MANUAL

OF

ENGLISH RHETORIC.

BY

A. D. HEPBURN,

.,

PROFESSOR IN DA YIDSON COLLEGE, N. C.

VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO.,
137 WALNUT STREE'l',

CINCINNA'rI.

28 BOND STREET,

NEW YORK.

iv

PREFACE.

ject is treatetl of, lmt it was fountl that this coultl not be

CONTENTS.

carrietl out with satisfactory thoroughness without. adding too
much to the size of the volume.

Ancl, indeed, the success of

the few attempts that have been made to incorporate into a
text-hook the literature of the subject, lia.s not been such as

INTRODUCTION.

to encourage imitation.

Definition, Aiin and Method of Study, Distribution, of Rhetorw.
PA G F.

SECTION.

1. Definition of Rhetoric
2. Prose di stinguished from Poetry
3. The Expression of thoug ht subject to Law s
4. Aim of the study of Rhetoric
5. Syste matic Rhetoric must neither be neglected nor studied
exclu sively
6. Original Composition
7. Exercises in wh ich t he ma tter is suppli ed: Paraphrase. Abstracts and Abridgmen ts. Translati on
8. Study of Model s. What to study. How to study
9. Distribution of Rhetoric. Diffe rent kinds of l\I attcr. Diflerent kinds of Disco urse. This work distributed into Four
PITT~ .

13
13
14
15
1G
17
17
21

~

PAUT I.

T

7'1IE PROCESSES CONVE/lSANT AIJOU7' 7'/IE JlfATTER OF A DISCO URSE.
PREf,IMINARY.

10.
11.

What are the processes conversant about the matter of a
Discourse?
25
The main and the subordi nate ideas distinguished. Distribution of Part First
26

CnAPTER

I:

The Subject of ct Discoitrse.
12.

rt

The Subject either given or left to the writer's choice. Forms
in which given. Rules to be observed .
27
13. The Subj ec t chosen by the ·writer. }{elation of t h e Subject
to the Writer. Relation of the Subject to the Reader
28
(v)

Yi

CONTENTS.

14.
15.
16.

CONTENTS.

Determination of the Subj ect
'fhe Th eme. Its rcqui si tcs
The Titl e. Rul es for choosi ng
CHAPTER

30
30
33

PART II.
S1'YLE.
CHAPTER

II.

I.

The QuaUties of Prose Style.

Jnventio11.

PAGE

SECT.

17.

18.
19.
20.
21.

22.

Invention d efin ed. Considered as a power o f th e Mintl.
Means o f improving it. Invention differs from i111·estigati on .
lllcditat.ion . What includ ed in?
Recoll ec tion
.
Selection. Result of the process
S.vstemalic Meditation. Topi cs. Their utility
Heading ns an aid lo invcnliun. ~Iclhod of Reading
CllAPTER

37 .
38.
39.
40.

34
36
37
38
40
41

41.

42.

23.

25.
26.

27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32.
33.

Disposition : Nnture of. Imp~rtan ce of
Preparation of the Plan. Organic Parts o f a Discourse.
·what cont.1i led in the P la n. Nece~si ty of preparing on e
Th e la ws of Dispos ition , ge nera l arnl special
Th e Nature and Purpose of th e Introd uction
Contents of the Introduction. Its slruCture. When to be
prepared
The Dody of the Discourse
Two m ethods of com municating th ought. The Analytic.
Th e Synthetic
Co mparative advantages of the two
Ge neral Rules for the Disposition of th e Dody of a Disco urse.
The Conclusion . An esse n tial part. Qualities of
Transitions. E ssent.ial qualities of. H ow foun<l
CHAPTER

36.

Nature of Amplificn ti on.

43. Importance and difficulty of a proper choice of words
·44_ National use. Barbarisms. Provincialisms
45 . Present use. Obsolete words. Neologisms
46. :Moral Dignity. Direct expressions of what is base.

43
44
46
46
48
49
50
53

54

1

74
75
79

Wanton misapplica tions designating moral, qualities. Vulgarisms .
83
86
47. Propriety. A ccuracy. Congruity
92
48. Conclusion

CHAPTER

III.

F igures of Speech.

55

56

IV.

Importan ce of
58
Enumeration. Exampl es. Causes
and Effects . Com parison. Combination of several m ean s.
60
Accessory irlrns
Ru !es of A 111 pl i fi cnti on
63

~I eai1 s of Amplifl cn t.ion.

II.

The Choice of Words.

Amplification .
34.
35.

Nature and conditions of Style. I ts importan ce. Disregard
of, among Eng lish Prose Writers .
66
Fundarucntal qualities of Prose Style. J>ropriety
68
Perspicuity. Spen cer's law of economy of atteution
69
Vi1•acity. Beauf.y.
71
'l'he English la nguage as to power of expression
72
Topics to be treated of in the Doctrine of Sty le
73

CHAPTER

III.

Disposition.

24.

vii

PAGE

SF.CT .

49.
50.
!il.
52.
53.
54.
55.

56.
57.

Figures of S~eech in general. Defi ned. Are natural and
necessary. Th eir classifi cation
92
Figures of Intui tion
94
Tropes in general
94
Sy necd oche .
95
Metonymy. Antonomasia
9i
Metaphor. Three kinds of. Its force. Rul es for its URe
98
A ll egory. · Parable. Fable
105
Personification. Cautions with respect to u sin g it .
. 107
Ideal Presence. 1. The prese nt tense used for a past or fut. 108
ure. 2. Vision. 3. Apostrophe. 4. Sermocination •

viii

CONTENTS.

CONTENTS.

S•:cT.

R F.CT .

PA GF,

58. Simile. Differe nt orders of
5!J. Allusion

E pithets
(i l. F ig u res o f E m p hasis
G2. In terroga tion. Repetiti on.
G3. Hy perbole. Irony
G4. Cli max
G5. An tith esis

85. T he MiJ Lll c Sty le
8G. Cautio11 .
87. A ppl ication of t he P rin ciples of Ge neral H.hctoric

I ll

11 3
114
llG
llG
118
110
• 120,

uo.

Exclamation

ix
lGO
lGO
lU l

PAJiT III.
T II E EDEMENTAUY FO TI M S OF DTSCOUUSF:.

C H APTE R

IV.

88.

Prelimin ary. ·wh at arc the E lem en ta ry Forn1 s of D iscom se? l G2

Titc Sentence.
Sc nlcn ce de fin e<!. Division of Sentences
Ii i . Characteri sti cs of the E nglish Sentence
GS. Th e Structn re of Se n te nccs .
GO. Co rrectness
70. U ni ty
71. Clea rn ess
72. l're ci ~ i o n . 1. ·Tau tology. 2. Pleonasm. 3. Ver bosity
73. E nergy.
!. In ve rs ion.
2. Conn ectives: Asy 11dcton an d
l'o lysy 1uleton . 3. Periods anrl Loose Sen tences
74 . lll clody .
/
Gfi.

C nA r TJm

121
122
124
125
12G
130
13G
130
145

D escription.
89. Defi ni tion of Description: ils obj ects
90. Requi sites of a gOOLl Dcscri pt.ion

1

'!"

91.

02.
93.
04.
95.
96.

C HAPTER

Paragraph d efin ed
Th e Stru cture of Paragraphs
7i. U ni ty. Con tinuity
78. P roportion. Vari ety
70. A nn oun cing th e Th eme
80. E xampl es ill ust rating th e foregoing rul es .

CHAPTER

75.

70.

Reen pi tulati on
Differences of Style
T he Simpl e or Lower Style
Th e Grant! or H igh er Sty le

lGG
lG7

1G7
160

J·

VI.

II.

Na.rration.

146
147
147
150
153
153

Nature an d a im o f Narration
Selection of part.icnlars
Dis position o( th e in cide n ts
100. Parts of a Nar ration

171
172
173
174

97.

08.
OU.

CnArTER

'f"

III.

Expos'ition.

Diuisiun of Style.
81.
82.
83.
84.

Difficul ty of th e a rt ~? Descri pti o n
Ru les of Description
Disposit ion of details
A u xiliaries. R ules of Expression
D e~c ripti o n of Natural anti Artific ial P roducts. P hysical A p·
pearun ccs .
.
Men tal states. Characters. Ge neral Characters

1U3
1G3
lG4
lG!

V.

The I'nrograph.

CHACTER

I.

15G
157
158

159

101.
102.
103.
104.

Exposition defi ned : its obj ects and aim
Verba l explica tion
Logical exp li cnt.ion . Defini tio n
Di vision. T he Principle of Div ision . Laws of

l iG
177
177

no

x

CONTENTS.

xl

CONTENTf;.
P_\OF:

105.

Exposition of n Not.ion in its relations

106._ A(l<litio11al in strrn11 e nts of expositi o n.
1. Examples. 2. Aual ogy

107.
108.

A schc111c of Expositi on of a Not.ion
Exposition of n Proposition
CnAI'TEJi

S>;() T ,

181

125.
126.
127.

182
183

184
CHAPTER

IV.

110.
111.
112.
113.

114.

115.
116.
117 .

118.
110.
120.
121.

Argument: whnt., a nd what implie(l in. Natnre nnd deg rees
of Co nviction. Argumentation eith er Positive o r Negative. 185
('011firmatio11
. 186
l'reparnt.ion of the Queslioil. Its impor tan ce. ~IoLlc of preparin g the q uestion .
187
l11vcntion of Argu111cnts
H.10
Direct atul · Iml ireet neasoning. Condi t.ions of t he validity
of lntlircct Reasoning. Comparat ive advantages of the two
m ethods
mo
De(l11ctive Reasoning. Imlnctive R e;1so nin g. 1. Jnd11dion
in the limit ed sense of the word. 2. "A nalogy. Example.
3. Signs
102
Extrinsic Arg nr 16nts. 1. Testimouy. 2. Authorit.y
Hl5
Selectio n of Arguments
107
Arnrnge111ent of Arg u111 e nts. Analyti c a nd Synt.hctic onl er.
Principal and Subordin ate Arguments. Extrin sic and Int.ri11sic Argumc11ts
. ms
The Ryllog ist.i c am! t he popular n1 otlc of reasoning
. mo
R e f11tati on .
. 200
. 202
Rul es o f llc fu tntio n
• 203
Scheme and Topics of au Argn111ent

128. What included in Didactic Prose. Its forms
120. Scie n ti fi c Prose .
130. Use of general terms. Technical l errns. Sources of techni cal terms. U 1Hler wh at con dition s to be u sed .
.
131. Use of Figurative la n guage
132. Kinds o f Scien tific Prose. 1. Text-books. 2. Disquisitions.
•
133. Popular Scientific Prose
.
134. Criticism

C HA P TER

.,.
,(

TUR l'lllN CTPAL l'OllilCS O F /'ROSE.

Preliniinary.

Several divi sio ns of Prose
C HAPTER

. 206

I.

r

l

The Di111r>r;11c m11l F:J.:istolriry I'rnsc.

r

J 2:1.
:i24.

l n I ro11 uctnry
lJialog ue. Characters.

• 207

Subj ccls

. 207

210
211

212
214
214
215

216

III.

lfistorical Prose.
.
What is compreh ended in History .
.
·wrong m ethods of Historical composition
•
Genuine Hi stori ca l met hod
Essential qualities. 1. Truth. 2. Local color. 3. Significance o f facts ex hibi ted. 4. Compl ete ness
.
130. Historical Arran g<> m ent. Ch ron ological Meth od. Topi cal
Methorl. Pragmatic Method. Natural Method
140. Distribution in to P er iods .
141. ]ntrod uction aml Con clusi on
142. Description. Reflections .
.
143. Essential qualities of I-Ii stot'icnl Style
144. Divi sion o f History. U ni versal Histo ry. Special Hi story.
Biography. Special Hi stori es of Institution s, Indu stries,
Arts, etc. •
.
135.
136.
137 .
138.

PAHT IV.

122.

II.

Didactic Prose.

Argwncnt.
100.

• 208
20!)
. 200

Requi sites of a Di a logue
Episto lary Prose .
Its gen eral characteristics

CHAPTER

21i
217
218
219
222
225

226
226
227

228

IV.

Orator ical !'ruse.
145. Oratori cal Disconrse defined
146. Analysis of Persnasion
147. Theme of an Oratorical Di scourse

. 231
231
. 232

xii

CONTENTS.

8r.c-r.

14·8. Dcs'cription. Narration. Exposition. Argumentation
. 232
149. Exhortation. On what does the power of muving the Passions depend? .
.
.
.
. 23G
150. Rules for Exhortation. Allaying hostile feelings .
. 238
15 1. Oratorical Disposition. Parts of an Oratorical Discourse
. 23!l
152. Exordium. Source.~ of
. 240
153. Qualities of an Exordium .
.
. 242
154. Il0tly of the Speech. Announcement of the Theme. A 11nouncernent of the Plan .
.
.
.
. 24'.)
155. Special rul es for arran ging the Arguments and Motives.
. 245
15G. P eroration. Qualities of .
. 250
15i. Characteri stics of Oratorical Style. 1. Direct Address. 2.
Popularity. 3. Simplicity. 4. Dignity. 5. En ergy
. 253
158. DiOerent kinds of Oratory .
. 2GO
15!l. Political Oratory
. 2GO
lGO. Parliamentary Oratory. Its essential qualities. Popular
Orntory
. 2GO
lGl. Judicial or Forensic Oratory. Compared with Political
. 2G4
1G2. Means of acco111plishi11g its end
. 2G7
IG3. Its ~tylc
. 2G9
1G4. Sac red Orn tory
. 2(;!)
lG.'5. Jnsf.ruct.ion an essent ial requisit e
. 272
lGG. HcliJli ons exh ortation
. 2i3
lGi. Fam iliarif~' .
. 2i4
lG8. Religions Diction
. / .
.
. 275
1G9. Two kinds of religiom oratorical Discourse. The Sermon.
Th e H omily
. 276
170. Jlccapitnlation
. 218
171. Miscclln.11cous Addresses
. 278
172. Conclusion
. 279

-

ENGLISII RFlETORIC.

IN'l'RODUCTION.

.

DEFINITION, Ailil AND JIIETHOD OF SJ'UDY, DISTRIB UTION,
OF JWETOmc.

Section 1. Definition of Rhetoric.-Rhetoric is tl1e Science of the Laws n11<l Forms of Prose. It ii1Y<:stigates th e
rnetlwtl au<l geuernl principles to " ·l1ich eYery tl iscoursc must
conform that is <lesigne<l to iustruct, couriuce, or pcrsu:ulc.

I

~

i
[."

I

2. Prose distinguished from Poetry.-'l'hc cliaracteristic
marks of prose as disti11guishct1 from poetry arc the following:
1. Poetry belongs to what are call c!l tl1c fo1e iirts,-so
c~illetl because their end is not any practical or material
utility, but t11e expression of the beautiful. Its itim is not to
communicate knowledge or to influence the will, but to represent the pro<lucts of the creative imagination in their appropriate forms in language. It accomplishes all that can be
demanded of it when it suits the idea to the form an<l the
form to the idea. The beauty of the representtttion, or form,
is thus the ultimate end of poetry.
Prose, on the contrary, strives to accomplish some outwar<l
end. It does not <lescri!Je or prove merely for the sake of
(13)

I

14

Sec. 4

INTRODUCTION.

describing or pro1·i11;.;, hut in onler to inflnence the rniutls nn<l
wills of t.lt e rea.Llcrs an1l l1carers. 'l'lie <li scourse is thus hut a
means of prOLluciug certain effects, and owes its origin to the
desig n of protluc~11g tltern. 'l'he ends of prose are retluci!Jle .
to three :
•
(I ) 'l'o ex11htin something not knowu or not distinctly comprch cnilecl;
(~} 'l'o conv ince of the trnth of some proposition that is
eitlter tloulited or tlis!Jelie rnd;
(3) .'l'o pcrsua.de to tt tlctenninate course of action.
2. A cconlingly, while the poet yields to the free play of the
imag-ination arnl emotions in clotl1ing l1 is idea in its sui talile
fonn, t he prose writer is co11111cllcd to submit to many restrnin ts imposed hy ont~1·artl circumstances. He is obliged to
consult the condi tion, reqnirc111 ents, an<l characte r of t hose for
wlio111 ho wri tPs, aml to a.ccon1111 0Llate his discourse to tl1 em.
3. Co11fun11i ty to act.na l facts is not required in ]Joetry : it
idealizes the actual , ttnd rcpreseuts it in v i vid im ages to tl1 e
irna.gination. But in prose the notions an<l jLH1gments that
are co1 111111111 icat.t1l 11111st h•;·e, or seem to lmYc, the clmrncter
of real trnth, a.Jiil 111 ust Le exl1ihite<l with clearn ess and method
to tl1 e 11111lerstamlin g. Prose, it is true, appeals to the i111agi11 atio11 a lso, Lut mily to give greater clearness aml fo rce to its
state111 euts, aml obtain for them a rcaclicr a.cceptauce.
4. 'l'o a waken the emo tion of _the beautiful is the supreme
cud of poetry, Lut only a suLonlinate one of prose: In the
latter, t he purpose " ·hi ch the discourse lias to serve is of primary i111port.a.u ce; when the gratification of the taste comes iu
couflict 1rith thi s, it 111ust be sacrificed.
13. Y ernc is i11 c0111pa tihle with the n ature and aim of prose ;
" ·hile, if 11ot esscutial to poetry, it is peculiar to i t. ·
3. The Expression of thought subject to Laws.-'l' hc
process of co.111hi11ing m11l expressing thoughts is subject to
fixcrl laws inherent i11 the rni111l , which we are at liberty to
violate, Lut, if we violate them, the discourse will fail to
realize its cud. \ ,Yc fo llow these Jaws unconsciously; as in

INTHODUCTlON.

] ;)

thinking we obey tl1 e l<ms of log ic, a111l in speakin g, thn laws
of general gra. mmr~ r , witl1out ha 1·i11 g prese11t to out· Illini!::;
tl1 e principles we pnt in prnctit:e.
vVe cau asccrta.in these ht"·s hy rellectiug oH U1 c opera.tions
of our rni11tls, and Ly a 11aly;r,in g the works of m11i11 e11 t \\Ti ters,
:t11tl ca.n reduce thc111 to a system \\'hiclt !ms <t vali<I claim to
the rntn1c of Science.
'l'hc exposition of the lairs of th e ex pression of thou ght in
lm1 gua.ge co11stitutes t he St:ie11 ce or T heory of .Discourse. J t
is diritleLl in to two spccia.l t heories-lthct.oric aml l'oetie.
'[]1 csc t heories ktrc m11ch in c0111111<m , hut t heir Jloi uts of
tlifti ~ rc11 ce arc so nu111erous autl marked that they ought to Le
stlllliell separately.

-

REMAlUL-Tho term discoursr, iu its 'd tlcst signifi cation , de notes t]1 (1
(IXprcssiou in lan guage of a SP ries uf tho ughts co111binctl into a coh ere nt
whol e. In t hi s sense it in clLttl es all kind s of' li te rary composition, uf'
w h ate ver exte nt, wh ether designed to l.> e reatl or to be heard . It wi ll l.>e
u sctl in t.hi s ve ry ge neral sense in t he presP nt treatise.
Fur t 11 0 sake of l.>revit.y t he t erm s "write r " anrl "ri·atlcr " will bo
n sctl w hen t he mies apply to di scou rse in geuc ral, as well as when th ey
apply to written discourse cx du sivl'iy.

4. The Aim of the stncly of Rhetoric.-'l'li e a.int of the
stmly of H hetoric is prnctica I.

..

l

D

l . It 'ts a scicntUic introduction to the art of composition.
The study of its mies and prin ciples is chielly valuable as a
means towanl acc1uiri 11 g skill aud readi ucss i11 t he ctfoctirn
communication of thought. ' ·Ve desire to learn no t merely
whttt arc the essentials of a good style, Lut how to convey om·
thoughts in a manner appropriate to our subject and purpose.
There is wh;tt is called natural R hetoric, as there is uatural
Logic. 1\Iany who know nothin g of rhetoricttl rules express
their ideas clearly aml forcibl y. But in general , it is trne of
the art of discom·se, as of a ll other arts, t hat before any considerable degree of perfection in it c:m he rcache<l, th e blirnl
spontan eons process lllUSt \Je COllYertcd into a rational One,
that is, i11to one regul atc<l l1y a clear i11 sight into its nature,
end, and comlitions.

1G

INTRODUCTION.

Sec. 4

\Ve 11rnst uot expect from Rhetoric what it !loes not profess
to gi rn, aud can not give. 1t does not furnish the rnaterials
of a tli~"..oursc, nor aid iu disti11g11ishiug between what is true
and what is false. It supposes that the writer has obtained ·
lrnowletlg'e from- other sources, mul euufiues itself to giving
directions l1ow to apply it for a definite purpose.
2. It is nn introdnetion to the eritiettl stndy of literary
b models. 'fhe study here meant is not for the sake of the
thoughts which the work may contain, but one concerned with
the manner of expressing the thoughts. It is directed to
ascertain whether the work in its matter, arrnugement, and
style is :ulitptcd to it.s end, and conforms to the laws of the
class to which it belongs. To cornluct such an analytical
study intelligently and successfully, we must IJe familiar Loth
with the gcnernl principles of discomse and the speci<tl laws
of its several classes.
It follows from this, that Rhetoric is a necessary preparatory study to literary criticism and the history of literature.

Sec. 7

(

~

..
I.

'f

I

!II
I

17

impart the sense of freedom which springs from the conscious
sulJmission to law.
But to make the theory the exclusive, or eYen lH'incipal,
ouject of study is as grave a mistake as to ncglec~ it entirely.
Something more than a mere knowledge of rules 1s necessary
to enaule us to write well. They must be so impressed on the
mind and fused into our hal1its of thought that we can a11ply
them when the occasion demands.
To acquire such a facility we must comuine tl1e study of the
rules and technicalities of rn1etoric with assiduous 1))'actice in
composition, and with the c1itical study of works of litentture.

I

I

5. Systematic Rhetoric must be neither neglected nor
studied exclusively.-'l'he prevailing tendency is to neglect
the stlllly of systematic Rhetoric. The · prejudice against it
arises from a misapprehension of its nature and claims. It is
not a system of minute technical and aruitrary rules, but of
the general principles on which the communication of thought
depends. It offers the results of the experience of those who
have excelled in the art of convincing and persuading. The
question then is,-whether it is not more advantageous for the
IJegiuner to learn these 1ninciples from the expmience of others,
than to IJe taught them by the tedious and frequently mortifying lessons of his own experience. There can IJe but one
answer to this question. General as the knowledge imparted
must be, it. will aid in the form:1tion of good hauits and in
preventing .the formation of IJafl ones; will save from many a
hlurnler; will confer that rea1li11ess and cert:1inty wl1ich rest
on the clear knowledge of the principles of the art; and will

INTRODUCTION.

•

6. Original Composition.-This exercise is indispensable,
but to be profitable it must conform to the following rules:
1. The com1)0sition must be on some definite subject. The
rule is stated thus by Sir Wm. Hamilton: "The writing
should be n~orc or less limited, that is, IJe in answer to questions more or less articulate. The student si10uld not be left
to roam at large; IJut be made to think precisely and pertinently, by confining him to certain definite points."
2. The exercises should IJc suited to the age aml attain. mcnts of the pupil.
3. There should be variety in the subjects of the exercises
in order to cultivate both the powers of thought aml of expression. Essays on historical, geographical, and literary subjects
should be joined to those on politic:tl :tncl moral.
4. The essays should be lalJoriously composed and carefully
revised. By w1iting rapidly one can not learn to write well,
but by writing well one learns to wiite rnpidly. The effort to
express our thoughts in their proper order and form is at first
painful and discouraging. Every act requires deliueration and
choice, but as by practice the lmuit is gradually formed, \Ye
proceed with increasing freedom aml certainty, until, at last,
we accomplish with ease aml l)leasure what, at the beginning,
was forced and irksome.
7. Exe:i;cises in which the matter is supplied.-To preRhet. 2

18

INTRODUCTION.

Sec. 7

Sec. 7

vent the. serious eYils that resul t from attem1itin(J"
01iffinal
b
b
co11~wsit10n ~eforc there i~ cornpeteut kn owledge, it is advisauk to prescnue to the begmner exercises in which the matter
is supplied, that is, to furnish him with the tlrntwhts and
. 1um
· to express them i11 his ow11 words.
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'l' hese ex~rcises are of di1forent kinds, some requiring a
greater a.mount of intellectual effort than others, uut in none
is the writer c:Llled on to tlrnw from his own stores; lie has
only to pnt the materials gi\'Cn him in a iiarticular form, or
a.1fapt them to a special puqiose. The most important arc,
Paraphrase, the preparing of A\Jstracts and Auri<lgments and
Tra11slatio11.
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4.

Paraphrase.-This exercise consists in giving the contents
of su11ie work or passage of a work in other wonls in the same
lang uage. A paraphrase tliffors from a translation in not
hcill g- a tra.11sfor from one language to auother. \ Vheu the
trn11sfcrc11ce is from poetry into prose, it is calle11 l\fotaphrase.
"\Ve generally associa.te wit.It paraphrase the notion of an expansion of the origi11al thought hy t1efo1ition s, periphrasis, examp l(~s, etc., with a Yicw to making it more in telligiule; lmt
this is not essential. Jlcre is 111ea11t the simpler form, in .
" ·hich the pupil rn1iro1luces in ltis o\\"n words the compl ete
thought of an author, "·ithout a,ttempting to explain it or to
imitate tl1 e sty le.
It has \Jecn frequently urgcll against this exercise, that, in
thus sulistitnti11 g otlier words for those of an accurate \\Titer,
we must necessa rily choose such as arc less ex11rcssiYe of the
sense. It has, ho1rcYer, ucen defendCll by one of tile greatest
rhetoricia11s,- Q11i11tilia11.
Tli e fu nn of this exercise may be varied. One of the most
irnpro1·ing, a111l uot open to the objection just 111e11 tioned, is to
prescribe passages from old E11 glish authors to be rendered
iu to modern E 11glish acconling to the laws of style.
Abstracts and .!.bridgmcnts.-Anothcr exercise is to require the pnpil to giYe the substance of an entire work, or of

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>~ NTRODUCTION.

19

an extended portion ol it, in 11anower compass. The original
text nmy he modified in Y<Lrious w;iys ; as, by a,lJlJrevi<Lting,
condensing, suustituting words aml phrases, transposing sentences, etc. B ut whatever rno<lificatious arc made in the
matter lLllll fo rm of the text, the alJstract S]IOU\t1 1
1. Con°tain nothing that is not found in the original;
2. G ive all the essential imrts, omitting tl1 e details ;
3. G ive them acclU'ately and distinctly, and as concisely as
is compatiule with completeness aml distinctness.
'rhe abstract may be either a uare enumeration of the main
points expressed iu a series of short iliscmmectcd sentcuces, or
a conuected prcsentition of them with greater fullne ss. 'l'hey
nuty be given in the words of the origin al or in the pupil's
own words ; the httter method is to \Je iweferretl as a rhetorical
exercise.
Tl1ese exercises arc most important as aids in acquiring
pers11icuity and precision of style. 'l'hey compel the pupil to
discriminate between the principal :Ulll the suuor<linate ideas
of a work; to decide upon the rehttive hnportauce of its parts ;
to attrrnl to the arran gement of the thoughts; an!l to IJresent
them in their most compact form .
RF.MAHK.-Dr. A rnokl in a letter to one of hi s form er pupils writes :
"I nm very glad that yo n continue to practico co mposition, bnt above all
I woul cl advise yo u to mak e an ab stract of one or two stand ard works.
On e, I should say in philosophy ;-the other in histw·y. I would not be
in a l1nrry to fini sh them, but kt:t•p thcn1 cn nstnntly goin g on,-wi th OIHJ
pngo always clear fur notes. The ab stract itsc•lf practices yon in condensin g and givin g in yonr own word s what another mn.n has sn.id; a
habit of great valn e, as it fo rces one to th ink about it, whi ch extractin g
merely does not. It furth er gives a brev ity and simplicity to you r languag·e, two of the greatest merits wlii ch sty le can have.''-[ Stanley's L ifo
and Correspondence of A m old, i. 3:34. )

Translation.-In this exercise the thonghts are giYen in a
fo reign language, and tlie pu1iil has to render them with equal
clearness, fulln ess, and force in to his own.
It is justly esteemed one of the best means of acquiring correct hauits of thought aml ex1Jression. It aids in cultivating

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I

INTRODUCTION.

Sec. 8

Sec. 7

The laws of translation are:
l ., T he translation must lie an exact representation of the
seusc of the original, neitlier adding to it nor taking from it.
2. It must preserve the s11irit and style of the original. A
perfect translation should make the same impression upon its
readers that the original 'rnrk produced upou those for whom
it was written.
3. It must lie idiomatic : it must conform to the laws ;tnd
idiollls of th e l:rnguage in which it is written, both iu the
choice of words a11d 11hrases, and in the structure of sentences.
It should ham the freedom and grace of an original production .
A perfectly adequate translation is impracticable. Every
l:tn guage lms " ·onls and phrases for which another can supply
no cq 11iralc11 ts, and words ha.Ye associations that can not be
transferred to foreign ones. It seems that there must be a
sacri lice in part eitl1 er of fidelity to t he origi11al or of elegance
of style. lf the translator strires to give the exact meauing
of the original, lie is apt to neglect ease and grace of expressiou; if he is intent on giYing to his work the p;races of style,
he will, very likely, fail to render the thought of the original
with exactness.

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INTRODUCTION.

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21

i) 8. Study of Models.-The study of systematic R hetoric and

practice in composition will not accomplish to a ny adequate
extent their end unless they arc ~on~l witlt the study of
models of literary excellence.
It is a great mistake to exclude tl1is study from a course of
rhetorical training, or to give to it a subordinate place. It is
only liy the constant application of the iirineiples of Rhetoric
to the masterpieces of geiliUS-and taste (which are the most
pmfect mmlts of the processes whose laws it investigates),
that it can be saved from becoming a coll ection of narrow
artificial rules, and rhetorical practice lie prevented from degenerating into a mechanicitl process.
vVithout such a study of literary models, rhetorical rules
and precepts can not lie intelligible. Its relation to systematic 11'lictoric has been Yery :q1tly compared to that which
the examination of the actual experiments of the philosopher
bears to the abstract statement~mulas in which the
results of the ex1)erimcnts arc embodied. 'rbe necessity of

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for native, and :tre mostly mere carica"tures " which excmpluy
all the faul ts incident to l:t11 gua.ge a.ml exclude every cxcellcnec."
'l'he other extreme is that of a loose or excessi,·ely free
translation; one that renders the thought with great latitude
and indulges freely in periphrnsis, interpohttions, and omissions. 'rhis method may present us with works written i11
idiomatic English ancl with great beauty of style, but they arc
unfaithful representations of the original; in many cases they
mutilate, if they clo not misrepresent its meaning, and they
never reproduce the nice shades of thought inYolvecl in llarticular words and tbeir arrangement.
vVhile it is the duty of :t translator to qonfonn always to
his native idiom, it is also his duty to present faithfull y the
thoughts of the original w'ithout mutilation and without any
admixture of his own views. And if ease and elegance arc
attaimtble only at the cx11ense of fidelity, some degree of
roughness is to be preferred. ~

Two extremes are to be avoided.-The one, that of servile
li teral translation, which is rather a translation of se1iarate
" ·onls th11,n of entire thoughts. It adl1 eres as closely as possible to the nullluer and order of words, and to the construction
of t.l1 e original ; " ·ord corresponds to word, sentence to sentence. Tra.11sla.tions made accon1inp; to this method are neither
accnrate nor ch>ga.ut; t.hey do 11ot gi vc tl1e spidt aml rneaning
of the original, are stiff and obscure, substitute foreign idioms

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the taste as well as the logical powers. It compels to a more
111i1111te st1uly of the peculiariti es of our uati re tongue, eu larges
011 r vocalrn lar,y, gives re;Hliness · nrul skill iu constructing sentm1 ces, aud leads to a better acl1uaiutance with the characteristics of the tl.iffcrcnt classes of com11ositions.

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INTRODUCTION.

Sec. 8

cxa111i11ing experiments is m•e11 greatel' in literary studies than
i11 11:ttural scie11ce.
The benefits of an intelligent and prolonged study of the
stamlanls of taste are,-tlmt it boU1 sho\\'S the pupil what real
cxcelle11ce is a11d i1~ l1im to seek it; le:Mls hi111 to the
lrno\\'lc1lgc of l1is own peculiar tastes a111l aptitudes; q11icke11s
his perception of what is correct arul incorrect, beautiful arnl
deforn1cd; aud i111parts a 111orc l'igorous aud elevated mode of
thiuking.
'l'he heginnei· ncc1ls a judicious adviser to direct him what
to stwly aud how to study.
What to Study.-'fhe works should he ~' · and those the
most P C:E~t of their kind. 'Writers irhosc style is bad are
irnt suitable for hcgi1111ers, whose taste is not yet formed, . antl
who arc morc easily led astray by urilliant foul_ts, tl1an impressed hy 1111obtrnsi1·e cxcellencPs. ,_______-- There sl1ould be a sufficient '~~ty in the selection. Otlwrwisc, the pupil will be in da11gcr of senile imit:ttion, and will
lose tl1c :u1rn11tages that arc dci'iYed from the comparison of
diffonmt writers. Ile sl1011ld not be confined to i)rose, lrnt
should become familiar with the standards in ~ dc~1:1-~'.'_ .
of literature. "One cau," says Hegel, "and one ought to
hccome acquainted with all that is glorious in literature."
'l'he "volumes paramount" of our English literature slwul<l
be unremitt.ingly studied,-those great na.t ional works "which
ha,·e mingled with the life blood of the people, aml from which
all classes for generation after generation draw tl1eir Yiews of
imture and life, which form the bomls of int.e llectual and
moral sympathy amongst all, i11 which all ranks may meet as
in a church aIHl all may feel at ho111c."-[Ilare, Guesses at
'rrnth.} ~
How to Study.-1.'he student should ~nalyze the works and
apply to them, and test by them, the Pf!TicliJeR of literary
criticism. Ile should endeavor to discover the writer's reasons
for his choice am1 anangcmeut of words and his management

Sec. 9

·)
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"

INTRODUCTION.

23

of the subject. Aud as it is impossible in one exercise to
apply all the rhetorical principles to it composition of eYen
modernte size, the :mme work shoultl be made the ol~ject of
repeated special examination. At one time, its general plau
may be examined; at another,, the 111ode of amplifying some
of the leading ideas; at another, the structure of the sentences
and lmragrnphs; at another, the choice of wortls, etc.
'fhe attention of the student should be directed to the hcanties of the work, not to its defects merely. 'rI1e best critici81n
is that which finds out the excellence of a composition; aml it
is by far the most diHicult. It is the indication of sound jlJ(lgment and refined taste. It should be remembered that our
powers itre improve<l liy contemplating what is excellent, not
what is deformed; and also that beginners m·e not prepared
to point out defects.

9. Distribution of Rhetoric.-vV e slmll first treat of the
genera.I principles co~~~_!~LfQrms of prose, and then
apply these principles to the different l~inds_ of matter antl
discourse.
- --·- -These principles relate to the matter of the discourse,-i. c. 1
to the thoughts of which it is composeLl,-and to the style,~
i. 1J., to the expression of the thoughts in language.
The thoughts arc principal, the language is but aecestior.r i
but neither can lJe neglected by the writer. The merit of ;1.
literary work does not depend exclusi\'Cly eithci' on the quality
of its matter or on its diction, but on the upion of the two.
There must be true and appropriate thoughts clothed in fitting
words. A work in which great truths are communicated in
obscure and confused language may be Yaluahlc as a work of
science, but can not he rnnke<l among worki; of lite1;ature. 011
the other lmrul, no artifices of diction can girn Yaluc tu a tliscourse \vanting in vigorous thought. Sound thought is the
imlispcnsable condition of goo<l writing. Tl1e stucle11t's attention is, accordingly, directed first to the mental pro_ccss~s concerned with the matter of the 1lisco11rse, am1 aftenrnnls to the
laws for the expression of thought in language.

24

Sec. 9

INTRODUCTION.

Different kinds / Jf Matter.-TJic matter of discourse is of
different kinds. In connnunicating knowledge, we may have
an object to describe, an event to narrate, :.t general notion to
explain, or a proposition to llrove. Description, Narration,
Exposition, antl Arg umentation are t herefore tlic elements, or
clen1entary forms, of a ll discourse. 'l'hcy m ust be considered
separately, and tlic general principles be applied to c:tch.

PART I.

TIIE I'lW CESSES CONVERSAN'l' ABOUT 'l.'lIE 1lfA'l'TRR
OF A DISCO URSE.

Different kinds of Discourse.-T hese clemen ts are com ~
uin ~l in tlillercnt ways antl 1.!'.?~i_llc\1 according to the 1mrpose

Ofihe writer. Thus arise distinct kinds or classes of discourse ·
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as, didactic, historical, oratori cal ; each of w hich, while it has
much in common with t he others, has its dist.inctive features
and speci:tl laws. It is part of the office of Rhetoric to classify
the leadin g forms of prose, and to exhibit t heir clmrncteristic
marks.
This Work distributed into Four Parts.-This treatise is
distributed into four parts. The first pa1t treats of the processes conversant about the m atter of a discourse; the second,
of the principles of style; the thinl, of the elementary forms
of a disco urse ; the fourth, of the principal forms of prose.

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PRELI.l\IIN AliY.

10. What are the processes conversant about the matter
of a Discourse?- VV c arc to invcstiga.te, first of all , the processes concerned with t il e matter of disco m sc arnl their lairs.
vVe shall examine a nd exhibit in their 11at.urnl ord er the \-arions
111c11 tal :tc:ts irn·oh'cd in tho procm;s of composition, from the
finlli 11 g of t ho suhj cct to its co111plcte denlop111 cnt. T his part
mi g ht 1·cry approp ri ntely be ontit.Jecl ,- 'l'hc l\let.hrnl of Co 111positio11 (excluding what is concern ed wi th the expressiou of t he
tl1011g hts i11 language).
A prcli111inary caution is necess:try. Any analysis of 111cmtal pl1 c110111m1a is dcfccti1·c arnl partin lly fa lse, fo r it ex hibits
ns separate what i11 nature arc insc •par:i hl c. 'l'l1 c )lN_rcholo.!.dst
tliscuRscs scp:trntcly t hought, fcc .Jii1g, arnl Yolitio11 , Jct the
t hree hl cllll in e1-cry a.ct. So in U hctoric we scpnr:ite tho11 g ht
a111l language, a lthough t.l1ey arc 111u tua ll y llcpc1nlent, each
Rupposin g the o1~h cr, awl we c011sicler as en tirel y di sl"ii1ct t11e
iiml i11g of the thg• whts :tllll t.hr. nrrn11 g i11 g of t.hcm, 1Yht• rea s, i11
rea li ty, tl_1Q._l"'!r .•ccssrs often 111i11p;l c. S till , as it is i111por·
taut t.hat t he "st11dent olit.ain a cliRtinct Yi <'w of tlw co111plcx
prol'C'NR, nrnl nR c:i.ch part of it., t.ho11gh flc •1wnclc11t. 011 :111!1 i111 pliccl in the otl1 crs, !ms its distincti re fcat11rns, it is 11ecc8s:try
for the s:ikc of clPnrncss to examine each sr.p:irately.
\ Vhen one wishes t.n nr.co111plish sn11rn clefin ite ohj f)CL l1y
m eans of a lliscou rnc eitl1 er spokcu or 11Titt.e11 , he l1a1;,1ihct. 3

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MATTER OF A DISCOU RSE.

Bee. 12

"I':.rrrci RI' th.r ••· ll' nnt n god lin es,." " Trai11 tl 1ysl' lf'.- thy n·ligion s cha rackr-w ith an t·a gn111· ss a n1l aet iri t.y, patit·11 c1• a11d pe rscn·r:rncu lik e
that 11f th11 athld1·s I rai11i11g tlll'i r bu1lil's fur the ga n!l's."

3. 'L'hr. n ~ latio11 1-; of t.hc si:n!rnl 11otio11s as li111it.i11 g 1 q11ali()''
i11 f!, s11pple11w11ti11g 1'al'h ot.hl'r am to Im ca.rd11Jly 1iotice1l , lci:t
tli1 ~ s11 hj 1·ct. '11~ 11111krstoo1l i11 a ~c 1 rn1~ l'ither too ext,rnrni 1·c or too
11<t1Tu\\·, awl :t s11lionli11atc uc take n for the main idea.

Sec. 13

.,
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Ex.-" Th n stnrly of ll lafhcmatics as an f'X <' rciso of 111i11d." Not tho
sl'irn cc bnt t he slu17y; 11ot th e pra cl i r fll, mrilcrial ntili til' s of t.Jl(I study,
but its utility as a 111(•ans uf intl'llC' ct11al tlisciplinC'.

"if it hr. }'T)·•·• illlr, as much as li1•th i11 yo11 li w 1wa rPabl y with ·fill
rn r n. " Tl11• 1lnty 1•11j11i nl'1l can Jlnt, Im !'Xhihitl'tl ,in .its entire l'XtPnt m11l
wit.Ji its 111·cpssary li111it atio 11 s, if tl11• 1prnlifi catio11 s cn11tninPti in t he wort.l s,
" if-it be J!tM~ ih lc" :11111 "a ll," an• not accu rately wc igl1 etl.
3. It n111st he asccrtai11c1l 1rlict.J1 cr the proposition contains
sr.n•rn l j111lg111L•11ts or but. a sin gle on e.
If it is co111pl<'x, it rn11st be separated in to tl1 e sc1·cra l jmlgrn c11 ts ro11ta i11 c1l i11 it.. Ronwtii11!'s s1~n'ra i <listinct judgmcnt·s
can I.Jc co111 ui11cll, a11tl <t ucw 011e fonued colll11rcl1 emli11g all of
the11t.
E x.-" Th" 111iin·rs::li ty :rn d r•i-il <' ffl'cts of pn~ 1 11li c<'. " Tl\'o cli sti11 ct
nss!' rtion s nro eo11tai11 ed ill this: (1) Pn~ utlico is 1111i r ersnl; (2 ) Jts
ctlects arc i11jmi11u s.

"Thcrn is a ticl c in t ho affairs of men,
\ Vl 1ieh, tnkcll at the tl ood, leads O il to fortu ne ;
O mit,tc <l , all th e n•yngi· uf the ir li fo
h buu11tl ill shnllo\\·s :111<1 in mi se ri es."
Th n tv.-o ass,. rtion R, tl 1:it opporf;nn e rno111c11ts occ ur i11 a rnnll's life, 111111
that tl111 111·gli·c·t to ilnproni fhP>n ltriugK di saslt·r :n1tl s11tfrri11g, m:1y ho
••11il1ra<·1·il i11 tli " "i11 glt1 i111pcrntirn s1•11te11 ce, " l111provo t he ]ll'<'SPnt O]Jpurt.J111if y."

" J'rnn• all 11iiugs, l111lcl fn st wha t is go1t11." Th o t wo r·o111rna11tl s rnny
be rctlu cctl to uuc, "~A\'uid the cxtrernes of credulity autl skepti cism."

13. The Subject chosen by the Writer.-\rl1 cn the ~ 11hj rct
is left to the choice of th e \\Ti ter, lie is oftcu eml>arrasscd iu

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SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE.

2!)

seledi11 g frou1 tl 1c; crowd of tli o11 ght8 pr«se 11 tc1l to hi s mirnl
the 0110 tlia.t is snit.ml to his pmpo8r . 11 is rirngc of l'hoicc " ·ill
uc li111i te1l hy hi s special st111li cs, l1i s ta ste, the opportu11it.y fi.ir
prepar)tti 111\ , etc.; unt that li e 11 my 11ot CIT :it the Y1·ry 011tsd .,
he must, in alldition to these, tikc into co 11sitlerntiou the rela tion t>f the sul>j cct to liimself a nll to the rca1ler.
The relation of the Subject to the Writer.-It mu st. l:c
a.ppropri iite tu his a.go and :ittai1rn1e11tR, a11 tl 0111·, of the trnth
a.nd i111purta11 cc of which he is thoro11g lily ("011Yi11ce1l.
F ull11 es1; of kuowlctlge aJHl t.lioro11 gl11 11 ·sA of co11 Yid.io11 :lrn
tl ie prin1ary coi ulitious of pm\'l~ r i11 rn111 111 1111i l'ati11g th'.111gl 1t.
"Speak uut at all , in m1ywi se," says Carl yle, " 11u1il yu 11
Im.Ye su111c\\'l1 at to spea.k ; l'arc nut for t.li e re1rnnl ul' yom
speaki 11 g, hu t si111ply a.nd \\ith 11111liri1lcd 111i11tl for th e trnth of
. .
your spea kin g."
'fh e a tte 111pt tu 1liscuss a :rnlij ed. lll'yu111l the 11 n t('I' s 1·:1 pacit.y and k11 oll' lctlgc rnust 1·11d in foilml'._ I le ilul'S 11ot. 1;111111·
\\'hat. tu say; 110 ca n no t 11s1• 11 11 ~ 111at1•n:il s l u ~_ ha s : hi s pmc1 11ct.io11 "·i11 lie a se ries of rn g 11 e g1·11 l'r:t I c:-; prt•ss1011s r1111 1·1·.1 111 !~·
110 di s Li11 ct 11ut.iu11s to 11i111sel f' 1•r to II1c n ·a lll'r, a. rnl lt·1·I i11 11 111'
seco11!1-h:u1tl se11 t. i111 e11t.s a.111! 1·111pt·.y c11111111u1qilat·1·s st rn11 ,!!; 111 gct.her i 11 an artifie ial , fr ig i1l 111a111u·r, 1r hic ·h rn11 tll'itll('r i11t1·rest 11 or :1 ffoct others.
T ha t, the 1niler shuul ll lie cu11ri11r1·1l of thn trnth a 111l i11 1porta11 c1~ of his subj ect b 1k111:111de1l 011 rh dori(':t l f! l'Ollllii s
apart from 111ornl. Our fee lin gs e:-;ert a po1re_rf'll l i11llu e1 ll'e
upon onr intell ectual actiYitics. A 1let•p llloral rnt1 ·n·st. 111 tl1 P
subj ect fi xes t.!1e :ittention 011 it·, ca ll s up f'ro111 111e11~11ry n·lalt·d
thoughts, a.ml clfrccts them to t-.lw 111:1i11 e111l fo_r 1rh_1l' h t_li e i11 smnrse is 111atlc; 1rl1ilc tlie conscio11 s111·F:s of' i11 s111cent .1 1l1sl r:ll' h
the 111i111l [t111l prereuts t.11 0 1rri tn fro111 yi1·lili11 g hi111 self 1·11tin•ly to J1i s sulij cct. His 11u·ilitatio11 11·ill he l:111g11i1l :111 1 ~
pai11fnl; a111l tl1 c col1l11es~ , a rtifi r i:i l str11l't.ml', a11d \\:111t. nt·
ren.l u11i tr of the discourse " ·ill lwtrn y · 11is un tr11tlif'1i1111·~s .
T his ex1;lai11s wl1y 111<t11y 1li seours1·s tl1:1 t 11:t \"l) r1·ry µT1•a t
1fofccts arc ncrcrthclcss ::;u co 11 r iu ci11 g a ml pe rn ua si n·, 11·11 lie

30 -

MATTE!i OF A

DlSCOU l~SE.

Sec. 13

Sec. 15

others, apparently correct arul finishc1l, arc so feeble. 'l'he
la"·s of 1lisco urse :~re the laws of siucere u ttcrnu cc, a utl cau be·obcyell 011ly by the si11eere.

'l'lw subject a ll(l the them e arc usua lly regarded as idenThe disti uctio n between them is, 110\\'CYer, real aml
important. · Tl1e suuj ect is a gencrnl t hou gil t connected with
the ai111 of th e writer; the them~ is the subj ect limited aml
moditied by tile cud in view, by the clmrnctcr of the discourse,
an d by the ci.rcumstances of t lic mtse. lt is the cleares t, briefest, most precise st~ttern cnt of so much of the subject as the
writer i11 te11ds tu tle1·clup iu his work.
A number of entirely different tl10111 cs can \Jc derir cll from
the S<t111 c subj ect. l<'or example, scrcral \\Ti ters coultl di scuss
such a. subj ed a.s v\Tealth or Labor, mid 110 two of them 11arc
the same thc111 e. One woultl co ufine himself to its ecouomical, another to its socir.l, a nother to its reli gions as pects.
Each would limit and m odify the same gencrnl 1>uuject, and
appropriate what suits his special purpose.

---

14. The determination of the Subject.-Th c snbjcct when
first chosen by the writer lms 11ut the d efiuitc for m and li1ui ts
i11 whi cl1 it will be presented in the discourse. 1n a ~~-Cu
constru ctctl 1rork \\' C ·fiml no diffi cult.y in 1lisconrin g its rnaiu
i1lea.,-that to whi ch th e others a rc s ubordin ate and of whicl1
they are only th e tlcr clopm ent. Hut '"e must not suppose,
that th e form in " ·hich we thus fi111l it is that in which it
occmrecl orig-inally to the writ.er. It was at first a somew ha t
rague ancl i1111cfiui tc ge neral i1lea, co1111ect.e1l i11 sorne of its
parts "it:l1 his 1mrpoN<·, ln1t co11tai11i11 g alw 1111u;h that l1a d no
connection \\'i th it; it ll'a s rcla.tetl to a 111rn1 ber of oth er s11hjccts, a 111l was ec p1a. ll y suitab le to discourses of Yarious ki11tl1:>
and for dilforent purposes.
i'rolu11 gccl re Oection was necessary to limit this Ta g ue :rntl
imlctern1iiin tc subj ect, antl to adap t it to th e special cha ra.cter
a.ncl a.i111 of th e (li scoursc. To clfoct this, it was necessary ·to
co11templ:tte it from a particular point of Tiew, to tlwell upon
1rhaten~r it cm1t:till e(l tl1at rela.te11 to the end to be rc.a li zcc1,
neglectin g all tha.t was irrclerant, lwwcn\r i11 tcrcsti11 g m11l
i111portn.i1t i11 ot.lu:r l'P~pect.s it might lie. This process is called
dctcn11iui11 g the snliject.
15. The Theme.-,Vhcn the snhject is t l111s 1letcrmin ed and
is ex presR1\cl afl hric lly antl precisely as possible in language, it
, is called the the111c.
r
1
/

·,vi/V~ Lr J

•. , 1 h ·l ~ \.. ""

)

/

'. ,/J ·- •
t

I. [, ' - V - ~ tt./l.

31

tic~tl.

The relation of the Subject to the Reader.-It must be
1mit.e1l to th e clinracter and cornlition of ti.Jose to wl10111 t he
di scourse is atldressel1.
·
'l'he (liscoursc is !mt n mea11s to an ernl ; if its subject is 11ot
appropriate to the temper, foe liu gs, intl'llectual arnl moral co n1li tio11 , a111l circu111:;ta11ccs of tl1e reatlers, it ca11 11ot i11 terest
them aml 11mst fail to acco mplish its purpose. ·

--

SUBJECT OF A DISCOURSE.

b Its requisites.-The

th em ~ is th e germ of th e en tire discourse, for the tliscoursc is 01{ly t he ex plicit statement of " ·hat
is conta.fr1ed implicitly in the t heme. It is a ll importan t that
.•. th e writer lay it down in his mind in its proper form; if he
n eglect to do so he will inevitn.hly fail to acco mpli sh l1is Clltl.
If properly Jn.id down, the t heme should comply ,1·ith til e following comlitions :
1. It should grow naturally out of the study of tl1c subj ect
both in its rc:d rmturc and in its rela tion to th e obj ect to be
accomplished. If th e subject is not m astered, th e th eme "-jJl
be drawn from a superfi cia l aml erroneo us view of it, will
contain extraneous matter, and rmiy Juwe no connection '"haternr with it. If the subject is carefully studied, hu t without
specia.I referen ce to th e appli cation of it that we wish to m ake,
the idea ada.ptcd to our purpose \Till u ot be found. In both
cases tl1e th em e will be a rbitrary. The writer must- uot he
too precipitate in layin g 1lown l1is tl1 em c. He can not obtain
it until the work of m cd i t~ition is fini shed.
2. It slwulcl h:we unity. Unity is n ot simplicity. The
th eme may be a complex tl1~t~gl~t, . bu.t however cornpl ex,. it
should be but one thought. 'Ilns 1s rndrnpensable to the umty

\

· I J/f.-, :-i lf'a'V~
I l ~1- . v t AJ j. ,-4 ~_.)

32

MATTER OF J. DISCOURSE.

Sec.' 16

Sec. 15

of the 1liscoursc, '"l1ich is the resul t of t.he suuonliuation of all
its pa rts to m1 c 1lo11ii11ant idea.. Jf the theme is co111posetl of
a lllllllilel'. of 1listii1ct. tho11gl1ts, the discourw, instea d of uci11g
one COlllpl ete, orga11ic " ·hole, will Le a mixture of fra.gmcuts
of scYcrnl tlisconrses on dilforc11t themes.
3. lt. mnst uc Heither too broad nor too narrow. \ Vlicn it
is too broad, i. c., when it crnuraccs more than is ncccssaryany thin g more tha11 the aim and charnct,cr of the "·ork dernarnls- tl1 e writer, if he tlcYclops it naturally arnl correctly, is
compell ed to atlinit :t great <lcal that is irrelera11 t, 1rl1icli ,
besides a1ltling unnecessarily to the length of his proLluction,
witlulrawfl the attention frolll tl1n 111ain poiut, aml rcuders the
total i111press ion foelile a1Hl indisti nct. \ ¥ hen it is too 11arrow,
i. c., whc11 it 1locs 11ot express the " ·hole tl1ought of tlic "Ti ter,
an1l l'nil1race all that is esse11 tia l to his purpose,-:is lie dare 11ot nd111it i11to the de1·elopmcnt what is not contai11etl in tlw
thenw, he c:rn not commn11icate what he 'rislles, or cun do so
011 ly liy ahawlonin g his th eme.
"L It shonhl he co111prehensi1·c rather than cxtensirn. Extm1si re or Yery g1~ 11 eral tlie111es- such as coYer n. greM. deal of
grom ul-an·, for the most JIHrt, less fertil e tl1:tn rnorc compre·
he11sirn or parti cul ar ones. The restricted Yi ew of a sn!Jject.
furnishes lilore · n.hm111a11t :tlJ(l YaluaLlc rnat.ter. Jn a liroa.Ll
the11w, as the writer lin s . not space to 1111fold arnl illustrate
l1is state111c11ts, he is confined to rn gnc p:cnr rnliti cs n.nd tri te
n '11in.rks ; whil e iu a less extensin) theme, he is colllpelled to
exalllitH) the '1etnils more thoroughly nrnl to dist.in g11i!:lh ·th em
111ore Jll'('Cisely, n,11(] so can present a greater ntriety Qf particular i1k;1 ~ .
fi. Jt must lie clrar n,IJ(l 1listinct.. The writer must 110t lie
co11 te11t. wi th a nwrc ge11 eral impression, Lut shonl1l state it
1rith th r greatest possible clearness and keep it constantly i11
Yimr. A11y nncertain ty ns to its meaning or extent, or irnlisti11 ct.11 esr; i11 tl1 e notions co11 tainc1l in it, 11ill lea.cl to t.l1 e Yio.latio11 of its m1ity hy eo11fo1111ding it witl1 ro11nectcll or related
yet !liffore11t ideas, a11d to looseuess n.rnl obscurity in its treatment.

33

SUBJECT OF A DISCOUHSE.

16. The Title.-'l' lw title is i11 tl'11tle1l to com e." 1o others
;i 6Cncrnl idea, of the 11at11rc aiHl cont1' 11t8 of the 11·ork. Its
cl1oice, especially in ti\~~ JHm·J.i7"11terary pro1l11ctions, is
often a matter of cousidernhle llilTicuI ty.

rl
I \.

Rules for the choice of.-Thc rul es to be ohsern:1l in
.cl1 oosin g n. title arc:
1. It should t•xprcss t11e rriain i1lea of the work. 1S.. tit.i <:
tlrnwn from a ::;11honlinnt.e itlcn i ~ itll c nrnl oftc11 111islea1li11g.
E\'C11 those cases iu which it is the pmposc of tl1 1: 11Tit1•r i1ot
to rer e;t.l at first the drift of l1i s \\·ork are 11 ot exceptim1s to tl1is
rnle. 111 all cases it is 11ecessary that th e appropri atc11e8s of
the title, if 110t app:ire11t at 1in;t, sl10uld l>eco111e ~; o i11 tl1 0
courne of the \\'Ork.
'.;l , It should not promi se too much, arnl so rnisc c~ x pc c tati o 11 s
tl 1at will be 1lisnppointc1l.
:J. It sl1 oul!l be concise, readily rn11lrrstoo1l, arnl rasily rc111e111lwred. Verbosity a11tl new or u11 co111111011 wonls arc 11 0whcrc 1110rc out of place than in tl1 e li t.le. At t11e sa111e ti111 c,
wh n.ten lr h:ts the a.ppenrnu ce of n.lkctati011, pcda11try 1 aml prc1:1 11111ption ought to be arni1k:1l.
4. \Ylw11 Ji gurn.ti1·e expression s nrc 11se1l, t11 n propri r ty of
thc•ir 11pplication sho11!1l he l':t sily recogni zed. Ohjrctio11, for
cxnmple, ltas fn:qn eutly hPc11 lll:td1) to thP title of .Jol111so11'H
H11111bler; as it suits 11eithcr the l'haracter of tl:c 1rnrk 1wr of
the n11tl 1or.
fl. A11 cxpla11atory phrase or cln.nse is so111eti11ws a.1mexetl to
a fl g11rntin: 01· gC1 11•ral title to pn:n:nt 111isco11c1:ptiou of th e
scope of t.ltc " ·ork or to ilHli cate it 1rith mor~ exactuess.
Ex. - " Jliographia Lifrraria ; or Biographical Ske tc hC's of' rn y L iternry
li fe antl opi11io11~." (C nlrridgP.) "Soe i:il Stati cs; or th e collllition s t'sae ntia l to l111111a11 1-lnppinPsS spt' cifl Pcl , a11 1l 1'1 m firs t of them '1 cvelnp1·<l. ''
(ll erb<'rt Spencer. ) "Trnt li , Falsel1ootl, and Fiction ;-an Allegory."
(J ohnson.)

+

34

MATTER OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 17

Sec. 17

CIIAPTEit II.
INVENTION.

17. Invention defined.-lm-ention, in its \Yitlest significat.i011 , iu clnt1es a.II th e processes inYolr etl iu t he co uceptiou , t1eYeloplllC11t, am1 a.rra11 ge1 11 e11 t of t he u~attc r of a disco urse : " ·c
11 my Le said to im ·e11 t the snhject aml iila n as \rell as the
id eas. ] 11 its 1ia1TO\\ est seuse, it llci1otes tl10 process or art of
filJ(1in g· t ho 111a·in tl1011ghts of a tliscoursc. In this sense it is
here employed.
Invention as a power of the Mind.- No system of max\) i1n s or rules cau teach one to !ind wlmt sujts his 1mi]1o:;c.
This is t l1 e net of a.11 origi ua l ]>ower of the rniral, wJ1i ch 111ay
Le tle\'e]opetl antl strcugthenetl Ly e<l ncatiou, Lut can i1ever be
a cquirct1. To tho hi gher forms of this iiower of iu veutiou i11
scieucc am1 a rt is g i vcu the na me of genius.
l\1itHls ditler g reatly as to the kind of iu,·ention they possess :
soi no ha,·e it i11 abstract subj ects, others i11 co11crete; so me i11
oratorical, others i11 histori cal, otl1ers iu philosophi cal s 11l1jects.
T hey arc a lso Ycry mwriua.l \Yi th res pect to fertili ty of i11n?ll tion: 011e finds much tlt:tt is n ew awl n tluau lc in a subj ect
that to a11other a ffonls onl y \\·Jia.t is tririal antl con111w11pJa cc.
So far as t hese di,·ersitics resu lt from constitntioual differeuces
of 111iud, t hey ca.11 not be rcrn et1ie!l liy 011ucation. No one can
g i,·e hi11 1sclf it tlilforent kim1 of i11Y e11 tio n. Dut all 111ay intpro r e the kind they !Jri,·c.

0

Means of improving it.-This JlO \rcr js s nsceptihl c of a
hi g h tlPgTec of c11 lt11rc. \ Ve so metim es find t hose who can
reca ll a1111 :ipply t lwir knowl e<lge witli prornptuess a nd C!ffta.iu ty wh e 11 < ~ ,· er circ11lllsta11 ccs require it. S uch ready and
haLitna l frr tili ty of i11,·e11 tio11 is h01rnrnr a rare att.a.inm ent : it
is one of th e last resnlts of long a1111 scrnrc men tal <liscipJiue.
Somo of the important means towan1s acq uiring it arc:
~. E.vtcnt of lmo1clcdge.-'l'lt o 111i1H1 can not create: it

•

INVENTJ ON.

35

must receir c before it can produ ce. V:tri cd knowle!lge Loth
determines it to more Yigorous energy all(] furni sl1es the materia ls 011 wlticlt it can C111ploy its po,rers; 1t1Hl, i 11 st«atl of
lieiu g uufi'ie utll y to ori g iua li ty, is au ai1l to it. \ '\'11a.t 'l'holllsou says of scieuti l1c di scorery is eq uall y trne of rhetori cal
i11r e11t.io11: "The suggesti1·c 110,rnr n my lie e1l11ca.teil as ct:rtaiu ly as, though more grad 11:tily t han, the cri tical. 'l' hc <li8co r er.)' wlti clt we call :t fla.slt of genius, a happy tl1011g ht, rc:tll y
depends as much upon ]ll'evious :tC<J llil'elllents, as the power of
stitting a case or rtpplyiug a rul e does."
2. Hab·i ts of methodical thought. -T hosc liarn a g reat ad·
vantage iu i11 ve11tio11 who lrnve furrn etl the habit of associati ug
th eir tl10ugl1 ts by t he ir r9al aU<1 higi.<;3t} conuectio11 s, arn1 of
referrrin g part~'.'._Ular facts tOg\;_Uera.I u rinC'.) pl es HIH1 illustrating
p rin ci1~l es by fac~ By thus 111ethotli7.i11 g their itleas and multip lyi11g t he nrnnl.Jcr of rnl<tti01 1s bd.\rncn the111 , t hey retain
t hem 111orc finuly a.ml c:t11 rec;ill t hem 11J orc rea1lily. Tlwse1
on the contra.ry, w hose iileas aru uui ted hy 111 erely a cci1le11 ta.I
associa.tio 11s alJ(l are thrown together i11 tlic lllitlll \\'ithout
ord er or c];i ssilicatiou, lmYe 11 0 co ntro l OYer their k11owletlge.
\ ,Vlam they woul1l 111cL1itate upon a s11hject. t hei r t.houghts arc
co11fusctl; 111 a 11y a re suggested tl1 at lmY e 110 real co rlllection
with tlw snhj <:d.7 wl1ilc t hose tlwt arc appropria te re111 ai 11 co11ccaletl, or <trc discovered hy a.ccitle11 t 011ly.
3. B.rercise.- L ike tho otl1 er rn e11 tal powers, it is i111prorcd
by exercise. T he more frequc11tly we apply ourseh cs to gatherin g and selecting though ts for a specirtl irnrpose, tho g re:tter
facility <lo we a.ci tuire. To Le lll'Ofitable, the exercise shonld
be reg nlar, systematic, a nd painstaki ng. The power of i11nmtion is feeb le wi th most persons because it l1as i1 ernr been
properl y exerted .
Invention different from investigation.-l 1wention tlilfors,
both in its ai~'.! alll1 1 ~t1, fr(1m scicnt·ifi c i111·cstiga.tio11. T he
scientifi c inquirer seeks to externl his k11owl e11ge all(] to girn
to it t1isti11ctncss :tll(l I~~~' · Il e pursues l1i s i11Yestiga.t.ions
for his own enlightenment only, without rega rd to the re~

36

MATTER OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 19

Sec. 17

INVE.NT10N.

I

fjliireme11 ts of otl1 ers; 11 or cm1 li e al\rn,·s forcsrc \rl1 at conclusions hi s inq11iri l•s " ·i ll lead him to. Jt is YCrY different " ·ith
the writer \\'ho intrn11l s to commnn icntc kno;rl cdgc. He is
supposed to l1n alrcarly in JlORScRsio11 of what li e "isl1 l's to
convey to others. 'l'hc process of i11\'Cstiga.tio11 is co111pletc1l,
the facts arn1 principles arc <~]ready :u;cert.ai11c1l, lH'fo;·c the:
wo rk of con1positio11 liegius. lllreutiou, then, is 11ot a prnt('SS
hy \Yhi eh \l·n extend our knoll' ledge or gi re to it g rc:it1•r cl\'arness arnl certai nty, lrnt one l1y 1Y]1ich \re gather fro1u our Oll'll
stores \\'h:ite1·er ca n ai1l us in accou1plisl1i11 g our oliject. It is
not a sca rd 1 for new trnths; I.J ut for facts, prin ciples, arguments, n111l 111 nti,·es to explain, establ ish, or c11for1.;c " ·hat ire
alrc:Hly kno\\' or lwli e1·c.
J fc \\'ho R<.:t:ks to ]ll"l'SC1l t truth ill an intcJJigiliJe a11d COH Yinci11 g- 111 a1 11un- to othern lllust rcg:ml many thin gs that ought
11ernr f.o i11fl11 e11 cc l1i111 1rhosc aim is to ascertai u the trut.Ji.
Arni it is 11ot a hrn.ys the ca Re, that one 1rliu 11:1.s obtained
clea l'll\'SS :rn1l certain ty in liis Yiews has the skill to re nder
thc111 cl1·a r a1ul ccrt.ai11 to others. Invention diffors from invcsti_gatio11 i11 not li<'ing regn latc<_Lexclu§is.cly hy t l1e 11 atnrc of the
suhject- 111 attcr; it is a pro1.;ess whose dircctiou rind Ji11iits are
llcle rn1i11 c1n1.r the fl!ijQ!<t· of tl1 e writer, hy the kind of discourse
lie in t.1:nds to rnake, and by the character ai1<l- conditiOn o f
·
those for 1r ho111 lie writ 0s.

b 18. Mellitation.-Although we nrc snppose1l to be fam il iar
1Yi t.h t.li e su hj cct npon \rhielt we propose to \\Tite, it is· selclom
tl1at nnr lrno\\'lt •r l gt~ is Ho co111plde ly underom control tl1at \\'C
rnn r< ~( :: tll i t at ont:c a1111 pn'sont it iu its appropriate for111.
Of \\' h:1t \\'I! l1 an: µ:nt hPrctl nt tlilform1t t.irn es frn111 Yarions
q11art.cr:-;, 111u r h li t·8 dor111 a11t iu the 11 wn1or_r; t.IJC full in1por t
of 1111H·l1 is 1wt. 1111folilt•1l; 111:rn.r of the facts :1.1u1 prin cipl es
lil•ari11g llJH111 011r purpose lie disco rrn cctrnl, a11d their rela tion
to <':tch otl11:r ;11ul t.lu:ir in1portm1cc arc 11ot recognized. It is
11ecc>ssar.v to <-.: urno the :rnhjcet to pass before the min 1l ; to
n:IHl(:r d ear " ·hat is ohscnre, tu rcc:dl what is latent, to bring
tog<:thcr the s1.:a.tternl fragme11ts, and thus obtain a general

~J.I

idea of the m:iin thoughts whiel1 Hhoulrl constitute thn tl(•rnloprncnt of tlic subject. 'l'lte 11teairn by \\'l1ieh this is· ar.(·0 111plished is cnlled meditation.
What included in 1-It ineludcs t1rn disti ud 111l:11tal 011('rntio11s :
1. Rccnlfcutinn, or the gathering of the facts arul principlt·H
iu\'ulred iu the subj ect or co111wdct1 \\·.ith it.
2. Selection, or the cl10osi11 g of stwh as 1u·e sui ted to tl1c
r1ature and eml of the disco urse.

. i

•

O 19. Recollection.-Thc first step of the \\Titer, after choos, ing his suhjed, is to recall 1rhaterer ht: !ins read, or learn e(l,
or tli u11 ght that n:J;ites to it,-all the facts a11d pri11 cipl es i11Yol n-.d in it or counccted \\·it11 it.
'J' his process is governe<l uy \\"hat arc call etl the laws of
association. No thought arises i11 the mirn1 < ~ u tir<' l y iso la ted ;
each brings with it it 11mul1er of nda.tl'd ones. 'l' l1 n fh o11 gh_t
of an effect sngg<:sts that of a ca.w;e, tl1c tlwugh t. of a.11 end
suggests that of a rn naus, the thoug·ht of one ohjc:ct ~ 11µ·g-<·sts
another resembling it or difleriug from it, etc. "\\' he11 \\'e
couccntrnte our at.tention upon any suhjcct, ire bring it 1ritlt
grea ter distin ctness aml Yi l' itln css lwforc consciousness, aml,
at the same 1-i!Jt<' , :tm1ken :t nu1111Jcr of accessory ideas.
O ur su1.;cess i11 gathering from t.lte materials in our p n~ses­
sio11 what sui ts our purpose <l<'pen<ls upon om po1n·r of contin uous thinking. T he first suggestions are generally oliscmc,
supc rf-i cial, mHl com111onpl:ice. It requires perscn:ra11ce to
extort from the rnirul its treas ures. By prolongetl hrootl in g
over tl1 e subj ect our interest in it incrcnHes, an<l \Jotl1 the suggestive fac11lty ai1C! tl 1e juclgmcnt act more Yi gornusly. New
relat.ions arc t1etccte1l, m:w co mbin ations an: fornu:1l, 11ew
applications are di scoYered, arnl the subject 'ri th a ll its qua li ties an<l parts a lll1 associatctl iclcas is brnugl1t distin ctly before
t.hc rnilHl.
T he you ng writer ncec1s to he cautionct1 against bei11 g OYerscrupulous an c1 systematic iu collllnctin g this process. He

40

lVIATTER OF A Dl SCOUl{SE.

