AN IMPRO~ · ·

D . COMPREHENSIVE

.S.CH0017:f;-RAMMAR,
CONTAINI~G

.\

ALL THE ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE
USUALLY FOUND IN OTHER WORKS:

\VtTH AN ADDITION OF MUCH THAT IS NEW, CRITICAL, AND
HrGHLY APPROVED BY COMPETENT JUDGES.

AN

IMPROVED AND COMPREHENSIVE
}

SC,H 0 0 L GRAM -M AR;
IN WHICH ARE EQU AL•Y REGARDED BOTH THE WANTS OF THE BEGINNER
.AND THOSE OF THE ADVANCED AND CRITICAL STUDENT:

CONTAINING .A.LL THE ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE USUALLY FOUND IN OTHER WORKS: .

WITH AN ADDITION OF MUCH THAT IS NEW, CRITICAL, AND HIGHLY APPROVED BY
COMPETENT JUDGES. .
I·

I-'
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-~_\'~~_< __'- ·
'v C·,,,

"JIJ,}:".J-67J
fr.- ,v

BY A NORTH AMERICAN TEACHE..

..

e_.:.., (\ ."'·' ·-"···';., S:s._._,..,--c..,..lq L~
~·
,,

GARDINER:
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR BY A . :M . C. HEATH .

1855 .

..

1gthls book, tile beginner will ti:·st commit the <lefinitiom of the Indicative and Subt-tenses; found on the 5th p:1ge, facing his parsmg lesson. The teacher will look up
o, and put a pencil mark at the left of each in the Catalogue, which begins on 27th
II then become familiar with the present and imperfect fo'rms of those irregular verbs
.nd w.hich the te,,,cher h::ts marked in the C<ttalogue. And before he has his second
with the rest ef those verbs. The teacher will at the same time call his attention to
1that move, movest, and nwve• are pcesent tense, and moved and movedst, imperfect;
e pupil will see th,1t com~, comest, comes; leave, leaves!, leaves, are present tense, and
se." Thus the pupil will commit them: Present come, Imperfect came; Present leave,
n give the variations: Present leave, leavest, leaves; fmperfcct left,.lejtest, &~. He
is p,1ge, by .which the p:i.rts of' speech are distinguished in the first fonr lessons ; also
!e from the indefb ite. Tb.us prepared , which will seldom exceed an hour, and often
; lesson 1. He will immed iately Mtempt to distinguish whether it is the Indic:i.tive, or
tense, the teache.r guiding his mind a little at first. He will tell which kind of article
havin g told him that the 01rticle a]W;1.ys belongs to the next noun forward. Of the
p~rt of speech they are. After p::trsi ng three or four sentences, the pupil's attention
plural number, on pitge 3d, the te:1cher i\\w!;rating the same to him in a few happy
upon. 'l'he pupil will now tell which mimti'er the noun is. After h:tving parsed a
n'1ke him acquainted with the three persons, in the same !Vanner a.:i he did with the
e of three persons, but th at nouns are either second or third. He now tells which
Vben ]1;1]f wo.y down the lesson, and perh01ps a little sooner, he may be introduced to
to be somewhat bound together; namely, what the verb n.grees with, and what noun
the teacher hwing previously shown how. He now tells what the verb agrees with,
riddition to the things he told before. He now gives the r ule when p:irsing an article,
it aloud. When he leI\ves fo r "new page, it · is designed to have the rules on the
ch number and person Ute verb is, by comparing it with the pattern verb on the right
ill now begin to tell its number, person, and case, by finding its situ;ition among the
6th, he is shown that most of the verbs in that lesson are in the Subjunctive mood01re defined on pnge 7th, and the construction of verbs for those ten ses, as well as for
to the eye in the verb move. The pupil will dwell '1 fe1v moments on the definition of
and construct.ions of th em below, then enter on lesson 2. In this le;son the auxiliary
11ic letters. He compares them with those like tlrem on page 7th, and decides on the
;es 01t sight. Thus the teacher will procee<l to take up one new thing after another,
-previous!)' pi·eparlng the pupil for e01ch subsequent step-exercising jud..,.ement how
p:1rtly on the age, or capaci ty of the pupil. When about half through lesson 2, he
itirn or intr.1nsitive. He should tell its object when transiti"e;. also the object of a
:qu;1i nting hirn wi th ohjectirn cn.se. He will begin to clistinguish and tell the three
\'e mood need not be taken up till through lesson 5. The qualification of01drnrbs will
:c,1cher will see what new object is aimed at in each numbered paragraph of the sub.ence, fro:n clay to d»y , the necessJ.ry th..ings bc!ween the 2d and 12th po ges, compc

v

C'

i

m, P,1rticiple, Verb, Conjunct.!on, Interjection.

lf, tho1tgh , unless, except,. before a

, " on 2d page of the lust part of the 1\0rk.

yea.r 1855, by A. l\I. C.

HEATU,

in the Clerk's Office of the D·istrict Court

ef Jviaine ..

ENGLISI-I

GRA~l~fAR.
I

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', , i I• _;.

,, .
E"GLTSil GR.l!LILIR is the art of spe:iking and writing correct English.
·
' ·wo rds a re conveniently divided into ten sorts, the names of which are Article, Noun,. Pronoun, Adjeettv~,' V,e~~~
Participle, Adverb , Preposition, Conjuncti on, and Interjection.
.
, ..., , ~
,ARTICLE. An Article is a word placed before .a noun to limit its signification , There are. two ~ticles, a or an, and
the. A or an is an indefinite article. The is "definite a rticle. The indPjinite·article limita the noun to one of a kind,
but generally to no particul:i.r .one . . The definite article'!imits the noun t,o, one or more particnlar objects.
NO U N". A_ Noun is the name of any person, pla_ce, or thing. Nouns ~re of two kinds, co:nmon _ai;id proper: '.:\
common noun 1s a name common to all of the same kmd, class, sect, or family. A . p-roper noun is applied only te mdjviduals. To nouns beloug gende r , p er son, number, and case. ·
.
GENDER, in English Grammar, is a· distinction in the form or termination of nouns as expreeswe of the sex. There
are two gend ers, mascu.Jine and feminine. The masculine gender denotes a male ; as, Man, king, poet. The feminine
gender denotes a femal e; as, ·woman, queen, poetess.
PERSON, in grammar, is that quality of a n oun or pronoun, which gives a certai n modificati?n to the verb; as, Thou
writes /, he writes. P erson is also appl ied to a noun or pronoun as expressing the person speak ing , spoken to, or spoken
of. Hence there arc three perso ns-first, second, and third .
.
·
'fhe first person denotes the p er son speaking. The second person denotes the p erson or thing spoken to. The third
p erson denotes th o perso n or thing s poken of.
Nu~!BER, appli e<l t o a noun or p ronc, un, is tlrnt form of the word by which it expresses one, or more than one. Nouns
a r e of two number s, singu lar and plural. The singular number denotes but one object: The plural number deno.tes more
objec ts than one; thus, P en is a s ing ular noun beca use it mea ns but one pen; p ens 1s a plural noun because it means
more pens th an_.one. So man is a sin "' ular n oun, and men a plura l one.
.
C.\SE is the diffe rent sta.te or situati~n ol"nouns with r eo-a rd to other words. Ca se is also employed to denote the form
of th e noun or pronoun . No uns have three cases-a n o~ inative , " possessive , and an objective case. The nominative
case denotes the doer of an action or the subject of a verb. The possessive cose ·den.ote s poss~ss i on or owr:ers~ip; as,
John 's book. Th e obj~ctive case i s the object on whi ch the action of a verb or partic1,ple t ermrnates, or the ob.iect of a
p repo sition.
PRO:\'O UN . A P ronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid a. too fr equen t use of th e same word. Pronouns
are of two ki11d s, p crson,i.l and rel:t tive.
P ersrtnrtl pronouns stand closely fo r the name of some person or thing.
Relati-~e pronouns r ela te , in general , to some prec eding n oun or perRonal pronoun, which is therefor e call ed the anteced ent . They a re who, 10/,;ch, a nd tha.t. That is often an adjective or a conjunct.ion. Th e same th01t bel ong to nouns,
belong also to pronouns. They haYe three persons . He is masculine gender, and $/ie femi nine. The other pronouns
are 'vantin g in ge nder.
ADJECTIVE:. An Adjective is ,L word whi ch ex presses the quality or number o f some person or thing.
Noun arljectiues arc a limi ted class of words, which are sometim es used as adjectives , and somctim_es ns nouns._ .
Adjectil"es a re varied only to ex press degrees of comj:>e1rison. 'l 'hey hav e three degrees of compnrison,-H. positive, a
compa.ra.ti ve , an<l a snpe rl ati\•e degree .
The positivi degree exp r ess~s t he q na lity of a n obj ec t with out any in crease or diminuti on ; ns, wise, grea.t, good.
Th e comparati ~e deo·1 ec i ncren.ses o.r lesse ns t he oosi tive in signification ; as , wiser , g reater, less wise.
Th e superlati ve degC:,.ee in cr eaHes or lesse ns the pos itive '.o. th e hi.ghe st or lowest degree; ?B'. wisest ., greatest, lea~t '?i3e.
Some adjec tives do not admit of comparis on, the r1ua!it1e.s wh ich th~y e:.press no~ alhmttrng of rncrease ..or d1mmuHon; n..s, 1:ountf, r ig ht, s1.1prc,1ne.

Illes action or being.

Verbs are of three kinds, transitive, intransitive, and

'sses action or influence-which termina tes on it.
or existence, or it denotes action which is -limited to the subject.
endured by the person or thing denoted by its nomina ti:ye. It is formed by
sitive verb to the verb be,__through all its changes of number, person, mood,
m, mood, and tense.
i ri~ed from a verb, and denotes action or being similar to the verb. It has
;vh1ch are called present and perfect . · The present participle denotes present
past action or event ; as , M oving; being moved. The perfect participle refers
•e m moved. Participles in their nature a r e transitive, intra nsitive a.nd pair
rived. _ Passive participles a re often elliptical.
'
ich gen erally used to qualify the sense of verbs, participles, adjectives , and
30n ; as, Soon, sooner , soonest.
rt of speech which serves to connect words and show the relation between
v~rd that is chiefly used to connect sentences, j oining t wo or more simple
i t1mcs connects only words.
word u sed to express passion or emotion, usun.Ily thn.t which is violent or

a

n

v

vppra

n

n

tdious pupil learns. Art thou in good health?
pr

n

v

n

n

rn on Wednesday. loves Harriet.
v

p

a

v

nprn

n

F rank, call the boys into school. Elizll

vaprpa

n

n

J ane, be kincl to your little brother. Alexandel'.

v

n

n

v

n

pr

n

n

n

n

v

pr

p

n

pr

n

n

m freed America. king. The children depend on their teacher for explanation. Girls,
n

p

T

v

nad

p

nvn

candles. I wrote stucly your lessons well.
pr

n

n

v

a

ad

to William. Jane are peaceful "nd safe.
v

c

v

p

a

pr

p

n

n

Ruth fed J ane's kitten.

ca

pv

n

Virtue's paths

a

npv

When thou doest a good deed, thou nrt

p

v

p

n

p

v

a

n

shone as we c:>me happier for it. Thou dost improve thy time. I have a new book.
a.

a

n

pv

an

nv

some cold water Thou hast a silver pen.
v

pr

n

n

a

n

n

v

pr

pr

n

v

P

p

pvprp

Peter bas a keen knife. She sat by his

n

pr

n

.p

He goes to church on Sunday.

nine hours. Boys, spring.
n

v

p

, recite in concert. side.

an

a

c

v

pr

n

a

They went to York last
v

p

a

ad

He was unfortunate because he was inconsiderate. When
n

Y

v

p

v

p

n

a

n·

trees grow in the thou hearest the bugle, wake me. They began the work last week.
n

v

p

n

v

n

n

;arden; we bought The term begins to-day.
·

n

p

; letter.
n

v

c

~h air,
n pr

n

n

I see the chieftain .
pr

Y

n

v

n
pr

v with
ad
lC

p

n

pc

a

pr

n

v

au

a

n

v

v

n

n

a

n

Il:icl habit.s require immediate reformation. The
n

i re in the morning. ship lies at the wharf.
pr

pr

Coosar's troops, being e:igcr for an onset, l'USbed furi-

and r e:tds a ously on the foe.
n

vcv

The assembly rose and stood before the

n

pr

p

v

pr

n

p

n

The ladies w:tlk in tho park. lily son,
n

c

v

n

a<l

pr

p

our friends. hear the counsel of thy father, and fursake not the law of thy
p

v

n

when I "rrircd. mother.

pr

p

a

n

v

a

c

Moon .(or mode) is the manner of expressing action or being.
The Indicative M ood simply indicates or declares a thing, or. asks a question. The I mpera.tive Mood .commn.nd.i!;
exhorts, or entreats.
' ·
'fExsE is the distinction of time.
The Present Tense denotes present time. The Imperfect T ense _refers to pa~t time ho'':ever distn.nt . ..
..
'tire verb MoVE - Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
Present Tense.
· ~We, ye or
is plural and
first person
you, they,
move,
More
{
singular,
or I
j is second person
Thus;
~ Thou ' Mo vest ,movest,
~
singular,
l
• ~ is third person
j He, ~he,
moves.
Moves*
l singular,
l or 1t
Imperfect T ense.
Imperfect T ense.
is plural and
~ We, ye or
·
first and third
you, they,
moved,
Moved
Thus,
I or he
person singular,
is second person
m1.
moved,t.
Movedst
·
I
luou
s1ngu ar,
~
.
The verb BE - Imperative Mood .

~

~

Singular numbe r.

2. Be, be tllou, or do thou be.

:

i

;

' '
.,

..

'

l

Pl ural number.

2. Be, be you or ye, or do you or ye be.

pr

m. I lost the old conquered the Persi"ns. Esther obtained favor in the sight of tho
v

5

'COMPREHENSIVE GIUMMAR.

MPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR.

a

In your whole hchaYior be hmn\Jle and obliging.

RULE 1. Articles bel ong to
Dcclenslon 0£ th e Pcr•oun l Pronouns.
Thi rcl Person,
the nouns which th ev define.
First Person,
Second Person,
Third Person,
Third Person,
Singular.
Singular.
Singular.
Singular.
Singular.
'RuLE 2. Adjectives belong to
JV'. it,
too nouns which they q un.li fy. Nom. I.
N. thou* or you,* N. he,
N. she.
P. its,
1. t
P~ss . my or mine P . thy or thine, P. h!s,
P. her or hers,
0 . it.
RuLE 3. A verb must a:~ree OuJ. me.
your or yours, O. him.
0 . her.
with its nomi nn.tive i n num'bcr
0. thee or you.
n.nd person . 1.
··
" Pl!!ral.
Plura l.
Plural.
r Plural.
Plu ral.
R
p t' · I J'k
b .l\om. we,
N . ye* or you,
N. they,
.l\. they,
N. they,
r ULtE 4 · a r IClp es 1 e velr 8 Poss. our or ours P. your or yours, P. their or theirs, 'P. their o·r ithei1<s,.P . their or theirs,
9 Obj. us.
re1 er o nouns or pronouns. ,~.
0 . you.
0. them.
I 0 . them.
. IO. them.
1 ·1
* Th
d
fi d t th
t 1
d·
· ·
I eel •
RuLE 5. A pronoun must agree
with its n.ntecedent in gender
?~ an ye are con ne ~ e graves ye,
w n.st you an its variations are emp oy rn
' the fam1lmr style, for both the smgular and the plum!.
num b er, an d person. 1 , 2 .
R uLE 6. A noun or pronoun being the subject of n. verb, mu st be of the no:n- Declension of the relative pi:onoun who
inn.tive case. (i. e. of tthe nominative form).
and its compounds.
..,. - ,\ '
RULE 7. Adverbs genern.lly q ualify ver bs, partici pies , adjec tives, and adverbs.
Sing'ltlar and Plural.
1, 2.
N. who,
who-ever, - who-soever,
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - -- - -- - - P. whose, wh o~over, whose-soever,
Auxiliary, or helping verbs, a re those by the help of which the English verbs 0 . whoin, whom-ever, whom-soever.
are principn.Ily conjugated. Those which n.re always auxilin.ries , are may, can , must, might, could, would, should, and
3hall. Those which are sometimes auxili aries and sometimes principal verbs, a r c do, be, ha1Je, and will.
*In the solemn style, moveth.
f The fi gures following each rule refer to Notes relating to th at Ruie, in the last o! the first par t o! th e work.

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pr a.
PARSING LESSON 5. Hope exhilarates . the · mind. Air is
ountry since last sensible to the touch by its motion. A wise parent edn. If o~r d~ires cates his children properly. The ltlrk on each morning
v pr
n
waked me with her sprightly lay. The incense c,f grat.itude
id be in trouble, perfumes and reg,1les ourselves. Honest endeavors, 1f we
n
pereeverc in them, will flnally be successfu l. vVe should
'the performance be cheerful without levity. A steady mind may receive
ll. assi:tance f~~m counsel. Th e rigor of monki sh dj scipline often conceals
v
P
great depravity of heart. w· e may be very busy to no .uscwill ·recover it. fol purpose. A witty and humorous temper lrns often pro'
v
P
duced enemies. The experience of want enhances the value
ip relie>ed them. of plenty . Yve may i,9ure ourselves by custom, to bear tho
fre had ~tlen extremiti es of weather without ioju ry. 'Ve should not env
cour:we persons to do eyiJ. Precepts have small influence,
ave accompliished when °they are not enforced_ by example. If w~ in_jure
v
n
othero, we must expect r etahat10n. Esau sold his b1rth·eceived a favor, right for a sa:voui:y mess of pottage. A negligent youth iA
, it Hc~ry hav- genen~lly ignorant. The indu strious bee r cprores the
n
pr
n
c slothfu l clown. An affable deportment will gam high es1cly ·of divinity if teem. John will have earned his wages when hi s service
P
n
is completed. · If thy neighbor shall trespaGs against thee,
~eel their business go and tell hi,m hi s fault hetween him and thee a lone . Th ey
, th~ti had b;en nrny gn in their ends. I would have prernnted it. Fath e·r ,
pe
I have sinned against Heaven, and before thee. All men
Having resigned ham their fr ,iilti es . When thou ha st r eceived a favor,
n
c n
remember it; when thou hast granted one, forget it. God's
' s truth. Ifpro- goodn ess is con•pi cuous in a ll his works . !fast thou read
~ers.
:e l~ok Cowper's beautiful poems 1 '.Ve have seen the husbandman
n
v a pr scattering his ~ c ed upon th e furrowed ground.
niverse is vfull pf
I will 1·estore thl. dau gh ter again to li fe. said an eastern
i0<] will be con- sa;;e to a prince , who grieved imm oderately for the loss of
v
a oeloved chi'.d, provided thou art ah]e to engram on her
all have subdued tomb the no,m eo of three persons who have never mourn eLl.
pr
n
Th e prince made in quiry aft~ r such persons; but found the
r against rivers, inquiry vain and W<lS silent.
n
c
v
Yet day stole upon day, and mouth glided after month,
s ch<Lins and use
till l found thnt seven year s of the first ten had vani shed:
v
p
ttly m:iintain our If thou hast found n fri end, bind him to th ee by acts of
benevo lence nnd kindness. Beware of despera te deeds ; the
darkest day (if we live till to-morrow) will lmve passed
c nd pr ad away. The appearnnces of our security are freq uently der, if now, '~ith !o eeitful. In the midst of hi s stncliod refinem ents the voluplc? The evil lies tuary lang ui shes . Tho principal of the establiohment had
pr
n
;;one to Boston. A kn owledge of the works of nature en0 ,1
of fortune. How fo.rn-es th e understandin" . Uy motion and exertion, the
n
pr P . system of being is preser~ed in vigor. H e was unfor tunnte
change m their because he w:is in cons iderate. Beware of th ose n> sh a nd
n 1
£ .;11f 1 1 clan o-ero us connex ions which afterwards may load you with.
en<·
c a> u dish~irnr. A dutiful son will hear his father 's ins truetiop.
·rruo roljtencss has its seat in the hcnrt.
.

If

B

7

, COMPREHENSIVE .GRAM MAIL

,!PREHENSIVE GRAMMAR.

~­

TnE SullJUXCTIVE Moon expresses action or ~eing in a doubtful or conditional- manner. It is used in all the tenses;
the present and imperfect having been exhibited in the 5th page. ·
. ,
Tbe Perfect Tense refers to past time and conveys an allusion · to 'the present.
The Pluperfect Tense denotes past time , but as prior to some other past time .specified.
'!'he Fi·rst Future Tense simp ly denotes future time.
The Second Future T en.•e refers to a future point of time, whioh completes an act ·or a period of time, which is
previously begun.
' Perfect Tense. '
....... L·.-, •
P erfect Tense.
is plural and
have'
Have moved
first person
~ or I ' ·
.. . '"
singular,
\ is second person
Hast moved
Thus," {Thou.
hast moved, '
l singular,
\ is third person
Has moved
has moved.
{He

~
l

~ ~~: {~e;:

Thus,

wilt

Thus,

\ is second person
(
singular,

(

The verb BE -

Tb us,

{

yet~}~?"

{ Thou

move.

have moved.
shalt or wilt
have moved.

Subjunctive l\food.

Plu.ral.

If we be,
If vou or ye be,
If they be.

RuLE 8. A noun or pronoun denoting possession, is _gove.rned
by the following noun,* and should h<tve the possessive form.
(See under figures 1, 2, 3, on 15th page, in last part of this
work.) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
RuLE 10. Verbs connected hy conj unctions should generally
be expressed in the same mood and tense.
*The following noun is often understooU.

sl1alt
or
wilt

move.

S econd Future Tense.
We, ve or slzall or wifl

~

Singular.
If l be,
Present If thou be,
Ten so, { If he be.

~

had.<t moved.

Ji'irst Fidu re Tense.
We, ye or shall
yon, they,
or
I or he
will

I Tho.u

S econd Future Tense.
is plural ~nd
first and third
person singular,
Shalt or wilt
\ is second person
have moved
l singular,

Shall or will
have moved

i

Pluperfect Tense.
vVe, ye or
you, th ey,
had moved.
I or be

{Thou

~

move

moved': -

~ingu l ar,

Plupeifect T ense.
is plural and
Had moved
first and thirJ
{ person singular,
\ is second person
Hadst mond
(
singulur,
Ji'irst Future T ense.
Shall
is plural and
or
move
first and thin!
will
person sir;gular,

Shalt
or

.·

·

S ingular.

Imperfec t ~ If I were,
T
If thou wert,
ense, If he were.

Plitral.

If we were,
If you or ye were,
If they were.

r . _RULE 9. . _The ohject of" prepositio?, t_ransitive v~rb, or trnns1tive p<trt1c1plc, must be of the obJective case; (1. e: of the
objective form). 1, 2.
RULE 11. Nouns and pronouns connected by one or more conjunctions, must be of the same cam; because they <Lre either the
su\Jject of the same verb, or are tho object of the same preposition, transitive "Verb, or participle.

~: P.REHENSIVB

PARSINCl LESSON· 6. She is my sister. It is· his book.
The James shall be lilirari;in. We wero class-mo.tes in.college.
idence nicine cltn -An ·idle-person is a. monster in the creation. Art thou a.
v
son or a dau~hter ~ Obey. thy parents. Virtue's precepts
iould resist the are our best mheritance. John's brother is my real friend .
n
pr n
Jane is to be mi~tress of the school. Musio an·d drawing
lie work in time. are sister arts . .Wars .a re regulated robberies and piraeies.
may have mis- Prophecies and miracles proclaimed J es us Christ to be the
v
Saviour o.f &he world. 'l'he Roman pontiff claims to be
0
:cure the tutor's the supi:eme bead of the church on earth . Sir, this genpr P. P
tleman being a fellow boarder, felt fr ee to accompany mo
1 of
he w:uld in a walk to your office. Lyon being chosen governor, could
m good advice, not sit as judge. Webster being appointed secretary, rev
signed his seat in the Senate. And there sat in the window
1ave finished the a young man named Eutycus. Alexander, the conqueror
n· · v ad of the world, wa8, in fact, a robber and a murderer.
The
CJ1arles is0not Thracian was called a robber, bccauae he had only one
3 ha.d the power smiill vessel; but Alexander was styled a _conqueror, bepr
P
v
cau·se he commanded great fl ee ts and armies. Harry, the
ound us. Were peddler, sells pins a nd needles. Th e emperor Antonius
v n wrote an excellent hi story . Vice, the bane of happiness,
would make no destroys our health. Newton, tLe philosopher, w
. as a gre.at
n
P
astroq_omer. My neighbor has two sons, James and John.
nciation. They 1 My fritlnds, I am glatt to see you. Guard, drag here the
L upri~tly ~t Spanish prisoner Alonzo! quick ! bring the traitor here.
n •
Gentlemen , you are wrong; I am not the person to whom
tor's sentiments you allude. 'l'he general being slain, the army was routctl.
P
pr
a
She being absent, the business was attended to by others.
imself in differ- 'rhey being willing to improve, the study was rendered
have pre~ented ai;reeable. He having ended his disco urse, the assembly
pr
n
p
dispersed.
Lit of virtue, we
2. It is the wa tch which he sold. They are the goods
~lly at~hed i~ which I bought. I sincerely love him whom you saw. She
n
is the lady whom he adores. He is a man whom nothing
'· The Romans will satisfy. Lafayette is the general whom we greatly
n
n
respect. And he inquired of him, whom seekest thou -1 The
selves. Thous- ladies, whom we saw at court, were genteelly dressed.
bse~rity, might The friend whom thou hast lost, thou wilt long remember.
ad
Th ousands whom indolence has sunk into contemptible
0
Lioness had not obscurity, might have come forward to usefulness and
'
v honor, if idleness had not frustrated the effects of all their
mbus had been powers ..
have been
3. That man has missed his way. This statement is to
v
a n all persons whom it may concern. One person cannot know
imit. All men every thing. Either road will carry you to the city. Any
a
n
person knows fire from water. Neither boy caught any
iautiful poems ? fish. All men pursue happiness . Some people talk of sub.ess h~ ;is s;at jects which they do not understand. I lent both books to
. Nathan. That boy must be punished for such mischief.
Other soils may r equire different treatment.
;.

'.a happy.

i!,

;;:t

COl\IPREHENBlVE GRAMMAR'.

G·RAMMAR.

9

· The Potential Mood · declares the power, liberty, possibility, or necBssity of an action or a state of _beil?g .. It. has
four tenses, as here exhibited in ·
' ; : ·- - · · The verb Movx.
Present Tenu.'

May,
can or ·

-'·' ii·.·

. must '

Mayeit,*

move

'-

canst or._· move
must.

"' •

is ~econd person ·
{
singular,
_,

"

, • \ii

could, would
or should
Mightest,*
couldst, woulrfst
or shouldst

move

move

~

is· plural and -· _
first and third person singular,-

Present Tense.

•

or
must have

MOVED

Mayest, canst
or
rmtst have

~IOVED

~
I

l

Thus, ·

~

h

ave
MOVED

Thus,

~

l

J

·' ·

move.

move.

We,

ye or
you, they,
I or be
Thou

may, can
·

or

moved.

must have
mayest, canst
or

moved.

must have
Plitpe·1fect Te nse.

~ is plural and

have
{is second person
MOVED
singular,

'

Perfect Tense.

is second person
singular,

first and third
person singular,

...

71lightest,
couldst, wouldst
or shouldst -

{Thou

Pl uperf ect T ense.

M1'.ght,
could, would
or should
Might est,
couldst, wouldst
or shouldst

_ .

];,,,perfect Tense.

I is second .perso11
l singular,
is plural and
first and third
person singular,

1 ',

~

can or. movt', . , - "' •;
must ..
iri,0,yes'f, i t1 ::· ·- \·-. :'P";·I .11:
canst or -·move.• "" -: - -:
must : ,,

We, _ye or-- .. migl1t,. '
you, they, could, would
· · I or he
or should

Perfect Tense.

May, c.a n

may, -,-_..

We;:ye or
you, they,
I or be

I Thou
l

Imperfect Tense.

