HARVEY'S LANGUAGE COURSE

ELEMENTARY .GRAMMAR
AND

COMPOSITION
REVISED EDITION

..

BY

THOS. W. HARVEY, A. M.

. NEW YORK

•:•

CINCINNATI

·:·

CIIICAGO

AMRRICAN BOOK COMPANY

'

.1 .

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E-P 84

THIS work iR a revision of the author's Elementary Grammar,
first published in 1869. Although many changes have been made,
especially in the arrangement of topics, the author has kept
steadily in view, in the work of revision, the aim he had in
the preparation of the original treatise-to present the subject
in a style neither too difficult for the beginner, nor too simple
for the advanced student.
Part I consists of lcssom1 in technical grammar, sentence-making, and compoRition. Grt•at care has hccn taken never to define a.
term or to enunciate a principle without first pr<:'paring the mind
of the pupil to grnRp mul comprehl'nd tho meaning and nsc of
the term defined or the principle enunciated. Idea• arc first developed by intelligent <1ucstioning and appropriate illustrations;
Tlte- aut or would call special attention
to the exercises i
he "Cautions,'' if intelligently
taught and applie

criticise, the most common inaccuracies of expression.
Sentence-making and composition are, it is believed, presented
in a natural and attractive manner. Words are given for the
pupil to use in sentences. At first, all the words are given; then,
a part of them. Having acquired some facility in the construction of sentences, the pupil is next taught to use groups of words,
phrases, and clauses, a.~ single words.

..

the pupil i11

rst taug
~=-~:::::'h=;:;::::-::

res nted in it.

'

PREFACE.

iv
a composition.

"

tice only to enable them to describe scenery, as well as occurrences in actual life, readily and accurately.
This course of instruction is introductory to that given in Part
II, which contains a concise yet exhaustive statement of the properties and modifications of the different parts of speech, carefully
prepared modelR for parsing and analysis, rules of i;yntax, and
plans for the description of 11ingle objects-a continuation of the
composition work begun in Part I. NoteR, remarks, and suggestions are but sparingly introduced, as they serve rather to confuse
than to aRsi11t the learner.
Diagrams for "mapping" sentences are given in connection
with the modelR for analysis. This is a new feature, introduced
at the req11c11t of a large number of intelligent teachers.
It has been said that there iR no royal road to geometry. The
same may be said of grammar and compositiol). The meaning
and application of technical termR must be learned, sentences must
be analyzed, words must be parsed, before the student can comprehend the philosophy that undcrlicR the correct use of any language. The labor necessary to acquire this knowledge, and the
practice necessary to secure facility and accu~acy in the use of
one's mother-tongue, may be made attractive, but it can not be
dispensed with, neither can it be materially lessened. All that
is claimed for this work is, that it shows how this labor should
be expended to secure the best results.
JUNE1

1880,

CONTENTS.

l?ART

r.

PAGE,

The Senses,.
7
Definition of Object,
7
Definition of Word, •
8
Language,
8
8
The Sentence,
. Sentcnce-!lfnking-Deflnltlons,
9
Quotntlon Marks,
• 11
Pnrts of Speech, •
• 12
The Noun,.
• 13
• 15
Number,
• 16
Abbreviations,
• 18
Contrnctlons,
Elements of a Sentence, .
. 19
Analysis, . •
- 21
Composition-Picture Lessons, 22, 23
The Verb, .
• 24
Classes of Verbs,
• 25
Objective Element,
• 25
Incorrect Langunge-Cautions, • 27
Sentence-Making,
. 28
Composition-Picture Lesson,
• 30
The Adjective,
• 31
The Article,
• 3a
Sentence-Making,
. 31
Incorrect Langunge-Cnntlons,
• 35
Composition-Picture Lesson,
• 36
. 37
The Participle,
The Partlclpinl Noun,
• 39

.

PAGF..

Composition-Picture Lesson,
The Pronoun,
Adjective Element,
Possessives, •
A11posltives,
Personal Pronouns,
Person,
Possessive Pronouns,
Relative l'ronoune, •
ClauRcs,
The Relative Clause,
Jntcrrogntlve Pronouns,
Incorrect Language-Cautions,
The Adverb,
Adverbial Element, •
Adverbial Clause,
Incorrect Language-Cautions,
Composition-The Lion, •
The Preposition,
The Phmse,
The Infinitive, •
Position of Modifiers,
The Conjunction,
f'.ompoun<l Elements,
Simple Sentcncl's,
Compound Sentences,
Complex Sentences, •
Tho Interjection,

• 41
• 42
• 42
• 43

45
47
47
50

•
•
•
•
•

52
62
53
55
56
57

• 58
•
•
•
•

59
60
61
62

• 63
•
•
•
•
•

65
66
67
68
70

• 71

(v)

'

•
•
•
•

• 73
- 77

;t'

- ............_

-

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I

CONTENTS.

vi

l?.A:R.T

•

.I

THE NOUN,
Gender,
Person,
Number,
Case,
Declension,
Parsing,
Composltlon-Anlinals,
THE PRONOUN,.
Personal Pronouns, •
Possessl\·e Pronouns,
Relative Pronouns, .
Interrogative Pronouns, •
False Syntax-Cautions,
THE ADJECTIVE,
Descriptive Adjectives,
Comparison,
Definitive Adjectives,
False Syntax-Cnutlons,
Composition-Plants,
THE VERB,
Voice, .
Mode,
Tense, .

rAUE .

PAAF...

79
79
81

Person nnd Number,
. 108
Auxiliaries,
• 109
Conjugation,
. 109
Cotlr<llnate Forms,
• 116
Regular Verbs,
• ll8
Irregular Verbs,
• 118
De fee ti ve Verbs,
• 119
Redundant Verbs,
• 119
Composition-Sugar,
. 121
False Syntax-Cautfom,
. 122
The Adverb-Clnsses,
. 124
Composition-Vegetable Products, 126
THE PREPOSITION,
• 127
TllF. CONJUNCTION, .
. 129
Composition-- Iron, •
. 130
Tm,: INTEllJF.cTION, •
. 131
Composition-The Metals,
. 132
Elllpsls,
• 133
Abridgment,
• 134
!lfodlllcd Subject and Predicate, . 136
Composition-A Hurricane,
• 13i
Rules of Syntax,
. 138
Letter-Writing, .
• 142
Mlscellaneous Exercises,
• 14S

82
83
85
85
88
88
88
91
93
95
97
118

98
98
. 100

• 102
. 102
• 103
. 103
. 105
• 106

PA:R.T

PUNCfUATJON, •
The Comma,
The Semicolon, •
The Colon,.
The Period,
The Interrogation Point,
The Exclamallon Point, •
The Dllllh,

:r:r.

• 148
• 148

• 150
• 151
• 151
. 152
. 152
• 152

:r:r :r.
The Curv_es,
The Brackets,
other Marks,
APPENDIX,.
Irregular Verbs,
Unlpcrsonal Verb•,
Capital Letters, Italics, etc.,

• 153
• 1::3
• 154
• 156
. 156
• 159
• 160

GRAMMAR.
PART I.

ELEMENreARY COURSE.
1. OBJEOTS.

1. The Senses.-Wc have five senses: Beeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling.
When we see, feel, taste, or smell things, or hear sounds,
we are said to perceive them.
I drop a book upon the floor. A force, called gravitation,
draws it toward the center of the earth. We can not perceive
this force, but we arc consciO'U8 of it,-that is, we know such
a force must exist.
We are conscious of many other things that we can not
perceive; as, love, hatred, jo.'f, sorrow.
All these things are called objects. What, then, is an object 7

2. An Object is any thing we can perceive, or of
which we may be conscious.
When we think, we think of objects; when we talk, we
talk about objects; when we write, we write about objects.
When we talk or write, we use words to express our
thoughts. What, then, is a word1
(7)

'

-- --~-~-~--------------------!!!!!!!!!--~~-~-------~-

ELEMENTARY OltAMMAR.

THE SENTENCE.

3. A Word is n. syllable, or n. combination of syllables, used in the expression of thought.

We will join the words white, briule, and opaque with the
word chalk, thus:
Chalk is white.
Chalk is brittle.
Chalk is opaque.

8

QUESTIONS.-How many senses have we? Name them. Name some
things that we can perceive. No.me some things that we can not perceive, but of which we may be conscious. What Is an object? What
Is a word?

.

...

•,

9

Each of these groups of words makes complete sense, and
is called a Sentence. ·

2. DEFINITIONS.

· 1. A Sentence is a group of words making complete
sense.

1. Language is the expression of thought by means
of words.

Each group is also called a Proposition.

When we talk, we express our idens by spoken words.
This is called Spoken Lanauage.

2. A Proposition is n. thought expressed in words.
In writing sentences, observe tlic following directlo11s:

2. Spoken Language is the expression of ideas by
the voice.
When we write or print our thougl1tR, wo use letters which
represent sounds. This is called Written Language.

3. Written Language is the expression of thought
by the use of written or printed chamctcrs.

'l

4. Grammar treats of the principles and usages of
language.

1st. Begin each sentence with a capital letter.
2<l. Spell each word correctly.
3d. Place a period [.] at the mul of every sentence
that declares something, or makes n. command.
·
4th. Place an interrogation point [?] at the cn<l
of every question.
5th. Never <livi<le a syllable at the en<l of a line.
QUESTIONS.-What Is a sentence? A proposition? Give the directions for writing sentences.

5. English Grammar teaches how to speak and write
the English language correctly.
QUESTIONS.-What Is language? Spoken language? Written language? Grammar? English Grammar?

4 . SENTENCE-MAKING.
•'

I.

3. THE SENTENCE.

When I sny, "The window is open," I stnte a fact, using
what is called a Declarative Sentence.

What is the color of chalk? It is white. Chalk breaks
easily: is it tough or brittle 1 It is brittle. We can not see
through it: hence we say it is opaque.

1. A Declarative Sentence is a sentence usc<l in stating a fact.

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.I,

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

10

THE AENTENCE.

11

When I say, Is the window open?" I ask a question,
using an Interrogative Sentence.

I·

11

4. An Exclamatory Sentence is a sentence used in
e.x pressing some feeling or emotion.

2. An Interrogative Sentence is a sentence used in
asking a question.

An exclamation point (I) is usually placed after an exclamatory sentence.

Form declarative sentences out of the follototng words:

Fo ..tn impe..a.Uve Bcntcnces out of the followlng words:

1. Iceland, very, is, in, it, cold. 2. Lesson, an, this, easy,
is. 3. June, cherries, in, ripe, are. 4. Is, house, our, hill,
the, under. 5. Always, good, happy, ~re,_ scholars. 6. Cap,
river, into, the, fell, boy's, red, the, little. 7. Deep, our, is, lane,
very, in, snow, the. 8. Corn, spring, the, in, plants, farmer:
9. Ice, the, smooth, when, I, skate, to, like, very, is.

1. Go, your, seats, to, boys. 2. Home, go, once, at, Ponto.
3. Me, your, lend, book, Jane. 4. Minutes, lesson, ten, pupils,
study, the. 5. Question, Susan, this, answer. 6. Skates, John,
me, ho.ve, let, my. 7. Book, put, shelf, the, on, the. 8. ParentR, obey, your, always. 9. Team, into, the, drive, the, Jonas,
barn.

Fortn tnterrogatftll! 11cntcncCR out of tlte follomlng tco,.ds:

Fot•ut ,.,,,,,i,..,.,,to,.y Rrntcnccs m&t of the followtnu "'ords:

1. Lemons, where, grow, do. 2. Is, sick, to-day, brother,
John's. 3. Cold, it, very, was, yesterday. 4. Aunt, does, the,
toll-gate, live, your, beyond, river, the, over. 5. Writing,
exercise, is, pleasant, a, not. 6. You, school, at, not, yester·
day, were. 7. Pick, white, I, this, may, rose.

1. Am, Im, Im, ha, I, it, of, glad. 2. Clock, four, hark,
strikes, tho. 3. Pretty, is, oh, she, how. 4. Don't, it, ugh,
like, I. 5. Alone, pshaw, me, let.

Note.-Write other groups, and require the pupils to arrange
them into sentences. Use this exercise until the pupils can easily
and readily construct sentences containing not fewer than fifteen
·
words.
QUESTIONS.-Wbat Is a declarative sentence? An Interrogative sentence? Repeat the directions to be observed in writing sentences.

Tell tlw 1<hul.• of scnt<!nCCR in the following e:r:ct•ciRcB:

1. The winds bring perfume.

2. Where is my new book?
4. Pshaw, go away! 5. Necessity is the mother of invention. 6. Does God uniformly
work in one way? 7. Oh, how I trembled with disgm1t f
8. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 9. Lend
me your wings! I mount! I fly!
3. Go to the ant, thou sluggard!

Tell the kiudR nf 1mnt.r11cr.s i.n your rradtnu le1Jsons. Change the
fo•.,,. of these scntcHccs ff'ott• declat•ative to intert-ogatlve, ""'·

II.

/I

i/'

When I say, "Clarence, open the window," I make o. command; and when I say, 11 Do forgive me!" I express an entreaty. Jn each instance I use an Imperative Sentence.

Q,UESTIONS.-Whnt IR an Imperative sentence? An exclamatory sentence? What mark Is usually placed after an exclamatory sentence?

,LI
5. QUOTATION MARKS.

3. An Imperative Sentence is a sentence used in
expressing a command or an entreaty.
\Vhen T say, "Oh, that window is open again!" I express
some feeling or emotion, using o.n Exclamatory Sentence.

...

The man yawned, and said, "How sleepy I am !"
In this sentence, these marks ( 11 ) are placed before the
words that the man used, o.nd these ( " ) after them. They
are co.lled Quotation .llfark1.

--------- -

- - -

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR

12

THE NOUN.

J.!
Quotation Marks should be used, in writing, when
we quote the exact language of another.
Such a quotation should begin with a. capital letter.
When we state what another says, without using his exact
language, the quotation marks should not be used. In this
book, the answers supposed to be given by tho pupils to the
questions asked by the teacher, a.re usually not quoted.
Use guotatlon mar1<s an<l capital letters properly in these sentences:

I!'Did your mother send you, said the merchant, gruffly.
2. The general said, be ready to start at 5 A. M.
3. Will you come into my parlor, said the spider to the fly.
4. The pupils kept repeating, four times three are twelve,
four times three are twelve, for at least three minutes.

-:; ., ~_' QUESTION.-When should quotation marks be used?

6. PARTS OF SPEECH.

"Scholars study." What word is hero used instcail of the
names of tho persons of whom we arc 11peaking? "Scholars."
What word tells what scholars do1 "Study.'~
"Good scholars study." What word here describes scholars? "Good.''
"Good scholars study diligently." What word here tells
how good scholars study? "Diligently."
. Words, then, not only have different meanings, but they
are also used in different ways.
They can be divided into classes, according to their meaning and use. These classes are called Parts of Speech.

Parts of Speech are the classes into whi.ch words
are divided according to their meaning anJ use.
. It is necessary to know its meaning and use in order to
determine to which class any word belongs.
QUF.STIONR.-What nre pnrts of speech? What ts necessary tn order
to determine the chu!S to which any word belongs?

'

13

I .

THE NOUN.
7. ORAL LESSON.
What are the words boy, girl, city, door, window, book, desk 1
They are names of objects.
That is correct. They are the names of objects, not the
objects themselves . . Because each word is a name, it is called
a Noun, which means a name.

1. A. Noun is a name; as, boy, John, raifroad.
What are the words house, farm, garden, dog, horse, blacksmith,
mercliant? They n.ro nouns. Why? Because they n.re names.
Whnt aro tho words Jlfary, .Tolin, lVirnliington, O!ticago, Ohio,
Amcrica1 Tlwy are nouns. Why? R<>en.use they n.re nnmes.
Cnn tlw 11mno bo,11 ho n.ppliod to n.11y hoy in tho school, or
in tho worlcl? It c1t11. H is n. 1mnw, then, which is common
to all hoys; that is, it can be applied to each of them. So,
also, the name girl is common to all girls; the name house, to
all houses; the name city, to all cities. Objects of the same
kind form what is called a class. The same name can be
applied to each object belonging to the same class. The names
boy, girl, house, and city are called Common Nouns, because they
can be applied to any one of a class of objects.

2. A Common Noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of objects; as, bird, door,
lightning.
Can the. name John be applied to all boys? It can not.
Why? Because boys have different names, such as Oharles,
Frank, Samuel, Clarence. Why are boys called by different
names? In order to distinguish one from another, or to distinguish a particular boy from the rest of the boys in the
school, or in the world.

1l

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

l4

- -- -

-

--------NUMBER.

15

Can the name city be applied to all cities? It can. Is
,he name Chicago applied to all cities? It is not. Why?
3ecause it is the name of a pal'ticular city. That is correct;
md t he names given to particular objects to distinguish them
'rom the rest of their class, are called Proper Nouns.

J•olnt o ..t rrll "'" 11oii1111 lti 11mu• t•errdtnu lt•t111010, nnd t"ll tvhiclt at-o
~ a.nd, 1f•lil,•1i
~ no1tna, tcstno tlin followl.ng

3. A Proper Noun is the name of some particu.ar person, place, people, or thing; as, Susan, Rome,
American, Jfars.

Cicero is a noun; it is a name: proper; it is the name of a
particular person. Orator is a noun; (why?): common; it may
be applied to any one of a class of objects.

What kind of noun fa plow 1 It is n common noun. Why?
Because it can be npplied to all plows.
What kind of noun is New York? It is n proper noun.
Why? It is the name of a pnrticular city.

Q,UESTIONS.-Whn.t Is a noun? How mn.ny cl11&qe.q of nounR nre there?
What Is n comm rm noun? Give cxn.mplc.<J. Whnt Is n proper noun?
Give CXl\lrtplc.q. Which cl11.'!.q should cornrncnco with cnpltnl letters?
When should common nouns commence with capltnl letters?

,,.,.,!

MODEL.

"Cicero was an orator."

Rem. 1.-Prop<>r nouns should commence with capital let-

8. NUMBER.

~ers.

A common noun should commence with a small letter,
unless it is the firRt word of a ientcnce or is a word of
~pecial importance. The words I and 0 should always be
capital letters.

Does the word fan denote one object, or more than one?
It denotes but one object. Does the word Jans denote one
object, or more than one? It denotes more" than one object.
That is right. When a noun denotes but one object, it is
said to be in the Singular Numher.

Wt-lte tho ntunr.s of jl.tJe k .i1uls of fr ..U; of ftt1e 1.tndR of (Jt-ain; of
t1it-ce n1•tLcles of clot II l11u; of ftt!c (Jtftltt'R; of f'11r. 1mtl h.t11•1tB; of sf.al
fat"tnlt1(J implcmr.11tB; of fmtt" tf•ttdrs; of sf.al towns1tipt1 '" 11<mr
couttty; of sla: ln•·or. "£11.fos; of fttJo lao·uo •·Ivers; of ftvc mount-

1. The Singular Number denotes but one object.

al:n•; of 11cvc11. of your ttclu1tJl-uudmt.

Whnt nre tho words you hnve written? Why? Tell which
are common and which n.re proper nouns.

When a noun denotes more than one object, it is said to
be in the Plural Number.

Tell whkh rrt-o com.m o ,. and which are pl"op er nouns '" t he foll01vlt•u list: •
- --

2. The Plural Number denotes more than one object.

Rain.
Barn.
Slate.
April.
Hour.

Snow.
Sarah.
Organ.
Boston.
Lesson.

College.
Minute.
Steeple.
Church.
Temple.

Augusta.
Volcano.
Railroad.
Thunder.
Vesuvius.

The last sound in the word fan readily unites with the
sound represented by the letter s, and its plural is formed by
adding s to the singular. The plural of any noun ending with
a sound that will readily unite with the sound represented by
s, is formed by adding s to the singular.
The plural of any word ending with a sound that will not
readily unite with tho sound represented by 11, is formed by
adding es to the singular, when the singular does not end
with e; as, church, church-ea; mass, mass-e11.

Palestine.
Black Sea.
Lake Erie.
Indianapolis.
Niagara Falls.

Rem. 2.-Common nouns, when in a tabulated list of words

as above, may begin with capital letters, as if each began a

sentence.

(,
I

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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

16

ABBREVIATIONS.

These are two ways of forming plurnls. There are many
other ways. Nouns ending in j or fe usually ·change these
endings to ves ; those ending in 9, with a v·owcl Lefore it, a<ld
s; those ending in y, with a consonant before it, change y to
i and add es ; those ending in o, with a consonant before it,
add es. A few nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep,
deer, trout, vermin. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add 's;
as, b's, 6's, *'s, 3's.

W1•lfe tlie follotobiu al>brevlations and t•·-'
, 7
mar cqu.tJa enta:

Dr.
Mr.

Doctor.
Mister.
Cr.
Credit.
St.
Saint, or Street.
,lft.
Mount.
Col. Colonel.
Gen. General.
Maj. Major.
Lieut. Lieutenant.
Co.
Company.

Writ" th" plural.8 of the foUowinu tlouna:

Ox.
Girl.
. Boy.
Calf.
Box.

City.
Fish.
Man.
Rose.
Plow.

Desk.
Road.
Folly.
Book.
Chair.

Alley.
Child.
Wind.
Knife.
Fence.

Street.
House.
Pencil.
Vessel.
Potato.

17

School.
Money.
Wagon.
Woman.
Monkey.

Make the proper abbretnatlona

Esq.
Gov.
Re:v.
!Ion.
Prof.
Pres.
Mrs.
Atty.
Capt.
8upt.

Esquire.
Governor.
Reverend.
Honorable.
Professor.
President.
Mistress.
Attorney.
Captain.
Superintendent.

i~ tlic following

8entcncea

1. Major Whipple lives in Saint Louis 2. Moses
E
·
·
·
.Johnson,
,squ.1re, is an unclo of Professor Collins. ·3. J,ieutenant Wil...on is a guest of Superintendent Furnes11. 4. Doctor Metz
lt~cs on Wood Street, next door to Colonel Clark 5 W '
cro
Mister .Joucs and President Tap11nn in tho city to-<ln;?
R

Note,-Tl1e tcnchcr should nssist the pupil in writing tho plurals
of some of thcHo wordR. They ought not to he required to remember and npply n lar~e numbe r of rules. Tho J>lnrnl forms must be
learned by Jlro.ctice 111 writing them.
Q.UESTIONS.-Wlmt docs tho slngulnr number dcnolo? Tho plural
number? Mention some of the ways of forming the plural number.

II.

"N. B.-Wm. Smith, Esq., lives in Utica N y"
. . 1.n this sentence, the first two letters, '., N·.
are the
m1t~als, or first letters, of the Latin words Nota be~e, and are
eqmvalent to take notice "N y " 1· th
bb . .
1'i
·
· · s e a rev1ation for New
ork, the first letters of each word being used.

B"

9. ABBREVIATIONS.
I.

"Dr. Vinton is a brother of Gen. Vinton, and the father
of Mrs. Noble."
In this sentence, the first word is Doctor; but in writing
it the first and last letters only have been use.d. This is a
short way of writing a word, and is called an Abbreviation.
The word General is also abbreviated, the first three totters
only being used. In abbreviating the word llfistress, all the
letters are omitted except the first, the fifth, and the last.
A period should be placed after an abbreviation.

1J'rfle tlie followlnu abbretriationa and tlicir equt.,alenta:

A . .llL Forenoon.
B. 0. Before Christ.

U. 8. United States.
lrL 0. Member of Congress.
lrL D. Doctor of Medicine.
P. 0. Post Office.

P. 8. Postscript.
R. R. Railroad.
!fl.
Noon.

Rem.-A bbreviations generally bf'gin with capital letters.

/

...

.

El. Ur.-2.

P. M. Afternoon.
A. D. In the year of our Lord.
0. 0.D. Collect on Delivery.
Bbl.
Darrel.
Lb.
Pound.
No.
Number.
Ult.
The last month.
Prox. The next month.
Admr, Administrator.

'
j

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

18

Jn-ite tlie abl1rct1iatio..s for tlw days of tlu• 1t1eek.

.,

11. ELEMENTS OF A SENTENOE.

I

Note.-"A. M.," when placed after the name of a person, is
equivalent to },faster of Arts. "P. M.," when written or printed
in a similar manner, is equivalent to Post1naster.
The abbreviations for "·eights and -measures, as well as ult. and
prox., should begin with small letters, unless they stand alone, or
at the beginning of sentences. In some cnses, small letters may
be used as the abbreviations for fo1·e1won and afternoon.

r·~
I

-

1. The Subject of a proposition is that of which
is affirmed.

:

someth~ng

H'ldie is callml tho l'redicate, for U is that which is affirmed
of the subject c!talk.

2. The Predicate of a proposition is that which is
affirmed of the subject.
Is is called the Copula, for it is used to join the predicate
to the subject, and the word copula means a link. The copula
also affirms that the predicate belongs to the subject. It is
sometimes a group of words; as, will be, sltall have been, etc.

QUESTIONil.-What Is an abbreviation? How are periods and capita.ls used in connection with abbreviations?
.(
I

..

10. OONTRAOTIONS.

1. We 're going home. 2. We'll not go with you. 3. I
didn't know that you told 'em not to go. 4. I '11 help you
as soon as I've learned my lesson. · 5. We came from o'er
the sea. 6. They 're bo~h truants. 7. The corporal said,
"'Bout face."

'

In the sentence, "Chalk is white," chalk is called the Subject, for it is that about which something is said, or ojfirmed.

t '1

1. Take notice.-The train will leave at 3 o'clock in the
afternoon. 2. Samuel Fish, Member of Congress, has removed
to Buffalo, New York. 3. Send the books to Joel Elkins,
Master of Arts, and collect on delivery. 4. My father left for
Europe on the seventh day of the last month. 5. Send me
four barrels of flour this forenoon. 6. I will pay you on the
sixth day of the next month.

Tell what letters are omitted in the contracted words in these sentences:

'

-1

Make the proper abbret1la!lons 1.. tlw followinu sc,.tcnces:

"Don't fail to come." In writing or printing don't, a mark
(.' ) is used between n and t. It is called an Apostroplie. In
an abbreviation or contraction like this, it shows that one or
more letters are omitted.

19

;! .

JVrU• tlie abbrct1iatfmis for tlw t,.o,.tlis of tit~ year.

Write the abbrct1iatio ..s for tlic States of the Union.

THE SENTENCE.

..

.,•

3. The Copula is a word, or group of words, used to
join a predicate to a subject, and to make an assertion .
In the sentence, "Ice is cold," what is the subject? "Ice."
Why? Because it is that of which something is affirmed.
What is the predicate? "Cold." Why? Because it is that
which is affirmed of the subject. What is the copula? "Is."
Why? Because it is the word used to assert the predicate
cold of the subject ice. Why is it called the copula? Because
it links or joins the predicate to the subject.
Poiut out the sul>jcct, predicate, and copula in eaclo of tl•e following
sentences: - - ---

1. Air is transparent. 2. Iron is heavy. 3. Nero was cruel.
4. Jane has been studiouR. 5. Waltor will he tardy. 6. Mary
11hould bo kind. 7. J~lfon is unhap1iy. 8. 1\l:u·tlm wu.s cheerful. 9. George should have been industrious.

20

ELEMENTS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Potnt out the nouna tn these 11entence11, and tell .,,htch are common
and wlilch are~ nouns.
_ __

13. ELEMENTS.

QUESTIONS.-What ls the subject of a prop0sltlon? The predicate?
The copula.? What does the word copula mean?

