A

COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR
OP THE

ENGLISH

LANG UA G£;
CONTAINING

MA NY ORIGINAL FEATURES; ESPECIALLY IN THE TREATME NT
OF VERBS, AND THE OMISSION OF TECHNICAL TERMS.

IN TWO PARTS:

COMPRISING

A COMPLETE ELEMENT ARY COURSE.

.

/ nY

-;--/

-

THOMAS HENDERSON, {9>e,/ttY>-

,,

FORMERLY PRINClP.U. OF A CLASSICAL ACADEMY, B:\LTL'IORE.

Quidquid prrecipit·~, es to brevis, ut cito dicta
Percipiant animi dociles: teoean tqu e flllt'le..-:.
H ORACE:.

PHILAD ET, PHIA : ·

' J.B. LIPPI NCOTT & CO.
18 5 9.

1'E. 111 I

.\-( s..;

CONTENTS .

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6'I

PAGE

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Entered, ncco rdin.,. to Act f C
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o o ngre~ i;i, in th e yenr 1859 b

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'l'HO)!AS H ENDERSO N
t he Clerk's Office of the Distriocft ?:'urt of the
rua ryJn ad.

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Unite~ States fo r th e District

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INTRODUCTION......... ... ...... .... .. .. . .. .... ...... . .. ........ ... ...

vii

Advertisement ...... .... ........... ................. .. ...... ... ,.....

xxv

To Teachers ....... .. ............... ................................... xx vii
Forms of Parsing ............... ·. ........... ... ... ........ . .. .... ... xxix
Model . .............................. ......... ........ ... .... ......... ...

xxx

Specimens .,of Parsing... .. .. ... ... .... .. .. . .. .... .. ..... .. .. .... ...

xxx

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PA.RT FIRST .
SECTION

1. English Grammar, definition of.............. . ............

35

2. Pai·ts of Speech .................. ... :..... .. . .. ... . ..... ... ...

35

3. Names or Nouns, .definition of.............................
4. Number, definition of . ......... .. ...... , ... ... ..... . ;. .......

35
36

5. Subject, Object, and Possessor ........ :............. .. ....
6. Possessor - Apostrophe......................................

36
37

'i. Verb, definition of..................... ...... .. .. ........... ...

37

8. Auxiliary and Principal Verbs, distinction between.

37

9. infinitive Verb, definition of. ......... .. .... ...... .... . .:.
10. Sign of Infinitive Verbs....... .......... .. ...... .. ..........

38
38

11. Participles, definition of..... .... .. .. ..... ...... .. .... .. ....
12. Pronouns, definition and list of ... .. ................ :.. ...

39
40

13. Variations of Pronouns.............. -.................. .... .. ..

41

( iii)

lV

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS .

14. Pronouns, how used .. ........ ....... .. : ..... .

41

15. Adj ectives, definition of...................... .... . ........... .
16. Adj ectives, position of.. ... ........ .... ......... ... ...... .... ..

42

19. Adverbs, definition of .......... ...... .............. ....... .... .

:.W. Prepositions, definition and list of.......... .. .... ... .. .. ..

43

42. Several P ossessors, how marked with Apostrophe ....

73

43. Extent and Duration .... .. .. .. ...... ........ . · · .. ·· · ··· ·· ··· ·· ·

74

45

44. Subj ect and Obj ect with Verb be .. ... ... ·· ·· ·· ····•• .. ···•

45. Verb •with more t han one Subject....... ......... ....... .

74
75

46. Several Nouns referring to same person ............. . .

76

47. Verbs with two Objects ........... ..... .. ...... ... ··· ··· ······

76

48. Every Subject requires a Verb ..... ...... . ... ..... ... ·· ····

76

21. Conjunctions, definition and Jigt of.... . .. .. ......... .....

45
47

22. Conjunctions connect words in same construction.. ...

47

23. Interjections, definition and li st of.. ....... .......... .....

49

24. Participles governing Possessors .. .. .. :.. ... ... .. . .. . ... ... .50

49. Every finite Verb r eq uires a Subject .... .. ......... ·· · .. .

77

50. Infi nitive Verbs after dare . ..... ....... ...... ... . ... . ....... . .

i i"

51

51. Past and Prior-present Time, dis tinction between .. ..

78

51
52

52. Time of Infinitive Verbs, how determined .. ... ........ .

j \')

·53. Uncertainty and futurity, form of Verb to expre•s .... .

80

54. Will and Shall, u se of.. ... ...... ... .... .. .... .. ··· ·· · · ·· ·· · · ··
55. .Will and Shall convey different ideas ........ ......... .. .

82

25. Subject without a Verb........ .......... ... ... .. .. .... ......

28. Divisions of Time. .. ....... .... ...... ............. .. ...... ......

50

Formation of Verbs.......... ..... ... ... ... .. . . . . ... . .. ... ... . ..

5:J

Verbal Arch .... ... ............ ... .... .... .. . . .. .. . . .. .. . .. . ... ...

55

29. Agreement of Verbs with Subjects ............. '... ........
30. Pronouns, rela tion of.. .... ... ... ..... . ... .. .... .. .... ... ..

57
GO

31. Sentences defined........ . ... .. ......................... ... ......

61

32. Infinitive Verb, &c., as Subj ect of Verb . ...... ...... .. .

62

33. Relati on of Words connected by and ........ . ... ........ .

62

34. Nouns or Pronouns limited by each or every .......... .
35. Relation of Word s connected by or or nor . .. . ....... ..
36. Verbs and P articiples, distinction between ............ .
37. Position of Subject .... .... .... ........ . .... ... ... ...... .... . .. .
38. Position of Object...... ........ ... ...... ...... .. .. . .. ........ . .

39. Them impropedy used for tho$e . ......... ... .... .. ...... .. .
40. Omissions .... ... ........ .... .... ......... .. .. .. .. ... .............. .
41. Chan ges of Parts of Speech ...... .. .... ..... ............... .
General Examples .. .. . .... .................. .. ... ......... . ..... .

SPECI AL RULES AND OBSERVA TIONS.

43

18. Definitive Adjec tives, agreement of ....... . .... ... , .. ..... .

26. Nouns independent ..... ... ..... ..... . ......... ............ ...

P .A RT SECO ND .

42

17. Definitive Adjectives, list of .. ........ :. ... ... ...... .. ..... .

27. Neg:J.tives . ...... .... ... ..... ..... .... .. .......... ..... .......... .. .

v

63
63
64
66
6u

G7
G7
G8

70

81

56. G~ernl Arrangemen t ... ... ...... ... .... ..... ····•···· ······· ·· 83
57. A, an, the, with of ... . .. ... ..... ..... . . .............. . ······ ·· · · 85
58. Regular and Irreg ulnr Verbs defined... ... ... . .. . .. .. . ... 85
Irregular Verbs, list of ...... ....... .. .... .. ...... ··· .. .... :··
Obsolete Forms of Verbs .... ..... . .. . .... ........... ··· ... ···
59. Who and Which, distinction between .. ., ......... .. ..... .

86
90
90

60. Whalaoever, Whichsoever, n.nd Wlwaesoever . ... ··· ... ··· ···

91

61. Compnrison of Adjective8 .. . ...... .. .. ... . .. ........ ···· ·· ····

92

62. Superlatives not to be compar ed ... .............. . ··· ··· ···

93

63. Double Compar atives and Superlatives ...... .... ... .. . .. .

94

64. Compa.ri8ons referring to two or more individ unl s ... .

94

65. Comparative, direction for using t he ......... ... ... ····:·

95

66. Superlative, direction for using the ........ .... .......... .

95

67. Adj ectives qualifying Verbs, &c ...... .. ............ .... .. .

96

l*

Vl

CONTENTS.

Ii

68. A and an, when to be u sed........ .... .....................

96

II

69 Comparison of Adverbs. ... .. .. .. ........ ........ .. ..... .. .. ..
70. Adverbs preceded by the.............................. .......

97
97

71. Adverbs, position of.... ......... ... ... ...... ............ .... ..

97

72. Adverbs and Adj ectives, use of ....... ... ....... .. ..... .. .

98

73. Among, proper use of............. . ... .. . ... .. . ... .. . ... ... .. .

99

74. Verbs connected by Conjunctions .......... ... .'............

99

INT R 0 DU 0 TI 0 N..

75. Corresponding Conjunctions .... ... ............. .............. 101
76. As improperly used for than .. ..... ... .... ... ... .. .... .... _ 102
i7 . Exceptions and Irreg ularities .. ... .. ... ......... .. ... .... .. 102

PUNCTUATION.
Pun ctuati on, definit io n of ...................................... .... 104
Th e Comma............... . ...... . ...... ... .. ... . .. .... ..... ..... .... 104
Th e Semicolon ..... : ........ . .................... ... ... ......... .. .... 109
Th e Colon ..... ....... .......... .... ... .... ..... ... ..... ................ 109
Th e Period
.. ........... ................. ················ · ······ ······ 111
The Dash ..... ..... ......... .. ..... .................... ................ . 111
The Point of Interrogation ................... ......... ... .. .. . ... 111
The Point of Exclamation .......................................... 111
Capital Letters ...... ............ .. ............. .... ........ ........ .... 112
Examples for Correction ................ .. ... ........ ........ .. .. .. 112

APPENDIX.
P erson, definition of. ...................................... , ......... 115
llfoods, definition of the five ...................................... 116
Conjugation of the Verb " Love" ................................ 117
Conjugations of the Verbs "Be" and " Be loved " ... ...... 120
The Verb "Be" with Present Participle ... .. ....... ..... .. .. 124
Agreement of Verb with nominative (usual Rule) ...... ..... 124

IT seems to be the prevailing opinion of teachers
generally, that, among the almost numberless
English Grammars now in use, not one. is found,
which contains the elementary principles of the
science so concisely developed as to meet the
popular want. Some are too brief ; others too
diffuse, and too much burdened with extraneous
matter; and all, so encumbered with technical
terms, that the le(l.rner is discouraged, bewilder ed,
or embarrassed, in his unavailing efforts to comprehend the subject. In the estimation of some
of the ripest scholars and ablest instructors, the
following work removes these difficulties more
completely than an:y- other extant.
That our present systems of English Grammar
are defective, is evident from the universally acknowledged fact, that a large majority of those
who study them, even for years, never receive
~vii)

Yiii

...

I NTRODUCTION .

th er efrom any practical benefit; and, at length,
leave school unable either to write or speak their
own language with propriety. The author has
long been convinced that some radical changes,
in the text-books, are essentially necessary; and
this conviction gradualiy strengthened, during an
extended period of active labor as an instructor
of youth. After examining carefully a large
number of our most respectable and popular
grammars, and contrasting and comparing their
rul es and definitions, and testing them by the
standard of experience, he has r emodeled the
whole subject, and now offers this improved syst em to an enlightened public.

In explanation and defence of some of the
positions assumed, he submits the following
OBSERVATIONS ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

I n these observations, we propose to review
some of the principal points of English Grammar,
as they are now found in our standard textbooks ; and, in d0ing so, we shall start a number
of important questions, and leave the r eader to
answer them in his own private r eflections.
1. Is it not advisable to lay aside some of the

INTRODU CTION .

,

ix

time-worn technical terms, now in use, that perplex rather than assist the learner, .such as
etymology, syntax, conjugation, declension, &c.,
which are useless appendages? - and, if the
student wishes to know their import, let him
consult a ru ctionary, rather than have the pages
of English Grammar encumbered with such _definiti ons.
2. What advantage is gained by dividing
nouns into common and proper, except to determine when to begin them with a capital letter?
Would it not be better to defer thi's until punctuation is taken up ?
3. Is either gender or person necessary, except
to show the agr eement between nouns and pronouns? And would not violations of this kind
so outrage common ~ense as to require no grammatical rules to determine them? As to verbs
agreeing ·in p erson with their nominatives, we
shall presently show that this is not the fact.
4. Why apply the terni · case, and tax the
memory to retain, and· the understanding to
compr ehend its definition. Say, at once, that a
name or pronoun is either the subject of a verb, ....
the object of a verb, participle, or preposition, or
the possessor of something; for, after all that has

x

INTRODUCTION.
INTRODUCTION.

been written on case, it r esolves itself into this
at last. (See Section 5.)
5. Why use the term tense, and immediately
define it to mean time.? Why not have six divisions of time instead of six tenses .?
6. Does any special benefit arise from the complicated formality of classing verbs into active,
passive, neuter, transitive, intransitive, and defective.?
7. There seems to be but little necessity for
moods, as the infinitive, as we shall hereafter
show, furnishes, for all the others, a law of formation from which they never deviate, except in
the present of the indicative, and in the past of
the subjunctive and indicative of a few verbs.
These variations we have given in Sections 28
and 29, and discarded the term mood.* These
changes, it is true, r equire some explanations,
particularly in r egard to certain parts of the .~ub­
junctive; but this is now the case, even :In grammars where the colossal structure of moods,
tenses, numbers, and persons, r etains its accustomed place. The conjugation of the verb,

* Those who still wish to retain the moods will find
them in the Appendix, together with the usual conjugations of verbs.

through all these .intricate mazes, has ever been
regarded: by the learner, as a Herculean task.
I nstead, therefore, of bending the whole language
to its occasional irregularities, and compelling
the student, by a wearisome and discouraging
process, to conjugate, in the usual method, every
verb he finds ; how much more natural, consistent, and easy, would it be to remove these
formidable difficulties, by adapting our course to
the general tenor of our phraseology, and marking the exceptions as such. This plan would
· ~bridge labor, and r ender the acquisition of
grammar more agreeable and certain.
·
8. The formation of the tenses has never been
t"<\duced to regular system. The definitions and
E?igns, together with .copious examples, have been
spread over the pages of our grammars, just as
an architect covers the adjacent space with a collection of well-prepared materials for a noble
building; but the verbal edifice has never been
erected so as to display its beautiful proportioti.s
before the admiring gaze of every beholder. In
Section 28, we have shown that the INFINITIVE
is the key-stone that unites the tenses in a gr aceful arch, and gives them the most finished symmetry and order. From this they all r eceive

Xll

INTTI.ODUCTION.

their form, except the past; and ev~n this, in
most verbs, develops traces of the same original
law of harmony.
9. In Section 58, we have given a new definition of regulm· and irregular verbs, corresponding
with our method of forming the tenses from the
infinitive ; and, in the list of irregular verbs,
there set down, we have carried out this idea, so
that a glance at the list furnishes all the elements
r equired to form the six divisions of time, and
also shows the agreement between the prior-present of the infinitive and the perfect participle.
10. The indicative has hitherto been made the
governing mood, and, where the others differed
from it, t1rnse differences have been stated as
variations from a general r ule. .We think, on the
contrary, that the infinitive lies at the foundation
of the whole, and furnishes a law of formation for
most verbal changes ; and, that nowhere else is
this law so perfectly developed as in the subj unctive. Some parts of the present and of the past
of the indicative, exhibit deviations from this
fixed law ; while the potential and imperative
conform completely to it. To explain this more
fully, we would remark, that to is the sign of the
present, and to, followed by have, is the sign of

xiii

INTRODUCTION •

verbs:
the p rior-present or p erJ•.fect ' of infinitive
.
1 d
T 0 . be I to have been. T o 1ove, to have ove ·
To be loved, to have been loved.
a8 1

. " to " in each form, an d the present and
Drop the sign
prior-present
or per ec t of the subjunctive are formed:
thus.,

i

PRESENT.

If I be
If yo u be,
If he be.

If I love,
If you love,
If be love.

If I be loved,
If you be loved,
If he be loved.

or PERFECT.
If I have loved,
If you have loved,
If he has loved, &c., &c.

PRIOR-PRESENT

If I have been,
If you have been,
If he has been.

Change the signs to shall or will, and the future and
prior-future are formed: thus,
,
FUTURE.