Miglit,-

~

~ is plural and 1 -·
• " - - · : •first nnd_thir~ - ,'"' .. · ·,, .
person .s1~gular, ,, _, ,"

Thus,

~

We,

ye or
you, they,
I or he

I Thou
l

m-ight,
have
could, would
~ovcd;
or should
might est,
have
couldst, wouldst
moved.
or slwuldst

RuLE 13. A noun or personal pronoun used to further ·
RuLE 12. Any verb or participle requires the siime
case after as before it, when both words mean the &me explain, or to emphasise on a precedinl:l noun, must agree
person or thing ; as, She walks a queen. 1, 2, 3. with it in case; as, Are you acquaintea with Noleini, him
who plays the organ t
Rm,E 14. When a person or thing is addressed, the
RuLE 15. A noun or pronoun placed before a particiname of it is in the nominative case independent. 1.
ple and disconnected with the rest of the sentence, is in
the nominative case independent,-and should haYe the ·
nominative form.
Co:11r.rnrso:"I OF A DJECTIVES. Adjectives of one syllabi~ are generally compared thus: Positive, wise; Comparative,
wisgr; SupcrlMive, wis.cst. Of mo.re than one syllabl e, thus: Positive , religious; Comparative, more religious;
Superlative, most religious. Or by diminution of the quality: Positive, able ; Comparative, less able; Superlative,
least able .
* Seo figure 3 -! in 30th page of Supplemen tal Orammar.
------------- ----- -- -- ~------------- ------ ·---------------

11

COMPREliENS l VE GRA\IMAR.
[P RH HEN SIV E G RA i\li\l AR.
P,rnsTNG LEssoN 7. He is the same mnn whom I saw nt
n
pr
intercourse "ith the Whig ca uc us. Another opportunity will occur. 'fhe
p
Ii
p
former noun is in the nominative; the latter noun is in the
liis b!l.Ilds. We
objective case.
V
D
2. 'l'hnt is J oh n 's ha t. Gener al, tl1is is , the sword
still the tumult.
which yo u gave me. 'l'bi s is t.he scholar whom I taugh t.
v
known lo have This is P eter's book, and that is Eliza's. ·'!'bat is the cane
D
p
which he lost. Neither of' the boys "·a s at school. Each
permission. It of the apples is t<trt. I saw both of the girls at meeting.
n
n
idence. Henry, Not one of th em wh om thou hast clothed in purple is
v
n
pr happy. He dined on beef steak, and I will dine on the
· to give pain to same. You must not tak e, without permissi on, that .whi ch
1
:ul
n
belongs to anothe r . Some took a part in th e meeting;
m little. Comothers kept silence. None crrn escape puni shment for their
p
.t•. We should ci')rnes .
v
11
3. That pencil bel ongs to ?lfary . . 'l'hnt boy " ·ill be late
'meet nclversity. at s~hool. That is the same littl e girl that so ld us the tine
v p
p
strawberries. This is the soldier that slept at his post.
to do it. They '!'h e bird that san~ so sweetly has flown . I read a story of
a
lercd agl'ceable. a boy that stoic apples. Mary, see that the biscuit are
p
v
well baked. I benr that peace is restored. A child that
~ him violJ:tc the can learn and will not learn, must be maue to learn . My
pe
c
p
friend, I am gbd t hat yo n a r c we ll. He th a t t rn sts in the
milted , and who
Lord "'ill never he without a fri end. \\" e may rest assu r ed
v a
n
its let no unfair- that by the stea dy pursuit of virtue, we shall obtain ancl
n
pr
.
enjoy it.
urn virll!C into
4. \Ve heard them rc,,ilin g; our Rincere friend. \Ve sa w
v
them approaching; u s at a di strnce . Ile passed throug h
!'ts. To confess
life adored hy hi s fri ends. Hni scd to g1·catness, he em"
ployed his power. Hav ing res ign er! hi s office, he r et ired to
the immoderate
v
pr iYate life. Money tak en by fraud betrays it.s possesso r.
cs. To rccom- !faring res ted, we ascc ud ed tl,c hil l. J es us knowing th eir
P
v a
tliotl"hts, r e\Juked th em. lli s fath er hav in g received the
t.• He hnd no
intelligence , dcpl'ted. " ' hen .vo n behold 11 icketl men mula!l
v
p
! not m:ike them tiplying in num ber nn<l in cre:lsing in power, imngin e nut
ll
D
that Providence fav ol's tltcl!1 . \ Ve ~nd m:rn placed in a
1an's character. world " ·her e he h;i8 by no means the t! is'posa l of the ernnts
,.
1>r ad
that h<1rpcn . A ma nifc,to was t hen ;-e,1cl, exhi bi ti ng, in
i censu red by so
glowing cu lors, t!: c tyrnnni cal conduct of th e kin g .
p
p
. me. He being
5. Jane and Eli"" ham recited thcil' lessons. Pati ence
n
t> anrl dili gence rcm ore mountain s . Cha rl es :tnd J ohn stt11ly
Chal'lcs, are you histo;-y. Dili gence a nd cconorny hare ll"1.de him l'ich. \Ve
a
n arl
young man $0 fa rnre<l y() u and th em. He dccc ivEd m'c and th ee. 'l'h cy Jo\'e
a
n
pr and obey him.
\Ve fc:ir a nd reve r ence God. Love and
;eful member of prnctice 'il'tuc . I hacl \n·; t tc n arnl $caled th e lc ttN. I
1
n
a
will pcrfol' m th e operat ion, if he desire i t. \ Ve rnu~t be
is health. True virtu ouR, if we des ire t0 be trn stcd. Self conce it, pres umpti on, and obstina cy, lJl:t st the prospect of many <t youth .
) 1',
Hea lth , li fe, co nn ect ions, and pl easures, "'ill im pcrcep t.i/Jly
..
pass away. She moycs gm ce fully ancl sin[.!;S admirably,
t·.vo syllable! .

\ T?e ~nfiniti·ve Mood

exp;e::ses an action or a state of being, in a general and unlimited manner; having no
nomrnat1ve, col'!seqnently ne1tlicr number nor per~on. It has t~o tenses, as exhibited below in the verbs, .

MoVE ~HA VE - and BE.

f.

P°frfect Tens~,. To have been.

P erf ect Tense,

P erfect Tense,

To liave had.

To hare moved.

Participles,
Present Being,
Perfect Having bEen.

Participles.

Participles .

Present R ai·iug,
Perfect Having luid.

Present Moving,
P erfec t Baving moved.

J

. Present Tfn3f!,
To be,

· Present Tense,
To have,

Present T ense,
To. move,

R oLE lG. The verbs which fol- I Rur.E 17. A verb in the infini- . RotE 18. .A verb in the infinilow bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, tive mood may be governed by a tive absolute, stands independent of
the rest of the sentence; as, To
need, see, &c. , are generally used verb, noun, adjective or pa rticiple.
speak p la'inly, I think you are
without th e prefix to in the iufinitive 1, 2, 3.
wrong.
; mood .

.
I
I

I

A list of the principal Prepositions.

Of

into
within
without
over
und er
through

to
for
by
with
in

above
be low
between
beneath
from
beyond

at
np
down
before
beh iud

on or upon
among
after
about
against.

List of the principal Conjunctions.
Copulcitii:e.

And, if, that, both, then, sin ce, for, j

because, th ereforC", wherefore.

Disjunctive.
.
.But, or, nor, as ' than ' lest , yet , thou"'h
b
un 1ess, e1ther, neither, notwithstanding.

J

Irregular Adjectives compared.
P ositive.
Good,
Bud, ill, or ev il ,
Far,.
J_,ittle,
Much or many,

Old,

Comp:m1tive.
better,
worse,
fortber or farther,
less or lesser,
more,
older or elder,

Sup~rlati re.
best..
worst.
furth est or farthest.
least .
most.
oldest or eldest.

L----~- --- ---- ----· --· --- -- ----- -·----·

Positive.
Fore,
Late,
Near,

Comparative.
Superlative'.
former,
~ foremost (in pl.ace.)
first (in time or order.)
later,
{latest (referring to thne.)
last (in order.)
'
nearer,
nearest (referring to place.)
next (in order. )

i

J
lP REHENSlVE GRAMMAR.

1e state, that
cius ; the forvivacity. Ile,
, whose I am,
l the Rubicon,
on the ·public
shines by day,
Lore than me.
~ as the sover1n. Meekness
severe judgeous ancestors,
, boy despises
·the man, and
1d the fullness
earth than of
1is hands, and
wus in college
1 six months.
1im last week.
.ited Philadel.infield Mills 1
'l'he next new
years.
John a book.
1rth a voyage
second medal
nnatus retired
Lbo speaks in
le person eats
f.
history.
st,
tranger many
To write a
:eel is praise;o love it. To
been admired
sink a man's
, argues great
is honorable,
1 children are
lUraged by us
ned and supief has often

been prevented by till).ely consideration. The mind · should
be stored with useful knowledge and c·ultivated with care:
A desire to be thought learned often prevents our improvement. The ladies whom we saw at court were genteelly
dressed. To havo been censured by so judicious a friend
.
would ha.ve $reatly discouraged me.
7. Ezra is studying Greek. Ile was writin$ a. letter
when I saw him. The brightness of the flame 1s wasting
its. fuel. Aa Ortogral of Bazra, was one day wandering
along the streets of Bagdat, musing on the variety of merchandise which the shops opened to hi11 view; and observing
the different occu patiens which busied · the multitude on
every side, he was awakened from the tranquility of meditation by a. crowd that obstructed his passage.
8. It was such a sight as terrified us. He has as many
men as can be employed. They have raised as much money
as will be needed . The arguments were such as follow.
Fishes increase more tha.n bea.sts or birds, as appears from
their numerous spawn.
9. Whoever seeketh findeth. Whoever sins will repent
of it. Whoever does well, will r eceive favor . Whoever
seeks fame shall receive a. reward of fame. Whoever believeth on me Mhall not be ashamed .
10. Do not hurt yourselves or others by the pursuit of
pleasure. Consult your whole nature. Consider yourselves not only a.s sensitive, but as rational bein&s ; not
only as rationa.l, but social; not only as social, but immortal." Time we should consider as a sacred trust committed
to us by God; of which we are now the depositories, and
are to render an account at the last. We quickly perceived, that what the ignorl}lllt natives had been terrified at
as a giant, was nothing more than a sparry concretion,
formed by the water dropping from the roof of the cave,
and by degrees hardening into a figure, which their fears
had form ed into a monster.
11. The manner of a young lady's employing herself
usefully in reading, will be the subject of another paper.
Ile r eminded Dr. Johnson of Mr. Murphy's having paid
him the highest compliment that was ever paid to a layman. I gave him an account of my having examined the
chest of books which he had sent to me.
12. He would have his children taught t well in reading, grammar, a.nd history. Knowledge softened by complacency and good breeding, makes a man beloved and
admired. t Wha.t you would not have done t to you, do
not to others.
* The last seutence is very elliptical; nnd as in this sentence nnd the two
following, connects words in apposition .
t Sec under figure z, on classing the Participle, in 26th page of /aJt part
of the work.

PARSING LESSON 9. l." What pleases my parents pl~l\S~il'j.~ully', and' sings' admirab~y. 'Ji.<fW ~'&~n· %~iil~:~~'~lh~Y.:~~~;
me. · I have found what you lost. Remember. what'. you :.pyments pass aw!IY.-., F~1ends)l1p , c!ln.,,s~'cely, ex1s~~wh.ere
learn. He related what he heard _di11ti1!~t~y. ~ha~ .~ene-,l.v~r.t\l.e ~~' n.o~ th.~foun,dati?1!· , 14 Y9~~ 1!11,ll-1;! s?-l~a~n~P. a.ndn
fits every one is useful. · Wh.~t we con~e'ndf~r HI r.elilovir,d. i v_irtuous, promrses1. to be a-very u,sef~l , memb~t . OP:f.?Cle~i· ::r
What cannot be prevented mu.s t be efldureq . _ Ch,Qpse iw~a~: So~ti 1 t!J:l~ ;-.of. ~ubJ(lCtJl,,.they. d<>,·. no,t 1 u1;1~~1'8ta»~; . ?t~~rs
is most' fit · ·custom will .rend~r it·'most aareealile: Fooh5q : pra1so 1virtue, who· dO'not praeticwnli.-"" 'li• 1ette1''wli1e'fi':v;:jjo
1
men ·are r:iore apt . to consider' "!'hat ti.1~y,,have lo.s,t ,,th(\n have just.· rec:eived, gives tisTani nn~*:er.;~ ·; G~ne ~1\11tliiP:js1
wha._t . they posse~s . What sculpture i~ to a ,block .of Il!~r~ : t~e swordr ,~h1ch ·you•·g:rve •i:iel.'" :Hu~~rl , alfa~rs. ~.~.e.,~~- e:On,:(.,
ble, cdu'c ation 1s to a human ... soul. Wh.atever pur!lies l tmual . motion an.d , ,fluct~at1?n,-~l!'.8!1~¢: ~~e1(/lp~ea;~~,n)ew .
rorti~.~·s a:1so the heart. 'Y1iatever ;ro~ ·fin_d. ~ke mire or. 1.ev~ry· moment, and~ pasamw "1t1to .so.~~ ,n,e.'!.'_&irm~· .,., ~f,i~h~~
·wha.tsoever promotes the mterest of the soul , 1s also. .con-: mmd. h? well cul-t1v.ated 1t produces . a- .st.ore o!. fr~1.t" 1,..1r ducive to.our .present felicity . .·whatsoever a .man .sows he·' not, it is overrun with weed;~· . ~~y-~bemg Willing~ im.~
shi•ll r ea.p.
, . . ..
.. . . , :·. ·· ..
: ;.. .. , ~rov.e, the · s!udy ':as· !endered , ngre~~W,~;"• .: '!'o.,,~3,<1'.J'ln:},w~
2. In what town does Captam Ladd .live! .. 'What Indy• .admired aviuled. _him htt!e· If. fr?m ,a._nYo i,11ternliJ ~a'!s': a.
sat in your pew last s,ibbath ! What new books did yo u Il!an's peace ofmmd be d~sturbed,. in va~~ we load ~¥1?- .w.~th: •
see in Mr. p,1yne 's library 1 What will be th e les11<m· for ncheif .and ho.nors. No ~o;e ! .Unbmd that tr_emblmg .
nex t time 'l Wbat avail the best sentiments if people do wr e t~h; let. him depart; it. is well he should. i:epprt- the .
•
mermes which \~e show to rnsolen_t defiance. Har~! our.
not live sui'ta.bly to th em 1
3. Uncorrupted as yet by ambitioe or grca.tness,.. lns ~roops are monng; follow me, friends. I[ our fr1en~. be •·
indi gnation rose at being tl1ought. c~able of tb_e savage m trouble, :we whom h_e kno~·s and loves; w1H console. liipt' .
actions which th e prophe t had ment10n ed; and, w>th much Be n?t afraid of the wicked, they are un~er the eonti:ol ?f .
warmth, he replies: But what! is thy servant a dog, _that Providence. If ~ve d~ not study ~he . scr1ptu!es, ..~hey wilt
he ~hou ld do this great thing 1 What_, said 11 does vn·tue never make u~ wise. The butler did D?t re~ember Jos~p~.
th en r eside in the vale 1 I am found, said she, m the valley Ear.tbly happmess does not flow fr?m r1c~~~· . , 1:'f.~ gla.~.1e,r_ s L
and in the mountain.
busmess w31s unkno\\'n to ·th.e .ancients. ·,'Ihe ,nntece_dent'.m
4. And what is more remarkable still, he succeeded grammar 1s the noun to which the relat~ve r efers.- , Cal!co amoncrst a thousand euem ics. The unu sual length of her is an Indian stuff made of cotton, sometimes stame.d_with
admi;istration, and the strong features of her character, lively colors.
~
.
7. The roll ghness found on our entrance into the paths
were.able to overcome all prejudices; and obliging her detracters to abate much of their invectiyes, and her admirers of virtue and learnin g, grows smooth er as we advance.
somewhat .of th eir pancgyri;s, have, at l.a~t~ in si;>ite ~f Then were they in great fear. He had no colorable excuse.:•·
politictil factions, an~ what . is more, of 1:ehg10us ammos>- to palliate hi s c~n duct. Reveal nol)e of th.e secrets o,f .thy
ties, produced a. umform Jutlgemen t with r egard to her friend. A certam house-holder planted a nneyard, lint the
conduct.
men employed in it made ungra teful r eturns ., .. :o/e 'find
5
What though in solemn silence rLll
man placed in a world where he has by rio means.' the dis~
·
l\fo,·c round this drLrk terrestrial bnll,
posal of the events that happe~._ Blind' m·ust · th~~ _nia_n bJl
In ren.son's en.r they all rejoice,
who discerns not the most str1krng marks of a cliv1I)e gov7
And utter forth a glorious voice.
ernment exercised over the world. Complaisance produces
What t.hough the glittering robe,
"'ood natllre and mutual . benevolence; it encourages the
Of every hue reflected light can girn,
timorous. and soothes the turbulent. He who is a stranOr floated loose, or stiff with mazy gold,
crer to industry may possess, but he cannot enjoy. Integrity
The pride and gaze of fools, oppress him not.
leads us strai.,.ht
forward, disdaining all doublings and
0
6. Virtue's precepts are our best inheritance. Charles's crooked paths. Incense signifies perfumes exhaled by fire,
resignation filled all Europe with aston ishment. Ollr good and made uae of in religious ceremonies. He who .has .not
or bad fortune depends on the choice we m.ake of our virtue is not truly wise. An enemy that disguises himself
friends . If we look around us, we shall perceive that the under the veil of friendship is worse than he that declares
whole univer se is full of active powers. She moves grace- open hostility. CoMYey no intelligence to others wh.ich you
would be a.shamed to avow. Expect the ~ame fihal duty
w 'the five uses of the wont what arc illn slra.Led in the followi11g fhc para·
from yo ur children which you pay to your parents. , Thou ,.
graphs., commencing und er the fi~ure 1 , rderrt d t o in th0;: la!-:tl rar t ?f t he
who hast been "' witne~s of tlie fad, c:mfl <l€ffr'ibe it. · '
outich:: u1:der the hea d rronoun.
0

!

1

.

'.!

lt>

·(;}.'ffA;Nr ~t'J\ .Jt: . "",. '" .
.: .;,· J ..... ,

'flit•

": <1'1

! J 1l

• ,:

• "" 1 :ii., ..

'Y'' "
I

·.JJ

!

11

""

:•.

1....'1 '

"'1" "" I'•

1,

· ; l ..

:·· J j p

i.

I

J

••

f ;·il

f:

aphy., E~ymologJ, Sy~t~x 11 an.(\ , P,ros qdy. , ' :<'l;
,. .. , . ,.. 1., , ., 1 .. .. ,.,.
i of letter.it,, ~nd,.,. the1 Jp~h~~~ho<J. · of s~elhr~ ..;ll'.?.~ds ..~ . 1 . ,1:~ ·,. 1 • : .. .. ~' ..
rds, their, var10u!I modifications. a,nd ,their denvat1 0,n. .
: 1 . .,
,
t, and llroper arrangement, . of w9rda and sentences. . .. , , .·, .;
vords, ,and the laws of .versification."
,
,
' . ,.
, .! r ..
.1 •

[OLOGY ANp SYNTAX,
!

'··

1idered in ten classes, which have been commonly called parts of speech;
.ributes of most of them briefly noti_ced. Thi ngs will now be· t'aken up,
'ore omitted. A nd first; under the

ARTICLE.
limi t its signification. T her e ar e two articles, a or an, and the.
l before all words begin nin g with a vowel or diphthong, ta.king the sound
ny a one ; a unicorn.
;ed before a vowel or a si lent Ii; it is also to be used before an Ii that is
le of the word; as, An index, an hour, an historical oration. vVhy is an
thers l Answer : To r ender the expre8sion more easy for the organs of
for e adverl>s of the comparative or superlative degree, in order to mark
•reci l ely ; ~s, The more~ read the book the _better I like it.
.
.e ap pli catwn of the ar tic les, are of great importance. Their force cone individual, or individuals, meant .
.nd, for the most part, is nearly synonymo us with one, and never means
he same meaning, as' Give me one apple. ' The only difference in the
} number , than we intend by the a rti cle. Th e following are still more
in the article a or an: I took a share, and my friend took a share. But
a, wou ld be repuf;nant to the sense: Georg;e has become. a lmos t .a man ;
:s sense, number 1s not pr esented to the mrnd, but quality or kmd. In
ch of giving the sense: The whole society were in action like one man.
l is nearly synonymous with . this, that, these, those. Still one can never
nilar. The definite article is of far more extensive and various use, th an
s. One difference between these words a nd the definite arti cle is, th ey
J S, If a man profess a reg-J.rd fo r the duties of religion and neglec t those
uean ing here demands th e more weighty definiti ve .
tails in Supplemental Gramma r.)

NOUN.
)0

an •l Proper Nouns rcvieu·cd.

all of the same kind, class , sect, or fami ly ; as, Man, boy, horse, river,
>mmon noun; as, Charles , Ranger, Thames, Boston, Sarah, Benjamin.
e name of every boy; Bos ton is a city, but Boston is not th e name of
~casiau!=- ,

and from other books, a place is not given them in tbi!j;, work •.

every city. Franklin" considered · as the name of ~ f~miiy. i ~ -~ ~~~m~;; no;;-n~-becn~~se· fr -isa iiilme"·common' to ·au 'Df
th at family. But Benjamin n ot being a name <;ohlm_bn
~}l tJ.ie , ei_;ibers of that family. is a. proper nou!1. · Sa:ah is
a Baptist, but every Biiptist is n ot name,d Sarah ; but every one _of that sect has the name Baptist. Horse .1s a commo.n
1
noun, beca use every ,indil'idual in'tbiil''t la'si! of' iii]'ii1i'il.lS''iiJ li"harse; ))qt;·,Ranger _in, this sen'Be.1 iS:)lflltQP!rr [!O~~ bJ(!l\l.JlSe
it is not the name .of' ~·veri llb'rsif' Th'e· sh'ftfe rlm1ark'~1 viil~0 apply iri eveey~inslJLrfCCJ of.i8. .CQmtJ1!'\D r.:!lf~lli:.I1l'~R~r.. P1m.11ro' ' '
3. Besides common'. dn_(r pr_
bptr; !poti'ri(a'r\!;ditMedrby"gt:tunnariltng 1ntt71Collecti:ve,11Ws:~'tllllH~al\_d J?!HJJC,\i!~t~·l\~_s •.
A Collective nou·n ~ i s' t hat", wl\lcli ' ~vi'tfi tb~ ., 1sifrgul\\ro ·forr11-rexpresses more i:pers9ns1 013, ti:lmg~.tAAJ1 'RJIElclJJY/µ s,.-,t'RWIY;;
flock, people, congress, are collective niiuns; liecausol witll 1 th~ 'singula1'.fonn .theyi express..11:1>]1m~llt~·1.PtiWtl!!!Jl~ ~!'. IHl1\YJs.
All these are singular nouns, that is, they have the singular form; as families, flo cks,. congresses, are tlieir plurals,.
.
Z:Ar }'.(YB lT?f_{i, Y.P ,,!(\ l'1TY'~ :;T
•
·" · ·
Peopl-. has no plural.
4. Abst1act nouns are the names.of qualities or a t1hliute11- U11ngs tll at ll.r e-not substance; as, Knowledge, goodness,

!th

t'irJ~·Participlai n~u~8: are deii.~ed:r~·o:n 'parti~'( ~le; ·; ~~~:.'j/igi~~.l~i>·.eiJ:J/.~g·: , ~i~intf..,.;~:~·?~.:i;llJ;,l~ .~n!'w;~'.'':: <·i, {'. ~ r;·

6. Nmnin11tive case . This case is so. caHed fr oll) _nP,'F.en a .naxqe, th,e :(,a~1~, w.o r.~ .f~om :~,h1. ~,? -r<oUJI ?S ~s~ · der1vea• ~'·!t
means the namin~ case. Th e nomirwtine case is the primary, original for:n o~ names, ·or 'the sta te ·m w_lh ch · a;na~e '!B
a lways f<Jund, unless when its proper form is varied t_o :denot\j; its subordmatlon to some other word with which it is
conn ec (,ff! in composition .
•
.
Ther efore th ere seems no need of a fonrth case called independent case. ¥Ve.may call a noun or pro_nou:n the .nOil)ma· tive case ind cpcndent-1.noaniR!; the nam ing case standi_ng ind e~en.den t . H e!1ce we may defiQe th,c nom1nat1ve case thus :
The Nominative case simply denotes the name of a tlung; or it is the s_ubJeC t <;> f a v~_rb . . ·: ,
. , ,_.· 'i, .,,

PRONOUN.

.

..

. .. .

. ....... .

The word P ronoun (from the Latin pro , meaning for or instead of, and nomen a name,). signifies iiistead of ·a tiam'e or
noun ; hence,
·
A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid a too fr equent u se of the same word.
Pronouns ar e divided into two classes, called personal and relative.
.
..
P ersonal pronouns stand directly for the name of some person or thing-.
R elative Pronouns r elate, in general, to some preceding ·noun or personal. pronoun, which is . there.fore calle<f.the
antecedent.
·
.
·
.
,
..
;
" .. .
The personal pronouns ar e I, thou or you,t lie, she, and it, singular;_. we, you or ye,. they, plural. ., . . . .
· 2. The inquisitive pupil may ask, and the query may occur to th e mrnd of the closest student, why· th ~:reare .t w<! cla~ses
made of pronouns . He has been told that every pronoun is used . instead. of !I' n o~n or ~ome othe~ word, and _th.at each
class ·of pronouns may refer to persons and things. An~ althoug h there 1s a little difference . m the w;ordrng of the
definiti ons , he does not see· whersin one really affi rms any difference from the other..
.
Now· what is the marked difference between th e two classes of pronoun s l Answer ; . ,
.
,.
.
First; a relative pronoun ne.'trly always, except when a question is asked , relates, ns. its definition say~, to some antecedent word-to some noun or personal pronoun which goes first. Of personal pronouns, only the thml person does tlus; and tl;iat does not refer to
•In case of a family , the individual or first name with the fa.~ily or surname, wonld. rightly be ~onsi~ered a propei; noun; thns,
Benjamin Franklin is a proper noun, the same ns Benj:i.min alone. The custom of parsmg con;iect10ns .hke the followmg h~ been
various: J ames Pike, Den.con Ames, i\Iiss Goodwin, sister Susan, king J ames, lake Huron, Nmgrmi. river, &c: B.ut we obJect to
this Jo.st, although similar expressions are often made ~y car~l°'.'8 writers, or by those who do not know or consider analogy ?f ~he
langul\ge. River Nirigara would he better. In connections similar to t?ese exn.~ ples ,_ son;ie hav~ parsed the first word an ndJective
belonging to the next; others have p~rsed the fir:it a noun nnd the other Ill appos11,ion with 1 ~; wh1l~t 8?'?e parse the two together as a
noun. As the gh·en and surname t~gether, like James Pike, are the. n.ame. only of a particuhr md1Y1dual, they are most properly
parsed together, ns a proper noun. We may add complex to snch to distmgmsh them from proper nouns generally. The rest of these
ex;imples m••Y be well petrsed , the word s tol'ether, us n compfox noun; so~e of th e.~ common, :\nd _some properi or a preference would
be given to parse some of the~e cxnm~les , the firs~ a ~oun and ~he ~t her m 1'ppos 1ho~. If. nn nrticle or adJect1ve precedes, the latter
way is decidedly preferable; as, Jlfy sister Sus<>n 1s with me ; 1\ e S1'1 led ncross the lake Hwon.
t The. :mLh ~ r p~cfc rs c~lting- y0" here a plural pronoun, us ed fer the second person singular. This r~?onciles ¥ou with a plural verb, which it alwny!

must have, wherever n::it..'<l. n ut to call you- second person siugular with a plural verb, makes an anomaly m applymg a grammar rule.