12. THE PREDICATE.
In the sentence, "Man is mortal," the predicate mortal denotes a quality belonging to the subject man. Words which
express qualities may be called quality-words.
Nouns may be used as predicates. When they are thus
used, they denote kind or class.
In the sentence, "Horses are animals," what is the subject?
"Horses." Why? What is the predicate? "Animals." Why?
What does the word animals denote? It denotes the kind or
class of beings to which horses belong. What part of speech
is it? It is a noun. Why? What is the copula? "Are."

'\
l

Trees - Books - School - -

Fishes
Apples - Flowers __

--young.
- - happy.
- - square.

Alfl.rn~ ~or~

- - opaque.
- - mellow.
- - transparent.

of tlte fotlowh•g subjects:

Oxen - River - Silver - -

Sheep - Eagles - Tables __

Wheat - Houses - Wagons--

Model.-Eagles are birds.
Q,UESTIONB.-What are quality-words? Can they be used as predicates? Olve example. Oive an example ot a noun used as a predicate.

'

2. The Subject and the Predicate are called Principal
Elements, because no sentence can be formed without
them. All other distinct parts of a sentence are called
Subordinate Elements. The Copula is not called an
element.
3. Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its
elements. Any sentence can be so separated.

This is a sentence; it is a group of words making complete
sense: declarative; it states a· fact .
Iron is the subject; it is that of which something is affirmed:
heavy is the predicate; it is that which is affirmed of the subject: is is the . copula; it joins the predicate to the subject.

Model.-8ugar is sweet.

Gold - Corn . - Coats - -

1. An Element is one of the distinct parts of a
sentence.

"Iron is heavy."

A.lfl.rm the following qualities of appropriate sub}ccts:

- - hard.
- - sweet.
- - round.

These

MODEL.

Oranges
Marbles
Swimming--

Model.-Oranges are yellow.
soft.
--wise.
--blue.

We have seen that a sentence is composed of parts'.
parts are called Elements.

Analy111c tlto followfnu scntet•cc111 ustt1u tlits

Alfl.rn• qu.n.1/1.lt?R of tltc folfowlnu Btt11jccts:

Iron - Play - Lead - -

21

l

Iron I is : heavy.
I
(t
1. Indigo is blue. 2. Flies are insects. 3. Mary was tardy.
4. Boys will be playful. 5. Children should be careful. 6.
Men may be imprudent. 7. John can be studious. 8. Roses
are fragrant. 9. Julius should be diligent. "/-'I
Point out the

~

and

~

nouns in the above sentences.

QUESTIONS.-What Is an element? What are the principal element.st
Subordinate elements? What Is analysis T

--------------------------------- 22

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

-,_

-·--- ---

COMPOSITION.

23

14. OOMPOSITION.

l-

II.

1'

lI
I.

Note.-The answers to the questions in this and similar exercisesJ
should first be given orally, and then written on slates or slips 01
paper. The first answer should begin with the words, "I see."
Look at the pfrt..-re, and a•uuwr the follotolnu questions:

I.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What do you
What are q1e
Where is the
Where is the
Do you think

sc>e in this picture?
boy ancl the girl doing?
bird's nest?
bird?
the children will rob the nest?

Read what has been written.

'

~

I. What do you see in this picture?
2. What is the dog doing?
3. How many rats has he killed already?
4. What are the rats trying to do?
5. Will the dog catch the one that is trying to climb the
broom? Why?
6. Where do rats live?
7. What harm do they do?
.Read wliat has been written.

Notc.-Scll'ct other J>icturcR, and ask questions concerning what
is to be seen in them. Sl:onl<I a painting or chromo be used, call
atf.ent.ion to I. lie different cnlor"; write their 1rn mes. and co mr.nrc
them wit.h Hi rni larly co lon• d objects in the ~c hoo l-roo m-su c 1 n~

..
ELEMENTARY

24

GRAMMAR

CLASSES

THE VERB.

In the sentence, "Boys study grammar," the word "grammar" is required to complete the meaning of the predicate
"study." That which tells what the boys study, completes its
meaning, and is called an Objective Element, or Object.

In the sentence, "Fishes swim," what is the subject?
"Fishes." Why? What is the predicate? "Swim." Why?
Is there any copula expressed? There is not.
The predicate, then, can be affirmed of the subject directly;
one word expressing both the copula and the predicate.
A word which can be used to affirm something of a subject, is called a Verb. It usually expresses action, being, or
state; as, I run, denotes action; I am, denotes being; I sleep,
denotes state.

1. An Objective Element is a word or a group of
words which completes the meaning of a verb.
Those verbs which require the addition of an object to
complete their meaning, are called Transitive Verbs.

2. A Transitive Verb requires the addition of an
object to complete its meaning.

• action, being, or
. A Verb is a word which expresses
state; as, George writes, I am, he dreamB.
What is the word "trot" in tho sentence, 11 Horses trot?"
It is a verb. Why ? Because it affirms action of the subject
"horses."
What is the word 11 stand" in the sentence "Houses stand?"
It is a verb. Why? Because it affirms state of the subject
"houses."

Ex.-" Columbus di;covered America." The verb "discoverc1l" requires the addition of Bouie word, ns "America," to
complete its meaning, and is, therefore, transitive.

J
/:

I.'

1JTrfte 11entcnce11, using t1&c foll011Jinr1 verbs as pre1Ucatcs:

sail.
pur.
run.
sing.
play.
reap.

-------

look.
limp.
mow.
howl.
walk.
work.

-------

loiter.
listen.
study.
neigh.
stand.
recite.

--whine.
- - cackle.
- - gobble.
- - reform.
- - scream.
- - whistle.

Model.-Birds sing.
Point o~d all _tlw ~in your readlnu lesson.

QUE8TIONS.-What ts a verb? What does It usually express? Give
the directions for writing sentences. (See page 9.)

'

25

16. CLASSES OF VERBS.

15. ORAL LESSON.

-------

OF VERBS. _

·'·

.i

Rem.-The oltiect of a transitive verb - is not always expressed; but some word different from the subject can always
be made its object.
In the sentence, "Clarence walks," no word is required to
complete the meaning of the verb "walks." Those. verbs
which do not require the addition of an object to complete
their meaning are called Intransitive Verbs.

3. An Intransitive Verb does not require the addi'tion of an object to complete its meaning.
Ex.-" Horses run." The verb "run" does not require the
addition of an object to complete its meaning. It is, therefore, intransitive.
Rem.-Some verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another sense. To determine whether a verb can be
used both transitively and intransitively consult a dictionary.
The copula is always a verb.

26

CAUTIONS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Potnt otd ""' ~ tn flrn f11llowtng llf'nfflneelf, tisbig these

4. A Copulative Verb is used to join a predicate to
a subject, and to make an assertion.
Ex.-" Lambs are playful." The verb "are" is used to join
the predicate "playful" to the subject "lambs." It is, therefore, a copulative verb.

MODELS.

.l

Write """"n 11tmtm1celf eontalnlng tran11fthm verbs.

Boys swim.

III. "Horses draw wagons."
Draw is a verb; (why?): transitive; it requires an object to
complete its meaning.

Wrtte seven sentencelf contatnhau copul1tUt'e verbs.

Model.-The weather was warm.

I. Viola. blushed. 2. Stephen whs a martyr 3. Boys may
be useful. 4. Merclmnts sell goods. 5. Mechanics build
houses. 6. Fish<•s swim. 7. James is sick. 8. John should
be careful. 9. DogR kill sheep. JO. ITemy stmck William.

Write sentences, ulllnu the followtnu nottnl as objertitle elements:

I/

cars.
laws.
lions.
trees.

- - grass.
- - wood.
- - .bon.tR.
- - debts.

-----

books.
whc>at.
lc>ttcrs.
pictures.

Are is a verb; it denotes being: copulative; it joins the pred·
icate to the subject. .

Grows is a verb; (why?): intransitive; it does not require an
object to complete its meaning.

Write seven 8fltlfe11c"" containing lntram1IUt1e vM-bs.

-----

I. "The nights are chilly."

II. " Corn grows."

Model.-J ohn struck James.

Models.-Houses stand.

27

-----

churches.
elephants.
geography.
mountains.

Model.-Fire burns wood.

J,oi·nt ortt tl1n !!!!!!.!!.!! 111. tl1r.Rt! ,.-cu.tcncca, and tell tvlilclt. ai•e conunon
and wltlclt a1·c P"'"per nouns.

I·

Q,UESTIONS.-Wlmt Is an objective element? A trnnsltive verb? An
lntrnnsitlvc verb? A copulative verb? Is the object of a trnnsltlve
verb always expressed? Give a sentence In whlch It Is not expressed.

MODEL.

"Scholars learn lessons,"

17. INCORRECT LANGUAGE.

This is a sentence; (why?) : declarative; (why?).
Scholars is the subject; (why?): learn is the predicate;
(why?). "Learn" is modified by lessons, an objective element.

Caution 1.-Do not use saw for seen, or went for
gone, after has, have, lias been, or liave been.

Scholars

I

learn

I

_Ex.-1. I have saw a fine horse to-day. 2. The little boy
has went into the woods. 3. George has went there several
times. 4. Have you saw Mr. Olds to-day?

lessons.

1. Dogs hunt rabbits. 2. .Tnnc studies botany. 3. Eli
drives hol'fles. 4. Horses draw wagonR. 5. Mon huild houses.
6. Farmers sow grain. 7. Mcrchnnts sell goods. 8. Jla.<1te
makes waste. ~· Soldiers fight battles. IO. Cats catch mice.

!

\

'

Caution 11.-Do not use see or seen for saw in expressing past time.

•

28

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

.. .: i . Ex.-1. Hiram see n flock of wild turkeys yesterday.

2. I
seen a. dog running after a fox. 3. I know ,John was whis";"' fi"ring;, I seen him. 4. It is tho largest peach I ever see.

~.

Ca~tion 111.-Do not use done for did, or come for
came, ·in expressing past time.

SENTENCE-MAKING.

29

When scvern.1 words are used in the same way, they are
sn.i<l to ho nj tl1c same kind, or ranlt, n.nd they form what is
called a sr.rics. When more thnn two words nro thus used to
form n. series, they should be separated by commas. Write
the following rules for punctuation on your slates, and commit
them to memory:

Ex.-1. He done his work well yesterday. 2. My father
come home last week. 3. I done my task before Eli come.

Rule 1.-Three or more words of the same kind, or
rank, used together, should be separated by commas.

Caution IV.-Do not use is, was, or has been as the
copula or predicate of a sentence whose subject denotes
more than one object.
·

Rule 11.-Two words of the same kind, or rank,
used together, are not usually separated by commas,
but are connected by and, 01·, or some similar word.

Ex.-1. The horse and the cow is in the stable. 2. Weasels
was plenty around there. 3. Eliza and Snrnh has been hero.
4. We was very much surprised. 5. Are you sure that they
was there?

Rem.-Whcn two words of tho sn.mc rnnk, used together,
nre not connoctod by and, or, or some similar word, they a.re
usually separated by commas.

0

•

Arrange the folloiolng words lnto 11entenccs:

Caution V.-Do not use was for were as the copula
or predicate of a sentence whose subject . is you.
Ex.-1. You was there, we know.
ing to hide somewhere.

2. Perhaps you was try-

18. SENTENCE-MAKING.
In the sentence, "John and Silas went to town," two words
are used as the subject-what are they? John and Sila,s. Jn ·
the sentence, "John, Silas, and Ezra. went to town," how
many nouns a.re used as the subject? Three-John, SilM, and
Ezra.
Observe that in the first sentence the two nouns used as
the subject are .joined by the word and. There is no comma.
( , ) after the first word. Observe, also, that in the second
sentence, there is a comma after the first two nouns-John
and SilM.

1. Houses, mills, build, and, bridges, mechanics. 2. Raise,
wheat, corn, farmers, barley, and. 3. In, oranges, West Indies,
lemons, grow, the, and, pine-apples. 4. Metals, gold, a.re, silver, precious, and. 5. Mary, Susan, cousins, are, Ada, and.
6. New York, cities, and, large, Philadelphia, are, San Francisco.
Notc.-In writing these sentences, observe carefully the directions given in the t\Vo rules for the use of the comma.
FtU t1te blan1cs ln the followlng e:x:erclses:

1. I have - - - - - - - - - in my desk.
2. - - - - - - - - - - - - are wild aniumls.
3. A 'merchant sells - - - - - - · - - - - - .
4. I can buy - - - - - . - - - - - - of a grocer.·
5. Have you seen--.- - - - - - -.- - - - ?
6.·k--- - - - - - - are - - - in: Colorado.
7: &~can see - - - - - - - - - from my wmdow.
8. Violets - - - - - - - - - are - - - flowers.
9. - - - and four and · - - - and six equal - - - .

.

'·
'

>A#C

--------30~

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE ADJECTIVE.

19. COMPOSITION.

THE .ADJEO':CIVE.

.31

20. ORAL LESSON.

When quality-words arc joined to nouns by copulas, they
are said to be predicated of those nouns.
They may be written or printed in connection with nouns,
without being joined to them by copulas; thus: wliite chalk,
sour apples, a square table, good boys.
When thus used, they describe or restrict the meaning of
nouns, but are not predicated of them.
Words that do not express quality may be used as modifiers of nouns. In the sentences, "This book is heavy," "Tltat
book is light," "Two boys were sick," "Three boys were idle,"
the words, this, that, two, and three, are modifiers of the nouns
that follow them; but they do not express any quality. Tltis
and that point out the nouns to which they belong; two and
three denote number.
Those words which modify nouns by expressing quality,
pointing them out, or denoting number, arc called Aqjectives.
Tell what the!lc children arc doing. Give them names.
Tell whether the two standing together are ~t home, or at
the home of the little girl holding the doll.
Tell how old you think the little girl is .that has a basket
on her arm. How much older is the little boy?
Write a story about three children that played at. keeping
shop one afternoon.
Write a story about a brother and a sister tirn.t spent a day
with their cousin, who lived in the country. Tell what games
they played.
Write a story about three little girls that were left alone
at home one afternoon. Tell how they spent the afternoon,
what books they read, what gamE>!l they playE>d, l'tc. ·
Write a dPRcription of your play-house at home. Tell how
large it is, and what playt~ings are in it=

1. An Adjective is a word used to descriye or define
a noun.

2. There are two classes of .Adjectives: Descriptive
aµd Definitive.
All quality-words are Descriptive Adjectives.

3. .A Descriptive Adjective describes a noun by expressing some quality belonging to it; as, good, white.
Pointing-out words and number-words are Definitive Ac{jectives.

4. A Definitive Adjective limits or defines a noun
without expressing any of its qualities; as, this, few.

(

'

-

------------------------T---- ~---....,.,--,--:-::-:--=-= ·-- -~· -· ·

32

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE ARTICLE.

33

Rem.-Most adjectives derived from proper nouns, should
commence with en.pita.ls; n.s, American cotton, French customs.

TIIE ARTICI-'E.

J'lace eacl• of the f1Jllowinu ndJecUve11 brfore a noun t

Dry
Bad
Soft
Good - -

Dirty
Light
Moist
Warm - -

Mod,els.-Smooth ice.

Rough
Round
Square
Smooth

Spnnish
Healthy
Pleasant
Australian - -

Olean hands.

What kind of adjectives are these? Why?
Place each of the f1Jllowh•u mUeeHve" before a noun t

Some -Many - These - Those--

That - Four - Such - Each--

Models.--Much money.

--

Latter
Either -Certain-Sundry--

Yonder
Neither
Another
Fourfold

Sundry books.

Whn.t kind of adjectives are these? Why?
Point out the ndJecHves in the following sentences, ttsing thi11

21. ORAL LESSON.

When we say, "A horse was stolen," a denotes that one
horse is meant, but it does not point out any particular horse.
When we say "The horse was stolen," the denotes that a
particular horse is meant.
The words "A" and "The," in these sentences, are definitive
adjectives, because they limit nouns without denoting any of
their qualities. They are also called Articles.
A and an are difforent forms of the same word. A is used
when the following words begin with a subvocal or aspirate;
an, when the following word begins with a vocal.

1. The is caJled the Definite Article, because it points
out definitely the object which it restricts.

2. A or An is called the Indefinite Article, because it
restricts in an indefinite or general manner.

MODEL,

"Fearful storms sweep over these islands."
Fearful is an adjective; it is a word which modifies the meaning of n. noun: descriptive; it denotes a quality. These is an
adjective; definitive; it defines without denoting any quality.

-'/.' 1. Both horses are lame. 2. Ripe peaches are plentiful.
3. Large houses are expensive. 4. You may take either road.
5. That boy has a kind father. 6. Every man carried a square
box. 7. This lesson is hard. 8. The brave soldier received
a severe wound. 9. That large cat caµght this beautiful bird.

11(

Poin out tlie ~ and~ in the above •entences,
Point out the a<(jectives in your 't'eading lesson.

Q,UESTIONS.-What is an adjective? A descriptive adjective? A de6.nltlve adJectlve? What adJectlves should commence with capitals?

Place!! o't' !!:!! before tl•e follot11ing t11ords, and tell t111•y U should be
fl.Bed:

------

egg.
ode.
cart.
goat.
oven.

------

hour.
eagle.
stand.
house.
honor.

------

hearth.
humor.
orange.
turkey.
vulture.

memory.
measure.
opossum.
elephant.
advantage.

Use..!!. O't' ..!!!! instead of the dashes in the following sentences, and
tell why U should be usedt

I. Temperance is - virtl'e. 2. The house stands on hill. 3. - loud report was heard. 4. Life is but - vapor.
5. He is - honest man. 6. He has - ax to grind. 7. Father
has bought - horse. 8. My being - child, was - plea for
my admission.
F.I. Gr.-3,

,..

'

------

--

-

-

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

CAUTIONS.

Use the p1•oper articles instead of the dashes in the foZlowlng sentences:

II.

34

1. Such - law is - disgrace to any state. 2. Repeat first four lines in concert. 3. Love took up - harp of life,
and smote on all - chords with might. 4. - fox is cunning.
5. - days are calm. 6. - wise son maketh - glad father.
Polnt out tlie ~ ln your reading lesson, uslng tlib
MODEL.

"The man was riding in a wagon."

The is a definite article; it points out definitely the object
which it restricts. A is an indefinite article; it restricts in an
indefinite or general manner.
Q,UESTIONS.-Wha.t words are called article.,? Which Li the definite
article? The Indefinite article? When ts a UBed? When is an used?

Pltnctuate the following sentences properly:

1. The kind ol<l man took the poor child in his arms.
2. Plain/ honest .truth wants no artificial covering. 3. Mary
!s a gentle sensible and well-behaved girl. 4. The good man
was loved esteemed and respected. · 5. His large, old-fashioned

spectacles frightened the child.
boy is -my nephew.

6. That little mischievous

23. INCORRECT LANGUAGE.

I.

Caution 1.-Do not use a before vocal sounds, or
an before subvocals and aspirates.

1. Flowers, the, garden. 2. Fishes, sea. 3. Nests, birds.
4. Winter, go, robins, where. 5. Quarts, how, gallon. 6. Five,
thirty. 7. Columbus, Ohio. 8. Lion, man, the. 9. Let, book,
me. 10. Dog, that, cross, is, ugly, and. 11. I, in, large, live,
a, roomy, house, brick. 12. Col. Smith, prudent, man, brave,
and, honorable, a, is. 13. Sugar, grocer, soap, coffee, a, sells.
.Fill tl&e blanks in these ea:erctses, carefully choosing words.

1. - - - - - - America.
San Francisco - - - - - - California.
- - - - - - in the winter.
I have - - - - - - lesson.
- - - - - - when the ice is smooth.
Where <lo the birds - - - ?

...

In the sentence, 11 I saw a little old man," little and old are
adjectives, but they are not separated by commas. The expression old man is modified by little, and not the noun man
only. When an adjective and a noun form a single expression in this way, tho adjective is not separated by a comma
from another ii.djective placed before it.

22. SENTENOE-MAKING.

Write sentence• contalnbig the following words, .tupplying words,
where neceHary, to make complete sense:

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

35

Ex.-1. An hundred cents make one dollar. 2. There should
be an universal rtiioicing. 3. This is a open country. 4. Henry
is a honest lad.

Caution 11.-Do not use these or those before a noun
in the singular number.
Ex.-1. I don't like these kind of apples. 2. These sort
of people are good neighbors. 3. Those yoke of oxen belong
to me.

Caution 111.-Do not use them for those; this here
for this; or that 'ere for that.
Ex.-1. Look 11.t them tramps. 2. Do you live in this here
house? 3. That 'ere girl is not very handsome.

·ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

36

THE PARTICIPLE.

37

r.f.
24. OOMPOSITION.

THE PARTICIPLE.
25. ORAL LESSON.
"James saw the man plowing."

\

What is the subject of this sentence? Why? What is the
predicate? Why? What is the o~jective element? Why?
Whnt words limit or restrict "man"? The words "the" and
"plowing." What docs the word "plowing" denote? It tells
what the man WM doing. Does it affirm l\ny thing of man?
It does not: it modifies it like an adjective.
The word "plowing," then, partakes of the properties of
both a verb and an adjective. Like a verb, it expresses action: like an adjective, it modifies a noun. Because it partakes of the properties of two parts of speech, it is called a
Participle, which means partaking of

1. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and
partakes of the properties of a verb, and of au adjective or a noun.
What do you see in this picture? What can be seen
through the window? ls the storm approaching the ho.use
where the girl is, or has it passed it? Why do you thmk
so? Does the picture represent a morning or an evening
scene·t
Write a description of the prominent objects to be seen
from the door of the school-house-also, a description of any
thing thnt may occur while you are lookmg at these objects.
Describe what may be seen through the wmdows and doors
of the sitting-room and parlor at home.
Describe what may be seen from various places near your
home-also, what may have occurred during your visits to
those places.

'

When we sny, " The boy is writing," the participle "writing" denotes a continuance of the act: the boy is continuing to
write.
When we say, "The letter is written," the participle "written" denotes a completion of the act : the writing of the lett~r
is finished.
When we say, "Having written the letter, he mailed it," the
words "having written" denote that the writing of the letter
was completed hefore the time represented hy the verh "mailed."

2. There are three Participles: the Present, the Perje,ct, and the Compound.

38

39

THE PARTICIPLE.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

3. The Present Participle denotes the continuance ~f
action, being, or state; as, loving, being loved.

Point out all the pa1'ticiple11 in the following

~moeille11,

using these

MODELS.

The present active participle always ends in ing. This participle
may be used as an adjective. It is then placed before the
noun it modifies, as in the sentence, "Look at the twinkling
stars," and is called a participial adjective. It may also be used
as a noun, as in the sentence, 11 I am fond of reading.''

I.

11

The boy, laughing, ran away.''

Laughing is a participle; it is a word derived from the verb
lau,qli, and partakes _of the properties of a verb _and of an
adjective: present; it denotes the continuance of an act.
II.

4. The Perfect Participle denotes the completion of
action, being, or state ; as, loved, been, lived.

11

The lesson, studied carefully, was recited.''

Studied is a participle; (why?): perfect; it denotes completion.
III. "Having recited, we were dismissed.''

The perfect participle usually ends in d or ed, but frequently
in n, en, or t. This participle is frequently used as an adjective, but never as a noun.

Having recited is a participle; (why?): compound; it denotes
the completion of an act before the time represented by the principal
verb.

r:~-----

. 5. The
of action,
\ sented by
llesson, he

Compound Participle denotes the completion

1. Look at Dash playing with Rose. 2. I send you
note, written in haste, hoping it will reach you before
leave town. 3. Here it comes 11parkling, and there it
darkling. 4. Having finished the task assigned ~e, I will
awhile. 5. The boy passed on, whistling as before. 6.
fort, situated on a high hill, was captured at day-break.
see men as trees, walking.

being, or state at or before the time rcprethe principal verb; as, "Having learned the
recited it."

Rem.-The "principal verb" is the verb used as copula or
predicate of the sentence in which the compound participle
is found.
The compound participle is formed by placing having or
having been before a perfect participle, or having been before a
present active participle; as, having learned, having been learned,

Q,UESTIONS.-What ls a participle? The present partlclple? How
does it end? The perfect participle? How does it usually end ·t The
compound participle? How ls It formed?

I,,

having been learning.

26. THE PARTICIPIAL NOUN.

Give the preBent, perfect, and compound partlciplt!B of tlte following
verbs:

Go.
Sit.
See.
Help.
Find.

El pell.
Hope.
Grow.
Come.
Paint.

Take.
Make.
Learn.
Write.
Study.

Suffer.
Enjoy.
Recite.
Arrive.
Inquire.

r ·- ET

7

Answer.
Demand.
Enchant.
Resemble.
Reconcile.

- ----.

In the sentence, "I like skating," what part of speech is
Why? It is a name, the name of an
action.
That is correct. It is a noun; but, as it expresses action,
and is derived from the verb "skate," it is called a participial
noun. A participial noun is also a common noun; but it need
not be called such in parsing.

1kating 1 It is a noun.

I

('

P l

'

this
you
lies
rest
The
7. I

2

I

. ·.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

40

COMPOSITION.

Po«nt out tlle pa1'tlciplal nouns in tlle following eaJe..ctses1 using
tit ts

41

27. COMPOSITION.

MODEL.

"Miss Gray teaches writing."
This is a sentence; declarative.
Writing is a noun; (why?): participial; it is derived from
the verb "write," and partakes of the properties of a verb
and a noun.
1. IT c was in danger of losing his life. 2. Let there be no
more running and jumping on the lawn, 3. These strawberries are of my own raising. 4. The two men commenced
searching for a shelter. 5. They could not avoid being discovered.
:I'oint ottt the pnrt/r,lplrR afld participial t1oun.• ht tlte following
c~crciscs:

1. John would have avoided meeting him, if he could have
done so without being called a coward. 2. Looking over the
wall, we saw a fox caught in a trap. 3. Seeing is believing.
4. The poor woman stood at the door, wringing her hands.
5. Who told you of my being here? 6. Do you see the t~e~--­
pointing his finger at us?
.Read tlw following tlu•ee times, tlwn 1'rproduce i
THE DOG AND THE P ARTRIDU

As I was hunting with a young pointer, the dog mn on a
brood of very small partridges. The old bird cried, fluttered,
and ran tumbling along just before the dog's nose, till she
had drawn him to a considerable distance, when she took
wing and flew still farther off, but not out of the field. On
tflis, the dog returned to me, near the place where the young
birds lay concealed in the grass. The old bird no sooner
perceived this, than she flew back to us, settled just before
the dog's nose, and, by rolling and tumbling about, drew off
his attention from her young, and thus preserved her brood a
second time.
j__J

r
I
I

l

'

Where do yon think these children havo boon? Wl1at n.re
· the man and tho litLlo boy talking about? Tell what time
of day you think it is. Aro tho children going to a picnic
or coming home from one? Write a description of what you
think they have been doing.
Write a story about a drive to a grove, a lake, or the
sea-shore.
·write a composition about the last picnic in the woods
that you attended.
Write a story about a foolhardy boy that was hurt at a.
picnic by falling from a tree which he was told not to climb.
Describe a fishing excursion. Describe a walk on the bank
of a river. Tell what you saw.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

42

THE POSSESSIVE.

~

,.. 1. An Adjective Element is a word or group of
words which modifies a noun.
.

THE PRONOUN.

• what element
In the sentence, "Ripe peaches are plentiful,"
is "ripe"? It is an adjective element. Why? Because it
modifies the noun "peaches."
In the sentence, "This boy has six peaches," what elements
are "this" and "six"? They are adjective elements. Why?

28. ORAL LESSON.
"John put John's hat on John's head."
Is this a correct sentence? It is not. What word is unnecessarily rl'peated? "Joh n's." How should the sentence
be written? It should be written, "John put !tis hat on his
head." \Vhat word is here usC'd instead of John's? "His."This word is called a Pronoun, which means instead ef a ~oun.

