THE

ELEMENTS

CF

RHETORIC AND COMPOSIT ION

A TEXT-BOOK FOlt SCHOOLS AND COLL EGES.

DY

DAVID J. HILL. LL. D ..
l' nE8 1DENT OF TOE UN"rver:sn v AT LF:w1 ~ nuno, ANn l\uT 11 on ,.,,. •· Tu L

or

Sc J ENC~

NEW

EDITION.

GIIELDON
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C OMPA J\Y'.

AND

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PRESIDENT HILL'S TEXT-BOOKS.

IIIS hook is Jesigncll as a practical in trod uc t ion io
English compo:;iLioll.

oric, "~ t he a<l Yan cell 'Y ork of t.Lc

I

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.
a

'.H E ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC t1i'W COM POS 1T IO~·J

i

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present tlie laws of di scuurst• as a scicntili l; sy:-:k111.

lL is tak en fur gra1Jt1 ·d t li; d.

T HE SCIENCE OF RliETOR:C .

t.lw,;1·

can both re:Hl and write simple

THE l:.LEME NTS OF LOGI C

a1111 L'

r11],.~

li.1r g11illallt:•.' i11 the art 1if \niting.

I.

JI I.

10c ric.~,-tl1 e

vf Wic'.-

t hi:i book, the aim i:-; tu f11rni:-;]1 a <·0111pcndi11rn of

Tr
1

In "The Science

"'

wlio will

F n~ 1isli

t1.~ l'

tl1i' ii1>()k

&:'tlfenc·e,;.

For

:cnch st11dc11ts . tliL· nic·n· ll1:il\ill!.,'.' of sc·1i!c11t'<'S is :111 \llt[•ro !il -

a b le e.\c rci:-1e .

\\'\1aL tl1c•y (' Sj wcially llel·d i,; dirl·l'ti1111 Ji., 11·

tOC OllCClltrate

tJie lllind

The only way L<J aC'11 11irn

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ticc in the Yarion s processes of t.he art.

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ll·an H· rs slw11ld tin;t be a, i;ist.cd i11 !i11din g a i-;t1l1j1 ·d "f
thought, and t.l1en lie i-; Jiow11 how to ae<·11mula!C'. :1rr;1n::".
mid cxpn•:-8 Llie id(•as con1)('d1 ·11 with th e tlw1n1"

view h:ts gi,·1·n fll1ap1: to !lie trcatirn·Jlt. of
('QPTnlGUT

T li i.;

eo1n11.,~il11111

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tliis hook . The lc:1rn cr is condncted, sll·p liy :-;t1·p, tl1rou gl1
the cll tirc work of writing a compos ition, inelllding t lir·

selection of a subj1•ct, tlie accumulation of 111all'rial", UJt :
arr:~11gernl'11L

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tl1c rnuLL"rials, tlie clwico uf wunb, llie

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l~1 :•1u1n: t i11; ~l11d· · r1 t :.,

k111 1w the 11r i11cipl es so wt.:11 t l1al rcferellc·e lo U1c tcx~ will
lit; 11111 11:<;1 ;~Ha ry.

rn1 11arlu; a 11d rn 1;;gl'Kl i1111 H J1a ve !)"e ll i1d rod uced in tl1 e

J . l>o 110t C'XacL luo rnn c h a t fir st, l1uL in si :0 t tlaa t cYcry

Hmallc r Ly pe, as a l1 e lp lo the earn est sl 11d cnt, rather t han

prin ciple once lea rn ed hl: appli ed in all subsc<p1 t.: 11 t cx crc i' L':-1 .

w i Lit tla e ill Lt- 11 Lio n t.l1aL llH ~ Y 81aull be k :.m1 c<l fur close

4 . Call a ltc ntiun to the Glossary, and rnc1111rage the

r ecitation.

learn er to use it habitually.

The exercises nrc fnll and hare been prepared wi th so me
t are.

They a rc placed at llie

C!Hl

of tli c Look for t wo

r easo ns : 1.li cy make t he trx I. r11orc compact.; a11t1 t hey rnay

All Ll1 c mo:;(. dillicult tvr 111 :;

ha ve Lhc ir pronuneiation marked.
will pren· n t an_v class-ro::m1
hyperlJ1)l cs !

It i:-; li<>pcll tl1at. tl1i:-i

di:;c11 si,;:0 11 :1IJ011 L sim -1 11·:; and

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]Jc 11 setl in Ili c class-roo m, withunt allowing- Ili c

make too f're•ru cnt reference to t 11 (~ I.ext.

to

5. E1wouragc the hc,;t SL1tllc11Ls lu rec ite wr li ati1 11 \1 l1a l

Som e of the

t h ey can of Lhe ma t ler in fine Ly pc, bnt rc1p1ire uf llic r:l:i:-;.-.;

i,;t nd c n(,

tmly Lh<' snbst.ancc, a:-:sig ni11 ~ ](·ss<Jn :-: :1f'.f'.nrdi11gly.

plaus arc nJapt cd fro m Gral1a.m's "}<;11gli slt Style."

A Glossary has licc.'11 co 111 Li ll cd wit.11 t he index.
is regarded as a valuaLlc feat ure

T! oi-.;

This

plan 11 ill stim u lal.l· t he 1111Jre eapali l1·arlll a111l>it.1u11s st 11d e11t.-;.

or lhe IJook for two reaso rrn :

G. A ss ign frcrp1c nt rcYiew.:;, awl r1•41uin.: th e ll' arn l· r t,)

i t mak es t he vol nm c useful :is a work of rci'erence, without

011:-:erve all the rule;; in Iii ; peri od ical compo:-:itin 11 :-;.

LunJ e11ing the text with techni calities; a!l(l serres as a

liuok s la ou ld b(• u sed a; a hand hook for rl'fl'rcta\·1· aft er iL

pronounci ng a11<l <leliuing di ctio nary of <liflicnlt rh etori cal
te rms.

l1as l1cl:11 li11i slwd i11 th e class-rn!Jm .

Attent.iuu is invited to ihc following

Sutrw

c .\ cl 11dvd fru111

of Hli etoric," arc lli sc 11 ssed li e n~.

SUGGEST IONS TO TEA CHER S.

I. T he topical mctho<l of recitation is recom mended.

The book is especially dcsigne<l for this, and pains lrave
l1cc n taken t.o make th e a n:tl yf'ii' el<'ar and <'x:w f.

lop ie.-; wlai cli ha\' e i >Cl'l l

'T'lie p:1rl .i

n ec~ssa ry Lo

li ae ..

Tl 1u

:-ic ic111·1•

'l'li e:-;c :t n' n·.!.!':rn l1·d

:1:-:

an clcrnentary co 11r."l' in compositiu11, :tlll11111 gl 1

Ll1ey llu no t belong, i11
Wid-1.•n e.

olricLnci,;s,

to the provin l:e uf

,'
d

~·'_i:~

·--

P REJi'.,-1UH.

Vl

In the prog ress of the work, many valnaulc suggestio ns
ha ve been ma.de by Mr. William R Martin, A. M., Principal of tho University A cad emy.
The present cdi ti on has liccu carefully revised, and is
prin ted from 11 cw eleclrotype-plalcs, but docs not diifor
substantially from th e lirst fo rm of the book, puLlisheJ iu

OR ANALYSIS.

1878.
DAVID
U NIYKllBITY AT LEWISDURO, April,

J.

liILL.

INTRODUCTION.

18Si.

DEFINITION OF RHETORIC .. . ....... . ... . .
RELATIONS OF RHETORIC TO GRAMMAR AND LOGIC.. ..

2

3. UTILITY OF RHETORIC ... . .. .. . ...... . ... .. . ... . .. . . . . .

2

4. DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT....... .. ....... ...... .......

3

r.
2.

CHAPTER

I.

INVENTION.
r. MEANING OF INVENTION ... . ........ .
2.

PROCESSES OF IN VENTION ....... . .... ..... ... .. ....

G

SECTION I.
THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT.

l

l

1.

IMPORTANCE OF CHOOSING A SUBJECT..... .... .......

G

2.

HOW TO OBTAIN A SUBJECT. ..... ....... .. ... ..

. . ..

7

3. QUALITIES OF A GOOD SUBJECT.... ... .. .. . .. ...... . ..
4. RE LATION OF THE SUBJECT TO THE WRITER . . ... .....

7
8

5. RELATION OF T HE SUBJECT TO THE OC CASION...... . ..
6. ADAPTING A SlJBJ~CT ..... ..... .. .... ... .... . ... .... ....
7. STATEMENT OF A SUBJECT. . ... .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . .. .. . ..

I)

0
10

---- - --

Vlll

------------ ---- ---

!

.1 N , 1r, rs1s.

ti

SECTION II.
THE ACCUMULATION OF MATERIA LS.
PAUio:

!.

IMPORTANCE OF COLLECT ING MATER IA LS.. . . . ....... ...

11 ·

2.

THE SO URCES OF MATERIALS. . . .. ... .. ... .. .. . .. .... .. .

U

3. HOW T O USE THE SOURCES ... . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 :~

4. RUL ES FOR REFLECTION ............. .... . ..... . ... .. .

l:J

5. RULES FOR READING . ........ .. . .. . . ......•.... . . .. .. .

14

I. PURITY
P ..\ U l!

•
1

THE MEANING OF PUR IT Y.... ..... .. . ... .. . . · · · .. · .. · ·

28

2.

THE BARBARI SM . .... . ... . .. . . ... . .. . .. . . .. ... · ·.· ·· ·. ··

2!1

3. THE NATURALI ZATION OF WO RCS ... ... . . . . . . · · · · · · · ·
4

. THE FORMATION OF W O RD S. . . .... ... ...... .. · .. ··

1.

MEAN IN G OF P RO PR IETY .. .. . . . .. · ·.· .. .. · ·· ..

2.

RULE S FO R fl'R O PRIETY .... ......... · · · · • · · · · · · · · · · · · ..

2.

:l:J

Ill. PRECI SION .

THE ARRA NG EMENT OF MATERIALS.
IMPORTANCE O F ARRA NG EM EN T. ..... ...... . ........... .

:~ J
:JI

II. PROPRiETY.

SECTION Ill.

1.

ix

A N;I /, J'S/8 .

1G

PART S OF A COMPOS IT ION.. ....... . . ..... .. .... . . . .. . .

Hi

3. THE I NTR OD UCTION . . . . . . . . .... . ..... .. ... . .... . .... .

17

4. THE DISC USS IO N... . .. . ... .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

J8

5. THE CON C LUSION. . .. . ... . . . ....... ..... . . .... . . ... . . . .
6. THE TW O METHODS OF ARRANG EM ENT....... ..... .. . . .

HJ
1\.1

7. ADVA NTAGE S OF THE TW O METHODS. . . . .. . . ... .

21

.. . . .. . . .

;;7

. .. .. . . .
RULES FOR PRECISION ...... . . .. · .. ···· ···· ·· ·

;\~

M EA N ING O F PR ECIS ION ..... . .. ·· · · ····

1.

2.

SECTION //.
SENTENCES
I.

DEFINIT ION S . . . .. ...... ..... .•... .. .. .. . .. ... .. ... .. ....

2.

DIVI SIO N OF THIS SUBJECT.....•.. · ·· ·· .. · ·· ··· · ·· · ·

-1~

4-l

1. CONCOR D.

CHAPTER 11.
STYLE.

2

1.

DEFINITI ON O F STYLE.. . .. . . .. ... .. .. .. . . ... .... . .... .. .

2:l

1.

TH E IMPO RT ANCE OF STY L E. ... . . ..... . . .. . . . ...... ... .

:! I
:2:i

3. T H L GEN f- RAL LAW OF STYLf:..... . ............... . ... ..
4. DI VIS ION OF THIS CH APTER ...... . . . .. .. . . ......... . . .

RULES FOR SIMPLE SENTENCES ..... · ...... ·· .. ·· .. · .. ·

1.

.-"-

RULES FOR COMPO UND AND CO M PL EX SE NTENCES . . .. ·

•

11

s

.

·· ·· ···· ·· ·

RULES FOR CLEARN ESS . .. .. . . .. ·· · ··· · · ·· ··· ·· · ····· · ·

:;:1

'"'

111 . UNITY .

SECTION I.

MEANING OF UNITY . .. . .. . . ..... · · ····· ·· ··· ·· · ······ · · ·
2.

DICTION.

;,

!i i

CLEARNESS.

'· THE IMPO fHAN CE OF C LEARN ES .. · · ·
2

4

RULES FOR UNITY ..... .. .... .. ··· · .. ·· .. .... .. · .. · .. ·· ·

f)~

iiH

IV. ENERGY.

1.

DEFINIT ION OF D ICT ION... .. ........... . . . . .. ... . ......

25

2.

MEANS OF ACQU I RI NG A VO CABULARY ... . . . . . . . . . . • . . .

2G

1•

3. THE ESS ENTIALS OF GOOD DICTION. .. ................ .

27

~-

MEANING OF ENERGY· .. •···· · · .. · .... . .... . .

... ... ....

RULES FOR ENERGY ........ · ... · · .. · .. · .. · · · · ·· .... ····

G ·~

03

x

1I NA / , l.8 /H

AN. I l Y8/8.

XI

..:._ ...

V. HARM ONY.

SECTION V.
PAOR

1.

THE VALU E OF HA RMONY.. .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . .......... . .. .

VARIATION OF EXPRESSION.

(i(i

.. RU LE S FOR HARMONY... .. ......... .. .. . .. . .. . . .. • ..

G7

SEC TION Ill.
PARAGRAPHS.
1.

THE IMPOR TANCE OF PARAGRA PHS .

2.

RULES FOR PARAGRAPHS .. . ... .... .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .

3. [XA MF' L ES OF PARAGR1\PHS.. .. ..

1.

IMPORTANCE OF VAR I ETY . ..... .... ..

2.

KINDS OF VAR IATION ..... .. . .. .. . ..

f1I

3. VAR IATION OF DICTION ....... . ....... ..

!J I

4. VARIATION OF STRU CTU RE ......... .... . ...... .

~,7

71

CHAPT ER

Ill.

. . ..... . . ........ .. .
r.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL S.

SECTION IV .

" THE PR EPA RATI ON OF MA NUSCRIPTS .. ........ .. .

FIGURES.
'

DEFiNiTION OF F "~U'1~S

-· T H E OR IG! ;~

or

Fi GURt S .

2.

I

1\1:,os Of

!1C UKi:.::i ..... . .. .

(:1.) s ;rn11t:S .
\ 2. )

M-=t;.tr.::!1.. f. ...

s f'""'·'i ' "· ' "
b cl ~,,,~: :o n

l

...; ,

:

-

SECTION I.

!' I

'

THE GRAMMATICAL PO INTS.
, RUL ES FOR THE CO MM A .. . ........ .. .. ..
RU l. E

1.

-Pare ~th ct;CJ I Exprcss;o n s

I ll.1

HI

RUL E:

2

-Words in App , sit ion ....

1111 ;

1111;

~-c,

. .. .. . .

."iii

H lJ L E

·1 - V/"rJs in ,, Se.ic; . ...

1'7

RUL E

') - C011t .nu td Serd t:n Ce>.

\8.) HypewLitt .. . ... . . .

:·n
otl

(10.) Visio n...... . . . . ... ... ..... .. .. . ... ... .. . ... . .. .
\ 11 . ) An:1:i\c,1:; .. . . . .. ..... . .... . ........ . . . . ..... .... .

C l m ~x . .......... .. . . . . . • . • . . . .... . ..... .. . ....

(13.) Epi g ram . . . . .
(14.) lnlerru;,;~Lun .. . . . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . ... . .•.... . • .. ..

:,. RULES FO ii f lGU ii ES .. .. .. .. ..... .. .... ... ............ .

Jill

il:l

(9. ) Apv> lrv f'h d. . . . . .. . . .. . ... ... .... . . •. . .. .. ...... .

~12.)

... '

··:

';H

~;\

(4.) Al lugo ry .. . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . .... .... .... . . .... . .

(7.)

y:·

3 CLA SSIFIC AT ION OF T HE POINTS.

I

..:;.

~':2

(3.) Perso n ifi cat io n .. . . . .. . ..•. .. . .... . . . .

(5 .)

~b·
!Pl

TH E PURPO SE OF PUN CTUATION .. . . .... .. . .

70
. j.

:~o.J<'""

I !l 7

lll'7

RULE 6.-D•Te11den t Clrt1,,s1·s.
RULE 7.-Tran sposed Part s.

](I,' (

8H

RUL E 8 - Lo_.: ic1i Sut·j ·d.

j (t')

b!)

RU LE

b !I

RUL E 10. - Wods 111 Po irs . . . . .. . .

UO

RULE 11.-Ell ips :s of a Verb . . .... . .
RULE 12. - W ord s 1n the Vo ca tive .....

flu

I

11 ).' i

I I t ~;

'). -- Ah:;o! u te Construct.o ns..

~ 111

l\ULE 13. - ilr cf Quot." t ",ns.

Ul

HU Lt ''\. - Nu •n•· ra l Fi .:urn..

·..
;~.

...

...
,;,

li le\

l(l '.I
\1 1'.I

. . . .. ... . .. · · ·

. .. .. . . .. · · · · ·

{1 1'.I

lll'.I

J~~.:c. '.

.

-

-

-

- ----

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-- --- ...
X l ll

AJ'·l.·IL J'::JlS

II N. IL Y8.!8.

XI I

~

l'AliK
l 'ACi lt

2.

5. RULES FOR THE QU OTATION ........... · ·. · · .. · · · · · ·

RUL ES FO R THE SE MI COLON ...... . . . ....... .•. . .. ..... 10~1
RULE 1.-Short Senten ces Con n.:cted ....... ... ... . .. . ... . 110
RULE

2.

RULE 1.-Dirc :t Quotat ions .. .... . ... · .············ · ·· · ·
RULE 2. - Quoted Quotati on;. . . . . . . . · . · ·. · · · · · · · · · · ·

·· Subdivided t-1. embe r; . ........ . ....... ... . .... 110

1'20
l~O

1:.!1

RULE 3. --AdJcd Clau se,, ................ . ..... .. ... . . 110
RU LE +.- Pa,l,cul.tr s in

Ap 2 o~i ti c n

SECTION Ill.

...... . .. ............ . 110

RULE 5.-Common DeFencence ... ....... ... ....... . . . 1 11

PRINTERS' MARKS.

1 11
3. RULES FOR THE COLON ...
RUL E 1.-S ubd ivided Me mbers .. . . . . ...... . . ..... .. .. 111

121
ACCENTS .... . ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ............ .. .
l:.l:.l
THE APOSTR OPHE .. . . . ...... ····· ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ··

1.

RULE 2.-Su pplcmcnt ary Clac;s2s... ... . . . . . . . . : .. . .... lU

2.

RULE 3.-Forma l Quotdlio ns... ... ......... .. .. . .. . .. . . . 11:.!
RULE 4.- Titl e-Pages . ... . .. .. .. . .... ... .. ... .. .....

ll :J

3. BRACES .... . .. .... . . .. · · · · ··· ·· ··· · · · · · · · · · · · · . . . . . .
4. BRACKET S . ...... · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
· · · · · · · · · · ... ........ .

'I · fWL ES FOR THE PEnlOD . .. .. ... . .. . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . .

11:;

5. THE CARET ....... .. . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ... . ..... .

6. THE CE DILLA ..... ..... .. . ·. · · · · · · · · · · · ·

RU LE 1. -Compl t te Sentenc ~ s.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l l J
RU LE 2. -Abbrev iations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

a

RU LE 3.- T1tle P al!cs and Headi ngs .. ... . .. .. .. ..... . .. . . 114

RUU:. 1.-Uirec t Qu d> tions . . ... ... .. ...... . ............ 11-1
RUL..E. 2.-0ouo t. .... . .... . . . .. ... ................ ... 11 ;,

fOR TH~ Dt,:::H.
HU U : 1.-- Ab r - pt Ch cngPs ... . .... .

... ... .. ... .. .

--

.,. ,
1
l"'
l ·_.,

. .. . .. . .... . . . .

, 4 _ PARACR •\PHS . . .

I

-·.

.,.,

. .).,
1-·'

15 . QUANTITY MAc.. Ks . .
1G. R EFERENCE MA :<KS.
,7_ TH :; S ECT tOr'.
18. TH E TILDE
. . . . . ..... .. · · ·

I l! i

19 TY PCS ..... .. ·· · · · · ·· · ·

I \I i

SECTION IV.

I J1i

111
l I4
i l;

f\UL,l.. ~,. - U"''"' · """ · .. ..... .... ......... . ......... ... l 17
RULE:. 6. - 0 e p e n J~,tt L•pre>>ions . ... . ... . ..... . .. ....... l lo

RULi: 7.-Head .ng> and Auth ori t e; . ... . ................ . ll ti
fl.

.

TH E HY PHEN ..... ....... . . . .

11;)

" RU LES FOR THt E.XCLAM ATIUN POINf .. ...... . ...... .. . ll t1

ru us

g. EMPHAS IS.. .. . .. ... .. .. · ········ · ······ · ···
10.

.

1. RU LES FOR T HE INTER ROGAT ION POINT .. . . . . ...... .. 114

RULE 1.-W 1th lnt ,rjection s

I

8. ELLIPSIS ... .. .. . . . ... . .. .... . . ·· ·· ···· ······ ··

"· ITALICS.
1'1 . LEAD ERS. ...... . . .. ..... . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
IJ. LEA.O S.. .
. . ........ ... . . .

T HE RHETORICAL PO INT S.

I " ''

-~

.I

7. DIER ESIS . . ... ....... · · · · · · · · .. · · .. · · ·. · . ..

!

SECTION //.

·· · · ·· · · ·

t:.!~

RULE FOR TH C. PAR EN lHt.S!S . . . ... . ... ........ . . ... .. . . 119

C APITAL
l\ULE 1.-- Ftrsl Wor -k . .. . .. . .
RULE ~ . -He . 1J"' f'. '.
RULE 3.-QuotcJ Tit les ....
RULE 4. --- N.11nr· c, of l'"' Dc •ly ..
RULE s -lhe l"Li ,

LETTER S
.,.
l- I
1-~-.

I:!.!

1::.-,

~

.

xv

AN. IL Y S IS.

..11N. 1LrSIS.

XlV

l'AGB

RULE

6.-Prope r Nam es .. ... . ... . . ...... . .... ...... • . . ...... 1'2G

7. THE CLAIM OF THIS STANDARD .... ............ .... .. .

1 1:..\

R U LE

7.-Deriv ations from Proper Names.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 127

8. THE CULTIVATI ON OF TA STE . . . . .....

1 l:I

RU LE

8. -Ti t les of Offi ce and H onor..... . .. ... ..... . . .

g. CATHOLICITY OF TASTE..... . ... .. . ..

RULE

9.-P erso nific at :o n . ..... ... ........... . . .. . . . . . . .. 1'.!7

1!:!7

RULE 10.-Term s Defined . . . . . . . .. .. . ... . . . . ... . .... . .. .. . .

1'.!8

RULE 13.- lm po rtant Words .. . .. . ... . .. . . ..... .

128

RULE 14.- Roman Numeral s ... .. . ...... .

12S

t

[
~-

THE COR RECTI O N OF Pf{OOFS.

KIND S OF kSTHETIC PLE ASURE

:i.

THE BEAUTIF UL. .. . . .

4. TH E WITTY .... . .

5 . THE HU MORO US

..

Ldl

1.-. 1

· ·· ··· · ·· ·· ···· ·

. ...... .. . ' . . .... .

CHAP TER

.. . ....... )./ti

V.

SP ECIAL FORMS OF COM POSI TI Ol,J.

IV.

KIN DS OF C O MPO S\TI O N . .. . . ... . .. ... .... . . - . - .. .

•
1
2

'· D t. FINITI ON OF CR ll I CIS M . ... .. . . .. .. .. ... . . . . ...... . .
THE VALU E: OF CRIT IC IS M . . .... .

3. KINDS OF L ITEl\Al\Y CR;TIC IS \1

1- \

, , . , . .. , . , ... ,

3. THE SU SLi ME ... .

. . . . . . . . t:Jt)

C RITICI S M.

2.

.

1 ~'.!

THE REA DING OF PR<:) C. F......... .

CHAPT ER

.. ....... . . . .. . .. . . .. . . 1·Vi
....... - .. .. .. . ....... ........ . 1 l ~

1.

6. THE PAT HETI C .. . . . . . . . . . ... . .

•. T HE P REl'Al\ATl.JN 01 COPY . . ........ .
2.

H l

THE PLEA SURES OF TASTE.

"'

SECTION V.

. . .. . . ..

SECTION //.

1~

RULE 11.- Numbered Items . ....... . .. . . . ... . .... .. . . . . . . . . 1~8
R ULE 12.-Th e Pronoun I and the Int erj ect ion 0 ... . . .

. . .. . .

METH OD OF TREATMEN T .. .. ....... .

.

1 :11

. . 1::1

SECT I ON /.

.. . . . ......... t:t.i

4. METHOD OF TREATMENT . . ..... .. ..... .. . .. .. ... . .. . ..

1fil

lilo

,! .

DESCRIPTIONS.

•

QUALITIES OF A GOOD DE SCR I PT ION

1.

SECTION /.

2

.

. .. . . .. . . . .... . . 11: I

TH E. Pfl OCESS OF DESCR IBING . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ti~ S TE.
1.

DEFINITI O N OF TA SH .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. ...... .... . . 1"~

2.

ANALYS :S OF T AS TE. .... . . . .. . . ... . .

'"

3. THE QUAUT!C:S

+

o::

TASTE U NI VFf?SAL . .

'.'· THC::

V~R I AT!O N

T ASTE .. .. ........ ...... .
. .... . . . . . ..

OF TAST E. .... . .. .... . .. . . ... .

f.. T H E ST ANDARD O F TASTE . . ... . . . .. . .. . . . ... .

1:) l

SECTION II .
r~ARRATIVES.

1 !l'.J

1 :;'. J
~

l'l

11 J

. QUALITIE:S OF A GOOD NARRATI VE . . . . . ... .. . . . . .. ... .
1
2 TH E pt_1 H OF A NAR RA T iYE . .
3. THF Q UALIT IES OF A PLOT ... . . . . .... ... .. . . .... .

t_
~.

:~:{:.a
-.

~

,":

~·~

ANALYSJS.

X Vl

SECTION Ill.

X I II

·c HAP TE R 11.

LETTERS.
STYLE.
1.

THE PURPOSE OF L ETTERS ...... . .. •.•..... . .•. ....... . l'iO

PA OF.

THE KINDS OF LETTERS .. . . .... . .. . . . . .. .. .. .. ... . .... 170

SECTION

!

3. PAR TS OF A L ETTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177

SECTI ON

I

tf.. G ENERAL RULES FO R WRITING LETTERS. . ... ... .....

2.

I

184

!.-Diction ........... . ..... ... .... . . .. .. ... .. ... :.?! !1
11.-Sentences . . ....... .... . . . ... ... ... . ... .. . ... 2:~ 1

SECTION 111.-P arag raphs .. .. ... .. . .. ........ .. . . . .... .. . :::.!;
SECTION IV.- Figures .... ... . . . . . ............ .. . .... .. .. .. . 22 7

j'
1

SECTION IV.

I

ORATIONS.

SECTION

V.-Variation of Expression... . ... . . . .. . .

. . .... .. . . 232

CHAPTER II I.

THE NATU RE OF AN ORATION ... . . . ...... . . . . ......... . 18G
2. KI NDS OF ORATORY ... .. .... . ..... ... .... .. .... . ... .... 1S7
1.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS.

3. THE NAT U RE OF PERS UA SION.. . ... .. ... . .... ... . . . . .

11-'8

..J. TH E Q UALIT IES O F AN ORAT ION. . . . .. .

1:-<!J

SECTION

1.-The Grammatical Poi nts . .. . ....... .... . . ..... .. . 239

5. THE PA RT S OF AN ORATION ... . ......... ... . .... . .. . .. . 1!10

SECTION

11.-The Rhetorical Poi nts . . . .. ... ... ... . . .... . . . . .. 2-1 7

6 THE MANAGE MENT O F THE FEELINGS . .... . ... .... . . . .. . l!Jl

SECTION Ill -The Use of Capibl s .. . . . . . ... .... . .. . . . .. . .. .. . 251

. ... ... . . . .

7. TH E QU ALI FICATIONS O F AN ORATOR ... ... .... ... . .... 11)2

INDEX AND GLOSSARY ••••••••.•.•••.••.••••.•• . •..•. ... .. • 2r>3

SECTION V.
POEM S.
1.

THE NATURE O F A POEM .. . . . .. . . ... ..... .. . .. ..... .... l!H

2.

KI NDS O F PO EMS. .... . . .

. ........ .. .. .. . ... . .. .... . . . l\J.)

3. THE METHOD OF P OETR Y .... .... .... .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . lflo
4. VER SIFI CAT ION . .

. . . .. . ... . . . . ... .. .. ... ....... . .. :.!OO

EXERCISES.
CHAPTER I.
INVENTION.

~.

SECTION

1.- Th e Choi ce of a Subject .. . .. ... . . . . . ... .. . .. .. .. 209

SECTION

11.-The Accu mulati on of Materials ......... ..... . . . . . . 211

SEC T IO N 111.-The Arran ge ment uf Mat cri dls.• • . .... . .... . . ..... 2la

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

•

I

II I

I

'

I

.--

I_

I,

\

I

1 . Dcfi11itio11 of JU wtori c .
~

r

~

,

, /

Rhetoric is hot.Ji a F:C'i<·nrc :111'1 'an ar't. .. ,· Jt 1,; :i P-C'i1·nco
wh en it d i,.;cove rs allll e:;i:t1Jl is11l·.:i Llic Lt\1s u[ di:-;c c•ur.' •'. at1
art wh en Ui c bws arc appl il'Ll in practice. HlJt:Lo rit· 1,.; ,
Uw r d1))'C, the science of the laws of effective discourse,
or the art of speaking and writing effectively.

i_

The word Rhet or ic wa .~ first u1·1·li"d t11 sp<>k •·n di~('nnrsP only.
lt is dnriv"J through tl11• tin·1 ·k 1"11r"l'"-,j (,./11 ·fnn/.:1 ·) fr' >l!l 1'.·, · ,_., ,
(r!ict1if') , a i-;;,.·n]{(·r; and. 11<'rord in1:h-. 1111 · a11R tlin urt ,,f sp1 ·akini: .
'l'li c HfllllP gmw rn.l princi}'l1·r1 1111d•·rli• · and g•w1 · r11 l><•th 1Jr11.I a nd
wri tte n d io;eo urRP , and l11•1 1ro tlw 1111·a11i11g of tl11 · w 11rd " -:i s '"' .. , _
t1•nd1 :d nR to in<'lud" nll kinds .-.r 1·111111111i;i tion. Thi" is it-< mn· l.-rn
\\' liik Hl1l'l.oric wai; u1al e r ,_, t.,.,d to !l]•ply unly to :-<j><•k1·11
s 1·n so.
dit:C•Hll""', it i11clu1li-d y.,ral dc li1·p ry , iu1<l l1em·1· El11<:'11 tin 11 11a s r,-ga rd ,.d u" a part of Hll!'torir.. T1t m<>d Prn 1irn•·s sn n 1w·l1 ar!.-11t'<«n
Jut::< bPe11 paid to del i\·.,ry, and. Rir1e1• thl· i11Y"11ti o u of printill )-!', "' ri t.
i1 1g li 11s lw< " 'l ll" sq ir111 ortnnt, tl 1nt. t]lt' .. r:tl urte 1anc•: ,,f° a l'<>r r11><•oii 1i t111 i:-; rn11k1·d as n (J.i.,ti11<"t ar t. :\11.J i:< 1i11 l<>ngo;r t r .. at<-.J us a 1•art ul
Hl 1d .oric.. Tl1P rt'll>H>11,.; f11r this "'"i•nrnti .. 11 llf\':
1. It i:-1 a IJ.,dily l'X "rci ~ " r"q11ir i11g n ~l"'<'inl traini11i.:-.
2. A p1·r ~·1 r1 lll JL} IJ•' a g~·od rltcl11ri1·i;1ri \vi t li1111!. lw i r1g 1\ !. /'it'l•l
'-'p<·:tk,·r
a. l.'PllHl!lllSh i p would bel ong 1o IUwt .. ric J.y ll:-i good a ri 1~ lit ;~>1
Eloc u tiuri.

- ---- ~·~----- --

·1

-----~-

JNTJWlJ UU1'1UN.

work of writing fo r tho fin;t Limo. Tho steps of sue li a
jourucy arc clearly as follows:
1. Finding -comctl1ing Lo say, - or Iu1·c11tiou.
2. Vin<ling h ow Lo say what is to be said, - or 8tyfr.
:L 'l'l1 e pr c par~tion of Lh o m:rnt1 script for llw l'ye ol'
a110t.!1 or,-or J >u nduation o Jl<l Capita( ..;.
4. The critical examinaLion of what has been written,
-or C ritid..;ni. Arni,
5. Th o special kinds of wri t ing most com mon ,-or
Specific 11'01·1n.-; of Compo8ition. These will Le
our chapter:-;.
Th e strictl y scientiflc division of Rhetoric, ns the author conce ives it, has been g iv en in his more ad vanced work, "The Science
of Hh etoric." Discourse aims to produce a change (I} in the
mind, (2) by m ea ns of id eas, (3) expressed through language.
This view justifies tli e division of Rhetoric into Laws of Miud,
Laws of Idea, and Law:; of Form . A m"re empiri cal mrthod Sf\rms
necet<sary in an eleme ntary work like this. N othmg can be more
distaste ful to the young tho.u to plunge ut once into facts and luws
of P sychology , however nece"1<ary t li esc may be ton scientific Yiew
of the subject. If any arrung<'mf•n t is equally repugnant to the
learner, it is to place the dry and teclrnicnl rules of Punctuation in
tLc very l>egm ning of a book, as some write rs havo done Although
in act ual compois1t1 011 ln\·c11llon 18 more difficult than Styl e, no one
cnrcs about the manne r of ::mying anytlun~ until b o bill:! somethiug
to I'll)'. Th e o.rmng<' mont h e ro adopte<.l tscmns tho mo~t nuturul,
nud accurdiugly, the m ost inviting, to youug writcrlil.

THE

ELEMENTS
011'
!

RHETORIC AND COMPOS ITION.
t.

r

CHAPTER i.
INVENTION.
1. Meaning of Invention.

The term Invention (from the Latin i ni•e nirf', to find),
is applied to the whole process of finding out what to say,
from the selection of a snLject to the expression of tho
ideas. The word also m eans the power of contriYing
anything, and evell tho thing contrived, as wh en we say,
"He is a man of great invention;': or, "The se wi ng
machine is a useful invention ." In its rh eto rical se nse
Invention may be defined, The preparation of the matte r

of a composition.
In the strictest sense Invention does not belong to Rhetoric_
Tl1 e writer or Apeaker m1rnt depend 11po 11 hi,; 1mbjert fur wlt11t to I'll)'.
and H.hctoric :;imply aid:,i him in d c~ idi11 g lwta to t:la)' it e fTeetiv~·l_v .
lf it wPre otli1<rwiHC, Rhetoric would oo u universal ::icic11 ce, 1111d
would lmve to lay down rules for tho lawyer, tho preach er, the
lecture r, and even the scientific writer. This would be impor<sil>lc.
\Vhat is necessary in each case must be determined by the facts of
the subject and the purpose for which one composes In an efomPntary work. ho wever, some rules may be given fur tho g uidan ce of
the begiuuer.

!i

;,_

..,.'
~-"..
~,-.

~

Till:,'
:.!.

l~'Lh,' ,lf/~'N T.'i

J>rO C C'SS('S

LY

0/1' JUIF'J 'OJUC.

or

2 . How to Ol>tai11 a Snhj<•et.

I H\'('llt ion.

T lie flr::;L step in prC' p:tri11 g tli C' rnn !lt'r f'ur a c·on1pos itiu11
i..; lu : > l'kct a snbjc·ct llj• 0 11 "li icli lo co11 cc 11t rai l) I i11,
tl)()11gli U:;. Th e 1wxt. 1s (o acC' 11m11Jate mate riah; lty whi ch
to cxplaill, illu strnt_e, or c1iforco th e ~ uhj cet. The rn·x L is
t< 1 S(·iC'cL from the mass of rn;t!cTials tli;tL 11l1icl1 is aJ :qilt ·d
to onr purpose a nd arra nge it in a suit able ma nner. Tl1e:;c
p rocesses,

1 . The Choice of a Subject.
2. The Accnm:ulat-lon of 'iJiatc1·iaf ..;;. An<l,
.1. The A n·a11f!C1Jlc11t ol the Jl/attcr, will he
t rcaLcu of in ll1c followin g sec tion :oi.

SECTI O H I.

Vl~·N 'J 'JON.

Ru1nctin1es a Bllhj ert. i ~ g 1rl' B tu a \Vri tt·r. a 11d .l1t · j~ r
, pt ired Lo w ri 1£ aliu 11 t i L.
Mure f'n:•p1t ·iii 1_y t I 1l' ;,"kt· 1 i"11 1.,
Ld'L Lu tho writ.n himsel f.
lt1 Llt l ' !attn «a"l' 11(' i:-; i ik Iv
to Lie at a loss how to d l'eid c 1q.Jo11 a su i lalJie tl1L·1m·. Tl1L'
bes t way i::; to beg in hy ~1'1..: ing yo11 r;;;i·lf qt t L'"ti 11 n ~ ur it il
somethin g :-;uggc:St.8 iL:SeH wlti1,; h really i11t.-1-.. ~1:; mu .
Having in th is way olilairll'<l :L th em e, 1Jdo1\~ f:n:tll ~
aclopti n g it, try it ca.rl'fo I l y hy I he f vi k1 wing rn II-.·< 111
onlor to t 0st ib; fitn ess. It should be s ui ted tu l lie 1cnicr
and th e occasio n, :ts 1rl'1l a:; s ni ta h k in // -.elf.
1

••

1

Mnch should b e rna<l c of th e fl 11g-gt>s lion t-J a s k yours el f q ucs·
tions. Thi s i ~ th e 1loor lo 111! µ: r.,al. di ,..c11\·.,ri1·H i11 ,.,,.;, ." '"" i11 \t·11 .
tions in art, nn d o ri g i11ality iu li te ratu re. 1f l .. un n·r.< "'"ul d "n ly
opt> n th eir ey es and noti w wh nt is occ urring a lio ut th em <'Ycr y 1 Lty
in nature, s<>ci ety, nnd t li cir o wn pe r:;o nal ex1 1e ri (· nc« , tliey wmt! d
find attractive iml.1j1·ct. ,., s u g g .. s t1 «l a lm1 H;t, C' Vc ry m om e n t.

t=•I'

·.·, -.

.

:::.~~ ,•

;:, t

,,

THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT.
1. Importance of (.;hoo!'!ing n Stthj<·ct.

3. Qualities or a Good Stthjcc t.

It is impossible {Q write clearly nnle!'s one has n. t.h crn o
i 11 min d on wIi ich the a t te n ti on i::i stead ii y fixed. If t.h erC'
he 110 snl1j ec t, wo nh; will he Rlrung alo11g lnw;'-'lY and to
no purpose, eon f 11 si o n uf t lw11gh L \l'ill'11e f•v itknf., a11d the
pro<l uetion will l>e u seless.

Since we cannot write equ all y WL' ll on c\l' l'_\' sn! 1,i1T!.
som e rul es fo r jud g in g of t.ltl' lit1wss of a :-;1rl 1j 1·i·t in its1 ·i t'

A steady adherence to the subj ect, mak i 1 1~ 1·ve ryt h ing lwa r
upo n and s upport it, was the chi ef me ri t of tlw g n·all-st o rator of
a n t iquity, tli e G recian, Dcmofltu cnPs. .so thoroughly was hc p oH·
i:ws::;ed with hi::; th t>m c that wh1·11 we read l1is orat io11 s " it is r:s
th ou g h w e we re embarked upo n a mig-ht.y ri n r. A l l i;i n1iimution
n llll eue rg y around , and w e g aze wi th a 111011w11tury rt• \-.•riP Ill'""
1111· ll ec·p u111l trnnspart>11t wa t•' r" . lint ,.,." " wliil ·· wc admin', th,,
.-111TPnt. gTOWI'< d ee p•· r 1111d d <'e p•' r, nnd wt• ,,,... 1111co11 sdou s J.y lanrri~·.t
v n ward with in<.: r eusing 11 nd i rr<'sist i bl e p,1wc r."

f;r

may lie g i vcn.

(1) A subject must have unity.

it

11rn ::;t lie

0 11 c

By tlii,.; i:-;

th at.
i-;ul1jee t, a11d 110!. a 111 t·clky t•f t l111tt_'...'.i1!.-;
lll (':LllL

wiLh out connection s.

(2) It must not be too broad.

'l'hc 11arruwn a ;;uhjt ·1

l

is the more fre sh and ori ginal will be your t rcul nH·nt of
it. Thi s seem s strange at firs t, hut you sec r11 orc things
wi th t.h e h el p of a mi cro:-cope tl1a11 yon sce witl1 llw11akcd
eyi.::; a nd hy e.xa.mi11ing a t;ul•jed clm;l'!y w o re id l· u.~ arL·
sn ggcst.ed.

if?··:.-

TllE b'LEM.Ji..'NT::J OF lWJr.:TOUJC.

(:>) It must be clear. In a compo ~ iLion crorythi11g will
Lu duudy u11loss !he Lheme I.Jc clear. The sul,jed iM Urn
sun, the paragraphs arc the planets, an<l t.he scntl·uees aru
the satelliLes. The sentences reflect light on tho paragraphs, the paragraphs shine wi th 1he light of the su bject,
Lut if you ulut t his out all is <larkucss.
( 4) It must be fresh. Do not Le satisfied with ol<l or
musty t hemes that have no interest for any one. The
worJJ is full of subjects that. <Jnieken an<l delight tho
curiosity. Composition writint; is a joyous occupation
.when it is made a fountain of knowledge.
4. Hclation of the Snhjcct to the Writer.

A subject may be very interesting in itself and yet not
suited to the writer who has chosen it. Hence we have
som e rnles on thi s point.
(I) The writer must be interested in his subject. It is
very tli sagrceablc an<l unprofitable to rcgar<l composition
writing as task-work. There is no necessity for this
sbvish feeliug. En:ry one is interested in something.
(2) He should choose something about which he can
express what he believes. EamcsLnci;s of coll'vict ion i:-;
a g rl'at hl'lp Lu dear, stro ng exprcs::>ion, 1mtl wit.bout iL
there i:,; danger of all kinds of fanci fu I vaporizing.
(:.!) He should choose a subject suited to his powers.
rt is not necesi;ury Lliut all the knowledge re1p1irctl for a
fu 1l trcatmcn t of the subject shoul<l be possessed bcforeh and. Oiw of lhe best results of writing is that Jcarnera
sl. ud y a rn l1j \~ct c:1 rel'lilly in order lo \\'ri te alJout it well.
llttt t.lie ...;11J,jed :;lwulJ. 1wt l!\: auuvo t.lte wriLt·r'ti al>ility t-0

rl ..

JN VlJJNTlON.

mH.lerstant1, with a rca.sonaulc amount of rcJlec Lio u, udviGo
awl rc:uliug.
0 . Itclat.ion of the Subject to the OC'casion.
A subject may be good in itself antl suitctl lo ll:c wri_Ll'r,

but still fail of its purpose because not fit fur U1e occa.8Wn.
We must therefore, consi<ln n. third class of rules.
'
.
(1) The subject should be harmonious with the feehngs
proper to the occasion. A t1 uc rcgaru must al ways be hall
for the position, character, UllU Eentimcnts of the persOTl8
'\vhom wo atldrc:;s.
(2) The subject should be of interest at the time, and
to the persons whose attention is enlisted. No one b:.~s
the right to rob others of their time, and tax their
patience, in listening to what is untimely or.dull..
(3) The subject should be suited to the intelhgenoe of
those for whom it is intended. Unless this rule IS oocyed,
our efforts arc wasted, and the previous rule is Yiulatc<l.
6. Adapting a Subject.

Possibly a subject may be too good to rcje~t unt1 yvt
req uire' iwmc chan ge, in onler to irnit Lhe wnkr or t JI('
ueea:;ion. In Lhi:; ease iL may often l>l~ a\l<qi!t·Ll liy : oii w
Ji «ht limitation. Th ns, for exam plc, let us take the sub8
·el~ "Virtue." 'l'hi::; is too broad for treatment in a single
J
. .
t
1 V W'l\'~
composition. ·w e may modify it rn a grea rna 1• •• · •
.
"Th o:cr
f Virtue'' " The
We may say, f0r mst.ance,
e 11C'>1n o
Adrnntagcs of Virtue," "The Itcwards of v irtllr,
~lie
1Jcd
.
"
t
By
ure·\kin(J'
up
!
lie
t-:11l
liim1rnnccs to V1rtuc, cc.
•
u
·
T'

v

'.,

"

"

'

•

in thil:! way we make Urn uew :;uujcct.-; ktici LruaJ., lJt1L 0"wc

--- 10

'l'lil!: /~'Lf·,', l/J-,'1\"l '.1 01'' /,'ll/1'l'Oli'f< .'.

· cornpos1't"ion '' ·u1·rt
uc," ho
ward s of Virtne," an<1 ca11 1its
'
woulLl promise mn ch more than he wo nlcl perfo rm.
It is diffi c ult to in sis t or: s nc l1 rules as h ave 1.l<'cn Ja il! do\\'n nbovr\
. · elili· o liJ· p HuHkin lwrsis t in giving tlu:1r \\' Ork fl 1; uch
w h en m en o f g · 11 '" '
·
•
·r
1
title:;
that no 011 0 c.;.an tell what. they mean . Th ns we hu\·u
f unc1 u
, 'I' I n
"Ac1.0 wn of Wild Olin•s," on work, truflk , anti war : · 1e "'ueen
t "
ir., on Greek myths of cloud autl storm; ' 'U· n.t '' t I11.t1 I .as,
D f tl18 A ,
.
the
el
ements
uf
political
economy.
The
practice
1
::;
a
vexut
1uus
011
one, and tleserves to be discournged.

0

o{' .·•... S tthicct,"
we
Jn this scetion, on "Tl ie Cli o·cc
•
J
have consi<lere<l :-

7. State ment of a. 8nhjcct.

( ~)

Avoid meaningless combinations of words. A ee l ~
vhrat.l•\l A111 C' ri(':tll writ.er callti Oll C or 11i s l111oks, ,, '1'110
Pas!., Lhc l'rl.'::il~ llt ancl Llie l•'11 t 11re," ;111d uu u11 c c.: au g tt css
wha t it ii:i al>ont.

(:>) Avoid figurative expressions. No mean i11g iti e on~
Yeycd by su ch titles <LS "f:lcsamc anJ Lilies," aml "C hip:;
from a German 'Vork sh op," which great authors soml'lim c:'> g in; Lo th eir boo kl".
( ·1) Be careful to limit properly th e state ment of tho

subject.
. I

'!

Hone were l.v wril <', fur e:rn11q1h., vu Lh u " !"-.··

1l

. INVENTION.

of llll'lll a m cpti Le <1ifliculL as conq1;Lre1l wiLl1 11!ltl' rS. Tlii ~
l1t ·l11s 11.~ Lo sc.: lcd frn111 Ll 1c diJl(: rf' nt. Yi l: WS uf a s 1tl 1jL·d tliat.
11 li it·h i ~; l1cst s ui ted to us.
Wu may tl1 cn 1·<111ti11111• i 11 1'
11r 1c'l'Ss uf Ji111i Lati o11. For i11sLancc, we 111ay li1uil ·· Tl1 L:
l~e ll'anb ol' Vir t ue ., Lo scim e parti c ular (' Ltt>s, say Hh ·t cl ian ts, and we sh ould h;nc, " Tl1 0 Hell'ard ::; of Virtu e lo
Mcrd1a11ts. " We may fur t he r limi t virtu e l.Jy confin in g
it to some one kind of rirtue, say hon l'sty, and we should
h ave, "The Re ward ~ of H on esty to .i\f crc lian ts. "

If any one will L'Xamin0 t he last s ubject a littl e, li e will
discover that it is amuiguous ; an<l thi s lea<ls us Lo some
rul es on the statcm cut of a su ujcct.
( 1) The statement must be clear. "'l'hc I{ewanls of
Hon esty to Mer chan ts" may be :i good s ubject, bu t it is
not p<-·rfrc:lly c lea r wha t it means. n(/ cs i t m ean, t he
r e wards of those who arc hon c:-; t lo mcrcltan ts, ur th e
reward s of m erchants wh o arc honest~
It may m ean
either, a11<l h en ce o ug h t tobc di1Ic n· 1itl y~tatcd; as, " The
Hcw:m! s of Ifone81_v i n J\frrclw nts."'

- -~

1. 'l'lw 1mJ>ol'fwnce of (!lwo ... i11(J a Suldecl.
2 Jlow to Obtain a .Sul~jccf.
:~: 'l'hc Qualifies of a Goml S11l~jecf.
_ .
4. 1'/w J(,t'lation of th e .~1tl1jfft to flu • JJ ''"'":·
:;. Th e U cl<ttion of th e 811/Jjcct to tlt c Ucca .o;wn.
(j. Ad"J>tiny a. Subjt·cl.
7. '1'/w St<i f em.cut of " Subject.

r.

'. .

SEC'rIOH

II.

THE ACCUMULATION OF MATERIALS.

1. Importance of Collecting· Materials.
No one onght to presume to writ e or F'peak with out

hnsing something wort b saying. It so melimes happtnK
t hat. we can say something really valunJile wi tho nt mnch
effort, bnt generally it is n ecessary to exert onrselvcs .in
order to say anything appropriate. Ile who has an rntcrcsting fact, an apt illu stration, or n. satisfacto ry c.xplana!.ion to offer on :my suuj cd will commauJ attcnt10 n. lf
we say only what. rl'a<lily snggcsLs il8clf lo u<i, we 81iall
proba.Lly repeat only what lw.s already u C'Cll Llio11ghL of l1y

12

TllE ELEMRN TS OF RJJ!(J'ORIO

INVENTION.

others. llencc, th e firs t thing to do after sclcctin<Y a snbjcct is to colJcct facts, illustrations, an<l prooJs will~ rccrard
to it.
b

tho writer nnd barren of all interes t to the instructPr.

writcr firi:;t of all lie led to the source:; o!' knowlcJ gc an<l Ji a ,·c rnrn<' thing to say ucforc he is made to write . "Spe ak n ot at all in any ·
wise," says a g reat mode rn writer, Thomas Carlyle, "un t il y o u
l1ave somewhat to speak; care not so much for thu re\l'ard of yotir
speaking, but simply and with undividP.d ruin<l for the truth of you r
speaking." Fulness of knowledge improves a writ er's matter. m lln .ner arn.l morals.

2. The Sources of :materials.

(-1) Occasionally we cann ot find jnst what is wantctl in
books, Lut may pro cure help from some int~lligm1t person
Ly conversation.
It. i~ crud to r0ci uirl' lc nrn <' rs t o mnl; e brickR wi t.hont Rfrnw . It
is n ot won<lcrful that sclwo l compos itious arc so often th o utrnc of

'
!·.

3. How to Use the Sources.

0

(:3) In lllusL cases, if \\' C l1:t\'O ttcccss to a library or even
to an encyclopedia, we may find s11tricient information by
reading.

N0t hing has

so much tended to lessen r espect for rhetori c1•l stULhcs as th e falRe
notion that Hhetoric is a mere playing with words. Le t th e you ng-

, Y~m.1g writers are .es pecially anxi ous to bo original, and often foci
taa t 1t 1s u.nworthy ot th e m to see> k for informatirm outsid e of th d r
< wn e x per1 en~e. L et any one as k liim..se lf what portio n of his knowle<lg e has or1grno.ted with himself and wl1at p o rtion has been d e rin·d
from books and converSll.tion, und Lis re•rurd for his own ntt ·
.
..,
"
l\lllm c nt3
will
ve ry much lessen . But orig-inaJity in lite ratttre 1Jocs no t
.
.
man
nusolutc
of s ome thing out of notl ung.
· ,
'fl 11s
·
.consist
.
.
. creation
.
I S 1111 poss ibl e , e ve n in fi ct ion, for t h e imag ination can com !Ji ne on I y
t h ose elmn e nt.s whic h olJ:-:c n ·uti on nnd in struction hawi ntfi•rde.i
].l e i::i o ri g inal in th e lite rary sP nse wl10 form s a ni :w combination ~
lucti:; , tl1rows 1ww li.,h
c>n ·"' , or 1'llt1s trut <·1'! ti 1t•1n 1n
· a
"' t llJ >o n t l11 •·ir reluti
•
111: w n11d att.r:tctin"l \I'll)'.
H e is b1·~t al,Je to do tlti s who Im~ tlie
·
.wid e:<!. ra11 g-1i of lrn o ,,·l1·<lg P. It, l11u; l.Jcc•n ,,.l'll ~n id , 1hut ·11 i,·~•. 11 1.1nn
111 a.rt tlo1·1:1 not con fl i ~t. i11 finding out aomC'thing n ·w, !Jut in fiu<liug
a n e w vultw iu SoHwtliing old.

Wh ere arc wo to loo k for th rsc ma te rials ? Th e sources
from wl1i cl1 th ey may be d1·riH!(l arc fom:
(l) If unr snLjoct permit it, we may obtain materials by
actual observation.
( 2) ~ u m et imes 'vo may seen re t J10ng}its on th e snbjcct
hy reflection.

13

'

First of all use your own senses. Sec and hear all y o 11
can that will help you. Knowk·Llge oLtain e(l !,y one':-; s•·H
is always more clear, fn·sh, anll intl'rcsLi11g ll1an if ol >t ai nC' tl
at second harnl. Do nut go lo Homer !'or a sunri :S(', w l H· 11
you can scQ one every morning. After observing, reflect.
'rry to rememuer all yun can that you have eyer k nown
about the snLject. Qu estions will at once ari se which you
cannot answer. Go to books for the answers. If the buo ks
do not help you, ask :;omc person who may be ahle lo
direct you. Never nsk help ::s long as you can help yomsolf.
It is a good plan for thr: t each e r never to furnish ns s i ~ tun c e wl1 c n
it is possible for th e l eanwr to accomplisli liis purput1e with out. ai d .
It is advisable to Rng-gl'Rt nut.l1oriti eR, Lut cnch nn" f\! 10111 .J J,.. ri · ·
quired to consult th e m for liim self, nn<l to jud g t! for h im,.. ·lf wlm t
will suit his purpose. The hnuit of investigation i:o! of nry ,!!f\ 'Hl
value to every on e who a cquires it. In all th e profP~ sio11 ;; , ;;u"11 n;;
law, medicine , theology, or ten f'hin g , one of th e chiPf or c u patio 11 ,.: i ~
the consulting of autl10riti c·s. Th e earlier tl1 0 ltabit is nc11ui red t li 6
bettor.

4. Hules fo1· Iteflection.

A few plain hints ahont reflcdion may be of nsc.
(I) Surround your subject with questions. Let m; tahc

,,

...;. '

I -~

INV.ENT/ON.

1'1IE JiJLEM8NJ'S Ufi' JWHTOR!C

the su bjcct " Clouds," to illustrate. Yon Leg i n Ly nski ng, What are clouds? How arc clowl s produced ? What
arc their forms? \Vhat arc their uses ? Why do they bring
rain? Why uo clouds bring wind? llow do clouds cause
thund er?

(8) Try to answer your own questions. This will
quicken your thoughts anJ. s upply you with much to say,
Lut you will now feel th e ncc<l of l..i ctlcr answ t•i-s than you
ca n g~v c. This will le:.u.l yuu lo consult book s. Hi cl 1Lc r
a1hiscs i1c,·er to l'L'ad until yon barn thought yonr:>clf
h ll?lfjl'y.
If reading pn·ccde retl1·ctinn two di snd,·nnto.gc~ follow.

In the

fi r~ t ph1 rc, we are likl'ly tu Lu sn well ~ati~fkd wi th th e (lpininns of

otl1l'l'S that we al'ct.: pt tl1em without rt•ll1 ·c tion, unit-HS we han.: f1ir11wd
views of OLir uw11. 111 th o H•·cond pince, we arc ll (J l su n111cl 1 in ·
1c rcstcJ in wlmt we read u:; if we wc r1.: prC\·iu11:;ly anxio us to co11fir111
or rcctify onr own iLl eus on tl1e !!uLji.:ct. Hence Uil>lxm romn11•tHls
liis ()\Vil linbit of rcatling-, wl1i ch he tlius describcR: '' Afrcr u rapiJ
g lauce 011 tli e suliject u11d di1:1triuuti1m of a ne w uouk, [suspend the
r eaJing of it, wliich I only res um e after l1aving examin ed the subj uct in ull its relati ons ; after having call ed up i11 my f!Olitary walks
ull tl1at [ linve rc·ud, or tho ug ht, or IPnrncd in regard to tl1e rnbjcct
o f the wliol o U(l> Jk or of SO !lJ(' cha11t<·r in r·nrt.k11 lur. r thu1:1 place
rnys ·If in a condition to "1;t1111atP whl\t th o author may ndd to my
g-(•11,·rnl stock of knowl ed g-c, n11d I nm tl1U.· so111ctiru1•s fo.vornl>ly
d ispn8ed by the accordnu cc , Hometinws armed by the opposition of
our viows."

[). Rules for Heading.

A few hriof suggestion s on rending may bo helpful.
(1) Reading should be varied. If a i'ingle anthor Le
followed, t here is clangl'r of' oe:ing a sen·ile copyi~t, or (•n·n
a plag iari st, withont yom having any such i11Lo11tio11. The
co 11 s11ltalion of several nuth ors lca<ls Lo compari8011, ullli
c1 rl1i1aLl'S the jllllgmcnt.

15

(2) Reading must be assimilated . If wo clo no t make
what wo borrow from l.Jooks our own, we l1avc no right to
nsc it. vVe have ma<lc lhc matler of a Look our own orily
· whon wo perfectly und erstand it, and can'cxprc~s it i11 our
own language.
(3) Obtain general views first. Encyclopedia.;:, rev1 ewf:',
and indexes will direct yon to more specific auUwriti c.~ ,
after giving you an outline of lh c subjec t.
A great English toucher, Dr. 'I'bomus Arnold of T1ug-by , <•lH'P- !:ia id
that, in lii8 opinfon, that is the best composition "whkli l! l1ow:-< that
tho Loy has read and thought for him1:1c lf ; r.!tat the nex t be~t whi ch
shows that he has read suvcral LookR, and di g"1:1 tcd what bl' Im:<
rend; and that the 1corst which shows that li e bus follow ed hut on<>
book, and that without rt'licction." It is an importa 11t. qucstirm how
far one may use tl1c writings of other1:1 without Lrcnking a moral
law. Literary proper ty difil·rs from oth e r posscs::si<m ti in rnam· ,,· a."~.
but it is none the less property. Facts are comm on to 11l I ; lrn t.,
wliile no on e m ay put n fence around truth and rlai111 it a!< his own,
forms of expression, fignres of !'<pei.:ch, and combinati on::; of thou g ht,
belong to their author, for they llre his products. It i1:1 nlwa~· s
wrong to make a false pretense. If extracts are tuk r n they ~h oul d
be acknowlodged as such, and not passed off ns your own. lf an ah·
stract or parapl1ruse is made, giving- nn author's views in some wha t
different language, that also ought to be made kn own . Su c h Rulli ·
mnries may be of great service to the learne r, l.Jy providin g- him wit l1
the mutter und l eaving him fr<•e to use all his IJOW(' rS of expn·t<.-<inn.

Jn th·i s section, on "'l'lw A<·<·11111ulatio11
rials," "\oVC l1a.vc corn;itlcrcd :-

or

.l. The Impo'l'tance of Collt-ct-iny ll.laterialR.
2. 1'he Smn ·ccs of lJiaterials.
3. Ilow to use the S01t1·ccs.
4. B1tles for Bcflf-ction.

5. Bules fm· Beading.

lHl'\TC·

..
I;.

·'

-

lG

-- --

___________....__...,..________________ ----- - - ·- - - . - IN VENTI ON.

TT!E ELEMENTS OF RIIETORJC.

'

17

'

SECTION III.
THE ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIALS.
1. Importance of Arrang-c11H·11 t.

A ma;;s of ma terials, however fine the quali ty, no mnro
cunstitntes a composition .than a pile of bricks and lumber
constitutes a palace. The bui lder must select, fit, aml j1iin
togeth er the ma te rials before there is a building. A host
of men crowded together arc not an army. Tho lin es
must be fo n nc<l aml orJcr institu ted lJofo rc they arc ready
for a battle. A writer rcituirc:s as much skill in nrra1wo,.,
mell t us a general. 'V onl::;, scu t.e:1we:;, un<l paragra1ilis aro
his soldier::;, compan ies aud regime nts.
A g r1 ·at Fre nch write r, Pascal, says, "The d ispositi on of th e material:; i s liHimothing new. In playing tennis liutli uso tlw ~ uuw Lmll,
but 0110 p laces it better than tlw other. It might us well l>o ohjecto<l
that I uso current words; ns if the i;arnc thouglits tlid not furm a
different body of disconrso Ly a ditfnent arrn nge111ent, ju::Jt us tlw
same words differently disposed form different tliougl1ts."

2. Parts of a Composition.

The nsnal parts of a composition are three.
(1) There should be an introduction . Th is is not nocc3sary, lrnL it is usnally required to i.Jri11g tho <liscussion i11t.o
conn ection with the occasion .
(2) There must be a discussion. By this is meant
t lia t we cannot establii:; h anything in the mind of uuoLli cr
wi tbou t usi ng facts, ill ustru Liuns, or arg umeu ts, to as8 ist
us.
(3) There must be a conclusion.
Wlit·11 w1· i 11 "i te
oLlicn:; Lu accu u 1pan y 11:; i 11 vu r ll 1u11g I1 t.~, we are u 11d er an

obligaLion to con<lu ct t hem to some 11 cw f't.ate 0f mind.
U nless Lhcre is some end to be attainC'd, t here is no ust: of
wri ti Ilg or speakin g. We shoulLl al ways have some <ll!li 11 i Le
• state or miu<l iu vi ew to which eve rythin g sh ould tcnJ.
The ancient rh etoricians regarded an oration as having six
essential parts, (1 ) tl1e Exortlium, (2J the Divi ,;ioo, (8J tl1 e ~tatn ­
ment, (4) the Heasouing , (5) th e App1::ul to the FN·lings, anti (GJ tl10
Pororntion . . Tliis divh!ion is meclmnical arnl nrLit ra ry. T h e rn oro
natural and folly con fo rm ed to the s uuj uct-m atte r and the purpo:se
the division is, th e hetter. Somf'tim es no exor<ii mn is necdl"d .
Often a formal di vision is uodesiraLle. A s tate mt·nt is OCCJ.l::;iona lly
unn ecessary. Hcasoning is often needless aft<>r u n H·ro r..:cital uf
facts. .An appC'al to the fceli ngs i:i sometimes w lw l ly improper.

3. 'l'he I11tro<luction.

Th e introduction shou ld liavc tli o followin g rprnlitics :
(1) It should be modest. Jf yo u rai::;c g reat cxped:.it ions at the out set, yon will eith er be cornpellcll to make
n great effort to fulOll yo ur promises, or bcJr the od ium <if
disappointing yo ur readers.
(2) It should be moderate. Your reader is nnt likely
to feel very deeply until ho has given attention to tho facts
and arguments which may l1aYe aroused your mind. Let
the feelings deYelop wi th the discussion.
(3) It should be short. 'Tho object of an in trodudion
is m erely to introd uce the main discussion. It oug!JL l11
be proportionally l>rief. TlH1 vestibule should nvL I}()
larger than the h ouse.
(4) It should be natural.
Dy t.his is men nt that. 1t
ought to grow ont of both the snh. .~t nn<l th e occasion, so
as to form a con venienL brillgc Ld wC'e n th em.
(5) It should excite interest. H i1::1 uut i:;u ucct'bt>:try t.l1at

'

,.._

18

TlJE

EL K~!ENTS

- _,,,,___--

OF RIIETORIC.

Lhe in t r oduc tion shoultl Le striking in i belf as that it
8liouhl awaken a. d es ire to follow the 1vriler aml learn 111urc
11.bo u t the subject.

-·

Attention is gen eral ly given at the Le-

g- inning, but it is soon lost, if th ere Le no prornise of re11ard.

lN VBNT!QN.
he loves finery for its 0wn s akt'. A s imil a r taRt e is oftc>n shown in
writing. T o put all y o ur fiu e fig-ures und phrnsPs and a llu~iun s into
a composition which they serv e o nly to ornam ent, out n ot to illul!trute or strength en. is lik e collecting- all the tino articles in th.i
house for exhiLition in a fr o nt window.

Allhonglt Cicero la it1 do wn th e rul e, that th e introdu el iun sl10ul<l
\m wr it.tt' Jt las t, in orde r tl1aL it mi g ht t<prlng nnturully fro111 tl1e
matt e r u11u c r cons iuerntion, lw <liJ 1wt nlways ul>L·y lii s own prece pt.
ln ouc of his L l•ttcrfl to Attic11s, wu lear11 i.lia t h e wu:i 1u.:1.: ustolll L'tl tu

, prt•pare a <111:tntity of introlhicti " ns, tu Lu useJ whe Jt lll.'•'d ecl. llav·
i ng inadv urLc ntly uscJ t h e s n. mc one twice, h e wns ini"(Jrnwd lJy
A Lticus o f liis ulumler, nnd; ro n fcss ing l1is mis take, se nt l1im 11 ne w
one. Cicero's rule was Lutter tlurn liis practi ce.

4. The Discussion.
'rh o <1i sc u ssion will lJe improved by keepin g in mind
two qu es tions:
( l) What, precisely, do I wish to accomplish? If the
purpose of the compos it ion be steadily 11 cld in mind, Ch' ry
fu ~ t, arg um en t , and illn s trat ion will probably be appropriate to tlie suLj ec t nnd adtl strengLh and in terest to the

wh ole.

p) How shall I accomplish my object? 'rhis ftlll' Stiou
will s uggest heads and illustrations, and also help in coml1inin g them . Whatever docs not cont. rihnt.e to the pm]K>sc must at once Le rcj cclcd. A compositio n mu s t g row
li kl~ a tree. A tree is s urron ndctl with mat('rials, liu t tt
tak es only what iL can ass imilate.
J\fncli heroi s m is rc<j11ired to nw1id putting" t11ou g-l1tH, word", or
fi g-11res into our 'vriting s wh u11 thl'ir only claim is th eir intrin sic
beauty. At this point th e diffrrrn1 cc l1ctwc <·11 a culti ,·ntcd uud 11
barharo11s taste is ev id en t in wl'iting-. Tl1 r. RU Yage pnintH Iii s fa ce
w itl1 tl11 · liri ~~ liln ,;t and 11111,.,L i111 ·1111 ,u;r u .. 11 s ,·.,Jo rn, a nu or11am1·11 ti; Iii ~
!Jl 'l't:1n11 with ull tl1t: gorg1·oul:l articlt-s iuliit1 l"•::>tio1:1t1iv11.
IL it< l1ti C1 llt t; 61

5. The

Coudu~iou.

Some rules may Le g iven as reganl s the eonclnsion .

(1) The conolusion should not be forced. The natn rn1 and proper consequences of tlie di scuss ion may be
stat:eLl in the co nclnsion, but cure 1s necessary to arni1l

claiming more t han has bee n establish ed.
( 2) The conclusion may express more feeling t ban t h e
introd uct ion. After considering all th o facts t he re:ull' r
is !Jette r prepared to share your em otion s.

Th e co nclu-

sion is th e place, th er efore, for an appeal to th e fceli 11gs.

(3) A conclusion may consist of a recapitulation of the
di sc u ssion. 'l'!ti s is espec ially useful if, for any reason,
th e di scu ssion has Lee n fragmentary or m ade up of ma ny
details. An inYersc order is best, if th e stron gest poi nts
have been slated firs t. The conclusion ough t, like a
burn i ng-gla.ss, to gathe r anJ conccn trnLc in to u. focal point
all the separate rays of the composition.

U. The Two :1'1ctho<ls of Arrangement.
There arc two met.h od s of arrnngcm cn t which may bo
used in combi ning the materials of a composiLion. They
are as follow s :

(1) The analytic method begins "·iLh fad s an<1 11rrivrs
prin c ipl es from thorn. It al so beg in s with a complcJ
whole and resolves it into its clements.

20

(2) The synthetic method is t he rcYcrsc of t he analytic.
It beg ins with prin ciples and cl:tssiJles fa cts ll!H.l cr Ll1 e111.
It bcgiu;:; wi Lh clcmo11 ls and com lii rte:; tlt em in to a whole.
The two m cL110d ::; arc fully illu cl.ratc1l below.

~I

,:·I

Ex PLAN A'l'ION.-The won1s Aualy:iis un d Sy11thesis are casilJ
:unfnsod . An a lysis i1:1 fr om the Un·t"k 1i1" 1 iuul i.•inv , m L·a 11i11g to
loos en again, that i:s, to dbC'n guge. Synthesis i8 from thu Uredi
m1v nnd riOi vai , m ea ning to put tog e ther, tliat is, to cornp<1t111tl. A
fo ct may be regard ed u1:1 a concrete cm ho<linwnt of princi)'k8. Tl1 ti
1·]11.-itl ut ion of tlie priu ci pll's involn:d i::I t lic u unalysis. Bl'gilllli11g
wi t. It tt material wh ole nnnly s iti rcsoln·s it into it:; parts. ~y11tlwtiiM
is the reverse o f anal ys is. Bcgimiing wi t h pri11 ci11lct:1 it puti:; t.o gd l1<·r tltc facts logicall y rnn gi ng tht· ms elws u11J e r i ht•m. 'l'lt e Ji,._
t in ct ion bet wet.:n t!t e ana ly tical a 11<l th e ~yut li et i rnl 111 etli ou nwy uu
m uru folly trncuJ in IIumil to u's ;<Logic," pages il;J(i , 340.
Ex A~1 l' LE::l. -Lct u s Kt.art with t lie 11 ucsliou, \Vl1 nt uro t!t e b('nl'fits o f rai l roa<ls"I Fnm1 lltr YuriouR sources of informnti" ll we fin1 l
tltu following lf) be fa c ts: (l ) Railroui1s faci litate purcltnRcs. (2)
'l'ht>y <:a rry ne ws. (3) TlH·y prc-.-cnt suffrring lJy conveyi 11~ :-; u rct •r.
(4 l In lrav. ~ I th ey sav e tilllt ', whi ch rnnylJc u sed in reud i11 g-. (5)Tl1 ey

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rnak u a mark et fo r prod uce. tG) Th t•y furn i ~h labor to tl1 e poo r.
(7) 'l'I H·y arrest crimt'. (t!) T!try r <' nd cr wars less prohnblC' by
u11i ti 11i; the in tne:;t:; of m en. (9) T!t ey make m e n moro cl.ta rituul c
by ext ent.l ing- th <•ir lrn o wlt•d g-e o f on e nnoth t•r. If these forts wcro
1ltalt!1l n:; th ey arc nbovc, tht·y woul1l h uvr consi<le mlih' force, but
tliey g-a in so met hing by a moro !:4 ystematic mrn ngem cnt. Let u s
S t'(' h nw g r('at an im pro vement t lti s is.
Fir:;t, l1·t us t ry the analytic mr01nd . Hy tlti:; m otliotl 1ni <lni1·0
l ri11ci pl<'H f ro111 facts. Let ut1 seu wllll.t priucipks may bo J e rived
fr om th e fa cts g ive n .
H.ai l ruails
n. Facilitate purc11nscR.
b. l\lak c a 111 n rkt•t for prnd uco.
1. llc ncc, p rom ote ronu11erci11l prosp e rit y.
II. l'rt.:\"l' lll R11ffni11g .
b. Furni s h labo r t<> t li l' poo r.
c. H<' 1Hler w nr>1 i111pr111i:ililc.

2_ l l t,nce , promo!(' 71/iy.-<i1:11l pl'<>>' ]Writy.
"Hu t s i11l'e t!tey prom ote co11111 wri:ial a11J pl1ysical prosp erity,

21

INVENTION.

TllE RLE.AfENTS OF JUIBTORJC.

th~y

l Promote material prosperity.
a_ Carry n ews.

They nll!O

b. Save time for readin g .

1. llcncc, promote ·i ntelligence.
a. Arrest crime.
b. Mukc m en more cl1aritable.
2. Hence, prom ote morals.
But since thC'y promote intelligence and morals, they
II. Promote social p rosperi ty.
R ESU LT: Siuce they promote material and social prospn ity,
l\AI LilOADS AHE A UNIVERSAL BENEFIT.

L e t us now re verse the arrangeme nt and prrflent tl1 e Ram e
to t h e synthetic m e thod.
F irst of ull we mu st s tale
'l'IIEME: HAfLltoADH ARE A UNIVEH::lA L HE l'O l: l"IT, for
I. They promote material prospe rity .

nccord iug

fac 1~
ti

1. Ily promotin g c1mw rnrciaJ, prospe rity.

a. F or th ey fa cilitate pnrcbases.
lJ_ And urnk e a mark et for p roduce.
2. Ily promoting ]!liysicaJ, pro1:1pcrity.
a. Fo r th ey pre vent suifl'rin g.
b. And furn is h labo r to th e poor.
c. And rende r wnrs irn probuble.
II. And p romote social prnsp er ity.
1. By promotlug intelligence.
a. F o r tl1ey ca rry ne ws.
b. And save time for reading.
2. Ily prom oting moraJ,s.
a. F•ir they o.rrest crime.
b. And m a k e m en m ore charitable.

7. Advantages of the Two Methods.

Each method has its own advantages. The an alytic
method is t he more interesting, as one secs th e truth g row
before his eyes. It is the m ethod of investigati on, and
caur;es the read er to feel t hat he is helping to reach th o
result. The syntheti c m ethod io more clear an<l c:o nipendious, and is tho natural way of conveying what one has

fully mastered.

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1'IJE ELEMENTS OF' RIIRTORIC.

...

l u this section, on" '.fhc Arraugcmcut of lUatcriaJs,''
we have considered:·
1. 1'he .b 11porla11 ce <>f A ·1·1·u11r1cme11t ....
.·>. . . 1'he Pa1·ts of <t Cu111positio11 •
:J. '1.'he Introdnctiou .
4 . 'l'lw L>i ..;cussion .
'l'fte Conclusion.
t; . 1'he 'l'u:o JJlctlw<i.'> of A ·r ra11r1em<·nt.
7. 'l'fte A<lvantayes of the 1'wo 11Ietlwtlr'.

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r

CHAPTER t t •
STYLE.
l. lJctinition of Style.

Style is the mann er in whith tlionght 1s cxp rcssr<L
'l'h e ·w ord is dcriretl from the Latin stylu s, m ea nin g tl1 c
pointctl iustru men t wi lh w h ieh the uncien l:; wrote on tablets eove rctl with wax. The name of the in st rument was
soon transferred Lo the mann e r of expres:>ion, j u:;t as we
say that one has a. charming pen.
When a writer becomes nddictccl ton particul a r mod e of exprP~S­
ing his thoughts, his pec uliariti es arc call ed Mannerisms: and they
often lead to his detection, wl1 en h e writes anonymously. Suc h
peculiarites ought not to Le cultivated. They indicate nurrowllt' t<H
of mind or po Yerty of rcsourct:s. Tho pe rfect ion of sty le is to s nit
the manner to the matt•~ r. A gooJ writer not only says nr.w thiHgs ,
but ho says the m in a new way.
Attempts have been made to classify the different kinds of style,
but th ey have res ulted in nothing better than cnunw m tion. Som r) of
tho most common Yarieties may he mentioned, thoug h no pains f:ho111d
be taken to confine one's self to any one (1) The dry style cxcl ud .. s
nll ornam ent. lt aims only to e xpress the thoughts accurately. wi thout any appeal to th e sense of beauty. l3erkcley h as l1cw n ch18Ai-d
as a dry writer . (2) Th e plain style does not llfl pi re aftr r ornnnwn r,
i;Jut aillls to malu~ a clear statement, using s uch fi g urr·s ns illu st rntu
without embell ishing th e thoughts. Locke all(l \\'lout1·iy n1a_1· br~
Included RmonlS plain writers. (3) The neat style employs 11rn nments, lmt ve ry sparingly, Its fi g urrs are correct; It A d kt Inn i:;
pure; its sentences are clear and harmonious. (fray nnd <Jold,;111ith

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2·1

S1TJ..J.'.

TJIE ET,ENENTS OF RHETORIC.

nrc n ea t wri tl'rs. ( 4) The eleg a nt style is more p rc tC'ntiou s, using
every urnarn c11 t whi ch can bca u ti fy , I.HIT nYoiding c \·1·ry e xcess which
w ould Jcg radl'. Addi so n lrni:i Lt.:eu esteem ed au ekgn 11t write r, I.Jut
Macaulay Lelcngs mure justly to tlii s t:l .1sti. (5) Tlrn florid style
run s to e xccs:>1 und cmwus tlil' ex pre:;sion with superfl uous and
1m perfidal orn«rn c nt, co11illill inf{ 1111 l'X.-e:;s nf ad j .. ct i ,.,.,.. with the
ool ll t~8 t u11<l lll OSt liig ldy n .Jon·d in1 agc ry.
The 80-call e<l puem.:1 of
O&iiau arc ill ust ration s of t li ii; i:< tyl('. (G) The bomba stic style is
characterized uy such an cx ce~s of wo n ls und o rnam ent s ns to
Lccome ridicn10 L18. Sergeant Buzfuz' speech in " T!i e Pi ckwick
Pu p rrs" is n fair exam pl e-. Ot h e r vnr ic ti cR of Rtyl e nrc s ullicientl y
mark ed Ly 11ie ndj ccliv vs u:; .. d to 11<-scrilw th em. Tlwy nn: the
culloq u iul, tl 1e la coni c, th e r o ncii;c, t lw di ff use, tl1 e nlJ rn p t , t i 1e Ho wi ng-, rile quaint., the cpi g ra n 1nialir, the flow e ry, tl1t: fcl'Llc , t li e 11cr\'v11::<, t h e y(·l 1emc11t, 1hc aJl; :ctc1l. Jn fuct., ~t ylc is nR vurio11>1 us
d1ura cte r, n f which l ang-uagu i::i th o C'Xpres::1io11. A g reat F re nch
write r, Bullv u, wdl t:iays , .. 1'/u; 1Slylc i.< the 11111n him self.'

2. The Impo rtance of Style.

The va1uc of an [!f.tradi 1·c styl e can no t Le ovc rcBtimate<l.
Muny of t h e most ct.·lel1ratc tl work s of literat ure haYc bec u
mad e immorta l by L h1~ Leau ty of t heir style alone. Though
tho ug ht is th e h:1sis of every g reat compos it ion , it will
Le n cgkcLeLl, unl ess style emLalms it and preserves it to
con un g ages.
"In p roportion ns t h o l?xcell <' nco of the form trnnscl:'nds th o vulue
of th o mutt.er, dnes t lw lite ra r y w ork f;::tin pel"fwt uit.v. .
J n dl:'eJ, in pro1 .o rtion 118 th <' v1' ry flnbstunce of a lit e rary work, the
th o ught it. cuntnini<, li<'com c1:1 irn purtnnt, is it difli c ult for it to claim
and l1old u plnct ~ in li t<·rat u ro.
. 'l'l1e very intf' rC'st of the
foct:<RtatPd st imul ates furtl1 e r inqu iry, am] thus p11 sl1 P" into th e background tho;;.c who first con tri lrn t<'J to i t. T ;,e hnnl wo rkt>rn, tlic
i11\"(•,;t ig:ito r;:. n11 1l <"•llliJ'il e r:::, in t.he fl (· ld1:1 of knowl t>1lgc, d r·s<'end
by g-.. 111•,.;i,.; nnt y to tl1ns n wh o come after them; th e ir di scm·criPf<,
t l11 •i r 1lw•> ri t·i', like win<J ..-0,1· 11 fl owern, C' nrich m any who are ignornnt
or tl11 ·ir ori gi n .
' l'hf'l'O mus t lie in tl w lit.t·rnry work , ns
in tl w nyf'tnl . s omr·tliin c: whieh ran nnt ho hrokPn in on without
lost-i, sometliin g iu itsel f specifi c nu<l fimd."- BASCOM.

3 . The Gencrnl Law of Stllc.
All the qualities of a n excellent style ar c implied in nnc

fu1~ o ws :." That ~orm
of expression is most excellent which yields its c~~taincd

general law, which may l:Je sbteJ. as

idea with the least expenditure of mental power.
Thi. law was first suggested liy H erbert Spen_ce r in l1i!:l in~cnious
s "The Philm1o phy uf Styll:. " Tile law JR most ful.1~ .c"tu l><'flllay on
.
. t d . th e " SciC'ncc of Uhetoric," "·here Jl 1:1 u:ic•l
llsh etl and 1llustra e m
to explain tLll tl1 c o rdinary rul es of tityl e.

4. Division of thip;i Chapter.
'l'he first step in the improvem ent of sLyl e i~ to choo~c
th'o right worJ.s; th e_seco11J, to comlJin c U1 cm Ill Lo cur rr·ct
imd effective sentences; t he thinl, to group the sc11 tc11c(·::;
into pn.ragrnph s ; the fourth, to enrich Ll1c sty le w1 t.h
to \"try
lit. e cx prc~s 1< Jn
appropriate figures; an u.:i t iic ~fth
i1
'
•
of ot1r thoughts.

(1) Diction.

Sentences.
Parawraphs.
Jl'i r1u1·es. Anc.1,
The Va/riation of Expre.q,qion.
,.,.,-·-·-·

YSECTIOH I.
DICTION.
1. Definition of Diction.
Di ction treats of the selection aml use of word s. The
worc.1 "diction" tLlso m ean s the form of expression \''.1iich

2

(

This chap ter will, acc:orJrn g ly, <lcvulc

n section to each of th ese topic:> :
(2)
(3)
( 4,)
(5)

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2G

TIJE ELEMENTS OF JU!ETORIU.

S TYLE.

a writer ndopts, ns when we say, "Tho diction of this
wr iter is charming ." The wonl is h ere used in tho firist

puss wit.hout an ex:iminaLion, if there Le th e lt'a:-; t. <1\ltilJt
about its origin, pro11nncintion, m ea niug or spc:l li11g.
(3) Study etymology. It is useful Lo tra cl ~ \ltd lLu
origin, composition, aud prim.ary mL·aning of wo •ds. 1\
k nowledge of Lat in a111l Gree k, es peciall y of tl1c l1>rfllL'r,
is helpful in tliis stud y. H should noL Lo furgottl'll, l1uw ever, that many wonls <lo not now m ean wlia L t Ill'} o nce
did, or wh at their derivation woul<l Sl'Cm ltl i111ply.
(4) Seek good society . Ouo who lia:s th e a<hanlagc
of frequ ent associaLion wi lh intelli ge nt a11d cuili,atcd
}l rsons, will ncq n ire n. good Y ocah ula ry wit Iw 11 t ,L:T\ at
effo rt, by payi ng att.o n lion to t heir lan g1 1agc. Low <"1m panio nslii p, on the other h and, r en ·als it sL·lf in one';i
choice and n se of worc.18.
(5) Read the best books carefully. 1'i o 11 1cre rnk ,; can
e\"cr make :i good writer or spca kc· r, 1rnlc,s . li e 8C'l'S t lie
rules exemplifi ed in m odels. Imitatiou i:-; a 11ri1wi1 1al
means of improvem ent in art. Can I.ion is ucecssary, h ow ever, t lrnt t he m odel be a gooJ one, aml not follow~d in a
ilavish spiri t.

\!Cll:SC.

Style r ecei ves its ch a ra cte r , in ~ great degree, fr om the
JVords e mployed ; for th(•se, lnken t 0gctl1e r, fonn tl1e whole compo::;ition . Tlie a r chitect may 1•xhnust h is ::;kill in th e n rr 11 n •'•'l1Hrnt
of imper fect brick s, wi thout m a king- a structure lik1• o rrn of i;~li slt ed
mul'l.1lc. To lie m ean iu <J!ction ii:! to impart nH•ann css to tl1e wliolo
prod n c t ion, whil e !lob le word:; e le vat e and ado rn . A !most e vm-y
q~ality tl 1at c.a n lie mentiouctl Lelong-s to w on!,:;. "\Vord R," say 8
l\11rahea11, "are thi11gs." E111C' rso n Hl.lj'R of M " n tr~i~n< , 's \\« 1rd s , t.J 11 tt if
yo n c ut the m . they would lilucd. Coleridge r .. rH nrk>< that '' yoa
mi ~l1 t ns well t hin k of p11sh i ng a Lritk out of a wal l wit h you r forefing e r, a>< nttl'lll]lt to n·m•ffe n word out 11f any of t lit' fi11i:-dl\'d p asR11gt·s of Sliak<·sp1·1He."
V1 >l 1rn11'ri h11\·c lw .. n writf1•11 nlJOut tlw
rn orality, j•o..rry. u nd \\'Olldl'rfu l l 1 i ~to ry ,if w u rd s. \\' l1 u1!\·er rends
t l11· t 'XCl d: .. nt liook,.. 11 11 1\·11nlM l1y Tn·nel 1, \rl iill', anti ;\lattlie ws, will
bo c11 11\·i 11 c .. d , t ltat th l' scc r..r. uf li tera ry pow e r is eliid ly tl w urt of
putting tli e ri g ht wurd in th e right place.

J\Icaus of Acquiring a Yocalmlary.

It is of g rc:it importance to haYc a larg-o "roc:ilml ary; for
this not onl y g ives rnri ely to i::tylc, b11 t ubo cnau lcs a
writer to select Lli o right word s to exprcsi; lii s thought.
Sonic rn lcs for enlarg ing one's vocalmlary may Le g i rcn.
( I) Always note a new word. A you ng perso11 can
Ac:n cely read a pngc, or conrcr:oe with an in tel lige nt friend
fo r a 11 lion r, wiLl1011t m eet in g 1ri th some Hew word. 8ornoii11ws th e nH:n ning will be erid ent from th e conn ec l.ion ,
:111ll rnm d imes not; l>u t . in cre ry ease. it i:-i l1cs t to make a'
note of' Llie word, TO(•ntally, or if 1i ec<·s.,; ary, 011 paper.
(Z) Mak~ constant use of a dictionary. Ith,; Lho prne- Lice of many g reat seholars ll C \' C' r to allow a new wor<l to

27

3 . The Essential:.; of Good Diet io11.

The words of any compositio n !-1 li o11l<l he p ure. appropriate and precise. \Ve shall, tli erdorC', co n.si tlvr H· p;1rakly,
(1) Purity, (2) Propriety, and (J) Precision.
The t e rms Purity , Propriety, and Pr ec ision , l1nn h·\ ·n l o ng
nsed , and, p e rh aps, s~· rv c l" uflici 1· 11t ly wdl to d 1·;oig nnt c t l1e 1111 i1 li ti1·~
which di ctio n i:h o nl d pOE'SCf<S. Tlt r·y an: ti g-11rnti\"t · term ;. , li rl\\'"'°''r,
•• and may s ugg-ef<t cr roneo u,; id<'a :-i. A 1111 in· 1·xurt 1111·tl10d of t rcat m e nt w o nl <l re :-p1ire u s to c•ms id Pr word s w it h n ·g11 1d t o 11) tl11ir
familiarity , (2) t h e ir lcng-t l1 , (3 ) tlll'ir in cl n;<ion, an1l 1-1) t lwir inipli .
cation . Tl1 n gl· t1 ural c urn .: u cy of these i(•nn s LU!:! k <l i•J tli uir IJei11g
11e tained in this w ork .

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28

TIJE E L EMb-WTS OF RHETORIC.

STYLE.

I . P U R I TY.

called 1111 exception, s tnntl s on tlw saml' basis on whi ch tl111 rulrH of
the lauguage are foun d ed , c us tom liaviug pre!:icr i\.JcJ fur it u ~q,:1ra~1o1

~:L

rul e ."

1 . IHca nin g· of P urity.
2 . B arbarbm s .

A won1 is sai<1 lo l>c p nre wl1c• 11 it lJt•longs tn tl1c hm
g uage as it i::;

at

presen t usell hy th e Lc ~ t writl'r::; :wd

Purit·y co u::;i:-; b:i in Llil' use of purn word s only .
'l'he Roman poet IIoraec \ll'darell tl1at Flic is th e final
Lc·st tif lan g uag<'. (: ;1m 1•hl·ll d t: fi tll'S guo\l u ~ag c to l>n
1. Reputa ble, or lhc pr:1l'licc or inLl'lligc 11 Land cd ll cat \.' d
wri ter s ;
2. National, as opposc\l lo i1nJ\"incial am1 foreig n;
:>. Present, ur tl1e usage of Lite gc ncrution i11 whi c h one
Ji yes.
speakers.

