SOME TOPICS
IN

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
For the PUPIL,°
The TEACHER, and
The GENERAL READER•

•.l
'

;

EDITED

'y

AR THUR :grNDS,
1..ATltLY TEACHER OF GRAMMAR IN TH E W E STFIELD , MASS. , STATR

NORM AL SCUOOL.

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BAKER & GODWIN, PRINTER~,

No. 25

PARK

188!.

Row.

1

PREFACE.
T E \\\\
, \-\ r:__, '.__,

c('

Copyriglzt, 1881,
BY ARTHUR HINDS.

ABOUT twenty years ago the instructor in grammar
in the Westfield, Mass., State Normal School attempted
to teach a class of teac her-pupils the principles of
English grammar as inculcated in "the text-books."
The attempt was not successful and was ne~er renewed. The least to be said is that "the text-books ,,_
are unsatisfactory to intelligent pupils.
The teacher mentioned found himself driven by
necessity to devise a system and to construct definitions acceptable to a class of conscientious pupils of ·
ordinary intelligence. The statements of principles
and the arrangement of the topics herein presented are
in their essential features the product of his endeavor,
and issue from the test of twenty years of discussion
by the members of the Westfield Normal School.
Teac hers are almost unanimous in condemning the
grammars as untruthful, or inconsistent, or complicated, or as combining these faults. Many English grammars are untruthful, b ecause they ascrib~ to the Enc
glish language characteristics belonging to the Latin,
and the Greek, and the Anglo-Saxon, but which our
language either h as never possessed or has cast off.
The inconsiste.n cy of some grammars is owing i!l part
to this untruthfulness and in part to the ·great diffic
culty of framing definitions capable of ·surviving _the

[3]

4

PREFACE.

test of application. The division of words into classes
should be made upon some uniform and trustworthy
basis. But grammarians have failed to perceive this,
and hence inconsistency has been inevitable.
Some grammars are complicated because they in·termix "language lessons" with grammar. Grammar, like zoology, and geology, and chemistry, is, as
a science, but a record in a convenient, classified
form, of facts. A knowledge of grammar does not
insure correct speech. Many a child uses correct
language who h as never studied grammar, or, perhaps,
has never even heard of it; many a teacher is faulty
in speech who is thoroughly versed in grammar. To
teach correct habits of speech would seem then to
be not the province of grammar; it is the p;ovinc~ of
"language lessons." And "language lessons " should
form a part of all the child's training, both at school
and at home.
The following are the distinctive features of this
work:
The presentation of the subject is natural. Every
principle is illustrated before it is stated. The student
is thus led, first, to recognize the principle, and afterwards, to give it form al expression. As a result his
attention is directed beyond the text-book and its
formal statements, and is fixed upon the English language and its principles. He is lead to think. The
book only guides.
Traditions have been disregarded. The work is
based on the English langu age. The aim has been to
record the facts, and to avoid ascribing to our lan~

P;REFACE.

5

guage charact.e ristics that it does not possess. To secure consistency, the classifications and the definitions
have been rested upon uniform and well-tested bases.
To make . the work concise it was necessary to
narrow the field. There has been no attempt to make
the book "complete." It is of little importance to
the average pupil how much the learned know about
language. But it is of first importance how much tim~
he shall be made to spend in the study of grammar
and how well that time shall be spent. Recognizing
this fact, the editor has not hesitated to omit much
that heretofore has been deemed essential, but which is
really cumbersome in a text-book; and, in his determination to consider the little time pupils have at their disposal, and the comparative unimportance of a wide
knowledge of technical grammar, he has attempted to
select from the great mass of material only those facts
of which one can least afford to be ignorant. If tlfe
does not contain all that a teacher could wish
upils might kno~, the omissions have been made
erately and for the pupils' sake, with the purpose
of furnishing a book that they can use. It is with
this purpose that the book has been divided into
TOPICS and HELPS: the one containing only the bare
subject matter, presented in a simple and straightforward manner, without commept and without superfluous illustration; while the other contains all that
seems necessary of explanation and illustration.
The editor wishes to disclaim any intention of
promulgating a creed of English grammar. His devoted wish has been to present the truth and to

6

PREFACE.

furnish a trustworthy guide to the grammatical study
of his mother tongue. Should there be any hesitation
to accept the principles h erein stated, he begs leave to
be excused from resting his case upon any one's doctrine, but to be permitted to appeal to the English
language of to-day.
In preparing this little book the only part of the
work that was a task was the determining what not to
omit. All teachers are agreed that a hand-book
should be brief; but all are not agreed upon what
are essentials and what are not. However, there has
been no hesitation in excluding foreign matter, such
as belongs to the province of rhetoric and etymology.
So with the many subdivisions of the classes of words.
It will be seen that the work is not a course of "language lessons."
The editor desires criticism upon his system, and
most cordially invites suggestions concerning his material.
My thanks are due to Mr. J. G. Scott, to whose
instructions I owe my acquaintance with this, his
system of grammar, and whose counsel has been of
great value to me in the preparation of these topics.
A. H., EDITOR.
L. I., N. Y.
Aug. 1881.

HEMPSTEAD,

PLAN.
[For full Index to Pages ~ee the end of tho Book.]

TOPICS.
Grammar, def. (=defined.)
English Grammar, def.
Propositions, parts.
Subject, def.
Predicate, def.
Attribute, def.
Copula, def.

Proposition, def.
Classes of words, general divisions.
Nouns, def.
Pronouns, def.
Adjectives, def.
(To limit, def.)

Verbs, def.
(Object of a Verb, def.)

Adverbs,° def.
Prepositions, def.
(Object of a Preposition, def.)

Conjunctions, def.
Participles, def.
Infinitives, def.
Propositions, kinds.
Declarative.
Imperative.
Interrogative.
Simple.
Compound.
Complex.
Clauses.
(Phrases.)

Uses.

['1]

8

PLAN.

Classes of Words, separately studied.
Nouns: Some kinds.
Properties.
Numbers, def.
Gen ders, def.
Cases, def.

Rules.
Pronouns : Some kinds.
Properties.
Persons, def.
Genders, Numbers, Cases.

Rules.
Adjectives·: Some kinds.
Properties.
Comparison.

Verbs : Some kinds.
Properties.
P ersons, Numbers,
T enses, d ef.
T ense.phrases.

TOPICS.

Rules.
Adve rbs : Some kinds.
Comparison.
Conjunctions : Some kinds.
Participles: Imperfect.
Perfect.
Infinitives: Root.
In " ing."

HELPS.
Hints, Examples, Illustrations, Lists.

1*

TOPI OS.
DEFINITION OF GRAMMAR.
REMARK.

The Topics contain mainly the bare substance of the various subjects in such form
that the student may readily refer to them
for the salient facts of g rammar.

The H elps

(see p. 73) contain remarks useful to the stud ents who need additional assistance, and to
teachers who d esire hints coricerning the pre-

T he teacher should
r ead both ;.'ar ts of this book through before
using it in class.
sentation of the topics.

'rHE FIELD OF STUDY LIMITED.

1, a. Every word is said to express an idea.
b. Words may be combined in various ways.
For example, the words horse and black may be
written horse black, or ~i:::_, or black horse. . In .the
first two cases there is not any necessary c~nnection
of the ideas expressed by horse and black. But in
the third case, on account of the arrangement of the
two words, we are led to connect the idea expressed
b y black with the idea expressed by horse. When
words .are combined as black and horse are in the
third example, they are said to b e RELATED. Whence
it appears that
c. Words are related when they are so combined as to lead us to put together the ideas expressed
by them.
d. Just as we say that things which are combined
are in a combined state, we may say of the words
(11)

!2

TOPICS.

Grammar defined.
black horse, or any other related words, that they are
in a related state. To su ch a state we will give the
n ame RELATION; hence,
e. The relation of words is the state words
are in when they are related.

2, a. In the expression,
h e mended h i s own coat,
the word Jiis indicates ownership ; the word he does
not. His is related to the other words in one way ;
he is r elated to them in another way. The two
words, then, differ in thei r relations to the expression.
The same is true of they and their in
they knew th e i r business.
b, T hese illustrations show us that words may be
used in different r elations.
c. Moreover, he and his, though differently
spelled, are practically one and the same word.
They differ in form. This is true of they and their
also. Hence it appears, too, that a word may have
different form s.
d. Now it would not be proper to use his in the
place of he, in the first expression, and he in the
place of llis, saying,
his mended he own coat.
Nor would it be proper to say
th e i r knew th e y business.
In short, we may not use different forms of words indiscriminately in different relations.

13

TOPICS.

Grammar defined.
e. Words, then, may be used in different relation~ and for various relations various forms m ay be

used: but not promiscuously. In studying language
we may gain a knowledge of the relations of words
and of the forms 'vords take in their various relations.
Such knowledge we will call GRAMMAR. Therefore,

f. Grammar is a knowledge of the relations of
words and of the forms ·words take in their various
relations.

g. English grammar is a knowledge of the
relations of words in the English language and of
the forms the words take in their various relations.
(For Remarks on the Definition of Grammar, see p. n)

TOPICS.

15

TOPICS.

Divisions of the proposition.

PARTS

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

DEFINITION OF THE

e. The several words, including the bare subject,
which together form the whole subject, are called the

PROPOSITION

3, a. By means of th e express10n
.

.