~

·

ii~e.= J"91iti•bo\igb"f 11 lfm'~ bUf.h~ sooif!Os't''it: 1. Ilere tll~' !pt6li6hks'sfuila'tot: tiiitJ~
n·s·flie ~Jlt'ilt..aJ~ SeCOndf bffen refers' tij per~tiS'of "tfifo'g~· wl\ioli Ji'fu'Ve' not

SO iii' il!f•ifell'

iitsorder,; n -:~nzr'.; ~· 1 () u~ >'IU. '-\ ,;..; :3 . :J -:t :, ·<;!,ii · ·~::;_ff;:n.!: , ·,:;Jti:;1 11 1 ~.:; i1JP{
ob11:hini connccting &."'IltenCes"/.\vhlch :n pei-sonf!l :p'ronouih:iihii iifdo. ~ " •i! ' ·" ! .~, .,,;;
·"'.hfoh peison ..tliey arc : o~ ·or'.represenlj :nnd ,this-is :probablJ thil1 reaa.ln-thilMhey-nl;:
r.J~!!.)'; l'jlpfe~nt... , . Ile_lat1ve :prQOOUI18' ao nbt •vary, theiF!form' fop •number' Ol> per.ion ii
i\1PJC<lh"7.t~c. &rs~. and . sec.ond_jlersoq,. always ,.cJo: ,'eirn.mp!esj._r nm silent,•tl•ou;.nrt
~pr'!ves .t~me; ._t~e:v:, tl!&t . §l)l\<,ll_l, tea,rs_,!!hall, teap i;n·joy; i AU',oJl t!iemrban·proP21'1.Y
1

ng word. ·' Relative pronouns are n!>,h~'!- ~~. (Qr,do .no! .~clmit bf .this,), uni~ it.be
::. ;··i. · !i .-;f,<(.:f~ .-.·j ;r! "·'':,;l .. ·i:_!i f n1.' ·"·')'.i.t ;i :; ·i 1 i~ 0 ;l;q::.i_1;11-,•h · .r· ,Ii ! ..
a s;~ten~e or part o'. n , ~eqt~n.<;e. ; ,,as,.;rhe; ...Je'Y~; it.l!! :~ell; knDl\'.lJ j ;were, n~
;., .. IR;.1:11Jl-~e ~hJs, _p~a~!l. ,,ti;a;nsp~se, tl\e "!Yhpl~ "senteng~ ;.. '.f be, J~ ws ; were at
1,)1t or al{J~£!1))~, ).,.el,pcn.?wn_. ,,_A.~.f.or. _t/ie, p11-,lling of tl1ew.~d1JWJ+,)(:the
ng ,of. th~m ,dq.w:n,-;--.foJ,- 'Yluch part of. ~Tie &entence it is.a subs titutll-. , ..
,;·arid iniiy oe":ippllcd to·nny being or thing in th e unifer8e .: Of ti.:e Di\"in.e
~is . . Of_~n !~font we say, it cr_ie~. ,· .We also .say, it wils you;-_ Who is it:?
9an t q rm!. Thus we s~e. that. it 1s not only often .subs tituted for persons,
tten represents ~he . co~d1t10n. or. sLate of pe_rsons an d things ; as, aow is it
e, or st~te of the air, is unhealthful. It will be seen from. examples w.hi ch
g, that i t _oftener th_an any ?ther of_the pronouns, third person, stand s for
uc.e.d : It 1s cold this morning; It is I. In the former sentence weather is
· pcrson-o~ a more defin ite word, as , the boy, the girl, ·according .to the
.nnot substitute I here for it.
nces i11tr'od~.ced b:f it, to n~ istake t~ e. an tecede~t of"· r elative pronoun; as,
Y change, both mrne and yours; Tis educat10n whi ch forms the common
fer to the pro_noirn &it, partly und erstood, arid not to piouidence and edu caSupply what rt stan<:Js for, .and tra nspose the sentence , and this truth will
se·curcs i~ ev~ry ch.inge _both rnin e and yours, is Providence . . That thin{; ,
Some tlnng 1s affirmed ID Lh e last sen tence to be ed ucati on · and what is
\. is ed ueatio.n. So in t!rn other sentence , Pro,-idence is not ; .x plained, but
1J ute) that .protects us, 1s. In the sen tence, "'l'hey who roam are.fooi s,"
:_e not explain ed!. but tlte'!; ~s the. !JUestion _comes up-.what ·they .1 . Why,
·e fools. Fools is left with its general meamng.
.
oradoxical sentences, the verb might" be left of the wroncr number (or 1 to
who .<tand before yvu, your. sis ter J ane: 'l'he verb should be .stands th ird
re who, refei:ring _to if as its antecedent , which is third person singular.
:. th.e n?µn for ~v~1ch it stands, the p erson, and transposing the sentence; ·
yo ur sister Jane.
..
. .
.
.
;, we are liable to :inisrefor ·the r elative in some other constructio~s of sene of_tho~e. sava~e anim als that ha s been exh ibited for public curiosity.
efu lly s. udy which n_ntccedent needs further ex planation. \Ye sha ll perout .further explanation; but that th ose savacre animals without furth er
!'~a~ _r efers ~o, or explains animals, qualified by the adj~ctives.. It then
1

. This is. dequced from .two, i;q~sidera.tions. , :fir~t; '£,h\s. wi.n~ei: . has,, not .been ; kno""ni;-tbes.e JD~DJ! ·yea~i thetefom:i~
relative cai;ln.~t . repre.11~1.1t .thi.11 winte~. ,, Sec9ndly,; /I'beo sup~rlative, degr~J!,, necessartly: 1mphes 'a. ro_mpa:n8o'n"pt·,_on~thi,
with a plurality of .th~ngs: '1'!1ere is i;iot a plurality_of thmgs named m tb.e. senten~; . th~refore :1t. i i;n~s.b b,8lsup,pheo/'ID
the mind ; thus, '.l'lus ,is .the mildest wmt~r · ofr ' th(};w1nter~ that··hav~, been •krro~n~ ._&e:i.,. ~Al~ · after1ad~_tiyes: ofl< ~rd6~ as
fir#,. serxrrµl,. ~., , the nntecedent ia sometimes•un<!erstoo~·; vJ~us1· !J:he :w~;el> • killed~il~?th~:,mat1'1~whu;h· 1.'1' ~lie · ~~~!Ylt~~t
have•lqst.tbei11 ,livea1 by. these: means."' • From<,the i.t wol foregor~~remar,k.s abou~ 'e!l~r!.1.e~~:·~ntec~,~!1,tH;~~~1.~rb~ ~~~ a't
that refers ti» the plura~ rri;n understood; and ,~ot-<to ?,liln\>,ali .r~', m~n-~ t.~e:~stil_\i',~~n,, ?f· tliif,. 1)1~~ ~~af , f#iv\;,ti.81\'! .,;
t~~~efore - t~e· ".er~ have is right. ' In ~our~e-~/~1t'.'.~e~,'.~~f~,',~l':,~":/gbr;,~~ rtt1l~~-~~ f\~if ·1t,of~~1f~,1 l~,~J,«,~!1°1,ct.t.,,
.
0 n.- the ·Pronoun, in Supple~ental Gram~1u.
.
•
•.,,;, .."t" :· · ~<'' 1< u· y,f7r ,esr,b o'''" Jc1U fJrn•
1~. ~'o a.v~id ambiguit7 ID th_e .~e~n.1~g .t~.e , r.~~at1 ~~. s~~.ultb~. p1In.,9~~·1J,ef,~ lt~,~f~J'n "~\l~B~-~~~10u~,e.~~'~RllhiollX·P~ ~~me
other pomt ID the _ expr~ss1?_n. req~!res, an ex~e.P.~~?,?· ,-,,; , .!.i
" "". 1' "' ' " ."' ,,,JJ r., ;·"·"i.! ;:>"(·t; .,, , ..., 1,nu c>mrl atQi
'!• n : ·· Whatever 'r elative 1s·used m. one of ,';'-:se!,!~s: or,.c~a.~9eS, s~?ul~ ~el!e,~l}l}y. bt},.\I~~ 'H htW1i1;,~l1,tJt:°,l~l~f!lr~;~°oF,9P
aaine antecedent;' In the' '.i>llowing sentfi!1cei ,t,h1sp,ile~1s
yi?,la~e,d : I It !~ '.f.~fp3;rl<\1 ~'lr t~~~..l,I,9 1},;J-f)\l,~- ~~m,~i:Wt:~-i.flj~m
1
~-~s. undert.a~en ! ~n'd thfJt" ,ID the ,v.,ry beg,1?i;i~n~,;,' ~.a~ ;f~~v.1~(l;~o ;~~? \',P,?k._?fi jl.~,~ m:1f1p<~~ ,~~~-~ :J\?f~~/l~'J r;j ." JCJ.t B .~· ·
liave been used mstead of that.
.
. ,, .,, . . "'
._,, .. _.. ,;, >u ! .,d ,, , , ,.,r ,_.,ft ;·r :i ..;;a SN " CH 98:.
·, 12. · A' relative pronoun sometimes refers to a -clause or,a phr\l,se, a~d so,l)lt;_t1m~~J9 1;1.U. ad~c~~Ye .•; . l)-S 71 ·.rp~ ,A9.D,~~"iwt
large and eleU-ant, which is an i?dication of great weal~h'; They ~ uppos~d h11n to, be, mn~~eNr.:ifJH~~ ' ~~ , ~~~~~!P.~l Yf,l!fl
not . . rir the foriner sentence wh1c11 refates to the preceding clause;, ID _the btte.r , tp t_hc qd~~?.tf,Y!l: m~q~~~· i\ : on;;- rl !i 11
13. Ourselves, yoitrselves, myself, himself,_ &c., are called CO.mJ:lOU~d per~onal, prprio\',~s ••11~d .. 11~~ s~,4 ,s,om,~t.iw-~!'l~n
the n omin;ttive, and sometimes in th e.objective case.
.
.. · . .
. · .·:, ,_. ; . ~, ·'",, '"""' .,.,, i,. J.tis;ri. -.''.t
14. The words ours, yours, theirs, hers', a nd com~nonly mine an~ thme, winch are g1vei;i · 1_n.. gi"[l~m.ars, , 11,~o~,~ . f>.f J(ia
possessive forms of the personal pronouns, are di sposed of by d1~e rent . t:achers.and a~th,ors ,. t ~ o . ?.~. II!px:e · way~;e Ip.
this work they are treated of as a class of compound words, blend!ng the ~deas g1_ven by two.,¥·pr~~ ,111, Oll,E).;,ibus, Tins
pen is mine, and tbat is yours. Yours is n compound pronoun, eqmva len~ m i_n;anIDg to you~ and, P~· , J(o.lf,r,,t9e,first
w ord included in the idea , is a personal pronoun, second p ereon pl_ural, pos ~ess iv e ca,se a nd goyer~~d. by p~-m~u~
in the meaning of the word yours. Pen, the other wor.d mcl_uded ID yours, 1s a noun _and nomrnat1ve a~r, u. "80 . ~tie
is a compound pronoun, equivalent in mea nin"' to my and pen . . My, th e first word, 1s a personal pronODI)·. i;> ,~; t~.~)irl!t
person smgular, possess ive cas~ and_ govern ed by pen, &c. So ID all ~u ch_ words , we would p_a rse .the ~st a p~o~9.\ip,
&c and the second a word winch suits the sense.
,
.
"
..,', .- 1·. " :
Ther e seems no goCld reason that these words should no~ 'b~ called comi:ioun~ personal. pronoun~ , a~ 'r.~JJ '~' ';Clif,t
called a compound r elative. Th ey ar e different from the adJe~ti\•c nol/-.ns which w1H be C?_nsid_e f,ed. und ~!. ,tJi?· ~~~~paFt
of speech. In the word that of t!Je for egoing exam pl e, ~he mrnd l;wks forw~rd fur a r:ou~-;-tliat w~at ~.s , !/~!fTS 1~ .• 1,!ip
mind looks onward to pan. But yours embraces a ll which the mmd surveys, namely, your pen. At_.,the ,~9d of'-(.the
word the mind stops satisfied . If it was written," and that is.your," we sbuuld feel that ,th!J id_e'.1- ,wa,~ np,~ .5§o_~ p!~~~.
and look beyond the word for something more.t
.·.; . . . .;_,·. .· ,. ,. : .. i1.> :•.u r'<. LIQ?.=
15. It is sometimes difficult to decid e wh eth er the pron oun they, or the noun (ldject1ve those . /lh?ul~· l;i,e1 ,? ~i\<li i~,}jl'i9
· are not unacquai?ted with ~h e ca_lumny of those (or them) who openly make . n~e of ,.thewar_~_(lllt ., p.;-o,f~~.a1~p s,, ! T ~J1M•
on familiar occas10ns, sometunes introd uces a ~UhJect.
.
.
..
. . , . ;·:,., ,, •..., ._-,rJi'!f .\
IG. Who ever, Wh ?soever; l-Vhateve-r and Whauoeuer, are _c ompound pron_ouns, rnclud,fng ~n. , a~.~e~~~n,~ ,ll:Jl~ -~~~\­
ative. · Each of th e former two is equal in meaning to he who; th e la tter, to tlu:t which: ~- M9d.~~ .of,j;>~r~1pg( ~P!1ili.:
"Whoever seeketh wisdom shall fin d her. " Whoever _is a. compound pronoun, equ1rnlent. m i;m~a~,n~ ..t~ ,, he;!\l!~ .-ll!jW~;
h~ the antecedent is a personal rronoun and the nom1nat1ve to _shall find ; who the relative, 1~ ,I\om,ina~1ve, ffi s~~~~~·
.

is, and the latter with th e preposition of and without an adjective ; is an
relative or personal , almost invariably refers to the· form er noun ; as,
th e shops opened, &c.; 'l'h e hive of a city is in the bes t condition when
r~fers ~o ua;iety qualified by its adjunct of merchandise; and it refe rs to
-, ID a city hive .
a°'n1etimes understood a.fter tl~e superlatil-e degree ; as,. This is the mildes.t
s. That docs not refer to wmter expressed, but to -•,vintcrs undcrstoo<L

.

' '

;

j·

·1: . ...... \

. J >l "

-~. '

.

\t." •

.,, On accflunt of such ellip tica l antecedents having been almost u ni ver sally o\'erlooked 1 seYeral auth or!!!. have present~d this sen~p.c~ in, ~~~l""· ~mar
l esson to b ~ referred for correc ti on to the H.ul e for th e agreeme nt of pronouns with t_heir antecedents, and to R Note about the use o~ wh~~ a~~ u•hicl~ ,. n
wtu e~identl y intended as big with errors-which tc be changed into !vho . because !t ref~r~ to man, h~e to be changed· into Aa.t 1 to·a_gre:e wt'tb tlfcU r~ef.
rin g. as was supposed , to man , or si:r:lh us ec l a noun, a.nd th. ~ir and /zve$ rnto th e singular to agree v:1th man. But. fi:om th~ ~.~eoedmgi .rew..ar~~ rOJlt, .~~I
sentence those fo ur worrls need not be allncd. Th e word tJi eu, however, sh~uld be put singula r, thi$ or that, as mean.! here. is s in~la.r, ~yt~~ntlY . ~~fef·
ring to wheel, \Vhich is but one means. T hal would be pre!erUble to tliis, because wheel is referred to h ere as au abse~t , ~u~1ect; · S~~. ~~~~~·.,~, .u~~ . t!je
1
Adjective, in Su p plemental Grammar.
·
~
.
" •· .
··
·
· · ·' :·· . ·
t The remarks under figure 1·1 are not all orig inal; but the suhstance of the first two th ~rds of ~he pa!"8graph js ad~pted -from. Klr~ham'a: · Grammar, te
which tha author of this ·w ork would not fail to ncknow ledge ~is in debted ness for a met.h od of pan;rng those words, which np.~1 to h1~ !~. ~~~~r.t~"":·

2•

IP, R1'RE1nH:V'Ei; Gml.A!ilI:MA R.

COMP ~E;Il ENS IVE,;() RA :M MAR,

l9

!a

i'• ;,~Jwtet:cr' a !compound relative · pr?no1;m 1 .includi.ngiiuLailte<iedebt and
len~," Is• an .adJective noun ·and the 1 nomrnative .to 'fortifies·1;t which the.relat. ru

f!: P~

1! 1 !

• 1f

i

. / ...

~.·:

~

i.

;

·· tn ) \..

1,

l\lrr,\f.

m1er, are •seldom 1uaed-otherwise than a9' · adjectives1 _,; iWiwtever·; and·, 1t11hat-

•,_ '.J1he Mmpouuds with.soever, are seldom used at .the pre.sent day-;· ...... ,_ .
err and 1th.,·like; are:-clegantly. divided · by the interposition<of,, the 1correse _th~ king cast : his eyes/•',, would appear: better jf, written110n .whichi·side
1·'

~

~· 1· ... ;..s •\i1'1: 1· ."'

1· · ·;.1.-r:~·,..r

1·!

,._·~·

4:

'!i'l•:-, .. ·inf·ln;I'

.~~

?rly-us ~i for the conjunction thaf' ,i as, r,have no. d,oribt but· what >he did it
mitted:1: (See under figure lG lon. Conjunction in Supplemental .Grammar.)
what has the following various uses: ·,_,. ''" ··· , .. · ,,., ·r ., . · " ·1 - ,, , :
tbe sense of that whick; as,- ·I hav.!J hen.rd what ·has been:alleged,•i, e:, that lifhich
ich; a.s, .It is for you to judge, gentlemen, whether. what I advance :are:not truths;
:i ,The ~teced~nt those is an adjective no.u n and , nominativ.e, (or-subject) _
o f, are,.and
rnmple of p:irsing whatever, in a passage on compound words.) What . sometimes
. who; as, Nor hope to find a friend but what has found a friend in thee;-· ;_ e,, hut in
ntly used as a noun adjectil·e; as, I know not wh(it impressions time mnyh~ve made
stion; as, 1'Vliat chrmicter will you nppear in? Sometimes the noun is uCiderstood;
; Whal h:we I done? i, e., u•hal deed h:ive I douc. Or in ca§cs like the last two
ljectil·e noun.
·
What! could ye not wo.tch with me one !1our ?
:e, inste:vl of which, aml is cqu'l.lly a relative pronoun, In such a use it stands for
rns, And wh<l-l is worthy Of spacial remr\rk, they were effective j!lst in proportion ns
1at here is a rel11tive pronoun, in no.tore precisely like which, standing for the fast
ely before tbe ffrst of the la;;t two cbuses, and read those firsf, and the relati"ve will
ith tho?tgh, as a conjunctoon; a.s, "1Vhal though in solemn silence all . mo·rn rouml
~re-the sense admits of none. The meaning is different from what if, as in Pope:
- - aspired to be the head . Herc is cle:trly an ellipsis--what would be the consewith though in a meaning like this, is simply a conjtmction, equal in. lne:i.ning to
yet, implied before the thiixl line of the stanz;i.
s treat of it as forming n distinct class of this word.; as,
cares not what he says or
11 be fairly pirsed :is :i compound relatire pronoun belonging to the first divisiol! of it
ms, and which to things or brutes. Thal is applied to both persons, and

He

preference of that to who or which , th ere are other cas.es where its use as a
"ter who , nsed in:errogatively; as, lill!w, that has a·n.Y. sense of r eli gion,
-c rsons make but a p.irt of the ant_e cedent ; as, The ivoinan, and tbe estate,
;ards.
··
'r which after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after the notin
re the most rrofligate that coultl be found in any city; He is the same man
~ din asking qu'es lions, lose some of their relative nature, and are therefore

not refer to someth ing i;oing before, but to the word which answers the
: ; i. e., it 1rns Jam es who, Soc. Bnt we would not allow thi s use of these
pronoun.

ADJECTIVE.
1f the earli er gmmma rs, adjecl iJJc pronouns. Rut in several late works, in
is, il. pnrt. of tho ~c \\"Ords nre called pro11 om inal ar(jectires, and the rest clnssccl

*None and the plural of other tlo not strictly belong to this class or wonls 1 as they are never adjectives: They are therefore parsed as nouns; or, to be
particularly tech nical in manner of parsing, they may be called compouud adjective nouns, as none is equal to no p erson& or no person, and other1 to
other p ersons.
•
·
t Various oth~ r a<ljectives ' nre frequently used alone for neatness, force, and bre\ ity; anrl. it ha.a been almost a universal custom, to parse them, when
so usetl, as nouns 1 or adjec tives used as noun s ; as, Th e wicked in grent power; 'fbe righteous not rocsa.ken.
.
.
t Adjec tives when ~o uscll have generally been spoken ot as qualifying both 'the noun and .the verb; but :they have no !crcrcnce to the ~anner of the
.action.
.
.
.

'R.EHENSIVE GRAMMAR.
!

·'

;

e word &uch i~ properly applied ' as , Such a temper is seldom found: lmt
leailt 1,, we should· uee1the word to\; as•; .& bad a te1nper i~ . seldoJD.: fouti'h·,-

;:~ ~l'.~''11:: . ~~~'~.'r~· ..;::;1\ ., ·~J;-'.~,.,-.:1·-.i," \1·:·:·~ -'.',.·,;;.'. · ·;~·i\1'~~~ : ~~:; '-~'.;;~1> (~. :·ri i

'· ~ l b,~wg,, w (,·;t t:t d:(J>! ·b·

tl'.p lr, -,, _ :· ··i ·. .

l " •\ ,i .. -~· '. · 1.i· i u ·•1;1! ' "''J ! :J

:· Atl

1

Jt ·H

·r-·11 ~.1

:1 1

.. ni. ·•:'

f .~ .; , . ~ ·, . ,u~:

t1Y13 1 ,ca,~ii~ .tia~, . I>'~.. kaM U11e1n p~1lri,~op~y ·;, , +liey, .ljll~~e stynwlogy, ,t_hf:! .r.U.~
':,.f i;

·•'IJ.

1• Jld'

--:1!

-;-, ; 1·1r,q W.•l°!d

J1 t .'h'1 : ·:f!

~ m~ ~, ti;anlfitl,V.~ ,n,a.fo_re ; a~, T1>, Ziv~ ff , life, .o~ ~·irtu'\l; ..'fo:rf!Jni;e, ~he c/iilJ f

,9,t~~,rs:<lf, ~~.e 1•.k~ , k11:1d, tg~ Vj)rbs ma.v, n1>,~ , 11~pr9pjlrlYJJ;>~At11;1 0mii;iated

.erii are not m strictness their . object;. ,bu~ - they are , ~\~ber, t\le. : nall).es ,of
mted w,ith:,it.; \j ' l fl
' ·
•j.~1g ,af~.~-~ · ~ru~si!~ve, ver,bs, .cy.rtain nouns whi c,1,1. do '??~· aupecal'. ~o1 b~ .the
:amples ;, Th e. c1o~h .measure~ t~p. yar,<{S, TJ:i.e gold wcigh.s au .qunt;e. .'But
~ fc~,11e'l).tj.' t,1H~ 1 ~hje~~iy~ C~~e. ' .
~
~. ~ ! :i·;, ;,
ied oq,ly 1i:i some of the m.oods.and tenses. The verbs which are always
z1;.' ~04/di;, w,i~t; w~uld ,: 'sll.azz; ,s7wu_Zd; ' and
Add ~ to .th-eso';, o°¥gl!t,
perfect· tense. The others some t.un es r efer to presen t; and sometimes to
' th e infinitive' mood should follow it in the present tense ; . when it refers
. .
.
he perfec't tense.
be conjugated differently from the usual mann er, by· addirig its present
and tenses; thus, instea<l ,)f I teach, thou ~ ea.ch e st, he teaches, &c., we
is teaching. This mode of conjugation has, on particular occasions, a
rnony and precision of lan gnage . I am walking ls more expressive of
fri end3, than He writes to his friends. This meth9d in contradistinction ·
gation.
the impemtive mood, is frequently omitted; as, Perish the lore that
sh, &c. Be it enacted; that 1s, let it be enacted.
•tive manner,'when no individual or persons in particular, are addressed;
; Add 2 ~o 5 and we have 7 ; Suppose there . is a cavity in the centre of
r the most .part, admit of the verb's being rendered c1tbei: in the poten~
t let the sternness, &c. ; If we add· 2 to 5, &c.
.
•verb is r,equently used in the imperfec t tense forin, .when we allude
tlook over the cla_ss. Here in the .verbs have and look, we do not allu.de
1

1

,

•.

, , . .1 ,

'-."

·:'.,

1

, .•

• ,...

•
1

:must.

rhich means word; and this name is given them because .they hold so

PARTICIPLE.
1d denotes action or being similar to the verb .
·minative ·or objective case.
parti cipial nat ure-in governing an objective case, whilst it is itself the
[ could not think of bestowing time better tha n in writing an epistl e to
~ith a letter.
~ou ld generally have an arti cle precede it and the preposition of follow
ng ef the J ews is an enterprise of the 19th century. In familiar sc nti·
ra.ble; as, Studying grammar is a l;i.ud;J.bJe pursuit; Picking berries is
ing, both used would be more dign ifi ed; as, 'l'he da.y was ushered in by
rord them governed by to und erstood; and in the Jatler, rule in apposition with etymology.
t, when no good argument can b~ brCJught agains t it. It will appear p lain that tau ~h t govcrus
.em, is true; He taught ph i losophy , is a ls o true. And furtber;-the other method })roves the
1hy to thetn, \Ve, in coursf", teach th sm .

23
' ~

d

'•;...'

[ -.fl. ;

I

';

'

I 'I

•

,

•

rnegt,~. t!~~ ,C~O.U,f!rf!, 01'. ~i.¥Jple ,,selJ_ten.ce,.,Lpmfon. .is. pnrt)~ 1 und~rsto.od, ,,with
~ con!'ects Cha.i;hs., wpt~~·· r.n~tly und,erstood, , with . the .preceding !;laµse.. 1.

'J,uncllons. con.ne.c~i~g e1t.he11. \v01·ds, 1or , sentences ;.. as, Cresai: ,crossed., tl.1e
i~zi:~ U,f>n the .p111;>)1-,C1 tr11.a!,!l\r.y. ,. , IIere ,we ,may, connecLth&four verbs1.by
µ;_.or ~~. m!fu.:r ~1jfe!~ut. $entences!' and .repeat ith'.e; fas~ nomina-tiYe ,for ;eacn,
re,}.h,e ~?.n'!;ct10n Js·.cl9se,<gQod judgement se ~ inS' to dictate · the : coimec~ion
h!f (fo ~n~ctt_on oC , sehtCricc~r.r.j

. . ~.;:.:- ._~

11_ ,1-·> ,..,,

.i

: 1 r~ ·l: i ;.:; ; . ,j;~ .c:...1-- u,.; _,,,,...-: ;..,;..1

'.~t~~ 1A'6're"~~ns1 and comprehensive • . What ia ~xpressed in·th~'sent~~~~
:i thou t COf]~flnction.~1 '"'~~.ld '~equ,ir~ ~li!eiY'~i n\ pT!J s'El".nt~h ~e~~~b.~11\\ient t~
.y,,ep,t}\>, ,~&W ~9~ ; '· I~ ru.rs.r ng ,s~icli .c~m r·~r t A1rite,nce.~. ~e P!Op~~l,Y co~­

~\WP'\fl i,~~) !l; C~oro1.11gly! In a,nalyzin.,., we woulll reckon the three nouns ·a
r.~. Jo\~,q., :J~rues, an~ 'Jo~eph ,:'.\yent_}o· ~ e1V. 'Ytf k.'- ..,y ilen a''sent~iice " l:6rt­
t111n r; !~ ,lll!\Q~ We~~ff.' ,t~.ev · i» ay)e, Ilios:~ 1it1y)ii~~n :·tog~~.li-~U\\d' c:ane~ ,il
.considered, 1t ~\1:1) !Jc.,r~ ~.oI,.,ea rnto ,as l\lauy.srpipje: sentences nii .there ore

obeyou~. parents :
_ . ,
..
.' .. _ · ... '· ; .. '." .,,
each-·~·~bJe~t.."£'lk~n
1ect. words . only, a,s the .affirm a.lion . cannot be -~~de
h ninety ~ollara;, ~he sul e A, the SH.le B, and the side C, form a triangle.;
1not sny ~is watch 1s worth . 00 d ollars, nnd his chain is worth 00 dollars.
rns~ see if the same construction will bear with the word we · connect as
ot, it 0a~not be connected wi~h it; thus, With all the presence of mi'nd,
~d, &c.; judgement and sagacity are not connecte'd with mind because it
it, and presenc~ of sagacity; h,ut it gives the meaning to say, ~Yi th nll the
~~ :,O!'nected with pre.<ence. ~ake another examJile: The present pnrtitin'? · is not connecte? by as with the noun ing, for that would make out
novzng.1 As.must either connect-n followinl?: sentence , "?vfovin,,.
ends in
0
h the pre_cedrng, or m oving in .::iJiposition -witb participle. · The Jatter.is
..
.
'
shead_,''liee Interjection in Supplemental Grammar.