The follo wi n~ t'Xtr:1ct from Cnmrhcll's fnmoul5 essay on .. rt'c ns
th e Law ()f Ln11 g uagt'." "'i ll explain the reason of the author ity
of good usage:" E 1·c ry to ng ur wliatc n'r iH fo u nded in use or cu stom . Lan g un;:e
is purely I\ SpCt:if•tl of f m; }Ji n n, in whi cJ1, UJ LJiC g•~ lll'nll but tu cit
conRcnt of th o peop !e of a particular i:;rute or co1·.ntry, c.: rt ui n l:'(IUH<!s

npprop riutf'd to ce rtai u tlii11gs, ·nnd ccrtLti n w11y s of
infl ecting nod combining- th nsu sn utHls co m e t o he cstn lJlish cd, us
tl.-n nt ini{ th e relatitJn s wlt h: h snlJs is t among tltc thing s sig nifi 1·d.
"lt is not tltc businf'f'S of gm mnrnr, ns Home crit.i<'>' f'Cl: ll l prcpns·
tnou s ly to imn ,~ in t-, ro gi1·e ltt w tn the fmi l1i o11 s wh ich rcgu lntp our
~p•·t · 1·lt.
()11 the n111 trn ry , from it-< co 11 fi 1rn1ity to tlw t-w, 1111 .J fr<1111
tl 1n l nl<uw . gT1111 1111 :1r d 1• riv" " all ilt1 nntlinrit.'· an<! nlltw. For wl 1n t
i:< t lt u gr:u11111a r of uny ]:i.11 g 11n g1 ·? I t is no otht•r tlw11 n co llt-ct i1111
o r g-1 ·11 1• ral <•il:'\'l'\·atin 11s m\'ll 1ndi«:1lly dig0,; f1 )d, 11111! cnrnpri t<i ng ull
111t• 111nd1 ·~ pr1•\' il) 11 :- h · nnd i111kpc' n<lPntly t's fal1l iRh Pd, h_r whi1·h tl1e•
i;i ."·11 ilicntio11:;, 1krh·:11 ion;; and 1·o m bi nati on,c of wordR in that lan gu a ge arc nsccrtai11c " I. ]t i ;; qf nn c11n~ 1 ·qtH'll<'c'. l1t·n : to wlint cn u Rt''.·'
o ri ginally tltt'Rt ' n10.Jc·s tir f: 1sl 1io11>' 0\\'1• t llf'ir t'\i:<t .. 11c1', to irnitutio n ,
to rdie( ti n n, t<> :JTcTln t ion, or t " .. ;1i;ri1·r ; tli~' Y Jiff ;;:11 J1 e r nl.Jta i11 , anil
b· · r~HHt! ~1· 111 ·rnl. 111 :1 11 tli1 ·y :1r1 • I n \\· ~ 111' tlu\ l a :1:·· 11H !.:;'1' .
1': 11 ·ry ;:i 11 !-: I" :111 11 111 :,l y t lw r..t 11n', t 11.,11. · 11 clq•:irt.in ~ f1-. 1111 t l1.- nt11·
u.;."'ig 11l·'1 l" t.l 1t.: 'll.l11 ·r "'"ril.; , ,f' t lw ,;111 11•· t.:la ,..t<, 1111.f 011 tliat. a c«· •u1 1t

A Yi obti on of Purity is enlleJ a Barbarism. Th e following rul es rn ;1y be g iYc11 on t hi s suhj cd.
(1) Avoid obsolete words, or :;neb us " 'e re 01wc· 111 gn1,d
u se, but ha\·c cea.8Cl1 to Le u sc(l by the lJcs L\vrit ns;

;1:-:,

yclc71ed, fur ca ll ed ; k crn s, fur ligh t infantry ; duzclc, fur
fruthcr.
S om e W()rtb arc nppun ·ntly in n s t.ato of tran sitio n, n"t wl1 11lly
di!':'n sc<l, yt ·t ,;rnc lttnll y Y1t11is lti11g from tl11:J vocab ulary of tl11 : '"'"'t
1,o lis h c <l wri t( •rs.
t::\111; h arc udwi.rt. fro 1 ~ard, litr1rkn1 . "mr111;;.< t,

w/iil8t , e tc. No dTttrt i:;l1ould lie uw.d e to retain them , for tl1 c irJi,,11so
impli es t h eir usc lcs;; ncss.

( ;~ )

Avoid newly-coined words, or such ns km• 1111L
rece ived t li e sanctiou of good writers; as, c11/hu scd, l1J1_0mote, orate.

cnmc tn I.Jc

The re is often the ad<litinnal r caRon thnt newly-coin ed wor<ls
to J eter u s from us ing tltPm . It ii:; t rn e
that sonw o f the bc::1t 'Nurds in th e Ja 11g un gc lmvc ueP n rc·<·entl .r
introd n cf~d. 'l'l1e word s c11puuilit.11. cuuti11 r.ntal. crimi1111lit//, origi 1111 11· ,
or.igin11lity, n11 cl .-c11tinl/"lllui 11.U\'IJ lw1•11 i11 our l11 11gtrngc onl y al1.,1t t
a cent ury . Pupe lias well exprl'ssc-d t.lw "aft, ru k with n ·i.:n rd ' "
b oth old and n e w wonls, in th e fol lo win g lines of liis •· L .: s:iy nn
C'riti c is 111 ":
" In w nr<l,., ns fa:o;hions, th o :o;1111in rnlc will hold;
Alike fantn Rtic, if too n ew or old;
Be not th e first by whom th e n ew :ire tri Pd,
Nor yl't t h e la s t to lay t.h c ol d a:o;idl'. "

may be malformations ,

(:3) Avoid all foreign word s, 111il t-.':-i l l11 ·v l1a 11· i1C·1·11
na tu ral izt•\!.

Tl1ir;

ill c ludl' ~

IJvl li 11 urd.; fru111 t lit•

a11 c i1 •1 1t

•,

;"

--~-------------------.ii------------------·---......,.,..,.,_~.--

30

TIIE ELEMENTS OF RIIETORIC.

<lllll rnoucrn langua ~c s .

Nuth i ng is m ore ind ica.ti vc of
alfoet aLion aml pedan t ry t.han a free use of LaLill a11(l
F rc11 cb exp ression s. 'l'lic more lan g uages one kuo1r:; !"{'ally
we ll , t lic less will h e be inclin cLl to di .splay fon'ign phn1ses,
a 111l tl 10 m o re st ri cll y will li e co 11fi11 e l1im ~e:lf to bis 1>11·11
l:1 11 ~1 1 a.~c, when ::;peaking to ll1o ·c wlio under.sla ml 1io
uLher.
Cert.a.in wd'rds tl1n.t hn\c h<'cn l>o rrom ·il fro m othrr lan g uag<"~.
lm n.: liccomo "" pc r k..: tly Angli c ized tl1at t l1 1·y an • prnpnly rq;nr~lt-11
'"'" E11 g li ::!h \\'ord s. 'l'lw,;e \\'i ll liu m11rc fully i<pok c u of lielow. Th ei r
u:;c is nut a Yiula tio 11 of puri 1y .

(-l) Avoid all provincialisms, or loca l form s of cxprcs;-; ion.
A lmo:;t eve ry part of Lite cv u11try has snch lo<.:ali ~ ms ; :i.~,
Mic/,;y, 0nits, lty;1cr.
11 is ofte n Jiffa:uli t o nscc rtain \\'ltich words nm local, n.'5 dist i11gt1i s l1,; d from 11a tiu11a l, s ince W•! n ro i n<:l i11 cu to r"gard as g-"ou
E11gli:s l1, t.l1 e words wl1ich we ltavc lll'ard ,:p,1k<•n nil ou r lh·cf', nllll
li<'li Cl' seldom qn cstion tlt e tti.
Dict io n aries of Aml'ricani s mft, Uur cll'lt'>1 or D e Vere 's, are ns c fu] in tracin g out r •ro '·in cia li1m1 ~ pec uliar
tv Jiffo ren t parts of 11 1c· lT 11i tc<l Stall's.
Vulgarisms nrC', for tlw m m-t rnn , pro\·in ciul, and tho!lP which nm
1111ti,.11ul a rc pro~cr ilwd for otlt1:r thun rlwtorku l r cu~ on s . A LI low
o r sla n g w ordR o ng li t t11 lw a\·nj ,; ,.,] as :L llla l tcr ui w1ir11l ;;.
Colloquialisms, or ":" ]•l'<':<s inn s w lt i"11 l>('l nng- tu tltc ]oqse :<tyk of
fa111i li ar <.:"11\· c r:-<atiun, are g'<'Jll'rnlly ou t or i'lat'.'.' in n11 !'labo ntt•' cn 111 J·U:• i1 i11 n. '1'l1 ey t."n'l to cn·t.:p i11 , lrnw L· ,·1·1'. t: \'1·11 wlu: n 1·x..::llll t· d willt
a ,i 1·; do11:--; Yig ihu ic t·. Sueh \\ ·urtl :-5 11ftt·u :-<i ·t ~ ll J t it iuipar t vi ,·arity :u1d
f ri· ::, 1 1 1 11. · :-: ~ to unt··~ ;-.t,yl (' , l~ut, ll H j ' 1'a l l :-iu Jr, to l ob\ ' i 11 di,._;ui ;_y 1J;or 1·
•.Jia11 ii. g aimi in spriglttliue,;». Tl w t 1·11dc nry i:; in it wrong (Lrt'c li " 11.

STYLE.

3l

In dramatic litcrnturc und in books descriptive of r.hnrnctcrs, tlw
technical expressions often serve to explain some peculiarity oi
persons described . In s uch ca.scs t ec hnical terms may be em ployed, \\'hen th.:'}' a rc add r"sscd to tcclmicul person;;, t h "Y are
much more brief un<l intl·l lig il>l•..: thnn the words of ordiuury 11 se.

3. The Naturalization of \Vords.
There arc ma ny " ·o rJ s of foreign origin in onr lan g u:igc
which have ac1p1irc(l a citizenship l>y Ui cir long rc::- ide11cp_
Some of L11(' SC ha \'C not cliange(l 01 ci r form : as, verbal i111,
terminu s, omnilms, fiat, p1t f' no111cnon , rnulitorium_ Otl1cr:;
have changed Uwir orig in al form. Tlii.s has u s ually U('l'll
in one of the followin g ways :

(1) By chan ge of spelling; as, !1011cstia, honrsty; rumciha, ami ty ; ckirurgeo11, :o:tugcon; cnnditio, cu11di tiun .
( 2 ) By cha nge of inflection; as, form ulai~ formula.s;
indices, iB dcxc:; ; do:;111a!11, rl og ma.c;.
(3) By chan ge of accent; as, adren/w;, fuhcnt.
(4) By change of meaning; a:oi, cl1aracler, lunalir , syr:opltant, cfc. Th c~c wor•l ii aL fir::;!. retain tl1 e sig 11ifica.ti11n
of tlic ori o" inal fr om which t.11C)' :tr(' •lN in·(l., bu t tlll'\'
' r;·a il.; ,.,
nally lose their first S ('IJ SL'. aml t heir t:•·romlary mca11mg
becomes i lie pri 11ci pal 11111'.
The English language is tho most composite of civiliz ed
tongues. It h n.s h<; rrow1 •.<l fr o111 <'\·('ry qu artn of tl1" 1-"J.,J,,., nn•:
possesses a power qf ns:< i mi lat ion t l 1n I i,.i 1111i'"ra11"11.,l . 'l'l 1 i,.i ("OllJ r 1n ~i 1 •
charnct<'r of 1>ur lnng-uag-1 ~ r('n rkrs it allnwablP t.n 11s1~ w ords .,f fnr1·i;:n
ori~in llt'ln· freely tlwn if it Wl'I'(' more organic an<! sl'lf-"v"h-.·d,

JikP

(:•) Avoid all technic al te rms, or s1l('l1 ;n l1cl•>T1 _i.:· l1l
fO Jl"" i: tl :1r l ...: '''" ;:(· i 1' 1J< ·,·:· . 'l 'l 1c.'" :i1-r usn:tll r l\ 11 1Y1r n " 11h l.i
l li1 1.oc w l111 11tHIL·rs L1.11d i 11 ..· ·"' l' L' '·iall. 1us i,11 wliicl1 i,ltcy ''l'l'l.Y.

·-

t.[11~ Cil'rnlll.ll.

·'1 . The l·'ormation of \Vonls.
l1L' CC~t;ary

8omct.i111 c.s it. i;;

tu funn a 11 cw word, t i> d ··~i .:c:·
!"·!~~t§·

.

~·

-- ~-

-

--

~----------

-----

.

~{ ~­

. ··t·

.·~~·
STYLE.

1'118 ELBJ1EN1'S OJ!' RllETORIC.

natc a new object or process.
will prove useful.

Some rules ori this point

31

pt'rilment is a verb as well as u noun, nnd the endin g- izr. 011µ- l1 t not
J eopardize nlr-;o is a maliormatio11. The 1·nding .jz;: urny

to l>e added.

be properly added to nouns and udj ectiv..:s ; as, equalize , 11atu rallzc ,

No new word
ought to be coined, unless there is au imperative need for
it. A lang uage i~ not greatly improrctl 1Jy hari11g mm1y

m,l)ralizc, civilize.
Sin ~ ist, like walkist, talkist, slwotist, etc., !ins been fornH'd by the
I.' addition of the Ureek endin g -ist - deuotiug the ag1·11t, or pe rform e r

words for the same thing. We Jo not ncc<l donate while
we have give, or orate while we have speak.
(2) It should be readily intelligible. This follows from
the fact Llrnt only familiar wonls co uy cy an exact m ea ning.
A word is ntluelcs.s, unlcs~ it conveys some tho ug ht.
(3 ) It should follow the analogy of the language. When
two clements, <lerircd from <..li1Ierent l auguagcs, as tho
French cablr, and the Greek gram arc uni tcJ, their result
is callc<l a liyurid.

¥Lngcr, walker, talker, slt ooler. The ending -i,,t shoul d lie n1hkd ; 0
Greek words; us, teltgraphist, plwt(l.r;raphi-<t, 7Jhilufog1A, ra tl 1t>r th a n

(1) The new word should be necessary.

. c~ an action-to a Saxon stem.

The prope r Hnxuu endin g i:-; -r- r, :1<'

telegrapher, photographer, philologer. On th e otli e r han d , l1owcver,
we have geogr(/pher and biur;rriplier, whi ch have Lccome est aLlh;hed
in the langnngc.
Proven, thou g h ve ry common, is n Scoticis m for proved, and
ought not to he u::;ed.
Preventative is a malformatton for preventive.
Plead, as a past tense, is frequ ently u sed for pleaded, f11llo win g
the analogy of read.
Sp eciality for spc·cialty, le11 i1:ncy for lenity , fir~tly for fir,:;t, r11t111u11:
for inspire, 111011archir1l for monilrcl1ieal, C11s1wlity for <..11:-rnalty, aw
·"-11 violations of tue uest usage in the formation of wurds.

The so-culled law of verbal formation is thnt component parts
of a compou nd w ord should be of the snme o rigin . Thus the Latin
1ern1i1rntion -ity nn<l tho Saxon -nes,~ nre nllixe:; mt'nning a" stat e of
being-." Ac<•ordin g-ly, from th e Latin stem felir, hy od<ling the 1·ndi ng
·ity, we hnvejelirity. In lik e muntH'r, by udding tho e nding -11 e.'<JJ to
th e Saxon !ta1111.11. w o have happi11cs8. In these c:iJ'leR it would n ot be
plls::;ihle to u se th o endings interchangeably. Tlii8 rule is not uniVC'rsal, ]10w() vcr, since Latin stems t<ike Saxon C'ntlingR, !\nd Saxon
131,(;mi; Latin endings, whil e s 0mo worclR t.nke both; 1t!'I, p11rit_1;, pure.
'llllS.~ ; l.JrevillJ, &riffn~as. In is gen erally n Rcd with L11ti n stems; 1m,
with Saxo11 ; y1:t we hnvc 1mcon r;dot1 R rath er tlwn inconscious.
Tlw following words arc not .fonrn·<l corrl'ctly:
Resurrect is used nR m ea ning to rl(ise ngain; us. "Tio ruurrectP.d
l\n ol<l theory ." A't'> it comes from re, again, nn<l s11rgo, I rise, it
oug-l1t w meun, if nnything, to rise agai n.
Standpoint is u sed in the sense or the point wl1erc one s tand!!.
\V1 : have finc h wor1ls us st11111b/i11g-Uork. block of F<tnmbling : rfrntlt-bed,
OP<l of death; tlrwcing-glrl, girl for dnncin g ; brmcl-k n1ff, kn i fe for
Lrnn1l; but we cannot any, point for st.and, or point of E<tand , or t•ven
point to Rt.irnd. Hen ce it iR thnug-l1t that t1,rmdi11g-point, point for
st.anding, or point of view, is a prdrmhle expression.
Experimentalize is un awk wurd uml unnecessary formation . E»

II. PltOPJUETY.
1. JUeauiug· of P1·opridy.

Propriety con:;i sts in using words i11 their proper ~· ensc· .
Herc, as in the case of purity, good l W: is tlt c 111·i11 ci1·al
test of diction. It matters liUlc what tltc prin1ar.\· l'l cments of a wonl s ignify, or what the rnea11in g of a \\'Ord
bas been. We must cit.her u se tho worJ ::i as uLl1l' rn 111Hkrstand them, or violate p ropriety.
Language is somewhat capricious in its changes. Tl1n wnnl
dcrk, for ex.am ple, in the Middle Ag-es meant a cl•'rg-y11111n; by
Chaucer, iL is used to desigrmte u student at n univ•~ rnity; iu later
times, it was appliC'd to a k ee per of nC<',otrn ts; nt prC'::;cnt., it nwan s a
person who i::; employed as a salesman. Prevent meanf', dy111.,!11gi cally, to go before; as iu t11e pa><sagc, "I prcventNl tl w dawniug ., f
the morning."-P:::ulni 110 : 147. Now it meam1 to liindn. Tlio
word let once meant to Linder; uut uow it il:i ut1e<l u;; Cljuivaknt to

:;~~:

,.

;.~ti,..

THE

34

ELE,~fENTfi

allo w , t he oppo,.i teo f ils nn cil'nl mvnnl ng. H1lify pri marily t1 ign iii Pd
to h11il1l up, w> a l1o u::;c i:i Lui lt ; -u ut no w it is a ppli ed nn i y to 1111 ·11tlll improvcm r nt. J>11iuf ul w a:-1 o nce applkJ t o tltn t wlii cl1 r<'<Jltin·<I
tltL1 1·~q1cndi t urn o f pain :-<, o r dio rt, ns a .. ptin f11 l s 1·rn1011. '" l\ o w ii
rc fu rs t.t> that which cuuses a sensation of pain, us n "painful
wound."

Neglect and Negligence mean rcs pcctiv c· ly nn uct nn d n ltallit .. r
cn.rnlu8:m ess; ai;, ''I rnir<:;eJ t.h e truin uy rny 111•gle..t '" uuti.-e tl 11~
time of day. " •·The lwu;:;c i::i diluµidateJ throug h 11 tgl1vewc"
Predict anJ Predicate mean re"pccth·ely. f ureldl a ud 1u•1·rt.
The word" prndi catu" i11 als•1 u,.ctl ('fl'f>ll(ll!l ti; ly i11 the l'it' ll K<' of.J ~m/ll l
or /JCt.~1·; a ~, "J le predica lc<l lii1::1 udiu11 on a 111i twu11 1-.·1·t i o 11 01· u1y

.

lllCt\LIJll g-.

2.

Hulc~

f,_,..

Propri<>t ~-.

may lie of scni co in c hoos in g appropriate wonh;.

(1) Avoid confounding words from the same radical.
Su cl1 wo rd :-; arc call c l p11rl)11 ym ous or conjugalc worJ ::i.
'l'hcy 11 0 not al1rny:-; m ean th e sam e thiu g . Tillis obscrrntion sip:11ifi L:::i the al"L or ltauiL o( uot fri n!J; a:-:, "A mau of
obsl'r rn!io11." Obsrrra11 cr> , Ili c r r·l 1·b1alio11 of a ny t hin g : ;i s,
" 'l'l ll' ubsrrrn11ce of Llt 0 ~a !J !J a( Ii .. , \\"e sho u IJ Il l!!. "a'·
1

1

~:t b ba. t h."'

Y C't we may :;:ay,

"

Re spectfully nn<l Respectively arc occal:lionnlly co nfu uml1·1 l. Letturl:l are ::;u111utin:e1::1 clo:;ed witl1 tl1 e uxpre::;:;iu11, "Y o11r:; 1vp1xtic,ly."

Althon gh n. wri ter mnst w e hi s o;rr1 jnd g m r nt. in ra clt
pn.rl ic nl a r c:i sc, ancl co nsul t ;; pcc ific anlh ori t i cs~-:rn c h n~
di ctionari es an il e xampl es by t il e be ' t aullwrs-a fc.:w rules

"o bst·nation of t!t c

35

STYLE.

OF RllETORIG.

.'

(2) Use words in their accepted sense.

'f li is rcip tirc::>
that we attach to c n .: ry wonl u11ly such a mca11i11 g u:-; 11ill
be gene rally nntlcrst.oud to b elong Lo it. 'rhu :-;, t li t· pro [1l' r
meaning of/ transpire is to lm::athe throt1 g h, uml so tu Lecome known. It is sumeLirnes e rron cousl y ll :Sl'd Lu sig n i f"y
the sam e as loccur. It is <:o rrcc t tu :::ay, ··Th e n·rdid uf
the jury bas n o t yet transpired. " It i::; iu co rrt;d to ;:ay,

~al 1lnLli.

Th u f., llowing \YOrds slt ou l<l hr rn r r f11l ly <]j ,·ting- 11i t1l1ed.
Construe 1111d Construct nr1• q 11 il1! fn·'lt1l'nlly confo nntl cd. A
boy r.011 Mr 11cls a se ntl' nce wh e n h e rn11k es it. Ue con stru es it when
h u ex pla in!-! its gran1ma t icnl st ru cture .
. Con sci e nce 1111 1! Con sciou s nes s l;otl1 imply n k nrwi11.' f t ng cthrr,
IJ11l tl1 i! lir><t if< n· ;.;tri ctcd t o th e 111 o nd Rf' nSe wli i<'h di i-1 1in~11i sl11>tt
ul't w Pr·n ri g-h t nnd wron g- a ctio m; ; tl1 e iwcond iH 11st·u to ~i g 11ify th o
ku o wl 1·d l-{t' of s1•lf-c xisten cC' ano of Tl H' ntaJ acti on in g'f'll Cral.
Fal sen e ss, Falsity and Falsehood, nr.- nll f11 rnw d from tl1t· worrl
frilse. b11t. differ as followR; fa l11Cnt'88 is nppli r·cl to J·<·n«rn R only , a11<l
impli Ps a ck ccptivo thnracte r; .fah it,11 iR th r. ahRtrnc:t q1111lily of
uetruthfnlr H'RS; afol.~ch N>d is 1111 untru r. 11:< s~ r1io:i.
Contemptible nn<I Contemptuous diffe r in thiR : rnntn 11ptible
TnPan ~ tlrnt whi c h dPscn ·cs cont<· nq1t, m; a contt·mp t ilol o net; co1ttempt uo1uJ meiw::; fill cJ witli cuut1·111pt, us a c1111tcmptuuui; rq1ly.

'-•

"'l'h c paraJ c will transpire."

tl1 l' lllan

oh:-;e n ·t·s l 11 0L in ·s] an a c:L iu n , or uu~·<: nC' s [cl' lel1raLt·:-i] t lie

i"'

The followin g nrc give n us cxamplel:l of w o n.ls c:o mmonly mb 11 ~d

by cnreless write rs.

3 Coupl e is ofte n used for two; ns, "lie gav e nw a coup]., o f
peaches." The w orJ m eans two things j •>iuC'<l t og etlll'r or paired.
") Aggravat e is some times u sed fo c) irrilalc; uti, " ll iti m a nn e r is
"ixtreniely aggraw ting." The proper St.mise of the wurd i::l t•> aLhl
weight to; as, " You only 11ggrnvatc the wrong uy y o nr co1Hlucl. "
/ Ch ara cter is used a:; cqui ,· :~J e nt to/ r eputatiun . \\'li nt a 111 11 11 / 8 ,
makes his cluxrnctcr; what li e i::; thought tv /Je, J ctl' rr 11 i1 w:; bi ,; n· pu tntion.
.
'.£ De mean is mied in th e s ense o f'.de/Jasc · a s ·rlt'11if11 n"d lti 111
;j?}f by his acti o11." lt i:i properly l'<]ltival e nt to d1p ort o r l" li't"'"
and i ~ not connected with the word meim.
,J Allow does not mean tu asse1·t; ns, "He alto uxd t liat I w as
wrong."
Calculate doe s not express th e snme meaning as i 11ln 1deif, o r .~t :
n.s, in t.his sentence , " Sensational n e wsp11pc rs arc calc ulated to 111jurc the morale vf the young." The word means to compute, to
reckon, us by 1igures.

n,.

_3

,·

't -

'.:. 'JJE HLb'.MiJ,'NTH OJi' JUJJ~TORIC.

3ti

81'YLE.

'{ Mutual m eans recipr ocal, not common. Hence two pcrsom; muy
11e 11tttt1111lfric nd.~. but A can not be a mutual fri end tu B 1u1d C.
, , Em,blern is ::;01n c Li. me~ ll::!e d as. e!rulvalt~ot .to Mnti111ent ur meru 1 inr;.
I h e l'llllll C!U of purity JS tl1 e lily, lrnt lt IS uu::;uru t<J !:my, " 'J'lio
~11 1uh · m of th e lil y is purity."
.J Exc ept is ofte11 use d for 11nle8s ; us, "lie ''"Hild 11ut g11 t.rr,. 1
11

1 would.

111 :/wut t::i u ::;eu 1\· r 1111gly iu tlie rnn1t· way.

1citlu11it a re p r c. p o::ii,\oos uuJ l'l'!!uire un ul1jet:ti 1·e 1~:sc.
co11j 11 n c t ion.

I.:.u, pt a1 1d
U 11 Lc:J.i i::; a

As is ort(' ll wwd :ur 1°l ikr , and like for t fS. .. 1.~ l'lumld )){' 11 8Cd
wh1 •n a YerlJ i:-; e., pre<:<::icd ; a ,.:,· · Il e Hiugs a,y I do." / ,ike i; li<iuld l:e
ur;ed w l1e ll a Yt·rlJ i1::1 u11t \ ' X prt·t;,.t·d or und c rsltM 1d 11fll'r it, " "· " ll o
w•>rk ::; Lik,• a lll a n." 1\ 11 otlll'r ru le is that l ik e nrny he ttt;ud whe nev1· r
it wnuld be prope r t o s uppl y "to" after it.

Resemblance to.
Resolve on.

Beside i s f'rP<Jll•!ntly 111 1s u:>e1l f" d l1rsidr8. '1 li e f1ri<t. i" n pn·por;i tion, the second un t<\ht:rli. "Two br ..,ide.v 11s &i t ltt~ide thP tuul1· ."
Care it1 n eccs:;ary in the use of prepositions with verts, nouns,
and adjectives, to select ·th oRe whi ch u soge Lo.s su nctiuneJ. Tli e
followiug li::1t from Angus will ue of use for rdcn:11ce:

Use or employ m cu 11~.
Take s tep8.
Acquire knowledge.
Take degrees.
Contract habits.
Lay up trensurc.
Obtain rewards.
Wi11 prize~ .
Gain celebrity.
Arrive at honors.

i'

!

Accord il'lllt ( n e 11 11•r) to (ac t IV<' ).
Acrn, Q/ c rime', by ono·~ fri c.nd .
A cq11it p<•r,'<ll1" of
At1i11ir y lo, 0 1· /xtween.
Adapt ed lo n thin;.:, or for n pnrpoRt'.
Agrc(·nh l c tu; ngrec ·w ith l >~r:-: uu l" , uud

tu

t h i11 .i.;~.

lo (Ji:;ten), !I/IOI! (w nit).
Av er'•' lo. when d co_,cribing feelin g .
from when d e.scrihing an ucl or

Att c 11d

.I'11

l '!i

;·!'

~ l.~ l<'.

B t ~ .. t<>w
Jlon~t

upun.
of.

l
~

!

Dq>cndr·nt on , 1111011.
Derogatory lo 11 pc r8nn. o r thing; we
d !' rogntcfram u11 tho rity.
Die (//, or by.
J>itrcr from, tlill'l: rcn cc wUh n Jl<'rec n, o .-

Dh<co urn~c mcnt
n1 . ~c 11 t

C l11111~cfor.

J~ugc r

on \:;:i\'C•) wil!t (ro111· c r~e ).
Conf!tle in, whe n intran s itiv e , wh e n
trnn ~ iti\'C , confid e it to.
Co nfo rmublc ro ; ~ o the nrh nnd nrl1·erh.
Addition som e tim e~ u~ c~
1cilli .
( 'i impl iu n r" wli /1.
Go11>011u11t to, ~on u · tlmc s wltlt.
C or1n•1d1 ·11t

to, or f nr.

Cu m '<'r•«lll t 11•illt pc r~ons;

in

ntllllr~ ;

ri/>11 11 1 H IUjl'Cli< .

Corre"J>trnd u.'iflt (by letter) to (Bi milnr
thing>').

tlti11g~.

l>el 111een

Dl tllc nlty in.
Diminution qf.
D irmppointed of what we do not g e t;
:md in it when we get It nnd It failo
to un ~ wrr our c~ pcc t.atioue .
!Ji , upprovc of.

(.'1111011 .

Cnnf1·r

t '

Martyr for a cause , to 11 1li11case.
Nood of.
Notice of.
Observ11nce of.
Prejudicial lo.
Prcj udice a(Jai11~t.
Prollt /Jy .
Provide jor, with, ayat nxt.
Uccrcant to.from.
RL'Coucile to.
Replete with.

to.

;iwn.

!11.
Exception

to s tnt e mc11t~;
a!Jainst- the ve rb bu~
F• •meti me" from .
Expert at or in.
Fall under.
F ree f rom.
Fwrn at o r on.
Olnd of Fomethlng i.:uincd , t11HI of or a~
lo tnkcn

~o m r tim 1:;.

whn t IJl·fllll d nuutlior.
Tntlcpcndcnt Qf.
lti ; ii< t !/]>Oil.

Mnd<' of,for.

Mnrry lo.

37

ltcducc to a Hnt o, and "nder subj ection.
Hcgnrd for, or to.

Smile al, upon.
Swerve ;r<n11.
'l'aotc of, what i s actually onj oy<"d . f ur
wl:utt we have the cupncit y of ""
joyi ng.
'fhii.k of or 011 .
'l'birotfor, qjlcr .
Trno to (fui tliful) Q/ (pm.licablc1.
Wuit tm {ocrve) a/, (u plllct:) ji'.lr ~nwn it) .
\Vortliy q/.

Many expressions have become stereotyped, r;o that n chnngc
Bain mentions the followiug :

would violate propri ety .

Co11duct nfiltiri!.
&po11se a s id e.
Jnlerpou authority.
PurlftU u cou ri;e.
Tu1·11 t<J uccount.
Ser~for a warni11g.
B ear malice.
Profeu priuclpl cs .
C'ultiwle acquaintance.

Pau over· in silence.

III. PU.EOISION.
1. Mcauing of Precision.
Precision (from the Latin praxidtJre, to cut off) requires
that we use such wonls as c ut off ull that we tlo not mean
to express. If, for example, we wish to say, "He bas
sufficient r.iouey," but say inlltead, "Ile l1as enough
mon ey," wo express more than wo intend. Sujjicient
means what one actually needs; enough, what one d esi res.
'l'he miser has sufficient, but he neve r has eno ugh. Tlic
preci::;e writer ehooses words which express what he means
without any addition or diminution.
Words which mean nearly the same are called Synonyms.
Strictly speaking, there ure no wor<lH in our language which mMn

T1IE B'LEAfh.'NTS OP R1IETOR1U.

81'YLE.

precisely th e snm o. 'l'h eru i,; in eve ry i m•tancc i:;omo i;] ight shndo
of dii:;tinctiu11 which gives a word it ti o wn peculiar righ t to cxh;t.
It may b e 11o thing more thnn a m c n tnl a.,;sociutio11, wholly imlctin:tl 1lc allll i11 cx plkablc, but the qukk 1::11·11sc of a c 11lti\·ntt·d r~udcr at
(, lll'O J et1 ·c1;; Home Jilforencc fruu1 nil uthcr \\'urdR.
Ur1 ·at writns
und ,..pcukL' l'ti lmve u s uully I.wen rna:; tcn; of ynony111s. Hobert Hall
wus peculia rly fastidious in his ch dcn of words. Jolin Fo,;t.cr wrote
liis cs:ouy on "Dccisiou of Characte r " with u paiuful s lowue;;s. "He
would spe nd whole duyti on u kw tshort sentcnet:l:l, pM,;ing each
word under hi1:1 t:oncentratml 1:1cruliuy, w that each, cl1allenged auJ
e xamined , took its Jilacc in the :4trurtun: lik e an inspected soldier in
the ru.nk::;." Fox o n ce tsaid of \\. illium Pitt. "Though l nm my self
n e ve r at a loss for a \\·n nl. Pitt no t only l1as a w ord but tlt e word to
c xprer:;,; his mcuning." 'l'l 1omns Moon·'.· eit.«y . fl o win g Yt'rRe wu::; not
tht! SpOlltallt'Ollti g11shi11 g Of U l't'USd c:;H fou11tain, UH it H<'l' lllH to the
rend e r. Irving & t)'H tliat wlil'n ridin g with tl1c po1·t in Pnril'!, th e
couch W(•n t into a rut, Bendi n g tl1e inmates ngui11st th o ron f wi tli a
uump. "By Jove, f "o,; got it.'" 1>11itl l\loore. "<lot w!t11t '!" suit!
Irving. ·• v\'hy," was tho rL'ply, ·'that 1CO'J'tl I 've been hunting for
::1ix w eek s to complete 111y la:<t t;onµ- ! "
Th e works on synonyms by Crabbe. Uraham. un:I \\' l1nt1·ly. arc
F;C rvi c,·aLle if carefully URl'd . H<>gct'::i "Tl1cE<nuru"" is a lll'lJI in
snggcsting th o riglit w o rd. Tli c l1l'::!t w ork 0 11 th e s ubjec t is Swi tli'1:1

Not only precision Lut also vividness of style is secured by the
use of speciflc rather than generic words. 'l'he more ge1wrnl 1, tl' rm
is, the n10re dilli c ult it. i,; to furm un image of it. It i,; ea,;y t11 pil'tu rn

38

"8ynonyms Di:;criminutcd. "

t•> the rnincl a s pec ifi c u11d concrete o l1j cct, s uch !IS a part ic ular t ,., .,.,

mouutuin, or l111ut1l', tl1at we lmv e Sl'cll. It ii; ]'•1RH il1ll: to •"X jll'i '"" a
t] 1o 1wht i:i!>l'citicnlly or ge nera lly, a8 the writer cl1oosl's. < 'u 111pa1 1·
0
•
the followiug form8 or expressio n. .. In prnport10u us tltl' lll Ul.l!ll' r :;,
customs nnJ nmuscmcuts of n nation are crud and burl m10ut1, th1 •
r egulation of their penal cod es will be severe." "According M men
delight in Lat ties, bull -fi g ht s unJ corn Lat,; of gladiat<1rs , ::<O will t ]i ,.y
punish by han g ing-, burning and cruri fyin g ." ~rh ~ . form< ·r iH g1· u ·
eml; the latte r, s pecific. Thu former i:-1 more d1grntwd; tl 1e lat ter ,
more viviJ.

The most specific words in English are those of S a xon ori gi n,
whi lu tli c gm1crnl words l1itv c IH:t·n L•JrruweJ f1t11n the L.1tin.
pare Llic word:; iu lltc f tJll 11wi11 g li s t:
SA.lCON.

Crccpi11g

Hitliug
llunning

'.l'lil'ft

Robbery
Killl111,:

f

}

SAXON.

H inck
lllu e

Red
C:lr"e11
Brown

= Crime.

l

f

LATI~.

= Co:or .

Tl l<"ln ::r )
Orn11ting
Groan ing
= So u.id .
Hpt..•aking
Singiu~

2. Hules for Precision.

(1) Distinguish between generic and specific words .
A ge 11 cri e word appli l':s (ll a "·hol e (']ass; u l' pee ifit..: word ,
to u part, of' thu clas:s only. 'L'hus, prai~e is the ge neral
wo rd for approbation, rn:i_y he f'iue cre or in s incer e, and i:,i
bestowed hy any one on uny other. Commendation is a
s pec illc W\ll'l1 for apprC>hatiun which is si ncere, auu is Lho
encourugemeut giv en by a superior.

l

\Val1<111 g , =1llvt1'm.

Lying

The rul es for Precision , like those for Propriety, arc
n ecessarily of a very ge n eral character. The fo llowiug
will "C'ne to poillt o nt how to guard again st a violation or
PrcC'ision.

LATIN .

\ '••Ill ·

(2) Distinguish between the different degrees of i~­
tensity expressed by word s. Temperance i:-i o ften 11 .-=ed 111
the sen:su ur rcbstin cna. Thu form er i111pli eR a n•: 1 ~ u11al 1k
r es traint upon imlul ge ncc ; t.11 u latter, a lutal di s11 ' 1 "
'rliey meuu the :-;ume only when the lca:s t imlul gc 11 uJ i,;

hurtful.
'l'hc following di R1inctions nrn wor1hy of n ot.ice:
.
Repentance and Penitence differ in l>oth i~tens ity nn<l .tlu rat 1" 11.
Wo 1·ppenl eve n of trivial matt e rs: w e arc prml1' 1it only foi ou r ~ 1 nr1 .
W e 1·epenl of :rn net l>ut once; wr a re pr.11-ite11l for it lon g .11 fti·r.
Avow, Acknowledge and Confess ex press the follow111 g s li adui

------40

STYLE.

T 11 E EL It.Al /J,'JV l':i 01" JUJ f;'TO Jl1C.

of meaning; to avow is to asse rt with enmo sutisfnctlon in the stnteru:kno1olulge i:; to nd mi t ns true t hat wliich ilil Ji:mgrecaule
to o w n ; to co11jes~ is to admit n fu11lt ur <:rim•:. "A h·g i,;Jutor avow&
hi;.1 nppositiou to 8ome m eusure of tlio 1· xccutive, und i8 appluu<ll'd;
n g<·nt.lernan ack1101cl.:dge11 hit! mi:;tukc uud is f orgivea ; u priBmwr
co11ji!B1J1'1J tho c ri me with whi ch ht: is cl1urg,.<l, un<l i:; puuit<h l'd."
Design , Purpose nml lnten.tion ditfi: r us follows ; a dt::Yig11 embraces many obj ects, uml its uttuinuuility <lcpcu<ls ou the 11 nture of
th o case; a purpo~e lws one olijt·ct, is Je>fiuite. and its ste>adi nesa
d{·pends on the temper of' the mind; au i11tc1dion is vngue, and may
be delayed. The man of 1)Urpose pus l1 cs on his pl ans ; th e man o f
intention urny consider tl1c m long lido re liis i 11te11 t ion Lcco1ucs a
1rn:nt ; to

J>t1rpose.
Hasten and Hurry 1Jutl1 imply n <Jui<:k mo,·pnwnt , lm t liirrry
always ndds the idea of cxc itt:m e11t, pnluruntion o r irreg ularity,
wltil e luu1te11 conn'ys only tlH) notiou of r11 pi<l mm·t·me>nt.
Abundanc e n:i<l Plenty. '!'he fo rn 1f'r m<>nns nn ove r flo win g supply, us its d erivut.ion from th e L 11ti11 alnmdo, to 01·<'11.low, augges ls.
Plenty m eans a sufilciE>nt supply, such ns mnkcs full without o\·crflowiug .
, , Industrious, laborious and Dilig e nt. Tho ind11st1·i,,p1s mun
works uusily ; Llw ll/boriuu.~ 1110.u works ll'ith cloi;c upplication ; llic
di./.igent n1an works fro111 clwi cC'. One nrny !Jc industrious without
being laburio11 .~ or clilig1i11t, diligent witlwut bl'iu,g lahorw11 .~.
Pride u11J Vanity. Tho J>-roud man cstce ru liim e lf.; the 'Vain
mun dct1 ircs the estee m of ot h ·rs. Dean Swi ft d eclares that a man
lllllJ b e too proud to ue 'Vain.

(3) Distinguish between words which have respectively an active or passive me aning. Tliu ., auili/1/ is
adi ve, aml 111 ca 11s power tu t1o ; capacity is passi vP, an(l
m ean s power io recci \'C.
Force and Strength .

Furci~ is po w e r

exert ca, 0r nctive . 8t1·mr1fh

i~ iutcrnnl , depenJ1·nt on org-anization , !lod measured hy it s pm~·er
of rc-siflt;1uco. 8tre11gtli. l1ow1· \·er, mn.r hon cansc of force, ns whon
a man of 11troJ1gth exerts liim:-df in producing nfuru.
Forgetfuln ess anrl Oblivion diffr r in this: the> form e r rcfeni to
the person who forgets; th o othor, to the 8tnte of the t hin g whi ch i11
forgotte n . We hhtm1• a man for f or,r;ctjul11rs11. but do n ot B[l('nk ot

him us guilty of olJ/i11in11.

41

fo rgqttcn actions pass into obli vion, uut

uot in tu j'o1·ge tfut,n e.~s .
.
Truth and Ve racity. Tr uth uclongs 10 propoeiti 0ns ; rerrwl!f, to
persons. '!'lie •' 1"uilt ot a stutern ent b a d111i ttc<l wh en tlrn vem l' i ly of
it.ti uuthor is 11 nqu e::;tioi ueJ. \Y <:'~ li oulcl not Hp<·1•k or 1]1 0..: f'/'11th of 1,
hit!torian, or tl 1c u1·110iiy of histo ry; !Jut the truth uf lii ~lury ullll the
'fJaracity of the },i:;toria.u.

(-t) Oiitinguish between words which are negative
and those which are privative. A word is negative wl1en
it denies the exi stence of a <puniLy; privaficf! \\h en ;t
simply implies · ib absence. Thus, bcli1:f~ 1hsudi1'f an t1
m ibelief, arc, r espedi\·cly, po.;;;i,ive, u cgatiYe urn1 pri valin·.

Bel1:ef implies accL·pL.u.co of a s tn tcmen t ; di.-;beli1f, 1rn
absolute denial of its truth; unbelief, the mere absence of
belief without denial.
Distrust 1111Ll Su s picion. ·when one distru~ts nnothcr, h l· imputes
no good to him; whe n lie suspecc.! ni~utricr, he impu t~s . p•.>~i tirn t:'Vil
to him. Distrust is a want o f fuith 111 any one; .•t11f[i tctu1i l"' a hd1 ef
that one is not trustworthy.
Disadvantage and Injury. A d i3fldva1itage is the absence ol' a
good; un injury is n p 011itive evil.
.
.
Hopeless and Desperate. A mnn is !wpcle.~B when h e is w 1tl1out
present h ope ; h e is de."'JJl' l'llle wl1 c n lie is n ot only ltopde.<.~ !Jut n\i;o
surrounded \1·ith ev i l!:; which 13Jiut off ull liope 111 the futur e.

(5) Avoid the use of equivocal words. An f'quirnPal
·word is one which has more t han o n e possible mea 11111g 111
the place wh ere it is u sed . Thn;:;, "or~' 1s u~.u11 (· r1uivoca1ly in t his sente nce : "The Greeks wor:il1ippe11 ISt.: 11 ,,; . or
Jupiter." To those who a rc ignorant that Zeus al\(l .Jupiter are two names fo r one cl i \'in it.y, th i::; rn i gl1 t f'l'L' lll to
mean that the Greeks worshipped either Zens ur Jupiter.
There are few words in our langua ge which have only one
meaning. Some lrnve nearly a Rcorc of <liffercnt sell s•·~. The mean-

42

1'1JE Ji:LEMEN1~9 OP IUIE1'0RJC

S1'YL/iJ.

~1,1 g int,~ tHl ed by I.ho wriL<' r mm;t lie inf'cr r<'tl fr o m tlio coun c dion .
l h~re 1:; usually no diffic ulty in tlii:l ll'lwn tlw 11·ord j,; usi·d in th o
i;nme i:;e. u::;« throu
g h o u t a :::w ul (· 11 ce 1111•!
c tt ~" t· i; u t•ar 011" 111101 h er.
.
' 1'11 "'L'tit
•
0. l1sc11nty
an:-;es
,
h
u
w1!\·e
r
if
th
e
&!Ume
w
1·J ] 1 . 1 ~ tii·
t
11
.
•
' .,
u <!'ff
J t'l't' ll llH:an 1.l g i; Jll tltu ::;tt11ie ::;c11t1 ·uce.

or possibl e relation between these two clcnwntA. For exampll' ,'l
se11 an ouj cc t lying- on my talilc. l notice that tlicrc are n· r1ui 11
qualities. 'l'li m; far therl' i:-1 nr1 thoug-ltt. If. now , I mrntnll y decidt'
that one of these quaJ ' ti.:s uckngs to the o hj,·ct, I ltuve a tlt o11,qM.
'!'ho primary olJj,·tt 111ay UL> sume i>tate cf tlie mind a:; wel l ai> nn
e xternal tl1in g.
The ex pres:;;ion of th e thought j,3 a sontence. I nam e tl1c oLj<·· :
ink and the qua lity black. If l put thc::w tog\'tlll'r, th11 ;,;, "l11k
black," l lll.lve 110 sentrnce; just !lS wl1 l'n l lllerc ly ll (Jt ict.: Ll tlil' ,,1 ,j u ·t
uml the quali ty l had no thought. If I ::::;;:;c rt a re la tion l1et we1· n
ink un<l the color bl11 ck by using t lic \\·ord i.~, I h ave tht· SP11tene\',
"lnk i::; Llack." H l lia\'\~ in mind the cr,Jor gra n, um! asse rt that
there is th e rel a t. i on of di sngreenwnt IJ1· 1\\' CCU th e olij('ct ami tlic

~ 11

t his

SCetiOJl

Oil

crcd :-

"D"1c t"1011, "

we

have cornsid-

.1. 1'/w Dcftuition of J>i<"fir111.
:!. Tlw .1ll('a11.-; of Ar:q11i1·i11y a ro,.,tlJ11l<u·11.
3. 1'/tc Es.o;u1tials o/ (;oorl l>idio 11 •
·
1.

l'UlU1T.

quality," I n k j ,.; not g- r<'< '.n ," tlii>1 abo b a FC lltt•ncP .
'l'hese thn·c ekrncnt::; of a thought and uf n sentence cor n.:sp1.11d
us follows :
1. Th e thing tltougl1t nuout = th o Subject;
2. The qnnlity or clnsf< cmnpart·<l with it = th e Predicate;
3. 'l'hc co nrwctio n bet.wee n them
the Copula.
This is t h e Jng-ical a naly si:; of n. HentcncL'. 'l'l1P common i:;rarn mn.ticul analy:;is dividl'S tlic f<Cn teuce into (1) the Subj1·1·t, or tl1i11~
spokon abo ut; and (2 ) th o Prcd icali', o r \1lmt is said of tli c t; ul1j1 ·ct.

.1 . '/'he Jlfra 11i11 y uf 1'tt.l'i t 11.
:.! . ]Jrtrb" 1·i .... 111s.
:J. '.l'lic ..l\ 'at111·a!iz ation o/ 1J'ords.
:I. '.l'!te l "o1·mation of Jl'ol'(/.o;.

=

1 l. I' H 0I'H1 /~"LT.
.1 . 'l'lie 1llNt1ti 11 fl of J>ropl'id y.
J(,1tles /or l'roprit:ly.

~.

I II. J>B l~'CISJON.

(2) A Simple' Sentence rxpn•s:ws a single tho1 1gl1t. J t
consists of one subject and one preL1icaLe <:u1111cclnl 11y a
copula; as, "1lan is mo rt al."
(3) A Compound Sentence <·• :n;-;i sts of two or lll\ll't>

1. Tim 1llcrllli11y of J>rccisio11.
:t. llttlcs _fol' Prt.:t:i.-.;i.011.

simple sc11!.t·11ccs of equal iinpor ta1Hx', wh ose part .-; arl'
eit lwr <':xpr(',;sc cl or 1tnd (' rs lo()tl; a s , •· Tl1e L"artlt i.-.; f11l l ,,r
beantya11d llll' i' kyis l't1ll of gra nd eur." Ur, "Th e ~1,_y
and the earth are full of !Jeanty and grandL"11r. ., 0 1.
"T he sky and tlw eart h are foll of lwaut.v." Or, •· Tl 1l·
sky is foll of heanty awl gn1nd011r."
(4) A Complex Sentence co ns is t,; of two (11' more :-:1 111 ple sente11ecs so curnlJi1wd tliat 011e dqlends 11po11 anotlwr
to com plete it::; 111 ea11in!!; as. "WJ1 c11 spring t:OlllL' ::l , tli u
flowers will 11100111.n He re th e wunb "wl1en tipring

SECTIOH II.
SEN TENCE S.
1. Dcfi n i lions.

The fo1 lowing defi n itiom; shon ld be fi xc11 m the mind.
( l) A Sentence is an asscrn hlagc of wonb e:o colllLrn e!l
i1s to cxpro~s a U1011 gl1t.
A thought contain:; three el.-11H•nt s : (1) the ulijr"d :1b,i11t wl1ic h
we think; (2) the cl11s.1 or quality with wl1 ich w e com rm re the olJ.
ject ; lllld (3) the assertion, either affirmative or ncg-uti '"<'. of a real

----

~-

TllE E l,E1lf!;'NTS OF RlJHl'OltIC.

STYLE.

nos," a rc <lcpcn l1e11t on Ll10 rest of ih c cc11t c11cc fot the
n11lctio n of their meani iirr.
0
5) A Clause j,; a separat e par t of a co mplex smtcncc,
.lie wonl s "when ;,;prill g come:-,' in lhc la;,; t cx:tm pl0.
G) A Phrase consists of two or more woi:ds not includ·
a finilo w rb, arnl docs n ot express n t li ongh t; :is,
y co nst:m t dfor t ; to s11cak truly; desirous of."
7) An Expression is hero ust' d, for conYcnicnce, as
ivahmt to a word , a phrase or a clause.
2 . .l>lvh1lo11

or the

Suhjc..•ct.

[nri11g cun : ; i<le rt'd the c hoice an Ll nsc of word s, we
llhl n ow i:;t 11cly th e best. modl's uf co ml Ji nill g tliel!l .
'hl·re arc· >;e r c_~ ral dl'grces of exce ll ence in l hc ~l ru ctnro
:l·n l rncc~, us i!ldi C':d cJ by the following r ualities:
1
. A >;eute ncc s l1uultl conform lo tli c prin ciples uf grami<·al Co11< 0J·<l.
0

. H sho u!Ll lie so arra11 gl'Ll as lo lune pt'rfcd Clear,tir.: ,..;.

IL shonlt1 be so fr;irn cd ns to hare U nify.
l L:-:ho ukl posses~ JtJuel'ff !f·

Anti,

~\' li en possibl e, i t i:; houl<l have a pleas ing c:ffcct upon
l1y if ti 1Ia·J 'mony.
1·l. l:.' linll treat of each o f tl1c•sc qualities in order.

I. CONCOitD.
1. Rules for Simpl e Sentences.

• The following rul es arc fra n1t'u, to guard against some
·,..f the m os t common violations of conconl.
(1) Attend to the agreement of the verb ~nd ~ts subject. 'l'he agreemen t of a Ycrb and its snhJ eCt is of te n

destroyed Ly confu sin g (1) colkc;ti ,·c and co mm on no11'.1 H;
(2) foreign allll .En g lish noun s; (:3) cornpu u1Hl and l:!llll ple s ubj ect~ ; (4) r eal anJ apparcn L t; t1l 1jccls. The ful)owing illu sLration s explain Lhc:::c <lislin cliumi.
(1) A Collective Noun denotes a number of ind ~ vi~u~ls taken
together in a class; uf:!, (t nny, regiment. V.' h en the 11uhv1~uul ::1 uro
mo.de especially pro mine nt, a p I nrn I ,·e r'-u ·H:l U t!e d ; a .R, " 'l h e ch
. • Rti
·..
are ull noted for sttuly." \Vh en t l1P idl' a of the do.i!S n~ n. .uun 1::1
ost promine nt without rc fPn ·nce t o th e individual s, a srngulnr
should be
ns, •·The army 1rrrs <l e fcatf'd." Both
of tlie veru mny lie corrt'ct ly used in the f'nme Sl·ntence. ; n~;
I he
f ncuJty w]10 arr; i11q .a rtin] juclgPB, Ji as d ecided the l]Ul'St.l.Oll.
"' (2) Many
'
. · retain
· t h e 1r
· f ore1.g n plural •
nouns of for e .ign origin
In this ca:;e the plural vcrh Ahould bt• nsed wi t l1 th e forf'ig-n P~•u'r'n.l,
·
1he
oven when the form sct•ms to req uire
a. si r1g ulnr verb ·• us •
critel"ict of us c ful1w ~s ar1! t lwf'C;" no t, "i., thcRe."
.
The fo ll owing partial li s t of words with foreign plurals 18
worthy of cnrc ful attention.

~~rb

~:scd;

nu~.1~rs

l'<ir

oncord belongs to Grammar rath er than to Rhetoric, I.mt the
tli('iP nt lrnowl e<lgc of g- rn111rnnti ca l pri11ciple s ofLm1 bro11g-l1t to
,; f udy of Hli e toric, is 11 praetic11) reai.;on fo r oflf>ri11g- a few }lints
/,.. 1rnl1j t1ct h e re . · A hrief r<'\' ic w of s<Jmc of th o most important .
., nf Sy n tux iu conn ect ion with tl1 o ir np1 .lil'"nli on in writing-, will
l1u irksn1110 to good gr: u11m ar i1rn s, wldl e it will Jlf0YC o f incullil c UU\'U11t11gc to tl1u::>c wh v ]Ja\'o nut 111ui:;tcrul t l1cs rules.

45

LATll'!.

Adtlcnrlnrn, nd<lenda .
Alnmnn, nlumnre. (F~m . )
'.' lumnns. nlun1ni. (Jlf aec.)
JI pex, npice".
.Appe ndix, nppc11cliccs. •
Aquarium, nqntll'ln.
Axi ~ ,

Ba.is,

Cln.1cn, clnncre.
Cri~ i ~. cri !il t.' ~.

C unu 11ut-i, cnn111li.

Cnr ri c ul um, r nrrlcula.
Dntum, darn .
DcCl'lll\'ir, ckc<'rn Yirl.
ne~ i dt• rat1 1rn, t tc~i deruta.

axes.
baM~.

Calculus, calcnll.
Ca lyx , cn l yce ~ . •
Ccn tumvir, ,·,·11t11mviri.

Di c t 11m, d ic t •L
E lllu vlu tn , cfllnv ln .
E1 11 i1c 1r ium. t·Jll iH'ria.
~:rn1. 1 u rn , e1-i-ata .

Worclti m:1rko<l tL11" *ha,<·" "" gubr J•lural in x ,.1,.,.

-

·-

--

----.....

~-------

TIJE l:LH.Jfl~'NJ:'J OF RllETOJUO.
LATI.N. -(;uul i11u e<l.
Foc u ~ ,

foc i.
F o n u11 c11 , fo ra1ninn.
Furmula, fu rmul m. •
F 11 lcrnm , ful c ra. *

Gc nu::-1 . ge u cJ"a.
(-t y 111 n ~ 1 :-:t i 1 1111 , gy1nnnr< in.

ll t.0rl.J::iriurn, h e rbar ia. *
U ippo potaurn", hi ppo po tnm!.•
lg 1d ~ fn t uu ~, i ~11e :-; fut ui.
Lam i11 a. lamiure.
Larva, lu rnc.

*

!:'3pt•c f r un 1. :-:pec lra

Sp<'Ct1lu 111, ~Jl l'C ttl l• .

~ l ng u ~ , n rn g i .
l't.laxim u m, Ul :txim n.
lll c m or:i udmn, 111e111 o mntlu.

~tntl i11111, ~tucli n.

St ur11c11, stn111 i nu .
Sti mul u s , ~l l mu li .

1t1iuim11n1, rui n it na .

S1 rut11111 , "1rn1 11.

1'l t111H: nturn, ~101n c uta.

T e nni11u.- , l!' n1tini.
\"c rl diru , ' crtd.11w .

Ne bula , 1rcb1 d a;.
N uc leu ~ ,

uuc le i.

Annl y"i" , 11 11 aly"<'B.

I ! ypo 1h ee i ~. hyp0 1h e~<'e.
M1 •111n 1r1 rpl1 u :-- i:-: 111 t ~ ln111orpho~•.
Parl' nf l1t ·~it.". pa re nt llc~ c~ .
P li11l'lil", Pli a:--t·~ .
P lte 11 o m c no 1., plrcnomcua

Anti t li e..- i:-t , 11ritilli{·Rc8 .
A phl'ii o u , ,\plwl iu.
A 11tom u tfJJ1 , uu to 11 1a t u.
( '. ll1 l h ari :-t ,

1

cu11 lhH ri1h.!~.

Chry~ a li,, chr.1· ,uli d e~.

::>1om11, • l o muln.

<.. : ri rc ri o 11 t rit criu.•
di<..l'rc "cs .
U clix , helices.

:-4y 11 1ltc' i", "Y lllh cses .
Th c" i•, tl: c~c~ .

1

D im rc~ i ~.

' !;

·t

The following have two plurals wittr different signification s,

0 fl f1 if.i , Otl f-:C~.
O n1111 , o\'u.
Pa pil la, p a p ill te.
l'o ly ru •, 11u ly p i. •
Haditt ", rudil. •
Hl tolllun .• . rh o mhi.•
Ho~t rurn. r o:-t ra .
:-4:1rco ph11gn>' , "n1T oph nrr1.
Sd 1oll11111, ~c l 1 0 1i a .*
~L·n . . u rium, t-C ll!"ori u .

~F nl1 g u ri, f11ngi.*

STYLE.
which may Le fuuud iu a <lictionary.

Ocniu::o, genii, gcniu isc~ .

Pea, p ea~, p<'.!l ~e ,
P e nny, pcun ie~. pence .
Phulnux, plml:rnge-. , pbnlnnx ce.

lud e x, i11di cei' , intkxcs.
.M edium, media, m ediums.

S tiuncn, t5ti: uH.· u~, r-:ta tu inu.
Vort e x, v o rticc ~, v o rtl'X C~ .

Brother, bre lhrc n, bro thers.
Uic, dice, <ii•:~ .

(3) When a sentence with one verb has two or more subjects,
these taken together are called the Compound Subject, as in tliis
senten ce : "The r ose and the lily are beautiful flow e rs." \Vli c n tl1 e

.,

. I

wor<l:; <l..:n ote d-iffi:r ent things, and are connected by rrn d, u!'l in t h e

exampl e, tl1e verb s l1otdd Lo plural. Whe n th e words <l..:nok the
same t!ting, or arc e<mn edPd by or, the ve ru ::iltoul<l be sin g ular; a",
"The Sec retary un<l '1'reosurer is a trustwortliy man." "The lil y
or the rose is a beautiful obj ect." But, "The Sec rPta ry and tlu
Treasurer [two diffe rent persons, as shown uy the repe tition of the
article 'tl1e '] arc tru stworthy m en."
(4) When the same verb has more than one subj ect of differe nt
persons or numbers, it agrees with the most prominent in thought;
as," He, Hn<l not you, is wro ng ." Here the real 1m bj,.,ct is "l1 l',"
"you" be ing the suuj ect of a ve rb undnst 0od in th e elli pticul
sentence thrown be t.ween the real .suhj ect and its n~ rb. \\'li en th ere
is no spr·d al prominen ce, th e vnh ag-rces with its ne<.t ret•t !luhject;
a3, " Wh ethe r h e o r 1 a111 pN:'pared."

~~ !>
;!1

':
l,

·i'

,,,

j'

I

\, .;,
'"

'•l
F rn::H·n .
Aid- d r,.<'U lllJ>, n id ~ -ti<' -camp.

7llo t1 Kic nr . mcP• irnl'1!.

Bea u. b(':1 u x .
Hili" l ·d utl.,, ldllo ·l "-d" ll X.
Jl'la11 1h<'n tt, ll 1111 1h<' 1111 x.
( ; ,. 11-d':1n1u •, j.?'t.: n -d'u n n e!i. •
J1 ·t d \·n11, j t·t l'! <l\·nu.

)Iutla1 nc, 111e i;danH''"'· ~

1

M <•l' Cf' tLll , lllOl'Cl'llllX .

P h !t·a11 . pla ft ·n11x.

Hrn 1h·a11, rou lcuu x.
~ H \' 11111, ~ H\'Ullt-1 .

T nl• leau 1 ta l; k•n ux.

hear, " Uc wonhl have went," for "He would have
"He had broke," for "He had broken."

y o 11f . · •

I T ALI AN .

l3a ndi1 10, h a1 1rl illl.
Ciccro 11L.: , dc t~ ro n i.
Cun \' t.:r~ a z io11c , c onv c r~nzl o nl.

l111 p ruv i"ll l.o rc, illl]Jl'OVitilltor!.
Llbrctto , lil>re tLL

Sc udo , Pen dl.
8 op rn11n , • o prnne.
Soprano, ~op ran i.
Virtuoso, virtuoel.

Very close attention l'hould be g iven to tl1c so-called strong or
irregular verbs of our longuagE>. Lis ts 1no print c<i in mn:<t i:rnun·
mars, nnd the principal paH.fi are g-iv<>n under the forn1 for th e p resent tc11 :-f' in 111 c <li ctionari f'S. It would be well for th e tl'aclw r to
require I.Ir e principal parts of 1he most irrf'gular oi theHe verbs, a.u

!

'

(2) Distinguish between the past tense and past participle of strong verbs . No mistake is more common 11i ~ 11·
the confn sion of these parts of the vcrh, so frcqn cntly tho
same, a11d )'C't in many in stm1 cC's diffcrC'nL Thn:". we of f('ll

."
l

".,

an exe rcise.

·'l

TllE ELEMENTS OF RllETORJC.

S1TLE.

(3) Distinguish between transitive and intransitive
verbs. Th o Ycrbs lie aml lay, 1Jit and sci, rise a1Hl rnisv
arc often co nfo und ed. We lie down, sit on a chair, and
r ii;e fr om o ur scat. We lay down t he l>ook, set a chair
aside, and rai"se the window.

im oli cs a d e terminati on . "I shall " is, therefore, eq uivalen t to "l
ought,au<i so mu st. ;'' " I will, " t.o "lp11rposo;" "Youo;l1all,'' to
"You ought, aml so must;" "Yo u will, " to·· Y o u purpose ," e tc..

48

,,

:,

An Intransitive verb take s no obj e ct, ns in t11 0 l'Xn mpl!'H nhov c.
A transitive verb takes an object. The three wrhs 111 Pntiunt·d
ubO\'o are so fr eque ntly miRu~l·d, thut tl1t'ir ['l"incipul purt;; 1-1 hou\d be
committed t.o 11 w 111ory. Tlll'y ure:
INTRAN SITIVE .

Lie, Jay , lni11.
Hir<l', roBc , rltic n.
S it, wl, c&l.

I

TllANSITl\"K.

Lay. lnld. laid .
Ruiet', rni•t•rl, raised.

IScl,

t<Ct,

oet.

(5) Distinguish between the declarative and the contingent use of the verb. f:ltatcmcnts whi <..:11 <t r e i11trm1\·tl
to exp ress bcl'ld, eYL'll thoug h co nditi n11 al, sho nl d l1e 111adc
in the 1lccJarnt.iYe fo rm; as, '• Jf this man i s i1111on·1t!.
[an<1 I mean to imply that he isJ he o nght to l;c libcratnl."
Statcme11Ls which an: inLL'nd cd lo c xpres" donlit, u uglit to
be 111a11c i11 the continge nt form ; a;.;, "Ir i Iii :-; 111an /winnoec nt, Land 1 du not mean to imply that lie is or i.~ 11111 J
h e ought to be liLcratcd."
Th e w ortl s " ckc la rath·c" and "contingent " an• hC'rP n~ f' d tn f' '°·

(4) Distinguish between the use of Shall and Will.
S hall is u sed, i11 Jircct ::;tutcment, with the first person, lo
ex p re!:s a si m pi e future action ; as, "I shall go to to wn ; "
with t he second au J t hird person ~, to express a dct(•rrni11at ion; as, "Yo u shall go to town.'' "Ile 8latll go to
tow n." Will is nse<l , in direct sta tcme1Tt, with the tir:-;t
p('rso11, Lo express determination; as, "l 1c ill go to town;"
with t lie l'l'C< 111t1 a nd l hi rd , to cxprl'ss 1-; impl c future ad ion;
as, "Y1111 ·1cill go to town." •· Jio 11.:ill go Lo town."
0/wuld and would are HscJ in a similar rnau11 cr.
This distinction is commn11ly di~rPgnnled in th n :-;outlJPrn nnd
\\' cste rn t3tate>J , but is inRistcd 11pon hy a ll who l\im to U H · t h e best
Eng-li sli.

Tlw co nf'••q1ie11ccs of ron!"o11nding the two wo rds nre

amusingly illmitrute1l by th e ::11ory of t lae Frenchmnn , who, havin g
fallen i11to the wa ter, cried out in tPrror, •·I u·ill dro ll'n . nod nobody
1d111ll help rno."
The ori gin of the se words is as follow s : f:il11tll (from the An g- loSax0n liC•ilan, to he obliged) implin1 1111 11bli~a ~ i on. nnd nwu nf! , rndi cally, o ught.
lT'tlt (from t.h e Ang\11 811xon 1cilla11, tq d1•tnmint")

press what many g rammarians would convey hy tho word:; ·• i11clin•·
tive" and "subjunctive ." The d istinction 11utcd it<, unfur tullat..J.",
less rega rd ed tl 1an formerly.

(G) Distinguish between the nominative and the objective case. The pronoun ::; arc the oul_y wonL.; wl1i<·ii
retain t il e ::ncien t di sti nct i vo ease-e nd i11g for the ul •jl'<'ti vc. Rp('cial care ii; nccc::;sary to n:o:c tl1c ul1je1·t in· fnrlll
(1) as th e olij ed of a \'l'rb, and (2) after prqJosit io11:-;; a",
"'l'ho man whom you se n t; kt you and me; t.h t·y f'. aid '"
him and me." Not, '·The man wli o yo u se nt; let } " li
r:ud I; t ll('y said to lie an<l I."

(7) Distinguish' between the use of who, which, aml that.
Who refe rs onl y to persons; wlu"cl1, only to Llii11 gs : tl11t!.
to eith er person s or things. Owing to the co rnrnun character of th at, it is to be prcfr r retl to who or 1chich in the r.. J.
. lowing caseR : (1) To a\·11id a1 ubig11ity; <l..', "Tlic wi11d11w:i
3

.1.1.

1.•

~

·•.··

i, ··;
~: .. ~ t ~
( ,!), ,

i
J

t\ • ·.;
:

...

:~

TIIE E LEMENTS OF RIIETORIC.

STYLE.

which I saw, had shutters that opened on the in side."
(2) When both pC'r~ons and th in gs are inclu Jccl in the
ant0.c cJc11t; as, "The ladies and mu sic tlt at enliv eucd
tl 1e sce ne .. , (:>) \Yh L· n tli e r claL irc i::; Yl' ry closely co 111icdctl wi l h it s :rnlcccclent by ellipsis; as, "Th e fir:-;L time
I !tat [in wIi ieh J I mot hi rn." (-q Wh en a da use is rc~:t ri ct i vc; as, "'l'hc plan s of life tliat men fo rm in hope
often fail." He n', it' '1c!iiclt we re nsed, tli C' se nse would be

-er and -e.~t to the positive; nR, 1ci:.~e . wiser, 10i.~est. P oi yRyll nl 1lc"
urc generall y compared liy u ::iiu;; murc und most; as, t:l uq u~11 t, 111 vrt:

&O

<lificrc nt, Lh e c la11:-;c bci 11 g no longe r rcst1icli\·c; as, "'l'he
plans of life w!ticlt me n form in hope oflc n fail."

(8) Distinguish between the comparative and superlative degree of adjectives. Th e commo n t'1Tor s ar c : (1)
U:; in g the Jo11blc co mpara lirc and i;upe rlat irc; as," These
arc rn u ch more preferable." "'l'lic most universal mo ti r e
to lrn sincss is g ain." (2) Fsi ng the snpcrb t irc \rh en on ly

two arc compared; as, "His is Lhc cas ii:8t manner of th e
two." (J) Co mparin g objects whi c h belong to wh ol ly
cfo:simila r <·la~se s ; aR, "Th ere is no cnsicr life than a
preacher." (4) Inclndin g object:-; in a class to whi ch they
do not brlong; ns, '' 'l'hc fa irest of her dun ghtcr s, Eve."
(G) Excludin g an object from a cla~s to wlii ch it docs
belo ng ; as," Ca;sar w:i s Lrav cr t han an y an cient warrior."
Attention s h1111ld b1· g iven t o tl1 c fnrt tlmt som o adj ectives are
superlative in sense, and do not admit of comparison; nR, ultimnt<),
::; uprtnn c. cx tn: nH·. Otlil'rti, us s up1•ri o r, po~t<·r i o r. p rivr, nre prope rly
('ompnutive. :Still we h ave "more pe :·f.. c t " 1111d evt•u "moJ<t J>"rfoct" in good \\·1it ers. Such anom alous fe1r111 s are to be cxplaiiwd
us in <iieating t he h ig-Jw::;t app rox im ation to that whi c h i f' nbsolu 1cly
nnn ttn inabl1•. /\ •· m ost pe rfl!ct form " menn s t l1 A n cn reRt p oss ihl e
approach to perfl'l'tio n. S u c h e xprc:si:;iou s ,;Jt11t1lc..l no t 111• rn1c11 u1:ug1:d .
The tendency of th e be s t writers in comparing ad jectives ii; tn
for m th tl curnparntin; tlUd s upe rlativ e of muuosYll11lilt'.i; lty u<ldiug

etoquent, 11ivst e.'vqu ent.

Sl

·

(0) Distinguish between adjectives and adverbs. Tlirsc
arc often collfom1L1ct1 (1) by u ~ in g an adj ?clive for a n :H1 -

verb; as, "lie behaveJ him self collforma/;le to lhaL bll':-:~vd
example;" (i) by u sing an adverb for an ad j cdire; a~,
"She loo ks beaul1/ully."
Th e 1.listinction lwtwrt· n th e· i nc;ta n crs r rcpii rin g an adjr·cti w anc l
those re:qnir i ng an a1herli, iR uot clearly drawn by grarnmariam;,
Remember that wh en tl1e int e nti o n i:; to qu ali fy tl1 t~ ver b, :rn ad,·c·rl>
slioulcl lm 11i;ctl; when to q ualify th e noun , an ncl je ~ ti\'!• . '1'1111~ . :111•
wurd f ed is used in Loth an a r ti\·e nml a n e ukr sc n He ; 11H, .. I Ji:'tl
[i. c. exercise m y powe r of ft.1·lingl 1wu:e 1fitll.11;" "r, "r Ji ·,/ [i •·.
mu co ns<'i orn::1 o f bein g] JWIN' l:/'11l."
\\.lt (' n 11 11· ll l' Ukr verb indi<"al<'>i
u. d egree , the u.Jveru is prope rly u::ied ; u:i, " I ~11.Jfer g rt'<t lly."

\ (:;- Rul es for Co mpou1ul autl Compkx

SC'nt(~ll('<·s.

'l'he full owi nO"
ru ks arc intendc<l t:o g na nl :igaim;t
l l1e
b
m ost common errors in Llic constrnction o f compo ntHl allll
compl ex sentences.

(l) The parts of compound sentences should corres -

pond.

Thi s ru le is violated (I) l>y Llcmli11g archaic and
m mlcrn form A; (2) hy u sing diffl'rent parls of sp<'l'l' l1 i 11
similar :,; it.11 at io11 s; (:3) l1y using i11 co 11 g rn o11 s prn110111 i11:1I
form s ; :tJl(l (J) by usi ng auxiliaries wliit·li llu 11u L l 1 l'lon~
to all tlt (\ te nsc-fo rn1 s uf a vcrL to which th c·y lia\'C a ('Cllllmon r cfrrc n cc.
'l'l1esu • ~ rrors m ay h e illu s trntrnl llR fc1llows :

(1) Archaic forms o f tl1 e .n :rl> e ndin g i11 ·<'tit an d -r.~t nrn fr, ...
qu on tly, ln at o rronc·ou><ly, u8 1:d in the same sentence with mod e rn
forms; us , "Th e Muvn ~enddh [Stmd::i) tu th e Earth tlau liglat whi c h

tLe Suu gicea

to

Ler."

/

'1

;i

52

STYLE.

TllE Ef,h'AJENTS OP JU/L"F0 !.'!C

53

.

;

i

,.,

'"

(2) The corresponding parts of a sente nce should be expressed
by the same parts of speech . Th t• follo\\'in g illui:i l rntiun is give n
l >y Abbott : "11" h a tl g ood r" ason t.1 oil1ece t.lrnt tl1 c <lela v was nut an
accident Laccid 1: 11tnl] uut p r1: 111 u lituted, and f or ~ uppu.~~· 11 g [to irnppo::ie, or el::;e , for be lie vin g , aliov cj th a t th e fort, tliougli s tron g l>utli
by art and 1w.turalLy Lnuturc] , wo uld Le forced Ly th e tre11dia1; uf
the gove rn o r and th e indote11t Lintl ulcncc o f the] g eneral tu cupitulat c

within n. w<>ek . "
(3) The same or corre sponding pronouns should be used
throughout a sentence. Th e follow ing is wron g : "Tlw11 art not
!.l ie trustworthy ]lP, rson I 111.11H!d yuu Wt' l'l'." v ~c e itl1 c r the old or
th e modern fon11 tlirou1..d1out.
(4) In the following sent e nce the auxiliaries 'had' and 'would'
cannot both be used with the common verb' send': "!In Haid that
lw lwd 01· ·ioMd tl se 11d tlit• n 11 >11 e y, LJ11 t I forgnt whi ch." T l1 t• fonu
.~1' 11 l rnu::;t ue s11ppli ed with lw d; us, ''li e suid lie had sent or UJ.1uld
.•en cl," etc.

(2) Attend to the sequence of tenses.

This requires

(I) that r cfore11 ces to Lim o should lie in harmo11y with
C'ach otl 1e r a11tl wi th th e S ('n ~c., allll (2) that general or
t.i111 ele:;;s sta tc ni ents shonkl always be expressed in th e
prcscllt t c n .~ c .

by repeating a verb, a conjunction, or the s11lJjC'ct of u
sentence.
(1) The effect of leaving out the connecting words is exliibi ted
111 the fol lowing puragraph, taken from Al>!Jott :
"Pitt was in the army for n few months in time of pea t<".

ni•

l>iogrn phe r

[accordingly] in s i s t s 011 our confe~ "ing, lhat, if lhc young corn et had re1u11 i11.-u
In the ~ervit e . he \\'Onld have !Jecn o ne o f the a\Jlc ~ l co mman<.ft>r,; tha t c V«r li ved .
)But] thi s ii> not all. Pitt [it .<e.etns] '"a" not nu·rdy a g reat µoe t ill e~d~ a ud a
great gcucral in posse, hut a tlni"he<I ex ample of mo ral cxc l'ilt-111.:c. . . . I Tit~
trullt l s that] the re •carce ly c ,·cr lived a p<.·r:;ou wh o 11a tl so lit.lie c l11 i111 to I hi >< '"" rt
of prai se UR Pitt. H e """" [1m,/{)11Ut dlyl 11 g rt.> 11l 1111\11 , [/Jal] hi ,;"'"" 11ur a r o 111 ·
plc te u11d well p roporti•H1t"l g-rclll llc><". Tile pu\Jli c life of ll a 111pde11 or u f :So111" r"
l'C-'<'lllblcs fl rt·gn lu r dr11 111a which can lie crilicbcd 11 8 a whul c, Ull(l 1:v .. ry ff Cll• ' of
which i o to b e vi• •t1'f 'U in co nnec tion with the maiu act.ion. The pub lic life or
Pitt, [on the other I.and ,] i•," clc .

(2) It is ofte n of great advantage to the read er or hearer if a
ver b, a conjunction, or the subject of a sentence is repeated,
as in the following examples:
"Cardinal Richeli e u hated Buckingham as
Ollvaree.'"

~ incercly Wl

d i d th e ' S pauiard

If "<li<l" were omitted, the sentence woul<l be nm biguous.
~ay that the Ciernrs did not persecute th e Chri., tlun 8 ; that th ey
m e n wh o w e re c hargt·d, rightly or wrong ly , wi th hurni11g lfonlf',
a ml committing the foul e8t ul>orni111Hiono in 6ecret &SRcml>lica ; uml Ol11t rh c
refu&1l to throw fr1111ki11ccw;c on ti.Jc altar or Jupiter was not the crirn c , l>ul oul y
cdde11cc of' th e c riuw ."
"At ec ho ol u11d llt college , the g r 1·ut vi ~ inn nfRomc b roo d " <•Vt'r rh .. rni11 d w ilh
.i. powe r whkh is tH! \' Cr t&u ~ pv ucl'eU ('r dll'lputed: ht· r gT•·n t me11 , tw r l11 ·nut if11 1
legends, ht•r hislory, th e hcii:ht to which •he rose, nnd the d"J!lh Iv which ~he
f.lll,-t/le&! make uv one-hair of u student's Ideal world."

"We might

(1) Reference must be made to works on. Grammar for speciflc
rules on thi s point. The follo\\'in g nm cxnmpl•·H of u wr. 11 w
Ut<C of te nsPs : " If th ese p e rS<•llS lw.d jomit 1]u· nuxiliary J i11te11dPd
'" ' dol'l'iV• ', tlH•y wo 11l<l hnn.1 t a kt •n cn re to h11 r1~ 11r11icfrcl I to uv .. idj
wllllt \\'Ould <'XJ"OSe tlw1n to tlw o l 1jt·1·tio11 of tl ... ir oppo11t ·ntl'I."
" Tl1 c 11 they said u11to him, what :;hall wt • do that we might [n 1nyJ
wur k t !t u w o r ks of God." "I lrnv<' j'nmit] ~ t11dit·d Lntin la:-; t '""'r."
(2) Th e following are wrong: " .Ld UHl" t1ppo;;e n rn lt11 <"'"·,·inc:'<!,
n n twith::;tandint, t h e di sor<lcni of t!te world, l hat it iro., I b I und e r
t.lw direc ti o n of nn infi1 1i te ly p e rff·1·t ueing." "Ile n m iu taiu"d tlial
011 ly the virtuous were [ureJ happy."

only

puni ~ hl'd

n.

---v-·-CJ,EAltNESS.

1. The Importance of

(3) Sentences should be properly connected . This is
dun e (I) l >y usin g ::; uit;d,le :11ll'erhs allt1 c011j1111"1ions; (2)

Clcarncs~.

The purpose uf Jangnagc is to convey tho ugh t from one
mind to u110Ll1L!r. L::rnguage is the mc<li11r11 of t·on1muHi-

'

"

55

TIJE ELEMENTS OF R.ITETOI:JC.

STYLE.

cnlion. Whi le t he thought nn<l t he exp ress ion are often
appa rently one wh ole so compo11mkd that til e one co uld
n ot exi;;t williout the other, it is :::t ill tru e that la11guage
is l><.::st :Ldap tcd to it s purpose wh L'll it is a tr:1m;parc11 t
niet!ium . 1L slwulJ rev eal tlie whole tlionght u.., tl1e
writer or speaker would have it un<ll'rstood by the }'L'rso n
aJdressed. As Quinlilian say::i, tl1c expression sho nkl Le
rn clear tlint the hearer not only 11111y Lnt mu:;t nmlrr-

Arrangement is more important in English than in the synth.e.tic
or inflected languages, iiuch ns th e Latin auJ tl1 e Ure'.·k. l li•!
subjt~ct and th e olijl'Ct of an English s1·11ttnce can g<' ne ralty ~.t· d1:;tlngui::ihed only by th e pos i1io11 which tl1ey occ upy. Thu:;," \\ '1ll1um
oves Clrnrlcs." mean:; thut \Villia111 1:; th e one who luv<· ~ ant.l l ha1 ll'B
·h e one who i :; l uffd. If th o orJt·r J.o rnvl'n;eJ; al'!, •· l'liurle:; lo\'l'i:!

54

sLmJ.
The importance of clearness is fo rcihly il luslrntetl by Dr. Cnmp ·
h<·ll. lie :;ay s: "If Ll1L' llll'!lium thrn11gl1 wliid1 wo look nt 1111 y
!ihjt'!' t i!:! pt>rf1·1;1ly tra11:; pan·11t. our wl1ol1J nttcntion i1:1 tix1•d 1111 the
ol1jt 'l' t; w o are ~rnn: dy :SL'11.· iblc that tli c ro : i,; n 1tlt·di11111 w!ii .. h interVt ,11"!-l, nud \\' l' cnn hardl y Le E<ai-1 t ll J>! 'r<Ti\· e it. But if tlw rc i>1 any
flaw in tlH· 1m·dium, if Wl) seo t hro ug h it but dimly . if t h e 1>1 1j!'ct i.s
impnfrctly l' \" Jl l'CSC' JJt r. <l, or if "·o kuow it. t •l le mi srep rci;entl'd, ou1·
utt<'ntio n is i1 111 11 l'!liatc ly tak " n nff tl1 e o bj<!d to 1l1 L' m ed ium. \\' o
nrl' tl1l'n nuxi1111:-1 to di sct1 1·e r th e cau se, l' i tl1 l' r of tli<· dim u11d cun fu:-11·d rcpresl'!l11tti o 11 , or of tl1 l) mi,;n•pre ~c n tn ti o 11 , of tliin gs whi ch
it l'x li iu it ~, that :-10 tl1 (' d .. f,·ct i11 vi si11 n mny lie su pplied liy judgnll' 11t. Tllll n1..-;o o f li.rngu ng<' is J•l'l'C' ift t•ly i;i rnil11r. A di :;cour, 0
tlien . t' XCt!lH in 1wrRpic 11ity wlicn tlu: subj ect e 11g-10sf't' S the ntt c 11tio1:
of the lie.:ire r, und t11e languagl) is so little mind1,,-d hy him, tliut he
cnu scarce ly
snid to be conscious it is through this medium ho
secs •uto tL o spcnkc r'i; tLong hts."

u0

2. Rules for Cl<'nrn <'ss.

Th e followin g arc the prinripn.I rttl<'s for Po arr:inging
1rn nl s in S(.' Jl{ (' l) ('{'H <IR to RC'(' lll"(' C']e:ll"ll ('f'S.
(I) Observe the natural ord er in th~ English sentence.
'!'h t: 11at.11ra! order i::-:, i11 the f' impl o f'('n lerH'r, (I) tlw Snbj l' ct aJHl it s modif1erR, (:!) tho Coptt ln.
Ili c Prrllioat.e
rn ul ils modifi ers. This onler is oflen \·iolaletl .for rot'Ucal
effect mH1 fo r cmpliaRis.

en

\V illiu.m," th e meaning i:; cliunj.!l"U .

In Latin tlti H is n ut H•>.

' ' U u.

lielm·us amat Carol um," lll ca us, ·• \Villium lov,,:; l'hnrlt-s," no rnatt<'r
what the ord or of tlic w onl11. The H.:- ntence, "An<l tl1u:; tl1c i:;on l h o
fervent sire addre~sed," is n o t c lear. Tilt! onh-r i:c1 son 1..t1 111•·.i
clrn.ugo. 1 for L'ntph:11;i:'I, Lui su!'l1 i11v e r:;ion s nrt• empl11ttit.: d1idiy L•· cause tl iey are unu ~ual; as, " ,\ 1wble sou was Clw rlc:;."

(2) Place the adverb as near as possible to the wo·r·d
it qualifies, anJ ::;o that i t ca1111uL be s 1q1posl'1l l" quality
any other won1.

'l'his rul e is ,·iolall'<l in Lile fullt1wi11 .~

senten ces : "Th:tk::i was

110 {

oiily famou s A ('pr l1is

kno 11 l-

edge of nature, uut fu r hi s mural wi sdom." "1 tuhl l1illl
to go slowly, Ln t he A left th e room quickly, Llroppiu g th,_•
purse on the floor."
In the last exampl e the ambiguity of re.f erence may be r emov ed

for the reader by punctuation, uud !'or the h earer Ly th~ voir1'. . A
care ful write r, however, would 11ot be willing to lea\'e 111 ::1 nwa11111 K
to th e m e rcy of a curcks:i cornpositur or reacl l, r. Punct11atio 11 a11d
rhetol'ical pttuses ought nc\·e r to be relied upon to Lring out t. lic

sen so.
The word • only' iH p< ·cu lia rly lin11Jt , to ah11~•'· Ali~>ott l1 u,. ~1 '"".''
h ow 1u any t.lifferP11t 111 e: u1in~t1 111uy lu : taken fro111 l'm1r worJ.i \'lLrl ously arranged.

I l o says:

"· In str ic lnc "~ Jll'fhllP" th e thn'C roll 11 wi11g "" "ll'llC;C":
\1 ) He only l> cat 1hrec ,
(!.!) Ile bf!al 011/y t hr<'<",
t3) H e lwat tl11·1 ·c only,
' ought to !J., expln i111:d lhu•:
.
.
(1) Ile ditl 11 0 more 1111111lwnt,1\1tl 1111L kill , lhrc<'.
(2) He b eat'"' more thnn three.
(3) Il e bl'al. t hr ec and I.Im! w :111 all lie did. llt:rc only modi Ile • the whole ecn
tence and d l' lJreciutc• th<' uctiuu."

~.

j

.

5G

TllE E LJ.:-'Jf.ft'.,YT8 O/t' IUIJffORIC.

The Posi ti on of th e adverb, when e mphati c, is uf ter the verb;
as," ll e walkeJ .~luwly down tli e hill. " \\"h lm un emplmtic, the od.
ve rb is pla ced Ot' fo re rh e \"l:' rb; nR, "111• .v'u1rly wa lked down the
hill." Neve r put an udn~ ru udwe cu ' ·tu" uut.J it.s veru; us, "Ile
f> re forrc<l to nut :; ing."

·(3) Place adverbial clauses and adjuncts as near as
possible to the words they qualify. 'l'li i.~ rul e is violated
in Ll iit; se11Le11ce : "The follo wing lin es were written by
011 e, wlio, for m1)rc Lh:m tni yrar:-;, liaJ Leen tonCin ed in
I.lie pe nite ntiary. fur /1is 01c 1t 1lil'Nsiu11.'' Thi s means that·
]10 \\'H R co11ji11l'd f'l •r his own din.> r~ i on, but is i11tL·11detl to
lll ('an that the hn es u·Ne 1critlen for his uwn lliYersion.
An ad verbial cl ause is n dau~•! us r•d ilR on ath ·erh, to mo<lily a
Ycrlo, ndj<"<'tin', o r "tlwr nJYe rlii al cx l'rc~ion. An adjunct is a noun
gov1·rucd uy n prepo:;ition.

(..J) Avoid the squinting construction. Thi s is a eon i-:t rn ct.iun in wl iicli a11 exprCll:-i iun luo ks bo t h wa ys, that is,
rna.Y lie t.uken wiLh 11·h at preceJ(·s or wit h wliat fo llows ;
as, "'J'bc mini .:;Lc r wh o /\ grows less hy his clcva tio11, like
a Zt"Llle statue on a mi!Jltly ]JPtlesta l, will always have his
j ealousy strn ng allunt l iim." Tl1e words i n it.al ias may he
b k(! n willi the prccC'rl i11 g or tile follow in g words. They
are intend •tl lo lw taken wilh Lhe pre ·edi11 g.
In thf' l o~t exnmplf' there i;.: littlr prol;nhility of nny one's taking
tltt · wo rds i11 italic;; witl1 tlie f.,Jlo wi 11g-. alt •·r re -rending t li e sentcnco.
It is 11ot i<afo, h owe n .•r, to tru.~t 0111 ··H lll t"ll llin g to t he persc \·e rnnco
11f a J"t)flder.. Tl1 e fault i11 tli" l'Xll111 ple iH <ib~c urit y rnthe r thun
u111 1Jig11 ity, th e 111 ost con1111n n rf' ,;11 l L of a s•1 ui11tin g cons truction.

(.'i) Avoid the ambiguous use of pronouns. T li c pro·
IJy ll:dllrl' a kin d uf llt 1il' CJ"S1tl llOUIJ , aud may

ll Oll ll i s

[> 7

S TYLE.