If I shall or will be, &c.
If I shall .or will love, &c.
If I shall or will be loved, &c.
PRIOR-FUTURE.

If I shall have been, &c.

If I shall have loved, &c.
If I shall havo been loved, &c.
Had, substituted for to have, form s the
or PLUPERFECT.
If I bad been, &c.
If .r bad loved, &c. .
If r had been loved, &c.

PRIOR-P4ST

2

xiv

INTRODUCTION.
INTRODUCTION.

Drop to liave, and the past of most verbs is form ed
thus,
PAST

or

12. For the sake of uniformity, and to assist
the memory in r etaining them, we call the tenses,

IMPERFECT.

If I loved,
If you loved,
If he loved.

Place may, can, must, mi'.glit, could, would, or sliould, bef? re the v:rb in the present and prior-present, an d the potrnl mood 1s formed. (See 28th Section of Grammar.)
The imp.erative gives the verb precisely as it stands in
the present subjunctive, or present infinitive, without the
sign to.

11. All grammarians assert that " the verb
must agree with its nominative in number and
person ;" but it will be found, upon careful investigation, that our verbs, unlike those of many
other languages, are not varied from the r egular
forms derived from the infinitive, to agree with
their nominatives, except in a few instances.
These we have given in Section 29, and rejected
the general rule as erroneous.* In this way we
have shown the true r elat!on between the form
of the verb and its nominative; ___: something
never befor e attempted, so far as our knowledge
extends.

* The u s u~l r~le, although not introdu ced into the body
o'. the work, 1s give n, however, at the close of the Appendix. Those who prefer it, can use it instead of Section 29.

xv

1

•

P resent dnd Prior-present (the old Perfect).
Past and P rior-past (the old Pluperfect) .
Future and P riorjuture (the old Second Future).
F or the same r easons, we have given the definitions of adjectives, definitive adjectives, and adverbs, as nearly as possible in the same phraseology.
13. " When nouns and pronou_ns of differ ent
persons are connected, in the nominative case,
the verb must agree, in person, with the one
next to it, and the pronoun must be put in the
first per son, rathe~· than the second, and in the
second, rather than the third."
Grammarians agree that this rule encourages
the use of a class of harsh and uncouth expressions; and r ecommend such changes in the arrangement of the words as excludes them from
the r ange of the rule. Why not, then, discard it
as it now stands, and embody, in another form,
any useful items it rr'iay contain ?
14. There is such a diversity of opinion among
standard writers, in regard to unit'!/ and plurality
of idea, in nouns of multitude, that the distinc-

xvi

INTRODUCTION.

tion, as now given in grammars, is almost useless.
15. "Adjectives belong to the nouns which
they describe."

"Adverbs belong to verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs."
"A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is
governed by the following noun."
"Transitive verbs govern the objective case."
"Participles sometimes govern the objective.
case. "
"Prepositions govern the objective case."
"Participles refer to nouns and pronouns."
These seven rules are only a r eiter ation of the
same language that is found in the d~:finitions; is
it not, therefore, a me1·e repetition to assign them
any place in Syntax_?
16. "The interjections 0 ! Oh! and Ah! require the objective case of a pronoun in the :first
person after them; but the nominative case in
·the second person."
The rule for the 11 nominative case independent" embraces the latter part of the above rule.
and, if the :first part be correct, it applies to ~
form of speech seldom used, and its violation is
so harsh to the ear, that it needs no prompting

INTRODUCTION .

XVll

to avoid it: the whole of it might, therefore, be
droppe~. But it is not always a safe guide; the
sentence,
"O ! I have roamed through many lands,"

would sound very ridiculous, if the pronoun were
put in the objective case; thus,
"O ! me have roamed through many lands."

17. "Transitive v(;lrbs, in the active voice,
often take clauses or sentences after them."
•"Prepositions often take clauses or sentences
after them." ·
"A verb in the infi~itive mood may be governed
by any word on which it depends."
"A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed
by a clause or sentence."
"The infinitive is sometimes independent."
Well, what of it? Can we speak or write more
accurately by having a knowledge of these five
rules and notes? Would any grammatical errors
arise from ignorance of, all that is contained in
this formidable list? If so, what are they? .
18. " Two or more nouns, or n.ouns and pronouns, signifying the same thing, wit4out an in-

2*

xviii

INTRODU C TI ON .

tervening verb, are put by apposition m the
same case."
So far as nouns, in the nominative or objective
case, are concerned, no error can be made from
neglecting this rule, as these cases are formed
alik e ; and all instances of possessive nouns ar e
covered by the r ule. "When several names are
used as expletive of a single individual, as t he
possessor, the sign of the possessive case should
be added to the last name only." (See Section
42.) As to examples where both nouns and pronouns occur, Section 30 includes them, and also
embraces the rule, "Pronouns must agree with
the nouns for which they stand, in gender, person, and number."
19. "Transitive verbs, participles, prepositions,
govern the objective case."

....

Are there more than eight words in the English
language in the use of which these rules ·can be
violated? (See Note unde1· E 7:amples, Section
20.) If not, would it not prevent much perplexity to state this simple fact, instead of requiring the learner to search promiscuously among
all nouns and pronouns for errors against three
sepamte 1·ule8 of Syntax ? The distinction bet.ween nominati ve and o~jective appears to hA

INTRODUCTION.

xix

entirely useless, except to regulate these eight
pronouns, and to determine the forms of verbs in
the few instances noticed in S ection 29.
20. " Two or mor e nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the singular number, .connected by and,
must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agr eeing
with them in the phtral."
The clause, "in the singular number," should
be struck out.
" If the singular nouns, connected by and, are
limited by each, every, either, or n either, the verb
aRd pronoun must be in the singular."
The words "either or neither," here, involve
an impossibility; for no sentence can be formed,
containing "two or more nouns, or nouns and
pro110uns, limited by· either or neither, and connected by and." (See Section 34.)
"Two or more nouns and pronouns singular,
connected by or or nor, must have verbs, nouns .
and pronouns, to agree with them in the singular."
An additional cl~use should f?llow this, showing the proper agr eement when either of the connected words is plural. (See Section. 35.)
21. Sections 32; 33, 34, 35, 46, by .a peculiar

xx

INT RO D UC TION.

INT RODUCT ION.

phraseology, exhibit the true principle involved
in the agreement of words connected by conjunctions, and their r eal relation to other parts of
speech.

of the verb, why perplex him with any rule on
t.he subj ect."
. "When the relative and verb have been deter. mined to agree with either of the preceding
nominatives, that agr eement must be preser ved
throughout the sentence."
Here is another repetition. All this is included in the rule, " In the use of words and
phrases which, in point of time, relate to each
other, &c." (See Section 56.)
24. "Those is sometimes incorrectly used instead of they at the beginning of a sentence: as,
Those who live in glass houses, &c.; for, They
who live, &c."
This rule r ests on so slender a foundation, that
we omit it.
· 25. " The perfect tense of the infinitive should
not be placed after another verb in past time."
This rule will not always hold good. For example: "From a conversation I once had with
him, he appeared to have studied Homer with
great care and judgment. For the correct rule,
see Section 52. ,
26. "Some conjunctions r equire. the indicative, some the subjunctive mood, after them.

Under Section 32, a very important note is
given, specifying in what instances only, several
prominent rules can be violated. This may save
the learner much perplexity, and give him a
clearer understanding of the r elation between
the verb and its subj ect.
22. "The r elative is the nominative case to the
verb, when no nominative case comes between it
and the verb."
" ·when a nominative case comes between the
r elative and the verb, the r elative is governed
by ~ome word in its own member of the sentence."
These rules are useless, as the cases may all
be determined by the other general rules r elating
to cases.

\

23. "When the relative is preceded by two
nominatives of different persons, the relative and
verb may agree in person with either, according
to the sense.
I f the learner is permitted to use either form

XXl

INTRODU CT IO N .

INTRODUCTION.

It is a general rule, that when something contingent or doubtful is implied, the subjunctive
ought to be used. Conjunctions that are of a
positive and absolute nature r equire the indicative mood."

Rule XVIII: "C9njunctions connect the same
moods and tenses of verbs, and cases of noi;ns and
pronouns."
Mr. Murray says, "If the .18th Rule should
not appear to apply to every example, it will be
found, on strict examination, that the supposed
exceptions are, in fact, sentences which do_ not
come within the r eason and limitation of the
rule. Thus, in the sentence, 'I have a greater
respect for them than he,' the pronoun he is connected by the conjunction than with the pronoun
them: and yet they are not put in the same
case ; because they have not the same bearing
and r elation, with regard to the rest of the sentence ; which is requisite according to Rule 18,
and its explanatory note."
Had Mr. Murray observed that I and he are,
in reality, the pronouns connected by than , and
ar e both in the same case, and that his 18th
Rule thus covers the whoie ground in dispute, all
difficulties would have vani~hed, and his 20th
Rule would neve~ have been framed. A slight
tr ansposition of the sentence sets the proper connection in a_,clear light_: thus, "I have a greater
r espect than he, for them." Her~ the compari-

XX:ll

\

,.

This rule is indefinite, and is contradicted •by
the remarks which follow it, in Murray (and ar e
copied by Smith). As the learner cannot depend on it for a guide, it ought never to have
been inserted. In Sections 53, 54, we think we
have brought within a small compass all that
necessarily belongs to the subjunctive mood;
comprehending the prolix and intriqate explanations, usually given in grammars, in r egard to its
peculiarities.
27. Section 22, on the power of conjunctions
as connectives, is applied to participles, adjectives, and adverbs ; a point of some importance,
yet gener ally unnoticed. by grammarians.
This section embraces Murray's Rule XX: "When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter noun or pronoun is not governed
by the conjunction than or as, but agrees with
the verb, or is governed by the verb or the preposition expressed or understood;" and also his

XXlll

XXlV

INTRODUCTION.

son is evidently made between I and he, and not
between them and he.
Other changes and improvements are introduced into various parts of the work, which it is
not necessary here to enumerate.

T.

ADVERTISEMENT.

HENDERSON.

June, 1859.

THE author claims for this system the following advantages : 1. Originality, in many points, especially in
his method of treating verbs, and in the omission
of technical terms.
2. Brevity, comprehensiveness, and clearness.
3. Important changes in definitions and rules:
excluding some; altering arid amending others;
and, occasionally, condensing two or more into
one.
4. Dividing the work into two parts, " and so
arranging them that the first alone, if used by
those whose time is limited, wiH enable them to
acquire in a very short period a practical knowledge of grammar;- whereas, a portion of the
other systems now extant _is of very little service
without a familiarity with the whole. The fust
part is complete in itself.
(xxv)
3

x.s:vi

ADVERTISEMENT.

.5. The fi rs t an d second parts, together, contarn a larger amount of grammatical information
than can be found in twi ce the space elsewhere.
and afford facilities
for obtarnrng
· ·
. and'
.
a rapid
.
thorough acquarntance w1'th th e science.
Orthography and Prosody have been left o t
as they are seldom studied, when inserted;
would
only swell the size of the book , w'th
t
£ .
l
OU
con errrng on. the learner any real benefit.

a:~

j'

TO TEACHERS.

work is designed for two classe.s of persons, and is, consequently, divided into two parts.
Those who have but little leisure should use only
the first part. This, if thoroughly mastered, will
make them better grammarians than a large majority of those who have devoted years to this
branch of knowledge: in fact, it is sufficient for
all Common, practical purposes. If the learner I
after advancing thus far, has time and inclination
to go more deeply into the subject, he will find
the nicer shades of distinction in language unfolded in the brief, but comprehensive sections of
the second part. The whoie, when well understood, will give the student a clear, concise, and
systematic view of the science,of English Grammar.
The learner should parse and correct all the
examples as they occur, and be care.fol never to
pass a section, without. becoming well acquainted
with every point which it contaiµs. Models and .
specimens of parsing will be found at the beginTHIS

ning of the book.

(xx vii)

XXVlll

TO TEACHERS .

Teachers should labor to fix in the minds of
their pupils the following six points; when thesB
are well understood, other difficulties can be
easily mastered: FORMS OF PARSING.

1. All errors, arising from t he improper use of
subjects and obj ects, are confined to eight pro-

nouns. See Note under "Examples fo r Con·ection," Section 20.
2 . .All the regular forms of verbs are contained
in Section 28; and

.All the variations from these forms are included
in the three exceptions of Section 29. See also
Note ·under Section 32.
3. The true forms and relations of all pronouns
may be determined by substituting (mentally) in
their places the words for which they stand. This
is a simple and infallible rule. See Section 30.

4. By supplying omissions many difficulties in
parsing may be removed. See Section 40.

5. The same word is often used for several
parts of speech. See Section 41.
6. Names, verbs, participles, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs, connected by conjunctions,
must be in the same construction. See Section
22, and also the 27th Section of the introductory
"Observations."

OR NouN.-Why a name.? What num-?
ber? Subj ect, object, or possesso r of what.

NAME,

V RB -Why a verb?

What is its subject?

ha• passe d S ec ti.011 29 ' he should adcl
- When the lear'1er
. . Of ho.t tim e? I •
of parsing the verb the jollotO'UI(/ .
W
to t ns o1 m
exception?
it of the r egula.r form, or a.n
E

·

rEf. .

N

? Why infmiINFINITIVE VE RB. -Why a verb . '
tive? Of what time ?
PARTICIPLE. - W h y ·a participle ?
and why?

What kind,

Wh a pronoun ?. What number?
PRONOUN.y
f ht?
. t , obiJ ect ' or possessor' o w a .
S U bJGC
. cI!I.SS.
. .
if 'l t be!Oil"'S
to this
(Repeo.t the vo.nttttons,
"

See Section 13.)

ADJECTIVE. - Why an adj ective?
adDEFINITIVE ADJECTIV E. -· Why a 'definitive
jective? Apply Section 18.
ADVERB. -Why an adverb?

3*

(xxix)

xxx

FORM S

OF

l'AJ{SING.

SPECIMENS OF PARSING.

PREPOSITION. -Why a preposition?
CONJUNCTION. -Why a conjunction?
INTERJECTION. - Why an in terjection ?
In parsing, the learner shoulq write ou t the sentences on a slate
or black-boa rd, and unite together, by lines, all words that ha ve a
grammatical connection. This plan will enable him to see at :i.
glance how one word depends upon another. See the following

MODEL.
Ho

over

away

the

blue

waves

• t

XXXl

Far is an adverb, it is added to the adverb away to
qu a lify it.
, Away is an adverb, -it is added to the verb steered to
•qun.lify it.
Over is n. preposition, a word used to connect other words
and sh.ow the relation bet\veen them.
Tlie is a definitive adjective, it is added to the name
waves to limit its signification .
Blue is an n.djective, &c.
JVaves is a name; plural number, it represents more than
one ; it is the object of the preposition over.
Of is a preposition, &c.
The is a definitive adjective, &c.
Rollin,q is a participle, it is a certain form of the verb
roll, used to describe the name sea; present, it denotes continu ed actiqn.
Sea is a nn.me, &c.; ' object of the preposition of.

II. James and John came.
SPECIMENS OF PARSING .
I. He steered his noble bark far away over the
blue waves of t he r olling sea.
H e is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun ; singular number, it r epresents only one; it is the subj ect of the
verb steered. Singular, he, his, him; plural, tltey, their,
them.

S teered is a verb, it asserts action; past time, it refers to
an indefinite period previous to the present; of the regular
form; its s ubject is he.
His is a pronoun, &c. ; it is the possessor of bark.
.1.Yoble is an adj ective, it is added to the nnme bark to
qualify it.
Bark is ·a name; singular number, it represents only
one; it is th e obj ect of tbe verb steered.

James is n. name, &c. ; subject of the verb came.
A n d i ~ a conjunction, it is used to cormect words.
John is a name, &c.; it is the subject of the verb came,
an<l conn ec ted with Ja mes, in the same construction, by the
conjun e. tion and. Section 22.
Came is 1i verb, &c.; of the regul•H form; its subjects are
James n.nd John. Section 33.