°

s n w is meltinoo
something is said of th e su bstance"''
stance snow th
·
snow. The sub' en, is that of ·I . I
The word sno1v .
l\ uc l something is said.
· rs
· used to r ep is a part of tl1e w h o1e expression .
it
•
resent the sub t
to represent that of lYI • I
s ance snow, that is,
·
uc l somethii "' ·
.
a part IS called th
i., ls said, Such
e SUBJECT of an express1011,
.
therefore,

b. The Subject of an ex r · .
p ess1on is that part of
t h e expression wh ' h .
h' h
ic is used to
w IC something is said .
represent that of
C.

W e may say

; :1 e

snow is melting, or
ie expo se d s n
.
tll.e slowly f~lI?w IS melting, or
"
I II g S II 0 lV is
·
In these exam
ples ti lC SllOW and th
meltrng.
.
e exposed snow, and
ti10 slowly fallin" s•iow
'c.1are a parts representi ng that of
which somethin : ·i ~
"'
sa1 . Hence It 'll b
.
w1 e seen that the
su b~ect of a n express 1·o
n may be not
may comprise a number of
d
one word only, but

II

WQ r

single word, when it is one of a number of words
forming a subject, is called the BARE SUBJECT.

S.

· d. But in each of ti1ese example ti
is the only single word . l
. s 1e word snow
Ill t1e sub1ect
h' 1
use d alone as the b .
w 1c 1 may be
su Jec t of the expression • S UC h a

COMPLETE SUBJECT.

In using the term subj ect we shall designate the bare subject, except when the context clearly indicates the other meaning.

4, a.

Again, in
snow i s m e l t i n g ,
is melting is a part by means of whicll sometlliug is
said concerning the substance snow, that is, concerning that wl1icl1 is represented by tile subject. Such
a part of an expression is called the PREDICATE ;
hence,
b. The Predicate of an expression is that part
of the expression by means of which something is
said of that represented by the subject.

c. Predicates, also, may be

BARE PREDICATES and
bare and complete applied to
predicates having a signification similar to that of bare and
complete applied to subjects.

COMPLETE PREDICATES;

, I

l

;_; J

1

·~;.._.

5, a. Referring to the preceding e x'a mple, the word
melting is a part of the predicate which indicates a
condition of the substance snow, that is, a condition
of that represented by the subject. In the expression
snow is w It i t e ,
·white is a part of the predicate which indicates a

16

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

Divisions of the proposition.

Divisions of the proposition.

quality of that represented by the snbJ·ect
part of
·
• Such a
an express10n, as either melting
call d
or wl1ite, is
e an A TT RIB U TE· ,. the re f ore,
·
f b. The AttrI.b U t e o f an expresswn
· h
the predicate which .
d
. d'
IS t at part
or a quality of that rep:!s~~~edt~;nt~~a:~bJecc~~dition

<>

Attributes ' als o, may b e

BARE

or

COMPLETE

If the definitions of a predicate and
.
.
interpreted it will b e
I
d
an attribute are rightly
•
un , erstoo that
d·
a pre icate asserts, while
.an attribute merely indicates.

7,

a. Snow is melting,
the snow falls,
the ..wind l1as begun to blow violently, and
tlte beautiful evening star is sinking toward
the western horizon,
are all expressions combining a subject and a predicate. Such a combination is called a PROPOSITION ;
therefore,
b. A Proposition is a combination of a subject
and a predicate.
.
It follows that an expression which lacks either a subject or a
predicate is not a proposition.

6, a. In both
_ .

17

snow i s melting, and
snow is white,

is ~s· used to connect the subj ect and the attribute
an is a part of the predicate Such
t .
'
th
·
a par is called
e COPULA ; consequently,
theb. Td~e Copuh~a ~f an expression is that part of
pre 1cate w rch 1s used t
.and the attribute.
o connect the subject
Observe that the definition does not
assert. T he copula •s tl1
.
say that a copula does n ot
•
e asse rtive elem t ·
d.
en In pre rcates com·p osed of a copula and an attribute.

c. I~ the examples above, the copula
of
1
rs composed
. a smg e word. Let the expressions
the snow 11 as been meltino- and'
tlhe snow w i 11 h ave bee~' melting and
t rn snow i s Jn
· s t about to be melted,
'
.
illustrate
the
fact
that
a
t
copu 1a may be composed of
wo or more words.

c. There are various kinds and uses of propositions, the
description of some of which involves the use of terms we
have not yet defined. The subject will be treated farther
on (see p. 29).
See p. 84 concerning the basis of the divisions of the proposi ...
ti on.

8. The expression,
he can write as well as I,
contains one complete proposition, he can write.
But the expression is clearly intended to convey the
idea that the person represented by I, also, can write,
although I can write is not said in so many words.
To completely express the sense of the statement it
would be n ecessary to add the words can write.
Any part which, though not actually employed, yet
r eally belongs to a statement, is said to be UNDERSTOOD.
It is always permissible in explaining an expression, to insert any understood part or parts. Indeed, it is not only permissible but necessary.

I

I

18

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The ·classes of words defined.

c. A Noun is a word which names an object of
thought, and which may be used as the subject of a
proposition.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

So with father and man, above ; each names an object

9. REMARK. -The combination ofl e tters chip, employed in
<me connect10n, may mean a bit of substance, say wood or marble, ob tained in a certain way. The same combination of lett ers, chip, employe d in another connection, may ~ean a certain
cac~ con:bining breaking and splitting. Used in the one way
chip will be one word; used in the other way it will be a differe1~t word from the first. In the one case it will b elong to a certam_class of words; in the other case it will belong to an entirely d ifferent class. The same in effect is . t rue of many other
words, numerous illustrations of which wii l presen t themselves
to the studen t of grammar. It is a principle which should be
borne distinctly and constantly in mind, that, in classifying words,
depe_ndenc~ m_ust not be placed upon spelling, solely, as a means
o~ ~1stJ ~gu 1shmg d ifferen t words . In what ways the necessary
<l1st_mcuon s can be ~afely made will appear in the topics follow mg. (For Exercises on the several classes of words turn to
.the corresponding se ctions in HELPS.)
·

of thought, and each may be used as the subject of a

proposition. Father and man are therefore nouns.

d. It is not enough in defining a noun to say a
noun is a n ame. F~r every word m ay be said to be
the n ame of an idea. But no.t every word is a noun.

e. There is one exception to every definition of a
·class of words, viz., a word employed as the name of
itself, as when we say,
"tr u 1 y" is an adverb.
Any word so used becomes a notin.

Th~re is a distinction between may be ~sed and is used which
the student sh ould carefully note. (Seep. 2 0, e.)

11, a. The word h is , in
the emperor has met his fate,
is not a noun, but is used in the stead of emperor,
which is a noun. It is a PRONOUN; hence,

THE <JLASSES OF WORDS DEFINED.

10, a. Anything of which we may think is called
an

b . A Pronoun is a word, not a noun, used m-

OBJECT O F THO U G HT.

b. In the expression,
tile c hi I d is father to the man,
child names an objec t of thought and is used as the
subject of a proposition. Any word that names an
·?bject of thought, and that may be used as a subject,
1s a NO U N ; therefore,

stead of a noun.

j

12, a. The word soldiers, when used alone, .includes in its application all soldiers. But, by u~mg
the wo rd valiant with the word soldiers, the application of soldiers is made more d efinite and we are_ led
to apply it fo only those soldiers who are valiant.

20

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The classes of words defined.

The classes of words defined.
W.hen one word is so used with another word it is
said to LIMIT or RESTRICT that other word; ther~fore,
b. A
·
1. s or res t r1cts
when
it · word lim"t
another word
k JS so used w1t.h that other word as to lead us
o ma e a more definite application of it.

t

c. The v a 1 i ant soldiers rushed into the J"aw f
death.
s o
is neither
a noun nor a pronoun· it
. is
.
1 Here valiant
·
·
p aced
directly
before
a
noun
sold1'e1·s
d
.
.
'
I' .
'
' an it is used
to im1t that noun. Any word of which these things
:a
·f re true'. an~ which may be so used, is an ADJECTIVE'
rom which it follows that
'
d. An A~jective is a word, neither noun nor
pronoun, . w~1~h may be placed directly b fi
_noun to limit It.
e ore a
. The w~rd else, generally considered an adjective is an e
to tlus d efinit'. on. It cannot properly be placed direct;yce:./ore a n oun to hm1t it.
e-

~on

e. In
the grain fields were green but became go 1 den'
green and golden are neither nouns nor pro
They
d· ·
nouns
are a Ject1ves although they are not placed di~
rectly before a noun to limit it· but they
b
laced
d h ·
'
may e so
.P
an t erem lies the distinction.

f. In the expressions

)

he was a man of means, and
to be thought honest is creditable,
a man of means, in the on e case, limits he, m the

21

other, to be thought honest, is limited by creditable.
We learn, then, that not only may one word limit another word, but several words may together limit or
be limited as if they were a single word. (See p. 34)
Many gases burn,
some gases a r e dense.
Burn, in the first example is used as a predicate ; are,
in the second, as a copula. A word which may be
made either a predicate or a copula is called a VERB· ;

13, a.