'
rut~r to anything of th e same gc·mler, nnmhcr and person.
mbig uity may be a.voided in fo ur way s ; viz. : ( l) l1y
ltoriug the gender, or p) th e llumhcr, or (:l) the } IL' l iion,
h n the antecedent would ul lil'rwi::ie be un ce r tain, a11d
( ) by repeaLi ng the an teceJ en t.
(1) "I h eard this from tli e dri n• r , ulw b cnrd it from tlil'

!.·

i~

1· " , .•

po~t ­

DU.n, 10/to was at the gale," i:; u lij ect ionaL! e u(•cauRe uh o rd» r". t»
two tllUeri' nt persons
Thi s 111ay ht• av11id1·d hy us i11 g- f/u1I, w l1ll'h
I of ommo n g .. nder, i11stcatl 111· ·u1w, a,; tl11 · 1<1·c1rnd n:la t i,·c; n~ . ··I
f);'"ard t his f ro111 t h e dri,·er, who heard it from tl1 t> 1 · o~t11rn11
11· :i~
·•t. tliu g 11tc. " Th e m eanin g i::1 lwrc ;; li g lrtly nf!t-ctcJ, ·1.c lw bein g- n·Ja.
th nntl that bot h r elative a11d rest rictive·.
(2) Th e following rn ay be irnprowd liy eh n~ging 1lll· nn_m l,. ·r <if
1 of the wonb: "Tlt1'Y we re p1·rnon!-< o f l11 g h lt<']l<'R, befo r. · t/11•11
(tlillt it~. Lopes] w ere clouded over liy 111it;fort 1111<· . " _:-:Hy rntli'.:r·
Tl)Oy w e re fn ll of ho71" until it \V HS cloutl n l m· ~·r uy 111 1~fort lll ll' .
3) Ambig ui ty is som e times avoid ed uy rqlnrt111 g- u f' J'• 'ech _111 th ··
~n d person . Instead of "li t• told hi s futh e r t 1111t he _lli 1:-1 fatl1l'r]
pe rfectly safe," write, " Ile sai d tu liis futh c r, · J u11 an· ]'t' rf tly safe.'"
(4) Sometimes the 011l y escape from am l>i g ui ty i;; to L'XJ>rPRH tlw
utcccdent in full; as," Hu sai <l tl1at h e line! cu1 1\'1•r t1ct.l w it h :'l!r.
llrown and lti8 pror m•it.ion was impracticaLk ·• l fore Mr. l /1.,11rn '.~
ould be substituted fo r his.

'.'"'t

o:

The amusing effect of d is regarding the reference

p_rono~ns

well illustrated by Burt.on, in th e followin g- story of Hilly \\ 11 ·
llams, a comic actor, w h o tlrnA nnrra t.cM hi s cxpt•ri e nce in ri<ling a
rBe owned \Jy Hamlilin , the nrnnn;;cr.
•'So c.lo wn J goes to the stable with T o m F lynn, nn<l lol<l th e
Md<ll on him ."

"On'f omFlym1 ? "
"No, ou the

h o r ~ e.

So, nrtc r talking with T o m Fly11n

11 11

lll UD

.

to

h1l c , 1

p11 t lh~

ll•<o1111t• ·d

tun."
·., \Vl1ut I monntc<l T om Fl yn.n?"
. ,,
•• No t t he horse ; nnd th e n T ~ h onk hnnds wilh him nrnl rode ofl.
" S hook hnn<l ~ wiJ.h the hor""· I.lilly Y"
"No, wi th Tom Fl .i ·un: nnd th t· 11 I rn<ll' o ff 11 p th P B1 . 11·~ r y. nn<l wh <~ , Ji,,,, 1·,1'1
If! t tn front of the Bow e ry 'l'li l'alre b11 t. 'l'uu1 lla1111.Jll11 : ' o I got utl and 1o l l
ille tinv 1·0 h old hi 111 hy th e hc:1il ."
"\Vhnt? l! oltl ll nmblin Ly the heat! f"

l, I:~

-~-j ~~

-------11/E ELEltfF:NT/3 OF Rl!ETORIO.

STYLE.

" No , th e hori-e ; nnd th e n w1· wc• nt nntl hatl u drink tt•gel hcr."
" \\' lia r l Y•HI a m! the hor>t' ~ ·•
" Nu , me u ud lla:.!Jlili11; n11d ll fl l'r itwt I LU1)t111tctl h im nguin, nnd went out of
tow n. ' '
··\\'hat I 111 0 1111tcd Il a m!Jlin ug11 i11 f "
" Nt>, the hur"e ; uml wlJ cu I g ot tu B11r11l11un , wh o ~bonlt! he the re but Tom
rr1y1111, - l11; 'd taken a1101l 1e r hor~e auJ r"du 0 111 uheuil of me; so I to~tl the boo'tlet

Importance ~f unity Blair remarks: "This is u cnpitnl
, y. I n e very compoaitio n, of whatc \' er kin<l, so11i c deg rl'e o f
rcquirnd, in 0 1<le r t o n ·nJ cr it ucautif ul. Tlt cre 111u;.,t 1">
·•
me connecting principle nmung t!t c p arts . :-;omr' m1 0
Ul U l!t reig n uml be prcdo111in1ur1.
Thi <!, ll>i l ,;l1all. lr erealt<-r
.h.olds in liisto ry, iu epic a11<l dramati c poetry, and in ull oru But most of all, in u singl e sc nte ncP, is rcq nin·tl th e ".t~H· t "" t.
1• For the vory nat ure of a s ento u_co impli us on e pro po;-11 1011 t<)
·
~. It may consist of purls, rnde.:tl ; but ~hesc part~ J1~u s t.
· cl d y bound togeth e r us to make the imyrcss1011 011 the llirnJ,
objoct, not of many."

tu 1ic liiu1 up. ,,
··Tic T u 111 Fly nn up 1"
"Nu, th e hor,e I nut! we lin•l 11 tlrl11k there."
" \ \"h:tt I y u 11 nnd the ltoroc ~"

null T'o 111 FJy un J ,,
Finding hi ~ uudiror• l>y tld" rim•· iu n l1or.•• lsn~h . Tlilly w onml np with.• No w , loo k bcrl',-t:V• ·ry 1iui1• I ""Y hor•c, yon •u y ll amblin, nnrl every tlllJf
I :;a y ll 1u11lilin, you 1'uy JJ,, r,,e. 1'll l1e li:wg ··d if J !d i you uuy lll urc about h."u

No ,

59

llh'

!
.,'\

•
I<

\

Q l! OTIW Jn' funT .

2. Rules for Unity.

JH. ll.XITY.

e following arc

th e principal ru les fe r nnity :
1) Avoid changing the .subject so as to confuse t~e
ght. It is not m eant, as some wri te rs on Rlr c torn;
to teach, thut a, sentence should h ave only on e su~J­
Every complex sentence mu st., from its natnrc, l1aY c
thn n one su bjcct. This rul e i" i 11 tcntle<l to g nanl
~t> t t he undue addition of accessory proposition s. T l1c
~ "ng Yiolates the rule : "Wheu we were abont to go,
· put into my ~ands a bnndle of books, aml ,,.h<: n I
• them, th ey proved to ho exactly wliat 1 want t• tl."
..m her "On our depart ure, a burnllo of boo k ti wa ::; 1n 1t
my hnnds. Wh en ope ned, t hey provc<l to lJc exadly
· I wanted.:'

l . J\Iea11i11g· ol' U 11ity.

lly Unity is m c;111t s11 ch c·.\"pn·, sion of Lhongltt lJy means
of ea<.: li 1;c11 te nce ;1s to Jll'ol1uce on e i111}WL'Ssiun. A building
may lJo so <ll':; ig nod as Lo gi Yo <!''itk 11 t:e tliat i t is tho pro<ln ct uf on e ard1it cc t. who l1as c:m ·ful ly planned aud a<lj usl L'd all it~ parts. S11t:lt a. i,;t rnctnrc possesses uui ty.
An ollicr edifi ce may show from il s varieLy of materials and
lack of proportio11 that i ts parts wore built at different
times and hy difTc re11 t pcr.:;011s. S11c: h a. bnil<ling docs not
pos:-:e.ss llllit:y of design .
A ,'t•:d l'ill'l'. in lik e rn:u11wr, mny consist of parts so
r.nml1i111'<1 :1 s lo pro1l 11 rc 1lll] imprc·:-:-:io11 of Ollcncss, or it

!Jo so loo:-:l'ly tlmnn1 togPllwr as to produce only 11
<·onf'll scd a 11 d intl eflnil c id (';t in !lie mim1. A 8C'ntcnco,
l ik1: a paJa, .. ., 111 ay 110 n st ,,·ith oHt rnr rifi t ing ullit.y; or,
like a cot l :lf!l' , it. may l1 nrc· l111 L fc.w and insig nifleant parts
-.1·itlw11 t po:-:sc~sing it. 'J'Jio test of unity is th o c01111 pqfion
bctll' rc 11 the part s. If tltatisclosl', tl1 e seutencehasunity;
if iL is r cm u le, Ll1c .S l'ntcnre wauts uni ty.
lllay

fo. t:h fast example, ns r emodele<l, there are two H'ntt" ncr8

tr.

wlmt the uncorrected se u tence ex pr~s1:1es. 'J'lii >1 k i11 J «f
' \~1on Is .generally the most certain remedy for se ~tences whi t h
Ofate unity. It is not necessary, however. t.Jint tlus rul e 8l101rld
~ p .so far ns to r equire a rccons t. rnct.i0n .of the la1<t . Et~n'.cn r o

"' nl'!

~ti

-,

l'Orr rtod exnmple. That SC'nt.C' ncc• rnnta1n1< t wo su l•JC'• ! :>, Ollt
nd is so subordin :ited in tl1 e ex pression " t>xactly wh at ~
'' a& not to violate unit.Y .

'I
'.

'!

GO

T lIE E L ElifENl'S OF' flllE1'0RIC.

(;,?) Avoid crowding tog eth er thi ngs unconnected. This
r11l o i :; Yi o latcJ in Uie fo ll o wi ngs ·11tC'ncc : " Nuc r;itcs und
l' la l.o were wise a nJ t l1 (·y bot h lived to 110 ul<l w en ; the
Evnncr IJ<: i 11 g k illcJ. l1y th e At heni a 11 s atH1 t li c la tte r <lyiug
.1 naLu ral dv:d 11."
li cf·e is material for l\\'O FC'Jll l'n ccs.
1.:l) Avoid inserting relative clauses into clauses which
nre themselves relative . Tl 1is rul l', [:Ud abo tl 1c p rc vi on ~,
is violated in tli c fuli tnr i11g i:;c11tencc : "The mar<:h was
t.hrcn 1g h a11 111H:11ltivated c·ou11l ry, 1rlt0sc sa1agt.: inhahi Lants
f'a n •i l 11 anll y, l 1ar ing 110 ot li ('r ril·lie.s. tli a11 a Lrecd of Jean
::;l 1c<'p, u•lt osc Jlc:;l1 w: :s ra11k and u n:-ar ory, },y r ca:;ou of
t hC' ir co 11 t i1111 a l fred i11g upo n .sea- fi sh. " Ji erc th e sn.: onJ
r eLdi ro c.: bu ~c i.; in scr letl i11 tu ll1u fi rst. T he rr rn c<ly is .Lo
lli1·id o t. lie li<: lll l' n cc into t wo. Tl 111 s : ·'The march of the
Cree k.· was tl1 r11ll g h an 1111 c ult irnt cd cu 1111 t1-y. Its santgo
iuliauit·;mh farc .l hard ly, l1 a vi11 g, '' el<.:.
1

Wh en the r elative clauses are co-ord inate, having refere nce to
a common ant ecedent, unity is not necess arily viola ted· us "Ho
.
'
'
was Ii Ro 11
1 11·r 1rlw d iii rPgRrd1·d l'Very h 1Lrd11h ip , 1rlio C<i urted duuger,
UlHl 1c/w fuecd i t uo]tJiy l\lld e Vt' ll j oyfull y, when found ."

{ I) Avoid the addition of supplemen tary clauses to a
complete sentence. Th e rnl c i::; vi ulatcd in loose 8 enIL' ll l'l'~, a 11 d 1!1 <: l"l'lllL'l1y i.-> ei!l 1er fo di r idl! t l1 em i n to
tiL'para tL~ H'llll' ll l'l'S or to rn ake t l il'lll 711'!'/orlic. Jn the
!'ll' lltl: ll ce , ·' \\° it li t li e:-e 11T ili 11 g:.; ( of Cil'Proj yo1111 g di vines

'Ire morr cmn ersnn t th n11 with thn ~ c of Drm~ -= t h r 1 1l'", wh o,
l> y m any <l Pgn·cs. ('.\n·lh·d t.1 1<• oll1t r: :11 i( ·:1q. :1 < an uraL()f'"
-- t li e rni11J 11aturull y rc:; t.s at t li e \r urd oll1rr. as th e co 11' cln ~ i o n of the oentcuce, :m u, L'11 1il rary t\) cxp<·c tat io11 , is
olJligc.:tl Lo carry liack t he added d a n:;e Lo rE>constru ct th e

S TYLE.

Gl

pro do u~ thou g h t.

T ho se n te nce would be improv o<l hy
the followiu g c han ge : " With ll1 l'su wri t ing.:> )' •Hill ~ di Yilll'='
:uo more coin crsan t t it a n wi t h t hose of D omosthe11 e.-;, wlin,
by ma ny uegrccs, as a n ora to r at lea:;t, excelled l lie uL her. .,
A loose sen tence is on e in wl1i ch tli e c11<l i:;ccn1:> to be rnlclie<l
boforo the sente11ce is c1i111 plctctl . A pe riodic senteu cc i:; u111· iu
which the t ho11 g h t is s u npc 11 d1 !d 1111 t il il1c clcsc. Sui:;p(•11>'1' i:o rnui:-<·d
(1) by p l ac in~ tlie " if-claw;c" firi:; t., an <l not last, in a c1111d it i•rnal
tence ; RB, "If tltou didst ac r tlt y d earfatlt er love , n ·v,·ng1 · J.1~
fou l o.nt.1 m os t unna t ural lllll rd e r ;" (2) liy plaei 11g purti l'i p ],•s lwf11n;
the words whic h they qua li fy; as, .. D C/$C l'lrd uy l1is fr it'ntl s. l ie \\ H:i
• forced to liave r eeo urse to th ose who lmd llt!c 11 l1i t1 l' I11~ 11 1ict1;" (l\ 1 hy
usi ng s uspensive conjun ct ions; RR, " Eit!tcr y o u mllst t ak 1· tli is
c. t remely pe ril ous cou rfic. i n w lii d 1 s ncccsi:; is u11 ccrta i11 , u11 J failur.:
disg race ful , a s w ell a s rlli no u s , or !'be lit e l iu•·rty o f yu 11r cn1 111lry i;i
en<langere<l ." If cilltcr 110 0 111 i tt, ·d , the 11wa 11 i 11 g i,; liuli],, Jo J,,. i" i"
unde rs tood , un t il th o rend e r l1 as gon e h a l f t.h roug h tlw 0•· 11 tt·JH" ' ·
Periodic sentences o ug ht not to be '°"ry lu11 g. lf t ht·y u r l', tlw
beginning is lost before the end i11 reach ed.

(5) Avoid forcing abstract and concrete idea s into the
eame grammatical governm ent; a.:-, ' ' 0 11 e \ L'r_y ,- id e Lill'v
rose in multitudes, arm cJ wil h ru ~l i c weapon s a11 J with
irresistible fu ry."
\ Vh e n th n cks ig-n is to raiRe a l rrngli hy the ridiC11l1111 s r11mli in:i Uon of d issimila r Ll ii 11g,.:, :;h,.: t rn<'t und 1·01 1<· n·1e itl1 ·11>< J11:1y 1,.. tl111"
ulondcd ; llS, "li e took ],jH /utl Hild fotr t." "lie Wl\S tleli\·1·n ·.! fr11 111
dread an d his wi fe 's ruu·t ." ·· A /J11rk1rhNit r1 tlr1 ~ was i11 lwr 11111 111 Ii,
n tear wus iu h e r ey e." Alth 1111!.( h tl1 f' Ju,..t <:x1111 1 J'I<· ,·,,111 \ 1i11 1·>< two ,
_ ('Oncr ete idenR, th ey are HO tlit•i:< irnilar Ui'l to viola te 11 11 i•y. 111 tlii ~
- e<mllists itH \'<llllical qnal il y.

(G) Avoid unnec essa ry parentheses . A parcntl1 c:,.; i,; is :111
inser ted c·x pre;,;s ion wh ic h l1w; n o gra mm atical c·o 1111 (·1· t i1111
with t he remainde r of the sentence. Hence it i,; l1 a.lilt· In

111 E ELEJ!b'NTS OF' RIIETORIC.

S1TLJ::.

wi thdraw th e a tte ntion from the main thonght; as,
" \Vhl'H tliis P a rli amcut sa t down (for it ll c~l' rv es uur
par Licular ob::;cr vation t hat bot h H ouses were fo ll of' zeal
.for Lhc prcsc11t GoY ernm cnt, nncl of rcscnlm c11L agaiIJ ::i t
LL1c la te usurpat ion :>), U1 crc was Lu t one party in 1'arliamcnt, and no other party could rais(} ils head in tho
nation."

2. H'.uks for En<>rgy.

Many of tl1e prcvwn s rn lcs i llllirec lly c:111 trilm lc to
energy, :>it1 cc clearn ess an<l unity arc csse 11t.ia l to i Ii i;
quali ty of style. The following rul es arc m ore d i r L' l th'
adap tecl to sec ure en ergy.
(1) Avoid all unnecessary words.
\Vll atnc r add"
nothin g to t.lin meanin g simpl y clog::; t hl' n1 •n'' "i.111.
U nn ccc.:>sary wun ls a ppea r in three \\·ays : ( I) \ rl1 L'll t liLJ
repeat Lli c Llwu glit, th ey arc call ed Ta11to logical; ( ~ ) w l1e n
th ev arc adLkll wit h11nt. 1Jci1irr
n cccssa n...· t n tl 1c ~l 'I IH' ' tlll'v.
0
arc called Hctl11nda11L; (3 ) ''li en U1(') arc co rnl ;i 11L'Ll ill a
diffu se way whi ch may lie sim plifi ed, they for m a Ci r c111 11 luc uLi u11.

Pnrcnthescs were form r rly mu ch more frcqu<'ntly rmpl oy cd than
tli ry a rc fi t }Ht·t:•:11 t . Th .. ir <'X Cco:si H · USl' indi cates a d..tid1:1wy of
rut in writin g'. It i,; gen<'ra l ly po8hil1h', l1y rr<·n ><t ing- and a r ran g ing
our 1l1on~ht s , tn 11\'oid ]JUrt•utlH'f' <'fl al1 0).!d l1 e r. TlH·r tll'I', bowm·er
c1cea~ i onull y 1111avoitl1d.Jle. L ong parcu t li c::;cs mar ~L.o ~auty and
destroy t h e uni ty of a sente nc::.

~

L.-

I V. ENER G Y.

(1) The e ffo rt t •• be cka r o ftc,n li>nrl s o n P in t o Ta utology, n" i11
th e foll o wing c x amplt~ : "TliiA is so cl ear a proposit ion , tl1 at I r""t
the wlwle arg um e nt entirely u pon it ." ln s uc h ca sPs <>11u o r tl1 (•

A sen ten ce may be ro n :;trn dcd i11 :icconb.11cc wi th the
rnl c::i fo r con co rd , cl earn ess u11d nnit y, and still produce
but lit tl e cffcd . Som et hi ng is wa ntin g to flx the aite nlio11 and sru:; ta,in th e in tc- rcst. '!'Iii:; impor tant quality is

variou::;ly u.dl e<l energy, yi1 ;.1c ily, strengt h or anima t ion.
}~ n e rgy (Lh c G rc:L·k ~11[p yna, cner(jeia, fr() m ~v : C/1, in, and
//! )"11•, ('J',r;o n, wor k) i:o Lli c m ost cxad c:q1 r c:-<s io11 for i he
q na lit.y, lwea 11 sc t.li c word s ugges ts a fo rce in the \ erlJal
for m apa rt. frnm f li l' cham<' ter of i he t. ho11gbt. Styl e is
gn'ally affede1l l1y Ili e s t rc ll g lh or fre b lc iwRs ( 1f 1li o
t l1on g-ht., bu t C\·en co mmon- p larc t h onQ" lif s mav he r x,.

J• rcssccl in energe tic 1an •£:" nacbre. Tli c lill
:t lit Jv of t l ie t1 1onoht
·1
D
h<·lon gs to invention. The t·crm " cnC' rgy of expression"
l1a::; rd°t'renrc sol<•l y to the fi tuc:s::; uf tJ JtJ wun h f.u co1ncy
tli e i<kas wi t h foree.

()3

-~

oth er o[ t h e w<> rds useJ ln n t 11l •1g ic a ll y ,.ho u ld lw " lr i.- k .. 11 out.
(2 ) Redundancy is nwst Jik('l y to s l1ow it s ,. lf in t !1P 11>'1' of adj.,. _
tives. Tltci;e wo rds a re us uall y d 1·sni p tin•. a 1Hl lie nee ,,;1·n 1· t"
e nri ch tl1 e s t.yl f' . but wh en nsccl in e xce,;'I t lwy o n·rh ur .l1·n t l1f· "" 11·
t.1 ~ uce and Rl1ow a pnlanti c tas te or a stra i11 aft!'f di~· <" t . t'11pn l..t i,,.,..
nrn t'Hl"'ciull y lialti ., to Ji :-; ti !.!: ure t l1P 1-w 11t f·11r 1' s of 111q•ra..ti ><•"l "ri t•·r~ .
11. iH a g <><>d n il " t" ~ t r i ke !llt t s 11 clt w .. r d~ :i~ ",· ,·ry ," " in 1·x1 ·1., .,,,; l>le," "unprl'C•' •l f'nlPil," "i> •11pPndo11s, " <'I ('., wl11•11('. ,·1·r tlwy 11r.- 11 ,,t
stri ctly n ·q uired. Th e foll owing are i 11 ~ta11 f'< ' "' ot' H "1l 11 11da11 ,·y :
"Th e u11i v1'r sttl opinio n of ((ll m e n." '' Tl wy rel n r!11' U [J,, r k ru111i u 1•>
th e 8amc placcfr<'1/l w he n ce tlH·y c a m!~ j ;1rl!t." " Ii i;; t<'l'!I •·xc1· l l1·11t
di-scourse was 11U1"t i ni·• l1• rnb ln nnd f .rtr1' mdy incom;id .. n tt •· in t \ ,,.
f\}'<'S r,f ••nPrnics ." "T111 ~ hou11cll Pss 11 la i11s i1 1 t.lw lir·art ,,f tl w ""'
pire furni sh ed in.t: J'h(( u.~ t1.'bl/'. Rn ppli t'S of co rn, t h at wo ul 1l lirt'<' a Jin ,.,t
snfficcd for twi co t.li P i:ol' u lution." N ote th o i11t· o n ~ i i:;t • ·1H·y .. r i 11 0 · ·
lw11stiJJl,1 wi t lt " ·l i:it f,,]]on·H.
1:1) Circumlocution requires the re ·castlng of the whole 1·xi'n· s·
BilJ il.
Fur exam I1lo :

,,

STYLR.

TIIE Elft.:M8N TS OF' IWETOHIC.
··Pope profcF sed to hn,·c learn ed hiR poetry from Dryde n, wh om, whenever an
oppo rtuuit y wuti ;irc ~t· ut c d, be prai ticd th ro ug h tho whole period of Id ~ cx!Htcnco
wi1l1 nuvnri cd liberulity; a11Cl pN h tip• his charac ter may rece iv e so me illu stra.
tiuu, if a co mpariso n be inKtilutcd l.Jet w ee11 him nn<l th e mun whose pupil bt
\\'lld .

1

'

This sent<'nce is thu s concle n!'cd

uy Bnin :

"POJJC prof.e•F cd him tic lf tl11' pupi l <1f Dryden, "lwm be lost uo opportunii,
o f Jlrlli,iug; nnd lli~ c hu rnc tcr 111uy be ll111 t<trut c d by a compuriijOD with his mu.

tcr."

(2) Use connective words with care. 'rhis -rule is
necc;jsarily ind ufinitc, as no spcciuc rules can be framed to
guard against every po::isible fault. An attentive study of
th e appended illu stra tions will show bow important is the
judi ~i ou ::; manngc 111 cnt of conn ect ins.
\ \'hen w e nre m nkin g n dt·libc ratc e num eration of pnrticul&l'I
wl 1icl1 an• <l e~ig 11 c d to .. cc upy tl1 c rni11d and im press it forcibly, tho
cu11j11nt·tion may lie n·pr:1tl"d; a P. "l am pc rs und cd that neither
de11t lt, IW 't" life . 1w r n11gcls, 1t o r prin ri pnliti C' ~, n01· powers, 11orthin1;9 '
prese nt, n ur tl1iuµs to come. nur heig ht. nor d l" pth, no-r any ot.her
cre nt11rc, s hall uu nulc to Bt• purato us from the lo\-e of Ood." 'fhle
repl'li ti un iH called Polysyndeton.
\ V l1 e 11, 011 th e otht·r l11wd, we wi sh to convey tho idea of rnpld
movement n11d to s ti11111lutc th e minJ by a vivid description or narra·
1.i u11, tlw cn11 j1inl' tiu1: rn ny he omitted; as,.. 011 e effort, 011c, to brenk the circling host;
'l'licy jin·m, 11 11itr., clw rg1', W<Wt'r,-idl i:; 10::1t."
Thi s 0111ission is ca ll ed Asyndeton.
.
'Vh c n n word is g ov e rn ed by t.wo diffe ren t pre positions, the effoct
is awkward and fecblt•: nfl, "8oc rntcs was invited to, and Euripides •
ente rtain ed at, his court." This is called the Splitting of Particfea.
And is som etim es usP<l r1•dun<lantly before the r elative which;
ns, "I gave him n bt·n utiful picture, and id1iclt I admired in the
bookstore." And mny prope rly precede which when it connects two
r c lut.iY e clauses: us, "It was a day wlzidi 1ul e nj oyed, ctnd which
a.II will rem ember wi tL pleas ure."

(:l) Give importan_t words in the sentence an emphatic
position. Thi::; rule UU\.'S uut rc11uirc any violation of rule

It is <l0sig ne1l to guard agai11 ::;L t lic
r of losing the principal thonght in the sl' nt r ncc by
\1ng too great promin ence to <lctai1:-;.
C mpo.re this sentence

wi t h th e next: ,; It i;i characte rist ic of 11
and virtuous man, that, nt all tim es, lii:; own private inte r1.,it
oJ.d be sacrificed tt) th e puulic int.Pre:; t of his "wn particular
y ." "The wi Ec ond virt nc1us mun is at all tim es willing tli nt
bl own prh-ate interest s houl 1l l•c sat:rifi ccd tu th e pub!ic intt·n·:;t o f
own pnrticulnr _society." In both tlwsc f.l•ntcnt.:nl f:!O :itt.:lhiug is
nned of a" wise nnd virtuous man." In tl1 e form e r this nat urn l
j t of the sentence is made a mere adjunct of thfl wo rd "char.
latlc." In the latter it is plncetl promin ently before thr: 111i1 H.~
th subject of thought, un<l tlte stakm ent about it is mu<l1: wit!,

(4) Do not close a sentence with an insignificant word.
verbs and preposition s ought not to be pluce<l at th e
of a period, for th ey arc merely qualifiers an<l eontives' and should not ta.kc the place of more signifi cant
ords; as, "It is :.ibsurd to judge eithrr Spenser or
:osto by precepts which they did not attend lo." Thi s
uld be improved thus: "It is absurd to jntlgc rith er
Ariosto by precepts t1J wli ich they <1 id not

.

.I t is not a.

violation of thia rul e, howPve r, to use ndn~ rh;i 11t Ilw
of a sentence, when by their emphatic position they ex pr es~ nn
ttttltb is of thought ; ns, "In their distress my friend s Blw.11 h cnr

tm

always ; il6 their prospe rity ne ver."
·n rra.nging the clauses of a sentence the longest ought to

~)

como

Use figurative language . Whert'in fi g11re.-; of speech
d energy to language, will be expbincd iu 1111 other place.
tis important to note tho fact that approprial.e li g im:s

j"

f;
I

j.

(j(j

are con<l uci vc to s!:rc ngt Ii. Oft hc:-;c Metaphor, Antithesis
and Glimax arc partic ularly dfccti\·e ; as," 'l'he ship leaps
on .'' •· The wicked flee wlt cn no ma11 pursucth; but tho
ri!Jli!1·011s arc buld as a liu1 t." "It i::; an ontrngc to bind
a l\oman citizen; to scour_qe him is an atrocious crime; to
l'UT mu TO DEATII i::; alrno;:; t. parricide j bnt to CllUCIFY
liim-wlrnt shall I call it?"
l'

STYLE.

Tll8 LLl!:JfKNT8 0 fi' R11HTORIC.

Care should be taken to avoid an excess of antitheses. On
this point Uluir g i\·es the followin g rnution: "The frequent use of
nntitlie::! ifJ , c~pf'ciul ly whero the <•ppositiun of the words is nice and
quuint, i!'! 111.t tu render sty le disa).!rc!'nlJle.
A maxim,
or moral s :1ying, p roperly e nou g h r Pcc iv('s this fonn ; both be.
cnu;;c it i:; 1-;uppos,•ll to uc tl ie fruit. o f medi1atio11, aud because it hi
<k:;ig11 l· tl to he t' ngnwPn 11u tJt .. 1n• ·111ory, wl1i ch recalls it rnoro
ensil y by tli P. h el p of 1rnch e.mtrn Rk( I exprr'Rsions. But where a
Rtriug or Rudi s1· 11t c ncPR i'UCCPPd cuch ot he r ; wht-:re this becom
an autltor',.; fa\·ori t c unJ pre vailin g mann c· r of e xpressing himsolf,
his s tyh' iR fnulty .
~u r! 1 a ;:ty le appears too stu<licd nnd
lnbon:1l; i t gil'es us th o impre ~R ion of an nutltor attPnding JllOte
to hi !:! maunl'r of sayi11:; tlun g~, than to rho things themselves which
he says."

(i7

obscuring or rno<lifyin g the meaning.
doubt some co11 sideraLion shou Id Le gin· 11 to t hi .~
c:: mou t of style, bn t it should be the last a11J t It( ' k:t.-;L t.,
In uo case leL 8c 11 t:>c lie saniticvu

With regard to the capability of our language in l111rn10ny of

yl , the

following remarks by Graham are judi cio u s:
• ~ · E uglish has been often accust·d of huri;l11H'Si', and it ct ·rtuinly
' flllij)JlOt be ranked among the most harmonious l11.11gu ages of E urupt".
. ~ $, lf not th e most beautiful in thh! res pec t, neitlwr can it be f\u id,
tbc othflr band, that it is the most disag rernl.de; fo r, t. lt o ui.: It
:uJl· rtor In harmony to Italian and Spanish, it ruulrn l1ig he r thnn
lltdl, or any of the SC1.1.ndi11uviun or Sclavoni c lan guag1 ·s. :Si 11 c1·,
·w vcr, even in the most melodious languages, some wri ters arc
)Jt)Wn to be far more studious of e lega nce and lieirn ty t llllll utlit>r;; ,
!t>llows that this differen ce will alHo appear in autl1 ors wl10 wri t.. i 11
most rugged dialect. \Vhat ever, t.hPn, rnav be suiJ of t it (• \1·11111. .,f
1l11 ss in the English languaga, it is .plain, .as sonw of our w1 i t.-r~
others in harmony, that this is a quality to lm c ulti,·ntt·d:
there is no good r eason why any o ne gifk<l with a deli cate 1·ar
18-r not, under the guidance of a judicious teacher, attain to tho
e r of writing in an easy and flowing style."

2. Uulcs for Harmony.
V. TL\ TDIONY.
l. T11c Yaluc of Hnrmony.

A senten ce may lie grammati cal, and observe the rules
for c.:lrarn cs:', unity mH1 energy, withont pleasing the eur
L_y its smooLlrness of sonnd or di ~ playing
adaptation of
snund Lo th e se nse. l\f o::; t. s~·ntc· 11 ccs arc constructed with·
out an y t.l1011 g ht. of how tli ry will sonnd. Only in poetry
arn1 cl: ilw ralC' oratory docs a writer stndy to embody in hi
langu;1gc :i so1il of sec ret harmon y. Frequently un•
plcasau t. wor<ls an<l co111 l1iuatio11s of words cannot be

any

Without entering into the philosophy of harmony, which
is -plu.ined in the" Science of Hhcloric," we shall li11 tit
b discussion of this subject to the statl' mcul of a fl'w
-rttohlcal rules.
. (1) Select the most melodious words. These am (I)
ords end ing in soft consonants or open vowC'b; as.
f/tauty, alive, dread ~· (2) words containing liqnid H; a:;,
' 'ffJ4ming, lonely, noonticlf.; (3) po1.piylla1Jle,, ; with tl wacC'e11t
~
t he end; as, tempordl-ity, liarm6nious, sonorous; (-1)
•olds in which vowels and consonants are blendn1.

-·------------.....

~-------~ ~

--·-

--.. .......

·I J. :
f

>I

I

'l'll fi.: .1!,'L.E1ll BJNTS OP Rll RTORIC.

81'YL/I,'.

The followi.n g table of the English alphabet will he of ui<l in
poi nting out th e efiect of <liUerent letters upon tl1 e car.

I
I

Gutturul e.

r:so tt.

C'Oll >UlHlllt "i

l 11 :1rd.

- -

b-

-

P

-- - - - - - ----1 - -- 1 VOll'l:lo . . . . . . . .

Liquids , o r

a

sc:11ivowcl~ .

_ _g_· _

h

Donulc lctte r8 .. .... . .. .

It

·-------. - ---- -

_ _ __
d __ ,l_

!

_ v_____ z_. _

ck

/ ·

This is especially important in composit ion s de::;ig11 c<l I()r
oral delivery. 'rhe art of rhythmical writing is 0 11 0 or Lhe
most rare, bnt on e of t he m ost enviable of lit erary at tai11ments. As iu the composition of music aud pudry, m11 <.: lt
depends upon the natural car.

8

- - - - - 1-- -o
m

,\ , pi rate • . .... . . . . ..... .

1
. 11 11 1o. 1 D .:ntu1"· s·1111·1 011t"· J1
L wg-

li '.)

0

ll

w

y

n

<}ll

j - <l ~

··- -·- I_ ____ _

Th o ><oft 1·on ,.01utnt:4 nrc pl<•n0<i11~ to t it <' <»tr, wlii ln · t it .~ hnr<l consona11ts nre nwre liar.. h. Compu rl' !!ltd• and .•lttp, pln!Jed und plot,
i<t1rce nnd st11Jj: 'l'lw liq uidt1 are c~ pecially me lodio us. The aspirates
a nd double ll'ttern are more rou g !t .
Com lii uuti uns of letters of o nl' kind a rc Vl'ry inharmoni ous · n.s
-~trc 11yth~nr'<l.vt, fi1rr1·erin;J. De ri \ 'll tiYc:-1 from loug com pounds ~ 1- 0 'gen~
e ra 11y 1l 1 sag- n~"a l1l e ; as, ?t:rungh etul rdn e.~-~. 1w1111ccetJ«(u.lnes.~ . \V ords
with a fHH'Cl'S>iion of unacct>nh•d sylluu!('s and I o n~ -~vord s havi ng the
n('ce11t 11 en r th e liegi noing, arc dilli r ul t to pronounce, and, uccordiug ly, 1111plcll.8n nt to t h o ear; us, der1lgutur ifJJ, 71(.rellipforily.

(2) Avoid all disagreeable combinations of words.
'I'ltC'se arc <.:ausc<l by (1) a repel. i t ion of tlic i:;amc so und·
as, " 1 confos:i with humility Lite sterility of my poetic'
((b/!i/y, and t he deb£1ity of my ralionahly; " (2) a hiahis
produced by two s imilar sounds in sncc:rssion; as, " Idea
and dest?:ny J." (:J) a cnmnlation of consonants; as,
"Stre11glltenodst thou ltirn in his slrU!Jgles?"

(:·n Arrange the words so that the distribution of accent will impart rhytt;m to the movement of the sentences.

"In tli e usual fo nn s of famil iar pro1;e writing," flnys Husf'<'ll,
"littl e rtiganl is paid to th e pladug or words, as respects th• · 1·ff1·c t
of accent. W ords i n plain, unprete nding composit i•m , follow 1·ucli
other, with but f-llight refere nce to th e res ult in m1· rp sou nd . ~um l'
writers, howeve r, are <lillt i11guis lwd l>y a l:!ty le whid1 is mo re or lt-:<s
measured and rhythmi cal to tli c ear. Tlte stately uud formal ~tyle
of oratorical d eclamntiun, so meti111es llBt!umes this s!tape, us does
also tli e lang uage o f Hublime , patli etic, and beautiful d1·,-cri1 •tio11 .
Some write rs, by high excelle nce of na t ural or of c ul ti 1·atl·d .-ar,
si1cceed in in1pnrting an exq ui git o but tlltoutru~iv" m..J utl_v to tlwir
sentences, w!tich forms one o f the principal uttracti ons uf their t!l yl e.
We have instances of these vari ous efii.:cts of the se lec tion 1u1t.! tirrangem ent of worde, in th e maj estic and measured dcdurnati on of
Chatham, or in the lofty and mag11ifice11t strains o f Scripture. Th t>
cauenccs of Ossian ex e mplify, some times, the power and Len1ity uf
metrical arrangement, and, sometim es, tl1c cloying effect of i b too
freque nt and uniform recurrence. Every cultivuteu eu r in fa mil iar
with tho chaste and pleaising turn of the se nten ce8 of A ddi ~(J ll, t lie
ensy flow of Goldamitl1'i;, th o amLitiou s swell of tho>«: of Jolllt son.
the broke n and capricious phrases of Sten w, th e n uLle lt1H1ll(JJ1y .,f
Burke, the abruptncsl! o f Swift, and tl1e i;ra ccful s mootl11 11Ni ,,f
Irving."

(4) Attend to the cadence of sentences.

By cadl'11 cc il"l
meant the :fallinl!
of the voice before coming ton. full stop.
0
The most musical cadences arc made on wonls of fu11 r
syllables, accented on the first and thin1; as, cfrc11msl1(11tial, observation. Words of three syllables, acccnll'll Oii tliu
second, as, demonstrate, prop6rliun, r~fiection, m a.kc a very
agreeable cadence. Monosyllables or a series of un accented
syllables make a disagreeable cadence. Accurdingly a

..

i
~

....
~

I

1'11J:J E Lf.!;'M h'Nl'S OF IUI 81'01U C'.

81'YLI<..'.

::;cnLenco should not close with any small word , bnt with
tl1e lon gest words and most so noro ui; mcm Lcrs.

In this section on "Sentences," we ha\·c consi(l-

70

ere<l :1 . ])1-jinitiou.-..
2. lJi v if.;ion uf the Subject.

It is impossil.Jl e tlmt e v e r y scn ten cl' should closl' wi t h a ny particuLtr kind of word, anti it i:; al.Js nr d to in siHt Oil !'IHCrifidng- a w ·rf'e<'tly

I. COXCOBD.

a p pro pri:ttu w0 rd, , vJ 1e n it s o uly fault i:; i11 linrmoni o u ~rnl' :i8, for n less
t• ;\ p ;·es::;h ·o hut m un, mu s ical cudC'n<.:e. 'l'li c rul e it1 intended s imply
to cull uttPn tion to Lit e r eso ur ces o f li1u1n o ny.

1 . J(,ules fu1 · Simple t:;e nte n ces.
2 . ]lull':; 101 · Compound awl Complex S e11tences.

(5) When possible, suit the sound to the sense. Words

1. The Iutpul'tau ce of Cletu ·1u:s.-..

whic;h n ;sc mlJlc tli e i:;o uutls whi ch l li cy tl e-~c ri bc arc called
ono111atopuc/i('. Num erous wonh; i11 on r la ng nag(•, snch as
!tiss, w!tiz, l'lilsh , cra ~ !t , roar, awl 7Ja /I Pr, rrad il y suggest
Lli eir m cu11illg by Lhcir so und , ~u c h wo nl s are wry sigll i litan t.
A llhou gh th e usi:;ociat ions w Ii ich they recall ure
of'te n fan c; ifn1, t hc·y ser ve 1.Ln impor tant purpose in t1cscripli n ; arnl irn1Tat i ve 8ty lc.
Some assert tltut e v e ry al'ticulutc sou 11d is nuturnl ly l'lignificant.
They m ai ntui 11 t ha t " tl1 e v o wel co n Rt itu tc::i the Ji fo ttlld ooul of a
word, tl 10 cimsonun t its l.Jody 1rnJ f"rm." For L'Xum p le , 11, us in
j itth er, is th\' natnrul 1·xprPSRi11ll of pa:ssion, pnin , o r g rid; /1 if' tlH;
lo w est v owel, aud 1·xpn•s ,;c·::1 low a n d uui:;cnn• Rounds; i iH tl1 e liig l1 (' ..t \' Ol \'C I. n nd , nccord iugly , expresses what is dear , :;lirill, l.Jrigltt,
or Rmn ll ; It. i:id icat.1'8 an af:Jiirnti on aft..r f'Dlll<'tliin g: ir , from its
l'Xln ~ me w c:tluwsn, 1·xpn •,.;;:;t'H w1· nknc ~ ,;. ge :1tl1 ·11•·H:-', f't<'.; { 1·x1 • 11'nHt1H
11·!t11t ill H11 ft o r S<>i1tl1 i11g- ; r d e u o t1 ·H rntt.li11g KllUnds lll1d di,;t.urted
11ir•tiu11; th o g11U 11 r 11l11 reprO!:!Ollt lioll u w11 e1;1:1 1rnJ lwltli 11 g; t lie liny11ttl:;, po intin g or demonstrating ; th e la bial.~, ex te nsion and uv<r!lio n, e tc. How e v e r n ear the trut h t h et<O s tatem e nt s m oy be\ it i~
• t•r lai n tha t these so <.: tdle<l "uut urnl si7nificat ion8 " are of small
v al ue in c xprct1si n g thought lmnn o n ion~ ly.
Iu th P "Sci ence of
ltill'toric" 1·xa111 pl es ure g i\· en to ~ li o w that lnng un f-'.< ' ra n rq, rcs1 ·11t
(1) o th e r so unds; (2 ) t ime und motio n ; (:l) ,.;iz•'; (l) l'H>'e an ti dilfi rn lt y ; (5) the 11.grooabl e and the disagreeul.Jlc ; und (G) climax in
t;(l l\SC.

2. Rules fU'J' Clettrnei:u•.
II T. UA"J'l'Y.
1. 'J'ltc 1U e1111i 11y of U nity.

2. Jlul es fur U nify.

rr.

ENERGY.

J . T h e JJiea.nin g of E ne1·yy.
2. Rules fur Eneryy .

J'. 1/AJOl<>Xl'.

1. ']'fl(' r(lflf(' of lft11 ·1111111!J.
2 . Jlufrs fo1· Jla l'n wu!f .

-- ----- -~ ---- -

- --

PARAGRAPHS.
t. The Jmportancc of Paragraphs.
--.w.-=~"l'••

~;;;'":·=
-- ~ --- -- -

~1r·3·~

l

A parag ra ph 1s a grun p of sc11teIH'{'8 tbat an' cluscl_v
related in thought. 'l'lw greaL im portan<·<' uf par:1gT:t] 1 h~
is evitlcnt from thP defi nition. 'l'bey serw io gi\'(· d i:<tinetn ess to the sequence of tlwugltt:-:. l'robuH_v llic u~uul

\..

'ar

I

1'll hi l~'f,JCM f.JNTS OF JUIR1'0RIC.

STYLH.

nc>glect of parngrnpliing is owing to an im:igi nary difficulty
in Ll1 e art. A few simple rules will scn c to mukc the
sn bject plain.

It is frequently advisalJl n to state t h e main tl1ought in n brief nnd
clear sentence. 'l'hi 8 may lie [•laced d the com111 e nce m e 11l of t11e
paragraph, and thf'n e ~q, Jai nPd, ii Ius trated, proved, or co ntradi cted,
as the ca[:?e may require- ·; u::-, iL ma y he placed at th e end, as a kinJ.
of summary or conclusion.

Nearly all the works on composition nlrnost ignore tlw divi;;ion
of disc<n1r:;e iuto JlM.rilg1n1 1h s, and, usu com;cc1u,·111:e, mnuy 1J1 l1erwi:;e
goci<1 writers eitli e r mako no pn.rngruphs or place e very i111po rtnut
se ute11 ce l>y itsdf.
~.

(4) Construct the sentences so as to secure variety in
their length and rhythm. Monotony resul ts from a continued uniformity of leng th or structure. No one ki11d of
se ntence is absolntcly the uest. . H erc, as everywhere i11
composition, varidy iGan excellence.

Uul(•s for Paragraphs.

(1 ) Make an analysis before writing. 'l'hii::i may be
eit her writte n or n1C'ntal, accorL1ing to tl w chara.ctcr and
extent of the composition.
Th is dire ction is of very great importance, and

nftn

The first sentence of a ra ragmph should be as sh ort as the se nf\C
It is <li sco urag in g to a ren der to find himself h,st in a
labyrinth at the very l>eginuiug. \ V he n inte rest and feeling li a,·e
been aroused, longer sentences are more appropriat e. A very tshurt
llf)ntence afte r a very long un e is objectionable.
Variety in a paragraph may be of less importance than some
other quality. For f'xam pl e, if a paragraph be devoted to a co ntinued' antithesis, a uniformly balanced s tructure of scnten<:<>s
abonhl be studieJ., as iu th e 1:ell'brated parallel between Homer u11<l

will permit.

n ft'w

trials its ~r,•at ndvantnge will b•~ ev id ent. In n Rho rt time t11 e hr1bit
of making a nwntnl nnnlyl'!is will l>e formed, un cl every composition
will gain in clearur8s, beca use of the methodical nrrnngement of tho
tliuugh t .:;.
( ~) Make each distinct point in the analysis the subject of a paragraph. All Lil e sc 11 tences written to ex pand,
explain, or illustrate this qerm t!to11.1Jhl will have a con-

Virgil.

nedion that will ju stify thoir being gro uped together.
I

A pnrngrnph is mndc hy commencing- on o. new lin e, a Rhort di sta111'(' from th e l>eginning of rh1~ li11 n. Tho ~t· 11t1 · n ces nre th<>11
writ.t1 ~ 11 in close succession. until tl1c parugraph is con1plete<l.
'fhit!
group of t!entc11l,'CS is a paragraph.

-.,

, .(5) Make the paragraph progressive in meaning and

. fn ,$ound. There is little reason for wri ting unl ess thought
- P:_~us. with · the marshalling of wor<ls.
.

.

';

. "Homer was the great e r ge niu s; Virg il the b ett er arti Ht ; in th~ one. we mo• t
..Omlrn the man; in the other, tbc work . H orner hmri .is u s with a cotumniulin g
,I mpetuosity; Virg il lead s as with an a ttractive maje>ty; H om u scattt:rs w il lt a
e rous profusion; Virgil be" t o w ~ wllh a careful mngnitlce 11 cc . ll om.ir, lik"
Ui,o Nile, pours out his ric hes with a ~ udd c u overflow; Virgil , like a river 111 it•
bank•, with a constant stre:im."

A style characterized chie fly by short B(mte nc{'S is culled hy the
i'feneh the style coupe. 'When t.he sentences a.re long, nnd cloRe ly
j<1ti:<id bt conj~.ction.s, we huv~ the style ~e.riodique. 'fl1 e fin:t is
ad~pted to familiar, light, and mfonnal wr1tmg; the 111.tter to ela l>~
omte, exnct, and dignitit:>d composition.

(3) Observe unity in the construction of a paragraph.
T hi s rule excludes all di gress ions from th e principal

thought of the paragraph. No se ntence hn.s any right to
a. posi!.ion in conn ection with othrrs, un less it is closely
rcluted to the preceding or the· following sente nce.

'

1'

-

4

As in a sentence,

'
'

l_

1'11E HLEMB'NTS OF RllETORJC.

STYLK

. :rraph, Lhc efli..·et i;ho ulJ. be cumulative. Hence
nee shunhl st: l<lum uc a sho rt Ollt', !mt more .
so11 orous Lliu.n it:; predecL·s:;ors. A ln::;c and forcible su mmary of a parag r aph cow;t,iLu les a fitting close, but it
mu st Le foll of meaning or it will i.;ec n1 i11Significant.

nee them correctly. Herc is tl pasr~age in wl1ich the sentences are
..u strung together hy the unskillful use of and:

-

so in

This rul o foruiJs "writing in a circle," which is almost as
grnve a fuult us "r<'nsoning- in n circle;" and thtl two· vices aro
oft e n con1pani<>11s. A writt>r who hold H tliis rul e in min<l will never
l>1·cume t e<liou:; to an intelliJ.<<'llL n ·nd N . lit! will bring his para·
grnpli to a cl ose wli<•11 h e lw:; once cxprp~;; :•<l hii-< t.li o uglit, aud not .
r;trai u uft<~r t!te u11uttai11uule tl1ro11gli e11d lcs:; repetitions.

(G) Connect the sentences so that their relations will
be obvious. This is of Yitul importance. The highest
nrt is rcr1uircd to cu.use the stream of thought to flow
smo ot hly, Learing the reader along without <loubts or
i11tl'l'l'lll1lio11 s. SL'ntence:; arc councclcd l>y the co-ordinate
ro11ju11ct ion::;, and Lhe expression of continnons tho ngl1t,
uccurdi11gly, rc:11t1irl'::> :;kill Ill llH·ir management.
The importance of using prope r connectives is illustratfld under
the third rule fur Compound a11d Colllplcx: Sentences. A few nddi·
ti onu l u\Jsc n ·ations 11wy be of valu e i11 this connection.
l:'1il1ordi11ate conjunctionR connect cluusel'!; c<>-ordinatc co njuncti ont1 co 111wct sen tc ncPs. The co-u rdinntc connccti,·<•f! arc:

1. Cumulative; ns, { and, "lMY, like1ri~c . again, bcaidtd, furt!ter,
etc.
2 Advcrsa tive; ai:o, but, tli e11 , st ill, yet, only, 11erertl1elcss, lwur
1•·vcr. etc.

i

8. Illative; as,

{ tltcr1j,,1·1J, 1rlt1!rcfvrc, l1enet, co11seq·uently, ac<'vntfouty.

It is by the proper m•e uf tl1ese connPctives that isolated threads
of tl1ought arc woven into u beautiful fabric. It requires as much
ju<lgment, however, to avoid the excessive use of conjunctions us to

"And theu tho~c who arc of an infe rior condit ion, thnt th~y lnbor aTld h~
diligent in th e work o f a11 h o 11 e•t call in>:, for thi o id private ly. good a nd pruflt11l>l.~
unto men and their f!lrnilice ; and to thO!!C who are above th1 ~ 11ccc• •HY. a11 d, ~' '.
ln better cnpncity tu muinLuin good work~ prope rly 80 CH lied, "orl.• o f p tct)
an:.ch~rity an<l ju ,. tice, that thPy b~ care ful lo prnrnoLc and u,lvu11c c tl'."rn~ th ·
cordi ng to their pow er and oppu ru111il y, because lhc•c tlllng~ arc iJUlillcl y good
4lwl benclicial to mankind."

3. Examplcjoj of Paragraphs.•

'l'he most practical way of lcarniug liow to co1111Jine se ntences in paragraph s, is lo a11al_yzc a rnri eLy or dill'en:11L
combinations l>y good writers. 'l'he following ex:unpll-s
illustrate some of th e meth od~ of co nstrneti11g l'arag nq ili s.

(1) Sometimes an expanded sentence constitutes a
paragraph.

J eremy Taylor furni :;hc::; the fullowi11g ex-

·nmple:
"Prayer is (/n action and n .~t11 ff. uf intercourse m1c~ !fe~il'I' .e:r'.1c'.l~
oppositP. to thi~ cliaractC'I' of. w1~1r . Prayer 1::1 an uct1011 ,o~ 111'<_n• i;,s
to the Hoh u liost, the "Jllrlt ol gl'ntlcness and lov e- like t.1rnpli c1 t},

an imitat.i;m of th e !tuly J 1·si 1s wh ot:ie s pirit i:; meek, up to tl1e g r1 ·at t1CE'i!! of the L.igw·st 1::irnmpl1'; aml a conformity_ to God, whoi;e nn gl' r
· t 11 j rnnrdi t.:S slowly unJ
is w1t.laout
trnll Hportatw11
·
.
>
.
l
i SUWU)'SJUH,al
and oflen Lind e reJ, uml nen :r ha;ity, und full o! mercy. I ray.-r IH
· .. t • t i ll . r:1t illn<'SK
of our tl1011ghts, tla e <'\·1·11ne~i; of
the peace o f our sp111
·
recoll ection, the 1;eat or m L·1litatiun, the rl'st nf ou: can'.,;· and _ 11"'
--' o f our 1empes 1.,. Pruv«r
,ew.m
• · is the issue of a quid mind,. ot 11n 1
t roubled thou~hts, it i,, th e daughter of charity, ~I)() tl1P i; iH tt ·r ' '·
k

Ange r is a perfect 11Jienat1on o f tho 11111111
. .
ti t tt tion wliii:h pn·from prayer, and t.herdoro iR co nt nu y to , 111 a eu
scnts our prayers in n ri g-lit line t o Clod."

mee ness.

may Le fouuJ in Ang:u1'11
These examples wit l1 severu I ()l '·ers
u
"Hand.book of the English Tongue."

*

76

{i ) Some times a general statement is followed by
8pecific, and that by an individual instance. 'l'he foll

77

STYLR.

THI:) A'Lf·:Jf/~'.:ITS OP RIIETOUJ(J
t

in g from Atl<li l:lon is an exampl e :
"r a e11 cml] M us ic a m ong thosP who \Ter e styl ed the chosen
pltJ w a::; a rl'l ig-i o us a rt. [8pecijir] 'l'l 1c so ng s of Zion, whi
lrn \·e n·a so n tu th i uk were iu l1ig h rqHtt c among th o cou~
ea ste rn 11101w rd1 s, wen· u u t !ting eh;e o ut p;;alms tl1at adored o.r
ura t.cu tl 10 i::i u prC lll C Ild11 g . [lwlir icl!iul] Th o greatest conqu
in this l1oly nation, a f te r tlt c m a nn e r of th e okl Urecian lyrict,
n ot o nly cr: 111po~e t lw word s of hi1S d ivin e od es, but g enernlly
tlte 111 to music l1:m st· lf ; art ('r wlti eli , !t is works, thou g h they w
co n ~eerutctl to tl1 e talicrn a rk , liecamc t he national ent ertalnm
as w el l as tlt u d (' V(1ti o n of hi :; Jlf'OlJle. "

(: l) Sometimes the hint of each successive
is suggested by a previous word . This is th e
sty le of B11rk c. I t is liable to dcgcncrnte into tcdi.o expa nsion. The fo ll owin g example from Durke illustra ·
t.h i:-; meth od:
"T he• ot h e r sort nf lll e n wen· the 71olitician 8. To th em, who
li ttl e o r not a t 1111 r d l,·r:\ P<l o n tl1e s 1tl•j,·ct, r eli g ion was in it-selt
obj.-,rt <!( loM or lw tra l. Tliey ui ::;b c l ie rnd it and that ioas all. N .
with r egard to that ol 1j ec t, tlll'y took th e order whi ch in thcp
sta te o f thi11g-s rni g l1t br 1Jt 11 nsioa r!l eir Jl"11 rpo8es. 'fh(•y soon ti '
tl1 a t tlH·_r co ul1l not do with o ut t ho plt ilo80J1li.ers; nnd th e phfk,
71/11' r.~ snon m ndl' tlt t· m sen sibl f' t hat t.h e dl ~'l tructi on of r eligion
to trnpply tlH ·t11 wi tl1 n u·nnH of C()IHJU C>1t,, firs t nt home and l
u l m md ."

( -1- ) Sometimes the them e is stated, and the n

or ill ustrated. Tli o fu llowing exampl e from Harris ill
tratcs thi s motlc of developing a paragraph:
" [Tlwm1'] \ Y lt r n n H·st (li ~guisPtl nnrl rqm·R.<cd,
flit ~ goio pd h118 IH·1•11 111 1H ]ify i ng'o11r pl1i]nR11pl 1.'· and t t•a<·l1ing- n lofi!l'f
H)'Rt ::- m o f i ts 01ni. I lllllstrat um .~ a nd l'rnr~/s. ] A H o wa rd, sound-I
and c .rc utnnavi i;atin g tlw oc._·a n of h umu n ru iser y, i::; only uu ob · ~~

The theme is sometimes proved by showing the
th eme may uc sm1p\ y li t"ltl
mdltt of the con t rary. 'l.'bc
·
.
.
. 1).liod, or it may be stated, as in the follow1~1 g exum11k.
.
d d tl1at one o f t lrn best. s pring-s of
I am fullyt_Pel~:~o ~1ave g en erous and worthy though t:i
nd worthy ac ion l] Whoe v<'I' I-as a m ean opinion of th e

~·tThtme]
-

'

[The contrary

· , ·

will act in no hig h l' f a rank than h e h as nll ottC"d
lf~ b~ na~~e~stimation. [Res ult of th is contrar y] If h e co nn l~ 0 s circumscribed uy the unce rtain t e ml of a few
ila bemR" a
t d . t the same narrow ti pacu li e
b desig ns will be contrac e 111 o
ie to bound his existence."
v es.

on "Paragra1>hs," we have cou-

SECTION IV.

~;URES.

·\\

1 . D c fi u it ion of

F i ~ n r<'S·

·
·i t1 \1 li icl1 ne
(I-URE of speech is an cxprc:os1•rn
.emd in the form of anotl icr r e Ia t cJ. l o it. F, ig., u..re.:>
.m11v aivi d cd in to four classes : (I) t'\ !l l'l' 0'"1UJ1 :, Ill
.the.spelling is ch an gc11, ur Figu res of Orth ogra?hY;
- ' .l0ll8
·
.
I . i. Li.• form of a wo rd L:i clia11;.;t·il,
1il w 11 Cu .u e
(I

78

Tl!E ElF:.lfENTS

or

Rli/:,'J'O!UO.

STYLI~'.

or Figures of Etymology; (3) expressions in which the
constru.ction. is cl.ia11gcd, or Figures of Syntax; anu (4.)
ex prl'ss1u ns m wh 1cli the mode of thought is chanaed or
r·
o ,
1gures of Rhetoric. Ollly the Eigun·s of Hhetoric will
Lo treated of here.*
The disti.ncti on between figurative and literal expression, nl·
tlw.u g h pre.<:1S<>ly statPd in tlw <ldi11 ition of u figure, may Le moro
Jl~amly
111J1 c:nt( •d li.v llll'a n :; of nn .-xu111plc. If we snv "He ~ ,1.t
l l .,
r .
J,
ugu
j
~1:· l';' ·' //. r '. <.:rr11.1g ton 1>1 >ldin in l1111tle, Wt· l'Xpre:os tlie thoughi
litc11tl1,1;, thnt 1s, wnh oxurt <.:onfurniity to tlH· fnct
"Fe· r" ·
,
.
.
·
a 1s a
ri:i~ , se11r1 u1 c·1.1 t of th e lium 111 111in tl, and wli on we say that the sol.
?1t r fuught}1'11r-lf':<al,1;. we 1·xpr<>ss tlin !item] lrutli, that he fought
in a ma11.11 er trillwut j (·nr. lf, 1111w, \\'(· aro n' minded of a lirm, 00.
cause n.l1 on. shows no frar, nod Ray , ''He fong lit like a lion" tho
l ' XJHL' SS1011 1s fi.r;1tr1rtic e ,· for wP e x prc;;;s the cxnct fact in a• fonn
"related lo r:t." If W 0. wi t<h to t•xpr··~s th o tlioudit. with great vivid.
1
~ "~".' w e may d_rop the i<f,aternP11t qf a rps,•111 b:anco !.Jet ween the
soldier Ulll] tL c li on, and say, •·He wu:; u lion in the fight."

0

.

!!. The Ol"ig·in of Fi;;- ures.

'rli e

. . t>f fi1gllrcs Jias 11 ~ ually bee n referred to the
!i,01:Vr.t y of l:ingua~c in its enrl.Y stages of d e1·cJopment.
_l his is lmt a partial nrnl un ~at isfactory cxpla11ation. It
is true that 11 cw objects nnd acts reqn irC'cl new names, but
\rl1 y ll" (' J'C ulJ word s uset1 i11 ne w 1-;cn::;<·s raihC'r than new
words forn1C'd ? 'I'he nnswer is f'o 11 nd i 11 the nature of tho
h11m:u1 111i11d. All on r notions anc1 thoughts are con!1ccLcu by cert:iin laws of a>:soeint.ion. Th us, ideas wbiqh
a.re rclatrd by rcsc ml>bn cc, contrast, or contignity in tim.o
or space., arc likely to rc·cur to tl 1c mind togctlier. Somo

*

01·1· !.._'1' 11

D fi '.1
e 11~1t " n8 of :tll tlic l1!!11n·s will he found in the Glossary of
<1r:u11mat1cal and HLctorical 'l't·rms. nt th o end of the volume,

of t,bcse associated id{'as nr0 more concrete antl sprcitic
han oth ers, aud h ence sc rrn to express the au::;tract uud
ncral more clearly than literal statement. These two
t:i ts, the early po,·erLy of expression and the natural
reference for the concrete, especially in the imaginati 1<·
riods of lifc,-cxplain the origin of figurativ e languagl'.
Tbnt necessity alon e does not fully e xplain the origin of fig11Nlve expression, is further e\·ident from tbe fa ct that the. Liest rnod l' ru
writers tnlrn pains to empl oy figurative rather tlian plum lnn g~iagc .
This would not be the case if figures did not in some way co11tr1lJUte
the dicctiveness of ex prl'.:'siun. 'l'hc manner in whi ch tl1t·y a:-;,;ist
hl imparting- force to fan g m1ge, hus b con 1mgg{filt.:t! al.Jove, aut.l will
more distinctly stated in the following paragraph.

t

3. The Advantages of Figures.

omc writers speak of fignres as "ornaments," nnd
berish the idea that their chief advantage is to embellish
ylc. While they often adorn and beautify, th eir real
ccllence is more substantial. Tho following arc their
rincipal uses.
(1) They enrich language. E\·ery language is composrd
a few hundred roots variously comuine<l to cxprc~:;
onsunds of distinctions. The process by wl1ich la11 guagc
a is that of figurati Ye expression. All 111 0 11 tal opera- ton are expressed figuratively, that is, throngh material
tt.D n.nd processes related to them in some way.
QSt of the words used to express mental action are "fos&,;
p.hors," forms once known to be figurative, but now so familiar
fbel:r figurntive character is forgottPn. Etymology aids us in
tt •out the history of these w or<ls. Intellect, for exumple, (from
A ln inter, between, an<l legi!re, to gathe r) is l.iascd upon tli c
ry notion of picking out an<l comparing thin gl:l ; and so liatl

tiO

1'llE AU;'M KNTS OF RHETORIC.

come to design ate tli o fucu lty of thought. \Ve speak of feeling •·
r e11ull'k, 1oei9h i119 an argument, balancing conifi<lerations, etc. 1'h
sing le root ·"JICC, which expr<'Bscs th o general not10n of siglit, la
g ive n ri ::;e to abo ut 250 words, such ns, species, Rpecial. ospect.i
i;pecimc n, spice , ::;picy, Rpcci o u:;, s p1·cialty, specific, speciulimtlon.
specie, spt ·ctrc , spectrum , 1<pl'ct11clo, s pectator, spectral, speculw.n,
Hpcc ulur, spt>c11lation, t'luspcc t, as pect, circum spect, inspect, prospc
reti pcct, rc truspcct, contipicuous, pc rs picu.ity, pe rspectivo, suspicio ,
suspicious , etc.

Sl

8TYLI~'.

re sure to receive injnry from th e excess.'' J~ xpres~c ll
. this literal form, tho t h ough t i,; so mewhat :1b:s tract an d
somewhat commonpl:icc. If, now, we use a ligurc of
h, we may give this thou ght a dour and at t ra ctin~
asion; as, "When we dip too deeply into i•lca:-; url',
lwo.ys stir a so<l.imcnt Lhat ron<lcrs it impmo a1 Hl
US." rrhe relation of cau se and CffC'C t ii:; at on ce C\'i> nd the thonght loses its commonplace characte r.

(2) Figures intensify the expression of emotion. They
do thi s by a::;socia ti11g tho object of thought with tho
which from th eir visible, tangi ble, or naturally affectin charucter, stimulate tho foc:lin gs. In this manner they
dignify or <l cgradc that with whi ch th ey are associated.
Th o wri te r s urround s hi s ideal with a halo of loveliness
or casts a sha<low of contempt over the character that h
de tes ts.
The value of flgures in elevating the emotions is
by ti.l e foll owing descripti on Ly Cnrn pLcll :
E te mnl JI o pe 1 Wl1 e n yond e r Pph e res Pnblime
P cuk d th e ir tlrPL n o tcr1 to • Omul the mnrch of Time,
'fhy joy o u ~ y outh b c;_'ll11; hnl no t to fude
\\' h" " ull th e • l• tcr pl11n c l" ha vu deca yed;
\\' he n wruppNI iu nm th u· reulm • o f ether ~low,
A1ul lk11 vcu'e lu"t Lhund cr "hnk C8 Ila: world uelow,
'flaou 111u lit-1 n1ny t·cl, ,..Jiull o\·r tlu: ruin ~ t-i.mil c,
Allll ll g hl th y torc h Ill N n tnrc' I:! f1111 c ml pll 6."

Th o foll o win g by J ohn Randolph illustrates the effect of degrad·
ing flgures:
"It is n Eh nme , M r . PreK ltlcnt, t hat th e noble bull -dogs of the 11clmlnistratlOA
•h.oulcl .b e w11Mting Lbe ir preciou s time in worrying the rats of the oppo1ltlon.Huts, did I 611.Y 1- micc 1 mice t"

(3) Figures give clearness to abstract ideas. Suppose
we wish to say, " Whcu we indulge too freely in pleasure,

4. J{in<ls of Figures.

''gures of Rhetoric have Lee n yariou sly da~sific<l. Any
li tive classification is both tcllious and useless lo t 11('
of rhetoric arc

- ahnplest and most philosopl1icnl classiftcation of rhetori c al
a 1& bused on tbe forms of association l1y whi ch tlwy ur<' s ui; • This plan is adopted in th e "8cie11 ce of llli etori c," wlJ(' r•·
l bll ophy of figurative lang uage is fully ex pla i11 ell in c.. a w·<' h the general lnw of styl e, th e ecn110111y nf rnPn tal l" '"'\•r.
lowing scheme presents an ontlino of the du ssification:

J. Simile.
2. l\'l etaphor.
I. Founded on Resemblance { 3. P e rsonification.
4. All eg o ry.
1. Ryn oc1locl1 0.
2. l\letunymy.
Jr 3. Exclnnmti on.
Il. Founded on Contiguity 1I 4 . llypcruo
,_ 1
o.
1 5. A postrupho.
l 6. Vision.
1. Antithesis.
2. <'limax.
~ 3. Epi g ram.
Interrog ation.
,). lrouy.

r

l !·

•

1

\

.'.';
~

·;

~.~

82

STYLE.

TIIE ELA.llHNTS OP JU!EI'ORIC.

Some rrck r to didtl c fi g: urc:; acconling to their effect rather tlin.n
according to their nat11re. 011 thi:; principle figures ure or two muin
cl us:;c'!'l,
I. Fi g· urc:-i of lnt11ition.
ll. Figurt>ti uf Emphai;is.
'l'li e forrn c r pn:SL'llt un id r a tn th e imngin ut.ion inn sensible form.;
t lu: latte r pn·sent no picture to tlw imag ination, but em phasize some
thought . 'fJie Ji ;;tin ctitln pointl:I out th e twofold ll!'l ~ oi' fig ures all
nieanH of ex pression , but foils a;; a perfect. p rin ciple of division, ns
some figures at the 15ame time presen t images und emphasize tho
thought.
Somo wri ters disting ui sh betw1·e n t ro71e.~ and fi gu res. A Trope
(from the Un·i: k rµurrn ·, lrep ci11, to turn) is n word t urned aside from
its )it1!rtli 11ll'll.Uing. 'fJie Uiti LillCLiun i>et W U(; [) tropes 11.llU figures ii
u:;eles;;, after adopting the de!iuitivn of figures already given.

(l) A Simile* (f'rom th e Latin similis, like) is a state:
m cnt uf tli e n;::e mlJlau cc of om· object, ad, or relation to
anoth er. It i:s ge nC'rnlly iu troducc<.l by some word of com ·
pariso11, :such a ~ like or as. Thns :Milton says of the
n:prol.ia te all gels' Lwrncr, that it
'' :::ilio11e like u ml'tou r 1:1t rcnming on the wind ."

A simil e do cs not always state a direct resemblance between
ol>ject;;. Somd i11H ·ti th1 ~ rcs•'rnbluu t:e i8 uetwe\'11 tlie causes; as,

Hr rw urct• ly

Ullclt'rf'l lnru l Ill_\'

l-;\ \'J\

inlCJJf;

Hut Mi Jk . wnn11 like , r-o l t 111 ~ wilhl11 flllvn wrou g ht,
'flmt I am lo"t in wy own wcl.J o r lhou i; ht."

ITerc th<• comparison if; in subwtanco; r18 th e> intPrnul operations
of the i11.-c::L res ult in it::1 ow n c ntun g le lll ent., .w tli e reflections of tho
poet l'd!Ult in his Ut: Wilderm ent.
:::io111c•ti11wt:1 tho n ;scml>lnucc is onn of effects; Hf', "The music of

- - - -·-- -- -- -- --

* Fnr thP pronnneiatinn of tl1" nanws of the fi gures, see the Index
n11d G lotisary at tho end of tho vvlumc.

<
'"
('It)

ryl was, like the memory of joys th a t arc pnflt, pleasant and
1ournful to the sou l. " 'l'l1 e nJ i:; no ro.::;o.;111ulance l>et1H:o.; n 111u::;ic
~d the memory of past joys, uut th e dfocts are similar.
Sometimes the rese rublunc C\ i!=I one of relations, or a ml'l'e 1rnal ogy ; as, "Henson is to faith a:; th e eye tu tlic tt:Jll';:!(:Ope."

(2) A Metaphor (from the Greek µ.r.7a¢ipm" metaplicrein,
carry over, or transfer) is a wonl used to impl y a remblunce. What the simile plainly states t.lie m eta p ho r
merely suggests. "lie fought like a lion," i::; a ~ illli1 c .
., He was a lion in the fight," expresses the same thought
The statcmL·ut that he was a lion, is
u nderstood to mean llrnt he was like a liou. 'l'lw nH;ta: pbor is, therefore, an abridged simile.
.. The metaphor is evidently a bolder and more lively figure

. l it n the simile.

As it resu lts from a more iutensely excited imagition, so it conveys a more forcible conception . A ml' ta plior i>1
ro like a picture than a simile is, an:.l h ence th e grapliie u::;,, of
'I'll taphor is call ed " word -pai nting."
The greater vi1·id11 l·,;;; of
Cl iapbor may be seen by comparing th e follow in g forms ,,f rxpr(·~·
'l1 n, in which the same idea. is presented as a simile and u1:< 11
p) t,npbor:
SnllLE.- " The king is like a bi rJ whoe ~ feath e rs not only adorn,
Wt support his flight. As tlic l>ird wh e n stripped of it:s plum11g1'.
l'Clxiains fixed to the earth, so the king, whe n de1; rived of ld >i lion11 n:i ,
not risn above others."
METAPilOil.-" The feather that adorns the royal bird , s11pporl8
& ftight . Strip him of Lis plumage, ant.I you fix him to the eai-th. ·•

(3) Personification (from the Latin pers1jua, person,

Jacei-e,

to make) con sists in treating un inanimate tiht as if animate; as, "The morning stars san!J togL:tlicr."
o figure is founded upon a rcsemlJ la11 ce of the thing

nd

p<>r... onifiecl to a t)erson.

Tlic notion of such rcsc ml.ilan co

84

TJJ h' HLE.Jfh:NTS OF' RIIETORJG.

is prodncccl by nn cxe;ited imacrination and accordinalv
0
'
'
0 ·''
Lhc figure is appropriate only as the expression of strong
ernotiou .
There are two distinguishable forms of personification :
(1) When personality is ascribed; as,"A thin Yeil ha11::;s 01·er the land;cape and flood,
And 1lw h i ll ~ are nil mellow 'd in lmze ·
While Fall, creepi.1v1 011 like a monk 111 'Ids hood,
I'luck~ the thick rn ~ 1li11g wculth of th e maize."

(3) When some quality of life is attributed; as, "The ma.d
tPrnpest," "tlie ltu 71gry fire ," "Lill' u l1i.•tling wind," etc. 'l'he ]utter
ki11d of p cr:-:01iilirntio11 is closely allied to nwtaplinr, nnd is common
in nll nnima!Pcl writi ng-. The form e r is m ore H}ll1ropriate to poetry
all\I past-1iunato oratory.
::lintu tlw E11g- lisl1 lu11 g- uugo recngnizC's ouly natnrnl g<'n<ler while
the Lat in, (J reek, French, Uermnn, nnu most other lnnguage~ ·admit
nlso_ 11 grno1matirnl, or constructive gena'cr, our language is especially adapted to this kind of figure. In English we mny person ify nny inanimate object, if w u refer to it hy the pronouns Ms
or /1a, \l'hil c in tnHll)' vthcr langunges r;ucli olijvcts woukl regularly
l'Plj 1Ii r<' OllP () f I ltt'S \I pro nou D 8l'l'rso11 i ficat itill t·xpluins grummuticul ge ndn in the ancient Jan.
g- uH;.:e~. aml ufoo lll'<'Ot111ts for mmt.Y of the myth ~ of the early nntnro
" ·orship. Tho rehti on pf pc nmnificution to mythology is explained
ill tl1e '' ::lcieocc of Hlietoric."

U) An Allegory (from Llic Greek 1ii, ?..o~, rdlos, other, and
ri yopi u1::cv, a!JOreuei:n, to speak) is n, form of expression in
wli icli the words arc ~ymliolical of somethillg. The ullog()ry is either a "con tin ned metaphor," or SC Yeral cognate
metaphors. Tlw following benntifttl alkgory liy Long!'t•ll1>w, stnrt.ing- with th o met.upliorical rqm.·sonta.lion of
llH~ st.alt~ as a ship, exparnls Lhc metaphor iuto a complete
de:;1:ri!>l io11:

STY LM.
"Thon too, Rail on, 0 ~hip of ~lntc I
Sail ou, 0 Union, .strong utHl great I
Humuuily, with all it ti fcur,,
With nil it ,.; hope; of lhture y(·ur",
lt; lmngiug br«athlc":; ou th y full' I
\Ve know what mu,t e r laid thy k eel,
"What workmen wrought thy rih :l of •tee!;
\Vbo made cuch ma" t, and eail, and rope,
\Vhut auvils mug. wlJ11t hammcr8 boat;
In what a forgo and what tl heat
Were Fhnpcd the anchor:; of thy hope I
F ear n ot each ,.; uddcn sound n11d >hock'Ti:; of th o wav c 1111d n ot the rock;
'Ti:l but the flapping of th e ~ail,
And uot a rent ma<lc l>y tho gale !
In 8pilo of ror;k and tempc"t ronr,
In 8pit,c of fal se light :l 011 the :lhore,
Sail on, nor foar co hrea• l the <eu I
Our heart", our hope", arc all with thee;
Our h car t::5, our ho1Je::!, our pray f' rr< , nur teare,
Our faith triumphant o'er our fcn r•,
Are ull with thee, arc all with thee."

Some of our flnest literature is in the form of allegory.
ope's "Temple of Fame," Bunyan's "Pilgrim'H Progrei'I~, " ~1wn ·
liiitl"e "Faerie Quccne," Swift's ''Tal e of a 'l'uu," untl "01illiv .. r·,..
iib;els" m·c long o.llegoriPs. S e \· era l example:; ure found in tit"
-- " Spectator," us "The Vision of Mirza," lf"J!J; ·•The l'a1udi:;" 11 f
pols," 460; "Luxury and A n nicL"" :):)
.
The chief dangers in allegorical writing arc confus10H n11 1l
Obileurity. 'l'he !11f'tll.phor ffiUSt
devdopetJ wit\.t C011SiStt:JH'} '. Hlltl
tbls requires consiclernl>lc s kill. An allegory l>ccumes an e1111-'.111a
when it is ditlkult t" und er;;t:1w l.

ue

A Synecdoche (from ll18 Gn:ek av1 syn, with, ;ul\1
rccci rn) is a wonl w Ii ieh ex presses ciLlin
than it literally de110ks. 'l'IJi:-; lig 111'<: i:0
1

,

~m1ded on contiguity. IL lias Lhrce principal forn1ti: (I)
~ ~t is put for the whole of a11 object; as, " A 11 luouls
t hat is, all the mcn l wrrc at. work ; " (2) the wlwlv j,, p11 L
1corlrl [that 1,.;, J't'ople gt·1 1t·rally j
Ull'. ma fr r I ii I 1:; p 11 L !'11 r LI 1t • 111 i 11 !/

1'1JA' l:'LJ..'.ll/~'N1 ~'l OF lUiL'l'Oli'IO.

i'tself

81TLF.

as, "'l'hc marble [that is, 'l
l ie marlJle statue]
one of the fin l'sL ::>pc(;in1 e11.-; of art.,,
J.

Th e advantage
of synec d o c h e Rf'1·111 s to li e i11 ·1 l' .
.
1
t Ire ntf.l'11 t1 0 11 to t hat l ·t' . l
J.
S nmt.ution of
.
I ar . H 11 nr u· 11ch w i · w i~ J 1 t
n natural cxpPd ie 11t for clot! . • h
l . .
" •·rnp 1ras iz c'. It is
~·
•" words.
ll ug t oug it lll a <.hes:; of Sjie""1'J1'
c· uri<l
""mcrc..i
v

(Ii) A Metonymy
(from tli c Grl'l: k /u T<i m et ·z . . 1 · t·
l
•
,
1., mu1 ca mg
e i:.rn ge, and u11v11u, o11y111a, ll:l11ll') is a d cs in- nat.ion of
o l >Jed J
f ·
o
an
'Y one o Jl : > accompa11im c11 k;. Hh ctc>1·1· c1",m s I1ave
<l. ·· l , l . · . . .
."H Cl ,uid s ubd1n<l etl metonyn1ies u11til the most ca ac1ous m e mory would be tuxcd to l'l't.:11.11 t l '
P
fi J
·
.
•
icm. A thrceu.11 ~·la s:; 1ll cat 1 on will sulli tl' fo r o11r purpo::;e. (1) Tl
1
f'iJed I:> Jlll l for th e rnu sr, or Lbe cau8c is pu t fo r th '''/' t ~
'LS " Q. 111 ( .
/. . .
C r';i, CC ,
' ,,
,
/J7a .11 trnrs [t hat i:-:, th e cau se, oltl ncrc] mak
0
foll y \·cuer·d I.?'' (•>) Tl
· .
e
•
, i c,
~ . io s1_r;11 i:; pn t for tl1 c tlt'ing siqnijtl'd; <.Ls, ~'_'rh e p en (li te rary power] is mig htier t han. the
swo rd [m1l1tary power] " ( 3 ) 'J'J , . . .
.
.
·
ic coulai 11cr is pnt for
th o lltt11g co11tai11ed · as, "T b , 1 r . [tl
. .
.
,
e LOuse . mt is, i ts occupants] 1s corr upt."

obj~;:~n:fmt~'Ofl:~~t srnn~~!~C~~· ~S a~:se~l~i~

C~ntiguity

the
of two
a11 011rnln11ri ui;t·H 11 f Word s Tl
P
·
f.I •·xp liun,.. many of the
.. JI '
.
.
lUH w u say , •· llail'le Llw ici d . "
d
l. cu 111c~ iu thr• >u"h
tli e M'1'c/01
~ " 'fl IC wor <l " \\' I. <l
i t uw,
,...
Wo '
v.
.. 'd an
11
l•ll'ans <..l ifforent thiu •s in ti t
ow cv1 ently
.
M
· 10 wo S(·ntcures. In tli c fir,..t .
t.l1L' •.rt N!t · 1n the RO<:ond t i10
. .
.
· , i t means
.
'
·- ·
·•
openwr; wl11 ch tl1 c sash fill
D
.
1ike
ma nn e r, 111 (' .:l n s Loth tlw cfo,, .. ·,
i !-<.
uO"I', in
Cold n1 e 1111r; botl1 th u t t
w 1,1/ and th (~ pand wl1ich fills it.
ti un cal led c1Jld u11d nl ~oatle u tem11era.ture which <'nuses the sensn.
.,
•
is
1e se11 ,mt10n itself 1 · t ·
.
.
J.:r r \\'U\'
\V .
I
· J ra I S tlSl'<l in a s1m.
• •
l :il1J t lilt U lll!ln J>Ut S .~/wt illtO JiiH r
of lwariuo· his .•llot. \\' t• tll 1' <l
· gun : Wl' tl1t•n speak
"
'
•
n t'<' 1an• th 11 t I
J ·II I
slu.t •ltl' · uud tiii •Lll.>· ,
ll 1. ·
•
i e \ I ' '' a l1ird a g-norl
'
'
•
, ve ca
tuu Ill 111·k
I.
.

if ,

~!t ot I

Slllllll

iimscl L au cxculleut

Exclamation ( frorn I I H ~ La ti ll

r:r,

out., and cl u-

lt
wri t Lv 11 fu rn1s 11 l1i l'li arc i11k11dl'd lo
An <.:x<.: ia rnaLi un i,; as natural as a11 \'

-

ress emotiun.
of t: '.:p r cssiun, :.r nd is ti g1 1rati \ l' <>tily 11·l1c·11 1: ,;1d
convey a thou g ht in t li e form C•l' an emotional ouU.mrst.

~thcr form

'" 1.'11e inte1jections, "O h! " "Alas !" etc., arc not fi g url's.
n cxclamati<m is fignrativ o wh en wliaL wo11ld onli11arily
00 expressed as a simpk dcc laratiH; scntl'll<.:l' is tl1ru 11 !l
foto the interjecti o11al form ; aF, " Wha t. a piece of work

man I how noul e in

l'l'U:::it >ll

! how i1dini te in fac n lLiL·S ! "

The ordinary way of C'x prcssing th( • th11 ught. wnul<l lie, "MHn i:i
& wondel'ful work; nolilc iu n ·a ::;ou , infiui tc i11 t'a c ulti eH." Th e Yi\'id
conception of tlrn t1ol1ght excites fee liug, and tli is, min g ling wi th

th mere thought-el e mu11 t , produces tl1 e exclu111ut11ry fonn. ~u c h
t. figure evid e nt.ly IJelon gs to poetry an<l a11imute<l oratory rntlll'r
than to the solJer d eclarations of ordiruiry language.
(8) An Hyperbole (from the Greek vrdp, !1yp,,r, beyond,
oud {JdAAt:tv, ballein, to throw) is a11 exagg (·rnt ctl form u f

statement. I t consists in m:ig nif'yi11g an obj ect ; as, "Ile
was a man of bonudless k nowll'd gc ; " or 111 Jimini;:;liing
cm object; as, "His soul g rew rl'stlcs::; in it:; half acre of
tliistence."
"In sang uine t em perame nts or impulsive n atures ." 1:mys Grahaw,

" this tendency to exaggerate is very common. Wit h somn 1wroons, everything is 'Tfl//gnijtu"t ! splendid! 8'ablim e ! ! awful I! I
They n ever condescend to u se more ordinary or mo<le rute h•ru1s .
They seem always on s tilts. rai :;cd above common m ortal s . Som tl
timei:i they will carry t h is feeling so fur as to niuke u i;e-- 1iu duu I, t
unconsciously-of contrndict•)ry !t:rrns , 1mch as 'imm c 11scl y l'rnnl l,'
'exquisitely ug ly ,' '::mlJlime nonsem;e ,' e tc. Anrl i;ucli ··x p n · i;~i o11 H
are not couti11eu to their spoken language, IJut find tlicir way iu to

: ; ! , ~·
•.f
'',

.. i
l

'

. !

89

STYLI~'.

1'1lH J::Lltltlb.'N1'S 0 /1' RlfltTORIC.
Kames thus explain s the vuluc of ideal presence.:
w lmtover th ey may be· call ed upon to wri te. It is hardl nee
to state thut tlm; practice is s trnugl y tu l>e r eproved y Wl
ex haust tlie tillj >C'r hti
. . oL"· t iep
' \·cs 01· u l ir 11t 11g uagc o il triviul
rnon occasion::1, wl1ut is to Le d
' f
.
Jec s, or CG .
rea l!
.
.
.
. on e o r terms fitted to cxprcM
.
Y great or sulil rnie / Be!JHk~ . mornllv spe 1. .
. 1
·
c1uus effect. f
I
a ,rng, it ins a pl!
"
' or w ieu we o n ce con t rnct th e hub"t f . d .
exng-geratcd
l1111 g uagc , no o ne kHo ws h o w f ar l it
. o Jn ulgiug
l.
d
may· Clll'l'V
ueyo n the b o unds of truth . "
· ··• •
. A form of e xprc::115i un direc tl y opposite to h ypc·L I .
.
Litot es. Tl1i8 c" u::i ifl t s in cxccsi;iv u m od esty of t t, 1 o o IB caU
l
t ti · k I ·
s i;i cmcnt · 1111 '*
lo
1111 . um a great mun,,
.
tl lllt tie
l person ' k '
· no
' n1 Pu nrng
1,, no t only
Rpo
1 e:n ::a.
. • nn t "'•· rt>tlt · I.Ju t pven i' nf c1.·10r to most men
This
cxpuct1s10n has uut always thi s inte nt.
·
orro ,..

'··•l~

tho whole, it is by meun 8 of idcttl p resc11ec that our

pas8ion~ are

t11d till words produce thut charm, they a vu il 11othi11 g : eve 11 rl'Ul

ex·

cv e11U!

bJOttrbe liof, must he conceiv ed prcl!cnt and pa~slllg in o ur ~ight , before
move u e. Aull this tli<:!ory ~c rve~ to cx plaiu :;cvcral pl1c u ou1c ua othn·
unto.hie . A misfortun e happening to a s tru11gcr, makes a le"" i111pre"none happenin g to a man we k11ow, e ,·c n wh e re we are n o wuy intcrcr-tc<I
our acquaintance with thi ~ man, llowev e r sligh t., aid8 the conce ption of
· n"' tn onr vresc nce. For the same rcuson, w e urc litt le mov eu by 11 ny
e n t; b ecause we h ave m ore dill\culty to eon cc irn it prese nt, tbi\ll au

tba1 happe ned in our n e ighborhood."

1) An Antithesi1t (from Lh c G reek riv1i, ant i, ag1Linst,
-:-10811a1, Wheuai, to set) is a form of expression whi ch
es an idea upon the mind by bringing oppositl'ti

(fl)
An Apostrophe
(from t he Greek drr6 , a"1no
.t
,
.
- , f rom, an".
a ,rtef>Ew, streph cw, to turn) inn, direct address to the @ ..
se nt a~ preSL: n t, the ina11imatc as living, or the abstract
p:-; rso nal. 1t is close ly alli ed wi th 1·)ersonificat'
't~ ,.
·I · I · .
ion, w1 "·
'' i1 c lit l .~ oftL·n combi n ed . T he followina arc exampl
,
"0, faL hcr .A&raluw1 ! what the:::c Christi:ns are !)) " fy
coun try, 'li8 uf t.h ec. "
_

"Pn·" 11111pt11ou R 111an ! t h f' ret1 SOft would'8t thou find
Why formcu "0 weak , so littk , a ud so l.Jlind?"

"'J'l1i R fi~ur<'- is Pxp rC'ti1<i v c of strong fr·Pli11~. and hence shou1d
u .· C'd <1111) wlit•n tlie n ·n<lC'r or h C'u.rc r 1· l'l u I r e tHl y nnuer
.1
the infl n......_ '
ol :;11 1111• "111otio 11 · It i ·H <"l
. try antl oratory. u- . -.·
, 1idly f •n 111 J ·111 poe

· one conception;

as, "Gold cannot make a man llal'Ji!J,
more than rags can make him miserable." Th .:
form of the antithesis is the balanced sc ntcncr, as
example. 'l'hcrc may be antithesis of thought,

t, \\ithout the balan ced se ntence.
following from Lord J effrey's d escription of the stea m 1~n gin c
.e xample of antithesis in thought, and too. cc rtuiH t:xkut,
ftli>ttill8iOD :

J '8 become a
·,

thing , s tupend ous alike f or its force un<l il o fkxih ilit y ; f or

lifous p ow e r wh ich it cun ex ert; and the ea"" · prec i"i on uml d11nility

I'· J;cll ltCAn b e va ried , d is t.ribnt.ed and

appli e<L The trun k of 1H1 d e1 ,tia111 .
(Jlek up 11 pin or r e nd an onk , is as nothing to it. It c1\11 cn~ru\'t' 11 "'·al.
nta1'6C8 of obdur11te m ct.111 b e fore it; rlrnw 0111 , wi 1h n11t 1i1..- o. l, i11g, 11
•tine as a gn~rnmer ·, 1111!.l lift up a shi p of wur . likt· u linulik lu t he a ir.
lldl)brolder muslin, and forge a11 clior~; cut ~tee! into riLaud •, 11ud iw pc l
~ against the fury of the winds und wa,·es. "

(1 0) Vision (from the Latin 1•id!:re to sec) i's fi . .
l .
'
a g'\11.'0 "
i 11 ~v. u c h _
ui e _P•tst or th~ future is concci ,·cd of as present; '
It is nppropnat c to animated description, as it prodn
the effect of an ideal presence. Chatham n ses vision wit

.

