OUTLINES
OF THE

ART OF EXPRESSION.
BY

J. H. GILMORE A.M.
PROFESSOR OF LOGIC, RHETORIC AND ENGLISH IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF BOCHESl'E.R.

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BOSTON:
PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY.

1887.

PREF ACE.

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THIS little book has grown, in the author's class-11J0m, out
of an attempt to supplement the defective early training of his
pupils.
·
Those pupils had, when they entered college, some practical
acquaintance with English composition, and, from their study
of Latin and Greek, a fair knowledge of General Grammar.
English Grammar, many of them had never studied at allfew, if any, of them, as the author conceives it should ho
11tudied.
It was necessary, then, to superinduce upon a knowl edge of
those general elements of Grammar which are common to the
English , the Latin and the Greek , a kn owledge of those particular elements of Grammar which are distincti vely charactel'istic of the English tongue.
Further than this: it seemed desirable to give the .s tudent, at
the very outset of his college course, a few brief and practical
suggestions with reference to Style, Figurative Language, etc.,
which might be serviceable till the thorough and systematic
study of Rhetoric could be taken up.
To these purposes the author's " A.rt of Expression." is devoted. While it may, possibly, be useful in the college classroom, it is more likely to be useful to instructors who desire
some simple man ua l of English on which to condition candidates for admission to college. It is hoped, however, that it
will not be found ill adapted to general use in academies and
high schools- and wherever, in fact, a review of English
Grammar from a Logical and Historical stand-point is desired.
The book is, as its name indicates, a mere outline - design ed
to be amplified and extended by oral instruction. To those
who desire helps in the work of amplification, the author would
especially recommend: Morris's Outlines of English Accidence,
AngUB'a Handbook of th.e English Tongue; L atham 's Englisl:
Grammar; Rushton's Rules and Cautions in English Grammar:
Abbott's Shal.:8pearian Grammar and How to Write Cwarly.
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UmVEBSITY or RoclU!ITER,

Jan. 1, 1876. .

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NOTE TO FOURTH EDITION.

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THE author ventures to exp ress the hope that those who make
use of his Art of E xp1·ession will not om it, but rather emphasize,
the sections which invo lve the disc uss ion of forms of expression
used by our Anglo-Saxon and Early English ancestors. It is in
these sections that auy excelle_nce which his book may have, especially res ides, - a fact which is abundantly r ecognized by
Prof. T. P. Hunt in the Princeton R eview for March , 188 1.
To facilitate the use of the few Anglo-Saxon forms introduced,
the following hints with reference to Anglo-Saxon pronunciation
are given.
There are no silent letters, and the accent OYer a vowel s imply
shows it to be long.
With reference to the vowels: -

a = a in fath er;
a = ah.
re= a in fat;
re= ey in th ey.
e = e iu met;
e= ey in they.
e (before a or o) = y;
e final , as in German.
i and y = i in dim; i and if= ee in deem .
...... 6 = o in holy.
o = o in not;
u = u in full;
= oo in foo l.
au, aw, o·w = oio in no10.

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With refe rence to the consonants : -

c is always hard, like.our k.
f, between two vowels, or at
has the /ttuud of our

th~ :end

of a syllable after a ,·owel,

v; e.g., lufian.

ge n er~lly hard, but is frequ ently pronounced like our y, wh el!
in ir~m.ediate contact with an e or i vowel.
th= th.J! then ; dh =th in thein.
h is always strougl y aspirated.

g is

The other cousonants may be pronounced as in E nglish.
U?."'ff E RSlT\' OF ROCHE STER,

)!:ly, 1,;,;1.