hence,
b. A Verb is a word which may be used as the
predicate or the copula of a proposition.
REMARK.-Bear in mind that the definition does not
say that a verb is a group of words, but that a verb is
a word. In the expressions.
the tlowcr looks '"ilted,
the tlower seem@ wilted,
the tlower became wilted,
looks, seems, and became, are verbs.
But looks
wilted, taken together, d6 not constitGte a verb. Nor
are seems wilted and became wilted verbs. So, likewise, is wilted and has wilted are not verbs in
the flower is wiited,
the tlower lu~s wilted.
Is and has are the verbs ; wilted belongs.. to another
class of words (seep. 68, a, b). So, again, in .
I will have been gone two hours,
will is the verb ; have, been; and gone belong to other

22

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The classes of words defined.

classes. Concerning the treatment of verb
.
phrases,
see p. 117•
c. If we say
J o It n struck J am es ,

we repre~ent John as acting and James as acted u
That wluch acts we call the SUBJECT o
pon.
Th t h. h ·
F AN ACTION
a w lC IS acted upon is the OBJECT OF A
•
TION
I th
b
N AC.
n
e. a ove expression the word struck expresses
the actwn
. said
. to be the
b.
. . of which J ames 1s
o 3ect, and It is a verb . the word Ja
the ob· t f h
'
mes represents
.
Jee o t e action expressed by that verb and
is a ~art of the predicate. Such a part of a 'redi
cate is called the OBJECT OF A VERB ; therefore~
-

dd~ The Object of a verb is that part of the
pre
1cate
··
·
w h'ich represents
the ob.
f h of a . pro pos1t10n
ject o t e act10n expressed by the verb.
Like a subject, an objed is· not necessarily one word.
e. According to the definition of an object of a

;er:~ a vherb, to ha.ve an object, must express action.
u m t e express10ns,
Troy was,
the king sat upon his tltrone
the mother mourned,
·
'
the verb was does not express action . the verb sat
does . express action, but does not t~ke
b'
inde d th ·
an o Ject,
e '
is verb rarely takes an object . and
mourned expresses action without taking an ;bject,

The classes· of words defined.

though the verb mourned is used with an object quite
as often as without.
f. Some · verbs, then, do not take qbjects. So.me
verbs expressing action do not take objects. And
some verbs expressing action take qbjects, but may
be used without.
.
Verbs which may take an object, are often called
TRANSITIVE VERBS; and those which may not, INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
l3ut it is clear, from the examples given, that whether a verb be really transitive or
intransitive depends upon the way in which it is used
in the given case. It will be sufficient to our purpose
to say, when the occasion arises, that a verb is userl
TRAN SIT IVELY or INTRANSITIVELY,_ as the case may
be.

14, a .

Tile night was very dark,
the maid does her work qui ck 1 y.

Very, in the first example, is used to limit dark, an
adjective; quickly, in the second, limits does, a verb;
work, likewise, limits the verb, but quickly, as a limiting word, differs from work in not being the object of
the verb. Any word which may be used as either
very or quickly is used, is an ADVERB ; therefore,
b. An Adverb is a word which may be used to
limit an adjective, or to limit a verb without being
the object of the verb.

c.

}J:e was almost dead,
I al m o s t fell,
my task is a 1 m o s t fl.nislled,

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The ·classes of words defined.

The classes of words defined.

to almost succeed is not enough,
she performed lier part a I m o s t perfectly
the sun is al mo s t over our heads.
'

ne'.th:r o!

In
the las t four of these examples does
almost !1m1t either a verb or an adjective. But by
co.nsultmg the first two examples it will be seen that
this word .ah~os~, without change of meaning; may be
used to hm1t eith er an adjective or a verb without
being its object. It is consequently an adv~rb in all
).
six cases according to the definition (see p
23

d. But this reasoning must not be misapplied. It
does no_t follow that because some word spelled so
and so is a member of a given class, therefore every
word so spelled is a member of that class. For example, the words form and setting may be a verb and
an adjective respectively, as in
the clouds f o rm a curtain to the s e t t i n g sun ;
?ut they are not a verb and an adjec tive respectively
In
as the sun was se tting 11is form appeared to
change.
It is quite obvious that form in the first illustration is
different, .not. only in its use but also in its meaning
and apphcat10n, from form in the second. And the
first setting differs from th e second at least in use
and application, and also somewhat in meaning. In
fact, form and setting in the one example are different words from the corresponding words in the other.
The same, in substance, may be truly said of many

other words spelled alike (seep. 18, 9). These examples may serve to emphasize th~ princi~le that the
identity of a word is not fixed by its spellmg alone.
It happens that there is no word spelled ~lmost belonging to a different class from that to which almost
in the above example belongs. But when we meet
with such words as form and setting, we should dete.r- .
mine their meaning, and especially should asc.e:tam
;vhat are their characteristic relations in propos1t10ns.
.
. '
We can then easily assign them to their respective.
classes.

"

15,

a. The word to in
the meteorite fell to the earth,
is used to connect the words fell and earth, and is
not a copula. It is a PREPOSITION :
b. A Preposition is a word, not a copula, used
to connect words.
c. Of the two words connected by the preposition,
the word earth is the one which follows it. In
that point I will r each beyond,
beyond is a preposition connecting reach and point,
and point is that one of the two words connected, that
would follow the preposition if the words were arranged in their natural order. Earth and point ar_e
the OBJECTS OF THE PREPOSITION. Hence the defimtion:
d. The Object of a/reposition is that one ~f
the two words connecte which follows the prepos12

26

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The classes of words defined.

tion when the words are written m a natural order.

16,

a. In the expression
spring came and the snows disappeared,
spring came is one proposition, and the snows disappeared is a second. The word and is used to connect
the two propositions. In
spring came when the snows J1ad disappeared,
there are two propositions connected by when. As a
connective, and differs from when in not being a part
of either of the propositions connected ; while when,
in limiting both came and disa1ipeared, is actually a
part of both the propositions it connects. Such a
word as and is a CON J UNCTION :
b. A Conjunction is a word used to connect two
propositions without forming a part of either.
c. The word when, used above, is plainly an adverb.
In its capacity of a connective it is called a CONJUNCTIVE
ADVERB.
(See pp. 2 3 and 67. )
d. A comparison of the uses of prepositions and
conjunctions will show that while prepositions connect words as such, conjunctions, though they may
be said. to connect words, do not connect them as
such, but only as they represent propositions. For
example,
lllary an d Thomas played
is a short way of saying
Mary played and Thomas played,

The classes of words defined.

two propositions connected by and. Again,
apples are as good as pears
is a way of saying
pears are good ; apples are as good.

17, a.

In the proposition
my watch is 1 o s in g time,
the word losing having its origin in lose, a verb, may
.
be said to be derived from a verb ; it takes an ob1ect,
time and in that respect is. like a yerb, and may be
said 'to partake of the nature of a verb.; ~t' is use~ to
limit a noun (watch), a use charactenst1c of ad1ectives, and may therefore be said to partake of ~he
nature of an adjective. Any such word as losing is a
PARTICIPLE; therefore,
b. A Participle is a word derived from a verb
and partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective.

'

18, a.
His illness arose from breathing impure air.
Here breathing is a word derived from a ver~ and
partaking of the nature of a verb. More?ver, it 1s the
object of a preposition (from), a relat10n common
with nouns, and so partakes of the nature of a noun.
Such a word as breathing is an INFINITIVE ; hence,
b. An Infinitive is a word derived from a verb
and partaking of the nature of a verb and of a noun.

19. Recalling the definitions of a nou~, ~ .pronoun, an
adjective, &c.; &c., it will appear that the d1V1s1on of words

I
TOPICS.

TOPICS.

29

The classes of words defined.
into classes is based upon the uses, or relations, of words
as such in propositions. It has already been stated that
the spelling of a word is not a safe guide in determining its
class. (See p. 18.)

KINDS OF PROPOSITIONS

20. In
~ ~o not know, alas I what may happen,
IS It true? pooh! I don't care
tl1is is, oh I so funny,
'

alas,_pooh, and oh are introduced quite regardless of
relat10n a~~ even of position, and might be given any
ot~e_r pos1t10n, or be omitted altogether, without imp amng the completeness of the proposition as such.
Thei_r use can p erhaps be b est described by the colloqmal phrase, "thrown in ; " and such wo rds are
accordingly called INTERJECTIONS. Since they do
not bear grammatical relations to propositions they
cannot be classed.

22.

Comparing the propositions,
the work has been finished,
finish the work,
have you flni~hed the work i
it will appear that the first is used to make an assertion or declaration ; the second to express a command · the third to make an inquiry or interrogation .
Such ~ proposition as the first is a DECLARATIVE
PROPOSITION.
One like the second is an IMPER ATIVE
PROPOSITION.
Any proposition like the third is an
I N T ERROGAT IVE PROPOSI TION - These terms almost
explain themselves.

23, a.

21. Many words, like
lierself,
handfnl,
mill-race,
}lea-gr een,
und erline,
n otwithstanding,
double-quick, forever,
overflowin"'
are composed of two or more words combined so intimately as to become practically one word. All the classes of
wo rds are drawn from in making compound words and
every class of words has compound words among its r:iembers. The class to whic h a compound word belonO's is
determin_e? exactly as with other words, by the relatio~s it
may hold m propositions, and not by the class membership
of the separate words composing it.

"'

[ E xercises, &c., in the HnPS.]

PROPOSITIONS.