~1e

says : "From the tapestry that adorns these walls. tlil

1111111ortal an erstor of thi ::; 1101,Jo lonl
tion ut thC' tli::;grac(· of hi ::; co1111tr_y."

was

lo:::L ! "

DO

TilE B'LEJJ.8 JV TS OF RIIBTORJC
!)

T h o fo ll o wing impressive climax
of Edmua u llu rk o :
occurs in onr of t h o speeches
"F
. h
o r ~1 g t~e n lll OIHh " , w ith nut int cnn· .
.
~:i l eil o f i\l 11 uru~ l o I he gu tc " ( 'I' .
t•.io n , th tR dt«t rn rr io n f:l"<'d fr om ll
t .
u
UllJ " f C . lt1HI "
.
I
<>
10
. H·Jr Uri, ll y tlcr Ali a11d Iii" frr o t:i o u" "~
" C'.!l"J> c te ly did Llr etit: lllflHlera in
\ O \\'. l itat. wJi e u th e D ri t i ~ l1 u n uic::; tn1 v c;:·.ub~uh c l hur.11~eht·1"1 uf rJ 1l! iJ' irnpio us
ilrt•t! H o f tnil, ·~ in u ll tl irec rin11" 11
I
e el ,"~ rh c y did . llw Ca rn nt ic for 11 111.1·
r t
' . 1ro11 •· 1 til t' wl1 I· I"
.
.
Q

JO ::i ~ c ~HlO
duocrip ti ou

The following distinctions are worth noting: Ridicu le in1plics
ltru g hte r ming lc<l. wi t h co nte m pt ; derision i1:1 rid icule fro m a pe rtK>nal fe elirig of hostility; mockery is ins ulti ng <l.e ri t< ion ; s a tir e i:.i
wi t ty mock ery; irony is disguise<l. 1:1 a t. ire ; sarcasm is uittf'r sa tin·.
T b t•se tl istinctious serv e to p ui n t out the chief d i.ffercnce:; ut:L m Tll
the t erms.

~ ll ,

•.
u l i n 1· v i tl1 1·1r rn nrc h, they d id
c.l11id. ll M "'"' fo ur· fool Pu b•'llHt of un
( ' 111 11 o 1 m tillcucc ff·1i.;u c d u 1·c r t' · ' ·•· I
. y

11 u u1 , n o t Oll t.; w11n rn 11, 11 o t

II

l1 utc vcr. One <lcu 1

·r . '

5. Uulcs for Figures.

uc '' uu e region. H

Th u <>J11 1o s i1., of l 'l i111·1 x t' u ant · 1·
.
• ·
u
1- c rm a x
I ti · f
.
•. . 11 i ii; o rm of e xpresthe id1· 11 hl'co rn oH 1,
1
I St:! ll ll1 1CBI< lill)Jr<•S!'< J\'t• . .1
"'l'l
11
• "
· ' ' ~,
o w 1101·e riu g upon o u r uo . 1 •
le en emy is
l<tt'S, prC' p nrtngto 1 • ·
I k .
I
t i roatA , to <..l 1·vu!'lia t e onr fi ·l ·'
>rt.::ss t i c n1fe to our
I C ut:! , to fl lllll't cr then 18 ·]
,
u 11 <l to de1·o ur o ur po ultry ,.
" vei; lll our l10uscs,
1
·

1"<1011

(13) Epigram (from t he Gree k

i

,

epi", Y(>a<jm v, (/1'({pl1 l'/u, to 1rriLc:) at fi rst mean t ltll i11 sc riptin11 on ·i m; nn
llH·1d . ll l' JJ Cl' it ca me to i:; i" nifv 'lJJ \ ' J>u1·1 .1t l
•
. o
J •
J
l'l ex11ress10
. 11 re of. .., , l ·
A s a lw
·
n.
ii . _o
- JlCCc i , i t no w lll t' 1l l1 1' a f' fatl'm cn t in whi ch
1c1e JS an apparent con tradiet iun bet wc011 t he se nse 'tn d
t lw funn of 1rortls . u " S
•
.
' s, , ome arc too f oolislt t o comm 't
f ol h es."
1
£.-:r t ,

(J 4) Interrogation (from t he Lat in - interrooa/i'o "
tiin) ·
t
:;
, •• qncs•
JS nu a 1ways fi g urati vc
It is .., l' .
I
. fn . . ·
·
•
<•
Jglll () W ICll an
" 11 rn at 10 11 J...; ex pressed in t h f .
.
' · SI ll
c OJ m of a q nest.Jon . as
' 1 1~
ll.ot t he Judge of all tli c earth clo rirrlt t ? " .j_,l : •
' !11( '::i l 'O il IS . k c] U
. .
l">
11 8
'
1~1 ·n c to be a n <:mp ha tic declarati on that
tl1 l' .Judge ot all the ear th will do rig ht.

~1 5) Irony (from the Greek
bt1011) "s
r .
.
•

•

J

l

! t (JC,n1{1a,

t t"r6neia <l' ..

'

1ss1mu-

As considc·rab le ::;ki ll is required in using fi gurative lang uage correctly an d effectively, lhe follow iug rn k ,; sho uhl
receive careful at ten ti on.

(1) Figures should always add either clearness or impressiveness to what they illustrate. H ence they i-: hou ld
not be found ed on resemblances oit hcr too ouvi ou s or too
obscure.
Ther e are certa in trite metaphors wl1ich ud1l no thing- to e xression, becau se they h a ve Jo::1t hy co n tin ual u s t• all fr cshn P ~ s rm d
torce. Th us the " ra\·cn t ressc:;," '' ivo ry brow,"" lil y lrnud ," ,; rul1y
lfps," etc. , of ch ea p n ovels , have no rh e torical value ; u uL i11<l.it:a to
an un culti va ted ta:;t e.
The re is n o advan tag e in remote resemblances , borro wed frorn
eome special art or scicu cc, au unfumilior hi stor ical occ urre n ce, or a u
obscure mythological sto ry .

. (2) Figures should be in harmony with the character
• and purpose of the composition. Poe tical !i g urrs, such

as personifi cat ion, apostroph e, and vision ha.Ye no
sober prose.

p late in

Similes and mctapliors should Le in keepin g

with the dig uity or playfulness of th e style.

a. orm of cxprcss10u in wh ich the opposite .

sub~t.JLu tcJ for wl1at is in te1JLled, wi t. Ii t.J JC dc!< irr11 that i;s
fal::;1ty or ahs11r<lity ma.y Le eviuent ,· .-.u, " ll ,..,
'. .s
~
ru t us JS au·
1.1oi1, or a /.;/e 111au. "

Similes, for example , b eing founded on resemulan ce , imply a en
tuin coolness in ll!,jing them ; for· it is natural, in a stu le o f ;it rong
(eeling , to ove rlook resemblances . H e nce simil 1.:s a re out o f pl ace in
the midst . of a passiuuato utte rance, a s wh e n ::iha k cs ptare muk c11
llutland, under t error of instuut dea th, say

S1'YLTC.

TITE E!,ENENT:3 01!' JUillTORIO.

,"( Though in their corrupt noti ons of divine . wor_ship, they nrc np t
. ; ultlply their gods, ye t their earthly devotion ltl seldom pa1,1_ to
·
'd lat a time whose oar they pull with l ess murmuring
'
,
·
ono t 0
h Id the
more skill than when th<>y sham the .adrng, or eve n o
JU\." Here the demagogue is mad~ first a~ idol and t h en a bor1t.
worshiping and rowing are con fu smgly mixed .

" So looks th e pt>nt.-up lion o'e r the wrntch
'l'ha t t re ml>lc ~ under hi -. <kl'o uring paius,
And so he wH!k~ in" ulti11g o'e r llis prey,
AIHl eo h e co ru cA to r en d hi s limbs U8tmdcr.
Ah! ge n lie Cliffo rd, kill me wi1h t.hy sword,
And not wiLh 8UCll n cru el th reuL'ning look_

Such a violent hype rbole as the following is out of place in a
rnerc dcsc ri pt ion:
•• I found he r o n th e fl oo r,
In ull the storm of g r ief, yet h C'a utiful;
l'o uriug fonh t e ar ~ at "uch 11 lavbh rnte ,
Th nt, we re tl: c wo rld on flr c. tl lf'y migh t hnv c drowned
The \\Tatll of h<;flVen, t11HI qu c nd1 cd tile mighty ruin."

·. (6) Metaphorical expressions shoul~ not be blended
· qm t ~ as errront
as
1s
_
. lhat

- plain language. 'rl n·s f an lt
: with

utlxino- m etaphors. Dryden exemplifies thi s krnd of
, - nfnsioi;in the following: ''I was sailing in a v~st ocean,
10
:bout other help thnu the pole star of the :mc1c·nts, a11tl

, th -rules of the French stage among
(3) Figures should be varied. A single 6gure carried
to o far, a close n,dh cre uce to one kind of 6gurcs, or a re·
sort Lo one class of o bject!:; for fi g urati ve exp ressions, aro
faults wlJi ch arc common among in cxpNi cncccl writers.
\Vl1 cn fi g nrcs n re en rri r· rl too far, they nro 1:<11.i<l to he strained.
Mu clt practice in wri t ing- iH r<'<Jllin•d before we learn just where t ~
kn.\'e a m ctapLo r or a simile to th e imag ination _of t.he render.
Smollett, in hiR" Hi sto ry of Englnu<l," eayl' , •·The uill underwent a
~reat num ue r of u.ltc ruti ons nnd am cndmc uts, which were not effect..
ed without \'iol cnt contcet ; at le ngth, however, it was floated
throug h both Hou ses of Parlinm ·ut. on th e tide of n great majority, ,
an<l steere<l into a safe lwruor of roynl approbation."

(,1 ) Metaphors should never be incongruous.

Lord

Castlereagh's sc n tC' nc e, "And now, l:iir, I must embark
i11to th o f eatu re 0 11 whicl1 thi s subject hinge~," combines
throe m etaphors whi ch arc in compatible. Such metaphors
are said to be " mi-:i:ed. ~'
This ki nd of confu :-ion it< often hrou g-ht about by using in the same
sentence two differe nt metaphors, which taken separately would

u nohj ectiunaule ; us,-

be

the moJerns."

~ Lord Ellesmere says of Sobim;ki, ''He flung his powe rful frame

· to the saddle, and his great soul into the cause_"

this section, on "Figures," we have eonsiuerecl :The
Tlte
The
1'he

Definition of Fi(Jttres.
01·iuin of Pif!tu'e."·
Ad,v a,nfa(l es of Pir11tres.
Kinds of 1"i(l11re." ·

Rules for Fiym·e8.

SECTION V.
VARIATION OF EXPRESSION.
1. Importance of Variety.

Next to a clear aud forcible cou1munication of th:rnghl,
n;riety of expression is des irable. It not 011 ly d 1spbys
· t l1c co111 pose r, I' u t a<lds
wealth of ar'tistic resources m

·I

j

T118 FLEJI ENTS OF RIIE TORIO.

S T YLI':.

greatly to l h c plcm;urc of t he reader 0 1· hearer.
grow weary of o ne tlti11g. As 1 at ure has provided Ii
ally fo r om enj oym en t hy her l>o tt11Ll lC'ss variety, so
s houl d striYe to p lease by the u on:Ity ancl J.iversity of
pro<l ucts..
·

nfs, a fforcfo unu sual fac ili ty for t his kind of Yariat ion.

wo may say, " O ur relat ion s arc friendly ; ., or,

r 1· lntion s are am icable." In ge neral , Sa xo n ter m ~
d bo preferred, as bci ng sfro nger a nd more farn i Iia r.

''If we wou ltl k c0p u p t h o atte nt ion of tho reador or hearer, If
w oul d pr ese rve vinlci ty aud st rengt h in o ur co mposition,"
lllair, " we must be ve ry att e ntive to vary our measures. 'Title
g ards th e d i::it rilm tion of t li e membe rs, ns well as the cadence of
veri od. ::5c utc nccs com1t ructe<l in u s im ilar m anner with t he
fa! I ing nt eq ual i n ll' r\' ul:i, shou ld ;lc \-er full o w one' another.
fll'utc nce;;. s houl d be int e rmi xed wi t h long a nd swelling ones,
runde r d isco urse sprig h tl y as well as 11111.guificent. Eveu <llaoo ·
properl y introd uced , alirnpt. sonntls. dopnrt urcs from regnhr cncl
!ta vc somm im1°s a good d fcrt . ~ l o n oto n y is the g-rcat fault in to wh
wri tL·rs a rc npt t i> fall , wh o nre fnnd of lrn.rmon ious arrangem
a :1d t o l1:t vt: 0 1ily on e tu nn or nwas uro, is not much bette r than hlf<1: ·
m g- n111rn a t a ll. A n ·ry \'11 lga r ea r wi ll 1'11 a l.Jle a writ.er to catch
0 11 e_ m e lody, and to f~rm t he r u11 of Iii:; se nt ences according to
~\- !it c h s~o n pro v C's d 1 sg n ~ t i ng . B ut n just and cor rect ca r is requ
for va rying an d tl i\'c r:; i(r ing t he 11w lo<.ly , und hen ce w e so
m eet wit 11 a utl1o r8 \\' h o urc rcm nrk a l.Jly happy in t his respect."

tit

2. J{ i ucl s of Variation.

Th ero a ro t wo pri nc·i pal ways of varyin g ex pression: (J
by chan g ing Lli e Di el ion, an d (~ )by chan g in g the
Lure of a sen te nce. T hese k inds of vari ation will be fulfj
illnstra tcLl.

Stro

:~.

however, often lend more liarm uny and
iiy t o the senten ce.

• 1 derivatives,

Yari at io n of D ie t io n.

'l'li c fo1J owi ng aru tlw md li oJ ::; of changing the Dictiott
with ou t esse ntia l al le rat io11 i11 t. hc sense.
(1) The exp ression may be varied by using synonymt. .
O itr l:lll g tt :tg(', l' UlllJ lOSCl l a::; it is of uoLh Saxon and Latiu.

tl WI once a common mode of expres sion to use both a Saxo n
. ·, t l.atin word, :;o as to g ive pC'r fect clea rn ess to the tho ug h t.
h o oompiler l'I of the Liturgy , being anxious to reac h every
U!Wlt:a.nd ing, at :1 time when th e lang uage WO.' l not settl ed , U!"ed
couples of wordR as, "ackno wl edge and co u fesR, " "d issc ml>lo
MiiHl~_ e, " "humble and l owl y," "gootlues s and mercy ," " !l.BSeml>l c
t together." Such a style is s till em pl oy ed by m a ny who
to mixed audiences, b ut does not d t>.serve to be culti va.t etl.

; '

.

,,

'

''

I'

.·

} Expression may be varied by denying the conof a proposition. This is d on e by using a ncga l iYc
_word m eaning th e opposi te of th e one prcYi o11 sly

; as, "It is dtificult to wri te a n ythin g new ; ., wh ieh,
d i&mJZcd, becomes, "It is not easy to wri te any ll ii ng ue w."
n the form of expression is r end ered m ore mild, ns
Ued a Euphemism; as " H e w as 11(/ !Lero ; " fo r, h e
This is considered by som e rui a figure of s peech .
1\ttle from Litotes.
ophcmistic style of s peaking may be carried to a

it oft en i!'! ,

was u C'J lfJ ·
It tl iff.: rs

I

~

''

'

'.

ridiculo us

Expression may be varied by circumlocution (fr0m
in c-ircum, aroun d, a11 d loqm', Lo speak ). By tli i .~
hod that is said in a round about. way whi ch mi ght be;
j directly ; as, " The celes tial dom e ; " fo r, "The sky ; "
"" · tc n~cs trial 8pher e ; " for. " 'rhc earth. " T his mo\l t
· \tion is not u sually conducive to en ergy.

--"
'J'lfE .EL B JIENTS OF RlfBTORI./}.

STYLE.

The cultivation of t his kind of variation is likely to lead to
an infl a te d verbo sity. \V!iite a musi ng ly illu:;tra tes tL e fault as

Jigcnce a11cl oth e rs won1<l be ashamcJ to show their fo ul copi rfl'. t he
secret of al111 0.~t a ll good wri ti ng , ei- pccially in verse. . . . \\ hatc vPr fault:; l m11y IJe d1argenl 1le with as 11 poet, I can not acc uRe my.
1 never ~11J} i' r a line to p1w1 'Until 1 h1uc 11w.cle ·ii
11 elf of n egli ge nce.
as goocl a:i 1 cu n .

'0,' Slli J U cJ.u\ l'lllill g H Ud liig-i d y CUltirnteJ \\' O lllllll, ::;peak·
i11 g in m y !.t ea riu ~ o f 011e of l1l'I' own se x o f in fe ri or Lrce<ling an l
posit ion , I.Jut who w as makin g l ite rary prl'tcnsions, ' 0, sav e 1ue from
t a l k i11g wi t h that ·worn a n ! If yo u as k he r to com e um] see you,
i:;h o n ever says slit" s ' surry ,.he a tn't co11111,' !Jut that ' ~lte regret,,
ful! \) W l:l : "

t!tat the multip (icit!/ of her

c 1 1r;11 y ,'m e 11 t.~

4 . Variation of Structure.

precludes It.er from ac,cepting

yu11r polite invitatiun..' "

( 4) Expression may be varied by recasting the sentence. Thi s m od e of ch a ng in g t he fo rm o f statement is
ofte n the only o ne whi c h will prese rve th e original meaning. Practice alo ne will ena ble t he learn e r to throw a
g i ven sentence into all p ossilile form s. 'rh e following
illustrati on serves to exe mplify t hi8 moue of rnriaLion.
T nEME :

• 07

Ma n is mortal.

1. 1\Ia n is n ot k • lh·e fo rever.
2. 1\1au m u st <l ie.
3. Man's mo r tali ty is ce rtain.
4. The g r:\\'e awa its all m en.
5. Humani ty is doom ed to di e.
6. Mo rta lity is the univerRal decree.
J 7. Death ends e ve ry career.
VARIATION S.
8. Tli c end of m an is clr•nth .
9. Th e d rn t h- pc nal ty h as beP n pnsiw<l upon all men.
' Venn : a ll d est i ned t o fill a tomb.
11. T ho na n o w hoaso il:I the tinal g u ctlt-chamber of
10
all.
1' l Dcat h 1-1way:; hi 1:1 HCt·pte r <> Ve r C \' t~ ry life.

r

l

l

It will he olm•:rvc d tl1a t som ;.) of t hese sentences a re bette r thnn
oth e rs . tio me are c ru de a11d com m 11 n -pla co ; some nre fi g urative ;
som e are d eficient in clearn ess. Thiti tllffe rr n cP ~h o w !:! why it is that
t he perfection of e x pr ess io n rcquil'es elaboration. :Many of the
best w ri te rs r·nmpa r•· tl1<: f11ri11 o f s1· u tt"·11c" t l1a t tl wy Lave chosen
wi th evnv (Jt h i;r :ulmi,...-ihle fo rm l1cfo n : th ey fi nally ado pt it. Says
th <' poe t Co wpe r, .. To t,,_,11cli and retoucl1 is, tho ug h ;;orne boast of neg·

Th e foll owiu g arc the mod es of eh a ng in g Lh e stru d nre
of a sente nce wiLl10u t destroying its m eanin g.

(1) Expression may be varied by using a question instead of a declaration. We ha ve already see n tlmL the
interrog ative fo rm not onl y a~ k s a qu es tion , bu t t hat it
also serv es t o cxpre:0s an empha tic s tateme n t. Additi on al
force is giv e n by usin g t he interroga tiv e · form. T h us,
"Shall we d o cv ii t hat good m ay co me? " is a mo re for cible senten ce than, "We should not do evil t hat gooll rn ay
come."
The interrogative form is not always mor 3 forcib le tha n t he
declarative. In cases wh ere the <iu estion sta rts a d 0ub t, o r wli cro
the reader or h earer cann ot. ins tan tly give a m enta l ans wr r, th e
questio». is 11 w eak form of assertion, even if it ue und erstood M an
assertion.

(2) Expression may be varied by using an exclamation
instead of a declaration. Tlii8 form will generally im ply
some cmo tiun on lh c pa rt of th e co mpose r. T hi s will
rr nder it un sui taolc in rnan y in st.a11 ces. In man y cases.
however, tho exclamatory form is prefe rable to t ho (1 c<'bra·
tive. Tbns, "How suolimc is th e midnigh L :-:ky ! '' 1.-;
more animated than, " 'l'lie midni ght sky is su blime."
The verb is often omitted in exclamatory sentences; as, "\\'liat
noblo conduct I " This is cq ui valent t o, "\V ha t no l1le cond u ct I hi~
Is !" and tliis is the cx.clamat<>ry form of the d cdaration, •· TLi11 coo·
duct is noble."

5

!JS .

TllE ELEJfEXTS OF RIIF:TORlC

(:1) Expression may be varied by changing the VQice
of a verb . 'l'hc actiY c may be substituted f·1r the passiw,
or tho pas::-:irn for tho actin'. 'l'lius: .-lclia, ·'A lax on
t\';l provokr(l tlic 1\rn crican cc1lnnists tu violt·ncc. ''
Pm;1i/1 ·r', •· 'i' bo American culo11isLs \1 ere provoked tu violence
l•y a tax on tea."

(4) Expression may be varied by using 'there' or 'it.'
Sometimes the effect of' this Yariation is to 1Ycakcn tbo

liCntenco by Lho introdu ction oft he f·spl ctiYrs. E111phasis
is somc tim rs gaiueJ hy 11:::ing these words, as the logical
~ ulJj cct of th e sc11tence is m~ulc more prominent by its
unwmal po:; itiou. Tlrns, "There arc t1t0 tall cliJ!s on tho
rnountain," i:; more furciiJle antl more idiomatic than
"'1'100 tall cl1j)$ are 011 the mou11 t;1in. "

87TLR.
( i J~.UDL\ TI CA L 01rn Ln .

POETIC.\ T. Onni-:H.

\Vhilo s'.unr!o the (',Jhs111111.
lltlIDC f:l1nll :ol:li:d
F'.'.if'

:1nd xhurt 1rr1·c tl1t' 11 7' 11//PI'!<

we "niJ .
Land.~

he cou],J we:umre,
nn<l tides presage.

li1111'.~ '

\\'1ii1 l~

tlJ I'

(',/l .'i(

It/f l

~ttfll (f,•·!,

~land.

Hum• · t' liall

Tl"' 7u·1 1yn·s
and ,,/i ,Jr/ .

lie c•rnld

\TC

s aill 1rcrc fnc

IDt':ioa1r1 ;

i1 u ul,

lnud]

presage times and tida.

The translation of pocti1'al ii.to onlinary pro~aic l:111g-11a::.;•• j..; «al led
If pro!'t'fly dt111t\ it i..; a v,·ry val11alilt- •·xen-i:,il'.

Metaphrase.

Expression may be varied by abridging clauses into
phrases or words . 'l'liis pro(·pss is pf gr(':tt .rnltit· i.n ~11 1 • 11 (71)

are but C\]':tt1.~ 11111s uf :-;111q•k
sc~1L·nc-cs. ('lau' cs arC' (1) Adn-rliial l'lall."(',;, "l1i«l1 :1r 1 •
cqn ivakn t to ~n a:l\Prli; (;.!) Ac1jL·cti\c: chrn:-:(·c;, \1liicl1 an ·
rq nirnknt l1l an n•ljcr·!iv•'; (:l) f.;111 :-:tanli\·v l'lat1'1·~." tit ( 11
are ('qnivalent t o a nrnin . 'i'hC' follo11ing :-oul1,;l. 1t1tl1u11 ..;
illnst.ratc tltt' prinr·ip:ll llll'lli111l:; of \:triatioa lJy thi s platl.

inn- how eunqil1·\

Sl'1l1l·llCl'S

•

(.'i) Expression may be varied by substituting the direct

for the indirect form of statement.

The direct form gin·s
I liL· ex.ad wor<l s of a speaker; as, "Socrates rniLl, 'I believe
th,it the so ul is immortal.'" Thl' indirect form gives the
ll'onls as reporLe<1 Ly anoth er; us, "::lucru.tes saiJ that he
LL· lievccl the soul is immortal."

1. ·1v;1,· 11
')

'll'/11·11

1

sm :tl1 :..c: Profit« li1-i11_r; snrn1l.
tJ, , 1r111· h nR f't• :\ ,, .. .i c-= Th e 11·111' /,a c111;; ("•·a ~ · · 1 1.

}'i/"11.fi!.' 111·P

=

l lieili[! l10]'..f11I.
:i . !.~ / ·1rr1-' linp<'i"1ll
4. ll.-f11r•· "" 11,,1,111·1,,d - = J,, .f.,1-.· lii8 d r1111rl1irt.
r. /(//1is i« trll• ' : Tl1is l11i11:; t nlt' .
u. ]·!· · \Jflti g ht ii. t!11 1i ;11 , 111i:;l1l 11s,: il :=: Ile bo11 gli t

ADVERilIAJ,
C!,AU::>l,;:O.

l

In the direct form the exact words used must be inclosed in
mark s of quotation. ln .. han gi ng from th .. din·1·t lo tl1e indirect
ft1r111 , trw thin! person take,; tlie l'la<"< : t1! th i: lirnt, nllll tho past tenso
take::; tl1 c pla<.:e vf tl1 e prcseu t.

(C) Expression may be varied by a transposition of
parts. The custom ary or g rarn ma l ical urJer in a sentence
may be ch:rn~ed for tl1c sake of cm plia s i~. and in poetry
the nl mosf·, frt'r·dom i~ alln11·c'(1 f1:r t lw ~ akr- of rh yme aud
nider. Compare th e fullowin ,::; csamples:

.

1

(

fu

A f\.JF.f"l'l

VI<;

CLAU::ilc:'l.

1/ ," it'.

1. A li••l' L' flirt/

I

.
1t

711118 t no/

11, /Jf l:; f,/ ,-rl
0

== /\ h"J''"

/J!i;;/i/ 1'1 / .

1wl

1·1 lit

•

.
2. A ]11ll"~" irlu>h i:< 1·al •10Uc = :\ r11{1111/,1,. l1 orcf'.
1
1
'!'lie
lv•1I"''
1rl1
rr<
i/11·
rirn·
l'
0
s
=
'l'lw
lwu
~•
'
,q/•i
! :I.
_
·•·
11 1,1/11! t/111 /111"11 r~ft/111 ri,.tr.
Tli·· ag•.' 1f f,iillu ·r:,· ·,·
I 4. Tli•' a!.:·.- 1rhn1 f ,11tlu"I' 1litd
'l'\1r• c:tntc-s th11l rl'l1dll'd ..-c '1'11t1 o·l•1./lio 11x ~tat<'S. "
fl.
,
/1 t 1rur/'
11 1•,
'
\ !i 111· p·i\·; ·.:4 thP rr• ft~nn 1r.1y I"' f In('."< . , )
I
:.
. ,
.
I ·r
./
;
/11/
111

~

L

g i \·1•..:

t \ ti' t·~ ·:l.SllH (~{

lf,'i

/ q!,,

I

""

· •

100

Sm1RTANTIY"

CLAU::iE~ .

!~

I

I

Plato ',; d t·:;ire was that lie i11iglit make t/1 1(1(}f{
bf't ter = Plato's <le::;irn wus to make tl1 e

/Jl'ft1·r.
Tiu rt 111' hopes m ll Cl l is onco urngiug = Ili s l/Qp( .
_ 11111dl

1:; 1·11 cuurag ing.

3. " c know that the 1St1us are
811118 = 'N 6 k
th ,, -Ytar;J t o be sims.
4. I r1x:•1111nH' HJ tlwt JIOU Bllld!J Shukesprnrn ::il
reco mm e nd you to .vtudy Shakcspeflro.
5. Ile k i1e.w I !tat we lw<l go11.e = He knew of~
lw vwg gu1w.

111 th i s S<'<' tion, o11 "\':1riati•111
. . o 1·· E'x1>rcssion,''
J1avc c•onsid ere<l : -

.J.

.'

1'11 N I .L h'Jf!.;_NJ~'J' OJt' Ril @TOJU G.

'/'!'. (;

./ IJl/>O l"fft J/f"('

:.! . 1\.1 n<ls () f

of' ral'iCffl .

ro I'; ({ f; 011.

:1. :J'lic 1,..11ri<1t io11~ of· .l>i1·tiou.
4 . 1'/te Va riatiun uf ::ill'ucture.

w

CHAPTER
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS.
1. The Preparation of lUannscripts.
addition to the composition of an e:-;s.ay nccon1ing
principles of inven tion and style: alrcac1y laic1 t1 u1rn,
necessary to prepare the ma11nscr ipt for tli c r('ad cr or
r. · This involves Punctuation, or tli c lli\'i si on uf a
po ition by significant marks so ::is to show th e ck.d nee of its parts ; and t he use of Capitals, Ly which
nntl sentences are distinguish ed.

:A

groat value of these mechanical aids to clearness may bo
from the following illustrations.
blncksmith passing a barbe r's window observed an unpuucplaear<l, wl1ich he read as if pointt:tl tl1us:
"WHAT D O YOU TTII NK "/l'LI, SH A VE YOU FOH NOTllJNO,

AND GIVI<~ YOU A DRINK."

.l\tering tho shop, he had his h<•nv.v h rn r<l rrmovNI, nn<l tl1rn
l~domnndcd t h e

liquor. The barl){'r. on t.liP o tl11 ·r l1 n11tl. l'iain wd
ent , nnd wh Pn th e l>lacksmith re ferretl l1irn to Iii:; pl acard . nt
w~nt to it, and read tlrns:
"\VUAT

! DO YOU THINK

I'LL SilAVE YOU F OH NOTJIINO,

AND GIVE YOU A DHl::'iK '!"

F.ng-lish statcfmmn, li uvin.:; uccnRPd an otncin l of Lli RlinnN'ty,
t iqulred to make a publ ic rctrnctiou <,f tl1 c cliarg e lit· read ], iJ

·tl

'

.. !

.'ii. .
~

,..
Jf

'~ ~
' I

1'111:.' HLJ~'MHNT:·{ OF RJIETORJC.
npolog-y t11 u. : " I said lie wn;i tlisliu n<· ~t. It is true; and I am sorry
for it." 'l'o th e s uq.iri se of tl10::1u who !w<l accC'p tl·<l it n::i satisf'actory,
it nppear cd thus in tlw dnily papcr::i. " I said li e wu:i tliishoncst: it
i::i true, u u<l I am sor ry for it."
The vnlu u <>f capita ls in cunnec1iun wi th points and spaces i:s sec u
ro n1 th e tlire(' fo rm s of the fo ll c win g- sentence:

PUNU 1'UATION
.

.1I N JJ

CA PITALS.

103

~Pe the r es t o f mankirnl, pni11f11lly
ti/
•hrncc, th cmt1"1vco, thruugh th e
iou• t r ut
' g I
•th thut cann ot he trnccLI;

. whil t• !he

"Men of 811 pcr1or gculu >1 .,.

uw • L

Strt.iggllnv
to cum1,re h c11<l o!J'
0
I J' •I t i 1g thro ng t a p..
.
'
remote con gcqnences: Ii'° tg l n I .' h
d ·arnllh and puil\t them forcibly,
they Bee th e beauties ol 11atnre, w1.thlllg t t al ~ ·c"c11co h~ ri ;eri upo n ; irnd , in gC'n 1 . lll •' ti llll1.i·~C( OC>l
JC n
!Jill
without e ffort; tl B t IC l!.\Urtl> n
l ~ a JllUl'lliDg fre:<hnc 8~. 1111<! UllUCC OUll ( U '
era! instl111cc>1, com11111111t:ate I ~ o_ J . '
f uuturc. 'l'he poet, the i;tatuary, the
I iotrc, that is n ot ECCdtt .111 tl '.c ~~:~l;~:~·n~turc far bebiud."
paiutcr, have produce lffill!{c~.

TlERELIESTlIEG l{EATFALSEMAlWLEWll ER EN'OTHlNOBUT
bOIW IL>D l:~T LIES l-IERE.

li<'rtl ic.1 lltt'!J l'l'tt tja l11e111 a rb/,e10!1 ere not !1 i11gb11 tsm·diclcl11 stlie sit ere.
"l!Prc li 1·:s tlit , g n •at. "-Fnl~e 111nrule ! wLcre 'I
.l\utl1ing but S·Jnlill du s t lil'f:l line .

2. The Purpose of Puuctnation.

I'nnctnati on aims chieny to mark the g ramma tical connc<:tion an<l d t~ pc ndcu cc o f' the }Jar ts of a corn p os ition. It
wa.s once laugliL Lliat point s were 111uinly in te nded to aitl
in rcauill g. Tlicir use in c·l ocuti on is uow ge nerally conceded to he 11ll'H' ly inc id ellla.l. 'l1 h0y ,·how tli e grammatiral cnse; of a cumpositi o11, wi th so me of" the rh etorical
furcc, hut tlu not mark the <ld nal pau ses in <lel i very.
'l'hat the same marks do not exhibit th!'l grammatical dependence and the e locutionary paus es , is ev i<lont fr om th o fo llowing
exa mpl e. \ Vi lson, in his" Treati se on Punctu a ti u11, " pui11ting for
tli u printer, 1.i1ud u:itcs tho following passng1: tliu~:
"llll'll o f " upc rlor i:c tliu ", wld! c !11 .. y "( 'C th (• rc"t of mn11kin1l p111 nf11 lly s 1ruggli11g to co111p rch1·11d to bd o u" rr.i1h". gl1111cc lill'lll<c ln~ th roug h 1hc 111ost rc rn oic
cn1t~c1 1u c11n·~ . like 11 g ht11i1tg th rough" p111h that rn 1111ot h e t ruc'<'<l. Th ey sec 1ho
1J,.a11ti1 ·.; o f 11u!111l: 11 l1h light and \Yllr11Jth, und pnillt rhc111 fun ·1hly wir ho u1 effor t,
u:-: rl1c 1norr iing !-11111 doc~ t.he i;accnl• IJt • r. :-:e~ upon ; uud , in Pcvcral in t-:t:111cc~ , com.
1111111irntc 10 ""J• 'l' I ~ 11 m orn u1g frl'M ht11 ·'"' 11 11 1! u11 11t'cn1111111hlc lu" trc !lint is not
"-l't'IJ ill th e rn·ari nll ~ or ll!l(ll l'\l.
Th e p oet, ti.Jc <IU(U:iry, the J>Ull1tc r , llavc protl11 1:c<l 1urngcti !llut left uaturc fur b c biud ."

3. Classification of the Points.

.
' ble to cla<:sify
with ex actness
th
It is 1mposs1
~
.
. e. .rnri nns
" 11

1
.
Lut th e full uw111('
mark s use<l i II pu nc l ua t wn,
o J1n::>wll ''

prov e e;o nv(·11icnL
I. .
useil
·
,".. re stri ctly. . Grammatical, u L: in g
( l) Four po1nls
· I re1a t 1011 8 . They arc
only to mark g ramma tica
1. The COMM A,
[,]
2. 'l'he SEM ICOLON, (;]
3. 'l'h e COLON,
( :]
4. The Prnroo.
[. J
(2) Five others are used lo exhibit Lhe rli et_o ri cal force
of th e se n te nce, and may be <'allcu the Rhetorical points.

They a.re
1. The IxTEIUlOG ATI ON, [?]
[!]
2. Th e Ex c L.\MATIO N,
3. The DMm,
[-]
4. 'l.'hc PARENTIIES IS, ((}]
[" "]
5. The QuoTATION.

otli er marks arc used to i11di cale nt ri ott s fact' s.
(3)
Many
ther for co llre11il'11 cc un dl'r
nnc1 these may i-ue group c·l l t oo-e
o
the hea<l of Printers' Marks.
The ~ec tions of this chapter will be_ dcrntc<l to th rs_e

Accord i ng to the sy stem u se<l in V1111d e nlwtf"s "Art of Elocution,•
the li'n m" )'lls~ngc, marked for cliccti ve an<l .o ppropriate deli very.

three cluss0s of marks, the rules for Cap1lals, and the 001 -

w o ul d i;t aud tlrn:; :

reetion of Proof Sheets.

!

~

101:

Till? P:L E:lf RNTS OF RflE T OHIC

l' UNC'l'U A 1'ION A N D

OAI' IT.AL'./.

10&

1

.i\1 lRt o f th e r o ints lllc nti o necl llUO\'fl Wl're nnlrn own t o th e anci ents.
Sorn e o f tl 1e m w e r e in troJu ced in tli e third ce nt un· li..toro ('hfr·t ' ·
:; 'uy
.
.
A n ,..t6pli a 11<·:;, a g rarum a riuu uf Al 1·xaud r ia. Th ey J iu n ot co 111t• into
gc nt·ral u:;e, l1owc vur, until al.io u t 1000 A. I>., wli en Al d us J\Jauutius
a learn ed and tas t .- ful print e r o f \ ' 1·11i r·,-, lwg11 11 tli o pu l.i l ica ti uu of th~
fin e t•J itiun s o f t l1e an c ie n t cl assics wliic li JJcar liis na mi·.
'l'h e 11u1111·s o f t lie µTamma ticu l point s w e re l.iu rr" wed from the
k.ind~ an d pu n s of i;e nt unces r ecog n iz.-J by th e a nc ieut rlit.:tori cians.
'l. h u_s th e P e rio<l ( from th o ()reek rrc11ii11loi;-, p er iud us, tl1 e w ay a!·u und)
s 1grnfieu a corn pl1·te c irc uit of wo rds ; th a t is, a compl Ne si·n tencu in cl utlin g s u bj<·d, copula a nt.I p1 edi cu te. Th e Co lo n (fro !ll th e Q ; eek
h·,:,:;_,,," kulu11 , a lllt 'lllbe r j was t 11 0 g reat Ps t divi :;io n u f a p e riod. Tli e
Se111i co lo11 I fo rm t·d l1y pre fixin g- t lie L a ti11 .~1 111 /, liul f , t1J tli e word
C'. •.lu1 1) w ~s tlic g reate:-;t div is iun of a co lo n. T l1c Cou11n a (frum the
U n •ck ""111111 , k um111a , a scgrne:it ) w as t l1 c lf'as t se p1t rn tP pur t o f u
RPll L<- 11 ct~ l'X <'t• pt its co n s ti t uent w o rds a nd l ei t.('fS. 'f'IJ ,. o ri g iu of these
t en 11 t:1 t:1 l io w s th e nat u ra l use of t h o poi nts u nm et.I fro.111 tlt .. m .
Two or th e rl iet11ri ca l p:1int s haY e a lii sto ry . 'l'li c JU nl'kof f11t e rro.
gnt iu n [ ?) i:; H!l id to li a vc Let•n form od from th e fi rst and las t li!tte rs of
t h e L a t ii1 wo rd <Jue.,tw, u q ues ti on , writt en one au11\'c th c otli cr · thus
Q
Tl ie 1
''.1 I·.xc
' J
·
·
•
'
'
tr
an1 nt 1o n is said f.11 La \·c u1·e n forn J<•tl from th e Latin
11
1
w111 d l o. j y, wr it t1·11 \' ·rti c11lly; t l1us6. Most of t h t: oth e r lllark s are
a r bitra ry. 'l'liuse lrnviug any kn o wn o rig in will be ex pl uin cd in
a no tfi pr p la!'c'.
_At firist ca pi tu ls a lon e w ere <'rn r lo_n'<l, nu<l th ey w e re rim t ogeth e r
w1 t li o ut s p aces o r J oi ut:-i, W:l in t lie i llt1 ><1 rut i110 gin•n nl m v <' . M ost
rn1u1u sc rip tH were wri1Ll'n in thi!'l way l1e fure th e Sf'\"enth ce nturr
1.iut s 111ull l.-ttt· rs ca m e into u se abo u t. t l1 at tim e . Tli P 1 mntif: )
11
1
priuf<od pag-1: of t 11.Jay is th e product uf many c c11turies, and com.
Li1ws ull th e dev i t<.•s o f human i11gu11uity to please the t•ye am! e x.
press th e sem;e .

SE CTI O IT I.
THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS.
1. Uulcs for t he Comm:\ .

:t

T he Comma [, J is used to mark th e ll'asl di r isions of
S<:11 lc nct·. 'l'li c foll owing arc Lhe prin cipal rnks.

Ruu: 1. - Parenthetical Expressions.-E xpressions nsetl
parellU1 t·Lit·all.r sh uuhl ue i11clu:;(!ll by commas, ] f n 11 t
otherwise f' l'pa ra teu from t he rest of th e sentell c:c; a:-;,
" ' llunc:sLy ,., a:> th e proverb rnns, 'is th e Lest policy.'"
Rxpressinn s nre parenthetical, wh e n th ey int e rv e ~ e betwPc n tlio
relute J purr s uf n se ute u cf', nud art: no t stri c tly r•sse utrnl tu 1tt-i Hl l'<t ll ·
juir. An exprl'ssion is restrictive, wh e n it lim it s som e ('a rt 1c 11 L r
w~rcl to some s pecial sense. ·Thu:; in the se ntence, "Th u Horn at ::'l
wli o co nq1rnrc<l GrNc 1~ were LrnY e men/' th e itali~ ized word :-i n11~y, \.'. '~
r egard ed a s Jiare 11th1:ti cal o r n ·s l ri ct1ve , a cco rdrng to tl1e wn tc_1 :;
eaning. H ht' m ean ,; that th e n...mans w ere b raYe lll (' ll, a nd 111 lly t li rows in tl1 e stutem e n t that they COlHJ nt·r.·d U rt· l: c•-, t lie
expri~ s:; ion is p a rPn tl1c tka l, an d shoul d be pointed tl1 11s: '.'' I Ill' H1J man s . \\'h o i:nn'luu rt•d Ort·f' Ct', we re l 1rav e m e n ." Iftl· 1o r•• ·l• ·n·n•cc l•c
•
to th e ptnt.ic ular Bo man ::; wlio conque red Gr1:1!CC, th e 1·x pr 1 ·F:;1on_ is
rcstri cti\·e, anJ s hould l'it lw r c·111ta in no comrnas , u r liu ve o n <: u tt e r
.
" G reece ' ' t 11 mark th e l ogical i; uhjt·ct.
The foll o win ~ w o rd s and pLrnst•s are g e nerally purent.h e tl cal, and
should lie s et uff Ly coumius ;
0

~tlentn

,

nccordi nglyt

it hup pe n A,
a s it we re.
fi E'

in fac t,
!11 fin e ,
in rea li ty ,

COll ~C IJU C JJt] y ,

in r: ho rt,

llnall y ,

In tru1lc ,
u1 o rcor cr,
num e ly,
n u tlo11bt,

}J (H\' C \ 'f'r ,

iuclccd,
in a wo rcl,
!u brie f,

pe rha ps ,
Slll'el y,
thc11,
the refore ,
too,

to be Lri e f,
to L., sure,
yo u kn o w.

ot' coun;c,

Many of tli r auovp, e xpressi ons may he used in t"':o co~s tructi o ns.'.
the a llv Prbial an<l t h n co njun cti o nal. In th e foll o wmg,
lio we v<·r
•tt; a u
. 1 ve r>Ja
J • l : •· J fo ,1·1·v<·, r wi ,>ie on e is he may. l>e unfor t unttt l'." In
• ,h e followin g it is co11junc tiouul: "He wus wi se, how e vc· r , b u ~ 1111 .
fortunat e . " Au ad vt.. rbia1 word requires no co mmas. A c o nJ nnctionul w o rd must b e sP-t off.
\Vords n o t pare nthetical, y et plact>d at th e hegi nning o f 11 f'f'llt l·nce,
and re ferrinir tn it us a wh•.J e , :; ho ulJ u e fe t off hy a co'.uma ; a:-t,
· · l"
"Y es , T think s o ·" Tlw followm g words
" "Vb
v y, you uru 1,uu
.
used in t:iis way s h o uld IJc thus se t off :

I,
:·

't

lUC

TIJH l!,'Lh.'MENTS OF Rl!ETOHIC.
ng-a in,

further,

Hn:1t

nay ,

well,
\l"hy,

no,

yes.

1

sccu nci iy, etc.,

Pare n t h e ti ca l expr<·l'sio n s are sr1mc1inw11 f:eparut cd fro m the rest
.)f tl w S(: 1Jtti11 ce Ly dusli .. >< . m a rk s of 1 art·nth esit:i n1Hl brnd; cts. The
uur kt:i uf I>Ul"e utli e:;is are 111ucl1 ll·s1:1 u:;eJ thuu foma' rlv co111 1nas or
dasl ie:; tukill g t li ci r pi nce. Pnrent h t'l ica l inse rtions u r~· 111urkvd, uc·
c u rding to tlie closcuc:;:; of t!t e co nn ec tion, us follow s :

, .... .... . . . ,

,·- .... ... . ,

(

........ .. :)

... ..... ,
[ ...... . ..... ]

I'U;YCTUATJON AKD CAPITALS.

107

fr om ll'llP patri otifm1, otn• rS bi s life for Jiis country, tl1•Ht•l'\'CS (h e ll<imiratiun of Iii::; follow s ."
A n ·lative with f'< ·n·rnl antcccd c 11t s s h o 11ld he pn·n•ded Ii_\· a
comma ; as, " No ot.l1 c r can know tlH· j oys, sorruw:;, fl'a1 8, a11d str11 ggles, whicl1 ti ll anuth er's liea rt."

4.--Words in a Series. - - In a sNiei:i of wonb, of
the same part of i:ipccch, and iu Ll1 e sam e co1 1st rn et i1111 , a
corn nm sh oul<l be placed between cad1 two; as, '' 1I1111 o r ,
wealth, (lut y, and firtfct.y arc the lead in g motiYL'S of ll1L'l1.''
RULE

T!te comn1us indi cate the c losest connection ; the Lrackets, the

re111oll:st.

Hn.E ~.-Words in Apposition. - W"rd s n st•tl in apposition a rc :;et oft liy l'0111nws; as, "Shakespea re, Lhc bard
of' Avon, was l1orn in l&G4."
\\ ' orcl s arc in apposition wh en u sed as explanat o ry ClJuirnlcuts,
os i11 tlte exn mpl l' g i \'C~n u l.io\·c.

Wnrtl s i11 thl· p rndica rn, rcfrrring- to th e Rnbjcct, nfte r s uch
Yl! rlts ns i.v, becomo, i• r1dled, is rl/111101, i11 1·1111 sider rd, sh11uld not IJe
s "puratl'! I fro m tho suLject Ly a co1111111a, unless s c pa·rutccl from it liy
a pan·11th ctkal e xpre><sion. Th e fulluwi11g is rig ht : "Milton has
lwt·11 call ed th e Eng- lis li Ilonw r."
llrief nnd cl ottely co11111·c t eJ nppoRiti~t·s sho uld 11ot be sepa rated
frum th e uouns th ey d l':;cril>e: as , "' John the evu11ge !itit."

Huu; 3.- Relative Clauses.-Hdat irc clau ~c,., if not
resL rictiYc, sh ould be set off by commas; ::is, "Th e Bible,
'' hi (· h is the simplest, is t h e profoundest of all books."
If sew•rnl word R nro placed hetwf'en th e relnth·e nnd it s nritecet11 ·11t. <'\'t"ll wh e n t.he n ·lati v<; is n·st r ictin:-, tl1 C' relntivo) ~ho 11ld lie prec.·.J,"1 liy n t'll ll111ia ; ns, " Ho is a mnu of much cxpcrienCt', who lius
cros ~-<' x am ino:d ltis own soul."
~ .. al:-10 i t ttlwu lll lit• prec<•<lrnl hy n comma , wh<'n im111<>1lint<,]v fol.
lo\\·.,.J by un ex pressiuu so t olf Ly comnms ; as, "'flao suhlier. who,

\Vh en th e co njuncti o n s are expressed , th e comma Hlio11ld lie
omitted; a;;," Le t u s freely drink in th e soul of lo\·c and beauty
mH.l wi s Jmn fro 111 all nature and art un<l ltiiitory ." :::lm11 n \\'111tltl
se po.rato all tli ef'e \Vo rds by a comma between cad1 two, lillt 8ud 1 i:;
not the l>es t u s age.
WI.J e n tlr e conj unctio n is omitted b etw ee n tli e last two \1·n r1l::i
in tlw !'\c ri es, a comma 111 ust l>e p laced aftr·r th e la,;t ; a~. " I ...t 11 ~ 1 ry
to enri ch, purify. c nn olil•', our tnin <I H."
A crnu111a 1-'l1uult.l n o t lJe pl ucrd uftl'r the lu st w o rrl o f a f'Prir;;
when followed by a siug le wo rd ; a:;, " Life i1:1 n constant, l'l'SJ ;rJ!lsihl 1.,
unavoidttbl<! n ·al it v."
Cnrn 1-1houltl h e -t.nk <·n t•i avoitl rrgn rd in g wor<lR aii in t.li" "" "" '
grnm:nat.ical cu11 strnct iuu l.Jl'ca u :>e t lwy l1appcn to be t~:(· Ra1Hc' \"' ' rt,..
of speech. In t h e exprc::;:;ion, "A s wift Linck liawk, Lit e hr:<t adjective qualifi es I.10th th e socond adjective anti tl1 e not'.11 taken t .. g,•t l'. •·r,
o.nd not simply the noun . It w o ulcl be wrou g to wnlll tl1 e c xprcs><wn
"A swift, black hawk ."

H u LE G.-Continued Sentences.-Eaeli s i111pl t· t·u-11rdi -

nate se ntence or c xprc~s i u 11 in a cu nt.intt l'd SC' nl.t' 11<·t>, :-; l11111 id
be folluw e<l liy a comma; as, "f:kieucc tu111whi rnou11tai11 s,
spans con ti nc n t,:-;, bri<l gc:-; seas, irn<l weighs the star,,;."
If the co-ordinate cle m ents of a 1:wntt·nce ore compl ex, tlwy 111u;:;t
be separatecl hy Rcmi-colons; :rn, "Sdcnc<·, hy the h elp of explosivC':'l ,
tu 11 nels monutai11ti; liy t.he i •uw<'r .,f ,., t,·am , ,.; pnnR r-nn ti11 .. nt >' . l>y tl 11 ~

nit.! of t1 1e m11ri1a·r' ::< •·o uq.1a:<s, hridg .. s
culation, w e igh l:l th o t!tar1:1 . "

S<'ai:! ; tt11J ,

l>y lie r skill iu cal

(

JOS

-

TllE ELEltfENT8 OF" RllETOI.'IG.

PUNCTUATION A N D CAI'JTALS.

1t ULE G. - Dependent Clauses. - Dcpcndcn t clauses
r;ho ulu uc sd o(f liy co11111ws; a'1 , " If th e sou l i:; i lllrn ortal,
:ic:; c lia rartc r will dclc rmin o i L:; de:;ti 11y . .,
A ~lepe nd ~ ~t cla:.ise i!'! on e tliat rP•]11i n•s n w1tl 1f·r tn cn 111pl ctc its
m 1 ·a11 1l!g.
1::;ge1wrnlty iu t rudu c~tl l>y a c1111j t111<·tio n ; ni:; . if. wil1..i.~ .
wzttl, ot 4; . :-<om etimrs t h f:' conj1111 rt. inn hrnr11itt1·d n11d th e contlitiou
impli ed liy tl1 e co nti :x.t; at<, "\\' ere I Cw:m r, 1' wo ul 4l not Le 11
tyrant." \Vh t>n aduuse is \'ery do:;ely connntcd with its prin cipal
e!anse, or illtrodnccd l>y t/iat,- u 11le~8 rf'nw1·pd at a co11isitlc raLle distanC'e fro m t h e vo rh o r prect>d1' ll by in ord,,r- th e C(llll llla is om itted·
a,.;, '· I 11· kut•w tl1at it was w rong;" but, " li e U f<Cd 1·Yc ry avuilaLl ~
forr n of ~::;istanet\ tltat ] l(' mig ht s uCCt:cd;" and, "Hu reads, in order .
tllat he 111ay g;.lin kno wl edge.''

1:

100

H uLE IL-Ellipsis of a Verb.-Wh cn, in n co ntin ncd
scutcn cc, a c,ummon rn rb is om itted, its plal'e is rna.l' kc·ll
by a conlllrn ; as, ' • Uomcr wa;:; t ho grcaLer gen iu ::; ; Virg il,
the bett(\l' ar ti::;t."
gt:LE l~. - Words

in the Vocative. - Wunl s i11 Lhu <:Me
of adJress :; ltottld be poi11leJ uff fru1n lit e l'l'::i L uf tlt l' :;e nten cc ; a s, "I am sure, H enry, l haL yuu arc rig !tL."

(

'

.. ti ir,

I rise to ask a 11u cstion."
RULE

1:3.-Brief Quotations.-A brief c1uotatio n , or a

sentence r escmliliu g a quo tation, sh o uld be in t roLlu cctl hy
a comma; as, "The firs t words of th e Bible arc, 'In tltu

Rtrr.E 7.- Transposed Parts.-A part tran sposed from
t lic mi<lt1lc or end to U1 c hegin 11in g of a SL" n k nc:e, should
he followed by a comma; as, '' To govern for a moment,

Le uctrays a

~mere d

trn st."

of

""tl~ c first

lesso n s of a judicious edu cation is, Learn lo
think anJ to discriminate."
RULE

Rt; LE 8.- Logical Subject. - Wh e n lhc logical snbj ect
ofa 8c nte nccc 1H.ls in a n.:ru, or consists of partssnbdividccl
by comm as, or is very lon g, t he s nbjcet sh ould be followed
by a co mma; as, "T h ose who falter, fa il. " "A life of
fol ly, p leas ure, aml sin , end s in ruin ."

H tr u : !l. - Absolute Constructions. -C l:ttt ReR in the absolttk ('ow;I n1t.: Li1n1 sho uld l1i; i,: ;·parnt.ccl frorn th e r est of
t h e sr nten co by comma.-;; as. ·•Th e door::; lJl'iug open,
Raw far int.u th e in terior uf lltL· l11H1 ol'. ''

Rur.E 10. --Words in Pairs. - Wunl s u r C'.'i prcs!:l ions

be o·i nnin 0a God cr cateJ th e heaven and the earth.'" "One

1

in

pai rs shon ld have a comma :tHl'r c:tl'h pair; as, "Hop1.1
and dr·spo1 1<kncy, joy and l'; nrrow, pl<·as1tre and pain1
<lil' e rRify life with their t:1 t1dd L·1 1 co1itra.i:;to."

I·'

14.-Numeral Figures.- N umLers expressed J n

figures, except dat es, arc pun<..:Luatcu a cco rd in g to the dl'cimal system, whic h req uires a comma ucfore cYc ry grunp
of three figures, beginning at t h e rig h t; as, "The R oc: ky
Mounta ins ri se 12,500 feet aliove the leve l of the ocea n;

.

-~
1·

the An J es, 21, 440 feet."
I

. When numerals are written in words, no commas a re used.
'l'hus, the sentence g iven ul>ovo wou ld ho wri tte n u:; followti: "Tl1 0
Rocky Mountain s ri tit: t w Pl\'tJ th om;u nd five hun<lrvd fe e t al>o\'e tli e
lovl'l of tli e ocean ; the Amles, tw1mty-one thuusaw..l four 11 uut..lred

nnd fort y fee t."

2. Unlcs for the 8cmi-colo11.

The Semi-colon [;J is used to mark llic t1ivi :.; io11s of a
sentence nex t greater than those rectuiriu g a comma. Tito
following arc the principal mks :

·~

110

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS.

TJIE F:LH.IJL'N TS OF BJJETORIC.

l~ u u;

1. -- Short Sentences
cu11m·cLt·Ll Hlwrt se1d,L•11cc;:;, \\'ilh uut g rammati cal dcp(im -;.
e tH 'l', arc wril te n one aft er th e otl1 cr, they shoul
d ivi detl liy ::it'llti -cu lon s ; as, "Th ere is good for tbe g
UiL·n J i:; YirLue fur the virtuous; there is victory fo1_
valiant; th ere i:; spiriLuality for the spiritual. "
Th e practice o f write rs diffPrs iu the cases covere<l by tho
Sollie in :; is t 011 Ut>in g a pe riod in all su ch cases. One ol.Jjoot
t bat it mnk l'" t lie pngc !"(; 1·111 crowd ed with capitals. V\' h cu th
u v1 ·ry cl ime rn1111e<'ti o11, th e pl'riod indi cates Jess connect.ion tbu
1·ast· tl L' lllU11 d:;. lu p rn..: t.ic(' , th e c1Hu111 t1 , semi-colon, colon, or pert
ut>c d, uc..:o rding tu the c losu1c:;s o f the couuection.

sen ten cc, if in trod need by a conn ecting worcl, the add
clau se is prccrdot1 by a sr mi-colon; ns, "Examin:.ti
an· form idahl r l'\l'll to the best prepared; for t he g
luul ma y a~ k lllorc f1 uestions lhan the wisest ma.n
:1. n :; wur."
\\'!t e n tl w l'1111 n1-r tion is vt>ry 1 ·lo~f', a co mma may be u sod.
An c xa11 1pk , introdu ced to il l ustrate, \\'he n thus added ii
cc (1,~ d uy us wilh a. se1ni -colon ll\J f•.re it , au<l a comma after it.
sern: tlio illu:;trativo mrn.mplcs utl<lctl to these rules.

from each other by commas ; a:;, "Tu G reece
. &re indebted for the three principal or<lcrs uf archi tcc; the Doric, the Ionic, and th e Corinthian."
W1ion tho t erms in apposition a re formally introducPtl nn <l <l cbod, tbo genera1 term is folluw e1l by a col on au<l the parti c1d u rs
· parntc<l liy semi-colons; us ," Grammar com;it:>ts of four p1trts:
Orthography; secoll<l, Etymology ; tliinl, Syntax ; ullll fourtl1,

y.

TI. uLE 2.-Subdivided Members . -Mcmbers of scnten
su l><li vi<led by com mas, uu lcss Ycry closely connect
shouhl be separated by semi-colons; a8> ''Prosperity
nal nrall y, th oug h n ot 11 ccessaril y, attached to virtue
m cril ; aLh crsit y, lo folly and vi ce."
Il uLE 3.-Added Clauses.-\VbC'll a clause st:itin
reusou, i11ferc nce, or explanation, is added to a compl

~

5.-Common Dependence.-CLw scs un11 c xprc;.;• us in a series, h;;i,v in g a common <lcpe11JL' ncu ll P" n
other clause, arc separated from th e curnmon elau sc l1y
mma and a <lash, an<l from each other by a sc mi-cul nn;
' If we think of glory in the field_ ; of w1:;(l om in th e
'net; of the pnrest patriotism ; of the hi gl1 c;:; t in tt'g• _ pub1ic and private; of morals wi tliont a ::;lain; of
gious feel ings without in toleran ce and witlwu t cxlrnrn. ce1-the august figure of Washington presents it::iclf as
porsonation of all these ideas."

2. Rules for the Colon.

. The Colon

[:1 is useJ to mark th e <'liYi sions of a "ennoxt gr~atcr than those re (1uiring a scmi-c(llun. 'l'lH ~

for its use are as follows:

-L:E 1.-Subdivided Members. - Membcrs of sen te nces
Yided by semi-colons, nnlcss numerous and compl ex,
separateJ by colons ; as, "A man can scarce

~-

4. -Particulars in Apposition.-A general
is separated from th e p:ufi (' tilars umler it l)y a semi·_
RL.LE

111

J:>e

-

112

THE ELEMEN TD' OJl' RHETORIC.

all ege his own meri ts wi t h mo desty, mu ch less extol them;
a man can not sometimes brook to supplicate or Leg; and
a numhC'r o.I' the lik e : Ln t ull th c;;:c things are g ra c ~i'ul in
a fri e1Hf::l lll OUL!t, which Ul'e ulu t-: J1in g in bis U\\"ll. "

HuL E 2.-Supplementary

Clause~.-A

8llJ1pl emcntary
clause, i11 t roduced without a coujunct ion, sho uhl lie preceded by a colon; as," Th e prese nt life is n ot \\'lwlly prosaic, precise, tame and fillite: t.o tho gifteu eye, it aliounds

PUNl'1'U.A1'10N .:l.NJJ C.ll 'l'f '_·l L;:;.

Hw_E 3.-Formal Quotations. - A direct qnohtion, formally ir. t.rouuc;ed, slwuld lie prcc;c·<lcJ hy a colon; us, A great
philosoph e r mak es thi s c uri ons r emark: "J t is possible
that some creatures mny think half an hour ns long as we
<lo a Lhou sa11d years."
\Vhe n tho quotation is long-, or beg-inti a ne w pnrag- rapb, tlie colon
may l>e followed by a das L ; lls, "Th• speaker made the fol lowiug
remarks : • J ,udi<~s and Gentlemen, tli e present occasion ia one of great public
interest.' "

ll:J

RULE 4.-Title-Pages.-When an explanatory title ful-

lows a main Li t le and is in appositio n wi t h il , 11 ot hC'in g
introdu n :d l>y or, the two arc scparatcll hy a colon; a;;,
H JEs"Llict ic;;; : th e Seicnco of Beauty."
If or is ur-ied, a semi -colon i:; placed aft.er th e main titl e and f 1
comma uftc r or; u:;, " ;1..;::itlt, ~ tirn; or, t.l1c Scien c 1~ nf Beaut y ."
A CiJlou i11 al t!o commonly used after th<t place of l•ul1Ji cu~ion at
the foot of the title page ; as, "New York: Shch!on & Co."

!

·'

i '{

·1

4. Rules for the Pcrio<l.

The Period [.] inuicates a full stop.

.,J ,.
.!.1·

I

in the poetic."
This case dif!P rR from thnt und er Rule 3 for the Se mi-colon, in
omitting the conjunction. Tli e ex ample nsc<l under that rule might
have the conj unction either ex prct;sc<l, ns there writte n, or omitted.
If omitted , t li c example would fall und er this rule. Tile sem i-colon
i'! prderrcd, howeve r, if th e addcu cluusc d ep ends on I\ verb iu the
precedin g .
'Vl11J11e,·e r expectation is rai sed tl11< t nn ad1iiti•m will follow , the
colon is u s<'d, e ven wlt L·n 1111 ~ flr~t p n r1 is not ii c luu se , but m erely a
w nrd . Th e adverbs y 1'd or 110 nn: thus fo llo wed by a coln11 when they
are cquival cut to uu amnvc r that is afterward cxp resscu in full in reply to a <J ues tion ; us, "Cnn Holla's " n nJ.; utld Yigor to tho virtuous
ctwrg-ies whi ch in::< pi re yo u r h ea r t ·1 },'o : yon have judged, as I have,
tlte fouln ess of the crufty plea by wliich these bold invn<lers would
<l e luJe you ."

........ --- - -

The rules for its

use arc as fulluws:

RuL.E 1.-Complete Sentences. -Compl e te SL' nten ccs
which arc no t cxc;bmato ry ur interrogaliYL', aud Jl\ll. cu nnectcd in a series, should Le closed with a pcriud; a;;, "In
books, be it rem cm ocr ed, WC have tlic Les t prod llC't " or t li e
best mi1Hl s. We sho uld any of u s es teem iL a g r L'<lL pri r ilege to pass ~m cvcn illg with Shakespeare or Ha<;u11. "
Parts of very long and compl ex Sl?ntenccs arc s nmct.imcs f'eparat<'<i
by a period. In stri ctness, SL'ntenccs beg inning- with f or, /Jut, dl".,
belong to the preccdiug sentence: but in practice an~ oftL·11 printl'u
an<l pointed as sepRrute sent e nces.

RuLE 2.-Abbreviations.-A period s h1>uhl 11<' 11sl'<l afl l' r

·every abl.Jrcviale<l wor<l ; as, "H,ey. U. A.

~111i111 ,

D. P. ,

LL.D."
When an abureviated word com es at th e en d of a s,. n t<: nre, <> 11 ly
one pe ri od is n c1,ded . \\"h en rt comm a or serni -1.:olon i,.; ll~ L"d uft"r tlte
abureviat,ion, howeve r, the p<•riod is retained hcf\ m, it..
Some prope r names wl1i c h sce rn to be ulilire Yiat ions ar<' 11 11t really
so; Rs, "0 rare B en Jonson. " So also such na1n ct1 ur; '1'0111, !Jill, Jim .
Some other words are reu.J.ly abbreviations, but ltave obtained a stand.

1'1I8

lH

HLHltf l~'N TS

OP IWETOJUC.

PUN07.'UATION AND CAPITAL.'{
'1

,·

ing in the language ns complete wor<fo ; u.s, CO'n.1Jols, from consolidato;
cub, from caur iulc t.
\V lwn letter:; nre douull'd, ns in lUilL for Mes:s rs, LL. for legum,
l)P· for pagt·i<, no pe riod i.i put between tlio ·Hi. Tliu s LL.D. (Legum
Doctor) s ho ul d not 1,e \\'ritt .. 11 L. L. D.
\\ "li P1 1 l{oman n11n1 e rals nrc US(·d, a peri" <l i::i us ually placed after
I.li e C(lrn pletcd (•x pre::;sion; as, Psalm s iii ., iv . , v ., a nd vi.

:3.-Title -Pages and Headings.- A pe ri od is used
t>1 1 a Litle-page (1) al'Lc r t l1l' narn c a1Hl d csniption of t he
book ; (:.!) aft e r the :.t11tl1ur",; 11a11iu with l1i::; titles; (3)
after the p1 1bli:;b cr's i1npri11t. It is 11 sell al so after every
l1C'a1ling m111 s nl)hcac1, a nc1 afte r sig riei t nrcs. Thus : "An
O nLlinc of !.h e N cccs>'ary Laws of Th ong ht: a Treatise on
Pure and App l iL:t1 Logic. By Willia m 'l'l1 om pson, D.D.,
J)rornst of tho Qm:c 11·s College, Oxfonl. New York:
f:-;l 1(·ltlon a11d Company." Sec Lite ]walling::; aml subhl'ads
in this wurk.
Hi

L I·:

how feeble and hollo1 . Bri t isl1 pol'lry lwJ lwf'o nw

I

111

I li e

eighteenth ce 11 t nry?"
When Reve ra! qu estion s h n1·e a crnnmon 11.-p<·nderH'l', tlwy ><hn11l1l
be followed by o nt' mark of in terroga ti o n at th o end ui' tlw ,.;eril's; a~,
"\\/hither now ure flt:d t hose dr.·arnH of l-{reatn e8S; tl10se lrn ~ y. b11,.; t ·
ling day s ; thrn;e gay-spt·nt, fc s ti vu ni g l1tH; tl1os1: ve•·rin g t.l1ouglitc< ,
. Jos t between g<>od and ill, t h a t s lian"l tliy li fo '!" B11t \\'lll'n tho
questions are c!i:<ti net am! 1mparatc, eac h s hou Id Ion f11l low 1·d hy 1111
interrogut.ion mark; mi,·• \Vli at bt:ivil izat. ion ·1 \Vlwrc iH it ·1 \\" h11t
does it consist in 'I By wha t is it excluded'/ \\'h e re does i ~ Wiil·
mence? Wher e doc!:! it end 'I JJy wliat i;ig n i!:I il k11uw11 ·1 u.,w i~

it defin ed?"

RuLE 2. - Ooubt.-Thc mark of int.erroga!iun is st1n11'times parenthetically im;c r tccl i o s nggcs t Jou LL; a;;, "ln
i794 ( ?) Frau cc becam e a republic."
2. H.ulcs for the Exclamat ion Point.

The Exclamation Point [!] is 11 sc(l !t1 i11dit·alc ;;0 111c
kind of emotion. The following arc t h e l'liid' rul es.

SECTIOH

II.

THE RHE TORICAL POINTS.

1 . Uuks for the Interrogation Point.

The Mark of Interrogation [.?] is usc.·(l ti) ask or suggest
a q lll' S t ion.

Tlw following arc th e prillci pal rul es :

lk u: 1.- Direct Questions.-Erl'ry qtl\'~tiou al1initLing
nl' a11 illi ::i \\' ('I'. l ' I l'll 1r iH: ll it IS 11u t CX!'l'(;f.(,d, sho ttld l10 follo wed by a 111ar k lol' i11 tcrrngat.i o11 ; as, " Who does not know

RULE 1.-With lnterjections.-Thc e xdarnalim1 poi11t
is used with in terj ections and won1 s o r C'lau;;cs 11 sc d lik e
interjections ; as, "Alas ! rn y tlo om is Roalc<l." '· \\' !i:AJ
noble in stit.n Lio ns ! what a co mprd w nsirn poli1-y ! \1 \1;1L
wise eqnaliza!.ion of cYcry poli t ical achant:1 ge l"
The differe nce uetween the interjec tions 0 nnd oh i:< often o\·"r·
looked . The form e r is used with u noun in direct addn·;.s, as, "'l'l1i~.
0 men of AtLen ::i ! 1i1y uuty prompted me to rcl'rcsent t<J y o u ." '!'li e
lu.tter is not co m111 o uly thus u:ietl iu dir,·,·t :id,l n·,;:.; _ (Ii~ 11<• l J'r"pcrly followed by tlit• ('Xc!amatinn mark placed i 111.111 edi(!(t>{// a ft .. r it,
but oh is :-;o fol low cd, u 11 I""" t I11 : <'Ii I' ,t,j,,11 ru 11,; t lH.. 11 g Ii \\'I 1a t f'., J J, '\\' ,, :
e.e, •·Oh I I could be uouwl iu u nuttilll'll, and count 111y,.;.. lf a ki 11 ~ .,f
infinite spuce, were it not that l luwe h utl btui dreanu,." But wlw11

llG

'l'IJF: l~'LH.1/HJVJ 'fi OF U/lt:.:TOJUC.

PUNCTUATION AND OAP lTAL8.

tl1e strong l'eeling runs throug h the f .. once, the mark is reserved
for th o elld ; u11, " OL, how sddom ltns u pang shot thro ugh our hearts
at th e sight of o f our ruin ed frllo w-cr\'nt urcs ! "
R UL E :!.- Strong Emotion. - Thn exclamation point is
useJ. al'l< ·r an l'\)H"L·ssirm of s!To 11 g emot ion; as, "Charge,
Cl1 cs!l'r, charge ! vii, :-\ L<_mfoy, on!.,

T!tc tn1d, ·1wy .,f young wri tt 'J'!l is to UAO thiR poiut to excess.
Muny fo1u :y that. 11 lil1·isl1 u1<u of tl11 : sig n:-; of cnwtio11 leuds auim:i.tion
t o th e s tyl e. 'I'li u r•!s 1tlt is far differnnt., fort h o in><ipidity is the more
cvidc11t by co11t rnst with what tl1 c 111a rk:; 1:mg-gi·;;:t,
V e ry iut1 •11,.;1· •·rnotion i>! HOllH:timf's m:prf' sst·d hy r t' peating the
mnrk; a:;, " Bul ie ve him! I I would rath e r ~n·d it Satan 1 !"
Th e exclamation point is o ftt• u nsed to imply do uLt or indicate
dissent. Sarcastk l·Xprcssions a ro often thus marked.

a.

U.nlcs for the Dash.

The Dash [ - ] is nscJ
or interrnptiou.

to ma1i<:

117

as, "Men will wrangle for religion, write for it, fight for
it, anything but-live for it."

RuLE 3.-Rhetorical Repetition.-When a word or ex·
pressiou is rc1wat.ed for rhetorical effect, a dash is usetl to
introJncc lhc repetition; as, "Newton was a Christian:
-Newton! whose mind burst forth from the fetters cast
by nature on ou r finite conception s ;-Newton! wh ose
science was Lruth, and the foundat ion of whose knowlel1gc
of it was philosophy."
This form of exprel!Eion is call ed by elocutionh;ts the echo.
The dash is often used even when the thouglit is repeated instead
of the exact words ; as," Our own naLure is th e first and n .·arest of
all realities,-th e corner-ston e of the e ntire fabric of truth."
Other marks are used with the du.sh, as in the examples above ;
but these ure omitted when tLe conn ection is close.

some kiud of a break
4.-The Parenthetical Oash.-Pa.renthetical r.xpression s, when closely connected with the rest of the
sentence, antl yet less closely than won1d be indicated hy
commas, are in<:losed in clashes; as, "There arc tim es they only can nn<l erstand who have known them-when
passion is tlumlJ, and purest lovo maintaiu:'I her own
dominion."
RULE

No ot11t :r mark is i;o misundcr.'ltood nnd so- misused M the dash.
Ma ny writerH use it as a s ubst it ute for almost c vury otLcr point
Thi,; <'nrclr·~s hnhit .i11111liett ig nornurn of th e proper mod e of ]ioinLing;
tl1ougli it nmy Le, 111 sonw cases, the r esu lt of n ne rvou s teHd encv to
11 i;u tii" 1w n ai11il1·H,;ly, wlwn it is n•it cmployNl in its nornml ;ork
of w rit. in g· cl .. wn tli " word Hofa c·t11111><•1<it.1nn . Or<'atcuut ionisneces·
snry L11 111·u id t !1< : uvur-ui:;e of thii; im po rtant. mark.

RPLE !. - Abrupt Changes.-A dash is used to mark a
sntld cn change in Uic constntciion or the se ntiment· as
' '
"The h eroes of the Rcrnlution-how do wo regard their
memory r" "Her soul was noble-in her own opinion:"

Ruu;; 2.-Rhetorical Pauses.-A dash is used to mark
a rhe torical pau~e or a suspension of the voice for effect·

'

It requires considerable judgment to decid e when to use dash es,
commas, murks ot parenthesis, o r the other points mentioned under
Rule 1 for the Comma. No absolute rule can be laid down on the
subject.
When marks of parenthesis have bc>en used to inclose an expres .
· sion which itself contains a parenthesis, dashes should Le used to
. niark the included parenthesia; thus,-

.

l ,;;\
! ..
l

'.

l'

118

TlIE ELEMh'NTS Ofl' UlfRTORIC.

PUNC1'UATfON ANJJ CAPITALS

119

·•Sir Smng," he cri ed, (for l o ll'e~ t nt the board-

"No character ifl prorfr·ct among nation R, rnn re than a_m11 ng m"n ;
but it must. he co1H'P<lcd, that , of all th e stat(:S of EnropP , l·:11g-lancl l1 a;;;
been, from an l'arly period, the moRt favored abode o f libnty ; tli"
only par t ot' Eurupe, wh ere, for any lengt h of ti111 e, con:; litutinnal
libe rty can be said to have a stable existence."

Ju s t mad e fifth cliaplain of Id; patron lord:
H it; rl houlderH w i l fl t::-::--ing. by mnn y a ~hrng,
H o w n111ch hi d ll:d i11g;i "ltlkn•<l--11 1 Sir ::; 1111 w)
"Yo ur ullit:c ii; lu \\·iunow fa.l l"c fro nl tru e: " '
Com e , prnpbd, driHk, and lcll u" wbnt thi 11 k you."

EDWAIW E\'EH ETT.

5.-0missions.-A dash is usc<l Lo note the omis.
sio11s of letters or ti g nrcs ; as,RULE

,J n ll--n ..... ... for Jolin Bro wn.
1877--ll ........ . .. ... . .. .. 1H77, 1H78.
Luk e 1-1 : 3-6 .... . . .... " Lu kc 14 : 3, 4, 5, 6.

When, to save s pa ce, <}tH~Rtiou s and 11.nswerR n r" put in th •· H!l rllf:
paragraph, they should l>e sqiarate<l by <la::;lwA; n"', Aro · y•111 alt1·11 tive to this mutter'/-Yes, si!'.-Do you enjoy your lu.uor upo11 it '/ --1
do.

4. Uule for the Parenthesis.
An ,.IJipsis of the words namely, thaJ, z',,, etc., is ge nerally mnrkw
l>y a dash;
·
. as, ."'l'he .essence of all poety mny be snid to consist ID
ti 1ree tiungs,-mvention,
expression, in spiration."

. HcLF:

G.-.~ependent Expressions.-A se ri es of expres-

sion s, Jepellll1ng upo n <t subsequen t part of n se ntence
slto u 1\1 IJe folluwc<l by a d ash at the end of th e S<)ri cs · as'
"The collision of mind wi th miuJ -; the tug and 8 ;mi~
uf intcllectua.l wrcsLling ; the tensio n of orery mental fibre,
a~ the stu<le11L reach es for th to t.ako l10!11 of' tho topmost
prnnac.:lo of Ll10u g lt t,- Lh e:,;e make men."
Ruu; 7.- Headings and Authorities.- .:\ da"h should
!Jc i11sortetl_ ud'1'.ce n u title run in tho lin e ancl the subject-

mattc1·, as 111 Llw; rule; and also between lhe citation and
t ho auth oriLy fo r iL; a.'3, No character is perfect among nation s, more than among men"EDWAJrn EvElmT'l'.

·

When the nam e of the author is not in the same pai:a·

graph, uut on a li11e by itse1f, no dash is needed, as-

Marks of Parenthesis [ ( )] arc used io S(:parat.c expressions insortou iu the boJy of a sentence, but haviu g 11 0
essential connection with it .
The word parenthesis (from the Greek 1rnp!.vOrn1r, p1u (n tlt e.~i.~ .
insertion ) mPans properly the p rtrt in serted. Tl1 e 1o1a111e wnrcl i;.
used to signify the marks whicl1 inclosc the inserted exprC's;.i11n . It,
is thought more precbe to call th e c un·e1l lin es marks of pare,, tfrnsis, in ord or to a\·oi<l confusion. But, as the words Co1rnua , Colon,
etc., sig nify hoth the part pointed off and the point itself, "it.lier way
of speaking ii; juslifie<l by analogy.

RuLE. -Expressions which break the unity of a sentence shoulJ be in closcd by marks of parm1tl1l'sis; us,
"The doctrine of the immortality of t.ho so11l was tat1 glit
explicitly (at least as explicitly as co ulJ be cxpectc<l of a11
ancient philosopher) by Socrates.''
When no otlier mark would be required if there were no par(·n
thesis, none should he used with the mark of parentli esis. B11t if
other marks would be used, they should precede or follow tl1c marb
of parenthesis, according to the character of the parenthctirnl ex pression. \Vhen the words in parenthesis ha\•e a point of thei r o wn
after them, the point which would be used If there were no pa renthesis is placed before th fl parenth flsis, and the point l>elongiug to

------------------------ - -

- -

120

TIIE ELEMJCN1's Of!' U!!ETOR!C.

the parenth esis is placed before tho last mark of pare nth esis. as
" While th e Christi nu ~ csircs the upprountio n of his fe llow.men, (and
why .shou ltl h e not <les1re it 'I) li e di Rda.ins to r ecci ve their good-will
by d1s l10norab le means. " \Vb eu u uy po int is 11 ccess11ryat th e placo
where tli e parc utlH·:-;i:; is thrown in, and no poiut is required iu th o
~ m rcHtlt e::; i :;, t'.•c JH•int t> h o uld <'O lll c t1Pc:r th e parc utli es i.~; ns, "Pritlo
'. 11 :w:rn.: d1 ,;g u 1:;e o r othery,rt l' ll a :-, ccrt.:L tu the proud mun himselfA
l s th e lll OHt ordinary sp r1n;; of n c 1ion umu1 1g lit e n."
Jn tl1u r1·pon~ of HpL' die,;, 111 a r kH .,/ pnrt·11th(·si.i arc usr<l (1) to in~loHc rt·111ark :1 ot ap pronll o r di :-;u ppro \·ui J,y t h e audien ce, an d (2) to
lllcloi,;., tl11 · 1111111 t• 11( th u )><' 1'!:11111:; i11dicut cd l1y g'<'Hl ll fl'H or otli urwise ·
n.H' " l '~· i ,; h to ask t h e geutll'11Hu1 fro11 1 Oliiu ( \Ir. 'l' h11r1na11 ) a ques'.
t1011 whic h he nuty nu~ wi ,;h to uus we r in t hi i; place (hear, h ear)."
J\1ark s of pare uth es1s a re also u Mcd to c n..Joso 11 um c rals introduced
for t~1e sak e of a clea r c nnni eruti on, n:; in t h e a!Joi·e paragraph.
Quert C'S nncl don!Jt::i arc also inte rpolated iu t lt o midti t o f a sentence
in. a. si~ ilar n_1rurnc r; 1t1<, "In 1814 (")Napoleon called him sel f Hing
(sic !) rj .t/1c J. rn 1clt." H ere tlto int e rroga ti on after h< l -1 s uggests a
d o ub t o f tlic co rrcctu~ss of t h e date , 11111 ! " 1ric ., (t he Latin fo r tlrn s),
followed by the qucst.10n mark , SllJZ')!Csts tlie <1ucry whe ther the title
wa1:1 "King" o r SOIJ.letli ing c li;c, a t! Emperor.

5. Uuks for the Quotation.

The Marks of Quotation [" "] are nsccl to show that
Lli e word s inclosccl by Ll1cm arc bo1TO\\'Ctl.
Punctuation and morality com e into contar·t la•re, and the laws of
nc~rly coincide nt this p oint. To o n1 i t tlw nuirks of quot11t1nn ~H pl 11~tur1,..111. and pl11g-iuri H111 is u cri1111 i. In a 1·ornpnsition
wl11 ch ti< pn·pnrctl for pub lic: dt'li ve ry nw ro 111urks ou tli to m :rnu script
are not s nificicut. D istinct a cknowl edg"m on t sh o uld be made in
wonlt!. Long q1111ti~tio 11 s nre o l>j ccti o nr.1 1.J le, because tl1 cy imply a
wu11t of orig inulity. Ir brit·f nud appropriu te, q uotutious add to the
ri cli ncss and inter est of a co mpos ition.

PUN CTUATION AND CAPITALS.

1~1

A direct quotation i s one in which the exact lnngnag-e is reporte<l.
When th e form o f expression is sliglitly llltere<l. ouly one inv ert ed
comma u111.l npostrophe are u se<l ; a<!,' l slm.ll try to live so th at uo
one will I.Jc! icvc my c.al umuiat o rs.' \Vhen we make no J>rl'tt·ns i"u
to usu tlic cxad laugua;;c, but g ive nH:r;·ly tLc s ul"'ta nc•• i 11 • 1H
wonh1, t.l1 e marks ot' q n otation itre unn ccesimry ; as, lt W&!:! Plato's d t>
sire to live t.l o w11 the misrepresentatiolll:I of bi:! ene wies.
0

Uuu.: 2.- Quoted Quotations.-Whon a qu otation

1~

cml>rac:cu wiLliin anotbcr, lhe conLaiu l'd qu olatiu11 ha.-:
only single marlrn ; as, T rench says, "\\'hat a lesso n t lie
word 'd iligence ' contains."
Whc D thu int1 ·rnal quotation comps ut tho end, threo a postroplu's
arc aclckd wi ti 1 a space l>etwceu tl1 e first and tlw last twu; n:;,
"Cha rmin g, tli e fri1·1Kl uf humanity in C\' c ry conditio n n ut! u111kr
every garb, &tys: 'W h en I consiJer th o g reater simpl icity 11f t!tei r
live:;, &llll tlit:ir g rea ter openness to the s pirit of Chri:; tia11i 1y , I um
not s u re but th at t h e " gold en age" o f m a nners is to l>egin amnng
those wh o arc now d espaired o f for their want of refin f'ro c nt.' " Th e
pointing o f n quotation within a l[Uotf'Ll quotutio1.1 i:i u..l :w ll.l.i o \\' ll in
the above example.
Whe n a numl>er o f consec ut ive parng ruphs nre q11otcd, 1·nch paragraph it1 cornm e uce<l with iuverteJ cvw1uus; liut only tlie last tu.k1 -s
the apostroph es.

l>olh ve ry

Ruu: 1. -0irect Quotations.-A direct quotation should
ho in closed hy qu otation mnrks : ns. 'Yhcn Pia to hC'ard
that hi· cncm ic:; call l'll lii111 a kid r11an, li e ,:aid: "I
shall take care so to live tha t uo oue wi ll believl' them."

SECTION I I I.
PRINTERS' MARKS.
'rhe most important marks which have not been already 111 t'11·
tionc<l are h ere gro uped together, fo r co nveni ence, in alplmbdirnl
order. Thi s ;;1•ct i•1n may be learned, or uocd for reference, ut1 t.liu
teacher m ay prefer.
1. Acc ents - Three mnrks called AccC'ntH, a rc mwd ' " 111ark tlw
stress of voice ou vvwels. The Acuoo L'] denotes a rit1i11g tow.: vf

'l'll H l rJLh'Aflt:1\' 'n ; OF Hlllt'TORJC.

PUNCT UATION AND C.·IPil'AL S.

vo!c1', or somtimes a simple streR."; the Grave ['] a fall ing tone, or
tltat tl1 e fi1:al ~'O \~·cl over whi ch iL is pl aCtKl, as iu Fr.. 1a:h words and
W<•r<l s end mg JU <"d, is sounded ; th e ( 'i rc umfkx l "J t liat the vowel
~ v c r wl11d1 1t is placed is sound u l wi tl-1 [)()th a ri><iug and a falling
wn.-~, a:; tl.1e prulonge<l oft utt1Ted in :<nrcasm.

· 2. T~e Apostrophe.-Tlw apostrophu l ' ] is ui>e<l (1) to mark tho/
p oi<s1·sK1 vc case, arnl (2) to den ote a n 0111 i;;;;ion ; n,;, • • N ig ltt';; sable
11mntle
fe ll. " "1'\· c m·1<le
n time o'
.· l wons
J con. .
'
. 1" t ." ]'I ur~ J;, am
ti u nrng mar~y siuilant s tak e th e a p(Jstro p hc with out a ny 8 , to form
tli o J>OSSessrvc; n:<, ·•Th o Agt>8' voice t<[Wnk s c•verln;;tiug truth"
"Mn::ie:'l ' cc: n ·111ouia l law." " ( '0111-;ci t· 11 cc' t\ak i·."
.
3. Brace s .- 'l' i1t'><1· u ru us<·d t 11 Hiltlw llt ut a n11rnlwr of i11divi<luuls
arc takeu tog ethe r U8 referring to ~urnetldn g co mmon . as
r Ortlt og- raphy,

'

'

Grammar includ e~ .J Etymol ogy,

l

Syn tax,
1' ro ~od .V.

4. Brackets.- \\'h r n a purr ntl1..tica l in i-:e rtion is too little con.
n1•r t ed wi t h Ow tl'X I. for inclus ion in marks of parc nthr·s is, Brackets
I .l n re mie<l . Hu<'i1 cu,.;t's are : (1) w li e n n flg-urPd pronunciation ia
g 1Y1:11· a H In tli c rlu11ari p:; ; (2) wL c x ex plu11atory ur ornitte<l words
Ul't' llll<'J"jJUl :t tt•tl.
·· fi. The Caret fAl is used in mnnu srrif>1 8, t o m a rk t.li n accidental
o11iiss io11 of a w u rtl or le t te r, which hu:; ufte rw ur<lti ]1<,en Jiluced over
the liuo ; us ,-

( "J I;.

fl. The Cedilla iR a m urk i<omrwh nt lik <' n Mnrnm pln•nd nnilerthe
l fl ttcr r., wli t~ ll it l1 as t l11 ~ so n11<l of 8 !)(' for e rt or o, in wonls IJorrowed
frum tho Fre nc h ; a,,., f ,u;rulc [.fasade.]
7. Dieresis.-A Diewsis [ ··] i ~ a mark, fo rm ed of two d tJ ts , placed
O\"t' r the seco11d o f two :; u cc1·Hs ivc Yo wel:,i, ti) s ho w that they are
J> ron oun crd snpuratcly ; ns, cooperation. A hyphen is s ometimes
used for the sam e purpose : as, co-<>peratiQn .
8. Ellips is . -MarkH of ElliJJsis [ ·~ * * *, ...... , - - - -] are
u st>d to tlunot.o the omiss ion uf lette rs, word s , sentences, and para·
gra pl1s.

U. Emphasis .- Mnrk :; of E mpl111s i1:1 cull ;1pcci al attention to some
1<tllte11wnt. They are (1 ) th\J Index [ii.lr], nu<l (2) the illlterism [***.]