/

Write ftve sentences, modlfyhig their subjects by descriptive adJectiveB•

Model.-Llild weather is unpleasant.

1. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun;

Write ftve 11entence11, niod/f11b1g tltelr subjeets by deftnittve adJecttves.

as, lie runs, she sings, they listen. ·
\

43

Model.-Both horses are lame.

Paine o;it t1'e pronot<ns fn t1tese sentences:

II.

i.· He is your uncle. 2. His dog worried our cat. 3. She
'lost the book which he gave her. 4. Did you tell me who
; they are? 5. It can not find its ~ay .~mt. 6. Were you with
theni? 7. Yes; I was with them, and 'can tell you what they
\said. 8. It was the dog that died. 9. Sarah can not find her
'l>?<>k. 10. Who will find it for her?
~'ll

In the sentence, "John's hat is torn," the noun "John's"
is called a Possessive, because it denotes ownership. A possessive always modifies a noun denoting a different object from
itself, and sometimes denotes kind or authorship instead of
ownership; as, Ray's Algebra.

1. A Possessive is a noun or pronoun used to modify
<7 a noun dijfe1·ent in meaning from itsel£ When a noun
) or pronoun is used as a possessive, it is said to be in
· ~he posse.'!Sive case.

29. THE ADJEOTIVE ELEMENT.
I.

In the sentence, "Small ln.kes are abundant," what word
modifies "lakes"? Tlie adjective "small.h
111
In the sentence, "John's hat is torn," what word modifie~
"hat"? The noun ",John's." In what manner does it modify
"hat"? It den~tes that it is the hat which John owns. · '!f
In the sentence, "Mr. Jones the mason is insane," what
word modifies "Mr. Jones"? The noun "mason." In what
manner does it modify " Mr. ,Jones"? It tells his trade, or
business.
These modifying words are called .Acljective Elements, because
they modify nouns.

\

...

C\ Rem. 1.-The apostrophe (') is used to show that a noun
is a possessive.
Rem. ~.-A possessive may be modified by another possessive and by an adjective. In the sentence, "John's brother's
slate is broken," the possessive "brother's" is modified by
· "John's."

In writing the possessive case of nouns, remember that-

lst. When a noun denotes but one object, the letter
s follows the apostrophe; as in John's, M0Rr.11's.

'

'

'

....................... ......................................- ~

44

~

.....................

...-.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Rem.-The apostrophe only is used after a few words;
in conscience' sake, goodness' sake, Jesus' sake, etc.

THE APPOSITIVE.

al

<._,-~;, ' '1, (

2d. When the noun denotes more than one object,
/and ends with s, the apostrophe alone is used, as in
"1 ladies'.

~

3d. ·when t.he noun denotes more than one object,
and does not end with s, the apostrophe is usually
II"'
followed by s, as in men's.
Note.-Illustratc these rules by writing on the blnckboard appropriate examples of plural nouns in the possessive case. ,:I'he examples should always be used in sentences. Show, also, that the
apostrophe is never used in writing the possessive case of a pronoun.

Model.-Rli's uncle

is rich.

inibstitttte ~ for the possessfoes in the following . sentences:

1. I grasped the boy's hand. 2. Daniel was in the lion's
den. 3. The vessel's owner was drowned. 4. Have you found
the fox's den? 5. We were startled by the lightning's flash.
6. Were you at home when the barn's roof was blown off?
7. An owl's hoot was heard.

I1.

Su.l>stltute possessiues for the gro1fps beginning with "of" in the
following sentences:

I

1. The head of the
bank of the river. 3.
tree. 4. ':f'he hunters
owner of the dog was

!
t

~Jl(I' •·! /-<...

horse wns hurt. 2. We loitered by the
The house of the squirrel was a hollow
came to the den of a tiger. 5. The
much surprised.

IRs head is bald.

Write ftve 11entence11, tnodlfyhig thelr subjects by posseRRh"'·••
P oint ottt tltc posRessfves in the followtng sentences:

1. Your father's brother is my uncle. 2. Mr. Eddy sells
, children's shoes. 3. Our farm once bclongc1l to your grandfather. 4. Her doll's dress was SQiled. 5. We met on the
boys' playground. 6. Did you ride in the ladies' car? 7. The
·
horse's foot is lame. 8. Have you read Andrews's Geology?
/

~

Correct tlie !E:!:!!!:!!.. in the following sentences:

1. The flag was fastened to the ox' horn. 2. The canary~
is not in it's cage. 3. The vessels sail's are spread. 4. Alic~'·
lesson is learned. 5. The hook caught in the boys' coat
6, We then went into the ladie's parlor.
~. ,

..

I II.

· In the sentence, "The nest of the bird is very small,"
what word may be used instead of the group "of the bird"?
The word "bird's"? What is that word? It is a possessive.
That is correct. A group of words beginning with "of"
may frequently be used instead of a possessive.

'

45

I V .

In the sentence, "Mr. Jones the mason is insane," the
noun "mnson" iR called an Appositive. An appositive nlwa:fs
denotes tho Ramo ohjoet as thnt dC'note<l by the noun it
modifies, and usually expresses rank, o.ffice, or business.
~

1. An Appositive is a word or group of words used
to modify a noun or pronoun by denoting the same
object.
An appositive is usually placed after the noun or pronoun
with which it is in apposition. Thus, in the sentence, "The
emperor Nero wns a cruel tyrant," "Nero" is in apposition
with "emperor."

Rule.-An appositive is usually set off by a comma
unless it is unmodified, or modified Ly the only.
Jf"rite ftve sentences, nio<Ufying their subjects or objects by appositives.
---

Models.-Mr. Tod the mason died yesterday.
Mr. Smith the engineer.

I have seen

46

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE PRONOUN.

PolnC out tlie appolfltLtielf in tloe following aenteneea:

t:-Cla.rence iR n good scholar. 2. Charles found an old
knife. 3. Helen's mother is sick. 4. Miss Young the milliner
: is dead, 5. Mary studied her spelling lesson.
The thief stole father's horse. 7. The sheriff caught
Hobbs the burglar. 8. Five boys earned three dollars. 9. Both
vessels have sailed. 10. Each boy earned a dollar.
I' 11. Several scholars were tardy.
12. Few men escaped.
13. Many men died. 14. Mr. Snooks the grocer boards Mr.
· Sea.l's the tailor. 15. John's slate is broken.

1. M;. Whitcomb the lawyer is out of
the Chmese miller acted fi r bl
3
. town. 2. Whang,
blind. 4. Stephens~n the o~ i~ ~d . Milton the poet was
gland. 5. Have yoi:
ceMe ra . engineer, lived in Enseen
r. Hicks the
h
strawberries? 6. I am readin th
•
man w o sells
man Webster
7 w h.
g
e speeches of the statesStat;s, is situated ~n ta.sh ipngtton, the capital of the United
e o omac.

·s:

.Analyze the followtnu sentences, """•u tlwao

Point otit t11c ,,,,..,,,,, pn ..tLclplca, at1d mU,,ctft1r11 in tftese cxcrclscs.

MODELS.

Q,UF-'ITJONR.-Whnt IR n pronoun?

possessives.
What ls an o.pposltlve? Olve the rule for writing appo.~ltlves.

Th is is a sentence; declarative.

Sounds is the subject·
th
modified by sweet an dj'. sot~ e, the predicate. "Sounds" is
a ec ive element· "sooth " b
.
•
o b~ective element· .. ear" b th
: .
e,
Y ear, an
'
'
Y e, an adjective element.

I

Wlmt 111 nu a<ljcctlve clement?

Ct~n uoun>< bo n>1e<l •~'I tulJoctlvo clcmcnt.'1?
Whnt 111 u. pOH8CAAlvo? Ulvc tho direction" for writing

I. "Swcot sounds sootho tho car."

sounds I soothe
I Sweet

47

,t.1!
30. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
In the sentences, "I write," "You read," "They study," what
are the words "I," "you," and "they 1" They are pronouns.
Why? Because they are used instead of nouns-" I," instead
of the name of the person speaking; "you," instead of th_e
name of the person spoken to; "they," instead of the names
of the persons spoken of.
The name of a person speaking, or a pronoun used instead
of that name, is said to be of the First Person.

ear.
I the

,1 . . . .

II. "Frank's father is a merchant."
This is a sentence; declarative
Father is tl1e sub· t·
·h
is modified b Fra ~~c • mer~ a~t, the predicate. " Father,;
a an adj t.Y l n s, an adJective element: "merchant" by
•
ec ive e ement.
•

1. The First Person denotes the speaker.
III. "Milton the poet was blind."
T~is is a sentence; declarative.

Milton is the subject· blind th
.
copufa "Mil to " .
e predicate; was is the
"poet.~ by the n isdjmo. ified by poet, an adjective element·
'
• an a ective element.
'

ci·

Milton

'

I

~

'

{
)

The name of a person spoken to, or a pronoun used instead
of that name, is said to be of the Second Person.

2. The Second Person denotes the person addrE>.ssed.
The nnme of a person or object spoken of, or a pronoun
used instead of that name, is said to be of the Third Person.

was : blind.
I
I

fl
~

}

3. The Third Person denotes the person or object
spoken of.

t
(

~...;,

'

-/

48

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE SENTENCE.

Those pronouns which show by their form whether the
nouns which they represent are of the first, second, or third
person, are called Personal Pronouns.

·\

4. Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and show

t by their form whether they are of the first second or
. d person.
t h1r

'

'

,
Rem.-The
personal pronouns are _1..
L thou he she it we our
•
I
,
'
1
-~
I
·\us,. my, mine, !I_!! Y~ your, thy, thine, thee, hi;, him, her, its, they,
·
(their, them, myself, himself, etc.

/.

· '.Potnt out all the personal pronot<ns In the

follow~ng sentences:

1. Thou callest. 2. I come. 3. She studies. 4. I like her \
5. They are honest 6. Her lesson was learned. 7. I bor~ ....
rowed his books. 8. They have sold their farms. 9. you '
should study your lesson. 10. Yo arc tho people. 11. It can
not find its master. 12. Thy fame hath preceded thee.
Analyze the foregoing sentences, and point out tho nouns and tJcrbs
. using these
~
MODELS.

I. "It is he."
This is a sentence; declarative.
It is the subject; he is the predicate; is is the copula.

I
I

l
I

I'

Ii

81tbstitute appropriate pronouns for
sente1icea: ·

tl~e
·~

,

49

dashes In the following

,

1. Steven died a martyr to . - - faith.

,'1(.'~L

·...t'

( f

'< · .

2. - - house to
-· was a strange land. 3. - ·- said of -·- son, "__.::_ is
- - brother."· 4; Let there be no strife betwixt - - and
5. J,cnd - - - - pen till - - .write - - exercises.
6. How much -.· - - missed - - - brother and - - - sister.
7. - - say - · are - - friends. 8. - - asked - - to visit
-.- . 9. Would - - think - - right for - - to neglect
--·garden?
I

I

III. "Their horses drowned themselves."
This is a sentence; declarative.
Horses is the subject; drowned, the predicate. "Horses" is
modified_ by their, an adjective element, and "drowned," by
themselves, an objective element.

•'

Wt'ite five snntm•r,cs, usfng pcrsonnl prnnowns n.• ~ an.d ~

:~

C<t.t<~ll.

-. -z,,._.

Model.- It was she.
1P"rite fivo 11r.nt.r.nce11, ..sing personal p1•miottns as n1ifr.ct11.

Model.-Hcnry aumircs tltem.
Write five sent<nices, using personal pronouns as a.c1JectitJe elements.

MODEL.

Jj)

"llis book is on my desk."
His is a pronoun; it is :t word used instead of o. noun :
personal; it represents a noun, and shows that it is of tho
tliird person.
My is a pronoun; personal; it represents a noun, and shows
that it is of the first person.
QUESTIONS.-What

~·-.t~

I

I

Model.-His book is in his hand.

ls a pronoun? A personal pronoun? Nam,e Rome

of the personal pronouns. What ls the first person? The second person ?
The third JlCl"'Oh?

El. Ur._..

'

/

Model.- lVe are scholars.

Point out tho personal pronouns in your reading lesson, using this

II. "He has lost his book."
• This is a senunce; declarative.
He is the subject; has lost, the predicate. "Has lost" is
modified by book, an objective element; and "book," by his,
an adjective element.

(

1Frtto five sentences, us·Lng personal pronouns a.• snl>Jects.

·j
I

50

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

51 .

POSSF.SSIVE PRONOUNS.
Write fttJe sentcncc11, 11sftt.f1 possessftJe pronouns as predicates.

/'

Model.-That desk is mine.

31. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

In the sentence, "This house is ours," what is. the subject?
·"House." Why? W_hat is the predicate? "Ours." Why?
It is that which is affirmed of the subject. What is the
copula.? " Is."
What modifies "house?" "This," an adjective element.
What words can be used instead of " ours?
Our house.
What does the pronoun "our" denote ? It denotes that we
own tho house.
"Ours," then, is used to 11o11otc both the posseAsor and the
thing possessed. In this sentence, it represents both "our
and "house." Because it does this, it is called a Possessive
11

Analyu tl•e followinu sentences, usinu tl•esc
MODELS.

I.

11

Ours is an easy task."

This is a sentence ; declarative.
Ours is the subject; task, the predicate; is is the copula.
"Task" is modified by an and easy, both adjective elements.

Ours is:

11

Pronoun.

II. "That factor.y is theirs."

Possessive Pronouns are words used to represent both
the peissessor and the thing possessed. The possessive
pronouns are mine, . thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs,
our own, etc.
In the sentence, "That book is his," what is the predicate?
"His." Why? What does it represent? It represents the
words his hook. What is it? It is a possessive pronoun.
Why? Because it represents both the possessor and the thing
possessed.
In the sentence, "That is his book," what is the predicate?
"Book." What modifies "book?" " His," an adjective element. What is "his?" It is a personal pronoun. Why is it
not a possessive pronoun? Because it modifies the noun following it, and does not represent both the possessor and the
thing possessed. It is a possessive, because it is used as an
adjective element; but it is not a posseaaive pronoun.
Write ft"" •entence•, ulllng po"8ellsive pronoun. as subjects.

This is a sentence; declarative.
Factory is the subject ; theirs, the predicate; ls is the copula.
"Factory" is modified by that, an adjective element.
III. "This land is our own."
This is a. sentence; declarative.
Land is the subject; our own, the predicate.
modified by this, an adjective element.

"Land" is

1. This book is hers. 2. Thoi:ie apples are his. 3. Yours is
hard lesson. 4. Those marbles are mine. 5. This book is
hine. 6. The evenings are our own. 7. The victory is ours.
Point out the possesBitJe pronouns ln

t1J.eS6

sentences, using thu

MODEL.

"That book is mine."
Mine is a. pronoun; posses.~ive; it represents both the possessor
and the thing possessed : it is equivalent to 11 my book."

I

Model.-Jiia is a ho.rd lot.

Q,UF.STIONH.-Whnt nro poSHesslvo

)
'

p11mon11~?

Nmne some of them.

52

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR

· Point out the relative pronouns ,.;, the following sentences, using
this
·•

32. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

MODEL.

When we say, "A rich man owns that house," what element
is the· word "rich?" , It is an adjective element. Why? .
When we say, "A tnan who is rich, owns that house," what
words do we use instead of ·.. rich " to modify "man?" '\Ve
use the words, "who is rich." What element <lo these words
form? An adjective element. Why? Because they modify a
' noun.
' ' Is the expression, "who. is rich," a proposition? It is.
·--\
•. -.\ Why? Because it has a subject and a predicate. What is tho
~ subject? "Who." Why? What is the predicate? "Rich."
1
......_N
Why? What is the copula?
~- What part of speech is "who?" It is a pronoun. Why?
· ~ t is a word usecl instead of a noun. Instead of what noun
is it used? The noun man.
1 ,,
C::.~ ' . This sentence, then, cont1•ins two propositions: "A man
~
owns that house," 'and "who is rich." 1'he Recond proposition
'~~is an adjective elonwnt mo1lifying tho subjcmt of the first.
"-!....__~These propositions arc called Clauses.
"The pronoun "who" is not only tho subject of a proposition, but it also joins the modifying clause "who is rich" to
the noun which it limits.
Those pronouns that represent preceding words or expressions, to' which they join modifying clauses, are called Relative

1.:z.::

,

- P,.onouns.

Rem.-The suffixes ever, so, and soever, are sometimes added
to these pronouns; as, whoever, wT1oso, whosoever.
The word or expression represented by a relative pronoun,
is called its Antecedent.
I 11

'

.

'

;1-'/"

"A man who is industrious, will prosper."
Who · is a pronoun; relative; it represents a preceding word,
to which it joins a modifying clause. The word it represents
is

cc

1nan."

1. Tell me ~horn you saw. L2. Those .~ho sow, will reap.
3. He ~hat hateth, qissembleth with his lips. 4. 'this is the
house ~hich my father bought. 7
5: I gave him all ,that I had. 6. Judge ye, what I say ~
7. IIe will do ,what is' right. 8. A ~ind boy avoids doing~what­
ever injures others. 9. Whoever studios, will learn. 10. Whatever ye shall ask in my name, that will I do.
S1tl11Jtltu.te pronou.n.s for tlte da.~lws in tlie following sentences:
Ml !; ('/,·

I. D<>nth lilJ~ ~ho vnil - ·- · hi11cs a brighter sphere. 2. Blest
arc the fon.stE!-·-· 'simple plenty crowns. 3. -- · ~od, in - - trust. 4. Tho mn.n paid the money, was the 'cashier.
5. The m{!~sage - - - - sent, was received. 6. No one can
telf ~ ' )! 'others may do. 7. - - will do - - is proper.
Q,UF.STIONS.-What are clauses? 'Vhat is o. relative pronoun? No.me
the pronouns In this class. What sutllxes are sometimes added to relative pronouns? What ls an antecedent?

·

.A Relative Pronoun is a word used to represent a
preceding word or expression, to which it joins a
modifying clause. The relative pronouns are who,
wliich, what, and that. As is also a relative after
such,, many, same, and some other words.

53

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

'/'
33. THE RELATIVE CLAUSE.
Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are called Relative
Clauses.

. .A Relative Clause is a clause introduced by a rela( tivc pronoun.

.

Write ftve se•tf.enees, motllf!uuig their snl~Jeets by relative clauses.

~"'

Model.-The boy that studies, will learn.

•

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

54

1f'rile ftve sentences, modlfylng thrlr

~

I

by relative clauses.

Model.--1 have lost the knife which you gave me..
Analy111e tlte following sentences, uslng tliese

\

MODELS.

I. "The fish which you caught, is a trout."
•")
This is a sentence; declarative.
{J:, ' .r (.
Fish is the sul\ject; trout, the predicate; is, the copula.
"Fish" is modified by the and the clause which you caught,
both acljective elements.
fish
The'
~
which you aught / / I' /,

(

like

I

Interrogative Pronouns.

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, whose, whom, which,
and whai, when used in asking questions.

Ex.-"Which road shall I take?" The word "which" is
an interrogative adjective, modifying "road." "What noise is
thnt?" The worcl "what" is an interrogative adjective, modifying "noise."

:hat is gentle.

1. I have an apple that is rotten.
lame, came to our house yesterday.
with the rivers that flow? 4. I like
5. Will you buy me a knife that has

'

Rem.-The words which and wliat are sometimes placed
before nouns. They are then called Interrogative At{jectives.

I

Use adJectlves instead of relative clattse-B in the following sentences:

2. A little boy who is
3. How far do you go
pepple that are honest:
four blades?
·

h'J
f

horse

1. A very old man who is'wealthy, lives there. 2. I have a
knife that has a white liandle. 3. Ile who studies, will learn:
f'!l. You have many blessings which I can not share. 5. Solomon, who was the son of David, built the temple. 6. He is a
man that deserves respect. 7. The lord chastens him whom
he loves. 8. They that . forsake the law, praise the wicked.

1. I nduRtriomi people always prosper. 2. There are many
rich men in New York. 3. He has some counterfeit money.
4. A barking dog seldom bites. 5. The moldy paper was
burned.

In the sentences : II Who is that man? II "Which comes
first?" " What is he?" what words are used instead of the
answers to the questions? The words "who," "which," and
"what."
Which and what, not used as modifiers, together with who,
whose, and whom, when used in asking questions, are called

This is a sentence ; declarative.
I is the subject; like, the predicate. '' Like" is modified by
horse, an objective element, which is modified by a and the
clause that is gentle, both adjective elements.

I
I

Use relativ" clattlleB instead of adJectlve11 in tlte following sentences:

34. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

II. " I like a horse that is gentle."

I

55

j

'I

Poi.. t out the l1lterrogatlve pro1lotins in the following sentences,
ushig this
MODEL.

"Who visited your school yei;terday?"
Who is a pronoun; interrogative; it is used in asking a question.
I. What did he say? 2. Who wrote that letter? 3. Which
trots the fastest? 4. Whom did you call? 5. Whose house
was burned? 6. What can he mean? 7. Who has learned
this l<>sson? 8. Who <liRcov<>re<l Americn? 9. Who borrowed
John's shite? JO. Whose hook is this?

,,.
'

57

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE ADVERB.

Point out the noun,,, ndjective6, "erb6,particlple6, and per6onal p1·0no1tn6 i?& tl•ue 6entence6.

Ex.-1. He and you are brothers. 2. They and you attend
the same school. 3. I and you must study hard this forenoon.
4. We and hEI will stay in at recess. 5. We and you must
camp out next vacation.

56

.Analyze the forcuoin(J sentences, u6in(J this
MODEL.

C~ution IV.-Do not use which to represent persons,
or who or whom to represent animals, objects without
life, or children not referred to by name.

"Whom can you trust?"
This is a sentence; interrogative.
You is the subject; can trust, the predicate.
is modified by whom, an objective element.
You

I

can trust

I

"Can trust"

Ex.-1. The man. which you saw is my father. 2. I love ) .
all which i:;pcak the truth. 3. Have they found the child
who was lost? 4. The man always bowed to the children
whom !10 met. 5. Was that your dog who was killed? 6. I
saw the man which was here yesterday.

whom?

QUF.'ITION!!.-Deflne n. relative clnuRe. Wlmt Is an Interrogative pro·
noun? What words are URed ns Interrogative pronouns? Which of
these are sometimes used 11.~ Interrogative objectives?

At

.==t

THE ADVERB.

35. INCORRECT LANGUAGE.

Caution 1.-Do not use him, me, or her ns the subject or the predicate of a sentence.
Ex.-1. Him and me were in the boat. 2. Jt was me.
3. Me and the doctor were there. 4. Him and you were
tardy. 5. It is her. 6. You, and him, and me were boys
together.

·~

1:

11·1'··

Caution 11.-Do ·not use improper forms of pronouns.
Ex.-1. Is that book your'n? 2. No; it is his'n. 3. She
took my shawl, and left her'n. 4. You'uns were not with us
last night. 5. No; w.e:uns stayed at home. 6. Will you let
us have your boat? we have sold our'n.

Caution 111.-The ~pronoun you should precede he,
she, or they; nnd he, she,· or they should precede I or
we.

'

j.

!

36. ORAL LESSON.
In the sentence, "Birds sing sweetly," does the word
"sweetly" denote wliat the birds sing? It does not; it tells
how they sing. Does it complete the meaning of the verb
"sing," like an objective element? It does not : it modifies
it in another way.
In the sentence, "Very large vessels were seen," what is
modified by "very?" The word "large." What is "large?"
It is an adjective.
In the sentence, "He rode quite fast," what word tells how
he rode? The word "fast." What word tells how fast he
rode? The word "quite."
Words used in this manner are called Adverha.

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an adverb.

,.,.;.

'

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

58

ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS.

Point out the adverbs in the following sentenees, using tlits
MODEL.

i

Furlously is an adverb; it is used to modify a verb.

'I. That

I

.

vessel sails slowly. 2. He built a house there.
·3, Emma is quite late. 4. Those mountains are very high.
5. We were agreeably surprised. 6. I will shortly return . .
'l, 7. You will never see him again. 8. I 'Yould gladly pardon
you. 9. So thought Palmyra. 10. He afterwards escaped.

·i

!·

~in

Write seven 11entence11, modlfyltig their tmb}ectR by adjectives, and
these adjeeUves by adverbs.
---

87. THE ADVERBIAL ELEMENT.

A word or group of words used like an adverb-that is,
used to modify a verb, an adjective, a participle, or an adverb-is called an Adverbial Ele~ent.

An Adverbial Element is a word or group of words
used to modify a verb, an adjective, a participle, or
an adverb.
·

· house
I Our

We

..

,
, !

Model.-He walks quite slowly.

the subject; small, the predicate; is, the copula.
modified by our, an adjective element; "'small,"
adverbial element.

I
I

is

small.
I very

This is a sentence; declarative.
,
We is the subject; should study, the predicate. "Should
study" is modified by lessons, an objective element, and by
carefully, an adverbial element. "Lessons" is modified by
our, an adjective element.

Model.-We should walk quietly.

Write set1en sentences, modlfylng tlietr predicates by adt1erbs, and
thoae adtierbs by other adverba.

sentence ; declarative.

II. "We should study our lessons carefully."

your reading le1111on.

Model.- Very loud reports were heard.

I. "Our house is very small."
This is a
House is
"House" is
by very, an

I

Write seven sentences, modlfytng their predicates by advet'bs,

'

MODELS.

·f

Point out the nouns, verbs, pronouns, and adjeettves in these sentences,
Point out the

.Analy11te #lie stmtenceR in the p••eccdtng stmtlon., using t11ese

i-

The wind blew furiously."

59

I

I

should study
I carefully

lessons

QUESTIONs.-What ls an adverb? What do adverbs
What ts an adverbial element?

usually denote?

l

!·
j

38. THE ADVERBIAL OLAUSE.

In the sentence, "Flowers bloom when spring comes,"
what group of words tells when flowers bloom? The group
"when spring comes." What element is this group? It is
an adverbial element. Why? Because it modifies the verb
"bloom."
Is this group a proposition? It is. Why? Because it
contains a subject and a predicate. What is the subject?
"Spring." Why? What is the predicate? "Comes." Why?
The group is called an Adverbial C'lause, because it contains a
subject and a predicate, and is used as an adverbial element.

60

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

CAUTIONS.

( A!1 Adverbial Clause is a clause used as an adverbial
~lement.
·
Adverbial clauses begin with when, where, while, · because, if,
and a large number of other words.
P otnt out Ute ad11erblal clauRes in tlui followtno sent(lnces:

,
.
\

· 1. I left the spade where I found it. 2. John was whispering while you were talking. 3. The bear growled when
he snw the hunter. 4. I cnn not go before my father returns.
5. Henry will play with you, if you desire 'it. 6. We traveled
slowly, because we wished to see the country. 7. I can go
now, for my task is finished.
Analyze t1te above sentences, ustno t11e followtno

61

Caution 11.- Do not use adjectives as adverbs •

.]

Ex.-1. I feel tolerable well. 2. Does not Mary dress neat?
3. Samuel speaks very distinct. 4. He was that cold he
could n't move. 5. You ought to read slower. 6. I am exceeding glad to see you. 7. How careless Julia holds her
pen I 8. You should· always speak distinct.

Caution 111.-Do not use adverbs as adjectives.
Ex.-1. I felt i;ickly yesterday. 2. We arrived safely at
San Francisco last evening. 3. This flower smells sweetly.
4. 8t.arul as nearly to me ns you can. 5. The country looks
beautifully after a shower. 6. Things look somewhat more
favorably this morning. 7. The doctor said that his patient
felt more comfortably.

MODEL.