0f

i;

_
t:NDER m : LE VIII.
dollm:; Seth ;is ,lik~ ~isfh.~~;, C: j~~'IJo ~~ ~her.,;,,;,ffqi;fe 11-fter
Notir 1; · When participles are used ·as nouns; they often in like a. Yerb denotmg mob.on tc,,ll! _always used-with9u~ to 1-, , ,, . ...... : •
· ·· ·
" · · .. ... " · '· '" J " .. . , • " . ! ~ · · ';" ~ ~ · '
manner-govern the possessive-case; as, Hi!J having been addicted
tointemperance;&o.;Muchwilldcpendonthepupil'sco'lltposing.' . ... ,.. ,; •"'"" · ' ;:tJJ:'l.{>ERRU~E>XIfo ;; ;. , ... , ,:., ., ,,, ,,,.._ '. , ,
_ Note 2: ., When .two or more nouns connected imply-joint·pi>sses- .< Note l .; .. ,Rule 12th .ll! -.to. ~l · ap~lied,. ;,tr~ not,,RuTe'13th';.'ilh~ll
SiOn; the :possessi>'e form shoulci 00 given toi the·last· term· 6n'Jy j ' QSI C\¥Jf.1!.tWheljl! 8( , Vefbt OJI, part.i;'l1plo, mt~YeDell.IW i.tli~ HtWO ' irord.li,
John and Eliz1J.!s books. , But if separate o:wnership,is implied; the !ll!'fffl,~he, :'lllDle r JM!rson,or .th~n~. , l 'lhia1 ,l!~·~bf'lC_(!S ~159\ JiOU:tJit
possessive sign should be given to each noun · thua , John ts -and C9,I ?\ng ,v.f}ei;,a vei;~ , or_ p~1ciplet1eX,Pflll!SIDjt'ili'hat uthl!-t-fwhioh. <is
J(Ulles's· money was stol~~- .-" ' , ,r, ii .> ,; ,;,, ,1 ,.,. 1' , ,,, •., [ , 11 ,. ' "" .~en,o,t.00,, by . ~~ll, .~.. t ~110~,.x}~"tP.11'PE!L~11W.ir.IU!•• A:,,c1Jlj1~mes an
., Note ,3., , When possession JS denoted by two,Qr mqre,noµnscom- . ?,i".·, ~' ox 1 1~ . n?.~ -:~-p,,.., ~~ }t; ,sJ:i9:ivipvJi4/:I .th~ ,,cal_ti-r!f!J t_cha:ngcd
ing together in apposition, the aign .is genet;ally,anne;i:ed .to the.last, ~!No., . . •. ,, :·.· .r • . >!" c,'{ ,,.,,'.t_·~ !..;i f'•'Tt ••irn 1;L ,Jh 1JY .. 9 ~·
ter.m only; as, John the Ba.ptist.'s head. ,· But :when'! 11. pa.~: iS; . e~o a beggar 1nlt~!ll• ,,f.<lll. ·~s ~ .0.\1'~~P1~J!1g),fffl!J,1, ~.t,r9
~roper, and the gomniug ~OUn is not . eX~r~; the P,O~lV,~ wifl di~ ~ be!?ga~. •. .~OjD}e,~! ppJy ~~~. ,t~a~,he, I~ ~0~ !'.h~gar
sign should gene~all~ be annexed \o the first .noun on!.)', especil'llY, !nd W111 nt soo:'e ~':\°~ ~1~, ~h~.?!¥,f ,~ }l\,~. ¥.~ '!}4,~1 ~:.~g;
when th.e poss~s10n 1s ex~ressed by more th~1\ two .no_un~; ·as, He gnr_when. ~ed1~, an~ no!h1?,g: mo~ .. ·,, , . . ,, , .:r , ., ·' •:r:. . , rrf< ..,
bought the kmves at Smith's, the bookseller; The silk·was purNo!e 2'. · The nomma~ive ,t<i Ji. v~r'!> ?,~ll':i .foHo~s.f ~t,- _'Wjie11.!'
chased at Brown's, the mercer and haberdasher.
• · 1 question. is 8:5ked aud•there·are hi'O'~lbll\a.tins;the":first ~ j\atsed
. Note 4. . ~t ~s seen i_n th_e preceding r':'les and examples, that th~ ~ommat1ve ·case· nfte~·t?~·verlJ; · and' the ·~ndi _the ' n~!'!inO:ti:v~
unle!<S perspicuity reqmres 1t, we should mm to avoid the unpleas- 1 to it, ns, Who art t_hou:- ·m-the,-0rder.'?f'pomng-;t,hou· art·'\'f.:ql!.
ant appearance of several possessive nouns coming together, by ~d when.ho~ nomniatives ·come.after:the ·verbj the fini.t 'jri o~er
employing, in p:\l't, some other word or words which denote . pos- ~s the nommatn·e to the ve_rb, and· the: second the nominative -.a fttt
session as the worJ belong or be/on.ring and· of prefixed to the it; ns, Art thou the 'I'hraman robber? ,!.. <.
.,;: ,, . , ;·
nnme ~f the possessor, which is equi~ale~t to the noun with the . Note 3. ~metimes when !here .is n<l qnCl!tion. ask~1 thahrhich
possessive form. '.!:hen instead of s:i.ying, Mr. lllilton's sister's is more prom!ne~tly the subJect of the o.j!irmation ,.ll! placed· after
husband's house was burnt, we would give.it thus; A house be- the verb to give it force; a.s, .B'!-t the .end the~eof. are tbe:waya of
longing to a brother-in-law of llir. Milton, was burnt: Or, to de-'l~h. Herd the verb_ ngrees with ways as_bemg, t}\e morf! direct
m:ike the individual more definite,-A house was burnt, belonging snbJi;ct of the a.ffirml\llou,.and pl~ed . a.tler. the verb..tp givqit,ein.
to the husband of l\Ir. lllilton 's sister. Here we employ belonging phasis.
UNDER RULE XJv.'· ·
:'. ' . '·
to express one possessive, of before the noun to express another,
Note 1. A noun used with an interjection, or with a ~ot;. ~fh­
and the possessive form of the noun for the other-which form a
c~ma~on, may be p~ed : as · ll.D exclnma~r;: f'h~;'. orlira .inay
harmonious variety.
Note 5. To render the expression easy and agreeable to the ear parse 1t by the followmg rule: A noun used m an exclamation
nominativ~
we sometimes mo.ke a use of the possessive like the following : The and disconnected with the rest of the -sentence, is iii'
.; [ ·: ( 1 '1\
duke of Bridgewater's can:il. The meaning is left "enutely clear, case independent.' cf UN.DER
RL'LE XVII.
and the expression is eleg-.int.
Note 1. .Rs after so, than after ·a-oompnrison, and sometimes
Note 6. Little explnn:itory phrnses between the possessive case
aud the word which governs it, are particularly awkward and the adverb how, are the . immediate governing.words of the infinishould be avoided; as, She began to extol the farmer's, as she tive· mood; as, An o~ject so ·high- cu to ' bt.iiivisible; .. H'e·knows
- ··
c:illed him, excellent understanding. It should be, The excellent better than to do it; I know not how to addrtn yotL· '"
Note 2. It is sometimes governed by a,; preposition --as· .~Iy
understanding of the farmer, as she called him.
friendisabouttoleave,
·.·· ,., ,, ... ., ·· .,,
' · ' ·.
UNDER RULE IX.
Note 3. It is sometimes governed by a pnrt·of''a·seD'teni:ef as,
Note 1. · In some situations nouns carry the appearance of being We used our best endeavors to be serviceable to the co.mmonwea.lth.
~ · •'J"'?';I( ,, ~ ):'
.1 ~.-,·/
goYerned by a transitive verb, when in reality they are governed
Addiaiooal,. No11e .. .., ·1- . . · : .: 1•.I fh L' -:'.! •.
by a preposition. understood; .as, He resided several years in that
street, i.e. during several ye.'lrs; He traveled seven miles an hour;
N~te. 1. . Two or more noun&\ or pl'ODOUlll! ' connecte<i'· by and
reqmre their verbs, nouns and pronouns to·be-ot«.t hf"pltn'al·ntun.
L e. over the spo.ce or distance of. seven miles in an hour,
Note 2. Prepositions are often omitted before pronouns ; ns, ber; 8.8, Socrates and Plato were wise men; They were eminent
·
. " ·; ... v
Give it me; buy him some books; i.e. to me, for him. Also a.fler philosophers.
Note 2. Two or more nouns conmicte<f by and, mooning. the
the adjective near, and the p;>rticiple adjoining; as, Bring them
near the truth; a g:ir<len adjoining a river; to the truth, to the same person or thing, require their verb, noun an<t prunonn to be
river. After worth as an adjective, of is understood, and after of the singular number; as, 'I'he milli,ner a.nd mantuama.ku wcu
_
'.
. ·, ·
..
like as an adjective . or ad verb, to is understood, which govern the there.
ca~es nfter them; as, The knife is \\'.Orth a. dollar, i. e. worth ef a
Also, when two oouns, ai:e connected by and to exple8& · Ute

'.l'he

the

NNECTION WITH THE ·RULES.
UNDER RCLE

:b in the infiniinevitahle; To
it belongs to a
i the part of a
;iii been afore-

V.

. Note 1. . When _a pronoun refers ·to two or more pronouns, of
~hfferent J?ersons, connected by and, it sbould agree with the first
m .person m pr7ference to the second, and with the second in preference to the tlnrd; as, You nnd I must mind our P 's nnd Q's;
Yo;,i and Jnmes must mind yonr study.
Note 2. When nouns expressing persons of different sex, are
connected by o~ or nor, their pronoun should be of the · plural
1tence is some- muurn;r; as, It is o.ccounted almost uncivil with the polite, to ask,
•erh must be of .when m company, a gentleman or a lady th eir age.
~o write a ·neat
t:N DER · Rt; LE YII.
No'.e 1. Adverbs sometimes qurilify nouns, the nrticle inclllded
sometimes; ns, Jltcarly a sttil of new clothes wns burnt; He went
1ite, or without almq~! half way with me; By solitude here is meant, a temporary
' speaking, his s~lus10n from the world. They in some inst<tnces. qunlify prepositwn s ; as, He went almost to Boston; Let down exaclly over his
• prcposit.lon or head.
~i.1 in the objccNote 2. Th ~y s.ometimes qunlify a p:irt of n sentence; as, He was
1ve.'
content to purchase repose, ci·c n by the most humiliating· sacrifice.

CRITICISlVIS

l:':R:1'l.IJ.,E NS LV·~ G R Hl MA·R :

------

s~gu!:l.l"- nwn- fuithful, &c., a. person's being faithful, &c. Applying these P".2r.

SC8Sive8 to the. infinitive mood, is the snme thing, though it does
' cind are pre- not nppenr so familiar; as, ,Our to be faithful, &c., a person's!<>
1f the singular _be faithful, &c. Thus we with some propriety apply the adjecthe
~ \ihr1re.
"' ' to our,, or whntever possessive we use.
. .
.
singular' nuin6.: The word but, when it has the meaning of except, has been
3 r1nd pronouns ·parsed by mnny as a preposition, but it hllB not the nature of a
the· poy.•·
preposit\on. 1'he venerable Murray pa.r~es it, in such a uae, as ~·
d • n.,plural"bne 'conjunction, as; it commonly is; necessarily understanding som~ :
•ith the· plural' thing. 1 :Mos~ ·graduates of colleges 'follow his manner; thus, in the
the verb; a.,, sentence, "None but the temperate enjoy life," they would' parse'_
'
None enjoy life, M · one sentence, and The temperate enjoy life, 1
partly understood, o.s :mother sentence, and but connecting them; '
&me of our learne<l lexicogmphers consider but in this sense to :
be derived from the S"xon word be-utan, a verb in the imperative
d. is equh-al'ent mood, meaning in English, be out . . Thus in the foregoing exam"'
industrious, as pie, one can p.irse but .a verb in the imperative mood, governing.
the preceding the word temperate. l\lurmy 's w;iy nmounts to the same thing,
" 1he nrgu- and it s:wes departing from the long established nse of .the word.
as parsed as a
6. Sometimes a conjunction requires the indicat~e form of the
but it can be rnr\l, and sometimes the subjunctive.
Whe>i there is both doubt :tnd reference to future time, the verb
, by supplying
't; thus, such , should generally be in the sllbjunctivc form; but when there is
not ooth doubt and refucncc to future time, it should generally be
1 n<herb, is an in the indicative form.
content, &c.;

/

l
IN,,'
I

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'

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:

,,
,,

ETYJVIOLOGY.. AND SYN'rA.X,.;

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sentences; as, I

· ·

I

CONTAINING l\IUCH THAT IS NEW, ORIGINAL, AND

I.MPORT~T.

---

Fnhm Grnanmar,
Under figure 5 on the use of the A1lj ective.

This is the best apple of the two. Which of these three kites is
·~un, t'~ "PJ>O- the hi,.her? J ames and S;1muel are studying gmmmar, but as
~o~~ w~~e ~~: the lfttlcr is the .most diligent of tlie two, .he will probably obtain
C
a knowledge of 1t the soonest. Of two evils we should choose the
.
1
:p ".:~·-t ~h- least. The least that is said is the soonest mended. His parents
~ ~~e x:i~:min~ frequently visited him, but his mcther much the oftenest.
't'ntlcr

fi ~ ur e

WHILST IT IS DESIGNED PRINCIPAL);.¥ FOR THE HIGHER CLASSES OF GRAM~IAIUANs;

A.ND TO DIPRO.n

THE LANGUAGE OF MANY IN A VERY EXTENSIVE CIRCLE OF SOCIETY, IT WILL BE ' FOUND..

ALSO A PROFITABLE AND AN

fu~COURAGI.NG

BOOK FOR BEGINNERS.

.,., ·, ·
.~.

1· •• /

8 on the use of the Adjective.

nects different
These kind of indulgences softens and injures the mind. 1'hose
~ 11 g to differ- sort of fav ors did real injury under the appearance of kindness.
I hav e not seen my parents this six months. I have been waiting
ly; aii, To be fur you this three hours. I never suw one of those kind of birds
1 of principle; before.
By supplying
l:n<lcr Remark figure 6.
ion imd m"ke
I shall walk out to-clay unless it rains. Although the fiict be
hful, for you, extraordino.ry, it certainly did hnppen. If there be a cavity in
mg the faith- the centre of the earth, it cannot be ascertained. If the sky is
filling up; a clear, we shall witness the eclipse. No one engages in that busiive mood ha8 ness unless he aim iit reput'1tion. Although he were thy friend;
well in such he cl id not justify thy condnct.
1.djective, but
If thon have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Unless
~ the adjunct he have improved, he is un fit for the oflice. If thou had succeed ,
the same as if perhaps thou would not be the happier for it. Unless thou can
f we supply a fairly support the cause, give it up honorably.
referable, und
If the distance be ovc1· fifty miles, the postnge will be one and a.
s, ·Our being · half ccut.

..

. .. . . .... :.
BY A NORTH AMERICAN '.l'EACHER.
'

. GARDINER:
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR, BY MORRELL & HEATH.

18 5 4.

1?

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f ~ :t~:1·.~- !Jo•'"i:·>-·~'\"·~ · ;~.a~··t ·t~

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TO' !THE
PUBLIC.
3EMENT
, ,,
,...
. :
.
~

ork migl~t seem en.st a disrespect on compilers of grnmmars generally, and arrogate
thought it becoming here to make a brier statement in his behalf.
youth twelve years, in al! of which gmmm~r was m~e a principal study, averaging
-and thenceforward, havmg made the teachmg ofthts branch an exclusive profession
constantly employed in it during that period-generally carrying on two schools the
., -it should be expected that the author can tell something new in this department

to

•>e been of a higher order than those who attend to grammar elsewhere. His pupils
grammnrians who were throngh this study in other schools. Besides such scho!n.rs,
ried pei:sons, so_me of whom were of.~ educ:Ltion, already distinguished; and com1rse of mstruction closed at the expimtion of four weeks, and he did not often have a
nent carried him through a large extent of popufotion, so that the author reaped the
1, nnd opinions, gi~en ~irth to by the di_fferent geniuses, tastes, talents, nnd literary
few England.• His mmd, as a matter m course, became en.,.rossed· in this subject
ge, hll mnde it a lesson tributary to his profession. He has fo~d that we have some
general.
nd what incorrect 111nguage, the nuthor h'1s, in all but one or two instances, (as ill
e best scholnrs of Grent Britain his model. Such Amerkm scholars as rank with
fesoor Goodrich, Bryant, -accord to the best English usage. If they depart from it
decisions on- points of li>ngu11ge, he· h~s h:.tl a reference to the b<.>st us:ige of the lange8, what his long experience and supCrlor opportunities have enabled him to ncquire.
mtions. Jie hrui made, truth and simplicity, the good of the learner-constmined him
"Ork has cost the.author much time and research, nnd close and laborious thou.,.ht. In
into a smaller compass, did time permit of it. Some mny complain that the~e is an
s; but the author has little to fear on that point. He has not written this work to
> not profess to know these things- such as are desirous to learn lmd are willing to be
' mature understllnding. It is often the case that nn example of illustration in one
fon, which, in another form, it would fail t-0 do.
·
IV is yet unknown.
But having had the testimony of more than five thol!s1md pupils
appreciated by many of the youth of our country, the nuthor sends it forth, howeYer
t will be well recehed.
THE AUTHOR.
some time had this work in proepect, he would thankfully sny, that there have been
)t here be mentioned. He hopes it will meet their expectation.
·
her at this time, this edition will be sold only by the author nnd two or three select
his signature, at W:tterville, Me.-post paid, and a reply will be immedi:itely made.
;gesting any improvement or alteration in the work, will be thankfully receiYed.
1e peQple speak and write tbe En1ll1h lanl'la.i:c

10

well, ns In that ~mall spot of the globe called

ycar . Hl~3, b?/ lioRllJ:LL & lh.a.rn, in the Clerk'1 O.fficc of ll•e Dfalrict Cortrl of -~fnine.

...'

.

-.

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,

.

.

.,

in a general sense, is the art of' speaking and ID-iting ~orrect lahg~age.· Hence the ·Engli11h G~!iiJn;;:r. ·iii
the art of speaking and writing correct English.
·
·
·
·' • ~
_ . Gn.UilBR,

WORDS .
H'ords are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our ideas.
'Vords, for the most conveniently acqniring a. knowledge of the right application of them to _Practice, are ~ivide4
into ten classes or sorts; the names of which arc Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Participle, Adverb, P~ep~
osition,. Conjunction, and Interjection.

ARTICLE.
An ar.ticle is a word placed before a noun to limit its signification. There nre two articles, a or an, and the. A or aa
is an indefinite article. The is a definite article.
.
'With regard to the application of the articles, subjects may he considered of two kinds, indefinite and definite. A ~
an should be applied to an indefinite subject, and the should be applied to a definite subject,- that is, if an article
required . Sometimes a noun is so used as not to require an article, a s will be noticed in its order. An indefinite subject is one which has not ·been made definite. A subject becomes definite several ways.
·
1st. A definite subject is that which is well known or familiar, or something that has been previoualy PQin~ out to
the mind of him tl1at speaks; and that is spoken to ; as, Pass me the book, meaning some book previo\lsly i:eferr~ to.,
or ·well known by tl~e person who is spoken to. So among the me1:'1bers of a family we say, _The dog; th~ we)l; the
orchard; the blue pitcher. Among members of the same town or neighborhood we say, The mill; the meetu;ig house;
the bridge; the pond, &e. And amona people the globe over we say, The sun; the moon; the earth,-because _all .these
things are known or are supposed to be familiar to those to whom we speak. They are therefore definite subjects of the
first cl:!ss.
.
A. A subject if9not to be considered as definite when it is only pointed out by the explanation given in .the last pal1 of
the sentence; as, An account of the great earthquake which occurred at Li11bon, in the year 1755. That earthquake is
not supposed to be i;enera.lly known to readers in the middle of the nineteenth century, to whom e.n account of it might~
given, therefore a should h'1ve been used instead of the. The following presents an error of the same kind: It is i_n
accordance with the law of Congress passed in the year 1829, diminishing the weigh~ of gold in American coin. ~t 1s
not a matter in course that the reader knows about this law, therefore the should be a. B . But if the person or thmg,
whic\1 is explained after it is named, is supposed to be known to those who hear or read our language, the would be
proper. Example : My dear, says a husband to his wife, I will give you an anecdote about the sick man who stopped
with us two years a.,.o last new year's day. But to his little daughter he would say, My little girl, I will tell you I!.
story 11bout a man wl10 stopped at our house on the night of your third birth day. The person alluded to is defimte to
the wife, and we use the; but not so to the dau,,hter, and we use a. So if on e man speaks to another about a. _la~
which is snpposcd to be well known to him - for ~stance, one legislator is speaking to another about such a la:w, it is
then a defimte subject and the would be proper.
Perwns who have traveled hnt little, and who are untaught in the precision of language, would be likely to make
errors like the foll owing: The French servant where I staid last night, stole my gloves. 'fhe same would be likely to

u,

* What is not int-his worJ.;: i3 round in any
EnKland .

of th e C'.lm rnon grammars, one or m.:>re copiei\ of wh ich nre n.mon= the bno\:11 of -almf)!lt every famil)' lo Now

RULES

88 FOR THE ARTICLE.
the way, Keep this road till you come to tlie bridge, then turn to the
. These subjects wou.ld be defiuite to him that should speak, but not t
of definite subjects would be like · the language of a man who having
accustomed neighborhood, begins to talk with the .strangers, about the
eacQn ~t"?y .. persons familiar ~ him, but of whom the company Iufew
lome o,cquaintance of mine, does or says this or that. One or two ufore
Jafues ·"t0 Th&°mas;-the re .ahi' fo~r g~rls. in this. room. But three.Jsa)'.s
11~y, Ja~e, .I.t!!th, and,a httle girl hid m the. clock-case. As James 1s
~nd even unguessed by Thomas, the sense plamly suggests to Ja~es the
•perly and as naturally say, I will find the girl hid in.t.he.clock-c,aliii. _. ,
er, or by any adjective, lllay be reckoned of this clas~_.;, . ~s, . Th4 fih~t 1 t{17

di~posed

~n/hecoriies

nber of cl_aj;s ;'"a"t'0'
of except one, the remaining
qriarters,.:_give' me one ·quarter, James a.nother, Nathan :ii¥\ther, arid
irter 'because that had become definite. You hold one end ot the rope,
l:iat, in such a case, all . but the last named are indefinite· subjects and
)em.
·
_/
!l known that ~here is only 01;ie of the ~~ belongin~ to s.<fmething else
7w head of a pm; The captam of a ship. We see how slem, head and
l cases .which may easily be mistaken for this class of definite subjects,
:long to it; as, ·whoever shall find and return it, shall receive the reward
eceive the reward of praise ; ·whoever labors with his hands shall rcceh·e
plied only in the last of these sentences ; although at firs t view all three
one dollar is like a crown of gold, which means a golden crown, - a one
to reward. The same may he said of the second' sentpu'ce ; praise is the
.nd a should harn been used. But in the third sentence the meaning is
·s the reward, and as she may justly be said to possess but one reward!
sweet sleep, &c,, it is a definite subject belonging to 9lass third. .
·
:ircumstance, time, or place with which they arc connected, or to which
:e earth; He went into the water; i. c. the earth arid water where they
ld this morning; i.e. the weatber on a certain occasion, and the air.of
1d the coffee were good, but the pastry was poor; meaning the steak;
ccasion. A. Some things are definite in disti.nctioill!from other parts
,nd the lungs are vital parts; The health of the mincf 1s intimately conlungs are definite in distinction from other parts of the body; mind and
ing no definite individual, but a definite class -d~finite in contradistincsoon learned; The glazier's business was unknown to the ancients; The
ma!. No definite individual is referred to in these instances. Nomi
definite in reference to the other nine classes; gTazier means all gl(\¥,iers,
f employment; as, the carpenter, the smith, the farmer, the merchant, the
of the othe't two nounR.
~ way of eminence, or to give dignity to the sulJject; as, The saint; the
kc the thunderbolt. Saint here is not me.a nt as a definite individual, nor
·onoun in the possessive case ; as, Pure wat.er is the best thing for the
're adverbs of the comparative or superlative degree, to mark the de~rce
'"• The mnre I read the book, the heller I like it, Many case~ now follow

~·

0 R THE ART I CLE-.

9. It is needless to say that a proper name requires n() article, as that is definite of itself;.,_ ~nl~!'ll,.;~~ ~Y -'tf emior spoken of as a common no.un,. .
.
··
. ,; ···" · · ·t ~ .,;\.' i i ~ .:t ·) r11 ~:·'"
. ] ,1~; )y~e.n DQUJJ is use~ as merely the name, of a thing, no article should be used; as, _'.P~s -~.ll. ~fr! .lfl~t!,~ate,ffji ]J,\lt
· ence~

a

1

:~i~\vh~ri a noun withou,t any ?efiniti~e ~r a?jul(l~t is ta~en if!-.its i;iioll: extensive..~iis~, n0At.\G~~ ,;~"~µ~(f,~ ~~J/~,~
1

Hones are useful; Dogs are fo1thful ; Mqn I!! mo;rtal; Mathematics 1s a h.ar~ stp,dy :. S . !s ~ _c,rl'\>~\lt:J.,, Ie~l'jl! .'h>~il,}~
diffe~nt from essence; Air is an invisibl.e.fl.iiid. ' Errors ' to be referred to this 1Dst.,uc~1Qn U.)iC. ~'?~\ ot!t '""~ .~°lffl~~tf
'f?ut Qiey ofte~ escape the notice of li.tera~y "peopl~; ils, What kind of a 1!~~,is. it.t W~at,, !3-Qr~ ;<Lll!P~~ru~At?,
· you f!J:i-Y:! . Noun here means all non.us - ~t 1s a~nd of e.~l the noµn~ ~ha.t ~r.e: . Th~ ..~a;ne o~ 1,is~~ • 4ttt-eF~ffJ~

. There..1s h?wevcr one exceptwn to t~1s ru'e. ~· ~hen. t~~"~1 '!g,~J'~fi )r11-. ''??,.~ .
ts a class as. defimte ID reference tq other. k1Ddred classes; ,a s, The horse 1s a n.oble anlilla .;·~eaJ1.1Dg1~ 1 n; ,,?.~1J..
and de .ite in disti'nction from other quadrupeds. (See figure 5.)
. • •
· • . · · '·> ,,, . ·. : . .ii ~ f '1•" .ti
.. 12. '9cn all the indiv. iduals. in a described class or. num~er, limited .b.y an ad.ie11hve.• ~d.J.1:1.nct, or \l,xpla~a¥i;,r1 pli~
.
are me.an · tlie· defini_t;e article should ~e applied; ns, The blac!' peopl~ ID s01ye. of the S~te,f ~rl! .~l~\>~tr~· ~unwr,\)~D~ ~'!,
t/ie whites The ladies who are to go ID the Lowell stage are mformed that 1t 1s ready . .TM. ~sse!lce, j> ~ppe~~n~, ~~
a good me icine. The affirmation is made of all the individuala, and of all the essence, described 11;1 tlj<ise ~nte9c:es~ •..
· 13. The clown who, as the story is, assured the philosopher that white sheep eat more; than bla~k ones, aµd ask,~ ln~
to tell the re'~son was essentially defective in his assertion by lack of this 11~e of the article. 'Y1thout the. before_w!iiti;,.
and black, onl_:r a; equal number of each is implied, therefore his assertion was fe.lse. But he did not mea'!, nor do we
know it to be 11' fact, that an ~qual number of white sheep eat m~re tha13 black. ones, for the cause he .said .was, th~t
there were mo\'e of them. His hnguage wns therefore not accordmg to his meamng; he should have 11aid, Sir,. why it
it that the white sheep eat more than the black i;nes .l it is certain that they do.
•
14. But if only an indefinite portion of such described class is meant, we should use no article; as, Go~ men can be
hired for tweh-e dollars a month ; Bills of the perf?rmance can be had at the do~r ; He was cured with e~een.ce of
peppermint. No_t all the goo~l men, -n<~t all the bills of t~e performance, :-not with all essence .o f peppermrnt, but
an indefinite number or quantity of each 1s meant - some ol them, some of it.
•
.
.
15. When two o.r more adjectives standing in connection ~how t~e quality of t~e same th~ng or thmg~,. the . article
11 hould .. enerally be applied only to the first noun ; as, A red and white flag; The high and nnghty st:;i.tes, -one flag,
which i~ red and white - states both high and mighty.
.
.
. ·
Hi. But if each adjectiye qualifies a diff~rent thing, perspicuity generally requires the article to be re~ated befor~
the other noun or nouns; as, The old and the new world-meaning two worlds (eastern and western contmenta) comparatively called so. ..
.
.
d'
h.
h ' •1
17. When we refer to a term spoken of merely as a. word, 1t should have no a.rticle; as, Ile confcrre on im t e tit o.
of dTtke ; not a djlkc.
·
,
d
•
h
•
18. There is a case in which a regard to the omission or appli9atio_n of a or an is i;iecessary to eterI?me t e mean1Dg ;.
thus, He is a greater philosopher than scholar, would mean that he JS a g:eater ph1losoph~r than he is a scholar • . But
if we mean he is a greater philosopher than a scholar is, a should be applied .. The fol~o.wrng use seems to b_elong next.
19. ·when the number or quantity of any thing is intended to be expressed JD a P?sit1ve manne:, the article a or an
should be used; but when a negative meaning is intended, the art~cle should be omitte.d. Thu11, 1f we say, ~e s;eoke
with a little reverence, our meaning is positive and we rather praise the person; but 1f we say, He spoke with ht~le
reverence, our meaning is negative and we dispraise him. Few were pleased, and a few were pleased, convey quite
difT.irent meanings. 'l'he former expression leaves it doubtful whether any were pleasctl; the latter assures Uli that
some were pleased.
20. Nouns made definite by the application of au adjective derived from. a.proper noun, or a proper nOUJ?- used as .an
adjective, do not necessarily require an article, thou_gh t.aste wou!d use ~t JD s~me such cases ; _a.s, Ile is attend~ng
Hampden Academy; He graduate~ from lfarvard U1!1vcrsJty ; He 1s. cas'.11er of Thomaston Bank, They ~tudy English
Grammar. But thou"h the noun JS thus made defimte, when one tbmg 1s contrasted to another, the ar~1cle should be
used · as The En"lisl~ Grammar is more easily learned than the French ; The Thomaston Bank redeems. its '{>aper. In
the l~st i~stance tlrn contrast is but dimly seen, though there is a compnrieon with other banks rather implied; thus,
to write the contrast, But the L'Lfayette Bank does not.

the

ar~le ID both cases s!1ou~d be omitted:

r:epre~

1'1('

1

. ..

r L ES'

F 0 It T H E A It TI C L F. .

ihje~t deserres emphasis or dignity of expression: Tlie united States Think.
:t should not escape our notice: '!'he committee ham formed a standa.rd oF
l 'a hou se. · Says a:i infid~l to hi s acquaintance·- Christians' say, t~e .,orl~;
that all these are mdefimte subjects. They haYe not form ed tlie stand'a"r d;
1ed it·: . Hou ~e, had nq.t b~en br·o ught · to view; eyen in ima:ginati.on,.that wo
"There was no end to the 'world previously bad in view in' the mind of the·
article' is the~efore right in th.cse thrt;e exil:l!'Pl.es. ·But.. iti' r ep]J to ,tj1q~e;
the standard' they have formed 1 How large·· will tlie housir; be 1 because
1gbt to niind, although tbc "boµ se is not yet built:". We reply to a trav~Hng·:
you com·e to a school-house, ancl Y.OU wiU find Mr: Jones in the next b'eyo'nd
ndefinite, because it 11ad not been preYiously introduced. · But being' intro- :
.
..
.
.. . ! .
. """
. ;
>cl
ti~lo 'next claims'our attention, It is when ono pe}-sori' ~nly,is 't.lie p~kaess.or
another ill the instance mermt; as, She is heir to one:-fo1frth.of the 'Birig.he rirticle, sustain that li.ei-r is a definite .subject; requiring tlie'before it,' for
know whether a part of the Biagh;tm property , or the whole "o f it, has one
ily.including the idea of one, would imply that there are or may be more
lurth cr examples: He '"as prime minister to King ,Jamesthe First, -not a
J Col. L"line. The bn g: uagc a 11•ife would imply that he might have now or
e used. His not a delinitc snh.iec t, - the wife does not in thi s ca~e exist;
Sbo is the intended wife of Uul. L:iin e, is correct, because iiitcndcd icij'e

applicati on of the article and the omi ss ion of it, I now proceed to gil·e :i
the .omi8siu n o_f i t,. depends on good taste, a nd a fitness ;vh1c l~ is better seen
•Or 1s closed with ice; B. Tlt.e Bos ton Cadets appeared m uniform ; A. Ile
r; A . The wheel moves without noise and without friction; B. It passed
l with great rap idity; JJ . It morns with a rapidity which can scarcely bo
1trasting the omi ssion with the applicati on of the article, the two cases arc
''~ omit tl,c article, a!ld in the other we supply lt -frow a fitness of which
it cnstomnry to girn th e title Rei·. without the ar ti cle; as, Iri " ·hicb house
on is spoken of in a situntion which r equires more dignity of expression
tor fr om the Rei·. Dr. J ud son to tb e Ripti sts of th e United States.
··
1e use of the article, there are sometim es instances that•"P'}uirc a shn~e·s
hi ch otlwrwl sa wonld he proper , gh·cs more em phasis to the word than is
a8 , Oard , (hen.ding of a p<tragraph of thanks, &c.,)-not A Card.
reamhle ahout n. ~m n. 11 story . 0, in th e following, strictly admits of an
lity, it is not u ~~d : i\[any noun s enrling in o rece ive· cs for the plural.
t" at tide by a.ny of the furcgoin:; rule8, th e intlcfi nit o 111u~t he n•rrl , nnl p"s
for e fig;nrc 1.
~ssed;

NOUN.-ITS NUMBER.