Sec. 21

Sec. 22

21. Systematic Meditation.-Th c pror.('ss of 111c1lit:itirm
1foscrilil'1l :ilion: (81·es . 17- 1!1) i8 cali<~d rn1tural or fn·<> , h1•1·a 11 ~1~
the onll'r of lfo>ughtR .is ll nt1~ r111i11 c1l hy t.Jw 1rnt.unil lam;; of the
assrn:iatio11 of i1leas. 'l'h<'re is a11ot.l1 cr ki111l of 111 c1lita.tio11
call1 :d log-ical, or syst.c111;itir, \\"hi1:l1 is a n •µ,- ul:ited, 111dl >01lir:i l
proe1:1lill"l'. It cm mists in proposing :t R<: ri1·s or qm·~tio11s \\"ith
rcfcrc11cc to the subjcc.;t a.1111 cllllc<trnri11g to :111s1rcr thcn1.
Topics.-To a i1l in thi s, \\·J1at :trc callell topics :1rn 1•111 pl11y1•1l. Tl1< •8c arc l'!'rt:Li11 r cr.r gc11 cral 1wtio11s ll"hi ch affonl
p 1 1i11t~ of ri1 :w frn111 1rhich to co11 trn 11platc a g ir cn sulij l'd.
lly h!-i1! .~i11g t!>"~" 1111ti1111s i11 s111·1'l'ssi011 lwfore the 111 i11d a1111
:11mlri11•r tl11 ·111 to 1'111~ s11hicct
to be cxai11i11c<l, \\"C c:a11 ri mv it
J
i11 it.s part.8 :11111 rcl:itio11 s.
The topir8 arc of tiro kilHls, gr>11eral n111l spt•cial. \Ye can
fra.1111 : q111 -.-;tio11s t.l1at :ire applie::t!Jlc to a grl'at Yarict.y of ouj cct.s; c. fJ., \\' hat is it 1-1.Jy ll"hich \\"C ol1tai11 its defini tion
or dcs1:rip tio11 . \\' hat is its cause~ \\rith 11·]1:1 t can it he
co111p:m :1l 'I 1·te. llesi1l<'S these gt'lH:ra.l topics, there arc others
whith are 11st:11 i11 certain elasses of s11hjcct.s. _ 01w seri t•s of
q1wstio11 s is 11 sc11 1rlu:11 the snhjel't. is fill tff<'llt., rrnot.her \\·hc11
it is a pi:r,,;011, a11otlwr 11·hc11 it is :t gc1u·r:tl 11 ot.io11. 'l'lius,
\\·ith rcfon·111·1: to a pnsou the questions 1rn11l1! uc concerning
l1is 11a tio11 , a.gt!, ra11k, c111ployrn c11t, ch:ira ctcr, etc.
\ Vith respect to an cn:11 t, the q11cstio11s 1rottld he :is to
ti 111 t!, plar.c, parties C11 g:1.gcd, causes, cllccts, attendan t circrn11- _
sta11 ccs, etc.
J

~

;.,

Their utility.-lt. is rna11ifost that crnry 011p mn st nsr so111t!
of th<'St! topic ~ i11 \\Tit·i11g-. Hut thrrc is a {t'reat 1lis:ign•t!ll1t·11 t
ll'ith r<'SJH•ct to the ntilit.y of preparin g mul nsi11g foll 8chc11 1t'S
or li sts of topi cs. 'l'his artificial llll'tho1l of i111"cntio11 !ms u
pro111i111 ~ 11t pl ace i11 the a11cim1t rhetorics, hut has hccu Ycry
gmwra.lly 1:xe h111!•1l frn111 the 11ln11i:rn. 'l'hnn: is 110 <1011ht, !1ow~n:r, th.:tt a.Jt.ho11gl1 it js li:thle to ah11sr, it cau uc crnployctl
wi th profit i11 a com:·c of rl11·to rical 1liscipli11c.
'l'hc 11. ·e of topi cs docs 11ot cxc111pt from the necessity of

INVENTION.

41

patien t reflection. 'l'h c.r arc not t l11111 g lil ~, hu t llH' l"l' hi11 ls lo
.~11i1li: onr thinki11 g, to. i111licatt' tl1e dir1 ·di 1111 i11 11lii1·l1 111· :ire

·1
I

I.

to look for thoug hts. 'l'h1'.r arc of hut li1·ti l' s1·n ·i1·p t11 .1l1 ose
\\·]10 11:11·1: :iln ·:1d.r st111li1·<1 tl11 : s1il1j1 ·d Hl"i1·11 tilirally. li1 r llit ·sc
lwrc a co1 11plet.e se he111 c of topil's i11 the s<" i1·11 r1·; h11 1· to l1t '.!.!·i11rn:rs they nrc m•ccssary. Tu th e111 tl1 c s11hj1·<"t is :1t firNt. rn .!.!·1 11·
:111tl conf11se1l: their g reatci;t llifli cul t.r is tu k110\\' 11 lia t. to look
for. A properly pre pa.red schcrne of t;opics assish.; t IH :111 i11
g·i1·i11g ordl'r a.1111 di sti11 t.:t.11 css to their thouglit·s, 11.r li11 1ili11.!.!· tla·
•·xt.e11 t of the li eltl , by 11111kiug pro1uiul'11 t tl1 e p11 i1 1ts to J,.,
lJUticcll, aml u.r llJarki11g out a pa th ill 11·hir·h tla·ir ll1011g l1 t8
Hniy prn1 r•1 11.
1

1

It is 11 ot ml';rnt tha t this topi cal ll! ed itatiou F:!ionl<l l ie ~ 11li ­
stit11tc1l fur the 11at11rnl. Hs USP iN, (I) to pn·p:1n· li1r tl11~
natura l by giYi11g a ge neral 1·imr of tilt· s11lijl'd, :11 1d 11_1· liriu ging to noti ce its ditrcreu t sides; :11111 ('..!) 1·0 s11pplt·1111 •11t it, 11_1
(li st;oreri11 g 1rlwther au.r essl'llti:il poi11ls h:irc ht•t•11 ll <',!.! lt·d1·d.
'l'hc 11sc of topi cs 11·iJI be ex pl:ii11l'1l i11 co11 sitkri11 g 1111' t·l('lll Clltary forn1s of discourse. ( L'art .l U .)

22. Reading as an aid to Invention.-\\' l11 ·u t ht ~ s11hjl'f"t
::t<l111i ts of it, readi ng upon the s:t111 c or upo11 rclatt!d s11! 1j1·ds
sl10uld he connected " ·it.11 me1litation. Its ll8l'S an·: first,, to
stimu late tlic suggest.il-e fa cult.y; secondly, to supply f·he tlelicic11cics in om· knowledge.
. Method of Reading.-1. The general rul e is, that. it. shou ld
precc1lc \\Ti ting a.1111 follow med ita tion; or as it is expn•sscd
11.)· ,fcan Pa11l Richter, "NcYer write 11po11 a sulueet ll'ithou t
11:11·ing first rnarl you rself full of it., ai11l 11 m·1·r n'ad ll'i thout.
l1:t1·i11g first tl11nrght .rourself hun gry." CiiJlio11 gi n !s the s:u1H:
mhicc. "After a r:ipitl glance," lie tell s 11 s, "011 tlie subject
arnl 1list;riln1ti01\ of a 11ew l1ook , 1 imspc111l tl1c n ::11li11g of it,
1rl1icl1 I only n·su111c :1ft.er lm1·i11 g 1:xa.111i11 t·d the s11hj1•c.;t i11 all
its rcl:ttio11s ; after li:tvin g ca.li ed up iu 111y solitary mdks ::II
that I ha.Ye read , or tho ught, or learn cil in n :g:ml to the
subject of the whole l.Jook or of sornc chapter i11 parti cular. I
Uh e r.. 4

lHATTE R 01" A J)JSCOUHSE.

Sec. 22

th11s pla <'e 111ys<'lf i11 a c0111litio11 to 1,i;ti1nate 11·11:1.t the a11 thur
111a.y adtl to 111y gc11 ernl stor k of k1101rkdge, and l a lll thus
so111di1111•s farorahl y dispose<l hy the a.i;wnlance, somcti1u cs
arn1etl hy tlw opposit,io11 of 011r ri t· irn."
Hr pre rio118 111!'1li tatio11, tlt1· end 1w lml'c in Yicw i11 rea.di11g
linuly 1i xed, a.ml the 111i11d is 11-ss li; Llile to he 1li rnrtcll
i:-; 111
to fo n:ig·u rn ;Lttt:rn, or i11 to Ya g11I', ge11eral n :atli11 g. Hea1li11 g
is :Ll so ,n :11tl1:rcd 111ore su!!gcsti rn allll pru lita.l1le. \\'hen the
111iud is oee11pici1 11·ith a s11bject, it detects quickl y "ha te n •r
is related tu it, a111l fi111l s 111:1.teri;Lls iu th e rnost 11111·x11cdctl
q1w.rt1:n;. Th ere are fo1 r hooks tlmt will 1tot suggest solllethiu g 11 n11· a11tl a ppropri ate tu a fnll 1ui1nl.
~: The rea1li11g shu11ld lie rnri t:d. By scci11g hO\r the saurn
s11hjt•<' t is t n·a t.cll by dilh·n:ut all(] upposi11g a uthors, uc11· ri um;
arc olJ t;ii11 ctl, a111l u11r k1101rledgc lieeo111cs more co1upn:hcusi1·e.
3. Th e tho11glits gat.hcretl or suggested should be wri tten
1lum1 i11 t:l<'ar, prcl'ise statl:11w11 ts. J f only g:1:ncral i111pn:ssio11 s am rnceired, reatli11g 11·ill 011ly co11fm;e arnl burden the
111i1ul.
4. 'l'ht: 111atc ri ;il s µ-atht·r r 1l 11111st lir, m:Hle 011r om1 l1y ri g-orOllH tl1011 ~ ltt. Till ')' 111118t he :;il'tt:il ; 1rhat sui ts our p11rpoxe
11111st lw .Kl'lct't.l :il, :~11tl, hy prol o11 gu1l 1111•ditat.io11 , lie c0111hi11 etl
an tl li ro ng·ht. in to harm ony 11·ith our Oll'll storl's ;- he fu setl
in to tJll'l i;, ll11 HJi (ri11g then> Hilt] in t urn UCi11 g: ll lOtli ii t•tl li,)'
t.h1,1n. l 11 tl1is 11·ay 011ly can tl1 P thonght.s of others licco111e
Olli' O\l'll j they are otherwi se UU t lumlJer Storecl in the lllC11101'.)',
:ulll can 110t. lie tr:111sfcrn:t1 to our own wri tings wi thout rcutlcriu g us liabl e tu the clmrge of phLgiaris111.

Sec.23

DIS P081Tl0.N.

t h<' hoy l1a s r1 •ad :1 1111 t.ho11 ir ht. fi1r l1 i111 S1· lf'; fh:il 1111' 11 1•xf· f,..sf: 11·l1i1· h sl11111·s
th at h1• Ii: " r1·:11l ' ' '\'t 'l'al l111o ks, and d i.!!•'skd ll' li:1 t li e l1a s r<'ad ; a11 d I hat
th e 'll'Urs /. ll' hi<'11 s h11 \1·s tl iat, li e l1a s Ii ii lo wed lin t u11 e IJouk, a ntl t ha t 11·it1 1out relled iu11."

I.

/,•

;,rc

H E~JAJ: Ki' . -( 1 ) T o \\'ha t Pxfr nt " -p mny n>nil oursPIH•" of th e menta\
["'""''"" i"" " of ofh<'rs is a •tn PR fio11 of nicn·al s. Th e t\\'n 1•xtr(•111e s of fal se
orig inality 111111 of pl:r ginri s111 nn• to he nvoi ckd. Ho \\'ho will mnk o no
'"" of \\' lin t olh Pr s llll vt • il onl' \l' ill uot lw likt•ly to give to tho w orld nn ythin g Yalu nhl t'. Nothinir is <•a8iPr :11111111 on· \\'orfllicss tlrnn ~h e ori gin ali ty
of ii:rnornu c"" O ur g-n' atPst authors lrn ve horrowcd most frc1•ly; bu t, :lR
Dr v1le n s:q·s of ll1•n .Jol!eon , " tilt')' im·:ulc• auth ors like mcnmrcli s."
2 ) "I ~all t hat th o best t i:P mr,'' says Dr. Arnold, "which shows thd
0

(

C ll A P'J'J ~ H 11 I.
JHS L' 08 I 'l ' ION .

23. Disposition, n a t ure of. - l>isposit.inn rn11 sists i11 arra1 1g'C) i11 g the n1 ~:; (t1rnisl1 l'tl l1y ntt·ditati 1111 i11 s11 i:h an ord er a;1d
connection as corrcspo11d ll'i th the ~:pt ·l' ial cl!arn ctc r a11d ai111
of the llisco11rsc.
lt prcs11pposes that tlw \\'ri tt :r l1as g;1tlt1·n·1l till ' 111 ai 11 id1·as,
arnl 1h:ci1lctl 0 11 tho fonn of co111p11:;ition i11 1rltit'h 111· 11·ill 1·111hotly the111. H e is 11ow n •q11in •d to di strili11 1·1· 1:l1 t·111 lo ll1t ·ir
appropri;Ll·.e pla.c<:s, fi x 1·ill·ir li1nits, anti ro 11il 1i111! tlw111 int o a
cu111pl cte, harnio11ious wh ole.

,

Importance of.-Tlll:rn 1·an lit: no tli scomsn ll'itlt11111· or1lt·r
arnl ]Jl'Opurti1111 . A <lisc1111rnt: is 11o t a st·ric ·s of i11dc·p1·11tl1 ·11t
proposition s, hut th 1! i;o11 ti11uo11s 1lo\'C:l11p11H·11 t. of a si11.g·Jc lhe111t•;
its effects arc protl11cetl \1y it as a 1r lt oi<•, 11o t. li.r su 111<· s1· para te
part. ll o1rm·cr 111111ll:ro11s the t.lto11ghts r.011 t.ai11t !d i11 it, Lill:.)'
111ust all lie s11hordina te to 01u: ll'adi11 g tho11 glt1·, ;iJJ lie 11111tllnlly df'pe111lcnt as llH'tllhcrs of 011 0 organic 1\ hole. Only i11
t his n :lation to <·:1clt ot.lt er :rncl to th e eutirc cliscou rse, <lo they
01Jta i11 tl11·ir ro:il siµ-11ifica11cc.
It. is 11ot snfti ciPnt then that. t.lt e scparnte sta te nwnt.s are
intellig ihlt: ; they 11111st he so a rm11 µ-c <l :18 to s11pport and ill11strntc each otl1cr, and th:Lt each shall cont'.l·ilmte t.o t11 e tota I
impression, else the c11 tirn tho11 ght is 11 ot c01111111111icatcll aJlll
the full import of the parts can uot uc u11clcrst.ootl.
H.1~ ~IAHK . -Th e importa nce of di RpoRitio11 in compositi o11 l1as been
i11 siste<l upon bot h by tho most colllpetcut teache rs of rhetoric and by

44

.MATTER OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 24

Sec. 23

i1leas iu the sentences as well as to th e more complex cmn lii11a.tions of t.he principal 1li visions. B ut before proceeding to
t11 c a rra11 ge111 e11 t of the 1lctails, the wri ter must atternl to the
111 ore gm1crn[ procetln rn of f\.&n r_ thQ___li@ts and 1letcrmi11iu g
the co 11tc uts of the orga 11ic parts of the discourse, which is
usna lly ca ll e1l prepa rin g the 11la11.
What are the organic parts of a disco urse ?-The organic
parts of a 1lisco11rsc am t he in troductio11 , the hody of the disco m se, a111l the conclnsion.
Th ese arc a ll cssm1t.ial parts of m 1 organi c, iTl(li risihl e whole.
\ Ve arc nut tu i11fr r, licca nsc so111c precode mill others fo llow
a nd we can separate tlic1u iu our analysis, that they are inue-

45

pendent of each other, or t.ha.t a disco m se can he corn plctc
with s01 11 e of t hem wanti ug. lt is t he sa.uie with ~L di scu11n;c
as with a sy llogism. \Ve cm1 sc1mrntc t he pro positio11s of t he
latter , aml c:iclt will ex prcRs a 1fati nct a n1l i11 tc llig i1J le j 111lgrnent, hu t it will h:L\'C Jost its peculi ar force m11l mca.ning as a
part of tl1 e syllogism. So tl1 c i11 trollnctio11 , body of th e di :;comse, aml co11 cl 11sion, arc all in teg rau t parts of a co111pl ux
lrnt si11 glc ai Hl sim ultaneo us thoug ht; each has its specin I
purpose to su\Jserve, :1lll1 is irnlispe11salil e to t he der elop111eut
of the t heme ; each is dependen t on the others, :Lml out of
robtion to them loses :Lil its signi fic:rnce.

t he greatest mn stf'l'R of' s1yle. Hi11111' pro1 11111n<'CR it "lht> hP:ll' t v f' f-11 0
t.hcory of stylr;" :111<! tl11• fa111 011s tl iscomRn of' J\111li 111 on style is b11 t a n
('X)lfl118io11 of' n,., R:lllll l itJea j h<l 1Jdi11 eS st.y!P, llS ()11 • ord ('r anrl lll (l'Cl' llll'll t
\ Yf! gi\' c to 011r th1111 ght R.
Ori gi11ality, accordi11 g t u ]' :11ir:1.I , C(lt l8 ist.s 11 111; so
111n ch in t hn 11 1' \\'ll CRS of' t he i11<l il'i d11 al t h.. 1 q~h t s as in tluoir c1111 1bi11 ntio11 .
" Tli e <li spoF:ition of t.l1 e 111at1·ria1F:.,'' lin sayl-5, " is so111l'tld11 g w nv. I n
pl ay i11 g it'1111 is bot h " "" th n same hall , b11 t "'" ' Jilaecs it bette r than t.111>
othe r. It 111iglit as w..J I be ohj1•ctto<I tlint l 11 s(' l' n1Te11 t wu nl R; ns if tlw
sa me tl1 0 11 g h t~ di d not fi 1nn a difli· rl' ll t holl y of 1liRC'1 111 rsc hy :t d illi\l'<' ll t
nrr:rn g1·111<'ll t, j11 st as t.h n e:1111 n wunl s difk rl'11tly d ispos1•'1 fill'lll 1liili· n ·11 t
t h n 11 g h t ~." To tlt o same <) fJ i..•c·t Vin et say R: "U ood t lwn g li h~, u.;; 1'asc:d
says,- are ab1111<l a nt. T he a rt of vrgn ni zi ng th em is not so co nnn on. 1t
r equires s11111 r ti111 es a µ- reatfo r capn city to tiud t.hc rl'l ations a nd app1·01wiate pl:1.c1·s of thcsn orga11ic 111 01e c11lcs. vVe shou ld pcrl1 a ps be withi n
boun ds in Ray ing t hat uispoRit io n in a tl iscnurse is nnt of more secondary
in1 pnrtanco t hnn t h" m odn of aggregati on of' 111ulccu lcs i11 a phys ical substance; thi s 111 ock in a gn •at 11 11·aR11 re co11sti tntoR the nature of t he body."
[ Ho111ileties, Sit i11n cr's tran •la ti o11, p. 264. ] So 11lso W hateley: "A rrang.• 11H mt is a mo rn importa nt poin t than is g<~ 111 • rnll y snpposc<l; i11 t1c1,1l,
it is 11ot 111· r hnps of less cm 1sc111ie nco in c11111posit.io11 tlian in t hn 111ili tary
a rt; in whi eh it is wf'! I kn ow n, tl1at wit h a n l'< tn nli ty of' forces, i11 1111111bers, co 11r:1 ~'" a11 1l cn·ry uth1•r p11i 11 t, t ho 111 :1.11 11 cr in whi c h t hr y arc dr:L\\'11
up, so as l'i tlll'r to a flii nl 11111t11 :i l s11pport, or, 011 Ow otl1< ~ r l1t11Hl , eyo;
to i111potlo or a111111y each othl' r, nmy 111alw t he difference of' victory or
defeat." [ H.hetmi c, I'· ms.]

24. Prepa ration of the Plan.-T li e la"' of onler extcJ11ls
'Oto every portio11 of the composition ; to the co1nhination of

DISPOS1TION .

,..

.,

What contained in the pla n ?-T lrn plan, or outline, contai ns a s11 1unrnry statement, in t heir proper order a ud co1111cct iou, of tl1 c essen tia l itleas of tl1 e iutroduction, of the body of
t he discou rse, and of the co11 cl11sion . "\ Vliat is merely ex pla nato ry and ill ustrati 1·e is e·xc111ded, as atte11 tion to 111 in11t iw " ·i II
confuse nllll lead astnLy, and defeat the purpose fo r 1r hi d 1 the
pla n is made. l3ut although the main points arc givcn \Jricfl.r,
they must lJe gil'en with the utmost clearn ess and precisio11.
'l 'he tli v i s i on ~ and subdivisions shoulll be carefully marked, :u11l
he so for med t hat t he relation of the pa rts to each other a nd
to the t ueme can lJe easi ly percei 1'ed and re membered.
The necessity of preparing one.-vVithont a clearly conceived pla n, a writer is not prepared to treat of a snl iject of
a ny degree of complexity. He can not select fro m t11e tl1 ongl1 ts
that occur to him those that are appropriate, nor give them
their place; he will om it m any cssentirL! ideas aml exl1ihi t
others of them imperfectly, while snborclinrLte ones will be disproportionately expande1l ; li e can not avoirl wa111l eri11 g from
l1is tl1 e111 c, aml rn~o r t.i11 g to n :pct.iti011 s a rul di g ressions. 'l'l1e
disconrse, in its wa~of ~1.earn ess, of Ul]ity, of cornpl etencss,
and of progrc~s, will \Je a faithful ex pression of the uncertain ty
and confusion in the wri ter's mind.
U nt wl1 cn lie has a carefull y traced plan h e tletects nt on ce
the omission of any essential point ; he can exa mine the pa rts

4G

:M.ATTER OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 24

arnl tli ri sicms, a111l disco r cr \dmt tr:nrnitiom rire ncecle1l to
bi111\ th e111 toget h<·r HlJ(\ f>PC lll'C a, co11 ti1111011s m0Ym11e11.t of the
tl1011ghtR; lw has hPfore 11i111 all the main icl cas by alllpli(yi11 g
whi ch he. \\'ill gin• full11ess and lifo to t.hc clc1·elop111 c11t of the
the111e; ancl J1:Lri11 g· <letrn11i11l'cl th e proporlio11 of the vari011s
pa.rts, hn e:lll girc to both wi11cipal a11cl accl'S801J icll'a S tl1 nir
pl ace :mil clue pr0111illl'll ee. lk 11·ill proc:l•ecl 1ri th C'.:t SC :n1d
co11fi1l!'l1C'. c', gai11i11g Rtreugth as he a1h:rn ces; "he! has only
plc·awre in 11riti11g," says numrn , " itlea s folio\\' c•a.cl1 ot her
rnaclil,r , Rty lc! is 11at11ral :lllcl ea sy ; mu111 tl1, :-;pri11gi11 g fro111
thi s pl1·as11rl', 1lil1'11ses itself cr ery-11·Ji erc, a.llll gires life to eaclt
cxprl'ssio11; all is lllore a.1111 rnore m1illla tell; tl1e touc rises;
the ohjc•c·t s assn11w co lor; HIJ(l se11ti111Pnt co111hi11i11g ll'i th li ght
i11 crl'as1•s it, c·xte11ds it, tra11 sfers it fro111 11ha t is said to 11·ha t
is to lw said, and th e i;tyl e beconH!8 i11tcresti11 g a111l lu111i11011s."
H11t to secure tll!'Se a1lr:u1ta ges, the plan m11st not lie pre1mrn1l 1111lil afte r prnlou gctl 111 eclitatio11. \Ve c<tll a.rr:mge ouly
such nmttcr as we l1: Ln~; aiul if from tl1 e \Yant of serious rr1kctio11, our thoughts are fo1r, or t1frial, or ohscnre, th e tlisposition
can 11ot lrnt he i111p<,rf'ect arnl c01111mratircly useless.

25. The laws of Disposition both general and special.Di sposition is of clillerent kiJl(ls accon1iug to the matter aml
cla ss of cli sco urse. A 111ethocl of arrangement adapted to a
scic11tilic trc:itise wi 11 not suit an oration. A narrntion, a
<lescrip tion , :rn exposi tio n, a.ml a.n argument., require each a
<lilforeut ki11il of cli sposition. Th r hms for these speci:il 111oclrs
of di sposit.io11 11·i ll lie gin~u i11 th eir rippropriri te places. Herc
11·e shall t.n !at of thn gencrn.J Ja,1rn of tli sposition.
'l'liPsc• la.ws relat1' to the intro1l1J('.tio11, the holly of a lli scourse, the ('OIH:lusio11 , am! t.hc trausitio11s.

<J

26. The nature and purpose of the Introduction.-The
i11tro1luctio11 is a 11atural aJl(l necessary pa.rt of the discourse,
although it is more promi11c11t a11<1 extcrnlecl in some works
t11a.11 in othrrs. We see, for instance, in the briefest essay

Sec. 26

•

DISPOSITION.

47

J1ow much depends on tl11! asped of th<" sulij!'ct tl1at is fi rnt
presCll tell.
_ 'l'lte peculiar purposes of the i11tr()(llld io11 am:
1. 'l'o prepare the reri dPr to apprl·l1 r- rnl th1• 11n ·1·i ,.;1• poi1il lo
whi!'.11 hi s atte11tio11 is to hn 1lin·ct<·d, a11d t11 1111il1·r,.;t:1 11!l 11l1:1t
j ~ COllt:lili! •d ill til e J101ly of t.iJ c, di N1·011rn1·.
\\'l1 d ll!'r 11·c dl'scrilic·, 11 :1rrat1· , or pr111·c·, 11·1· 11111 st 111·1·:<1q1111 10:1·
tl1 at our rn:Hlern am arq11:1i11tf•d 11·itl1 fods :111d pri1wipll'" 1·1111111·cted \rith the t.llC:lll l', 11l1ic·h c:1 11 1111 t. f11r 111 a J><tI'I' of Iii< · l111il.1
of th e cli 8eo11rsP. \\'itl1011t. t l1i s pr1 ·li111i11 :1n 1;111111 l• ·dc: 1· 11 111·
statc111<·11l s, ex pla11 at.io1is , ;lllcl arg11111l·1ils ·rill ill' i11 1p1 ·rli·1·tl.1
111Hlcrsl·o111l. If tlil'll th <· d1·1l'l11p11w11 t 111' tl11· 1111·111 1· i;; 111 p111
1~r·e d 11a t11r:ill,r :111d 11·itl1 out. i111·1·rr11p tio11 , tli11s(• idl·:1 s :111d 1rnt l1,.;
011 ll'lii1·.li it. dqw11ds 11111st lirnt \11: 1·111111111111i1·at1 ·il 111 till' ri·:1il1 ·1 ·.
.If ire 1ri sh to d1·snil1e :111 ohj1·d, 111· 111;1.1 \11 ·.c:i11 ".1 :_: i1 i11.c: ti!<'
•: l<t 8S to 11·l 1i r li it. lH'iOll ,!.(S; ii' \\(' 11:1rral!- <Ill 1·1!'Ill. \\ I ' 11 1:11·
n•cou!lt l1ridly 11!1:1.t pn:el'dc:d; if ire 1r is l1 t.o l'Sl:1loli sl 1 11 1·,.
trntlt of a proposition , \\'C 111 ny i11irnil111·1 · llw :1r;.:1111 1c·11t li.1
stating sorn e rnore genera.I trnth i11r olri11g it or rn 1111 tdl'd
wi th it.
Ex .-Hall:11n in hi ' Intrnd11dirn1 1'n f'lir• Lill'rah1r1• 11f E11r11 p<', ;11 I.Ill'
l Gt,h, lGtlo, a11tl 17tl1 Centuries, thu s i11trod11 ('l'S l>i s s11h.i1·d :
"A ltl1011gh f'hP s11hj1·ct of tl11·s1• Y11l111111 •s 1l111·s 110( 1·0111prl'lll'11d 11 11 · lit<'rnry history of Emop1• apterior to ti ll' c111111111·11e1·1111·11 t of 1111· lilh· 1·11 t.1 1
ce11t11ry . . . it app1•a rs necessary to pn ·fix s111'11 a g1·111•ral rdrospect of the state of lrnnwledgc for sonic pn'l'edi11g ag1·s as \\'ill ill11 strate
its s11bse11ucnt progress."
2. To rencler the reader <li sposetl to :itt.ellll to th e Jm "s1·nt:Ltio11 of th e suhj ect..
'l'hc 11Ji11cl of th e rna<ler \rill , at first., oftnn lie occ11pil'd \\'ith
oth er thoug iit8, aml iwliflcre11t. to the subject, am1 oft1:11 ll'ill he
prrjll(liced again st it. It requires caution :trnl skill to lead
l1i111 into a new arn1 foreign iielil of tl1 ough t. U nless we can
gain liis attention, a.nd rernlnr him farnrahly 1lispose<l, no ex11lanatious or arguments can produce auy illlprcssiou upon
him.

48

MATTEl-t OF A DISCOURSE .

.

Sec.28

Sec.27

27. \Ve h a.n~ to co11si1lcr the rnlcs for tile contents of the
iutrotlnct.ion :L11tl for its structure :
Contents of the Introduction.-!. The 111atter of the in tnHl11ctio11 11111st IJe an i1lc:L or thunght t.liat is closely c01111ectcd
" ·it.It the theuw, aml will co1Hlnct to it IJy a short a1111 uatural
process.
lt sho11l1l i10t IJc one t hat 1Jelo11gs to t.110 contents of tl1 c
thc111c aiu l has its place properl y in t he bully of the discourse,
11or 01ir. so µ-m1cra l ·allll remote as to rc11uirc a. long process of
thong-ht before the theme is reached; !Jut 0110 that is d~~-­
fro111 the 111ai11 i1ka of the discourse, aml, at the same ti1uc, iu
clusP colll"a l't wit.II it.
lt 11111 st. haYc a n•a l comir.ctiou witl1 the 111ain idea, and lead
to it 11atnrnll.r w.i thont any appcnrn11 cc of artiticc or force .
\Yh e11 th e co111wct.io11 is fa 11 ci flll or arbitrary, it neith er prepares for " ·hat follmrn nor co11 trihutes tu the tle1·rlo11111c11t of
t he s11lij1·«t, but ra ther di1'erts t he 111in1l from it. It is a
J11istak e to su ppose, that any striki11 g thought 11my lJe a1lapt.c1l
hy th e i 11 g 1 ~ 1111ity of the writer to t he purposes of au i11trocluctio 11 .
J t 11111 st not be too 11arrow; it must prepare for the entire
discussion awl not for some di Yision or he:ul.
It fo ll ows, tlmt the same iutrotluction can . not be eqmLlly
well suite1l to a numlJer of discourses. 'J'hc same gcncrnl
thought m:;_y he cuqiloyctl, but the application will gi re it, i11
each cn.sc, a n irnliYidnal clia.ractcr that makes it appropriate to
the one disco nrne a!Hl to no other.
~ - 'l'lw illtro1lu ctio11 must contain 011ly wlia.t is easily umlerstoutl aJI(] will he re:ulily a1lmi ttc1l. vV lmt needs explmmtion
nm\ proof is uot snit.able. \V c lllUSt proceed from the kn01rn
a111l a1lt11i t.tt ~1\ to the u11k11 ow11 arnl dispute<l.
;;. lt Jllnst :makeu in terest a1ul curiosity, mul direct the
llliml to 11·hat foll(ms. 'J'he principal offenses ag:tiust this rul e·
arc sc!P ct i11~ trito rdlectious awl mere trujs111 s, and the opposite fau lt of ehoosing- ahstra ct i1ll'as or wlmt requircR subtlety
of thought. Uoucrete ideas, as they appeal more directly t-0

DISPOSITION.

4!)

the imagination and fee lings, are better suited to interest, and
when ci~·cumstances a llow, are to be preferred.
Structure of the Introduction.-The struetm e of the in . troduction should correspond to its p1u1)0se and subonliuatc
rnnk.
'
As it docs not exist for itself, lrnt on ly to prepare for 1rlrnt
follows, its 1n:Li t1 idea should be expawlerl no further tl1 m1 is
conducive to tliis end. An exliaustive, syste11mti1 ~ presentation of it wou ld 1.Je out of place. 'fhe g reatest possible co11ciscness and simpli city arc requirml ; an undue expausion of a
s11!1onli11a.te part <lcstroys tho lmnno11y a.lid propo1ti011 of the
who le :11111 1l etracts from tl1e main itlca . Its leugth 11·ill , of
course, he determined by t he nature and extent of the composition; it is always too Joug wl1011 it couta.ills any thiug that
is 1111 necessary.
The g reatest difli culty in tl1 c a.rt of frarning an introduction
is to secure a natural and easy transition to t he lJotly of the
<liscoursc. 'l'l1at is the most perfect out of wlticlt the therne
see Ills inunetliately to grow.

l .
\

When to be prepared.-'l'hc introduction is usually the last
t11iug prepared. vV c can not be snrc of selecting an appi:opriatc introductory idea until the subj ect llas been carefully
studied in its rnrious parts :intl relations. Cicero tel Is us, arnl
what he says applies to a ll kinds of composition,-tl iat it 1ras
his custom fast to pl an arnl digest a ll the materials of J1is discourse, and last of iill to consitler 11·ith 1rlmt he shou ld bl'•riu .
. .11 g as l'ns reason, that whenever he endeavored to i11re11t
"' '
g1v1
the introduction first, nothing- occurred to him I.Jut wlmt was
trifling anil commonplace. lt is not meant that it sl1011 ld be
w1ittcn last. As a genera.I rule, it is atlvisalJJe in writing to
finisl.i the introduction llefore proceeding to the body of the
, iliscom·se.

28. The Body of the Discourse.-As the theme arisl's
naturally out of the introduction, so the liotly of tile tliscourse
Rhet. 5

52

:MATTER OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 29

Sec. 30

n.. By tl w In" of l11' rl a lli1°R.
b. By her tlt'pt·11tle11e• 011 Sparta.

a. Cnrrnpkrl thn morals of her inhabitants,
b. Overtl1re w her co ustitution,
2. And so eufeebled her uwrnl power.

30. Comparative advantages of the two methods.-l:<lth

I. Hence the effects of the war on tho iutcrn al condition of Athens
were injurious.

a. It diu1iuiRh c<l her navy,
b.

Dcstrny• ~ (l

hn ports,

1. And Ro PXposcd her to assaults from all her enemies.

a. Dep l'ivcd Atheus o f her allies,
b. Made her depc urlcnt upon Sparta,
2. And so degraded her from the leaclership.

II. H ence the effect s of the war on the external r ela.tions of Athens
wei·e iujurions.
Conse11uc11tly, the resu lts of the war to Athens were only i11jurious.
Hero the 1uethnd is rigidly Analytic.
If thn wri t,Pr w i•lll'S tu present hi s s11hjcct according to the Sy ntl1ctic
methrnl , hi s u1t1<le o f prncet>1l i11g w ill be j11st Ult\ revers('. vVhat forlll ed
the ·co11cl11sion of the pn•cctli11 g procuss will now form t he starting-poin t,

I
~1

a nd t he disposition will be as follows :
T1rn~m.-The effects of the P eluponncsiau war on Athene were all

injmiou s ; for it,

I. Enfoebled her inte rnally:
1. In her nmteri al power.

a.. A• to li er wealth-destroyin g her commerce.
b. As tu her populatio n-diminishing it.

2. In he r mural powl'r.
Hy t.h.- <l1•111orali zatio11 of thn people.
b. By t he l' ha ngn nf her co nRt.it.ut ion .

11.

II. E nfeeb leil he r in her foreign relations. '

1. D estroyed he r means of defense.
a.. Hy dimi11i Rhin g J1et· navy.
b. By t he tlestrnction of the lung walls.
2. D eprived her of h<'r place as leader.

DISPOSITION.

'

\

'

metho<ls liave their a<lva11tagcs n111l tli sa<lrn ntag1·s. \\~ l1i c lt to
prefer will be determined by om s11ccial object in writi11:.;.
'l'he analytic is the longer process a nd is liabl e to l.1 <'come
tedious. It has the aclYantagc of p r<'se11ti 11 g trnllis in tlin
onler i11 wh id1 they arc tliscovcrrnl. 'J l1 e re:11l1·r 1H" 1.: i11 ~ 11·itlt
actual facts, allll umlcrstauds each step as lie a d ra11,n·s. lle
obtains a greater fee lin g of certai 11 t,y, ' r hile at t l1 e Ha 111 e ti111e
hi s miud is stin111latet1 to greater aetir ity. 'J ' here is al:-:o
always in tell ectual pleasure ht asee111li11 g from tl1c partie11L:r
to Urn general, am] sornetl1in g of tl1e plc·asure of <li ~rorc· ry
when the final res ult is reacltccl. Jt is s p<'cial i.Y s11i talilc for
introdncing a scie nce, as it li <' t:l·i 11s 'l'it!J 11· !Jat is kn own ' ex•
l1ibits its general drift, aml enabl1,s the stud ent to 1rndernt:md
the details. It is a lso the uaturnl m etlwd for suel1 11·orks as
propose to i uvestigate notious mid their rchttimrn, to resnl re
diflicnl ties, to remove doubts aml answer oli,i ectio11s.
The synthetic method lms the disa<lrnutage of hcg i11ui11g
with the abstract and gmieral ; the render ean not sec tile use
of the elements that arc ginm to l1im , and, nut k nowin g t hei r
relation to the whole of whi ch tl1 ey are 11arts, can not fully
comprehend them. It has the atha11tage of brevity, and is
the mode best adapted to presenting k1wwle<lge in a systematic
form so as to exhillit the relations of tl1 e separate facts aml
principles to each other and to the entire system. It is
hence frequently called the scientific, systematic, or dog matic
method. It is specially suited to such works as aim to com municate knowledge in a compendious form that can he retained in the memory. It is also t he natural method of
history, and t he one usually employed in oratory.
0

<._;

REMARK.-The two methods may be united, anrl in works of an y Rize
: generally are. Th e a nalytic method m:ty be adopted for th e general discussion, and the sy nthetic fo r th e t reatment of the parts; or t he reverse.
This may be easily exemplified by using the schelne given in section 2fl.
I

MATTElt OF A DISCOURSE.

D

Sec. 31

31. General rules for the disposition of the Body of the
Discourse.-'l'he following general rnles are to lie ubsern;d in
the disposition of the I.Jody of the discourse, wlmtcYer lie the
mode of presentation :uloptcd:
1. It shonl!l omit nothing esscutial and contain nothing unessential; uothing m erely curmcctctl with the t.11ei11e and nut
dcri,·etl from it. For ex:u11ple, if the theme is, "vV;trni11gs
:tgai11st falHe cu11scim1tiousuess," alHl the writer sho111tl treat
first, of t.he 1mture of the error; secomlly, of its sig11s :t11tl
elfocts; aml, thinlly, of the reasons why it should I.Jc aroi!ll'd,
the di,·ision would violate this rnlc. Tlte first aml second
hen.els :tre not cont:i.inCll i11 the tl1eme which p~·oposes only
1caru·i11!f8 against the error. So the third head is the the111e
itself. 'l'he di \·.isiou woultl ha Ye 1Jcen a proper one, if the
the111c lm!l 1Jecn, "False couscientiousncss;" as it wo111ll
ha Ye gi \·en first, its nature; secondly, its charnctcristics;
thirdly, its effocts.
2. 'l'ha.t is tl1e lJest di spositio11 which (prori(]ed the YirtHC Of
:i.la.ptation is not neg;lccte<l) cxhiuits the thc111c fro1n <lillbrent
i10ints of vidw, m1tl ~uutaius those main thoughts the tlcn:lopment of which :dfonls tl1e greatest rnriety of 11ew aml important trnths. 'fhere is lt g-rcat dilforence :trnoi1g \\Titern in this
respect; son1e girn 011ly supcrliciaJ Yiews, while others 1Jriug
out all the riches of their sulijccts.
3. 'l'he dispositiou must I.Jc natural,-prcscriued liy the 1mture of the theme not imposed from without. 'l' his is n ,qniretl
by the nature of Jll"OSe. We can not enlighten, convince, or
11ersuade "·hen the connection uetween the thoughts is not
recognized n.s real am! 11eccssary. This rule is violatetl by
adopting 011e 1111ifon11 rnotle of arrangement witliout reg<ml tu
the miitter; nrnl also uy <t false symmetry which di vi des and
cornuiues ~irbitrarily, nml seeks uniformity in tl1e number and
length of the di Yisious nntl suudivisious when the natural
tlernlopmeut of the irnl.iject does not require it.
4. It must I.Jc easily comprehemlml a.ml remembered. A
too g reat multi11lic;ttion of diYisions and sullllii-isions shoulll ue
avoided, as it uunlcns the rncmory aml prevents the miml

Sec. 32

DISPOSITION.

[j[j

from outaiuing a clear view of the who.le. The various parts
should !Jc distinct; one should not contain what belongs to
another; and the limits and prominence given to each should
be determined uy its rclatiYe iil1iio1fance. Each imrt shoultl
contrilrnte to the clearness, c01£pietcness, certainty, aml force
of the other, each ueing in the place prepared for it uy what
preceded, and where it will best prepa,re fur what follows.

L1_
of /i~

~

32. The Conclusion.-Thc concl11sion is tliat part
discourse in which the derelopment of the theme is brought to
its snitaule close, and a distiuct irnpression of it as a whole is
g iven to the reltcler.

An essential part.-Like the intr()(lnction, it is more prominent in some classes of compositions than in otl1crs. Its
importance is greater and it dcman ils a more elaborate preparation in the extended discussion of complic[tted subjects and
in oratorical discourse. But it is an essential pm"t of m'ery
discourse.
·without it the good impression ma.de by the proper di sposition of the preceding parts is marred and rrmny of its results
are lost. There will be an aurnptness, mwt of completeuess,
and want of symmetry, which will not only offend the taste
but also render the discourse less cffoctive.
It is the writer's aim to cause the rca1ler to appropriate his
· entire thought and to feel the force of its complete presentation. vVitl10ut the conclusion this can not lie effected. A
number of thoughts have been crowded on the reader's mind,
to each of which in succession he lias given his attcntio11.
Shonld the discussion terminate smlrlenly lie is left with bis
rnilld occupied with some subordinate part, some suudivision,
and it can not be expected, tlmt, witl1011t a.id from the writer,
he will recall the several parts awl gaill a vivid impression of
them in their unity or prnctic;LJ uertrings. It is the writer's
tluty to put him in a 110sition to do this; to enable him to
gather up the results; to see wlmt has ueen gone over, wha.t
has been gained, antl how it has been gained; and tlrns to

[j(j

MATTER OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 33

Sec. 32

vi ew the theme in the li ght thrmrn UlJOll it uy the previous
discussiou. 'l'his is tlie ollfoe of the condusio11.
Qualities of.-\Vlmt is necessary to its perfection may ue
inferrell fro111 what has ueeu said of its e11<l.
J. l t should acconl \rith tl1 c natme of the subject, th e aim
of the 1liscourse, arnl the nm1111cr of prese11ta tion. lt should
not uc iucong ruous either i11 matter or form.
2. 1ts 111ai11 thought slwnltl uc on e that co11centrntcs i11 itself
the force of a ll tlmt precc<les, or at least urings the Yiew prcscntc<l, th e proposition explai11CLl or pro ved, the resolu tion to
be alloptcll, ucforc th e rni11t1 \rith all th e Yiritlness aud force
that ca11 ue tleri ,·ell fro111 the cut.ire <1iscussio11. In rnost cases,
a comle11 sc<l sn111111ary of \\'ha t !ms uceu gai11cd, or a.11 cxhi\Jitio11 of the uuity of th e parts, form s the 111ost appropriate conclusion.
3. All a\Jrnptncss or appearance of artifice in passin g frorr1
th e hotly of the discourse to the couclusion ought to \Je
arni1lc<1.

33. Transitions.-Tl1 c "·ork of (lisposition is not finished
u11 til s11i ta lili: transiti ons l1 ave ucc11 fon11 eil.
By transition , i11 its widest sense, is incant the passage
fron1 one part of a <li scoursc to anoth er, it may uc from on e
organi c part to the fol101Yi11 g, or frorn one dirision or suhdidsion to a11o ther.
111 Ro111e cases the conn ection hctwem1 the tl1011gl1 ts is so
clo:;e arnl 11eccssary tl1at the followi11g- µ-rows immc(liatcly out
of th e 0111~ th:it prcce(ks it., and no i11ten11cdiatc i<lea is needed
to show th<'ir rela tion. Hut thi s seldo111 occurs,-nevcr in
externlc<l (li sc11ssions of compli ca.tcd sulijrcts, or long na.rrati res, or where th ere :ire <li gTessio11s nrnl a111pli!i ciLtim1s. There
exists, it is tnw, a real nIHl 11ecessary co11nel'.t.ion uetwcen all
the pa rts ; this is i111plie<l in the \rork of (]isposit.ion , but it is
not always easy to make this connection apparent. Us ually ,
a.fter ltnYin g preparntl hi s plan, the writer ii11tls tlmt tho con11ectio11 \Jct\\·eeu tl1 e 111ai11 thoughts is remote; that they are

,·

I

DIS POSITION.

S<:pa.ratrnl liy i11 terrnlN 7 so tl1at if ld't i11 tl1i s fon11 tho <li Hrn11 rne
\H111ifl lt<L\" C <L fr:1 g111l'n t.:1ry l'l1ar:t etl'r, :111d co1il1l 11ot lH : n ·;11lily
urnler::;tootl or re111 e1111Jered.
111 onler to girn n111ti11uity to tJ11• 1li srn11rn n so111e t.ho11g·J1t8
rnust Le 1lisco\'crml \\·hich \\·ill bi1111 the parts t.ogtthl'r ·;,ll(l
uu.i tc the111 into one coherent ,r!Jole. 'l 'l11·se i11t ern1 l'1li:1 te i1l1·a s
arc called trn11sition8, ~ tlw narro w se11 se of t.he tl' rnt. 'Jiil '}
l1 a re been corn1mred to tlll~ joints of t.he ho1ly . Vind. mil ~;
them " a k.iwl of punctuation 011 a largo sc;de; " as p1111 ct11atio11 scn es to mark the in te rvals a.1111 the rda tiorn; of tl1011 gl1t·1;,
so trn11sitio11s serrc the douLl e pmposP- of dii;ti11guisl1i11 g mill
uni ti11g.
The most important t.ra11sitious nrc that from tl1 c i11 trotl11c·
ti o11 to the I.Jody of the tli seo1u·se, a11tl tl1at from tl1 c lwdy to
th e co11dusio11 . Th e forlll cr is the more dilTicult, mid tl1at iu
wl1iclt lllost failures occur.
\.) E ssential qualities of.-A real com1 cction het\rcen th e
parts to lie 1111ited is assum ed. .1.'1.11 ntte111pt to Hhow a <·01111 cction where 1w11c exists will uut 11mke th e i11coh ernn cc 1111irc
g lari11g.
1. The transition must contain a ma! tl1 011ght. A \\ onl
c:rn ght up in pass iug frn111 011c di risim1 or para graph to a11 other, or the dcelarntion tliat we 11ow procet!1l to the 11 ex t part
or tlirisiou is not a trm18itio11. It oft.e n con sists iu n ·1ieati11g
wlmt w;Ls S[tid , or iu a concession or 1111alilicatio11.
2. Thi s thought should uc 0110 corn1t?cted with the t1rn wl1iclt
it is i11 te11det1 to uuitc. It must look to \\'hat precedes it an(]
\\hat foll ows. Its points of contac t 1Yith hoth shrmlll he so
pbi11 that they can \Jc i11sta11tly di sco,·cre1l. \Vh ateYcr is
austruse, suutlc, or far-frtclt ed would o\Jscurc tl1e con11 ect.io11
instead of 111aking it appa.rc11t.
3. '\Vhen tl1 e reader can ca<ily s upply the conn ecting
thought it shoultl \Jc 011ti t.tt:11. E\~!11 :dlrnptn ess is \Jetter tl1a11
empty con1111011places, which only!, \Jur<len th e discourse a.rnl
'
enfocul e t11e rea(lcr's a.ttcn tio11.
4. 'l'hc thought must 11ot \Je expall(k d furth er. th an is 11cccs-

58

l\L\.TTEl'l OF A DISCOU RSE.

Sec. 33

sa.ry to aceo111pfod1 t he specific purpose for whiclt it is used.
"\-Vhc11 it p:t1'8es bcyo11<1 this it becomes a <li!.\'rcssion, m1l1 instead of l'.ro11 wt.i11 g, i11 tcrrnpts t he co11 tinuity of the discourse.
How to be found. -~o mies can tl'ach the art of fiuding
s ui t:Llil l' trn11Rit.io11s. 1\lucl1 lh-pm1tls on the tact of the writer.
'l'he grcn.t so urce of the difficul ty fouml by beginners i11 thi s
part of the 1rnrk of co111po ·itiu11 is the " ·ant of a mastery of
t heir suhjcd. \ Vhen 111e1l itat.iun lin.s been prol onged and faithfol , ai11l t.he iiJa11 properly 11mtle, t he cunucctiug liuks will
soon I.Jc fonm1.

C lI A l'TBl{. IV.

/-r

Ai'll'LIF LCA'l'lON.

31. Nature of Amplification.-11y the preceding processes
of i111•n11tion :w1l disposition the 11uifo ideas of the discourse
lm\' e lw<!ll sd cct<·d a1u1 arranged i11 clue onlcr ; the course of
tho11gl1 t i11 its lu,µ,-i1111i11 g, mi1l1ll c, a nd cud has been d m rly
rn:n·k.ccl out. Hnt 0111.r a n~ry general outline ha s been obt:Linctl; the plan is hut :t nwagcr sumrna ry of the iioints to be
co11RiLlere11. T his 011 tli11e is 11ow to I.Jc fill ed np. The 11ritcr
111118t take 11p each of t he main iucas lairl do1rn in a snn1111 ary
for m in his pl an, :nul s ubject it to the same pro"cesses as those
t.o " ·hich h e lms snbjcctcil the original !calling illea of the discoursl'. ] I · 11111st 11 1e11it.a te upon it a.ml dcrnlop it; he must
~a th i•r the snhonlinate illcas, ·i. e., defini tion s, dcscriptio11s,
~xpli l'atio11 s, arg11111c11 ts, comparisons, etc., that are necessary
t.o exhibit its foll 111caniug :wd relative importance. By thi s
lllt!ans tl1e uH·ag-cr :tbstract ;s co11n·rtcll iuto a full, vivid exhibi tion of t he snhj ect. T his process is called amplification.
It must 110t, as is 'too fre rp.cutly th e case, be confounded with
exaggeration, idle repetitiJn, or the lteapiHg up of iusignific:rnt
circmnstanccs. It may lie defined, the IJrOccss of gathering

Sec. 34

AMPLIFICATION,

5!.l

and a rran ging such subordinate ideas involYed in or connected
witil the main ideas given in t he plan, as a re i1ecessary to
present t he su bject with the gn'iLtest 1mssil.Jlc clcaruess, force,
itt1ll completeness.

Its importance.-[t is necessary in works of a ll kinds.
1. A bstrnct, summa r_y st:ttemcnts arc not i11 telli gil.Jlc to
most persons, anu ca.u never affect the fee lin gs a.nd wi ll. vV c
tlern aml, even in scient.iiiCtrcatiscs, tli n.t tlt e wri te r g irn 1Jotl1
logical clearn ess to his i<lcas by tlefiniti ons am1 diYisions, awl
msthctic clearness by ex hibiting the abstract iu concrete forms
lJy means of exampl es, facts, figures, etc.
Ex .-\Vo may say, in bl'i ef abstrnct form , tho Dil'in e Be in g is omnipresent a nd omni scient. T he t heologian gin's logi cal clearn ess to t he
thou ght by ennm c rati ng t lie notions im·oh·ed in 0111niprcs1·nce a nd n11111 iscience; a:8, prese nce in all space, lrnowledge of all t hin gs possibl e and
a ctu:il , of objects a nim ate and in:rnimatP., thougl1ts, ill'sires, etc. Bn t the
Psalmi st ex hi bits the same t l1 ongl1 t wit h mst hetic clrarness, in n. cn 11 crete
for111 , appealin g directly to t he imagi nation a nd t he fo<' lin gs: " \ Vh ith er
shall I go from thy spirit¥ or whith e r sl1 all I fl ee ·from t hy pr1~sen ce I If
I asce nd up into hc:wen , thou art t hPrc; if I make my bl'd i11 hell , behol 11
thou art t l1 ere. If I take t he wings of th e 111 orn ing nntl dw ell in the 11 tt1·rmost part.s of th e sea; even th ere slrnll t hy ha nd ll'ad me and t hy l'ight
lmnd defend me. If I say su rely t he dn rkn ess sl1all cove r me, eve n t he
11ight shall he light abo nt me. Yen , th e il a rkn f'ss hidetl 1 not from th ee ;
but t he nig ht shin oth as t ho day; t he darkness a 11 d tho ligl1 t are both
alike t o t hee.''

2. The minc1 must clwell fo r some time upon a thought
before it can rcceirn a full and distin ct impression of it. ]f ~ve
liaYc an important tru th to communicate, we can not content
ourseh' es with a l.Jarc enunciation of it; we must fi x the
reader's attention upon it, and give him tim e to compreh end
it and foo l its truth.
REMARK.-Thc importance of amplifi cati on a s a means of' det aining
t he rnincl 1qH111 a subj ect, and so all ow in g t he read er to yield to its innnence, is very well 8tn.tcd by \Vh atel<'y: "It is rema.rkecl hy n.nn.tn 111 i ~ts
tuat t he nut rit ive quality is not t he on ly re'}nisite in foocl ; that a ce rtain
degree of d'ist'ention of t he stoma ch is required to ena ble it to act with its

GO

MATTElt OF A DISCO URSE.

Sec. 34

+

full po w<'rn; :uul tha t it i• for this reason J1 ay or straw m ust br. gi1·cn tn
horst•s, as ll'l' ll :i s co rn , in onkr to supply t he 11t•cessary bulk. So1111•thi11g
analogons to th is t:il\l' S pl ac<' witl 1 l'l.'' l"'ct to t he ge 11 t·rnli t.y of' n1 ind s,
which a.l'IJ in C':1pahle of' thoro11 glil y di gestin g an d asei111ilati11 g what is prnsm1tl'<l to tl1<•111, hmv1·1·•·r e l<·arly , in a v.. ry e111all co 111pass. l\l:w y a one is
capab ln of <leri vin g that in strnctiun fro111 a n1odcrat<J sized vul11111 e which
Ji n co11i<l not rt' l' <'i n: fro111 n re ry •111all pa111phlet, l' \·e11 n1 ure pt' rspic nunsly
wr it tPn , ai1<l con ta inin g <'l"l' ry t hing that is to tl 1e purpose. lt is necessary that t lw alt1'11 t ion b" <ll't:>. in l'<l for a ce rtain ti111ll 011 th e snhjeet; a nd
person s of 1111phil•1so ph iea l 111ind , th ongh t hey <"a n atte nd tu wh at th ey
read or hear, a re u11apt to d well upon i t i11 t he way of suuse 11ue11 t 111ed itatio11."

Q

AMPLII~ICATION .

GI

indu stry in l.J11 si11 css, in trcpirli t,y in da.ng<' rR, rigor in acting, prlllle ncc in
cm 1ce rti11g, pro111 ph1 ess in exee.utin g. All whid1 cbaracters appear witl1
greate r lu ster in him t li a n in a ll t he other gc nernl s we ever saw or
heard of'. "
3. Th e hi storian 1111ght bri efl y sta te the fact, tlrn.t tho fk..t of \ Villi:irn ,
afte r being fur a suort ti111 e iu great tla11 ger, rl' aclwd t he harh11r 111' T11rha y
in sat4: ty. But nut.ice how Macaulay a n1plili es t hi s by t he en111111 ·ratio n of
parti culars: " T ho 111 urnin g uf t.be firt h uf'Nov1· 111bcr 11·a• hazy. Tl 11• pilot
of t ho Brill coul u not di scern the sca.-111a rks, autl c:i.ni •••l th•· flpt'( too f':ir
tu the wes t. The <hn gf'I' w:rn g1·•·at.. Tu rd .urn in t.111' i': ll' t' of' f\11 : 11·i11 1l
was in1possible. Plyn 1uu t:l 1 was tlw m·x[; port. B11 t nt l 'ly111uu ll 1 a g:iniso11 l1 a<l bce11 11ustetl 11111kr t he c11111111arl.i of U1 n Earl of' Halli. T li " la11<i i11g rni gli t he oppoRP(l , anil a l' linclc 11iigli t prod 1t l't' Rt>rio w.; eo 11 Rt' q11e1u·eR.
T hl'rC co uld be li ttle tlonbt, 111 or»11w r,. t ha t hy thi s ti111f' t ill' royal ll1•1•t
l1atl g\1t out of' the Tl1 a111 0s, :rnd wn• h:rnh·11i11g f'11 ll s:iil <lm\'11 t h,, r i1· 1!r.
R11 ssl'il saw the wl 1olo extent of the pe ril , a111l 1·xelai11 11 '<l to 1\11 1'11 1'1' 1 ' Yo11
111 i1y gu to yo11r prayers, doctor. All is m·f'1 '. ' At that 11 101111'11 t 1111· 1Yi111l

35. Means of Amplification.-lt is i111possible to g ire a
list of all th e 11 u':tn s of a11 1plificati011. 1t 1rn ull1 i11cl1H1e all the
wa.ys hy 11l1iclt logical cl<':trn ess is imparted to a thouglit, and
by 1rhich a thoug h t can he represen ted Yiridly to t he in1aginatio11. A few of t.hc 111ore in1porta11t arc here given, whi ch wilI
:;cn e to exhibit :;till fur tlwr the nature ttilll itu portaucc of the

cli a11 gt·tl , a suft bre(·zo spr ang up from 1 . 111~ ~0 11 t l1 , th1_~ rni ~t. dis 111 ·rst>d , tl11·

s 11n Rh11 n" fo rth , n11tl, und er thl' 111 il<l ligl1 t of :111 a11tu11111:il 11 01111, 1111 · 11 ... .t
tllrnP<l ha ck, pa ssed r011111l t ho lofty capo uf Hnry l fu: ul, n11tl rod o "'1.JH
i11 tu thl• l1 arbor of Torbay."

}ffOe< ~SS .

'.'(

f

A general truth is amplified lJy cnlllHl'rn tiug t lw i11st:1nccs,
or particular tru tl1 s, on which it i8 fo uu11cd.

Enumeration.- 'l'hi s c011sists in <lecornposi11g or an:tlyzing
tlie t hought., a tu1, iu::;tc:H1 of a 1.mre statement , g i vi11g t he
detail s.
Jf it i::; a 11 otio11 , it.s qua lities or pa rt s a re cnu11terntc(1. 'v\Te
may de fi11 c it, or if a logiea.l delinit.io11 docs uot ai1 sll'er t he
p urpo::;e, 11·e 1n:t_y µ; iY e a full er enu111crntion of its qua li ties ; we
m ay resohc it into t he classes co11tai ue<l under it; if :t narration or descrip tion, \\'C rnay specify the par ticulars.
Ex. - 1. Frernlo111 may lHl tlrfin c<l, "Exrmpt in11 frnm the power al!(l
co nt rol of ot.IH'rs." Jln t s uch an abstract :rntl gr•11f'ral statie n11•11t w ill not
s ui t th<' pnrpoS<'S of t hn orator; it is tllll " a111plifi••d hy F ox i11 one of hi s
"l" '<'Ch<'R: "Fre1·<lon1 e11nsists in th e snfo a.II(] s:ic retl posseRsio11 of a
ninn '" propr·rt_v , go\'(' l'llt'< l hy hnrn d<'fin!'<l and certai n ; w ith rnany pe rson al pri dlegPs,-11at11ral 1 ei1· il , a11'1 n•li gious,-whieh l1t• can not s111Tl'll<ler without rni11 to him self, a nd of whi ch to be <kpri vetl by a11 y other
)HllV"1' is tl!' S]'Of is111. "
~. C ic<' ro, in stra•l of simply nssl'rt.ing that Pon1p<'y was a great ge neral,
ai11plifi1·s thn not ion by P111 111 wrating th o q11alitiPRt l1 at cn11 sti t11tc a 1!<'11 t'r:tl : " Those arc not t ho 011ly virtues of a gn1wral which arc co11 1111011ly
tho ught so. It is not cournge alone w hi ch form s a great leader, but

Sec. 35

I

I

•

Ex.- Adtl ison t hu s amplifi es t ho ge nernl truU1 , t hat nil 11at11rc is full of
li fe: "Eve ry pn rt of matter is rwoplcd , <n-ery green ll'a f s warm s \l'ith
i11h ab itm1 ts. T hero is scar ce a si11 gle humor i11 tho body of a 111nn , or of
a 11 y oth e r animal , i11 w hich our gJa,scs do uot di sco.-er 111.Hi:uls of Ji ri ng
c r0ntur• !S. The sur face 9f a11i111al s is al so C'<l\'<!rl'd 11·it h ol'ill'r anima.J s,
w hh:h are i11 the sa.mc 111n11uer th e basis of oth<'r n11i111al s, t ha t Ji n• upo11
it. Nay, we fi1Hl i11 t he most soli<l hotli1·s, as in marbl e it.selr, ii111111rn•rahltJ
cell s :111<1 ca1·iti es, t hat >ll'C crowded with s uch in1p••rce plihl e i11h:il>it:111ts
as a.re tco li ttln for t he naked eye to di scove r. 0 11 t he ot.hc r 11:111<1, ii' we
look int.o t he rnorc bulky pa rts of natUl't', we RPO t lw >Pa •, lak1·e, ri YP rs,
teemin g \l'ith n umberl <'ss hi11 ds of living creatures. \ Ve fi ml l'Ye ry moun tain a11d marsh, 11·ild er1u•ss a11 d wo<al, pJi.11t'if'11 1ly stoc kr·d wit h birrl s and
beasts ; a nd ever y part of 111:1.tk r affo rdin g propn ' """"s:ni<'s :111d co nveni ences for the li velih ood of nrnl titudes w hi ch inhabit it."

Examples.-Tn som e casrs, one or t.lrn apposite cx:1 111jil cs or
strikin g circmnst:t11 ccs arc more effoctir c t it an a full c11uuwration of pa rti culars.

't

'·'

.'1

i.

G4

MATTEH OF A DISCOURSE.

Sec. 36

]. 'l' hc nmtter ernploye<l iu a,111j1li li c:ition is nernr, nor in
any 1Jeg r1·e, to he trc:1tl'1[ ;1 s i111lej1t'lllil'l lt; h11t ahY:L}S as SUUOl'1li11a te to the c111l fi1r "hi cl1 it is i11 tr11d11eetl; yi;1,., to i111part
clea.rnPss, di sti11 et11ess, a1ul YiYid11css to the 111ai11 thought.
,J udg111<:11t is to l.ic cxl'n:ise1l i11 1leeiili11 g what t.houghts
requin; a111plilicatio11 a111l " ·hat. <lo uot. A greater degree of
<:xpa11 siu11 is necessary i11 ornl than i11 \Hi tt.c u tliscourne ; ttrnl
i11 popul ar \rorks than in purely Reientili c. A IJrief cx po~itio11
lllay he s11Hieie11t fur those \\'ho lmYc some ;1c1pmintance witlt
the s11liject., whil e in atltlrcssi11 g those of less i11telligc11 ce a
greater fullness of tleta.ils is necessary. It is al\\'ays a most
scri o11s fault to <lwcll 011 \\'hat is uni111porta11t, tri,·ial , or what
cr111 he s11pplietl Ly th e rea<ler ; it intli cates a want of the power
of j11st lli sni111i11atio11 011 the part of t.l1e writer.
A t~1rcf11l Rel<·etio11 is to \Je ma.lie from the Yarious thoughts
suggested ; ou ly such m·c to IJe used as ca11 IJc woven in to th e
tl isco ms<: a.1111 ai<l in the atfain meut, of the entl in Yie\\". This
ap pli es to all the rn o1les of amplification: hut caution h; speci:dl y JH'<'essary in i11 t.ro<l11ci11 g a.ccessory i1l cas. P arcnthcs<'s,
tli g rcssio11 s, m1<\ cpisu1lt'S nre tu he spari11 gly 11se1l, :uj(l 011gl1t
to he iil('.orporatetl into the tle,·elop11w11t of the thougl1t.
\Vriters arc often le<l astray \Jy i11tro1luci11g q11otati011 s; tl1e
t hought 111 ;1y he i111porta.11 t :i11tl strikin g, \mt no t appropriate,
a11tl so is s11pcriluo11s autl tfo·erts the rniutl from the lll ai11
poi11 t. 'I hen.: is a.lso great tla11 ger in eml>o<lyiug in the tliscourse tlctach e<I pa.ssages that hav e l>een \1Ti ttc11 without reference to the treat111ent of the suhj ect as :1 whole. They do not
han noni r.e \Yitlt the rest of the tliseourse, anti lm1·c the appcar:wce of i1nlqic111k11 t <l isc11ssio11s.
\Vh e11 thi~ rnl e is tlisrrganlctl the materials of the composition " ·ill he rather pl aced in juxtaposition t11an, to use IVJw,teley's metnpl1or, he foltctl togct.hcr. l'\' hatC\·er be the beaut.r
of the d<:tails theinscln s, as th ey do J1ot coml.Jin e to produce
one distin ct, total i111prcssio11, t he work must \Jc cousidered as
batlly con structed.
2. T he dot.ails sl1 oultl lie in l1 armony with the gencrnl tone
of the discourse. The peculiar relation of the writer to the

Sec. 36

r
r

AMPLIFICATION.

. G5

suhj ect arnl to the circ11111sta11 ees nr·t:essarilY girl's a lli 8ti 11 cti1·e
character to l1i s 111 01lc of tn ~at 111e11t , whi<·h :,< hn11l<l lie n·c,.g-ui zetl not onl y in t.he se lection of thr.• ll!ai11 idt«J81 lt11t :1bo in
a ll the detail s. Th e smne prin cipl e of se lectio n sho11l1l he t'lll ]Jloyed i11 clwosi11 g the principal a11tl su\Jonl i11ate ill <'as. 'l'o
clmnge t.l1e prin cipl e of selection is r1s gn ·at a rhdori1·al fonlt,
as iu logic to clia,11ge the prin cipl e of tli1·ision. Exa111pl<·s of
tl1 e g rosser form s of the violat.ion of thi s rnlt~ :m: llippa11 t,
ludi crous remarks in a serious disco urse; a hstrnd, 8[><·eula til'c
discussions in an orntion, etc.
3. E \' ery particul ar should \Jc in its right pl:i cr. 'J'ht' n: is
properly Lnt one pl ace in the tliscou-rse for \\'l1i l'h a µ:in:n pnrti cul m· is fi ttctl, aml in wl1 ich it can hest pro1l11cc i t~ dh•cts.
1t is impli ed in thi s that it sl1011ld n :ceiYe 110 g reatt·r t'xparn;iou
than its relatil'e irnporta11cc tlemarnls. Dy tl 1is 111 enns \ \'C girn
to :1 di scourse its <li stri\Jution of li gl1 t antl sl1 a1ln, liri11 µ: in g into
reli ef 'ffii:tt is i111porta11t, \\'hile the parts \l'hicl1 srn·c to support
and expla,i11 arc placell in a less conspicuous station.
\ Vhm1 the process of :1111plificatio11 is fini s\1 ctl , the theme has
received its foll awl liarmonious development. 'rile uext step
is to em\Jody the thoughts in language that wi ll com ey them
to otlrnrs.

Sec. 37

PART II.

STYLE.

UIIAPTBl{, I.
THE QUALITIES OF PROSE STYLE.