The work has been finished,
the work has been finished and the laborers
have been paid,
when the work has been finished, the labor·
ers shall be paid.
Comparing these examples, the second and thir_d_ will
be seen to be composed each of two propos1t1ons,
while the first is composed of only one. In the third
example, the work Iias been fini shed ca~not strictly
be said to make an independent assertion. Its assertive force is dependent upon its connection, through
,vhen, with the laborers shall be paid, which, however, does have a propositional force of its own. The

•
TQPICS.

TOPICS.

Kinds of propositions.

Kinds of propositions.

principal part, then, is taken b th
..
laborers shall be i>a'd.
. Y e propos1t10n, the
1 , w 1111e the p
··
the work is finished mere! . .
ropos1t10n when
eating the time or th
d~ _limits the other by indie con 1t10n of th
t h us takes a subord· t
e payment, and
be called
ma e part. So that the one may ·
a PRINC!P AL PRO PO
SUBORDINATE or
SITION, and the other a
DEPENDENT PRO
which almost explain th
l
POSITION, terms
emse ves.

. b. In the second . exam le .
tions is dependent up
th p neither of the proposion e other . the
b
'
y may oth be
called INDEPENDE NT
· PROPOSITIONS.

ple:4~b:·vf' :rhrcrlo1positti~n,
like the first of the examcon ams only
b.

predicate is a SIMPL
1

one su Ject and one
E PROPOSITION.
b. A proposition like the
or more independ:nt
d ~econd, composed of two
an simple pr
··
.
COMPOUND PRO
opos1t10ns, IS a
POSITION.

to denote any one of the component propositions of
a compound or a complex proposition.

e. The term SENTENCE is very commonly used in a sense
practically equivalent to that of the term PROPOSITION as employed in this book, But most of the definitions of a sentence
say, in substance, that a sentence is a combination of words togethe r expressing a complete thmigl\t. Without assuming to
question the accuracy of the definition, we may state that such
definitions are based on the meaning of the sentence, not on
the relations of the parts composing it, and are, therefore,
logical definitions rather than grammatical. Terms employed in
a grammar would best be used in a grammatical sense. If the
student chooses, for the sake of variety, to use the term sentence
with the meaning of the term proposition, no especial objection
can be offered, provided he use the term with that meaning in
every case.

'

c. A proposition like the 1 ·
principal and one o'
t lud, composed of a
called a COMPLEX r more d ependent propositions, is
PROPOSITION.
REMARK.-The terms
COMPLEX-COMPOUND
_COMPOUND-COMPLEX and
are given to more
l'
propositions. Acco d"
comp icated
·
r mg to some g
·
simple proposition .
rammanans, a
d
is one that is
d"
compose of only
one subject and on
e pre icate . and all th
compound propositions.
'
o ers are

d. The word CLAUSE is a general t erm often used

THE SIMPLE PROPOSITION.

25, a. We have learned that a proposition is composed of two essential parts, a subject and a predicate. It has been seen that the subject of a proposition may be a name of something, or a word used
instead of a name. But the expressions 1
the cow and the calf are dead,
to wait is often tedious,
it is growing cold, it rains, it hails,
illustrate other constructions :

b. The first example illustrates the fact that two or
more names (or their equivalents) may be so intimately connected as to form practically one grammatical
subject, taking one verb or having one predicate.

•
32

TOPICS.

33

TOPICS.

The Simple Proposition.

Clauses.

c. By the second we are tau h h
.
may be th
b'
g t t at an mfinitive
e su Ject of a proposition.

d. The propositions in the third
a subject the word it, but used h ex~mple have for
no definitely assignable
ere m the place of
used, is called an IMPER:~~:Lor name. It, as here
subject, an IMPERSONAL SUBJEC;~ONOUN, and, as a
·n
l

e.

The word there may be used somewhat

similarly, as

.
.
th e r e once Ii ved two princes.
But_ m this case there, though
occupying the position of a
subject, is ~ot really a subject.
Two princes is the subject,
and there IS an EXPLETIVE.

26, a.

In the expression ,

they paid ]1 i m money
the noun money is object of th e verb . '
pronoun him. But we inay
'd }Jaid. So, also, is the
cons1 er money t0 b
.
d 1rectly connected with IJUid th
• .
e more
.
an 1um 1s That
f
o b~ects of a verb which is
. .
·
one o the
the verb is called th e D most mt1mately connected with
IRECT OBJECT. th
h
INDIRECT OBJECT I th'
,
e ot er, the
· n is case the ex
·
change of meaning may b
d
press10n, without
•
e ma e to read
they paid money to l1hu:
Here the word which was in the oth
object of the verb is mad tl
b. er example the indirect
Th
'
e 1e o ~ect of a p
..
e indirect object of a
b .
repos1t10n, to.
suc.h a transposition.
ver is generally susceptible of

b. Participles and infinitives as well
as verbs, may take
a direct and an indirect object.'

c. REMARK.-Some persons hold that a verb never has an
indirect object. They affirm that what we have called an INDIRECT OBJECT is always the object of a preposition expressed or
understood.

d.

In

a

they called him
hero,
the construction is different from that in
they paid him money.
In the latter, money represents one object of thought, and
him an entirely different object. But, in the former, hero
and him represent the same object. It is not customary to
apply the terms direct and indirect object to words representing the same individual. The term ATTRIBUTIVE
OBJECT may be applied to a word used as hero is used in
this example.

SOME USES OF PROPOSITIONS AS CJLA.USES,

27, a.

In
how long we shall stay is :not decided,

•

bow long we shall stay is a proposition, used as the
subject. In this respect it is like a noun. Any word,
or phrase, or clause, used as a noun, is said to be
used SUBSTANTIVELY. Therefore, bow long we shall
stay, above, is used substantively. Clauses so used
are called SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. The term NOUN
CLAUSE is used in the same sense.

b. But nouns may be used in other relations than that
2*

34

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

Phrases.

of subject.
relations.

35
Phrases.

So substantive clauses may be used in various

28.

In the expression,
the house you painted white is sold,
you llninted white, eq uivalent to which you painted
white, a dependent proposition, is used to limit ad/ectively the word house, a noun. The common name
for a dependent proposition used adjectively is ADJECTIVE CLAUSE .

29.
Uc stood where I could see him.
Where I could see him limits the verb stood adverbially.
The student will readily apply the term ADVERB
CLAUSE.

30. It has been already stated that parts of propositions are often omitted, and the term understood has been
applied to such parts. The omission is called an ELLIPSIS.
(See p. I7.)

PHRASES.

•

31, a.

In the proposition,
at the last it biteth like a serpent,
the three words at the last are equivalent to at last.
Both of these expressions have the force of finally,
an adverb, and a single word. We have already seen
that in
he stood where I could see him,
where I could see him has an adverbial force, and

that it is a proposition. But nt th~ last and at last
are not propositions. Such a collection of words as
.at the last or at last is called a PHRASE ; therefore,

b. A Phrase is a collection of words, not forming a proposition, which together have the force of
a single member of some class of words.

32. Adverbs, as in the example above, are not the only
words represented by phrases. With a little though.t ~he
student will be able to construct propositions contammg
phrases representing nearly all the other classes of words.

37

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The Noun: Numbers.

THE CLASSES OF WORDS,
SEPARATELY STUDIED.

generally called COMMON NOUNS ; while names like
John, Broadway, Greenville, France, the names of individual objects, are called PROPER NOUNS.

35.
KI N D S, P ROP E R TIES ; RUL ES.

33.

36.

defin ing the classes of words we have
sought out som e p articula r uses b y which the m embe rs of a class
~1ay be . d ist ingu ished. Every object, however, possesses qualiti es b esides th ose wluch serve to d istinguish it from objects of
other d asses . The same is tru e of words. They have uses and
properti es n ot m ent ioned in a defini tion , b ut whose mention is
nevertheless necessary to a reasonab ly full d escription. We
shall h ave to d o with some of th e m os t important of these latter,
those we can l east afford to overl ook. vV c will study separately
the several classes of words, foll ow ing the ord er marked out in
the preced in g topics.
REMARK.-ln

NOUNS.
SOME KI NDS OF N O UN S.
(H ints and Exer cises in H EtPs.)

34. We h ave seen that a word to be a

COMPOUND NOUNS.

N O UN

must

be a NAME. The examples,
boy,
street,
tune,
country, and
John,
Broadway,
Greenville,
France,
show us that a word may be the n ame of an object as
one of a class of objects ; or that it may be the name
of an individual obj ect distinguished by it from other
individuals of the same class. Such names as boy,
street, tune, country, coming under the first head, are

(Seep.

28.)

Nouns like

assemblage,
family,

people,
dozen,

tl1rong,
pair,

lierd,

which in the singular signify a collection of things, are called
COLLECTIVE NOUNS

or

COLLECTIVES.

NlJlllBERS.
(Hints and Exercises in HxLPS.)

37,

a. In the expression,
listen to the song of songs,
song and songs are forms used respectively to distinguish one and more than one. Such forms of words
are called NUMBERS ; therefore,

b. Numbers are forms of words used to distinguish one and more than one.
c. The form song distinguishes one from more than
one ; songs, more than one from one. Such a form
as the first is a SINGULAR NUMBER ; as the second, a
PL URAL NUMBER.
Other examples are book, books;
man, men. Song, book, man, are nouns ; therefore,

d. Nouns have Numbers:
RAL.

SINGULAR and PLUEnglish nouns have only these two number.r.

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The Noun: Numbers.