III. Some live and die m obscurity.
Some is a pronoun; plural; it is the subject of the verb
live.
Live is n. verb, &c .
And is a conj unction, &c.
Die is :i verh; of present 'time, and regulfir form, because
it is connected with live, in the same construction, by the
conjunction anrl. SPction 22.

•

xxxii

SPECIMENS OF

PARSING.

IV. Bid them come.
Bid is a verL; of present time; regu lar form, it is used
in cumruanding -Sectiun 29, III.; its suLject is thou und erstood . Section 40.
Them is a pron nun; plural; object of verb bid.
Come is a verb, it asserts action; infin itive, it is used in
a gen eral or unlimited manner; the sign to is omitted after
bid - Section 10 ; present time, it refers to what is now
tran~piring.

V. To die is the common lot.
l s is a ,·c rb : of present time; its subject is the infinitive
verb to die-Sec tion 32; it is forrned accord in"' to Section
29, II .
b
L ot is a name ; singular; it is a subject after the verb is.
Sec tion 37, 44.

VI. The birds flew south.
S outh is a name; sin gular; it stands independent of
verb s ur prepositions. Section 26.

VII. Samuel, go home.

SPECIMENS OF

PARSING.

XXXlll

IX. At the time of Charles' coming.
Charles' is a name; singular; it is a possessor before the
11articiple coming. Section 24.

X. His son is sober, industrious, and obedient.
Sober, industrious, obedient, are adjectives, added to the
name son, to qualify it; they are in the same construction,
connected by and. Section 22.

XI.. They work rapidly, constantly, and faithfully.
Rapidly, constantly, faithfully, are adverbs, added to the
verb work to qualify it; they are in the same construction,
connected by and. Section 22.

XII. Alas! he cannot long survive!
Alas is an interjection, a word used to express some sud"
den emotion of the speaker.
Can survive is a verb, &c.; its subject is he.
Not and long may both be parsed as adverbs, q"'"lifying
can survive.

Samuel is a name; singular; it stands as a subject without a verb, because it is addres sed. Sec tion 25.
Go is parsed like bid, in Specimen IV.
H ome is parsed like south in the last specimen.

VIII. The day being ended, we retired.
?ay is a nrime; singular; it is placed with the participle
bemg ended, as n subjec t without a verb. Section 25.
Be-i11,1; ended is a prirticiple, it is a certain form of the
verb be ended, used to describe the name day; present, it
denotes a con tinu ed :;:tate.

.\

A COMPREHENSIVE GRAMMAR.

PART FIRST.
1. ENGLISH GRAMMAR explains the correct
method of using the English Language.
I

PARTS OF SPEECH
2. Every word, in the English Language, belongs to some one or more of the following classes,
or parts of speech:· Names or Nouns, Verbs, Participles, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections.

NAMES OR NOUNS.
3. NAMES are. the words by which persons or
things are called: as, "John, Baltimore, girl,
stars."
N 01·E. - Any word that will take a, a11, or th.e before it,' or that
will make sense of itself, is a name: as, "a duy, n.n hour, the sun;
t ruth , j1tat·ice, tempera.nee."

( 35)

36

NAMES.

Point out the names in the following.

6. When a name denotes a possessor, it must
always be marked by 'an apostrophe: as, "Robert's cane, boys' hats."

EXAMPLES.
Time and tide wait for no man.
Reason governs wise men ; punishment fools.
The vessel lost her anchor on a reef of rocks.

NUMBER.
4. When a word represents only one object or
thing, it is said to be SINGULAR: as, "Pen, man,
sun, he, she, it, this." When more than one, it is
said to be PLURAL: as, "Pens, men, suns, they,
them, these."

5. A noun or pronoun must be either
I. The SUBJECT or nominative of a verb;
II. The OBJECT of a verb, participle, or
preposition; or
.,

III. The PossESSOR of something.
EXAMPLES.
I. Subjects. - Joh n learn s. Man di es. The child sleeps.
R ains descend . Th ey slumber. H e will come. You
smile.
II. Objects. - Spell the lesson. Improve your mind. Call
her. Sarah saw thee. They found a boy catching
.fish. Hav ing: bo ugh t a knife he cut his .finger. A
fly on the wall. He is at home.
III. Possessors. -Richard's pen. Han nah's thimbl e. Tho
sailor's deli ght. His horse. My sword. The merchant's vessel.

37

VERBS.

Correct the following

J

EXAMPLES,

Williams book.
Mans labor.
W ashingtons farewell.

by adding the apostrophe:

The suns splendor.
Heroes laurels.
Deaths triumphs.

VERBS.

7. A verb is a word that asserts action, being,
or state: as, "William walks and breathes."
"They exist." "He sleeps in death."

•

•

N OTE.-Any word that will take I, thou, he, it, they, or to, before
it, is a verb : as, " I come, thou hast suffered, he lives, it will rain,
they go, to smile, to liave written."

8. Sometimes a verb is only a single word,, and
sometimes it consists of two or more words : in
the latter case, the last word is called the principal verb, and those . before it are called auxiliaries.

.

EXAMPLES.
Love, walked, did come, was made, has been seen, might
go, may have gone, is writing .
Which of these are auxiliaries, and· which principal verbs?

NoTE.-The auxiliary verbs are mdy, e.an, ruuat, migll.t, could,
would, ahould, and shall. .Do, be, have, and will, are som,e times
auxiliaries, and sometimes principal verbs.

4

38

VERBS ..

PARTICIPLES.

9. An infinitive verb is one that is used in a
general or unlimited manner : as, "To die is
gain." " He is said to have gone home."

PARTI ·OIPLE~.

11. Participles are certain forms of verbs used
to describe nouns and pronouns : as, "The flower
blooming in the vale." "They saw him, smitten
and sad."
I. The present participle denotes continued
action, being, or state, and always ends in ing: as,
"The leaf, t?·embling, falls." "Being destitute, he
desired assistance." "I found him sleeping."

. 10. Infinitive verbs are always preceded by the
sign to, except when following the verbs bid,
dare, hear, f eel, see, let, make, &c. : as, " Who
hear d him say it." " He bids me come." "They
dare engage." (See Section 50.)
Par~e, according to the forms on page xxix, all the nam
d
verbs rn the following
•• an

EXAMPLES.
Stars t'll"inkle.
The sun shines.
J oh n loves to study grammar.
Th e bird's nest has fallen.
Life 's stor ms must cease.
Zephy rs cool his brow.
Arnold attempted to betray his country
Samuel's labor will be rewarded.
•
Men should assert their rights.
Care clouds the brow.
·
Old ocean' s waves Jasl:; the shore.
S:u_I ors delight to reach the port.
Altred may have see a his fath er.
Duty's voice bids him hasten.

39

N oTE. -To ·distinguish a ·present participle from other parts of
that h ave the same ending, cut off ing, and, if what remains
is a verb, the word is a participle; otherwise it is n ot: thus, Roa'i11;11g, 10alkiflg, staudi11g, make the verbs, t·oam , walk, stand; there~
fore they are participles: but evem"11g, mo1·ui11g, u111"11t erltt?°11g, make
even, mor11, trninterest, , which are not v0rbs; and, therefore, these
words are not participles.

~peech

'

II. The p erf ect participle denotes :finished action, being, or state: as, Loved, been, been loved;
"A r eed shaken with the wind." It always makes
sense after to have: as, "To have shaken."
III. When the perfect participle has the word
having before it, it is called the compound perfect
participle : as, "James, after having waited an·
hour, r eturned home."
Parse, a.ccordin g to the forms on page xxix, all the tlamer,
verbs, and participles in the following

40

PRONOUNS.

EXAMPLES.

13. Ten of the pronouns are thus varied,- the
others never change their form : -

Death quenched the wrath burning in the Indian's
bosom.
The faded rose still yields its fragrance.
Charles, having read the le tter, ceased to mourn.
Th e tower, erected on th e mountain's brow, had cast a.
length enin g shadow.
Striking their tents, the soldiers onward marched.

PRONOUNS.

All tho pronouns are contained in the following

LIST OF PRONOUNS.
few,
first,
forme r,
he,
his,
hers,

I,
it,

less,
leas t,
last,
latter,
mine,
many,
more,
most,

much,
neither,
none,
one,
ours,
own,

other,
she,

Subject. Possessor.

sa.me,
several,
some,
such,
th at,
this,
those,
these,

thou,
thine,
th eirs,
who,
which
what,
yours.

N OTt<~S. - 11/in e, thine, his, when standing before names, are p osse11surs: :lS, "~fine arm, thine eye, his hand." Otherwise they are
either subjects or objects: as, "Mine is the labor and thine shall be
the rcwn.rd." ":Ma.ry's desk stands nea.r hls."

Wlwt m11y be both a subject and object at the same time: as, " I
purebased iohat was offeretl." H ere what is the obj ect of the verb
"purchased,'' a.nd also the subj ec t of the verb "wns offered." "According to 1ohut was proposed." H ere what is tho object of the preposition "according to," nnd the subj ect of "was proposed."
Pronoun s are sometimes found with so, self, ever, or 1meve1·, attached to them: as, 10hoso, himself, it8elf, 1oheever, whatsoever.

Object.

Subject.

Possessor.

thy,
Thou,
ye or yo u, !our,

Object.

thee,
you.

Sin g. I,
P tw-. we,

my,

n1 e,

our,

U8.

Sing. Ile,
Plur. th ey,

his,
thei r,

him , She,
th em. they,

her,
thei r,

her,
them.

Sing. It,

its,
their,

Who,
it,
them. who,

whose,
whose,

whom,
whom.

Plur. they,

12. A pronoun is a word · used instead of a.
noun or name.

As,
all,
any,
another,
l;>oth,
each,
every,
eit.her

41

PRO NOUNS .

one,
one'R,
ones.
ones',
ones,
which
.
whose,
which,
Plur.
Si11g. Other, other's, other, Another, another's, another.
(No Plural.)
Pl11r. others, others', others.
Sing. \Vhich, wh ose, whi ch, On e,

14. Pronouns must not be used in the same
part of a sentence as the names for which they
stand : as, "John he went home ;" it s~ould read,
" J ohn went hom,e." " I saw her the queen ;"
corrected, "I saw t h e queen. "
Correct all the violations of the rLbove rule ; insert the apostrophes, where omitted (See Sec tio11 6); a~d parse all the names, verb•,
pnrticiples, and pronouns, in the followrng

EXAMPLES.
The k in"' he rewarded his sons obedience.
Casting his net into the river, he awaited the res ult.
Th eir children th ey love them.
Some labor wh ile others they play.
All must answer deaths summons.
Anothers gold has purchased what I enjoy.

4*

42

DEFINITIV E ADJECTIVES.

ADJECTIVES.

43

That captain commands an nctive co mpany of men.
Susan lost a beautiful pair of gloveti.
Isaac sports a black pair of whiskers.
.
R obert wears n. splendid suit of c\o th~s and dnves a fine

P es tilence it may d estroy many.
Several saw the bird perched un n. willows bough.
Mn.ry she wen t to gn.ther berries, and, h n.v:ng fouod a
few, returned.

span of horses.
·
·
' .
.
He had streng th of mind enough to conquer his supersti-

ADJECTIVES.

ti on.

15. Adj ectives are words added to nouns and
pronouns to qualify them, or limit their signification: as, "A prudent man gives wise counsel."
"They are industrious." "This boy has three
pens."

17. The following are called limiting, or
DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES.

A,
an,
any,
all,
another,
b oth,
each,
every,
either,

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES.
Qualifyi'.ng Adjectives. - Good, bad, wise, strong, temp erate, bumble, mild, deeper, g reatest, &c.

Liin'iting or Definitive Adjectives.-Many, several, eight,
much , few, &c. (See next page. )
N OTE.-Any word that will take 1h;11g, or any other uame after it,
is an adjectiYe: as, a good thing, a better thing, a warm day, n. sh111'P
knife, that book, many sta rs.

few,
former,
less,
len.st,
last,
ln.tter,
many,
more,
most,

much,
n either,
n o,
other,
O\Vn ,

some,
same,
such,
seve ral,

the,
this,
that,
th ese,
those,
whi ch,
what.,
yon,

and all other words u sed in mrmberi?ig and counting: as,
three, ten, thou sn.nd, fourth, fifti eth, &c.
Also the compounds, whatever, which eve r, whatsoever,

16. Adjectives should, usually, be placed next
to the names which they qualify,-always, when
ther e are two names near each other: as, "A cup
of cold water;" not, "A cold cup of water."

which soever.

'

NoTE.-In the above list, a,J:m, the, are always definitive adjectives. the other words are definitives wh.en a name immediately folJows,~therwise they are pronoun s. B oth, eithe,., ne;the,., that,
sometimes become. conjunctions. (See Section 21, Nole, a 11d 41,/.)

\

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
A sweet wreath of roses.
A fragrant garden of flowers.
Th ey ha ve a most elegant supply of furniture.
J a mes sold a good load of straw.
H e owns a fin e row of house•.

. 1·

18. Definitive adj ectives must agree, in number, with their names ; and, on the contrary;
names must agr ee with their definit~es : as,
"Many men."

"One child."

44

ADVERBS.

DEFI N ITIVE ADJECTIVES.

45

EXCEPTIONS.
A fow men.
A score.
Many a friend.
Five sail of the line.
By that means.

A grent many.
A th ousnnd yea rs.
1'en head of ca ttl e.
By this m ean~ .
Every three hours. '

EXA1\IPLES FOR CORRECTION.
I hnve walked six mile these warm day.
All kind of produce.
Each men's share.
Those sort of apples.
Th e cask holds forty gallon
A r oc k ten foo t high.
Two ton make a load.
A few sha re of bank stock.
P arse n.ll the .,iam ea, verbs, partfo iplts, pronouus, n.nd adjectives, in

th e foll owin!i

ADVERBS.
19. Adverbs are words added to verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs, to qualify them:
as, "A ve1·y good pen writes extremely well." "I
heard a dove cooing mournfully."
Adverbs are occasionally added to names, pronouns, and prepositions : as, " This man also
came." ''Even he was there." "She is far
· f r01n home."
N OTE.-Any word that will answer . to the question, how 1 how
much ! 1ohen 1 or where 1 is an adverb: M, in the sen tence, "Time
flies rapidly," the a nswer to the question, " How doe~ time fly?" is,
rapidly; therefore •·apidly is an adverb.

PARSING EXERCISES.

EXAl\IPLES.
Solomon wrote many pr ove r bs.
Th eir go od deeds will surviv e th em.
Thi s man g;ive all hi s ~plc n d id furnit~re to n few friend s.
Whi ch chi ld tlid I see?
Yon lofty temple, built at mu ch cost, will soon fall.
Every m'1n shou ld have ~ome employment.
She is t.oo ki nd to h'1ve treated me thus.
Many die in early li fe; others li ve to r eac h maturity;
and a few ar ri1•e at old age.
W ho tau gh t th e bird to buil d its nes t? who co mma nded
g ravi tatio n to bi nd all to its sphere?
H aving seated herself, she watched the mo on-benmM
l ancing on the bil low's crest.

We have been well rewarded.
I can nut answer you,
That place is very widely di stant.
He died suddenly, far from a quiet home.
The star \\'ill soon disappenr.
The former came yesterday, imd the latter may arrive
to-day.

PREPOSITIONS.
20. Prepositions are words used to connect
other words and show the r elation between them:
n,s, "Samuel is in the street, near the corner."

46

The principal prepositions aro embraced in the following

J,IST.
Ab ove,
a t,
am ong,
an1 ongs t,

•

I

i

;1

/"I?i

.,

f

~:

after,
ab out,
against,

abuft,
a cco rdin g to,
across ,
al ong,
amid,
amid st,

nth wart,
aro und,
astride,
by,
below,
b etween,
betwixt,
be n eiith,
b eyo nd,
Lefo re,
behind,
b es ide ,
besides,

down,
except,
for,
from,
instead of,
in,
into,
n ear,

n otwi thstanding,
over,
of,

off,
on,
without.