123

· 10. The Hyphen.- 'fhis mark [-] is used (1) to connect th e parts
of a compound worcl; a;;, text./Jouk : (2) to se pa ra te th e syllnl.Jl es uf
a word wh c u sp e ll ed; a s , re v-u-la-ti on: (3) to connect tli c µa rt!; •)f
words which arc broken at th e cnu of a liu c and carrit:d oYe r tu t lte
next.
11. Italics arc letters inclined to the ·r ight.. They owe tlll' ir na mo
to the fact tha t tl1(·y were fir::;t US("d J,y tl 1c Italian pri11tr·f8. Tlwy
are used \ l ) to m a rk an t: mphatic wo ru: and (2 ) in tli c E11 g li:-d1 Lliu lc,
to sliow tl1 a L th1 : word ;; printed with the m arc uot in tl w orig-in a l.
In writing , Italics are indicuted uy drawing one lin e uutl er tho
word to lie itali ci;-.cd.
Tlt c 1·xc.. :;sive u se o f ltali CJ'I di s fi g nrcs tl1 e pri11tPd pu g-n, nnd intlicates had tas te on the part of the writer. J utliciou ::ily used , h owever, they are of g reat value .
12. Leaders a m dotR, uf<cd in t ah les of conte uts, tu lead th e eye
along a line , fur the comµldion of the sense ; as,P AG E

Prouability ....... .. ... . ........... . ... ....... . ..... ii:"i
V e ri~iruilitud u ..........••........... . ..... . . ... . . . . :J6
Ideal Presen ce. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5tl

13. Le ads are tl1 in pieces of type-met al hy wh ich lines are spaced .
When these a rc used matte r is called leaded; when not used, solid.
- 14. Paragraphs (iiJ are insertc<l in a manuscript, to i11<licato tha t
a n e w liue tihoul<l !Jc take n for th e matte r foll o wing it.
- Hi. Quanti ty-ma rk s .-Thero arc tl1ree mark s which f«·rve to intlicate the qu a ntity of a vo wvl : the Macron [-], as in ti11.71; th e Bre ,·e
[~ J, as in Ji r,p; un<l th e Do ubl e [~], as in s!Joue. Tlies1· ind ii;atc
respectiVt·ly n. long , sl1ort, or co mruon quantity.
16. Reference-marks nro u sed to refer to notes, or s pr·ci al ly
designate wo rd s. Th• ·y aro (1) the AstnriRk [*] , (2) th o Uhuli Hk , or
Dagge r [1']. (H J 1.lie DouJ,J o Dagge r [t]. (4 ) th e Section [ ~ ]. (:"i) l'aml lel lines [II], and (6) tl1c Parag raph [ifl \.Vhe n a g reater numbe r are
requ ired, these marks are eitl1c r Joubl ed, or le ttera and uum!Je rs are
employed.
17. The Secti on n.;J is al Ro used to indicate a suJ ,cJ ivi;;ion of a
cliaptcr. It is supposed to be d ori vetl from the L ntin words , Sif; 11u1n
6ectimiR , sign of a section; the two old-fashioned long ff being
written side IJy si<le, but finally une b elow the othe r.
18. The Tilde [~] is 11 cl 1aract er written above tho l e tte r n in
Spani sh words, to show that tho lette r should be souncl e<l us if
spelled with y; as se1lor, sir.

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11)

PUNCTUATION A.ND OAPJ.1'ALS.

'l'lJJ<,' J.t:L E.Jl h'N TS OF Ull/JJ1'01WJ.

1~4

Types have names to dil'tingui slt their s hape nnd size.

reg itrds shape, th1•y arc onlinury Horua 11 ,

8~1ALL CA~PITALB,

}d

RO.MAN

CAPl'l'ALS, Italics, ITA LIC CA PJT.1L!:J.

©lo Qfnqlis~. or .Bhuk JJ:,ct.tcr,
c>Jm1111n '.;l:l'):t.

F' ull-Face.
Antique.
,-_-,-tJ

'/ /

1~5

gins with a ca.pita!. ..Su<:h writers at:i Carlyl e prolmuly horrowe1 l
tboir practice from Gerrna11 li terature. CapitalA are uf hdvau tage
only when used so sparin g ly as to contnIBt witlJ small le tters.

RuLE 1.- First Words.- A capital i-;lion ld l>c used to
hogin the first word of (l) every sentence, (:2 ) C' \ c ry
direct quotation, (3) every direct question , all<l (4) cn•ry

"C/c.:t y t £ .

nne of poetry; as,-

Old Srylc and Gothic.

(1) "The Anglo-Saxon, th e FUhtmction of our modern Eoglbh, i~ <' m phatical ly
mono8yllabie. 'l'hc Engli sh Bible ubound~ h1 gTand, sublime , uud tcmle r pul':;nges
couched almost entirely in wonl 8 of ouc •yllable."
r.l) Dr. J ohn son once i;:iid: "ll!y children cl eur your minds of cant."
(3) L et me a s k you thb questi on: Why do yuu study?
(4) " Adieu! ad ie u I my nuti \'e ~ bore
Fucl c:; o'er th e water blue,
Th e 11 ighl·wi11cl s ~igh, the breakers roar,
An<l :;li rickH lhc wihl oeu-mc w."

Ai:; rq,riH<ls s ize t h ey urn us follows :

I'h·a.- CoJ\IPOSITION is tLe method of arranging
rn ~ thod of arranging t
/,011.q [>r/mer. - Cu .\11 •1):-ilT IO N is the method of arrauging

Slil!lll l' frr1.-Cm11·u;-.;rr10N is tlie
Ro11r'./<:'u i.;. -C o~11·os1T1 0:-; is

th e 111 rl liod of arra11µ:in g types in th
is t h e 1111• 1!1od of a rranging t.yp<·s in tho pro
M i 1 tio11..--Co~t l'O~ tTt oN i~ the meth od o f 11r ra ugi11g types iu the proper
J\'onpu r dl.-CuM r•"ITWN i " tlw 111cthod of arra11i::ini; type" iJ1 the proper form to
J Jre oia.- ( \)M l 'Ot:'ITlO:\

.Aydte . -COM f'O S ITIO!'f I:, l hc lll t· t hq ll 11 f n rr1t 11 ~ i111-; l .\ Jlt ':I ill tll c 111 O(k!r form for USO.

The word capi tal (from tho Latin c11p ut, h ead ) seems to irnggest
ihe use pointe<l out. in th e al>ovc rule. us capitals arc tlw he.ul
letters of sentenoes .

l'wrl.-{AJ;'lilJ>OSJJ.lo.N la th• Wdt.hvJ uf arr&D.t" in( type.. lu tJ1e l' roper fo m1 foe uae..

RULE 2.-Headings.-Headin gs of essays and chaptns

should be wholly m capital .~ : as, CHAPTER III.-

SECTION IV.
CAPITAL

LETTERS.

C apital Letters are 11 scd fo r Lhe sak e of giviug distinot. 11>11 Lil cl• rtai11 wu nh, ~ " that 1lie ~e n ~e 1nay be more ob·
,.,<HIS. Tho mos t i 1nportan t rull's fo r t heir use arc stated
!J ~ l o w.

In manuscripts , cstpi t:il s 11n' i111li r a t1•• l lw drawin g lines under the
wri t ten wonls; two li1w" ['.,r HM ALL CAI'ITALB, um! three lin();I fo:
(.',\ Pl'l'AL:::t
'!'lie exccseh 'e ll RC .,r cnp it: il :-i is s im ila r to the abuse of lt,nlic&
S u111e g reat writt-rs, as Tlium :n; Carl ~· J e , Ii.ave given the weight of
their usng e to t l1i i< pra<'t i<.:1•. but 1·\·1·11 tlif'y ca nnot redeem it from tbt
s uspicion of ailt:etati u u. Ju th e Uerman language every noim ht>

PUNOTU ATION AND CAPITALS.
RULE 3.-Quoted Titles.-'Wh en ti Li es of book s or cs:-;ays
are quoted, oYcry n onn, adj cc Liv e , prvnoun, vnl> and ~lll­
verb, should l>rgi11 wit.h a c;ipital; as, Wl1it.c's "Words
and Their Uses." L oc: ke':,; "Es:-;ay 0 1t Ll1 c Jluma11 U1JC1(' 1'::

standing."
RuLE 4.-Names of the Oeity .-Namcs unll ti tks d
Go.d and Christ should begin ,,·il11 a capi ta l; ns, U v: m ·tdv

Father, Creator, Jehovah, Lon1, tiaviour,

8011

of Und .

A.hnigbty.
~l

\'rJ1 e u Providence is u s ed to nwan the On e who provides for us,
begins with a capital ; otlterwisc nut.

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1'llE l <.'L liilll!:NTS Ofi' HllRTORlC.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS.

\\'lil'n a nam e o f tlie Deity is appli ed to :rn('alcil being, H doc11
no t bl'g in witli a capital ; as, " Lo n1 of lords and King of kings."
"The L ord is a g reat Uod above all gods."

7.-Derivatives from Proper Names.-WorJ:-i
derived from proper names generally l>egin with a capital;
us, American, Roman, Chri:;tian, .i\IohammcJun ; Americanize, Romanize, Uhristianizo, Judaizc.

Tliere is much div e rsity of pra ctice in r q~a rd to pronouns referri ng
to Ood. Some ins is t o n u s ing Tho u, Thin e , Thee ; Ile, His, Him;
'VV lio , \Vh osC', \Vhom.
In Lli e bcf't c·d itiomi of th e English Bible,
the pron onns 1tre n ot printed thus, but with small letters. Wilson
Rays, "Prono un s r e fer ring t o Uod am! Chri s t should not begin with
capitab, 11111t-ss they urn uRcd e1nplmtica1ly without a noun."

IluLE fl. - The Bible.-J~x press ion's u sed to 11esignate
t ho Bible ur an y partic ular division of it., sl1011ld begin
with :t capital; as, Tho Sacred Wri ti ngs, th e Holy Bible,
GoJ's W onl, the Old T es tam ent, the Gospel of John, the
P .:mlm ,;, e tc.
Th e nam es o f other sacred books nl ~ o nre cn pitulized; ns, the
VedaB, th e K ornn, the Zc nd - Av esta , tho Ecldfl!l.

C.-P roper Names. - P roper nam rs begin with
a capital; as, Oresar, Apoll o, Ge rmany, t ho Atlantic,
Chri::it,mas.
HL:LE

T110 words river, .~ea . mountain, f'tc., when mwrl genr.rnlly, are
n ot prope r nouns ; but wl1t·n u i;cd with nn ndj• ·rt h ·e or adjunct to
s1wc i fy n p a rti c ular object. th f'y 11 rn pr•ipl' r nnm t'l'l ; ns , tho H ndson
B.ivN, tllO Bluck S ea, t l1 <l Hocky :Mo11nt ni 11s.
Th o word s Nurth, &11 1/t, l -Jt1.•t, a11 d 11 ·e.•t, nro p ro 11<• r nnm es when
thf'y d<'w >tu ctn·tain reg- i"11"' of tl1 1: •: .. untry; n1<, "'!'It o North and
the ::-iouth nro now at p ence." Hut tlwy nr•· n"t proi:<'r nnm es when
th ey dl' noto m e ro gcog r aph ic11 l 1 1 o~it.ion or Llir r-rt ion; 11 R, "('hicngois
Wl:St or Ne w Y o rk."
Th e wo rd .Dc1;il, wh e n npplil'tl to Sntan , h.. g"in ~ with a cnp ital; as,
' Tho De vil is tho father of lief<." If 11"<'<1 i;•·rwmlly. it J,egins with
I.., s mall letter ; ns, "Th e deYila nl sn bcli c,-e and tn·111lilt·. "
\\' h e n tt propf'r name is compound r·d with nnothr-r \W•rd . th e part
which i,.; n ot a proper nam e br·gin!< with a cnpital if it prccf>cl cs, bu~
with a s m a ll IPtt<-r if it fulloml, tho hyphen; us, l'ust-I-Ium cric, Ante·
Christian, SundtLy-school.

127

RULE

Some words have so cornpktely lost their connection with th e ir
primitiv e>;, thut they are print ed with(Jut cupit11li;; as , damask, !'rum
Damaseu :;; Jiliilippil', from Pl1 i Ii p ; l!imu11;t;, fro Ill !::ii 111011.
The rnunt•s of political imrties , rdi g io;1s sec t>', 1111d scb oob o f
thougl1t liegin with a capital, even wL f' 1111 ot d e rivativ es from p1., •1wr
irnmcs; as, 'vYhigs, Tori es, H epul1licans, l:udi eals ; J e ws, Prokst ant f:! ,
Catholics, Calvinists. Meth od i tits, Hu pt i:;t,; ; N utn i11a Ii::;t;;, Hc<d i Sb,
Ide alists , Associ atioualis ts , Spir i tuali sls.
Nnme8 o f t11e days of the we ek, and names of !lie m onths b«gin
with a c:-ipitnl; a s , 'l'hurnday, from Thor; July, from Ju lius; ,\u gus t, fro m A ugusta s .

"

Rur.E 8.-Titles of Office and Honor. - 'J'it1 e,; of ofli('c
anJ honor should begin with a capital; as, 'l'he Prc:;idc t1 L
of the United States, His .Ex ce ll ency the Governo r uf
Pennsylvanin., the Emperor Napoleon, Altlerman Smith,

.•

Sir Francis Bacon.

'i

When titleH lik1 : tltP. above nre used fr ~·<p1ently. and n o t in conn ec t.ion with a prnpt•r n a m e, s mall lette rs are u ,-,·d ; a/'l '·Th ey ~p,. k o
sadly of tlt o kin g'1:1 illnt•1:1s." Jlut when used w ith t IH· pro1• ·r na11:f',
titl es shou ld alway s b eg- i11 witlt a c:i. pitul.
Wh e n 111:1t:d i11 a rt ]w(·i fi 1· ,;c 11 ,.;1:, th e wo rdt! Antdt'111.'f, ( 'vllr.'J1' , ( '1111 .• li ·
ttttiun, ::itrrfr , U11i no-.~it.11, l'Lc , 1-d111uld lwg i11 witl1 a ""!'ital ; as," ll 11 r
vard University i,.; an old in ;;titutiun." 'v\-hom 11 :-;ed g'<'ll<'r:dly, tlr •·:-<o:
words s hould l><~g i11 wilh a smal l letter; as, '' Uur w un try O\W; s
much tu its colleges and twiv eraitics."

Rm.E 0. -Personification.-Tn Yi\'id prrso nification, tho
noun perrn nifirnl beg in s with a capital; as,quid.;cnerl ~ l l' p,
Brow n Nigh1 rr t ir t· ~ : yo1111 g Day co111 e~ in apace,
And u111.:11 .; a lt th~ bw11y pro, JJeCL wide. "
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1'1IE ELEMENTS OF JUJETORIC.

OORREGTJON OF PROOFS.

RULE 10.- Terms Defined.-Wor<ls defined, or intro.
du ce<l for the first tim0, begin wi t h a capital; as, " 'rhe
Uumma is nse<l to mark th e least diYi sion s of a. sentence."

SECTION V.

128

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Ru1.E J !.- Numbered lte ms.-Ilcms lh.; tind ly numlwrc<l i;li o ulJ ucg in with a capital; a:;, "lka<ling serves,
1. To inform the mi 1H1; 2. 'I'o <lclight th e imagi nation;

anc1 3. To perfe<.:t the character."
When the numbers arc introd uced parentl1eticnlly , capitals are
not necessary, nor are period,; necessary aftP r tl 1e numbers. The
tendency is tu drop both th o periods and t Ii (' capitals in tlic body of the
text, and to reserve th e u ninclosed numbers fo r th o beginnin g of
pnrngmphs; or, at least., of sent e nces. Tlic fo ll owi 11 g is neater than
the exnmplo under tlt e rul e : " Reading se rvc R (1 ) to inform the
mind, (2) to delig-ht tlt L> imnginntion , and \:.l) tu pe rfe ct the character."

RULE 12.- The Pronoun I and the Interjection 0.TIH.:sc 8hould al way,; he c: qiitahi.

Ru u: !:). - Important Words. -A11 y words or expressions
of speciul importance', such as those dcn ot illg (1) historical

· events, (;2 ) unusua l phenomena, am1 (:J) epochs of time,
sl10ultl begin with capitals; as, (I) 'J'Le F rench Revolution; (2) the Aurorn 13oreali i;; (:3) t h e Augustan Age.
Il11LE l ·L- Roman Numerals. -Uapilal s arc sometimes
111-il'd tu n•prmwnt. n11mh0rs; ns, T., 11 ., ] 11., JV., V., etc.
Dates on titl c- pag-e!:.i were formerly l•rintf'd in thi H way.

Refer·

Prll~f'~ to hook ,; a re t"rcqu1'ntly 11111de hy u s i ng tlwR(' numbers ; as,

"\Vhutely't1 Ekm ent :; of Log i1·. B•1<lk I I. , Chnp. 111. , ~cc. V ., p . 118.'
Many p rt'fer, however, wlir·n the r eferencc-s arc num erous , to ul!(
Rmnl 1 !t:tte rs ; us, " Whately't:1 Elements uf Logic, book ii, chap. iii
r.cc. v, p. 118."

129

THE CORRECTION OF PROOFS.
This Ch:q·tcr would be incompkto witl w ut a fe w Jirectiumi r•.r
the correct ioa of proof-sheeti;. Almost every ouu, ut su m c ti llle i!l
the course uf Ii i.; life . will have occiuiion to cuntrilmte somet hin g to
the press, if it Le nothing mo re than an adv1' rtisement or an article
in the Jocu l n L' ws pnper. However tritling t h f: ite m may lJe , i t it1 important to know that it il:l correct. 111 ord e r to insure accurn c ,·, two
things mu Rt l.Je do'.1 0 : (1) t he Copy mu st lie curn:ct ly prc·pa n «i; ar11!
~2) the Proof mu:st be carefull y read.
A few r,,uggel:ltious will be
given on tLet1c two pointe.

,·

.

' '

1. 'l'h c Preparation of C opy.
Jn pre paring thP copy, the follow ing ntJ1,s 111u,.;t lw nl1:-'t-r\"1·1l.
It is unfair to the e< >mpri,.; it 11 r wlt11 S•'ls up
yo nr copy, to rc<1 u ire hi m to solve enigmas at, 1:vury ::;1· 11t .. 1w...
(2) Writ e on only on e side oft t\e paper, 'J'hcli;1! 1i !iry .. r 11 1i,tu k c
is l esse ned by leaving ou u siJc blank, so tl 1nt the oppo,;i rL: cliaract nt1
cnnnot 110 confused.
(3) Make your own paragraphs. It is uarensonal.I " '" in1p.,~e
on the prin te r a t a:;k whielr you find too difficu lt for y11 t1rsdf, ur
which y o u are too i nd olent to p er fo rm.
(4) See that all th e words a re correctly spelled. Tlii s e,;ppr·ially
app li es to nll t<'clrnicnl orpropPr 11nnH'R, of which tl1u c1> 11q :tJ:<it11r way
re:is11 nnhly lJe ignoran t.
(:">) Do your own pointing. U11 l i>S8 yon 11 H1 · tlw 1'"i11I H 11s y11 u
wa nt t l1 e 111 , t l 1P printL-r nrny not u11d1 •r:;t.aucl your 11 11'1111111,..;- 11 1>d ~ "
muy misrq1rcsent y ou .

(1 ) Write distinctly.

The tribulation s of a compo si tor whn puzzl es on'r lint! '""i'Y a rc
am usingly illustrated in tl1e t«11lowin g ne wspape r parag rapl1, •1 11t>tl'<l
by Wilson:
"Th e late Rbnron Turner, auth o r o f the • Ili s t o1·y

11f

rh 1· A" i.; h,.~ · 1x.rn • ,' " h•'

received three lll.l tl(ircd a year front Go,·erument a; a lite rnry p.-n , ion , Wrt>le 1 t ..•
thh"d vo lum e of hi ~ ' "a1.:rcd lll sto ry of lit " World' u po11 paper wh i.. h tl i1l 11o t
cost him a farthi :ig. Th e copy c on~ ietl• d of tom :i nd an:;11lar fr:1g1111·11r• o f ld k r"
and note~ ; o f c overB o f per!odkab. -g ruy, drab or grcc11, - w ri: rc 11 in t h ick,
round hand OV•' r a ' mall prilil; o f c hrcd ~ or cu rling p11per , u-w1u 1< 11 ~ with poma·

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130

TJJE HL E.Mll.NT S OJ1' JUllffORJC.

CORRE'l' TJON OP l'JWOPH

t um or bt>ar' s g n·a~ P ; n nd of the whit e w rapp<'r>i In whi ch hi ~ proofs were sent
from Ilic pri ut era. The p:ipc r, "omc1 ii11 " " 11 0 1hi11 u:i a l.111 11k 11 otc, was wri t teu ou
lJ 0 1.IJ. 8 id c"; and \I ll ~ i;o s odd e n with i11k. plt1 ~ t <: rcd 011 with a pen worn to 11
~t u inp, t lt a t h v11r ~ \\t.: re fr c t111c11liy \\U ?-ilc d in d 1:"con·d11g u u wli ic h t; ido of it cer·
rni 11 "c11lencc" \\' e re w ri lt c 11 . lll c n coud 1·rnr11 ·d to 11"ork 011 it "a w their cliuuer
Yflni:·d1111 g iu illi 111 i LHhh : ptT l"' }HT th·t·, a 11d th:-t 1ate l1a11d MgTonu cll ove r it n whole
d a y for t e ll JlClll't:. 011 0: p<> Or f\'l lu w " " ""r"t l Ili c wri te r uf
pape r , tlrnt he

Pri11t• ~ r.

'I'hc (;opy sent to the

l

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ni u ld 11 ul ear n c1111u g h 1111 0 11 it t o pay lii r\ r e 1~ t , uucl U1ul h i..: Ir
cn.~ u 1.u out.li8 to
!i l l he:--id v:-c hi d uw 11. lu tl1 e li o p u of 1u c 11d 1n~ 111att e r:; in ~01_ c <trgree, shps of

131

1 1 , / / , } ( .' ( /

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"tu ut wliir1 · l'"Jl"r '"'"" ' " ·11L f n'< Jll L'llll y 11 itll th e proof•; hut the good gentlcwuu
c o ulu iw t atiu rJ to U "L' them, uud they n e l'or caw c liack u:i copy."
( / / , 1c· -

~.

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'l'he Ucatliug or Prpof.

Even w!t e n the writer lia,; obse n·ed nll the ::ibo \· e rul es, and the
prinkr h as exe n :iscd sk ill an!l tas te in putt ing t h e copy in typ e, there
will oft"n be m any in acc uraci es and iuC'leg ancil'Fi in th e printed impressio n. T hi,; in1pre,;;.;i.i u is cal led a Proo f.
Bruac.l marg ins aro
ll'ft, f11r t:o1-r1·::tinns . wlti .;lt are t <l bo distin ctly nott:d by the author.
111 n :adin g- tl1t· pniu l ~, s el"t.: rnl rule:i s lwnl d lie 11!,se rYetl.
( l ) Critici s e th e m a tt e r of th e compositio n. This sh ollld bo
do ne as ca reftdly a s p oss ibl e Lf' for o se nding th e co py to the printer,
lrnt i11nny tl1 ing>1 \\·ill
e \·ident iu print wh.i clt are uot easi ly
dl't.f'Ct t •(l in m a 11u ,.c ript.
(~) S ee that the print e r has made no alte ration s . Som e times
n 1bt akn; are 111aJe tlir., ug h ciu1 · k ss n rs~ or ig noran ce in reading the
1 11 a 11u~nipt, and so111l' ti1111:i:; tl1t : cornpo:-iitor tlii11ks Le knows better
than th e author w hat oug ht to bo said.
(:!) Observe any <1ueri es marked by the printe r . It r;ome times
lwppc n:; that t.1 1" pri nte r tlo,·s know l>dh:r titan tl1 c write r l1 o w to spell
a word or 111111 ct 11alll a :se 1it 1·ncu,
11<• t 111 ·11 rn1 g ht to 1>< : thanked for
any q11 .,ry wl.ich 1> 11 µ·g1 ·;;t;; a el1a11 g-e t.11 th P aut hor. Ju all ca:ies tli"
Ht t g" ,~ l' H tion 1111 g li1. .. it ill'r 111 h1• n<'l'•'j •l t'<I anti tl1 n d11111 g-1· 1111ul c, or rej1Tt.1:tl l>y c rot> ~ i11 g uut the •1u1•ry , i>o aH not to lc ani the printer in
d t1 1li1t.
(·I) Use th e accepted signs employed by printers in making
corrections. These ltu\·e h econH' fixt>d , so thnt nil intellig-ent printers
1111der.•tand th 1·n1 , and tllf'ir use A11 ve>1 wuch time anti troubl e. Tim
prin('ipal Aig n,; "f t.hi ::; kind llrP UH<:d in th e n11n1·xrnl example of a
1· 01Tectl'J pro .. f.,;hei:t.
1.i ) Make your correcti ons in the margin a nd not in the body of
th e page . ('nrl' it> ll•'•'e;;;;n ry to •io tl 1i ,; RO n<'<' nrnt.- ly n111l n Pntly tlrnt
till' ' ' "IT•'<' t•• r nl' t iw forrmi will lian· no ditlicul ty in un11" rsta nding
th l· c ha11 ~ ,,~ '" 1.,. mad· ~.

ue

t1l'cm"'J "fOl'i;~.,i[' ./(~,/ <'"I.•<;/,,,,./';; tf',,,,,, t!l."'1JtN/r
~.1:ne

,/he,

y

vll'fe

tla·V lt! -t{o e -/

$ ,,{,,

F'

~;/J atch

.,.j

/; ,,;;_t ie

~(e f/ro1.,(: ~·

r

)'/oJ.17-

anal~1l. n1

c/ hut.te.

,j/ ,P

a l~

alc a c/eJ

/ oo .t?,,o

l

~e-,1, eyoa·t':·

/. (l(~ .1u/ ,/'~ -to/i.~tC

!:Y''o i,;· ,<,,_; .,,,,
~;/J

i/k

co& Nt/IJ ,·

a djj';lt:n/

<?/.O ·7n ou&.1:,? / 1 eJe l -uu

efi0.1e/ au£/

v'lyfµ

/k

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et>~:Y

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"h

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en-i'tL f.~

;Y

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- - - - - -. --- 1~·1,g .Jfl·:N TS

'l'l!R

()/•' !U/WJ'(}/UC.

CORRECTION Off' PROOFS.

A S11cdmc 11 of Proof with l\Iarks.
1

'l'/11!

N //J '.J A c · nl 1_ ~~~
,Q

~;

t.a:; Ti·

Explanation of Proof-1\larks.

f 'oN.~c 11 111.

ga ,·n r ise to th e C'uli sc/um. Hern,

iud...,,·f· giga n t ic dim en::;iuus we re n ecessary ; for

4 t liu 11glt lrn nd r• ·ds co uld ente r nt on cP, nu<lfifty
/\

.

;, tlin11 ,..:1 1;-; I find sca t". the SllllCO wns ~ till insuf.
ti li!" i• ·!l f fo r Hom (•. nnd t lw c ro wd for tir e morning

.__,

7 g-auu·s ~~ ·ga ~ nt midni g-hl.
8 ns if pre:'l:1g- i11g- t. hr ir

J

u

uuildin g , and j

10 cipi tu n cy

x

left

bu ~ i nd.

11 h a,·e i11 sc rte.J

J;.~;;:h f-1, lr urrieJ tlte

fH J\"\' ral nrnrk~

In

t< t 0 1t (":;

Yes pusinn and Titu s,

O 'Wll

the

,.--,

of t lt(·ir pre-

I

11ppe r:w nll1:1 they

'-'

wh ic h had evid e ntly been

12 d ressPd fo r a d ifTc rcn t Jinr posc.
(.'J

u ~1 r1111 1:3 uread es are grossly 1!.:'.PfJ tllll ; irn moulding p re-

1-1 ,-. ·r ves th e l:!UJUe le ,·c'l 1111.l fo rm rou nd thf wl1ole
7
/

r-

15 elli pse, /ml e very order is full of licen8P.

The

Hi Dori c hns no trigl.1tphs no r nwtopes, a nd ita arch

,ft

17 i;; (lo w \ t.._~ ) fo r its coliu n n!:<; th e Ionic repeats
18 the 1·ntali lnturo of tl 1c Do ric/\the third orll e r is

1

<.G:·' r~.t/

19 lnrl H ro11~ li cfu<t o f tho cori11tltia11, nnd it ~ foli -

20 ag" th e

tl r i'· '<e~ t

w11tc rpl11nt s : th e fou rth seems
/\
21 mere re pd itio11 11f tl10 tl1i n l iu Jtilastc rM ; and

A

22 th o 1 vl111l o is crownell b_v

23 for th o Coliseum,

t~e

V

l n:a,·y Attic/\ Happily

11

shnpe

2-1 pl 1it l ... nt re h us given it

11

IV

to an um-

stability of c~struc-

25 ti o11 -f;H flh ient to rP:<i st fir es, au<l earth quakes,

.

. . .

.

.

2G uuu lig htuing s , a.ntl l:!i t:g cs.V

'1te ce.Ja cz17

133

0

0

I. Capital s are marked by drawing tl1ree lines under tlrn word,
as iu lino 1.
2. Small C 3pit a ls are marked uy drawing two lim·s unde r tho
w orJ, us in liue ;l.
A Superfluou s lette r has 11 lin e drawn thro ugh it, u.u<l ''
tthe L:itin dde . destroy ) is 11ut in t Le ma rgin .
3. An Inverted Letter is mark ed us in liue 3.
4. A Space is inserted as in l ine 4.
5. A Spa ce is remove d us in line 5.
6. A Lin e is indented us in linjj 6.
7. A Word is depres&ed as in lin e 7.
8. A Word is e levated Min lin e 8.
9. A Word is moved, <'itl.i er to tlt c ri g l1t or ],·ft, a:; in line 9 ·
onl y thn rnark is turu etl so tha t tl1e angle l:!lww,; 1lie direction in
wh ich tlt e worJ is t o be movcrl.
10. A Quadrat (n pi ece o f type m etal usc1l to 8pace th e lctk rl:!)
some times apJ>cars. Its fa co is depressed as i11 l ine 10.
II. A Broken Lette r is mark ed us in line 11.
12. No Break is marked ns in line 12.
A Paragra p h is marked Ly placin g if in the· margin.
13. Roman Lette rs arc mark ed a s in line 13.
14. Wrong Font, o r wrong s tyl e of typ(-, is mn rkc-tl a B in line 14.
15. Lowe r Cas e Errors are rnnrkPd 11s in lin e 15.
16. Italic Letters arc mnrkod us in line Hi.
17. Words to be Transpose d arc murk cJ us in line 17.
18. A Point Left Out is in se rt ed ns in line 18.
19. A Capital Lette r is inserted as in line 19.
20. A Hyph e n Le ft Out is in sPrt.c<l as in line 20.
21. A Letter Left Out is inserted us in line 21.
22. Sam e us 18. See also li ne 2U.
23. A Word or Expression Left Out is in serted us in line 23.
24. Le tters to be Transposed ore m nrk e<l as in lin e :?4 .
25. St et is the Latin for" let it s tn n<l. o r ren111iu ," and iB useo
wlie n a s upposetl e rror h as been corrected, but afterwards is fouud
not t o be a n e rror .
26. Quotation Marks are inscrtecl as in l ine 26.
Apostrophes are insert ecJ. in a si milar manner.

...... . . ...-ot:. . '

GRITIC'ISM. ·

CHAPTER IV.
CRITICISM.
1. l kli11itio11 of t:riticism.

.k "f 'i

Criticism (from t I1L· ( l I"l'l'
I'm', k r i11 cin , to jndgc) is
t l1\_~ arL uf jnJg illg of t he mcri L::; an d (k fL.ct:o ut' any prutluotion. Li te rary cri t icism i:-; the art of judgin g of tho
rn cri ts aml <ldecLs uf a wri ttcn com po:-1 iti on. The word
" criti cism " mean::; also U1 c act of criticising; as," 'l'his
book in\'it c::> se vere crit icism ;" ant1 C\' Cll a cri t ical writin g ; as, " .Jlacaul ay's criticism uf .l\liltun. " 'l'J1e word
('J"//ilJllC, however, is lil'Lter sui ted to tlii s last meaning,

135

A train cJ wri te r cri ticises hi :; own work at every step of
its progress, an d modifi es l1i s plan and method as he procecJ s. J\Ian y cxcl' llencics, 110 du11l.Jt, are intr0Ll 11 ced without~ co nscious in te ntion , lntt, man y even or t hese arc 01ri11g .
to a <.: riti ca1 hal.JiL of Llwug li t, wl1ieh is th e r o;; nl t ut' previou s <..:ffor L In iulJi tion tu th is ltalJit ual eri t ivi:;111 a nw re
d eliLerale an1l :;c rn tinizing <.: xamin at io11 ul' a c11111p11:;it. i1>11
is of g reat nd 11 c. , 'l'h e act vf conqHlsi11g i::; frL·•p1 u 11 ly
accom11<wi eJ wi th a glow of' sat i::> fa cli u n whi ch rn ag11if ies
meri ts ancl co nceal:; clcfcc l...; . IIenco the eye .of a11 otli er,
or lii s o wn af t.e r an in tC' n-a.1 o f ti me, will ofte n dt: tcd
faults whi ch arc not apparen t to L11 c (;OillJJO:ic r aL the t inH~
of writing.
On th e other haml, man y elaborate compositions reqnirc
close in spection, to di scover th eir latent beau ties a11cl
art i;.;ii c fini sh. lfrn <.:e the co mpcttnt critic bas a never
failin g source of enj oy men t in the exercise of his ar t.

'"
t .
I

,. '

.

,.I
~

I~

· It is a good plan to subject our 1.iterary workman ship to th e
criticism of another, cYen t li o ug h li e lie no m 0 re competenl tit a n t l. e
write r t o jud ~e () f li te rnry n 1C' rit. On e 's o wn subs1•qtw n t. j 1Hlg1rn.•11t
also is g-t:11t· ra l ly worth waiting fo r. I t is an Px ccll• ·n t r11le nen· r ti >
reg ard u compos ition ti11is lied until , afte r 1n1flicie nt tim e li us l'hq 1s1·d
to allow it to pnBti out of the writer'l:l miml, it is deliberate ly criti ci s1• d
and retou ch ed. Jn this drior light of afte r-thou g ht onc'1:1 i1Ji. ui;,
plan, did.ion, and fi g ures are judged ucco rdi11g to their owu w crits
and n ot with tl1 e pa rtia!ity of autho rsliip.

3. Riu<ls of Lite rary Critic ism.
!!. '£ he Va.Inc of C riti c ism.

Th o valn o of criti cism is Lwo-fo hl: (1) to tl1 0 writer in
composing ; . .anJ (2 ) t6 tho rca<ler in enjoying literary
. .,
I
wurk s.
·,~ ~
· ~ -....;

In cri ticising a composi t·io 11 we may make a ny on e o(
several elements tlt e promim•nt oLj cct of att.ention. (1)
We may co nsiil er only t he truth of tl1 e lllatter: This is
called Real Criticism. (2) We may limi t our examination

.

(
; '

'

I

• I1
'

. iJ
i"'
I

It is a common e rror to Hu pposo tl1at cri t icis m is tl w art of foultfi ni l i 11g . l ts true fun ctio n, llH t ho wo rd rr i t icis m i nq1li C's, is judicial.
'l' li e crit ic il:l a judge. lk ncc p a rti a lity of nny kind o ught n ot t.o influcucc Iii :; j 111.lg n11;ut. Il e i::; tu poin Lo u t oxccll l'n ccs us well as d efects,
a nd , h a l1uH;i11 g all t o cl ccid c upo n t l1 e vtllu c of th e proilu ction. In
tlii s h o will 11 N'f'SS arily hf' g uidctl liy hi fl o wn princi pl es and tastes;
h<'n cn it i:; i111portunt tlmt tl w:-ie sl1011ld bo co rrP<.:t n11d pure. As
c riti ci:;m il:l th11:; d q ien de n t. upon pen;onal view11 nnd fee liu gs, it cnnrn •t dai ni scient ific certnin ty fo r its r es ults, l' XL"L' pt a s tl1ese are
fuuou e<l upou uui ve rsnll y udrnitt e<l p rinci ples.

(

.- ---.J'-.. . . . t . .

13G

Tll.lt' ELEMENTS OF RII.ETORIO.

to the YnliLliiy of the argnm cnts. This is callc<l Logt
Criticism. (:.!) We may regard only the language
Thi s i::; called Verbal Criticism. (4) We may examh
the protluetion a::; a work of ari;, <lcsigned to grntify
ta:;te. Th is i:> (;~dbl JEstheti c Criticism.
As truth mu st he di scon :red by special acquaintance with
d e partme nt of k nowl <"dge, it woul<l. u scle::iS to attempt nny sta
vf tlte priuciph~ Hof r ut! Cl'i ticism. Heal crit.icismassurnest\ o. prt
cipal form .;, historical criti c is m, nnd sc ientiflc criticism.
fur111 e r tLim::i to U«ci<lt: what d ocu 111ents of antiquity an: worth7
cr•·J e uce unJ wliat. L"\"«Hl"I ul'tuidly occurre<l. 'l'his haH recenU,
C<1ll\t' an importa nt hrnneh of i11v<• Htigntion.
Scien.t.ific critidtml
to >'•· parnt c t he trn•' r:r.,111 th e falHe in t lte data and tl1t>ories of
L11g-irn l nit iriH111 i,; lia:.:1 ·d on en ta in principles called laws of th
and is pro1ie rl y ,.., 11,, id,·rl'd i11 tlit: study of Log ic. Vurbnl crlU:
tl .. ril't·s its uutl1nri t.1· frum th e principlf' ,; of Style as laid down Sn
ot '('u11tl chapter "f tlti s l)t)•>k . Tlt e learn e r may find somo etc.el.
ex amp:l'ti nf Yl' r !J 0 d nitici:i1n i11 Blair's "Lectures on Hhetorhr
B .. J]e:; L<:t tn ·,;," L\"<·t11n·>:1 xx.-xx iv. JE,,th c tic c ritici Hm Is fou
upon the la11'::i of .·E stliC'iicH, or the science of hcau ty nn<l k l
1·nwlion!:l. A>i ""Ill " k11owl1 ·dg1' of the principfos of t;ii::tc iii rle.M_
i n 1·011111·c tiou witlt nitki~m. rrti theti c criticism will n ·ceive ll~.
utte11tiu11 in tJsu folluwiug pages.

4 . Method of Treatment.

Tl1 r rf' nrc I wo clements in criticism, (1)
um1 (2) tlit· rL·bl i 1·e.
(1) The absolute l'l r rn cn t comprises the fixcrl prin cip
of act nal Lid, Lile l:m .-; of tl1011glt!, a.ml the ('auor '
s.tylc. 'l'h e:se cannot he >iobtct1 with imriu11iry cYcn.
gc 11111s.
(:2) 'J'hc relative cleme nt comprises
la.-,tu which rc:laii.; tu u 1ll' •: 11j uymc11t of literary w ~
These are not the ~allli.; fur all LirnL'S, races or persons.

CRITICISM.

137

Having already considcrc<l at rnmc length the more clc-

. monrory "of the absol11te prinei11ks, we may 11ow dernte
me attention to the relati,·o pri11 cipltsol'crit1cisrn . 'l'i1c
· ritio shonlJ know somcthiug of the }lO\\l'r:; used in n.·stl1ctic criticism and Ll1c vario11s forms of enjoyml'lll pn1uced by works of lite'.·at nrc. In tho followi11g ;;cdion s,
lherefore, we shall cousiclcr (1) the facnltics of critici sm,
or Taste; and (2) tho kin<ls of literary eujoyment, or the

t:' ~ . ~ l·;

Pleasures of Taste.
1"

'\

S

~CT

'(

.

I U :r I.

~.
~:>

~~.

TASTE.
1. Ucfinitiuu of 'l'astc.

Taste is that power uf Llw rniml whi ch c11:dil1 ·,; 11,; tu
fet!l nncl discent tlrn uwrits a11d dr:fvcts of a11y JH'<>< l111·t i•>11
which is designed to please. The word is l111rro11 t·d f'r.,111
at sonso of Ll1e tongue by wliicli w<· (listi11 .!..'.11i sli a11d
-~ov tho fla,vors of foo<l and tlrink.
[l is HJ•l'li L·il lllL·t a"
'i>~orically t.o an analogons :faculty of tile m ind.
Lik 1· t !1 1·
-- -ily sense from wl'\ic:h tl1e n:rnll: is dcriVL·d. '1':1 s l1· aff.,rd<
·~=b pleusure :mcl pain, bnt of a !llore rdined :111d dnall' d

_ _.....h=!lrnctor than that of th e

phy c: ic~tl nrg:111.
},., l']•['l ' lltl1·1I.

-~

(l) Blair Llefines taste, " 'l'l1e power of n ·c<'i 1· ill {! J>lt·a:<11 r .. fr-. 1111 t ),.,
uties of nature andar1.." T11is sN~ lllR d e fectin: for two r•·a~""' .
~.U} Tasw is n.<1 rnn ch olicnLh,(l l>y d..f,·r ·t.s i'ls it i!:l ;crati!i1·d !.y cx.-.·I ·
";:--:oknOl"8 : (2) tustP i>< gratifiml l>y ut!tr· r th1rn h1.,111tif11I nl•j1·1 ·t~.
-~Alison dt:fincs it "That fal'1ilty of the li1111uu1 mind by 1d1 i<'li
ceive and enjoy what is lieauLifui 01· HulJlime in the work~ u1

,..

04:,y~}.. , tti.'

JJ8

CRITICISM.

TLE ELEMU.N'l'8 011 IW /i,'TOH lU.

nature or n.rt." To this d e finition th e re arc, substantin.lly, the Mme
11bjt:ctions : (1) Tlic seusitivene:;s to defects is ovc r:ookcd: nnd (2)
t .1:;tu seems limited totlte c11 j oywent of the suulirnc nnd the l>c:a utiful.
1:1) Coleridge say s: "Taste itl tl w iotermediute fn.cult.y wliich con·
n1 •cts the active with tlrn pas::ih ·e puw• :rs of our nature, - illtc llect
witl1 t lw H<:llsl';;,-n11d itH nppr11print1 : f1.1111:ti(Jn i,; t0 ei .. vate the
i11mg-t'S of tli c la ttf·r, wliile it realiz1·s th .. ideas of tlte t\irm e r." 'l'lte
,,1 ,j .. t:tio11R t1J tliis d e tiuiti1111 nre: (1) It iH1jlle:.:t ionablP wlt c tl w rtl1 ere
ca 11 l.1· an i11t1·r1111 ·di11f1· fac11l ty loetw 1·e 11 t ' "' Hl'tiv .. n11d J>1l>'t1i vc J1 0 \\' l'l'S;
a nd (:.:l ) tl1is fat'ldty is 111 a1h: n11t to 1,., IN! lt a c tin· aud p1L~8 in·. S uch
a faculty w111tld J,. . 11•·•·dl1·ss , for it would be nothin g more than tlw
11('tiv1· a11tl passi,-.· JHlw1 •r,.; i11 coiip1' ratio11.
(-l) Ru s kin :;1ay:;: " l'crl'eet t:L"'" is tit .. fa c ulty o f r .. c1 •i\·i11g the
g- rcatcst po;.silil e pl1•as1 1rc frurn thost· rnatnial HllllrtTS wl1it'li nrc at tructive to our tw1ral 11arnr" i11 it H purity nnd pcrf1·c1 io11." 'l'ltis is
no t 1<tri1:t ly a d l' ti11i ti •ll1 uf Wfl t l', l11 1t n de::H: rip t io n o f the 11obl1·st tast e.
'l'lte d1 •li11itiu11 g ivPn in tli u larg e print see m s to nvoitl tl1t·1:w 1Ull1culti cl:!. 1\ ti will Lu t:liowu, it is n fuuctiun of taste toft'8l am! also to
d i.-rer11'. J\s u " power" may lie nc tfr,. or paH:>i,·c, the definition does
n ot UBSl' rt tltat it h11·ith1 ·r. \V L' i,,lial l find tlrnt it iH lioth. Th e <lefiuitiuu <lue::i nut claiu1 tlmt taste it; a dititiuct faculty of the mint.I.

2 . A ualys is of" Taste.

Tasle i ~ no t a diHtincl fo c1tl!j' of tli(' mirnl but L1cpcnds
ll)Hlll the ("ui..ipera Lion of Lwo powers: (1) :-c nsibilit·y, a11J
(~) judgmt· 11L In a11 eXl'r cist' of t11str, sc1t :-: ihility is first
and juJg11w11 L seco nLl. For cxampll', :t bra 1t lif'1tl 11oern is
rl':td in 01tr ]J (':tring. W e firs1. feel a µl r asurablr. cmoLion;
we then rc ft:r our pl eas ure to StH.: h a ch1~s an1l l o snch
C<lll :-iCS as j1Hlg111 e11t may drc id c propr r. Or, if p:trt s or tbe
poem arc of un equal merit, we di s ti11~11i s li hy judgment
Letwec n the various c1110Lions and thC'ir supposc(l causes
as f'u nnJ in the :;e vcrtd parts.

•
Philosophers are not agreed with regard to the nature of
taste.
Some muko i t a di stinct faculty.

Hut cheso n thinksthn.t it is in.

depend ent of every other faculty, performing for itself the function s
of sensibility unJ juug ment. '!'his is equivalent to UBS UUling that
there i:; a mind within the mind. Hume, on the otli c r hand , r1·ganb
taste n;; a m ere scnsibilit.y. Ruskin seem s also to h old this la ~ t opiniun.
::i11111 e subordinate taste to t10me oue faculty. 'l'liW:! Burk e mai ntains that t.a:stu is a function or perception; llnt.l Akenside, tliat iL iti
subsidiary to th e imuginutiu11.
Oth1·rB cou,.;idc r ta.-;te ns con sistiug wholly in cor.perat ion of se 1·" rul
powurtl. ::iueh HClHl1::1 to bi· tlie 1u ean i11g- of the Fre11ch pltilu:;<Jpl,..r,
Cousin, wl1 c·11 h o says: "'l'uree fa c ulties en t e r into that cnrnp lt-x
faculty tliut i>i ca ll etl 'faste ,-imugioation, :;cntinwnt, r1·a;io n."
Tht·re i><, doul1t Jes!', a bm1ii:; of t rntl1 in nil th e diffcrc:11t tl1e .. ri ni.
lfnny one will test liim,;elf in the pn·sence c1f sume ueautiful oloj""'·
he will find 1hnt h e fir,;tjeels that th e ohj•:ct b l1eautiful , and aft.1 •r.
ward t.ril'::I to discer 1i U'!i.y it il:l. ll e may foil i11 liis effort lo asc•·rta i 11
tli e causr~ <if l1itl pl eas ure , Lut li e hurl a tenJ.e ocy to anuly:i;c; t lrn v lij «ct
whieh grows with the cu1tivation uf taste.

3. The Qualities of Taste.

As Laste is maJe up of two power:::, sensilJil ily and jt1dgmcnt, it has Llro q11aliLil'sco rrcspondi11g to llt cse l">11 :,, tit 11cnb,. Tlt c::;e arc (I) l?e l.i eacy, an<l (2) Uorrect nl'::i:-i.
(I) Delicacy of taste imp Iies a more than ordinary :'l' 11si l i \' l' ll C't'S of mi1H1, ai:; <1dicacy of to11ch implic::; a pu1H:r !11
d iscri 111 i nale fii1 e J is t i ne t iun s.
(~) Correctness of taste dcn1ando accuraC'y ol' j11d .~ 1111 · 1it
acco rdin g tn tlil' princ iples uf Lt8te, as ('111Tt·c· t11 1· ,;.~ .,f
opinit1n n·1p1irn:; ll1e power of c11111pari11g f:wl s.
.E;wlt 1piality, Lo accrlai11 extent, i11volve,.; Lil(' other, a11tl
a. hi g l1 degree uf Loth is fr equ ently unitcu in tli c sant e
pcrc·un.
4 . Taste U11iversal.

'l'a:;te i,; pus::;csscd hy all men. Children at a \'l'l'Y l'arl\'
age rnanikst. an admiralio11 for l>c.:antiful t1IJj ect::;. Tl1 L'

-

(JRITI CISM.

1'1/H FL8JJJCN 1'8 OF IUIHTORIC

140

----

- ~-

141

promin ent, and were cxpresseu in the dramas, lyricr:; , and
orations of ll1e classic age. With the i11troll11ctiun of
chivalry, the LlenJcJ se ntiments of heroism, loY l', all d
religion produced a romance age. In like marnwr wu
may d istingui sh epochs of Lisle iu e1ery arL.

rudest peasants delig h t in colored prints and painted images,
and e nj oy lmlladi:.; aucl ta lei:.; wl1id1 arc Je re] with their com11rvhcn sion. Even the lo\\'cst sarngcs enjoy, to some cxll' nt., the !Jeanly and grandl'nr of nat.nrnl l'CCnery, and arc
fond of decoratin g U1l·ir person s wi Lh variutts ornaments.
They aumire an em otional anu highly clrnmatic eloquence.

G. 'l'he Standard of •raste.

As tastes arc vurwus, some mait1Lain U1aL th ere i.s iw
sLa11<laru of tast.c, awl a11upt. tl 11 ~ a11Cil·11L 11ruH· rli, .. I 1,.
g11stit)]1 s non est disp 11!.a11dum, " .. 'l'li crc i::; lio di "t1111 i11;..;
alH•t1l ta. . : te .". " 11' 11,v a :'land:inl 111' ll! c·a11 t :1 l ,,.,·f,·(·l lll• ·:i . : -

[). The Yariation of Tnstc.

Al th ough bstc is nniY r r:::al, i t rnrics g reatly both in
l1 l·li cacy aud cu1-rcd l1 l':36 . IL i6 <h rnriou .. ; a..; tl1(~ faces,
Li11!.!Jl<t !.'.l'S
_,

.'

and 1:iiarac. Lcrs uf m\ e n.

nro, snch as th e s tandard 1r1.:i g l1 ts lhl'll i11 Cll[ 11111l·H'\', 1l1l·r1·
is 110110 in literature. If L1y a rola11danl lie llll' :llll .-••111" tliing hy whi ch we may J cc id c 11 !1at. i::o t'X< 'l'l l\'nt a1 1d " l1 :lt
is defrctin', th ere is H1cli a sta11d:1rd. l\lilltJ11".-; " l'a 1w li...:1•
Lnst, " J'ur c xarnp k. is Cl· r tainly a 1111!ilc <'Jli< ·. \\ lial j..;
Lile st:tnd:trd !1,v 11 Ji ieli il lll:t _\' ],, ..i11dgcd? h tl11·l'l' :111 \'
alisoli1t •_· id1 ·al in tlie mind ,if· rna11 l1y \\'l1il'h it m:t\ l ie
C.\iH:llv llil':1S lll'td: .Aj\p:ll"l'idly 11•.t. f 111' it. is 1111t lllli\l 'l'sally rcgarJt:1l a:-J ;t g rl·al L'pil'. ;-;t111 11; liwl 110 .--at i .. : Lw1 i111 1
in re;ulin[( il: r11 ;111 Y \\'h11 1ln <l1 •ri1c· pl e:1s 11 n· fr 1'111 it.
wo11\1l cn.io.v -.:ill ll\l't l1i11 g \'IH· 1111w l1 111on'. J\1·1·1·ri lll' l1· ...:s,
(. ilP <:iJJU: ll/'/'C/I{ l1/1li// 1i/
<•f tilt' lli:J _j <1J'i ty <if (•d111·al1 ·.\ !! It' ll
drclan•s t.liat iL JS a ,L!'rc:it. poem. 111 the co11c111T1 ·111 01•i11io11 of tl1e bc:;L ,i11de:c·s we find tlw 1111ly l'f an•1 :1l"l l 11t' ta."11'.
'l'lli:o; sLrndard is 11 ut l':tsily nr i1111111 ·cl iaf1 ·l y applical.J,. f11 a
\\' 0 I' k (l r Iit l' ra l I: l't" a]) d .' (' t it i ,S : l J' l' al ;l JI( l ( li I) () 11i )' 11 11 i 1nr:-Jal 1111 ·;1s11 r1· ,,f Iii l'r:1ry 1·x1·c·lJ..111·,.,

( 1) It varies with age . Clii !drl'll :m~ fond of bright
1·u l11r1:>, q11ick 1llutiu11 :-:, :::iu1pk nwi11dit·s and \\'t•11t1cr£ul
sturit:,-. A-.:i they atl Yance i11 Ii fc l Ill'.) j•l'\'f..r 111orc llllHll'st
n1lti rs, lllorc dig11itl ctl lllu\'t:ll ll' iJ l:::, 1n 1m: 1·x1 11ti t> itc harll1u11ic: ..; a ud mur~~ pruLalJk tak:;.

Tlic youug arc fond uf
tlw ghl\\ing a1Hl illlpa:-;:-;iullcJ in ur;du ry a1 1d the romantic
i11 pud.ry. Tl1c ag(·ll prcfl·r Ll1u11 g lit ful ami epigrammatic
S J!Cl'C lt allll d idactic }Hl\:t ry.
(:!) It varies with races. 'l'h c Orie ntal udmires only
t Ill' ri ch ;u1,1 urn:lt.v; f hv E11ropcan, t li e d1asLc am1 refined.
111 lil1·r:t!.11r\', 1111 ~ (;l'l'!IJ;UI prd\' L" ac11k1ll'...:s nf 1\i .. 11ght
anti t•x:i ct nc ...:::; llf 1' .\ }ll"\':i ."i io11; l1 1e F rc 11\'hllla11, 1klic:Llc
s·: 1diu1c~ 11t , l1 rc: 1·it.y autl Leaufy of . pl1race11logy . ~in1ilar
dilforc• nces of lasl'-' arc exhibi k1l l°n i.lie archii ec lurc,

1

p:tiutin .~, and

sudpturc of tlifTcn:nL 11:1Liu11s.
(:i) It varies with epochs. '!'ht· nw:--t a 1w11·n L por rn s,
;1s U11 ~ Iliad. \1·1·n· f1ill "f lll:trtial J•<t::." i1111. •'\ l•l'l'csing all
!.lie fr.at11rcs ui' U1c heroic age. \\'iU1 !.11'-~ progress of
• i1·:li ;'.:1tinn. nrtl<'r, fltn" ~;·, i•rnport.ion, nntl nnity lwcame

F.vny ng <' has i t;. fashions in literature ns ,,. f·ll ns in dn·s'< and
manners.

~l
"'.:it

:I,/.\

<......

Tito wrilcro wlw arc inu:ot

plca8in:~

to their g··rH.:r;iti"n arc

,:;'

. . :c'}"~
:>- :. ,.;:_: ,~

..
•. #·;

f~'t -~

' !0i

--- - ~- -

TllE ELBJIENTS OP fl11J.:1'UJUC.

•)

"

CRIJ'lCJSJJ..

·g-otte n hy tli e 11 ex.t. 'fhc history of lit e rature r evPal s the fact that
: wu rks which al'L' most perrna11eut in tlwir iutluence and arc renkd as elaissics by all ge neratio ns, arc not generally the most pop·
1r at the time of tln:ir l'.Omposition. Un the utlier hand, the most
.hiuunl>le procluctioHB rurel.'· outlive their authors. The novel
1ic:l1 half :.i. natio11 di::; c 11 s::i to ·day i::! ::;carn:ly read lo- morrow~ Time
:tn irnpurtant L"ll'lllC'nt in do•ciding the merit:; o f literary work. It
1l1c \'l'nl1ct oi' .d i ug-.-:; and nil 11ati<1m; that tlw all cicu t classics am

t1dmiruble of its kiud, without reference to the viewa or O]•inions of
u t l1 c rn; I llleau in u. pun·ly re:; th et ienl ju<lg111 e11t.
Arguments tn
prove tliat it i,.; so. or that it is nut so, canuot alter our jud g ment , any
more tliau if it were purt·ly tiubjectivc. as in the plca.:surc1:1 of tlt'11:se .
\.Ye may ass1·11t t o s ul'. h opinions and r"asun illg through modesty
or diffidcnc<',- but our judgment in fact r'"mains unalt ered. \Ve
either find the things immediately beautiful, or not at all."

bit~ w11rki:; of art. ::'l1akt ·:-1peare i;; ad111in•d in •·\·o·ry r,01111Lry a11d in
t• ry a~e wh ere hi A drun1:i.::i nre known. Yd tli e lakHt novd or t.ho
1~ u1ioual play <,f the hour attract:-; wore a1it'11tiun for the moment
.1n l he great mai:;ttJrs of the p a:st. Time nlon e ran m easure all
.1q H'tiLurs for lat;tin g fa111e l1y tl1e ,.;f:llld:1nl of coucurreut opinion.
1i:-i ~ta ndard is like a. g r<'at cl"ek whi ch dn1•s not faithfully inrli.
[(• th e pas::iing m omellts , liut peal::! out tlie hours with infallible

8. 'rhc Cultivation of

L·<..:i :sion.

7. The Claim of this St:rndanl.

-- -~,,,

·-.

may Ll'

I'

:il1t1\!J'll1 al.

l1il1I S\. li' 11·i1t•t ht·r
0

ti!'

})!If

As

1·ad1 J1<' l' s111l

]11'. IS l' '''ilSt•( l. t l1:tl

lllllSI:
111m;I,

\'all'd

he

~

.' --,.,ec"' ,
7~

'furn·y

~~a \ · :-\:

lw:lllti!'ul, ur tliu r 1·\'l·r,,,..

~-

\\ ' •· j"a11111 d

n·a ~11 11

n1·

Hl'!!IH'

:t.'._'.'o, \\'('I'<~ harh:1ria11 .~.

'l'l1:1t 1L

dl',~r:Hh-<l

[a eo (L'

is equally t'k:1r fr"m the r1ecli1w of (; r1·tl1e Hun 1:1n t 'tlllljlll'"l ol '; rt'l'C'•'. .A,; :t t·1ilt i-

i,.; ui"

ilH'>I

i1ua l 1) (• vaill(', a f1·i.1·

t•f [Ji,.

lllc':lliS "(

IH'l'I'.

1

,J,.f,·n'Il<'" to o\tlll'rs i,.; altn!!..t ho ·r rl':tso ,rnlil1>, nn <I y<'t tl1f'I'<' is
:lj·p~·;:i i"r1q11 1•qr i1\,· 11 fP1·lin~:- ~ \,·f1i1 ·h c 11 11 h·· \\·lin il y i-:H1::--;f:11·ttir.\·,

' l)rof1 ·~~..;n r

C'(•1 d 11 ri1·:

{I) Taste is improved by a judicious exercise.
1\ s
tlw t'_\l! 11ia .v lw t rai11t ·d (,, k1.T1 111t· s.-J ol' .~1 ;;ltt , "r t.11e 1·ar (I)
Lhu e 11 ju_v n1 c11t Pf tlie mu:-;t t'X p1i:-;ill' liarm"11i1·s of l'i\Jllllll,
so (a .~t , • 111:11 111 · r .. ti 11 cd and ,;I 1-.·11.'._'.'t l11·n1·d ln· at l1·1divc u se .
(~) The exercise of taste should be analytic.
It i:-; nu l
sutliL:il'nt. to kc·I till· plca s11n· of l1L·a11ty or sul.l irnity; it i,.;
erptall.v ir11porf:1I1 t. In n·frr th e pl1•:ts1m·-; (\f !:1,.,f<· to tli 1·it

'I'lii~
i

f,·1r

in1pron·111c:J! 111:1\' l ie ll1L·11tit11h'd

l'il.Y

'..:«1l'dl'Ll :is n11 1s t. pl1·as i11g \l'lii1·!1 pi1·as0s most persons. 'l'o
.i1•1 ·L this pri11cipl c, is t" :dlirn1 llial e:wl1 n111'',.; fr.ding is
..: onl v stamla nl : "'h iclt is t li e same as to dr11)' the exi st1('(' nf r111v l!niv1•rs: tl sl:1n1l:1nl.

l1n, a

ci:rn art. at'tt·r

0

s 1·11s1• 11·:1s

Ta~t<>.

As bi;;te is s1111jcct to rno<lification, it rnay be improYcd
or degrad ed. ~frn differ wiJL'ly l1v nat 11re. :-l"ntt· i 1 11:-; .~(·ss
a refin c:1 scn:::i hili tv an11 a sound jnd:;111L'11t, otl1l'rs lwin~
a]111()st dnoid of' a'slltd ic po1H•r;,;. That ta~te is s11scq1t1l1le of inq1run·111l'11t. i;; L'\ id('ld frn111 t i1C' rapid dn·t·loj11J1('l1t
or arl <flll\lll;..'. 11a1ion;; like~ tl1(' Fll~li:-:li, Frc1l('l1, alld <:erman .~, ''

Tlir f'laim of con1·11rrcnt npininn to 1l1c rligniry of a
1111l:tnl rests ll]'Oll 1li1' fact. t.liat. t lie f'1111 d:rnw11t: d ek111e11t
ta,., te is s1·11sihility. anti this is !H'r..:on:t!. \\'li:ifen·r is
·r:'•llJal lia,..: authority 011lv a s it. JH 'l' "Tll' "" 11nin·;·sai or, :it
1:-; t, gl't 1L·r:1l.
F11r r·xa1llpk. ii" a11y ull1.· :-:lio11ld wsc r t that
i I :11111 ;:;n-_:·:1r l1:1Y1• 1 ii<' r:.:illH' I a ...: I 1·, \\'<' II" 1ilt! dt·11\' hi s
·111pl'it·111·y tu jtt\l.:2'1.' in :-:111''1 m:tt l1·r,.:. :ind 11·nnld drcl :1rc
:1t l1is

143

causes.

lfr11<T :u1aly:.:i;; s lirntld lie app!J1•1l f1> 1rn<"li p:1:-:-

sagrs 11 1 litn:t111r,· "' are fv 111Hl to lie plc·a~ing, i11 ••1«kr

iliat. lh1_· lair s ,if

:iri 111: t\'

lie di scrm ·rf'd.

Of1t-11,

lik( ~ t li1;

fr::;,;r<lll"l' t1!' a ll 1111·, ·r, l i1i.-; wiil lJalllc our a11a ly:-;is, ln1t

:1!101J!. w]1;1t

sn nw t in 1 ('.~ it w ii I rr ·11 ; 1rd

\\« · pr11 1111ul1 cl'" work uf art .'; 1·cat anJ

- ···r
•;:~

.$},'"'

11:.:.

'.} ~~;
·-~~f.4-; ~:'

14 -1

OHJT!UloJI.

1'fJE J.,_,' J,f:.,'1lfHN1'S OF RI1E1'01UO.

(:3) Taste is most ra~y improved by the study
masterpieces.
In sce kitg golJ. we naturally work
ricli esL mines. 'l'hc mo::t celebrated poems, orations,
dramas should be r ead with close criticism.
( 4-) It is usefol to attempt an imitation of such ~
ductions as we may hope to equal. This will soon t
vincc us of the difliculty of tho highest literary art ID
will especially en liancc our a<1miration of the masters wb
we would cmubk. :)cnilit.y of imitation shonlcl n t
c11conr:1gcd, nor is it bes t to confine ourselves to a

In this section, on

"'I'a~te, ''

l-1.J

we have considcrctl :~

1. 'l'he Dejl.11.ition of 1'a1<fe.
;t. 'l'he

a.

Aualysi.-. of 1.'a.o;f<'.

1'he Qtwlitie ... o/' 1.'m;tc.

4. Taste as Unfrersal.
/J.
'1.
';.
H.

'l'he
'l'lie
1'hc
'l'he
9. 1.'hc

Variation of '1.'a .... tc.
Sta11<b11·<l of 1'a.o;fr.
Clai1n of /hi ...; .Slau<i<u'(l.

Culti 1·ation of 'l'o.o;fr.
Catholicity of' 'l'astc.

sing

st.yle of writing.

I I.

SECTIOH
9. Catholicity of Taste.

THE PLEASURES OF TASTE.
A person is saiLl to ha rn :1 catholic taste when h
spects t he t~te of oth er s instead of reg:1rding his ·
prcfrren ces as a.11 i 11 fa llililc standard. Catholicity of ~
is opposed to narruwncss, 1Jigotry and dogmatism.
ol hers may possc:o:s fi ncr sc nsil>il i lies and a bcttrr ju
111 ·nt tlian we, or as tlH·y may have better advantages
improving Lh c· ir tnstl', " c 011glit not Lo con<lcIJln as fauR
those prolluctions of literary art which are goncro.lly

ceptt>Ll as c xcelk11t-..
Al1]1 (J ttgh :--o 1n •.ll'li i,.; >'- ni<l in !'mis" of Tiomer 11nd Virgil , Sha_
p1•nre and ;\lilt on, it it1 doubtful if most immature minds have ll.tlf,
r.. al nppreciatinn of t lwir merit~. l t iti only after the taste has h. _
r"li1wd and tlio ob,;tucle::; of 11 lung-ua~f' ha if 1111Jt~rstood have
r<' m OYed, that on•-. is cap:1hl (• of (•njoying- th" mr1re delicate to
of likrnr_r ~eni11H . Su.-11 l" '"·,·r o f r1:•prN'ifltio11 is wnrth st.riv~
and a failnn · to attain it is JH ,t no rnur·li an indication thut WI!
o utg r.. w11 tl w:O<l n111 s!t:rp i•·tt'S of tlll' pai"t, a;:; that we havo pel'S4l
ac:plitiitions tn mak e i11 th •· futur e.

1. H.inds of JEsthetic Pkasurc.

The Pleasures of Taste, o r ~st h et ie pleasure:-:, nrc Y!\rfon sly defined and elnss ili ed. It will host 1< uit our purpose here to describe arnl illu~lrate the following fi1t~
sources of msthetic pleasure in literat ure : (1) the B1·:rn l ifnl, (2) the Sublime, (3) Lhe Witty,(-+) tbc lJllrn oron s,
nnd (5) the Pathetic.
.1Esthct.ics.

Their ])hilosophy helun :;s

t11

Much inge nuity ha!'l hPPn di s play• ·d in s p ecu lation s abo ut th~
aiathetio emotions. A fow of t.h<• principal tlworie>< may 1>1· nw11
tlonod here although
none of tlie111 lt;n·c lllt•t witli univ c 1:s al ur·r-1".t
- I
ht-0.
As the <liscm1si"n ha s C•' llkr"d "11ir·ll_,. IIJK•ll tl1" nat11rf' of J'.1 ·ai11,-,
we ma.y first das~ifytlll: thl'ori c;-; with r-.· g-arJ to it. Tl1""'' ar• · ;,s

foUom; ;
(l l The Subjective tl1cory lll:1i11 :::i:i:;
Or action of the svul itself.

t li:1t. J.. .. 1111 ,. ;,, i11 1] , .. 11at "'"

.i\ti .l'htiuuti

b:t} '' ·

" .\t:Vl'r

c111dd ".\'l

146

THE ELEMENTS. OF RHETORIC.

that had not been ma.de sunlike have seen the sun, neither can 8oul '
that has not become·beautiflll see beauty." Or, ns Hume iinys,
"Beauty is no quality iu things themsolyes; it exists merely in the
mind which contemplates them, and ~h mind perceh'cs a di:ffer~,n.t
beauty." The subjective theory, with numerous modifications, rs
is held by Plato, Shai'tesbruy, f?ch~lling, Coleridge, Ruskin and
1:1thers.
(2) The Objective theory regards boo:u.ty as residing in the quali~iee
of external objects which produce pleasing emotions within the soul.
AB Baumgarten expresses it, " Beauty cannot exist without a desire
for its pol'SCSSiOn, and the. true aim Of beauty consists in awak~fimg,
desire ; the highest beauty is where sense-known pt>rfection is
greatest, that is. in nature.'' Reid observes on thil! point, "To say that
there is in renlity, no beauty in those objects in which all men see
beauty, is to attribute to man fallacious 8enses." Aristotle, Hogarth
Addison, Burke, Voltaire, 'and Brown maintain that beauty ~:

'

~~~
(3) 'l'he Objecto-subjective theory is a compound

:a1,'

of the two
ready stated. . According to this view, there is in the mind an idea o,
the .beautiful which is awakened by the pTer.;entation of extern!i.l o~
jects. Cousin says, " That which is internal in man can alone J>Crceiv~.
the internal in nnture. It i11 my soul thnt feels the soul of the':l;lnl ·
verse . . . • · . Ood is the foundation of truth, beauty, and goodneS8 ,:
the absolute, who is reflected wholly in all his mnn.ifesto.tione, or i
ordinary lnnguage, in all his creation." Reynolds, Cousin, Joufffa
Winckelmann and others hold this theory.
.
(4) The Associational theory holds that uea.uty is neither na~
in external objects nor in the mind, but consist..'> entirely in the ~!!
of certain objoots to recall -pleasing emotions. As Lord. Jef!;re
says," Objects nre beautiful moroly becnuse they possess the~? .
rccnlliog or reffoct.ing tbo emotions of wliich they have bee
acooinpanimont.$." Thie theory was ad~nncetl by Alison . . /:
We may now stnte bric.fly.two of the 1:nost ingenicmstbcori .
regard to tho relations of the msthetic emotions to one nnot~cr:
(1) .According to Hamilton, a. thing is beautiful, when it oe '
·both the imagination and the understanding in a free, full and n.
able activity; sublime, wh~n the imaginntion and the understiti
fail to represent and m~ure it ; picturesque, when the unde
ing fails to measure it, but the iroaginat.ion has free play Qn;·.
of the variety in t])e object.
·
(2) According to Day, the distinction between the bt>!lutif
sublime, and ludicrous, is dependent upon the re.lat.ion of ~h~ :
~

•;

ORJTIOIBM.
pressed to its form of exp?'{'ssion, as follows : (1) If the reveale<l idea
and the revealing matter be in perfect equipoise and harmouy, wo
have perfect beauty ; (2) if the revealed idea overbear or outspnn
· the revoolmg matter, we hav~ the sublime; t3) if the revealing
matter preponderate over the revealed idea, we have the ludicrous.

2. The Beautiful.

As the resthetic emotions are states of feeling, they can!lOt be defined ; nor can they be deEcribed, except to those
, who have experienced them. As light is incomprelJcnsilJlc
one born blind, so is beauty
one devoid of taste.
Bc.a uty may be rudely, described, however, as an emotion
pleasure awakened i~ the mind by external objects or
'one's. own thoughts. It affords to the mind an exquisite
~~·t!sfaction independently of any use to which the object
that awakens it may be devoted.
· A landscape on a clear May morning, when the birds
~e sfnging, nnu the green fields stretch away ti11 they
-eem to blend with the blue sky, while the cattle roam
1: them along the wiuding streams,-may be taken as
e:Xample of beauty.

to

to

.or

of

We. may note some
the causes of beauty in a comsition.
(1) H~rmonious. langu~ge, or such as conforms to the
,, ~s f~ harmony, is highly conduefre to··beauty in works
.:) iterature. Many writers mainly t>we their success to ·
~eir fe1icitj of phrase. · As an example of the charm that
~s~cal_ expression may lend to a simple thought, take this
)cription of a cascade: .
. .
,,

"fl..

•

} "'How cloos the water come down at
·
· llcre it comes sparkling,
And there it Iles darkling;

~ore f

I

OBITIOIBJf.
Ris~ni.: and letlping,
Sinking f.Jtd creeping,·
Swelling and filngjng, ·
Showering and springing,
Ed~ng and whisking,
Spouting 11nd frlllldng,
Twining and twi.ellDg,
Aroond and around,
With endless reboond.
\
nd falling and craw Ung and epr11wlfng,
.nd driving 11nd riving and striving,
.nd sprinkling and twinkling and wrinkling,
\nd sounding and bounding and rounding,
And bubbling .a nd troubling and doubling,
Dividing and gliding and sliding,
And grumbling and mmbling and .tumbling,
And clattering and battering and shattering:
And gleaming and steamiIJg, and etreaming .and bcamlnf,
A.nd rlll!hing and .flushing, nnd bnll!lling a.nd gushing,
And llapplng and rnpping, and .clapping and slapplng1 -:
And curling and whirling., and porling and twirling,
liotroating and beating, lllld mooting and ~heetlng,
Delaying and stray1ng, and }Jlnying'and spraying, ,
Advancing and prancing, and glancing and danclnit, ".
And 80 never ending, but always descending,
~.
Sounds and motions for ever and ever arc blending, •
All at once and all o'er, with a mighty uproar.
And thl.a way the water comoa down at Lodore I "

·iption

be,, worshlpped no God but ambition, and, with an .eutern de't:otlon, he
)lQ ellrine·ofhia idolatry..•.•
. .prote880d Catholic, he Imprisoned the Pope ; a pretended ~trlot, be imQd. the country; and, in the name of Brutus, he grasped without remoree,
~l'tl wU!lout shame the diadem of the Cmtoars I Through th18 pantomime ot
,Jqrtu'ne played t~e clown to his caprlcee. At hit\ touch crowns crmnbled
.. relined, eyei.e'me vanished. the wildeet theories
the color of hi;
aJ!d all that was venerable, and all that W&I ~~el, chauged _plaeea wUh
(,at

took

. tt.Of&. drama."
CJWILlla Plau.ml.

'

'

of Napoleon:
- "lotion tb'at'qulckened every e
· --4 ' bja.coursei 11 '!f. _
...........

~

..

149

'

.,.." . ·-' ••Winter came ; the wind watt his whip;
- , One choppy linger Wllll on hie lip: ·
• Be hDd tom the CAtaracte Crom the bile,
' And they clanked at bls girdle like mamiclee ;
III" breath was a chain that without a l!Ound
~ The earth, and the air, and the water bound;
· .Be came fiercely driven in hie cbar\ot-throne,
By the ten-fold b~ ot the arctic .zone."

,•

'
150

the

THE ELEJife.NTS . OF BHRTORJ(J.

e~otion of beatity. ;The f~llo~·ing passage is espec~l

beautiful from '.this cause: ·
;J'

,

"No life

• Can ?<' pure !n its purpose and strong in it11 strife
· And all life not be parer and stronger thereby.
The spirits of jul!t men m~de perfect on hlgb,
'J."he army of martyl'll who etnnd by tbe Tbrone
Aud gaze into the Face that makes glorlone their own,
Know thl.io, su rely, ot IMt. llonest love, honest 1.10rrow,
.Honest work for tbe day, honest hope for the morrow,
Arc these worth nothing 1™>ro than the baud they m<tke weary t
The heart they M\'C Slldden'd, the lire they rea\'e dreary,
·B uh! the seven-fold .hcaventoo to tbe ,·oice of the Spirit
Echo: He that o'eroometh 8ball all ~ inherit."

.

~

(6) Worthy characters ndd beauty to the compoBition
in which they are described and their virtues commended
Among the finest passages in literature are those in whic
the gr'eat and good are held up ior ,our admiration. ,,T1f
followin"g description of the
pastor is unive;sah.-

,;nage

admired:
~ mao wash« to an tho country dear,
'
A;nd pasRing tich with forty pounds a year;
Remote from town"' he rao his godly race, .
.Nor o'<:r. had changed, nor wi11bed to change, his pla~; 'Unptacuced he to fawn, or seek for power
"
By doctr41os 1'ashloned to the ,.atylng hon;.
1''or othe r aims hiJ! heart had learned to pri~,
. Mori) &killed to·.raise rho wretc.hecl than to rl8e.
Ills house wns known to lllJ the vagr:int tmlu•
Ile chid thcil'.' wanderings but relieved their pa.In:
'l'be long remembered_beggar ~as hle guest,
Whose bcard"descendiog swept his aged brcnst ·
The rained epeudthrift.. n~w no longer proud, '
""" Claimed. ~-ind.red thei:,e, and had his claims allowed.

f"'t ·-. . . .:. .. . . .,• , . . ,• . . . .
.

Beside the bed where ):lllrtlnii: life· was laicl,
And rorro\V, gnilt,' iwd pain by _turn's dis mayed,
The re.ve.rend i;hamplon stood. , ·At h1J control
Dos pair and anguish tied the !:'trnggllng soul;
C<imfort carne down the ·ti'etnbllng \\'?et.ch to .raiJio,
'And ~Is lAl!t !altcrlnt: aocen~s whl&pert'd pr~-

.·•

ORITIOISM.

1&1

At church, with meek and unaft'ecte<l grace,
Ill11 looks adorned the venerable placo ;
Truth from his lips prevailed with double ~way,
And foolA, who came to ~coft, remained to pray.
Tbe sc...vicc pa.•t, nround the pious ffi'ln,
Wlth st<·ndy zeal, each lloneet rustic rnn :
Even children follo\rnd with endearing wile,
And plucked his gown to share the good man's sm.ili..
Bi11 rE'~·uly smile a pnrent"s wnnnth expre118ed ;
Their welfare pleat.ed him, nnd their cnres distressed·
To them bis heart, bis Jove, hltt griefs were given,
But all his s~oas thoughts lllld rest lu heaven."

awakened by the beautiful, that
·arousc<l by the suLlimc cannot be defined. It differs from
the beautiful in the greater excitement of mind and fccl~ng of n.we which accompany it. Like the beautiful, the
~~lime gives pleasure; but it is of short duration, while
"A thing of beauty Is a joy forever."

A raging storm, when darkness, thunder and lightning
6'omhine to awe the soul With tho thought of its own
~ eakne£s,-may be taken as nn example of sublimity.
Some of the causes of sublimity in literature are the
,ollowiug.
·~ .·-· 't,•' (1) Simplicity of expression contributes te the awaken-g .~f this emotion. The wor<ls are few and the conf uction ·plain in · the sen.tences which m.en generally
_ rd a8 sublime. For example, the expression cited bv
'@:gi~us, " 4-nd God _said, l.et there .- be light:· and the~~
,;; .~·,,_?ight/'~is
composed w_
holly of monosyllables.
.
., ~e. on~'bas pointed out the effect of changing the sublime words
-~en~~!s into tbe fol~owing form": "The80vereign arbiter of nature,
)fe '~tenti energy' of
~gle word', ,eomtna.nded light to exist,
· ~Cdiately it sprang into bein.g." \ Thie~ mere bombast •

a

152

THE ELEMENTS ,Q F RHETORIO.

ORITI<JISM.

(2) Representations of great power are usually s'~bl
Tempests, rushing. rivers, vol~ic eruptions,.· confiit
tions, cataracts, battles, heroic feats of arms, all tend, \vb
.Yividly presented to the imagination, to awaken theJe
.tion of sublimity. The following passage from Golerid
"Hymn to Mont Blanc" , ill ustratea this s'tatement/

(3) Strong moral purpose produces, the :feeling of - ~u
.limity. , -Mauy of the finest utterances in human his
owe their 'power over tho heart.S of men to the snbl.'"'
of lofty purpose. 'I'his is called 'the moral, and some?.
the smtimen~al, sublime. Some e~an1ples are ~!en . b~l
. •
!.•
'
.
~

li.J~· vi$it to Rome should not prove suceessflll in secwing an
~bange of prisoners, diesua<:led his countrymen from making an
~hange, and returned to Carthage to sutil'r the most cruel tor

,he. most sublime words ever uttered are. those of Jesus Christ in
)1~mr of his agony on the cross, "Father, forgive them, for they
hot ,what they. do.''
·

)' Dangerous situations arouse this emotion in those
"'hJ> are not personally in danger. Hence descriptions of
~rilous scenes are generally sublime. The following from
.(translation of Homer illustrates thfa form of the subOdysseus is sh.ipwrecked, and this is the description
·s landing:
•

"Ye lce-falle I ye that from the mountaln'11-brow
.Adown enormoW! r1n1ncs !!lope amoin,Torrentl!, methin.kP, that beard a mlg-hty voice,
And stopped at once amid their maddest plange I
.MotloulCl!S torrents I silent cataractl! I
Who made you glorious ne the gates of heaven
Beneath the keen.toll moon 1 Who bade the Pun
Clotb,e you wltll rninbows f Wbo with Jiving flower&
·-.. OfJovelie;it blae, l!ptearl-gnrlands at yonr fcetfGod I let .tbe t-Orrents, like a l!hout or nations,
A.newer I and let the lce-plalue echo, God 1And they, too, have a YOice,-you piles or snow.And in their per)lous tall.ehall thunder, God I"

·~

153

~

(1) Devotion to friends, under circumstnnccs of difficulty ail·a·
ger, is sublime. The celebrated story of Damon and Pythias ilJ
tratee this. ·na.mon, lrn.vfog incurred the enmity of ·Dionysiuii,~~t
rant of Syracuse, \VM senten~ ·to death. Pythias remained:"""
.hostage, while his friend visited his family, with the underatnn
that he wouJ~ lie executed if Damon did not return. Damon, tru
his friend, came back before the appointed time.
(2) Devotion to country ~often sublime. 'The story of '.M :
Curti us, a Romn.n youth who plungod into a chasm which had ope
in the forum; to render his country perpetual, as the proph.e~:
clarcd he would,-is an exn-mplo of s ublime patriotism.
(8) Devotion to honor jg often sublime. Regul~s the . Rli
having given hie oath to return to Carthage, where be was a:caj>

"But now within a voice-throw of the rocks
The sound of waters did bis cars appall,
Full on the .coast the great waves' thundcr-shocki
Roll, and arar tho wet foam-vapors fa.Jl.
No roadfltcad there, no lu:wen s c~med at all,
Nor shelter wh ere a ship might rest at ea~c;
But from the main-earth darted a wild wall
Ofbcadlande. Then Odysseus' bean and knees
Were loosened; and bla eoal thus spake in ·the deep eeas."

Nl.ndig_nation sometimes arouses the emotion of sub;~~~:· The following, from Catiline's imagined address

o-:scnate of R.omo, rises to the sublime :
.:Elere I devote your senate I rve had wrongs,
stir n fever in the blood of age,

To

·'·,Qi: make the infant's slnowe strong as Ptect

· 'Thia day's the birth of sorrow I Thl R honr' ~ work
,_- Will breed proscriptions,-Jook to your hearths, my lords,
For there h e uceforth ~hall s it, for honsehulLI gods ,
Shnpe;,1 bot from Turtarus ! nil shames and crlmes,,Wun Treachery with his thirsty dagg<',r drawn;
Sll.spicion pOlHoning his brothCl''tl Cup ;
Nii'irnd R ebellion, with tho torch nn<l nite,
:;.,Mak.ing his ·wild !'port of yonr bla;dng thrones;
· · Ul •Anarchy come clown 011 you like Night,
~)1fa~_spcr:e seal Rome's eternal grave I"

i'.·.

... . .~-

...

'

~

154

..j

. ..

'
THE ELEMENTS
OF liHETORI<J. .

(6.) Vastness of ~ime or ~pace is conducive to thii:
tion. Thoughts O:f eternity or boundle!!s space ar ·
cia11y sublime. Even mountains and oceans afford
('Xpansion to the ·imagination as to produce ·a feelin
nLlimity. 'fhe following passag~ from Bryantis· sg~c.';~~
from the. comparative insignificance of man as weli::i~l
vastness of creation, both of which aro made
,,
throughout.
"The golden flnn,
T11e pl1mcts, fill the infinite host of heaven,
At-c 1;1hinlng on the ead abodes of denlh,
Through the ~till lapse of age~. All that tread
Tho globe aro but a handful to the tribes
That slumber in Its bosom.-Takc Ule wiugs
or moniing,-and tlie Bnrcan desert pierce,
Or lo~e thyself iu Lhe continuon!I wood~
Wbero rolls the Ol'Cgon, and hears no Fonnd
Savo his own duhlngs,-yet tho dead are there;
And millions, In thot<e solltudeP, Rlnce first ·
The flight or yes.rs began, bAve l11!d them down

In their last sloop.".

·

(7.) Mystery is a potent cause of the sublime. Tho"'
about darkness, death, the world of spirits, supern:1 ·
events, _a nd_the inscrntabl~ ·11rovidences of deity, ar~
of sublimity. The following .,.;passage from Job:~ ·

example :

,;.:

" In thotightll !'rom the vie.Ion!:' of the nlgl;t, when llecp sleep. fallcth · ~'

rcnr co.me upon me, nnd trembling, which made all my bones to shake.''
11pir~t pasaed before my t11ce; the hair ·or my tlesh stood up. lt stood · ;

I. oohld not discern the form tliereor; nn imogc was before mine eyes,'tf •
etlllntc, m;id I heard 4 voi<;c Mying: . •Shall mortal man be more just t
&hall _~ man be more pure th&h his Milker?• "

{.~TJ1e Witty• .. ~
, '.

>J~r;

The feeling produc~9-' hythe witty is not so pure
tio1~~1 as that occasi;hed,by the ~ublime and the be'·:
;;

CRITIOISM.

155

.·
.
cs cbaracter1zed by some perversion of thought, nnd
· nds chiefly upon (1) the association bf incongruities,
xpresseu in brief and pointed language. As its basis
...:

odd fancy, wit is short-lived. .
he nature of wit will be more clearly seen from its

es.
_.). lncongruil)' 1s a principal source of wit. '\Ve find
:_ .. ature a regular EUccessiou of events and a proportion
t.~een

events and their cam;es. When this regularity
A~_ proportion arc vioiatc<l, surprise is awakened, and, if
rivial, the detection of the incongruity awakens the emoi_Qn of the ludicrous. The following example will illus"'' e this kind of wit:
'Twns night l the stars were ebrouded in n veil of mi~t ; a cloudy canopy
im~ the world ; the vivid lightniug1< !la~hed and shook t.helr fiery dart~ upon
~Mt.h; the dcep..toned thunder rollod 11long the vaulted sky; the el<'mente
in wild commotion ; the ~torm-8pir!t howled In the air· the winds whistl ed·
"' il-stones fell Hkn lcadeo ball~ ; the hage undrilntlons' of the ocean dashett
' the rock-bound shore ; and torrents leaped from the monnrnin-topt.< "·hen
urderer ~prang f\:om hi~ sleepJe11s Conch with vengeance OD his brow,.'._mnr•
bis herut,-and !he fell lnstrnment of destruction in his hand.
The storm increased; the lightning fla~hcd with brighter itlllre; the thunder
led wit~ deeper enE'rgy; the winds whistled with a wl.lder fury; the confuOf the houi· was congenial to his son!, nnd the stormy passions which raged
bosom. He clenched his weapon with a sterner grnsp A demoniac emile
""4.;o~' his Up ; he grated his hieth ; raised bis arm ; sprang with a yell of
· · · ~?n his Victim ; and rclentleS11ly kllled-a moequlto I"

_gradation of a dignified surjcct, or undne elevation of a
, 'is called a. Burlesqµe. A combination of the great and
. "~ s ' called by the en me name.
:}1.9k-heroic is the degradation or that wMcb is grand to that
sj;nsignificant. It is a form of bUl'lesque• ..
a't:oay~\or Travesty is a. burlesque imitation of something

.

\ .the .following:
·, ~

·-

;:.; "~.«<,· '\.

··~,.u;;;; •_;O, . e.verthn/!, from ebildbood'e hour,
•

0
•• '

'.:\;·c · · I've seeD my .fondel!t ho'p-05 dec;ay:

'.t~-~'.;t~1'neverloved a tree or tlo\Ver;
•, ....·>>c
But •twtts.thc first to fude awciy."
_,._-.
'
·'
.
...
.~-

-

--~
'
. ~
•.

~

·.~

..

\

ORITJOISM.

' ' THE EL!MlENTS OF·IUIETORIO.

The following fine distinction between wit and humor is drawn
y E. P. Whipple:

P.AJ10l71'. •co, ever thn@,. from chlltl1ood'11 hour
1hie cniel fate on me bath fell ;
· ' There al \vaye co1fre11 a llO!lklng abower
When I've forgot my umbcrell."

(2). Unexpected coincidence is a; source of wit. ;,
de~ctiou of undiscovered resemblances, play upon.
having the same sound but different senses, and a <
f
perversion of the intended meaning, are regarded ~ :,,··
The ~ollowiog are illustrations :
·
. . ··

w

a:

" All epigram is, like a bee
A lively little thing;
Its booy @mnll, Its honey sweet,
And in

.t is exemplified in the following passage of Hawthorne's
"t ...-,Rm from ihe Town Pump." The.,,. Pump says:

.

.

The play upon the name .o f a previous translator of Homer
Jnst example is called Paronomasia, or Pun.
A witty reply.is caned Repartee. This is an example: " ·
would-be O:Ot>Teeable, taking hi& seat between t110 brilliant :M 1
do Stael and the reigning beauty of the day, 'How happy I
be thus seated between a wit and a beauty.' • Yes,' r.-iplied M
de Sta.el, ' and wttli.oul poaaes&ng dtli..er I ' "
An..apparent congruity wbieh is in reality an incongr~~ty;:i
a ~ull: A poor Irish peass.nli wns floundering through ·a-bO
pony.,' In its efforts to gain 80lid ground, the animal entangl
of its feet in a .stirrup. "A.r;ral1, me boy!" exclaimed the rider
11ou are getting up, it's time tor ~ to get down."

.

"'

(.;

Humor
is ,vftwith.
.
. an inf'llsion of eO'Ood nature a~ · pathy. · Wit is a bnlliantJia.sh ;. humor is a lingerin
beam, cheering whil~, it brightens. It is nobler thai
f.o~'. it mingles the emotions of the heart with the
.,cEfptions of the int~h~ct., Some of the sources of '>:·
mentioned 1>el6\Y/ '·'

.:are
)

.--

•

:

t

-:; :.;.
__

:..-.
' ")

.~

"Wit laughs at things; humor laughs with them. Wit lashes
external appearances, or cunningly exaggerates single foibles into
character; humor glides into the heart of its object, looks lovingly
9n the infirmities it detects; and represents the whole man.
' . ''Wit is abrupt, darting, scornful, and tosses its analogies in your
ace ; humor is slow and shy, iusinUAting its fun into your heart.
"• it is negative, nnalytical, destructive : humor is creative. . . . .
)d .Dr, Fuller's remark that a negro i11 'the image of God in ebony,'
sbumorous ; Horace Smith's, that' the taskmaster is the image of
'~devil cut in ivory,' is witty."

/1) Playful freedom of expression is a source of hnmor.

u.a ~ a attng. ''.

.. Pope catne off clean with Homer; but they say
Brooms went betoro and kindly swept the way."

.

157

...Welcome, moet rubicund sir! You and I have been great strangers hl th,,rto;
, to confess the truth, win my nose be anxiotis for a clo!er intimacy, till the
1e.a of your bren.th be a little less potent. Mercy on you, man! the water nbsoely hieses down! Fill agnin, and tell me, on the word of an honest toper, dl<l
ever, in cellar, 1avem, or any kind of dram-l'hop, !!pend tlle price of yonr
ild'ren's f<><><l for a swig half ~o delicious? Now, for the first time tbeFc ten
t$, ·you know the fiavor of cold water. Oood-bye: and, whenever you ore
•. '1 re~ember that I keep a constant supply, at the old etand.''

u::

spoken of without severity,
the humorous. Thackeray and
are esprcia11y fine jn t.heir humorous trcat.mcnt
··li~ract~r.
"The Pickwick Papers" is humorous
·'Out A sufficiently long example to illustrate this
f hhmor cannot be introduced here.
"':.._

-~··

<·; ·-;:'

-

.king one's.self often has n humorous effect. How)iJJieje~t, it is universally understood that the
-~~·<;:; ,. ~fn~ly regard for himself, which divests his
o:ri~c,of . all ,asperity.

158

THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

Sydney Smith remo;rked to the Chapter o! St. _P~ul's, .?n the pro-,.~.
posal to lay a. wooden pavement around the ~wldmg, . If w:e ,~~Y;. ·~
our heads together, the thing is done." AJl'be includes h1mJie1f, ~~~~ ·
is humorous. If he had said, "lf 1/()U lay yowr heads iogether,.' i
would bav~ been witty, but not humorous.
·
· "-' ~.

.......

>Y

6. · The Pathetic.

Pathos, or the tender ~motion, is one of the most po~~!':.
fnl eie,inents of ooth literature and oratory. It is found,,e~
on sympathy, and seldom fails to engage the interest .~~d
touch the heart. It is the seci-et charm of love tales .
the poetry of the affections.
Some of its causes may be pointed out.
(1) Examples of compassion in others 1)roduce ,tl~
·emotion of pathos. Burke's description of Howard i~
fine instance :

159

CRITICISM.

' ellrtb, and whl.spered eometblng like consolation. • • • . • .A1J they lowered
the body into the earth, the crackling of the cord11 eeemed to agonizo her; but
.

when, on eome accidental obstruction, there was a jogtllng of the coffin, all the
or the mother buret forth; as if any harm could come to hlm who waa
far beyond the reach ot worldly 11uilering." See alllO Ule awry entitled •'The
Broken Heart," in Irvlag's "Sketeh·Book."

"'• i, tenderness
~-

.

(3) Personal devotion, under"circumstances of trial and
':-. disappointment, is often pathetic. The
of Emngeline's sorrow and search for her lost foyer, so b€'autifnlly
· told by Longfellow, enlists our sympathies for the unforrtunate maiden. T~e following is a passage from the poem:

story

" Thus did the long f!lld year11 glide on, and in eeuons and placee
Divers and distant far was seen the wandering matden :- .
Now In the tents of grace of the meek Mora't11n Missions,
Now in the noisy camps and the battle:ftelds of the nnny,
· Now in secluded hamlet.!!, in town!' and populous cities.
Like a phantom she came, and pn!!sed away un.l'l,lmembered.
Fair was ehe and young, when ln hope bcgnn the long journey;
, Faded wa!\ she and old, when in dleappolntment it ended.
Each succeeding year stole something away from her beauty,
'' Leaving behind it, broader and deeper, the gloom and the shadow,
Then there appeared and spl"('lld faint streake of gray o'er her forehead,
Dawn of another lite, that broke o'er her earthly horizon,
As In the enstern 11ky the 11.rst faint streaks or the morning."

r ..

(2) Scenes of sorrow and suffering touch ther lie
:.": '.:
with sympo.thy, and awaken a feeling of pathos. ~v:in
d.escription of the burial of a widow's son, will serve .

example:
.. The eervice bdng ended. pnparatlon~ were made to dei>oslt the com.n'. .
earth. There was tbnt bus tling stir that bT'('aks eo hal'flhly on the f~elln,~
grief and affection; direct.Ions were given in the cold tones of bUl'JDC~{
!'triking of spades into eand and gra,·el, which, at the itra'"e of those we lo -.,:
of all sounds the most wltherhw. Th~ bustle around seemed to awaken -·
mother from n wretcberl re'\'crle ... She rnl~cd her l!'lnzed eyes, and looked- l1b~
1
with a faint wlldne~~- }..fl the men approached with cords to lower. t~e· ~;~~~
the grave, Phe wrung her hand!' anc1 broke into an agony of ire ·
., ,
woman who attended ber, took b<:r by tbc urm, endeavored to r&lll6 :e~ tto ·

·(4) Reminiscences or prospects of loss are touching.
,he: thought of departed greatness, past magnificence,
"'erished beauty, or extinguished virtue awakens pathos in
.e, soul. In like manner the expectation of death or
a~atio:n from loved objects, arouses pathetic feeling.
ols~y's Soliloquy illustrates this sentiment:
So, fnrewell to the little good you bear me.
Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness I
This ls the state or man: to-<lny he pntll forth
Tbc tender leaves or hope ; to-morrow blo!!~ome,
And bet:rs his bln11hing bonou thick upon him :
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost :
And,-when he think~. good eatty mim . full surely
His greatness is a ripcnlng,-nips h.la root.

....
•

.tt,nd then be fall• u l do. I bave Tenlur'd

t\ke little wanton boys. that swim on bladdell! .
Thi• .manY 1!1lDUDer& in a eoa of glorr;
,,
But tar beyond my depth : my blgb•blown prlcl• · :
At lcrogth broke un(ler me ;-.nd now bu left me. ·
Weary and old :with service, to the mercy
Of a rude stream, that mnst forever hide.me.
Vain pomp and gloey of this world. I hate .ye.
I feel my heart new-open'd. 0, h<>W wretched ,
ls that poor man that bangs on princes' !nora I
Tiiere Is, betwixt that smile we would upirlll 1of..
That aweet upect of prlnces, and ~elr ruin,
5
More pangs and fean than wars or woll)en111Te: • ·
And when·be !alls. he ralla lilteLucif'er. ·(,>. ' , " • ••
Never to bope again.

.

n this section, on "The Pleasures
have considered :·
1. The Kittds of .lEstlutic plean:re. ·
2. The Beautiful.
;J. The Sublime.
4:: The JYitty.
5. Tiu~ Humoroiu..
6. TIUJ Patlw:tk.

CHA·PTER V.

.

1.
,, Kinds of Composition•

.-

..
162

·.

.

•

Encb. of theso forms of composition hna a grent number of varieties:;
Much ingenuity hns been oxpen<led in classifying them, but no ?'t'.a~lY..:,,
philosophical clMsification bas yet be~n made. \V~ may mention·
some of tho prillcipal forms o~ prose, reservi?}g the varieties of el.
quence and poetry for OfOther place. ,
~.
. : A History (from the <l~k'laTopttv, llisU>rein, to.Jeam, toknowb~
.inquiry) is o. narrative of events. It is usually arranged in a mc~h~,
ical manner, ·so as to show the. connection of <"auses and effects. •
.A Chronfole (from the Greek Xf>OVtJCot;, krmic<JR, concerning time)
. is a history in w hicb the even~ ~' stated with special referen~ .
to the order of time.
·
.
·
Annals (from tho Latin an'nalia, from annm, a year) al'.(: a c~ro.nicle divided into distinct years.
·
Biography (from the. Greek (Jioi;, bioR, life, and yp<l~m·, grap~n~
to write) is the narrative of an indiv~dunl life.
. · '."
. An Autobiography (from the Gre_l,lk, c.ivror, auto8, self, nnd E,ngl~
' biography) is a biography written by the p erson whose ·lif.e ·18
. na.rratea. ~ ·
·
.. ·" .:
.
A, Memoir (from tho TAI.tin m~, memory) is a. histoz:t._
posed from personal experiences and m.e~ory..
~;>;·
A Novel (from the Latin ~Uta, dumnuuve of 11<1ima, new!
fictitious nnrrl\tive, design,ed _to :represent the operation of h ..
,passions, ~ially of love, "' .
.· .
.
.
. . .•
A Romance (trom the Latin -romanetum, n d!llle~t m wlncli .
kind of compositfon was firsi written) is ':l kind of nov~l which :t
ofwild·or start.ling adventures, particularly in love or war. ·
A Tale (from the Anglo.Saxon. tellan, to ~ell) is a ehort nar~,
and may be either true or false.
.
:~··
An Essay (frOm the Latin emgium, a weighl~g, but co~~
referred to the French esaayer, to attempt) is a brief compos1t}_O~
. nny the~e, generally des1gnCd to sot fort11 one's views on ~he; s
.: ject, but impersonal and dignified in its style. Some books a:.-e ·ca
~

.. .....
•;

".

--

THE ELl?.MENTS OF llHE1'0RIO.

(3) Eloquence (from the Latin cl0q1ti, to s~ak ont) i~,_-·
popularly regarded as a form of prose, b~t d1~ers fr~m
common prose. It is an utterance of ones feelmgs with ·
the aim of producing similar feelings in others, and .so,
·influencing the wilL It differs from poetry in being pe~:
snasive, while the end of poetry is not to persuade, but to
please.

.

...

..... -

.SPEOLiL FORMS OF OOMPOSITION.

163

essays, as Locke's •·Essay on the Human Understanding." The
w~rd is more commonly applied to a shorter composition.
A Dissertation (from the Latin d~rtatio, n discourse) is a formal
and elaborate essay. The name is Jess commonly applied to com·
positions than formerly.
·
A Treatise (from the English verb to treat) implies a more formal
.. and methodical treatment thrui an essay, but is not nece&arily a full
, and elaborate discussion of the subject.
·
A Tract (from the Latin tr<utu8, from trahhe, to draw) is ·a short
~ treatise, and especially a brief treatise on practical religion.
A Critique (from the Greek 1Cptruc6<;1 kritiko8;_ from 1Cplvr1v, hrinein,
to judge) is a critical examination of a literary production, in which
its merits and defects are est}mated.
A Review (from the Latin 1'6, again, fJ'idere, to see) is a crit.i que
publi~hed in some critical journal or magazine. 'fhe word is also
·applied to "Certain periodical publications, originally d~igxitid for the
criticism of new books, but pow often devot.ed to current topics of fn, terest, as the·" NortJi .American Review/•
·

2. Method of Treatment.
As it is impossible within our limHs to discuss a11 the
. ; arious kinds of composition, only such as nearly all persons need to know something about are considered in this
·oook. The most important are

Descriptions.
2. Nar1·atives.
3. Lette1·s.
•J·.~-.·Orations. And,
';!..__

•

~ ~Po.e'ln.~.

'f~"ese 'v1ll be treated of in the following sections.

: j

::lj

164

THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIO.

SPEOlAL FORMS OF OOMPOSITION.

SECTION I.
DESCRI PTION.S.
1. Qualities of a Good Description.

A description ought to have the following qualities
(1) It should have a purpose. It is generally m1 able to enumerate all the qualities of whn.t we are ·~
ing, for this would make the d~scription tedious.
having some purpose definitely fixed in the mind~~
able to select only such circumstances as are relevant'
description which would be suitable to a poem woul -~- be of much value to a. m:m of science.
(2) It should have unity. The impression made ~po
the mind should be that of one thing, all of whose ~p "'::
are properly connected. A natural order in cons1d:rl ·
the )?arts conduces to unity. In describing a ~:tc~
· · example, it would be a violation of _unity to speak fl
its trunk, ·then of its frnit, then of its leaves, and · •
of its size and shape. It would be better first
mention its sizo and shape; and then, beginning
tru~ k, to follow the branches to tho leaves, and , n~
describe the fruit. Iu this way the growth of .our ~~=e:·
the tree would follo'! the _order of nature in the.._,' l
of the ·tree itself. ·· ·
,

of

(3) It should be complete. It is not meant ~
desQ.ription ~ust contain all tha.t cnn be said of that~ ·
is described. A description is complete when _n6
essential to the ~purpose has been omitted. 'o'i
stances of time, place, and habit, are often importa

.

'

165

___--- descriptions of things which change, the timo of obAerva'"'' __ tion ought to be not;ed. Animals are not adequately
''-""'-- _described unless their habits and dispositions are noticru.
.: -~ - (4) It should be brief. When we read or hear a de,:_-:- scription, we do not see all the parts at once, as we do in
· ~a picture, but must form an idea in our own minds out of
ibo eiements furnished in succession. For this reason
description becomes indistinct when it is very long, as the
_·mind cannot recall and combine a very large number of

·:.; .. L

'

;

.

. details.

'

·.:.·.:

The laws of description are much more fully treated in tlie
__ "Science of Rhetoric." Maoy abstract principles would bu con- - ~ fusing to the unpracticed writer. Heoro no rules are given hero for
~-- the description of mental stat.el nnd forms of character.
,~ ,
There is scarcely any kind of t'.Omposition that affords more scope
·:_ for genius than description. To paint well with words requires us
- much skill as to pa.int well with colors.

t

··----: ~.
i; :.~ '.

·,

• !

.

~- ~.

2. The Process of Describing.

'.;;' The successive steps iu the process of describing are as
ellows:
·,~~· (1) Select a point of view. Every thing depends upon
''tliis. : A description eannot l1ave unity unless the object
he vjewed from some one point. It is -~onfusing to change
,'tbe point of view at any.time without giving notice.
' ,·(2) Select characteristic qualities. There are many
... uaiities that are common to the object described and uJl
c- i~)lar object& It may .always taken for granted that a
reader . or ht>arer knows sometldng, and needs to be in::foq~~d only o~ what i~ peculiar. An_active mind enjoys
~- free play oiirµag,Uiation in ~oinbjning the elements of
· h~teve~ .is- described.

be

.·

1" .... •

. :~;,,_{:
i"'

-;

SPEOL1L FORMS OF (J()JlPOSITION.

THE ELEMENTS OF RliETORIO.

"(3) Enumerate qualities in their natural order::
.depend.s·upon .this. The more closely we follow·the o.~~. · of actual conception the better. When an objecti''j_~ a·
scribed'in this manner interest seldom flags, and we almoe
BefJ the· reality.
· (4) Use comparisons, to make the description. vivid .
and life-like. Some resemblance may suggest a better .·
known or more striking object. · ·Many beautiful descri~·,
.. tions owe much o:f their ahtractivenes8 to a happy com .
. parison. Goldsmith,. after describing the purity, oharit
· and ,tenderness of a ... vilhlge -.pastor, concludes with
~ ,'·

<

,

"'

\

~

J'.

I

r

.!?',~ ~ '

,\

words,_....

·
,

·- In this. section, on "D,escrlptions," we have considered:· ... l. The , Qualities of <.' GOOti De1Jcr;iption•
fl. TIUJ ·Process of Describit•U·
-

SECTION' II •
NARRATIVES.
l· Qualities of a

G~d

Narrative.

'

" A1 eome tall cliff that lifts lt8 awful form,
•Swell8 &om -t he Ta.le, and midway lea'l'ee the storm,
" Tho' round lt.a breallt the rolllug clouds are spread,
' Eternal euu~bine eettlea on its bend."

.

Study closely the foll.owing masterly description of the Puri
Balfour and bis surroundings, by Sir Walter Scott ;·· . ··
•

1-

,,.

1, U1,>0n entorln( tho p~ce of rel'nge, be fonnd Bal,four U<ZUd on .h41, hum .
~ 'with a pocket Bibl~o~iD hl11 hnnd, which bo eeemed to etudy.Wft.h
teziao m¢Uatwn. Hie broat.Uword, whkh. be had unsheathed In the fil'llt a
ai-tl)e,arrlval. ot tho d~n~. lay ,na'ked acroea ht. knees, and th~ 1!_ttl
, tha~~lood betilde hltn on the old dlut., whlch eerYed tbe PJlFPOll8 or a Wblo,
• ., a partial and hnper;t:ect liflhl npon those 11tern and banlhf.aturu,,in which
· . ~ ..~. rettywas reuderiid more ilolemn and dlgnUled 'by a wlld Clllt otti'ilgtc enthu11
• His br(1fJI wu that of ·ol!e-in whom Pomo strong o'ermui&rlng principle_.~
· whelmed oll other pae11{0DB and foollng11,-lil'e tll4 l1IH1l of a hi{lll ~
, ' When the -mmal .clilfs'. and brenkennanlt!h from the eye,and·thetr,e:atle
,, 'on11 indicated by the c)laflng foam or the waves that bunt a.n d wheel ov,er
.•

...

•

"""":,

~

•

._

)! •.

~

•

- '!.

~

· · '~. "'"'~Notice how the Writer .bas fulfilled the conditions .of,,,&( · ·
.. ' sCrl.¢,on.... F}~. he ~~es ~his point of view a.t the ent1'n~ '· ><
· ';}~Pl,n-ce \vb_e te B$.l:tour is. . I_:{e then no~s the posture or~~e
.. . .'\ hecoucb : on whicb'tlio is· seated, the open Bible in hi8 ·
'. -:~· . :~,P,~t&tiop. in .~ud.y _h}s .~rbadsword, t~~ tapeF,·.by his side .
, ' ".":ii""· on \Vbi9h it stand.IJ, th~ light on his· ~eatnros, h18 brows _...e
:-:: : of bis'clui.rac~r; and tfonlly ootnp]etes tb'e pi~nre witli,tl(!'i
· · oompa.ril!Pn wJlip4 closeR the passage.
·
,•

, __ ,.

••
•\

168

XHB ELICJIE.NTS OF RHETORIO.

SPROI.AL l!'OllJIS· OF' COJfPOSITION.

· · (4) It sflould be" brief. The proverb, "Brevity i1Jr
...so_u l of wit," appli'es with special aptness to a n~frati.~~
.
A story spun ·o ut beyond reasonahle limits becomes wearf
• ' r.-- .. ' some.
.
;

- · The power ot successful story-telling is a rare but charming 'gilt~

c

The dry chronicles of the early English hist.oria.ns contain most
the fact.a of Sir We:lter Scott's fascinating romances, but these delid
facts leaped into life at the touch of the g,reat enchanter; No one
reads the old chronicles; but ~early everjr one is delighted ·with
t11e $torif\s based upon them. The ai1ferenre of interest is owing t9
that po:wer of genius which tn.llsfonns HfPless facts into life-like
·.. · '. pictures. This transformation is, to a great extent, the result of a
··· · · vivid jmagination, impnt"ting-eo1or, order and proportion to the fact'
· 1: may seem paradoxical, but it is true, that ima,..aination is as nee
sary.tothe historian as to the romancer. Imagination does nott:in
ply falseh6od. On the contrary, it is nect>S88JY to the reali7.atio
of all truth expn?ssedin forms or material symbols. A true 'storj,; .·
mueh ns an tnvenfed one, requires imagination, to render"it Vivi
The sooret of succe88ful narrativo is a vivid realization of details a·
~]lelr relation11.
·t..:··;'.-~

.,

~ -~:._~ >~i'~

· . .2. The .Plot of a Narrative.

. .. .

-2

.

.

·~. '; ,;~,:~'.: ;• :~v-0~ nat:rat~'!e: de~igned

a pl?t·

... .

. By~'thisJis

m~ant

.

:, ;

to be interesting ought "
such an arrangement ·

-derlts" ~ . fo' excite"'aild retafo the interest. . ifi

it is. ti"ni©.-o· withhoJcling

t\p.e~d~t(>,

of the poiit
stocy;·Ul'itit the·oirc:nmstances are all related. I~
- it is an ·.i~tn6ate· confbination .of the j nciden ts. i-:
· _;[:t')yii\1¥tfu.c-'~er 88
.to arouse·'tne'. ·expectation and snstil'li~
,8 .
._:f$
><"~ ~~re.st;' often for ;a. lOng time, till the denouement;~'.
'·r,. .,. ··.•

·· 'i

·..o:.

¥

.,.

_

••

-

•

,, .·of't1ie';: gtory:' ;;><l~-...~ .• Y.~~;.
, :'.'w ...

~·- '· '·.~·~.

__ ..... -:,.

~-

,._,."'"'.(1',.(,

~•,,I:''., .>

.;,ti~

, •·
;,

-.•

·
I

"- J-he~~ci~1t~~~aJ1~:~ii~.~"or~ork~, offlction··depends.· :-;

,.·

a. skillfu~y constructed. plot. : E;ven when it is known th
l!toTY, l$ a fa.bri~tion; one' can' ~ardly rep~ tho . desite

169

end; the mind findi!lg hO sati!lfaetion until the destiny ~f each character is detennined. Somo persons always spoil a story because they
cannot withhold the conclusion ol' enshroud it in mystery. The end
is known as soon as they begi.n,. a'nd, therefore, the reader cares littl"
for the narrative. · Othem form &-plot in the simplest anecdote, and
are listened to with admiration.when they te!l it. The power to do
this is, no doubt, toa great extent, a seeretof ge'nius, but. analysi.a re.
ve'als some of the principles which' must be obeerved.

,,

3. The Quaiitles of a Plot.
A plot should bave the folfowing qualities.
. (1) The narrative should seem important The idea.
·of importance ~y be _ sugge~t.ed _by fores~adowing an interesting conclusion. A strange scene, a ~~nliar chara.c. ter, or a mysterious occurrence is, therefore, generally an
· appropriate introduction ~ ·a nar.niti:Ve.
. . (2) Probability· is necessary ~~ ·a good plot Improb~hility, however, may contribute· to the interest, if there
· be a reasonable hope of ~ final explanation• .
:~ (3) Suspense conduces to ~ the: ·interest of a story, if it
.
.
· -· not too long continued. Patience must be rewarded,
o\Vever, at intervals by iom~ development of the plot, or
"iie narrative seems dull and;i1'1W.rest flags.
. (4) .Climax is important ·in ·a namtive. The interest
grow as the ' etorj adn1:n·ces,.until the denouement
• ·reached. · This sE.ould, be'resef'voo till the last, and not
' 0.-. distinctly ~nticjPa¥.· ·... t ·~ • ,·
~

. :ould
2· ·-

~~

; •f>4·

:

•

y ... ~- .

~ ~; ~·

l>rescott, ai-e 8omet1me!J alrii~ d'iamatie in their mnnagem(!nt
:·: Fietfo~. :h6wcvel', ·atrotdilit~~:tb;test'1te1d fC>f.9killful narl'll.tive,

the wn~i'Js .~ ~~-·~b'i~~lf~ineid'entsf in ~ Iilost ef'tee.
::·

•

I ., '

•

. 11::•

"

•

J

--", .. ': . ., ~ .

. h'e qualities of a plot mentio~ect.'•b~~-betong to the best his·
ies ts ..well ~as to works of flctiba ~ Gfbbon, Macaulay, and ·espe-

.:: Some writei-s.~r

..

ftetion·re1Y::ch\edy upon the pl<>~fOt theii
-'

·" •· ,,~·· •

"i~

, -~;(;(' • '' ;

\

:.

sucoess as etory-tellers. ·Wilkie Collins is preeminent for the in.
Others depend little upon the plot, but e:xcel
· in portrnlture of character. 'Dickens and 'l'hackeray are ditltinguished
.m ainly for their delineation of ,different phases of life. Sir Wnlter
Scott
an intricate
plot with life-like painting of characters.
'.. •. ~ unites
~
,"

· 2. The Kinds ot' Lette.r s.

genUity of hifl plots.

...

In tbis section, on ''Narratives," we have consid·
ered:'1.. Tlt.e Qit.etli~les of ti, Goo'l N<trrative.
f.l. T/1.e Plot of a Nm"'J•ntive.
.8. , TIM Qualities of a Plot.
,

.

/

S·E cTfu III.
.

LETTE~S•

.

. .

1. Tbe· Purpose of Letters.
~ , '• ·'
' ..
.:.'..".'f!"..,...__,.....
·· ~,_ A. l~tter is a,~ritt~;
~om,inunica.tion
from one pe~on
'
.
,;;_
: ~;· ;L "t,Q another. ·It is intended to take the place of a conv.~..
. ti~n, and this purpose determines ·t he form, the length: ~tJte·
,,,,.~ style, .aud 'the gene,ral-'j;one of a letter. It is a kind .,_of
~ , .pe~on~l addre~;1an~, _acc;ordingly, is less. formal, and~~~
· ' . .. d~ct .:than.
other forms
of writt.en ·composition.
.·~ ·-·..
,..? .'., t,'' - ~~
'
'
..
-, .... 1;_ .-:"
'

.

.._.

.

.~

Letfiers constitute the principal part of writfien compoo
.sition. They are written on eve'ry conceivable topic, in
almost every temper of mind, by and t.o every class of
persons. Hence they are of 88 many kinds as are the
thoughts and purposes of . those whq write them. A few
of the most important kinds ·of .letteJ"S, with the style
appropriate to each, may be mentioned.
(1) Didactic letters, designed f~r instruction, and often
almost 88 formal as a treatise, were formerly a very popular form of literature. .T he famous book on Etiquette, by
Lord Chesterfield, ·is in the form 'o f letters to his son.
Montes<l!1ieu's Persian Letters are designed to convey
·political instruction.

·•

This form of oomp0sition was much employed by the ancients.
Seneca and Pliny wrote tl'l!&ti~. in this form. Seneca's Epistle5
· claim to be simply letters to a friend, but they are in reality dittscrta'tions in the epistolary fonn on moral subjects Plinr. discourses of
natural history in the l!l&me wa.y, and his Lettel'll are as elegant in
'~1 ~y le as if theil' substance had. IJeen expressed in formal dissertations.

·~

(2)' News letters are communications to newspapers,
'"(>ntaining accounts of events in ~arious places, <lescrip)?1~s of cerem_
onies and eminen~ . persons, and reports of
. :,: ~Pi~ions~, gathere<l. ..fro~. public men. Such letters arc
. -Often of great interest, and'
sometimes written with
" ~;kill'an'd. taste. They shoald'- 00. orjef, timely, and sprightb~'..:an.'<l.~ written in an easy, flow)ng·~1e. .
.
,,,,~s;.;;:,: ·:"..~f' ;:.
'
"~;;~ :' ' ,_. .~:..
. .
' .

are

,,. .!al~-;Qt~h~1fule$t living ,\vritel'8 ·&re> engaged in cormpondence
-r1 · .~· metropolitan joumals. . They make letter: writing a
;~

'.~

'-fJ.,'1

. ,., ,;

~

---

- - -....

""";~"·'.

-,;rfi~~
~.~.1~;~'

172

<~};r~t;­

THE ELEMENTS OF RilETOBIO.

SPECIAL FORHS OF COMPOSITION.

'

profession, and devote ·themselves to it with enthusiasm:
ters are tisually bril.liant ro.tlier 1.Juui profound, dealing chiefly wi
current events in politics.·~Ugion a.nd literature. They a.re often
of humor and funcy, and the predominant style is what is aometim
called :picturuq;ue, frOm th~ graphic cham.eter ofthe diction. ·-

(5) Letters of introduction are designed t.o commend a
. friend to another person of one's acquaintance. These
sliould never be written without forethought, inasmuch as
-:the writer, to a certain extent, vouches for the character
__··~f the person introlluced.

t

(3)' Official letters are communications between me1~
their :public eapacity. Tbey should' always possess pefle .
~len.rness, the utmost possible brevity, and a firm dig~·i't-Y,.
oC tone. , They should also contain the usual terms ' 6
courtesy.
(4) Lett_ers "of business are of great importance ori a~
count of _the iutorests frequently iurn1ved in tbem.
should be clear, brief1 direct ·and gentlemanly.
. thing irrelevant to the business in hand· should
eluded. They should contai1i such reference to forme
correspondence . that the · bt1siness may not be confuse
tbro~·gh personal .' failure · of memory.. Business
' usually file. their lctte1'f!, sometimes copies of those senJ
well as thos~ received, so that, in. a reply, the pate ·of :£
letter answered often aids the person addressed in recall

me:
~

what 'he Said. ·

"

.

Great losses in busin'ess have re; ulted from carelessness
oorre~pondenoe. Ambiguous language may be wrested frorrf:;.i ."
purpose, and made an excuse for delay or ~ different action fro m - ·
.desired. Hence n,o,one should be more pains-taking in acqu·
· t
clel\l', concise style of writing tlian the mnn of business.,..
CarelessneSB in spelling-, blunders in ool}Structiou, or want;o
in the expression of tl1onght, oft.en interfere with success ii:i ~J:l""
of bus.iness. The bosincss character of a man or firm is Jll
by stntDgers from, the appearance of their corresponden~ .

,

_.rt

i..

173

Such letters are geriernlly left unsealed, and the name of the per.s on introduced is written on the lower left hand corner of the en·velope, in order that the persons, on meeting, may greet each other
without embarrassment. The name of the person add~ed m also
pla.ced on the envelope in the usual manner for other letters.
~-

(6) Letters of friendship commonly receive Jess attcn'~ion in their composition than they deserve. They should
· b~ free from pedantry and egotism. Their general tone is
,'~~ermined by the relation of the parties. It is safest to
:~ rather more dignified and precise in a letter than in
ordinary conversation with our friends. Neatness and
b orrectnes.s are indispensable to a good letter, no matter
how intimate one may be with his friend. A plain band. riting is as much deser"ed hy a father or brother us by
'n officer of state.
One caution is worth remembering in writing letters of friend ship,
ords that are spoken in privacy reach no other ears than those for
ich they wero intended. Words that are once written upon pap<'r
·y;:be seen by many eyes for which they were not designed. It is
8~, therefore, never to write any thing which the world might not
ead- without causing mortification and regret to the writer or the
teN!On addressf'd . In addition to this, o. letter once sent cannot be roll~. and it may not be read in the spirit in which it was written.

·{7) Notes ·a.re short letters, generally limited to a single
·~fh:t'i6f business. 'l'hey are urooerl!" writt.en on smaller

~1I~it!
,

.·~~~!·

5

._·7f:t:1 ~,·'
f ·<-h(,i!,_
' tf·:~~-:i.

:;1~:

·!1
:·~J~tl;: . ~

'~ti~
1

~t:i~-':

'l'JlE .ELEMENTS OF BHETORIO.

174
'

SPEC1:1L FORMS OF COJIPOBITJON.

paper than ordinary letters, and in "quality it should- be '
plain, fine and neat.

In addressing notes to ladies, t.he t-ldest daughter of the family
.ie entitled to the designation Miss - - , without any Christian name. '
If Mr ·Brown bal! three daughters, Ma.ry, Annie, and Emily, ~he

tirat ~·

• . [Mary) 12'.l Mi;s Brown ; the seoond, .Miss . Annie Brown ; the . tb'ird ~Miss ~u'lily ~i:oWll. , Ta~e~ toget~er, they,, are the Jruau Broio1!,
. · ~,xiot. ·the Miu ,,.BrtMM. . · ·
~· ··
- ,
- • ., . <¥ :~~~~ must. be ·~ken in,w:riting no~·to 'Uae .the .grainmatieal pe ·

(3)

~t. an~
'.: ~an?

oliita- &f/a.e~

n/ ~·t. J'~-1

7(J

((fk

co'ln-

cff'ue.u/a7 e-ue-nenJI',

~

/«? ~/,{.

·

Replte&.

following are specimen• of some of the most common forms
. .:of 'i'I~e
notes.
. .
•
:

(1)

\

Invitations.

<U'I.

a~cd /.fe

_.$#f'c
., - 7/~ e;,,uL

:;sqns ·oonsistently ; as, M:ra. Br011J11. ~e~nts her eompliments.to Jtj
• "Smitlt" roid solicits.the plel).Su.re of h11 [not your] company on fiat

·~~y .evening, the 18th .ins~:·

175

.. o/6e

.df&7 acuj,,Lt

'.

~tn~ ~J~an/

(1)

,.

k'

a#U!d /

..

-uu/.b /z.&ewu-te of@e.

/o-1,/ •,a,

.((Jfb

e:,.u:t
~/a~£~"
·.!. '.'

j'u/y td. ',

~.·

·•.
,_
'

'.,·-:;

'

.

..

(2)
-. ·~

(2)

.

~

..

~,,da ~y--1/,.-v faeae-n44

.

~~-, &l ~ ~~u-n~ ~~

. '

~~ -~~·t1 a+u~ ~a~.-/~ µ~';U~:;:t

_;~?n/a~/'o . f~ C(Janced: ~· if~~}:~
· ~a~on Jtf,uuu/

~t. c!Jl;wn/. ancP

-1.re..t Ua-? a ji-t tHn .o trd.
. ~e-nun./ Ult// j't-teV-e-n/ 4e.t aou/i-lance <f'
;k-u~(in.
-;._

~ ·-"~,,·"'!~"'cJ.

I

k-t/ co#tjUi#1en/v

. _.
_

.

TIIE ELHJIENTS
OF BHETORIO. ·
.

176

SPEOIAL FORMS OF COMP08ITION.

177

(8)

. ~: J'~l5 4.e;t~~& /ha-? ~~ncv /Jo,,~ .
/ci~ w~:d'ca#~6/ ~m /o e4c~ ~. an~

~4d(' &f/aU-ui ~/ -tn-tlda~n/

r'

cff:eea/ay

~~uen~.

&'a-t~ "'!~<'
~,40U
.Note of Introduction.

d'f,.U ~-t~ /une

-ttJ.,,

3. Parts of a Letter.
The essential parts of a letter are: (1) the SuperscripUon, or introduc~ion; (2) the Body, or substance of tho
letter ; (3) the Subscription, or closing expression and
t signature; and ,(4) tlie Address, or direction on the enve_lope. The ~up~rscription, subscription, and address will
. now be considered in order.
(1) The Superscription of a letter consists of (1) the
_· name of the place, (2) the date of writing, and (3) tho
of the person addressed ; as;-

-u.r~.

.f{eUJ.-Uttfu~,,

~ ~a-t ~-~ -

fo

of~U6 -»i6 /t, ·- ~nLc.~ce /o 7au _,,,,~ /{una?~. _·
·_ ,/~~ ~etL. ~JP $/47a'S't!( 9 / c~~~an/
,a,_8{~~4.~an ~hu-tc~ and a -tea~~~/~:

o/.
_d 7 ~4.1 -ta~ch ~<Ue Cd:Z~t ~ r f-

9ov1~.
km \~u-t~ L.ui ~1:7· ~w. ;yoU't· cdy UL-e$
. ~d£ec-m.t>d aJ

/a"'-'o 7

a

,;ktt"id<J.4-uUf

t

. <Jt'~u·t ,lt~1ict
.

,$

t;;'.J.

~
(7 <(j.

4 .·

dUJ.

c51k.,, ~ne

4tJ,,

HI'{<,

C?Jo.,,

<Jt'ad
d-en/..&-1nt)n .·

(1) The name of the place.-Tbis sl1onld never be omitted if tho
etter is to go to another town. It includes much or little nccording to
the nature of the case. Philadelphia and other great cities are 8Q wellk'nown that it is needless to say, Philadelphia, Pa. Small towns, and
~Ven ciiieB when there are several Of the same Dame, Bhould be s peci 'ed bv tbe nd<lition of the State; as, Madison, Wis., Madison, Ind,
·_ adi~n, N . J. In Cities, the name of the street and numbt>r of the
,ouse should always be given; as, 1~4 Broadw!ly, New York. Con.
ractionsofnamesshould bemadedistinct. N. Y. and N.J. are made
-v::~iy much alike by careless writers. Even the name of the County
s Jiould be added, if the place is small or unknown to the penion aililr~ssed; as Winfield, Union Co., Pa. This enables a correspondent
-"'direct his reply correctly.
7(2) The Time.-Every letter should have a date. Business letters
: cially ought never tQ be written without the month, the day of
·,month, and the year. The date ought n~t to be put at the oot~; 8,s is sometimes done.
.'

".
178

SPECJAL FORJJS CF COMPOSITION.

THE ELEMENTS OF RflETORIC.

(3) T~e Designation of the :r;erson addressed differs according ta
ou: relation!"<' the parties. · "Lett.em of friendship usually begin with
such expr0SS.1ons as the following:
-~ .

Vf'~

/

t f!Z' •

l7G

Business letters often l:iave the name of the firm a.ddrcssedaind
their place of business, as a. pa.rt of the designation; as,-

/

· aea-t O'-i-e.e-;.ia/

of~ dea·t ~_/~M/
cl~

c/a-t.dn7 ~k,,

!l/ea-t

8ft.g..! k-t/
In other letters the nam(' of the one addressed and the name of
his post office arc generally placed at the closc of the lettr r to th e
left und a little below tbe writer's signature. Tbis should not oo
negle<--teJ.
The punctuation of the superscription is illustrated in the ex·
amples.

More formal letters begin ns follom :

lffea-t ~.
d~ cka1 ~!,,

!/ffeeu of~ac/a~/

(2) The Subscription of a letter consists of (1) the Term
of respect or affection, and (:t) the Signature; us,

Lettera addressed to public officers should be quite formal
following a.re examples !

•

(1)

'l/%e ~na~
~uae ·7 df0jft-tei.en./a/tV.e.1.

~ -lk ~e1t-:e;fa#-,/

.Qfeahet

o/ ,(~

Ue-1i/4-z-en· .·

d

(2)

ffi:L";"e-/.1'"""-·~
~-

"'J?OU. 1a/

r;Jl<1wt _a;j{c/r.o·nale
~;c.!to-na·le-ty

/o~z <ff.' ~a1-lt<Mifi
.. -

e.ae.t

"

Jti'<-4 f/a;c~c7/

- ....~

(1) The Term us<.-d in closing a. letter depends upon onr r0ln.tion
to th<' f)('rrnn nddrcAAed. Letters of frierfdsbip close with expressions
such 1U1 the following :

.

7 !!fle-nn~u'a. ·.
-

f;ffev.o.,fea!/y

~u<Jd'a-na{

/o.ef.M/

/O.U44/

~;;u·/4 ;lf.ad'e·t nu4/

-

'·

'180

·.. 'was

~EMBN1'8

OF RHETOJUa
SPECIAL FORMS . OF OOJlPOSJTION.

_ ~ ¥ore fonnal ex.pre!tlio.ns 8.J.c :
•

<

~

(3) The Address secures the Sa.fe de1ivery or' tho letter,
and hence ought to receive attention. It consists of t hree
parts: (1) the Name, (2) the Title, a.nu (3) tbe·~esidence,

<§/auu ~e4,,

-te0ec.r4,,

~OU~
~-t.7 -?teufy ;t'"~-td,,

as,~(J.~1:a! ©'7#U:a;

' . ~? "+~4,, .

of;~ ~J

~tUU ~'""#f.& dtH~an..(
~f'Me.f.. 6-tf'erken.£ d~a,,_z/
Married

~~ ~a7,,
dfeta. ~otfu/ ~£/.
. The first name of her former husbnnd sliould be dropped b a
ta' ·
[h
widow, and her name before marriage should be used
prefix Hra. ; as,' re irung e

~~

/:t"4/
~a. <lfa'ia" ~aR. ·

'.

be

The sex of the writer ought ,arways to
evident from the slg.
nature. Tbis ls of special importance in \Vl'iting to a stranger The

?ex may generally be made known by using th~ Cb,.;at'1 •
msteud of'tl1
· · ._,_
,.., an .name
.
~ mere I~tti~ It jg generally best to write the fi~name in full in
aise. Jts omission often lends to a confusion of
persons.
.
. ·
It is not custom · 'tl . ·1
, ' ·
• •
J
ary Wl l poop e of ,good taste to use any title"in
s1gnmp: etters or other documents
Rev lion nnd Prof
·.
fl ed to h
·
.,
·•
., are pre.
xl
~ e nam~ o~ gentleman byotbers, but never bythem~lves
~n ess
ey a.re ill mformcd of good usage. The anme applies"·.
titles of nll kinds.
. -:
·

an!

•.-

rla7-.,,

~/

~~~?'"'';,,,

(2) The Signature deserves some attention.
should prefix Mra. to their name; as,-

181

(1) 'fhe Name should always be written with exactnes!', without
: any hamiliar trifling. Nicknames and pct names ought never to ~
1
•· used ia an addr~s.
Thls part of a letter is al ways of a business
_nature, whatever the purport of tQ.e lettel' may be.
.,.......

(2) The Title is not always easily determined. Every man is Mr.,
every married lady, Mrs. ; every unmarried lady, Miss, but some
claim more than these common titles. ·
It is courteous, in addressing persons, to u8e their titles. No one ia
.entitled to be called E<;quire except gentlemen of the legal profession
, and justices of the peace. The greater title pl'E"supposes the less. It
_._:· would be in bad .taste to write, Rev. <...'harles K Brace, A. B., A. M.,
-· Ph.D., LL. D. The three titles, Ph. D., D. D., and LL. D., are often
, .,. retained together, and tbe highest written last. It is absurd to
duplicate titles; as, Dr E. M. Jones, H.D., or Mr. Thomas Gray, Esq.
Judges, Members of Congress, and some other officers of Government, are entitled to the prefix Honorable. This extinguishes the
title Esquire after the name, but not literary titles; ns, Hon. P. E.
Swift, LL.D. Some insist tl1at the article "the'" should he used before the words Honorable and Reverend, but this is not the oommon
sage.
(8) The Residence of the person addressed should be plainly wri.
ten out in full. The name of the State ought not to be abbreviated
~les8 the abbreviation is perfectly intelligible. The stl'('('t and
umber of the house should be given, if letters nre likely to be
· eliverocl by postmen.
":'"".!'he followin~ exai;nples mustrate how the nddress should be
'Jiitien on an envelope.

If

~

'

·~
~

I

.

..

'

182-

'
TiiE~Ei;,ttHENTS OF RllETORJa ·

SPECIAL FORMS OF OOMPOSJTION.

183

l

t.

~~·

·1

L

t. .

.

,

'

~

"
.,~

.:

..
..

$?i. @. !Z c9fa~
'

~u. y~

'

.I

<fltl!ta7r~(

~-~ .

~C07!U~

J &flau~ ~

~

~'"' ~ti. /:-

%./
!fla.

.

..-r/~~?ctn;, ~. <ffm. ~id.

,,

.,
:""'·

. Q4/w ~me. ~ti

di ~1/le.

aAt. /.,di

~er( !ff~

----·

/-1-(l Yln~ Sf

- ···- - - - - '

I

"/

&14.

$. c9: ~tat.

cz:{·th7 of~. &'tttMU. ·

I

'18.J: · . ·'rYiJJ:E ·'JtLEMENTS· OF BHE1'0RIO.
-

'

SPEOIA.L FOllHS 01' COMPOSITION.

185

4. General Bules for Writing Letters.
~he au bjeot is of such' great practical importance that a

:few general directions may be given in this connection.
· (1) Answer promptly. It is not meant that every letter
. should be answe~ed at once. This . is often impossible,.
and even undesirable when reflection is necessary. The
principle should be to reply without needless delay. This
is idue to every correspondent who deserves any attention .
.If. it be said that·
thi.s direction has nothing to do with' ··'
..., .
_- ,composition, it 'sbould be remembered that the character
of the letter is greatly affected by the delay in writing.
'

....:

•

If the sheet is l~tter-papcr, fold No. 1 over No. 2, and
ireat the folded sheet as in the case of note-paper, as
follows:

. .(2) Write every letter. carefully. It is natural to slight

-..! ' ..

such common and familiar things as letters, yet, on · the · _
.. whole, there .i s scarcely any other one form of writing by .·' '
which men are so generally judged by their acquaintances.
E.ven among educated men there are comparatirely few
·-•good writers of letters. Violations of grammar an~ bad ~
spelling often cost m~n positions of honor and profit. ·

. (3) Express your · thoughts with directness.
writ~rs who are plain in conversation become sentimental,
_ ' others verbose, "9thers flowery, in their letters. Ever
form of affectation should be avoided. A letter should b
~ a . natural expression ofone's thoughts and feeliJ?gs. , . _·

-~ 4. Study neatness' ,in: folding and sealing. If the sh;e·
is note-pa.pe~, fold N'o~.1 over No. 2, and then bring dow.
·No. 3, asJti" the;foUowi~gdiagram:

_No. 2.

No. 1.

.

:...

'.;

• '<. ·~

.l86

SPEOJ.i1L FORMS OF-COMPOSITION.

k,
4

··

.

ln this section;
erecl :-·
,~

187

'

on · "Letters,"

we have consid

t

.:j. ,.The Pulr:pose

Qf Letters.
2. Tlte Kinds of Lettm·ll.
3. .T lte Pa1°t.'1 ' of':" Lettm-.
4. General :Rules /01• 11r1.• ithzg Letters.

"True Eloquence, indeed, does not consist in epeeeb. It cannot be brought
from far. Labor and learning may toll for lt, but they will toil in vain. WonL~
and phrases m1ty be marshalled in every way, but they cannot compass it. It
must exl~t in Uie man, in the subject, and In the OCC&l!lon. · Affected pas~ion,
intense expreeslon, the i>omp of declamation, all may aspire after lt,-they cannot ret1ch it. It comes, if it come at all, like the outbreaking· of a fountain from
the earth, or the bunting forth ot volcanic ftrel, with apontaneoW!, original, r.ativ•

rorce."

·

2. Kinds of Oratory.

, smCTION IV.
., .ORATIONS.

t. The Nature of an Oration.
' An Oration (from the Latin ordre, to speak in ·a pleitd.·
· ing ruunner) differs froru otber forms of discourse in three
respects: (1) it is designed to be heurd, not read; (2) it
·aims at persuading the mind of eomc truth 01· to some .
·co~u·se of action : , (3) ·. jt"presupposes an audience compo~d ,:·
·,·of various grad~s ·O-f .in'telligence and culture. · It is not.' ' '' the end .of an ~ration_.!?. com1inco the_ 1inderstandh1r/,:
. -.
, merely. Conviction may be hscu ns a means .Of pcrsuabut,' generally~
awakening of the feelings is com~·
1
.
bin'ed.. with the use"'ct facts and arguments. An oration:
:attempts
·mo~e 'the.'.wm through the intellect and the"
.<..~~ emotions.
·~~' 4- .~· ·~"'
•

.'· sion,

an

u;

.

"

:. •'

·'·

·~";!'>~("::
. ..,,

,•

alms to

An . 'orat'fon·
r.~aUze the highest efoquenoe. It is th'
emotionol element .in oraiOrj which mak~ it truly eloquent. Thiti'f
·the opinion of '.tn'~ ·grelitest American orator, nnd liis words 11 '
w9rthy of' careful study.by every student of the oratorical art. Snys
Webs~; _,,
-..~}
.
·.

"

Oratory has been vari9usly divided by rhetoricians.
Aristotle's division is the oldest and, probably, the best.
He makes the following threefold divisi,o n; (1) Dcliberntivo oratory ; (2) Judicial oratory ; (3) Demonstrative
oratory. These require a separate explanation.
(1) Deliberative oratory includes most political and
parliamep.tary discussion. Its themeSare wm.:,. supplies,
finance and improvement. Its aim is to dissuade from
certain measures, and exhort to others. It looks toward
the expedient.
(2) Judicial oratory is engaged with ac~tisation and defence, and is the same as forensic. Its themes are facts
of law aud the actions of men· toward one another. Its
aim is. to pei·suade that injury· bas Ol; bas not been done .
,,· It looks toward the just. ,;,'.' , ·
'".,. (3)' DemonstratiV~>Ora~~rY~is oocupi~ witl1 showing
. ,~what is right or Wrong, ·true-}o; -,false. Its themes arc
• drawn from . &ny branch of human knbwledge in which
":· men generaily have_ ali f~terest. Its aiµi ·is to persuade
~the mind fo adopt certain views~
- It looks toward the
I .,

\trne.

·'. ,Ma.ny kinds of public discourse wo~d Jile.e~ to oolong to neither of

.these genera.1 diviso~s, A little retlection;"i1owever, will show that
.e very address which deserves the name of oration may be ~referred
..:Jr' .

•

,,

..

-

~·

'"

I
·,

\j'

,,,,_,,...___ _ ,__.,.__ -·-

-------

......._ _

'•

188

. ' THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIO.

to , ~ine ,one of th_esi: · di~isions. ·sermons are genomlly dt>mon.
· st~uve. in

the sense in wT1ich the word is here used. They aim to
show forth wha.t is right or wrong, true or false, in connection with.
.religion anti duty, and to persuade the mind to accept oerta.in vioM.
. ~. ectu~es ~ belong'to
clnss of orations, when they are really
.r, forms of oratory. Somet1D1es they nre simply eS88yB or histories reud
-. or recitt-d to an audienee. When prepared for tllis purpoeE', they often
possese many of the qualities of an oration, while tunking the subject-matter most prominenL

i!lls

3. Tile Nature of Persuasion.

As persuasion is the chief end of nn oration, it is necessnry- that its nature be~distinctly understood. Witliont
entering upon a mitmte analysis, the two principal condi~
tjo.ns of persuasion may ·be pointed out. These a.re (1)
Be1jef,, and (2) Feeling.
(1) Belief is the first essential in influencing action.: '
Facts 'must be · preoo~d, arguments must be ad,duced,
consequ~noes must be shown, in order to lead the mind to
a resolution'.' H~nce _eloquence is f<:>unded on kn.owledge
and reasQn. , ·
(2) The Feelings, however, are the mainspring of action. Knowledge generally produces certain feelings, but.
it is sometimes so coldly presented and so abstract in jU;
forms; that the mind is not awakened to a realization .of ·._
the truth. FactS ap.cl arguments must be so pressed upon'
the mind, and· their connection and results so vivid.ly
displayed, that: the feelings. will be ~ouse<l. Hence
eloqtien~e, · while founded on knowledge, culminates: in
. . feeling.
" ·
·
. " T~e p~iloliop1ty'of :Petsuaaiori is foUy explained in the ''-Sei~ri· ,,
of -~~etOrlc." · It. iS of great importance, for all that. ls peeuliai.:Siil
. - · ara.tc.>rica.l 'manner '<>ftreatin,s a subject, pws out of th" nat ~~
,·
~~

'\.

BPEOJAL . FORMS OF COMPOSITION.

189

persuasion. The outline given above is suflloient, however, for th_,
purposes of this section. The subject.a of .A.rgumentntion and Expoailion are regarded aa t6o difficult to be introduced here.

4 •. Tile Qualities of an, Oration.

It is evident from the nature of an oration and the peen·
liar end which it has in vie\v, that its style should be
neither that of didactic prose nor of poetry. It mast at
once inform the understanding and touch the heart. It
must arouse as well as instruct, direct as well as gratify.
Some of ~he most important qualities of an oration may bo
mentioned.
(1) Direct address is essential tO ~ oration.. An essay is not addressed directly to any person, but awaits its
... chance reader, while an oration is f9r the hour and tho
·..- audience which the speaker bas chosen. Accordingly,
~· while an essay may regard. chiefly the subject-matter, un
oration must ever hold in 'iew the present persons a<ldressed. Directness of address arouses interest and creates
enthusiasm.
(2) Dignity is essential to most orations, and should never
·be sacrificed. It is not inconsistent with perfect freedom,
:put freedom should never descend into low familiarity.
Wit and humor may pervade a discourse, without the ora~or's becoming a buffoon. He who would enjoy the respect
§fan audeince, must himself show respect to his hearers.
,:'. ·(3) Popularity of presentation is necessary for a mixed
· dience. Hence higb:.sounding and rare words, abstruse
guments, illustration!f ,..derived from remote or tech,,. 1 ·sources, ·obscure allusions, and enigm.atical figures
.·.~mt of place· in un oration. Oi_i the . other hand, it is

-

--

--"*-~

. .
THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.

190 .

BP EOIAL FORMS OF OOMPOSI'l.'ION.

in8u1ting to an audience to underrate their intelligence,
· a d ~ddress them with an affected simplicity. The best '
thoughts m the best language a.re not above the average
'
·comprehension, if they are amply illustnted.
(4) Figurative language is highly conducive to effect
in oratory. . The imagination is the most efficient faculty
in eloquence. 1vfany wh<? reason well arc not effective
orators. It is.. the imagi.nation which gives to thought
its garb of chaste and engaging imagery. Caution
required; however, that the .exube!-ance of youthful fancy _
may not obscure t.he branches of thought' beneath the
... luxuriant foliage of expression.
. · (5) Energy of style should be more attended to in an ·
01~tion than in any other kind of discourse. The thought .~
should leap on exultingly, never showing signs of weariness, :
but .r evealing new power at every stop.

is ·

"An eloquent mind," sa:v-s Shedd," is a mind under motion."
is n. mind moving forward, under the influence or clear knowledge
a.n.d deep feeling, with constantly accelerated motion, and oonstan.t lf
increasing momentum, to a final end, which is al ways a practical one.
Eloquence itself. then, is thought with a.n impulse in it, thought with
· a drift and rll8h in it. 'Eloquence is, as we instinctively dooominate

it, a 'faXxl.

"

.,

~
.
.
.
5. The Parts of an Oration.

(1) The Exordium (from the Latin exordire: t.o begin a
· · ·WeL, to lay a w~rp) is the introduction. As an oration has
. · a practical end, it is the purpose of the exordium to obtain
for tho theme 'such a hold upon the hearer's attention as to
enlist his interest in the discussion.
(2) The Discussion is the principal part of the oration.
It ought to proceed according to some plan previously
thought out, and conformed to the logical method of presenting a. subject. Facts and arguments should come first,
: and the feelings of the orator should not anticipate those
·:: of his audience. The argumen~ should . be disposed acto the nature of the theme, but as to brinO'0 t ho
' ·cording
.
strongest Inst. Ererything o~ght to contribute to tho en<l
of the oration, and whatever does not is irrelevant, and
should be rejected.
(3) The Peroration (from the Latin perordre, ·to .speak
through) is the final summing np of the oration. It should
"be brief and earnest, full of feeling and conviction, yet not
' out of harmony with what the discussion warrants. It
··should be clear and definit;c, ancl not a mere vapor of sentiment. E,·ery impression made by tho discussion should
be' used to advantage in the -'peroration, so that nothing
-ha11 l>o wasted at the final moment of docision.

so

6.

Mention is made, on page 17, of the ancient division o!
ax; 6rati~n into six ·parts; · This division is mechanical ~~~ ·
arbitrary, for the reasons there stated. Keeping in miud ·the fact that the division is an arbitrary one, we may for
convenience 'distinguish. three :rarts of a.n oration: (1) the .
Exordium; (2) theDiscl:lssion; (3) the Pero~tion•.·_>.~r

191

~e

.
.
Management

or the

Feelings.

.: As oratory depends for its iiuccess upon. a skillful man· ·
gement of the emotions, some attention must be given to
hi,s art. Several considerations are worthy of attention.
~(1) The causes of

feeling must be presented to the auIt will not do to sa.y, ''We ough.t to feel grateful

I'

,

-

.-

.

""'

'192

THE · ELEMENTS OP

RHETO~(J.

/:JPEOL!L FORMS OF OOJIPOSITION.

for such kindness;" or,. " We ought to be enraged at sach
n·eatment." Men are not moved to feeling by being told ·
that the occasion requires feeling. The objects must be
described to the imagination. Boouty, hideousness, sub.limity, and otber qualities of objects, when presented to
the m.1nd, evoke corresi>ondiog feelings, and these
be a.roused in any .other way.
(.2) The orator himself' must feel what he would have
.others feel. It is . not desirable that his feelings should
master him ; for' this unmans him, and leaves him inefficient fo-r his work. . Webster was always in sympathy with
the sen:timents .of his speeches, yet be maintained control
of ·his ·emotions. "He kep.t his auditor constar{t1y in adYance of him, by suggestion rather than by str~lng asseveration, ~y a calm exposition of considerations which
ought to excite feeling in the heart of both speaker and
hearer, not by an undignified and theatrical exhibition of ,,.
passion in. himself."
• (3) The feelings may be changed by tho same means
:that arouse them. It would not suffice to assert that a.
st'~Lte of feeling is uncalled for or improper. The only way
to modify it is to present new considerations or exhibit old "
ones in new lights.•-'

cannot

7. · The Qnalit\cations of nn Orator.

.A)l the qualifications of a l'erfect orator are rarely com·
bined in one person. Some of these arc giits of nature; ~
Stlch ·as a fine voice, a commanding presence, a rich imngi:; ..
n ation., n keen. P<>wer of logical analysis, a sensitive s~: :·
pathetic nature, :r:e~.nsive to every form of human suro:t;.'
.
...
.
.

'193

mg or aspiration. Others arc acquired by study and
att.entive practice. Some .o f these acquired qualifications
'!e may notice more at length.
A fl ne presence.is an important endowment for an orator, and yet
an ordinary physique ought not to discourage one who poeeesees other
E.lualifie&tions. Some, like Chatham and Webster, have been aided by
a noh1e form, a powerful voice, and a personal magnetism that mado
every look and tone significnn~. But, oli the oth~r hand, the unpreposses!ing may ronsole themselves witb the angait1liness ot Demosthenes, the bad voice of Burke, the repuMve unocuthness of Brougham, and the awkwardness of Grattim. .

(I) Command

or the

subject is - one of the most important qualifications of an orafur. The great omtors
have generally been men of vast leapiing.
.As examples of !earning among orators, Pitt may be mentioned
. ns conspicuous for his general attainments, Burke for Lis range of
' political and historical knowledge, W ebirt.er for hiff mastery of tho
,. _ . J.>rinciples of lMv, and Sumner for his refined culture. All of t11eso
\verc owners of tine libraries, and conlftant readers of the best literature.

(2} A knowledge of men is as impor.t ant to an orator as
a knowledge of books. A writer may succeed well if ho
understands his subject, but an orator must adapt his
knowledge to the pet-Sons addressed. Hence he nmst
understand men.
(3) -Fertility in expedients . is necessary to an orator,
especially in parliamentary or forensic orat'>ry. The tactics debate, the resources of defence and the plans of
_attack, mus.t be learned by studying the orations of great
arena ·of controqrators, and' by actual experience ·in the
...,,.•

or

~

•'•

yersy.

•;

9

........____

Ii.

...

THE ~ELEMENTS OF R/J.ETORIO.

194:

;j

SPECL.4.[:- , FORMS OF COMPOSITION.

'(4} ·self-possession ·"is, _perhaps, )be most . important
qualificatio~ of an'"-0rator. Con~.lcnce alone can inspire
co,nfidence. Fa.Cts, instances, arguments, retorts, must oo
ever ready for immediate use. Opinions must be urged
' boldly aml 'fearies81y' a_ua. yet in a liberal and conciliatory . "
spirit:
·
·
"
'Iii this section, on " Orations/' we have consid-· ~

I
rf

'.~. ,.(;.,

.•

~ ·.""J ·''

'

.• <"\.:·.

· ·ered :-

I·

•

·

1 . Tlie Natm·e of an. Oi-ation.
2. Tito KiHils or Ortitory•
:J~·

.. ,

.4.

. " may he <ll'siraule to sec11re inte rest an<l satisfaction with the perfonn
· anoo. Ora.to:ical composition is governed by the requirement.'! of the
subject a nd the gratification of the hearer, but only in subordination
to the end of moving the mind for a prnctic.al p urpose. Poeticn l
composition is a fine art, timing chiefly to please, 11nli observing tlw
·cunditions which govern prose _and or~tory only as these are necessary
t;> the gratification of ·good taS~e.
,
·
· (2) It is a product of imagination. Other forms . of composition
mu.st depend for their .material upon reality. A poem is a creation
of the mind in the realm of tlie ideal. Its plan, its characters, its
scenes, its events, its diction, and its figures, are borrowed from tho
·. conceptions of 1.be artist, not from the actual world. One of the
' greatest mnstt>rs of poetic art, Shakespeare, thus describes this crcati ve prooefl8 :
·
•• The poet's eye. In a fine frenzy rolling,
Doth glance from be&l'CD to earth, from earth to heaYen;
And, as Imagination bodiet! forth
The forms of things unknown, the p0et'11 pen
Tnme them to t!hapc, and gh·es to alry11oth1ngs
A local habitation and a name.!' ,

Tl•e Natit1•e oi .PeJ•stiasion.

Tlte.

Q1ialiti~11 .<Jf an 01•ation.

t;;r'Tlle ParU '<>f an Oratim-,,; ·

~G. The ll£an.ai}eil1M1t <if tlie Fe<'l-i11gtt.
7.7~ Qualiftcatl<nas
fir an 0 1·at-01·.
·1'
•

: ·. · , '1.

·.•

•

~

-~

_,

.;'f,

'l

~..

.~. -':>

(3) Its natural form is verse. T11e reason lies in the. connection
between emotion nnd rhythmical movement. The same principle
n.ppliPs to poeiry as to dancing. It is' seen in th e youngest children
_w ho can follow a simple rhyme or a n" air in m usic. Rhythm is a
'c ause of emotion, and emotion is a cause of rhythm.

·-·

SECTION Y,

2. Kinds of Poems.

POEMS.
..I

~

'

·

0

,

I. ,

• ~

•

i . .TJ1e ' Nature of a Poem.
'

_.

•

•

·"';·

\

'.-A_Poe~ (from!the Greek 1roim poici~'. to make) dift'e.
1,

1

'· from other foi:ms of composition in the fot~owin g reipec'~
(1) Its main pbtp(>se'is to .please the taste;(~) ff;' is"·
'product 'o f a·· cre~tive imagination stimulated by erllot~
(3)' its·form' of'expressiori'is verse.
,,.~- • ··.-~~
> :mi~?·.,~~A:~.:~·:_- ..j,;'.
1

·, ..

:

I
I

~f

rn5

. ·-.

•

•·'·

·i··J;j,~·~

·-: ....

·:~:/"

:_,_

,

.

,._

•

·-

-.--~- ':°'-'~-

(1) It aims to pte~~lhe ta$te. Common prose composltibn{-ir
ns we 'have seen; tO)re~iforlh the ,truth according to the requj
of the sul>jP.ct,' with'.only' sO much regard tb the plen.sure aft'.~