39
The Noun: Numbers.

38. In saying that
h
term nouns to the class :~~~ss, :~~ t~:~~~rsd·w·~ a~ply the
ber of the class. And so with
n 1v1 ua memFor while it is true tha t
the names of other classes.
nouns as a class have nu b
sue h nouns as sheep, deer ar
.
m ers,
except10ns. Sheep does
not distinguish one from
fro
.
an one, nor more than one
she~ on~'. hNor is there any authorized form of the word
w ic serves such a purpose. In fact h
sheep has not any number. Likewise the noun 'd !e;. noun

t:

m:re

f

39 . .some
words, again, often
h
emp 1oy their singular
orm wi t a plural meaning, as,

fish' pike, foot, ton.
Such is especially true of collectives For
I
·
examp e,
dozen' set, }lair' head (of cattle).

40. Certain abstract objects of th h t h
ness, simplicity, musi c, can hardly beocug ' sued as tho~g.htfoJ_
b
once1ve as existing 1
nurn ers, but only as one. Therefore, the names of such ·~
have, as a rule, only one number form th .
I
w1
, e smgu ar.

b. In the first case the sound of 8 is added rather than
the sound of z, because that sound combines more readily
with the last sound of the singular; in the second case, the
sound of z combines more readily with the last sound of
the singular; in the third case neither the sound of s nor
that of z will combine readily with the last sound of the
singular, and therefore the sound of ~z is added.

42. Hats, the written plural of the noun hat, is
formed by adding s to the written singular ; bags, the
plural of bag, by adding likewise s; watches, plural
of watch, by adding es. In these plurals the s represents the sound respectively of 8 and of z; and the es,
the sound of ~z. Such written plurals a re REGULAR
WRITTEN PLURALS. Other written plurals are IRREGULAR.

OF IRREGULAR WRITTEN PLURALS,
(For Lists of Irregular Plurals see the end of the

H E LPS.)

43. Beauty, duty, pony, are nouns singular ending
in y preceded by a consonant. The plurals of these
words are beauties, duties, ponies, formed by substituting i for y and adding es. The plural of other
similar nouns is formed in the same way.

FORITIA.TION OF PLURALS OF NOUNS.

41, a. Plurals
may be either SPOKEN
B
.
' or WRITTEN
1
.
y pronouncmg the plurals of the .
h t
.
.
.
smgu ar nouns
a ' bag, watch, it will appear that the spok
1 1,
of these
d
.
en p ura s
wor s are produ ced respectively by addin
the sound of s z and ~z
h
g
Plurals formed' as' th ese areto a~e eRsEpGoUkLen singular.
p
·
'
AR SPOKEN
LURALS. Other spoken plurals are IRREGULAR.

44. Hero, negro, potato, are nouns singular ending in
o preceded by a consonant. The plurals of these words are
heroes, negroes, potatoes, formed by adding es. The
plural of most similar nouns is formed in the same way.

.,

40

-

The Noun: Genders..

The Noun: Numbers.

45, Court-martial, man.of-war, are compound nouns,
singular number. Of these the plurals are courts-martial,
men-of-war, formed in each case by pluralizing· the most
important part of the word. Most compound nouns are
thus pluralized.
46.

The words five, aitch, plus, are nouns singular;
plurals, fives, aitches, pluses. The first singular is generally represented by the figure 5, the second by the letter h,
the third by the sign +. When the singulars are thus
represented, the plurals are commonly represented by
5's, h's, + 's, i. e., by affixing an apostrophe and an s to
the sign for the singular. The same is true generally of
other figures, letters, and signs; and also of any word
used as its O'Wn name, as,
tlie paragraph contains too many a 11 d 's.

47. The nouns minutia and dogma are words taken from
foreign languages. For the plural of minutia we employ
minutiro, the regular foreign plural of that word. For the
plural of dogma we generally use dogmas, formed by pluralizing in th e English way; but we may use dogmata, the
regular foreign plural of dogma. In general terms, then,
we use the regular foreign plural of some foreign words,
while of others we may use either the regular foreign plural or a plural formed according to the rule for English
nouns.
If a foreign word is pluralized in both ways, the English
:plural is preferred in ordinary social conversation; and the
foreign, in scientific.
There are many other irregular plurals which can be learned
best, perhaps, by observation. Lists of irregular plurals will be
found on p. 123.

41

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

GENDERS.
(Hints, Exercises, and Lists, in Hsus.)

48, a.

In the expression,
the pr inc e and the p r i n c e s s are fond of

society,
· to
1
the form prince represents an object as b~ ong;ngth
and princess an object as belonging ~ . e
one sex,
ffirm that · they d1stmother sex. Hence we may a
s of words
guish objects in regard to sex. Such form
are called GENDERS ; therefore,
. .
.
b. Genders are forms of words used to d1stmgmsh
objects in regard to sex.
C Such a form as prince is a masculz"ne gender ·~ h" h
MASCULINE GENDER is that form of a wor w ic
represents an object as belonging to the. ~ale sex. .
d Such a form as princess is afemtnznegenderd. h' h
•
. that form of a wor w ic
A FEMININE GENDER IS
ct
as
belonging
to the female sex.
.
represents an ob~e

A

REMARK.-When we say,
the moon sheds her light,
t the moon as belonging to the
we use the form !zer to represen
female sex. The moon does not have sex.
'

. ce, pr1'ncess ,
e. P rm

and likewise count, countess, are

nouns ·, therefore,

N ouns have Gen d ers.

MASCULINE

an

d

FEMI-

NINE.

ost of the feminine genders that are formed from
49.
d by the addition of ess to the mascua masculme are ma e
. ( 88 ) t
.
f
he1'r The tendency now is I I . o
line, as heiress rom
•

1:.

42

43

TOPICS.

TOl'ICS.

The Noun: Cases,

The Noun : Cases.
discard the feminine forms and to use the masculine form
indifferently for either male or female. Thus the editor of
a paper may be .either a man or a woman.

50. A form used to represent an object as belonging to
no sex, if there is such a form, would be called a NEUTER
GENDER.

I~ word~ such as friend, child, parent, there is nothing

to d1stmgmsh the sex of the object represented ; and such
words as tin, warmth, sensitiveness, never in themselves
<:onvey even a suggestion of sex. Such words have no
gender.

English nouns have only the two genders, mascult'ne
and.feminine.

51. Genders are little used in the English language, but
substitutes for them are employed. For example, in
the boy and the girl sing well together,
boy and girl are distinct words. Girl is not a form of boy,
.and boy is not a form of girl. But they are equivalent to
genders of each other, one meaning a young male of the
human kind, and the other a young female of the same
kind. To such words the term GENDER EQUIVALENTS
may be conveniently applied.

The latter form is not appropriate ·to the relation in
which life is, nor the former to the re~atiori in which
life's is. It is on account of the relation of the word
in each case that the particular form is used. -Such
forms are CASES ; therefore,

. b. Cases are forms of wo.rds used on account of
the relations the words hold to other words.

c. The first of the forms above is the simple form
of the noun, the naming form, and is called a SIMPLE
CASE or NOMINATIVE CASE.
d. Forms like the second, which is here used to
limit another word in a certain way, are typically and
generally used to limit by denoting possession, and
are accordingly called POSSESSIVE CASES:

e. A Possessive case is. a form used to limit,
ordinarily by denoting possession .
f. Life, life's, and John, John's, are nouns ; therefore,

Nouns have Cases:
POSSESSIVE.

Formation of the Possessive.

CA.SES.

52, a.
That l i f e is long which answers Ii f e's
great end.
Here the form life is used in the relation of subject;
the form life's, in the relation of a limiting word.

SIMPLE or NOMINATIVE and
English nouns have no other cases.

53,a.

•

This casket India' s glowing gems unlocks,
words are men' s daughters,
.
by 0 th er s' faults wise men correct their own.
In these expressions the words India's, men's, and

44

The Noun: Cases: Rules.

The Noun: Cases .

.others' are possessives ; the first is a singular, the
second and third are plurals. The first and second
.are formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to
the simple or nominative case. The nominative case
of the third is a plural, ending in s : its possessive is
formed by adding an apostrophe only. With a few
exceptions, the possessives of other nouns are formed
:in the same way. Whence the rule :

b. The PO SSESSIVE CASE of a noun should be
formed by adding an apostrophe and the letter s to
the nominative case; unless the noun be a plural
ending in s, in which event the apostrophe alone
should be added.

45

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

RULES FOil THE

CONSTRUCTION OF NOUNS.

To CONSTRUCT a noun properly in any given relatipn
is to use the proper form for that relation.
FOR NOUN AS SUBJECT.

55, a.

In
e o. rt h with o. thousand voices praises God,
earth is a noun used as subject and is in the nominative case. It is agreed that any noun so used shall be
in the nominative case. Hence the rule :

b. A noun used as the subject of a proposition
must be in the nominative case.
Must be is used in the sense of must be put.

c. When the nominative singular ends in s, the
poets sometimes add the apostrophe alone in forming
the possessive. The weight of authority favors the
employment in prose of the additional s.

54. The preposition of is frequently used with a n object, the two together forming a phrase equivalent to a possessive noun. Thus,
the roar o f t h e w a v e s
is equivalent to,

FOR NOUN AS ATTRIBUTE.

56, a. In the expression,
innocence is his sh i e 1 d ,
shield is a noun used as attribute and is in the nomz'native case. It is agreed that a noun so used shall be
in the nominative case. Rule :
b. A noun used as the attribute of
must be in the nominative case.

proposition

FOR NOUN USED AS OBJECT.

the w o. v e s ' roar.
The simple case with the preposition is generally to be
preferred to the possessive case.

a:

57, a .