40. COMPOSITION.

"He trembles when it thunders."
This is a sentence; declarative. .
He is the subject; trembles, the predicatEI. " Trembles" is
modified by the clause when It -thunders, an adverbial element.
Ile

I

trembles
I when it thunders.

QUF.STIONS.-What le an adverbial clause? With what words do adverbial clauses begin?
1.

39. INCORREOT LANGUAGE.

Caution 1.-Do not use such expressions ns,
see nothing, Don't tell nobody, etc.

}

1

/

don't

Ex.-1. I don't want nothing to-day. 2. Don't tell nobody
nothing about it. 3. We didn't catch no fish. 4. John don't
fee~ no better t han he did yesterday . .

\\

'

Ilr.nd tllr ft1l111"''"" ,,,.,,,,,./ptlm• tl1r1"' or fm1r times, tltcn reprod u ce
it f•••m•

'"""""'11•
THE LION.

A full-grow n lion is nC'arly nine feet in length, nnd be'
twcC'lt fo11r n.n<l fivo feet in height. The female, or lioness,
/ ·
is about three fourths ns large M tho mnlc. Tho body of the
,)\
.J
lion is covered with hair of a tawny color. lie has a long
and thick mane, which he can erect at plea.sure. A lioness
has no mane.
The lion lives entirely upon the flesh of other animals./ ()
Ile usually crouches in a thicket, and. watches until some/ /
animal passes within fifteen or twenty feet of him, when he
leaps upon it, and generally seizes it at the first bound.
Should he hnppcn to miss his object, he returns to his hiding
place, with n me!l.Sure~ step, and waits for another opportunity. He most frequently hides near a spring or a river,
that he may seize the animals which come thither to quench
their thirst. lle rarely attacks men, unless wounded or driven
by hunger.

1

';J,

.."J

62

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

I

THE PHRASE.

...

Paint mtt tll.e prepasitfons in the folfowing sentences, urinu tlais

THE PREPOSITION.

MdOELI .Jlfl,•

"Ile came from France to America."
41. ORAL LESSON.

From is a preposition; it shows the relation between its
object and some other word. It shows the relation between
"France" and "came." To is a preposition ; it shows the relit·
tion between "America" and " came."

In the sentence, "A man of wealth rode by our house,"
what does the group of words "of wealth" modify? It modi·
fies the noun "man." What element is it? I~ is an adjective
element. Why? Because it modifies a noun.
What does the group of words "by our house" modify?
It modifies the verb " rode: " it tells where he rode. What
element is it? It is an adverbial element. Why? Because
it modifies a verb.
The word "of" connects the noun "wealth" to the noun
"man." The word "by" connects tho noun "house" with the
verb "rode." They are said to show the relations between the
words which they connect, and are called Prepositions. The
nouns which follow them are called their Objects.

1. The old :nan was often in want of the necessaries of
life. 2. . The boy went through the gate into the garden.
3. Be not forward in the presence of your superiors. 4. He
was not, at that time, in the city. 5. He drove over the
bridge into the city. 6. He went to the doctor for advice.
7. The path brought them to the end of the wood. 8. She
turned to tho old man with a lovely smile upon her face.
9. 1'he light came through the stained windows of the old ·
church.
1.>oint out the nonns, tmrbs, n~/ectives, nnd pro•ion•.,. «n these sen~
tcnccs.

A Preposition is a word used to 8how the relation
between its object and .some other word.

·

QUJ!:STIONS.-What Is a preposition '1 What ls the object or a preposition '1 Name the principal prepositions.

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS.

A=at, on, or in.
Aboard.
About.
Above.
According to.
Across.
After.
Against.
Along.
Amid, amidst.
Among, amongst.
Around.
.As to.

At.
Athwart.
Before.
Behind.
Beside, besides.
Beneath.
Between.
Betwixt.
Beyond.
But.
By.
Down.
During.

Ere.
Except.
For.
From.
In, into.
Of.
Off.
On.
Over.
Past.
Round.
Save.
Since.

42. THE PHRASE.

Till, until.
Through.
Throughout.
To.
Toward.
Towards.
Under.
Unto.
Up.
Upon.
With.
Within.
Without.

I.

1. A group of words consisting of a preposition and
its object is called a Phrase.
Phrases are most com~only used as adjective or adverbial
elements.
Analyze the following se•deneu, ustnu thta
MODEL.

"Habits of industry will lead to prosperity."
This is a sentence; declarative.

)

'

I

'l

!
JI

t~

I

I
r

i~

l<~LE.l\lENTARY GRAMMAR

THE INFINITIVE.

Habits is the subject; 'Xiii lead, the predicate. "Habits" is
modified by the phrBBe of industry, nn ndjective · element;
"will lead" is modified ' by the phrase to prosperity, an adverbial element.

~· An Infinitive is a form of the verb used to express
act10n without affirming it.

64

Habits

I

of

I

will lead

in~ustry Ito prosperity.

1. Light moves in straight lines. 2. They went aboard the
ship. 3. I differ from' you on that point. 4. The two thieves
divided the money between them. 5. The ship was driven
upon the rocks.
1;6. Our sincerest laughter is fraught with some pain. 7. The
young lambs ar»bleating in the meadows. 8. They came to
the country of the free. 9. I will divide this farm among
my three sons. 10. Man goeth to his long home. 11. The
sleep of a laboring man is sweet.
SttbaUtute alnuu wo,,.rls or ~ for me~ in tile fbllotain(J

Bet&tencea:

Models.-!. "Henry studies his lessons with care"="Henry
studies his lessons carefully." II. "lee forms in cold weather"
="Ice forms when the weather is cold."
1. The sailors weighed anchor at sunrise. 2. The enraged
lion struggled in vain. 3. Flowers bloom in the spring.
4. Some seed fell on stony ground. 5. The face of the poor
boy was disfigured. 6. Our schools should be the pride and
boast of our country. 7. I have written this letter in haste.

I'

. Rem.-The word "to" is usually placed before the verb and
is called the ~ign of tl~e infinitive. The two parts should not
be separated m analyzmg or parsing.
. -!1-n infinitive may be ·the subject or the predicate of a propo1nt1on, or an adjective, objective, or adverbial element.
Analyze tlw followtng sentences, using these
MODELS.

I. "To love is to obey."
This is a sentence; declarative.
1
To love is the subject; to obey, the predicate; is, the copula.

To love I is : to obey.

I
II. "The lawyer went to his office to write a. letter."
This is a sentence; . declarative.
L~wyer is the subject; went, the predicate. "Lawyer" is
h
modified
by the, n.n adJ' ective clement·
.
·
, "went"
, by th eprases
~.o ~1s .?f!tce an.d to write a letter, both adverbial elements.
Ofbce is modified by his, an adjective element· "to write"
by. let~er, an objective element, which is modifi~ by a, ~n
adJect1ve element.
lawyer

went

~Ito write

II.

In the sentence, "To play is pleasant," "to play" is the
subject. Why? It is that of which something is affirmed.
It is a form of the verb "play." It expresses action, but does
not affirm it. For this reason, it is called an Infinitive or an
infinitive Phrase.

65

letter.

~

1. To lie is wicked. 2. He wants to go to the city.

3. To
doubt the promis.:i of a friend is a sin. 4. John studies to
learn .. 5. My sister wishes to remain here. 6. Are you ready
to remte? 7. Boys seldom like to work hard. 8. To teach
the young is a pleasant task.
El. Gr.-G.

'1

'

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

66

THE OONJUNCTION.

67

III.

The menning of n sentence mn.y often bo chn.nged by changing the position of the single wor<lR, phrMeA, Rnd clauses of
which it is composed.
Jn tho sentence, "John only studies algebra,'' "only" modi- ·
fies ",John." Ile is the only person thl\t studies algebra. In
the sentence, "John studies algebrn only," "only" modifies
"algebra.." It is the only branch that John studies.
Jn the sentence, "A watch was found yesterday by a schoolboy with steel hands," the phrase "with steel hands" modifies
"school-boy;" but in the sentence, "A watch with steel hands
was found yesterday by a school-boy," the phrase "with steel
hands" modifies "watch." Jn the first sentence, the steel
hands are represented as belonging to the achool-boy; in the
second, to the watch.
In the sentence, "Ile needs no spectacles that can not see,"
the claus~ "that can not see" is not intended to be used as
a modifier of " spectacles," but of the word "he." It should
be placed between "he'' and "needs."

Rule.-Words, phrases, ancl clauses, used as modifiers, should be placed as near the modified words as
1
possible.
Locate the phraBea and elattBetl properly (n theBe •entencea:

1. The sled was bought by a boy going to school for a
dollar. 2. Wanted.-A horse by an English gentleman, sixteen hands high. 3. A man was hanged yesterday with a
blind eye. 4. Look at those two meu fishing with sunburnt
faces. 5. The book was dropped by a bad boy on my head.
6. I saw a dog bite a man with long ears and a white spot
on his face. 7. Mr. Otis needs a surgeon, who has broken
his arm. 8. A silver fruit knife was found by a child which
has a broken back. 9. He wants no food that can not eat.
Q.tTESTIONS.-Whnt ls a phrase? An lnftnltlve? Glve ·the rule tor "
the placing of modifying words, phrases, and 3laUBe1L

'

THE OONJUNOTION.
43. ORAL LESSON.
In tho sentence, "Ellen and Mary ntudy botany," what
two words are used as the subject? "Ellen" and "Mary."
Why? Because something is affirmed of them: both Ellen
and Mary study botany. What word connects the words
"Ellen" and "Mary?" The word "and."
.
In the sentence, "Ellen or Mary studies botany," what two
words are used as the subject? "Ellen" and "Mary." Are
both represented as studying botany? They are not: if Ellen
studies bot1my, Mary does not.. What word connects the
words "Ellen" and "Mary?" The word " or."
In the statement, " Ellen will study botany, if Mary studies
algebra," how many clauses are there ? There nre two: "Ellen
will study botany," and "Mnry studies nlgohra.." What word
is used to connect theso two clauses? The word "if."
The words "and," "or," "if," and all other words used
merely to join words or groups of words, are called ConjunctioM.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words,
phrases, clauses, and members.
Conjunctions merely connect word11, phrases, clauses, and
·members; they <lo not express relations, like prepositions.
Point out tlie conJ•uictions '" the followinu sentences, ustnu thill
MODEL.

"Eli and Silas will improve, if they study."

And is a conjunction; it is a word used to connect words: it
connects "Eli" and "Silas." If is a conjunction; it connects the
clauses, "Eli and Silas will improve" and "they study."

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

68

,- 1. We moved alQng silently and cautiously.

· COMPOUND ELEMENTS.
2. I consent

to the constitution, because I expect no better. 3. He heaped
up great riches, but passed his time miserably. 4. He is both
learned and wise. 5. I shall not go, if it rain.
6. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 7. They submit,
since they can not conquer. 8. He has many faults, still he
is very popular. • 9. Emma or Susan will remain at home.
Q,uESTIONS.-What ls a conjunction? What Is the dllference between
a conjunction and a preposition?

44~

COMPOUND ELEMENTS.

69

Rem. 2.-When it is the intention of the writer to ma.fee
the parts emphatic, the conjunction and the comma may both
be used between any two of them.
Jf'rite ft"e sentences, each ""ntaininu a compound subject.

Model.-Ellen and Lucy are my sisters.
Write ft"e sentences, en.ch containinu a compounci preclieate.

Model.-We run, jump, and talk at recess.
Write five 1tP.ntcnees, en.cl• rontaininu a compound ob,leetive r.lement.

Model.-My father owns a farm and a factory.
"James and Samuel are kind, honest, and faithful." In
this sentence, "James" and "Samuel" are the parts of what
is called a Compound Subject; "kind," "honest," and "faithful,"
are the parts of a Compound Predicate.
Two or m...>re similar parts of a proposition, connected by
conjunctions,- form a Compound Element.

A Compound Element consists of two or more similar parts of the same proposition connected by conjunctions.
Rem. 1.-The conjunctions may be expressed or understood •
.Any element of a proposition may be compound.

Directions for Writfog.-When a compound element
consists _of more than two parts,
I. Place a comma after each part except the last.
II. Use the conjunction between the last two parts
only.
When a compound element consists of two parts, .
I. Connect them by a conjunction.
II. Or, omit the conjunction and use a comma m it.~ .
. stead.
"'

'

Write ft"e sentences, eaeh containinu a compound n.dJeetlve clement.

Model.-Tray is a large, black, and cross dog. ·
Write five sentences, en.eh containing a compound ad.,erbial element.

Model.-W e stopped then and there.
.tl.naly111e the followinu sentences, ttsinu these
MODELS.

I. "William and Henry study nlgebra."

This is n sentence; dcclarntive.
William and Henry is the compound subject; study, the predicate. "Study" is modified by algebra, an objective element.

~I

~

study

I

-1

algebra..
.

II. "Mr. Edson buys and sells butter and eggs."
This is a sentence; declarative.
Mr. Edson is the · subject; buys and · sells, the compound
predicate, which is modified by butter and eggs, a compound
objective element.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

70

Mr. Edson~

buys
and
sells

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

Combine the sentences ln the followlnu paraurnphs lnto single sen~

butter
and
eggs.

III. "The two boys moved along silently and cautiously."
This is a sentence; declarative.
,Boys iR the euqjcct; moved, tho predicate. "Boye" is modified by the and two, !1-djective elements; "moved," by along,
an adverbial element, and by silently and cautiously, a compound adverbial element.
silently
and

cautiously.
1. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution.
2. Mr. Mann owns and cultivates a large and valuable farm.
3. Two and two are four. 4. Duty and interest forbid vicious
and wicked indulgences. 5. Your levity and heedle.seness will
prevent all improvement. 6. Forty pupils study arithmetic,
grammar, and geography. 7. The wearied soldiers fought
bravely and successfully.
Q,UESTIONB.-What ls a compound element? Give directions for writing a compound element consisting of more than two parts. Of two
parts only.

45. SIMPLE SENTENOES.

"Wheat is a vegetable." This sentence consists of a single
proposition. It is called a. Simple Sentence.

.A Simple Sentence consists of a single proposition.
In the sentences, "I see a dog," "I see a boy," "I see a
tree," "I see a house," "I see" is a part common to a.11 of
them. We may combine these, and form a. single sentence,
by using this common part but once; thus, "I see a dog, a
boy, a tree, and a house."

'

71

l .

J. l found n. hook. I found n. pencil. I found a elate. I
found n. knife.
2. Apple trees grow thriftily. Apples grow in our orchard.
3. John walked to the lake. ,John walked over the hill.
J olm walkrnl rn.p'iclly.
4. The horse ·was old. The horse wn.s lame. The ho~ee
was blind.
5. The wind blew fiercely. The wind blew la.st night. The
wind blew from the north.
6. William gave me a new book. William sold me ten
marbles. William bought a. sled f~r my brother.
Q,UESTIONB.-What la a. simple sentence? How may several sentences be combined so aa to form a single sentence?

46. COMPOUND SENTENCES.

"Wheat grows in tho field, and men reap it." This sentence consists of two propositions, each of which will make
complete sense when standing alone. It is called a Oompound
Sentence.

I. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more
connected sentences, each of which will make complete sense when standing alone.
';,

Rem.-The sentences of which a compound sentence is composed, are called Members .
In tho ·'!lentence, "Exercise strengthens the constitution,
and tempera.nee strengthens the constitution,'' "exercise" and
"temperance" are parts not common to the two members.
The sentence may he changed to a simple one by uniting
these, and using the common parts but once; thus, "Exercise
and tempera.nee strengthen the constitution."

72

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

2. A compound sentence containing common parls,
may be changed to a ~imp]e one by uniting the parts
not common
to all its members, and using t.he common
f
parts but once.

COMPLEX SENTENCEJ.

t

.!

I I

Write' ft11e compound "en.fence,., eqcl• contafn.ln.g two membe1'B.
Cl•ange the following compottnd 1tentenceB to stmple oneB:

1. Behold my mother and behold my brethren. 2. J saw
n. man in a boat and I saw a boy in the water. 3. Washington was a warrior and Washington was a statesman. 4. The
mari. you sBw was si6k, or he was in trouble. 5. The river
was swift, and it was very deep.

!'
,,.

"The heavens declare the glory 'of God, and the firmament
showeth his handiwork."

I
I

declare

glory
I the

I of God,

an<!

firmament

'

showoth

I

handiwork.

47. OOMPLEX SENTENOES.

I.

I

.A sentence, any element of which is a clause, is a Oomple:e
Sentence. A clause must contain a subject and a predicate.

MODEL.

heavens
I The

1. Ta.lent is something, but tact is every thing. 2. Art is
long, and time is fleeting. 3. Lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil. 4. The gathering clouds threatened
an approaching storm, and the deep darkness of the night
soon enveloped them. 5. The stores were closed, and t~e
hum of business was hushed. 6. Every eye was filled with
tears, and, for a moment, all were silent. ,...,_ You may stay
here with me, or we will go to the lecture with Susan. 1
QUESTIONS •....:.What Is a compound sentence? What are Its members?
How can 11. compound sentence containing common parts, be changed
to 11. simple sentence?

Analyze the followlng BentenceB, ttBlng thl11

This is a sentence; compound. "The heavens d~clare the
glory of God" is the first member; "the firmament showeth
his handiwork," the second member; "and" is the connective.
Heavens is the subject of the first member; declare, the
predicate. "Heavens" Js modified by the, an adjective ele- ·
ment; "declare," by glory, an o~jective element, which is
modified by the and the phrase of God, adjective elements.
Firmament is the subject of the second m@mber; showeth,
the predicate. "Firmament" i• modified by the, an adjective
element; "showeth," by handiwork, an objective element, which
is modified by his, an adjective element.

73

1. A Complex Sentence is one some element of
which contains a subject and a predicate.
In the complex sentence, "I know where gold is found,"
the first clause, 11 I know," makes complete sense when standing alone. J t is therefore ca.lied the Principal Clause.

2. A Principal Clause is one which makes complete
sense when separated from the rest of the sentence.
' · '.·'
.,) '1

.

'

·1

\.

1 '1

\

The second clause, 11 where".gold is found," doE's n~t make
complete sense when standing alone, and is therefore called
a Subordinate Olause.

3. A Subordinate. Clause is one wl1ich does ·not make
complete sense: when separated from the rest of the
sentence..
Clauses may also lie divided into the following five classes:
Subject, Predicate; Objective, Adjective, and Adverbial.

1, 11 '

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

Rem. 1.-A complex sentence whose subject or predicate
only is a clause, need not be separated inti> principal and
subordinate clauses in analysis.
Rem. 2.-Some complex Rentences are composed of many
clauses. Each clause should be annlyzed in the order indicated by its position.

III. "He never denied that the letter was lost."

74

MODELS FOR COMPLETE ANALYSIS .•

I. "He that hateth, dissembleth with his lips."
This is a sentence; declarative; complex; it is composed of a
principal clause and a subordinate clause. "He dissembleth
with his lips" is the principal clause; " that hateth," the
subordinate clauRe.
He is the subject of the principal clause; dissembleth, the
predicate. "Ile" is modified by the clause that hateth, an
adjective element, of which that is the subject, and hateth,
the predicate. " Dissembleth " is modified by the phrase with
his lips, an adverbial element; "lips," by his, an adjective
element.

I disRembleth
I that I hateth I I with Ii~

He

I

IS

II. " That he is very sick, is evident."

a

75

II e never denied" is
This iR sentence; declarative; complex.
the principal clause; "the letter was lost," the subordinate
clause. "That" is the connective."
He is the subject of the principal clause; denied, the predicate, which is modified by never, an adverbial element, and
by the clause that the letter was lost, an objective element.
Letter is the subject of the subordinate clause; was lost, the
predicate. "Letter" is modified by the, an adjective element.
That is a connective joining the clause " the letter was lost"
to "denied."
II

He

I

denied

(that) letter I was lost.
I the I

I

I~

IV. "He builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall."
This is a sentence; declarative; complex. "Ile builds a palace
of ice" is the principal clause; "tho torrents foll," the subordinate clause. "Where" is the connective.
. He is the subject of the principal clause; builds, the predicate, which is modified by palace, an objective element, and
by the clause where the torrents fall, an adverbial element.
" Palace" is modified by a and the phrase of ice, adjective
elements; "torrents,'' by the, an adjective element; "fall," by
where, an adverbial element.

I

This is a sentence; declarative; ,complex; its subject is a clause.
That he Is very sick is the subject; evident, the predicate; is,
the copula. He is the subject of the subject clause; sick, the
predicate; Is, the copula. "Sick" is modified by very, an adverbial element. That is a conjunction used to introduce the
subject clause.
(That) he

is : sick
Ivery

'

I

is : evident.

Ile

builds

I

palace

1. He that flattereth, deceiveth his neighbor. 2. The boy
that you saw, is my younger brother. 3. Ile was frightened
when he first saw a lion. 4. I can not study where pupils
make so much noise. 5. I would pay you if I had the
money. 6. That ha will suc«eed, is uncertain. 7. The mes-

76

THE INTERJECTION.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

roll was called. 7. They weighed anchor when the tide turned .
8.. My brother has gone to the city that he may find employment.

. senger reported that the brave general was dead. 8. He is a
.; ':\good man, though very eccentric. 9.. Nature never qid betrayt
the heart· that loved her.
J 0. The poor too often turn away, unheard,
From hearts that shut against them, with a sound
That shal~ be heard in heaven.-Lon!Jlellow.

5. Simple sentences may often he enlarged t.o complex sentences by using subordinate propositions, instead of single words or phrases, as modifiers.

Wrtte fttie 11entence11, ustng clam•es as 11ulJjr,ct11.

Enl1u·ge tl•c follatofn.g simple senterces:

Model.-" Haste makes waste,'' is a•true saying.
Wrtte ft.,e sentences, using clauses as

I

~

I

Model.-1 believe that the earth is round.
Write /I.tie 11entence1t, u1tfng clau•es as

a~ecttve

elements.

Model.-The report tl~at he is insane, is unfounded.

l

Write ft.,e aentence1t, u11ing clatt1tes as adt1erbial elements,

Model.-Our teacher is delighted when we are studious.
.Analyze the aenteneea

f/Ott

ha"e written,

II.

4. Complex sentences may often be reduced to simple sentences by using single words or phrases, instead .
of subordinate propositio.ns, as modifiers.
~the foll01Dlng coniplez sentenceit to simple sentenceit:

Models.-!. "A man who is wealthy, lives there"= "A man
of wealth lives there," or, "A wealthy man lives there."
II. "We started when the sun rose"= "We started at
sunrise."
1. A pupil that is studious, will learn rapidly. 2. Men who
are honest, are respected. 3. A boy, when he is at play, is
happy. 4. An accident that was unavoidable, occurred at the
factory this morning. 5. Franklin, who was a philosopher,
~as an .American. 6. One soldier was not present when the

....

77

...

Model.-' ; None think the great unhappy bv.t the great" =
"None think that the great arc unhappy but the great."
I. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 2. I went down to
the river at ten o'clock. 3. Time wasted is existence; used,
is life. 4. Thou hast uttered cruel words. 5. The poor must
work in their grief. 6. They came here to see the country.
7. The wild beasts kept for the games, had broken from their
dens. 8. Haste to cheer my father's heart.
Q.UESTIONS.-What is a complex sentence? A principal clause? A
subordinate clause? Into what five clnsses may clauses be divided?
How may complex sentences be reduced? How may simple sentences
be enlarged?

-+THE INTERJECTION.
48. ORAL LESSON.

"Hurra I we have found him."
Is this a sentence? It is. What is the subject? The pronoun "we." What is the predicate? "Have fottnd." What
modifies the predicate? The pronoun "him," an objective
element.
What docs the word "hurra" denote? It denotes t-hat the
speaker or writer is highly pleased. Does it affirm or deny
any thing? It docs not: it simply implies a. feeling or emotion
of pleasure.

78

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

There are words, also, used to denote sorrow, grief, surprise,
disgust, pity, hatred, etc.
All such words are called Interjection&.

An Interjection is a word used to denote some sudden or strong emotion.

PART II.

Rem.-Interjections usually, but not always, require an exclamation point [ I ] after them.
· Point out the lnterjectl.on" In eacl• of the follot.0ing 8entcnua1 uafng
thu
·
MODEL.

SYNTAX.-OOMPOSITION.
49. PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN.

"Hush I they are coming."

Hush is an intetjection; it denotes some sudden emotion.
1. Hal it freezes me. 2. Ahal you a.re a truant. 3. Ahem!
I will think about it. 4. Hark I ihe clock strikes one.
5. Pshaw I I knew thnt yesterday. 6. Alas I we shall see him
no more. 7. Tush I tush I man, I made no reference to you.
8. Ay, he is every inch a. king. 9. Oh, what a noble mind is
here o'erthrown I 10. Alas I they had been friends in youth.
11. Hark! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 12. Alas! for
the rarity of Christian charity.

To the noun belong Gender, Person, Number, and
Gase. These are called its Properties.

0

Point otd all the parts of speech in the abot16 aentencea.

Note.-Interjectio~s may be omitted in the analysis of the sentences In which they are found. They may be placed before and a

little above the first words in a diagram.

Q,UESTIONS.-What ls an Interjection? What should usua.Uy be placed

60. GENDER.

Objects are either male or female; as, boy, girl; or neither
male. nor ~emale; as, apple. Their names, therefore, may be
classified with regard to sex. This distinction is called Gender.

1. Gender is a distinction of nouns or pronouns
with ·regard to sex.
2. There are ·four genders : Masculine, Feminine,
Common, and Neuter,

after an interjection f

3. The Masculine Gender denotes males; as, boy.
4. The Feminine Gender denotes females; as, girl.
Some words, ns children, parent, etc., are used to denote
either males or females. The gender of such words is said
to be Common.
(79)

'

•
80

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PERSON.

5. The Common Gender denotes either males or
females ; as, ·parent.

Tell tTw gr.ndrt' of n.ll the netinR in your reading lr.sson.

Q.um1T10Ns.- Whnt belong to nonnR? What IR gentler? How many
genders are there? What Is the mn.~cullne gender? The fcmlulne
gend.e r? 'Fhe common gender? The n euter gentler? How mnny wnys
a re there ,.,, tllstingulshlng the masculine antl feminine genders? Give
them.

6. The Neuter Gender denotes neither males nor
females; as, houBe.
7. There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine and .feminine genders :

\.

1. By using different words; as, father, mother; brother, sister;
boy, girl; gentleman, lady; Mr., Mrs. ; Charles, Caroline; drake,
duck; hart, roe.
2. By different terminations; as, actor, actress; executor, executrix; hero, heroine.
3. By joining some distinguisliing, word; as, man-servant, maidservant; he-bear, she-bear; landlord, landlady; merman, mermaid.

Duke.
Susan.
Baker.

Father.
Joseph.
Madam.

Nephew.
Milliner.
· Empress.

2. There arc three persons, Pfrst, Second, and 1'hird.
(Sec page 47.)
Tell the pcto,•on of the notittB and pronouns ln the following sentences:- }

1. My lesson is learned.
lately? 3. Ellen, tell your
him on the battle eve. 5.
mold. 6. Your horse is in
home early in the morning.

Countess.
President.
Administratrix.

Git1e the corresponding masculine or feminitie for the following ·
nouns:

King.
Niece.
Count.

Uncle.
Widow.
Female.

Francia.
Br'other.
Prophet.

Augusta.
Sorcerer.
Media.tor.

Model.- We are pupils.

Model.- You may be excused.

using feminine nouns as objects.

I envy thee.

Write ftve sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the third pet•son'
tu subjects, predicates, or objects.

Model.-The teacher sent my sister home at recess.

Models.-Studious pupils learn long lessons easily.
their homes in sorrow.