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IT is desirable that practice in compos~tiou
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with instruction respecting the methods of ·9QD1 .
The blackboard should be kept in constant llSei ·
student should be taught to construct illustraU.ve ~, ,
of the rules to which his attention is ~lled and to ¢ t i the examples put upon the board by his clasSmafei~·
The influence of this daily exercise, if mainta(ned bat a
single term, on the constmctive ~bility and~ ..;.
men of a class will be something wondertiil.
.
The author appends some examples tOr praxta wbl4
suggested themselves in going over The :4.rt of B~~
with a class, and which are arranged in tJie q"ri!it ii ' ti1GJa the information that they presnp~ ia gh'eA ta Utt pa. "
ceding pages. They should be given ~ day b,y dq, .._
the student masters the precepts t.o which the_y rettr, and
without calling the student's attention t.o th.Elm bet°""'
hand. The entire work of construction aod criiloltaa
should be done by the class. Thirty bright bo11 oan b9stimulated and encouraged to do it very tboroaghlybetter, I have sometimes thought, f.b&fl U... a mp
teacher. And it muBt be done . thorooghl,y. Tbt •tudfttl
must not be permitted, while illustrat.lng ~ - ,
late others, however insignificant.
The topics here suggested for praxis will, perhaps,
afford the best possible means for testing not merely the
constructive ability of the student; but his familiarity
with the principles and precepts laid down in the P""
ceding pages - thus serving, on examination, a dou~
purpose.
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1. Hand in a letter (addressed to your instructor ~­
desi!med for criticism) stating what degree of attentioayou have already given to the study of English. 1
i These letters sh ou ld all be read and criticised in t~e classroom; and careful attention should ~e cal led ~o the _mmor ~le­
gances of le'.ter-.w rit ing. Mn,ny of us, 111 actual 11f~, wnte noth!ng
hut letters. It 1s all important, tlien , tl!at we make letter-wr1t.illg
a study.

OUTLI)."ES OF TRE ART OF EXPP.ESSION.

101

2. Illustrate , in writing, bow to mak e a paragraph.
3. Write sentences illustra ting tile use of the comma,
tlJP semieolon, the period.
4 . Write sentences illustrating the use of the colon and
the clash.
5. Write sentences illustrating the use of the interrogation mark and the exclamation point.
6. Illustrate the different ways of indicating parenthetic
matter.
7. Write on the board: ( 1) Ten common nouns.
(2) Ten proper nouns.
(3) Ten concrete nouns.
8. Tell what .rou understand by a " mass-noun" as
distinguished from a " class-noun" - giving illustrations
of each.
9. Write on the board ten abstract nouns ending in
-hood.
10. Ten, encling in -dom.
"
" -ness.
11. "
12. "
"
" -ship.
13. "
"
" -ity.
14. Give illustrations of abstract nouns ending in any
other terminations.
15. Write, on the .board, 20 collective nouns.
16. Give illustrations of all the cases in which capitals
should be employed.
17. Give as many nouns as you can recall, which form
the plural irregularly.
18. Give as many nouns as you can recall, which have
the same form for the singular and the plural.
19. Gi,,e as many nouns as you can recall, which form
only the plural.
20. Give as many nouns as you can recall, which haro
two plurals used in different senses.
21. Give the plurals of the fo!lowing nouns : FlB.o<TStaff,
Sow,
Seraph,
Exanthema,
Chrysalis,
Stigma,
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Miasma,
Flambeau,
J et-d 'eau .
Stamina,
Caryatid,
Madame.

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22.
Savant,
Monsieur,
Cicerone,
Libretto,
Trout,
Cant-0,

Pea,
Sheep,
Effiuvia,
Omnibus,
Penny,
Die.

23 .

Earl,
Czar,
Don,
Roe,
Landgrave,

' Sloven, ..
Sire,
Doctor,

Swaiii,

Buck•

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25. Give the masculine, or the 'temlnine,·form 0,0~ .
sponding to the following words : .
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Duck,
Postmaster,
Nun,
Lad,
Gaffer,
Billy-goat,

Maid,
Vixen,.
Soltan, .

Songster,
Stag,
Ewe.