Poems have been variously classified, but most wri ters
distinguish !our species (1) the Lyric; (2) the Epic ; (:~ )
'•
1.be. Dramatic; and (4) the Didactic. These with their
. arieties may be described as."follows. ·
.·- (1) Lyric poems are · effnsion~ of feeling adapted, as the
n~_IIle implies, (from the Greek ).'1Jp"1 a lyre,) to be set to
~~~iC...·T he· emotion exprt!ssed by them is usually simple

ii.ii

intense.

Tbe_v employ a great variety of meter, and
e~ ~hange it, if tbe sentiment is''modifie<t . T he pri n18.l'varieties are mentioned below. ·

--~~'/,;

.
196
-

'

~

-

SPEC.I.AL FORMS OF COMPOSITIOJ{.

TiiE E!-EMENTS OF RHETORIC.

~ (l) S'o ngs are ~Y!i,c poems intended to be sung.

They nre of al
m~t. .~Y~rf. chn~t!
love_: l!IOngs, 8('Dtimental songs, war songs, ,
pohttcal eongs, domestic songs, convivial eongs, national songs.
hymns, psalms; ·and canticles.
(2)_ Odes. are lyric J><i?ms not deai~ed forsinging, although the
wql'd ls denved from .the Greek word for e<mg. Its elahorute versifi·
cnt!on is a marked feature of the ode, as Dryden's ode on Alexaude_r'~ ~ea.st. Al~~t every sentim•mt, amatory, political, martial, .
patnotic, and rd1gmus, bas been expreesed in the form of odee.
•.. ·
, . .(~} ~leg~es are lyrics of a mournful el1arnetf!r. Sometimes ihey are . ·•
· ~e~~?al verses (jf sorrow over a lost friend, ns Milton's Lycidns. ·
SO~~t~e~ they~ ~f- a. m.o re genernl character. consisting mainly of
sad reflcct1om1 concerning tbe departed, ·as Gray's Elegy.
·
(4) Sonnets~ lyric effusions i? which each expresses n single
sentiment, generally of'J>Crsonal feeling. They nrc s0metlmcs con- ."'
nectt>d together -in .thought, as Shakespeare's 80nnets. TI1ey consist
of fourteen Jiues of five or five and a half iambic feet. .

88:

,.

(2) An Epic poem is a narratfre of events, generally
.,, ~c~1~nte~,·a.5 told by the hero or some participant in the
scenes; and _having a plot of some interest. It is the
~on:gest of · p0etical com~sitions, and introduces many
··episodes, or subordinate stories, to sustain the interest.;
Its varieties are mentioned below.
·
I

is'an

- •· (1) The Great _Epic
account of8omc heroic nction, admitting'.;
su})<'.rnatural agency, n.nd representing Fnte, JuetiC\1 Satan or the
Doity n.'! the hiddcQ controllers of events. The plot dC'rives lts,in~rest
from som-c importnut trilnsaetion of heroc11 or supernntuml b<>iogR
' The ::· Tii.1d." of Homer, .the " lEneid "of Virgil, and the "Parad~.-' '·
Lost of Milton. are epics .of thls c1nss. These have their caries.·
- t~re in th~ Mook Epi~, as. ''_'.l'he Battle of the Frogs and Mice," at!'
tn~ut~ to Ho~cr, and "The ~pe oft.be Lock," by Pope.
,
(w) 'Ihe Metrical Rom~noe is .a narrative of heroic adventure of'a.
~eSEJ e_lev~ted cbarac:ter. The passion of Jove, which does not appear:
m. the ep1c of the higher type, is prominent in the romance: GboetsL
WJtcbM, elves, nnd fairies take the place of gods and goddetlflCS. Th
· :romance poems of &ott, such as "The JAy oft.h e Last Minst-cel n::< '
. "¥arm ion," are. gOod. mOd~rn examples of the metrical rotwitic!.
(3) The Metr~oal Tale is a short story oflon or adventure''
"' .
~ ..·
.""
.
'
··',:- "·
~~.....

1;
;."

~~

:f ..

....

~

.

-

'

H>7

n verse. Some are elaborate and bE>aut.iful. as Keats' " Eve of St.
:Agnes." Others are pat!1e~ic and earnest, ns Longfellow'11 " Ev:mgeline." Still others a.re full of intense humor, M Burns' " Tam
Q'Sh1mter."
.
(4 The Ballad is the simplest kind of narrative poem, a mere
·metrical sketch, s<>metimes a mere versified anecdote. Some arc
serious, ot.hers humorous, others sentimental Macaulay's" Iloratius
at the Bridge," and "The Burial of Sir John Moore," a1e familiar
.· exainples.

Dramatic poems are designed to be. acted on the
"stage. Scenery, costume, dialogue, and action combine to
reproduce the original events and represent the characters,
'az; if really present. The drama 'is the most perfect pre·sen tation of either the real or the ideal that literature can
"make. Its varieties are .mentioned below.
.- (1) Tragedy represents the calamitous event11 o_f human life, with
) he design of aroumng pity and fear in connection with admiration
.. "of nohili ty 11.Ild scorn of baseness in character. The subjects ( if
.tragedy are various. Shakespeare ha!! given w; a great vnriety or
3trngic: situations . in Hamlet, .Maebeth, Julius Cresal', Romeo 1tn<l. .
"Juliet, and other tragedies, all of which deserve careful study.
~ (2) Comedy is an attempt to represent the ludicrous 1.<ide of life.
It has many forms, embracing the lowest personal caricature and the
:m0st refined humor. When the dialogue is low a.nd the cbnro.cters
·are of inferior rank, it is called a Farce. When giants, fairies, and
onsters are introduced, it is called a Mask. Wbeu the sconrs
mingle ibo tragic and the comic, and songs are interspersed, it is
called a Melodrama.

• (4) 'dactio poems rum to instruct as well us to
• please. They are, 'therefore, Jess purely poetic1ll than the
··kinds already described. They are often dry und prosaic
_asj!!.compared w:ith -other kinds
poetfoal composition,
""~fmany of them ~:af=e full of interest from their ingenious
:"~de of treatment. '' bonsHlered as versified essays, they arc

of

.l.·

'

,.

•

.

'\

- - ___..,......

THE .ELEMENTS OF RHETORl<J.

198

SPE<JI.AL FORMS OF <JO.MPOSJTJON.

. a_mong the finest compositions in our langmige.

\(2) A poem should be conatnacted with a view to humah interest. As mun is always of interest to man, charac-

aro on every kind of subject.
The great variety of didnctic poetry may lie SP.CD from the instances
under. the following headings :
. (lJ ;Technical, or such aa explain cnrt.ain arts ; as, Virgil's .
~ • Georgics," a treatise 'on , agriculture, Jloracn 's " Art of Poetry,"
Pope's " Essay on Criticism," Armstrong's " Art of Preserving
Health."
(2) Philosophical, proposing theories of life or nnture ; as, Pope's

·.. Essay ou Mnn.'' You.ng's "Night Thoughts," 'l'upper's .. Prover.:
bial Philosophy," Wordsworth's" Excursion.."
·
(3) Moral, exhorting to nobler life by presenting motives; as, PolJook's ~ .Course Time>' Bryant's " Thanatopsis,'' Crabbe's" Tales
'o f tho Hall"
· _
(4) Meditative, illustrating some precept by the beauties of nature .

of

or the pleasures of mind; as Thomson's " Seasons," C-0wper's "Task,"
Akenside's "Pleasures of the Imnginntion," Campbell's "Pleasures
of Hope," Rogers'" Pleasures of Memory."
(5) Satirical, ridiculing t11e follies of men, or shaming them t.o do '
better; as, Johnson's "Vanity of lluman Wishes," Pope's "Dun·
cio.d," Giiford's " Baviad," and " .Ma.t>vind," Butler's " Hudibras," 11.nd
;Byron's " English Bards 11.nd Scotch Reviewers."

.,

3. The Method of Poetry.

com .

As a p~m aims at different i:esuHs from a prose
. 'sitioh; so it requires ·a di:fiereut method. As its end· i8
pl~ase, it ~~ploys. the means of pleasing 'flth less :res~
·thau any other kind of writing. Some of the special chat
acteristics of a poem may be mentioned.
(1) A poem .should be sensuous in its .style. By this i
.meant tbat ,j_t sho~_ld. not deal in. abstractions, but sh9u.I
·.abound J n .imagery and words descriptive of external ..!).
·" joots. ._ ~'.Ctapb~_r ~nd personification are means of imp~·
iog .t his aetis\t~us quality to styl~. Epithets, for this r
are-.~ore ~elt4 used . in ~try than in prose.. ·_
.
.

.

'

.

.

.

199

ter, passion, fortitude, a.spiration, devotion and affect.ion
a1·e of interest, and -are proper elements of a poem. Plot,
-· when properly constructed, also has an absorbing interest.
Whatever is merely local is not well adapted to poetry.
Like every .other form of ·fine art, poetry is for all times
· ·aii<l all places.
· . · (3) A poem should observe harmony in all its parts.
· The ideas, figures, characters; scenes, and language, should
harmonize throughout. This :requires that everything
in the poem be fitted to create and sustain n certain kind
of freling, without any jar or interruption.
. (4) A poem should aim. at the . ideal. It is the pro•incc
' of art to attain to the ideal, that is, the perfect of its kind.
~"
The poet has the whole world of reality to select from, and
· he· may combine all graces in bis scenes and characters.
.It is not tfficient, t~e~forc, to represent the real. As an
:a rtist, the poet must surpass nature•
(5) A poem is allowed a certain freedom of language.
·As the poet's aim is to produce emotion, it is not n~cessary
.tO oonstrnct his ~ntences with the same rigid directness
t hat is required in prose. He produces his effects as much
by the accumulation of stimulating images as by direct
statement. Some of the liberties of poetical style are men·
.tfoned below•
The chief varieties of Poetic License are as follows:

Cl}. lnveralons a.re co~~on ; · a.a..

...

"While s/4tl<l8 tbe ~m ..Ro.~ ·e:ltall stand."
•• Ft111 and.fhorl wm the~ we 1111d."

.

.

,

,,
t

-...--...

- ....

. _........_ __

,..

.

.I

---t
'

·'"

'

THE ELEM~NTS OF RHETORIC.

.200

fiP ECI.AL FOBJIS 01!' COMPOSITION.

201

' .

(2) Abbreviations, such: ns are 'impl"QW in proee, are
C'fWok, 'tis, 'twas, etc.,

-poetry ; as, evil,
~

morn. ()
•

· ·. 'Tho spondoo. amen.
; 'flie iambus, d'tuig.
: , The trocl1eo, en11y:
'l'he dactyl, 1Mn-ument.

1

-·

I

(3) Superfluous Pronouns .Ille freely used; as,••The wind, tt·waved the willow boughs.''

l'he anapmst, il'Ddlilndu.
'fho umphiaml>us, denUil.
·_. A Verse (from the Latin verlere, to turn) is n singJo line of poetry.
It Is made up of feet, and takes its name from the kind nnd numlicr
r reet .in a line. Th.-0 following is a tnble of the number of feet oomon1y used io English verses.

" The boy-oh I where wae 1141 "

(4) Ellipais .Ls qu.itecommon ; as,-

.. Who etcale my p':lne, steals t.nuab ...
•· W1w kDowa bla heart, is truly wlec.''

•l

4:wuPt and loud, a summon.a shook the irntc."
•• Thell fall lllCCMA1'1 and lllCOl!lriw rue.''

- 4. Versification._
. '"~ .. v~rsifrcation is) he art of ma.king verses.
.J
•• preperly·a. versified composition, the elements. Qf '. -~,
are explained .in this connectio.n. The subjecli .W~l-=­
considered under three beads: (1) Meter; (2) .-Rh
and ~1) Stanza& · · 1. .. •
_
, ..
.,. , . (1) .Meter (from the Greek f'frpov, metron, ·a. 11l_)E}f¥!
· is the ~arrangement into Yersc " of definite me¥:a!e-s
so~rn<ls, c1ofinitely accented. In l~nglish, me~r:· ~dip~
almos_t-Who11y upon the accent, n.nd not, as in 'IA1Jjl. '~.
, Greek, upon .the quantity of tho vowels. Th.~~~?~~'.
iu::i.ny varieties nlf ter as there arc methods o~. 3:~~~~- ,.,
feet into verses. .
" ·· ·
I

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•

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of

,•

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.

. '

-

... .;~

havJ~

- 1;.,

.

.

'

,

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...

,,, Combining the na~e of the foot and tho name for the number of
'<::tin n line, the verse may be, for examplc, 'iambic p enttlmeter,con .
'i.n ing five iambic feet; dactylic lta<tmeter, containing six dactylic

·t, etc.

·

j~

·- ~.::\::!'Heroic Verse
consists of five iambic feet ; n&,,
.
.. They s~r\'C ( IUI wt\ll I who 6n I ly Mt.ind I and wnit.''
~j;,.

"'< Alexandrine Verse, which was once used as n heroic meter
· gone out of uee, consists of six iambic feet ; ns•ft~:· bllick l and 1lArk· I eomc nights I the bright J and glad- ! llOIJlc days."

-~~ ....

···.:

•

,.t

'

•

'An;Acatalectio Verse is one which eo~1tajns· nll the eyllab1CR rc~ iri}d nccorulng to the scheme to wbi.ch it bc~oogs. A Wl'l5e is Catect~c wlu>n <loficient; Hypercatalectic, when rcduu<laut.
i Bl ~ nk Verse is v~rsc without rhyme. It · is mmnlly t he inn1 l.iic

f .''eter. Moot of our heroic and dntmatic roetry , including Mil .
_pies and mnny ~Qf ;. ~ba.kespenre's plays, is wriLten in blank
;.·:... ~ ;~· ·~~~: ··. .
.

~. ~ ~. ·.;• .

i''

··a

cent. The'unaceented syllabloo are here marked -, tJi~~ '
syllab1~, -. The '. followiug table exhibits the metrica

.- •. :2> :.·\common in EngltsJt::

·~ ...~~~"'-

';

A Foot i$ a. group of syllableR taken together, and

.

\

M'onometer, (-._..)
1 foot.
DirhcteT, (-...... I-..._.)
2 feet.
Tri'meter, (-_.I-..... I-._,)
3 feet.
'l'etrameter, (-._. I - ...... I - ...... 1--)
4 feet.
Ptintameter. (-.._. J -._.I-._. I-._. I-._.)
o f1::1:t •
Itexa.meter, (-_,I-...... I-..._ I-._, I -...... I-..... ) 6 feet.

'(5) The Sub$ti'tutlon of one pa.rt of speech for another often •
cnrs·in poo.try; -~ ·

.

..

·.,,.

;.,

-\! •

...

-

.~..
.,..,;·

:'#

··.:-- "''.:'\"\

.·i~ ;~.r..i~:.

' '

'

•

:Y Rhyme (froril tl~.e . .Anglo-Snxon rfote) is n corres·~· _ce of . sou_nd.- at.·t~e _'end
verses, or ~ometimes at
"1s· in .. the-· 'Yerse. lt . ~ry& no~ employed in vndent

·of

~

-;;

~,.·_.~-~

/!· . . ·~:.;_,}.

THE ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC.-.

_202

B/'ECIAL -FORMS OJl OOMPOSITION.

r

pQetry, . but is useu , in aln-wst all modern ver&-.
alliteru.tiv.e, (2)" assonanfal, and (3) consonantal. MascL~
line, feminine, triple, middle, and sectional rhymes

, _T riple rhymes have three corresponding syllables: as,-

are distinguished.

:' ~iddle rhymes arc corrcsponden~ of sound at the middle and
close of a verse · as,- ·
"Brave martyr'd ch4f/ no more onr fl!VI,

" Kings may be lllest, bnt Tam was glo-ri-oru,
o ·er all the ill.ii of life victo-ri--Oiu."

al

.

203

(1) Alliterative rhyme. is the correspondence of the fi1'8t Jette
ofcertain ·words. lt was the only kind ofrbymein the Anglo-Sax ,
poetry. The following is an example :
.~'k

For thee or tbJne ehllll flow :
Among the blest ln H~.aven ye rm,
From all yotir toll8 below."

'•

•• There preached a pardoner
.AJ>. he a prleet were,
Broaght forth a bull
With many blehope eeal8. "-PrltM PJ..omu.w.

Sectional or Line rhyme is a consonance occurring in the 11:1me

.

.

" Will Ptood for skUl, and law obeylld lust :

Might trod down right : ot king there

Although no longer o. rcguln.r constituent of English verse;
literation is of frequent oceurreoce in modorn poetry . n.s,"Lying .dlcnt t.nd .rad In the afternoon 1hadow and .ront'hl.ne."
·· " Like a ql~-worm 90ld.e n
In a dell ~r dew."
· ,1

-~- ,, ". . (2) Assonantal rhyme is tbe correspondence of the vow~ls ..
,f:~ ~ ~~· ~'".end of two lines ; ~!'~-

· -.

· •• rr

·

she 11eem not ~o to me.

What care I ho\v good she be?"

.

,,r

.

.

-(S) Consonantal rhyme is the correspond<'nce of the:::vo .
.the final consonant or consonants in the rhyuiiug sylla.bletk ;;
the most common 'rbyme~ in English poetry. The? foll6\tf
example : · ·
"The. Assyrian· cnmc down like n wol run tho fold,
,
And "hie cohorts were gleaming in purple and gol,_d." ~ -

Masculine .rhym_es are single rhymes, such
two examples.

ll.S

those in"
·

. ' Feminine rhyn:!_CS ai:~_ dou~le, the last two syllabl~~1
:rhyming ,with th~ J~t two pf its ma.te ; as,. ,~ '"

' . ·" .• c

•• S tro.lwbt mine eye bath CJJnght new pleas-un11,
· W)lll;i tt>.ii landecape round it mea1-vrM."
·

no fear."

(3) A Stanza (from the Italian stanza, a room, a comartment) is a division of a poem containing two or
ore verses.· The word is properly 'a pplied to what is
monly, but incoITectly, called a verse. Each line is n.
e'.'"" but a stanza contains ~t least two lines. There arc
t many kinds of stanza hr English poetry. Some of
}~st common are explained ~low.
.

'-

~

WM

istich or Coup'. et consists of two verses.

""
'~Triplet
consists of three verses. i
rt· .uatrain is a. stanza of four lines rbyming nlternntely.
Rhyme-Royal is a seven line stanza, im·ented hy Chaucer.
0

mposed of iambic pentameter lines, the· first four beingn. qun·
· ie fifth repoating the rhyme of the fourth, anu tho last two
' rhjming. couplet.
·
~Spenserian Stanza derives its name .f rom its inv~ntor, Ed ,i:~~pser, who used it in his ~·Faerie Quecne." It consists of
· s, the first eight being iambic pentameter, the last one an
'

.

.

.

' ' L<iI the m~n, wb,~lilnse whUome illd..maake.
As tune her tan:i;ht, in lowly Shcpheardll ·weedll,
Aµi"now cnforsr. 11 far nntltt.er W.k9,
~r. ti'umpets stern to change mine oaten Meda,·

·,

.,
<

-

H

~;

SP ECI~tL FORMIJ OF' OOJIPOSITlON.

' .. TJI1iJ ELEMENTS {>JJ' RHETORIC.
And sing ofkolrbte and ladles gentle deecbl ;

The Ottava Rima

.....,~I~ -'·

1_.-I._,I .....- I._......-I ...,-1 ._-I - -

:_~ I_.-

,

J~~~

~

~nsists

of eiiotht heroic, or iambic pentamete
verses, the first six rhyming alternll_tely; the last two, fn succe11Sio
The Terza . Rima consists of heroics, with three rhymes· at in
·tervals. ,
The Sonnet-S'fanza is very elaborate in its structure. It consis
of. two divisions, called the Major and the Minor.. The Major cUvi'
· sion contains eightltoes, and1s t'lllled tl1 e Octa'Ce. ·"J.'he Minor di:visi-on;
. .~.:' '. ooutnin six lines,
·is cal]ed the Seatette. 'rhe Octave i~ composech
. · ) ·, of two quatrains. 'rhe
are joined together by a close gram'
. . ma.tienl structute, nod the rhymes nre various. The ~heme m
.. he seen froin the following diagram of Wordsworth·s Sonnet u
" ·" Sonnets.

and

•• Soom not the Sonnet, critic I yon have frowned

.......-I
. .......·-. 1

Sbak.espcare Wllockcd bi11 henrt; tbe melody

,_,-I_..-·1...,-1 ......I...,- I ._.-1 .....The Short Meter Stanza •

I . . . .- I·__.--" I ._..,-J
I .....- I ---1 -1 --1 -I -I ·~ . ' 1:~1:-1:-

this section, on " Poems," we bave
e.red:-

A tbouaand 'times this pipe did Ta88o sound:

\

Tlte Nttture of a Poem.
T/l.c Kiml.<11 of P11ems.
1..'hc •llethml of Poetru.
V Cl"SiJl<:atiou.

Amid the cypress with which D11nte bound
·: Jlla vllllonari brow ; a glow-worm lamp,

.,lt c'liooro:J-~ild Sponl!-Or, C111led from

N~ lan:1

,To.11truggle ~u;tb<lark w11ya; and, wh_4:.n a damp

.Fcll ronnd tho path of Milton, ln his hand

"

. ~ "Tho thins bceamo a trumpet. whence ho blew -. "..,. ,,,,.. ·
•'
~

"

.

-

..

~

.

.

~

£, <·'

Oi thia &m~ lute g&\'8 e.aae to Petrarch's WOUDd;

The Sonnet glittered 11 ~ray myrtle lear

,.

:._
'-'""-I
.
- 1,_,- I .;.,- I ._'-

In all tl1ese l1ymu meters various kinds, of r11yme am employed.
Sometimes the lines rl1yme nl(ernately, .Bometimes in succession, and
sometimes the first and third vcr8esare UJ)rhymecI.

!l1ndlc8ll or lUi Ju!t hono!'8 ; with tbls key

~

The Common Meter Stanza.

Parts

ClunuGoii eoolhed wit:h It an <':rile's grief :

205

The Long Meter Stanza.

Whose pfaiSes lla ving Plcpt in HllCucc Ion",
Me, all tQ6 a>eane, ·thencred Mu11e areedfl,
To bla&on broade emouget her learn1..od throng:
Fien:e warres 4Dd faithfull lovce shall morallEe

,, .·

.,,

.-

(

• Soul"11~lmlittng stralna-alas I too few."
(

11-'

••

~onsid­

..

..
"

\,

..!: -

'··

To the Teacher.
THE following exercises are classified to correspond to the char>
ters and sections of the text in the preceding pages. 'Diey are, pos.
"':., sibly, more numerous thau will be found needful for 80me classes.
The teacher should use his own judgment in the selection of putg for
·Class-room drill. It is advised that 50me exercises of each kind be
studied under the personal direction of the teacher. The Btudent
'should be required to depend upon his m01Dory for the principles
stated.in the text.
The bold-faced numoors refer to the pages of the text to which
the ex.ercises correspond.

CHAPTER t.
INVENTION.

SECTION I.
THE CHOICE OF A SUBJECT.

Select fr.om the following list 1mch subjects aa are
itable in themselves for a composition, applying the
6. Domestic animals.

7. Habits.
8. The Revolutionary War.

9. Kindness. '
10. Studies. -

i

THE ELEMENTS OF RHETOBJO.

210
!).. Economy.
Vl.2.
lS.
14.
15.
·'

Early Rising.
Curiosity.
Waste.
Respect.

16
17.
18.
19.
20.

EXBROISJfS IN INVENTION.

Birds.
Milton.
Happiness.
Energy.
Beauty

211

. 4. Try to .adapt such subjects in the abo\""e lists as have
, been found rnappropriate in themselves, or for the writer .
:or for the occasion, following the directions on
'
pages
. ' 9 10

,

.

.
.
2. Select from the following list such subjects M are
suited to yourself as a writer, applying the rules

page 8.
l. Temperance.
2. The Origin of Language. •
3. Art is Superior to N 11.ture.
4. .Phi1oe0phy of Education.
5. Cata .
6. The Results of the Crii.sades.
7. The Elements of Shakespeare's Art.
8. Auclent· Oratory.
9. The Age is Degenerate.
10. American Poetry.
. 11. Modern·I:.egislation.

12. The Philosophy of Locke. , .
13. The Vu.lue of Herbert S~
c&'s Writings.
"
14. Indolence.
.
"
15. The Wonders of Electnei
16. C'-0nvcrsation as a Fine Art..,,
17. Man is a Progressive Bein~·
18. Roman L&w.
19. Music in Germany.
20. Labor 11ot Essential to ·'S ·
cese.

3. Select from the following list s~ch subjects
.~s· :
,,
suitable to any oceasion that you can think of, 8.nd"»J
tion the occasion to which they would be suitable, ap
ing the roles on page 9.
'•

1. The Benefita ·of the Bible to
Man.
2. The Necessity of Reform in
Public Life.
~8. The Scientific Discounies of

Huxley.
4. The Adventures of . a Lost
Dog.
U. The Fall of the Rom~ Empire.
6. The Wit. ilnd H mnor of .America.

~

SECTION II.
THE ACCUMULATION OF MATERIALS.

. . 1. Note down such .thoughts on the following gubjccts
. as occur to you from observation. See page 12.
8. The Public Buildings of the
Place.
9. Life Among the Lowly.
10. The Enjoyments of School
Lile.
11. The Manufacture of Car.
riages.
1~. The_Life of a Teacher.

2. Note down such thoughts on the follo~g subjects
cc~~r to you by reflection. See page 13• .

or'

7. T~e Difficulties
.Acquir.
mg an Education.
8. The lnceRtivcs to Study.
9. The Value of .Businesa
Knowledge.
10. The Uses of Adversity.
11. The Benefits of the Electric
·
Telegraph.
12. The Pl"oper Uses of Money.

212

.EXEROISEB IN INVENTION.

THB NLEMENTS OF RHETORIO.

213

SECTION III.

3. Note down such thoughts on the following subject.a
as may be gathered by readini. See page 14.

THE ARRANGEMENT qF MATERIALS.
11. The Poetical Works of WeJ.
1. The Life of Lafayette.
ter Scott.
2. The Battle of Waterloo.
12. The invention of the Tele·
8. The Trial of Aaron Burr for
scope.
Treo.son.
13. The Old Age of Milton. ·
4. The Battle of Saratoga.
5. The Character of Alexander 14. The History of Slavery.
15. The Political Life of Daniel
the Great.
Webster.
6. The Telephone.
16.
Astrology.
7. The Invention of Printing.
8. The Death of Joan of Aro. , 17. Alchemy.
9. The Childhood of George 18. The Battle of Hastings.
19. Tlrn Com Laws of ·England;
WashingtOn.
10. The Cau8es of the American 20. Trial by Ordeal.
Revolution.

4. Note down .such thoughts as you may
?on'versation on the following subjects..
1. The Present Kings ~f Europe.
2. 'l'he Pro6peets of War in Europe.
3. The Next Governor of the
State.
4. 'fha· Next President of the
.
United States.
5. Th~ Condition of the Laboring
· Classes ns Compared with
tliat of Laborers Ten Y C8l'8
Ago.
•
6. The Mode of Electing a Presi·
dent of the United States.
. 7. Tb~ Best Mode of Electing a
Presideut.
.
S. The l>ress of Ladies Twenty

Years Ago.

" . 1. Cri~icis~ and improve, if possible, the arrangement
of materials rn the following plans, applying the principles
stated on pages 16-21.

I. On Manners.
Introduction. First impressions a.re lasting. most
1 · d
'
peop e Ju ge
by external appearance.
--'
. 1."d Various
l forms of manner: stiff' formal • cold , pol"te
1
reserv.......
'
'
tim1 , gent e, self-possessed, etc.

.

~

. . 2. True politeness founded on a benevolent f~ling.
.
3. The manners should be a true index to the characte 0 th
they are hypocritical.
r,
erwl.Be
. 4. Witho~t a p.roper foundation, polished manners are worthless.
5. . Grace m action and words, as well as in f r
6 A
. tak
ee mg.
.
mis en notion that rough manners prove honesty of
meter.
7. Learning, or knowledge, does not, of neeeseity .
nners.
• give us good

Conclusion. Good manners
. . g many other advantages.

comm~d esteem
.

an

d affi .
ect1on, and

II. On Agriculture.
Difierence between

naturaL~d

artificial occupa-

ns.

t . .Agriculture
the
occupation of our fi-"
. .
f primitive
.
,,,. parents.
.
. Cult1va.t1on o vanous crops a. source of me tal
2
~ asure.
.
n
exercise and

20.

. Variety ~f s~ils, drainage, rotation of crops.
4. The .apphcat1on of chemistry to agriculture.
5. .A.gnculture a mark of civili?.ation.
·: '_·Systei:is of farming. improvement of the land, etc.
.:. Precar1ousneBS of the occupation.
o'nclus.ion. The profits of farming, and the condition of tho
er in life.

..
214 ·.

THJJJ ELEMENTS OF RBETORIO.

EXEROISES IN INVENTION.

215

\

III. On Costume.
Introduction. The infinite variety of nature. Art an ·
1. Much taste and good sense may be displayed in dress. ·
2. Grecian and Roman costumes.
3. Oriental modes of dress.
4. ·press of our ancestom in England, Germ.any and adj&
of Europe.'
- :
5. The modern costumes.
6. Costume regulated partly by climate, partly by fashion.
7. Colors should be assorted and not glaring.
Conclusion. A ct>rtain attention to dress is proper, but it sh_o_uld '
not engross too much of our time.

Modern definition of humor, and of good humor. [See Die
onary.)
=- 3. Is this state of mind natural or acquired? and, if acquired,
·ow?
4. Arguments in favor of good h urn or : its effects upon others and
lrRelves.
j 5. Good hmnor not siiiiness, but compatible with good sense.
. 6. Is it possible for the morose and gloomy to become good·
humored Y
7. How is the change to be effected?
8. The example shown by the good-humored.
Conclusion. The quality frequently required, attainable by all,
and of great advantage.

IV. On Commerce.

VI. Ou Exercise.

Introduction. The many and various ways by which a natl
welfare is promoted : a strong religious feeling, a high tone of
ity, a generally diffused education, and commercial intcrcou
1. Commerce a special blessing.
·
2. Th.e antiqaity of. Name the leading commercial nat
ancient times.
·
3. In modern times : Venetians, Gcnoesc, Portuguese,
English, and Americana.
4. Mention some of the commodities exchanged.
__ _
5. The advantages fron:. this mutual intercourse.
· 6. How does commerce civilize mankind? Diffusing intcllj
distributing oomforts and luxuries, creating friendships -~t
nations, rendering wal'S unprofitable.
7. T110 diaco'teriea owing to commerce ; of America;
· geographical discoveriea.
8. Condition of those countries which neglect commerce·:·,:
Japan, etc.
- ,~ ·
. Conclusion.
be encouraged.

Ccrtnin principles observable through the whole
_ nge of nature; these worthy of imitation; nature always moving;
·_nd, water, planets. etc.
1. Exercise one of these principles ; applicable to both mind
d body.
. Explain this analogy.
':::-_3. Excess defeats the purpor.;e, and hence injurious.
""-4. Things not used become rusty and unfit for use. So with
cttman powers.
:5. All the faculties and powers should be exercised.
Conclusion. Exercise should be regular, moderate, general, and
s~-both body and mind are kept in health.

VII. On Newspapers.
The natural desire of man to know and be known
•
ulp,es many ways of showin,Q: itself. Newspapers one way.
. ~ 'r.fowpapers are current records of events.
· . At first mere statements of facts, as the old Roman bulletins.
}=wards ·remarks and oornments on men and measures were

ea.

V. On Good Humor.
Introduction. The variety of dispositions; the grave, the
serious, the witty, the lrn,n,I.'°rous, etc~
1. Tho ancient notiou _ot hwnor, as shown by
word.

~'.,The first newspapers in the EngliRh language.

- The first newspapers in America.
•~ I'he number of newspapers now published.
""-6,.__ General character of modern newspapers.
7. Jniiuencc of tli(J press upon i;ocict.y.
c

~--'-'----

-216

THE BDEHJDNTS
OF Rll'ETORI<J.
.~·
•

EXERCISES IN INVENTION.

.f

· 8. Freedom ·of the press,--what it is, and bow it sboni
limited.
1
Conclusion. The· advantage ~f living in an age

.. ·

VIII. On Printing.

Introduction. Various forms of language: spoken, written,
printed. The order of their use corresponds to man's social develop;
ment.
·
...
I. When printing was invented.
2. Various claimants for the honor:
etc.

8. By w'!iom introduced into England?
press.
4. Improvement upon writing.
5. The impulse it gave to human thought.
6. Difficulties of the early printers.
..
7. The results of the printing press; religions, political, literary; ·- ,
Conclusion. Great perfection of tho art now. Stereotyping;
The future of the art.
,

IX. On Attention.
Introduction. Enumerate the most important powers of the mind:
reason, imagination, memory,' will , attention.
1. Define and illustrate attention.
2. Indispensable to the performance of any great work.
8. The consequences of inattention.
4. Memory is dependent upon attention.
5. Attention is a hnbit that ma.y be acquired. Examples:
wo.tch-mnker, tho philosopher, tho student.
·6. .Attention a gtnd_ual growth.
7. All great men,are remarkahle for their power of attention. ,',·
Conclusion. Attention will increase when we are interested c ~
anything; hence attention may be cultivated by awakening
terest in wha.t we do.
·
''

:m

1. Various forms of falsehood: lying, cheating, fraud, equivotion, etc.
2. Falsehood is detested hy every one.
3. The consequences of falsehood.
4. The untrustworthinet58 of one who sometimes makes false statements.
5. The motives for falsehood: to gratify selfishness, to hide fault&
to cover other false statemcntl'l.
6. The hahit begins in little departures from the truth : fibs,
-white lies.

7. Falsehoods in the end the source of harm only.
Conclusion. Truthfulness is always noble and safe; falsehood.
·always bmie and dangerous.

XI. On Traveling.
Introduction. Tho clearness of knowledge gained by sight.
1. Tho consequent utility of t~veling.
2. A quick and enger mind necessary to a traveler.
3. Various purposes of travel: business, health, pleasure, etc.
All may be combined with intelligent observation.
4. The world greatly indebted to great travelers : for their enter;', prise in vbitiug strange lands, their faitbfulne88 of observation, ilicir
clearness and accuracy of tkscription.
5. &>me of tho great travelers and their works: Marco Polo.
,.Captain Cook, Sir John Franklin, Mr. Livingstone, Bayard Taylor,
H • .M. Stanley.
6. Descriptions and pictures a. source of enjoyment to those who
not travel.
7. '.fhe wonders of our own land.
8. Advant11ges of n goocl education t.o n trav<'ler.
Conclusion. \Vhile all should travel who can, they should pMpare themselves by rending toseo to a<lvanta.go, and should aim to
know something of their own country before going abroad.
ir:

XU. A Journey.

· ·" X. On Frusehood.
.
.. .
.
Introduction. ·A >1~t~' opposi~ioh behveen
~

false.

.

217

Introduction. The purpo!>e of the journey and the party.
_ 1. Description of the persons belonging to the party.
: 2. The start : the incidents at the de~t, all-aboard.
.3. The people
in the train : their peculiarities o.nd conduct.
_,

.

10

~s

a -

-

-· •rd?

218

THE ELEMENTS OF' RHETOJUO.

4. The. towns passed through.
5. 'l'lie g eneral appearance o f tbe country.
6. The place visited : its location, size, p eople, publlo
t oric association.I!, etc.
7. The return.
Con clusion. Th e general impression left by thejou m07.

I'' I

CHAPTER It.

2. Af te r some practice in cri ticising the plan
1H10Yr, apply the principles of am 1ngement to the th
ga t li e rcd by observation, reflection, reading, and con ·
tion in the la.st section.

.I

STYLE.

SECTIOH L

i:-il

"!if '1
I

DICTION.

1.

CRITICISE

the following se ntences wi th regard t0

·Purity, looking in th e Jiet iunary fur all d uu lit fu l
and applying the pri11cipks g in·n o n

\1 urd~ .

p:t gt'~ ;~s-;_;:~.

1. The assistan ce was wt•l come, and t /. 111clily ufio rJ cd .
2. He l>ought h is coat on tick.
a. Our folks are away from home.
4. I'll be back to 1·ights.
5. He is shaky on that doctrin e.
6. He was an extra ge uiu s, and a ttrnct ed much attention.
7. For want of e m ploymcn t, he stroamed iJiy about tb o street ::i.
8. I wot not who hns Jon e thi B.
9. Metltinks I am not mistak en.
10. Smith und th ose of that 'ilk will rej oice.
11. I disremem/Jer having m et yo u.
12. A n e w candidate for puulic h onors is now on tl1e tapis.
· 18. H e was led to the abattoir of political li fe.
14. Th ere was a difficulty betwixt them , I gu.ess.
15. He wns ;yclev th~\ll ue l amongst the y uung·s tcrs.
16. You
tocrt im as a party who lias been cu11111wded.
· 17. All the pt>ople nt the dance belong to the beau montle, us may
seen at a coup d'mil.
18. He made a. big .Yte11l from the Government.
19. That h ouse was recently b11l'glarized.
20. His division!! were: li'inlly, the Cuu1:1es; secondly, tl 1e Hesul ts,

are'b0t'ozaen

'

EXER CJS.Eo I N STYLE.

TIIE f:.,'LJ:,'Jf!C.NTS OJI' RIIJ<.:1'0 RIC.
21. A cablegr11p!1ic di s patch wus r ece ntly rcceive<l .
:!:2. 'l'li.e i.:1.~11a 1Lt.:1' uf e1l1u;11tiunali.~lic theoril'::l will Le contrnr.r to
ilw .. xpedati1111 >1 uf th ei r uu t li ors.
;2 :\ . ! Ii;; lu-igltUt w nR i:;ix fout .
2--1. 11 i;; co-tempunuit:s w e re anx iouR f1ir Ji iH 7'<'/Hl te.
:!:). Th e authenticity of tlw book iH 11ow cstaloli r;licd .

followin ;; S(~ nkn ce:-J with rcgurJ lo
Propriety, nsrn g tli c di ctiona ry i 11 all <l.oubLf'ul cases,
a t1 Ll kr•l' ping rn minll
th e prin cipks stated on pages
2. Criticise t he

=~:.>-:n.
1. JI " .~w n d:J upo n sec uri ty, llll.ll will n ot lilJl' r1t t l~ liim until it bo
o ut a iu l' d .
2. !It.: i::l worthy of prai:rn fri r Iii ~ w11c: r l'11tiun of filial duty.
U. 11 e di8prr.~c ~ ru vor::l "11 t'\"L· ry 1:1idc.
4. ll u m Hthl 11ot go, 1o i llio11t l1i ~ liroth " r <'o ul.J be his c01nrrule.
G. I g11 e.:;s you 11t P1rn tu s p 1:a k 1·1>.'<p erta/Jly to your Blll1iors.
G. Th us c i:;canduls h un· rulilwd lii111 o f Iii ~ r!wrac ter.
7. F o ur rric 111J.>1 be1Jitle.:; John W<~ l"L' JHl'tll' llt.
8. •· .!\ly friewl," saiu the excite<l <lrin·r, " y ou have a rigltt to turn
1w<l g iYe m e h ulf th e road."
!I. He maLle a resolution to corre.'t)Jund to his brother twico a
\V (~ t · k .

10. I a m avase of tl11t t occ upnti<lll .
11. lf,: lost hi ,i 1woc11tiu11. by iJleness.
l:J . li e took notire to tl 1<' fnct..
1 :L I dij/er ·1oitlt m o,;t pe ri-;011 ;; on Ro m e poi nt>i of doctrine.
H . 111: iKfree <if' many C1 Hn11wn fa11lti; . .
1!l. lln lici; tow1 " l ll ]1.,n 11tif11l g ift. lo hi1:1 l.J rotl1er.
] Ii. JI c d 1.<11u1111<'il Iii m ;;eH by 11rrwdalizi11..q lii,i fri en<ls.
17. Yo u sing like J ohn d ot's, but luok as Charles, whe n h e WM

221

3. Cri tici se th o following se n te nces wiLh rcgarll lo Pre-

cision, nsillg a <l.i ctiunary or a work 011 sy110nyrn s when
1wcessary, aml k cepi11 g lll min<l tho prin cipl es 1:d a!nl 011
p:tgc·s :~7- 4 ~.
1. A s tud e nt is Fom e times e ncou rn ged by n little 71rai,,e.
" I law c s nffo n •d ·remorse e ver s ince l solu my violin.
3. lJe has form ed a resolution to try to Le better.
4. IIL'nry rl'ga rd s hi s wa nt of m emory a g reat iojury to Lis mind.
fi . Excessive nsc of wine is a bad eucstum.
G. Ou bei11 g rcprirnande<l, the truaut at owed Lis guilt.
7. lli-; argume nts have g reat lteatiness with his fri e n<ls.
8. \V Litn<'Y discotered the cot to u-giu.
!J . I Je occ upi es a. whole ho u se.
lU This ob;;t1tcle ca11u o t be a rea l d ifli cu lty .
11. 'J'li e ;; pcecli es of thc:;e t.m :n arc i11cililig unpl easa nt fediu gs.
1<)"'· ll u 1wp plicat ed l1i R frle nd to aid him :
13. Tl1 e Iliad or Odyssey iti a noLle e pic.
14. R rctify bad habi ts, and amen1l mistak es.
15. I le r1.s~crt ed his readiness t o comply with my requ f's t .
Hl. /;'.cite e vil thoughts from th e h eart.
17. Th e trcusurer abdiwled his office.
18. The fath er kin<lly ab:Jolved his son, whe n he confessed liis
fault.
l\J. 8elide,qraclatiO!! is the firRt (•Sse nti a J o f I\ religio u s sp iri t.
20. Our lesson to- <luy is n o t so ard1w'u.s as sollle previo us ones lia\·e
been.

vuur ag1>.
• lii. lfc i-nsert.1 hi s authority wi th out thinking.
HJ. H e will 1i.cq11ire rewards, if lw does n ot arrive at celebrity.
20. I know wl1at coun;e I Hlmll fulluw, a11d what side I shall pur-

SECTION II.
SENTENCES.

site.
21 . Jus1• ph will g rti n the d eg ree of A. 13. i11 J11 1rn.
IL ii; aggrarat1'ttg t1i lrn,·c 11. ru11pte of co ld s iu s uccessiQn.
2~. Cu11.•\W1t tio wme~8 reproves us wlwn we urc wrong.
2-!. lnebriatiun hi a ruiuuu:; vi ce.
~~ .

•

1. Criticise tho fullowi11g st"ntcnccs with rcgarll to

'" Concord, keepin g in

. 45-53.

lllillll

t he principles stated

011

pages

Tllb' ELEMENT::J OF RIJETOH IC.
1. The n)ecliauism of clocks nml \\'atc li rs w1 ·re totally unknown n
f1·w cc: 11turiei! agu.
:2. In t he cuncluct of Parm eni o a mixture of wisdom and folly
,\·1·rn 1·1·ry cims picuou s.
:1. 'l'he iuqui,;itiv'' aud c uri< n t:; is gc· rwrnlly tulk1ttivo.
4. U rraL plli!IH n el·Ll,; tu I.HJ tnkt•u wit lt tltt·so excrdses.
5. 'l'li e 11uu1uer o f i11hauituut,; iu tlie U uitcJ ::ltate,; ltuv o g reatly
i11ereu>-11·J in tl1e lai; t ceutury.
u. Nvtl1iug LuL v niu antl fuuli :;h punmits delight so me persons.
7. Tb.e nquuriu is tilled with l>cautiful fi she~.
8. T here is phe11om1:mt that 11ave not bee n obsc rv cJ.
lJ. Il 1: or you i,; suw to ho pr .. ,.e u t.
JO. They h ave fit louJ.! Ullll l>rn1·dy.
11. Il e laid duwn i11 tltll ;iliadu, wlwre Wt' fo rm e rly h a d set.
· 12. " 'l'h e Li n:H of tl 1e l'o .. t,; ·· \\'l'l'C wrillt ·n by Ur. Jolmson.
·1:3. ()ne 11f tlrn n10t1L t rying tliiugH thut i,; knuwu to li fe, is to suf.
fl•r, alo11" anJ unjustly .
l ·I. \"rn 1 tl1i11k .1-.111 ,., l11tll !-!"tu llll' l'ity, then'!
1:1. tr \'<Hl \\'iHll, I ,;hall 1·i,;it y1111.
lf\. 'l'h;·y l1t1p1·d t l1at Ll1i,; w1111ld luq•jl•' ll 111 ~·011 fllHl I.
17. Le t ii e 1111d vou 1·ou,;idt·r tlH! q11l·st ion l1dun• cor n plying.
18. F1iur hurSl:tl who w ere splt·ndiJly capa ri,;1111ed, passed the
d oo r.

19. '1'111 : g•·n tlem cn nnd carriugrs whi ch w e Sall', lmvo clisuppe11 red.
20. Joh n was m ore love ly in di spositiou t h uu auy <liscipi e of whom
w e know u11ytlting.
2 1. Charl">i i::1 t h u tnll l'st of hi R tl1rl'C brntl1c rs.
2:.!. 'l'h l' l'C is n o nobll'r cu r ec r t lwn an honest lawye r.
2J. 8he l ooked Lcnutit'ully in lwr pu re wltilc dress a nd with the
si 11 ..·lu r1 •ll rose in h e r lmir.
11 ,, who l n o wiu g- ly clo"fl wro n g , 11rns t frp] cortt e mpt ibly.
:.! .i . 1 11111·0 !titli1·rto n ·g-11nl1 :1l th• "· n" 111y fri,.llll , I.Jut now I am
<lo11i>tf11l 11f \·011r fri c11d >i l1ip.
:W. lt 1n~ri tlc,.., ·n rinl-{ tn l1 r1 1·c !tr·1·n ~nitl tl1 nt th ere was still h ope.
27. l\ly futltn lovetl.i Urn\'Prl', but h t: lo\'Ct! hi s children best.
::!~. lt has u ec11 dcclurcJ tltut t h e earth 1lid no t m ove about the

;.I.

S till.

2H. Th c•y nr1t11rn.lly )'rde r t o Rtn n cl whrrc they would have long
if it w ere no t fo r t l1 t·i r lll btak1·i4.
'fh e season lias pai;;ied lllOrc rapid ly than we ex p ected it to
have passed.
U"O
0

so.

EXERC'!Sl~·s

JN STYLb'.

2. CriLic:ise the fullowi ug sc:ntenees with reganl Lo
Clearn ess, applying the principl es stated 0 11 pages 5 -1-57.
l. Tlrn::s I h aYc fairly give n yo u, 1:1 ir, my own op ini on ns W(·! l as
that of U g r1•at majority of l.Joth ltlll1 Sl'8 h e re, re lating to tit is \\'eig lt!y
!ltla1 r ; u po 11 w lt iel 1 I am cun Jid e 11 t yuu muy s urely r 1·ekon .
. :!. I t u1ay l>e prope r to give .sunrn 11ecou 11 t of tit use praetie<-,;, au
<:11: 11 t ly u::set! o n such occasion s, a11d on 1y disco n tiu ued Llirou){lt t lte
n cglt:c:t unJ <legencrncy or later ti m e:;.

iJ. Thc:;e forn1s of conve rsati on Ly d rg rces multi pl ied 1111d grrw
l:ltrung-.

4. Tht> Empe ro r re fus ed to co nve rt at ou cc the truce into a de·
fini t il'C treaty.

5. F ie lJ,; of corn fo r m u pl easant prosrect : a !lLl if thl: walks wc:ro
11 littl e tuk1 ·11 care o f t l111 t li e IH' twe·e n t lwm , th ey wo uld di;.play n eat .
n css , reg11larit~· and e lcg1111cc.
6. JJ .,. laliu rc<l t u in1·0Ive liis miuiste r in ruin , who h ad bccu th e
11utl1urof iL.

. 7 It i;i the fust"m of the l\lul 1o m etnns, if t]H•y sec any writte n u r
printeJ paper upon tl1e gro uud , to take it up, and l ay it usid 1: earl' ·
full y, a,; not kn o wing bu t itrnny co ntain some pi ece of their ,\ Jcoran.
ti . It i8 tru e what he flays, J.11 t i t ii> n ot npplicul.Jle to the l'"int.
9. Huwev e r, th e miseralilc remainH W('re, in tl1 e ni g ht, take n 1lmY 11.
10. Mr. l3lack call et! a s urgeo n, who had a leg to bt> amputated .
11. Entering, wi th the k ey iu his hand, h e s hut th e door, u 11 ,[
put it in It is p uf'krt.
12. J11mes told hi s brothrr thn t h1· wo ul1l hav e to lilack hi ;< li11ots.

"'f"3.""'trh1~

captai n ste rnl y d en ied that lie had nscd tht• ulT1·ll,.iirn
in tl1t• l WWS [l!l !J l 'I', Which the e.Jito r ltad p11t illtu !iii< lJIHlltli.
LL ll u r<'t urn ed Utl' l.mok wlt(:n h t~ drov1·. up in tlw earring" th at
h e bor r111\'t·1 l.
WOrd ,;

l!i. Tl w capta in of th e Stealllcr was d ro wn ed , nnd r;o \\·as ]1is
dnu g l1te r. f-:lie \\'as laden with tropicnl fruit, n11d lier lo<:s i" .. ~ti­
rnate<l al l'igl1ty tl 1ousund.

lG. Alice told lwr moth Pr tl1 nt r;h c w as going to get soml'll 1i11g
nice2_o r !1t,r nt t h e st o re, and she o ught t o go al o ng.
17. "The Irons id es ut Fort Fisher" is a graphic accnunt o f t.11e
capture of t ltat fort by an cyc- w it.n e!'!s.
18. l\Ir. Brown informed h is n ea rest neighbor th.at l1is wheat wn ,;
much more promi:;ing than his.
19. Th e impunity with whi c h t hi s has been n.ncl is carril'J crn liuti
degrad ed rntion~l conversation which o ug ht to Le taught ernry ch ild,

I

l

',It

·;; i

.1:

,. <.~ ·~ 1:.1
j

~

'

..,

t

•

f

TlIE HLJ1,'1'fF:N7'S OF RfllffORlC.
l wld iii r eve rence l >y P.n· r y yo1t11;..:- m :u1, nnd r ega rd ed th e g r eatest
cliarm of t:;oci ul i11terro 11r,;e iuto 11 forte .
:20. :b C:l lauc u s fo 1t11d t h e ul>jl'l'l uf hi !:! n<loration that tore l1im
frum 11i8 fri,·o luu!:! companions in l o n e Lu y o ull g Judy], so 13ulwer
fuuud h i::; in the exerci:-;e o f lii8 ge niu s .

3. C ri ticise the foll0wi 11g scnlcnccs wilh r('gurd ti>
Unity, applying the pri 11 ciples slatc(l un page.3 5H-u1.

i,

' ~

1. Th e Britons. da il y l111rns13ed lJy crud inroad s from th e Picts,

'""'fl' for<'cd to cal I in t Ju • ~ax on:; ti>r th ei r ddenr<· ; wl10 con sequ ently

n·du ce d th f' greater part of 01e i"l and to th1·ir O\\"ll power; drove th e
Britilll8 into the m oHL n ' nwte nud mouuta i11 011 s part:;; un<l the r rst of
tho cn 1111t ry , in c u ~tmwi, re li g io n, nnd lan g uage, became wh olly
~HX<>tl.

:2. W e m ut1t n ot im ag in e tl1 nt th e re is, in true re li g ion, any tl1ing
which c loud s th e min<l with ,.;11 11 1·11 µ- loo m nn!l m cla n<'h oly au sterity,
U••r foist: i<leas may l>c entertainl'll o f re ligion, u;; fa lse arnl imperf~d
<'Ulll'ept io ll s of \"i r tue hav e often i •rc vaill'd in tl1c world, ) .or wl11ch
dernga t cs from tl1nt <'Rk1·rn \\·li id 1 men are ge nl'rally disposed to
yielJ to u:.!'111 pl a ry Yirlu<'S.
3. llun1 e\; ·• Natural H e lig ion" call ed fo rth Dr. B ent. tic's

(author

c•f tl 1c !\linstrel ) nb l <~ work.
v ·1. Afte r Napoleon's C~<' npe f rom Ellm, nnd landing- on th e coast
of France, h e a<lvancc·<l a s rnpidly as pm•s il1l1~ t owa rd s Paris, and on
tl ic wn v w1ts nit·t IJ y th e troop>1 11n<le r tl1 e command of Marshal Ney,
whn 1i 11«1 s worn to Lri ng liirn l>ack in un iron cage, but now saluted
1•

l1 im a s E mp e ror.
·
5. Th e va ri nu!l corn!.in ntion s uf gro u ping, of sit uation with regard
' to 1·a"1 1 othPr, p l al'illl! th!•m i n n llC'rmarwnt r e latio n o f fri e nd ship or
110,.iti lity. 11f sy 111 pathy or of nntiputhy, of 1•1·ncc o r wnr, of'interchnnge
of n ·li g- ions, o f mannnr!'l, of ci \· iliza~ion, c·omp1"tc the work, ond
givt! th11t impuh;c, thut prog r es.<; i\·o nHi\·ement, wliid.1 is th e trait
" ·h ••reliy th e hi ;;to ri cal nati ons nre recogniz1•1l.
6. T-lte s un appronchin ::r melts the s no w, nnd brenks th e icy fettora
of th o ma i n , wh e r e vnst Rca -mon 8te rs pie rce through flouting islands,
with arms tl1nt cn n w ith stnml th1· crystal ro ck ; whil st oth ers, that
of t he 111;.;c l\"t)R :see m grent 111:; h•la rHl ,.., are, by t h ei r bulk alon e, armed
n~u i u>'<t all b11t man, wh ose f'll]'•' rio ri t~' ove r creat ur es of a fil zo and
fo rce i;o stupen dous . Rhonld make him m indful o f his privil ege of
rP.uso n ; and force him J111rnl>l y to adore the great Composer of tboee
wondrous frames, and the Author of his own supe rior wisdom •

•

7. To tlii s surce1·dcd th e li ce11ti o 11 i:; 1H·ss \l'hi"h <'lllt' r('d ll·i th the
r est ornuo11 , and from inf< ·ct i 11g our re li gion and 111 on.I,; , r, ·11 to co rl": 11t uur lall"ll'l"<·
J a~t
· not 1·k
1.
·
,., • o , ,· wl11',.l1
~
~
was
1 u to ue
111u " ] 1 1111p1'<1
\·ut
by t h o::;c wlw at l h at ti m e mad e up th e court uf l\.i1w C' li:1 rlt· · 11 ·
(• itlwr H11c l1 wh o li uJ f.,lt.,wed h illl in hi s ha11i sl1 11 1t·11 ~, o r w h.~ ln~tl
l H•t·n al1ogetl11'r co n\·u r::;a11t i11 t h e dinlt·Ct of tl11JH•: fa nati r al ti1 11,. ::; :
ur )'<>1111.111 f'1.1 " ·!1 0 ·11a"
1. •
·'
t..,., · ]
,..,
u ucun e uu ca C,'u 111 t 1c sa me co1111'a ll y; "" that

t l'. e cou rt wlt1cl1 u ::;eJ tn Le th e HtunJanl of propri t•ty a11J Ct>rrt·<·t111·~~
ol s peec h '~' a::> tli l' n , a ud 1 thiuk ha:::i ever si11i:c !'u11t in111·d, th e wornL
school in E n gland for th at llt:<·umpl i::;lrm e n t, and so will rc 111ai11 till
lwtter ca rt ; l>e tak e n i11 th e e du eatio n of <H ll' yu 111 1g- n n l.i:!it,', tl 1at
~l 1t·y may se t ot'.t. i11to t he w o rld with .;01110 f;>undatii, 11 of Jite.ratun.:,
11; order to q1 1al1f_v thl'm fo r patterns of poli t<·iw.-:;.
I). l ' 11cll'l' tile stat<:ly ll:l\'e of tl1e cat.Ju,dral of tliat r it 1· wl11 ·r1 · tho
H8pir i11g L o111bard, or, rut llt'r, Italian urc hit1:ctun· l1n d
t,1 11 • roo~
ti. a 111aji.:Htic l1c-i g ht Jct un l'qualc<l i11 I ta ly t•ve11 by Uotlii c llHl:li;;iar.n', 1111d s uppo rt1 :d on ta ll h a rm o ni o u s pillar;., t•v1: n 11m1· the uolil e,.; t
m od el of tl H: Italian Bas ili c·. t ex. pa llu
· 1e< I 111
· to t Iw 'r..atrn
· crns;;; wl1ero

lif;,.<l

over t l ie altar hovered t h e vast aucl sol e m11 )'i('tur1 : uf our Lurd with
tli e Virgin •1 n one side, St. Julin o n the otli1•1" in whid1 Ci1;rnlme
ma de t~ie l'.ist ~nd m:>l-lt sp l l'n<liJ e ffort of tht: old r i gid Byzan t i1w art
to r et ain its impe riled trnpre mncy; uwl thus Latin ( 'hri :;tianity
snc 1_1wd to a:;se r t its rights a ga in s t T e u to ni c ind1·p e11d1· 111·., lid'o re
tl.1·1r fi1111l s e ve ra n ce; he11 cath those auspi ces m e t t ir e mo1:1 t n11g-ust
ass<' 111l>ly , as to the n u m bers and rank of' the prl'lat.·s, uuJ tlu : anibassa<lo r~ of Chri st ian king-s, wh icl 1 for renturie:'! h11.J as:mm e J. the
fun ctw 11 :::i o f a rep resen tati vc seuate of Ch ri l:!tenJum.

4. Critir iso

he folio"'.v111g
··
sen t e 11 tt>:-> wit· I1 l'l',:!a nl Lo
Energy, ap1ilying lh c principl es staled 0 11 pa~1·;; (); ;_GH.
i

~

1. Thoug ht and la11 g uage n et n nd rnuct 11pt>1 1
tnally.

l' H('h

otlil'r mu.

2 . By a multipli c ity and variety of w u rd s, tlll' th rm g lit!'i an<l 1<t· idi m e 11t 1:1 aro no tf'.:t.oIT aml uccuu111 10Li ated : hut , lik t: l>a,· id , drl's~i·d 011 t
nn~ c<}'.iippe<l in ~au1'1:1 armor, they are cnc umb<" rPd a n d o p preHsed.
3. l he81' pnrnts h ave heen ill us tra ted in so pla in nrrd e ,·iil< ·n t a
nrn_m ~'·r,. that th e f>t! ru:-;al of the Liook lrns gi ve n me pleas uru and
sat.Isl act 1"11.

4 . l l1 n pe tlii s is t h e last t.irne I :;hall eve r act rm inipr11tl• :ntly.

5. The co1uuuta n ts both fell dead upon th e &uh! t• lgetl1er with
one an ut her.

1

22G

1'11E

EL /~'Jlfl~·N 1'fi

OF JW E:TOJUG.

G. '!'hough v irtue borrows 11 <) assistan ce from, yet i:;till it may often
t h e a cha11 lJlg1•s of fortu ne.
7. I ud u lg i ng oursel n J:; in i magi 11a ry enjoy me n ts, o ft e n <lepri vc~
u s of real 011e<1.
8 . Th e old inform tlw young-, un<l tho yo un g may animate those
w li o an; ud\'!tn ccd iu lif<'.
\). By wliat l l1 a\'e already exprf'ssed, t he reader will perceive
t!1e lrn::;i1ws:s wlii c h 1 nm al.lo ut tu prucec<l upon .
10 Char it y lin·atln:\l long ~utrer in g to ~ n e 111i e:s, cuu l'tesy t o strau g<'r:< , l1al1i1ual ki11d11 t·Sii toward:; fri1 ·11d s .
11. 'l'll('Sll tt rg u111l llt ti were, wi t h out 11c·si tali o n, nlHl with great
eag <"l'Ul'S:S, lai1l liuld of.
l:!. 'l'l 1e co 1uplieation of tli c ,,JJ Ja\\' s uf Fran ce had given rise to
a chaos of cu11fm1io n.
13. It uuforturrntely happem; that o ur reporter "·as engaged elsewli <· rn, wh e n the first pc·1·fonnunce took place ; and we aro therefore
unable to gin: any re port of the pe rfo rmance; but, fo r all that, we
!au ve l1(·a nl that the performance gavo tl1 e g- re:itcst satisfaction .
1-1. . The \\· ritings o f I311d1nnan, nml e:i p1·cinlly his "~cottish Histon-,'" 'Hfl w ritten with i;trengtl 1, pcrspie11i ty and neatness.
1. was furc( ;<l to g o }101110 part ly b_,. forc e and partly by stealth.
lG. It was f"un<k<l 1uainly o n tile entire monopoly of th e whole
trad1i w it l1 t h e col oni es.
17. T lie h istory, of nl'CP~sit:', l1<'rnm n in n great d eg ree, for the
rnw.; t. pu rt , a parl ia 11wn t nry one.
It;;. I w1:11t h o 111t ' full of a !! rent many rdl1;ctiorn1.
l~J . 'l'ht·re 11 r-1: d s 110 rnor" tliun to m 11k\" s uch u rc·gistry only volu ntary, to a\·oid a ll tli c tlifli <'nltie,.. tllllt can !Jp ru is c<l , and which are
not. ,,;" 1·apt.ious or to" tri,·i :d t o takl' notice of.
20. Tl1i::; rqiroach mi g h t ju stly fall o n many of th e learn ed of
tllUt ng<', 11,;, with lei',.. ex cuse. it ha11 uften d o1w up o n their anceAtors .

uc ne<·om paai ed liy,

0

i;:;.

5. CriLi ci;-;c th e fo l1vwin g scutc· 11 ccs with regard to
Harmony, applying the principles stated on pages 67-70.
1. 'Twas thou that Rootl1cds t the rough rngg-ed bed o f pain.
2. Il e then b ecam e king ; but no one who had known him belicvfld that h e would muke a ~ood king-.
3. Th e rivPr. ag-u in g1d ning- ~trengt h, tlows more swiftly.
4. 1twas u::i g-l1 1riuu.i a scc 11 e us I h ave e ver seen .
:, Thi: dfl~t of tlie c;JUduJing veru, placed where it is, is most
s::--. k ;1.~

Ji)XERCISES IN STYLE'.

227

6. Thou form'd st me poor at first a nd keep'st m e so.
7. After th e moBt straig l1te.;t sect of ou r rel ig ion, J liHd a P linri·
sec.
. 8. But the power of G reek radiance Ooet h e <'011l<l g-i \'e to ]tis hand .
lmg- of natu re, and nobly too, Ui:! uuy on e w lw will r 1., 1d Jiis •· \\".
l
"
l
.1n.
< e re r - t IC poem in which a wand e re r fall:; in wi11t a !' l':t~ant "'''"
lll UU and h e r cJ11ld, lJy t]icir hut, 1Juii1 o ut of tlte r11iu s <
Jf a tClllplO
nt:a r C uma-may Hee.

9. Every nature, you perceive, is e ither too excdlc ut to wa nt it
nr too base to be capable of it.
'
10. ?n this occasion the question ga ve ri se to mu ch ag itati on, and
soon nite r absorbed every ot her consideration .

SECTION III.
PARAGRAPHS.
Th e teacher m ay ea-; ily improvi se exercises 011 the con.
stru ctio n of paragraphs by reading from 8 0 111 0 !)(J uk , anJ.
having the HLuJ.en t arrange th e se 11 tenc(·:-; i11 lo panwrai>li ::;.
'l'l
"' with
. 1c stm] cnt's paragraphing may then lie co mpared
Lliat in tlw Louk. 'l'h c principl es st.atoll on pngt•s 71-75
sho11ld lie kept in milld.

SECT I OH IV.
FIGURES.
1. Nam e the figures given b{.}}ow, and point out their
source of value, keeping in mind the detiuition sand e:rnmples on pages 81-90.

1'IIR 1!JL E ;l!ENTS OF Rl!ETOIUC.
l. J 1,. 1IP,.;e 1 n ·s th e pnlm.
~ . L ik e th e i\tirura Ilore1tlis of th e ir nat i,-e Hky,
li i .~ t11r i :111 s

the poe ts nnd
u r lce ln ntl n o t only illumiunt ed th eir own country, hut

tla olll ·d t i •., liµ;l1 t o f tb uir gc nitIB t hrou g h tli e ui g ht \Vhich hung over
: li e l't: :, L u f E ur u p1~ .
3.
Fu r P ai n t in g , m utt! and 111otio 11ks<1,
::-l!t:uls Lut one pn rtiu l g lanco fr1J lll lime ;
B11 t l•y tl11' 111i1J ity a ~ Pr s broug ht
lllu s itrn s w• ·dut•d triumph co urn:
V1 ·r,.. i cl'n s• ·"' to l;e airy nau g ht,
,\11J ::-lc ulpturc to lie dumb.

4. ((1, i:-i fu nd -i f !tis bottl1' .
fi. :\ml it rn me t o pnss at n.oo n th a t El ijah m nck ed tl1 cm, and said,
" (' rv 1tlnud ; fo r h e i1:1 a g o<l: e ithe r lw ii; t11l k i11 g. or ltu is pursuing,
or
is 1111 :.i. journey, or p(; radveuture he sk1:pct.h, and must ho
awa keJ."
G.
s '< l l1do re 111 e t hn g ladin to r li e :
N , 1.-l'l ns upon l1i i; lt ll nd- hi s tmrnly brow
( 'ou :;1·11 t:< tu d eath hut Ct >111 1u1·r.i llg nny.
1\ 11d l1 is d rolJ l'l'd lt t·:nl t-: i nk H g radnnll y lo w .
7. ln my ntl\:ct iu n to my n11 111 try yu u fi11d rn e e ve r firm and
inl'ltr in. liltJ . l\ ot t lt o tsu l<' lllll d1·n111 11d o f my pcrsu n, Hot th e ven .
s:o.,11 11'<' ., f tlw ;\11q •l1 yct io 11i c co un r il , 11 0~ t h e te rro r of tl1 e ir tl1rPate11.
i 11 gs , no t t h l' tl:t tt<' ry of tl11 ~ ir pru111i,.;p;., tH>, n or th e fury of those
uc1:111 s1·d wn ·tc h eH , whom th1·y ro11 t1cd lik o wild \Jeusts against me,
co uld te ar this aHl:ctimt from m y \Jre1u;t.
8.
Y P top plin g crag :; or ice!
Yo rl\·a l11n d10,; , w l1oll\ 11 lir('l\ t lt d raws duwn
In m1Junta i1111 ove rwhdmiu g . co me and c ru sh m e !
!). C lti~ alry d td ig liti ·d in o utwn r<l i;ho w, fornr cd pl easure, multi .
pli1 • l u111 u,.;t-1111:nt, 11 lltl d t'gr1.11l ed th o h urntlll rnce by an e xclusive
rcS [H!d fu r t h u priv ilq.;-1·d clnsttcH: l'1ui t unis1u brid lcu th e iiassions,
c u111 rn e LHl eol t h e vir t u eH of ,.;e lf-dt ·ni ul, a nd re;;cu cd the name of man
from di :iho no r. Th e fo riuN va lu ed courtc· sy: t.lw latter justice.
'1'11 e r.. n111!r ad o rn ed !"Oeiety. by g race ful rr line ru ents; tho lat ~r
j.1 u11d 1·,l na1.i o nul g- rund e nr on u11iv t: rsa l 1·11.ucution. 'l'Le ins titutinne
11f C liintlry ,,·Ne s uliv ert1!,I l.Jy th e i.;- rad ually -in creusiug weigl1t 1111u
k 11owll'1l ·--e anu opulen \' O of th e i111l us tri o us classes; the Purit.ans.
rullyi11~ " ll 111m tl1oi:;e cla.·HeH, plautou in their h earts the un<lyinf;
princ ipl t•s o f <i;•moc rut ic iil><·rt y.
~
10. Lik e the o cu:rn, whose t!horf's wh on d ~ortcd by the tide mo.tit
out the e xte nt t o which it s oruotiin cs Uo ws , so Homer's genius, when

It;,

.

:

E Xl!.:R Uli::Jl!J'.S JN f:i1'YLH.
e h bing in to th e fol.li es of th e ' · OdysSl' y," plainly dii;cove rs l o w rns t
it o tu.:e 111ust hav e l>ee u.
·
11.
Li fe is a sea, how fair irs fac e !
How s uwoth it::i t.limpliug wate r',; 11ace !
1:!.
was a lvvely tree iu thy prct1cn rn, UHcur, with all m.r
hr:111<'it es rouud m e ; I.Jut tliy <l catl1 came like u lilH.s t front th e d1•snt.
!U H.I laid my g-rel· ll Lea<l low· tLQ ijlring re turne<l witL its s ho wers,
bu t no leaf of min e arose.

10. Tito final und permane nt ~ruits of liue rty arc wis <loll'I mod ·
Pr:u ion, und mercy. Its imm edi a te c.IIect:; are often atrocious c;·i ui f'fl,
contli ~ tiug e rrors, sk e pticis m on p oints the m ost cl ear, d ogmati s m
on jl( •lll ts the m ost myste ri o us.
lt is just at. thi s ni i;it:i that its t'n c mi cs lovP to e xhibi t it. 'J'l11 ·y
pull d o wn. the s caffuldiag- from tl1 e hnlf-fi11i><h(·u cdifi!'e ; tlil' y point
t.o th e tlyrng dus t , tl1e falli11g I.Hicks, the co mfortlPss roo ms, th e
frightful irregularity o f the wl1ol 0 appearance, and the n u::ik in scorn
wl1 c ro th e promised s pl endor nnu comfort uro to l>e fuuuJ .
'
14. Life lienrs ll S 011 like the stream of a mi g l1ty riv e r. Our boa t
at fi~l:lt g lides UO\.v n th e narrow channel , throug h tli e pl uy fid 11111 r muring o f tlie little urook and t.l1e winding of it s gru><:;y ho rdl'I'.
'l'hc trees :;hed th e ir blossoms OVC' r our young h ead s, th e fl o wt'rn 11:1
tl1 e \Jrillk l:le em to ofte r th em selves to our young hands ; " ·c arc
l1uppy in h op e, and w e g rasp eage rly at th e beauti es aro uml us- u ut
th e tilrPa 111 hurri. ·s o n, and s till ou r hands are e mpty.
I.'i. But , Mr. Spcak Pr , the µ-c ntl Pmnn s ays we ha ve a r iylit to tax
Am e ri ca ! Oh ! ines tinmhl e ri g ht I Oh I wond e rful, tran scc 11d1·nt
l'ight, the asse rtion of which ha s cos t this couutry thir tee n proviJH·1:s.
six is lands, on e hundred tlwu::iaml lives , auu :;e veu ty millions of
morw y .
16.
Tlt c Com e t. ! Il e is on ltis wny,
An<l s i lll-{i Ilg us lte fii es ;
The wlti:t.;r,ing plane ts shrink be foro
The specte r of the skies ;
Ab ! w e ll may regal orbs burn 11ue,
And sat e llites turn pale ;
,,:
T e n milli o n cubic miles of head l
'fe n hi Ilion leagu es of tuil I
17. Y es , noble Galileo, tl10u art right , "It does move. Bi gots
may m uk e th ee recant it, Lut it moves, ne ve rtl1el css.
Th e
Inqui s ition may seal th y li ps, but tLey can no m o re s top th e prngress of the g reat truth s propouudt>d by Copnuic u::1, and d e mo n
atrated 1.Jy thee, tho.n tliey can stop tLo re volving earth .

' ,,.,"

23 0

TJJE J~'f,f,'JU.'N1':-i Oft' Rffl11'0 HIC.

Herc o nco th e eml>attl e<l fnm11•n; s t ood,
A.ud fired th e s hot h ea rt! rou ud th e world.
() g c nt lt· s l.:ep ,
Nature's soft nurse !
20. The l eg endary age was a p ast tlwt 11 c· Ye r was present.
18.

2. C ri t it: ise the fol lu will g faulty figures, applsing thti
rn le:> sLateu 0 11 pages H 1, 93.

~

1. The re is n ot a vi l' W of human nature that is not s uffi cient to
ex ti1 wuish the seeds uf pride.
2. The colonies we re not yet ripe to uid a<lie u to British connec·
ti on .
tl. I am g ln.rl to h ear th e re arc n o w eightie r obj ections agains\
that re ve n.: nd body pla nted i11 tliie city.
4. Uoy lo was the fath e r o f c hcm iHtry, and th e urothe r of th e Earl
o f Curle
5.
Now frnm my fond embrace, Ly t e mpests torn,
O ur otlll'r column of th e s t ate ii:! uornc;
No r took a k iwi a<li l' ll, n or so ug l1t co11se11t.
<i. A ,·olca 111 > is called uy Ch eever, " That wonderful old furnaoo
wht·rt • tl1e h a u<l of Uod \\' Orks t he bd l o ~\' S."
7. lfopo, th e l>al111 uf life, durts a rny of light through t h e thi ckest
g 100111.
8. :::i i nee the time that rea~o u Lega n to Lud, nnd pnt forth her
s h ootfl, thought, during ou r wak ing h ou rs. has bee n active iu every
br e n ~ t with o ut a m omi::11t'8 sus1.e 11sion or pnu sc. The c urrent ol
id ' ll::I Jias lice n alwuyB rn udng. Th e wlicC'ls of the spiri tual engino
h a ve .. xnted th em se lves wi t h p erpet ual motion .
!J. Eato n, Dav e nport, nnd liv o oth .. rR w e ro t h e seven pillars for
tlie 11 ,·xt Ho usn of Wi !'<t lorn in th o wildl'rrwss. ln Aug ust, 16139, the
8 rn' n pill ars a s:'!embh:<l. possef"Ring" lbr the tim e full power.
10. If no auth o ri ty, not in it l'l nature te mpo rnry , w e re all owed to
O ll t' llllman Leiug un·r a n otlw r, so .. ie ty would 11ot Le employed In
buil ilin g up vropc nsi ti es with o ne lmn<l , which it has to curL with
tilt' oth e r.
11. \V e are cons tantly called upon to observe how the noxioua
passio ns , whi ch spring up in the h rart like weeds in 11. neglectod
garden, Me dissipated l>y the li ght of truth . .
12. We must k eep the ball roll ing until it becomes a thorn lit
the side of C-Ongress.

J;,'.,W-,'R CI SJ..:S I N 8 7TL E.

231

13. The dent It o f Cato l1as re nd e red th e Se n a te u11 o rphan.
14. Th e foll o win g urc th e words o f Tame rlan e th e Un·ut to Baja.
j et, .Empe ror of th e Ottomans : " \\' h e re is tl te m u na rcl1 who d uf! ·S
r e::; is t us 'I \Vh e rc is th e potentate wh o dot>:; n o t glory in }J(' in g
num l>c rt>d among o ur at te 11da n1 s '/ As for tl iee, c.Jt>SC('Odc·d fn im a
'J'urco1ua11 1-u il o r, s iucc tl1 e ves:-;el o f thy unb11 u 1nl .. d u111b iti o11 l1 as
Lee11 wrecked in th e g ulf of thy sd f -lu ve, it woul d be pr.,pL'r thut
tl1ou ::; hou ld :;t take in the sails of thy t e m e rity, and cas t tli u anc hor
of l'Ppc11ta nc1; in th e pool u f s inct·ri ty and j us tic", wJ1ich is the p<10!
of :;afrty ; h:::;t th e te mpest o f o ur \ 't!llg'( !Ull t:C rnuk e t li eu p (' ri Hh iu t lie
sea of tLe puni s hm e nt tltuu dese rv es t.
15.
:::iwre t are the usl':; of adve rs ity,
\\' hic h, like th e toad , ng ly and ,·e no mous,
\Years y e t a preciou :; j ewe l iu hi8 li ead.
16. S hak Ps pea re did n ot lll1!a n his g r"u t. trn i:1:d ieR for scart>c rows ,
as if th e nailing of on e hawk to t h e Lurn d rm r would prev<'ut tliu
ll ext coming <low11 souse into th e IH·n -ynrd . :\11, it i s 11ot thf' poo r
bl eac liing victim hun g up to moult its drn µ-gled fen tlit>rs in tl1 c· rain
that h e wi sh es to show us. li e lo ves th t: hawk -n a tu n' as wl'l l as t he
l1 e n -n aturP ; and, if Ire is un eg11ul ed in a11ythin )!, it i::i in th a t ,.; u1111y
l>rea<l t h o f YiC' w , that im pr<'g 11a bility of reaso n, that lool,:-1 down
upon all ranks and conditi o ns of m e n , all fortun e a nd 111 bfort un e,
wi t h t he eq nal ey e of the purl! ani s t.
17. Th e m 11 11 wli o h a8 no n1l c o ve r lii s s piri ts, possr·"s•·s nl) 1111t id ote ng ainst poisons uf any so rt. li p li es ope n to p \·c ry in>111-rPrtio11 •
of ill . humor and eve ry gn lc of tli .. trt !SS. \Vh c rl!aS h e \\'li o ir; P iil ·
pl oyed in reg ulating liis miud, is makin g provision again st all th e
accid e nts of li fe. H e is e recting n. fortress iuto wl1i cl 1, in t lie day ul
sorro w, li e cn n n 'treat with satisfaction .
18.
T o t h oo the w o rld its prcfl<' ll t h omagn 1•ny11,
Tl1 " 111ir\·est i:arl y , but !'1utu rn tli o pruii;e.
19. A torr1·n t of s up e rstition con Hum <'d tl1 c l1111tl .
20.
Th e AlpR,
'l'l1 e pa lucei; of nntur<', whose vast walls
llave pinnacled iu clouds their !mowy sca lp!>.

811

@t .

.•

.

'

232

TlIE ELEJJ.EN'l'S 0 /1' RJIETORIC.

SE CT ION V.
VARIATION OF EXPRESSION.
l. (u) J11 :-;e rt the proper word s in t li e foll ow ing s?n·_
tcn cL·::i, ;;L·h:cti ng fro m th e synonyms g- i Yen , and kccprng

in rninJ the rcmurkl' uu i1a.gc::i !H, !)5.

I.
Allure, tempt, seduce, <'ntic <', tlecoy.
1. In our time th e poo r aw s trong ly - - - to ass ume the appear.
ance of weolth.
.
.
'> l luive h .-i.u-c.l of Larburia n ~ . who, wlwn tcmpcilts drive slups to
t li~·r C<.Hll:!tS, - - - th e Ill tu th e rocks, that th ey may plunder th eir

~

Llding .
.
B. '!'her" is no kind uf idl c nCHS by wh k h we are so . easily - --·
·\ · ·l 1· q ifi e it,;..J f uy tl11 · nppP1uan cc of bus iness.
as t Iwt " 11 <: 1 < 1h 1 ·8
.
.
4. 'fl1t • rn ts and mict: lJy w hit:l1 ll 1u11 P1" n w:1R lllfl'Sl(·:l were -- -,
il i sai,l, Ly 11 piper to a contiguous rin: r ('I) , in wli1d1 they were

.1 ·.

8

l 1 1 · th
a ll 1l ro wn ed.
G. There w ns a particula r gro Yc wl1id1 was rnlkd " t 1e 1uy nn
, e - - - to the ch11se, but few re.
o f coq u1 •tll's, " w l 1c ro inany wer
turue1l with purchase.

JI.
Jlcai>, pile, aec1111111lafc' , an1ass.
Tli is woul rl [ c1·lPl1rnt e w ith ann u al gumm~,
With g ifts 011 ultars - - --, nn~ ltoly_Harnes.
\\'i tbi n the cir rll'fl, 11rms and tnpod ti h e.
2
ln gott! o f go hl nml si lv er - -- 011 l11g 1~.
'l ~ -1 1. F. 1 ·is Buc<>ll by nn 1·xtrnnr<li nary forrc nf na ture, compass
• · •
r,u l
• - . '. •
.
. l 1 _____ to ldmself such
o f th o 1w l1t , um \ 111dc lu t 1g-nl1lt1 i< t 1H1~, 1111
'-: 1. . l c•lgc·· ac"' ,....
c"iun11t
louk u1 H1 n with o ut am aze ment.
t1t u res ' ' l ,nuw •,
,~
'
4. In t li ese o<lcii glitte ring uut g-mcwrul ornaments have been

I

I

'}/ l .

''

!

i .

EXERCISES I N STYL.FJ.

233

III.
Excessive, immoderate, intemperate.
1. Let uu w11n to nu t·,;s uf y o ut hful spiriLs, no co111p li11 rn·c with the
- - -- 111irth of o t h c rs, e ver Lctray you iut.o profane i;alliet1.
~- \\'h o kuo ws 11ot the languor that atteuds every - - - indu l~enc1· in plt •usuro ?
H. \Vitl1 th('u: it ri ;,t:;; lo - - - expcctaliou 1:1 fouud e<l 011 th eir su ppos"d talc uts a11d inrnginl'd m erits.

IV.
I. Povt•rt.y, i11tligence, want, need, penury.
1. 'J'h nt tl1r~ - - - of th e llig lt!arn] e rn is g radu a ll y dimini s lwd
ca1111ot be m c uti o11ed among tlte uupl e u:; ing consequeuces of sul,j cction.
2.
- - - is a Litter and a hateful gnod ,
llccause its virtues arc not. understood ;
Y c t many tl1in gs, impossible to tl101q.~li t,
lfave been by ~ t o full JJC rfccti(J 11 Lru0lli4ld.
3.
S1m1 e tim es run I a kin g-,
Tlu·n trcll::lon muk es 111 e wi th 111y1:1df a li1·ggar;
An<l so I um; the n cr ur; l1 i11g- ,..-r-- 1 I ) ·; '
P cnrnadci;1 me, l w11s l>ct te r th1m a king. 4. If we can but r a it1e him above ~ , . a mo<lerute !!!tare o( fo rtune n11J m e rit will be 11ufli cicnt to open Lil!'
to whateve r else.
we can wi::ih him to oLtuin.

way'

v.
Peace, 'tuict, calm, tranquillity.
1. A pal try tal c l.>ca rc r will <lil!lcompos c the~ - if a whol e
fami ly.
2. C heerf ulness bani sl1 es a ll anxious care and dit;conte nt, t;1:ot h (:S
and co111po::ies the passion s, nnu keeps th e so ul in a pe r pt~t ual --~.
i.I. Ily a pati e nt ucq ui esccnce m~d e r µni~f~I I" vents for tl1 c pr<•sl'nt,
we shall be sure to co ntract a ~ 1.of temper.
4. A false person ougLt t o be looke<l up<}l1 usu public e nemy, auJ
a disturber of the _...._ uf mankind.

234

THE ELEMENTS OP RHETORIC.

1. (h) ~ uLstitu tc other word s for the Italicised
in l h t: following sentences.

EXERCJSl!..'8 I N STYLfi:.

words

l. All the little pmn·n;, e111i i o11,q nn<l u nfrie ndly, would huve to
k<'•'P ,;t a11ding- 11rmi!·,;,gr.·at i11 1•ro1 1o r t.inn to th e 'l't:5011rces fo·r sustai11.
iii{! tlll'111 , u11<l tlic cu11soqt11 ·11 t tax",; would impove rish tlte peO'ple tof
th e po iut of liopell'<SS a nd ecafostinf/ ruin.
2 . ll is lu o.; o/ out1card 11atun· l1n!l tl1e p owe r and pervasiveness of
n pa!:S:iio n ; hi ::> <XMe r catwn of it !:! m os t t1·ijli11g b eauties was excetd·
i11yty fin e; and his dt l i neatiun.• , both of larnlsca pes and fi g ures, wero
so clea rly sket.-!wd us to i111prcss tl1 em on the 111ind a lm ost us indeliblJ
and deep ly us tl1t• puception of t he m cou ld l1u\· e done.
3. Thi s, tl1 en, i:'I thc stage 0 11 \\'liicli tl1c mind of America is to
npp<·ar, and s uch the i111pul8cs to it s e xertion; imch the body to be
mooed by its f orces, s u ch the 111 ultit ude to belw ld its attempts, such
th e /l onur to crown its succ<>sR.
4 They lies rec/; n fl, l1y t l 10 prof n11·(1'I{ st i"'"lf1'< 15 of .•trieing humanity,
1Jy thl· l 1ks.~ ... d r cc11llt>ctio 11.~ "( tli e dPpnrt (·d ; liy th e l1oly pledg fs,
wlii c li han ~ l il'(' ll giccn by .~potlr~s liand R. to the s1ic r ed cause of truth
a1lll 111an: by th e d readful my.•fffii-s of tilt' pri:mn lio uees, wh ern the
so11:0. of l i/JNty 1111 \"C lwf' n i11C11rcc rr1t1 d: l1y t h e nolil o h eads which
ha\·,, li. .. ·n b1oftg li t to the tt.I', l1y tl1 c r 11iw1 of ti1n r, l>y th e eloquent
re,,111i 11 .~ of 11 at ions they im1ilore U l'I n•it. to 1•.l'ti11gut·.,1i, t:h e light which
iti riflin~ in the w or ld .
5. C'oo pl'r pof.~f'Mes th e poiner of imp(( rf ing to his 8ketchts u sur.
11rising reality. 'l'h ey are not mere cupiu of natur1\ t hough as such
th•'Y would have un11 .~1 1 a l ei:rdlenrr, but nctunl crrat ions, inrorporat·
i11!f t h e v<>ry soul o f inte lli gen t nnd pl,erwm.t <'xperi e nce and perceptiun. His savage'8, notwith standing all that has bePn said to th e
co n trary, nre no 1uore inforiur in tr11thf11 lw·s.~ tl1 a 11 1h f·y are in poetic
nltr11 1·ti rc 111'.~s t " thos1! of l1i~ mn>.tfurt1111ate ropyi.•f.• or C1J!ilpdituTB.

:.:! . \ 'ary t.lic following f'rnt r ncrs by denying the con•
trary, imiLaling Lile cx a111plt.: Ult page nr..
1. Lnfayette ml\d c a great saerifi re.fo r tl1is Rep ublic.
2. Ch a rl e1:1 is indol e nt nnd l:llow to k a rn.
3. The meal w as <'Xcellent for th e occasion .
4 . The devotion of oue's life to hiti country is as n•JlJlc as affection
for Lis friend s.

~35

5. 'fh<'y found him wh ere tlwy liad le ft him, and sti ll living.
G. Hi s \"Oice was 111u ~ irnl and h i::i manuer attracti\·e.
7. A1111mg the fri e nct s of Ca~sar , Mark Anto ny l1<'l<l u Jirom in e nt
place.
8. '1'11 cri: iti g rrn t difTi e ult.y in tih o win g trut.h in snch n li g l1t :t;i to
, mak e it 11111r1i engaging tl1uu e rror to tho:>e who think little am! with .
OL\t sysk 111.
0. Expcri1·UC..! is tlw bes t guide in matters that r equire mucl1 s kill.
10. Truth i.:; frieudly to a ll worthy d cl'.ligrn:j.

3. Yary ll1 c following se nte nces by circumlocution, following Ll1 c examples on page 95.
1.
2.
3.
4
5.

6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

It is raining.
Lincu ln is d ead.
l{orn t: ha s l.Jcen rn od e rnized.
lleograp hy it; u;ieful.
The s ky at 11i g l1t itl beautiful.
<ieology is a pf ('aSm tt study.
Th c li irds of tlu: air have nests.
Th u l:Hll1 lw;i Rct.
'!'h e occ un skt·p ~.
Knowledge is powe r.

4. Vary the following se nten ces by recasting them,
throwin g them in to as many forms us possible, and select·
ing th e be. t, following the examples on page 9G.
1.
2.
3.
try."
4.
Ii.

G.
7.
8.

9.
' 10.

The f•a11 h i s n sph <>roid.
Tilt! s un it! the ce nter of our system .
Geo rgc \V n.shington lrns 1.Jee o called the "Father of hi.i Cou11

Ort·at Britain is an bland.
Oolil is th e most b eautiful metal.
G<JYernrnent is nf'cessary to society.
Milton wro te the greatest e pic in our language.
Th e Bil.Jle is a ve ry ancient Look.
Light is opposed to darkn ess.
The age of d1i vu lry hati go11c.

~l·f

..

.•;..,;"'

TlfH HLHilfl:-'NTS OF Hllb'TU1UC.

-~

J:.\"Ff,'('[..... /.S !.\' S'/TJ.f:

:I_~t;

5. Change th e following dccLn~tj<e sentences into d'fl ··~~31m-..._.dblf_·:
form 0[ a question, :lllJ \1cci1k \\ liii-!1 forrn is tlic bt.'tt<+r...
r1 ~~~-""
f"~
.c ~

kc l' pi11 g i11 rnilHl t he stalerncuts on pa.go 97.
1.
•)
il.
4.
5.
U.
7.
H.
fl.
10.

I le i::i u fret·11m11 whutll t11e trut!t makes free.
I !011or i::i dc:1rcr than Ji fr.
\\ · t, are all duomeu to s uffer.
Tlwu ca11::it u o t draw out l<;via ll1 an with a hook.
A fa],;,; wit11eRs shou ld 11ot be trusted.
Ilea Yen do<'t:l uot s 111i le 011 vice.
Crirne iti its own pu11i :·;l1mc11t,.
Vi r tue iti it:; o w11 i11n·ntin1 and itsmvn r e\vard.
No one c:an snd1) tile Al pH.
\\' c :;lwulu 11ut fcnr to d o right.

-·-.-...

·

a.

Africa, SI> l()n g n t Prra i11c11g11ita , ha.; rcc1·r\tly 111'1'11 ('X plornl l1y
1if

111aHy ,·H\t·qt1 · i ~ i11g 11ll ' ll

~1·i1 · 11n ·.

1

1.

~l'\Yto 11 di~cq\ · t·ri ·,i t l1t·

5.

:-:u<.THt t·::i wtt~ p111

t-> .

\';1ry

law\)!' 1111iv1__·r :-i~ d

t•> d1: atli L>y

u

t-:-r<t\ i ta1i : t1 1.

tr i buual ol

:\!lil'lllall~.

t lie Jullu11 i11g ~l'lill'Ill't':-i L) 11 ~i11g

followi11:; t lie

l'Xa1111il1·.~

un p;1gv

there

;111d

it,

.'.

~tH.

1. Fonr wltitt• e!Pphnnt s were att:l< 'ln-'d !:>till' rnyrll cl 1ari.it.
:..! . 'l'lw d1~Lllll'I; fru111
tLuu :;,.llJ lllik;:;.

s .. 11· y urk tu ::::au

Fr:tuci~cu is alJul!t tl1rl'll

ti. That 1•vny AmPri cnn citizen slirrn l cl h«th r cacl nnrl '"rite" is
plai" t" l' l •·ry tl11it1gli1t'11I llli11d.
'1. An t""lil'sc: of tl ie 111 00 11 will m·cur soon.
fi. Juliu::i Cmsar is tl1e Roman cornrn l nho was kil led in tlie

'I

Cap itol.

li. Cl1ange th e fo1lnwin g dee1nrntive sentences int.u ~ ­

form of exclamations, and decide which form is the bdt.er,

following the exampks

011

page 97.

1. This is a g lorious rlny.
2. C'u11:-wkncc wlii ps th t~ gu ilty.
:>. !'rid e is humbl ed.
4. U11r frc1J ini;titut ions nre nobl e.
5. M idni!-(ht 0 11 tlif' ocean ir; grand.
(i. 'l'hc tree:; arc fruitl f'l'iR this y ear.
7. '!'lint wa il u heroic d eed.
8. 'J'lie n ig-ht is dark.
\) . It was 11. pitiful s ight.
10. 'J'L c trialti of li fe arc muny.

7. Change tbe following senten ces by using a different

!1. \ 'nry
tlw f"ol lo wi11['.'
Srll ll'llccs Ji,- ch :mQ"i11rr
fr,•rn t l1e
"'
'
'
,- .
•direct lo Ll1 c indirect furm uf ,;l aklll Clil, ur l'ICI' /'i'l' ,' il, r,iJ_
luwing tlie L'Xat!!plt• 011 iiage !)8.
~

1. l\faf':111lay Hn id that Lurcl Byro 11 wa ::; 1111: nH>H cr·kl1rated n11rn
of llu : 11 i1H'll'<'llt h t:entu ry.
:2 . .'\:; ('hark::; I. of F ns· lan<l wu s hod to t h e r;<· atli.!d, Ji ., ~ ui.!, ''I
go fro111 n co rruptibl o to nn in corrupt il>le crow 11 ; 11·l1l'n: llO di;-;turl1ancc can hrl\·e p la<'e."
8. \V .,l>Hl<'f l'll}'I'! iii Oil<' or lti R SJWf' dt l'S: •. Tl1(' p11l 1li.- <1pi11io11 11[
tl1 c civili zed world is rapid l y gai 11i11g n11 a;;ce nd1·11ey un·r rn1 · r .. 1,r11 1.,
force."
4. \Vliippk Hay,; tlmt Dani('] \\·c·l1stc r was gn ·a t l1y .. r ig i11al cu11stit.11tiun.
5. On h f' ari11g th e announcf!ment of Yictury, flp11 cra l \\' olft', " ·h u
was morta lly w ou n ded , said to hi ;, uttendauts tha t I"' di .. d happy .

voice, ful luwing the example on page 98.
1. Pl·uce was d eclared l'Y \h o two countries after
war.

:.!. A grn t cful nation has called Ucorgc \ Vashington the "FatlJot
of Lis Couutry ."

10. \'ary lhc follow in g sentences by transposition , keep·
ing in mind Llie ill11 st ration s O ll p:1ge

nn.

1. Parents I haYe wl1 0 love m e

W<~ ll.

2. 'J'l1 e rai11liow cu1IH'c and goes and lovely is the rm1e.

..
. '
'

'"

l'·

,. J
·':;•;.,
.;

. ; .~

-

1'Jfh' /'.:L l','JfEN l'::J UF 1.'ln"l'ORIG.

238

3. :-;1 0w r ises worth by po n·rl y o pprcssYll.
•1. filll:h joy u111l Jition !i11ds.
5. Large wus lib l>o1111ty nnd lii " t<oul ~ince ro .

Vary Lliu follow in g ('\ prc,.:i'i ion s l1y abridging clnn sm_
1t tu phrases or words, full owin g the example::; on page 99.
J l.

,," .

CHAPTER tit.

l. lie h 1'ar1l that we h ad left to wn .
'.! . lfi~ tri 1st was on e that could n ot UP shnk cn.
0. Al't1·r h e arriY ed, we had a co nY Prsat i<on.
4. A h o use which is d cs iru l1le rnn Le Hold at a lmost any time.
0 _ Tliat hi : > ,·icws h an~ cliungt•1\ mak es a difference in his con .

SECTION I.
PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALS.

duct.
Q.

THE GRAMMATICAL POINTS.

If this i::; the plan that th ry l1n\' c ndoptcd, they will not i;uc

cec<l.
.
.
7. His int e ntion was tliat tl1is l1 opc mig ht en co urage lns fr1 ende,
C. llo sta ted t h e cause wl1 y h e was ause ut.

1. UsE the Comma in the followiug sentences wherevcx
it is required by the rules on pages 104-109.
Uulc I.
1. Truth fr .... 1111 whatcvei", source it is de rived is worthy of our
nc1;c pt11.nce.
2. A 11 m e n thcreiorc should rfl ve rence truth.
U. The faithful sol<lier no doubt will be honored uy Li s country.
4. Well times change as men change.
5. Yes th a t is true .
6. \Ye11.lth although it Is a great convenie nce Is not the cl1icf
ul essi ng of Ii fe.
7. liowevcr truthfully we speak w e shall sometimes misr<·presl'nt