47

.CONJUNCTIONS.

PREPOSITIONS.

r ound,
to,
t oward,
towards,
th roug h,
throughout,
under,
u ndern eath,
up,
upon,
unto,
with,
'l'l'ithin,

NoTE. -Pl'Cpositions are often un derstood: as, "Grant me my request;" thnt is, "Grant to me." '' His house faces the east;" that
is, "tou;o1'll the ea.st." (See SecNon 40.)

EXAMP LES FOR CORRECTioN.

(See Section 5, I. II.)
NoTE.-lly referring to Section 13, the learner will perceive that
th e pronouns I, thou, he, she, who, 1l'f? 1 ye, they, when used n.s obj ect~, become, me, th ee, ltim, li er, whom, 1u1 , you, th em: a mistake
cannot be mn.tle in using ~su bjec t instead of an object, and the con-

trary, except in one of these eight pronou ns.
I~ '

I t i" not I he is e ngaged with .
Il e in"i ted they and me to see him .
In n>' sist ing tho u he inj ured hi sse lf.
I t was not he that they we1·e so n.ngry with.
She tlrnt is idle a nd misch ievo us, r ep ro ve sharply.
W ho d icl t hey entertain so freely .
From who did be receive the present?

F earing not only ye, but us also, them act.ed with caution.
"
'l'o unhappy we there is not much hope rei;naining.
Th em willingly, and of th eirselves, ~ndeavored t~ make a
r econc ili ation.
Ho and them we know, but whom art thou?

CON JUNOTI ONS.
21. Conjunctions are words used to connect
words . and sentences: as, " Life and death."
· "You are happy because you are good."
The-principal conjunctions are contained in the following

LIST.
And,
as,
b oth,
b ecause,
besides,
but,

either,
for,
if,
lest,
neither
nor,
whereas.

notwithstanding,
or,
provided,
·since,
that,
th en,

therefore
than ,
though,
u nless,
wherefore,
yet,

(See &ct ion 17, Note.)

N OTE.-Tha t, when it stands in close connection before a name,
and defines or limits its meaning, is a defi11itive adject;ve: as, "That
pen is mine." When not so placed, if it can be tnrned into who or
whfrh, without destroying the sense, it is a p1·onoun: as, "All that
I see charms me;" or, "All which I see," &c. In all other instances,
that is a conjunction: as, "He knows t~at his end is coming."

22. Conjunctions, either expressed or understood, connect words in the same construction :
as, "They live and learn." "He and she reside

48

CONJUNCTIONS.

INTERJECTIONS.

there." "I saw William or Richard." "Some
toil early and late." "I love spring, summer,
autwnn, and winter." "Thou art a w{ser man
than I."

INTERJECTIONS.

49

23. Interjections are words used t~ express
some sudden emotion of the speaker : as, "Alas!
I fear for life."

NoTr:.-This is a very comprehensive rule, n.nd applies to name.
1)er~11, participles, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs. See the fol:
lowmg ·

Some of the more usual interjections are given in the following

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.

'

!

1:

.I11
ii

H e and them were there.
H er and Henry came.
Him and I are well.
Hi s wealth and him bid adieu to each other.
N eith er P eter nor us saw the stranger.
Between him rind I there was some contention.
Thou art a much greater loser than me by his death
She has improved more than me.
•
J ane c:in sew as rapidly as her.
A bolder hero than him never lived.
A s'.one is. heavy, and the sand weighty; but a fool's
wrath is heavier than them both . (Provel'bs, xxvii. 3.)
I have no friend but he.
She has a dislike to more than he.
None were injured but them.
Th ese are John and Samuel's tools.
I-le and their farms lie adjoining.
I t affects both the merchant nnd mechanic's interest.
He acted bravely, nobly, and wise.
That gentleman's ser vaut is sobe r, industrious, and obediently.
Sh e saw a man ploughing or having walked.
Th e flowers are neither budding ~or hnving bloomed in
the gard en.
_Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a base
mmd .

LIST.
hnrk I
hail!
halloo !
O!
oh I
lo I

foh !
heigh!
hem!
ho!
hist!
hush!

Ah!
a)as l
aw ay l
ali hail!
behold!

fie I

poh !
pishl
r eally I
soho!
strange!
tush!

welcome!
PARSING EXERCISES.

/

Every heart knows its owp sorrows.
B eing reviled, we bless.
Ridicuied, despised, persecuted, he maintained his prin'ciples.
Thou art industrious.
Hark I how sweetly thti woodlark singe!
From virtue to vice, the progress is grad ual.
By diligencil and frugality, we nrrive at competency.
Reproof either softens, or hardens, its object.
Though some are often adviseq, yet they do not reform .
'Velcome I to our peaceful valleys and mountains.
We could not serve him then, but W\l will hereafter.
Having been deserted, all became discouraged.
Friendship's smila often cheers a desponding heart.
He came unto his own, and his own received him not.

5

50

SPECIAL RULES.

Alas! no man's life is secure.
The nwn who left were slain , whereas the others escaped.
What d 1d each say?
They that sow in tears shall reap in joy.
I t is s tran~e that the messenger does not r et urn.
~I I Sitw that man whom yuu see k.
-Y ou may not hn.ve been deceived by another's hypocri•y.
If gren.tness flatters our vanity, it rnultiplie.s our dangers.

SPECIAL RULES.
11

24. Participles often r equire the nouns and
pronouns preceding them to take the .form .of
possessor: as, "At the time of Charles' coming."
"On his departing the foe advanced."
EXAMPLES FOR COHRECTION.
J ohn co rning so soon s urpri 8 ed us.
~!u c h depends on this rul e bei ng observed.
I ha.t 'ms th e cause of him failing.
H e is aware of his companion s ufferinrr
What is the r es ult of the pn.tient ne"'le"';ting the
.
tion ?
"'
prescr1pOn be en tering the room all others retired.
?n me having said we could not do too much he seemed
ng1tated.
'

25. The name of a person or thing addressed,
or a noun or pronoun placed with a participle
and independent of the rest of the sentence
stands as a subject without a verb.· """'
"" "G eorge,'

51

SPECIAL RULES·.

where are you?" "The day being past, we retired." "He having gone, they fled."
_.-

I

NoTE.-This rule can only be violated in using the eight.pronouns
mentioned in the Note under "Examples for Correction," Section 20.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Him being a child, bis parents deserted him.
The ladder trembled, him descending.
'Vhom having returned, order was restored.
0 thee! whose name I Jove.
Them having called, he laid aside his peu.

26. Home, way, north, east, and some other
words of similar meaning; and also names signifying duration, extension, quantity, quality, and
valuation, often stand independent of verbs or
prepositions: as, "He came home." "She went
this way." "The birds flew south." "They travelled that course." "The flower bloomed a
·month." "John is five miles distant:" "Water
t en feet deep." "The h at is worth two dollars."
"Ascend the mountain." (See Section 40.)
27. Two negatives, in the same simple sentence, destroy each other, and are equivalent to
an affirmative: as, "It is not uncertain," means,
"It is certain." "He will never be no taller,"
means, "He will be taller."

52

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Nor did they not perceive him.
No imitator never equalled his author.
I cannot by no means grant his request.
They cannot do nothing.
Covet neither life, nor no earthly good.

DIVISIONS OF TIME
28. Strictly speaking, time must be either present, past, or f1.d ure; but variety of language
gives each of these divisions a twofold signification: as,

I. P resent time, r eferring to what is now
transpiring: as, " They come," ·" I learn." . "You
go." "To give."

II. Prior-pnsent time, r eferring both to the
past and present: as, "They have come." " I
have learned." " You may have gone." "To ·
have given."

53

FORMATION OF VERBS .

DIVISIONS OF TIME.

as, " They had come."

" I had learned."

"You

·bad gone."
V. Future time, r eferring to any indefinite period after the present: as, "They . will come."
" I shall learn." "You will go."

VI. P riorjuture time, r eferring to' a future
period, prior to some other future period specified: as, " They will have come." "I shall have
learned." "You will have gone."
FORMATION OF VERBS.
The INFINITIVE VERB .furnishes a complete
• divisions of time : thus,
to the foregoing

KEY

To is the sign of the present of infinitive
verbs : as, "to go;''· and to, followed by have, is
the . sign of the p 1·ior-present: as, " to have
gone."

III. Past time, r eferring to any indefinite pe-

Drop the sign to, in each form, or change it to

r iod previous to the present : as, "They came. "
" I learned." "You went."

11'iay, can, must, might, could, would, or should,

P rio1·-past time, r eferring to a past period, prior to some other past period specified :

Change the signs to shall or will, and the fu -

IV.

a,nd th e p1·esent and p1·ior-present are formed.

5*

54

FORMATION OF VERBS.

ture and prior-future are formed.
54, 55.)

55

FORMATION OF VERBS.

(See Sections

PRIOR~PRESENT

TIME.

Have gone.
May, can, must, might, could, would, or
should have gone.

Had substituted for to have, forms the priorpast.

PRIOR-FUTURE TIME.

Drop to have, and the past, of most verbs,
is formed. The past of any verb is correctly
formed ~ - en it makes sense with once before it,
or yesterday after it: as, "He once went," or
"He went yesterday."

Infinitive verb,

Shall or will have gone.

To have gone.

(See Section 54.)

PRIOR-PAST •rrnE.

Had gone ..
PERFECT PARTICifLE.

Gone.
COMPOUND PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

Participles also are easily formed from infinitive verbs. (See Section 11.)

Having gone.
PAST TIME.

(I once) went; or, (I) went (yesterday.)

EXAMPLES,
Showing the Rr GU LAR FoRMS of the Verb to express the
six divisions of tim e: -

VERBAL ARCH,

OR

ARCH OF TIME.

•

PRESENT TIME.*

Go .
Infinitive verb,

.May, can, must, might, could, would, or
should go.

To go.

FUTURE TIME.

Shall or will go.
PRE S E~T

(See Section 55.)
PARTICIPLE,

Going.
Xon.--To Hptea enerry aod po•ltlno....
th• pru~nl ""rnelimca takH the form d4 loea,

* Some of the forms of preRent timE: are very ind etin ito.
and may be applied to p:1st., present, and future.

and the '""• 4i.tl Z...1.

PUT

Tno.

Tbey 1"'-.d.

r ..... P••T·

P&1oa-fU1'Ta&•

Lo"4.

Th•Y h-4 lo...S.

54

FORMATION OF VERBS .

ture and prior-future are formed.
54, 55.)

(See Sections

PRIOR-PRESENT TIME.
Have gone.
May, can, must, might, could, would, or
should have gone.

Had substituted for to have, forms the priorpast.
Drop to have, and the past, of most verbs,
is ·formed. The past of any verb is correctly
formed .. hen it makes sense with once before it,
or yesterday after it : as, "He once went," or
"He went yesterday."

55

FORMATION OF VERBS.

· lnfiniti'Oe verb,

PRIOR-FUTURE TIME.
Shall or will have gone. (&e Section 54.)

To have gone.

PRIOR-PAST 'rIHE.
Had gone.
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
Gone.
COM.POUND PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

Participles also are easily formed from infinitive verbs. (See Section 11.)
EXAMPLES,
Showing tbe Rr.GULAR FORMS of the Verb to express the ·
six divi8iOn8 of time: -

infinitive verb,

Having gone.
PAST TIME.

(I once) went; or, ·(I) went (yesterday.)

VERBAL ABCH,

OR

ARCH OF TIME.

PRESENT TIME.*
Go.
May, can, must, might, could, would, or
should go.
FUTURE TL\!E.
(See Section 55 .)

To go.

Shall or will go.

Going.

!'RF.SENT PARTICIPLE.
Xo-n.-To u:pru. enerry •nd po• lllnn-.,
1h1 ' " " " ' •.>metlmes 11.k u th• form Q

* Some of the forms of present time are very inde!inito.
and may be applied to p;1st., present, and futur e.

U...

•nd 'h• 1••1, tlW in1.

Pau. P••T·

Paioa-hlTTCll

Lo"'-

TheJ bM loftd..

54

FORMATION OF VERBS.

ture and pri01·future are formed.
54, 55.)

(See Sections

PRIOR-PRESENT TIME.
Have gone.
May, can, must, might, could, would, or
should have gone.

Had substituted for to have, forms the priorpast.

i

I

Drop to have, and the past, of most verbs,
is formed. The past of any verb is correctly
formed when it makes sense with once before it,
or yesterday after it : as, "He once went," or
"He went yesterday."

55

FORMATION OF VERBS.

· Infinitive verb,

PRIOR-FUTURE TIME.
Shall or will have gone. (&e Section 54.)

To have gone.

PRIOR-PAST ·rxME.
Had gone.
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.
Gone.
COM.POUND PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

Participles also are easily formed from infinitive verbs. (See Section 11.)

Having gone.
PAST TIME.

(I once) went; or, (I) went (yesterday.)

EXAMPLES,

•

Showing tbe RF.GOLAR FoRMS of the Verb to express the
six divisions of time: -

Infinitive verb,

VERBAL ARCH,

OR

ARCH. OF TIME.

Alt
PRESENT TIME.*
Go.
May, can, must, might, could, would, or
should go.
FUTURE TIME.

To go.

Shall or will go.
Going.

(See Section 55.)

PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
NOTS.--To u:prae eiiel"(J •Dd pG•lllYeD-.
th• ,,..,n1 ~metlmll!• talr.e• th• form U "19..

ai:ad ,h. ,..,, '" ,..,,

* Some of the forms of present time are very indefinite.
and may be applied to p•ist., present, and future.
PUT

Tnn.

TMr loved.

, ••.

P.iay.

Lo-tin,._

p...,.,

P••T·

Lo"'- ·

raao•·•••TTm•
They bll '-"-'-

56

FORMS OF VE.RBS.

ADDITION AL EXAMPLES.

The senate passed the bill and had adjourned the same
day.
We ought to live and to have learned.
He might have improved rapidly, and might write a fine
hand.
They had purchased the goods and have removed them.
Philip loved and has obeyed his mother.
The stage neither stopped nor delays for pas8engers.
His arm may be dislocated, or has been broken by the fall..
To love vice and to have hated virtue gratify a debased
heart. (See Section 74.)

1'o be carefully examined, but not committed to memory.
TO LOVE.

TO HAVE LOVED.

PRESENT,

PRIOR-PRESENT,

IJ

Love.
May, can, &c., love.

.I

Shall or will love.

l

57

FORMATION OF VERBS.

Have loved.
May have loved.

FUTURE.

PRIOR-FUTURE.

I

Shall or will have loved
PAST.

Loved.

,1

PRIOR-PAST.

I

Had loved.
TO BE LOVED.

TO HA VE BEEN LOVED.

PRESENT.

PRIOR-PRESENT.

Be loved.
May be loved.

IIave been loved.
May have been loved.

FUTURE.

PRIOR-FUTURE.

Shall or will be loved.

Shall or will have been loved.

PAST.

Were loved.

. . PRIOR-PAS'r.

Had been loved.
PARTICIPLES.

PRE SENT.

PERFECT.

Loving.
Being loved.

Loved.
Been loved,

COMPOUND PERFECT.

Having loved.
Having been loved.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
(See Section 22.)
The moon arose and will shine brightly.
You came and find all things prepared.

AGREEMENT OF VERBS WITH
THEIR SUBJECTS.
N OTE.-,-Teachers can either adopt the following, or uso the usual
rule found at the close of the Appendix.

• principal. nor auxiliary verbs ever
29. Neither
vary from the preceding regular forms to agree
with their subjects, except in the following instances. (See Section 53, I. II.
I. When a verb of present time has no auxiliary, and has a singular subject (I and thou excepted), it takes an additional sores: as, "John
runs." "Time flies.'' "Man lives." "It rains."
Do and have, without other auxiliaries, with
singular subjects (I and thou excepted), always
become does and has: as, "Jane does." "He
does go." " She has been."