'l
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-

NOUN.

j I '

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.... f

A Nu~n is a worJ which is the name of any person, place, or thing.

~

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On the Nu1nbcr of Uae Noun.

f;,\

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.i.l1.n

J..

· Number in grammar, applied to a: noun or pronoun; is that form .o f"tbe word' by w)iic~ it is· ni~~J·~~l\I(r+es•..ei~er ,~,
unity, or a. plur~lity of objects." '!'he sinii;ular nu~ber is that .form of . the .noun wh~ch i;xp.re~se9, ~':1~ 9ne .~~>'!!tf.~,!}ie
pluraI;,n~mber is. t~at form of the noun wh1?h expresses m,ore obJects than. one_; ·.thu~, pe7!-:1s B_ smgufa!, no.u,"11 ex~~IJ?$;
but one pen; pens is a· pl_ura.l noun, expressmg mo·re pens than one. ~o man ts a. srngular noun, and. ~. llij Pl,~~"'l'l.<!l~e ~
1. '!'he. pl urn.I number 1s generally formed by annexmg ans to the . su:igula.r; as, Pf!!'• pens; .sea,. ~eas .; trupa,/pttM: f
When the' addition" of s does not combine in sound ,yith .the word, or lust sylfablc of it, ~e pronounce ~~ot~.!. ~,Y.l~!l~~~ -~
as, house, houses, 1·ose, roses; practic~, pra~tices . ·. '!'he same_is to be obser~7q w:hen ~he .s.1s am.1exed,f?r . JX>s,~~~~¥e i:.a.se·;,
as, Tho.mas's cane, _pronou,nced as if written Thom~s-1s,""'-;'The Churchs pr.oaper1ty, P.r.?no~nc~ f'.·~~~~~:~·~,..f-!u~Is
formed· m the fqregomg manner are cal.led regular ph;irals.
·
.
.:
, .
. . ..
·. ·· ,. , "'·
2. Nouns ending in x, ss, sh, or soft ch, fortn their· plurals by adding es to the smgular; as, bo~, .ho_xes ;.. l{lass,:~~<l;~Sf~J
.fi.sli, .fislies; but in c/i hard, the noun receives sonly for the plural; as, monarch, mona·rch.s. 3. Many nou'!s ~~<jm~, m
o receive es for the plural; as, cargo , cargoes; hero, heroes; negro, negroes; P?tato, pot?toes; volcano, volcanoes f ,wh,1lst
.
. . ..
some nouns termin:iting in o have the regular plural; as, .folio, folios; ~eraglio, se:agli~s .
Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, make the plura~ by changing the y mto 1es; M, mnity, vanit1eJ; cherry,.
cherries, &c.; but when the y is preceded by a yowel, sonly is added; as, clumney, ~li1mneys; money, moneys;. delay,
.
.
: ,
delays; key, heys; joy, joys . A yariety of noun s foll ow which deviate from _the [ore;;omg rnles. .
5. Many nouns ending inf, or J c, form their plural by changing the termmatwn mto ves; as, life, lwes; w1(e, 1v1v~s;
calf, calves; shP.lf, shelves ; baf, !JP.eves; sheaf, xheaves; thief, thieves; wolf, wo lv~s. &c. vl(!i'!rf by the best Enghah U8age
has the regular plural wharfs ; but in the Unitc!l States the irregular plur:i.l wharves 1s m general use. Some ?f the
hcst s cholars however in our own co untry , make the plural wharfs; n.s, "The two longest wliarfs a.re at Boston and at
New Haven. ,\_Noah W ebster-Professor Goodrich. "And I saw Arac1 with its whmfs."-:-Kossuth. t
.
A fe w nouns ending in .f have the regular plural ; as, g rief, gri~fs; reproof, reproof.< ; reluf, reliefs ; an_d a _few ~thers.
G. 1'hose ending in if hare also the regular plural ; as, r uff, ruffs, &c.; .except staff, the plural of which IS gener,~lly.
5

sta7'~ 'fhe following in the formation of their plural ~ire a distinct class from the preceding, a part of.which are adojit.ed
from the dead languages :

Afan, men; w01nan , uomen; ch1"ld, ch ildren; o.i:, oxen; f oot , feet; tooth, t_eelh; g?tJse, geese; 1!1<>~se, mice; b~au, bea~t~; ',a.' br~ihtr,
b.rothers or brethren; b. penny, pence or pennies; c. die, dies or dice; d. index, indexes or indices,: e. genius, genii or_ geniuse_s;
1.1 basis, bases; axis, axes; ellipsis , ellipses; emphasis, emphases; hypothesis, hypoth eses; parenth esis, parentheses; radius, rad11;,
phenonumon., phenoniena; criterion, criteria or criterions; medium,, mediu'?1s or mcd·w; memorandum, memorandums or memoranda; encominm, encom:iumis or encomia; seraph, seraphim ; cherub, cherulnm.
~I.

a.• Brothers, when conn ected by cou&<ngninity ; fmd brethren when members of th~ same society; ns, Our br~thr.en in the church.
b. Pence, when we mean the amount of money in pence; pennies when we men._n pieces of money ~:tch of which 1s a penny.
c, Dies, when we mean moulds for coi ning money ; dice when we mean the cub1c:>l blocks for playing.
.
cl, Indexes, when signifying pointers; as, The imlexcs of that clock do uot cor rc.~pond to the hour me:mt: Indices wh.cn referrin~ to
o.lgebraic~l

qirnntities.

r. Genii, when denot.ing [tCri n.l

.
spirit~;

geniusrs when signifying persons of genius.

* The dcfinitjQn of nnmher ns mma.lly r: i\"l'll in gi·:imm a.Ni i:i a.:lpli cahlc t-'l ~ri th11:1- e ti c .. hnt I S"C nnt how it Cfl.n he tfl rmmmar. "Wbnt n:umhe-r h1 _rep;cs~·n~M·
by thn.t noun ? is a Vc:'ry ililfo re nt meani11p: from whi ch numh ~ r i;; t.ltat noun ? 1\ hat JS the numhe r of y our pew ? \\ hn.t numher of sheep have) ?u · "h1r_h
tU tmb cr is the n oun .~hiep J Of which nnm h c r i:t bonhl In t he la:-i t tw o sentences nnmhcr i ~ npplied to t.h c .nouns 3h eep ~nd book~ as e x pre::m ve of tbe1~
form to d enote a un ity or a phm1lity or th ings . In t ~ i c n ~:-;: t prec ~din~ sent.ence numht'l" has refrnmoi! to 11 n111t.y o r a plurality of ObJech. In the oth 7r aeri
t.,.nce numbe r J1a ~ a still differ ent moaning- m:l.rk, ~i;,,'.n, or l>r;tntl , of your p c"IV .
t Pronoun~ed. tnt.thtt, n ot tr u, th z.
t Th e distingQi ~ h,~• l Jlnng ari1m w:\s repntr.1.l elc•gant nn fl l:l!!tf'fnl in hi !t h\ngn n..~e '»h f' n :l>MrPs,;to g the c rmn l ~ lh :i t. Dlf't. l1im in our r.mtntry .
~ J>rononnee r long i n th•""! p} ur:1 l tf' 1min:ltinn or the ~ix f, ) IJ owin:; n o un .~ , a:itl _, liL: C? z .

~

1iUMBER OF THE NOUN.

ON TiiE NUMBER OF TIIE NOUN.

; sums .or pircels of money; as, ·The moneys miscd frol)l the different societi~ ·
IIlple; ns, Husbandman, husbandmen. Bat mussulman not being compoun~t1·
is nwssulman• in the plural.
·
·
· ., · ·
guage, are often used in'our langu,,.ge with the regul:l.1' English plural-seraphs,

.

.

~

:

e:~'with, but most of'th!l classico.l English scholars retain the French P.lural beaux,

.
., . . . . ·;. ,
Saxon termination for the plural. Chicken is the Saxon plural.for chick. Accord- •
two chicken. But we have adopted the latter word for the singu~, o.~d J¥ade . ~ 1
.

..

.

\ ~

Jlural termination ; m!l.ny of which on account of. the nq.t~re of the things·
•.ming, thoy being reckoned by weigh t or meaaure; as, rye, barley, jla:r._
•mes of metals ; as, gold, silver, tin, &c.
.
plural when the various sorts of the article are meant; ns,. meat, meal$;,
of these .n ouns·, with a few others · like them, is now established by- g.ood
mr t of this general nature, we should spe~ify t12e kind : Thus_, if I say,
ne kind, for instance, beef, I should have smd , Beef, &c. :1Jut if I mean
, I should say, Meats are very drar. But there are occn&1?ns where the
ural, and without specifyin<>' the kind; as, He dues not dr1Dk .tea. T_eas
i docs not drink all kinds of tea ; nnd Soucliong or soma partic?ln~ kind
·iming. This instruction can be_applied to any other ~ases of this kmd.. ·
singular t ermin:ition, but admit of the plur:il ~cnmng; as, c~tt~e, deer,
bnon, mackerel, and several other names of fish. The term ft.sh is m good
out it, with the p!tir:il meaning; ns, '!'hose fish were caught ID ~he ~ake ­
:c would be given to the plurnl : See the l?retty gold fis~es rollmg m tho
, of as a species, or referrei to as a qu:mhty only, the smgulnr sbonld ~e
take care of that fish. The word biscuit seems to hnve a pln.ce here - it
nation, and in almost universal good use throughout ou r cou!ltry. . .
one kind of talent only is meant; as, He rose to po_wcr by nid ?f milita~y
ixpress diff~rent powers of. the mind ; as, 'rhe choice fell on him for Ins
one person may 1111.Ye talents, but he can properly be said to have but one
he dictionaries. ns far as I have known, is given in the sin&ulnr ~um~c r
oken and written in the plural. We may reckon the plural tnrmmahon
igard to tha idea whic~ it conveys. .
.
.
.
, plurality of persons, is generally wnttcn ID the plural; as, His acquamtentcnce it should be sing ular, if we suppose it to mean former kno:vledge :
1 the next the plural is decidedly good : He is on? of my o~d ~cquamt anc~s.
His who le circle of acquaintance are proud of him . In d1.,.mfied nssocia·ed·with the singuln.r noun; thus, W'hich so shocked the whole nssembly,
trc to salute him.
havo the plural termination only. Some of these nre almost universally
s the following :
.
. .

clothes, breeches, drawers, dregs, embers, entrails , fetters, /i~ings, goods,
g.~, nipper.If, pincers or P_inche.r~, s nujf~ rs , :shea·~s, sc~ssors, ton.g s, tiduigs, tha nk&,
. (military banners,) orgies, pleixds, 11tt11nlu2, ht.era.ti,_frc.
.
1 sses,

g in an ,<,are, for the most p~. rt, accompamed with verbs of the smgu~ar
illows, (g:illns,) odds, news, billiards, sessions , 11.1ea~le.~,. hysterics, P,hys1c.<,
hanics, politics. Of odds, be) low~, and gall1nTs, 1t 1s evident, that 1f they

'9

to

exp;-ess a plurality of the things, they must have · plural verbs. Pains (laborious .effort). is· somctimes"tef~rfed
as
~ingular 1 as, 'Why take this pain.~ J Its collocation may decide a choice, as may be said, perhaps·; of two '<lr ·three'of
the foregoing. Riches and wages are genernliy .connected with plural verbs.
· · • '''"' ~ vrui t:.~9.m!l:;hv1.
· .17. Means is treated either as singular•· Or plum!, according as it conveys unity or plurality.: of "id~~\' '\f~ 1 1 that
means, if it stands for one thing ; those means, if it refers to more instruments or agencies than ' otie.T ' H iafils f"appa
ratus, series, specie$, superjices, and congeries, come under this extensive class, and are- to be r egarded''either ;i~ ·sirigular
or plural, according to the meaning they convey.
.
· · : '"-'>"! '''Ii 11s lf~W . :•{'.
• ~ IS·." Pease should ·be thus wr.itten when the article is r efertcd 'to as species of grain, or" as !\' quan~i*1ii IC!,'P~dfe
grow in Maine; a bushel of pP.ase~' But when we refer to the seeds or kernels as so many units, it~:eJi6µfd be;Wrltte~
peas; as, three peas.
.
.
.
.:.
· " ' '"·";"'·i ·~tm · !11
:' 19: Compound nouns, where the principal word is 'p ut first;vary the· principal' word to form the plural /'aiidll!lJ.e ..adJUnct to form tlie possessive case; as , The twO' fathers-in-law of the young couple; His father"in-lato's ' adViee}'o'u ...u<f1
• 20. Compounds ending in Jul, and nll those nouns i,n which ·the principal word is put first, fo~m"the i?lural _ll.Y''~pnex_
rng ans to t~e· co~pound '.''Ord; as, spoonfuls, not spoonsf~I. 21, But there are c:ises prohotln~ed~ ~ik~ ~h1_s ~n~d ?C
com pounds, rn which full 1s a separnte word and written d1lferent;-the noun meamhg so many d1stmct _measure!!; n'i
such instnnces the plural is formed nccording to the general rule; ns, Seven baskets full; ten boxes full.""' ·'. ·' ~If ...... 't
22. Brace, dozen, and couple, arc generally confined to the singular termination ; as, Fifty brace of birds; three , d~zen
of bibles; twelve couple were at the wed<ling. But in n use like the following, they should be given plural : He bought
pnrtrid~es in b1·aces, and books in do.zcns ; they went in conplcs.
·
·
' ·
'
23. Yoke when it means n pair, and sail when it means n vessel , are also confined to the singular termination ; as,
Three yoke of oxen; twenty sail of shipping. 'When this is not their me;ining, they follow the general rule of plurals.
24. Horse and foot meaning cnmlry and infantry, are usc<l in the sin.,.ula r form, a: though connected with ·a plural
verb and adjective; as, A thousand horse nre ready; 'l'en thousnnd foot"' were on the march . In these cases men a.re
included in the idea.
25. Pair nnd chaise in ordinary practice, are improperly confin ed to t he siilo-ular number. They are subject to the
plural form as nouns generally ar0. The possessirn of wije, and of one qr two ~ther nouns, is often, by illi_terate people,
:._,.
·
p ronounced plural; thus, His wives' r elation. The sense here requires the singular wife's.
26. 'When the same indi,·idual thing is clnimed in common by more than one posses~or, the · name of the t~ing po·s aessed should be in the singu lnr ; ns, 'l'he boys love their .<chool; The globes are of cqunl diameter; \Ve will take the
measure of them; They have sim ihir shnpe, •ize, and color. 27 . Also when nil the things referred to have one and the
same name, the noun expressing i t shou ld be in the singular number; as, What is the name of those_ things in your
basket 1 Ans . Apple. Nam.:: is singular becnuse there is but one name to all of them; and apple should be· singular
because it is a name common to all of them.
·
·
28. \Vhen the things or persons denoted either by n plural noun, or by nouns connected by and, ar e taken together to
make sne of th nt expressed by the following, the followin" is necessarily in th e sin.,.ula.r number; ns , Strnwberriea are
:t. delicious fruit; James, Julia, and Jane were her family.
Music and poetry wo1~ld be a grent addition to her attain~
men ts. We give the followini:; recommendations ns a .<pecimen of the many we have received. In the first two sentences
the sense does not nllow the following noun to be plurnl, for strawberries are but a fruit, nnd the three persons are'
necessnrily taken together to make the fami ly. But cases like the two last ex:imples may ndmit of difforent reckoning.
Music alone, and poetry alone, can truly be said to be an add ition; and ench sin .,.)e recommendation can, with truth, be
said to be a specimen. In cases li ke these good sense must deci<le whether th e precedin~ nouns are most fitly·reckoned
together as making one of the following, or each taken nlono as mnking one of the followmg, nnd consequently the whol.e
r eq uiring it plural. In the Inst examples good taste would decidedly prefer addition and specimen in the singular ,as gi>en.
29. 'rhe following e:i:ample may be clas"ed here: Th e judgement of the committee has not been questioned. It takes
itll the committee together to mnke out this jud.,.ement.
·
30. A noun of the plural form mny r equ ire ~'1. plu ral pronominal adjecti>e a.nd a plurnl verb, yet if it mean but one
thing, the noun stand ing for it must in consequence be of the singular number; as, Th e snuffors are a com·enient article.
31. In a very few instances we apply a plural mcanin" to a singular noun which is subject to both the si ngular and
the plural form; as, The en~mlJ were numerous. In th~ fo ll owi ng n plum) pronoun is use1l convey ing unity of idea :
l\' e nre not sneh a. ma.chino n• a clork; !l'C usNI inst~a<l of mnn or per~on.

a

0

E NUMBER O'F THE NOlJN.

c g~n~ral µse of the plural; ~s, Reach the coiiscience of a!l pc:s~ns; Wi~h
_h eads.. Such libert.ies should be taken only, under .the. d1rec~1on of.sound

y

a1;d, to ea~h'of which is ;iriipli!!d the same title a~ ..the o~e ~~pressed,, the
1, and Scott; To Tboma.s Bt>nd and John Gray, Esquires. If there .a.re tw<>
be plural ; as, The Rev, Doctors Cox, Beecher and Maso.n . . ,
, .
1 of the same surname, the titlo only should be in t.he . plural_; ·.as, '.fho
d Mary Herrick; The farms of the lvlessrs: Norwood; Tbe Captams .Browl!. •
by far the majority of the bes~ usage. It i~ nlso, confirmt!tl by -~he present
wing, which are analogous with t~ e foregorns : fhe brofhers Brnghall! ~r~
inst the prisoner; the ladies Hamilton were m the carriage. Founded on
.wing i·cmark :. 35. When a proper noun conv.e ying a plural nieaning, ex~.
r noun must be of th e sin<>'ular number, and the common noun of the.plural.
m the title is preceded by any of th~ numerals, two, three , &c., th~. proper
-similar to the fo\Jowin<>': The two sister Slwpards attended the bride; the
the two sistcr.s Shepard'; the three Doctol's lllisli. 36. Although 1 reg_ard
saye on grammar, yet I cannot see that either taste or philos~~hy reqmres
toun not preceded by a title or other noun, should be plural 11 more than
ral or not· as The Stuarts · the twelve Ctxsars; the Howards of the age.
!i:pressing :nor~ than one of th e same name, preceded wi~h a title and no
I, I see· not wherein when both are used , that the rule i~ any more than
,son for the title 's i:ikiog ·preference in point of plurality, as for the other
public to decide.
rith thti title 11frs. prefixed, pluralize the mime and not the title; as, The

ing, are established by universal _go?d .usage: Sing the fir~~ · second, and
>f nine and ten o'clock·1 Lords Wellrnooton and Lynedoch; Ihe B1shops of
'Vashin.,.ton and Cour t streets; The no~th and south Parishes are fiye miles
nay rem~rk in allusion to this use of the plural, that we S(l.y, The new and
and why not then say, Sing the first, second, and third verse, (_not vers.es)_ 1
seem to him philosophical objections to those _plurals. He Will s~y, it is
ould con 8 ider the meaning to apply thus; Sm" the first verse, smg the
this use of the plural also makes_ out Bish~ps ?f Canterbury , and Bishops
·e ts; north parishes, and south pans/:es:-wh1ch 1s not so . .
depends on what connexion. w_e put to 1t. I~ an account o_f the old and the
d it gives the sense, and as 1t 1s (l, long established cxpresst?n, we ''.ould l~t
to be exitctly of th ~ kind that comb under o~r present. notice, as lnstory .m
I modern. The objector's method· of r endermg the third example, I admit,
~a in a brief (l,Dd comprehensive manner, in s~ead of the mind's ~eing made
will now endeavor to show the r eader that this use of the plural is not only
principles of grammar and philosophical truth.
.
icultieM a<'ainst himself. He, and I suppose every one, will allow that the
James nr~ goo d boys; My amiable cousins, Ann, Jane~ and Susan, were
tor we must say, John and James is a good boy; My mmable cousm , Ann,
e idea in some other manner th(l,n what it is , - for we can't say, John are
oere present; but John is a boy, &c., Ann is a cousin, Ann was P!e~ent, &e.
•h and therefore do not a,•ail ag,iinst the other examples. But 1t is asked
I answer, on the S(l.me principle that we sustain th e following: Wil.d three (l.re ji1Je. The conjunction connects the words W1llwm and Mary,
r couple," a.ml "'.\hry is (l, happy couple," as thi8 would be nonsense. So

· 4o.

0 N TH .E N U ~IB ER 0 F THE N 0 UN.

11

in the other example, as the affirmation cannot be made of each separnte. In such examples as I have adduced ...we
haYe only lo consi"d;r the c~njunctions as connecti!lg _the nouns or adjectives. as wo~ds, and not·conne'cti~g senteilcts,. and
the plural number 1s sustarned by truth and a prmctple of grammar. If we have 1t verses, we necessarily tnake- ttie eonjunctions connl'.ct the adjectives first, second, and third. Canterbury and York, ~onjointly connected, hO.ve. bishoptr. - ~ Tlie
plural parishes makes nrrrth and south connected as words; so of streets. · But m tbe last two exampleswiviare '. tinder
the necessity of making the nouns plural. A corner must have streets; ·at the cornEir of tlie streets Wasni11gto~ and
Court. The parishes· are five miles apart; not, the north pariah is five mites apart....:. the 90uth parish is flve 'miles 'apart.
: 41. . When we refer to a thing only as a material or .kind of matter,. tlie noun shoul~ genera.Uy be of' thei singular
• number; as, That sloop was built of ce'dar: Cedars would· ·not· suit ·the sense, because we· refer to · cedriilr only-as- a
material: 42. But, A row of cedars fronted the cottage, is correct, because w;e mean several trees. c:'lled cedar.~ · The
engine consumes fifty bushels of cbal an hour; Ten: tons of brick were used m tbe arch. Here again we refer",lo the
mtiterial only. 43'. But in' the sentences, Sei the basin on some live·coals; It took five hundred h-ricks foi· tbe'.'oven, .we
refer to several particles of the former article, each of which· is a coal-. Tims we refer to brick> in pdrts._ thai an
numbered.
' :'
·'·r··· " ~· :~. •
44. So.when we refer to (l, thing as a work only, the singular should be used; as, Ten copies of Pope's·.Eisay oil Ma.n.
1Ve refer to Essay as a work, amt Pope had but one work of this name.
·
.' "
45. An adjective denoting a plurality requires its noun to be of the plural number; as, Two tons; five card:.; The
btoxes are of various sizes. 46. But if the adjective expresses less than a plurality, its noun must be of the singular
number; as, One and a htilf mile.
47. But when a noun in connection with an adjective of plurality, is itself used as an adjective, it should be of the
sin,.,ular number; as, A four foot rule; A three year old peach tree. Herc foot taken with four forms a complex
adj~ctive, and year is a part of the phrase adjective three !/Car old. The following are familiar examples of the same
use : A three stiJry house ; ti five cent piece; a forty fathom line.
.
·
48. " Proper nouns, (l.nd other parts of speech us od as nouns or mere names, form the rlural aceordmg to th! _general rule for noun s of like endings ; the Aristotlcs; the ayes and noes , the in.• and. outs; by sixes, by seve11S, by fi.!ties;
two halves; His ands and hi s ors. One of the buts is superfluous. Three tens . Exceptions. 'Vords ending iii y after &
consonant like th e followinoo, adopt the 0"'eneral rule and not the special rule; as, The Livys; 'l'he whys and bys.
.
49. _...Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are m(l.de plural by annexing 's; as, Dot your i's and cross
t's.
Your s's are not well nrnde. The>< 'sand -'s are not in line. Four 6's =eight 3's. Tbe 9's ·give place to 0 s. ·
50. "·words adopted without change from foreign langua"'es, generally retain their original plural. .A few of these,
however, from common use, have also the regular English plural. "-Bullions. ·
·
.
'
ConRECTJOi<s. Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays. 27. Nominati·ve, conjunctions, and. A verb can properly be said to haTii but
one nomin.iti,-e or subject., though two or more things are connected to make it.

r'Ur

G- E lST ::c> E :El.. •
1. Ger1der, in English Grammar, is a distinction in the form or termination of nouns, as expressive of the sex .: thur,
Poet denotes a male writer of poetry, and we call the noun masculine gender. Poetess denotes a female writer of
poetry, and we call the noun feminine gender." So man denoting the male of the human species, is masculine gender,
and woman denoting the other sex of the same, is feminine gender. Gender consists in sex. As there are bui two
sexes, consequently, whether grammatically, or physiologically considered, there can be but two genders-11UJSGUline
and feminine. Hence nouns expressing persons or brutes, but bavinq no form or termination indicating the sex, ate of
no gender. Consequently all nouns denoting things without sex, nave no gender. Examples of the former class:
Parent, friend, cousin; sheep, cat, t11rkey; of the latter class, -house, book, field, apple.
2. Two of the pronouns have gender; he of the masculine, and she of the feminine. The rest of the pronouns are
'vithout gender, h(l,ving no distinction in form as expressive of the sex. The pronoun it has been called ne11ter gender,
• Proper n:\mes of persons are included in this definition as ma3culine or feminine gender. Though they are or a difl'erent class from thoae. ln • it1l whkh
foHow1 1 not A.C.lmittlng of being set off in pairs, yet they· txpreas, by their form, the sex.
Wr. mi~ht, htuTinronAly 'P~;ili.ln~~ wll h pnme Aptnfl!,, c o ntrR~l the p rt1ptr noun! John and )Jary, tht)' beinr !O rnmmonly mtd for the malt and female.

rnn:irn

OF THE NOUN.

ica~ion of four genders.

GENDER OF THE NOUN.

B ut it is of n~ gander, not generally denoting

.ires its pronoun to be of the masculine, unless the feminine is knoWn by
me word in .the ·sentence expressive of that sex ; as, Every person should
~ail delicate creature striving with her bands to support an aged mothe:r
ie feminine gender is clearly inferred, therefore the pronoun is put so. · .
: to of no gender, its pronoun should be the same, (or neuter gender ail
om some expression of the sentence; as·, :\Ve saw a creature on. a t~ee · and •
offspring to the mercy of other brntes. From the word olfsprmg m con•
1ine gender and therefore use it.
·
.
.· . ·
•ply to them the personal pronouns he and she ; as, The o:x knowetb hu
refer to a noun denoting a species remarkable for boldnees, strength, or
oreferred; as, The dog is remarkable for his sagacity. See also the pre;ecies of the oppoeite qualities, the feminine gender is applied; as, The
this sort of figure baa, with some, become quite too common. It ie not
r a newspaper, or even writes a book, that has the taste and judgement
, to the dignity of thinking human beings in the application of language.
OF NOUNS OF
'i'eminiue.

.uphincss.

GE:V~ER.

Ma.tculiu.e.

Jm,..,

aconess.

King,

tchcss.
unless.

Lad,
Lord,
L:mdgrayc,

~tress.

Lion,

1press.
.chantrcss.
ecutrix.
other.

Male,
Man,
J\Iustcr,
Master,
Marquis,
J\Iargravc,
Mayor,
l\Iilter,
Nephew,

itr~s.

.

lll.

ose.

ly.
'l"erncss.
e.
fe.

-steas.
iress.

:roinc.

mtrcss.
structrcss.

Negro,

Patron,
Protector,
Poet,
Prior,

Prophet,

Feminine.

ftfa.Jculin.t.

jcwcss.
queen.

Prfast,

las.~.

