powers that causes his di slike of a
solid page . As a rule, paragraphs of over a page in length should
be avoided.

T l /;.; l'A R .·I (,'RA/>/!.

/IIF / '. 11". Ii;N I I'//.

'' On ti1c CJth c r h:rnd, t he Frenc h fash io n of m akin g separate
i 1:n :i gr:iphs o f almost C\· c ry sen te n ce is ye t m ore objectionable.
T i1 e nat ur;:il di \·is io n o f th e subject is the proper guide." l
T. Ql.i:\LITIES j\ :\ D ST I\.L:cn . : R E O F TlfE PARJ\GR L\PII.

Th e ge ne ral b\YS, o f sc ec ti0 n, ;:irran ge rn e nt, and proportion,
"·i1ich g01·e m the co nstruc t ion o f t he par:i .:;r.1 p 1, are so similar to
· lio~ c gm·ern ing th e c om pos it ion o f an entire d iscourse, th:.Lt, as we
, .ill th e se nt e nce the u nit of style, so \\·c m ay regard the paragra ph
ls t hL: u ni t of ill\' Cn ti o n . ;\ nd ccrt:t in it is t hat ca re ab out the
~ tr u c ture o f t he pan gr:i p h is o n e o f the b est o f in flue nces to induce
c:irc :rnd sk il l in li u j j , I ing the e nti re pbn .
Th e b ws o f par:1.:;r:ql h s truc t me . as well .1s th e esse ntial q ualii iL·s Of t he j".lr:i gra ph . :ire irn pi iC'd in tk
defi niti o n g ive n alJOVe.
\ p:u :tg r;1ph, it is th ere sai d , c o nstitutes the de \·elopmcnt of a
i: 1;;k top ic : h e n ce . :L fornbmen t:il quality is unity . T his cle vel'i 1111cn t is made liy :i. c o i111 Cc ted se ries o f se n te nces : h e nce, an .; li e r rerp 1is itc is c o ntinu ity in t he t hought. ,\ nd th e fac t that it is
·li e o rderly d e \·c lo p m e nt of a. top ic im pli es systemati c p rogress:
1c·11cc :t t!i ird rc q ui~ile is pn)po rti o n uet wccn t he p:irts.

I.

Unity. - The Paragraph-Subject . - A p;i r:igr;i,p h is a distinct
li vision o f th e disc o urse , rcbte1 indee d to p rece din g and follo wing,
' ' :i li nk in a l:trge r ch:ii n. hut c rnn p lct e in it sel f'. :m d e xh a ustive of
1; t(lpic .
It s pri 1n:i ry re quis it e . the refo re, i-; un it y; and th is un ity
~ s1 il ise rvcd by c hoos in g fo r each p:irag r:t ph a de terminate subject,
o wh ich ::i.11 p:u ts of th e strn c ture :nc related :i : co nstitu ting cle11c nts in its develop m e nt .
Prominence of the Subject . - J Io w pro mi n e nt the p aragraph.ul>jcct is to "Ge m ade d e pends u po n the c lu r:ic ter :in (l office of
he p:trag ra ph itsel f.
\\ "he n the p :tragraph is :i rgument;itive or
·x po sito ry, or wh e n it embo di es t he t reatment of so m e central
l

Ti ig-clo w, " I b.n d lJ o ok o f P un ctua tion," p . 38.

l 'J.;

thongh t, t hat th ought appears in some p art as a d e fini te afti rma tion, a nd all th e o ther st:i te m en ts :ire r ecogn ize d as ancillary to
t his. W he n th e par:1 graph is desc riptive or na rrative, or whe n it is
m erely :m J.cc urn ubt ion of deta ils of a ny k ind, th e sul,j ec t c 1111 H;t
so easi ly be red uc ed to a p ropos ition, hu t mu st b e gath e red fro m
the ge n er:d bear ing o f the whole. In any case, howev e r, the sub jec t, if n o t expressly st;i tecl , sh oul d l)e cle arly clctc r m in ctl in the
writer's min d , and so d efi n itely im plied th a t th e rc:id e r c m fe el th e
effect of the p J.ragraph in a single u tt e rance . It shou ld li :i\-C unity
of im pression ; a nd a good test of th is is, its b e ing so co nstru c ted
tha t an a bst ract o f it ca n l.Jc m ad e in o n e p hrase o r se nte nce .
T his m a t ter is d welt upo n h ere, b eca use p e rh aps th e m os t p re n lent fau lt of you n g write rs is, le a vin g the to p ics o f paragraph s ind eterm ina te o r too diffus ive . T he p rodttcti o n a cco rd in gly is b cki11 g
in charac te r ; it see m s to hav e no backbo ne , no rigo r and sharpness of thou ght. T he c on fo rmin g o f each p a rag raph sternly to a
dist inct top ic goes farth e r t h a n a ny t hin g else to obviate thi s, one
of th e wo rst ble mishes of composition .
I u .U ST l~ AT1 n:-.: s . - T \\' O e xa mpl es will s uffic e to s h ow h o w th e mate rial o f a
p a ragra ph e xe rc i,es in fl ue nc e o n the exp ress io n o f its sulij cc t.
I. /\ n argu 111 !! nlal ivc p a ragr :1 p li , w ith s ulijec t ~ lat e d in a tk lin ilc 'h." : rt iu11.
T h e s ubj e ct is pro p ose d in th e li rst se n te nce am! rep ea tt: d in the seco n d.
"It is a t\\' icc -to ld tal c tli :< t the wo rld is pass i11g away fr o m us. C ud h~<;
wr itt e n it u p on e very p ag e of hi s c rea t io n th a t th e re is n " thin g h e re \\ Iii ch
las ts. Ou r a ffc c t i 1>n ~ ch:rnge . Th e fri c 11 d sh ips u f th e m a n a re n ot the fr iend shi ps o f !h e b »y. The fac e o f t he Yisilil c m irld is a lte r ing arn u11 d us : we li .1,c
t he gr«y 111 .. 1ildcri11g rui ns t< i tel l .,f "l i:1t 1> n cc w;is . ( )ur laburc rs ,t r ike their
pl o 11 g h ,; h a re s ;ig a in -; t t he fuun 1h ti 1m' n f l1u iJd iugs whi c h Oll CC cdwc d tu h u111 a 11

mir th -

s k eleto ns o f m e n to wh o m l ifc

w ;b

o nc e d c:u -

urn s ;rn ,J cu i11s t h;ll

re min d the an ti q ll a rian o f a magn ifi ce nt e m p ire . T hi s is th e hi s to ry v f the
w o rld, an d al l th;it is in it. It passes wh ile we loo k a t it. l. ikc as wh e n y1J\1
watc h th e m e ltin g t ints o f th e ev e n ing sky- p u rple -c rim so n, g o rg eulh g u ld , a
few p nl saf i,rn s o f qu ive rin g li g ht, a 111l it is all go n e. \ Ve a re s uch stuff as
dre a ms a rc made o f. " - RuB F.RTSr •'.'I.
2 . i\ n a rr al i\·e p;i ragr:iph , w ith ~uJ .jcct i11 11 >l ic'< l as res ult ;in t n f the wh ok.
Th e s ul .j c ct. w h ic h i-; nu lcss J c li nite than th e p re ced in g, i, "I [csk r P ry n n c o n

her

way l<J t lie I ' ill u ry ."

'Jl/L J './/,'_J(;ft' ..J/'l/.

TJJF /'A1"ACJ\AJ 'Jl.

' A l.lne \\':IS fvrth\\"ith opened lhrnugh the crmnl o f

~ pcctators.

J'rcccdcd
he l1ca <!l e, and attended hy :rn ir rc.c:uhr ;'rocc::;siun o f qcrn -hro wc,1 men am!
i;1dl y ,.i,agc cl \\"omen, I l este r l'rynne sd furth towar ds the ph..:e appo inted
h<' r punisl1menl. ,\ Cf <l \\'d uf e :1ger and ..:uri·•us sc h<J<d-l1uy:-, u11dcrst:rndi11g
,.f !h<: rnatlt.:r in luntl, c~c:t'jll tli:1l it g:l\ e tl a·m :1 h:df-huli<by, ra11 befo re
i'""g"""s, turning th ci r hc:ids <.:tJ11tinually t<> sl:lrL' int u he r face, :111d :1t the
,1 11g

b:i.hy

in ltL·r :l.fill ' , :ind ~t the ign <1 n 1in iuus letter on her brc:1 St.

It

was

grea t cli,tanc<:, i11 those d.n·s, frum the pri,;t1 n ·d<><> r t.i the m ar ket-place .
"-u red by the pr is"ner 's c~pcricn c e, l1<J\1·e ,·cr, it 111ight lie re cl;u11cd a jour,. f some length ; fur, haughty :1' 11..: r d<:1nc·:inc1r "''''•she l'<:f•:h:\llcc un clc r:i n ag<Hl)' fr u rn e,·ny fv"l:<tq• .,f th eist: th:1t thr"n.gctl ln >Cc her , as if her
h ad bee n f1ung int•J tl1c sired f. 1r then\ all tu '[llll'll and trample upon.
1u r n ature , ho \\T\'t: r, ther.: is a pr•l\·i,i o n, alike 111 a n-clluns and merc iful,
the suff.:rer ~ h o uld ne.,·cr knrn" the int<:nsity f1 f \\'l1at he c11cl11rcs l1y its
·:n l tortur e , lint chiclly l1y th e p:i11g th :tt ran kle-< after it. \\" it h al m os t a
11..: clcportmc:11 t, thcr<:fu re, !lf',;t n l'ryn ne p:issed thr ••t1gh th is portiu n o f her
:i l. an•l c:i rnc to :i sort .,f s ca ff.ild, al the west<:rn l'Xlrl'mity of the market•' . lt stC>(Jtl J1 Car ly l 1c n ca: h the ea,·.:s uf !l uston's e:u lie't church, and
·:1 n·d le> he a li~tur<: ther<: . ·· - l I.\ \\' rt 111t(=' t·:.
!ne the c ircumst:in ci.:-; uf tillle, !'bee, a n d c1·c11, .t::i,·c u nit ;· t•l the top ic,
thr re is n o clistr:ictitJ n •>f effect.

lace of the Subject. -The

st1hjcn of :i. p:ir:1graph

is

o ften in-

de rl in t he opening sc11tc 1H ·e; somcti111es prcn.:ded, howe v e r ,
t few w o rd s, c1ln· iously <'Otllle<'ti,·e ;rnd pr v p:1r:1 t o ry.

1.c::raph

l\ s th e

is nut on ly a s trn ctme in itself l111 l a ('(1111pone n t part of

·.c'. cr unity . such prqnratio n fu r the sttl 1jl' cl-se 11lcncc must not
·'1 11cntly

lie made, liy

making a

transition,

<>r l>y

Slllrnnarizing

(lr

11l·ing stated

is previ\l11sly g i\·cn .
1 s llllll' l'X\Tj>tional c:1 scs the s1il•jl·ct. ithlL'acl

1c L>eginning, is delayed 11ntil the close, ~f1111c,1·h:1L afte r the

()SY of the per iodic
> of the p:uag r aph
in1b rs

Lefore

structure in SL' n te 1Kcs.

J 11

st1ch cases the

furni shes nutcri:tl f;1r t h · s11i1jc c l. g i,·in g

:rnno u nc in~ the

general t rn i h

dcd11ct:cl

from

1. or argume nts hcfurc sl:l ting the pru1111,;itio11 th ey pro r e .

Fo r

·ments that arc nut likely t<> l>c liclil·\·ed ur understood unless
:i r e

kcl up

to g r :Hlu :illy

and

•11~ . thi s is .t n'l'\' \·(kc ti1 ·c· h ·Jle

\\· ith c,·cry ~tv p m ade sure

lif

liy

stnw t 1t r \'.

,, purtan t suLjccts ;1rc uft1.: 11 rvpv:1kd in ;t!H •t hcr furm . morq

parti cu br,

·
o r more sentcn t ious,

in frequently,

~1bo,

:i. sul 1ject

i~

or

1n

r
·
11 gu r .1U\·e

1

ianguage .

hut h stalL'd at the beginning

Not

and

rep eated at th e end of the parag raph .

FxA ~t l 'i . J". S

lit'

1·:,\Cl t

Kt'.'ll.- [11

th<: fullowing ex:unpks the sulij..:ct-se11-

lcn<: c is i11clicat..:<l liy it:il ic ,; .
1. Sul1jc ct in ope11 in g sc 11tence .
"T ~ : 1 y th en, 1/ -:t 't 7t'{I U/d i 111f r {l7 ·,: !ht: i n /,1/t(/,jir sl rf rill, 7l'c.~ 11nnl 11 sc1·11d,·
we c annot g:l in n: :il k n<l\1·kdgc "11 a lc\'d; \\'C rnu,; t ge ncr :ili1.c.:, \l'C rnu,t reduce l<1 rn ethud, \\' C mu st ha"e a gra,;p uf principk,;, a 11d gro up a nd shap<: ou r
acq 11 is itil> l1 S liy 111 c :i n s u f th e 111. It rnaltc.;rs nut \l'hcthc r o ur fielrl of ope r ati<>n
be wi ck o r li111 ited; i11 C\'ery cas e, tu cu1111nand it, is tu rn u unt aii•l'e it. \ \'hl)
has not felt the irril :iti u n uf 11 1ind :111<! imp:1tience created hy a cle l'}', ri ch co untr y, \'isiti:d f,11· th<: lirsl ti n1e , 11 ith " ·i11ding l:rn,:s, :incl higl1 hl'tiges, ancl grc·en
sle<'ps, and t:i ngkd 11·\lu<b, :ind c:"·c: rything sn1 iling in de <'d, hut in :t n1:1/.e'
Th .: s:rn 1<: f""ling l'< lllH'S uptJn us in a ,1range c ity, \\'hen " ·e li;wc "' ' m :1p .. [
its st rl'ch . ] kn ee y"u h..::1r .,f pr:ic ti;;ed tra q ::!Jcrs, "·hen they lirsl curnc in t"
a p1:1cc , nvn1nti11g so nlc lii;..:h hill u r chur ch tt >Wc f" , l1y w:\y 1. 1 1 r cc on1h1 itrin :,.:
its ncigii1Hnhuod . 111 like Jl)~nncr, y1>H nntst he <lln.)\·c )''H1r knO\\ ledge, tHl t
unilcr it , "r it will "l'l'rc:'s ~" 'u; and the nwre )'<>ll ha,·e o f it, the greater will
h e i he lu:1.l. Thee 1":1 rni11g u f a Saim:.:-.ius o r a J :urm:rn, unless )'<lll :ire ih
m aster, "ill lie yu ur t1·ra nl. 'I 111pcral nut sen· it'; if yun ca n wi e ld it " ·it h
a st r tll tg ;:tr ill, it .is a gr~:-lt \\ 't.':1}'l: n ; uthcrwi -..c, yu u \\i ll l1c V\'t: rwhc l111cd , lil'c
T:iri 1(' i:1 , !,y 1he l1t·:i,·y w.:alth "hich )'(Ill ha,·e ..:~:ictcd fr,, 1n tril ntt :i ry i~c n .:ra ·
ti uns." - ( '.\tUJt '.'AI. :\J., \\',1.1'.'.
2 . S ulijc.:ct unly liinll'd :1l in the J..:ginning ancl ilrst d <: li11it<:ly e~p r esscd at
the en cl. T he sulij.:ct is the ]• up ubrity uf C ·r"rnwcl l's cl1:1 r:1ck r.
"J :ut th o ugh hi.; iiH·rn ury has n nt h.:cn t:d; en u nder the p:itron :igc ,,f any
pa r ty, thougl1 C\l r; de\l ce li:1 s lil'l'n ll'L"l l•> l•l:1cl,\ n li tht1u gh t" p r.u'<: h1rn
-wo ul d l.. 11 g h:Hc l•!'t'll :1 111rni , li:d.J<: ,.,-i111 c.; , truth cind 111n it :<l ].,,1 prc\':iil .
Cu\\·a rtls ,, hP h :1'1 tn: tHLlt·d :1l tl1c '-cry SPlllld 11f lii '°' n :une , bnil ~ uf 1.ll i1 c ,,·hp ,
lik e l )u\i·ni 11 g , hacl licc•n l'r"ud c>f the ho11tJr uf lackeying his cuacli, 111ight insult hi m in ]u,·a l sp.:cche,; :incl aclcl r.:sses. \' <: na l j•tJels mi ght tr:i n<; fc.;r l<> the
K ing the sa111e cuJ.,gics, li11 k th.: 11·urse f., r wear , \l'hi c h they had licslo\\'C:tl
011 tl 1e l ' r•ilcd<> r. :\ li c kk nrnl tit ndc: mi.~ht c n•11"! t" shout and sc"ff r ou 11d
th e gii 1hcll'd r1.·111a in s .. r th.: g real "'t prin ce and St1!t!in of the a ge . J:ut "11 ..: 11
th e [lt1 tc l 1 ,·a11 11t1n sl:irtkd :u 1 eff" 11 1i 1i:tte ln: rnt in hi , ""·n P"la<'<:, when th.:
COll<lll l'Sh \I hi ch }i;1d ll<'C ll \\'<Il l liy the :in 11i c"i <> f C r1.> lll\l"l:ll "·ere s<>l•I to p a:11 pcr th e h :irl "h .,f l'h:1rk-<, 1\'lH'll l·:ngli-<l11ncn \l·c.;re '"nl l<> l~ght nndcr furei~:n
h;inncr '-' :1 ~~ : tin-..t the i11d c pc11dc·n1·l · uf I·:11 1-.11•c ~\11tl the l'r 1·h·:-- Lull n· li.~i 11 n , 1n:1 11y
)lvn c"t h \·: t1 ts ~w ... lk.! i11 sc:«r<:t :ii il"' tli» ut;hl ,,f on e 11 hu had n e,·e r ;u!frre •l

l 'JS

TJIE I'ARA CR.l/'lf.

country to he ill -used hy ::111y h ut himself. It must indeed have been di{fi.
cuil fur :my Lngiishm:rn tv see th e sal::uicd \'i ccruy o f }'ranee, at the most
i1 npurl::rnt crisis uf his fate , s:iu11tc ri11g thruugh his ha rem , yawning antl talkin g !l trn,.;c nsc u\·cr a d isp:i tch, ur IJcslui>bc ri11g h is huthe r anJ his courtiers in
a lit uf maudlin :1ffcctiun , 11·i thuut a re ,pectf'ul a11d t<.:nd cr rem embran ce of
iiiin !Jcfu re wl1osc genius the yunng p ri d e uf l .c11i:< :rnd the veteran craft of
:'ll:v.:i rin h:-111 sluud r eiJukc<.J , 11·l: u h ad li1 u111Jkd ~p:1i11 on the land and Holland
<>n the se:i, and \"·hose imp<:ri:tl \' o ice k1<l :< rr csled the sails of the !.ybian
jlir:itcs :rnd the pcr,.;cc11t i11 g lircs <> f l~nme. F «t 11 lo /hr prt'Scnt drl)' !tis ch11r11 t"lrr , !lu1n,~1 h t"o 11 .1· / o 11 !~1· a /lrrtl:t'd, ,; n cl 5, ·,, r i t'ly t 'l. 't' l' cl,:j t11dc:d, is p opular 1uith
]fr;

//,·, · ._(''F1.'a/ f,{,t~l ' o.f11 11r 0 1 u11/ry 111t·11 ." - ').L\t.._'Al "l.:\ Y.

3. Subject stated at the beginning, th en , a fter an; p]ifi eation and illustration,
funn ;i.t ti1c end .
".·! n1ti11 tf / '( 1/i/L' i111r1. . .··inalio11 i s !tl 1.n/1.1 a ,fF 1'il f 111any j>llasures that l/1c
': '!f<.:i u · rll"l' ll tl/ <"tlff!/•/r· 1f r d ·t·i-;· /1: . J.. ....
1 ft: 1...' ;t ll COl l\' C f~ C \Yilh a pi cture , and
1i11d ci n agrt:edilc C<lll1j' :'111i<>n in a s t:>tne . llc llll't:ts "'ith a secret rcfre, hm ent
;,, :i dcsc rip tiun , and u ft c n fctb :i greate r sa1 i-f:1cti<>n in the prospect of li clds
:-t nd mcad<l\l'S ll1 :i11 an,,lhe r clot:s in th1: ]'<>SSc,si<> n u f th clll . lt gives him a
], ilJl! o f pw pcrty in <.:\'<:rl' lhing lie secs . and 111:1 1,cs the most rude uncultivated
11:1 rl s of n:iturc adm i11i stn tu lii s i ' lc:isurc ,.;. S o tlu1! Ii,· luol..·s on tlu 7ii1Jrld i11
r!ln1/1i<·r 11: .;/!l, a nd 1bs1 · , 1;•,· r.~ i J1 i i (J 1111tl!/lu.li· r/ 1i111r111 s tluil conceal tlu11zselvcs
fr om //1" !,'"<lll'J"d i<y cf 111t1111..-in d ." - 1\JJlll sue;.
r l· p c ~tc d i;1 :-tn o tl 1l~r

IT.

Continuity. -The Plan. - Co ntin11i ty rcrpmcs that the scn tc:1ces m: tking up the p:u:i.~ r:1ph slwi tld he so related to one
:mother, in thnnght :ind strnc tmc . that \ he y nuy lie naturally rec".:.;nizcd ::ts C()nse<·1 1ti 1·l· sll'ps i11 ;i 11ro;.;rcss int.; tho ught. The p;i.ra;.::r:iph has thcrl'furc a pLt11, in 11·hi< ·h c1T ry pertinen t statement has
:1 determ inate lJbcc .
What the Plan requires . - l ;y ] 'bn is no t necessarily me;i.nt
that the p:cr;1g i·:1ph sho11l d lie sus• :q;ti i11c of ::trrangcmcnt in
skelclu n-iorm, \\'ith 1rnmhc red h e:ul ings; though some paragraphs
arc as system:itic :is this. l>ut all p:ingraphs should manifest a
logic:li progress o f th o ug ht, d l' H'ln ping tlil: sugg estions of the subjct'l , from point t<J poin t. :md witil<Htt dislocations. Further, the
lJearing of rnw th n u,:.;ht o n :rn otk r should be clearly indicated

Till:.' P.-IR .-ICRA!'/I.

] ')9

throughout; and the to pic should Le brought to a complete and
properly rounded co ncl usion.
The principle on wh ich the plan of a paragraph is constructl'd
may be regarded :i.s an extension of the prin c iple of se n tcnce -struc tnre, as laid down on pages 177-1 79 . The same relatio ns exi st
between sentences in the paragraph as between clauses in the se n·
tence; only the paragraph may contain more of them, a nd they
may be followed to more minute and complicated ap plicati ons .
Generally speaking, then, any considerati o n, to lJc worthy of a
place in the plan, sho uld contribute <lircctl y to explain, or re1Jeat,
or illustr:i.tc, or p rO\ e, or apply the subject.
Nor s hould th l'.se fun ct ions be unadvisedly mixed; lJut each
manner of dc\Tloping the sulJjcct should occupy its own place and
proportion. The parag raph, embodying as it docs typi cal ly the
logical gro\\'th of its top ic , seeks the order most natural to each
stage of its dncl oprncnt. It may 1.ie of assist:rnce to the stud ent,
therefore, to present the following scheme of a typi cal pa ragraph
structure : The subjec t proposed.
I. \ \'lutcve r is needed to expla in the sulJject.
Repetiti on.
Ob1-crse.
1lcfinition.

IL \\'hatc ver is neccled to establish the sul>jcct.
Exemplifi cation or detail.
lllustratio n.
l'roo f.

IlL Wh atner is n ee ded to apply the sul >ject.
]\esult or consequence.
J·:nforccmcnt.
Surnm:uy or re cap itulati o n .
Of course this sc heme is too cxtl'nsive fur any particular pa ra graph; it merely represents the n:i.tural place for each manner u f
trea tment adopte d . Some pa rt s may l;e condensed or altogl'lhl' r

"

.WO

Tll I : l'. 1!.'.·/ <., 'l"A I'll.

el ided, oth ers cxp:lndcd ~u :i.s tu make up a promint.:nl, even predurni11.tti11g, propori iu 11 uf the par:1 r; ra p h.
,\Jorlilica tiu n,., u r the :t11u\·e scht.:t\l c arc due to the various kind s
oi" tn:tlcr i:t], to th e oi>jcct uf the p:Lrag r:1ph, and to the COll1jl1"e Ji en ~i1"<.'lH..'"S uf th t.: tup ic.
Thu s, a <. k~ni 11ti1·t.: or n:i.rrativc subject
tmlin:niiy nct.:ds nu cx pb n:tt io n, and centres in su ch nntcrial as
sin:s dct:1ib o r illustr:ttio n ; 1\·hilc a11 expository subject centres in
cx1ii:llla ti un . a;1d :111 :1rgurnc nl a tin.: subject in exem pli fication and
pro()f. Again , the ul>jcct uf a p:1r:tg r:1ph may be nothing else than
tu :ljiply ih s1il1ject. and :tn.:ordin g\ y the previous steps may be
p:b~cd u\·cr.
~ till funhe r, the subject proposed in a p:iragraph
111:1y ~0 111 ctirnc~ l >e ~o <·n mprchcn si\·c :i.s l\l require more than one
p:1r;1~~T:1pli f1>r ih trc: 1l rncnt : so the fir~! p:1 r:1graph ca n o nly by uut
:rnd lie gin the std •jcl"t . :\ ll such 111 odif1 c:1tio ns, however, an; c:tsily
rcll:1T,·d to the t1·11c: :rnd it is u[ :t<.h':mtage to ke ep well in mind
the prupcr f1111cti un (;f 1.: n : r y p::ut.
:\1 n F. - The e ~:unp c,; here gi,·cn :111d :111 01h·zc d :He meant m erel y to show
tlut p.n:lgr:iplis rc :1 lly h:l ,·c a c :t rcfully »>"< krcd J'b n, 01 n d tu shnw h ow lh e
j1L111 may :ippc.ir u11d 1.-r diffc:rt.:nt c1111tliliu11', . :\l u re lkrn th is ca nn ot \\' ell l1c
:\lit·m11tt:tl here ; n u r c:rn tltc,c ft.:"'. c"unpk< pr11fc,,; t» gu minutely in to su dt
an intri cate s ubject. \\" her· n cce~s:i ry fu r cu11\·cnit:11cc o f rcft:n:nce, the se n·
lt:n<:c< :1rc nu111li c re,l.
I . Tilt.'. fir;,t e~:rntpk illu-;t r: tlt:s wh :ll m:iy J,c rL·g:i rdct l :is the s implest ty pe
of p:-1r:i,!.;r:1ph . :\s the sulijcd need -< n1J exph11:lli 1>11, n nr cnfur ce mcnl, th e
j;ar:11,; r.1plt is 111crc ly uc.: upic.J 1,·ith g i\'in g d c lail< :-1 11 d illuslratiun.
. ·r o'j~ d :

T111·: 11.\

l( l·s

.1;;11 ~11::-: s <ti : C <H>1i:-: 1·:ss.

"Tltc pa rh :ind ,i g •h uf g,,11<l n c , s :1 rc rn :111y . If :i m:in lie gr:ic ious :rn1l
court e ous In str:111gns . it shtl\\'" l ie is :i citi1.1.·11 1•f tht: wo rld, :ind tk1t his hc :i rl
is n•J i<ia1Hl cut ,.11 fr,.1n nlhn hnd< , l •ul a c1111ti11c 111 tli:tt j"i n:; to them . If he
l1c coml""'i,,n:i~e t»tY:ird , 1i1c alilictit•n' ,,f <> il1cr, , it sho \\·s th:ll hi s hc:i rt i~
l ike tit c n1)lilc tree . tii:tl i-; \\t1lln•kd ihl'ir wit<'ll it git't> the ktl m. If he i:a,ily
par<l.ins :111d re1llils , ,ff,·nc e,., ii <., \\\J \\ ~ t h:1t Ii i , 1n illd i-; pb nted ah0ve iniurir•,
St.1 lital he C:\ll ll» l lie sh<•l.
If he lie tlt:\llJJnJ r,1r ;,i n:i!J bc nclilS, it sh O\\'S th at li e
W<'i ghs mi:n\ 111in 1b. :1nd n .. t lht·i r lr.hh. 1:111 , :d» l\'e a ll, if he kwe St. l'aul '
pc r ln:1i .. :1, th :1 1 he c: u uld "i,Ji l u l•c :in :\ll'1 tlt <'l1t: l fr .. 1n Ch ri <t , f11r tlte s:i h·ati 011
of J,i, l1rl'thrc n, it sltcm:i 11rn.:h o f a divine 11:\ture, a nd a kin<l o f confo rmity
wit h CJiri,t hi111>clf." - JJ.-\ CO;>i .

TJIJ:: 1'.·lNA (;RAPJ/.

20]

The plan o f the :ibove m:iy b e thus represc nte cl: The subje c t prnp ose<l - s ign s of goodness.
r. Courtesy, :ind what it indicates.
2. Compass ion ,
3. riia g n:inimity,
4. Gr:Hi tu dc,
5. Sclf-sacrilice,
The :irrange ment o f the se qu:ilities is m:idc with c:i re, according to an ascend·
in g scale of e xc ell e nc e.
2. T h e second example foll o ws out a r cg ul:ir plan, as b id Llown in it s de·
finitive part.

"Let us try , howC\'Cr, wh at 1·1111 he sai d , co ntr ulling w hat we say by e xamples. (1) I think it will be f, 1und that t he g r:ind style :irises in p o etry, w lu n 11
noble nat11rt!, p oetirally ,1,'1 /i<·d, t1"<'i1/S w ith sim}!irity or witlt sc<;crity a s.:rit111s
sul1ject. (2) I think this dclinit ion will b e found tu co ver all in st:i nccs o f the
g rand s ty le in poetry w h ic h p resen t th e m si: l" es . I t hink it will be found lu
ex clude all p o et ry whi ch is n ot in the g ra nd s tyle. And I think it cu nt a i11 ,
no terms whi ch arc obsc ur e , whi c h themselves n e ed cleli ning. (3 ii) J·:,·en
th ose who do n o t u ncl c rs t:incl what is me ant by c:illing poetry n ob le, wil l un dc rst:rnd, I imagi ne, wh a t is me:int by spe:ikin g nf a n ob le n a ture in a .man. But
the noble o r p o werful n:iturc - the bedru loul«s i11 d i; 1id1111m o f G o ethe- i-;
not enough. Fo r in stanc e, J\1r. Newrn :in lus zeal fur le:irnin g , zeal for thinkin g , zeal fo r liberty, :rncl :ill the se things arc n o ble, they enn 0lile a ma n ;
( b) but he h:is n ot the p o eti cal gift : th e r e mu st be the p o eti cal gift, the
' divine faculty,' also. ( r) 1\n d, besides all this, th e subjec t must be a st:ri (1us
one (for it is only by a kind o f li ce nse th a t we can spe:ik of the g ran <l st yle
in comedy); :ind it mu s t lie tre ated 7i'illt .ri111plicil1• or seve rity . (4) I Ten.: is
the gre:it difficulty: th e poets o f the w orl d h:i,·c be e n man y; there has l1 i:e n
wa11 t in g n e ith e r abun d an ce o f p oe ti cal gift n o r :ihunda nc c of no ble n :i tnrc s ;
b ut a poetic:il gift so h appy, in a n o lilc n:i turc so c irc um s tan ced a nd train ed ,
that the res u lt is a co ntinuo us style, perfect in s im pli c it y o r perfect in severity.
has been extreme ly r :ire. O ne p oe t h:is h ad th e gift o f n at ur e :ind faculty in
unequall ed fnlness, 1,-ith o ut the ci rcum stan c es and tr:1ining whi c h make tlii -;
-s ustuineLl perfec ti o n o f styl e p ossib le_ Of t>ther poets , some ha1·c caught thi<
perfect s tr:iin n o w and then, in sh ort pieces o r single lines, but have n ot Leen
able t o maintain it through consirler:ib le works; o thers h ave co mposer! :ill
their productions in :i s tyl e whi c h, by c ompa ris0 n with the best, one must c::ill
secondary." - rilATTllEW A1<NULV.

TJJE

202
l'l::i n of l he alJo ve.

The subject brough t o ,·er fr o m p receding paragraph.
I. Delini t iun o f the grancl style.
- · 1\ t!cquac y of the Jefi lli tiun.

3. Tl 1c def init io n a n;1l yzcJ .
a. :\ nulile n atu re .
b. l'uctical ly gifted .
c. Treating a scr iuus subjec t with sim pl icity o r se\·e rity.
4 . Difficulty :m t! r arity o f thi,; last cndu\\·111e11t.

3. The thinl example occup ies itself " ith givi ng a parti cula r effect or appl i·
ca i•rn of the slil>jcct.
S u i:Jat:

F sTR A:-> Cl·::. r i-::-.;T O F F1n·:1> 1:1;1cK TllE C1a:AT A:\n VOLTA I RE.

"And su th e re w:1s :1n enJ, if n <>t u f co rr cspon clcncc , yet uf tli at fr iendship,
which a fte r all had :1lways lielo n gnl ra th er l" the spokc n order th:1 n to the
t!<.:ep unspeakable . The re w:1s 1rnw cynical , hu a rse -vo ice d cu ntc rn p t on tb e
one siJc, and fierce, reverberating , shrill fu ry on the othe r. The spec tacle :rnJ
t he suund arc distressing to th u;<: w ho cra ve dignity an1 l ad111 iss iu n of the
sni1n1s in the rebti o ns of men " ·ith on<: :111uthcr, as well as some se nse o f th e
myriad imlcli n::d1lc r dations whi ch cn curnpass us l:nawa rcs, giving culu r ::inti
pcr-;pcct1,·c to our m u rc ddinalil c bornk O n e wuultl rathe r th:1t c\·en in their
cstr ,rngcm cnt there hat! l1ce11 some gracc al){! firmness and sel f-c o ntrol, :1 nd
tk1t :1 lc:1st the long -c hcrishc<l iliusi t• n had fa ,Jc,] a 11·,1y worthily, :1s ll'h cn one
11i.1:; Ltrcwcil lo a friend wh u m a per Ycrsc will c:trric fr 11 111 us o ver un known
s 1· :is 1111iil a f:tr 1lay, and we kn ow nut if we shall sec Iii~ face any m o re. J t jars
1111 t1> th:il the moon wh ich has cl im licd into the night and 1110,·cd like so und uf
11111sic over heath and \\·uudland, sho11ld linally sd in a grey swamp am i<l the
harsh croaking o f a m ph ibi a n s . Hut the int im::icy betwee n 1:rcdcrick anti Vol t:ti«c ha d pcrh:1ps lice n a lways m ost like the th eat re moo n. " - } <> ll i i\1ui( l.li''.
'\ n:.\sis of the aliu vc liy sentences .
I. Subject ;irup•JSed : " ,\ 11tl so there: was an end u! tha•
2 . \\'hat full o wc<l .
3. I [o w the spec t:1clc affects the c o nt c 1 nplato ~.
+ Cont r asted with ,,·hat h e wuuld r:1thcr ha\·•; se en .
5. Effect iilustrated by iig ure .
6. Fi g ure va ried to s uit actu.1! case .

203

T ill:: J'.·11".-ICR..tl'J/.

l'.-JN.-JC!t'.·11'//.

also the reb ti o n bet,Yeen t he pa r.'.lgr:1phs th e mselves, must be dis tinc tl y indi cated . This is perlups the.: mo:;t im po rt:in t requisite of
the par.'.lgr.'.lph . Says JJe Quin cey : "It is in t he rc.:lation of sen tences, in wh at H o race terms their 'j1111d11ra,' that the tru e life of
comp ositio n res ides . T he mode of their n cx11s, - the way 111
whi ch one sente nce is m ade to a ri se o ut of ano ther, .'.lnd to p repare.:
the openi ng for :i third, - th is is th e great loo rn in whi c h the
textile process of the mo,·ing intellc.: c t rne.'.lb itself :ind prospers.··
T he following a rt.'. the principal me:ins l.iy whic h explicit rder·
encc is m ade from sc ntl.'.n ce to sentence .
1 . By conjunct io ns and. co nj unctional J1h rases .
These arc rel ied
upo n ch ieny fu r c h.'.lng in g the directiun o f the th ough t, o r sometim es fur k ce ]'ing it o n in the sa me direc tion whe n a change wuuld
naturally l.J e e xpec ted .
NOTE. - The leading kinds o f cunjunc t iu n:d r clatiu n - c<>:ir1li nati11g. su\ .. ,rdinating, :11ht:rs:1ti1·t:, ilhti1·c- ha,·c :drc:1dy Leen descriliccl a111l t:xe111i'l i:icd :
sec prct:cdi ng , p:lges r_;S-q3. These rt: l:il iu ns may h..: cxprt:s-;ccl in ali -,lta 1 "';
and lJcsidcs the regula r c1111ju11ct i<>11s , thtrc is a g reat variety u f Ct•nnc cti< c:

p hra,cs.
Th e fulluwing p assag..: , fr11m < ·a rdinal :'\cwlll:in, will illu~tntc this n1•::J. th ,,[
expli ci t rL·fcrcn cc. Jt i,; unu,;u a lly ful l uf c« 1111cctivc-;, l1cca L1'<: the t!iuugli t
h :is to lie carriccl on fu r s11 111 c di , t:111cc in un..: direct io n, and that vl1Ycr,c: t11
wh ::i. t we arc expecting .
" l t must n u t be suppnsed th:it, liN·,, u s •.· l .<o .<f<'al , t /1,;re} •re 1 li:tvc: S CH llC
sort 11[ fc:tr uf t li e cducati11n uf the pc<iplc: ,,,, th,• 0• 11tn11 y, th e nturc cdu c:t·
ti o n th ey h:w c, tlH: licttc r, ·"' /!, ,fl it i,; really e ciu c:tl i« n.

1\ 'or an t [

to the cht·:q 1 puJ,\ ica li 1n1 11f sc icntili c :lnd lit l' r:ny wurl ...... , whi~l 1 i:-.
fr i ~· .,Lb:1 ip."

I [ere tlv~ p:iro.gr 3•1h c<!ntre" in the :::)plicato ry pan , whi cl1 is co nstructed sys·
tcm ::it ica lly, by sta tement , <.: OI 1tr:i-;t , ::rnd :!l 11 st r'.\ti o n .

Explicit Reference. - Tc' pn.:scr,·c.: con tinuity 111 the paragraph,
\he c\:tcL rcbti vn of the cunstilucnl se11knc'-·s tu u nc.: :rnotlu.: r, as

n11\\.

:I ll

cn e rny

in n1g tw :

nn t/t 1· <·11 J1/r ,11y, I c1..1nsidcr it a gn.:al advanl~q.~ c , cu 11 vc11i c 11 Lc , aud gai 11 ; l 1l r:I
is, to th ose: tu whom c1luc::i. tio n has given a c:ipacil\· fu r usi 11g them. fi ;rtk r,

I consider such inn ocen t re c re:1t io ns as sc it:n ce a 11d literatur e ar c :1blc tu furnish will be :t very li t uccupatiu n of the tl111ughts aild th e leisu re u f yunng pe r·
so ns, and m ay be m ade the 111eans o f keeping thcni fr u 111 k 11! c 111 pluymt:11h
and b all cn111p:1n ions.
, lfo reo~:c r, as to that su pc r lic i:1l ::icciuaintancc witl1
chemist ry, a nd gcolugy, ::in,] :1st ru n om y, a n d political eco n o my, aml modern
histo ry, an1l l; iug rap hy , and ut h e r 1.r:t n chcs uf l; nuwlctlge, which pcr iud ic.l l
li tera ture a nJ 1,co si .. n:\l lec t ures an.J sL· ic ntil ic in , titut iv ns diffuse tli rough the
cumn 11rn it v, 1 thi nk it a g r :1cd11l acc11111pJi,J.n1ent, :in .\ a >uitalilc, 11 ay, in thi s
d ay a uc c~>s..t ry :1 ccu1 11 pl ish1111.:11t, in the cc sc uf educa ted wen . • \ -Jr, /,1 sf~l', :11 n

204

Til l:' l '.·IR.·ICN.IJ>ll.

205

TJJJ-; f'..JN.-I CR .-/J'/l.

h >r e.rnm/1,-, if he Ju d

I dispar:ig ing o r d isco ur:iging t he thorough acr1 u i,;it io n of any one of th ese

some thin g o f s u bs tanti al m ay he pri\":lt e ly conjoined .

st udi e s, o r denying that , as fa r as it gvcs , sud1 thur u ugh acq ui s ition is a real

in secret his eye 0 11 Jiili c h and llerg, c o uld anyth ing he li tte r than to asce r tain

All f s11y i s, c:i ll thi 11gs by their right n :unes, :ind J o
A thorough kn owl-

n e xt to tli ern , " ·h:1l t he L. 1g\ i,,h-tliat is tu say, l lanov c 1i :rn s, ,,·ho rrn:Jdk mu ch

eduea t i" n uf t he lllind.

n ot cunfLN:: toge th er ide a s whi c h :ue e'<scntially different.

what the French \\·ill think uf s u c h a n ente r pr ise?

/ Vhat th e Ei·,,1u lz; an (]

F or t!t~sc r c11 so11 s a11J olh <· rs h e like"·isc, pruh al .!y wi th

edge uf o ne sc i1: ncc and :\ su1• erl ic i:t! a c•1 1uintancc with many, are not the

in affairs of th e R eic h.

s:irne thing: :\ slll:1t1 cr illg ,,fa h u 11drcd things o r a memory for <letail, is not a

m ore study th a n in the l\iclfdd case , dispatches Culuncl l 'a1nas t<> m ake hi <

philu,ophieal or compn.:hen s in: Yicw.

compl illl e nt at the i:rcnch c u urt, an<l in a n expe rt " ·:1y t:ik e so undin gs t hi.: rt: .
Cwt<Ts, a fat, se<l:1t e , military gentlema n u f aJv:rnced yea rs , full uf olJs crvat iu 11,

l.:. ccre :i ti1>11s arc n ot educati011; accom·

p ii shrnents a rc n1 it cd u cativ n . " J\n,] so on . Frum this point lo th e end of
tlic p aragrap h, a,; the tho ug ht lie,; all in the sa me d irec t io n, no connectives arc:
usecl .
1t is a frc 'lucnt crru r in young "'ritcrs t11 cha n g e the di rection of their
thought too uftcn, a nd thus liu r dcn thei r style "'ith c onnect iv es. The following
is a p a ro dy and uf en ursc :i.11 exaggc rati u n uf l his tendrncy to s hi ft tho ught.
"' ]lard a l it, }•shua 1 ' he said .
'\'e:;, yes'.' said J u sh n a , loo ki ng up th rou gh l1 i,; steel-bowed spectacles.
tl wugh l d u n't know 's J ough t to call

'I r C\' t l) \\' Ork h a rd t() ma k e a ]i,·i n' -

experience, a nd s u und se n se - ' " ith one arin, ll'hid1 he makes do the w u rk uf
two, aml nuhu dy can n uti c e that the othe r :inn r est in g in his coat - breast is u f
cork, so expert is hc ' much for th e prese nt.

\\'ill d u in this matte r wh :it is feasi b le; probably n Pt
Ile is to call on V o ltaire :i.s he p:i sses, wh o is i n 1l ul -

l:1 nd aga in , at th e I !ague fo r so me m onths b ac k, and deliver him ':i littk cask
o f Hungary \\'in c ,' ,,·h ic h probably h is :'lhj e,,ty liatl thuu g ht exqui s ite ; of••·l11d1 .
and the other i nsig ni li e a nt pa ssages li Ct \\'CCll them, "'e he a r rnure than c nough
in the writin g and c o rrcspondt:n c es of Voltaire alJ11ut t hi s time."

it li:rnl 1H:ithc:r; and y et it is r:it h c: r l1:1rd, t u" : hut then, un t'uther haml, 'taint

su h.ird as a good man y other t l1ing' c as1c r.

Tint's so '

t h ll ugh t h cre':; a guod many jobs that 's

That's sn '.
.. C-1 u't \\' C be· kcrr i1· cl to the :;kies
On fv:11 ii ny l1eth o f ··ase 1 ..

Th ough f d1 rn ' l-r10 11"s 1 uughte r 'ltIPk a l"·11rn o n sach :i m :itter; hut then d u n' k 11 ow' s there':; :iny p:i r tie ' b r har lll in 't, neithe r.'"
2. Hy demonstrati\·e wo rd s and phrases . and liy repetition, eithn
lite r:.d ly o r in su rnrn:ny, or the p;irt uf the previous idea th:i.t is to
he utilized in the reference .

r;,' 1 1·: .

-

l

>f 1lcn1o n str:tti1 e \\'ur •b , t iil' l •c rso nal a n•l demonstrative pro nouns

:1rt: 111 w. t relie d u n .
Joe

"'Ii" \\':I S uf

The r ebt iv e 11·as f<•r1 11 crly "" nscd; f"r examp le: "But

the li" nd w v 111 a 11 w a s liu rn a fter th e lli.:'h; hut he of the free

woman w as lJy promi s t: .

3. By modifying th e st ru cture of the sue 'Ceding sentence in ohedience to the attract ion exer ted hy a. p reviou s idea . This m odi fica tion of struc ture has already Leen d esc ribed, und er the head (}f
Inversion for 1\ djttstrncnt; sec p receding, p age 166. T hus a series
of sentences rn:i.y be formed, in whi c h word s o r turns of thought
in each previous se nt ence may be taken as the st:n ting-point or
occasion for \vh at follows .
Skillfully m :i.nagcd , this m::rnner of referen ce is \·cry g r:i.ceful and
effective; the writer need ~;, howc\·c r, to keep his paragraph-subject
well in mind, as well as the sugges ti()n of the 1i1-c,·iuus se nte nc e .:
otherwise th e re is dan ger of makin g tuo g reat excursions from the
path of the tho11ght,.
EXA~ !P LE . -

lf'hidi t h i11,1,'s :ire a n allegorv : fo r these a re the two

1n th e fullo11 ·i11 g , frum De Quincey, ohse n ·e how fre q uentl y

co \'enants; the o ne fr u m tlit: m u unt :-;i11 ~1i , \\'hich gcndcreth to bondage, which

the sentence is i111·ertc1l th rough the in Oue11cc, e ither s imila r ity or contr:ist, uf

is ,\ ga r."

11

J\'o,1·atby s, h o ,1·e1·cr, thc rt.:l ative is u sed o nly in side the se nte nce.

Demonstrative ph rase s :u e fu r th e 1n us t p: irl the co mbinatio n of a dem on·
st:·ati1·c pnmou n wi th ut her w o r ds, s,1 a s tu d c 1wtc >•JJne ad 1·crb ial relat ion ; M,

i11 this 0 1s<", und"·r tlll·sc

cir( t//ll Sl 1111l·r's ,

in this 111t1J1J1t r, after 10/tat !tas bta1

, ,,;J, :l!ld the lil< c:.
The fu llo\\'ing par:1grapi1 , fru1 11 ( ':1 rh·k , wi ll iliustr:-ttc reference lioth by
dc11)11n-;t r:tti\'e S and hy n:p~! iti u n: -

" l"ricdrich d u es nut ne glec t th es t: p 11 ints ,,f g' " " l lll:lll n c rs . :dung with which

prev ious iJea .

Other means of explic it rcfn e n cc, alsu, arc mar ket!.

"J\ll is finite in the pr es ent; and eve n th a t linitc is in li nit e in its vcl uc ity

of flight towa rds death.

Rut iii Cod ther e is n o thi n g llnite; but ill C nd th ere
is Ho thing transi t ury; f, ut i11 C od there c:i n lie ll!i t hing th a t ten d~ t1l dc:i th.
'!'here/ore, it full"ll' S, tha t f •r c;,,,f there c an lit nu pr c-,e nt. T li<' Jitlurc· is
the present of C"d, :incl / ,1 tlu ;irtu rc· it i-; tha t he s:ic ri li cc: s the hu111:rn preSl'.llL
Tliertfure it i s th at he " ·" r ks l•y ca rt l1'lu.1Le. J'/uufH<' it i s that lie works
by grief. 0, deep is tlic pl unghing uf cartla p1:i.kL·: 0 , deep is t h e pl u ugli ing

-- -

?.l1(;

-- -- - ..

-

.•

~--.

. .,.,_

TJIE

'/'// !:' I '. I A'.1 Ck.·! I 'll.

of g rief ! JI N! oftenti mes less would no t s uffice for the :igric ulture of Go1l
U/011" 111~~;/11 <
'/ ,·<1Fth '.111<1 li' he lrnii cl s a th o ns::tnd years vf pleasant hablL'I.·
t iuns fu r 111 :rn.
{ f< 1 11 1,1,,· s, 1n -.i7 u o f ::rn i11 fa 11t lie raises oftentirncs fr om hun11u1
int ell ec ts gl.ir iu us ,-i11t:1 .;.;es tha t cunld n ut cbc have been . Less than tluu
fi, ·rr< f'l< 1 11.~·h slt.1us \\·uu ld n 11t h:w c s ti rr ed the stu l;liu rn soi l. T lic one is needed
f,,,. c:irt li , uur jJla 11 ct - f, •r e a rth it>c lf as t he dwel lin g -place o f man; /1 u / lht
1
< 1/i ,·r is llce.k d ;·t:t uftc nc r fu r C od 's 1n ig htit: st inst rument, -yes, is needed
f.,r the m y, tcr iu us ch ildren " f t he e arth~"

-l · In a b rgc proport io n , iJC rh a ps in tile majo ri ty of cases, how.
t h e f11n:g<> in g m c:m s o f expl ic it rde re n c e may be safdy

J'. IRA <;R.l/'11.

20 7

EXA~!l ' LF.. -The follm,·ing will ii lus trn tc the al isen ce o f conne cti,·es, a n\l
nlso stand as an e xa m ple of the ty pe o f p:uagra ph-s tru ct ure - na me ly, s ubje c t
nnd proof- that will best li e::t r th e ir absence.
" When m os t di sg ui se d a nd re pre sse d th e wi sd o m of the g ospel h ::is be e n
mod ifying o ur phil oso phy :rnd tea c hin g a lo ft ier system of its O\\'n. A I l u \\'nrd, soundin g a nd circnmna,·i ga ting the o cea n o f human misery , is o nl y a n
obedient agen t o f its phibnthro p y. 1\ C hrk son an d a \\' ilh c rfurce h:wc \>11 ir
A r;: a ik cs . a
1 given utteranc e to its tender an d rigl1 tcn us a ppea ls for the slave.
Hell , a n d a Lancas ter, h:1,·c sirnpl y rc rnendi c rcd ih iu ng neg lected in j u nc tion ,
' Suffer litlk ch ildren tu cu 1ne untu 111c.' " - l L\1'J(l s .

l'\ LT.

01 11it tc d . Jt is :1 n :1ckrnu g e 11·hcn t h is can be done, especi:illy
11·hL·n t he re liy cu n 11cni 1·c \\'Ord s :rnd phr:isc:s a rc obviated, because
co n nccti 1·es in ge n era l tend to Juad a nd e ncumbe r the com posit i1 111 . T h e tc nd e 11 cy o f mod e rn lite rary style is to dispense more
:tn <l rno rc 11·ith the m.
Th is d i:-,l·:mling ur l' Onlle(' t i1·es

JS

d 11c n o t to any tendency to

IIL
Proportion. -The Relation of Parts. - On the princ ip le th a t
all statements sh o lllcl kn·e bulk and promin e n c e al:Cord in g lo th e ir
im no rtance, a due pro po rti o n ne e ds to h e m a intain e d b etwee n
pri,nc ipal and subord inate id eas in the parag ra ph . E very p:1rt

ic:\1·c the Sl ri ll" l llrC u f th <111 g h t illlp c rle('t ly art ic ulated, lJ ut lO the
.~ 1-., · :1 lcr di re('fne ss o f tlH; 11.:,; ht a n cl ex p ression , 11·hich m a kes the

should be so t rea ted as t o s h o w fu r just what it naturally is, in rank .

nwl pbi11 :t11d o ln-i<111 s 1r itho1 1t n eed o f p:lrticks to p oi nt it out.

Digressions . - \\' he n a sul JO rclinate o r illu st rative iclc;i. is e x-

F <> ;- th e :1l>su1ce () f co nne c ti n :s lt:is a nwanin g and justifica ti o n

di ,.. tinn :is has thei r p n :sen c e.

;:is

\\ .he n the t hought, having been

11n c e c lea rly propusd!, n e ed s only t() ]J c kcp t on in the same dirccti " n , l': l<'h s 11 ('ccedi11 g s Lltcrn c11t is it s mm gu ide . It is only wh en
th e dire ct ion is t u h e changed tli:lt :t c on nec tive is neede d .
Th e 1:h id' c:t s('s 11·h n c (' 0 1111 ec ti1·es m ay be omitted are : (1 )
\ \' li l' n :\ sc·11 tL" 11<"c n ·11t·:1h, 11r cx p h in s , or illi 1s tra tes, or parti c ularizes
i1 l1 .1 1 ,::,1><::-; lil'i'u r·t· . '!'lie 11:1t 11re .,f tli e n· fl:r L·n c e is s11pposccl to be
s lHJ 11·11 !Jy the c11 11kxl. (~ ) Tn t he acu 111111Lttio n of details. "When
:t n 11t11he r of p a rti c ttLt h a rc gin.: n

in su ccess icm -

whether clesc rip·

ti 1 ·~: , n:1rra t i\'C', o r npos ito ry-th c y arc prcs um e cl, in the absence
11! :tn \' co ntra ry i111 li('at io n, to lia1·c a co mmo n bearing ." 1 (J)
:-:." 111Lti m es in c:1sc s 11·h e re t h e y 11·o uld mo rc nat urally lJe ex p ressed,
i:1 <lrde r to n u k e a mo re a lirnp t :in cl forcible transition.
i1 11 p :t c,s i( 111 c d l:rng 1t:1 ge th is o mi ss io n is o fte n an aid to vi vacity.

Jn

ancl in its r elation to the wh ole .
p anded, either in volume o r em p ha s is, beyo nd its proporti o n , it
beco m es a digre ss ion, and dis trac ts fr o m the effect of t he main
top ic .
Digress ion s are to th e par:1graph o r di sco m se wh a t p :ue n th esc s
arc to the sen tcn ce . Th e y m :i y so m et im e s Lie effcc t ua.lly in t ro <lncccl, a s wh e n, fo r in s t:rn ce , it is cks ira l1lc to rliz1crl th e.: rcad c r's
attenti o n f<ir :i. ti111 e frn111 a ;, t rc 11u•111s :11 1d e x.:i c-ti11 g :irg111 11u1t, " r
from a hi g hl y -11T(1tlg ht :111d ex1 ·iti11g p:1ss:1gc , fo r t h e s: 1k c o f re" '""
ering calmness and lJUoy:rn c y of rni11d. Th e b ound a ries o f :t
dig ression should, howe\·er, lJe C lrcfu ll y drawn, ancl its di g rcss i\ C:
charac ter mack a nd kept ol>1·ious.
N OTE . Of modern aut ho rs the m os t di ;:; ressi,·e is De Quin cey; aJ1(1 noth ing co uld jus tify hi s invctera k tend e ncy tu \\'antl e r o ff from his s nlij cct, ex ce pt
his remarkable c a re allll skill in e xpl icit referen ce, \\·hich gen e ral ly ke eps
h im witl1i n ret11rning <li stan cc uf hi s main topic; l> ut e \'Ctl this d ocs not prcv1;nt his discu rsi" c 11 c ' s fru1n l>c ro 11 1i ng occasiunally vex a tiou ~ .

J"I f ! :

! '. i N.1 (,"/,'. /I 'If.

TJJE l '.·I RA C N.·11 '/1.

Parallel Const ruction. - \\'c ha,·e se en tlnt it is :i help to the
rc:id cr' s :-ittcnti •in \\·hen c o rrl' sp o11 cli11g cl :rnsc~ and phrases arc
fo rmed . :is rn: arl\· a" m .11· llL-. n n the s.i me j d:rn .: se c p:-ir:igraph 79,
p:-i~e 16.1 . T he ,:arnc p rinciple ho lds :ibn, with a so rn <.:what
]1rn:H1c r ap p lication, in th e s tru c ture o f th e p:Hag r;tph . Successive
sente n<:cs de ali ng \\· i th the sa me su Iijcct sho 1dd preslT\T the.: pro mi nc·ncc o f le:1d ing ideas hy keeping t he prin c ip al ~ulij <.: ct :rnJ the
Jll·i11cip:1l pre t!icttcs, if pos sible, in co rn:s po rnli11 g pbces . Jn in1 rsu:mce of the s:t rn c p rinc ip le, su lio rdin :1te o r rli i; 1«.:ssin: id eas shou ld
rccl'iv e :l cl iffe rcn t d is t ri I nll io n p f l ' 111 pins is, :rnd nut 11surp the
p lace 1\·hc re the m :1in ideas arc natm:1ll y looked for .
J\ • >T I·:. -

ln t h e fu llu \\'ing p ~n :.g r :ip h, fr .irn I l(' (:i uin cc y, it "·ill h e nuticc•l

t h:\ t th e pr i:H· il' :tl ,; u hjc e \ .,f r c »>:u k is J.ep t '"l' l l in t i1t· f1•r.-f1«• 11I throu g lJtJ ul;
a n d t h:it in t he s c n tt'. 1H:e s '' lw re :l n ew "il •j «ct i.; intr ucl u cc.J ( 111 :. r l; c d here by
' ' ]ll :lrc i>r:ic-1. t.:l s) ti «: !\CW s u lijc t.:t is I.cpl c u n s i, tcntll· in :l lc .,s prurni l\Cll t pJr t
o f i!:; s c nt c 11c c.

Th <.: 111:1in s u h i1.: ct i, ( lur J .:u ly u f T ea rs .

"11.-r e yes :nc S\1·c·d a n d su l >i ik, w ild al\ ,] sleep;·, l•y t m 11 s ; o ftc l\ limcs risil\ g t o th e Cl t> llib , t<flc lltilll CS cJ 1aJk 11 gi11g the

Ji C;\\"CllS .

.')/, ,.

\\' C:\ rS a di:lclCl!l

h e r head. 1\nd T J.:ncw iiy c Jr iJ,Ji-;h ll>ClllOrics th :1t .d1,- C"u]cJ go :\Jiro:H\
u p<•ll th e \1·in ds, wh c 11 she h ea rd th:1 t s,,1,J, ing «f lit:1n ic·s, 11 r th e lhn11dc rin g o f

l"\>I J !ld

or:-,:;tn~ , a n tl \\' he n she hchcld ih c nn1-.. :cri ng

nr ~u n1n 1 cr

~' i'tis

1..'.i t•lllls .

sister,

2 ()')

Beginnings and Endings. - On thi s sttl>jcc t not rule s, lmt unly
general s uggest io ns, c:i n lie given .
The opening sentence of a p a ragr:iph, being e ither the sulijcc tsentence or a tun s ition from th e preceding lin e of t ho ugh t, b
ord ina r ily a cornpar:itivcly short sen tence . Sometimes scvcr:-il o f
th e open in g se ntenc es, when they se n·e to introduce :incl it c r:1tc
the sulijcct, a rc sho rt, aml then followed by longer sentenr: e. o f
detail. J\n example of thi s m ay lie found in th e quotat ion from
Burke, p:ige 106. The s:irne ch:iracte r o f t he opening :ilso d ic tates
that its style lie more co n ci se, a nd less orname n ted , than the sty le
o f succeeding senten ces .
The c losing senten c e of the p:iragraph, following th e prin c iple
of climax, is qttite gen erally lo ng , ofte n periodi c , and with a somc wh ::it carefully rounded cadence. This is es pecially noticeab le in
impass ioned p:i s~agc s , antl in the conclusion of an orator ic di scou rse . ;\ n e xcepti o n to t his slrncture is sometimes ad o pted to
good effect (it was a farnrite \\·it h Burke), whe n the iclea whi c h
has bee n cxp:rndetl anll illustrated in the )Jody o f t he parag r.1ph
is condense d :1t the entl int o :i s ingle terse and rcmcm lJ c.:ralJ!c
sentiment.

t i1c ci de r , it is th:i t c:irr ic s k ey s lll •> r c t!i:rn papa l at lier gi r d le . \\ l1icl1 o pen
e very c" l\ :1gc a n d C\-cry i' a bce .

S/1,- , t" m y L111J\\ lc: !g c , sa le :d i h :; t snmrncr

hy th e Le1b ick ,,f t he Lli 11d l>e gg:ir, hirn t l.:1 l ' " ., ftc n a nd
\\· ith , \\-hl/sC piuth cLlu g h tcr , ei ght

y e ar~

ol1l, \'. ·itli the

S•> ghd ly

T t:ilkc1.l

~u1 1 n;· cn u ntc 11 a ncc ,

rc-

EX 1Dll' t.F ,; . ~ho rt

l.

The ful l1n1· i11 g, frorn :'ibc:inhy , w ill illust rate at o n c e tl 1c

open in g sente n c e a11d the lo ng c los ing o ne .

"A hi,;t u ri:i11, s u c h :is \\'e h a ve been a t lern p ting to describe, w o uld in d e e d l>c

In h is mind, po\1·ers s c arc ely compatible \\'i th e:i c lt

s i,; t c cl !he ten 1pl :l ti tJ ns uf pLw :111d ,-ilh g c m irt h t11 Ir a\'\:! :1i l d :1 y ]p11 g on 1lusty

:i n in tellectual prodigy .

rn:\cb wi th J. n :ifllicted f:ithc r.
In th e sprin g t i1 11c o f t h e )' t' :t r.

ut h e r mu st lJe t e m pered into a11 cx •111isite harm<rny .

r n: :tllc:d her tu hi n <'cl f.

[ h•r t hi s di ·l ( ;r,d se 11,l hc:r :< great rewa rd.
:i.11 1l \r h i l-; t yvt hL· r t) \\·n :--1 )ri11:..: \\ .: \S l n1dding, he

J:ut h c·r l 1l i11 .J f:t t l1n

ll l " l lr l >'

f., "· ' ·"r u n ·r li er; still

he rlrc:im s :\t mi d n ig ht th:lt t he: li t tle ~: ui.J i <>g 11:111.J i< l"c i, '. " 1 ,,·i1h i1> his

O\l' ll;

~ nrl still he w al, cn s t <> a 1hr k 11 cs s th :i t is 11 11'.1' '' itl1i n a ' '"" " ' ' ] :rn d a deeper
d :irkncss .J '/ Ii i .,. . l/ .1 /,.,- l. 11d ny111 11no11 :i!s" Ju , lw c 11 <:t i »~ : :ill this winter

uf 1S.\-i- S wi th in t1.c J,e,kh:1 rn i> n
1h ug,1l n

,,f the C ::i r . l> r ingi11 ~: J,,· f,,,c: 11is (' yes a

hi nd he r a <h rknc·ss n o t less profuu nd .

Our / .a.!1•

11/

c ... 1 n tJ t

k-,.; s n.J , J.-11 1'-, ~ nd left be };y th c Jl" ' ' ·n t>f hn l,c.:,·s it is th at

( n o t less l'i , n 1s ) tl1al Ya n i,hcd '.t>

j',·,l!·s glides a ~ liu> t ly i<>tru.Jcr intu the eh:u n l1crs o f s leepless

m e n , slc cples-: 11«•1 n c 11 , s k c p Jc ,s c: hi ldr cn, frn111 ( ::111 ;.:cs lo t he '-"ilc, fr om
~'\ik t o :'ili "-' i·., ip11 i.

1\n <l h ,-r , li<'cau s e s he is th e fir,l- l •" rn .,f J.n hu use, a nc.!

lia :-; tli ~ \\"id c"l l v ltli fi:«.: . l e t u:-: h u 11 ur wi!l1 tl ic t itk u f ')L1 l" 11 11:t.
1

1
''

ot h e r ~hak« s pe :u- c <>r a1111thcT f l\llll c r.

\\"e shall soone r sec a n -

The highest ex ce llen c e l<> whi c h an y

s i11gle fa c ulty c;rn 11('. l11-. n1g h t \l"<>ultl lie less suq>ri s i11g tha11 su c h
a11cl clc:iicalc c n n1J.inati .. n o f qualitie s .

a

ha ppy

Yet th e e o nten1phti o 11 of im:ig in:ny

m0< k ls is n1 1t an 1111 pkas an t or 11sckss employmen t o f tli c rnin cl.

l t ca nn "t

in cleccl p t«Hl uc c p nfc c 1i u 11; l1u l it p rn duces improve m ent, and 111JurisJ.e , t1 1 ~ t
gc 11 erm1s :i 11 d lii> e r:il f.l .., ti d iou Sl\C 'iS wl1i c h is n u t ill e •insisle11t wi1h t he qrn n gc s l
sensibili ty tu m e r it, and w l1 ic l1. ,,·Jiile it exalt ' '' ur c o 11 c eption s of th e a rt , cl " cs
n ot r e n de r u s lln jltst to t he artist."
2. The f.,JJuwing, fr om nurke, illustra tes th e c los in g o f a p ar:igraph wi th a
terse Sltrnmari 1. ing sentiment.
"Bllt po w e r, o f some kill\l o r othe r, will s urvive the shock i n whi c h man·
11ers ancl o pini o n s peri s h;

'"' cl

it will lin ,] uthcr and ,,·u r ..,e m ea ns f<>r its su p·

.. ~I 0

TllE PA/\AGRAPJI.

l'" ri. The u, tlrJ''tti" n wh ic h, in n rd c r l•> st1l\\·crl ancient insl itutions, ha s
.J cst rnycd anci ent princil'!c-;, ' "ill h11ld 110 11·cr liy :trts sim ilar to those by wh ich
i t h:ts :t c•1 uireLl it . \\' he!\ tl ic .,j ,\ fc u d:tl :i. n cl chi,· al rous sp ir it of Fea lty , wh ich,
J,y frccill g k ings fr o nt fc:1l' , fre ed h uth Lin gs an •l s ul•.ie cts frorn the preca uti ons
<> f tyr:rn!ly , ,.;li:dl J,c C\ti\lct in th e min ds o f men , pl11ts a ntl as;;assinations will
J,e a n t i1.· i patcd l1y prc\'C' nt i,·c murde r a 11 d prc,·e 11ti,·c cnnliscat: n n, and t hat long
,.,,J l of g1 i111 alld liluo.!y ni;nirns, w hich f1J rn1 the p <>litica l cod e of a ll powe r,
11,, t sL<ndi11 g u11 i: s u 11·n li .. 11 ,, r, :rnd the l11i111"· uf tl111sc who arc to obey it.
j \ 'in. .~rs 7-1..' t'/! b. .· IJ 'r,111/s

Jr, ·l 1111

lf .

fc flil)' ( i._,;lt' ll s u/-jt.·(·/s

arl·

rt·l•,is fr ""' pri11ci} le."

l\:l:\lJS (JF P.\l\..\(; J\. .\l ' llS.

It wou ld sen·e n o practical purpo se to ::ittc rn p t :in exhaustive
cb ss ific:i.t ion o f tht: di iTcrcn t kind s of p:u:1 g r:1ph s : :ill that is u ndertake n h ere is to n:m1e those lea d in g typ es 11·h c rL·in the office of
th e ]Jar:igrap h is apl to c a use fu1HLunc11 u l modific:i.t ions o f th e

21 !

par ti ti o n o f a pro vince o f lit e r atur e of whic h they we r e for m erly seizet! jt: r my
et per / (l ri/ ; a n d n o \\' they hold thei r re spec tiv e p or tio ns in severa lty, in stead
of ho ld in g th e wh ole in co m mo n. "
T he s t1 bjcc t o f t h is paragraph, whic h is gat h e re d fr o m th e fi rst t \\'O se nte n ces , is The 1\ \·o Fu nctio n s of II istory ; a n d the se nten ces pruceed syste ma tica ll y to defi n e the m, as co nj oi ne d a nd as sepa ra ted.

The Amplifyi ng Paragraph. - U nde r th is nam e a rc inc lude d
par:i g r.1p hs wh ose office it is t o p::irt ic ular ize o r :i. m plify some statem e nt m :idc prev io usly, o r to enumer:ite th e dc t::i ils o f :i. descript ion or n:i rrative. It is the pecuki.r ity o f th is type of p a ngr::iph
that the subj ec t is not defini tely e xpresse d but has to b e gath e red
from the g e nera l b earin g o f the whol e ; and th e plan h:is mere ly
to seek s uch sys te m as will m a ke the most logical and progressive
a rrange m e nt of coo rd inate fac ts.

:; trn<:t11rc .

The Propositional Paragraph. - This is the common and mtl:nl type; inde e d , the <llhe r kind s o f p:1r:1gr:iphs rn :iy perhaps be
n ·:-;:1rtlcd merely :b Sf'« l 1" 11s of :rn idc:il structure represente d by
t h is fmrn .
1ll thi s type of parag r:iph, t he sul>jcn is cxprl'ssc d i11 the fo rm
1>r :t d c itnilc a sscr li o n, :incl then cl c1Tl o1 w il . l>y J>r<H •f or illu str:it ion
or so me form o f 1'Cj>Ctitiu11. It is thi s ];:i; id th at ex hibits the most
rc·guhr and ordered phn ; it is a united 11h olc ill ih e:lr, and re' times subrni~sion tu the b ,1·s of systcin :1tic alld rnulldcd a rr:i.nge1ncnt.
F\ ,\\tf'iY . - These· .ii lYc·1c11t Li11ds 11 f l'a r:1;..: r:1 11l" 11 1:1y pnli:11 "' J.c,t he ex('inpi ilit·d rr o 1n '). i :-i.caU1;1.)" , whu \ \ .;1.S :t C:i. rcfu l 11 1:'\'-' ICr pf }' :trag r :q iJ i ~ l rUC lllr C.

The 111·,t is from Iii .; c'":IY 011 l falLun 's C1•11sti !utiPnal l f ist• >f)«
" J listory , at least in its sl:.ite u f i.!c :<l p c rrc ct i11 n, is a cu111po 11 11 .J of poetry
:llld i' hil us(•p h y . It il)] p rcs:;cs gcncnl trut hs <,n the mind l •y ;i " i,·id rcprese nt.1t i1Jn of pa rticula r ch:1r:t cte rs and in c id e nh. ]'.ut , in fa c t, the two hos tile
c lL·nicnts o f \\·hi c h it c 11nsi ~ ts l1:1sc nc \· er l 1cc 11 kn l)\\' ll le) fu rm :i p e rfec t a 1nalg;i m:tl i1>n; :1n, l ;tt length, in onr u11·n tim e , they l1 a n; licc n cnmplctely and
prtJ fc:--:-.;f.' dl y ~ l· p: u~ted . C u! 1d }li . .; t 1 1 r ic~ . in tla· \\n.)pc r scn -.. c o f tli c \\'Ord , we
lu.n .: n 11 t. (; u 1 \r e l1 a\T ~uud liisl11 r ic ~d r u111~1 11 cc s , and g ou 1 hi-.;tilrical essays.
Tltc im;igin:1li11 11 a n d t he reaso n, if ,,.e ma y use a lq:a l 111c t:ii ·lH1 r, have m ;idc
1

ExA~ ! P l. E . - The follow ing pa r ag r:iph immed ia tely s ucc eeds th e o n e bst
q uo ted, as a part ic ula ri ;,atio n o f the same iJea .

" To m ake t he past present, to bri ng th e J is la nt n ear, to p lace us in the
socie ty of a g reat m an, o r on the e m in ence w h ich overl ook s the fi e lLI o f a
m ighty battle, tu in vest w ith the rea lity of h um a n fles h and b lood beings "' hom
we arc too mu ch in clin ed t o co n s ide r as pe rson ified q u a litie s in an allegu ry, to
ca ll up lJ Ur a n cestors hclL> r c us w ith all the ir pec uliariti es of lang uage, man n e rs, and garb, t o show us o ver their ho uses, to seat us a t th e ir tab les, to rum m agc th ei r old- fashionecl w a r drobes , to expla in th e uses o f the ir po n der •rns
fu rniture , th ese p a r ts of th e duty w hich prope rly belongs to th e h istoria n have
b ee n ap prop riat e d l,y the h isto ric a l n ovel ist. O n the o t he r h a nd, to e xtract
the ph ilosophy o f hi st or y, to direc t o ur judgm ent o f eve nt s and me n, t o trace
th e co nn ect io n of causes an d effects, a nd to d ra w fr o m the o ccur rences u f
fo rm e r tim es ge n e ra l lesso ns o f m ora l an d p oliti cal wi sdo m, has b ecome the
busin ess o f a di s tin ct class of "'rite rs ."
IIere two lo n g sen te nces ar e dev o ted to developing, in order, the subj e ct
sugge sted in the prec e ding parag r aph .

Preliminary and Transitional Paragraphs. - Th ese two kinds
are m e nti o ned toge the r he r e , because wh a teve r is to b e said of
stru c ture will :i pply e(ju::illy to both .
By a p rel imin a ry parag rap h is m e an t a p a r:igr ap h t hat gives
merely th_e g e n eral them e o f a ch:i p te r , essay, or section ; or la ys

"

Tl I/:·

)
~· l ...

J '. 11,·. !(; J\, lJ 'I!.

uut the plan o f a succceu ing course of thought. Paragraphs of
:t mplilication naturally follow .
By a transitio1nl paragr:i.ph is m eant a sho rt intermediate paragr:i.ph introduced bct11·1.:en the prin cipal cli1·isio ns of a discourse, to
111:uk th e end of o ne line of thought and introduce another. Such
:1 p:uagr:tpl rn:i.y aLo in clude a l>ricf st:ttcrnent of plan .
There is 11:1turally little thought of :t !.milt structure in such par,1 _c; r:1ph s as t he ~ e; th e sulc consideratio n L>e in g to do the work of
111 troduction :rnd transition in the pbincst and directest way. A
11·unl lll'.l)' be sai d , ho weve r, concerning thei r serviceableness.
They arc as usefu l in th e ge ncr::tl tissue of a literary work as an
" c c:i.sio nal short an d terse se nt ence is :1mong longer ones. And
to o lit tle care is gene rally devoted to s1 1pply ing them. Important
ideas, on whi ch much depends, ::i re too often sprung upon the
rcHlcr ah ni ptly . with out 11·;nning of th e ir significance, and without
' li:-;cri rn inatio n fro m wlnt precedes . The landmarks of the disr· n ursc ncc cl to he made plain at eve ry step, by carefully supplied
connecting links of thi,; ki nd .
1-:xA~tl'l.E S . -- t . Th e f11llu11·ing p rclim in:uy p;ir;igraphs occur in Burke's
:--1'ecc h tu the Fkct<1rs <>f J;rist1>l .

' ' I t lt:is l1cen said, :111.\ it is t he scc"nd L"liargc, t ktl in the rj11est io ns of the
ir i'-' h 1r:1d e I d id n ut CP11s11lt th e int<:rc't "f my const ituents, -or, to speak
"\ i i s tro ng ly, t h:<l l r;ithn a c l\"\I as a n:lli\"l: of lrcla nd th a n as an Engli h
ntl"nil •cr o f ] '.1rli:i 111cnl."

"111 cxl'L1i11i11 .i.: tu y 1>\l ihc proceeding-; o f l'arliamc n t whi ch h;ivc been
<' ' '"i'l:t invd ,,f. I 11 ill st:tl<' : .. y< •ll . - lir s t , tl1c thing th;it w;is donc ,-ncxt, the
1· n ~ " 11s wl10 did il, - :rn<l Ja , tly . the grt>und s and reaso ns u po n which the
l<- ;.:i, ia t 11re proceeded in this dcl ilicratc act o f publi c justice and p ublic pru1

!t·11 cc.''
'.2 .

The follo \\"ing tra11, itit1n is ma de l1y :\ Tac:rnlay, in th e miclcllc of his

·ss:1 y un l !istory. lly it he passes fro m the conl'ide ra tio n o f a ncient to th e
,., •n , idcr :-i tio n of m1llk rn hi sto ri:rns, :rn d :-it t he ,;-i mc ti me proposes a change
1

in

111:11111L·r of

tr c:tlnt cn t.

"\\.(' l>cgin, like the pr ic , t in D u n <Juixo te's l ib rary, to be tired wi th tak ing
huul; s 1l 11C :-t flc r :1n <it h e r fo r <; C' j• :ir :1k j udgment, :-ind fee l inclined to pnss

<1.i \\·11

, e ntrn ce on them in m as>cs.

\\"c sh:dl, tl1er c fu re, instead o f pointing o ut the

•k fc c ls :-i n d merit s of the di llncnt m ode rn h istu r i:rn s, st:-itc gen erally in ll'hat

/"!IF

/'.11' '.·l r;RA /'JI.

213

particubrs th ey h :ll" C s urpa ssc1! tl1 c ir prcJcccssu rs , :-ind "' \\"hat we cun cc ivc

them to have faiied."'

Alternation of Kinds. - By the best wr iters th e s:rntc care is
taken to sec ure variety in p aragraph ~ as in se ntc1wes; and this
variety is obta.incd Ly an:tlogous m e;tth
?I Tost 11;1t m:il :rnd frequent is the alte rn ation of le ngth ; sho rt or medium sizl' d par:1graphs setti ng off and reliev ing longer ones. l\nt i11 fn:: q uenc y
is the alternation of th o ugh t, by 1\·h ic h a li ghter or merely ill11 strative pa.ragraph is made to follo w one of more se,-c 1-c o r cl1Jsely
reasoned nature. Altern at ion of ~tru cture is closl'ly con nec ted
with thi s. A lon g succession of propositional p:1ra g raph ~, fur
instan ce, woulJ Sl'em to overl oad the di scourse with strenuou s
thought: th ey need to lie judiciously relie1·ed hy par::ig np hs ol
detail or amplifi cat ion. Further, - in the same way as h::ts liee 11
noticed reg:i rd i11g the :tl tcrna ti on of period ic an d loose se nten ces,
and reg;:mling dyn ami c stress, - the di stinctive or sign ifteant part
of consecutiv e paragTaphs should be varied ul'l wl' en the lJL•ginning
;tncl the end , to avoid th e mono tony of the sa me ri se anJ fall of
emphasis.

Final Suggestions on the Study of Style. - Befo re "·c pass Lo
the discnssio n of inventio n, two or three suggest ions on th e pr:ictical use of the fo regoi ng princ iples as mea ns of di sc ipline may ],c
of service to the stt1dent.
1. To he of real v:due these p rincip les of exp re ss ion rn11 st ],c so
thoroughly gro11rnlcd i11 th e 1niter's rni ncl th:1t they ,,·ill occ1 1r
spo ntane o 11 ~ ly 11·hl·ne1·er occasio n fo r them rises.
l Jc needs to
reach such ass1m·d to uch as not to th ink of style and yd ach ie,·c
a good style; clea r and ckan expression m11 st !Jc so provi<kd fur
in the very tcxt m e of his na ture that it may secme itsel f un fo rced,
while his ene rgies arc ::ill absorbed in fin ding and mouldi ng th e
subject-matte r. This point may uc reached , ln1t only by ac'lu iri ng
a haLi tual inten.:s t in the details of expression for their own s:tke,
antl by patien t tra ining until the ma:;tcry of them h;is become
second nature.

.'. l ·I

C::i re for the :1 ppc::i r::i nee of one · s work . - its punctu:itio n and
1·. q 1it. ili 1.::ition, its chirography and ;e ncral mcc h1nism, -is closely
< un nc c tct1
with care fur a clear and sat isfy ing style. \Ve m:iy
i rn ly s:.iy :-iil is o f om· .
:'\ c>t that the gnnd :-iuthor must neccss::irily
l, ,: :l good p enrn:rn . - that w1.•rc too much to assert; l>ut in the
i 1;1c:sion Cor acrm:tcy , wh ic:h is the a uthor's true ::ittitmlc, the han<l
sho uld so an swn [<) the mind th:it no 111i11 ult..' fc:-itme may he
1wgkctcd o r despised . T h e des ire to make e \'C ry word :i.ml letter
i !:1 in c o nsorh n a tur:1lly with the dcsi re to ma kc thollghts phin;
:rnd s](l\·cnliness in the one begets slm'C 11i incss in the other.
3. ln this day of typ e-writers, stylug r:tphic pens, and various
cle \·icc,; fo r incrc;i,,ing npiclity in writi ng, :i. 1qirc l may prof1t::ihly
l11,_' s:\id o n the nt hn siiic . It is q11itc po-;siliic tn write too fast.
Ind e e d, in :tny \l'<>rk hi :::; hn th :rn mere tr:rnscril1ing or taking notes
1ncrc rapidity shollld not \Jc aimed at. The li1·st conception of a
tho1 1ght sclcl o rn e:-;ists in the form it Oll gh t fin:1lly to take; it mu st
lie pondered and tcstt..'d and ruundcd un til the form :rns wers fully
11> the id c:1; :tnd t his the wr it e r crn ]Jest clo liy compelling him '.'•J t. to write so slo1,·ly that all q 11c,;tiu11s nf :-icc uracy, clearness,
< n n,; islL'rn-y. f1ilncss. :111d e upho ny m:1y lie s\.'ltkd in the interval
I •ct "1-cc 11 th e lirst 11H.: n ta l concq1 ticm :mcl ito: final form o n pape r. To
11 rite lJoth well :rnd r:1pidly is a dc sir:1i>lc accom pli shment; but
k t th e wri te r :-i t all l'\·cnts seek to write we ll , neve r letting any
ill -conside red o r c;u1,_·k ss \\·ork csc:1pe him, and then if by p ractice
.rnd c:-;pc ri cn c c r;1pidity also comes, it is worth something. The
111u tto of th e l:ttc ( ;c ur.:_:e 1::.iplcy, who, it is sa id, made his use of
ih 1.: Eng li sh bngua~e a matter uf cun ,.,cicncc, ought to he always
in the write r's he:trl: "I I c wh o ch)cs nut write as well as he c.rn
'-' ll every occasion wili soo n form the lnlllt of not writing well
·1 t all. "
2.

1

II.

INVENTI ON.

I NVENTION.

' · l\ c' l1lt'llli lt' r a1"·:.11·s . yn u h:.11·e h1·0 ch:ir:i ctcr> in 11·l1ich ::tll g re::ttn ess of art
· ·11s:,;ts : -

!· ir,l ,

t!. c:

c: trnc:>L a nd inl<.:nsc sc·i1 in g Pi° n:tturai facts;

then the

·t-.k rin g tlws c: f:l Ch J,y Slr c nt.; lh o f hum:in intc:llcct, so as tu m:tke them, [,,r
il l '" hu lu11 k upu n them, l1J the: ut 1nust sen iccai ·k. i11 en10r:il 1lc, and l1eauLiful.
\nd i ii u ~ gre :it a rt is noth ing else: t h:in tltc t1·pe " 'strong ancl nulik life; fur,
"' t he ign1'1 1lc pcrsun, in hi s d eali11gs
'1i1 ll, !i r:'i ~c c~ 11 01l1ing Ll c~n l y , -

11

ith all 1hal <1ccurs in the world abou t

l uu l.. ~ nc1th i11 g f:i.irl y in tli c f~ c c , and thl'n

d l,i11·s hilll sc:lf t.1 lie s11·q ·t :i11·:iy hy th e: tr:im l'l ing t.irrc nt, and un cscapalilc
·,• re<: , uf the: thi 11 gs t l1:il h e: 11·• ·til d n"l fllrc set , a11.J cu ul cl n"l un ,k rst:i nd:

S•l

:,e 1Hil•k pc:r,.;un, ],,.,1.. it1g t he facts " f the 1•. .. rl cl fu ll in the face , a11rl fatltt>lll·
"~;

th c: 111 with <kep fac·1 tlt y, tlt e n d eals 11·i1h them i11 unahrtncd inte ll ige nce

ind un lt urr inl s lr c· ngi li . :ind l1 ccc> mc-s, 11·i1h hi s human intellect and will, no
111L· 1111~ t- i\> ll :-' no r insi g 11ili L· a11 t agl'nl, in cunsun111 1at i ng

11g tln:ir e1·il. " -

Rusli n .

th eir goucl, and

r estrain -

Scope of Invention. - Invention, as applied to literary un<ler13.kings, comprehends the \·ariuus procedures i1wolvc<l in fin ding,
sifting, and orde rin g th e materia l of di scourse.
T hese three processes, which m:i.y be reg:i.rded as the th ree
logical stages of the irn·entivc act, it is im portan t briefly to de1ine
and discr iminall'..
r. The first stage, the finding of material by thought r observation, is the funclament:ll and inclusive office of in ve ntion, the
distinctive power that we desi g nate in the popular use of the tl: nn.
Here in lies obviously the heart and ce ntre c, f literary producti o n;
it is what th e write r finds, in his sul>ject o r in the wo rl d of thought,
that gauges hi s di stinction as an :rnthor. Vet this is, of all p ro cesses, the o ne lc:r.st to be invaded l>y the rules of the text -book.
It is a work so individual, so dependent o n the peculiar aptitu d e
and direction of the writer' s mind, th a t each one must be kft fur
the most part to find his way alo ne, according to th e impu lse th:n
is in him . Thi s is b 11 t say in g tk1t each man must be left to his
own way of thinking, wh ether it be spiritless and le:J.n, or vigorous
and suggest ive. Such in ven tio n is in co mmuni cal)]c by teachin g .
Some thing o f real valu e may be d o ne for it indirec tly, howe ve r,
by general precepts for self- c ulture, a nd l>y inc ulcation of the
mental h:J.bits that arouse the laten t creati ve powers, and gi\·e
them steadin ess a nd self- consistency.
2. But :1. m oment's thought makes it e vide nt tlut the inventi\·e
act is by no means exh:wste tl wi th the m e re finding of m ater ial.
Indeed, the m ate rial is not properly found, o r :1.t least ascertain ed
to be wh:i.t is needed, un t il it has lJeen subjected to a rigorou s
process o f testing, choosing, and rejecti ng . At every step it has

!Ni 'F N TI O.V.

: held up in the ligh t o f a n uns po ken sta nd:ud in the writer's
I : the st:rndard ma inl y of hi s own sens<..: o f fi t ness and proll n , !Jut also con d it ione d la rge ly by e xtra neous cons idera tions,
;i.s the clnrac te r of the :tudi e n ce or pu b li c, the allotted ti me
·u p<..: of the p rodu c tion, t he c irc um s ta nces o f utte ra nce, the
Lio ns of th e litera ry form adop ted . This st;i.g e of invention is
to a limi te d e xtent within the teac her' s provin ce . It IJelongs
-r to the wri te r's n a ti n~ tac t and logical sense , a nd to the deb of the indivi d ual occ as io n.
Eve n yet we d isc e rn :i n im po rtant step involved in th e work of
ng ; fo r until the m:i.terial h as bee n carefu ll y ordered, with its
sk illful.y adjusted to c:i.c h o th e r and to thl'. whole, the ques<>f r e te n tion o r rejecti on, :i.ncl t here fo re o f disco veri ng, is still
Th e d iscourse is to be n o t a mere agglomerat io n o f states. b ut a n o rg:rn ism, fitt ed to move as OHL'. though t, and be
·1 1oratcd into th e re:i.cle r's m ind . " In a good com po sit ion ,"
R uskin, 1 "every idea is prese nt ed in just t h::i.t o rder, and with
th:1l force, wh ic h wi ll pe rfec tl y co nnec t it wi th :i.11 the othe r
..;i 1ts in the work, :rn J w ill illust r:i.te t he othe rs :i.s well as
1-.~ illt1str:ition from them ; so t ha t th e e ntire c hai n o f t hough ts
·d to the beholde r' s m ind sha.11 b e recei 1·ed by hi m with as
1 deligh t a nd with a s lit tle effort as is poss il>lc .
An d t hus you
ks ig n, p roperly so ci.llc<l, is human im e ntio n, co nsult ing
111 ca.pac ity .
Out o f t h e infin it e heap of thin gs around us in
1mlc1, it ch ooses a ce rtai n numbe r whi c h it ca.n thoro ughly
•. :.md p resents th is gro up t u t he s pec tat or in th e for m Gest
il:\te d to cn:i.\Jle h im to gras p it a lso, and to grasp it wi th

hl. "
>e o rd ering o f di scourse is t h e inv e ntive pro cess most suscepto t reatm ent in a te xt -book . T o be sure, in th e ind ividual
th e writer mu st st ill Le ld t to hi s own id eas of the progress
p ro p o rtion th a.t h e secs fittin g to h is wo rk ; bu t also there are
itc and asce rta inab le hws und erlying the c on struction of any
of d iscourse, wh ich n o write r can a ffo rd to ign ore. Accord1

R uskin , "Two Pa ths," p. 44.

/ ,\ ' f 'f.:.'1V 'f'J ON .

219

ingly, it sh:i.11 be the main t:i.sk of th is seco nd part to exhi b it :i.nd
exe m pli fy these o rg:i.nic laws, as they appear both in the ge nc r:i.1
struc ture o f a work , a n<l in th e par tic ular aspec ts o f the van ou s
literary type s.
O f the e ight c hap te rs th a t make up th e seco n d half o f thi s b ook,
the first two are d e rnted to a discuss io n of th e p rin c iples th a t
b elong to an y lite r:i.ry wo rk; :ind th e re ma inin,'..'. s ix to the pa rtic ula r applicatio ns o f them, as s<..:en in the leading fo rms o f dis course .

AI'Tf7'UDFS A,\·D //,.//!/ J'S.

Al'JJJ'UDLS AND JIALJITS.

CHAPTER I.
THE B ASIS IN MENTAL APTITUDES AND HABITS.

d iscussing th,_: general principles o f lit erary invention, we
be gin far \Jack of the immediate occasion . :rn<l consider the
c r's endowments, :1s 1>cstowed by n ature, a1Hl as tkv cloped by
G1tion and c;.;.pcriencc . For the author is both born and
le; arnl what he write s, if it has true worth, is a genuine ex~s ion of his aITTucncc of mind and life, as we ll as of his acre cl constructive skill. There fore each writer needs first of all
11tcrrogate himself, an d become aware oi the nature, direction,
l lim its of h is in born :1ptitudcs, in order that by obey ing these
li terary ac tivity may fvllow its most co ngenial ben t ; and npon
'-'C he needs to bu ild ha bits of thought and se lf-culture which
11 !Jc a pe rpetual feeder to his inner resources, keeping them
:rnd ready for tbc ; his mind no t at the mercy o f moods or
,jec t to p e riod s of barre nness, !Ju t alert, keen, •1uickly com,

;t

rnt to his will .

l'hc laws o f lite r:1ry invention arc simply the Lms of logical
1\· ity practic:1lly :1pplied in tran s rnittin~ ideas from one mind to
1c rc;, with a cco mpaniment, as occasion m:1y dictate, of emotion
:1 ppc:i1. Such work as this, howe\'e r, c:innot he merely mechan-

1. nor can it result from train ing alone.

I t requi res, to begin
ii, some degree of spec ial aptitude: there mu st exist in the
tc r an originating and com\Jining power as truly inborn as is
· musici a n's natural car for m elody, and the arti st's natu ral eye
for m and colo r.
l lowcver profic ient he may become in a crp1irccl :ibility, therec . each writer must obey pr imarily a nati\'e ideal and indiviclu-

...

221

ality of origination and combination; his success can be achieved
only as he educates and disciplines what is al ready in him. Th us
nature develops along the line of its own perfecting, into :i.rt ;
and the art itself is nature . " Art," says Professor \Vilkinson,1 "in
the sense in whi ch we are no w using it, that is, to denote the pains
bestowed by th e art ist on hi s work, is merely nature giving attention to itself. It is nature in a m ood of self-consciousness. Thus,
to speak like a mathema tician, it is limited to yield a lugl1er po1ea
o.f 11a /11 rr."
Marks of the Inventive Aptitude. - !\Tore deeply seated than
ih indiv idual peculiarities, we discern two nati\'e tendencies espe cially characteristic of the invent ive mincl.
I. Fi rst of all, it is a natural ability to grasp fact s and idc:1s in
such combinations as gi\·c th etn orga nism and significance. To
such a mind nothing is seen as isolated; there are no di'sj1·d,z
1m111bra in the sum of its thinkin g . Every fact has a relation and
a sugges tiveness hy whi ch it is alliecl with othe r facts and finds ih
place in the fabric of a greater unity. Tn such a mind thin:.;s
seem to fall intv such 0rclcr and prop0rtion that a new intere st is
lent to them . Thi s n:\tural i nv c ntin~ness is recognized in pop ular
speech, when pe o ple arc clescribecl a s h:l\·ing " the gift tv set out
a story," or as I.icing able to "get at th e gist of a thing."
2. But we disc e rn h e re more than the merely constrnctive facul ty. The inventive mind al so habitually views facts and ideas :is
achpted to have power on ot h ers . It docs not constnict for itse lf
alone ; it seeks liy a natural instinct to conform its think in g to the
capacity am! stan<lards of the people acldresse<l . The inven ti \·c
mind has a tact to get in to the ways of other minds ancl direct
their thoughts and interests . Thus we may say autho rship sta rts
from th e desire in some degree to form and mold the mind s of
men; it is thi s implicit d es ire that we trace most deeply in the
skill and fine calcula tio n that constitute the felicity of literary
form.
A person with such a n aptitude is recognized not only by the
l

\Vilkinson , "A Free Lance in th e Field uf Life and Letters, " p.

200.

'------....

AP'J'l'J'UDLS A ND llAJJ!TS.

e raturc he makc.:s, Lut l.Jy his whole manne r of iooking at things .
c has an independence and ind ividuality of view that makes men

kc interest in his u tterances.

Analogy with the Painter's Art . - The man o f inventive
•t it ucle possesses by n:iture, and of course cle\·elops to g reater
1
11·cr and unerringness by exp erience, the sa me sense of a sub·t 's ;idapt::d Jility to literary treatment th::tt the arti st has of the
11 ess of a scene , in comb in:ition ::tnd bab nce of p:i rts, fo r a pici l' .
The 1nrallel is thus dr::twn hy \ V:ilter Ibgehot : 1 "There should be ::t word in the bngu:ige of lite rary a rt to excss what the wo rd 'pi c turesque ' expresses for the fin e arts.
• /f( r csr;1re: m e::t ns fit to l1c put in to a picture; we w;int a word
.,,.t11ts11re. 'fi t to be put into a hook .'
!\n arti st goes through a
nd rcd d iffe rent count ry scenes, ric h with hc;iuties, charms and
'
·nts . but he do cs not paint any of them . He leaves them alone·
idles on till he finds t he h undred-and -first - ::t sce ne whicl~
1ny observers wo ul d not think m uch of, but wh ich lie knows by
11 1e of his art will loo k well o n canvas, ;ind this he paints and
·,,L·rves. Sllscep ti lJle olJsc rv ers, though not a rti sts, feel this
!l,it.y too; they. say of a sct nc, 'How pictmcsq1 1c ! ' meaning
11 11s a q11al1ty (list 111 c t from that of beauty, o r sulJli mi ty, or gran1r - mean i n.~ to speak no t on ly of the scene as it is in itself,
; :tlso of its fitness fc>r imitation hy art; meaning not o nly that
·, good , !Jut that its goodness is such ::is ough t to be transferreJ
i •:1pe r ; meaning no t si111ply that it fa sc inates, but also that its
" i11at ion is such as 011gh t to be copie d hy m:m .. . . Literature
1li c p~tinting of words- h:i.s the same qual ity, but wants the
tlogous word . The worcl 'literatesque ' wo uld mean, if we pos, , .(l it, tha t perfec t combinat io n in the s11!:/1'cl-matler of literal ', which Sll its the arl o( lite r:i.ture . . . . As a painter must have
o nly a ha nd to execute, bu t an eye to dist ing ui sh - as he must
he re and then; throug h the real world to catch the picturesque
n, the picturesque scene, whi ch is to live on his c.:rnv:is - so the
·1 mu st find in that re:i.lity the !ileratesr;111· man, the literatesqtte
'

l

lhgo.:ho t, "Litt: rary Studie~," Vol . J l. p. 3.p.

- --- ---- -

.......

.........-----~--------.,

---

A!'Tll'UDES AND I/AB/TS .

223

scene, whi ch nature intends for him, and whi c h will live m his
p :1ge .''
Thus - to apply the above analogy - we may say th e mark of
the invent ive mind is an aptitude to di sc ern literary capabili ti es in
a subject, a native end owm e nt of im agination and skill which intu it ively c hooses such fac ts as arc dfectivc and grollps them in
inte rest ing comb inations . Such endowment profits indefinitely by
di sc iplint, l.Jut its begi nning is deepe r than any di sc ipline can
r eac h .
Nnn·:. - An interest in g exa mple of wl1 a t an inventive min d ca n make uf a
subject a pp::m .: nt ly m e a 1~ re a n(! cu mm onpb cc in itself, may he see n in Ir \'i ng·s
sketch of The St"ut ( ;entlc man in his "Hracel> ridge 1! al l. " T he sketch ,
whi ch is certainly cha rmin g, o wes abso lutel y all its interest tu invo.:nlion .

Kinds of Inventive Ability . - The impli cati o n of the alJovc is
that there a rc many who have no invent iv e g ifts; :rnd this is doubtless true; b ut th e lack is not so co mmo n as a ha sty jllclgmcnt
migh t co ncl lld c, n o r is it to be argued from a co m pari so n of one
mind with another. For inventive tale nt m ay be of infin itely
varied kinds . No two pe rsons wo uld d evelop the resources o f a
subje c t in exactly th e same way. Differences in p bn, in illustration, in arg umen t, wo uld e vince minds moving in diffe rent regions
of th ough t and feel ing. Each mi nd mus t have its own world .
dwe ll in its own co ng ·n ia l reg ion, in orde r to see truth clea rly :rn d
re p rese nt it with sincer ity . So doubtless there is di scove ral1lc
som e range of id eas in whic h every man who m:i.y lie edu cate d at
all may b e to some ex te nt a n effective writer. But thi s he mu st
find for him self; no othe r can p resc ribe it for him .
Th us, to exemplify th e kinds of im·ent io n. One writer d eals
most natura lly with simple, co nc rete fact s ; hi s impul se is to make
a plain, unembell ished state ment, wi th cle:i.mess and meth od, of
what he has see n an d hc::trd. A good example of th is is found in
the Personal M e moirs of Gene ral Grant, a book which, in its valuable c h::tr::tcteristic of strik ing dire c tly fo r the im port:i.n t poin ts,
saying ne ithe r too much nor too little, shows invent ive ability of a
high or<lcr. Another writer think s spontaneou sly in figure s, cov-

A !'Tl TU!JJ:'S AX!J

ff ,. /

fl/J'S.

ning every topic with innginati\-C :i.nd poetic suggestion, and fill ing plan and portrapl \l'ith a deli cate grace. Exam ples of this
may he seen in the wo rb of Ha1\·thorne and Lowell. J\ third has
:m aptitude l'o r :1 1is tract th inking; he mu\'(;s naturally among gencra.l p rirn ·iplcs and larg e reaches of philosophy. T his kind of
ill\·entiun m~'Y Le seen in the works of 1:::i.co 11, Jon::i.tk rn Edwards,
Lrnerson . T hL·sc ex:1111pks su'-'..l.!:CSt that e \·ny m;in h;:is his place,
nr r:ithc r makes hi s pbce ac;cording to his indi\·idual endowm ent,
in the worlu of liter;:iry achic " crncnt; a nd th:it it is not the kind
o f im· cn tion th at determines his r:i.nk, hut me rely excellence w
thc kind most n;itura l to hi s pO\\·e rs.
Grades of Invention. - Quite distinct from the manner 111
\\'hich the irn·cntor\ mind works. tlwre :HL~ recognized g r:Hles of
]lll l\T r in the 1\Titer's chosen fiel d, ll'hich des ig n:i.tc the nature of
h is gcni1 1s or Ltlcnt.
1 . hrst ;rnd highest of all is wh at rn :ty ])e called the orig inative
invention . Hy this is 111ea11t t hat ma sterly po wer o f in sig ht and
im:1gination whi ch creates new scenes. n ell' ('haractcrs, new sys tems
of id c·as . I ts \\·ork is l>c,;t reprc,;cntcd in the great productio ns of
poet ry and fi c tion, and in th•Jsc 111:1 -;te rpieces of science a nd p hilc>sophy which, i>e(':rnse they open 11c11· rl'g ions of achievement in
the ir sphe re', the C e rrn :m,; C.\pressively n:1me h7llll/Jrccl1c11rle (road l ireaking) works. The greatcst \\'orks in th is grade' of inven tion
a 1T ::1ssociated wit h the sup reme name,; of literature and discovery ;
11·ith snr h n:imes ;i,.; Shah·spc:·;1re in poet ry, Sco tt in fiction, N ewt•lll in sc ience, 1::1«on in phil<>s<>phy . lL i-; the ki nd of invention
ll'<'•lgni1.cd in the name T.u1.1/r11-; (ma/ca) which the Creeks gave to
il H·ir lcadin.c; writers; a name th:tt rnc:rns more tkrn ou r derived
1\·o rd f 11cl, in th:1t it 11i:tkL'S the wr iter's merit cent re in his po wer
!1) cn. ·:1 tc new worlds of i<kas, im:1gc -;, and events, whi ch power is
no w di1·ided bct wc'C n poetry and fictio n. Every poet and nov1·list m:1y l>c regarded as :1 pract itioner in th is gr ai/1.' of invention,
1hough i11 the grade l1is \\' vrk may fill a hurnlllc phce . It is, in
!-'.c ner:il, the kind of i1m::nti o n that cfot in guishcs "the born seers
-- men who se c for themselves :rncl who o riginate."

AP T I TUDES A ND EIABITS .

225

2 . The sccornl grade, wh ich is perhaps the most widely useful,
may LH..: calleJ the reproductive invention. Not aiming at strict
originati o n, thi s inve ntive a c tivity is exerted to put common ideas
into new s h::tpcs and combinations, to resta te abstruse thought in
popnlar form , to make ciear what is obsc m e, to ma ke interes ti ng
what is dry and co mm onplace, to mak e d e finite what is scattered
or hinted, to put into o rder and sys tem wha t i,; vague . The
products o f this moJe of inv enti on appear in oratory, in popular
treati ses and text-books, and in the n umerous essays, c ritiques, ancl
cliscussions with whi ch period ical literature abounds . Write rs of
this class :ire in an ho norable sense the middle-men betwe en the
deeply originative th inkers and the co mmon mind; takin g as they
do the masterpi cces o f thought, and by simpli fi cati on and illustration giving it c urren cy am ong ordinary p eople.
3. The thin.I and lowli es t g radc may be call ed th e m cth od izing
inventio n. U nd er th is head comes what Matthew Arnold calb
the "j o urn ey man work " o f literature ; such wo rk as co mpiling
and transbting, edi ting and annotating, arrang ing and adapting
information in books o f reference, tabular views, and the lik e .
Wo rk of this k in d, though bu t moderately inven t ive, has very real
use ful ness, a nd contri butes incalc ulably to th e wi der extension of

general knowledge.
These grades represe nt degrees of g reatness in wo rk, not degrees
of honoralilcncss. 1\ ny gr:idc of work, well done, not o nly has the
distinctio n o f ex ce llen ce in its class, hut may rece ive such a m::1sterly to uc h as will g ive to the class itself a ne w dign ity. J\1l g r:1des
arc susce ptiulc to gen ii1s. "It not infreq uentl y happens, espec iall y in ph ilosop hy ancl science, t ha t th e man of talent m ay co nfer a lus tre on the original inventio n ; he takes it up a nugge t a nd
lays it down a co in." 1
Finding One's Sphere in Authorship . - Sinc e the fi eld o f useful literature is so large, and the scope o f inve ntio n so varied, it is
p recarious for the student to co nclude hastily th at authorship is
beyond him. This may in deed be the case; but also it m ay bc
1

George H e nry L ewes, in Fortnightly Review , Vol. I. p. r')6.

226

A I' Tl 7' ("/ ) l :·s ..t. \ '/) 11.

fl»!

TS.

th:i.t his pcculi:i. r po wers arc merely b tcnt, :i.wa iting the occasion
th:i.t is to c:i. l them forth . i\fany 1n iters, Leginning in some pre scribed o r hc:ucn tr:i.c k of co m positio n, wherein their interest langu ishes :tr d the ir work is but co mm o npbce, gi n : lit tle evide nce
:incl :ire :is littk aw:m.:, of ll'h:1t is in them ; lnit wh ·n th ey find the
\1·1Hk th ey :ire lie"L endowed to do , they k:ip at once to naturalness :i nd entl111 si:1 sm, strik in g 011t a ne w a nd con ge nial line and
finclin g it producti 1·c . It is gc ncr:illy ll' hc n they arc b rou ght face
to face with respo nsibility th at me n truly discove r the mselves;
wh en they a rc brought to feel that Ji1·ing :ind important issues
<ll'pcn d u pon the ir wo rk , and when they can throw th eir whole
nature into utteran ce . A t such time thei r il11·en tive powers receive th e ir del'pest im pu lse to d e1·clop rnent.
J;ut th o11gh e1-cry write r mu st find in himsel f po wers peculiar to
h imc;el f, and tho11gh these j)CJ ll't..'. rs oftenest a wa ke at th e call of
real expe ri e nce, the di scoYery is l1est made thro ng h training and
gll id:in ce . \\" h.'.1. t at the Lcgi nnin g exists c rude and unapt must
and m:iy lie r:ii sed to fine i ~s t1e s :md abi liti es; anJ the soone r this
prelimin:i.ry ~l:l .t.;"C is pr01·idecl fo r, t he bett er. Th e re may be much
in the rn:in. h ut runn in g "·il d :llld u~c kss for lac k of -discipline.
:\ nd the m ore there is, th e more k in dly he takes to the rul es and
p re cepts of th e literary .'.1.rL -the mo re he thri ves on th e sobe r,
severe r:i.n on s :1lre:idy furnrn bte d fo r hi ~ g uiJ:i nc c. It is only the
conce ite d that desp ise c o unsel.

IT .

TlfE \1E:'\T,\ L IL\H!TS Tl!A T P lm\TOTE ll\\'ENTION.

\. ifted :is the write r may be, hi s nat [1·e endowme nts a re of little
soli d l! Se, a nd may indeed be a pos itin: snare , unless they are
brullght by d isc ipline to th e p oi n t wh ere th ey m ay Le infallibly
relied upon, and not be the sport of mood a nd chance. This
po int is rc:iched only hy co nsc ientiolls self-c ulture. The writer
needs to fo rm rcgi 1lar ha.Lits o f obse n·atio n, readi ng, and thought
co nge ni al to the p ec uliar ben t of his rnind. and thus a second
na ture in th e dete rmi nation of his lite rary ac tivities. Such habits,

APTJTCDLS A.VD JfAIJJTS.

227

ri gh tly fo rm ed, not only train and steady the suggestive faculty,
l>ut do mu c h to c:1ll it out wh en btent.
Under th e head s o f ol>se rvati o n , th ought, and reading, we wil l
he re di srn ss th e ch ief o f th ese desirable m ental habits, and e n deavo r to trac e their influe nce on th e writ er's powers of invention .

I.

Habits of Observation. - The m ost potent stimulus and aid to
ori g in al produ ction is the kee n a nd intellige nt use of the eyes and
ears . In a sense all th e act ivities of autho rship are reJ uc iule to
this. It is a s applicalJlc to the work of gatheri ng re sults by reading
:i.nd th ought as to th e work o f not ing fac ts o f n:itme. F o r just as
one pe rson m ay be li stless and in sens ililc to wh a t is in th e wo rld
abo ut him whil e :i.nothe r is kee nl y a.l ive to every sigh t and sollnd,
so one in the same manner gathers little or no thing from a printed
page, wh ile to an o th e r it is luminous with sugges ti o n. I t is no t
the eye, but th e mind Lehind the eye, the ol>serving faculty aml
tendency, that makes the difference . Thi s obsen·ing faculty it is,
"the ha n ·est o f a quiet eye," that m a kes the wo rld worth infinite ly
more to it.s possesso r th an it is to the li stless. '\\"ha teve r, the refore, qui c kens and d ev el ops this faculty has signal value for all th e
o pe ra ti o ns of literary im-cnti o n.
Le t us here no ti ce the elements of the obse rving acti1·ity most
to be ch eri shed :tnd dn·eloped as a habit.
Mental Alertness. - " J\ fanilty of wi se inte rrogati ng, " says
Lord H:tcon ,1 "is half a knowled ge. For as l'IJ.to sai th, ' \\' hu~o­
eve r seeketh, k no 11·cth tha.t 'r hi c h he sceke th fu r in a general
notion: else how shall he know it wh e n lie hath found it?' J\ nd
th erefore th e large r your anticipa tion is, the more direct and comp endi ous is your sea rc h ." By rncnta.l alertness is meant this" large
anticipation": it is simply keeping th e mind rea dy to re ce i,·c ideas,
di rec ted :ic tively to what is around us and before us, in the atti tude of constant interrogatio n.
I l3acon, .. ,\J vancc 11 1c·nt o f Learnin g ," Boo k 11.

zzs

APTJTCDES ,·IND 11.-lBJTS.

E very m:rn's c:i.lling contriliute,; in its one direction to mental
:i.krtncs,; . The o \)jects tha t en ter his daily "·o rk and calculation
be co m e the cen tre of his obse rving capac ity, so that he has keenness of \·i:-.i <, 11 a nd se nse pree minen tly for such things . The
artist, fo r ins tance. has a quick cyt.: for color a nd outline; the
rnechanic is prompt to dete ct rn::i.rks of rngenu1ty a nd skillful contri\'J.nce; t h e fannn secs with intcrt.:st \\·hat pert:i.ins to crops and
:;oil. Conside r how differently th e sam e scene would affect th ese
three men, and ho w irn1c]1 m o re ;-i c utt.: each is in bis own line than
an y per,;o n o uts idt.: his c:i.llin g . i\f inufre th at a re invi sible to
othe rs :uc to him of c:mlinal sig nificanc e . Each has come to
have rn c nt:il ale rtn ess in h is p:i.rti c ubr realm of ideas ; his nuurner
of Ji fc has de \·c loped in h im a special sen se .
lt i,; the privilege an d advantage of the writer to educate himself into a kind o f u ni\·ersal spe c ial se nse . Fo r the truth he is
seeking he can by e\·cry rcdm uf thought and activity under contrilrntion, and lie sure tha t no minuteness of attention can be
~11111ss .
Su c h liH· liness of inte rest , su c h ready re sponse to whatever
is sig ni fican t in n:llme and li fe , l> rings surprisi ng harvests of sugge s tion ~md illustration to the il1\-c nli\·e Ltuilty; so that much of
the rndimenta ry wurk of inven t io n ge ts itself d one wi thout e ffort ;
an d especially that impo rta nt in it ial step, find in g the germs of
new ideas, l>ecomes more and more spontan eo us, no longer a
drndgcry but a clc li gh t.
Catholicity of Taste and Interest. - The author is the trnc
cosnwpnlitan in tho 11gh t. Scek int.; 1<l ma ke id eas plain and interestin g to all kinds
me n, he mu st be al>le in so me sense to look
at th e world thro1 1g h ea c h man's cyvs, to C1 nc1 what aspect of trnth
is most living from each man's p o int of view . It is important,
the rdurc, not onl y th:1t his ol>Sen·ing fa c ulty be alert, but that it
:1pproach with interest a wide and va ried range of subjects. The
\'alue o f such c1tl10l icity of interest lie s l>oth in subject and in
method . In s111 )jcc t: for the vari olls regions of life and fact yield
~ill o f t hem suggc stiq: ranges of \·icw; in m e thod, too: for each
si ng le ol )jL'C t uf th u llght or ohSl'n·atio n may be variousl y sign ificant

or

APTJTCDES ,/ND l/AJJJTS.

229

according to the vi e w, matter-of-fact, or scientific, or poetic. It
is for th e writer\ complete furnishing n ot to insulate himself in
one narrow Olltlook, but to we lco me all phases o f conte mplation,
so far as he ca n edu c:ate his nat.me th ere to . And the value of a
ge nerJ.l ed u cati o n in m a ny things, as di stin gui shed fro m a mere
sp eciali st's training , is here ev ident; for each subject, tho ugh but
outlin ed , opens J. new reg ion of id eas. 1
The c ultivation of Sll ch v:i.ried ways of looking at things brings
good to the wri te r in se ve r:il im po rtant respects.
In th e lir,;t pbce, it make s any view of truth m o re sa tisfying a nd
conclusive to comb in e it, wh e th e r impli c itly or avowedly, with
other vi ews . N o obje ct's signifiran ce can he ex hausted from a
si ngle directi o n or angle . Just as in vit:wing na tllr;1 J objec ts, our
judgment o f th eir solid ity and di st:rnu: is due to th e fa c t that o ur
two eyes arc directed upo n th e m from slightly differe nt an gles ;
so in co ntemplating obje c ts of the mind, - we ne ed to see m ore
tha n o ne s id e in orde r r ightly to se e o ne s id e .
Secondly, su c h c 1tholicity of interest re nd e rs a n impo rtan t se rvice to t.he wr iter in fr ee ing him from the mere standard o f like s
and d islik es. He learns to like men fur wha t is likeable in th e m;
to judge facts and systt.:rns fro m their o wn intrinsi c p o ints of vi e w.
N ot t ha t he thereby lJeco rn es less pos itive in his judg m e nts of ri ght
and wrong; n o r need he !Jecome in s in c ere and weakl y to leran t of
every thing . But h e learn s to form jud.:.;rnents and reach co nclusions unwa rp cd by prejudice s. Tolerant ::m d cha ritab le he inde ed
becomes, ln1t wi :->ely :;o; a nd at the sa rnc ti me li e is ever in rc::i din ess to co rrec t hirnseli wh en he finds h im se lf in e rror.
Thirdly, su ch acqua intan c e with va rious sides is a poten t innu ence against wh a t is recogn ized as a deplora ble te nden cy in men
of every profcs:-; ion, the te ndency, as it is called, to "talk shop ."
B y this is m eant adhering in everything only to th e narrow and
technical di aicc t of one's own calli ng. :rvLrny a clergyman o r lawye r or bus in ess man is ::ts una p t a t a cco mmodating his mincl to
what lies outside of hi s n:i.rrow beat a s was th e garden e r wh o
1

Sec !Julw er , "llints

0 11

:-- rent al Cul ture ," Caxtoniana, Es say .:\.

----

230

- --· -

-

- - - --

Al'TJTCJJLS .IXD 11.lb'll"S.

was found splitting wood with a spade . To such men the whole
world has only a theologica l or kgal or mercantile aspect; they
must" t:1lk shop" if they talk at all. In like manner the literary
nun m:iy fall inadvertently into a certain formal li terary d ialect.
I Ic needs continu:illy to seek the universal vern:icular, to comm e nd hi:nself to Cl'cry man l>y his ability to exp ress truth as that
man would fain exp ress it , with the addeu wealth of his broader
and deeper cultu re .
Test of Truth at First Hand. - l\ Iental alertness and catholic ity of interest. goud in thern sch·es, may after :tll produce a mere
luxuri.1.1Kc of grotesque o p ini ons, without the wholesome cor rccti ,·c, :i.lw:i.ys :i.t h:rnd, of subjecting all discoveries to the test of hard headed common sense. \\'ith all hi s a chievements in observation
and the in fc n:n ces deri,-cd thcrc!"rom, the wri ter needs to cherish
:t lw:ilthy spirit of co nse n· a ti sm :ind cwtion, returning continually
to ,·ic11s :it first hand and to the p hin :1ppe:trance of things, so as
not to lie rni,Jnl l;y hearsay, or Ly a specious profundity, or by an
exu berant fancy .
:J'.:oTE. - :\ goud ill ustration of what is here in enlcated is th e following
am:cdutc of \\-v list cr al\ d c· h u atc-, rd. ti.:.! l>y E. c_; . Parke r, in his "Coldc 11
/\ gt: uf Am e ri can ( lratll ry ": " \\'e heard \\" cl.ste r u ncc, in a sentence an rl a look, c rash an hour's argn ·
nH;nt of t he cu ri1JuS 11·o r kman ; it " ·as nwst inlelkclually w ire-drawn an d hairsplitting, 11·ith ( :rcc ian s<>phistry , ancl a subtlety the Leontine Co rgi as mi ght
ha,·..: cnYied. It 11·as al1t1ut t\\ ·u car-\\'hccls, 11·hid1 to commo n eyes !twkcd a:
1i kc as t " ." «;.'. .~s ; I •ut \Jr. ( 'hoal c, by a Ii ne l i Ill! uf arg 11111c 11 t belwec n t wccdlc-d urn
:-t n 1l l\r Cc1 ll t>~k v. :1 111 l :.l 1J1-.; l· 1)ursc 1111 the ' Ji'\:tt iun of pt)i11 Ls' ~0 deep and llne
as t•> lo se ihvlf in ul•scurity, sli<>wcd the j11rY then.: \ras a heaven-w ide differ·
en ce l>e lw e ell th e :n.
' Hut, ' said ,\Ir. \\" el •st<.:r, a nd l1is great eyes opened
""i dc and hla c·k, as he s tared al the liig t\\'ill wheels before him,' Ccntkmcn
<>f th e jury, t h<.:rc thc·y arc , - \.,nk al 1<." 111 '; and as he p ronounced this answ er,
in tones of Yast Yolum<.:, the distorted " ·heels s cc 111ccl tu shrink hack again
into th e ir o rigi nal similarity, and the lung argume nt cm the' fixatio n of poi nt •
died a natur•<I death."

Le t us noti ce some of the w:i.ys in which this habit of testing
trnth .Jt first hand influen ces the writer for good.

APTFFUDJ::S AND llABJ TS.

23 l

In the first place, a writer habituated to common-sense j udgments i,; kept from the barren pedantry of me re boo kishness . 1-lc
is determined to sec things for him self and to portray as he sees ;
and this spirit o f honest sin cerity aerates hi s learni ng, and gi\TS
his work the natural co lor. "The reason why so few good 11ooks
are written," says \\'alter Bagehot, 1 " is that so few people that can
wri te know anything. In ge ne ral an all th o r has always lived in a
room, has re:ld books, has ctilti,·ated science, i:; acqu ainted with
the style and sentiments of the best authors, hut he is out of t he
way of employing h is own eyes and ears. He !us nothing to !wa r
and nothing to see . His life is a vac uum . . . . The habits best
fitted for communicating information, fo rm ed wi th the best cue ,
and J:iily regulated by the hcst motives, arc exactly the habits
which arc likely to afforJ a man the least information to communicate. . . . The criti c in t he 'Vicar of Wak efield ' la.ys do11·n
that you sho uld ahuays say tktt the p icture would h.Jve been bctlL'r
if the painter had taken more pains ; bt1t in the case of the practised literary man, you should often enough say that the writin gs
would have been much l.Jetter if the writer had t::iken less pain s.
He says he has devoted his life to the subject- the rep ly is, ' Then
you have taken the best way to p re\·en t your m ak ing anything of
it.' Instead of reading stud io usly what Burgersd icius and 1En ~ ­
sidemus sa id men were, you should have go ne out yourself, and
seen (if you can see) what they are. "
Secondly, this solier com mon-se nse jndgme nt is a rcgubto r to
the write r' s constrnctive faculty. It ofte n h a ppe ns that an impnfec tly balan ced m ind , once awake to th e wealth and intere st of ih
world, find s its ve ry co nstruc ti veness an d suggestiveness a snare.
Ideas are adopted and maintained no t so mu ch because th ey are
true as because they are striking. Obse rvation h as become keen,
but it has not been sulije c tcd to its necessary corrective . It is
important, therefo re, to fo rm the habit o f tes ting truth at first i\and,
as a rational and sobering pall iative of the unrul y imagination ; not
for the sake of less vividness, lrnt for th e sake of more and solid er
1 Bagehot , " Li terary S tudies," Vol. I. p. 137.