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26. Give ten nouns of the neuter, and ten of the common, gender.
27. Write six sent~nces containing a noun in the Bin·
gular number, possessive case. 1
28. Write six sentences containing a noun in the plural
number, possessive case.
29. Write four sentences containing a phrase, the last
word of which shall be properly in the possessive case.
30 Write four sentences containing a phrase, the prin·
cipal word of which shall be properly in the possessive
case.
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_ · · s u ent will , perhaps, need to be reminded th at a hi gher
~ue is put upon illustrati ons that evince taste and culture than
upon illustrations which, however correct, are trashy antl com.·
mon-place.

OG'TLI:c\ES OF THE ART OF EXP R E SSIO.::-r.

103

31 . "Write 12rn sentences illnstrating the use of the
nom in::itirn case independ ent.
J:2 . \\~r i te fhe sentences illustrating tlrn use of the
acljectiYe as an " abnormal nonn."
33 . Illustrate the use of each of the infinitives as an
" abnormal noun."
34. Wri te ten sentences containing an infinitive which
properly di spenses 'l"l"ith the sign " to."
35 . Write three sente nces illustrating the use of the
present actiYe participial as an " abnormal noun."
36. Three, illustrating this use of the past active.
"
"
" " " " present passive.
37.
"
38.
"
"
" " " " past
39. Give three illustrations of a clause used, abnormally, as th e subject of a sentence.
40. Three, of a clause, or phrase, used as predicate.
41. Three, of a clause used as object.
42. Three, of a clause used as as an " adjunct."
43. ·write sentences illustrating the use of the weak
and strong pronominal possessives in e&ch person of the
sinQ'.ular.
4~4. In each person of the plural.
45. Write sentences illustrating the correct use of the
reflecti Ye pronouns.
46. Write sentences illustrating the different cases in
which " that" should be preferred, as a rdative, to
"who" or " which."
4'Z.. Give firn sentences, introducing a relative clause
that has the force of a " definitive."
48. Give firn sentences introducing a relative clause
that bas the force of an " epithet."
49. Write on the board, three totally identical judgments .
50. Three partially identical judgments.
51. Three judgments in which different objects of
thought are compared.
52. Write four sentences containing abstract predie&tes
expressive of quality.
53. Four, expressing action.
54. "
"
condition.
55. "
"
relation.
56. Explain, in WTiting, what you understand by " an
abnormal predicate."
57. Give three examples of adjnncts used, abnormally
118 predicates.

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OUTLINES OF THE .ART OF EXPRESSION.

58. Three, of adverbs.
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" infiniti,·es.
60.
"
" clauses.
61. Write 'ten sentences containing transitive verbs.
62. Ten, containing intransitive verbs.
63. Six, containing neuter verbs.
64. Six, containing neuter-passive verbs.
G5. Give three illustrations of each of the "voices••
recognized in English Grammar.
66. Give a tabular view, similar to that under topic 49.
of the English tense forms in the passive voice.
67. Write five sentences containing simple present
tenses in the active voice; five, containing continuative
presents.
68. Write five sentences containing simple present
tenses in the passive mice ; five, containing continuatives.
69. Write five sentences containing simple imperfects
active; five, containing continuatives.
70. Write five sentences containing simple imperfects
passive; five, containing continuatives.
71. Write five sentences containing simple perfects in
the active voice; five, containing continuatives.
72. Write five sentences containing simple perfects in
the passive voice.
73. Write five sentences c-0ntaining simple pluperfects
active; five, containing continuatives.
74. Write five sentences containing simple pluperfects
passive.
75. Write five sentences containing simple futures
active; five, containing continuatives.
76. Write five sentences containing simple futures
pnssive.
77. Write five sentences containing simple future-perfects active; five, containing continuatives.
78. Write five sentences containing simple future perfects passi,•e.
79. Give the "principal parts" of as many "irregulai
verbs as you can recall."
80. Illustrate the correct use of such complex presents
and pretnrites as "I love," "I did love."
81. Give the "principal parts " of the following verbs:
Arise,
Bereave,

Bnrst,
Beseech,

OUTLGIBS OF THE ART OF EXPRESSION.

Chide,
Clea,·e,
Climb,
Crow,
Dare,
Drink,
Eat,
Freight,
H ang,
Hold,

105

Lny,
L ie,
Plead,
8eethe ,
Slay,
Speed,
Spin,
Shred,
Swell,
Thrive.