· 37. Tho pri1wiplcl', a.ccon1i11g to which the materials alren,c1y
selected aml arrn.11 gc1 l nre expressCLl in l:rnguage suited to their
nature ruHl th e <~1111 to he a.cl1ien·t1 , :tre contained in the doctrine
of St.ylo, ,rhi ch form s the sccu11t1 i•rirt of l{,hctoric.
Nature and conditions of Style.-Stylc is the peculiar
in:tllll<ff of ex pressi11 g thougl1t that pcrrat1es au entire 1wot1uctiou. It 1lopcll(1S imrtly on the nature arn1 importauce of the
subject, hnt cl1icfly on the character aud <lispositi~n of th_e
writer. lt ha s Lceu callctl the physiognom y of the rnmd, a.s it
reYcals how one thinks as well as what one thiuks. "\Vhen
the thoughts a.re trite, obscure, or badly arranged, clear antl
effectir c expression is impossible.
"\Vhile Yi"urous thow..?:l1t is mt im1ispens:ible condition of a
gootl style, it is not the ·~11ly one. A ll gn:at wri~ers have be_en ·
great thiukl~rs, lmt t he lii ~tory of lit.e_rnture a1lun1s man~ mstauecs to pron~ th:1t 11ot all µ:reat thrnkers am great wnt<~rs.
\ \ ' 0 111 ui;t <·111hody wha.t \re \rish to communicate iu the forms
offerell to 11;; 11y a particular lang1mgc, and the thou g~I LS will
nut arnil ,1·itho11 t skill to use the instrumcut by which they are
conseyed to otl1ers. He who \rishes to excel in the art of
expression must not oul y acqnire haliits of correct and_ comp_rehensi,·c thought, but also master the resources of Ins uatiYe
(66)

-l

QUALITIES OF PROSE STYLE.

G7

tongue. He can not content himself with the few hnru1rctl
trjte, loosely applied words arnl phrases that suflicc for the pmposes of ordinary lmsi.11 css, but must. e11uca vor to gai11 au ample
vocttbula.ry of exprcssi ve, accurntcly discri111inated terms, and
readiness in combining them according to the laws of the language.
.
'ro 1:,ri,•e to onr thoughts their atlertimte expression is not au
easy task; it t1emant1s care alll1 pcrse r ernncc. The gTeittest
masters of style have composed slowly and la horio11sly. In
the first place, it iurnh-es rna11y subtl e l•rocesscs of thinking.
\Vhcn we seek fitti11g \\'on1~ a11<1 we:.1\:e the111 iuto sentc11ct\S
and pa.ragrnphs, we a.re ap{>lyiug to the primary elc111e11ts of
the t1isco urse t he same processes of :inalysis arH1 com parisou
that we had before e111ploycd in dealillg with large masses of
thougl1ts. 'l' hc lllOSt delicate am1 exact discrimination is necessary to impart to them the requisite clearness and <listi11ctncss. Secondly, the- irnpcrlection of hng 11age 111akes the expression of thought difficult. 1t suggests, docs not convey,
thought. The most perfect l:tn g uage contai;1s but a co1111):trativcly few symbols fo r the infinite variety of conceptions to be
expressed. And of these no man has eYer mastere<l all. .According to the estinmte of l\farsh, there occur in a.II the works
of Slmkespe:ire not more tha n fifteen thousand words; in the
poem;; of Milton, not above eight thousand; few writers or
speakers use as m any as ten thousanu \YOrlls; ordin ary persons
of average intelligence nsc not more than three or four thousand. It is by m eans of these few symbols tlmt :t writer conveys new, complex, and subtle t houghts with all t heir parts in
their exact relation to each other.
Its importance.-It ought not to be necessary to insist upon
the importance of attention to style. All know that the favorable reception of a trnth is owing, not wholly to its importan ce,
but in a great m easui·e to the mann er in which it is presented.
The same facts and arguments which, when stated by one, gain
the understanding arnl affections, will, as exl1il.Jited by a.r1other,
produce weariness and disgust. 'l'he duty is enforced by the ·

70

Sec. 39

STYLE.

'ni te r is n ot expectml to render J1is m eaning olJYions to all.
'!'li e <lcgrre of perspi cui t.y of which th e suhject is suscepti ble
a iul till ~ c11a rn ct.1:r of t.lw n~a.<l Prs f; i1 011l'l be taken into co nsitlcrat.io11. ' l'hn hnr of c lear11 css <lc111:Lwl8 tl1at ho do not atlll tu the
iu t riw;ic <lilliculty of tl1 c subj ect hy Jiis 111otle of presm 1ti11 g it,
hu t eco110111 izc th e a.ttc11 tio11 of tl1 e rea<ler hy concm1trnti11g it
upon t.lll~ whj ,·1·.t :uul nll o1ri11 g 11011c t.o Le Just in on n·cni11i11 g
1lillicul t.i1·s of Pxpn :ssiu11 . 'fhe wri ter who co111pcls his re:11lcn;
to pause a t mmls, to reread sentcuces, arnl 11:Li11full y coll ect 11is
111l~a 11i11 g', Hhoul'l n ut he 1lisa.ppoi11t.ecl 11·he11 he fit1tls th at 11is
tl io 11!!'l1 ts, al t.lwu gh 1w w a.Jl(l i111port.:u 1t, pro<111ce no irnp rnssion.
'l'he pow <' r of a.tto11 t.io11 is li111i te1l ; wh en it is 1liYitletl a111 011 g a
rnm1 h<' r of ohj1·ct::;, 11 0 fli Htinct ai1tl Yi Yi cl ima ge of auy OJ\C is
nlitai1 w<l ; \\'h a t1:1·er is ex pe1uletl 011 t he la ug na.ge is 'ritlulrnw n
fro111 t he t houg ht, :Lull m mkcns its fo rce.
Spencer' s statement of the law of ec~nomy of atten t ion.'l'hi s hL11· of eco11011ii zi11 g nt.tm1tio11 is u ia<1e liy ll crher t S pencer
t.he 0110 g'<:ll(' r: tl pri11 cip lt) from which a ll the mies of co111positio11 n ·s11lt.. H n says : "011 seeki11 g for some clue t o tl1 e law
111ule rl y i11 g th ese c11rr1•11 t maxi111 s, 11·c 111ay see . shadowed fo rth
in 111a11 y of th P111 t.l1 c i111port:111 cc of ec0110111i zi11 g th e r eader's or
11 earer'~ a tt1:11tion. 'l'o so present idea s tha.t tl1 ey m ay be apprel1ell(lcd wi th th e least possible m cut<Ll cJfo r t, is the desiderat um t01rn.nls " ·Jiich most of the rul es above qnotc!l JlOin t.
\ \Then we corn1cnrn \\'fi t.i ug thnt is wordy, or confused, or int ri cate ; when we praisr. this style ns easy, anc1 hl:un e tl1 at ns
fati!!11i11 g, ,rn conseiom;ly or un c011sciously a ssnrne this desiclernt111u as our Rt:Lll(lanl of j1ulg mcnt. Reg:tnling l:rn g nagc as
a n a pp:1 rnt11 s of s.rrn hols fo r the co11Ycyan cc of t ho11ght, " ·e
may say, t.lmt, as in :t rn ccha11ic:Ll appa.ra t.us, the rn ore simpl e
a 11fl t.lrn hd.tPr arra11g'1 ~il its parts tho gn~atcr will be t.hc elfoc t
prod11cm1. 111 ei ther case, whatcrnr iorce is absorb ed by tl1 e
111nchi11 e is ,leflnctctl from t.he rcsnlt. A r eader or listener has
:Lt ea ch rn om e11t lm t a li111ited mnount of m ental power avail:i.hl e. 'L'o rncogni w nrul interpret th e Rymbols prescntod to
him rcfptires pa rt of tlii s power; to a rrange and comuine the

'

.

Sec. 40

/

QUALITIES OF PROSE STYLE.

71

images suggested requ ires :t furth er part; and only tlmt pa rt
which re mains c<Ln be used for realiziug the thou gh t cmweyetl.
H ence, the m ore time ni1d a ttentiou it ta kes to rcceire and
urnlerstautl ea ch senten ce, the less tinie and attention c:Ln Le
g iY en to t he contained idea; a nd the less Yi vidl y will tha t idea
be concei 1·ed.
lleuce, ctLrry i11g out th e 111da ]Jh or
tlmt lnn g u:ige is t he vehicle of th ou ght, t here see111s reason to
think that in all cases the friction a nd in ertia of the Ycl1i clc
deduct from its e ffi cie11cy ; nrnl th a t in compos ition tl1 e ehid', if
n ot tl1 e sole tl1in g to be <1011e, is, to r ednce t his fri ction a nd
i11er tia to tl1 e small est possible am ount. L et ns th en inqui re
whether economy of th e recipien t's :Ltte11tion is not th e secret of
effect, nlik e in the ri gh t choice and colloeation of ·worcls, in tlie
best a rrn11 ge111 eut of cllises in a sen ten ce, in the proper ord er
of its priucip:i.l a ncl subonlinate propositi ons, in th e jiuli cio us
u se of simile, m etaph or, and otlicr fi g ures of speech , and cYen
in the rhythnii cal sequ ence of syll aules." Essays, Jlloral, PoliticaJ, and Esthetic, pp. 11, 1'.!.

40. Vivacity.-T l1 e l:Lw of econ omizing atte ntion is 11 ot entitled to the rank of the supre111 e law of composition ; we 111ust
a rhl to i t a notl1 er; v iz., tha.t. t he though ts rnust he f;O presente d
as to call in to Yigorous ener!!'y t he mental pon·ers of the r eader.
P a in is tl1 e res ul t of n wa11 t of a proper exertion of our fa culties
as well ns of stin mfat i11g them bcyo11tl t heir 11atnrnl limi ts.
By forgettin g this we may, in the er1tleavor to he perspicuous,
become feeble, dull, h eavy. It is n ecessa.ry then to preser ve
tl1 e m edium b etween th e extremes of u ndue depression aml
over-exer tion of th e acti vities of tl1 e reader. 'J' hi s qu:llity is
ca,llecl vivacity; it may be described as snch a presc11tatio11 of
tl1 ougltts as determin es tl1 e rn:Lder to r eproduce them inste:ul of
m erely passively rece iYiu g t.l1e111.
Beauty.-'rl1e co111liimition of tl1 ese qunli ties consti tu tes
11c1w ty of style ; which is n ot to lie co11 si<lcred, ns is genernlly
don e, n separate qunlity. T llis fa lse n otion lms ari sen from
r e;s:mlin g style as somethin g in dependen t of t he thought, a nd

72

STYLE.

Sec. 42

Sec. 40

,
has led n1:1ny writers astray. A sty le is beautiful so far as a rnl 011ly so far as - it is t he ar1ecjltatc ex pressiu11 of wo rthy
t hu11g hts. 'l'here is no means of seeming it, except Ly ai111i ngat the highest 1iossible tlegrec of propriety, 11ersvicuity, and
vivacity.
41. The English language as to its power of expression.-T,:m g uagcs differ in tliei r power of expression. Each
of th e great l:tuguages of ciY iJi zation has its pecul iar atlrnntages a ntl diflicul ties. 1-'he English n my be surpassetl by some
others in separate trnits, but in the cornbination of the requisites of a tle1p1ate ex pression it .ricltls to none.
It is :t composite t011gne; it, ha s not grown up from a few
gcrlllS hy the jll'O(:rn:ses of 1lcrirn tion antl corn posit.ion, but is
the resul t uf the confli cts a Jl(l ming li11 g of different l::tn g n:tgcs.
\Vhile its gro 1111tl work is J\ nglo-Saxon, the huilclin g is c0l11posc1l of i11ateri:Li s from 1u:rn y (jllartcrs. Its two chief ele11wnts
arc A 11 glo-S;txon a,u1l I i:tt,in, which arc so united as to g i re
almo8t :t 1l o11hle la.11g· na,ge.
T he B nglislt la11g-uagc has su fforc cl in tl1c rc1·olntions through
which it li;ts passc1l. It. has lost most of it.s original inflections,
a n cl " ·it h tltrnu the liberty of position of wonls iu the sentence ;
it has lost a lso to a g roat extent t he power of composition and
derirntion . T he greatest loss is that of the prirn iti 1·e m eani ng
antl suggcsti veness of its words. T he language is crowded
with barren , arhi t rnry H_rmbols, wlti ch tlo not suggest the ideas
\Yi th 1·irncity, and a.re especia,lly liable to be misunderstood and
rnisappli e1l.
But its grtim; far cxccctl · its losses. It possesses a copious
voc:th11l a,ry for a ll ki)}(ls of Ruhj ects arnl compositions. Its literary (li et.icm was fomulPtl hy Cha ucer ; its reli gious 1liction, at
the S:tlnn perio!1, hy v\Tycl iffc ; its philosophical dial ect was
11crfcctc1l in the s ixteenth an d seYentecnth centuries; and all
Jm vc liecu cmiclt etl a1ul ilwi gorntetl by the great national controvern it!S in rnligion a)}(l politics. It has also th e means of
sup plying its 1le1icinn cirni hy appropriating from forei gn sources,
recalling words that have fa llen in to disuse, and drawing from

I

•

QUALITIES OF PROSE STYLE.

73

provincial dialects. It a1fonls the m ean s of varyin g the style;
the writer may cl1 oose Latiu words or A11g lo-Saxo11 , or rna.y
couibine them iu different proportio11s; a nd according as lie
selects t he wonls rnay v ~u·y t he structure of sentc11 ePs, 111aki 11 g
tl1m11 rn ore periotlie wh en tlte Latin clement, 111 ore l' iliptieal
\I lt en the Saxon elern ent predomi1mtes.
It is surpassed by 110
la11 g uagc in its power of clear allll precise cx pressi011 ; tlte
1111111bcr of duplicate words wl1i ch it possesses ei1ahlcs it to
mark t.he delicate shades of 1liflerc11 ce lJctm•(•JI id<::ts. At the
same tiiu c, it. can conrny tl1 e1u \\ _it.h hrcY ity allll force . Not\ri thst:uHli11 g t he +'r equent accusation matl c ngai nst it of extre me lta rslnicss, i11 the hamls of great masters it is susecpti\Jle
of a lt igh 1lcgree of h;mnony aml melody.
RE ~IAHK . -G rimm speaks tlyis of it : "None of t he mode rn l:rn gun gcs
has Lhro11 gh the very loss :1.11dA!ecny of' a.II phon etic laws, a.11(11-hrn11gh 1.he
dn1pp i11g of' nearl y nil iidl eetion s, acquired gn'ate r for ce :111d ,-igor t li:11 1
t he E ngli sh ; all(l from th e fullne ss of 1-i1Mo ngue :1111! i11rll'fini h· so11111l s
w hi ch may be learn nrl but ca n neve r be t:w ght, it ha s de rh-.. d n. powPr of
cx pr<'SRion such as has 1wn•r bl'cn at t he cou1u1:11Hl of' :rn y 1111111:111 to11 g11 L'.
Degottcn by a smpri sing union of' t he two nohl est l:u1 guag1•s of' J<:nropc,t hc ouo T e utonic, th e other Romani c,-it received t hat wo11tl crf'11lly happy
t emper and thorough bn•cdiu g, whcrn t he Teuto ni c suppli ed th e mate ri al
strength , the Romaui c t he suppl eness aurl fr ct>dom of' cx pn•sRion. Nay,
t he E ngli sh lan guage whi t h ha s borne, no t as it \H•rr by 111('1'<' ch:111 cr-, t.l1c
grcatPst poet of 111orll'rn tim<'s,- grca t i11 hi s wry co utr:i 't witl1 class ical
poetry-I sprak, of courne, of Shakrspenn-,- thi s E ngli sh lang ua ge may
t rnl y be call ed a worhl ln11g1wge, a nd SPC m8, li ke E11glmal lwrsplf; but in
a still highPr rl<>grce, dPst.i11C'd to rul e owr all t he co rn ers of t he. r nrt h. Jn
\waltl1 , wi sdom, and stri ct (' Couo111y, none of t he li ving lau gna ges cn.11 Yie
witl1 it."
Ma rnh 8ays : "Jn fn ct, it has so compl.-.tr•l y arlnptcd itsl' lf to tlH' usr· s
aurl wa nts of Chri Rt.in n sod d .y, as cxemplifi<'rl hy th o A11 glo-Saxo11 ra ce i11
t.hc liighPRt form s to whi ch aRsocia te lifi_· has anywllf're nt1.ni 11 l'(l , t hat it
wl'll rl"'"'"""S to he eo nRi<l cr<'rl th o mnrll'I sprl'ch nf morll'rn J111nrn11ity,
Jlt•:tl'l y nt Jti11 vi11 g ill Ja.Jt,Ull:t.gn t JH \ l'f'll ]i zati oll of tJ1;it. g' t'f' af", idi·:iJ lVJii1 ·h WiNIJ
mrn are ovf'ry-w hrre seekin g to mn ko t he f1111<l n111 Pnta l ln w of' poli tical
organization, t he union of freedom , stability, n.11 d progress.''

42. Topics to be discussed in t he doctrine of Style. 1.'te Jaws for expressin g thought \Yi th propriety, perspicui ty,
Rlr c l. 7

74

Sec. 42

STYLE.

aml v ir acity reb1te to the choice of " ·onls a nd their comb ination.
Vvron ls arc citl1cr proper, literal expressions of ideas, or
· (1cnot·e tlH·lll a11alog ically and iiguratirnly. T l1cy ;m; combined
ii rs t into S!•.11 tm1 ccs, whid1 ma.y then bu co111hi1H:1l i11 to a mo re
co111plt: ;.;. 1111ity, call ed the para.gr:iph. '.l'li e mo11c in \rhich
mm1H arc s1·lected arnl comliinetl gfr es ri se to di,·ersities of
::;t.y k , ~"111! ' of which .it is expc!li1·nt to 1h·scrihc.
'L'h e topi cs to lie co 11sitlercd are as fol lows :
1. Th e Uhoice of I\~ onls.
2. Fi.!!·m rs of Rpecch.
3. 'l'l 1c Sl•11 tc11 ce.
4. T l1 e l'arag rnpl1.
5. J)iri sion of Sty le.

~
\

C H APT J!m II.
'l'IIE ClJIOICE OP WORDS.

Sec.44

THE CHOI CE OF WOHDS.

of words arc oliscurl'<l; tl1 e seto]l(l i8, tha t, as these fore ig11
\\·onls am not, lik e those of imtire gn111th , !leri n•<l hy ii xct1
laws fro111 well klHmll root~.;; , t.lu:ir pri111;iry 111Pani11g is rnJt.
k11ow11 to the nwst of those who 11sc th< ·111; tl1 cy cu 11 r!'y JIO
!list.i net ideas, alHl arc li :llil e to lie 111isnmlerntooil a11d. pnrn~rte d .

\Ve slmll corrni1lcr \\'nnl s \Yi th 1wq>ect to-1'~u I io1111l 11sc,
/l.w;, Jfornl ilifJllil.IJ, l'rupricty.

l'11;.w; 11 /,

44. National use.-ln the ]~u gli sh langna.ge tl1 ero am
\rorLlS and phrn ses which :ire mHlerstou<i° a.ntl usc1l hy al l e1l11catetl perso11 s, :11111 uni rc rsa lly rccogui zcd as composin g tl1 e
11a.ti01 1al speech-the corn111on possPssion of all \r ithnut re~pcct
to class, occupation, or a.bode. 'l'he words ad111i tt!•d i11hJ a
cOlll)Jositiun shuul1l be 1lr:1wn from th is con11110n stock ; rnrnr:
sho11l1l be used tl1at uelo11 g to a foreign tong ue or arc curre11t
011ly in narro w circles.
'l'hi s rule is viol atell by the use of barliarisrn s an!l prorincialisms.
/

!

•.

I

• '

43. Importance and difficulty of a proper choice of
words.-TIH: seledion of words deniands special care in E ngli sh c11 111 positio n. Owin g to tl1e com1mra ti rely lit.ti c lilierty
a l10 1,·e1l in a.rrnn g in g \YOrils in a sm1te11 cc, a writc·r mu st delJ1 :n1l n1ai11l y upon :1 ju1licious selection of them to g ire to his
id1:as thi:ir !lue in1portance :md ern pliasis.
The el1oi ce of words is often :1 111atter of great diffi culty.
'l' he l~ n g li s h rnca.hulary is 011 e of the most extensi\'C possessed
liy a.n_y lan .!.! u:tµ:< ~; it is \\'i1l ely <litruse1l, a111l empl oyetl hy per,;; · >11 ~ in the greatest rnriet.r of occupatio11s; so th;1t it is not
11.l wa_ys an easy 111atter to Lleter111inc wlia.t 1ronls l.Jelong to tl1c
co111n1011 stock fro111 wl1ich :done a li ternry writer is permitted
to 1lrnw. .A grea,t 1111111her of \\'Ortls in common nse arc importe1l frorn a hroa11. Two serious evils resu lt from this, which
~.<111 to t.hc <liflic11ltins of an Bngfo;l1 writer. T he fi rnt is, tliat
the gc ucrnl principl es and analogies governing the formation

Barbarisms,- l<'oreign wo rds all(l phrasPs ~11011111 not lw
employc!l except \rl1e11 the national J a11g11ag!~ hi s llll tl' rIII S in
co1nn1on use that adequi1tely express thc tli o11ght.
'l'his rule docs uot prol1ibi t al rnol11 tel.r the 11s1· of l'on·igu
tcnn s. Pttrity must not tlcgc neratc intn 1111ri ~ m . It. is 1111 !l1'foct iu a la.i 1g11age to contain foreign in grctlil'nts, a1111 nn rx!'ellt~rn'. c t.o he .withou t the m. Our J:111 g11agc, as it ha s been tra11 srnit.tc<l to 11 ~ . contai11 11 a vast nmnber of clements whi ch c:111 not.
he S!'paratm1 frn111 it: an1l cxt.c111l cil int1 ·n·o11rsc with otlH·r
11a.ti o 11 ~ hy co111111!•n'<', in1111i ,grntio11 , ~t ud.v of their lit!• r:1t11n· ~,
etc., is conti1rnally hri11 gi1 1g 11 c11· a.r't'<'S~ io11 ~ . In ail1litio11 to
th is, our lmi gunge l1 a.ri11 g l o~t to a. g n ~a t 11egrec tl1<· jlll\\" ('r or
forming 11ew \rnnls front it.s 011· 11. 111ateri;ll s, is o1>1i gell to n· w 1t
to foreign la.11 g11agcs fo r a i1l.
The forcigr; \r~nls in the l;111 g11ag1\ t';l1 1 lie rlir i<leil i11t11 tlm ·1:
classes.
1. S uch as arc naturali ;1,ed. 'l'lu ·.r express notions current

I

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76

I

I

·1

•

''

STYLE.

Sec.44

a111011g the people for ll'hicl1 the Yernacular has no oth er cqnally
suitable 11esig11atio11; hy kmg use they ha,·c lost their foreign
appearance, and haYe acconm1odatetl thc111seh·es to the mitive
idio111.
'l'he 11atnrnlizatio11 of tt won! is clfoet.c1l in 1lill'crent \rays:
(I) By chaugc of acce11t; as, IJretext', prc'text; essa.Y', es'Ray, etc.
(~) Hy changn of ~pclling; ns, chirnrgcon, surgeon; Yehicuh1111, Ychiclc; c:uTierc, career; innoceutia, innoccuce; pern11111c, periwig, "·ig.
(:l) Hy chan ge of i11flcctio11; for instance, instead of dogma.ta, \l'C ;;ay dogma s; i11stca1l of e}Joclia, epochs; arn1 instead
of gymnasia, some of our best writers are using the form gy11111asi u111s.
(-1) .Hy clia ng·c of 8ig·11irication. Foreign won]s n~tnin at
fir~t the sense they lion· in the l:rnguage from wl1ich they \\·ere
takc11; l.rnt by use I.lie original mm11i11g is Jost or greatly
clw11gc1l, arnl a dcrirntire or secondary siguification IJccornes
the lcatliug ouc; as, coutritiou, trihuhtion, consit.lemblc, htnatic.
\Vonls tha.t lmrc h<~cu 11:1 tnralizc<l arc a portion of the nati011al la11g11ag<~, arnl should I.Jc used in their popular forn1 and
111c:u1ing. lt is mere pc<l:rntry and n riolat.ion of the pmity
of the Ja.ng1mgc to attempt to restore them to their primiti rn
form, prouu11ciation , or signification.
~. "\Vonls that retain their original form, and are recognized
as foreign, hut for which \re ham not any exact cqnivale11ts in
E11gl islt. 1\ Jany of these are of t_echni.cal.i~~1pui:t, tlcsignatio11s
of r;u1k, of 1111Hlcs of life, and the iik<~· ; for instance, terminus,
pl 11rn I ten11i ni; pltenomeuon, phenomena; interregnum, desiLlnrn tm11.
\Vhil<: in tlii::; form th<:y rna.y he looked upon as c:u11li11atcs
for admission into the lauguage. Ju tirne, they will either
become folly rnitumlized or he supplanted by native terms.
Their UBe is· 11narnit1able, although it is allowecl to propose
snhstitntcs for tl1c111. vVhen em11loycd they should appear .i n
their original form.

Sec. 44

THF. CHOICE OF WOHDS.

77

There arc also rna.11y foreig·11 phras<·s t.l1a.t. l1ar1' pass<·il frnm
tlu: arts, scirn1ces, a.Jiil learnc11 profr·ss io11N i11to pop11lar use;for i11sta.11cc, umir1. .fide, 1;cruatim ct 1'iil'ntfim , lapsns lillf/l11c,
)!/'O tcmporc, vfrc rcrsa, etc. l\lost of tl1csc ra.11 111: 1lisp1,11sc1l
;rith; their frct[llellt USC is a Yiula.tio11 Of J.llll'it.y :tn1J proprict.y.
3. Foreign worlls a111l phrases that can ]Jc rcplaceil hy
cqu:dly expressive autl eupho11iuus B11glislt \\Ortis i11 actual
II Se.

j
j.

I

'l'l1ese arc barbarisms, an1l Hhonlll lie 1111 co111lit.i1111ally 1cjcctcd. They arc superfluous, :rn th('y ('Xpn:ss 1w t.li1111gl1t 111H·
shade of thought \l'hiclt is 11ot expressed alt.ugcther as \\'I:\\ l1y
current \ron!H; allll since superlluous words arc 11ot tukrate1l
iu a laugua.ge, they can he retained only hy clroppi11g the 1110re
intelligil.ilt: anti wggestive 1iatirn wonls. 'l'lic rnwlt of this
procesH, if loug coutiuuctl, is to re111lcr our classic authorn antiIJUated. 'l'hcy arc prohil.iitetl because tl1ey arc 1111i11klliµ·il1le to
the mass of readers. Their introduction leatls :tlso to thu corruption of the sy 11tax; as " 'tmls generally bring the fon·iµ·11
co11structio11 wi th them. ~ey ar~ to '.1e njedc1l. on :u~tlidic
grounds; the wnfnsion of mm1s ot <111lercnt langu:igcs lll the
same \\'Ork is incompatible with simplicity aud harn1011y, "liidt
arc essential <1 ualitics of a literary protluction.
R1DJAHK.-Tl 1c tcmlPncy to introtlncc nlit•nR to th<' !'Xelnsion of the
11aJil'1'S is tht: l't'S HJt SO lllf'tillll'S of ig111>ran1;t', Sn111t'ii111t·s of' Jl<"tla11fry , a11<\
so111cti111es of fashio11 n.111\ eapric<". l\!1"t. of' th.: \\'1>1'1\s tl11" int.ro1l11 e1"l
arc drawn from the Latin and Fn·111·h la11!(11a g1·s . Tl1 e \\'1>rks of 111an y
n.utl1ors of fornwr · {Jl'riutls are crowdt't\ witb Lati1r aml Greek \rnnls.
The fasl1ion at present, is to e mploy French.
Th e followi11 g ('Xtracts f'r1>111 a di sco rii·se of Culv('rwPll (1GG2) will illu strn.te the style of mnn y tl1eological writi~rn of thnt pt~ riml: "For ns in tho
most glorion s creatnre ns a creature th1 !re is oliq11ir7 11il1ili; so in tl1e mo st
contemptible creature as a. creature there is nliq11irl IJci. I (ny) but tl1e
11tl1eist he s huts hi s eyes, a nd qu.icl cwco c11.11t ·•pcc11lo ? what s hould a bli111l
mun do with a lookin g-gla ssf" and so on thrnnghout the l'Htire di sco nrse.
This appears barbarous; bnt it is not more so than tlie profu se <!mplo.rm cnt of French words which is :ul111ircd by ma11 y as fine writing.
This species of IJarlm ri sm is f'xpos('r\ by a. writer quot<•tl by Dl'an Alford:
"A class of write rs lias sprn11g up who appear to t.hink it t.hPir speeinl
buei11ess to enrich the lu11guage by dr:i gging into it, without any attempt

78
I

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ii

STYLE.

Sec. 44

at a ssimilati on, confrihuf ions from nll 1ho tnng n<'S of t ho <>nrth . T he
rcs nl t is a wn •t.cl11 'll pi"e" of p:i tc-l11rnrk , wl1ich 111:i y haY I' clianns in tl 10
<'Yl' S nf s111111• l"'o pli ·, lint ,,- hif'h is cn h1i 11ly an :il1nmin;1ti11n in t he <'yes of
th e g•·nnin e st11<le11 t of l:i.ngn:i g••. \\' c Jt Cl'tl only glan ce i nto one of t he
pcriotli cal representati ves of fasltil•nable li terat ure, or into a no ve l of t he
clny, to see how s1•ri1.i11s this assault 11 pu 11 th e puri t.y of the E ngli sh lang11 ng-e ha ~ ht•eoml'.
·. . Tl w lwroPs nre :ilwt1 ys uiarke tl liy an <liJ'
r/ i., f i11y11 '' ; t.l w l'i lo 1111·11 ar• ' snrn tu he bla"<'·•· . . • Th1·11 t ht"ro i:; a
hold 111 a11 to 1ksc rih1 •. J lal'i 11 g aC<Jltired t l1 c R<rroir fair e, li e is 11 c n ·r
afraid of 111aking a .fi11r.c J"I·•, bu t nu 111attcr what kind of et11 11·1·rnalio11 is
Htn rb ·1l plnnges at <1t1 cu fa 111 c<lia..s res ." And so 011. '1' /l c (,!111:c11's E 11!J/d1, JI/I. :!lili-2(icl.

A more dangerous form of lmrlmri sm is the adoption of
foreign idioms; as, "The king assistecl [mLs present] at the
cen:1i1on y." " ·Louis the Fonrtee11th h((ll reason [1rn:; right]
when he sai<1 , 'Th e Pyrenees arc ren 1ovcd.'"
'J'Jie u:;c of such idi o111s perv erts the 111ca11i11 g· of the l<:ngli :;h
\\'Onls a.rnl changes tho fal.J ric of the la.11g11a.ge. \•Ve arc tl1rl'ate11ell by this corrnptio11 from two q1mrtcrs. F irnt, ·t.he 1111111her
tif . tra 11 slat.ions iH co11ti11ually i11creasi11µ:, 111ost of wl1i ch rrtai u
so 111l ~ oft.he co11 strn ctions of the ori .!.dn al. R1·co11111.r, tl1 1: 111a11y
foreig11c rn 1Yho make use of the E 11 gli sh la11g 11 ngc i11tro tl nce
tht•i r 01rn i1li o111:;; a.lt;hongh tl11·.r 1·111pl11y l ~1 q.!'lish 11'(1rd:; tl1 ey
:;till rcta i11 t he com;trnct.io11 of their 11 at.in: to11 g 111'. Fro111 this
source; rn a11y Uenna11 i1li1J111S h:tl'c gained ali111i:;sio11 into the
iiopula r tlialect of portio11s of this co11ntry.
Provincialisms. -Prol'i11cia.li srn s are wonls arnl phrases the
11sn of which is co11fincll to a particul ar district. 'J'hcy a.re not
a part of the 11atio11:d la.ugna.ge; althonµ;h re~ulil y 111lllcrstooll
in thn region iu whi ch they are c11rrc11 t, they :Lrc not intt;lli·
gihl c hl'youtl its lirni t"5.
T l11 ~ 1r i1le cxtrn 1siu11 of the Rngl islt Ja.nguage will occa.sion
11i:rny i111p01t.a.11 t local Yariations from the st:LmlrLnl speech ;
alrm1ly in the U 11i tcll StaJ.es, in lmli:L, aml in A u::< t.rnlia such
llifli.•rc11<\eS a ppl'ar. 'I' lwse ffhi ch arc r rµ-.mlctl as p1 ~c 11li :~r tu
the U 11i 1"cll S ta t(•S :i re call ed Jlm ericft11 i8111s.
The dillere11t:e Lct1rcc11 A 111erit::m anti Driti::;h E nglish lms
0

Sec. 45

THE CHOI CE OF

WOJ~DS.

79 ,

been greatly overestimated. T he " ·o rtls that are consi<l ercd
A mericanisms may Le el:Lssitied as fo ll o11·s : (1) S uch as \\'ere
1Jro11ght to . this country fru111 Grc:tt H ri ta:in iJy tl1 c colo11ists
antl Jm ve iJeen retained by their dcsce111la11ts. D:Lrtlctt e:;ti·
mates tlmt ni11e-tcnt11s of the colloqui ali s1m; of New En glaml
uelong tu tl1is class. T hese \\' Ol'lfa :trc either such a.s l\' Cl'e
Jl l'Ol'i~cial at the ti me of tl1 e emi gration mul still arc current in
t he sa111 e co un ties; or such as 'rnre of reputal.Jlc use, l1ut lml' e
since 1Jcco111e olisolete in E 11 glaml.
(~) \ Vords tlmt owe their origi n to tl1 e ueiv olJjccts, modes
of life, aml i11sti t11tio11s of this «01111 try . These arc either aut huri ied mmls c111ploy ed in a. dilfo rc11 t seuse fro lll that i11 wl1ich
t hey arc use1l iu their nat i1·e co 1111 try ; or uew wonls, some of
which are ueccssary , others usel ess.
(3) \l\' onls that owe tlu~ir ori gi11 to foreign influences. The
1m111(ffo11s colunies-l>utcl1, Uennan , Frc 11ch, Sp:111isl1-as also
the negrocs and lrnlians, hare all i11 tr0<lucc1l corruption s in to
the language, ,\·l1i ch at first were co11finc:d to particular localities, but afterwards 1Jcca111e 111ore gencrnl.
RE~ I AltK. -Th C' ·~
11 porta n cc of local a nd prnri1J('i;i] dialects as illt rntrati11 g onr C'arly l:i ng nn. c an<l lite r:ttnr'. ' iR b1·1·0111in g mor ~ g••11 ernlly n •col;!11i r.1 ·d , an 1l a jn st.cr e. timn tc of t lt cn· 11 at11rl' rn 011t1" rtam (•1l. O ur poet ic
cli ctio11 has bce11 enri clt l'<l by 111:11 1y addi t ions from t his so nrcl'. Prose is
allo\\'l'cl Jess liucrty in tlt is respect; b11 t 110 011 <' no\\'adays \\·u ul1l 111ai ntai11
t hat t he adoption of a pro,in ciali sm into t he li terary dialect is ab solutely
prohi bited.

45. Present use.-T he langn:igc of livin g men undergoes a
constant clmn ge. vVo rtls Leco111 e olll aml llisappcar, and 11ew
ones aro in trollucctl. T he hms of style rcc1uire tlmt the 1rnrcls
e111ploycd in compositiou sha.JI lie such as :Lre in use. This
rnl c prohil.Jits ul.Jsolete 1rnnls an d "11co logis111s.
Obsolete worcls.-Obsolctc \ronls [Lrc such as 1rcrc once
currc11t, but Jmve di sappeared frolll use. T here is 11 0 staudard
hy which to tlcciLle whether a 1rnrd l1as iJeco me uLsolcte. ln
reference to rnan y there can
no doul.J t; they arc :Lt oucc pro-

lie

i.

SU

STYLE.

Sec.45

llOllllt'Cll to be no lu11 gcr a. part of the currc11t lan g uage. But
as to oth ers then· it> 110 agree111 e11t..
l';1111pb<dl m1uld rnn ~ itlcr as uhsulcte those \rurlls am1 idi o1w;
whi ch ban~ hcen disusctl by nll good authors for a period Jouger
than the age of 111:111 t!xte11tls to. It is 11ot possibl e to apply
thi s tl'st i 110 on e i;; a Lie to RUrrc_r t.hc 11·1iolc 1ield of Co11t.einporar.Y literature. Again, it is 1wt safe; the mere passin g front
actual use docs 11ot justi(y us in considering a mml as pernm11 c11 tly obsolete. 'Vonls th;i,t lmH bee11 c01Hle11mcd h.r the
crit.ic as ol1solde or ohs(ilesceut oftc11 reri1·e and takt! their
place\ in th e currmit lan gw1ge. Few of the present <lay will
accept th e 1lccision, that 1ron1s whicl1 ham not Leen used
within t.lic kncml cll,u;e or rernc111lmt11ce of those 11 ow Ii rin g are
11 0 lo11 ge r a part of onr i11 tc l! ect.ual coi11 , am1 C<tll nut be empl oye1l 11· itl10ut Yiolati11g the lmrs of gooll taste.
'l'he 011ly test is t.he suhjecti 1·0 one. Jf the word woul!l not
11at nrnll y fiud a place in prose writiu gs of the pret>ent day, or
if it appears strn11 ge \\'hen met with iu ea.rli er au thors, it uiay
Le n•ganlet1 as ohsolcte. 'l'l1is test ca11 Le applie<l 011ly hy
those who k tYC been long fa,)))iliar \ri tli the Lest wri tern. No
tm1 mrnltl cutircly ag ree iu th eir tlecisio11s as to what arc :tlltl
what arc 11ot ohso.lete.
No abso lu te rul e call he laid tlo1r11 r espccti11 g the rccalliug of
wonls tha t ham folle11 in to disuse. 1\la.11.r tlescr ved to be discnn.led; tl1 cy \rc re <lefedi\·e iu form arnl logic:tl c!e;i,ru css, and
l1 a1·e beP11 replaced liy Letter won1s, or " ·me Lm1it> hed as co~trse,
or n;iccted as 111arking useless distinctions ; oth ers 1rerc worn
ont hy ·use ; cl1a11gcs i11 tlte arts aud e111ploy111c11ts causctl the
di sappearan ce of whole classes. The lang uage hn s not su ffered
hy losiug them. Ou the other liand, rnauy Yalnaule words
ltaH 1Jce11 lut>t, 11ot Ly th<! progress of the 11atioa iu knowledge
aud refin cnH!nt, lint 11.r its dccliHe. 111 times 1rbc11 the 11atio1ml spirit l1a<l tlcca_ycll, fon•ign 1ronls were perlllittcd to supplaut 11atin·; wh e11 th l' direction of rnc11tal a.ctil·ity is changed,
aiul i111porta.11t Heltls of h1rnstitjation arc forsaken, th e terms
empl oyed in tli ese scien ces arc left to perish ; loosc11 css of
thinkin g, Ly neglecting the important distinctions irulicatcd Ly

Sec.45

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

81

worcl s, rmll1crs 111;wy superfluous, alHl t!Jns co11tril111 t.es to 111aki11 g tlH!lll o\.Jsolctc. 'fo resto re snclt \runls to thei r pla.ce 11·ill he
a hc11 <!f it to tli l' lang u:Lge. \ Vi th the q11i eke11i11 g of intellectual
and n111ra.l lifo, a11tl the resu111i11g of lu11 g almmlouctl 8t111lie:; a11tl
purs uit~ , 11rn11y uf t!J c111 will he reriY eil.
'l'li e t:1sk of r<!t:alli11µ;
ol1so lctc a m! ohsol csce11 t 1rords is eo11t111ittcd 111ai11l _1· to pods;
the philosopher <Lilli hi storian are sul1j ected to g reater restrictious.
Neologisms.-Ncw wonls may he fornw1l liy ('.n111posit;ion
aml tlcrivatio11 fro11111at;iyc or forei gn 111 atc rial ~ . '.l'he pril'il egc
is to be usctl with g rmt cautiou. 'l'hc tclllh•uc.r at present is
to reckl essness in coiuiu g tlwrn; a most in1porta11t part of the
work of \·er\.Ja.l cri ticism is to g uard agaiust the currup tiou of
the lang uage \.Jy ncologis1ns.
'l'o Le entitled to a pln.ce in the la11g uago ~t \\·or<l should
comply \rith the fo llowiu g comli tions:
1. 1t should clenotc a new a!Hl i111port;t11t co11 ceptio11 that is
not allequ;1,tcly ex.pressed by auy 11:ttiv c or ua.t urnli zet l word.
~ A te rn1 that Lrin gs _to distinct c~n ~cio1:1 s11 es.s a nc11· l'_0'.11bi1mtion
of thoughts, /or an n11portant cl1st111ctw11, 1s a1t acltl1t1on to the
iutell ectnal ~ealth of a peopl e; 1Yl1ile oue that n1 ere ly di sguises
an oltl notiou in a new dress, or denotes a lmr, tri,·ial co 11 ccit,
or a useless tli stin ctio11 , is a Yiola t.io u of µ;oo cl 11St\; :1 s, a11 tl1oress, poett•ss, coruluctn·ss, j copa,nlize, ha ppi IY, <lo11:ttt\,
2. 1t should \.Je form ed acconling to the ana.log.r of the lang uage. Anoma.lous words,-i. c., those Yiobting the geucrnl
analogy of the language, have a fornign, reptdsi 1'e aspect.
i_f . 'J'he forne of the pre1lxcs am1 suffi xes must Le carefull y ohv/ sen ,ed. By th ernsclr cs they a.re 1Yithont n1ea11iug, Lu t hare
peculiar significance in composition and dcriYati ou: so111 e are
acti 1·c, others passi l' e; some can I.Jc 11scd wi th hu t on e part of
speecl1, others \rith sc reral. 'l'he snlli x -able occasions a great
deal of perpl exity, as 111a,v be SC(\ 11 iu the tli sc11ss im1s on the
mini relia.Lle: the su ffi x -iw is 1·ery itnproperl y c111ploye<l with
all parts of speech; for ex.ampl e, burg lari ze, experiu ie11 t:tlize,
fnn cmlize, etc.

82

STYLE.

Sec. 45

'l'h.c ana!ogy of the la11 g11 rLgc is oft.cu violakr1 by fo nl!iug
hybr111.~ ,-1. e., componncls \rit.lt parts clcrirrnl fro111 dilfo re11t
la.11 g11ngc:s; one 11art 111ay he A 11 glo-Sa.xon, th e ot.h er L atin or
Greek ; or 01w 111ay \Jc L :i.tin , the other U reck. S 11ch com~1:m11il ~ a~·1 : 1'.ot alisol11h•ly_prnl~il!itetl in the B 11 glish lan guage.
] he 1lrnt111 d 1011 l1ctwcc11 1tN t111l crc11t clc111 e11 ts is 11ot so hrnatl
that each is left c11 tirely to its own laws. 'l'h c La tin ]ias
yieltle1l i11 111a11y cases to the .Anglo-Sa.xo11. J\ l:i.11y hybrids
ha \·c: hcc11 recuil"< •cl as a pcr111a.1 1<•11t part of the J;u1g 11a.gc :i, 11 <]
l1:L1·c hcco111c fa111iliar to us, and new 011 es mmlogo u:; to the oltl
are fr1rn 1e11.
'L'li1•rc are 111a.11y ll'Orcls i11 wli.ich a 11atil'e suf-li x is attached to
a La ti11 root; a,~, motion-fess, p ainfn f, hut the a11;dog.r of th e
lai1g11a ge cloes 11 ot fa rnr the joining of :L Lat.in s11fli x to a.11
E11 gli slt root. As a g·rnwra.I rnle 11refi xes are of the sarn e Jang11a.gc ns the wonl to 1rhich th1'}" are acl1letl. Th ere n rn, l1 owCYer, mauy cxcc·p.timrn, Pl'p1•c·ia.ll.r in th e use of the 11egati \"C
prefix 1111,- , whi ch is of nati1·e origin, hut is prefi x1:il to ·J,atin
\\·onls ; a~ 11Hj11st, 1111iclio111a.tic. 'l'he tcmlrn1ey, 11 oll"(:n·r, at
pn:srn1t is to snhstit11 tc the L atin i n- for w1- i11 ,rorcli:; of fo rei<>Tt
'
~
extracti on. 1H tl1<: \\'orcl 1111-!Jrn l c/111, \\" C fiucl a 11atirn prd ix:
and snlli x: \\·ith a La tin root..
Th e " ·orcl fi11 f/ ll'i8lic, 11·hic:h seems to he 1mturalizccl in scientifi c 11 0111l'1L Cla.t.urc·, is a hybrid co111pom1clcd of a Lati11 11oun
an cl b ro Greek sufli xes.
3. 1t shoulcl he c11pho11ic. It is 1iot a s11Hieie11 t reason for
rc·j1:tting- a \\·orcl othcrni sc 1111 exceptio11 n.hle, that it is so111e\\·l1at ro11g-h or hars h ; h11 t if it is cliflicul t of nttcrn11 ce it clues
110t 81:n ·c the 1111rposes of Hpceclt, and lias no gootl cl<Li111 to \J~
aclopt·ecl.
\\'ords that am <kfeetin: .i11 respC'ct to euphony are rcclucccl
h.r C;L1 11pli!'ll to I.he fo lkmi11g classes :
( I ) ·\\'lt1•n th e syllahlPs \\'lti c:h in1111 ecliately fo llow tlie n.ccent1:cl sy ll abl e a re so crcmdcd 1ri th .conso11a11 ts as of necessity
to retard the lll"Ollunci<Ltion; for exampl e, qucstionless, remembrancer. 1, , ·__, ~ L~~" _,,

Sec. 46

. !'

THE CHOI CE OF WORDS.

83

( ~ ) vVhen too many syll abi cs foll ow tl1 e a.ccentccl syllabi c ;
for exa.mple, 1wi11rnrily, SlllllllliLri ly.
(:) ) vV!ten n. short or u11acc;o11 tr:cl Ryllabl e is rq 1cnte<l or liJllowed by a noth er short u1iaccentecl sy ll abl e Y1:ry rnuch reso111bli11 g. .:r hi s gives the appearauce of sta 111111 e riu~ to tli n proJllln ciation; fo r cxtrn1pl<:, holily, i;illily.
4. lt sl1 ould be i11 telli giblc at ou cc to thliSC for "ho111 it is
lfosig11 ecl. A worcl neelli ng a co111111e11 utry is su perll11ons.
" 'l'h e trn c cri teriou," S<t.)'S Julius JJ are, "of tho \\·orth of a
11cw \ronl is its lm1·in g such a fa 111iliar look, a.ncl be:i rin g its
rncnniu g mul the feat ures of its kimlred so visi\J! e iu its face
that_ we hardl y kn ow \\'h ether it is not an old ac1p1ftin tm1ce.
Thcu more -especialJy is it lik ely to \Jc gcnuiu e, " ·lieu its au thor
l1i111self is scarcely conscious of its nol' cltJ . At nll e1·e11 ts, it
should not seem to be t he fru it of stucly , liut to sprin g spo11tancously from the inspiration of the 11w111c11t." Giiesscs a.t

'J lrutli.

!

I

••

Our grea:t \\'riters n.i:e...s_w.1,rin g in t11 e use of 11 ew wonls; th ey
acco 11 1pli sh th eir pmposc liy :L feli cito us sclectio11 aucl arrn1wern e11 t of old ancl fau1ili;u· worcls. .It is safr r fo r th<~ \\Ti tcr""to
he so111 e1r h:Lt hehiucl tha11 i u acl rn11 cc ·of the la 11giw.ge. In
respect to hoth olcl awl 11c w \rn rcls, tlte rul e gh·en by Qui 11 tilim1 shoul cl he foll o\\'ctl ,- to prefe r the olclcst of the uow ancl
tl1 e 11 e1rcst of the olcl. Or ns it is ex pressed hy Ren J onso11:
" v\re rnust 11ot he too frequeut 11·ith the 111i11 t--c n :ry llaj' coini11 g, 11or tdeh wonls frony the extreme arnl .utmost ages.
\ Vo rcls horro1re t1 fro111 autiqni ty tlo !encl a ],ind of maj esty to
' st.y le, a11t1 :mi 1wt ""ithout their tlcli gl1 t sometimes; for they
ha rn the a uthority of yen.rs, a.ml out of their iutermission clo
\\'i11 thrn nsclrns a kirnl of grnce-liko newness. B ut tl1 e elclest
of tlw prnseut aud the nc\\"cst of the past lm1g uage is liest."

*6.

m:oral Dignity.-TJoth in wliat is spoken and in tl1 c
nttL1111cr i11 \\'hich it is spokei1 ir e shoulcl lie g·o r orn etl ]J y the
lllornl purpose of lang uage. A ll words or phr:(ses tha t di~:ectly
or hy association are offcnsi 1·e to moral pmity or delicacy of
feeling <Lre to lie slninned. '.l'his rnle prohiLits :

84

STYLE.

Sec. 46

1. Words and phrases that express directly and vividly
what is base, Yi cious, coarse, 111111 <lisgusti11g-11·.Im tever is
low, or heco111es low l1y being spob:11 of.
\Ve ca11 11ot al nays aroid llll'llt.io11i11g such ohjects ; when
compcll ctl to llo so, we should c111ploy c11pli c1nis111s,- that is,
glniera.l or forcig11 tcrn1s, or circ1111ilocutio11s which pxpre:;:; the
s:1.111e id<'a hu t rn g ucly all([ less olle11si r ely. As n peoplu adYan c('s i11 refi11c11w11t, its la11g ua gc purifies its<df; 111a11y 1ronh;
are bani slietl as i11dece11t tha.t were fon11cl'ly 11:;(•11 11·ithuut
offo 11se. \ Ve find i11 our l:arli er m·iter ·-as Clmucer a 111l
S hakl's11earc- a coa rseucss of phra se that \\'oultl 11 ot lie tolcratc<l in a 11Titlff of tl1 c prcscut ccutury. 'l'l1is is to be cxpbin ed
ill part bj' the rmlcr lll<t1111Cl'S of th ei r tim es, :tnd ill part U} th e
fo et tha t the 1rnrds had not theu the igno\Jlc associa tions tlmt
are 11()\\" ro1111cctc<l 11·ith th c111. v\Tonls hecome degr:ulcd hy
use; \Jc :i11µ; brought in contact witl1 unworthy persons m11l
thc111 cs, they lose their puri ty aml clerntion, :tnd sink to the
nil gar tlia lcct. 'rhc:c autho rs arc not to be juclo·ecl hr the
preseut 8t.a 1111a.nl; we shouhl \\'rung thorn were ~re ~ att;·i lmte
to thP111 the tlt ~ pral'ity \\ hich miultl Le justly nttrilm tctl to a
writer of the prcse11 t <lay who slwultl be g uilty of like g ross-

rn·ss.
111 sh111rni11g co:u scncss th e writer must not rnn into the
ot.l11:r l:xtn·111e of sernpulc11rnnc~s a11cl pnul!•1y . The ill -t.i111ccl
:11111 ex l· c:-;:-; in~ use of e11plim11is111s is th e i11tlimtion of co11scious
i11q111rity. A corm pt mi11cl c:rn tldile the 11wst inuocent worcls.
'J'lwre arc 111a.11y objects wl1icl1 it is a tram;gression of conventio1ml 1h-corn111 to 11mkc Urn the111 cs of co11rersation, hut it is
Ynlgar :dfodatio11 i11 a \\Ti t.er, 1rho fl1uls it 11cccsimry to refer to
tl1l:n1 , to h1111 t for e11phc!t11i st.ic expressions instead of usiug their
prnptH' a 111l perfectly ha rniless wt111es.
2. The wanton misapplication of terms that cle3ignate
moral qualities.-Thi s ]H'rnicio ns corru ption is Lccomin g
]ire1·all'11 t i11 pop ular, cspl'cially in lmrnorous li terature. One
fonn of it is the use of wortls that co11ceal <tllll palliate Yicc liy
rl'presc11ti11g it as tri flin g or in11oceut, tlrns sn\Jverting the <lis-

Sec. 46

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

85

tinctious between ri gl1 t arul 1nonµ: 1 \\·hit.:11 :ire cl ea rl y lll arkcd in
every culti\' atecl l<mg uagc. Anotl1 ·r for m is iu 111a ki11 g use of
low, tkgrnrling terms wh cu spcakiu g of sacrncl objects a11cl rcl:ttions. A uo tlu:r 1 anll the most co11i111011 fonn , is tli :it of applyiu g the tern1 s 11·hi ch :trc set :tpart tu de11ote \\·hat i:; l1111111r:d1I<·,
l10l1le, awl clnnttetl, to vile aml co11te111pti\Jle persons a111l
objects.
This a.li11se of la11 g u:1 gc is tl1 e sign of tho rnoral d t:t<~ riora t ion
of ;t co11111m11it.y, of the dec11.y of H<:ifn:spl'd a111l of ren :re11co
for, a.rnl hcli cf iu , wl 1at is liig·hest :u11l l1est, :u1Cl is the most
clfoct.i 1·c means of iucrca.siug the el'il from which it spriu gs .

3. Vulgarisms, or corrup tions of lmi gnage-wh cther i11 t.lic
form of its 1rnnls or in their ap pli cati1H1-tl1at nrc imlic:ttious
of ig uorancc a111l want of culture. T il ey offo11d aga.iust the
strncturc, cl c::irn ess, lmnnouy, a.11tl di g11ity of t he la11µ:11;1g'l·,
arnl arc suggest.ir e of \\·J1at is low a111l 1nea11; th1·.r :m· , th l'refore, viola.t.io11s of rcspl•etahlc Usl', a ud although acl1nitte1l oce;tsionally iu to c011r crna.tio11 a11tl )'a.111iliar 11Titi11g1', they :ire ex cl udc<l from serious tliscoursc( 1\' hetl10r oral or 11Ti tte11. U ere
l1el0110-n
(l ) Colloquia/L~ms.-··we tol crat.c i11 orcli11ar.r cmJYcrn:ttiou
aiiomalous 1rnnls wl1i clt \1ctrny capri cious11esR i11 t.lwir forn1atio11 ; co11 tradio11s a11tl 111 ut.ila.t.io11 s, tri tc :tn!I tri ,.ia.I l:x pn·ssio11s, a.1111 popu htr cph c111er:d wonls, which li:tr e 110 plal'.e iu
literary dictio11.
(~) S lanr1.-'l'he use of sbng is 01w of tl1e diara.ctcristics of
ou r popuhtr liruse st.ylc. J\'fany thi11k tl1at t hey are thl:rc11y
wri ting in an easy, fa111iliar m:wm:r a11apt.c<l to the taste a111I
capa.c~ty of their rcn<lers. Slan g co11sists of wonh; a111l phra sl'R1
wl1i ch in thc111selrns may be either sig11ifil::rnt or 111ca11i11µ: less,
11sccl i11 an a.r\Jitrnry arnl, µ:c 11mally, ltttli crons sm1so. They a.re
often mut:i.phori cal and racy, but clcgrade a subj ect hy low n11tl
u11s11it.a\Jle nssoci:ttions, :rncl arc therefore imfi t cxpressio11s fo r
serious thoughts. 'rh ey a rc not a portion of tl1 e pcr111:lll e11t
lan g uage; th ey spring 11p 011 e k11mrs 11 ot \\·here, are popular
fur a short time, anti sutldc11ly clisappenr. Occasionally, hU\1·-

\

SG

STY LE.

Sec. 47

Sec. 46

ernr, on e is :l!loptcil h,r n·s1wr. t:i.iilP 11!':1.Q·•' :111d t ak( ·~ it~ pl:i ce
a111 011g· the l:nrfol 11·ords.
\; ;) I '11111'.-l:.I' ('<lil t is irn11ally 11n1h·rntoo1l a Yncab ulary of
1rords p1·culiar to, :11111 • · liarn etPri ~ tic of, a. partit: tilar professiou,
trail!-, da~s. or S\'d.. lts 11s" IH!_rn111l it~ l•l"'l''-'l' ::' Jiii ere lietrn ys
th1 ~ iJii\11 <'11\'l! of Ol '\'llJl:lfi o11 :111 .J 1·~d<'J'll:.J 1 · ir•' lil l l ' i· :1 111 · f' ~. j~ ;Ill
ohr rnsi011 of tlw j>\'1'8011al and profoss iu11al, anti the 111 a11i fest:itiu 11 of a cu11trad1·tl, rulg:ir rni11d. l'roperl y, cant is a jan.:·on
<:011q11 1s1·d of 1rnnls that ha1·e lrrn t t heir sig 11i fi ca11ce, ;u 111 ~ire
ll Sl'd 11·i1Jio11 t a ny distin ct 111em1ing a ttached to t he111 ,- wl1iclt
lll <ty 111 1·a11 a11y tlii11 µ; or 11 otl1i11 g . 'J'hns, 111nch of t he 110111e!lcl;1t11re of pl1il osopli il'al a11tl th eolog ical syste111 s passes in to
cant. T his forn1 of ca.11t is <t Yi ol;1t.io11 of propri ety rnt hi·r t.lum
of tlw 111 ora.l cleYa.tion of lau gun ge. Hs so\lrce, J1 01rcrer, is
1111trnth f11h1ess ; those who 110 uot write a1111 speak fro111 tlieir
\~ 011·11 exp .. ri e11ce \\·ill altnust iueYitalJly fa ll i11to it.

I

l
I

I

are:

I . 'l'hn 111i sa ppli1·atio11 of mll'll s 1:;i 111i lar i11 sou111l , or !leri1·ccl
fro111 th e sa 111 e rout, hut of entire ly difl'e re nt 111 ca 11i11 g ; fur exam pl e, ulJscrra11ce fur ohser rn tion, co11 scie11cc fur co11scio usness,

87

p n~ 1li c ;1te for pn ~ ll il't, 1h•1 1H·;111 for d1·h:i s1'. t·orpnn·:tl p1111i sl111 11•1;t
fo r corporal pr111i sh111 rn 1t., except.io1 1a bl1• for exceptiu11a l.
~. Tl1e 11a11t u.l' exacL di:;criu1i11a Lio11 iu Ll1e u:;e uf : > .) ll Oll.) 111 0u8 11·onls.
Ryno 11 Y111~ :1n• 11 ~11 : 111 .1· ddi1ll'd :1 ~ \\'111'11' nf 1' h1· ':111 11' 1:111 g n:i.!!,· 1· :11111 ~ : 11111· .!!T:1111111:1ti•·:ll .. 1:1 ''· id1·11ti":il ill i1 lf•:111i w.:".
T here 11my IJe, cspet:i<dl y .i11 <t c u 111 pu ~ite lauguage like tile
E11gli sh, 11ords t hat are precis<:ly equirnlent. - Hut use 11·ill
' 00 11 111ak1e <L tlilforn11 <·<: ltd 11·ee11 tl11 ~ 111 ; fo r l;111 .g1 1:1 g·1: t1:11ds
a lll'a.r s tu rc,il'ct 1rlmt is nse il'ss . f:) o111 e drop out of use, ot l1 ers
are :1ppropria tl'd to )IOl't ry or Sl'i1· 11 u•, 11·hi le "it h otl1(•1'8 11·hat
( \1 leridge l1 :1 s ca lle1l tl 1c tlcs.1uo11.n11 izi11 g 11rou·ss ta kes pince;
tl ill'ere nt shalles of 111 ca11 i11g are a ttached tu the tliller('llt 1ronls,
a1111 fro111 lJ1•i11 g Pq11ir a.lc~ 11 t. tl· rn1s thc:.r heeo1111: Hy11 01 1.r111 ous.
f:lt;rictly, sy11 011y 111s are wonls of the ~:1.11rn la11g·11agn a 1111 !!.T:t.111111at,i1·.;d l'iai:;s that agn:e i11 tl11~ir 111<1i11 i11':;1,
,dilfo r i1; their
suuunli11iite au d accessory itll'a s. T l1 ey a re 11ot id <·u ti<.; al , IJut
similar in 111 c:lll i11 g:; the pui 11 ts of 8i111il:1rit.y am ea sily n ·cngui zed, whil e great w re is ofteu required to tlisco1·er t·. l1 c pr(·cise
point of differen ce.
·\Vi th t he i111pr0Ye111 cnt i11 kno1rle<l!!·e a11d rd i11 e1111·11t tiln
<li ffercnces of olJjl'rts a.n: me-1:e- carefu Ily ~wtic<·d an cl n ·1·onll'd i 11
t he la11g 11ngc. 'J'I)(• 11u111her of sy110 11y 11 10 11s 11·(mls is cu11 stm 1ti1·
i11crl'asi11 g, antl 11"it.lt th eir iucrease the Ja11 g·uag·t: a1"111in;s
g reater perspi c11i t.1· :11111 Jll'l'l'i Hio11.
1\ 11 :1 cquai111";1 11ce 11·itl1 t.ht: ~ lta1ll' R ol' 111<'a11i11g of tlt1 •s1· "ords
is an inclispensahlc cou clilio11- of :11:e.11 rnt1' tlti11ki11 .g rn1d \\Tit.i11g.
'1'111~ 11Tit.t•r 11111st. a1Uid 1·011fo1111di11g t.Jw111 11it.l1 <•;1,.11 11iltn.
l: I'
Slll'h :I l1Ji ;;11pplie:ition of 1111 ·11 1 111 : 1;1jJ;; to l'X jll'CSS l1is t.111111 .!.'.JJt..;
tl1 e !!,PIH'rn l icll'H lllfl_I' he ('Olll'f'.''(•fl, h111· j,h(' N('('fliid:ny lll ll', t li:1t
li111i ts a11cl ddc n11i11 cs tlt e g-e ncral, 11i ll not. Tltis pr11 111i s;;111J11s
use of tlisti nct \\'lll'Cl s is al so a 1·01T11p lio11 of ll1e 1:111 ;:·n:t !C,' I', as it
t1 :111ls to 1lcstrny itN log·ien.l cl1·:1.rn11s:; :i;;c] (ll'l'<'i si;>11 . . ;~ (t1i11"
ti111e~, hoil'e\'('I', it is llf> t ll l'"l'NN; 11·y in 1iisni11ii11:ii" :1f'1·11r:ill'l1·
l1d 1rt•r.11 tl1e Yarion:< sl1ad1 ·s of 111t•:111i11 g ; it. :111 s1n:rn il 1 1 ~ 111 1rpos·,.
of tlt e ll'riter to g irn llll'l'l 'l.1· tl1 e .!!.·1:111·rn l i1ll'a; i11 s11clt <'a Nl'S l!l'
ca11 use ditlcrent mll'Ch to express tlto same tltol1glt t.

iJll t

47. Propriety.-Prop ri et.y consists i11 e111ploying words tlmt
l' Xlll'l 'SR !'111~ 1·x a\' t id1 ·as to IJe en11l'e_r ed, an d t11at are appropriate t.o t l1 n 11 at11re ;111d purpose uf the tli::;course. lt is opposed
to i11acc m:t l'J a nd i11cu11g rni ty.
Accuracy.-A R c1·<'I J wonl is tli c rnprcsc11 tat.i vc of a 1l efi11i te 11 otio11 , 11·<) 8l1 uul d select those 11·ltich acconli11 g to csta.IJlishl:d usage am tl1 e a.ttth orize1l sy111\1ols of t he thoui,!,'l1ts 1rhiclt
m : 11 ish to l'X prcss. A 11ritcr is 11cficic11t i11 :i cc';mtcy 1rho
chooses mmls t lt at are sig11ilica.11 t of 1lilforn11t i1\ caR fro111 t hose
li e 111(~a 11 s to s11gw·st. lt 111ay seem superfluou s to 1rnru
ngainst 11 si11g- 11onls t·ltat haYe 110 afli11ity i11 S<'llSe to tlwse
whose pl:11:e thl ',Y O<'l' llJIY, lJ11t t he fott lt i s :~ co111111011 oue. J l e
11J a.y also lie d1 · ii l'i !~ 11 t iu acc11rncy h.r using tcrn1 s tha t, in stea d
of 1·0111·1·yi11g hi s i1kas pr1wisely arnl co111plett:ly, contai n 111 ore
or l e~s tita n li e i11tl'11ds. 'l'he pri11cipal sources of i11acc11rncy

TILE CHOICE OF ·w01ws.

l

'

r

I

j'
II .
j

88

I

I
I

STYLE.

Sec. 47

'l'hc accmmtlat.ion of s,r11 011 y111 ons wor1ls is also to lie a r oitletl.
'l 'l1c elfoct is tu perp le x the rea1h- r, \\' 110 11:<tu ral ly e11 1k:L1·ors to
1li SCO \' <!I' a 1llea.11 i11 g ill each of the \\'Ortls1 11·Jicrcas the \\Ti ter
lms 1rnc1l them as r.1plirn.!1•11 ts ; as when t he tru tl1 a111l r erncity,
or the 1:omagl! a1ul lll'arcry of a pcrsu11 am spoken of:
Sy11 011y111s :Lre Ro11u;ti111es co111 l.Ji11e1l for tl1 c sake of co11111letc11 cxs. 011 0 mm! docs uo t gir e the t.l1onght, allll t ll'O or rnoro
11111st. lH! joi11c1l to ex prr.ss t.lu ~ full 111 c:L11i11g. This is uot a case
of i111pro jH'I' acc1111111latio11 of ~.r 11011 y llwtt s won'8, lmt of liri11gi11 g togr.thcr screml 11·onl8 to 1le11 utc a single i<lca, whid 1 call
1wt he r.x pressed 1rith sufficient fullness a ml accuracy liy tt
sill gle ter111.
H E~ uu i;.-Th l' E 11gli<h la11g 11 ag1• o w •~s 11111f' h of its l'i chll(•ss in Ryno11 y 111 s t,11 i t~ cornpo<ik d1 nrnct1 •J' arnl t he l'e:uli11 ess with whi ch it :11l111 its
foJ'1•i .~ 11 a1!1liti1t1 1<. Tl11 • follo wi11 g 1•xa111pl l'S will sho w fr urn what sources
011r Ry 111111 y111 < arn c hil'll y tl1· ri retl. lt will be RC <'ll t;J1:1.t so rn e lw l1.111g tu t he
sa111 t' st nl' k, oth l'rS are 11raw 11 fro m difli•re11 t l:lllgnagcs:
Ex.- l. l\l11 t<' , l. ; V11iccless, A. -S. 2. D 11 rn h!to, L.; La st in g, A.-S.
:t 1111!1!, . 1. -8.; Bran ·, Fr . 4. I'la.c•', F1'.; I'o• if.io11 , £ . :,. ' " " a ri11t'RR,
A .-8 .; F:1 t ig11e, Fr .; LnRR it1111P , L. (i. T rick , . 1.-S.; Fi ncssr" F r.; A rl'ifi <"'" l.; I )n· ie1 •, Ita l.; Stratagl' m, Or. 7. i'lonesty an d I11 tegrit.y, L .
8. l\ li!tl , [':)oft., M1 ~<' il , A.-8.

:3. 'l'lw use of cquirocal tcrnm. Eq uirocal t.crms a rc words
a111l phrases t.hat a1li11it of hci11 g 11111lcrstoo1l in a se11se <lilfore 11t
fro11 1 tha.t i11 1rhich the wri ter a ppli es thc111. 'l'hcy arc fo ullll i11
cn:ry part of speech, :u11l :Lrc tile conv erse of syno11yn1s, lici11g
\\' Ol'l is iil n11 tical i11 fo rm lin t 1lifferi11g in meaning.
'l'h n HS<! of 11·onls lial'i11g a plurali ty of meanin gs is unarnitlahl e; l:111g nage is finite, 1rhilc the thoughts to !.J c expressed
arc of illi111i ta\Jl e r a riety. No laug uage has a separate sign
fo r ercry si11 gl(! 1wt.io11; hence 111ost \ronls rcprcscut a cluster
of rcl:i.t1:1l i1l( ~ a~; ; tJ1 ey arc hu t hints ll'hich the wri ter rnust
lea rn to t.hn i11 telli g-1•1u·e of hi s rc:ulers to in terp ret. lie rnust
<· 11 :1 hi e thu1 11 to tlo this 1r ith <":tsc aiul certainty. It is a Yiolatio11 of aec11 rac.Y to s11ggcst a 1rro11g 111 ea.11i ng, or to leave it
(1011litful ll'hich 011c of the ideas tlc11uted l.Jy the word is iu tentled
to lie con veyml.

Sec. 47

THE CHOICE OF WORDS.