Peer,
Papa,
Son,
Stag,
Songster,
Sloven,
Sorcerer,
Sultan,

lady.
Iandgravine.

lioness.
female.
wom:in.

mistress.
miss.

marchioness.
margravine.

mayores.~.
spawner.
neice.
negress.

patroness.
protcctresa.
poetess.
prioress.
prophetess.

Prince,

'l'ailor,
Testator,
Tiger,
'futor,

Uncle,
Viscount,
Votary,
Widower,
Wizard,

Feminine.

priestess.
princess.
peerCSI!.
mamnm.

daughter.
hind.
songstress.
slut.
sorceress.

.

tigrcs~.

tutorcss.
aunt.
viscountess.

Yota,re.ss.

widow.
wiwh.

ml perplexity of four genders,* yet the learner will find much imperfection and
~sex.

n which I have c:ousultcd an unsop histic:llcd literary man (and I have conversed with mauy on

.

'

.

!

··

·

13'
.

"

'

' '·

. • ,'

•

' ..

'.

"

' . I

,'1. M013t nouns representing ?la.sses ._of _brutes, reptiles, insects, &c., hav:e .n? gender. The hrg_e'. ~1viswn.a of animals ..
more frequently. have . terms drntmgmshmg the sex, than the ~~°:lier dms10ns have, as that 1s. more _,-yanted ; thu_&, _ ;
Milter and spawner express t):ie. male and female of the more familiar classes of fish, su!!h. as have fins and scale~· ; __?~t,
this does not show whether 1t 1s the male or female of the class salmon, or m'J.ckerel, or trout, or· of_some other div1s1on ' 1
included in them.or~ general one. But if it is the male, we caq it the milter, and if.t~efe1!1ale,' we ,c~l1it" .~hii)p~wne_r. ..:t
8. Some nouns u sed as general terms for both sexes, have gentle: when. t]10 , na~e is con.trasted '1\'Ith anotlie~ . te;m .
wliich is confined to _the opposite sex;_ .t~us, Hors; expr~ssing a sp_ec1es of :immal, .1s of n~ P.en~er, ,but .coi;itra~te~ _
wit!:\ ,:
• m.iire; which denotes the female on_ly,.1t 1s masculme. So g?ose , r e pr~~ent1!11ta class of b1rda,·mi:iludes bot~ :s_e;.e~.?,. bu~;.
used in contrast" with gander, which represents the male, it becomes femupne . · _[J? the one case the _ll;las~al~,ne- . xa. ~h~ '
general term, in the other, - ~h~ feminin~ i~; · . fo _;iom'e instahceS' the_re is _the naine ?f t_he ,specfes·, :i.i:i.d' n ' iioiin· of,
each gender to express the SBX af that gpecres; as of deer, she".f' , &c.; the former havmg ~ucf.,1 doe-an<l tile latter, ,
ram, ewe . . Bn_t_fashion has ll!'~!Jly ~ad_e the niale of the una~s uni1ng · ~be~p,_ ~n,:isked~ imita:te tn !1a!!'~. th.a _t o.f: ~he stat?ly
deer. I know not whence this P'i-rtiahty of the word has arisen, unless 1t 1s b ~ca use buck 1s sometimes used for n rakish .,
male of the' h_utrian species:·
..
, . .
.. .
.
.
. .
..
'
· .
9. In mi1n7' ca~es. we-denote ~he sex by ~oinb mm& general ~erms of masculine andfom1mnc gende;, with the ,name of
the species o ammals, or class of persons. Cock and hen express t.he male an?:, female of a ~ o~e~t1c _ fowl. _'Ibey a~e
also applie,d ~o the name of the species .of b~rds gen_era~ly, to der;ote the sax; as.••. A cock partridge, a hen P'."rtri~lge.
The nouns" male and female a re of umve·rsal apphcat10n to ammals as expresSIYC of the sex; but by pr10r right, are.
more appropriately applicable to· the hti'man species . Ile and she among pronouns are words as general in their application to the sexes, as male and female are among nouns.
.
.
. .
.. .
. . " -; ;·
10. Th e hum an family has terms to expr'ess· the sex· as a race ; as, man, woman. Yet m this case the masculme gender
,is often used as a general term including. both sexes ; as,_ Go d _ maa~ · 11ian up_right; Man. exists under every k~o.wn climate. In these sentences both sexes are m cluded . But m expres;;mg a variety of port10ns of the huD?an, family, the
noun has no gend~ r, :i:s in ex:imples prcv iou_sly ~iven ; Par:ent, child, cqusin;'servant, ancestor, sweetheort , lovct:_, &c . . To
such n ouns, when 1t 1s necessary to be dafimtc rn e:-qiress mg · the sex, wi.: prefix the general tm:ms male ,an_~ feJ?Ulle.
As the reader passes on under the head "Gender'/ ' he w'ill be rath er amused at some of the contrivances t~ .expre_ss the
sax; as," Singing melod ies to h_i ,/[adi_lvve." l_le_re the're is the cu-Hons ~om!:iination ?f the word lo¥e~" w'11~c~ certainly
must be considered-an ag~n t, with lady the fcmmrnc gender and th e object of love, rn order to m1ke defimte the sex
of lover.
.
.
.
.
12. Here follO\n ' a shorf liot of words, expressing the sexes· by hav ing other words prefixed to them af the milsculille
and feminine g~ndcrs.

i..

Fem.i~'it1c.

niasc ulin e.

8Ultancss
or sultana.
tailoress.
testatrix.

ao masculine: Brunette, dowager, shrew, oyren, virago.

:mder;s in grammar.

·~j • i .-'

A mrt.n-serv.1nt,
A ·rnale-chiltl,
J\fale-dcsccnchmts, ·

Fe min i1~' ·

A wo1rntn-scrrunt.
A femn.le-chilcl.
Fcmale-clcs~cndants.

·

A cock-spn.iTuw,
A he-goat,
A bnll-Mlf,

A ltcn-spa1-row.
A she-goat.. .
A ·heifor-cn,Jf. ·

13. \Ve are inclined to smile at the expressions m :n-tailv1~, icom~m-tailor, whi ch..w~ .s~1n~foncs hear,' instead of the
proper words tailor a.nd ta_iloress; yet such is the imperfection of our language, _that we have sometimes occasion to use
a double gender; as, The male-heirs of that estate are disinherited, .anc1 most of the female-heirs are dead. In the
first exa_mple the masculine gender ma.le is put with the masculine heii~in t he other, the mascnline und feminine are
put together.
14. 'J'he reader has thus far been led to suppose that in case th e- noun has gender, the masculine is to be used only
when 've _r efer to a male, and the feminine. always when we refer to a female . B ut this does not follow.with i;ll nouns
of gender. There _a re several nouns of the masc ulin e gender that are much n sed as general term s, u;clndm~ both
sexes; as, Po~(,_ autho1:, edit01:, _executor, {Jenefactor, protector, and one or two more. These are often applied to females .
in stead of their feminines. 15. The ruler of.. a people is not ne cessJ.rily n. king, it may be a q ueen ; tbe teacher of a .
sc hool need not be a master, it may be a mistress: But an inheri tor of an esta.tc mu st necessarily be . an heir., not.
heiress. As .femal es qften inherit estatGs , th erefore they are heirs to that kind of property. Thus, in .the sep.tenoe,
Th ey have found another heir to the estate, heir does not mcessarily imply a male-it may mean either. Mr~ : Mills
. 11. * " ·hen love is

~

pc r~o nill c d

we always a::;cril1L l'J it lh .: masntl iw: f:'.Cwk r ; a::;: Hf.Ar e l '. 1inkrtl1 no e vil of his nci;;hlJ '•r."

~NDER

OF THE NOUN.

GENDER.-POSSESSIVE CASE.

see that heir in. the last sentence is properly a1,plied to a female. The
i~ of a feminine gender to s?ch nouns, if it cannot be depended on and
his general use of the masculine gender of these nouns, there are .occaeions
. To know when is a point I have been aimin"' at. It is first to be shown
or rather, whe.n the masculine gender mus.t b~ applied to a female.
.
of both sexes m the class referred to, the masculme gender is necessarily
~rea~ estate~the meaning ~cing that no other person whether male or
mg is to be regarded of poet m the following sentence : :Mrs. M. is · the
ison of this is clear. Heiress would only imply that there was no other
ould be left to suppose that there might be more or less male heirs. So
i were male writers of poetry. in the county as good, or better, than sh.e.
the author of a. book, the editor of a .P:iper, the protector of her orphan
s.Qxes supposed m these several capacities. Take a further view of this :
widow, or her son! Ia not. t~e answer necessarily, The widow is to be
an executor. Although she is m one sense an executrix, she in this case
rho performs a part of the duties of the office, and a female also, she is
1 to the male executor.
d.er of ~hese nouns, no.t so _clear as· the foregoing, which will be rendered
: of which has been ~!Ven m the ~entence Mrs. Mills, &c. 17. When we
' ?f general terms with ;io allus10n to the sex, the masculine gender is
mngs of the downfallen is a benefactor of her race. Bmefactor is alluded
o the sex. Benefactress ·Would not tell all we mean ; -it would be only
We woul~ not st!nt her p~ais~ t.hus! but we would eXI!ress her as deFurther 1llustrat10n of this d1stmct10n of the sex : .Miss Gray is an
:rformaf!ce in t~e art. If we a~e comparing ~Iiss Gray among females
:!, we wish to give her more praise, by comparmg her with all writers of
1ere _is an ad.ditional reason for the masculine gender: Miss Gray is the
ipcc1men of the art. We not only wish to give her praise among both
must mean, that she is the ?n!y one referred to among both sexes. See
it a few examples of the femmme gender of these nouns' having a place.
asted; as, .Mr. Mason is a poet, and his wife is a poetess. But observe
l masculine: But she is not much of a poet.
In the last instance she is
od thus viewed has only an ordinary rank.
1un is not referred to with the general meaning, the feminine gender is
id benefactress for her watchful earn through the night. In this instance
l to. But here, as before, a shade's difference in the turn Qf expression
requires the masculine gender : In the mornin"' she that had been my
ray. In the last, the sex is not referred to, and ~e is the only one meant
complexion may assist the learner still more.
the noun is applied as an epithe~ to show the professiim or title of tho
hat lady is an actress; Miss Greenville is a rich" heiress ;t Miss Collins
ion and observe the examples in illustmtion, will be enabled, the author
ndered nouns (if be may so call them); and they will recognize as they
mce below, referred to by the t, both the feminine and masculine gender
and evan in the sa.me sentence.
n heir the property is only in prospect, ancl a person is not ca11ed rich without property; and
au he:r but a. possessor. As the expression is sam:tioncd by practice, the author h as allowed
! an hcircs.J, unlc~~ she is heir to a large estate.

\.

16

Although pers;>ns of extraordinary good taste and long experience in writing, may generally apply the gender or
these nouns right, yet not many even of such can feel that satisfaction and certainty which they would to have perused
the preceding rules .
ConnECTIO!'i'. 20. Woman here is contrasted with man, the term being taken in its most extensive sense. When the sexes a.re con.
trasted the feminine gender should in all cases be applied to a female. See fulse grammar under gender.
The sweet songstre,,;s has become an author. Author here is referred to in a general sense only.

POSSESSIVE CASE.
1. A noun denotin"' possession should generally have an apostrophe and ans annexed to it; thus, John's book.
2. But when it would be difficult to pronounce· an additional s, or would occasion too much of the biasing sound, an
apostrophe only should be used; aa, Xerxes' army; For emphasis' sake. 3. ·when ownership is really meant, we
should be careful to give tho word the possessive expression, even at the expense of ease in pronouncing; thus,
'fhomas's cane; That shepherdess's song was sweet-pronounced Thomas'-is, shepherdess'-is. Thomas' cane would
seem too much like both words taken together as a proper name; and shepherdess' song sounds as though was meant
a kind of song pertaining to females generally of that order.
4. The following nine exam pJQs taken from ·webs ter, are presented as he would have them for possessive case:
Horses', churches', plural; Miss's, tress's, highness's, peeress's, plexus 's, Venus's, Sirius's, singular. To these let
me add Hercules, beaux, ?ifathew!i, James, Ames, Charles, Davis, and Raselas. To the first thr~e I would annex an
apostrophe only; to the others an ·apostrophe and ans. These will serve as a comparatory guide ill almost all the difficult cases that will occur in English.
5. In such very nice casas, however, as Raselas, ~Mathews, and a few others, the collocation of the word may perhaps
sometimes vary the choice. For a further remark , see figure 1 on the number of the noun.
6. In cases like the following, the nouns should be used as adjectives, and not as nouns in the possessive case : State
house, Stale prison, Barn floor-analogous to Toion house, Parlor floor, Statesman office.
7. In a variety of instances there Reems to be no established guide which of these . uses to make of the noun; for
example, we say, Bunker Hill monument, Fayeuil Hall; and also, Smith's block, Jones 's Corner. So we say, Goat
skin, Whale oil, Bee f tallo1v; Hog·~ lard, Be?«r's grease, Camel's hair, Elephant's teeth .
8. The preposition of before the name of t!:ie possessor, has the same effect in expressing ownership, as the noun has
with the possessive form; thus, That is the knife @f John, denotes possession, the same as That is John's. knife. But
there is generally a preference in the two forms, the choice depending on what is to ·be expressed. Of the two methods,
the latt~r is preferable in the example just given. Il11t, In the name of the Commonwealth is preferable to In the Commonwealth's name. The bill originated in the house ~f commo1u is dignified and appropriate; but .iu the commons' house
is far from being so. Sometimes there is but little if any choice in the two modes of expression; as, He called at the
President's house, or, Ile called at the home of the President.
9. Sometimes we have occasion for what may be called the double possessive-the preposition of before the na.me of
the possessor, and the noun with the possessive form; as, That is a sentiment of Mr. Wort's; the meaning of which is,
that is one of Mr. ·wort's sentiments; or, that is a sentiment of Mr. "Vort's sentiments. But it is evident that this
form of expression should not be used unless possession is meant; as, A crown of gold; a mass of siz.ve,.; an account
nf a storm. Here no possession is meant and we need no guide. And when possesaion is meant, if the sentence neither
expresses nor implies the possession of more than one thing, only the single possessive should be used; as, The crown
of the king was stolen. Only one thing is eupposed to be posses~ed here, as a king usually has but one crown, therefore king is properly without an apostrophe ands. But when the sentence expresses or implies the possession of more
than one of that which is mentioned, the double possessive should almost invariably be used; as, A soldier of the
king's was slain. Here it is implied that the king possessed soldiers,-it meaning a soldier of the king's soldiers;
therefore king has an s and apoEtrophe.
10. In the two fullowing sentences the double possessive should not be used: That portrait of my friend does not
resemble him; The lady to whom we were introduced is a sister of Mrs. Strong. In the former sentence ownership is
not meant, but merely a painting or likeness of the person. In the last sentence the supposition is, that the person
who makes the remark does not know whether Mrs. S. has one sister only, or many sisters, - a plurality is not, ae n.
matter in course, implied here, therefore the single possessi1'e is us~d.

I.~

ON THE PRONOUN.

·PR~NOUN.
m to avoid the to? frcq.uent use 9f the :~np~e word. . Who and _its •rnriati~~"
mere words. .Mluch .1s generally a r elative pl'Onoun. That is a rel~tive
hich to be substituted fo1· it.
·
· · :
· · ·
' '
;he S:i.viqr, :i.nd ·'Jl)h~clt to" thing& 'or ,b~~te. s, .Tha,t. is ~ppl.ied to persons,_~nd
person1:1, or the D?ity, do not :i.uthor;ze the"apphcat10n of who.
·
s God, Lord, A_lnughty, Supreme Being, J e8us, S:i.vior, and the like-man,
:sons, are not used_, th,~re ai·~ s.cvera_l occ.asion~ in wh_ich }VO _do no,t apply
to~ term used figuratively, ,imply.i.ng Deity or a pei;son, ;we u~e which ;· a.a,
; ~lthoug~ _the hand wluch offers it wears a. ·rin<>,
&c.; Who finds a. hea1;t
0
·
·
allmnce with Sweden.
·
.ning · pers.on~, conveying _unity of idea, ":0 generally u ~e wliich; as, That
wa5 appomte_d ; The - ~at;on_ to. 1ch1ch he belongs; A ' party of wh'ich you
-~assed away ; A fa1~1,'.y wl11c!1 1s ~roken up. B\J t wh en· a personn.l collcc~
.1.Hy npply who; as , I;i e family WLlOm we met on our wny. ·
s r efe}TCd to as denoting the cha ra cter or qualification only and not the
;) .is a dcsitable attainm ent.
'
· · ·
. '
for,a l erson or per!lon ~, but i·eferred ,to m: rely as expressive of a. nnmbex
s., 'Ih ~ elephant has kill ed a tlurd man w.ithin a month which makes th'c
rnrng which nuinber makes tl1e tenth number of _tb.e ~1cn whom he has
·
'e tlurt;; pupils, which moMt likely th ere w.ill be, the tuition w.ill be $2.
ice of who or tcltich; as, Th·c number of substantial inh abitants with whm:-i
re re.fer .to n term which literally m"crms pcr.3ons, and the meaning carries
· ·
·
·
·
o ohject1 on to 1cltom .
d, th ey take prono ~ns t~at r epresent persons; ns , I'l'i!Jlt t, sable goddcs~,
· who bad been hunting with lu m .
'ten u sed with r eference to the occupation of another ; as, 'Vhat is he l

llON 0

UN,~A

D.J tCTIV B.

J7

A'fso ~Ftcr mljectlves of orJ.er, as,. first, second, &c., the antecedent is often understood' thus, The- lio-htning struck
Swan's house yesterday, which is the fourth that baa been injured by that moans in two weeks. If ;'e refer that to
fourth used :i.s a noun or to house understood, to which we mio-ht apply f@urth a.s an adjective, it- will be exactly equal
to saying, Swan's house has been injured by lightning within"two weeks, which would be nonsense . .. This fact is told
us io. the beginning. But it me:i.ns, which is the fourth house of the lwuses that ham been, &c, , .,
.,., ,. /•-..,1 . ·1;
· I am aware that such ellipses have been en tirely overlooked; consequently the verb following. the relative 'Iias.,b~en
left ~i ngul:ir. I ~annot f?rb.ear not.ici.ng o~ .t~i~ occasion a doub~e error which mp.~Y. au~hora have comll\itted _b1. i;r~ei:-­
l ook10g tlus occas10nal elhpa1s. Ins m cr1tic1srn"' on the followtrig senten~e, exh1b1tmg it as a model of~ ,etirta1}\ kmd
of orror which is often made, namely, using !t pl~ral ·pronoun with a singular ·antecedent: 'l'be. wheel k:illed·,another
man, who is the sixth that have lost .their lives by these means. Ilut this example is a decided failure of that ·Qbject.
man to be the :i.ntecedent. From, the; il~ustration
'!'hey changed have into has, their into his, and lives into life, takino0
of th.e la.st preceding ellipsis it must appear clear that that refers t o men understood. ·we ask, what ·sixth mii.n1.;: yYlty,
the-sixth m:i.n of the men that ha'!Je lost tAeir lii•r.s, &c., all must s:i.y, Therefore they altered three worda that are
right. into words th,it are w.ronii;; whilst t~ ey have left one word decidedl,y w1:ong untouched.- Meaits, has ·&,singul:µo
me()nmg here-, as the wbecl is ev idently the mstrmnent referred to, therefore this or ihaJ should be used mstea~ of these.
That is prefer,ible her ll to this, :i.s me!tns is nn abse nt subject -; though perh!tps this may be allowable here to save
repeating th'll in the h\s t p.ut of the sentence,

ADJECTIVE.

, and in some inst!tnc0s by many of !t good education ; as, 1Vlwt number,
:h number - which case .
al perso n or th}ng from t':'o or more pre>iously cxphin cd, referred to, or
t what; ns, U-h1 ch .book will yon ta~e1 The books arc supposed to h!tve
· :;nd case had prenousl.y been cxpl:uned to the pupil, in course, or else it
;twn; hence th e propriety of wluclt . D. But it the thinoos have not been
rt book is that 1 No p:i.rticular books hnYe been refen ed to of which we
1dlo;rd of:" hoteJ a~ _th e _i::lo_s! ng of ·:i.n evening, passin g a light to a traveler
•s, you will lodge rn the second s to\·y ; hut hi s attent.ion bei n<> called off
.s not named th e room. Th e traveler w·ith the light in bi s h u i~d 'l"l"aiting,
He rnit~:a.l_ly and properly says w!i~t room, bcmi.use he h'.ld previously
the clct k disengaged then, and not1cm"' the occasuin asks instead of the
11 sh.all I girn hi~, be~a us.e ~e hnd 'the ~·oorn s irnll v id~ally in Yi ew.
Sup;p".c10 u ~ r oom (10 w.lu ch 1t _1s seen 01t a !!:lance thnt th ere ar e fo ur beds)
'Plies with the _qu cs_t1on , wh1cl1 bed shall I ta ke. He propcl'ly says which

An },J.jecthe is !t wot"l whleh exprc s~es the kind, qu!tlity, number or 'Circumstance of soille person or thing.
1. Each other, :i.ncl 011e another. 'Ve should use each othe1' when we refer to only two persons: The twins 1ovl! elzch
<Jther. 2. 011e an uther is tu be applied to seveml persons : \ ·V e should assist on.e another in trouble.
3. Further and farth er. Farilter is bnt little used now by liter11.ry people; and by good scholars is very sMdom
applied except to di8tuncc, and as an all,iectirn; as, The distance is farther on the old road. Further is used as an
adjective with a me;ining like more; as, \~'bat need we any furth er witnesses 1 '!.'bey require further proof; and as an
adverb with nearly tb e mc•tn in::; of mo7'e or 11Jngr:r us2d !tdrnrbially ; as , I will proceed no further; "\V'hen they had further threatened them; That I be not further tedious unto yon. And it is sometimes used with r eference to dcstanu ae
u.n adverb; as, And the :i.ngcl went further and stood in a narrow place; But thou sh:i.lt come no further.
4. This and its plu ral these, :i.nd titat and it8 plural those. 'l'h.is or its plural should be used when we refer to ·the
nearest or last mentioned person or thing, and that or its plural, wh en we refer to the farther off or first mentioned.
5. But the se definitirn adjectives are often u~ed wh en no "ontra.st of objects is apparent-when only one subject is
Lrought to mind. In s uch a case it is evident th at wl: en a thing r eferred to is present in r egard to time or place, this
or its plum.I should be used; as, To-day if ye will be wise, &c. - This you can ca.Ir your tune. This -iB a healthful
city (me:i.ning where we are).
ti. But when the thing i; absen t in rega rd to time or place, ihai or its plt!nl should ha uaed; as, To-morrflw yot\
cnnnot claim-tfwl is in th e womb of futnrity. Bat when !t subject is not thus plainly present or absent, it is many
times nice to determin e, with out long experience in writing, which of these adjectives to prefer. 7. Examples of tho
preference of that , by high authorities : "Every thing proclaims t he existence of a God; that cannot be questioned."
"I always mainttiined the right of every nmn to his opin ion, however different that opinion -mi<rht be to min e." "Tlwt
i~ t.he 'yord-perjunJ.:' '!.'he things i:efe'!'rcd to by that in these three examples , nr'i whnt ~ay be called, by way of
<l1stmct10n, absent s11hJects. In cases like them, those who make the bes t choice of lan.rna<re,
would prefer that.
0
8. Spe:i.kers :i.nd writers, however, often prcs~nt thinnos before us !ts present, nnd use U;is, \thich in rer.lity arc not so.
It requires good taste :i.nd judgement to know when to Eike this liberty.

'.the superlative degree is sometim es understood; as, This is the mildes t
11! aTways prove the antecedent by its giving th e sense put in pl aco of
~csc m.a.ny years, th e.re fore thnt docs not r efer to winter , but to winters
111Idcst wrntcr of the wrntern that have been known_ th c•c many yearn .

. 9. ExrnPLES. A new pa~r
shoes; a good picco of land. The shoes are ne11>, not the pair .. the land is good, not the
piece. It should he, A pair of new shoes ; a piece of good hind .
·when two or more adjec tives come together belonging to one noun, most persons, without some definite instruction,

' '"" r.a11;;;-

of

2*

I.

JJ.lac~n~

of Adjcctit·cs.

ON THE ADJECTIVE.

VERB.-!\IOODS AND TF.NSES.

19

:e them wrong ; as, A little sick duck; A new yellow house. It should be,
,r the a.dje!lti1:e whic_h e~presses the more general quality of the individuals
.nd the. adjective which. 1s the more specific or less general in its application
ie young 1!1an. Oa.~ is the general term applying to every individual of a
00 1 expreilsm~ a quahty of only a small pa.rt of the oak trees: In the other
e is the specific one ; therefore oak and· young are placed next fo ,the nouns,
s be able to distinguish the more general teri:n from th.e specific b
•d
~greater number of the pers~ns or things of the kind referred coA~o~r;,
.re are more little ducks than sick ones,-more new houses tha
l'
~
next to the nouns.
n ye 'ow ones,
>e tba~ a traveler turns from the_ way side and seats hiBlself near
d'
lt.apphes to all of a large and distinct class of the human race *ur. 00~~
o. m most cases, but here it is the specific - only a small ' t. f e is
nust st:ind, An old black man, not A black old man nut hep.ar 0 the hr:i-ce
It
d A
•
is tceary w 1ch
weary.
now rea s, ,~ weary old black man. He is also /mn ,., ' <\ I
1ld be h?nfi?• hungry is therefore the more specific of the twf Y·w· s w
s:
litt ~ daughter, shall we give the hungr.i/ and weary old black !a~o:
V for .t lodgm~ when he shall not find persons kind cnou"h to · I ·
haractc
· · · zamc, W':J.+.ortunatc, h un n-ry weary ~c ai·e
" not g1rn b nm
one.
·
•
r - sic.,
0
·
._,
I h
'4.: ., .,
so u t ncc1'
~es our meamng 1~ sue l t at we make the more general ter 0'f ti '
f a man owned several yellow houses ·md on h• one of tli
m
•e ono
II
·
·
'
,
em was new we
I ti ·
t 0' I
n us sense ye ow applies to all the houses refenetl to anti
ist always be looked to. So we properly say. Ayounn- B~ston lan~ywero -\\.Y
-not young lawyers .
"
·
e
1e adjecti_ves, that we have a grammatical reason for preferrina F' t t
'.erszs i Five first se ttl ers. It is clearly to be seen that t wo and"ftv:1:re t'~~
1fic. Thero may be several two verses in the hynm but the · b t ·
Which two 1. A ns. Th e fi rst t wo. I t may he ohjected
• that there
re is u onet
are no
bings named. If there are not twice two &c of the th·
but th
c
·
t
· h ·
'
.,
mgs, we can make
rec. . ount wo m t e1r order and we harn the first two . ski the
o. Or we nnght more fitly say in a like case , Omit the last versc,
' - pom1t
·

J

M!

:als, unless they are accompanied with first or last e J
f
·
a s, Tl ie t tco
· ta. ll men ; 'I'Ile two 11andsomest
.,
upt ionyr. o11 express10n
ladies
· •The
·
..
~ '
WO JO,tOW1n.g years
1ljcc1il·c• cCnnp~red irrc~nlnr.

st.
·rst.
rthest., or f.1rthcst.
.st.
1st.
lest, or eldest.

Fore,

forme1-,

L~tP,

later,

Ne1r,

nen.rer,

5 foremost (in place.)

~ first (in time or order.)
5 lntcst (referring to t'ime.)
~ Inst (in order.)

5 nearest,
~next

(referring lo.placr.)
Un order. )

t~e treat ise on the :u:Ijec ti ve. Furtlte$l i::i seldom called for.
I JU~gement and taste, anil then on ly to H1ings that are numbered
rnoni~ed) ?' the srunc family or cl ass, elder and eldut are prope;ly U!i! ed. mi .A
• th
18
COnJunchon th on is n!ied, oldt.r rmd olde~t an applied; ns, Mtthueel;lh ~ 35 ~~ 0 /it~a~ld~~:~

0

'

THE VERB.
:· r.

A Verb is a word which expresses action or beina: · Ver9s are of three kii:ids, transitive, intransitive, and-pausive .