Write siz sentenees, using nouns in the common or neuter gender
as t1ubjeets er object•·
·
_ __

They left

QUESTIONB.-Wlrnt Is person 7 How many persons are there? D11flnc
them.
El. Or.-8.

Model.- A beggar frightened me this morning.
I

'

I defended myself.

Write ft11e sentences, using nouns or pronouns of the second person
as subjects Of' objects.

Model.-John left hie book on my desk.
sentence~,

2. Have you seen our old friend
sister to come home. 4. I saw
They left the plowshare in the
our barn, Mr. Eckel. 7. He left

Write jl.11e sentenceR1 using nouns or protwttns of the ftr11t person as
subjects, predicates, or objects.

Miss Jones.
Grandfather.
Hen-sparrow.

Write fl,1Je sentences, using masculine nouns as subjects.

W1'ite ftt1e

51. PERSON.

1. Person· is that property of a noun or pronoun
which distinguishes the speaker, the person spoken to,
aucl the pcrAon or ohject spoken of.

Xetl the g~nder of the following nouns:

Cart.
Poet.
.Aunt.

81

"

!4'"-

~ 11 -

·~ '.

f
I

82

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR

CABE.

62. NUMBER.

12. In compound words, the part described by the rest is
generally pluralized ; as, brothers-in-law, courts-martial, ox-carts.
13. Nouns ending in Jul or full, form their plurals by adding s to the singular; as, handfuls, mouthfuls.

1. Number is that property of a noun or pronoun
which distinguishes one from more than one.
2. There are two numbers, Singulat and Plural.
{See page 15.)

Write the plurals of the following words, letters, and signs:

Calf.
Tax.

ir. t.
!1 63. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s form their
plurals by adding s only to the singular; as, book, books; boy,
boys; desk, desks.
2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite withs, form their
plurals by adding es to the singular; as, bush, bushes; box,
boxes.
4
3. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y
into i, 11:nd add es ; as, mercy, mercies.
4. Some nouns ending inf or fe, change these endings into
ves; as, knife, knives.
.,., 5. Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add
es; as, cargo, cargoes.
6. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, adds; as, folio,
folios.
7. Letters, figures, marks, and signs add 's; as, p's ~nd q's;
9's and ll's; the *'s; the 5's and B's.
· 8. Proper nouns usually add s only in forming their plurals; as, Mary, Marys; Sarah, 8arahs; Nero, Neros. The forms
Maries, Neroes, etc., are sometimes used.
9. Most nouns from foreign languages change us to i; um
and on to a; is to es or ides; a to re or ata; and x to ccs or ices ;
as, calculus, calculi; arcanum, arcana; phenomenon, plienomena;
thesis, tl1eses; ephemeris, epl1emerides.
10. Some nouns {orm their plurals irregularly, as, :In.an,
men; ox, oxen ; mouse, mice.
11. A few nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer,
trout, yoke, hose, vermin, and others.

--..·- ·--··-----· - ~ - -- -~ - - · - ·~-·--·

'

-- - -- ---

83

Hoe.
Turf.
Vase.
Plow.

Clam.
,John.
Folly.
Rake.
Child.
_ Glory.
Tariff.

Truth.
Tooth.
Reply.
Horse.
Radix.
Studio.
Cameo.

A, b, c.
Armful.
Charles.
Salmon.
Woman.
Incubus.
Wrench.

Analysis.
Mischief.
Creature.
Chimney.
Embargo.
Momentum.
Wagon-load.

Write tlw sl.nunlar of the followlng nouns:

Feet.
Mice.
Oxen.
Genii.
Tell tlw

Geese.
Folios.
rcnco.
Strata.
~

<>fall tlw

Errata.
Rubies.
J.. oaves.
Horses.
'1.tnt>M

Heroes.
Badges.
.Judges.
Valleys.

Ellipses.
Beauties.
Children.
Monkeys.

in ymir rt•mllny lesson,

QUESTIONS.-Whnt Is number? How many numbers nre there?
What is tho singular number? The plural number? Repeat the rules
for the formation of the plural.

54. CASE.

"T.he sun is shining:" here "sun" is used as . the subject
of a proposition. "Every st.ar is a sun:" here "sun" is used
as the predicate. "The sun's rays are warm:" here "sun" is
used as an adjective element, modifying "rays." "We saw
the sun at noon:" here "sun" is used as an ol\jective element,
modifying "fmw." "Dear is thy light, 0 Run!" here "sun"
is used absolutely-i. e., it is absolved or s<>parated from any
grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence.
In no two of these sentences has the word "sun" the same
relation to the other words.
These different relations are called Chses.

,: !

84

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

1. Case is the relation of a noun or a pronoun to
other words.
Rem.-The term case is also applied to the form of a noun
or a pronoun used independently or as a part of a sentence.

2. There are four cases : Nominative, Possessive, ObJ°ecUve, and Absolute, or Nominative Absolute.

3. The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the subject or the predicate of a proposition ;
as, Boys skate ; I-Iorses arc animals.
. 4. The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pronoun to denote ownership, authorship, origin, or kind;
as, John's hat, Ray'.'f Algebra, the sun's rays, men's
clothing.
Note.-For rules for forming the possessive case, see pp. 43 and 44.

DECLENSION.

4. Witli a participle; as, "The sun being risen."
5. By position.; i. e., by using it as the heading of a chapter,
as the superscription to a letter, etc.; as, "TAe Noun," "M. F.
Jones."

7. A noun limiting the meaning of another noun
denoting the same person or thing, is, by apposition,
in the same case; as, "Washington the general became
Washington the statesman."
55. DECLENSION .

The Declension of a noun is its variation · to denote
number and cusc.
Rem.-The nominative absolute case always has the same
form as the nominative.

t

The Objective Case is the use of a noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb in the active
voice, or of ,a preposition; as, "Indians hunt bvffawes;" "They ran over the bridge;" "John threw a
stone at the dog."
6. The Absolute, or. Nominative Absolute, Case is the
use of a nonn or pronoun independent of any governing word; as, "Oh, my son/" "Soldie,rs, attention I"

"Washington Irving."
Rem.-A noun may be in the absolute case:
1. By direct address; as, "James, bring me a book."
· 2. By exclamation; as, "Oh, my daughter!"
3. By pleonalJm; i. e., by placing it before a sentence in
which an affirmation is madb concerning it; as, "Your faJliers,
where arc they?"
·

'

85

J,

EXAMPLE.

Nom.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

Singular.

Plural.

Fly.
Fly's.
Fly.

Flies.
Flies'.
Flies.

Singul,ar.
Nom.,
Poss.,
Olij.,

Plural.

Goodness.
Goodness'.
floo<lncs.'l.

QUF.''lTIONS.-Whnt Is cnse? How mnny cases nre there? What ls
the nominative c11.~e? The posses.o;ive cn.se? The objective ca.<Je? The
nbsolnte cnse? How Is the possessive case singular formed T The posResslve cn.<;e plural? In how m11ny ways may a noun be in the absolute
case? Give exnmples.
What ts declension? Decline "boy," "girl,'' "farmer."

56. P ARBING.

Parsing consists (1) In naming the part of speech ;
(2) In telling its properties; (3) In pointing out its
relations to other words; ( 4) In giving the rule for
its construction.

'r'

,~

86

,

....

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

--··--

PARSING.

87

III. "Samuel, study your lesson with care."
57. ORDER OF PARSING.
I. A noun, and why? 2. Common or proper, and why?
3. Gender, and why? 4. Person,.and why? 5. Number, and
why? 6. Case, and why? 7. Rule for construction.

';.;:/; -,, -

58. MODELS FOR PARSING.

~~~-

I. "Wheat is a vegetable."

';_';~~i .

Wheat is a noun; it is a name: common; it can be applied to
· (t;--4ny one of a kind or class: neuter gender; it denotes neither
" males nor females: third person; it is spoken of: singular numlier; it denotes but one: nominative case; it is used !l.S the subject of the proposition. Rule I. " A noun or pronoun used
as the subjf'ct of a proposition, ii1 in tho nominative case."
Vegetable is a noun; common; neuter; t!tird person; singular
number; nominative case; it is used ns the predicate of the
· proposition. Rule II. "A noun or pronoun used as the predicate of a proposition, is in the nominative case."

II. "Henry's uncle, the sheriff, was wounded."
Henry's is a noun; proper; it is the name of a particular
person: masculine gender; it denotes a male: t!tird person; singular number; possessive case; it denotes possession, and modifies
"uncle.'' Rule III. "A noun or pronoun used to limit the
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or thing, is in
the possessive case."
Sheriff is a noun; common; masculine gender; tliird person;
singular number; nominative case, in apposition with "uncle,"
which it modifies. Rule IV. "A noun or pronoun used to
limit the meaning of .a noun or pronoun by denoting the
same person, place, or thing, is in the same case."
I)

'

Samuel is a noun; proper ; masculine gender; second person; it
denotes the person addressed; singular number; it denotes but
one: nominative absolute case; it is used independently. Rule V.
"A noun or pronoun used independently is in .the nominative
absolute case."
Lesson is a noun; common; neuter gender; third person; singular
number; objective case; it is the object of the verb "study."
Rule VI. "The object of a transitive verb in the active voice,
or of its participles, is in the objective case."
Care is a noun; common; neuter gender; third person; singular
"
number; objective case; it is used as the object of the preposition "with."· Rule VII. "The object ·of a prep,osition is in
. , . >f"
the objective case."
•J , ,
~ .....~·l-f; ·j
Analyze the following sentences, and parse Ute

~

I. Borneo is a large island. 2. Our father lives in Washington. 3. ,John's dog bit Clarence. ll. J~4~son'ir farm is mortgaged. 5. Mr. Trowel the mason is unwell. 6. 0 Helen I
father is coming. 7. The statue fell from its pedestal. 8. Gad,
a troop shall ove~come him. 9. Jocko has stolen my spectacles. 10. Susan's mother is my aunt. 11. Is the doctor's
office open?
12. Next to sincerity, remember still
Thou must resolve upon integrity.
God will have all thou hast; thy mind, thy will,
Thy thoughts, thy words, thy works.-Herbert.
~the

following sentences:

1. Jane has two brother-in-laws. 2. Storms are interesting phenomenons. 3. Three chimnies were on fire. 4. The
Shaker's are industrious. 5. Di<l you attend Mr. Chance'
lecture. 6. I called at Coleman's the jeweler's. 7. She is
reading in her sister's Mary's book. 8. The boys coat ill
torn. 9. How many of the Johnson's were there? 10. The
mens' wages ahould be paid to-day. 11. He has quartoes
and folioes in his library.

.

I

..

-.
I

88

ELEMENT ARY GRAMMAR.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

59. COMPOSITION.
Write a description of a squirrel, using the following

~i-, ..,

\"

Plan.-1. Size, as compared with some other small animal.
3. Habits, nest, and food . 4. Its disposition, whether timid or bold,
~tc. 5. Different kinds, and their peculiarities. 6. Migrations.
7.. Enemies.
2. Form, noting particularly its teeth, claws, and tail.

·~

Write drseripUrms of sonic of tlrn fnllr>wing animals, tt11ing tltis

General Plan.-1. Size. 2. Form, noting marked features.
3. Color. 4. Food. 5. Habits. 6. Disposition. 7. Where
found. 8. Hemarks, anecdotes, etc.
Rem.-The pupil should he permitted and encouraged to
vary the orclcr in which the topics are nrranged in this plan,
and to introduce such other topics as seem necessary to complete the description of any animal.
The dog.
The owl.
The bee.
Parse tltc

The shark.
The horse.
The crow.
!!:!!!!.!!!!

The turkey.
The pigeon.
The mouse.

The elephant.
The muskrat.
The mosquito.

2. The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by
adding self ~r selves to some form of the simple personals; as, rnyselj, you,rselves, himself, tliemselves.
Remarks.-1. You is used to represent both singular and
plural nouns.
2. We is used . in place of I, in editorials, royal proclamations, etc. ; as, "We, George IV., King of Great Britain _and
Ireland;" ''.We were mistaken."
3. It is sometimes used in the nominative, without reference to iiny rmrticular antecedent, and in the objective for
euphony alone, or tt) supply the place of some indefinite
object; as, "It thunders;" "Come and trip it on the green."
4. Wlwn p1·onotms of difforcnt pnrRons are used, the second
should prcceuo tho tltird, and tho tliird the first.

.\

62. DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

..

FIRST PERSON.

ht your coni1>ositfons.

60. PROPERTIES OF THE PRONOUN.

89

Nom.,
Poss.,
Olg.,

Si11gular.

Plural.

I.
My, mine.
Me.

We.
Our.
Us.

Nom.,
l'oss.,
Ohj.,

Sin,gular.

Plural.

Myself.

Ourselves.

Myself.

Ourselves.

-To pronouns belong Gender, Number, Person, and

·· Gase.

SECOND PERSON.

61. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

1. The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, 8he,
and it, with their declined forms we, onr, us, my, mine,
ye, yon, your, thy, thine, thee, !tis, Mm, her, its, they,
lhefr, them.

- . ·---- --

"--

'

---- ' -~ -··-----·-----·---

Nom.,
Poss.,
Oh}.,

Singular.

Plural.

Thou.
Thy, t.hine.
Thee.

Ye.
Your.
You.

8ingular.

{ · Thyself.
Nom. and Ohj.,
Yourself.

Nom.,
Poss.,
Ohj.,

Singular.

Plural.

You.
Your.
You.

You.
Your.
You.

Plural.
Nom. and Obj.,
Yourselves.

r

90

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
THIRD

)

II. "I myself told you so.''
Plural.

llAB,

PEil.

llEOT.

He.
His.
Him.

She.
Her.
Her.

It.
Its.
It.

Singular.

Myself is a pronoun; personal; compound: its antecedent is
the name, understood, of the speaker: - - gender, first person,
singular number: Rule ~X. Decline it: nominative case, in apposition with "I: ." Rule IV.

COil. OB 1ucur.

Nom.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

They.
Their.
Them.

An1:dyze the followbig sentences, and parse the~ and personal
pronouns:

Plural.
MAB.

' •ti

.. ··

;q~·~·;i,

Nom. and OIQ.,

~ · ·('·

~~~

':'i

I

Himself.
FEM.

-

Herself.

~1. You and he are my friends. 2. I saw them in their
carriage. 3. The soldiers helped themselves. 4. Thou art the
man. 5. Ile saved thy money for thee. 6. Your father knows
us. 7. Ile himself hid your slate.
8. Where shall I see him? angels tell me where.
You know him; he is near you; point him out.
Shall I see glories beaming from his brow,
Or trace his footsteps by the rising flowers ?-You11g.

COM. OR 1'ltUT.

Nom. and Obj.,

Themselves.

WSUT.

Itself.

6 3. ORDER O F P A RSING.

~· A pronoun, and why? 2. Personal, and why? 3. What

Writ" t11e (I.rift tmo sllnleueeR of' a eoniposftion ou the Engle, and

partm

is its antecedent? 4. Gender, person and number? Rule.
5. Decline it. 6. Case, and why? Rul~.

l.11(!

pnrRtnuil pronouns.

Fluish tlio composttfon.
QUESTIONS.-What Is a pronoun? A personal pronoun? What are
the Rimple personal pronouns? The compound personal pronouns?
What does" yon" represent? · How ls "we" used? How Is "It" sometimes used? Give examples of the use of these pronoum1. When pronouns of different persons are used, how sbbuld they be 1 arranged?
Decline· the personal ~ronouns.' Repeat the order of parsing personal
pronoun&

64. MODELS FOR P ARsI NG.
I. "I see them on their winding way."
I is a pronoun; personal; it shows by its form that it is of
the first person : its antecedent is the name, understood, of
t~e sl'.eaker: - - gender, first person, singular number, to agree
with its antecedent. Rule IX. "Pronouns must agree with
their antecedents in gender, person, and number." Decline
it: nominative case: Rule I.
_
Them is a pronoun; personal; its ant.ccedent is the name
understood, of the person spoken of: - - gender, tliird person:
plural number: Rule IX. Decline it: objective case; it is the
object of the transitive verb "see: " Rule VI.

6 5. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

1. The Possessive Pronouns are mine, thine, his, hers,
ou1·s, yours, theirs.

,,

7

·i .
I '

r

I

'

91

PERSON.

Singular.
Nom.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

2. To denote emphatic distinction, my own is used
for mine, his own for Ms, thy own for thine, our own for
ours, yo1J,r own for yours, t~eir own for theirs.

,'·
92

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

66. ORDER OF PARSI NG.

68. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

1. A pronoun, and why? 2. l'ossesciive, and why? 3. ·what
is its antecedent? 4. Gender, person, number, and why? Uule.
5. Case, and why? Rule.

1. The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which,
what, and tliat.

67. MODELS FOR PARSING.
I. "That house is mine, not yours."
FIRST MJ!,'THOD.

Mine is a pronoun; possC$sive; it represents both the pos- .
sessor and the thing possessed: its antecedent is "house:"
neuter gender, third person, singular number, to ngree with its antecedent: Rule IX: nominative case; it is used as the predicate
of the proposition: Rule II. Parse "youn" in a similar
manner.
~
SECOND METHOD.

.

Mine is a pronoun; possessive; it is equivalent to "my houPe."
Parse "my" as a personal pronoun in the possessive case, according to Rule II J, and "house" as a predicate nominative,
according to Rule II.
Analy:ee the followtno sentences, a ntl parse t1•c pm•scR.dvc prnn.01111.19:

1. That horse of yours is lame. 2. This sled is not yours:
it must be hers., 3. The money is your 'own. 4. Friend of
niine, you are welcome. 5. That garden of theirs is a very
fine one. 6. This book is not mine; · it must be his or hers.
7. She is a n old friend of ours. 8. These books are yours,
not theirs. 9. We love this land of ours. 10. The boy left
his hat, and took mine. 11. You should study your own
books, and not borrow hers.
QUESTIONS.-What Is a possessive pronoun? Name the poSReSBlve
pronoune. How Is empbatlc distinction denoted ? Repeat t be order of
parsing pos11088lve p ronouns.

'

93

Rem.-That is a relative when who, which, or -whom can be
used in its place. . As is . used as a relative pronoun after
such, many, and same.

2. The Compound Relative Pronouns are whoever,
whoso, whosoetier, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and
wliatsoever.
3. Some relative pronouns not only connect clauses,
but also comprise in themselves both antecedent and
relative. T!1ese arc called Double Relatives, and they
may be either simple or compound.
In the sentence, " I got what I desired," wl1at is a double
relative, and is used instead of t!ie tliing wlticli-" I got the
thing wliich I desired." "Thing," the object of "got," is the
antecedent, and is modified by "the" and "which I desired,"
both adjective elements.
Jn the Rent<'nce, '"fell what you know," what is a double
relative, n111l is e11uivalent to that wliich-" Tell tliat wliich you
know." "That," the object of "tell," is the antecedent, and
is modified by "which you know," an adjective element.
In the sentence, "Whatever is, is right," wliatever is a double
relative, and is equivalent to that which-" That wliich is, is
right." "That," the subject of the proposition, "That is right,"
is the antecedent, and "that," the subject, is modified by
"which is," an adjective element.
In the sentence, "Whoever runs may read," whoever is
equivalent to he who, or any person who-"He who runs may
read." "He," the subject of the sentence, "He may read," is .
the antecedent of "who," and is modified by "who runs," nn
adjective clement.

r,t •
94

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

I

In the sentence, "Whichever road you may take, will lead
to the city," whichever is equivalent to any which-"Any road
which you may take," etc. "Any" and "which you may take"
are adjective elements, modifying "road," the antecedent of
"which."
69. DEOLENSION.
Nom.,
Posa.,
Obj.,

Singular and Plural.
Who.
Whose.
Whom.

Nom.,
Poss.,
Obj.,

Singular and Plural.
Which.
Whose.
Which.

70. ORDER OF PARSING.
I. A pronoun, and why? 2. Relative, and why? 3. Name
its antecedent. 4. Gender, person, and number? Rule. 5. Decline it. 6. Caso, and Uule.

95

III. "I remember what you said."

I

What is a pronoun; relative; it is equivalent to that whic/1" that,; being the antecedent pa.rt, and "which" the relative.
Parse "that" as an adjective used as a noun, in the objective
case after "remember."
Which is a pronoun; relative; its antecedent is "that:" neuter
gender, third person, singular number : Rule IX: objective case;
object of the transitive verb "said:" Rule VI.
Analyze Ute follotohiu sentences, and parse tlte pronouns:

1. He that hateth, dissembleth with hiis lips. 2. This is
the child that was lost. 3. The dog which you bought, was
stolen. 4. Ile will do what is right. 5. Ask for what you
want. 6. That is the man whose house was burned. 7. This
is the dog that worried the cat that killed the rat that ate .
the malt that lay in the house that Jack built.
Write the ftrst tttto sentences of a composition on the Quail, and
parse tlte ~ and pronouns.
--Fluislt .,_,,.., <'ompolfttlon,

71. MODELS FOR PARSING.
I. "Happy is the man that findeth wisdom."
I

That is a pronoun; relative; it represents a preceding word
or phrase, to which it joins a limiting clause: its antecedent
is "man: " masculine gender, third person, singular number : Rule
IX: nominative case; it is the subject of the relative clause,
"That findeth wisdom:" Rule I.
II. "Whoever perseveres will succeed."
Whoever is a pronoun; relative; it is equivalent to lie who, ·or
any one wlio-"he" being the antecedent, and "who" the relative. Parse "he" as a personal pronoun, subject of "will sucnoun, subject of
ceed," or "one" as an adjective used as
"will succeed," and "who" as a relative, subject of "perseveres," according to Rule I.

a

'

Q,UESTIONS.-Whnt Is n rclatlve pronoun 'l Who.t are the simple
relatives? Tho compound rolntlve.,? Whnt are double relatives? To
what Is "what" equivalent? "Whntcvcr?" "Whoever?" "Whichever?" "Whoso" and "Whosoever?" Am.-He who. Decline "wbo"
and "which." Repeat the order of parsing a. relative pronoun.

72. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

1. The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and
what, when used in asking questions.
2. The Subsequent of an interrogative pronoun is
that part of the answer which it represents.
Rem.-An interrogative pronoun must agree with its subsequent in gender, person, and numbor. When the answer is
not given, or clearly implied, its gender and person are indeterminate, and it is in the singular number.

96

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

· Ex.-" Who is hurt?" The answer to this question not being given, it is evident that tlrn gender and person of" who"
are indeterminate.
"Who is hurt?-Silas." TJ1e answer to this question is
given. "Who" is masculine gender, third person, singular
number, agreeing with "Silas," its subsequent.
Apply Rule IX in parsing interrogatives, changing "antecedent" to "subsequent."

73. ORDER OF PARSING.
1. A pronoun, and why? 2. Interrogative, and why? 3.
Name its subsequent, if expressed. 4. Gender, person, and
number? Rule. 5. Decline it. 6. Case, and Rule.
74. MODELS FOR PARSING.
I. "Who invented gunpowder?"
Who is a pronoun; interrogative; it is used in asking ·a question: its subsequent is not expressed: gender, person, and number
indeterminate: nominative case; it is used as the subject of the
proposition : Rule I.
II. " What is that man ?-A lawyer."
What is a pronoun; interrogative; its subsequent is "lawyer;"
masculine gender, third person, singular number : Rule IX: nominative
~ase; it is used as the predicate of the proposition: Rule II.
Analyze the following •entence•, and par•e tlic pronoun•:

1. Who came with you? 2. Whose horse ran away? 3.
Whom did you call ?-Mary. 4. What did you say? 5. What
is that ?-It is a velocipede. 6. Which will you have ?-The
large one. 7. Who told you how to parse "what?"
Q,UESTIONS.-What are the interrogative pronouns? What ls the subsequent of an interrogative? With what must an interrogative agree In
gender, person, and number? Repeat the order of parelng an lnterl'Ogatlve.

CAUTIONS.

76. FALSE SYNTAX.

False Syntax is any violation of the Jaws of good
usagP, in the application of words or the construction
of sentences.
76. CAUTIONS.

Caution 1.-Do not omit the subjects of clauses or
declarative sentences.
Ex.-1. Glad you hnve come. 2. Hope you will remain long
with u~. 3. What say? 4. 'Tis a poor school can't keep itself half nn hour. 5. Jt was Johnson snved the drowning mnn.
6. Aftl.'r a long tramp, folt VPry much fatiguccl. 7. !lead his
poems : like them very much. 'l'hink them sublime.

Caution 11.-Do not use who as the object of a
transitive verb or preposition.
Ex.-1. Do you know who you a.re t-nlking to? 2. He is a
fellow who I do not like. 3. Tell me who you work for.

Caution 111.-The second person should precede the
third, and the third the first.
Ex.- I. lie and you a.re in the same class. 2. I o.nd you will
not whisper. 3. I and he went skating.

Caution IV.-Do not use a pronoun ·and its antecedent as subjects of the same proposition.
Ex.-1. Mr. Kellogg he has bought our farm. 2. Many
words they darken speech. 3. The boys they all staid in at recess. 4. The horse he ran, and th~ man he yelled "whoa."

Caution V.-Avoid the use of different kinds of pronouns in the same construction.
El. Gr.-'7.

'

97

>
98

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Ex.-1. If you will go, I will take en.re of thy farm. 2. I
hope you· will put money into thy purse. 3. I will tell thee
what we have, and which will suit you. 4. Learn thy lesson,
then amuse yourself. 5. You may have my sled if you will
lend me thy skates.
Review "Cautions" on pages 56 and 57.
~ tlie follomL>1g 1ttm.t.et1ce1t by refct-ence to Ru.le IX:

1. Every person should mind their own business. 2. Each
day has their own anx ieties. 3. If any one hasn't voted, they
will rise in their places. 4. Many a youth have injured their
health by keeping late hours.
Q,UESTIONS.-What ls false syntax? Repeat the cautions.

DEscRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.

99

that expressed by the positive; as, "An older man ; "
"Charles is more studious than Mary."
Rem.-The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed
by adding r or er to the positive: the comparative of acljectives
of more thnn one syllable is formed by prefixing more or less
to the positive; as, rough, rougher; more honorable, le.ss honorable.

5. The Superlative Degree ascribes the highest or
lowest degree of the quality to one of more than two
objcct.c:i; as, "The oldest man;" "Tlic least fertile farm
in the township."
Remarks.-1. The superlative of monosyllables is regularly

form~d by adding st or est to the positive: of adjectives of
77. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES.

Most descriptive acljectives, by ;;'t"arige of form or the addition of modifying words, express quality in different degrees.
This is called Oompariaon.

1. Comparison is a variation of the adjective to
express different degrees of quality; as, rich, richer,
richest.
2. There are three Degrees of Comparison : Positive,
<Jompa.rative, and Super'lative.
3. The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality,
or an equal degree of the quality; as, "An old man;"
"She is as good as she is beautiful."
Rem.-The suffix ish, and the words rather, somewhat, ete., express a small amount of the quality; as, saltish, having a little
taste of salt; rather warm, somewhat awkward.

4. The Comparative Degree ascribes to one of two
objects a higher or lower degree of the quality than

'

more than one syllable, by prefixing most or least to the positive; as, rouglie.st, most honorable, least honorable.
2. Some adjectives a~~.pared irregularly; as, good, better,
best; bad, worse, worat.

:...· ·

·

3. Some adjectives can not be compared; as, square, inJinite,
supreme.

4. Adjectives should not be doubly compared.
Com.pare the following adJcctlttes:

Far.
Old.
Near.
Wise.

Holy.
Loud.
Much.
J,ittle.

Great.
Proud.
Angry.
Young.

Honest.
Narrow.
Skillful.
Sensible.

Cheerful.
Studious.
Agreeable.
Laughable.