2:\2

..J!'f'J'/'UDJ:'S .·L \ "/) !l.·llil'f'S.

APT!TUDt;S /JN/) JJ..tB!TS.

truth . Such a hahit is in no way :i. c he ck on freedom of thotwht
0
:rnt! fa r c y ; it supplies ra the r t he con snvative am.I sincere quali ty
which gi ve::; the work perm anent nlue.

is to p robe it sternly to the bottom. But such half-done thinki ng
cannot be since re , nor can it be pe rmanent. Writing that has life
has a conscience.
Seco ndly, the habit of seeki ng clearness is an influence to k eep
the write r from attackin g subjects that are beyond him. This is a
frequently menti o ned te ndency of young writers . Easily carried
a way by the surface- ideas of a n e w s ubj ect, the y soon fin d them selv es co mmitted b eyond their depth . The strenuous resolve to
be clear, to subjec t e very thonght rigorously to the test of intellig il.Jility, will do mu c h to k ee p the write r within his own sphere. The
note appended to 1'.filton's llnfinish c d poem on The Passion is a
suggestive indi cati o n how just ly he estimated his o wn youthful
powers: "This Sul1ject the Autho r findin g to be ahove the years
he ha.cl when he wrote it , and nothing satisfied with what was begun,
left it unfini shed ."
The Habit of seeking Order. - Closely akin to the fore going is
the habit of striking for the central and nucl e us thoughts of a subjec t, round which whatever is subo rdinate or illustrative may range
itself, and thus lay the founda tio n of a. log ical p lan.
Plan in invention beg ins farther bac · than the individual project.
To be n:i.tnral and l!nlabored it requires a fo rm ed habit. Let the
write r train his mind in wei ghi ng thou g hts, seeki ng where they
begin an<l e nd, how they are grounded, what are the ir component
parts and what th eir prog ress; and the work of planning in an
individual case is in larg e part provided fo r. The sul.Jject strikes
natm:clly into the logical orde r and proporti on; the plan makes
itself, being born in a mind that c an tolerate only order and
system.
Th is and the previ ously mentioned habit, once thoroughly
fo rmed, arc a potent in flue nce against the supe rfi c ial tenden c ies
dlle to rapid writin g . Rapid co m position is not necessarily shallow, any more th an careful an<l labored authorship is ipso farto
thorough . Both qualiti es a rc more the result of habit than of the
presence or lack of opportunity. It is the trained intellect, fitted
to approach every subject in an orderly and keenly analytic way,

IL
Habits of Thought. - It c:111 no t well be proposed under this
head to C!lll:r the region O f indi\·idu.:d :l)J i)itics , SO differen t .i n cliffe rl'lll mcn; the in tentio n is rather to nwnt io n certa in practical habi ts
uf tlwn:.;ht n ecck d by C\'l' ry \\'rill'r. \1·hatc1·c r tlw pcc uliar Lent of
hi,; mind, tu stc:iil y and irwigo ratc th c :tJ>l'ro:whes to Jitnarv composition ; h:i!ii h th:1t, fa r from e cl ip-.in g :i.ny mental talent: make
a ll the writer's gift s rnure a ss m l' d and seli-pe rk<:ting.
The Habit of seeking Clearness . - First both in o rder am.I

233

231-

Al'i'/Tl'JJES .·IND JI.I !>ITS.

that cont ributes most to pe rmanent anJ s;itisfying work. Let this
antecedent culture be once cstal1lished, and the desirable virtue of
r<l[•idity is :rn c:i.sily dcn:lopcd ;ibility, while its evil tendencies arc
forestalled ancl ;i,·oiclcd.
The Habit of seeking Independent Conclusions. - By this is
me::r nt that the writer should rely on his own mind's achievements
rather th:rn on hearsay . The ,·iew of truth that he adopts should
be a conviction on which he can lc;in his wh ole weight. Of course
he must get m::my of his facts fro m wh;it o th e rs have written, nor
should he neglect these ; l>ut he should so Yc ri fy them in experi ence :rnd ,.i,·ify them in the rc;ilizing im ag ination that they shall
become his o wn possession ;ind rep re se nt his genuine conviction.
As far as it has come to a new lil"c in his o wn di scovery, so far let
him assert, no farther. l k may not sec so much, nor so vividly,
nor so comprehe nsively, as ;inother ; hut what he secs he sees
indep c mlcntly. 1\n d this is truly in\·ention, hec:rnse it is thought
fused anew in a sin cere mind; b ut when a man write s hcyoncl the
focus of his rca1 Yi:,ion, he is only an echo o f other men's assertions .
/\long ,,·ith this th e writer needs to develop confidence in his
own judg ment ;ind his own ''-ell-considered conclusions. This is
very lurd for you ng write rs. They arc too timid to strike out for
thernsch·es, and are argued out of or into any belief by the last
art icle they h;ivc read. i\ fact na tural enough, perhaps, and a
wholesome bar to foolhardy rashness of ::issc rtion. But it is to be
r L·11H: rnhered that the si.t.:;nilicance of Olh.'.',.; writin~ :Lt all lies in his
n.::1c hing some new bnd ing-pbr: e in th e o nwa rd sweep of thought.
1 lc who ckpends on manufacturing :1 patchwork out of other
men 's views soon liecomcs so at the mercy of o the rs that he has
nu opi ni o n uf hi s own; while on the other hand he who has
reached most confidence in the well- tested deliverances of his own
ju d g me nt is most benefited lJy oth ers ' ideas as well as most satisfying to his reade rs.
Ability to ,1old Judgments in Abeyance. - The n erit of youthful writers is vigor and directness; their fault, to lJe overcome !Jy

/l/'TITUDES ,Jl\!D /JAB/TS.

235

ripening judgment, is r1shness ;in<l one-sided assertion. To such
minds it is peculiarly painful to lx: in want of de c isio n or of definite opini o ns; it see ms to incli cate weakness and vacillation. i\nd
of comsc the re is an excess of p;iinful in certitude to be d ep recated.
But there arc many things th:i.t will not L>ear to be settled ])y snapjndgment and dismissed as if the last word were said. Th ey require patience, cautious inve st.ig;ition, stern re pression of h;isty
opinion, determination to L>e wary of first appearances. It is ofte n
a real stre ngth of mind and true moral cour;ige to hold decisions
in al>eyancc, to confess un certainty, to acknowledge how slender
are the grounds for a conclusion.
.
The ripened judgment th;it en:11Jles one to toler;ite an unccrtam
conclus ion, is the fruit both of sounc1 c ulture ancl of C\tcnded
experienc e. It succeeds the heats of youth ; ;ind, so far fro m
being inimi ol to vigor ancl direc tn ess, it leads, ri ghtly cl e\·el o ped,
to a calme r strength, to a convi ction moving when it 111(>\TS with
the rnomentu1n of lkpth ;ind thoroughness.
The forc ao inrr cons id erations ,,·ill serve to show how tru ly the
0
"'
.
:rnthor's career is made up not only of endeavor and achic,· cmcn t.
\Jut equally of trav:iil and self-denial. I Ie must learn rep ress ion
as well as expression. An.cl hi s only lxts is of Lt.sting excellence is
the recognition, in all his work, that the in struc tion of men through
literatu re imposes a solem n rcsponsilii lity, dern:1m1in g th e best
ernployrnen t of :1 ll that he ca n l>ecornc, ·uy natural endowm ents
ancl L>y sound discipline.

III.
Habits of Reading . - It is not the purpose he re to speak of
hooks and reading in general, nor yet t.o spe:tk directl y of what i:-;
called" reading up" for some particular literary task; the o bjec t
is rather to consider habits of reading ;is an aid to invention.
Creative Reading.-" Reading," says Burke," ;iml much rc;iding, is good. B1it th e power of diversifying the m;ittcr infin '. tcly
in your own mind, and of applying it to every occasion th;it anses,

236

Al'TF/'UJJ/:'S .·1. \'IJ 11.-JR!TS.

is far bette r ." To he :m ::iid to i1we ntion, reading must be condt!cted, :i.ccording to the suggestion of this quotation, in the attitude of inv ention; that is, while the rc::icler is receptive, while he
is being acted 11pon by wh at he is reading, he is at the same time
originative. vi gorously :1cting on th e same subject-matter, sh:iping
it into a new p rodlict. acconling to the color and capacity of his
o wn mind . To such :1Ctive reading may be given the name, harrowed from Emerson . of ' ·creative reading."
Mr. Emerson
says : 1 " One must l >e an inventor to re:1d well. As the proverb says.
' I le that \YO U Id br in g home th1.: wealth of the lrillies, must carry
out the ,,·cal t h of the Tnclies .' There is then crc:tt ive reading as
\\'Cl! ;1s crcati\'C': \\'ritin g .
\\' hen the mind is !>raced lJy hbor and
inn:ntion, the page of whatc,·c r hook we read beco mes luminous
with mani fo ld allusio n. J-:,·ery sentence is doubly significant, and
the sense of our ;rnthor is as broad as the wo rld."
The haliit of re ading creati n :ly is what distinguishes the scholar
from the: hook- worm, and the thinker from the li stless absorber of
print. It is the incn.:asin.l!; prcd ()tni11ancc of this latter class of
n:;1dcrs tin t makes the present enormous multiplication of literatme a doulitful blessing. Re:tding can 1.:asily become a mental
dissipation .
There is many a. full mind, charged to the brim
wi th printed m atter, cramm ecl wi th ,·a~t stores of hook-lore; which
mind, ne,· e rthclcss, so far ;is fruitf1tl thought is concerned, is worthless, living only an insatiable ;ihso rhcr, ;ind h:i,·in g no impulse to
(·n.:at ion. Rt'adi11g 111;1y 1>1.: c:nril·il 011 in such :1 way as to leave
the mind inert and an11:diy dcade111.:d. liy so 11111ch unassimilated
k nnwkdge . Bro wni ng's fi gure descril>es such a mind well: 2 " For I say, this is 1kal h an d th ..: suk d..:ath ,
\\'h e n a man 's luss cumcs t1> him fr1>m l1is gain,
J>ark ncss frum li ,;.: ht. fr(lm kno\\'lcdgc i ~: n oram:c;
A bmp's death \\'hen , rl'plctc \\'ith uil, it chokes ;
A stoma ch's when, surchar ged with food , it starves."
I

~

E nwrsnn . Or:i ti 0 n n n "The Amcric:rn '.Scholar."
Browning-, "/\ D l' :1th in the l ),·,1' rt."

Al'TITUDL:..'S AND I/AB/ TS.

237

In view of thi s fact, it is uf the first importance that the internlc!l
author train him:;clf thoroughly in t he attitude of reading , so as to
bring to it habitually the ::ictivc, inv entive mind . It is only to
such a mind that books bring true blessing. On this point let
Emerson again speak. "Books," he says, 1 "are th e liest o f
things, well used; a.bused . among the worst. What is the righ t
use? What is the one end, which all mea ns go to cffect ? They
are for nothing but to inspire. I had lietter ne\·er see a book,
than to be warped by its attr;i ct ion clean out of my own orbit, and
ma.de a satell ite instead of a system . The one thing in the world . of
value, is the :ictive soul. This C\'ery man is e ntitled to; this e,·cry
man contains within him, althou g h, in almost all men, o!Jstrnctcd,
and as yet unl iorn . The soul act ive secs absolute truth ; and utters
truth, or creates. In this act ion it is genius; not the privilege of
here and th e re a [l\·orite , but the sound estate of eve ry man ."
Creati,·e reading, as thus defined, is simply m enta l alertn ess
applied to books, and set in th e direc tion of i1wention. It is the
scholar's privilege to make this power so thoroughly a second
nature that th e creative attitude may in\'igo rall.: all his reading,
however rapidly or even curs rily it may be carried on, o r for
whateve r purpose.
The ways in which th e writer m ay conduct his reading, as relatcJ to the kind of matt er read and th e purpose he has in Yi cw,
m;iy perh:1ps ]Jc best suggested l>y a well-known passage in Bacon's
essay on St11di cs . "Som e Bookcs," he says, "are to he T asted .
Others to lie Sw:i!ll!we<l, ;tnd Sll1n e Few to lie C hewed an<! Ui i-'.!'Slell; That is, su rnc liuok vs arc to !Jc read oncly in l'arh ; O ther-; tl!
be read hut not Curiuusly; 1\ nd some Few to lie r ead whol ly, an 1 l
with Diligence and :\ttentio n. "
These different way:; of reading r1.:quire som e di scussion :ind
application; accordingly they will he tak e n up indiv idu:illy, but in
inverse orde r.

1. Disciplinary Reading. - This designation may be applied,
for th e inventor's sake, to th e reading uf "so me few books," whic h
1

F.nw rsnn.

Or~tinn

o n" The Ame rican Scholar."

.. /r/'/l'U DFS .·IXIJ //,/HITS.

arc ''to l.ie chc1n.:d and digested, th at is, read wholly, and with
d ili gence and attention ."
How may l acqu ire the ability to read creat ively ? is a question
natmJ!ly sugg-1..>kd by the foregoing p:tragr:iphs; and this habit of
disci plinary read ing i,; in c ulcated li rst, lJec:tuse it contains the
:rnsll'e r t o the <1uestion . T he s11n:st an<l directest way to arouse
the i1ll"t.'nti1e irnpu b e in read in g is the 11·ay or simpl e interpretation . T h:1t is, th e 1nitcr should tr:1in hims1..·lr to read thoroughly,
p:1 ti1..·ntly , repc:tll'dly, res<>h·ing allusi ()n s. fullo wing out hints and
s11g,c;csti<J ns. tracing thought :rnd sent iment. as the phrase is, '' l>et11·t.·e n the line s" ; unti l he is th un.>U).;l1ly imbued with the po wer
:ind ..; pirit ol the \\'<Jrk . l~y stwh 111in11tc interpretation a gn:at
<Te:1ti 1·c mind i ~ ft>llu11·ed th rrn1gh the paths an d lJy-paths of his
irn·ention; and the mind th:t t foil oll's is in some deg ree stimulated
:1nd sk illed t<> t:tke suc h cilt'j>s fo r ihdl. Th e complete study,
in thi s 11·ay, o f one or two nnste rpie<:es of literature, prov ided
t 1<.'Y arc well chosen , is an im·alualJlc aid to literary creati ve ness.
Jt nut on ly _:_;in:s the Stll< lent a ,,(Ure Of" 1·:J.lua!J]c th o ught, lJut bends
liis mind to :t h:d1it and tlow of thinkin ,L; : ~o that, 11·ithout lJeing
:rn im it:1 to r, he is rei11H:d a nd toned up tu the comp:rnionship of a
maste r.
l n order to m ake such read in g an effective cfoc ipl ine, it is well
fo r the stud e nt tu have at hand some great wo rk o f literature, to
"·hi c h lie may gi1·c a little thoro1 1gh a nd mi:rn tc stud y eve ry day.
Let him stt1<ly this 1r ,1rk over and 01·cr :ig:iin, so nw ti rnes slowly,
so 11 1l'tirncs r.q •1• lly, 1H111· ll'ith spec i:il :1llc ntiun (() une aspect of it,
:1g:1i11 1rith sp<.:ci:d :1ttcntiun to :rnuthcr; until it has become fu ll y
inwu1 en \\'ith th e fil 1re of h is mind. To keep suc h disc ipline as
this continually g()ing, c1·cn th ough on ly a little at a time, is a valu:1Lk in l1 uc ncc to kcq >the m ind from heing dissip:1tcd o n manyth ings
or becoming tli11p:rnt ancl shallow th rough supc rfici ;1l re:td ing. It
is the mean s hy "·hich th e student's men tal pmH·rs m:tintain their
tone and g r:tsp .
ur course not all \Joo ks can or shcrn ld he read in this manner.
It is on ly " some fr.: w books," the masterp ieces of or iginal inven-

A I' T I T UDFS AND i f.·/ IUTS.

23?

tion, such as do not yield their whole secret at the first pe rus;.i,l,
that wi ll really bear such tre:tt me nt.
In this class m:ty he
instanced the works of Shakespeare, Baco n, Milton, \\"unl sworth ,
Bro wnin g, all of 11·hi ch reveal new depths a t each new perusa l ;
also the G reek a nd La tin classi cs, whi ch in add ition to tht.·ir intrinsic worth, compel the stu(kn t to slower and carefu lle r wo rk 1.>y the
necessity o f translatio n. Fo r the val ue o f translation in itself, as a
m eans of mental dis cipline, see below, p:tge 320 . Mu ch uf tbe
effecti veness of such Jisciplina ry readi ng depends on its regub.rity. Naturally only a limited proport ion of th e stud e nt's time is
avaihble for it; hut a little, consc ientiou sly devo ted each day, will
give his mind tone and scholarliness, an d th e resul ts in the Jong
run will count up surprisingly.
A book that has once se t the scholar's mind in ,·igorous irnen tive ac ti on reta ins its powe r to stim ulate, and may at any ti1 11c
revive the inOuence it once exerte d . Accordingly, it has ahrays
been a ve ry prevalent custom of the great m:tste rs of literature to
kee p a t hand their favo ri te au tho rs, to read as an immc J iatc sti mulus to and p reparation fo r the ir ow n literary tasks.
N OTE. - " Let it be add e d," says Profrsso r A ust in Phdps, " tha t th e met h 0<l
i n questio n is supp o rted by the practice o f many e m ine nt auth o rs. \" ultaire
use d to r e a d M ass ill o n as a st imulus tu prud ucti o n . Uoss ud read I fo mcr fo r
the sam e purpose . Cray read ~p c ns<: r 's ' Fae rie Qu ce nc ' as the prel im inary to
th e use o f hi~ pen. The fa ,·ur ites o f !\lilt.in we re Jl ome r and 1-:u rip idc·s .
Fe nelo n resorted to the anc ie nt class ics pru m i:;cuu usly. 1\,pe read l lryd c n as
h is h aJ ,i tual aid t>J C<111111<>Sill g . <.:u r1H: ille rt.:ad Ta cit us a nd l .i ,·y. ( 'lan.: nd <> n
did th e same. Si r \\' iili:u n J<•ncs, u 11 his l'assagc l o l ll dia, l'lann• ·d fin: diffn e nt vol um es, a nd assigrn.: d tu eac h the autho r h e res" lvcd to read as a gui·lc
a nd a n awa ke ner to his 0\\'11 mind for its n·o rk . Buff,,n made the saml' u<e .. r
th e w o rks uf Si r Isaac ;\ewto n. \\'ith great va riet y <> f tasks , ~ucc<·',;lul
a u thors h a ve ge nc r:illy ag re e d in availin g th e msch·cs <>f this nat u ral :ind fa cile
method o f edu cat ing th e ir m inds to the work of or iginal cre a tio n."

2. Rapid Reading. - Every writer mus t do mu ch rapid read ing ; for a great proportion of the books that he has to consul t
are books that are " to be swallo wed, - th at is, read but not curi-

2-iO

ou sly ."

.·ll ' J"IJ'C/)J:'.\ .·/.\ '/) Jf.IHITS.

13ooks that re qui re such treatment arc, in general, suc h

as gi ve broad ancl compe ndi o us in fo rrn at io n, as popubr treatises
in hi story, sc ien c e, philoso phy; also, works of fi c tion, travels,
dcsc ri pti\·e works , and the lik e . Books of this kine!, used in the
ri gh t proporti on , sttpply a very impo rtan t element in the scholar's
rnlture; t hey by the broad l>as is for more minute investiga tion
:1[terwards, gi\'C th<.:: genc r:tl setting or infl>rrnalion or thought that
en:llJlcs h i 111 to e sti m a te righ ti y the s i ~ 11 i f1ea ncc and r ela tion of
particular p o ints. i\ general survey of a subject is as indispensable
as a minute kncndedge; and thi s it is that such books supply.
The im po rtant qu es ti o n r eganling suc h rapiJ reading is, H ow
to be so cultmcd as to do it wi th most profi t? It is obvious that
to gain real l ic nef1t frorn a r:ipid pcrns:il requ ires a mind especia lly
cndo \Td wit h :tle rtn css , inci s in: ness , a nd g r:isp. \Vhate ve r develops these qualiti es, th en , i~ the tru e prq>:lr;tti u n fo r th e ability to

gai n a rapid kn o wkd g e of books.
1\n d indeed there is nothin g so p ote n t to this encl as what has
licen ai ready reco mm en d ed , - a p re \·i ous t horo ug h training in
di sc iplinary re adi ng. J le " ·h o liy patient inte r p retatio n o f literary
nnstc rpi cccs h as acqu ired a quick e ye f, >r m inute sugges tions cm
r ea d ily frnd \\· hat w ill se n -c him in a ra pid s urvey . His creali1·e
faculty has become a \\·akc and kee n, and the activity of thought
thus dc,·clope d cnal>lcs him to a tTL'st and a ss imi lat e what he needs.
1.ikc is attract ed to like . I fu 11ge r for kno wkclge of any kind is
quick t o g ras p t he knowledge \\·h T('\·e r founcl . It is eminently
true of the rc :11l e r, as it is of othe rs, that" whosoever hath, to him
sh:1ll he g i\·en ."
3. Reading by To pics . - It is cr i11:1lly nccess:uy, for the writer
who h:1,.; to in\·cst igalL', to con.,1dt many books more ra p idly still,
disl ·:t rdi ng a ll ln it th e ~rn :tl l p;>rtio n in irnrn ed i:i.te d e m a nd for his
purpose; boCJks tha t :ire "to he taste d, - th::tt is, read only in
pa rts. " Th e books th at rerp1i rc such co nsult:ttion are works of
exhau sti\'C research . spec ia l trc:1ti~cs , repo rt s. d ocum e nts. and the
like; wo rks that m ay he r L·g:ude d ::is th e ori g in:i.J so urc es of mi ..
11t1tc and th<>nll 1gh i1 lf(1rni:1t 1•> 11.

Al'7'f'J'UDJ:.:S .-L\'D HA B ITS.

241

Such repositories of information it would often be a positive d isadvantage, to say nothing of the labor, to read tllrouglt. The ir
subject- m:ttter is in to o diffu se and cumbrous form fo r that. They
contain materials for litcrat me, not literature itself.
They are
therefore m ere ly to be interrogateLl on those particular poi n ts
whi ch in other reading have revealed themselves as in need of
g reater fulness and co rrobo rat io n . The art of reading hy to pi cs is
the art of thus con s ulting a book, of striking at the card inal p o ints
and letting what is merely illu stra tive and amplifyi ng go . T his
requires sharp and quick disc rimination between princi pal and
subordinate clements, and the ability to group detached t houghts
readily into system . The consu lter acqui res by practice a kind of
instinct, wh ich cnal>les him at a. gbnce to separ::tte out what he
needs . By this m eans a book may ofte n he read la rgely by its
tal>le of contents and chapter-headings; wh ile the one m ~11n or
minor point that gi~es the consultatio n present significan ce is
une rringly d e tected and retai ned . In the sa.me way th e ability t o
u se a whole library, to a c cumulate rapid informa tio n fro m a large
number of books, be co mes easy. It all rises from the habit of
ready a nd accurate ana lysis, vi gorous interpretat ion of what one
reads .
A nJ.turJ.l and very useful acco mpa niment of suc h rapi d rca.cling
is the acquirem e nt of in teres t in detai ls of bibliography, and in
catalogues, prefaces, and the like . The clryest of ma.ttcrs fo r the
unschola rl y, such details as these become among the most fasc inating for him who gets to fe el thoroughly at home among l1ooks .
Dy such m eans the reade r acqu ires almost insen sibly a sto re of
p rac tical knowledge; he learns wh ere informati o n is to b e found .
what form it is in, and who are the authorities in any departmen t
of learning.
N OTE. - The foll o\\'in g in cident, fr om Boswell's Life of J oh nson, illustrat es
the feeling of th e scholarly man regard ing such kn o\\' lcdge of books .
" No soone r had \\'C made our IJo w to i\[r. Camuri<lgc, in his li brary . th:rn
Jnhnson ran eagerly tu o ne side o f the r" o m, intent on porin g over the ktd.s
uf the liuuks. Sir J11 s l1u a ul•scn ·..: .J, asi.J,., '11 <.: run s tu th e L•uoks as [ d u lv

243

A l'J'JJ'{ "/) /;',)' . I.\'/ ) /I. I HJ TS.

APTITUDES AND 11..- JB J TS.

th e pi ct ures; liut I kw<: the aLhan tagc. I can sec mu ch m ore of th e pi c tur e~
than he can <1f the b oo ks .'
!\lr. Cam iil' idgc'. upo n this, pol itely said , ' Jlr.
Juhnsll n, 1 am g11 ing, ll'ith your pa rrllln, t<J accuse niy sclf, fur I have th e s::unc
cust"m 1"11ich I p c rc ci 1·c y o u ha1·c . ])ut it seems odd that one sh o uld ha\'C
'Lich a desi re l\l l11Pk :1l the lnck s uf L1u uk s.' J uhn so n, C\'er ready for contest,
in st:rnt ly sl :ntcd fr pm his rcH: ri L·, wheel ed al,uut and ans11·crcd , ' Sir, th e rea ·
S<>n is 1· cry p hin. Kn\l11·kdgc is u f two kinds. \ \·c know :i subject ourselves,
o r \l'C k n" 11· ll'li crc ll'c can find infurmati1m upo n it. \\"hen we inquire into
:u1 1· sui j <" l' l. 11 " · lirsl t l1 ing ll'c ha1·c t" d<> i, t" ], n o\\' wliat books have trcatccl
,, fi t. Tl1is kids us tu lciuk at c:1talugucs, and the hacks o f hooks in librari es .'"

To this e nd the materi al introduced into them should be spcc i:-il;
that is, n ot com pe nd ious or general ized rud ime nts of knowledge
in any departm ent, which are soon outgrown, but contri butions
to p arti c ular asp ec ts or illustr:-itions of th e d epartmen ts o f knowl edge with which the student is already in a. ge neral way :-icq ua intecL
4. Reading more broadly and deeply than the Immediate
Occasion demands. - This is a matter o f espec ia l i11111 orta nce
when th e autho r is so situ:-ited th a t he mu st write statedly a nd fre qu ently. Too m any in such case read, so to say, m e rely fro in
hand to mouth, - th:-it is, o nly so fa r as is n eeded for immediate
reproduction. Thi s custom is narrowing, fat al to or ig in al ity, and
p recludes im pro\·e m ent. By read ing always b road ly ~nd deeply,
the writer maste rs not o nly h is imm ediatL; s ubject, but such an
ample sphere o f th ought and fac t as contains the m ate rial and
suggestion of m :rny allied subj ec ts.
T his comprehensive m e thod of readi ng is valnalllc on two
prin c ipal accou nts.
F irst, the immediate snbject is better un d e rstood and mo re
sati sfactorily presen ted when in th e wo rk of in\' es li g~ ti o n its 1\·hole
department o f th o ught, with its limits and relat io ns, Ins bee n
studied . Although only one small aspect may lie given , wh :1 t is
presented takes a depth and a colo r clue to the \\Titcr's g reate r
knowled ge of its con nexions with more co m p reh e nsive th ought.
Secondly, by re:-iding lleyoncl and below each suhje ct th e wri ter
stores a nd st imulates h is mind fo r future work . He is tak ing
measures to m aintain a reserve of resources. Th ere is thus no
danger of hi s wri t ing himsel f out, Lecau se th e fount:-iin, thou g h
drawn from conti nu ally, is kep t full hy the very prep:-tr:1 ti on for
drawing; whi le the depth and quality of hi s kn o wledge improves
steadily with use . His li ter:-iry wo rk is thu s made a. li beral education.
When the writer mu st b e fre q nently r eady wi th some li ter~ry
production, it is o f great acl va nt:-ige for him lo culti vate the ~1Jilit y
to keep several definite topi cs of meditation rounding and rip en-

;\long with to p ic::1 l rc:1din g, the t:1k ing of notes is of conrsc
indispen s:1!,Jc . The m~nne r of doin g thi s, and the copiousness
the notes t:ikc n, must he left to the inrliYidual writer. This,
ho wcn :r, cn1,_.;ht to he sa id : notes too ofte n fail of perman ent value
thruugh b e ing too urckssly and indefin ite ly take n; when th ey
arc mere c1tch -wu rd s :rnd lkcting hi nh thc1 soon fail to call up
the :-i s~oc iatio n s :11Hl co nnexi o ns that g:t\"C the m th ei r first usefolIH:ss . Even h:i.stily t:i.ken notes should nc\·cr be exe mpted from
care as to styk ; the 1nitcr should m:1ke them express compl ete
th o1 1ght:;, suni (·ient to ]Jc unclcrstoucl at :tny time afterward, without neecl of hel p from rcrnc m lJc red a ~soc i:itions .
Co rnm o nphn.:-lJo(ik s, indi c es rern m, :1ncl scrap-books arc of
\·:ni a l1k usdu l ncss , :i.c ·cc1 rd i ng to the c h:u:1cter of th e reader's
m in d, and his faith ful ness in keq ling the m 11p. The fac t that th·
g re:i.t majo rity of such un de rtakin.~s arc soon d iscon tinu ed is not
necessa rily a reproac h ; it rn :-iy m e rely indic:itc that the reader's
iO\·e nt i\·c ta icnt dues no t adap t itself so readily to the stori ng of
knoll'lcdge as to the imrnedi:ttc and ,·igorou s use of it. A more
p rn·:1lcnt re:1so n fo r such abortive :1tlc mpts is the fac t that th ey
:uc :11IO\\"l'd to supe rsede the act i\·e exe rc ise of the mind on the
topics ac c11 mu htc d, an d thus lJeco mc mere repositories of dead
fa ns . It i,; the l!l<l!.:/11g of t hL·111 th a t is of spec ial value, even
m o re th an the po,;scss ion of th c111 1\·hc n made; n11lch depends,
therefo re, on the reader's lxing cu11 ~ tantly 01 rafport with th em,
in c reasi ng th eir stores and fertili zing them with his own thought.

or

,-JJ 'TIT UDLS .-LVD 1/,-J lJJTS.

ing in h is mind at once . S uch al>ility may easi ly become a fix ed
:111d spo nta nco 11s h:tb it, whi c h will e ndc11r hi s wh ole sphere of observat ion \\·ith gre:t tly increased sign ific:rn ce. Whatever he reads,
e 1· e n c:1S1 1all y, is a lm os t sure to co nta in some thing that either
<lu"tcrs round some n11ck 11s of th o11gh t already in his mind, or, no
le ss Ct-c <1uently, c::,taul i:;hcs a new th o ug ht centre therein.

ORD.ENJ,VG' OF 111/1 Tf;JUAL.

245

CHAPTER II.
GENERAL PROCESSES IN THE ORDERING OF MATERIAL.

A s has alrea<ly bee n sho wn, it is almost e xclu s ively th e orde r ing
of material, the sifting of it mainly ::is involved in th e o rd erin g ,
and h::irclly at all the ac tual findin g o f it, that a treatise on inven tion can disc uss with hope of imparting direc t prac ti cal aid. 1\ ll
the rest mu st be left to the \\'rite r's imli\·idual genius. On t he
discussion of thi s access i!Jlc s tage o f inve ntion we no w e n te r; and
first of all by cons id e ring , :1s the task of the pre se nt chapter, the
processes incl ucl ed in th e general co nstructi o n o f di scomse, p ro cesses common, there fore, with certain mo d ifi cations , to all lite rary
forms .
The Order of Discourse not Arbitrary . -That is, it is not determined by the m e re willfulne ss o f the writer's const ructi ve fancy,
but rather by th e nature of the mate ri al, as interpreted liy the
exac tions of prese nt ::id ap tecln ess. The writer' s wh ole quest is to
find the simple and natural progress of the thoug ht, fro m begin ning to culminati o n, to fo ll ow that o ne orcle r whi c h an swe rs best
to what h as lieen well called "the self-mo\·em c n t o f th e subjec t."
A self-evident ideal this; and yet there ::ire tend e nc ies, no l
uncommo n amon ~ :wthors, whi c h make aga in st it.
r. Unless the writer takes especial care to di\·ersify hi s inve ntive methods, there is a stro ng tenden c y after so me e xp e ri e nce to
run into a certain st ereo typed way of pbnning e ve ry subjec t;
exemplified IJy the clergyman who said he ::ilways made hi s se rmon s consist of "two p o ints a ncl a n a p plica tion." Thi s is evi dently an unc onsc ious surre nd e r to the tyranny of a me n tal hahi t;
and the re sul t is t ha t the write r docs not submit im pl ic itly to the
guidance of his subj e ct, b ut seeks to manipulate th e th ough t by a
preconceived scheme devised and imposed frorn without. N o t

ZIG

OR/) /~· R/1\"C

OF ,Jf. I J FR / A L.

al ways so undi sguised as this, the same tende ncy may mani fest
itself in a cra\'ing after a n equal num lie r of su bd ivisions un clc r
each main hea d ing, or a.fte r so me mc ch:rni cal symmetry betwee n
p: trt an d part of the pla n. But ho11·e1·er mani fested , it is somet hi ng :1 ,t.;a inst 11hi (·h th e 1nitc r 11L·ccls to he so o n hi s g narcl as to
<i istrn st any stru C' ture no t oh\·iously di ctated, or at least made
natm:il, l•y th e s uggL·s ti o n of t he s1ilijcc t.
?\•>Tr. -Thl' rc b:wc l1cc n peri11tls in th e h\ <;t o ry o f li!t:r:<tn rc wh en such
:<rt ili ci: d 1nethod" 1n·c ,·:ti lctl as a Yn t-:uc ; :'h 11·h c n old di\' ines wuu lcl in thei r
dis cuur,;cs :i.d npl :1 th re e -fo ld di,· i ~ion , liecause there arc th ree pe rsons in the
Trinity, or fu ur-fuld liec:i.usc there a rc fou r cle me n ts o f matte r, or seve n-fol.!
l•cc:<use s c1·c 11 is th e pnfcct s:icre1l numlicr. I krndotus d i1·idcd hi s hi story
i 11t <> nin e l11 H>ks, 11·hi c· h he named after the nin e m us es; :i.rnl Coc th e fo ll owed
Li s cxaml'k in the nine ca n t .. s o f his " lfc rma1ll\ :ind D u rothea ." T h e nntatinn of these \\'11rks is "i c• •ursc arl1itr:iry; th •)ugh the di1·is ion m :iy h av c co rr esponded ll'ilh th e 11a1ur:1l :ir ticulatilll1 of thl' sul1jt:ct, a n d licc n n am ed t hu ~ as
an afterthought. The arbitrary rule that t ragedy m ust il1\·ariably have ll1·c
acts, ":"\ 1·1·<' min o r, rw u s it qui n lo 1•rnd 11 ctior a ctu
F;iLula " may h:t\·e its ratio n :llc i11 the na tur~1l ri sl', c ul!lli n:iti o n , a nd dc11 ou e111e11t of a
j1l•d . :-;,, :1is" in n·1·ry pbn the re :i.rl' ste ps th :<t , !icin g fo unded in the natu re
nf a cuurse of thinkin g, ar c t110 \lrg:ini c ft• r arl1i tr:irin css.
2 . J\ writer 's m c nt:i.l ac ti\'itics may b e natur:dly abstruse, or
mad e so by e .x clt 1s i\·e wo rking in pro fo nn d sulJjects ; again a
wri t e r's rnincl rn :iy he imp e llccl ll)' 11:1 L11 r c tu move in odd and
eccentri c sequences o f thoug ht. T he httcr rn :i.y pcrh:i.ps indulge
his prope nsi ties in humorous wr i ti ng~ but ap;ut from the ackn o wlcdgc cl pri\·ikgcs o f th is ki nd o f composition, the writer
shou ld he consc ientio us in comp:iring his o wn m ind's habi tual
"·orking with the opacit ;cs and te nd encies of o rdinary men.
A ccordingly, he should consult not himsel f :i.lonc hut more especially his readers, seek ing always if t he re may be discerned a self.
movemen t of th e sulijcct along the lines m ost easi ly follo wed by
thcnl. Not all subje cts arc c 1p:ihlc of a simple plan _: hu t in all
cases th e writer sho nkl work for the utmost sim p licity possible fo r

ORDERING OF JllATERIAL.

247

the adequate p resentation o f h is subject, and be ready to deny his
p ersona l p refe re nces, if n ecessa ry, for h is read ers' s:tke.
Nun :. - The p oe t Bruwni ng h as ofte n been re pruac h ecl as ordering his
th ou ght in \\' ill fully alistruse sequ e n ces. Not will fully , a s h e has h imself
avow ed; but it must lit.: :ick n u \\'l ed ged that so m et im es th e irr tr icatc d1>d g i11 g ~
a n d win di n gs uf h is th o ught a re n e cd lcssly d iffic ult fu r reade rs, e\·en \\'hc·n
ali owan cc is made fur tht.: exce pti o n ally profound n ature o f his subject -matte r.
Ile has been co nfessed ly too unmindful o f th e a r t that seeks to make th ought
p lain an d J'lcasant fo r or din ary c:lpacitics.
Of the e ccent r ically \\'Urking mind the hum or ist Charles F. Bruw n e ( " :\ rlc·
mu s \ Van] ") m ay be mentio n e d a s a re m a rk able exa mpl e. It is said that no
idea ever p resented it self to him as it w ou!J to any other pe rso n; he could
see o nl y the lu d icrous side o f things ; and th e p reva il ing p rinciple of his
humo r lies in odd a nd quaint ly twisted sequences tl f th o ught.

The Unit of Structure . - In a p recedi ng sec tion t h e parag raph has lJee n na m ed as the uni t o f inventi on. Dy this is meant
tha t in the proper construction of a paragraph th ere a re sugge sted
in m ini ature the ma in p roble ms involved in t he constru c t ion of an
en ti re discourse.
And indeed there is one case, the editorial
paragraph, whe rein this smallest sec ti o n o f di sco urse hJ. s co me to
be recogni zed as a distinct literary form, a di sco urse in itsel f.
R efe rring the n to the section o n The P aragraph, a nll c:-;pcc ially
to the scheme of paragrap h st ru cture la id d o wn on p age 199,
we see t hat a p:i.ragraph must have a subjec t, a pla n, a proportio n
of p arts; th at its p rogress must be ol.Jvi o us and continuo ns from
one part t o a noth er; that, l icgi nning wi th wh a t expla in s its topi (',
it moves o n to wh a t establi shes, by proof or o th erwi se, an d finally
to what applies and g ives results. I n every p roduct ion, wh<l.tever
its form o r scope, th is u nit o f stru ctu re m ay be traced, m odified of
course b y p arti c ular require m en ts, a nd with its eleme n ts in varying p ropo rt ions, b ut easily recognizable whe n th e c irc ums tances of
writing and the n::iture o f th e suliject-matter a re taken into consideration.
The Form of Discourse here chosen as Norm. - By reason of
its brevity n o si ngle pa rag raph wou ld Lie li ke ly to rep resen t all
the elem ents of structu re in th e typi cal fulln ess d esir:i.ble for study.

218

2-19

T'flE T'ffE J1IE .

TlJ /:' T f 11:·,11F

~om e

would be merely suggested rather than expressed, while
o thers \\·oiil d pcrh:ips lJe elided altogether.
A form better :idaptc<l to this pnrpose is found in the essay or
short treatise, ;is it :i.ppears in the lie~t re,·icw a rti cles of the day.
1\p::irt from its com·enicm knb"th, which makes it easy to trace the
relation of its p:i rts to one another and to the whole idea, the
L'ss ay presents the m ost nurmal aml rounded type of structure,
heGl.llsc, being m o re purely a work of the intellect, it de pe nds
mo re en t irely on the writer's constructi 1-c powers. This we sec
Ly comp:irin;; Y:uiuus literary forms . Jn a narrati,·e, for instance,
th e plan is guided m:1inly l>y the order of time; in a desc ription
iiy the order of place; :irgument folhJ1,·s the logical necessities of
the pruof; or:itory modifies the logical order more or less lJy the
emotional. The essay, whi c h belongs predominantly to the ex1iository form (sec lxlow, p:ige ..J.llJ), presents a more pun:ly
in tc ll ec ttial prod11ct, built a ccording to the b1vs that control the
·o nst ructi,·e powers of the mind; it is here c hose n, therefore, :is
m iting in one produ c tion normal strncture :i.11(1 convenie nt limits.
The ge neral proccs se~ inclu ded in the ordering of material may
ic groupe d under three se c ti o ns: on th e dete rmina tion of the
heme ; on the construction of the plan; and on amplification.

SEcTrnN FrnsT.
DETr.RMIN ATION OF TIIE THEME.

Definition . - The theme, 1\·hich in some fo rm underlies the
trn c ture o f every literary \\·ork, may he 1Jricfly defined as the
11>rking-iclca of the discourse .
The f11ndarnental requirement of the th e me is suflic iently indi:ttcd in the deriv:ttion of th1 · word, fn i11i tlw ( :rc«k 0:1111 (rm1w•.),
•imc thing j;/aced ur laid i/0111 11, 1} 1,1l
:1·, :1 l,;,._j., f1,r 1ri ::1tr rwr1t,
~·1 < . : a ·f·:r;rking-L;;·.i . . , tL1; 1h1 ; Jr\': r1 111 .t L
,,,J 1d, -;, ··,1, d1 :fiuitc
1
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, .·1 · r:/ ·,.'r'1 '1f hi'l

i·.,

1

work . It is that nu cle us-though t, expressed or implicit, which
must be in his mind as a central point o f re lerence, a constant
determinator and suggester of the scope and limits of his subject.
It is thus th e ge rm of the whole work, the sum of the thought
redu ce d to its uridest anJ most co nd e nse d statement.
Obviously, if the theme is an element from which so much is to
be evolved a cc urate and minute care is imperative in the fir:-,t
place regar~ling wh at is to be i nvolved in it. And indeed this h
what makes the d ete rmination of the theme the must 1111port:111t
single step in the ordering of material; for, ueing the process of
concentrating the whole thought into unity and sh:ipelincss uf tde;1,
it compels a th orough meditation, analysis, and test of all its rn:iin
features . By the time th e working-i dea is accu rately dctermmed
the material of the discourse is easily in the writer's cont rol.
The theme of a discourse is no t syno n yrn olls with th e sul>ju ·t.
It is necessary here, therefore , before examples arc adduced, to
discriminate the t\\"O.
The Theme as related to the Subject . - The subject is the
general or class-idea on which the production is lJascd, the mu ~t
unrestricted answer to th e question, \\'hat shall I write a hmtt?
Thus for example, one may wri te about the J\n glu-S;txons, or alJOllt
Self-IZeliance, o r about Free Trade, or about Modern Victi on;
these are sulJjects.
Evidently such sul >jccts as these, :is they
exist unmod ifi ed, a rc too comprchcns i,·e, too general, for trc:itment. They contain no hint of one kind of treatment more than
another; no indi catiun of fitness to place, pul1lic, or fon11 uf di scourse; no suggestion of limits or direction. lt is clea r that they
are not as yet in sh:ipe to guide the writer :is his working-idea.
Having c hose n or re ceived such a subjec t as the :-ibo\· c, th•:
write r's first n atural question, How shall I treat this sul1ject) ka.l . o ,
1
as the init i:il step of invention, to the d ed uctio n of a them e; th: t
Jii t.: fi t i: I j 111 t 11 il l:r· j q , , , 11 ·
11 ~." . ' t t I I I ~ ' f I , , I ~ rl 111 I' I I '
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TJJE TJJEJ/E.

THE THEME

rovers too much ground ; it should be r egarded in one
i k d .:1spect ; so it Ix comes, we will say, Domestic Life of the

:icJ- S:nons, o r, 1\ational Traits of the Anglo-Saxons. For the
111\l suJ ,ject a hort:tt\lry trc:1 tm e nt \\'u ul d be natural ; so it
' 'll1L·,;, lncitL'rncnt tu :-;c] 1._ IZckm cc, or, l Iow Self-Reliance en.L'S ~:lu~·:lc tcr .
Tlic t hird Il l;\)' UC viewed as an issue, to
11 Jcd, :lfl mnali\·c]y Or neg:ttin.:J y, U)' argument j SO bro::td also
i t needs to uc 1LuTu11·cd tu a parti c ular a ppl ic:ition ; so per' Jt !Jccomcs, Cunsidc r:Jtion s for (or ag:1 inst) the Adoption of a
> Tr:1 de P.o licy lJy the :\ rnc ri can PL·opk. The fourth suggests
1r:t!ly :1 cnt1c:t l exposition; so it l.Jccomes, The Methods ~rnJ
:-;jl irit of ·01udcrn Fiction .

ue

rum this it :1ppc:1rs th at the theme is the subject concentrated,
11c.ms of directi1-c limi1:1tions, upo n a s ingle issue, so that it
co ntain one p rin c ipk uf di1·ision, one definite indication of
1111.'n t, one st1ggc:>t iun uf scupe and limits.
Observe then
theme is no t a p.tn of the suLject; it is t/ie wlw!e 'sllbjec;
, ·,/ i11 11 d r/<1 i11 Jd,- n 111.11<1 /l· d1.rccl1«1J1 . The whole suhject is
1.~ tliruttgh the theme; lmt its action is d efin ed and recrubtc<l
1iL the ci rc u mst~l!lces of the prese nt ll'rit ing.
b
'l' l·: .

-

"' 1t would h :J.YC been ,·c ry cruel tu k11' c t1Jld :i h oy t o write o n "fortune";
it would ha1•e bee n li k e ask in,; h im hi , opi n io n of" thin g s in ge n e ral." F urtLmC is " g o od ,"" h:icl," " cap ri c io us, ' " un expec ted ," ten t hu w.;:1nd thi ngs all
at o nce (yo u s<.:e th e m all i n th e Cradns) , a n d .ne of them as much as t l1e
o tl1 cr. Ten thuu sa nd 1hi11 ,;s 111ay lie s aid vf it : give me 0111: of thc111, :u 1ol I
will write up"n it; I ca11 n ul 1nile un m o re th a n one ; lZ ulJcrt prefers lo 11Ti tc
upo n all.
"•" 1''1lrtun<.: fa yors the l1 u ld;" h er e is a very defi nite subje ct: take h<>l d uf
it, an1l it \\'ill st eady a n d lead you o n: y< •U II' ill knuw in what directi o n tu
look.' "

Deduction of Theme from S bject. -This, in any give n case,
must of course be left to t he writer's tact and natural Sti ggcsti\·c
faculty. A few general directi o ns may, however, be of sen·icc .
I. Obviously the same general s ul.Jjcct, lJ<: ing capable of many
application s, may co ntain :in inde finite numl.Jer of the m es or 1rnrking-id e:is. Wh at particubr direction shall l.Je g i,· en to the subject
in t he individtul case is determined for the most pa rt Ly the
writer' s vi ew o f what need s to l.Je sa itl and what he cm lJe~t say ;
Lut also large ly J;y present circumstan ces, as, for in st:mce, how t he
suLje c t has l.Jccn treated l.Jefore, for whom it is intcn dCll no w, :ind
what are the exactions of tim e, pbce, :ind form of discourse .

The necess ity uf fulloll'i ng tl1c suggcstiun of a theme instea<l of

1g rand1:1n thuugl_1ts on a gcneral sul1jec l is exemplified in th e folloll'ing

hy C ard111al ."\c11·111a 11. lt L)Cc urs in a le cture of iis on" Elementary
I takes the fvnn vf rema rks vn :rn i:naginary thes is written by a
: 1·a 11 .!1 .JalL' fur ad111i ss i1>11 t<> tile l) n i1·n s ity. Il will be n o ticed that
he. c:li) ,; l •y t hc Jl' •pnbr 'ksig 11 :1l i<> n the std •.iect - "Fo rtes For tuna Adju- "' rather 11·hat 11·e a re here defi ning as the theme, while the subj ect,
_ihc )"Htng man pnsisls in treating as unrc,.;tricted , is more truly expressed
._;l' ,

·,;," an:

(•rl Ena."

'\ "". lo11k l1vn:,' h e (the criti c, a supposed '.Tr. Hla ck ) says, 'the subject
rtcs f., rlu 11a :1.J_1u1·:1t "; 1w11· ti1is is a pr{J/ositi,m; it sta tes a certain
ii p ri 11 1·i 1>!e, ;1n.J tl:i ,.; is j usL 11·lia1 an 1m/i11:1ry boy wuuld b e sure to mis~,
, d>n t d .. es miss i1. I k goes 11ff :ll unce 011 the wu rd "furtuna." " l'or·
11':1S ll ot his sul•jc·ct; tlie th es i:; " ·as int ended lo ,i:11id,• him for his own
11

l:e n· fu scs lo J,e put in to ka.Jing strings : he l1r caks loose, and r uns off
11·n f:1shi "n u n the liro:1d 1; cJd and in ll'i ld c hase of" fo rtun e," instead
111 g ll' 1lh a suhjt:cl , ll'l1 ic:l1, as IJ<.:in g dcli11itc , 1ruuld hav e supporte<l him.

n

251

EXAMPLE S. -Th e: fu ll m\· ing nspc cts o f th e general subjec t " Liter:1ture"
a rc selccti.:d Crum thn:c columns uf such titles in l'ovk 's In d ex tu l\:riudical
L itera ture : A dva nt :1gcs of Literature ; A nc ie nt and Modern L iterature; Li te rature and
the People ; Lit erat ure an il Sty le; J.itcrature as a 1'r ofi.:s ~ iun; 1\s)'ccts uf
Co n te mpora ry L ite rature; Caprices and La11·5 uf l .itc:rature ; Ch ea p l.it<.:r a turc; Effect o f \\'ar upon L i1e ral ure; Ephemeral Literature ; l.i tna lurc in
Social Life; In rl i1·iduality in Lit erature ; I\ati o n a lit y in Literature; Pr in ciples
of Su ccess in Literature; Rec rc:ati,·c Use of Lit eratu re; Toils and J.:.c ll'ar ds uf
Lit era tur e ; Vital Prin ciple o f I .itcr aturc .
The fu ll u 11·ing arc some uf the titles under t he article" Socrates": Socrat es an Ecst a ti c ; Socrates and J\risl <1phancs; Socra tes and Chri,.; t;
Socrates and tlie Duct rinc: of Lk as; Socra ks :111'1 his J'h il usvp h y ; Suc ralcs
ancl l'latu; Suc ra.k s an.l th<.: Suph ists o f J\ thens; Socrates as a Teacher;
C haracte r of Sun a tes ; I ):c nw n o f Sucratcs ; lJ cfc nse uf ::lucralcs; Sucr;.itcs'
Place in Greek l'h ilvso pli y ; Theology of Soc rates.

_·_,

-

THE TJJEJllE.

The suuj ect bein g c h osen, :111 import:rnt question here arising is, How is the deduction of the theme rehtcd to the accumuLi ti on of rn:1teria1? Docs it precede or follow?
It l)oth follo\\'s :rnd p recedes. Before the theme is determined
the wri te r stud i1.~ s to get a point of Yicw: by rapid discursive read-'
ing :1nd rnc d iuti o n he collects a store of ide:1 s rebted in different
d egn:es of intimac y to his sulJje c t, but no t yet classified and
;hs igned to th ei r rdati\·e rank . On these miscellaneous materials
he is to p:tss :i. c::ucf1il :t1nlyt ical judgment, in o rder to determine
\1·k1t he c:i.n use :i.nd ll"hat he must reject, :tnd in order to ascerLt in their most signilic:rnt direction for hi s use . Then afte r the
th eme is determined, the writer is se L'ki ng to fo rti fy its various
po ints ; his reading therefore is liy top ics, and definitely applied
to what is ascertained to be Jacking .
3. Not infreque ntly the writer's bter read ing and thought what D r. Bushnell calls "the arrival of fresh ligh t " - may lead
h im essential ly to modify the view he h:ts o ri ginally t:i.ken of the
sit bject. If so, he sh o uld not hum o r his indolence, as too m:i.ny
du, and lack o n new and in congruous ma terial as it h:ippens : he
should re -open the wh ole process o f determining the theme, in
orde r to get su ch a unity from the outset as wii l accommodate his
late st views. It is due both to the reackr's convenience of interl'reting and the writer's sharpness of m ed itation th::it the the me
c- hould be exactly commensurate \\"ith the su lJj ect-nutter.
4 . A pcrnli:lr reiation of subje c t and theme is found in the
<'<\lllpu:-; iti <ll\ <ll st ·rnH>ns; where the s11l ijcct. instc:ul of being cml" Hlied i11 a word ur phrase, is held i11 sol11tion, so to say, in a text
uf Scripture. Tn thi s ca<;e the text, intc rprctccl with refere nce to
("tllllc xt, c:ircurnst:rnn::-;, parallel p~ts sa ges, and the like, contains
no t only the sugges tio n of the theme but also the condensed emLudiment of material and often of ill ustrati o n.
2.

FXA i\l l'l.E OF TIIE D1·:J•L'Cr1 0N OF A SER\!<>:-.' T11F~IE . -The following,
' !U"lt:d from Dr. Bushm:l l, \l" hO \1·as rcno\\"ned f"r his skill in drawi ng out the
'-' 11ggcstiu11 of a text, i llu s t r al c ~ the text, the theme, bot h as title and proposi1i, •11 . antl the prucc's uf dcduct iu n. The open in g paragraph of the sermon is
•1uoll:d.

THE TJJEJ1IE.

253

T ext, Luke ix. 13: " But I le sa id u nt o them, Give ye them to eat."
Theme: U un ·

1'0T ~ IEASl " J tED !lY OU R O\\"N A IJ ILI TY.

"\Vhen Ch rist lays it th us upon his discip les, in that soli tary and dese rt
place, to fe ed tlve thousand mm, he cann ot be ignorant o f the utter impossibility that they shuulcl d o it. And when they reply that they have only li1c
loaves an d t\\·u tlshcs, though the ans\\'er is plain ly sufficient , he is n o \1·isc
div erted from his co urse hy it, but pres,es directly on in the ne\\' order, tba t
th ey make t he people sit d""·n hy flftit.'.s in a company, and he ready for th e
proposed repast. l kl>a tin g in themselves, p roba l1ly, \\'hat ca n be the use of
such a pron:cd ing, \\'h en reall y th ere is no supply of food tu be dist rib uted ,
th ey sti ll exc<:ult: his o rder. 1\nd th e n \\' he n all is made read y, h e calls fur the
five loaves and th e tin> fo;hcs, a nd, havin g l,lt.:sscd them, begi ns tu lireak, and
says to tht.:m - lJis tri hute . l\fa rvcll o us luavcs ! lm,ken , th ey arc not dimini shed!
dis tri b uted , th ey still f'' rnain ! And so return in g, again and again , to repknish the ir baskets, they continue the dist ri liutitin, till the hun gry multitude arc
all satisfied as in a full suppl y. In this man n er the o ri g in al command - Cive
ye them to eat - is ex ec uted to the letter. They liave mad e the people sit
down, th ey ha\·c brought the l o an~ s, they ha\·c distr ibuted, an ti he at c1·ery
step has justitlcd his onlcr, by making the ir sca nty stock as gootl as a full
supply.
"This narra li\·e sugg"sts :.?nd illustra tes the follo \\'ing important principle "Th a t '""" are of!t:1t, an d properly, put under obligation to do that fi'r
which they lw« e, i ii tl1c·111 sdves, n o present ability."
Here the text exp resses mere ly the kernel or lesso n of the passage in \\' hich
it occurs, and its teachin g is made clc:ar by a sum mary of th e whu\ e narr ati1·e,
which snmrnary is concentratetl upon the lesson. The example is a mo re
fu rm al deducti on of a theme than is usu al in sermons n owadays; \Jut the
prin t: iple remain s the sam e, huwe\·cr co ncealed.

St atement of the Theme. - Being the wn rkin g -id e:t, the th eme
mus t exist pri1 1iarily fu r the use ol the wr it er ~du n e . This I"l'ljtt is itc
is e ntirely apart from the question whethe r it is to appear clelinitely
stated in th e co mplete produc ti on or not; which (1ucstion is to be
decided affirmati\·cly or negatively by circumstances. For his own
use the theme o ught in all cases to be determined in a definite
and painstak ing statement; for unless suc h a sharpl y defined
nucleus exists, to whi c h the writer m ay at all points refer as a
means of estimatint; the ]Jearings o f his th o ught, the produc ti on
b ecom es vague, rambl ing, out of symmetry and p roportion.

25+

Tl//:' TllEJ!E.

TJIE TJIF:AIE.

255

In the production as presented to the reader, then, the theme
rn:-ty li e either expressed or implicit. When expressed, it ordin:crily takes a somewlut exp:rncleu form , which is by some called
the pro position, by others the st:itus. There is no need of separ~1t ing in ide:i, as so me clo, the stat us or proposition from the
1hemc; it is the theme mcn:ly put in a form suitable for public
expression.

theme, empl1:isizing hy italics and small capitals th e fact that it should he
word ed just so and not otherwise: "The questi on does not regarcl th e value of 111a!he111atical SCTE:\CE comidcred
in itself, or in its ohjec!ive results, but the utili(y of malltmiatical STGD\', th at
is, in its suhju!i•'<: ,17at, as an exercise of mind."
\Vhat is here in dicated hv the somewhat excessive use of printers' devices is
merely what a \\'riter of clc~r arnl careful mint! will determine for himself: his
accuracy will lie real , if no t so apparent.

ILI.llSTl<ATJoi\s . - r . Th e example quoted ab01·e fr om Dr. Bushnell appears
buth in the me and prvposi tion; the former as a title, the latter as an affirmati o n. Obser ve that th<: latt<:r statement is more <:xtcnded, though not lc:ss
carefully exp rcs,;cd .

A second aim is what m::ty be called suggestiveness : th:it is,
words and phraseology should be so chosen th:it every main re-

2.

In If erb crt Spencer's essay on "The Social Organ ism," the th eme is

cxp rt:S>«.:d, in p up ula r fo rm. Compared " ·ith the \\·o rking-idea, as dedu cible
fi.,i m th e 'tu.ly 1if the t:Ssay , it presents an cr1ui"aknt tho ught, being merel y
th e nucleus 11f tlie <.;,;say v>ndenscd tu a single: p rop usit ion.
\\'orki ng-1 d ea: .\'\ Al.UC Y Hl·:T\\' EE:" Tl[ I·: )11 )]J\' l'UL!TlC Ai'\D LIVING UODll.Y
{ )} \1, :.\:\I :-i .\J~ .

1-: xp rl's, cd Th eme or Status: " That under all its aspa!s mu/ throu;!,'·h

11/I

its r1n11ij io1/ion s, socit•ly is a ..~r-ro-:1..'lh a11d 11 0/ a 111 (11u1/a c/ure."

This 11H: n.·ly puts the definition of orga ni sm in the pbce of the word, an1l
presents it in cun nec li u n \\'ilh its contr:iskd id ea .
3. In !\l:icauby's essay on "I listory," the theme is implicit; but, th ough
n o\\'hcre brough t tu the dctinite form of an expressed proposition, the writer's
idc:i an d Jlllr]l<'se arc apparen t througho ut, conditioni ng every part. The
th eme may lie "lated thus: T!l i·: AKT OF Jll STUK ICA L CO~tl'O S IT!Oi'\ : \\'IIAT IT HAS BEEN AND JS, AND
\\"I lJ\T IT SI Wl' l.lJ H E.
J\ s 1·0 the manner of expressing the theme, the following direc-

tions are of importance .

r . The k:iding :iirn in determining its expression is exactness:
th:lt is, e\·e ry word should he so accur:itely weighed, so sharply
dci1ned, :-tnd its relations so closely discriminated, that it may
s;1fcly st:md as the licginn ing of :i vist:i. of thought in the plan of
the d iscourse . Thi s is necessitated by the icle::tl of involving 111
the nucleus what is to be evolved in the completed production.
FXA)!l'l.E OF Rn; ,.\!{[) FUR ACC U RACY. - Tn an essay on "The Study of
1\latlicmatics as an Exercise of l\lind," Sir \\'illiam ll:ll11iltun thus defines his

2.

lation of the thought may be provided for, ancl that no small est
feature of the theme may hck significance . The ideal - that the
theme be exactly commensurate with the subject-matter, neith er
too broad nor too n:irrow - dictates th:it every word of the theme
have its meaning, :md every main clement in the scope of the pro duction its nucleus.
EXAMPLES . - It may he well to illustrate this, perhaps, by an example th at
woukl seem, if anv, lo he careless o f such a req ui site, being an informal anti
popular proclucti•; n, - I ,O \\'L:il's essay" On a Certain Condescension in Foreigners." The first word o f the titl e, " On," indicates, as to the manner of
treatment, that the writer promises merely remarks, discursi\·e or casual, but
not necessarily exhausti\·e of the su bject, or scie ntifi cally ordered . Then," a
certa£n condes ce nsi on" impli es not the spirit of co ndescension in ge neral, hut
a particular mani festati on of it, which it is the business of the essay lo cleli ne
and illustrate. Thus the ti tl e, though not containing more than a promise o f
the working-idea, suggests exactly, as far as it goes, the actual scope awl
treatment of the subject.
A certain clergyman's study of the text, John \'ii. 17, "If any man will do
his will, he shal l kn ow of the duc trin e," revealed the important fa ct that in
the origi nal Creek the verb translated "will do" is not a simple fulur c bu t
indicates volition; whi ch fact he judged should be suggested in the expressinn
of his working-idea; so he adopted as his th eme the sent ence, rather strikingly
aphoristi c, "\Vill to do is wit to know."

3. A third aim in properly exp ressing the theme is b rev ity. It
is of advantage to employ the briefest and crispest expression possible, because this favors unity of idea and suliordination of parts.
A word may st:ind for a whole main division; an epithet nuy suggest

256

Tf!E T l/EJJ!E.

irn po rt::mt limitations :111d appl ic:ltions.
T he working-id ea m:i.y
indeed he sui.tecl in less conde nsed exp ression ; but in the theme the
ohject is r:lther so to state it as to conce ntrate it on one point, and
this dictates that the point be not obscurecl by superfluous words.
N<>T E. - The ut ility of a hri dly stated theme is pe rh aps best illustrat ed in
the literature of the p ulpit, \\'h ere the theme has to he co mpacted fr om a tex t
of ~ c ri p tm c . Cnnsidc r, fo r instance, how the subject is bro ught into concentrat e.\ :-d1apc in tl1e fo ll·rn·ing tht:me o f a snmo n hy Rt:v. J\l ex:rnd er Maclaren.
Frum lht: text :: Cu rin th i:rns iii . 1!', "\Ve al l, "'it h ope n face beholding as in a
ghss the gl,. ry 1)f the L o rd, a rc ch a ngc:d inln the same image," he deduces th e
~imple theme ." T ran sformation hy Behold ing," th us conce ntrating the thought
on a singk objec t (t ran~furmatiun), " ·hich is ((I he ga in ed by a single means
(beh old ing) . This i; rid th eme is just conim cnsurate ll'ith the tex t.

Form of the Theme as related to Kind of Discourse . - No kiml
of discourse can safely disp ense wit h a theme; bu t it is to be
noted that in the essay, which ,,·e arc here st udying as norm ,1
the theme appears in its most d istinc tly artic ulated shape ; while in
so me other kinds o f discourse, though st ill in la id in the structure as
a ddmite work in g-ide0 , it may some times seem almost d iss ipated
into a vague ancl elusive suggest io n. N ot so to the writer, howe,·er; th ough the kin'l of s ubject-matter and th e aim of the discourse m ake the th eme some tim es less palp::ilJJc to the reader.
l t is in narrative writing, perhaps, that th e theme is most nearly
formless, being merely that princ iple of unity "·hich is called th e
con, ·eption o( the story . Jly the conCl'p tion is rnc:rnt th e central
principk, or scn t imcn l, o r kssnn crnl>odi cd in lht: s tory and g iving
it a reason for existing ; a cha racter to " ·hic h :tll its parts arc
nearly or remotely rebted . Sec l>elo11-, p . 359 .
Fx . 1 \ TT'u:s . - Jhkic 's 110,·cls gcnc raliy have a Ycry palpable theme. Jlis
' ' Pc·rc Coriot ," fnr in st an ce , might be entitled , T'aternal love as an overmastering an <! invincible passi o n; a nd h is " C.'.sa r Birotlcau" is a stu dy of sim ple
bu:;iness integri ty that will tak e no subt er fug es of la"', a theme s imilar to that
1 Some of the th •'rncs quoted by way of cxan qilc have indee d bee n taken from
scrrnons . whi ch l>c·!ong rnth cr to o rato ry; l•ut tl1is only in cases wh ere the th eme
was not cs"·ntially modified l>y the hortato ry eti1n of the \\Ork.

Tl/E THEflfE.

25 7

of H owells' " R ise o f S ilas L a pha m." N ot al ways, ind eed , is th e conception
of a sto ry so clear or so single ; but if it have no ne at all, it is sure to inc ur
reproach.

In descriptive wnting , also, the theme is hard to reduce to
words, being a conception hidd en in the author's mind and becoming revealed only through the whole course of the work. It
is his conception of th e character of the thing d escribed, a con ception that reveals not o nly t he nature of the thing itsel f, b ut hi s
own individuality ancl skill in port rayal.
EXAMPLES. - Thus, Ruskin's desc ripti on of the interi or of St. Mark's, V cn ice, centres in character istics o f color a n<l symbolic d ecorati on; Carlyle's
des cripti on of Silesia centres mainl y in topography ; Edgar's descripti o n
of D over Cliff in Shakespeare's King Lear emphasizes its dizzy height ;
Mo lley's ac count o f th e character of W illiam of O range, being a catal ogue
descript io n, is more d iscursive, but still centres quit e dec idedly in th.: qual ities of g rcatn e:;s and purit y.

An exposito ry t heme t:tkes naturally the form of a phrase embodying the idea expounded, with suggestio n of the means of
exposition em ployed. It is under this form of discourse that
most essay th emes would be reckoned .
E XAMPLES . - Thus, the theme of M.artin eau's essay on " R evelation - \ Vh a t
it is not, and \V hat it is" suggests ex positi o n by defini ti on and contrast; Spencer's essay, already me nti o ned, o n "the body politic compared to a living o rgan ism," suggests ex positi o n by a nalogy, a nd so o n.

In arg u rn cnt:ttion th e th em e is a p ro pos ition, so carefully expressed and guarded th at two o pponents m ay b e agreed on the
statement of it. So impo rtant is it that an e sse nti al p repara ti on,
ordinarily, for an argum en tative di sc ussion is the settlement of the
terms and nature of the question, - in other words, dete rmi ning
the the me .
EXAMPLE . Thus, in the arg um ents o n li beral education, elective studies,
the place of L a tin a nd Creek in erl ucati onal co urses, and the li ke, which ap p ear so fre q ue ntly in pe ri odical litcratnrc, mu ch o f th e work is defin iti on of
terms and limits, as \\'Cll as close di scrimi nation of the auth o r '~ o wn pusit iun.

zss

Till~·

TJJE,JfF.

Tn or:itory , the li:1sis of which is the :-ippc:i.1 to the will or pcrs11:ision, the th e me cannot ])e S.'.l ti sfi cd, :i.t Jc:ist in the author's
mind, \\'ith being :i. rncrc art ic tilatcd subject. He must choose an
ohjec t rather th a n :i. subject; and the wo rkin g- idea, exp ressing
something th:1t lllay he :i.c tcd on, should Le rcdnciblc to a single
impcrati\'(.: uttc r:in cc.
Fx ,\ ~11 · u . s. -Th us, the e:i.rl icst preachers s:i.id not rn crdy , " The k ingdom
or Ji ca \'Cll i,.; :i.t ktn.J," h ut :i.ls••," 1'.l'jlC lll " ; :i.11.J the 1ll<1d crn St:tlcS111:111 , while
he bhors to c01wi11ce his audien ce th a t this n r th:i. t Yie\\' or a public measure
is the tru e o ne , th rq11·s the wlwlc pt)ln:r l>f h is address into the imperative,
" Git·e your suffr::ige and :illcgiance to this truth ."

The Title. -The theme and the title of :i. work are related to
each o ther as inne r and oute r. In the theme the snbject exists as
determined fo r th e 1niter's 01n1 guidance . Jn the t itle the subject takes the n:i.rne hy whi ch it is to be introduced to the world.
In form, the title some tim es coincid es with the th eme, sometim es wi th the unrestri cted subject. Oftenest, howeve r, it has a
fo rm o f its 01rn, di ct:itccl by the c ircumstances of publication, or
hy the 1ni tcr's o wn fancy .
T he follo ll'in g :ire the m:i.in considcr:itions govern ing the choice
or a tillc.
I.

T he title sh ould give a clue, correct and adequate , to the main

idea of t he work .

Tl!E TllEA! E.

259

2. T itles in d icat ing the spirit o f a 11·ork.
,;-.rrs. Helen Hunt Jackso n's":\
Ce ntury o f Dishnnm" is a histo ry o f the U ni ted States g ot·ernm cnt's dealin)::!'
with th e 1ndi:rn s, and the: tiil e rc\'ea ls its animus . Jn Charle~ J\ea<k's "J 'ut
\'o urself in his J'la ce" the title embraces the moral lesso n taugh t th rough out
th e story.
2.

As a published work must be not only made but sold, and as

people must have some inducement to take up a new work, the tit le
needs to have an attractiveness and interest in itself.

Tbis requ isite often m:ikcs the choice of a title, cspcci::i.lly in
more purely literary produc ti o ns, a matter of mu ch difficulty; :ind
with all the pa ins taken, the fate of a titl e not infrequen tly seems
like mere chance. No one can calculate unerringly just wh at will
strik e the public taste. The endeavo r to attract read ers leads
o ften to the cho ice of fi g ur::i.tive titles, all itcrati\·e a nd epigram m,atic ti tles, scnps of q uotatio n, proverbs, and th e like; wh ich
reveal, more or less pleasurably, the writer's fancy and t:i.ste.
ExA ~11 ·1.1-:s .- I. A figurati\' e title sh o uld of cou rse sugges t, and not obscu rely,
th e lilcral id ea that justly characteri zes th e wo rk. J oh nso n's "I.: arnhlc r" has
been me nti o ned as faulty in this n:spcct. Carlyle 's " Sartu r I.: csartus" (The
Tailor 1-:.e-litted) is founded throu g ho ut o n an exlcncl ed metaphor, ,1 hi ch th e
titl e s uftlci c ntl y suggests. '' !\losses fr um an Old :\ la nse " i:; th e gracl' ftd na me
that I Iawtlwrne g i\'\:S to a ,·.,l um e o f sh.,rl sto ries ll'ritten in the old lllan sc .
his reside nce in Co nco rd. "Susp iria de Pr(J funrlis " co nt ains some of Ile
Q uin cey's confessiuns reg;i.rding hi,.; deplorab le op ium habit, \l' ith th e st raiwe
an d ofte n exceed ingly sad t·i;.;i n ns induc ed th ereby.
....

Th is m:1in id ea ma y, howc1·c r, ]Jc approached in d iffe rent ways.
\Vh l'n the work is of 1h e purely inklkc ·11 1:il type, th:1t is, wh en the
rc:idcr is to peruse it for mere infor m:1ti on o r :irgt1rn ent , the ti tle
expresses its m a in DID ·\ l TI C wca. Sometimes, ho\\'c1·cr, wh en the
\\' Ork ernhodies :i. stro ng emot ional cle ment, or is in tended to
aronse reader. to the impo rtance :incl signifi cance of its subjectmattc r, it m :iy he lJettcr to m::i.kc the ti tle ind icate the SPIRIT or
SE :\T l~[E:'.'<T 0 the 11·ork.

2. 1':xa111pks o f g ra cefully o r 'lua intly worded litks arc," Sight s an tl Insights," a 1•11l 111 11t· ,,; tr:i.1T ls l1y :\!rs. \\'lii ln cy; "St1n11 y :'lk111 <1 ri •·s ,,f 1 :, 1 rr· i ~:n
I ~a n cls, :t s i1 11il:l r Wtirl... l1y .\lrs . ~lo\\'C::; ' 1 (;uds :t.11d l> i r 1l ·\'11icl ·:-; , " a \' 11 J 11111 e ,,f
n:i. l11re sketches hy }<11111 11urro ughs; " ,\ ftcrni at h " is th e ll:11\l c gii·c n hy
Longrell ow to o ne nr the later n Jlumcs uf h is poe ms.
3· "J\ll's \\"ell th at En ds \\'ell" is a p<1pu br p ro,·crh used for a title · so is
Charles Read e's "J\ cYer too I.al e to i\lcnd." "Far fr um th e i\f~ddinrr
Crowd ," " ;\i ry Fa iry Lil ian, " "Th e \\'<>u in g o't," "A Cuunt crfei t Pr cscn ;~
me nl," arc titles o f p<>pub r sto ri es, all scraps uf quotat io n.

F:\.\> l l'l.ES . - 1 . Did ;id ic titles .
H crl.ert Sp<'nce r's " T he I'rin ciples of
S.,ci.,lng-y ' ' ; I .crky's "J li,.; to ry o f Fur"J'<:a 11 :\l " rals, fr um Au g ustus to Charlem;i.,1:;nc: " ; ]) u\\' , !cn·~ " ShakS[)C1T, lti ,; :\lin o! and ,\ rt."

interest of the work, it should not p romise more than the work can
fulfill. A modest claim m akes a better impression.

0

3. Wh ile the title may well arou se pleasurable antici pations of th e

l,(,Q

J'llE l'LAN.

TJJE l'L1IN.

EXA>1r1.1·:s. - O ne of B ur ke 's g r eat p oliti cal ll'o rks bears the modest title,
"Tho ughts •'ll the C:\\lsc of th e Pr ese nt l Jisc ,rntcnts "; another is e nti tl ·d
•· l-: 1.: llccl i•m s o n th e l-: e \'<>li1 1i1m i n Fr:ine<.:." :\ n impor tant essay o f Carlyle's
is c;n litlc cl s illlply , "l'h:ir:lc tcristic:s ."
4 . VJhen the title is not s ufficiently s uggestive, or when it is de·
s irable to c o mb ine s o m e of the above -n a m ed re quisites, a second or
sub- title is o ften ad d ed to the main one.

The same offic e is some-

times fiiled by a motto.
F x.\" 11 •1. i-:s . -

''T he l ' 11scrn l "n j,· ersc ;

nr, l' hysical Speculatio ns on a

h 1tur c ~ t ;lll'." 111 th e i11tr odnc ti"11 :n ~ir \\'alte r ~c o lt's "\Vaverlcy ; or,
'Ti s ~i x t y \' l':irs Si ne·,., .. is :i n : ry i11t cr cs ti11g di sc u,;sion of the s uggcst i\'cncss
of 11\l tli rnt·111licrs uf the t itle .

!11 J c,·u ns's '' l"rin c iplcs of Science; a Treatise

u n L og ic :ind S cic· 11: i1ic :\ lct h1)d ," the scc u nd p:irt of the title is necessary to

th e ri.t;ht su,t;gcst i,·u11.: ss of t he fi rst.

S ECT!() :\

l))'Oc~· s s

And so they imagine they have only to surrender their thinkin g to
its own unguicleJ vagaries, trusting that earnestness and enthusiasm will m ake everything come ont right.
But thought docs not shape itself spontaneously. Nor will it
find its n:.tmal order without the trained and vigo rou s workin g of
the writer's !Jest calcubting powers. This is the uni1·ersal testimony of those who have achie\·ed em inence in writing. i\n cl rigid
analysis of any literary work that leaves a d e finite and rememl>erablc impress ion o n the read er's minJ reveals the invarial >lc fact of
a skillfully laid pbn; that is, it is foun<l that Loth main an<l mino r
thoughts follow one another according to natural laws of association, and bear the marks of intentional and stud ious arrangeme nt.
I. GE;'\ER AL i\1ECIIANISl\f OF TirE T'LAN-

SL~ COND .

CONSTRUCTION OF THE PLAN.

T:'l' the

261

of' dL'tcrm inin g his theme, if for this purpose he
kts a1u ly1.u l his m:1t e rial orcfully, the writ er has obtained a
tc>kr:i l>ly dc rlllite idea of the general course of hi s thought; he
i.~ :it k :1st :rn·:uc of its inclus io n J.ncl m:rnner of treatment, and
"() rn ctirncs of the m a in sLlges o f it s prog ress. As yet, however, it
rL· rn:iin s for the m os t p:nt un c hssificcl. The next step , therefore,
is to cx:1rni11c :111l· 11· th e 1·a ri o11s hints and shades of suggestion
tha t lie invuhTd in the them e, ::r nd systematize these into a plan
\} f di scomse, in 11· hi c h the a cc um ubtccl mate rial shall appear in
properly s uho rdi n:Hc<l, proportioncJ, and progressive sef1u ence.
In all th e :i.rt of compositi o n there is pe rh a ps no more frequent
sourc e of 111i s:ip p rt' hL·11siu11, on the part of young wri ters, than th is
rn:1\kr u f the j1l:111 . The structu rL' of :1 C1 11i shecl li terary work, as it
lie s ht:i'urc th L'lll f<>r pernsal. SL'Cllb so n:ttural, so in e1·it:ible, that
th e y v:1s ily .~ct thl' ide:i that it ncH·r 1\':lS made, bu t sprang mature
Imm the ~tuthur':-; !ii-:ti11, ~t s J'~tlLt :; "-J>ra ng from the urn.in of Jove.

Every writer must find his own plan, aml his own natural way
of planning ; this is as n ecessary a s that he should !ind his own
thou ght. A treatise o n invention cannot, th erefo re, legi slate for
any individu al case . It can, h o wever, point ou t those general laws
of arrangement \1·hi ch arc found to underlie ev e ry coheren t liter::try
production; laws which ca nn ot lie transgressetl without throwing the
composition into c ru ckncss and confus ion . So mu c h can be clone,
though the appli cation of them mu st lie le ft to the writer him self.

How Material, of Different Kinds, lends itself to Planning. Some kind s of mater ial fall into orde r more naturally than others,
and consecp1ently re qu ire less pains in planning, or rather require
pains in solving prolJlcms of a diffe re nt kind; for no kind o f material is exen1pl fro m the utmost carefulness in planning. As re late d
to facility of arrange m ent material may be roughly di\·id ed into
two classes.
1. Such as contains naturally suggested its own m e thod. Under
this head comes first o f all narrative rnaterial, 1 whi ch generally has
l " Considered a s an /\11thor , I !err T1"11fcls clrijc kh has o ne sc:irccly pardon a bic
fault, tloubllcss h is \\'Orst: :in :l lm os t tnt:li wa nt of :irran gc rn cnt. Tn thi s rc mark tblc Volume, it is tru e , lii s adherence to the m ere c ourse of Time prod uces, thro ug h
the Narrative p o rti o ns , :i certain ~ho\\' o f o utward rn t· th od ; but of true log ica l
meth od an d se quen ce th ere is too littlt: ." - Car lyle," Sartor 1-: .::sar lu.s ."

TllE !'I.AN.

Tl!E /'LAN.

rnerel y to follo w th e orckr of time ; then in less degree descriptive
m:iterial, wh ich , whe n it d eab \\'ith ol>jects of sight, may generally
he g ui<lcd as to rn ctlwcl by the orde r of objects in space. It is to
be noted tk1t wh ere the order sugges ts itself the difficulties of
:urange ment, released from the proble m of sequence, lie more in
problems of proportion and perspec tiv e.
. .
2 • Such as, originating in lrnrn:rn th ought, must su bm1t ibelf to
the Jaws o f thm1ght; ,,· hose method, therefore, is not so much
foll nd :is 111ll rk hv the \\Titer's log ical sense and power of perspicuous :uonge rnent. Unde r this he:id co mes expos itory, argumentati,·e, and ho rtatory material; of :ill ,,· hich the leading problem is,
how to f1nd a se11ue ncc th:i.t shall k:td the rc:i.der naturally forward
and be easiiy retained in hi s memory .
The difti c ulti es of plann in g !Jelong mostly to material of this
seco ml class. They arc simply the difficulties of finding, so to
say, co mm on ground between hunnn rnincls; tha.t is, of inventing a Jogic::d order in whi ch the autho r m_:iy be sure he has
sutTess fully consulted the thinking and retam1ng powers of lllS

The three most important of the se m:1y here be defined and exemplified.
1. The first requi:.;ite is di stinct ion.
This requi res th:1t the important thou ghts of a production be well d iscriminatnl, and th:it
they be di stingui shed from each other by expressio n wh ose st rikingncss corresponds to the sig nir1 cance of the thought so ma rke d.
By brief definitive sentences, which may be heightened Ly antith esis and epigram, the cardinal ideas should be made to stand out
from their surroundings, as landmarks in the course of th ough t,
thus keep ing the reade r aware what are to be t he principal ohj cc ts
of his attention .

2(,2

readers .
Requisites of Construction. - It would be precarions w_say th at
c,·ery co urse of th ough t has ;111 ideally !Jest orde r, to whi.ch each
indi ,·idual writer approximates more or less closely. Dr. Johnson
thinks, inde ed, tk1t the steps of a logically orde red tho ught arc
co mmonly inte rchangeable . He s:1y;;,t "Of all homogcneo1_1s
truths at lc:.ist, of all truths rL·specting the same general encl, 111
\\'h ;<ten ;r :-;c ries th ey m:1 y he produced, a conc:i.tenation by intcrrnedi:lte ideas rn:1y lie form ed, such as, \\"h en it is once shewn,
shall appe::t r n:ttural; but if this o rder be reversed, another mode
of connecti on cr1ual1y specious rn:.iy he found or made." And
ag:iin, ":\ s th e en cl of method is pe rspicuity, ~h:it series is. suffi cicnth' regular tha t :woids olisc ur1 t\· ; :1ncl wncre there 1s no
ohsc u,ri ty ..it will not be di fficult to d iscO\'er mctho~l. "
Th ere arc, h o1,·c1·cr. sn me rcqu i;;itcs of constru ct1on necessary
to keep the stages of the pl:in. h1>11·e1·er ordcrccl, from obscurity.
I

jol 111,c•11, I ,i f.- ,.f I '<1 1'c .

263

NOTE. - So me writ ers arc m o re parti c ular about this rcr1uisite than ot he r::: ;
a n d in proport ion lo their care in vhsc n·ing it is th e reade r's sati sfac ti on in
the plan and articulat io n o f their th vught. Among those who have an em inent sens<: of form in this respec t may be mentioned Macaulay and f-!.us k in .

2 . The second requisite is sequence.
This requ ires that th e
successi\·c thou g hts of a product ion should, as far :1~ possiulc , gro w
out of each othe r, each suggested and prepared for l.Jy its pre ceding , with ou t ]Jreaks ancl di sloca ti ons . The ide:1l is to make
such a thread of continuity extend through th e whole as will g ive
it so mewh at the move ment of a sto ry, with a like oln·i o u s n e~s
of cause and effect or other assoc iative affinitic's betwee n the
thoughts. Sec below, page 273 .

NOTE. - The narra t ive whi ch, t rac ing eve nts fr o m cause to e ffe ct ancl fp im
poi nt to p <> int in tim e, contains the m us t natural all(l <.:asy lll•: a n~ uf seq u•: ncc: ,
is the id eal and n o rm o f scriuc nce in C\"t.:ry di sco urse. Tht: neare r \\" C ca n
com e to such co ntinuit y of mov e ment the less the m ai n thou ghts ""ill appear
li ke a catalng ue and th e m o re li ke an o rga nism .

3 . The third requisite is cli max . This requires that the thou gh t
as it advances sho uld ri se in in te rest a nd e\'idcnt i111 port:1 nce \\"i th
each successive step, until the culmination concl.'.ntrates in itself in
some se nse the sign ifi ca nc e of :111 th:tt h:1s go ne before . Such a
requisite is involved in the idea that true disco urse is a growth.

264

THE PLAN.

71/F PLAN.

1\oTE. -The im po r ta nce of climax as a law o f style - sec preced ing, pages
105 lo 107 - is cn~ n c:-;cccdcd by its importance as a law of invention. lt is
a princip:d ckmenl in impa rt in g tu disc,,ursc 1hc q uality o f m ovement. Climax
is h rgc iy in,·u!l·cd in sc•1uc ncc . Fu r if any s ucceed in g th ought is what it is
Ly the in ll uc nn: a nd l' rcpa rati•rn ,,f th e preced in g, it takes into ibclf the d oubl e
signili cancc uf 1hc: prcct:din g an d itself, a11.J its progress is thus an ascent.

The Outline Structure, or Skeleton . - In order to preserve
due di stin c ti on, sequence, :rnd c li ma x in the thoug hts, it is orLli ·
n:i. ril y ne cessary, :i. nd :1l w:ly:0 of g re at advantage, to set them down,
state d in their m os t co nd e nse d fv rrn , in a tabub.r view, with th eir
p rogress an d sulJordinatiun inrli c:ttcd liy numerals or letters. This
fo r the writ e r' s 0 11·n a ss ista nc e in planning, not necessarily for th e
reader.
"~ s_k<: lct on ," s:1ys P rofessor P helps, 1 "is not

a thing of be:rnty;

but lt IS the thi ng whi ch, m o re th;\11 :.my Other, makes the Lody
erec t a nd stron g and swift. J uh n Quin cy Adams says that' divisio ns l>elong to the a rt of th inking .' Th ey are fundamental, then,
t o the :i.rt of utter ing thought.
T o the s:tmc p urpose is the old
Ronnn p rove r]>, Q11 i l 01c rli.1:lini.;11i1, he//(· rloat." This point is
here cm plns izc d beca use yuu ng ll'ri tc rs need to overcome the dis1ike, whi ch alm os t 11ni1·crs~tl l y t ill')' ha1·e, or a. ske leton plan in literary wo rk . Suc h an o utlin e is a n incl ispe nsa.blc auxiliary to finished
:rncl :iccmatc th o ug h t-bu ild ing . The nu kin g of it stimulates and
sh;1rpe ns me d itat ion , :rncl rnlt i1·ates the logical sense. It will probably be tim e sJ 1Td in an y litc r:uy ta sk if the young writer, whose
apt itudes in this l'l'S l'l' <·t :He in <rn 1rsc o f education, sp ends half the
time :i.t his dispvsal in constnidin g a nd recon s tru cting his outline
1

plan.
I t wo uld n o t lie of p rac ti cal sen·i ce here to recommend any
parti cular manner of ta b11 bt ing th oughts ; C\'Cry one can work
l>cst in hi s o wn h:1rn ess. \\' hatc 1·c r the form adopted, ea.ch writer
sh o uld, in planning, wo rk fo r these three q11aliti es: l. Simpli c ity th e m:tin di 1 isio ns few aml obvious, instead of
many a nd alJ:;trnsc ;

26 .~

Concise and clear-cut expression of ca.c h thought - its Ji m ·
its :mLl its central signir1 ca.nc e care fully determin ed ;
3. Proportion - the reiative rank of thoughts closely e:-;t ima.tcd,
and the pa.rt ca.c h is to play in the discourse indicated by dil'i sio ns
and suuclivisi o ns. The minutene ss of such calculation sho 11ld, of
course, be carried in the ·writer's study much farth er than would
ever ue clispbyed for the re ad e r.
2.

How far the Skeleton should be Visible in the Completed
Work. - This is a point to be d e termined pa rtly by the nature o f
the thought, and partly by the o ccasion of its presentation.
r. The more a. suLject taxes the mind, and the less oLvio us its
laws of sequence, the more c arefully m ust its steps be ma rk ed fo r
the help of the reader. Abstru se subjects, therefo re , a ncl in gen e ra l
subjects that depeml for th e ir movement o n log ical seq11e1Kcs, han:
the most ne ed of a. vi sible stru c ture, indi cated by muncrab or other
suc h devi ces.
2. Spoken di scourse has ordinarily to be ri cher in such extern a l
indi cation s of pbn th a n writte n disc ourse. The reaso n is ob1·ious :
Lecause the th o ug h t has to be made clear a nd marked enough to
be receiveLl and ret:tinecl by a single hearing.
It is to be ac knowled ge d, however, that suc h di splay of the skeleton plan, indi sp ensa ble thoug h it often is, is at the best a make shift, due to the necessit ies o f the case. If the 11Titer so plans his
subject that hi s reade r may re ceive it and ]Jc cle arly aware of it:;
progress with o ut thinking of its fram ewo rk, he has a.chi e\·cd :i.
greater suc cess. Hut to thi s e ncl th e reader m ust ]Jc sp:trul :ill
dislo ca tions ancl ab ru ptness j the turnin gs and tran siti o ns ur the
thought m ust Le easil y pe rcei\·a],Jc; and mu ch care m ust ]Jc b"i1-cn
to preparatory and in trodu c to ry thoughts. I ,c t th<:rcfu rc tlll'sc
internal indi cation s of plan Le first attended to, an cl th e n let the
external marks be used merely so far a s they arc imli;; pc ns:1.hlc .
It is of impo rta nce that headings expressin g th e same ra nk in
the th ought- wh eth e r main cli1·i sions or suhd i1·isions - should
have a similar form o i ex p ress ion; :rnd equall y, tha t th e fo rm of
expression chosen for sul;divi sio ns uiffcr from the for m chosen for

Tl I E

TllE J'LAN.

!'/./l N.

n1 :.i.i n di\'i sions . Like con st ru ct ion b etween headings l::i as importa nt as like construct io n Ln: twe cn clauses of a sen tence.
FX .\ .\ l l'IYS . :\ heading rn:1 y J,e stated either in the propositi o nal fo r m , k
cla
rat
•ll"Y,
in
tc
rr
ug:1ti 1·c, i1n1 •c r:1t i1·c , -- •H in t!i c ti1ubr form, by a word ur
1
.i.rc1s1 -. ·i·iic Jlf"Jl"s iti"nal f.,rm i,; L•un d pr c< l. >min:lntly in sermo ns.
1
'J'li c l"l lu11·i11g pbn of a sc rrn u 11 \,y U r. I lc:rri ck J ulrn so n, on l'roverl is xxiii.
23- " i;uy the truth, and sell it 1wt., - i,; a series o f affirmations : -

I. Truth custs ; it mu st lie bo ught.

IL Trnth is 11 u rtl1 :111 it c»sts .
Il I. Thuu g li truth is \\'orlh sn mu ch, it is so me times sold .
The full o \\' ing, fro m JZev . :\c11·111:rn J!all's scr111un o n "The l'e nitcnl Th ief,"
Lu te xxiii. 42, 43, ill ustrates the d iffe re nce of co nst ru ct iun between divi sions
and snlidi1·is iu11s. T he fu nn e r e 1111iluys the titubr fc> rm , the la tter, t he propositi.,11al. T he scrn1 011 thus al1nq•t ly liq;i ns: •·Thc·sl'. 11 · , ·r·l~ l1ri11g l>l'lu re us a rcrn:irk :1hk illustr:it iun Loth of a sinn er'•
l"l'j '<'11i;\l1Ce :1:1.\ of the~;\\ i1JUJ" :i grace .

f ,cl

US

Cu lt> ide r, -

l. T lie l" <'J'<'nt:111cc uf the dy ill g tli id.
1 lti1'.· in di,·atc d: 1. lle m:1nik,;tcd r c1·ncn ce tu11· ar d Cod .
2. J le ma11 ifcstcd c ontrit ion fu r sin . c1111l cu nfcsscd it.
3. I le app rec:iatcd t he goodness uf Cl1ri,;l.
4 . Ile l•ore pulJ li c \Yitness tu Ch ri st.
5. l lc m a nife s ted s tr o ng fait h.
(, . ] le p ra ye d.
7. I l e exliil, itc•l zcaluns c o n ce ri1 l11 r o th e rs.

1 l. Th e

~a l' i ou 1"s

g ra ce .
l l uw ,,J11>11· n in liis pr<>mise : -

1.

'l'h c nrP1ni~c llf j c:'us rt ·fcr rl.'d 111 1il:\ct:- ' in pa ra d i ~ c. '

2.

Th e ;) ru 111ise ul Je s us . related! <• crnn p:rni o nsh ip - 'll'ith me.'

3. Th e p ro1ni sc of Jesus reb tcd tu t i111e - '!1J- da y.' "
Tn cas es wh ere the theme is n u l e xp ressed , tlie he ad ings arc either left nn·
marked o r a rc indi c:a led liy a mere numera l.

11 . TIIE TlrnEE F U \'D ,\\lF \'T.\L ELE\lE\'TS Of TH E PLAN.

These, whi('h in some fo rm and proporti on mu st appear in every
lite rary work, a rc the i11troduct iun, th e d c n.~ l op rncnt , and the con·
clusio n . E ach or these re qu ire s SO I1ll' detailed discuss ion.

267

I.

The Introduction. - The introduction comprises whatever is
necessary to make prouer approac h to the the me.
Nun:. - T he natura l place to state the th e m e, th ere fo r e, wh en it is ex p ressed , is at t he encl o f the int roducti o n. This is e xe m plified in the r1uut a ti o n from Dr. Bush nell o n page 25 3, ll'h ere the introdu ct io n leads U{' to :11"!
culmin:llcs in a pr op1Jsition. Sumet imes to th e stateme nt of the theml'. the re
is adcll'. cl a 11rid in d ica ti o n o f Lhe p la n, b ut o nly uf its leading h eads.

Rationale of the Introduction.- The fundam ental object of the
introdu ctio n is to c:.i.il in the subjec t from th e va rious su rroundings
a nd assoc iations extrane o us to th e present treatment and co nce ntrate
it on a si ngle p oi nt, wh ich point is the m a in id ea of the productio n.
Or, to put it in othe r ll"Ords, the in troduc tio n is to furni sh suc h
preliminary informat io n as is nccclecl to put the reader in possess io n
of the subj ec t, the poi11t of vi ell", a nd the manner of the treatment.
This objec t may requ ire diffe rent procedures, ::icconling to the
type of d iscourse .
1. ·w hen the type of di scourse is m e rely intellec tual o r didacti c ,
that is, wh e n the wr iter's object is to in fo rm, instru c t, o r con\' ince,
it is generally suffi cie nt for the introduction to defi ne the setlt'ng of
the theme: in tim e, if the wo rk is hi sto ri cal; in space, if cksc ri ptive; in some syste m of ideas, if expository. It enters the general
region of fac t o r thought to which th e work belongs, and <.k terrnines
as phinly a nd di rec tly as possilJlc a partic ular po int or section, to
whi ch p rese nt attent io n is to ]Jc dire c ted.
EXAMl'l.ES. 1. T hi s primary ohj cc t o f the intro ducti o n is well illustra ted in
th e int rod u c ti o n to Cii!bon's l li sl o ry o f th e D ecl in e an d Fall o f Lhc l\. orn an
E m p ir e , th e op e nin g p:1rag raph o f whi ch is as fol lo ws: "In th e seco nd ce ntury u f th e C hri s tian E ra, the e mpir e o f R ome compreh end ed t h e fair est p:1 rl o f the earth, ~nd the rn ost civ ili zc cl p o r tio n of m a n kind . Th e fr o n ti e rs of that ex tcn si l' c m o narchy were gua rded by an c ient
re nown and disc ip line.! 1·aio r. The gentle but powe rfu l in flu e nce of la11·s a nd
m a nn e rs h a d gra du:ill y ce m ent ed the uni o n of the p ro1· inces. Th e ir pe acefu l
i nh:1bi tants cnjuyetl an,] al iusc1l the a th a nt:lgcs o f wea!Lh and l uxury . The

image of a frel'. constitution was p rese rv ed with decc11t reveren ce; the l\o m an

Tl!E PLAN.

TJJE FLI N.
,;•:n atc appe a red to possc:ss th e s o verei g n aut h •)r ity, anti devolved on th e
empero rs all the ex t:c u ti,·c }'O\\·t:rs uf g o ,·crnmc11t. lJuring a happy periou o f
111u rc than f1n 1rsc:<> rc yL·:u ~, the puJ,]i c administrati<in \\' J.s conducted by th e
' irt u e :lll d aliilitic:s uf \" c n ·a, Traj an, I la dria11 , :1 11d the two Antonincs. lt i
t li c lksign u f tl1i s :rnd of the: t\\·u s 11 cce cd ill g c ha l'll' r~, l<> descr ib e the prosperou
,· .. nditiun 1>f their c m p irL· ; and aftc r\\'ar ds, fr o m th e death o f J\larcus 1\n tuni11u:;, l•i d ed u ce the m ost im portallt cir c umstan ces uf it s decline and fall; o.
rc \'u lu<io11 which will cH:r bt: remembered , and is still fe lt by the nations of
1\ 1<.: e:nth ."
:\ \\"\>rk so compr e hen~ivc as a g rea t h is tory requi res a correspo nclingly
t:r eal i11:roduct io n; three ch ap te rs :i.rc n eed ed in th is to give the proper sclri ng of th e them e, prcpa ral <>ry tu tra c in g o ut th e di s tin cti ve path of the work.
2 . S nmet im es tl:c sell ing m u>t ll cCdt:d fu r t he the me rehtes to such questiu ns as ma nner o f p resc 11t treatment or stale o f the subject. Thus in an
'ss ay hy F. \\'. lf. :'liyers 0 11 "(;reek Oracles,'' the introduction of which com1·riscs c le.- c n par:i.g ra p hs, th e fi rs t nin e ma k c a so mewh:i.t elaborate approach,
l ~irgciy uf this ch a r:t ctcr , to the fnll o \\'i ng theme : "I Jia,·c in this E ss ay e n, le:is o rcd lo tra ce, - by sug gest ion rath er than in
·k t ail, bu t'' it h co nstan t refer ence to the res ults of recen t science,-thc clevclop111e11 t a HI career in Crccc:e o f o ne re mar kable class of rel ig ious phenomena
11 l1i..: h ad 1aits to s1nn e e~tcnt of ~ e parate tn.:atment."
Tht: remaining two paragraphs the n sketch the p lan of treatment propose<.!
.11 th e essay wi th a di vi si o n into l\\'O hist o ri cal period s .

\\' he n, however, the discourse contai ns an emotional element,
fo r instance in oratory or wo rks of sentiment, the introdtlction
us son1(.:t imcs, tho ugh not al ways, to seek more objects than this.
In :tdditi on to making a setting for the theme, it may have also to
1nm sc interes t, ov<.:rcorne prejudi ce, ::u1<1 the like . Cicero's definii•ll l n1n.:rs such cases. IIe says the introd ucti on (and he refers to
li e oratorical introduct ion) has for object, 2.

1-;

"Re ddc rc :i.udi to res bencvolos, a ttcntos, dociles," -

make the hcarcrs well -disposed ; that is, by securing good-will toward
he spe.:ikcr. Ancient o ra to rs usc<.l to speak much of themselves,
11 cl a personal introduction of this kind was considered very impor1 nt; but in mod e rn times it is in less favor, being accounted
1l'cessary only in cxccption:.il cases.
•l

i~cn c volos ,

269

Attentos, attentive; that is, by rousing interest in the subjcctmattc r. Special im-cntivc tact is needed in nuking approach to a
subject that is wo rn and commo n, or that is ge neral ly accounted
dry; so me prclitnin::iry energy must be employed in ga inin g a hearing, and d ispelling imliffcrcncc.
Dociks, teach:ililc; that is, hy overcomi ng prej uJicc and opposition; wh en, for instance , the subject is unpo pular, or finJs the
hearers already possessed of an uppusi te view. Before actual advan ce can ]Jc m ade wi th the discourse they must be brought tu
listen candiJJy.
Ex,\~t1 ·1.i-:s . - r. Some \\"Orcls int ended to make the h ear e rs \\"ell-di sp osed
towar d tlt c Sj'eak e r arc f<> u11d in the i11truductiu11 tu \\'cbstcr's spccclt <in The

1!ur,J er uf Capl~tin J u ~eph W hile: " r arn lilllc ac c nslomcd, Ccntlcrnen, to th e part whi ch T a m now attempt·
ing l<> l'erf"rm. I fardly more th a n once or l\\'ice ha s it happe n ed \,) m e l<>
be eo 11 cerncd un the side 1)f th e guvc rnrn c·n t in a ny criminal ]'r<Jsen1liun "halcvcr; and ne\·e r, until th e present occ:i.sic111, in any case affecting life. Hut I
ve ry 1nu..:h regret that it shuuld ltavc ln: e11 th•iught necessa ry lu suggL,,\ t" yo u
that I. am Lr<>ught here tu ' lturry Y"U against the Ln1· and i>eyund th e evidence .'
l hu1,c T lt av c tu u mu ch regard f.,r ju~ti c e, a n d tuo mu c h rcs l' ec t fur 111y "'" 11
characte r, tu attempt either; a n d were I tu m ake such attempt, I am s11rc thal
in this cuurl 1wthing L·a 11 lie carried aga inst the law, and that gc nllemc11 ,
intelli gent and j 11st as you arc, arc nut, b y any po\\"er, tu be hurried beyond the
evidence ." Lt..:_
2. Th e open in g uf :'llr. Frnudc's lectu re o n The Scien ce of I [isl v ry il lu s·
trat es lt iJ\I", ],ya fa1niliar and cull<>•p1ial s tyle, attcnli011 and in terest arc secured
for a ra lltn f<>rlii.\.\i11g sul•jcct: " f.AIJI 1-:s A :\ 1, L 1·::-. r1.i-:~1 EN, I have undertaken l<> speak tu you tltis evenin g u 11 wha t is calle d the ~cicncc of l list o ry. r fear it is a dry subject ; an <!
th e re seems, indeed, sumcth ing in congruous in the very con ne ction o f su c h
w o rds as ~cie n ce an d I I islLi ry. It is as if we we re to , talk uf th c cu lu r uf
sound, or the l\Jng itudc uf the Ruk-uf-th rce . \\'h ere it is so di!T1cull to rna\..: e
out the truth on the co1nrnonest disputed fa ct in matters pass in g under Lrnr
very eyes, h ow ca n \\·c talk of a sc ie n ce in things I.mg p ast \\'hich cumc lo us
on ly through h o oks? It "ftcn seems to me :i.s if llist <>ry was like a cltild's
box o f le tte rs witlt w hi ch \\'c ca n spe ll any word we please. \ Ve l1 ave on ly to
pick ou t such Idlers a s we want, arrange th e m as we li kt:, and say n oth in ~
abo ut those which d 1> nut snit our purpusc. I will try tu make.: the tl1ing intd

·.o

TllF !'LI. \ '.

TJIE f'l...t /11.

l•• :iLk, an d T \•: ill t ry not to weary you ; ln1t T am doubtful of my success
·i tl1c r

\\.:l.\' .

11

E~c.

_;. :\ g-.1nd example 11 f the intrudu ctiun co nc ilia to ry, d es igned an d adapt ed
' ,'sec u re a ca ndid h earing lo a s u l•j<.: ct th a t is li ke ly to o ffe ncl, is found in the
·1 •,·11 in g .. i ~l. l'aurs s1><.:n:h at :\t h ens: 1 -

I lichuld lJcar w itness to you r
F 1> r as I p:iss<.:d thro ug h yo ur city and beh eld the

271

or il!nstr:tti on, some cp 1otatio11 o r fi gure of spccrh, and less clirc(' tly,
with mention o f c ircu mst:in ccs anrl occasion. - de,·iccs whi ch ,
rightly used, arc intent Ier I to cm 1JOt Iy or s u tircr<:>c.·st, in concrete form,
the princ iple under discu ssion .

"\'1 -: \ 11.. :-; <>F :\1111 ::-;s : :\!l thint.;s \\'hi c h

1r1·f1d11c·ss i11 reli;,.:i <•n .

·! •it'cts of ;·unr \1·urship, l foun d amongst t h em :rn altar with this inscription, '[ .. J

T l i I·:

l.: :-;K :-.-011·:-;

C u n.

.\.l 1\l111. thcrcf<> r c, ye "·urship, tho ugh ye kno w 1 I im not, Him declare I unto
1>t l.

,.

The fo rm al introdu ctio n is ind eed someti mes omitted; but
1·he n this is the c1S1,_', there is ge nerall y :-,ome thing in the occasion
h e! ( 11·h ich furnishes in troduction to the the me.
The subject
1i.1y k1 1·c hccn OJ>cne d by a pri..'l'i\)llS speaker, or it may he so
" 11cr;il :t topi" uf di s,·11s"it111 that the p11hl ic an.: already in possesi1111 of the :1ppru:tclws to it ; :rnd :is to interest, it may be so ne:ir
iiL' hea rts and live, ol the people t. kt t :rny fo rmal attempt to
rnu 11d a nd j1 1stif) it wo uld be supe rfl nous. In suc h cases th e
1trucl 1w ti nn i" :1lreJ.(h· made.
1

Form and Style of the Introduction. -The suggestio ns gi1·en
11• ic r thi " lll'ail must of 11 1,_·cess ity lie so mell'hat general.
The rcbtion hct11-cL·n the i11 trod 11c tion :111d th e development may
i :1 sC'lbc he rL",c;:1 rded :1-; a relation of co ntrast; the contrast,
11 11ely, lictll'een the :,:eneral and the p:trticuhr, be tween the aL!.1d :11l! I the C<.>Il crl'tc . l>ctwec n wh:1 t is new and what is well
111 i11·1i.
For i11 st:11 wv . \\'hen the d iscomsc deals wi th concrete,
:1rt in 1hr faus, the intrc 1d 1wti o n natnr:illy see ks so me general set11.~~ for the m. or su111'.· 1:1 rge r reF ion of tho ught to which all the
,, h are r1,_·latcc! :is p.irh o r L' .\L'mp lific:it io ns.
J\ncl aga in, wh ·n
w di ,;<'<111 r,;e de:ds ll'ith a ;.;en cr:il truth, the in trodu ction often
-,· ks :1S sl:1rtin;.;-poi11l "on 1e partin1br :ippl ic:1 tion of it; and thi;;
1l'S risL" l1 J tie t'rc. 111L·:1t pr:ir:t icc of starling with some incident
I :\ ch x1·ii . ~ 2 . 23 . T IJr :1li01·c is C n 11\'l>P~n· ~ncl IIow so n's translation, g-i vr n
, ,. ill:c:111'c: it represen ts m ore tru ly tha n d ues the Au thorized Ve rsi on the courl <·sy
tl1e ~ptt<.:IJ .

EXAMPT.F.. _At th e beginning of :\T r. Lowell 's essay" On a Certa in Conde . n 111
· .1.·, i rc·1,,11
sce ns 1o
,., ..
~ 1·s " •an in c ident and S<Jmc disc ursi1·e re marks sc <:m •t<J
approac h t h t: them e fr u m a \·c ry rem ote point; st ill \l'C fi nd that all has 1 ts

office.
,
' [' 11 . author he"i ns lJ1· d esc ribing a s u mmer c1·ening \\'al k that he t uoK s<11o11
t; '
.....
~
l after the c ii·il ll'ar had e nd ed ; .luring \l'l1ic h \\'alk his m e d it~ti ons c~ ntre • 1n
the th o ug ht that our count ry, ll'i th its qu iet scenes, ih h e ru ic m e ~, its y11u11g
. . · t .10' 1L,
s 1· .s ·-a<.,, \l'< irthv. o f its c hildre n's hn·e a s arc u ldc.: r cou n. tries .. I \ h 1k
assoua
thus musing, ]1e is intcrruJ>tCd J,y a 1· u icc in q uiring in C<.:rman if ht: is" I !err
· a ('•l'rman 1Jcg;._.'a r, ll'h•J k1s
Professo r D1)C tn r Su-and-S11." Th e sp c:i. k·e r 1s
track ed liiin out in urder tn sul ic it m<•ney. I !is r e11u cst is r<.:fuscd, \\'h c r~'up 11 11
he launch es int" a supcr c ili1111s c riti c ism l)f Ameri ca and Am e rica n :i.ffa1rs, :-" ,, tli'L: " c·c· rt « 1'11 Cl> ll lil's- cc nsi o n" whi c h is the subject of t l>e
t !1US excm11 l ·r
I ;111,.,
0

essay .
.
.
.
.
, 1; ._
This intro ductio n, \\'h1 c h a cco rds m style \\'1 th the co nv c rsat1 u n:i 1 an < ,•.~
cursive
•
c J1ara c lcr o f tl1c css:iv
.. , _, co nt r ibut es sc1·cr:ll "alual>k suggest i1•ns tu t!:<.:
th o ught : ._ .
a. Th e \\'h ole furnishes a conc rete c xcmphlicall o n <>f th e ge neral fa ct \lll iln

d isc ussi ,m .
.
u. Th e nH.: ndic an cy o f Lhe Ccrm a n is a line satire <)11 his prcs u1 '.1pl1\\n in sct .
Jlllll~
·
in gc n e ra l u n the real <1uald1ca t1 u ns uf th <1sc
ling
t.: lf up a
~:....· .a e riti c , ·111d
'
wh,, a rc so apt l•> he c1lll1kscc nding.
c. Th e thnu gh t, embodied in t he auth o r's m <.:d itatinn, of _lww mu ch (.'ur
h01nc an< I cou n try 1· ~. 11·1>r th , is. Yalt1:t
·
· l1lc as a liac k g r•Ju111! and 1J!rsct to the cril 1cisn1s that cu nd c.:sccnding f11 reig11 c rs m :ikc.
J\11 this sho11·s th :i. t the ll' h .,l e, th o ugh seemi ngly <)ltilc un g uided and digressi ve, reall y C<>tllril rnt<.:s in cn: ry p:irt (u nkss 11·c CXCl'l' l th e fn urth paragraph)
direc tly to the better understa n d ing an d rc ali1.ati• Jll .,f the th e me .

In plJ.nning the introd uctio n the most prevalent error, perhaps,
is the tendency to Gegin the approach from too re mo te a point.
and thu s make the in troduction too lon g and indirect. It w;ll 1'.ot
do to in ilt ide all that is interesting. o r c1·cn pertinent; the inq\ll ry
mu st rathe r be res trict ed rigorously to wh:1t is indi~pcnsa hlc .

2i3

2i2
l\'oTE. - \\" ash i11g t1111 In·ing sali ri1.cs such lon g an d roun d about introdoc·
t ions b y b cgi nni11 g his Kn icke r boc k e r 's I l isto ry l>f ;\cw York w it h the crcati <m
l •f th e w o rl d . 1\11 d t h e n al the end o f th is cbhura tc int rod uct io n h e thus irn·
pli es i t;; useless ness: " l ~ llt h o ld; l1 e f11 rc J p r11cced a nnt h cr S! C'p , l llllls l pallse lo tak e b reath, and
l" <'Cn \' c r frum the exn"''iH: f:l ti g ll e l h a1·e 1111 1k rg n n c, in pre paring to l1egin
t hi s m ost a cc urat e uf histl1r ics . 1\ n d in this l d o hu t imit ate th e exam ple of n
rc111>11·ncr l Du k h tu111 lilc r u f a11 t i 1 1u it ~·, w h" t11o k a st:i.rt o f three mi ks fur the
purpus c u f j 11 mpi11g n1·c r a hi ll, h u t ha1· ing run himse lf out o f b rea th hy the
time he r ea ched t he f·H>l , sat himself r1u ict ly do w n fo r a fe w m om ents to hi iw,
a n.J then wal k ed ul'er it al hi s lei su re ."

Tho llg h the introduc ti o n o r a work is to he written fi rst, according to its sugges ted o rder, the p la nning or it co mes m o re naturally
:1fter a ckftnitc id ea is o btained of \1·h:t t th e p roc!tlcti on is to in clu(lc :rn d h o w it is to b e d 1..·\·el o p cd . " The last thi ng tha t we
find in nu ki ng a boo k ," says Jl;iscal , " is to know wh at we must
p u t Ji rs t."
/\s l\) s tyle, th e in t roduc ti o n sho tdd a im m e rely a t plainness am!
d irec t ness. It is no t the pbc:e fo r p re ten ti ous or impass io ned lang u;i g e; it should s t:ut rathe r o n t he subdued a nd un ass uming
ph ne \\' here th e reader or hc:n c r can b eg in and keep p<1cc wi th it.
1t can lie simple a n d p b in, '1.nil :i t t he sa me t ime a rou se interes t
;i nd a nt ic ipa t io n : thi s is its id e:1L E xce p tio ns to this simple char:1c te r must lJc found in excq1ti ona l c irc umstances.

l I.

The Development. - \\"h a t the i11tro clu c t io 11 has callc(1 in from
its ge neral sm ro t111 t!i ngs :rn d <·u nc en l r:tled o n a s ingle po in t o r
t hc m1..', it i::; n o w the IHts inc ss of the de\·clCJp m e nt, o r !Jody of the
disco urse , t o separa t ' into its compo nen t pa rts, a nd fo llow out
into the \·ari ou s asp1..·cts a nd sl:1gcs necessa ry to p resen t t reatment.
The sugs-est io ns of t he the m e :ire to he e xa mined a ne w and classifi e d in a eo n t inu o ll s a n d p rog re"s i\T co urse o f t ho ugh t.
( lf co urse we c;:rnn o t i11\'ad e th e writer's individu al ways and
~1pt i t wk s hy hying d<J\\' ll nik ' f\) r tk \'\.: l<>p in g the resources of a ny

par t icular them e o r class of themes. W e must confine ou rselves
to no tin g ge neral p roced ures a nd th e ir effects, leaving t he rest to
th e writer' s c h o ice . An d these ge ne ral proce dures sugges t t he msel ves as th e an s\\'Cr t o two ma in qncstio ns h e re a ri s ing : how to
give ideas suc h ,r;r o11j>i11g as shall make the m cohere in th e reade r's
mind aml m e m o ry; an <l h ow to g ive th e m suc h 111oveme11 t as shall
make th em wo rk a d es ired effe ct.
1. Grouping. -Laws of Association. - It is th e reade r's me mory, m ost o f al l, that we a re to con sult: in de\·clop ing the t ho ughts
that com pose our theme we arc to c h oose such n a tural and scctuen t
o rder as shall lie co m -cnient fo r hi m to rc.:t1in and recall. W h a t
thi s o rde r is we m ay best asce rtain by n o tin g t he laws ::iccorcling
to whi c h we o urseh·es reca ll id eas . There are su c h laws, the so call ed laws o f ::issoc iation ; that is, c erta in prin c ip les of g ro uping ,
natural to e ve ry mind's wo rkin g , by whi c h one id ea of a tra in h;:i,s
the p o we r, wh e n recall ed , o f brin g in g with it th e res t.
P syc h ologists n o te three ge n e ra l ways in whi ch fac ts and ide;:i,s,
coh e ring in o ne mind , may m os t n a turally b e made to coh e re in
anoth e r.
1. By t he law of cont ig u ity.
T hat is, we may coun t o n t he cohere nc e of id eas tint lie n a turally next to eac h othe r, in sp ace, or
in time , or in a co ntinu o us syste m o f tho ug ht. Th us, for in stan ce,
in re mem be ring a nd so in imagi nin g a. landscape, the mind tra vels
spontaneo usly fro m p oin t to point of its general features, - d istanc e, middl e di sta nce, fo regro u nd . In like m anne r with the in c idents m ak in g t1 p a n e ve nt o r a hi sto ry ; sometim es one so n:itt1 rally sugges ts its ne ig h bo r th at mu c h of t h e whole can b e taken
fo r g ra nted . Ol ivi o usly a hrg e proporti o n o f t he na rra t i\·c; and
dcscripti \·e fa c ts ll'i th whi c h the wr ite r h as to <lea! m ust be group ed
simply a cco rd ing to t hei r co nt ig uity.
E XAMl' LES. - A l>iogr:il'h ical essay nws t n atu rally groups its fa c ts on th e
prin cip le o f C<J nt igu ity, e,·cnts fu ll o \\"i ng eac h oth e r in ord e r o f tim e. T hus
Carl yle 's c~ s a y 1l n " Co un t C agli ostro " ; in th e ea rl y part u f ll"hi ch, th o ug h
h is hi s to ri c mat cri rrls rrrc Yc ry scant y, tl1 c aut h" r clr::t\\"S on hi s im aginati o n , by
ohsenin g th e u rd e r uf tli i11 g s n a turall y pr c d ;cat ed uf chil dho ocl - I nfa n cy,

'lJf/;. l 'L1N.

TJIE FLAN.

ll"yi1<•n<i, :->chonlin.::;, Firs t lnlro cl11c ii o n to lhc \\"orlrl , etc. llit·111 ln t he kn u11·n nati,-c character .,f t he subject.

ancl appl y in~

:'>Tac:1ulay f.,JJ ,n1·s the s::unc principle in the m:. i n d ivisions of his essay o n
"JJistory," and in the sul"\i,· isi o ns of Jiis first main division ; thus: -

275

approac hin g in Trclan <l in tl1c lh ck an.J J,J.i0< ly cl ia ra c tcrs o f t h e Am nion
war "; and it \\·ill he olisc n ·cd that n o t o n ly is t he seco nd main d ivisi o n ma de:
car efull y sim ila r to the first, b ut th e o r de r and subjects o f the subrJi,·is iLJ ns arc
st udious ly parallel.

T. Characterist ics o f An c ient l !i ;;Lorical Co mposition .
If. C l1ara c •cri st ics of :'ll• Hk rn 1listu ri cal C on1positio n.

2.

Th e cl osc o f Thackeray 's lectu re on Ceo rgc IV. co ntains a st r iking

e xam ple of co n t ra s t empl oyed to de1·elop a th ough t.

.\nrl ])('cause these m:.in di,·:sions :ire the t ll' n gre:it stages in th e gcnnnl

datin g fr o m the same m o nth and year arc g i1-c n:

Two cnntrast cd sec n<.:s
t he ope ning of Carkl <1 11

'l1 <'n1c that " his t•in· begins in n< nTl an d e n d s in essay ," his plan, trac in g th•

H o use liy l ' r in ce C c1Jrgc, and th e rcsignati<rn o f hi s co mmi ssiL) ll by Ccncr a l

)'. r:tdu al c \·o lu t i, ,n <>f h ist• •ri,:a l cump<isiti <rn fr o m o ne o f th ese extrem es l<> th e

George \\'ashinc:tu n; \1·h c r c upon the \niter asks : -

• •thc r, is in

the m a in clirunol.ig ica l:

I fern, lot us, Thucyd ides, X c nop h n n,

l '. 1lyl 1ius. l"lut :irch , I .ii-;-, C:t·sar, T ac it us, e tc.
lhe rcfn rc , is ennti guity in time .