81)

Tl1 ere :ire so111 e wonls whi eh ll'i th th<' sa.111e fonn signify
totally diffo reut olJjectS i as, for eXttlllpi<•, the word re11 t 1 \\·hiclt
signifies a re nt cause1l by tea.rin g, am! rent paid fo r lw m;i :s :.Lllll
lalltl. S uch words :ire uot properl y e1111irncal.
A nother class is co111vosctl of 11·onls \Yl1id1 \Yith itlclltity of
fo r111 deuotc <lil·fo reut aspects, relations, a11d appl icatio11s of the
sam e llotiuu. lt is i11 thi s class that till the rea lly i111porta11 t
cq 11 il'ocnl ten11 s arc fo1111tl. 'l'lt11s the s1w 1e \\'Onl, or rn tlicr tl1e
sa111e cou1l.Ji11 atio11 of letters, may a.thni t of licin g appli ed:
(1) Iu a witlc a111l in tL narro w scusc ; fo r exa 111ple, tlt o11r1ht,
in its wider sense, deuotes nil mental acts ; in its 11<LJT0 11·er, it
is coufi11 ed to tl1e acts of tlw m11] crstarnlillg.
(2) Li terally and figura.tirnly; as i11 the words, 'tca lk, weigh,
i rp r i[Jht, etc.
(:3) A ctir ely arnl passix ely; fo r exampl e, inrn.ginatio11 signifi es lioth tl1 e act of i111:1gini11 g a11tl the re8 til t of th e act.; so al::;o
iicrccptioi1 , iutl uctiou, deductiou, infere nce, aml 111any others of
t he same kintl.
(-1) S uhjectiYely a ntl olij ccti r ely ; for ex:nnpl c, a f ca 1Jul
heart (s11hjcct;i1'e), a .fc.cuful hcigl1 t (objectir e); so :ilso tc nn s
denotin g both a sensation an\a its cause ; as, fo r cxa111pl e, !t eat,
cold, a nd others.
I
(;"i) Alisolutely arnl rclatiYely; for exampl e, o ldc.~t imu a.te,
oldest seliolar, etc. l s it mea11 t that lJC is tl1 c ol<lcst 'i muale,
i. e., has been longest ti me ill the esta1Jli sh111 e11 t 'q or tlrn t he is
the oldest perso11 an1 ong thc-irn11 ates or schol:Lrs ~ I n the 'fi rst
sense it is used rel ati vcly; in the latter, nl>solu tcly.
'l'herc itrc many wonls that a re so indcl'i11i te as to be a somcc
of gre:tt confusion arnl error " ·hen alu11i tted iu to phil osophical
~li scussiou s. 'l'ht1s the word nature is c111 plo.rc1l i11 a wi<le
sense, as equi valent to the sum of created thi11 gs, a111l i11 a 11arro wer sense, ns equiY ale11t to rn atmial obj ects ; sonwtim es ncth ,ely- " Nature reli eves discase,"- sometirn cs passirely; in a
fig urntire allll li ternl sense, etc. Lnw is a.nother of these Yery
i1ulcfini te words; it docs not rn ea.n the same thiu g in t11e
phrases, law of nature, la w of thougl1t, moral law. ltlca is
another in stance : "Word aml thin g," s:tys Sir \Vm. Ifa111ilw1e1. s

no

STYLE.

Sec.47

ton , " 'i17cas lia.Yc hcm 1 the cn1.r; 71ll'i.lusoplwn1111, since Aristotle
sent thc111 packing·, to the prnsent t1ay ."
Congruity.-Tlu: tcn11s chosen shoultl nut only express the
ideas accurately, lmt should at the sa111c ti111e lJt, approp1fate to
t.hrir 11at11 rc a.1 111 i111porta11ce, a.iHl to the pmpose of the rlisco11rsc. This rul e is riolatctl in many w:t_ys; only some of the
most gt•uernl offenses agai nst it Hcml lie mentiuuecl here.
The fi rnt is tl ll' fault 1rl1id1 lias hecou1e prern.lent of l'n1pl oyi11µ; a phra s<•o logy alirnt fr11n1 the co111111011 for111 s of Rjll'l'cl1 . Jt
ha s heen :ti ready sho wu t.liat wonls allll phrast:S arc tu lcrateil i11
con1·crn:ttio11 ll'hi ch are 11ot arl111issihle iuto a co111position. Dut
iu the effort to :troi1l :t coarse aml too colloquial sty le, 11i:t11y go
to t he· opposite cxtre111c of a1 1 c1 pmll y ofl'eusirn fiue writi11g-.
A µ;c11ui11e popnlar sty le is free from l.Jut.h pcdautry aml coarscnt·s~. 'l' hc n1ost cul tirnt<:rl 11Titers incliue to the 11lai 11 and
fa111iliar; t.11 c.1• :u1apt the l'Xpression to the thoug ht., ::tllll where
choi ce is all1111·cd select t:he comn1ou , irlion1a.tic \\'Orils.
\ Vha t sho11l1l he the Jll'Oporf"ioJL of Saxon an1l forcig-11 \\'Ol'lls
in a 1li8ro11nm ra n 1wt he iixecl hy :rny rule. 'l'he 1lictio1L of a
,.mTed 11Tit1·r " ·ill rnry 1rith the snli.iect li e 1lisc11ssrs ; 1rl1en it
is a q11< :stion of sc it•1w.c or eri t. i ci ~ 111 , tl1<! Lati11 1:ienll:11 t 11·ill
prepu11derate; :11111 11atirn ten 11s, ll'he11 it is a fo111iliar ohjcct
or occ111Te11 ce. 'l'l1c ge11era l rule is, t hat, other thi11 gs hei11g·
cqnal, Raxo11 11·onls anl t.o he prcforretl. 'It 111a.y he a.doptt•d as
a sari! pri ncipl e in 11Titi11g, "th:tt c1·ery Lati11i8111 1rhich c:rn he
displace1l hy a S:txon ism is a defect twoiilcLl, if uot a lic1wty
gained."
'l'hc \l('st 11Tih:rs of the prcseut 1lay recoµ;11ize tl1 c i111port,'tnce
of the 11atirn dt·n1e11t oft.he la11 g11agc, mid e111ploy a Ja.r ger
propmti1111 of Anglu-R:i xo11 11·onls tlmn tl1e 11Titers of the last
ce11 t11ry. ll11 t with the gwatcr m1111her of 11Ti tms the re Yersc
· is trne. Tl1<·y mak e nsc of a la tini ze<l E11gli sl1, or nn auglicizetl ·L:ttin phra st•ology, 1rlmtc1·cr the s uhj t:ct anrl occasio11. It
is <.:lmraderisti c of thi s sty le to csehcw t:he fa111iliar cxprcssirn
ter111s of 'laily li fr, a1lll to e111ploy on tl1c most t.riria.I themes
soumling, u11 co111111 on 1ronls. It is supposecl that the use of

Sec.47

THE CUOJCE OF WORDS.

such terms gi1·es gn"ater dignity to style. On t.h e c011trnry, it
rcntlcrs it forn1al an11 111 011otu no11s; 1lt•stroys all force :Hid grarc,
which arc iusepa.rahlc fr0111 11at11rah1< : ~s; aud fr1!q11e11t'ly l1ccomes lutlicrous fro111 the contrast hetwee11 tlie fr:e\1le, co H1111uuplace thoughts mid the lal.Jorell, i10111 puus expression.
]~x.-Thfl follo win g l'Xtrnet fro111 :i. criticis111 i11 tl1f• Lo11do11 Tim<'R of
one of T hackllray's wurks will ':xr111plify tlw f:iult s l1<•n· co11t1"1111w1l: " H
ha s. l1t•f'n c11st0111a ry of la te p•:i rs 1(11· tl 1e jJlll'l·1·yo1 R of a11111si11g lit1•rnt11rn
to p11 t lill'th 01iuse 11les dt•110111i11atod Chri sl·111 as hot•ks, wit h tl1<• o;;h·nR ihl e
i11ll'111"io11 or swelling tlH' tiilt• of 1•.xhilar;iti o11 or ollll'r 1·xpa11 sin· ('il lflfi o11s
in t icl l' nt Oil tho CJo.Odt18 of thr• olcl , Ol' th e i11a11 g11ratio11 of till' Ill'\\' )' l! ll l'. "
Tl ii s prete ntio us s ty li~ , which 'J'n·neh ealls, " that worst a111l 111ost nff1·11sivc Jli ntl of batl English , tY11i ch 1lif'g11iRPS pon•rty of tl11111 gl1 t, a111I lack of
any n·al co111ma11tl ov1'1· t.lw lan g11a g<· , by t.lu• 11 Ro of big, hollow, l11n1 heriug
Latin wo rd s," has bec11 tren.tctl of n·ry fully hy DPa.11 Alfiml i11 lii s P lt•a
for the Queen's English, :11111 by Hi chanl Ura11t Whil e in 11is trnrk 111J1111
'.Vorrls a nti t.ludr Usr• s. A fi•w cx11111pil's fr11111 t.hcsu works are lu•rc girr·n.
A man is an " indi,·iLl 11 :il ," or n. " JH ' l'Rvn,'' or a " p:nt.y ;" a lV011rn11 is a
"fl•mal<' ," a 11nmo wl ii ch 111igl1 ti lw lt111 g to a11 y animal tr_ibc: a eltild i::; a
"j nvonil c," a.1111 chilrlrt·n en ma.•R« an• <'XfJ l'l'SRl'tl by U1at n111 st. o<lion s tcrrn,
" the ri sing gf' ncrati1111. " A. 111an ~oi11g hom e is ~w t down as " a11 irnlivi<lual proceedi11 g tn hi s rl'si<lr•net'-" ln sti ·nil nt; 11111st of t.111• p<'oplt• of t he
phicc, we have, "the 111 nj11 ri ty or th e resi<lents i11 the loc:1l ity." Ml'll
nowadays " experiP11 ce " a Fw11 R:if"io11; the \n•atl11•r " t'XJH-•ri e11ePs " a
chn.11gc. It wou ld bl' an nnpartlo11ahlr want.of' clig11ity I:<> sny: ff \Vhr11 I
cnmc to th e spot, I tn<•t a 111:111 r11 nnin g toward s 1111· wit h hi s hnnd s l1t'ld
11p." It mu st read , ff \\' h1·n tlwm ·y n·v1•n•1l(I g1· 1i tle 111:111 arrive1l i11 close
proxi 111ity to th(• scr• 11 p.11f nf"fio11, 111 • 1•11(·01111hon •cl nn in1li1·icl ual pro cee1li11g
at a rnpid p:we i11 th" oppositl' <liredio11 , 11:1.,·ing !Juth l1is han ds clcrntctl
i11 an rx cited manner." A !f-;;:;1, 1'· 24G el RC<J.
The following sentP11 C<' is f41111Hl in th e n·r111rt of' a comrnit.tePe of' 01 0
ll'gi slat11 re of' Now York nn strel't rnilwn,vs: "Jt is 11ut to he tlenied I.hat,
a ny systl' 111 whi ch dem:uHh t he prnpnl sion of cn.r ~ nt a rnpid rntr , at an
1·lernt ion or fifteen 01· tw1· nty li•et, is not entirely c011si st1,11t, i11 pnhli c esf.irnatiun , wit h t ho greatest, attai11ahl e i1111111111it.y from tl1e dan gers or t ran sportation ." JVorcls aucl th eil· Uses , JI· 32.

Another offense against conµ; rni ty is exa.gp;cratiou ; tlint is,
tl1 c use of lang1rn.ge disproportiormte to tll(\ iH1portance of the
ideas to he expresscrl. S uch m1 inflated, ovcrcliargecl style is
characteristic of much of our 11opuhtr prose. It is iueonsistent

92

ST YLE.

Sec.47

w it.It t rnthf1d11 1•sf;, :rn it. gin?8 a fal Re 1·icw oft.ho H11hj1•rt, or of
the wri te r'R ft:1din gs i11 n :f1 :re11 ce to it. Tho11 g lt c111pl oyc1l fur
tho sa kr~ of <·111plta.si R itR <'fh·ct is f.11 e rc H·rsn; t.hc 1·rnll'a rnr to
gin: i111port:1.11 cn to ll'ha t i ~ low a11d focbl c hy 11 8i11 g st-.ro11 g la 11 g11a 1u·, 0111 .r n ·1Hlern the ft•1·hlc11!'SS 111 orn appare11 t. Jt !lcst roys
hot.It t h1: logieal preeiHio11 and tlte 111 or:tl di g 11ity of :L la 11 g 11age.
'J'h1: 11 8<: of Htro11 g krn1 s 011 ordin:iry s11lijcet.'l :111<1 o ec: 1 ~;io n s is a
<·.e rta i11 Hi g·11 of poY erty of t lto11g ht aml s lta llmrn eHs of [(·clin g.
Hohri<·ty ofj11d g 111 c11 t 11·lti ch sePs tlti11 gs as t hey are a nd apprn<·.ia t.cs thc111 :Lt t heir r!'al 1rnr tl1 , a111l sin ceri ty aud earn estness
of fee ling, <·111ploy t lw la11 g 11:1µ·e of 111o<lerntio11 , ~;u c lt as expn:l:ises leHs t h:Lil is fol t rn.tl1 et· than 111 orc.

48. Conclusion.-Th c rnl nR 11·l1i<:h l1a.1·e hee1t gir e11 relate to
\rn rds 118<'( 1 i11 th l'ir li t.<·rnl , proper se11 sc. lly ohsen ·i11 g· t.he11t
\\·c prcs<:11 t a. cl ear a 11d tr11 thfol statc111 c11 t uf' 011r thoug hts to
t he 1111dernt:rn<lin g-.
H nt ll'h cn we ai111 a.t the l1i g hcst possibl e 1lcgrl'e of pcrspi c11i t.r a 11 tl ri ra cit.y; \\"ll!:ll we 1ro 11l11 call into arti 1·it.y t.he n:alle r'i,;
pmn ·rn in n ·pr!Hl1wi11 g- tl1 n i1l <•:i.s; and 1rlJ('11 ll'e would excite
hi i,; fi•1•li11gH and pa.ss io11s a11d 1110 \'U hi s 1rill , ir e lllllst end canll'
to liri11 g tl 1i: not·iow; d01rn f'ro1 11 t li i: :1l1stra ct ,!;l'11i:Ltlit.y in 1rhiclt
tlJ('y :in· p r,.~P 11 h • d t<J ti 1P 111 11l <'r~t:1wli 11~ i11 tli .. ir :! ]1]1rnpri:1tr>
:si g 11 N, and nx i1iDi t tiJ('lll i11 sc11sll1i c !Onns to til e rnmg 111at1011.
'J'h c 111 ea11 s of 1lui11g· t hi s a m t.lw F i!!·mcs of ::-) peed1, 1rhich
\\ill L>L' c :. 1u ~ id cn:< l i11 till' 111' \I. "l1:1pti:r.

<' 11

.\ i " I' I': it I i I.

49. F igures of Speech in general- Defi n ition . - Fi!!m Ps
of ;;peccli arc d1ff 1ati uns -from tli c ;;rri ctlY i..:Ta111111:1 1.w:il :1111 i
J;iu:i•.«ll J11 :id1•s nf (':; 111".'S'i" il, \'.\ l1 l!'a11:-: ut' \\ i1i•: l1 idt·d s l!li d
t J1.,1 1.c: l1rs :11«· «<> 1111'.''"I 11i1l 1 1i1i, l111•ss :111d 11'1 ·1·"·

·Sec. 49

FIGURES OF SPrmcn.

93

Are natural and necessary.-'L'hc r('al 1ia.tnre uf the n ·la..
tiou of lig urcs tu tlwugl1 t is r cry generally 111iti1111dcrntuod.
'J'ltc 111ajori t.y nf rlt Ptori cian s tn·at. of tlt P111 m: 111<'n' nrn :1 11H · 11t~~
wl1i ch re1111cr a lliscunrse 111orc pl easin g, a 1Hl whi ch 111:1.r lie
use<l ur rejcctc<l at pl cas11re. Su rne writers-as, for cxa111ple,
L oi;kc- coude11m t heir cmploy mt:nt ill wo rk s i11 k 1Hk d to t: o11 Ye.)' kuo wlcdge :1.nd trn th ; t h<:_)' a.re pro no11nc<'!l i11 re11 t io11;;,
11· 1tielt serv e u11ly to insi1111atc wrou g ideas, 11w1·e the passiuus,
<Lll!l 111islca.i1 the j1ulg 111 cnt.
H nt 'iu stcad of ucing i111·c11 tio11s of ar t, th e.ram the 11:1t11rnl,
a rnl tht•refore 11cccssmJ a.JI!! 11ni n ·rn:tl for111 s, i11 ll'hi1·l1 1·xcit.f' 1l
im agination :Lntl pa ssion 111a11iti·s t th c111 suln•s. 'l'h e yo1111 g arnl
tl1 c oltl , tlte ba. rlmrn11s a ml t he ci vil ized, :di t·1111il oy tlt <•111 1111 co11s~ i o 11 s l y .
L a.11 g· 11a g<'s in t l1t :ir <'arli t:r sta tt: :tJ'l : hi ghly li g·11r:1ti n :;
as tlH·y groll' 0111!-r th ey lose th1· ir 11:1t 11ra l p id m t' ~'lill ' IJ (' Ss a11rl
lJt:co111 e cullt·etio11 s of lifi ·l< :ss sy 11il1018. T hese al1st r:i d forn 18
a rc rcga nk1l by rh ctoricia11 s a.11d g ra111111mi:111 s as tl1t• 11:1t11ral
a 111l ordinary fo 1'111S of speech, :uHl so th<·,r <l<·snilit : li g mt·s :1 8
depait ures fro111 t he usua l fo n11 s of l' X]ll'<·ss io11.
T hey a re, it is trn c, deYia.tions from the fol'l11 s in " ·hi<·h eonl,
imin1pass ionc1l re fl !'('tinn 1 • x pn· ~R !'R it.~P l f, ln1 t 11n t. fro111 111" ortli 11a ry fon11s of the ex pression of e1nnt.ion a11d all( :t'ti o11. E x1·it.<·1l
1': ·1li 11'. '.· 111:1 11ii"" 'i ' it , t·lf i1i ll 11• lll " \·1·111"1 11' .,1· ih· 1'1111' : 11111<'11
rn ure will it le:L1·c its illlpre s ~ on l:t.ngna gc. For a p<·rso11 1111tl1· r
.'..'n':1t p-;citr11ir' 11t to r· C\jm •;:;: tl11 • tl11111'..'hts t li :1 t :1'.'.it:if·1· l1i111 i11
111 1· onl i1 1:1ry loc:it'al l"1 r11"· 11t 11 1lil \I(' :1.-; 111111 :rt 111·:il w; l11 r 11111·
11·i"""' 111 i11d j, ]" ·r!'.. <'f \.1· .-:r l111 /r11 "'"1'1111· 111" L111'..'.11" '.'. " ,,1· l" ' '' i" 1"
\11r is ii t rn1· l l1:r l 1111• 1"" ul· lic: 111"< ·'< 11 l1'<· 11r1.., 111<· 111,,11:.:11 1' .
_\ lis Jrat' t irl1·a s arl' 1'<11 11111 11 11i,.:11t "l 1" 1111 · illi 1.. r:rl" 11111 .-1 1 11 1., 1·"
cl<'a rl.v lir liu:11 1·:11i r l: <·xp n ·ss io11 s tli:111 l1y tlwi r 11pprnp1·i:1t1 · .c:1·11t·r:i I I 1·r1 ' "' ·

11rlp

i~

Their clas sific a t ion. - .\ '..'T <':JI d1 ':1 I •ii i11'.,'<'1111i1 .1 Ii:" J,,•.. 11
1:x11< ·111 1<·1l i11 d!sni1 11i11 a1i 11 !.2· :111 d l'l:1ssih i11'..' 11 11 · li'. '. 11 1·, ·s 11 1'
Slll't :1·l1. .\l 11 111st. 1· 1t·n 1 i11 l: 111 1•1 1 11 1' slri "t '..'.T:1 111111a 1i ,.:il 1:111 11: "
l1t•t·1 1 111:1dt: :1 li.c:1m·, ;11 1d 1·t·1 T i1 t·d a 11:11 11! '. 111 tl1i .' l'I""'"'' 11 1'
i

Ii

'I.
'.I

1
..,.....~

STYLE.

Sec. 49

Sec. 52

FIGUl~ES

OF SPEECH.

c1111less <1il'i ~ ion nlll1 s ulalil'i sion tl1 cir real nn tnrc nm1 sig11ifica11n: 11:L1·e hc<·11 lost Right of.
Th e 1111111 cn111s a11<l co111plicate1l da ssifi cation s of th e ol1ler
J:lietori cs 111'e1l 11ot lie 1•11u1111•rntc1l, as thq :ire of but li ttle
pra <'t.irnl rnl111·, a11<l nt the pr c~e u t 1la_y nm r ery gl'11r!rally 11egk et<!tl. l t 11ill enabl e us to mlllerstarnl better the nature aml
irne of tlH! figun ·R of }<p1·ccli to k<!CJI i11 Yie\\' the t1rnfold purpose
11"1iic·h tl1P.1· ac·1·on1pliRh. 111 the first pla cl', th<·.r reprot!11 ce
irlea s \\'ith so111dhi11g of th e fullne ss a.rnl Yi1·itluess of ohj ects of
RPn s!'; in tlu· S\'conrl pl ace, thl'r gin· ·~ n1 p lrn s i s to th e thnugl1ts
t.l1e trnth and i111port.a111·<: of \l'hi cli t ile 11Titenl'isl1 es to impress
011 11is hl'ar\'1'8. Soni c ligm<'S nre hetter :ulnpted to til e first,
otl1<•rs to the RCC011t1 of thl'Se JlllrpnReS. '\\' e may tli erefure
<lil'itle th e111 iuto t wo 11ia.in classes or tlil'isions :
1. l''ig·m1!S of In t uition.
:l. Fi g ure~ of E111pha sis.

th e natural process hy which the mincl 8 <~e k s tn rr~a. li ze gr1wrnl
no tion s ; th e i11cli l'iclual is s11bstit11tl'<l for th e g'<'li<'ra I, tl1r ('Oii ·
crete for the alJstract.
'L' he points to Le 11oticecl in all tropes a re :
1st. 'l'he ori giual , ma.in thoug ht, or the prn p< ·r, li l<' ral sig11ifica.tion of the te r111.
2<1. The substi tnted thought, or th e clerira tirc 111<-:111i11g of
tl1 c tern1.
3cl. 'l'l1 e rela tion between th e t110, or the win cipl n 011 11·hi('h
the tra nsfor IJa s licc11 nmde.
'l'l1e relation s 11"hicl1 serre as fonrnlat.io11 s for thi s fi g ure ar"
tl1osc of til e \\·hol e :1.11t1 its iiarts, r.ause a.11i1 e1foct, res1·11ild:nwe
arnl a nalogy, and all relaJ.io11s tliat detcn11im: the asso<·iati1111
of thoughts. 'L'hc tropes are, fh necdor li e J\I cton rn1 r a ntl
.;
'
. ''
1\lctaph or, rcprese11 tiu g sin g le notions, aud A llegory, rq1rl'se11 ti11g a judg11wut.

II

50. Figures of Intuition.-'L'hese fi g ures pres!'nt an i!lea

52. Synecdoche.-Synccdocl1 e is a trope fo111J(l e1l on the

: ~

or judg1111·11 t in a se11 sihl e form to tile i11mgi11:1.tion, either
!lirel'tl_y , by clot.hi11 g aliRtract 11otio11 s i11 a concrete i111a ge, lJy
eudo1l'ing i11:111i111a te ohj ect8 " ·it.It lifo a.11<1 se11S!\, and by lJringing distan t obj ects ll<'ar a.rnl i11t.o li1·i11g conn ection with us;
or i11tlircctly, Ly con1pa ri11 g th em wi th familiar aml striking
olJj<•<'tS.
'l 'l1 cy gi rn a di stin ct, Yi 1·it1 image from whi ch t11 c urnlcrxta.1Hli 11g co11 Rtru ct.s th e i1ot.i on to he co11Yeye<l; at the sa.mo
ti111 e t.IH·y gi l' O c111pha8is t.o the i1otio11.
'J'l11·,r : II\ \ 'J'ropl'R, Pc ·rso11i lica.tio11 , Fi gures of Ideal Presence,
S imiles, A ll11:;io11:;, a.JI(! l ~pi th cts .

relation of th e whole to its parts, aml co 11 s i~ ts ia th e substi tution of a pa.rt for tl1 c 1Y]iole.
TJ1 ere a rc rn.rio11 s forms of sy1wctlo('lit•, :111 s1rering to tlw
difforc11t kinds of wholes a.ud pnrts.
1. A species is put for th e gc•nn ';, :111 i11 cli l' i1lu;i! for fill'
S}H'l' i<·s; as, lm·acl for foo cl ; siln\r a ncl gol <l for ri l'.hr:<; " Tl 1r'_Y
shall hl'at tl11•ir s1rnnls i11t11 11To1csl111res, :111rl tl1<·ir s111·111·s i11t11
pr11n iu r1-lio o l,.,~ '' -s11"onls :111 (y S[)( 'H rs are I1<'r<' 11 s1·11 Ii •r a 11
\l'eapo11s of 1r ar, pl o1rshares aml prnnin g-l1ooks fo r th e i1t1pl ements of th e peacrful arts; a. lfo111 cr, in st.<'arl of a11 "l' i" pnl't ;
n. l>c111 ost71 c11 cs, instead of an ora.l'c >r. " f\ 11!' h ;i n 0 1'11i/i11s 111ar ~
'111oro sc., ]101arn tlian lie mak es "-< )rliili11 R, inRt.<'arl of ;1. l1ar.~ h
scl1ool -1na ster.
l\ l:L11y of tlH:sc tropes 11a\'C !il!crn11 e tri te: ; as, n. S olo1111>11 , for
a \l'i se man; a .Jrnla s, for a. traito r. I11 i11 trocl1wing 111 ·"' 0111·R
care must Le taken tlia.t their :1pplieatio1> be i11 sta11Ll.r n ·<·oµ; uizccl.
:l. A qn n.li ty or rLt.triliuk nf a11 i11rlil'i1l11:!1 nlij Prt. or p1·rson is
put for the incli l'ic111al: "Thus RJIOk e the tempter "; "t!Je ph i-

51. Tropes in general.-'l'roprR form tl1at cl:tss of fi g ures in
tl1<!1"! is the 1ml1stit11tio11 of one itlca. for :i.11otl11\r, witlt t.he
t.ra11 Rfi·r of th e 1nml tle11 ot.i11g the one 1intion to th e other. 'l'ho
wore! is thu R 110 lo11 gc•r applic11 in its onlin rLiJ, estn,Lli shetl sig11ilication , l111t in a <lerirntirc 011e. 'l'ltere 111ust :dways lie
R111111 • r\'lat.i1111 nx iRting 111-tm •<:ll thr irl <':tS that j11 Ht.ifi<\8 t.l1 n m::dtauge. 'l'lw use of tropes is only a particular manifes tation of
whic ~ h

l
•

i

I

l

I

!I
I

Ii,
'

'~

I

!'

!JG

STYLE.

Sec. 52

lo.1·oph cr," for /\ristotl<>. .Althong h scc111ingly s nlistituti~1g the
g'('lH·ral for th e parti cular, it. n·:illy preseuts t.J11 , i11 di ridua l -,r ith
~Olli( ' pro111iue11t. charactcrist.ic, all(I t.ltus 111akcs t.he 11otio11 111orc
distinct.
:'>. The ma tter of an ohj1!ct is pnt for th e forn1; i . e., tl1 c
lll atcrial for th e thin g 111:111c : '''l'hr lll'l'a thiug· m11r/J/e ni 1d tlH'
1..doffi11 g- 1·1mr11s " ; 80 8fer:l for sm1nl, lead for l>nll et.. Tl1 c
obj ect is tl111s pn·~c u ted 111ore Yi1 idly hJ suggesting som e of
it:s visil.Jlc aspects.
4 . A part of a11 int:rgra.te \rhole is giv!'n instead of tlH!
whol e ; as, fiftJ soi l for fifty ships; tl1c 1cares for tl1 c O('ean;
the hl'arl for th e ll'iwh• I.Jody.
!i. A r.letcrniin:it c n11n1ber is pnt for an irnlcterminate, the
si11 µ· 1t1a r for the }ilnr:1l, :11Hl, i11 g<'111 ~ ra1, a less for a greater;
as, "ten t11011sr111r/. 8\\'onls" ; "an 0111 111:111 is vencrahl r ."
Th e elli.!cts of this trnpc are O\ring to its conY( 'J i11g \rhat is
abstra ct, an cl gc ner:1l l>.r rn r ans of parti cu lnr a11cl i 11di 1·illual
11ot.ions that can lie pictun·d i11 th e i1'. 111 ginat.ion ; :rn11 to its
pn'Sl'llti11,g, in 1w nsiblc obj ects, tl1osl' pron1i11 cnt, d1:1rn ctcristi c
parts 11·hi ch s n gge~ t wost uatura lly arnl rl'adil r the entire
olti ect
·
It is not., th en, a w:itt.rr of inrlilforf'11cc what parts arc
(']1 osrn. That onl y should ho cl1 osc11 whi ch is a ppropriate to
th e id ea. and pmposc of th e \\Titrr, am! correspo11cls to what
is s:1icl of th e 11liole \\·hirh it reprrsents . "'\Ve 1l1•scri ed a
~ail ," is pro;H·r; bu t 11·p can 1wt sa y, "0 11r i;ail s pln11Td th e
1kcp," as t.hl·rc is no con11(·ctio11 lictff ccn the sail s a. nil tlie act
of plmrin,g. "'l'l10 enr my :ire i11 possession of th e walls,"
l'Olffl'}' S full y a111l a.ppropria.t.cly ilH·ir hcin g mas ters of the
l'i t.y. \\re say r orf for hou se, when the idea of shl'lt.(ff is tlw
pro111in cnt on e in th e 111i11d; as, "I :11lj11re all roofo "; but
hc11rtlt or .fr.reside \\'h en the i1k:1 s of l10111e int.inial'ics allll enjoy men ts arc to I.Jc Sll;:!:[!'(:ste1l.
Tl11• ('(H1n:rsn of sy11 ::1~1lnchn is fil(' s11bstit11tinn of t.l1n l!'l'l1eral
for tli l' part.i c11l:1r; :1 s, t.lic _!!:( n11 s for tlw SJll'ti1·s, tlu: ll'l1ol c for
t.lH· !1:1rt, th ~ pl11rnl for th" si11g11l a r; for l~x a111pl1· , a ressc/ for
a sl11p; the 1g11ornnce of mortals ; weapon for S\\'ord, etc. Its
0

Sec.53

.,I
I

l

FlU l.iHES OF i::WEECII.

effect is the opposite of th e synec1lo('.he, as it n •11d1·rn the i111prcssion less Yi viu. lt i:-; u11 e (Ir tl1 " uo< 11 al ti 1rn1.-; ot' <·1qil 1eH11sm.

53. Metonymy.-i\letuny111y is a. trope fo11111bl 1q111n tl1c
llf'<'l'SR:Lry rela ti uu :-; of oh jPds. It. s11 l"<lit11h •;o: 0111• 1111li1111 t'11r
a1w tl1 er th<Lt is close ly co1111<·ck1l with if.. Th i• p1·i1 wip:tl Pi'
these rel:ttion s a rc :
1. Ua11se :u11l d le.d . Th e 1'.a11so is p11 t fo r tlw 1·lfo d .; :J R, till'
a11thnr for his work , th e innnitor Ji.11· hi' i11Y e11 tio11 , I.lit' :1111·('8tor for his llcsccmlan ts ; for ex:1n1ph·, " l n ·a1l ,11 i//011 '' ; a
D a r y, for th e safoty- l:11J1p ; I srael, fo r tl11 • :l l'''"'· I !"rt' IH ·l1111!,!'s
t.ho 11se of 111y tlwlogical 11 alllf'S; as, _Ha cd111 .~ , for 1\'i111· ; ( 'f' i·c, ,
for l1rca,d, a111l the like. Other ex:t111vles of thi s forn1 of 111eto11 y111y a.re: Tk shall bear hi s i 11i1j11ity; yom si11 ll'ill ti111l you
out; lie supports tl1 c111 Ly his labor; to ba sk in the s1u1 .
The cllect is put for the c1tuse; a.s, shwle, fo r tn ·1·s; ri1'1111kc11ness, fo r wine; to send death iu to the ran ks ol' th e e111 ·1 11.r.
l'li ysic:tl effects arc put for the actions or 1111.rnt.al st.a t."s cairniug
th c111; as, tears , for sorrow; swent of hi s brow, for la.lior. A
passion 01· enio tion is put for its excitin g cnusc,"<l(tl1 c olij ed on
whi ch it ten11i11ates ; as, th e terror of thr: oppn·sscil , i. c., hr:
who inspires terror. Th e in strument is p11 t for t.hc ag·1·11t, the
process, or the effect ; as, to wri te a good hand ; thl' s1po rd.
without; the p en is mi ghtier th:m the sword; "l will speak
dr1 rmers to her, Lut nse µ-one."
2. Tim e and pl:tcc. 'rite tim e is Jlllt for what cx iHtc1l or
Jmppnncll in it ; as, autiquit_y, th e nineteenth centmy, a rdi11ctl
or lmrliitrous age, instead of the peopl e then Ii ving. 'rl1e name
of a pla.ce for wh [l,t is cont.ained, or prmluce<l , or took place in
in it ; as, "the whole th enter a11plandetl " ; "they devomed th e
la.111/."; "lie 1lnrnk the fatn.l cup"; "to Lo fo1Hl of the uof.llc" ;
"l?rau ce woultl uot consent." Ca.lien, d.em~john, china, are
metony rnies of this class, which luwe lost their fi g urative
meaui ng.
3. P ossessor and thin ~ posseRRn1l. 'J'h e own er is p11 t for liiR
property, a111.l -v·icc ·ver1>a; as, " to de vour the f a.mil·ie1> of the
lth c t. U

!)8

STYLE.

Sec. 53

widow," instead of t heir means of su\Jsistencc; t he lmid,
/i ol( sc, .fiirm, pays tax or re nt, i11ste:Ld of the ow ner.
4. S ign arnl thiug sig nifie d. Iu stmd of rm111iHg purely inte ll cctnal obj(:cts their v isihle sy rn\Jols <Lre 1ia.111ctl; as, the
lr111rcl, instead of Yictory; then/ire branch, in stead of peace;
t he tli rou c, tl1 e pwplc, the scep ter; t he crescent mid the

cross.
T he forne of this trope is owiug to ir.s P111pl 0Y i11 g Pxprpssimrn
tl1at present the notion in a more eounl'tl', partirnlar fon11,
th;111 t!Je proper 11a11w of t he o\Jject. lt lose8 irs fo r(' n wl1 ell
:il1.,l1·af'[ :1111! ;:1·1wrnl 1111li111"' l:ilu· llw 1il:1<.,. 111' tlw 1,.,~, .::·1·111'r:il
:1111[ :<t• 11 :;ihle; for exa.111 pln, tl 1u d1111tls drnp /Jlessi11f/S. lin· J'rn itfol show Prn. J\ p rtH ~PNS of reasm1in!r is rP1 p1irPd in s1w.h r·:isPs
lo !.!·:1i11 ll1u id1·a, :1111l tl11· :11w11li1111is11111,; 11i1l1d1·:11111 1'1'1>111 1lw
UJUU!.!lil.
Antonomasia.- 'l'his trope is of the same nature as meto11yllly , altho11gh it. can no t lie 8aitl to ex liibit t.he idrn rn orc
ri1·i11ly. It con sist.s in puttin g in place of a proper imme,
another no tio11 whkh 111ay be eit her iu a ppositiou to it or predicated of it. I ts pri111 ~ ipal 11 sn iR to amid t hn n,pnt.it.io11 of thn
sa.111e 11<t111c, <L111l the too frcq11 e11L u:;c of tl1c prouu11u. Tlw
111ost freqm•11t forn1R tlf it. an·. i1: wii11g· .1. purnn11 fr1111 1 Iii« p:u·1·11la;.:·u ur cuuulr\ ; a:;, ,\.cl1illc:; i:; called l'd 1dc.>: ..:\ apuil'u11
Bonaparte, the Uorsicrrn: or 11a.111ing; him from so11ie of hi R
d1·1•ds; as, i11stea1l of :::kip io, the ilcstroyer 1!/ <.'11/'//111ye; in ·
st1 •a1l of \V ellin gt.011, the hero of ll'ntcrloo. I u 111akiug use
of t hi s trnpn s1wh dns ig11 at.in11s shnuld. I.Jc stdcct.<,d n.s are 1re ll
k 11lllr 11 , or r;a.11 lie easily understood from th(' co mwction , :111d
fn '. (: from a111hig11it,r,- that is, arc not cqna lly appli ca.\Jlc to
oth er well

l\Jl(J1\'ll

persons.

/-.-l-_..- - -··

54. Metaphor.- T lw 1111·taplwr ic: a. trop1, li11111dcd U['Oll rcselllhlauce. Jt is tl1e substitution of one notion for another in
Yi rtuc of so111c resem\Jl a nce or :u1alogy between t hem. Jt is
often called :111 a hrill gerl sirnii<'. It agrees witl1 it in hein p:
fo111uled upon resemblance, lrnt llitlers from it in strur.:ture. ln

Sec.54

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

t he rn etapli or tl1 erc is 110 explicit statc111e11 t of compnrison ; one
ob ject takes tlw pla.cc of the otlu ·r; in t he si111il c ll'e f'ay t hat
OI;e obj ect is like ;wotlH·r; a s, " i\I au is a s t he llo1rer of the
fi eld ": i 11 tl1c rn etapl1or we say that 011e is tlw otl1er; ;1s, "All
fl<•Sil i ~ !.'_T;IS~."
'I' ll<' r;·R1'11 1l1!:1.11cPS 111u111 w lii,.11 1111:1'.aphors ;in~ fo11111l1·1\ am
either tlired vr i111lin·d.. Tli"Y ;IJ'(: 1lir1·d, 11·Jir•n tlir• oltj1•1'ts :1n•
:ilil;i, in <'1·rt:1i11 1·1>1111111111 q11:ili1i1·' 11r 11111rl1·' 111' :1l'li1111. 11 i,;
euu11:.;l1 !11 p11t ()Iii ' 11 11li1111 l'11r till' 11ill1'r: lilf' l'(''1'lliiil:111 .. 1· IC' 1'1'l'fl!.'_'ll i!.1•il at 0111·1· ; :1s 11·111'11 \\'I! s:1.1· ln/J/1·- l;111d , 11r 111 )l.11, i11,;l1·:1d
1tf• i I1111\ I' ·'II j i'l l.1.
'1'111 ·,. :1r1· r1·1111il1·, 11·!11'11 1111· ,;i111il:i1·i1.1 i,; 11111,.i·1111<1li1i1·:<. l111t
11 f rl'l:;li 1111 . \\'1• ' "·' , "lilf' 1·r111iu11 111' Iii<·," :111rl :ill 1111il1·r,_1,111d 1li;i1 1,Jd :l!.'.I' i.-; 11w:i1 11. Tl11 ·r1· i.' 11111 :111.1 1!i11 .. 1 11 -;"1 11I il:i 111 ·1: 111'1II1 ·1 ·11 11l 1l ;I .!.'.I' :I 11 i\ (.1·1·11111 ::·, I 11ii I II!' l'I ·1:11i1111 ",. 1I11 ·
i·r1 ·;1i 11 0., 111 Lill: 1L1.1
is Ll11.; :ca 111c as l11 1· r1 ·l :1ii1111 111· 1ilil :i .'.'.1· 111 :1
.
lll <Lll's life . \V c substitute t.he noti on I
of the Sl'('l>Ild fl' l'lll
of the proportion, for day of tli (~ li rst part., :111d by No doing 11c
eltmige tl1 e signili r.:ation of cre11i 11 g; it losts its ]>rop1·r 1mli1::'.r.r
uwanin !! and acqui res rt seco1111ary 111 et;q1li onf'<il 01!1'.
l l1 e
qi i; ilif\'in!.'.· plir:1~1· , r~f' li/i', ~11n11·~ tl1:it tli1• mml 1·1·1·11i11!.'.· is 111 111'
t:il;i•n li!.'.·11r:iti1·pl1 . ;i.1111;1 b 111· x j>l:ii11;; it.: it. :;hu11·;; 1ll1<1I. 111' :11·c
111 1111 ,J 1·r:<l: 111 ii 11\ it tl11· ,.j11o; 1• 111' :i 1111111:1 11 Iii'<'. .\I lilf' "11111·
ti 111 ,. tllf • 11 , 1. 11f 11 11 · 1111 rrl ,., 1·11i11!.'.· i111j>:1n s :1 111 ·11 1·l1:1r:ll'll'I' 111
tli P notion lifr•: it· is 1111 l1111!!1•r !.!·1·111·r:1l :111rl :1l1,;lr;i1 ·l, lt11I i,; r1·pn·,:i •iili·il 111 tl11· i111:1 .!.'.i11:ili1111 ;is ;i 'i11!.'.·l1· d:i Y 11 irl1 ii' pa1·1, 1111 1rniii!.!', 11111 ,11 . p 1·1·n in!.'.· , :111d C11ll1)\\'1·1l 11.1 111!' 11i .!.'.·i1L Tli1· 1111't:1pl111r,
"'J'lJp sl ii p pllllrn tl11' 1Yn1·PR," i' :11111illl'r 1•:-;:1111pl1· 111· r1 ·11111i<'
rf'~i·rnh l iin('r. 'J' li l'rr' iN tlll' tr:1wd'1·r 11f ll11· :1l'li1111 111' 11111· 11lti1·d
to ,1 n ·l:itril n1if'. 'l'l1l'n' is 1111 dir1·d r1""'111l tl:i 111·1· 111·1111·1·11 :1
plow :iml a sliip, h11 t tlH ~r!' is :1.11 ;111:ilo:.;y hvt111·1· 11 ll1 1·ir 1·1li·dN;
11 ·h:it I'll<' ;i('finn of tlll' pl1111 i« to llll' .!.!T1J11111l , I ' 1111' ;11·t i1111 n!'
I)

u<·,

ti II' NI Ii jl 01 1 II11'. II ;1 I '"' ·
'l'hP l11l't:1phorN fr11111 :i1 i:il11.!.!-.1·, or ri·1111tlf' r1·«1 ·11il tl:1111·1·, :11·1 : l l1u
1nost. frl'IJlll'llt. ;111 11 irnp11rt:111t: li.1· 111:111.1· tlll'Y :rn· n·g·:ird1·il :i s
1] 11 ~ o11lr 111d:1pl111r~. 'l'h11s lii sh11p ( '11p l1·Nlo 1t tkli1ll'N t 111 , 1111'1:tphor a~ "a. 1·011 traf'.t.p1] ern np:iri so u i11 whi1·lt t110 l1·rn1s of th e

iii
, I.

100

STYLE.

Sec. 54

m1 nlogy are omitted, ::tlH1 no mcutiou is made of the similituthi."
Divided into three kinds.-1\fet.aphors a.re t1ivided ll"ith re1'p1·ct to t he objects between whiclt the exchange is ma <1c into
thrre classes.
I. 'J'hosti in 'rhi ch the rp 1:1li ti<·s a111l nets of 011r i11 t.ellt!Ctual
;111<1 rnorn,J 11at m e 11 re represcn tll<l hy ext1irnal , 111a t<·ri n. I oh.i<'c-t.8 ;
;u;,. '~' li e n we speak of 1ceif!hi11g a rna.tter, halting h ctWl'l'II t1rn
OJHn1011·,:" So, also, the /,i!Jld of lrnow\cclge, th e darkn ess of
s11pcrst,11·1on, :1 rny of hope, etc. T he terms use<l to deno te the
a c~s. of tl1 e n~ind arc :q.1plicd plimarily to extern a l ol1jccts; as,
spm t, re[\ectwn, attention, acuteness, s:igacity, etc.
. Ex.--" PhiloRoph y, j11Rtly c11ri1111R to obsc·n-o tl1 0 •truct11 l'O of our foenlt1<·•, :111111hc nat11rn of t.hoRc w11nclro11 s OJH•rntious by whi ch """' aloue, of
:ill Cl"l':1.t.ure•, has a c1111in·c1 a lii , tory, c·11 1l1•av11rs h• 11111"," ·i11 c tl1 u fi11i • lwcl
\\Th of thought, u111l lay (lil t tl11• rnri t>ga tt·cl fil:11111·11 ts,- tl1 e warp of eon•ta 11 t 11 at11re nnd t ho woof of fl yi11 g e xp0ri.•11c<',-fr11m wlii eh th e tcxtnrn
" ''l'll!R tu han i h1•p11 en mpoR<'ll. "
"0 11 th11rs ts ofso11 g a111l pul Rc·s ofprnvl'r
am as wc.:ecssh·e stro kes of tho crn r beating wing uf aspiratiou."
·

2. T hose in wl1i cli physirnl properti es arc reprcse 11 t(icl b_y iutr~lectn'.1, J_

allll. moral. As th e fornH•r materializes the spiri t ual ,
matte r; g ires life to what is i11a11iu1 atc
thuu~ht and focliug to the senseless ; as, the sun 1·qjo i1;c8, t,1 1~
monu11 g la.ughs, imperious ocean, an!Jry flood. 'l'liis 111etaphor i8 the simpl est fon11 of pcrson ific:ition.
:;. 'l'hosc in " ·hich l1otl1 the ol1jects belon g to tho ~a 111 c
s plu·n·-bot.h arc mate rial , or l1uth spirit ual; as, wh en the
llocly is called the "soul's 11ark cottage"; the sun, "fair .N a ture':s 1·ye."
tl11 s

~ pm tuali zcs

Its force.-'l'h e n1d:tphor is 011c of the rnost frequent aml
one of the \Jolclest of the iig-m1•s of R]IC<'ch. Its effect is 110t
111 err ly to n •nclcr di scourse iu tl•lli g·ibl1!, l111t to impart to it the
g rea. tc~t possibl e 11cg rl'c of Yirncity . It acco111plisl1cs this eml
hy g i1·iug the idoa with greatest brevity-calling up by a word

Sec.54

FIG ORES OF SPEECH.

101

wlmt woulcl rcrp1irn otherwise a whole sentence to co1111111111i·
cate; hy ex hibitin g the acts aud 11ua li til's ot' li vin g objects by
m eans of other olijcctR, which set them forth i11 livcli f' r colors ;
m1rl hy presenting ahstrnct notions, a1u1 itlcas of a pnrnly i11 tellt>,ctual orcler in i111ages that a.udress tlw sen Res. It th us ccono:
111i zes t he a ttc11 tion , c:tlls t he i111aµ·i11a.tion i11 t.o ad,iYit,_Y, :u11l
t•n1ployH the 11rnlcrntarnli11 g i11 t.nu·i11 g t,l1 e 1Tsc11il1l a111:1:1 >:olvin µ:
the :tpp;trc11t con tr:t1li ction whi ch it inYoi1·es, a,111\ reprnd1w,i11 g
from the image th e precise thougl1 t.
Rules for its use.-Th e in1prop<'r e111ploynwn t of rnd:q1hors
is on e of the most frequent fa ults of sty le. 'Ilic la11·s for tlu•ir
11Se a nd fon11atio11 lllUl;t IJe borne ill 111i1111. J\s llWtaphors nre
tl1c n;itnrnl expression of cxc·itrnl i111agi11at.ion :t1111fr1·li11 g 1 111<',I"
11111st lie jm1 gecl by th e laws of these po11·c·rn. A 1:old, log-irnl
a11:tlysi:-; \\"OUld co 11t1enm sonic of the 111ost 11ohlc a rnl lim ·i hie.
1. There n1ust be :t real rest·n1hl :111ce IH' tll"etm 1,lll' 1.11·11 ohjects, ancl t hi s n·sP1nbla11ec 111ust not lw t,011 l'lt1st·. nor in :111
accitlcnt;il" :llld i1 rnig nili ca-nt <[lialit.>.
vVh erc the ohj1 ·cts arc nearly n·lati·11, ;111 11 111<' poin ts of
si111ilarit.y are 11111n erous and appareut,, n111·1ii11µ· is g: 1i11c·d h1·
ct1nipa.ri11 g thc111; t.hern n1u st Ill' rc ·st·111l>i:11 irR i11 1111· 111i1 bl 111'
dill"c· rc·11c·t•s t11 gil" <' 1·111pl11_y 111 c:11t 1·itll<'r lo till' i1 11:1 ,µ:i1 1a1 i,.11 11r 1!1 1•
u111lc-n.;t:111di11 g. To i-mlist.itn tc: 01u · 111 c•11i! IC'r cil' :1 1·l:1 >'s fo r :11 1otlicr of th e sanH•-as 011c 111:111, ur 011 1· ll11 11·n, for :11111illl'rsPlrl11n1 add H to the -Yirarit,_I' of tlu : n·p1TS1' lll:iti1111. 11hilc 1l1 c·
interch;w!!·c of oli.ieds of dilli: rcnt >: pt·ri1 ·s c·xl1ihits 1111' ll1 rn1 µ: l1 L
in a ~h ·o11!!PI' liµ·ht.
Hut 11·hil e 111daph11rs shoul <l lie clrn 11·11 l"ru111 111 1.i• ·"l s l li:1 t
1iffor
in tl1 c 111ain , the'.)' 11111st. 1111t, he · li111 11dt•d c11 1 s11p1 ·r li<'i:il
1
qua li ties ancl rel:lt.in ns. ']'h('ir for r<' 1lqH•11 cls 011 11 11' i1ili111:1n·
of the relafom lH :t.1Yct i11 thc 11 oli1111s c1111q1:1rc"l. It is 11111, 111c ·:1 11 t
tlmt tl1('J'C 11111 st. lie a. n•al a nalog')' i11 1·ssc·11 ti:il poi11ts s11C·l 1 as
the l1l11lnrst: rnt1i11µ: <lt:111a,1111f; in the prnrl'HH of reaso11i 11 µ:, hu t.
such ;1 si111ila,rit,y ,as " ·ill trnal1l u the i111:1.µ:i 11 ;tl,i1111 11:1 1.11r:illy :1111[
easily to identify tl1 c L11·0 oli.it•cts. \Yh1·n• thi s is 11o t 1111 : r:i sn
the sli ghtness of the rescmulau 1.:e is only 11unle 111orc apparent

102

STYLE.

Sec. 54

Sec. 54

103

ployed, even in lli1hwtic di scourse, to brin~ . into promineuc~
sorne important idea; the 11ecessity of cxplanuug th.e rn ctaplrnt
fixes the :Lttention upon the idea, a.11<1 i111presses it upon the

lJy the attemp t to comhine them ; m111 the rn cta11l1 or is called
forced, triria I, far-fotcuctl ; it nmy excite surpri se, and can be
irned wi th efle ct in comic productions but is uufi t for serious
discourse.
'
Many metaphors, in whi ch n:i_tu!·al olJjccts arc represented by
i111a ges drnwu fro111 a.rtifici:tl prot1uctlous, rtrc violations of thi s
rnl c; as whcu t.hc hca.Yens arc spoken of ns, "this gorgeo u8
a.pparat11 s." The fo llowin g from A ddison, tho11 gl1 vro1101mc ml
hy so111c he:w tiful mHl ex pressi l'C, is excep tio11a hl e. S pmkirw
of M il to11's art, in the 1lcscriptio11 of the descc11 t of t il e ha1ul
angels into l'aradiRe, after tl1 e F:tl l, he employs t hi s rn eta p.lwr : "Th: whol e theater of 11a.ture is darkened tl1at t his g lon ons mach m c llln y appear iu a.II its luster am! mag11iliccuce."
~on1 e nwtaplw rs riolati11 g thi s rul e pl ease lJy t hei r in gem11ty, n.!1(1 arc a 1l1nissiule in sprightly \rorks a ddressing the
fa11 c.r, a It houg h 011t of pla ce in tl1e rn orn cle l'atc1l productions
of t he i111agi uation a u11 of seri ous prose; a s \rlicn til e 1lew is
d escrili1~1 1 a s, "'l'hn te:1 rs of th e day for th e lo8s of t lH : N11 11."
2. 'l'lw metaphors 111ust b1! t ru e. '.l'l1ey 11 111st 11ot co11tradi ct
wlmt \Ye know of the objects :wtl eYents fro111 whi ch th1w are
<1 ra,n1 ; as wh en one speaks of th e "st.ri11 !:!·s of au i11 strn°111e11t
to ucl1 ct1 hy a to11n "; or of "ga.theri11 g t.J1 e hull<',)' of ea rthl y
Wisrlo111 not fro111 flOll' CrS, Ullt fro111 thorns."
3. A rnetapl1 or 111ust ha rn simpli t- it,r. This i ~ opposr<1 to
a ustrnscness and wan t of in telligiuil it.,r. 'l' he poi 11 t of n:smiblau co must lie ouYious- one that the persons ad1ln·s~e1l will
!'ercei ve at once. A metnphor that can not b1! 11lJ(lorstoo1l, or
is und erstoo(1 ouly with difliculty, obscures the idea i1 rnte:ul of
illustra.tiug it. L earn ed and technical metaphors arc in most
cases riolatious of this rule. \Vh ere there is dan ger of obscurity a \\Ti ter 111 ny often preYcnt it hy lJeginning wi th a si111ile nnt1
passing to t he 11 wt.a.plwr, or hy iuserti11g it as a paren thesis;
sometimes a q11 a. li(ri11 g word remu1res the diffi cul ty. Frequentl y li e introduces a so111 ewhat bold rnetapl1or by an acknowledg 111c11t of its a udacity or an apology for it; at other
times he :ullls a n expiauatiou that ser res to re nder it both
clear and forcible. These bold metaphors arc frequeu tly em-

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

mind.
Ex. -" Th e st1b s1•rp1<•11 t movement of t hn E 11 gli sh speech has not bN•n
in a right li 11 ., of recessio11 from th e sc riptu ral di:ilt •ct. It has he•~ n rath er
a c 11 rve of revolutit•n around it. ' Vere it not ca rryin g the 111!'t'.1.p;1or too
fa r, I wut1 ld sny it is a n elliptical c urve, and tl 1at t ho speech of E ugland
]in.s no w bu•·n brou ght by it mu ch ncn r cr to that great solar ce11 tc r, tho
fo cus ol' genial warmth a11d cheerful light, t han it was a centnry ago."

of

r

4. A m etaphor must haYc unj ty. It must offer a llistinct,
consistent inmge to the imagiua.tion . 'rJ1c qualities aiu1 acts
a scribed to the represeutatiYe uotion must he such a s iiro1icrl:y
lJelong to it. 'file terms employm1 m.ust be t~mlerst_iwll i11 tlic.1r
literal sense with respect to the rcp resentat1vc oh.iect, all(l m
their seconditry, or fi g urative, sense with respect to the olJject
rcpresen tell.
Unjty is viola.tell:
(1) By combining the literal arn1 th e m ebtph01~i cn 1. T he
rn cta.phor must he altogether 11 g urntive; tl 1c attnhu ~cs au.a
1irc1lic:itcs introcluced 11111st 11ot he mu1erstoo<1 1iartly 111 tl 1c1r
Jiternl and partly in t heir ti g urnt.i rn sense. vVherc t he tru e
and fal se a.re th us. mi11 gl el11~ 0 <listi11ct{i111a.gc is,o.fl:crC'tl, a~ 1<1 the
mind is confusc<l rn :ittemptrng to re1~11cc t he p.u ts to m11 tj .
Ex.-" My heart is turn ed to sto11c; I strike it n1H1itlturts 1ll!J ltm1 r7."
In t hu fir st cla 11 se " sto1W'' is usecl fi g11ra.tivt'\ y; in tho sf'co1ul, it is b l<en
lite.rall y. "Be l\fowbrny's sh1 s so hca:1;!f in hi s boso m, t hat U1 ey may break
ltis .foaini.11 g co nrscr's 11cck." H ero " l1 eaYy" is fir st u s:a ht a ti 1r11rati:-e,
the!I in a literal sense. In both examples tl1 e rnl u is vwlatc tl win ch
r erpiirt• s, t hat the term s nmpl11ycd be und erstood in their fi gurative sense
with respect to t ho obj ect represe nted.

(2) Dy blending cliffercu t an d incornpatilJle i1migcs. Not
only must all tl1 e imrts lie :li g nrnt.ir C', hut all must I.Jc pa.rts of
the same fi g ure. T he writer 111ust eml with the s:im e metaphor with which he lJcgan- not lJegiu with a storm aud end

lOG

Sec. 55

STYLE.

or "tl1 e l1attle of life," etc. In this W<! han1 a 11H·t:q1hor. "1:11t
whe11 it is sai 11, "U11it'"J !.dn;s
st.re1wth " or " 1Jisse11 sio11 hri1ws
~j
\\'<":1,lrn ess," a general truth is assorted. 'l'his truth 111ay he
con rcyed fi guratively, as in the story of the 0111 111a 11 aml the
h1111tll e of st.icks; we have then an :~ll cgory. 'l'hc eRscn tial
difli•reucc hetwoeu t he a ll egory aHtl the other tropes is, not t hat
t he for mer is cxtm1tle11 while the latter are liri ef--the a llegory
111 ay he short., as i11 111auy pro rcrhs-h11t that the 011e i ~ thn
fi g mat i HJ express io11 of a thought or ge11ernl t ru th, the other of
11otio11 s or ge neral ideas.
J\ n a ll1•gor.1-, thn11 , is a continuous 11arrntion or <lescrip tion
i11t.clligihle 11·he11 taken literally, whieh is i11te11de1l to i 11c11l cate
a truth tliffon•11 t from 11·hat is co11tai 11 e1l iu the li teral statern c11 t, hut bearii1g- so11 ie relatio11 to it. It is like a hierogly phi c- one t hing is said, :mother thi ng is mean t. \Ve are
1·a ll e1I upon tu interpret it., amt to collect from what appear:;
that 11·hich the writ.er 1rishes us to nrnlcrstan<l. If we c1o 11 ot
go \1eyu111l the literal statenient, we know i1othing of 11·hat is
rn e:wt.
'l'hc laws for the structure and use of tropes in general apply
to a.IJt.goricR.
] . 'J'liny 11111st he pernpic11011s. "'l'he a llegory must <lm~ll
in a tr:w sparnn t palace." 'l'hc relatio11 of its two part.s- thc
i111a gc, or proper li teral sense, a.ml that 1Yhich is in te111le1l to be
<let'-lare11, t he sccornla.ry, a ll egorical scuse-mnst be such that
the 111 ca11i11g ca.11 be i111111elliatcly seized.
2. 'f he 1·ario11s <letails of t he image mnst 11 aYe their counterpart in the fact wl1ich is to Le set fortl1. 'l'l1is rule, 11owe r er,
11111st not be c11forccll too ri gi<lly. J\Iin or details are a<l111itte<l
fo r ornan1ent, which are not to l>c co1isi<lcre<l as parts of the
all1•gory.
3. 'fhe litm·a.I a.ml fig urntirn rnm;t not be rni11µ; led or con fnsrnl. .It mu st he in itself a11 iu telligi hl e, co11sistent staterne11t. .A ll the te n11 s employed shoultl he literall y applicable
to the image or represe11t.a til"e suhject; no com1itions or acts
sho11!1l he ascrihetl to it that are not in acconlaucc with its real
uature.
:::;,

'

I

'-

;:,

Sec. 56

FTGUH.ES OF SPEECH.

107

Parable.-'l'hc p:irnble is one form of the n llt!go ry · lt is
properly the exhibition of a religions truth hy 111ca11s of facts
from imtu re a.ml human Jifo. lt is 1111t pretemleLl, however,
that tl 1e statements a.re historically true ; they are offeretl ou ly
as a rn eans of convcyi 11 g a higher general trutl1... Uut tl_1? are
always trne to rnLturc; the laws of the 11 atnre of tl1e tl11lcrc11t
]icin gs intnnluccLl are stri ctly observC<l, :~ml tl1 e en•11 ts arc such
as 111ig ht lmY e t:Lke11 place.
Fable.-'l'hc fahlc lli!l'crs from tl1 e parable in this, that ~t
attributes the action s mid words of rational beings to what is
inaniumtc and irrntioua.l. They a re purely fictitious:-l>rntes
an<l plmits arc 111:L<le to thi11k , ai11l ~pe:d;:, :.tn<l act hkc 111 ~11.
The laws of the nature of the acto rs rn the fah le are t hus 110latcd, aml wh:tt is ttscribe11 to them co ul1~ n?t take Jl_lace ..
A llfwory parable, an d fal1l c are a lso tl1st111ct specws of corn.
'b
• '
·1 f' . ti
positio11, the rniture :tllll laws of which are treat.c t o m Ill
'flteory of Poetry.
Ex.-The student may consult the following passag<' s: Isn. v: 1-7;
P s. lxxx : 8-16; t.hc parn hl e of Nn.t.h:i.11 , 2 Sa111 . xii: 1-4; m11l the paraules
of tho Savior; the fab ln of Jotham, Jnllgcs ix: 7-l G.

56. Personification.-T'ersonification consists in rcprcse1_1t-

hw in animate olijects aml abstract uotio11 s as li vi ug:, :uul a.sen bin~ to t.ltem the a.ctio 11 s of verso us. 'l'he tropes g i l'c to notions
0

cmlows them with lifo, iute lligence, aml
a visiblc ,form );his
'
•
•
acti i·ity. T he titer figurns ten<l to this, m11l blernl ll"lth 1t. so
tlmt it is often an essential. part of them.
It is fou nded on the natural te111le11cy of the mind whe11 agitated hy passion, to tra11 sfor to ou tward objects the mental a11tl
mornl qua litics of whi cl 1 it is conscious. lts force aml !Jcauty
.arise fro 111 its exhibitin g life less t l1i11gs in a hunmn fo rm, arnl
as possessing lmm!MI sensihi Ii ty aml a1foctiun.
.
.
'flle qnalit.ies mu1 n.cts of ina11i11mtc thin gs iire ~ome~1mes
described Ly attriliutes belongin g to livin g and rn ~clh gent
1.Jcings; as when it is sa.iL1 , "a fnrio11s dart," "a. rrrr;wrf tempest," "a frowning mountain." In such cxpress10ns we Imm

<

ms

STYLE.

Sec. 56
tile germ of )Jrrso11it1 cation, !mt it is rnor
.
U1e111 with t lH· t 1.,,11 c·s .111 1
e conYeme11t to cla ss
.
_
· '
• t con 1rne p · · f
·
i11 irliich i11a11i111atc 'objects >Ii . ,. ~\so1;1 icatwn to those forms
Jll"OCCN~l ~fl 'Ill I
.r . .
' l .) SILL ]J WllOlllena, a.ud lllentnl
.
. , . < </lid. 1t1es are represe11ted as perfon11· . '"
t1011s of l1niw l'L'r''f)ll'" 'l'l
. _.
lll 0 tile ac"'
' ''
'' •
lllS lll"llllll 1· t 0 IJ"
:is a'ldrcss i11 o· us or ,18 ·itl l · .·' 'l
·L e Ject:; are ex l1iuitcd
. .
.
"
'
. . ' ( ll'SSC(1 )\' ll S or .. ' ·t'
h!.;-Cllt 1Jei1ws · 'LUStl"tt·t , J"t·
" ''
.IS ,t('. 111g lik e !lite]" ' '
• · 'Jll.t 1 1cs as Ii ope f" · l .. I
..
slander, etc., are represcuted \\'itl1 ti • / _c:.u' t <.:.i.t i, r_l'l_1g1ou ,
01111
ic
aud q ualJt1es of
J'erso us.

Sec. 57

~·. ~'here sl_1ould be a perfect consistcncv
. .
qn.il1t1 es ascnlJed slioul<l , 11 1 •
• of the Patts, the
,1
ue sue1l as belowr to . t 11·
.
,
l ic111gs, aJl(1 sl1ould l1·1rn 1o . • .
"
m c igcnt
,.
.
'
mzc 111 one clmrncter.
4. J he 111 o·Jier for
f
.
into tl1e llIO;t ·u11·111·111t1cs<lo persomlfication can he a.tlmittc<l only
'
' · · p1 ose · t 1ey a · , I
frc<·lr i11 poetr.i• Tl
· ~.
: 'tc emp oyed much more
. .
.
ie pnrso1J1ticat10n of 'Lust.. t
1· .
frecpient ei·en in did tct·
'
I.Le 11ua 1tws 1s
<
1c
prose.
t,
0
1 •.

I

·~ ..

,)

,,-~

.. \

:'l

(j:J.

57. Ideal p resence.-'l'his inclll(]
l
es sel'cm fi gures which
represc11t ohi'. ·t 1· . . .
'cc S <lStant Ill S!>ace 01· t1"111e
n
·
..s present.
1. The present tense used for a past or future

Tl l
· - IC OW·

10!)

Pst form is that in which past or future eYe11ts arc na.rrded in
the present teusc, thus 111aki11g the re;uler it spectator. 'Jlti s
mode of narrnting is especially adapte!1 tu discoursl'S tliat
. address the passions, uut it is also adrnissiule in fa111ilim· discourse. lts use is li111ite<1 Ly the fbllowi11g cmH1itio1rn:
(1) lt sltould Le ,jm;tili<!d Ly the subj ect a,11(1tlte1rrit< ,r's fccli11gs. lt produces :n1 u11pl easa11t elfoct 1rlica tltc :mliject tlocs
uut call for suc!1 a !kgrcc of Yirncity, or 1rlwa there is ii 'v:mt
of Ii r ely i11tercst on tile part of the writer.
('.?) lt should 11ot Le too frcrJ11 e11tly employed nor too prolougcd. :a becomes 1reariso1uc wlwu excessi \'C.

Ex.-"O "l 111 JlH'11t, j11 st., fllHI 1ni crhty J),..1tl 1 .·]
"
· ' t. \\· >Olli 110110 co11l<l ndvi se
thou ha st purs 11 adi'll · wh·it
Ii
•
• 110110 11at 11 dared tJ
I t 1 _
'
I
' iou ia s tone;
a11d. wl10111
:1 tl1e wurl1l hath tlatten•d ti
o11 y ll'l't c·tst 1111 t 0 1· I
1l '''Jll.si •d; tl1n11 l1a st ilrnw t.' w. 1011
·ti
,.
.
'·
'
t.
1
0
world
m1<l
11
str ,t J l
ti '" )!1'1·1 I"• crnl'iti· a d 'lllibit',., < iu. ..i 1I tii <J far
' -, "· - ~ 1e1 great11ess, all
1011 o 1 111:111 am! co.•.• l "t
,
. ' 11 '
ti iese
two II arrow " ·or 1 I . .
,
H J e< I ull over with
' s, 11c ;acct." l!alciglt.

. Cau~ions with respect to usin it.-1
'
.
lig11re is }lro111ptecl Ly the in stincti: ., ,. . As the use of tins
fil'JllJ"1tlir 11 1·
e ci.n mg of our nature for
: .. . ' o o i,1eets slionlt1 lie personified tll t .
.
cw 11t dio·nitj· . . l ·
a a.ie not of snfi1. "'.
.tlli lll1purta11 cc to amtken such r,, r ff • .
.
]011·, tnnal olt :l'cts l111t ·ts
I
t.e lll"' S ' IJOt only
·• ' ·' · ' a " en<•J"'t rule , ·ff' · l
can not be JH:rsonilictl witl1 "'. '1" /"
<LI I wia pro<luctio11s
,
a goot e iect.
2· As each one is iutendetl t ,.... ff
.
shonlcl be co11li11ed to it 't I •lo·"' ''~ I·~ a partwular J•a.ssion, it
11
·
' ' Ill
1.ttel er 1s con tr· Lr
ti ·
it sli ou ld ue ex cluded.
' Y or ore1gn to

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

Ex.-" The circu111shu 1cl' s now clearly i11 e \'id .. 11 ce spreatl out the
wl1ole sce11 e before us. l>el']J sl<-'cp lin.11 fnllen on tl1e <1"sfi1wd Yi ~ ti111, a.n<l
on nil benenth hi s roof. A healthf'11I ol<l 111an, to who111 sleq1 was swee t.,t.!1e first ~rn1111l slnrnbers nf tl1 c ni ght l1 eld hin1 i11 tll!'ir strn11 g embrace .
The assass in c11 fc1'8, tl1rough t he window alread y !Jl'!')lared, inf·o nn 1111occ11 )'it•d a)'nrtm ent. With uoh;ell.'ss fi1o t he pa ces the ln11t'iy hall
he 1i:i11ds up !l ie ascent of the stairs, and 1w1c/1c.• tl1 c d11or of tl1 e eliamlwr.
Of this he mort.s th e lu ck, by soft, co1 •tin11e!l jll"l' SS lll"l', till it flln ts on its
hingPs without !l(li sc, a nd he c1!1cr s nnd fl(•/i olds lii s Yidi111 hefi1re h:m.
. Thi' deecl is <lo11e. He 1·ct rrah;, rrlra clw his stqrn to th e wim'.ow,
·1){{sscs out through it as lw cnme in , n.ncl escapes." ll'lhsli:r.
• l'

.f

2. Vision.-Anothcr figure of this class is Yision. In tl1is
the \Hiter 11eclares l1imself an eye-witness of so111c eYe11t, and
depicts it ns ti~kin g place in his presence. It is the expres~ion
of powerful emotion, and sl10uld Le used uut sel<lom am1 with
grmtr t caution.
Ex.-From a speech against impressing sen.m en. "vVoultl the learn ccl
gl'ntlema.n uot ll't on e fathPr, on e broth er, or on e child escape in tlli s g1·11eral scene of opprnssinn a nd i11ju st.i ce f l\fot-hi11ks I hear tl1 e hea rtfelt
shrieks of th e miserable wife t his i11 sta11t piercing rny ears, and c11treati 11g,
'in acce11ts of rage a11d <le spair, thn millni gl1t rntlia 11 11ot to tlrng from !tor
si<le th e father of lu•.r ch il<lrc11 :uHl her 11nly support! l think I hear th<J
aged, helpl el'S parnnt, in :icc;o11ts of si11ki11g wor, 111isery, n.11cl distrrss,
bewailin g the loss of his d11tif11!, affc cti1111ate s1111!"
"Methinks I see in my mind a 1101Jlc a11d puissant 11atio11 rousin g
he rself lilrn a strong man after sleep, a11d shaki 11g her invi11 eiblc locks;
methinks I see her, as au l1agle, mewing her 111ighty youtl1 1 an<l ki11dli11g

LIO

STYLE.