(~

58

.

FORMS OF VERBS,

59

FORMS OF VERBS.

NoTe.- In grave or solemn style, th is used in stead of• or ea: as,
"J ohu rmmeth," " I t n 1i 1Leth," "She d oth," "He hath come."

RECAPITULATION OF EXAMPLES UNDER THE
EXCEPTIONS.

II. In the present, the verb be, without anoth er
auxiliary, becomes am with I, art with thou, is
with any other singular subject, and m·e with
any plural subject : as, '.' I am." " I am loving."
"Thou art." "Thou art taught." "He is."
" The man is gone." " They are loved."
In the past, wen becomes wast with thou, and
was with any other sing?,.llar subject: as, "Thou
wast." "Thou wast · seen." "It ·was." t1 The
boy was." "I was."

(%be carefully examined, but 11ot committed to memory.)

NOTE. - You, when it stands for a singular name, takes -w aB.

III. When a verb has the pronoun thou for its
~subject, it takes an additional st or est : as,
"Thou departest." "Thou diedst."
If there be an auxiliary, it takes thj st or est,
while the principal verb r etains its r egf1lar form :
as, "Thou mayst work." "Thou shalt know."
" Thou canst have." t1 Thou didst come."
But when a verb is used in commanding, entreating, exhorting, or permitting, it takes the
r egular form of present time with either thou, ye,
or you : as, "Depart thou." "Be thou." "Be
ye loved." "Do you be."
N OTE .-Thou must, shalt, w ilt, art, are peculiar in form.

SINGUL AR SUBJECTS.

J ohn loves- do es - does love - has- bas loved - h as
been - has been love,d - bas been loving.
J ohn is-is loved -is loving-was -was loved -was
_
loving.
I am - am loved- am loving - was - was loved - was
loving.
PLURAL SUBJEC'fS.

Men are-are loved-are loving.
SINGULAR OR PLURAL SUBJECTS.

You was or were-was or wero loved-was or were
loving.
N OTE.-As the termination th and the pronoun thott are n ow seldom used, except in g,.ve discourse or in poetry, it is unnecessary
to repeat here the examples in which they occur.
Correct and parse the following

EXAMPLES.
They commends her.
Joseph were respected.
You shouldst go.
All ba8 a talent to improve.
Virtue are the universal charm.
Com passion prompt us to relieve the wants of others.
Thou shall improve.
·
No mnn canst be active in disquieting ot_hers, who do
not at the same time, disquiets himself.
Tempers th.ou the vivacity of youth with a .proper mixture of serious thought.

60

. !

••
FORMS OF VERBS.

SENTENCES.

The spirit of true religion are social, kind, and cheerful.
Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour.
So much both of ability and merit are seldom found.
Great pains has bee n taken to reconcile the partie8.
He need not proceed in such haste.
They wilt have written when the mail arrive.
That man hadst broken a solem n pledge.
And the fame of this person, arid of his wonderful acti ons, were diffused throughout the country.
Has tho u no better rule of conduct?
Al as ! I are undone!
Com ing through the meadow, J ohn find some pretty
flowers and pluck th em for a nosegay.
The8e dwells in valleys, those roams the lofty mountains.
By some imprudence, he were deeply involved in debt.
What madness move the wretch?
How old n.re thou?
The lady said to her daughter, "Hastenest thou, or we
shalt be lost!"
I sing.~ of noble deeds.
1
Hnving waited long, they finally departeth.
I were anxious to hea r the famous orator.

J
SPECIAL RULES.
RELATION OF PRON-OUNS.
30. Pronouns have the same r elation that the
nouns or pronouns they r epresent would have in
the same pbce : as, "Julius performed his task."
"Boys love their sports." "I who am writing
was there." "Thou that leadest J oseph !ike a
flock."

61

EXAMPLES Fem CORRECTION AND p ARSING.
Thou who loves wisdom.
I who speaks from eiperience.
What is the reason that our language is less refined than
those of Spain, Italy, or France?
· I snw Robert, he who we met in the city yesterday.
Every man must judge of their o'wn ft"elings.
The crown had it in their power to give such rewardij as
they thought proper.
Thou that dwells in the mountains, a.rt •o]d and careworn.
Rebecca took goodly raiment, which were with her in the
house, and put them upon Jacob.
Let each esteem others better than themselves.

SENTENCES.
31. A SENTENCE ;s a series of words making
complete sense.
Sentences are either simple or compound . .
A simple sentence has only one subject and one
finite verb: as, "The earth revolv.es." "The
silver moon rides majestically."

A compound sentence is two or more simple
sentences united together: as, "The silver moon
appears, and rides majestically above the clouds.".
Each _division of a compound sentence is a
clause, or member of the sentence.
A phmse is two or more words rightly put
together.
6

62

CONNECTED WORDS.

CONNECTED WORDS.

32. An infinitive verb, a sentence, or a clause,
when it is the subject of a verb, has the same
r elation to the verb, or to nouns and pronouns,
as a singular noun : as, " To see is pleasant."
"That my friend should suffer, gives me pain."
N OTE.- Sections 32, 33, 34, 35, cannot be violated, in the u8e of
verbs, except in tbe few instances mentioned in Section 29, I. II.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING.
To read with propriety are pleasing and important attainments.
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of
all men.
To do unto othors as we would that they, under similar
circumstances, should do unto us, constitute the great principles of virtue.
Prnmising without due consideration, often produce a ·
breac h of promise. '
A desi re to excel others in learning and virtue are commendable.

1

CONNECTED WORDS.
33. Two or more infinite verbs or clauses, or
nouns and pronouns, connected by and, have the
same relation to verbs, nouns, and pronouns, as a
single plural noun: as, "To agonize and to suffer
are severe." "Philip and his son come with
their well filled baskets." (See Section 46.)

NoTE.-A11d is frequently implied or understood.
40.)

63
(See Section

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING.
To fear God, and to keep his commandments, bespeaks a
great and noble mind.
Both life and health is uncertain.
'l.'o advise the ignorant, relieve the needy, and comfort
the afflicted, constitutes an important part of the duties of
the pious.
Sincerity and truth forms the basis of every virtue.
'To be prosperous and to be happy, requires attentim to
our affairs.
Why is redness and· heat in fire?
Patience and diligence, like faith, removeB mountains.

34. If the nouns or pronouns, connected by
and, are all singular, and limited by each or
every, they hav~ the same relation to verbs,
nouns, and pronouns, that one of them would
have if standing alone : as, . " Every day -and
every hour brings its trials."
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING.
Every thought, every word, and every action, are to be
remembered in judgm en t, whether th ey be good or evil.
Each leaf, each spire of grass, each object in nature, proclaim the power of their Creator.
Every one of the ,chi ldren, and even every man, were
alarmed in view of their danger.

35. Infinitive verbs or clauses, or singular nouns
and pronouns, connected by or or nor, have ·a

64

VERBS AND PARTICIPLES.

singular relation to verbs, nouns, and pronouns;
but if either of the connected nouns or pronouns
be plural, they have a plural r elation: as, "To
write gracefully, or to read with propriety, is his
highest attainment." "Neither she nor Thomas
was there." "William, Mary, or the cousins,
intend to r eturn."

came, chose for chosen. " The letter wrote yesterday, is mailed," for "written yesterday."
The same error must also be avoided in form. ing the compound perfect participle, and the verb
of prior-present, or prior-past time: as, "John
has went" for "has gone ·" "had arose," for
"had arisen;" "having threw," for "having
thrown;" "having took," for . "having taken;"
"was knew," for "was known;" "has been did,"
for " has been done."
In forming verbs, in such cases, the perfect
participle is never used, except after the auxiliaries, have or ha;, had or hadst, and the variations of be; as seen in the examples above.

N;irE.-Or and nor are often understood.

EX.-LVIPLES FOR CORRECTION AND PARSING.

I',J

65

VERBS AND P AR TI C IPLE S .

Isnnc or Solo mon stn.nd alone.
Neither pince nor time were afforded.
H P, they, or we, is guilty.
Tu d es pi~e the poor, or to insult the unfortunate, give
~viclence of depraved he11.rts.
Speaking impati ently td servants; or nnything tlrnt betrays inattention, or ill humor, are certainly cW.inal
olf.,n ces.
,,,,..
Man's happiness or misery depend very much on his
own exe rt.ion.
Neither fame nor honors is sufficient to satisfy the im·
mortrd mind.

VERBS AND PARTICIPLES.
36. As the perfect participle and the verb of
past time are sometimes unlike in their form s,
care must be taken that the one be not used
for the other : as, done for did, become for be-

'

J

Non:.-The distinction between a perfect participle and a verb
of past time, when they differ, is clearly made, by the method of
forming them, in Section 28. (See also Sectio11 58.)

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
You have came too late.
The cars run off the track yesterday and given much·
trouble.
She has forsook her child.
The bird h:wing fle\i away, the bunter pursued it.
Jnhn has went with his companion.
'!'hou hadst drew the picture.
It hns fell.
They will have swore falsely.
Her letter is wrote.
My flowers are .took.

B*

66

OMISSIONS.

S\JBJEC1' AND OBJECT.

I seen her book, torn and soiled.
Having beg:i.n, she seemed pleased.
We done the work.
That girl had grew rapidly.
Samson had slew many men, he had smote them with a
jr1wbone.
Your coat is much wore.
When the moon shall have rose.

67

THEM AND THOSE.
39. The pronoun them should never be used
for the definitive adjective those: as, "He saw
them men," for "He saw those men." "Neither
of them two speakers is eloquent," for "of those
two."
EXAMPLES FOH. CORRECTION.

POSITION OF SUBJECT.
37. The subject is, usually, placed before the
verb; bnt sometimes comes after it, or between
the auxiliary and the principal verb: R.s, "Remember thoii !" "Where am I ?" "Can he remain there?" "Were you safe?" "Has Moses
come?" " WhQ.m shall I send?" " There stand
the rnonuments of his power."

POSITION OF OBJECT.
38. The object commonly follows the verb; but
sometimes precedes it: as, "Whom do you seek?"
" JV.re glory summons to the martial scene?" "The
rolls of fame I will not now explore." "I-lim
they released." "His son they slew." "vVhat
does he desire?"

Give me them apples.
Did you see them samples of bel\utiful silk?
Them playful children are in the garden.
In them days came John the Ba.pti8t.
Cha.des returned them marbles to his brother.

•

OMISSIONS.

40. In composition, to avoid repetitions and to
express ideas briefly, words are frequently omitted that properly belong to the grammatical con<truction. By supplying these omissions, in parsing, many apparent difficulties will be removed.
EXAMPLES.
Charles, let us go home; that is, Charles, let thou us to
go to home.
I saw all but h1m - but ,,aw not him.
There is none good but one - but one is good.·
Who did this? I - I did it.
He can read better than I - than I can read.
I have Ileen and beard him frequently - and have heard.

69

CHANGES OF

PARTS OF SPEECH.

This dny I bought a horse - on this day.
L as t year he went to Europe -in the last year.
The Lord do that which seemeth him good- seemeth to
him.
lhys , weeks, months, and years have fled-days and
'ree ks and months.
W o ! is me - wo ! is. to me. Ah me! - Ah! to me.
He works all day- all through the day, or, tlirough cill.
the day.
Wh ose book is that? It is John'~-John's book

standing;" " beautiful writing;" "in the beginning;" " from the rising of the tide."

68

Some place the bliss in action, some in ease;
Those call it pleasure, and contentment these.

( e ) ADJECTIVES often assume the form of
names : as, "The chief good;" "a million of
men;" "the author of evil;" "the bad are unhappy."

(f) DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES sometimes par~,r
.
1Y; "
take of the nature of adver b~: as, " .LrLOre
wise
"much less;" "not any greater d anger. "

- some place it in ease-and contentment these call it.
Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean I - roll on thy
way.

(g) ADVERBS, under some circumstances, become names: as, " -rr
.Lesterd ay 's paper; " " to -day's
news;" ,; ·the business of to-morrow."

CHANGES OF PARTS OF SPEECH.
41. (a) NAMES sometimes perform the office of
adjectives : as, " A cloth coat;" "a silver thimble ;" "a gold pen;" "a brick wall."

( h) OoNeUNCTIONS occasionally become adverbs : as, " He came then, a~d not before ; ''
"she died not long since." (See also Sec. 17, Note.)

( i) CONJUNCTIONS and PREPOSITIONS are often
( b) VERBS are often used as names: as, "A
dead calm;" "your interest;" "a broad sweep;"
"a deep cut;" "do not disturb his quiet."
( c) VERBS also become adjectives: as, "A
calm day;" "a quiet haven;" "still waters;"
"in like manner;" "a long distance."
( d ) PARTICIPLES are sometimes used for
names : as, "A lovely bein_q ;" "a good under·

used interchangeably, the one for the other: as,
"Man toils for wealth;" "He paused, for he
could speak no longer." "You have labored since
noon;" "Since life is short, let us improve it."
From these examples, it is evident, that the
sense and particular connection are the only certain guides in determining the part of speech to
w.hich a word belongs.

70

29

The nati ons

GENERAL EXAMPLES.

See Sections 5, 6, 11, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33,
34, 35, 36, 39, 41. (Th~ fig urea below 1'eje,. to S ectio11a.)
29

To-m orrows wisdom mayest prove thee simple to-day.
30

41, b

29

Consider every end, that they are but the end of a
41, d
29

41, d

I live, move, are conscious: what shall bar my being ?

In what mann er he succeeded are unkn own to me.

this ,busin ess ?

37

33

18

20

do not consider whom govern th ese powe rful cnuses.
29,

so

27

"'

To do good to th ey that hates us, and, not on no occa
33

33

sion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a christian.
39

6

Z1

••

~

Man, thou hast a social spirit, and" ~re deeply indebted

Time and chance hap peneth to all man; but every person

20

Zl

Plane ts govern not the soul, nor guided not the dest1mes
~mw.

41 , .

Not a brenth disturb the deep serene.

29

The hand that culled them flower's are gone.
41, b

35

I gnoran ce or negligence have caused this mistake.
29

30

Every person, whatever be th eir stntion, nre bound by
the du ties of morality and reli gio n.
20

I co u Id not avoid conside rin g they, in so me degree, as an
22

b
24
people l
41
Wh i\t can be the rea'son of the committee having delayed

39

The man who I found, had perished in th em snowy mountains.

29

ti es.
20 41, c
29
H n.ppy are thou, 0 brael'· Who art like unto thee, 0

liuds.
36
18
41, •
.
I have ofte n saw those kind of fruit.

29

29

22

more, and have esta·

29
u
1
.
There is in that frajl;rant pot of roses severa openrng

beginning.

20

t~!y shalt learn war no

blished a universal peace.
!
. ..
3
34
Each day and each hour bring with them respon s1b1h-

(To be corrected and pa.rsed. )

6. 41 , g.

71

GENERAL EXAMPLES.

GENERAL EXAMP LES.

22, 40

enemy to me; and he as a suspicious friend.

41, e

to thy kind.

22. 40

I refer to no other than he.
30, 29

6

0 ! th0u who dries the mourners tear l
.

25

Whose gray top shall tremble, him descending.

H~m being slain, the whole army ret.reated.
6

41, b

35. 29 •

Mans happiness, or mi~ery, are,

ID

a great measure, put

30

i 11 to their ow n hn.nds.
22, 40

29

Neve r was an y men so igjorant as th em.
M

~

'l.'he sun has threw his rays, beautifully and bright,
across the plainH.

72

GE NE RAL

41, b

30, 29

,,

E X A MP L E S.
.

29

Thou wh o lms been a witness of the fact, can give an
account of it.
18

F ull fathom five thy fatber lies;

PART SECOND.