Th e c hi e f prin c iple o f g ro u pin ~ ,

" \Vh ic h ll'as th e m ost spl e n d id s pectacl e eve r ll i tn essed; -

the o pe ning

feast o f T'r i n c c Ct:o rg c in I .o nd o n, or the r c:s ignat i"n nf \\' ashingto n?
is the n u lilc c haract er for after agt:s lo admi re ; -

an d span gles, o r yo nde r h cro ll' h o shcath<.:s his s <1· o rd aflt: r a li fe uf

Hy the law o f simihrity ::ind cont r::ist.

That is, we may
n1unt \>11 the cohe ren ce u f facts :111d ide as that are alike, or that
::re in striking co ntrast, 11·hc n gronpcd togethe r. Thus, fo r inc.t:rncc, one ch:iractcr in hi story, o r c harac teristic event, natm:11ly
;..1 1.:.:-sc~ts ih like o r co ntr::ist in some other period or country. This
l.111· underlies the ll' illllc 11·o rk of il lust r::ition, ancl accordingly is
tntJ('h ohsern~ tl in c.\positi o n and in p o pular appeal.
2.

Lx .1:-1 1·1,1.:s . -

I.

:\ n i nsta n ce o f a t h()ught d e vclupcll o n the p rin c ipk of

:111ilari1,· (>Cu11-s in J:m k c's Spl'l.:cl < tn the Lk c tnrs "f B rist o l.

Jfc th us p lnn ~

l:i,; <kfcnsc of Iii,.; cn nduct in ans \\·(:r tu the second c harge against him .
" Tt h:, s b e e n sa id , an d i t is th c seco n d ch arge , th a t in the qu est io ns (1f th e
I ri,Ji trade I did no~ euns ult the i.11t eres t l'f my c<rnstituc n ts , -

o r, to s peak o ut

'· lr1111gh-, I hat l rathl'r acte d as a 11ati1·c o f Trebnd tl1an as a n English

«f l'a rlianH:nt."

mcrn licr

( l'hn •) f the a11s 1\'l:r): -

\ \"hi ch

yo n fr iJ, lik dancing in la ce
~p•>t lcss

hono r, a pur ity nnr cprnachc:d , a courag e i11.J u rn it1l1lc, and a c•Jnsu mmat c ,-ictory?

\\'h ich of t hese is th e true gen tlem an ?"

(The se nte nces imm ediately

su cceeding arc quoted o n page 98.)

3. By the bw of cause and effect. That is, we can count on
the coherenc e o f any l\1·0 facts when wt: c::i n show tha t une is the
cause of th e other. .No imp ulse in thought is mo re spontaneous
than the impulse to in c1uire ::iftcr c:\uses and conse(juences. Jn
philosophi cal his to ry, in a rg um e nt, a nd in some form s of e :xpo~ i­
tion, th is p rin c iple o f group ing is very C.\tc nsivcly empl oyed . It
is the m ost intimate wa.y in "·hich id eas may be associated, and
hence is m uch depended o n in abs truse material whose sequence,
being logi cal, is harcl to fo llow.
Ex ,1l\1t' l.Jo:S. -

1. T o pmtray a prin ciple or a stat e o f th i n g s, a nd then t race

its cause, was a fr cq u <.: nt m c thnd of F. \V. J-:.ulin ts1J n\ in plannin g his s <:rm•J ns.

1. :'lfy cundlll:t i n t he lri s h 111allcr itse lf.
1.

Fnr ex am 11k, a sc rnrnn, " The 1:aith o f th<.: Ce n turion," o n th e text ;\l::ttt. v iii.

~

10 , is thus pla nn ed : -

Tm, ; tu 111y im·ar i:liilc i'rincirlc, I a<hoca lcd co n cili :llion.
( '() n ci li :\lory J><>li ,· y r<jc c ll'd l1y th<.: English . Ser;u cl- Iri sh demands
and l·: n.:...:lisli di..,.gr:\l·cf11 l cn 1H ·csc:. iun~ .
3· Cn11.Jud tl1at ,.;u,·h a 'talc o f affairs dclll :i. ndcd .
TT. C<lrnparc d " ·ith m y li ke co n duct in cnn n e cl in n with the Am erican war.
l.

T(l\\':lrd :\ mui c a alsn

2.

(

r a rh\>Calcd

C(>n L: i\iat io n.

\)J) c ili :1 1i n 11 li kc ll'i sc r <·jn:t<.:d lry the F n g lish .

T. T h<.: faith ll'hi e h ll'as co mme nd ed.
IL T he ca us es of the co mmc n ,Jat io n .
So aga in in a se rm o n o n" \\" u rldliness," o n t he text

1

J uhn

11.

15- 17, the main

poi n ts o f th e devel op m e nt arc: Sequel -

American

I. The na tu r e o f t h e forl,idd e n world.
11. The r cas•rn fo r whi c h it is fo rbi dde n.

sc(l\'Jl a1Hl English d is.L'. r:i. ccfni l' r" JH'l sals o f co ncessio n.
3- :'lly c o n d 11 ct in s u c h a s tale o f a11 ·,1irs ,·indicated .
Th •' :ii:n o f tlii s sccu 11d h alf o f the defense "'as avowed ly " to r ead what wa~

2.

Ruskin's lec tur e on " T h e Det e ri orat ive l '\111·e r of C(> llY <.:nt i1ltlal A rt o ,·cr

Nations," is, a s the title indi ca te s, bu ilt o n tlic prin c ipk o f cause and effect,

-

-

-- --

___ ___
...,

-

1 '/IE J' I ..

-- -- -- -· -I.\~

T 111:· /'I.AN.

co111 l1i11c.l 11 ith contr:i.si ; its purpose lic:ing to dr:iw the effects of con venti onal
:1 rt, :i.nd contr:ist the effects of lwnes t :i.rt.

()f c<,1 1rsl' thcsL' l:l11·s or :i sso ri :Hion m:i.y he combined in many
11·:1ys, e1·L·11 in the s:1 111l: wo rk . The rn:1i11 cli1·isions may follow one
l.1w. suliili 1·i"iu11s another. \\" hilc the n:iture of the material rn :iy
011,.,e one :,.;rn upin~ principle to pred vrninatc, o thers may occa"it>1u1!y lie l'l11pl\lyl'il, Jiir distin cti on, or for variety, or fo r a more
"l·:1r< liin .~ l' re-;ent;1tion uf tlic ide:i. Tints in the application and
<li1·ns ilic:1tiu11 o f thl'"e h 11·s the writer has the utmost freedom· but
he h:1s 1w frced<llll ti> disc:1rd them :1ltog<:the r. U nless some' law
of :1 ~;s cwi : 1ti()11 c:111 l•e clc:i rl y tr:1ced, the construction seems arbi tu ry and crnde, nut l>eing confo rm ed tu the natural working of
the mind.

2. Movement . -Two Orders of Thought-Building. - Indc pl·n<kntly of thl· principles l•y 11· hit·h id eas arc assoc iated, there
:tre t11·0 contrasted orders in which :i strnctmc of thought may be
buil t, which, to gi1·c narne,; indi<·ati 1·e or th eir character, we may
call the o rd er of i111·c:; tigatio n :rnd the 1lrder of enforcement.
1 . The ord a of i:ll·estigation, ot herwise called the inductive
orde r, is somewhat :i.nalogolls to the su~pendcd or periodic sentence. That is, ]Jcginn ing 11·ith the state ment of individual facts
o r truth s . it gr:1dually e1·oh·es from the grouping and cbssification
of these a ge ncr:tl conr:lihion gi 1·i11g the sign ifi can<'c of the wh ole .
Th11s it w1lrks frorn p:1 1ti<'lll:irs to g ·nerals, fro m fads to princip lcg,
frnm ll'h :1 t i:; k1HJ11·n and a<'knuwkd ge d to what is unknown and

with a fe eli ng, whi ch yon arc not :tlrcady prepared to acc ept, it is
obvious that the most e ffec tive meth od is the induct ive, 11·h ich
leads your mind upon a culminating wave of evidence or emotion
to the ve ry p(Jint I J.irn at."
The di fficulty of th is order is that, like th e periodic sentence, it
co mp<.:ls more attent io n :i.nd gre:i.tc r etfo rt of the memory to hold
fa cts wh o~c significance a nd ~ipplicati(Jn arc not yet appa rent. Jn
usin g it, therefore, the wr ite r should work with th is diffirn lty in
mind , and see k as far as may l>e to foster such expe cta ncy as will
enable the reade r to overcome it.
ExA~ll'l.F.-J\n intcr c:s ti ng exa m ple o f this order occ urs in Lhe m iddle of
i\ L1 c:iu l:iy 's c:ss:iy •lll I I istu ry, ll'hc:r c , :iftc:r h:ivi ng assertc:d Lhat mo dern hist o ·
ri ans far surpass the ::in cic: nts in the phil•>suphy uf h is tory , an a sse rti o n which
li e ckfc:n 1b ::J I sumc length , he thus i1111uin:s after the cause : "Tll wh:'tt is this ch:inge to he attril1utc:d? l'a rtl y, n o douJ.1. tu th e discu\'ery uf printing, a disco 1·ery whi ch has not only diffused kn"" ledge wi•k l;-,
hut, :is we h :ivc alr eady olise rved, has :ilso in tru.Iu..:ed into rc<lso nin g a prc cis ill n unknuwn in th use ancien t comm unitic:s, in wh ich in format ion I \ as , f11 r
the m os t par t, c1•n 1·t.:yed o r:ill y. Ther e was, we sus1H: ct, an o thc:r causl', lc;s
obvious, hut still m un: p o ll'erful."
Wh::it th is c::i us<.: w::i s, h ow ever, d oes not beco me apparent fo r nine para.graphs, th e intc:n·c ning space l> c in g d e vo ted to deta il ing th e fa c ts th :it go to
make it int c lligi lik . Th e following pl:in o f those pa ragraphs will sho w this
indu cti1·t.: stru cture : -

I. The spi rit of an c ie nt na tiu ns w:is exclus ive.
{ " . T he ( ;rc:cks ca red o n! )' fo r th e msch·es.
.
1. I · :icls :
/1. The h:t>111ans car ed only f., r th c nisd\'cS a nd th e ( ;rn· k~.

:~o ught .

Fff" ct .

The :Hh-:111 tage of thi s order is that it gi1·cs the evidence before
it <lr:1 11·s the co11cl11 c; io n ; so tlut the cunclusion, wh en it comes, is
al ready ~ul>o.Unti:ttcd .
Thi s fact suggc,., ts the ki nd of truths to
which the i11d 1wt i1·l· o rd er is hest adapted; namel y, truth s new and
str:rn,:.;e, () r tru ths th:1t. lll l' rely as;;ertccl :i.nd not proved, would
rouse dn11ht :rnd 011p11s iti un . "If my (iiJject, " says George Henry
J ,C\\'l' S 1 I .. is tu \'t)ll\'ill<.l' )' Utl Of a gcn er,d truth, Or tO impress YOU
l

In F0 rtni g ht ly Revi ew, Vol. Tl. p.

7 01.

27 i

z.

· ·

I 11.

This pr.,.Ju ccd n arrowness :ind rnonotuny o f th11u ght.

· ( />. 1\ gg r:iv at<.:d tu in tellectual turpu r by d es p o tism uf C.esars .

11. Th e tu rp n r uf i11 1<.:ll c.::t hrul,c n hy t\\·o r t.:,·vluli o ns.
''·Th e moral rcn> lutiun-Chris lianity.
I. Facts:
/>. Rc:bp~c into worse in tdlcc tual bar ren n ess.
c. The: politi cal re1·ol uti o n - invas io n o f n orthern nati o ns .
I n\'asion thr c: \\' the co untr ies ope n !1> each ut h e r.
z. Effect: b. Thus ope n ing hro::icler field for study o f politic:i.1 facts
and prin c iples.

.

!

r ,, .

1

Conclusion: "H e n ce it is th:it , in gc nera.li 1.a ti1>11, the writers o f modern
times hav e far surpassed th ose of a nti q uity. The hist o ri ans of o ur O\\'n cuun -

Tl If: I' I .. I.\'.

2i8

7'/JE />L IN.

t ry ar c 11n c•1uallc<l in depth and precision o f reason; and even in th e works
nf our mere compilers, we o ft e n med \\'ith spec ulations beyo nd th e reac h of
Tliu c ydidc~ or 'Li.:itus."
J fcrc, '" ith " nly a 1·agac hint that " th ere was annthcr cause," \\' e start at a
H"m nt e po i11t :rnd ath·:u1l'e, c:11:h ste p addin g a littic lo th e p reced ing, un til nl
the cn tl t l1c cause co 1111.:s iot \) ,·icw.

,,...

The order o f enforcement, otherw ise called the clecluctirc
order, t:.i.kcs .:t direction opposite to the above . Th:it is, begin ning 1Yi th the ge ner:-i l tru th or pri nciple it woul d enforce, it provJ.:s
:rnrl a ppli es by gi ,·ing the minor pr in c iples, examples, fac ts, that
rn :i.ke fo r it, until dow n to the minute st appli cation it is made
ck:-i r :rnd cogent. Thus t h is orde r " ·o rks from ge nernls to particuhrs, from principles to facts, fr o m a truth which though known
i-; no t snffic iently ol1served to une xpected applications in fa mi liar
cx pcr:c nc c .
Th e ad1·:i.n1:1gc of this order is th at from the outset the truth to
be ill us tr:i.tcd is kno"·n; so tlut al cn·ry step the bearing of every
p::rt is obvious . It is cspeciaily ada pted, therefore, to the treatment of irnporLlnt practical truth s of li fe and concl uc t, t ru ths th:it
peopk arc nut so mllch inclined to cli~pute :i.s to neglect, and
whose ~ i gn iii ca nee ccn t res in th c i r :ti 1pl ic:-i ti on . "The 1 deductive
method is b est 11·hcn I ''"ish to direct t he lig h t o f fa mili:i.r truths
:-in d ro used emotions upon new particulars, or upo n detail s in nns uspectccl re lat ion to th ose truth s; ancl \\'he n I wi sh the attention
to be <ibsorbed by th ese p::trticubrs \\' hic h a rc o f in terest in themsc ll-cs, not up()n th e ,C',"c nc r:ll truth s whic h :-ire o f no p resent inte rest
ex cep t in as far as th ey light up t hese d etails."
/\ d isad v:rnLl gc to lie gua rded ag:1 inst in th is o rd er is th e fact
that, the trnt h in discussi<>n !iL: ing k nown , th e re is no stimulus of
interest in a n ti c ipa tin g what is u nk nown , but this can be overcome
by g ivin g freshness :rnd 1·igo r to the dct:-i. ils.
2.

2i9

again into still less gene ral, unt il it reaches th e most p arti cul ar !:'latcments: II. \ Vhcther the Eas t I ndia Compa ny's ab use o f th eir trust be an abuse nf
g1·cat atrocity .
A. T heir co nduct viewed in its p olitical li g ht.
1. .'\s lo a buse o f exte rnal fed eral trust.
a. They h a1·e suld the nati ,·e princes, slates, an J offic ials .
b. They ha,·e b ro ken every treaty .
c. Th ey ha ve ruined all who co nlltlcd in th em .
2.

J\ s tu aliusc u f in te rnal a dm in i ~tra t iu n ,
a . T hey h a \·c bee n o nly a cu rse, nut a n ::uh·antagc, to the
cuunlry.
b. T h eir rule l1as reacted [ I) the hurt o f St•c idy at h ome.
c. Thei r rule has been an abuse lv trili ula ry gu,·c rnnit:nls .

B. Thei r cunduct 1iewed in its commercial ligh t. - The tests uf mc rc:rntik dealing hy wh ich they ha n : fai kd : Buying cheap a nd selli ng d ear.
2. St rictness in d ri1·ing ba rga ins.
3 . \\' at chfuln css m·cr ho nesty o f clerks.
4. Exactness in acco unts.
5. Care in estimating a nd provid ing fo r profits.
6 . Care in readiness lo nH:et J,ills .
I.

Here all the s ubd i1·isions lead out toward ind i1·id ual appli ca tio ns or illustra·
ti ons of th e ge neral asserti o n mack at the beginning.

In a wo rd, the n, ":-i. gro wi ng though t requi res the induc tive expositio n, a n appl ied t hought the deduc ti ve."
The two orders m :1y !Jc co mliin ed in th e sam e di scou rse; that
is, while t he main di1·isio ns p roc ee d in o ne o rd e r, sul > di1·i~iu 11 s
may take th e other; o r the m :-i.nn e r of procedu re may be shifte d
in the va ri ous sec ti ons o f the work, a cco rding to th e writer\ 1e nse
of what will be m ost effe ctive.

III.
-The fvlle1wi11g secti on fr om J: mke's ~pcc c h on th e East India
Tiill ill us trates th e d cd ucti ,·c order . by l>cg inning with th e most general an<!
inclusi 1·e conside rati on , ll"hi ch it di\' ides into head ings less g eneral , and th ese
Lx ,"11·1.E.

J

Qu oted also fr o m George r lcn ry Lewe s , a~

O il

page 276.

The Conclusion . -Th e objec t o f a form:-i.l co nclus ion a t the
end of a li te rary wo rk i:; to gathe r togethe r th e va ri ous threads of
argument, thou ght , o r app e:-i.1, :-i.nd so to :-ip ply th em as to leave on

Tlll:· PLAN

'/'///:· /'I.AN.
- th e ig no ran ce that despise s "·h:it is faire s t ::tmong God's creatures, and th e dullm ·ss t11at denies "·l1at is rnan·cl\.,us in I I is 11· u rking : there is a life of monotony
fu r yuur uw11 S<•ub , au d q f misgui d ing f,,r th us e of others. And, on the oth,~r
s ide, is u pcn l v yc1 ur ch o ic·e the life u f the cr o ll" ncd spirit, moving as a light in
cr ea ti o n - disco,· c rin,c; ah,·ays - illumina ting alll"ays , gaining every hour in
sl rcn gl h , yct lm wt.:d d u'rn cYcry h our in tu dctper humility; sure uf Lci11g ri ght
in its aim, sure uf i1ci11g irresistible in i ts progress; happy in what il has
s cc urch· du11c - happier i11 wh:i.t, day hy day, it may as securely hope; happi·
est at th e clo se uf life, 'c-lwn th e ri g ht 11and begins to fo rge t its cu nnin g , tu
r cn1 e mbcr. t h at th e re nc,·cr \\·as a tou ch of the chisel or the pencil il wielded.
b ut has :i.dd cd tu the knu\\lcilge, and quickcn<.:d the happiness of mankind. ''

/\ s to its s tyle , the c on cl usion has not the motive for plainn ess
t in t we kl \"C n o ticed in th e introd1tctiun . It t:1kes influence from
the c!ur:idcr uf the discourse preceding it; aml thus, if th ere is
e mo ti o n o r d e pth of tho ug ht to warra nt, it may fittingly adopt
imagery, rhythm, somewhat long er ancl more rolling senten ccstruc ture, in a. word, a n clc\·atcd s tyle; l>eing inde ed a kind of
c.\ tc nck d c:Hlcncc. Hit is important that a sentence shoukl not
L·n d 11·ith some in s ignifi cant c le ment, it is much more im portant
thJ. t the conclusion of the whole work should m a intain its d isti nct ion tu the bst.
l'\ l• TE. - "fhc dali o r:i.t cly snsp e n <lc d scnlc n cc ']UOtcd from Cardinal Newm a n o n p ~ g c 14 i a!J o n', whi ch furi11s the co n..:lns ic1n of his lecture on" L iteratur e ," illu s1:·a tcs the~ style I hat a C<> n v\n s i·>n may take when it gathers m oment um
r.·.,111 \\"h a t h:1s J..:•ll 1C 1,,.fll rc. ~ tl d <l cS th e O.:dn t: lu s iun just fjll\llc<l fr om Ruskin.
F,· c n in lh t: ]'lll" ely i11tcllcd u al typ e« the st,·k uf th e co n clusio n is not infrc·
«1u c nlly 11ci g lttc n cd tu~ cu nsid cr ;.1\il t.: degree.

283

precedes, and so mething anticipatory of what follows. But furthe r, it shou ld ]Jc a distinct thought in itself, not a m e re catch wo rd; otherwise it docs not truly make a bridge between thoug hts .
The g raceful management of transitions is one of the most del icate and difficult of the writer's ::ichieverncnts.
There arc many o cG1sions for transition, g reat and small, in th e
course of a. literary work . Con ce rning a lm os t every new though t
the skillful w riter will con side r wh eth er it ough t to have some
preparation, so me intermediate aspect suppl ied, in order to add
itse lf n aturally to what precedes. The greater transitions occur
between the m ain divisions, and espec ially, between the three
fnn<l amc ntal clements. To bunch a co urse o f thought su cc cssfnlly, after the intro<lu ctio n, so as not to leave the transition
abrupt or arbitra ry, is perhaps hardest of ail.
EXAMPLES. - :\n cx:rn1plc of a trans iti unal paragraph, from l\Iacaulay, has
already been gi,·cn, on pa~~<.: 212.

In an essay un "Ji.;i.e<.: and L anguage ." by Edward A . F re e man, th<.: lcadi1 1g
thoughl is that" the new linc:s uf scientific inquiry which hav<.: been opened i11
m ode rn t ime:> [ n amely, rcgarrling ra ce and bnguage] haYe had a dist in ct and
d eep efl"'t:ct upun the pulities uf the age." This is intrnrlucccl J,y a n in c id ent
" o f a d e putati o n o f llungarian st ud e nts gu ing to Cu nstantin o plc tu p res e nt a
sword of ho n o r tu an Ottoman gen eral," u n the ground of anci e nt kindred
betwee n th e '.\lagya r and Ottoman races . The tr:i.n sit io n fr o m th is introdlt ction to the dc,·c:l o pmen l is ihus mark : " Tn alkge th e real or suppused prirn e,·al kindred lid\\' eC n Magyars and
Otto mans as a ground fu r p ol itic:1l ac ti un, or at leas t for puliti cal symp:i.thy,
in the affairs .,f th e: 11r csc nt 1n»n1L· rll, is a n ex trem e cas<.: - s<illl<.: may ht:
in cl ined to c:1ll it a rrd11di o w! ,,;,_, 11,.,/11111 - u r a \\"hole ra nge u f durtrin cs
and se n timenls \\'hi ch have in 11101lcrn days gai n c< l a great po\\'cr o\·c r men ';;

mind s."

Defore cl os ing our di scnss io 11 of the pbn of discourse, a few
\1· o rds n ee d Lo be said abo ut the means cinployeJ to foste r unity
:rnd continu ity uf strn c tmc , and to m ::i ke the progress of th e
thought clear fmrn p o int to point.
Transitions. - .\ tran siti o n, : h the n:tm c indi cates, is a passage
0 1-c r fro m un c di,·i ,.; ion nf the tlwu g ht tu :tnolhcr. It is an intermcd i,ttc sL;t<.:111<.: n t . in \\'hi (•h is fuund su11 1cthin g retaine d from wh:.i.t

By this in termediate cc,nsidcrat io n, unitin g the co n crete illustrat io n with
th e ge n eral st:i.tcmc nt, th e \1·ay is now open for the leading thought cited
alJOVC.

Indications of Structure . - It is not alone by numerals that the
successive steps of a pbn are ind ica.ted. These can at best mark
merely t he m a in di\·ision s, and may very easily be made h eavy
ancl pe dantic . B ut in well articubtcd di sco urse frequent and un -

·--

....--. . .,.

281

-- -------~--- ...

- .-

-- ----- ---

.

'J'/ff:' /'/AN.

.1.MPLIFICA TION.

obtrusive signs of structure abound, in th e form of connectives,
words of tran sitio n, inn:rsions fur ;ulj ustnw nt, and the lik e;
dc\·iccs tlnt lc.'.ld the reader onward, ::md keep him aware of the
sLtgcs of p rogress, without seeming to Jo so. These arc th e
"intl'.rnal indic:iti<Jl1s of plan," wh ich have alrca.dy Leen mentioned
( p:1ge 26 5 ) as denunJing th e first enc in determining the structure.
Such ind ic:itions of structmc .'.lre clements of disconrse in whi ch
we find incn:asing c:uc .'.ln1l cop iousness :ts writers gain more
ex JllTiencc o f the in tcrprcti ng c.'.lpac i tics of their readers. Young
wri te rs arc too :1pt tu neglect them , :md their work becomes
lJiind and v:1gue in consequence. Uhler wri te rs see better the
help fu lness, and arc less sensitive to the formality, of laying out
t heir thoughts as thorough ly as rn.'.ly ue useful for clearness and
defi nite ness.

235

Larian Lak e, prqnratory to ::t sketch of the general features o f th ose Yillas
whic:l1 exist ther e, in tuo g reat a rnultitu 1k lo a tlmit, on o ur p::trt, uf much
individual dct::til.
"Fu r th e gc m:r::t\ tone of the scene ry, \\'e m::ty r e fe r, e tc .
" J\'ull' , as tu tlie situation uf th e cultagc, \l·e ha,·c ::t\ready seen , etc ... ·
but we rn nn ut h aYe this extreme humil ity in th e \il\a, etc.
"As rega rd s the fu rm o f th e cuttage, \IC have seen, et c . . . .

Hut ... the

villa mus t Le placc1l "·h er.:, etc.
"\Ve shall n uw p ro ceed to the situation ::tnd form of the villa.

:\s rega rds

situ~ti1n1, l.'tc.

"\\' c s hall n o w cn ns id e r th e form o f the villa." Etc .
Thus, for pag e ::tftc r pa ge , the n:a1kr is cunducted through a conseculi\'c
anLI naturally devel op ing th u ught.

SECTiON T lllR D .

>NS. - I. T he f1i1!0wing, from De Quincey, will of course be
n:c(>gn i1ed :<s r::tt her "'·erd•Jing the m::tltcr: " U nder this urigin::tl peudiarity uf l':<g::t n ism, the re ::trose two conseq u e n ce~.
11.1.UsTK,\Tl<

\\l>i ch l "ill m::trk liy the Creek let ters a ::tnd i' · The latter I will notice in
its o rder, lirs t calling th e re::tdc r's attention to the consequence marked u,
\\'hich is this," etc.
2. Cunsidcr, <lll the other h:<nd, the helpfnlncss o f the following indi ca·
tiuns o f slructur<', in a ch:<ptn u n "Th e :\l o nntain Villa," in Ruski n's Poetry
of ,\r ch il ectu rc . There ::t re nn nu nH.:rals e n 1l'lnyed; hu t the transitional paragra1•hs, tugc:thcr w ith the opcni 11g se nt e nces fr11n1 several success ive paragraphs,
will sl11>\\' huw the p r .. gress of the th <lUL;ht is m:irked .
"\\'\' ha1·1· C«llt('111plat<.'d th e rnral d"": lli11 ,_; ,,f the JH: as::tnt; let us next con sider th e ruralilc,1 d .. 111ic·ik ., f the gc11tkrnan: an d h er<' , as hcfurc, we shall
tirst <kk r:nin c \\·ki t is thc1•rcti ca lly l•l'autifol , :ind th en uliserve how far our
expe ctat iuns a rc full ilkd in in d ivi dual lrni ~di n gs . But a few preliminary
ol>sCr\'ations ::t re nec essa ry.
"Man, the pcas:rnl, is ::t b e ing o f mo re m::trkcd national character, than
m:<n, the cd u c:itc:d ::t n d re lined. [P:iragraph o f ::tmplili cation.J
" 1\ gai n: m an , in hi s hours o f re\ax ::ttiun , \\'h en he is e ngaged in the pur·
su it s uf mere pleas ur e, is less n::ttiunal than "'h en he is un der the influence of
a ny () f the more Yiulcnt feelings \\' hich ag itate C\'cry-day life.

[Parngrapli of

::t m p l ilil'at ion . J
"\\'itho11t furth e r preface, th erefore, let us cnd e::tvor to ascertain what
wuuld iJc tlicc>rdical ly 1.>cau tiful , o n the shore, u r am ong th e scenery of the

AMPLIFICATION.

I N the constru c ti on of the pb.n, the nuin ideas of the discourse
have ueen determined, in their mutual relations, fro m ucginning to
end . As ye t, ho weve r, t hey arc expressed o nly in germ . T hey
need to be taken up anew :rncl encloweJ with life; to lJc c lo th ed
in a fittin g dress of explanatory, illu st rati ve, anJ enforcing thought.
This is the office of rheto rical amplilt cation.
Amplilication, the fmal process of co mp ositi o n, is the mceting ground of in ve nti o n and style; th e process, that is, wh erein q:i cstions of matter and manner mu st share eqt1ally the writer's attention. Whatever, t herefore, is introdu ce d at this stage into the
production mu st stand a clouule test; and the question how a
thing shall ]Jc said is as vital to the life of the production as is the
question what th e thing said shall lJc .

The Writer's Mood in Amplification. - To carry on the wo rk
of .'.lmplilication re q uires a different mood from that in whi ch the
That required seve re discriminating though t;
p lan was made.
this req uires fervid thinking . That was the work of intellect and
judgment, gathe rin g, Wl:ighing, and distributing the main thoughts

286

A,1!/'l!FIL '. ·f i'/ O.V.

<)f the discourse, "· it h a \·iew to th L·ir 1,1gical order and effectivcnc<;s . This rc qll ircs also that the writer enter into his work with
hear t :mJ fcdi ng; he mu st him sel f lie fired wi th the emotion he
woiild inip:ut to o thers, or in sp ired ,1·it h th e g reatness and import:rncc of his tholli:;ht, else his \1·ork wi ll he l>u t tedious and lifeless.
l l:i 1·in g dl::tcrminl'll o n his pbn, kt him s11 rTe n(le r himself fearlessly
to t he current uf his thou gh t; kt him Le JillcJ and fired with it
ane ll', as iC it had no t been coldly analyzed . Nor should he he
the sb.n: of hi,; ow n prearrang ed pLrn o f discourse; that is, he
~ .l w1ii.J not kt it <'hill the glo w of his thin king . The mind often
11·( 1rb m o re 1·ig<)rull sl y in amplilicatinn than in pb.nning; and so
the progre ss of ;1ctiul composition 111 :i y sngges t a better arrangement of some points. If so , kt the work of planning be rct1pe ncd ; and let n ot the writer shun th e re11·ri t ing and rearrangi n.c;- thus n ecessitate d. Let cn.:ry sm allest p a rt, as it passes under
tk c reati1·c process, be for the time as important as the whole discomse . 11 n til c \·ery dct ::ti l can be \·icwed as adap ted to promote its
ul \ ' 11 \lltrpose and the purpo~e of the whole.
I.

USES OF A'>ll'LIFI C AT1 0 '.'l'.

Amplification not always of Advantage. - It is not always
ne u.: ssary to the lik a nd distinc tio n o f a thought that it be follu 11·cd ou t in dct :iikd, amplified form . J\ o t infrequently the very
opposi te t reat !1\ L' nt is more cffcc ti1·e . !:lo me i< kas, from their
il:llure nr fro m th e p:trl th e y pby in the c<rn1pos ition, should l;e
, . ,JHt ' SSt'!i ;ts tcr,,L·l y :rn .J sc 11tc11tiuusly as p1Js-. il1lc, or should be
rncn.:l y himed anti left to work their way l1y suggest ion . It gives
\·igo r to the wurk wl\l.:n a con s iderable proportion of such conde nsed materi al is int e rspe rsed with the rest; and indeed it may
lie said that :.1.ll the leading ide:-ts, if e\pan d ecl in so me places,
should Le contracted to a brief :md telli ng sta tement in others.
'·The art. o f putting things," <;O that much sl dl be said in little
sp ace, is a ve ry valualJlc accompl ishmen t. 1
J " Every ex ped ien t which n:duces circnmlocutory expressio n promotes the power
a nd the halJit o f eon<lense<l thinking. A taste for short words, for Saxon words.

..-1.1/!'UIJC. ·l TIO.V.

2S7

An indioti o n of the estimate people set on una.mplified th ought

is seen in the fact that every nation has its Jistinct body of g nomi c
or aphoristic litcratme, in the sh a pe
1110 /s, pregnant phrases, an d the like.
cal thou ght and precept redu ced to
and there is perh aps n o other form of

of popular prO\·crbs, lions
These all represent prac tiits most sententi o us form;
literature that exerts m o re

inflnen ce, and gi1-c:; more universal pleasure.
J\"crn:. - Sume or the best J;nown collc c liuns o f aph o risti c truth :trc : The
Buok uf Pron:r!Js, l'as cal's Thnughts, l'o or Richard's Sayings, l fa rc: 's CLtCsscs
at Truth, and 11clps's Tlt nuglil s in th e Cillis tc1· a nd th e Crnwd. lksicl cs th ese
th e wurks o r s nch writers as Bacon, I .and o r, and Emerso n are 1·ained as be ing
espec iall y rich in wise and pith y sayings.

The fact th:-tt amplir1cati on m:.1.y or may not be of :.1. dv:rnta~e
dictates th:lt in the articulation of hi s \\'Ork the \l'rit c r keep constantly in mind the dem::tncls of proport ion . Not all idL·::ts ,1·ill
bear to be re peated and part ic ularized, without overl.1abncin g their
true proportionate importan ce. Some should be dispatched in a
mere swrnestion o r occuj)y only the su bordinate clause of a se n bb
'
~
tence; \\·hi lc others may require seve rJ.l sentences, or e\·en lie
worthy of a digression or cxcmsus. The mainte nance of a trne
proportion in the rebti1·e bulk am! prominence of id eas is one of
the most delicate prohlcrns of inventi o n .
NuT1·:. - Tn ?lk:">h.stcr's "J l istnry llr the Am eri can P eop le," which aims in
five volum es to delineate our country 's prog ress frnm the 1.:. cv <Jhtti1>n tu the
Civil \Var, the dcscripti"n uf our f.,rt:f:\thc: rs' dom es ti c sur r1Jt111•li 11 gs, intt-n:sting a111l valuahk tlwugh it is, 11·u uld s cc: nt to he carried to clisprop .. rti o 11alc
minuteness in the full n wing: "In th e co rn e rs of the rooms, o r on the l:i.ncling or the stairs, stoo1l the high
clocks of English make , many o f which yet remain to attest the ex ce llen ce o f
the manufac ture. Some \\· e re surmounted by an allego ri cal r cpn~sentalio n o r
for unq ualified substan tives, for crisp sentences, helps th e thin king power to work
in close quart e rs. ;\ ll'r iter who acquires a fondness for s peaking 1.Jrevities lea rns
to think in hreviti es . Happy is the man wh ose habit it is to think laco ni eall.1•.
There a re few things in wh ich the reaction of style on thought and on the thinking
force is so obvious as in the grow th of this condens ing power." - l'hcips,
" Theory of Preaching," p. 447.

~~ --

~_,,,..,.

J·ct

y

2SS

/Lll/'IJIIC.·l 'l"/O.\'.

Time. Othe rs kt<1 :i. moving d isk to illustr:i.t e the ph:i.ses of the moon an(!
sho w when it \\·as cres cent , when in tht: second quarter, :llld wh en full. Still
oth e rs ;i t th e lin:il struke o f every hnur chimed fo rih a l\rnc which, when the
~:tl>l1ath c::une ruun.l, w:i.s s ud1 a o ne as our g r andfathc~ r s san g lo their hymns
ln 1nccl in.t..:· .' '
1 fin all p:uts the d cu il \\·e re c:i.rricd dm1·11 t<> s" fi ne :i. po int :i.s the chssific:i. 1i1 >1 1 uf cl"cks in p r iv:i.tc dw ellin g s, where w u ul ,] the histury be at the end of
th e 1if1 h \« •lu mc'

Why Amplify at All 1- Of course the foregoing pr:iise of scnknt iu1:s np rc s~;i o n <:ontcmpbtcs only on e side of the literary art.
1\rn]> lifi c :ilion also has its in dispensable uses; it is uy no means
synon ym o us \\"i Lh p lat it ude, n or i:-; it mere clilt1t io n o f the though t.
De tailed thought is as necessa ry in its pbce as laconi c thought.
\Vh :i.t purpose then docs ampliftcation sllbscn·c?
Three prin c ipal u se s nny l>e n o ted ::md exem plifie d.
i. 'i't) g i\·,: the trn e e xtent, lirn ib, and app licatio ns of the idea.
1\ s brid1y g i\·c n o r indicated, an asserLiun 111 a y !Jc too sweeping;
or it 111:1y he a ktli··t rnt!i ne ed ing to )Jc gua rd ed ::rnd s11 pplemented;
o r its present applic a tion may lie 1111usu :ll, nee ding therefore to be
d e fined. Tu prO\·ide for such rcbtions of the idea is the office of
::irnplilying comme nt.
li.L ll :'TIUT I <>:-:. - This use o f :unplifica tinn may he cxemplilled by th e beginnin g p f Carhk"s css:i y u n "Ch:i.r:i. dn ist ics," of whi ch lhc sm/01tir1, or ground

a:-:.'."cr ti on 1:-:, -T111-: 111·:,\l.TllY 1.;:-:<>\\" :"<>T t1F Tlli': I R 111·:..\ 1.T1r, 1:1· T u :-;1.v Tl\1': SI CK.

T!ie w rit er's li rsl skp " ' ith this i ~ tu l>ruad c n its :i.pplicati(J fl, for his present
purp <>sc : - "this is th e l 'hys ic ian·s :\pliorism; and ap1·li c:i.l 1lc in a far wider sense
tlt :i. n he gi \·c·s it. \\" c: m:i.y say it h ulds 1w less in mural , intellectual, political,
J'<> Ct ic:i.l, tl1:i.11 in rnuc ly curpo rc:i.l thcr:i.pc11ti cs; that \\·hcre\·e r, or in what
sh:i.pc sc1en: r, pm,· c rs o f th e S<>rt whi c h can l1t: nam ed •·ital a rc at work , herein
lies the l<',;t ,,f tl1eir w u rkin g ri g ht o r working wron g ."
2.

To g ive /1(11(r to ::in idea, by dwe iling on it lon g enough for

th (; re::ide r's mind to g rasp and real ize it . "Tim e mu st be given,"
s:1ys De Quin ce y, 1 ' · for the intelkr: t to edd y about :i truth, and to
l

De Quinc ey, E ss:ty on " :)1ylc," Part I.

"·Iii/PL/FICA T!ON.

2S9

::ippropriate its bearings. There is a sort of previous lub rication ,
suc h as the bo:i.- con strictor applies to :iny subject of digestion,
whi c h is req ui site to famili:i.r ize the mind with :i startling or a complex n ovelty." The m ere fact that uy arnplific:i.tio n the ide:i gains
bulk :ind time is one irnportant reaso n for dwelli ng upon it.
TLl. USTl\.\ TH >;>; . -The abu n :-1 1uutc<l thought from Carlyle, in the second
step o f :i.mpli:i c:iti11n, is d\\'elt upon as follow s : " [n the Body, fu r example, as a ll ducturs ar·e agr eed, th e first co ndi ti u n o f
complete hea lth is, th:i.t eac h org an pcrfur111 ib functi o n un consciously, un heeded; let l>u t :i.ny organ ann o unce ils sep:iratc existence, were it even lioastfnlly, and for pleasu re , n o t for pain, th e n already has o ne of those unfurt u na: e
• false centres of se ns ib ility' es tabl ished itself, already is derangement th e re.
The perfect io n of budi ly well be in g is, that the collective b odily act iv ities se em

one; and he manifested , moreover, n o t in th c: mselv es, but in the a cti on they
accomplish. If a Dr. Kit chen e r ho:i.st that his system is in high order, Dietet ic Phil osop hy may ind eed t:i.ke credit ; hut the tru e Pepti c i:i.n w:i.s tha t
Countrym:i.n who :i.nswcrcd th:i.t, ' for his part, he h a d n o systt: m.'"
All thi s, what e ver else it :i.ccompl ish es, gi\·cs the reader time to reali ze th e
significance o f the aphorism p ru p osed at the b eginning.

3 . To give ::in idea its fitting a nd designed power; th a t is, tn
g ive it :i gu ise ad:ipting it to act, according to its nature and purpose, upon the scnsiuilities, or the understanding, or the will.
Some th oughts that, reaso ned out, would have comparativ ely little
effect, mig ht :ippeal s trong ly to the imagination ; o thers mi ght
have special power in motive and co nduc t. It is on the appropri ate amplification that we mu st d epen d, to make c:ich though t
fu1fll its destin ed mi ssion in the read er's mind.
lLU JSTR.-\T I UN . - A third step of a mplitication, in th e above-cited thought
o f Carly le's, is to g i\·e the idea an imaginat ive and poet ic turn, so that it is
fitted to impress th e reader l>y its beauty.
"In fact, unity, :i.greement is always silent, or so ft-voicecl; it is o nly disc o rd
th at loudly prnchims itself. So lo ng as the several elements of I .ife, all fi tl y
adjusted, can pour forth thei r movement like harmoni o us tun ed strings , it is
a melody :i.nd uni so n; Life, from its m yste rious founta in s, flows out as in
celestial mu s ic an tl diap:i.so n, - which also, lik e that other music of the
spheres, even because it is perennial and co mplete, without interrupti o n an d
without imperfecti o n , might lJe falJled to escape the car. Thus too, in some

/ J,Jfl'IJFI C I TJON.

. J l / /'!.!N C.I '/'JON.

2'){)

bn gu:igcs, is the st:tte n f h ealth ,,- ell d e n oted h y a term expressing unit y ;
w he n w e fee l u u rsc \n:s as ''" e wi.;h to he, w e say that we arc wltole."

J!.

i\1 F.\>:S O F J\ :'ITl'UFT C ATlON.

lt ,,·011 ld o f course lJe 1isckss in :rny case to say that thought of
suc h an d su c h kiml sh ou ld he ampli r1 ed in such and such a w:iy.
The self-rel iant lite r:ny in stin ct \\' Ot1l rl no t only scorn to be hound
hy such ru k s, l lll t wo \lltl e \'i nee i ndc pendent genius in expanding
thought il y umrnntcd mcth otb. Tt is within our province, howt'\' e r, to cx:1mi11 c t o so me exlt~nt the na tural suggesti\'eness of ideas,
:rnd t u gather t herefrom th e k ad in g m eans of amplification.
T he t hough b ,,·hich in t he plan exist in outline may be arnplifiL·1!: -

1. By breaking up General Statements into Particulars. Jl is fro m ,p:u t ic ul:tr fa cts that a c1>tn p rc he11 sive trnth is generalized
in the first plac e. The wri ter has th e ach· a ntage of se eing both the
trnth :rnd the fa c h .: to p ut hi s re :Hk r, therefore, into the s:1me
state o f understanding th :tt he occu p ies h e mu st separate the gen eral id ea into its components, if we may so express it, before the
reade r's eyes .
1 . .'\ gc n e r:-i l fad is most natura ll y am p lified hy enumemli1111
of part icubrs e no ugh to mak e a co nclu siYe ground for the as~e r ­
t io n o f it. :'\n irn po rt:rnt cons id e ra tion, then, is the number of
p:uti c ttbrs .
K • >T F" - T :ikc- f.i r in~ L \tll'C su<' h a ,t.:,· ncr :ll fa c t as this: 'The past hundred
year~ li:r,·c: I"''"' 1·r,.\i 1i ,, i" iu q ,,1r taJJ\ iJJ 1'>: 11ti t1 11 s .' I Inc tl1c 11a,lura\ impulse
is ~ i1n p l y tu 1<trlicu l.ni1.t_·, J.,.:i\· l n~.: n:1na·s qf c n 1 Hi f~h i11,·e n t io ns to substanti ate
th e sLrl c ll\c'll L The mct h • ,d t lt erci., rc is cn unH:rat i,, n, with Lhe aim of accumulat in g a nurnhn ui ,lctai b .
:\n cx :implc uf s uch cnu n1 c r ati n~ amp\i lic:it i1' n is gi ve n n n p:rgc 207 above,
in th e paragra;.!1 qnutcil fn1m J Ia rri s . J\n n th er cxa!l1 pk ncc ms in Morl ey's
"Fdm nn <l Bur ke" ; wh ere, in s1 1 cakin g o f the characteri sti cs of llur\;c',; ag<',
h e makes the statement: "Jn C\' Cry o rder o f a ctivity a fr esh a1Hl giganti c
imp ube [ t11 pwg rl'ssJ \\' as g i,,c1 r. " Thi,; h e a m plilics h y e num crntin g , - " l n
the Spi ritu a l o rde r; i n the l nd ustr i:il l) rcic r; in the Spcc ulati,·e and Scicntilic
or,lc r; in tlic l'uli ti cal <' r,Jcr ., ; :ind dno tin g a p:i.r:igrap h to ea ch .

2')1

z . A general pri11oflc is most naturally amp lifie d liy c.rnmfk ,
in whi c h the objec t is not so mu c h to sttllstantiate 1>y the numbe r
of details as to ill11strate by the charac te r of them.
therefore on having the example well chosen.

Mu ch d e pe nd s

,EXA~t 1·1.1-:. l 11 the full o \l'i ng, fr o m B:icon, a single example is ~ u ff1 c icnt t<>
illustrate ade•pnicly the ]'rin c iplc enunciated at the beginning.
"The i11 c li11ati"n tn go o dn ess is imprinted dee ply in the n a t ure uf man,
inso much that if it iss ue n u t to wards men , it \\'ill take untu ut h er li 1· irw crcat . .
~
ures; as 1l ts se e n u r the T u rk s , a cru el pe o pl e, who 11 e\'erthcl ess a rc k in rl tu
beasts, and g i,,c alms l<> d"gs and birds; insomu ch, as Hus!JL: ch ius rq• .. r tc ll i,
a Chris t i:rn ])( 1y in C nn s t:rntinuplc had like tu have been s to11 e1l fur g:igg in g rn
a waggishness a lnng- li i\lc,[ fuwl."
'

3 . In this mean s of amplifi c.'.ltio n it is to llc not ed that n o t on ly
d oes the particular and co nc rete illustrate the gene ral ancl alistract,
but the ge neral and abs tra ct illtt s tratc equ a lly, wh e n the p a rti rn lar
fact is the lias is of the th o tight. "Thus," says Pascal, 1 "whe n \\'C
wish to illus tr.'.ltc a g e neral prin c ip le, we mu st exhi b it the parti ntl:tr
rule of a case ; but if we wish to illustrate a particular case, \\'e
mu st begin with the general rnle."
ExA~tl'U·: oi: Tlfl': Ct,:., FKM. 1:s 1·: n

T<• 1ux s TRATE TllE l'A1n1 et : LAJ;, -

ln

Macaulay 's e'sa y o n l Ial la m' s C onqi t ut iunal J Ii st o rv, o ne sect io n is dc " itcd
to tracing in detail tli c c hang e in the c haracter of the ,E1 1g lish Par li:im cnt s ince
the Rev u luti u n; :rnd h e illustra tes by a para g raph h e.~ inning t hus : " Pl'.rl1:ips it rnay lie bi.\ d u \l·n as a g c n i.: ral rule th a t a leg islative asscmiil:"
no t cons titute.\ un •k m•> c rat ical prin ciples, ca1rn<it li e p up 11hr l1 mg :iltcr it
cc a~ c s t() l H ~ \\ '(· :1 !... . "
This prin c ir·k, :1rtn a litt k e\ 11 :·rn ,; i"11 and d c: liniti<>I>. i,; :q•pli cd tu tlw illu s ·
tration o f the seri es ,,r f:td s th at he: h:rs i>ce n addlr c i11 g,

2. By employing Some Form of Repetition . - Th is k ind of
amplification is used in cases ,,·here the significan ce o f a te rm
is to be fixed , or wh ere an 1 rn portant assertion is to be i mpressed. "A man wh o should c ontent himself," sa ys De 01 1in ce r .~
"with a s ingle condt:nsed enunciat ion of a peq~lcxcll Joctri1~~.
1
2

l';tsc al , "Tl10ug li1 s," C hap . t x . sec ti o n
Uc (J11 incey, E ssay 0 11 "Sty le," Part I.

111.

.1.J!I '/ 1/-ll ·../ T!OX

A,lff'! J FI<', / "/'f ()N.

Iic a rn:td nun ;rnd :i. .fd11-t1'c-S1', as respected his reliance
tli:i.t doc-trinc ."
Qr COllr:iC, hy repetition here is not m eant mere reiterati on .
l-.'.t.·ii1.:r;tti<>11 doc,; not :imp lif'y. T he mean ing is rathe r what the old
rilvt11ri .-i:t 11 s c:tlkd i 11 loj>rd1rli11; whi ch, as defi ned by J\rchhi shop
'1\ h:1ll:ly . 1 i,; : "10 repe:1t the s:1 me sen 1i rnc nt a nd argum ent in
11;: rn_1· t!illcrenl r.. rrn,; of c:·q>rc;;;;i <.rn; each, in itsel f lJ ri ef, but all,
t1•_:.:;c th cr. aff11n,in;.; s11ch an t.'.\j):tnsiun of the sense to he co nveyed,
:rnd "o dct;1in i11g the mind up\)n it , as the case rn ::i.y require."
Su< 1i rq1L· titio11 t:ikL·s 1·:t ri ous :tspccts.
1. J h si111pkst :hpcn is \\'hue dclin itive an d descri p tive terms
:md phra,;c,; :1 n ; :1ppended to th e n :ntr:il i<lc:i, until th e store of
exp res-;ions tlrns acc ttrntt1:1lL'd eltw idates the idea fro m m::i.ny sides.

a peop le by a war o f calculation. I t h:i.s nothin g that can kee p th e mind ere ct
un de r th e g ust s (l f :i.dvcrsity . ]·~,·e n w he re m e n arc willi ng, as sometimes th e y

'/'I!
\l"< Jll Id

lljl<>l1

!·:x \ >11·1.1-.. -- 1\ n :ry marked in ,;t:rnce "f tlii,; fur111 of repe titi o n occurs in
I : 11 ,.i, .. -,, ·k,;ni11t i., 11 uf :\ati11n :1 l < 'Jii,·:11r;-, in hi,; l'elk cti o ns on th <.: Revoluti •1ll i11 1· r~ncc . in 11 l:i,· h i>ass~gc 11<.: c m pl•iys no fc\\·cr than nine <.: q ui valc nt
L'\i> rc·,;,i ••ll S fw· 1\ic lt' rn 1 ( '}ii,·al1·y : " l:n t tl 1,· :1.gc .,f L" lii,·:1ln· is g1J11<.: . Tlt:i.t of '"l'ltistcrs, .-ec:u no mi sts, a nd cal·
l'iil .tt"r' . li:1' succcc.!c.J : :i.nd th<.: gl.,n· .,f l·: ur"pc is extingu ish ed fo r eve r.
' " ' " "" nc·1·n 111 .. rc-. sh:i.11 ""' l.clwl,l t h:1t gL"nnous J.,:·alty to ra nk an d sex, that
1.r .. ud s11! >111i,si .. n , th:1t dignil ied .,lw.Ji L'llL'< ". th~t sui>,,rd in a ti o n o f th e h eart,
, 1 11ic li Lqi t :1l i1L-. c·1·c n i11 sc·n ·it11dc ihc· lf, the: spirit o f a n cxallcd fr eedo m.
Tl1 e 11n!J.,ngli1 i:r:1<c ,,f lif,-, the chc:q> ,1<-f,·11sc .,f 11:1li<rns , th <.: n urse of ntanl y
s.-n1i n1<·n1 :\li d IJ('r"i,· c11tcrpris e , is g">ll'' I t is g» nc, tlt:i.t Sl' nsi h il ity o f pr in·
,.; 1,J,. , the1t c h :tst i\\· 11 f h .. n .,1-, wlti,·h fell :1 st :1i 11 like :i. wou n d , whic h insp ired
t ' 11t i r :t g(' \\ !1il:-.t it ini 1i.~~ : l1c tl fe r 1n: i t.\·. ,,·Jii l· ii L'lll \1'1 1l cd \V h atC\'C r it touched, and
u11 d 1·r ''h i._ Ii ,.jl ·l · i h1· lf l11st li :i.lf it:-1 l·,·it, liy il)sing :1.11 i h gr lss n css."
1

-· . \ s cT1l1td :i"J 'L'<"l is, whik rq >L':tting \·irltt:tlly the
ti1J tl m :n,[.'.11 :nc11t. to d isgu ise the rcpdit ion hy gi\·ing
i n t>li\·crsl' . or lirc_·ak ing it into p:uts, or prL·sc nting it
dq~rl'L'S or ('( >ll<'reknc,;s ; wit.Ji <":t rC to make th e i dC:l
rq1 ct itiun, unt il it is sut"li1 :icntl y irnprc~scd .

I ·: x.1~ 1 1 · 1.1·: ,; . -

r

:\n cxampk nf ,;u c h rcpd iti" n occ ur s

111

s:tme asserthe thought
in d ifferent
grow in tiJe

Burke's Letters

11 n" J;. cgi ,_ idc l'l':i.c1:, wh e re he spcaLs "f w:i.r and the: n wt i,·<.:s tu i t: " 1;u t nc,·cr cu 1 a ,·chc mcnt :rnd susl ain c.J sp ir it of f.. rtitU<k be k ind le d m

a rc , t u bart e r th e ir lil11od for l uc re, lo ha za rd th e ir s a fe ty fu r th e g r at il ic:i. til)n
o f th eir a vari ce, t h e pass iu n wh ic h a n im ates th e m to that su r t of c1lllilirt, lik e
a ll t h e sho r t -s ig h ted p ass io ns , mus t sec its o l1j cc ts d is tin c t :1n d m· ar at h:1nd.
The p a ss ions o f th e l11 wc r o rd e r a r c hun g ry a nd im pa ti e nt.

Spec ulat i,·e !'!un -

d e r; conti n ge nt spo il ; fu ture , lo ng adj1; urned, u nce rt ain liuuty ; pil lage\\ hic·lt
mu s t enri c h a lat e poste rit y, a n d 1\·lti c:lt pussihly lll :1Y n o t reach to p os terity al
all ; th ese, fo r :i. ny le n g th o f t ime, w ill nc·v <.: r sttpport a m e rce nary war. T he
people a r c in t h<.: r ight. Th<.: calc ulat io n of p n ,tit in :1\l su c h " ·:i.rs is false. ( >n
babn cin g the a cc(, unt of su c h wars, te n th ousand hogsheads of sug:1r ar c pmcltas<.:d :i.t te n tlw 11s:i. 11 d t irn c· s th e ir pr ic:c. Th e l>!r,od .,f m an sh,,u!. I n e ver he
s h e d littt to r<.:d ce m t h e lil oud o f m a n. It is well sh ed fur uur family, fur uur
fri e n d s, fo r our Gorl , for o ur co untry, fu r o ur k i n1l. Th e rest is ,.:1 ni ty; the
rest is cr im e-"
2. Hepc tit io ll of t h is ki nd n eeds tn h e car e full y man aged , or it wi ll lll t:rc l v
m a r k tim e w itl1il ut a<h·a n c: i11 g. Co m pare , for in s ta n t: <.:, t h<.: foll• )1,·ing, fr••lll
H\a ir's Se rn11 >ns : " N" indi1·idual can he happy unless t he c irc umstances of th ose aroun<l hi m
h e so adjusted :i.s ln co nspire w ith h is intcrcs t. F o r, in h u man S1Jc iet y, nu h:i.p·
p in css o r m isery sta n d s tt n co nll cctc d anil in depe n dent. Our f"rt uncs are i11 tc rwo vcn hy th reads innumerable . \\'<.:touc h o n e a noth e r o n all sid<.:s. O ne man 's
m isfo rt u n e o r success, h is w isd1J m or h is folly , o ft e n !Jy its co ns equen ces reaches
thro ug h m u lti t udes." O n thi s passa g<.: :\I r. E. J. P ay n e 1 th us comme n ts : "I I c rt:
th e sam e pr o p (>s it ion is rcpeate( l live t im es, with o ut a ny mate ri a l a ddi ti o n m
illus tra ti o n, th e im p re:ss iu n le ft l> c ing th at o f g rc:1t p ove r ty of thought. "
3. /\. fa\' o ri tc m ca lls o f a 111 pl ilicati1J n w ith ;\ b ca uby was t he o !J\·crsc,'l that
is , t he n cgal i\'e u f hi s prop• >s itiu n i n some aspec t; a nd th is o\J,·crse, th roui;11
h is te nd e n cy tu anti t hes is, h <.: ,·c ry generall y p ut lirst. Th e m ann e r of d"ing
thi s has a lr ea dy bee n p <1 int cd out, page 138 al >ove. Th<.: f,, lJuwing, from h i~
essay cm ll ns wc ll's l .ifc of jo t»iso n, s h11\\·s a n as pect u f t his: h<.: i,; sl'lti1> g
o ut to spe ak u f un p:i. rdu nal, \c m :rnlt e ri srn , b u t speaks u f \>:1rdo n:1lilc n1a11 11 cri·rn 1
firs t: "Mann e ri s m is pardo n able , an d is so m e tim es eve n :i.greca hle, when

the

mann e r, th o ugh v ici1rns, is n a tura l. F ew reade rs, fo r t:xa ml' k, wuulrl be w illin g to p a rt with th e m a nn e rism uf M iltu n n r <> f Hurk c . liu t :i. ma nn erism
whi ch du es n o t s it easy o n th<.: mann e r is t, whi c h has b ee n a dopted 0 11 prin c ipl e, and wh ic h ca n be s us tain e d o nly l1y co nstant effo rt, is a lw ays offcnsi ,· c.
l I nt roduc tion to " Bu rke's :-;elec t \\'o rk s ," V o l. I. p . xi i. On :d i thi s sectio n
in trod uctio n to !3u rke ii ~s IJec n 1·t: ry s ttggcstivc.
~ ~ <.:<.: l\l into, " '.\l:rnua l of Engli sh l'rnsl' J ,i 1natu n-, " pp. 88, ''"·

h i~

20 I

.·1.1!/'f.flIC·I T! U X

_.\ nd such is th e man1n:rism ur j<ibnsun."

~<>m e

A.1/P!.IFJC.I J'ION.
intncsting remarks arc mad1:

u n this passa.i.:•'. :'>l intt>, I'- 99 .

:l· .\ \"t: ry sc n ·i 1·L·a l1k rn:rn :1gerncnt of th is kind of repetition
1-.i11si s ls in exp:111di11g the sense until th\~ thought is exhib ited on its
\;1ri•>11s sidL·s. :111<1 th en c o ntr:tctin g it inti> its most compendious
:rnd striking furin. (
this rnctho1l J Jr. \\"l utcly 1 says, "The

lr

hcirn s \1·ill lie stnwk liy the furcii> k11css of the sentence whi ch
thn ll"ill han: hcni prep;1rcd to cumprL·hc nd; they will tt11dcrs l .111d the ]<Jll~L'r cxprcs"ion, :i.nd n·1111"111/11·r the shorter."
l·:x.1.\11·1.1-: s . - ;\ 1•:tr agral'h illu,.;trating 1liis i<1rlll oi n :1>clilio n has l1n:n
•1u <>led fr"m l:urk e .. n 1i:1ge 209 p r ·ced ing. The f" ll"11·ing is another instance
fr.,1" 1hc same aut h•ir : "It sig11i lic s Yt::ry little li u11· this n1attc r 1n:w lie 11uil 1l oled away. Example,
th e ,,nh· :ug umcnt 11f effect in ci1·il life, dc·m p n,.;\ ra lt"s \he t rnlli nf m y prnposit i• 1n. i\othing ca11 alier my "piniun con cnnin.t.: thl' pnnici•rns tendency of
thi,.; «xarnpk, until 1 s ec "'JllH; man for his in d i:; c rcti" n in the snpp<1rt uf JlOll"cr,
f,,r his Yi1•knt and intc 1n pnat c "c n ·il ity , re nd e red in capal 1k , ,f sitti ng in p:uli:u 1H.: n!. ]:.,r as i t 1111 11· s1a1H b , tlH· fa1tll "f 111·crstraining lh•pubr qualiti es,
:111.J , i rrq~ubr y if )"•>l.l l' kasc, :hscrting l"'J'lll.tr l'ri1·ik gcs, has led tn disquali 1i,-.11i " n: the· "l 'l "'sile fault ll<"\·er h:is pri •d 11c· c·d th l' slighll",;t punishme nt. J.'~­
sis /1111 <·£· to / 0 :1.«·r /111 s .rlut! / l1t · d(ior o./ //1,· ! /(111S t.' 11)· ( '0111111 011s to on e utan;

<)/1::."1/ ll i 11 lf S !l t' .U

1r11J St'l" ':' i/i(J' ,

/11

ll <'ll C. .,

:\Ir. J'ayn e thus :rn:1h·1 c·,.; t l1i,.; p:uagrap h: "Thi ,; 1>nr:lgr:1p li sl ll)uld he noli ccil
a> a c .. nspi ciwus e>.am p lc <>f l:urk c "s meth o d . I le li egins 111· an axiom parentl1cti L· ;dly intr vduced .

ll c .L'."CS un l1' put t h e case in th e strongest light, hy

a\11-ring its eo nditio1ns t•• th l' ir Jl"hr "i'J" >si 11 ·>. The· cn11d11si 1ll1 is then slated
c·karly al lcngt l1: and as a linal J,1, ,11·, tl1is co nl'l11si 1n is uf,·111,:d ll"ith a double

29.)

Some of the aspects that such amplifi cation takes m:i.y here be
noted .
J . l\litch of the detail in narr:i.tive and descrip tive writing 1s
invented or obse rv ed for the purpose o f giving not only more ])ody
to the account, hut m o re life :rnd reality.
ExA~ll ' l.E. -Th e following paragraph, fr o m Parkman, narrates th e disco Yery uf the \\'is co nsin ri\·cr liy J11lict and ;\lar<Ju ct te: --

" i\fter ca.rrying th e ir c:inocs a mile and a half OH:r the prairie and through
the marsh, th e y laun c h ed th e m on the \\'i sconsin , liade fan.! \\" ell to the waters
that tlowc:d to the St. l.all"rcnce, and co mmitted thcmsc:lvcs to the cnr ren t that
\\"as lo hear them thc:y knew n o t ll"hitl1tr, -

pcrhaps to the Culf uf ;\[exi co .

pe rha ps tu the S u uth Sea or the Culf uf Ca lifornia.

Th ey glided cal m ly down

the tranquil stream, hy islands chvkecl with trees and matted with enta.nglin g
grape vines; hy fur es ts , groYes, ancl prairies, - thc parks and plcasur e-i:;:ruunds
v f a pro1digal nature; hy thickets and marshes and broad bare san d -ba rs;
under the s hadowin g tre es, between \\"hose lops louktd down from afar the
lm ld hroll' of snnH.: ll" Oody bluff. A t night, th e hiYouac, - the can i>es in,·c rted
on the hank, thc flick e rin g lire, t he rncal •Jf bison-flesh ur venison, the e 1·e ning
pipes, and shunlicr beneath the stars: and when in th e m orning they ernlia rk ed
aga.in, the 111is l hung u n the river like a liridal ,·c il; then rn elicd J,cfore the
sun, till the glassy 11·atcr and the languid ll"t>ods basked lircathkss in th e sultry
g lare ."

I !ere tlie att empt is ev idently made l1y amplitication tu render th e impo rtance of the e1·c:nt m o re palpalJle . J\vr is the scene merely imaginary, I.Jut
r cc urde.J from actu:ll ol ise n ·ati t>n , - as a fvot-notc says, " Th e ahuve traits u f
th e scen e ry uf the \\" iscvnsin are taken fr om personal obst:f\"alion o f the river
durin g midsummer. "

0

~1nti1h-.:~ i ~ . i11

ll1t: 1n 11:-.t c 1 1111 · i ~ 1.· a11.J :--lril..illg (11n11 a tt :1i n;1!1h· .' 1

h •r di:'< ns,;i 1111 ,,f l.:. cpctiti" n in it s r c l:1ti,,11s l" I >ic1i"n a11•l Styli.:, see prccc( ii ng, p ::igcs

JO,

J (JO .

3. By adding Illustrative and Vivifying Details. - Not all
is in the 1nt11rc of- example _; nor is it :1!1\·ays employed

illu ~t ration

merely to make the re:ider understand murc fully . Sumc mate rial
pro<luccs its propn effect only by being realized in the imagination;
:rnd the :1mplific:i.tinn applied tu it mttst lie of a heightening and
\·i1·ifying character.
1

\'ha.tch', " J·:le mcnt s ,,f j{l wt<1 ri «,"" i'· JS r.

2.
Figures of ~1H..:ech, p rin c ipally the figures of si mile, mct:i.phor, and analogy, arc muc h d epe nded o n in c:i.ses where ::i complex
thought needs to be m:i.de clear, o r an impo rtant consideration
n ee ds to he enforce d. Ofte n they a re the briefest as we ll as the
m ost luminous means of expanding an id ea.
EXA~ ll 'l.ES . 1 . Conside r h ow much th e figures in the following, fro m Gladstone's essay on" Kin 11eyo nd Sea," effect in making the thvught lucid. li e

is speaking of thc relations betwccn Sovere ign and Mini st ry, and the rclatiu11s
of bvth lo the pe,.ple: "For this cvnc<.: ntratiun of p ower, t ui l and lial1ility, mil de r realiti es h a1·e
n ow been substituted; :rnd ;\lini s lerial respo n sibility comcs Let ween the l\fon-

~-

.·Llfl'L!NC.·1 Tiu.\'.

2•)()

arch anrl

C\"lT\.

pu l .li c tria l an cl necessity, li ke arm o r bet ween the fles h anrl the

spear that \l"<>lll•l seek t" pierce it ; on ly this i,; an arm o r itself al so fles hy, al
•Hice li\'in g a n d inq•regnahk .

It may he said l•y an a,h·erse c ri tic, that th e

291

AJ1Il'LIFIC.1 TION.

to direct him to ::i spe cime n ruin and a specimen gall e ry, t.hat h e mi g ht sec ant!
be rid o f th e m o n ce fur all.

I sa"· thre e y1rn n g E nglishmen go in g through the

V;it ican by ca tal ogue an d number, the o th e r day, in a fashi o n \1h ic h J oh n J: ull

300'' says th e one " ·ii11

t '. •1 1'i t iluti"n a l :'ll1• na r lh is 1rnly a dq111sit••ry ,,f 1" ' " ·.:r, as a n armory is a dq >oS·

is apt tu co nsid e r ex c lu s i,·cly J\n1 c r ic::i n.

it•>ry of :uni,;; l11il th a t those ""ho 11·il' ld th<" arms, and thuse al1rne, constitu te
the true go\·crni ng au~ht1r ity .
:\ nd nu dt1ulit this is s 1.. 1 far true," etc.
2 . Th e f, ,1!.;wing, fru m Cardina l ?\e11·11nn, i,; a ,·c ry vi goro us and telling cn-

catalo g ue and p e n c il, -

and, c h ec king it u ff, he g •>l:S on witl1 :\ u llll> er 30 1. l l a\' in g witn ess,., l th e t111:i-

fur ccment of i ts th•l11gh t: -

effurt to have the co rrc t sc nsa tiu n bcfure m any hit! e .. us example: .,f a11ti•1ue

" Qu;irry the gr:rn itc rock with ra1ors, t>r mPm the vessel with a tl1 reacl of
silk ; t h e n 11 1ay y ou hupe with su c li keen ;i n d deli cate in st ruments as l1u111 ;-in

'?\mn he r

' ha\·e yoL1 see n it )'

'\"cs," a nswe r h is tw tJ r- .. 111 ra .!cs,

vaili n g ag.,nies o f many J\nglu-c;axons from lio th sides u f th e A tlant ic i11 their

bad taste, my h ea rt warm ed toward my business-like British co usin s , \1·h u \\'e re
d o ing their x stheti cs in thi s thrift y aucti o n ee r fa shi o n."

k 11 0 1\'kdge and hum ::rn r eason tu cirntcnd against th ose gia n ts, the passion and
the p ri de of man ."

3 . Incidents :rnd :rnecclotes :ue :i. freque nt rne:ins of illu str:ltive
arnplific:1tiun . espec ially in p opula r disco urse . T hey may be reganlcd as :t free fo rm of exe rnplitic:tt ion .
In usin g them the write r shouid 1Jc sure he has :i. definite point
f() make, :111d th:tt his il lust rat io n h:1s :i n cq11 :1 1ly d e finite point to
llC uroubht in c o nt act with it. T o make ;). disc ou rse o f stories th at
illu str:ltc nothin g is to make it all «u nfecl ioncry :tnd no food . And
i11deed , to :i.drnit a 11_rfa rl u f a sto ry tlut docs not d e finitely :iiLl in
t he iliustr:i.t ion is to tole ra te so mtwh superflu ous lumber. Illustr:iti Yc sto ri es arc told no t for thcmsell·es ]Jut for th eir point;
unnecessary det :ti ls should th e refore
rigorou sly pruned away, 111
order to lea.Ye the po int consp icuous .

uc

EXA\11 ' 1.E. -

Co n si der h o w th e in cidents in t r o du ce d into the follow in g, from

Luwell, g ive a pvculi :H in terest t<> the tlw11 g l11 e n u n c iated at the licg innin g: -

" 1\ s '\ sec 11 1<1 r•: <>f 111 att-ria\ :1nti•1uity . l l•q.; in to s u<; pcc t til:11 m y interest in
The r cl ati .. ns of r:i ccs ti) tlic l'hysi ca l world (only to
he studied fru it fully 1111 t he sp u t ) d o n o t exc ite in m e an in te r est at all proporti u nat e l o tli::1t J fc: .. J in their i111lu e n ce on t l1e mural a d van ce uf mankind, which
o ne may as eas ily tr a ce in his li lira ry a s on th e sp•l l. . . . .'\s fur anti quity,
afte r n: ailin~ lii st .. ry, "ne is hauntt-tl I" · a t!i sc<> 111f., r t i11g suspi c io n that th~
it is mostly fa ct it i<> 11s .

names so p::i infull y 1k c ip h c red in hiero,t.;lyph ic Pr arruw-head ins c riptions arc
only so many more Smiths and llrn\1·ns m:i s \;in,t.; it in un k nmvn tongues.
J\ iur eo \' Cr, if w e Yankees arc twitt ed with 111Jt kn<l\\'ing the d iffe rence hetw ee11
b1J,' a1H l K l"<"rt!,

n1ay not th ose u f us \111 0 h:i\·e k :i rn cd ii tu rn 1"<1uncl o n many a

111on111ne11 t civ c r h e re \\'ith the same reproa ch)

I c .. nfcss 1 am la:gi11ni11g to

s ympath ize \\'ith :1 coun trym;in of ours frulll ;\!ichig a n , who asked u ur l\1.i11istcr .

The fore going :tre the princi pal means of :i.rnplil1c:i.ti on . so far
as they m:ty be enumerated generally; other means :ire tu be r1..· ferre<l more especiall y to the specific literary forms .
III .

ACCESSO JUES OF i\i\lPLlflC ATIO:-r.

Besides the direct me:t ns o f am plifica ti on , there :i.re tCJ lie men tioned cc rt:tin :i.ccesso ries th at, r ightly employed, du rn wh tu
im part li fe :cml inte rest to th e thought.
Quotation . - " I k th:lt b orro ws the :i.id of :tn crpt;ii nnrl erstanding," says P.urke, "dou \1lcs his own j he th at llSt"S that of" hi~
superior elevates his 01\·n to the stature o f that he cu ntu11 1,btcs."
The corroborativ e quot:ttions introdu ced into a li terary work rn:1y
often be nude very v:i.lu:iblc features of it.
Some rules :i.nd ca uti o ns rcg:ndin g the use of qu o tati o n ne ed ,
however, to lie ol>served.
I. In employin g qttot:ttion to corroborate any statem ent, the
write r shou ld \Je sure tlut it exp resses :i.n idea in the e :-.; :i ct line uf
his thinking . If it is :i. little aside, or loo ks toward :i. different co n clusion, it but co nfu ses the work ; :i.nd all th e mo re if 1111~1· a lit tle
out of the way . Such in ex:i.ctness is the m ost frequ ent e rror in
quoting.
EXAillPl.E.

-Th e following qu o tati o n :;, whi ch occ ur in the mi dst l>f ::i p;-is-

sage in c ulc ating p a inst1king in comp os iti o n, turn the thought, as will lit:
olise rved, a little a~ide: " Our u est po e ts ha\·e been equally painstaking.

Ben J u nso n declared, con-

29S

AMPLJEICATJON.

A.lil'L lIICI T/0,\T.

tr;1ry !(} the l'"l'"br npinio n, 't h at a gll<)d p nl'l 's 1J1i1de, as w ell as l.iorn.'
abu, \ \ 'vrd "1·v rth: -

Su,

· 0 m:rny arc the poets tha t arc so ll'n
J\1· 1utu1T, me n c ndowc·d wi th liighc>'t gifts ,
The \'i sio n and the: f.1c11l1\' di1·i111·:
Yd wanting th e acco 1n j>!ish nwnt o f verse,
\\'hi ch. in the d oc ile SC:1son o f thei r youth,
It wa s dcnicd tl1cm to :1cq11irc through lac k
Of culture, and the in spir in g ai d o f books.'"
From t hi~ point vnwa rd th e s 11l•j cct of painstaki ng is resumed
\':arning v r tr:111 :,itivn, as if the th vug ht had l1cc n uulmJk t:n .

with out

z . It is irnpo rt:rnt, in introdt !C' ing :i ci1 1o ted expression, to give
the q1111tation in ih ex:ict words, 11·ithu11t h:l\·ing tu accommodate
it tu anuthn granrn1ati cal structure, o r to take any liberti es with
the cxpre ssiu n. I\' o t al ways, JH.: rh:lj >s, can this he easily clone; but
in m ost ct scs the wri ter can :1 djt 1st his n11·n co nst ruc tio n to that
ul the l>o rnl\\·ed p:t~s:i ge. l'o e try should l>e quoted in lines, if
Jll() J'e t h:rn 011e Jinl' is ljllOled; if Oil])' one )inc, Or part Of a Jinc,
thL· writn shl>1tlcl j11dgl' ll'het her, frolll its close or loose r eonncxw 11 ll'ith his thou.:;ht, it will bette r appear in the body of the text
or in :1 line liy itscil.
T1.1.1· sT l(.\Tl u :-.'. - Th e a11·kwardness o f the f,1Jl ll \1·ing is evident: "Yet he
di.I J,nuw 1ha t ' Christ and /li111 cru c ilietl' 11·as JH>11· h is all in all; and thi s
k1Hi11 ledge tliri llctl c:i·c·ry lilm.: uf hi s hudy." The scntcncc uught lo be recast
s" 111:11 C:ii thf1 d1ll·ss :in d ;:r;1111ni:\ti1·:ii sl rn 1·tun: ~i.11u l.J 1·oi11 L: id c ; e.g." \' ct he
did l-11 .. 11111:11 hi s ;\II i11 all11as su11111H·•l llJ' i11'( 'l 1ris1 and lli111 cru c ilicd'; and
tl1 is k11uwlcdgc," l'lc.
Tl1t.: full"11 ·i11g \I ill ill11s1 ratc Ca rdi11al :\c\\·m a11's sc rupulou s ness, in quoting,
t u 111ark all that he q111>tl'S a nd onl y that: '" !'he clisp11ta11h :trc men of cdu cati .. n an d a b ili ty : thcclcrgyman orth odox,
s criuus, amiaLlc ; his oppo n e nt a man o f cando r an.I gnucl se nse ; and' the
11 h.,lc' Ct> rr c·spo11 dc·n cc prufc:sscs l1l lie se nt lu Ilic pr ess' faithfully , without co mm e nt, withuul a lteri ng a wo rd or sylLti,Jc ' 1>11 un c si , lc or un the uthcr."

Allusion. - By thi s is mc:111t indirn "t sugges tio n of or relercnce
tu som ething th:it th e reader

lll:1)'

l>c tru sted to understand, some in-

2')')

cidc nt, express ion, or custom in history or lite rature or lifl~ . If
thl: reader profits by the allusi o n, the idea thus becomes a double
one ; and the indire c tness of th e association is a graceful compli ment to the reader's c ulture . Fertility of allusion is one of the
most ch:irming embelli shments of literature.
EXA\11·1.Es . --The follow ing, fr o m John Morley, is an allusi o n to the in cid e nt r eco r d ell in 1 Kin gs xv iii. 44: "A statesman may well be par do ned fo r n ot discerning the germs o f n e w
th in gs almul his feet: he t oo o ften fails to see them even wh en they ha,·e
gro wn breast high . 1t is hut little r cp ro :ich to him not to have d esuit:d th e
s111nll d uru/ on lh t• re111 0 /t' h orf :{IJL 11 0 l1<i:gc r lli a ll n man's h1111d, wh t:n lt c 5•1
ofte 11 m o ves in s<:rc 11e un cu nsc iuu s11css o f the tcmpest read y lo burst on:r his
head ."
Th e full u\\' in g , from Bulwer, is a n allus io n to the uld myth u f Cad m us and
the dragon's teeth: " So h e dismi ssed them, if with churlish words,
\V ith royal presen ts. and to festal po mps.
Dut one, by i\lcdia n law
l'\ eares t li is th rone , th e chief pries t of the M agi,
" I laving hea rd al l \\'ith no t un prcsc ie nt fears,
F ulluwcd the Pr ince a nd urged recall o f words
\Vhi ch, se nt from king to king,
Are /n111,1;h l with dragon seeds, whose g row th is nrmi,·s."

Of course the pros )erity of a n allusion depe nds e ntirely on the
reader's al>ility to reso lve it. l\facauby, whose writin gs are e:;peci ally ri ch in allusion, hacl the useful cu stom of in c id entally explaining each allu s ion f:i.r enough so that the re:i.cler could p rofit liy it
wheth e r he was famili:ir with the o ri g in al a ll udt:d t o or not. J\n
instruc ti ve indication this, of Macaulay's prevailing p:issio n for

clearness.
EXAMPLE. -The following n o t o nly alludes, but tells enough o f th e s tory
tu make th e allusion pbin: "The spell loses its power; ancl he wh o should then h ope to conjure wit l.
it would li11 d himst:lf as much mistak e n as Cas~im in the ,\ral.ian talc, \\'lt t: n
he sl oo<l c ryin g . ' Open Wh eat,' ' O p e n Barley,' to the dvur whi ch oli<:yed nu
sound hu t ' Ope n Sesame.'"

300

A fifl'!JF!CA T!ON.

RENWDUCTION OF TJIOUC!I T.

Suggestion. - M a ny a tho ug ht is m uch more effectually treated
whe n 1 ~ '.s m e re ly hm te d; whe n th e read e r is, as it were, put on
the track of 1t a nd st1 111 ubtcd to ca rry it o n fo r himself. "You
m us t be c are fuL" says Henry \\':ml T3ee c her,1 "not to surfei t
p eo1'.k; kavc roo m for their im agin a ti on and sp mt to work.
Do n t t reat th e m as sa c ks to be fi lled from a funnel. Aim to
m ~~e the m sp ir it11ally ac tive, - sel f- helpful."
, , 1 he re lat io n of s ugges tiveness in styi c to ec onomy of the rc:H.l er ::. rntc rp rctrng power has alrezi d y been mentio ned , page z7 .

CHAPTER III.
REPRODUCTION OF THE THOUGHT OF OTHERS.

entering upon th e study of the spec ific literary forms,
we n eed to devo te a c hapte r to the di scu ssion of a kind of work
which, thoug h n o t stri c tly invent ive , calls for the a bility to trace
-<ccurately and intelli gentl y the various proc esses in clud ed in ini;e nti o n . Re pro duc ti o n of t he thought o f others, by som e workmg-ove r p ro cess, such as abstrac t, paraphrase, or translati on, is
often incu lcated as a \·aluable m eans of di sc iplin e to the wri te r.
It is thi s, a nd mo re. I t is a di stin c t form o f litcr:uy work, fo r
whi c h en:ry author has freq uent occasion; :.rnd th e ne ed of tho rough and co nscienti o us training in the princ iples o f it, is evide nt
from the fa c t that th ere is no more prol ifi c source of recriminati on
between authors than blundering or unfair inte rpretatio ns of each
other's statements .
Ability to reproduce thought accurately is
needed also as the indispensaule requisite for criti c ism. Not ofte n
is a crit ic actually di sho nest in his representations of a n author's
work; but it is just as bad as being di shonest if he m akes up hi s
judgm e nt from a h:1sty impre ss io n, o r if he lack s the a cu me n to
give a true and sc:uchi 11 g account o f the produ c ti o n h e is re,·i cwing. Eve ry c ritic owes it there fore bo th to his author :rnd hi s o wn
reputation to (]Ualify himself b y a dete rminate disc iplin e look ing
to th is parti c ular encl, be fore he presumes upon t he responsible
office of p:i.ss in g jitdgrncnt on the crea tions of oth e r m e n's mind s.
Considered in its rebti o n to invention, rcproJu ctio n of th e
thought of o thers may l>c regard ed as an exerc ise in whi ch th e
material is sup j>l icd; in whi c h, therefore, the writer's skill is concentrated on the fo rm. Wh at form it sh:ill take , whethe r con densed or cxp:inclcd, wheth er a full reproduction or merely selec tB E FOR E

EXA:lf l'l.E . - l"l•nsid t:r h o w th e e nd o f th e full uwi 1w fr om Waite S
I
·. r
I I ·
""
r . avage
I
. _.a n lo ~, is illt:l. >y its suggcs ti,· cn ess tu lean: th e read e r in the altitude (
o
1mag 111rng fu r h 1111sel f. I t occ urs in his" !>ream u f Petrarca" . " ' ·\ ntl I U\"(; I ' - . 1 I ' 1 . h . l
• .
. ·.
~
. sa t( ' w ut e r is ie d eparted?
Tf not too late I would

prup111a te and app ea s e h ill\.'
'
" ' l I ·I10 C, . . ~ .''
can nu t fo llu \\' m e, h e \\'h o ca nn o t o ,·ertak c an d pass me,' said th e
c.: '.11us, is unworthy of t h e nam e , the.: 111 \ls t glt >ri ll us in earth or heaven. L - k
up . 1.ovc.: IS yo n de r, and re ady l• i rccc.: i1·e thet:.'
ou
" l l<>.,ked : th e earth was un d er 111 c : I sa w o n ly the clear blue sl ·
I
th i11,t; lirightc r a liu \' <.: it."
•
,y,a1n somel

lk echn, " Yak Lectures on l'rc.1c.:li ing ," first Series, p. 224.

30J

2 ~)8

AllfPJJFJCAT! ON.

AJJF LJIJC..J T J O.'V.

ira ry to the pn p ula r op i11i o n, ' t hat a good pnct's /ll (fde, as well a s born. '
a! s, ., \ Vords wun h: -

So,

2.

wi thout

it tu :tn u th c r g u1nni:ltica l s trnct ttr c, ur t u ta k e an y l ib ert ies w it h
l\ ot :1lw ay s , pe rh a p s, l':tll th is lie e asi ly do n e; liu t

t he ex 1ncs s iun .

in m us t c ts cs t h e \Hi te r c a n a djlls l h is rnn1 co n stru c t io n t o th a t
l'u ctry s h o u ld he quot1::d in lin es, if

rnu r e tlun o n e l ine is •11 1o ted ; if u nl y one l in e, or p ::trt of a !inc,

j t1dgc

" ·hcthc r, fr o m its c lose o r looser co n ne x-

i o n " ·i t h hi s t ho u g ht, it 11·ii! l.i e tte r appea r in t he l.iody o f th e tex t
(Jr in :t li n e hy it s elf.
I 1. 1.1 ·:;rn y 11•1:-;. - T he a \\' ], \\' a nln ess o f th e f.,1!,rn· ing is cv i<le nt: "Yet he
did l" w "· 1l 1a t ' C h rist and l!i 111 n 11 cili c.J' ''° "' ll«\\. h is all in al l; and th is
kn 11 \\ k d.i.:c 1h r il k.J cvny li l•rc uf hi s l1ndy.' ' T l1c sc·nt<.: ncc 1n1g ht to be recast
"" 111.1 1 l:1 i1li11 il ncss a nd g r:1:11111:i t iL·al st ru clmc sli ,.ul .J <.:11 in cid c ; e.g." Yet he
d i. I k '"'" 1li:11 h is a ll in a ll was s 111 111 11< .. I " I' in' c ·i. ris t and I l i11 1 cr ucili ecl '; :rnd
t l1i~ l-. n1J\\·lct!gc ,'' e tc .

Ex A ~ l l' l. ES . ·-Th e fo ll o win g , fr o m J o hn Mo rl ey, is an all usi o n to t he incid ent r eco rd eel in r Ki ngs xviii. 44: "A states ma n may wel l be pa rd o ned fo r no t di scerning th e g erm s of n<.: w
th ings a bo ut hi s fr et : h e too o ft e n fails to sec th em eve n when th ey h:in:
g ro wn lm:as t hi g h . It is b ut little repro:ich to h im n ot to haYe d escried th e
sm all d v1u l 011 tht' r em ote /1 orizo11 n o 11/:(i,'er t/1a 11 a m an's h an d , wh e n h e su
o ft e n m o ves in sere ne un cu nscio us n<.:ss u f the tempest ready to burs t over h is
h ead ."
Th e full owi ng , fr om Bulwcr, is an allusio n lo th e ol(l myth o f Ca dmus an d
th e dr ag o n 's t<.: <.:th : -

" So h e di s mi ssed th em, if wi th ch ur lish words,
\ .Vi1h roya l p resents, a n d 10 fc:stal pomps.
13ut one , b y l\kd ia n law
N earest h is throne, th e chief pri ·st o f the l\lagi,
" l l:iving hea rd all wi th no t uni rcscien t fears,
F o llo w •d the l'r inc:c and urged recall of wo rds
'vVh ich , se nt fr o m kin g to ki ng ,
A re j ra11.i;ILL witli dragon seeds , w !zose g rowtlt is arm ies."
Of co urse th e pros p e rit y o f a n a ll u s io n clepe n d s enti r e ly on the
reade r 's abil it y t o r eso lve

it.

M a ca \l lay, wh ose writin gs a rc e spe -

c ia lly ri1 ·h in .'.l!h is io n , had the u se ful c u s t o m o f inc id e nt::i.ll y e x pla inin g eac h ;illu s io n far eno u g h so th at t he reade r c<rn ld pro fi t by it
w hethe r h e w as fami liar \\' it h t h e o ri g inal all ud e d to o r n o t.

T he f" ll11 \\' in g " ·ill i llustr ate Card in:.! :\c\\'lll:ln's scrup11 !011 s ness, in qu otin g,
t•I ni:i rk all !h a t h e lj ll •il c·s :in d Pnly that : " T lic d is1' 11t a nts a rc 1n en uf ecln <.:al iu n :in d a l1il ity : th e ck rgyman orthodox,
scr i" us, :irn iali k; his u pp•JJH.;nt a ma n o f ca nd11r an d g•'ucl se nse; and' the
" ·Ii.,!.; ' C••rrcs1l\mde nce i•rn f<.:ss <.:s to he sen t t11 th e pr c·ss ' fai lhf111l y, with o ut com111cnt, \\' it hu11t al te ring a \\' o rd or syll al1k' un u 11e side ur un t he other."

Allusion . - Bv

F e r t ility o f allu s io n is one of th e

m o s t c h ar mi ng c m liclli s hmc n ts o f lite rature .

It is imp o rtan t, in in t r odllc in g .'.l q11o t c d e xpression , t o give

th e \Hite r s ht11 tld

t he r e ad e r pro fits by t he allus io n , the id e a th us b eco m es a doul>le
ment t o th e r e a d e r ' s cul t ure .

the qu o u t i1111 in ih exact \\'Ords , with ou t h ;n· in g t o a c com m o da ti.:

of t h e l>orrn \\·L'<i p:tss;1ge .

If

one ; a nd the indire c tness of t h e ass o c iat io n is a g r a ce ful c om p l i-

· () many arc the poe ts tha t arc so wn
Hv 11 :t:un.:, men endo wed with hi g hest gifts ,
T li c vi siu 11 an d th e f:t c uJt,· di vine :
v_.t \\':ll1t ing t l1c :tc cnm p!i, Jrnwnt of verse,
\ \:h ic h. in the doc ile seaso n of tlwir yo ut h,
It '"'' s de nie d th« m to acqu ire thro ugh la ck
Of cult ure, a nJ the in spiri ng a id of books.'"

From th is p u int u n wa rd the subj ect 11f pai nstak in g is resumed
wa rnin g ur transi tiu n, as if th <.: th o ug h t ha d U<.: <.: n unlJrok<.: n.

c icl c nt , e x p r ess io n , or c u s to m in h istory o r l ite r a ture o r life.: .

299

th is is me a nt indirL'ct s 11gge s t io n o f o r r e fe re n ce

t o s om et h in g t ha t the r c ::i.ck r 1my l.J e trn s te d t o un d e rst a n d , so me in-

ins tru c tive

in di c ati o n thi s , of

J\ n

l\faca u lay ' s pre vailing pass io n fo r

cle arn ess .
ExA~ !P I. E . - T h e fo ll ow ing n ot o nly allud es, hut tells en o ug h o f the sto ry
tu mak e th e allusiun plain: "Th e spell luscs its p o we r ; and h e wh o sh o uld the n h c> pe t(I co nju re wit !.
it wo ul d !in d h imsel f as m uch m istak en as Cassi m in the J\ rali ian talc, wh en
he stood crying, ' Ope n \ Vheat,' ' Open Ba rley,' tu the doo r whi ch obeyed nu
so un d liut ' O p en Sesam e .'"

----- -300

A/i!l'!JF/C 1 T ! ON.

R L' l'/W Dl'CTI ON OF T l!UUCIJJ'.

301

, Sug.gestion . - i\fany a thou.;ht is much more effectually treated
wnen rt is merely h inted; wh e n the reade r is, as it were, put on
the t ra ck of it :-tnd stimubtcd to c:-trry it on for himse lf. "You
must be c:-trcful." says H en ry \ Varel Heecher, 1 "not to surfei
peopk i leave room for their im agin ation and spi rit to work
Dun' t treat them as sac ks to be filled from a funnel. Aim 1 •
make the m spi ritual ly act in~ , - se lf-h elp ful."
The relati on of suggest ive ness in style to economy of the reader's interpreting po wer has already been mentioned, page 27 .
E XA~!J • f.I·: . -(°iln sidcr h u w t h e end C•f th e full u11·in o- from \Va!ter s~vnrr
1
I
. "'
" ....,e
. . a n< n r, is lilted by its sugge:t iveness to leave the reader in the attitude of
1mag 111 1ng fo r hi mself. I t occu rs in his" U rea m of Petrarca":"' :\nd Lo 1·c ! ' said I, 'whith e r is he ch:partcd?
pr< ip itiatc and appease h im .'

If not too late, I would

. ".' !I c .''ho can nu t fuilu11· me, he wh o c:rnn ot ove rtak e and pass me,' said the
C. en1us, 'i s unworthy of the name , the lll•JSt g l" riutts in ear th or heaven. Look
\ll' ~ f.01·c IS yo nde r, and ready tu re cci 1·e thee.'
. " l lu•. ikt:cl : the ea rt h 11·:is un de r me ·· T s:<w
· o nly the clc~. _\ 1· blue sl·y
.. , , atH.I sutnc·
thing l1r1.~litc r al iu 1·e ii."
1

l kechcr, .. \":de L ec tu res on Prcacl1i 11 i;." Firs t Series, p. 224 •

CHAPTER III.
REPRO DUCTION OF THE THOUGHT OF OTHERS.

U1·:F<mE enteri ng up o n the s tudy of the spec ific literary forms ,
we ne ed to devote a chapte r to the di scuss io n of a kind of work
whic h, thoug h no t s tri ctly inYentive, calls for the aoiJity tO trace
-qcc urate ly and intelligently the various processes include d in in'<en tion. Reproduc tion of the thought of others, by some working-over proc ess, su ch as a bs trac t, paraphrase, or translation, is
often in culc::ited as a Yaluablc m eans of discipline to the writer.
It is thi s, a nd m o re. It is ::i distinct fo rm of litenry work, fo r
whi ch every auth o r k1s frequ ent oc casion; and th e nl'.ed of t ho rough and co nsc ie ntio us training in the p rinc iples of it, is evident
from th e fac t that th ere is no more prolific source of recrimin ati o n
betwee n auth o rs than bl unde ring or unfair interpretatio ns of each
other's statements .
Ability to reprodu c e thoug ht acc uratel y is
needed also as the inclispe nsaol e rec1uisite for c riti c ism . Not often
is a c riti c ac tually di shone st in his representations of an author's
work; hut it is ju st as bad as bei ng d isho nes t if he mak es up hi s
judgrnent from a h:1s ty impress io n, or if he lacks the ac umen to
give a true and Sl'arch in g a ccoun t of the produc ti o n he is reviewing. Every crit ic owe s it therefore ooth to his author and his own
reput::ition to qualify him self hy a d eterminate discipline look ing
to this particubr end, oefore he presumes upo n the responsible
office of passing jucl g rn ~nt on the creations of other men 's minds.
Co nsidered in its relati on to invention, reprod uctio n of the
thou ght of others may be regarded as an exercise in which th e
material is s upplied; in whi c h, th e refo re, the writer's sk ill is con cent r::itL:d on the form. Wh at form it shall take, wh ether condensed or expanded, wheth er ;i fttll reproduction or men:ly select-

..-

302

R/J'N()/)f /( "/ '/U.\I OF TIJOUCJ.!7'.

RIJ 'R O/)UC'T/O.V OF

1vc, is det e rmined by it s object :rn<l occas ion . Four main aspect
of su c h rep roduction :-tre disc ussed in the p resent chapter: intcrp rct:i.tion, :-thstr:i.ct, p:-traphmsc, :i.nd translation.
T.

Scope of Interpretation . - Th is form of reproduction is cli .•
cus,.;ed first, l;ec:i.use it is the ne cess:i.ry oasis of all others: :my
process by which th o ug ht already exi stent is worked over and presente d 111 an o the r g11ise is fundam entally interpretation of that
thou~h t. The preliminary procedu re in all cases is to ge t clearly
in rnmd the exact 1d e:-t of the o ri gina l.
This once accom plished, the <l i,;ti n c ti\T fu rm of the reprodu ction is a comparativ ·ly
ca~ y nuttc r to settle, dcpendin.~ o n th e particular pu rpose that th ~
\\Ti ter h as m ,·i ew.
The sco pe th:1t is open to the work or inte rpretati on is far more
cnmprehensi,·e th a n a ny rne ch:rnical rules can cover.
f or the
truest in terpretatio n is n o t m ec hanica l; it is c reative, foll owi ng
wi th 111s1gh t and sympat hy the s:ime co nstructive lines th at were
laid d o wn in th e ;:iuthor's mind am! heart, and vivifying the work
:i.new.

lures o f exp ress ion; n o r can th e interprete r :iilorcl on occasion to
neglec t :rny minut es t d cta.il of t hes e. It is the p oss ilJle potency or
a wurd. or a lette r to determine the wh ole !;ea.ring of a passage
wli:ch 1rnp:1rt s :ill ho11c 1 r:tl ,le 1 w ~s tu the ex:w t scl10l:1rship of the
\·eri>a l n itic.. :\t th e s:llne ti me, that interpretation whi c h stop
mth such rnrnutc wo rk i:-; as in adequ:i.te as that whi c h ignores it.
Stopping ·.\· ith it, interpre tation beco mes mere dryasdust comnh:nt , mi ss ing :ill that gi ,·es life :rnd spirit to the orig inal; ignorin"
it, it l1econws \\· i!d, f:rnt:bt ic . hope lessly :1lloyed with the critic'
uwn v:1garics. T he re is lJu th a mir111 te interpretation and a liberal;
an interpretation that centres in the smal lest things, and an int e r ~
pre tation t hat re:iches indefinitely ur al o ng the loft ier lines of
though t and fancy im·oln::d in th e origin:1l.
Jktwce n these two

303

kinds the critic will choose accord ing to hi s in sig ht. \\'h a t in sp ires but dull " gerund- gr ind ing" to one will to a nother be full
of" the lig ht th:it never was, on sea o r l:rnd." Eve ry indi\·id ual
must find his own most congenial m a nner of inte rpreting ; a.nd
often he must reach results through processes too subt le to be
described . \\' hate\T r the processes, howeve r, it is to ]Jc rem embered tha.t th e m o re sternly a nd co nsc ienti o usly the exact verbal
invest igati o n is held to as a b::is is, the su rer is the crit ic of bei ng
honest with his o ri g inal.
Purposes of Interpretation. -As regards the pu rpose for whi c h
it is mad e, two a.spec ts or interpretati o n are to be di stin gu is hed .
r. Interprct:ition for its o wn sake, whi ch is the sta ple o f th ::i t
con s iclera!Jlc !Jody of writing found in co mm entaries, c riti cal edi ti ons, e xpli c:itio ns, :ind the like . In s m:h wo rk the or ig in al d e ter mines the whulc th o11~ht, a nd the obje c t o f the interpretat io n is
simply to g i,·c, on some d e term in ate scale or prin c iple, a fai r a nd
full account of \rh a t is invo h·ed in the o riginal. It is the hi ghest
merit of su c h interprcta.tiun that the interpreter effa ce him self. and
let th e thou g ht o f the orig inal ]Jc perfectly tr:rn smitted, th ro ugh
the n ew medium, to the re::i.der.

INTEl~l'RF.TATION .

I ntcrpret: tt ion lic~ i ns indeed \\·i th the hum bl est procedures,_
with verli:1! c riticis m :i.nd pat it~nt a na lys is of th e g rammatical fc:l ·

TllOUC !!T.

~

.1.~.'
.

NOTE . - A co nscient io us int er p reter, b e in g co n cern ed m e re ly t hat the t ru th
become cle:tr, will n ot infrequently f!:ivc nwr c than one vit:w, and k:i.,·e th e
dec is io n l<> the judgme nt nf his reade r. The full o ll'ing null: , f" r exa 11 iplc,
is I'ruf. l l e nry l'\. !Judson 's eu mm c nt o n lht: e xpression, l lamkt, A ct I.,
scene 2, ",\ little more than J; in, and less th a n kind": "Th e Kin g is ':i. li1:lc m o re than kin' lo ll:i.mlct, \,ecause , in 1Jt: in )..'. :i.t
once his Ull c k and his fatl11·r. li e is t-.·n i«" kin. i\nrl h e is' lc;s th :i. n kind,'
because his inc cst u,,us m a rriage, as I larnlct vie\\'S it, is u1111 1ilur11/ ur 0 11! of
nature. The poet rcpeatcdlv uses lint! in its primiti,·c sense o f 11 al11re.
P ro fes so r I Ii mes, h o \\' c\·c r, o f :ct tyslrn rg, Penn ., questions this t:x pbn:1:i 1rn ,
:i.nd writ es m e :i.s f<> llu\\'S: 'It seems to me th a t, sin ce l Iamlct h:i.s just l•ec n
addressed as cu usin and as so n, h e is still the o l,j cc t of thought , and tht: \\'<>r•b
ciuoted must lie refe rred by l ht: l'rin c c lo him se lf, :i.nd n o t tu lh t: K ing. fn
other words, it is 1lamlct \\'lhl is " a li llk ll1<1rt: th:i.n kin, and lc,s than kin d. "
If we takt: !.-i ll as a s11Lslitutc f11r <1JJ1si11, :i.nd !.:ill.I as a sulis ti l L1tc f1; r son ,
H amlet is a lit tle m v rc than th e iirst, fur he is nt:phe"", a n d a lit tk less than
the second , fv r he is v11ly a stcp -s1111. l lamlct's a sid<· is thus a rd u rl upo n tl1 e

30 1
K i ng 's

JUJ'l\0/) { ·c1 1 0,\ · OF
\1· o r <I~ ;

Rl:J '/i.' ODUC T/ON OF T//OUGH T .

!'// O C C !!/.

a o; th o ugh h e sa id." I am n eith er the o ne no r th e oth n ,

~

lit t le rn ur c t ha n t he o n e , and n ut so muc h as t h e other. "' "

z . Interp re ta tio n empl o ye e! inc ide ntally, th e mai n though t of
tb e p roductio n lJ c ing o the r bu t nee d in g to use the ma tter inter·
pretc cl , c it. h e r to c o nfirm or to confute it. StKh use o f intc rprct:ttion is c xtc nsiv dy m ade in a r;;u rnc nt:1t ivc a n d e xposito ry li te rat ure ;
;rn d t h e fair trea t m e nt of anoth e r's thought, whether in agreem ent
or in o ppo sit i\ln, is o ne of the strongest indi cati o ns of a so und and
hon ora b le m ind . Though t c a n so eas ily be distorted, explained
~nn y, infla te d , g ive n a wrong co loring, t hat the inte rpre ter cannot
l ie too strc rn1uusl y caut io ned to use ;1 110thc r's thou g ht fairly or not
at a ll. I t is rela ted of J ohn Stuar t l\fi ll th at he was so scrupulously
fair in contron: r,;y that he o fte n statecl the oppo nent's p os ition
bette r t ha n d id the oppo ne nt hi msel f ; and certainly he gai ned
more tha n he lost b y su c h a c ourse .
l·:xA .111 ·1. i-:. - A <1uainl cx:1111 p le o f a p a, ,agc int e r p re ted word by wo rd for!\
pa r ticula r pur pose u cc ur s in La tim e r's" ~u rn n n 0 11 the Plu ug he r,; " : " <)Ji th a t ••U r pr e lates ,1.ll ul d c lie as ti ili g e n tc lo Su\\'e th e co rnc of goorl
doct r ine as S at h'rn is, t u

S <>\\' l :

coc k c:I and cla rn cl.

i\ ncl thi s is th e Lk ui ly ~ h e

p lo ugh in ,gc , t h e " ·hi c h wu rckct li t u hau c t hin gs in lat in c , a nd lct te th th e fr ui t·
fu l cd ili cati• n l.

l ~u t

h c: rc su m e m a n 11·ill sai c· lo m e, \\' h at s ir a rc ye so priu ie

o f t h e d e u ils co un ,; c ll tha t ye J; n o 11· al th is l" be true?

T ruli I k n o w him I n

wc l. :rncl l1aue <>hc ~· ed h im a l itt le tn mu c h in l' •nHlcscc n1in g c to so me f.,]J i,· ..
:\ n d l k n<>ll'C h im a s ot h c r men du . ye a , lha t h e is c ucr occu p ied a nd cuer
1> 11 ,ic· in f<> l ow in ~:c h is i' l»111-;h . I k n<> ll' l•i s:ti nt l'd e r wl1 ich saic lh o f him .
.\i(·lf t /,·,) r u.~'"i , ·11 s ,_
·/ r ,·uil fj/ft'Ft'll.S r/ ll t "ll/ r.'1·:rr1 rr·/ . I I c gnc th aboutc lykc a
r" :irin ;.;e ly n n s1 ·e k;·n gc wh 111111 · he m:> ye d v1 1u11 re . I wo ulcl c haue thys tcx tc
w cl vcw cd a n d " ':1111in ed cu <: 1Tc 11·., r· k .. f it. Cirr u il, h e goe th abo ul e in
c nc ry c corn e r uf h is d iu ccs . l [c g<Jc lh <• ll ,·i,;i1 a ci •>11 dayl yc . II e leau cth no
]•h ce of Ji ,·s c ure: nrnis ited. .l fe wal k cth r.iund a 11» ulc fro m place to place
a nd cc:isct h n o t. S irut leo , as a l .y c>n t hat is stron gly. iiddly, and pro udlyc
st r:1y tclye a nd :icrce lye ,,·ith hautc luukcs , w1·t. h hy5 pru u clc co unte naun cc~.
' " Ylh bys stately h rng gyn g1·s . R11,i;im s. ru aringc , fu r h e lct tct h n o t slippc any
occ a s io n to sp cak c o r to r o :1r c o ut whe n li e ,;c1·lh h is tym c . Q 11cr ens, h e goeth
:1 lio \l t s ee k yn g an •I ll • •l slcl'pyn ;.;, as our c l1isli•>pp es do, lrnt h e sck eth dil i·
~: t: nth·, h e sear c h ct h d ilig,·ntly al cqrn e rs . wh e ra s l1 c ma y hau e his p ray, he
r•lUd h al•r•••k i n l'neri ph ce of l1i ,; ,fi ,,,·cs . h e st:rn .Jcth n u t s ty !, h e is n eucr ;u
r ..;\<" , i1u l n ;cr in k 111d c 11.1·th l1 i,; 1, J,,ugh lii:ll it m:i,· ;u fu r ll' ank ."

305

Requisites of Interpretation. - F rom what has b e en said it is
evident th a t inte rp re ta tive judg m e n t of a n author's wo rk, to be
ade qu a te , m ust be co mm u n ion with the a uthor's mind; it is trac ing th e c urrent o f h is inve n tion from its fi nal result back to its be g innings . T he requ isites of inte rp re tation, the refo re , a rc s imply
the req uisites o f a symp a thet ic a nd co ngenial, but a t th e sa m e
time k ee n a nd c ritical, u nd e rstanding o f a c reati ve intell ect ; with
powe r a lso to e nter into wha teve r th e work contains of pass io n o r
imagina ti o n .
Let us, however, examine a littl e more in deta il what th ese
req11i si tes in vo l\'e .
r . First of all, th e c ri tic n eeds to d e velo p by train ing a se ve re
a nalytic al j ud g m e nt. T hi s he n eeds in o rder to an swe r fa ith full y
and a ccurately th e ir:i itial q uesti ons : exac tly wh a t things a re in
the or iginal, exp ressed and suggested, and how they a re com bine d .
With o ut t he d isp os ition to such c on scien tious wo rk a t the be ginning, any c riti c ism is su re to b e in conclusive . Va g ue impressions, wit hout d e fin ite d e ta il s to back them, arc a too shado wy
basis for so lid inte rpre ta ti on. Thi s is evid ent wh en we co nsid er
how muc h is really inclu d ed in any mas te rly co urse of thoug ht.
For bes ides wha t is expli c itly state d, muc h is give n by imp licati on
Furthe r, it makes a good deal o f d iffe re nce
and suggest io n.
wheth e r a sta te m e nt is a p rinc ipal e lemen t in th e p assage, o r is
thro wn in to subo rdi na te re latio n; wh e the r it is m ade absol11tcl y
or co ndi t io rw d hy so m e th ing else. So m e facts a rc exp ressed in
the barest a n d directes t styk; o th e rs a rc d isg ui sed in l1 g ure :ind
allus ion; and s urel y t hese so d iffe ren t m a nn e rs must indi cate some
subtle diffe renc e in their sig nifica n ce. All suc h features as these,
while they sugges t ho w careful th e inte rp rete r sho uld be in orde r
to d eal truly with hi s o ri gi nal, sugges t also h o w easy it is, whethe r
from lack of sk ill or cl e lil>era te un fa irness, to g ive the thoug ht a
wrong colo ring , o r in so m e way to mi sinterpre t it. E ve ry on e
thinks h e can g i\·e a tru e repo rt o f wha t anoth e r has sai d o r writk n ; it is only h e re ;iml t1 1c rc t he tr:ii ned and ex ac t m ind t ha t
ac tuall y < locs it.

Nl:/'1"0f)U( '/'ION OF T!IOUC'f!T.

Tu the :ul:liyt i(' al ju.Jgrnenl must be added, for all th e
in ach ie n .: rnenh of criti c is m, a vi go rous irnag in:ition. This i ~
n.:a li z in g farnlty, the fac ul ty by whi ch the interpreter puts him-.,id e by side 11·ith the orig in al :w thor, and shares by a kind of
1•:1 thy in bis crc:tti\'e pro c esses. L ook ing thus through the
11J r\ eye s, :ind com m trn i ng with his secret heart, the i nterp rc·cp rodu< TS hi,; inn er fe eli ngs, moli\·cs, ideals; ctn divine what
1ly hinted ; ca n run :ihead o f his \\' Ords, anJ enlighten wh:tt
"ri ,c; in:1! h:i,.; left , · :1.~1 1c :rn tl ol >snnc.
_,. thi s f:tnilty of ima gi 1ntinn t he interpreter be co mes assoc i:tt<.:d
his au tho r :is a fclhJ\\· -c re:i.to r. " Imag ination," s:tys Lowell 1
1t Tc it is trnly cr1.: :lli1·e , is a f:1cult y, and no t a qual ity; it look s
·i·c and aft n, it gi ,·L·s the form tha t rn :1kes al l the parts work
·t he r harrnoniollsly to ,nrd a g i,· cn e ncl, its seat is in the
1n n :a:-;on. and it is effi(' ient on ly as a se rvant of the \\'il l. "
as this is of the origi n:1ti \·e inugi1ution, it ecp 1a!ly clemon'es its t rn t 1 \\' hen imagination is appl ied to the work of thin k:1 n :lll tiHJr's thoughts :1fte r him .
. :\ nother requi site. needed by \\°ay of reguhti ve, is accurate
: m l of what may he ca.lied "the personal equation." In ason1i cal ohsc n ·:Hions ma~k by d ifferent perso ns, allowance has
•c 111 :1 de for the fact that so me have a. qu icker eye than oth ers
1·on sequcntly c an note the ins ta nt of a s ta r's t ra nsit more
tl y; a nd th is a. Jl o,u ncc for discrepa ncies between diffncnt
·n·e rs is c:ilkd th e pns1Jna.I e• pia ti o n. Wi th equal p ertin ence
1.1 1· ],,. s:ti d th :1t thvn· is :1 pnso n:1l cq 1utio n to be all owed for
ritic ism . Th:1l is, there is a tenden cy, g reater or less, to
I / 11 /(I th e origi1ial one's own ideas, o r to g ive the orig in:il a
>ring not ac curately i h 0 \\'11, by prejud ices and preconceptions.
i ·~ irn:1 g in:1ti ,· c interpre ters arc utte rl y untrustworthy on thi s
•1111t.
!\ nd no inte rpreter ca. n ]Jc unerring without so me de1inatc rnlt me design ed to cff:H·e his 0\\'11 conceptions in the
,e n. ·c o r hi s .111t h u r\. Th e conscientio us critic will keep strict
h of such tcnde1wy in himself, a nd Libor to redu ce the perc'

RIJ'RODUCT!ON OF T IIO UC llT.

"

307

sonal error to a m1111mum . The ideal for him is to lie a pe rfe ctly
transp:trent, unrefrac ting medium for the transmission of the o ri g inal author's thought; and in making an interp retatio n not infre que ntly he may have to work O\Tr his tran sc ript many times, with
utmost soli c itude , in order to make sure of retaining no disto rting
clements due to his own personal vie ws .
The self-c ulture needed to <le\·elo p and confirm these reqllls1tcs
m akes the work of i nterprelati o n one of the most ,·alualilc of ex erc ises for g i,·ing the write r control o f in vc nti\'C processes, and fo r
making his reading and observat io n \·alu:tlJk to him. This a spec t
of interpretation has already been discussed to some extent, under
Disciplinary Reading, page

2 3 7.

IL

ABSTRACT.

Abstract, or precis-writing . is the name gi,·en to that process of
di scour:-;e where in the thought of a lite ra ry work is repro duced m
narrowe r compass .

Occasion and Method . - As the object in making abs trac t is
to reduce the thought to :.t scale more c01wcn ient for p rese nt uccc,
it is evide nt that the process is cmployecl rncrcly in cases \\' here
no t so mu ch depends on th e style of the though t as upo n its uu lk;
cases where the orig inal \\' ill bear to be cut down \\'i thout losing
its di~tinctivc c ha racter. Some kinds of discourse, po etry for
ins tance, d o not easily lend thern seh-es to abstract; no r is it o rdi narily neede d exce pt in such work as co n\kn si ng narrative, g i,·ing
th e main po ints in argu ment a nd e~q•n s ition, and th e like.
In making abs tract the scale may be rcJ11 ce<l to any d ·sirell
deg ree, th e general endeavor l>L·ing to c·onck nse :1ll Jl:lrts .1 1n 1formly, and to gel the m ost lHJs.-;i\1lc in the clio,;en sp:ice . I he
ideal, then, is a co nc ise a nd compac t s tyle, \\'ith ou t orn:i ment :tnd
wi thout sup erA11ities. In pursuance o f this id eal, abstrac t empl oys,
according to the characte r o f the thought, t\\'O m ~u n processes :
selectio n and condensation ,
r. Selec tion is the prevai ling process wh ere the thonght is artic ulated in propositions aml proof,;, or in generals and details ;

/.

------------·---:ws

AFJ'/,' ( 1/1{ '<. /'!<

1. \ ·

OF ! '/I OCCJIJ'.

Rl:'l 'A' l) JJUC /'10. \ ' OF

,,· hen: , 111 :i. ,1·unl, there is a traceable di stinction between th e
m :tin th oughts and the amplifica ti o n. /\. selec tive abstract on the
11arro 11-est sc:1k, m:1y t:1ke th e fo rm of a mere schedule
hcading-s; :1 11d fru111 this it may exhib it ,·:i riou s degrees of fullne ss, up
t i> :t co 111]'kt L: prcsen ta t iu n o f c1·c ry t11 1:rn1plific d thought.

;f

i·>; .1 \11·1 J' . -

Lri 1·i'

1

( .1 10 1: ,'

It \\ ' :1' a c us t••111 ,,f < 'arl :. 1c·, ' " g i1·e at th e e n d o f li is books 11
,,f his 1·:ni .. us l'l1 aptcrs l1y \\·a 1· uf summary . T h e m e th od wn

~,.; , '.cli" n'. :rn.J t ile :\!1,lra"t g:11·c »nly the nn ckus of ea c h p aragrap h. Th e fu J.
I '"·'"'·~ "ill l'.\hil11t th ,· gv 11cral J' n>]'urtiun ,, f t•rig ina l a nd al;stract : ' ' < )f l.:.<>u'''-':\ll :ind his I l n .. i,;111 I cannot sa1· S•>
111u1·l1. 11t: is 11 t1 t " ha t I ,·a ll :i s lrt1ng 111:\IL. :\

n 11 o1·i· i•I. 1·\r i1al1k, sp:1'111udi c ma n ; :it lics t i 11 tc nse
utli1·r 1li:u 1 ' t r<>ng. l I e had n ut' tht: ta!t: nt u i ~ i­
l, ·111·1-, · :111 i111 alu;Ji,lc tak11t : \\·l1ieh f'c11· i:reneh11 1cn ,
Pr i11dt·l:cl 1111.:n 1.1 f any surt i n l licst.: ti11 1cs, ex cel in!
Tl 1c· ,uffcring n1an t1uglit r eally 't u cu ns 11 mc his
t1\\ll s 1n t1 l ... c' ; then.: is 11 0 guud in L'1 11itt i 11g n11 <1!.. ·e

" J.:. o usseau , a morl;id,
cxc i tal;lc, spas modi c man;

Tl!O U Cll/'.

30')

Condensation is th e prevail ing process where, as in th e else
of narrati on, the bearing of the thought is gathered from the
whole, and where accon.lin gly every part must share propurtionally in the a bridge ment. It is ge nerally combined wit h sclccti u n,
being empl oyed for c utting down th e: :J rnplif1 ed parts so that the
tho ught m:J y st ill he p;irti rnb rize d and rc;ichhlc, tho ugh con tain in g fc\\' c r :rncl Jess minute details. Th is form of a bs trac t is exemplified in abrid ged histories.
2.

I\<H F.. -Thi s form o f abs t ra ct , or a h r idg m e n t 1 cann o t ll'ell l1e cx e mpli li •: d
al o ngs ide o f its o r igi nal, in t he s pace h e re at <'"mma nd; l1ut an i ll ust r:it i.. 11 "f

intense rather tha11 strnn i:.

the skillful cu n1kn sa t iu n of a narrative int o very b ri e f space may \;c q uote d

l lad nut the in valu able
' tal e11 t of ::iilencc.:.' "

frurn :'dac:rnlay : "Yo u re m e mber Gulli1·cr's adv e ntures. Firs t h e is shi p wr ec k ed i11 a c <>1111·
iry o f little m e n; an d Ite is a C u l<>ssus am(Jn g them. 1 l c strid es 11 1·e r tlcc
wall s u f th e ir c:ipital: he st a nds hi g h e r t han th e c upo la u f th e ir great tcm1 1Ie :
he tu g s a fter him a roya l Hect : he s tre tc h es hi s k gs; and a ruyal a r rn v, " ii h

Jil l ""li lt:11·e n1:tdt: it i111., jir,·. - 11 hich, in t he
i:1 .. 1:1ph11 ri c d ,;1·11,,c !"'"all smuke is cal':ilde t1f J,c .
• • 1 ni11.~ ~
l\. nu~...;c[lll has ru,t cl i.: pth o r w i dtli , n ut
• .11 111 f,, r,·1· f., r di11·1cu liy ; the first ch:iractc r is ti c i>f
tru1'. grl':il11,.,;s . :\ 111:111 is n ut st ru 11 g 11 ho tai,l'S
,·,,n1·u bi .. 11-l1 ts : t h1111.~h si' m e n c:u1111 1t ht1ld him

vours a ll' hvk gr a n a ry fo r lireak fa s t, ca ts a h e rd of cattl e f" r d in n e r, an• I
w ash es down his m eal wi t h all the hogshead s uf a cella r. ln h is n ext '" 1)''1ge
h e is am llng m en s ix ty feet hi g h. l fc wh 1J, in l .illi pu t, used tu lake.; Jl C"j>k up
in his h a nd, i11 unkr th a t h e mi g ht b e able t u h ear th e m , is hi111sclf taken tip
in th e h a nd s a nd hl'l.J tu the cars o f h is mast e rs. It is all th a t h e c:111 .i., t"

11c that c·an 11·:ilk u ndn tl it: l1L·a1·ic,; I 11· t:i.~ht
st:i.ggl·r i ng. he i~ the stru ng 111:i1 1. \\" c lll'Cd

d e fe rnl him self " ·ith !tis hanger a g ainst th e rats and mi ce. The cuurt la.i ic·~
amus e tl1<; mst:h ·cs ll'ith seeing him fig ht wasps and fr ogs : th e mrrnk ey rnn s .,ff

drums hea tin g and clllors !ly in g, ma rches t h rough th e gi ga nti c a rc h: h e de ·

1

th 1·n .

\ \ it l 1i >\ll

f,,,.,.,.,T.
r1 ·1ni11tl

e,;p1·ei:i lly i11 tlie,;e J.,11.f -shri e k i11,; d :1 1·s. to
<l\IJ'Sl' il ' L' S

,,f 1li:1 l.