Sec. 57

lii·r urulnr. zleil <'l'~ l'A ·1t tl10 frill 111u· 111 ay I~e· i .
. ·
.
""" "."'[ •ig-lit at th e fo1111b1'11 1't . If' f I .. Ill ' jJ1114111g a111l scali11;.r lu' r 111111'1
·
' '
·~I ' 0 lf"L\"f'll ly · ) '
n
llOlfie of tir11orn11 s :I.Ill] flodii11<r h1'1· I" "t'I
l:l< l:l ll C•J; '.d1ile til e wl10]0
fl t,,Pr
t
"
'
•,
"
1 1 those ·rl · t J1• t J
al1011t ' :1111:1zl'il ., 1t "'.1i ..•Lt s·Jie Hwa u ~ · . ' I w. ti" . om tile
tl1·il i«ht
11
. .
.
o '
" uul<l prngnosticate a year of s . •t . 1 '! .rnc Ill 11 ' 11' en nous gablile
LC s .111t schisms."
j1Ji/ton.
1

1

..)

" A postrophe.-Auotlier fi•rure of th is ·I· ...
·:·
wl11d1 con ~ i sts iu 'tclcl · .. ,· . "1
. c .1ss is HJio:,;tropLe,
• IeSSill <> t. 1e 1tUSCI t • •ti
prese11t. lt bri1ws t.lws . ·1" . . .
I ~ts
IOllg h t hny ll'ere
"'
e " 10 .11 e <ltsbnt lll t'
'
our in1111 etliate J>resew·e ,1111 .
lllie or place i11t.o
,
.
v ' '
t represents t.h
. 1·
·
'I lw liuurc recci i·es ·1tltl1't1·
I ti
. . e m ,1s istcm11 g to us.
.,
'
oua orce wl
ti
1
form of i[li estious.
ieu ie at tlress ta kes the

\ Vc may tli us 111111 ress Ji l'itw 1 • .. . ,
cleat!, fonuer 't"·cs fut .
"' l CJ sons who are absent, tl1 e
'"' '
ure ages, autl iul'isii.Jle Lei1w:;
0 .
. F"x.- " I {11t, ala s, ,rou ;ire Hot nll liPn•

'J"

th11111t• cl yo ur raulrn. l'r, . t' J' .
·
J1111 • . a11<l tlui s11·onl haYc
·
1. sc.o .•., 11 111:1111 St·1J'f- 13
k
J1rHlg-t~ ! o11r f'J'l' 8 s 1•f'k f ~r 1. .111 1. . ' ' . • \ ' ruo ·s, HPad, l'urneroy
. ti
' · ""
a111 a1111d tliis I11. I· . 1.
011 are'
g.1. 11m•cl lo yo ur htl1t•r"·
. I .
o '"1 un
•
:-; , .1111 11ve only to y
.
. 11d. y
l'ClllPllliJra 11 en a11 cl yo ur o11·11 I " I1t
'
Olli eo1111try Ill her grate f'11l
" y
" •g ' ""ample." Wck•l1•r
•·•, uohl" Unlilt•o, thou art ri.,h t ' l
. . . .
tl11·e rPc·:111t it, l.i11t, it. u1nr1·s 111•n·rtl ·I' ' t <loes more.' .B ig-o ts 111:1,v make
•·w1•
_," " ti la t A1·4 JrtJ .. ss te:irf'11I ' '. •. 't I" css. · . . Cl11sr•
. . lloll', n·111 •rnl> le
1
't I w s s1•e11 ('11 011"! ''
'J <.' l •as se<'n
.
fl
· wh·• ·t in ..1.1 1 11 eve r hf'furP
s· 1,v·
1
" •
:1111' II]> th· t
l' t
' '' '
wo rk . . . . ]i.. st. in !"'~. c c g;.,.'.11t 'c"''1"' ',·tie •py-gln •R; it hn s clone its
sc · <l .
'
· ·' " 11111 111 s of the J .. .
1.
o111e ' Jlt'rsec uted, lm1k<'n-he·11·tetl"
J'
rc.n ens,- rke him
•
·
>w r att.
1

4. Sermocination.-St1'll a.11otlicr of the
lllocinat.i o 11
Jn thi I'
same c1ass is scr·
·
~ ig nre :1\Jsent inrisii.JI
bein
g~ am rn1>rese11 t1•tl
·1s , 11. ·. '
e, or f.lll )lcnmtnral
.
• '. ,u l I CSS l!l" us
It .
.
mth apost.rophe. the dis. . . ·I "' ·
rnay be comb111etl
.
'
CO lll SC t ICll ta I·cs th \ f
f
.
d1alog 1w.
'·
c onn o a11 111ia.t.ctl
. Ex.- "A•k t.111' ,.,.,T Ri llll of f'..t1•r ·1111! .
JtRP lf' thi s :rn s11... 1. . , i' I
' '
rt shall 1111clo11hfr 1]Jv m·if'f' ,.1111
'
'
n Y ("l!!Pr JI · t
t'
J
'" ' J
ghostly •trruuth r 'llll •101" . I 10 .esta l(lll S ma<le ill th e glory of my
,
·
·
'
'
'
''
l:lllll'I
nf;
b11t
thos1•
·
·
·
t·
l
Ill} s111 and Wl'akn""" 1,.. 1" 1H'W:ll. 4'1 Ji ·1t · · crys ,1. kn.rs wher1•with
,
,
1 1
. ' c procm1•d my 1•11tlless joy . my
strc•ugth lin t.Ii """" lll l' rnii . 1
"S
.
•, .1111 rny fa ll 111y Rtn _, ,, 1
'
• 11 1'1'""" t.hn t Grnl ,.11111111 11
'Y·
Iookc1·.
o
'
. ti
woultl to-day takH all'· 1 _ti
.
11·s11 wo rds: '0 man I
.a<. ' n•ss
· · .,r 0 11 111
· .I 11 8 1w.11 t :11ul g1i•e y ,1110 ,_1
'
·.
on • • rcr; you have only
ti lO power of 111au ' I , vi·11 gn
e Y111 ' f.h:it of God.'"
'.

1

"'

Sec.58

l•'lGUltE::l OF 8l'EECH.

JU

58. Simile.-A simil e is the explicit sta te nu :nt of tlw n ·s<·111 blance l>etweeu two objects or uo tious belouging tu Llit1\·re11t
classes.
J,ikc the meta1)ll or, it r enders a 110tio11 ckarl'r arnl morn
vil'icl by eornpari11g it wit.It another that is l1d t('I' k1111,1·11 , :1111l
ean be n1 ore e:isily pict.lll'1·1l in the i111a µ- inatio11 ; it 1lilli·n; l'r11111
it i11 that it 1]m,8 not i1lc11 t it:r t h" t.1rn 1111tio11R, but. :1 sserts \'Xjllit'.itly th!'ir si111ilnrity.
St ri1., tly H\H'aki ug-, a i:;i111ilt" iH co111pose!l of t\YO n1e111l1t ,rn, 011<'.
co11ta i11i 11 g t he 11oti u11 t.o lie i1! 11 s1.r:1tt-1L th<· oth1·r the · ill11 str:lli1c·
n 1tiu11; ortli11arily the illust.rati rn 111 c111ll!'r- i11t r111l111:1:tl li_y /i /;1\
a:;,-i:> reganlctl a:> the simi le. Th t'. onkr of t1n" arra11g1·1111·11 t
of the rn e111bcrs i:> 1wt iu rnrial1le ; \1·l1dhl'I· the ill11st ratin· sh:ill
p i'CCe<lc ur fo ll ow t hn.t \l')!iclt contai ns t.!1 c notion to lw il111 stratetl, il:l 11t:te n11iue1l by r hetori1'. al com:illerat.iou s. 'l'h<•rc n1:1y be
:ilso tt Llilfornuce iu the pro111iu e1tt;e gil'Cm to th e 11ill'e rl'nt u1t·u1Lers. 'l'he 11w.i11 notion ma y ht" l' Xp:i.11tleil a.1111 itR li kc111·sR tu
the illustrative not.ion he lint bri efl y i11tli!'atetl, or t\H'. n·r1: rn1'.
In the olclcr Hltetorics tl1 e forn11·r 1rns eall l' tl co111pariso11 , :1m l

i

;I

·1
I

~

i

:I
!

J

the !ttttcr simile.
Th0 ol1ject.s co111pa.r0c1 must \J(•l011g- t.o 1lilferent cl:i sRl'R. '!'his
constit.nt.c:s the 11ilforeuec l1d1r1,1·11 a sin1ilc a111l :111 !'X:1111plt'.
A co111pa.ri8on l1et1rt>c11 two i11clil'icl11:1 ls of th e 8:rn1 e HJIC!'ieR, m
bct11·ec11 t1ro specil's of tl1 e sa me µy1111s, is not a ~i111il P. The
objects must lie 1lissimilar i11 tl11·ir gc· nl'rnl 11 at 11n·, lint l1are
certain <]rnfTlt.ics i11 corn111m1 \1·l1i l'h !'a 11 \I(' p1·n·l'i1·1 ·il irn1necli~ly , or ~u~t. a. in sirni hr rl'l:.1tio11s. \Y <' ha H" t\11 ·rl'l'urc tm'.
classes of sm11 les-those of tl1reet n·s1· 11 1hlm1C '. e a.111 ! tl111s1: u!
:tn:tlogy. The ohjects 11ia y he bot h frmn t.11e R:1111e Rpli1·n·both ma.teri:tl or both spiri tnnl,-or fro 111 tlilforent sphl'l'l'Sonc spiritual, the other material.
:Ex.-" Thr• snn " ':lR 11o w n•Rtin.!! lii ~ hngl' 1li•c 11pn11 th<' Pd ge of' tli n
lcvl'l oc1•:111 , :11111 gil<letl t11 l' aPc1111111latio11 of' t1m·eri11 g «lfll11ls t·lirongli
which h11 11:1.11 tr:iYPktl tl11• lil'c·lo11g tlny, :1 111! \\·hil'h now a" w111hle1l 011 :ill
sides, like 11ii, fort1111P Ran1l disa"krs aronnu a sinking empi re :11111 falling
monarch." JV. Scntt.
"As 11 sc<l in th is rncle statl', la.ng11n ge rescllliJles the ]1arsh music of the

11

I

112

STYLE.

Sec. 58

A lpin e l1 orn , IJ!ow11 by the l'lltlc S wiss J1 e1'(l-Lr ,
.
111·ak " :m11111rl take it "IJ ti . t 1·t ·, t
'.\ · It is only wl1t •11 th e lofty
·
i.t
I•
l":11J S11111tc<l Lv th .· · , ·I
·
,
si te 111 !!lody. " l!orJci·8 .
t ll ~ c 1ues 111 to CX<{ lli" lfi ,; rn ela11 cl1 olv gc11i11 s 11!·1y·s 1"11 ·11
<l
.
'
· · ·
w1 t n11 1"'1p11l fl ·1 ' I
I"!
·
ro111Jd f,!1c scathed oak about t i , f: II•
.
' . ' " ies, 1 HJ hgli t11 i11 g
'
ie .t e11 g1 cat11 css of man. " Jiallam.

Different orders of Similes.-'l'Jie use of .· .
.
>:onu: <1P"T<' • f . . · ..
.
.
. ·
srnul cs m ro h·cs
.,., .c o .tctu ity of til e 1111·tcr111·1t1'011 i . t
.
I·
.' uu uo ]JOwcrl'uI
t I1st11r 111w passion.
'l'hey , .. , t ' .a 1 "
I,
.. a .
.
. •u e 11.1, u1a on ly Ill a, state of llliud
t i.tt pu uuts a dchl.Jcratc co1111xtrison of' o110 ic.. ts 'l'l
l · ·ti ·
·
•
icy senc
J v
c _u ~, .) to c~plai~1, clcrnte, and adorn. A perfec t simile <'Xluli1 ts the ol1J ect Ill a clc:trer light, i11 new autl pleasi1w ' LS Jee~~
0
allll :rn·a.k cns the a ppropriato e111 otio11s
'
' I
Tl
.
.
ie loll"est cla ss of si111il cs is composed of the pun•/
1i 1·
~1tc, . 11·l1 mH: i'.1ai11 1111rpose is to rn1H1e;· obscure notio11 ; ~i~ti~:~~. is S<'.111etu11es difli cul t to discrillli11atc tli cm fro;11
, .
ill w;trn twus. 'l'!Je rul es to be ouscr 1. d .. th
logical
class an: :
c WI
respect to tLis
1. Th e ohj~ct wi th wl1iclt the illustrated notion is
. . l
rn 11st lie a fo mi Iiar one 'l'hc I ' . . ]. cornpai ec
_.ti ·I . .
.
ess '11011·11 must I.J c co1u1Ja recl
" 1 1 11 1.1,t I S hotter k11mr 11 .
2 'l'J
.
. :
io porn~ of si11 1ilarity should lie tliscoYcred ll"itliout ,
cfl 01t of nttcntw 11 .
,my

l

t3;

N o circun istan ces sl10ulc1 he admitted wl1i ch arc not al.Jsou c .Y ii_ccessary to .co11rny tlic notio11 clc:i.rlr an cl fu ll
'
Jn tl,1'. s ~lass of Sllllil es tlig11 ity awl ele1·atio11 arc l~·t sotwh
after; If th e analou-y is j 11st and the l . t I
. ,
" t
i1w f ·tJ
,
~
.
o '.)cc JC explarnc<l notlt
,., ur wr is demanded; tho more homely similes 'trd ft .cIwscn as the lllorc dfocti r e.
'
o en
But thc•n: :ire si11Jiles of a l1igl1 cr class which i.cs1·,1 · . .
' t
· 'u
es :·g-n-mrr
• more t1·is t-111
c reprcsc11 tatio 11 of .
'"'
. 0
JI . , , l .
.
.111 OuJCct, confer ad<11t1onal
l ~as m c >J t,hc uo1·clty of tli e com11a r1·so1·1 ·11·1ll "y as . t.
ti . l -. . ,·
' •· u ' socia rn "'
lC 0 JJCCt \\1 th clevnt.ed atHl agreeal.J]c Sul.Jjects.
a
·t

Ex
' · . -"Tl
· '" s tYIll of Can nin g i:; like th P r m ,
.
.
C\'t'ry rn y of" !Hit \\"hi ch f- II
.
' . I V(. X lllllTOI', wl11 cl1 SC:ttt11 rs
.,
" ' 11po11 1t :111tl sl1n •<'s .11 1ii . 11 ·
positio n it is r il! m·tl.1 t li ·it f fl
• ·
. · · • ~p ar' es Ill whateve r
'
o
l"llll" 1l:lllt IS Jil·c tJ1 •
sca ttering nn indi e<'ri1111"11 ·1t.l• i· 1· " '·
'
t. con cave spc •cul um ,
·
• • · a<1a11cc u11t lni" 1't 1· I t
into 0110 il!tense1 trcii·icii<l Ull S 10Cll
r
,, '
' rn g s 1g 1 con centrated
S.

Sec. 59

113

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

"The i1kas, as well ·as the cliil<l ren, of ou r yo uth ofl:t'n di e lwfiirc us ;
mul our 111i11tl s reprcst•11t tu ns those tombs to whi ch " ·e arc • approa chi11 g,
w!lt'n" f"11011gh tl1c brass :uul 1na1'hlt: 1·c1n ai 11 , ,rd thf' i11 scriplic111 s arc
effaced by time, an<l tlie imngcry molders away. " Locke.
" As iron gird ers a.nil pi ll ars expand allll co11traet with th e nwrc variation s of t emperat ure, so will the st rongest C<!1tvictio11 011 wh itl1 th e !1111naa
i11tdl<'ct r<·sts its judgment >ary with th e changes of tlH· h11111 a 11 lu •a rt., ant!
th e lrnil1ling is safo only wlu:n tl11 •se rnri atio11 s ar<' foreseen and allowed
for Joy 1Yisdo111 int;·11t 011 sclt~ lu1 owl ed gP. " JJul/l'CI'.

:i

lt is essential to tl 1e perfecti on of sucl1 si111il es tlrn t th ey be
not too g reatly cxtew.le<l nor fa!lciful. The poet is allowed to
exp;tnd his similes aml to incorporate deta.ils wl 1icl 1, while uot
necessary to illustrnte a notion, embollish it and call up agreeabl e associa.tions; but thi s is forbicl<1en a prose writer. \!\Then
the rescmulance is not apparent, or is arbitrnry and faHciful,
similes, instead of renderin g a notion clearer, obscure it. Such
simi les belong rather to the fan cy than to the um1crsta11t1ing
and imagi1mtion; th ey surprise an<l d;Lzzle, but acco111plisl1
none of the ends of prose.
Ex.-Th c followin g, though nut strictly fan ciful , ha.>c an air of s11 btlety
and i11genuit.y which rnalrns their use of do11btf11! propri ety:
" Our pl anet, tl 111s in stin ct wi tl1 devout li te , gird <' d witl 1 i11tl'11t :111<l perc o pt.i vll so11 ls, covered OYCr as w ith n dil'in e rcli11n by t hn ]Jlll"<'I' <·011 s!' il' 11cc
of 11111n a.nity, is like a. n ,,i.11g eye, watching on every side th e i 11111w11 sity of
D eity in whi ch it Honts ."
"The mighty:..-spiri ts of our rncc am as th•J lyri c tho ughts of Gotl tllat
drop and breathe from his almighty solitude."

A

11

_..

,,

I

59. Allusions.-Allttsions may be consitlen:ll a species of
comparison. They give grea ter clearn ess a.llll vi1·i1h1css to :i
notion by indica.ting its connection wi tlt sonic well lrno\\'11
obj ect or e1ent. 'l'hc connection is uot exhibited i11 full, but
merely pointed out; it is left to the rcallcr to complete tho
ima.ge. In order to accomplish their ol1j ect they must I.Jc ma<lc
to famili ar objects ; when an explanati on is req11ire1l they are
faulty. U nmcar1ing all11sions, which stand iu no relation to
the tliougllt, must be avoitled.
The principal sources of ·allusions are, history, the sacrc<l
Rh et. 10

114

STYLE.

Sec.59

Sec. 60

scripture~

chtssical a 111l starnlanl authors. Pnssiug eYcnts an d
the ep lw111eral prodtictious of the 1lay umy also aHon1 tliem.
Ex.-" Ge11i:il , alm ost to a mi racle, is the soil of sorrow · whernin tlie
srn a ll cst sce tl of lm·e, tinwly folli11g, bcco111eth a tree, in wh~se foliage the
bird s of IJlessncl song lod ge and sin g 1111eeasi11glr."
1
"Th" i11111 datio11 of lawlt•ss l>Ow1· r aft1 ·r ~.;reri ., tlit• ,. ·st 1· ]' .
,
_
'
'=' ' , c. o ~ 111 opo
tl1r1•at<'11 s h11gla111l; a11d we m·,, 1•xactly, 11111Rt e1·i ti<:ally, pl aceil iir tlie oril;
ap'.·1forn where it ca11 bu s11 cccssfully repelled, in the Tlu.•nuopylce of t he

11

i

lllll \.L'l'Se."

'\

60. Epithets.- E pi thets descrl'C special m eu tiou :1 s a

cans
111
Yi\·atity. .A d._i1•1·tires arc joi11ed to sulistantir es, to
l1J111t the111 a 1al thus for111 partic11la.r 11utio11s 011t of general
011es; as when ire say, "a white r ose" "'L 1rultl 1.1·11 "." , l
'
' o
ol
V WU
tlw_s used they arc iwlispeusa.ble to tlie colllpletm1ess of the
110~1011_, a 111l can 11ot he Olllitted \ri thout destroying it. But
ad.i~ct1 ~·cs arc al~o used, not to arltl any thing to the sm1sc, unt
to s1g 111fy a quali ty of the Ol(ject to whicl1 it is desired to direct
attc11tio11; as, res istless lig lttuing, lwar tless pride. ·vvJicn thus
use1l they arc call1· tl E pit.Ii cts.

t_o11~anls

. .By t.lw .i'.uli cio11s ('J11ploy 111 c11t of q1i tl1 ets we may l1ring rlist.111cf".ly to_ Y~ cw, \\l tlt the g reatest l1n;ri ty, a.11 olijPi;t wi tlt its
chara1~tenst1 c frnt11res. Tlteir au11se is a COTLllllO!l fa11lt of lll!trni11e1l all(l of i11forior llTi h: rs. They arn 11se<I inipropcrl.r : 1. IVhc11 they are 11ot apposite. As t hey lwl011g to the Inng nnge of the e111otio11s, tlt ey ca 11 11ot IJc applied to i1lnas tlin.t
l1:~re 111~ sig-_11ili ca11 ce or r a l11e for tl1 c i11in.ginatio11 :rn1l foel iii gs.
l\_hat is t ntc a 111'. ta111e cn.n not receive force and dignity liy
ucrng prcsc11 tetl 11·1th an a rray of q1mlifj'ing ,rnrds; the foeb lcu css ~f tlw tl11n11..d1t is thereby u1111le the more ap ,areut, and tlie
1
sty !<> IS taw1lry and fri gi d.
'.!. \\'h e11 t.11<',Y arc 1111m caning. E pi thets are 1111111caui1w
11·hen they <lo uot g i rn great1:r fulln ess or yj vitl11ess to th~
.tho'.1g~1t.. • They slw_uld ~0111lm1se a judg ment, an a rg umen t, or
.tn 1111.i.gc. Fa11lty ll1 tl11s rcs1n:ct are such as sig nify a riuality
alr:-a<ly sufficiently intlicatcd 11y the 1101111 itself; as, froz<m ice,
wlute s now, and the like. In the early pmiolls of literature

,
I

115

. FIGUHES OF SPEECH.

such cpit.hets were not offensive, l.mt at present they are oujectionable in poetry arnl uuemlurnhle iu J.Jrose.
Another class of um11eaning epithets are such as suggest HO
distinct quality, Lut are altogether imlclh1itc, a~11l am appli_etl
imliscri1uinately to the most ltct.erogcneous oh.iects. As lll stances of this class, may he m entiouctl. the words, fair, SW(~ct ,
o-oodly.
0
Stereotyped epithets, such as h:we heco111 e hackncj:ed hy
lon g use, \Jclo11g to t ltis cla ss. 'L'lwy 110 lrrn gc r _rc~all a11 1111 agc,
an d 11otlti11g is ga i1w1l hy thl'ir use. 'l' lu•y ll11hcate t hat th e
writer has 110 yjyjtl i111p rnSS iu11 of the OUjcct. 1 :LlJ(l has· not OUServed it for !1i111 sclf; but is u a rrntiug Or tlcscribiug IJy rote.
3. vVhen they arc too frcq11e11t. 'l'hc retlurul:Lut elllployrncnt of epithets is a grc:it nrnl ollcnsirn fault. It s pr~n gs from
inrlolence, a \ rnn t of elem· m id !listiuct thought, or of a Jll:oper
apprecirLtioD of the relat irn i111porta11 cc of th e seven~! 11o tw11 s,
and is the cause of a frigi11, elfomi11nte style. I Vc disgust our
r eaders by forcing 11po11 tl1eir atte11tio11 whatcrn r \Y e 1lec111 rcrnarka.IJle; if we ""ish to keep their atte11tio11, we must Jc:ave a
great !lea! to the a ctiYity of their rni11t1s. By a.tte 1111~trn g to
gfr c c11md Jll"01llin011 ce tu eYCIJ idea, we dcpr('SS
rn_com-.
11ositio11 , as in pain t in g, we must attcml to the tl1stn1Jutwu of
1igl1t arnl sht1de.
.
Adverbs are al so 11s!•<l as epi thets to qnalify Yerl1s mH1 at1,1ecti,·cs · their use is snlij cct tu t he mies g in:11 a lJorc.
Ar; epithet lllay he eith er a si11 g lc a11jcctire !~r a!herb, o~· :_i
co111p0111ul; as, a \\'ay-side Yi olet, l1 emt-hanlc11111µ,· gold , strllnecked pride. Some of tl1 csc compound epi thets a re amoug
the most beautiful in the 1a11g uage ; they are, l101rernr, more
appropriate to poetry.
. .
.
..
Epithets rnny signify either naturnl and d1st111ct1Ye q11aht1cs
of an object or such as arc attrilmt<~<l to it fiµ:nra .t ively. 'l'he
principal sources are g ive n in the fo llowi11g cpitoitte takcu fro111
J ermyn's Book of English E pi thets :

_all!

Epithets are either likrnl or fig urative.
. .
I. Literal-expressive of any quali ty eminently characten st1c of a subj ect. They are either positive or negative.

118 .

STYLE.

Sec. 62

pass1011a
he
brief. tc feeli11µ-- , it shoulu i1ot, o.ccm. too freqnentl y, and slwulu
Ex.- " Oh th" d<'pt.h of thr• ri ·l
''.If (;•><l!" "How is the goltl b~,'.~~n~o:;1 o~ t.111" wi.sclnm ancl lrno wlrnl gc
0
1;111crpi}
,
~ ·t n " 0 11 "' I 1:it a rentluti 1 • 1111 . 10\\·· JS· th, lllO S t h11e
gold
eo11te111pl:ite without e111ot,io11 t.J . t ".'1': ··"11111 what a l1 C'art rn1rnt I ham to
'" t e' ,, 1011 :rnd that fall! "

(

63. Hyperbole.-11 yperhulp c . .
l1('yo11d tlw bo111ul1:1 of \\;lnt " ,' ·to11s1sts 111 lll ag11i(yi11g rm object
.,, 'll .
.
. "
.
' IS ,u; ual oreH~ll
11.Lt.111 .tl ('XJll'eSSIOll of ·t.
.
p08Sl I e. ]t rn the
.
S ,J 011 g p:tSSIUll ·rnd •
f
111on~'I ln·q11e11tlv.. i11 1i o< ·t.,
l, .
"
e111u 1011, a111l occhrs
· 1.} t 1.n1 111 prose
· serious prose ' ..
'l Ie, , rules for its use 111
1. I li e ohj1·cts 1111tst he gn'at arnl
a1 c.
in;; <!Xtra.onlinarv cfl"e(·ts It,, '
'.111usual, capaul e of protluc.is unnat.nnt.1. It·' liet1"t· ")'S
· ,. s11nse
w1tl
'
, i co111111011, triYial obi'ects
' ' ' iec J r11ess to 1J
·
co111111011 , ini:;io·llifit"tllt · .
" '
e greatly ext:itCLl by
,
J l
"'
'' ' • 0 1>.JCCtS a11<l (ffeUt~
1
t. 8 IOlll<l ue \1r1' el' ''111(11.
. -'·
' uc nset1 s . I
t11111:wc~~
and frcq nc11t repetition
panng y. Th e long conexliam;tnw
of such viol e11t effocts ~ire
O•

:;_. It si~~11Jd not he i11tr0<luce<l . , .
.
.
fod111gs of the rca1lers art' pr, • . · l llllkss ~h~ unagrnation and
4-. lt shoal 1 1J
. l[Mtel to adnut it.
( c uew: th e stereot , 1
.
nary cmffersatiou i1111i·11·t i·1 'tl
y pct exa.ggerat10ns of onli' ,
•'
Cl , ter Sill' .· .
1 li e hyperbol e reselllbl ti
. p11se nor pl easure.
·
·
·
cs · te synecdocl
· ·
ie, as it ftWJ 11cntly
g1n~1-;, rnstcad of the pa rt1' , l . 1'
.
' · · mt a.r H Wt to be
0
JJO .1011 of the sam e ch~s
Tl '-' .. ,
presented, a hirrher
1 l
·t .
' ' '- ·
IC 10J'lll of S ·
8tf;t;: 111 !d i·i1w ·111 , 1 ·t .,
.
ynccc oc IC whi ch con•
..
,..., '
,1 is .1.1.ct qw1hty of
l 1.
1ts1·lf, l1:is tlw fc'in·p of' . . ·l ' "
au o .iect for tl1 c ohi'r.ct
" ,,
· ·1· 1IJ pe1 10 1p • ·i s " lI ·
_ itself,"
·
. ' , . ' . e is gooduess
I h1• hope of the fa111ilr.'"
' . . .
.
, ·'. '. ·Yl.''.'rl1ol1•s <tre of n;orn frcq11e11t occurr
d . rn rntrn1<l<'<l . 't8 "'l ' l I'
.
e11 ce "hen a co1111c
.
.
'
',
'
w ; 11o·l1sli " "II. I1 t
]
c IJIJllllg \\'01'118."
"'
,..., ..
,\\'() IOl.ll'S a day by
1
The conYerse
of tlH•
. c•ti Jtod l 't f.
, , iii·• Jl!'I ·I10 IC 18
.
e111p ias1s to a ot.iou Ii . , _1 .
'"
· ;./. .o es, " ·l11ch crives
l
11
,\ I.Ill!' OVHI"
tPl'll
•
ti
b
18
lie t.n 1th · ·i s "SI
·
· 0 ,
, 1:1t conve y less tl .
ww thyself a man" ( ' . . . . . . i.in
1 . . . , '. ' ., ,
q11.d1tH!S of rn:1.11ho111l)
\
.
cxluli1t the nobl est
1 . l
· L CO llllllOll forn f tl ·
'
f. cma of the opposi tc . . f
.
l o
. ns fi gure is tlie
. , . no rnn mstcad of a direct assertion.
< 111

Sec. 64

FIGURES OF SPEECH.

119

Ex .-" And thou , B ethlel1 c111 in t.h e land of ,Jndn, art not the l cMt
amon g the priu ccs of Ju11a " (0 11 c of t ho grrmtest). " An Pn<'HI Y ·11 ot fo /J c
clcspi8c1l" (to be feared). "A work li c 11 ee tl'll ot bc ns/t o 11ted of " (v roucl of ).

Irony.-lrony is a fi gure in which the Jitcra.1 import of the
\Yon1s is the contrnry of wlmt is rneai1t to he cxpressec1. 'l'h e
writer seems to imiise wlmt is base am1 fooli8h, a11<1 in t1oiu g so
sets forth the contrast lJet11·cen the real cliarn cter of the ol1jl'd
alH1 what is saitl of it. \ i\- hcn sl\illfully clllpl O.Yl'<1 it ha s great
force, and has the ath1itiona.l a1hauta gc of 11ot affon1iu g a.ny
lmm1l c to an opponent. _ It has the 11isadrn.n tage of bein g very
fo1l1l c to lJc n1isurnlcrstoot1: in oral t1isconrse the mea.11ing may
ue suggested by the manner _o f speaking; in written disco urse,
in which this aid is wantin g, great care is requisite to make it
apparent that the 011posite of wh:it is saitl is in temled. An other tlisa1l rnntage is, th:it it is personal, arnl exhibits t11 osc
against wholll it .is directetl in a ri<li cnlons li ght. As it t11us
serves chiefl y to expose arnl humiliate, it 1111tSt he nse<1 with
great modcrntion aml discretion; when it fails of its irnrpose,
it a.Jrnost inv:.tri<ilily creates a rrcjmlice against the on e "ho
employs it.

64. Climax.-Clima.x is the arrangement of tl1e several llOtious or thoughts of :1 scntcuce in a g nu1n:itc<1 series, act:onling to
their rel:itire importaHcc. Each i11elllhl'r of the 8Crics lllak r.s :1
stron ger impression than the memher immer1iately prcce11ing it.
By this rni.'l.ns the attention is excite<l, a.ml the main tltonght
is exl1ihitet1 in the clearest li ght. That the cliu1a.x niay -:1cc0111plislt its purpose, the gra(lation of thong\Jt must he rea.1 a.11<1
e:tsily recogn ized, and the progress from the lower to tlw ltiµ;lter
must be continuous. \Vhen it ]Jecorncs n.rtillcia.I, its effcdiveness is 1lcst.royccl.
'1' he inversion of tl1i s onlcr i;; cn.Jl e<l AntidilllaX; it is al101raulc in comic writings, but is a fa.ult in serious discom se .
Ex.-" It is an outra g11 to hin<1 a Roma.11 ~.it- izen; to sco nrl(O l1irn is an
n.t.rocio11 s cri11111 ; to pnt hi111 to death is a.hnost. pa rricid e; hut tu crn eil'y

him-what shall I call it ~ "

--------~-

121

120

· chmax
.
. 65.
. I . Antithesis
.
.- .L\. s m
the im11 t:: ·
I S ex 111J1ted by connectiu cr .t _. I .
. . ~L ancc of a thot1<rht
·i
t' . . .
o t \H t t its rnfcnors
.
. t>
•· no ,1011 is illustntell
l
1. •
'
iy uern•r hrouo-] t · t ' so m m1t1thesis·
.o I Ill o colllp:irisuu wi th
its opposite. 01111ositt•s ,,.] . o"
'
ten uruuo-1 t t
I
Hpou each other. Tl '
.
. o J ugct icr reflect li•rht
.
b
.
ic nutwn is rlcten . l
ti
ic pa rttc nlar charnct .. · ·t· , .
II Ill Cl more preci1:>cl v •
.
Cl IS ICS 01 lll'trhl t
I.
J '
c trectetl arc hro1wh t l>l t
. .' . ' o"' nch the attc11 tiun is
1f
1 lll OIC YI vull r
b
"vVI
~ . thoug-J1 t is lllH1le Hjljl;l.l'Cllt lJ tit ' ', •.
ICJI .the opposition
it is call ed Antit.hl'sis.
y e st1ucturc of the seutc ncc,
IJ' It, is. '·i. 1JII:Irta1~t aml dan gerous fi<rnre. " .. ..
e .t i c.t.I opposition of' t i .
o
Ihc1c 11111st a.lwa "s
·
· iou•rht · mer I
1.
·'
'" nch there is an o
.· . "' .'
c y Ycru:tl a nti thesis in
ti l l .
ppus1t10 n m lan " t. (T .
•
'
wug it, is a h1·ays olfonsire It ., .. t> t'.1 "'c " ·1thout any in
of stro ng passion :1.1111 is IJ ·~t : / s 11ot sm ~ed to the CXJ>ression
po!-iitio11. Jt 111 ·1'" I . c c1 ittecl for h gl1 te r kinds of c01 11
.
• ·' ' 1m1 crcr be
I
, dlcct in the hiofa•r "li1·111 f' '
c111p oyc:l occ:1 sio11all y 11itl1
•
• •. .
'"'
· 11
so
prose.
'l'I
.
f·
·
it g 11 es tu a discourse ti ' ,
IC I crine11t rccmrencc of
tion.
IC ,1.ppcarance of artifice an d affecta-

II;''

. Ex• . - " I.-1' k <' t he 811 11 , it (the u11 I ·.
.
it. lrn cw '"' rr·st, b n t in t11 otiu11.
stamlrng) had hut h lig ht :u ul :t " ili ty .
prnpc rl y apprehe nd ·1 s 1
· .. 11· 't
rp11ct,_but itt activ itv. It <11.rl ,., t . '
ti .
.
' ' . 11 a ia l\ t l1 e ob. t 110
,
tto 1so
· trngs
t so rn11 c h find , ..ts. mn. rn
· ~cc i
" \V111 .td li!!iblc.
~ " Sn.. n 11.,
1

he n a n author ·i .,· ;"C't 1·ll'lllf'
. ,.
f
p('r ornm11cn; n ud wh e n I • . d '" ' c cs unnte hi s po11·orn by 11· . •
'"I
IC 18 ead W C r t · tl 1
IS 11 01st
" Y stre1111th hn t l b .
. '
a e r111 by lti s bt>st"
"
.
o
• I ( C' ll 111 I' 1'11111 :t d
r
•
\Vltosoer<'r w ill . . · l . -. .
'" 11 my 1all 111 y s t av."
8•11· C· 11 8 1! 1esha ll] .- . •
·.
'
I c fm rn y sak (• slt n II fiu rl i' t"
osu i t' .md w hosoen•
r will It'·sc l 11s
.
"N
·
('

]'~ ·

~·x,J t.1ia.t

B 11l!miN.~io11,

J I CC< 0111."

lt l'ver more Rha ll

;liq11\fi~~1t bgt~~(·ro11s

bl'hnl 1 .
tlt at
/.c ltt•:trt., w inc h krpt ali ve eve n in .scn"t.1. 0
l
cn- N ,

11ro1_1<l

\Y C

Sec.66

Sec. 65

STYLE.

loyalty to rn11k and

i:1t 1m1~c, that s11honli11
atio11 of
u a u exa lted

l.lllC I

self t he SfJ irit f'

THE SENTENCE.

I.
\

CHAP'rlH~ IV.
I I

THE SEN'l'ENCE.

66. I n tl1e prcceuin g ch::q1tcrs, wonl8 lnwc bcCJ\ consillcreu
simpl y n.s the signs of scparntc notions; we \mvc now to consiucr them as combined to form sentences.
)'

\

Sentence defined.- A sentence is a conihirmtion of wonls
a siH gle, complete thought. To co11stit11tc a sentence there arc rcquireu (1) t,1Y O 110tions- thc olle, tlmt 1d1ich
\-' is llctern1illcl1 nml qualified, mdled the Subject--thc other , tha.t
which llctcnnincs iim1 qualities, call ed the l'rClli ca.te; mill (2)
the Copul lt, which affirm s or denies the rchtt.ion between the

~ expressin g

~

~J

\

J) \

sulJjcct aml pretlicatc.
Division of Sentences.-Scntenccs arc t1ividcl1 ncconli11g to
various iwin ciples. '£he cb sscs to which reference is 111ost frequently made in rhetoric am1 cri ticism a.re the fo\lo\\·ing:
1.1 Intellective ·ancl 'Vvliti·ve.-lntellecti\·c sentences inchule
•
J
llropositions, which enunciate a jmlgment either categorically {/'f
or condi tionally, and intcrrogttti1·e sentences, which arc the
expressions of ignorance or tloubt.. Voli til'e sc11tenccs i11clullc
such as express an emo tion wi th its excitin g cause, tlesirc an<l
aversion with their objects, or an act of the \\·ill.
2. S i:mple cincl Compomu1 .-A simple sentence is the ex1
plicit asscrtipn of a sin gle 1mtin thonght without a,ny coi.inlin:ttc
or subonlinate sentences. It contains llllt a single snbject :inil
prcdica.t c, both of 'vhich may he cxpanuell by the ;tdclition of
qua.lifying 'r onls. A cornponnd sentence consists of t1rn or
more simpl e sentences so cornbinCll a!' to express :t sin gle jtHlgment. It is of two forms; there 1miy !Jc one prineipa.I sentence
with other sentences subordinate to it, or the sentences may be
coonlinate.
~\

3. Loose Sentence a.nc1 Pcriod.-In :t loose scntr:11cc the
;,..._,.·
piirts are so connected that the construction will yiclu a com- <'
Uh c l. 11

---

------ --

--

I

- -· __,

I

123
122

STYLE.

THE SENTENCE.

Sec. 66

p letc sense at some poin t Lefore tl1c close. Thus, in the folloll'i11g ex:u11plc, th ere Hl'C ser crn.I points "·here the realler may
pa11sc :uul li:ir c a complete thought:
"Tit!! 111tly li gl 1L of r,·c1·y trnth is its eorreRpondin g erro r; I and, thcrcfon', in the eo11k111plat.h>11 :111d !•xhibitio11 of tru th, a pl1ilosoph er shoultl
b k ~ <'S[H' Cial care nut tu kee p hi111 scl f too loftily aloof' fro111 t he co11tclllpl at io11 and <'xhibition of er ror, I as th ese proud Rpiritti, Plato, Spi noza, LPib1titz , ancl I [1 ~gel Jllost u11do11bted ly 1lid, I 1111.1t h to tl1 c ddrilll e 11 t of tl1 eit·
mm profi11111d di s1p<i •itiou", I and to t he loss of 111 a.nki11d , I wl 10, l1 nd t hei1·
111dhod been cli!fon·ut, 111ight haYC profited 111ore largely by thei r wisdom."

'
The 11:1.rts of :1 loose Rentcncc arc uot entirely imlepemlent of
1·ach oth1·r; if they \rere, \\·c should ham a series of di stinct
se 11t1 ~ 1u·1 ~s.
Fmm the cxa111plc it \rill Le seen tlmt \Yhile the
" ·on lH pn ~cc di11 g a :;top fon 11 a sentence gram mati c:i11y perfect,
t l10sc that. fo lio\\- do 11ot, !mt dcpcn1l 011 what goes Lefore.
A perio1\ is a co111plex sentence the members of whi ch are so
reciprocally (\epc111lcnt that no 011c of thPm Ly itself gires a
co111plcte s 1 ~ n sc; they re111ain suspei11k11 i11 tl1 e rnim1 u11til tl1e
\\·hole is li11i shcd, when the llll'aning is Hashed Lack from the
couclnsion to the eommcnccmeut.
Ex.-" As for .Jonso n, to w hose character I am n ow arrived , if w e look
11pou hilll whil e ho was hi111 self ( fi>r hi s last pl ays were but his dotages),
I tl 1i11 k hilll tho 111ost learned a.ml judi ciou s w riter which any theater eTcr
had ."
"[f gralll mar is learn ed hy s peaking and writing; if a man can not
lll'COllle nn orator wi t hout rr pcatc<I e ffor ts to speak in public, 11 or a poet
\\·it-hout pr:wticin g t.hc lllCChanism of rnrse t ill Im can use it with case, it
"''"n 1s al"1 1nl to ('X J'l'Ct tl1at a co11 rfie of lectures heard, with a strin g of
dl'fini t ions learned , will lllakc a logician."

67. Characteristics of the English Sentence.-Every Jang nagn ha s its pccnliar l:m s aml fo n11s for the coll ocation of
\\·onl1>; the sum of these 8.rntad ical forms and usages constitutes what is call ed the i1liom of the language.
The peculiarities of the sentence grow out of the general
1·haractcr of tlw l:rngna.ge. T he most importa.11 t 1livision of
la!1g11a.gcs, so far as 1:hetoric is concerned, is into intlectc<l and

I

1:i

• Q t 1 \"ll "ll't"CS tlin rela.t io11 s of the ,rnnls
· l cc t c1.
l In in cc cl 0 o ( o. . .. ti·i \ liv 1110 1]1lll':1t1011H
. .
·
• 0 1·
mnnl
1
·
ti
scute11 e \' 1trc lW11< •
J
• •
to ea ch other lll ; ic ·
· ·
. . ·l
'<' ] ;1 1\ ;t sic:1111! . . . I s• lhhles " 1111 t o 11 \. , 1
.

'
. l . ti il1 ·11olt: tl1" n·lai1.,11~
their fonn-hY te1111111<1 'J •
... I ·t it a.1111 8Cl'I c 111('1\' )' )
.
\·
ca.u1;<) hut. l 1,t\ e 08 1
·t. U uuilkcte1l .111 '
. ..
mode t.P11 f-\P, ( 1 .•
of uumber, case, vc1son, .
'
l. t" S\'t of i11l\ e<-.tiow>, a111l
· 1 nth n. COlllJI C '-' • ·
g uagcs :i'.·e 11ot pro·n 0
· c,l .' .. h~ sentence are imlil:atc11 l>y their
i;.hc rclatwns of " Ollh J\l t .
..
l l 1 , rn NtllS
,, · of 1mrt1clcs.
. . 1 . ·t . 1 'rhe ten11en cy of' tl ic
l}os1t1011 a111. · )
.
"•s
were
ml Ct; ,1,1 •
'l'he ancic11t 1.w gu.i,,c.
1
. . tl1 P inllccti011s th< ~Y st 111
.
.
_,. . . nl JllO\'C a1ll 111111 c
mot1crn is to uu;c,1 .
[' . t . l1i story tl1i s tt-111k1w}'
'
]'
tl c cirnumstances o 1 8 "
ret:iin. F• rom I
.. l J' . ·lish tlnu in any otlwr ', ll . 1 f rther lll t ic ~ n g
· '
has lwcn ca.rrw1. u
:-. 1 . toleral1ly eo11 1p lc t e
.
'The An.rlo-Saxm1 1IM .t
.
.
rop ra11 J:u1g11.1ge.
"
. I tions tliro1wl1 ,y]ud t om
. . ll . ·t· s but the r e\ o u .
"'
s,·stclll ot lll cc wn. '
.
. f' . ·t uf the111. As ,·mi-,,
U } ' llepl'IYC\1 1t U 11108
toug11c lt:ts l)aSSC 1avc
. l tl . t our Ian tr].W o·c }1 as :t large
i.t
, " ,.,
.
.
.
f tb' Joss we iu11
si~q11 eu1;es o
JS
·
.
.
.. 1 I . to tlie <·011stnwtwn
.
spm1s,11
c
,1 · .11 .1re J11cl1
.
huLly of l><trt11;1es, ." iw '
.. . 't lll'cs1;ri\ieLI nnkr u1.
l ·n<Tth. tlmt t 11t:1c 1.8 ,
.
.,
of sentences of auy c " '
1 tl , t this onkr is \Yh:t.t rn
.
·1 .
eutcnec. arn i,t
arrangmg woi ts JU a s
' . . ti ,-c 11rece11es the yr:rh, t he
. ,
. . ti "11 - the uo1rn11.t
. f' I
call c1l the gramm,i 1;, '
· • tin~ the olijcd1 n~ 0 .
1 , 1· . ·ti ve 1wcce<lc the uurnm.t
.,
article arn ,\l JC\j
lows the ycru.
. . .
f ti . E u" lish se11tcn1;c, nrny l.H.~
As son ic of tbe pcculmnt1cs o w " "

mcutiouc<l:
. , t nee \ \'C arc co111pdlt:1l to
.
1 to umlcrstam1 a su1 c ' '
.
'J'I ,
l. Jn on er
.
,
1
t11(•ir
llll ~•t11ll I L?:.
ic
.
f the won s l 111 t t<l
·
•
.,
•
look not to the fo1m o .
. 1 I t\n' rehtio11 ol tl1n
. ·ls is tlet.cnnrnc• iy . , . •
rela tion of t.1W " 1111 ·
t cc thus i1n ·«1·1ll's
'1'1 ' \o• rie· tl a1mlysis of t 1IC sen c·11. . , , .
.
thought~ .
/. IC\ " \Y\11l
• . c lll
. tl IC c·l ,.,
.. •·0'
l;L11•rm1.gc::;
the at.11·11.. ,, 1•"11
v• '
"
'
.
the .rr;t111ma.t1ra .
. , \ . ·\hhh-s in orc\l'r to 1l1s. "'. .
l , . l . to the t,p rn1111.1. S} , .
.
h on u; 1l1rcct.e1 111.tlll)
. ]•' o·\' sh it is 1l1rcdnl to
.
f tl1e wonls 1 lll , u,, i.
CO\'Cr the rcla.tl\>n O .
]t 1
•
•f ,
· ~ Oil thi s a<'-1'.011\l t
·
·\ ' ·l tile "· Sl'"lll ) •
''
'.'
t1i scoYcriu g the 1ll1•:1s " I\( . l . .l .. " .. . aucl co 111pn •l1 cu ~ion of
ti
·
l·s
"the
eo11
st111ct,1on
•
·
.
th:it., as 1\.l ars1l 1111 ,, '
1, l
1osc t lll: ('XcreisP of 111 g 1icr
. \
t •1 ec 1lerna.1H .till sup1 .
I
an Rnghs t sen ~. l .
.
. . ·<l f . the frn111i11•" or u11tlen;ta111 rncnt.:'il vowcrs than a re re1 ~uu c or
"' ·· m
· T
i;1 rr of :i. proposition
. ,,1· ..trn. ·." . Ion" sentences to equiyocaThere is <t grcu.tcr li<tb1llty 111
"

2.

l,

f

. I
i '

r
I

~

I

I

'"

I.

ii

I

I !I ~

i~

I
i
I

1 I!
I

t
1·

I'
ii:

11:'

11

\,,,,
'r

,i

1:

1:I i
1· !•

I
I•

I;

\\ I

I

i\
\i '

ii1\ ,,,i
ti

i:

I

11

\\ ,:j

: .I
I

·!j

I

I

1i'
II

II

I

\1'
I"
\t

I

i1 \

_l.1

127
126

ti ·

STYLE. . .

1e most 1mportant
'
a zz·1a11ce8 that
.
an perfidy of er It
. .
evm iras formed."
d of tl;e
y and lllJUstice, were often
gation
"At
.
.

fait1:'.~

Sec. 70

rSec. '69

.

subservien~et oust~
"Tl

Unity is violated:- ·
1. By-liringing into grammatical connection thoughts wl1ieh
have no real nor logical connection. Such heterogeneous matter can 11ot lie retlncetl to the unity of a single judgment, and
should therefore lie expressed in se1iarate sentences.

. ·.
.
of fraud
ie propa-

present trade is thou ht
.
. .
mil!:~•e
o~
tons are produced ii~ n ;~a~·~'rn n depre~sed . state if l1•ss than n
owls along with ease i .
.
.
.,
wonld hm;e been broken to .
I'. a velncle which a few cent .·
tomless swamp."
pieces m a deep rut, or come to g .· 1·1'.11es ago .
" I I
lie m a bots mil do nil I can to e .
.
.
their cure· which I have." p I suade others to take the snme measures for

\

3. Other
inaccuracies
. fiound m
. the
-f
- ...,.
.
'
aie
~se o the degrees .of
comparison; as, "That style of
most barbarous" ·-in th
wa1fare IS, of a1l others the
'
e use of tlnn .
su I
"T
·'
.
'
' as?
o reconstruct t> J.,
.c I a work in another Ian rru rr
drtferent powers titan has o 'aoe were busmess for a man of ._vq.,
amon•r
yet attempted German t1·ansl awn
t"
o us,;
•

THE SENTEN,CE.

Ex.-" His own notions were always good; bnt lie 1cas a man of y1·cat
· ex]JC1t8e.''
· "Arcl1bishop

Tillotson died this year. He was exceedingly belov ed
both by King \Villiam and Qncen Mary, who 1w11ii11<1te<l lJr. 'fe1111 i~o11,

Bishop of Lincol11, to su.cccerI liiin."
"ln this \Jlleasy state both of his public aml private life, Cicero was
oppressed by a new aml cruel affiiction , the death of his beloved Tnllin,
which happened soon after her divorce fr6m Dolabelln, 1cl10sc 11t<11t11crs and
hmnors 1vere entirely diBayreable to her."

..

·

Tbe artificial union of incongruous or repugnant ideas may
mle. It is admi.,ible for
comic effect,
but
ought
to
lie
avoitletl
in serious . composition.
4
'

' ,'X._be oou,i<k"d "" a violation of tl>ia
_

•'

Ex.-" On every side t11ey roso in multitudes, anne<l with i·nstic 1rcapo11s
nnd with irresistible jm·y." "Se11aratcd by 11wunta.ius and by" mutual

· fear."
"To one so gifted with tlie prodigality of H ea,en; cuu we approach in
any otber attitude than of prolitrntionf;'
·
"Of the nineteen tyrants .who started up under the reign of Gallienus,
, , there wa,s not one who e_ujoyed a life of peaco 01: a nntnrnl death."

~

2. By what is called shiaing tbe scene of a sentence. The
._rule laid down by Kam es, · anc1 repeatetl by all writers ·upon
· Rlrntorip )Vlio, have followed him, is liable to be misunderstootl:
" 'During the course of a, 'period. the scene ought to be cont.inned
without/variation; the · changing ·from person to person;·from
·• subject to subject, or from person to subject, within the lioumls ,
o:&a single·period, .distracts the·mintl, and·affonls no time for l\ ·. ·
;
impression,'' · This must not be interpreted as meaning .
' ~Hagthe -~:~rne ·_ subject must be retainetl throughout an entire
-~e~~1:..1W~·,"' Tpe fault intendetl to lie pointecl out is tlmt of con. ·g;
·proposition series of accessory proposi-_
•
hi ,p~e,.~~c;c;e~_~ipg , Q!le; \s subpr~inated tp .the. o~e;

~solid
1

~~: ~i~P. .~.}n~in

·~

~i

129

128

THE SENTENCE.

Sec. 70

STYLE.

that immediately precedes it. This structure violates the unity ·
of the sentence. 'rI1ere is no compact statement of a distinct
thought., but a rapid enumeration of particulars, a constant
transition from a higher to a sui.Jonlinate thought. 'fhe end of
such ·a process must be entirely arbitrary; and in many cases
no connection can i.Je discoYcred between the thought with
which. the sentence begins and that with which it closes.

.,

Ex.-" After we came to anchor, they put me ashore, where I was welcomed by all my fri ends, who rPceived me with the grnatest kindness." Z•·
"Aft1w a short time Im came to himself; and the noxt duy they put h.i.m ~
on board his ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth."
"To•the memory of Lord George Bentinck, second surviving son of
William H enry Cavendish Scott, whose ardent patriotism and uncompro-,
mising hon esty wero only equaled by the persevering zeal and extra.or•
dinury tult111ts, which culled forth the grateful homage of those._ who; ,in,'
erecting tliis memorial, pay a heartfelt tribute to exertions which premu•
tu rely brought t.o the grave one who miglit long have lived the pride ~f hia
native country." · ·
·
·
' - 1 " ;,;;:, •

~ ·trentheses arb
f parent1teses. l '
.
By the improper use o '
"t1' cal connection with
.
.
. l h ve no gramm... '
words and clauses wine l a
d ay be omitted without,_
.
f t1 sentence an m
. d ble .
any memllers o .1e
. . ' , is sometimes unavo1 a '
.
.
. IllnO' Their use
. . . It exaffectmg its me,1 o· .
a word or clause, conttim ,1 . to
. I t'
of a thought wlnch
t 'u·ey often give emphasis
.
. ortant re a ions
planation, or suggest. llnP.t d velopment. But great caution
e
. ot orrr·1nic i1t1rts of the
llo wever. do not .enter l mto l sThey
are n
o'
.
is needell in usmg t iern. . l d. v 'attention from the mam
d ·e a11t to wit 1 Ia\
.t
'£heir
't harmonious developmeu .
sentence, an ar.
mterrupt i s '
t of thorough mastery
tllo ught ' and. to
.
.
. d' fon of the wan
frequent use is an m ica l M·
tfiat are met with could be
of the idea to be expressed.
~tnY, little care could be worked
.. ected as useless, and others, y a
'
IeJ
I
tence
·
into the faliric oft te sen
. lie inserted where there is no
. . Parenthetic marks should not
· ; as m
· these:
_parenthesis
.

~,1 4

t,+·.

.. , ..

.

i

t d) are roore rarely to

. .

ot nuturally eonncc e
"Any two circumstunces ( n
.
"
·
t
the quantity, but)
•
t
•
· be met Wit1I.
d' te' depends (no Oil
·
·
. . "The distribution of the. ~re :,ca
.
. ty of the propos1t10n.
ou the quaI 1

..
. . . buse to make them a means towards conceal•. Itis a grn'er a t'
as in this example:
.
. . .
•ing ~ faulty construt: ion; ,
.
·
.
(tl t now rear the ·
'
.
d cortu.in ·great schools
ia
."
.
"Our ancestors founde
.... t. ) for the benefit of the poor.
•.
d the roercuan s
. ,..
. .
.
nebles, the.gentry, an_
. .:
~,.

. • "· . -

. .. . a the sta,tement will be,
.
rks arc remove '
. '· t
INhe;parenthet1c ma
b
ntry aml the mercuan s
.. ">
'· ls rear· the noules, t e ge
'
.
.
hat the scuoo
'
·
·.
.
, _· ,
foflhe benefit of the poor-.
a
tl ing by the omission of ... ~- ,;<
•
. - h ld mclu e no t
• t1 .
. parenthesis . s ou
. . . l ft incomplete ; as m ns
ch the sense of .th~ proposition is e
..
' _.,
-.-

' piet :'
,;' .

";-

·
~

1 ... .'"'

ln J3e~·,Jonso"~e '
wre)
-··

. " ·T b, .one (and roore than one of tl1e; ·.

ale ofa

u '

.

,.

';

,.,

~

132

STYLE.

Sec. 71 ·
,, two members it belongs. In gerwral, to preserve members
distinct, that signify things distinguislied in thought, the best
metliod is to place first in tlie consequent member some word
that can not connect with what precedes it." Kames,

. or. wr·ong referen«g of pronouns, both de5. The uncertam
monstrati ve and relative.

"The minister wlw grows less by his elevation, like 11 Jittle stutue 011 a
mighty pedestal, will always l1ave his jealousy strong about him."
" 1-Vhen I hoar 11 pc.. rson use 11 q neer expn.1s8ion, or prnuounco ·11 name
i.ii ·1·earling dlffm·ently from hia neighbor81 it ulw11ys goes down in my estilllate of liim, with a minus sign before it.''

.

improper position of the limitative and exceptive par- C' ·l
. 3. The
I ticles,
such as only, awne,jttst, merely, at least.
·~ ~
j

. · "Not only Jesuits cau equivocate,"·meansou;ers besides the ..,.. ,
Jesuits can equivocate. "Jesuits can not only equivocate,"
means Jesuits can equivocate and do other things liesides.
The force of tlic particle varies with its position. In logical
language, when it is annexed to tlie S\J.bject of the sentence, it
distributes the predicate and limits it to the subject alone; as,
. Only men, or men alone, arc philosophers =All plillosoplrnrs are
men . Annexed to the predicate, it limits the subject to tho
predicate, without quantifying the predicate or excluding it fron( ,
other sul\iects; as, "Jesuits can only equivocate" =It is all th.a t.....
they can do, although others also may do the same. ·The fol- .
lowing examples can be tested and corrected by this rule:

4. Tlie frequent repetition of pronouns in a sentence in which

l.several persons or things are spoken of, frequently, causes ambiguity. It is better, in such cases, to change the construction
or repeat the noun.

kill11cy~,

.
. . d the structure of the lwman
Ex-" No one as yet hud exl11b1te. d
" Note ulso the wrong pos1. ." I . only examined them m ogs.
'feB
Vesahus invmg
1
tlun of only. ~
.11 perce1. ve d 1JO wever ' that the intellectual qaali 1
"The pro1essor soo
' f I . .. i· l1ent "
,
. . to th086 0 US I U I
•
}'f b
of the youth were sup1mo1
.
urselves ugai11st the accidents of I e y
'',It is folly to pretend to mm?
• . t • •t us auainst but the good
ec
11e11ping up treasures,
w ln·ch nothrng
.
l. can
Id pto
be plactJd
as "'near as poss1"bl e to
/
f G0
The
relative
s
iou
t to treas- /
"
d
"
•
t
•d
the
relative
refere
uo
o
providence
its antecedent. In the sentence quo e .
. , . (Wilkes) for No. 45 (of The North '
ures but to accidents.
verdict was obtained ag:unsu 1um
E . on \Vo man an obscene
. . called An • ssay
'
.
d
Briton) us well as for a piece • p
. Essuy on Man, iii whwh Lor
of
ope
s
d
.
d'
led
"
'
l'
b
I
.
parndy
•
I d been retlected on uu n I CU •
\
and scurrilous I e Ill
Suudwich 11nd Bishop Warbmton m"
and not as from the arrange.
~
t An Essay on Woman,
'
'I'he relative re1ers o
•
Po e's Essay on Mau.
,
ment woul!l be naturally supposed'. t~ove~try were rivals who should have , . ,
'"The Earl of Falmouth uud Mi.
d tl
a1·I best but thought the.
d k
I 0 lov e
1e e
'
.
most influence with thll u e, w '·d p
ho disobliged all the courtiers,
l10 suppo1·te
en, w
,,
other the wiser rnau, w
dp
as a fellow of no sense.
even a"ainst the earl, who co1~ten~ne . e1~ fancy (which I shall ust• provisiblti objects." The real
" By" the pleasurtis of imagmation .OJ Efl
·
miscuously), I here mean su ch. as arise
·ds rum
As it stands, the nuturaI re fie1~
antecedent is not expressed, viz., wo1 .
.

"A

once is to pleasures.
.
. is of complex ide11s furmsh matt II words wluc11 are sigi
·
fi·
our
"I
know
tha
a
b"
.t of this sentence nnses rom
te
r of mistake and cavil." The am ilgm y. 1·11tended to limit its antece.
tl
l tive c ause 1s
not knowing whether rn rel a. "t ' Is it meant that all words 11re signs
deut tvol"da, or simply to exp am ~ ..
ertaiu class ~i<'llificant of complex
of
ideas, . or that there is c.. ·x Jlicati v;, . in . the latter, deideas f In the form er case; th~ rela~1ve l.~ e.t Ione aiu.i' should be borne in
. . t•1ve. "'his
distinct1011
IS an 1mpor an
'
.L
'
termrna

c~urf}lex

~

mind.
· in these. seu teuces.. "It is possible to
Observe the dilference

'.

133

.
. .
me which are very commonly mauE
x -"Two other wo1ds occ111. to . t · 'and its substantive covet.·
f th se 1s ' cove ous
ff
gl ed ·by our clergy. One o
e ti
lines will be induced to leave o
ieae .
I can assure them that
ousness • I lwpe some fwho8 read
and covet10usness.
.
pronolmcing them eove iou
t l t of their hearers has his upprecrn•
when they do thus cull ~h e m ono,~ eas
tion of thefr teaching disturbed.
.
.

Ex.- " Hence · he considered marriage with u modern political economist as veryetc.
dangerous," instead of "Hence he, with a modem political
cconolllist,"

, "One species of bread, of coarse quality, wn11 <>nl!J allowed to be
baked;" i. e., allowCd and u~thing more. '·
"Theism can only be opposed to polytheism or 11theism."
" By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk <!f any single object, but
tho largeness of a whole view." ·
·

THE SENTENCE.

expres~ n

134:

STYLE.

'Sec. 71

gene~·al truth in terms that slmll be th'
.
emselves lughly concrete." The
relative is determinaHve (in I . 11
"S b ·
ug 1Y concrete terms)
. '.II onh11ate clauses, which mu st not
: .'
pr111c1pal clause." Helative is ex r . by the11 len gth overwhelm the
"The court OpJJOsed whicl1 ,.. ." 1Cntt1v~ (and they mu st not, etc.)
.
.
'
.as an ICipated" "I
.
~s at all tunes concise, which renders I . r . I
n nanat10n, Homer
r"lative should uot as iu ti l
11111 JfC y and agrrrable." Th e
10 ast two ex·i'mp1es, I1ave a se11te11re as its
'
antecedent.

\

Tl fl. Tl1~ Prp~irneal siguilirntiu11 of ma.nv of tl1e
te con.1uuc.:twn or particular! . i
. :
· conjunrtion.s.
citlwr, that tlw tll'o I t. . , . }. s el(UJVocal. It m:iy mean
•
JU 1011 8 «J e Hleutical ·
·I
t1011 m· conr:e1it rli ·t .· 111 . l
' ' as " · ien I ~ay, no. .
'
l ouc
t l e tlieorv of ·
.
are <l1tforc11t. as )olTie .
prose· or tha.t t11 ey
.
.'
' o vr r1ietonc l11storv or 1 ·1
I
. · . . of. words
'
·
p II OSOp I)' .
7 • rf!Je illllJl'UllCI' 01mss10n
Fil.
·
• " 1ps1s may l>c canied
\ too far and words be omitte 1
sentence or rend(•r it
. . Ill. s?1as to alter the mea.11ing of the
·
u Ull!Le 1g1ule.
Ex.-Th e omission of u preposition.
"You will seldom find a dull fellow of ood cdu
.
.
to have n11y leisure o11 bis hands) will t g l .
ration but (1f li e happen
amusements fur nil fools of
.
urn llS bead to one of those t.wo
th
emmence politics or poet.1 " 1
e words politics and poepry.
'
Y·
nsert to before
Omission of a nominative with its .verb.

,.

.·

"South, as great a wit as n . l
. .
.
..'
domestic." Insert he WWI b •t p1 e~c wr, has separated the superior and the
e ween tl8 und a preacher.
Nominative without a ¥erb.
"The Germans of the present d
ltl
ancestors, there are who opine t.hntii:ea i~ugl_1 gr~ntly superior to their
of taste which characterizes the finislle~ mu st1n ~rntant from that acme
the English authors."
compositions of the French and
·The article omitted .before nd' ectives c
.
when the design is to express 'lu;lities of d~n~ected ':"1th the same 1101111
ent qualities of the sum" ob' t
ilfcrent objects, and not differ·
v

uec .• .

"Aa11cl
coldempty.
and empty composition" means one composition that is both
cold
"A cold und an empty composition" means two compositions, one cold

.

'

Sec. 71

THE SENTENCE.

135

the other empty. \Vhe11 distinct objects are intended, the article, if usPd
before one adjectirn, must be rcpeat1?d before the others.
"The logical and historical analysis of a langua ge ge nerally , in so111e
degree, coi 11cides." Two distinc.:t kinds of analysis are s pok en of. 'J'li<'
nrticltJ should be repeated before historical, a111.l the ycrb I.Jc put in the
plural.

A compound sentence may lie free frurn thl' faults .inst 1111·ntio11e1\ a11d still lie 1leli('ie11L i11 cl('arn1·ss. 'l'uu J11:u1y i11l'a;; 111:1_1'
· lie erowdl'd iu to it: :uul the n·alll'r, 11ot lll'ill~ al1h· to n·t aiu all
of thclll iu Iii" 111t•11111ry , lt1s1·s the 1·1111111·ctio11. and is ul>li.C'.l'tl to
n""l tlw s!'11t1·111'. e o\'('r i11 onkr 10 n1111pn·hl'lltl it.. ~lorl' f1T·
f]Ue11tl_v the o!Jscurit.y ariSf.'~ frolll t\w 1\'<lllt of llil't\illl\ ill distril1lltill ~ the 1uatPriak It nftl'll n•r111in·s µ:n'at s\;ill to distH•sC 1\1(?
parts of a 1·u111p\i(·atl'1l th1111;..d1t. Tlw gTl'at oh.i1·1·t is to arni11
h11nlei1i11µ: tlu~ 11u·1nory 11irh a 11111l11>1·r of (1i s('Ol!lll' <·\l'(\ cin·11111sta 11c('s, a111l lo pn·se11\' tlw p:1rt::; i11 s1wh all onkr :1s 11il l ('ll:thle
the reader to Hlllkrstanr1 t.hClll as tlwy :1n~ prcsc nt.t-(1 , to rdain
thc111 iu !tis 111i11d, a.ml to l.ii1Hl t.l1e111 tog<!tl1er n'atlily iuto u11e
whole.
To a.ccompli sh this we must. a 1·oi<l t\1nl\ri11µ: toµ:l'tll('r loost•ly
a numlier of details. vVhen it is necesH:try to a1lmiL tlH·1n, tlwy
should be distrilmtell among the rne111\.Jers of the se11teucc. By
this means the sentence is J11atle morn coherent :illll compact,
and is more easi ly understood. 'fhe effects of a wa11t of proper
disposition cau Le seen in the follO\Ying exiu11ple:
"And that it was nut peculiar to the gi ft of lan gnago or tongues only,
to be given at the monwnt of its exertion, but comrnon likewise to all tho
rest, will be shown probably on so me other occasion n1on• at larg•· in a
particular treatise, which is already prepared by me on that St1hjcct."

A too frc11ucnt or a too prolonged suspension of the se11sc is
\ fat:il to cle;u11css. It somctitues fa \'Ors clearn ess arnl force to
i11tr0tluce the q1rnlifying circumstauces first, rese1Ti11 g- thu pri11·
cipal meml.ier until the last. Hut the use of this 1.;t111strnc.tioll
is limited. vVhcn 111a11y (jllalificn.tions are rnentio11ed tl1a t arc
not intdligiule until the qmdified rne111ber i::; 11i ;;cun~red, the
suspense iu which the 111im1 is kept is 1mi11ful 1 am1 soon Lreaks

\'·

··'··

136

STYLE.

· down the power of attention. The mind can not mirry so many
disconnected statements, nor connect them so as t-0 discover
their meaui11g.
An accumulation of negatives is another occasion of obscurity. 'fhe same thought may be expressed in an ·atlirmative
proposition and in a negative; as, "I enterta in a fa vornble
opinion of him," and, "I ente1fain a not unfavorable opiriion
of him." 'l'he latter is called by Hamilton, an indirect and
idle \vay of speaking. When many negati res are accumulated,
the sentence is often unintelligible.
Ex.-" It is not to be den ied that a high degree of beauty does not lie
in simple fur111s."
"As a general nmxiw, no epithet should be used which does not ex- .
press something not expressed in the context, nor so implied in it us to be
iimn11diately deducible."

/

72. Precision.-Precision is the opposite of redundancy.
consists in rejecting all superfluous words and phrases. Supm nous wonls and phrases are those whicli are not necessary
to con ~etc the thought, to set it in a clearer light, or to promote the~nd of the discourse. Precision is an essential quality
of a well cOh~tructcd sentence; words that add nothing to the ·
· sense detrnct 'fJ.:.Qm the clearness and force of tlie expression. ,
Like_pe_rspicuity,)~is a rela~ive qual.i ty; t.he same degree cif
hrcnty is not atlaptctNo all lnnds of discourse. Before we can
. what won.ls are shp!_'.rfluous and wl1at arc not, we must
decide
consiiler the nature and aim~ the discourse, and the condition
of those to whom it is addresse~
'The principal offenses against precision are: ·

"

1. Tautology, or the 'unnecessary repetition of a notion in
difforent terms. The most common form of this fault is the
coupling of synonyms. '\Vriters frequently become so accustome<l to linking together such words that when we meet with
one of them we expect the other. This is sometim es the result
of ignorance of tile full meaning of the wor<ls, and sometimes
of au effort to secure greate'r clearness anJ precision. Such

137

THE SENTENCE.