In
lives there a man who loves his pain i
pain is a noun .used as the object of a verb. It is in
the simple or nominative case. It is agreed that a
noun so used shall be in the nominative case. Rule ;

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The Noun: Cases: Rules.

b. A noun used as the b. in the nominative case. 0 ~ect of a verb must be
R
EMARK.-Do not confuse the ter
.
A noun used as object is in the
. ~s relation and case.
used as subject is in the b. ~bJect1ve relation. A noun
su Ject1ve relation. In
he does not love his p a in and
the P a i n is severe
'
.
pain is used, first, in the ob'ecti '
the subjective relation p ~ . ve relation, and secondly in
·
·
am m the first
I · · '
cal m form with pain in th
. examp e is 1dentiIt
is
th
. '"'' form,
e
second
or, as we have named that for
.
. e ~zm.r'e
m, the nomznatzve case.
FOR NOUN IN OTHElt RELATIONS.

58, a.

In the same wa b
.
like the following th
yd, Y employmg expressions
' e stu ents ma d ·
the construction of
Y enve rules for
nouns used
·
ject of a Preposition
p
.. respectively as the ob' a artic1ple, and an Infinitive .
they struggle for renown
.
the farmer's boy is plough· '
h I
lllg corn
e oves to sing liis 11·ttle song,
'

b.

In

that is a book of Wi"il: ,
f
iiams
e use o the possessive after a re
.. '.
possessive so used is consi<l d P posi twn is peculiar. The
. th
- ere more emphaf th
m e ordinary way. T _ j .
le
an when used
.
o exp ~1n the expression we read
that I S a book of w·11·
'
1 1am ,s books
h'
w ich means practically,
'
th

•

47

The Noun: Cases: Rules.

that is one of William's books
.
So that the apparent anomaly is reall
a noun in the possessive tor ' t
ya regular employment of
im1 another noun (understood): ..

,
I

FOR THE POSSESSIVE.

59, a. In
foe's is a
notes a
Foe's is
used as
Rule:

the proposition,
my life is my foe's debt,
noun used to limit the noun debt, which dedifferent thing from that denoted by foe's.
a possessive case. It is a,greed that a noun
foe's is used shall be in the possessive.case.

b. A noun used to limit another noun denoting a
different person or thing must be in the possessive
case.
·

c. If the limiting noun actually denotes possession the
rule may be stated : A noun used to limit by denoting possession must be in the possessive case.
FOR NOUN IN APPOSITION.

60, a.
For the sake of David, my servant.
Here the word. servant is a noun limiting another
noun (David) which denotes the same person. The
two nouns are practically alike in their relation to the
:rest of the pr<?position. A noun used as servant is,
_in this proposition, is said to be IN APPOSITION WITH
the noun it iimits ; or the two are IN APPOSITION.
David and servant are in the same case. Hence the
rule:

b. Nouns in apposition shall be in the same case.
c. If nouns in the possessive are in apposition it is customary to use only one possessive sign and to join that to

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

49

The Noun : Cases: Rules.

the possessive which stands directly before the word which
the possessive limits, as in

PRONOUNS.

for my servant David's sake.
In this case the possessive sign, though written in immedi-

SOME KINDS OF PRONOUNS.

ate connection with David, is supposed to belong just as
much to servant as to David.

(Exercises, &c., in the HELl'S.)

FOR NOUN I NDEPENDENT.

61, a .
My friends, I come not here to talk.

Friends does not really form a part of a proposition,
and is in tha t respect independent of grammatical relations. Words so used are said to be GRAMMATICALLY INDEPENDENT.
Friends is in the nominative
case. It is agreed that a noun grammatically independent, &c., &c. Rule.

62. Instead of a separate rule for each construction we
may fram e general rules to cover similar constructions, reducing the number of rules. Thus the rules for construction might read :
I. A noun used in the relation of object must be in the
nominative case;
2. A noun used to limit another noun denoting a different person or thing must be in the possessive case ;
/
3. Nouns in apposition must be in the same case;
4. · A noun used in any other relation must be in the
nominative case.
(Exercises in Parsing, &c., in the HRI.Ps.)

63. The pronouns I, thou, and he, possess a property called PERSON (see paragraph 66). They are . on .
. that account called the PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
64.

In
. b .
lie is a man w h o understands bis usmess:,
t h e pronoun W ho , while subject of the proposition,
who understands bis business,
with· the propoa1so serv es to connect that proposition
.
sition
he is a man,
to show that the second relates to man, a ·part of the
fi n t . There are several such .pronouns. They are
called CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS or RELATIVE PRO.N OUNS.

65.

The pronoun who may also be used as in
who is here t
.
.
putting
a
question.
Who, what, which, and
viz., in
whether when so used, are . called INTERROGATIVE
'
·But ·1·t is doubtful whether at least what
PRONOUNS.
.
and which, when so u's ed, should not be called ad1ectives, INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES.
There are other kinds of pronouns, whose ~ames are not so
as comparacommon1y use d as the preceding ' and are omitted
·
tively unimportant.

3

50

TOPICS.

The Pronoun : Properties.

. The Pronoun : Properties;

68,
66, a.

FE:t.P_•

NINE.

I call, thou callest, he ·calls.

I .is used to distinguish a person as the speaker; thou,
a person as spoken to ; he, as spoken of. Such a
form as either I, thou, or he, is a PERSON. We ma
then, state that
y,

Persons

are forms of words used to distingui~.h a person (or thing) as speaking, or as spoken
to, or as spoken of.
·
Such a p erson as I is called a FIRST PERSON
thou, a SECOND PERSON; as he, a THIRD PERSON;

•

as

'

c. I, thou, and he, are pronouns; therefore,
' Pronouns have Persc. ns.
The three persons mention ed in these examples arc not, however, forms of one another. Yet each is probably the remnant
off a set
·
Ir of fo
h rms of one word. If this is not true , 6· c pro;mety
o ca mg t C3e, _or a ny other differer.t words PERSONS m b ·
fairly questioned.
. -' .. ..
' ay e

' 67, a. In.
if tltou dost not, they will,

it is obvious that thou ~nd 1hey are numbers.
a pronoun. So, likewise, is they; therefore~
b. Pronouns have Numbers:
PLURAL.

a. He and she, his and hers, represent the

Genders of Pronouns: . MASCULINE and .

PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS,

~·

51

TOPICS.

Thou is

SINGULAR . and

b. Whether it is a gender or not depends upon whether
it distinguishes an object in regard tci sex. · As a fact, it is
seldom; if ever, used with any even -remote purpose of suggesting · the' idea of sex.:· Those who believe that it -is~
gender call it a NEUTER GENDER..
'
. '
'
'
€9, a. In the propositions,
who art thou 7
thy strength is manifest,
I lo,·e thee, old England,
thou, thy, and thee, are forms used on account of "the
respective relations of the pronoun to othe_r words.
Such forms we have learried to call CASES. It is ·ob'..
vious that thou is a nominative· case and thy a possessive case. The form thee is he~e used in the objective relation (object of love), and, in fact, is set apart
for use in that relation. Any such form is an OBJEC-'.
TIVE CASE ; therefore,

b. An Objective case is that form of a word
which is set apart for the objective relation.
From these several illustrations it will appear that
c. Pronouns have Cases: NOMINATIVE, POSSESand OBJECTiVE. English pronouns have no other

SIVE,

cases.
d. Let it not be inferred that every pronoun has all three
cases. For example, which exists in only the simple form,
and it, its, are the only forms of the pronoun it.

The Pronoun: Rules.

The Pronoun: Rules.

70.

The number of pronouns is comparatively
small. Yet, on account of the frequency of the use
of p:ono~ns, they constitute an important class. Below is a hst of the forms of the principal pronouns.

SINGULAR.
Poss.

my, mine
me

Obj.

SECOND PERSON.

PLURAL.

I

SINGULAR.

we
our, ours
us

thou
thy, thine
thee

PLURAL.

you, ye
your, yours
(you)

THIRD PERSON.
SINGULAR.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.

native case. It is agreed that a pronoun so used shall
be in the nominative case. · Rule :
b. A pronoun used as the subject of a proposition
must be in the nominative case.
FOR PRONOUN AS ATTRIBUTE.

FIRST PERSON,

Norn.

53

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

Mas.

F e m.

he
Jtis
him

she
her, hers
her(i)

PLURAL.
Neuter.(?)

it
its
(it)

they
their, theirs
them

The pronoun who has three cases : nom who •
·
, poss.
h
• b" ...
.
.
w11 ose' o ~· w.uom. For the pronoun i't'' use d 1mpersona y, see p. 32,. d. Some grammars contain full' lists of pronoun~. The i?terested student will find it profitabl
examme such lists.
e to

RULES F'OR THE CONSTRUCTION · OF PRONOUNS.
FOR PRONOUN As SUBJECT.

71, a.
He is a prince among princes.
He is a pronoun used as a sub.feet and is in the nomi-

72, a.
It is I, I am he , we are th e y.
1, he, and they, are pronouns used as attributes.
They are in the nominative case. It is agreed that a
pronoun so used shall be in the nominative case.

Rule:

b. A pronoun used as the attribute of a proposition must be in the nominative case.
FOR PRONOUN AS OBJECT.