;\ ma11 ll'ho C~ llllP; llt1!d

l:i '" t· ·1 1. ·. ·. till tl1l· 1i 1nl · c(11 11c f.,r ~pc:i.!...i 11 g alld :i.1 :t111 .:.~ . i~ I ll 1 r i,t.: Ii l I Jl ~ ll I.''

I .I e re it "di i •c t1 bn1·ed tli:it th t: l'arl left is mere ly t he am pli fic a tion 0 (
th e idea holl' 111 1pn r l: u1t is sik n cc, ll' hik the n11 ckus o f t hat th o ugh t is selected
1.. r al >s t r:1ct.
Th t: ll'h .. lc s1·cti •>11 <111 R11ussca11 is rep resent ed in abo ut the
" _1n1t: prnp n rti o n; th th : ( 2) •· 11 is i:a ·e , exprcs,, il' c o f hi s character.

(3) Jlis

l·~g '. 11,; 111,: l lun g ry f•1 r the prai ses o f m e n. (4) llis bo uks : l'assiunale appeals,
' ' h 1Lh !li d o n ce more st r ugg le to ll'ard s l.:t:alit y : A l'rophct to his Time; ns
he C<>n ltl, and as tli t: Ti m e cun ld . ( 5) l.:.11se pi n k , and artificial hedi zenmcnt.
((1) i_:r,·tlcd , exn,.:11 n:1l ed , t ili t l1c l1t:a r l u f h i1n we n t mad: Il e cu uld lie cooped.
qarl'lng, in to ga r ret s ; laug-he d at as a m a niac; but he co ul<l not be hindered
fr u lll SL'! Ii ng the '"" ri d u1 1 li re."

wi t h him to the c himn e y- top : th e d ll'arf d rops him into th e crea m j ug and
leav es hi1n to s wi m fp r h is l ife . ?\o w, 11·as C ull il' c:r a ta ll o r a slwrt ni:tn)
\>\Th y, in his uwn h u usc a t l.:.o tlterhi t he , he \\' as thou g ht a m an of 1l1c
o rd i nary s ta t ure . T ake h im l<> I .i ll ij•Ut ; a nd h i; is <_lu i nl. ns l:l es rin, the
i\Tan i\l o unt a in. T ake l1im t u l\ro lid in g nag, and he is Crildr ig, t l1i; little
J\la n ni k in. "
Thi s is intr o du ced liy ;\laca ulay i11tu u nc.; of his speec h es in 11rd e r to illus trate a th o ught; an 1l it re prese nt s, perh aps, th e k iml of abstract that th e re is
most frefjucnt occasi o n to mak e , in r ea l lit erature.

Value of Abstract as a Disciplinary Exercise. - In comm on
with the other processes d e tailed in the present chapter, whi le in
itself a distin c t litera ry form, abstract has also special value as a
means o f frequent di sc ipline to the write r.

:Ho

RLI'RUDCCTIO.'\T

or

TllOUCllT.

Its \·:.llne is pe rhaps best expresse d in the following word s of
1\rn old of l\. u~l 1y I to o ne of his Conner pupils: -

rh.

"I am n :ry .~l:icl th:it you co ntin ue to pnctice composition, lmt
al>on: :tll I would a1h·ise yo11 to 111 ;1 kc an abstract of one or tll'o
st:mrhrtl wo rks. (In c . I should say in philosophy; - the other in
hi story. I \\'Ould not l>e in a lrnrry to finish t H:m, but keep th em
constantly going on, - with one page ;1lways clear for notes. The
;il>str:i.ct itself Jir:u:ticcs yo 11 in condens in g an d giving in your own
\\'Ords \\'hat ;111 o thcr nun h:is said; a ha!Jit of great v:i.lue, as it
fo r('es one to think :i.IJout it, which ext racting merely does not.
lt forthe r g-i \· es :i lm.: \·ity and simjJlicity to your bnguage, two of
the greatest merits whi c h style can h.we ."
As an exe rc ise in interp reta ti o n, al1str:1ct is \·aluallle as trai ning
the writ e r in SL·lecting the cardirnl thoughts of a work and scpar:i ting them from \\-hat is of less im]h lrtance.
Rules of Abstract. - From th e al10\·e remarks and examples,
we ascertai n that skillful writers of abstra c t observe the followino
0
rules : I.

Give nothing in the reproduction t hat is not in the original.

2. Give merely what is essential to the main current of the th ought,
omitting illu s t rative, repetitionary, an<l amplifying details .

3. Ob se rve the laws of c ondensation ( see preceding, page
), in
154
g ivin g comprehensive and general s tateme nts instead of particulars,
word-modifiers instead of clau se -modifiers, suggestive and pointed
term s instead o f detailed language.
4· In gene ral, aim to be accurate, distinct, concise, without repetition an d without ornament.

III.

T' .\l\ ,. \l'ifl~1\SE.

P;iraphrasc is the reprod11<tiun of :m ;rnthnr's complete thought,
both main and s11l1ordinate, in other b11g11.1ge. \Vh en it is also a
ch~rnge frurn the poetic Corm to prose, it is called l\'Ietaphrase.
Utility of Paraphrase. - 1'araphrase is often spoken of in reproachful term ~, as if it 1\·cre 11C1thing b11t a dilution of the thought.
1

St:rnlcy, "Li fe of 1\rn old, " Vu!. r_ I'·

334

.

REPRODUCTION OF TJIOUCllT.

311

Any well-written production, it is said, is expressed in masterly
style already; besides, it so reflects the au tho r's incli\·idual traits
and feli c iti es that any change in the language mu st necessarily
destroy its dist in · tin~ ch;-tractc r. "The one :.ipt word" cinnot he
exchanged for another b ut for the wo rse.
All thi s is tru e cno11gh; but it does not consider that paraphrase,
when leg itim ately employed, h as a distinctive 0L1jcct. If it were
merely tink ering with express ion, m e re manipulation of words fo r
idle whim, or even for exerc ise, the reproach would hold . Hut
thi s docs not give the true use o f paraphrase. Par:iphrasc has one
clear olijcc t, - namely, to expbin . The one quality it seeks to
enhance is clearness. Now from various c:.iuses thi s quality may
Le bcking, even in m aste rly works . Th e material m ay b e too
condensed to be easi ly und erstood; or its abstruseness m:i.y require simplifying terms; or it may Le :.in old work, and expressed
in a di ction too antique for present \\sage . It needs to be worked
over, restated in fuller or sim p le r or more m od ern idiom . Paraphrase, therefore, is esse ntially a means of interpretatio n. It docs
not repbce the o ri gin:i l l>ut cxpb ins it; and it is naturally cm ployccl only in cases where the new expression wi ll ga in m ore !Jy
its greater clearness than it loses in felicity of diction.
In a word, then, the special use of p:.tra1Jhrase is to bring ou t
the late nt sense or significance of a passage, hy stating in new
terms points th ;it wou ld otherwise lie m isse d or misunderstood .
EXA~ll'l.E S. - The foll u\\'ing, fr om Matthew A rn oltl, \\'ell illust ralt:s tl1e
utility of paraphrase. S1J far fr1Jm diluting th e origina l, it is really a very
feli cito us expbnati<rn effected hy mere change o f cxprcssi<rn : "' l was ali1·c \\'ith1Jut the law once,' says l'au l ; the nalural play o f all the
force~ and desires in me went on smoo thly enough so lo ng as I d id nut attempt
to introduce orde r an<l regulati on am ong them."
Uean Stanlc\·, in his Commentary on Corin thia ns, empl oys pa raphra:c< <.:
thrnughout, in .addition to translatiun an<l notes, in orde r to rq1rcscn t the
thought in full, as frt.:<!d from th e p ec uliar tlilT1rnltics o f St. l'aul 's style. l re
thu s jus1 ilics !tis pruceclur<.:: "The J'araphraoc is in tended to bring out th e
mea nin g of the resp cct i\'c :-;cctiu ns, as cxplainc.J in th e preceding annotati o ns_
The risk, thus inc:urrcd, of dilut ing , an d, it may
feared, at times lo\l't.:ring

uc

312

/,'/0'1" 0 D UcT/ O,V OF T/IOUC!IT.

the dignity and simplicit:· o f th· origi nal, is obv ious . Uut the conveni ence of
Jlr<.:scntin.c: !lit• argum e nt in a l1ricf sumn1ary is such as tu overweigh the con·
l:. try c l1~ ; u}\' .llli:l gt·s. ' '

1\s an il11 1s lr:\li11n ,, f parnl'hrase in its nw st
justitial>lc use, we may ht'rc
1·hn: side l1y si 1k tl:c passage 1 I 'orinth ian ~, xv .
1-11 , and lJ<.:an Sta nky's re1• r1Hlucti1>ll uf ii in 1n u rc nwdcr 11 guisc.

I. ;lf"rc11\·cr, brethren , I declare
nn tu y1111 th e gu,p\'I \1·!1i c l1 1 J'r<'a c hcd
11 11to )° "ll. 11 hich als1> yc ha\·c ri: cc in:cl,
;111cl w hcrci 11 yc stand ;

" I now call to yo ur remembrance,
in conclusiu n, the substa nce uf the
gbd tidin gs wh ich I annou nced tu
Y<Ht, and the mode in wh ich I tuld
it; glad tidings indeed of which you
hardly need to be reminded, since you
no t o nly rcccived it front me, bu t have
made it the fou ndatio n of yuu r Jin:s
c,·e r sin ce ; and not only have made
it the fu 11n da ti o n of you r lives, llltt
" Hy \\"]1ich :i ls1> Ye :ire sa,·cd, if
arc tu l": saq.:d by it now a nd herc... , kt:t· p in 111cm11 ry 11 l1al I p rcadicd
aft c r, if <•nly yo u ho ld it fast in yo ur
1111" )"'ll, unless yc ha'c ln: lic,·cd in
rc.:cnll ccl ion, if yo ur conversion was
:1i1 t.
an,·t lt ing intJrC titan a mere transitory
J . f.',,r I •kli\·c rc" I unl11 Y" il first
impulse . \' cs, you rnust remember it;
:fall that \1·liich I alsu rn ·l'ivl'd ,
f<lr i t \\':ts amung the very fo·st things
" ·hid1 I tnl.I tu you, as it \\'as a mong
the \·cry lirst which I learn ed myself.
h"\\' that
It \\'as : T ha t Christ died fo r ou r
'hri sl cl ic d for o ur si11s according lo
sins, follilling in ii is deat h the proph !1c Seripturcs;
eci es concerning One who was to he
""" un ded fu r ou r transg ress io ns a nd
liruised fur our iniquities, a nd whose
soul \\'rts tu lie a n offe rin g for si n.
4 . And that ht: \1·:1s buried , and
T hat l le \\'rts laid in the sepulch re,
i:H he r<1sc: ag:1i n tl1c: ll1i rd day a can d tl1at uu l 11f that sep ulc hre Jie has
" rding lu the S.:riptu rt·s ;
liee 11 r;1i snl up anrl lives to d ie no
more, ngai n full. Iling the words in the
l'snlms. ""l>id1 dc.:cla re thnt li is so ul
shtJuld nu t lit.: left in the grave, an d
tli:1t the I l1 ily O ne s hou ld n ut see corS· .l\nd t k 1t he 11·as s1·c· n uf C<'phas.
rllJ'li11n. 1 lt! ld yo u also, as a proof
1c n of thc l\n.: h c:
uf this, tlt:it Ife appca rc.:d tu K cphas,
cltief uf tltc 1\ postlc', and th en to the

R L J'RODUCJ'I ON OF T ll Ol: CllT.
6. Ait e r that , h e \\':IS see n of ahove
fi\·c hundred b reth re n at once; (If
\\'hum the gre a ter part r emnin nn tcJ
tlti;; present , hut sumc a rc falkn
aslc c p .

7. J\ ftcr that, he \\'as see n of Jam es;
the n uf all th e :ipu;; t ks.

8. J\n cl last o f all ht: \\·as seen of
me abu, as uf u ne bu rn out of due
time .
9. Fu r 1 a m the least qf the apos tlcs, t ha t am n•> l mec:t tu he called
an apostle:, because I persec uted the
c h ur ch nf Guel.
JO. Hut Ly the grace nf Cud l am
\\'hat I am : an cl his gracc \1 hi c h \\'rtS
licst11\\'c.i upo n m e \\'as nut in ,·nin :
l1u t I lahc1 recl m ore aliunclantly than
they all :

yet
n o t r, bu t th e gra ce of Ctid \\'hiclt
was w it h m e .
1 t . Thcrefu r<.:, wh ethe r it \\' e re I o r
they,
su

\\ ' C

p reac h ,
a nd so ye bclic,·cd .

; J.)

1\ pustks collect i\·ely. K ext came thc
g reat ~ppcarance {l) n1 nr 1.. : tli~n !~ \ ' t.!
hundred l1t.:licvcrs tugcthcr , the ma jority n f \\'h o rn arc still li,·in g to tes tify tu it, tl11 1ugh so me fc\\' k\\ v 1·ar ri,·d th eir !t:stimony \1·ith th c 111 t" the
gra\'(:. The n again came a t"·u -f.,l.t
appearance; thi s t ime n• 1t tu K e!'kl".
h11t t1> his great c<>ll eag ul'. J a111c ,.;, and
aftc r\\'ards, as befo re, l<l the .\p1 ·,;d.-s
cu llccti ,·cly. I.ast o f all, \\'l:e11 the·
r"l l •Jf 1\ p<>stks seemed t" i>c c11rn[•lete, w:ts th c s udde n aJ>i't·:1r:111 1·c t.'
me; a just ,[eJay, a just hu111ili :Hi " 11
fur o ne wh ose pcrsc:cut i11 n ,,f thc c11 ng rcg:tli11n uf l ;ud's pet1plc did in.ic-1.., J
sink mc IH.:11)\\' th e lc\·cl .,f t he .\ j'"" tlcs. and rendered me llll\\ '• •rlh\· c1·c·n
uf tl 1c na1t1 e, and mak1·s me f" .. 1 t li;1 t
I <J\\'t.: all tD th e undcsc n ·ed f:i_,,, .. ,,f
( ;"d. ,\ fa\'\1 r indeed \\·lti c h 11 ::is 11 1>t
liest11wed in ,·ain, \1·hi1:l1 lt::is iss w:.J in
n life uf cxerti u n fa r ncc1·dint.; lkt t
of all thc ·"- !'""tics, fr,,111 11 '"'"c n 11111li c:r so me \\'oultl wish lu e\ r l11rlc 111 ,· :
l>ut yet, afte r all , a11 c\erli u n n11t tl 1c
rcsnlt u f my u,.,-n st re ng th , l•ut .,f t i1is
same Fa\'f•r toi ling with me as Ill\'
constant cu rnp aniu n. Tt i~ n"t. h1111 c\·c r, on any distin ct io n lict\\'ecn nn·sclf and the 1>thc r .- \ l'<'s tks, th;1t I
\\'f>U id n uw d11· c: ll. I cc•n linc 111,vif
tu th e o ne g reat fact "f " ·lti c h \\'1: :di
alike art: the h e ralds, and "hi ..: h 11 ,1 ,
alike t11 al l uf you the fu un .lati"n .. 1·
your fa ith ."

J n the :iLove p:traphrase l\\' O main ol1jec ts seem tu be in ,·1cw: to bring •nil
m o re cl t1se ly th c s hades of meani ng, as suggeslcd in th e in \'lih·e menls ,, f the
o rigi nal wu rds ; a nd to bri d ge 11\·e r al1rupt11,·sscs in t he c"nne\i\ln of ti" ·
though t, su as to m:tkc th e na rr ali \·e more Cl) nti n u•rns. i\n intc.:n·;;t ing exa1 11plc o f J':"lrap lt rasc employed t1l rep roduc e a n argu 111 e n t 1iccu rs in the sam e
Com m enta ry on ( '< •ri 11 th i:rn s, pa ,~t.: 3~· l ·

3H

Value of Paraphrase as a Discipline. -As a d isciplinary ex·
crc i ~c for the wr ite r, p:uaphrase is valuable, constructively, as a
rnc:-i ns of :ccqu iring copio usness :-incl flexibility in language . Its
pr in1ip:tl value, ho we\·er, is c riLical, - as a means o f evolvi ng tht
latent signifi cance of a passage . The skil lful paraphrast has a
qui ck eye fo r all the fine and uncle\·eloped sludes o f me:ming; he
penetrates to the kernel o f thou ght lying obscured in vague hints
or express ions; he is patient to in terpret all the joi nts and turnings
of the thought, as expressed in parti cles and connectives. Th us
p:-iraph rasing ministers to fincnc:-; s of scholarship ; it can be conducted successfully only by one who is

"Kee n thro' wor•l)' s n:m:s t o trac k
Su gges tion to hn inmost cei l."

Rules of Paraphrase . - From the abon: re ma rk s a nd examples
th e following mks of par::iphrasc may he deduced : r. S ee k t o r eprod uce what is in vo lved in the origina l, and no more.
Obse rve.: tint an allusiu 11, ur a phr:ise-epithct, u r the suggest iveness of a par·
ticlc, belongs kgitirn:itcly lo \dlat is i117'ol7•r.I in t he pass:ige, an d must in so me
w:iy bt: accountt:cl fu r in the r eproduct ion.
2.

Le t all chan g es be made fo r t he sake o f g r eater clearness.

If this u n' uhject is kept \\"ell in m ind, the writer wi ll nut be lik ely to per·
]H.: trate those fantastic ur tasteless l• r ped:int ic re prvduct iuns, the like of wh ic h
h an: du ne sn much tu b rin g paraphrase into> n.: pro:ich.

3 . Gu a rd against weake nin g t he t ho u g ht of the ori gi n a l.
Tl1is is the 111ain eYil te nd ency of p:1 r:1l'li rase; a nd is lxs t tu lie met by beC1llni11g so pernieatccl \\"ith the impo rt:ince u f the th o ught tha t a ny reproclucti t1 n uf il shall co ntain also th e o ri g in:ll \·igur :ind in c i ~ il'en<:ss.

4. En d eav or to maintai n u nimpai re d the to ne a n d spirit of the
o ri gi nal.
Cun1pa r c ll"h:lt has already been said on the m:lintc nance o f the tone of
discourse, page Sj above .

This last ru le has an espec ial 3pplicat ion in the case of metaphrasc, where a poetic spirit :ind feel ing is to be guard ed and

315

R F:l'JWDUC'J'!OiV OF TJIOUC!I T.

REI'ROD l!CT! ON OF 71/ 0UCl/1'.

che ri sh c<l . True poe try is poetic in thought as well as in expression ; and a ny reprodu ction tint lowers the tone Qf_ the ori ginal, or m akes a prosa ic imp ression upon th e reader.' is not a:1
honest rcprotlu c tion . No rule can he give n for cffecung this; it
depe nds on the writer's capacity to apprec iate p~etry;. !Jut if the
origin ::i.l does n ot thri ll hi m, according to its true mten t1on, he has
n o lJusin css with it.
NOT!·:. - Th e foll ow ing face ti o us co mm e nt o n a s tan za o f Tennyso n docs
n o t d a mage t h e p oet :tl all; ii merely reveals th :tt th e critic takes_ .refuge lll
sa tire h ec:luse hi s n:it ure is tuu prosai c to :ipprec iatc th e u n g 1nal. 1he stan1.a
l ~: -

" So m igh t I find , ere yet th e morn
L\n.:aks hit hL·r over l ndia n seas ,
Th at Shad ow waiting ll"ith th e keys .
To clo:i k me fro m my pro pe r scorn ."

On th is the sapient critic remarks: "J .atcly we ha ve h e:ircl mu ch of keys Ji, 1th
fro m th e Flam in ia 11 (;ate a nd l 'iccadilly , hu t \\' e !Jack this \·ersc ag:lmsl l l•_,1.\is.
\ Ve d:ir c him to pick it. l\Tr. ~T oxo n may h ang it u p in his \1·in do "· , \1·1th :i
/. pri 1.e attached, m o re saft:l y th:tn a Bramah . That :i :-iliad v w sh11uld hul.J
200
keys al all , is a no t icc:llilc circ umstance ; bu t that it shuuld \\' all with :.l cluak
r eady tu be thrown 01·e r a gcntkman in Llifficulti es, is absolutely :imazing."

A gn1 t/minn i n dijjiotlties , -

is n ut thi s pud ic ?

IV. TR ANS LATION.

I n translation the writer's task is to rep rod uce the thou gh t in
exac tl y equ ivalen t exp ress io n, ne ith e r exp a nd ed nor abridged, ii i
.
a noth e r lan gn:1gc .
I t is to be remembe red a t the outse t th::i.t we are here spcak1n~
o f translatio n as lite rature, no t o f the h asty and sl ipshod oral rep roduction too ofte n di gnified , in the clJ.ss-room, IJy that na1rn:.
It is the well- m editated :ind writte n t ra nslatio n that represents the
write r's best powers ; such p:1ti ent work as is recorded of 1Zufus
Cho::i.tc, o f whom it is said ,1 " He would retu rn d ay after day to
the sa me passage, until he h::i.cl exhausted the resources of the
1

:"cil so n, •• Memo ries of Rufus Choate," p.

67.

316

N i:"f'NODUCTJ O,V OF Tl! OUC//T.

b ngu age in giving to the senten ce exactness, strength , and elega nce." Not infrc Jllently an auth o r ll' ho has pursued snch ;1 n
ideal has g:1ined an honorable pbce in li te rat ure merely as" the
tr:rnsbtor " of so me c lass ic wo rk .
Requisites of a Perfect Translat ion . -These need to be n:co unted a s the translator's ideal standard; though a pe rfect tra nsll:r
of IJoth th ough t a nd style from one bnguagc to anot her, at leas t in
\\'Orks of literary eminen ce, is exceedi ngly d ifficu lt, p erhaps im poss ilJle . \\"hat these requ isites arc, may be gathered from the
rules of translat io n, to whi c h will be addecl some re ma rks on the ir
limits and applicat ions .
I.

Th e para mount requ is ite of translation , of course, is that there be

mad e an exact a nd literal equivalent, in word and phrase, of the
original.

This rc'quis ite has its necessary limitat io ns. No two languages
arc fmn1 shed thro ugh o ut ll' ith exac-tly cqu i,·alcn t terms . For all
the common olJjcc ts of life, indeed, objects of sense a nd everyday
experience, lang uages a n.: nearly enough parallel; but when it
comes to fine rncnt:ll disc rim inations, ideas and cus to ms wherein
nations d iffe r, o r po rtraya l of th ings strange or obsolete, it is fo un d
tk1t ianguages occupy d iffe re nt spheres, and arc the coiwen ial
med ium of different shad es of ideas. Jt is fo r thi s reason th~t we
s:1y the C er m:m language is especially adap ted to aLstrusc and
J•hilosnph ic thoui;ht; that the Frenc ·h is the bngu :1gc o f polite and
\\'i lly so"i l't)'; and th:1 t the Lngli ~ h is :111 cxcdlc nt medium for
l'. r::c tic:tl ::1Hl strai ghtfo rward lin siness. \\ 'h ere one language is
,r~c11l y '.urn1 she d a nother m ay he sonH:ll'ha t a ll'kw:ird and meagre.
I u nuke a comple te tnnsfe r of ideas, then, from one bnguage to
a no the r, often rcqn ircs that wo rds lie used in sl ig htl y acco mm odated senses, or that p:uts l>c some what paraphra sed instead of
literally reproduced ; a nd sometimes 1rith the most stu dious efforts
translators ha ,·c to content thcrn sc h-cs ll'ith only a n approximate
tnnsfcr o f the se nse. Suc h necessity it is that katls to the gradual
t :l11t •·11! 111 >t'c1 111 o f wurc ls fro1ll 1orc1
c
· <'ll !:t ll "U1 "Cs · 'O tli ~ t
IJ11t cc>11o:'
., .
0
b
. :-, . ) ·}
lt

RFl' NO/JUCT/ON OF Tf!OUC/IT.

,) 1i

throu;;h the exi ge ncies of translation the languages are accomm odat ing th em selves more and mo re to o ne a no the r.
2.

Mere literalness of translation, h o wever, is adequate only in

material of the purely intellectual type .

The translation, in order to be

faithful, mu s t reproduc e in some equivalent form the spi r it an d feelin g of the original, a task increasin g ly difficult acco rding to the original writer's individuality and th e prevalence of the emotional element
in the production .

The signifi cance of this elem e nt of tra nslati o n may best be
d e fin ed , pe rha.ps, in the wo rd s o f Dr. Tayler Lewis.'
" J\ perfect tra.nslati on, " h e writes, " is one tha.t co nveys to th e
mind of the reaJer, withont eith e r e xcess o r defic ie ncy, the
tho ught as it lay in the mind o f the write r. The two constitue nt
ele m en ts o f eve ry th ought thus exp resse d are th e irle:a and the
e111oliu11.
Bo th mu st be tran sfe rred, the one ne ith er enlarged no r
diminish ed, the othe r ne ith er stre ng the ned no r wc.:akcncd . They
a rc :iddressecl to two d epa rtm e nts of th e soul, the one to the intel lect as so m e thing to be known, th e othe r to the affections as
some thing to be f elt. They a re log icall y separable, though indivis iLle in fac t. The idea can never be clearly g i\·c n wit hout th e
emo tion; th e emotion can never be felt in its spir itual heartiness
without accuracy in the accompanying idea~
" \\'h en the first cle me nt predo min :i tcs, translati on is compara tiv ely easy. It is in such case m a inly the tran sfe r of the force of
single equi vale nt wo rd s fro m one bng ua gc to :rn othc r. Such
eq uivalents may always !Jc fou nd, o r pe riphrases that do no t change
the sense; since what wo uld affect th e stren g th may not impai r
thi.: fulln ess o r clearness of a se ntence . Wh e n the secon d clemen t,
<Jf e m ot io n, so p revails as to gi ve c harar.ter to th e passage, tra nslation be co mes fa r more d iffic ult; a p e rfec t tra nslatio n is somc.:timc·s
impossible . The reaso n of thi s is that the emotion of a se nten ce .
as distinguished fro m the fac t o r kn owledge co nveyed . rests mainly
l Ar ticle o n " The Em o ti onal Elemen t in II e\Jre w Transl:l tion," M eth odist
Quarte rly Re vi ew, i 862, p. 85 .

:n s

RF!'R O!>UC J'! ON OF T l!OUC'!IT.

R/;'! 'R ODUCTIO.\' OF 'J'// O UC' JIT.

in sumc pecu li:ir coll o c:it io n of th e wo rds, g ivin g rise to emph as is
an d s urpri se, o r in so me p ec llli:ir effect of those parts of sp eech we
style Lh e p:ut ic lc s. 1 It res ides, so me t im es, in the very absence of
,1·ords , p arad oxi ca l as su c h :in asserti o n m :i y :i.t first :ippe:ir. It
m:1y d wel l in :in L·lli psis , fro m wh ic h it wo ul d !Jc <lriven out by any
at.temp t a t ft ll ing lljl. Th e tende r breath o f its b t.:ing is conveyccl
in th e delicate irn pl iu t io n o f so me co n ne c t ive particle, and it
p c rislws t he m ome nt \1-c ;i,ttcrnpt t o reduc e that p;:i.r ticle to ::t
th o llg h t, o r to re nd e r it liy any wo re] conta ining a dist inct logical
st :1t c rn ent. Thc:;e li ttle ,1·o rd s are the em ot io nal ge rms of :l sentt:nce . T hey a rc calk d p arti c le s (far//(!( /1c ) m e rely in reference
t o t he dim in uti , ·c spa ce th ey occ up y ; llll t this m e re qu:intitative
te rm is Ct r wide of th eir sp iri tual s ig ni fic ance . Th e y are rath er
1u·//(ks , the arti c ub t io ns o r j o ints o f a S<:nten cc , witho ut whi ch all
its l>0 nt.: :ind mu scle o f n ou ns :i.nd verbs wo uld have no power of
1111.)\'ing or o f lJe ing rn o,·cd. Wi thou t th ese, o r idi o matic constru c t ions h :l\·ing :i. simi la r p o \\·e r, th e re wo uld be n othing in lan.L!:l! ::t.ge 1.rnt :i. s/a /f111 /11 111c11, :i d ry inte ll ige nce . They ::ire the n erves,
the n ervu u:s j) llbat ions ; th ey :i.re th e cells of life, yea, the very life
i tsd f."

equi,·:ilcnts fur En glish pnwcrlis. "A fo cil's b olt is s~o n sh ~ t " is ~cprcsen,:c:• :
'
· ·
. 1 l" "To k in dle lire w1t.1 sn• l"
1:0
in C enn::in by "A fu o l s wit 1s soo n e 1H e r .
.. .
_"
represe nt ed by "lo hitch the h o rse Lehin rl th e w:igo n.•'
l he c xp rc,,s w n
" doom's- clay in the afternoon" is in Germa n"~ - N c vcr 's d ay ."

C oll oquiali sms, slang , prov inc ialis ms, and the like, h:ive to !Jc
represe nted liy so m e thing that b elo ngs to the same tone or_strat '. u~~
of di scomse, something th;it, wheth er literal or not, con ~hts '' it',
the same freedom :ind n/gl1/:/ of spirit. It is :i tr~rnsl:ition o f m oo n
more than o f d e fini te th o ught. For the differen ces in the tone
of discourse, see pre cedin g , p:ige 83.
EXA~l I'l.E. _ Tn the Ach a rni8.ns o f , \ri s to l'h:rncs, o ne o f th e ch aracte rs, a
J\l eg::irian pig-sell e r, talk s in a ,·ery l>ruaJ pro ,·in cial rli a k ct, whi ch• the lransh tcir, \\'als h, h:is rcl'n:sc nt ccl hy tl1 c med ium o f the 1.o wl allll Scn cch . T h us,
::i passage whi ch, lit c r;ll\y tra nsla ted , is as fo ll o"·s, "ls it n"t shameful? ~ cc the i ncredulit y o f th e man ! \I<: so.ys thi s is not
·1
f
salt Hav o rc• l
a pig. B ut soflth, if yo u " ·ill, m:ik c a wager wit 1
now, o r
•
with thym e, if th is is no t a pi g afte r th e usag e o f the G reeks ' -

m_:

h e tr:in slatcs in yc rsc thus, " T h is is m:iist sh :imcfu' ! \Vli:it a n infidel
I-I<.: is ! H e says this is n:ic pig ava !
\Neel, :u 1 ye lik e, l 'sc w:icl some thymi t sau t,
T\wt thi s .wee thin g is ca'd a p ig in Gree k."

3. Wha t is peculia r to one lan g ua g e, is to be reproduced, where
p o s s ible , by what is corre spondingly peculi a r to the other.

T hi s appl il's to idi o m s_, co lloquial p L' c uli:irities , ancl order of
wo rd s.
;\1 1 id iom , :ts is l'v id e nt fr o m ,,·Jia t is sa id o n p :1gc .16, is, stri ctly
s pe :1ki 11 g , lll lti · : m ~t :i t:ti Jk ; hut n<J t infrc<p 1cntly th e re may exist in
t he ot li t.:r hn g ll ag t.: som e id io m th:1t, t ho ugh n o t a literal equiv;ik n t, p ro du ces t.hc same e ffec t, and is u se d in a c o rresponding
spiri t . It is a !Joo n to th e translato r wlit.:n such an eqn ivalent can
!Jc foun d , bec au se it :iclds g reatly to the life :ind naturalness of the
1m1< lu ctio n.
NuTE. -This is ill ustr:i tc d in th e c:ise o f pnp uhr proverbs ::ind expressio ns,
which arc gen e ra ll y id i, nna li c. Tak e f" r in s t:i11 ce two or three uf thl' German
I

On ,1·li:1t i'

)i ,. ,. ,, sai d

u f p:u·ticks . co mp:1 n.: preceding, pp. 67, 68.

3 19

·rh·IS. ·IS

(j ll

o tc.<l ,. n ut •as· J·ustif,·
in(T
th e p rese nt tr::inshti
o n , hut
as ill ns tr:i ting the
· ,
,_,
• .
. . ..

tran sht nr's shifts to re produ ce ce rtain ch:iractc nst1 cs o f l11s o ng111:il.

Th e ord e r o f word s , in like manner, cannot b e slaY ishly fol lowe d: wh a t wo uld he e rnph :tti c a t the lieg innin g of a c h 11se 111
on e bnguage, for in stance , wo uld pt.:rhaps best h e lJrOu.gh t rn1L liy
1.Jeing placed al th e end, in a bn g11agc of different g enius .
To a li mited exten t the idiomatic pe c uliarities of on e lan gu age
may gradually be transplanted to another , _and thus. b e adopted
lik e new words. Th e tr:inslation of the Dible , for rn stan cc, h a~
enri c h ed th e En gli sh bn g uage with rn:rny fi gures :ind turn s ~ f
ex 1ression from the H e brew, 1\·hic h :i.re n o w so thorou ghly n~tur:l.i 1
. ~·lt
ize rl, even in the cornmone st usage, th:it no sense is
e 0 t their
strangeness.

JO~'/'J.' 0 /) (

'(' /'/ c !. \. 0 F i'J/O UCl!T.

R Fl'NOOUCJ'ION OF '/'// OU< ilFl'.

Translation as a Discipline. - T he high estim a te set upon
i r:tnsb tio n :is :i cne:rns o f lite rary di sc ipline, and the reasons fo r it,

11uy pcrk1ps l>l:st lil: il!ustrated by quot ing remarks of eminent
:n1thors .
"\\'here,·e r it is :ittended lo ," says l )r. Arn olcl, 1 "it is an exerc ise of ex c eeding , ·:il 11 e .; it is, in fact, one of the best possible
rnu des o f ins truction in English composition, because the cons tant
comp:iri so n with the di!Tcrl'nt iui o m s of the languages, from whi c h
yo11 :ire tran sla tin g . s h01rs yo11 in the mo st lively m anner the peculiar c xn·lknc1..'s :ind d efech o f you r own ."
' •The pr:1\'lice of transl:ition," says J :1mes Russell Lowell, 2 "hy
111aking us de libna tc in till'· cho ice pf the ]Jes t e(ju ivalc nt of th e
ti 1r1..·ign word in our own Lrng1 1:1gc , h :lS likewise th e aclvant:i.ge of
< o n tinu:i.ll y s('hooling us in o nl' of the m:i in clem ents of a good
style . - p re cisio n ; :ind precision of t hou g ht is not on ly exe m1d ifi1..'d l>y pre1·isio11 of language, h11t is brgely dependent on the
h:i.l1 it of it."

"T r:in~l:tt io n ," s:1ys R11f11s Choate,' 1 " shn uh! be pursued to bring
to mind, :incl to emp loy, .: ill the \\'Ords yo 11 already own, ancl to tax
:md r1mnl'n t inn.:n ti u n :rncl disco1·cry, :t 1Hl the ve ry deepest me mo ry l~1r :1dditio n:li. ri c h, a nd admir:tl>ly express ive words. In trans _!
h tin g , th e st11de11t sh o 11ld not put d o w11 ;1 word until he has thought
•if ;it !c:i.~t six sy11 0 11yms, o r ,·:i.ricties of l'.\ jl rcssi on, for the idea. I
11·011lc I ha ,·e him Cistidiou s :in d c:wn
enrnwh
to ''0 not unfre.~
:'"'>
' p:1..'ntly. li:il f nrnncl hi s lihr:i ry pulling down hooks to hunt up a
11·o n l - /It,· 11'\lnl."
t°')

'

The Untranslatable. - 1\ s ha s a lready Ile en intimated, in all
the liighn ach ie1·e rnents of litera ture ti1c re must ne cessari ly remain
.t.; re:1t de al th:ll, in Sl1 ite of th e utm ost ;,k ill , ca nnot lie adequately
n ·p rorlu c ed in a no ther bngu;1gl' . "Th e thought m ay indeed sur1·i;-c , though m:irre d :rnd m11tihted , but the s11litl e spi ri tual aroma,
the e moti onal essence, p e ri shes in the tran s mi ss ion ."
:i

I ~1.rn h-1· , "T .ifc of 1\rn c.J d ," \ 'ed . I I . p. r 12.
~ f ,, •\\·,·fl, "l ll'1110 cracy :imJ ()1Ji"r ,\ ri<ln.:'''''. " p. 126.
:J .'.: .·ib\ 1n. ·· ~fcn1oric s of I ~ufu'._-, Cl1o;Lt1 ·," !'· ''7·

.121

This is preeminently tru e o f the translation of poetry; and whatc,·cr is s:i.id, therefore, of the translati on of poetry will 1Jt: tru e of
the untr:rnslat:i.blc anywhere. I n elucidating this im portan t sul >jec t, we cannot do better th:i.n tran sc ribe the very suggestive remarks and cx:imples of George Henry Lc wcs, 1 g ive n in his" Lil\.:
of Coethe."
"Sen:r:il tim es in these pages," h e says, " I have felt calk< l
upon to protest a ga in st the ade quacy of :ill transbti on of p oet ry.
In its h:ippiest efforts, tra.nsbtion is ])llt :ipproxinntion; :i nd its
efforts arc no t o ften h:i.ppy. A tran slat ion may l>e good as trans btion but it c:1nno t Lie an :i.dequ :tte re produ c ti o n o f the original.
Jt rn:1;, lie a good poe m; it m:i.y he a good imitati o n of anoth e r
p oe m; it 1n:1y lie better th:i.n the or igi n :i.l ; lrnt it ca nno t lie an
adcqu:ite reprud 1wti o n; it ca nn o t he the same thin g in :rnother
language, producing the s:i.rnc effect on the mind . :\ml the ca1bc
lies deep in the na tnre of poetry . ':J\fclody,' as Ik c tho ,·cn s:u d to
Dettin:i., ' gi ,·cs :i. so1s11,>1ts l'.\·i s //'11(c l o p ,1c /1)'; for docs not the
meanin g oi :i. poem become embodied in melody?' The me:rnings of a poem :ind the mc ~min gs of the in dividual words . m ay l>e
rep rodu ced; hut in a poem m eaning and fo rm :ire :is incl1 ssolnl11c
as soul and body; :ind th e form c:i.nnot be reproclu cccl . The effec t
of poetry is a co mpo11 nd of mu s ic and suggesti o n; this mu s ic ~ind
thi s sugges ti o n a rc inte rmin gle d in wo rds, to alter whi c h is to alte r
the effe c t. l"o r word s in poetry :ire no t, :is in prose, s imple rcpresent:tti,Ts of uhjects and ideas: th ey a rc p a rts of an o rg:m ic
w hole - th ey arc t ones in the harmo ny; suhstitu\e alli er part s,
and the result is a rn o n strosity, as if an arm were s ubsti tuted for
a win g; s ubstitute other t ones or semitones, and you produ ce a
di sco rd . \\"o rcls h:t\·e their m us ic an d thei r shades of mc:i.nin g
too deli c at e for acc urate rep roduc ti o n in any oth er form; the sugges tiveness of one word c:i.nnot ]Jc conveyed by :rnothcr. !\ow a ll
transla.tion is of necessity a subs titutio n of one wo rd for :i.nothe r:
th e suhstit11te m ay express th e meanin g, but it cannot :i.cc ur:i.tely
i

than

I .ewes ,•· Lift.: o f Go eth e ," ::?d ed. p. 466. Th e value o f the passage will more
a1 0 11 c , I am s un·, for the kngt h o f th e qu otati o n.

Nl~"/'!1 '0l> C C J'I O . \/

RfJ'RO!>l 'CTJ<n ' ()F T l/ O f' (,'// '/'.

OF Tll O U(;fJT .

)

'

Th is ve rse we \ri ll rcarrJ.n ge as a translator would re:i rrange it :

rep rocl 11ce lhc m us ic , nm th ose prec ise sh:u lcs of suggestiveness on
,1·hid1 the dcliucy :rnd lil·;rnty o f t he original depend.
"\\.o rd s :trc n u t only symbols ol objec ts, but centre s o f assoc iat io n s; :rn cl their suggesti 1·e n ess .depends p artly on the ir sound.
Tim s the re 1s not thl'. sli g hte st diffe rence in the meaning expressed
11·hc 11 l say

Th e ni ghtly d e ws com m enced lo fall ;
Th e moon, wh ose emp ir e is th e sky,
Shunc un the sides c. f C: nmn or 1 fall,
And all the oaks that stood there liy .

lf e rc is a ve rse whi c h certainl y would neve r have h aunted :rny
on e:; 3 nd yet up o n wh a t Jppare ntly sli g ht variat ions the <li ffcrcn •·c_
of effect d epend:;! T he meanin g, metre, rhym es, and rnu -; t u!
th e wo rd s , arc the same; yet the differenc e in the re:-;ult i:-; inf1ni tl' .

Th e clt· 11s of n ight began tu fa ll,
or

Th.: ni g ht ly de\\·;; com m en ce d lo fall.

-;\leaning :i nd m etre :ire the s:trne; li11t one is poetry, the o ther
prose. \\'ord sworth p Jints a bndscape in this line:

Let us tnnsbte it a little m ore fre ely:
Sweetly d id lal\ the d ews uf ni gh t ;
The m oo n, of hca,·cn th e l" vcl y r1u ce n,
On Cumnu r i [all sh u nc si lver bri g h t ,
i\n d gla n ced th e oaks' bro ad li uughs li c tw ec n .

Th e ri1·c r wan ders al its u wn sweet will.

Le t 11s tra nslate it into other words :
The ri1·er runnl'.!h free frum a ll restrain t.

We preserve the meaning, but wh e re is the bndscape?
ma y t urn it thu s :

.,

, L ... . )

. '

I appe al to the reade r's expe ri ence wh e th er th is is nnt a tra nshtion whi c h in an o ther langllagc would pass fu r excL·llc nt ; ;rnd
neve rth eless it is no m ore like the o r ig inal than a wax rose i:-; lik e

Or we

.
a gard e n rose .
"To co nclude the se illll str:1ti ons, 1 11·ill give on e 11·hwh rn ;i y
serv e to \ 1rin g into relief the ha\·oc mad e hy tra n sbto rs 11·h o :1d" J•t
a tfif) i·rc 11 t m e tre from that of th e original. W ord:-,wurth lJcg111s

Tht: ri 1·n fl o " ·' · no \\' here , now the re, at will, -

whid1 is a Ycry close tnn shtio n , muc h closer than any usu:llly
fo und in a fon:ign lang t1 age, 11·licre in deed it would in all probabi lity assume some such fo rm as this :

hi s famo us Od e :
Th ere \\'as a tim e wh en meadow , grove, a nd st ream,
Th o.: e;\J·l h , and cvny comm o n s ight ,

T ht: r in:r Sl'l f-i mpdkd pursues its course.

!11 th ese examples 11·c h:tYC wh J. t is seldo m found in trJ.nslations,

T o m t: did St-cm
Apparell ed in ct·kstial light,
Th e g l .. ry ~n,1 th <.: fre s h ness of a d ream . •
]tis no t n ow as ii hath bee n (l f yure;
Tnrn " ·li c rcs< ic 't:r I may ,
T~y ni ght o r day,
Th e thi ngs which l l1a1·e seen I now ca n sec no m or.: .

:1c curac y of me:rning exp re ssed in simi lar m etre; yet the music
and the poe tr y a rc gone; becau se the mu sic and t he poetry arc
()r~;'..nic·::tlly d e pende n t on ce rtain p c r.uliar arr:tngements of sound
:111d s ugge stion . \\':ilter Sco t t speaks of th e verse of a balbJ by
~Jick l e which hJ.unted his b o yhood; it is t his :
Th e dc\\·s of Sl!lnm c r night did fall;
·rhc n1 uu 11 , :-; \\'vtt r eg e nt of the sk y,
~i 1' t:r c:tl !h e \\'alls o f C11111nor II ail ,
1\ nd m ;rny an nak that grc\\' th e reby.

The tr:tn sbto r. full y possessed \\'ith the se nse o f t h e p:1ssa ge, m akes
no mi s take-;, ]Ju t :ldopting a nothe r m etre, "'e will Sllppose, pa ra p hrases tht1s :

.,
··~
11;s
.

~·,_~

..

:

; -~ f

R1~·rAO /J CCT f O,\'

;,·FJ'F OU U CJ'/ON

OF 7'!10UC !!7:

A time there \0,5 when w oocl , an <l st ream, and licld,
Tlic e:ut h , a;1d c,·c ry common si ght, ct icl yi eld
T., me· a ]'t:rc an d hca,·cn ly delight ,
Su, ·li as is S<~<·n in drea m :rnd "isio n bright.
That time is past; n o l1111ger c:i.n I sec
The· things \\·hich ch:trmcd my youthful reverie.

·' T hese a rc spec im e ns of transbting fr om Eng lish into English,
in d sho w " ·h:il l.Jkch :ue produced hy a change of music and a
l1, 111~c ul suggestion .
It is cka r th at in a foreign language the
1rn ,;ic mu,;l incessantly IH.: ch:rngcd , and as no co mplex words a rc
•recisL·I :· eq1:i,·aknt in tw o languages. the suggestions must al so
,,. clifl\.:n·nt. 1dio rn s arc o f o urse un tra nslatabl e . Felicities of
' \ \•rcs,; ion a rc the idi o m s o f th e poet _; hut as on the one hand
licsc felic itie s a rc csse nlial t o th e poe m. ancl on the other hand
1n tr.111sbtahlc, th e ,·:rnity of tr:rnsl:tti on becomes apparent. I do
Jt it s: t y that a t ransb to r c:111no l prod 1we a fine poem in imitation
.i· :m original poem; hut I ut te rly di sl icl i c n~ in the possibility of
1is .~i 1· ing 11s a \l'u rk 11·hic h can \Jc to us what the original is to
ilPse \l'hO rL'ad it."
Th e ahm·e remarks w ill sc1Tc to e xh ib it the subtle relations and
k lin c·ies o f li tc r:tlurc, and \l·h :it the y d e pend on; and the effect
1 il l lie c n hanc L'(l if th e s tudent is i11d 11ccd thcr by to seek those
" l:t tic ins fo r hi rnsc l L T he dfort to make the best translation posi Iik, sk rn a s :ire the limitations of such \\'Ork, is an invaluable
11l·: 111 s of :1cqu irin g }'Owcr over th e fine resources of his native

OF 'J'//OUC!/T.

tion adopts, as it has to deal with materi.al o~ \·a_rion s ki_nds, ~n'. l
the extension ancl combination of these forms 111 U1 e leading t ) pcs
of litc ra.ture . This discussion will be compri sed un der the follo wing heaJs: Chapter
Chapter
Ch::iptcr

lV.

v.

vr.

Ch;-ip tcr VII.
Chapter VIII.

..

Jm •en tio11 r!ca /ing with Oljccls ; - Dcscriptio 11.
J; 11 ·c11 tion dcali11.i; wit!t 1;;,·c11/s ;-J\'arn1lio11.
I nvention dealing wit!t Ce11cra!i:alio11s ; _J::;_tf/1 sition.
]m'cnlirm dealing wt'//1 Truths ;-A1gumc11/1zli 11 11 .
I nvention dea!i11g wit!t Issues; - Persuasion .

...

i\"Tlc. - F 1>r nt li c r sugg"' ti ve n·m:nks o n lr:tnsblio n, sec Newman," Tdea
1 a l : ni 1·n,; ity ,"· pag<'S ~S5 -290 . The chs,;ic lr c:i.t ise on translati n g poetry,
\,: ..< · Ltl ual >k in 1n:J.tt c r :i.n.I attracti 1·c in styk . is ;\htth c w Arnold's cou rse of
·.-t llres tkli1·ered befv rc th<'. L/n in~ r s i ty of Ox fvrd, "On Transl:i.ting Homer. "

l fayin g in the forego ing three c hapters traced the laws and
:-nn:sscs t h:1t lic~ung t• ) im·cnt io n in ge neral, we arc now to
1-; <·u~s, in the res t of l'art l l., th e particul:ir forms that inven-

'.

326

D LSCRll' J'lcJN.

CJI/\l 'TER
IN V EN TION

DEALING WIT H

·rv.
OBSERVED OBJECTS:

DESCRIPTION.

As rc\·calccl in the early litcr:i.tures or all nations, the most primiti ve :tnd natur:i.l impulse to literary utter:tnce manifests itself in
men's efforts to report \dnt they obse rve in the world around
them, eithe r as ~ i1nply pe rce iv ed or :ts vivified and em bellished
l>y im::tgination . This impulse is ec1ually spontaneous wh eth er the
olijccts observed be at rest or in act ion, whe the r thi ngs or events;
:rnd thus this si mplest inYcnti\·e effort resul ts in two forms of di scourse, d escript ion and narration ; fo rms ge nerally fou nd in some
propor tion together, but di stin ct in principle, aml therefore needing fur pmposes o f study to he cxarnincc! sep:uatc.:ly. The first of
these will I.Jc disc ussed in the presen t chapter.
l.

lH·::-;CIUf'T I <l:\ J:\'

IT ~

l'l\.T:\'CIPLES.

In commo n with the procedure ado pted for the othe r specific
forms of inn: nti o n, we an~ first to con sider descriptio n in its pri nci plt:s, as it exists unmix,·d, :i.nd :-ifte rw:rnl to notice the greater
lit cr:iry types ill whi ch dc sc ri pt ion co nst ilutes the predo minating
eleme nt.
I.

Definition of Description. - Dcsr.ription is the portrayal of
concrete objects, material o r spiritual, l>y mc:i.ns of language.
I. ObserYe in this definition, first. that description is p ortrayal.
It is mu ch more. therefore, than the mere enumeration of the
p:i.rts and qu:i.litics of an vhject. ~\: c h rn ume ration has indeed
its fn.: qncnt occasion : the bare dcm;11Hl for in for mation requires

DESCRIPTION.

327

often only a catalogue of details; but this is only the unsifted
m atc ri:i.1 fo r descri ption, not th e clescri ption itse lf. Desc ription is
such a trc:i.tmcnt of :i.n objec t, a..2_ a wh ole and in its parts, as pro~iiwcs a unifn:<l and co nsi ste nt pi cture o f it, a· ~ling the reader to
reproduce it in imag in ation with some thing of the vivid ness with
wh ich th e writ e r ori ginally pe rce ived it. In this respect descnp ti on is an:i.l ogo us to p:i.inting; it seeks to acco mpli sh by langu:-igc
wh;H pai ntin g see ks to accomplish by penci l and pig ments. Like
pai nting, therefore, it must arrange the details of its picture into
a co mposition; the re must Le a balance and relat ion of p:i.rts,
a lnckgrouml :i.ml foreground, a p redom inating uni ty that gives
meanin g and ch arac ter to all its div erse clements .
. Observe, secondly, that the objects with which descripti on
2
d eals are concrete ; that is, n ot ge neral ized classes of objects, but
pa rti cular individuals of a class. In thi s respec t description is
the contras t to expos iti on. The a im o f th e latter is to gcnc r:dize
and cbssify; to give there fore, oy dcfmition, cx:tmple, :tnd the
like, o nly such rp1alit ics as belong to a whole group of objects.
The :i.irn of descriptio n, on the othe r han d, is to give the qual iti es
wherein on e object is individualized, unlike other obj ec ts _; and h:i.s
n o thin g to clo with th e class excep t in so far as referring it to a
_
c lass rn:i.y se rve to localize it.
3. Obsen·c, third ly, that th e range of desc ri p t ion includes not
o nly the kind s o f olJjcc ts best :i.Jap ted to portrayal, namely, m:i.terial ohjects, such :i.s arc see n and heard and ha ndled, hut :i.lso
spiritu:i.1 objects, th:-it is, mc nt:i.I stales :i.nd qual iti es , char:i.cter, :-ind
.-uch like. T hi s range necessitates different procedu res in the
structure of description, according as th e plan is suggested by th e
n:i.tural :i.rra ngcme nt o f parts, or has to be shaped by the writer's
logical se nse . It makes an essential difference whether he has to
find his pbn or ma ke it.
These m ai n ch:i.racteristics of description suggest to what points
attention must be especially directed: n a mely, to the stru cture of
desc ription in gene ral, to special means o f m:i.king it concre te and
vivid, and to the exactions imposed upon it oy the object.

------- --328

D ESCR/PT/ON.

II.
Mechanism of Description. - The :iim of description namely
.
'
'
t<'. prod 11c:e m
the n::tdcr's i mag in:ttion th e same vivid conception
ul the Object desc ribed tktt tht: wri tt: r him self has; and the materi:tl with whic h de scription lns to wo rk , na mely, inc.lividual details
assnc iatcd in space or in thought; gi1·e rise to two main problems
'. Jf struc ture, tht: problem of selectio n, and the problem of groupmg.
r · Th t: problem of selection, - how to estimate and choose
I •:irticllbrs. A diflicu lt problem : fo r o n the o ne hand, the numlic r of ind i1·id 11al det:t ils ]Jl'lo nging to an ol>jt:ct of a ny complexity
is ' '_cry g reat ; and u1 t the other, to enumcr;1tc more than a very
.11.m 1t u rn1n1licr cro 11·(.l s _an ~! confuses, n ot vivifies, the portrayal.
l u clc:ir d esc ription 1t 1s 1mperati1·e, therefore, that the details
'ielcc ted be only suc h as art: the m os t cha r:tctcri stic, and that they
he 111 the smalles t m1mber co ns iste nt with :Hlc(1uate presentation.
:\ nd o f course in pro po rtion to th e s maliness of the number
-;l1oll ld lx th ei r 1·~v idn ess i1~ _ :iro11 s ing the re:tder's imagination to
rq >rodll•·e the described o!Jjec t fo r hiinsdf.
::: . The prolilc m of g ro upin _:;, - ho w to nuke unity of effect out
Jf di1·ers ity of mall.'rial. Th e n:it ure of this pro!Jlem is thus ex1
•l:1 inecl liy Less ing: "The tktails, 11·hich the eye takes in a t a
;lance, ht: (the descr ibe r) enumerates sloll'ly one by one, aml it
1
ftl'n h:1ppL·ns th ut, hy the time he has brought us to the bst, we
1:11·c forguttL·11 the lirs t. \ 'L' t fro1n th esl' dct:iils we a rc to form a
iict11rc . \\'lien \l'e lo uk :it an olJject the 1·a rious parts are always
1resent to the eye. lt can nm o \· er them :-ig:iin and again . The
:tr, ho we ver, loses the deta ils it has hl'ard, unless memory retain
he m. 1\ nd if th ey he so retai n ed , wh:it pains and effort it costs
> recall their impressions in the proper order :ind with even the
wdcrate degree of rap idity necessa ry to the obtaining of a toleralc id ea o f the \\'h ole ." It is necessary, therefore, to have the _
esc ription modelled on s trong ly marked an<l d efi nite lines of
1

Lessi ng-," Laocoon " (Elk n Frothi ngl1a111 's t ran~la ti uu) , p. xoz.

DESCR/PT!ON.

329

st ruc ture
__ :J., in order that the re :ider m:i.y refer the dct:iils :is he goes
along to the underl ying type or fo1.me11·ork whi c h supports t hem.
These two problems ne cessitate careful atte ntion to t he f1 Jll1Jwi11g
clements of stru ctu re .
1. The Point of View. - 1\<-;_jl ~e firs t step the wri ter n eL'ds tu
ddint: in his min<l and to incli c_,1.te in his wo rk t.he p o int o f viell'
fro m wh.ich tl;e obj~~t .is to bi~s>~~emp_i:ttt,:d. T hi s dete rm ines
the scale of th e desc ri p tion . It makes a g reat difference w hether
the point from whi ch one is looking is near or re m o te, :ibm· e or
below, situated in a direct line o r obliquely ; the clct:1ils introd uce d,
as to c haracter, number, :i.n<l minuteness, depe nd p rin c ip:1ll y o n
this. A ri ve r fifteen rod s away wo uld no t h :1ve ];een cksc ribcJ .1s
"like a silver thre:td runnin g through the l:tndscape, " if the wr itn
h::id lice n min d ful of his point o f Yiew. Th e anal ogy o f desc rip tion to painting co m es to mind here ag:t in: it is the ll'orking fru1n
a definite and constant point of ,·iew tlut li:1bnn~s the picture,
reguhtes its lc:iding fea tmes, its light a nd shade, its rn:.is'ies of
color, its perspecti ve .
. Obje c ts of though t too, as well as objects of s ight, nrnst h:t1-c
( what co rrespond s to th e point o f vi e w. A c h:i.rac tn, fo r in -. t:inc,·,
I h:1s a s ummarizing trait, a central unity, for the describer; a nwn! tal state has its occas io n anll imp ul s io n; and these are t he points
\ fro m whi c h th e writer forms his p o rtra yal.
Not th at the point o f view mu st in :111 cases be e xplicitly bid
down. V e ry ofte n the reade r can instinctively fed hi s p osi tic)n
relat ively to the o],jec t, a nd so m e times the charac ter o f the d cL1ils
se rves to :idjtt st it with o ut fmther indication; l111t if th is is the
case, it is :ill th e more indi c:i.tive of the ca re with whi1·h the pfJint
is c hosen by the wrikr, a nrl the consis te nc y with 11·hi c h he rci"n s
every part to it. It is the havin g a point of view, a nd h a1·in g 0 11 e
point of vi e w, th at makes the pi c ture a unity and a composition.
lJ.Ll iSTRATIOK S. - The d c;c ripti u n o f the C•Jntinent o f Euro pe by lfosl, in, pa rtially quoted o n page 73 abo ve, is a g ood example o f a carefull y in di cated point
of \'i cw. J [e wishes to g ive an idea of " that vari egated mosaic o f the worl d 's
surface, th at difference between the district of the gentian and o f the ulive

..

....

-...

DLSCJ\IPJ'I O. V:

DESCR.!f' TION.

1· ii11·h tl1c q ,,rk an•l th<: s11·aJJ,i11· s ec: f::i r vff, ::is they lea n upo n th e s irocco
"i 11•l ." hir tl;i,.; purl'" ""• li e: th11s ,1c1;11 es 11is pos itiu 11: "Let us, fur a moment
.
'
1:·1· I<• 1·:11s1· "llrsc: h ·l's 1·1·cn al1 .. 1·c: th e: k1·l'l of their flight, ancl im::igi 11 e the
\f,· , !i 1,·,T:111ca11 II i11;.: l>e n l' atli 11' lil; c an irr c:gub r la ke ," etc. Occupvi n <> this
l" 1i nt

\! r \'iv\\' hi :-;

\i:-. i11n

tr:t\' <.T!'L·~

in

·i1 11:t,~i 11ati 1 •tJ

the European

co ntjn~ n tb fro n1

~ 1lt lh It) Jl1 1rth . IJ d i ci 11g 111l'rcly SU L Ji .~ cnc r:tl rc~turt:S-l) f land, wate r, 11h>Uil·
1 '"' "· l'cc:,·ta1i,111- :is c·an l•e di sccr nc:d fr p m such a distance. T hen lie hci.:ins

331

this is, fo r writer and rc:i.dc r :i_l ikc, the ce ntral point of reference ,
the 11'.1or!.:i'11,r;- i't!ta; bei ng in :l sense, Lhc rdu re, analogous to tht:
theme in more compn.:hensive litera ry works, Compare preced -

mg, page 25 7.

1

~l~Ht i .n.~-J 1 .,i 11t :i n d .J c :-. \· r i!,cs thl' s:-tnic rcg itin :i.gain frn111 a n ear er poi nt
I 1 '"" . 11 h1c h 11" 11111"< indi1 :tks : " .\11d, ha1·i11.c: once tr::ivcrscd in thought this
·: ·" 1:111 .. 11 ' ,f the: l<> 11v.! iri s « f the e:nl h in :i11 its 111at<.:rial vastness, Jet us go
1
· '" n J1 <·'1 rl' r l« it. :111.J 11·a11·h the J>:tr:1lk l cli:ui.t.;c: i11 tlie li cit of an ima l ] if~,"
•1· . ·1 l1is cn aJ.ks l1im t» <i l' scril>c the animals, men, and works of mc 11 , of
l:t · ~: 1 111t · r l. ' _~i1.1 11 : i11 1·q 11n c c ti1>11 wi th the. 1111Hc cun1prt·l 1 cn~ivc features alrc::Ldy

1i.

1

ti .i t ·

t' I

lll!J t cd .

111 a •k,cT ipt iu 11 vf C'1:1rtrcs ( '::itl1 e.J r:il. .\lr. l fc:nry Ja mes thus ind icat<.:s a
•1 111,.' \\ 'li:l.l cli:-;:i. <hant;1;.,.:l•11t1s 11 11i11t 11 f \ ' i \ '\\' : - ·'Ti ll· little Stjll:lr<.: : k1t sm r»Ullds it is d cp l\) ralih· narrow, and yo u nattc n
.. u r li:1ck :i .:.;:lin ,t t!1<· "l'i'"s ile ii«uscs i11 the ,·ain allc rnpt to st:md o ff and
11

r \ \')' l lil.· t. ,,,·cr:-; .

·rh(.'

pr upc r \\·a:· !11

l1ll1k

at 1lic ill \\'11 uld

he to g1> up i n ~

.. ·1, ,,.;1 and '1:111.:c; l'"isc d, face: tu f:1 ce 11·ith tl1c 111 , 111 the: blue :i ir.
1
•

"'·"r.

Tlien; is,

11n

l1:lj >S :i1 1 :i.J1 :111 t:i ge i11 I win:.: f,, r1·l'<i tu st::i11d su directly un de r
w lll , f,ir l i\is pu~i!iull gi\·l·:-; y ~ 1u :1 11 ~)\'C r\\ hc J111ing itn prcssiu n o f their hcigl1l.
l,.11 ,. ,,., ·11 . I Slll'I" >SL', chnrclil's :is li1·:i uti illl as this <>nc, i>llt T de> n ot re me rn licr
'·· 1· I<> li:wc 1,._«·n S» f:1s, ·i11ail'.J I>;· "11pc rp o,.:it i»11s a n.] Ycr li ca l effects . The
;J,·,;s 11irn :ird rc·ae h " f the g reat wvst fr<>n l," etc. The 11·hole dcsc ri pt iun
111..:. li~trn1u11 i 1. L·~ . i11 ~crtlt' :1111! d1 ·l0. il, '' i th thi~ 11 11 i11t of \·ic\\'.
Till' :i· l··11ti<>n, in cnt:1i11 \':1Sl's, 1>f a shifting
•ii I,, : ,., p bin c.i furtl1n »J l.

li t'"

t r:11·cller's puint uf view"

2 . The Comp rehensive Outline. - l f:l\'in g (ktc rm incd h is point
\ il·ll'. :111d 1rith it the s(·,il c " r 1ks. ·ri11ti1> 11 . th e writ er's next step
l" gi\·e i11 ;t h :·ic f (Jt1t li11e the ill ( 1 ~ t < li:iractc rizi ng fe ature or
·1t1 1rcs of the ol1jc< l <ksnil >c cl , as :1 kind o f framewo rk. fo r th e
Ji, ,Jc jJiC (\.f'>"•.
. on I er to l1:wc a
'- ' !'l1 t· ,.,.. 11"~ (l ll"'- S' ...'' t tl1"-.. ou hct 111
iii'y in ;~ mtclc11s of rlcsc ripti o n rut md whi ch tht.: vari ous deta ils
'·'·he .~roupcd .
The ki11tl o( (c:1l 1trcs tiu t co ns titt1tc s1wh outline arc, in a mater ial
•i<' ct , t he n:irnc ,,r ih cbss, its s h:tpc . s ize . and positio n, or some
<li!·:1 tion (11 · 11 h:1t it i ~ lik··: ;tn d in spirit11 :ll ul 1jcch, p redominating
"l in :-, surn11ury (Jf qu:ilities . c·lu r: tctc_-rizing tra it. :\n outl ine like
1

LX ..\~ 11 ' 1.ES . 1. \ ' ictor IT ugo ·s descripti o n of the Ihttl c o f \ Yater loo hcg:ns
11·i1 Ii t h e: full uw in g c:J,i1J1 iratc outl in e: rkscripti 1m uf the liattlc-ticld: "Tli usc: \\'hu \l'<ilild get :i clear idea u f the liattk u f \\'att.:rl<m h:nc: unly t»
lay duwn upo n th e: gniund in their rni 11 d a'"1·a1•ital 1\. Th e left str t1ke u f tlie _·\
is th e rqad fr1>1 n :'\'i\·c1lcs , the right ~trukt.: i ~ the ruarl fr111n L c n::lp pc, tli l: 1..T<.'i~:-i
uf the :\ is the sunken n•ad fr,,m ( 1h::ii11 tu l;rai ne l'.\lku·l. Tlie l»p ,,f the.\
i~ .\lnnl C.:ctinl J c:a n, \\'cllington is tlic:re; tlie left ha11d lu11·er pui nt is l f<>ug »1n 1>11t, l\.l'i llc is tltcrt.; \\·ith jt.:f4ll11C Hqnapart c; th e rigli! Ji:1n 1J \1 ) \\·er J) !) i1 1t i:-;
L a !;die ,\ !liancc, ?\apnkt1 11 is the re. !\l ittle: lic:l<>11· th e p•.1int wher e th e cr1>'-'S
of the.\ meets and cuts tl1e r ight stnikc, is I .a I hie C.:aink. ..\t th e midtl lc:
of this c rt >SS is the p rec:isc Jl•• in t \\·here till: Jina! liattk 11·onl was 'i " •L en .
Th e re: the li un is placed, the: i1J\· ol un t,uy syml1ul uf th <: suprc:me h e ruis111 <>f the
l111 pc ri:il <:u:1rd . The t riangle: contai11 c:, ] :it th,· t»p u f the.-\ , lict1l'C<'ll lii 1· '""
sl r<> hes an d the c russ, is t he plat<.:::t\l of .\l u nt S:iint ]L':1n. The s lr ut_:glc f,, r this
)'latcau w:is the \1 ·h <>lc n f the !>attic."
2. Th e: f.,\J,,wi 11 g is tlie a11tithcti c fr a mc11·u rk o n" l1ich J. !.:. . Crcc11, i11 l1is
"I I istnry t. if th ....· English People," co ns tru c l:-; :1 dcscript iu:1, sc\' c n pa;.~ cs lun.~,
uf the c har:ic kr ,,f <2uee n J-:l i1.al1cth: "Th e issue ,,f the Scvtch w:ir rc·1"Calctl suddenly tu 1-:uropc: the 1·ig• 1r • ,f the
<2ucen :ind the s tr en gth of her thrune. \\'ii:ll her abil ity rc:aliy 11·as, n<> "11t ·.
Sa\'C Ceci l, had as yet suspl·ctcd. Th,·rc 11·:1s li ttle: in deed in lw r <>\\t\\'ar.J •it- ·
n1 c ~nor tq

gin; any i11 d i cati1Jt1 11f he r

g r c:t.tnc~:-;.

'I' (> tli c W!lrld :ili 1 >11t h i·r tltc

temper vf 1':li1.ai>cth rec:ilkd in its strange c<>11trasts the mi~c:d l·f,..,,] 11 iil1in
her 1·ci ns . She \\'aS ~I on ce tl1 c d :u1gl1tn ,,fr [<·11ry and <>f A1 1n c 1; .. Jn·11 . h· .. 11 1
h. ·r f:itltcr she: i11l1ni tcd lier fr:rnl; ;u1ol h1· :ir ty :i.J, lrcss, lier l .. 1·c ,,f l'"J'ilh rilv
and vf free i11t c rct>U rsc \1·it h tlie J'e• ipk, lier 1bnntkss cu11rage and lier a 111:vin g st:lf-con li dc ncc . l !e r h:irsh, m:inlikc 1·u icc, her irnpctu uus " ·ill, her 1•ri. k,
her furit1us o u tbu rsts of an ge r, ca me to he r 11·ith he r Tudm b!OL>d .
. C.:tra11 g, ·J:.·
in eo ntr asl \\'ith t hese Yi»knt 0 11tlin es .,f her f:ith cr's tempe r 't""d the s,· 11 s 11"u".
self-indlll.c:c nt natur e: she dre\\' fr u m .\ nne Bt>kyn . C.:plcnd u r and pleasure 11,·;-e
with E!i LJ.lJct h the vc:ry ::iir s he: IJrcath eJ ."

rn

cases where the description is not th e m:irn clemen t of the
p rodu ct ion hut :i. 11,·il b rv tll sontcthi11 g el ,;t:. it generally consist-;
merely of the com prehensive outline ; to whi ch is sornctinH_'.S

'i

:n.1

!JESCJ\ll'TJOX.

l>E.SCNJP TION.

:1ddccl a more deta iled :iccou nt o f the part or quali ty that is of
special signil1cance fo r th e princi pal work .

dat es from t he mid d le of the thirtee n th ce ntury, a n d these cl oscly -packe•J fig·
m es arc full of the g ro tesquen ess o f th e peri od. Above the tri ple p•Jrtals is a
Yast rnund -tvpped win du w, in three d ivisions, o f the gran dest dimens ion s and
the st:-itdiest dfrct. J\l1o ve this w in d•nv is a circ ular apertu re, nf huge circu 111 fcren cc, with a cloul 1lc row of sc ulptured s pql; es radi a tin g fr o m its cent re and
lo uk in g o n its lo ft y lield uf stvnc as ex pa nsive and syllll1uli c as if i t \\·ere Ilic
wh eel u f Tillle it,.;e lf. I li g h e r still is a little gallery " ·ith a deli cate balu,;tra<il' ,
suppo rted o n a l1eant if11l cu rni ce and str e tc hing ae ru ss th c frunt from t' "'·cr t<>
tull' er ; and a! Hwc this is a ran gc uf nic:hc d stat ues o f kings- llfteen , I J.clit· 1 ·c,
in nurnli er. 1\hove the s ta tu es is :1 galilc, with a n im age uf th e \ 'irgin an•l
Ch il d 11n its frunt , and another vf Chr ist o n its apex . l n the rehti 'l n uf all
th ese parts thne is s uch a high fel icity th at while on the o ne side th e c·yc rests
v n a great m a n y large blan ks there is no ap proach vn the nther to p o,·crty . . .
The [\1·0 g reat tO\\'e rs of the cath ed ral arc am vng the noLks t uf the ir kind.
T hey rise in sulid sirnplit.: ity to a h eight as great as th e eye ufte n lroulilcs itself
t<) travel, and then s udd t.' nly they \.cgin lt) exeentc a ma gn i(ice nt se r ies of feat~
in arc hitectural gymnastics. T his is cspcc ially true o f th e no rth ern spire, 11 h ic h
is a lat e c rea ti o n, elatin g frn m the si x tccnth century . The other is rel.i ti1·dy
quiet; lin t its cv mpaniu n is a so rt o f tape ri ng bouquet o f scu lptured st<>ne.
Statues allcl buttresses, g argoy les, a r:-ilies•1ues and ernckets pik thcnbch'<.:s in
su ecessi ,·e st:1gc;;, until th e eye lust.'s th e sense v f c\·crything Lut :t '"11·1 ,,f
ar c hi tect ural h cc,1·ork . T he prid e o f C hart res , after its fr u nt, is the t 11· ., l" ·rtals o f its tran septs - g rea t dusky porc hes, in thre e rJi ,· isions, cu1·n cd ,,·it h
m n re ima ges th all 1 h a Ye tim e to tal k a lio ut. \\" hercvc r y"u l<HJk, alu11;..: the
~i d es uf th e ch ur ch , a tim e-wo r n i1n agc is ni ched ur perched . The face t1f
each flying lJuttrc ss is garni sh <.:d wi th o ne, with tl1 e ft.:at.u rcs r1 uitc melted
a\1·a y."
2 . The l 'b n pur,.;ue•l in ( :rce n' ,; d esc ri pt i" n "f th e ch a racte r ,,f <,h 1ee n Fli;;i .
licth, the trntline pf whi c h is g ive n u n page 331, is mainl y " sc rics uf antitlicSt·s. It may lie tai>uhtt.:d thu s: -

33 2

E xA:-11·1. ES. I. Carlyle thus p or trays in o utli ne the environs of Zornd orf,
" ·h it'h arc u f i111 pt> rtan cc rnncly as the scene uf :t li:ittlt: : " ~ucli is tl 1c p• l<>r m u•\rl:tnd tract ,, f t.:<J Un tr y: Zornd urf tl1c cen tre of it, \\'he re· th<.: battle is li kely tu lie : Zorndu rf and e n viro ns, a ba re quasi- island
:~lll11llJ!, thes e """-'<Is; exlcns i,·c bald cr0 \\'11 v f th e hndscapc, gi rt with a fri zzle

•

The follu \\'in g is an outl in e d esc r iption uf a perso n, fr o m George
Eli11t : "S he had ti me to remark that he was a peculi ar -lnok in g perso n, but not
ins igni:i ca nt, " ·hich was the qua lit y th a t nwst ht ipclcssly consig ned a ma n to
pnditiun . He was massi ,·ely lJUi !t. The strik in g po ints in his face were large
cle ar gray eyes an ti full lips ."
2.

3 . The Sequence of Details . - H:tving o utlined his description,
the writc r has fi nail y to IJeg in at so me casil y-irnag incd startingpuiD t anJ supply the ch:ua c te ri st ic feature~ . in regular a nd assoc i:.tl 1k order, fro m poi n t to point. To arr:m ge these details lu cid ly,
he need;; to inquire ::it c \· ery poi nt in \r hat order o ne would most
naturally t h ink of them. In m::itc..: ri al objects, such a s landscapes,
in ti ldings, :rnd per;;o nc:, there is a natur:tl suggestive ness on which
he c:1.11 gene rally best rely; he has b ut to lullow the law of co ntigui ty.1
In sp iritual uhjec ts he must make a plan of his own,
a nanglllg J.cco rdi ng tn some marked l:tw o f seque nce, such as
sim ilarity o r con lrast o f <J tt ali tic s, or c:tu;;e and effect. And whate \·c r lli e p rinciple of :irr:rn gc rncn t, it is to l1e reme mbe red that,
O il aC«Olti1 t (Jf the J1,ttt1r:tJ ]OOSelleSS Ol the dl't:\i] s, :t d escri ptive
pbn has to be strongly marked in ord e r to be e:isily followed .
E X.\ .\11'!.ES. I. The clcsc ri ptiun of Chart res Ca thed ral, by IIenry James,
wlius:: point o f Yi ew is g i,·cr1 o n page 3 30, p roceeds in easily traced order, fr om
li" ttvm lo top of th e fa~· :i1le, th e n the to we rs, thcn uth t:r features.
"T he d<><.lrs arc ra ther!"''" as th"sc pf th e F 11glish cat hed rals are apt to be,
iint (st anding three tngeth c r j a r c se t in a deep fr :urn.: work o f sc ulpture- rows
,,f a rc hin g grooves, filled \\'ith ad mi ral1le lit1lc i rn :i .~ t' S. sta nd ing ll'ith th eir heels
''" c:ich n t hcr's hc:-it!s . The cl1urch , as it n u,1· e,i sts, c'Cl'jlt the no r thern tower,
I

for the expla nati o n of these

i:l\\'S

of assoc iation , ~cc preceding, page 273 sq.

1.

2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

Outli nc-cu11tr:1stcd t raits in he rit ed fr u m h e r p ::ircnts.
n. J:rnlll I l cnry V l l l. - fr a nkness , Ju,·e uf pu]'ularity, cou r:i..t.;c, scl fco nlidcn cc .
/;. Frum 1\nn e Dolcy n - gai<:ty, sensuousn ess, self-indulge nce.
Int elle c tual 11ual iti cs - kce nn css, sagac ity , ,·c rsatility.
;'-. lu ral qu~ditics- in difference, alis(· ncc .,f e ith e r lv ,·e ur !1alc.
J\s to aim s in pul icy -tl ircctncss, st eadin ess, tenacity.
J\ s tu mt' a ns - t,,r t1l <> u'1H:Ss, i11 gc nui lv, u11 scrupu l•!ll Sness.
S umm ary - Yet in its very cont rasts thc characte r fo r the age.

3.H

DESCR!PTION.

DESCRIFTION.

II I.

The cliff is a ccess ib le only from b ehind, where a man may cli mb up, no t wi th o ut c\ ifticully , by a sleep and narrow passage. The lop is abo ut an a cre in
ext e nt."

335

Subdual of Descriptive Details . - The d c t:i. ils belong ing natur: tl ly to an objec t of d esc ri p t io n :i.rc so lvoscly c onnected that the
pro ble m of mana ge m e nt, or as it is h e re tcnrn.: d subdual, becomes
n : ry impo rtan t. It is m ost ly a p roble m of pars imo ny: how to
cfkc t th e res ult with the fc\\' CSt pa rti c ula rs p oss ihk , ancl how to
m ak e e ach p :u ti cu br co unt fo r the must poss ible. In this subd 11a l o f de tails tl rn.: e m a in types o f d escr ipt io n arc occasioneJ,
aet:vrdi ng to the m1m b cr a nd gro upin g of p:uts.
1. Circumstantial Description. - Th e re :ire kin ds of descriptive
\\'Ork t hat will n o t bear an y g re :it rctl11rtio11 of deta ils; th ese are
clcscripti o ns "·here the :i.irn is n o t so mu ch vividness as inform:i.ti o n. The var ious parts of th e obj ec t m us t be gin:n, as well as
t he c h:uacll' r of it as a \\'h o le; the wo rk h as to be, in truth, a kind
of skil lfull y const ructed c :i. t:i.logue, in which as luc id order as is
pnssibk mus t b e soug h t fo r w hat is a fter all r:i.thcr intractalJ]e material.
Fo r such c ircums t:i. nt ial d esc ri p tion th e pro ce d ure already cle~nihed undn ~ e 11 uc 1wc o f ! )ct:i. ils is mos t :t pp licablc; namely,
ll\:tki ng the m os t pvss ih lc o f th e n:tt ural suggesti ve ness of the
o bject , to g roup th e parts in t he m :rnn c r judged most practical
and scrYice a blc to the reade r.
F X .'\ ~f l' I. E S . - The desc r ipti o n o f Ckir tr•;s 1:1t h er1ral, alrea d y 11uotcrl, is of
tl11: l.·irc11 111 :-;t:111 t ia\ ! ;·pc ; a nd t Iii.· 11 111 1)\\ i11g sho r te r dc :-;l...'.r ipt iun, fr un1 P:.1rkman,
,;Ii• '" '" the ,.;:imc ch:ir:1o.:lLT, in the: rq.:ub r :in• I n:ilura l su ccc:ss iu n o f pa rts : " T he cliff calkd '~tan·c:d l~ock ,' no \\' lwintc d uut lo tral'cll e rs as the ch ief
na tural cu r i"s ity u f t h e r c:gi.1 11, ri sc:s, steep u n tl1ree si des as a cas tle wall, to
t!ic: he i,i;h t n f a hu11 d red :i n,\ t11-c nt y -li1·c feet a bo ve the ri1-cr. In front, it
u1·cr\ 1an gs the " ·atc- r th :it. 11·ashe,.; its l1ase; it,; " ·cs tcrn brow l.)uks d o wn on the

t<•ps (·1[ tl1t· f11 rt·:-;t tre es l ll:11n\·; :1 nd 11 1t th e t.: ~ st lies :i wide gn rg<.; or ravine,
,·l\,,J; e d 11 ith t l1c: min gkd f,, li ;1g ·~ uf \1al;s, 1Y a!11u t;; , :i nd cl111s; while: in ils rocky
1k11ths a little l1 ru<> k LT cT J'" ,J.,"·n t" 111i 11glc \\' ill1 the: ri1·c r. l :rum the rugged
tr11n\.. ,,f th o· ~ t11n1t-d cv ol:J r tk1t l1·;1no< f,.r1":1r.J fr,,nl t he l1r ink , )°" ll may drop a
j1l t11 n 11 1cl i11loo the ri1'l ·r lit·!""'· ll'l1vrc tlH· c·at -li ;;h and th e turtles may p lainly
b e se e n glid in g u1·e r th e 11Tin k lc<l s:i nds uf the ckar a nd shallow current.

2. Dynamic Description . - This mmc may Le adopted for th a t
kinJ of descripti o n in which the d e tails a re massed a ccord ing to
the power they have or the impress ion they arc fitted to rn :i. k e .
Its method is the :i.rr:i.ng e ment of parts in ac cordan ce with th e ir
similari ty of effe c t in b ringi ng out a c e rtain c haracter. I'rofesso r
David Pryde th us d e linea te s it: 1 "In s tudying a ny inte resting
scene, let your mind look carefully at :i.ll the d e tails . Yo u will
then become conscious of one or more effects or impress io ns t hat
have been made upon you. Discove r what these impress io ns are .
Then group and descri b e in or<lcr the d e tails whi c h t e nd to p ro duce e:i.ch of the impression s. You will then find th:i.t you have
c o mpri sed in your d escription all the important deta ils of the
sc ene ."
N OTE. - I'rofcsso r Pryde thus illustrates his i<lea: "As an in s ta n ce, k t us
sup pose that a writer is o ut !n t h e co untry o n a morning to ward the en<i u f
l\fay, anc.l wi shes to d cscril>e the rnulti tmlin o us objects whi ch d eli ght his se nses .
Fi rst o f all , he asce r tains th at the: gen e ral impressi o ns pro duc ed un his mi nd
liy the summe r lands cape ar c th e id eas o f luxurianre, bn:rht11ess, a n d j.11 ·.
He then proceeds to d esc ri be in these groups the detai ls whi ch prod uce these
im p ressi o ns. H e firs t takes up the luxuria n t features: tb e spr ingi ng youn g
crops o f grain co mpl e tely hi d ing the re<l so il ; the rich, li1·in g ca r pe l of gra ss
anrl flowers coYerin g th e m c::i. d ow; th e hed ge -rows on each sid e o f t he " ·ay , in
th e ir liri gh t summ e r gr een ; th e tr ees b e n d in g g race full y under t11e full ll' Cigl1l
o ( their f'ul iage ; an d th e w ild p bnts, t h ose waifs o f nature, flu uri shing e1· cr ywh e re, sm o th ering th e w ood la n d b roo k, filli n g up eac h scar a n d cr ev ice in the
ro ck , and making a ri ch fring e al o ng the side o f every hi g hll'ay a n cl fo.,tpat h.
He then descants upo n th e bnj;htn rss o f th e landscape : th e g o lde n sunsh in e ;
t he pearly dew-drop s hanging o n th e ti p s o f ev ery blade o f grass, a nd spa rk ling
in the m o rning rays; th e cl usters o f dai s ies dappling the pasture -land; the
dandelion g lo wing under the ve ry fo o t of the travell e r ; the ch estnut tr ees,
like gre at cand elabra, stu ck all o ver with while lights, lighting up the wood lands; an rl li lacs, bburnums, and hawth o rns in full fl ower, makin g the farm er's g:irrlcn one !llass u f variegat ed l1l ossn m. J\nd last of all, h e can dwell
l

Pryde," llighways u f Li te r:llurc," Chap. VJ l l.

Df:'S l RIJ'i'JON .

336

upon th e j oy that is abroad o n the face of the earth : th e little birds so full of
one feel in g th a t they c::in only thrill it forth in the same del icio us mo notone;
the lark bounding into the ::iir, as if cage r and qui 1·cring to proclaim his joy to
the "·huk \\' Orld; the huml11c-hce hummin.c; his sati sfaction ::is he revels among
t he ll <l11· ers ; ::ind the myri ads of insects fl"at in g in the air, ::incl poising, and
dar l ing ll'ith dro11·sy buzz t hrough the floods of gulde n sunshine. Thus we
sL·c th:1t , l>y this hal iit v i gcneraliLi ng, the minci can gr;isp the de t::iils of almost
any scene."

It is obvious that this is a Yc ry effec tive way of subduing the
numerous dctaib of a description. Nor lus th e p rin ciple of it been
o\·e rloo ked by wri ters. It is perhaps th e p revailing method in
the more fini shed lit e ra ry portrapb, where vividness rather than
informat ion is the aim . i\ strong and definite impression is the
ol)ject fur which there is most occasion, not a multitude of particuhrs.
ExA~ 1 1·1.i-:s.

- The folloll'ing, frnm Di cke ns, is co nst ru cte<l so as to hring
out tll'O impressions. The old house he ro.: desc ribed is, lirs t, o f a peculiar bulging appearan ce, a nd second ly, spotlessly clea n. R oulH I these two charac ter istics the dc.:t::tiis arc grouped .
"At len g th we stopped h c fm e a \"Cry old h ouse bulging o ut over the road;
a house 1Yith lo ng h111· lallicc- 11·imh>11·s l•ulging nnt still farthe r, and beams
11 ith can· cd heads on the ends liulgin,.; o ut iou, sv that l fancied the whole
lwusc was leaning fo n1·arcl, tryin g t" sec \\'h at 11·as passin g o n th e narrow
pa1·cmenl bcl011" Tt 11·as qu ite spotless in its ck:rn lin css. Tl1c old-fashiunetl
brass kno cker o n the lo w arch ed d n ur, <l rnamcn tc.J with can·cd garlan ds of
fruit and flowers, tll'inklcd like a sta r; the tll'o stone steps dcsccncl in g to th e
d<>or \\'er e as " ·bit e as if tlwy had hc<'ll c111·crcd ll"ith fair lin e n ; a11<1 all th e
nngks :111<! cor11crq. and t ·:1 n· i n ~:s a1>d 11>< >1il.J i11 g-; , a nd 'l ua i11t little panes of
glass, a nd quainter little win ,loll's, thoug h as old as the h ills, were as pure as
any s no \\' that eYc r fell upon the hi llsn
Shakespeare's desc ripti u n of [ lo1·e r Cliff, in" K in g I .car," gives merely such
d ct::i ils an<.l acc csso ri c.: s as sc: n· c tu impress il5 d izzy hei g ht: " Come o n, sir; here 's the place : stand still. How fearful
/\nt! di zzy 't is to c:1 st one's eyes so low!
Th e cro\\"S rrnd choughs that wing- th e midway a ir
Show scarce so i:ro ' s as lic:ctks: half way dow n
1 Ian.gs one that gathers s:l111ph1rc, dread ful trad e I
J\kthinks he sc-•'>T>' no l1iggn than h is head:
The fi ~ hcrn1<·n, that w:tlk 11po n the \.>each,

D ESC1"!Pi'JON

33 i

Appear like mice ; and yond tall anchoring bark,
Dim inish'd to her cock ; her cock, a bu oy
A lmost too small fo r sight : the murmuring surge,
T h:tt o n th' unnum be r'd idle pebbles chafes,
Cannot be hea rd so h igh. I' ll look no more;
Les t my brain turn. and th e deficient sight
Topple down headlong."
Other examples arc Shelley's descr iption of the ravine near P et rella, in " The
Cenci," Act l l I. ~ cc n e I., wl1ic h imp resses the te rril ic gloom o f the scene; and
]{uskin's descript io n of the in ter io r of St. J\lark's, Venice (al read y me nti oned
o n p:tgc 257 ) , \\'hi ch centr es in th e charac teristi cs o f colo r and sy mbol ic deco ra tion. Thus \\' C see th ere is room even to give Le wild cring m asses of detai l
in d esc ripti o n, if hcll'ild crm cnt is the impressi o n to be co1wcycrl. l\by no t
thi s effect Le in part sought in Ruskin's description of the exteri or of S t.
Mark 's ?

3. Portrayal without Detail. - Of any common ohject the
great nuss o f c haracte ri sti cs a re already so L1miliar th at th e
thou ght of th e object necessarily re calls them. 1\ ll th at is need ed,
in the majority o f cases, is merely to rouse in the rc:i.de r' s mind
a vivid conception or recollec tion of wh a t he has al ready seen ;
and th is can ofte n be clone by a flash of p icturesque exp ressi on,
ur by a telling epithet, much better th an uy recoun ting details.
A single word opens the whole vis ion; and the reade r is del ighted
hy its picturing powe r.
Strictly speak ing this is not description; it is suggestion. nut
th e sce ne desc ri bed mu st be in the write r's mi nd and heart, so
li ving and in spiring that he can sec it in solt1t io n in o ne word;
and to fin<l this word is pe rh aps the rares t power in l ite rature. It
co mes only from an intense real izat io n of the objec t in emotion
and imagination; its inspirer is, in truth, the spi rit of poetry.
N OTE . - Of Cole ri dge's "Ancient Mariner," Lowell says : "And how pictur esque it is in the prope r sense o f the word . I kn ow n o t h in g like it. There
is n ot a d esc ripti o n in it. It is all p ic ture . Descripti ve p oe ts ge ne rally con fu se us with multipl icity o f dt:lail; we cann o t sec th eir forest fo r the tr ees ;
but Colerid ge nev er errs in thi s \\'ay. \\'ith inst in ctive tact he touch es th e
right chord of associati o n, and is satislicJ , as we also are."

33S

j )

DLS CA'Il'TION.

rs cRI !'T!O/V.

Ld us ve rify th ese re marks by two or t hree cit atio ns .

In the stanza-

" All in a h o t and cop per sk y,
The bl o od y Sun, a t noon ,

R ight up abo ve the mast did stand,
No bi g ge r than th e ~fo o n," -

" k tt cn uld 1><.: m o re expr essiv e than th e ep ithet <nppcr; and h o w the wh ole
p ictures the t r<>p ic calm. J\nd co ul d a m o re intensely real picture be made
tkw is pa i n ted in thc: full1 iwing sta nza? -

" It cea sed ; yet still the sa il s maclc on
A pk :i <ant noi se till n oo n , 1\ n o isc ii kc of a hicldcn brook
In the leafy m onth o f Ju ne ,
That to th e sleepin g wo ods all night
Singcth a q ni ct tune ."
Carlyle ha<l this pi c turing p o 11·n, in his portra its of men;

witness, for

in st an ce, hi s s tu dy u f l lantc's p o r trait , in " I Icro -\\' o rship ": "Lon ely ther e, p a inted as on vaca n cy, with the simple laurel wounrl ro und
it : tl 1e d e athle ss sc> rrn"· :rn d p ain , the kn•"' n 1·icto ry whi c h is also deathless;
- sig ni ficant nf the wh o k history ,,f Uant e ! I think it is th e rn o urnfulcs t
fac e that e\·cr was paintc:d fr om rc·al ity ; an a lt c>gd hc r tragic, heart-affecting

339

accordingly tlut it freely employs imaginative diction ( se c p re ce din g, p;:iges 55, 73 ), in the form of h eightened expression,
pi c turcsqnencss, and im agery; only here th ese h eig htening cl ements arc not so much for elegance as for clearness. The necess ity of rousing a de finite im:i.ge often gives to a plain prose
d escription some o f the characteri stics of poe try.
The fo ll owi ng arc the co mmonest accessories of descri ntion _
Figurative Language. -The a d vantage of fig ure s f;r m aking
an object rc;:il and definite is obvious; they both illustrate a nd
vivify. F ig ures that are eminent in these qualities arc the most
frequent and useful.
I. Simile is exte nsiv ely employed, p rincipally in the outlin e
part of extended descripti o n, to give definiteness for the succeed ing treatment; also in brief picturesque portrayal.
EXA~ll ' L E S . - I. The follow ing s imil es, in Carlyle's descri p tio n of ::ich lcs ien,
illus trate his care in cons truct in g a ddinitc o utlin e : -

A ccessories of Description. - In spite of a ll care in planning
;rnd gro11ping, descript ion rema ins th e kind of di sco urse most
liable to be tedious, o n :i.ccount of the diffi cu lty of managing
a mul titude of loosely co nn ecte d details. Some ways of subdu in g this intracta1Jle m aterial we have just noti ced. The same
need of subcl ua l give s im porta nce to the accesso ri es of d escriptio n; whi ch, though :i.nxiliary. belong to the essential working-tools

" S chksic n, what we call Silesia, lies in elliptic shape, sp read on th e to p of
Europe, partly g irt with mountains, li!.:e the crow n or crest to that pa r t o f th e
Earth - highest table-land of Ge rmany or o f th e C isal p ine C o u n tri es, a n d send ing ri vers int o all the seas. . . . I t leans slopi ng, as we hint ed, tu the E ast and
to the Ko rth; a long curved Im/tress of m ountains ('Ri,•se11,r,·hi1'.[[•'. ( :ianl.l\l ou nt a ins, is th eir best-known name in foreign co untri es) h o ld in g it u p on
th e South an <l \ Vest sides. This C ia nt-J\!ountain .Range ... shapes it se lf fi l e a
/Jil/-h (lok (or elli pt ically, as was said): h a ndl e and h o o k toge th e r may be so ni c
200 miles in kngth . . . . A very p re tty Ellipsi s, or irrcgnlar ( h al, o n th e s u m mit o f th e E uropea n Co n tin e n t, '/il.:e tlte palm (If a ltjt-lwnd w d l strdch <'d-011!,
witlt th e Riesol.1/ 1:bir.rc f ur thumb .1 ' sa iJ a certain 11 e rr to m e, s tret ch i n.~ o ut
hi s a rm in that fashi o n tcnva rd t h e n o rth wes t - Palm well str e tc h ed -o ut, mca,u rin g 250 miles, and th e c rossw ay 100."
2. The following, fr o m Balza c, will s h o w h o w simile is used to hit off a ch a ra cte r or quality picturesq u ely: "Th e pr esident, who looked like a rusty iron nail, felt th at his co ur tship
wa s progressing. " - " ' Just so ,' said th e n o tary , pullin g o ut hi s o ld. watch ,
whi ch was two in ches thick and loo/.:cd like a Dutch man -of-war."

of the a rt.
D esc ri p tio n. b e ing in prin c iple pictmin g . is :rn appeal to the
rc:Hlcr\ ima gination. It se eks to produce in him a kind of illusion, to m ake him realiz e tlic pi<turc as if he saw it. We find

Metaphor and personification are very strik ing me:i.ns of
g i\·ing vi gor and action to a sce ne or obj ec t. Sometimes they
are fo llowed out at le ngth, in an elabo ra ted picture.

fa ce," e tc.
OJ,sc r ve h o w in the f.,\\,1win g , fr o m C t:o rt:;c' E lio t, a s in gle touch brings the
whok scene hcf•> re u~ : "Th e rush nf tl1c 1Yater , and th e boom in g of the mill,
lir in g 11 dreamy d ,-,1.fi:1·ss, whi ch see ms to lie ig h tt·n th e peace fulness o f the
sce 11 c . Th c~ y are li/.:e a gn·at curtain (If so1md, shutting one o ut fr om the
w orld b eyo n d ."

IV.

2.

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DL:.\'lRIPTION.

.) !O

EX,\:lfl 'LES . - The full o wing is from Ch:i.rks E gber t Craddock: " :-;trctclt i11g ont htcrall y fr o m :i. long oblique line of th e So uthern Alleghanit:s a rc t11«> parall el ran ges. full u \\'ing the same co mse thrnugh several leagues,
: 11 1<! s<·pa r:i. k.! l •y :i. 11arr•> 11· s lril' <>f' ,-allL·\· h:n dl y half a mile in width. As they
f. 1rc al·lll~'. arrn in :-trn1, su t1> spe:-tk, sundry diffne nccs lictwecn the close cu m1,,111iuib :Ht: di ~ti nctl v :11•p;u,,.1t . <lilt.: is 1nu r li th <: hight: r, and leads the way ;
ii str ikc·s "ut :i.ll the\,,,\.\ cu n-cs and :i.ngks ,,f th<.: ccnirsc, me ek ly a tte nded by
ll•c lesser r idge; its sk1.t .. 11·y cv\'t:s and sharp r:w ines :-<n: r epeated in miniat ur" as it s L'<• 11Had c L1lls into th e line u f march ; it set: ms tu have its co mpa ni o n
in cli:irge , a1 1< I t" c<>ndnl'l it a\\':l)' from the 1ua j«sti c p rocessio n uf mountains
tlut. tra' "rst's th" ~ late . "
Th e full 1111·i11.t.:, fr,,1n :'-lrs. :-;t1J\\' e, dcscril•c·s t he prqn ratiun, in a co un try
hotnl', fur 'l'hanl .. sgi\ ing cla.:LT : -

•· In th<.: curncr uf the gre:i t kitchen, during :ill these rhys, th e j-0ll y ol<l oven
ro ared :ind crackled in H>k:ini c billo 11·s u f !lame, sn:ippiug and gurgl in g as if
the o ld fel low c:nlercd 11 ith joyfu l sympathy intn the frolic o f the h o ur, and
th en, hi s g reat h e:i rt b e in g unce \\':1rm cd up, he liruoued O\'e r successive generatio ns u f pi es and c:-<kcs, \\'hi ch \\' e n t in raw :ind came out cooked , till butteri es and dressers and shel\'CS ant! p:intri t-s 11·c:r e lite rall y cro \\' ded with a jostling abuudan cc:-"

3. Antithesis, or contr:i.st, is :m cffcctu::tl means of bringing out
into relief \\'h::t t is distinc ti \'\.: ur su r pri~i n g in th e objec t d escribed.
ContrJ.st in the broader sense is here mc:i.nt; :i.s, fo r instance,
between J.ppt.::uancc and reality, o r Lletwecn anticipJ. tion and ful-

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filment.
EX.\\I PLE. -

Crcc n, in hi s " Ili stnry o f the E ng lish T'copk, " thus sets o ff the

char:.c tcr uf Jan1t'S I. by cont rast : ·• l n <> \Ile r ap; H:ara 11 cc 11•1 sul'crei g n cu uld h:ivc jarr e d mo re u t tt:rly aga inst
the cc >n cept i.in uf :rn F ngli~ li ruler \\'liic li had gr<>w n up unde r l'lantagenc.:t or
' l" tdur. 11 is l>i g lw :1d , his sl.,Li> c ring tunguc , h is c1uiltc:d clothes, his ri ckety
lq,::s, s t1,nd •Hll in as ~~ r·>lcsque :i co ntr ast \l'ith a ll that me n rec:i ll ecl o f H e nry
p r Ui 1al ll' th a~ his _ga l1ble a nd r hudornuntade, his " ·:int of perso nal di g nity,
h is buffoo nery, his cnar ·e ness of speech , h is pedant ry, his pe rsonal co wardice.
U nde r t11is ridi cu lo us ex teri o r indet:d b y 1w su 1all amo unt of mo ral co u rage
and ,,r intellec tu al :i\ ,ility . Jam es " ·as a r ip e scl1C,br, with a co ns ide rable fund
" f sh rc \\·dn ess, o f nh1tli e r-11·it, :ind rea dy rcp a rtec:. I !is ca nny humor li ghts up
thc: p<>l itical and thc<>lugical ·o n tr u l'ersies vf th<.: time with q uain t incisive
pli rases, \\'ith puns a nd ep ig r:.ms :.ud tou ches o f iro ny whi ch st ill retain thei r
s:iYor. ll is reading , especially in th colo;- ical matters, was extensive ; a n d he

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DESCRIPTION.

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\\'as a lread y a Yol umino us author on subjects \l·l1i ch ran ged from predesti nati o n
to tobacco. But hi s shre wdn ess a nd learn in g on ly left him, in th e phr:isc uf
H e nry th e F o urth o f F ra nce,' th e wisest fu ol in Christe nclun1. ' I l e had in
fa ct th e lc1n per uf a pedant, a p eda nt's conce it, a pedant's lu\'e u f th e" rit' s. :-<nd
a peda nt 's in :.hility tu \iring hi s thc:<>r ies int o :. ny reh tiL>n with actual fa c:ts . lt
was thi s fa t:-tl defe ct. th :it 1n:irr t~d h is p o liti cal :ibilities." Et c.

· Epithet and Word-Painting. - The se c har:ic tc ri stics of 1111:-tgt nat i\·e and p oetic d ict io n arc ve ry spont:rneo 11s in descriptive \\'ri lin g, lJcing th e form that bngu: tgc t:i.kes in its attempt to use thl'
pi ctur ing p o wer of words . Th ey arc used l)oth in portrayJ.1 \\'it hou t deta il and in m o re exten d ed descr iptio n.
1. Epithet is pe rhaps the m ost co mmon and sc rvi ce::tblc means
of condens in g a pic ture into a \\'Ord ; thi s is, indeed, the lrn sinc :-;s
of e pithet ( see pages 56- 58, preced ing ) . If the conception of
an objec t cJ.n be flash ed into the reader's imag in at ion by a s ingle
J.pt word, the wo rd is bette r tha n :i. page of inventory <..kscription .
N<iTE. - Epith e t is Ruskin's p reva iling m ean s o f descrii> ing n:itural seen ·
c ry, :is is illustra ted u n page 74. It is abo Carl yle 's pri11 ci l'al methud in the
\'il' id pc>rt raya l of perso na l cha r:ictcristics. Co nsider, in the ful l•J11·in g , huw
powe rfull y th e ht tc r sets off lJanid \ \'e\Jst<.: r's pe rsonal appearan ce l•y th e cpi·
th cts he fr ee ly elllploys: " Nut many days ago ," he w ro te tu E lll e rsun in 1839, " I sa w at l1rca!..fast
the n o t:il>h:st o f all you r Notal)iliti es, Daniel Webst e r. lit: is a m:1gnilicrnt
specim e n ; yo u mi ght say tu all the wo rld, Th is is yuur Yank ee Engl ishman,
suc h lim bs we m:i ke in \':.r nkt:clan d ! As a L og ic-fe nce r, :\ dvoc:itc, ur l'arl iame nt:.ry l lcr c ulcs, one \\' <l uld incline to hac k h im :it lirst sight a ga in q all th,:
ex tant wurld . Th e l.t 111ud complcxiun , that t1111orplwu s cr.i.f-lil.:" face; the dull
Mad· eyes under their pra ifia uf l1ru\\·s, like dull anthracit e furna ces, nec:ding
only to he b],,wn; the ma stiff- m outh , a cc uratel y close.\: - I ha ve nut tr:iccd
as much of silott R1·rserlir-ragc, that I rclllt:lllb cr uf in a ny other man . . .
\ Vehs ter is nu t loquacious, but he is p er tin e n t, cu ncl usi,·c ; a Jignili ccl , per·
fect ly li recl man, though n o t English in \.r eed in g : a m:in wo rth y uf the best
re cept io n fr o m us; and rnce ting s uc h, I und e rsta nd."
In hi s r eply tu this, E m e rso n describ es by ep ith e t Carl yle's wo rd · p:iin ting
powe r: "Anu n o w th ose thirsty eyes, th ose p o rt ra it- eat in g , po rtrai t-pa inting
eyes o f thine, th ose fatal p e rcep tio ns, have fa ll e n full o n the g reat forehead
which I followed abo ut all my yo ung <l a ys, from co urt -house to senate-chambe r,
fr o m caucus tu street."

LJLScRJ l'J'J t.J.'V.

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DESCRIPTION.

\\'ord -pa inting is closely conncc teu with epithet. Indeed,
th e two :i.re gemr:illy found together; bu t to the pic turing power
of si ngk wo rd s " ·ord-p:1 in ting adds no\\' and rhythm ·of the sc ntcnn: . ad;1ptatio n of sound to sense, allite ration, word-play, and
the like .
2.

J\<JTE. - Th is !1as already been illustral ed li be rally on pages 55, 62, 74·
Th e fulluw in g, fr•>1il ! ~ uskin, wi ll s]1<111· h u\\' c·pithct and wurd·pai11ting together
ad d lo the: pi c t ur<.:s•1u c ncss o f d csc ripti un: ''And th c rc the riYL·r r ipplcs, :rnd C<ldies, an <] murmurs in an uttcr sol it ud e.
lt is pass ing tin-. •11 gh the m idst o f a thi ck ly pc.,plcd cuuntry; hut 11 cve r was a
stream Sil lu nch-. The fcc:l 1lcsl :rnd 111 us t far·a\\'ay lurrc11t am o 11 g !h e high hill:;
;i:ts its co111p;1 ni., 11s : the guats hrn wse bes ide it; and the 1ra,·cllcr drinks frnm
it, :rn d ;•asses m ·cr it \l'ith hi s ~t:tff; and thi: pcasant traces a n ew ch:tn n cl f.,r
il di ll\' ll tu l1is mil\ -11 h ccl. l~ u t this st rca1 n k1s nu co mpani ons: it iluws 0 11 in
all i11 linite Scc lusi <' ll, 110l Sccrel or thn;atc nin g, !Jut a <jllicln cSS
Sll'Ccl dayligh t
and Ppc n air,-a ]l!·ll :l! ] Sjl:lCC or tcn dc r an d de ep deso\alcn<.:SS, dn>oped into
rcp nse o ut of thc mi ds t of hurn:tn bho r and lifc ; th e 11·a\·cs plas hing low ly,
\\'ith no ne tt) hcar thc m; an d the \\'ild l1i rds building in the liuughs, \\'ith rwnc
1• ) fray t hc1n a\\·ay; and the s" ft fragrant h crl 1s risi ng, and breathi ng, and
fading, \\'i th n• l h:lll.J to gathe r thc m; - and yd all !>right :tn.J hare tu the
clouds :tl Hi1· e, and lo thc fresh fall uf the passing s un shinc and pure ra in. "
T he: full1J\\·ing, fru111 Th ackc:ray, w ill sh uw h uw alli tc rati nn mav hc usi:d to
in lt'ns ify S()l\\c 'luality .,fan ohject dcscrihcd: "\\ ' hat muscle Wlluld nu t grow
f1::1<:ci <l in suc h a lifc - :1 li fc that \\'as ne ver strunL; up tu any ac tion - an c nd!t:ss Capu :1 "'it ht nlt any campaign -all fi ddl in g , and flowers, a nd ft:asting , a nd

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terror of the su pernat ural arc to be indicated. \ Ve have already had a touch
of it, in the Jescriptiun of Dover cli ff, page 336: "I 'll look no mo re;
L P.s1 my brain turn . ;tnd th e udici e nt sigh t
Topp le do\\' n headlong."'

Tn "\fachet h" too , wh ere th e gh ost o f B:tnq uo app ea rs, Macbeth is rep resc ntcd as almost lJesi<le him sel f so lo ng as he sees th e appa riti o n: "lifacb. Avaunt! an d quit my sig ht! le t the earth hid e thee !
Thy bo nes are rn ;1rroll' lcss , thy l,l ood is cold ;
Th o u hast no spec ulatinn in 1hose eyes
\\' hich tho u dost g!:t re \\' ith !
La dy Jf.
Think of this , good peers,
But as a thing of custo m; 'tis no o lher;
Onl y it spoils the plcasure of 1he time.
111.icb. \ \"hat man d<lt'c, I dare:
A pproach thou like the rugge d Ru ssian bear,
Thc arm'd rhino ce ros, o r the Hy rca n 1ige r;
Take any shape b ut that. and my firm nerv es
Shall ne1•er tre mble : or be alive agai n,
A nd d:1rc me to the dese rt with thy S\\'Ord;
1f trcmbling I inhab it !h en, protest me
Th e baby of a girl. H ence, ho rri!Jle shadow!
Unreal mo ckery, hen ce !
[Gl1ost disapjiear.r.
\Nh y so : being go ne,
I am a rn:tn aga in.- Pray yo u, sit s till."

In fac t, a scene g:i.thcrs such :i.ddc<l significmce fro m the m ood
in whi c h it is viewed , or t.h e kind or person that views it, th at 111
lite ra ry desc ription s indications of thi s kind arc often supplied as
a kind of sett in g.
T hi s leads us to speak of th e t\\'O kinds of desc r iptio n, objective
and subjective . I n olJjccti\'C desc ri pt io n, the writer holds himself ri gorously to g iving what is in the o bj ec t a nd no more ; exh ilJ iting e\·e ry deta il in what Lo re! Baco n calls "dry light," without
a ll o ll' ing it to be "infused ::ind d re nc hed" wi th his emot ions and
p e rso nal pccu li :nitics. In sul>jcc tive d e::;c ripti o n, the writer 's feeling is made to some exten t th e clete rrninator of the portrayal;
that is, his emotion operate s to rolJC the external world in the
qualities of hi s own sou l, so that th e sce ne is gloomy or joyful o r

flattery, an<l fully?"

Indication of Effects. - " One of the strongest and most s11ccess f1 il m odes," says ( ';mun l\J p1.lcy ,1 "of desnilling any powerC1il
object, of any kind, is to descril>c it in its effects . \\' he n th e
sp ec tator's eye is d azzled, and he sh ades it, we t(mn th e idea
uf a sple nd id object ; when his face tmns pale, of a horri ble one;
from his (] Uick \\·ornk r and adm ir:1ti o n we form the iJea of g reat
licauty; from his silent a\\'e, of g reat rn ::ijcsty."
Ex iD!l'I. FS . - D csc ript io n, or rather suggest inn, by effects is mu ch used hy
Shakcspca re in strn ng ly c: m ut iu nal l' a~sa.t.;L· s, a n.J es p ecially wh c re I he all' e and
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M ozlcy, •· E,say s I listo ri cal and Thcol•1gical," \ ' ul. l l. p. 190.

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DLSCR/l' TIO N .

DESCRll'TfO .\'.

tr.:tnc-iuil or grc wsomc, not neccss.:trily as so in itself, but bec111se
he is. Thi s kind of (kscripti o n Ru skin re p re he nd s :1s .'.l tendency
to take Jillertics ""ith n:iturc, whi ch tendency he c.:tlls th e" p:i th e tic
f.1ll.'.lcy ." It is thus irn ic:ited in a rece nt poem: -

1. And it is shown in alnwst every description, first of all , by
narrative touclzes, such as verbs of motion used to p o rtray object.·
at rest, the .:tction involved in figurative descri ption, a nd th e like;
d evi ces whi ch, belonging intrinsically to the recountin g of tl'ents,
se rve to enl iven the scene more th.:tn the reader is a ware .

" If "'inds h:we wailed and skies wept tc;:irs,
To JHW t's \'i s io n dim ,
'Twas tha t hi s ow n sobs fill ed his ears ,
I !is wee ping blinded him."
ExA ~ IT'LES oF St ·n 11·:cri n : D 1·:sc1un10:-:. - It is a to uch o f the sul,jcct ive
wh en, i n re p rese ntin g a man as rollin g a bo " ·ldcr <l ow n a m uut1lain side in
o r d er lhcrclJ)' to cra sh his c:ne my, C harks Egb ert C ra ddock s:iys o f the sounJ ,
"Th e ec ho) es ran g with :i screa m u f terr or. "
The fu ll " " ·ing bit o f s uhjec ti1·e description occu rs in o ne o f Ca rl y k's letters :
"Th e Scaur waler, the ck:i rcst l CH:r saw except on e, came brawli ng down,
the vo ice o f it like a b mcntati o n amun.i:; the winds, answ ering rn c :is tl1 e voice
of a brothe r wan de re r and bmenlcr, wander er lik e me through a cntain po rt iun uf ete rn ity :llld inlin it e space . l \1t1r lin >ok 1 yet it was rl<ltliin g l>ul drops
of w:ltcr . i\ly th u ughl a1"1ll: ga ve: il :in individ uality. l l was f that w;:is th e
wan d n cr, far uld cr and strc>ngcr and grc:\l er than the Sc:inr, u r any ri,·cr o r
mountain, or e:ir th . p h nct, or th ing. "
In :-;1iakcspeare's ' 'I famlct" occurs a n interesting cx:implc u f resis tance tu
the ten d e ncy tu ma ke dcscrip t ill n sul•.in:tin:. Jl amld is dete rmin ed to <lescri lie t hin~:s as they arc, in spit<: uf th eir gu ise tu his di slJl·de recl min.\: "I ha1·e of late - but whc:n.: flirC I kn o w n ot - lust all my mi rth, fo rego ne
a ll cust om nf ex ercises : and ind eed it go>cs so l1 ea1·il y with my dispusitiorn, that
this gop.\ Jy frame. the E:irth, see ms to me a sterile p r o n wnto r~· ; this most cxct:ll ent cam>py, the air, loo k yn n, this b ran: o'erhangin i.: tl nn:imcn t, this majcsti cal '"·"'f frcttc.,\ 11·ith golden tir e, -why. it appea rs no oth er thing to me th:rn a

ExA~IPLE. - Observe h o w the itali cized wo rds, which arc a t once m etaphor
and \'CrlJS o f a cti o n, en liven th e des cripti o n in th e following, fr o m Tenny ·

sun: "So till the dusk th at follow'd evenso ng
Rotle on the t\\·o, reviler antl reviled;
Th en aft er one lon g slope was mo unh:d, saw.
Bowl-sl1aped, thro' tops of many th ou s ~n tl pi nes
/\ gloo my-gl a ded hol low slowly sink
To westward - in th e deeps whereof a mere,
Ro und as the reel eye o f a n Eagle-owl.
Under th e half-tl e::i d sun se t glared.'.
2. Something of n arr.:ttive character in descripti o n is ofte n compelled by the clement of ti111e e nte ring in . The descripti o n of
a storm, for instance, or of a sun ri se, mu st re cognize the changes
of :isptc t during the continuance o f the scene; an<l th us th e portrayal is al so .'.l kind o f story. A li.:tttlc nny lie treated dc seriptil'e ly or narra tively; that is, the principle of treatment may li e
pred o minantl y in th e pi c turing of sce nes or in th e tl e1·e lop rn e nt
o f actio n ; b ut in ei ther case there m ust n ecessarily lie a large
.:tdmixture of the other form of di scourse .

fQul an1l )' estil e n t ...:ongrcg~ti1,11 uf \':ll'11rs.q

Narration . -

Description is so closcly allied to narrati on th at
th e t11·0 a rc ve ry extcn ~ i1 · e ly used as accesso ri es of eac h other.
Inclecd, the re arc so me forn 1s of di sco urse wherein narrati1·e and
clesni p ti1· elemen ts ;ire so evenly habnced that it is tliRi cult to
determine which k1s th e predo min :inc e.
Jt is a natma l tenden cy, when an objec t is 1·ivitliy conce ived, to
<'IHlow it with life ;:rnrl 111oti u n.
\\·c St'C th is in p -rsonificatio n :rnd
in :illcgo ry. Th e employment of narratio n as an accessory to
descript io n be longs to thc s:i mc tend e ncy.

EXA~J 1·L E . - Th e fo ll o win g , fr om one o f Ed ward E\·crett's ora tio ns, sh,,11·s
wh at m:ignilicence of lan g u:ige may he knt by a master lo a n :ry cumm t> JJ
su\,jcct: " J had occasion , a few we eks since, to take th e earl y train fr c0 rn l'ro1·i,lcn cc
to Bosto n; and fur thi s pu rp ose rose at t11·0 o'cluck in th e mo rning. L1·n1·
th ing around was wrapt in da rkn ess a nd hushed in silence, l>r•; kc n u ni;· J.y
wh:it seemed al that hou r th e un ea rthly clank an d ru sh u f th e tr:i in.
It
was a mil d, se ren e, mid s umm er's ni gl1t, - the sky was without a clo ud, - th e
winds wer e whist. Th e m oo n, t he n in he r last •1uartc r, had j ust risen, and the
sta rs sh o ne with a spec tral l ustr e but littl e affected hy her presen ce. Jupit er,
t wu huurs high, was the herald o f the day; th e Plciades, just abo1·c the h1iri-

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JJ ES CJ.' I/' Tl 0 1\:

z• lll, shed th e ir swee t influence in the ea-; t : Lyra sparldetl nea r the ze nith;
:\nd rumed a \'ci lcd h e r n e " ly -disco\'ered g lo ries fr o m the naked eye in th e
S•!ltth ; t he s teady p<•i nlt:rs, far lJe n cath the pule, luokcd rneckly up from thc
d q 1ths of t h1: 11 1Jrt h I<> their s uv cn:ig n.
"S11 <' h \\'::ts the gl"r inns s pcctacic as l enlt: n: d th e train. ,1\ s ll'e proccedcd,
thc tilll i.! apl' r<> a e h u f tll'ilighl lie c:rn1c inure peree ptii>k; the intense blue o f
Ili c sky l>c ga n tu soften; the sma ll e r stars, lik e littl e childre n , \\' cnt firs t to
rL·st ; the sistt:r-l icams of the l'lc iadcs soo n mclte<l togethe r; but the uright
C<l nstclb ti uns of the west and n o rth remained unc h:i. ngcd . S t e:i.dily th e won dr uus transligur:i.ti o n wen t on . I fands uf :i.nge ls, hi dde n fr o m m c, r tal eyes,
shifted the sce n ery o f the heav e ns; the glurics uf nig ht dissuh·ed into th e
g l"r ies uf th e cl a\\'n. Th e ],Jue sky noll' turn ed more soft ly gray; th e grc:i.t
w :i.t<.: h-st a rs shu t np their l1 <1ly eyt·s; thc cast l>cga n to kin.lie. Faint stre:i.1's
uf p ur ple S<><> n b lus h ed alun g the sky; th c \\·h u lc celestial co ncav e was fill ed
\\'i t h t he inilu11·i11 g ti d es of the m<>rn ing li,l,'. li t, wh ic h came pou ring cl o wn from
a li11\'c in o n e g r eat oc ea n vi r:i.dian c<.: ; till al lc11 g th, as \\'C n::i.ched th e Blue
1 I ills, :i. ll a sh uf pu rl'lc fire blazed oLtt fru111 :i.1,ovc th e horizo n, and turned
t he de\\'y tc:i. r -.lr"l's of ll •!\l'<:r an d leaf intu ruhi es and dia m o nds . In a few
Sl'Cll !Hls, th e cn: rlast i11g g aks o f the m o rning \\'CfC thr own wide ope n, and
t lw i<l rd u f day , arra ye d in glori es t,Jo severe for the g aze of man, began hi s
stak ."

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:i.rnl life . A hald pea k in the midst of the rest, an d d arke r t ha n the y, stand s
out in :i. n aur eole o f flame. All a t u nce, IJet\\'een twv serrate pu ints, lik c a
da z;. ling a rroll', st reams th e first ray of the sun.'
"~u l• scq ucnt St'. cli<!nS d csc r ilic thc C(l llntry i>cy1>nd Pan, and th e t<>ll'Jb <> f
C'<lar r:1 1t', I .csk lle \\' ilh its clial'el, Saint l'c, a nd I ,(j un ks . l fere and lh ..: rc
appea rs a thr ead "f n:i.rrati \' C. lik e the first scutc ncc in th e para g ra pl 1 'l uo tc d ;
lnit often er the mere mention u f a new pla ce keeps up the sense uf lll L•'·cm e nt."

v.