Sec. 72
. .

1. • us " "J. oy
" l· in and evident" :'clear aml ou,110
'

exP,r~sst·~~;.'.s.~~n "~;:ut;uts and pu:.poses," and others which the

anu sa is ,Le
'
The employ- <1' /l L
stu<leut will recollect, arc of frequent occ~1-rencc.
. s ecch is v T
. . t f these stereotyped an<l uttmeamng mode~ _of p .
men o
.
. . . . . "t ·md prcciswn of style,
an offense not only agamst pefrsp1c~1: ~
It must be Jistinbut also arrainst
the standaru o goo as e.
"tl
··e·w
0
· ·
o·uished from the combmmg
of syno nymous terms w1 1 a ' i
0
to completeness.

I
\1

'\I

.
ti ilhirs of this world, integrity hath many
Ex.--:-" Particular~y us:: a1'.~~ci'.11 ways of dissimulation and deceit; it
. utlvuutages over all fine a
.
' I ti • safer and more 8ecure way of
'· I . . and easier mu c t u, '
1
'
'
.
bl
d difficulty of entang eis .much tue Jl amPI '
. w1"tl1 the world·, it has less o[ trou e an
'
d ea1wg
d · ·t"
. :ruent and perplexity, of danger and huzur m l •
.
'>
nasm or the insertion of words designating notions
'
.
im ilied in othei: words of the scn. ,.,, Pleo
tlmt are already suffic1~ntly . . I
f tl . fault. l\'Iany phrases
'
'l'l1erc arc vanous fm ms o ns
t cnce.
,f
l •nee"
· . as,
. "in so far as ' " ' rorn w ic d · d t They
are plconast1c,
.
, d a·a there are often re un an .
,
Expletives, as, '· -0, t i k' out. ' they sornetuncs
.
.: .
scrYc t o m.a i·k ' ?-arc uot alwiLys to uc s rue
'
f" l" rr anu to u-ivc crnphaf
anirw to express ec mo, '
o
li ght s11ades o me,
"'' ' '
. .
" the verdant. irrcen," ·
.
1\'[ . epithets are 11Jeonastlc' as,
"' .
sis.
auy 1- ' " In the religious dittlect many pl eonast1c e~" the azure s ').
: turc 'trc used wl1i clt are not ad1111spressious t..'tk~n from_ Sc1.1p ,·, ~V~ hav~ heard with our ears,"
sihlc into ordnmry prose ' as,
.
f I , . · ·" "the fish
"we have seen w1"tl 1 our eyes"
' "the lnr<ls o t JC ,rn,

~;~e s1~:~:re

of this fa.ult aml some of its most common forms
of
will be lcitrned from the following exmnples:
' le dge; \J u t ' tn
· so far as
the extent of our know
"We are to ac.t up to
our knowledge falls short," etc.
"t front whence they ca111c

"They returned back aga-in to the same c1 y

,

·
.
I
e in our wlt olc domest.ic policy."
"Hence !ms ensued an entire c iau g
f
enl intelle ctual aclrnnce" The Inquisition arrested the p1·ogress o gen '

forth."

tnent."
. ,,
"The who/.e sum total of informatwn.
Itllet. 12

".i.\..cha_osu f co11fu s-ion ."

I

r.
11

I
\

138

STYLE. ·

8ec:·73

"Trifli11g- rninntire of style." "The universal love of all men."
"His efforts were necessarily coujiucd only to remonstrance and exhortation. "

f\.J.

j.)

3.

If

139

thou "ht in the fewest possible words. · This laconic sty le is Yery .
·~et;c
,, , presenting thoughts in a form that arouses the atten"
Jr
ene1to
tion and fixes them in the memory. It makes free use of c 1pses and fi"ures. even rrrammatic:tl improprieties are allowcil;
'
b
• '
I
as in< this b·i nstance-"
Trutl1,
like a torch, the more it
s sI 10~'
it shines." But such energetic ·brevity is ~ot au t•ssc11tml

yerbosity,

or. unnecessary ditf'.1seness. . The words ma;
'\ v b e neither tautological nor pleonast1c, but there may be too
·many of them. The other ottenses against brevity may be corrected by striking out the unmem1ing words; but t.-0 conect
this fault it is often necessary to alter the structure of the sen- ·
.
tcnce-to compress as well as to blot.
' Verbosity is generally connected with prolixity, which means
the iuLru<luction of unimportant circumstances, or such as the
reaucr can reatlily supply from his own knowledge or from the
context. It is nccest;ary for the writer to be so completely
master of the thought he woul<l express, that he can disti1wuitlh
i.
n
uctwccn what is rclentnt m1<l what is irrelcva11t; and to excrci~u <L .,-ise SP!f-co11trol , .~,, :1s 1111 t to lie ]P(] astray lir tl1l' de·sire
to say all that he might say upo11 the subject.
e m11st Jen rn
something to the reader's activity of mind.
Circumlocution is often a species of verbosity. A length ened, rourHl-ahout mode of speech is allowable for the sake of
varidy or emphasis, or when a tlircct assertion min-ht be 011(· 11 Hi l'e; but when none of these ends is accomplislwtl it is foel.Jle
aml affodct1.
'
A J11"r!f1f.Rion of a(Ueetives is another form of ,·erlmsity. Tlrn
ll:<le or epitlidN l1as nlrP:11ly hprn ron sidcrcd; Lcsidi:s i.li1·sc,
nmny expressions a,rc c11 rre11t, whid1 arc supposed to gin~ dig·uity aml solcmnit.v to the st.y le, hnt whirh , as the.v hnn· rPnsrrl
tu lie any thing- Inn nwa.ninglPss ori1a111P11ts, sl10ul1l 11(• rc·ie·dl'<l.
Ju::;tHIH.' l'S 11iil lie fouud ill Jetter;; uf co11d0Je11cc, rcsoluti.1rns o!"
sy111pathy, d1·.
The I'11mpl11"asc frcque11tly 1leg-e11crntes int.u Terl1osit,\·. Jts
ai11t is IJ.r cxpa11<ling what is too co11cisely expressed to give
greater perspicuity to the style; but it too ;rencrnll v obsc,~rcs
autl eufeeblcs by an excess of wonls.
,
.
'l'he brevity that has just been described is distinct from that
form of conciseness which expresses the greatest amouut of

THE .SENTENCE.

I

1

i

1

\\

q·t.rnlity of s.tylc: it is suiteil to vroverbs, epigrams, detachL·d/\!1
thoughts, sentcuces, antl the like; but its frccptent use in co11ji\
tiriuous Lliscourse is a fault. It rmtkcs the style obscure, frag1,',t'.
11: 1 .
mentary, and uuuaturnl.
hi

73. Energy.-The qualiticR mcn tium~a in the precctli11~ scctiorn• ;tre all necessary conditions of strc11gt.lt. A "c1ght_v
thought when e111111ciatcd wi tli clcarncs~ a111l prccic;iou c:~11 1111t
fail to impress the minrl of tl10 n•aelPr. 'J'liere nrc adel1t11l11al
means towards the san1c cml wl1id1 arc to Le: 111L·11tio11\'d l1crc.

'ii

0

----:-

{) J. Inversion.-J\cc
. onli11g to tl1e Ent.clii<h idiom. the: snli.ie_ct
11
·'l./fpn~ccLkS the prceli rate, tlw ohjPct fol l e~ws the YC' rh, :inti q11:d1h:in g won ls are phteed as nea.r :tl'l pract1cahlc to the \I (lrds q 11a l tJie~l. 'L'lii~ anan_'.!:t'lllt'llf i>< (l]1,.:pn·P1l so long as th e 11at11ral
Or<kr o!" tl1011ght. coine·i1Jco.s \\·ith tJi1• .:.!T;tllllll:ttil':ii ; tf.1;!f i:< , ,So
long ns the grnn111 1;1.t.ie :ally i111port:rnt \\'fmls arc identic::d 11.ith
the lo'.!:ii·allv ii 11 p.. rt:111t.. 'l' l1i s is n ut ah1ays th e ca se. It "fl1 •11
,
.~ , t·J
nr·e·1111\'i11:.:·
an infPrior pn>iti11n
iR thP most
. lcl: t. "~, worrl
.
..
•.
.
.
l J.l]l!'l.11:<
proniiJH'llt. o11c i11 tlic tlrnu:.:;ht , an 1l
011e· to 11l1wli 1111' 11nll'I'
is spe•t·iall_r dPRirom: t.o din•ct. att.m1tw11 . A 'Pt·:1kN !'[Ill 1·f1e •('t
tliis lir i·m11lia sizin!! tlw word ; a \Yritf'r, liy flllf'h :1. rnllewat111ll
ol' \YOJ:tls as \rill ;:i\·e · th<' noti11n :11· 011>11i1"11111 1R pl:t1·e· in tlw '"'I·
knee·. '!'lie• '.!:r:llllll/:1ti(';il Sll!'<'l':<,sio11 is cl1an;:e·rl : tl 1e• \\ 11rd to
be cwpllasizc:.c.l is ta];p11 011t of the· i1n:<itio11 :1 , ,i'.!:11f'il it li,r tl1t •
rnle·s of snitax, n111l p11t i11 tlJJe• in 1Yhi1·h it \1ill attract :it.t1'11tion. 'l'h.Prt' is tl1118 a couf lict, hdwl·e·n the• $.11Jt:1!'ti!':il orde·r
a nil till' natmal orde ·r of thon'.!:llf, :rnel fe·f'ling; to P\prt·ss <.;11itaiJly tllP latter, t.ht• fornwr is Yiol:1kd . N1wl1 a (kpart11n· front
the strictly ieliomatic arra11;:1•11H·11t of tl1i: rnr111l1rrs of a sentence for the sake of cmvha~i::; i~ calleJ. In rcrsion.

t'.w

'1·

~

I

i t

140

STYLE.

Sec. 73

Owing t;o the loss of inflectional forms, inversion is possible
only to 1t limited extent in the English langunge. Otu· older
writers, in imitation of clnssicnl models, allowed themselves 1t
great deal of liberty in using it; they sometimes, hy this means,
gave great strength and harmony to their style, hut more frequently they rendered it stiff and obscure. Although the liberty of position is greatly abridged, we still have within limits
the power of indicating, hy the structure of the sentence, the
emphatic wonl.

141

THE SENTENCE.

In the following example we lmve an inversion of an interrogative sentence:
" Your fathers, where

Ul·e

tl1c·y ¥ and the prophets, do they Ii rn for-

eved".

• m
• t.1ie a11.mgernc
•••
· ·iit u·f 'a sentence ' the
T fl" ·tan ~tlternt10n
o eitec
. ·I i se1'
. . ' C to i1hcc
words
and there are often employe<I ' w l Ill:
• the
subject after the verb ; as,-

'l'he principal forms of inversion allowed are :-The pre<li:
cate (adjective, noun) may take the place of the subject; as,

"There appeared unto them Mose.s an11 E' rms. "
"I

Cmupare these three seute11t:es:
"Few and evil have th11 days oftl1e years of my lif; been." "Aud the
min descended, and the fl oods ca1111•, nnd the winds bl ew , :111d bt>at upon
that ho11 stJ: and it foll, and grnat was the foll of it." ".Nubnl is Ills nuwe
and folly i• with him ."

'I

0

"Cici ·ro praiRP!l Ca';R:-tr .' ' 'i I t was C .icero
w:is C\e~a r that CicPro praibetl..,

I~

'' Tl11 11 l111r-.:t iii.-: 111 i !!l1! _\ l w;1rt."
of far rlintw ... 111. ,.im1·neh·1·. : i

.. Tli 1·n

(:)t1dd1'11 ly wuu1J coaw a <lrearn

Tlie of.\ject (accusatirn) prPePdPA the gorerning Ycrb; as, ·
" Silver and aold
liilll lie hanged . .,

li avP

T

Jl()flf>."

"'ff'

}Jf• J'f ' ,- :h1 rj•d llJd(J

lll il l l~

utlln:,

A1herbs of tim e, pbt:t>, 111a11t1f'r, awl adn•rlii:il ]'lirn s1>N arc
separated from the wonls tl1ry qualify and place<] lir{ore tl1t•1n;
as,
"Jn tlie int1•grity of my heart han• I done tl1is." "111tn these d rPnms
only it was, with one or two slight exceptions, th a t 1111y circumstances of
physical horror cntm·P1l. All before had bct' n moral un<l spiritual terrors.
But here the main age nts were ugly birds," etc.

Infinith•es and participles are placed hcforc the auxiliary
verb; as,
"Go I must."

the poor."

"Avoid it I can not. "

"Blessed is he that considereth

'1

-1

i

tJ111t jlr:tiRi'1]

('~"ll'. "

"It

Jt j 11 rorn11l
Jnrersion sl10ulll not !Jc crnp I uycrl exec l,.
... "iancc
. :. . 11·ith
' '".
.,.,.,
..
...
,
11\
()!' i
l:i I ll' 11;1:-_: ~i ( l[ \.
I
p
ll :-. 1' !! tP ! I(:'11(
~0 1l H'
I
1
i1lw11 ;;i1·11111.· i·11q1l1 :1 ,;i .-: i,; 11111 r•·.11 11.ir1· d. j,; t1..111.i;1t 1,1rnt .·:111·1
!
I
,;a " ·.
l
uHeu J utlicruu~ . 'll1e Jollu11i11 .·1..· :1rn 111~1:111ct·~ ul ~11c11 111 .1
i11n•rsio11s :
I 11

" !11tu thi s hole th ru st thcmse!Ycs three Ho11ia11 ~1·11at11r " .' '
t hat. ti11 1t~ llicre wa ~ nmw.''

1

• \\

ar at.

lt sl1uultl uot lie ad111ith11l 1111<'11 it 1\(1\ilil lf'ail 111 a1.11lii.!!11 ily
or olist·.urity. lt ::;li ou l1l lw 11st:tl 111111lcrntl'l_r. l1 11 n , 111 11 i:' .lo
initkii di~conrse 1rhat <1111phasi::; is to sp11l;p11 ; lo <·u1pl111size
ei,erv irnnl produt:es tl1e sa111c l'lled as lo c11 1pli11s1ze 111Jlll'.
'l'hc ..allowahle forms of i11rernio11 arc fo1r, a.11<1 a. ." ntcr sl11111ltl
not Yeuture upon uorelti cs in 11111 ('Ollt)('11t1011 ot 1r<ml 1><. I le
::;lwulil especially cxcl utle the itli1111is of for!'ig11 l1111guagt·s.

Connectives.-Asy~1deton

Poly~-yndeton.~'l'lie

1-/..._,2.
and
/ stren.rth of a sentence dr1wrnl s grratly 011 the prop{']' llS<' .of con..~
· e., of wonls lmriug
of t!Je1r 011 n,
, nect1ves,
i.
,_ no sig11ilica.tio11
,_
whose office it is to indicate: the relations of worrls all!l c.la nses.
'l'luw are to the sc11 t1:11n· 11l1at trn11 siti1111 s an; t11 tl1c c11 tm· t11scom:se, and are suhjed to the s1111ie gm1eral lairs.

:i

Ii

142

.STYLE.

The shortest should be cl10sen. Most of them arc monosyllaules, uut many are polysyllables; as, ne1Jertltcless, notwithstandin17, fitrtherinore. The length of the latter nmkes them_
too prominent, and attracts to thern a disproportionate share of
attention; when it is possiule, monosyllabic connectives should
be substituted for them. The use of these tlrnwling conjunctions is clmrncteristic of our older writers; they a.re rarn iu gootl
motlern writers.
·
In some cases it is conducive to energy to omit the signs of
connection between th e different members of a sentence, lc:Lving the rc:u1er to supply thorn; while in other caS!'S it is nc1Tssary to g ive to el' cry 111c111ber its appropri:~te couuccti re. 'J'he
former construction is call ed Asy11deton; the latter, I'ul!JS!Jndeton. Both 111ake conspicuous the relations of the notio ns to
each other antl to the main thought of which tlwy arc parts;
but with this <lirT'creuce, t11at iu asyrnleton the imliYidua.l no~ions of the series are scparatCl1 from each other liy a pause,
and each is made empliatic; in polys_ylllleton, on the other
!mud, we e11 11111 ernte the different mcmucrs and call atteutio11 to
their 111ultiplicity, but by inserting the conjunctions between
them, contrary to ordinary usage, we iu<licate that they arc
parts of a · more comprchcnsire notion; this notion it is, mul
not the separate parts, that is ma<le prominent.
Ex.-" Closing their shields, they were impelled, they fougl1t, tl1cy slew,
they were slain." "He wns 11 cheerful, active, hrnve mnn , n kind father,
a faithfu l friend." "For I nm p11rs11udcd thut neither deuth, nor lifo, nor
ungl'IS, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things presrnt," etc. "Ove r
every form, nud threat, and punishment, nnd dim sightless incurccrntion,
brooded a killing sense of eternity nnd infinity."

3. Periods and loose sentences.-The pc1iodi c strnctme
promotes energy, as it prcimrves t.he unity of the s<,11te11c1! and
conce11trntes its strength in a single point. nut it lms au artificfo,J appearance; it is unfitted for some kinds of composition,
a1111 its frerpicnt recurrence is alw:LYS <lisagrecahle. It is not
ea3y, without more help tha11 tl1e T•i'nglish langun ge' furnishes,
to enable readers to retain in their minds the members of a

>'

1

7

Sec. 73

143

THE S~NTENCE.

u ·1t the close bind them easily antl
complex ~hought\ an 'r•o prenmt obscurity arnl oYerta ski11 g
pro111ptly mto um Y·
. . . 1 holl'rhts sho11hl be exthe
cl7wses shouh1 be few
cllllletl from .IL per~~.l' ·,. a t he chiuses of the niemliern, the sai ue
t f tl1t>
and short.
n ai i ,mgrn,,,
'
l " 11 , ' d thiLt gorems the arnu1gcme11 o
rule must ic 10 0 :" e1. the rc·ukr
·
1 l. l ti ~111111usL'
rn1rnt i10t in e! i •
•
JllCllJ\WrS 0 f t1IC pellO( '
'
' . .
\I.· , .
\\'\1l'll \hi'
· j ' ' ] ] 1111\1\ Jt 'll'tll<I \ ] ~ f;O ,
tliat \he ~Pn tPllC' P 18 rn1s \('(
< .
•
•
I I . ..' r
.
·\ t l . ·rio11 lias the trnlious11Pss alll1 f1·<· it Ill~~ o
r11k 1s rn·~ c·c !'! , ,t pc
:L li:ully co11,trnd<·t1 loo8c ~m1te11ce.

att~11tio1,1, ~t'..p e{J~~:l~:1i:"1~~~:: 1~~1'.~ a~id

.
• ..
1:. t11n irrio11ic st nwtnr+' of tltl' i·h11 ~1·~ is Jll' !.!ln tltn follow111 g 'x.llll\l'
1
.. . . j, ·dri•d•·•I hi· tli• • \York<
1 1.111<) . ,
,
.
· ] ·" l ·,], own ltow t"'
.
krt<'1l: '·lfns!IH! a 11 ,H ~,
.
.
, ' .. I liotl t tlw w ork :-:. of Hat,, .... l ' i s1 dt'l't '1l. 111 !'.!l It! l ,\ .
'
.
,,f n:it1tl'P , an1l aft .1•\\\,111 u 11 .
]] · . -.. · ... t ·1 11d i·1111111kt1· i·:1('\1 otltt•r \\ 111
.
I
II
1
.
1
111 . llt<'V 111111 "" \ ,\'"' .
uro n1ul of ur:
•
•
t niit to d1•litrlit· t 111• 111111 1 11 1·
.\' 1 iro
s 1w1·h~ a~ ar n mos,,
~
f or111i11 i.; R1wh RCL'lll' R ,uH I_
.
. I .
t tr ·tllt'r H o!IH ~ relkd.ion r:. oil t11at
tlw h1•hol1\n. I ,]1:111i111111" l''IJ"'' t 11ow o~<
11arti l'.!ll ar art ·wlii1·\1 l1a~ , .. i·t~"
.·
, . · 1..:. "nnd :-ift1•n,·:1rd ('n11:-:id, , b •{f il\Jll!l{r \\ 1tl1 1]11 \\ 01 { '
Tlit• St'CIJ\l( l (' I:1 \ll"l, I,....
,...,
.
I 1· t " .•• l 1.llll\1111'11 \ll"H\ll l :-'.I':-\ t\11•
.
. r ' I " \11•\ 10\tkr ," IS { i' l'l' 1' I • '
t·n·d" ai1J i ·1H l Ill!-. .t .
.
.. · I,.· l in 1r1·1wr:d , \10\\. HI
.
" \ l ·dti·rwar1l 1·01 1 ~ \ (' I• ( •
f•
f"ol\owin~ alh·ratlr111:
.: lit •
·, t. t j d1·li 1r\d tl11• 111i11d of
.
~ .. , . . l } ·c•~ ]w<'t:; as an· n111~ . •1p
n
..
forrnrn g ~ n e ll t::i< c111..:i ,1111 l I
.
. . ' , l of art m11t11ally as.:-:1:-;t ;111tl
tl1P lwholil<'r, th<' \Y1>1ks botl1 nf nat111 e .llH

t1>mp1"k <"al'h uth1·L"

.

1,_\'

,, t • . ' . i10t lll'Cf'S~arilr ,]l-Jil'ien t lll e1H·ri'."·
A loose su1 UH c 18
·
\ tl
nit(')' 111·1v
.
l .
l ·11·1·"111r(•111t·ut
of ir11n s, H' '
.
, "
' ]' ·
S C Ill WC a 11 l '
'" ,...
n. Jll' 10011 .
·pa1kr iu wspense l'Yf'll iu Sl'l1tc1H'l'S that
ld'<'P tli e nnm1 of the I ,
.
l ,. . ·\ i' . ,\ ~1·11t<·11<'P
nrc <rr:w111rntil'all v co111p\d.c \idure t H II I ll.· l. • . l
. I\
• , ,.,
.
: , nil rl't \ian: \he forl'.<: o a ]ll'rllll . ~\I '
may tlrns Le loose ,1
• 1· 1 \ to t1l'(Teneratl' i11to i11cuhl'rt 'll(',\'
loose RPlltencPR arP l'Pl'\' ia ' e
"' · '
.
·
'o llr~n~nt t.h esn fault~, tlw fol li m 111~· ca ul 11111s
a ml fr<!hknPRR. ']
1
.
t \ ,t
luiw. Lon!! s!•11ti·11 <·<·s
l 'f]i(• Sf'llklH'l'R sh11 11 \rl 110 , JC .o0
:.
\ . .· . '
.· .
. : ..... lint 1.,·pn ,r\w11 ot ll'I 11 l'l
, . , l" hl . to va iriw11<·ss :11111 111 t1 11 .u ~ '
,,
.111. 1.1 ~.
,_,
. , f·11·l 1\p l'ro111 1.hP 1111111li1·r :irnl lt-11,.._t 1l

s\ 10 11111 l1n ol1s<'n "l:

fo111tl1·ss th PY rnay hl'\ 111111
.
\ · , , t to rl'St
·t:. th<'· rP:1!kr beco1111·~ 1mp:itw11t a111 is ap ,
p.11 s,
of tlll'll"'.
' t l ·111 011(',,Ren·
··1t·· ~('\·prY
· ]lall K\! tlin.t. (l('('.lll'S.
.
t 1·1r 11e11111e1
. 'l'he two 1110,h-s of a.rranµ;crncn II ' ·.
.

144

STYLE.

Sec.73

tence.
.
. . ' the key word no t bemg
kept back until the close b
mtrnduced
. c' the
ut
cl
• f 1.at a cmn-euicnt point ' whil c,• ,i. t tl 1e same trn1
auses
o
tue
members
are
arran
cred
'
.
the period.
"
according to the laws of
3. A complex
sentence is oft en t ctl ious and drngginrr from
·u
endin
r
. ~ w1 1 a much longer clause than it beo·:.m wit!~ B
evernmg the onle.r, the unpleasant effects are
.
y
. ,.
l
.
4. Symmetry is conducive to
contrast between thoucrhts
eneigy.
~esemblance aml
st t . .
"
should be marked by similarity of
rue me. ·w hen the relations of ti
h
by frarniu g the members of the
ioug ~ are thus indicated,
and of ti
sentence m the siunc manner
•ti ' ti · 1e1 same len"t.h
, . ma. de more conspicuous and
" ' they
. : . ,ue
it,
the rnpet1t1on of the form, is impressed o:1 tlrn

p~evented

n~=n•~~j~g b~
~

'

ieresemblance or opposition should be re·tl 'l'his b· I
d
.· ,i a~1ce
structure of the sentence is puerile when it d' .'
a necessity of thought.
ocs not spnng from
"unce
.
.
Th o following urn instances of bnJ•
, d strnctnrc · "1·1
·
- ll rcnuts l11s
spIen d ur, but retains liis mu"nitude.
1 1 .
less."
"l311t my lord - "
' un< JJ cases morn, though he dazzles
fi eld of dung'cr, and 't1)'0011 ilnuy quit the fi eld of busin ess, th~iugh not the
'
· ·
1 ng 1 you cau not be su f"e, you may cease to l)(l
ridiculou s."
Tl'.e followin g ure instances of tho violation of t
.
.
'"JU
.. t o the greatn~ he
i ule:
mny
rem nm a suspicion that we ove.J
f I · "There
·
8
same
mann er us bodiP-s
.
• ' s o ns genrns, in the
.
, uppear more gigantic
.
.
.
. on .1ccount of th en· bei 11 g
d1sproportiune:l and misslt"IJ"ll " 13 tt
.. ' .
e er·- " rn t i
overrate the greatness uf b od"1es tl iat ·uro ]' 10. same
manner n.s we
shupe11."
u sp1 opor t·10ned and mis-

.·

" If men of eminence uro exposed to ccn .
ti
surn ou the one hand, tl111y are
us much liable to flattery on ti
10 0 ter. If they ccce·
are nut due them the)' likewi·
.
.
ive reproaches which
1
.
'
se receive prmses wh · ·l I/
.wt iey c.o ·11ot de.scn ;c."
ub st1t.ute for "Jiabl " "
S
" whwh
. are not du' e."
e,
exposed ' " and for " w Inc
· I1 ti wy d o uut deserve,"

tl1os~

"The . laughers will be for
. 1 ti
.
c · w I10 I1ave most w't.
·
1e senou s part
o mun kmd, for those who I
,
f
"the serious, for those who ;1::e. mostt reason on th eir side." Better:e mos reason on then· side."

.

Other emphatic verbal forms ar rt '
•
Fi"ures of S1» ·I·
- ' e o1ven m the chapter on the
o
eec 1, secs. Gl-Go.

THE SENTENCE.

Sec. 74

145

74. Melody.-Prose, although not admitting of rhyme aml
meter, is susceptible of a mcloLly which every writer shouhl
aim to attain. It is subonlirmte to the grctit ends of prose discoJ!rse, and must not divert attention from the ideas to be presented, nor be irnrchased iit the cost of clearness aml force. A
vigorous roughness is to be iwefo1TeLl to a tame smoothness.
But lt cunllict between the logical perfections of language arnl
111el0Lly is of rnrer occurrence than }llost i1ersons su11110se. Su
iutinuite is the connection between sound and sense, tlmt if we
h<trn chosen the fitting words, ttml connected our itleas according tu bL>th their umin aml their subordinate relations, our sentences 'vill selLlom offend the mir. Harmony mul mcloLly itre
not so much imlepemlent qualities, as the naturnl and necessary
result of the conformity of lan guage to thought anLl passion.
Iuhan11onious sentences will generally be fouml to lie delicieut
in correctness, clearness, precision, or energy; when the logi~itl
defects :.ire remedied the disagreeable toughness disappears.
Some of the offenses against melody and harmony arc :
(1) Using words that tire lmrd to pronounce; such, for example, as cont<tin a cunrnhition of consonants, or a succession
of short unaccented syllables, or occasion a chish of vowels.
(2) The frequent recurrence of the same sound, either from
the repetition of the smne syllable or the admission of rhyming
won1s .
Ex.-" The mies 11f emphasis come in in intcrniption of your supposed
general law of position." "This day we undcrla.ke to re nder account to
the widows and orpl1u11s whom our decision will ma.lie; tu the wretche s
that will be rousted at the Bia.Ice," etc.
The effect is still worse when there is a recurre nce of metrical feet,
thu s: "\\'hen purullel rays cume contrary ways, a nd fall upun opposite
sides."

(3) Disproportionate length of one of the members of the
sentence; want of variety in the length and structure of t11e
different members; want of symmetry when the t11011ght requires it; closing with an insignilicant, unemphatic wunl.

.

Rhet. 13

I
i
l

\
\

146

STYLE.

Sec. 74

The following criticism (borrowed from Rain's Rhetoric) on a short
sentence of Johnson's will snfficc to illustrate the foregoing principles :
"Johnson says: 'Tedionrness is the most fatal of all fanlts.' The stiffness of this sentence is felt ut ouce. On cxarninution we note: 1st. The
want of melody in the word tccU011sness, from the crowd of consonants,
and the iteration of 8. :!d. The additional hi ssi ng consonant in is (although the hard sound z) . 3d. The concurrence of four 1111 emph atic syllabl es in succession; namely, the last two in tcdious1wBB and is the. 4th.
Th e additional B in most. 5th. The coneur;·ence of consouants at the end
ofnwst and the beginning ofjatal; this can not always bu avoided. 6th.
The allit1•rntions fatal all, fatal faults, all faults, make the last few words
singularly unmelodious."

(4) The repetition of certain words in close succession. This
is a frequent offense; one from which good authors are not alto-v : .
gether free, and which those who are compelled to write ltastily /
·
selliom avoid.
Ex.- " Gnizot has embodied in his views n more extensive 1Ji ew of
hnman aJfairR." " It soon appca.rcd that these diplomatic courtesies meant
more tha11 ap]Jearcd on the surface." "Tim few who regarded them in
tl 1eir true li ght were regarded as dreamer s." "vVellington was a11$io11;i
to be relieved of nil a.uxicty in that quarter." "They consented to maintain such troops in them ns might be deemed necessary to maintain their
tranquillity." "The J>l'OJIOSal was no gr~at violation of the liberties of the
subject, fur it only proposed to subject military persons to the trial of their
military superiors."
\

\

f
-i
I

\

\

:r
t;

J!
J

precedes and the one that follows. A connected ~er~es of sentences containing the development of a single topic is calle<l a
Paragraph.

,

76. The structure of Paragraphs.-Tlw general laws governing the construction of a parngra~lt m:c the same as. tl~os~
governin <T the composition of an entire <liscoursc. -:'--s it is .L
more or 1:ss full development of a complex thought, it may .be
rc<rarded as a discourse in miniature, to which the same prmci;les for preparing the theme, properly disposing the p.a rts, an!l
marking their coTJ.nection are applicable, as are applied to au ·
entire essay, oration, or treatise.
.
.
.
•The art of constructing them is not acquired without la\Jor
and patience. One may be skillful in framing sentences and
not succeed in combining them into connected paragrapl'.s.
:Fxerciscs in constructing tl1em, and in analyzi11g those of d1ff~rent writers on different subjects, to learn their method. of
framing them, ought to have a prorniucnt pla:ce in :L rhetoncal
course. Such exercises are the most con vcment 111ea11s of apiilyiu g the general principles of style, and of cultivati11g correct
lntbit.s of thinking and writing.
.
Pa.r ngrnphs a rc of different kirnls accor~i11g to their matter;
they may be uarrntirc, descriptive, expository, or argu111cntatire. Hence they are subject to the special laws of the Elementary Forms of Discourse (Part III).

Pru11ortion, Variety.

THE PARA.GRAPH.
I

75. Paragraph defined.-111 the foregui11g chapter we have
treated of the rules for combiuiug \\·onls awl clau;;cs iutu sentences. But sentences do not appear in a discourse as separate, inclepenl!ent enunciations of thought; t hey are parts of a
larger uuiLy, each su::;taiuiug a definite relation to the one that

Unity.-'--'l'hit> qtta.lity rnqnires that a par:1grnpl1 slionl<l l.m n:
hnt a sinu:le theme; that nil the Rf' IIhnw<·~ ~h onl11 kin· a dm·l't
Jn~miuu: ,; 11 the theme, c,n11trihuti11µ: tn 1·xpl:1in , ilJ11,trnt1 ·~ pron'.
or <tppl,r it; that whate,-er iR irndcY ;mt lie cx1·l11d1:1l; awl t.Jiat;
it- lw nnt 0Y1,rloadctl with 1letails.
Continuity.-Tl"' Pxnd. n·lati1111 nf t.IIP constituent sc11te11ce~
to pa1·h other must be distinctly i11t!i('alt·11.

I

";
'[

I'

147

77. 'flin n·ittii~itcs of :t paragraph arc TJnity, Continuity,

\

1-

·i

THE PARA GRAPH.

Sec. 77

----

--

148

STYLE.

Sec. 77

The-relations between the sentences may be of various kin<ls
and of various <legrees; some of the sentences may be coi:ir<liuate with those precediug; Sollie may be subordinate. But
whateYcr the connection , Jio,vever close or remote, it is illllisJlensahle to clearness and force that it be easily and certainly
recognized. It will not suffice· to present tlie details with clearness; the reader must understand their significance autl beari11gs, and obtain without too great an elfort a view of the entire
strncture of which they are parts.
It is not always easy to comply \Yith this rule. .A.ccurate
and often subtle thinking, and considerable practice ill writing,
are required to gi,·e facility in seizing the exact relations of
thoughts and expressing them with clearness and accurac;'.
Careless and unpracticed writers often suggest, hy the language
they employ, connections of thought entirely difforent from
those they inteu<l, or learn the reader in doubt wlmt is the connection to he exprnsse11. Others, who are not gui lty of so
gross faults, fail to discern and bring out the more delicate and
suhtle relations upon which the force and elegance of style
gre:ttly depend.
'l'he connection between sentences is marketl in Yarious
ways.
1. By conjunctions (copulative, ilia ti ve, a<l versa ti rn, etc.)
arnl by conjunctional phrases (add to this, on tlte contrary, in
short, to conctiule, so far, etc.)
vVith respect to the use of conjunctions and conjunctional
phrases, it is to be remarketl, First, that they are 11ot always
necessary.
No rule can be given to direct when to use autl when to
omit them. Our older authors used moro coujuuctions a11d
usctl them more ht,·ishly than is customary at the present 11ay.
'rhey marked t:he minute relatio11s of tl1ouglitR hy difl'crc·nt <·011junctions, lcariug 11othing to the reader tu i;up11ly, :illll Urns
made their style dragging and stiff. The tendency nowadays
is to diminish the number of co11jtuwlious liy furi;iug oue t.o
pe1for111 the oHice of several, a111l to dispens<~ as far as possible
with the use of them. The style hecomes thereby . more

Sec. 77

THE PARA GRAPH.

14!}

S\Jrirrlttly · but when the tcJl(lc11cy is carried to excess, it breaks
'
up the paragraph
into short, independent scnte11ces, IJetween
wl1ich no con11ectiou can be fouutl, <Lml which it is i111possi1Jlc
to retai 11 in the memory.
Secondly. 'l'he frequent repetition of the same conjunction is
a fault, amounting at times to otfonsiYe mannerism. It is
generally connected with a defective structure of sentences
resulting from slovenly thinking.

"'

Ex.- " Augereau was soon, lwwci·er, dismi ssed the corps for a se rious
ofie nse, and returned to Paris pennil ess and in di sg race. Th ere, ltow'.;rcr,
bis lofty stature and military air again attracted th e attention of the
rec rnitin" sergeants, and he was enrolled in the regiment of carab in1·ers
commaiuled by the Marqui s Poyanna. There, hoiccrcr, hi s 111iscliieYou s
di spo sition a seco nd time broke out, and he wa s expPll1·d fro111 l1i s new
corps for carry ing off his captain's horses to sell them i11 ~ \\"i~zcrla11d."
"It is true he was an inYctcrate n~a<ler, a111orously 1nch11cd towan18
vellum tomes and illu111inatcd parchments, but he did not cowt tht•n1 , like
some collectors for the mere pride. of possessing th em; but. glori 1·d in
' intellectual charms :L111l ddectaLle \\"J
' . ;;dom, and snug 1it
foasting on th eir
in thei r attractive pages t.hti means of Leco111ing a Lett.er Chri stian and a
wi~c r man. Bnt he wa.s so cxccssin·ly fond of Look s, and lJf' cam c so
deeply engrossed with hi s bnok-colle cti11 g pursuits, that it is saitl r;o 111 c of
the monks showed a litt.Ie di ssatisfaction at hi s conserp1c11t 11Pglect of tho
affairs of the monaste ry; but t hese :u·(I faults I can not finfl t11e l1eart to
blame him for, bnt am i11clin1·d to co11 si1ler lii s co n1l11 et f11lly rc1lec111 cd hy
the valuable c11eou rage111ent he gave to literature and learning.''

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'l'hirdlv. The accumulation of conjunctiu11s wi thou t necessity
ought to ·be avoided. Tim conjunctions may meet together at
the beginning o f..i i 8e11te11ce \\l1e11 <111" ('.01 111 eds tl1e scutencr
with tl1e precrnli11g, a1111 the other expresses the relation hctwce11
t1>0 da,uses of the seu Ll:Ucc .
Ex .-u I gn to prPpan· a pl: H'P for yon . A 11d ~( T gn :rn1l pn 'pan · a
plat'-t' for _viHt. I \dll conH~ a!!nin ;111Cl n• f> f'•i r f"' ynn unto 111y~wlf. "
"Tt is of t\ 1c utmMt· import:1111·n t .. " " 1l1:1t, '"' n"'111·iati· pri11t:ipall.1
,vltli tln·' wi~'' :11ul v irt.11011 ~. Wlum. tlwrr/orc. we cl100Rc 011r cnmpa niu1rn,
wn ong\Jt, tn be extremely careful in re~anl tu !he e],,,j, ... "'" 111ak•·.. "

Sometimes we find a sentence with three conjunctions in

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_...1;

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STYLE.

Sec. 77

succession. But such an accumulation is rarely compatible
with clearness and force.
Ex.-" To those who do not love God, the enjoy ment of him is 1111 uttainable. Now aB that we may love God, it is necessary to know him; so
that we may know God, it is necessary to study his works."

2. By the strncture of the sentence. The relation of a sentence to the preceding may be distinctly indicated by means of
inversion, contrast, and words refening to somcthiug that lias
gone before. By this means we may form a se1ies of sentences
in which the succeeding will appear to be suggested by so11w
expre'Ssion or tum of thought in the one preceding:. In ·~killfnl
hands this 111dhod impnrt8 n l1igh degree of !Jeanty to the stl le.
but with inforior writers it degenerates into. focble11es:; ;,, 111
affcctatiuu.
Tlm followin g sentences will illustrate the nature of tlii~ mode of 1•1·ferTlie \\"urJ~ of rdi ~n ·1wP arn i11 it.;ili1 ·,..; , " ' l11e di!} a _i'l:da.y knuek.i·d.
\Vlrnt h11 Q illf>~ ~ :-t :1frr 7rry r·nn lrl liaY c tu ti;.u1::;~u:L ~UllUll~ Uie
Enu:lish 1nount.ain ~ . T l!:IO nnt. rnn.i1•r>hq·P ." "l-ff• hy <l•' ""n! npnn t!w .A •~ f~:·
t 'l! ( 't·.

nt. my

(lf\ol',

lur ulmu t an hour, and then 1rnrsued his jn111·11.,y. · 011 liiR ·,lPprrrfm·r, I

presented him with a piece of opium. To him , as an orirntuli st, I concluded that opi111~ must b~ familiar,'' etc. (Notice th~ invcrsious.)

78. Proportion.-'! he several thoughts winch arc 11roug·ht
gether in one paragraph ougl1t to be prescntc<l in their ;luc
relief. '.rtie importa nt ones should Imm the conspicuous positions; the interior should be put in the ohsrurPr placl'S. 'l' he
111ain thoughts ought to be exhibited as such, and the subordinate be exhibited as subordinate.
This rnle is viohtted when a tlt011ght which onght to be c011tainetl in a principal member of a ;entence is gi~·<·n in a suhortlinatc clause; also when a11y of Uie details are too long lhrelt
upon, and thus raised out of their proper place. It is better to
allow a subordinate thought to pass imperfectly exhibi ted, tlian
by disturbing the relations of the parts to destroy the impression of the whole parngrnph.

Sec. 78

151

THE PARAGRAPH.

Variety.-Variety in the structure a~tl len_gth_ o~ the st~cces:
sive sentences must be consulted. Umforrrnty is rncons1stcnt
with a just exhibition of the relations of the thoughts, exhausts
the attention, antl becomes intolerably irksome.
. .
One species of uniformity is produced when the senes is con'.posed of sentences of the same class; as, when all arc comhtiomil or interrogtitive, loose, periodic, or balanced. ~ven. to
begin 01: end sentences too often in the same rna1111cr 1s objectionable.
Another RpPcies is producrn1 lJy :t sncccssion of sentences of
the same length.
vVriters <liffer greatly as to the length of scntcnc'.·s; some
prdf'I" long, otl 11 ·rs short. Short sentencPs. arr nH1r'.' l 1nolv :u1tl
falliili:ir, a!ltl lll'i.tcr a11aptc1l to ,1·orl;s of Pnt<·rt:11m111 ·1d :11111.
11 op 11 b1r i11~tJ'llf', ti1111. Lo11g s1·11t1 ·11c1·s n·q11in· a !_.;n•at('r ('llort of
attr·ntion, aml are suited to W<"ighty, abstrusP, a11 1l elm·atetl
thoughts. 1'1o1rn11ay;; we i1wlinc to th<! usc of short st•11l1·111·1·s.
It is·~ ]1owever, oft1 ~11 importa.nt ' to ex hibit a complex thoug·ht
with its necessary qualilicatio11l', lirnit.a.tio11s~ cirt:u111sla11cl'~,
etc .. in a single view; to bre:tk it upinto 111u111t.e 1rag11'.u\Ls
woultl be tu tlesl,roy iL. 111 tl.w lug lier lonrn; ol p1 u,1 ·, Lull1 '"
<lactic and orntoric:il, long sentences are frequent and u11arnid-

I
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it:~

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alile.
Hut wliate1·cr may be the n·s111·cti 1·e a1ha11tagi:s of lire1·ity
and h•iigt.h, tlwy wiil b!: lost if a. nnmlit·r of sc11t1·1H·c•s :if tlH!
same length, whctlwr lon g or sl1ort, folio"· 1•ael1 othPr m the
same parngrapl1. Althongh each separately takl'. 11 1w1y he understood without an effort arnl pro1luce a pl1·:1sm g dl1·et, tl1n
repetition of the same mental procPS8 i11 attPndi11g to the Rl'ri<·H
irn·,·itahh· Pn!.!'Pn•1NR wPnrinP~R. Tn ft. RP.rin8 of n• ry short se11tcncc8 i~ wl;ich thP thon!.;l1t i~ <li~tril111!1-1l i11lo 1li~1·0111H·1·. 1l'1l
portions, a painful <-' ll'ort. iR co11Rta11tlY rP1tni1:Pd to makn out the
J'Plation bct.wPen the111, tu keep lhe111 m new, arn1 to gatl1nr
from t.l1P111 the leaLlin.!! idea. A series of 1011µ; seu t.eut1·s ll'ail H
to the sauic results in :t <lilforc11 t 1ray; the rnin1l i~ e:d1aust<·1l
Ly the u11intcrrnpte<l e ll'ort of ai1a]y7,i11g and rc111e111\Jering tile
complex presentations of thought.

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152

,.,

STYLE.

Sec. 78

Hence, a mixture of long and short sentences is necessary
to prevent the languor r esulting from uniformity; it does not
merely gratify the ear,-it aids the mind in following aml retaining the train of thought.
The style in which the sense is given in short sentences, each
complete in itself, is called by the French the style coupe, ai1d
is distinguished from the style period·ique, in which the sentences are louger and duly linked together.
The following is an example of the style conpif : "From a political
point of view, thern is but one single pl'incipl e : the sovereignty of 1111m
over himself. This sovereignty of myself over myself is calln<l liberty.
Where two or several of these sornreignties associate the state begins.
In this association there is no abdication. Each sovereignty gives ;,p a
certain portion of itself to form the common rigl1t. That portion iB the
same for all. This identity of conc1~ssion which each makes to all is called
equality. The protect-ion of all over each is calln<l frnt.Prnity. The point
of intersection of all th ese nggrrgatcd sovereignties is called society."

As a general rule, it is adrisable to make the sentences at
the beginning nf :i para.gnqJlt brief. .As a seutem:e uugl1t 11ut tu
close with an insignificant wortl, Su it is fault Lu e11d a paragraph with a secondary, unimportant thought. The conclusion
should he a lcacli ng thought, cmlJotl_riug tlw re:;ult uf 11 b t li<ts
gonn hefon~, or pn•prHi11g for wl1at i~ tt• follow, aml will w::twlly
he exprnss11d in a sentern:e uf wuie leugth . A n~ry sl1ort sentence is not appropriate unless it l>e an energetic, condensed
statnnrnnt of a wright.y trnth .
There are exceptions to the law of 1·ari t:>t.,y. 'Ill give to rr
thought it.R just expression, it is oftpu w•c·<>ss:1ry tn ::;t1uly sy lllrnetry in the structure of tl1e p:tra.graph, j11st. ;1.s it. is ofteu ueccssary to study it in constructing senteuces. "\Vlieu 11y prellerving uniformity of structure we can keep the main irleas in tl1eir
proper poRition, biing out the pointR of rP~em hlan rP :111rl (liflrrrnce of ohjectR, arnl nmkc irnport.a 11t rPlatinns prn111i1H•nt, it
woultl Le a bl nmler to vary the construction. This wuulLl be to
sac1ifice the higher qunlitics t-0 the sound.

i•

Ex.-To vary the strnctnrc would weaken and ubscurn the followin~
parallel : "Hom ct· was tho greater genius; Virgil the better artist; in

Sec. 80

153

THE PARAGRAPH.

11urries
the one we motit admire th o ma.n ; in the o ti 1cr, tl• 1c wor k· ·. Homer
.
.
osit•·
.
Virgil
leads
us
with
an
attrnchve
'
.
.
d'
.
t
.
us wit.It a commau tug uupe u . '• '
.
. . .
. I
maj esty. Homer scatters with a generous profu s1011; V1rg1l be~t.u,~s wit 1
a careful magnificeuce. Homci·, like t he Nile, pours out hrn 1 iclu.s with
. ·fl uw,. Virgil 1 " like a river in its huuks 1 with a constant
a. suu-'d·en O\el
stream."

79. An~ouncing the Theme.-Th e theme of the parn~r:.•ph
OU<Tht to be distinctly indicated. Sometimes !tis nut cxphc1tly
.1
nr1d the re•tder
is left to gather it from
the text.
lu
s·t·"'t
•<.\.. eu, °'
"·
.
J
.
so ine subjects this uiay be safoly clnnr, lint 1t frc·c11w1il .1 ' JIH~Wlien the theme is new or at all abstrusP, 1t
<1uees oIis<· ~ 1111: tv
• •

shn11 lc1 he nnn01tnr(l(l .
.
It nmy Le laid down in it brief sentence tu\\'ards the Legrn· ti• 1e 1·1ts
· ·t· sc
· utc·ucc·
ninrr · uot nccessan·1 y 111
,,
, fur 11·u--1"T'1pl1,;
' '"' '
.am
cuu~i~eted together as p11,rls uf a la rger u11ity, :111<1 thr OJH'11111.~
'" oftn11
n tnnsitiun
of
seu t.euee 1.,
"·
..
'
, in the furlll of a Slltlll11ar_v
_
something previuu~ly ghc11 , cuuuccting a imragrnpli 111th tile
preceding.
·
st,·1te·tl ,..•t t,he bc:.ri1111i11_g_
·, it is
Sometirnes, instea<·i u f '"ue111g
~
, 1ithh cld until the close. Th e author first e1111111,•rat·,·s tl!P particulars before announcing the geucral truth whicl1 111: clra1Ys
from them, or f!ives his arpiments aml pn·parns t.l_1 e miy lur
t.hr. proposition Lefore lie hri11.~s it fonY:1rcl. (kr:1s11111:tlly ll1e
· st a t 1· 11 •·it tl1L' l1(•"'i
c 1111i1w
_ , a111! is rt']lf':1tf'c1 :it th(• c1111tl w11 1e IS
clusion.
To girn elm~ ei 11 pliasis to 1.lic\ e111111ciatio11 uf the tl 1l'1t1<:, it is
Rometimc·s n·pPat-l'd; t11e scc·.01111 stat1·nH·11t is ol'te11 a c0111lf'llSf' cl ,
ligma ti n~ 0111·.
Ex.-" Tli(~ pnH·I ieal daJH..!l'l' wliii·li liaK f'.n1111 t i nit· ~ lwi•11 a1i.11r1·l11.'11·(.l1·d
from mPtnpliyRi('n] Jllll'Sllit s. , lins in n•;ilit.r on!.r ill'•'l! f111111d 1o lolln\\ '101.11
t"lu·ir Rt".1111tP1l arnl partial <~ 111Li vatio 11. TllL' poi son l1a s ~ro\\"11 llJI; tlw :llltt rlotP has ln'l'll ri·111·1·:-::·wd .. ,
1

80. Examples illustrating the forego_ing rule:.-Tl1osc
who wisli to l1t·c·01111· f;1111ili:1r 11 il\1 till' p1·1111"1pl1·s 111 t\11· 1·011Rtructinu nf par:t_l.:rapl1s ~l1111tld st11d1- 1·an.f1tll_1 pas,;:1.-c:·1·s t:1k('Jl
from differeut au_tlwrs, ~rntl from Ynrious classes of rnmpos1-

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- _.. ,.____._. . . _,_ . . . . .

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.

r~~~·1t...,.."""''"'<_,,....,.,.,,.,.,.,,.,.

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STYLE.

Sec.

80

tion-history, didacti c treatises, iind orations. 'rhe examples
below will answer to illustrate the rules htiu down, aml will
give the student some hints how to apply tltem.
(1) "The other thi11g to be considcrrd is, tliat in this great work, the

understanding is chiefly at the disposal of the will. (2) For though it is
not in the 11ower of the will, directly eithe1· to canse oi· hinder the assent
of the understa nding to a thing prnpclscd, and duly set befi.•re it; yet it is
antecedently in the power of the will to apply the understanding faculty
to, or to take it off from the consideration of those objects to wl1ich , without such a previous considt'rntion , it can 11ot yield its assent. (3) For all
asse11t presupposes a simple apprehension or knowle<ige of the terms of the
proposition to be assented to. (4 ) But unless the understanding employ
and Pxercis11 it8 cognitivl' or apprehensive power about tlwse lcnn s, thern
can be no actual apprehension of them. (5) And the ·1rndcrsta.11di11v, as to
the excrci8c of tl1is power, is subject to the com111aiul of the will; though
as to the specific nature of its nets it _is deteraiined by the object. (6) As
for instan ce, my understauding can not assent to tl1is proposition, 'that
J esus Chl'ist is the Son of God;' but it must first co nsider, and so nppreJ..,ml what the terms and parts of it Ul'I.', and what thPy signify. (7) And
this can not be don e if my will be so slothful, worldly , or vol11ptuously disposPd, as neve r to suffer me at nil to think of tl1 em, but perpetually to
carry aw:iy and apply my mind to otl1 er things. (8) Thu s far is the understuuuing at the disposal of tho will." Dr. South'B Sermons.

This is an argumentatirn paragraph. It contains the proof
aud illtl8trntion of a single proposition, Yiz., that t!Je assent of
the umlerstanding to th e tmths of religion is in :t great measure umler the control of the will. Emry sentence has a direct
bearing on the theme.
The theme is explicitly statetl (1), aml is repeaterl n.t the close
(S). It is ginm <lue prominence throughout. To presen t it
more distinctly aml o\n·iatc all rnisnmlerstanding, the necessary
qualific:ttions itrc gi rnn, and the proposition rnainta.iuetl is put
in contrast " ·ith the erroneous Yiews with which it is foible to
be confonn<led (2), (5).
The sentences are closely connected. (2) i:.; the statement of
a general truth confirming (1). (3), (4 ), (5), are arguments
proYing (2). (G), (7), are an illustration of the propot>ition.
The connection of the sentences is carefully marked both by

· Sec; 80

THE PARAGHAPH.

155

conjunctions and words of reforence (in italics). 'rhe reasoning would be more readily umlerstood, if uniformity of structure had been preserved in (3), (4), aud (5). T he emphatic
words in these sentences are, "asse11t-apprehension," "apprehension-exercise of the understanding," "exercise of the understaridin g- commantl of the will." There is a lllixture of
long and short sentences.
The next example is from Macaulay's Essay oa Lord Bacon:

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(1) "The years dul'ing which Bacon held the great seal were nmo11 g

the darkest and most sliam efnl in English history. (2) Every tl1ing at
l10me and abroad was mismanaged. (3) First came the execution of
Raleigh, an act which, if done in a proper nrn111ier, mi ght htive been defensible, but which, under nil the circu mstances, must be considered as a
dastardly murder. (4) 'Vorse was behind-the war of Bohemia, the successes of Tilly and Spinola, the Palatinatl• co nquered, the · king's son-inlaw an ex ile, the hou se of Austria domin ant on the co nti nent, the Pro te;;tant reli gion and the liberties of the Germ ani c body trodden nnd er foot.
(i'i) In the meantim e, th e wavering and cowardly policy of En gla11d furni shed matter of ridicule to all th e nations of Enrop e. (6) The love of
pe.ace whi ch Janws profpssed would, even when indnlged to an impoli tic
excess, have b m~ n respectable if it had proceeded from tend1' rn e8s for liis
people. (7) But the truth is, t hat, while he had notl1in g tn spare for th e
defense of the natural alli es of England, he resorted withou t scruple to the
most illegal aud oppressive devices for the purpose of enablin g Ilueldnglia111 aud ll11 ckingha111's relations to outshin e t he aucien't aristocracy of
thl'I realm. (8) llenevolcnces were exacter!. (9) Patt>nts of monopoly
wern multiplied. ( 10) All the resources which could have bee n employed
to repl euish a beggared exehc']uer, at th e close of n ruinous war, were put
in motion duriug this season of ignominious peace."

Th e theme is announced in the 01>ening sentence (l ), and
i·epcated in a more determina.te fonn in (2). It is confirmed
by an enumeration of particulars-the ·munler of Raleigh (3);
mismanagement abroad (4), (;"i); mism anagement at l1 orne (G)(!l); closin g with the comprehensive statement (10) . The unity
is complete; the proportion of parts is olJseiTed ; the parts are
closely connected b,Y their relation to the common tl1 erne, and
in inost of the sentences by 'rnnls of reference, etc. The sentences are short, but sufficiently varied. Notice the const.rnction of (4).

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Seo. 81

STYLE.

CHAPTER VI.
DIVISlON OF STYLE.

81. Recapitulation.-The portion of rhetoric which !ms been
gone over constitutes what may be called Geueral H.lictoric, as
it embraces the laws of prose composition in general without
regard to the matter and aim of the particulttr discourse.
Part l~irst contains a description of the mental processes iuvol ved in the act of composition. The subject, which is either
gi \'en to tl1e writer or chosen by him, is at first Yague autl undefined. 'rite first st()p is to reduce it to a determinate, precisely stated theme. The next step is to form an outline or
skeleton of the discourse, which is done by gathering by me<litation the main ideas, and then arranging them in such an
onler aml proportion as their logical relations and the necessities of the discourse reri. uire. These main ideas are then to be
(leveloped; the ideas necessary to connect them (transitions)
are found; arnl the thoughts necessary to explain, illustrnte,
a11(1 confirm them are gathered and arranged in due order.
Tims the outline or rude scheme becomes a completed, well
rounderl, consistent whole.
So far we have dealt only with the -thought as it exists in
the writer's lllind. But this thought is to become externalbc imparted to others. It must, therefore, be embodied iq.
lang uage. Language was, of course, employecl in the processes of thinking which we have just describecl, for language
anrl thought are inseparnble; but the writer's attention was
directerl 11rninly to the invention ancl elaboration of ideas, with
no special regard to the manner in which they should be expressed so as to be unclerstootl by others. But having become
master of his thoughts, his next task is to embody them in such
language as will convey them to others, arnl bring their minds
a11(1 wills into harmony with his; i.
to give them an adequate expression.
·
'l'he rules for the adequate expression of thought have been
gi ,·en in the preceding chapters of this Second Part.

e.,

Seo.82

DIVISION OF·STYLE.

157

'fo be aclequate,· the expression of thought must comply with
two conditions.
1st. As to the matter: it must convey the exact thought iu
a manner corresponding to its importance.
2d. As to the hearer: it must call his powers of thought and
feeling into free and uuiu1peded activity, neither stim ulating
them beyond, nor repressing their tendency tow:trtl tlteir uaturnl limit. Hence it 1nust both economize his atteutiou aml
give free play to his activities.
The essential qualities of style resulting from a compliance
with these conditions arc propriety, perspicuity, :rnd vivacity.
These qualities of style depend on the choice mid 11rnrnge111ent of words. As to the words which are the proper, literal
signs of ideas, those only are to be selt~ctecl \vl1i ch arc recognized as belonging to the common national speech; are in
current use; are offensive neither to moral purit.v nor reli11ed
feeling; and are accurnte, becomi~ expressions of the ideas to
be conveyecl. 'l'o secure the high est degree of virncity, the
figures of speech are employed, which s~rvc to prese11t ideas in
a concrete, sensible f~rm to the inmgination, aud with e111phasis
to the understanding and feelings.
.
The words are combined into sentences to express thoughts.
The reri.uisites of a sentence, it has been shown, arc correctness,
unity, clearness, precision, energy, and melody.
Sentences are combined to form a larger and more complex
unity, called a Paragraph; the essential qualities of which are
unity, cq_ntinuity 1 p~oportion, and rnriety.

'!

\

82. Differences of Style.-The qualities described in the
foregoing chapters, and briefly mentioned in the last section,
must appear in every composition on whatever subject it is
written; there can not be an adequate expressiou of thought
where tiny one of them is lacking.
But the manner of expression is modifi ed by the matter and
aim of the discourse ancl the peculiarities of the writer. If ;1
man writes with simplicity Mtd e11l'nestness, hi s 111ental and
moral character will reveal itself both in his thoughts and Ian-

I·
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158

STYLE.

Sec.84

Sec. 82

guage. vVhere the stamp of individuality is wanting there is
no style.
Style, then, is as varied as human charncter, and it may Le
said that there are as many kinds of style as there are writers.
But there are points of view from which we can contemplate this
infinite variety, and reduce it to a few classes. It is plain that
there are 11mny di risions of style JJossiLie, since there are many
11ualities any one of which can serve :ts a principle of dirision.
Thus, it may Le dirided with respect to the matter into historical, didactic, etc.; with respect to tile number of words, into
the concise, sententious, laconic, terse, copious, diffuse, verbose;
with respect tq the use of figures, into the florid, ornate, plain,
?ry; with respect to tile arrangement of words and chiuses,
mto the natural, indirect, imerted, periodic, epigrammatic,
flowing.
'l'he divi:>ion adopted in most Rhetorics is one founded on
the dilforcnce in the general character of style. The most general characteristics :tre chosen as the basis of chtssification, and
no sharp. discriu1ination is attempted. According tot.his clivision, there arc three kinds or species of style, viz.: the simple
or lower, the gmnd or higher, and the middle.
83. The Simple or Lower Style.~It is characteristic of
this style, that, without disregarding the difference of written
and spoken
discourse, it imitates the conversational lan"uacre
0
:::>
.
of cu 1t1rnted society. It employs familiar words and idiomatic
expressions; prefers the figures of speech that give distinctness
to the more brilliant and passionate; the sentences are not often
very long or complicated, and are loose or mixed, seldom periodic; rnpiility and energetic condensation are foreign to it;
some degree of diffuseness characterizes it, Lut not unn ecessary
wordiness. It is approp1fate to discourses that address chiefly
and
the understanding,
Lut is not adapted to morn the f'eelin<rs
.
~
pass10ns. It is employed in nanating the events and describ- ,
ing the objects of onlin:try life, and in communicating instruction and inform:ttion.
The simple style ranges from the plain style, which rejects

.

'

DIVISION •OF STYLE.

all ornament, allows many negligences, and approaclies most
nearly to the language of comenmtio11-to the elegant. ]t is
susceptible of :t higl1 degree of beauty; accurnte k11011' h~1lge,
clear thinking, correct taste, and social relinc111e11t iu1part to it
a classic eleg:tncc. The ideas are conveyed so clearly aud ll'ith
such an absence of effort, that the reader's attention is not
tLttracted to the mode of expression, allll he is apt to irnagi11e
thttt he would ham e111ployed the same. 'l'he difficulty of
writiug in such a style is known only to those who attempt it.
'l'he extremes to Le shunned arc: 1st. Dryness arnl languor, :trising from the use of alJstract and comn1011place iifoas
and language, formal defo1itious and diYisions, slol'Cllly sentences, etc. 2d. Coitrseness and ndg:trity, iuto which many
are betrayed Ly false notions of familiarity.
~ 84. The Grand or Higher Style.-'l'his style iti appropriate

when treating of the most eleYated subjects of thought, and of
objects that concern t.he most ifi1portant interests of individuals
and communities. It supposes that the writer is a1foctcd to an
extraordinary degree by the object, that he is i11tlirn1ed 1rith
enthusiasm for what lie believes to he great and good, or with
moral indignation at some wrong.
The adequate expression of the noblest principles of our nature, when affected Ly elevated objects, will necessarily possess
force, grandeur, and sublimity. These qualities may be exhibited in various w:tys. Great thougl1ts are often clothed in a
majestic simplicity; sometimes the resources of language arc
· employed to present them with n, fullness and ma.gniticence
that will carry captive both mind and heart. 'fhe noblest and
most expressi1'e 11·onls are chosen; the boldest fi g ures are employed-as, personification, vision, sermocination. 'l'he sentences are sometimes brief and prngnant, cmweying the thought
in a form that seizes the attention and compels the reader to
reflect on it; at other times they are flowing and rhythmical.
From the nature of this style, as the expression of extraordinary excitement of the imaginMion and emotions, it is adapted
t-0 but a few classes of composition, aml only to subjects of great

~

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160

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STYLE.

•

Sec.84

importance. Further, it can not pervade an entire discourse,
but will be confinetl to the portions in which thought and
passion reach their highest stage. It can not be employed
unless the hearer or reader is in sympathy with the speaker or
wiiter.
'l'he faults to which th is style is liable are extravagance, exaggeration; the use of hollow, conventional phraseology, which
is snpposetl to gi,·e stiLteliness and pathos; the excessive use of
ligurntirn language, enervating and obscuring the ideas instead
of enforcing them-faults which s1iring from the want of knowledge, taste, and sinceritJ:.
85. The Middle Style.-This holds a position between the
simple and the grnnd style; it is the transition from the one to
the other, and combines some of the characteristics of both. It
resembles the simple in striving to communicate truth to the
understanding with clearness, and resemliles the grand in iLiming to influence the feelings and passions. It is bolder and
more 11rofusc in the employment of figures aml the various cmplrntic verbal forms, than the simple style; liut does not use
those appropriate to intense feeling, which are found in the '
grnnd.
This style is employed in all compositions intended not only
to inform aml convince, but at the same time to moYe the foeli11gs and passions. Its character varies with tl1e predominance
of one or other of these ends. vVhen instruction antl conviction
arc predominant, it approaches the lower i;tyle; \\'hen influencing the feelings is the main object, it partakes more of tlie
character of the higher.

Sec.87

DIVISION OF STYLE.

o•

...

lGl

the language; the sty le will lie simple when the appeal is
mainly to the understanding, and the other po,rcrs are called
into hut moderate activity; grand when intensity aud elerntiou
of passion and · emotion are to be expressed; am] the 111idLlle
style will he adopted when the aim is to cttll into hannonious,
Yigorous activity, understanding, foeling, and passion.

., I

'.

{

87. The application of the principles of General Rhetoric.-'rhe divisions just given arc too indefinite to affonl 11rnch
assistance in original composition and criticis111. Before the
student can leim1 to discriminate between the dillerent ki11ds of
sty le, he must become fa1uili~Lr with the application of the principles of general Rhetoric to discourse as detcnuiued by its
matter and aim.
This is the subject of the two renmining parts, which, as distinguished from the portion now completed, 1t1ay be co11sidcred
as constituting Special or Applied Rhetoric.
It treats of:
•
1. 'l'hc E lements, or E lementary Forms of Discourse.
2. The Principal Forms of Prose.

86. Ca.ution.-Thc student is to lie cautioned against sup\posing that a disconrse is necessarily confined to one of these
kinds of sty le. This erroneous op11110n has been fostered by
the prevailing custom of pcrnsing extracts from authors inst.cad
of entire works, and thus of judging of the whole from a mere
fragment. A ll three styles may I.Jc found in the same discourse. With a genuine writer, the thoughts control and shape
Rhet. 14

•o • ••N ._...-:-

~..

Sec. 90
,o

1'HE ELEflIEN7'ARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

..

163

3. Exposition, consisting m the explication of genernl notions and propositions formed from them.
4 . .Argumentation, lJy which tlte truth or fal sehood of ~t
proposition is evinced.
There can be no connected discourse without one or more of
these forms. In a composition in which several of them cuter,
one will p1;cuominate, giving character to the whole.

PART III.

88. Preliminary.-The objects of. thought can lie reduced to
two classes; Yiz., in<li vi dual objects au<l general 11otio11s.
Individual objects are of' two kinds. Either they are simultaneous wholes; i. c., those whose parts exist at the same time,
whether iudi Yidual ·things existing, or conceived to exist in
space; as, this tree, house, etc.; or particular mental states
and qualities of which we get a knowledge by consciousness;or they are snccessi\'e wholes; i. e., those whose parts are not
prescntcLl as existing at one time, but which arise in succcssire
periods of time; as, for example, a storm, a battle, the life of a
man-in genera.I, all changes in the internal a111l the external
world.
General notions arc fomrnd hy comparison and generalization; they have no one ohject precisely corrcspondi11g to them,
lmt are applicable to an indefinite number of objects; as, tree,
man, house.
\Ve nmy consillcr imliYidual mid general notions in themselrcs, or WC may cmlearnr to show that two Or more of thclll
arc related.
·

DESCRIPTION.

CHAPTER I.
.

DESCHIP1'ION.

89. Definition arid objects of Description.-A description

i; the exhibition in language of the coexistent parts and quali-

ties of an object of sense, whether real or imaginary.
Only co~~ __obje"cts are capable of description; purely siml)le objects or qmtlities, as a simple color, can not lJc described.
The objects of desc1:iption are all complex objects of perception,
such as natural products, creations of art, landscapes, states of
mind, characters of individuals and classes, etc.
-·

What are the Elementary Forms of Discourse ~-Corrc­
spomling to these distinctions we haYe, as the clements or ele- .
mentary forms of <liscoursc:
1. J)cscription, or t.he exhilntion in language of the parts of
a simultaneous whole.
2. Narration, or the exhibition of the parts of :t successi re
whole.

90. Requisites of a good Description.-'l'he aim of :t description is to enable the reader to form an inmge of the object
corresponding as nearly as lmssillle to that in tho mind of t.he
. writer. Its requisites are: 1. Trnth.-Tt must not only he
free from self-contradiction, lJut the features must be those of
the actual object; -the representation must harmonize witl.-the
reality.
2. Ooinpleteness (opposed to inadequacy or rnutilation).The essential features must be gi,·en; what subor<linate points
should lie mentioned will be determined hy circumstances.
Nothing should lie omitted that will promote the aim of the
writer.
3. Unity.-The mere enumeration of single traits does not

(162)

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•

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•

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I-

164

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec. 92

·Sec. 90

constitute a description. The parts rnu~t Le cQr~d in such
• '.t manner as to aflord n distinct inmge of a single olJject, so tlmt
It can be recognized and discri111innte<l from other objects. ·
4. Vivacity.-The object must be describecl as it appears to
the Sfil}fillS. The degree of vivacity differs in the various kinds
of clescription. The general rule for all is, to reject what is
abstract and vague, and to seek what is determinate and particular.
5. BrevUy.-The mind speedily becomes wearied with the
etfort to combine and retain n number of qnalities; in clcscription, more than in any other form of discourse, brerity is indispensable.

,,

•'

."

91. Difficulty of the art of Description.-The art of representing an olJject in fauguage is a difficult one. The chief
causes of the difficulty are: 1. 'l'be number of qualities beloll1:,>ing to an indiridual object is greater than it is possible to
comprise in a description. 'l'o attempt to give to it the fullness
of an actual perception would lead to an accumulation of details that could not be retained in the memory and united in a
si~glu i111age. 2. The properties and qua lities of the object £Q~ and are presentecl to sense as parts of a simultane~us
whole, wh ereas when representecl in laugua.ge they are exhibited in succession. Hence, to succeed in this art, grmt skill is
rm1uisite to analyze the object~ and to select itnd combine the
separate traits.