Tell the deuree of compaf'ison of' tlUJ following adjective1t:

Most.
Later:
Better.
Round.

Taller.
Eldest.
Hieber.
Perfect.

Infirm.
Stormy.
Farthest.
Greenish.

Most useful.
Rather nice.
Less studious.
More hopeful.

Most hurtful.
Very frightful.
Less confident.
Least sensible.

QUESTIONR.-Wlmt is eompnrlson? How mnny degrees of eomparison a re there ? \Vlmt d ocs t.he positive degree express? The comparative? The Ruperlatlve? How are the comparative nnd superlative
degrees formed?

-1'• '
100

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE ADJECTIVE.

78. DEFINITIVE ADJEOTIVES.

eo.' MODELS

1. Pronominal Adjectives are those definitives, most
of which may, without the articJe prefixed, represent
a noun understood.
The principal pronominals are:
I. The Demonstratives, this, that, these, those, former, latter,
both, same, yon, yonder.
2. 'J'he Distributives, each, every, either, neither.
3. The Indefinites, all, any, another, certain, divers, enough, Jew,
little, many, much, no, none, one, own, ot/1er, several, some, sundry,
which, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatelier, whatsoever.
Rem. 1.-The phrases sucli a, many a, ·what a, ·but a, only a,
etc., may be called pronominals, an<l be parsed all single words.
Rem. 2.-Sqme pronominals can be _compared like descriptive adjectives; as, few, fewer, fcw~cli, more, most. ~·

·~

.
definitives
which

2. Numeral Adjectives are those
denote number and order definitely; as, two, fourth,
fourfold.

There are three classes of numeral adjectives: Oardinal, Ordinal, an<l llfultiplicative.
•
..{

]. Cardinals denote the number of ohiects; • as, two, four,
..
1N. ,''

79. ORDER OF PARSING.
J. An adjective, and why? 2. Descriptive or definitive, and
why? 3. Compare it, if it admits of comparison. 4. Degree of
comparison? 5. What does it modify? Huie.

'

FOR PARSING.

I. "Fearful stormf! swCClp over tlrnsn islands."
Fearful is an adjective; descriptive; it modifies a noun by denoting some quali,ty :_ compared, pos. fearful, com. more fearful,
sup. moRt · fearful:' positive degree, an<l belongs to "storms."
Rule XII. "An adjective or participle belongs to some noun
or pronoun."
.
.
These is an aqjective; definitive; it defines without denoting
any quality: it c4n not be compared, and belongs to "islands:"
Rule XII.

II. "I have been there many a time."
Many a is an adjective; definitive; it can not bn compared, and
belongs to " time: " Rule XII.
Analyze the fo11owin~ sentences, and parse the noun.•, pronouns,
<tnd a~J~cth11"•:

I. J sa.w a large drove of cattle.' 2. Jane is studying mod- '
em history. 3. Fido' is a Newfoundland dog. 4. You may
have the smallest lenion. 5. Every man received a penny.
, 6. Either road leads to town. 7. That course was most hon?rn.ble. fl. He took a twofold vimv of the su~jcct. 9. What noise
is that? 10. Two men wanted the fourth horse.

« thousand.

2. Ordinals mark the positiotl. of" an object in a series; as,
second, fourth, thousandt/1.
3. Multiplicatives denote how~ many fol(l; as, twofold, fourfold.

101

11. Alas for those who never sing,
But die with. all their music in them.-IIolme.r.
12. With many a curve my banks 1 fret,

)

\

•

By many a field and fallow,
And many a fairy foreland, set
With willow, weed, and mallow.-Tennyson.

Q,UESTIONS.-Deftne pronominal adjectives. Name the principal demonstratives. Distributives. Incleftnlte.'I. \Vhat ph1·a.~es may be regarded a.' pronomlnals? What pronomino.ls can be compared? What
are numeral adjectives? Name o.nd define the three classes ot· numeral
adjectives. Repeat the order of parsing an adjective.

.

,,
I.

102

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

8 1. CAUTIONS.

Caution 1.-Avoid double comparatives and superfa.
fives.
Ex.-1. He is the most miserablest man in town. 2. No
man can't be more neutraler than l on the temperance question. 3. Ile seems more cheerfuller to-day. 4. Always choose
the lesser of two evils. 5. That is more preferable than to be
imprisoned.

'Ji

Caution lf.-Omit the article before a word used as
a title, or as a mere name.
Ex.-1. They gave him the title of an emperor. 2. A rascal
formerly meant a servant. 3. Riches and honor are the gifu!
of fortune. 4. He is a better sailor than a soldier. 5. They
elected him as a chairman.

Caution llf.-Place ordinal adjectives before cardinals
in most constructions.
Ex.-1. The four first houses on the right hand belong to
me. 2. Sing the two first and two last verses. 3. Read the
three first chapters.

Caution IV.-Plural adjectives should modify plural
nouns ; singular adjectives; singular nouns.

THE VERB.

103

4. Appearance when in bloom. 5. Is it found wild? If so,
where? 6. What part of the fruit is eaten? 7.. "Different kinds
of peaches.
Write composftions on some of the plants named below, using the
following

General Plan,- 1. Size, as compared with some other plant.
2. Form noting important parts. 3. Wild or cultivated-where
found ,~ild. ·4. If useful, how protected or cultivated. 5. If
worthless or noxious, how destroyed. 6. What parts are used
for food or for manufactul'ing purpose.'!.
The pine.
The tulip.
The daisy.

The violet.
The beech.
The maple.

The hickory.
The chestnut.
The dogwood.

The rose-bush.
The wheat-plant.
The tomato-plant.

QUESTIONS.-What ls an adjective? A descriptive adjective? What
Is comparison? What ls a detlnltlve adjective? What are pronominal adjectives? What are numeral adjectives? Cardinals? Ordinals?
Multiplicatives?
Repeat the cautions on page 102.

83. PROPERTIES OF THE VERB.

To

verbs belong Voice, .Afade, 1'ense, Number, and
Person.
J,et the pupil now review sections

fo,

16, and 25.

Ex.-1. I do not like these kind of apples. 2. These sort
of people don't amount to much.
seventy-five dollars.

3. These yoke of oxen cost

82. COMPOSITION.
Write a composltfon on the Pr.acll.-trr.e, using the follotvinu

Plan.-1. Size, as compared with the apple-tree. · 2. Form,
division of branches. 3. Color of leaves i~ spring and fall.

'

84. VOICE.
A verb may represent its subject as acting or ns being acted
upon. I n the sentence, ",John struck •J ames, " "J
• o'h n, " th e
sultjcct, is represented as acting: in the sentence, "James was
struck by .John," ".James," the subject, is represen~ed as ?eing acted upon. This property is called voice, a.nd 1s peculiar
to transitive verbs.

·.,

;A

104

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

MODE.

1. Voice is that form of the transitive verb which
shows whether the subject acts or is acted upon . .

85. MODE.

105

2. Transitive verbs have two voices: an Active and
a Passive Voice.

1. Mode is the manner in which the action, being,
or state is expressed.

3. The Active Voice represents the subject as acting
upon an object; as, "The boy wrote a letter."

2. There are five modes: Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Imperative, and Infinitive.

4. The Passive Voice represents the subject as being ·
·
acted upon; as, "The letter was written."

3. The Indicative Mode asserts a thing as a fact, or
as actually existing; as, " Fire burns; " "A battle was
fought."

5. The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing some
form of the verb to be to the perfect participle of a
transitive verb.
R?m.-When a verb in the active voice is changed into the
passive, the direct object in the active becomes the subject in
the passive; as, "The cat cauglit the mouse" (active); "Tho
mouse was cauglit by tho cat" (passive}.
Tell which "erbs are

crctacs:

!!!:.!..!!:!!.

and which passlt1e in the following - -

-

l. The girl sings. 2. Fire burns. 3. The mail was robbed.
4. Truants will be punished. 5. A meteor was seen. 6. He
should have told the truth. 7. Children love play. 8. Ile
has found his knife. 9. A watch waA found in the street.
IO. 'l'he burglar might have been arrested. II. The bad boy
was whipped for stealing apples.
QUE..'!TIONS.-What Is a verb? A tmnsltlve verb? An Intransitive
verb? A copnlatlve verb?
i
What Is a po.rtlelple? Tho present partlelplo? How does tho present
participle always end? Whnt Is f.hc J>crfect participle? How docs It
usually end? Whnt Is tho compound participle? How Is Jt formed?
What belong to verbs? What Is voice? How many voices have
transitive verbs? What is the active voice? The passive voice? How
Is the passive Yolce formed? How Is a verb in the active voice changed
Into the passive? Give examples;

'

4. The Subjunctive Mode asserts a thing as doubtful;
ns a Ruppo.~ition, or denies the fact supposed; as, "If
this be true, all will end well;" " I shall go, if you
remain."

5. The Potential Mode assert~ the power, necessity,
libel'ly, duly, or liability of acting, or of being in a
certain state; as, "He can talk;" "You must go; "
"They should be more careful."
Rem.-May, can, mu8t, might, could, would, and should are the
signs of the potential mode.

G. The Imperative Mode expresses a eo,mma.nd, an
exlim·tation, an entreaty, or a permission; as, "Go;"
"Do not liurt me."

7. The Infinitive Mode expresses the action, being,
ot· state, without affirming it; as, "To go;" "He wants

to speak."
Rem. 1.-Thc infinitive may usually be known by the sign
to placed before it. This sign is omitted after the words bid,

106

-

ELEM4NTARY GRAMMAR.

TENSE SIGNS.

<Lare, feel, help, let, make, neea, see, and a few others; u, "Let
them [to] come on;" "See him [to] run;" "Bid them [to] come."
Rem. 2.-The indicative and potential modes may be used
in asking questions; as, "Is he honest?" "lias she arrived1"
"1lfay I go home?"
Tell tlie ~of' tluJ tierbs in tlic following 11cntencea:

I. The army encamped by the river. 2. Run for some
water. 3. You must recite your lesson. 4. I will recite my
lesson, if I can. 5. .I like
play. 6. Hope thou in God.
7. Do Jet me go to the picnic. 8. II o should have come
. home. 9. Lift up your heads, 0 ye gates! IO. Were I rich,
I would purchase that property.

to

-

107

6. The Past Perfect Tense represents an act as
ended or completed in time fuJly past; as, "I had
writt~n;" " The bridge had jallen before we reached
it."

.
7. The Future Tense denotes future t~me;
as, "I
"
1.. ll wri't e; "
" The lion shall eat straw hke the ox.
8na
8 Th

Future Perfect Tense represents an ac.t as

• '1ic d eor en <led 'at or before a certain future
fimis
I time;
'I
as, " I Bhall have written the letter before t ie mat

closes."

Write a de11criptfon of' tlie Onk, aml tell tlie mode11 of the tierbs 1111ed,

· QUESTIONS.-What Is mode? How many modes are there? Name
them. What Is the Indicative mode? What Is the subjunctive mode?
What Is the potential mode? What nre the signs of the potential mode?
· What Is tho Jmperatlvo mode? Tho Infinitive mode? What ts the sign
the 1Dflnltlve mode? What modes are used In asking questions?

ot

86. TENSE.

1: Tense

denotes the time of an action or event.

2. There arc six tensos: the Present, the P1·esent
Perfect, the Past, the Past Perfect, the Future, and
the Future Perfect.

3. The Present Tense denotes present time; as, "I
write; " " The wind is blowing."
4. The Present Perfect Tense represents an action
or event as past, but connected with present time; as,
"I have written;" "The wind lias been blowing."

5. The Past Tense denotes past time; as, "I wrote;"
"The wind blew."
I

'

87. SIGNS OF THE TENSES: AOTIVE VOIOE.
INDIC~TIVE

MODE.

Simple form .of the verb.
Present,
. When regular, add ed to the simple form.
Past,.
Prefix shall or will to the simple form. . .
Future,
"
have, hast, or has to the perfect p ~r~1c1ple;
Present Perfect,
"
had or hadst to the perfect participle.
Past Perfect, .
"
shall have or will have to the perfect parFuture Perfect,
ticiple.
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

lj, though, except, un l ess, e tc., Pl aced before tense forms given
in the conjugation.
POTENTIAL MODE.

Prefix may, can, or must to the simple form ..
"
might, could, would, or should to the simple form.
"
may have, can have, or must have to the
Present Perf1ct,
perfect participle.
"
migl1t have, could liave, would ~a~e, or sl1ould
Past Perfect,
have to the perfect part1c1ple.
Present,
P<Ut,.

-

112

Pre.rent,

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE VERB "TO LOVE."

PARTICIPLES.

PAST TENSE.

Being;

Perfect, Been;

Plural.
1. We loved,
2. You loved,
3. They loved.

Singular.

Compound, Having been.

1. I loved,
2. Thou lovedst,
3. He loved;

Note.-Shall, in the first person and will, in the second and third,
future tenses, are used to denote .fltturity. When will is used in the
first person, or shall, in the second or third, determination or necessity,
as well as futurity, is represented.
,

PAST PERFECT

A Synopsis of a verb shows its variations in form,
. through the different voices, modes, and tenses, in a
single person a.nd number.

TENS~.

I. We had loved,
2. You had loved,

1. I had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved,
3. lie had loved;

Write a synopsis of the verb "to be" in the first person,
singular number.

113

3. They had loved.

FUTURE TENSE.

'/

1. We shall love,
2. You will love,
3. They will love.

1. I shall love,
2. Thou wilt love,
3. He will love;

92. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOV~'
ACTIVE VOICE.

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

PRINCIPAJ, PARTS.
Pre.rent Tense.
Love.

Past Tense.
Loved.

1. I shall have loved,
-2. Thou wilt have loved,
3. He will have loved;

Perfect Participle.
Loved.

I. We shall have loved,
2. You will have loved,
3. They will have loved.
I

INDICATIVE

MODE.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

\

PRESENT TENSE.

Singular.
1. I love,
2. Thou lovest,
.3. He loves;

PRESENT TENSE.

Plural.
1. We love,
2. You love.
3. They love.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.

1. I have loved,
2. Thou hast loved,
3. He has loved;

1. If we love,
2. If you love,
3. If they love.

1. [f I love,
2. If thou love,
3. If he love;
PAST TENSE.

1. We have loved,
2. You have loved,
3. They have loved.

1. If I loved,
2. If thou loved,
3. If he loved;

!

1. If we loved,
2. If you loved,
3. If they loved.

.1

El. Gr.-8.

I ,·

l

l
'

•

! .

I

114

~

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE PASSIVE VOICE.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

•.

Singular.

PARTICIPLES.

Plural.
1. If we had loved,
2. If you had loved,
3. If they had loved.

1. If I had loved,
2. If thou hadst loved,
3. If he had loved;

11

Perfect, Loved;

Present, Loving;

Compound, Having loved.

93. SY NOPSIS OF THE VERB "TO LOVE.. , .
PASSIVE VOICE.

POTENTIAL MODE.

The Passive Voice is formed by prefixing the various forms
of the verb to be to the perfect participle.

PRESENT TENSE.

1. I may love,
2.' Thou mayst love,
3. lie may love;

115

l. We may love,
2. You may love,
3. They may love.

PRESENT PERFECT TEN'BE.

1. I may have loved,
2. Thou mayst have loved,
3. He may have loved;

1. We may have loved_.
2. You may have lovect;-

3. They may have loved.

INDICATIVE

Present, . .
Present Perfect,
f
I'a.~t, . . ·
l'ast l'erfeel, . ·\ ' 11
Future, . . . .
'1
Future Perfect,
:

f' I,i~ )t

.

PAST TENSE.

l. I might love,
2. Thou mightst love,
3. He might love;

I

!,

.
.

MODE.

I am loved.
I have been loved.
J wn.R loved.
I hml hccn lovccl.

I shall be loved.
I shall have been loved.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

1. We might love,
2. You might love,

Present,

.

Past, . . If I wel'e loved.
. If I be loved.
Past Perfect, • • If I had been loved.

3. They might love.
POTENTIAL MODE.

PAST PERFECT TENSE.

1. I might have loved,
2. Thou mightst have loved,
3. He might have loved;

1. We might have loved,
2. You might have loved,

3. They might have loved.

Present, .
2. Love, or do ye or you love.

INFINITIVE

may be loved.
may ho.v,e been loved.
might be loved.
might have been loved.

IMPERATIVE

IMPERATIVE MODE,

2. Love, or do _thou love;

I
I
I
I

Present, . .
Present Perfect,
Past,. . ·
Past Perfect,

.

INFINITIVE

Pruent, To be loved.

MODE.

MODE.

. . . . Be loved, or be thou loved.
MODE.

Present Perfect, To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.

Pruent,

To love;

'

Pruent Perfect,

To have loved.

· loved
P:resent, Bemg
· · Perl'cct
J' • Loved. <Jompound, Having been loved.

116

ELEMENTARY GRAMM.AR.

117

CONJUGATION.
POTENTIAL MODE.

94. OOORDtNATE FORMS OF OONJUGATION.

1. The Progressiv(', the Emphatic, and the Interrogative are called the Coordinate Forms of Conjugation.

I
I
I
I

Present, .
Present Perfect,
Past, . .· .
Past Peefect,

may be loving.
may have bee~/loving.

might be lovirlg.
might have been loving.

INFINITIVE

2. The Progressive Form is used to denote action,

being, or state in progress; as, "He was writing."

Present, To be loving.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Jn the Progressive Form, tho various forms of the verb to
he are prefixed to the present active participle.

3. The Emphatic Form represents an act with emphasis; as, "I do w1·ite;" "He did write."

MODE.

Present Peefect, To have been loving.

l'rcscnt,

.

.

Be thou loving.

PARTICIPLES.

Present,

.

Loving.

.

4. The Interrogative Form is used in asking qu"l;tions; as, "Love I ? " "Did he write? "

Compound,

.

.

Having been loving.

TI-IE EMPI-IA TIC FORM.-SYNOP8I8.

INDICATIVE

MODE .

l'ast,

Present,

1 Jo love.

Present,

If I do love.

.

I did love.

PROGRESSIVE FORM.-8YNOP8I8.

SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE

Pruent, . . .
Present Perfect, ·
Past, . . •
Past Perfect,
Future, . .
Future Perject,

I
I
I
I
I
I

MODE.

am loving.
have been loving.
was loving.
had been loving.
shall be loving.
shall have been loving.

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.

Present, .

If I be loving.
Past l'eefect, . .

'

Past, . . If I were loving.
J f I lm<l been loving.

MODE .

l'ast,

.

.

If I did love.

IMPERATIVE MODE.

Present,

.

.

.

.

.

Do thou love.

INTERROGATIVE FORM.-SYNOPBIB.

INDICATIVE MODE .

Present, . . .
Present Peefect,
Past, . . . .
Past Peefect, .
Future, . . .
Ji'rdure J'eefect,

Love I? Do I love? Am I loving?
II ave I loved? Have I been lovin~?
Loved J 'i Did 1 love? Was I lovmg?
Hnd J loved? Had I been loving?
fihnll I lovu? Shall l Lo loving?
.
Shall 1 have loved i Shall I have been lovmg?

118

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

VERBS.

119

POTENTIAL MODE.

Present, .
Prcsr.nt Perfect,
Past •
Past Perfect,

the present indicative; as, go, went, gone; see, saw,
seen; do, did, done.

Must I love?
Must I have loved?
Might I love? ·
Might I have loved?

For list of Irregular Verbs see Appendix.

WJite 1t synopl'liR of the tranRitivc verbs tliink, instruct, commana,;_punish, teach, and see, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and

96. DEFECTIVE .AND REDUNDANT VERBS.

Potential Modes, Active and Passive Voices.

1. Defective Verbs are those which want some of the principal parts. They are beware, from be and aware., ought, quoth,
quod, wit, and its derivatives, wot, wis, weet, wist, wote.

Tell tlte n•od,., fen.11,., per1111n., and ntimT11•r of eaclt tJ£rb in tlie following sentences:

2. Redundant Verbs are those ~hich have more than one
form for their pa.st tense or perfect participle; as, cleave, clove,
~r clave; cleft, cloven, or cleaved.

1. He ran. 2. You teach. 3. They have seen. 4. lf he go.
5. They may have written. 6. Has he departed? 7. They will
command. 8. Emma will hnvc recited. 9. The army will be
diRbanded.
10. America was discovered. 11. The people Rhould be contented. 12. Ile hm1 invented 1t velocipede. 13. A ttcnd to your
lesson. 14. He can go, if the enrriage is not too full. 15. The
mnn loves to Ree it rain.
Jf'rlte a dt1Rcrlpli11n of tlui

~ tlte

MODEL.

"The mnn throwcd

1t

stone."

This sentence · is incorrect. Tho word "th rowed" shoulcl
be "threw," the past indicative of the verb "throw." The
sentence should read, "The man threw a stone."

C1t1'1'ffllf-Tm11/1 1 nnd pat•Rr. tlrn tJCrbs.

Q.UESTIONS.-What ls conjugation? What a1·e the principal parts of
n verb? What Ii; the synopsis of a verb? GI ve the synop.~ls of " to be."
Of" to love," In both the active and the pnsslve voice. How Is the passive voice formed? What are the coordinate !orms of conjugation?
What Is the progressive form? The emphatic form T The interrogative
form? Give the synopsis of ea.ch form.

1. I have saw some fine cattle to-day. 2. He ought to have
went home. 3. The beads were stringed on a ·silk thread.
4. He has brung some snow into the school-house. 5. ·~he
doth was weaved by hand. 6. The horse come cantermg
along. 7. This coat has wore well.
8. The cars have ran off the track. 9. The bells ringed
when the news was got. 10. I clumb the tree and sbaked
the apples off. ] 1. The candle should be blowed out. 12. I
laid down and ris much refreshed. 13. Was the cow drove
to pastur~? 14. The plastering has fell from the ceiling.

95. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS.

1. A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and
perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present
indicative; as, love, love-d, love-d; count, count-ed
count-ed.

Cor.-cct all errors iH the use of irregnlar ""r'"' yott n•au notice
in your .,onversation wllh you1· scltool-mntcs.

2. An Irregular Verb is one which docs not form its
past t.ense and perfect participle by adding d or ed to

'

followlng sentences, tuLng tl&ill

Q.uEl!TIONS.-Wlmt Is a regnlar verb? An Irregular verb? A defective verb? Which nre the defective verbs? What are redundant verbs?
Give examples.

'

-

.
120

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

97. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. A Verb, and why? 2. Regular or irregular, and why?
3. Give its principal parts. 4. Copulative, transitive, or intransitive, and why? 5. Voice, and why? 6. Mode, and why ?
7. Tense, and why? 8. Person and n"!lmber, and why ? Rule.

98. MODELS FOR PARSING.
I. "Liberty is sweet."

COMPOSITION.

IV.

121

"We heard the owl hooting."

Hooting is a J>articiple; it partakes of the properti~s. of n. ver.b
and an adjective : present participle; it denotes contmuance : it
belongs to "owl." Rule XII. "An adjective or a participle belongs to some noun or pronoun."
V. " I study to improve."
To improve is ·a verb; regular ; give the principal. parts; transitive· active voice · inGnitive mode; it expresses action without
,
' ~·
.
nffi10Ming
it: it depends
upon "study." Rule X VI. "A n mfinitive not used as a noun, depends upon the word it limits."

Is is a verb; it is a word which denotes being: irregular; it
does not form its pnst tense and perfect participle by adding
d or ed to the present indicative: principal parts are pres. am,
past ind. was, perf. pii.rt. been: copulative; it asserts the predicate of the subject: indicative mode; it asserts a fact : pre.sent
tense; it denotes present time: third. per.son, &ingular number, to
agree with its subject "liberty." Rule XIII. "A verb must
agree wit h its subject in person and number."

II. "I shall go, if you remain."
Shall go is a verb; irregular: give its principn.l pn.rts; intran.si
tive; it does not require nn object to complete its meaning,
indicative mode; future ten.ve; it denotes future time : first person,
11ingular number. Huie XII I. "A verb must n.gree with its subject in person and number."
Remain is a verb; regular; it forms its past indicative and
perfect participle by adding ed to the present indicative: give
the principal parts: intransitive; 11ubjuncti11e mode; it represents
an act as doubtful or conditional; pruent tense; 11econd per11on,
singular or plural number : Rule XIII.

· III. "The boy caught the horse."
Caught is a verb; irregular; give the principal parts : transitive; it requires nn object to complete its meaning : active voice;
it represents its subject ns acting : indicative mode; pa.st tense;
third person, singular number: Uule XIII.

'

99. COMPOSITION.
Rend tfie following de1tcription <&number of tbnu, then r eproduce_
it fron• 11ie11iory:
SUGAR.

Sugar is obtn.ined from many plants. The sweet tMte of all
kinds of fruit is owing to the sugn.r in their juices. Grapes
contn.in grnpn-sugn.r, which mn.y bo 11e(\n in 11mn.ll, white grains
in raisins, or drieci grapes. The snp of thn maple and some
other fm·eRt tree's contains a large nmount of sugar. In France,
it is mn.cln from bPct-root.'I in ln.rg<' <pm.ntitics.
The sugar-cane, however, contn.ins so much sweet juice that
it is cultivated in preference to all other plants for the mak·
ing of sugar. It is a tall grass-plant which grows in mnny
hot countries. When ripe, the stf•ms are cut down and passed
between heavy rollers. The juice is thus squeezed out, and
is boiled as soon as possible. After being boiled to a syrup,
it is skimmed and placed in large flat pans to cool.
While cooling a curious change takes pince. A part of the
syrup forms itself into small crystals; t.he part thnt will not
crystn.llize is cl rained off, and is called molass~s. The. c1:ystalli7Cd pn.rt is call<'d raw or moist sugar. I n this state rt ts p_ut
int<; hogsheacls n.ml shippcd. Th<' impurities which cause its
dark color n.n<l rn.nk taste, are removed by a process called
rC'fining.

,,
CAUTIONS.

Describe the process of tapping tlie Maple-tree, gathering the Sap,
and ntakinu Maple S"fla•··
-

Caution 11.-Tense-forms should express time in harmony with that indicated by other parts of the sentence.

Analy:11e tlie followinu scntenemr, and parse the ,.0 . ,. .,,, pron0 ,.,.,.,
a~ectioo•, t1erb11, and participles:

1. The earth rings hollow from below. 2. We soon shall
reach the boundless sea. 3. The night was tempestuous.
4. He should be more industrious. 5. Remember thy Creator.
6. The poor must work in their grief. 7. I could not learn
that lesson. 8. He was beaten with many stripes.
9. Clarence has been chosen captain. 10. They might H'ave
finished their task yesterday. 11. The crops were destroyed
by grasshoppers. 12. The girls were playing croquet. 13. He
did not return my umbrella. 14. Is he writing a letter?
15. Help us to help each other. 16. Shake off the dust that
blinds thy sight.
· 17. No cheating nor bargaining will ever get a. single thing
out of Nature's "establishment" at half price.-Ruskin.
18. T~ink that day lost whose low descending sun
Views from thy hand no noble action done.
19. May is a pious fraud of the almanac
A ghastly parody of real spring,
'
Shaped out of snow and breathed with eastern winds.-

Ex.-1. They have visited us yesterday. 2. You mn.y take
a walk after you finish your task. 3. Ile was tn.rdy every day
this week. 4. I would help you, if you ca.rt 't get some one
else to do so. 5. He was under obligations to have assisted
me.

Caution 111.-General truths should be expressed in
the present .tense.
Ex.-1. I have heard that en.ch star wai; a sun. 2 I always
thought that mctcorR were falling starR. 3. What did you say
was the capital of Indiana? 4. I should think it was time for
school to be dismissed. 5. 1 always thought that dew fell.
I
. I

,.,
,,

I

..