3 . The clement of comfrcl1cnsivencss in a scene may also compel t he use of n:irrative resources; :i.s in a p:morn.rn ic landscape,
whose fc:1tmes o f interest c:innot all lH.: seen lrom one point of vi ew.
In suc h a case the de scripti on is regubtcd uy what is called "th e
tr:t\Tl lc r's po int o f \·ie w"; that i~, the lk sr. ri])(:r is rep rese nted as
go in g from o ne p( 1i11t to annther :rnd portrayi ng successive aspects;
:rnd the effe c t i~ uoth descriptive and narr:n ivc.
ExA~fl'LE ( • JU<.>tcd fr o m l\kElroy's " St ru cture of English Prose ") . - " The
phn h as hecn su cccssfu lly p ursu cd by l\I. T:i.in e in h is To ur thro11g lt tlu Pyrell t. 't'S : -

"' Th c carriage lc:tYcs Faux Bonnes at d:i.w n. Th e s un is sca rc ely yet r isen,
a n d i, sti ll hi d d c n b y the m oun t:tin s. ]'ale rays begin to cu l" r th e mosses o n
tl1c \\·es l<'rn d ccli\' ity. Th ese m osses, bathed in d ell', se em as if a\\':J.ke nin g
un d n th e 1;rst c ar ess o f the thy. Rosy hues, uf :i n in exprcssii>lc soft n ess, rest
o n the summits, then s teal do\l'n al o ng the slo pes. One co uld n eve r hav e
liclie\' ed that these g aunt old c rea tur es w e re capabl e o f an e xpressio n so ti mid
:tn.l so tende r. T he lig-ht broadens, h eaven ex p:i.n ds, the air is fi ll ed with joy

DESCR!l'TJON.

I
l

Exactions of the Object. - Of th e objec ts, mate rial and spi ri tu:il, with wh ic h de scription deals, so me, as hJ.s l1ee n intim:Hcd,
con ta in a suggestio n of stru cture in the n:itural arrangement of
their p:irts, wh ile in treating others the plan hJ.s to l>c con structed
acco rd ing to the wri te r's logical sense . Furthe r, so me o1 Jjects
require a gre:ite r depe nd ence on accesso ries of de scripti o n th.111
oth e rs. A rough class ifi cJ. ti o n o f olJjects may ht:re lJe made,
accordi ng to these n:1tural e xac ti o ns.
1. Th e easiest task for th e d esc ript iv e inv enti o n, perhaps, is
furni shed by those objects in wh ic h desc rip tion co nsists esscnti:illy
of an r111r111cratt'o11 rf pa r!J-. Suc h olijects co mpri se: ol>jc<:b in
space, such as b uildin gs, to wns, scene ry, wo rks of art and mech anism; pe rso nal po rtraiture; and obje c ts rela ted to tim e, su ch a~
natural pheno me na, weathe r, and the like. In all these, when the
d escr iptio n is of any length, the imag ina tion ranges n:i.turally fro m
po int to poi11t, e ith er auo rdin g to the simple co nti g uity of parb t<J
eac h o th er, o r according to the d yna mi c impress ion th ey mak e·
on th e d esc riber. Accesso ri es may be employed, out they arc
seco ndary; the multipli ci ty of d etails reciu ires th:it the IJ:isis of
treatmen t, even if the treatment is dynami c, be a defin itely con ce iv ed and natural plan . Th e lc:icling :i irn is to le t th e order of
tre:itment, as far as may ue, ue d e te rmi ned 11y th e obje c t itself,
in its natural suggest ivencss .
N< >'l'i':. - This has been abu nd a ntl y illu strated in th e exte n ded rl escri pti o ns
alr eady c it ed ; :i.s for in stance, in the descript io n of Char tres cathed r:i.l, o n
page 33 2, :i.nJ in th e <lcsc ri pt io n of Starved Rock, on page 334·

f)f'.SCR!!'TJON.

DESCRIPTJON.

2. Next in diffi culty to the foregoing ::i.re those objects in which
the descripti o n consists in the rrc111111!/11:; 1111d portrayal /if q11a!t/it·s. Such ol>jcch comprise : ch::i.racter, indi,·idual and collecti,·c; n::i.tional conditions :rnd tr::i.its; sc ie ntifi c ::i.ccounts of natural
phenomen::i. :rnd ch:u::i.ctcri stics, a nd the like. In all these the
pLm has to 1>e nude rather th:rn found; and its cle::i.rness and
completeness ckpcnd th e refore on the writer's logical :i.nd cb.ssifying powers.
Ac cessories ::i.re sccon<l::i.ry. ::i.s in the foregoing;
and th e necess ity of a stron gly m:uked order is even more imJH: rati\·c.

reveal; but if you keep us ::i.11 day in the cavern , the effec t is lost,
and o ur only feeling is that o f impatience and desire to get
a way."
The skillful writer, however, will seldom atte mpt to desc riltc
rncnt:il states and emotions dirc:ctly. l lc falls ]xi.ck on the: accessori es of desc ription, seeking to impart lJy suc h means something of
the viY idncss of an object of sense. The accessories become
therefo re the predom inating mean s of portrayal. Among th ese
arc espec ially to be m entioned: d esc ription by metaphor; description by narrative; and especially d escription by effects, in countenan ce, mien, ges ture, and the like.

.1~S

"!\:11TE . -

3·19

,\n cx:.mplc h:.s heen g iven in the phn of the cksc ripti o n o f Queen

L\i 1abcth "s characlcr, ,, n ]':tgc 333. .'\11t1thcr na111]'k, which has bee n called
" <> llc uf the g rv at dclineatiu11s of ltist<>ry,"' is ;\!utlc;-"s descripti o n of the characte r o f \\'illiam lhc Silent, in th e lirst vulun1e c>f his" l\i se of :he D utch

EXAMPLES . - I. In the following the desc r ipti o n of a mental state is elTcc tt:<l
by m ea ns of m e taphor. The exalllplcs art; <1uo ted fr o m l l t:nry Jatnl':>.

A vagahont! milld. - "It hacl latdy occu rred lo her th at her mi ncl was a
goo ll deal of a vag abolld , and she hacl spe nt mu ch in genuity in training it to
a military step, and teaching it lo advan ce, Lo hall, to ret rea t, to per fo rm C\T\l
m o re complicated rnan u~ uvr es, at the word of command. ] ust n ow she had
gi,·e n it mar eh ing o rd e rs, and it had b ee n tru dging ove r the sandy plains uf a
history of Ccrman Th oug ht."

1\ epu\J lic." A famuus cx:101pk of (kscripti1> n o f a nati on's condit io n , and
masterly i n its way, is the thir1l c hapt<.:r o f ;\bcaulay 's "Histo ry o f E nglan d,"
whi ch portrays the slate of England at the time his history opens.

3. The most difficult, and least atbptccl to d escri ption, are those
olijects which appeal not tu the reader's sense-perceptio n but to
his con,;ciuu,;nl'.:-,s o f his own inner expe rience. Such arc mental
st:1ll:s, ment:1l processes, antl emotions . 01)\'iously these arc h:nd
to de sc ribe; liccause if the n.::1der has no experience of, or susn:pLilJility to, the state or emot io n portrayed . ::my attempt by words
t<> pllt him in po~session of it is in vain. Th e author feels most
vi,·id ly his own inn e r states, anc lo him they arc profutrndly sig nificant; but to impart a feeling of them, with any approach to vivid ness, is quite another m::i.tter. And because it is so difficult, it is
espec i:illy li:lblc to be tedious .
Of th e managemen t of such description, Buhrcr-Lytton says,1
" A few words will ofLe n paint the precise state o f emo tion as
faithfully as the most voluminous essay; and in this dc:p:utment
conde nsation ;iml brevity ;ire to be c:1refully stud ied. Conduct us
to the cavern, ligh t the torch, a nd startle and awe us by wha t you
1

Dulwer-Lytton , " Pcu nphle ts and Ske tches," p. 343.

1\n ove r-ac tive imag inati o n. - "l1 e r imaginatio n was by hal1it ridicul ously
a cti,·e; if the door \\·ere not open to it, it jumped o ut uf th e wincluw. :-;he

ll

\\'as n o t accu sto med, inclecd , Lu kee p it l1cl1ind hulls; and, at im po rt a nt m o ·
men ts, wh e n she "·otild have b ee n tha n kful to make use of her j udgm en t alone,
she p:tid the penalty uf haYing g iv en undue enco urageme nt lo th e faculty uf
seci ng w i th uut j ucl gi ng."
2. The folluwing- examples will illustrate d esc ription o f em otions and mental states l•y th e ir effects. Th e lirst is frl)m Sir \\'alter ~cull: -

An gc: r. -

"The Cu untess stuod in the midst of her apartment li ke: a juvc:nilc

Pythoncss, under the influence of the proph et ic fury. The ,·eins in h er Iieauti·
ful forehead started int o swoln lilue lin es thruugh th e hur ri ed im pulse uf her
articuhti o n -

her check and ne c k glo\\·ccl like sca rl e t -

he r eyes were li ke

t hose uf an impris o ned eagle, nashing red li ghtning on the foes wh om it c:rn n ut
r each wi th it:; tal ons. \\'e re it p ossible fu r one o f the Crnccs to have been
animat ed hy a 1:ury, the coun tena n ce could n o t have united such beauty with
so mu c h hatr ed, scorn, defiance, and r esen tm ent. The gesture and attitu de.:
eorrespunc.kcl with t h e voice and luuks, and altoget h e r present ed a s pec tac le
which was at once beautiful and fearful; so mu t: h of the sulilimc had the
en e rgy of pass ion unitecl with th e Co unt ess Amy's natural loveliness."

·I
f'JFS CR !/'I'/ 0 . \~

.150
L ist les5 dcs p:tir . -

The f, 11J,1wing is fr o m \ \'nrdS\\·orth: -

" :\ s:i rl n~ ,·crs c it wns for him wh o long
llacl f:licd with plen ty , and possessed in peace,

This lon ely Co tt :1gc. lit th e door hc stood,
./\nd wl1 istlt: J mnny n snntch of mn ry tun es
Th ~it li :Hl no mi rth in them ; tir with his knife
Carv <: d 11 ncouth f1gur l'S on the heads of sticks ;
Th,·n , no t less id l)· , s011 g ht, thro ugh eve ry nook
In huu sc or gartkn , an\" cnsu;il work
Of 11sc o r o rn;:im cnt ; nnd with :i str:i ngc,
A 1n usin g-, y 1 ~ t uneasy no vc..· lty ,
JI\· 1ning lt.!d , wh en · lie..! rniglit, tlie vari ous ta sks

Of Summer, 1\11t 11m n, \\'in t<: r, and of Sprin g."

11.

Ul·:SCR f!YfIO\T I:\ l.ITER,\TURE.

The exte nt to \1·h ich description is employed in works of literatmc, a nd the fo rms in which it occurs, :ire a rather curious indicati•m u!' in con g rui ty, or at kast of difilcult n.:bti on, 1->el wecn objec ts
;u1d lllcans . T he objects lo 1Jc ckscrilJed a rc ju st those in whic h
ni c n take easy :rnd un iv<:rsal intcrcst, - those 0! 1jects, all arouml
u s in th e ll'urld a nd in lite, \\' h ich form fo r the most part the materi al for th e pa inter's art. But the rn e:rn s, namely language, can ]Je
liut with d iftirnlty adapted to pictorial p urposes ; and it is only th e
few who can e mploy it with eminent success . The multitud e of
det a ils to be 111;111;-iged arc :rn u nw icli lly m:iterial, and peculiarly
liable tv tccli o usne s,;. J-:,· L· n " ·it h the g rc:itest skill, there fore ,
]Jrevity, - a 1p1 ick irnpres ~ i on, comb ine d with corresponding defi11itc 11 c,;,; :rnd ~ triki11 g 11c ss , -- 1Jt.T1J111cs an imperative necess ity.
J\nuth c r considcration goes tv determine the position of description in liteuturc, n:1 m cly, men's tcrnk ncy to make practical
dcm:rnds . Rc:1d n s arc c:tsily \\·car ied with a po rtrayal, howe ver
,.j\·id, that stops \1·ith itsclf; thei r unspoken demand is that it
contrilJttlc to expla in o r enforce or prove somethin g . i\s long as
it is si il iordin :t te to so mc thin g else, it is interesting; liut Jct it exist
Cu r its elf al vm· . and 111 ost pbin people will regard it :i.s unpractical
tritli n;,;. 'J'h is is no <l1JtilJt the re:J.son why poetry, which is largely
1k,;i-r ip ti \·c an d imitative, must e ver appeal to the few, not to the
1nuititu ck .

DESCRIPTION.

1

l

j
l

ll

35!

These considewtions enable us to untlcrst:rnd the fac t that,
whi le to a greater or less extent d esc ription pervades all fo rms of
literature, and is hi ghly valued for its fitn ess to set off other fo rm s,
c ompara ti,·ely little is made of it as a form by itself. It is
estee med, a ncl justly, as a d el icate indication of th e \\'rite r\ skill
and taste ; it has e m ploye d th e most minute and consc ient io us
pains on the part of the greatest write rs; but its \\'Orth is recognized , for th e most part, only as it ful ril s th e office of a handmaid
t o the m o re inde p ende nt and practically serviceable fo rms.
We may here recount, howcyer, the typ es of whi ch description
forms the principal basis, and the mod ifi cations it unde rgoes.
In Prose Literature . - Leaving furthe r co nsideration of d escrip tion as it exists in passages desig ned to se rve some thi ng el se , \\'c
may mention two types of prose literature of whi ch descripti o n is
the leading cle m ent.
I. Descripti on is employed with the purp ose of imparting plai n
informati on , ancl with no attempt to shun what may !Jc dry and
invento ry-lik e, in b oo ks, and more commonly in periodical a rti cles,
wh ose objec t is to g i\·e a n acco unt o f som e Luilding, wu rk o f art,
nat ural phen o meno n, o r cou ntry's resources. In suc h de scrip tio ns
the imagina tive element is little regarded : in te res t centres in
measurements, accurate details, statisti cs, and th e like. Th oroughness a nd clearness :J..re the predominating aims; the subjec t is
supposed to conta in its own interest, and no t to n eed the ,-ivi fying power of language to heig hte n it. Such \\'Ork may indee d
p ro fit by :i. vigorous :ind li vcly sty le, so far as this d ocs no t inte rfere with its practical aim; but the practical ai m mu st first bc
satisfied.
EXA~!l'L ES. - A s tan dard wo rk of th is kin Ll is \Vallace's "IZussia." Jn
periodical literature may lie menti o ned s uch articles as th ose in I L:irpcr 's
\ Vcek ly d<: scriliin g Th e Co ng ressi o nal Library, th e n ew Cour th ouse at l'ittsburg, and the State Capitol uf Colu rad"; l'rofcsso r I la rris's ;irticl e in th e
J o urnal o f Specuhti\·e Philoso phy o n '.\lichacl Ang elo's pi cture o f the Three
Fates; the article in the J'\ orth Ameri ca n IZeview on th e resources o f T c~ as ;
an d many othe rs.

3.~ 3

DE S( "R f!' TIO. \'.

DESCRIPTION.

m ore amb iti ous and li terary use of d esc ri ption is see n in
Looks ::md sketc hes of tra\-cl, - works that form a very popular
fea ture of ma_;azine lite rature, as well as the staple of m:rny favor.ite books . I n these works de sc ription, while rem a ining the clement
for whi ch the book or ;uticl e exists, e mpl oys :-tl so narrat ive cle ments, in the shap e o f inc idents and d e tails o f tr:l.\'d; it :ilso
assumes generally a light, lively, co nv crsation:il style . The aim is
to impart inform:ition but a t the s:ime time to :lfford enjoy ment.
It do cs not ordinarily seek the th oro ughn ess :i.rnl minuteness of
the forego in g cbss of literature; being occ upied rathe r with the
e ndca\·or to sketc h scenery, to wns, custo ms, :rncl n:i.tional types, in
an enjoyable and real ist ic manner.

the non-utilizable that we have noticed regarding p rose. Descri p ..
tion still has to be employed mostly in aid of some sentiment, or
story, or emotion, in which the true sig nificance of the poem
ce ntres. In proportion to othe r types, therefore, the number o f
descrip tive poems is comparatively small ; though it is to be noticed
that among th ese are found some of the most valued and undying
treasures of our English literature .

2.

/\.

EXAMru·:s . - Kin glakc's " Eu th cn" is a lirilli:int ho k of Eastern travel.
Bayard Tayl ur's "\'icws ,\fuut " made fur him a rep ntati un 11·h i..:h , str ength ened hy num ero us btcr buuks uf trav el, gan: him a recogn i1.cd pus itiun as one
of t11e g reat es t tran:lh:rs and most popul:i. r wr ite rs. A rath er thnnghtful an rl
phil osoph ic cx :11nplc is Eme rso n's " Engli sh Traits." l fa \\'lh o rn c's " Ou r Old
Home " is li gh ter ~1nd more grace ful. Only :J. mention need he mark of th e
nume ro us magaz ine articles on cou ntries :ind places o f in te res t ; fo r example,
S . C . \ \'. I\r.:njamin 's art icles, recently put into Look fo rm, fr om the Cent ury
:J.n<l liarp<:r's, on" Pe rsia ."

In Poetry. - Poetry, being fundamentally an imagi native art,
is much better adapted to des c ri pt ion than prose . l ts im agery,
its concre teness, its liberty to re\·el in be:tl!t iful forms undisturbed
by the limitations of sober d idac ti cs, all contribute to make its
picturi n.~ po1,·1· r its prcdomi11:1t ing feature .
Au..:ord in g ly we lin d tlu t dcscriptiun phys a more important
part in poetry th an in prose literature; the passages where it
occurs may be longe r, m ore elaborate, k ~s hampered by th e liabil ity to tediousness. Jn poetry reade rs expect to enjoy be:iutiful
and vivid images fur their o wn sake; this is brgely what th ey
r ead poetry for.
In sp ite o f th is fact, h o wever, we find th:it distinctively d escriptin; po etry oc u 1pics a somc1rhat less cstet: med posit io n th:in
othe r types. It seems to enco un ter the same prejudic e :lgainst

ExA~IPLES OF DESC ){ll'flVE Po EMS. - Th ompson's" Seasons" a n<l " Cast le
o f Incl olc nce " ; l\! ii ton's "L' Allegro" a11 <l "11 I'cnscroso " ; Keats's "Endymi o n"; Beattic's "i\1instrel " ; Burns's " Co tter's Satur day .1\ight "; Gold smi th 's "Tr:in.: llcr" and "Deserted Vilbge "; T e nnyson's "Palace of Art";
Browning's " Chi ldc Roland to the Dark Tower came ."

N...JRR--1

:nu.v.

1\ '.-JRR.·17"/0N.

355

I. SIMPLE NARRATION.

CH APTER V.
INVENTION

DEALING WITH

EVENTS:

I

We will discuss first the laws, procedures, and cautions o f n:irration pure a nd simple, witho ut the adm ixture o f clements th :it go
to mak e the greater literary types of whi c h it is the basis com posite, sometimes very complex, produc tions .

I.

NARRATION .

Definition of Narration. -

OF men's n:itural impulse, m entioned at th e beginni ng of the
last ch:iptc r, to n.:purt what they olJserYe in the wo rld a round them,
narration, the re po rt o f ac ti on, is lJy far the most prevalent outco me; it is t!1e m ost n:1tmal an d 011\' ious of literary form s. The
reaso n of this is easy to find. Wh en 11·e inquire what o rd inary
men, men of the street aJHl o f co mm on life, arc inte rested in and
t:i.lk about, we find that it is almost sure to be some rnanifest.'.1 tion
of action; a race , a contest, a fea t of bodily prowess, a pra ·ti cal joke, - always someth in g im·o h·in g energy and m ovem ent.
Such things c:m li e obse rved without learnin g :md wit hout painful
thought; morcon:r, the very prog ress of the m is a stimulus to
susta ine d attenti o n. T he spirited accou nt o f su ch thin gs, .'.1 cco rdingly, is th e kind o f lite rature tlut appeals most eas ily to all
cbsscs of men.
Another reason there is fo r the n:itur:ilness of n:inative: it d eals
wi th the kind of material !>est adap te d to port r:ipl by langu:ige.
\\'e h:1\·c s~:e n that de scripti o n is at a d isalh·:i.nt:i ge in thi s respect;
be ca use it mu st work \\"it h m:ttcrial that is itself at rest, l.Jy a
medium that m ust move in a success ion. In narrative, as in no
othe r li terary form so \\"l:ll, m ed ium :ins1n.' rs spo ntaneously to materi al; b oth the exp ression :iml the ncnt exp rl: sse d are moving
fonr:ird . 1 {ow n:itural it is to run into narrati1·e form is shown in
the e:npluymcnt of allegory (sec p reced in g, p:igc 95), and in the
use of n:urat ion as a n accessory of de scr ip tio n. N:tr r.'.l.tivc is the
ki nd o f di sc ourse whuse pbn is least :irti llcial awl labo red, comes
nc:u es t to making i tse l I.

l

I
l

Narr.'.l.tion is the r ecounting, in success ion, o f the particulars that make up a transac tion.
Le t us in a few words analyze this definiti on.
I. 01.>serve, first, that the word transa c ti on, which express es the
sul1ject-m:itter of narration, implies a t lc:ist a roun ded :ind sclfcon tain cd series of particulars ; a nd thu s far it suggests something
of the aim in plann ing a narrative. A way o f r eco unting is tn be
so ught which slull rnaint:iin a di stinctive charac ter, and wh ich
shall h:ive a IJeg inni ng, an end, a culmination o f interest. The
fac t th.'.1 t n:irrati o n is the form o f di scourse ll"h e re in the plan most
n e:i rly make s itsel f hy no m c:ins precludes the fi ne st an<l minutest
co nstru ct ive skill. Inde ed, th e re is perhaps no othe r kind of literature so se nsiti ve to extraneous clements, .'.1nd so dependent fo r
its felicity on the :iccuratc habnce o f parts, as narr:ition.
z. Observe, seco ndly, that na rra tion, lik e d escr ipti on, deals 11·ith
parti cu lars, n ot with ge ne raliza ti o ns; with the co ncrete, not wi th
a1Jstrac tions . Th is imposes on it the s:ime t:isk invoh·ed in descript ion, of seeki ng out those pa rts a nd c ha ra c te ri stics of th e ol!j<.:ct
which arc m ost in div idual , mo:-; t unlik e those of thl: class to 1r lii<"h
it belo ngs. There is so me thing in eve ry trans.'.1c.tion whi c h makes
its interest uni q ue ; and this is mos t to h e sough t.
3. Obse rve, thirdly, th:it the reco unting o f p a rti rnb rs follo ws a
law of success io n. \\"hat that law shall lJe is a ques ti on to be de termi nccl by the com 1)1exi ty of th e occas ion. Th e 1Ja:; is of n:irration
is in d ec rl the si m plest kind o f successio n, namely, progress or
cont iguity in tim e ; and th is predominates in unsk ilicd narrat ive .
As, however, greater constructive power :im1 reg.'.1rd fo r inte rest

N. ·INRATI O.V.
•\'.-IA'/,'. / IIU.\'.

step Ly stc p wherc it has IJeen before) , but they can't c:tlculatc
its !Jearings bcforch::md, or sec how it is to be :id:ipteJ to those to
whom th ey :i.re spea king, n or do they know ho w mu ch they h:t\T
th oroughly told and how mu ch they have not. 'I went up the
stree t, th en I we nt d O\\"ll the st ree t; no, first went do wn :rnd the n
- but you do n ot ~ ll ow me ; I go before you, sir.' Then c'.:
ari ses the co mplex style usually ado pted by p e rsons not used to
narration. They tumble into :l sto ry and get on as th ey c:i.n ."

c nt<..: r, this L11Y is supplemen ted and recn fo rcctl by the b w of cause
:rnd effec t: l•:trticubrs :lre rcb ted not rn c n:l y bec:rnsc they ~c­
currcd al sm·h :i. tin1e . l1u t l>C C:Hlsc the y i;re ll" ou t o f prececlrng
11 ..., 1.1ll· -111-' 11·..;. , '·rnd form \\·it 1 the im.: n:din""' a n undi \·id ed t issue. A
skil lful m rr:itor will sL·ek 1h:H a ny in(' iil en t, :is n.: b tc d to what goes
licflln.', sh:t11 lie no t only p /l.r / /i (lc lmt also, :is far as poss ililc, proj>tcr /1 oc .

IL

EXA~ll'IY. -

Method of Narration. -The trans:i.c ti on to he na rrated m:ty

"Tilly -foll y, Sir j ll hn , n e' er tell m e : yo ur an c ie nt s w::iggc rc r
my tlu o rs.
sai d to m e , says he; -

C<' lll CS

n "t in

l was bd u rc :\ l aste r Tis ick , th e de p u ty , t" ulhcr d a y; and . as he
l1>n gc r ago than \\' cd n cstlay las t, -

':'\ c i;,: h h<l r < >u ickly ,'

!\Taster l>umb, o ur mini s te r, was by th c n; -

't w a s

'?\ c ig hl,or <2ui ckl;'.'

110

s a ys h e, 'rccci n: th usc that arc ci,·il; for,' saith he, 'y u u ar e in an ill 11a1 11 c ·:
-

n o w, h e sa id

I ca n tell wh c rc up u 11; 'fo r,' says h e, ' you a rc an h o n est

St>,

w o m a n, a n d ,,·el l th o ug ht o n ; th e r e fo re tak e h eed what gucsl s yo u r ccei,·e ;
r cce iv e ,' s ay s h e , 'n o s w a gge rin g co mpa ni o ns .'

Th:ll the ri ght telli ng of :1 sto ry is no acc id ent Jl tt th e result of
11)· contras t 111 th e na rrat1\·es of
· · ""1. ·11.
1·s· iilu~· t r:i1ecl
:trt1slic
1 .11 111 t·l('t
•
,
•
•
.
1
\\"·tlt··r
]'
·1"L'l1
\
·
1t
refc
rrin•<'' lo Co krid '~c , tlllh .clut lle llilli!L l )]LI ·
•
~
"b
•
·
1
.
1
·.
·
t
·
:"I
le
(Cole
ri
d"L")
obscrv
cs that
in the. . narrations
C it .lie ~ t \1 :-, [JO I! 1 .
0
.
.
uf un cdii .-:1 tcd people in Sh;1kcspc:1rc, just as 111 rL·:i.1 l_llc , th ere is
a \\":t nt \lf p ri)spect i\·c ness and a supert1uo us arnount ul regrcss1ven ess . J' co] 11e u ( t] 11·~.. .'-'\Jl'l •·1r··~ un ·il
· ilc tu look a lu nL.'~. w;1y 111 front
'\' \\"·t• ndcr t'nJ111 1hc ri b.. Jit J>:ttl1. Th1: ,v get o n too
() I- ( ll\' 111, :1 11 t \ tl i L,
List wit h o ne ]i;1 lf. ;u1d the1 1 tlic uthc r hop e k ssl y l:tgs . They ell\
tell :t story exactl y as it is told tu the m (:i· :i.n ani111 :1l can go
1 O f \lac;itila y· s n ;ur:t ti'"' mc: l1<• d i1

s.1id :

j,

" :--:o

1

-

un tlw 1i11t·~. o l tli t· nu\'t:
ll>

I

ur

•

.

.

I t.) lll.ll lll' .

a n d the cir c umstance she m e nti on s ( " I ca n te ll

\,t· gr:l pl1i~ :1nd pi c t nri· ~ qui.·, l1u 1 nunc c.;vcr S~l \\: th ;1t tlw ~( ·; 1tl 1•rt· d. fr;1g. 1 l 1"·- in c i· .ss . 1111 io il dirc c lc d l1y. '"' an1 s11c eye ,. lie wor. kl'd into
a
CUH l '
"

f tt .UI 1\

mosai c'." li i~h fu r ._.,, Jur,

r, .... d orn, :111tl 1i11is h, mii::h t

r i1·: d the crca1 11rns o f fan cy . -

:'.lnri so n , " ~ 1.t<" : t1 1 bv" ( F11 1:li ' h \kn ,.f l .t' lt crs). P· 1.13.
~ l3:1g eli o t. "I .i1 e r:H,. ~tlllli<"' ... \ "ul. I .!'· r45.

n o ne hi:re : y• 1u

) "<J\I

w hc rcu p un ' ") to authent i-

ca te :'\las ter T is ick' s w o rds to ~ir J " hn. is i11d ee d ass0c ia tc rl in h e r lll in d , i>y
e n n t ig ui ty , wi th the rest; b ut fu r Sir J u hn's purpo sc it is quit e irrel e va nt.

The foregoin g rem:i.rks and e xa m ple suggest the fo l1 01\·ing esse nti al featmcs of n:1 rr:1 t iv c me thod .
The Prime Requisite: Forecast of the Whole . - It is essen tial in n a rr:iti ve, first of all, that the end lie in vi ew fro m th e
beginnin g , ~rnd th:it every p:i.rt be shaped a nd propo rti o ned wilh
more o r less direc t refe re nce to bot h. ".K eepi ng the beginning
:rnd the end in Yi c w, s:i.y.· Professor D a vid Pryde , 1 " we set 0 11
fro m the ri ght startin g- pbcc and go straight toward s th e ri ght des tination; we introdu ce no c \·en t that d oes not sp ring from the
11

,

\1 • i i J\·. w11 tn s· J.cl»r•· \ 1.1e: 1111"\·. h:i d 1hrn c

C<>lllt:S

J [ere, in thr ee pla ce ~, th e narr ato r r<:tnrns o n h c rsd f (' 'it w as n o longer
a go ," etc.; " :\Jaste r l>uni11, o ur 1Hi n i ~tc..: r, " et c . ; ~'y ou would 11lcss you ,' ' etc. ) ~

hi s or i. 111 l1efun.: h im e ver re-

.

Th e re

w o ulrl bless yo u to hear what h e sa i• I: n o , I '11 n u swagge rc rs ."

1Tardt·d iii~ t.t~ k froni thl: s: tin t: point uf \'ivw, or ai111 "d wit h ~ 11 t: l 1 c.tl 11 l p: 1t1c 11 c c an(l
·
''
,.
.._1
1 h.ld l'Vl: t su fL""-.<Jhed tu ttt· . lt rc.d cv~ nt s
LdH1 f .lt t 11c ..... 1nH.; 1 c~ 11. 1 , 11 1 011 111 101

l)

a d111 it h is s 11·a g -

ontl, A c t 11. st:l'.11\.: IV.): -

rn a t n i a 1.

n 1en t s

ll »l

g erin g compa n io n l'islul to h er inn ( Shakespeare, Kin g l kar y I\ ". l 'art :-icc -

be n::1l or rictitivus; in l·ithe r case, hv we\·e r, th e procedure is csit is. st
ill to . be
rcb1ed
mt
h skillful
. · 11 y •1t.1e s,··im,1. . H rc:.i.1
, ,
•
.
.
.
.
sent1:1
pro:,;rcssi iin :iml proportiun of p:n h; if fic t1t1 ous, 1t 1s still to lnve
· ·111l· 1·I t IH 1l :, •·t ~· 1·1· 1·t \\·ere re:.i.1
·\ ncl m e1th er case the story, as :1.
\'el"h1
' ·
.
stun·, is :rn i n;·oilil, 11 ; 1 it is to fo110 \\" th e li nes of constru c tion that
.' .11, Ill
· rII \ ·ti·c, 11• _ to 1rin.:
tu the ma teri al it f111ds the same skill and
())
o
1 t ,\1
frec cl u rn of 1110 \·e nH: nt :i.s if it we re ;1t liberty to cn.:ate its own

their l>t~S I

I11 illu s tra1 iu 11 o f h is n :m::tr k s, l\Tr. Hage h u l qu<>les th e 11as<;a g c

wh e r e I fu stess <2uickl y tell s Sir J o hn 1-"::tlstaff w h y she w ill

I

1

Pryde, " St11tli c.:s in Co m ros iti o n," p . 26.

3.'i S

,V, 11" A' A '}'/ 0 :\'.

first l·:u1sc , :ind tend to the great cffe t ; w make each detail a
li nk jo in ed to the one goi ng before a nd the one co rning afte r; we
make, in fa c t , all the detail,; into one ent ire c- ln in , \\'hi d1 we can
t:1 ke up as a whole, carry about with us, an d rc L1in as long as we
please."
This is illt1strated in the method of the profess ional m co11tmr,
\\'ho nuy be regarded as rep resenting the art of story- telling in its
most fund:uncntal clements . The anecdotes th:it he relates arc
treated as c ml)ody in g a p ui nt or se ntime nt in \\'hi c h their wh ole
signifi ca nce is concentrated; and to this po in t he subordinates
everything. p:-issing O\'L:r prclirni1nries with a rapid touc h, cutting
out cn~ r ytliing that is not indi spcnsalJk to the ma in inte res t, using
desc ription ,,·ith utmost parsirnpny; so that the e nd fo r wh ich the
story e\ is ts st rikes the he:ucrs wi th all possi !>le clearn ess and
directness .
EXA~ 11 ·u: .-J\n insta nce o f an a nccdGlc so told as lo k a d l1y the s im plest
:rnd direelcsl lines t1) a f.. n·se e n e11lmi11::1t i.> n oecurs in une of F . \ \' . J..:obertsun\; lectures 011 Poetry . ll illu st rat es the truth Iha L " thr .. ug h the p h ys ical
h •1 rr1> rs <>f \\·arf.ue, Poetry disce rn <; the redee min g n u lol c ncss " : " l \\'ill illustrate t his l1y unc lll•'re anccdute fro m the sa me cam pa ig n to
\\'h ich allu siu n has been alr ea dy made - Si r Charles ;\a p ie r' s ca m paig n aga inst
the rol1l1e r tril><:s of l ; pp<:r ~cind<:.
" J\ dl'l::1L l1111 e11t of trno ps \\' aS march ing al ong a ,·alley , th e cli ffs o ve rhan g ing ,,·hich \\'<.:r e cr es ted liy the enemv . A se rgean t, w it h eleve n me n, chan ced
lo l1cc1 >me separated fr o m the r est by laking the wrong s ide uf a ra,· in c, which
th ey ex pec ted SDn n tu tnrnina te , hu t" hi c h suddenly dcq>crn.:d in to an impassable chasm. The officer in command s ignalled to 1hc p ar ty a n unkr to re turn.
Tlwy mist"ok the signal f<>r a e<)rnrnand tu cha rge ; t he lira,·c kll v\\'S an swe red
with a cheer, an• l clnri:;cd . J\ t th e s ummit of the steep n111untai n ,,·as a tri angular pht f•1rrn, defended liy a lin·astwork, be hind \\'hic h \\'Crc seventy of th e
foe. O n thl')' \\·cn t , cha rging up one of th "sc fearful p a ths, clc\' c n aga inst
s.:,·cnty . The contest c111ild no t l"ng he duul1tful ,,·ith s uch odds. O ne aft er
anothe r they fell ; six u po n the spo t, th e r cmai nck r hu rl ed ba ck wards ; b ut
n u t until they had ~lain nc:u ly t\\'i cc !heir own nullllicr.
"Then: is a custom, \\'<.: arc told, amongst the hill smcn . that \\'h en a great
chie ftain of th t ir ""·n f:ills in i>:ittk, hi s \\'ri:it is lJo und '' itlc a th read eith er of
red or gn:e n , the red den oti ng the hi ghc·st rank . J\ ce<>rdi ng t" custom, they
st riJ•l'c.J the d c:i.J , a nd tlirc\1· their J,.,.Jil's "'' lT th e precipice . \\' he n th eir

N A NRA TION.

359

c o mrades cam e, th ey fo u nd th ei r corpses sta rk an d g ash ed ; but roun d bo th
wr ists o f every British hero was twined th e red thre a d! "
I Ic re e,·idently the e n d is fo resee n fro m th e begin n ing, a nd n ot a particular
is intrmlu cccl b u t tha t contrib ut es so me esse nti a l to wa rd it.

The Twofold Interest . - F rom the above remarks and example it appears that in fo recasting a story th e writer is to provide
for two kind s of inte res t, the interest of plo t and incident , and
th e in te rest of pu rpose.
I. He is to seek the in terest o f pl ot a nd incident, that is, the
inte re st th a t the reade r de rives from a skillfully managed mechanism . As al ready said, he is to constru ct th e narrati ve and foste
the reade r's attent ion with refe rence to th e e nd, or as it is techn icall y called the t!/11(11tc111 cl!! ; th is is what p lot requires. Acco rdingly, inc ide n ts and c irc um sta nces are introduced not merely fur
the inte rest that lJelongs to th e m in cl iv idu::tlly, but for their nluc
in co ntributing to th e larger interest. T o be lo ng ri gh tly to the
story each in c ide nt must advance by one step the gen eral aim.
N u n :. - Just as a short story is a seri es o f in cide n ts , so a lo nge r sto ry must
ge nera ll y lie largely a series of sce nes. Th ese m ay he w idl'ly s<:parat ed , and
co nt a in whull y d iffc n: nt .ch a ra cte rs ; lrnt ea c h takes it s phce tu co n tri l1ute
so me real thin g to\\"a rd t he fo resee n e n<l . O f co urse th e in c i•le n ts u f a sliu rt
s to ry mu st be mo re clusc::ly co nn ec ted wi th th e e nd, and Cl•ntril>ute more
d i rec tl y, in prn]'>O rt io n, th an th e sce n es o f a lo ng s to ry; but the same prin c il'k
mu st und erli e b o th.
2. He is to see k th e interest of p urp ose ; th a t is, the encl of his
story sh ould be important enough and worth y e no ug h, both st ru ctura lly a nd morally, to just ify all the prep a ra tion madt: to re::tch
it. Ev ery story ought really to teach so methin g . "Some central
truth ," says Leslie Stephc n,t "should be e m bod ied in eve ry wo rk
of fi c t ion, which cann o t ind eed lie compressed into a dcllnitc
for mu la, but whi c h acts as the :inirna tirl"
a nd info r rni 1w
')r inc i1ile '
0
·':'> j
l Ste ph en , " I-loctrs in a Library," First Se ri es , p. 204.
nulwer-Lytt o n says th is
tendency to ma ke a sto ry e m bod y a moral r urpose " has been a str iki ng charac tc.: risti c o f the a rt o f o u r ce ntu ry"; sec " Ca xt o ni a na ," p. 3 16. Thi s pu rpose is what
he elsewhere ca lls th e Co ncept io n; see " Pa mphlets antl Sketches," p. 333.

-..

·--

NARR.- 1T I ON.

.\'.·IRR.·1 JiO.V

de terminin g the rn:-im Jines of t hl' s tru ct ure :-inJ affec ting even its
trivial de t:ii ls." 1 ks pite the p upubr cla mo r aga in st stories with
a m or:1! purpose . th is is the un spoke n d c rn :i.nd of eve ry read e r;
wc a rc i111p:tti l'nt or a s to ry that lc;icls no whnc. Tt mu st l>e more
tha n pinmesq ue o r ex c iting; it nrn st also emlJody a m o tive and
co nce pti o n th rot1gh whi c h it shall add to the wi sdo m and m oral
Th e fa il ure to condt1 ct the action to a
Yig<l r of it s reade rs.
\1· urtliy culrnin :i tiun is '' hat l !1J race sat irizes in hi s well-k nown
\·erses : 1 '' <Juid dignum Unto fe r d h ie p ro mi sso r liia tu?
l ':tr tu rit:nt muntes , n ascet ur r id ic ulus 111u s ."

N ot th:it t h is purpose is to he so ohtn: si,· e as to mak e th e story
It is
rathe r tu pL· n ·;11k the prnductiun , --- nen: r :ihscnt, neve r assert ing
ih l·lf; so11w thi11,:.; ·' to ll L' di,·i ned l>y the rea dn. 111it expl: tin ed by
tl1e :111tl10r." ". \ hi g h trn t h," s;1ys I l:i wth o rn e,~ "Ctirly, finel y,
:tnd ski ll h ilh· llT<ltl.~h t out. hri ghk ning :tt ne ry sll'p, and crow nin g
tlH.' lin al de1·L·l1lplllelll of a \\"\ ) J" k uf fi ct io n. ll LL)' :ul d :111 :Hti stie
glory, ln1 t is nc1·L·r a ny t rn e r, and sel dom ~rn y m o re evide nt , a t the
bst l':1ge than at thl'. fi rst."
:t scrrnun in di sg 11 ise; nor is it to he :1ppended as a n10r:1l.

:\ <>"I E. - " T hus," s:iys l :uhl"cr· Lytton, " in C o <:th t:'s n o ,·cl u f '\\' il hdrn M eiste r,' hc,idcs the 111nc i nterest ,,( th e incident,;, there i,; a n inter es t in t he

i n"ard sig11i1ic:11i . 111 ,. f :rn ar ti,; L",; apprvnlicc·ship in :irt, ,,(a
Jlll' l° t'

:tpprc nti cc -

In so m e o f the sto ri es of Dick e ns and Ch ar les T~ ea dc th e m o ra l p u rp usc i ~ ""
prvmin c llt as to illlp a ir the arti:; tic s tru ct ure and incur t he r ep ro a ch o f being
lu gged in ; as in sta n ced in "Bl ea k I [Lrns e," wh ic h atta c ks the defects of the
En glish Ch an cery co ur ts, an rl "Li ttle D o rrit, " ,,·h ic h in a s im ila r way atta ck s
th e En gl ish r t: d-tap e syste ms in affairs of governme nt a n d jus ti ce .

Kinds of Succession in Details. - Th e n a rrativ e plan is

e~pe ­

c iall y exac ting with regard to the succession of clctaib: its parts
must he a palpa bl e and regularly advanc ing st:ri es, fr om !Jcg inn i11 g
to en d. In ge n e ral, therefore, that orde r is to be scltl.~ht in whi c h
each ea rli e r particubr will bes t p repare fo r a n d lead to 1\·hat succeeds .
1, Th e ge n e ral basi s o f e ve ry na rrative mu st be c hro n ulug ical ,
- th e order of tim e . Wh a teve r tran sgress io n of thi s orde r thi:re
may be in min or po in ts, this must be th e ge ne ral prog ress recall e d
by th e reade r, as he encleaYors to reco lle ct the wh ole .
2 . It is so m e t imes wiser, h o we ve r, in a comple x n;i_ rr::itiv e , to
rn :t.kc th e order of ti me yield in so me pa rts ll > the o rd e r ur dq >e nd e nce . Events se parated by a co nsid e r:1hlc pe riud i11:1y stil l l)l'.
c au se and effec t ; and acco rdin gly the true s ig ni ficance of the
s tory rn:iy de mand th:-it interYening eve nts l>c rese n·ed lo surne
point ou t of chro no logical orde r, while th e details IJclong in g to
o ne se ries a re grouped togeth e r.
NOTE. -

In \l otlcy's " Dutch R e pul1li c "occu rs th e f" ll u wi ng remark : '' , ~ ,,
)

In' T ra n,; f., rn1ati '" ' · ( ' T he· .\hr lik l-"an11 ' ) , liy \Ir. l l awthu rn e,

avoid in te rru pt ing the co ntinu ity u f th e n a rratin:, t he Spa ni sh cam11aign ln~

st 11ry tif t)t1tw:1 r 1l i 11ci1ic 11t ca n IH Tl'r In; 11r•' l'c rl y 1tn 1lt· r~tuu< I, unless

hce n b ri e fly sk et c hed until the autumn .,( 1557, at \\'l1i c h p c ri ",J t h<.: lrc·:.tv
lJclWcL·n t he l\ipc a n d l 'h il ip was co n clud ed. It is n ow n ece;sa ry \1J g .. l1:t «k
tu th e cl ose ,,( th e p re cedi ng yt:ar."

sh ip i1 1 Ii(,. _
tl1c

11i;111 \

36 1

the n: a1!cr ':-; 111 ind goes alung \\ it li tl1c c"q ui-..it c 1nystic i:-;1 11 \\·l1ic h i:-; ~y 11 1!1 "li 1.cd

ily th e cha raL"tc·rs .

I n tl1at " ·,.r k , ,,ftc11 ,·ny faulty in tl 1c cxc c 11ti u 11, exceed -

ingly grand in t he concept iu n, arc typ ilic d tl1c cl:is,;ica l s c ns 11,,us li iv, tlmnig h
l> <>11:it n ; t11c J " " i,; h dis jll.:n sati1>11, thr .. u,gli \liria111; th e ( 'h r i, tian ,Ji sp e nsa ti ,, 11, thr "ugli I I ilda . " ·h., luok s "'·er t h e r uin,;,.( 1-:,>111e fr .,11 1 h n \ irg in c ha mJ. .: r arni d~t th e d~)\ ' l.':-i . n
In st a nces u f '1uries \r ith s trnn g ly c m plias i1.cd }'llfj'\ISC , th o ugh n ut so as to
intnfcrc "i1 l1 th e arti,;t ic c<rnstrnc ti o11 ..,f th <.: """r k, arc i•n1 11 d in \ lr s. I I. JJ.
St ,ll\·c's "li11 clc T " 1n 's Caliin, " and \lrs. I lclen l lunt JacL s•m's " l{am(Jna."
l l l c)racc, F pis tola ad l' iso nc s dl' .- \rk Poctica , 138 .
" I lawth o rne, " 1-! o IJ se o f ~ l' V l' n Cal iks, " P ,-c f:ic e .

L ongCe ll o w thus justilles thi s oc cas io nal li be rt y of na rr at iu n: " Nor Jc t the I li s1or ian bla m e th e l'oc t here ,
If he pe rchan ce mi sda tc th e d ay or yea r,
,\ m l gro up e vents to gc tl1 c r, by l1is a rt,
Th a t in th e C hroni cles lie far apa rt;
F o r as th e doub le stars . th o ug h sun de red fa r,
S eP m to the nake d eye a sin gle star,
So fa cts of h is to ry, a t a dista nce see n,
l nt o o ne commo n po int of light co nvene ."

363

J\'ARRA T/Ol\T.

NARRATION.

3 . Sometimes also, in o rder to secure a more effccti\'C inception, the narrator begins the story at some point along rn th e
plot, and then b rings up what preceded in th e form of an explanation, o r as related by some personage of the story.

contribute more or less direc tl y to br ing about the Jh1011c111e 11t.
"The re should be," says Anthony Trollope, 1 "no epi sode,; in a
nO\·el.
Every se nten ce, eve ry word, through all those pages,
should tend to the telling of the sto ry. Suc h episodes d istract the
attention of the rc:icle r, and :ilways do so disagreealJly. \\'ho has
not felt thi s to be the case, eve n with ' The Curious Impertinent,'
and wit h the 'H istory of the l\fan uf the Hill'? And if it be so
wi t h Cervantes and Fielding, who can hope to succeed? Though
th e n ovel whi c h you have to write m ust lJe lo ng , let it ];e all une.
And thi s exclusion of episodes should be carried <lown into th e
s mallest details."

362

N<1TE. - In Carly k's" French ]Zcvolution," \\'hich is strictly chro nological,
sen:ral b•loks uf the histury preccck that in cide nt \\·he r<.: the cu urtier ansll"ers
Louis XV I ., '' i'\u, ~ire, it is a r evuluti(ln "; while i\[. Ta im: tak es this in c id ent
as a dramati c beginning tu his hi s to ry. and th en Lri ugs up the causes of the
rcv ulutiu 11 tv that point.
ln llcrn1cr's Odyssey, Buoks ix.-:-. ii. ar<.: taken up with Ulysses' story u f his
earlier w:rnderings. rcbt<.:d by him tu the l'h:"Cac ians. In Virgil's .-E 11 eid, also,
.11 ~ncas relates, in Huoks ii. ancl iii., his p rni ous atlvcntu n:s to Quc:cn Dido.
Geu rgc Eliot, in the beginning of" Da11 icl Dcr•>nda," intrud1 1ccs her heroine
at the ga"111in g-t:d1lc, and aftcrwa rds, \\'hen the in cide nts immediately cunncctcd
\Vit h that sce n e arc disposed of, gues 11ack and rela tes how the hero ine came
to such a position.

Episodes. -The word episode, from the Creek €1u(crooo<;, a
coming in /Jcsirlcs ( f.rr( and (trrobos) , is a te rm used more especially

in connection with the action o f an epic poem, to denote a subordinate action, separal>k from the main story yet con nected with
it, - an ac tion brou gh t in tu give greate r vari ety to the in c ide nts
of the p oe m . The purpose of the episode dem:rnds that its ch ::nactcr be so different from the res t as to offe r a de c id ed relief, that
it be not so long or so ebboratc as to usurp the interes t of the
main action, and yet that it he so ca refully finished as to co mpensate l>y its ]Jcauty for the reader's impatience at being in tcrr11p tcd.
The episot lcs of the great epics arc often the parts on which the
writers ha\'e laid out their greatest sk ill.
NO'n:.-Tnstanccs of episode arc, the parting o f Hector an cl A ndr o mache,
in tin: Iliad, Huuk Yi., a l>cautiful hvmc scene co min g 11ctwcen and relieving
sc:c 11es of \1·arlike cunlcst; a11d tltc i\ rcku1gcl '.\! ich:id\ pruphccy tu 1\ dam of
what s h,11 1 lie-fall !tis pustnity, i11 l'aradise J.osl, Bvuks xi. a n d x ii., affording
cunsolatio n for the l1itter aguny uf man 's fal l.

l\fockrn invented nar rati\·e is o rdinarily very intole rant o f episodes.
It dcm:mds that every part -

description , act ion, :rn<l dialogue -

NOTE. -Th e ahoYe remarks arc o f course n ot applicable to literary works
of luus<.: cunstruction like '' The Pickwick Papers," wlti-.:li aim only ~ubor.li­
natcly at pl ut , and arc intemlccl as a rc pusitory of all kinds of descr ipti o n and
i11cid cn t. In these the dctachccl stories intrndu ccd arc nu m ore episode, as
r elated to th e ,,·hole, than are many of the adventures.

The olijec t for which episodes arc employed, nam ely the relief
afforded by alternat in g one sc ene with another o f less Sc\·erc or
exciting charac te r, is effected to better purpose lJy the changes due
to interwove n plots; conce rn ing which latter something will l.Jc
said further on. 2

rrr.
Movement in Narration . -Th e life of a narrative as a whole ,
and the relative sig nift ca nce of its parts, depend un the mann e r in
. whi ch the eve n ts are m ade to move forward to the ir cul minat ion.
For in a skillful narrative there arc many kind s of m ove ment: in
one place, pe rhap s, the eve n ts of a lo ng period summarized in a
few switt \1:onls, in a nother eblJo ra tc and slow Ltbor de\·otcd to the
action of moments. Description may enter every narrati1·e, but
only in the ri g ht place; it must not reta rd a movement that should
advance qu ickly aml without inte rrupt io n. Some important parts,
1

2

Trol lnpe, "J\ utou iograpliy," p. 214 .
See below, p. 373 ·

,\·..1.RRA 7'/0N.
N.·1NR .-1 T! O.\f.

on the o ther h:tncl, \1·ill no t ])e:tr to he di sposed of ciui ckly; they
111 us l rcct:i ve a tl e n ti o n :i.ccorcling to th eir irn po rtancc .
To provide
fu r such req uin: n1L'nts :i.s th ese, and lie unerrin g , m:ikcs the man agement o f a sto ry' s movement the m os t deli cate problem in
n:ir rat io n.
Movement Retarded or Accelerated . - The follo win g arc the
princ ipal m ean s :i.nll o ccas ions of giving the narr:i.ti\·e either slowness o r r:i.pi tl ity of rn o venH.:nt.
1. i\Io \·c m en t is retarded by :i.cc umuht in g c ire11mstances and
d we lling on the su ccessiYC sta ges and :tspects of the incident;
abo by c rnpl o yin g d esc ripti1·c and intcrpretati1·e elements, in order
that the inc id ent m ay st::r nd out :i.s :t ce ntral feature of interest.
Su c h slown ess of mon:rncnt is n eeded for the princip:il stages :i.nd
d r:1rnatic poi nts of th e st o ry, in o rder to dct::i in :tnd impress the
read e r's attention acco rding to their impo rtance.t i ., ,.,i .. .. _ / ... . , c,/,,..J;.
E XA ~11 ·1 .i-:.

-

A \\'<.:\I -kn o wn scc n c in Scull 's " Ta lis man " r l' lat es h n1-, when
\\':IS ma ki ng a rri c n.ll y \' i!' it t .. ~ultan Saladin, on being
"' " llicst<.:d t u shuw hi s far -famc cl s t r engt h, h e clll,.<.: in two an ir o n liar by a
-,in i:k i>luw .. r hi s s \\' o rd; wher eu p o n th<.: ~ultan, in turn, S<.:n·rcd with his
scin1ita r ilrst a eushi1> n of du wn, stall di n g u nsuj> p o rt<.:d on i ts elld, a11J then
1-:.ichar.\ l«cu r de: J .e1l n

a g:u11.c \'<.:i l la id a cr• •SS t li e \\' capc• n in 1ni d a ir.
i\u11· in this scc llc i: is n ·id c llt that t h e ca rd inal in c idents ar e th e blo ws
\\'ith th e S\\'ord and th e sc illl ita r.

Ol1s cr\'e in" hat sl o w mun:n1cnt, a nti with

wh at :tc.: u 111ulati o n uf c ir u 1m,.;ta n cc·s th c·sc: a rc r e lat ed; " T he: glitte ri ng l>r<>adsw1> r d, \l' iddcd 11~· li" th his han d s , rose :d o rt lo the
K ing's ldt sh uuldc r, c ir d c'< I J"Hllld l1is he ad , dc: sce111h:t\ with the sway of some
l t.'rri li c l'l1 }~i n t', :t n d t he b ar of ir un r1ill 1..·d 1111 the g round i n two pil·cc~, as a

11·uo>ds man wuuld Sc \'er a sa1> lill g \\ it h a h c-.lgi 11 g-l •il l. "
S imilar ly the ac t of ~ ::i la d i11: "';\lark, thc ll ,' sa id Saladin; and tu c ki11g up
th e

~ken;

or his gu 11·n, s l1 ew ccl his a rni, thin i11de t::d and spa re:, but w hi ch co n-

stant cxn c isc had h a nlc11 c d intu a m ass co nsi s till g .,f nought bu t i>une, brawn,

sc imitar a c ross the c us hi o n, a pp ly in g th e: edge sn dnt c rous h ·, an d 11i1 h '')
lillk apparent effo rt, that the cushi o n s ecme(l rather to fall a s under t ha n t<l
be di\'idcd by \'i o kn ce ."

StJch retarded move ment o n a brgc sc:i.le, with the .'.l]tcrn:-it in g
r:i.pidity and l.> re \·ity of di spat c h in le ss si g nifi cant p:i. rts, is calkd
h is to r ical p e rspective; lJe ing the nlL'.'.l ns adopkd in hi sto ric::1l wri tin g for making en;nts appe:u in their true relatil'e ra nk, \\'hcthe r
impo rta nt o r in s ign ifietnt.
Nt>TE . -

l 11 the: pre: ra ce to the" l l istl) ry or the

u nitcd

N ct h c rlands," J\t \>tk y

thus i11di c:ttl'S his ni>scn·ancc o f pers p ec tive: : "Th t: matc:rials rvr th e: '""Ulll l'S
n o w offe rcll lo the pulilic \\'Cl'<.: su a l, un d:rnt that it ""as almost im puss il,Jc t"
condense th em i11tu smaller cum i) ass 11·i1h .1u t duing inju st ice to t he su l1jcct .
Jt

\\' :1.S

.J csir:1J1ic tu thr ll \\' ru1J li g ht

O il

the se J•re> lllill Cllt p11i11 tS .,f t Jic histo ry,

\\'hik th<.: \all' nr his t1>ri ..:al p c rs pt: c ti \' c 11·il l all u w ll) ng st rctc h «s uf <d 1ad•I\\' i11
the su cceeding p o rti o ns, in which less impo rtant ul.je c ts m a y i> c m u r c sli g h t ly

•

in d icate d ."
2. l\fovement is accelcratcJ by g i\·ing only the m::iin outli nes of
the action, and reje c t in g clcsniptin: a nd amplifying details. T he
spec iall y s ig nifi cant aspe c ts of the in c ident alum~ arc gi\·cn . :rn cl
th ese merely named, nu t dwelt 11pon . Such ra pidity of J11 (1 \·ement h::is two principal uses: c:qircssed in strong :rnd t rc nch ::i nt
te rms, it po rtr:1ys the lire and \'igo r or :l s tirrin ~- in cid e nt ; (.;\.pressed in gcncr::i l :me! comprehens i1·e terms, it p::isscs l.Jri c ny Ol'er
Unim po rtan t periods or the ac tion . 1

Ex A \11·1.1-:~ . -

I.

l.:'1.p id

Ill•

lll tin.: full1Jwi11g 11arag r;tph,

r a c c: "Th e re i t c mn cs, at last -

" ·c 11H·11 t to su it a s tirring sce ne is 11· ·II C'-:<·rnpl ilil' d
" ·r1>1n l ~ r uwn ~t (b..fonl/' dcs( ril ti11 g a l 1•1 a t-

fru111

th e nas h u f the: st'1.rt in g gu n.

f .o ng l iefo re t he:

sound o r th e r c purt ca n 1-.ill up tht: ri,·cr, the 11·hulc pent-up l ifr a nd energy

l lc unsh <.:a th<.:d his scimit a r, a cu n- <.: d and narrow l1l:i.dc, whi ch

\\'hich has liccll hel d in leash, as it ll' c rc, rllr the las t six minutc·s , i:; 1.. ,)5c , ancl

gli itl' rvd n o t like t he: S\\'c•r ds u f t h e !:ran ks, ln i\ 11·as, on the: contrary, uf a dull

hrt.:aks a11·ay \l'ith a i>o 11nd and a cl as h ll'hi c h h e \\·h" has fe lt it 11·iil re mrn1 hc r

and sinew .

J,\u ,. "" !,,r, rna rk l',] \\'ith t l' n milli,ins o f nlc'a tl ilc ri11g lines, " ·hi c h sh c \\·cd h ow

fur his lik, h ut th e li ke uf \l'lii c li, 11 ill h e: <.:\'t:r k c l again'

:·u1,i .. usl y th<.: n1<.:t a l h a d l1cc: n 11·eldc:d hy t h e: arn H> rl' r.

1lru p fr o m t he: c u xs 11·a in 's ii'1nds, th e: oar ,; nas h int•) th e \l' ak r, and gleam 011

\\'i c: l.Jin g t hi s weapon,

a 11pa r«11tly so inclf1cie11t \\'hen c"mi' ar cd tu th a t 11 f l'ic lwrd. th e S o ld :rn stood
r est ing hi,; 1n ·ig h t ll j)lln hi,; Jc ft r1)cl t , \I hi ._: h \\' ;1,; slight ly ad 1·a nccd; h e JialallCCcl
h im>clf a li tt le a s i f l •> s lc' ad y 11i s aim, t h e n s tq>1 •i ng '1.t <•ilCc fo r11·ard , cl re w the

Th e s tarling r••J'«S

the k a thtr, tl1 c sp r:w lli cs fr fl lll th e m, and the liuats leap r.ir\\'ard -"
1

For th e ,. t/'t«·JJi,1 11 o r s uch m ovcmcnt , sec ll'h a t is s:tid o n Co11 dc n <;ation. pp.

1 5·f-159·

NARRATION.
/l~_ .JNR.I

367

TI O.\'.

T h e fullo ""i ng , from De Quin cey, illus trat es ho"" an acti o n ,,·h ose details
:i re kss i111p1) rt anl than its gc ncr:-tl c fk c t is crull"dcd together intu rapidly sue·
ccccl in g pi ctures : " /\. rcdvul>t , "·hi cli h:-ts falle n in to the e n e my 's h:-tnds, mu s t he recaptureJ
:-tt :-tny p ri ce:, a nd under circ umst:-t n ces of all hut hopeless diflicul ty. 1\ strung
p:-trty has Yulunlc er ed ft> r the sc n ·icc ; t he re is a c ry fu r som ebo dy to h c:-td
them ; y ou sec a suldic r s te p <•Ul fr u m the r:-t n k s tu :-t;;!'- ulllc th is dangcrons
k:ide rship; th e p:n ty mo Yes ra pidly furw:-trd ; in a fe w minu te s it is s1,·:-tll t>wed
up frn m yo ur ey es in c:luucls of ' m"ke; fl) r •>ne h:-t!f h o ur, fr o m be hind th ese
clu u ds . you rece i,·e h ien >gl;cphic r ep11 rts of !1!1)11dy strife - lie-rec re peati ng
signa l>, !laslil·' frnm th e gu ns, rolli ng 111u;;kctry, and c:rnlti n.t: hurr a hs ad vanc in g or reccdi 11 g , shd.euing ur redu ul ,! in g . :\ t length all i,; u\·e r ; the r ed o ubt
has been reC()\'e red : th:-tt "·hi c h was lost is founr l :-tg:-ti n; the jcmo:l whi ch h:-td
2.

been made c1 pt i'T is ran somed wi th blood ."

Tow:.i.rcl the L'nd o f a n:.i.rntive, :i.s it nears its culmination , as
also in co rrespond in g degree tcll\·a nl :tn y i rn portan t an cl evident! y
approaching crisis in the ~;t o ry, there is a tendency to accele ra ted
rn o vern e nt wh ich the writer sholll d heed .
\\" he n th e reade r's
:m ti c ipation is :i.ro used, the act ion slhHild klsten lJy th e sh o rtest
route to th <.: prom ise d e nd. Ac cordi ngly , suc h :.t point is n ot th e
place for extended des c ripti o n ; an d th L~ dial ogue n e eJs to ]Je
telling a n d br ie f. \\' hatcver is nect:ss:uy to the unde rst:rnding of
the a c ti on shou ld be al re:.tdy in the read e r's possess io n. It is on
this account th at the int roduction o f a n ew c h:uacte r in orde r to
complctt: t he d/!1(111e111c!l l is reg:uded as :.t ble mish in the s tru cture.
Movement Emphasized . - :\ part from the qu es tion o f rapid ity
ur slown ess, th e re a re v :1ri ous 111 e:t ns, n-ry n:tt.malIy cm ployed, of
making the irnpor t:rnt stages o f a n:trra tivc pointe d and st rik ing.
T. By C•rntrast.
It is a 1nlur:ll irnpul:-;c to m J.ke c:il m sc e nes
alt ernate with s to rmy or e xcit ing o ne~, to se t people o f co ntrasted
cknac tc r o r ap pc:u:.t nce O\·e r :-i g:.t inst eac h otht: r, to g i\·e o pposite
m oods of th e same pe rso n in st ri k ing succession. Life as wdl as
literature is full o f suc h antithese s.
LX A~ll'LE. - ;\ g.w d cxaml'h: uf s uc h cunt rast is t he scc·ne in Sco tt's
" Ke ni lwllrt h" 11·hc r e lJ l\ee n Eli 1al>d h di sco Ycrs htr favorite Leic ester's
tr ea chery to 1\m y J..: ohsart: --

" If, in the mi dst u f the m ost se re n e day o f s ummer, wh en all is light an •l
lau ghi ng aro un d, a th un de rbo lt we re to fall from t h e clea r l1lue Yault o f h ca1-cn,
an d re nd th e earth at the very k c t o f so m e car eless traYel!cr, he co uld ll o t
g::i.ze u p o n the sm n u ldc ri ng cl1a,;m, wh ich so un exp ected ly ya"·ne cl hcf.,re him,
with half the as to ni s hment and fea r \1·hi ch I .ei cestc r felt at th e sigh t 1hat '"
s u dd e nl y pr csc n lt:d itself. l I e had th :-t t in s ta n t be e n rccc i,·in g , with :l p<>liti cal
affee tati u n o f disa 1·,H1·ing and mi ,; un de rs tand ing th t: ir m ea n ing, the ha lf ut·
l c red, h a lf intima kd congratula ti o ns u f th e CLJ urti ers u po n the fa1·c' r o f th e
Q ueen, carri er! appa re ntl y to its hi g h es t p itc h d uri ng th e i nt c n ·iew of th at
m orning; fr o m w h ich m ost o f them seemed to au g ur, tha t h e m ig ht s oo n ari se
fr o m th e ir eq ual in rank tu b ecnme th e ir master. 1\ nd n u "', while the subdu ed yet p ro ud smile "·i th whi c h he d isc la imed th ose infe re nces 11·as rel curl i ng his ch eck , th e Quee n sh ot into th e c ir cle, h e r pass iuns ex c ite;! tu tl1c
utt e rm ost; a n rl suppo rt ing w it h o ne ha nd, and appare ntly wit hout an eff<>r t,
th e pale and s in ki ng form o f hi s a lm os t e xpiri ng wife, and p uintin.l'. " ·ith the
finger o f the o th e r l o her hal f d ead features, d eman d e d in a ' ">i ce th at sm11Hkrl
to the ca rs n f the ast o un ded states man lik e th e last d read trurn pcl-call . tha t is
t u summo n body an<l spi rit lo th e judgmen t-s eat,' K nuw est tll<) U this w1)ma n ? ' "
2 . By climax .
There is J. natural fe el in g that irnpo rt:.tnt skps
in th e ac ti on o ught in some way lo h e p re pared fo r ; th e prelim in:.try circumstances being gi ven with suc h inc reas ing inte nsity o f
interes t th at the reader may be a wa re wh en he is approaching some
irn p o rt::mt disclosure.
EXAMPLE . - In the scene b e t"·ecn Rich a rd an d Salad in, alre ady cit ed , the
fullu w in g l>it of conversat io n, i n trud uccd afte r l\.i e ha rd has p la ced the ir1.ir1 lia r
ready for th e l>l o w of his swo rd , \IT>ul d see m to be in te n ded to lead up tu a
m o re vi ,·id rea li zat io n o f th e J..:: ing 's tre mend ous fc:-tt : "Th e an~ict y u f I le \ "anx for hi s master 's h uno r led him to w hispe r in
E nglis h - ' F.,r the Llcsscd V irg in 's sa ke, l>c 1\·a re what you att.:mpt, my liq~<: '.
Vu ur full s trt:ng th is no t as yet ret urned - g i,· c n• > triumpl 1 to the in fid l'! .'
' P e a ce, foo l!' sa id 1-;.i c hard, s tand ing firm <>ll hi s g n rnnd , and casting a 1ic rcc
g la n ce around- ' t hi n kcs t th o u that T can fa il in !tis p resence)'"
Th e feat that Salad in perfo rm s is s imilarl y pr epa red fo r,- by a cl imax inv oh-in g a su g g ested a n tithes is.

3. By surp rise . Such p repJ.r:i.tion fo r an e ven t as is impli ed in
climax c:i.n eas il y he overdone. There is a way of lc:idin g on t he
reader withou t lett ing him g uess wh at is co rnin g; while he is kep t

- - ------X.IRR . I

-- -

TJ U .\ ~

J\'.·I NNA J'/UN.

ale rt. a nd in s t1 sp e n:-;e, yet s u cc c ,;~ ivc de\·clop menh arc lJrought on
where they will produ c e thei r m os t powerful effe c t lJy irnexpecte dn ess, o r where the y will throw a s udden ligh t o n what has
hi t herto be e n myste riou s.
i'!<>T I·:. - The wo rkin g o f thi s prin cipl e i,; m .. stly to h e disce rn ed o n tuo
large· a sc ale t<> p e rm it o f <j llu tati o n h e re . :'l lr. \\'iikie Cu ll ins, wlw is an
espe c ially skill fnl co nstrn ctor of 11arrati1·e p lu ts . i,; a ma ster in the ar t of urn.: x·
pcct ccl effe c ts; in "The :'lfoon s tl• ll l', " fnr i nsta1 H: e, whilL· im p1>r ta nt j nn ctnn;s
in the st <> ry are fu lly pre pa r c1l for, the intri ca te pl ot always t urns in the way
kast to he fun·sce n .

4. By suggest ion.

Som e tim es, ,,·hen :i.n irnp o rt:i.n t e\-Cn t lus
Leen so fttlly ant ic ipa ted th:tt it sttggcs b itself, it is left to th e
re:Hkr\ im ag inati o n to cornpktc. T his is espec.ially th e c:i.se
when it is :111 C\T nt whose details would lx di:-;;1grceaLilc or produc e a k,·J in g o f horro r.
LX . \~11 ' 1.E . - T h e c l11se u f 1li ckc ns \ "Ta k <> f Tw o Ci tie s" is a 'ce n c of the
T c rr<i r in Fr:rn ce , whnc 111 a 11 y 1·ic:t ims u f th e g ui ll11ti11 e arc e .\ ec ut ed, tl1e ir

nunilJ e rs t1Jld ull one l 1y o n<.: J,y th e knitti11 g -w o n1 c1L

·rhc death uf the h ero

is thus kft t<1 suggesl i1rn: "~ he ki ssL·s h is li ps; he kisses h e r:; ; th e y S•>kmnly bless ea c h other.
Th e
spare hand dues 1111t tremble as h e releases it: no thin g 11·orsc than a Sll'Ce t,

bright c1 m,.tan cy is in th e pa tien t fa ce . ~h e g11es next l1cfu rc h im th <.: k n illin g -w u mcn count T11-.:11t;- -T11·u .

is g unc;

"' l am th<.: 1-:cs urre c ti• >n an d th ,· J. i k , sa i th the Lord : h e th at l1 cl icvct h in
me , t huugh he were d c:-td , yet sh all he li1·c : a11 d \\·h osuc: vc: r li 1·cth and he·
lin· L"l h in m e sl1'1 ll n e ve r die.'"

' ' ·rh c 1n unn ur in g of
on of

in

:1

1n ;1. n y

111~n:· \ '( •iL· t·..;, the upturni ng u f 111."\11 y fa ces, the pr essing

f1)11fslcj'..; i n

t li i.' 11ut..,.ki r h

ma ss, l ikl' 11 11 c gn·at h c:t1·c .,f

11f t he

\\':1k r ,

t:r 1 H\· ~ l,

su that it :-;welb

:d i llas h vs aw a y .

f11rward

T\\' c nt y-Thrcc. _ .

''Th e y sai.J nf him abnnt th e c itv that 11i .i.:l1t. th a t it \\' as th e 1•ca ccfulkst man's
fa ce ever beheld t he re. J\lany added t hat he loukcd s uli lim c and pruphc ti c."

lV.

What Narration owes to Descripti on. - The intimate connecti o n o f na rration and d csn ipt io n, whi ch has be e n already men1io nccl, g in·,; ri se to som e forms of d i~cour~ l' wh e re in it is hard to

dete rmine whi ch of the two predomi nates. Nor perhaps would
there be a ny p ractical good in a tte mpting a d isti nction; th o ugh
in general it may be said that where th e narrative or story- telling
feeli ng predom inates it leads to a mo re or less carefully con strn c tcd
pl ot; while the d esc ri ptive fee lin g in predominance is co ntent
with the moving po rtrayal of a se ries of sce nes, without spec ia l
care for the inte ract ion of events .
Th e follo wirio- are the aspects m os t noticeable in the mixture of
th e t wo forms of discourse.
Narration convoyed by Description . - Every ex tend ed narrative must rely on de scri pt ion fo r some esse ntial feat ures o f its
st rn c tme; or, as is here exp ressed, it mu st be co1w 0yed liy d e sc ri p ti o n. The main offices of d escri pt io n in narration may L>c
described under tll'O heads.
1 . Descr iptiun prepares the scene .
Th e int rocluclory p:irt of
<ll1Y na rrati\·c, wh e the r real o r fi c tit i0t1 s, mus t be larg ely an a ccou nt
of the se tti ng of dates, pbces, cu s toms, char;tctc rs . Eco nu my
requires that jt1st :-;o mu c h d esc ription of this kind Le g i\·e n as is
needed to explain the s ucce eding narrati,·c, and no more than ca n
be fully uti lized by it.
A descripti,-e beginn ing labo rs under the di sad vantage of d e laying the ac tion , and t hus not seiz ing promptly on t he rca ckr's
inte rest; this is e' inced in the re mark often m ade that one " canno t g e t started" in reading a story_ This disadvantage cannot
ah\·ays be a\·o ided without inc urring g rL·atcr o ne:-;; IJttt sometim es
a st rikin g l>cginning is rn :uk , liy dial11gue or som e n:nra tive e k 111cnt, ;1nd the stu ry is carr ied o n in thi s w:ty until intc rc :-. t is we ll
aroused; wh e re upo n the desc ript ive introdu c ti on is g ive n in a.
k ind of pause, o r, le ss ofte n, by so m e of t he interlocutors. Ano th er
w:iy is to g ive the descript ive introdu c tio n pi ecemeal, in connec tion with th e successive steps o f the a.c ti on or dialogue .
2 . Descri p tio n is the expositor of th e narrati ve .
T h:it is, the
bea ring of eve n ts on o ne ano the r, th e sig nificance of characte rs,
the junctures a nd turning-poi nt; of the act io n, th e im portan c e o f
minute fcatme s th:i.t wo uld otherwise escape notice, a re broug ht

3i0

N.·I NR.·1 T!ON.

out m::i.inly by m eans of d esc ription . It is thus an cle m ent of great
impo rtance for keepin g the Lab.nee and pe rspective o f the whole.
Authors diffe r greatly in th e promi nence the y g ive to this desc ripti\·c clem ent in na rrati o n. \\' ith so m e it is th e stro ng po int,
;111d a b ck of com ple teness in the plot is made up l>y its means ;
\\' itli others it is cut do\1·11 tu a very su]Jo rdinatc office, while the
plot absorbs the interest. In all this the \\'ritc r m ust fo ll ow his
indiv id u:1l :iptituclc; the calltion is, no t to int rod uce desc ri ption
so as to di sturb the prope r 1110\'Ctnent of the passage, - as for
instan e, stopping to portr;1y a character ur ad mire a. sce ne in a
pbcc \\'here the rea< lc r is \\'aiting in c:1gcr suspe nse fo r a r!/11011e111('// /.
The story should he kept movi ng, accord ing to th e icle;i.l
p :1cc, rap id o r slow, rc rJ.l iircd by its underly ing se ntim e nt.
Discursive Narration. -This name m:i.y he gi \-c n to narrative
in whi ch the desc ripli\·c feeling predom inates . It s ch::tr:i.cteristic
is that the story is no t plotted, d ocs not co ndu c t the acti on to
a J / 111>11011c11t, but goes mere ly \1·he rc the desc riptive cl e ment.
lca.ds it , o r is hound ed by the natural bpsc o f time. T he accou nt
of an excurs ion, or a. race , o r a. contest, \\'Ould co me unde r this
head; such :i.ccounh a rc popularly c:i.lled de sc ri p t io ns ::ts often as
th ey a rc ca.llcd na.rr:iti \·cs.
The fact tha.t in su ch n;u ratio n interest is ce ntred not in a
pl o t hut in a. scene le:1cls to an impo rtant m odifica tion of the
style . \\"hen, as in a pl o t, the action is e xcit ing ::tnd aLsorb ing,
the m:rn ne r of recounting should ]Jc simple; the in te rest does
no t rvquin: the ;1id of hi;,;hly -\\T01 1g h1 t'xp n: ~s i o n . \\ 'he n, however,
it is the scene th:tl :thsorhs the atknt io n, the bnguagc has to be
more the bngt1age of desc ripti o n; it needs to he rap id, sp irited,
p icturesque, to ans\\'C r to the life a nd sp irit o f the sce ne, or to
po rtray in te nse energy in action; or a.ga.in, it has to be m cdi t::ttive,
flowin g , c ha rged \\' ilh sen time n t, to allS\\·er to the more tra nquil
emotions, T hus wh::tt the account loses in plo t it m::tkes up in
vividness or in im:tgi1utivc ]>O\\·cr.
Se ct i o n ~ of .Ji scursi 1·e narra.ti1 m are of1 c n introduced in to the
mid st o f plotted mrra.t i\·c, :tncl h:i.\·e pa rtia.lly th e e ffect of an cpi-

N.-IRRA T ! ON.

371

sode, while a t the sam e ti me they con tri bute by some secondary
in cident or feature to the progr ess of the m a in story.
Nern:. - A st ri k ing instance o f this, though not p ur ely narra ti\'c, is the
a cco un t o f th e J\:\ ttlc of \ Vati.:rlllo , in Victo r 11 ugv's " Cost:tte" (" J ,es ;\ Ji~c­
rabks "),\\'hose nin eteen ch:iplcrs co ntribute to the plot o f !he ~t1Jr)' o nly a
si n glt.: in cid en t, and th at a minor on e. An oth er t:xarn ple, illustrat ing well the
spirited style o f dis cursi,·e na rratio n, is the acco unt o f the boat ra ce, in "Tu m
Brown a l Ox f.,rd," Chapter :XTTI.

IT . COMnl NATION OF NARRATIVES.

In al most every n a rra ti ve wor k tha t is b ui lt o n an extended
scale, h istory fo r exam p le , the writer !us to m eet the pro blem ho w
to manage co ncu rring streams o f n::trrative, - a prol>lcm a rising
fro m th e fact that m any inc ide nts t::tking p lace in widely scp::trate<l
sce n es, ::tnd m any c harac ters wholly 11nknown to each other, may
ye t be co n tributing at the sa me tim e to b ring about a common
culmin ation o f eve n ts.
Synchronism of Events. - T his, as the name implies, is the
treatme nt o f e ven ts belo ngi ng to d iffe re nt d epartments of the work
in su c h a way tha t th e reade r m ay reali ze tha.t th ey arc contemporane ous wi th each oth er, th ough in th e na rra tion o ne mu st Jirecedc .
There arc seve ral ways in whi c h the e vents o f di ffe re nt streams
of n a rrat ive m ay con cur. In fi c tion the conc urren ce is a work o f
pure inve nti o n, bei ng chte to the relatio ns o f inte rwoven plots to
each o th er. O f thi s so m ething will be said fu rthe r 011. In hi story
a tra nsact io n m ay have ::tntago nisti c si<lcs, each of whi<'h, for co m p le te ness, must Le represented in turn ; th is is seen \\'hen oppose! l
fo rces e ngage in b::tttl e, o r wh e n p oliti cal p a rti es a rc ::trra.ycd aga in st
each o ther in sta te poli cy. A broa d er concurrence is seen in the
differen t departments o f a natio n's hi sto ry ; as fo r in stance . its
constituti o nal hi sto ry, its soc ia l d evelopme nt, its re li gious rrog~css,
its li te rature ; a ll of whi c h, as they mu st be th e matcri:il of narrat ives more or less distinct, necess itate a complex point of \· icw.
Each department m us t be p rese nted both as it is in itself and as
'
it is related to o the r departm e nts.

372

J\'ARRA TI01V.

X.·INRA 7'10.\'.

T wo gcne r:i.1 means of synchronizi ng eve nts a rc ch iefly in use,
whi ch ''-c may call the literary :i.ml the m echanical.
i. Jn synchroniz ing 1)y th e literary means, the wr ite r chooses as
h;1sis of the whole the na rrati ,· c mo;;t signi fica nt for hi s p ur rose or
in us t Crui tful in im po rtant l' ,·e nts; to thi ,; he gin:: ,; the fullest moven H:nt. noting in its cou rse events th a t stand out as impo rtant landma rks fu r more than one department o f the wo rk, and pe rsonages
that in the part they play serve to connect one story with another.
Jn this ,,·ay ground work i . bid for constructing histo ry from more
th :in o ne p o int o f view. \ \'hen no\\' ;wo the r narrati ,·c, contempor:rneo us with the fi rst, i,; take n up, it is co nstruc te d as 3. k ind of
reverse , - g i,·i ng in summa ry o r r:1pid refe re nce wha t the othe r
has g in:n in full, a nd e nbrging o n those po ints whi ch the other
has d es ign :tted as landmarks. In th i,; w:iy the re:icler is kep t aware
h ow the different st rc:un s of en.~ n ts touch ea ch o the r.
An impo rt a nt p rocess in such synchronizing is the m:in:i.gement
of ch:1ngcs o f scene . The scene shou1cl no t be clnnged except
at the signir1cant tu rning-points of the hi sto ry, where one narrative
on he tru~tcd to wait fur the other; :iml th e change should be
cbti nctly :i.nnounced :i.s well a,; kept consistently in view.
ExA~ll'LE>i . - J. In his •· l [ i,;t"ry ,,f nur own Tim es," J ust in McCarthy,
afl<'r Ji a,· i n>: tr au:d tlw grc·at l'"liti ca l. s .. cial , r e ligious , ;rnd ;;c·ie 11 tili e events
Llf (_)UL'Ul \ · ici .. ria 's rvi gn, ihu,; ,;11111111a ri1c", prcparalnry tu giving a survey uf
the L iter ature ui th e lZcig ll: "T he cl<l,;C 1>f the l'rinw:rn \ \ 'ar i,; a g rea t bnd 11u rk in the reig n o f Queen
\ ·ictP ri :L This , th crcf" 1T , i,; a c<11l1·e ni ent o p po rtunit y l" cast a gla nce back
upu n t he literary a ch ie ,·en 1c· 11 ts .,fa pe ri od S•> mar kedly di,·ide d in political
interest fr o1n any that went licf<>n; it . The r eig n o f <2u cc n \ · icto ri a is the
lirst in " ·hich the eon stituli u nal a nd Parliamentary systc.:m o f gove rnment
came fairly and completely int <l rec<1gnitio n. 1t is als<1 th e rei g n wh ich hac\
the ;::oud f.,rtunc t,> wi t ness the grea t nwd e rn d cY c\ up m e nt in all th at relates
tn p r:i.ctical i1we nti o n, and 111 .. re c"pecia lly in the appli catio n uf science lo
the \\ 1>r k u f mak i ng com1llunicalion r:1pid bet w een m e n. On blld and ocean,
in a ir an d u ndc: r the ~c :1, lhe hi,;1.,ry .,r ra pid traH· l :'11 <1 rapid int e rchange of
111<.:ss:1;::e c«1inc i.Jcs with t hat .,f tlw l'resc11t reign. Su c h a reig n o ng ht to have
a distinct ive litcrnturc . S1) in trulh it has. Uf co m sc it is so mewh at bold
to predic t lu ng and Jistinct re n o wn fo r co n tempo rar ies o r co ntemporary

373

scho o ls.
Du l it may pe r haps be a ss umed wi th o ut anv undue anH•ullt uf
spec ulative ventu reso men..:ss that the a ge o f Que e n \ 'iet;ria ,ri ll s l:1nd out Ill
hi s tu ry as th e peri u d o f a lit..:ralur<.: as di s ti nct fr u m othe rs as the :1 g<.: of
E li zabet h o r An n e, :1ltho ug h n u t p c r h:1ps cq 11 :1 l in g reatness tu tl1e latter, a n d
far in d ee d ln:lo w th..: fv r m <.: r."
O n t h is :1s a li:1ckgrou nd , th <.: gre:1t li tt: ra ry men an d e\·ents :1re ~kctchcd
o n e hy une, with frequ e nt r efercn c<.: lo the bnd111:1rks uf th e ge1wr:1l hi ,;t., ,.,.
just as i n the bttc r there haYe lieen fre•1uent re fere n ces to the lite rary C\Tll;~
in their place.
2. ln C:1rly k's a cco unt o f th e Battle o f !'rag , which m ay illustr:1le "hat
may l)C c:11l ed synchronism :1t close: quart e rs, there is n <,tice:d ilc L·:1re ,. ,· incc<l
i n th e ch :1ngcs o f scc-n c . It is from Fri..:dri c h's puint of ,·iew that he gives
the n:1rr:1ti o n, and his a cco unt o f Fricdri ch ·s pn:par:1 ti u ns, an d \If the grnun<l
~ n wh'..':h tlie_ ba ttle is lo he fought, is gin;n as s..:en fr u m the l'russ i:1n's po ),;it1 u n . 1 h c: n, 111 o rder tu d esc r ibe the i\ t1'tr ians' pn;par:1ti., n , h e c h:1ngc·s scene,
111 th e fu\\ u w i ng wu rds : "I .d us step :1cruss, :11111 tak e some "nr1·c·v ,,f that
A ust r i:1n gruu 1'.d, w h ich Fri edri c h i,; n ow smvcyillg fru rn th e di,;ta; ll.e , full y
1nte n d1ng th:1t 1t shall lie a lJa ll.lc-gr<i u nd in few hou r:; ; and try tu ni'lai 11 hmv
the Auslri ~ns drew up o n it, wh e n th <: y n CJ ti ccd th e l 'rns:;ian sy1nl'l"lllS lu
b eco me scn1>us m or e an d more ." A l the enc l o f this cks cripti<>n he re turns tr>
his o r iginal st;u1di ng · p o int, in the foll1>wing w u rcb: ·•Fri ed ri ch sun·c, .., dil ige n tly what he ca n o f all thi s, fr u m the north ern ,·crge. \\\; 11·ill n'"'~ rdnrn
tu F ri edrich; a nd w ill stay o n h is s ide , thro ugh lh <.: terri l,lc :\ cti<>n that is

co mi ng."

M ec han ical means o f showing the synchron ism of e,·ents :ire
ofte n used to supplement the: lite rary, o r arc empl oyed a.Jong \rith
t he m .
The ch id o f the se a.re : ~
T he c:ireful d ivisi o n of th e na r rat i,·c into pe ri od,;, 'rith reference
of vari o us departments to thei r proper pos iti o ns the rein .
The freq uent and copious \l se of sumnuri es.
The constructio n of c ha rts, ubub r vie ll's, st:i. ti stics . a nd the: like ,
wh ic h se rve to exh ibit many pa.ralk l eve n ts in one ,- i ~w.
Interwoven Plots. - T he name plot is applied, in firtion or
th e dram3., to the in tricate se ri es o f e ve nts tha.t arc to lie unravellcJ, ge ne rally by unexpected m eans, at t he end . i\ (1t often, in
an ex te nd ed wo rk, d oes suc h a se r ies re main single, ur tr:rnsactcd
in on e sce ne. Inc id e n ts and sce nes of subord inate sig nifi c:-t nc:c
may be wove n in wi th th e m :iin thread o f th e sto ry; or tll'O o r
2.

3/ ·f

more equally important plots, existing at lirst side hy side, may
come t,i he gradually incorporated wi th e:ich other, until at the
e nd all prO\·e e<p1ally necess:uy tu the to tal effec t.
l\1 •TE . - 1\n intn c·,;ting cxa11 11'k nf this latt e r is see n 111 Shakespeare's
'' .\Jcrc:h:111 t u f \ 'enice," where the st1i ry c•f l 'urtia and tl1e Caskt: ts, and the
st.,ry uf .-\ nl1 •ni ., and Shyl11ck 11:1,·c l'nl irc·ly diff,· r,·n t S<"Cnl'S a11'1 arc derived
widely svparated s"ur ccs, thl'ir ,;.,le c1 >111H·cti11g li n k, a t first , l 1c in g the
cli:Hadcr ,,r llassani,,. Tl1 e 111<1n l'y tli :1t lie 11111,;t 1,, 1r ruw , in 11rilcr t• 1 prosecute
frPlll

l1is snit\\ ith l'llrtia , is Illa-le the 111 <'11/

r•.r

intcr11c:1\·i11g the ]>l<oh; and as the
Jess i ca . ( ;r:-ttian o and
S:lh ri111• , and I .auncc: l11t ( ;,,j,J,11 -arc tr:lll>fnr ctl frn111 nnc scene lo the oth er,

a l'. li1 1n

NARR,1 7'/0N.

K.·11"1"..I Tl 0 N .

p r 1 • g rc~"\cs. \':Hi1 1t1s ch :l ra ctL'rS -

f.11rcn1.o :tn1l

until at t he end the t"" sl11ries a rc equ al ly i11:Cgral parts of a u nil ied wh ole.

It is nlJ\·io\ts that in the intcnn~ aving of different threads of
n:irrati\·,·, su th :tt u nc hornogL·neuu s ti "'s1 1e sh:ill lie prod uced at the
end, there is roo m ru r the minutest and suh tks t skill in planning.1
All the mea ns descriiie d unde r Synchron ism of E\·ents are fre ely
dra\\' n 11pon to 111:1rk and ernph:tsi1e the unity in dive rsity manifested in the \·ariutts clements. J:esides th is, th e re ::i.re to ])e noted
t\\'O cspcc i:1l lines in \l' hich constructi\T skill is to be exerted.
First, cue is to lie taken th:1l each cunstit11ent narrative Juve
features th :1 t gi \·e it :t d istincti \·e char:ii ·tn, so tlu t its ::igency in
wo rking out the whole effe<"t ma y lie clc:irly e \'i dc nt. Secondly,
rare is to lie taken . in l:iyin~ d o\\·n cine s<·ene a nd tak ing up
ano~hn . to sLTU rc well -marked :1ltcrn;1 ti ons or co nt rasts of effe ct,
so th at th e rl':1de r's mind m:ty lie rL·lievcd from the st rai n of too
long continuann: in o ne k in d of tlwugh t. 1\ wcll -rnan :tgcd transi l\facauiay applied this sk ill, with c,~n s urnmate cffct: t, to the interweaving of
thread s of h is to rical n:ur:11i,·c. :'-!1 iriso n, in hi s " l\!aca ulay" (English
!\!en o f i .L'tlns) , p. q 5, thu s <k scriiJC s it :" In the ' orderi ng of parts,' whi ch cost
hi m so 111uch l.li1or, hi' cqu:1I " ·ill not eas ily !Jc fou nd. Lach side o f th e story is
hr" ught furw :1 rd in it ' proper tim1· :m il i'lan.:, and k :1n·s the s tage whe n it has
ser v,·tl its purpose, that of ad ,·.:n c ing In· nn c Sl•~p t he m ai n :1ction . Each of these
s it! •ord inate stor ie<;, markl'd uy cxqui , il<' fini,h , leads up to a minor crisis o r turn in
cv<'nts, where it join s th e chi..f n:irr:1ti"'' with a certa in ,'(/,1! a nd surprise. The
intcn,·e:l\·ing of tlH·se Wl' li -nigh ,·ndl,·ss thrc:Hb, th e cka rn css wi th whi ch each is
kept \'i 'iil>k ancl di,tin ct, and ye t is mcuk to cnntr il>11t1 · its pl'c uliar e ffec t and color
to the whole text u re , constitute o ne of the g reat ft.:ats in literature."
l

clift.,~ r e nt

375

tion fro m o ne narr::i.ti\·e to anothe r h::i.s ::i.11 th e good effect of an
episode, without its disadvantage s ; see preceding, page 363 .
Il.l.l!STl(ATI• li\' . - The main s tu ry u f Dickens's "Barnaby J\.u dgc" 1s a
stnrm y and tragic histvrie c \·e n l, - the Curtlvn l\. iuts uf I 7So. \\ 'ilh thi,,
h o we ve r, is in ten,· u,·cn a slury u f m arked ly co ntrasted ch:uadcr, illustrat in g
a ll that is g•>ll•I and simple and pea ceful, as trul y as th e other illus tra tes the
stu rmy passiuns uf men,- th e stury, nam ely, o f Harn aliy and his m u th e r.
Th ese cuntras tcd talcs give lin e upporlunitics, u f "hi c h the auth11 r is llt>t
slu w tu avail him,clf, fu r cu nt rast in th e t ransiti v ns fr o m vnc sec li11n l11
another. The fulluwing tr a ns itiun, fu r example, fullu\\'S inlln edia tcly <•n a
scene uf cunsl'iracy and l1rutality: "\\ ' hi lc th e wo rst passions uf the " u r,:t
m e n were thus wP rking in the da rk, and the mantle o f rcligivn, assu1ncd t•)
cover t he u g li e~l dcfunnitics, threatened tu 11ccv m e the ohru ud of all th at " ·as
goud a n d pcacdu l in society , a circ um stance occ urr ed which once in u re alt ered
th e pus iti o ns uf l\n> p ersons frum whom t.l1i s hi story has lung been s e parat ed,
and to whom it mu st nuw r et urn. " Th es e tw o pers o ns are lhrnal1y Rudge
anJ his m oth 1.:r, ,,·ho arc soj o urni ng in a small co untry to wn.

lll. NATrn.ATIO>I JN LITERATURE.

All the m ost wid e-sp read and popular forms of liter::i.ture h::i.ve
for their basis n::i.rra tion; wh ich, ho wever, rare ly appears unmixed,
Lnt recnforces itself, on occasion, hy o th e r processes of d1 sco ursv .
The following, briefly descr iLed, a rc the leading fo rm s thus founJed
on narration .
History. - Thi s is to lie regarde(l as fir:;t in importance, 1Jecause, lJein g the recounting of actual eve nts, it rep resents the
prim itiv e anti ideal \! St.: o f narration. /\ II tlt e intri cate mode rn art
of histori c::i.l co m position is the outcome of a primiti ve impulse tu
tell the story of no tewo rthy <l cccls.
It will be sufficient here to mention briefly the qualifi cat io ns of
the hi sto ri an, and th e kinds of hi story .
T . As to (1ualifi cat ions, the writer of history must combin e in
himself two very distinct c haracters. "'Stern :\ ccu r::i.cy in il1([Uiring, bold Ima g ina ti on in expounding and fillin g up; these,' s:iys
my fri e ml Sauerte ig, 'arc th e two pinio ns on wh ich hi sto ry
soars.' " 1
1

C a rly le , 1\Iisccll:lll ics: Essay on " Co unt C ag liostro."

, __

J\'.·IA'RA TIO.\ '.

JV, Jfc'N. ·1 J'!ON.

First, J.ncl long Lefore he begins the ac tuJ.l composition, he
must h:we the most un "·c:u icd patience in det:iil a nd in vest igation,
shrinking not from the dryes t and minutes t rese:i rchcs, in his
determination to :isce rt:ii n :ind n_;rify eve ry smalle st fact that may
thruw light on his sto ry. To h im t he re is nothin g forb idding,
no thing u nimportant; :i. small and ol isc ure inc id ent may change
the colo r of a wh ole epoc h.

This fo rm of history may be styled the purely Narrative; the
second form is that which may be styled the Scenical ; and the
third the Ph ilosoph ic."
Each of these forms r equires a word o f exposi tion.
The purely nJ.rrative form of hi sto ry is 1Jased on annals and
chroni cles . B ut while, like these, it a ims m e rely to display t he
actual facts of a nation's life , it irnpo rts into the work something
of the proportion, the li g ht and shade, the perspectin:, tha t lielong
to a well invented p lot. It is thi s constructi\·e skill that raises it
from the m ere raw material to r eal history; makes a re adable
story of what would otherwise be the d/sjccli l 111 c111/1ni of a sto ry.

376

;-:flTE. - The t<:n d cncy to ex tr eme min ute n ess a nd patien ce in this respect
is qne "f the c:haractcri,ti c "'l't'Ch .,r mmkrn "chularship and sc ic nt il ic: m eth od.
hr,;t erninently cxe1npliticd. perha1•s. in ( ;i\1\1011 , it has bt'C1m1c the necessa ry
111 ar k "f tl1e sta ndard hi,;t o rian , an d is cspeci;1\l y illus tr ated i>y s uch names as

J/I

l I:tllam. ( 'a rl yk, '. bc:;iuby, :'ll 11tky, ;ind lia ncr u ft.

B11t secondly, thro ugh all thi s unw ea ried drudgery he must have
th e Yi s ion of :i. ro unded ;:rnd n.:ad:tbk hi s tory, as th c sc ulptor sees
the statue 111 thc stone; and to th is encl he mu~t see k l>y a vigorous and h·in ~ irn agin:i.tion tu re al ize th e \Try form an d body of
p:1st e\·ents, and make the m li\·e a new in the portrayal. The facts
as 111.· gathe rs them arc di~jointcd, \':lg ue, orderless; it is on ly by a
1)0\\·erful ima •' inat io n th a t he c:1n so prese nt the m as to transport
1
"'
the rc:i.der into the rcali;:atio n of them.
A< •T l·: . - ::'l l:H::.w lay cnn1plains that thi s a rt o f m o\' in g p rescn t::ition is neg·
kcted in mockrn times, ;is compar ed\\ it h ancient ; and his e fforts in h istor i·
cal wri ting were pri11ci1•al ly di rect ed to make hi sto ry m o re re:HlaLle. llis
,; 1\L·c .. s.; in tliis rc·,1wct \1·:-ts 1•hc 1w 111c·na \; ;inrl, a s l h) u nll'"r thy c 1mpeers o f hi ~.
Ill : • \· lie llll'ltti •llH' '1 < ':-trh·k. in h i,; 11 :1\·, :'ll 111 ln·, a nd l';irkrnan.
It is lo ],c
11 ,,1.ic:e<l that, i11 •111'.llit ·w·:\li••ll" and :n:.l1icvc 1J 1e n ts alik<', 1\rn e ri c;i n hi sto ri ans
0

h:l\'c t:i.kcn :\ Yc ry cn1inc nt pdsit iun .

2. :\ s to the forms th at histori c compos iti o n nuy take, we may
perhaps best llo rrow the cbssificat io n o f De Quincey. "History,
as a composition ." he s:1ys.1 " f:tlls into three separate arrangements, ubeying three distinct b\l" S . and ad dre ss ing its,: lf to three
di sti nct o l1je c h . Jh first :me! humblest office is to deliver a naked,
1111adurm:: d. ex pos it ion of pu bli c C\'Cnts and their circurnst:rnces.

EX,\~tl'l.ES. - ()f this l~ ss pretent ious k in d of h istory cxampks m;iy lie
found in llume's lii sto ry uf England, l lelps's Sp;ini sh C" n quc~t, an rl (;ultlsmith's compibtions o f anci en t and English hi sto ry fur \'upular lts c: . (_)f the
o lder histori es may be menti o n ed Cla rendo n 's Ilistory o f the J.:.ei>clliun , and
Burnet's History o f my ow n Tim e.

The object of the second form, the scentc, ;s defin ed rn the
words of l\facaulay, already q uoted o n page 2 1 r . Jt is hi story
written with a vi ew to vi vidness; and to accomplish th is p11rpose
narration is co m bin ed li be rally with descripti on. "1 li stories of
this class," says De Quincey, "procee d upon p rinciples of selection, pres upposi ng in the reade r a general kno wledge of the great
cardinal incidents, and bring ing forward in to especial noti ce tho:-;e
only which are susceptible of being treated wi th di stin guished
effect."
ExA~t l 'L E S. - D e Qu incey him sel f inst;inccs, as illus trative u f this eb, ,,
Gibbon's Declin e an d F all of the Jfoma n Empi re . ( !ther ex a m]' lcS ;ire: Ca rlyle's Fre n ch Rev oluti o n , K in g lake's I n\·;ision o f th e Cri 111ca, '.f :i c;iuhy"s
Histo ry o f Englan d, an d th e several histo ries o f Pres cott and J';irkni:in .

The third form, the p h ilosop hi c, comb in es wi th the funchment a l
narrative expositio n and induct ion. It views the course of events
in the rebti ons of cause and effect, a nd as ~11hject to the 11·o rkin g
of ascertainable laws of human and rJhysical nJ.turc. "Unde r
whateve r name," says De Quincey, " it is c\·idcnt that philosophy,

---~--- -

379

J\'.·11"1".·1 T !O.V.

NARRATION.

o r a n investiga ti on o f the tru e mo,·ing fo rce s in every g reat train
and sequen ce of national events, and an exhi u it ion o f the m otives
and the moral conseq ue nces in their hrgcst extent wh ic h have
co ncurred with th ese eve nts, c:rnnot be omitted in any history
above the ]e,·el of a c h ildish un d ersta nd ing." T his m:mner of
treating histo ry, as I\lac::l\llay has po inte d out, is distinc tively
th e m ocl e rn man ner ; and the p resen t p re,·alence of the sc ie ntific
method in all d epartm e nts o f study has greatly enh a nce d the
e ste em in wh ich it is hel d. .'\ favo rite d efiniti o n of history is,
"philosophy teach ing by example."

li able to b ecome ei ther m·er-e ulogistic or over-crit ical, Leing sub jec t to the autho r's erro rs o f judgme nt o r inaLil ity r ig htly to C'> tim a te his s ubject 's c harac ter and moti ves. T o e xecute bo th si de ~
fairl y and success fully, there fo re, is an achi evement rese rv ed fu r
the few m as ters in this work.

J-: x .\m ' LES. - () f hi storic \l" Orks emin e n tly p hil osoph ic mrly he menti oned
J:u ck k' s J l istu rv of C i"il i1.rll iu n, l .l'cb·'s l l islu ry u f l-: uru pcan i\lo rals, anLl
l l:llb111"s C·rn~t i;u t i u n al I lis tu ry uf Ln g ia nd . \\', irk ~ cu rnliinin g th c na rrative
:rn d sce n ic " it h th e p hil osup hi c an: Crcc n's I lis tory o f the En gli sh T\:oplc,
l b n crnft 's 11 is tMy o f the U n ite <! Stales, and i\lo tlcy 's Hi story of the 1'ise of
t he Du t<:h I ~e p u b li c .

Biography. - Thi s is closely connected with hi story, and calls
fo r the same f]_ualifi c a ti ons. It is o ne o f the mos t valueJ, as well
as o ne of th e mos t instructive, form s of literature . "I have
remark e d ," s:iys CarlyJc ,l " that a true cklin e ati o n o f the smallest
m a n, and hi s sce n e o f pi lg rimage through life, is capable of interest ing the g reatest man ; t lu t all me n arc to a n unspeakable
d egree b ro the rs, e ac h m a n's life a st ra nge emble m o f e\'ery man's ;
an d that I [ 11111 :111 l\ fft r:li b . fa ith f11ll y dra \\"11 , a rc o f all pi c tures the
wcko nH·st on lrnll1 ;111 \\·al b ."
Two pri nc ipal methods of cvns tructi ng Liog r:iphy a rc to l>e
no ted .
r. C o rrespond ing best, p e rhaps, with its origi nal ic.k a, b iography
111;1y ],e w ritte n :is ::rn ac co unt of the subjec t 's li fe in the author's
own wo rds thro ug ho ut, and cm Lod ying his judg ments of the subjec t 's character and ac hi en :m e nts. Thi s mann e r of treatment is
most favo rable to m ak in g a ho mogen eous wo rk of art, and gives
Les t o ppo rtunity fnr a skillful na rra ti\-c . On the oth e r h:in 1, it is
l C1riylc , "

Li fe uf ~t e r l i n g .'· C ha p. I.

EX AM PLES . - Th is treat m ent o f b iography is exem pl ified , with g reate r <Jr
less s uccess in Pluta rc h 's l.iH:s, J oh nso n 's Li ves o f the l'octs, Ca rl yle 's Life
o f Sterl ing, a nd L ewes"s Life o f Goe th e .
Ou r li t nat ure con ta ins also so me no talilc a utobi og r a p hic ~ , a nwn g " hi c h
may lie mc nt iun cd ( ;ili l>t> n's 1\ utol ,i ug rap hy, Fra nklin 's 1\u tul iiug rap li y, and
the Perso nal :'-lcm o irs o f (~ en e ra l G rant.

Th e m odern iJeal of Liog rap hy, ho wever, requires that th e
write r ctf:1c e hi mse lf as fa r as p ossi lJlc , a nd em p loy a ll mc:ins fu r
making the su Ljcc t tell his own sto ry ; and to thi s end muc h
p romin enc e is g iven to letters, jo urnals, convers:iti o ns, a nti the
like . Suc h Liog rap hy gai ns in p e rmitting the su bject to po rtr:iy
his o wn in ne r life . It suffe rs correspondingly in being less ho m oge neous, a nd gener:illy in in c luding mu ch tha t is o f ve ry stlLo rd ina te inte rest. It im poses also a very de licate task o n the wri te r's
taste , in exc luding wh at wo uld give offence, or wha t wo uld prese nt
the subjec t in an unjust or unfortunate li ght.
2.

Ex A ~ I P l. E S . - In l1iug ra phies o f th is class o ur li te ratur e is rich, and the
numb e r u f c red ital,]c pcr furm a nccs in th is k ine! u f \\Tiling is rap id ly i 1 1 c r c~~ ­
in g . Th e musl nnt c wu r lh y on es a rc : l~u swc ll ' s I .ife v f j <l h nsu n, I ,c ick h rl r i'~
I .i(c o f :->i r \\'a llc r Scu ti , Trcv cl ya 11 's I .if« uf i\laca uby, an . I St a nle y's I .if.: .. f
Dr. J\rn ulcl.

A m od ific ati on of thi s latte r m e th od o f writing h iogra phy has
recently bee n atte m p ted Ly !\fr. J. \V. Cross, in his life of ~ ; c o rge
Eliot ( Mari :in Evans C ross ) ; whi c h is little mo re than a mo saic
of extrac ts from her letters a n1l jo tlrnals, pi eced together so as to
form, a s n early as rn ::i y Le , a continuous narrative. It is 111ge ni o us,
but its s ucc ess is p rolJle mati cal.
Fiction. - l nd c r this h L"ad :i.rc in c lude d all the va rieti es o f
purely invL"nte d n::i rr;1ti vc , na rrat i,·e fre e to co nstru c t ~md rno<li fy

N.·lRRA T ! ON.

380
iLs o wn pLm, a.eco rdi ng t o the requirements of :rn e ffec ti ve plo t.
The la ws of fi ctio n a.re mu ch discussed no wa.d;iys; in the p rese nt
l1rici gla nce it will L>e sufticie nl to ~pe:ik of the nature o f the
\\·ork and of ih main di\·i sio ns .

r. :\ s to the n;iture of the wo rk, fiction h:is its pecu li a. r li bert ies
:rnd limitations, whi ch must be l1urne in mind .
The l ibert ies of fi c t io n in here 11·ith the fac t that it is writte n for
effec t. A cco rd in g to its objec t, - wh !ch m .'.ly L><.: m e rel y to e nte rtain, a.s in t h e o rd ina ry IlO\Tl, to leach so m e lesso n, o r advoc:ite
some crnsc, as in tht: dicbetic 11 0\'l'l, lo po rtray the de pths of
cha rac tt:r, :ls in tht: p sycho logicil nm·el, - it is frc(.: to c onstruct
such a stu ry as will c m lJody it s co neq )tion, a nd to g ro up the
parts L>y hi~tor ic:ll pcrspecti \T su as tu by the stress o n wh :it is
importa n t to its end. The re arc no :i.c tual fac ts to s ta nd in its
w;1y, by cornpdl ing inse rt io n o r o miss io n: it is th e sto ry- te ll er's
world, whic h he is at li \Jerty to c rca.te a.nd people a cco rding to

bws of its own.
J\t th e sa.me tim e fic ti o n h a.s ih limi ta ti on s .

I t mu st p reserve
\·erisimilitu<lc; and t o this e nd it mu st deal not with t he exception:il lmt with the prob:i.bk . The m a. x im th :lt "truth is stra nger
th:i.n fi c t ion" is n o (.:p igram but a litera l fan; a nd th e re a.re many
things in :ictual c x pc ri t: ncc luo stra.ngc to he tole ra te d in :in in -

2.

3 1

:\ s to th e m a in d ivis io n s o f li c tio n , we wi ll here noti c e mcrL"l y

its two c::i.rd in ~tl aspec ts , the rorna nct: a n d t he nov el.
Ro m a nce obeys th e tende ncy to e m p has ize t he lthrtics of ficti o n . I t deals w ith se t:nes a nd events outsiJe tht: sphere of
co mmo n p la c e life, - with ad\·e n turc, m yste ry, strikin g Clrntr:ists,
surp r is in g inc id e nt ; -

o r if with co mmo n scenes, it seeks to inn.~s t

th e m with a hue and pi c turesriuc n ess n ot of o ur eve ryday exi" tence .
It is g e n e rall y co nce rne d no t so muc h with min ute shades of c ha rac te r a nd m ol i\·c a.s wit h t he mo re v iole nt and e lem e nta.ry pass iuns,
- love, re \·enge, jca.lousy, hatre d , self- sa.crificing cour:ige. lt is
th e r esult of a n e nd eavor to c reate an ima.ginecl world mo re intere stin g a nd m o re striking th an o ur co mm o n round of expe rience .
Ex A ~!l' l .ES . - Scott"s " l ,·an hoe," Ct:r\'a n tcs' " I J, •n <! ui'' •tc,"' J;ul\\'er"s
"Last Days o f .l'u mpcii ," \'i ctu r I fngu's "I .cs ;\l is.,raliks." Exam pk-; of
sto ri es mad e roma nti c l1y p oeti c tr eatm ent u f cum mun sce nes, a n; f• 1un1 l in
] fall't ho rn e's "Sca rlet Letter," " Il 1111sc.: o f Seven Cabks."' and "~!::ir lile
Fa un." In the p r eface to "The ]l o use o f Seven Ca bles ., are some int eres t-

in g remarks o n R uma ncc.

The n o vel holds itself m ore stric t ly ins ide the !imitalil111s of
fi c ti o n. Confining ir:;clf to the c ha ra.c te rs and mannt:rs o f o n lina. ry
life, it aims mere ly "to h o ld t he mirror up to na ture," so that t::i.ch
r e:ic.1e r m a.y sec reRec te d th e 1-c in so m eth ing parallel to his 011·11

ve nted story.1
Fi c ti o n ca.n inco rpo rate only wha.t , un de r g ive n
circurnst:i nc es, we feel 1111:::11 1 I>(.: tnie; the m onst ro us, tl w !11sus
1/il/11nc o r /11s 11 .r !1 /.rf,1 r/rr, 1rn1 st I 1(.: k(t to th;tt ex c·l'J >t iuna l reg io n
- the :tctu:tl - when.: a lu n t: thL')· U<Tt1 r. ( )[Ji, ·1'\\' i:-;c it cann o l lie
recogn ized that th e sto ry is consistent 11·ith itse lf; it du es not obey
the bws t h a t th e huma n m ind is used to.

expe ri e n ce .

I ·· The c o m mon saying that truth is stranger th an fi ctio n sh oul d properl y be
exp resser\ as an a :..io m tha t fic ti on ough t n ot to be 'u strange a s truth . A marvellous eve nt is inte res tin g in real life, si m ply bec:\Use we knuw tha t it ha ppened. ln
a fi ctio n we k now th a t it d id n ot happe n; an d the refo re it is int e res ting only as far
:1s it is explained. A nvbo cly can inn:nt a g ian t or a gcn itt s by th e sim ple p rocess of
altering figur es or piling u p superlati ,·c:s. T he arti ~ t h as to ma ke th e existence
of the gian t or the geniu s concei vable ." - L esl ie Stl'phe n, "I I o urs in a Library,"
Firs t Series. p. 256.

Drama. - T h is is to b e r egard ed as n :irrative where in the cha. r a c ters s peak fo r th e m se lves, 111a!.:i11x th e sto ry, as it were, l>dorc
our e yes ; while all the d esc riptive bac kg round is po rtr:i.yed l>y
m c:ins o f sce ne ry, o r inc id e ntally throug h t he a c ti o n and d ia log ue .
The pl o t o f th e d ra m a must b e m o re rigorou s a n <l stri ctly pro-

It is ofte n conce rn ed with Ii ne r shading.· a.ncl traits

o f c h a rac ter th a.n th e ro m a n ce ex hi b its ; a nd th t:se it linds in such
hi s to ri es as :tre pass in g e v(.: ry d a y a ll a. round us .
E xA ~tP l.E.S. - Geu r gc Elio t's " Ad am lh:c.!t:" and " ;\Jill v n the 1-'luss" ;
Th ac keray's " Va ni ty Fa ir" and "Th e Ne wco mcs " ; lluwdl "s " J.:.ise u f Silas
La pha m." The tende ncy a t p rese nt is mo re lo nuvd than. tu roman ce.

gressi,·e, less t olerant of e pi sod es, than that o f any o ther for m o f

382

il'.·lJ.:RA 7'/0N.

E .A'P0S.!1'f 0 N.

story. E\·cry p::trt mu st contr il)U tc ck:nly anJ olw iously to the
completed whok, and the action must keep moving. The pass ions aml char:1c ters, moreove r, mu st be more sharply d efined
and nnnifc st th emselves hy more poin ted Lrngu:ige tha n in the
no\·el, p:1rtly bcc:iuse the spoke n style d<:m:-imb it, and partly
be cause they ha\·c no t the benefit of th e :.iuth or' s interpretative
comments lrnt mu st revc:il themselves e ntirely th rough their own
words.
Further, the drama must make obvious to its audie nce the const:.int \H.irkin g of cau;;e to effect. IL is not suffic ie nt that :rn eve nt
occur; \\'e must IJC al>k to sec what p re\'ious co nd iti ons or ci rcun1sta nccs brought it :-ibout. Conse(tuc ntl y the cle ment of :J.cci<knt is excluded from the clr:rn1a; any C\'Cllt, to he dr:J.rnatic,
mu st han:: its cause, whether intended or not, in so me way indicated before our eyes .1

383

CHAPTER VI.
INVENTION DEALING WIT H

G ENERALIZATIONS:

EXPOSITION.

I For so me \'crv s ug-gcst ive rem ark s on the dis tin c tion s lietwce n the n ove l and
the dram.i , se t: !Jukt:r-l .ytton , "1':11nplikts and Sketches ," pp. 3-13- 352.

.•

To describe objects seen and hea rd, or to reco unt occurrences,
is in deed man's most primiti ve and spo ntaneous lite r:iry imp;dse;
bu t for the thinking mind the observat ion th erein invoh-c:d n:iturally becomes the bas is of someth in g d eepe r. From the perception of individual th ings, the mind readily ad vances to the thought
of classes of thi ngs: d e tect ing through out the world n.:sernhlances
and contrasts, laws and principles, causes a nd effects, it begi ns to
group things toge ther, to ge ne ralize, to discover <1ualiti es essenti al a nd qualit ies acc id ental, to form, in a wo rd , scientific concep tions of things. Thus is opened the fi el d of notions or generalize<!
id eas, ideas to be ide ntifi ed, defined, classified ; ::ind the various
processes employed to set suc h matter fo rth in lit e ra ry form arc
included under the term Expos iti o n.
The broad scope of literary expos iti on is not unjustly indi cated
in the d e rivation of th e term and in ordi nary popu lar usage . . Hy
expositio n peopl e ge newlly und e rstand setting J urt/1 l/1c m ca11i11c~·
o.f t/1i11gs ; and this we may regard as its fundamen tal office . lt
is n ot concerned pr im:nil y with estalJl ish ing the tru th o r fals it y
of a thing; it seeks rather what the thing is, - wh a t is its real
nature, its scope, its relations. Expos ition is thus the h~rndrnaid
of a ll accurate a nd clearl y-cut th ought. The remark is o ften marlc
of disputants that they could soo n co me to agreement if th ey
wo uld defi ne the ir te rms : exposit ion d evo tes itself to the busin ess
o f defining terms, or ra th er, mo re broad ly, of defining and oth erwise ex hil)i ting ideas, as ge neralized in th e m in d .
Such work as this un derl ies the wh ole field of se rious and strenuo us though t, as manifested in scie nce an d didactic writing ; the

3S·i

3S5

F.\PO.\'fTIO. \ '.

EX/'OSITION.

ficlJ in which the human mind nukes its most di fficul t yet most
g lor ious achievements. i\ nd it is safe to s::ty that th e glo ry gained
:rnd th e difliclllty o vercome a rc com mensu rate wit h th e power
C\·inccd in the mastery of the fe w clements that lie a t th e foundation of expos ition .
I .ct us therefo re first i1wcst igatc these elem ents; a nd afterwards
we wili sec how exposition :i.ppcars in literatu re.

State -House at Boston contains a ll the qualities belonging essentially to the notio n house ; but as it is an individual ol>jcct, we are
concerned m e rely with those peculiari ties, architectural and other,
that make it uni(]U C. In the treatmen t of these two classes of
obj ec ts, there fore , we pursue courses exac tly opposite . A particular obj ect o r eve nt, whi ch is the subject of descrip ti o n or narra ti on, we portray by singling ou t the fea tures wh erein it is most
unlik e eve ry othe r; a gene ral ize d object, whi ch is the subje c t
o f e xposition , we set for th by naming the feature s wherein all
indivi d uals of its class are alike .

I.

E XPOSTTIO>T IN ITS ELE:'>l ENTS.

Howe ver elaborate its lite rary form :i.rnl sett ing, the value of an
exposition is peculiarly de pe nd e nt on strenuous fide lit y to its
simplest and most fundamental cle ments. An yth ing that disgui ses
or nhsc mcs th ese, whakvt:r its graces othcrll' ise, is hut worthless
and mi sleading. Tlll: kt:yn<>t<.: of goo d expositio n, we rn :i.y s::ty, is
jlbin nc ss, ck·:1rn ess, simp li c ity ; wc ca nn o t afford, lJy any literary
de vi ce , to cove r up the se qualities .

I.

The Object Expounded . - Expos ition, as in tim ated above, is
inv ention dcali ng with ideas or ge ncr:lli zati o ns. The d istinctive
c haracte r of such mate ri al, and the lite rary p rocedure nccess itatul
in treat ing it, require at the outset sornc expla nati o n.
r. J\ ge ne ralized object is :1.11 o bj ect reg:c rd cd as representative
of :t cbss; the contemplation of wh ich th e rl' ime in c lu des merely
s11 c h fc;1 turcs as a rc co mm on to all objects lJcarin ;; that nam e.
(Jur n o tion of :111 animal, for in sta nce , is co nce rned o nly with such
q11 ~iliti\; s as a rc essential to e ve ry ani111:11. \\' hc thc r a n elephant or
an ea .~lc or a c rawfish, whe ther in ,\ mcri c a o r in Borneo; the (juali tiL'S of o rga ni sm, life, sensation, YOluntary mo ti o n, rnllst !Jc as true
o f one a s of :m o ther. /\ p:i.rti rnla r or incJi ,·id u:i.l objec t, o n the
other hand , ta kes th e class c harac te ristics for g ranted ; the name
is su ffic ient to indica te these : wh ile we m erely contemplate its
individual feature s . We kn ow withou t sto pp ing to th ink that the

E XA~I PLES OF C01'TRASTED TREAnfE NT. - The difference of procedu re in
the cases o f descri p ti on a nd exposition may he: illust rat ed hy the fullow ing
extracts, whi ch both d eal with th e sa me obj ec t, - the o ne as an ind ividual ,
the o ther as a noti on .
I. I n T ennyso n's" Merl in and Vi vic: n, " a n oak is thus d csc ri lic<l : -

" ,\ stor m was coming, but th e wi nds were still.
And in the wi ld wood of 13roccl iande ,
13efore a n oa k, so hollo w, huge, a nd old
Ir loo k'd a tower of ruin' d maso n-wo rk ,
J\t tv!erlin 's feet the wily Vi vien Jay."
IIere the qualiti es nam ed a rc ind eed tru e o f some oa ks, hut not necessa rily
tru e; a n oak is just as trul y a n oak if it is neith er h ullo11· nor huge nor old .
2. Compare with t his th e following fr om an cn cyclop:i:dia artick o n
th e oak : "Mos t o f th e trees belonging to th e oak famil y ar e remar kahk fo r th ei r
thi ck a n1I ru gged hark an d fur th e g rea t abundan ce of tannin whi ch it co ntains. They have large and stru ng rou ts, pc:netrati ng ve ry de eply o r extend ·
ing very fa r hu ri w nt ally. Th e trunk s a rc d isti ng uished fo r thei r m a~sivcncss ,
and for the weig ht , streng th, a nd in most cases, the durab ility nf th eir wood.
T hei r b ran ches are s:rong an d ir reg ular, and form a bruatl head . The burls
ar e fitted fu r a climate " ·ith sc1·erc win ters, th e plaited or fuldcrl lea,·cs being
covere d l1y im hr icatc e:dcrnal scales, a nd o fte n still further pruteclt:d by a separate downy scale sur roun di ng eac h separate leaf. The Jca,·cs ar c plane a nrl
alternate, an<I usually sup po rt ed by a f0<> tstalk, at the base of wh ich arc two
slen flcr scales or st ipules, whi ch for th e most part fall off as th e leaf expan ds."
Here th e information g ive n is m erely s uch as can be predicated of any
and eve ry oak -tree; it must be like this to h e an oak.