A transitive verb has an object, and expresses action o"r ·influence which terminates on it. An intransitive verb· denotes

simply bein.,. oi"existonce, or .it denotes action which is limited t6 the. snbject. A passive·verb denofes· action ' received
or en~~·red by th': person or thing denoted by the nominative. .It is formed by preceding the ellip.t ical ·participle· o( ii
trans1t1ve verb with the verb be through all its various changes
number, perdOD, mood, and tens~ ; To verbs-.belong
· ·· I
mood, tense·, number, and person.

of'

!·.··

'
.
i' "· MOOD.
..., . . , ..
'. ·2. 1\Iood is tlie manner of representing action or being. There are five moods, called Indicative: Subjunctive; P'otell-'
tial; Infinitive, and Imperative. The Indicative· 1\Iood simply indicates or declares a thing~ or a~kiia question •. · The
Subjunctive Mood expresses action or beina in a doubtful or conditional manner. The Potential Mood aecla'red the
power, liberfy, possibility, or necessity of agtion or being. The· Infi'niti've Mood expresses !LCtion or being in a general
and unlimited manner; having no nominative, consequently neither number nor person. Tho Imperative' Mood com'mands, exhorts, or entreats.
TENSE,

3. There are six tenses: .a present tense, an imperfect, a p ~rfcct, a plupe1fect, a first fu ture, and a second future.
4. The Present 'L'ensc denotes present time. H ence the present tense form of the verb should be used when we express action or being which t:1kes place at the t ime we speak. It should also be used when we express customary
actions, or when we express an agency that acted, does now act, and wi ll still act so long as tho present order of things
exists; as, They dine at one o'clock; He writes with a gold pen; \Vhen ·a tiger .<prings upon a traveler in some lonely
place, he does only what his Maker has taught him ; The sun rises in the east; Virtue rewards her followers; W &
build houses of wood, brick, and stone.
5. ·we also use the present tense, wh en we refer to the completion of a thin"', with no reference to the time when
the action was done ; as, A hou se is rai sed on it, but it is not finished; 'l'he f~ctory is built of brick; How straight
that line is drawn ; Th e book ·is printed very neatly. 6. The completion of the :ict which we may refer to, however,
sometimes requires tho imperfect tense; as, The Academy was not built when you were there, but the meeting-house
was. If we r eferred to the buildins of them, the pluperfect tense s-hould have been used ; but as we refer only te the
bui ldings as being there, or not bemg there at the tim e alluded to, the imperfect is correct. Further examples -: At
that time the country was uot settled; Beautiful crystals, &c., were formed, &c. ·
7. \Vhon we speak of the making of any thing that is old, allusion seems to be carried to the time when the actfon
was done ; as, Those stockings (old) were knit of fine wool; The old brig was huilt of white oak. But of a vessel just
built, we siiy, The new barque is built of live oak, and is copper bottomed. In some cases of this nature it is difficult
to decide which tense to prefer; as, This coat is (or wa.s) faithfully made; That razor is (or was) made of excellent stuff.
8. The present tease should al so he used when we ex press a thing which is al ways the same; as, The phirosopher
told us that virtue is always amiable; It was always my persuasion, that envy acquired by virtue is really glory, not envy.
9. There are also various other uses of the present te ns~. It is used when we represent distinguished persons long
since dead as speaking to us now ; as, Esop tells us, &c. ; Solomon says, &c. It is sometimes used in an imating historical narration, representing actions that nro long past; a.s, He enters the peaceful territory , takes an immense booty, &c.
Following when, where, after, before, till, as soon as, the present tense is often preferred for its simplicity, to express the
rohitive time of a future action as br ought into present view; as, l.Ylten the stage arrives we shall hear the news ; Before
he return.• he will probably hear the news; or at least, soon after he arrives. This use saves the repetition of an auxili11ry.
Verbs following those words sometimes t.ike the termination of the compound future; as, If I tarry till he wme; the
same as if made compound by prefixing shall. But usually the termination of the indicative present is given, as in the
preceding examples. Good judgement and correct taste must decide which to prefer in such cases.
10. The Imperfect Tense refers to pas t time, however distant.
11. The Perfect 'fense refers to past time and ~onveys a.n allusion to the present.
12. The Pluper.fect Tense denotes past time, but as prior to some other past time specified; n~, He h_ad received the
ne_wa before I arrived. 13. The pluperfect form should nlse be used when we denote a past action; which took place
pnor to an act expressed by :t verb denoting indefinite time, as customary A.Ctions, &c. ; thus, An ungraftod. tnie bears

~.-:MOODS

AND TENSES.

There is one. or more exceptions to the £rst remark and example; thus,
·een the two past actions, one of which in order of time i8 prior to the
the other in quick succession; as, He that was second auditor.1Cas pro•
ms Sarah Blake marry! I saw him just _before he fell. He was second
1 Sarah nlake till the moment she n111rried;- there is no 6pace of time in
id .the other. In the last sentence one action immediately followed· the
1les should be in the same tense.
.
·
;his rule of the pluperfect tense. ·when a verb in that mood denotes pnst
of past time, it should be given in the imperfect tcbse ; as, I thought I
he should call on his friend before he returned . . A verb in the potential
tion wher;i. it does not refer to time usuaily requiring that form ; as, They
future time; as, To-morrow will he Mond:iy; You will go next week; I
are action which is begun prior to the time named or referred to for ils
>f bein.,. which clo~es a space of time extending hack of it; as, Tho two
n the k~n.,.0 comes to prorogue them ; 'l~he Grund Cuna! will have paid for
1e subdued all the races of men, then tliou wilt make war against rivers,
, I shall ha1Je been at school three years. In the first sentence it is e\'ident
a quite before tl,e time of finishing it, which is expressed by the pnrt of
'ond sentence, 1860 is the time when the payment of the canal will Im
long time prior to tbat. In the third sentence, Alexander wlio is allu<letl
1ations, when the address was made, and wltcn <lenotes the future time in
the fourth sentence the verb refers to next new year's day, which closes a

.the fi.rst p~rson intimtites resolution and promising; besides necessarily embracing ftiture time ; as, I will reward the
'good·,"and will punish the evil; We will remember benefits and be grateful; I will go in despite of the dangers.
24. Shall in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens; ns, Thou shalt, or you shall .inherit the
land; Ye shall do juetice and love mercy ; 'fhey shall account for their misconduct ; You shall have no· part m the mat_,.
ter ; Thou shalt stay at home.
· ·
·
.
.
25. He shall go, and shall he go, both iinply will, expresf!i'?-g, or referring to, a command. In the followmg sentence
,'l!Jill in the third per~on denotes willingness or determination; as, John says that he will not go, or ~;i~ he_1p1/l go.
.
.. .
I
.
..Should, Would, Could, and May.
26. Should is used to represent future time with reference to a past action wh!ch i~. future · ~o it;. as; He said he
;;hould call there before he returned. Should is also used in reference to present time, m connection with would, to de;D.ote contingence; as, I should !Je glad if be would assist me.
.
.
.
27. Would is used in reference to present time in connection with could, to denote willingness ; :;i.s, .I would go if I
,could. Would primarily denotes inclination of will, and should, obligation; but they both vary their im11ort, and are
often used to express s.irnple eve.i:t.
28. May and might express the· possibility or liberty of doing a thing ; can a_ncl coulrl, the power ; as, It may rain ;
Ile may write or read; HtJ micrht have improved more than he h,ts; He can wnte much better now than he could las~
year. Mriy sometimes .chiefly rcfor<; to fu.tqre time; as, I may at some future time go there.

E:ihlbition nf tlte verbs cnoo~E,

nse is often justified instead of the second future; as, When you have read
we ltave sung another song, it will be 0 o_'clock. But in the pulpit nearly
~ond future ; as, \'{hen we shall have agam sung a hymn.
two only, the prese;it and perfect, are determined by a different meaning
with eome verb on which it depends more than on any other; tbus, .She
torrow. To learn depends on desires, and to go dep~nds on expects. The
•vhen it denotes action or being contempor,iry with, or subsequent to, the
~ same time that desires does, that is, it denotes time contemporary with
!o go refers to time subsequent to that of expects, the verb on which it
Je 'in the present tense as they are. Thus both contemporary, and subse·
lfinitive.
antecedent tO the verb on which it depends, it should be in the perfect
!ed the deed. The committing the deed was before the supposing, or, in
Lntec~ddnt to is supposed, the verh on which it depends, therefore the perledge of this rule, we sometimes find the wrong tense of this mood used,
Shall, -i-Vill, Should, Would, Could, and .May.

Jther verb in connection, shall is used with the first person, and will with
t way; You will hear from him next run.ii; The sun will rise to-morto\\'
Jd simple futurity is expressed by shall applied to the second and third
If he shall succeed he will return in the fall.
'
besides expressing future time. In interrogative scntenees they undergo
rs to the will of another ; and will you go, imports intention. HW m

21

VE.RB : -USES OF AUXHIARIES, &c.

UA VE,

and

DE

!~DICA.TIVE

for mood, tense, number, and person.
MOOD.

Tl1e verb CnoosE.
Present Tenu.

Presen t Tense.

~

Choose
Choosest
Chooses*'

is pl~ual and
first ·person
singular,
l is second person
(
singular,
l is third person
(
singular,

'J.'hu;l,

Chose
Ghos~st

*Jn

th~

gr:w(" ::;tytc, choosrth .

choose.

:{ Thou

choosest.

l He,
(

~he,

or 1t

cbooscs.t

Imperfect Tense.

Imperfect Tense.

is plural and
first and third
{ person singular,
\ is second perrnn
( 1>inguln,r ,
·

\Ye, ye or
you, they,
{
or I

Thu~,

We, ye or
you, they,
{ I or ho

chose.

{ Thon

ehoscst..

2S.

EXHIBITION OF MOOD, TENSE, &c .
TION OF MOOD, '.l.'ENSE, &c .

{We, ye or
. you, they,
or I
:on

Thus,

{
Had

have chosen.
Hadst

1Thou

hast chosen.

He

has chosen.

·i

or
you, they,
I or he

1Thou

Jn

Has had
hadst chosen.

~We, ye or
you, th ey,
I or he

Thus,

1Thou

)fi

.~econd

'
·n

shall
or
will
shalt
or
wilt

choose.

choose.

Future T ense.

~We, ye or
you, they,
I or he

Thus,

Perfect Tense.

{Thou

shall or will
have chosen.
shalt or wi.lt
hat'e chosen.

~We, ye nr

you, they,
or I
·

Thus,

Hadst had

~I
l

{Thou

hast had.

l

has had.

He

is plural and
first and third
person singular,

Thus,

~

We,

ye or
you, they,
I or he

The Terb BE.

form.
In a practical application of the imperative mood it is difficult to go wrong; and ns the subjunctive form of the verb is the same as
the indicative, except in the present tense,* those moods are not given place to in this work.
··
" The verb be, however, takes some e:tceptions to this.

POTENTU.L MOOD.

The verb CuoosE.

~

Thus,

Present Tense.

Present T ense.
Present T ense.

I

you, they,
or I
Thou

1He

have.
hast.

ha!.

hadst had.

{ Thou

is second person
singular,

had had.

The verb b~ hns ten for~, viz. am., art, is, are; was, w~st,. we~e; been, be, and '?ert. .!Im is 1st p~r. sing.;_ a:t is 2d per. sing.;
is is 3d per. smg.; and are 1s plural, of the present tense, md1cative mood. Was IS 1st and 3d per. smg., for 1t IS correct to say J
was-he was; wa.st is 2d per. sing.; and were is plural- of the imperfect tense, indicative mood. Be is present tense of the S~b­
junctive, of the Potential, of the Infinitive, and of the Imperative. It is also first future tense with shall or will prefixed to it. Wert
is Subjunctive form, imperfect tense, second person singular. This verb is further exhibited in connection with choose in the paB8ive

The nrb JIA VE.

We, ye or

luwe had.

Pluperfect Tense.

Pluperfect Tense.

Had had

had.
hadst.

{Thou

1

had chosen.

you; they;
I or ht1

Thus,

1

Hast had

First Future Ten se.

r,

is plural and
first arid third
per"sori singular,
is second person
singular,
'

~ is plural and
first person
singular,
is second person
singular, ·
is third person
singular,
··

Have had

~We; ye
Thus,

I

i

~We, ye or

Perfect Tense. -

Pl·uperject T ense.

i
1r,

Imperfect Twse:

lmpe1fecl Tense.

Perfect Ten se.

May,
can or
must
Mayestt
canst, or
must

choose

~

is plural and
first and third
person singular,

h
\ is second person
c oose l
singular,

t Btc figure 3-l un<lcr the verb.

Thus,

{We, ye or
you, they,
I or he

may,
can or

l

mayest,
canst or

Thou

choose.

must

must

choose.
" l

II T IO N O F

r,lo·oD,

TE NSE, & c .

EX HIBITION OF MOOD , T E NSE, & c .

.Imperfect Tenst.

and;
bird

Tb us,

~Iai;'

erson '

~. .

W e, ye or
mi{iltt, .
you, they, could, wm.tld
I or he
or should
.1niglttest, . ,
; Thou
cOUldst . wouldst
or shouZdst

t

The verb CnoosE in the passive form.

choose'.
Present T ense.

choose.

and
bird

;ular,

Thus,

1

crson

~

W c, ye or
you, th ey,
I or he

{Thou

m ay, can
or
chosen.
mu.st have
mayest, can st
or
chosen.
mitst have

Art chosen
Is chosen
Are cliosen

~ ird'

Thus,

;ular',
erson

.
We, ·ye or . might ,
Tiavii
{ you, £h~y; could, would chosen.
I or he
or should:
mig!ttcst
have
coitldst ; wouldst
{Thou
chosen:
or shouldst

Wast chosen
fVere chosen

T he verb H AVE.

Th e verb BE.

Presen t T ense.

Presen t T ense.

l'o have.

P eij ect T ense.

P trfect, Having had.

chosen
chosen
chosen

Had
been

chosen

_,P;rfecl T ense.

1'o
.

have been.

Parlic i ~ l c.

Hadst chosen
been

Perfect, Having been.

he passive form by prefix.ing to its elliptical p1irti~iple the various formB of_th e verb '
) tha.t in conj ug,iting a passi ve verb , we are giving; as .will be seen, a complete con'i.>c.
,

.

am chosen.

{I

l
l
l

Thus,

{ is plural,

5is first and thinl
l person singular,
5 is second person
l singular,

Thou

art ehosen.

He

is chosen.

We, ye or
you, or they are chosen.

Thus,

{ is plural,

Imperf ect T ense.

I
l

I or he

was chosen.

Thou

wast chosen.

We, ye or were chosen.
{ you,
or t.hey
P cifect T ense,

~ is plural and

first person
singular,
I is second person
l singular,
I is third person
~
singular,

~
Thus,

~

is plural and
first and third
person singular,
f is second person
l singular,

Shalt or
wilt be
chosen

3

~ is plural and
first and third
person singular,
I is s'.!cond person
~
singular,

liave
been chosen.
lw st
been chosen.

{He

lur.s
been chosen.

Pluperf ect Tense.

Thus,

~

We, ye or
you, they,
I or he

{Thou

First Futu re T ense.

Shall or
will be chosen

W e, ye or
you, they,
or I

{Thou

Pluperfect T ense .

ra. rticiptc."

P resent, B eing.

l'o liave had.
Pnrticiplc.

Hast
been
Has
been

1'o be.

ru.rticiplc.

P resent; Having. ·

singular,
5is s~cond person
l smgular,
5 is t~ird person
l smgular,

P e1ject T ense.

Have
been
I NFINITI VE MOOD.

l

P resent T ense.

I mperfect T ense.

Was chosen

Pi upe rfecl T ense.
~ nd · .

5 is first person

Am chosen

P erfect' T ense.

INDICA.TIVE MOOD.

had
been chosen.
hadst
been chosen.

First Future Tenie.

Thus,

~

We,

ye or
you, t h ey,
I or he

{Thou

shall
wi:
ll beor chose'·n.
ihalt or chosen.
w il~ be

Second Future Tense.

r,

~

Thus,

Ill

We, ve

Ol'

You, they,
I or be

{ rhou

INFINITIVE :JrCOD.

shall or will
have been «hoEen.
shalt o.r wilt chosen.
have been

Perfect Tense.

To have been ehosen.
Participle.

Pufect, Having been chosen.
~sent and ·i mperfect tenses of the indicative mood.

Impe>fcct Ten se.

~
)lJ

Didst

is plural and
first and third
person singular.
\ is second person
{ singular.

I doubt not it has been so to many a learner, who has thought at all on the subject. The question what difference of
time from the others, that middle particiJ?le expressed, presented another cloud to the mind of the learner. I haye been
showing that the middle or perfect participle, as given in grammars, when met with in composition, is either a verb, or
in real4y one of the other participles; I will now show that we cannot make sense in its application without so eon~ .'
{lidering it. Take for an example, been, the third form of the verb be, called by the grammars perfect participle, .,-and
I have no objection to this, but must add, that it is all the perfect participle the· verb be has. We can properly.say, Ifa.·
being there at the. time of the accident,...:.... or, he having been there previously; but to say, He been there yesterday - he ·
been there before, is such an absurdity of language as wo never knew of. This example; although it affords a ' bolder
iHustration than that of verbs generally, only discloses what is trne of this participle of :ill other verbs.
3. Then as I found it agreeable to truth and philosophy, and' as such an exhibition is more clear and. simple for the
mind of the learner, I have given only two participles in this work, present and perfect. In composition or real.language we know just what to call the third form of the verb, - whether elliptical present pass .. participle, elliptical
perfect pr:ss. participle,-or a rnrb,' a s it is wh en have er be is prefixed to it. It is generally when found alone a participle. In par~ing, it should be disposed of which ~vay best gives the sense.
4. In fa.ir Circ:iss ia, where to love in c lin~ :l
& ck swain was bl!.!st, for ev ery maid was kind.

In this couplet, inclined is pToperly rendered a passive verb or a verb in tho J>asSive form, hy supplying one of the forms
of the verb be and a relative pronoun; thus, Where each swain, that was inclined to love, was blest. Neither being
inclined, nor hauing been inclined would answer here, for that would imply that each swain in Circassia was inclined to
love, which is evidently not the· meaning. But thus to render into n. passive verb elliptical participles generally, would
greatly weaken language by rendering it too verbose. Participles give a force and density to expression whieh cannot
be had without them. And more than this, without them we sh011lcl frequ ently have to express more than is meant.
5. In some instances there is very little or no preference to be made in rendering the third form of the verb : "Relative
pronouns relate to some noun or personal prtmoun called th e antecedent." This may be rendered being called, a present
passive participle; or which is called, a passive verb, and either give the meaning well .
6. But standing in the third column of a catalogue of irregular verbs, this third form is no more a perfect participle
than it is a present passive pr.rticiple; I have therefore marked it elliptical participle. The pupil, however, in conjugating, need only say participle.

•ASSING THE P ARTIC!PLES.
e grammars in three for1uo, as r ega1·ding tim e ; thu s , J!·res. Loviug, per ..
, form; and Pres. Being loved, p er . loved, com . per. havrng been love?, of
irnrnination that there are but two distin ct participles-that the middle
>plied to it on all occasio?s) may be. called the third · form of the verb, i;i
d in one of the other part1c1 pies , or is a part of a verb ; thus, Y.on hous.e
greatness he employed his power .. Erected and raised are passive partJ;icted of high treason he was comn;1tted t~ t.he tower.. Twenty years thus
·wicted and passed are perfect passive part1 c 1pl~ s , ha'Vlng been bei.ng u,nderrnt tbe participle when ~lliptical , is almost always .of the pa~s1ve form;
.ve meaning; as, All thmgs now retired to rest, mm<l us of like repoec.
ptical, having be_ing understo?d. to it. .
.
hen thus alone, 1s not a participle of either kmd; as! I would have the
m bein"' bound, nor having been bound, but, I would have them to be bou1L1!
e verb~in the infinitive mood, elliptical. This use .s old~m occ'.'rs. It can
'ing to future time . Although vei·bum sapeentue ~atzs, still I will present a
,,. three participles with r egard to time. .Grumm~r ~ have l'rcs@ntcd tho
~h they have presented as a transitive perfect participle. ~low these two
asitive and passive were so difforcnt, was long a strange thmg to me, aa<l
r.

2i

ON CLASSING THE PARTICIPLES.

TION OF MOOD, TE:f'l'SE, &cr.

l'he !econd pcrS'.:>Il singular im}V~ rfcct of this ver~J - omits G in tile terruina;ion, 't°ttrylng from

CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR "VERBS.
Those that are not found here mn,y be considered as more properly belonging to the class of regular >erbs.
• P..cgular verbs are those whose imperfect tense and elliptical participle end in ed by nnnexing d or ed to the first form~ ofil1e >erb,
or by changing y in the termini>tion into ie:i; thus, .ffioce, mo ve:i, moved; learn, learned, learned; marr{, married, .married.
Those that vary from this are called irregulitr.
Much care bns been taken to present this list according to the best n8'1ge of the present d.:ty.
Prr.s.

Imp.

Ell. PJrt.

Abide,
Am or be,

was,

abode.
been.

Arise,

nros ~ ,

a.risen.

abode,

Prc.t.

Did,

n:ncl,
Bite,
Awake,
aw11ked.
awoke, R.t
meed,
llcar, lo bring
Illow, A.
forth,
b~re or bore, bom or borne. IlrMk,
Dear, lo carry, bore,
borne.
Ill'ee:l,
Ile.:tt,
be::itenorbeat. Bring,
beat,
Begin,
Iluild,
began.
began,
nend,
bent, n.
bent, n.
Ilercave,
bernfl, R .
bereft, R.
Ilurst,
Beseech,
besought,
besought.
IlLlJ,

brought,

built or
builded,
burst,
bought,

EU.

P~rt.

Pres.

lrn.p.

Ell.Part.

biuclen or bid.
bound.
bitten or bit.
bled.
blown.
broken.
bred.
brought.

C.ist,
Catch, a.
Chide,
Choose,
Cle:1ve, to

built.
burst.
bought.

Clothe,

clothed,

clothed or chd.

Come,

came,
cost,

come.

en.st,
ca.ught,

chid,
chose,

enst.
caught,
chidden orchid.
chosen.

cleft or clove, cleft or cloven.

split,

Clene, to slick
or adhere, ckwcd,
Cling,
clung,

Cost,

cleaved.
clung.

cost.

of the verb is the verb as wa fin--1 it, with ~m t Yariati on for mn1b ~ r or p er.'J:i n. 'Ve might c:ill the imperfect tense the second form or the
And third fn rm i ns t r n~l nf c/I . part. , l'ro nlll rthrn_ys h2 tm ~ a~ well ;1~ sh ;.r l<'r.
j IL placed to n YCl'l.i i:-h owi; tJrnt that form soml'.'times rntl if in ed

* Fir.<Jl fo rm
.verb.

lm.J.

biJ. or b:1de,
bound,
bit.,
bld,
blew,
broke,
bred,

c,\ TALOGUE OF 1 ltR l<;'G UL\ ll VERBS, &<) .

>GUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
es.

Imp.

Ell. Prtrt.

P.rcs.

Shine,
held, d.
held,
hurt.
Show, G.
hurt,
kept.
kept,
' D.
knit, R.
Shoe,
knit, R,
known,
Shoot,
knew,
r,
Shrink,
laden.
laded,
Shred,
laid .
laid,
Shut,
led.
led,
left,
Sing,
left,
!,
Sink,
lent.
font,
Sit,
let.
let,
lain·.
Slay,
o rest, ·e. lay,
Sleep,
loaded
or
loaded,
laden,
Slide,
lost-.
lost.,
f.
made.
Sling,
made,
Slink,
met.
met,
moi-vn, R.
Slit,
mowed,
meant. ,
Smite,
meant,
Sow, h.
paid.
g.
paid,
Speak,
put.
put,
re11d.
read,
Spcetl,
rent.
.,
rent,
Spend,
rid.
rid,
rode or ridden. Spill,
rode,
Spin,
rung or rnng, rung.
Spit,
risen.
rose,
Split.,
riven.
rived,
Spring,
run.
ran,
sawn, n.
sawed,
Stand,
sttid.
said,
Steal, seen.
saw,
Stick,
sought.
sought,
SLing,
sold.
sold,
Stride.
sent.
sent,
set.
set,
:Strike,
shaken.
~e,
shook,
shapen,
R.
ie,
shaped,
shn.ven, E.
String,
shaved,
'e,
Strive,
shorn, R.
sheared,
.r,
shed.
shed,
I,

"
,,

E/l.Pwt.

Imp.

shone, F.
showed,

shone.
. shown or

shod,
shot,
shrunk,
shred,
shut,
sung or sa.ng,
sunk or sank,
sat,
slew,
slept,
slid,
slung,
's lunk;
slit, R .
smote,

sowed,
spoke or
sp11ke, II.
sped,
spent,
spilt,
spnn,
spit or sp11t,
split,

showed,
shod.
shot.
shrunk.
shred.
shut,
sung.
sunk.
sat.
slain.
slept.
slidden or
slid.
slung.
slunk.
slit, R.
smitten.
sown.
spoken.
sped.
spent.
spilt, R.
spun.
spit or spHten.
split..

t:prung or
sprang,

sprung.
stood.
stood,
stolen.
stole,
stuck.
stuck,
stung,
stung.
strode or strid, stridden or
strid.
struck or
struck,
stricken.
strung.
strung,
stro,·e,
striven.

~ven

regular as to mark catch as such. None but illiterat<! persons use those verbs regl'.lar.
a great measure, discarded the colloquial use of it, anc\ substituteU the imperfec t for it; thu s, I
mposition, drunk is still used by the hi ghest authority in this country and in England; as, He has
rhich fall is very improperly used by a large portion of our people, is a regular ,·erb.
as, He is not holden by t.he instrument.
rron gly, pronounc ~ d like z.
are not put in the catalogue.
ead e~ rn . : stly to go.

2l!

----- - ----

In colloquial and common place use, however, they are ginn irregu-

Imp.

Prt1.
Stro\V or

strowetl or
etrewed,

strew,

·swear,

swore or

Sweat,
Swell,

sweat,
swelled,

-S.w-im,

swum or
swam,
swung,

sware,

Swing,
'l'ake,

took,

Rl/.Pu,·t.

strown,
strawed or
strewed.
sworn.

sweat, R.
swollen, I.
swum.
swung.
taken.

Pru.

Teach,
Tear,

Tell ,
Think,
Thrive,
Tlirow,
Thrust ,
Trc:1.d,

I m.?.

Ell. Pa;t.

taught,
tore,
told,
thought,
thrived or
throye,
threw,
thrust,
·trod.,

taught.
torn.
told.
thought,
thrived or
thriYen.
thrown.
thrust.
trodden or
trod.

Pru .

Jmp.

Wax,

waxe<l ,

Wear,
Weave,
Weep,
Win,
Wind ,
Work, K:

wore,
wove,
wept, i.

Wring,
Write,

Ell.Part.

waxed or
waxen .
worn.
woven.
wept• • ·

won,

1von.

wound ,
wrought or
worked ,

wound. , ,
wrought or .·
worked.
wrung, JL.
written:

wrung, R.

wrote,

The two forms of cer.tain verbs .to be used in dijferent senses.
A. The verb blow, though generally irregular, forms its imperfuct in ed in the meaning lo taint meat ; M, 'l'he steak was left in the
pantry and the !lies blowed il Still the p;uticiple in the same sense is irregular when applied as an adjective; as, Fly../)lown cheese.
Also, To blow upon - to make stale, the verb is regular; !1S, Peaches were so plentiful that the Philadelphi:ms blowed upon them.
Ilut the last use may be considered somewhat low.
Il. Graven should be the participle or third form of this Yerb where its use associates solemnity; as, Let the names of three pel'.sons be tngraren on her tomb, who never mo11.rned. It is also fitly used in moral and. highly sentimental discourse; thus, It is gravtn
upon t11e tablets 'Of their hearts; The ministration of death en.graven in stones. Otherwise gl'llved .is used; as, Her no.me was engravet!.
on the ring. The same rcmitrk applies to the compounds engraven and engraved, as to the simples graven and graved.
C. The impe1fect and ell. part. of this verb should be regular when it means to take away ,zife; ns, The pirate was hanged. In
;nearly all -0ther mC!1nings, hung shoalJ be the word.
D. The verb Jc.nit, when it means lo cleave together, h'1S knitted in the imperfect and ell. part. ; as, H!s bones we're ]mitred .fo..
gether. llut., to 1nanufact·u re cloUdng , it is giYen irregula1:.
R The larger part of literary usage m,tkes shace1; the p'1rt'iciple of the verb shave when applied to the be'1rd; Otherwise shaved
.is ll.Sed.
R When a dazzling or 11n intense light is meant, whether figuratively or literally, we should use sh;ine.i; as, A light s.\ ined 'in the
prison; God hath shined in our hearts; When his candle shined upon my head. Shilled should be used also when to glisten is meant;
as, His buttons shined bright. llut when the light is mild or faint, . shone is used ; 11.'3, The sun shone upon the water; The day shone
·not for a third part of it. On this principle we may nen.rly always, if not quite, apply shone to the moon. Still practice does not
seem to haYe mttde the uses of the two forms of this verb so definite and certain as those of the others here giYcn.
'a. Shew, shewed, shewn, are nearly obsolete; and if sometimes written thoy should general!y be pronounce(] like the words in the
-Ca~logue.

H. Spake is in good use for the imperfect tense, in religious or e1evnted compositio!l; as, "He spake the word and all their frame."
Ilut spoke is the word for general use.
'l. Swollen is used from this verb when an adjcctiYe only is meant, or a participle applied to matter; as, He has a swollen knee;
'The sti·C!1ms being swollen by the late rains. In all other meanings su·elled should be used; as, They have swelled notes to the sky.
K. When either manufacturing is men.nt, or the Yerb work expresses the producing or bringing forth something denoted by 1m
o1tbstrnct noun, the impe1fect and participle of this ;verb should be w ronght; as, Jane wrought an clcg•mt veil; A mighty change has
been wrought.
L. But when simply laboring is meant, or action done to something already produced, we use worked; as, He worked in the
mines; She worked the butter with a machine; An over worked brain·; The horses were cruelly worked. 'l'he objects of tbe action
here are already produced. The following seems to belong to this practice, though not dL~tinct.ly rooognized under either head : He
worked his way to fame.
A. The regular verb aem, 'to alilch, is pronounced like .M w, ta 1ow gra;1t, in t.b.e l'fesent an<l imperfect te:i~e~, a.n:t t.hC\t iii one n.r;u:n~nt fer CJ:J tir.nlnr
the latter irregul:ir.
i . Pronounce pt <li~t.inctl~· ill thi:i n· rb - ;ll3o in crf'pt, kept, 8/PJit .