Lowell.
JJl'rite the ftrst two sentences of a composition on Lazy Boys and
parse tlie ~

Finial~

.

'

Caution IV.-Do not use t.hc perfect participle to
express past time, nor t.hc past tense form instead
of the perfect participle.
Ex.-1. He
him. 3. The
squirrel bad
have saw the

come here last week. 2. He done it: I seen
tree had fell, and it was broke in two. 4. The
ran up a tree. 5. Ile set down on a log. 6. I
man.

me composition.
Caution V.-Avoid the inelegant use of participles
in place of other forms.

100. FALSE SYNTAX.

Ex.-1. Going to Congress is no evidence of greatness. 2. I
do not like being punished. 3. Ile neglected the plowing of
his land. 4. Boys, be ashamed of being found in bad company.

Caution 1.-Never use will for shall, uor would for
should.
Ex.-1. I was afraid I would be hurt. 2. If I would try,
I would learn fast. 3. I shall go; no one will prevent me.
4. I would be very careless if I would leave my books at home.
5. Should I be punished if I would play truant?

Caution Vl.-Do not use isn't or aint for is not,
have n't or haint for have not, 'taint for it is not,
might of for might have, et.c.
I•

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t1

123

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

122

I
!
I

'

124

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Ex.-1.
ho.int got
4. Samuel
taken the

125

T HE ADVERB.

'Taint ono RWallow that nmkc11 a summer. 2.•fane
her lesson. 3. Aint you going to tl1e concert?
might of <lone his task long ago. 5. He should of
accommodation train. 6. Isn't it beautiful?

6. Adverbs of Degree answer the questions, How much 1
How little1
Ex.-AlmoRt, c"riough, even, equally, mu.ch, . more; little,
wholly, partly, only, scarcely, nearly, too, chiefly, etc.

Correct all inaccuracies in tlte use of~you tnay obsct't1e in your
own lang1tage 01• in tliat of yo1tr scltool-mates.

7 An Adverbial Phrase is a combination of words used and

par~ed as a single adverb; as, "In general," "hand in hand," "no
nwre. "

Correct tlte foliowtnu 11entenees by t•eferenee to ll1iles JI.III and XIY:

I. Henry an<l Charles was very much disappointed. 2. You
was there, I suppose. 3. The yoke of oxen were sold for a ·
hundred dollars. 4. Ellen are not at school to-day. 5. The
scissors is dull. 6. The fleet were seen off llatteras. 7. Time
and tide waits for no man.

8 Conjunctive Adverbs are those which connect two propo-

siti~ns, one of which is used as n.n adverbial element.

Ex.-" I shn.ll sec you when I return." The conjuneti;~ n.~
erb "when" connects the two clauses, "I shall see yo~ an
~I return." The entire clause modifies :: s~all see" m the
first clu.use, and "when" modifies "return m the second.

101. THE ADVERB.-OLASSES.
109 . COMP A.RISON OF ADVERBS.

1. Adverbs are divided into five classes: Adverbs
of Time, Place, Gause, Manner, and Degree• .

1. Many adverbs admit of comparison.

2. Adverbs of Time answer the questions, Wlien1 How long1
How often1

2 Three adverbs n.rc compared by adding er and est to the

sim~lo form, viz.: fast, faster, fastest; often, oftener, oftenest; soon,

Ex.-After, again, always, early, never, frequently, hereafter,
lately, immediately, now, often, seldom, then, when, etc.

soo11er, soonest.

3. Adverbs ending in ly arc usually compared by .prefixing
more a nd mos t• las and least to the simple form·;
· l as, wisely, more
wisely, . most wisely ; swiftly, less swiftly, least swift Y· ·

3. Adverbs of Place answer the questions, Where 1 Whitl1er 1
Whence1
Ex.-Above, below, hither, here, there, herein, whence, somewhere, far, yonder, forth, aloof, away, backwards, first, etc.

4. Some adve rbs are compared irregularly; as, well, better,
best; little, less, least.

4. Adverbs of Cause answer the questions, Why1 Wherefore,
Ex.-Wherefore, therefore, then, why?
5. Adverbs of Manner answer the question, How1
. Ex.-Amiss, anyhow, well, badly, easily, sweetly, indeed,
nay, no, perhaps, peradventure, perchance, etc.

'

.r

103. ORDER OF PARSING.
1. An adverb, nml why?
modifies. Rule.

2. Compare it•

3. Tell what iii

126

THE PREPOSITION.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
'!

104. MODELS FOR PARSING.
· I. "The soldiers fought bravely."

plant raised? 4. How procured and prepared for food or manufacture? 5. How manufactured: products of manufacture?
6. In what forms ~ml for w hut purposes used?
Hay.
Flour.

Bravely is an adverb ; it is used to modify the meaning of o.
verb: con:pared, po8. br:avely, com. more bravely, sup. most
bravely; 1t modifies "fought." Rule XVII. "Adverbs modify
·
verbs, adjectives, participles, and adverbs."

127

8trnw.
Paper.

Stn.rch.
Vinegar.

A pMch.
An orange.

Cnoutchouc.
A strawberry.

Wrltr. t1w jlf'flt ftoo Rf'11.f.t'n(<eR nf a (<0111posltlon on My Last Yacatlon,
and parsr, tltc ~and ~·

Q,UESTIONS.-Wlmt iR an adverb? How many clnsse.'1 of adverbs?
What are adverbs or time' or place, or cause' or manner 1 or degree,
What is an adverbial phrase? What are oonjunctlve adverbs? Are adverbs ever compared? How are three adverbs compared? How are adverbs ending Inly usually compared? How are other adverbs compared ?
Repeat the order of parsing an adverb. Repeat the cautions.

II. "I will go whenever you wish."
Whenever is a n adverb; conjunctive· it connects two clauses;
it modifies "wish:" Rule XVII.
'
Analyze the following Bf'nfenees, and pa1'B6 the nouns, pf'onouns
adjeeth•l'B, f!ef'bR, and adverbs:
'

106. THE PREPOSITION.

I Rn.w hi~ frequently. 2. You must call oftc>n. 3. Ilow
rapidly the moments fly. 4. Ile ~n.s ' becn reproved again and
again. 5. Pcrhnp!'l he can tell you. 6. Doubtless, he is a wise
man. 7. Peradventure, tho ol<l drngon i11 nRl<>cp. 8. I hnvo
not scon him Rincc I returned from California. 9. The mystery will be explained by and by. 10. He visits us now and
then.
11.
Live and love,
Doing both nobly, because lowlily.
Live and work, strongly, because patiently.Mrs. Browning.

1:

I. The relations between objects of thought are sometimes
so obvious that they need no expression. This occurs when
nouns denoting time, distance, measure, direction, or value follow .
verbs or ndjoctivcs; as, "Ile left yesterday;" "Ile lives 8outh
of this town." Such words are said to be in the objective
case without a governing word.
2. The names of things following the po.ssive forms of the
verbs ask, lend, teach, refuse, provide, and some others are usually
in the objective case without a governing word; as, " I was
asked a quution ; " "I was taught grammar."
3. The words of some phrases need not be separated in
parsing; as, in vain, on high, round and round, in general, etc.
Such combinations may be parsed as single words.
4. Sometimes two prepositions are used together, forming a
c<rm.plu: preposition; as, "He came from over the sea."

105. COMPOSITION.
Wf'ite n deBC1'iption of nn ~ usbig tiie foll0t.t1fng

Plan.-1. Form. 2. Parts-peel, pulp, etc. 3. Color. 4.
Taste. 5. Different kinds. 6. Uses-how eaten, made into
sauce, etc. 7. Process of making cider. 8. Where found.

107. ORDER OF PARSING.
Wf'ite a description tJf some of these pf'oducts, using tlte foll0t.t1ing

Ge~e~al Pl~n.~l . What part of the plant growth is it?
2: Briel description of the plant. 3. Where and how is the

I. A Preposition, and why? 2. What relation does it show ?

3. Rule.

·J

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128

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

THE CONJUNCTION.

108. MODELS FOR PARSING.

109. THE OONJUNOTION.

11

They went aboard the .ship."

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes: Ooordinate and Subordinate.

Aboard is a preposition; it shows the relation between its
object and some other word: it shows the relation between
"ship" and 11 went." Rule XVIII. "A preposition shows the
relation of its object to the word upon which the latter
depends."

1. Coordinate Conjunctions are those which join elements of the. same rank or name.
Ex.-A nd, also, moreover, but, still, or, nor, however, otherwise,
then, therefore, for, because, etc .

.Analyze tlie following sentences, ancl parse the nouns and preposlUons:
-----

"

1. A lark reared her brood amid the corn. 2. They wandered in throngs down the valley. 3. Emma came from the
village, through the woods, to our house. 4. We have seen
the moon rising behind the eastern pines. · 5. I came from
beyond Richmond to-day. (Parse 11 to-day" in the objective
case without a governing word, by Rule VIII.) 6. I went to
·Detroit yesterday. 7. John came home last night. 8. They
allowed themselves no relaxation.

Rem.-Some of these are also used as subordinate conjunctions.

2. Subordinate Conjunctions are those which join
·elements of different rank or name.
Ex.-That, if, unless, as, because, since, though, for, lest, ere, after,
until, when, where, there, how, although, than, etc.

3. Correlative Conjunctions are coordinates or subordinates used in pairs, one referring or anBwering to
the other.

9. To me the meanest flower that blows, can give
Thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.Wordsworth.
10.
The locust by the wall
Stabs the noon-silence with his sharp alarm.
A single hay-cart down the dusty road
Creaks slowly, with its driver fast asleep
On the load's top.- Whittier.
Write the fl,rst two sentences of a clescrfption of Spruce Gum, and.
~ the prepositions.

Ex.-Both - and, as - as, so - as, so - that, either - or,
neither-nor, if-then, though-yet, nevertheless, not only
-but also, whether-or, or-or, nor-nor.

Fln,sh the composition.

f

QUESTIONS -What ts a preposition? Do the relations between objects of thought always need ilxpresslon? When do they not need expression? What words are In the objective ca.~e without a governing
word? What ts a complex preposition? Can the words In all phrases
be toepnrated? How should such combinations be parsed?
Repeat the order of parsing a preposition.

I
~

.

Rem.-Such combinations as as if, as though, as well as, as
.!oon as, f orasmuch as, in so much that, but also, but likewise, not
only, etc., may be parsed as single conjunctions or conjunctive
adverbs.
110. ORDER OF PARSING.

1. A Conjunction, and why? 2. Coordinate or subordinate,
and why? 3. What does it connect? Rule.
El. Or.-9.

I
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129

iI
iI
11

THE INTERJECTION.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

130

131

In the manufacture of iron, the ore is first roasted, usually
in the open air. Many of the substances associated with the
metal aro driven off by this process. It is next subjected to
a very great heat in a blast furnace. This process is called
smelting. The metal is melted by the intense heat, and is
drawn off from the bottom of the furnace into channels made
in sand. It is then called pig iron.
Pig iron is converted into wrought iron by being again
smelted and stirred; after which, while still hot, it is ham.mered and rolled into bars. Wrought iron is the strongest
and the most tenacious ·of all metals, and is therefore used
where great strain has to be resisted. Separate pieces can
also be welded, or beaten into one. mass, better than pieces
.,of any other metal.

111. MODELS FOR PARSING.
I. "Ellen and Mary study algebra."

And is a con.junction; it connects words: coordinate; it connects words of the same rank or name: it connects "Emma"
and ."Mary." Rule XIX. "Conjunctions connect words,
phrases, members, and clauses."

II. "Neither Ellen nor Mary learned the lesson.''
Neither ... nor ... are conjunctions; correlative; one refers or
answers to the other: "neither" introduces the sentence and
"nor" connects "Ellen" and "Mary:" Rule XIX.
'
.Analy21e the following sentences, and parse the co11.junctlonat

Parse all the conj1tnctio11.s in three sentences of yottr reading lesson.

1. Cold and hunger awake not her care. 2. He came and
went like a pleasant thought. 3. Wisdom is the principal
thing; therefore get wisdom. 4. We can not thrive unless we
are industrious. 5. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in
him. 6. lie was not only proud, but vain also.

Q,UESTIONS.-What ls a conjunction? Into how many classes are
conjunctions dlvlded? What are e<>Ordlnate conjunctions? Subordinate conjunctions? Correlative conjunctions? How should as if, not
only, etc., be parsed 'l
Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction.

113. THE INTERJECTION.
112. COMPOSITION.

1. Interjections are expressions ·of emotion only.
They are called interjections because they are thrown
in between connected parts of discourse, though generally found at the commencement of a sentence.

Bead the following description three or four ilmes, then reproduce
it from memory:
IRON.

Iron is a heavy, solid, incombustible metal, of a white color
when pure. Its most useful property is its hardness, which is
greater than that of any other metal. It can be ma.de into
steel, which is next in hardness to the diamond.
Like most other meta.ls, iron is rarely found in a pure
state, being associated with oxygen, sulphur, and other subs~ances. The mixture is called iron ore, and varies much in
quality and value. It is found in all countries, and is very
abundant in the United States, where valuable deposits of it
are found in the neighborhood of coal.

2. Most words when used as exclamations may be
treated as interjections; as, " What I are you mad? "
"Revenge I" cried he.
114. ORDER OF PARSING.
1. An Interjection, and why? 2. Rule.

!j
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132

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

ELLI.PSIS••

115. MODEL FOR PARSING.

117. ELLIPSIS.

"Eh I nre you sure of it?"

1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of
a sentence. The words omitted are said to be understood.

Ehr is an interjection; it denotes some sudden emotion.
Rule XX. "An interjection has no dependence upon other
words."

_,

.l't1rse all flui ·words in fhf! following llM&fencrs:

1. Hah I it is a sight to freeze one I 2. Ah I ha I you
thought me blind, did you? 3. Oh I Oh I 'tis foul! 4. O
excellent young man! 5. Aias, what have I seen or known!
6. Mercy, how it burns! 7. Fie upon thee! 8. Soft.I J did
but dream. 9. Tush I tush I man, I made no reference to you.
IO. Don't you hear? Don't you sec?
Hush! look! Jn my tree
I 'm · as ~appy as happy can be I

I. Nouns may be omitted; as, "Ye are Christ.'11 [disciples]."

2. Pronouns may be omitted; as, "Come [tlcou ]."
3~ Adjectives may be omitted; as, "'fhat. kind of exercisb
may be good for you, but not [good] for me."

.!I

116. COMPOSITION.
Writ<? n de•erlption nf TA'ntl, •t11fng tlu• follnwlng

Phin.-1 . Properties-weight, color, etc. 2. Describe its ore.
1. Where found in our country. 4. How obtained. 5. How
[>repared for use. 6. Uses. 7. Describe the manufacture of
;mall shot.
Df!llerl~e •ome of t1ie11e •ub•tanee•, 11J1lng the followi~au

G~neral Plan.-1. Properties-color, weight, transparency,
>pamty, etc. .2. Where found. 3. With what associated. 4.
[low obtained. 5. How prepared for' use: separation of a
netal from its ore, refining, alloying, etc. 6. Uses.
~lay.

Zinc.
Sand.

'

Glass.
Lime.

Brass.
Silver.

Copper.
Pewter.

Arsenic.
Mercury.

Rem.-If required in analysis or parsing, the words omitted
must .be supplied.

2. All but the most important part of a sentence
may be omitted.

Q.UESTIONS.-What Is an Interjection? Why Is It called an tnterJectlon? Repeat the order or parsing an !nter,Jectlon.

rin.

133

4. Articles may be omitted; as, " Henry has a slate and
[a] pencil."
5. Participles may be omitted; as, "This [being] done,
resumed our journey."

Wb

6. Verbs may be omitted; as, "I'll [go] hence to London;"
"[To be] England's friend [is to be] Ireland's foe."
·

7. Adverbs may be omitted; as, "Ile acted honorably, but
you did not [act honorably]."
8. Prepositions may be omitted; as, "He gave [to] me aIJ
orange."

9. Conjunctions may be omitted; as, "A good, [and] wise,
and truthful friend."
10. Entire Phrases and Clauses may be omitted ; as, "You
have more t-0 <lo than you can accomplish; l, less [to do than I
can accomplish]."

134

ELEMF~'l'ARY

GRAMMAR.

ABRIDGMEN'f.

MOD.EL FOR ANALYSIS.

"Forward I"

.

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.

.

\

This is a sentence; exclamatory. Its sn.bject and predicate a,_r;t'
omitted by ellipsis. It is equivalent to "March
forward.;, Ye is the subject; march, the predicate, which is ~odified by
.
forward, an adverbial element.

yt

AS·
'¥".

Q,UESTIONS.-Wbat is ellipsis? When are words said to be understood? What parts of a sentence may be omitted?

~This

~.sr.v

I. "I knew it to be him."

. .

·

•

it

I

1. Complex Sentences arc often changed into simple
ones by abridging their subordinate clauses.
Rem.-This is done by droppieg the subject or changing its
case, and by changing the copula or verbal predicate to an
infinitive, a participial noun, or a participle.

• !

\.\•i

.,~
~.

Rem.-When the copula or principal vfrb is ce-hge~
the
infinitive mode, a noun or pronoun~ used as subject or predicate is changed to the objective ~8.se. ;

fo

k~

it to be liim."

3. When the copula or principal verb is changed·•to a participial noun, the subject is changed to the possessive case, bi.I~ .
a noun or pronoun used as the predicate, remains unchangtll ·
in the nominative.
.'
+.
Ex.-" I was not aware that it was he"=" I was not aware 11
~-. •.
of its being he."

4. When the copula or principal verb is changed to a participle, the subject is put in the nominative case absolute with it.
Ex.-" The fair was not held, because the weath~r· was unfavorable" = " The weather being unfavorable, the fair was not
held."

I

knew

..
to be-him•

IT

This is a sentence; declarative; simple.
1 is the subject; aware, the predicate; ~~s, the copula.
"A ware" is modified by the abridged propos1t1on of its being
he, equivalent to that it was he, ~n adverbial element. "Being"
is modified by "its," an adjective element.
i1•,

,.

l

II. " I was aware of its being he."

- ~~

2. A subordinate clause illms chaaged is called an Abridged
... .
Proposition.
.

'

·

is a sentence; declarative; simp e.
1 is the subject; knew, the predicate, whi~h is modified b!
th
bridged . proposition it to be him, eqmvalent to that it
wa~ ~e, an objective element. "It" is modified by "to be
him," an adjective element.

118. ABRIDGMENT.

Ex.-" I knew that it was he" = " I

135

I r.-l'Was : a.ware
I
I of being he.

~
......
\
.." .
d"
III. "The snow being deep, we could not procee .
l'J

·

$·

·~ ·

. ·~

This is 'a sentence; declarative; simple.
•
.
.
' We is 'the subject; could proceed, the predicate, wh1~h 1s
d by not • an adverbial element, and byb the abndged
_' . mo d'fi
1 e
h
.tr,·•:
·r
n th~ snow being deep equivalent to ecause t e snow
, propos1 10
'
,, .
d'fi d b .. th "
. was deep, an adverbial element. "Snow ts mo 1 e
Y
e
and "being deep," both adjective elements.
we

could

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

136

COMPOSITION.

Analyze the following •entence•:

1. Attention I 2. On, Stanley, on! 3. Magnificent! 4. A
rope to the side I 5. How now, my old friend? ~. Arey~
cold ?-Somewhat. 7. Honest, my ford? 8. Better late than
never.
. 9. I ~ished him to be a farmer. 10. His being a foreigner
is no d1sgraca. 11. No rain having fallen, the crops were de11tro~ed.. 12. There is no danger· of his falling. 13. The storm
contmumg, we dropped anchor. 14. Having led an active life,
he could not endure confinement. 15. Being human, he is
not perfect. 16. Honor being lost, all is lost.

119. MODIFIED SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

Ex.-" The storm rages furiously." "Rages furiously" is the
logical predicate. "The wind blows with great violence."" Blows with great violence" is the logical predicate; "blows"
is the grammatical predicate.

''°'•

Rem.-All the parts of a sentence may be simple or complex; but' it is not necessary, in analysis, to distinguish them
as such. The distinction, however, may be observed with the
subject and the predicate.
Point oiit the urntnmnticnl nnd loylcnl lf1'l~/rct• nnd predicates ln

any of the pre<'eilinu exercises r;;;;;;;;lysis.

I

•l

Q.tTF.STIONS.-Wlmt ls the grammatlcnl subject of n proposition? The
complex or loglcnl subject? The grammatical predicate? The complex
or loglcnl prctltcate?

120. COMPOSITION.

t

1. The Grammatical Subject of a proposition is the

unmodified subject.
Ex.-" A great storm is raging."
ical subject.

,

'

"Storm" is the grammat-

..,

3. The Grammatical Predicate of a proposition is
the unmodified predicate.
Ex.-"The storm rages furiously."
matical predicate.

"Rages" is the gram-

4. The Complex or Logical Predicate is the grammatical predicate taken with all its modifiers.

'

.llcnil Uui fnllowh•fl -dllserlptio1• a number of time•, then reprodu<'e
it

/f'OH& tl&tJllWt'Y:

A HURRICANE IN THE WEST INDIES.

2.. The ~omplex or Logical Subject is . the . ~!
mat1cal subject taken with all its modifiers.""
Ex.-"A great storm is raging." "A great storm" is the
logical subject. "He who runs may read." "He who runs"
is the logical subject.

137

A huhicane in the West Indies is generally preceded by an
The air becomes
close and heavy. The sun is red, and at night the stars seem
unusually large. The mercury in the barometer falls rapidly,
and the thermometer usually indicates a rise in the temperature. Darkness extends over the earth, but the upper atmosphere is lighted up by flashes of lightning.
The coming storm is first observed on the sea. Huge waves
rise sud<lcnly from its clear and motionless surface. The wind
blows with unrc.'itrn.ined fury, and its noise may be compared
to distant thunder. The rain descends in torrents; shrubs
and lofty trees are borne down by the mountain streams; the
rivers overflow their banks, and submerge the plains.
Terror and consternation seem to reign supreme. Landbirds are driven by the wind for out to sea; sea-birds seek
refuge from the fury of the storm in the forests. The beasts
of tho field roam wildly a.bout, or herd together trembling
a~e-inspiring stillness in the atmosphere.

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139

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

RULES OF SYNTAX.

with fear. The elements seem to be thrown into confusion,
~nd the stability of nature to be destroyed.
The next morning's sun shines upon a scene o~tter deso.ation. Fertile valleys have been changed to d reary wastes.
Uprooted trees, branches torn from their trunks, dead aninals, and the ruins of houses have been strewed over the
and. In some instances, the destruction is so complete that
>hmters are unable to distinguish the boundaries of their

Rule 11.-A noun or pronoun used as the predicate
of a proposition, is in the nominative case.
Rule 111.-A noun or pronoun used to limit 'the
meaning of a noun denoting a different person or
thing, is in the possessive case.

138

Rem. t.-The limited noun is sometimes ·omitted; as, "We
visited St. Paul's [church]."
Rem. 2.-The limited noun need not be plural because the
possessive is plural; as, "Their intention was good."

~t.a.tes.

rn•Uc a detl(J1'lption of an Eartltquake, usino tlte followlno

Plan.-1. Definition. 2. Cause. 3. Movements-horizontal,
•ertical, etc. 4. Duration of shocks. 5. Effects. 6. Where
nost frequent. 7. Connection with volcanic eruptions.

Rule IV.-A noun or pronoun m;cd to limit the
·
meanmg
o f a nonn or p ro11011n denoting the same
person, place, or thing, is in the Ranrn case.

'JcscrUm Rmnc of t11tlRC p1umomen.n, 1ulno "'" followln.o

General Plan.-1. Indications of occurrence. 2. Cause. 3.
from beginning to end. 4. Consequences or effects,
whatever character.

~rogress

,f

firage.
•sunset.
• snow-storm.

A hail-storm.
An avalanche.
A thunder-storm.

Formation of dew.
A volcanic eruption.
An eclipse of the sun.

''

Rem. t.-A noun may be in apposition with a sentence, and
a sentence with a noun; ns, "/le is dangero11sly ill-a f act that
can not be denied;" "Remember Franklin's maxim, 'God helps
them that help themselves.' "
•
Rem. 2.-A word in apposition with another, IS frequently
introduced by as or or ; as, "As mayor of the city, I feel ag·
· ·
•r ·
or
grieved;" "mayor" being in npposit1on
w1'th " I : " ." ,:r1aize,
Indian corn, is extensively cultivated."

121. RULES OF SYNTAX.

1. Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of
~e

construction of sentences.

Rem.-All the exercises in the formation of sentences, in
iis work, are exercises in syntax.

l

2. A Rule of Syntax is a statement of the manner
which words should be used in sentences.

Rule 1.-A noun or pronoun m~ed as the subject of a
roposition, is in the nomiuati vc case.

'

Rule V.-A noun or pronoun used independently is
in the nominative absolute case.
Rule Vl.-Thc object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of its participles, is in the objective case.
Rem. 1.-Some verbs have two objects, one representiug n
person, the other a thing; as, "He ask~d m.e a questi~n.". When
such verbs are used in the passive vowe, 1f the thing IS made
nominative, the p erson is governed by a prepo~ition, exp~esse?
or und erstood: if the person is mnde nomino.t1ve, the thmg IS
in the ohjcctive case without a governing wonl;
. .
.
Rem. 2.-A noun or pronoun following tho mfimtivc to be, u1
in the same case as a word which precedes it; as, "I did not

141

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

RULES OF SYNTAX.

think it to be him;" "him" is in the same case· e.s ·11 it:"
"lflhom do you take me to be?" "w horn" is in the same case
as "me." See section ll8.

· Rule Xl.-A pronoun with two or more antecedents
in the singular, connected by or or nor, must be
singular.

Rule Vll.-The object of a preposition is in the ·
objective case.

Rem.-When one of the antecedents is plural, it should be
placed last, and the pronoun should be plural; as, "Neither
the farmer nor his. sons were aware of their danger."

140

Rule Vlll.-Nouns denoting time, distance, measure,
or value, after verbs and adjectiveR, are in the objective case without a governing word.

Rule Xll.-An adjective or participle belongs to
some noun or pronoun.

Ex.-" He came home yesterday." Both "home" and "yesterday" are in the objective case without a governing word.

Rem.-An adjective used as a predicate, belongs to the
subject.

Rem.-Nouns and pronouns following the pa..ssive forms of
certain verbs, may be said to be in the objective case without
a governing word; as, "I was taught grammar;" "He was
offered a situation."

Rule · Xlll.-A verb must agree with its subject in
person and number.
Rule XIV.-A verb, with two or more subjects in
the singular connected by and, must be plural.

Rule IX.-Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in gender, person, and number.
Rem.-A pronoun used instead of a collective noun, denoting unity, should be in the neuter singular: one used instead
of a collective noun, denoting plurality, should be plural, taking the gender of the individuals composing the collection.

Rem.-When two or more sulrlects in the singular are liut
different names for the same thing, the verb should be singular; as, "Descent and fall to us is adverse." When two or
more singular su~jects are · emphatically distinguished, the
verb should be singular; as, "Every bird and beast cowers
before the wild blast."

Rule X.-A pronoun with two or more antecedents
in the singular connected by and, must be plural.

Rule XV .-A verb, with two or more subjects in the
singular connected by or or nor, must be singular.

Rem.-When the antecedents are the names of the same
person or thing, the pronoun must be singular: when they are
limited by each, every, or no, the pronoun must be singular:
when the antecedents, taken together, are regarded as a single
thing, the pronoun must be singular.

Rule XVl.-An infinitive not used as a noun, depends upon the word it limits.