EXJ'OSJTJON.

L\./'USI F!ON.

Ol>jects exist in n:i.ture only as individuals ; the generalization, which groups different objects by like characteristics, thus
including many under one n ame, is in reality a creation of the
human min d, :rncl owes its co m pleteness to the observer's acumen
and tlwrou g hncss . It is not rne:rnt liy this that ge neralization is
an uncertai n or arbitrary process. Th e qua lit ies a nd resernlilan ccs
from \Y hi ch it is made up re:illy exist, and it is a real interpretation
of what is in the n atmc of things. Only we arc to remember
that in exposition we a rc d ea ling not with an objec t whose parts
a nd pe cul iari ties ::tre di splayed in space before us, :is in description; nor with :in eve nt, wh ose in c id ents succeed each other in
time, :1.S in narratio n; h ut with :i. man-made concept, whose
aspects and di\·isions arc di scerned by the b11·s o f thought and
assoc iatio n th:1t exist in hum a n mind s . Jly as mu ch, then, as the
ol >jcct fails to suggest its o wn pbn of treatment.. by so mu ch it is
incurnl ient o n the wr ite r to take the more pains th at his prese ntation be well ar ti culated, di stin ctly marked, :i.dap ted to average
min els.
3. J\n object to be expounded expresses either an idea or the
re lation lict wcc n id eas. li ence its fo rm is eithe r :1. term or a
propositi o n. Thou gh expos itio n may be applied to any object, an oliject cle scr ilJed, or a n eve nt na rrate d , as we ll as an obj ec t
t honght, - yet in its sta te as a Cll WTJit or gene ralization, the
olijcc t rnll st lJe reduced to one of t hese fo rm s ; it must either
n :unc an idc:1, or m a ke an assert io n reg:mlin g it.

tested as to its truth; this is the fi rst logical step. Under this h ead arc lo be
reckoned the texts o f sermons, wh ich are taken as embody ing some moral
idea or lesson to he expounded .

2.

l':xA~11·1 Ys . 1. O f te rm s.
Sci rntilic terms ;ind subjec ts. as gravitation,
e,·u\uti1i 11, bw, polity , l>iu\ ugy, p,.;ychul•1gy, c,.;ch:ll<1l ,igy ; multitudes of terms
w;cd in co!llll\un discussinn, as nat ur e, art, \i tcr:it un:, criti cism, pul1lic opinion,
n.Junn, CO!llm o n -se nse, cultu re, orthodoxy. )bny ,,f these terms arc too
vag uely u!led on acco unt o f th e lack of c;1r,·ful an d sh arp exposi t ion.
2. Of prop1 isitiuns.
l\Iany o f th e m:ixims, pru\·crl is, and terse assertions
in fr equ en t use are subject to cxposit iu 11 as well as arg ument; that is, their
m ea nin g and scope, as well as th eir truth or em>r, req uire to be established.
f'•w inst;in ce: " Cu ri osit y is but ,·anity"; " th e poet is lll> rn, n ot ma de "; " the
style is the 1n:ln "; "no ma n is a h ero tn his Y:ll ct." lnrlcecl , it may be said
th a t t:\·cry pn1pusil ion needs to b e cxa inilll:d as tu its meaning before it is

3S7

All exposition, whether of terms or of propositions, may be
reduced funuamentally to two processes : analysis of ideas as to
their depth or intension ; anJ analysis of id eas as to their breadth
or extension.

II.

I

Exposition Intensive, or Definition. - Adopting the broad
mean ing suggested in the d e rivation of the word, we may say that
to define a thing is to determi n e its limits (fines) ; and it is in
this broad sense that the p rocess of definition is here regarded as
one of the fundamental instruments of exposition . Whatever goes
to determine in language th e limits of an idea, whethe r it be strict
logical defin ition o r the literary figures and illus trations that serve
to make those limits clear to ordinary minds, belongs in the large
sense to th e definition of the idea.
Such definition may be called expos ition intensive; the kiml o f
exposition, that is, in whic h the m eaning of the idea is d ete rmined
in the directi o n of its depth, - what the ide::l intrinsically signifies
as one of a class, rather than how extended is its applicati on as a
class in itse lf. Thus, in expounding intensively the ter m literature, we d e fine what literature of any :1.nd eve ry sort is, without
referen ce to the question how many kinds o f lit crat nre th ere a.re .
L e t us firs t se e what d cfrniti o n is in its narrowe st and ri gidest
use; for it is this kind of d e finition that should und e rlie and inform
every effort to expound id eas .
Logical Definition. - By this is meant a concise statem ent of
the character or characters most essenti::ll to :1.11 object. In its
strict construction it is reducible to two processes: first, identifying its object with a class of obj ects, whic h class is technically
called the genus ; and secondly, d etermining the object's parti c ular place in the class, whi ch distinctive characte r is called the
different/a .

.;s ,

f:'.\"f'USJ Ji UN.

.EXA:'>fPU:s . -

\\'hen we define a ci rck as "a p lan e ligure contai ned by one

li ne e\·erywhc r c er1uitlistant fr o m a p <> int \\'it hin called the centre," we first
identify it " ·ith the class uf plane tigurcs, :rnd th en "c determine its place in
1k 1t ci:tss liy the cii:nactcristi c that the line J,,. whi c h it is bounded is at eve ry
p1>int c·•i11idista 11t frum a point " ·ithi n,-a c har:ictcr ist ic tl1at n o other plane
!igu r 1..·

l 'H )~:'t'S~t:S .

! .,·t us tc s t a fC\\' uthcr dctin it io ns by t he same anal y,i:-: Differentia.

Genus.
1s

the p o\\'cr pf 11•>.\i cs

t\) 1Tcn,·c r their furm after

1'

the \\Ti t tcn rn:o r<l uf Yalu·
aliic th u ught

Jia,ing uthc r than me rely
l'racti cal purpuses.
u f quantity.
"·ith rcspcc t to matt ers in
,,·Jti ch ,·c rification is un·

c11111p rcss in n.

l .l'l'J-:1( ,\"l

l ' l(F.

1\1ATllE\l.·\T ll 'S

1s

tln: scicnc<:

FAITH

1s

ce rtitude

attainable.
Su ch arc logical def1niti1rn!' : hut also the m n re cxt<:ndcd a11 •l li tera ry de li·
ni ti 1 1ns a r c gc 11n:11ly c11.:1l1lc o f tl1c sa me anah· ~ is l1y
L<kc f"'· cx;unplc the fu ll• >" ·in g fr11111 1·: .

"By C01'SEJ(L\ Tl~\I

·

is m eant

j

J.

J,'i !lll S

and dijferenlia;

l'aync: --

th at preference f,H and in ·
dulg e n cc to
thr1t faith in

wli:ll is a \r er1dy established,
" ·hr1t has licc.:n tri ed,

II r1nd tl1r1t di s trust 11f
" ·hat n ,ish only in specub·
ti
I. wh ich n c\·c r wh <> lly fu rsaki:s
s"und politi cian, of
on .

<.:\Try

J

whatever pr1 rty."

The three nccess:<ry r cq ni siles of :i. Jogi c;-il del111ition are: that
it shou ld cover all cases or indi\·idtds o f the idea defined; that it
sh o uld exclude all objects no t he:u in g the same name; and that it
sh o 1tlcl be expresse d in term s simpler and k ss ol1scure than the term
th:tt d esig nates the defined uhjc c t. To th t·sc s h uld ordinarily
lie added, :ts :t secondary rcc1t 1i sitc . ]Jrevity: th:1t is, the expos itor
sho11lcl ende:tn lr to n:i.rnc th e srn :11lest number of attributes that
\ 1·ill be a(kq11:itc to nuke the idea in tclligi l11c, ::i.ncl these should
he the m ost c sscnti :tl, most (·har.tc teristic possible. To this end
the writer iw crb to test his definition in c1· cry :tva iblllc :1spcct.

I
I
I

E. \'/'OSJJ'f ON.

3S'J

Nothing in literature is more <lifficult to originate than an accurate definition. For this reason a good definition is one of the most
valued ac hievements of thoud1t · an achievement that accordin rr
....,
'
'
b
to its excellence, takes its place a.t once in the standard currency
of thinkin;..; minds. J\nd many of the most familiar conce ptions,
though the y arc perfectly well known and felt, and though the
greatest intell ects have attempted to reduce them to stri c t limits,
h ave to be ack nowledged as ind efinable .
NoT1·:. - Among th ese last me n tioned arc such concepts as po e try, in sp ir ation, r evelativn, eloquence. Th ey arc the despai r of logica l d efiners, n ot
ue causc their term s arc Yaguc, b ut beca use they are so complex am! contain
so mu c h suggestion.
A fc l icituus definit io n mr1y become fam ous and make its author fam o us.
Such is l>uff.. n's .::pigramnntic dcl inili u n of styl e , " T he sty le is the man l1i111 ·
self,'' and U ean

~"'ift's

dclillition of it r1s "proper w o r ds in pr"per places. "

N ot hing is sr1irl here, hy the \\'ay, o f th<: r1dc<Juacy o f t h ese dclinitions, - only
of their celebrity. Such also is :\latth ew Arn v ld's dellniti (J n u f cr iticis m," a
disinterested l:ndca'·"r tu lc r1rn r111d pro pr1gatc the best th a t is k iw\\' n and
th o ught in the \\' Or ld "; r1 nd his dcliniti 1)n of his conc<.:pl of C od as "th ..:
end urin g po\\-c r not oursch·es. \\'hicl1 makes for righte o us n ess." ~u c h d i r"la
become the cen tr es of mu c h d iscuss ion fo r and agr1in s t. !\latthcw ..\m old's
writin gs, it may h ere he said , ar c e~pecially stim ul ating in the r111r1lit y o f ckarly
cut and closely discriminated thinking; he has a dc:lining min d .

The Definition Amplified. - For l itcrary ancl popular purposes
log ical del111ition is only the nu cleus of intcnsi1-c exposi tion . Importa nt tho11gh it is, it is too seven; and comp<i c t to l>c impressive; it h:1s o rdi nar ily to he p repared for or suppkmcntccl l>y
some amplifying matter that may se rve to detain the read er's mind
upon it, and direct his atte nti o n to its variou s aspects. The
following arc the principal ways in which th e definitio n may !Jc
ampl ified.
r. By exegesis of term s. The m ost natural way, perh:ips, to
get at the e:-:;ict significance of an idea is to examine the terms rn
wh ic h it is c:-:prcssccl. This is :in important preliminary to dcf111ition. .i\ ccordin,r; to the light th a t s11 ch study will throw u po n the
discussion, th e wo rd is cxan1ined as to its derivation and history;

W CWH"

Mr< 'f '

Q C

390

D

L ., · "

Mu

.-r ··

EXl'USJ 'J'JON.

or curnparc.:d wi th other terms, syno nymous or contrasted; or
freed from any :un\Jiguities or vaguenesses of use into which it
rn:i.y h:i.ve fallen .
l':x A~11 · 1.1-:s . I. In tl1e f,,l!o\\'i ng , T'rofessor Sh:iirp :irriv cs at the definition
of Culture liy first ex:imining th e term , :ind co111pari11g \'arious words tha t
cksign:ite the idea : " B ut wh at do we m ean by this lin e word Culture, SI) Jllu ch in vogue at
present ? \\"h::it th e G re eks naturally e~presscd hy their rra1 i5 da, th e l~ o m ans
by tli<:ir h111J1r111ilas, we kss happily try to cxp n.:ss by th e mure artificial word
Culture . The use of it in it s prese nt sense is, as far as I know, recent in our
l::tn g uagc, for ce<! up o n us, I suppose, by the G..:rman talk abo ut 'Bildu ng.'
J\nd the shifts w e ha \·c hecn put to, l n render that Gnman wo rd, see m lo show
that the thing is w ith us some th ing o f a n cxutic, rath er than native to the soi l.
\\'he n app\inl tn the human be ing, it mc:ins, I suppose, the ' educ ing or
drawing forth all tha t is potentially in a m:rn ,' t he trainin ,g :ill th e energies and
capacit ies of hi s being to the highe s t pitch, and directing th e m to their true
Cll ds -"
2. The fnlln\l'ing, fr om i\fatt h cw ,\m old , is a k ind o f S\\'ift glance at ex po·
sitio n, suggcst<:d hy the dcriqtitll l pf th e it:-ilici1.c.J 11·u rd : "!-'or, '"'t ha \·ing the lu cidi ty <Jf a large and ccn lrally placed intelli ge nce,
the proYi11cial spi ri t has ll •>t il,; g r:1ci1H1s11css; it d1>es nut pcn;uade, it makes
\\':Ir: it has n ot 111A111il1'. th<· /, 111 ,,. of /11~ r·i(J' , o f 1hc centre, t he tone whi ch
al11·ays aillls al a spi rit ua l and in tc llcd ual effec t, and 1w t excl ud ing the use of
banter, nen: r disjoins b:rnt<: r itself fr n m pulitcrn.:ss, from feli c ity ."
3 . In the d eli niti11n o f Faith g i\· cn on page 3SS above, much depends on
rightly discriminating bet wee n th e \\',,rd ce rtitude an d th e alm os t sy nonymous
\1·o rcl cerl:i inty . " Cc'f' /it u .!,· is cli s li n.i::ui,;hcd fr om ter/r1i 111y as subjec ti ve from
ol1jecti \·c . 'Certitude,' says C:i rdi nal ;\e\1'111:1 11, •is a stale o f mind: certainty
is :i •p1ali ty <>f propositiuns.'" \\'h e n thcn·forc \\'C s:1y th a t• faith is ccrl iturlc
with n ·,; p1· ct l» matte rs in \\'h i,·h \'l'l'ili c:-iti,111 is u11 :1tt ainal>le,' we need to be
sure \\'e have t ht: righ t con ception of this dcli ning term.

EXPOSITION.

39 l

EXAMPLES. - A stri k ing example of a definit io n thus amp lif1ccl is the para·
graph on the g rand style in poctry , <1no ted fr o m i\lat thew i\rn uld on page '.'OI
al.Jove. The definition is taken up in rt:g ul ar o rd e r po int by pui n t, an d eithe r
d e fin ed m1ire closely or ern phasizecl 11y it eratiun .
Several examples u f s uch ex plirntiun occ ur also in thi s liook; sec, fnr
instance, the ddinitiun u f lJcscripti o n, with th e remar ks thcreun , page 326.

3. By log ical description. By this is m eant po rtrayal of a ge ne ralized objec t by giving more qualiti es ::ind ·ch::i r::ickristics than
are strictly ne cessary to determine its c l:i.ss and n ature . It i ~
distingui shed from ordinary desc ription in that it gives gene ra l
c harac tt:ristics instead of imlividu::il; and it is distinguish ed fro m
logical definitio n in that it g ives "a charac teri stic and derived
property, n ot a ge nerati ng and primitive one ."
Ex A ~ l l'LE S. - L og ical desc ripti o n can \Jest be exemplified by comparin g it
with a definiti on . T a ke fu r instan ce the sci c ntili c definition u f a steam-engine
which g i\'<.:S unly its ess<.:nt ial charac te r, and put by t he side uf it a d cscri1 ,ti u n,
which, \\'hilc culmina ti ng in the same essential fea tur e, g i\'c· mo re easily
underst oo d and inlcr <.: sting characte risti cs : -

D es1-r1j>lion : "The u:une stc:un ·('!lgi m; [()
J)~ji 11i lio11: ",\ stca m -L" ngin c
is a machine in \\'hich the clas· most pe rsons !>r ings the idea uf a 111ac lii11e
tic furce uf steam is the muti,·e of the m ust complex nal urt:, an d hence t"
pow e r." - Cage.
I.Jc undcrs tuud un ly by th ose \\'hu 11·ill dc\·u tc ·
mu ch time tu the study o f it ; but he that
ca n und e rsta nd a co mm o n pum p may under·
stand a steam-engine. It is, in fact, 0 11 ~1· 11
pump in which th <.: tluid passing through it
is made lo impel the pisto n i11slcarl of I >eing
imp elled l>y it, th a t is tu s:1 y, in \\'hich the
fluid act s as the p o~vcr, instead o f bein g the

resistan ce." - A r n ott.

By follo wing out :i.t length, with su ch expl ication as is
nee d ed , the vari o us parts :i.nd statements of the definition.
So me of its term s, though the mos t exac t, co ntain their meaning
Jl1 so condensed form th at attention has to be dire cted to what
they irn1>ly :rn<l in vo h·e; :rnd its more important st:i.temcnts may
kt \ 'C to he dwelt npon in o rd er th at the ir sig nil1cance as related
to th e rest m:i.y b e brough t o ut.
2.

Such description is much employed in th e sciences, to su p plement and
follow o ut in detail th e definiti o ns o n which scien ce must be based. In pnpuJar language, too, d escription takes the pl ace uften o f definiti o n : th e ful lu w·
in g, fo r instance, is quo ted fr o m a praye r·rn<.:ctin g s peech: "This is not a
definitiun of praye r, hut it is a most titling and blessed desc rip tion uf it - tu
say that it is talking \\'ith the ri sen J es us." Similarl y, it is dcscripti<ll1 and n•1t
d e finiti o n when Em e rson says th at eluque nce is "a taking sovere ig n pusses·
sion o f the audien ce."

392

EXPOSITION.

E.\POSITJ ON.

Lksi('.e s the log ical definiti o n, with its .'.lccesso rics o f a mp li fic.'.lt ion, sc n : ral oth e r processes Lielong i11g to defi n ition in th e l.Jroa<.l
sense n ee d he re to Lie e xpla in ed and exem plified .
Exposition by Antithesis. - O ne of the most effec tu al m eans
of fixing the exact li111its aml 11111.: d isti n c ti on s of a n id ea is to
c0rnp:1re it with some ide.'.l c lose ly rel:t ted, e it he r in lik e ness or
con tr:tst. The ide:1 s thus co 111p:ucd may o r may no t be in actual
Oi'JH>~ iti o n tu e:1ch . other; inde ed , they rn:ty coinc ide in almost
L'\·1.:ry pr •int . The aim o f the comp:n isun, howe\'Cr, is /(J .fi.11t! !lie
f'r 1/11 / '1<"•/10·,- !11,:r 11u /11 a11!il/1,._..i.1, wh ic h point wi ll be fo und to
UJ11t:tin the m os t dist in c ti\·e fe:ttu re of e;:i c h .
J-:x ,n11• 1.1·:s . - 1 . Thal i1 k:\s al11l< •Sl syn• •n ,·r111111s may h:1\' C so m e po int o f
l'tJlll]'kte a n tithesis is shu wn in th e twu ideas <<'rlit1ult ::ind art 11 i11 !y, wh id1
11:\\·e alrc·a.!y l1 ec n di,.nin1inalt'< I as sul1jel'li,·c and ll i>jccti ,·c.

2. T h,; f11ll tl\1·ing, fru 111 J•>llll :-;tuar t :\J il l, rc.lu ccs tl 1c di st in c li u n be tween
/ 1•d1y :incl ,·/,,vuo11 ·" tu :i s e n ·iccal1lc antithesis : " l'<>l'try ::ind "l "•JUcncc ar c J,. ,1h :dike th e CXJl rc·ssi<>n n r u tte rance o f feeling : hllt, if \I c may he \'~c11scd th e a111 itl wsi -; , \\'e sh.,11ld say th a t eluq ue 11 ce
i-; ;,,,,,,., /,poet ry is o7·o heard. l-:J , ,.1 11 e n c:c St:j' puscs an audience . The p ccul i.u ity o f poetry ap p ea rs tu lie in lhc J'"cl's utter 1111 cunsci1111snc:;s uf a li stene r.
l'oc·try is fee lin g Ct •nfcssi ng its e lf tu itself i11 ll \!ll nc· 11ts vf S<Jlitude, a nd c n1 body ing il sL· lf i11 sy 111!1u ls "hich arc th e n ea rl'sl p11ssi h k represe n lal iu ns o f the
kel in .t.: in the e~a c· t sh::i1>e in wh ic h it c~i,;ts in the pm:t's llli nd . El oq uen ce is
f,.,.ling p<> 11 ri ni; its e lf 1111l t u olhvr mi11.J s. c<> 11 rti 11 g the ir sy mp at h y, o r end eavur in;.; ti • inll11ence !heir h.:lic·f, ur 1nu1·c tlwnl I» pas~ i u n u r tt> a ct iu n."
3. The f«ll"" ing . fr <> m I >r. J J.,raL·c J:u shne ll. sh<1\l'S l1y ::i skill ful exegesis
11f tn111s t ha t li.t ff i11,-s.< a n d /•'.I', t h " 11 ): h idvas alrn11st \\'h olly eu in e idc nt, l1av e
a p1 1i1 \l <1 f t '\~t c t a 11 1i 1ii1 ·sis : -

" ~'"'' t h,.r1· is c\'\·1 1 a disti11 c ti 11 n o f kind l1d1n·c 11 the t ll'o, a di s lin cliu n
hcaut if11ll y r ep res e nted in the \l'<•rds th c n1 sc1'·es. T hu s 11 ,11·1·1NESS, a ccord in g
tu the "' i,g in:il use o f the term . is that "hi c h /10/•/ozs, ur co mes to o n e liy a
So me good is
Ct>ncci,·cd, o u t u f the sn11 l, which c1i n1 es to it as a happy vis itati on, s tirrin g
in the r ccc i,·cr a pleasa n t cx c it c m ·nt. l t is what mo n ey yie lds, o r will buy ;
dress, e<JlliJ•:1 :~c, f:1 shi<> 11, lu xur ies o f th e table; or it is set tl e me nt in life,
inilepc n dell\:e , lu\·e , :<pj>busc, adn1iratiu11 , hun<>r, g lury , o r th e m ore co nvcn·
tiun a l and pul.li c lic n elits u f ra n k, pu litica l sta 11ding, 1·ictu ry, p o we r. All
t hese st ir a d eligh t in the su ul, wh ic h ·i s 11 •1 l of the su ul , o r it s quality, but
fro m wi th o ut. I Icn cc th ey ar c loo k ed u po n as h ap penin g to the so ul and, in
!1 11/, tha t is , by :111 0 11t\l'ard befal ling, u r fan1ral ik C•rndit ion .

393

that se nse , c reate h a pp in ess. . . . Bu l J DY diffe rs fr o m th is, as b e in g of th e
so ul itsel f, o ri ginating in its quali ty . And th is· appea rs in the o ri giml for m
o f th e w ord ; " ·hi eh , inste ad of s ugges tin g a !t ap , lit erall y d e n olcs a l"af, u r
spri11g . . . . T h e r:id ical id ea the n u f jcly is thi s ; th a t th e sottl is in such
o rder an1! l>ca u tiful ha rm o ny, h as s uch sp rings o f life o p e ned in ib O\\'ll lik>sed
virt ues, th a t it pu urs fo rth a su ,·cr c ig n juy fr o m \\'ithin. Th e m o t io n is out ward an d n o t tu 11·::i rcl, a s "·c co n ce ive it lo lie in hap pin ess. I t is n o t the l 1liss
o f co n dition, h ut o f cha ra cter. T he re is, in th is, a 11·ell- pr ing o f triumphant,
sove reign g u ud, ::i 11 1l the suul is a l,le th us tu p o ur out riv ers uf joy into the
d esert s of o ut ll"ard expe r ien ce . It has a ligh t in its o\\·n lumin ous ce n tre,
wh ere C o d is , that gilds the da rk es t ni gh ts o f external a chersity, a musi c
c ha rmi ng all the slurmy dis cur ,ls o f out11ar il inju ry a nd p ai n into beats of
rh yth m, and m el od ics o f peace."
H erc the antithesis is : h appi n ess co m es fr u m w itho ut; j<l)' springs up fr u m

w it/tin.

Exposition by Iteration, and by Obverse Iteration. - Th is
m a nne r o f expos iti o n is o f spec ial valt a; in ex p o undi ng propos itio ns : a n imp o rtan t ;:iffi rmati o n is seldo m a llo \\'ed to stand .'.llone,
bu t its se n time nt is ite rated in vario us fo rms, m o re famili:tr or
m o re figur;it i,·c or m o re terse, un til it is sufficiently impre ssed .
A n:i.tu ral ;iccompanimen t is o!J\'e rse ite r:i.ti o n, o r tlen i:il o f the
counter proposi ti on; which g ives addi ti o nal c lea rness by making
kno wn what th e princ iple in questi o n is 110 !, ;is well as what it is.
EXAMPLES. -An e xam p le , fr o m C ardin al Kew m a n , alr ea dy cit ed o n I age

197, will sh ow h u w a n a sse rti o n is p resented in vario us state me n ts: J'n >
positio11 : "If we wo ul d im prove th e intel lec t, lirs l u f all , we mus t
asce nd ;
()/J1'<·rs ~: ll'C c:<nnot gai n real lrno\\'kdge u n a le\' ·l ;
P ropos i tio n ifrra / ,·d i n expln n at01y / Jrt/IS: we mu s t gc n ernl i1.c, we m ust
r ed uc e to meth o d , we mus t ha,·c a g rasp o f p rin c iples, a n d group and shape
o ur acqu is itiuns hy means o f th e m.' '
The Book o f J>ro,·c r bs a b ou nds in p rin c iples stated both in afli rm ali u n and
in obv erse: this is in deed o ne o f its pr c,·a ilin g form s o f e xposi t io n; thus : -

"A wise so n mak eth a glad father;

I b ut

;I·

::i foo li sh so n is th e h ea viness o f
h is m o th e r.''

"A s o ft ansll' e r turn e th all' ay wra th
b ut g ri e vo us wo rd s stir u p an ge r ."
" I le that covc re th his s ins shall n o t but ll'h oso c o nfcss cth ::incl fo rsakcth
prospe r;
them shall have m ercy ."

-"--

!._. _ _,::___ - - - - · -

·-~---'-'------------------------------

......-

~ L•""'_,_,_~.~-; r,.,~...

· -...

.!

39+

EXPO S / 7'/0N.

Non e. - If,

:)ometi rn es an es>ay o r treatise is written in o r de r to expound a s ubje ct both
fr u m its all irmat iH: and it s n egatil' t.: s it!..:;

sulij ecls, it is ad"isal ik

Exposition by Analogy. -

Amlogy, oy which is m eant s1m ibrity o f rebti on in diversity of s ubj ec t, is ooviously an im portant
a ccessory in expound in g the relation between id eas . T aking
obscure and re mote relation s, it makes them familiar lJy ide nt ilying them with relatio ns such as we sec 311 around 11s ; and thus the
al;strnse becom es si rn pie.

,\n instance may
N OTE. -

"I hav<.: a lready given ,·ari ou s illustrations o f !Zea l 1\ sse nt; I wi ll follow
.

}\. cal. . . .

"Twenty yea rs agu , the D u l;e u f \\" cllington \\"rote his cdchratcd letter 0 11

I ! is aulh u rity ga\'<.: it im11H: d iatt.: circub-

tiun a rnrng :111 l'iasses <> f t he cu mmu n it y ; n o n c q u es ti o lH:(l what he said, n or

J ! is kttcr lay , so to say,

upo n the purt: in tclkct o f th e n::itiu n a l mind. a n d n oth ing fu r a time came
Hut eleven yea rs aftcrl\'ards, afte r his ,k ath, th e :111 ,1.: cr o f the F rench

col o nels with us, after th..: att e mpt u pon I .ouis l\ ::ipolcon's li fe, trans fe rred its
fa ct s l o tl 1c charg e o f th e imag ination.

Th e n fo rt hwith t he 11 at iu 11 al assent

l,ec am c in v:i. ri u11 s ways a n nper ~1t i,·c pri11 c i1 1lc , l'~ peci ally in its promoti on o(
th e vulu n tl:c r llltJIT lll c nl.

The Duke, ha"ing a spe c ial eye fo r military m atte rs,

had r ca lil.l:d th e s l ate o f thin gs frnm th e lirst; l•ut it t <H>k a cu ur se u f years lo
i111pn.:,.;s u p.in tl1c pulili c lllin d :111 asse nt to his war n ing, d ec p <: r and more enerf~ c tic

,

ti o ns b c twn:n ul>jccts.
says," l Jim

\l"C

Thu s, wh e n Ern c: rs v n, sp eak in g • ,f tht: urat• >r\ art ,

call an artist , wh o s hall play un an asse rnlil y of m e n

tc r o n th e k ey s u f the ]'ian<>, " -

:1S

a m:is -

he .J.,e,.; n o t m ea n tu liken an ;i,;sc rni>ly It> a

piano, n or an <>r::it o r l<> a pi:lnist; he i<; 1n l' rc ly say in g that the r c hti u n " f the
pianist to his in strument is l ik e the r elat ion uf tl 1<: o ra lu r to his audi e nc e.

faith m e rely, iiu l as i11t c llc c t u::il ly rc cugni1. i11 g thei r

truth ; yet fcw cu 11 ld lie sa id to sec <'r feel th at truth .
,, f it.

Analogy difTers fr o m s imil e in that it is concerned n o t wi th th e

simple r ese mblan ct: o f object s, but with the: n:s e m!Jlancc o r idt:nti ty o f rcl::t -

th t: m up lint: J,y s o me instances of the change of Notio nal Assen t into

(JJl

to ill us trate , :ls far :ls may b e , 011 e thing 11! a li111t· :

an e xample may easi ly bccOille confus in g m e r ely l1y !icing loo co mp le x.

!1t.:rc lie cited: -

as if lakin g h is w o r.ls

hy

sh o ul d look fo r one as fr ee as p oss ible from

imp e rft:cti o ns , and w e s hould ka,·c o ut o f a cco unt th e breaks :lnd , Jiq,, r ti o ns

C ardinal Newman' s " Gramma r o f :\ sscnt" is .a ma s te rly work

t he: su bject ,, f th e 11 :1ti•mal defc: nccs .

\l" C

th at art.: found in t he maj o rit y of spec im ens. So als o, in cxcm1 >lify in g intricate

Exposition by Exemplification. - "The m e;ining of ;in al;straction is best so nght fur in the concrete - of ;in uni\·ers;il in the
p:u- ti c ubr." For this reason it is of spec i;il import:i.nce in exposition to illustrate it s ge nc r;il iz::i.t ions, wherever poss ible, by p;irticubr inst;inces, Or ex;irnplcs, whi c h, e mlJoJ yi ng the idea in an individ 11al and t:rngil>lc type, take a w;iy its ;ilJ tru sc rn: ss and translate
it, so to s;iy, into farnil i:1r bn g u:1ge .
o f expos iti o n; a 111 d its preva ilin g m e th od is exempl ificatio n.

for in >la n ce, w e WL're se e king to exemplify crystalli zation

e x hibiting a re a l c ryst a l,

fo r ins tanc e , o ne o f l\lartineau 's

c'says is cnt itkd "JZ..:vt.:latiu n: \\' hat it is n o t, a nd \\' ha t it is ."

Fx A ~ Il 'LL -

395

EXPOSITJON.

t han tht: r eccptiu n it is accusl o me ll lo g ive lo a clt.:vt:r a rt icle m a news-

pape r o r a revit:w ."

An example, in order to be ;in effe c tual ill ustr;it ion of an idea,
shou ld be chosen with reference to two qual ities: its e ml;odiment
or th<.: idea or p rope rty in quest io n should be strik ing ; and it
sh o uk lie :JS far :is possiolc pure and typi cal, free from extraneous
or excc ptio n3J clements. A per fec t ex:irnplc is almost as valuable,
in the rc:ilm of gcncr:dization s, :is a perfect defiIJ iL io n.

It is ofte n remarked that ;ina1ogy, as a form of a rgum ent, 1s
precarious . This is trnc; a nd in the next ch:Jpte r we shJ.11 se c
why. 1 As an instrument o f exposition, however, an;ilogy· is o f
very g reat valu e . Its distincti\·e func tion is to ill ustrate; ;ind
though we have to Le cau ti o us about depe nding upon it :JS c~t :ih­
lishing the ln1!/1 of a position, yet not infrequently it may ;,rJ
clearly defin e the pos iti o n th;it the trnth of it m;iy be see n as selCe vident. But in order th;it ::i n:il ogy rn:ly tru ly illustrate, we need
to be sure that the rebtion is not fan c ifttl , hut real and defin ite.
EXAMPLE S. -

Bulwc r-Lytto n thus illn st ra lt.:s the p ro p ositio n th at e,·cry o ne

mu s t view t he truth in his own individual w a y: " \ .Yhc n th o u ga1.es t o n the track o f li g ht whi c h the m uun makes vn tlie
ocea n, that track to th y Yi s io n seems the on e luminous p a t h t1 11uug h t h e
measurt.:lcss waste vf th e darkness around it; hut alte r the: course u f thy l •8 r k,
and the track shifts w ith the cou rs e 1

th use waves illumin ed \1·hi c h l,cfurt:

Sec be lo w, pa,w:

. 12'.' .

_ _________
_..

396

-~--------

-- -

~-

/ :.X !'OS/7'1 0.V.

wer e rayl css, :rnd thos e in da r k n ess which hdMc were brigh t. F o r th e dark
and the light nry stil l with th ine uwn point u f Yis io n; and, in truth, the
llhll>ll fa v llrs n o t u rn: ll'aYe mo re tha n anp ther.
Truth makes o n th e ocea n of
n:lturc nu u rn.: tr;i.ck uf light - el'ery eye 1110!- ing on finds its '"1·11 ."
The f"Jlml'ing, fr1irn C eo rge Eliot, is a pbin m:rn 's :rn alngy to illustrate
hu11· it is th;i.t not c ,·cry o n e can s..:c a glws t : "'But,' so.id th..: Ca rr in, 'l ' m o.fraid u' neit h er man no r g hos t, and I'm
ready tu lay a fai r bet, - I arn 't a turn-to. ii c ur.'
' :\y , hut thne's this i n it, D o wlo.s.' sa id the landlord, speaking in a to ne of
mu ch ca ndo r a nd tukran cc . ' Th e re's fulk,- , i" my opi niu n, th..:y can ' t sec
gh1>s"cs, n ot if they stood as plain as o. ]>ike -sto.ff be fo re "em. J\nd there's
reas,rn i' tha t. F o r there 's my wi fe , 1w11·, co.n' t s mell, no t if she'd th e strongest o' che ese under he r nose. T ne,· c r sec"<! a ghust myself: hut th e n I says
tu myself," \ 'c ry li ke r ha,·cn" t gu t the sn11.:ll f(lr 'em." I m ean, pulling a
ghusl f<>r a smell, o r else cont rairi\\·a ys . 1\ 11d so I'm fu r h o ldi ng with both
sides; f.,r , as I so.y, the truth li es hctwt'l' n 'c m. 1\nd if l> n \\'bs was to go
and stand o.n d say h c"tl n c,·c r see n a \\'ink l ,' Cliffs I l oliday all the night
tl m i11_t.;h , l'd !Jack h im ; an d if a ny li c•tly said as Cli ff's Il ul iday \\'aS certa in
sure fur all that, 1'd hack lii111 lU•J . h1 r the smell's " ·h a t I go hy .'
The bnd lun l"s an a logical argu ment was not well rece iv ed hy th e farri er, a man in tt:ns l'l~· oppn,cd tn compnim isl' .
'Tut, tu t,' he said , st:tting duw n his glass'' ith rL"fresh ed ir ritat io n; '\\'hat 's
the smL"ll .i.:ot to do with it?'"

The foregoi ng mc::in s of cxpos1t1 o n nuy of co mse lJe e mploye<l
::ind combined in infi nitely \'::l ried \\'::l)'S ; l>ut it is impo rta nt that at
the basis of C\·ery expository wurk the \Hit e r determine in hi s own
mind , \1·lic ther for exp re ssion or no t, :1 defin itio n as exac t as possi ble of \1·ha.t he would cxpo11n tl. If this we re alw.:iys d o ne, literature woul d l>c mu ch less i11 ks tcd with sl"l'l'Y ancl ill -di gested
th o ught. Such ca reful dcl111ing is rc::illy d et ermining th e theme,
and g i1·es p oint and sign ificance to en:ry illustrati o n and every
stroke o f d esc ri pt ion .

J lf.
Exposition Extensive, or Division. - The forego ing processes
have regarded the expounded idl'a as 0 11e of a cbss, the duty
bei ng to deter min e ih ind i1·idu :tl pl:tce th e rei n. \\'e co me now to
th e kind or expositio n th a t l Jq~i n s with the cbss itse lf ; :md the

EXi'OS/'!'fON.

397

task is to :.i.scert::i.in how the system o f ideJ.s is to be divided an( i
subJ ivided until the scope o f its :.i.pplication is accurately dete rmin ed . Suc h <li1· ision o r d istri buti on of id eas m ay be called
exposition exte nsive; the kind of ex.pos ition in whi ch th e mea ning
of the co nc ept is determined in th e direc ti on of its b readth, or th e
fi eld ove r whi c h it s .:i.pplicatio n ex.te nds. Thus, just as we have
vi ewed the no ti on a11imal 1 inte nsively, .:i.s cont.:i.ining the qu:i.liti es
of o rgani s m, life, se nsa.t io n, Yol unta ry moti on, so we m:i.y view it
exte nsi\·cly, as in clu d ing the v::irious kinds a nd classes, ord ers,
genera a nd spec ies, th a t make up the v::ist :i.n imal kingdo m .
Di vis io n r::in gc s through all gr:i.des o f intri cacy, from th e s imple
partition of .:i. subjec t for prac tical purp oses up to the complex
ramifi cat io ns o f a co m ple te sys tem o f thou ght. Its h ig h er aspec ts.
in cluded under th e te rm Cbssif1 cation, belong more to log ic anrl
scien ce than to literature . In th at hig he r rank of di1·i sion th e aim
is to asce rtJ.in th e idea in its fulln ess, and it is a vi rtue to make
the c b ss if1 cJ. ti o n as minute and c xhJ.ustive J.S there is any poss ilJlc
occasion fo r in n:i.tme . In li tL:r:1 ry cli1·isi o n, holl'eve r, the a im is
not o nl y to asce rtai n the truth !Jt\t :i.lso to ad::ipt results to the
requ ire m e nts of a reader o r he::i re r; a nd this double aim impels
in J.n o pposit e directio n, toward simpli c ity inste:i.d of to\\':i.rd co mplex ity. The pri nc iples of cli\·ision, and the mental endowment
necessJ.ry to it, re main the s.:i.rnc, howeve r intri cate th e problem .
It is th e ol>jec t hl'rc not to tr:i.c e divi sio n into its logi c.:il tcchnic:i.1ities, but me rely to se t forth the proce dures and cautions J.ttcnd in g
the use of di \' isi on in ge neral lit e rary und ertakings.
The Principle of Division . - Every division of a n idea must
be based on ::i dclmitc p rin c iple; that is, there mu st he a particubr way of lookin g at the subject to whi ch J.ll th e di\·icling mC1nbers are equ ally rebted . \\"h at th e p rin ciple sh:i.ll be, in any giv 'n
case, d e pends on the writer's .:iirn in making the exposit ion.
Thu s, :i. m o rali st would cbssify mankind on one prin c iple, a
politicJ.l eco nomist on another, an ethnologist on ~moth e r, a student of compar:i.tiYe reli g io ns o n ano th e r. The same origiual

£.\'/' OSI TIO. \~

E. \"PUSITJON.

no tion is c1pable of being <l i\·iJc<l in an indefini te variety of ways,
acco rding to the pr inciple adopted .
E n:: ry di vi sion must not onl y ha\·c a principle, bu t _must adhere
throu ghout to r1nr principle; otherwi se it is no tru e division, that
is, the di \·idi ng memlJcrs cross each othe r.

insensibly d evelops the ability to construct a full and symmetrical
circle of thought; there is so mething in the form of the di strib ution by whi ch we are made aware that all the aspects of the
thought, on that chosen scale, are provid ed for.

393

N t>TE. - Thus, if literature \1·c:re classil ic<l int o prose, Yerse, history, fict ion,
and reli;;iuus lite rature, t h e iirst two di\·isio ns wuultl he: a ccording tu its
e xpr ess ion, t he third and fourth a ccording lo its kitHl uf mater ial, and the fifth
a cco rd in g to its a im or s c nlimenl. Hut lict ion may a lso be ve rse, and must be
ei th c r verse o r prose, and ;my vf th ese kinds may he rdigiuus; - in fac t, th e
ap1'ar ·n t di\'isiu n is nu d i\'is io n at all; it is, as w o uld he pop ularly expresseJ ,
" all mi xed up."
J\n au l h u r may m a ke i n turn different cli1·is ions uf hi s suliject on different
p ri nc i ples. Thus , ,\l r. :'-! ul fu rd, in h is liotJk vn " The Nativn," treat ing uf
l\.ig ht s, first cbss ilies them as they helun.t; to man as man: "Th e primary
di s ti nct io n uf rights is ,,f ;\°atural and of l\1 s iti1·..: l\.iglils. l\.i g h ts a rc naltiral,
as laid in the natt1rc of man ; ri g hts arc pusit i1·e, as defi ned in th e nati on.
l\. igli ts a rc n at m ;d, as innnan e nt in the na tur e 1l f m :lll; ri g hts are positive, as
l'lll :1nen t in tl1 e n :1ti 11 11." I l e th e n g <> l' :< unt o cl:bsify ri g hts as they belo ng to
rn:rn as a c it i1.c 11. ":\;t tural ri g h ts in th e ir p ositi1·c dete r minat io n, are furth er
d cl;nt:d as they arc dl'tt:rmin ct! in th e Civil o r the l'o litical p rocess in the
n at in n. C ivi l r igh ts lid u ng tu th e j ur:d: p o liti cal r ights to the mo ral organi zatiun o f th <.: natio n"; e tc . :-:t ill u l hcr prim:iplcs uf di1·isiu n he tak es up ancl
exa mines late r in t he chaplt: r under the h ead " l\. ight s as dcfincLI in legal and
]'Oliti cal fo rm:.;,'' whe re he c riti c ises th e fullu\1·i11 g cl ass ilicativns; "a. O rig inal
and ac quired r ights; b . A bsulu tc am.I n:lat ive rig hts; c. Rig hts o f persons
and thin gs ."

Completeness of Division. - J\ div ision nee ds to be complete
and exh ;i.ustive, buth as regards its compn:hensivc ncss and as
reg;i.rds its minute ness.
1. As regards its compre hen siveness, the d ivi d ing members
t:ikcn toge th e r should be exactly co mmen surate with the divided
whole ; otherw ise the d i\·is ion lea ves the feel ing that something
may ha\·c been forgotte n th at if k now n might invalidate the wh ole
p rocess . This is easy to prnpn1111d ; not so easy to reduce to rule.
Tn g-cnc ral , howev er, it m ay lle said, that by careful and cautious
habit in jt1d g in g the scope and limits of ideas th e writer almost

I

j
'.I
.•
~i

399

NoTF.. - The s tri c test log ical gu arant ee o f comple te n ess in div is ion is what
is calle d "bifurcate cb ssilicatio n, " that is, c lassification that diYidcs hy a
positi ve and a n egat iv e quality. Thu s, by thi s class ili cation angles would be
cl assified as follo ws: J.

l\.ight an gles.

2.

(No t ri ght) Obliqu e ang les

J A c ute

1 Ob tuse

( less than ri ght) .
(more th an right) .

So also L o rd Bacon's classificati o n o f natu ral h istory would a ppea r thu s : I.

N atur e in co urse -

creatures.

2 . Nature n o t in course

Pervert ed { I mpro vcd -

marvels.
ar ts .

Literary use , h ow eve r, n eed not he so ri g id. It bears to o ur min ds e riuall y
th e fee lin g o f completeness if w e tak e L o rd Baco n 's classific a ti o n in h is uw n
w ords: "1 1isl u ry of na tu re is o f thr ee sorts: o f nature in course ; of 11atu re
erri ng o r vary in g; and o f nature altered o r wrought; that is , hi s lu ry (J f c rea·
turcs, hi sto ry o f marv els, a nd hi story of arts." I lcre we cann o t easil y thin k
of any aspec t of natu re n ot in cluded in these th ree div is iu ns . T he s::u nc fCt: ling o f a comf'lde c ircle o f th o ug ht a ri ses o n co n te m pla ting his di1·isi"n "f
general histo ry : "I [ ist <>ry, whic h m ay he called just a nd pe r fect his to ry, is u f
three kimls, a cco rd ing to the objec t whi ch it prup o undcth o r prct e11deth I<>
r eprese nt: fur it e i ther rc p rcsenleth a lim e , o r a p e rso n, o r an a cti n n. Th e
fi rst we call chro n icles, th e seco nd lives, and the third narrati o ns o r relati o ns."

z. As reg:m1s its mirn1tcncss . O f course, on any p rin ciple uf
d ivision the i<lea is suujce t to subdiv isio n, su b-s ubdi visi on, and
so on; th e class ifi cati on proceed ing by successiv e steps from th e
more ge neral to the mo re particuhr. H e rc the write r has to form
the hauit of accu rately estimating the rdalt"ve distance of any
division from the m ain div ision, and of measuring divisions and
subdivisio ns by each other to asce rtain th e ir relative rank. T he
ability to do thi s becomes increasingly a matter of insight, or at
least of the application of un defined criteri ons.
A division m:iy be complete as far as it goes, and complete

/:. \'/' OSl?'I ON.

! :.\"!'OS I J'I O. V.

-1 00

eno ugh for the
ness of which
minutely than
co nfu ses m o re

purpose in h:rn J, tlwugh iwL carricJ lo the minuteit is c:ip:ibk . The wi st: writer will not d ivide more
he has occasion to emp loy the cbssification; it
th:rn it helps if he d oes.

l\tlTE. \V e 111ay ap pen d he re as an exa mple :\Ir. fl fulford 's suhdivisicm
o f the idea of l\i ghts, prc,·iously cited . J\. igh ts ar c 1.

Civi l ri g hts.
a . Th e ri gh t
b. The: rigl1 t
r . The ri g ht
d. The: ri gh t

of
uf
of
of

life .
Jii>cr ty.
lH<>pcr ty.
equality ht:fo rc the law.

of
uf
of
of

citi1.c: n!'h ip.
parl ic·ipati"ll in natiunal progress.
pcr,;,J11 :-il act i1>n as a p 111·c: r in th e nation.
pr•• lt.:di" n in nltl ral rcl:-it ions.

2. J\,l iti cal ri ghts.
a . T he:
b. The:
c . The
d . The

ri g ht
rig h t
ri ght
ri ght

0

Laws of Division . - In addition to what is involved in the
above consideratio ns, the follo wing laws of d ivision should be
observed: r . Eve ry me mb er of a division should be as comple te and distinctly

-10 1

3. Se ek to fi n d the d istinctio ns wholly in the n a ture of the idea; a nd
beware of fa ncifu l analogi e s or arbitrary preconceptions of symme try
in the subject .

It is easy for the fancy, o nc e allowed th e control, to

make brilliant but essentially unreal distinct ions.
Nurn. - Th e foll o ll'ing divis ions from L ord Bacon are p erhaps tru e eno ugh,
but the similitudes by ll' hi ch they arc illustrated pro rnke t he in quiry whcthcr
it \\'as no t fan cy rather than insig ht t hat s uggested th em : " For c iYil h istory, it is o f thr cc kind s ; n cit unfitl y to he compared with the
three kin ds o f pi ctures o r images. For o f pi ct ures or im:igcs, we sec. some
are unfini sh ed, so me are p erfect, and some a re d efaced . S(l of hi,;tories we
may fincl thr ee kin ds, memori als, perfec t histo ri rs , and anti •JU itics ; fur memorials arc hi sto ry unlinish ed , or th e first o r ruugh drau ghts o f hi st•)ry ; an 1 \
ant iquities :ire histo ry defaced , o r some remn ants of histo ry \Vhich ha\·c cas uall y escaped th e ship11·recks o f tim e."
"Th e knowledge o f nu n is as th e wat ers, some descending fr om abo ve,
an cl some spr ingi ng fr om ben eath; t he one in form ed hy th e ligl1t o f nat ur e,
the oth er inspired by divine revelati on . Th e li ght o f natu re consistcth in the
notions o f t he mind and th e repo rt s o f the senses: fo r as fu r k 110\l"!erlgc
which man rcce iveth by teach ing, it is cumulative and nut orig inal ; as in :i
wale r that J,csid es his own sp rin g- h ead is fed wi th other sp rin gs and stn'ams.
So th en, acco rdin g to th ese two di ffe rin g illu minati ons or orig inals, knowledge
is fi rst o f all divided into d ivin ity and phil osophy."

b oun de d in itse lf as is t he divided whole; that is, the dividing members
should exclude each other.
T hu~, if a classificati<ln of geometr ical lignr es sh ould co ntain plane figu res,
p arallel og rams, rectangles, all.\ polygoJ n,, tl1<.: members wou ld not be mut ually c:<clusi Yc, f•>r J>lall<.: ligure~ 1rnuld include: al l th e othe rs, and parallel·
o~: r :rn1s ll'uuld in ,l urle :\\,;, , r1·1·1:111i-:ks.
Th e: ult! c"ll• ><jlti al 1kscripti•Hl .,f ,; .. 11w thi ni-: ll• >111kscr i1>1 or a n111nal1nts, th at
it i'" ncithn lish n ur lk'h n"r gt1t>d n·d h erring" d cri l'es its p oint fr om the
fact tl1at the first rn cml ,cr in clu des aJs,, the third.
2.

In dividin g, work for s implici ty. that is , fo r few and fundament al

disti nctions in stead of fo r m any an d m inute ones.

A broad and deep

dist inction justifies itself.
To classify ani mals, f, ,,. insta nce, a cc nrdill g to th e number of legs, in to
hipc<ls, q uad rupeds, etc., won ld kad only to co m ple xit y and confu sio n, and
"·mild rc1·cal n o fun dam ent al distinction ; th e trn e d iv isio n must look for
principles that determi ne mo re dee ply the li fe a nd nature of th e animal.

Partition of a Subject. - Distinc ti on is to b e made between
the division of an idea and the m ere partition o f a sulJject. lJi\·ision is made in th e interes ts of complete ness, and is worth less
unless th ere a rc d ivi ding me rnlJe rs enottgh to m ake up exactly
the di vided whole , each be ing a tru e part of the whole . l'a rtiti on
is mad e for t he eo nYen icn c cs o f pre sen t tre:itmcnt; accord in gl y it
m:i.y stop with any lim itation o f the asp ec ts of th e s1 1hjcn, and its
divisions, while they arc co mpone nt par ts o f the s1 11Jject, nny or
may n ot relate to the su!Jj ec t as spec ies to g enus. So al so in p:irtition a st ri king or fi g urative d ivisio n is not excl uclccl, and may
indeed b e an advantage as a mne m on ic to hold the real divis io;
m mind .
NOTE. - The remarks alr eady made on The Outli n e Structure, pages 264 266, and o n The Dc\'Cl op1m.: nt , pages 272-279, IJear closely on I'artiti o n. A

E .\"!'OS!T!ON.

·102

EXPOSITJON.
passage fr om Burke's East In di a l)il\ spccch 1 may here be (1uo tecl to show
Burke's ext raordinary care in di,·iding his subjects : ":'>Ty sc:conrl co n ditio n, n ecessary to justify me in tou ching the charter, is,
w het h er the Company 's abuse o f th eir trust, wi th rega rd lo this g reat ohject,
lie a n abuse o f great atw c ity. I shall hci: you r permissio n l o consider thei r
cnncl uct in tw o li ghts : first, the pulitica l, an <l then the co mm ercial. Th eir
p olitical co nduc t (r"r d istinctncss) I .Ji,·idc aga in into two h eads : th e extcr11al, in which I me a n to co mprehcll\l their co nduct in th eir federal capacity, as
it relatt·s to p nwcrs and stat es inol c·pc 111k nt, o r that nu t long si nce were such ;
the other int ern al, namely, th ei r c<> nd uct to th e cou n tries ei th er immediately
sulijccl to th c (_',;111 p a11y, o r t•• th"sc " ·hu, under t11c appar ent gove rnm ent uf
nati,·c so,·c rc ii;11s, arc i n a state 1:1111:h lo \\·c r, arnl mu ch m o re mi se rable, than
c:imm o n su 1•jcct io n .
"Th e a tt('n tiu n , s ir, w hich T wi sh to prcser ve to mcthc1tl will no t be considered as unn c:ccssar y ur affc:c t<:ol . i\ot hi11 g else can help m e to sclccti on, o ut
,,r the infinite mass nr ma ter ials whi ch 11a vc passcd un dt' r my eye, o r can keep
my mind steady to thc great leading pu iuts I h ave in view ."

IL

EXl'u:;1no>: Ji\ LlTERATU RE.

Exposit ion in so m e fo rm is one of the most prevalent modes of
lite rary encle:ivo r. I t co\·er:; lmndly all the \\·urk of informing the
intellec t, just as d escriptio n :ind narrat ion con :r broadly the work
uf a rousin g antl s:i.tisfyi ng the im ag inatio n. T he great body of
literature th:it irnp:irts knowledge, opinion, am1 co unsel, may be
in, ·l11ded 11 nde r the cornprchensi\·e term oposi tion .
Let us name a little more particula rly the great divi sions of literature in whi ch expos iti on is the basis .
Science and Systematized Thought. - Und er this head may be
com p ri sed thL.: various litera ry 11·urks thal aim tu ]>rese nt important
suhj ec ts o f knowl edge or ph il osop hy or spt:cubtio n, in a thorough
:rnd carefull y ordered rn:i.nn cr. A \·cry Ltrg c p roportion of published works belongs here. T ext-books in sc icncL.: ; treatises on
su1ijccts philosoph ical, pol iti cal, econo mi c ; m onographs on impo rtant r:p1cst ions of the <by; :ill :ire predo m inantly works of exposition . Other fo rms of di sco m se, ancl espec i:illy :ugum entation,
l Tlw plan o f thi s passage has alre:-tdy bee n drawn o ut, p. ZJ9, to ill ustrate the
clet! uc ti,·c order of dc,·•cl c>p1n c· nt.

403

may enter in to afford help ; but the primary impulse that d ete rmines the work is the impulse to set forth in order what the author
has though t ou t or d ed uced from investigation.
Such expository work takes two principal forms, the treatise and
the essay.
I . The treatise, which generally takes the compass of a voiu mc
or mo re, aims to p resent its subject in all parts and with a thorough
and fini shed treatment. In so me cases it is very elabo rate, g ivi ng
all the processes of though t ancl inv es tigation by which results arc
obtai ned ; in oth er cases it gives res ults only.
EXA~l Pl.ES. - L yell 's "Prin ciples of Geology"; D a rwin's " Origi n of Species"; Bacon's "i\ch·ance mcnt of Learnin g"; J\! ill's treati se o n " I ,ibe rtv " ;
T ylo r's "I'rimiti,·e C ul ture"; Newman's "Grammar o f Assent" ; Jcv; ns's
" P rin ciples of ~cien c c ."

~. The essJ.y pres ents its material in bri efer com pass, in a style
more adapted to popular app rehension, and as a conser1ue nce with
a less cxh:iustive t reatm ent; its office be ing, as Joh n 'Morl ey defines
it, " merely to open questions, to indicate poin ts, to suggest cases,
to sketch ou tl ines ." 1
Owing to the tend ency, now so prevalent, to discuss matters of
all kinds in pe ri odical publications, the essay has d eveloped into a
character (jll ite d ifferent from what it had originally, when it \Vas
l11ocles tly nJ.me d essay - that is, tri:il, or attempt. Or rath er,
while so me essay ists have a<lh cre d to the o ri g inal type, othe rs, and
those the majo ri ty, have obeyed th e tend e ncy to make it a more
comprehensive form fo r periodical writing; and thus have a nsen
two distinct types of ess:iy. 2
The first, whi ch is the p reva iling mod ern type, may be called
t he didac tic. It aims a t careful plan, lays d own a defini te prop.osition to be established by logical exposition and reasoning, an<l
:addresses itself ri gid ly to th e und erstanding. In such a work
l

2

Morley," On Compromise," preface.
This classificati on of essay-writing is taken from Ilulwer-Lytton, "Caxtoniana ,"

p. 141 sq.

405

F.\P OS ! 1'/ 0. \ '.

E X!' OSITION.

the interest centres in t ic sul>jcct-rn:1tte r, and th e writer's own
p ersonaiity disappears, or at least is n o t asserted and made
prominent.

the rigorous application of sound sta ndards of j udgmen t. Such
work as this d e mands peculiar e ndo wments on the part of the
cnt1c. He mu st have a la rge and thoroug h kno wledge no t o nly
of wh:it he criti c ises, b ut of its wh ole sphe re of idc:is and tec hnicaliti es; he mu st have the ability to e nte r, with out di sturbing p repossessio ns, into th e th o ug h t and fe eling o f others, so as to sc.:e
throu g h th e ir eyes and judge by th ei r standard s; an< ] fin all y, he
must mainta in fix ed standa rds of hi s own, whi ch , while th ey <lo
not precl ude fai r judg ment, g ive him a defi ni te point of \·ie w, and
give his c riti cis ms an in dividua l convic ti o n and val ue. C rit icism
so determined is in th e broadest sense inte rpreta ti on or life, a rt,
lite ratm c ; or, to ad op t l\fo.tth ew Arnold' s ddrni tio n, 1 it is "a disin terested endeavor to lea rn and propagate the best that is kno wn
and th o ugh t in the wo rld, and thus to estalilish a current of fresh
and true ideas ."

Lx.u1 1 · 1.i-: ~ .- Such essays as these arc cxcmpli lie ll in th e g reat body of
art i..: lcs tha t a ppe a r each munth in such rc\· ic.:ws as the Ed inburgh, the Ninetc vnth \ 't:nt ury, the Cunte mp ura ry, th e F o r tnigh tl y, anti th e Nor th Am er ican.
:\ lsu l•y st1 <h nalll <.'. S as '.bc:rn lay and Carlyk, De Qui ncey and H azlitt, Marti1wa u and Lc,.,\ie ~t e l'hcn , I !u tt1lll and I )1)11·drn , J:agehu t and \Vhippl e, eac h
"f 11 h11n1 is best known by a cv nsidc ra\.\c Ludy o f criti cal, hi sto ri cal, and misevllan t'\I US c!'!'ays.
lt i:; tli c structure uf suc h c~ s ays as these that has liee n st\\!li<.'.cl as th e norm
<>f literary s tru cture , in th<.'. chaplt: r o n Gene ral Processes in the Orde ring of
]\I atc rial.

The second, which more nearly answe rs to the original type,
m :1y \Jc calkcl the pc rson:1l ess::i y, be c au se in it th e writer more
fr eely re,·ca b his o wn fan c ies and feelin gs, '"hi ms a nd pecul iari ti es.
St udi ed pbn, a nd fo rmal procc:-;scs o f expos iti o n a nd argument,
are a,·o ided; the ess:iy seeks more the free confide nce and the
way\\'ard course of pri ,·ate co nve rsa ti o n.
FX . \~11 · 1.1-:s . - T he most noted represen tati1·e o f th is type of essay is Montai g ne, wlw is rcga rdc d as th e father of th e essay . Oth ers are - Cowley,
the essayis ts <>f the :-;pectat u r, t ·kirks l .aml>, an d Thacl;e ray. In all th ese
we.: feel a spec ia l in tc n.:st in the write rs; tu r ead th e essays is li ke hav in g
a chat with a pnsunal friend , who is en deavo rin g to enterta in rather th an
t<> i 11 ~ 1 ru ct us.

Criticism . -This is to lie reg:irded as :i. kind o r exposition; its
aim b e ing to find the princ iples that shoukl dc.:terrnine a work of
literatu re or a rt o r polity. and pass judgment o n i t according as
it fuli1b o r tra nsgresses thusc prin c ipl es.
Criticism is n o t m e rely fau lt -fi nding . The popular use of the
wo rd in this sense indi c:itc~ that th e miss io n of c riti c ism has been
t()o p redo min::rntly mi sinterpreted, and that wh at is really a noble
sc ie nce is near to fallin g into di:-;rcpute. Its oftice is to find the
good 11s well as the b:11l; tp by down fair a nd deep p rinciples ;
and to d e termine i\ s aw::mls never by prej udi ce or favo r, but by

Nurn. - It may be well to m entio n some o f the n ames m ost i1lcntificrl with
criti cism . In lite rary cri t icism th e nam e o f Saint -l k u ,·e, :\latthew .\rn old,
\>Vali er lhgehot , Prvfesso r I >o wden , Leslie Step hen , and Jam es T.:.usse\I Lowell; in art-cr iticism pree minent ly th e nam e o f Juhn Rus k in, wh t• has almost
create d the sph ere in which hi s artist ic kn o wledg e expresses itsel f. So me of
th e ea rli er criti cs are Fran cis J effrey, \ Vill ia m J lazl itt, Sydn ey S mith, an d
Lord Bro ugham .

Popular Exposition. - U nd er thi s h ead may be menti o ned a
c lass of lite rary produc ti o ns, usually in th e fo rm of essays, so metimes in bri e f parag r:1phs o r a ph o ri sms, whi h a ims to give in
attractive.: ancl re:u bl 1k style im portant :id vi ce for the c.:\·c ryday
condu c t of life, or rem a rks o n mann e rs, m o r:i!s, fo ibles and follies
of th e cl::ty, and the like . Suc h wo rk s d o n ot p retend to sc ientifi c completeness in the p resen tat io n of a ny line o f thought;
the ir aim is m e rely to rouse th o ught o r gi ve n ec cl ccl co unsel in a
style of conve rsati o nal sim p lic ity suc h as shall se c ure it a read ing
by the ordi na ry p eople fo r who m it is in tended.
l Arn old , " Essays in C ri 1icisrn, " p. 37. The above qu al ifi cati o ns of the crit ic
are condensed fr o m \.Vi lkin so n. "J\ Free Lan ce in the Field of Life and L etters ,"
pp. 108- III. C o mpare also prc:ec<ling-, pp . 30:.?-307.

-JOG

F.. \PO.SI'/'/ OX.

ARCUfifENTATION.

407

EXA~!l'l.E S . -Th is class of li tera tu re is \\' ell represented by a large proportion of the essays uf the ~p <.:c tator and ]Zambler, and in gene ral by essays of

Tn the p resen t rbv it is rep rf'SC n lc cl l 1y such works as Dr.
IT n lbn cl '~ '' <;o\ cl F ni\ " anrl "Tim" t!l\· Tit cnmli·s T.cttcr><," anrl perh aps by
the essays <>f J.::mersun; a bu by many uf S ir Arthur l lclps's wo rk s.

the pcrsnnal lYpt' .

CHAPTER VII.
INVENTION DEALING WITH TRUT HS:
ARGUMENTATION.

I N making exposition of an ideJ., the writer is for the ti me being
conce rned m erely with the meaning and co ntent of it, the question
whethe r it is true or false being w:i.ived . I t may he an idea so
cle:i.r and sound, so obv io usly accordan t with fact, that when once
it is fully expounded the tru th or error of it is plain enough with out further trea tment; o r, o n the other hand , it may still Ix
d ebatable, q uestionabl e, that is, may still requi re some test or
proof, before th e reade r can be reg:.m1 ed as sati sfied of its co nclus iveness. The v:iri o us means by whi ch such test of th e truth of
things is made arc com prised under the head o f Argumentation.
Arg umentation may deal eithe r with ideas or 'Y ith facts, th at is,
either wi th truths gene ralized into notions, such as are the subjects
of exposit ion, or with individual and particular truths, such as are
the subj ects of narration a nd d esc ription. And in thus handling
truths, it co mes to th e same wh 1.: ther th e writer is concerned \l'ith
proving a thin g tru e or with proving it false; for at any rate, if he
is hon est, he is endeavo ring to ascertain where th e tru th is, and
any ncgati,·c p rocess of finding wh ere it is not is in reality only
seco ndary the re to .
Reasoning as a sc ience belongs to logic rath er th an to rh et oric;
we are here concerned merely with reasoning as it appears in liter ature, th at is, reasonin g co ntemplating readers or hearer.:;, and
adapting itself as an art to their capacit ies and requireme nts. lt
is to this rh etori cal art that " ·e g ive the distin ctive name argum en ta ti o n. Our object therefore is not to trace out th e tech ni cal
niin utire of processes of reasoning, in them selves consi de red; "·e

40S

A R C'U,1/ENT..t J'/ ON.

a rc rathe r to inq ui re how rc::i.son ing can be adap ted to c h~ar and
effe c tive com rn u ni otion of tho ug ht, and wh ::i.t fo rms o f a rgument
arc m os t useful and p revalent in ord ina ry lit e ra ry tasks.
In est:ll>l ish in g truth t here :ire two m ai n forms o f att ack: either
to set th e tru th d irec tly b e fo re t he mi nd a nd adduce facts ancl
::i.rgumcnts to suusta nti a tc it; o r to :itt1ck so m e erro neo us position
wh ic h, lJci ng d e m o li shed, wi ll lc:ivc t he trnth in qu es ti on free to
::i.sse rt itself. C nde r these two h eads we will arr:i.nge the various
fo rm s o f :i.rg um c nt.
I.

!' R OO F CJ F TlZL:T lf Dl RE CTL\".

In see kin g how to :i. rr:-inge tht: vari ous ways o f proving tru th
direc tly , we m:ty perha ps ks t fo llow the log ica l ord e r in which
kno wled ge is o b taine d . There a rc thrc t: p rin c ipa l w:lys. F irst of
:i.ll, th e re i:; the d ire c t olise n ·a tio n and di sco \·cry o f facts; secondly,
from th e a ccu mubtiun of th ese di sc ove red fac ts the re is the infere11l·c o f ot h e r facts o r o f ge ne ral prin c iples; ::i.nd finall y, thae is
infe re n ce fro m t-:en er:i.l pri nc ip le s o r tru t hs to o t he r truth s, ge neral
o r p:i.rt ic ular. T hese th ree \\"::tys of o l>taining kno wled ge are the
b :.lsis o f three typ es o f arg um e nt.
I.

Discovery of F acts: Testimony and Authority. - Of the
p rima ry ;rn d fun dam e n tal m ean s o f di sCO\Tr ing fac ts, o ur own perso n:tl o lisn\· a t io n, e n< >ll f-'.h, JH:rh a ps, !u s alrc:i.dy b ee n sa i<l .1 It is,
howe \·er, o nl y :l s m all p rup or ti u n of th e fa c ts \\ 'C must use, that
we c m u lita in in t h is \1·a y. \\ 'e n111st d epe nd \"c ry Li.rgely on what
o th e rs re p ort to tis . 1\ ml of t he e \·id e ncc t hey furnish we di scern
t \\"o k inds . T h ere is fi rst, s im p le :lffi rrn:i. tio n o f what the witness
has him se lf o h scr\"C: d , \\" h ic h \\"e n:i. me T es timony; ::i.ncl secondly,
t h e re is the report o f wlnt the obsc n -e r, ]):< sp ec i::i.l j udgment or
resea rc h o r sk ill . ha s shap ed into a t rus two rth y o pinion; and this
we na me Auth o rity.
1

Sec p n:ce u ing , p:1g"<'S 227 sq q.

ARC U1l! ENT.-t T J ON.

-t09

Testimony. - I t woul d seem at firs t tho 11ght a ve ry simple matter to ob ta in the re po rt of a witness as to what he h as see n and
h eard . Th ere are invo lv ed in it, h owe ve r, qu estio ns o f no lit tk
intri cacy, in determi n ing the valt1e of a wi tness's te st imony to the
ca se, and in e volving th e real truth fro m in con sistent or confl ic ting re p orts.
1. In estima ting the va lu e o f any testim ony, regard is h::i.cl to th e
c harac te r and ci rcu msta n ces o f the witness. First, is he a m a n of
re puted h o n esty and ve rac ity ? Seco ndl y, is h e a nun o f ::i.hi li ty to
testify,- can he olJse rve acc ur::i.tely, r e m e m b e r t ruly, and make
in telli ge nt re p ort o f wh ::i.t h e !us obser ve d? T h irdl y, ::i.re the ci rcumst:ln c cs u nd e r whi c h he tes tifi es fa vora b le to the t rn thi'ulness
o f hi s testimo ny o r n ot - th at is, ln s h e a ny m ot ive to be o th e r
tha n hon e ~t , and is h e te st ify ing fo r o r ag:i.i 11st his ow n in te rest ?
A reluc ta nt tes tim o ny, o r ::i. testim o ny tlt a t p rejucli c~· s the pros. p ec ts of the wit ness hi m self, is r egarded a s esp ec ially likely to lie
true . Many c e nturi es :-igo the id eal c iti ze n was c harac te ri ze d as
o n e " th at swea re th to his own hurt, a nd ch a nge th n o t."
ILI .liST RATI O:-.< S. I n h is spee ch o n th e m urde r o f Captain Joseph \ \ "hitc,
Da ni el \\' cl, st e r th us compa res t he claims o f tw o wi t n esses to \'era city : - "Th ese t w o wi t n ess es, l\! r. Co leman a n d 1\. P . .Knap p, thffc r enti rely .
Th e re is n o p ossili ilit y of r econ c ili ng th e m. No ch a ri ty can co,·cr bo th . One
o r the o th e r h as S\\"o rn fab dy . I f N . 1'. Knapp lie belic,·ed , i\ lr. C,, Ie 1nan's
tcst im u ny lllUSl lie wh o ll y d is rega rd e d. It is, t h e n. a q uesl iu n of cr edit, a
qu es ti o n of be li e f be twee n th e t\\·o wi tn ess ·s . A s y0 tl decide lic:t wee n th ese,
s0 yuu will d ec id e on all thi s pa rt .,f th e ca se .
" \\'1 10 is ;\l r. Cule lll a n ?
11 e is an int e llige n t, accu ra lt.:, a nd cautit.i1s witn ess ; a g e ntle111an o f hi g h a nd \\'c ll -knuwn c h a ra c te r, a nd of t11 1qut:st i.. naJ, le
v eraci ty ; as a cle rgy m a n, hi g hl y rcspcc ta l1le ; as a 111 a n, u f fa ir na11ll: anti
fam e. . . . I t is a mis cu n ,;tructio n ll f :\1 r. Co le m a n·s n1 oti,·cs, at unce the
m us t s tra ng e and the m ost u n c hari table, a p e rve rsi" n o f all just vie"·s uf h is
co ndu c t a nd in te nt ion s the m ost un a cco unt al ilc , t•J rcpr c,,; c nt him as a cting, >111
this o ccas io n, in h osti lit y to an y o n e, o r as d es ir o us o f inj uring o r cndangcri t1g

an y on e. I Ic has sta ted hi s ow n m o ti \' t:S, a nd h is uwn cu nduct , in a manner
t o co mm a nd uni ve rsal h cli e f and un i,·e rsal res p ec t.

"Th e r elat io n in whi ch th e o th e r \1·i1n ess sta nd s d ese rves you r ca re ful cnn si deration. I le is a m em b er of th e famil y. I [e has th e Ji,·cs v f twv b ro th ers

AR C'U.1/ENTA T I O. \ ',

·110
Jepe11ding, as he m:iy think, o n the c!Tcct of his eviden ce; clcpcnding on
ev ery wunl he speaks. I hop e he has n ot another responsibility resti ng upon
him. . . . Cumpare th r.: sil ua ti n n o f tl1 esc twu witm:sscs. Do yuu not see
m ig hty niuti,·e enuugh o n the one side, and want of all mo ti\'t: un the other?
I " ·u uld gladl y fmd a n apology fur that witn ess, in hi s a go niz ed feelings, in his
d is tn.:sscd sit uati o n; in the agi ta ti o n u f th at hu ur, u r u f this. 1 wu uld gladly
impute it tu crru r, o r to want uf rccullcction, tu co nfus iu n u f mind, or disturbance o f ft:cling. I would g la d ly impute to an y pard u nalilc so urce that
which cannul lie rcco nc ikd tu ia ct s and tu truth; but c 1·c n in a case calling
f1 >r St) mu ch sym pathy. j us tice mu,;t yet pre vai l, ancl we mu st come lo the conclusiu11, h u \\·cvcr reluctantly, whi c h that d cmanl.ls from us."

z . The next thing to be considered is, the c haracter of the testimony. Does it louk pro liable o n the fa ce of it, - that is, is it
cons iste nt with o rd in ary ex pe rience? I s it co nsistent with the
fa c ts already kn o wn concerning the case in 1 p1 es ti on? Above all,
i,; it con,; istc nt with itsel f, - that is, docs the witn ess tell a straightforward aml ho mogeneo us sto ry, or d ocs he co ntradi c t himself?
and when he repeats statements, are there irre concilalJ!e variations
in the re petition? It is fo r the purpose of testing th e witness's
ev idence in regard to its self-consistency that c ross -examination is
inst ituted in legal tri als .
Some kinds of testimony are regarded as of special value. Such
are - undesignetl te stim o ny, by whi c h is m ean t what the witness
in ath·crtently o r incidentally gi \-e~ , with ou t reali1.in g its possible
liea rin g un the case ; ncgat i1·e testinrnny, o r "the fai lure of the
witn ess to menti on a fan so strikin g that he mu st have noticed it
kid it occur red " ; and ho ~ t ik te st im o ny . - th:tt is, th e hon est concess io n of some fa c t th at mak es aga inst the witness's position or
prospects. 1
l LLI JSTR ATIO:"'. -Th e follo win g , from Ersk in e's speech in behalf of Lord
Ceo rge Cord o n, will illustrate h o w te s timo n y, as well as the witnt.:ss's charac·
te r, is sift ed and sc rutinized: "Th e fir s t \\'ilncss tl> su p p1irt this p r .. secu ti un is \\'illi:im !fay - a bankrupt
in fortune he ack no \\'lt.: tl gcs himself tu lie, a nd T a m afraid he is a bankrupt in
conscienc e . S uch a scene of impu den t, ridi cul o us in co nsistency would have
l

Sec Gilmore's "Outlines of Rhet oric," p. 57.

-111

utterly dcstroye<l his cr c<libility in th e mus t tri fl in g c ivil suit; an d Tam, the refo re, alm o st ashamed lo rt.: mind you of his cvi<l c nct.:, wh en I rclk ct that Y"ll
will n e vn suffe r it to gla nce a cross your minds o n th is sulcmn occasii>n .
"Thi · man, wh om I may n uw, with o ut offt.:nsc or slander, point uut t" yuu
as a dark l'ul'is h spy, wh o att e nd ed th e meet in gs o f the r.u ndu n :\ ss 11 ci:iti 1111
lo p r.: n ·ert th e ir harmle ss purpuscs, cu nsc iu us that th e di scv,·cry o f his t.:harac ter \\·o uld in Yal ida te all his testimony , end eav o red al firs t lo co11ccal the a d i1·ity of his zea l, b y denyin g that he had see n any u f the d cstruc ti,·c scent's
imputed tu the l'rotes tants. Yet, alm os t in th e same lin:ath, it ca111t.: ou t, liy
his U\\'n cu nfcssicrn , that there was hardl y a place, pu l1l ic u r pri,· atc, wl1t: re riut
had erect e d he r stan dard , in whi c h he had n ut lie c11; n ur a huusc, 1>risu n, 11 r
chapel, tl1at \\'as d es troyed, l o the demo li tion o f whi c h ht.: had nu t ln:cn a "ilness. l It.: was a t :"t.:11 gatc, tl1e Fleet, at l ,angdalc , and al ( 'ulc rn ::t n St reet ; :it
th e Sard inian :\rnli::tssador's, and in Cn:at <,>u t.:t: ll Stret.:t, l. inco ln's Inn h elds .
\>V hat took him tu l'uac hn1akt.:r's I lall? I l e wc 11t th e re, as ht.: tultl u,;, tu watch
th e ir proceedings , becaus e he expected no guud fr o m th em ; and tu iustif,· his
proph ecy uf c,·il, he sa id , o n his exami nati o n by tl1e l'ro" 11, thal, a:, car.I v as
December, h e had hc::trd s o me alarming rcpul1li can la11 guagc. \\' hat langt:age
<li d h e r e m em!Je r ? '\\'h y, that the Lu rd Ath·ucatc o f Scotland was called uni\'
llarry Dunl.las '.' Fin d ing this tuu ri dic ul u us for so grave an oecasiun, h;:
enl.leavored to put som e wo rds a lJout the J,r cach uf th e Kin g 's co ru nati u n " a tli
int o the prisoner's m outh, as proceeding frorrr411.hims el f; whi ch it is nuturiu u ~
he r ead vut "fa n old Scu tch book , publish ed near a century ag .. , •>n the aL.dication o f Kin g James the Second ."
The kstim o n y is subjected thus to sc rutiny s tep liy step; - as Pr. C <Jud ri ch re m:irks, "0.' o thin g co uld h e liner than the \\'ay in whi ch '.Ir. J·: rs k inc
sifts this niden cc and det e cts its falschuud." Th e re is rvu m, h o wcve r, tu
quut e onl y a se n te nce v f hi,; sumn 1a ry : -

" lt may lit.: asked, ar t.: these c ircttn1sta nccs 111atcrial? and th e a 11 s \\·er is
obvious: th ey are 111atnial; because , when yu u sec a \\ il 11t'~s ru1 111 i11 g into
every h ole :ind curne r u f falscl wud , and, :is fast as he is in:tdc t<> 1,.,Jt ••Ut .,f
one, takin g cove r in anotht.:r, you will ne ve r give credit tu what that man
relates, as to an y p uss ilile matter whi c h is to affcct the li fe •ir n:pula tiu n of a
fellow- citize n accused before yo u. God furbid th at yuu should."

3 . Finally, whe n there is more than one wi tness to the same
facts, the different testim onies are carefully com pared toge ther.
If there are such grave di scre pancies between tht:m that all can not
be true, resort must be had to compari son of th e characte rs arn l
motives of witnesses, as already illustrated. If the testimonies

<,_..__,.--..-~--·---------- ----. . - -----··

ARCUJl/ENTATJON.

AR C C.1/LVT·LJ J OA'.

412

agree m all csscnti:ll particubrs, the p n.:sum )lion of their substa11tial truth is stru ng. It is not to be expected, however, that there
should be co mplete co ncurrence in minute and secondary details;
differences in po ints of vi ew and ohse rvin g powers of witnesses
would p rec lud e th at. Accord in gl y, if the ag reement is too minute,
the testimony is weake ned; because it indicates that th ere must
Juve licen so me prl: vi o us collusion betwee n the witnesses to manufac ture a co n ~ i stc nt story .1
I LI.l"ST RATI"'.'> . - SonH.: ye ars ago Profcsso r Gr eenleaf, o f t h e Harvan l Law
Scl1 u,>l, pul il i, h cd an" Exa111in at iu11 uf the T c>' li11h >ll)' vf !lie Fo ur Evan gel ists,
l,y the ]{ u\<:, "f E\"i dc n cc adm inist<: rcd in Cuurts of J us ti ce ." Th e full uwing
is quult:d fr u m liis remarks u n th e su list:111tial ag ree me nt uf their repo rts : "In th e t/1ird place, as ti> th ei r 111111t li<' r and th e ronsislouy o f th eir test imony . The cha racte r o f the ir n a rr:i.ti\"<:S is like that of all o ther true wit nesses, cu ntaini11g , as Dr. Paley ubsen·cs, subs: ant ial tru th , u nder circumstan ti:il rnriety. Th e re is enou g h u f disc repancy to sh •> ". th a t th ere coulll hal" e
lice11 110 pre,·ious co n ce rt a111011g thern ; and a t the sa me time such su\Jst:intial
agreeme nt as to sho w tl1a t th ey all " ·e re indepen de 11t !l :ur a to rs of th .: s:1111e
grea t t ra ns:tetiun, as the c\"\.:nts a ctually occu rre d . . . . Th e discrepan cies
\1<.:t ""''t:ll 1he n a :-rat i,·cs uf the St:\"eral c\·a ngc l is ts , whe n card ully exa mined,
will not be f.,und sufri cient tu in\"alidat<: t h1:ir tcsti rn u ny. llla ny se emi ng co ntr:ulic ti u ns will prove, upon ch >se r s cruti 11v, t" be in suli·ta ntial agre ement ;
a11.\ it may h e cun tid e ntl y asserted th a t t he re arc n 1mc th at wi ll n o t yield ,
u n de r fai r :ind just c r it ic ism . If th ese di f1.c n.:n t ac c1 iu nts u f the same transactiuns wer e in st rict verl 1a l cu n fur m ity ll"ilh each uth c r, th e argument again st
the ir crcdiliil ity wou ld be mu ch stronger. A ll th at is a>k<.:tl fo r th ese w itn esses
is, 1hat t heir t t:stirno n y m ay he rega rd ed as we rcg ard the tes timony o f m en in
the unli1i:1ry aff:ti rs uf life. T hi,; t h cy an· just ly e nti tle.\ to; and this nu
l111 1wra l1 k :11hc·r"1ry e:i.n r efuse . . . . If th e evide11<: c .,f the eva ngel ists is to
lie rejcded liecause u f a few d iscre pancies a111ung the1n , \\'e sh all he obliged
tu discard t hat uf many of the cu nt c1 11 pur:u1 e"u s histuri cs o n whit.:11 we arc
accustomed tu rely .
D r. l'ak y has noticed the cuntradictiu n between Loni
Cla r e ndon a n d Burn e t and u the rs in rega rd t11 T.n rd Straffnrd's execntiun;
the fu nn er stating th a t he \\'as cn1Hkm 11 <:d ti> l1c han ge d , \\·hi ch was <l u ne on
th•: same day; an<l t he latt er al\ relati ng that "n a Satu rday h e was sentenced
tu the blm·k , an d \\'as hc h cackd o n th e f,, \l <>ll"i11 g :'- Lrnday. Another strik ing
instance o f d isc repancy h as sin ce occ urr ed , in th e n ar rat iv es o f the different
m embe rs o f t h e rvy al fami ly of Franct:, of thl'i r !li gh t fr o m Paris to Varenn es,
l

See Ca m pbell"s " Philosophy of Rl.l'toric ," pp. 76-78.

413

m 1792. These narrati,·es , te n in number, an<l by ey e-witnesses and personal
a ctors in th e tran sa cti u11s they rel a te , contradic t eac h o th er, so me o n trivial
and some u n m u re esse nt ial points, but in ev e ry case in a wo n de r ful and inex plicable m anner. Y et th es e co n trad ic ti o ns do n o t, in the gene ral pul•lic
es tima tion , detra ct fr o m the intt::g ri ty o f the narrato rs, n o r fr o m th e credibility
o f th e ir relati o ns. ln th e points in whi ch th ey agree, :in d whi c h constitute
the great liody uf th e ir narra ti ves, t hei r tt:stimu ny is u f cu urse no t doubted;
w h e re th cy (\ iffa , we r ec o n c il e th e m as well as we m ay; and whe re this cannul
lie <lon e at a ll , we foll o w that li g ht which see ms to us the clearest. "

Authority. - An importan t distincti on is to be made betwe en
tes timo ny as to mat ters of obse rvatio n and testimony as to matte rs
of opinion. In estimating th e forme r we have regard to the wi tness's honesty and capalJility to observe; in estimati ng the latter,
we take into acco unt his so undness o f judgmen t and the spec ial
knowledge or skill that enables him to for m a true opini on. And
these qual ities make him more th a n a n observer; he is a ge ne ralizer; and wh at he says is to be taken as so mething that only
specially qual ifi ed persons are compete nt to assert, - that 1s, as
authority.
Nun:. - Ar c hbish o p \Vh ate ly 1 thus s tates and illustra tes this disti n cti o n
between ubs en ·a tiun a 11d u piniu n: "\<\' h en th <: qucst iv n is as to a F a c t, it is pla in we h a ve to loo k chi eny t•J
the hon L"sty uf a w itn ess, hi s a ccuracy, and hi s m ea ns u f gaining in fu rmati un.
Wh e n the q uestio n is ahuu t a m a tt e r u f Opin io n, it is equa lly plai n that his
abi lity lo fv r111 j 111(;-·111,·11t is n o kss ti) b<: tak e n in to ac cou nt. l.lu t tlwu g h thi s
is adm il l<: d l1y :il l, it is ve ry common w ith i11 cu nsideratc p c rs()11s to ovc rl ook,
in pra c ti cc, tl 1<.: cli~tinctiun , and tu mi stak e as to w/111 / it is, that, in each case.
is attested. I i1<1s, p ruJ'crly su ca lled, are, we shou ld re m e mb er, imli z·iduals :
thoug h the te rm is u ftt:n ext e n <kd to g our11/ s tat em ents; cspecially whe n
th ese a re w ell cstablis h ed. 2 An<l again the causes o r o t her ci rc umsta nces cunWh a tel y," Ele m en ts o f Rh eto ric," p. Br.
H e re it sc c1n> 111uel1 m ore a ecurate, in o ppos iti o n to Dr. W hately, to take th e
term .f.ict in it s more exte nded applieatio 11 . Tha t a ce rtain s1ratu1n con >tantly
b ea rs coal is :i s Jrttly a fa ct as tha t it lic:us co al in o ne p lace; thou g h Ihc ge ne ral
fa ct is n o t V('rifi <" d in th e same w:i. v as the indi vid ual. II wou ld have heen m uch
m o re phil osop hi cal if the autho r had made his anlithesis n ot b etw een .fact a nd
opinion Ollt l>etwee n obsav atir111 :ind opinion .
1

~

AJ\C l '.lfF,\ 7.·l !'ION.

41-1

nec tcd with some event o r phenomenon, a rc often stated as a part of the very
fact at teste d. lf fur instam:e, a person relates his having found coal in acer·
ta in stratum ; or if h e states, that in th e East Indies he saw a number o f per·
so11s wlll) lia(l been sleep in g exposed to the 1nuon 's rays, afllicted with certain
,y 1npt<mls, and that after takin g a certain 111cdicine they recove red, -he is
lJL:ar in g testi1nuny as to simple malters of fact: but if he declares that the
str:1tu111 in ri. uestiv n co n s!c111t!y contains co al; - or, that the patients in qucstiun \\' ere so affected in co11.<,.'Jll<'ll(<' of th e moon's rays, - that such is the
,;•1·11 ,·nrl effect uf them in th at climate, and that that medi cine is a cu re fo r
such symp t• •lllS, it is evide nt that h is test imo ny- h o1,·ever worthy of cred itis liornc tu a di[!'cu11 t l:i11d of condu ri on ; namdy, n ot an individual, but a
gorc·r o!, l·<J 1H.:lnsi1in, and une \l'hi c h must rest, no t solely on the veracity, but
also un th t: judgment, o f the witness."

Such n.'course to autho ri ty prese nt s itsel f urnl er two aspects.
Y. 1\ fvrm of authority much depended on in the courts is what
is kno\\'n a,; the testim ony of experts, that is, testimony not as to
the actual fa<'ls in the case hut :is to such interpretatio n of facts as
co uld l>e m:1dc only l>y one specially ed ucatc:J in the sphere of
knowledge to " ·hich the facts belong. Thus, to be able to say that
death w ~1s due to the administering of a certain <lrug requires a
spccial knowkdge of the workings of that drug 1 a knowledge so
genc r:lli1. ed as to he authoritative.
wri tc.:r un Fxpc.:rt T es t irn ony 1 thus <kfi ncs the principle of it: " Lxtra kn•>11·lcdge on •111csti u 11s <>f science , skill, trade , IJUsincss, or other
matters re•1uiring sp..:cial kn<>\l'lcdg c, qllalitics the pcrsun thus informed to
gi\'e (>1•ini1>11s i11 c•n1rts uf justic<:; thi s is <:<•11 trar y tu the gcnnal rule that the
\l'i t11css 111ust n>1iti11e hin>sc·lf t» fa c ts, a11.\ kave th<.: conl'lusion uf th ose facts
tu l>e detn111i11ed !.y cuurt ur jury u11d<:r uath . 1'\ 11 opi11inn is the judgment
\l'hi ch the rnind fnnns u11 any prupusitiu n, sta te me nt, th en ry, or event, the
truth o r falscl1uud uf \l'hi ch is suppu rt <.:1! by a d eg ree of evidence that renders
it l ' r<>l1al1\c, l•ut d<><:S 11 1J t c<Jnstituk ahsoilltc L111>11·1cdge, truth, or certai nty.
These o p iniuns, or co n clnsi1111 s of j lldgm e nt, "'hich make up s uch opinions of
<:xpe rt s, ar c the same in snbstanct: as the ,·crdict of a j ury o r judgme nt of a
C1) urt, whi ch is nuthing mnre than the opinion of suc"h jury o r court, as to what
is t·stalilishcd !"·the facts in the r ~se . T h is cn nc lnsin n or op ini on, in the
latter case, is gi,·en undt'r th e sanction of an oath; so is that o f the expert ."
!\uTE. -

l

:\

Quoted in the Bosto n f\ledic:ll ancl Surgical Journal, Vol. CXV. p. 494.

.IRC UJl!EN'/'A TJO,V.

·11 5

z. In every realm of though t or doctrine there is recog nizer! a
body of works or documents to whi ch final appeal may be made,
or to whi ch at least ve ry great weight may be a:scribed, as th e work
of men wh ose ability and learning give them authority. Thus, in
law, appeal is ma<le to the body of recorded cases an<l precedents .
with the opinions of learned judges ; in theology, refere nce is nude
to the Dible; in pol itics, to the constitution of the na tion, and to
the body o f enactments; in sc ience, philosophy, and economics,
to the works and sayings of those men who have by study made
themselves a name in that department of thought.
lLL UST RATJ O l\ S. - The following, from J\1 acaulay's spt:cch o n Edu catil•n,
exemplilics appeal to authority o n a pol itical subject : "Thi s being admitted, can it he dt:nied that th e educati o n o f the common
people is a most effectual me:rns of securi ng om persons and uur property?
Let Adam Smith answer that questi o n fo r me . llis auth o rity, all\'ays hi gh, is,
on this sulij ect , entitled to peculiar respect, because h e extrem ely dis li ked
busy, prying, interfer ing go\'crnmcnts. lfe was fu r lt:a \' in g litcratur..:, arts ,
scien ces, to take care of themsdves. Ile was not friendl y to ecclesiastica l
establishme nts. Ile \\'as of opini<>n, that th e State ought nut tv mt:ddle \\'ith
th e education of th e rich. But he has exp ressly told us th at a distincti1111 is
to be made, parti cularly in a comme rcial and highly civili1.ed society, l>ctw ec n
the educat io n of th e ri ch an(\ the educatio n of the poor. Th e eclucatiun of
the poor, he says, is a matter whi ch deeply concerns the comm un l\' calth .
Just as the magistrate ought to inte rft:re for th e purpose of prcn:nting the
leprosy fr o m spreading am o ng the pe(Jp\e, he ought to int erfe re for th e pur·
pose of stopp in g the progress of the mo ral distempers whi ch are in,cpar:dile
from ig nora nce. J'\1-.r G \11 thi s duty l>e neglected without danger to the publi c
peace. 1f ynu J<:a,-c th e rnultit11d<.: u11i11stru c tccl , th e re is sni"us ri,; k that
r eligious aninius iti<:s 111ay prud ncc lhe most dreadful disonkrs. The 1w .,•t
dreadful disordt:rs ! Those are Adam Smith's own words; and pr o!'httic \l'ords
th ey w ere."
The fo llowing anecdote of Daniel \ Vehster, related by E. P. \\' hippi e, ill us trates n o t only \\'ebst cr 's weight o f character, but also th e grc::it dt:ft:r cncc
paid in courts o f justice to e min ent authority. "\Vhcn ev<.: r," says \Tr. \\' hippie, "h e gives emphas is to the p ersonal pronou n th e reader feels that he had
as mu ch earned the ri g ht to ma ke his opin io n an authority, as h e h ad earn ed
the right to use the words he employs to express his itk as and sentiments.
Thus, in the c eleb rated Smitlz T-Vi!l trial, his antagonist, J\! r. Choate, quoted a
decision of Lord Chancellor Ca md e n . ln his rep ly, \Vebs ter argn ecl against

·116

ARC C .11 l .X'r ·I T I O.\'.

its valid ity as tl1n ugh it "·ere m e rdy a propos ition laid cl own by M r . Ch oate.
' But it is n o t mine , it is Lo rd C amden's,' was the instant re tort. W ebster
pause d f,ir h :ilf :i minut e, and th e n, with his eye tixecl on the presid in g judge,
h e replied : •Lo rd Camden \\ ' :lS a gre a t jt11lge; h e is respected by every Americ:iu, fu r 11<: " ·;is 0 11 our s ide in th e Rcnlluti un; h u t, m:iy it please yo ur h onor,
} diffe r fr o m my L o rd Camde n .' Th ere wa s hardly a lawy 1:r in the U nited
;.;1atcs who cnuld haY e marlc s uch a statem e nt ,,·ith n ut ex p os ing himself to
ridicule; J,u t it did nut seem at all ri diculous whe n the ' I ' stood for Daniel
\\'ehstc r."

II.
Inference from Particulars : Induction. - The me re discovery
o f facts , th ough ind ispc nsabk as :i. bas is of knowledge, remains
o rdinari ly bu t the first process in arri \·ing at truth. It is fo r an
1tlte ri o r purpose that s uch pains are t:i.k e n :mcl such te sts employed
in olJtaining de tails . The facts thu s d iscovered are to be put
togdher, antl from th em in fere nces arc to be drawn, either of
other parti c ular fa c ts yet unknown, o r of g ener:i.l truths to which
all the details h:ixe rebt io n. Suc h inference from particulars is
called Indu c tion .
The basis o f the induc tiYe argum ent, in any of its forms, is the
hypothesis . By this we rnea.n a. prO\·isional conclusion, or th eo ry,
a1 !opted to :icr.ount fo r th e vari o us related fac ts wh ose explanation
is sought. Thus, in :i.ccounting fo r a death by viole nce, the most
reaso nable hypothes is m:i.y see m to l>e tha t the deceased commi tted
sui c ide ; adopt ing thi s proYi sio n:illy. then, :md ca.refu liy scrutinizing all thc fans and indi cations k nu \\'11 to us, we are finall y eith er
fully confirmed in our theory, o r compelled to abandon it as untenable and aJop t a ne w o ne. Indu c ti on is thus a conj ecture
con firme d by fa c ts tha t ren de r it proliable; sometimes it is the
resulta.n t of :i. se ri es of co nj ec tmes tried and modified until a
hypothesis is found which a cco unts fo r all the fa cts .
The p:i.r ticubrs from whi c h the in du ct ion is mad e are not to be
reg;:irdcd as proofs of the conclusion ; they are merely indications,
good as fa r as they go, an d some goin g further than others, to show
that such a conclusion is prolnble . Thus, the redness of the even·

A R C U1lf FNTA T! ON

417

ing sky is a c omm only accepted indication, but n ot a proof, that
the wea ther will be fai r to -m orrow; the wei ght of the a tm osphere,
as shown uy th e barometer, is a noth er indication, but not a proof;
the two indi ca tions tak en toge ther make fair weather probaLle, and
m ore probable th;:in one indi catio n alone wo uld do; bu t sti ll th ey
do not prove fai r weathe r. A large number o f indications would
p ut th e conjec tured fac t beyond reaso nable doubt, :i.nd still more
ce rt;:iin it wo uld be if in a Jong se ri es of o bse rvatio ns these phe nome na we re follo wed , wi th out exc ep ti o n, l>y fa ir weath e r. Thu s
in time thi s conju nc tion of fac ts mi g ht come to be regarded as in variable , ;:ind even treated as a gene ral law ; still , strictly speak ing,
it is only a probable conclusio n, n o t a bsolute, and its certainty
depen ds o n the co mpl eteness of the in duct io n . This po ints to the
great source of e rror against whi c h the indu ctive reasoner needs
to g uard himse lf, - na mely, too has ty inference from insuffi c ient
data. His true attitude is caution, patience, and a ccuracy.
It is obvious th at th e indi catio ns that constitute the pre mi ses of
an indu c tio n may have very d iffe re nt d egrees of conclusiveness.
Some may b e so sli ght and ind irec t as to have no real value alone,
but only in c onnection with stronger on es; o thers may have so
determin at ive a conne ction with the conclusion as almost of them selves to am o unt to proof. The strong indi ca tio ns are evid ently
the backlionc o f a n inductive :i.rg umcnt; to lJe sough t th erefo re
first of a ll , wh ile o thers are to b e regarded as mere ly corroborative .
Th e fo llowing a re the princ ipal fo rms of inductive argum ent,
given in the orde r of the ir conclusiveness .
When t he P articulars const itute actual Cause or Effect : a
Priori and a Posteriori . - The most decisive indi ca tions, a nd
therefore th e mos t valu;:i.Ll e, are those whic h are connected wi th
th e conclusio n :i.s its cause or effec t. Having ascertained the ex istence o f the o ne, we take the other very naturally as our conclusion, whi c h we say is thus rende re d antecedently probable. Such
an indi ca tion is therefore gen erally the first sought.
The kind of argument that accounts for an e ffect by finding its

AR CU1J!LN J ~ l

AR 1_; t_;,l/ /:·.\"'/'A TI O.V.

'!18
~.'.lu~:c , is

called a priori.

The kind o f :ugumc nt that infers a yet

~mk nown

cu 1s<.: from ouserve<..l fac ts recogn ized as effects is called
,z joskriori.
EXA~11·1.i-:s.

-

1.

If fo r i nslnncc a crime has bee n co mmitted and a cer ta in

pcrsP11 is suspected of it , i1H1uiry is made as to h is supposable m o tive.

Hn

rnut ive is disc u n .: rcd strong e rw ugh, wi t h his k no ll'n cha racter, to con8titutc

ri

real cause, that is, to impc:I him tu th e crime, his autho rs hi p o f the tlccd is
made: p rol.al, le. The fullowing , frum I lnnicl \\' clistcr, is an example: -

" Jusq 1l1 Knapp had a m ot i 1·c tu dr:sirc the death o f ~Ir. \.Vhitc, and th a t
mo ti1·e has b een sh<l\\·n . 11<.: was C<llllH:clcd hy ma rri age with the family of
J\lr. \\'hi tc. I ! is wife 11·as tlrc daughte r o f ~!rs. Bcckfurd, wh o was th e onl y
child uf a siste r of !he dn:cascrl. The deceased w as m ore th a n eighty years
(11.J, and had nu d1ildre 11. J !is " 11ly h e irs wer e n ep hews and ni eces. l le was

l'/ON.

4 l'J

The account, whi ch is too lo ng to quote furth e r, goes o n to show th:it t\\'o
obse r ve rs, A dams a n d Leve rri e r, ta ki ng th ese asce rtain ed effects as tire basis
of math e ma tical computations, lu catccl th e position of th e suppusc rl planet,
which th e reafte r was actually discovered in its place a cco r d in g to their p re·
dictions .

Cauti on 1s needed n o t to estimate too highl y th e anteceden t
probability esta11lished by an a priori argument. It is safer to
und e res tim a te than to overestimate it. To be conclusive, an
argum e nt o f this kind must show
That .'.l n actu.'.ll C.'.luse ex is ts ;
Th a t it is sllfficirnt to prod uce the e ffe c t c ontem plate d;
Tha t th e re are n o oppos ing c ircumstances sufficient to co unt eract it.

supp os ed to he possessed .,fa 1·cry brge fo r tu n e, whi ch wo uld have d escended,

liy law, t11 Iris se1·eral ncplre11·s and nie ces in equal shares; o r, if th ere " ·as a

NOTE. -

The motiv e as cribed in the quotatio n fr o m \Vebste r abo 1· e, for

will. th e n a ccord ing t" the wi ll. Bnt as he h ad l111 t t11·0 bran c hes of h eirs, th e
c hildren o f lr is l1rothe r . I f cnry \\' lrilt'. :1n.J uf \ !rs. l~eckfurd , eac h of these
branches, acco rd ing tu th e c"nr mo n idea , 11·11t:ld k11'(; s hared one half of hi s

inst a n ce, o ught n u t to he rega rd ed as sufficie nt in it se lf tn p ru\'e the priso n c r·s
guilt: h e must he sh own lo have possessed an un sc rupul ous charac ter, anrJ
p osit iv e c irc ums tances m11 st he adduced to co rro b o rate what at th is <;;age is

prupe rty. Tlris lH•pulnr id e:i is n"t lcgall;· c11rrect. But it is co mm on, an d
,·cry p r 11ktl,Jy 11·;is entertained l,y tlrL: par l ies . 1\ cco rd in g to thi s idea, l\Irs.

cause.

on ly o n e clem e nt of probability.

1t may be a cause, but it is n ot a sufficie nt

lkckfurcl , un 'd r . \\"hitc 's death 11·ith•rnt a will, w<>11ld have bee n e ntit led to one
lralf uf his a:i 1plc funune; and J11seph Knapp had married one of h er three
chil clrcn ."

When the Particulars are merely Accompaniments : Circumstantial Evidence. - In d icati o ns o rdinaril y less co nc lu sive singly

A go11cl instance o f arguing fr om a n ol,sc rvecl effect to an unkn own

than the pre ced ing, b ut which may be acc umul ated until toge ther
they c reate a hig h prol>auility, arc those whi c h g ive ac cornp.'.l nying ci rc um sta nces, whi ch .'.l rc take n as s ig ns 1 of the conclusion
thoug h n ot determinative ly co nn ected with it. Thu s, redness of
the ev<.:n in g sky is no C.'.lusc o f fa ir \\'C.'.lthcr ; it is only a ci rc umstance th a t acco mpa ni es such a sta te of the atm osp here as produces fair we:-i.the r.
The a ccum ulation of s uch secondary signs to ward the deci sio n

2.

-ca use is f11uncl in the indu ct i1111 by which the pl:rn e t Nept une was discovered .
The fulln11 ·i 11g, from J ohnso n's \ch1p:cdia, is a partial account o f it: "The di,;cuver;· of this pbnct is j11stly regarded as the m os t remarkable
nstrn1wmical ac"hie1·l'1m·nt of lire ce ntury . l'p tfl nbnut tir e b eginnin g o f the,
prc>cnl <T11t11ry i1 11·as f11 uncl thnt the moti c>rls of :111 the plnn<:ts cou ld be l er·
f<.:ct ly accuu n lt'd fo r by t he atlr:tdiu11 11f the su11 a11d the ir mutual attraction on
c'ach otlwr . H11t wh en , ah"ut r ::i~o, l\nnvanl procccdccl to constru ct tables ,,f
l iranus, th e n Ili c <1ulcrnl<lst kn 11\\·n 1•lnnl'I, an appa rent exceptio n presented
itsL:J f, and tlre olrsL'n·atiuns cuuld nut Ire reconci led with the m o ti o ns computed
frum th e altrn c tiun "f the sun, jLrpiter, :ind ~alum. ...

It was soo n found

th:it the phnct h,·g:tn t•l 1k1·iatc from th e talilcs muc h m o re rapi Llly th a n co uld
be a..:cou n tccl f.,r l •y the necessary uncertainty of the data o n whi ch th e tables
w e re fo unded.

Th e c:1use (If th is dc 1·ia tio n 11·as a subjec t o f consideration

:unong- astmnomcrs , and it

S ('<'ll1S

l•> ha 1-c o cc urr ed to several that it might be

due to the a c tion of an unk11011·n planet b e yon d U ran us .

But th e problem

,_, f fi n ding this planet was o n e which fu r some time no o ne ventured to attack."

l Arg um ents o f th is kind a rc technicall y called Argu m ents from Sign, whi c h
te rm is so m eti mes use d in a narrow se nse, to d esigna te argumen ts from c ircumstan ce, l.lut often e r, a nd more properly, to design•\!<.! any form of infere nce from
particulars. So me tim es, ind<'Cd , th e te rm has i>ee n ta ke n to in clu de nlso testimon y,
th e exi s te n ce of the tes timo n y be ing- reg-a rd ecl a s a s igi1 of th e thin g testified; hut
th is vag- ue u se o f it see ms to me me rely th e shi ft of o ne wh o is in straits for a c assi ficati o n .

- --

---- ..o·---~~

·120

.-1 A' C CJ/ F. \ ' 1 '.·l TJQ N.

n[ a c:i sc is c.1. ll cd Circumstantial Ev id e nce, and is ordinarily
regarded as not fully conclusin.: \1·ithout additional indications,
oi ra11 sc o r m otin: , o r so me C\·idcnc1; rn o rc pos itiv e. The co n\ "JC t1 1m
of a crim in a l on c ircu mstantial evidence alone is quite
c:-;cept ional.
L:\ .·\\11 ' 1.E . - The fu ll O\\·ing p :nagraph , fr om the same pica quoted fr om
\ \"ehslcr ::ilio Yc, recounts th !.'. circumstances tha t g u tu shuw that Juseph \Vliitc
\\·as mu rd e red n o t liy a s in gle p erso n Intl l1y se1·cral consp irato rs : •· l ,c t rnc ask )" P ttr :i.ttc nti t1 n, in the lirst pbcc, to those appearanc es, on the
morning :i.ftc1· th c mur d er, \Yhi ch h:i.,·c a tcn1k ncv tu sh<)W that it \\·as clone in
i' u rsuan1: c uf a p rcc on cc rlcd pbn t>f "J> t.:r:i.ti o n . \\ "h at arc they? A man was
f1>un d mur1k t"t:t! in hi s l>cd. I\o st r a n ~n ha d tl'llle th c deed, no oue unac•1uaintcd " ·ith tl1 c bottse had d •Jn e it. It \\ ":.IS appare nt that somebody within
ltad op e n ed , a nti th:i.l surnelindy \\"ith <>ltl kid c11tcrcd. Th ere had obviously
and cc rtai11l y b ee n c<> n cc rt :i.nd cu<ipcr:i.tinn. The i11Jua ks of the ho use were
ll<>t :i.larm cd \\·h e n the murder \\·as perpt:tr:i.tcd. T h e assassi n ha(! entered
" ·itlwui a ny ri<>l <•r any Yi o lcncc. I le had f" un d th e \1·ay prepared before
liim . T he h"ust: li ad i>t:<'ll pr e,·i<>usly t1p c 11 e1 l. Th c 11·indmv was u nb::irrecl
fr.,m 1Yi t lti11, a 11 d its fa stc11 in .i.: u11 scrc" ·"1l. T hne was :i. loc k on the dou r
t>f the ciia111l!l:r in w hich :'llr. \\" hi tc slt.:pt . l>t tl the k ey 11·:i.s go ne. It had been
t;1k c n :i.11·:i.y and sec:reted . Th e fu C> tsteps u f tlie mu nlcre r \\· ere visible, out.! 1111 rs, lt:n d ing loll';Hd the w in du -.,· . Th e 11 b 11k 1,y 1rh ich he cnterccl th e
11·ind1J\\" slili r c·mai11ed . The rn:.1.\ he purs ttc"<l kid l>cc n th us prepa red for him.
T he victim was shin , and the mur d er er li:1d escap ed . !-:very thing indi cated
tku s11 rn cbu.1y 11·ithin h:i.d cu ij pcr:i.tcd with surneli<)dy without. Every thing
pr11 chiincd th:i.t S<! llll' 1>f !he i11 rn:i.tcs, u r sumeho dv ki1·in g ;1cc ess tu th e house,
l1:.1d ha d :l h:rn d in tl1e lllll rtl n. ()n th e f:i cc u r th e c ir curn st :i.nces, it was
a1•pa rcnt, therdtJ rc, that thi s l';:<s :i. pr c 111 ed itat<.: d, con certed murd er; that
tl1nc h:id lice n a c1111 s p ir ac y t" ct>111111it it."

When the Particulars establish a Parallel State of Things:
Example and An a logy. -- A third cbss of induc ti ve indications
are th ose whi ch arc dra wn fr o lll SO !llc p:irallcl state of things in
other relati o ns. Thus, fr o m \rh a t i1:ts occurred in the past we
argnc to wha t und e r s illlibr condi ti ons will occ ur in the future;
or fro m \1·h :1l has t:1kc n plac e und e r a cert a in set o f conditions we
conj cc tmc th:1t :1 11 :111 alu,rc,0 11s thi ng wi ll take place und er a similar
se t of condit io ns clsc1'"11crc . Th e use of indi cations of this kind
gi ,·es ri se to the argumc:nts fr o m example and ;-ina!ogy.

42 1

The argument from example takes instances of .wlnt h as
occurred at other times o r in other places, as indication of wlnt
may be expec ted to occ ur ag:-iin . To be of value, an exam ple
must reveal not o nly a parallel state of things but conditi o ns also,
parallel to wh;it now exist. Further, examples should be numerous or c lear e nough to make the case m o re than a coincid ence ;
to be co nclusive they must establ ish a law.
1.

EXAC.!PLE. -The follo \\"in g , fr o m Professor J evo ns, argu es a futur e truth
from a se ri es o f past examples: "\Ve may rt.:l y ttpu n it that in dei ini te , and tu us in co n ct.:i,·aLle, ad1-;rnc1:s
will h e mad e hy th e hum an int ell ec t, in the: abs e nee o f :i.ny unforesee n catas troph e: to th e s pecies or the g lobe. ,\l1n us t within hi sturi cal pcriuds "·c ca n
trace the r~sc uf m a thematical science from its simplest germ s. \\' c can pr1>n:
o ur d esce 11l fr o m an cesto rs \\"ho counted o nly o n their finge rs, but h ow alm• ,st
infinit e ly is a :\ cwt1rn o r a I.apbcc aliuvc th ese simpk savages . l\ t hag• >r:< s
is said lo 11av e sacrific ed a h cc at o mli \\"h e n he discovered th e F urty-se\-enth
T'ropositi u n uf Eu clid. an d the uecas io n was worth y u f th e sacri t"1cc . Ar c hi m edes \\"as b es id e him self \\"hen h e first perceived l1is l>eautifol m• Hk nf d eterminin g sp e cifi c graYil ies. Yct these great d is co veries are th e sirnplt.:'t c le m e nt s o f uur s chool-hoy knuwlcdgc . Skp by step we c:i. n tr:i.ce up"·a rds th e
acqui rem c11t of n e \\· m e n ta l p o wers . \\'hat c o uld be m u rc \\·ondcrful a11 d
unexpected than .!\"::ipi e r's disco\· c ry o f log::i rithm s, a wl1 olly new m od e of
calculation \\"hi ch has multiplied perhaps a hundrt.: d-fuld tl1 e W• lrkin g l""'crs
o f eve ry co m pu te r, and ind eed has rend e rc1l easy calculati o ns which 11·cr e

Lefore alnltlst irn 1•r::ictic:i.hlc. Since th!.'. t im e of ?\cwtun an d Leil mitz \\"hulc
w o rlds o f prolikms hav e been s oh ·ed which hefurc were har d ly co n ce i,cd as
m a tt e rs o f in quiry . In o ur O \\"ll day extended methods of m athemat ica l rea sonin~:, su ch as th c system o f quatcrni1>11S, h:i.n; l>cen l1rou ghl int o c>cislt: ncc.
\ Vhat in te lli ge nt tll:llt w ill doul,t that th e rec•Jndit c spc c ub;i, >ns of a ( ·ayky o r
a Sylvcs tcr n1:.1y l"' ss i!.l y Jca,1 tu S•J ll1 C new 1n ethuds, al the simpli cit v and
power o f whi c h a future age \\"il l wo nder, :i.nd ye t wo n de r lll f) re that to us they
w e re so dark anti difficult. 1\lay we not rc pcat the \\" Ords o f Se n eca : '\" en iet
t empus, qu o isla <fU;c nunc la ten t, in luccm di es cxtrahat, c t lnng imi s ;c,·i
dilige ntia: ad in r1uisiti o ncm ta11l o rnm :i.: tas una n o n suffi cit. V euict ternpu s.
quo posteri nostri t:i.m ap erta nus n cscisse mire ntur.'"

A favorit e use of th e argument from example, especia lly in
oratory, is the argument te chnically called a j()r/iori, whi ch re:i sons that if a certain principle is true in a g iven case, much m ore

!-\,.

422

will il Le.t rue ma supposed case whe rein the co nd iti ons are more
favo rable .
EXA~t1 · 1.i-: s . - ;\Ta ny of the assen ions of 5'cript ur c arc put in the fo rm of a n
:ug ume nt a }irtiori; for example : " \ \'hcrcfu rc, if ( ;od so du th e the grass uf
the lit:!d, which to -d a y is, a n d to-morro w is cas t int o th e ove n, shall he not
mu c h mo re dot he yo u,() ye o f little faith?"
The following, fro m B ur ke, advoc a tes sympathy with th e Irish Roman
Cat ho lics, as n1urc: na tur al and fit ting, fu r th e En gl ish, th a n th e sympa thy
w hich was ac tua ll y g iYcn to the A me ricans in the tim e of th e H. evoluti o n : "I confess t<l you freely tha t the s utfrr in gs and d is tr,:sscs o f th e peo ple of
America in th is c rud w ar h a\'c al t imes affected me mo re d ee ply th a n I ca n
expr ess . I felt c 1·cry ga zette ,,f triun11'11 as a lil<l w u pun my h ea rt, whi ch has
an hundrc· d times sunk and hint ed within me ;it ;i\l the 111ischi cfs bnn1g hl
upo n th <>se who !H.:;ir the wiwlc l•runt of \\·;i r in the hc;irt u f th eir cou ntry.
Y et th e 1\ mcr ic;i ns ;i re ut ter stra ngers to mc : a nat io n amo ng wh o m I am not
sure that I haYc a single acqua in tancc . \ \'a s 1 to s uffc r my mind to he so
una ccu untably warped , \\'as l tu kee p such iniq ui llHlS weig hts and m e;isurcs
o f kmpe r and "f r cas,1n, ;is lo sympathi 1.c ll'itlt those wh o a rc in ope n rc!Jl'I·
liu n ag;i insl :m aut h,i rity ll'h ich l rc,pcc t, al wa r w ith a co un try which hy
cvcry title uught to he, and i,, most d ear to me,-arnl ye t lo ha \' e no feelin g at
all fur the ha1.»lships and i11 diJ..:n itics su!Tned l1y me n 11ho by th eir ve ry vi cinity
arc hound up in a neare r rcbti u n l o us, who c0 ntr il1 ut c th eir share, and more
than th eir share, to the common pr nspc r itv , who p erform the common offices
o f soc ial life:, and who obey the la11·s, tu the fu ll as well as I d o ?"

The argum ent from :rnalogy takes relati ons th at exi st in
on e sphe re of life or expcrtcncc ;1 s ind ica ti ons o f what may be
regarded as trne o f an other sp here whose rela ti o ns are similar.
It h;1s been said in a p r l·\·i o tt s c h:lpt cr 1 th a t a nalogy, while
\·:tl ualJlc :i.s a. means of exposi ti on, is precari ous as a n argument.
The reaso n is th;lt rcbti o ns whi ch see m alik e in different spheres
are so ap t to be merely acc ide ntal o r fa nc iful that, though they
m ay prese nt a striki ng coin c ide nce, they do not constitute a real
indication . An ana1ogy c;in have the force of an argument only
wh e re it can he sho wn not o nly that the relations a re alike but that
the y are d ue to the same o r lik e ca11ses .

A R C U/l/EN TA T!ON.
Ex A ~ ! P I.ES . - In the foll o wing Ca rJ inal 0.'ewm an argues fr om th e analogy
of bodi ly hea lth th at c ultu re of t he in tellect is a good in itse lf, a part fr om its
prac ti cal use : "Yo u will see w hat I m ea n b y th e p arall el of bod ily health. Heal th is a
g ood in itself, t ho ug h n o th in g ca me o f it, an d is es p ecially w o rth seek ing an d
che ri s hin g ; ye t, a ft e r all , the b less in gs whi ch att e nd its p resen ce a re so
grea t, whi le th ey ar e so close to it a nd so r edo un d b ack u po n it a nd en circle
it, tha t we n eve r th in k of it excep t as useful as well as good, an d p ra ise a nd
p ri ze it fo r wh a t it does, as well as fu r what it is, tho ugh a t the same t ime we
ca nn o t po int o ut any de finit e and d isti nct wo rk o r p rod uction which it can be
said to effec t. A nd so as regards in tell ect ual c ulture , I am fa r fr om denyi ng
utility in th is la rge sense as the end o f Edu ca ti o n, w he n 1 lay it dow n, t hat
th e c ult ure uf the intellect is a go o d in itself and its ow n e nd; I d u n ot
exclu de fro m the idca of i11 t<.:lkc t ual cult ure what it can not li ut lie, fr o m the
very 11 at un.: " f th ings ; 1 only dc ny tha t we m us t he ahk to po in t o ut, lidu re
w e h a\'c a ny r ig ht to call it use ful, so m e art, or IJusiness, o r p ro fessio n, o r
t rack, o r w o rk, as rcsultin g fr o m it, an d as its r eal a nd co m plt:te end . The
paralkl is exa ct: - As the l1od y may b e sacri ficed to some manua l or o ther
to il, whethe r m o d e ra te o r opp ressive, so m ay th e in tell ect be devult.:d to some
speci lic pmfess i<rn; a nd I do n ut call this the cul ture o f the intellec t. :\ gain ,
as some m embe r o r o rga n o f th e bo d y may be in ord inately uscd and dc\'t.:l<>p cd ,
so m ay m e mo ry, o r irn:igi nat ion, o r th e reasoning faculty ; :ind t/1is ag ai11 is
no t in tellect ual cctlt urc. O n th e ot h e r h and , as t he I1o d y m ;iy be tended, clwr ish ed , a nd i:xercise rl with a si mple \'i ew to its ge n eral h ea lth, so may th e intel lect also be ge nerall y exercised in o rde r to its pe r fect s tate ; and this i s its
cult iv ati o n ."

2.

Exam ple a nd a nalogy arc of va lue m a inl y in those cases whe re
th e p a ra llel co nd iti o ns are lJroad a nd eJ sily trace d, a ncl where the
obje c t is to ma ke an a rg um e nt a t o nce s impl e a nd im press ive .
They a rc bes t a p pli ed to those ge ne ra l truth s wh ic h do no t re<1uirc
to b e vc ri r1ed so m uch as to ue illustrated; their offi ce, even in
argument, is main ly exposito ry. He nce we fmd them most e mploye d in e n fo rc ing the large and coge nt prin ciples of conduc t,
polity, m ora ls, pr;:ict ical life; o ra to ry is the ir m os t co nge nial fiel<l.
Of exa m pl e Burke says th;it it is "the only argu m ent of effect m
c iv il life ." I ts po wer in its prope r fi eld is du e to the fact that, as
Burk e ;i~se rts in anothe r place, " e xample is the school o f mankind , and they will learn at n o other."