73, a.

In the expressions,
I commend him to you, and

the fur w hi ch the monarch wears warmed
· a bear,
him and which are pronouns used in the relation of
object. Him is an objective case. Which is a nominative case and is used rather than an objective case,
presumably because an objective case of which does
not exist. It is agreed, &c., &c. Rule:
b. A pronoun used in the relation of object must
be in the objective case if the pronoun has such a
case ; otherwise, in the nominative case.
This rule applies to the object of a Preposition, the·object of a Participle, and the object of an Infinitive.

54

TOPICS.

55

TOPICS.

The Pronoun: Rules.

The Pronoun: Rules.
FoR THE POSSESSIVE

'74.

The rule for a
. ·
· .
pronoun used to limit b d
possess10n rs es sen tiall th
y enoun similarly used
d y e same as that for a
(Seep. 47.)
' an may be similarly stated . .
noting

FoR PRONOUN
' IN APPOSITION.

'75, a.

In the expression
behold tlie king 1iere .' 11 i lll h
praise,
'
w om all men

him is a pronoun in apposition with a nou
.
have already learned th t
d
n, king, We
·.
a wor s m
essentially the same 1 .
appos1t10n hold
.
re at10n m a
. . ,
should follow then th t
pr?pos1t10n. It
·
'
'
a a pronoun
· ·
with a noun should h
h
m appos1t10n
ave t e case it
ld h
used in the position of tl
. wou
ave if
1e noun 1
"f h
' . e., r t e noun
were omitted and tl
1e pronoun subsft t d f
This principle is observed in th
I u .e
or it.
above . for if
.
e construct10n of him
we omit the noun king we shall
'
'
b cI10,(
'I 11 i m 1iere &
say,
him being the case prescribed b ' c., .
a pronoun used in the ob. f y a f'.rev10us rule for
rule :
Jee ive relat10n. Hence the

b. A pronoun used in a
..
must have the case pre "b dppos1t1on with a noun
. w h"ic h the noun stands.
sen e to it f,or t he re lation
m
C. If nouns and pronouns had
cases and the cases had th
the same number of
l
.
e same names th
s tan d : A pronoun in
..
.
' e ru e mio-ht
apposition with a . noun or wlth

another pronoun must be .in the same case with that noun
-or pronoun;
FOR PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT• .. ,

76, a.

In
b e au t y ' s tears are lovelier than her smil?,
beauty's is the word for which her stands. The word
for which a pronoun stands is the ANTECEDENT of
the pronoun.
.

b. In
.the k i n g ab_d icated his throne,
both king .and his are of the masculine gender an:d
singular number. When two or more persons hoid
the same opinion we say they agree in opinion. In
like manner, when words have certain common properties, we may say the words agree in whatever they
have in common.
The his already mentioned is a pronoun and king
is its antecedent. Because they have ' in common the
masculine gender and singular number we say they
agree in gender and number. But in
he was a king w It o loved his people,
while the antecedent, king, is a masculine gender and
singular number, the pronoun who has neither gender
nor number, and therefore cannot agree with its antecedent. We may, then, derive the rule:
·
c •. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
gender and number whenever both have gender and
number.

:•,.,

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

57

The Adjective ; Coi:p.parison.

ADJECTIVES.

c. There are two exceptions : this, which has a plural,
these ; and that, plural those.

SOME KI NDS OF ADJECTIVES.

COMPARISON.

[Exercises, &c., in the HELPS.]

80. If we say of several acts that one is noble,
another nobler, and a third noblest, we imply that the
quality of acts may differ in degree. And we use
the forms noble, nobler, noblest, to express such different degrees of that particular quality. In a similar
way we may employ the forms brave, braver, bravest.
We have not a good name for such forms. But because by employing tnem we imply a comparison of
the degrees of a quality, we may call them FORMS OF

77. Some adjectives, like
three, fourth, one first
convey an idea of number '
'
called NUMERAL AD
• Such adjectives are
JECTIVES, or NUMERALS
78. The terms INTERROGA T
•
NOMINAL ADJECTIVE
. d
IVE ADJECTIVES, PRO•
·11
s, an COMPOUND
. WI explain themselves.
ADJECTIVES

COMPARISON.

N
1

PROPERTIES OF A.DJECTIV

ES,

9, a. In the expressions

'

we thought You honest
we thought him honest'
we thought th em hone:t
we thought her honest '
t~e adjective honest is constructe '.
h1m, them her d"ff .
.
d with words, you
'
'
I enng m the · s
l
'
person, number gend. ' d
evera examples, in
'
er, an case B t th f
remains th
·
u
e orm of
h. onest
.
e same througho t A
s a rule,
adJect1ves undergo no clrnnge o f form u h·
.
several ways w
ffi
w en used m these
b
. .
e may a rm, then, that
b . AdJectives have neither Persons, Numers, Genders, nor Cases.

81. To distinguish the first of the forms, noble,
nobler, noblest, from the others, we might properly
call it the simple form, but the name POSITIVE FORM
is more commonly given it. The second is equivalent
to more noble, a phrase made by combining the .word
more with the simple form of the adjective. Such a
form is called a COMPARATIVE FORM. The third is
equivalent to inost-noble, which combines the word
most with the simple form. Such a form is called a
SUPERLATIVE FORM.

82, a. Noble and brave (above) are adjectives;
therefore,
Adjectives have Forms of Comparison : srnPLE or POSITIVE, C~PARATIVE, and SUPERLATIVE.
3*

59

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

The Adjective : Comparison,

I

b. If one writes or pronounces in succession the
positive, the comparative, and the superlative forms
of an adjective, he is said ~o COMPARE the adjective.

VERBS.

83.

From the examples,
tall, taller, tallest,
young, younger, youngest,
it appears that the comparative form of an adjective may
be made by adding er to the positive; and the superlative
by adding est to the positive. This is the usual or REGU~
LAR way of forming comparatives and superlatives. . Other
ways may be learned by observation.

SOBE KINDS OF VERBS.

86 The terms TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE, as
appli~d to verbs, .and also the term COMPOUND, have
been explained.

(See pp.

22,

II

23, 28.)

PROPERTIES OF VERBS.

84, a.

(Exercises, &c., in the HRLl'S.)

Brilliant light,
more brilliant light,
most brilliant light.
The adjective brilliant expresses a quality. But it is not
here, nor is it ever varied in form to express different degrees of the quality. The same is true of many other adjectives ; i. e., some adjectives are not compared.

87, a.

I am, thou art, he is.
. .
. 1 d
to think of the
The forms am, art, and is, ea us
k
speaker the person spoken to, an d the person spo en
of. Su~h forms we have learned to call PERSONS.
(See definition, p. 50.)

b. 'Many ad jectives are both compared and combined
with more and most to form phrases cf comparison.

b. In

85.

The words less and least are also often used >yith
the simple form of adjectives to form, in a certain negative
sense, phrases of comparison.

thou lo~ e 8 t, he 1 o v es,

lovest and

·

l~ves are likewise persons. These several

·~

words are verbs; therefore,

Verbs have Persons.
I!

88.

,Am, are, loveth,

was,

1'

walk.est, were,

as ~erbs, .illustrate the fact that

Verbs ha.ve Numbers.

60

TOPICS.

The ~erb: . Agreement.

The Verb : Tenses.

89, a. Comparing write with wrote, and sleep
with slept, as they occur in
I wrote,
I write,
they sleep, tliey slept,
we observe that write affi rms an act as taking place
at the present time, and sleep affi rms a condition as a
present one ; while the time of that affirmed by wrote
and slept is past time. Write and wrote, then, and
slee}) and slept may be described as forms which distinguish the time of that expressed by them. Such
forms are TENSES. These words are verbs ; therefore,
b. Verbs have Tenses :

and PAST.
English verbs have only these two tenses : PRESENT
TENSE and PAST TENSE, terms which explain themselves.
PRESENT

b.

Comparing

I recite, and I recited,
.
ld seem to be formed from the present
recited, a past. tense, .w;u But this is not true h istorically_. The
tense by add mg only .
. t. on added to form the past
.t d . trictly the termma 1
ed of nci e ts s
.
d
mi tted in accordance
f
ite bemg droppe ' or o
'
a h . The change may be repretense, the ~ _o rec
with a familiar rule of orthogr p yl . observed in tlte formation
sented by ncit[e]ed. The same rue is
of salable from sale.
AGREEMENT.

91 a In the expressions,
~ a~, thou art, he is, thou

lovest, he l~ves,
the several verbs agree with their subject m person
and number.

FORMATION OF TllE PA.ST TENSE.

90, a. In
I laugh, I laugl1ed,
laugl1 is a present tense ; lau ghed, a past tense. The
latter is formed from the present tense by adding the
letters ed. Past tenses made by adding ed to the
present tense form are said to be regularly formed.
Verbs whose past tense is thus formed are called
REGULAR VERBS.
Other verbs a re IRRE GU LAR.

In

we are, they are,
there is agreement in number only, are h aving no person.

For lists of irregular verbs see p. r23.

61

TOPICS.

In

I read, they read,

there is no agreement in either person or number;~~
cause read is neither a person nor a number.
following, then, may be stated for a rule : .
b A verb and its subject must a.g~ee m person
·and .number when both have the requ1S1te person and
number.