Ex.-" The patriot and statesman receives his reward; " "Each
officer, each private, did his duty; " " Bread and milk was brought
us, and we ate it."

Rem.-Adverbs also modify phrases and entire propositions;
as, "He lives just around the corner;" "Verily, ye are the
people."

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.l.

Rule XVll.-Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, participles, and adverbs.

142

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

LETTER-WRITING.

Rule XVlll.-A preposition shows the relation of its
object to the word upon which the latter depends.

a little below the middle of the envelope. Below this, and a
little to tho right of the first letters of the name, write the
nn.me of tho post-office. This is usually the name of some
township, village, or city. The no.me of the county should be
written below and a little to the right of the name of the
post-office, and the name of the state in the lower right-hand
corner of the envelope. The name of the county is sometimes
written in the lower left-hand corner. If the letter is to be
sent to a foreign country, the name of that country forms· the
last line of the superscription. A stamp should be placed on
the envelope, in the upper right-hand corner, before a letter
is sent to the post-office to be mailed .
I will now open my letter. You see that the name of the
city in which the writer lives, and the do.y of the month on
which tho lnttor wns written, are placed ncnr the top of the
page. Thi11 part of n. letter is called tho date. (See page 144.)
After writing the date, my friend wrote my name on the
next line beneath, beginning about half an inch from the left
side of the page, and the name of my post-office on the line
, below that, and about half an inch to the right. The words
"Dear Sir" were written next, beginning about an inch and
a half from the left side of the page. This part of a letter is
called the address. Some call "Dear Sir," etc., when written
in this way, the introduction or the complimentary address. These
words are, however, only a part of the address.
The body of the letter, which contains who.t the writer wished
me to know, wns then written; after that, the signature. The
first word of the body of the letter was written under the last
word of the address. Some begin this part of a letter f4rther
to the right. The words " Yours truly" should begin a little
to the right of the center of the line. Instead of these words,
some prefer "Yours faithfully," "Very respectfully," etc. The
signature, and, in fact, every part of a letter, should be written as legibly as possible. Avoid all attempts at "flourishes."
A letter introducing a friend or an acquaintance should
not be sealed; and it is customary to write "Introducing
A. n., E!UJ.," or 8ome similar expression, in the lower lefthnnd corner of the envelope.
· ·' · ' ·

Rule XIX.-Conjunctions connect · words, phrases,
clauses, and members.
Rule XX.-Interjections have no dependence upon
other words.

.

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122. LETTER-WRITING.
~RAL ~EssoN.-1 have o. letter in my hand. You may look
at . 1t. First, however, look at the superscription, or what is
written on the envelope. You seo tlrnt it looks like this:

T::J

\

,..

I·

~·~- ~~,

j

@16~,

.'

~~~~.,

~~This is a good form for the superscription of a letter; but
other forms are allowable and in common use, Write the
name and title of the person to whom the letter is to be sent,

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143

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144

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES.

145

123. MISOELLANEOUS EXEROISES.
(DATE.)

<tif67 -/,

<$odo.n, @//6-rukl.,

1. She saw a glory in each cloud. 2. Still waters are commonly deepest. 3. To-morrow may be brighter than to-day.
4. Few days pass without some clouds. 5. She made acquaintance with the birds · that fluttered by. 6. It was a harper,
wandering with ·his harp.

,/<f'fo.

(ADDRESS.)

©16.cJ44. p~,

7. Ho~ long didst thou think that his silence was slumber?
8. At iength the sun departed, setting in a sea of gold. 9. The
smooth sea, the serene atmosphere, the mild zephyr, are the
proper emblems of a gentle temper and a peaceful life.

@//6a~, (J.

(pf/at~£.·
(BODY OF LETTER.)

10. 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past lives,
And ask them what report they bore to heaven.

@) ~/ ~/ ~tV /~~i~

/°'"" dat:J ~-P ~ n-z,7' m,teni'wn/ w /1,ave/'
7 ,, Lad-k -t/u,, ~~ aurnni.~t, -andr~~ @) aLa.#/u~ au/ ru/ 4~ ~;v

ri/

ruv ~Cetn" ~

1?~/~,
(SIGNATURE.)

&nty/~p

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if

.I have told . yo~ how to write a letter. When you have
written one, brmg 1t to me, and I will show you how to fold
it and put it into an envelope. You may now write me a
letter in which you shall tell me what you intend to do next
Saturday afternoon.

1
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11. The night, mt!thinks, is but the daylight sick. 12. Evils
have been more painful to us in the prospect than in the
actual pressure. 13. A written or printed paper, posted in
a public place, is called a placard. 14. Few are qualified
to shine in company; but it is in most men's power to be
agreeable.
15. How often have I blessed the coming day,
When toil remitting lent its turn to play,
And all the village train, from labor free,
Led up their sports beneath the spreading tree.Goldsmith.
16. Alas, we think not that we daily see
About our hearths, angels that are to be,
Or may be if they will.-Leigh Hunt.

17. The insect tribe are here: the ant toils on
With its white burden; in its netted web
Gray glistening o'er the bush, the spider lurks,
A close-crouched ball, out-darting as a hum
Tells its trapped prey, and looping quick its threads,
Chains into helplessness the buzzing wings.-Street.
El. Gr.-JO.

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146

QUOTATIONS.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

25. The timid it concerns to ask their way,
And fear what foe in caves and swamps may stay;
To make no step · unt~l the event is known,
And ills to come, as evils past, bemoan. ·
Not so the wise; no coward watch he keeps,
To spy what danger on his pathway creeps.
Go where he will, the wise man is at homeUis hearth the earth, his hall the azure dome.-Emerson.

18. Princes have but their titles for their glories;
An outward honor for an inward toil.-Shakespeare.
19.

My soul is an enchanted boat,.
Which, like a. sleeping 1:1wan, doth float
Upon the silver waves of thy sweet singi~g;
And thine doth like an angel sit
Beside the helm conducting it,
While all the winds with melody are ringing.-Shelley.

20. The year leads 'round the seasons in a choir
Forever charming and forever new,
Blending the grand, the beautiful, the gay,
The mournful and the tender in one strain.-Percival.
21. King David's limbs were weary.

He ha.d fled
From far .Jerusalem; and now he stood,
With his faint people, for a little rest
Upon the shores of Jordan. The light wind
Of morn was stirring, and he bared his brow
'fo its refreshing breath; for he had worn
The mourner's covering, and he had not felt
That he could see his people until now.- Willis.

147

23.

Who e'er, amidst the sons
Of reason, valor, liberty, and virtue,
Displays distinguished merit, is a noble
Of Nature's own crea~ing.-Thomson.

24. He that attends to his interior self,
That has a heart, and keeps it; has a mind
That hungers, and supplies it; and who seeks
A social, not a dissipated life,
Has business.-aiwper.

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26. Every worm beneath the moon
Draws different threads, and late or soon
Spins toiling out his own cocoon.-Tennyson.

27. Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet,
With 'charm of earliest birds; pleasant the sun,
When first on this delightful land he spreads
His orient bea~s, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower,
Glistening with dew.-Milton.
28. The day hath gone to God,Straight--like an infant's spirit, or a mocked
And mourning messenger of grace to man.-Bailey.
29. It is a little thing to speak a phrase

22. One hour beheld him since the tide he stemmed,
Disguised, discovered, conquering, ta.'en, condemned;
A chief on land, an outlaw on the deep,
Destroying, saving, prisoned, and s.sleep.-Byron.

.· •

...

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Of common comfort, which, by d aily use,
Has almost lost its sense; yet on the ear
Of him who thought to die unmourned, 'twill full
Like choicest music.-Talfourd.
30. A song to the oak, the brave old oak,

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Who hath ruled in the greenwood long;
Here's health and renown to his broad green crown,
And his fifty arms so strong.-Chorley.
31. J,11.bor is life! 'Tis the still water faileth;
Idleness ever despaireth, bewaileth;
Keep the watch wound, for the dark rust assaileth;
Flowers droop a.nd die in the sti.l lness of noon.Jtrances S. Osgood.

PUNUI'UATION.

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PART III.

124. DEFINITION.

1. Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse into sentences and parts of sentences, by me~ns
of points and marks.

Rule IV.-Each couplet of words arranged in pairs should
be set off by commas.
Ex.-Sink or swim, live or die, I give my hand and my
heart to this vote.

2. The principal marks used in punctuation are the
following:

.

Rule V.-Words placed in opposition to each other should
be separated by commas.
Ex.-Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull.

Exclamation Point,
Dash,
Curves, .
()
Brackets,
(]
. . . c .,. .

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125. THE COMMA.

The Comma denotes the slightest degree of separation between the parts of a sentence.
Rule 1.:-Two or more nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, or
adverbs, m the same construction, should be separated by
commas.
Ex.-1. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter are called the
seasons. 2. You, he, and I were boys together. 3. David was
a brave, wise, and pious man. 4. In a letter, we may advise,
exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. 5. Success depends upon
our acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously.
(148)

'

Rule 11.-The members of a compound sentence, when
short, and connected by conjunctions, should be separated
by commas.
Ex.-He was not fond of the technical language of metaphysics, but he had grappled, like the giant he was, with its
most formidable problems.-Everett.
Rule 111.-Two correlative clauses should . be separated· by
commas.
Ex.-As in Adam all die, so in Christ shall all be made
alive.

PUNCTUATION.

Comma,.
'
Semicolon, .
Colon,
Period, . .
Interrogation Point, ?

149

Rem.-This rule applies, also, to phrases and clauses placed
in opposition or antithesis to each other.
Rule Vl.-When a verb is omitted, its place is usually supplied by a comma.
Ex.-W ar is the law of violence; peace, the law of love.
Rule VII.-'Transposed words, phrases, and clauses are usually set off by commas. ··
Ex.~l. Integrity is, no doubt, the first requisite. 2. Whom
ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you.
·
Rule .V lll.-Adverbs used independently, or modifying an
entire proposition, should be set off by commas.
Ex.-Indeed, you must wait a while.

,.
150

. PUNCTUATION.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

. Rule IX.-Nouris and pronouns in the nominative absolute
case by pleonasm or direct address, should be separated from
the rest of the sen~ence. by commas.
·
. Ex.~l. Our souls, how heavily they go, to reach immortal
Joys. 2. Take, 0 boatman, thrice thy feel
Rule X.-Nouns in apposition, modified by other
'.he, should be set off by commas.

w~rds

;.I
·.\
I

than

Ex.-The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun.
Rem.-Nouns in apposition, introduced by or or as should
1e set of by commas.
·
·'
Rule Xl.-A direct quotation should be set off by commas.

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127. THE OOLON.

l>

'fhe Coton denotes a degree of separation greater
than that indicated by the semicolon. "'
Rule 1.-The colon should precede an example or a lengthy
quotation, and follow the introduction to a speech.

Rule Xll.-Words repeated for emphasis should be set ~ff
y commas.
·

Ex.-The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of
· the Deity in these words: ' "God is love."

Ex.-Verily, verily, I say unto you.

Rule 11.-The members of a compound 'sentence, whose parts
are set off by semicolons, should be separated by colons.

126. THE SEMIOOLON.

Ex.-W e do not say that his error lies in being a good
member of ,society; this, though only a circumstance at present is a very fortunate one: the error lies in his having dis·
carded the authority of God as his legislator; or, rather, in
his not having admitted the infiuence of that authority over
his mind, heart, or practice.

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation greater
ian that denoted by the comma.
,
Rule 1.-Th~ semicolon should be used before as, namely,
.c., introducing an example or an illustration.
namely, spring, summer,

Rule 11.-Clauses having a oommon dependence should be
parated by semicolons.
Ex.-Exp~rie.nce teaches us, that an entire retreat from
'.rl~ly affairs is not what religion requires; nor does it even
JOin

a long retreat from them.

'

Rule 111.-Semicolons should separate the members of compound sentences, if the connective is omitted, or if their parts
are separated by commas.
Ex.-1. Straws swim upon the surface; pearls lie at the
bottom. 2. Philosophers assert that nature is unlimited in
her operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve;
that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future
generations will · continue to make discoveries, of which we
have not the least idea.

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Ex.-Quoth the raven, "N everm~re."

Ex.-There are four seasons;
1tumn, and winter.

151

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128. THE PERIOD.

The Period denotes the greatest degree of separation.
Rule 1.-The period should be placed at the end of a de·
clarative or an imperative sentence.

•
152

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

Ex.-1. Evil communications corrupt good manners.
Walk quietly.

PUNCTUATION..

153

2.

Rule 11.-The dash is frequently used before and after a
parenthesis-the curves being omitted.

Ru~e 11.-The period should be used after every abbreviated

Ex.-They see three of the cardinal virtues of dog or mancou_rage, ·endurance, and skill-in intense action.

word.
Ex.-H. G. Lloyd, Esq.; Mich., Ind., Ill.; Ps.lxxv,6,7;
Chap. XIV.

Rem.-The dash is frequently used where. there is an omission of letters or figures; as, L-d N-h; i. e., Lord North :
Ps. xxxv, 6-10; i.e., Ps. xxxv, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.

129. INTERROGATION POINT.
132. THE OURVES.

The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is
asked.
Ex.-1. Where is Singapore? 2. Do you own this farm?

The Curves inc1ude an expression which has no
necessary connection, in sense or construction, with
the sentence in which it is inserted.
Rem.-Such an expression is called a parenthesis.

130. EXOLAMATION POINT.

The Exclamation Point denotes passion or emotion.
Rule 1.-The exclamation point should be placed after expressions denoting strong emotion.
Ex.-1. Alas, poor Yorick!

2. Fie on youl

131. THE DASH.

The Dash is a straight, horizontal line, placed be··
tween the part.-; of a sentence.
Rule 1.-'l'he dash should be used where a sentence breaks
off abruptly, or where there is a ch~nge in its meaning or
construction.
Ex.-1. Dim-dim-I faint-darkness comes over me. 2. If
thou art he, so much respected· once-but oh I how fallen f
how degraded I

'

Rule 1.-The curves should include those words which may
be omitted without injury to the sense.
Ex.-1. My gun was on my arm (as it always is in that
district), but I let the stoat kill the. rabbit.
2. Know, then, this truth (enough for man to know),
Virtue alone is happiness below.-Pope.
Rem.-The curves sometimes include letters or figures used
to enumerate subjects or divisions of a subject; as, "(a) What
it does; (b) What it is."

133. THE BRAOKETS.

Brackets are used to include words, phrases, or
clauses explaining what precedes them, or correcting
an error.
Ex.-1. They [the Indians] are fast disappearing.
fer with [from] you in opinion.

2. I dif·

154

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

PUNUfUATION.

134. OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING.

.'

I. The Apostrophe ['] is used to denote the omission of one
or more letters, or to mark the possessive case; as, "You 're
mifltaken;" "The Queen's English."
I I. The Hyphen [ - ] is used (I) to join the parts of compound words and expressions; as, "Nut-brown maid;" (2) to
divide words into syllables; as, "eon-fu-sion; " (3) after a syllable ~t the end of a line, when the rest of the word is carried ·
to the next line.

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III. Quotation Marks [" "] are used to sl1ow that a passage
is taken verbatim from some author; as, "Shakespeare says,
'All the world 's a stage.'"

*],

VI. The Brace. [ ,_.....___] connects a number of words with a
common term.
VII. The Paragraph [if] denotes the
subject.
VIII. The Section

rnJ

beginnin~

of a new

denotes the division of a treatise.

IX. The Caret [ A J i& used in writing to show that something has been omitte.d.
a
not
countries
Ex.-The scsons are alike in all of the same region.
/\

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X. The Tiide [ fl ] annexes to n the sound of y ; as, canon,
pronounced canyon : the Cedilla [ <;] gives to c the sound of s;
as, fa9ade: the Macron [ - ] marks a long sound, as i'n tone:
the Breve.[v], a short sound, as in ton: the Dieresis[··] separates two vowels into two syllables; as, aeriform.
XI. The Acute Accent['] commonly denotes a sharp sound;
the Grave Accent ['] a depressed sound ; the. Circumflex Accent [ \ or -, ], a broad sound.
Rem.-In most reading books, the acute accent denotes .the
rising inflection; the grave accent, the falling inflection; the
circumflex, a union of the acute and the grave.
·
Suggestion to Teachers.-Rcquire pupils to give rules for
the use of all the points found in their reading lesson. Select pam'l ag<~s from good authot·R, and prononnco tho words in
consecutive order, ns in a spelling lesson, without indicating
the grammatical construction by tone of voice or 'inflections.
Let the pupils write these as pronounced, and separate them
into sentences and parts of sentences by the proper points.

IV. The Index [.u@"'] and Asterism [***] point out a passage to which special attention is called; as, "Jltir Be punctual
in your attendance at school."
V. The Asterisk [*],the Obelisk, or Dagger [tJ, the Deuble
the Parallels [II], and the ParaDagger [ t ], the Section [
graph [if], refer to notes in the margin, or at the bottom of
the page.

155

Punet~ate properly the following ea:ample, an_d observe the rules
for the use of capitals:
·j

his personal appearance contributed to the attraction of his
social intercourse his countenn.nce frame expression and presence arrested and fixed attention you could not pass him unnoticed in a crowd nor fail to observe in him a man of high
mark and character no one could see him and not wish to
see more of him and this alike in public and private.
edward everett,
Q,UESTIONS.-What is punctuation 1 Define the principal marks used
in punctuation. ·Repell.t the rules for their use.
\Vhat docs the.apostrophe denote? For wha t purposes Is the hyphen
used? The quotation marks? The Index and asterlsm? The asterisk,
etc.? What does the brace connect'! What does the paragrapll denote?
The section?
For what purpose ls the caret used? What cfoes the tilde denote'!
Tho ccdllln? Tho mncron? Tho brovo? The dl crcRIR? Whnt dom1 f.110
acute accent denote? The grave nccent? 'l'ho clrcurnilox accent? What
do these denote ln most reading books?

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APPENDIX.

"Ij

Abide,
Am,
Arise,

PAST.

abode,
was,
arose,

Pl<RFECT
PARTICIPLF..

abode.
been.
arisen.
{a
waked,
k
Awake,
awo e,R.
awoke.
· Bear,
{bore,
born.
(bnngforth)
bare,
Bear,<carry), bore,
borne.
{beaten,
Beat,
beat,
beat.
Beoome, became, become.
Befall,
befell,
befallen.
{
begat,
begotten,
Beget,
begot,
begot.
Begin,
began,
begun.
Behold,
beheld,
beheld.
Belay,
belaid, R. belaid, R.
Bend,
bent, R.
bent, R.
Bereave, bereft, R. bereft, R.
Beseech, besought, beflought.
Bet,
bet, R.
bet, R.
betided,
Betide, { bet~ded,
betid,
betid.
(156)

PRESENT.

Bid,
Bind,
Bite,

PAST.

{ bid,
bade,
bound,
bit,

"

PERFKC'T
PARTICIPLl!l.

bid,
bidden.
bound.
{bitten,

ait.

Bleed,

bled,
bled.
blessed,
{blessed,
BleRs,
bleat,
blest.
broken,
{broke,
Break,
brake,
broke.
Breed,
bred,
bred.
Bring,
brought; brought.
Build,
built, R. built, R.
Burn,
burnt, R. burnt, R.
Burst,
burst,
burst.
Buy,
bought,
bought.
Cast,
cast,
cast.
Catch,
caught, R. caught, R.
{chidden,
Chide,
chid,
chid.
Choose,
chose,
chosen.
Cleave, {cleaved,
cleaved.
~adMr•), clave,

'

PAST,

J'F.RFF.CT
PARTICIPLE.

cleft,
cloven,
clove,
(•plit,) clave,
cleaved.
clung.
clung,
Cling,
{clothed, clothed,
Clothe,
clad.
clad,
come.
came,
Come,
cost.
cost,
Cost,
crept.
crept,
Creep,
crew, n. crowed.
Crow,
cut.
cut,
Cut,
dared.
R.
durst,
Dare,
dealt.
dealt,
Deal,
dug, R.
dug, R.
Dig,
done.
did,
Do,
drawn.
drew,
Draw,
dreamt, R. dreamt, R.
Dream,
drcst, It. drcst, It,
Dre!lR,
{drunk,
drank,
Drink,
drunken.
driven.
cl rove,
Drive,
eaten.
ate,
Eat,
fallen.
fell,
Fall,
fed.
fed,
Feed,
felt.
felt,
Feel,
fought.
fought,
Fight,
found.
found,
Find,
fled.
fled,
Flee,
flung.
flung,
Fling,
flown.
flew,
Fly,
forbore
.
forbore,
.Forbear,
{ forgotten,
forgot,
Forget,
forgot.
Forsake, forsook, forsaken.
Cleave,

.i

The following list contains the Principal Parts of most of
the irregular verbs. Those marked R have also the regular
forms.
PRESENT.

PRE!IENT.

·f'

ffiREGULAR VERBS.

157

IRREGULAR VERflS.

r·'~

PRESENT.

Freeze,
Freight,
Get,
Gild,
Gird,
Give,
Go,
Grave,
Grind,
Grow,
Hang,
Have,
Hear,
Heave,
Hew,
Hide,
Hit,
Hold,
Hurt,
Keep,
Kneel,
Knit,
Know,
Lay,
Lead,
Lean,
Leap,
Learn,
Leave,
Lend,
Let,

PAST.

J'ERP'lr.CT
PARTICIPLE.

frozen.
froze,
freighted, fraught,

R,

{got,
got,
gotten.
gilt, R.
gilt, R.
girt, R.
girt, R,
given.
gave,
gone.
went,
graven, R.
graved,
ground, ground.
grown.
grew,
hung, R. hung, R,
had,'
had,
· heard.
heard,
hove, R. hoven, R.
hewn, R.
hewed,
{hidden,
hid,
hid.
liit.
hit,
{held,
held,
holden.
hurt.
hurt,
kept,
kept.
knelt, R. knelt.
knit, R.
knit, R.
known.
knew,
laid,
laid.
led.
led,
leant, R. leant, R.
leapt, R. leapt, R.
learnt, R. learnt, R.
left.
left,
lent.
Jent,
let.
let,

,~· '
4

·:·;
...

.

"

..

...~

,•.

i."

i'~.

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

.58
PRESENT.

~ie,

(reohne),

1ight,
.oad,
IOSe,

lake,
lean,
[eet,
[ow,
ass,
ay,
en,

(inclose),

lead,

ut,
nit,
ap,
ead,
eave,
end,
id,
ide,
ing,
ise,
ive,
11n,
~w,
~y,

e,
ek,
t,

PAST.

{1ay

lain. ·

'

Jit, R.
loaded.
lost,
made,
meant,
met,
mowed,
past, R."
paid,
{pent,

PERFECT
PABTIC'IPLE.

R.

lit, R.
laden, Ii.
lost.
made.
meant.
met.
mown, R.
past.
paid.
pent,

R.

plead, R. plead, R.
{ pied,
pled.
put,
put.
quit, n.
quit, n.
rapt, n.
rapt, R.
read.
read,
reft.
reft,
rent.
rent,
rid.
rid,
ridden,
rode,
{ rode.
rang,
rung.
{ rung,
risen.
rose,,
rived,
riven, R.
ran,
run.
sawn, R.
sawed,
said,
said.
saw,
seen.
sought,
sought.
set,
set.

PRESENT.

PAST.

Seethe,
Shake,
Shape,

sod, n.
shook,
shaped,
shaved,
Shav~,
shore, n.
Shear,
Shed,
shed,
Shine,
shone, R.
Shoe,
shod,
Shoot,
shot,
Show,
showed,
Shred,
shred,
Shut,
shut,
sang,
Sing,
{ sung,
sank,
Sink,
{ sunk,
sat,
Sit,
slew,
Slay,
slept,
Sleep,
Sling,
E"lung,
Slink,
slunk,
Slit,
slit, R • .
smelt, R.
Smell,
Smite,
Sow,
(aoatter),

Speak,
Speed,
Spell,
Spend,
Spill,
Spin,

IRREGULAR

'j

smote,
{sowed
'

spoke,
sped, n.
spelt, R.
spent,
spilt, R.
spun,
{ span,

PERFEC"l'.
PARTll'IPLE.

sodden, n.
shaken.
shapen, R.
shaven, R.
shorn, R.
shed.
i;hone, n.
shod.
shot.
.shown.
shred.
shut.
sung.
sunk.
snt.
slain.
slept.
slung.
slunk.
slit, R.
smelt, n.
sm~tten,

{ sm1t.

sown, n.
spoken.
i;ped, R.
spelt, n.
spent.
spilt, R.
spun.

t

PRESENT.

8pit,

PERFECT

PAST.

PARTICIPLE.

s~it,

{ spat,

split, R.
spoilt, R.
ilpread,
sprang,
Spring, {
sprung,
stood,
Stand,
sto\'e, n.
Stave,
staid, R.
Stay,
ti tole,
Steal,
11tuck,
Stick,
stung,
Sting,
strid,
Stride, {
strode,

Split,
. Spoil,
Spread,

Strike,
String,
Strive,
Strow,
Swear,
Sweat,
Sweep,
Swell,

spit,
spitten.
split, R,
spoilt, n.
spread.
sprung.

stood.
11tove, n.
staid, R.
stolen.
stuck.
stung.
Rtrid,
stridden.
struck,
struck, {
stricken.
strung.
strung,
strove,
striven.
strowed, .
slrowed , {
strown.
swore,
sworn.
{ aware,
sweat, R. sweat, n.
swept.
swept,
swelled, swollen, n.

159

VERB.~.

PRESENT.

Swim,
Swing,
Take,
Teach,
Tear,
Tell,
'fhink,
Thrive,
Throw, ·
Thrust,
Tread,
Wake,
Wax,
Wear,
Weave,
Wed,
Weep,
Wet,
Whet,
Win,
W!nd,
Work,
Wring,
Write,

PAST

swam,
{ swum,

PERFECT
PARTICIPLE.

swum.

swung.
taken.
taught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thriven, R.
thrown.
thrust.
trodden,
trod,
{ trod.
woke, R. woke, n.
waxen, n.
waxed,
worn.
wore,
wove, n. woven, n.
wed,n.
wed, R:
wept.
wept,
wet, R.
wet, It.
whet, n. whet, n.
won,
won.
wound,
wound.
wrought,&. wrought,&.
wrung.
wrung,
written.
wrote,

swung,
took,
taught,
tore,
told,
thought,
throve, n.
threw,
thrust,

UNIPERSONAL _V ERBS.
A Unipersonal Verb is one by which an act or state is
asserted independently of any particular subject; as, " It
snows;" " It behooves us to be watchful." In each of these
sentences, " it'' represents an indefinite subject. The term
"unipersonal" need not be used in parsing.

.\

·.
.•·

l'

.'

•
.

160

' Ii\ ~l

'l

i/.. . .

), v~ - . )'

ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

"

OAPl'l'AL LETTERS, ITALIOS, ETO.

I. The first word of every sentence should begin
with a capital letter.
II. The first word of every line of poetry should
begin with a capital letter.
III. Proper names of persons, places, days, etc.;
should begin with capital letters.
--..

"'

IV. Titles of honor or distinction should begin
with capital letters.
V. All appellations of the Deity should begin with
capital letters.
VI. Words denoting races or nations should begin
with capital letters.
VII. Most words derived from proper names should
begin with capital letters.
VIII. Words of special importance may begin with
capital letters.
IX. I and O, used as single words, should be capitals.
X. Emphatic words, phrases, and clauses are fre. quently printed in capitals.
Rem. 1.-Italicized words in the Bible are those supplied by
translators to explam the original.
Rem. 2.-Jn manuscripts, one line drawn under a. word indicates italics; two lines; SMALL CAPJTALs; three lines, CAPITALS.

'

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