425

ARCU.J/£,VTATION.

ARCU11!ENTAT!ON.

III.

Su ch is the syllogism in its bald logical form, the inner framework of every argument that is founded on a general principle .
To keep this fram ewo rk in mind, the refore, in every process of
reasoning, and to separate it clearly in thought from the various
elements that tend to ol>scure it, is the surest guarantee or a y::i]id
argument.

Inference from Generals: Deduction. - Our knowledge of the
world a nd of life is no t wh olly d ependent on discovery of indi vidual facts and on infe rences dr:t\\'Il l 1y indu ction from them. A
long history o f such infe ren ces h:is developed in us an insight for
general conclusions; for truths which, though the result of induction, arc accepted :is lJeyond the need of that process for confirm:i.tion; truths whi ch our lon g experie nce of them has made
pnctic:i.lly self-ev ident. W hen one uf these ge neral truths is made
the li::isis of ::rn arg11ment, a nd fru111 it is inferred another truth,
g1· nera l o r p:uticubr, the process is called D educt ion.
As to its principle, the <kducti,·e :i.rgurnent may be briefly
defined as the proof of truth l>y premise and concl usion.
l\ premise (fro m pnn11il/11, to send bdorc) is a preliminary fact,
judgment, or p rin ciple, b id dmrn as gro und for h olding that something else is true, "·hi c h latter is called the co nclusion. Thus, if
we predict that the re will Le fair weathe r to- mo rrow because the
sky this c\·ening is red, we take the present fact of red ness as our
premise for concl uding what to -mo rrow's we0the r will he. 1
The Syllogism. -The hasis of declucti\-C reason ing, whi ch
indeed is more or less impli ca ted as a no rm in all processes of
argu nicntat ion, is the syllogism . This c:onsish of three parts: th e
rn:tjor prcrn ise, which is a gene ral trut h bi d down as th e ground
for holding that solllething else is trne; the min or premise, which
id ·ntifies that soml'lhing with th e ge neral trnth of the maj or; and
lrn:illy, thl~ <'onclt1si1111, whi<'h dr:1ws the inference apparent in the
relat ion of th e two l'remises. To illus tr:1tt: by :m example:J\rajor premise: All men arc mo rtal.
Minor premi se : /\u g1 1st11 s is a man.
Conclt1sion : ThercfiJrc, i\ugustus is mortal.
l Th e use of this s:un c f:tct on pat.;1.· .11(1 ;is a particular from which to bui!t.J an
inductiun, sh ows th;it l'rcmiscs cuter as tru ly in to inducti ve a rgu n1 en ts as in to
<kductivc. I u popu i. tr usage', h1) \\·c v1-r, we du not call such a fact a prcrn isi· 'o
lo ng a" it is reg.udcd as a mere i11dirnlion. among others , to determine an hypothr-sis; to lie call<'d a prem ise a truth must be signi ficant enough to be in itself a re.i1011
for the conc-lusion.

ExA~ll ' LE. - The followi ng, from Cardinal Newman, sho ws h ow th e syllogism may lie used, an<l \\'ith \\'hat rhi.:tori cal modilicat ivns o f exp ression , in
popular literature: "It is the fashiun ju st now, as you very well kn o w, to erect so-called l'11i versiti es, without making any p ro1· ision in them at all for ThculugicaJ chairs.
Institutions uf this kind exist Loth here [ Ireland ] and in En glarn L Such a
procedure, th ough def..:ndccl by writers o f the generation just passed \\'ith much
plausil1lc arg ument and no t a li ttle wit, see ms to me an int ellectual al1surdity;
anJ my reaso n fu r sayin g so run s, with whatc\'er abruptn ess, in to the form
o f a syllogism : - /\ Uni1· ersity, I should lay do wn, 11y its very name professes
to teach uniYcrsal kn o11lc<l gc: : Th eology is surely a hr~nch of knu11·1cdgc :
how then is it possible fur it lo profess all branch es of knowkdgc. :rnd yet lo
exclude from the subjects o f i ts teaching one whi ch , to say t he kast, is as
important an cl as large as any of th em ? I do not sec that either premise
o f this argumen t is ope n to exception."

It is sehlom, however, th at the syllogism appears unmoclilie<l in
literature. Va rious cl e ments enter in to cover up ancl disguise its
affirm a tion s ; and for this reaso n th e syllogistic fo rm of argument,
though \"cry simple in itself, is peculiarly li alJle to fallacy . Jt is
important therefore to trace here the principal modifi cations that
the syll og ism undergo es in li te rary usage.
The Syllogism in Enthymeme . - It is onl y occasionally neces sary to express both the premises of a syll og ism . One of th e m
will be obvious enough to be safely take n for grantc:cl . If such is
the c:ise it would be a literary disadvantage to express it, for it
would have the flat anc.l co mm onplace effect of a truism . Sometim es the m::ijor premise is thus omitted, sometimes the minor.
Thus, to illustrate from the syllogism g ive n above: it is so obviously tru e that all m en are mortal tha t we may let it go without
saying, an d asse rt that , ugustus will die because he is a man, -

---------- - 426

AR CUMJ:.:NTATION.

thus omitting the m:i.j o r premi se . O r :i.g:i.in, the fact that Augustus is a man is so evident a trui sm that we may say Augustus will
die because all men are mortal,-thus omittin g the minor premise.
A syllogism with one of its premises suppressed is technically called
an enthymc me. 1
/\rgurnents with a p remise taken for granted are very common.
" N:1ture suffic ie ntly prompts all men," says De Quincey," to that
sort of ellipsis ." It may ]le sa id ge ne rally, th at whenever an assertio n is rn:u k with the re :-i ~o n fo r it ( /!cca11se so-and-so), or whenever :in asse rtiun is made with an infe ren ce from it (therefort
so -and-so ), there is pre tty sure to be involved a syllogism, in whi ch
one p re mi se is assumed as unque stionable.
EXAMl'LF.S . I. The follow ing, fr om Charks J ames Fox, exhibits how a
syllog istic argument may he in\'o lverl in a stalt:mc nl with its reason: " I h:tve al ways depre cated universal suffrage:, not so much on account of
the confusiun tu w hich it wuul d lead, as because I think that we should
in reality !use tht: \'e ry "hj ect whi ch we desire to obtai n; because I think
it would, in its nature, emba rr ass a nd prevent the ckliherative voice of th e
coun try fr om be ing hea rd . I du not think that you augment the delilierati vc
lic,dy of th e peopk hy count in g all tht: hcads; li ut that, in trut h, yo u confe r
on ind iYi duals, liy this mt:ans, the pu\\·cr uf drawing fo rth numbers, who,
\\' ilh<Hlt ddil>n:\ti<Jll, \\'OUld implicitly act upnn their will."
The syllugism in voh·ed in this argument may he expressed thus: }) f .,jor pro11isi: : \\' hat eve r enahlt:s demagog ues to wield an undcliberative
mass o f mcn as a pu\\'t:I" in tht: stalt: is to Lie d eprecated.
11/incJr fu111ist : U niversal suffrage co nfers such ability.
( '011 d 11 sion: 11 ence, uni,·c:rsal suffr:igc is tu lie dep recat ed .
2. The full ""·in g, fr om Canon 1' !01lt:y, cxhihits h ow a syllogism may be
in \'oh·ed in a stalt: ment with its inft: ren ce: " Ge nerosity is m ore tried by an equal than 1t 1s by an inferior, fur the
same reaso n that it is so with humil ity - vi z., that you are in competition
with your e<Juals, and no t in compd ili o n \\'ith vour infai ors. \Ve know that
the great nhs t ru t:t i"n to ge nerosi ty in ou r nature is jealo usy - at least with
r ega rd lo such advantages as to uch our pride . It would 11e easy to be gener1

Such is tht: formal and techni cal use of the term. As applied to th e subjul•
of argum e nts, however, Dt: Quinc ry l1road cns the s ignificati on of it to denoto
tho-;e µrob: t11lc trn ths and reasons which a re the proper material of persuasion;
see his Essay on " Rhetoric."
111al!a

ARGUMENTATION.

427

ous to the in tellectual claims of oth er people, to their mer its , to thei r character, were there no element of jeal ousy in ou rsel ves. But compassio n is
relieved fr om this tr ial; compassi on canno t be jealous; its work is with one
who Ii ·s at its feet, wh o deprecates th e slightest comparison. I l ow gen ero us
th en will a man be to the fallen; hut let the man get o n his legs again, and
it will sometimes be hard to him who has bee n so superabun da nti y generous
e\'en to be barely just. It is thus that generosity to an equal is more difficult
than generosity to an inferior."
The syll ogism here involvecl may be ex pressecl thus: .JJiajor premise : \Vh ere jeal ousy is prevalent generosity is peculiarly hard.
})fi11 or p rnnise : Jealousy is prevalent in th e rela ti o n bet wee n equals.
Con d u si on: I Icn cc, generosity tu equal s is pec uliarl y hard.

The Syllogism amplified . -A premise that is a trui sm ough t
ind eed to IJt.: omitted; but, conve rsely, no premise can !Jc safely
omitted wh ose meaning or whose truth is opc:n to qu estio n. 1\ ccordingly \\"e find that wh en a po int is argued out in full it is :-ts
mu ch fo r the purpose of establishing the pre111/scs, by exposition
or argument, as o f estalJlish in g the co nc lusion. In th e course o f
an important argument Yari o us subordinate argumen ts, illus trati on~,
definitions, are int rod u ~e d wh e rev e r nee ded; and thus th e whole
line of a rgt 1menta ti o n may easi ly lJecome very compli cated.
Th e im portance of thlls g uarding a nd stre ngthening the pr<.:miscs
of an arg11ment is ve ry g rea t. N o syl log ism is more cu nclusi\'e
than its weakest premise . If the n a ny premise is left ill- dciin ed
and ill -co nside red, if it is ass umed as unq11esti onable wh en in
reality it is brnc, the wh ole argume nt , howe\-er k ee n the process
other\\'ise, is ma.de in co rrespo ndin g deg ree in co nclu sin.:. T l1 is
then may be bid down as a prac tical rule : Be careful of your
premises; be cautio us as to what you assume.
EXA~11·1.E s . -Th e syll"gism quoted fr o m Ca rdinal Newman on page 4 25
is g i1· en in foll in order th at its premises may be ta ke n up a1HI test ed fu r
th emsel ves. Thus, th e tirst premi se, "A Univ ersity, by its 1·c ry na me pro·
fess es to tea ch univ ersal kn owledge," provok es the quest io n, .I s this true?
To whi ch the auth or an swers, that if we tak e th e term in its popula r sense , as
denoting a place where th e whol e circle of kn owledge is ta ugh t, we ha\'c
abundant auth ority ( fr om whi ch he quo tes Dr. Johnson an,! th e histori a n
Mosheim) for taking this as the real Jefin iti o n o f a univ ersity; and if we take

423

A NC U.11F, \'T.·1 TI ON.

it i n a less prernlc nt b u t sti ll occas ional se nse, as deno ting m erely a place
\\·here rnv ll at1v n 1s g1 n ; n to studc11ts uf e ve ry k ind, it st ill comes to the sa me
~h i ng, fo r "i f ce rtai n b ra nches o f k no wled ge w ere excluded, th ose s tudrnt~ o f
conrsc wo uld lie excluded abo, 11·ho desi red t1J pursue th em -"
The secund prem ise, " Thc ol11gy is a bra nch o f k nowled ge,' ' req uires a
more eh h.,rate prvuf; inde ed , the cstalilislnncnt of th is p re mise, rat her thnn
<>f the cun cl us ion , is th<: real object of the d iscuursc . H e thu s lays o ut tlie
a rg:im ent : " B u t th is, o f co urse, is to as'rnm c t ha t Th eology is a science, a nd
a n 11 nport:int one: so T \\·ill thro11· my argume nt int o a mo re exact fo rm . [
say , th<:n , tha t if a U11i1·l'rsity l;c, from th e nat ure o f th e case, a place uf
111struct11ln, when.: unin:rsa l kno11·kdgc is professed, and if in a certa in Unin:rsi1y . S•> called , the sulijcct o f J\. cl igi u n is excluded , o ne o f tw o co nclu si ons
is inc,·itahle, - e ithe r, o n the one hand , th at th e pro vin ce o f Reli gio n is very
i>:un; n uf real l.'110\,·kdgc, or, on th e ulhc r ha 11 t! , that in su ch U ni versity one
spec ia l and impc) rt:1 nt iJran c h •>f k no wlc:dge is o mi tte d. I say, th e a<l;ocatc
of s uch an instituti o n must say th is, o r he must say tltn t ; h e mus t own, e ither
that l ittle or n vth in g is know n abo ut the S upre me Bein g , o r that his seat of
learn in g ca ll s it si.:l f wha t it is nu t. This is the th es is wh ich I lay down,
a nd o n whic h I shall insist as the subicct o f th is Disco urse. "
F:o m tl1i s p oi nt he g'.Jcs o n to a n eiaho ra tc proof that Theology is not only
a sc1cnc t: liut the m ust important of all sc iences.

The Chain of Reasoning. -A freque nt~ employment of the syllog1st1c argument, in full or in cnthy mcrne, is, to make one argument whose conclus ion is then take n ::is th e p re mise of a second,
and tht: conclus ion of th is for :l th ird , a nd so on thro ugh a su ccession o f steps, to a fin:t! sup reme co nc ll1 sion. Suc h a chain of
n:aso ning, involving as it docs the thorough co nfirmati on of every
step , produces a pcc 1iliar cfkct o f coge ncy and co nclusiven ess.
ExA~t 1· 1. E. - The f.. 11 , '" i ng , fr um l 'rufcssor ~I nr ri s's mo nograph on " T he
~ t ud y uf L a tin in th e l'rcpa ratu ry Co urst:," s umrnari zes such a chain of
r c;1~u ni 11g : -

" f need only br iefly re capitulate the argu ment whi ch would be based
upo n it.
" I. The current thin k in g , fn r a share in which we arc to be prepared in
Cllllcgc, is sc i1:11tilic in tone.
"2 . Th e s tu die s o f t he a d va nct:d college cou rse are th ere fore, what ever be
th<: ir sulij<:ct, t u l>c st ud ie d and tau g h t afte r sc ic 11ti lic n u.: th ods.
" 3 . As a prcparatiun fur suc h wu rk, the stu d ent needs daily tlrill in the
funrl am c nt al sc ient ific p r oc esses.

A!? CUMENTA T ION.

429

"4. Phil olog y is a scie nce, and its cl earn ess a nd a dap tal>ility to wh:it m:iy
IJe call ed la bo rat o ry wo r k reco mm e nd it strongly to a p lace in th e preparato ry co urse."
Each o f these propositions is a s tep in a d cd uct i\·e argu ment in volving the
syll ug is ti c furm u f reaso nin g .

II.

PIWOI-' OF TR UTII

nv

Dl SPROOF OF ERROR.

The fac t that a subjec t is suscep tible of a rgu ment ind ica tes that
it has two sides, th e t ru e a nd th e e rro neo us ; and wh ile gent:rally
by the d irect establish ment of th e truth error fall s of itself, the re
are cases wh e re a n indirec t me th od has d esirable advantages, wh e re b y attacking a nd d estroying the error th e tru th is left free
to assert itse If.
This indirect means of establishing the truth presents itself under
two main aspects.

L

:By reducing the Issue to an Alternative. - So me q uest ions arc
of suc h a na ture as to p ossess o nly a certa in limited nu mbe r u f
aspec ts, o-f whi ch only o ne can be true . If the n th ese aspec ts can
be so acc ura tdy de termined as to show unc tucstio nalJ ly for the
o nly o nes, the work o f asce rtaining which one is true can he done
indirec tly ::is well as direc tly. Th e re arc seve r::i.l forms of argument
that depend fo r thei r val id ity on th e p rinciple of :-tltcrn:.tt ivc .
Reductio a d Absurdum. - Thi s argume n t, qart ing from a
s in gle :1 ltc rna ti ve, th a t is, that o ne o f two things ::ind only unc
mu st be true, sh ows th a t the false side of the alte rnat ive , ::tssurncd
true for a rgume nt' s sake, lead s to conclusions that are man ifest ly
untenab le.
.As comp::tred wi th the d irec t fo rm o f reason ing, the rerl11ct/o ar!
11brnrr!1tm is likely to be fu lly as strong, an d sometimes stronger,
b ecause it sh ows not merely th a t a thing may be true but that it
11111J I ]Je trne.
On the oth e r hand, the direct argume nt is gc ner:.tl!y
ri che r ancl m ore satisfyin g, b ecause it exhib its the conclusion with
all the pre mi ses and consid erations that go to establi sh it.

430

AR CC.J /E.\" T.·11"/0N.

EX.\:>!l'l.ES . - The following cxamplt: rif r,·1!11 ctio ad abs urdum is taken
fr o m l kph 11rn 's " .\I :rn ual o f J{hd u ri c .. : -

" lf the th esis is, :\I an is a fr ee agent, then the an tithes is is, Man is not a
fn.:e age nt. . . . The in d ired proo f would tak e sumc sud1 fo rm as this: t.lan
is eithe r fr ee or he is not frt e. f. d us ass utlle that h..: is not free. If he is
~1ot free, he can nu'., in cases of cunll icting mut i,·es, c house, hut must blin dly
!ull <> w o ne of the JJ npulses. J:u t w..: l; nu\\· fr om con>cious ness that he ca n
decide bet ween c11nllicti11g 11111ti,·es; th crcfu rt: it is false t hat h e is not fre e.
I l e mu 'I th« ref,>re he free ."

, . The f.,11,"_'" ing a rg urn e nt , frnm Creenka f, t11 pn"·e th at the testim ony of the
1·.va11gch,-1s is true , is rc:iliy a st:ile me11t of th e absurdities that wo ulcl follow
if it \\ n c S\lj •puscd f:dse: "I t l11a111vly th e suppositi1111 uf fals l· h uu d ] would also have been irreco ncilahlt: with th e fa ct th at they wne good men . But it is impossible to read
tl1cir 11Titings , an d n o t fee l that we arc cOI1 ,·crs in g ll'ith men eminently holy,
and uf tend e r eu ns<.: ie nc es, " ith men acting unde r an aliid ing sense uf th e
p:cse nce and urn nis cicn ce u f ( ;ud , and f th t: ir accountal1 ility to him, li ving in
l11s fear, and walkin g in his ways . >."u"·, th o ugh, in a single instan ce, a goo<!
ma11 may fall, " ·he n under str1>11 ,t.; tcmpt:11i11 ns, yet h e is n o t foun I persist ing,
f~ r year,-, in delibe rate fal,ehood , as-;crted with th e mos t sulcmn appeals tu
CtJd , w1thuul the slightest tem ptat ion 1)}" muti,·e, an d aga inst all the opposing
interests whic h rei g n in th <.: human l•rcast. Jf, on th e cuntrary, th ey are
suppost:d to havt: het: n had m <.:n, it is incredilik th a t such men -should have
c hus<.: 11 this fmm uf imposture; enj1J i11in g , as it d"es, n n feig n<: d rep entan ce,
tlic utter f11rs:1ki11g and al•hu rrcn ce uf all fa be lH11 Hl and <>f e1·e ry o th er sin th e
prac tic:c 11 f d:ii!y self-d e nial, se lf-ah:i,-l'll1cn t a nd sel f- sacrilice, th e erucili'.\illll
of tlic lk, h wit h all its c:i rt hl;· ajlpclitcs and desires, indifference to the
li.i11 <1 rs, and lw:1r1y l'<>ntc 111pl uf the vanities .,f the world ; and inculcating
pn f.. ct ]'lint y "f h ea rt and life, and in ter<.:11urse u f thi: S<Hil with heaven. Jt
is incredible, that had men shP1 d.J inv ·nt fals chtJ"d:<, to promote the religion
uf ilii; < :u.J u f truth. The supp.,~ili•>n is suicid:1 l. If th c·y did bcl it:vc .in a
futur e stat<.: u f rctrihutiu n, a h ca \"\:n an d a hell hc r<:afte r, tht:y took the most
certain co urse, if fabc witn esses, to secu re th e lat ter fo r th eir porti on. And
if, still b eing l1:td m e n, th l·y did n ut l>t:l ieve in future punishment, h ow came
t ht:y to in ve nt falsc h1 )01b, th e dirt:ct a nd ce rtain tc nrl e ncv o f whi ch mis tu
dc:sl roy all th c' ir pr11spech o f wnrl .! ly li n11 1Jr and ha pp iness, ,<llld to ensure th dr
111i,-ny in thi s li ft:? FJ-. ,11 1 th ese aLsurcliti cs th ere is n o escape, but in the per·
fcv t C1m1·icti1m an ,] :td1n is, i11 n th:it tl 1<~y \\·1.: rc g110.J me n, test ifying tu that
whic h th t:y h :1d carefull y o l1se rvcd awl cuns idt:rcd, and well knew to be
true .''

ARCUil/ E.'\7.·l TION.

Dilemma. -

When the

issue is

r e duced to an alternative botli

sides of whi ch a re un ten a ble, the argumen t is cal led a dile mm a ,
and the t\\'O si des are c alled the horns of the dilcrnrn :1.

Of co urse

a dilemma is \\' holly ne ga ti\· e ; i t tt.:ars d o wn , but d Gcs n ot buil d
up.

If its premises arc a<ln1itt c cl it is un a n s weralJk; t he on ly

r ecourse , th e r efo r e , in th e fa c e of it, is ei th e r to ab a nd on th e p os iti o n o r t o sh o w that th e alternali\·e was not cor rec tly tak e n.
EXA:> ll ' l.l·:s . - Jn hi s speec h to the electors o f Br istul, Burke a ttacks the
cust o m o f imprisonment f,,r dcht, a nd it s unl y existin g remt:dy o r ratlic-r mitigation, Acts o f Crace, l1y rt:d ucing buth lo dikmmas . Th e 1·1rst shuws th e
injusti ce of i111pris1mi11g a 1khtur at the will and in sli •'.at iu n uf his credito rs : "The n ex t fau lt is, that th e in tlicti 11 g o f that punish1rn.: nt is 11 1Jt L> 11 t he
o pinion o f an equal and publi c jud g e, hut is re fer red L th e arl. it ra ry dis crc ti o n o f a pri vat <.:, nay , int erested and irritated, in cl i,·idua l. I fe who furmally
is, and sul 1stantially o ugh t to be, th e jud ge, is in realit y no rn u re th an minis teri a l, a mere exccu ti,·e instrum en t o f a private man, wh u is at once judge
and party. J·:,·cry idea o f jud icial o rd e r is sulJvcrted b y this p ruct:du re. lf
th e in solve ncy lie no crime, "·hy is it punished wit h ar bit ra ry im p risonment)
If it he a crime, why is it d cli\·ered in tu pri,·ate hands to pa rdon wit h•m t dis creti o n, o r tn puni sh ,,·it hout mer cy and wi tho ut measnre ?"
The second dilemma shows that a n Act of C race, which is merely an
arbitrary release o f debt ors fr nm prisun, pr in cipa lly , lt ,,·u uld sct: m, beca use
th e priso ns ar c 01·<.: rcro wd ed, is c:qu all y op posed 111 .1ustice: "If the credito r had a ri gh t to th ose ca rcasses as a na tura l sec uri ty fur
his pro pe rt y, l am s ur e we havc no right to d ep ri,·e him- uf tha t secu ri ty .
But if the few po un ds (Jf flesh we re nut necessary tu hi s security , Wt: h ad 1111t
a right tu d etai n the u11fortunatt" <ki> tor, without an y l•e11<:fit at all to the
persun who co nfin ed him. T ake it as you will, we commit injustice."

The Method of Residues. -

T his n:i.m e is gi v en to that form o f

argument whi ch, fir s t cmtmcrating a ll the poss il.ik J.spc c ts of t he
questi o n, then procee d s t o e limin a t e, o ne by o n e, until o nly the
tru e a s pec t is left.

Th e r e is a broadness J.nd co mprehen s iven ess

in this method whi c h make it often a v e ry effec tive ins trum ent o f
reaso ning.
F o r the sttccess ful empl oy m e nt o f thi s m e th od the altern::tt ives
s h ould be t ho roughly class ified and limited in n nmbc r; to clc:u
aw ay to o many false positio n s co mpli cates th e a rg imcnt and .:;in:s

ARCU.iff.\'T.-1

no.v.

ri se to :i. fcciing of in sec urity k st the true st:itc of the case should,
aft er all, have lJeen overlooked.
l':XA\I I' LE. A g o od ex:unplc of this form of arg ument occurs in Burke's
Speec h o n C\ •nc il iati o n with 1\m e ri ca . lla\ing descril>L:d th e enthusiastic
Sjlirit f)f lil>nt y that exists in the Cu J.rni cs, he thus proposes th e true method
uf dealing with it: -"Sir, 1f [ were capal,lc o f enga g in g yu u to a n equal attention, I would
sta te , that, as far a,.; 1 am ca pal ilc uf d i,.;c c:rning, thne arc hut three ways of
rro cec:ding relativ e l<) this stuhlH)rJl Spirit, \\ h ich preva ils in your Colonies,
and di s tur bs y1>ur C<Jve rnm cnt. These arc -Tu ck1n gc that Spirit, as in con·
\' c ni c nt, by rc nw ,·ing the Causes. T o prosecu te it as c rim inal. Or, to com·
pl y wi t h it as necessary . 1wuuld11 o t ]Jc guilty uf an imp erfec t enumerat ion;
I can think uf l>Ut these thr ee. J\nqth e r k1s indee d bee n st a rted, that of g iv·
i11g up the Cul<>ni es; lrnL it met s1 > slight a reception, that T do not think
111yscl f olili gc d ti> d\\·dl a gr eat wh ile u pn n it. lt is nuthing hut a little sally
uf a nger : l ike th e fr11\\·arclncss o f fn'<.: rish ch ildren; who, when they can not
g e t all th ey w"uld ban:, arc rcsuhcd t<> ta k e nothing."
The lir,;t t"·" named o f these arc th e n examined in an argum e nt of se\'cral
pa ~'. eS and pnn'Cd imprac tica ble; " ·hen:upun he th us summa ri zes: " If then the remu\'al of the causes ,,f this Sl'irit nf ,\ merican Liberty lie,
for the g rc·atcr part , o r rather cntireh· , im1iracti cahlc; if the id eas of Crin1inal
l'r<>C<' % li e inap1 >li calilc, o r if appli ca ble: , a re in the h iglicst degree in expedi·
cnt ; \\'hat \\'ay yet remain s ) I\o wa\' is ope n, liut the third and last-to corn·
pl y with th e ,\111,~rican Spi rit as nc ce,.;sary; \>r, if you please, to submit tu
it as a n ecessary E\'il."
Th e event was, as \\' e know, that the British nation would not consent to
th e co n c iliati crn here a1h'o ca tcd, and the f11nrth co urse mentioned, that of giv·
ing up the co lu ni cs, had to lie sul11 nittcd to.

II.

By Refutation. - R e fut;tti on is the opposite of confirmation.
Its offi ce is purely neg:ttin', lJcing devoted to te;tring down what is
wrongly held o r erron eously argued ; :rnd :is s11ch, it is merely prepJntory, ck;tring the ground for a hcttcr estaulishment of the
truth afterw:lrd. It clocs not }'r(l7'c truth therefore ; though it
serves the cause of truth lJy removing the obstacles that prevent a
fa ir view of it.
:\ wu rd may herc lJL: said rq;:mlin,; the sp irit tll which refut.:1·

ARCUil!L1\'l'ATJON.

t

433

tion should be conducted. It is to be rem embered that the writer
is concerned ideally with the establishment of truth, not me rely
with the triumph of a cause . If argument in any fo rm is used
insincerely and for sophistry, it is perverted from its true use.
Refutation, then, cannot always mean complete dcmolition of an
opponent's p os iti on. Sometimes it can succeed on ly in tran sferring the preponderance of prolJaLility to the other side. It is
more honest, and in the long run really stronger, if it recognizes
whatever truth exists on both sides, and seeks not so much to be
triumphant as to Le fair.
The following are the main features of refu tation to lie noted in
literary argumentation.
Analysis of the Opposed Position. - This is of the first impo rtance in refutation. The most prevale nt reason why falb c ies c ree p
into arguments ancl mislead uoth reason er and aud ie nce is that the
und erly in g processes and principles of the thought are so overbid
with repetition, illustration, :i.nd digression, that its ce ntral movement cannot well Le discerned; in the language of the proverb,
"we cannot sec the wood for trees." Countless arc the ways in
whi ch the argument may thus fail of the exact and squarely encountered truth . It may, and often does, involve false premises . Or
it may be lacking merely in the right emphasis and perspectivc, may put first what shoul d lJe subordinate, or ignore something that
is of deter m ining sign ifi cance for the result. In any case, the
needed prelimi nary step is analys is : exac t investigation, and if
need l>e statement, of what the argument really is. 1
The iogi('al order in which such ana.lysis of the opponent's p osition m:i.y be conducted in the fol low ing .
I. Examine the conclusion and tendency of the opponent's
plea. Oftener than not when the principle that really underlies
an erro neo us position, or the tende ncy that is its natural outcome,
is stripped of its olJscuring verbiage and held up in its true light,
no counter argument is needed; it refutes itself.
l For general s ugges ti ons as to the conduct of such analysis , see Interpretation,
in th e chapter on ffrprocluction of tlie Thought of Oth ers, pages 302-307.

--.

'

1.H

AN (; C.111:.XT.1

TIO. \,~

I . The follo\\' ing, fr nm l'nrkc, co ndenses into one epi g ram·
rn atic sen knee the real signili.::rnce o f II' hat his uppo n cnt a dvocates; EX ,\ .\!l'LES. -

" I I c asscrh , l h:tt rc:I rn>]h:d i,.; 11 nl \\'i sc ; a n<I th e p roper, th e o nl y prope r,
sul1j c ct of i11 •;uin-, is ' n " l h o \\' w e g nt int o th is diflic ult y, hu l ho w we arc \o
g e t Pttl of it. '
/11 l'lhcr 7i. '('r dJ, 7('C a r« , a ct u rdi n.~,. to lt /111 , 11> d J1tsu /t our in vc11 1/ ,111 , 1111d I r• r,j,·, f .J11r ,·xjo·io1rc" . T hc m udc o f del iberati o n h e recom mends
is d ia 111ctric:1ll;· UJ'lhlsile to c\·cry rule o f reaso n ancl c\·cry p rin cip le o f guocl
s e nse cst:1blished am o ngst mank ind . 1"or t h a t se n'e a ml th a t reaso n I ha ve
al\\'ays nndersl• ><Hl al 1snlutc ly lo presc ribe, \\'hc n c,·c r we ar e in vol ved in cliffi.
cul t ies fr o m the 1111.:as ur es w e h ave p ursued, t ha t we sh o uld take a strict
revic\\· uf th ose n11.: asurcs, in orrln t<1 cu rr ed <>ur crr•>rs, if t h ey sh o uld he corri.t,;il>lc; o r at least to av o id a dull uni f.,r lllity in misc hief, a nd th e un p itic<l
cal ::unity o f being repeated !:: caught in th e Sallie s na re. "
:! . T he fol luw ing , fr um \ \ .cl>s lcr, p11 rl r::iys i>y a m aste rly c hain o f reasonin g
tl: e lcn.J c 11 cy o f th e pusiti1111 he is rc-fut ing : " ~u ch , ~ir, arc th<.: inc,·ita li lc results uf tl 1is d11ctr i nc. B eg innin g with th e
uri ;.: in a l l'IT"r, that the l'<'11stitutiu11 uf the L'n ite d :; rates is n o th ing lrnt a
cumpact hct"ccn ,,,,·ncign :;t alt's ; ass.·rting, in the n e~ t step, tha t each State
has a ri gl1t to lie its own s.,Jc judl'.c .,f the cxtL·11t uf its O\\' ll ob li gatiu11s.
anrl cuns•:q u e 11 tly uf the co n s li tu ti1111ality 11f la \\·s 11 f C ung ress; a nd, in th e
n c~ I, tli:tl it n1a:: "l'i"•sc ,,·Jiatc,·c r it s cvs li t to declare unc<> nsl il u li o nal, an <l
Ll1a t it d cdrles fur i1 sc lf 0 11 the 111 .. de :l!l.J m eas ure pf re dress,- the arg um ent
arri,·cs at o n ce a t th e co n clus i(ln , that what a ~t a lc dissents fr om, it may
1w llify ; what it oppuse,; i t may"!'!'" ''-' l1y f,irce ; wha t i t ckciJes fo r itsel f it
liy i ts o\\' n pu 1,·er ; an.! tha t, in short, it is it sel f supre me over the

m :1y exe cute

lcg isl::tt io11 of ('un.L'.rcss, and su p rem e ov er the d ec is io n s o f th e natio nal j nd icat are; su preme o,·c r the cu nst itut io n o f the cou nt ry, s u pre me over the sup reme
law of the land ."

z . The next step, if :t.n:i.lysi s is c;-irried furthe r, is to show that,
;1d111itting th e opp.,11c11t's pn.: 111 iscs, the c01wlt1 siun he draws does
nut n;1t:urally o r rn.:ccssa ri ly fo ll uw; in o th e r words, th at hi s argurncnt .is n o t log ically const ru c ted. Such a fallacy in a rg ument is
called a 11 t111 soj11il1tr.
1-:xA.\IJ'l.E. I n his r,·fu t:itiu n of the ?\ ullilical io n d octr i n e, ·w ebster thus
shul\·s that C\'c ll if the <...'<>nstituti<>ll is tu l>c regard ed as a m ere co mpact bcl\'. ' l'<'ll s o ,·cn:ign st;1 t,·,;, t h:lt f:ict dues n u t cunfc r u n a n in div idual sla te th e
r ig lll t• J nulli fy ii al p ln sur c : -

" l li :we a<i111i tt cd , that, if th e ('.,11stitu ti•>11 w ere t\l he co nsidered as the
cr c<t turc •J f th e State guv c rnrncnl>, it mi g ht he 1nud ili ccl, in terpreted , or con·

ARC UN ENTA T ION.

435

strued accor d in g to th e ir p leas ure. But even in that case, it would be necessary tha t th ey sho ul d agr<'i'. O ne al o ne coul d n o t int e rp re t it conclusively;
o ne al o ne could n o t co n s tru e it; one al o ne c o uld n o t modify it. Yet the g e n tl ema n 's doctr i ne is, th at Carolina alo ne may co n st rue and i n te r p ret that comp act wh ich cc1ually b i nds all , and g ivc5 eq ual r igh ts to a ll.
" So, the n, S ir, even supposing the Co n st itu tio n to Le a compact b e twee n the
S tal es, the gentle m a n's doctr i ne, n everth eless, is n o t m a in ta inable ; beca us e,
fir s t, th e ge n eral gove rnm en t is n o t a par ty to tha t co mpact, b u t a goven i m r: 11t
establis h ed by it, am! ves ted by i t w ith th e powers o f tryi ng a nd deciding
do ubtfu l q u estions ; an d seco nd ly, becau se, if th e C on stit ut io n be r ega rded as
a com pact, n o t o ne S tat e o nly , bu t a ll th e S tales , a re p art ies to th a t compact ,
and one can have n o ri ght to fix u pon it h e r own p ec uli a r co ns tru ct io n ."

3. The ne xt step, if the erroneous a rg um ent requ ires and invites
it, is to a ttack the p rem ises or pri ncip les o n which th e argumen t is
foundt: d . If th ese can b e proved erroneous, of course the a rgum e nt mus t fall.
EX AMPLE. -Thus, \Vehster fo ll o ws up the fo r ecitccl refuta ti o n by r etractin g
t h e ad m iss io n th a t h e hacl made fo r th e pu rp ose of argumen t, and showin g
th a t eve n th a t p rem ise is u n te na bl e ; " So much , Si r, fo r the argu m en t, e ve n if th e premises o f the gentleman
were g ra nted , o r cuuld be p roved. But, Si r, th e ge n tle m a n has fai led to mai n tain h is leadin g pro positi o n . IT e h as no t show n, i t canno t be shown, that tl1 e
Con st ituti o n is a co m pac t betwee n S ta te gove rnm e nt s.
The Co nslituti un
itself, in its very fr o n t, refutes th at idea; it d e cl a r.e s that it is ord a in ed and
establ ished by tlte p eopll' of tlu U n ited S tates. So far fr om say in g that it is
esta blished by the g o vernments of th e seve ral States, it d o es n o t even say that
it is estal>l ish cd by the p eople of tlt e sc••er a l States ; hut it pro n ou n ces that it
is es taJ ,li shccl hy th e pcn plc of th e U n ited Stales, in t he a ggregate. The g"n ·
tleman says, it mus t m ea n n o m o re th a n the p eo ple o f t he seve ral Stat es.
D o ul1tlcss, th e people of the se veral S tat es, take n collec ti vely, co n st itute th e
p eople o f th e U n itctl Stales ; hut it is in thi s, th eir co ll ec t ive capacity, it is as
a ll the people o f the United States, that th ey cslal1lish th e Constitutio n . Su
th ey d e cl a re ; an d w o rds ca nn o t b e pla in e r than the wo rds used."

Som e of th e ways in · whi ch th e p re mi ses or elements of the
different forms of a rgu me nt may b e a ttacked n eed here to b e
no ted a nd illustrated .
In a d ed uc tiv e argument the m ajor premise 1s perh aps most

AR CC.1/L.\7.·l i'JON.

c:i.rcfully lo be tested, bec:rnse, be ing oftenest om itted, it is most
n:iturJ.lly p:is:-;eJ l>y J.S unr1ues tion:J.u k . Whereas, it may fail in the
un i \·e r~J. iity tha t is essent iJ.l to suc h a premise, or if admitted it
mJ.y p ro\·e loo mu ch. I t is on these Jines tkit it is open to refut:i.tion. T he min or pre mise may be refuted by showi ng that it is
not really a case under the ge neral rule that is laid down as major.
D r. J oh nso n's fa m ous r eto rt to a man of disho norable
,·:\!ling " ·Jin, o n be in g r e mn ns tra t<:d w ith , ur ge d as ir it \l't:re a n unqucsti o11a l1k trut h, •· l: ut a ma n mu s t Ji,·e ~ " -"Sir, l d o no t sec the n ecessity o r it,"
- is really a denial o f the un in:rsality u r a maj·ir premi se, as may b e see n by
supplying th e impl icit syll ,1g is111 : '\\" ha te n :r a man's ca llin g th e wo rl d owes
him a li,·ing; I am a man ; th c rer1m.: the \r urld Lrn·es me a living irrespective
11f my ca ll ing .' T he m ajo r J> rcmi se i,; not so un tiu es ti o nable as it would
st: em .
2 . ;\ l:tca ulay , in his n :futa ti \J n o f th e argumen t of Gladston e's essay on
" ( "hurch and S tate," thus pP ints o ut a maj11 r premi se tha t proves too mu ch:
" :'11 r. ( ;Jadstu ne·s whole t hcory re,; ts on this great fu ndam ental propos ition,
th at the pr"pagat io n o f rcligi"us trnth is "nc uf th e pri ncipal ends o f govern·
me11 t, as i.:•>,·ernmcnl. J f :'1 1r. ( ;Jad,;t11nc has not p ru,·cd this proposition, his
syste m ,·a ni sh cs at un ce ." T h i,; is refuted l1y sh•J\\·in g th a t if true it is as tru e
of nc ry bo dy o f me 11 c> rga11 i1.ecl fo r a par ticular purpose as it is of a gove rn m en t. I IL: then ma kes this C( >mmenl: "T he tru th is , th a t i\fr. Gladstone has
fall en int o an _erru r very cu m mu n a 11 \\l11g n1 en of less tak nts than hi s own. It
is n u t u n usual fo r a p e rsun "·ho is cage r tu p ro,·c a parti cular propositio n lo
:is,umc a "'"j,1r o f huge c:--tcnt , \l'hic h inc ludes tha t p a rti cular pro pos it ion,
'' it !wu t en: r r cficct i11 g that it inr ludL"s a g re at deal lll <) rC . . . . He fi rst
r ,·,'<>l\'l·s on hi ,; ,-., 11 1· \11,i •> ll. I Jc th l' n 111akL"s a "'''j,,,. of most co mprehensive
di 11H·11 . ., i• 111~ , :111d h:i.\'i 11 g ~:,l i ,,.. l icd lii111..:.1:l f that it c1 ,11l :li11 s hi s co 11t..:l t1sion, neve r
lr1111l>le s hin1 ,;clf a l>uu t " ha t d,;e it 111 ay cn11t a in: an d as soo n as we examin e
it \l't: ii11 d t hat it cu nta ins a n in lin itc 11umbcr of co 11 clusio 11s, every o ne of
\\'hich is a monq ruus al>surdity ."
3. \\"cl,stc r's rL"futati •in cited on page .+.H is reall y a re fu tatio n o f the min or
prl' m is,., as we ma y sec by recon stru ct in g the sy ll "gism: 'J\ co mpact belwecn
(·•111 :11 pa rties is s u bjec t tu the pka,u re " fall o r eac h, to interpre t, construe, or
n w dify ; Tht: Cu 11 s ti tu t it1n i,; s uch a cnmpad. betwee n c11ual and sovereign
~talc's ; Jl c nce, th e Cun!'lituli 1> n is sul•jl'ct to th e pleas ure of the individual
S t:1lcs, to intL-rpret, cons t rn c, nr m ... Ji1·y .· This he refutes by sh ow ing th al it
is csta hli;;hcd liy the pc <1pk, n .. t 11;· the States as such; and in ano ther speech
h e m aintain s that it i~ n• .i,l, ;;tr ic th· sp,·al; i11g, a comp act.
I 1. u· s TRAT!O:\S . -

I.

A RCU/J! I':NTATION.

13 7

In an inductive argum ent the inquiry of the refuter is wh ether
the circum stances adduced arc conclusive enough, and in suffic ien t
number, to make an adeqmtc induction. Is an all eged exam ple
real, - th at is, does it l>elong to a par:ill el state of things ? D ocs
an arg ument from analogy evince the working of a cause tlut wou ld
be d ecisive for the p resent case, or is it merely a coincidence ?
lL.LUSTRATI O NS . - I. 1\1 any po pular s uperst iti o ns are me rely circum,ta 11 ccs
too vagu e and in co nclusive to fo rm a real in d ucti o n, yet th ey ar e so used . h1 r
instance, see in g the new moo n o,·e r the left shuuld c r \l'aS doub tless fi rs t not iced
in co11n ccti o n with ill luck; then se \'l:ral coin cid e nt occ urre n ces <1f this kin d
gave ri se tu a ge n eral belief th at ill lu ck was n ecessa ril y porl c ndc rl .
2. l\lacaulay thus demo lish es an argume nt from exampl e : "\\"h a t fa cts rlocs
my honorable frien rl produ ce in s up po rt o f hi s o pini o n) O ne fa ct o nly; and
that a fa ct whi ch 11 as abso lutel y n othing lo d o with th e qu es t io n. The efkct
of th is JZcfo rm , he tells us, wo uld lie to mak e the I l u use of Co mm o ns all powe rful. Tt " ·as all-p owerful once b efo re, in the begin ning o f 1(149. The n
it c ut off th e h acl o f the Ki ng, an <l a bolish ed t he I l o use o f Pee rs . T here·
fo re, if it agai n has th e suprem e p o \l' e r, it will a ct in the sa me ma n ner. l\''"·,
Sir, it \\'as n() t the H o use of Co mm o ns tha t c ut o ff th e h ear! of Charles the
F irst; n or was th e l l o use o f Co mm o ns then all-po werful. It h ad been greatly
r e<lucctl in numbers by su ccessi ve exp ulsio ns. It was un d er th e a bsol ute
domini o n of the a rm y. J\ n1ajority o f the House was \\'illing to take the
terms o ffe red by th e Kin g . The sohl iers turne (l o ut the majo rity; an d th e
minority, n o t a si xth part of the wh ole H o use, passed th ose vo tes of whi ch my
h o no rable fri e nd speaks, vo tes o f whic h the mid d le classes disap p roved th e n,
and o f whi c h th ey disa p pro ,·e still."
3 . Geo rge Jlenry Lew es thus refut es an anal ogi cal argume nt o f Dr. J oh n·
son: "Dr. J ohnson \\' as g uil ty of a sur pri sin g fallacy in saying th a t a g rea t
math e mati cian mi g ht :tis<> 11 · a g reat JHlet: 'Sir, a ma n can w:ilk L"ast a~ fa r
as h e can walk w..:st.' Tru e, lrnt math e ma ti cs and poetry llo no t diffe r as cas t
an< l \\' est; and he wo ulcl hardl y asse rt that a m a n wh o could wal k l\l'cnly
miles co uld th erefo re sw im that di stance.' '

Argu men ts fro m test im ony and authority are refuted ei ther by
addu cing coun ter C\·iclence, or by showing the di shonesty or in con siste ncy of the eviden ce g iv en. Cross-exami nation in courts of
justi ce is essentiall y an instrum ent of refutation .
Refutation as adapted to Popular Apprehension. - I t is an
un spoke n axiom of pop ul ar discourse that the spcJ.ker, as De

··-----------· ·- ------ -AR CUJIL\ "/ '.l TJ<JN.

ANCUfi/ENl~-1

Quincey expresses it, "canno t rely on any sort of attention that
\\'Ould cost an effort."
This is espec ially to be remembered in
refutati on, on the effecti veness of \\'hi c h very impor tant issues often
depend . J knee :rny kine! of n:futati o n that compels the hearer to
follo w fine :rnd suhtk di stinctions of thought is precarious ; it may
st rike special thinkers, hut it c:rnnot he rel ied on fo r average people. It must be so poin ted as to sho w its drift at once; its distin ctio ns mu st be so broad tkit no one can fail to see them· and
teclrnicaliti.:s sh o1ild if possible l>e .woidcd.
I. Hence, in cases ilH·oh·ing the intricate rela tions of premises
and conclu,;ions, the c learest refutation will he made by means of
parallel arguments, that is, argnrncnts in volv ing the sam e p rinciples
of re:1soning, but appl ied to more fam iliar subjccts a nd leadi ng to
manifestly untenalJlc conclusions . This form of refu tation was a
special f:1Yorite 11·ith i\fac:rnlay.
)

2 . Forms of argument especially adapted to popular refutation
arc ret!11ctt'o at! ah11nl11111 and diknrnia . 1t is to be remarked a lso
that the argument from an alogy is a mo re effective instrum ent for
reply than fur an orig in al argument. \\'h ilc it may be o f precarious
valu e taken :ls a p roof, it may be deci si,·c as related to some fal lacious argllrrn:nt th~lt it is designed to ove rthrow.
Need of Wisdom in Refutation. - Refutation, being th e attack
of an o pponent's positio n, mu st recognize the opponent as alreaJy
in possession of the field; and inde ed the reasoner's handling of
his opponent lJctr:tys his <>11·11 ,·stim:1tc of the !:1ttcr's strength. It
is o( lll tll'h i111portlll<'C, thneforl', t!1 :tt he lie wise in SO ad:1pting
himse lf to the opponent's positio n as :wcurately to accomplish his
purpose, b o th in his statements and in his impl icati o ns.
On this point a few su gges tions may be made.
I. The reflltation should, as to its strength, be wisely adapted
to the exact force of the opposed argurncnt, neither belittling nor
exaggerat in g it. It is manifestly un1r ise to underrate the opponent 's posi ti o n; thL· rdutation mt1st JC stronger if it is to act as a
real rc.: f11tation . On the othe r hand, it is eq ually unwise to spend
supnfluous ene rgy in refuting a weak positi o n; the very exertion

TION.

439

put forth advertises the opposed positio n as strong. In th is
r espect, then, ni ce calculation is needed to est imate the e xact
power requi site to dispossess the hearer of an erroneous argument.
2 . The reasoner need s also to be alert agai nst allowing his energy
to lJe drawn off to secondary iss ues. If he spends his tim e on
them, th e citadel of the opponen t's pos iti o n is still intact; while
if he st rikes directly for the ce ntral e rror and refutes that, second a ry po ints will fall of themselves.
3. The limits of refutati o n are to be kep t in min<l. It is often
effcctiYc merely as invalidating the opponen t's cou rse of reasoni ng,
while his co nclu sio n may n eve rth eless be tru e a nd estab li shalJlc by
othe r arguments. The refuter needs therefo re to recognize just
how much or how little he has do ne. And the only safe piace in
which to leave a refutation is in a new arg um en t. Let the true
reasoning fo r whi ch the refutation has cleared the way not fa il to
be brought forward ; otherwise th e effect of what is after all a mere
n egative process \\'ill soon vanish .
III.

TIIE BOD\' OF ARGU!.lE).TTS.

The un ity which, in a greater or less degree, is a requisite of
every wo rk of literature, is an espec ially impe rative quality of an
argumentative work: its parts, if detached and d igressiYe, arc not
m erely inoperative; they arc a di stracting and damag ing clement.
Not only must the v::irious arguments lie a chain, with eve ry link
in pbcc, hut wh atever is introduc to ry o r tran sitional must co11 t ri hute its influ e nce toward absolute oneness o f effect. Some considerations, th erefore, regarding th e body of arguments belong to :111
adequa te discussion of our subj ect.

I.
What Argumentation owes to Exposition. - In separably con n ec te d both with th e stru cture of individual argu ments and with
the a rtic ulati on o f the whole cou rse of reasoning arc the vari ous

_

.........,..__ ---~------·---- _....,___

440

-----·- ·- - -- .- ---

AR CW! ENTA TION.

processes of exposition . Th ey often work, when rightly employed,
to make exte nded reason ing supe rfluous .
T he followi ng a re the pr inc ipal uses of exposition in the body
of argumen ts th:ct make up a d isc ussion.
1 . By expositi o n the riucstion at issue is sta ted and e xpla ined.
This is a most indis pc nsau lc part of the wo rk . Wha teve r in the
(jtH.:stion is olJsc urc is to he put into ;:icc urate and luc id language ;
wh :1tcn:r is ha rd is to be d e fin ed; whateve r is of secon dary importrncc is to he dist ingui shed from the main issue ; a nd, in a
word, the clearest and e xactest statement p ossible is to be sought
as the Llasis o f d iscussio n.
NOTE. -Tht: va lut: of a good stalt: ment of the ques ti on at issue is ill ustratt:cl in tht: full uwi ng, dt:s cri 1, 1il'c: uf .\ lir:tham L incoln's methods as a lawye r,
fr u m i'\i colay :tnd ll :ty 's "L ift: of l.inculn ": ' 'I fis mun; w;u:tl a nd lll(! re succc.;sfu l ma nner was to rely upo n a clear,
strong, lucid statunrnt , kt.: ·pi ng ddaib in proper su bordinat ion an d bri nging
furward, i n a way whi ch fastened the :tttcntion o f court and jury ali ke, th e
essential puint o n whic h he cla im ed a decision. ' ln rl ccd,' says o ne of h is colk:tgues, 'his statemen t o ft en rende red argument un necessary, an d ofte n the
court wo uld st op him a nd say, " if tha t is the case, we will hear th e oth er
side. "',,

2 . By ex pos it io n the nature a nd ex tent of th e q uestion are d ete rmin ed . W hethe r the issue is o ne of fact or of princip le ; wh ether
of ri gh t or o f exp ed ien cy; whL"th c r admitt ing of certai n d ecision
o r 01tly prol1:1blc; whethe r of un i \«.: r~:tl o r of lim ited appli cati on;
st tc li que s ti o ns as tltesc m ust ]Jc at tlt c ou tse t de cided, a nd if necessary exp rcsse<l, Lly a carefu l expositio n.
11.1.v sT RJ\T JON . - The foll ow ing , frum J\lacaulay's Speech on Copyright,
will exemp lify th is offi ce of expositio n : " T he firs t th ing lo be done, Si r, is to settl e on wh:tt prin ciples the question
is to be argued. A re we fr ee to kgislate fur the p ublic good , or are we not?
Is this a question of expediency, ur is it a question o f right ? Many of th ose
who have written and petitioned against th e existing sta te o f th ings treat th e
questio n as o ne of ri gh t. The law of nature, accordin g tu th em, g ives to every
man a sacred :rnJ i nrlcfras ilile p rope rty in his own ideas, in th e fru its of his
011 n reas<•n a11J imagina ti on . The legislatu re has ind eed the power to take

A R C U.J! ENTA T /ON.

Hl

away th is proper ty, j ust as it has the po wer to pass a n a ct of atta in<le r fo r cutting off an inno cent man's head witho ut a tri al. But, as such an act of at·
ta inder would bt: legal murder, so would a n ac t invad ing th e r ight of a n auth or
to h is copy be, according to these gen tl eme n , legal robbe ry.
" Now, S ir, if th is !,c so, kt justi ce lie du ne, cost wh at it may. I am not
p repared , li ke my ho no rable and learned friend , to ag ree to a compromise
betwee n righ t and exped iency, a nd to co mmit an inj ust ice fu r the pu blic conveni ence . But I must say, that h is th eo ry soars fa r beyond the reach of my
facul ties. lt is not necessa ry to g o, o n th e present occasiu n, int o a metap hys ical in qu iry abo ut the o rigin o f the rig h t o f prnpcrt y ; a nd cerlainh· ll tJ th ing but th e stro ngest nt: cessity wo uld k ad me to d isc uss a snhject su likely to
be dis tas teful tu the I [ousc." E tc.
Hy a par ag rap h o f such expos itio n h c: fix es the exact iss ue, a nd tht:n says,
" \ Ve m ay now, the refore, I think , d esce nd fr o m th ese h ig h r egions, whcrc: we
arc in da nge r o f being lost in th e cloucls, to firm g ro un d an d clear light. Le t
us look at this quest io n like legislators."

3 . E xposit ion plays a large part, often as b rge as argumenta tion
itself, in the course of reaso ning. A p rem ise may dep end for its
clearn ess on the definiti on of a term , and the limits and rcbt io ns
of principles may need me rely to be se t fo rth accurately, fo r the
q ues tio n to argue itself.
NuTE. - In a series of articles, by Ca rd in al Ne wm a n, en ti tled" \\' ho's to
Bla me?" th e argu ment is ca rrit: d on a lmost e nti rely by e.xpositiun. The fund a men ta! propositio n, '' T hat the Briti sh Co nst itutio n is ma ck f,ir a state o f
peace, and not fo r a state o f war, " is lirst expa nded; then the tc:rins 'gun .: rn ·
m en t ' and ' constitution ' arc d cli nccl an d ill ustrat<:d ; the n th e di stinctions
ohta incd o ut o f tha t dcli niti u n a rc applic,J to the Bri tish nati u n; so that whe n
we thus sec just wht:rt: th e co nstituli o n l ol' l.,ngs, wh:tt is th .. 1n·ak11ess and
wh a t t he st ren gt h o f its fun c.la rn en lal ckirade r, Wt: a rc ready tu ad111lt tin.:
propos iti on.

IL

Suggestions on Order of Arguments. - There is no other for m
of inven ti o n in whi ch an e ffective o rder is o f so fun <larnental importa nce as in a rg umentat ion. Thi s b ecause a rgu mentatio n is
m o re closely and pointedly a n o rgan ism p lanne<l fo r irnme<liate
effect o n m en. It a im s no t m erely to e nterta in and info rm, but to
change op ini on a nd overco m e e rror. It must add ress the man

4-12

I

AR C U.J!J::Nl'A T!ON.

more dee ply and centrally; and hence its rhetorical requ1s1te of
adaptation is more stern, less tokrant of distraction of effect. All
mu st count toward an absolute unity of result; and all must be
fin ely calculated to meet and move the convictio ns of men.
On the sniijec t of order, howev e r, important as it is, only general
su ggestions can be ventured . It must be left for the most part to
th e tact of the reasone r, to the character of the audience, to the
sta te of feeling and knowledge rcg:nding the question, and many
other considerations that can be determined only in the individual
case.
As regards Kind of Argument. - In general it may be remarked
that arguments that have an explanatory c haracter, or that establish a fundamental principle on which mu ch depends, naturally
occupy the leading place; being somewhat of expository nature,
and therefore rn:i.king further steps more clear and cogent.
This would .di c tate that, in determining questions of fact, th e
leading place should be giYen to the a priori a rgument and in genCr:11 to wh a tever tend s to estahli ~ h an antecedent probability of
the case. This lJe comes the lKtsis of proccdme, the hypothesis;
and whateve r is added by te stimony comes in then either to
strengthen th e prolJal>ility o r to compel modificatio n. Thus the
order is from the more gene ral to the more particular. If the
opposite order were observed , the argument from probability
would seem to betray the reason er's se nse that pos1t1ve testimony is in::u]equate and must be bu ttressed up by something
else .
As regards Relative Strength of Arguments. - Several considcr:itio ns co ntribute to rn:ike the order o f a se ri es of arguments
something of a problem . An argumentative work, like all works
of literature, should have the effect of climax, the power and
cogency of the parts in creas in g steadily to a culmination. This
would seem to favor beginning with the weakest argu me nt; and
yet certainly th:it wou ld be precarious, for much d epends, in a work
intended to produce or to modify convic ti on, on the first impression. T he first argument shuuld, on thi s la tter cons ideration, be

ARC UJl!ENTATION.

one that will have influen ce to induce a favorable hearing for the
succeeuing. It sh ould be stro ng, and also obvious. The last argu m ent should lie strong, and also co mprehensive, gathering into
a final plea the strength of wh at has preceded .
Such, th en, would seem to be the most ph il osophical arran gem ent o f a body of arguments: begin with th e consideration that
is most n ear and natural, that derives its strength from its selfevident characte r; then make th e cli max in the dire cti on o f
breadth and comprehensiveness, until the last argument stan d s
as a round e r-o ff and finisher of th e whole structure.
Arguments relatively weak are thus to occupy the interm ediate
place, with bulk and prominence graduated to their intrinsic Yalu:.
Another fact may here aid th e reasoner. An argument wc:ik m
itself may so act with other argum ents as both to g ive and tu
rece ive more, perh:ips, than its intrinsic strength . Isolated, it may
be insignificant ; supple ment in g or preparing the w:iy for an other,
it may have decisive importance. This rnle, then, rnay be :i ppli ed
to the minor considerations : when an argument has less rebti\T
valu e in itself, seek what can lie d one fo r it liy sk ill ft il arrangement.
Order of Refutation. - The order that refuta tio n should occupy
in the cou rse of reaso ning depends on the strength of the position
refuted, and on the prominence it already has in the mind of th e
public add ressed . Wh en th e opposed idea holds full possess ion o f
th e ficlcl, th e first bus in ess must be to dislodge it; there is no roo m
for a new argument until the old is cleared a way. In such case ,
then, refutation belongs fi rst; and the procedure m:iy lie cxun pli fi etl by W e lister's speech on "The Constitution no t a Compact
between Sovereign States," the first half of whi c h is :m el:lliorate
refutation of the wid ely rece ived Nullification doctrine. On th e
other hand , wh en th e refu ted position is insignifi cant , the ord er of
rcflltation should re cognize its in signifi cance; th e refutati on may
come in incidentally, as a co rollary of th e argument most poten t
to overthrow the error. In Burke's Bristol Speech, where the
re fut ati on is me rely an :ins,,·er to objec tion s, it comes in as a supplementary p:irt added in thc interests of completeness.

---- -444

------- -·-

-- -

AR C UJ!.f:; 1.:T .1 TJ0/1~

445

ARCUJlfENTATION.

3. Conce de Where you safely can, and not g rud gingly but gener-

I\'. Jll·: r, .\TE.

ously.

This form of di scourse, whi c h is J. personal contest between
co rnlJ:tt:mt s, wherein t he brgc r :iim is truth and the immediate
e nd \'icto ry, has its system o f p roc edure and tactics, too intricate
to b e deu ilc d to a ny g rea t e x ten t here. It may ]Je of servi ce,
ho we\'er, to g i\·e some of the m o re impo rtant features of deb:ite
in the for m of practical rules, with brief comments th ereon.

.
ess
A wise concess10n
not on l y ma k es the appearance .of fairn On
fixes more d efinit ely and poi ntedl y th. e iss.ue . . ... ,
greater, but
.
. · t. ' f then th ev are d1 s m1sscd.
d I
no con tes ' i
,
. · t the re is
c on ce ec porn s
~
,_
I·
It is n ot infrequently
f I
t ' St is better uottn( ec1.
the sce n e o t 1e con e
.
.
,
point except t/1 e one
wi se t o yield to yo ur oppone1:t m eve ry
wh e rein you would make him y ield to you.

r. Make s ure o f your question - its in terpreta tion , its limits and
extent, its exact point at iss ue.

4. W aive whatever is irre levant, that t h e arg ument may be con fined
to one simple and clear course.

~

II
I

I

The id ea l, in the pre pa ra tio n o f the question, is to fi nd th e
point where the contes tants are at one, so that all may have a
com m o n uas is of refere n ce clearl y d e termined by definition and
e nun c ia ti o n. Of cou rse thi s is no t ak:i.ys equally possible, a nd
somet imes it is n o t p oss ilJ!c a t all ; but even thus, th e fact tha t the
iss ue li es in g reat p:i rt in t he d e fin itio n o f te rms or the d e te rminatio n of the ques ti o n is of the utm os t importance to disco\·cr. I t
is e:ic h d e L::itcr's bu siness at th e outset, therefore, to fix his own
posi tion firmly; and therc::ifter he should hold to it consisten tly.

· sm1p
· 1y postpon
.
.
.
h
::ime as to concede. It is
To w::i1ve is n o t t e s
.
. I o t iieldcd is not in pbc c
ing some consiller::i t10n. which, thoug 1 n ~n uns~ru rnl o us oppo h
This is often an important m::itter. :
1
, .
.
e re .
. • ·k no better for tune t J1a n t o rnvolve the d eoater rn
nsome
ent m::iy
see
.
.
. . may o ften .se rv e him the good purirrelevant
d1scu
ss10n
; it
pose of preserving ::i lame cause fr·o n1 'a ttack .
5. Be fair and honest toward t h e position and arg uments of your
opponent.

2.

Regulate your work by locating jus tly the burden of proof.

·wh oe ve r p ropo.-es a n in novatio n, or asser ts som e fact or prin ciple n o t ge n e ra lly hel d, m us t ta ke upon him self the labor, o r
])ll rc k n, of pnw ing it; he mu s t m a ke the attack. The other side,
t he side o f t he es ta bli shed o rd e r of th ings, or of reigning pu Lli c
opin ion, has th e advantage of th e defe ns ive, or as we say, h as the
presu m ption in its favor. A man is prcs11meJ innocent until he
is proved g uilty . /\ c usto m is pres umed good until it is demonst ra ted to be Lad . Th is rn ::ikcs it an important matter, determin ing as it d oes th e m et h od o f procedure, to locate righ tly the
b1mlc n of proo f. In so m e q uestions, qu estions of speculative
tni th or of expedi e ncy, there is prac tical ly no burden of proof;
while in o th e rs it has a c:i. rdin::ll sign ifi cance .

l

l!
;

.

Th is a p plies both to the st::ite m ent o f a n o pponent's views ::in d
nent's aruument .
.
f
to the es ti mate o a n oppo
o . J·
t atte m p t to modify the
c ·
, " · n statement w1 t 10u "
Scrupul o us i~u rness I
,
'
'
"de is th e o nl y pro,
I . . ord e r to favo r on e s own s1 ' .
opponents wore
. .s · 111 tl e lon er run. It p.-"YS· for )'Oll r own a rg
' umen t ;
ced ure that p.1ys m 1
.o
..
a to whittle at it is onl y to
t's pos1t1on 1s s trono,
for if th e o1:ponen .
indirect] to co nfess th at you ::i re baffl ed ;
attempt ev::is1on and thus.
y
It p ays also in fo rti fy ing
. 1
ds a faJr encounter.
· ·
whe reas 1t c eman ·
'
.
· ·t )'O U k ::t\·e
. .
. ~ r if in represen t111g yo ur ::int::igo111~
.
your pos1tto n '. o
.
.
derrated principle, it wi ll work
some unrec ogmzed pomt, some un
to yo ur d iscom fiture.
onent's ::ira um ent is found im pregn::iole ,
0
So al so wh e n an opp
d c J t rftwc
,
'
.
tl
t
the
fact
be
fairly
::ic k no wlcd ge b. JU
o
•
I ) e t ral
· 1 onesty ret1u1res ia
1
r
·
f
'd
nt
truth
may
e
t1e
na
u
and ev::ision in the tace o ::in e v1 e

-

446

-

----------------------(

, JR CUMEN7:4 TION.
PERSUASJO,V.

impulse o f a wounded pride, but the)' are ru1·11ous
tactics for
b roacl anJ noLlc cause.

44 7

a

6 Finally b
·
· d
. . . ' ear in min the s ound principle of literary ethics that
truth is worth more than victory.
'

A victory in defiance of truth and convic tion
tr:rns1tury; th e loai c of eve11t. ··11 .
is sure to be
. . . ,
. o
s
sweep away its fruits and
the rc::isoncr with them. In li ter:i ture, as in life the on] s f
r.eso urce is a stt: rn alliance with t he resul ts of the
y ~e
t1ons of truth .
.. .
eepest conv1c1
' mistaken such connctions m ay indeed be but
t.1cy
should
!Jc hon esth·
hel d , not r,c J! resse( I .
'
, ,
•
•
J
.l. his n:1turallv surrgests
,
·
J •
o
. . a \ c ry important question .
Ought then
a lawyer to a1-. '11e ·1 sid . ti t I k
.
,
·.
". o
,
c 1a ie ·nows to lie unjust? Is it no t
lather his '.Jt 1,. 111css to defend wl 10cn~ r will Cl1l'>lo}' him
l ti
.
·1 "::>o<l
lJ l
1
, w 1e 1er m
" ol
or m_ a _:tl cause ? Concerning this questio n o ne importan~ co nccsswn is to be m::idc. Every cause has certainly th e ri irht
t.o . e. represented so .far ::is it is j ust; every accused person"' is
c nt1tl<.:cl to ::ts much defence as lies real!}' in his C"se Tl
t ·J
· · ·l '
f;
I
· "· ·
1e rut i
i s sc <.' om ou1H wh olly on either side; ancl even after th e fact of
~uilt is est:tl Jl1 s licd, t here still rcm::iins the questio n of its d rr.
Su f:t_r as he secs truth and l'::tlid defence e very o ne ma
~~'.ele.
"o . if he oe I 1·1
I
y cer ,lrn y
..,, '
g s < c I Jc r:i.tc y fmther h e has m e rely the ri ,rht ti t
a ny man h::is t o be li e hi s con vic t ions . cl I ·J
"'
1a
an ·' o t 1e truth a wrong,_
no m ore ::ind no less.

''I

d .

CHJ\ PTER VIII.
INVENTION DEALING WITH

PRACTI CA L

ISSUES:

PERSUASION.

" I F t o do we re as easy as to know wha t we re good to do,
c ha pels had bee n churc h es, and poo r men's cottage::; princes '
p::ilaces." Arg um ent can d emo nst rate with all clea rness what
we re good to Jo; it can conv in ce th e inte llect that the truth of a
question is here or there; but wh en it comes to the actua l doing,
argum e nt alone suppli es n o im pulse . To th e satis faction of the
intellec t so m ethi ng must be ::ic.lckd that shall a waken feel ing and
interest, and so inspire the will to embody the truth in action .
To impart this impul se is the business of p e rsu:i. sion .
rcrs u::ision, like argumentatio n, deals wi th tr uth s ; but with
truth s o f a parti cular k ind . J'ract ical truth s, suc h as have a definite issue in c haracter and act io n , pe rso nal truth s, t hat come home
to m e n's bu siness and IJosoms , - su c h are th e materi:il with whi ch
persuasion wo rk s; n o r can it he trnly p o tent excep t as it ca n
fasten o n a p rac ti cal point, and mak e the who le th ough t concen trate itse lf o n th a t. In a wo rd , the wh ole sph ere o f duty, interest,
privilege, h appi ness, conduct, is ope n to th e wo rk of persuasion;
no small sph e re in deed, for cond uct, as Matthew Arn old is fond
of saying, is three-fourths of life.
NUTE. - A reasu ner who is endeavo rin g to dem onstrate th at the pbnct
Mars is inl1ahited is in deed hand lin g an intricate argumentative prublcm; hi.:
is seeking to fi11d a truth, or al lca,;t a balance of prul1ability; hut if he solves
the prublcm ever so clearly the answe r cannot in th e smallest degree appeal
to the hear er's will. :\n interest ing thin g it is to kn ow, b ut ther e is no point
that can he a claim on 11im to do . On the o th er ha nd, wh e n D emos then es
ceases presenting to his au tlic nce a truth which is also an appeal, and has
given it the requisite power of d icti un a nd delivery, his hearers cry, " Vp ! let

- -...

---- -----~--

H'3

l'l:RSUASION.

us march. against Philip !" T he trut h has taken possession of their will and
wrou ght its purpose in an impulse to action.
'

. Such rnatcri;:il, with such an object, enters like a rightful sover1 . · ·
· • 'l' l1 e sp 1enc]ors o f
c escnption, the g r;:ice of nan:Hi,·c, the a ccuracy of exposition the
sternne ss of _argum e nt; em ployin g th e highest resources of dic~ion
''·hc
thc r pl:i 111, im passioned ' o r .ima' "" inati,·c
· ~11 ti·1 "~t WI·11 aro LI SC'
.
. ) ....
rntc n.:st and concc ntr.'.lte a ttention , is a ccordi ng to occasion the
pr:oper h.1.nd rn a1 d nf pers ua sion. For in persuasion thought is
b1ough t up to a dctc rrrn nat c iss ue between man and man. So
h~:e we reach the_ very ce ntre and s um o( the art of rh etoric.
It m general rh e to ric m eans acb pta tio n to the r eq uirements of a
r caclc1: o~ hearer, h ere it means such adapta tion in its highest and
most mtimatc sense . For it nrn st be adaptation to the whole
:1:an, -- no_t to his mind alo ne, but to mind and heart and will.
:' he wo rk is g reat; greJ. t al so must IJe the resource . Whateve r
is '.1c cess:i.ry to rouse m e n fro m in diffe re nce, tu rn them from
p 1-c1 ud1cc o r oppositio n , soh cr them frCJ m unh ealthy e xcitern cnt to
"''.sc and thou ght ful action, be lo ngs to the comprehensive sphere
of persuasion.
eign every domai n of literary prese ntJ.ti o n

1\s in JXc ,·i ous chap ters, we " ·i ll disc uss this su bjec t of persuasion first in its p rin c iples, and then as it is employed in works of
literature .

TJIE J'I~I~CTPLES O F J'ER SUJ\SION.

I.

"·1· o b e a. persuasive
. speaker" savs Professor I' "i· 1 " ·t ·
.
'
• 1 ·
· ·
J , . 11 ,
1 1s necessary to h~vc \·1vidly presen t to the view all the leading impulses

t:

1
a: _c~nv1 c~1ons o'. ,the _perso ns J.dJrcssc cl, and to be ready to catch
aL e_\·e1y p ornt o f 1cl e nt 1ty !Jctll'een th es e a nd the propositions or
pro1ec ts presented fo r th eir adoptio n. The first-n a med qualifica:1011 g rows out of the cxp c ri c nn.: and study of c haracte r; th e other
sirnihrity, which has often been exemplified
is the natnr;tl force
111 its highe st range Ill orato ricJ.! minds ."

?F

1

13. ti n , " The :-; cnst"s and 1hc I nt c li«ct ." p. S·IJ ·

J'LRS U;JSJO.V.

4-19

These two requisites of persuas ive speaking will furn ish pe rhaps
the m ost conven ient basis on which to discuss the princip les of
pcrsuas10n.

I.

The Speaker's Alliance with his Audience. - It will be olJsc rv cd th :i.t we here e mpl oy a single pair of terms, - speaker and
audi e nce, - instead of t; ivin g, as hereto fo re , the altern ative to
sp eaker or writer, audience o r publi c . This is d o ne of intent.
Pe rsuJ.sion is so predomina ntly the work of oral communicatio n, it
so alm ost nece ssarily requires th e c lose co ntac t of perso nal presenc e, that th e alternative hardly co mes into th e acco unt. Persuasion presupp oses a speake r at c lose quJ.rters with hi s audi ence .
And first o f all, as it is here expressed, h e is to m ake an J.lli a ncc
with his hearers. In so m e respects we may regJ.rd his task J.S
siege ancl victory, fo r h e is indeed to overcome their op positi on or
in diffe rence; but in a tru e r sense he is to enl ist th e ir sy m pathies
ancl e nergies in a co mm o n cati se with him, is to mak e th em will in gly adopt hi s vi ews and id e ntify "·ith th e m th ei r o wn interes ts.
H e nce the attitude that he assu mes and endeavors fully to reali ze
is that of a fri end . It is a veritalJlc alliance .
In Personal Character. -Suc h allian ce goes m o re deeply th an
mere intelle c tu a l agree ment. In ord er to pe rsuade men, the
speake r mu st m a ke th e m ta c itly recognize him as om: to 11e
truste d, so far as th e iss ue l>eforc th e m reqll ircs tru st; J.s one who
has c:u nc stly :1t h c:1rl th e ir in tere sts as well :1 s hi s own r::w se .
The first re lation to IJe es tablished betwe en s peaker and hL· arc r, a
relat ion wit ho ut whi c h no real progress can IJe made in persu as io n,
is th e relat io n of mutu al tru st and respect.
r . Of such tru st and respec t the initiative mu st be tak en by the
speaker. Not with c ring in g or flatt ery, no t with any brow-beating
air of sllp c ri o ri ty, but with a m anly, self-respecti ng frankn ess, he is
to approach hi s aud ience a s m e n occ upy ing a common gm1111d
with him self, as haxin g ri ghts, abilities, opini o ns. th at arc to l>e
respected and co nciliated. I.ct th em once re cognize this as his

-1 50

I'J:" N S U.·l S I O_\ '.

gem1 in e a tti t ud e to ward th em, a nd he l1:1s the ir car n ot only fo r
t l11ngs ag n.: ea u k, bu t fo r shaq J a nd search ing , even reprovi ng
tru th s ; li e ca n dec hn.: to th e m h is wh o le cu un se l a nd co 11 nt on
its . being a t lea s t fa irly wei ghed, \\ hi c h is s urely the first requisite
t o lh hcmg follo wed.
l'\un:. -This fr ie n d ly n :lat i" n wit h t he a ud ie nce may b e s tri k ingly ill ustrated fr ., m the care e r <>f 1\ l,ra ha 11 1 L in coln :ts a !'Llii lic Sj><.:a kc r. O f his
mdl1<i d h e l1in1 se lf <J n ee s;ii cl . " I a hr a ;·s ass 11 111e tha t m y a ud ie n ce a re in many
tln ng s \\' JSc' r tli:rn l :t ill, :tn d I say the ll ll >St se nsi ble t h in g I ca n tu t hem. ]
t they . clid n u t un d e rs tand me." ! !i s l1 ic1 r-.<'r ai
i h c r s,· 1'f
· . l·
I
ne 1·e r f1>t1 nd tha
.
•
" ICO .1y :l ll (
I lay'. s:ty " fh 11n: "I le :tss u med :tt th e s t:t rt :t fr:t nk :in cl fri e nd ly re l:tti un with
the , Jury
. . 1d11c h w a s. ext rem ely effec tiv e . r It: 11s11:il h. l>eg:i. n , as th e ]l hi·::i.ce
,;, r=t n,

l >y g 11111g all':i.y hi s case '; Ly a ll 11 11·ing to t he np pu~ i tc si de c 1·e ry p ossible
ad1·a
n lage. th at they c11uld h <> nes. tl .l' •a n d J. ll .<> th. ..: la illl . T h c·n h e 11 .n u 11
.
• present
h 1s.011·n s1<k o f th e c:tse, ll' i th :t d r:i. rn c~". :i. c:rn d 11 r. an ad ro it ness 11f s ta tem e nt
wh 1,·h :it •1n ce fla tte red and t·v nvi nc ed t he j ury , and llla dc e1·c n t h e bys tanders
l1i s pa r ti s:llls ."
2 . To the es ta b li shm e nt o f suc h frie n dl y n: bti o n th e mos t effect11 al h:t r, pe rh.1 p s, is the :ippcarann: o f :i ny kind o f a r tifi ce. If
s11ch i·; de te c tt: d liy t he _au d ie nce, the sp ea ke r's effo rts a re as good
a s f1tt1k ; 1t 1s s uc h art tf 1ce, suc h tric ks of fl a tt e ry an d aw ument
.tl:at kt1·e gi 1·cn a n un j ust re prnac h to t he rh et o ri ca l art in ~e neral'.
I he h ea re rs :ne luok ing fo r :t man ; if th L·y fi nd IJt1t a p e rsuadiiw
m ac hin e_, hy ing arts ti> l·ntr;tp t he ir sym11:1tlii es a nd wills, the;
a rc emll11te red ;1g :1111st n u t onl y h is c 1use l>t1t hi ,; who le p rofessio n.
1\ ftn :ill, it is on ly ge 111tin e ch ;tr: wi cr a nd sinc e re co nvic ti o n that
can lie s:1fc ly re lied o n l>L·fu re a n audi e n ce.
l\1 lT E. - T h e fu llowin g a n c:cd ll te, relat ed liy Pru fc·ssu r l'h c lps, w ill ill ustra te
t he fu ti li1y of an ni den t art ilic e: -

'.' l 'at ri_c k Ifc1_1ry t h<> u.~ h l tu ll' in th e fa1·o r o f t h e.: l1:tck ll'1 >o tl s me n of V irg ini a

l>y 11n 1l:i. t 111 g t h e 11· c u ll"'jltia l di :il i.:c·t, ,, f " ·hi c h h is J, i,,g ra ph er g ii·cs tli e fullo w111 g spc c i11 1c 11 fn>1 n 11 11 e u f hi s spc'.ec h cs : • .\ II t h" b rn i 11 u po n 1h e yairth a re
ll •>t tu h e co mp:t r cd ll'ith n ct it<.:ra l pcti rls .' !111l l1is h c:t rc rs, lia c kll'oodsm cn
t ho ug h l h<.:y wer e , kn e w l1e tl e r th a n tkit : an d t li c·y k n e w th a t a states m:t n of
the ( lid l lllmiui u n v ug ht to Sjlc:tk g,,,, ,1 l-: 11;..: lis li. They w e re hi s se verest
criti c~. ,.

" l(, " ' :tys l'r ,,fcssu r '\!:t tht: ll'S, "t h e o ra ln r ca n m ak e hi s h ea re rs believe

l'F. l\'S U.·l S I ON.
th at h e is n ot o nly a st ran g e r to all un fa ir a rti fice, b ut eve n d est itu te o f :ill
p e rs uasi 1·c ski ll 11·ha tevc r, h e ll'ill p e rs uad e th e m th e m o re effe c tu a lly ; a n .! 1t
th e re c n :r co uld b e a n aliso lut cly p e r fec t o ra to r, 1w 011e wo 11l d ( at tit,: t i 1111·, at

least ) disrn7'cr t!tat /ze « •-i s so."

3. Th e fa c t m ust also b e a c k no wlccJ ge d th:it trn e p ersuas io n ,
tin t is, a real infl ue n ·c o n m e n 's will s, is a lm os t inev itabl y d e niL·d
to th e h a bi tual " fu n ny m a n. " l\1cn will co n se nt to be amu se d l>y
hi m; th ey will co m e in c rowds to b ug h a t his wit ::i ncl clro llc ry ;
b u t w he n h e a tt e m pts to exh o rt th e m ea rnes tl y th ey Grnn o t casiiy
reali ze t ha t he is n o t jok ing . T h e y h a ve m easured h is c h aracte r
by a l ightness of sta nda rd that he ca nno t eas il y surm ou nt. Th is is
n o t said as aga inst th e use u f hu m o r in pu b li c add ress ; it nH.: rcl y
re fe rs t o th e 11se of hu m o r as th e staple o f th e address. I t sho ul d
be kno wn tha.t if o ne asp ires to re pu ta ti o n as a funn y ma n, he has
t o ]Xty fo r it by sac ri!tcing som e th ing th at h e may afte rwards wish
h e h ad c h e ri sh ed .
N OT E . -

Of li te ra ry m e n Syd ne y S mi th may b e m e nti o ne rl a s n n e ,,·h ose

re putati o n fo r wi t h:ts g rea tl y ol>sc ured a r eal d c: pth an d i: arn i: ~ t n vs .~ ,,f
th o ug ht. O n e o f t h e emin e nt th in ke rs o f the a ge , h e is fu r t he 1111 ,s t pa r t
r e m e m be red me rel y :is o n e of its lau g h-m ak e rs .
II e re pe r haps a word slw ul d li e sai d t u s tu d e n ts . In the cu ll i.:gi.: wo rl d , t•Hl,
m e n i n e vit:1hl y lin <I t heir k1·cl. I h av e see n m e n wh o se r is ing tu s p i: a k o n
any top ic b cfv rc their class m a tes onl y p ro d uced a lirvad g rin, t he lir.1 ad n as
t h e s p e ak er att c mpti.:d lo he nwn: c:t r nes t. Th ese m cn h a d be e n t1111 c" n tl' 11t
to li e class h 11 ffuo 11 s ; a nd ll'h e n th ey ass u m ed th e s ulc rnn r,j/c lh c ir cl a ~ , 1 11. 1 t " s
ju<lge cl th :tt thl'i r s p i:c ilic g r:i. 1·i1y \\':ts t u u li g h t ti > s nst:i in su c h ,:ha rac tcr, a11. i
th ey w o nl d n o ne o f it. U 11j 11s l j nd ;..:111 c n t, i •cr h aps , li ut it wa s n a t ura l rct r ihu ti o n . S o m e m i.: n 's u nl y r efu ge is a fu nn y d e ba te.

In Sagacity and Tact. - Bes ides th e gen e ral CJ Ualio catio ns o f
c harac te r, whi c h a rc to be c h e ri sh ed and e \·in ce cl ind ep end e n tly
of th e imm ediate o ccas io n , t he re is n ecessa ry to p e rsuasi o n also
su ch a kn o wle d ge of hu m a n na ture, a nd su c h rea d in ess of re::;o urcc,
as sh all enable the sp ea k e r infa llilJly to a d :l p t him sel f a nd hi s
cause to a n au di e nc e. T h is is a powe r wh ic h in its hi g her
exerc ise amo un ts t o t he lo fti est g e n ius. Em e rso n 1 thus describes
it:l Em e rso n , E ssay o n " Elo q ue nce."

'

..

?

l'l:.f.'S (/. 1SI0. \ '.

" Him we call an arti .-;t, who shall pby on an assem bly of men
a s a master on the keys of a p ia no, - \Y ho , seei ng th e people
furious, shall soften and compose them, shall draw th em, wh e1: he
will, to bughtcr :md to te:t rs. nr ing him to his audience, an d, lie
they \\" ho they may, - coarse o r refi ned , pleased or di spleased,
sulky or sa.\"age , \\"ith their op inions in the ke eping of a confessor,
or with their o pinions in thei r ban k- safes, - he will have them
please d o r hum o red as he c hooses; :rncl they sh:tll carry and exeThi s is a po11·er of many
C\lte th:H " ·hich hL~ bids tlll'm. . .
d egrees, :md reqlli ring in th e orator a grc:1t range o f fac ulty ancl
e xper ie nce, requir ing a large co mposi te ma n, such as N ature rarely
orga nizes."
Let \lS analvzc this po1\·er O\·c r men a little m ore in de ta il.
i. This po11·cr req ui rl's first of :tll an int11 iti 1·c kno wledge of
men, as to wki.t m ay he atkmptcd with th e m. T he sk illful or:ltor
n otes, in the physiognom y and ge ne ral appea rance of his a ud ience,
signs that in di ca te how he may best approach the m ; he is aware
how mu c h he can acco mpli sh o r ho1\· little; he singles out in mi nd
who m h e m;iy liest conciliate ;is lc:-i d e rs of influence. In o ne rap id
gbnce, it m ay be, he read-; the pred o m inating s pirit of the audience befo re hi m, and sliaJi cs his plan o f proc ed ure acco rJingly.
'.\11rn:.-011 this !'"int JJ e nry \\':ud l \eec li c r mak es S•> me very suggesti\'c
rL·in;Hks. in his "Lcct tm.:s u n J'r ecic l1ing." ~peak ing u f the study of men's
appeara nce, he says : " F11r <'~:lmplc, y<>tt as \'l tlllt: th cit a ma11 ·s lirain is the ge neral o rgan of the
s1•irilual ;lll,J i111c"i1"dual fu11cti<n1s .
" l sec a ma n \\'ilh a s ma ll h rull' a nd big in th e lu \\'c r part of his head, like
a liu ll . and I kno\\' th a t ma n is n u t likely lo be a sain t. 1\ll th e reaso nin g in
th<.: \\" urld \1"1Juld 1wt co n\·i11ce me uf the co ntrarv, but I \\' Oul d say o f such a
rna11, tha t he h a d ve ry int e nse id eas, and \\"O u] ,) lie ll u ll' a nd push li ke a lmll of
J\ ash an. .:\o"", pra ct ically, do y11u st1pp ose I woul d com me nce to tr ea t with
such a man by fhnnting a ra.~ in liis fa ce ? :\ Ty li rst in sti nct in regard to him
is \\'hat a man \\'Ould l1a1·c if lie f,1und himself in a field \\'ith a wi ld bu ll, wh ich
\\'uuld he to put hirn sdf o n goud 1n:rn11crs, an.\ use means o f co nciliation, if
p os, il 1l '.

"n11 th e o th er hand, if T sec a ma n "'hose forchca <l is ve ry high a nd large,
but w)11l is thin in th e ),ack o f th e he ad, and \\"ith a small neck and trunl;, I

l'F!.' S ( '..JSJO.V.

45.1

say to m ysel f, T ha t is :l man probably, wh ose fri e nds arc al ll'ays talking about
h o w mu ch th e re is in h im, but \\' ho n ever does anyth in g. lfe is a man \\' ho
h as great o rg ans, lrnt n o thin g lo d rive th em wi th. Il e is like a sp le ndid luco m o l i\'C "'ith o ut a bo ile r.
"Agai n, yo u \\'i ll sec a man \·,·ith a litt le bullet-head, ha,·ing ac co rnplislicd
m ore tha n t hat big-headed man, who o ught to have licen a slmng giant and a
g reat genius. The L>nll ct-hcad cd man has o ut str ipped the IJ ruad-liro 11crl man
in every th ing h e u n d ertoo k ; a nd people say,' \ Vh<.: re is your phrenul ogy) '
In r ep ly, I say, ' L ook at that bullet-headed man , anr\ sec \\'hat he has t0 dr i1·e
hi s bull et-h ea d with!' I !is s to m ach g ives e vid en ce that he has natural fnr ces
to carry fo rn·ard his purposes . Then loo k al the big-hcadcd man. ll c can"t
m ak e a spoo n fu l of lilood in lll'Cnly-fo ur h o urs, a nd \\'h a t he d ncs nnk c is
p oo r a n d thi n. Phre n ology classilies th e b rai n regiuns well e1w ugh , hut y1J u
mu st understand its relations to p h ys i(Jlogy, a nd the d epe ndence o f lirain-ll" o rk
up o n the quantity a nd qual ity <if hll)"d t hat the man's liody makes.
"\"11 u may ask ,' \ \'hat is tl1e use of kno\\' ing th ese thin gs? ' /\11 the use
in th e ,,·o rld . If a pcrs<ln comes lo me , \\' ith dark , coarse hair, I k11011~ he is
to ugh and e nduring, and I kn11\1· that, if it is necessa ry, I can hit him a rap l<1
aro use him ; lJUt if I sec a p e rs o n \1·h o has line silky h a ir, an d a li ght C<J lll plcx iu n, 1 k now th at he is o f a n exc il ahlc temperame n t, and must 1 1~ dealt
wit h s oothingly. J\g:l in, if I sec o ne \\'ith a large blue watery eye, and its
a ccom pa nyi n g complex io n, I say to m yse lf that a ll \fou n t ~inai co ul d nut "'akc
that man up. I have see n m en o f that stamp, \\"h o rn you Cl)tild no more stim ula te: to ac tio n, tha n you c1Htl<l a lu m p o f dou g h hy l1l(l\\'i11g a resur rectio n
tr um p over it. "
The fnll o \\'i ng, fro m Pruft.ssor 7'lathc 11·s, is related o f l'.ufus Clwate : " No adni catc C\'C r SC:\nnt:d mo re \\'atchfull y the faces of hi s hearers "'hi lc
speak in g . By lnn g practice he had learn e d to rea d th e ir s c 11ti111 e n ts as read ily as if their hc~rls had b ee n throlil >ing in glass ca. cs. I n one ju ry address
o f li \'e h ours, h e h urled h is riratori c;.i l a rti llery fo r thr ee o f them at !he hard h ea led fo re man, upo n "'h u m all h is bolts see med to he spent in vain. ,\t
last, th e iro n co un ten a nce relaxed, th e s tron g eyes m o iste ned , a nd C h oa te was
o n ce m o re maste r of the sit uatio n. "

z. A second requisite of such p ower is sagaci ty to approach
m en a cco rding to th e ickas a nJ m otives most ope rative with them .
Professo r Bain 1 th us illustrates thi s : " Pe rsuasio n impli es that so me com se o f conduct shall b e so
d escri bed, o r exp ressed, as to coi nc id e , or be iclentifie<..l , with the
1

Ba in, " The Sen ses a nd the Intelle ct, " p. 5.;2.

,

l

4.'i.J

l'h.N SL ·.·I S/0. \ '.

l'J.:: NSU.·I S / ON

active im pu lses of the indi\·i<l u:i.ls :i.Jdresse<l, and thereby com mand their adopt ion of it by t he force of their own natural dispositio ns . J\ leader o f b:rnditt i h:i.s to ck:i.l with a. class of persons
wh ose ruling im pulse is plu n de r ; :i. n cl it 1.Jeco m es his business to
show th :it any scheme of his proposi ng wi ll lead to thi s end. /\.
people \1·ith an intense, 01·erp0\r cring pa trioti sm , as the old Rom a ns, ca n h e ac ted o n hy proving th at the interes ts of country are
a t st:1ke. Th e ferti le o r:-i.to ri cal mind is one th a t can identify a
c:i.se in ha ncl wit h a g reat nurnh c r o i the strongest beli efs of an
audi e ne<: ; and m o re e speci :tlly with th ose th :i. t see m, at first sight,
tC> h:1,·e no co nne c ti o n with th e po int to be carried. The discovery o f ident ity in divers ity is never m o re calle d for, than in the
attemph to m ove men to ad opt so me unwo nkd course of procee ding ."
]\", •TE. - The ,·aiu e o f thi s know ledge d f ln1111an na ture, and o f the co nsi d cratinns tha t ,,·ill !Jc m• JSt pote nt ll"it !t the h c:m:rs, is s trikin g ly illustratcrl
in the speec h es o f Brutus <tnd .- \nt o ny , in :-;hakespca rc's "J ulius Ca:sar."
lhu t us , who presents to th e m ob high con si•k rat i1l ns u f pat ri o tism and
11nrn1r, u litains for thc mus t part Dnly a vagu c adn1i rat io n fu r hi s p erso n, - as
is indiratcd in the ir a ns \\" e rs : -

" Ci//:,·11 s. I .in-, J\ru t us '. liv e, liv e !
('ii . li ri ng him \\"ith tri 11 rnph IH• lll c 11nto !tis Ji ., u,; e.
.:! ( "ii. ( ;iv t.: hi lll a sta lu t.: ll"it h hi s ancc:<t()rs.
j' ( ·11. I .ct hi m he C;\:sar .
Ca.:sa r',; l>c tt c r parts
·I Cit.
:-;hall now I 1c nown "i I Ill lirut 11s.
1 Cit.
\\.· ' II l>rin1~ hi 1n t11 hi-; h11 usc with ,-Ji .. 11t s a nd cl:rn) o rs."
I

On the o th e r h:rnd A ntnny, ll"h•) 'peaks in t he c11 nc rcte, who dwells on
C:t·s:u's J,indncss and rcgard fur th e m , \\"ho mu ses th l'i r p ity fo r his wo unds
and appeals t" th e ir c u pidi ty l1y m e nti .. nint:: his wi ll, in ,,·hi ch he has remem l •crcd thc rn, rai ses a fury that nnly despe rate dccd ,; can qu ell: -

" Citi:,·l! s.

l~c ,· engc ,

-

abou t, -

se ek , -

l1nrn, -

n o t a tr aitor Ii ,. c ! . . .

Cit.
Co m e, a ,,·ay, " "·ay !
\Vc ' ll bu rn h is b1>dy in the huh pla1·1· .
A nd \\"ith th e lirands lire th e tra itv rs' hous es .
Ta ki.: up th c bod y.
I

lir e, -

kill, -

slay, -

let

45.'i

2 Cit. G o fetc h fire.
3 Cit. l'luck d o wn b e n ches.

4 Cit. Pluck d o wn fo rm s, win tlo ws, anything.
[F"xewzt Cit izens wit/; lit e body.
Ant. Now let it wo rk. - 1\lisc hicf, thou art afo o t,
Take th o u what co urs e th o u w ilt! "

·f
1

r

Anto ny knows what cho rds to strike in a m ob ; Brutus
th e same lo fty standards th a t arc p o tent with him self. Oi
gia nt 's p o we r is n o t always to usc it lik e a g iant; if Antony
with Bru tus's upri g htn ess, b o w his kn o wledge o f hum an
wrought fo r conci li at io n!

jud ges all men b y
course a man " ·ith
h ad been end o wed
nature conld have

3. J\ third requisite of such powe r is tac t to adapt o ne 's sel f to
un foreseen c ircu m sta nces anJ make them Le nd to one's pu rposes .
Thi s of course is m e rely th e kno wled ge of hum a n n a ture :i.lrea.dy
mentioned, comb in ed with a presence of mind that en;iblcs t he
orator, when one resource fails, to try another.
N OTE. - An in tcr<.:sti ng · illustration of s uch ta ct in hand ling a turliulcnt
multitud e is st.:c n in lfcnry \Vard Beec her 's A ddr ess at f.i ,·cr pool, in the tim ..:
of o ur Li ,·il \\'a r. Th ere were in I .i,·e rp ou l many sy111path i1.t· rs wi th sec cssi•lll,
and th ese made su ch an uproar th a t he co uld hardl y p rvcecd; lrn t sci1.i1 1g his
Jlrs t opp ortu nity tu m akc a j >ka fu r tit<.: p cCLili a rl y B ri tish scntim cn ! uf fai r
p la y , hc st.:cured th<.: car o f tht.: audience. The fu ll o wi ng is par t u f his intr u du ct io n: " ~ uw , p e rso nally, it is a mat te r o f very little cu nsc•1ucncc to me whdht:r
T s peak herc to -night o r n o t. [ l.aug htt: r and c h eers.] B ut , o ne thin g is ,·cry
certain, if yuu du p crrnit m c to s p eak h e re to- ni g ht yuu will h ear nry plai n
talking. [ Appl a use nn1l hi sses.] Y o u will n o t find a m an - [in tt: (rtq•tiu1 1]
- yo n will nu t fi nd me a lll :t n that dared tu Sj•t.:ak about Creal Britain three
th o usaml m iles o ff, and th e n is <tfraid to spcak l<> Creal Britain whcn he stand ,;
o n h er shores. [I mmense applause an d hisscs.J An d if [ d o no t mi stake
the to ne and te mp er uf En g li shm e n, th ey had rath e r ha,·e a man ll"lt\l
opposes th e m in a manly way - [a pplause from all parts uf th e h all] th an a sneak that agrees with them in an unm:rnly way . [ Ap plause, and
"Bra,· o ! "] Kow, if I ca n ca rry yuu with m e by so un d con vi ct iu ns, I shall lie
immensely glad - [applause]; b ut if I ca nn o t car ry yo u wi th me by facts
and sound argu m en ts, I d o n o t wish yo u tu go with m e at all; and all
that I ask is simply FAIR l'LAY. [A pplause, and a vo ice : "Yo u shall have

it too ." ] "

I'F. F S U.-1S f ON.

;·;~·RsU.· l SI UN

II.
The Speaker's Achievement of his Object. - It will be obscn·cd here that we speak of the achicve m en t of an object, instead
of, a.s heretofore, the treatn1l:nt of a subject o r th eme. This fact
m e rit s attention. The rn:rn wh o \\'Ould persuade c ho oses an object
r:uher than a subj ect. Th a t is, the central aim and idea of his
discou rse takes in his mind the fo rm of so mething to b e put into
pr:.ic tical action, so nH.:thing appealing to the will. The outcome
of the disco urse, so far as it is a wo rk of p ersuasion, may be expressetl in a s in gle im pe rat ive proposit ion.
\\'h::i.t the ol>jcct of persu::i.sion is, in ge ne ral, we have already
se en : to make the hearer sec and feel that his interest and duty
lie in the adop tio n o f a certain prescribed line of conduct or belief. Emerson 1 thus summar izes it: "The Koran says, 'A mountain m ay change it s place, bu t a man ,,·ill not change hi s disposition '; yet the end of eloquence is, - is it no t? - to alter in a
pair of hom::;, perhaps in a half.ho ur's di sco urse, the convic tions
antl h:i.h its of years."
Now, in orde r to achi eve such an olij ect, the spe:i.ke r must enlist the wh ole m a n o n h is side; must m ake him a t once see ' feel ,
::md will the truth. In discussing, th erefo re , the procedures necessa ry to this end, we mu st take u p each si de o f the human nature
in turn , a nd cons iJer what rn:inncr of address is most naturally
ad a.pteJ to it.
1. Address t o the Intellect . - Hy this is meant the speaker's
dctcrniin:1tc adapt:ltion o f hi s thou s h t to the th i11ki11g and in terpre tin g p o wers o f hi s hearer. Thi s or course is the st :iplc of every
fo rm of lit e rat ure; thl'rc arc, ho11-cv cr, certai n spec ial aspects of
it as related to persu as io n that ncccl to be conside red .
r . J\nd fir st it is i11111o rt:111t to oliscn-c, th a t n o persuasive or
hortat ory d iscomse ca n dispense with a solid , predominating basis
of orde red thought.
If men arc urged to act, it is b efore ::i.11
things essential that the nat mc and mode of the proposed action,
I

Emerson , E ssay on " Eloquence."

457

its g ro unds a nd consequences, be dearly set forth and explained
to their minds . To be sure, so far as it i,.; merely th ought, merely
of the brain , it supplies no impulse ; b ut, being the basis, it lJe comes th e controller a nd regula tor of the impulse when the latter
is suppl ied. J\ml when ex hortatio n works on men with out such
regulative of solid th o ught, the sequel is but the wi ld, unguid ed
frenzy of a m oh. If m en are to b e persu:icl ed , they must be
directed to someth in g d e finite, something in which the ratio nal
intellect will still be the guide of ac tion .
N OT E. - !\lark J\nto nv, in the scene alr eacly cit ed , was hut too \l'illing to
rouse passions with o ut th~ught. Th e mob ru shed hlin ,lly forth to dest roy, kil
upon Ci nna the p ct aml l\Jre him in pieces merely ln:c:'\llse he bore the same
nam e ,,·ith Cin na th e conspirato r, were wholly un co nt rollalik in th eir mad fury ;
while Antony, wdl pleased, satisfi ed himself with saying, -

" Now \ct it wo rk . - 1--!i ~ c hi ef, thou art afoot,
T ak e th ou what course tho u "·ilt ! "
An ot her remarkable in stan ce of passions a rouse,\ wi thout a basis of rca ·
so n is reco rded in Acts xix. 23- 4 1, whe re certain dc signiilg peCJpk b sh a mul>
to fr enz y by a n a pjH:al tu th ei r cupi d ity. "~ ome th ·refu rc cried o ne th ing.
and some anuth cr: fu r the assembl y ,,·as confused; an d th e mo re pa rt kne";
not where fore they were come tog<.:thcr." J\ncl \\'he n /\ lcxandcr attempted tel
explain mat te rs to th em , " all with o ne vo iee alio ut the space of l\l'o h•Jurs
cried out,• Great is Diana o f the Ephesians.' "
2

.

From this it appears tha t in every p ersuasive di scourse there

are two clements, the tli cb c ti c and th e ho rtatory. In old-fashioned
oratory the se two elcmc nb occupied diffe rent sections of the discourse; \Jul no wadays it is ge ne rally co ns id e red licltc r to h:ivc
them interwoven, so far as m::ty ]Jc, throughout, so that ::t fa.c t or
a rgu m ent may have the po wer of an app eal, and an appe al ha.\'e
the solidity of informa t io n o r truth . These two elemen ts may
hav e, h o\\'cvcr, varying emphasis and proportion , accord in g as the
address is co ncerned m ore with th e end of a c t ion or with th e
means. Wh e n m en are indi fferent to th e encl proposeJ , exhortation is ne eJcd to rouse them to a sufficient se nse o f its importan ce; whe n, though earnest in pursui t of th e enrl. m en are not

·1SS

PLRSl'ASJO.V'.

su tiicil'n t ly in formed ::ts to the rnc::tns, the didactic clement must
p r e<lomrnate, m order to mak.: their action rational and wise .
NOT E. - In the l ( c· ·1 \\"
.
..
.
:\ c
I\'1
ar, fu r instan ce, when througho ut the 1· . I
Ol:\lu t S \\'ere u rg :ng II . t . )'.
)
.
anr
..
iu1 •J ell ist a11, serve the ir cu u11try 's n eed ti
of n1ea 11 s 11·as lr t . I
r
'
IC quest ion
ll SU lO[( ITlalc, and the pr inc ipa l elem e nt of }' . . . ' ' ,
' :
'.
cxhurtatiilll. On th ,
.
.
l lSCO t11 Se\1 as
, h
.
.' .
.
e o t 1ie r and, Ill a large proportion of pulpit discourse
lna_t \1ll1 ch I: addressed to thusc who have a lready c omp li ed with the 'C · ·· I·
enc! cif ohevI11g Ch ri · t a · I
I tl
.
.
g nn.1
"
.
s s .on' Ic predunnna trn « clement must I e ·!
1·
- Sell in" f- ti t}
·
"
J
e1 ltC!I 17•(
" o r l ie means an d invvl\'l:me nts uf a Christian life,
'

3· Of the diffe rent for m s of d is course the dd
·J ·
.
.
· '
a ress to t 1e mtcl 1. ,

e ct h;is tu employ predom111:lntly th e argumentative i.ee" . I
,·
l. f
·
, u .. use t ie
groun< s o ;ic tJ o n arc m ostly cs t:tl>l ishe d as trutl1s a11cl ) .. .· I
l'
.. " .
.
'
I I lfl CI p cs.

,ut cxpos 1t1 o n :i.lso rs brgely e mpl oyed, because many truth s need
only expb n:1t1011 to l>e mad e ob\·i o us
N
t.
d d
. .
1
•
• . .
.
•
arra 10n an
escnption
.'.lre less prominent, :i.nd when used serve 'ls ,., n
. f
I .
.
, " 1eans o on enng
questions o f fact so as to make so me thco1·}' of ti
.. .
1em more selfcons1s tent and r cason:i.!Jle.
N.uTE. -. T.his use o f narrati o n and desc rij)t.Ion .
f
is o tcnest exemplified in
cu ur ts uf JUStice, where the t:labvrale machincr)· uf t·' k I.tl " tes t· .
..
·
·
"
"'
Im o ny crusscxam 1n a l1un, a n d so fu rth, may in o n e Ji .,ht be r ·g~ I . l
·I . '
.
' .
- '
'
,. ,
e .. n C< as ac;cumu atrng mal c. I r
na u r ,\ s.tvry ul toe e \·e nt in fjlll'Sl i•in; and the lawvcr's a ·g
. f
1
consists ]· · J · ·
·
um e nt u ten
•
. . .u g e) Ill rec ons tru c ting the st .. n· accur li I1i> t 1 · · .
h, ." . ..
·
, ·
' "' o lIS 1nterprc tati on uf
l <.: C\I •knc c . A ,f.;<><111 example " f tl 1is is \ \' ·I I. •
C
.
..
' .
.
. .
c >s c rs account o f th e murder of
apl ai n J"~tp h \\lute, wh ich lic:g i11s his Inast cr ly speec h in that case.

. 4 . Co ncerning tl1 e gene ral in:rn:ige ment of th e address to the
intclk<"t, l\\' U rema r ks shu1tld i>c n1 adc.

First, it shot dd :i.im to consnve \\'ith .-. ·i)ec" 1 .•
, ., , . . .
.
'
'-"
1,1 11go r, economy of
the he:i. r er,., tnterpretm ir j)O \\'e r. 1 For as ·ill ti ,
::>
,
. ,
1e energy t11at must
lie expended on und ersta11di11i: the th o ug ht le.., \·es th I
. ,
.
. .
.
~
"' ·
e 1earer so
rnu ch less m rea h z mg it, mu c h more will it kav" 111'1n t d ' d
.
.
"
a
1sa vant:igc in actm ir u1)on it
'1 '1 · · · 1· ·
l
·
.. .
.
"
.
le . s1mp ic 1ty, ti c plamness, the directJH.:s~, of .1ll th a t gtws to explai n o r prove the trut h p resented must
!Je as nearly as poss d ilc :i.lisolt1tc.
1

See pn: ceding, p. 2 6.

PFNSU.·I SJO.V.

4.59

Seco ndl y, for purp oses of persuasio n th ough t sh ould be pre sented c opiou sly . It is a case where re petiti on and richness of
amplific:ltion a r e o f especial serv ice.

For the hea rer's mind has

n o t m e rely to catc h and und e rsta nd th e thought; he needs to l!e,
so to s:1y, saturat e d w ith it, so that he nuy act wi th it a s his wo rking consc io usness . The thou g ht has th e re fore to lie held 11p to
view in many a spects, vivifi e d with many details, enforced with
many repetiti o ns .
Nun:. -

F or the necessa ry ch a ra ct eri s ti cs o f spoke n Ji cti o n, as distingui s hed

fr u m written , s ee preceding, p . 77 .
A co nden sed and antith e tic sty le is ther c fure nu t favuraJ,Je to persuasiun,
at least as the s tapl e o f a discourse; it may come in with guud effect as s in g le
sent e n ces, introduced to g iv e c ri sp n ess and p o int tu 11·hat is ebe\\'herc: amplified . Th e co mpa rati\' C futi lity of suc h co nd e nsed s ty le m ay l1e illustrated in
th e s pe ec h o f Brutus, in Shakespeare's" Julius C~esar."

2. Address to the Feelings . -

By this is m eant such use of
langu age , voi c e, and action, as sh all have p o wer to rno \·e t he
emoti o ns of the hearers . Popularly it is o ft e n unders tood to
m ea n making h eare rs wee p or laugh; lrnt, mu ch more deeply
tha n this, it is t o !Jc regarded as a legitim a te in stru men t o f per·
suasio n, wh e reby m e n are roused from their too pre\·:i.il ing im pas siv e ness to feelings of pathos or sympathy in vi e w of so m e
junc ture o f c irc um stan ces wo r thy to en li s t th e ir sensibilities.
r . J\n im port:i.nt distin c ti on is to be noted between the address
to th e feelin g in pe rsu:i.sion, a nd p::i.th et ic s it uati o ns, ad:i.ptetl to
draw tvars, in til e dra111a ur fi c ti o n. Th ese latter exi st merel y fur
th emse lv es ; they ha\·e no ulteriu r o bj ec t. Nul>ie emutions th ey
m:i.y in deed aro use, emotions that elevate and ch::i.stc n; !Ju t th ey
hav e no c:lll to fix th e emotion in will and cond uct; they ::ire portr:i. yal, 11 ot pe rs u:i.sion. Oratori cal address t o the feelin gs, on th e
oth e r hand, is m e re ly a m e::i.ns to an e nd; it st:i.rts bughter or
tears, no t for th eir own sake, l>ut l>ec::i.use thcrc lJy the h ea rer is
made sympatheti c , alert, sensitive to appeal. It bc:i.rs the sa me
relati o n to a c tu al p e rsuasion that overcom ing inertia does to the
w o rking of a machine : o n ce get th e wheels in motio n, and it is

,-

.

- -~-- ---~

'

-

--

.~

~

­

I

!

PER .SUA.~· r oN.

P/::R.Su A SIO.I\'.

comparatively easy to keep th em going until the motion is directed
to a useful func tion. Addn.:ss to the feelings as an instrument of
persuasion always contemplates action.
2. ' Ve have seen that :ugumcnt and expos ition predominate in
presenting the thought to the intellect; to rouse the emotions,
however, the p:ntic ulari zi ng fo rm s, desc ripti on and narration, are
mostly depended on. In order to Le felt, a situation must Le
vividly realized in imaginat iun; therefu re the portrayal must
be conc rete, pi cturesque, im pass io ned; whi le spec ial skill is to be
d evoted to putting in strong n: lief the moving points of the
sce ne, those l1l)ints whi ch arc c~p cci ally adapted to come close
home to the hea rer.
TLl. uSTRATI O:-< . - Ko better exe mplificati o n of cons umm ate skill in working
on men's emotions could he fu uncl than ;\lark Antony 's speech ove r C:t:sa r's
dt:ad liody, as gin: n liy Shak..:spea re . Familiar th ough it is, let us ljUute a
p :ut of it, and nu t<.: the co nc rete, vivid, ampl illecl portrayal: -

" If you han! tear>. prepa re to shecl the m now.
You all do know thi s mantle : I re mem ber
,T he first time e\·er C:csar pnt it o n;
'Twas on a Su1n111er\ c,·cning, in hi s tent,
T hat tlay he o ,·crca mc the :\" e n·ii.
L ou k . in thi s place ran C t"i us ' dagger th rough:
~ec wh:\t a rent the c 11,·io us Casc1 matlc:
Through t hi s th e \1·cll-ilelo vcd Brntus staLu ed;
J\nd, as h e p luc kcd his cursc:d steel away,
Ma rk ho w tlH: l1 lnotl of Ca:sar follow"tl it,
A s ru s l1 ing- ou t o f dvors. to ue reso lved
lf Brutus ~o tt11k ittd lv kno ck'd. o r no;
For llrnt11s, ;i s you kn ow, was Ca·s:ir's nngel:
J 11dg-c, 0 yuu gods. !tow ckarly C:L·sar loved him I
This was ti n: mo> t un kin<ks t cut of all;
For. when the n oule Cxsa r sa w hi m stab,
Ingratitude , mo re stron g than traiwrs' arms,
Quite va nquish\! him: the n bu rs t !tis mig hty heart ;
J\n<l, in his mant le mu ming tljl his face , .
Ev e n at th e u:t se of l 'o mpey's statua ,
\ Vhich all the whi le ran blood , great Cxsar fell."

3. In add ressing the feelings the spea ker has to consult wi sely
th<.: ta ~ te anti culture of the persons add ressed . Un1.: clucated peo-

461

pie are more easily swayed by pathos or humor; _bu t at the same
tim e more palpable and striking, more coarse-gramed rne~ns, have
to be used. The jokes must be of the knock-Jo wn kind; the
pathos must he almost, o r q uite, m elodrama. Ed ucated people,
o n th e othe r hand, act more fr om judgme nt than from symp:tthy,
and h ence arc less susceptible to emot ional appeals ; but when
they ar1.: moved, it is likelie r to be by a pathe tic tourh , or hy so me
stroke on th e subtler chords of human nature, than Ly a broa<l
joke or a t1isplay of tears .
NnTE . _Su ch a passage as the fo llowing fr om Ruskin, '.)Y its su_ggestive
bl:auty uf language, is m o re pote nt w ith many to ruusc a pensive emotion than
any arnuu nt of pain t ing " ·ith the h ig brush : " l haYe paused , not o nce nor twice, as I w rote, and often ha~·e che ck ed
th e co urse u f \\'hat might. oth cnrise have bee n im po rtu nate per~uas1 on, as th e
th o ug ht has crossed me, how soon all J\rchi tec_t ure m_ay be vain, e:cepl . th~t
1
wh ich is no t made w ith han ds. Th ere is so methmg 0111111ous 111 the li ght ' h1d1
has enabled us to look hack with disd:i.in upo n the ages am o ng wh•)SC lll\-cly
vest iges we ha,·e been wand er in g . 1 co uld smil~ wh e n I h~ar th<.: hc) pcful
exultation o f man y, at the n e w r..:ach u f worl dly sc ie nce, an <l ngc~r o f ".,rJ.Jly
effort . as if we we re aga in at the b eg inning u f days. There 1s thumk r o n
th e h~ri wn as well as dawn. The su n was rise n upon the earth wht:n L o t
ente red Zuar."

. It is to be rem:trked that, th ough we can obserYe th e mecl::tn4
ical rn1.:ans, in style or delivery, by whi ch the hearer's emotions
a r1.: moved, yet after all there can be no rule for m11111tjaclun11g
emoti on. The feelin g must fi r s t exis t in th e speaker himself, :trnl
then l>y the spontan1.:ous vi gor of his dict ion, the . energy of hts
acti o n, th<.: exp ressio n of his co unten:m cc, th e <.:m ol! on_ flows naturally from hea rt to heart. All thi s was long :tgo laid down IJy
Horace, in the oft-quoted lines, " Si vis me Ae re, dole ndum est
Primum ipsi tilii ; tune tua m e info rtu nia laede nt."

S· This req uisite is q uite independe nt of the f!Uestion how _m uch
feeli ng one ought to show. The speaker should. ~e re:id1er to
suppress than to fos ter his emotions; and th en if in a supreme

·! 62

PERSUASION.
I'ERSU.·ISION.

i:1.~ment

tl:ey break from him and betriy themselves, they are
c x.1il>1te<.l tO re::d J)llfJJOSe
Ill t. ;
\ ,. . ,
.
.
us i a t,ng this from the case of
\ cbstcr, Professo r ( rCorge P. i\farsh S<l)'S : l
\ \T l t ,
I
"It was a maxim of
e JS e r s, t lat \·iolc nc e of lang t1:ige was ind ica tive of Ii
of th oiwht :rnd \i .. mt o f . . .
c
eebleness
b
•
rc a:>o n1ng power and it w a. l .
.
ra ther to understate than O\"Crs tatc the s;rc n crth of~;.. 11s pfiralc tt ce
m the so un l . . . f J .
t>
is con l C ence
•
.
< nc ss o
11s 0 \1·11 :irg um ents, and th e lo i'" I . . ' .
.
of his conclu sio ns . l !c k , t l .
g ca necessity
c 1> 11s :-i11t 1ito r constantly in
:l
f
.
I11 111, hy Stii:.;"' cs tion nth. ti
.
.
ac vance 0
. . .. . ~ ~
. . er wn 1))' st1ong asseveration b .
I
c xp os1t10 11 lJf co nsa kntion . .1 . ·I .
I
.
' _Y a cam
•
S \\ .JIC l Uli" 1t to exci te f, · !"
.
heart o f l1uth "l>' ...,1.,.r ..111 1 l
b
·
ee lllg m th e
· '-' '"'- • < lc:trcr no t l ·
(.J" ·
ri cal cxli ilJiti on of p a ss ion in him~t.:lf. " J} an un ignified and theati\' uTE. - : \ ftLT this a cco u n t o f \\"clist er 's h I .
.
repress io n, it will lie . t , ,_ .a )J lual mo clcrat ion and sel f.
,,1 ac~ , rn g tu n o te o n e instance . I· e 111 o t1 o n m as te red him in S) J:tc o f
.
. •
in us career when his
•
rep ress io n
Dr C 00 I .· l 1 l
·
.·
< i ic
t 1us dcs crilicd
the: sc e ne at t he: c lusc: o f his sp . , . I f
1
College: . . ccc i in t e cnee o f his Alma :\later, Dartmouth

"' l t is, :-;ir,
Ion: it' -

as

r

have said , ~ s· 111.·1ll
'"'

Ciillt:L'."C.

.,

·1\ n <1 ye t· t} iere are those wh o

" I ! ere, Ili c fee lings, which h e l1ad thu s [- .
., . . . .
.
hr""" fu r th . l I is lips <Jlli1·cr. J . I .. 1·.
.I .11 s ucc cc ckd lr1 keeping down,
c< , '"' II Ill c ied.~ trc m li l ·d \"
ti
. .
eyes were lilied wiih ll'ar> hi s 1. i · . • ·J 1.
·
" 11 l emo ti o n; h is
. ,
.
t )LC c l(lhc1 1 and h e see n!. l ·1
1·
ut n1c-st s impl y ' " ":iin l int m a ·t .. , . . J '.
· .
u s rugg 1ng to the
"
•
• ' c t\ uic 1 11 111 scl f whi ch mi J t
h"
an umn anly Jllirst u f fccliiw
I _:11
.
·
.
g 1 save 1m from
"' "
\I 1
n o t attcm1 •t to g 11 ·c y . tl f,
words uf tc ndcrn L·ss in 11 J · ·I I
o u le ew 1>roken
..
i1c i ie \1·ent o n to " JlCa} · uf 111.
I
co lk "e . Tli c \I h I. . . .
.
·
•
'
s
at tac nn e nt to the
,..,
"c Sc<. n1 n 1 to 1ie m ingle d thru 1wh1 l ,.· l J
uf father . Innlhn, l1r11 th c r an I a ll ti .
. . .
,., >u \ it 1 t le reco ll ections
>c pri1al 1\lrl'; and l rnl · tl
I
.
' , c ,
I 1:1.} 111 :1.Jc h is w:\\· in l" l'f·
F ,. .
· s iroug1 whi ch he
. . .
.
.
.
'< .
.\\ r) n nc s: tw 1l1a1 it was II 111111 •
.
.
1.11 , .!, . 1 i ' ' "~" "· L· l•ll hi ,; liL·art ill i ·I .
I
. -.
) unprcm ed1" 'l'l " . . . .
.
'
IL I ~ 1111 g i l r elic ! Ill \\'urtls and tears
I C cou 1l -111 .. 111 d11r111" these t wo
. ti . .
.
.
"'
0 1 lic e m1nulc s )>res ·nt 1
n;i ry ~J "c claclc . l"hicf-Ju s i i .. \[ · . 1 . II .·
.
·
· c e<i an extraonJi.
· Le · ars lcl 111th l11 s tall .1 I
·
as if to ca1 c h lh c sJi .. l1les t \1hi s1 ,. t;. '
.f , . 11t g :iunt t1g 11re bent over,
·l
"
't:I, 1.·" <.ecp 11rrll11·s· o f hi·~ c·I·1ee J'- expan d ed
11 11 1 e m o ti o n, a n d Ji is ci·cs
.. ,
5110
.
· . ·
use< 1 \Ill 1l tears. :\fr J . · . \\'
.
/11s s ide, - ll'il l 1 h is small a1 I
.
. . ' . . us1 1c e
ashrngt o n :lt
·
•
• 1(
emaciated frame an I
t
'
' • ' cuun e nan ce m o r e lik e
rnarlile tha 1; I ei·i ·r ·a"'
· ··
u 11 any u l 1ic r 1n 1man h :in<• _ l . .
C
.
:lll cage r, truuiiled luul · . an 1 ti
"'
eanrng o rward W!lh
.
.
. .
' ' • '
I C rc111;11n, 1e r uf the cum ! at ti
111 cs, p r cssin <• as it \H~ r · t . I ·
.
.
· '•
le two extrem .
''" ·
c, 011 arc~ a single 11u in t whil. ti .
'
'-' le au<11e n ce belo1,.
1
.lll ar:,l i, "Lec:turcs on the E iw!is 'i i [
_: rn gt 1:i gc, " p. 235 .
"

-tG3

were wrapping themselves rouml in closer fold s beneath the bench, to catch
each look and ev e ry m oveme nt o f th e speaker. Jf a painter could g iv e us the
scene o n canvas, -

th ose forms ;ind counte nan ces, and Daniel \V c lis tcr as he

ther e st oo d in th e mi dst , - it w o ul d be: o n e of the~ m11s t touching pictures in
th e his tory of c lo <jucn cc. O ne thing it tau g ht m e, that th<.! J',zth d i c depends
n o t m e rely u n th e w o rds uttered, hut s till mure o n the cstim:itc 11·c put u pon
him wht) utt e rs them. Th e re \1·as nut une am o ng th e strung·m inded m en uf
that asse 11 1l 1ly who co uld think it un111anly to we ep, wl1cn he saw standing
befo re him the man who had made such an argument melt ed i nto the tende rn ess of a c hil d."