Determine the point of vfrw from wldch the descriptfon is to ue
92. Rules of Description.-1. The first rule is:

m~d~.

Tliis rule is laid down first, as it is 0111.v by complyiug
with 1t that we can bring the suuject, otherwi~c illimitable into
bounds, an<l <lecide what topics are to be selected and ~vhat
order is to be 1mrsued. 'fhe same object admits of being deSCiibed in. a Yariety of ways according to the occasion, th ~ end
. "
to be reahzed, etc. vVJien the film._ is merely to t>nahle the 1m. ~
t'.erstandiug to tlisti11g~1i~h. onP object from another, tlJe tlescrip- '
-~I""
hon approaches to dehmtwn, and, both in the nmtter selected
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DESCRIPTION.

1G5

and in the mode of treatment, differs from the more elerntCll
forms which appeal directly to the imagination. Among these
there is also a difference. A description may be objcctire,
i. e., may aim to present n vivid image of the object ns it is;
or it may be subjective, i. e., aim to exhibit the object togetl1er
with the emotions which it excited in tlw 111i11d of the write r.
Subjecti,•e description occurs most frequently in poetry aud
eloquence.
2. Select traits tlw.t arc clta.racteri8tic, i. e., such as give a
clear arnl correct im1wession of the r~al uature of the object;
interesting either in themselves or in their rela tion to the object ; determinate, concrete, as opposed to \vhatever is rn.gue
and abstract. Cnre must be taken to choose qnrtlities that
blend readily into one image; · out of a successire prescutation
of parts the imagitiation retains only snch as coalesce \l'ith
what follows " ·ithout losing their intli ridual characteristics.
3. A voirl accmnulating too many details. Tlie millll ran
retain but :t few, and when the a.ttention is m·ertasked tli c impression becomes feeble and ol>.~.~.il.!'.e. The force of description
depends more upon the character of the trnits selected than
upon their number. One strikin g circumstance 1vill often bring
an entire scene before the mind with greater Yirid11ess tha.n a
minute enumeration of the details. Carlyle says on this subject:
"On what quality of observing, or of style in describing, (]oes
this intense pictorinl power depcml ~ Often a sl ight circu111 sta.nce contributes curiously to the result; some lit.tie, and perlmps to appcaranc.e accit1cntal, feature is J>rcsent.ed; a lig ht
gleam which instant:tneously exci tes the mind, and urges it to
co1nplcte the picture and evoh'e the meaning thereof for itself.
By critics such light glennrn a1111 their 111agi ral in fl 11mwc lia.Yn
been frcr1uently noted; but the power to produce such, to select
such foatures as will produce the111, is geucrnlly treated as ;i
knack or trick of trade, a secret for 'being graphic'; whereas
those magical feat.s a rc, i11 t.rntl1, ratl1er im;piratio11s; a111l 1111:
gift of performiug thrn1, wl1icl1 ads 1111 c01 1sci011 slY , \1·itho11t. fore
tl1011ght, arnl as if by rntturc alouc, is pro1wrly a g1·11ius for

i .!i
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1.66

ELEMENTARY FOliMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec. 95

Sec. 9!

167

follow the order of presentation. In such cases it takes something of the form of a narrative, and has a higher degree of
vivacity than the ordinary form of description.

desc1iption. One grand invaluable secret there is however
which includes all the rest, and, what is comfortable, lies clearly
in e>ery man's power-to ham an open, loving heart, anu what
follows from the possession of sucl1. Truly it has lieen saiuemphaticnlly in these uays ought it to be repeated-it loving
heart is the beginning of itll knowledge. This it is that opens
the whole/111iULl, quickens e,·cry faculty of the intellect to do its
fit work-that of knoil"ing, anti, therefrom by pure consequence,
of vividly 11ttcring forth. Other secret of being graphic is
there none worth having; but this is an all-sutlicieut one."

'

DESCRIPTION.

'

94. Auxiliaries.-The vivacity of a description is promoted
in several ways. 'l'he oliject may lie co111p_rg·ed with similar or
with dissimilar olijects; associated circumst:tnces may lie gi ren,
or associatetl tlioughts, feefi~1gs, memories; the writer may interpret the outward signs, ming_~ _inferences with the desc1iption, and in various ways put the reader in possession of all
that is nearly or remotely connected with the subject.

93. Disposition of details.-The features selected must be
arrnngetl in a :rullw:.al order, so that the description may conespond to the object descrilied. In a large class of natural and
artificial products the order is giren with the olijects, so that
there is Yery little room for choice with reference to the parts
with which the description shall liegin. In complex subjects
greater lilierty is given. We may give first a general sta,tement of the c~ to which the object belongs; the t;ses to
which it is applieu; its ~_ine amL.size. We may then descend to particulars, dividing the whole into large_masses, and
then giving the details lielonging to each. The proper rell!:!'.iQ!!_
of the parts should lie observed; description is not a bare enumeration of separate traits ; the parts should cohere- the preceding should lie easily retained in the memory and connect
readily with what follows, and thus each pa1t illustrate and
support the others, and all combine into one distinct image.
In describing the social condition of a. people-the morals,
institutions, and the like-st.ill greater liberty is allowed. The
main oliject is to afford a distinct general view of the whole
co111plcx sulijcct i the process requires skill in logical ui vision.
Excessirn subdivision is to he guarded against, as it renders
the obtaining of such a general view difficult, if not impossible.
When an object is to be described that can not be apprehended in a single view, but the parts of which are presented
in succession, as in an extensive landscape, the description may

.

Rules of expression.-The expression in language varies
with t.l.ie mtture and end of the description. The mtturalist and
orator adopt a very different style in delineating the same ou. ject. The em~ct is destroyed uy employing rngue and abstract
terms; in all ca,ses the writer should aim to ·pa.rti2_l!.!~~1jze itncl
individualize. l\fotonymy and synecdoche both cont1ibute to
this end, and are of frequent use; likewise epithets suggesting
comprehensive details, points of resemulance, etc. Stereotyped
forms of expressions render a description feeule and commonplace, and should be unconuitionally rqjected; n~~el~y is imlispensaule to interest in this kind of discourse. Brevity, so far
as it is compittible with completeness, must alsoL~ studied.
No class of compositions is more Iialile to become tedious.

95. Description of natural and artificial produets.-The
objects included under this head are the products of art, as
buildings, machines, etc., and natural products, uoth organic
ahd inorganic. The aim is to exhiliit the peculiarities of the
object so as to enable the reader to discrimin:tte it from other
olijects. lt embraces: ·
1. A general notion or descliption, which serves to locate
the object.
2. A particular desmiption, giving the characteristic qualities of the object, its uses, etc.
No general scheme can be given for inorganic substances .
,.

Hi8

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec. 95

Some of the topics to be employed are: their germs, composition, appearance (form, color, etc.), locality, uses.
The topics for the dcsc1iption of an organic substance arc:
its partition (ma.in parts), characteristics of individual parts
.
.
crrcumstances of place, uses, division or <litforcnt species, appearance (form, size, color, etc.).
In describing animals, we must give the pl.!r§ical marks, and
also the inwar<l marks, such as intelligence, susceptibility of
education, relation to man, mode of lifo, and similar qualities.
The nrn,rks selected should be essential and clmmctcristic,
an1l shoultl be so grouped as to bring the rcl:ttctl 1pmlities
together.

'

Physical appearances.-Th e dcsciiption may be either of
scenery or of phenomena of nature. 'l'he former embraces
landscapes of greater or less extent. The main points to be
noticerl arc the relative 1wsition of the locality · its Jen "th
b
'
brea1lth; its main dirisions with their subuirisions,' noteworthy
circumstances and foatnrcs. vVhen the scene is an ex tcnsi,·c
one, .that can not be taken in at one view, the points will be
presented in succession, anu those uwelt upon which cirn the
most lively perception of the scene. To succeed in de;cription
of this kind, a writer must h:we the power to select from the
many objects presented to him those which will make the
stron gest in1pression on the iirn!ofoation and fe.el_ings .
'l'he description of natural phenomena-as of a sunset sun . thu11tler-stonn-is nearly related to narration. vVe have
nse,
lrcre a passing phenomenon connected with a particular locality.
The phenomenon can be grnsped as a whole only by taking in
the ch~es ~!l. th<:_l: occ~tr. The scheme for such a desc1iption
corresponds to tliat for the narration of an event. It contains:
1. The preceding circumstances, iucluding the C&.J,µl.e occa'
· '
"
.c
sion, indications, and the like.
2. The beginning, rnidtlle, and end of th~ ph~nome~on.~J}~
3. Its consequences, general and specrnl, immediate awl:/
' \
i;emote.

'

Sec. 96

1G9

DESCRIPTION.

In both t}iese forms of description great vi~~i:_city is imlispensablc. Particulars that address the senses should be brought
forwartl; a single striking feature that may lie expressed in a
iirwle word iS{;ften more effective than an extended cnurnerati01~ of tletails. Personification, metaphor, synecrlochc, aml
metonymy are freely used. 'rhe w1ity of descriptions of tl1is
class consists in a great measure in the impression umde upon
. tire feelings, whether joyous, serious, gloomy, s_11blime .. 'J: 111 ~
nature of the emotions to be awakeneLl by the en tr re <lescnpt101t
must be kept in dew and such characteristics selecte<l as arc
suitable to them; wli'at would disturb the harmony of the im- ·
pression should be omitted.

\l '

96. Mental states.-The states of thought, feeling, aml desire are tlescrihetl by giving the class to which ti1ey belong with
the specific cli1forence, aud adding, when greater fullness . is requi1wl, (1) the ca~es producing, the o~casio~1 ou which ~hey
arise, their object and end; (2) the moue m winch they ma~nfest
themselves, as lJy words, gestures, the countenance, a~t~~ns;
(3) their influence and e[.e.cts; (4) circu~11st:tnces mou1fy~ng,
checking, exciting them; (5) their peI.YID·s10ns; (G) co~-~1so n
with cognate and opposite states.
Characters.-The description of a character consists in gi vinrr a faithful, graphic delineation of the permanent, di~_11 ct_ive
qi~lities of wl~ch it is composed. It of import~tncc in .history, l,Jiogrnphy, an cl oratory. The subJects may be t~tken from
rcitl life, from history, or frol}l fiction.
In this kind of tlcscription the following points arc to be observed: ·
1. It should embrace both the rmtural aml acq ui1wl Pillllil·.iarities. In every character tliere arc certain predominaut tcnclencies, on which the others depend , from which they proceed,
and which modify and explain the rest. These fundamental
qualities, as they are the centrnl principles of activity, are to .be
selected. first, and made prominent throughout. The descnp-

!s

Rhet. 15

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l70

ELEMENT.UiY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec. 96

ti on must em brace the intellectual peculiarities, the moral
qualities, and temperament.
2. The external circumstances and relations which influence
the fonnati~ or'clmracter-such as nationality, religion, civili:r.atiou, education, etc., shoultl be carefully considered. The
vicissitudes in the life of the person shoultl be mentioned when
they throw light upon the character. The difference between
biography, which narrntes the events of a life, and delineation
of character, which exhiliits permanent traits, must lie kept
constantly in view.
3. The rnrious qualities must lie exhibited in their retJ,tion
govto rntch other. No character is alisolutely simple, i.
erned liy one principle exclusively; it is the result of a cg_llJlii1 ~11 of principles which act and react on each other. The
qualities must be shown as thus modifying and modifictl; the
chrk ancl liright sides should lie exhibited in contrast with each
other j tlw different degrees of worthiness and dignity of the
-rarious priu ciples should ue shown, as according to the p_re~omiua_~ce of one or another set of prinriples, a charncter is
1n·onom1cetl good or liatl, noble or !Jase, refined or coarse; care
must lie taken not to present .traits sernrctl from those with
which they are intimately connected, and without which they
convey a false impression; where there is apparent contratliction, it must be remornd, and the co~i(llillY of the character
malle apparent.
4. The description of a character seeks to give the inward
m:i11cipJes from which outward acts proceed, and which can lie
recognized only hy their ontwarcl manifestations. It is necessary, for the sake of clearness and vivitlness, to introduce the
H!Q\!~s by which the internal principles manifest themsel\'es;
to giYe the wonls awl clernls of the suliject, itnd the spheres of
life in which tile qualities hare lieen exerted; as iu the family,
society, profession.
5. The character may be coIUP..ai:.ed with other characters
either similar or different. A lengthened comparison of two
characters is called a parallel. It nrny begin with a summary
of what may lie. said in general of the two, and then proceed to

c.,

171

NARRATION.

Sec.97

indicate what wits common to the two, as to time, place, fam1.lv and other conditionin" circumstances, and then how they
·'
~
tlifiered
in respect to the same.
They may then lie compare d
as to the points of resemblance and tlifterence, as to character,
plans, htliors, the results of their labors.
General characters.-Instead of sketches of individual characters, we may have what are calletl genernl charncters. .'rhese
are dclinetttions of the peculiarities of a cli!fil! or profession, or
ql_,the manifestations of some virtue or vice. They occur in
"-""" ,{ '· s~itiric poetry and in didactic prose. The faults to lie arnicled
are unnaturalness, exaggeration, caricature, inconsistency.
The characters should appear such as ca.rt actually exist, and
the ·traits and actions lie such as harmonize with each other and
with the central principle.
,
. .

l4 . · .

~~

r
0 .j ,:.

1

r

·

i

·. J

··

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'

(

,

I

!

1r

,

I
1I/ I'

r'

c'; I i\.- ''
( .j

v

CHAPTER II. !J ._.-.../
1Y

97. The nature and aim of Narration.-A nanation is
the recital of a consecutive series of incidents forming a single
transaction. The facts narrntetl may be either those of the external world, including physica.J phenomena and the actions of
intelligent beings, or those of the internal world-what one
thinks feels tlesires. They may he simple, being composed of
'
'
. .
. t
lint a single
series of incitlents, or complex, contammg
a v~ne
Y
of subordinate or concurrent inci!lents.
Narration is the main end of 11istorical discourse; it enters
more or less largely into all classes of composition both in prose
ancl poetry. Its form varies with the end which the writer !'.as
in view. The simplest is that which it receives when the aun
is to give ttn accurate statement of facts that will enable otlie~·s
to fonn :t correct judgment of them, as iu otlicial reports and m .
many business trnnsactions. The higher forms are intencled td)

172

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec. 97

call into actirity the foelings and imagination; these forms are
principally regarded in Hhetoric. In many cases the narration
is not an independent clement of a discourse, hut is einployed
merel_y as the hasis of an argument or gcnernlizatio11, or as a
means of arousing the passions. In judicial eloquence particularly, it is a Yery important element. It is also frequently
employed for ditfactic pmposes, as to illustrate and enforce a
resson of prudence, morality, or religi'on, as in fables, parnhles,
~a l es .

98. The selection of partioulars.-The aim of narration
lJtJing co exhihit an eYent as a whole, in its rise, progress, and
completiun , it involves the necessity of a carefltl selection of
the particul.trs tlmt arc to he in corporated into it. 'l'he ai:t of
selecting is un1; of the most imlispensable accomplishments of a
good narrator. Those lacking this qualification do not discriminate hetwcen what is essential and what is not ·essential;
they hring together a crowd of particulars, hut give no clear,
connected presentation of the subject.
In the process of selectmg, the writer should be governed by
th e following rules:
1. There is in every event, liowever complex, one leading
fact of which the others are but the dependents. This must he
seized; otherwise the narrative can nut have unity. The unity
of an action may he in the subject (as in biography, the person
whose life is narrated; in history, the particular nation) , in the
place, or in the end or result. The place is of subordinate importance; the main thing to he attended to is the result. A ll
incidents that terminate in one final. event are parts of one
whole; it is only hy reference to this result that the several
incidents can he explained, and their phtce and importance
detcrminetl.
2. All the essential incidents must be given; that is, all
that are necessary to the 11rogress of the action. The omission
of any of these renders the narrative incomplete and unintelligibl e hy destroJing the connection between the parts. If the
uarrntive contains only a summary of the essential parts, it will

NARRATION:

Sec. 99

173

la.ck: Yirncity and interest; it is acconlingly neccssa.ry to am
plify them, and to incorporate :vhatever aills. iu imparting clearuess and vividness to the recibd. What is superfluous must
be omitted as it but retanls the movement of the narrntion and
'
.
. .
leads to obscurity. Regard must he had, as m descnption, tu
the relations of the details; there are some so related to each
other that if one be given the others must also be given.
'\\' hen this rule is neglected, the nairntive becomes false, althe separate statements arc all true.
thouo-lt
0
-3. The end to he accomplished by the uarration must be kept
in view. The same fact will he related in a different manner
in an official report, in (l,n oration, and in a didactic treatise.
4. The circurnsttmocs selected should interest us by addressiiw the inrngination and feelings. General statements convey
no"' distinct imaire and render a narrntion lifeless; it is neces. m
. as
sary to descend to particulars, and to present the facts
concrete a form as possible. The degree of interest depends on
the aim, and on the nature of the subject of the narratire.
Where the aim is merely to impart information, great Yivacity
is not so indispensabl e ; it can not be neglected in the higher
forms -of narration, as in history and eloquence. Internal phenomena--our thoughts, feelings, and desires-can not be presented so vividly; a narrati,·e of these is apt to be tedious;
where:is when they arc exhibited. as nmnifesting themseh·es in
outward deeds, the naLTative can be made higlJly interesting.

"' '

99. Disposition of the incidents.-The separate incidents
a1·e, in the next l)lace, to lie arranged in an. order that will
secure a continuous movement of the narra.tl\'e towards the
grnnd result.
1. As a general rule, the order of time is to he observed.
But we can not adhere strictly to this order in a ll cases-particularly when the eYent is complex, and involves several
parallel series of incidents. ' Great skill is then re11uired to
connect the pmts, and preserve t.h e unity and continuity of the
narrnti n1.
2. A narrntion should do more than simply exhibit incidents

,;

174

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec. 99

in succession; i.t ~houl<l exhibit one as arising out "of another,
an<l all as cornbmmg to produce one <lefinite res ult. It shoultl
thus account for the event and render apparent its necessity.
3. \Vhen the principal event has a number of subordinates,
car~ 1~mst be taken to preserve the prominence of the principal.
Tins is effected by the position giYen it, the fullness of its details, and style in which it is presented. \Ve must not penuit
a subordinate point to supplant the main one by a too extended
treatment of it, or by superior vividness of style. 'l'lie trnnsitio11s. from the ma~11 to the suboi·dinatc parts should (particularly m long narratl\'es) be distinctly marke<l.
4. A voi<l, as far as possible, shifting the scene. The needless transfer from one place to another is a strain upon the attention, and interrupts the continuity of the action. So also
with the act-0rs; it is a great adrnnt:ige to ha Ye one central
character around whom the ercnts may he gathered.
5. vVhen the narrative is a long one, and particularly when
there is a break in it, the labor of comprehending ant! remembering is lightened hy g1vlllg a summary of what precedes.
Th e sum~nary contains only the maiii. points arnl the general
result, with the omission of the details. It sen·es to recall
what has been gone OYer, and prepares the reader to resume
the thread of the story.
100. The parts of a Narration.-'l'he p:trts into which a
narration lllay be distributed arc:
1'he introclucl'i on.-The ol1ject of the introduction is to
awaken the reader's interest in the subject to indicate the
poi~t of view from which the fact is contempl~ted b.Y the writer,
or, m general, to make the realler acqnaintc<l with wlmternr is
necessary to a correct understanding of the course of m·e11ts.
It m.ay be a summary of such precedi11g e\•ents as luwe a direct
beanng upon the one to be narrated; a general description, or
tl.ie stateme~t. of a general principle. It is sometimes expedient to exlnlnt the result or the conse<l'iences of the :fact and
then. proceed to the 11arrnti ve of the events which Jed 'to it.
The mtrodnction should be briet; simple, and shoultl throw light

Sec.100

' NARRATION.

175

upon the subject. It is a common fault in giving yreceding
events to <>"O back to too remote a point.
Exposi~on.-Every action must lmve a beginnin~, rnidc~le,
and end. The exposition is that part of the narrat10n winch
· gh·es the be,,.innin(J' of the action. lt sets forth the rnrious
I .
.
circumstlrnces"' ttml "'relations in which the action too'
its nse.
The topics to be used are: the cause of the eYe~t, which ~n'
eludes the incitlents, institutions, circumstances winch leu to i~;
as also the character and motives of the actors; the phice m
which it occurred· aml the time or period at which it happened.
Th e ch<iractcristic~ of the time, its tendencies and civilization,
should lie mentioned.
Narra.titie proper, or the plot.-This contains the vari~us
circumstances, the complication of which forms the transact10n
to lie narratell. It exhibits the incidents in the order and manner i~ which they were called forth, and the causes operating
to produce them. 'l'he means employed and the mam1~r of
employing them must be stated; the circumstances that ~1ther
hindered or facilit:ited the progress of the event should m all
cases be prominently set forth.
Conclitsfon,_:._The conclusion contains the fin al result of the
action ; that to which all the preceding par~s tendetl, a11d in
which they are consumrnatell. The expectation of the reader
has been ;lirectecl to this pui11t duri11g tl1e cu lire 11arra lion; it
should satisfy expectiition, ai1d shouhl 11ot be so long as to cause
a.tte11tiun to !lag.

Consequcncc11.-It is often appropriate to add a statement of
the consequences, immedhitc and rc1uote, of the action on the
a!!'<'llts arnl on otlwrl'l.
· Rc!lections.-Hcllections are oftm1 nn i111portant part of a
narn~tire. The writ(~r rn:1y gin~ an \'~timatt· of' the f'i1:1rackr,
importanre, aml \\'ortl1 of 111" action. Tts 11at1m~, tl1c n1_utiYl'S
leacling to it, the rneans e111ployell, tlir~ m:iiniur uf tlo111g 1t, me
all tal~en into considerntiou, aml test.ell as to their co11fonnity
to law , rnorality, aml piety; or he lll:t,Y c0111pare. it \\iLl1 8i1ui~ar
events, oi· its opposites ;, or he rnay tlraw fro111 1t g<'1wrnl pn11ciples and practical lessons. vVhatever the character of the

176

'"+

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec.100

with th•

n"' '"' '"matt.,· nm· tone

u;, , ,.tl•7 1·;1

CHAPTER III.

>

· 102. Verbal explication.-The verbal explication of a no- (, -(
tion includes several processes:
.V
1. G ive the etymology of the word; i.
its origin, derivation, and composition. Tltis is necessary when the word is
foreign, or compound, or used in a derivati,·e or figurative
sense. It is frequently a means of discorering its signification,
and of precision in its use. It brings the concrete idea of the
radical before the mind, am1 suggests the analogy on which
the use of the word is founded. By this means what was but
a lifeless symbol is made a picture t,hat represents the idea with
vividness. Let one t:ike such words as precipitate, convert,
tribubtion, am1 many others which arc vague :irn1 alrntrnct, and
observe wlnit force is gi \-en to them when their prinmry meanin g is ascertained.
2. G ive a history of the cl1 anges in the form and signification of the wont In scientific works this is often Yery impor-

e.,

. 10.1. Expositio~ defined; its objects and aim.- • . .
tion is the explanat10n of notions and >.
•· •
Expos1notions. 'l'he term notion is I .
1l '.O~os1 t10ns formed from
l
ie1 e uset m 1ts technic I
c enote a gem·ral itlea of the point or points . . '. 1 . I.a sense to
of objects coi1~ci1lc. Its characteristics arc: rn " uc l a number
1. 1t coutmns one or 11wrc attributes or ' .. •
. .
. to a nu111ht·r of i1Hliri1lual s or cl· . . . 'l'I q iaht1es, ~1111 applies
designates the qualities or"'tnis1;~sslt1·~·
. ms.th e notwn animal
,.,,,
' 1e, seusat10n volunta ..
.
1011
;
these
marks
or
att
·1
t
.
{;
.
.
!
" IJ 1110t
the notion It ~1 1· t nm cs 01111 the mtenswn or tlcpth of
•
· "))I ies o many chssc
f l·
possessing these qualitiPS. as r '. I s. 0 0 uects that agree in
.
· ' ' , 10n, 101se, 11og etc. Thi
. . .•
s t itntes its cxtcns10n or b1.catltl. t. N ot10ns
.
'
s conY 'tr' ' gre it!
'ti
'
.J
i y w1 l
respect to their tkpth arn1 hre·ulth S
·
•
·
ome are s11nplP co t ·
mg 1nit a single attribute. otl1er , , 1
n am1

I: . . ., ,

~er of qnalitie~; others ag:tin are ~e~.; ~::'.0~1~ 0~'. :~:.;~ 1'.~~1 :;n~;n·~1

ng a great nuicty of classes. while I
"' . .' . '
, u1 taiuing \mt few classPs, or it ;1/iv be on~t: ·~~rs1 · a~·e1, _J11nited, con'> '1'1
'J
.) 1111 1vu uals.
· .
1
~.
. ·i notro
. ·
t \ ·te com nnat10n
. of the rnarJ-s
' o1· •·1tt
· · ·11:b ut es m
no ar ntrnry, \mt. co1Tcl:iponds to tl • ... I . .
'
'.1 is
IL ](.,L UcLtlll e of the oh;ect
to which it is applieil.
3. The notion is expressed in Jan 0"' , (J'
symuol.
.
u,t,.,e hy itn arbitrary
. From their nature it is apparent that notion
.
.
.
s me peculiarly
liable to ouscurity. Tl • . + .
IC Ill.LI ,g OJ attnbutes may not I
I I
~r~sent tbo the 1~1ind; essential qualities lllay be' ornitte;le· c ear,!
11s not elon(J' 111 .,. to it
,
.
, qua 10
°
ni.ty 0 n mtroduccd · tlie , . · ·, 1
' f cssent.1,L and
no11-essential may he confomH1et1. fro 111.
·
•·
any o these causes a

t

notion may be wanting in tlistinctness, completeness, :mcl ac. cumcy. 'l'he aim of exposition is . to guard against all these
defects, anll to impart to our knowledge clearness, fullness, and
onler. In the exposition of a notion the point8 to be noticml
are: the name by which it is expressed; the notion itself; its
relation to other notions.
\.,

EXPOSITION.

•

177

EXPOSITION.

Seo. 103

reflections, they must be su'·uoH· 1·ma t e to the narraf
· ·
' ' Ive, anse
naturally fron1 it and be 'ti . .

I
-~

tant.
3. Give the equivalent terms, or synonyms. These do not
tlefine the word; if they arc better known than the term to be
explained, they suggest the sense, but, in most cases, only
vaguely.
.
4. liesolve the arnliiguity of the term. The Yarious meanings of an ambigi.10us term ought to lie giYen Lefore attempting to define it; it is thus separnted from tlu: notions with
which it is liable to be coufoundeu. See Sec. 47, 3.

103. Logical explicatiou.-The logical explication of ii notion consists in analyzing it, first, as to its t1eptl1 , or i11te11 sio11,
and, seconuly, as to its Lrca.tlth, or extensio11; i. e., in defining
and diYilling it.

ii

178

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec.103

Definition.-Definitiou is concerned with the intension of a
notion ; it is a uril\f, precise declaration of its essential charncteristics. The strictly logical definition contains two elements :
(1) the genus of the defin ed notion; i. e., the marks or attrilJutes
that it has in comnion with some other notions: and (2) the
specific dilforence; i. c., the marks lJy which it is discri111inated
from these same notions. 'l'hus, if H.hctoric lie defined the
theory of prose, the genus is theory; lly this its similarity to a
nnmlH\r of other notions is pointed out; as, the theory of poetry,
of music, «:tc. Tl1e specific 1lifference is prose; by this mark
this one tl1eory is distinguished from evci·y other.
A logical definition gives only the essential marks, and of
these only those which are original ; that is, such as :tre derived
irnmelliately from the notion itself, and from which others can
be derived, but themseh·es are not deduced from any other
quality. 'l'he possession of reason is an essential arnl ori gin:\,)
mark of the notion 'man , and must enter into its defini tion;
lint the capacity of speech is a derivative essential, being involved in and deduced from the attribute rntiona.lity; it can
not therefore form pmt of a logical definition. It admits only
posifo·e characteristics. It tells what the object is ; out negative statements merely sl1ow from what a notion is excluded,
and do not show what it contains. The test of a good definition is its ade11uacy; it must apply to all of the class, and to no
other. vVhen it <loes not embrace all, it is too narrow; when
it in cllllfos 1nore than the define<l notion applies to, it is too
broad. \Vhen man is defineLl to he a rntional h1~ ing, the 1fofinition is too uroiul; when 1U1eturic is defined the art of argumentative lliscourse, the tlelinition is too narrow.
The deliuition shoul1l UC expressed ll'ith gnmte:st urerity ; tl1e
" ·onls should lie used in their onlirmry acceptation, and he imrne tliately intclligiule. The accumulation of abstract terms,
and the use of figurnti\'e ex pressions, should lie guarded
against.
A definition is intelligible only so far as we understand the
meaning of the terms employed in it. When the urief, austrnct
defini tion is not sufficient, its terms may lie analyzed and de-

Sec.104

EXPOSITION.

179

finetl; the new definitions may again he sulJjected to the same
process, until notions are reached that, as simple, do not admit
of definition, or, as well known, do not need it. It often requires a series, or system, of definitions to secure the requisite
·
degree of clearness.
It is a nut uncommon error to attempt to define ideas that
arll__ from their nature indefinable. The limits of deJinition
should lie urnlerstood, and the writer ought to IJe aw:mi what
kiud of definition the object is susceptible of, if it lie definaule
at all; he will otherwise fall iuto ouscurity allll error. Siu1ple
notions and notions of individuals can not lie defined logically.
In the first, a higher notion under which to uring them can not
be found; in the latter, there can lie giren uuly a 11un1ber of
accidental qualities lJy which one illllividnal is distin guished
from others.
A writer, even in a scientific treatise, is not restricted tu
logical defin itions; he is at lilJerty, and is oftcu compelled to
use in their ste1t1l, or to add to tl1e111, what tl1e logician s call
descriptions. These contain qualities which are nut essc utial,
hut am better known or more easily suggestell to others, and
are therefore lJetter suitell to tl1 e crnls of lliscoursc. 'l'hns 111ay
lie giren the properties of an ouject; i. c., qualities th;tt helong
exclusi\'ely to the class, not deducibl r, from the qualities contained in the definition, out always found in connection with
them; or so me attriuu tcs which the olJjcct has in common \ritl.i
other objects; or even merely accidental qualities.

104. Division.-Dirision is t.he analysis uf a notion as an
extensiYe \\'l1ule; it µ;ires the subo nli11ate l·lasses of a 11otio11 ;
im aim is to gi\·e ordl'!" an1l rn111pld1 :ness to om k11011·il:ilge.
The uotiun is called the 1liritletl \\'hulc; its parts, the di1idi 11 g
members, wliich, with reference to their n:latio11 to eatli 11thl'r,
are called coonli mttes, mid \\'ith refonmce tu t h~ di rilled 11otio11
are ca lled snbonlinat1•s or ApPcies.
The principle of Division.-'J'he most important arul diffi.
cult part of the procedure is to find the priuciple of di vision.

,. .

180

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec.104

'This is a quality belonging to some of the species, but not to
all, by means of wlitch the higher notion or genus is split into
parts. 'rhus, if we are to <lid<le the notion science, we fin<l
that some sciences are concerned with the facts an<l la,rs of the ·
material uni n!rse, and others with the facts an<l laws of mind,
and accordingly we di ritle science into physical mul lll ental.
It is plain that as a notion may. he contemplated front ditl'cnrnt ·
points of view, different principles of dirision can be chosen a111 l
difforent didsions malle. The notion maukiml 111ay be tlivi<lecl
lrith reference to color (Caucasi:w, Negro, etc.); with reference
to regions occupied by them (European, Asiat.ic, etc.); with
reference to descent ( fnclo-Gen11anic, Shemitic, etc.); with reference to sex, age, culture, occupation, etc.
As to the principle of di,·ision, the rules to be followed are:
1. Them must be but one for the same series. It may be a
complex uotion, but it must not be changed. If it is, there
will not be a true di,·ision. Sliould, for example, rnankiu<l be
tlirided according to color arnl age, we should have a cross
di 1·ision; some belonging to one of the members 'woul<l be
found in the otl1 er.
2. The principle chosen must ho adapted to the imrpose of
the writer. Different sciences arul dilforcnt purposes require
entirely different di,·isions. · A (listribution of men that wouid
be of importance in political economy, woul<l not be adapted to
the purposes of the moralist. ·
3. Jt should be fertile; i. e., afforu the greatest number of
important detern1inations. It should accordingly be an essential, not an nccillental 11uality. The division of animals according to the number of legs wouhl be l.nuTen.
The process can be repeated on tho subordinate notions;
eitch of them can be cliddell, nnd their parts again he subdi rilled until notions are reached that cont:iin under them only
individuals. TJ1e resolving of these latter into their parts is
sometimes call ed di stribution. In the sciences, in whi ch it is
important to bring together related, ancl to separate the different parts, the gnulations of notions are marked by different
tl'rms. The graml dirisions are: I. Primary Divisions; II.

Sec. 105

EXPOSITION.

181

C lasses; lll. Orders; IV. Genera; V. Species. Several of
these are subdivided; as onlers, i11to suhurUiuate orders aml
tribes; species, into variety and race.

Laws of Division.-The laws of division are:
1. The didding members must, when taken together, Le
equal tu the di rilled whole.
2. The divi1ling membtn-s must exclude each other. ·
3. 'l'he «1i risiun 1t1ust uot be forced; the nm11ber.of members
is not to be determined by some prcconceiYed scheme, but by
the nature of the notion and the special purpose of tl1 e lliri sion.
Excess of sym111etry should be avoided; it docs not follow that
hecause one coordinate is di videll, the others also should he.
4. The division shouhl not he too minute; cxcessire s ubdivision, instead of 1tidi11g in obtai11ing a geuernl view of the
whole and of the relations of the imrts, causes intlistiuct11ess
an<l confusion.
105. Exposition of the notion in its relations.-Tlie foll
explication of a notion requires, in addition to its dcfi11itio11 a11ll
division, the consideration of its Yariuus relatio11s:
1. The antecetlents and cousel[Ueuts, the circumstances of
time and place, arnl especially the relations of cause arnl effect,
should be mentione<l. U nder cause, are in cluded all the circumstances without which an event could not li:tre occmTctltlie occasion aml instrnments ernployccl, as well as the eflkient
~au se. The c11umerntio11 of the cflects is a very important part
of the exposition of a large number of sul1jects. The most i111portant ought to be gh·en, am1, if numerous, he classilietl.
Th e less important are either 0111itted or but Lriefly 111e11tiuned.
2. The notion shoulll be comparctl with similar notions. It
must first he shom1 wl1 ercin the notions agree; ns, tlmt they
uelong to the same genns, or can be refcnccl to the same cause,
or have the same end, etc. The poi11ts of agree111 e11t sho11lcl he
in important qualities; mere superficial resc1111.llauces can girn
no just view of the real nature of the ohjects compai·ed. But,

~/ l

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Sec. 107

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec.105

as all comparison implies a dilforence, it must, in the seconJ
place, be shown wherein the objects differ. Here, again, care
is required not to mistake sliglit points of difference for eSS!:ll·
tiat ones.
3. 'l'he notion is furth er to be ex plained hy compa ri ng it with
its opposites; 'i. e., s11!·.h as are coBtradictory or contrary. 'l' l1e
contrast excites attention, brings to view the qualities that are
to IJe 111ade prominent, and separates them more distinctlv front
qualit.ics \\"ith which they are lialJle to IJe confoimtled. '''hen
the simple mention of the opposite notions does not give sufficient clearness aml fullness to the exposition they rnay be ana.
lyzed and their parts enumerated.
.

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183

- ideas whid1 do 110!, lie within tlH' ~plwre of expPrie1 we, t hiH is
the Ollly mode by \\ 11icJ1 \\ e ca.n wgge:-;t tlielll tu utl 1ers. \ \. e
arnil 011rndns of it, fur ('X a11111lt- , \1l11·11 i11 em1ca111r iu,!.!· lo n~liibit the relation of Uod tu the hu n1a11 race, "e de:;nibe !Jim
as our Father.
'

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107. A scheme of Exposition of a N otion.-A ~r h ('11 1l~ for
the ex positioll of 11 utio11 s, \Yit.h su111e of th1' tupi1'H to he 11s1·i1 , is
here given. It 11·i1l be 111tderstoud that all thetupicsgi1e1t cau
not be ltpplied in enffy sulJject.

'

I. Explication of the term by which the notion is exWhen possible a si ngle term slwuld be clwsell i1rnteatl
of a phrase.
1. G i,·e the synonym ous 'rnnls.
2. G irn the etymology of tl1 e \\Onl , including its conq1osition, origin, primary and derirntirn signif"ieatio11 s, :tllll the history of its changes in form a nd meanin g.
3. Resolre its ambiguity; giYing its pop nlar a11d sci r11tilic
use, an <l !he sense in whic11 it is to IJe uuderstood ill the discourse.
pr~e d .

103. Additional instruments of Exposition are:

1. Examples.-By an example is meant a particular case,
either a n indi ridu al or species, which is taken as the representative of the entire class. Tims, the botanist explains the
nature of a class of plants IJy means of a sin gle one ; the min. eralogist takes a single specimen to exhibit th e qualities of a
class of minerals. The individuals are of no importance except
so far as they are representative of a large number; all merely
indi vidual. peculiari ties are overlooked, and those dwelt upon
w!Jich are characteristic of the class.
In selectin g an example, we shoulll seek for one in which the
point to he elucidated is prominent, and in which there are th e
fewest quali ties likely to mislead. As it is not always possible
to do this, it is sometim es necessary to employ a number of
examples, so that hy exhibiting the principle under a niriety
of circumst1mces, its distinctive character may be apprehended . . )/

J

2. Analogy.-' Vhen the direct resemblance of a notion wi th
ot,hers can not be ex hibited, it may be illustrated by means of
analogies. 'l'wo objects may not IJe alike, yet they may stand ·
in identical relations to oth er obj ects. A nalogy, taken in its
stri ctest sense, is identity of relation; as, for example, the relation of 2 to 4 is identical with that of 8 to 16. In elucidating

II. Explication of the Notion in itself.
1. A nalyze the notion in its in tension. 'l'his i11 clwl es:
(a) The <lcfinition , or 'the !leclarntion of its origi1ial arnl
essential quali ties, wltich, in its 111ost ·concise form, is a logical
<lefiniti on compose1l of the genus arnl specific difference.
(b) The <lerirntire esseutials, or qualities in\'oh·e<l in allll
deducible from tl1 e defini tion.
(v) Logical description, or a statement of the properties allll
accidenta l qualiti es of the ohject.
2. Analyze the notioll'in its extension. The limits to \Yhich
the dir ision is to I.Jc carried depends upon circu111 stauces. It
may he either a simpie <li rision or ii classificlttion.
Ill. Explication of .the Notion in its relation to other
Notions.

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Sec. 109

ELEMENTARY FOHMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 107

ARGUMENT.

185

negatively. As ernry affirmation inrnh·es the denial of the
contradictory judgment, we rn ~,y affirm :t priuciple both directly
and by denying the couuter-proposition; as, "All our kuowledge is from experience; there is no int.uitin knowledge."
Frequently a proposition is not intelligible without the statement of its opposite ; as, "The poet is born, not made." The
negati re is necessary in such cases to fix the li111its of the positi,·e assertion; C\'CU \Yh eu it is not thus absolutely imlispensalJl1•, the co1111Jination of the t1vo forms contril.Jutes greatly to
the. con ect umlerstrmrling of the proposition.
4. The proposition may IJe compared with others enouncing
the sttme or a similar judgment. In exami11i11g the writiugs
of an author, the Yarions statements of an important principle
should be compa.red; as these li111it, qualify, and explain each
other, we cau gather from them the exact tho11gl1t, whi ch 11rny
11ot be fully gin•11 i11 ally of tl1n 8l'Jlarntc propo8itio1J8.
5. The ~enernl principle may be 111 :-Hle i11tt'lligililc· hy l'Xam - ·
pies. The rules to he ohscrvetl are the s:m1e as those gi re11 for
tlw elucidation of notions.
G. The j111lg111cnt may IJc co11sideretl iu its rclatious to otlu~r
· juilgments. Herc especially may he shown from ll"hat it is <lcrfred, and what conse<pieuces, inferences, and a pplicntious may
be drawn from it.

I. Mention adjuncts, circumstances of time, pface, etc.
2. Give its cause, occasion, instrnments. ·
3. State fully the e1focts, classifying them if numerous.
4. Compare with si111ilai· or cognate notions.
5. Compare with dircrse, contrary, aml contradictory notions.
U. lllustrate by example and analogy.

108. Exposition of a Proposition.-In a proposition notions are bound together so as to form a single thought. It is
the object of ex position to ascertain and exhibit this thought
precisely and full y.
·
1. To accomplish this it is necessary, in the first plac~, to
fix the mea11i11g of the terms, and to analyze the notions according to the method already given. Special attention sliould IJe
, given -to fignrativn expressions, and to qtmli(ying words and
phrases. The division of the lead ing not.ions is an important
m eans of giv ing clearness to the statement of a general principle; what is affirmed of a whole class is IJy this means sho"7n
to be true of all the sul.Jonlinate• classes; ancl inste:ul of the
vague impression produced by a general statement, there is the
distinct one arising from dwelling u1ion a number of particular
statements.
2. The nature of the senten ce should be noticed. Sentences
are declarative, interrogative, i1;1perative, optative. vVhatever
its form, it is necr.ssary to draw from it the judgment intended
to he expressed. It may also be simple or complex ; if com-.
plex, the various judgments which are combined mnst be cliscriminate<l, and exhibited in their relation to each other.
3. A proposition may be expounded by repeating the truth
in other wonls. There are various modes of \Tarying a statement. It may be expressed literally and figuratirnly. . It
may be given in an. amplifie<l and in a sententious form.
°"Then this mode is chosen, the expanded <leclaration ought to
precede, and tlie. brief follow; by the first, the thought is made
intelligibl e; by the secon11, it is conn~ycil with energy and
impress1,tl on the me111ory. It may Le given positi\·ely and ·

CHAPTER IV.
.ARGUl\:IENT.

+

1 109. Argument: what, and what implied in.-An nrgnrnent is a series of proposit:ion s or judg ments hy 11·J1i ch tl1c trnth
or falsehood of a gfren proposition is evi nce<l. H always implies tlouh t or disbelief in reforc11 ce to :1 pa.rt.ienl ar question; its
aim is to protlnce c01n-iction. ln thi s it tliffcrs from cxposit·.io11,
which seeks to rcmoYe ignoran ce as to the urtturc a.nil relati011s
of notions. When doubt or <lisl.Jelief results from ignorn11ce,

RIJ el.. 16
.i

186

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

· Sec. 111

Sec.109

ARGUMENT.

187

1. The Thesis, or tlmt which is laid down to be prove11. It
must be a categorical proposition, i. e., a direct, uncond itional
assertion of the agreement or disagreement of t wo notions.
·
2. The Premises, or reasons, which are juugrnents true anu
well known by which the truth of the thesis is established.
'l'he force :md validity of the reasoning depend upon the
truth of the premises, and their relation to each other and to
the thesis. vVhen the premises are true and their counection
strictly logical, the conclusion is true. B ut the argument is
not yalid when <tny of the premises are false, or wh en, though
true, t hey ttrc not in proper relation to each other, or when they
are less known a nd certain than what we would prove by tl1 cm .
The certain ty of the co11clnsion can never be grca.ter than that
of the weakest of the premises. ·

e xposition a;lonc suffices to remove it. In most cases the truth
or falsehood of the question in dis1mte can be est:tblished only
· by showin g that it agrees with or conflicts with some a dmitted
truth.
Nature and degrees of Conviction.-Conviction inust not
be confounded with mere subjective belief. We may not be
a ble to giYc the reason why we believe; our belief may be the
result of ignorance, prej udice, education, or passion. B ut t.his
is not conviction; which is a feeling of certain ty founded upon
a clear apprehension of the gronmls or reasons of our belief.
As it is t he aim of argument to produce condction, it must set
forth the reasons why :t proposition is affirmed or denied. It
docs not merely assert that it is true or false, I.mt shmvs why
it is.
Comiction is of various degrees. When tl1e possibility of
• doubt is excluded it is called certainty, or a bsolute ce1fainty.
'rite objects about which we c:tn obtain absolute certainty are
few; we must he co11t.ent in most matters with probability;
that is, with the lik elihood th at the assertion is t rne. Prolmbility is a lso of Tarious degrees-from a stage but little remon!ll from doubt to one approa.c hing certainty. \ ,Ye disting uish the ditfo reut degrees of probability by using such adjectives as, slight, considerable, high, etc.

111. Preparation of the Question.-·when the question is
complicated, a number of prcli111inary procedures a rc often necessary to prevent misunderstamling, to obviate <liflicul tics, and
to prepare for the in trod uctio n of the a rg um ents. 'l'hese prelimin aries arc included umlcr t he hc:td of--Thc preparation of
the Q uestion.
Importance of.-'Ihe first rule to be ouse1Ted in arguing
upon any question iHto lay do1n1 with the greatest possi'ule precision the proposition that is to be estalJlished. Tl1is is necessary in onler to select a ppropriate arg um ents. vV hen tl1ere is
uncertainty as to wh at conclusion is to lJc rea cl1ed, it is impossiule to select premises from which it ca.n be naturally or necessarily <lcdn ce<l. Some of the worst Yiccs of reasonin g, such as
beggi ng the question a nd irrelevant conclusion, often result
from the neglect of this rule.
It is also necessary in order to detennine the relations of the
various argu ments employe<l. Jn discussing n question, it is
often necessary to introduce snhonlinate questions, wl1ich have
to he settled before " ·e can proceed " ·ith the m ain a rg ument.
There is great danger that in discussin g tl1cse subordinate
points the main issue will be lost sight of. This occms most

Argumentation is either Positive or Negative.-PositiYe
a rg umentation, or confirmation, establishes the truth of a
11roposition; negative argumentation, or refutation , shows the
falsehood of a proposition or the want of valillity of an argument.
Both may enter into the same discourse; both employ tho
sam e forms of reasoning; I.mt as they have points of difference
tha t require to l.Je noticed, they will be treated of separately.
110. Confirmation.-Confinmtion consists in proving tho
truth of a par ticular proposition l.Jy showing its connection witlt
somo admitted truth. lt cont1tins:

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188

Sec. 111

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 111

frer1uently in ornl discussio11s. The only means of preventing
this evil is to fix clearly the issue, recall it frequently, and judge
of a ll that is introduced by its relation to it.
The rule is to Le observed even when. circumstances make it
expedient not to enounce explicitly the thesis. The clearness
of the writer's view will be comnrnnicated to the entire discourse; the reader will gather from its drift the precise point
to Le proved, and will receirn the impression intended to Le produced. W hen, on the otl1 cr hand; t here is the least vague11ess in the writer's view, the reader will not be iLule to tell how
far he agrees with him and how far he differs from l1im ; will!·
often mistake the question; and w ill fail to see the bearing and
force of his reasoning.
·

fJ.
V

Mode of preparing the Question.-'l'he means towards pre- .
paring the question are:
1. Explic:ttion of the t~rms of the question. The rules for
this process are g iven in the chapter on Exposition (Sec. 102107). 'l'o what exte11t the expli cation should be carried depends on the rnLturc of the subject. A full exposition is sometimes nce(]ed; on other occasions a brief resolution of the arnLiguity of a single term will sutlice. It ought not to he carried
further tlmn is indispensable to prepare the way for the arguments to be prese1itcd. Only such terms shoul(1 Le explained
as are liable to Le misunderstood; :Lnt! only those meanings
should he girnn which affect the question.
The careful (\iscrirnination of the meanings of words aids in
fiuding argumeuts, guards the reasoner against the many errors
arising from ambiguous words, and prepares him to r11eet the
objections, solve the difficulties, and expose the fallacies origi~nating from the same source.
~" 2. Fixing the 1mturc and e~nt of the question. (The process is explain ed in Sec. 108). The character of the reasoni11g varies with that of the proposition to Le proved. · A rguments tlmt woull1 be valid to establish a matter of fact, are not
suited to prove a purely theoretical proposition; so, also, what is
sullicient to show tho possiuility of an ouject, will be inadequate

U

189

ARGUMENT.

to prove that it actually is or that it must be. The exact
nature of the assertion must be settled before searching for
arguments; whether it is of a nmtter of fact or a general truth ;
whether of what can Le or is likely to be, or of what actually
is, or of wlmt must Le; whether it is made aLsolut.cly or " ·ith
qualifications and restrictions. 'l'l1e quantity of the terms
should Le rnarkl·d. In ordinary con.-crsation \\"C allo'r rnany
ellipses, but in r0asoni11g we must guard against the rnisu11t1erstarnlings that :iri~"C from- their use. vVJ1 cn any of tl1c terms
arc urn1esignatcd, so that it is nut apparent in what extent
they are to Le understood, the proposition is arnLiguous. "A
reasoner who' expresses particular assertions without explicit
li11litn,tio11, must du so cit.her because he desig11s tu uc a111\Jiguous, or because he thinks confuse(Uy, or because he is (perhaps
· unconsciously) suppressing some step in the reasoning, " ·hieh
it would Le rigl1t to force out into explicit statement." [Spalding's Lorpic, l'J.1· 59, GO.
'l' he question may· Le a complic:itcd one, involv in g a number of distinct points, as is the case in man y reso luti011s. The
complex proposition is then to be resolved into its screnil
points or heads, in on1er that the arguments Learing upon each
may Le distinctly brought out and placed in their proper connection.
3. The statement of what is co.!!_~cded. In e1·ery controYcrsy
two things must Le carefully distinguished. There are certain
points in which botli sides agree, mu! which therefore arc ex- ·
eluded from the discussion; arn1 there is a defi11ite question
proposed for decision. It is advisable to state what points are
nut disputed, or what, as not an essential pa.it of the question
although connected with it, is eonccded. By this means tl1 e
ren,J issue is set in a clearer light, and many prqjudi ccs and
false impressions a.re rc1i10vetl.
When the writer does not wish to argue a particular point
involved in tl1e r1uestion, but ''"ould reserve the right to do so
afterwan1s, lie may waive it. This is not tl1e same as conceding it; :ind he 1111rnt make it plain, tl1at whil e declining for tl1c
present to dispute it, he docs not admit its truth.
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190

Sec. 113

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 111

After having shown wliat is not in dispute, the thesis should
be bid down with all the necessary limitations aud qualifications. If any of the original terms are ambiguous, parapllrases
and definitions sllould be substituted. Care ought to lie taken
not to ad ranee more than the writer intends to establish. The
conclusion of the reasoning must be identical with the thesis as
laid down.
4. Enumeration of the ntr-ious contrary opinions. In affirming one proposition \Ye may deny seYeral contrar,v ones; as in
asserting the superiority of the republican form of government,
we YirtLrnlly deny the superiority of every other form. In difficult and abstrnse questions it is important to stat.c explicitly the
contrary O]linions of which the thesis is the denial. The advantages of so doing are, that it prevents _the hearer from supposing that there is hut a single alternatile, and, by exhiliiting
the thesis in contrast with the several antagonistic opinions,
presents it with greater fullness and clearness.
112. Invention of Arguments.-The question having been
prepared, the reaso ns which evince the truth of the thesis are
in the next place to be gathered and arranged.- We have .to
consider, first, the Yarious kinds of reasoning, or the division
of arguments; next, their selection, and then their arrangement.
113. Direct and Indirect Reasoning.-A proposition may
be proved either directly or indirectly. In the first case the
grot!.!!Jls or reasons are laid down, and the truth to be proved
is infer~d from them. Jn the second case the procedure is
more complex. The truth of the thesis is not proved immediately, but by showing the gilscl10od of its co11tradictory. Indirect reasoning is founded upon..tile!ogicril -1aw,that of two
coutradicto_ry judgments only one can be true, and one must be
true, so that we arc warranted ·to conclude from the truth of
one contradictory to the falsehood of the other, and from the
falsehood of one to the truth of the other. The usual mode
of procee1ling is, to state in a disjunctive proposition both the

ARGUMENT.

191

thesis and its contradictory, and then, assuming tltc truth of
the contradictory proposition, to show that it involves some
false principle, or leads to consequences that arc 1nanifestly
false. The proposition assumed must conse1pwntl,v be false,
and its contradictory' (the thesis we design to prove) must be
true.
Ex.-lf the thesis is, Man is a free agent, then the antith esis is, Man
is not a free agent . To prnve the the sis directly, we shonl tl l1arn tn lay
· down positive arg um ents; as, the ·co11sc iousness of tl1 e pow" r uf contrary
choice, the consciousness of responsibility, etc. The indirect prnof would
tn.ke some such form as this: Man is either free or he is not free. Let
us assunrn that he is not fr ee. If he is not fr ee, hll can 11ut, in cases of
conflicting moti n•s, choose, but must blindly follow one of the impulses.
Ilut we know fron1 consciousn ess that ho can decid e bet.ween eonllicti11g
motives; thereftfre it is false that he is not free. He mu st therefore be
free.

i.

Conditions of the validity of Indirect Reasoning.-In
order tlmt judirect proliation may be valid, we must be sure, in
. the first place, that the proposition ass11mctl as a i 1remisc is
the contrndictpry, not merely a ·contrary of the thesis. There
can be but one. CO_!l_tragictory of a given judgmcu t; tl1ere rna.y
be sernrnl judgments l.n contrary opposition to it. 'IVhilc in
asserting the truth of one proposition we deny that of all its
contraries, we do not in __denying a proposition assert the truth
of some one of its contraries. If we deny that n color is red,
we do not affirm that it is blue. In the second place, the falsehood or absurdity to which the contradictory judgment has liecn
reduced must be real. To show tlmt somethi11g is uncommon
or incomprehensible is not proving that it is impossililc.
Comparative advantages of the two methods.-Thc 1lircct
method is the one ordinarily used. I f is more in accordance
with the natural course of thought to deduce the truth of a
proposition from its positive grounds. Both 1{1cth0«ls are valid.
The indirect excludes the contradictory more definitely, and
often gives a greater certainty tlian the direct, hut it offers no
reasons to confirm the truth. The direct, on the other hand,

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1!)2

ELEMENTARY FORM.S OF DISCOURSE. S·ec. 11~

affords the satisfying conviction that arises from perceiving the
connection of a truth with other undoubted truths. The indirect is much more liable to follttcies.
As a general rule, tlu~ direct .is to be prefene11. There are,
however, occasions in which it is more conYenient to employ
the indirect. ' 'l'he nature of the subject or the character of the
.audience may make direct proof difficult; or the contradictory
of the thesis is better known, and we can. exhibit its absurdity
in a striking manner. It is often the only means of dealing
with the ig~~nt and l!_l·eju~l~~ll, am~ 'rith unnmsonablc aml
1lisingennous opponents. --Palse doctnncs and untenable, pretc11tious systems :tre in no way so safely and surely exposed as
by showing their internal contradictions, and that they lead by
legitimate reasoning to the impossi\Jle and the absurd.
Reasoning is most elfoctual when the two methods are combine11. In this case, we first show that no other proposition than
the thesis can be true, and then show why it is true.

'.

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.. 114. Dirnot mumniog <li:dcd into tlo<luotirn nntl intl"">
ne.
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Sec, 114

ARGUMENT.

193

The sumption and subsumption form the antecedents
or premises; the conclusion is sometimes called the consequent.

clu.sfon.

Inductive Reasoning.-Inuuction, in its widest sense, includes all the modes of r~asoning by which what is unknown is
inferred from what is known. The conclusion is not merely an .
c~plicit statement of what is implicit in the premises; it contains more tlia,n is involved in them. The laws of fonual logic
do not a~s,ve1; -to trn£tfie-validity of this mode of reasoning; it
has its own special laws, which are given in inuuctive logic.
It includes:
1. Induction .i n the limited sense of the word; by which we
conclude that what belongs to some of the species or individuals
of a class belongs to the whole class; as when we infer that
because gold, silver, antl copper melt, therefore :tll metals will
melt; or that all great conquerors are great lawgivers, because
Alexanucr, Cresar, Justinian, Charlemagne, and William the
Co1~queror were lawgivers.
·

Ex.-All botlies movi11~ in elliptic orbits aro subject to tho law of
gravitation. (General rule.) Comets move in dliptic orbits. (Application of the rule.) Therefore comets are subject to the law of gravitation.
f
(Conclusion.)

2. Analogy, or the inference from yie p~~_similarity of
two or more objects to their complete similarity. Here we do
~ot conclude that because a number of objects (A, B, C, D,
etc.), belonging to the same class, possess i~ common the
quality m, therefore we may expect to finu this quality in all
the individuals or species of the cla13s; but that, because A and
B agree in certain essential chai·acters (l, m, n), it is likely
that· the quality r which is found in A will be found in B.
The argument is not, that because some of a class have a certain quality, therefore all have it; but that, as two objects resemble each other in several points, they are likely to resemble
each other in all. Thus we infer that the planet l\fars is probably inhabited as the earth is, since it resembles the earth in
the possession of an atmosphere, clouds, water, etc.

The general rule is called the .s~on; the application of
the rule, the .sub.sumptfon; the inferred proposition, the con·

Example,-hy which we infer that something will p~·ove true
in one ~because it happened in another; as, that Harvey,

Deductive Reasoning.-In dcducth·e reasoning we proceed
from a general truth to a llarticular; from the whole to the
part. A judgment is derived-fi·o~n a more general one by
means of an intermediate judgment; the conclusion contains
nothing mo:·J than is Yirtually contained in the premises. The
argument is composed of three essential parts-a general rule,
which may lie either :t uniYersal truth or a genrrnlization of
experience; the a1>plictttion of this rule to a 1mrticular case;
and the proposition drawn from them.

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194

ELEMENT ARY FORMS OF D.ISCOURS~. Sec. 114

Se.c. 115

of truth. Dew will fall, for the night is clear and calm, the
atmosphere moist.
The argument from effect to canse . is sometimes call ed the
a, posteriori argument. It iwoves from the cxi~teuce ~f a_ certain phenomenon the iwescnce of a circumstance that is e1 th er
its cause or its condition . As far as any plir.nom enon or combination of phenomena is the comlition of a girnn effoct, so
far is tl1e existence of t he effect evidence of the existence of the
·condition. Thus, we suspect one of rouuery, uecausc the stolen
rrooils :ire found in his possession; we suspect a man to he the
~erpetrator of a murder, because he was seen in company with
the murdered man, his clothes were bloody, etc.

or any other disco,·erer, wiH uc persecuted uccause Ga lileo was
persecuted. One form of this argument is the argument a
fortiori, which consists in proYing that a thing ucing true- in one case is more evidently so in another in wliich the circmn stances are more favornule. It is uut an appli cation of the
principle that the greater includes the'less. Tims, 11·e infer
that if a man is cruel to his fe llow-men, much more will he ue
cruel to urutes.

3. Signs, by which we seek to prom the prou~tule existence
of a fo,c t hy adducing some other fact or mark that a lway;-or
in most cases precedes, accompanies, or follows it. \;y' e can
thus infer from the· presence of the cause, the presence of the
cflcct; or, on the other hand, may argue from the effect to the
cause.
The argument from cause to effect is _generally called a
priori reasoning. Its formula is stntcd uy Whately thus:
"As far as any cause, populnrly speaking, has a temlency to
prod nee a certai 11 c ffoct, so far its existence is an argument for
tl1at of the eflcct. If the cause ue fully sufficient and no impc1li1nents intervene, the effect in question follows certainly;
a1HI the neitrer we approach to this, the stronger the argument."
The force of this argument is to estaulish the antecedent
prohalJility of the thesis; it giYes grounds for believing that
what is maintainecl is likely, by showing that there are influences th;_tt liave a tendency to produce it.. Its efficiency de11e1Hls npon om cert:iinty as to (1) the existence of the causes
that a.re assigned, (2) their sufficiency- to--pi:otlnce the effects
attriliutcd to them, antl (3) the alJsence of counteracting influcuccs.
By this rnotle of argument we infer that a deed mts commitfod by a ce1:tain person, because he had a motive to do it or
uccause it accords with his cliamcter, and that an event ~ill
take place uecanse all the usual conditions of its occurrenc&
exist. Tl1is man is the munlercr, fo r he coYeted the propertyor he is rernngeful. Lying is hateful to God, for he is the Goel

Hl5

ARGUMENT.

115. Extrinsic Arguments.-A ll the arguments that Imm
so far lJeen given lJelong to the class of intrinsfo arguments.
'J'hcy are outaincd from the thesis by the exposition of its essential notions. There ltre others that arc extrinsic, which must
be sotwht for outside of the suuject. To t his class ueloug laws,
"
legal decisions,
resolntions, treaties, testimony, etc. Th ey may
all be embraced under two heads: 1. Testimony. 2. Authority.

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(.~

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- -

1. Testim_ony.-By means of testimony we establish the
truth of a fact that is beyond the sphere of our own person~tl
, ' experience or that of our rea.tlers. It can uc employed on ly m
matters of experience; general trut.l1s, which a.re gainctl by
compm·ison aml inference, are not ohjccts of testimony. Testimony is either im1nediate or lllClliate. It is immediate when
the wit.ness reports what he himself observed; it is mClliatc
when he reports a fact npon t he testimony of others. As a.
report is apt to he :1lteretl in its tra11s111ission from one person
to another, direct testimony is 11reforretl to inllirect.
In estimating the cre<libility of testi mon y we must consider
the competency of tl1e witness, ·i. c., l1is fitness to ol1scrvc anti
report the fact, and .his veracity, i: e., his reput;1tion for truthfulness, and tl1e absence of 111 ot.in~s to testify to wl1at .is fals~.
The i>resumption in favor of the truthfulness of a. witness is

----

.

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'

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 115

Sec. 116

ARGUMENT.

rn;

I

To this hc:irl are referred prcccdci:1ts and dccisious of comts. /

weakened when it is fournl that l1is testimony is for his personal
benefit; it is strengthened when it leads to suffering or loss on
his part.
T estimony may be given indirectly. The writer or speaker
may not intend to testify to a fact, hut hy incidental hints and
allusions when treating of a different matter, lw shows that he
takes for granted its truth. The testimony of mhersaries is
often gi,·en in this undesigned manner.
\Vhcn the same fact is reported by several witnesses it must
.
be ascertametl
whether there has been any concert 'between
them. If concert is excluded, the concunence itself, imlcpendcnt of the clmractcr of the witnesses, proves tl1e truth of the
fact reported. Such an agreement would he impos.sible unless
the occurrence had taken place. It is Yery import.ant, in denling with co11cnrre11t testimony, to discrilllinate between Yariations in u~~~~l'._'._~t!:~__J>9ints, which will always occur when the
witnesses speak the truth, and contradictory statements.
·,:_ 1

2. Authority.-"'VVhcn a declaration is made, not as to an indi,·idual fact of experience, lmt to a general truth, or the cause
of some phenomenon, or what is beyond the range of observation, it receives the name of attthority. That one event sue..
cee<lml another is an object of testi1110ny; but that tlie one
always follows the other, or that the first is the cause of the
second, is a matter of inference. To declare that a drug was
administered to a sick person, tlmt peculiar symptoms were
afterwm'ds manifested, and that the patient died, is testimony;
b11t to declare that death was caused hy a particular poison,
that the symptoms were those always accompanying that kind
of poi soning, is not testimony. These arc general truths about
which there may he a great cli1'crsity of judgment among Jwn est
and ahlc meir. So when a j111l g111ent is pronounced respectin g
the genuineness of the handwriting from its resemhlance to
that of the snpposed writer, it is an inference drawn from comparing the writing with a stanclanl in the mind of the one who

antho,;ty.

,.
1I_

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b

116. The selection of Arguments.-Tlte arguments gathel'c<l
sltoultl be carefully weighed, ~tml those be selected \\'hicl1 a.re
not only applicable, but decisive. Weak arguments e~cite s~1s­
picion, and destroy the force of the valid arguments with winch
they are connected. It is often extremely difficult to tell what
are the strong ancl what the weak arguments. We apply these
terms with scarcely any discrimination, forgetting tliat they are
merely relative; In deciding upon the efficiency of an argument we must consiuer two things:
I. 1'he ncitnre of the mcitter to be pro ved.-'fl1 e strcngtl1 of
an ar"nrnent can not be determined by th e source whence it is
draw1~ · that . whi ch in one ciass of subj ects '"°ultl be of great
force ,~ 0 uld be feeble in another chiss. Extrinsic proof is 11sna.lly 'reo-anled as of inferior valLrn. In theoretical subjects it
0
l
holcls, if arlmitted at all, a subordinate place ; but wl1t•n t 1c
question is one of fact, it is more ~leci s i r e than ~ny othc1:. . ln
tlicoluo·ical
discussiom; the appl'>ll is to tl11> t<•acl1rn!,;-S of Sn1pto
.
ure; in legal 11roceedin gs, to tl1 e decisions of the courts; 111
hoth authority is of supreme importance. \Vh cn the 11ucst io~1
is as to a future cYcnt, the a priori argument is the most dcc1sirn: analogy and cxa.rnple are nlso crnploycg. 'l'l1esc kinds of
proof are therefore the 1110 st important in scrnitorial eloquence,
which is occupied chiefly "·ith questions of expeclicncy. \Vhen
the aim is to establish the i1rcscncc of a certain cause, the ci
posteriori argument is the most effective; " ·hen the probability
of a past event is to he shown, testimony is prefcrrc!l, and after
it, the argument a posteriori. These, acconlingly, are the
most important forms of proof in judicial oratory.
2. The coni.litfon <!f those arldresser.7.-It is not necessary to
<lwell upon wliat is so evident, that "·liat is c0111plete proof to
those who have some ac<[tuti11t.t11ce '"ith a s11hject, is often incffectirn with the ignorant. vYhen our purpose is to conrincc
others, we must in choosing arguments consider the degree of

a<ld><ss.

·- - - -h-it-c-11-igcnce and the capacity of attcution of tl10sc w horn we

I
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198

.1.t is not less important to rcgarc1 their moral concli ti ~h . A
clinerent proceclure is necessary when we adc1ress camlic1 minds
wlio are willing to hear and weigh the reasons presented fron:
1
t~at wliicli is ~roper when we deal with those who are prejuc11ced ancl capt10us; whom we can lrnr<lly expect to convince
but whom it is J esirable to silence.
'
, -.

/

/

117. Arrangement of Arguments.-'l'he efficiency of aro- n-

n: ~nts <l~pends

grc'.itly on their arrangement. A skillful dis~o­
s1t1on mil often give strength to proofs comriarati r el v wc·•k
·
J
,
'
wI11·1e bY a defcctn·c
arrnngemc11t the st.ro uge~t arc rcudcnal
~)OW~rl css. 'J'h ~ t.'llcn ts. o'. the rcaso11er a.re slwll'11 prirn ~ipal l y
m Ins ~ucces~ rn comhrnmg l1is matc1i!JJ§_ i11Lu uuc cut11pact
wh~I ~, 111. winch each arg ument l1as i t,~ proper place, :.till! is
exl11b1terl 111 t.he rlearrst light, aud i11 its rela.tiu 11 tu the other
parts and to the thesis.
Anal.ytic and Synthetic order.-Eitl1\·r the all:dyLic; or Lite
sy nthetic met.hocl of arrnn gern cnt may ])(, adopted . ln tlw
former the question is ~t; th e a.11s\\·e:· is titell gi1·cu;
an<l the arguments follow, prorPe1ling- fro11 1 the Jes::; -tu the uwre
ge~1~rnl. . 'J'his is t.hc nntural :rncl logical onl"r. l;ut II' lieu the
OJ)JUIOn we ach-ocate is unpopuhr, or is iu tlauc;·cr of beiiw
misumlcrstooc~ , it is somet.inws exrl('tli<·nt to arlopt Llw ~.rut. !1t:ci~
or<l_er. In tl11s we hegin with t11 P rnost ge11 eri1l of rlw premi ses
winch those we a<lclress will reaclily nsse11t to, and co11duct then:
graclually to the conclusion.

~rin~ipal and Subordinate Arguments.-Grcat care is reqmred 111 arranging coordinate and subonli11ate a1""Ll lli ems
vVe may aclducc a 11urnbcr of imlcpe1ulcnt a.ro-umeut; <:ach 0 ;·
which is in tcnclccl to proYe the truth of the thesis. T hus in
provi~g tl~e existence of God we may argue from the er il:ei:ccs
of d~s1gn m cr~ati_on, from the moral natu re of n:mu, aull from
the Hlea of perfect10n.. Each of these constitutes a separate, indepen.d e1~t argument 111 support of our 11roposition. Tliey a.re
all coordmate. But it is often necessary to prove the truth of

199

A~GUMENT.