82. GiYe as many verbs as you can recall , which have
the same form for the present, imperfect, and the past
participle.
83. Illustrate the correct use of " shall" and " will"
to express simple futurity, in direct statement.
84. In direct question.
85 . In indirect statement, or indirect question.
86. Give examples of the different forms of the " declarative" mood which are possible - using "is" or " is
not " as the copula.
87. Give five examples of the use of the "contingent"
mood to express "pure contingency."
88. Five " optatives."
89 . Five "concessives."
90. Write five sentences containing verbs in the
" necessary " mood.
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91. GiYe as many different forms of the "imperative
mood " as you can recall.
92. Give three sentences in which "if" is properly
followed by a " declarative" form of the verb.
93. Three, in which " if" is properly followed by a
" contingent" form of the verb .
94. Write sentencPs introducing each of the different
forms of the " infinitive."
95. Give three sentences in which the unchanged form
of the verb is used to express contingency.
96. Three sentences in which a past tense of the imlicative is used to express contingency.
97. Illustrate the correct use of the auxiliaries" may,"
"might," "can," "could," "would," "should," to
express contingency .
98. Illustrate the correct use of the verb when it bail
subjects of different persons and numbers.

106
99. Give five sentences illustrating the correct
ment of a singular Terb with a collective noun.c ,
100. Five, illustrating the correct employme~f
plural verb with a collective noun.
101. Give sentences in which a compound, or "8si
plural , subject properly takes a singular verb.
.
102. Illustrate, in writing, the different circume~ '
in which " a" and " an " are to be used.
.
103. Give five sentences illustrating the generic aae o/
the English definite article. .
.
104. Give five sentences which introduce !'!f.feotl'fll
nsed definitively.
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105. Five sentences which introduce ad,JectiYeS......
epithets.
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106. Write three sentences containing" deftnhe ~ •
lllonstratives; three, containing " indefinita; 0 . . . . . .
c.,-ontaining ''ordinals.''
107. Write three sentences containing ." delliltte••
llumerals ; three, containing " indetlnite..;" three, oon\.aming "semi-definitcs."
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108. Give as many adjectives as you can recall, wbteb
are compared irregularly.
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Iu9. Give as many adjectives as you can recall, whlclt
do not admit of comparison.
llu. Write five sentences which introduce an adJectltt
in the comparative degree.
111. Five sentences, which introduce an adjective tn ibie
superlative degree.
112. Five sentences, in which the subject is modified by
a noun in the possessive case.
113. Five sentences, in which the subject is modified by
an adjunct.
.
114. Five sentences, in which the subject is modified by
a noun in apposition.
11 5. Illustrate the different ways of modifying an abstract predicate .
11 6. Illustrate the different ways of modifying a conc,,.ete predicate.
117. Write five sentences introducing adyerbs of
quality.
.
118 . Five, introdu cing acherbs of qu :rnt1ts.
11 9. Five, introducing ach erbs of relation.
120. Write sente nces ill ustrating the use of" modals."
121. lllustrate the different ways of modifying an actirn
,erb.

O UTLIXES OF THE: A1'T OF EXPirnssrox.