3. Address to the Will. - As has been re peatedl y intirn:i.tcd,
thi s is the clement in whi c h persuas ion culminat\.:s, the clement
that makes the form of address d isti nc tively p e rsuasive . The
address to the intell ect and to the feelings, as we ha\·e se en ,
m e rely e mplo ys the lite rary forms al ready defined - a rgument ,
exposition, narration, d esc ripti o n. In the address to th e wi ll ,
however, we reach a di stin c tive form, whi c h we may term 1\ ppc al.
Ry it th e speaker identifies th e matter and sentiment of his
discourse with the active prin c ipl es of human natme, th:it is, with
th e motiv es that every man owns it in c umbe nt on him to be governed l>y.
1 . The relati on of the address to the will to the address to the
feelings has been already indicated. To rouse th e fe elings without
utilizing th e m fo r action is m e rely th eatri cal, mcl o clrarnatic. It is
the sp eak e r's duty rathe r, haYing tou ch ed the springs of ent]m.:i a sm, sy mpa th y, or pathos, to g ive th ese emotions an im m ed iate
i111p11be and directi o n; t he pr:1ctical outcome of them is the
answer to the question, W hat shall W\.: do?
NOTE. - Dr. J o hn Brown, in his" Spare II o urs," in s peaki ng o f the a ppar ent harJncss o f m edical stud e nts, thus draws the dis tincti o n l1c l\,·ecn cm o ti u ns
d ir ected a n d e motions und ir ec ted : -

"Don't t hink t hem h eartl ess; t h e y are n e ith e r b etter n o r worse than yo u
o r I ; th e y g e t oYer th e ir professional h o rrors , and into th e ir proper work ;
and in them p ity, as an emotion , e n ding in itself or at best in tears and a longdrawn br eath, lessens, power and purpose.

while pity, as a m otive, is quickened, and gains

It is well fur p u ur human nature that it is so ."

. rr

1 GI

/'/: 11'.S l ·,.1 S/Ul\l.

PERSUASI ON.

465

2

• Such impulse to th e \rill j . 1
rer·tly
J» I
:-., wwever, commun icated indiwil-1 . ·. ; _eop c a re not_ apt to respo nd to a direct assaul t on their
' it ,s too much like comp ul sion
Tl .
.·
.
.
:i c tion free · .111 , 1 1·11 cl o ·
icy " 111 mamtarn their
·
·
rn g i1· 11at tic
··11 · I .
.
' . .•
1 speakc
thcmsch·cs wi th doinrr what tl
Ll ,
r \\J s _t iey will please
;;:,
•
icy L H::mseh-cs will. Hence ti
.
propose d action must be .
l· . ·l i
.
1e
.l
.
.
so Jl .1ce< •Jefore them as to . . ··d
wit 1 the ir own cl, .·
1 •
comc1 c
csm.:s a1H1 mtcrcs ts . not l
.. ]f l
'
certain intermediate act" .
. .
)y itse , )Ut through
•
.
<
r1c pnnc1p 1es called motives
It is m the sk illful appea l to mo ti1·es that the .
,
secret of 1nOucncc wi th 1 . . • .
orator has the
i1s .lll< 1ic ncc. For m ot" .
l
.
s:tlly re co o- ni zcd s1nin .,.s o f
I
.
I\ cs ::i.rc t ie urnver""
·
·
b·
mor:i a ct ion the c:i . , f l .
arc the effects
J\f . .
'
'uses o w i1ch deeds
. •
l
en c.111not e:;capc them
.. . .
of the sou l dclihcratclv to fiors11··" 11· tl1 . ' nJ~r is it m th e power
,
. ~·
<.:rn
. i·c ry
.,
.
,
earnest m::tn is
d esirous t o li:11·c his con I ·t
.
.
·
< U<
man11cst some w · ti . .
1111pul s1o n · and men will
,
o r 1y source a nd
.
.
'
nunu1acturc or p rofess go l
.
.
Jn their sec ret hearts tlic
O< motives if
·
·
1
1
.
··
Y 1ave t 1cm n o t
T0 .
.
is desiraLlc to J.j))>cal to
t. .
.
·
say th e n that 1t
•
m o 11 cs is not cno11gh .. t . ii ·1
to b:i.sc conduct or p ropo. I . . .
.
, I . IS ut1 e not
sec acl!on on motive .

N on ·

·r

· ·

. . . ··: l ence ll is that in inv es tigating- the actions o f
.
n ecessarily taken for .., rant. 1 I . . .
men, motives are
•
•
<>
ct ·
n c ri11 1111 :tl cas es fu r j ·t .
.
s•gn and circumslan ce seek t . I
.
'
ns ance, arguments from
.
·
0 Sll >s tant1ate thems ·h·. l , f
.
cl ency rn the man good o r lia I
rr· .·
. c cs l} lilt 1in g some ten.
'
'' ' su •u en t to cause the , , . l
d "f
.
m11t1ve to a st ra1 we act c1 1111 1 t I f
·.
<cc< ; an J a sufficie nt
"
'
"
>
ie l> unrl o r 1 • I .·
J
.
thro ws doubt on the san il\· l f ll
'
s ,, 11 ious y ffantrng, th e fact
.
··
. '
1e pcr petrat <>r Thu. · J
.
mrn.J of men, muti1·,·kss j,) ·1s ~·ti
I· I
.
s lll l 1e universal practical
.
l u
' I
icr '" vng lo th .
.
.
c irrcspo n s1L>le vagaries of
n1ad:.css, or arc the lll"rc r·r· l f.
.....

~)

(I

111\' C llt Inn,

"Fanta s ti c ii<'""' ·' ' ; s 11 c h :is l11rks
111 ~ 0 1 n<: \\i /, j l'oc r, \\ ht.! n he wo rk
\'\ . 1t.1out
'
.
s
a con science or an ai 1n."

3· Leaving out of i·il" w <.Til m o tives, whi c h of c
.
he the dcscJYeL' (I . ·t. . .
f
ourse it would
·
1
c~ 1 uct10 11 o any CT ise to
h
· . ..
'' ·
avow, t e re are
d
n10tJ1 cs of :i.ll degrees and kind . to ·' . ·l
I
goo
.
~.
\I nic 1 t 1e o r::ttor m::t
I
as a t1111versal c urrcnc,. o f llll11
, ..
,
, y appe:i
-'
1:i 11 n:itmc. lhese ca
t I
.
d csc ri Jicd in dct ·til . lHlt \\"
' nn o 1ere UC
, '
l" 111 ;1y get a n idea o f th eir scope from

the classes into which they may be divided. They m ay be comprised und er three heads : Duty to ourselves, self-respect, prudence, rep utation, integrity, and the iikc;
Duty to our kind, whi ch includes also duty to country and common weal ;
Duty to God, whi ch comprises the highest and wo rthies t spiritual virtues.
If a h ea rer will not respo nd to such considerati o n s as these, the
disgrace lies wi th him who refuses to obey, not with the speaker
who fails to persuade him .
The appeal to moti1·e takes several aspects .
First, and most common, it is a direct identification of the proposed ac t io n with principles that o ug ht to be potent for condu c t.
The scale o f worthiness in such recogniti o n of motives may comprehend various degrees, from sim ple wo rldly pruden ce up to the
hig h est consciousn ess o f relat ion with God; and the appeal should
be t o the highest that can be counted on for effect.
EXA~rrLE. In th e follow ing, fr om Macaulay's Speech o n the Reform Bill,
th e nwti\"t.! appealed lo is Sl>licitude for a n ation's stability and welfare: "I am far indeed from wi sh ing that the !'-!cm he rs of this I fo usc slrvuld he
in fl uenced hy fear, in the bad a n ti unworthy sense o f that word. But there is
an hon es t and honorable fear, which well l>ecomes th ose who are intrusted
with th e dear es t int erests o f a great com mun ity ; and to that fear I am n <i t
ashamed lo n1ake an ea rn est appe:il. It is very well to talk of con fronting
sediti o n b.ildly, a nd of e n forcing th e law aga ins t th ose who w ou ld rl istu rh the
pulilic p eace . No rlouht a tumult cau sed hy local and temp orary irrilali n n
ought to lie suppressed with prurnpt it tl(le a nd vigor. Such disturbances, fo r
example, as th ose which Lord George Gordon raised in I 7So, should be
ins t:intly put d o wn with the slr•ing h:t 1Hl. But \1·oe lo the G o vernm e nt whi ch
c:in n o t distingu ish b c t1,·cen a nati o n and a m ob ! \ Voe to the (; o,·crnm en t
whi c h thinks that a g reat, a steady, a lo ng C1i nti11ued m ovement o f the pulilic
mind is tn be sl o pped li ke a stree t ri vl ! This erro r has been twi ce fatal to the
great I fousc of Bourbo n. G o d be p r ~is e d, o ur rul e rs have been wise r. The
golden opportuni ty whi ch, if o nce suffered to esc:ipe, might never have bee n
r etri eved, has b een sei zed . J'\o thin g, I firmly believe, can n ow prevent the
passing o f this nohlc law, thi s secunJ Bi ll o f Rights."

466

l'J:'NSU. ISION.

PERS( '.I SJON.

Dut secondly, the appeal to worthy motive is not always explicit.
It JS often malk even more effective.: uy oeing pervasive, permeatj ng structure and style, phrase and 1rnrd, so that the hearer is at
every step inspi red by lo fty sta ndards :mcl aims . It is this th at
makes a trnc oration pree min en tly ethical : it is an embod ied
appeal to what is righteous in man.
Co nsider, fo r i nstance, th e lofty and yet potent se ntiment that
pcrvades the follu wing passage, frum Burk e's Conc ili a ti vn Speech: _
"Deny th em [the Am erica ns] this parti cipation of freedom, and you break
ti.Jal ~olc l1ond, which origi nally mad e, and must still prcser\' e, th e unity o f the
Empire. D o not entertain so weak an imag inatio n, as that you r regis ters a1Hl
your honds, your affidavits ancl your sufferanc es, your cuckets and yo ur clearances, arc wha t form the grea t securiti es (lf )'<) Hr commerce. Do not dream
that you r lei k rs \l f offi ce, and your in51 ru c tion~, and you r suspe nding clauses,
::ire the lhin gs !hat hvld t0gethc r thc grea t co nt cx tur e of the mysk rious wh ole.
Thcse things d0 no t make yo ur gon:rnm ent. Dead in strume nts, passive tools
as they ar c:, it is the spi rit v f tl1c En glis h co mmunion that g ives all th eir li fe
and <:tlicacy tv th em. It is the spi rit uf the h1 g lish Cunsti lulion, whic h,
1n fu sc:d thruugh tlic mi gh ty 1n ass, pcn·ad es, fc:cds, u11il es, invigorates, vivifies
e very pa rt uf th e cmp irc, ev1: n down lo th<: mi11utest lllcmb cr.

urge ncy of the occasion, together with the vehemence or tact
of the speaker, determines the method. It should be observed,
that from th e beginning th e drift of sentiment has been more and
more against uslng personali ties ; it is principles, rather than men,
that should be attacked.

EXAMl ' l.E. -

"ls it Ill Jt the sa!llc Yirtuc \\'hi ch dues c,·erything fo r us here in England ?
Do you im agine thcn, that it is the Land Tax Act " ·hich raises your reve nu e?
that it is the annual ,- ote in the C11 111111 itl<:t• u f :-;ul' l'I)' which g ives yo u your
army? or that it is the '.lluliny Bil! \\' hi..: h inspi res it 1«ith brav ery and discipline?
No! surely 11 v ! I t is the l01·c o f !h e people; it is their attachment to their
g «n·emment, from the sense uf the deep stake they lia1·c in suc h a g lorio us
ins tiluli vn - whi ch g ivcs yuu yo ur army and yvur 11a1·}., an d infuses into !Joth
that lil1cral ulicdicnce, without whi ,- h you r a rmy would be a base ralihlc, an ([
your

1l:t\·y

n ot hing l iu t rotte n ti1ni1cr."

This is :1><
later : " \\'c
the ord er o f

truly appeal tu muli\'c, th •ug h in dir ec t, :is when the o rat or says
uu g ht to c lc\'ate ou r minds lo the g r1:a ln ess of th at tru st to which
J 1nl\·idencc has called 11s."

Thirdly, such appeal may in strong cases ta ke th e form of invecti\'e, \\'hi ch is :-;imply appeal in nc,:;a ti\·c; th a t is, it endeavors to
shame th e hearers out of unworthy motives :rncl acts, in favor
of motives more conso nant with th e ca.11se and the men . Just as
one may appc:il to justice, patriotism, honesty, lx:n evolence, so he
may inveigh aga inst wrong, CO\\'ardi cc, meanness, selfi shness. The

'167

j

EXAMPL E. -The follo wing , from Cha rles James Fox, co nvicts J\fr. Pitt of
public dishon esty and Jack of faith, as pa rt of the refu ta ti on of his pvsiti on: "Sir, I will not say that in all this he was no t h o nest to his own purpose,
and that he has not bee n ho nes t in his declarations and co nfessions this ni ght ;
but I cannot agree that he was honest to t/1is Jlouse or honest to the p eople of
this country. To this Ho use it was not ho nes t to make them cvuntcracl the
sense o f th e people, as h e knew it to be exp ressed in th e petitions upon the
table, n or was it honest to the cou ntry to act in a d isg uise, and to pursue a
sec ret pu r pose un known to th em, while affec ting to take the road whi ch th ey
pointed out. I know not whether this may not be ho nesty in the political
et hi cs of the ri ght h onorable ge n tlemen; but I know th at it wo uld be callc1l
by a very differen t name in the common transact ions o f society, and in the
rul es of morality established in private life. I kn ow o f nothing in the histo ry
of this count ry that it resembles, except, perhaps, o ne of the most profligall!
periods - th e reig n of Charl es II., when th e case of Du nkirk might probably
have been justified by the same pretense. That monarch also d ecla red wa r
against Fran ce, and did it lo cover a nego tiati o n by which, in h is clifficullics,
he was to gain a 'solid system of finance.'"

Fourthly, it is not infrequently in the orator's skill to balance
between a lower motive and a higher; and the decision res ts
largely on the nature of the effect that he would produce. A
lower motive, as for insta nce expedie ncy, o r pecuniary interest,
generally produces a more immed iate e ffec t, and on a larger
though lower class; a higher motive is more flatt ering to the
audience and produces a worthier effect, though not so wi despread. It is the business of reforms and of advancing civilization
to bring men to a higher plane of motive ; while the favorite plea
of those who oppose such movements is that the motives, though
aood ' arc too hi bcrh to be practi cal, - th at the world will not thrive
0
on " Sunday-school politics." An assertion, surely, whose truth is
too little tested.

f'LR SC.·1.SION.

PERS U.-IS'/ON.

The \\'i se o rator, therefore, who can seize the occasion, will seek
tu base hi,; ca use on motives that are both good awl practical;
if he c;11111ot give potency to the highest motive that can lie, he
wi ll 11sL· the hi g hest th:it can prod uce the effect he desires, an<l in
the \\';1y he de sires.
:\"IT. -The diffe re n ce o f lcvd in motives, and the kind of motives that
1ir111· c uf pr:1, 1;, :ii effe ct, are s lri J, ingly illustrated by the history of the aboliti on
11( th e l .icen s i11 g :\ c t.
:\li lt .. n, in h is " 1\r eopagi tica," had argued against
su! 1rni ll ing li icr:i tur e to :i lice nsi ng bo dy, b ut with v ut effect because, as Prufcs1
S<• r J:ai n s:i vs, "the mo t i1·"s app ealed tu arc n ot th ose of ordinary English1ne n, and a rc in some i11s t:i 11 c:es m er" p oet ic fancies." vVhen, however, the
:\ c t w as repc:ikd, the reas u ns against it were put on a much lower plane.
l\lacaulay thus descri l,cs it: " Ciad,t.: dcli 1·n t.:d tu the L o rd s in tl1c i'a intecl C hambe r a paper containing
the n:as ons wh id1 had dt.:te rn1in cd th e Lowe r If ouse not to renew the Licensi ng :\ ct. This pa per c vmpktt.:Iy vindicates the r eso lution to which the Comnwns had eo mc. But it pro1 cs a t the same tim e that th ey knew not what th ey
\\Tre d1 1in g , what a rc;v ,>lutiun th ey we re making, wh a t a power they were
ca llin g int u exis te n ce. They poi n t<.:d uu t eo11ciscly, clearly, forcibly, and somcti m es witl1 a r,r:11·e iro n y wlii c li is n o t unli l'co min g, the absurd iti es an <l iniquit ic·s of th e stat u te whi c h was ah•>ut l< i expire. But ali their objec tions will be
11
f u nd I<> rc la tt: to matters .. f <kta il. On th e great questio n of p rin cipl e, on
t lit.: •111<'st i"n 1d1vthcr the lil 1e rty of unli cl' nsed printing be on the whole, a
l>lessing or a c11r,;" t.i s"c 1t:ty , not a wu rcl is sa id. The L icensing A.ct is cond c m11 cd, n <lt as a tl 1i ng essentially e ,·il, ln1t o n account of th e petty grievances,
t lie exact i, >n;;, I lie jul>s, the cn mn 1c rcial res tri ctio ns, th e domi ciliary vi s its,
whic h ll'Crc in cide ntal to it. .
Su c h ll'ere the arguments which did wha t
l\!ilto n's Areopai~iti.;a had failed to do."

I I.

0 1~ !\TO I\. Y.

As has bee n intimated throughout the foregoing section, the
furm th:i t persuasio n tak es in li terature, being almost altogether
oral add re ss, is o ra to ry. The prin ciples of oratory are therefore
fo r th e m os t pa rt identical with th e p rin ciples of persuasion, which
have just been traced. A little further analysis is needed, however,
o f oratory as a type of literature.
1

Sn· th e acco unt o f th is tr:rn sa cti o n. B:iin's "R heto ri c," pp.

220-223.

4(/)

Oratory has already been named (see page 3) as one of three
broad literary types, distin ct from didactic prose on the one hand ,
and from poetry on the other, yet partaking largely of both . . It is
the type which, for su ccess, calls for the brges t resources! be:n g ~ n
address to the wh ole man - intellect and feeling, culmrn:iting m
appeal to the will, - and therefore utilizing most fully the highest
powers of the rhetorical art.

I.
Characteristics of Oratory in General. - The sphere of truths
in which oratory moves, and the fact that these truth s mu st be
Lrmwht
home for imm ediate effec t upon an audien ce, make imo
perative some char:icte ristics of oratory which, th ough they ha,·e
alre:idy been intimated, need to be here brief1y recapitulated .
Eloquence, the Sum of the, Oratoric Style. - To dcfrn e eloquence, in the fullness of its idea, is as .h:ird
it is to deti1~e poet ry.
Mechani c:illy, it may be described as impassioned prose, obeymg
the laws and liberties of spoken discourse. 2 But this brings us
only a littk \\'ay tow:ird a d efinition. To true eloquence so many
things are essential - the ch:iracter of the orator, his skill 111 sw:1yin a th e emotions and se ntim ents of an audience, the greatn ess o f
subj ect and occasion - that a brief definition is impossible. Perhaps we can do no better than to take Daniel \~elister's de ~c np­
tion of eloquence, inwoven as it is throughout with the quality he
is defining. He says: 3 " \Vhen public bodies are to be addressed on momentous occasions, when grea t interests are at stake, and stro ng pass ions exc ited,
nothing is valuable in speech farther than as it 1s connected with
high intellectual and moral endowments. Clearness, force, and
earnestness are the qualities which produce conviction. Tru e eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech, It cannot lie brought

:i:

See preceding, p. 7r.
S ee preceding, p. 76.
a vVcbs tc r, Oration o n" Adams and J e ffe rso n."
1

2

l'J_.,'fl'SL ·.·I SJO. \'.

from far. L:1l1o r and lea rn ing may to il fo r it, but th ey wjl! toil in
vai n . \\'o rcl s and phrases may he marsha ll ed in eve ry w:iy, but
th(·y cannot comp:1ss it. It mtht e xist in the man, in the subject,
and in the occasio n. :\ (ll:< ·tc cl p:tssion, intense expressio n, the
pump 0( dccl:inutiun. :ill m:1 y asp ire to it; they cannot reach it.
lt comes, if it come a t all, li ke the outb rea king o( a fountain from
th e c:1rth, o r tl1e li 11r-, ting forth of \·ulcanic fires , wi th s ponta neous
origin ~ll. nati\·e forc e. The g r:iccs t:1ught in the schools, the cos t];
ornament,; :111d st11dicd contri1·:1nccs o( speech, shock and d isgust
m en, \d1cn thei r O \n1 li1T s, and the fate of thei r 11·ivcs, their children, an d th ei r cou ntry , h:rn g on the d ec ision of the hour. Then
wo rd s h:H·c iust their po 11·c r, rh e toric is \·ain, and :ill elaborate
o r:1tory contcmp ti lilc. En' n gL·ni ns it se lf then feels rebuked and
sul 1cl1 1cd, as in the presence of higher quali ti es . Then patriotism
is el oquent; then sclf-de \·ot iu n is c lorjli en t. Th e c lear co nception,
out running the dedu c ti o ns of logic, the high p urpose, the firm
rcsol n :, the d:iu ntlcss sp irit, spe;i king o n the tong ue, Leaming from
t·he eye, informing C\'e ry feature, a nd urging the wh o le man o nward,
rig ht om1·;ird to his ol1ject, - this, this is eloque nce; or rather, it
is something grea ter a nd highe r tha n all eloquence, - it is action,
n oble . s1il1li111c . god li ke ;i c ti o n!'
Frum th e alJo \·e parag r;iph kt us endeavor to draw some practica l conl'!us io ns fur our be nefit in o r;ito ry.
1. Eloqt1encc is no t syno nymo1 1s wi th an ambiti o us or pretentious styk . nor is it 1111fri e ndly to th e plai nes t language. It is simply wi ,;e to t:1kv ;t<h·:111t;1ge or (w1 ·:1si<> 11. \\ ' hen the o ccas io n itse lf
is cluq11e11t, th e n eloq uenc e sho ws ih gc 1111inc ness by silence; and
it knows when ho m eli ness a ncl even bareness of statement works
with th e occasion to have power o n men.

Eloqu e nce docs, h o 11T n~ r, exclude co nside rat ions th:it are
subtle and fa r-fetched, hair-splitting di sc rimin at io ns of tho ught,
ove r -lit e r:iry phrase and im age ry; because these ;ire ill adapted to
th e t ra nspare ncy of spoke n style, :incl do no t appeal to th e m:inn er
of thi nking o f average pe ople, fo r whom orato ry exists.
2.

3 . E loqu e nce, dealing \\'ith com mon men, moves mos t naturally

PERSUA SI ON.

4 71

among com mon thoughts, grounds itself on everyday moti~ es and
prin c iples, :rnd is inde ed e m bod ied common-sense . Its ideal JS
d ignified conversation, grappling closely and earnestly with the
important issues of life .
4 . When o n occasion eloqu en ce rises into splend or of style and
im:igery as it has full libe rty to do, it is still at the impulsi o n of a
practical encl . Such fli g hts cannot be me cha ni cal, and. if not com p e lled lJ)' th e subject th ey are hut l>o mbast and f~1 s t1an .. Th ere
mu st be a man and a cause und erneath th em, so 111form111g tha t
th ey shall appear as inevitable .
. .
Exactions of the Popular Element in Oratory. - Oratory Js, m
the tru est se nse, po pular litera ture ; that is, it e xists fo r the p eople,
for low as wel l as hi gh . This fact has a very determining in fluen ce
on th e ge neral struc ture of the oration, and o n the kin ds of argu ments :rnd considerations most to be relied on fo r effect.
1. As to ge neral structure, th e oratio n is, of all literary fo rms,
most depe nd ent on the qualities of unity and simpli c ity. It will
no t do fo r the o rator to con tent himself lazily with saying " so m ething about" his c hosen subj ec t. He ne eds first of all to resolve
his thought into absolute unity of aim and effec t, rej ecting m e rcilessly all that di s tracts from thi s or unduly delays it. Th e n fo r
working this effe c t, let h im depend on a few points so clearly
arti c ulated a nd so strongly mainta ined that no h earer can mista ke
their d rift. 1
2. As to the kinds of argument most reli ed o n in oratory, we may
say, in general, they arc t!tc arg um ents whl:n:in there is only o ne
step fro m premise to co nc lusion . Such arc, preeminently, a rg uments from example and analogy, whi ch may a lmost b e called the
distinc tive oratori cal fo rms. Long tr:iins of indu c tive reasoning
are perha ps least fitted for oratory; and, in ge neral, no kind of
argument sho uld be used wh e re the end is lon g unc ertain, o r
where the p remises are meaningless without th e ir conclusion. It
I For some excellen t rul es a nd re mark s o n the man ageme nt of a popu lar ad dress, see Th oma s \.V entworth Higg inso n's little handboo k, "Hints o n \.Vriti ng
and Sp1;cch -:'lfaking ."

---·--f'J:"/,'Sl ·. I SIO. \'.

l'/_::R SUASJ O.\ '.

is not safe to leave an y loop-holes fo r a re mi ssio n of attention.
nor, on the other hand, to leave pbces which, if re mitted, will in~
v::d idate what succeeds .
. Every a rg11 1ne nt should contain, as fa r as p oss ible, its own pract1 c:il appli c tt10n; sho uld , by its very fo rm and nat ure, be so living
with :ippeal th at no fur th er adjustment to co nd uct will be needed
by way of applica ti on.

II.
Kinds of Oratory. - Acco rding to the various sph eres of act ion with which persuasion ha s to d eal, we recogni ze certain broad
classes of oratory.
/ \ s persuas io n, \\'hich is the distin c tive clement of or:i.tory, implies rnutement to a d etermi na te iss ue in cond uc t, such public
lectures and addresses as sec k m erely to g ive information or entertainment do no t prope rl y c o me under the head o f or::itory. Th e
:lcc'.dent of their public o ral d el i\·e ry demands that they conform
to t11e requ1 s1tes of spoken style, ::ts already ):; hown on page
;
79
~u rt her than this th ey belong m e rely to didactic or descriptive
literature in its onlinary types.

. C?rato:i c d iscomses that do sec k a determinate issue may oe
d1v1dcd In to t\\'O cbsses, ac co rding as the issue is imm ed iate and
d c lini te or re mo te and unlimi ted .

. 1. Determinate Oratory. - T his nJ.me we may give to oratory
that ('ontemplatcs d in:rt and imm edia te act io n as its result· th at
.
.
'
ts, a ct1u n th.1t may express ihclf in a \·o te, or in a verdi ct, or more
genera lly in a c hange and imprnvcment of life. Oratory of this
kind may be grouped und e r three heads.
I. Oratory of the law, o r fo re nsic o ratory, is c oncerned with the
ge nera.] e ncl of just ice a nd right. It is the most direct and practJCal ~111<l of orato ry, dealing \\'ith ]!bin fa c ts and p rincip les, and
bbonn~,to scc mc an imme diate verdict on the trn ths brought to
light . I he staple of it there fore is ordinarily very si mple and
d irect; but the re is also room for occas ional efforts of the hig hest
el oq ue nce.

-17.)

2 O nto rv o f lc•,i
0 sbt ive asse mbl ies o r parli amentary or::ito ry . is
concerned with the ge neral end of public weal and politi Gd expe dien cy. Its range of reso urces is ve ry g reat, having for its sphere
wha teve r m :i.y influe nce po liti cal :i.cti o n for the future , a nd :11 !
m o tives from lo west to hi g hest. Th e m ode m taste in <ir:Uury u f
thi s class is unfri e nd ly to the elabora te efforts of a11ti 1 1uity, ur e\·~·11
o f :i. ce ntury :i.go; and parktm en ta ry debate is beco m ing mu re :trn I
m ore a matlcr of business . A more pop ub.r fo rm o f such orato ry.
a nd sometimes mo re fi e ry a nd ambi ti o us, is seen in pbtfurrn pol it ical s peaking, whi ch b.bors fo r the end o f influenc in g vutes and
shaping publi c opi ni on .
.
.
3 . O ratory o f th e p ul p it, or sacred oratory, 1s concerned wi th
the rrcncral e nd of indu c ing men to follo w Christ, and l>y con scquei~ce of refo rming and deve lop in g th ei r moral and spi ritual life .
]n seeking such a lofty and co mprehensive issue, it mu st l>o tli
wo rk fo r im med iate effec t, in the case of those whose first d uty i-,
to yi eld to di\·inc claims, and fo r a rem o ter cornplian«c'. in th e
c ase of those whose sp iritual life needs educatio n and e11l1 gh tL' 11m c nt. It fails, however, wh en it wan ders too far fro m a dd111it e
a nd imm ed iate issue; just as it is m o re gloritie d in p r1>portio 11 :i .~
it co m es close home to people and speaks in the language <1 f thei r
d aily business.
.
2 . Demonstrative Oratory. - This name may be g11T11 to that
class o f o r:i.tio ns whe re in n o dcfine<l end is directly JHl>jl ()Sl'd .
but wherein no ne the less th e d e mand s o f persu:i.si o n a rc j>rc"e nt, in a ge nc::ral impulsi o n to\\'ard noble, p:J.triotic, and ho nu r::iblc se ntiments, and toward a large and wonliy li fe . Or:i.tll l')'
o f thi s kind may be exempl ified in such addresses as \\" ebster\ :1t
Bunker Hill a n<l o n the First Se ttle m e nt of New En gb nd , b·n ett's oratio n o n The Character of Washing to n, and Blai ne's eul' >.:.: _1
of President Car fi dd. M uch of th e be tter class o f pbtforrn s peak incr
o> when th e coun try is in the g rasp of g reat publi c qu estion s,
partakes largely of this character.
.
Th e re is a fi eld for su c h demonst ra ti ve oratory mu ch more 1mportrn t th :in people ordinarily rc:i li zc. I t is, o r m:1y Le mad e , a
•

\.-

.I

. . .,. . . . .

~-------------------~!<"!""-~------

·1 i l

/'/:R SC.·I S!U,\'.

great educator. The people, in whose hands is the government,
n eed just and lofty ideas on gre:it issues, need con tinually to be
lifted to :1 higher p la ne of publ ic opi ni on. And this is needed not
on ly wh e n a vote hangs dire c tl y on the orator's effort, but also
when the people can with leisurely mind and without partisan
ex cite ment consider larg<.: ideas in their trn e light. The work is
no w most ly done by journalis m, and great and s~dutary is th e influen ce ; lrnt the or:ito r' s field is hy n o means closed, nor will it be,
so long :is men delight in the li\·ing vo ice, the warmth of eloqu cnc<.:, a nd th e presence of infl ue nti al m<.:n.

INDEXES.

; '

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
[111c titles ot m3in divi sions, c h~pters. and sections, arc set in small c:Jpital s .]

Abeyance of judg ments, 234.
J\b lative absolute , equ ivalen t of. 158.
AHSTRt\CT, 307; occa s io n and method
of, 307; rules of, 310; value of as
di sc iplin e, 309.
A bst ra ct and concrete, relation s of in nmp li fi cati o n, 29x.
A co:ssoRtES OF AM PLI FI CATION, 297;
of descripti o n, 338.
A ccu rate use o f word s, 29.
A chieve m e nt of object, the speaker's ,
456.
Ad apta ti o n, tlic task of rheto ri c, I; ways
of in di sco urse, 2.
Adj ec tive, plac ing of, u7.
Adverb, placing o f, u 9.
Adju stm e nt, in vers ion for , 166.
A dvusative conjunct ional relation, I.p.
A forti o ri arg um ent, 421 .
Al e rtn ess, mental, 227.
Al lego ry, 94.
Al lia nce with audience, the speaker's ,
449.
./\llitnation, 6o; u se of in d escripti o n,
3.12.
Allu s io n, 298.
Alt e rn a ti o n of types in di ctio n, 75.
1\ ltcni:itivc as basis of arg ument, 429.
AMl'I..IFIC ATtON , 285; ACC ESSORIES OF,
297 ; ;\IFA;'iS UF, 290 ; of syllogis m,
427; n ot always d es irab le , 286 ; th e
writer's moo d in, 285 ; US ES OF, 286 ;
why n eccled , 288.
Amplifying paragraph , th e , 2II.
Amplitude of style, 151.
An alogy, argument from, 422; exposition
by, 395 .
An alv s is, as in stru men t o f refut at io n,
-t33·

IAna
lyti cal judgm ent in interpretatio n. 305.
Anecdotes, u se of in am pliliu :inn ,
29'J.

An te cedent , discri min ation of, 123; recogn iti o n of na tu re of, r32.
1\nti-dimax, rn6.
Antique d iction , 82.
Antithesis, 102; ex position by, 392; use
in desc ripti on, 3.;o.
Aphoristic litera ture , 287.
A poste ri ori argum e nt, 417.
Apostrophe, 98.
1\ppea l, di stin cth·e o f perst1as ion, 463 ;
to m ot ives , explici t, 465 ; impli c it ,
466.
A priori argum ent, 4 r7.
Aptit ude, as n:btcd to a rt, 4 ; marks u f
inve ntiv e , 22t.
Archaie te rm s, affecta ti o n of, 38.
Archabm s , poetic, 52.
A rg um e nt a fortiori, 42 1; a poste ri or i,
417; a priori, 417 ; d educt iv e , 42. ~;
fro m anal ogy, 422 ; from exa mp le,
421; indu ct ive, 41 6 ; kinds of. in oratory, 47 1.
./\ Rr. U~ t t•'. NTAT tON , 407 : th e m~ in, 257 :
wh a t it ow es to exposition . ·n9·
Argum e nt a tiv e form pred om in :rn t in or:lto ry, 458.
Argument s fro m s ig n,419; ord er of.. 1.11 ;
Tl!E HOIJY OF, .139.
A rrange men t o f words in prose, 60.
Art a nd science dis cr imin:1ted , 4.
Arti cle, etc. , placing of, J tS.
Artifi ce, futi li ty o f, in pnsuasion , 450.
Assoc ia ti o n, laws of, 273.
Assonance, 6I.
A udi en ce, speaker's alliance \\' it h , +19·
,\11 g rn cntati on, 150.
1\uthori1y, 41 3.

_...,

478

---

~--- · -·

J.\DEX

...

._ ,.

-- . ----~

OF SCRJECTS.

Ha lanced ,t·ntt·nct· , r9 r.
Bala nced ~ tn1c t tir..: , I 6.J..
B.l!hos , 106.
Beauty of style, 23.
Begmnrngs .tnd e 11 d1ngs , paragraph , 209.
Btbl1ography, use of rntercst 1n, 2.J r.
B1,1g1,1phy , 378.
Book1sh ne'S , antidote to, 231.
Brevity , poetic, 50.
Burden of proof, 444.

Car!ence , l 7 r .
Cant , 48.
Catholici ty o f taste, 228.
Cause and effe l'l, law o f, 275.
Chain of re,boning, the , 428.
Charadcr, pc:r:;ona l, in perst1asion, 4-19.
C1tut CE OF \\'URl >S , 29 ; in prose, 6+
Chronological orde r in narrat iv e , 36 r.
Cire1:111locution, r53.
Circt1111stantial d escr iption , 33+
Circums tanti a l evi d ence , 41 9.
Classical dcri\·ati 1·cs, use of, 43.
Classifi ca ti o n, 397.
Cl;rns es , pbcing of, 12 r.
Clearn t:~s . clc mt·nt s of, r9 ; FJCLIRl'S !'RO~IOTI t-><: , 87 ; l1al1it uf st·cking, 232.
Cl i111:1x, 105 ; a s c· 111 pl1aoizi ng- narrative
1110\'l'lncnt , 3r•7 ; in plan , 263.
Coin:ige of new tern is , 31.i.
Cvlkctive n o un, conco rd of, II2.
Colloca tion , 117.
Colloquial diction , 82.
Co mm onplace bouks, use of, 242.
Comp:ni'>Oll i>y than, as , e tc., 136.
Co~ !l 'USITION , 108.
Cu1?1pou11cls , poelie fund ness fo r, 5 r.
Comprchcns il'e o ut line, in descrip ti on ,
330.
c,int.:t.:ss ion, in dclJate , 445.
Conclusio n, ':!.79; form and style of. 280 ;
rcbti()n tu liody ,,f disco urse , 280.
Concord of subjt'ct and ve rb , r 10.
Concrete and austract in amplifi c:11i o n,
29I.
CON CR ET ENESS, Flt~ U RI·~~ l"l(UM O'J'INt;,
87.
Cond ens:1tion , 15-1; as means o f aUstracting, 309 ; for rapidity, r57 ; for
strength , 154.

Condensed express ion, value of, 286.
Co ndit ional clauses, 140, 147.
Conjunction:il relat ion , 138.
Conne xion of words in prose, fy.
Co:>;s rRUC !'ION OF 'fill~ Pl.AN , 26o ; reqt11 si tes of, 262.
Cont1gu1ty, Llw of, 273.
Continuity in th e patag1 aph, 198 ; MEA NS
OF l' KESE l\VING, 282.
Contras t, as e mphas izing narrative movement, 366 ; law of, 274; principle of,
103 ; 11 ,e in d escription, 340.
Conversation , rl'port of, 127.
Coordinating co njunctions, r39.
Coordi nati o n of a ntecedent, 127.
Co rre lation, 135.

I

Cn.:~ 1t i \'t.: rc:-tding, 235 .

Criti c ism , 40.1; its initial requirement,
3o5.
Cumulative conju nctions , 139·
DEBATE, +14·
Deduction, 42.1.
Deductive order, 278.
Defi n itio n, 387; amplified , 389 ; logi cal,
387.
I Den1onstra tive, placing of, n8.
Ucn1onstratives, use of, 124.
Dependence:, ordcr o f, in na rration, 361.
De riva ti o n a nd history of wo rds, importan cc o f know ing , 33.
DESCRtP'l'lON , 326 ; accessories of, 338;
as aid to narration , 369 ; circumstanti al , 334 ; definition o f, 326 ; dynamic,
335 ; IN ITS PRIJ'\Cll'LF.S, 3<16 ; IN
LITERATURE, 350; log ical, 391;
m echanis m o f, 328 ; objective a nd
s ubjective , 3-U; th e me in, 257.
Det:iil , portraya l without, 337.
Det:1ils, se qu e nce of, in description , 332;
sulJllua l o f, 334Deve lopment , the, 272.
Dialec t dic ti o n , 82.
DICT ION, 28 ; a111ique, fo reig n, etc., 82;
AS PET l·'. l(MlNED HY OBJECT AND
OCCAS ION, 76; definition of, 28;
!'OETIC, Cl!A RACTER IST ICS OF, 48;
!' ROSE, CllARACTERtSTlCS
AN!>
TYPES OF, 63 ; spoken , 76; written,
So; wr itte n for puLLic d e livery, 79.

INDEX OF Sl'RJECTS.
· t , n •ature and form of,
Expo un d e d o 1JjCC
Didacti c cle m e nt in o ra to ry, 457·
384.
, ,
- . bv
Didactic prose, 3.
EX POS ITI ON , 383; by .rnalogy. _39::i ·. .
Dig ressio ns , 207 .
antithesi s , 392 ; uy exe mplifi c:it1on.
. by iteratio n anti o\.Jve rse, 393;
D ilemma, 43 r.
394
Dire ctn ess :iml e mph :isis in prose arex t ~nsi~·e, 396 ; IN JTS ELE M l·: :>:T~.
rani:;cmcnt. 66.
384; 1:-< 1.1'1'1':1:,\T\JRE, 402; mtc n·
Disc iplinary read in g, 237.
sive , 387; p o pular, 405 ; what argu Disco ursc . definition of, I.
m e ntati o n owes to , 439·
1) iscove ry of facts. 408.
Expos it o ry th eme , th e , 257.
I li sc m sive narrati o n, 370.
D b1 inctio n in h eadi ngs o f pl:1n, 263.
,.ail urc in writing, so urces of, 4·
Di\'i,io n, 306 ; co m pn:he nsive n_css uf, 39.8 ; 1
h :elin gs , add ress to tlt e. in ora tory ann
\;\ws uf, 400 ; min uteness o l, 399 ; prindrama di stin g 11ishc tl. ·159 ; m pers uac ipl e o f, 397·
s ion, ·159 ; h ow m e n r« spo nd to, 4b0.
D rama, 38 1.
.
Fi ctio n, '.\79·
Dyna1ni c d escr iption, 335·
Fi g urati,~c language , in Lksc ript1 on, 339·.
Dynamic: str ess in se nt ences, 18 1.
l .. 1,; URES OF Sl' l·TC ll, 85 ; use of .IS
amplifiers . 295; TllAT 1' !{0\lfHE
E co no m y, principl e of, 25 ; as re lated to I
CLEARNESS ,\:>:IJ CONCRETEl'l·:S, ,
pe rs uasion . 458.
87; Tll AT !' ROM()'t' J·: EMl'H i\S IS, 96.
Fff.. ets , l Jt·se ripti•in li y, 34 2 ·
··Fine writin g ," 'IS·
El lipsis for rapid ity, r59.
hncc in st vle , ele m e nt s of. 2r.
E ll ipti cal se nte nce structt1re, r74.
Fn recas t o f sto rv. in na rra ti on , 35i·
Fl u qu c nce, -169·
.
.·
l:ore ign diction, 82. .
E1noti o n, exh iuiti o n o f m . pe rsu:is1o n, Foreign tc rrns, use o f, -\ i . .
r, 1 ; m anufact ured, futility o t, 46 i.
Fo rin o f disco u rse prcdonunant in per4
Ern oli•1ns. form> of di scourse adapted to ,
suas io n , 458, 460.
6o; in different people, 46o; Ill ora- l:UNIJAMENTA L l'RUt:i·:SS F.,.;, HX_I .
4
t(J rv, ~l :;0.
.. Funny man," ih c . in pcrsn:1s 1o n , 45 I.
Emph:i-s is ,·di str ibution of. 179; FJ< ;tJ tn:S
Tll-AT PKOMOTE, 96 ; in ve rsion !0 1, \ Gen eralization, na_t,u.re.. o f.. 3,84 . ,·
N ll-11 ORl,ERw
l 6::> ·
.
'Jd ("FNERAL l' ROC l:.::i:, LS I '
Enforc~men t , o rd e r of, 111 tho ugh t-bt1 i · '\ ' .. ~_c OF MATERIAL, 245·
rn g , 278.
Gnom ic hteraturc, 287. .
.
Enth y1n1 ·111e, 425 .
.
.
Gra nim ar di stin guish ·d trom rh eto:•c. 2 •
!·:numerati o n in a mpltfi cat1 o n, 290.
(jrouping o f d esc ri ptive cl cta il s , d1ff1culty
t·:pigram, 104 .
o f, 32 3; of thought s, 273·
Ep iso d es . 362.
.
.
Ep ithet , kin ds of, 56; u se of Ill descrip- l [,\HITS T!I A't' PROM OTE J!'<\" E!\TlON ,
tio n, 3_11 ; use of m poetry, 56.
226.
Ess:iy, th e, 403.
Het ero"'en eous se nten ce, 176.
F11 phc m ism, 154·
.
H i,tori~n. qualiftc:1tion of the, 375·
Fu phony, 1 6 7 ; poetic rega rd for, 6o. .
I .I isto ri c present, th..:. I 13.
Exampl e , argt1ment from, 421 ; u se of, m
l listory, 375; form' of, 37 6 ·
a1nplif1cation, 291.
H o rtat o ry e le m e nt in ora tory, 457:
J·:x cl:unati o n . 97 .
Human nature, kno wled ge of, m perEx cgt"sis o f te rm s , 389.
suas io n, 452.
Ex e.mpl ifi cation, expos itio n by, 394·
Hyperbol e, 99·
Expe rt t<.: stimony, 4 14.
Il ypo th es is, 416.
Expli cit reference, 20~.

1

~so

! . \ Dl:X UF Sl B')'! :' CFS.

ldi .i rn,; , .11'.
j Lit cr:t turc, three broad types o f, 3.
I ll:itiv e n>11j 1111 crio 11 al n :l;itio n, q 3.
Utotcs , 145.
lllu , tr;iti,·e dct.1i f, in amp liri c:i rron , 29.1.
Logic , ns dis tingui s h ed fro m rh e to ri c, 2 .
J 111 :1gin:Hiun, funcli(l n o f, in crjtit..:1:-1 11, 30< ';
' I ,ogical desc rip tion, 39 I.
i11 hisrnri,·al C•J111pv s i1iun, 37G.
to ng a nd sho rt se nte nces, i 85; uses of,
I ni.1ginati,·e typl' pf prl)~t' dic ti o n, 73.
186.
I mp:i ~ 'irnwd 1_1·pl' o f prose d ict ion , 71.
Loose sente n ces, 188.
I nc!d <·nrs and anl'cdo tes, i11 a m plific:itiun,

I

'2CJO .

f\l c tapho r, 90 ; u se of, in d esc ripti o n, 339.
f\letony my , 88.
138.
1\l o tivcs , :ippcn l to, in p e rs uasio n, 464 ;
l nd"p,·n•knt conci 11s ions, h a lJit o f see k- I
bal a n c in g betwee n , 467; what 1Hay
1ng , 234 .
!Jc app ealed to . ,;6.;.
ln d ic:,., rn11111 , ll>e of, '..!.;..:.
7\l ol'c m e nt , e mph:i s iz ed, 366 ; in narral11d11c 1i n n, .; 16.
ti o n. 363 ; in pla n, 276 ; re tard ed o r
l nrlu,·rive nrdl'r, 276.
:1 ccch.: ra tecl , 36+
J n tl'lk-1·t, :tdd r·'"' to , in p e rsua s ion , ,19>;

I nd•·,·rl, etc., a s jJ;lrr ielcs o f co n cc!'> io n,

I

1H ao,1gt.·nh' nt uf, .i58 .

J'\ ,1!;kATtO N, 35·1; as nccesso ry o f d csc ripr iu n , 344 ; d efi niti o n o f, 3S5 ;
co n voyed l1y d esc ri p ti o n , 369 ; di oJ nt" ll1•c·t;1.tl l." I"' of j>f'be dicriun , ()c:1.
curs ive , 370; IN LITER 1IT lJ 1; E, 37_c; ;
I 111t•lligii1 le '"'" o f worcb. 39.
m ethod of. 356 ; m ove m e nt in, 363;
J1Jli11i1in.~s . use of, 11 6.
Sl ~!Pf. t ·:, 355 ; what it owes to d eJnt erpre tati o, sig nifi can ce o f, 292.
sc ripti o n, 368.
I :-ITEI; I'!( ET.'\ 1'1< •:-1, 302 ; purp<bCS O f, I
:\ ar rati ve fo rm o f hi s to ry , 377.
303; rc qcc i, it ,-, uf. 305; scope o f, ' :\ arr:iti vc th e m e , th e , 256.
30 2.
:'\'A JUC,._ TtVES, COM lll NATJON OF, 37 !.
l n te rpr<"ring p o wer, cco 11 0 111_v o f re ader's ,
Nq;atio n, 144: of cl im a x, 107.
26.
i\' egativc, double, 145.
I nlerrt1;.!':ttiu11, 97 .
N e w fo rn1 n tio ns, co inage o f, 36.
I 111,·rn m ·,·11 pie"' · 373.
New wo rds , 35.
I ntr, Hluctiun . ..,,,7; f"rrn and style o f. 270;
,' \ c ll'spnpc r a nd collo qui a l te rm s, 37.
rat i<> n:ck o t, 'L(J? .
/
:'\ on-collo qui a li s ms , p oe tic, 53.
J :'\T t:P l •l:\TOI( \', I.
i'\ o n 'equ itur, 434.
l nn·uil'c, .;r,(, .
N .. t,•s , taki ng , 2..J2.
l .'.'\ . E:'\T ll• N, 2 1:;; 1\ I... A 1'' r\ T t 1nA J. CI FT, 1
,' \ ,,t o nly . . . but also , 137.
~ 20 ; a :-. .L!l.1 .1H I 1li\'b i t >tl qf rlit' lo ri c , 7; ! 1' nn·I , th e , 38 i.
1< ,1:-; 1s t :'\ ~ii -. ., r ..11 ...1 1·1 T n 11Jt-:S ,1 ;-;n /
1
It A lllTS, 2'.:!0 : g r:i d1 ., o f . 22.; ; scope OIJjeet. e xact io ns of, in d esc ription, 347 ;
/
th e s p ea k e r's , in p ers ua s io n, 456.
of. 2 17.
lrwe1 Hi l'c :ibili 1y, ki nd ' . 11f, 223 .
I OIJjec ti ve nn cl s u!Jjee ti ve dcsc ripti o n, 343.
I n ver, 1o n. i tJ5; fpr adJ11 ,l nlL· n t. 106 ; f,. r / Ulisnva ti o n. halJits o f. 227.
e111pl1n'i'. 16_:; ; in prose di c ti o n, 06. Oln·crse iterati o n, ex pos iti o n by, 393.
I 1n·r, 1ig :11i o 11, order u f. 276.
01,vcrse , repet iti o n by, 293.
i r"ll\'. TOO.
Old te rm s, nsc o f, 38.
I tc:r:lt ion , e xpo s iti1Jn liy , 393.
O nly, pos iti o n o f, rr9.
It , pros pec tive an d re tro. pccti,·c . 13.1.
nppon{' nt, treatm ent o f, in d ebate, 4..J S·

l 11tt.: lkl'lu:tl clt'm,·111 , 111 1purtance of. in
Jh.' l' '.\ IJ:hin11,

.J.::/).

I

Or, nor, e it he r, n e ith e r, use o f, 137·
Kn o wled ge o f human nature, in per- Oratio n, ge neral s tructure of, 47r.
s u:ts io n, .1_:;'.:!.
i O rntorie re petition, 161.

J,\ '/J F. \' OF SU ff')' I: c'J'S.

·!Sl

ORATORY , 468; d e m o n stra tive , 473; d e- P hn nin g, ad apted n e ss of 111 a1 c ri;1 l 1". 2•1t.
tc rn1in a tc , 472 ; fo re ns ic, 47 2 ; ge n- Pl ecinast ic s tructure in s t·n tcn,·cs . ' 7·1·
e ral ch :cr:tU c ri , tics o f, 46<.J ; kind s of. !'lo t n n d in c ide nt, in tere s t o f, rn n:trr:iti o n, 359·
.;72; p:t riia mc.:ntary , 473 ; sa c red , ·173;
Plot s int ern·u vPn, 373·
th c m e in, ::?_) 8, .;56.
Poe ti~ ch~t n g 1 ·s in n1c ;1nin g of \\ ' (ird s , ; 1;.
Ord e r, ch ro n o l(Jg ica l, in na rratio n, 36 i.
(Jrd e r, ha hi t o f see king , 233; of arg u- l'o t-:T :c I >ICTIO:'\ . c Jl AR ACTI·: 1'1 ' l'ICS {, ,. ,
.JS.
m en ts . 441 : of d e p c nd t· n cc in n arra Poe t ry, d escr ipti o n in .. 35:i.
t io n. 3(i1; o f rdut:uinn. 44 3.
QR IJE IU;\<; OF MATERIAi ., <;E:--I ERAI. I •oint of \·icw in desc.: n 1II HH1, 3'2C) .
l'o pu ln r cle m en t, t>x :i cti o ns o f the , in
l'R<>CESS ES 1:--1 TtrF, 2.J S·
o rat1)ry , 47 1.
Onkrs o f rl1oug ht -I 1ui ld in g, two. 276.
Po pu l:ir c xpus iti o n , 405.
O ut lin e st ru c tcirc.: of disco urse, 264.
.
Ou tlin e , the co m prehen si ve , in descrip- Portrayal wi riiout d etJrl, 337·
Possess ive , plac ing o f. 11 8 ; poetic use
ti o n , 330.
of. 51.
J' AkA< ;J\A l' II, TJIE, 193 ; p a rall e l con - Prec is io n , in s ty le , 19.
' trncrion in. w8 ; pla n o f, 198 ; pre- l 'rccis-wriring, u r ;1l"t rnc t, 30 7.
li111i n:uv. 2T t ; prop or tio n in . 207 ; !'reface d ~ 1.<1 e 111 e nt, 150.
proposi.tion :tl, 2 !0; <,il JAL ITI ES 11:-:11 ]'re lim inar v parag rap h s, 2 11.
.
.
STRt ;('Tl l RE OF. 194 ; TR ,\ ;-;stT tO:\ - l're m isl" , rl ;· fini 1ion c,f, 424.
Pre mi ses , in d cd n c ri o n, .;:q ; in r11 duct1 o n,
Af., 2 11.
41 7, 4 2+
PAR ,\<;J\A l'l! S, KI Nl>S OF, 2!0.
Pre se nt use , in choi ce o f " ·o rd s, 35·
J\1r:<1.::r:1ph -s u!Jj ec t, th e . 194.
l'rescn ti vc "or< ls . 67 .
J':irallel co ns ir uc t io n in p n ra gra p h , 208.
1',1R ,\l ' ll RA SE, 3 10 ; rule s o f, 3 q; uti liry 1'ro n1in c. ncc.: , law ( )f, t 25.
J'J( ()()F OF T RtlTlt lll1'1·:CTl.Y, 40S; I>\'
o f, 3 TO ; val u e o f as di sc ip lin e , 3 q.
lH S l 'H. f HJ F <'F El\. l..: c >!.\. , -12fJ.
l'art ic ipl es , u se o f. 11 5 .
i'arti c ks . im po rt an ce of, in pro se. 67 ; l' rupo rli un, in paragrap lc '" ncturc , 20 7;
d c lll n n cl s o f. in a mp lifi c:ition, 287 .
ptwtic ahl"·c viati o n o f, 50 ; s ig n ifica n ce o f, in tra n >la tIOn, 3 18 ; s p lit- Propos iti o na l 1n1rag rn ph, t he , 2 10.
P rosc d e fin e d, 63.
tin g o f, J S9·
. .
PROS
;~ tll CT l<J:'\, C! LIR ACTF.RISTICS OF .
Part ic.: u l:uizati o n , as m eans o f a 111 pltfy111g ,
6 4 ; T Yl' r·:s ov, 68.
290.
.
_
P ro spec ri v,· rde n ·n ce , 1;u.
Partiti o n o f n s ulij cct. 4or.
l',·riodic ,1rn1·tur<', q 6; in se n te n ces. 188. P rover!" and eondc ns1; d exprcss con, 2 8 ;.
l'rovin c iali '> lll S, 39.
I •,. ,., 0 11 aJ c har:tt.: l"r, in p e rs uas io n , 44 9 .
l'rox imit y , law o f, 125.
P\'r so n:il •~ qu:iti o n . 3o6.
. .
P e r,<rnifica ti o n . 94 : u se of, in d esc ripti o n, Purpose in na rrati o n, 359·
339·
Quaint te rm s . affec tation o f. 3_8.
P e rs pi c uitv, in s ty le , 20.
PER S t : A ~ 1 ; ,N , 4 _17 ; perso nal c h n ract cr Qu alir it>s o f style , s umlll a ry o l, 25·
()u es tio n, fixin g na ture and cx 1t ·11t of. ·I.JO,
in ..149 ; l'R IJ\Cl l'f.FS OF, 4-18.
4-H; s ta te m e nt and cxpln nauo n o f,
P!ti lmo phic !ti ,to rv . 377.
+I ~
.
.
I 'h rnses . pb c i ng o f. 120.
.
P ic turcsq nC' n c·ss. in prose, 65 ; poe tic , 55· Quo tati o n, a s a ccessory o f a111pltficat1o n,
297.
!'I.AK , CO KST RUCTI ON OF Tl!E , 26o;
FUN DAMF. KT AI. ELEMENTS OF, 266 ;
<;ENERA !. MECHA N ISM OF, 26 1; o f R aco nte ur, m e th o d o f the , 358.
Rapidity, co nd e nsa ti o n for, 157.
paragr:i ph , 198.

l __

-1 82

JX D J:: X OF

S CJJ')'ECT. 'i~

f ,VDLX UF Sl'R'JECTS.

l{.ipid r C'acl in g , 239.
I ~ EN TEJ'\ C F5 , Kr:-.-r>s OF, 185: lo ng, 185;
f-< <' arling lmudly and de epl y, 243 ; hv i
loose. 188 ; pc riorli c, 188; sho rt, 185.
tv p 1cs. 240 ; e re:iti \' C, 235 ; disc ipl in - S c qll c n n ·. a re q u isi te _o f s tructure, 263;
arv . 237 ; li ah1 ts of. 235 ; r:ip 1cl, 230. 11
o f dl'la ils , in rl cscnp uo n, 332.
J.(, ·a so nin g , as sc ie n ce , 407 ; ch ain o f. Sh al l anc! "ill, I 13.
Short scntrnces, uses of, 186.
.r28.
Sign, aq:;urn c nt s fr om, 419.
l-! e.J 11c tio a d :1 h s u rcl u m, 4 29.
lfrdunrl an cy , 153·
Si m il ari1y , law o f, 274.
Re fe ren ce, exp lic it , 202; prosp ccti \'e , 133; Simi le , 89 ; u se of, in descriptio n, 339.
rt'tros pcc1iv c , 122.
Skele to n of disco urse, th e, 264.
Refu ta ti o n . 432 ; a s acl: ipt c d to po p ula r S lang, infln e nce of, o n w ritt e n sty le, 38.
a pp re he ns io n, 437 ; n e cci o f " ·is rl o m S o und and s en se , 168; in poet ry, 6 r.
in, 438 ; of d cdu efi \'e a rgum (' nt, 43.S ; S pe ncer's law of eco nomy in s tyl e, 25.
(1f indu c ti\'c arg 11m e nt, 437; o f t1· s ti - Spoke n d isc ours e, dictio n o f, 76.
111 o ny a nd a ut hori ty, 437; ord e r o f, Strengt h, co n de n sat io n fo r, 154·
Stress, dy nam ic, l 8I.
·H3·
l<. e lai i,·,·. coo rdinat in g and r es tr ic tiv e. Structure , indications of, 283; uni t o f, in
im·ention, 247.
127 ; ('q11i1· alc nt s fo r, 130 ; omi ss io ns
of, in poe try, 5 r.
S TY LE , II; adaptations of, 17; as grand
Rl'p('ti t ion, in am p lifi ca tio n, 29 1; in st yl e ,
division of rh eto ri c, 7; co rnmunical OO ; o f wo rds fnr cl< ·:i rn css and
ble fea tures o f. 16 ; d efi niti o n o f, lJ;
vol ume. J (JO ; o f though ts and de tai ls,
in d ivi d u ali ty o f, 15; I N GENER AL,
162 ; o f manner o f c xp rt:ss io n, 16+
13; n ecessary qualiti es of, 19 ; re lati o n of, to surviva l o f a wo rk , 15.
H El' ROl\UC TIO N OF Till·: TIIOUCIIT OF
SulJj cct and them e , r el a tion s o f, 249 ; the
<H I t 1-: Rs , 30 1.
R<·sicl 1H·s. m ,·thou o f, 43 1.
pa r:tgraph, 194.
Subjec tive a nd obi•:ct ivc descriptio n, 343.
!<.t·,t ri c ti o n . o f ant cc<·d c n t, i28.
1<.t·tros p ec ti,· e rdc rC' n cc , 122.
Su liordin ;,i tinr, c o njuncti o ns , 140.
Rh e to r ic, d di niti o n o f, l; ini tia l rlifli c ul- Successio n in d e tai ls , kinds o f, in mirmties o f, 5; on w h:t t sc ie n ces found ed,
ti o n, 36 r.
2; provi nce and di s tributi o n o f, 6 ; Suggestion, as accessory o f amplificatio n,
300; in narrati1·e movemen t, 368.
two kinds o f, 4.
Surp rise , el e me nt of, in narra ti o n, 367.
R he to ri cal ' tudy , ord er of, II.
::;u s pc nsio n, 146 .
R h ythm, in pro se, 169.
Romance , 381.
Syll og ism, 42.1; amplified, 427 ; in e nthy1nc 1tH\ 4 25 .
S;1g:t c ity :inti 1a1·t. in p ers 11:1 s io n, .15 1 ; in S _vm h o lic words, 67 , 68.
S yn chroni s111 o f eve n ts , 37 1; lite rary
d ivi n ing m o tiw· s . -is3 .
S ;1xo n deril' .ll in·s . use o f, 43 .
means o f e ffe cting , 372 ; m echa ni cal
m ea n s o f c!Tcct ing , 373.
S ce ni c h is to rv, 377.
Srn ecdo c hc , 88 .
S c h ola r lv ll''<' . in c h o ice o f words. 4 2.
I Syn o nyms_. impo rtance o f s tud y of, 3 1•.
S c ie nce ·~in d sy,te mi ze d th nnght, 402 .
S c rap-h oo ks , 11 ,,e o f. 2 ;2 .
~yn t a x , p r1n c1pks o f, to be o bse rve d 1n
1 h c to n c , 110.
S e le c tio n. :i s m c·:1n s of a bs trac t ing, 307 ; I
o f dcsc ri p til' e deta ils , diffi c u lty o f,
328.
I ra c t m pe rs uas io n. ·!55·
S t'n s ihi lities. econ •>111v nf rr;t<kr '<. 27.
i T :1k in g notes. :q2.
SE NTJ·: NCF , TJI !·'. . 172 ; h:1 la nccd . th c , "T;i lking s h op, " 229.
l<) T;
1'ECFSS ,\ R\" <! \l i\J.11'11cS OF, T :1ste, ca thol icity of, 228.
' Taut o logy, 165 .
175i STt<t JC'J'l ' J(f·: OF, 172.

I
I.

.

I

I

.

'

I

i

j

Tech ni cal te rm s , u se of, 40.
Tense, rul es con ce rning, 112.
T es t o f t ruth at first ha nd, 230.
Testim o ny, .\O<) ; con c u rrent, 4 11; of e xp e rt s, 4 1.1; sc rutiny of its chara c te r,
4rn.
Th e m e , tl 1e , rldin e d. 2..j8; ;is rela te d to
kin d of di scou rse , 256; as related to
subject, 249 ; d e duction of from s ubj ect, 251; DETERMI NAT IONOF, 248 ;
in se rm o ns , 252 ; s ta te ment o f, 253.
Thoug ht , habits of. 232.
Th ought-build in g , two o rd e rs o f, 276.
T itl e , th e , 258.
T o ne o f discomse , m a int e na n ce of, 83.
T opics , reading by , 240.
Tran s ition al parag raph s , 212.
Tra ns iti o ns , 282.
TRAl' SLATtON, 3 15 ; re quisites o f a pe rfe c t, 3 16 ; as a di sc ipli ne , 320.
Trea tise , the , .\03,
Tru s t, mutu al, o f speake r and audien ce ,
4-19·
Truth vers us victory, in d ebate ·H6.

483

U nit o f s tru c ture , tn inventi o n. 2.\7; o f
s ty le , 172.
Un ity, of pa rag raph -stru c ture, 19.1; o f
se nt e nce-struct ure, 176 .
U ntran s lata bl e , the, 320.
Usa ge , st udy of. in lit e ra ture. 3-1·
Ut ility, dic ta to r in pro se ch o ice o f wo rt.ls ,
64.
Var ie d exp ress io n, 30.
Verba l c riti c is m, 302.
Vivi fyin g d e ta ils in amplifi cati n, 294.
\Vaiv in ::! irrel e vancies in debat e, ·HS ·
Wil l, address to , 463 ; re lation o f. to e moti o n , 463.
\Vitn ess , sc rutiny o f cha rac te r o f, 409.
W ord-pai ntin g in descripti o n, 3.12; in
p o e try, 55.
WORDS, CII OICE OF, 29; coll ocat io n of,
II7.
\ V ritten d iscourse, diction o f, Sc ; for
public de live ry, 79.

INDEX O F THE PRINCIPAL Q UOTATION S.

Ahho tt, H ow to \ V ri te Clear ly, II 6, i 37 ,
J 5 0 , I 59, I f.io, 176.
- Shakes pc01rian Grammar, 87.
Alilio tt and S eeley, En glish L esso ns for
En g li s h l'cop lc , 65 , 171.
Ad d is<l ll, Spt'Ctal o r, rr1 8.
1\ ng us, I lan d boo k o ft\1c Engli sh T o ng ue,
173.

1\ri stophan cs , Acharn ian s . 319.
J\rn"ld , Georgl' , \\"liy Th o m:ts wa s Di s·
ch a rged . 75.
A rn ol d, l\latth l: ll", J\ Fre n ch C riti c o n
l\l ilton , 32.
- - Fmc·rson, i 62.
- hllletion of C ri tici s m, 389, 390,
405.
- l l ci nri c h I k ine, 163.
- - l .i tc rary In flul' nce o f .-\ cade m ies ,
190.
J ,it c ra tu rc ;ind Dogma, 389.
(> n Tra nsla ting H o nl\'r, q 9 , 20 1.
l 'ri;face to By ro n, 175.
r'rl' fc1cc to \ \' o rd s11·o rlh, 162.
SI. Paul and P rotes ta nti s m, 3 11.
1\rn., ld, Tl 1u1 n:h (of l{ugliy) , Le tt ers , J I O,
J ..'.U .

1\ rnul t, l'l1y sic s, 39 r.

-

Engli sh C o mpo sitio n and Rlwtnric.
150 , i 53 , "l r,5 , .168 .
'l'h c s,.,h"' and tl1e I nt ellect . .1.18. ·l.'>3·
13alzac. E ug(:n ic Gran de t, 339.
Llascom, l'hi los0 phy o f Rh e tor ic, 172.
Beec he r, 1\ dc.Jress at Liverpool , 455.
- L ec tures o n Preachi ng , 300, .152.
Bibl e . 99, 123, i 35, q o. Li ~. 15 1, 1_;2, 1.; 8,
162, 163 , 20.j, 270, 393 , 422, 4_;7 .
Bige low. I lan d boo k o f P u nctuati 11 n, I•H ·
Dirri.>11, Obit<~ r Di ct.t , IO I.
Blair, S e rm o ns , 293.
Bosto n l\ lccl ical a nd Surgical J o unu l,
414.
Bos \\e ll , Life o f J ohn so n, 18 , .JS, 2.; 1.
Bro,n1, Spart' Hll urs. 1 r8, .J ' 'J ·
Bro wn in g , J\ D <0ath in the J Jc-scrt, 23ri.
- F e r is h tah 's Fan c ies. 6] .
- Th e J{ing 01n d the Boo k. 5 1.
Jlryant, Th e Pa s t. 59.
l'.u lwer-1.ytton, Caxt u ni ann, 360, 395 , .103.
-- - L os t Ta lcs of l\li lc t11 , , 2<.J9.
- - l'amphkts and Sket c h" ' · 3.18.
Jluny:1 n, Pilgr im's P rngrc'' '. 43, 9_:;.
ll11 rk<' , ,\m er ic:in Tax:iti1> n, ·U I ·
Bri :-; tql

~JH' L't.:li ,

98,

If JJ, ~ 1 :.:, ~7 · 1· .r.;1,

43 [.
C011ciliat io n '' ith :\ ni c ri ca, .i32. ·!'''' ·
ll:t co n, J\ c\l·anccm e nt o f L ea rning, 227 ,
Ea st Indi a Bil l, 279, 402.
L e tt e rs, 235.
399, .;o1.
(Jf Goodness a nd Goodness o f:'\ ature.
Refl ec ti ons on th e H··1· v l111io n ill
200, 29r.
F ra nce , i o6, r87, 209 , 2~2 .
Of Studies , 237.
R eg ic id e P ea cl', 29 2.
Sublim e a nd lkautif1il, 1 70.
Jlag<"hot , Shakl'spca rc , 23 1, 356.
Th o m01s Ba.li in g to n l\Ia cauhv, 6_s.
Th o ug h ts o n th e C au oc of tlt l' Prese nt
- \\' o rd sll"ortli , T e nny so n, an d Bro\\'nDi sco11tcnls , 294.
ing, 222 .
Bus h nell, Sermons fo r th e 1\ c: \\" Life, 2_; j.
Hai n . Compos iti o n vra mm a r, 1! 2 , 1:q ,
392.
13yron, Clii lde I Lirold , 53.
137.

;.i,

.i

f.\"/>l: X

OF /'111:· l'l"IX<"fl'.11. (!f'C>T./ /'/(J_ \ .S.

Cal,k, Po sso n Jon e, 178.
' - - Sil:is Marner, 396.
Caride, Boswell's Johnson, 33 .
I-:lwcll o n Expe rt T est im o ny, 414 .
l l mn s , i 89.
Ernt·r,0 11 , Cha racter, r 77.
Cl i:1ra c terbtics . 288, 289.
C(lrr»i;pon<le nce with C arl yle , 3.J.I .
C<lunt Cagl io'i rri, 37:;.
I·:l oquencc . •;52, .1 56.
1:rL'd1·1 ic- k th L' C ;n·at, 20-1, 33::-, 339, 373.
:\;i111n-, .j I .
Frt'l1 cli 1,: ,. ,·nlt 1ti o n. 125.
·11i .. :\tnL'ric111 Scl1"L1r, 231i, 237.
I lc•ro-\ \ 'u1,J 1i p , 33, l.! ·J. 308, 338.
l·:rsk ill <', SJ h'ech in lkitalf of L o rd George
I .<'li<·rs , 3-1-l ·
(;ordqn . .; ro.
l .ift·

t)f

S1c:r l i11 g , 378 .

Ln-rc·1 1. Th e C s,·s of :\ s tro11orny , 345.
I::xa m inc:r , The(:\. Y.), q9.

- S artor RL·sart11 s , 9 r, 26 r.
C a rlyle and Emerso n, Corres pond e nce ,
34r.
c :a q w n ll'r , Co111p;1 ra tiv c l'hy ,iology, .JO.
Cha 11 t·n. Canterbury Talcs, l.J .
( ·ukridgl', !\n,·ic·11t :--Jarim·r , 338.
( 'raddllc·k. Charle"' F gll\' rt. In th1; T L" n
ll<''"'e l\J l) un1 .1i ns, .)~- J o . .1_-." I· .
- - I 'rt>pht·t of the (;reat Srn o k~
:--r ,rn ntain s , 10 1.

·1·

I

I>.- :-- Jillc , Eil'mcnts of Rhetori c, 10 .
I Jc Q11inccy, J\u1 ob iogr:1ph ic ::;ketches,
366.
Cha rl e m agne , 376, 377.
Chri;,1ianil_\' as an Organ oi Political
J\l uv.·111e nt. 28+.
Colnidg c· :tnd Opi11m - I::ating. i ris.
Conf,.,, i"n' t)f a n Opium - J ·~•I LT, 99.
.1<>1111 K 1-.11s , 29.
1.,. ~, i11g. ·1 3·
l\lmdn :is a Fine 1\ rt, r07.
l<hl'l orie, 4 26.

1:arr:ir, \\ 'ith th e Po e ts, 183.
1:ux. ]'arii; 1111 ,.nt; 1ry !« ·fo rm , ::-6.
4
·- l<o.,jL'l'tion of Bonaparte's Overtures,
s, .6 .
7
7
1·
·_r1 ·t·111an... ' ~""'.' :.ind r .a ngu;ige, 283.
I· rouc Ie, r I1c ,.
,,c1<·n cc o f I I istory, 26g.

c•.igc , )'h ) >tcs. 39 1.

(,i11l1o n, Aut o lJ1 og r.1phy, rq.
- Decl in e and Fall o f th e Rom a n Empire, 3.;, 267.
(;i!more, Outlines of Rhe to ric, 410.
Cladstone, K in beyond Sea, 295.
< ;ood rich, Dar t mouth College Case, 62.
4
- · Select Hrit i ~ h El oq ut·n ee, .pr .
Grant , l'nsona l ;\l c moi1·s, L82.
Creen, 11 isto ry o f th e Englis h People, 33t,
333, 340.
G reenleaf. T es tim o ny of the Four Evangeli sts, 412, 430.

Styl L', 288 . 20 r.
I !all , S e rm o ns, 266.
Su ;,p iri .t ck l'roft1ndi ~ . t 88, '.!O ;, ::!08.
ll :11nil1on, The Study of Mathematic, ,
.
I lil'krn s, H:trnaby 1'11<1.t.:<'. ·JS. , ;:;;, .:11.; .
255
l l;trpcr\ l\.' cc k ly, r84.
- I ).1vitl C opp,•r!il'id , ·I .' · '' 3. :ur,,
.
J Lirri s, ::;c rn w ns,
· - NichoL ts i\'ickl<-i>y, 37 . 8 1.
207
l lawth o rne, ! l ouse o f Seven Gabl es , 4fi ,
I 'i vk" ick I '.1 pc·1 s , 37 . <JO.
' J':llc (•f ·r\\I) ( 'itic ~ . 3rl8 .
, 6o.
1 00 3
. l : ll<"> l lll lth'r.c ia l Tr'"'•·ll,·r. 10.J'. . .
_ Sca rlet Le tter, 6.
19
J lt u11tt111J11.J, :\;itur;il l .. ",. 111 tit» Sp1r1t11al I lclps, flr cvia , rz6.
\\ 'o ri.J 1
1 11 '
i\J
f
.
.
. . .
ep 1ll1tTl, I :11111al o Rh e to ri c, 430.
•c ·
f) rvdc•n, i 'r, ·l.il'c' to Dr.rn1;111 c \\ r11rn.':. r13 . I li.t.::.; in so 11 , 1\1"1nti c E ssavs, . 6 .
44 3
I !i ll , ,\, S .. l 'rin cip!t•s of J<l 1c.: to ri e 11 6.
I·::irk. i' hiluh1g v uf t l1c J·:11.c:l" h T »tt!:llL', / I i<Jcig sun, Erro rs itt th e:: Use of J ~nglish,
J 17.
J 20 .
Fl i<>I, ( ;,·orgL', l·cl ix [loll , 33~ .
1loln11·s, Autoc rat of th e l3reakfas 1 Talil e,
l\lidrlktt1;ircl1. l ui '.
41, 1o6 , 154.
1
- - >I ill un 1111: f lu,s, 338.
I lor:1ce. De J\rtc Poet ica , 36o, .i6 r.

.r,

I

J,VDE\' UF '/'/I F

! '!t'INC!f'.·11.

l l o\\"clls, Ri se of Silas I .apha m, 36, 92.
J lud so n, I l a rva rd S hak espeare , 303.
Hugh c.:s. T o m 13rown at Oxford, 365.
l lu go, Les l\li se ra!Jles, 331.
I I unt, Prin c ipl es of \ Vritte n Discourse,
39·
I nt c ri0r, Th e.: , 13-1·
Irvin g, Kni e kcrlioe ker. ZJ2.
Jame s. Portrait of a L:-idy, 349 (bis ).
- P or traits of !'laces , 330, 332.
jevon s, P rin ciples u f ~ c i t.: ncL', 9 1, 421.

Jul1n so n, Life uf PtJpe, 262.
John >u n' s Cyclop~c.:di;t, 385, 4 18.
K c.:::us, l sabclla, 58.
- L a mia . 57.
Lam b, Old 13e nchcrs of th e Middle T e m ple.:, 59·
- O n th e l'lavs o f Shakt·speare, 156.
Landor , I rn:-iginary Conv e rsations , 47 , 83 .
300.
Langland. \ 'is ion o f Pi e rs Pl ow man. 6 r.
Latimer. S e rm o n o n the P loughers , 30+.
1.essing,

J .. ;1ocou n,

328.

(il '0 'J'.-/ 'l'/ O.VS.

11 is tory , i o6. r33. 16o. 209. 2 f :::! ,
277 , 28 I.
11 i>tory of En gland, 102 , 463.
l\!ilto n , I.J S. 164, 2<J9.
Macaulay, Speec h on Copyright, ·J-JO.
Edu c;ui o n. 415.
- - - I .i1,:ralurl' .,f !'. rit:1 in . 300.
- - - I<cfo rm !Ii i!. 16 r, 18_; , 4.17. 4r'.5 ·
;--It- l::I roy , Struc ture of Eng li, Ji pros,-,
3.16.
l\lel\Lbt e r, I Ii s to ry o f the 1\ mni ea n l'eop k , 287.
l\!ar>h, L c.:cturcs on th e En.c:l i-, h L ang 11 agc, .Jli2.
;\lathe\\s, OralCJry and Oraturs , ·J50 , 4_;3.
:'\Iii!, !Ji ssc.:rt :ui o ns anJ Di ;c11,s iu n, , 392.
i\lili o n, O n the l' a s~ i o n, 233.
- l'a ra di se 1.ost. 02, 90. 99.
- P aradi se f< cga in e d. 6o.
!\!i nto, l\ l.1nual of Engli s h Prost· Li tera ture , 177, 188.
:\! o ri su n, l\hcaulay , 356, 37·1·
i\l ookc.: rjee , On oocool Cltundr r, Life o f,
8+
l\!oore , ;'\ o nse nse , r.1 8.
M orll'V, Ld mund Bu rke , 290, 299.
O n Compromi se , 403.
- On the Stud y 1Jf l .itc.: raturc, xii>.
-· Volt aire, 175 ( bi s), 20 ~ .
\!orris, E. P .. On the Si1 Hlv () f Lat in , 423 .
- \Villiam. Si g urd th e V oi s ung. S3·
l\ !o tley , Hi story o f the United :\ c th e rlands, 365.
- R ise of the.: Dutch Re pub lic , 103, I ZJ ,
q 8, 36r.
:--! ozlc\', E ssays. 342.
- U ni vers ity S e rmon s , .p6.
l\!11 lford, T lte :\:1ti n n, J<:i :-i .. 100.
:--lyl'rs , Gree k Oracles , 268.
\\'ord s" ·orth, q7.

I .ewes , I .1fe uf C oe the, 32 r.
-- I 'r inciplc.:s of ::;uccess in Lit er;1t 11n-.
225, 276, 278. 437.
Le \\ is, T adcr , Tl1<: ! ~motional Ek:m,·n I
in I !elircw Tran slati o n, 317.
l .o ngfe llow , ;'\ cw England Tragecl ic.:s , 36 1.
l ,uwcll , D e m oc ra cy and Other Addresses,
320, 337.
Firc.:,ide Trav els, I.J, -12. 296.
John Dryden, 33, 34·
J.eg•·ncl of l\riltany, 83.
Un a Cert;1in Cundc·scc nsio n in F o rl'ignt·rs . 2_:;5 , 27 L
Shak t'S JH':t rl' CJnce :--lcire, 3o6.
1.yly , Euplrn cs, llp.
i\' eilso n, l\ l e m o ri es ui Rufus C hoJtt', 31 5,
320.
:\! eCarth y, Hi sto ry o f o ur own Tim es , New m;111, Di sc uss ion s aml Arg uments ,
372.
4-1r.
J\!a ca1tl;1y, Bacon , r 86.
Cratnm a r n f .\ ,sc·nt . 390, 3'i+
Boswell 's Joh nso n. 293.
Id ea (> I a Cnin·rs itv, 1+7. 1.:;;,, 1rq , rr.r,,
C !.td s tone on Ch m ch a nd St atc , .136.
186, 187, HJ/, ~O], ~ :;o , :2~10. ~ l/~. 3113 ,
H alla m 's Constitutional lli s tory, 10 1, I
423 , -1'..?S, 4::.7 .
192, 197 . :! I O, 21T, 291.
S e rtn o ns, 71) , t ;o.

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l<JO.
l on I I lllo.:J IC.lll Hcvi c w p
I 1· r
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-• " .: o f ,\rn old , 310, 320.
Pa rker, Golden r\ge of Arncri c:i n Or:ilon•, ~.On Cu1·i nt li ia n s , 3 1 1. .
230.
.
It ";.1i. 11i,. J i>cl s o f .-\111en ca, 125 .
l':irkman ' D'
scQ \'t'I"\"
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a sc:i . Th1»1 gh ts , 1 02 , 29 1 .
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n ~l d l' 1f1 l .11 n:1tt1re, 169.
0
l '.1 y ne . I ntro cl11c 1ion 10 I \u rk e 's S ciCl' I : • -""<'. Ol dto1~· n Fu lks . l Z6, 3 _10.
\\" orks, '-''iJ . 388 .
· ""~;llrnt: , \\li en tli ell o un d sofSpring,
l'li ,·Ips, Engli s h ::;1 _1It: 111 l'11b l1e D1 sco u1 sL·

I

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1·.

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T "•i ne ' T o tlr ti iroug Il t I ic Pyre n ees 346.
..
l c nnyso n, C o 111ing o f .-\ rt hur r
'
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.
'· .)·

- i\r,en and Il uo ko; , 23 9 _
~ 1 l1l"or1• o f l 're :iclii ng, 2 6.j, 2 s(i.
I '•>Pv, E ss:iy on C r i: ic i ~ m ·8 ( l>i sJ
I'
.
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- - ·- ludi t:s in Co 111po :; itio n,
.
357

49

Cart:tli a nd Lynett e , 59 _ •
3 15

( 1Dd1va , 103 .

l\e:id c, ll o w to \\ 'ri tt; Eng lis h 20 i'~ o e • I'•arners
·
l '11 1n11.: d 1\way, lCJO
' , 1·
/, 0 1,_,·n ,0 11 . ! .t:ctu res . 358.
-

~ t · r 11h1 ns , I i_]=) .

l{ 1"ki 11. \l 11dl' r:; l'. 1; 111 ,.,.,, _ _
3 12

-- - I >u c: i r y o f :\

1\ · li1 tL'c r 11n., 2 fL i .

f'\ ~) ;_l 1 biJe ~ u ng::-.1J! ' l'11sca n\', J n irod1 1ct1 11n tn. ·t·
-

:-; l'V• ' n Lu nps of c\ rcli it cc turc .. j (J f.

-

> In nes Ll{ \" c n icc', 73 . 329 _

I ligh e r l':111 1h e is 111, 155 .
In :llt:111 o ria111 . 62 c,_
"
. 7 1• 3 1::. . 464.
l ,an ce lo t ;ind Elaine 10 ,,
' -·
l .utos Lit e rs,
55 .
L o1·e a nd Duty . 59 .
1\ft- di n and \'ivi c n, 3 s5 .
l'ass ing o f /\rtii 11 r, qr.
Ul vsst•s , 130.
Tha cke rav, F ou r G
eorges , 98, l oo, 159,
2 75.

3-12·

T inll's , 1.u nd o n. 315 .
l "·u Pa1li s , 90, i::5 , 167, 2 16, 218 , I n ·1· ch·a n, E ;1rly l l is tory of Charl es
28 I.
.. . J ames F o x, r 55 .
1\ussell . Jac k' s Cuu rt s li ip , 37 .
l nlJ11nc , New Yurk 120
Tro llope, Aut obiog i:aph;, 3 2 , 183 ,
.

363

\\'arn c r, O n Prison Reform 1 2 5
\\ ",. IJs tc r , Adams a nd Jt·l'fc r~on · 6
, I
.
• 4 9·
· I '. ." n cc r l !111 O rati o n, 7 r.
l· 1rs t !:'ct 11<: 111 ent of Ne w En"l:.rnd 8
~I
I
f -·
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•9 ·
' ll l't ,.,. u Cap 1:ii11 J oseph \Vhit t: 269
409 . .p 8, .po.
'
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39.

S lr:d<t." peare , l !:11 ni.-t , 97 . 3 -1-I·
I knry I\ '.. J _:; ; .

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C t·"' r. 1 _:; :; . ·I :;.1. .1_:;;,
King L1· ;1r, .J.:i'), j.13 .·
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1'"'"' ' ·I-I / ·

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St 111t lit·_v. r . <.· i1~-r~ . 11 5 .
I .iii.~ of !\c· bo n, 70.
Sp:· n cc r, I 'lii lo so pliy o f :-; 1_1 k , ;:,r._ SS.
I he S o ci; tl Organi sn 1. 2:; 1. '.~ Sn.

!{cp ly. lo I Jayn e , 43-l, 435 . 436.
I he C" n strt1111 o n no t :i Co 1np:ic t 3
4
\ \lliatclv
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J ~ n gl r s li S1y le, 15 2 , 4 r .
5
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11
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.
37
"· ilk1n,nn , ,\ Fn•,, I .a n u" 22 1 ' ,105 .
/ \\ "rcl ,-1\'orlh, Exct1 rs i.1 n, 29 8 , 350.
i - .\ l1vhavl, 5 r.
' - O r!r· 0 n ln1111ort ;1l itv. rir, 323 .

HIGHER ENGLISH.
(SeP. ctfst1 Clas, ics for Ch ildrf'11,

J>U .f/ f' S

3 to 0.)

Minta's Manual of En_q!ish Prose Literature.
Df'si gued maiuly to show c haracte ristics of style . By \\"1LLL\ ~I 1\hN"ro,
M.A., Professor uf Logic am! :Eng li s h Lit1,ratnre i11 th1 · U11i q•rsity ol
Aberdroen, Seutlaod. l~mo . C loth. f>()ti pages. Mailin g l'ri cc, .~ J. ti5 ;
Iutroductio n , ;:::i.;:;o; Allowat1ct" -iU cent:>.

direc ti11~ stude t'. l:; .in E ngl ish
compos1t10 11 to th e m en b and <lefecls o!: our prrnc1pal \\T i ters
of prose, enabling th em, ill some dee;Tee at le:ist, to :ic•1uire th e one
:iml avoid th e other. The Introduction analyzes style: ele1nr.nts
qf style, qualiti es of style, ki.mls of composition. l'art First gives
exhaustive analyses of De Quin cey , Macaulay, :i.nd Carl y],., These
HBrve as a key to all the oth er a11ihors ircatctl. I'art Se co n;l takes
up the prose authors in hi storical order, from the fo11rteenth century 11p to the early part of the nineteenth .

r111[E n1ai1: :lesig n is to a:"si st in

H. C. De Motte, Pres. of Chaddock Literature, Cornell Un1,. .

1

Ith cu:a ,

C11lle g e, Quiw·11 , fll.: \\' e a r e d e- N. Y.: Witlwut goi.ng- o u tside of thi~
lighted w i th it. It is one of the most book, au e arn es t stude nt co uld g et
serviccahle b ooks I hav e seen on the
suuject. I shall r ecommend it for
our work here. (Sept. 23, 1886. )

a lrnowled ge of Engli s h prose styles.
based on tho so und est print·iplcs of
c riti c ism, su c:h as he co nlrl n ot _ge t. in
any twenty volumes which I know

Hiram Corson, I'rof . of Enrtli8h of.

(Muy 14, 188U.)

Minta's Characteristics of the En_qlish Poets.
from Chaucer to Shirley.
By \Vn.r,IAM M1;o;To, 1\1. A., Profm;sor of Loi:ic a11i\ Engli s h J.it.1·rat ure
in the University of A be rdet:11, Scotland. 1~mo. Cloth. xi + 3-'l2 P'l!"l'8,
]\·failing Price, $1.G5; for 111 trod nctiou, ~ 1.5(1; A I lo" :t 111 ·•·, -10 c1· 11 ts .

r11l[B chief objects of the a uthor are : (1) To 1Jrin g into clear
light tla~ characteristics of th ~ severnl poets; aml (2) lo trace
how far each was influenced by his literary predecessors a11J his
contemporaries.

l !i

Hminm ENGLISH .

HIGUlm E NGL1S ll.

Hudson's Expurgated Shakespeare.
Fo r SL:iioob, Cl11l>,; , a11d Fa1uili .:s. i: .. vised and enlarged Editions of
tw c· 11ty-tl1reu l'lays. Ca ref ully expurgated , \\"itli Explauatory Notes it
tli o bottorn of th e pagt:',:tllll ('r ilii:al ;-; ote,;att.hcc ud of uaclt volume.
Hy 'IL !'\ . I [1 :1'"":-.- , LLD ., Editor nf Th" /J1rr>'11nl Sha k e.v, cui·c. One
pl: t.v 111 ··:tt·h \·.,J11me.
S quaro 11;nw. Varying- in s ize from l '.!8-~3
]':tg-e,;. flfa ili r1 ;; l'r ic·n nf each: Cloth . 50 1·1rnt.s; l':qwr, :I;) CP uts. Jut rod 11<" tio 11 l'r ic ·(!: Clot h . 4:0 ' "·11r s : Paper, ;so cents. Per set (in box),
$12.00. (To Teachers , $10 .00 .)

SO ~ !E o( tire ;;pcc ial fe at11 rrs uf this edition arc t he convenient
;;1ze a11,l sl 1ape of the ,·nl1 u1 1cs ; Ure clear type, superior presswork , ~lll 1l attractirn l1i11di11g-; the am ple in troductious : the expla 11alo ry 11 (11cs, easily fou111l at t he fo ot of tlte page ; the critical
no ti;.-.; for sp1 ~c i al stit<ly; tlte j1 11li l' io11s expurgation, neve r man gling
citl1er ;; tylt! o r s1 ory; tl 1c ac1 d 1~ :t11(1 "y mpaihclic criticism t hat l1as
co111 n to l>e a.~><(lciated \\"i th Dr. IIl: D!:'O"''s 11arn c ; and, finally, tlrn
l"l.!:t><o11 al 1ic1 1c"s of th e price.
Oliver Wendell H olmes: An cd i- 1 very mind ana heart or " the thoutio11 11!" a11y play of Sli akes1ware's to sa nd-soul ed Shake8pcar e."
wl1 ic-li >lr. I l11d ,.;".11' ,.; 11:\111 e is allix cd
Byron Groce, Muster in Publ ic
does uo t 11 eeJ a llll o from anyboJy to {, utin ,'-'cit.'"''· Jli!ston : The ameuded
co m1111· 11 d i t.
text b satisfae tory; the typography
Cyrus Northrop, Prof. nf 1':11 ,q lish is excellent; th e n otes a rc brief, alLitt•1·u/11r1', l'u lt' Colfrye : They a re \\"ays he lpful, n11t too num ero us, a11d
con\·t·ni e n t i11 fo rm an d edited liy I put. wh ere th ey will do th e most good;
1ln1lsn11 , - two good things w hi ch I the int ro<luct ious are vi gor ous, inc:rn ;;ec at a glan ce.
spiriting, k eenly a nd soundly criti cal,
H iram Corson, J'rof. of Rh cl. an cl and very attractive to boyR, especially
"/':11:;. J,il ., C:t•rnc ll f ,'11 i 1·crs il !t : l en n- on aceo1111 t o( th eir directness amt
3ider llH ·m al1og r·th L·r exl"el lcut. The \\'arrn t h, for a ll boys like cnthusi·
uotcs g i\·c all th e aid ll ct•dcd for a n as rn. (Ju11 . :!:!, l ::i87. )
11ndP rsta r11lir1 i..: of til e !1•xt, \\'ilho11t
C. T. Winchester, Prnf. nf Enylish ,
waslu an< ! di.'t ra1·1ion11f t he stud e11 t."s ll" ~sle yan Uniut:rsi l!J : The notes aud
n1in d . . Tile introdneto ry mat!L·r to ,·om me uts in the school ed ition are
t he st·v .. ral pl a ys is cspedally worthy admirahly fitt ed to the need of the
of a 1•J1r(lha t io n . (Jun. '.!S, l::i::i7.)
st ud en t, r emovi ug- his diffi culti es hy
C. F. P. Bancroft, Pr i n . n f I' hil- stim ulatin µ; his in ter est anrl quicke nl ii 1s ,J,·,uh·my , ,·l ll(lore r, M!l ;s.: ]\[r. iug h is pe rcept ion. (Peb. 10, 1887.)
llw!r<on·s appr1·<"i:d.ion of ShakeA. C. Perkins, Pr-in. of AJ.clpht
spca re am on 111... d to ge11it:s. lfi s A crulcm!t, 1Jrn1Jklyn : Jn the propa"di t i11 .c: ac<'nr·li 11 g ly <'x h ihits morn rat.ion of th o ~diool Shak espeare,
tha n lParrri11g and ir1 d 11 s1 ry. - it re- l\lr. J fi ubon n11•t. fnlly the capacit ies
vcahl in sight, ,.;y mpa t hy, and ('011\·i1:- at\ll 1w<>ds of st 11dPnt s in onr schools
tion. He l eadtJ the pupil iuto tlio , a nd colleges. ( Fei., i, 1887.)

i

I

The series COll Sists of t.hn

L \l" e u ~y-thrce

plays c11umeralcd below

J.Ve (1 irnish of the Old Edition , in /Jltper coi:e rs, th e play .~ .<lr1 rre 1l i n
.ful/01cin ;1 li st (Mailing Price , 20 cents; Iu troduct ion, 15 L:cnts) : --

th~

* He nry the Fifth .'~
*Henry t he E ighth .•
*Romeo an d Juliet .3
*Julius Cresar. 1
*Hamlet. 1
*King Lear. 2

•A Midsummer-Ni g ht's Dream .3
•The Merch a nt of Venice .1
•Much Ado About Nothing
~As You Like It.1
Twelfth Ni g ht.1
•The Tempest. 2
The Winter's Tale.2
King John.
Richard Second.
Richard Third. 2
•Henry Fourth , Part First.1
Henry Fourth, Part Se cond.1

*Macbeth . ~

Antony and Cleopatra.
*Oth ello .3
Cymbeline.s
*Coriolanus.s

Hudson's Three-Volume Shakespeare.
Fo r Sd1ools, Vami li es, and Clnhs. 'Vith Introductions and Notes on
ea<' h P lay. l:!rno. Clot h . (i~l()-{i7l:S pages per volume. i\la il in l{ P r ke,
per volume, $ 1.40; In t rodu ction, $1.:ui.

Tft e plays ·i ncluded in th e three vo lumes r espectively are indicated by
ji.yures in th e abov e list.

The Harvard Edition of Shakespeare's Complete
Works .
By HENRY N. HUDSON , LL.D., Aut hor of th e L (ft' , A rt, and Clwrr1rten
nf Shak e~J1e 11rr-, Ed ito r of ochvol S lwkeszicarr-, etc. Jn T we nt y Vul umes;
l:!mo ; two plays in each volume ; also iu Ten Volum es , of four p.layJ
each.
RETAlL PRICES .

fwenty-vol. edition, cloth
Half-calf.

$25.00
55.00

I

Ten-vol. edition, clot h
Half- ca lf.
•
•

•

$20. 00
40. 00

~ Buye rs sltoultl be caref ul in ordering 1101 lo confuund th e Harvard Shakespeare with cm Old Edition made -in 1851 , and sold
u11Jer another name.

TIIIS is pre-eminently the edition for li braries, students, a11 d
general readers . The type, paper, and liindin g are attractive
t.nd superior, and the notes represent the editor's ripest thought.

JllG!IEJ: E!';llLlS II.

An obvious merit of thi:s ed ition is, that each volume has two
sets of Hott:;; ; one mainly llcrnteJ to cxplaiui11g the text, a11d
placed at the fovt of the pa;;c; the other mostly occupied with
matters of textual corn1nc11t and crilicisrn, a11 cl pri11ted at the end
of each play. Thi:; arrang('rnent is partic ularly suited to the con·
H~nie n ce of tlic ge nt·ral studl'11t, 'rho docs uot wish to hunt for an
xplan:i.1ion; a nd to the wa11ts of the special student, who desire'
extended discussion of a di tliculty.
E. P. Whipple , The Not ed C:r iti1· :
Hudsuu':; is the m ost thougiltful and
iJ1tdlige11t interpretative criticism
wilich ha~ , cl11riug the prese nt CC'lltu r y, lJeen written, either in E ng lish
or German.

N. Y. Tribune: As an interpreter
of :o:;ltake:;pcarc, imliued with the
vital e:;se uee of the great English
dramatist, and equally qualified by
insight and st udy to penetrate the
,J,·ewst sigllilica11ce of his writings,
it woul<l he di!li enlt: to name an EngN. Y. Evening Express: Th e most li:;h or Am erican sc holar who ca n ho
satbfat:tory awl comp lete ed ition we comparetl with the editor of thi1
ilave.
ed it ion.
,

Hudson's Life, Art, and Characters of Shakespeare

(Hni~e, ]

Edition, 1tli:l 2) .

Hy lfR:-.-HY X. IIr ~ nso:--r, LL.D., Editor of The !l11n• urd Sh akespeare, etc.
lt1 ~ vu b. l~lll<>. Il l<):', pag, ~s . l 'niform in siz(•. with Th e lfarvarcl S h11kc·
speur1', a 11d rnatches it in t ile fullowini-: bi11di11:.::;: Rl'lail Pri ce , $4.00 per set,
8.oo

Cloth

Half-calf

'fTIESE two volu111es contain : The J, ife of Shakespea re ; An
fli sloric(ll ,\'J.·,·/1-/1 of tlie Ori.1;i11 1111rl ( ," ro1clh. of lite J)rmna i 11
Hnylw1d ; .'i'Jwkes11eare's Cu 1iJe1J111urarics ; Shukes11eart!s A rt, di;;c us·

sing under this hca.cl, Nature and Ui:;e of Art, Princi ples of Art,
Dramatic Compoi'ilio n , Characteri za.tion, IInmom, Style, Moral
Spirit; Sliakf's/>Ntre's Characters , containing criii::al <liscourses 011
twenty-fh·e of the Plays.
London Athenreum : They deserve J his W (1 rkH, to his bio,Q'r.lphy, or to tlJ'
to !ind a pl:u·t•. i11 every libra ry
works of co 111t1 wntatl1 r~.
voted to S.hak espea re, to editions of

dr·-1

1!I

H1U 11.EH. ENGLISH.

Hudson's Classical English Reader.
For ll i .. Ji Schools, AcaLl emies , and the uppe r gra(les 0[ Grammar Schoole.
l~nw. " c 1otli. 4t i7 pag-<'s. i\1ailir1g Prit:e, $ 1.10; lutroduc.:tion, 5LOO ;
Allowance for old l10uk in use, ;;o cen ts.

ITcontain s

~electio n s from ~~ryant, B urk e, . l!nrn s, ny.ron,_, Car·
lyle , Cokndge, Cowley, Cowper, Dana, l• 1v ud e, (, lad,,to11e,
Gold:s1Hith, Gray, li elp;;, li erLert, Hooker, Hurne, lning, Kel.ile,
La1n1 , Landor, Longfello w, 1\raca u lay , Mi I ton, l'ealJody, Scott,
Sl1akespeare, Southey, Spenser, T:tlfourd, Taylor, \Vebster, \V liiL·
tier, \Vord::mortl1, and other stanu ard autl10n;, with explanatory
a nd c ri tical foot-notes . This is a book that seems to rnerit a place
in every i;chool o( a<lvanced grade l>elow the college:

I

F . J. Child, Prof. of English in are good for any thi ng ge nerall y know
Ila r uanl University : A hoy who thei r read ers, might almost be said
knew this book as well as boys who to be liberally educated .

Essays on Education, English Studies, and Shakespeare.
Hy 111,N RY N. JiunsoN, LLD., the E1ninc11l Shake.,peuriun .
l!irno. l'aper. lHi pages. Mailing P ri ce, 25 ce nts .

Scp1arl!

1., II E Yolu111c, contai11s: : ' he. Pre.face io tl1e,,11 ew .edition of Ila

111·

ht, An 1'.ssay 011 "Ln!Jlish rn Scli ools, ".Shak1;speare a" o
Te:ct-13ook," "!low to Lhe Shakespeare in Schools ."

Hudson's Text-Book of Poetry.
Hy IL N. ll un,.;oN, LL.D.
$ i.40 ; ln trod nctio n, $ 1.:!5.

l~mo.

Clot h. 704 pages.

llfailing Price,

s1·:J'.ECTI~>NS fror~1, Wor1lswori11'.

Cole ridge , B_urn s, B(:aitie.
Col(lsn11th, a111l J homson. \V1th sketches ot tl1e aut.l1or::i
lives, and instruct ive foot-llotes, hi storical and explanatory.

Hudson's Text-Book of Prose.
Hy IL N . HunsoN, LL.D. 12rno. Cloth.
$1.40 ; Iutrocluctio n, $1.25.

64.8 pages.

Mailing Price.

FROM Burke, \Vebster, and Bacon. \Vith sketches of the
authors' lives, and foot-notes, historical and explauatory.

~o

Hudson's Selections of Prose and Poetry.
An no tated. 1~m n. Pape r.
tio11 l'riee , 1.':i ce nts .

Edmund Burke.
T H•:-i

2. A

l\Iailing Prieo of each, 20 cents; lntrodue

l. Fiv e Sp l'Cc hcs anu ten Papers. SEc.
h is Lifr . A £ d ter lo " 1\'uMe Lord, and elevet

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!-' pL' CChC'S .

Lord Ba•on.
Wordsworth.

A Ske tch o f hi s Li fe , and extrac ts from thirty Essays.
S i-: c TJOX I. Li fe of \V o rd s worth, the J>rc ludc, and thirty.
three l'ot• H1 s. S1·:C T1ox II. ~ixty l'ocm s anu Sonnets, a ccompanied
by fo ot-n oteR, hi s tori cal and e xplanatory.
Co leridge and Burns. Jlio~ ra['h ie:; of the l'oets , and forty-five "Poems.
Addison and Goldsmith. A L if,. o f r a t:h, fift e1·n Pape rs from A1!1lison,
a 1Hl e lc H ·ll P ro,;e S c lt•c ti o ns fr om Gohls mith, with Tlie D eserted VillagP,,

Craik 's English of Shakespeare.
J ll1 1.-;t r att·1 l i11 a l'hil o lo~it'a l C11 111111 e 11tary 011 ,Tul i11s C:csar. By GtW R GlC
L. ( ' ttAI K. (J11ec n·s ( "ol11·gc , Hcl fa.-<t . Edi 1e d , fr o m t.lt e tldrJ revised
J,.i11olo 11 po[ i I in n, J , ~· ~\\' • • I. l ~ uL V I (, C:uu J.r idg<'. 1'1 as~ . l'.!111 0 . Cloth. 400
i •age>i . ill ai l i11 g l'rke, $1.UO; l 11 t ro<ltw t ioll , '.It) t:e n t s .

A Nexpos it ion in rec;arrl l1oth tot.lie lan gnage or style of Shake·
i.pcaro, a nd to t he En gfo:li la nguage ge nerally.

Shakspere's Versification.
Not<'s P ll Shak" J"·ri· ·s Y .-rsi li« al i11 11 , wi t h Appcll<lix on the Verse Tests,
and a "lt ort J ><• .-;,·r i p1i 1·,, J:il .Ji ,, ~ r:q.J• ."- H.v <:1•: P11<:1( 1£. .8ROWNE, A.M.
l~m o .
l'apPr. :~ I 11a ges . l'r it'' " in t•·rlvav1 ·d, :.';) e <·ll ts.

Shakespeare and Chaucer Examinations.
E di lt'd, wi th ;:n m e n•n 1 ark~ O il t ho " C l:t~ s-l \nt•m Study of Shakespeare,'
liy \\·1u. 1AM 'l'.-\YL CJ l t T H <J)t, ,\!.:\., l'ro fesso r of English ill H o llin ~ Instit ut e , \ "a. S•jli:tn· llit no. Cloth. J.lli pages. Illaili ug Price , $ 1.10;
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·

~s i ..;

_:i

r eY i S(~ (! an <! e n ln rgf• d

1~n1111111ul1•11 ~. p 11l1] 1:-< l H· d

Arnold's English Literature.
His torical and Critical.

'Vi th ·m Appendix on En rrlish Metres, and Summaries _of t~e Di.ff~rent

S1·:l"T I 0 '.'1

~kl' td 1 ~i f

Daniel Webster. S i-:cT JOx 1.
S EC T!OX 2.
A 8]((,t ch of

rrn

JilGHl.;lt ENGL£SH .

JllUl!l-:It ENGLISH.

edi tion of th e T 1co Sho~:espeare
s1•1·, ·ral _)' f'ars n 11 1l Y<·rv rnu r li liked by

t each ers of En gl i:-; h ; ,ite r at u r ~ .

Tliat uouk coulain e<l two exami-

Li tc r~r

l'e riods. B y Ti'ro~u.s A1t1'0 LD'. M.A.,, of U u~: ~ rs 1tr Co l l'·):'·":
() f . / Am e r ican e1 lit io u. l{ev1seJ. 1~1110 . C lutlt . '-'·j " p. t gt.~ . 1'1.u l
·1nx1,. '1
>:'rt.;.
..1'.. e , ·~1
1~",· Iiit t-. Hlt wt ion ( with or without the foll o w 111 g ]Htlll pb lc t },
.. - . ,. ,
<:.(:>O· ;\ll o w arn·e for 0J,J l1nok, 40 1·1·11! s .
.
f
1

Th A:n

lo-Saxon a nd Norman Periods have lw~ n rrp~ tbh:hN, rom
Lre~ fnrm sh eJ w pape r l111td ·
]\[ail in ~ l'ri ec, :10 cents; Introduct.1 on, J;J cent,;.

th ee [onr~h r., i- bf'd y 11 g]i , h <·<li t ion, a111l <:an

Ing.

of t his manu al will receive just imprc~s} ons of t he
rcl i~t.iYC Yal ue of names and books , as well as p oht1cal and reli gious influences. In dee d, the alljus tme~t aud arnrn ge_inen~ o~ n'.~
terial are managed with wonderful dexterity and analytic cleat n es8.

rrHE studen t

H. H. Morgan, J> rin. of lfif/ h
,C.'1:hool, ::it. J,r.w:~ , Mo.: I sho11ld
most fully r ecomm enrl it to any
one whose interest iu li te rature was

that of the i;tud e nt; for he wo u ld
Jind m1.1<'11 whi ch t' OHl<l 0tltc rwi' e
he obtaiued only by ex teusive r 1:a d·
ing .

First Two Boof.<s of Milton's Paradise Lost;
and Milton's Lycidas.
Hy Jlo~rnit B. f;1·1 t A<: UF., Ph .D ., for me rly Prin c ipal o f t h n C ir!><" l li.:l\
Sdw o l, Bnstn n. 121110. Cloth. l ~ J8 pages . .Mailiug l'riec , 55 «t: ll ts ; 111·
trodncti on, 45 ce nts.

e dit io n furni sh es conveuient and su~g,cs t.ive notes, .""'. Lh
- ex cellent t ype and arran ge me11t, and p t esen ts a n a pp101 crl
for m nla. fo r con cl uctin g class exercises. It omits fifteen or twenty

r]lIII.S

ohj ecti o n a ble

1ines.

William F. Warren, J'r csi,lPnt r( f j me admirably adapted tu it~ p11r1Jo~t u n Unie ersity :
It sec rns to pose.

A Hand-Book of Poetics.
F nr St nde nt;; of E n " lish Ye rse . By FRA NCH! B. G uMM ER E , P h.D .,
Jfoa<l M a ste r of th e Swain Free Sdwol , N e w Bedford , l\ '.a~s., a n•l ~'.'!­
m crly Instructor in En;:.l ish in Harvard CoHegc., l:.'1110. Cloth. x + -·1 0
pages. Mailing Price, :;:; I.IO; for lutroduct10n, :$1.W.

IIE b ook has t hree divi sions, - Subject-l\b.Lt.:r, Style, 1\letre.
E ach i ~ tre a te d fr o m two p oin ts of vi e w , -t11 c l1i ;;;torical, t rac•
ing the growth of different kinds of subj ect, of expression , or of

T

24

23
rhythm; and t he tlieoreLical, s !.aliu;; dearly Lite principles and
laws of the matter discussed.

Fulton & Trueblood's Chart.
Illustrating the Principles of Vocal Expression.

F. A. March, I'rof. of En!Jlish L ilit s nppli <-s a real <l e fh:ie Hcy in text.
r r otur<', L rcfay etlc Colle;!" ; ,\n cxu_ookti. l <l ei 1111 t knoll', an y wh ere iu
<'<·llcllt book : a w n rk of g nnd st· ris r:
Lllglis h, of a be tt e r t n·a t11 11 ·ut 6 ( the
a nd g-(Httl l a .° 'tt' , an d Jll Ul' h l earuin ,,. 1mbj cc t.
iri s mall con 1p:iss .
,.,
F. J. Child, J'r,(t'. r'. f'Fw;li sh , lfw-.
~- M. Garnett, I'rr~(. rif English
1·•nd r "1fl,.r1e : l t hink yo u h :tvc a 11
f ,1/, ·n1 (11rf', l 11. i,.<'r.<i/11 (~( Vi r ,;i11i" ;
cx cecd iugly fine book in Mr. GumIt. lias fu lti l kLl my autit.:ipatio1~s , a n d m ere's Poe tics.

l\ onR RT I. F U LTON & T . C. TnUF.BLOOI>, compilers of F ult on &
T ru eli lood's C hok e l{e adin gs. l'rinted o n ex tra to u g h paper , :,.; x tiO
i 11 c h .. s, ho11nd 011 t h o ed i.:;rs . and mounted. l{c t ai l pri ce , ~2.00 . Special
in t.rod11 etio n terms 011 applicalio11.

By

r1111E char t p rese n ts a co mplete syste 111 of Yocal culture aml eloc ut ion at a glance, th us a1·o iding the n ecessity o[ t.nrni11 g Uni
leal'es of a book or a series of charts . The p ri ncipl es are sc ie ntifi cally a rran ge cl and suppleme nted w ith d iagrams, exercises, a 11 d
illu strative sente nces .
The cl 1art is r ecomme nded to profess io nal elocuti onists, n o matt er what school or sys te m thry r e prese n t; to all stude nts o f vocal
c u lt ure and e xpress ion , as a n i11val11 aL le ai,l in p rivate pract ice,
::;u bgesting a r eg ular, syste mat ic, and judicio us drill - the most
impe rat i ve condition of success; aml to t he t each e rs in tl1c 1•1 1!.lic
1;chools, e nahlin g them t o d e velop t he voices of eliildren and i111press upon t h e m th e pr incipl es of correct express io11.

Outlines of the Art of Expression.
Hy .J. II. G 1r. ~ro1rn , Prof .. ss"r of Ltwi l' }{J 1 ·t ) .- . • 1 d ,
·
·
1.· 11i v .. rs it y of Hnehc~ t <' r, 1\ . Y. l:.'mo."' c 'l oth e ~;~e, . ·~: • . E n ~h sh , 1~ .the
t..'\ cents ; fotr od uct io n, (iO i·c n t;;.
·
' JM,., cs . lll.ill1ng 1 n ee,

..L\. Tls~E _.\_T T~E

on En glis l'. Co rn 1•osilin 11 a1Hl Hl1 e lo rie, d e::;igned
,
~- pr: ially for A cade mi es, High Sch ools, and tl ie }'reshman
Class m Colleges.

Fulton and Trueblood's Choice Readings.
I

.

I

F . H. Sargent . I' ri11. N eu; l"orh: system of YOiL'.C trai nillg. I shal l he
Sl'/10•11 of A cliny: I Jind it :111 ex- glad to r eco mm e nd it as J ha 1·c opcc edin g ly good expos i t ionof the J{ush portunity. (Jan. H, 18S8.)

From Popular and Standard Authors.

'

Co mpi le•! aw l. :trr·an. ."C"
d l•y
Hmn-:..PT
J . F u r, TO"
~ I ·1· l! OMAS
•
•
· ' " 1l !
Tl tUEJ \ l.oc 1p , !\ ~;-.; (Jl"la tt• l· o-1111d j•rs
a11d ]> ir·t·t·tors <if 11
( " ·.
· . . ..1 .
O r:ll >ry }'
. ("
~ ·
·
·
'"
1111·e rs1ty :::ieliuul of

c

Jl!i;· h' .. 1iu· ~~{,';~'.1~Vr~\~ ~ ..1u1.o.,f an.LI Tcar·~1crs of Eloc u t ion in t'l w Univ. of
l"
. ~ : 1 l 1111. , tlH~ h P11l11cky U 111v. , arnl the J\ri sso nri

S1· 1 I • 1· 11
. .
• , '. . '. .
''
·

1 "~'1 1/ u/wn

A Method of English Composition.

_1110 . • ~~ pag•·s.

r•1/1/1•J//,

Hy Mail, :::O J. 1;1; ; Iri t roJ11 .. 1i n
l';J "()
s ta111ped co1·" r foll «il t , . . .
,,. . 11 , .,, :' ' .
,
,., , 111 e p.tpe r, .;;-~ .I)() r e/1u l.

By T.

,

rrIIE a ut h o r's int enti on is to furni sh t o colleges , aeatlc 11 1ics, a11 d

""

hi gh sch ools a brief syste m of instruction in t he preparatio n
o[ essays or compos iti o ns . The Heco nd part co n ~ i ,;ts of lists of
classi fi ed the mes, wi t h spec im e 11 s of plans of co 111 posit.ion~ , etc .

s enting so

111a 11

y good anthors 11.n<i

so w ell a r ran«ed
"l' I · i·
·.
'
· ,., ·
1e 111< ices, espe1'1al ly t h·tt t o o 1··. cn 11 ,n 8• f ro m SJia J,e~pea re, fo rm a v c r~' va l nab le arlclition
ofte n bc t au s c of th ei r llltnn ~'" ww tl 1. to t l1 e v o ln me. (J lCne 11, 1885.)

.

I

I '·

•

rif English anll ki nds of suhj c·cts t ha t ma y

bet re;tterl
i n essa ys , or:1t io 11 s, a 11•l d .. ha t""• is
s uc h , I fou11d , a s lo r e moY n 11 11n 1·1 'f'S·
sa ry obstac les , :rn rl a t tl1 0 s a 11 w ti m o
tage. The d ivisio ns and t h e sup;- t o r eciuire th o ug ht on tlic s tudent's
gestive arran gement of the var ious pa rt.

E . E . Smith, I»·o/.

Jli s/<1ry , 1'-unl•w l l n ive rsil!f , Lufu yelt e, Incl .: I h aYe 1tsc1l it with a n
ad van ced c lass to d ec id ed ad va11-

J . W. Ch urchill, l'r ...f. ,,1·
.f.'l11 c•1Wm • B • Ch am b er 1ain, I nstructor
'.I
tiun, 'J'/11.,1/u!}ical S~1t 1 i nury, .-1n- f'.i }>,'lut:u lio11. , Ulwrlin Culle!; e, U.:
dul' er , J fu.\s . : Th e cxcc·ll1·11 t pnrpose l ht'Y w ·c cli11 i 1·c in d eed. I thi nk I
o f t h e aul l1ors. has l1Pe1 1 Yl'ry s 11 1Tcss- do no t know of any co ll ectio n r ep re-

fo l l_y a<'co 1 11 pli~lu·d , l 111th in th e expos1lo ry and 1ll11str;i t i,·o malC"r hl
. 1·, .. . , . .. . .
.
· · ·
'l' l 1ci'c
t• .io.is .tJI' 1nl 1·rPst1ng- so nw t111ws thro11 g l1 11n,·1· '.t.v .. l".'t m ore

Professor " f R l1 e tnr ic an d En gl ish J. it.e r : ~­

12mo. Cloth . lO L pa.i.:es. l\[aili 11 1; l ' r ie • ~ ,
55 ce nts ; ln troductio11 I>r ice, 50 ce nts; Allowan ce, 10 cents.

th e nu 111be r, variety, a 11 d interes t of
t l1e piCCL'S,
ch
ss
ill<·d
ac('o
rdi1w
· rt
.
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Lee's Graphic Chart of English Literature.

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By Y. P . Lim, 0f Y a le Colle1'e· Pr inted nn tn11 gh m a11illa pa ppr :.>.+ x ;1~)
inch es iu size. llfa ilill g Pri ce,:~ c e 11 t~; fo r i11 trod1tdio11 . '25 1·1·11t s.

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-----CLASSICS FOR CHILDREN.
Choice literatu re ; Full Notes; Large Type; Firm Binding; Low Prices.
Hans Andersen's Fairy T a l es.
~

Frn s T SJ.:JUES : Su pple ment a ry t v th e Thin! 1Z c::i d cr.

-l<·S1-:co ;.;1J S1-:iw -:s : S upplem e ntary tu the Fourth lZ eadcr .

•.JEsop's Fabl es, with selecti ons fr om 1'.rilo f a n d La h ' ntain e.
*Kingsley's Water-Babies: A S tory for a I.a ncl- Tialiy.
"'Ru ski11's King of the Golden River: A Legend of Stiria.
"'The Swiss Family Robinson. Abricl gc cl.
Robinson Crusoe. Conc!ud ing with his depa rture fr om the island.
*Kin gsley's Greek Heroes.
•Martin ea u's P easant and Prince.
Lamb's Tales from Sh akesp ea re. ">leas. for Meas." omitted.
Scott's T ales of a Grandfather.
Scott's Lady of the Lake.
Scott's L ay of the Last Minstrel.
L amb' s Adventures of Ulysses.
Church's Stories of the Old World.
Scott's Talisman. Complete.
Sco tt's Quentin Durward. Sligh tly ah ridgecl.
Irving's Sketcl1 Book. Six selections, in cluding" Rip van Winkle ."
Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice.
Scott's Guy M a nneri11g. Complet e.
Scott's Ivanhoe. Compl ete.
Johnson's Rasselas: l'rince o f Abyssi nia.
Gulliver's Travels. T he Yoyagcs to Lilliput and Brobd in g nag.
*Pluta rc h 's Lives. From Cluugh's Translation.
Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield.
Hal e's Ara,bian Nig h ts.
Scott's R ob Roy. Complete.
.. Life of Fra,nklin .
Washingto11 and His Country. Irvin g and Fiske.
Selections from Ruskhl.
Tom Brown at Rugby.
The Two Retreats. Xen oph un ',; and 1'\apllln.1n 's.

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