8*

NT I N u ED . -

r

I' A ltTI C I

An T I c IP I. TI_ ~ .

11ARKS BEI,ONGING TO THE YERB.

ransiti>e has no variation in the imper fect tense; thus, Th~u . "¥~·std h.!'>
re no variation in the present tense; as, He need not c~pect it, e me
·
lar nominative of the third per son is now sanct1oncd by tl~e best
11
~gu Exceptions . When these verhs are transitive, they. are subject to
~ · s him to the combat ; He n eeds information. ·when these verbs are
/~:the present t ense · as , \Vhu dares dispute his awful sway: .And
~ infinitive following th~m should be supplied; as, H e dares to do right.

i.r To forming the infiniti ve mood.

r LE .-AD V Jrn a.

present with regard to some other past action or event ; as, The.rain pouring in torrents, \Y C sought shelter in a thic~et;
Excuse J ane for being absent yesterday; H e being ont of busin ess, accepted an unl a wful employment; '!'he king dym!{,
his son became heir to the throne ; H e found a rude b~y stealing apples . 6. But when we r efer to an ~ction that is
prior to some past ac tion or event, or prior to th.:: present ti me , we shonld use tho perfect participle; as, Jlmii'!g fi11;,ish€d his work , he submitted it; H c!ving lieen convicted of hi o-h treason, he wn.s committed to the tower. Sometimes it
is of nice discrimin'a tion, whether the present, or the perfec t ~ par ti ciple sho uld be u sed; as , \-Var bein!f ended the arm.Y
was disbanded; '!'he general being sla in the army was r outed. If the prior action continues to the tune refeuecl tom
the subsequent one, the present participle must be used. Ia th e second and fifth sentences , the rain continued till they
sought shelter; th e son became heir to th e throne the moment the king died . But in the following two, although very
nice distinctions, we should prefer the perfect participle, as given: 'f be sun having risen, it became very warm; The
light infantry hai>ing joined the main b.ody, the English r etrea ted to Boston.

rally have the prefi x to.
fi
•
'icar, lP.t, make, n eed, see, &c., are generally used without the pre x to Ill
scs of these verbs however, ar e generally followed by the i1?finitive with
ore than a suspici~n upon mine; He 11·ill not dar~ to ~t~ack h.1s advcrsar;r.
an objective case, are .generall y followed by the mfimt1ve with the prefix
fri end to acco111pan y !um.
ln nexed termination of t•er/;s.

in determining wh ether the per son or number r equires .<t, or est,-s, or
,m, do where an anxili:iry, and (cxcert be a.11:1 ha_i:e) all v~rbs endi~g in "'.
where a principal verl> , and all ycrois end mg rn ?· c~n sc>nant o; ,m w or
0
cons:>nant, in ne,wly all c-;i3es of l\dding the t ermmatwns,) reGel\ e es for
·eive es for third perAon sii;g.ular. Ne:;'rly.all others receive only s. This
the yerh takes an add1t10nal tcrmmat10n.
.
.
ve mm and m ig ht with the add ition .of st on ly. There is rather a .stilfoes~
y lll
· C1.Ill e d hnlf
to pronoun
ce another
S'"ll
able. • IVIayest
we are
"
·
' •
•
, .
T "oulcl
· thbe_
further observed th•it est is the t•Jrmmat10n given t!us. a nxi iary 1? · o
1
bte venerable lexicographer, D octor W cb>ter . In d~~mfied and w.e1g1ty
the auxiliary is adopted by writer s of true taste . l'< e<irly, or quite the

1 ich

,. l from Aclitm or from the eal'lie8t birth of those now Ii ving to the prese~t

:~~~·ing allu"ion t~ the pt'csent, which requires the perfoct ten8c.

8. Produces is

p ARTIC!PLE.

d denotes 1iction or being s iwilar to the verl~ .. Tiut it has s~ve;al
~:pl~~ participle is different in its fo rm or constr'! ct1~n; has no /'1;1<it10~

b

· t• . C"SC It has two forms to express a difference o tune, t
'
·
t.
t ·th
nomm a n e " ·
9 '!'he present participle dumitcs present t im e, or 1mc presen _w1
~~ ciwosin,,., or bein:,r chosen. '!'he per fect p:1rtici p;e refers t~ past t1'.1't
' •
arc often partly understood. See preced mg rem.ir A
[ >.iss1ve
pa r"ti·ci· ples
.
.
1

arc from rwhich
they
' ·m t mn si· t·I VC a nd p"•sive
"'
' .n.s tlie
' verbs
,
.
ti arc derived.
.I i
: th·:it th e rcs~ nt parti ciple Ahou l<l bo used; n.s, ltnpwtn!{ 1 ~ case as . < ~ ·
'present
'
P
_..
·
l
·
.
nJ•o
to
)J used in reference to a past actwn when it is
particip c is~·~
· ·
0

•

ADVERB.

An Ad\'erb is a p:i.rt of speech generally used tn qual ify th e sense of verbs, parti ciples, adjectives, and adverbs.
i\hny adYer bs :ire funn~d hy ;c nncxing Ly to an adjec tive; as, lwrsh, harshly; rorrert, correctly .
.
1. .Agree<J.ble to the dcfiniLion , when »e woul d express the qualitieation of the sense of a verb, participle , mlject1rnr
or adver b, we should use <In adrerb.
2 . Rut wben the quality of <l subjec t is meant, th e word sho uld be an ndject ive .
3. Illiterate people are mu ch inclined to u se an adjecti rn iai properly for an n.dYerh; as, She dresses neat ; Ile wo.lk&
sluw. '!'he adrnrbs nr.atly and slowly are requ ired, becau se the rn 'inn cr of dressing o.nd walking is meant.
4. But efoeated per sons, having an eye to this imprope r use of t he adjec ti ve, in endeavoring to avoid it, ha>e gone
into the oppos ite error, anfl in variou g instances, tltey use an ad>crb wh ere th e meaning req uires an adjective ; as, l\1ix
it with ten grai ns of finely pu lve rized a loes. Pbcc th is sentence in the manner following, and th e improper use of the
adverb will appear pl.iin - fhrce grains of aloes puhcri,.ccl fine . 'l'be state of the aloes iR meant, and not the manner
of r <Jducing it to a powder. Arising from th is cautinn of litera ry pcop!Q aga inst an error of the nn ednca ted , we sometimes witness the adver b nsctl even contrary to good taste ; as in the fo llowing instance : Some of the simplest English
words he spe lls ludi crously incorrecl!y. Good taste alone req uires the atljecth·e incorrect.
5, \-Ve often wiLness an improper use of adver bs li ke that in the fo llow ing exampJe3 : I called and paid the bill,
ag reeably to his request; A finely woven clo th; H e takes li kenesses Yery r.or-rcctly. It does not mean the manner of
calling and paying the bill, but that the act of calli ng, &c., is agreeable - I call ed and pa id th e bill, which is agreeable
to hi s r eques t . So it means a. .fine cloth, currect li kenesses.
6 . '.L'ake some si mpler examples aIT0rding :i more striking illustrat ion: Knit the stockin gs loose; Sift the meal fine:
B ui! th e apples s~/i; Bake th e biscuit hard. Good taste a nd co mmon sense constrain us to u se adjectives here; yet
th ese e:rn.mples n.ft;ir<l no truer insbnces of the ~dj cc tive meani ng, than those previously examin ed, - but they are a
holder illustra ti on. I know not tha t \Y C refer to mann er at all in a ny of these exam ples . '!'he stockings are produced
loose, the meal is made fine hy siftin g , tltc apples arc made soft by boi ling, th e l>iscmt ar e made ha rd by baking. The
quiility which the thing has a f't cr the action i ~ gone throuo·h with, is whn.t is meant. 7. Further exam ples of this nice
di stinction between :in adjective and ad,·crb: You h:ivc rh·awn your ch ara cters imperfect; Yon have written your linP.s
straight , How beautiful yo u mnke your letters ; He cut the ves t too .<ho rt. I suppose it will readily he admitted that
th e words in th ese exam ples sho uld be adjectfres as they n.re; and if so, shou ld tbey not be adjectives in the following:
Seth wrote that a bad; He wrote the h splendid; Yo u wrote that letter inco N ect; I wrote that word incorrect; Spell it
1·ight, my good pupil; Thomas spelled hi s word wron; . Do we not mean a had a, a spl endid h , an incorrect letter, an
incorrect word 1 \Ve barn no reference to the bol<l ing of the pen, the mann er of pro~ecd in g with it, or to the quickness
or slowness of the ac tion. In the last six example3, es pecially in the las t two , if our scienco sustll ins adjectives equally
as wel l as it does adverbs -even if no better, n eed we ,isk wi1i ch s!:mll be ou r pract ice in such cases 1 The adjective is
lihorter , neater, and in better taste than the aclvcrh .
An adjective in such ca Aes will not on ly be agreeable to th e popular ns0, Jrnt it is in r.ccor dance with the grea ter pnrt
of li temry pract ice . (Sec U10 note nt t!ie close of t!:i s artielc.)

RB. -P ltEPO sr T 10 N.
'hole propositions: Antiochus acted the pnrt of a vile mid most deteslriblc
1ed of him. And contrary to that which in these c-.ises commonly hap•
.ners of the conquered. ·writers and critics, misapprehending the true
e supposed the attributes to belong to the verb, denoting the manner of
uch passages will be sufficient to detect the mistake. For instance, in
cannot qualify the verb adopted; for the conquerors did not adopt -the
y to what commonly happens-the manner of the act is not the_ thing
rhe sense is this, the fact that the conquerors adnpted the opinions of the
in like cases. The attribute belongs to the whole sentence or proposi:ry similar sentence."
2rly substitute slowly here for slow, as describing only the manner of
,act; for this word is intended to denote the effect of writing in the cor:he Ad'O'~rb, I was e!l.c:mraged to fin:l th.al. our very Uif;tinguished American pLi1ologist ha{l
l humbly c ;>ncciveJ.. Bnt as my examl>'Trl! are more familiar, and illustration!' more sim}}IO
Lhose who may peruse this \VOrlc, I h:.ive in:;erteU her..: n.>thi.1g or Dr. l'r'"ebster's e.xcevt the

PREPOSITION'.
~s

to connect words am! show the relation between them. These little
<le importance in language. Tu know how to apply them, will be th e
hade 's difference in the meaning that requires a Yanation in the prepoxillot will put another man 's mime o.n his pens anJ sell them chea.per
m." Name tQ them suits the possession which is renlly meant here,
nee on is exactly suited to the ~ e nse.
s an a"ent that is irresistible, dignified, or powerful, by should accom,veak, ~ contemptible, al or with should be used. With is also applied
at. Examples: Warmed by the sun; ·wounded by a musket ball; 'J'he
Annoyed with flies-Infested with rats; It wets wruught with a needle;
ul, - musket ball, irresistible, therefore by is used. The sight of an
rnals would not be terrified at it. Although ruts are sometimes almost
flies are still more BO ; and staff and needle are the instruments with
are used. 3. When the doer of the action joins in company with others
: can distinguish whether location is.meant, or belongin_g-;i;he~her ~o
owerful natwn of the world, was defied by that declaratwn; Mmot 1s
; in the two preceding sentences is rather that of lo~ation than beloni;l be preferable in both sentences . 5. "\Vheu place is _r eferred to, in 1s
ion is most in view, of should be used; as, People zn Italy breathe a
eople of any part of the world when in Italy breathe, &c. If only the
l have been used. In the following belonging is meant : The people of
ools; Every apartment of my house is taken up; Every timber oj that
ave expected it, and do not obtain it ; and disappointed in a thing when
our expectations.
. .
ings; it should therefore be used only before nd,1ect.1vcs ~nd nouns that
rhe same instinct is found among every !.md of bud~, it should be m
ve refer to more than two persons or things.

PREPOStTION.

CllITtCAL usm:i OF IT,

83

8. Different senses and relations should be expressed by different prepositions, aitniugh in connc-ction with the same
verb. We properly say, Converse with a person, on a subject, in a house.
- :·~Uses of the prepositions AT and IN before·nouns of place, as given almost

univeri~ in th"e grammars..

·

9. "Tho preposition at is generally used.tifter the verb be; as, I have been at London ';."He will be at Paris. ; I was at
the place appointed. We likewise say, He touched, or arr ived al any place. 10. The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; as, He lives in France, in London, in Birmin..,.ham. 11. But . beforo villages, single ·
houses, and cities which are in distant countries, at is used ; as, He !hes at fuckney ; We dwell at Montpelier ,; He
r esides at Canton (in China)."
.
.. ,
• T?ere. is n:n app_aren t inconsistency_ in some of th!'l foregoing r emarks, to the }earner ; he also wishes to iiee why, :i,....~ e
c1ty·,s berng rn a distant country requires -at before it. The reason of the last will be made to appear. Exceptions to
nearly all these rules, and to some of them various e:tceptlons, will be shown,
Philosophical distinct-ions in the use of A'r and IN before n'ou;iS of place.
12. In the first place, let us take the_position that in, in this sense, implies contained, enclosed, wit~in the place
nam_ed; as, J#the box, int.he cage, int~ i;:uden, means. contained in, or be~ng within the limits of the thmg or pl,ac;e:
1Vh1lst at does not necessarily embrace thts idea, though i.t cbe-s n0t cxdude it; as, At the store, at the house-"h1ch
may mean n ear or al-out the store or th e house, or it, nmy mean within it.
13. Hence we should not use in unl ess enclosure is meant, and eycn "·here this may be fairly inferred, we need not use
in u~les~ ~losure presents itself to the mind. By oose rving this defin iti on of the two words, we shn:ll find the cor~ect
apphcatwn· of them before nouns of place, to be easy nnd natural. Tlius we shall sec that we many times use in belorc
small villages and single houses; at sometimes before large towns and cities in the country where we live, - and sometimes in before cities that are in distant countries .
14. On lookin ~ into this suhjo2t we shall porceivc that a phce's being at a distance, or near, has much to do ~bout
presenting contamment to the mind , or not so, and thus g iving a p':'eferenee to in or at. "When we say, I saw !um at
his house; She resides at the Yill:io-e, the pluces arc aw'1y from us; perhaps not far off, but nt a distance clear away.
But supposing the places are presc';;t, we should naturally and properly say, He is not in the house; She is now in tlw
village. Further illustrations: A gentleman says to a son at the farthest border of the form, Where is your. father 1
The son properly answers, He is at the house. Ilut if he should have made the inquiry at the door of his dwellmg, the
son appearing would have said, He is in the hou se. W c see that the fitness of at, which is so clear in the one case,
and the fitness of in in the other, depends on the foregoing principles.
15. Cities and large town s, even quite a distance from us, if they are in our own country, present themselves as
containers on account of their size; if the thino- or action is contained or is within their enclosure, and we propei;ly u~o
in before the names of them. 16. But when ~city is au immense distance off, as in the East Indies, in Chma, m
Japan, containment is lost in the id ea - the mind is carried to the place on ly as a point, and we properly use at: as,
He resides at Canton. But in some instances even in this case, containment is strongly marked and we proi;>erly u~e
in; as, A man transacts business in New York and in Canton; The houses in Pekin have no windows frontmg their
neighbors. 17. Nor is in always to he used before cities and large towns that arc in our own country; as, An earthquake at Boston; A great storm at New York ; A brilliant meteor was seen at Baltimore. The earthquake and storm
could not be s:iid to be contained in those places. Nor w.M the meteor seen exclusively in Baltimore, but there, about
there, and in other places in th;it vicinity. 18. ·when a thing only joins a phce, or is on one side of it forml'hg a part
of its border, in cannot be used; as, The Penobscot bridge at Bangor; The Navy Yilrd at Charlestown . 19. When ~he
thing we speak of is very gignntic in size, or grand and dignified in character, as a great monument or imrn.ense bu1ldino-, or a large body of people, distinguished for intellio-cnce and respectability-to give dignity to the suhJect we use
In such a case the idea of containment sinks fr~m our view; as, The NatiotJal Assemblyi:a{ ,Vnsh_ington; The
Bunker-hill Monument at Boston. 20. But even in this case, a different turn given to the idea would reqmre m; as, Ts
the Bunker-bill Monument in Boston, or in Charlestown 1 Thus, if al1 the other particulnrs ar<i the same, it will be
perceived that a different shade of thought additional, may either convey containment to the mind, or leave it out of
view; as, Wh ere is the ex-senator Evans now-a-days 7 he is at 1Vashington. Enclosure is not in Yiew here . W:1shington marks the place where he is and tells all our question seeks . But in the sentence, ;\fr. 'l'orr"y is in Wn,shington
and in prison, we see the fit.Des~ of in. Enclosure directly comes up to tho mind.

at

"imal should bG taken out of his instinct, we should find him wholly
ds seems to di scO\·er no bea uty, but in the color of its species. 3. Every
the duties of morality and r eligion. Let each of us cheerfully bear our
imd carried him to his hole. 11. Love thinketh no ill of her neighbor.
LS a man. 20. Jllrs. Hemans the poet was born in 1794. 16. Princess
A lady that should perform such an exploit, would deserve the title
16. Mi ss Cushi ng is the a uthoress of the work called the Pinks and
3t heir in Bordeaux. An Italian nobleman fe ll in love with an American
that J?roperty. 19. Th e king thanked his benefactor for the draught of
ban' g irl why she loves her lllother: She will answer, Because she is
Ldreturned to Spain the queen hi s pil.tron was dead . 16 or 17. Miss Dana
She was an a ctress in the play called Cleopatra. 20. Woman is there
;horess of those letters \\•as a lady of superior ability. 20 & 17. The
1~ . .l\Irs. Hannah Adams was not a ma thematician, nor a poetess;
Havrng learned that the young lady was heiress to a comfor table forson 's rashness. 17. The lady pretended to be one of the merchant 's
J in

the use of Adjectivc3.

e!cr to instruction under th e Pr1moun.

ro ung ~eo logi st . Gold, an~wers i'> Ir. I'unch, h[).ving ar; eye;to Australia.
ow wlnch way h; went. 8. ·what d .~y of last week di<l George go to
.ud what person is the verb ofl \Vho is to be e:-:ccutor of the es tate~
n rcf.::r to

fi ~u rcs

unr!cr the _\Ujccti\·e.

ery person does n?t. perce iv~ w_ho gove ~n s these powerful causes . The
~ated liy the conn n al hospitality of tb1 s season. 10. I have been to
m use. An old crazy woman cn,lled a t our house yestcrd,\y. 12. The
10. The song of the old blind mn.n of Scio wi ll long be sung. H. Durf successful; but in the two ne:-<t.yJars lie los t a ll he hfld .,.ained . Tho
Th e three first i·o 1~s are peach trees, th e tlirecJJ ex t are p!t~n trees, and
fro?1 New York pape1:s th,1~ Kossuth will r cnrni!1 in th is city dL1ring
i !1 Grnmmar; otlt ars l:ke tlns s tudy.

; in the use of the
ta!~.

Ten~e s.

A young geologist as]rnd whicl(was- the mos t attrac tive-mcbl.
r given. by mciuy grammars, was wrong. It was belie>cd by Columbns
t~at _virtue was a lwa,ys adva~tagcous. 10. George sa id that he is
;t1tut10nal. I h'.'vc once or tw ice told the story to our friend. They
he benefit of th e~ 1· health. I htwe in my yo uth trifled with health, and
mem orrirnl:t whwh t he decea sed bas left; she wrote as foll ows. 4 & 10.
.nds ~he offic ial notice _of rny ~n_ian irno.u s nomi~a tion as the Whig candily la:cl h old on the_ opportunities wh ich the 1111pruder.c1, wcakness,~o r
. t h~1·t ty . _11. He is" perso n wl10m I r emember tliesc. many years. I
?ntinue with me now three chtys. 12. [ arrirnd in the city t hree dayR
ity, \\·e returned, ; on tent and tha.nkfol , to ou r reti red a nd peaceful
ipcnctl . 'Who!n chcl sl1c th fLt had been Lu cy For bs, marry1 17. Doubt.0.\t ucw·ycar s cby [ shall ho at school t.hrcc year s. l.G. Tho gurrrd

Va.thedra.l 1n tb1s city, H:i pre.scrv eu \\' 11..U L-lll...: gn ..: ;..Hit.:.::iv H J ll L; J.U.o,,J.. ,.W , .I. V J.. u 1,, ..... . .... ._ ..., . _ ....... . . . · · · - ~·· ,.) ~ ··- ·- , ....
,
pretend to be made of emerald. 11. They maintained that scripture conclu sion, that all mankind ri se from one head.
8. 'f he doctor in his lecture, said that fever always produces thirst . 19. 'Ye have done HO more than it was O\]r duty
to have done. I always intended to have rewarded my son according to bis merit. Those enemies of Christianity were
confoui;ided whilst 'they were expec ting to have found an opportunity to have betrayed its author: 20, He is suppoiied
l)ymany to be concerned in the plot in which he was im pli.cated. 10. The number of scholars in attendance the last
tGri;n iS,scventy-eight. 8. T he ,number of Xerxes' army was an odd number.

Errors in the 1 use of Participles.
5. H e pos tpones tho performance till to-morrow evening on account of not hn,ving received 11is apparatus yesterday.
please to excuse Jane for
6. My employer, I hope, will pardon me for being absent a few days. 5. The Mistress
having visited her friends in Salem last week. He was twitted of having been guilty of theft. 6. The artist finishing
his picture, submitted it to his pn,tron. 5. The door having r emained unlocked, the r ogue easily found ac«ess to th~
money. G. We landed at Troprea , happy and thankful for escaping the dangers of the sea.

'"ill

.

Errors in the use of Adjectives and Adverbs.

.

1. H e acted agreeable to his promise. lie speaks very fluent, but does not r eason very co.h er ently. Not being fully
acquainted with the subject, he could not affirm stronger than he did. He conducted himself very unsuitable to his
pro fession. She wri tes very nea t, and spells accurate. The task was the easier performed, from the cheerfµlness witb,
which th ey engaged i·n it. You r ead that very good . Alas! they are miserable poor. He was prodigal, and his proper ty is now near ex:hau.sted. Endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a person in thy station. She was exceeding careful
not to giye offonce. He ,v:i,s BO deeply impressed with th e subject, that few could speak nobler upon it; vVe may reason very clear and exceeding strong, witho ut knowing that there is such a thing as a syllogism. His empire could not
be e&tablished previou s to . the institution of pretty numer ous societies.
2. A verb in the iqfinitive mood absolute, stands independently Gf the remaining part -0f the sente.nce. Th ey werEl
seen wandering . abo ut solitarily and distressed . Conjugate the verb quit irregularly . Also conjugate it r egularly.
They met on Saturday even ing, agreeably to adjournment of a preYions meeting. Dra w a second line perpendicularly
to the first. The book has a neat impression , and is printed on a finely woven paper. "Agreeably to this, we find some
of the Angb Saxon ladies were admitted in to their most august assemblies. Agreeably to this law, children are b_ound
to support th eir parents.

Errors in the use of Prepositions.
1. The house was struck with ligh tning. The city was destroyed 'IYith fire. 2. They ar e terrified by thunder. The
cat was frigh tened by the sight of a monkey. They are devoured hy spleen. Th ey are troubled by moths. He walks
by a staff, and sees with moon-light. 3. lie shared the prize among his five brothers. 7. He divided the money
between bis t hree friends. 6. Being disappointed in receiving his apparatus in season, the performance will .not take
place this evening. . 5. The peopl e in Maine arc hozpitable and democratic. Hi s school will close on the last Satur~
m November.. l\Iadras is the aecond city in [nd ia. ' Ye happened to pass an open door in the room where they were.
9. They have just arrived in Bulfalo and are going to Roch:ister. 10. They . will resid e two months at Englnnd. I was
in the place appoin ted befor e the t ime. 9. We touched in Halifax on our way for New York. () & 24. He spends
much of his time in a village on Long Island. 25 . Have you been to meeti ng to-day1 Joseph iG to work in the print
r oom . 2G . When did yo u come in town1 He went onto Washington street. P ut tha t clmnge in the drawer. Carry
your cigar boxes onto the Common and bum Lhem. U ntil the tottering fabric crumbles at length to dust. It was inserted in th e stu b of a pear . 24 . Verses written by him during hi s a bode on th e island of Juan Fernandez. Two
stores on State str eet were destroyed by fire . He does not lirn on tha t street. 21 & 11 . ,Died at Bath in the Pearl
* 'fhc

last hvo sentences ar e taken fr om ' Vcbstcr ':3 G1-:immiir 1 adduced by h im as exhihiting- exam ples of improper uses of a.<lverbs.

4*

e of the biblo. lG. \\ri1ile the American minister sojourned in St.
si"nature Europa. 17. A cloud of pigeons was seen in Washingw gomet was lately visible in Paris. The shock of an earthquake
re was a gre:it storm in New Orleans, on the 2d inst. 20. A great
i a chapter in the bible every evening.
24. The ladies and gentleept of this in behalf of your friend . 2-!-. I am now writing on a
t Britain.

NOTES TO BE APPLIED

TO

PRACTICE.

N orr: 1. When a collecti ve noun ~onveys unity of idea, its verb and pronoun must be of the singular number;
but when it conveys plurality of idea, its verb and pronoun must Le of the plural number.

False Syntax referring to !Iote 1.
in the use of Conjunctions.
;ers uniformly warm, arc formed for friend ship. I will prescmt it to
Neitqer despise or oppose what you do not understand. 5. I must
mistaken. The house is not as commodious as we expected it
ble and yet so piercing in his look, as affected me at once with
secure as cannot admit of change.. 11. We are generally pleased
mind. 12. Th e dog in the manger w;mld not eat the hay himto succor such persons who need your assistance. It is not sufficient
ppe1rs exceptionable. 7. The matter was no sooner proposed, but
ned nothing furth er by bis speech, but only to be commended for his
besides the title. They had no sooner risen, but they applied them,titu tion , bes:dcs the aclmirablc one of juries, could so great a benefit
ave no other eleme nt but Wltr. G. Such men that act treacherously
~ame risk as Italy hu.d done. 9. No errors are so trivial as they dcwas John or his brother that performed the work. I asked him if he
prisoner was guilty or not guilty. 14. I do not know as I shall do
f making good breacl could be comm unicated. 16. There can be no
;cl those of sense. J\Iany pe:sons will not believe but that they arc
you have been introduced to him.

;ax referring to the Interjection.
ty !-Ah! wretched I, how ungrateful !-0 ! happy thorn, surrounded
~ highly favored !-How swiftly our time passes away! and ah! we,
e thee, who had been so long expected !

The people rejoices in that which should cause it sorrow. The flock, and not the fl eece, arc, or ought to be, the
objects of the shepherd's care. The court h;we just ended, after having sat through the trial . of a very long cause.
Tbe crowd were so great that the judges with difficuhy made their way through them. The Corporation ·of New
York consist of a Mayor, Aldermen, and a Common CounciL The British Parliament are composed of king, lords,
and commons. When the nation complain, the rulers shoulJ listen to their voice. In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. The church have no power to inflict corporal P°:nishment. The
fleet were seen sailing up the chann el. A great number do not always argue strength. The meeting ~ave establisheJ several salutary regulat ions. The council was not unanimous, and it separated without c~mmg to rµi7
determination. 'fhe tleet is all arrived anJ moored in safety. The committee was divided in its sentiment, and 1t
bas referred the business to the general mee ting. Tho committee was very full when this point was decided; 11~d
their judgement has not been called in riuestion . \Vhy do this generation wish for greater evidence, when so much 1s
already given? The remnan t of the people was persecuted with great severity. Never w~re any people so mu.ch
infatuated as the Jewish nation . 'fhe 5hoal of herrings were of immense extent. No society are cba,rgeable with
the disapproved conduct of particular members.
NOTE 2. An Adverb should be so placed in composition as to give the best flow to the sentence, and render the
meaning the most forcible and perspicuous. 'l'his is generally promoted by placing the adv:r~ immediately before
the adjective whi ch it qualifies. immediately aft12r the verb when single, ancl betwee n th e auxiliary .and the verb when
compound. But it will be founJ that this will not always ansvrcr; besides an adverb docs not always qualify such
wo rds.
·
.
Rx:11.1.uK. An adverb should seldom, if ever, come between the prefix to and the infinitive mood; and the sense
should never be sacrificed to sound.

False Syntax referring to Note 2.
H e was pleasing not often because be was vain . William nobly acte1l , though he was unrnccessful. From whence
we may date likewise the period of this event. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. He
offered an apology, which b0ing not admitted, he became submissive. These things should be never separated. Unless
he have more goyernment of himself, he will be always discontented. N e>er sovereign was so much beloved by the
people. He was determined to invite back the king, and to c&ll together his friends. Not o~ly_ he fo_und her
employe<l, but pleased and tranr1uil also . Vv e always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It 1s 1mposs1ble continually to be at work. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. Having not known, or having not iOnsidered
the measures proposed, he failed of success. My opinion was given upon rather a cursory perusal of the book. It

.