1::?:!. A p:i.ssirn Ycrb .
1 :! :3 . A neuter Yerb.
1 :?-±. \V rite sent ences

107

introJ ucrng as m:i.ny different
verbs as yon can recall t bat take two objeetiYes .
125 . \ Vritc us many se ntences as you can, introdul'ing
an objectirn which ind icates weight, time , measure or
degree.
l:Z6. Write as many sentences as you can, introducing
an active, or a passi rn, Yerb modified by an infinith e .
127. Write six sentences illustrating the use of the
inte1jection.
128. Write three simple sentences in the first of which
the subject, in the second of which the copula, in tho
third of which the predicate, is variously modified and submodified.
129. Write three sirnp1e sentences illustrating the use
of a compound subject, a compoun d pretlicate, a compound copula.
130 . Write sentences illustrating the use of as many
iifferent compound modifiers as occur to you .
131. Write three compound sentences the members of
whi ch are connected by a relati,·e.
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132 . Write compouml sentences introducing copulative,
disjunctive and adversative conjunctions.
133. ·w rite compound sentences in trod ucipg inferential,
comparative and conditional conjunctions.
13-±. Write three sentences which introduce a clausal
conjunction; two, which introduce a final conjunction.
135. Write sentences introducing the following correlatives:
When . . . then.
Where . . . there.
Whither . . . thither.
As . . . so .
So . . . as.
The . . . the.
So . . . that.
If . . . then
Though . . . yet.
136. Give five illustrations of complex sentences in
which the complicating clause takes the p lace of an element or modifier.
13 7. .Five, in which the comp1icaiing clause is pareo
thetic.

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143. Bring in as many illustrations as you CIUl' tDd ii
figures of speech which tend to promote ~.....
selecting them, in part from the sectiona o( ~ book
which are devoted to Figurative Language.
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144. Bring in as many illustrations as you <l&D. ftnc)-.of
figures of speech which tend to promote trlri:ltia;, ar
p ·icturesqueness.
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145. Bring in as many similes u poulble, Qloh J'O'I
r~gard as particularly fine.
146. Bring in as many metaphors
you regard as partic'ularly ftne. 1
147. Give an original illustration
.
phor.
148. Give an original illustration of Metonymy, SYl\90"
doche and Personification.
.
149. Brin()" in as many good illustrations as yon can
find of Meto~1ymy, Synecdoche, Personification.
150. Bring in as many illustrations as you can find of
Figurative Language whic~ is. p~rticular~y bad - naming
the fi a are and statinO" wherem it 1s defective.
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15f. F ill up the gaps in the following sentences with
the verb which is sanctioned by the best usage: -

OUTLINES OF THE ART OF EXPRE SSION.

109

II e - - means
to detect the thi ef.
Il e - - nwasurcs "
"
"
"
H e - - an o:ith of fealtv.
H e - - tiJ e side of virtue.
H e - - me no malice.
H e - - an honorable course.
H e - - an honorable warfare.
She - - a great f"ensation.
This may - - for a warning.
152. Supply the appropriate prepositions in the follow·
mg sentences : We value ourselves - - this.
This matter fell - - their cognizance.
If poesy can prevail - - force, etc.
He prevailed - - me to go.
He differed - - me - - the matter.
This differs - - that.
He conferred - - me about conferring the office - you.
He reduced them - - a state of fear and brought them
- - subjection.
153. Supply the appropriate prepositions in the follow'..ng sentences : Boast not - - to morrow.
Call - - me, this evening.
Call - - me if you need help.
I am averse - - doing it.
They will be useful - - testing one's progress.
It is conformable - - my desire.
It was - - compliance - - my request.
It was derogatory - - his dignity.
It is foreign - - my purpose.
He is recreant - - his principles.
He was expert - - this game.
I was disappointed - - the office which he secured and
- - which he is disappointed.

It has been the author's intention that individual members of the ~}ass §hould _atte t
e -e

signed, not for the indivi<lual student, but for the entire
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OUTLINES OF THE A.RT OF EXPRESSION.

class ; and those exercises are deemed bv the author, of
the utmost practical importance. The work indicated has
Leen done in the author's class-room over and over again;
and has always been done promptly, easily, well - and,
at the same time, with a degree of interest that no other
class-room exercise <:reates. In order to excite the
liveliest interest, and , at the same time, secure the bes!,
practical results, it is desirable that neither teacher nor
pupils bring to the work any special preparation.
154. Give a. practical illustration of the rules which
should determine the choice of a subject for composition
- testing such subjects as may occur to you till a suitable
one is found. 1
155. Examine your subject with reference to the specific views of it which may be taken and decide which
view you wish to take - that is, fix upon a " proposition "
which you wish to establish, illustrate or explain.
156. Write down the various answers to the question:
" How shall I support my proposition? " which m'ay
occur to you, without stopping to test their significance,
combine them, or arrange them.
l T o illustrate: one of the author's classes suggested the follow·
Ing subjects, passing upon them the criticisms indicated and finally deciding to make a plan on " College Athletics."