29

Of his bones are coral made;
,

3(1, 29

'I hose are pearl s, that was hi s eyes;

,,

14

SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS.

Nothing of him th at doth fade.-Sltakspeare.
41, c

14

The mason~ desiring to have a level wall, th ey level it
41, a

41, b

with a sµ irit level.
He is averse to the n:jon involvin g
another war.
41 , b

the;~elves

in

NAMES OR NOUNS.

22

H e saw hi s plight, nor fears the thunders roar
22

'

Ile threw the rope and draws him safe on shore.
The lovers plight thei r vows.

•
I n proportion as either of these two qualities aro want·
ing, th e language is imperfect.
22

32

To live so b er Iy, rig
· 1iteously, and piou s, are important
32

dutie8.

'fll.

42. When two or more names, referring to the
same individual, as the possessor, follow each
other in close succession, the apostrophe must,
generally, be added to the last name only; especially if the object owned be expressed: as,
"That monster, Satan, the fallen angel's power."
"Washington, the President of the United States'
address."
But when the names refer to several individuals, each must have the apostrophe : as,
"Samuel's, J.ohn's, and the girl's books." "Our
Lord's and the Apostle's words."

to

N oTE.-Grn.mmarians diffe\ in regard this rule. See "Frazee'•
Grammar," R. IV.; "Murray's Grammar," R. X., Note 1.

74

VERB AND SUBJECTS.

43. When extent and duration are connected
in the same simple sentence, the extent should be _
placed before the duration: as, "But now cornmandeth all men every where to repent." " This
has been known to all men of every age."
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
:Beyond the bounds of time and space.
Th e effectiveness of the pulpit has declined among us,
within the last fifty years, to an alarming exte nt.
J<'rom th e days of Samuel to the days of Paul, the history
of th e J ewish and Christian Church speaks the same lan1
guage.
And yet this scheme, for more than six centuries, gave
law to the world.
In every composition, what interests the imagination, and
touches the heart, plea11es all ages and all nations.

VERBS.
44. The verb be, and some others, if preceded-'
by a subj ect or object, r equire a corresponding
subject or object after them, when both words
signify the same thing: as, "It is L " "We
know it to be them,." "He was crowned king."
(See Note imder E xample8, Section 20.)
EXA:VIPLES FOR CORRECTION
And they are them which testify of me.
Who did they represe nt him to be? (Transpose. )

VERB AND SUBJECTS.

-- 75

They supposed it was him.
After all theirprofessions, is it possible to he them?
I-le is not the person whom it seemed he was. (Transpose.)
It mig;ht have been him, but there is no proof of it.
And whom think ye that I am? (Transpose.)
Can it be me?
We thought it was thee.
I know not whether it were them who conducted the business; but I am certain it was not him .

45. A verb, having more than one subject,
may conform to either; but preference should be
given to that which is most natul""ally its subject:
of sin is death." "His meat was
a s ' " The waaes
b
locusts and wild honey."_ "I or thou art to
blame." "Neither he nor I am responsible."
N OTE.-It would be better to ch ange the form of the last two sentences, thus: "Either I am to blame, or thou art." "He i'l not responsible, nor am I."
•

EXAMPLES FOR CORRlW'fION.
You or I are disappointed. (See Note above.)
The reproofs of instruction is the way of life.
The soul's calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy are virtue's prize.
This report were the means of injuring the mayor, aldermen, and common council.
So great an afll.iction to him was his wicked soDB.
They is the strength of the union.
Ten added to ten are a score.
The breadth of it were fifty cubits.
The wall are ten feetthigh.
Ten feet are the breadth of the floor.

76

INFINITIVE VERBS.

4G. Two or more singular nouns, which r efer
to the same person or thing, connected by and,

'l'he ignis-fatuus, like a friendly light, but it betrays the
unwary travell er <l own to the secret chambers of death.
Beings who never smile but at the tears of others; whose
joy consists in the wreck of human happiness; and, whose
only music is the voice of lamentation and wo.
Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are
so constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and r espect
genuine merit.

expressed or implied, have the same r elation to
verbs, nouns, and pronouns, as one singular
noun: as, "That great statesman and hero is no
more." (See Section S3.)
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Pliny the philosopher and nnturalist have greatly enriched science.
·
That able scholar and critic hnve been eminently useful.
'£0 them, this spurner of gold, this rejector of honors
'
this trampler on enrth, are fools nnd madmen.
I

47. Verbs of giving, asking, teaching, and
some others, may have two objects : as, "Give
me a pen." "Ask him the news." "She taught
them astronomy." "Send her a letter."
NoTE.-In such expressions a preposition is understood: as, "Gi~
to me a pen," &c. (See Section 40.)
,..

·.I

77

VERB .A.ND SUBJECTS.

48. Every subj ect, except such as are included
in Sections 25 and 26, must have a finite verb expressed or implied.
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
There, too, the bold Indian gi rl, with graceful bearing
and lustro us eye8, in glittering dress of painted 8 kins.
Heretofore the brave soldiers, who have contributed so
much to the glory of our country, liable to be cruelly flogged
for even slight misdemeanors.

49. Every finite verb must have a subject expressed or implied.

J

g

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.

11

I

j

Never was n governor more necessary to n province; but
would hnve bee n almost impossible for the king to hnve
selected one Jes~ qualified for the st>itioa.
With regnrd to created beings, is a duration has a beginning, but will never have an end.
The magnificent achievement won the admirntion which
was due to an enterprise seemed more divine than human.
Ignorant of the grent principles of religion, and of its
power to snve, and wear it as r. cloak to hide the deformity
within.
As well might the oyRter attempt to pass judgment on
the towering eag l ~, flyin g on the wings of the etorm, and
mounts and mingles with the new born Pght.

50. Infinite verbs r equire the sign to after
dare, "to challenge;" and also after dare, "to
venture," when it refers to past or future time:
as, "He da1·ed the enemy to meet him." "They
dared to leap the chasm." "Will you dare to
fa ce the tyrant?" (See Section 10.)

7*

l,

..

78

DISTINCTIONS OF TIME.

DISTINCTIO NS 01'' TIME.

EXAMPLES .FOR CORRECTION.
Dare me fire a g un . ·
H e did_ not dare cross the rushing stream .
You will not dare say to t he face what you so freely utter
behind the back.
You have dared throw more than a suspicio n
character.
upon my
He will not dare attack his adversary.
Although I felt myself honored by the offer, yet I dared
n ot accept it.
H e dares not to touch a hair of Catline.

DISTINCTIONS OF TIME.

-

51. Verbs of past time have no r eference to
the present; but verbs of prior-present time r efer
to a past period, which immediately precedes or
includes the present.
'
EXAMPLES.
I have completed the work more than a week agoshonld be, I completed, &c.
The Lord hath given and th e Lord hath taken away'l'li e Lord gave, &c.
I remem ber the family more t han twenty years - I have
remembered.
He has seen the coronation at 'Vestminster last summe r
-Ile saw.
Charles has 11itely finished the building- Charles lately
finished.
They lrnve lo.b;>red on a farm until very recently-The
laborBd.
y

79

This man has been 6ick a short time since -was sick.
When in Italy, I have visited Rome - I visited.
l read Virgil several times - I have i·ead.
In the beginning, God has created the heavens and the
earth - God created.
Philosophers have made great discoveries in the last cen. tury - Philosophers made.
Philosophers made great discoveries the present century
- Philosophers have made.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Rharaoh and his men of war have been swept away with
th e waters of destrnctio~.
Dr. Morse says the forts of the Romans iii England have
been universally square.
The northern parts of North America were known to us
bot about two centuries, yet, during that time, no less thau
forty-five earthquakes occurred.
The ancients have under8tood the art of making glass.
I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered, when I
have been in trouble.
This curious piece of workmanship was prese rved, and
shown to strangers, for more than fifty ·years past.
This mode of expression has beeri formerly mooh admired.

52. When an infinitive verb refers to an action
or event as prior to that of the verb which it follows, the prior-present form must be used; otherwise the present : as, " You appear to have been
intoxicated yesterday." "You appear to be intoxicated now." "It gratified me to see my
friend ."

80

DISTINCTIONS

N OTE.- Tho nhove is a ge;w·al rule: the following special rule,
from l\·Iurray, is very convenient in somo cases: "All verbs expressive of hope, desire, in tention, or command, must invn.rinbly be followed by tho present, aµd not the prior-present of infinitive verbs."

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
General 'l:Vashington employed several cruisers to have
in te rcep ted the ships of the enemy.
They left this monu ment to have preserved the memory
of th eir voyage.
H e is said to write much in former years.
'!'he last week I intended to have gone.
From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the
H oly Scriptures with great attention.
She ord ered her waiter to have return ed home.
:Frances ought to {l;O yesterday.
I intended to have spent only a few days here, and th en
,,
to hav e returned to Montreal.
He appears to make a clean sweep, wherever he has
been.

53.
to be
takes
ever:

WILL

OF TIME.

I. When uncertainty and futurity are both
expressed by a verb of present time, it
the regular form with any subject what- "'
as,

If th ou injure another, thou wilt hurt thyself.
If he cont·i nue impenitent, he must suffe r.
H e will maintain his principles, th ough he lose his
estate.
Whether he be successful or not, his intention is lauU.
uLle .
Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty.
'l':ike heed that thou speak not to Jacob.
N OTE .-This Section is an exception to Section 29, I. II. III.

AN D

SHALL.

81

II. When the verb were conveys an idea of
uncertainty, it becomes wert with thoii, and r emains unchanged with all other singular subj ec~s : as, "If thou wert he." "Wert thou he."
"If it were possible, they would deceive the
ele.:;t."

(See Section 29, IL)

NoTE.-The peculiar forms of this Section are, generally, preceded
by· one of the following conjunctions: if, though, tmleBB, except, le.t,
that, whether, &c.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRE9'l'ION.
Unle8s thou learnest faster, thou wilt be no scholar.
If he does but touch the hills, th ey shall smoke.
No power, except it ~as given from above.
Though be slays me, yet will I trust in him.
Though our Savior were rich, yet for our sakes he be·
came poor.
. Thou{l;h He were a sc.n, yet learned he obedience, by the
things which he suffered.
If he does submit, it will be from necessity1
Unless he acts prudently, he will n ot accomplish his
purpose.
Wh at though the field is lost? all is not lost l
Though he do submit, yet he is not convinced .

WILL AND SHALL.
54. In the prior-future, "will should not be
used with I or we; nor shall with any other subject, unless that subj ect be preceded by if,
though, unless, &c.

84

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT.

PARTICIPLES.

85

EXAMPLES.
I am the Lord, that rnaketh all things; that stretch forth. •
the heavens alone -It should read, that maketh, that
stretchetlt; or, that make, that stretch .
If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone
astray -Either has a hundred, and is gone; or, have a
hundred, and be gone

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
The oak mocketh at the fury of the storm, and rejoices
in summer sunshine.
I feared that I sho uld have lost the parcel, before I
arrived at the city.
•
I have compassion on the multitude, because they continue with me now three days.
John will earn his wages, when .his service 'is completed.
The hero returns, like a triumphant conqueror, was
drawn in a chariot of four; having worn the crown of vie·
tory, and was everywhere greeted with the acclamations of
the people.
It was when Eve saw that the tree had been pleasant to
the eyes, th n.t she has taken of the fruit th ereof ; by which
act ~he loses Eden, and brings den.th into our world.
I h:we resided at Washington six months, and seen the
Pre~ident last week.
The next new ye<>.,,s day, I shall be at school three
years.
To lie in my bertn, I cculd not; sit still, when out of it,
was impossible.

PARTICIPLES.

57. If either a, an, or the, stands before a present participle, in sentences like the following, of
must be placed immediately after it: as, "By
the observing of which." "By the preaching of
repentance." "From a rising of the tide."
N on:.-In such instances, the definitive · anl! the preposition must
both be used, or both omitted. (See Sectio" 41, d.)

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
This may prove the sealing his eyes in perpetual darkness.
. Whn.t ! threaten me with telling of the king?
This principle manifests itself in the acquiring money;
in keeping of it; and in the fixing the heart upon it.
By a continual mortifying our co rrupt affectionl
This was, in fact, a. converting the deposit to his own
use.

58. A verb is said to be REGULAR, when its
prior-present infinitive adds d or ed to the present : as, present, "to love;" prior-present, "to
have loved."
All vthers are called IRREGULAR : as, present,
"to go;" prior-present, "t0 have gone."
8

86

Present
Jnfin. Verb.
To dare, to ven..
tun:,

The foll owing is a list of

iji

IRR EGULAR VERBS.

IA

T

,,f

,11

NOTE.-Those verbs which nre sometimes used in the regul ar for m
are marked with an R

f1·
'"

Verb.

To nbit.le,

To hu\'C abode,

'f o lluYe arisen,
•ro a rise,
'l'o bave a woke, R.
To nwake,
To have been,
To be,
'l'o buvc borne, born,
'l'o bear,
To Ua\•e beat, beaten,
'l'o beat,
To have become,
To become,
To h ave begun,
To begin,
To hnve bent, R.
To bend,
To hnve bereft, It
To ber~avc,
To h ave be ~o u g ht,
'fo beseech,
To have bidden, bid,
To bid,
To have bound,
To bind,
To have bit, bitten,
To bite,
To bare bled,
To bleed,
To have blown, R.
To blow,
To have broken, broke,
To break,
To have bred,
To breed,
To have brought,
'l.'o bring,
To have built, R.
To build,
'fo have burst, R
To burst,
'fo have bought,
To buy,
To h ave ca.Bt,
To cast,
To h ave caught, R.
'fa cntch,
To have cbid,
To chide,
To have chosen, chose,
'l'o choose,
To clea,•c, to adhere, R.
To have cleft, clove,
To cleave, to
cloven ,
split,
To h ave clung,
To cling,
To have clad, R.
To clothe,
'l.'o have come,
To come,
•ro have coi:;t,
'l'o cos t,
1'o have crept,
To creep,
'f o hnve cut,
'l'o cut,

(

l
,,

Perfect
Participle.

Prior-present
Infinitive Verb. ·

PrPSl'..nl
l1~ fin..

abodn,

arisen,
awoke,R.
been,
borne, born,
beat, beaten,
become,
begun,
bent, R.
bereft, R.
besought,
bidden, bid.
bound,
bit., bitten,
bled,
blown, R.
broken, broke,
bred,
brought,
built, R.
bur~t, R.
bought,

cast,
caught, R.
cbid,
chosen, chose,

~

Verb of
Past Time.
abotle.
arose.
awoke, R.
were.
bore.
beat.
became.
be~an, begun.
bent, R.
bereft, R.
,besough t.
bade, b1tl.
bound.
bit.
bled.
blew, R.
broke.
bred.
brought.
built, R.
burst, R.
bought.
C&At,
caught, R.
cbid.
chose.

lenge., R.
To deal,
To dig,
'fo do,
'l'o <lraw,

To drive,
To drink,
'l'o dwdl,

'l'o eat,
To engrave,
'l'o fall,
To fcOO,
'l'o feel,
'l'o fight,
'l.'o find,
'l'o flee,
'l'o fly,
To tting
To forget,

f

To have de.red, R.

Verb of
Past Timt.