'Sec. 118

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 116

some of the coonliuate arg uments. The proofs in this case a.re
not int~ uclell to establish the truth of the thesis, but of a proposition subonli1mte to it. 'fhesc a.re subordinate :irgmnc11ts. _ ~t
is important to <liscri111irmte these two classes ca~·efully, a.11d m
a rranging our 111ateri:tls leave no doubt :LS to thell" rnuk.

f,

I

· ;;
Extrinsic and Intrinsic Arguments.-"\ Vhe11 c1if1'crcut ki1Hls
·, (' of argum ents enter into a discourse, they 111u ~t be su arra11µ; ctl
QvV tliat the iirst shall prqmre for tl1c snc01 1d. "\"\hat 1ullm1s 11111st
strn11 gt.hm1 the i111prcssio11 matle hy \1ha.t pn'C('1k~. 111 ortl(' r to
· •1·orcc ot' ti 1c ra.n· u11s <" I :1. ,s·1·,, 01·- :1r.!!lllltc11ts
do th'is, t he Jll'CU lmr
"
11111st. \11\ ('arcf;1lh 1111ti"1"l.
J11 tri11sic arg;1111e11Ls slwu\11 j1rt:1·1•1lt' 1111' t•xtriw;i(''. 1\ 11111111-'.
in trinsic :•rgui;1cnts su111c 11a turnllT'i"\)!li(;--f\r~ t. utlH·rs last: and
\\-]1e11 tliis 1.lifTcn·11cc is 1lisrc.!!ilrtlt ·1l tlwy lo8c 11111 .. h 111' llll'ir elliri<'llt'Y. 'Jhe tirst plal'e \i('\011gs to t \111St\ \\·hith t'st:1h}i,.;l1 lh<'
possiliili ty or proliability of what is :1ss1·1tc11. A l'l<· r ha 1.111~
rn.ised a prc\s n111ptio11 in fa1·or uf om pusitio11 hY tlil' 11 Jli'lfll"l
a.rµ; n1111·nt., the ntt.t'11tla.11t circm11sta11t'('S a111l tl'sti111011y .. a11 he
i11 trn1111 ct\11, arnl fol\011i11µ; tltr·sc, 1·xa11q1 l 1•s a11 1l a11a I":!..'.'.".. .1\.1
t his llH \thoil the :rntiripation of the tl'lltl1 of th1· th1·s1s 1s lirst
excited, rnic1 t lwn co11lirn1nl liy th e \'arions ci r\'11111s ti1 111·1·s :1tl!1uccd. Jf t.hc process is rcHrnt·tl, tl1t \ tm·et uf th1· a r!..'.·11111t'~1t11
from exampl e, :u1alug,r, d e., is ro11 11f 1'racft \tl l),r tlH· s11spll'1•_i11
which is almirs felt 1Yhcn \\-e c.a11 Ji11d mi s11tlil'it·11t n·aso11 lor
the fact allec:e cl, 'l'o O\'Cl"CO!lle thi s a f..!Tt•at1·r 11 11111 \H'r of tl1·c isire ]ll'OOfo is reqnircd; wl1cn'as, after ltaYing C'S~al.Jlislll'tl tl 1e
a ntecedent proha.hilit.y hy sltoll' in .i!: the f\X ist.ci1ce ot a. '. ·ama\ :uh!-,
q11 ate to tlie clfoct, a few \\'ell chuscn Girc11111sta11ccs 11'1 11 rc11 10re
all rcaso 11able clu11l1t.
0

0

0

+

argu.ing.:--Tl1<~.

118. Syllogistic and popular modes of
strictly logical, or syll o!!istic, 111 ock of ar!.!·1111w11tat1fl11 1 ~ still
ancl tedious, and is rarely used. 'J'li e popular 111LH1n t!il krs frurn
it in se \'eral rc~p1•d$ .
'l'h e forms of the propositions arc Ya.ricHI, tltc order of premises is clmnged, itllll their terms trans posed.

200

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec. 118

'rl.te syllogisms are al.Jridge<l l.Jy suppressing some of their
members. 'rhe omitte<l premise must l.Je one that the 111ind can
easily supply, else the syllogism will lack pm·spicuity. The
reasoning rn ay I.Jc mnplified l.Jy addin g to oue or l.Joth of the ·
premises the reasons of its truth. By this means the proofs
use<l to cstahlish the conclusion are kept before the reader's
mind, and as he sees them with their evidence he obtains a
clearer knowle<lge and firmer conYictiou.
P erspicuity must not I.Jc sacrificed iu the endeavor to amid a
too scholastic mode of reasoning. Tl1e fo llowing rules are to
be ol.Jscrn~cl:
1. 'l' he premises must IJe recognized as prc11ti1Jes. .Frequently the statement is so cl c~foctiYe, that it is uncertain
wlwtlwr a proposition is an argument, an cxpfanation, or an
ill ustrntion. The premises sliould be macle prominent in their
real character. They 111ust uot be merely incidentally mentione<l, or concmtled in snl.Jorclinate clauses and sentences, or
mixed \\'ith inelevant matter.
2. Th e exact com1ection 1.J etween the arguments an<l the
conelnsion should he made apparent; CS}Jecially whether each
argument is valid in itself, or is iutcndc<l to he comliiuod witll
others to form a si11glc argument. The distinction between
coordinate and subordinate arguments shoulcl I.J c distinctly
mark eel.
3. A void metaphorical expressions, and an excess of wortls
in laying clo\\'u tl1e 111ain positions.
4. After fixi11 g tl1e rn eani11 g of a term do not deviate from
it. It is better t.o repeat the same terms than by varying them
to run the risk of being misu11clerstoocl.
·
119. Refutation.-Refutation consists in proving that a
given proposition is false, or tliat a particular argument is not
valid.
A proposition is refuted indirectly by proving the truth of its
CQQtratlictory. The confirmation of a thesis is thus the virtual
refntation of its antith esis. A proposition is refuted directly
by showing that it conflicts with a recognized truth, whether a
~

Sec. 119

ARGUMENT.

201

i<t ct of experience.
· n of morals 01. a c,
law of thought,. an ax101 .
' ' all lie used for this imr'fhe diffcrei:1t km<ls of argument may '
<l
cl
more detailed con·
pose.
Thc refutation of arguments eman s a
sitleration.
. t. of ar.rum cuts we must
c
din " to the cxan1111:1 ion ' "
'
:
. t
l ·<l to 1.Jc cst:t11lishet1, aml
Be1ore procee o
· . I t · ti e coudus10n Ill trnt c
·
·
ascertam w m JS I
. I f ti
I ositio n that ire ni:tintam.
whether it i1wol YCS the de11m o . IC J
. l
t there is no dispute.
\
If it toes no ,
.
. . t om nirn tlll' proc rss 'Y
'
. . 1· luo·it;
I f the conclusion I.Jc an t.ago111st1\.\ .o
1
't 1.Jc testttl l.Jy the l a"~ u
" .
which it has 1.Jecu r c<tC lic< nlllS t
f tl1 <·· 1·l"t~o 11i11•r.
.
. : , ·'1ti 1 tlw 11 a nre o
· '·
,...
The proccclure 'ai ies " · · -.
. · ti , tin;t pbcc
. . . 1 \ ·tire \\" C 11111st, Ill IC
'
If the rcaso11111g 18 < c< ne
'
.
t I.Jc true the con. '
1 itting t\1 e pre1mscs o
ascerbtin w ] ietI ier, ar 111
,
The tests arc few
.
.t. t I . tlnwn from tl1ern.
cl usion JS leg_1_rnm e y ,
f ti , re'tsonin ,,. crin he made
· l
ml the rlcfrcts o
ie · ' ·
"
~tnt1 snnp e; a
· . · ,. . 11.~ 1. "·ith lo•!.ical processes, IJy
e
who
are
1a.m1
"
o
.
tl
Os
t
apparen t o 1
'
.
. · , . 1.J ls It 1s 11ot
.
. . , ·ll o•ristw form, OJ 111 S) lll o .
simply statmg it rn S) "'
l f· 11· . 'S i11 atlrl ressincr persons
"
.
t CX{)OSC fonua ,i ,1.c11 .
.
"
a]11 ,1ys easy o
. .
'I'l
ost co11,·crn c11t. arn1 ofLcn
· l t.
JJO'
IC Ill
•
'
0
clcstit11 tc of logie<t rn~m '.
i1lc11tica l in
,,.,
. . .ode is to 111 tror1uce •an •ar<'llllH'llt
a yc1-y cnect.1re Ill
'
' .
.
. · ·h the fa lschood of the
• 1 ti t to I.Jc rdnte11 m " 1li t\
form wit
.
'
tll'it
if sn<'h
a way of
1
thus SIOW
<
. 1 . in . '£,st "\VP
cuncluswn is iu:ull e ·
· . tl , trnth of a palpalJlc ah . Ya )'it,
1 ' YC C'\ll
rea.so11i11g is
, pro1c IC

...

. . , .. , t it theu rernaiu s to examsunli t.y.
lf the form of reasornn g JS cot1ilcc ' 1'1<'n11 ~ ss11111<'1l .. iu other
.
-:-- _.
f · f tl ia llt\·e .,, "' '
. '
•
me t.h e pnnc1plcs o Jll oo
. . "
"\\' c may mi.
. . t t1 , truth of the p1cnnses.
words to lllYestig.t .e ic
t.
or \10th
'.
f10 n or the sul.Jsump .ion ,
·
pugn eith er the sump
.
r .,encral rule, m ay he sho1Yn
The falsehootl of tl1 e smnpt1on, o "
I
As'. '
It m·i ' IJe show n to proYc too nrnc i.
in yanous W<tys.
') ' . c·rin ences frou 1 it 1rlii t;h are
.
. t l true we rle<1nee cons , ,
su1111ng lt ·O 1e
.,
· . c·tci1 .18 f dse hy tl1ose
· 1 l foil se or am rC'1e ·
' '
·
genernlly ad1111ttec to >C ' . ., l . 1 , 'The ·1rcr1111 w11t aµ;a.iust
1
the
gc11
cra
1
u
e.
'
"
· · 't . " e cm)iloycc1 11islio11 estly or
who have a <l Yance<.
J c.in u
. . T he ass urnet1
the stuc1Y of l .,>lietone' tl1a.t
'
.
·
. , refote11 111 tins ma.11ne1.
for a bad purpose, J~ • , "I• f bein•' a1Jusct1 shoul<l IJe con . rn,
· '\·]i...~te,·cr JS' ca.p.tu e o
o
premise

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202

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE.

Sec.119

demned: if this he true, the use of la1wuacre reli•rion etc
" "of abuse.
"
are to be condeurned, for they arc susceptillle
The sumption may be _ouly an apparently gcnernl truth.
'l'here ar~ many loose generalizations expressed as universally
true, 'rlnle they are but particular truths; they are true of
some of the class, or of the majority, but not of itll. We are
not justified in applying them to particular cases. lf it is ·
argued that a certain individual will seek rcrenge upon one
who lias doue him wrong, for injure<l men seek reverwc · the
.
. "Ht II ac10us.
.
" not
' a
rnasomng
is
The assu med general truth is
general one; and is refuted by bringing an example of the
contrary.
. The suu~umption is refuted uy showing that the general rule
is not applicable to the case in hand. 'Ve refute an imlucti rn
arg'.u~1ent, in the !imited sense of the word, uy denying tlrn
sulhc1e11cy of the mstances; an aualogy, uy sho1riug that the
re~emu lan ce. ~s merely superficial and metaphorical, or that
JlOHltS of d1tfere11ce hare IJeen overlooked which Yitiate the
analogy; an example, by proving that it is not parallel in the
esscutial point, uy counter-examples, and uy showinu- that
owing to ditlercnt circumstances the inference drawn fr~m the
particular case is not warranted.

'

'

.,

120. Rules of Refutation.-1. The refutation should he
d~red~d :tgainst what has ueen adrnrsely :tlleged. 'I'he grossest
v10lat10n of this rule is answering a position that is not maintained by the opposite siLle-the misapprehension or chancre of
the issue. .Inexperienced and loose reasoners often re;iy to
more than 1s alleged; while it is one of the most common
forms of sophistry to answer less ; a suuordinate point is taken
and the rest is left untouched.
,
2. ~mid wasting time on irrelernnt and trivial parts of the
opposite argument. It is not necessary to notice every weakness and defect; the strong points- those on which the decision
of the question depends-are the only ones to he discusserl.
lrrclernnt topics are oft.en iutroduced hy sophistical reasoners
to draw the attention of their opponents from the essential

Sec. 121

ARGUMENT.

203

points. A cautious reasoner will never · allow hi~nself to lie
deceived by such arts, hut will pass over all foreign and unnecessary matter arnl seize on tlmt which is vital to the quesfi ·1.1
tion.
3. State the arguments to he answered candidly and or~iu .Y·
It is clmracteristic of all great reasoners to exhiuit uoldly m its
full strength the argument they intend to subvert.
4. It is often ex pedient to reduce an argument to its strict
logical form; to supply suppressed premises; to separate a com:
plex chain of reasoning into its parts, and arra~1~~ the111 so that
they can he miswercd in order. Besides exl11b1trng the argument with greater distinctness, we are thus freque11tl~ aule to
expose the weakness of the opposite si~1c, hy .sho\\'lng . th:~t
many arguments apparently disti11ct are m rc:thty \mt repetitions of a sin gle argument.
5. If any of the objections urged arc found to b.e unanswc.rahle, their validity should he acknowledged .. A 1~1~putant Will
never ga,in any thing by attempting to hold a mamfostly unten-

able position.
.
G. It must uc borne in mind that to refute an argume1~t. IS
not the same thing as proYing n thesis or clisprori11 g a pus1t101l
of the opposite side. The rc:isons brought forward may ue
shown to be insufficient, aud the proposition nevertheless be
true. To complete the work of refutation, 'rn should ,, a.fter
having shown that the argu111cnts i1ror1uc:r'. are 11qt sufl.1ewnt
to estahlish the truth of a imrticul:tr propos1t10n , procer rl m the
next place to show tlmt there arc rnianswernble, _positive ayguments against it.
. .
7. Finally, we should ascertain arnl exlnlnt the g1~otrnd.s .of
the erroneous 9pinion, or, in other won1s, accouut for_ its ong1.11.
The refutation of an error is never complete am1 entirely satisfactory until this is done.

121. Scheme and Topics of an Argument.-Th e points to
be considered in constructing an argument, arnl the topics to
be used, are g iven i11 the followin g s<.:he111e. l.t is very sel<lom
that the scheme just as it is here presented 1s adapted to au

204

ELEMENTARY FORMS OF DISCOURSE. Sec.

121

II. Preparation of the question, including-1. An explication more or less full of all the terms of the question that are
liable to be misunderstood. The topics to be employed are
given in sec. 107. ·
2. 'l'he state of the controversy, which involves :
(a,) An explicit statement of what is held in common or con·
ceded by all sides, and which therefore is excluded from the
<lispute.
(b) A statement with all necessary qrn:tlifications and limitations of the question proposed for decision.
(c) A brief, candid declaration of the various opinions on
the subject.
( d) The enouncement of the thesis, or proposition we intend
to confirm.
III. Confirmation, or proof of the truth of the thesis. The
kind of proofs to be employed, and their order, will vary with
the nature of the question, of the controversy, etc.
The topi cs to be used in searching for proofs are: 1. Definit,ion of the fundam ental notions of the thesis. 2. Genus and
species (reason from the genus to species, or, as in induction,
from the species to the genus). 3. Cause and etlect. 4. Sim·

205

·1 't nd difference. 5. 'restimony and authority~ 6. Con·
an Y a
·
.
1
· ner etc
comitant circumstances, as of tune, p ace, man '
.

actual discourse. The peculiar aim of a discourse and the cir·
cumstances of the case will detennine what or<ler shoul<l be
observed. It must be remembered also that not all of the
topics can be used in every question. The scheme only ex·
hi bits the essential parts of a complete argumentation; ·the
proper use of it <lepends on the intelligence anll judgn1ent of
the pupil.
I. Introduction or Preface.-Various topics may be ' used,
as, 1. The importance of the question either in itself or from
its connection with questions of acknowle<lged importance. It
nmy be sho,\·n how the decision of this question will atlect that
of others. · 2. 'l'he circumstances that have led to the dispute;
the origin, spread, eftects of erroneous Yiews on the subject.

ARGUMENT.

Sec. 121
l

/ ..'
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/

IV Refutation, which includes:
. . .
, .
..
- l The
'.
.
. 1e of the, exceptions, hm1btt1ons, .wd d1ssettmg
as1t
tinc.tions tlmt have been made by an opponent.
de to our arcrurnents.
.
. ·
2. Answering objections ma
'. o
. .ir t what is
b' ction pertinent ~ <loes it contrn ic
(ct) ls the. 0
lf 1't does not it is to be thrown aside as
advanced by us
.
I
·n' !lice to show that it does
foreign to the quest10n.
t w1 su

r

not meet any position of ours.
" ;, c., i's the con.
(b) I s the form
of ti ic i·e"so
" 11in· 0rr . correct f •
clusion fairly deduced from the prem ises~
I
t .
(c) Are both the 1wemises true V
.
3. Refutation of the arguments
a dd uced to prorn tie conn et·

pos4itiol~·~itive arrruments

''

•

to show the falsehood of the opposite

b

opinion.
rnaiu
.
cont,n1·
Cone l us1on,
•• r11· ng a recapitulation of the
points.

v.

..

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Sec. 124 . DIALOGUE AND EPISTOLARY PROSE.

207

3. It is divided as to its matter and end into didactic prose,
historical prose, and oratorical prose.

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PART IV.

CHAPTER I.
THE DIALOGUE AND EPISTOLARY PROSE.

THE PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

'

.

122. Preliminary.-In this part we shall consider the prin-

'\

cipal forms of prose discourse.
It is ,-cry difficult, perhaps impossible, to make a satisfactory
classification of literary productions. 'l'beir number is so great
and they ttre susceptible of so many modifications and combinations that we are frequently left in doubt as to the class to
which a particular work belongs. "Genius," says Lessing,
"laughs ttt the restrictions of critics."
Several divisions of prose.-Prose, taken in the limited
sense in which we have employed the word as denoting com. positions desig ned to accomplish an outward end, that is, to
inform and instruct, to convince, and to persuade, admits of
several divisions.
1. It. is divided into oral and written discourse. A discourse
intended to be heard by an audience composed of a number of
persons cliffers in its materials, form, and style from one that
can be deliberately read.
2. It is divided as to external form without reference to its'
_ contents into continuous discourse, in which the development
of the theme procecrls without inteITuption; dialogue, in which
two or more take part in developing the theme; letters, which
are directed to an absent person, and are a substitute for oral
communication.

123. Introdu~tory.-The contin~10us~ i~1etlr6d being adapted
to all subjects that rec1uire lt~- ~llirlte~rupte<l development of
their contents, is the method almost universally employed in
literary works. It " ·ill be fully illustrated in the following
chapters. This chapter is confined to the consideration of the
dialogue and epistolary prose.
.::-124. The Dialogue.-In a L1ialogue there is a communica-

'

.

tion of different <tml opposing views on a particular subject
· between two or more speakers. It is an im!Yttion of an ac_!..ual
conversation, and may be employed to exhibit a cl1aracter, unfold~ action, or discuss a truth. '.fhc rules <.f rhet.oric apply
to the last mentioned use.
.T he characters.-The characters represented as tnking part
in a dialogue should be pe1:§_ons, not mere aj!§.tractions-such as
virtues and vices-and each distin guished fr m the others by
his peculiar modes of thought and feeling. When abstract
qualities arc introduced instead of persons, the dialogue is
without life and real ~ty ; when the characters are not discrim·inated, there is no interelian ge of opinions. The characters
may be fictitious or taken from · history or from contempo. rnries.
Subjects.-"-The only subjects suitaLle for a rli<dogue nre
those which admit of being conternpbtcd from differen t points
·of view and give rise to controversies in which differences of

(200)

..
- - ·

----·----··--- - - - - -

208

PRINCIPAL FORMS" OF PROSE.

Sec.124

character can manifest themselves. This kind of composition
is ad:ipted particularly to the analytical method of investig<ttion. It affords an opportunity of trncing the subject through
its successive · stages, aiul of bringing forward aud removing
misapprehensions, difficulties, and objections.
125. The Requisites of a Dialogue.-The qualities of a
properly constructed dialogue arc as follows: 1. It must exhibit a coniiict of views resulting in a mutual umlerstamling. ·
A dialogue is neither a series of questions and answers, nor it
monologue, \Jut the unfolding of a theme by the exchauge
of opposite argum ents and opinions. The conflicting views
ought to be exhibited in .their full force by their respective
representatives. At the same time, since the great aim of the
dialo<Yue
is not merely to manifest ' differences \Jut to reconcile
0
.
them and lead to· a mutual agreement between the partics, a
reconciliatio11 must grow naturally and necessarily out of the
conflict exhibited in the body of the dialogue.
2. It must be appropriate to the subject and to the c!§.racters taking part in ~When well known })ersons are introduced as speakers, no views should be ascribed to them inconsistent with their known character and opinions: when the
characters are fictitious their consistency must be preserved
throughout. The tone of the dialogue should be influen ced by
the circumstances of time and place in which .it is represented
as being held; the scene should harmonize with the subject
discussed.
3. Much grcator liberty of arrangement is allowed than in
continuous discourse. Instead of an unbroken development of
the theme the course of thought is modified by the questions,
answers, :in<l remnrks of the diflercnt parties. Digressions are
permitted when they throw light on the point uncler consideration, or alld to t.he interest and liveliness of the cliscomsc.
But there is a real and natural connection between the thoughts,
aml every question and answer should \Jc a response to what
lms just preceded.
4. A dialogue is a work o.~ ~' and while retaining the

Sec. 127 DIALOGUE AND EPISTOLARY PROSE.

20!}

features of actual conrnrsation, it is elerntql aho1·e it.

Greater

clc~·tr 1ess, precision, and elegmlCc; greater nicety in the

1

cho' ·e of words aud care in the structure of sentences, ancl a
~r ater elevation of style distinguish it from ordinary convcrsat10n.
126. Epistolary Prose.-A letter is a communication of
facts and thougl1ts to au absent person. A corrcspo111lcnce
may b.e regarded as a conversation in writiug, and the letter as
a substitute for ornl communication. N arrntion, llescription,
exposition, argument, and persuasion may cuter i11to it; its
subjects rna.y be drnwn from litcrnturc, science, art, ·private or
public affairs.
Numerous divisions of letters ha Ye been made; the most
· familiar is into business letters, occ~tsional letters (of ccrernony,
politeness, and the like), didactic lett.ers, and letters of friendship. Most of those that have a place in literature belong to
the last-named class.
It would be tedious and useless to give special rnl es for these
different classes. We shall mentiou liriefly tlw general clmractcristics of epistolary prose.
127. Its general characteristics.-1. Unity, so essential a
quality of other species of composition, is not looketl for in a
letter. A number of topics, having no conn ection " ·ith each
other, can be introduced, their selection bein g 1letennincd hy
their relation to the one addressed; and no .f®®l~!JLJ@l\w1 is
needed in passing from one topic to another.
2. The epistolary style is an imitation of the comersation of
intelli gent and· refined persons. It is free from formality,
pedantry, and whatever giYes an appearance of labor. To
elaborate a letter, as we would a pnrely literary production,
would destroy its charm, and even its distinctive cl1 aracter. A
letter never pleases if written for the public. On the other
hand, it is free from tlie faults of ordiua.ry con rersation. It is
p_l;![_er and m<l.@ ~ect; t.lie rapidi t.y of ornl disco urse allows
many violations of grammatical law to pass unnoti ced, 1Yhioh
Rhtit. Ill'

210

PRINCIPAL FORMS .OF PROSE.

Sec. 129

Sec. 127

are g reat blemishes in a written composition. It is less })rolix;
what, in a couYersation is cxpandell into its details, is· conveyed in a few lines, often but lightly indicated, the reader
being left to fill up the outline. At the s:tme time it demands
a high degree of clearness, since the person to whom the communication is made is a bsent, [LIId has not an opportunity to
clear up difficulties immediately \Jy proposing questions.
3. 'rite natural course of thought and feelin g is followed.
The effort to
witty and elegant, a 1wofusion of ornaments, aml rhetorical display are incompatible with the nature
and aim of this kind of composition. 'rhe sentences should be
short aml simple; periods :tre here out of pl:tce.
4. A ppropriateness is :t most impmfant qu:tlity. It. is :tn
unpa n.loni1ufe fault in a letter to he wanting in :tppropriateness
- either in m atter or fo rm-to the character and circwnstances
of the recipient, and to the relations existing between him and
the writer. Frankness and self-respect joined to a dclicitte
consideration for the ch:uacter, 11osition, and claims of t he one
addressed must gi ,.e to a letter its tone; otherwise, instead of
producing :t fiworablc impression, it will offend and fail to
attain its object.
'l'his rule in volves a strict obsmTance of the conventionalities and m echanical details of a letter, such as the date a nd
place of writing, the forms of adllress, subscription, name or
the recipient.

11 AI"I'10~

l>llL\. C TI ()

II.

l'J:.<JSI•:.

128. What is included in Didactic P rose ?-Di <1<H:fa: prose
includes all con1positi ons thn aim nf whi<>h is to g-ivfl i11~tnw­
tion. It a<lt1resscs the 111ulersta1Hlin g, all(] is c011ccrnn<l 011 ly
with general aJl(l ab~t. ract trnths. vVl1at is irn1i,·i111w.l arnl
concrete is ailmittc<l 111er11l y as subservient to tl1e general. A ll
appeals to feeling and passion :tre excluded from it, :ts arc also

211

narration and descri1ltion that give actual facts as such without
investigating the general principles inv.olved in them.
The forms of Didactic Prose are: Scientific prose, popn.lar scientific prose, and criticism.

app;;r

C

DIDACTIC PROSE.

·

...+--

.,

·'·'

129. Scientific Prose.-Scicntific, sometimes called dogmatic, prose is the methodical presentation of the p1inci1iles of .
a science. Its general chttrncteristics are:
1. Its aim is to convey a con.ijtlete :tml connectetl view of
the truth, which the reader can umlerstantl and appropriate.
2. Its ma tter must have the characters of real truth and
imJ:!2!!ance. On the part of the writer, a thorough knowledge
of the subject in its principles and history is required.
3. As in this species of discourse the untlerstamling is principally add ressed, the form 1nust he adapted to the re11uirem ents of the understanding. These iire cl e~s, dj;;_t~s~
completeness, certainty, and method. The beauty of didactic
proseconsists lilthe combinatfO"n of the real truth of the
thoughts and the logical peifection of the form .
4. There is no co1nmunication of knowledge \\·here the truth
is not understood iu its r~n to other truths. It is therefore
necessary tlmt the separate statements lie 11ot ouly intelligible
in themselves, but \Je seen in their pro110rtions and bearings ;
as included in or growing out of others; 'a.s connected with
\1l1:it. pre1·1•1l1·s :11111 as i<'a1li11 .c:· 111 11 J1;it li1ll111".
G. l'l'r,picuity is :in 1·S~l'lllial n·q11i,:i1<·. It is 111 lit· n·111P!Ilbl'rt·tl that tl1is is a n~P q11al it.1·, l1<·i11.c:· tl1·\1 ·rn1i111·tl i11 part
liy tl 1P uat1in' of tli1· nrntt< ·r, a11tl in part 11_1 r1·lali1111 of tlw
~1il1.i1·d to tilt' l11·art ·r.
'J'lll·n· ad s11lijPl'tS II lii<'ll, lrOlll tl1<· 11;1t11n· 11f tl1 1· lll:tllt·r. <irt'
110t capaiiiJ of ~ei11µ- \'lt•arly 1·:-;hil1il< ·tl. l'< ·rspirnit.1· is t111t Jo
be p11n·hnR<'d at th e rost of arcma1·y and thorn11.c:·J111l'.'iS. :-St'i1·tttiJic elcaniess,- tlH! <'.!canwss of \dial. is kt101111 to a few, or
· may \Jc rea11ily discovcrc<1 11.r their R< ·lf-:tdi1 ih·, is 11t1t s11cl1 as
is iutelliu:iblc to all. The J;m of JH'rspi<'11il.1· is v i11la!Pt1 11y
attcmptiug- to discuss scicutilically subjects \1 hid1 lie \Yithiu

--

212

PRINC1PAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec. 129

tlie sphPre of speculation only; by carrying analysis too far;
by seekiug to define and prove primitive facts.
The relation of the reader to the subject 111ust also be taken
into account in pronouncing upou the clearness or want of
cle:trness of a scientific discourse. It is a writer's privilege to
select the class whose requirements he will endeavor to meet.
If the reader does not stand upon. the level, possess the attainments and powers of thought which the writer presupposes in
his readers, he will find the work obscure. If the work is intended for those already informed on the subject, an acquaintance with the elementary notions aud technical terms, the
history of the science, and the v:trious controversies that have
been agitated, will be presumed; inferences may be drawn and ·
allusions made, which will be unintelligible to others.

130. The use of general ter.ms.-Prom the nature of the
matter of didactic discomse, general terms are freely em.ployed. As these are but symbols which do not convey ~lis­
tinct images to the mind, they arc liable to be misunderstood;
It is a fault to accumulate them; where it does not interfere
with the ends of the discourse, concrete terms sliould be used.
The excessive employment of abstract words gi ms an indistinctness to the presentation. 'l'he idea may be gathered,
but it requires an effort, and the impression made is always
feeble.
The Latin element of our languitge is more extensively used
in this species of composition than in any of the others. 'fhis
is inevitable. Ant.hors in whose writings u110n popular subjects the Anglo-Saxon clement predominates prefer Latin
terms in scientific discussions.
The use of technical terms.-The use of technical terms is
a distinctive peculiarity of didactic prose. ·with the <levelopment of science, there must' grow up a nomenclature. The
generalizations of science are not those of the Ynlgar; and the
difforence between scientific and loose popular thinking can not
but be manifested in the use of language. The objections to

Sec. 130

DIDACTIC PROSE.

213

the employment of technical terms in scientific treatises are
frivolous. Such tenus itre ne~ary for many reasons. (1)
They a1~ needed to express combinations of thoughts for which
the langmtge has no Uilll!..e. lVI:tny qualities and relations of
objects which are neglected in popular thinking require to be
specially designated. in science. (2) Ordinary wor<ls <tre used
loosely, and are applied to objects with which they have no
real connection; clearness and tlisli!!Q.tness require that such
occasions of error be avoided. (0) vVithout technical terms,
the work o( scientific analysis and criticism is impossible.
Many useless controversies have originated in a defective nomenclature, rtml many erroneous views haYe been perpetuated
in the sitmc manner. (4) 'l'eclmical terms are comlucive to
brevity as well as to precision. They express by a single word
c;)fi1binations which, without them, could be conveyed but
vaguely by a tedious circumlocution. One who understands
the nomenclature of a science, possesses a large body of analyses, which he coultl not otherwise possess, and the mca11s of
clear and rapid thinking.
Sources of technical terms.-Teclmical terrns <tre formed
in different ways. (1) New meanings are sometimes given
to worcls in actual use. (2) Wonls that have fallen into disuse ma.y be revived. (3) Compounds and derivatives may be
formed from existing materials. (4) Terms nmy be drawn
from foreign languages. The Latin, and more especially the
Greek language, are well adapted to furnish ·terms for a scientific nomenclature. Native terms are unfit, as . they designate
ol1jects by some accidental, arbitrary relation, and often suggest erroneous views. Terms arc required that express precisely the object, without any disturbing or misleading associ<Ltions.
Under what conditions to be used.-Thc use of technical
terms is subject to the following conditions :
1. It is not 11cccssa.ry or eYcn desirable to l1 aYc a sr:paratc
word for ,ertch distinct notion. 'fo cmTy analysis so far gives

1:

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214

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec. 133

Sec. 130

. DIDACTIC PROSE.

215.

a complicate<l nomenclature har<ler to uuderstaml than the
sulJject itself.
2. The technical term should express the idea with greater
precision than the common word. '
3. It shoul<l lJe formed according to the laws of the language.
4. It shoultl !Jc fitted to form compounds an<l conjugates.
5. It shoul<l lJe free from amlJiguity, an<l be imme<liately
• intelligilJle.

trines or discuss disputed points. It assumes that the principles are already settled, and presents them in such a form that
they may be understood and appropriated by those for whom
the work is prepared. It is entirely expository, consisting of
definitions, divisions, rules, and examples rnetho<lically arranged; argument finds but little place in it. Its style ought
to be precise, perspicuous, and destitute of ornament; as it
supposes a living teacher, the ideas and rules nee<l not be amplifie<l.

131. Use of Figurative Language.-FigurntiTe language
is admissiLle only to a liruitlJ<l extent. Comparisons, illustrating the less known hy what is better known, an<l contrast, are
most frec1uently employed. The extended simile is preferred
to the metaphor. The figures are use<l to illustrate, an<l should
be drawn from fU@iJ.ill.r objects. The frequent use of them
imparts an air of flippancy to the style, and is often an indication of a want of mastery of the sulJject.
In reference to the use of figmes, and to style in general,
eYery thing must be subonlinatell to the main en<l,-the setting
forth of the truth. Beauty of style is not to lJe sought at the
cost of the truth and logical peifcction of the thoughts. Whatever excites feelings foreign to the matter in hand, or weakens
the interest in the truth presented, is a blemish. A grave,
simple style is the only one befitting this class of compositions.

2. Disquisitions.-By a disquisition is meant a connected
and extended discussion of a scientific theme. It differs from
a text-book in that its aim is not to give a summary statement
of principles assm~rnd to be true; on the contrary, it proposes
• to establish a new or disputed doctrine, or to overthrow or correct one that is held to be true. The discussion may embrace
a whole science or only some of its principles. Argument
accordingly predominates in this class of com11osition. The
author aims to produce conviction ; he sets forth the reasons
for what he adYances, shows how the results have been reached,
enumerates difficulties, shows how they are overcome; and
examines and confutes opposing theories.
Being intended for those who have already some knowledge
of the subject, tl1e mode of discussion differs from that adopted
in text-books: it is distinguished lJy a freer use of technical
terms; ·an ttbsence of ex1imples, a greater am11lification of
statement, and a more elaborate structure of sentences.

132. Kinds of Scientific Prose.-To scientific prose belong
text-lJooks and disquisitions.
1. Text-books.-Text-lJooks contain a complete but summary statement of the principles of a science. They are pre-\J\1mrcd for students of diflerent stages of advancement: one
designed for elenicnt:try scl10ols diners in matter and manner
of treating the sulJject from one intended for academies and
colleges.
' It is not the aim of a text-book to investigate particular doc-

;

~I

' 133. Popular Scientific Prose.-A Yery important class of
wodrn is that in which scientific truth is conreyed in a popular
form. vVorks, which like text-lJooks nml tlis11uisitio11s arc
fitted for the use of but a few, can hardly be classed among
literary productions; but the popular presentations of science . , ,
<lesene a high place in literature. They require a combination
of qualities rarely found. To convey a knowledge of .a scientific subject to those ignorant of it i~1plies a complete mastery
of the subject. Popularity is not to be confounded with a

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216
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PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec. 136

Sec. 133

superficial treatment of a theme: there may be entertaining
ess:iys, but if the entertainment has been purchased at th'e cost
of truth, completeness, and precision, they can Imm no value.
Only one who knows a subject intimately is competent to
select the' aspects that are best adapted to the co1111lrehension
of the ignorant. As in such productions technical terms are
discarded, there must be added to the mastery of the subject, a
mastery of language that is equally rare. ·

r

134. Criticism.-Thc peculiarity of criticism is that it develops truth not systematically as in the other forms of didactic
composition, but in the ex~on of a producti~n of literature, science, or art. The most frequent form 111 which it
appears at the present day is that of reviews.
The aim of literary criticism is to determine how far a "·ork
corresponds to tl1e idea of t.Jie class to which it belongs. The
work is considered ~e. The critic enters into the
writer's train of thought, discovers the theme or main idea of
the work; and ascertains to what class of literature it is to be
referred. If these conditions arc not fulfilled the criticism is
arbitrarv and worthless. 'rwo great evils result from neglecting this rule. In the first })lace, the critic singles out })articular passages for praise or censure, without noticing their
connection with the whole. In this case the work is not criticised; only some details, chosen at the whim of the critic, are
examined. In the next place, works a.re criticised without
reganl to the principles of the class of compositions to which
they belong. Entirely different tests ought to be applied to a
scientific work, from those applied to an oratorical; so the laws
of lyric poetry are not the same as those of dramatic. Much
of the preYailing c1iticism assumes that there arc no fixed
principles of literntm:c, and tlmt the only test of the meiits of a
work is the feeling of the individual critic.

_/

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HISTORICAL PROSE.

'CHAP'l'ER III.
HISTORICAL PROSE.

l';

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','-1 .,

~

135. What is comprehended in History.-History is the
narration of the important events in the life of an individual or
1t ·nation.
It embraces "all that pertains to the ontmml or
imvard life of lnnnanity, and enters essentially into its social,
politiml, intellectual, morn!, aml religious progress and dcYclopment. It comprehends the thoughts, wonls, deeds, and the
prosperous and adverse events wl1ich constitute tlie past, and
which have produced the existing state of ciYilizcd society.''

SclwJf, History of the Apostolic Chitrch, General Introduction.
136. '\Vrong methods of Historical composition.-History
is one of the oldest kinds of prose composition, and has always
been one of the most interesting and instructiYe. It is also
one of the most difficult. Only in the present century have
there grown up a proper appreci:ttion of its importance and
correct views of the method of writing it. 'l'hcre arc two clcfective methods of historical composition which arc very prevalent.
1st. History deals with individual concrete facts, and aims
to embody them in an affecting picturesque narrnti;'e ; it is
Closely related to poetry and romance. If it is written with
a view simply to give a b1illiant narrnt.iYc that shall please the
imagination and satisfy curiosity, it becomes a romance; and
realizes none of the ends for which history is written.
2c1. If the writer giYes prominence to the p1inci]Jles which
can be derived from the facts, and make his work a depository
of general views, that gratify the speculative intellect, ·he does
not write history; his work is a · scientific treatise, wanting in
the essential features of genuine J1istory. Of history, written
according to this method, Guizot says: "It no longer wears its
_former real and living physiognomy; individual clmrncters take
Uilet. 19

i'

'HS

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec.136

&ec.138

np less sp~ce, antl no lon ger appear under Ii ving forms; the
mention of names becomes rarer; the narrative of events and
the description of lllcn arc more its pretext than its si1uject;
all becomes generalized; hi story becomes a series of dissertations . on the progress of the lnunan rnce, and the hist01fan
seems to call up the skeleton of the past, in order to hang upon
it general ideas and reflections. This occmTed in the last
century : tl1e English historians of that period, Robertson,
Uiuuon, Hume, ham represented history under that aspect;
lllOSt of the Gernmn writers still follow the same system. The
})hilosophy of history predominates. History, pro1ierly so-called,
is not to he found in them."

I

I t

~

I

137. Genuine Historical Method.-A perfect history avoids
lloth extremes. It gives to imagination :trnl reason their due;
and combines viv~d narration with llroa~ilo!?phical views.
History is not science. It exhibits individual facts, and is not
a system of notions and general principles: it does not admit
of elaborate processes of reasouing; it docs not lay down a
general principle mid proceed to deduce 1mrticular truths from
it; it tells, not what generally is, or what must he, lint facts
that once qccnrred and that will never occur again.
At the same time it aspires to accomplish more than to
gratify curiosity. The interest that we feel in the past is something more than a mere desire to know wlmt has been; we
would understand the present and anticipate the future.
"Men expect from history,'' says Guizot, "experience analogous to the wants they feel, to the life U1ey live; they desire
to underst:a ml the real nature and hidden sprin gs of institutions;
to enter i11to the movements of parties, to follow them in their
comllinations, to study the secret of tl1c influence of tl1e masses,
and of the action of inclividuals. Men and things must resuscitate before them, 110 longer merely as an interest or diversion,
lint as a revelation of how rights, liberti es, and power are to be
acquired, exercisetl, and defended; how to combine opinions,
interests, passions, the necessities of circumstances, all the
elements of active political life. 'l'his is what history becomes

.

HISTORICAL PROSE.

219

for free nations; it is from tlrnt point of view that Thucydides
wrote the history of the Peloponncsian war, and Clarendon and
Bishop Burnet, that of the English reYolution.
The
need of llrortd pltilusophical views of the course of human
affairs and progress of society has gained strength inste~td of
becoming extinguishetl; we have not ceased to look to facts
for something more tlmn mere narratives; we still expect thelll
to lie summed up in general ideas, and to furnish us 'ri th those
great results which throw light on tlie sciences of legi ~httion
and political economy, and on the vast study of the tlcstmy of
the human race. Far, then, from lleiug less incline(l to consi der
history under a philosophic point of view, it seems to have
acquired a wider interest in this respect."
In attempting to meet this practical interest history docs not
sacrifice its distinctive character as an independent narrative
of c\·ents. It is not written 'rith !\ view to establishing a
theory or enforcing a moral or religious truth; when facts are
'
. I d"isthus selected
ancl combined we have tlitlactic or orntonca
course. The authority of history as a teacher is impaired lly
thus subordinating it to any didactic end. The orator may
combine facts so as to produce the impression he desires to
make, but the historian must exhibit them as they actually took
place•

'•

.:/fr.

1

138. · Essential Qualities. 1. Tx;!ih.-The first requisite
of historical composition is that it give only what is true.
\.Vitl10ut this the essential mark of history is wantiug, no brilliancy of mtrration nor i1rofountlness of retlection-crtn comi)ensate for its absence. 'l'!Je histo~'iau ;~ppears as a wi~i:;,
a.utl in. assuming the oiiice pledges lnmself to absolute truthfulness. His work must lie a faithful retlection of the past:
reporting notl1ing false, suppressing no truth that is necessitry
to the exhibition of the fact, supplying nothing, mutilating
and distorting nothing.
No rule is more generally violated. A lmost every writer is
hetrayed into misrepresenting e\'cnts and characters by n:ttional
pnji_0ices, party spirit, pe1~l~attacluucn.ts, __()1:_ devotion to

220

I '

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec.138

Sec. 138

HISTORICAL PROSE.

221

a theory. 'l'hc tlistorti11g of facts to suit general principles is
one of the most co111111on faults in writers of history. 'l'he ma• jority of histories are partisan in their character; the writers
carry the prejudices aml passions of the 11resent into the past,
and exaggernte, suppress, and combine circumstances to accord
with them.
"

the motles of tho11gl1t mul feeling of entirely different a?es,
ancl ille11tify liimself with the period of which h ~ wntes.
\Vithout this sympathy he can not um1erstand the view~ ~ml
clmrncters of the period, and can not reproduce them v1v1clly
or even truthfully.

In exacting the most rigid impartiality of the histo1ian, it is
not demanded that he suppress all personal feeling. 'l'here is
a false ohjcctirity of history which consists in the absence of
all feeli11g and interest on the pmt of the writer. Na11"ati1·es
written in such a spirit are but colorless, clmracterless detiiils,
destitute of li terary merit, because not bearing the impress of
the writer's personality.- Indifference of this kind, far from
guardin g against partiality, leads to it. The historian should
l'.arn fixed convictions; we expect him to feel moral indignat1011 at wrong, a.ml to syrnpatl1ize with what is noble arnl good.
He is a judge as well as it witness; it is his rigl1t to distribute
praise and blame; we do not demancl that lie shall be destitute
of feeling, but that he regulate
it accordinrr
to the dictates of
.
0
truth and justice.

3. The historical significance of facts exhi_bite~.-.Events
must not only be vividly portrayed; their hist;QDcld s1g111fi cance
must be matle lt})parent; that is, their mea~nd i_mp_o1:ta.nce
for the growth and destiny of the nation. or the m'.1tv1d1:.al.
The facts are shown_Jl~ ~ited but m com~e~t1011. "i_th
their ~ses and effo~ts. 'rhe main event is exh_1lntetl m i_ts
rise· its ueceSsftY is shown, with all tliat contnbn tecl to 1t.
Th; tendency of many w1iters is to make history fal.s~ ~1y co11fuull(linrr apparent arnl real causes. Jnstmtd of ~x l11b1trn g the
" ·hole ~omplexity of circumstances ont of winch an e_r ent
sprin gs, some of which may be Y~ry 1:emote, ~hey trac~ 1 ~. to
some iusiu-nilica.nt circumstance wl11ch 1s often hut t!JC occas1011
not the ci~use. It is the office of tl1 c historian to t11sc0 Hr a))(l
report all t he i11flnenccs that have combined to prod:1 cc. a
given effect; wliich will be fo1111t1 ~n remote. c1:cn.ts! 11'. 111stitutions, in i 11 tli vitlual men, and 111 the d1spe11s,1.t10us of
Proritlence.

'}..,.:__,
2. Local color.-The events must be exhibited with the
individual features arnl details that belong to the age in which
they took place. In reading of rude ages and peoples, we
should be made to feel that the manners and institutions are
such as belong to barbarous times. The historian too frequently transfers to the past the inst,itutions customs and
.
'
v1ews
of the present; attributes to the actors ' motives which
belong to an entirely dilforent period, and judges of their
actions by the standards of the present day. This is to falsify
hi story, a11d rentl('r it altogrther rnluclcss. \ Vliat uttorly fali:;e
riews tlocs 011e rcceirn of the pa8t, who untlerstalllls the terms
!iing, court, religion, in metliruval history as designating what
1s umlerstootl by them now!
.
To set the past before us in its trne colors the historian must
have a powerful and vivid i111agi11at.ion. He must di rnst liimself of the passions antl JWPjutlices of the present, ancl enter into

4. Completeness.-By completeness is not n~ c:int that all
the particulars arc to IH ~ gi rnn . This is imp~ss1ble. A •:cry
small proportion .of circ11111stanccs can enter mto a narrat10n.
"No pi cture aml no history," says 1Yfa.ca11hy, ".ca11 present us
with tlie whole truth; but those arc t.l1e bt~st pictures antl the
IJcst histories whiclt exhibit such parts of the tn~th as rno~t
nearly produce the ejfect_.Qf _Jl1e wh.Q]c.'' Notl11ng that 1s
essential to the consistency antl unity of. the \\·hole, or to exiilain the course of crents, ca~11Jc om~t.tet~. This i11rolvcs m~.re­
ful dis9tlrninat.ion a.ml selc0.t10n, wl11ch IS one of th? most important conditions of writing hi sto~·y. Tl_1c hcaprn g ,up ~f
minute details-the entlca.vor to 01rnt 11otl1111 g-l1a s Lce11 ptonounccd a fault in :t historian next to that of fa lsehood. "A

222

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec .. 138

Sec. 139

223

· ·tu t"ions, 'arts ' rn·1n. .
lifferent nations, rnst1
'
modern lnstory; as, l .
'. .
"bl' to comliinc these numer·
ners etc. It seems almost nnposs1. e
cl . te .ew of so
'
.
. t . to give an a equa YI
ous fi gures rnto one JHC me'me reserve the con1.,_l' . t obiccts
J ' and at the
. same ti p
manyt11C1en
.
. ent of the narrative.
tmuous movem .
.
ti materials of history have
'
Various methods of arrangmg ie '
been atlopteu.

writer may," as l\focaulay says, "by showing nothing but the
truth produce all the effects of falsehoo<l. It perpetually hap}lens that one writer tells less truth than another, merely
becm1se he tells more truths."
It is in his skill in detectin g the relations of facts, discerning their value, correctly inteqireting them, an<l distinguishing
what is permanent from what is tmnsitory, what is essenfod
from what is accidental, that the historian's powers of generalization and his philosophic culture are shown. The exl1iliition
of facts with scrupulous exactness 'vitlwut these higl1 er qiml- -~
ities gives us chronicles and annahs-the materials of history ;
but there is wanting a correct view of the meani ng and lienrings of the events reported. These the historian discornrs; he
drn'rn from the rutle nmrntives what the original writers never
saw in them.
139. Historical arrangement.-The disposition of the materials is an important and difficult part of the historian's task.
There is no one method that can he exclusi1·ely employed.
The mode of representation rnries with the point of view of
the writer, and the subject of the history.
In history, as in every literary work, uni ty is indi spensalile.
Historical unity is not the same as scientific and oratorical.
It resides in the suliject-in the society, institution, individual
whose life is narrated. Whaternr is connectetl with it may
be incorporated into the narrnti ve. But such fullness is never
attempted. Every writer contemplates his subject from a particular point of view, wltich determines .what he is to select
and what omit. The first condition of unity is to reject erery
thing not essential to the faithful representation of the fact.
The difficulty of securing unity in history arises in pait from
this-that ercry event is but the fragment of a larger whole,
and can not lie severed from it, so as to have no reference to ,
'vhat precedes and follo"'S. I-Icnce the difficulty of findin g tl1e "'·
beginning and close, and of giving a complete, well rounded
presentation of the sul1jcct. The difficulty is increased by the
great numlicr of events and topics that must lie noticed in

HISTORICAL PROSE.

I

1

. 1 M thod -The clironological method
·
Cl . I 'Y
The Chronolog1ca
e
.
n1cr of their occurrence.
nouo og
g ives the e,·ents m the_ o . l 1· os1·t1"011 But the exclusive
·
· f ll I 1stonc·1 l ISP
lies at the lii1s1s o. a ' .1 1' t. ' S the unity of the na.r rati\·e,
I
t of tins methou l es IO)
emp oy111en. h ted am1 t I u.ows t ogether heterogeneous . matter;
I
separa t es i e '
.
t . . , ss not an or.ramc who c.
·m1e umh <Tes eu1 111,1 ,
'
"
1
aml prot uces a i
' 1 "'t from it in order to exhibit m·ents
It is ofteu necessary to t epar . . . 'nee "A dry and heavy
in their true rehttions and s1gmhca , . · 1 . li t that of
. " . ' F' ,Ion "knows no othe1 OH c1 u
.
annalist, _s,13 s ene t'
,,, t everv time he has occas1011 to
J
t
I " He repett s a i<tC
cI ll"ono ogJ ·
·t He dares neith er sc
.
thin" tlmt depem1s on I .
mention any
•
1a1• n,ar·i·ati"ori
t ::i c' a particu
'
· But :1 historian
forwanl nor pos pon. ' ' t f t venty places chooses that in
.
'
.
1 a true gemus ou o '
t Iia.t ias ..,' t .. be most
'
commot1·1ousI Y set , so ·1s
' to g1Ye a
winch a 1ac HMY
_
_ .., t
nti"oned loner
before the
c
I . t Often a 1ac me
light to alI t te res .
.
1 ·s up ·ill the train of events
'
·
·t J rnned rn c em
order of tune i iap1 o it. 'Sometimes another inciden~ will
that paved the w~y t
b .
'tponeu for theu it is rntro' , . . . ts Cicero
appear in its full light by emg po~
.t I as the occas10n of ot1ie1 ernn .
duced more apposi e y .
l
. ti •tt a 1mrson of good taste
l . . st order to t ic ca.1c '' '
.
· •
light." Letter
compares t ns ,JU
1 'anta()"eous
. takes to place fin e pictures rn iin al''
'o

to the French Academy.
.
h d The topica.1 mcthocl is an anan_geThe Top1~al Met ~ ·~ The matter of the history is disrnent acconlmg to su~1.iects. b . . f heads arnl the l1istory of
.
cl · t .1 certarn nu m er o
' ' '
.
tnbute rn o '
'
·
'rl s we may gi,,e the lnstory
1
·
s
rri
ven
separate
Y
·
Ill
'
1 1 cl
institutions, cduca. eac l1 iea t i . ::i 1 life of a state, I"ts llO litical
'
.
f
of tie ex crna
·
.
ts each irrespective o
tion, religion, industry, commCJcc, ai '

,: I,

224
'

.I

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

· Sec. 139

the others. This method is a favorite one in ecclesiastical
history, and has sometimes been employed in secular history.

I

Its disadvantages are that it destroys the unity of the history
by giving a number of parallel histories; it exhibits the ditforent
institutions as intlependm1 t, and docs not show how they mutually influence each other, and can not consequently ma ke
known their true significance; it involves frequent and tedious
repetitions.
The Pragmatic Method.-In the pragmatic method the
subjects are selected and comuined with a view to some specific purpose, mostly to make it instructive- for 1>ractical life.
'l'he g reat iutcrcst of history at the present day is the practical
/ .Afl1 e (sec. 137), aud in one sense all history should be pragshoultl ex hibit events
tl1cir causal
con nection; exhibit results and show wliat produced them,
and afford lessons for the present. The method has been
greatly abusc(l; not only by a wrong interpretation of facts,
but a lso by a llo wing tl1e deliberate purpose to impart theoretical knowledge to corrupt the form of the presentation; an
abstract, log ical plan is substituted for the na rrntive, and
instead of a history there is produced a pl1ilosophical disquisition.

,-r 1~;atic-it

~

:~ml institution~ in

The Natural Method.-The natural method combines what
is good in the chronological, topical, and pragmatic methods.
It adheres to the order of ti me so far as this is possible. It
discriminates the various elements of the life of a nation,
traces the growth of each, but instead of presenting them as
detached fragm ents, it ex hibits them in their liYin g connection
as parts of one indivisible whole. It girns " ·J1 at is impor tant
in 1.t period i11 one complete picture, in \1·liich tl1c parts are
brought together according to their real co11neetion, and arc
represente<l on a scale co1Tespondi11g to their comparative im portance, tims alfonling a sim ul taneous view of the whole.
"The reader has the pleasure of foresee ing somewhat of the

HISTORICAL PROSE.

Sec. 140

225

.
. . he observes a lways one event rising
sequel without confusrnn,
ti
vindin" up of the whole,
.
ti . and Ion 0"S to see ie '
o
.
out ot auo 1m, '
to hasten him on to it
.
which is artfully. conc~aled fr~~h~1~n;:e has perused the wlwle
with the greater unpatlence.
.
traveler who having got
I 1 ks b·ick like a cunous
'
'
history' ie oo
' ..
bserves all around him , ~tnd takes a
to the top of a mount,un, ol . .t ation the way he came and
.
.
· in..,. from t ns s1 u
,
delight w view o . . rl vhich he passetl." Fenelon.
all the pleasant places throug I '
.

.

. n into Periods.-W hen the hi story is an

140. D1stribut10
. . .
. to 1)eriods is an important
iwoper d1 v1s10n m
1

extcndec one, a
m leteness. 'l'he di l'isions of
means toward clearn:-ss and co p 1· ·ics of 't perio1l arc call ed
11istory are call ed pen od.s, ~.l1e, .ho,1'. 11l ·~~1mcl1s 'arc poi11ts of time
'!"tll \' stopplll 0 JI ,1.ccs.
~
.
f
l
epoc is,- l c ' . "'
t ,1 . ·I termiua.tes one sen cs o
d
b
an
important
even
"
li
e
l
.
l
mar 'e Y1' <riYes a new (Jrec
1. t'1011 to the course of J11story.
I
CYents, am o
. . t oints from 11·J 1i cl1 to sur rey t ic
They thus sen c as com emen p
'l'l1e bi rth of C hri st and
1 a new st't"C.
past,. :tml enter upol '
r'
b l'1·e1·s·1l historv.
'l'he li fe of
•
ti
t'
are Ppochs o un
'·
··
•
•
. ochs ..18 iu E11glish l1isthe Ile onna 1011 '
.
. m
.. .."r·l·c·d
l1y s11ecm 1 eJI · ' ' f' lt'8S
ernry nation
is
'
est· the llcrnlutwn o
' ·
tory, the Norman conqu '
b ' . the first place, rational.
The diYision a.doptcd must e,.·m · I there lllust be some
1 , 1 Oil SOlllC pl lllClp c,
l }
It must >e onm C.(
fl' t select arbit.rari ly so111c date
'
t
It
will i1 ot su ice o
I
ti
F ·ich pl'riotl shoultl 1arn
reason or 1 •
:
1
·
·
or
ernl
of
a
11c1
JO(
•
"
'
l
as the 1egrnnmg
. .
f·
tlie nature of the ernnts
. . t' .
I 1a1"1cter ·u1s11w
l om
'
. .
0
'
l l 1 '\Tl "Ct in the drnma, rn
a c11stmc I\ c c • '
"11 1 111
· . it · sl1 ou 1 >e" "
'
fititc Sh"e' and should
that were 11n1oicl
... . :,dthroucr1ale11
. " 'o l
1 1
I 18
10
which tl1 e JI ot
c,\.l Uc ·
'I' hc lli YiHio11 in to ccut.
•
1.
•
• ·
rnidllle :irn1 elll1·
·
have its uegmmn g,
., . t' . . ll(l Rl'cn lar hist.ori1 :s is a11
.
d t 1 . some l'cclcsias ic,1 1 ,t
• .
.
unes a op .ct Ill
.
.
1· ": . th e e11ocl1 s ilo unt <·0111 . I . ·1<·c1<le11ta l t t ' is10n' . .
f
example o mc:i e .\ ' ·
: ..
rl the narrati re is i 11 tc·r. , .. t
cide with tl1 e close of thP ce11tm 1es . an
· 1 0 f tl11 ' lc·1·clnp111P11t of :rn <'I 11 .
rup ted in the 111H st
(
t r· untum /. It 11111st
'l'he diYisiun, i11 tl1c scco ud placl', 11111 ~ , 1i . l
tli c' lll by
.
I ' f" 1 ·t" aud uot lie 1111poscc upo11 ..
he drawn fro111 t IC • · ~ s, .
. I" . :ti' tlJ('on.· or sr liP1111'.
.
I
.
111orn11tr to .t ,11 o11 .
.
arrangmg t 1c111 111 co
. ··. . . , 1 s111itli r isio11 s sl1 onlcl uof
In th e tl1 inl place, t he !l111s1011s ,rnc ,

rt

(I

226

Sec.140

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

be too greatly multiplied. vVhen canied too far, division becomes puerile; instead of comlucing to clearness and order, it
produces only confusion. The great historians are remarkable
for their skill in presenting the most complex subjects with the
greatest simplicity and clet~rness.

' ;.

141. Introduction and Conclusion.-The conclusion of a
history may be a brief summary of what was accomplished in
the progress of events; or may direct attention to important
results flowing from t hem. The introdnction is of more importance ancl of greater difficulty. Its aim is to prepare the
reader to understand . the course of even ts; i1) most cases it
contains a summt1ry account of the state of things previous to
the period at which the history begins. The faults to be
avoided are, on the one Jui.ml, al.Jruptness, on the other, disproportion, and ascending to too remo_te a period.
Ill

Ex.-Macaulay begins his history thus: "The events which I propose
to relate form only u single act of a great and eventful drama extending
through ages, and must be very imperfectly understood unl ess the plot of
the preceding act8 be well known. I shall th erefortJ introduce my narrative by a slight sketch of th e history of our country from th e earli est
times. I shall pasa very rapi <lly over many ce ntmies; bnt I shall dwell
at some length on tho vicissitudes of that contest which the udministrntion of King James the Secon<l brought to a decisive crisis."

142. Description.-Description enters more or Jess largely
into all historical works. The events are so closely connected
with loc:1Iities and persons, that in order to render them e\·ei1
intelligible, the historian must emlearnr to place before the
minds of his readers a vivid picture of the entire land, of particular localities, and of the character of the leading actors.
The fiehl of historical description embraces, besides the objects
just mentioned, a nst number of objects, such as,-the character of an entire people at a particular time or of particular
classes of society, the forms of government, modes of life,
industrial arrnngements,-in a word, all the forms and products
of human activity.

Sec. 143

HISTORICAL PROSE.

227

Refleotions.-The historian frequently mingles reflections
with his narrative; these often impart a peculiar ~harm to .the
history, aml further the great ends to w.hich it is conducive.
The }Jrivilege is frequently abused. It is worse th~n u~eless
to state explicitly what would suggest itself to an _mtelhgent
reader of the narrntive. The main uses of reflections are to
exphLin apparent contradictions; to point out th~ res:m~Ia.nce
between a 1iarticular fact and some other eve.nt m h~story, to
exhibit the motives of an act, or indicate its beanng.s. In
every.case they should connect easily and. n~turally with the
narrative, and embrace what is involved m ~t; th~y .may I.Jc
given directly or im1irectly; they should be l.Jnef, s~nkmg, and
not extended into dissertations: often a judgment is suggested
by a single epithet.
143, Essential qualities of Historical Style.-In th~ ~iis­
torical style are coml.Jinecl the greatest clearness, precJS1on,
·viva~ity, and dignity.
.
The first qmility required is clearness. The ol.Jjects themt>el res and their relations to each other shoul~l l.Je c.lea~·ly ex hibited. As history aims to exhibit events I~ then· 1mrnrd
connection and progressive development, it is ind1spens~ble that
there be a sustained movement in the natTative, no 1~1terrup­
tions nor omissions, but each part should be connected with what
precedes and what follows. A rigid exclus~on of unnecessary
matter-of all events, circumstances, reflect10ns only ren~ot~ly
connected with the subject--is required. Excess of de~cnpt10.n
and of comparison obscures the connection. As ln~tory is
writ.t.rn for rreneral readers, a regard to clearness reqmres the
.
avoidance of all local, pro vincial, teclmieal terms.
Vivacity is closely connected with clearness. It r~qmres
the rejection of abstrnct expressions, which are ~ot smte~ to
narration. Complex sentences and .periods are mcompa~1b~e
'tl 't The opposite extreme is equally to be shunned; it is
WllJ,,
1
.
ml
not the aim of history to move the feelings a.m passions, a
the w1iter can not adopt the style of the pamphleteer or orator.
The figures of passion, such as the interrogation and hyperbole,

228

PRINCIPAL FORMS OF PROSE.

Sec.143

do ~ot S\tit the .style of history. Irnagirnitive beauty is not
bamshed. from tins class of co111positions, it holus howernr but
a suuonhnate place; too much embellislnnent is a disauvantage.
Brevity is a means toward clearness and vivacity; it is not
to be r~mde an end. .From the nature of the subjects dealt with
there is great danger of veruosity in this class of compositions'.
Regard must lie had uoth to the choice of circumstances and
the ~mn~er ~f words. Cicero says, "There is nothing more
plea~m~ Ill lnstory than a simple perspicuous urevity."
.
D1grnty, or nouleness, is another essential quality. This is
the natural expression of. the state of mind which the great
ernnts narrated should produce. The writer sets before the
r~adcr important transactions wl1ich have influenced the des·
tiny of the race; teaches practical lessons to the present and
future; and expects his work to ue permanent. Whatever
si~rnrs of. levity has no place in such works: a regard to digmty reqmres the exclusion of all low wonls and expressions
and of _n~auy that 1.n~y be admissible in ordinary conversation~
aml wntmgs pertaunng to merely JH'actical concerns.
"
There was long prevalent a false notion of di<Fnity which
~I~tu :t di.sa~trou~ i1:1ttue_nce upon the manner of wri~ing ;iistory.
lhe IllitJOnt.y of lnstonans filled their works with nmTatives of
wars: revolutions, c~nspiracie~, ar~d negotiations, regnnling
these as the only objects of lnstonc interest, to the exclusion
of all those details which throw light upon the charncter of
~)ersons a~d the state of society. A history written aecordrng to tl11s code contains only a record of the movements
upon t!1e smface, !Ju~ of all that is Yitai and important uenen,th, ~t reve~ls nothmg. The great historians of the present
day reJect tins false notion, anu regard no fact as trivial
tlm~ helps us to understand the life of a people · in a given
penod.

144. Division. of Hi~tor~.-History is diviued with respect
to the extent of its sub.1ect rnto universal history, special history, and biography.

HISTORICAL PROSE.

Sec. 144:

229

Universal History.-We may regard the history of the
race as one great drama in which each nation !ms its part to
of
Perfonn ' and contributes to the final result. It is the aim
. t l 1e
universal history to set before us in their proper connect10n
great events in the progress of the race. In so vast a subject,
there is required a careful selection of circumstances; only
those arc admitted which have a universal interest. There is
great danger of being influenced in the cl10ice of nmteifals by
some preconceived theory. It is hard to avoid one of two
extremes in this class of histories: the one, that of making it a
dull lifeless conglomerate of facts, the other, that of convert'
ing 'it into a philosophical dissertation, in which abstract no·
tions itnd discussions take the place of facts. The great
importimce of fixing the epochs and of a just distriuution into
periods, as well as of giving to each eYent that degree of
prominence which its importance requires, is self-evident.
Special History.-Every society can have its his~ry. Tl'.e
most important of this class is the history of a nat10n. It is
the story of the life, growth, and struggles of a nation, 'rith ~.
the exhibition of its characteristics and its relations to other
nations either during the entire period of its existence or
during 'a imrtion of it. The general princ'.ples alrc~dy l'.tid
down apply particularly to this class. No further d1scus~10n
of it is necessary. It is needless to enumerate the vnnous
histories of different societies; they do not admit of classification. One of the most important is church, or ecclesiastical
history, i.
the n:irrntive of the extension of the church-the
record of the deeds, st.niggles, nnd sufferings by which the
principles of Christianity have been diffused through modern
society.

e.,

Biography.-A biogr:tphy is the record of the life of a person. Biographical interest is of different kinds; it can be
either in the outward deeds of a person, as in the liYes of
w:irriors and statesmen, in which case it resemules historical
interest, or it can lie in the exhiuition of the iutli Yitlual char:

230

PRINCfPAL FOHMS OF PROSE.

, sec. 146

Sec. 144

acter. Many of the most interesting and elevating biographies~
are those of men who hare lived in quiet and obscw·ity. The
interest in this case is psychological.
Tl1e subject of the biography is not to be treated as merely
a central figure arounu which to group the events of a pm··
ticular periou. This is permitted to the historian in order to
give unity to his narrative, but not to the biogrnplier. 'l'l1e
aim of biography is to present a complete pictw·e of the life
anu clmrncter of a single person. The writer is guided in the
selection of facts, not by their importance iu tlie 11istory of the
nation, lmt hy their relation to the cliarncter, activity, and fate
of his subject. Often a slight circumstance, or word, becomes
a ll-importaut as re1·eali11g the motives anu principles of a man,
or as exerting an influence on his life.
To he a faitlifnl record, a biogr1tphy must 11ot be a dry register of tlw Lirtl1, occupation, awl public acts; all shouhl be
exhibitcll as proceeding from and as affecting the pers01rn.l
character. Herc care is rc11uircd, so that a connection he not
uevised which lias 110 foundation in fact. 'l'he biograpl1y must
not become a mere panegyric. This takes place when only the
bright sides of the character are exhibited, and the faults,
weaknesses, and errors are suppressed or extenuated. Colllness and want of sympathy are equally fatal to success in
writing a biography: such a writer can not understand the
peculiarities of the one he would make us acquainted with;
he is wanting in oue of the essential requisites of a faithful
biogrnpher.

Special Histories of Institutions, Industries, Arts, etc.A class of histories of great and continually increasing value
embraces works that trace the rise, growth, and changes of
particular institutions, laws, manners and customs, and whatever else is connccte1l with the inner life of a people. Tims,
there arc histories of philoso11hy, literature, art, education, law,
commerce, and industry. 'l'lte personal interest of history
proper is wanting in works of this class; they are chiefly expository and critical, partaking more of the nature of scientific

ORATORICAL PHOSE.

. t defect of the whole class- one which ca~t
A_ g1eais that by treatiug of institutions am] rnnnot be 1emedietl
'
.
.
·
f the clnneter
ous products of human activity, urespcct1vc o
\ · ~ .. "
f the a"e allU the circumstances lllOl I } lll o
d•t·
and con I wn o
< t;
'
th ·it is necessarily imperfect.
'
.
l
h
they present an image
t em,
.
.
.
£ . xample can not ue apprcciakt
'fhe literature of a nation, o1 e, '
'
.
. . ' (See
without a knowledge of its political aml social li1sto1).
Prngmat:J'Iethod, sec. 130.)
.

treatise~.

of

CllAP 'l'Elt l V.

,)

+

,J

~

01 i A'L'OJCICAL l'JW::>E .

0

torical Discourse defined.-.A u uraLiu11 is a pnhli i.;
ra. 1 with ·1 Yicw of tld er111i11in g tliP \\111 8 of tile
discourse m.tt e
'
.
. . . . t . lt 1~
... rs to some definite action either 11ea1 ot 1e111u c. .
w.u
e
1 110 t ie:u.
.. 1 It ]Jrl'Sll.J'P'.'st·s an autlic11.re
t mled
to be hean'
.
~n e d f 11crsons Y:u·y ing in age, cu11diti1111, a11d cultun·.
ompose o
. . .
. · 'tR for it~ enrl to !Pat!
.
Its tlistinctirn clmrnden st1c is, th.tt it 1J, .
.
]" .
. ...
'
.
~\
to some determrn:ite
ac t"wn. 'fherc 111 ,.1.y he public
. t L1scou1ti ~l' S
_,_M~\)
r\
fi. . other purposes - as to i·nstruct ''Lllll to entcrtam; ut.
·rr icyt
properly
to oratory, a11tl are gonn-11ctl
th
1aws. T he power to influence the wills of others y con muous discourse is eloquence.

. 145.

(~~not

uel~ng

b~ l'\~11

146. Analysis of Persuasion.-In ?nlcr to persuatle it is
n11ce the uuderst<Lmli 11g
--=--- and con
-necessary botll to enlighten
, d to move the passions.
.
f
.111
.
..
to his hearers a clear . n ew o t1ief
The orator must
g1rn
.
f th e action proposed, allll con nnce t1iem o
nature nrn1 a1111
t
J
iness
.'
' . .
. iection IYith their duty, i11teres ' or iapp_ : .
its necessaiy c:~ c.ases in which the existence of a conv1Ct10n
There mav occ
'
·
·
· to overcome
Le "S.SUmed antl in which the mam t 11111g JS
.
may u "
' '
.
•
b"
1 su ~ect . This ' howinuifference and awaken mterest m tie

°