Theme.

Its merits or defects.

Real, a unit, too broad, not well adapted
"Spring."
{ to the class, too stale.
"That Spring is~ An improvement on the first in that it is not
pleasanter than Snm- too broad; but still poorly adapted and
mer."
stale.
"The Authorship of j Real, a unit, sufficiently fresh; but too
Shakspere's Plays." l broad and not well adapted to the class.
Real; but defective in every other particu" Liberty.''
{ lar.
"John Brown."

{Stale and devoid of present interest.

"The present Condi- { Real and fresh; but too broad, deficient In
ti on of Europe."
unity [? ], and too difficult.
" Treasurer Spin- { Real. a unit, not too broad, well adapteil to
ner."
the class; but devoid of interest.
j Real. a unit, but too broad, not well adapt"The Canal R ng... ( ed to the class, stale and unintere sting.
\ :llet all the req uirem ent;; of a theme ; bu1
"HJ.zing."
{ the cb.ss did not ca.re to take it.
., College Ati.le!ic>. · · i "J..li right .."

OUTLIKES OF THE AI'.T OF EX.PRESSlON.

111

157. Cnrefully revi se the poi nts thnt you have noted
down and throw out any which are untrne or not
especially significant.
Some that are less signific:l.Ilt
may be ultimately useful for an introduction or a conclu sion.
158 . Combine any of the points retained whi ch O\·erlap
each other. See if any of the points can l•e grouped
under some more general head.
159. If the points retained divide themselves into con·
siclerations for and against the view of your subjert which
you bad intended to take, decide, definitely, which side
you propose to maintain.
lGO. Re-arrange the considerations in favor of the view
whi ch you propose to maintain, so that they may be presented in the most natural and effectirn order. If there
are considerations against the view which you propose to
maintain decide what to do with them. These now cons titute so many " objections" whi ch you will have to
meet if you discuss your theme in all its aspects. Is it
necessary to do so? If so, decide how and when to meet
these objections.
161. Decide upon a suitable conclusion for your essay.
162. Deeide upon a suitable introduction for your
essay.
163. Make careful search for any facts or illustrations
that may be useful in amplification of the points that
you propose to make.
164. Select a suitable title for your essay.
165. Write your essay-adhering closely to the plan
developed in the class-room. 1
1 The following plan was developed in the class-room by tho
process indicated above.

THE BENEFITS OF THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.

lntrod; :ction. -Rude systems of telegraphy perfected by American enterprise and ingenuity. Benefits of tlle invention taken for
f,fanted through a vag:ue notion that there is some magic virtue in
·annihilating time and space."
Objections. -There are obvious objections to the electric telegraph . 1. It keeps the world in a state of feverish excitement.
2. I t is an instrument of linguistic and moral corruption. 3. It
lends itself as readily t o ign oble a~ to n oble ends.
These objections are incidental -not essential. They hold
rather against the abuse of the telegraph than the telegraph itself
They a.re of little weight iu comparison with the following: -

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OUTLINES OF THE ART OF EXPRESSION.

166. Upon review, give on the blackboard. in your own
language, an adequate discussion of each topic in the
entire treatise.
Considerations infauor qf the Telegraph.
a. Wants of communities made

1. It pro~otes intelligence.
2. It fac1htates commerce.

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~~s7:!1~ of markets made known.
c. Demand for material and labor
created.
a. Preventing accidents.
S. It alleviates distress.
b. Allaying anxiety.
c. Arresting crime.
a. Promoting national unity.
4. It fosters peace.
b. Increasing international comity.
c. Averting, or intensifying, war.
Ccmcl'Uion. -An Invention in the interests of peace. b•1manity,
commer~e and intelligence Is an Invention in the intenlL'!t •f civfil.

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