Perfect
Participle.

durst, R.

dared, R.

clung.
lt.
came, come.
cost.
cr~pt.

cut.

dealt, R.
To have dealt, R.
dug, R.
To hav"' dug, R.
done,
'l'o have done,
drawn,
'110 bnva drawn,
driven, drove
~·o have driven, drove,
drank,
'l'o have drimk,
dwelt, R.
'l'o have dwelt, R.
eaten, eat,
'J'o have entttn, eat,
engraven, R.
'l'o have engraven, R.
fallen,
'l'o have fallen,
'l.'o have ftid,
~ed, ,
fel t,
'fo have felt,
fought.,
'l'o have fo u ght,
found,
'l.'o have fouud,
fled,
'l'o have fled,
flown,
To have flown,
flung,
'fo llave flung,
To have forgot, for- (
forgot, forgotten,
gotten,
forsaktm,
T~ have forsaken,
'l'o havo frozen, froze, • frozen, froze.
~at, gotten,
To have got, gotten,
gilt, H..
'l'o hav e gilt, R.
girt, H.
To havE\ girt, H..
giYcn , .
'l'o have given,
gone,
'l'o have gone,
, grnven, R
To ha:re gr1wei:. R.
j:;TO'Jnd,
'fo have grountl,
grown,
'l'o have grown
bad,
'l'o ba\'e bad,

'l'o forsake,
To freeze,
'l'o get,
'l'o gild,
'l'o gird,
'fo give,
'l'o go,
fo grave,
'l'o grind,
'l'o grow,
To ha\'e,
'fo hang, to t.ake
away life, It.
To bang, to sus- }
d

cleft, ciove, t:loven, cleft.
clung,
clnd, R.
come,
cost,
cr,ept,
cut,

Prior-preunt
Infinitive Verb.

To dure, to chal,.

11

.J

87

IRREGULAR VERBS .

I RREGULAR VERBS .

pen .

'l'o lww,
'l'o hide,

To bit,
•ro hold,
To hurt,
'l.'o keep,
•ro knit,

•

dealt, R.
dug, R.
did.
drow.
drove.
drank.

,I\

dwclt,R.
ate, eat.
It.

foll.
fed.
felt.
fought.
found .

I

,I
I

!l<!d.
flew,

1l

tluug.

j

I

forgot.
forsook .
froze.
got.
gilt, R.
gi rt, n..
gave .
went.
R.
gro•md.
grew.
huu.

To hnve hung,

bu ng,

hung.

'l'o have hewn, R.
To have bid: bidden.
To hav e bit,
To bave held,
To bnve hurt,
'l'o have kept,
'Io hav-o knit,

hewn, R.
b id, hiddezl,
bit,
held,
hurt,
kept,
knit,

It.

.,

bid.

bit.
held.
hurt.
kept.
knit.

-~

88
i

;f

~

~Ill

lj,

'l'
~ l ::
.

~

!d

1>
1·

'

I,!
.'

Present
I nfin. Verb.
To kuow,

P rior-present
l nfinitil.:e Verb.
'l'o hl:iv e known,
To laU1::,
'l'o huvti !all.e n, H..
'l'o l11y,
To have laid,
'l'o lead,
To have led,
'l'o Je1we,
'l'o ha vu left,
'l'o !cud,
To have Jeot,
'J" h~ t,
To have let,
'l'o have lain,
'.l'o Ii• !down),
To load,
To have lat.lcn, R.
'l'o lose,
'fo have lost,
To hn ve m:lCl e,
To mnke,
To buvc mean t,
To awan,
'l'o meet,
To liave met,
To have mown , R.
To mow,
'Io pay,
'l 'o ba\'e paid,
To h ave put,
To put,
To q uit,
To ha ve quit, R.
To read,
To have re:id,
To b 1lVe nm t,
To rend,
To hav e rode,
To rill.
To have rid,
To ride,
To bn\"e rung,
'l'o ring
To h ave ri:.:en,
'l'o rise,
To h:n•e ri,•en, R.
To ri,·e,
'l.'o hav e run,
'f a run,
To h1we SilWD 1 R.
'l'o "aw,
To have sllid,
'J'o say,
To hnve seen,
To ~ce,
To hnve :::ought,
'l'o "eek,
To h lt ve sC1ld,
'l'o si:!l l,
To bn,·e ~ea t,
'l'o send,
To h n\•e !'et,
To se t,
To lmve shaken ,
To "hake,
To have shorn, R.
l'o "hear,
To h nv~ shed,
'fo sh ed,
To ba \"C shone, R.
To ~h in e,
l'o "hew (Pron. (
show ),
To hnve shewn,
'l'o

Fo h 0 \\"' 1

To i::hoe,
To F-hno t,
'l'o !'h rink,
'l'o ~ h rcd,
'l'o shut,
'l'o sing,

To hnve shown, R.
To hnve F-hod,
To h 1\ ve ~ h ot,
To have i:;hrunk,
To have shred,
'.l'o hovo shu t,
To have sung,

Perfect
Participle.
know n,
lacfon, It.
l aid,
!I'd,

left,
len t,
let,
l ain ,
laden, R.
lost,
made,
meant,
m et,
mown, R.
paid,
put,
quit, R.
r ead,
rent,
ro<le,
rid ,
run g,
r isen,
riv en, R.
ru n,
sawn, R.
said,
seen,
sought,
sold,
sent,
set,
shaken,
~h or n, R
shod.
shone, R.

89

IRREGULAR VERBS.

IRRE GU LA R VERBS.

R.
lost.
mt1.de.
meant.
met.

R.
puid.
put.
quit, R.
react
r ent.
rid.
1
ro de.
rung, r ang.
ro"e.
R.
run,. r an.

R.

shew n,

shewn.

shown, R.
shod,
shot,
shrunk,
i;:hrP.d ,
shut,
sung,

R.
shod.
E:ho t.
shrunk.
Ah red.
shut.
sun g.

~

Verb of
Past Time.

Per fed
Participle.

sunk.

Bunk,

sat,
slnin,
E<lept,
To have slept,
slid, R.
'£0 have slid, R.
sl u ng,
'l'o have slung.
slunk,
'fo h ave slunk ,
sli t, R.
'l'o have sli t, R.
'fo h ave smitten, smit, smi tten, emit.
1mwn, It.
To have sow n, R.
'ro have spoken, spoke, spok en, spoke.
sped,
To have sped,
spent,
To have spent.,
spilt, R.
To have spilt, R
spun,
To have sp un,
spit,,
To have spit,
split,
'l'o have split,
spread,
To have spread,
sprung,
'l'o hav e Rpr uu g,
stood,
'J'o have stood,
stole, sto len,
•ro have stole, stolen,
stung,
'l'o have f:ltung,
stunk,
To have stunk,
stuck,
To have stu ck,
Rt.rid,
To have strid,
41tr uck,
To have str uck,
strung,
'fa have strung,
striven, R.
To have stri ven, R.
strown, R.
'l'o h ave strown, R.
To have filat,
'l'o hu.v e sluin,

'l'o sl ing,
'l'o sli uk,

Joy.

said.
saw.
sought .
fiOltl.
E:en t.
set.
shook .
IL
shed.
sho ne, R.

Prior-present
Infinitive Verb.
To have su uk,

Present
Infi"· Verb.
To sink,
'l'o sit,
'l'o slay,
To sleep,
To t'lide,

>erb of
Rist Tfou.
knew.
It.
laid .
led.
I.ft.
len t.
let.

'l'o slit,
'l'o smite,
To tr.OW,'
To speak,
. 'l'o fipoed,
To spend,
'l'o spill,
To spin,
'l'o spit,
'l'o Hplit,
'l'o spread,
To spring,
'l'o stand,
To is.teal,
To sti ug,
'fo stink,
To fiti ck,
To stride,
'l'o strike,
'l'o string,
To fit rive:
'l'o ~t row,
To strew, R.
To swear,
'r o sweat,
'l'oswi m,
To swing,
T b tak e,
To tea.ch,
1
r o t ea r,
To tell,
To think,
To tbrivo,
To throw,
To thrust,
To tread,
'l'o w(:nr,
r o weave,

8*

•

sworn,
To hal'"e sworn,
!lweat, R.
'l'o h aVe sweat, R.
swum,
To bave swu m,
swun g,
'£0 have swung,
taken,
To have taken,
taught,
'l'o have tau ght,
t orn,
To have torn,
told,
To h avei told,
thought,
'l'o have thought,
thriv ed,
To hav e thrived ,
t hrown, R.
To bal"e throw n, R.
thrust,
To have thrust,
To have trod, trodden, trod, trodden,
worn,
To have worn,
To have wovc n ,wove, R. wovcni wove, R.

St\t.
sle\V.

slept.
slid, R.
f'lun g.
slunk.
slit, It.
smote.

R.
spoke.
sped.
spent.
spilt,R.
sp un.
spi t.
split.
sprOl\d.
sp run g.
stood.
stole.
st ung.
st unk
stuck .
strode, strld·
str u ck.
strung.
strove, R.
R.
swore.
sweat, R.
sw um, swam.
swun g.
t ook.
tought.
tore.
t old.
thought.
tbrove, R.
threw. R.
thrust.
t rod.
wore.
wove, R.

90
Present
lnfin. Verb.
To
'l'o
To
'l'o
To
'l'o
To

weep,
win,
wet,
win d,
work ,
wring,
write,

PRONOUNS.
Pr io1'-present
Infinitive Verb.
To have wept,
'l'o have won ,
'fo have wet, R.
To h ave wound, R.
'l'o have wrou~ht, R.
'l'o have wrung, R.
1
1'0 have written,

Perfect
Participle.
wept,
won,

wet, R.
wound, lt.
wrought. R.
wrun g, lt.
written,

Verb of
Past Time.
wept.
won.
wet, R.
wountl , R.
wrough t, R
wrun g, R.
wrote.

OBSOLETE FORMS.
r erbs of Past Time.
Bare,
chn·e,
crew,

drrn•e,
forgat,
gat,
sang,

Bounden,
ch id den,
drunken,

holden,
ridUen,
shapen,

drunk,

shavcm,

brak<>,

sank,
E:pnke,

spat,

flpran g ,
stank,
aware.

Perfect Participles'.
sitten ,
slidden,
sp itten,
stridden,

stricken,
swollen,

AND

particular individual among mftny others: as,
"Which of the two men?" "Our Father, which
art 111 heaven."
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Who of these men came to her assistance?
Th e man which informed me was mistaken.
Th e horse whom I rode.
. I saw the lady which sailed in yesterday's steamer.
The house whom I bought.
He was th e most eloquent 8peaker which yo u ever
heard.
The tirer is n. beast of prey, who destroys without pity•
Is this the child whom you found?

tbriv~n,

waxen.

PRONOUNS.
WHO

91

PR ONOUNS.

WHICH .

59. Who is applied to persons, but never to
children, things, and brutes: as, "A man who
died." "The lady who purchased a piano."

60. It sometimes adds beauty and force to the
compounds, whatsoever, whichsoever, and whosesoever to divide them by an intervening name: as,

'

.

•

.

W7iat way soever I turn, death pursues me.
On which side soever the king cast his eyes.
Whose sins soever ye remit, they are remitted.
N OTE .- l n parsing, ~hese divided words should be united into one
word.

Which is applied to children, animals, and
things : as, " The child which came." Jc The bird
which sings." "The cloak which I had."
Which, however, is applied to persons, when
we wish to distinguish one person of two, or a

I .,

92

ADJECTIVES.

C0 MP A R I S0 N 0 F

A D J E CT I V E S•

93

A few adjectives are irregular in compariADJECTIVES.

son: as,

61. Most adj ectives ar e varied by three degrees of comparison, called the p ositive, the com parative, and the sup erlative.
The positive degree expresses a quality as dis.tinct and positive : as, "Wise," " good," "'white,"

Positive.
Good,
Ilad or evil,
Little,
l\luch 01· many,
Near,
Old,
Late,

"red."

,...

The comparative degr ee expresses a quality
greater or less in degr 0e than the positive : as,
" vViser," " less wise," "better/' "whiter," "redder. "
The superlative degree expresses a quality of
the highest or lowest degr ee : as, "Wisest," "least
wise, " "best," "whitest," " r eddest.'
Some adjectives admit an imp erf ect degree,
which expresses a quality slightly below the positive. This degree always ends in ish: as, "Greenish," "saltish, " "blackish.''
The positive is usually changed to the compar ative by adding 1· or er, or placing m ore or less
befor e it ; and to the superla tive by adding st or
est, or placing m ost or least before it: as,
Great,
Heroic,
Wi 8e,

greater,
more heroic,

greatest.
most heroic.
least 1~ise.

Superlative.
best.
worst.
least.
most.
nearest or next
oldest or eldest.
latest 01· last.

l'omparative.
better,
worse,
less,
more
nearer,
older or elder,
later,

62. Adj ectives that have in themselves a superbtive signification, do not properly admit of
the comparative ~r superlative form superadded:

as,
Chief,
universal,

extreme,
supreme,

perfect,
straight,

.

right,
square, &c.

-

The following are, therefore, il!Correct: Chiefesli,
most universal,

extremest,
. more perfect,
more square, &c.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Tho sun's mys are spreading to the most extreme boundaries of the horizon.
M0re perfect rapture never thrilled human bosom.
This piece of timber is straighter than that.
Virtue confer~ the supremest dignity on man; and should
be his chiefest desire.
·
'l'his is the most universal preparation for every station
of lift>.

' I
I '

,.

l'
I

I
I

94

C 0 M PA RI S 0 N 0 F A D J E C T I V E S.

C 0 M P A R I S 0 N 0 F A D J E C T I V E S.

He g:we the fullest and the most sincere proof of the
tru es t friendship.
That block is squarer than the others.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.

63. Double comparatives and superlatives should
be avoided : as,
A worser conduc t; for, worse conduct.
L esser hopes ; for, less hopes.
A more serener tempe r; for, more serene.
The most straitest 'ect; for, the straitest sect.
A more superior wurk; for, a superior work.
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
He spoke in the most strongest terms.
That piece of ice is more smooth\)r than glass.
The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove.
The most pleasantest spot on earth is home.
The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable
than those of the imagination, or of sense.
·
On the most loftiest mountains snow is ever found.

64. When a comparison is made, either with
adjectives or adverbs, and refers only to two persons or things, the comparative degree must be
used; but when it r efers to three or more, the
superlative must be used : as,
Love is stronger than death.
The smaller of these two birds sings the more sweetly.
John is the best boy in the class, and studies the most
d'iligently.
N OTE. -Good writers sometimes vary from this rule.

95

Of the -two sisters, Mary is the oldest, and Eliza is the
tallest.
Which of those three oranges is the riper.
H e is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest.
He r parents often praised her, but her mother the most
freq uently.
Spring, summer, and autumn, are all pleasant; but I
prefer the latter.

65. When the comparative degree is used, the
latter term of comparison should not include the

i~

former : as,
Gold is more valuable than all the other metals; not,
all the metals.
EXAMPLES FOR CC~RRECTION.
Job was more patient than all men.
Youth is less burdened with care thiln any period of life.
The regions around the poles are more seldom visited
than any part of. the globe.
Jacob loved Joseph better than all his children.
The ostrich is larger than any bird known to naturalists.

66. When the superlative degree is used, the
latter term of comparison should include the

f orme1· : as,
Hope is the most constant of all the passions; not, of all
the other passions.

..

96

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
An iceberg is the most splendid of all the other oLj ects
in the northern seas.
Eve was the fairest. of all her dau ghters.
Rh ode Island is the ~ m all es t tJf all th e other states.
Hobe rt is the most modest of all his brothers.
He spoke with so much propriety, that I un derstood him
the best of all the others who spoke on the subj ec t.

67. Adjectives are, occasionally, used to qualify
verbs, adverbs. other adjectives, clauses, or sentences : as,
The wind blows cold.
Full oft she came.
The deep blue sky.
To be a coward i ~ di'.sgraceful.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
It was a enemy, not an friend, who did this.
He waited a hour for a answer.
, She is reading an univ ersal history.
A.n union of sentiment.s is desi.rable.

ADVERBS.
69. Many adverbs are compared like adjectives: as,
Comparattve.
sooner,
oftener,

Positive.
soon,
often,

68. The definitive adj ective a is used before
words beginning with a consonant, or u long, and
before the word one: as, "A time," "a hand,"
"a union," "a unit," many a one."
. An is used before words beginning with a
vowel, or silent h; and before words in which
the h is sounded, when the accent is on the
second syllable : as, "An ounce," "an atom,"
"an hour," "an heroic poem," "an umpire."