ren li ty.
8. Again property hns 11 claim upon legal protectio n from the bur<l ens placed upon the owne r of propert.y.
D. This life m short is l.lOt the only one for which provision mu :;
U-.' made.
10. Confidence moreover is influential upon trade.

Rule II.
1. .Milton the writ.er oi ·' Para<lil5e Lost" was aI.o a great politi·
cinn.

240

1'1lb' A'L/r,'Jll!JNTS Of!' RJIRTUlUC

2. Priestly the <lii:;coven :r of oxygc ·n waH a vol nminous writer.
man of dl't!t iny ."
4. l'aul tlw apor;tlc \\' a ll 1l !Jitter pcrs1·c utor of the faith h e after.
ward ;; prcndic<l to the Un: 1· l~ :; und Hu111a11i:I. . .
.
/j, llowanl the pri1:111ne1 's fri eml devott•t! hu; life to plulanthropy.

E'XEllOISES IN PUNCTUATI ON AND C.1 J>I1'A L S . ~41

Huie \'I.

3. Nllpokon hats been ca ll l'd "the

Huie III.

''

1. Ti u• Zc n<l-Avesta which b t!1 c sucrl'll book o f the followers of
Z:orou ,;tl' r i.i Yc ry u11 d1:11t.
2. I lo is a 110\Jle citi:r.1 ·11 allll u good fo t lier who n·mem bt~N! in the
1·<l11cation of his sonti thut tlac state hn1:1 uc1·tl of men who love it and
wl10 understun<l itt1 llLW :i.
U. It is not strange that life l1ns triul!<, kmptutions, and toils
\\'hi clt tL:s t, endange r, and wea ry m en.
4. The a uthor who in nn y dcp11rt11wnt <•f lit e rature would win
success lins in rre as in g difficult ic8 with th e prngn·ss of time.
ii. Tlic Hnrro ws \\'l1ich wring our heartr; often leave them better
fitted for li fe's renlilies.

U.nlc JV.
1. Tho discourr<e w a.'I bea utifull y d 1·gantly forcibly delivered.
2. I 11d u1:11 ry la o11l'::1ty nnd ten1perunce nre Cl'SCntiul to hllppiness.
3. Th e mau profc::iscd 11 e ith1·r to cut nor dri11k nor 8icep.
4 . All l1nve t!ome Clllll'eptions of truth kindness honesty seu~
cknial nnd di sintcrcstedne><s.
5. His uncle had a beautif11l whi te h orse.

nuJc

11

v.

1. Night wns np pronchin i:r th n birds were sPek ing their resting
plncPs the plow1rn ~ n WPr•! turning h om e ward and the cattle wero
,..; t lu~ rin g from the fielc!A.
2. Queen :Mary was <lend Elizahrth "·ns the choice of the nation
nnd l1t·r friends we re ready to proclaim lier monarch of the realm.
3. In times of pence industry iR param o unt in times of war tho
arts of dC'struction in times of transition the nation holds one hand
on the plow t h e othe r on th e sword .
4. Cra f ty men oontemu itu<lics simple men admire them and wise
men use them.

1. If men were all v~rtuous aud intelligent there would never 00
nu o t Ju ·r war.

:~ . 11 e S Jl(' Dt years in the most irksome pursuits in order thnt he
mig ht train his 111irnl to any forrn of application.
U. Il e felt tltat it wus a greut injustice tu have uo op portuni ty of
J cfencc.

4. lt wus the pu r pose of hi s whole life thut Le might e nd i t iH
ho1wr.
/j_ L' uless tl1ere is a change among m 1·n oociety mur;t still suffer
many inconveniences,

Huie YH.

•

1. In perusing tlw works of enli~httln cd m en we ought to think
much .
2. Of all o ur i>e nse ..; eigh t is the m os t 1wr f<·ct.

3. 111 orclc r tu i111pro\'e the mind we ought less t o ll'a rn tlian t-i
conte111p latc.
4. T o cvl' ry characte r its fitting po::iition and
ha \" 1• l 1ee n nss ig- ne tl.

11 pprol'riatc

fun cti" 11

5. From the rig ht <'Xercise of our intellect uul power::; a ri ::;cs one
of the chi e f sources o f our huppin e1:11:1.

U u lc VIH.
.
I. Il t: that places liimsclf nei lhN hi g l1 e r nor lowe r tha 11 h r~ o ul(ht
to ti• >c·x e rcist·s the truc,.t l1uniili1y.
~. T o !Jccome con1·er1<a11t with a ce rtuin d C' partmc11t of Ji te rntur"
only has a te nde ncy to mukc our vie1n; 11urrow und our imprl':-;sion 1
incorrect.
3. The ev il t hat rn en <lo livt~S after them.
4. The bul<lness of these pred ictions the apparent proximity of
!heir fulfillm<mt a11d the imposing or.itory o f tl ie µreachc · st n;,, k
:;.we into the hearts of his audie11ce.

Rule IX.
1. Ilaving th e inwud life men cannot conceal it; having <liviuo
treas ures they will not Loar<l them.

11

I

i

242

Tllft..' E LEMEN TS OF JUIBTOIUC.

2 . 8 urpnssi 11g th e b oas t o f 1lie too co nfid e nt R o man Napoleon but
s ta lll ped 0 11 tlte ('lll·th and n ncn ti DU of c ndrn11 tm c nt urot>C.
3. ~i 1ti11g b y the fuuntuiu h e su n g f or tlt c pussc nd.1y.
•1. Awaitin g tl1 c blow lw 8t.,od culn1 but ~ i:c ct.u11t .
5. !laving ubandoue<l our vi ct:S l e t us try tD llt;•LUirc virtues.

EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION AND CA PJTAU:i. 2-!J
3. The question n o w ari ses shall the vote r be rcqnirf'<l to rend l1i:1
own l>ullot.
4. It liu:; lo ng been n mutte r of inte rest wh e tli e r nil m en ca n U S!
1111 e lan g uage.
G. It has been divin e ly d eclared "Man t:il1all no t li\'o l1y bread
u J,rn.,."

Uulc X.
1. E n;t h nnd sky pl a nt and anim a l lcnf ancl bl ossom alike are
full o f \\' Olldt' rt!.
2. l're:-iar and Nupo!C'on V i q~il an•l Milton Ci ce ro nnd Burke prove
clc urlv tlmt mun i:; nni111Ut<'tl by 1! 11~ Salli e n~pirati o n s and posset:ises
ubonl.. t h e t'a111 e p L> w c rs in e vl' ry ng l' of tl1 c world.
• a. The <lyiug man curt R 11ot for hnu:scH or lands gul<l or Louds
offi ce:i o r h o nors.
4. Virtue without industry and idleness without vice are impot:1·
sil.>ilities .

Hulc XI.
1. 81·mira111i s built 13nl>ylon ; Didn C11rthngc ; and Romulus
Hom«.
~ . Truth hl' lon gs to th e man ; erro r to h is 11 gl' .
3. l11 d u ,;try brin g:-; wealtlt un<l h o nor : ind ot .. n cc poverty und dis
graen.
.
~. Tli 1: <lrt« •k s \\' ere g n ·a t 1\rtit1 t::1; th e I1"111an,; g-rent <' Xf'C utlves.
5. OIJ m e11 ure s la\"e!:I to othe re ; yo ung me n .tu th emticlves.

Hu le XI I.
Fnthcr y o u 1l ef« ~ rn~ my d t·e p Pst g r ntitudc.
You and l J 11hn were lt a ppy in our old h om e.
It was th t•n goo1l fr ie ndr:J thnt your 1tssis tance wus moRt needed
1 ri sf' l\I r. Pre l'li<le nt t o s t.a ! fl a p oint of ord er.
5. This O Ki11g is my only plcn fur m e rcy.

1.
2.
;;,
4.

U.ule XIV.
1. The distance fro m the earth to th e moon ii; said to l>c about
240000 llli ks.
2. The l1ighes t m o untain in tl1e m con is said tu be 17138 fee t
liig h.
3 . Th e surfoce of tli e earth co ntain s 148.51 2000 niiks.
4. In th e y ear 187G th e firs t nu1io nal cente nnial wll.ll cel ebrated .
5. The sun is e ight hundred and e ighty-three th o udll.nd two hun .
<l red aml ten miles i11 diameter.

2. Use the Semi-Colon wherever it is required in lh c
followin g sentences, n.ccor<ling to the rules stated on pages

lOH, 111.
l~ule

I.

1 The stonn ha s passed tl1n clouus nrc d e parting th e sun shin e
will soo n bri g likn th e sce n e th e laborers n ·:;anw t h e ir toils .
2 . The tru e orator has pe rfect commnml of l1imself hu il'I 1~ 111ati t t· r
of hi s th ern e h e rul es liis audiencti. 110 l1 o!Lis tl1«111 by t he power of
his thought . he warns th e m by the e motio11 11 of Ii is h eart.
8. \\'c pny n o liomage nt tl1 e tomb o f ldngl'l to f'11hl im c our fr1• l.
inKs'.wc trace no line of illustrious ance:;tors to s 11pport o ur <li ~ n ity
\\' C recur to no usuge:;, BU.llCtioned by the authority of tJi e gn:at , to
pro tract our rej oicing.

Rule II.
H,ulc XIII.

t.,

1. The ..Id proYe rh is All is not gnl<l thnt g litte rs.
2 . l'utrick l1"11ry lwg n11 a fa1110u11 oral ion by :;11ying "It is natural
man t" indulge i11 the illu t:i ious of hop..~."

1. That darkne8<3 of characte r, wh e re w e C/\n Sl'tl no h r.art those
foldings of art, throu g h wld ch no native affection i:i allowed to
r e nntrate: pre:w nt nn o bj<'c t, unamiuble in every seaBm uf lili.l, but
parti cularly odious in youth .

......
...
"lllll!I_
......
.. . ......--··-~------ -

-

Tllb' HLHJ!b'.NT:i OF lUIETORIO.
2. The creation of a tliousnn<I forests is in ono o.corn und Egypt,
O recce , l{om e , <.1aul, Brita in, Ameri ca li e folu cJ already in the first
lllllll.

::l. The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood, a
p e rpl e xing maze.
4 . Tl1 e gold e n rul e is a prot<·~t agains t sv lfis1uwss, and s el fishn esf! ·
d 1·a\'ing m l it J1>es to the i111110,; t corn of our l>1;ing , is tltc l.Jcset,ti11i;
si11 of 1 h t• world.
:,. E\'cry thing tlu,t h ap1wns is b oth a r·nnse and an effcd being
tl ie efI..:ct of what goes l>e fort', nnd the cause of wl1m, follows.

Itule 11 I.
1. i\l1>tie:lty is one of th e cl1i c f o rnnnwnts of youth ,and bas evor
he1·n est1·em e1I a prcsngc of ri::ting m e rit.
2. Men must have recreation 1wt! litPruturc nnd art furniRli that
wliidt i::1 mos t pnrn, innocent and refi ning.
;). The vioicnt spirit., like trouul ed waterA, rc11dcrs bo.cJc ~110
i r11age::1 of things distorted anu broken anJ communicates to thtm1
all tliut disord e red m otion whic h arb;es solely from its own agitulion.
4. E ndl ess existence is o. g re11t truth Lut 0.11 iu11110rtality of puro
ntiei;tion anu holy c mpl1 1ymc11ts b fur greater.

J::X8IWl8h."S JN I'UNCTUA'l'JOJ.\ ANJJ CAPITALS 24:5
thou h!Uit i;tudied to little purpose, atld the fountni11s of a true hap ·
pi111·ss arc yet sealed up to thtw.
2. That l>cne vol e uce whi cl i prornpted J e,; us to incl'sso.nt e x e rti on
wliicl1 s u1•ported him through unparall eled :rnffe ring whidt wns 1dike
tli c M1> ul of his dii:u.:011r:;e:;, l1is actions, and l1i:; rnirucl1 ·S wliidt t>hr. 11 1,
throu~h his life und his d eath who8c tiJ •lt11uurs were urou11<l Iii,;
brow when he expired Oil th e cross, u1HI wl1 e1 1 li e :;at dowu Oil lli _:
right ho.nd of the Majesty 0 11 11i g h, what is it but u gluriou:; re veJa. .
tion of th e glorious truth tliat Uu<l is love '!
,· a. J\o matter in what lang uag e his doom may ha,·e Lrn·n pro ·
11011nced. w> matter what complexion iucomputiblc with freedo111 an
I11dian or an African imn may have burn ed upon liim, no matt• ·r
with wlmt solemnities ltt~ may have lJl't'n d e \·o tf'.d on th e altar of
slavery th e 1110111c nt h e touches the sacri:d soil of Britain, tl1e altar
and the ~od si11k together in the dust, hii; son! walk R n.Lrrnul in her
own maj uRty, his body swcllt:1 beyond the chuius that liur :;t fr.,m
o.ro u11d hi111, and he s tands redeemed, rege ncrnted, and discnthralled
Ly the irre::1istiul e geuiui:1 of Un i versul Emancipatio n.

3. Use the Colon wherever it is req uired iu the follow-

ing sentences, according to the rules on pages 111,

11~~.

ltulc I.

Rule IV.
1. Tln~ ;·a rts of Orum mar arc four .Orthography Etymology, Syn.
tax, an(! Prm;ody.
2 . Poe try is usua lly divid ed into four kincls.Epic, Lyric Dramatic
au<l Dit!nt't.ic.
3. 'l'lu·n ~ w e r1• thrN' FntPs C'lo tl10, LachesiR, und Atropos .
1. \Vh n t .. l\· m c ntionH tl1rPn npNal.ions of the miud in logical
procl'Rl"Cli . Sim.pie o.ppr<>hcn sion, J u<l g me nt, o.nd Reasoning.
5. There arc three nobl e virtues .fuith, hope, o.nd charity.

1. Tlte three great l'ne 111i es to tranquillity arc vice. sup<' rs titi n n
n11d idl enes;i vicl', whi ch poisons and disturl.Js the rnind with l>a·l
passions; supcrntition . which fills it with imaginary t e rror:;; idl ,:1wss, wliicli loads it with t1)diommess and di sg- 11«t.
2 . E\' ery oue 11111st ,of COUl°R(•, tlii11k 11i R OWll opinion;; ri g l1t : for . if
lw t.hought them wroug, thPy would no long( ' r l>e Iii;; opinion ;; hut
there is u wid e diffcrc 11co between regurdi11g onr;;clvci; as infollil.>l c,
uud uei ug firmly convinceu of the truth of our creed.

Huie II.
Rule V.
-"
(

.

1. If thou hast never tasted th e holy peace which descends into
th t' i;impl es t l1 eo.rt, when it fervently realizes th e presence of God
if no g leam from tl1e future life ever bri g htens the earthly way if
the so res nm! irritations 11{ thy cu ntact with the world are never
snothrrl o.11d Rnften cd by tl1 e healing conciousness of a divine love

1. Birth and death have an indissoluble correlation th ey presup pose each other.
2 . There is true eloquence, which yon cannot too mu ch honor it
calls into vigorous exercise both the unde rstanding aud the h eart of
th e hearer.
3. The s ile nce of natnrl.' is more im1nessi v<', would we und erstnnd
it, than any speech could LP- it exp resses what no Hp1-ed1 cnn utte r.

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~4G

- - --

'l'llE HLEJfEN'l'fi OJI' Rl1/1:TORJO.

- · ~- -

HXEIWISEf:i IN PUNC1'UA1'10N AND 0APl1'.1Lo. 247

4. Satire should not be like a saw, but n sword it should cut, and
not mangle.

ltulc III.
1. The Su mnites :mid to th e Homans "Th ere shall be no peace in
Iuily, till the forest be rooted up in whi ch the Roman wolves have

Ruic II.
1. C L Banks, l\ID, Alhany, N Y
2. Hev J L Mason, DD, LLD, Boston, Mll.88
8 . \ Vrn P Thon1pson, E sq, liichmond, Va
4. lion Jon S Dow, LLD, St Louis, Mo
5. .Mess rs Sheldon & Co, No. 8 Murray St

m 1Hl c tlw1111:H!lves u covert.''
:3. \\"lwn liis urchit1·ct olfl'rn<l to llllild him a house in which he

could 1:1 crc c1 1 all hi:; nct1:1 from h is ncigli liors. Drus us said "Build me
rath er a dwelling whe rein all my co un trym en may witness all I do."
3. Me rh·al c suys "1\I. Aurelius wus nrnong th e most virtuous of
men. but th erc wus an inh e ren t wPuk n c><s in his character, of which
sume traces uppi·nr in hi s writi11 gR, I.Jut which were munife!!te<l.
more plainly to his countrynll'n iu the inclul~e nce with which he
overlooked the vices of hiR empress, and allowed hilllllelf to nominate
a worthl ess son as his successor."

Rule IV.
[See Rule III. for th e perio<l.J

'\,

Huie Ill.
1.

2.

TUE

TUE SC IEN CE OF

LIFE AND GROWTH

..tE ~'l'l IE'l'lCS

OF

LANGUAGE
An Outline of Lin gui s tic Science

OR
TlIE N .\Tl; ItE Kll'\D!:! LAW !:!
AND u,.:1:.:1:1 OF

BEA U TY

BY
WK Dw10nT WmTNl!:Y

Pror~~8or or

San >!<: rit
Culle;;c.

4. U i;e the Period in the followin g se n te nces, wherever

PhD

I~ Yul~

BY
H EN HY

N DAY

Autho r of Log ic A r t of ll i."cou rMc etc

required, Hcco rding to the mies on pages 113, 114.
New York

Itulc I.
1. At the time wh en Johnson con1ru cnced his literary career, a
writer hud littlu to ho pe from tli c putronug-c of powerful individuals,
Th e pntronnge of th u puulic di<l not yt t furnish the means of comfortnule s ub1:1iste n ce Tho prices µaid IJy bouksellcrs were so low that
a mun of considt>rable tal e nts and unremitting industry could do
little m ore than provide for th P. day which was passing over him
The Jean kin e had eaten up the fat kine
,
2. In th e ag p, of 0~1r g reat rhetoricians, it is r emarkable that the
Eu~lish hmg nage had n c vl'r been made uu object of conscious atten·
tion No mun seems to have refl ected that there was a wrong and a
ri ght in the choie-0 of words, in the med11U1ism of sentences, or even
in the grammar

D

Appu: T ON

&

181.~

~ew

C0¥1'.l.NY

H11ve11 Co 1111

Cn.1.RL&~ C C' u AT Flt:Ln & Co
J;j'; J

SECTION II.
THE RHETORICAL POINTS.
1. U so the Mark of Interrogation w he rev er it 1s rel! uircd in tho follow i ug sou tences, accordiug to the rules
on page's 114, 115.

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--~----...--------- -

-

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I

:1 I

i

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nn·

J-;J,f<,',)fL~'N'f':i ()Ji' BlllffORIU.

·
\
1 ~ I nsk whnt is
1. Tuk in o- trp th e :,;11 l1Je<'t upon J:!e ne ra ,grou111 . '
I
l
"1
. l l' ·t \\hut is n l'oL t To whom dm·s I C U( nl ('<l Ot Ly t I C \\ O f<
\)(
.
•.
h' I
.1
l·
11· Ai1 · • whut J.in g tw110 e i:; to lie expec t ed !tom 1m .
ur<·ss 1urn;e
u
·
·
h' }
•
.
•
9 Do you think n u tliin g uf Ll1 e ruin n11d th e 1111 ~e nes .lU ~ 1c l ~o
"'·
1
· 1·,.· (1Lt'll" s t ill re rnnini11 g i11 Africa, arc 111vo1ved, m
,11 ,1nv ot 1c r 101 1 1 < ·- ·
•
•
D
• .
f .. i·ning off so ninny 1uyrn1 ll::l o l p eo pl e .
o yn11
\' Pll H ''I ueu ce o
ca .
.
.
. I
.
..
· k
l ·
1· ti 1e ·11- f'•imili <'s wh1cl1 ar<: left lwlirnd of t 1e c1111r11.c'
l l 1111 J\Ol llll g 0
j '
·
l · l r . "i·<>l{"~ ll o. f tlH'• fricn11ship~. ntt11.ch111 r nt s , and re ati o11 11m1:; w 11 c 1 a e u
1
s hips tl1at a rc Lur::it n::- und e r.
.
t t1.
a. \\'hic h iH to lie olic·y1 ·d , nppel it e 0 1' r r il rct1 on " Cnn~o us
qn<'s ti o u h n answ e re d from 1.iw 1·co 1wlll)' nnd c1 m :oi t,1 tutwn of hu_rnnn
n<lturc ni e rely, witho ut sayii.ig whid1 i:; s tru11 g l's t Ur need this at
.
l
11 11 co m e into cous iu e rat1 011 .

2. U::;e th e Exclamation Point 'vh crcYcr it i:; rcqnireu
in the foll o wing sentenc es, ac:co nlin g lo the rules on pagl's

11i>, 11().
,
· ·cu nwny out of th eir
1. Thiuk o f " i!!hty tho u :;anu pe rso ns cu1n
.
.
cou nt ry liy what w e kn o w n ot wliat 111(•1111 s fo r cnmes 1111put:cd for
·
· ·
'd
\Jle f iinlt H fo r 11el•t pNlinps for th e cmne of
·~
,
li ·' li t o r 1u co n ti1 l' ra
': l
ft or n t hou s•·111 d ot h er w t•n k und scnudrd ous pre tex ts.
WILC 1c ru
•.<
b .1
2. \.Vhat an obj e<;t of wond1!r uud nw e is un olJ. castle to a oy_1s :
·
·
·
It l : r\ 1 h o w dreadful up to whose m o uld e rrn~
llUlt " llllll!Oll
ti l tg 1 •
I
I \'{l t
· uir~ I i 8 fc nr carri cH him , 1111 .J han i;8 o\'c r tl1c l1att e rn e nts_,
in
e o' . I
11 II . . ti t cn«t ll un g·htncss
Ul'tlllty in th ose um1ppro ncl111ul c wn - O''ers , ia
· ·
. ,.
l
o n th e old bro wn s to 11 e 8 o f th e e diti c1', ul\(l mnk c_ tli e h orror plcasmg .
a. Al n:; .' voor c reature I \\'ill 1:>11011 rC\' Cll!;f' tlllt! cruelty upon tli c

8

uu t hor ol It
·
' n ii i(• l 1ook of t im e Snrmatia fe 11 , un·I. Oh', bl ond il's t \'1 d11 n· 1
w " pt. w ith o u t a c ri1111· .
G. 011 ynu ure w1 i11111k<l 111)' lo nl
u.
l' ro vid l·t1t'l' ho w 1111111 y poo r inscct t! of thin e are exposed to Le
0
trodd e n to d ea t h in •·nch 11nth.

. . th e Dash "lH:rc\·crit isre1p1ircd in the follow 3• U sC
in cr sen ten ces, acco rdin g to the rules on pagc-s 116-118.
,.,

1. M v lo rd:<. I di d n ot int e ncl to e n croa ch so 1~1uch upon .your
·
· 1·
r ou 1 tet.:1 m ,vself · comntt l' nt io n : bu t I cn nn ot n·preti8 my lD( 1gna 1

pelled t•> i; peak .

f{ Xft'IW JSHS JN l'VNCTUATION ANLJ (),,tP11'ALl:3.

~! -l: !J

:.!. If<> Haw in her the pi c ture of nll wh o talked nl>o nt re ligi on
k1ww he tter.
:~ . If th ou art h e , s o mu ch respe<.:ted once liut, oh , how fall1·n !
4 Approaching th e h ead of the l:e<l, where 111y poo r young e<>m rnnion, with throat un co ver ed, was lying, with mu: lrn11d th e m o 11
t> t• ·r gmtiped his knife , nnd wi th th e otl1<:r uh, co ut1 i11 ! witl1 th 11
utli e r 11e seized u l1am !
5. Shakespeare is above all othe r writ e rs. at leas t u\Jove all
mod e rn write rH, th e p oe t o f nat ure tlt e poet that !tol<ls up to hi s
reuc~ e rs a faitltful mirror of manne rs and life.
G. Uf g e nius t l1at whicli cons titu tes a. poet; that quality witl1 o ut
whi ch judg m e nt i ~ co ld, and knowledge is ine rt; tlmt e ne rf!y wlii<" lt
coll ecti:<, comliine8. amplifies, and animates t h t, s upe ri o rity must ,
with som e h esitation , be ull ow l'd to Dryd e n.
7. J L'SllH , who !me w it w e ll, assures y o u th a t n xi11 g le g rnin, a nd
n g rain us s mall ns a n1us tnnl -seed, would r<' t11<1\' C a 111ou11tain l'<'m o ve a mountnin -lond of guilt from tli e co nscit' n ce n m o nnt ai n -load
of troubl e from th e mind, a. mountain-loud from th e h eart.
tl. If y o u choose to r<~ pre se nt th e vario us parts in life Ly lioh ·s
u pon a tabl a, o f d iffere nt shapes some circulnr, som e trian g ular, m in e
sq111trn, som e olJlong and the p e rso ns acting these parts by bi b of
wood pf s imilar shapes, w e s hall generally find th1tt th e t ria11 g u ln r
person lias gu t into the squnre liol c , the oblong into th e tria ng u la r,
urnl a 8<JUarc pe rson bas squ eezed hiru self into a round h ole.
!) _ Ind 1•crl, all th e poets of the age nnd non e can dis pu te thnt tli e_y
must lik e wise be the b est critics have g ive n up to liim [\Vo rd s wo rth]
the p11l111 in that. poe try whi ch commences with the form R, and li ..l('s,
and 1.do rs. a nd Ro nrnl;; o f th <> nrnt.(' l'ial wo rld.
10. 111 ti uc h a s tut •• of thin g-s it i8 e vident thut a pard on wlii cl1 di1l
not liri ng back tlie w 1uH1"rt; r. and reti tore his los t g rn vi ta ti on, ''"111 ld
h· of 110 11 110 to ltirn. until his grnvituti o n i,; reco n :red, li e i ~ 11 blot
011 th o croutiou .

4. U se Marks of Parenthesis in the following sentences
wherever they are required Ly the rule on page 119.
1. Now w e know tl1 e lang uage that tli e Ye ry lc:nn ed pn rt of thi s
nuti nn must trust t o live hy , funless it. be to mak tt a bo1JCJ or pr<' scriue a purge whi ch possil1ly rn ny not oblige or work so we ll in any
otl1 c r In ng"u:t g(' as Ln 1i n) i;; t.111 · En g l iRh .

I

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250

1'llb' ELEJil1,'N1':i OP' llllHTOlllG.

Blount 11nd Fitz-Enstnco rested still
\Vi th L1Hly < 'larc upon tlw hiil;
On which for far the <lay wus spent
The west<'rn t1unoearns n o w w e re bent.
3. Th e re nevt'r live d n m:111, lie said, to whom the lints of Marcus
A11toni118 Flurninius the t1we.! tCSt of al l Latiu poett1 in modern timt>8,
or p1·rl1apt1 of any a ge could more truly b · appli ed. •
4. Feltlinm's "Hcsolns" "rcsoln\" iu tli c se nse of sol ution ol
n 1;rnhkm. pu l;lish ed in 1637, is 1.1 work of th e same kind.
5. Th· beauty of th e langunge , tho easy a11<l urtl ess graces of tho
Hty!t>, th e lucidity of tho reHi;nning, the foirnf'RS shown to the other
s id e fur B1·rk1•ly ul ways I n ·ats his opporwnts like IL gentleman and
g-ives tl1c111 credit for since rity, not with supercilious and censorious
nrrogancn. lik e such writers ns Bishop Warburton, are among its
many excell ences.

2.

b'_Y.J!,'JU./!SF:S IN l'UNCTU . ITION .IND C.·lf'ITALS. ;!:iI
. I wil! tak e that ~ilice ~n my8ei f, 1:w.iu tbe captuin; pass a ligi 11
Jnto th•' w1·alli l' r n1a1n .cJ1atns.

Stand by your brae<.,'8 l excl aim ed the pilot with startling qui ck .
ness. H1·a ve a wny that knd J

5. Clia1111ing writt>A 1ui follows on th e fre<'<lorn of th e 111 i 11 d .
f call tlwt 111iud free, which rei;il:!LB tJ1e lxmdagc uf linbit, wl.i1·!1
does.. nut m1~chani cal.ly re peat itself ancl copy th e ras t , wJ, i,·1 1 J '"";
11 , ·e 011 11s 11 l<l v1n11e,., whic h ddel:! not e nslave its1· lf te1 f'rt.·1·i sd
Ho t
rule~, but wllll:h forgets what is behind, list;; u:o1 for w·w uml liiglwr
mou1t1011 s of con:ic1 c n cf', and r ejuiccs to p o ur itself forth in fre;;;li au<l
l11 _!.d11•r ('X<'rtions.
l cul I. that mind free, wldch is jealous of its own frPcdorn, which
g-11ard:;
in otlil'rop, \\·111· ..v 11 giiut"ui;
' 1Lt1
· erut>ire
. tf~wl! Jrnm IH'in 0i r meri't.:d
,..,
over Itself a1:1 1101.Jler than the empire of tl1e world.

5. U so Marks of Quotation in tho following examples
wh erever they arc rcc1uiretl, accor<liug to the rul es 0 11
pages 120, 121.
1. Retiring to her mausole um, where lay the body o f Antonius,
sh<· [Cll'opatraj crowned his tomb with flowers, und was found the
next 111nmi11g dead on lier couch, her two women expiring nt her
si<lt'. 18 this. well 'I exclaim ed tl1e nffrighted emissary of Octnvius.
It is well, rcpli1".d the dying Cliannion, and worthy of the daughter
of kin g :-i.
2. \\' 111·11 he was approucl1ing his death, so run'.:! the story, Tiberius c xcl11inwd: After m\· df'nth perish th e world in fire I
4 . ln dl'scrihing th o \;ni; t influe nce of a pl'rfcct omtor over the
f1 •e li11 ~" 1u11l pnHsionH of hiH a11dirn c1 " Sl1crid1111 furciuly says: Notwith st11 111li11g- the diversity of 111ind8 in i:;uch a multitude, by the
lig-ht11in g o f eloquence they a re melted into one mass; the whole
a~mblv ' uctunted in one uncl tlic tlllille wny , l1ecome, as it were, ·
hut one ·,;1an, and hnvo but one voice. The unive rsal cry is, Let us
march against Philip: let us fight for our liberties: l et us conquer
or die I
4 . Now is the time to watch her clotiely, Mr. Griffith, he cried;
here w o get the tru e fol<· and the real danger. Place the best quartermaste r of your ship in those chains, and let an officer stand by
him, and see that he g ive us the right water.

SECTIOH III.
CAPITAL

LETTERS.

Use CAPITAL LETTER8 in the following excrci~cs
wherever they arc required, according to the rule,; un
pages 124-128.

m\.

L
rcvc•rence _a nd nffi'ction for l1im w11re in full glow. i saiil
to.111111, 111y dear sir, we mu st m ee t every Y•'Jr, if you <lou ·t, uarrl'l
with me."
l

~. li u n:;k1·d m e plainly , will you 1:1luy wl 11 ·ru you are or go witli

us ·1

il. tho morning broke. light sto~o upon tlw clou,ls with a s trniwB
ll(•auty. earth .received again its gamieut of a thousan <l <lyt.:H ; a~ i
l e~ ves, and delicate blossoms, an<l tht> painted flowurs, and ,.,. , .,.,.
tlimg- that lien<lcth to the dew, and stirreth to th11 daylight, J i f•1·~l
up its 11oauty tot.he hrcuth of that sw1·e.t morn.
4. Among the writings of J o hn Stuart .Mill, tlicie j,; none th r.t
<le:icr~•·s 111or~ attention tl1nu Id s ·• :-;ysrem of logic."
5. fhe sc rr ptures sho uld be hcltl in reverence for what they aru
and for what they havu done.

:.
l·

TIIE ELEMENT::J Ob' RlfETORJC.
6 . 'fhc fatal rC'Htilt wns prcventt•<l, through providence.
7 . lt b d1eeriu g tu t,_.jling di,;co11~olnte humanity to know amid
the labon:11uul ::;•irrows of lift~ thnt lle \\"Ito rules in ull parts of il1e
unh·.. rse, and \\"ho for c k11tJ1n1 th e i:ssu,.s of nil tim e, has called hi111edf 011 r h c an·nly futlicr.
H. The llindoo regards hi :-; Mhn,-tt·r with a 1·<Tuliar r evere nce.
I) . Th u Oruck8 were uccustomcJ t" cu ll tlll'tllsc)ves !1.eltenes ond
their country !t cltas, from lldlcn , so 11 of D1•unilion.
10. The north and tho 8outh, tho cnst und tlie w os t, have th eir
fif"J1 fl r rttP intPrPst~.

1 l. The De troit

rh·er connects lul; c Huron with lake Erie.
12. Th e clirist inn reli gion lms mndc slow progress in mohummedan co1111 t ri<'s.
13. The cu ngrrguti .. nulii=<ts differ from the Ppiscopulinus in their
vi e w s of government.
1-1. lit ~ vhit•·ll my lwuse 011 ,:at unlay, tli e 18th of may.
l:» . •\II l1i ::1 family tl1ut n·nwin e d in En g-la nd. w 1.:r<' allowed nccest1
to liilll .
It consist•·<l on ly of t.ltn princt ·~A e liznbeth und the duke of
gl1ll1t"t'ster, fur tlic· duk e ()f york had lll~t<l t: lti:3 escape. GlcHlc.:sLcr
w as Jiu! ,· rnor,• tl1un u11 int'nut; the pri11Cl'S:', notwithstanding h er
tend ,•r yenn~ . ::;lt1>w ud un ud\'unced jwlg11w11t; 1111d the calumitiei; u(
li e r fu 111 ily l1 ad n.1:1d1! u d1 •Pp imprcss i011 up o n lwr. Aft.Pr many
pirn1s Clln:-Olatirn1 H an<l ad\·i ccr•, the King gaYc li e r in chargP to tell
til• · l£1l •'t' ll, thnt , during tiw wh ol1~ cnttrR•: of hi,.; life he lmd never
O IH 't ', , . , .t) ll in t!to11g-ht, fail ed in hi ,; fi;] pJity toward her.
l ii . Thu c "w;til uti.,11 uf the 11llit.nl l"l.ul<::; i!l wonl1y of (',ftl'eful
1;tud y hy «V(' ry anit~ri nrn youth .
17. T hn 11lizalicthn11 a~e producPd Shukf'Aj>etH\', SpR11Rer, Riclnny,
Bncon and Halt•iglt.
18. Tht, umericnn revolntion wm; un in1p11rl.ant t'\'Cnt in the hi.iltnry of t lil' world.
l !!. 1'111) i1111liility of tnl'I'" 1r·nrnin g- tn rnakl' nwn wise, is well
il111st.rntcd in tl.ic lo ng uncl bitter contron:rf\y of the nominulists anti
realists.
20. Among the prominent liti;rary men of th e century, the nobility
~an cln im lord Byron, lord Derby, lonl Disraeli, lord Russell, and
rnttny otliers .

[Tho,:n <lef'irin ~ n mnn' rxtPn<lPrl ..-onrRc i n Pundnation and th!l
nf Capital,;, will fiuJ \r\'il><on'~ " Trou.ti:;e 011 l'uuctuatiuu" uu
1' t ·Ii~ ·11 1 ;- ~· 11 i d1· l

U&J
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AND

GLOSSARY.

NOTJ<:.- The Index an<l tl1e CilnRsnrv :ire gi>e n
•
undl'r <•lit' ul1• l1,t 1\ll t 11ll'l<.:u I t 11ord
}1 I
"l
11 \ e t 11· pron un .
w :<i;.;riR •·rn 1.Joy, ·d nrc t I
}'ru11ouncing dictionarit'S
Tl ,
.
· Ju:-<" gl'11t·rull.1 u:-<ed ill
·
ie 11u111b,·r.,; refer t.o puge,.; .

l>t"t ' for
. fuc1·11·t
. yo f re f •·rent"<'
•
·
<'Hlt ion ninrkPd
Tl
. · •

Abbott E A A. t 1
.
/ Adverbs, distingni.~ht·d frn11 1 :id'"
,fJllOP•,52,i'i3.s.5 . j ccti···
,..!
..
1
·1
Abbrevia'tious hrrn·
.• '
;
1'"" 111"1' .. r, .-,.);
' "'· ·-'
poJ.itec1, 1
wl1e11 t"llljiliat ;" ·,1,·
"
.
'
11·>: 1n pnc tn-, lfl!)
'
.
· · ·
Ab .. ,d
.
.
'Adverbial cfa.uses
rl g inent, a lllt'flllS .,f nnia- , :;1;; tkli111.·d ',-,,;·
1'"~ 1 1 1 .. 11 uf,
t lo n

'I' I

'

Ab
' ... h
lEsthetic emotions "l ""'til n'
rupt C angea l1ow 1,oi 11 1, .. 1,
1·"Ill:-< ll 1' " l It. J .J;:J.
1 111
'
Ab ..I
Aggravate, th o l\'t1rd ex1.Jai1ll'd.
so ntc construction HN
il:).
Abunda11cc, lilt' \\ord •·x1'.1 ~111~; .• 1 Ak
'
. . enside, r..t .. rr1·d 1.. , 1:;'1. I~!"
-..o.
Ad
Accents. kinds <•f, 1:21 .
: J is Manutl11s, f 111n 11i'1 ,,J.;,_
11 ~ ). llll i111·1·ntr1r ,,f J'<>ill rs Iii-I
A k
,
c now ledge. tlie word PX Al.
,
.
pl11i1 •• ·.i. an.
/ /.J~~!I, ri lllllt·J. rn;; n·f··rr· ·d to,
A cts nm t 1i., pri iwi pal di l'i><ioi_is ~ Allegory, t"q>ln i llt'<l, ~-1.
<>( a drii1na, i11 IY!iidi
a certt1111 Allow tht• wor 1
l .
1 :::i.
definite r1an of tl1e
.
.
.
.
' l'XJ> llln<'<,
nrtwn
Is
Allusion fallu ' -zl1 11n] . .
comp letet!.
•
·
,,., a p:i s.~ Added clauses, 1 ..
ing- r.. ft·n·iwP t 11 sr1111 .. 1lii11g s1 11 ,
1",
1
1•ointr·d ' ! l IOS\'l It O IIt' I(ll()\\'fl , lllld rt•li·r-r,.cJ
110.
1
" fur ' lit! " 1k 1· of ill11strnt.i11 11
Addison, f<lyj,.
. '
,. •
of. ;!.j , !11 .... ; Alphabet, plio111 :ti c ><clw111l' ,·,f,
rl 1.V ti im, h!I: par. fn11n, 7fi
lj ,"i
Ad jecti vea 1 1
•
1 . 1·
•
'
"'. " ' :>O · " 11J >t' rA1nato1y,
. · ·
la t11·1· in "'"ll ' •' :· .ii
I" rt11111111g to lu1·,., a ;;
Ad ·
'
:t 11111 ton· 1•cu·f ry
Jllllct, li b <: of, ;11..i; tfdiiwJ c1 ~; A
. · .
· ·
. ' . ' n1enca1usnu; arc f<H!l1 s of i· x·
A

prcssion peculiar to the Luit1 ·d

A11LlJaccl1i'us.

,\ fuot 11! tl1re• '
i-;yllal>l•'-"· tlH~ fifoL L\\'O long,
t 111 · tiii 1·J ;-;]wrt; 1~~. -- - - ~ .

A m p h i<\' mbiis. '.201.
Amplific:i. "tion i,; rlw J>rOI"•'"" uf A11ti-clim'ax, UO.
1_·1ilarg:ng, or g1Yi11g t.lie detail~ Antimeti'lJolc iH n form .,f
1111titllf'si,; in which tl1u onlo-r
in a cornpoRltinn.
Amphi'macer. ,\ foot. of thn·e i of wonltl is l'l:1·ernl·d.
;c y JJrthl<-:;
t],,-. 1ir"i n nd ln ,-t Anti'strophe iH w·w<l in 1l1n";
,-r•nfl<'R: (ll the n:pditiun uf
lnng-, the micltllt- !':,. ,rt.
11>',
11"•1rd:i in :ell irr l'cr::;n order;
An<t:;oetJiS 'sis i~ !I fo rm of ! (~l the turning- of nn oppo-

ll<'ll t ',; plt'll again~L l1i1n . (:l)
"l '"''clt i11 whi c h n l-'J> C' llk<·r l"()lltll\' n·~pon s r•. ti\ tl1P ~troplw in
fi,lt,?1tl_1· H]'}ll'<,],; !11 l1i>< <>J >]'<l ·
Lli0 aHcie11 t cliiJ ruS.
nen lt:! for the ir opinion.
Anac olu'thon i" u f'IH1clt-n Anti'thesis, use of, ()(); examcl1an .::•~ in tlw con,..truction of
pJc, of in a p1trngr11plt, 73, cx1t "e11t.. nc...
pllrnatiou of. t\U.
AnadipliS'sis cn11,..i~1,..nf1lwn·p · Antonomasia, [mii'ziul is tl10
11 :->t ~ of ~1>1ne JJallH'., as of 11n
1•: it111n
of tllt' ln"t word o( 11
o111 cc:, honor, or l'rofeHH i011, for
'."'~""'ntt~Jtt'_t~ ur clutl:::ie at tht: 1)c;!,! i!1t I»• 1•rn1wr m1111u of a per:-mn :
11ing of tl1e 1a.: xt : u ~. · · 11('.
n>',
" The pliilospher ," 11wa11ing
l;w,-_-d tlit' .•f.11f1>, lli P. 11-fate for l
:-;,,C fll(t'>-1: or, t:Oll\"Cl'Scly. th e
\\'liicii lw h:1 d "nnili1-.·d ,,]]
nH 111t• of a di:;tinguisl1nl person
An'a -lep'sis. i" a grnmrnnt ictl
is used for a11otlJer ; a~. "Il e
n•d undaw·y dt•><ig1wd to giv0
i~ a Sulon," mr:a.ning a. wise
•·m1·hn;;is.
la \\·g i \-l·r.
A11aly'tic method, l!l.
Apher'esis, 1.ukes u. letter or
A ' napaist , ~01.
;.;y llahlP from 1.],., hegi11ni11g- of
Ani'istroph5, i8 nn in,·er~ ion of
•• 1n1nl ; as. 'tu:as, for it iclUJ.
th e 1rnlllrnl orde r o[ wonh~;
uR, " H1ilJ.·d tl1t· t! Pep thunder," Apo'cope, takes away n. ldtcr
or Ry ll r1blc from the end of 11
for .
"Tli o
deo·p
thunder '
rolll·,1."
I wort! : ns, yon1.l, for vonder.
Apologue, [i'i'p-o-log.] An np And, misuse of. 75.
Angns. list nf prPpof<itions from, \ u logun is n kind of fable dC'·
i;ignl'd tu cunvey a moral. lt
36.
is g-ennally foun<led on the
An'nals, dt>finition of, llB.
pretl'nded act.ions of cl umb boAnnomin iition is th e samo us
paronom11s ia.
j ings, ns an imuls and trcei;.
Antanacl;'i'sis is lJS('d in tWll Apophasis, ra-p6fn-Ris] is t.he
0111i:;sio11 of 1Yliat, one would
SP!l8!'~: 11 l tlw samn UR pu11 :
i11~i11uale a:i import.aut, u.ud ycL
(~) t11 ol1~·1ole a r•·-petition after
refuses to state in full.
a pareuthet.irol cxprcllt!ion.

I

o i"

"l'•·1·•·l 1 i11

\\ l1i1·li (lilt ' 11111f1·1"';-"'(':--I

tu l w at a

Apu'Jlil

I>' a

(1 1rm

r

""""liu><.

'""-' · :--;, .,. I .id· I' '.'( I l '!
l'q>ob 10 ~
,,c ' sis•- l:-· ~ a . 1.OrJJl ''(lf· · ~ jH' 1· t·J1

Baccln'us.

"r

Lllla[1! 1:

to l'~ !>l'l'S!'i Ji j Jrn;L'l f,_::.:.

ci1arl~:1·:4

tl1 t'

A

t<:.r ·.. r

tl11 ·1·1·

~-' i

Ltl,J ,· ~. I lw tir,;J 1-'Ji.,rt, ;l!id 11 ,..
Mt'l"IJll.f a11d °tJ111·(_j j i1t 1g' .Cl''

111 wl11"li 1ltt • "l~-;1k1·r c111111·s lo
;r -~u dd " 11 lial I. - as it' 1111 wi! I ill•"
a11d

,\J>1 il 1.. ,J i1t lit .. rat 111., .

to co11\' i\'ial s11r11r~

Badinage, I li:~d i11 ;izii I is d i;;
,-.,111-.~" i11 a Ii ;..: lit . 1'ia1·!'1il 1-.·i11
BaiH, li~l .. 1· ,._..... 11) . ...... :--.i,·l d h f 11 1111
;r;-, <jll••lt ·d. Ii I.
Balfour, l I w I' un· l 1111, <I1·:-wril><·d.

('l./Il:->I ructio11

uf liis ~i:11t .. 11 1-. ·. as, .. \\"lJ., 111 l
- l1ut. it i.~ li1·"1 lir~t," 1. 11._
Apo'strophe, 11 1.-. li,t;tl l't', 8,-,.
tlw 11111rk in J'll lil' liwti•HI J·'·• '
!fili.
Apposition, d..fi 1,...J, 101/; ;,:,~. Ballads. !!17.
t1cuhrs i11 , 111.
Ballter
I' lt-asn u 1, 1J u morons
Archai:s1ns aro• nucii ·nt '"' obc:n
j1·l-'ti11g-.
!1·1" fonn,.. ot' "xpr1·,.;si.1n.
1\n Barbarism, W.
11ffliaic forrn j.., 1111 arduiii;n1.
Bartlett, rdnn·d tn, :; o.

rd •. ri·, ., J to,
I H\J.
Aristo'phi'ines, an i111·,.u1or uf

Aq,"l.rn1e n ta ti on ,

I

"

d" "f'•·11t

'"" 111 tli!• H11l>li11w to the
a n<l lil t '< lll.

i ;"i n I ~- } l).j_

A1ist6'tle,

Bascon1, q uot ..d. :2-L
Ba'thos i,; a l udicrou,.;

low

B aumgarten , quotl'd. Hli
'J'l
Beauty, tll!'orie,.; uf. J.j.-, f••rniu.
A rmstro11g,
1CJ111a~. n·f .. rn·d
·
·'
" f .111 l'It•• ra I 111-." 1-17.
1 ... !!Jo.
i Belief. how pn><lur •.,I ! R~ .
.t.unold. Tiin1 11 a,.. , qiwtt'd, 15 _
· Belles-lettres, i li•·l -·J(·t tr] 1 ~ a
Arra11ge1nent, importauce uf,
t1 · n11 \"11,t; 11"lv upplit·d to t·I,· .
Iii, nl!'t!iodsof, rn.
gant literal 1 1 ~, . i11 g1·n.,ral, 1u 1d
Article . 111-'t' of, 47.
Hl1t,!01·i" i 11 i'articiilar.
Ai;y'udctou. Ii -I.
Berkeley, llt ·org•', Htyli· ,,f, :?:I.
As. ll,;1· ,,f tlll' w" rd. :11.i.
Betwixt, 11,..,. of tl1t· word, :2~1.
Andit6'1i11m, ;;i .
I Bcside1>, 11i-;i, of 1l1o· "'"rd.;;,;_
A11thoritles, u 11111 .,,, o!', linw
[ Bio~giapby, dt·fi11it.io11 of, tt i:2.
point.o·d . 118.
'Blan,
l>r. llngl1 ' , 1111 ,tf-d , '"•''' ' i·r.
I'
Antobio'graphy, d..fi 11 itiou Of· II t.14_ 1:\7. n·fnn·d
lo, nfi.
1G2.
: Blieky, lib" of tlw word, :m.
Avow, 11,.;1· of tl1c ,,. 0 rd, :ia.
Bona!lza. ti.' e of the word, :2!l .
! Bonmot, [bf• ng-m<JJ. A with·
rC'ply.
Literally,
a
"goi~I
B.
rdern·d

1'17.

t •>.

J.1_1;,

r

I

\\'11rd .,

t;'Vt>f"

is

iutluenee

riotullH

or

of

11,.,

undo·r I I ...
\\ i11f'-go1l

1

Brace. W' e of, 122.
B1ackets. mw .,f, 122.
Breve, """of, t2a.
i

IND EX AND GLO::JSARY.

25(i

in !!, ns tn !\chapter.

Bdti<;"isms :>:-" fi!rrn>0 nf e '.\pr,-·"
<1. n 1 t; 1·l ·11ii :tr

D 1ongll:un

11)

r1· f t·t-rt ·d

111.

1f1 ;~.

Brown . i\r. 'l'lt<>111 a s. r•·ferr•·d
111, J.lf'•
Brya 11 t. \ \' il Ii:1111 <' :ti:. ·11. q "": 1·d.

Cai et,

Bull. if>u .

Buncombe . j li\1nk-11m l is talk:·d10\\' ,

This use

(•r ~p,·nl.: in .~ tn u

Coleridge [ k·•l -rij J, q 11n tr·d, :!G,
i: ;....; , ; .-) : . : l' ; ., ' 1' f1 ·d l 1 1, l ·l l).
Col l o 'qu1alismc. ::u.
Colo11. r1i\,· .-< J•,1, J 11 .
Comcc1y, J :1 7.

;UI .\ IJH ri1·;1lli~lll

t ·»'

1t :-:t· ' it t 11 1·.

Crttltcl11t:'sis .

.\

11 1 :.~11 ~1'il

111·

:i.ddre~s

Sl;11ulc, l tJ ~J .
Catchwords un: il1e lir,.;t. wonb
of u pug·e, pri11t.1·d l11:low Ll1u

rat.li er than to the

pnrr n:··w._

Burke, 11 uoted , ~lll . 1:1K ; refl.'rre•.l
to. Wi, '7li, 1:3\J, Uii. lU:l.
Bnrlc'squ c, i lt-:<k j. i ;-, .~..
llu1lct'ta. A n up1 · 1:t ! i1· fare{· .
Burns. n·r1·rn 1. l to , l\J7.
Burton, sto ry liy. 51 .
Butle r , '.":rn11wl. r•·f•·fl'•~l t~., 11!8.
Byron , Tl' lt•rred tu. l \Jb .

1 l1t·!

la"t li1w of tlie precl'd ing }'ngc ,
in t li•: ri!.'.l1t lwml conwr of tltn
pagi:.
Tht:y \1 ere fornll'tly
u;;ed iu ulHl ll.it a l l l•ookt<, but
a r" now v1·:·,v s d,lum used .
yedilla, 11:-;" of tl1<', !'.':.'.

i 1 11t1iI1 g t1 1g1·t i11·r, tJf \\· r iling
d i \\· 11 ti11· idcns h 1·lt 1 n~i1 1.~ fq_

c.

F~ 1 · 1l 1t·1 · • \:.:, 1. 11 ( · ,., ,.. ,, . t
~) r ; 1

Ch an ning, \\' I·: , •111o!l'd, 1:21.
Chatham, Lord, quoted, ~ti ; n;

J' Tl;

t\1 ,· n1 i dd\1 • 11!' a \'
C;ilcHiate. 11~f · 111°

1

'1"'-' ' '

t i 11 ·

\\11 rd. :~.-,,

C a1upb 0 11 . Pr. ( ; i ·n rg 1· . q1 111!1·d.

Chaiactcr, 11,,. of t1:1 · \1·o rd , :;-,,
CL01 j ;\ '111bns . :\ too>t ul fo11r
''.lllal•l<'R, tl w tirRf nnd lnFt. l;eing long , the others sh ort; uti,

Ca111pbell, ' l'la••!ll11:<, q11otl·d, ~t):
rckrr,:d to, UJt>.
Cant is thu lll' Cllliar lu11i.;11 1 1 :~ · · of

\':1

Capability ,
C r:lpitaln.
]'!4 .

C:lption

II :< \'

\<illl•

. 1!'[

, }r ; l 1 i~ ll•· 1.
~ i 1 t 1.

.L:"i \· 1·11

:t

ui

Part~

litcran·
il>;

of a,

11; 1.

Coniplete

He 11 teuccs,

Compo11J1d
[,•I', ;-, l .

sc nt cllces .

Co11 c 1cte
l l.'<.

60; m;e

' 1llt'

A ft J11t · ~ 111t.··ii ~tin.i!

:--l 1ort.

r111 •. ,,

•

JdcaH

I)

.:ti.
-~

Collsciousncss , u se of tl1e wor<l.

~

3E:

n i I ii•· \\O ; d . 211. C lc1k. 11 ,.,,. of the ,,·onl, 03.
Cli'max ~-'.I.
( 11· 1 11·~. 1i .--1· ,,, ·
Coiu c idt:!nCc .

;{L

Jt
C o: 1s trne, 11. ;,. <• f' till' w .. r.J, ::.J.
Cu 11st 111 c: t. r: ·... .,r 11 :·· \\'· •1.. 1. ::1
Cu 11 te1u µllul.:, "~" •d 11,.. \\ord,
;{t

! ~) tj

-·-..

....

~

1: ;1;:

,·,·r11al.

1:;1;

t:~it.

(·lr·ri:t 1ir ....

1•r

1::1;; :-< la11dard of. 141
Critique l k ri -t •·· ·k'J. 1:\4 , 11;::.
Crowding . ("Jllltion 11i.;a1nst. till.
C111tius, ;\far1'.11:-<, N'.<•ry .,f , 1.-,.~

D.

f.

Coujuuctives. tabk uf , ~J.
Co!luective words, G-t
Co11scieuce. 11 N•.' •.>f t lJt• 11·ord.

-1

c) f

l11'l\\·1·1·n 1 \\'•1

lnn ,g- O!H'~ ' hS - ·~
C11ti cism. <kfi JJi t i1>11 .. r, 1;:;
f 11Il <' (I< lll Of, J;;.1 ; \' <t J 11t• • >! , j .; ! ,
kin 1l s ut lit4'rar.', J:;.-,, r t·al , i :; i~
l 11g·i 1·al ,

Confc H9i 11 -.. ·· 1d' f i 1•· \\·11 rd. :;~J.

of
of,

sy l la!J l1.·

11 .-1 \\"

Cu11 c l11sio11. l'<i l··,- f.,1·, 1!1.

~J ;-, ,

rn1 :

t1i j>1 11cP nf \\ 1r

1:)1 t lw

c111

Co 11cord . ·) .)

R11ppl•·tnc1't.;i r y, (jtl : kindR
d•·rcmk11t, JUtl; addo:d ,
1 1 , fi llj•jil1 ·nw 11 ta ry, 11:2.
11
i111i• l vi11.l.'. l!JtJfe tluu i~ klL .
Cantos urc tlie ch ief •li ,·bions ! Clearness, importam:c of, f>;J ·,
rn lt'R for, ii 1.
of 1011:: l""'llt,..
a ,_.]Hf-\'4.~ :--;ol1·1nn :111d ~ · 1u P I \' .ant : i

1 t .L!:

<·:!q •r• ·"si11i.; much i11
f't· 11· \Yor<ls: ;1l'l'li1·d tu ::;t-,lc.

Clau se , d 1·fi1wd , 11..J ; ndv,·rhiul.
:~11; : II"" of r1·!:1ti1·1\

1

Co11<;.ise,

-.

rin t ion ,

Cre'tic.

H 11 1itd1"

Cl11011iclc, 1lo- ii 11i1 io 11 ••f. If»~.
C1 ce 10 . Iii,; illt r1Hluc1 iu11R, lS.
Ci1·c 11mloc11'ti o 11. 1;;; ; :L 111f':u1 H
of

~~ , r~' ·

it

L : 11d , ,,f

Chesteifi.eld. l..i11d, rdeneu Lo,

_,. -- -

\\' 1

'-' 1 l!1~tructi n 11.

f1 · rn•d to, fi!}, l!Ji).

-

::-L

1

l ;1

C abl e r; ran) . 11~,~ ol' l hn \\"ord, :;:.! .
Cadenc e, GU.
Qresiiral pause, or <.'resl1ra. A
11nu~e in tl 1P lHiddi f~, nr ru~·ar

Contemptuous, u,;e of tlw ""rd ,

Coutillgcnt, 11~1 · ,,[ tl >1· "' r1 >, ·i :•.
Coutiuutd seHt.:11ces, J,.,,.,.
i 111i11tl'tl, I 11;
Couuna , r<if,. ,. f.,r, 10-1.
Conversation, 111 i1111·11 ti,,1 1, L.'
Comme11c1ZJ.tio11,
u~•· vi' tl11· Co'pula. t:;.
\\ 11 rd, :;~.
Copy, i'l'<'J•:iral1<>n ol. 1:.: :1
C o rnmo11 dependence, cL1use,.; Couutry, .i,.,.,>!i<1 11 1... J:,:.>.
lia1ing. 11 I.
Couple, u ~c of till' 11,rnl. :;.-,.
C o mµa1 ati v e de sree , ;)U.
Cousin jk0<• :r.ii 'nl-'.'J. 'J' l<>i•·•l. 1::!1,
Composition 1l11n11 tlw Lati11
l IG.
(u111pn11.. tr1. :,
!•> Jilli
t·~ g l · tln.: r) Cowper, qtw t.,d, :11. i ; r..f .. n,.,!
111• 'll 1J s 1•rirna1·ily a p11t1i11 ...:: lo 1... j!)'i,
g-f'll1c'I'. il"!lC \' , (ll tl1e 11rt 111 C 1abbe, r..f ,·r n·d t •>, ::'-', 1'1.'-'.

Cailyle. •iLwt•·d. i:;.
C:tstlc 1cagl1 . L"Jt i, •111 ., lt·ii, ~I:.'.
Cafllli\lty. 11~•· of 1111· word. ;\:\,

to

~0~1 st.it uc· 1H:y

i:-\

far (,·:1· ll1 ·d !11t·:;111 !Hl L
Cat1li11c. Iii,. i1n<1).!i11 1.' d

Fi.:l ; rd«·nl'd tn , l ~10
B11tfon . •111ot•·d , :2-1. .

i ii· .. f11r

11: t \H' \\'l1f'1\

1.i : 1·:1t i~ri:~l111

t l11«_11 _1 11i j.

1.NDEX A.NJJ GLOS:i: IR Y.

D,'i'ctyl, '! Il l .
Dan1011 :r11d l 'y tl1i:cs ..~: . .,., .,f

1:.i::.
DaJJgerous situatio11~, :• ,,, '" 1 • ·•
.,f tl1<· >'1tl1li111". I,-,:: .
Dash, rul 1·=- l'•>t· 11,.., I iii . I" '',
tlJ,.rical, I !'I.
Day, hi>< tl1..:ory of :r~t lwr; , .' '" " ti••n s . Hli.

D ec larative

u:< ·

,,f

t '" .

., , ' '' ·

.) '1.

D (' i l y.
I :!.}

l i>< Ill f·H

" f ' '" •w

"

l i I l • . 11.

-_

.........

--

INDHX AND GLOSSARY.

JNDH.Y AN/J GLOS8AJ:r.

Discussion, management of, 18
in au oration, 191.
Dissertation, Hm.
Distich [Ji' s-tikJ, 203.
Distrust, use of the work, 41.
Donate, use of the word, 32.
Double -eutendre [doobl -ong.
till' " u nty iug."
t\lllg:<lr).
An exprc88iOll auDc y e ndeut clauses, 108mittiog
of
more than um' iHD epe ndcnt Expressions, 118.
terprdatioo.
Derision , use of the word, !H .
e xpressions of, how
Desc ri ption, qnalit.i•~" <if a l!oo<l . Doubt,
po
i
11
led.
115.
1(i I, tl1c l>I""''" ~ ~ o f. lfV\.
Dowle, uRe of tlH' wo rd, 29.
Design, n~c of 1l w """ rd, >JO.
Dramatic Poetry, 11!7.
D e sperate; u su of the word, 4.1.
Dryden, quoted, 93; referred to,
De Vere , r l'f.:rrc d to, (;0 .
Hlti.
D e votion , p1'r~nnn1 , n f«lllrCA of
Dnode'<;:imo. Tli re nam e n11-

Demean, use n f th o word, 35.
D c m6'stlleues, referr e d to , 5,
1u;1_
De11ouen1ent
Ldc 11C:-">-ml1ngj.
Th e ,;olulit>n of a l'lut, or tlw
li 11al cutu i:; troplic.
Literally,

l'ati.•·~,

J;"ifl .

plit·<l to a 11ook fornlf'd l1y lliidin g the sheet of printe r's pa p( :r

Dickt!llB , 1.-f1 ·rr.-•l tn , J F1fl. !'70.
Diction, ~!"i; \'ariatin11 o t , fl4.
D i dac tic p oetry , Hl7 .
D ic ' rcsi~ , t l" · rnnrk in pnn rtnn -

into twelve le aves. lt i::i rn;ually
in rl irnt.Nl thus : 12 or 12 rno.

'

Emphasis, ()-! : 1na i-k,; uf l :.;:.;
'.\ !i~hsti tu tiou of 1l nc• wurc,
I g .. nd t-' r,

i11 g t"4Hl1 t' qual i ty or r t·!utl1 1: 1
t--1pPcially la.: longing to a pPr:-011 11 ,
or thing; H~, a b1·i_
1//rt culu r. :L
fjl'f't/1 tn•r-, a ki 11il :11a1t

p l' r:-:•rn. ca,.:<', \'Ol et '
rnood, ur i e 11 ,;e fur anoth e r
•
. Ene1·gy, nw:111in"
of ' fi"..., . .1..111 ~··".....
~
11u111 lJ\'r,

.

E

tor, t;;j: o f f<l)"I" in nrrtr "rY, HIO.

.

Jngllsh

language,

Epiton1e.

.

C<> !l Jl"•s it"

'· 1

t'l1arac: 1er of, :;t; Eugli,-h aud

tt•r\·Pnin~

i Echo, in elocution, 117.

tl1,-· •·.. n1rnu11it~lt­

of

lll•'llt'lll'l'

>tlltOtlllt

of

in ei:;ti111aL 11tg tlrn

11rnl1er ull H

l"'S' .

'

"'

a

i;;:

I

f,.rm

~ ! a 1 1 .. J

"f

I

form of \\·ii. l :l U.

1 ii •· t1 l'•~

at

This 11ns
n :-il 111 rt ~p 1·1· c ] 1

!It' au-

till· c ' 11111· l 11~i1lll

a \\ 11rd i.'-'
11

J.

rt ·ii":tt t"' j

Tl"' 111 ,

11f

11111,.11 ••f . !ICi.

! .Y ii' - 10 11<·J I~
ngr1·1' nlilt·111 "'" •• f ~ ·n 1nd .
E verett. Edw1Lrd, , 111 ,.t.-d, I ! U.

n111n '

t

< ' IJ!f 1 ! 1 :l~i:--l .

i" . Enphony

Epilogne [(·p- i -l.'·1,:J

I""'Ill :1dil !" '"''" ·:l to

l1 icl1

lt

g ~·r i c .

"" · \'ny 1111ki11d.
Un kind, did I say? mos t ill jlt Ill''''·' .1
Epic poetry . 1flli.
Epigram. as rt li p;1t l'•'. \If) : ns a

11 r

\\·

\\' j f

"r !:ti.I t· IJll ll'hich a11 q•ic
i '"" r 11 i,.; l 111 i It.
Essay, 1~t·tiniti 1 111 o f. l' i'2.
E tymology, 1·al 11• · ,, t , c"i.
E u 1ogy [yi'1 1.. j •· ]. ,\ ,, 1,,.,.,·li ,,r
writio :.; COllllll l 'il d:itPI'\' ,, f SIJlll<'
c Iiara<"t c r . :-';w<' ifi,.al I·1·, a lat;d
a t •lr_1· 1· un+·r:i I n r:t t1•• 11. · A ]':111•--

t;tr .. ng l y;

l\\ ' 11 :-;, ·11 ~4·H · (I)

i 11

h
I E up_emi_sm[yl1
" f··rniz111J,d··fi-

wl1i<'l1 s• >111+·ri1111l!

n1"

a

t .. r_v

co 11 r~l\ nf!Pr n di!!"rt·~~ion.

RJ>•' •·<"li i11
n · ·1tl l I

11f

nuu daT td

a

E popce ia i •"I' ' "I'·--·__,

n1 at.ti ·r.

panortho ' s is

~11 \):--:ta111 · • .

honk"·

(1 1 A form of Sj)('Cc h in whi ch
wonb nre rqwate<i in invi · r·~"_- ,.
order. (21 A r..turn to tlie mai 11
lwads or l• ·ad111 g th Pni n of a dit<-

E

L>ouk or

Epizeiix'is i'< n form ,,f SJ"'""li

Epa' nod6s. Tlii,;li:i::1t w osen"""-

Eclogue l e' k -logJ. A pa t;tornl
poem , in whi ch shepherds
D ~liGe nt, ll :'t' o f tlw w n r•l. 40
m<'d., and carry uu n di alogue.
Direct address i n orntnr~",
Edify, n se of the wurd, o4.
189
Elegies. 1\)6.
Direct qu e,;tions. 111.
Ell e smere, L or d, quol•~•.l, \J3.
Dir ect state ment, 0".
Elli'psis (an 0111i,;:-1io11J of vcrh ,
Disadvantage, n st· pf tl 1c wont,
lOlJ. l111w 111nrkcLI, 120, in poetry,
·11.
:.!O
I.
Discourse, (f1·•> t1l tl11 • I .a till dt-' ·
,.,11Ttr'" to ru n :+ J.rn 1t1 'w·an:-> ! Elocution, rdnt.ion of to Hhcl''imnr i ly the P"W '-'r of th e \
t 11 ric, 1.
n1illd t" ntn :1 l1011t fr o! n one ' Eloque nce, d c finc<l, 1G3; '\V cb part .,f a f'tili i r·d to n1111tlw r. i f'kr's
d escription of, 187;
lll'n<:<'. (1) on-ti trcatnw11t of \ Rlw1ld 'R definition of, HlO.
Fo nn· 1.. pi c; ( ~ \ :i fnrrnn l di s - ! Em. A portion of "pace inn lin o
CUt;:-<lc•ll \I l1 l'\ lH'r 11r:\l " r "·rit - I
(lf prinl-f'tl matter the widi.h of
1.'l l. , :; 1 t ], ,. ,. ._ , . .,f Li11;..:·"""" i
an .,Id 111. Now utied a.Ka unit

.-\ 1.n.-r c"''li "" "li.-1111.

111tn i1 1i11g tht·

l arger

Latin 8e flt e 11t;e:-< co lllj•Hred, 5G;
11 :ir111011y uf th <!
lang ung•',
1;7
E11oni:; 11. 11''" •JI . ti"' " ·.,rd. :n
E11 thu sed, u:<u of 1J. ,, wurd , :2'.J.
Epanale ' psis. A furn1 of Fp 1·1·c l 1
JI\ w lii"li tlw 1<a1 11t, \\'ord o r

<::

1\r d 1· ·\ 1;.:..1 •t

Episodes ure ~ "pa ra t. 1· 11arr"
ti 1·es or digressiollS int roJ u t·• ·d
i11to u story of greater k 11 gt-1
for tl1e sake uf Yur il'l 1-,
Epithets uru aJj.,cti v~::; de~cri l•

Enalla~e f •~- n i1 ' I la-je].

L..

D iGllity in <-rat .. ry . 1SQ.
Diffiise ' , ; xp r r-~ !" in;-:; l it •l P i n
rnany w o nl:;; nppli c1l to t<tylc .

'i11n

l 16_

<lisc0t1rse , co ntainin g !t r .-'ea 1 it
_ ulntio11 of the prindpal puiutH.

«'X prl' ~::<i 1111 i~ n•p .. :1ted uft,·r i n

ti • 11. 1?? .

g t · 11! · r~illy ln

Emblem , use ri f tl1 e word, 36.
Emerson, H. \V., quoted, 26.
Emotion, CXJ>r.:ss.. d uy fi:,rurc'1 ,
t:IO; expressions of. ho w 1_:ointcd

a

j>l:ty. t2J 'J'L1 · cl11,..i11 g parl uf a,

!

Except, 11 ,-,. o!'tl 11 · 11-.,nl :;r;
E x c lan1 ;\'tlo 11 , 11 , a ti!!iir»
'
. ., f
HjH'P,·h. 87 : th~· Jio i1d, 1\ r i1,.j 11
of. Jv:l : rnl .. s 1.. r. 11 _1
~
E x o" rdinm. in a11 "r:ili• ' ll l'.'O .
E xperimcntali zc. II >•· . ,.f 1 lw
\\" t

q•d

t

:~:2 .

Ex1~osition,

r1· f,·r ri·,i t •>. J.'-1 !1 .
nn . .J, lill• ·d , ·II
:rn1q· l 11· i ty 1.! in tli,· ~1 : i! J liii"" 1.-, 1

Expression.

!

'

2GO

IN/JEX .1ND GLOSS.!JRY.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

.'

1'',.

2C 1

f~

F.

I Friends , de votion

Fable and para ble diffe r chiefly
lime , 13"2.
i11 tl1is : tlu,; falilt' recounts wllllt Frigidity (fri -ji ' d .i-tPl As api~ impo;::-; ibk if literally int e rpli ed t o st y le , a col<l aud uffoctprc wd ; th e paruble is gcn e r- 1 L'd ma riner, wa11ting in prope r
ully lit e rally possiul e .
feelin g aud inlL'ws:.
.Failings, lium:m, a source of Fr<:sntispiece. Au ornnm entnl
l1un10r, 1;)7.
e11 g ru \'ing in the bcg iuuiug of a
uook .
Falsehood. u ::it· of the word,
Froward, disuse of the word,
:14.
2U .
Falseness, U Hc of the word, H l.
Fustian [fi:i':-;t-ynn]. A homlJasFalsity, mw of tli P word, 8-1.
t.i ... i ntluted tity le of writing or
Farce, de fill ed , l\J7.
Fashions in litt: raturi·, 142.
s, ..,akin~ .
t-io cnll"<l from n
che1tp kind or cl •1th, to which
Feelings, t lw 11m11ng1·11w11t. of,
it iH 1111alogous.
l'JI); c huu)!e of tlw, 192; in nn
orator, 1112.
G.
Fertility in 1• x p ed ie ntH neces ·
G1\.' lliqism. A FrN1ch idiom.
t-1nry Lo Ill\ orator, I \Ji!.
Appl ied to words und conFiat, 11:-;e o f tlw w11rd, il l.
Ht rilctions borrowed from or
Figurative lallg un g t,, nduc of
imitatin g tl1ose of the .French
to <'nt·rg y, 66 ; in oratory.1! .0.
Jn n g- un gt~ .
Fi' gihes , tkf in ed , 87 ; clrt:<.'l i·
ti1•d , 77 ; l'Xplain ed , 77, 78 ; Gender, in p e rsonification, 84.
o rigi11 o f', 78 ; 11dvunt a ~c s of, Genesis. finst words of, an exnmpl e of th e sul•lime, 151.
7\J, tlil; ki11d~ of, 8 1 : rul es for ,
1)1 , !)2 ; contriuu tc to be auty of Gibbon, qnot<'ll, 14; referred
to, Hi9.
s ry l1 :, l·W.
£olding letters , diu~rnm s of, Gifford, re forru.1 t o, 198.
Goldsmith,
~tyle
of,
23;
I HiJ .
rliyt!tm oi', 69; quoted, 150,
Folio. A l'Pli1·1l to hookH fornwd
1(111.
•• r 1-1 !11 ,.· t,; HO ti>ld c ;l IL~ t.o lllllk\•
two 1.,nves. '!'lie lurgest size Graham, G. F ., referred to, 38;
r"m u rkR on harmony, 67; on
of vu]ulll l'.
hyperbol e, H7.
Foot, n. i rl pont ry, 200.
Grammar, relation of to Rl1c.
Forc e , tt!'H 1 of tltt· won!, 40.
tori c, 1.
rorgetfulness , use of the wo rd .
.lt) _
Grandi'loquence . A lofty stylu
o f ~pe11ki11g or writing.
F o ster ..lul111, lris moJl' of writGrattan , hiH 1wr::mnal disadvan ii1 ;.r , ~~H .
tng t:S, 19H.
Fox . quot .,d , :18 .
F1·e e dom of expression, n Gray. Thomn~. his style, 23;
referred to, l!lG.
suurcl' of hulllor, 157.

I

H.

to, often sub-

Hall,

Hobert, his choice of
wordi;, 38.
Hamilton, Sir 'Nm . , l1i,; theory
of ics thet ic emotions, 1·10.
Harmonious language, value
of, 14tL
Harmony, value of to styl e,
GG; in tlte Englislr la11 g ua g 1-,
fl7; mil'.; for, G7.
Hand . 8 !'1! "Index."
Harris, puragrnplt from, 76.
Hasten, U He of th e word, 40.
Hawthorne, quo ted, lii7.
Headings, of essay;:., l '!G ; how
pri11ted, 114, 118.
Head-lines. Tltc liun; at. tire
top of tl1 e png-e, 11.s the word s
" Ind e x alH1 0 lossury " 011 this
pago.
Hearken , dis u;.;e of the word, 28.
H e 'mistich l_sr.ick ]. lla.lf n pd l'li c Ver,..•~ . ur u11 im.: ompll'! e
verr;c.
HJ:i'tus.
The concurre nce .,f
H ll Ct~<:tll" i\' U 8UUtlll8 l' t tjllirin g u
mom e ntary pau se in pussiug
from on e to the other.
Hibe ' rniqism. An Irish idiom
A word or coni;t ruction borrow1 :d from or i111itu.ti11g tlie
11pPec:li ot' un I ri~lrmnn.
"Hifalu'tiu." A word 1u1ed to
signify 11 s tilted and unnatural
RI.yin of wri ting Ur SJWnking .
Hig words for smnll tlt<i11gl rt8.
History. d e finition of, 162.
Hogarth, re ferred to, 146.
H o mer. c.-impnri>J with Virgil,
78 ; referred to, 144, 19H;
fj llOll~U, 1;i;J.
Honor, d1·vot ion to, often su l>li me , 153.

Hopeless, u ~e of the word , 41.
Horace, lii:s law of use , :!8;
r e fe rrPd to, 19:-l.
I Howard, J o hn, re ferri:d to , JG!).
Hume, referri:J to, 139 ; q u•.itt-d.
14u.
Humolous, tlw, " xplai11t:d , Fiu.
Hurry, use uf tir e word, 40 .
Hutcheson, n·f'nrc•d t o, 1:m.
Hymn meters, 204.
Hyper, ll HC of th e won!, :?!).
Hyper'baton . A lil.!lll'l' o f S\' ll tax , in wl 1il:h tlil' na t ural ord"r
of w<1nls

ur

;;iont••!l f'• :s

[·
1-l,

~t;

t'.J

f.ie

~'·~

r~1,\

i;

~:'

;:-~/

I

'~-),'·
~·~

;:\~

~:~
r~

i .~

t'~
;;:

cl11u1gcJ .
Hyper'bol e, k7.
Hypercri'ti ~ ism

~f

;.'(;

f

j

?

Px 1·... ssi\·e seve rity
of c riti cism.
Literally, ovcr-cri t icisrn.
Hyphen (hi'-fe n], us•_, of, 1:23.
Hys'teron-proteron has two
se n s"s : (1) Tiu , placin g o f a
word fin1t. that ~li n 1d , t of'r· u r
late r. (:!) Putting t he cunclu siou uefore tl w prPmil'!l·s.
i,; an

I.
I. tlie pronoun, h o w writt .. n,
121'.
Iam'bus, 20 1.
Ideal presence, valn n of, f-(8.
Ideas, u.lmtr11(·.t and c1Jnndo: , 111 .
Imagery li ' 111 -l1j-r. :J Hqm·Keri9
tntiuns of id eal:! liy mt·a11 s o f
Sf'nsiul e obj ects. Tlw imaw ·s
sugg (·ste,l to tlw mind 1.y
words.
Imitation, vulll e t.f in ac~1uir ­
in g taste , 1-t.I .
Impro priety. A \' iolal io11 of
propriety.
Incongruity, a 81Jurce of wit ,
15G.

~ . .;'

~~
·:.:,:
t

''

u

:."t

' ~'
~:o.

1

~~

if.,
,~·

,

..

'{~.

!""'

I
!

~

~

;:1 •.

·~,.,,

: il

r\)!

i ii ~
::I~ \j
;;[:;,
l,1\

i·!f-

.1

li!~
1:1;

ii
<~

:u~-·

~1

;~
:.~

iii~ '
•ili'i
IJ{
1

1 11•

H"
~ ~:

it

:l.!

·

~

f~

f·
,,1
~;~

.j

:~

•',,

'll<
~

INDEX AND GLOS:::.ARY.

262

Indignation, a source of sublimity, 153.
Indirect statement, 98.
ludustrioua, use ol the word,
40.
Injury, use of the word, 41.
Intellect, ct~·uwlogy of, 79.
Intention , U tlc of the wor,l, 40.
Interjections, how pointoJ, 115.
Iutenoga'tion, tho figuro or
rhetoric. 00; wh e n forcible, 97;
point of, 103, 11 4.
Introduction, rules for, 17;
uotc:i of, 17G.
Invention, dclinition of, 5; not
i<trictly u purt of Hh ctoric, 5;
proccs..."l!s or, G.
Inversions, in poetry, 190.
Invitations, spccin1e11s of, 174.
Irony, [i' -ron-e), 90.
Irving, quoted, 38, 159 ; his
rhythm, 69.
Isoc6'lon, A continued antithesis. For example, 8Ct1 tlae com parison of Bonie r and Virgil, 7a.
It, t•xplctivo utJe uf. 08.
Italics, u::ic of, 123.

J.
Jeffrey, Lord, quoted, 89, 14G.
Jejune.
Applied
to
"'Yl•~.
Empty, dry, void o f in1.erP1:1t.
Job, •J uotation from, 154.
Johnson,
Dr.
8amuf'l , his
rhythm , G9 ; refe rr1.,.J to, l!)t:l.
Joking oneself, a sourco of
humor, lfi7.
Jouffroy, reforrt~d to, 146.

K.
Karnes, Lord. 011 ideal prtlMncc,
80.
Keats, r!' ~c rmtl to, Hl7.

~G3

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Kerns, use of the word, 29.
Knowledge of men necessary
to an orator, 19a.

L.
Laborious, use of tho word, 40.
LaclS'nic.
Applied to style,
from the Lnconf>s, or Spartans,
who were cel ebrated for their
:short and
pithy answer:i.
Hence brief, terse, concise.
Lampoo'n. A bitter personal
satire.
Language, capricious cl111ructor
of, 33. Sec Eng li sh.
Latin, con1p:u eJ with Saxon,
39; charact e r of d erivatives
from, 94.
Lay, use of thfl word, 48.
Leads, explained, 123.
Leaders , use of, 123.
Lectures, a kind of oration, 188.
Leniency, use of the word, lm.
Letters, purpose of, 170 ; kinds
of~ 171 ; nows, 172 ; dida..:tic,
~71; official,
172; busineB!l,
172 ; of introduction, 173; of
fri endship, 172: parts of a,
177 ; gem: ral rules tor, 184.
Licenses, poetic, 199.
Lie, use of th e word, 48.
Like, u::,w or the word, l.!6.
Literary property, 15.
Li'totes, 88.
Liturgy, sty le of, 95.
Locke. style of, 2:3.
Locomote, use of the word, 29.
Logic , rnlntiou of to Rhot.oric, 1.
Longfellow, nll egory from. 84;
quoted , l.'i!); referred to, 197.
Longinus, referred to, 151.
Loose sentences, Gl.
Ly'ric poetry, l!J5.

M.
Macaulay, styl e of, 24; referred to, 169, 197.
Macron, 12a.
Madrigal.
A little amatory
]Wl'm, expressing u tend .;r uud.
simple thought.
Mannerisms, 2a.
Manuscripts, preparation of,
101.
Mask. 197.
Materials, importance of col lt·cti ng-, 11.

Matthews, rPft•rn·d t.n, 26.
Melodious wcrds. (j7.
Me'lodr:lma, 1U7.
Memoir [m1:' m-wor]. 162.
Metl 'bole is the repl't ition of
F<imilnr i<l<'as.
Metale'psie is th e continuation
of a trope in several sensiet1, or
tho union of trope!! of a differeu t k iud in onp word .
Me'taphor, 8;1, 92.
Met~'thesis i t1 n figure of orthog-rnphy l•y w !iich !utters nre
t rn11Hpnscd .
Me'ter, ::!00.
Methods of arrangement, 19.
21.
Met~'nymy , 80.
Metrical . Romance, 196.
Metrical Tale, 19:1.
Milton. similu from, 82; referred
to, 141, 144, 196 .
Mime'sis is an imitation . As a
tigu m of orthography. it is un
imitation of u rnisprouuncinti,rn.
Mirabeau, quoted, 26.
Mock-ep'ic, 196.
Mockery, use oft.ho word, 91.
Mock -herO'ic, 105.

Monarchial, use of thf' word, £3.
Monotony. cause of in pnrugraphs, 'i2 ; in sentences, 94.
Montesquieu , referred to, 171.
Moore, '1liomas, his use of
words, :38.
Morality iu the use of quota.
tion marks, 120.
Moral purpose, o. source of
suulimity, 152.
Moral sublime, the, 152.
Motif, in litcrn turc , is the in·
tcution of the literary arti::lt.
Mutual, u:i1: uf tl1c word. :.lli.
Mystery . n source ur tlic 8 UUlimc, 15!.

N.
Naivete [n iih-l'v -t1i ) is an unaffoctcJ simvlicity in style. Tho
opposite of artiliciality.
Napoleon , <l esc riptiou of, 148.
Narrative, qualit\t!s (>f u, 167.
Naturalization of word:;, UI.
Neglect, USl' ol the wurd, ~Vi .
Negligence, mse of tlie word,
35.
Nick-names, 181.
Nominative case, rnie of, 40.
Notes,je~c rilw<l, l?H; t,o ludit!H,
174; 1:1peci11~ mu1 uf, 1i!i.
Noun, coll1ectiv1" t!oli11\'ll, 40.
Novel, d efinition of, 162.
Numerals, Horrnrn, liow writt1·11.
128.
Numerical figures, how poinkcl
109.

0.
0 and oh, diffe rence betwcPn,
115; how writt1·n, 128.
Ob1'tuary.
A
Liog-raplii<>!1l
sketch of a d eccat1ed person,

1'
l

i

I~
I
I

I;'
1.
i

2G-i

INDEX AND GLOS8A RY.

I NDEX AND GLOSSARY.

d esign ed tn give inform ation Paragoge [go-j ec J adds a letter
or sy llulile to the end of 'a
al>.i ut h is life uud churncter.
word ; ns vasty for vast; with ·
Objective case, u Be of, 4!l.
outen for with1Jut..
Oblivion, use of tli e word , 40.
Observation, . n inn.-. nt!on, 12 ; Paragraph [pl' r-a ·grH.f J, impor.
tance of, 71 ; rules for, n;
u1:1e of tl1e \\· ord, :34.
fir::<I i;entence of, 72; h ow made,
Observance, u:;c or' the word,
72 ; hist sentence in, 73; ex34.
amples of, 75 ; printers. mark
Octave, in a stanza, 204.
for, 123.
Octa 'vo. Applied to book s cnmposc·d of sh eets RO fold ed ns Paralei'psis is a form of s peech
in whi c h tho i,<peaker prete nds
to form e ight hmv1·8 of pri11 tingtll pas::; liy wi thout m eutioni11g]'a1wr. U:rnally written t:l ' or
1hat wl1ich lie in reality is
H \'•).
making conspicuous.
Odes, 190.
Odyssen:; , l1ls s hipwreck tlc. Parenthetical ex p ressions, 105.
Pare'nthesis, 61, G2, 110.
sc ri U• ·<l, l !):;.
P a 'rody, 15G.
Omissious, bo w n11nk1 •d, 11 8.
Paronomasia [111ii' -zhi -a], 156.
01nnibus, u se of tl1 e w .. rd, HI.
Particles are words which are
Onomatopceia Lp;·.ytd1], 70.
not i11fl.1·cted, and which play n
Onus prob:indi. Latin for, "the
s ubordinate part in a sentence,
uurd en of proving."
as preposit ion t:i und conj u11c·
Opera. ii. 111t11:1icul <lrnma.
tion s. 8plitting of, 64.
Oration, u:1cie nt di\' it<ion of.
17; t li l' na t ure of an. ltlli; th e Parts transposed, 108.
quali ties of an, 18li ; parts of Pascal, quoted, 16.
Pasquina'de. n lampoon.
an, 190.
Orator, tho q ualificutions of an, Pathetic, ill ustratPd, 158.
1\)'.! .
Penitence, use of the word, 39.
Periodic sentences, 61.
O ratory , kin<b of, 187.
O rde r ill I\ l<<' llll'llCO, {) .I.
I Period, rul f'S for, 1 rn.
O ss ian . liiH nulonceH, Ill).
Periphrasis [pe-ri'f.rn-sis]. A
Ottava rima, 20-1.
c irc umlucuti<~n.
Oxymo'ron . A form of s1w 1·ch . Peroration, 190.
\\"li i•·h 11nil<'" wnrcls ofa ront rnry Personifica'tion , 83, 127.
111e:111i11)!. nn<l sm! ms to 110 n i Perspicii'ity. Clearness.
contradiction ; nt1 " i\ pious I Persuasion. 188.
frl\ud."
Phenomenon, use of the wor,J,

I

I

:n.
P.
Painful, nae of th <> word . 84.
Panegyric ljir-ik j. t-lce Eulogy.
Pa:·able. See Fuule.

Phillips, Chnrl ei::, quoted, 148.
Phrase f fri'ize ] . 44.
Pitt. Willh1111 , his usP. of words,
0S ; hi :i lea rning, HlS

Plii'giarism, fji-nr izm] is nn act
of li te rary tli c ft. See Likrary
l'rop ert.y, li:i.
Plato , l'L'!°o rre<l to, 146.
Plead; use of tli c word, 33.
Pl e 'ouasm, [uz!11J . A redundan cy.
Pleuty, use of the word, 40.
Plo'ce i::i a form of speech in
which n word i:i made to sig11ify nots-:> much tlw tl1ing of
whi c lt it isa pro p(• r <l esignnLion,
li11L l:H >rn e prud o111inant q1111lit.y
of it.; as "In ull this contest lie
l1as lic1:11 a 11w 11, i11d1!<:d."
Pliny, rd1•rrPrl to, 171.
Plot, 1:xplai11ed, Hi8; tl1e q11nliti es of. 11.m.
Plotinus , 'JllOted , J4;) ,
Phuals, foroig-11. li Rt of, 41i.
Plurals, w ords linving two, list
u f. 4li.
Pcrem, tlu~ nature of a, 104.
Poems , kindti of, 195.
Poetic licenses, 19!.l.
Poetry, d efiu cd, UH ; the m ethod
of. 1V8.
Points,
103. See
l' u 11 ct1wtion.
Pollock, Hobert., refe rred t >,
HJ~.

Poly'ptoton. A form of HJ><wch
i11 whic lt ll word is re pented in
difli ·re nt fomts, g enders, numlwrs , ca"'e"', • ~tc.
"?olysy'udeton, 64.
Pope. quoted , 29 ; r efe rred to,
I ~!Ii. I !!8.

Popularity of prescutation in
orntury , 18!1.
Pow e r . re prl'se 11 tntions of, subIime, 152.
Prai se, use o f th e wor<l, 38.

Pre<il'.'sion , [zhlrn], defin ed, 37;
rules for. i!t).
Predicate, use of the word , ;J;),
43.
Predict, use of tli e word , 34.
Prepositious with n rLs, list of.
3G.
Prescott, rdl· tTed to, l GU.
Prevent, u;;e of the word , 33.
Preventative, u:;e of the w<>rd,
38.

Pride, u se of tl1 c word, 40.
Printer's marks , 121.
Proof, corrnctio11 of, 1:29; n•ad ing
of, 130, mar kt:1 fu r co rre•ti 11g,
rn:;: ;; peci1111 ·11 s of, 1::2.
Pro le 'psis is a form of Hp<wc h
in whi clt o uj ecti.rns are a11tiri pnt ...J.
Prologue [pro '. Jng]. An i11trodu crio11, csp1'{.:ially tlll! intro .
Llu ction to a drarnut ic prn·form a11cc. Lite rally, n •· won! Ltff)re."

Pronouns, lli:!e of, GI : am lii guity of, 56 ; use of in pout ry,
200.
Proper names, 12G.
Property . lit e rnry, 15.
Propriety. HU.
Prose, dt'fiued, 161.
Prosopcei a I 1•G y i1 h l i 11 cl ml N1
p t•r:;o11ili catit111 , 11postropl1 e, a11d
vision, and l1 e11ce i:; a 1111H'!!
g en eral uumc for all of these
figurt>s.
· Pro'sthesis pre fix es a l et.t<· r
or a syllabl o to a wonl
a s /Je..
clnndt·(l for cloudc1l .
Proven, u:;e of the word, 23.
Prl:l'verb. A common sayin)!.
Lit era 11 y. a " worJ IJc fore." u u:l
so a11 old saying.

JXJJ 1~·x .1 XlJ (;" UJ.~ '-.·1I: r.
Prov!'nQialismR nn· 1•·nn,; },.._ Rer;?.Rting.
lo11:··in!!

to

s.1riH·

I\

.:.!t) i

m«:inR of

vnria -

RccLndancy , (j:;,
Refo1e11ce-marlrn. 1'.:'B.
Ya l 11r· 11f, 10! : Reflection, in ill\('lltion. 12.
Rcgul\ls. Hnry of, I ;,;1,
j.! l rpn:--;<~ !lf. t11:_;; ?H it 1·!(H'll!i 1n Reid . Pr. 'l'homn~. q11 n t 0d, l4(i.
:1n', 10'.!: l1i:'t•1n· 11!', 10L
' Relative cl;mses. !iO, lO!i .
Purity, '.!S .
Repartee, 1:,1 ;_
Purpose . 1"''' nf 1ll(' w11rd , 110.
Repentance , 'I"" of tll" word
: \\.'' ~ 1ii ! l :-. : \· l ! ;! l i; ' .
;l :-~
r}y'thi:l!1; :u :d 1> .l lil~)J l , ~:;(i;-•; qf, Rn,;-ipcctfnlly, II>' ' r>i' 1 Ill' \\'111-d,
lurniitv. ;;o.
Pi111, Fil..
PnnctHation.

!

:;.i

ic,~

Rc;-ipectivcly . ll'-'" 11!' t lre

Q.

fl 1wt'f .

Rc;-it.1 ictivc expres;-i i onA . It·'" ·
RcA\ltrcct. ll'-'" ,,f 1111· w11rd, ::·?.
Retort " " 1 111i<L :111d \\'itt,·
1·.. I .t_-.-, i 11 \\'I 1"'I1 "I 1'll'.1:1 ·s 1.i· 111
~i l tt1a1ic1!)<-.:.
an· retun l('tl.
it
.!!<'llPntil\' i:t<'k~ tliP lfiHld li11rn11r

f;fl11nllv writt.1·11 ·l . \•r

1i:at i~ 1·11 11si ,; t t:nt \Yi th n•partcc.
HevieW'. d1·fi11iti1111 or II, 1(i:~ .
ne y11o l ds. :'ir J1»illlln, rdt'l'ft'll
t" . 1 11:.
Rhapsody
[r(1p -,_;o 111'].
'l'l1i::i
word is u;;c<l in twu seuse::; :
(1 \ A !<TTrnll part of an <'pie
1Hlt'IJ1, ~ ni1a \il 1 · fnr n ·(·itatio 11.

4-1 ..

:,?n:t

Quatrain,
Queries.

)1 ,1\ \.

I;1 ,; 11 i1· d

111

\\·i ij · :i

' ; ! ;, · ~ l .I ! I t l 1\' t ' \ t , 1 .: ()
Qne,.tions, \· 11I11(' of in 111 '" · 11 t.iim, 7, t .i: din ·1·t. 11 4.
Quintilian's rPlllnrk on l'li•nr ·
ll • ·~ :--; ' .-, 1.
Quotation s . l•ri.-1'. Ji,,w Jl"in:.-.J.

10~•.

11::; 1t1:1rkr-' of.

11 11\\'

tt.--"i·d,

1:211.

R.
Raise. w:r· 11f tlw "·,,rd. 1'-'.
Ranclo lph, .l11lin , 'l" "t' .I, H:l.
:rn d
1

:-.:' H1 111li11;~

lntt

! ' lllJdY

in

iti\' >'llli1>11,

d1·1 ·l:u11 :t ·

iltf!I

ncar1ing
i-:.1; 1 ) 11 Ii!

f, .j l ~ 1 \ \'

\\'<>rd,

,; .,

Q n;-ic1 rat , 1::::.
Q11ant. ity-ma1ks . 1:.''.1
Q11ar'.o .

r1 ·: ;, , ' ·

r i r >11.

1::!
1.

ru '"" !n r I I
H cc~t pi tu] a t.i Oil, \'a I 11•· ,,(, 1!I.

"'

( '.! )
1

_\

rani!din.~.

di:-.:(·unllt'('h•d

trqilt',

Hcctional.

;2();;

Rhetoric. 1!.-li1"' tl. 1 ; 111i iily .,f,
'.! : :-wi.,nti tit'. di\' iHioll of. 4.
Rhetorical pauses, lww point1·d. I !Ii .
RhYdian style.
AppliP1l to a
:-.:~\· \1· of nratnry 1uid\v:t y \11~·
t " ' "t'll
tlw tl11rid u11d diff11cl•
.\ :; i:ttir", a11d i IH· clm,_; [1 ) :111d
<' 1111c · 1:-:P :\ tt ic·
Rhyme. [ ri111.- I :illi11 ·mli\'t', '.2!1:2;
ll~...;•illHHtal, :2.():2; ('Oll:--\i)ll:ltlf: l !,

20~;

k11 1i1 1i 111"

Sentences , in1f .. 1r;;'\jH';:- t•f r~ -·n ­
1

IltTti11g , ;-)!. 1·1ir i ll1Tll<!/I

Rilyth111i1·11 l1t11 [. 111q·,,rl'l11"•· ,,f,
li.'-1; 1(11,.;s.-l l',; r1•111ark,.; 011 , li!I ;
a <·a1t~1·· ,,f' i · 111t1tliii1, 1:1.J .

<1J',

-; .L

Sentimental subl11nc. I:,-:

Se1 mor,iuatio
:,l11-: ll_j.
..1\ SJ'1·1·1:·:-< o!'

(]i ; . :q~11 t ~

B.1clite1, .l1·;i11 l'a11I. 'l"'''"d. I I.
Ridicule. 11~c· "r t ill' \\01 ·d , Ul.
Hi;;e, u:-1· oi' t lw w ord, -J.'-1.
Rogen;, :-;;111111"1, r1·f1·rri ·d tr,, l!J8 .
H.01;et [ '" ·1.l1;\ [. r,.ft- rrvd ti>.::.'-'.

:--;1·l!', ir1 \\'l111·!i tl 11'
'!1H'S tirq1 i~ at "n1·, fdlJ.1\\ 1·d In·
tlit• a11 S \\'t·r. a:4. ":-:hall \\'t~
rl'tn·at '! '!'Ill' l'Ill'IllY ar .. iii t l11•
!'l':lf_
~li Hli \\'( l h:til !
I f \\l'

R6domouLt'de. Vain l" '""ti 111~Han1.
Rom(tI1cc, .i .. 1i11ili•111 t11', Iii~.
Ruslti11 1 ,J. 1l lr1,
iitlt·:--1 11f
l1i~
liqqJ...~ , 11 . l/ ! ltdt"l, 1:; ,~, . )'\ · f1. ·if!•d t I l, I: _:~l . I -t !j.
Russell, \\'iJli;i111, Iii,; ri'tllltrk:-;

ilo, :-,tarvatii >!l a wait~~ 11:-- .

(JJl

rJ1y tl1 Ill, ()!J .

s.
Sarc;ism., n~,. ,,f th1· \\·o ril. Ul .
S;\'tire, 11s1 · n!' tl11· \\'<i rrl , !!!.
Satirical poet1 y. I !I'.
Sa1<on

1 ' 11J!l)\;1!' • '~l
i

fr<>lll,

' J1·1 iva t l \'t'S

!1-t

Scanning i,.; the
:""1iih·

l )a ti r1,

\\ · ;tli

1f

i11 ~ \'cl'~t·

of r1 ·into it:--1 1n1 ·trical
proct·s..;

t.' 1 ~ · fl l t • I 1 I :-< •

Sclicll1111; . !". ·~"·rr., · rl t,,

Scott , ~ir \\ :1!1 .. r,

l'•ll!l[ll •.-.: iti(lfl.

:.:11:.: ; rnasc1ili11\',

:..'.0:2,

·:o: : . 1" ·: :ti , ::11:;

ti111i. ~~IL

provi 11('<· or

r 1 f 1· rr1·d !11.

I fi'-'

!

\'> .

'i""''"'·

l ';'.1,

j

\V itli

w 1·

oru~·~

ti11) \."

SP- 1rn 0 ns, a J.:.i11d {Jf 11 ra ti1Hi ,

l."''°'

Sestette, :211L
S(:t, 11:--•·

(1!'

1 lt1 ·

1,1.

<ird, .1 ·-.l.

Shaftesbu1y . Lnrd, rl'f,.rr1·d tn.
111;,
Shake s peare, l ii~ d1.- ri""· :: •:
'Jlll> f> 'll, fl!, H!I. 11;11, l'.11
J' I'
(1'!'J"1·d t", 1·1'2. J -J.), !! Iii, l '. 17.
Shall and Will. n-• ,,f_ i'-'.
Shedd, \\' 1; , 'I'., 'i''"'•"l, J'. 10
Shelley, 'i!l•1t 1.,J , I i'.1 _
Si c1e-lie::i.ds al" ·' lll'arl i : ,, r :1n
iu 1h1· 1ille.
Si'mile, \lcfinitinn nf, P2.

Singist . n"'' "f 11i,_. \\'l>rd,
S i t."'" ,,f tlll' \\"P!'li, .\.'< .
( i1·1)r .~1·,

11ic~

;....\· 11( i11.\·r11s

11 ~

!Hi .

St:!Ction , IH·i11f•·r·~ 111 11rk f11r. 1'!;L

~li;il l

1 Li·

11 ·s 1rl t ltat n·r11ai11~."

S1nith,

11;1; ;

lt i:-i

ad \ · a111· ,.1

'r;t

i ... '

l'I

:n.

\ \"•> rk
!11 ,

'r·j .)'

l'i

·.J

1i

',

t in

,, .......

j ·, ;· ' ~"'I

<p11> t1· d, J.-1.'<_
Sects. na11H'::< "f. lww writt.-1>, ! Smollett, 1111011.,J, '.1:!.
I ,Snits. u~1~ of tllf· \u 1n!, ;~I/.
Self-possessiou in au orator, Society, v:il1111
t» di1 ·t im1
I !I I.
Semi-colon, rulni fur, HJ!)
Solecism [:-;,-, ·1 ,. :-;:zm]. "\ Yi<>fj-!neca, n·i-,·:1-.·d to, 1:·J.
l:itir.11 of tit., rui1·~ .,f :-;ynt;i \ .
Ill'_\',

or

Se1'.teuce, d1·ti111·d . . 1-~; ~ mJ>l".

Jt

.f.) ; ci •1111 11111 n(I . .1:;: ,., 1111 1,L \ ,

j 11

11( \,11JdK
J«--1 1.. d11', I;!

.1;;

llat111ai 11rdc1·

iJ i,

J,,,, _~ .-. Ii i ;

11 1,

is :1 Yi1datii,ll 11f ,t....~11 r1d
1 IH·

~I nti·t I!

1'1'

11

ll>;1g·,~

t' :-- 1 ·11i1·1w, · .~

:1:-\ a l1a1·!,;1ri .-..:r11 i ~~ a Yi 1il ;1fi•!I)

11f

208

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

So nnmc<l from the Soli, a
peopl e of Attica, who colonize<l
in ( 'ili cia, and los t tile purity of
the ir lani_:ua:;e.
Songs, I I.Hi .
Soa:, e ts, II)() ; stanza of, 201.
GouJJd aud sense, 70 .
Southe y , qu oted, 147.
Spec . word::i from tl 1e root, 79.
Speciality, use or th e word. :33.
Spenser. EdmuuJ, quoted, 20a;
Iii" Hta 11za, 20a.
Splittiug of Particles, G4.
Gpondee, 200.
Squinting construction, 5G.
Stand-point, uso of the word,
32.
Stanza, 203.
Sterne, hi R r11ythm, 69.
Strength, 40.
Strong verbs , 47.
Stro'phe. A system of ve rsrs in
ly ri cal poetry. These were
h t111 g
in the an cient chorus
whil e 1uarchin g iu on e direct io n, and th o n11tit:1trophe was
s11 11 i; on tho return .
Style, definition o f, 28; kinds
of, 2:.l ; i 111 po rtnn ce of, 24;
g-<• ll!' ral law o f, 23; ,.i,·irlness
of, :.l!J : HtyJ ,, co upe, 78; sty le
I ni 11d iq 111 ', l a.
Sub divide d membern, how
po1i11i1:d, 1 lU , 111.
Subject--of t\ co111 position i111po rt u.uco of dwosin g , (i: how
to obta in, 7: q ual iti e:i of, 7;
adapting, !) ; s tat em e nt of. 10;
--of a s cntc·nce- compounu,
defin e<!, 47.
Sublim e. tlw , e~plain e1l, ·u; 1.
Substitution i11 p1"'trr , :JOU.
Suffici e nt, u:st" of tilt' word , :;1.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Sumner, Charles, his cu1L11re,
193.
Superlative degree, 50, 63.
Superscription of a lettt"r, how
written, 177.
Supplementary clauses, UO,
112.
Suspense , means of, 61.
Suspicion , use of the '''ord, 41.
Swift, hi s rhy1.hm. G9.
Sylle'psis. 'l'lw construing of
words according tu their uwan .
ing rathe r than according to
their strictly grammatical relations.
Sym'ploce. A repetit.ion of a
word nt the beginning and
anoth e r at the end of successive clauses or sentences.
Sy'nchysis. A derangement of
words in a Rentence.
Sy'ncope drops a lf'tt .,r from
the mi Ll<lle of a word ; as, o'er
for ove r.
Synecdoche [slu-e' k do-k e]. 85.
Syne'resis contracts two syllables into one; as, hallow-M
into hallmo'd.
Synize'sis i::i the san:!e as syneresis.
Synonyms (sl' n-o-nlmz], 37; a
mmrnH of variation, 94.
Synthetic method, 20.

T.
Tale , definition of, 162.
Taste, barba rous, 18 ; definitions of, rn7; analysis of, 138;
nature of, 139 ; riualitics of,
1B9;
univ e rsality of, 13!.I;
n 1riation of, 14(J ; starnlnr<l of,
I ~ I ; CtJ Ith·a t.iun of, l 4o ; catholint y of, 144..

2G!)

Tautology [ tcm-t.i'J' l-o-jel, 63.
Taylor, J ere 111y , paragraph from,

Tract, definition of, lG:.l.
Tragedy, 1'.li'.
'; f).
Transpire, use of the word, :3!i.
'.I'e c hnical words, :lO.
Tra11sposed pa1·ts, how pui11t1 ·d,
T e mperance, use of tl1e word,
10:.:L
i.l!J.
T£a11sposition , a u1 c1UH! of nATeuse, importance of distin riatiu11, !Jti.
g- ui::ilaing, 47 ; se11ue1H.: o of Travesty , d..fiuit.i;rn of, 15.J.
ll'US(;8, 52.
Treatise l tre-t is ], ddiu.itio11 11 1',
T erminus, oril{in of tho word,
]()ti.
ai.
Treuch , Il. C., refe rred to, 2U.
Terza rima
[ tert-l:ia-re-muh J, Trt'b£ach. A pol' tic foot e< 1111 204.
poi;eu of three slion sy llalJles ;
Teutoni9ism.
An iuiom of
as, ..._.. ..._ _ .
the Ocrmau language. A word Triplet , ::!U3.
or con:;tn11:1io11 I.Jori oweu from Trochee [ t ro' -k ,- e], 200.
or imitat.iug the Uerman moJ e Trope, 82.
of s pea king.
Truth, used th e word, 41.
Thackeray, referred to, 157; Tupper, J\I . F ., refl'rrl'd to, I !J8.
170.
Turner, Sharon, 11tory oJ, 129.
That, use of th e word, 49.
Types, varieties of, 124.
There, exple tive use of, 98.
The'sis . This word is usecl
u.
in two senses; (1) A proposition which a writer pro poses to Unity, m eaning of, 58 ; importance of, 58 ; rul el:l fur, 51) ; in
est ablish; (2) The com position
parag ra ph s, 72.
in which tlw proposition is
Unities. Th e dramat ic u11 iti es
proved.
are three: ( 1) Of Tim e. Th e
Thompson, James, re fe rred to,
time s upposed should no t ex.
198.
1·1,cd twcmty f 11 1r l1CJ11r,; : (:.!)Of
Thought, nat.un: of a. 112.
/'fort:, '1'111' 1d a1T Hl1,.1ilol 111 :
Tilde I t.i'l-d1i.J, fon11 and 111-m, 12:!.
Olll: and tl11 : s,11111: t!1ro 11 ;.;h.,11t
Title-pages, huw poi11ted , J 1:;
114.
'
tliu l•lay : (:3) Of Al'tiuu. 'l'l1 u
action ,.;J1011ld <·,.11 :; iHt of •me
'I'i ties of hook :,1 , 1p1ot<•d, l ;~{i;
mui 11 plot.
of oll.ic., a11u honor, h11w writte n , 127, 18 1.
y
?mesis [m e' sis] . A form of
speech by which a compound Vandenhoff, quoted. 102.
word is separated i11to pa rt:i loy Vanity , use nf tl1c wort! , 40.
1lw i11t(•n e ntio11 of something Variation of t:x prcsoi.. n, 93;
d:;1 •.
k i nd i; of, 1.14.
Torrey , quoted , 142.
Variety in parug rapli :;, 73.
0

•

I

I

I:

I
'

I

:.no

INDhLt A N D OLOSSAR I".

Vastness, a S•>urcc of s ublimity,
lG-1.
Veracity. UR1· n f t h e word , 41.
Verb, ag n ·e11wn t of wi t h s 11bj v1·t, ·I.) .
'Verbal formation , Ja w of, :J!..
Ve1·b a tim, orig in of the word,
:.ll.
Verbosity.
\Vordincss.
Exumpl• : of, 9G.
Verbs, t ran siti ve nnd int rn11 siti VL•, 47 ; s trong , 47.
Verse . t he nu tu rn I form o f p<w try , 11.)5; <l('fi11i tio11 of, 201.
Versification, d e fin ed , 200.
Vignette fvin-y C't). (1) A cnp·
itul lette r in a 11 ci1·11t 111 n 1111 scri pts, orna m f' nt ed w ir.h vines.
(2) Any sm nll prin trr's omu
m c nt, esp ecially little cuts
whhout borde rs .
Virgil, compnre<l wi t h Ilomer,
7:3 ; re fe rred t i>, 144, HIG, 198.
Vision, d e fin vd, 88.
Vividness o f style, 3!).
Vocabulary, m eirns of ac<JUiring- . ·2;).
Vocative. The cnsc of nchlrei:>s.
\ Vords in, h ow poi nte rl, 10!).
Volta ire . r cfi•rre<l to, 14G.
Vulgarisms , 30.

w.

White , R. 0., rf'forrcll to, 26;
q uott-tl , !lG.
Williams, Billy . 1-1 t11~y ol', :i7.
Wilson, Joli11, <{llH!A'tl, 102, I :.?!I.
Winckclmanu, re!'c rrcd to , I-iii.
Who, u:-c ,.f. 'll.l .
Wit, dhitiugui l:l h C'd from humor,
157.
Without, uso of tlw word, 36.
Witty, th e, expluin eJ, l:i4.
Words, i111po ru111ce o f, 25;
n c wly -coiuc<l , 29; fordgn, 29;
11atumli zatio11 of, 31; teclrnicul, ao; the for111nl io n ,, ,., at;
g C' n eri c nud s p1·cifi c, H8; cquiv-

ocul . 41; n cga : i,.-c nnd printtive , 11 ; u n n t-'Cl'St1ary , G3 ; ro n ncc ti H', use of, tl4 ; e m1 1llll ti c,
positi on of, 64 ; iu sig nificunt,
65 ; m e lodio us, G7 ; in

11

se ri es,

h ow pointed, 107 ; in pui rs, how
p ointed, 108 ; in th e vocative,
how pointed , 10!).
Wordsworth, rf'fo rred to, 198 ;
quotPd, 204.
Writing in a circle, 74.

\
')
\

Y.
Yclept, [i -kle'pt], u Ro of tho
wo rd , 29.
Young, Dr. Edw11rtl, rcfl' rrcd to,
l!l8 .

z.
Webster, Dani<'! , s tory of, a ;
hi R tlesc rip tio 11 of orato ry, l ~ !i; Zeii'gma. A form or Hj :t'CCh in
hi s o ruto rka l mu nu c r, 19:.? ;
which, by tho orni s::i ion o f a
hi s l o~al lt•a rn ing-, 103.
word, an other is conn et' te:l with
Whately , st yl o of, 23; referr ed
o. wo rrl with which it ca11nnt
tn , a:-:i .
pmpPrly "" joinotl ; ns, '' Tl1 Py
Which . n o<' r f, ,; fl .
7r M r a !Jfll' lnC lll Jiko that or the
Whil s t , d i,.;111;1 • of 1l1t • \\'O l'<l , 2!).
&·y tltinn fl , 1111! n l rtn9 w 1:;e p0Whipple, E . l' .. •1uo t.e tl , 1;)7.
c uli1tr to t.l1 c 111se lvet1. "

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