Superlative.
soonest.
ofte.nest.

Those ending in ly are, generally, compared by
~wre and most, less and least : as,
.

DEFINITIVE AD JECTIVES.

97

ADVERBS.

DEFINITIVE ADJEC TI VES .

Wisely,
wisely,

.

more wisely,
less wisely,

most wisely.
least wisely.

70. The definitive adjective the, when applied
to adverbs in the comparative and superlatl.ve degrees, seems to lose its original character, and to
become a· parf of the adverb : as,
The more I examine it, the better I like it..
You admire this the least of any.

71. Adverbs are, generally, placed before ad9

I

I

98

ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES.

jectives, after verbs, and often between the
auxiliary and the principal verb: as,
She is very good.
.Charles reads well.
They had not come.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
You are left not alone to climb the arduous ascent.
Th e vessel swiftly an d securely glides before the gale.
Some flowers very early bloom.
A better instance than this scarcely could be found.
Ile acted in som.ewhat :1 careless manner.
The waves are rolling continunlly.
Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tran·
qui! also.
We cannot be engaged always.
He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he became submissive.
The heavenly bodies are in motio n perpetually.

72: In using adverbs and adjectives, care
should be observed not to substitute the one for
the other : as,

PREP 0 SIT I 0 NS- C 0 NJ UN CT I

0. NS. 99

H e spenks very ·fluent, reads excellet1t, but does not think
very cohe rent.
The conspiracy was the easier diseovered from its being
known to many.
Samuel is nn extrem e dull scholar.
Has not your father grown incapably of reasonably affairs?
A thousand hearts beat happy, and all went merrily ad a.
marriage bell.
Ile had many virtues, and was exceeding beloved.

I.

PREPOSITIONS.
73. As the preposition among generally implies a number of things, it should not be used in
connection with the definitive adj ective every,
which has a singular significlttion: as,
This is known among every class of men; better, among
all classes, or, known to ot by every class.
Vice prevails am:ong every grade of society; better, in
every grade, or, among all grades. ·

I~

CONJUNCTIONS.
George writes beautiful; for, beautifully.
He is miserably; for, miserable.
They came agreeable to promise; for, agreeably.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
How Rerious th oRe leaden eyes dote on trifles !
'l'he solitarily heron stands in the same lonely spot.
H~ acted neither witty nor wise in commending ridicule.

74. When verbs are connected by a conjunction, and the subject is not repeated, they must
refer to the same time, have the same auxiliaries,
expressed or implied, and follow the same form :
but if there be a necessary change, in either of

I
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100

CONJUNCTIONS.

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS.

these r espects, or if the assertion pass from an
affirmative to a negative, or the contrary, the
subj ect must be r epeat ed: as,
John arose and f oll-0wed him.
They may go and may remain.
She will live and die hoping.
The girls are 8tudious, and they will improve.
He is wealthy, but he is not generous.
He is not wealthy, but he is generous.
NOTE.-Good writers- sometimes vary from this rule.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
Tears, like the rain-drops, may fall without measure,
But rapture and beauty cann ot recall.
Tho latter will not only be inexpressive, but must aISo be
monotonous and tiresome.
·
They have rewarded him liberally, and could not do
otherwise.
H e is not rich, but is respectable.
He lives temperately, and should live temperately.
He cannot swim, if he leaps out, yet thinks it the best
course.
Our season of improvement is short; and, whether used
or not, will soon pass away.
Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily pro·
duce virtue.
Learning titrengthens the mind; and, if properly applied,
will improve our morals too.
If he choose to indulge in soliloquies, (and will be much
inclined to do so,) he can relieve himself without disturbing
others.

101

CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS.

75. Some conjunctions r equire corresponding
coajunctions to follow them, so that the latter
member of the sentence answers to the former:
as,
I. Though requires yet, or nevertheless: as, " Though he
is old, yet he is active."
. ,,
IL Whether-or: as," Whetheryeeatordrmk.
III. Either- or: as, "They must either conquer, or be
conquered."
IV. Neither-nor: as, "Neither life nor death can part
us."
•
. V. Both- and: as, "He is both proud and vain.''
VI. .As- as: expressing a comparison of equality: as,
"The sea is as calm a.~ a quiet lake.''
VII . .As - so: express'!ng a comparison of equality: as,
".As thy day, so shall thy strength be." .
.
VIII. .As - so: expressing a comparison of quality: as,
".As the one di eth, so dieth the other."
IX. So-as: with a verb expressing a comparison of
quaiity: as, "To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in
thy sanctuary ."
.
X. So - as: with an adjective or adverb, and with oi::
without a negative, to limit the degree by comparison: as,
"So far as he speaks the truth, I believe him ." "Napoleon was not so noble a commander as Washington."
XI. So - as : expressing a consequence: as, "The
waves were so high as to endanger the vessel.''
XII. So - that: expressing a consequence: as, " He i~
ao frail that he can scarcely support himself."

9*

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102

EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.

EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.

EXAMPLES FOR CORRlWTION.

\

The scenery from Quebec to Gaspe is so diversified and
picturesque as you could well imag ine.
Whether upheld by strength, nor chance, nor fate.
I cannot tell whether he will go nor stay.
Either the clock and the watch runs too fast.
Pompey was not so great a man or Cresar.
Neither time or tide waits for our gratification.
Neither the king or the queen was present.
They are both ready or willing to undertake th e j ourney.

76. As.is often improperly used for than, with
the comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs: as,
This book is larger as that; for, than that.
He would rather ride as walk; for, than walk.
EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.

de-

Softer is the hide of the rhinoceros as the heart of
riding unbelief.
It is more pleasant to see a laughing cheek as a serious
forehe ad.
·
Better to be the vilest of the vile, in the ·hated company
of men, as to live a solitary wretch, dreading and wantin.,.
b
all tbin g1>.
He was more eloquent, but not so learned as his prede·
cessor. (Transpose.)
77.

EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.

1. All is well. All is quiet.
2. Alfred, than whom a greater king neve r rei gned.
3. It is I he seek~. It is me be seeks.

103

4. A great many. A thousand years.
5. Many a fri encj.
6. Ten head of cattle. Five sail of the line.
7. By this means. By that means.
8. Every three hours. This three months.
9. It is hirn you aim at.
10. It is he you aim at.
l l. It is they that performed the work.
12. Be it enacted.
13. Green be the turf above thee.
14. Upon the sail they fought to save.
15. Who steals my purse steals trash.
16. For I have business would employ an age.
17. Though .in her eye and faded cheek,
Is r ead the grief she will not speak.
18. Time need not be wasted.
19. No other historian of that country need be mentioned.
20. John need.~ advice.
21. Methinks I see the por}als of eternity wide open to
receive him.
22. She is worth him and all his connexions.
23. This life, a.t best, is but a dream.
24. This soli!ier talked the night nway.
25. He that bath ears to bear, let him hear.
26. The circu_mstances were as follow .
27. His words were as follows.
28. A picture of my friend .
29. A picture of my friend's.
30. 'fbe letter I expected yesterday, arrived to-day.
31. I am about to write.

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THE

COMMA.

105

III. When the connexion of the different parts
of a simple sentence is in.terrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before
the beginning, and at the end of such phrase : as,

PUNCTUATION.
(Compiled chiefly from Mr. Murray's Grammar.)
P UNCT UATION teaches to divicle written composition into parts or sentences, by points or stQtJs,
as the sense and cor rect pronunciation require.

His work is, in many respects, imperfect.
It is, therefore, not much approved.

IV. Two or more names, verbs, participles,
pro~ouns, adjectives, adverbs, or prepositions, in ,

the same construction, are separated by commas: as,

I. The several words of which a simple sentence consists, have so near a relation to each
other, th at, in general, no points are requisite,
except a full stop at the end of it: as,

The length, breadth, ·a nd depth, are all equal.
In a letter we may advise, comfort, and discuss.
Thou art happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected.
You have slandered her, him, us, (\nd others.
The most innocent pleasures are the 8weetest, the most
rational, the most affecting, and the most lasting.
He was suddenly, 11trangely, and fatally smitten.
They may go before, behind, around, or through the
house.

Every pttrt of matter swarms with living creatures.
No state of life is exempt from trouble.

N oTE.-Two words closely connected by n. conjunction, generally
form n.n exception to this rule : n.s,

THE COMMA.

II. When a simple sentence is long, and the
subject of the verb is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, it may admit of a pause imme- ·
diately before the verb: as,
To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a. real
defect in character.
(104)

Virtue and diligence lead to success.
We must live virtuously or viciously.
He was a great and good man.
Some live only to eat and drink.
I

V. When participles are followed by something that depends on them~ they are, generally,

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106

THE

COMMA.

separ ated from the r est of the sentence by a
comma: as,
The kin g, app1'0ving tlie plan, put it in execution.
His talents, f ormed for gi·eat enterprises, could not fail to
render him conspicuous.

VI. When a conjunction is separated by a
phrase or sentence, from the verb to which it
belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a
•
comma at each extremity: as,
They set out early, and, before the close of the day,
arriv ed at the destined place.

VII. Expressions in a direct address, nouns or
pronouns placed independently with a participle,
or infinitive verbs independent of the rest of the
.sentence, are separ ated by commas from the body
of the sentence : as,
My friend, do not be alarm ed.
H is father dyi ng, he succeede d to his estate.
'ro co nfess the truth , I was much in fault.

VIII. Names added to other names m the
same construction, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set
off by commas : as,
P aul, th e apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal
a nd kn owledge.
The butterfly, child of th e summer, flutters in the Bun.

THE

COM MA .

107

But if such names are s1ngle, or only form a
proper name, they are not so divided : as,
Paul the apostle.
The emperor Antoninus.

IX. Simple members of sentences connected by
comparatives, unless very short, are, generally,
distinguish ed by a comma : as,
B etter is a dinner of herbs wi th love, tlian a stalled ox ,
and hatred with it.

X. Words placed m opposition to each other,
or with some marked variety; two or more
nouns r eferring to the same preposition; and remarkable expressions, or short, observations,
somewhat in the manner of quotations, are,
usually, distinguished by commas: as,
'rhough deep, yet clear; th ough gentle, yet not dull;
Strong, without rage; without · o' er.flowing, full.
Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rom e.
He was composed, both under the t~reate ning, and at the
approach, of a cruel and lingerin g death.
Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.

XI. The pronouns who, which, and that, often
require a comma befor e them: as,
He preaches sublimely, who lives a sober, righteouii, and
pious life.

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THE

0

THE S E MICOLO N-00 LON.

COM.MA.

• •

XII. A simple member of a sentence, con.tained within another, . unless the connexion is
very close, must be distinguished by commas : as,
To improve time, while we are blessed with health, will
smooth the bed of sickness.

XIII. When the verb be is followed by an infinitive verb, which, by transposition, might be
made its subject, the former is generally sepa•
rated from the latter verb by a comma: as,
The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all assowith bad men .•
The first and most obvious remedy against the infection,
is, to withdraw from all associations with bad m.en.

105

THE SEMICOLON.
1. When a member of a sentence contains a
comp~ete proposition, and is followed by a clause
expr<:<lsing an infere:r;ce, or explanatio+n' they
must be separated by the semicolon.: as,
Slr~..vs

swim upon "the surface; but pearls lie at the

bottom.
But all .subsists by elemental strife;
And passions are the elements of life.

~iation s

XIV. When a verb is understood, a comma
may often be properly introduced: as,
From law arises security; from security, curiosity; from
curiosity, knowledge.

XV. The words nay, so, hence, again, first,
secondly, formerly, now, lastly, once more, above
all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short,
and all other words and phrases of the same kind,
must, generally, be separated from the context by
a comma: as,
H e fe ared want, lience, he overvalued riches.
Finally, I shall only repeat what has been often justly said.

, .....

IL When several short sentences follow each
other, having only a slight connection in idea,
they should be separated by t~e semicolon : as,
The epic poem reci~es the exploits of a hero; tragedy
represents a disastrous event; comedy ridicules. the vices
and follies of mankind; pastoral poetry describes rural
life ; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the
heart.
Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, y~t not dull.
Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.

THE COLON.
The colon is used -

I. When a member of a sentence is complete in
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110

THE COLON.

THE PERIOD--:-_DASH, ETC.

itself, but followed by some supplemental remark, .
or further illustration of the subject: as,
Study to acquire a habit of thinking: no study is more
impor tant.
N aturc confesseth some atopement to be necessary : the
gospel discovers that the necessary atonement is made.

II. When a semicolon, or more than one, has
preceded, and a still greater pause is necessary,
in order to mark the connecting or concluding
•
sentiment: as,
In faith and hope the world will disagree;
But all mankind's concern is charity:
All must be false th at thwart this one great end;
And, all of God, that bless mankind or me,nd.

III. When an example, a quotation, or a speech,
is introduced : as,
The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the
Deity, in these words : "God is love."
He was often heard to ~ay: "I am don e with the world,
and am willing to leave it."

IV. The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes determined by a conjunction's
being expressed, or not expressed : as,
Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness: there is no such thing in the world .
Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect happiness; for there is no such thing in the world.

THE PERIOD.

111

...

The period marks a full stop, and is placed at
the close of a complete and independent sentence. It is also used after initials and abbreviati.ons: as,
N. S. for New Style.

Dr. for Doctor.

Gen. for General.

THE DASH.
The dash marks an ·abrupt turn in the sentence: as, ,
Here lies the great - False marble, where?
If thou art he - btit 0 how fallen I

THE POINT OF INTERROGATION
Follows a question : as,
When did he come?
Am I compelled to suffer?

THE POINT OF. EXCLAMATION
Is applied to expressions of sudden er:i-otion,
surprise, joy, grief, &c., and also to invocations
or addresses : as,
My friend! this conduct amazes me I
But alas I it was too late I

112

EXAMPLES FO~ CORRECTION.

CAPITAL LETTERS.

Did ye not hear it no 'twas but the wind
Or the car rattling o'er the stony street

CAPITAL LETTERS.
Every name of the DeityThe principal words in the title of a book or
essay Every line in poetry All proper names of persons, places, &c. Adjectives derived from proper names All names of things when addressed Every sentence after a full stop •
Quotations, introduced after a colon The interjections, Oh, &c. - should begin with
a capital letter.
The pronoun I, and the interjectio~ 0, should
always be capital letters.
GENERAL EXAMPLES FOR CORRECTION.
If we have no regard for our character we ought to have
some regard for our interest
His hopes his happiness his very life hung upon the next
word from those lips
what is it that a roman would not suffer
that a venetian prince must bear
. Homer was the greater g~ni us virgil the better artist
rn the o~e we more admire the man in the other the work

homer like. the nile pours out his riches with a sudde n
over fl ow v1rgil like a river in its banks with a constant
stream

113

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On with the dance let joy be unconfined
No sleep till morn when youth and pleasure meet
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet
But hark that heavy sound breaks in once more
As if the clouds its echo would r~p e at
And nearer clearer deadlier than bef"re
Arm arm it is it is the cannon's opening roar

philip III king of spain when he drew near the end of
his days soriously reflecting on his past lifo and greatly
affected with the remembrance of his mispent time expressed his deep regret in these term s "ah how happy
would it have been for me had i spent in r etirement these
twenty three years that i have possessed my kin gdom."
The Gardens of the World produce only deciduous flowers Perennial ones must be sought in the Deligh tfu l Regions Above Roses without Thorns are the Growth of
paradise alone
He advanced slowly silently cautiously but resolutely to
the centre of the hostile camp
The sunrise ·drew her thoughts to europe forth
That thus apostrophized its viewless scene
"Land of my father's love my mother's birth
The home of kindred I have never seen
We know not other oceans are between
Yet say far friendly hearts f~om whence we came.
Of us does oft remembrance intervene
My mother sure my sire a thought may claim
But gertrude is to you an unregarded name"

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