92

a Verbs seldom have the requisite person and
b' . The verb commonly called to be has more person
nudm er. ber forms than any other English verb. The
an num
.h h
· s forms of the
" forms " of this verb as used wit t e vanou
·pronouns are :

TOPICS;· :

TOPICS.

The Verb·:· Phrases~

The Verb: Agreement.
PRESENT TENSE.
SiNGULAR.

I am,
thou art,
3d P. he is,
rst P.
P.

2d

PLURAL.

we are,
you are,
they are.

PAST TENSE.
SINGULAR.

I was,
thou wast
3d P. he was '
rst

P.

2d P.

.

'

PLURAL.

we were,
you were,
they were.

93, a. It instead of he in he moves (above) we were
to use John, saying · John moves, we should have a verb in
the present tense used with a singular noun. it will be
seen that the verb is put in the singular nu~ber (according
to the rule), and also in the third person, though John, like
all ·other nouns, has no person :
b. Whenever a verb in the present tense is used
with a noun that -is singular in form (or in sense), the
third person, singular, of the verb must be used.

b I htwill be seen that th"rs verb h as the r
· ·
ot tenses for agreement . b h
equ1s1te forms in
h ) F
m ot numbers (
h
_as •
or agreement in all three
"
. no ot er verb
site forms in only the .
1
perJons it has the requismgu ar of the
on 1y one person in the s·
1
present tense, having
t
·
· h
mgu ar of the
mt e plural of either tense.
pas tense, and none

SOl'llE

VERB_· PHRASES.

(For Discussion of Verb Phrases see HELPS, p. 117.) ·

b. Let the ve r b move illustrate the •·'acts concern!ng
Other Verbs :

94.

When we say,

PRESENT TENSE.
SINGULAR

i move, ·
tl1ou movest,
3d P. he moves (movetb),
rst P.

2d P.

we move,
you move,
they move.

PAST TENSE.

rst P.

SINGULAR.

I moved,
2d P. thou movedst
3d P. lte moved
'

I sliall " ·rite,
you will write,
I am going to write,
I am on the point of writing,

PLURAL.

PLURAL.

we moved,
you moved,
they moved •

Th
'
. e present tense has no ers
.
,
the second and the th . d p o~s m the" plural," and only
Ir persons m the ·
1
no singular number for th fi
smgu ar; and it has
ber for either of the pers e rs~person and _no plural numthe past tense.
ons.
ven less is to be sajci. for

the phrases shall write, will write, am going to write,
am on the point of writing, are used to represent the
act of writing as to take place in future time. There
are no forms of English verbs thus representing an
act. If such forms existed they would probably be
called ·FUTURE TENSES. The above phrases, equivalent to future tenses, may be called FUTURE-TENSE
PHRASES.

TOPICS.
TOPICS.

The Verb: Phrases.

The Verb: Phrases.

95, a.
I have written,
tl1ou 11 a st w r i t t e n,
he has written.
Have written, hast written, lrns written, represent the
:act of writing as completed at the present time. These
phrases are combinations of the verb-forms have,
hast, has, with the per.feet participle of write, the verb
expressing the action. (See p. 68, b.) Any phrase
similarly composed is called a PRESENT-PERFECTTENSE PHRASE.

b. It is agreed that if we wish to represent an action or
state as fin ished or perfected at the present time, we shall
do it by combining have, or hast, or has, with the perfect
participle of the verb which expresses the act or state.
Some excepti ons to this rule will be observed by the student,
and some exceptions to following rules also.

96.
We had gone when the message arrived,
tl10u J1 ads t go 11 e wbeu tl1e message arrived.
The phrases bad gone and J1adst gone represent an
action as completed or perfected at or be.fore a specified
past time. These examples teach us that to represent an action or state as completed at or before some
specified time in the past, we may use a phrase combining 11ad or hadst with the perfect participle of the
verb expressing the action or state. Such phrases
may be called PAST-PERFECT-TENSE PHRASES. Some
<:all them PLUPERFECT-TENSE PHRASES.
0

97.

. . e ·n .him ere to-morrow,
It i sh awill
11 have
.s:esee n us ere to-morrow.
have
. d will have seen represhall have seen an
hiey
The p rases·
.
~
•"'leted
at or be+ore
some
s to ue comr
'.I '
sent an action atime . T h ey t eac h us that in .order to
fi tu
!Pecified u re.ction· or state as to be · completed at .or
'fi d future time, .we may use a
represent an ~
,before ..some ,spec1 e . .
tl phrase will ·'have ·or
de by combmmg ie
phrase ma .
f t articiple of the verb exshall have with the per ec p
S h phrases are
.
the action or state.
uc
pressmg
TURE-PERFECT·TENSE PHRASES.
. ,
d · finitives
REMARK.-Verbs, partlc1ples, an . m k' ds .combine in
to form verb-phrases of vanous m . (See p. u7.)
many ways
h
't.her

FU

98.

MOODS

,, not at present
English .verbs .-uo
·
or .VOICES.

ave et

66

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

CONJUNCTIONS.

ADVERBS.

SOME KINDS

SOME KINDS.

m 99. Li~tle need be said concerning adverbs. Adverbs
ay be CONJUNCTIVE or RELATIVE (see p 26
d
COMPOUND. There are other kinds of
important.

adve~bs,'b~~ ~enss

100, a.

&

. Adverbs may be Compared. And, like ad;ect1ves, they may combine with more and most to for
phrases of comparison.
m

b. Some adverbs are irregularly compared. (Seep. 125.)
1:EMARK.-The " rule" for the use of adverbs is u
-omitted. Likewise the "rule" f
. .
p rposely
.
.
or prepos1 hons, and that fo
c;~J~n~t1ohns.HSome reasons for these omissions will be faun;
s a e m t e ELPS, p. rr3.

.
'

We have learned. that .some propositions are
INDEPENDENT,and that others are DEPENDENT Or SUBORDINATE (pp. 29, 30). Comparing independent propositions
with one another, they may be said to be of an equal order.
But a dependent proposition is in order or rank subordinate
to the principal proposition that it limits_.

b. Conjunctions used to connect independent
propositions or propositions of an equal order or
rank, are called CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.·
Those connecting dependent · clauses with principal
are called SUBORDINATING CON JUNCTIONS.

COMPARISON.

In
I read often,
you .read oftener,
. .
he reads oftenest,
it .1s obvious that often, an adverb is compa d
w~s
'
re.
oon, compared soon, sooner, soonest. Hence

101, a.

102. The term CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB was explained
in paragraph d, p. 26. The student i_s cautioned against
confounding conjunctions with conjunctive adverbs. He
will avoid the difficulty by carefully comparing and applying the two definitions.
103. The necessity of supplying understood parts of propositions is more frequent in. explaining the uses of conjunctions,
perhaps, than in connection with any other kind of words excepting conjunctive adverbs. (See pp. 23 and 26.)

68

TOPICS.

TOPICS.

69

The Participle,

106. It is obvious that the participle in ·ing is fonned
by adding ing to the simple form of the present tense of

PARTICIPLES.

the verb from which it is derived.
PROPERTIES OF PARTICIPLES •

. ·(Exercises ' &c., in th e H ELPS.)

104, a.

When we say,
the liquid is fer m
.
the liquid has f
en t1 n g' and
ermented
we use the form ~ermentm"'
.
'
to
of fermentation as still g ~
represent the process
at th e time
·
·
mng
on or as no t perfected
indicated
b
fermented is used t
y the verb; The form
o represent the
or to a certain deg
process as com"'leted
b
ree perfected t th .
-r
y the verb. Ferment·
a
e time indicated
ples ; therefore
mg and fermented are partici-

'

.

b. Participles h ave Form

.

that which they exp
s which represent
ress to be · h
perfected. Such a f
e1t er unperfected or
orm as the fi t
.
IMPE RFECT PART ICIPLE
f
rs we will call an
P
' o ten called th
ARTICIPLE or partic' 1 .
e PRESENT
th
'
Ip e In -ING S h
.
.
uc a form as
e second is called a
PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

105.
· In describing a participle it ·
re f er it to the verb f
.
is customary to
rom which it · d ·
11
is enved. Thus
fermenting would b
e ca ed the IMPER
PLE, and fermented the
FECT PARTICIPERFECT PA
ver b ferment -the , d
.
RTICIPLE of the
but not i' d t'.
"or of bemg used in a s' ·1
en 1cal, way with of in
1m1 ar,
the son o f Zebedee.

FORMATION OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES.

107.
I have rec it e d,
I have laughed ,
I have d r i v e n ,
I have h i d d en.

The perfect participles in these examples are derived
respectively from recite, laugh, drive, and hide. They
are severally formed by adding ed or en to the simple
form of the present tense of the verb, and making the
regular changes prescribed by the rules of orthography (p. 61). Perfect participles so formed are REGULAR PERFECT PARTICIPLES. Others are IRREGULAR.
·Been is a notable exception to the rule just illustrated.'

·if

108, a. It is customary to speak of the simple fonn of
the present tense of a verb, the simple ·form of the past
tense, the imperfect participle, and the perfect participle, as
the PRINCIPAL PARTS of the verb. Thus
write, wrote, writing, written,
are called the principal parts of the verb write.

b. But a participle belongs to a different class of words from
verbs.

Therefore a participle is not strictly a part of a verb. . .

70

TOPICS.

INFINITIVES.
CHA.RA.CTERISTics.

(Exercises,.&c., in the

HELPS.)

109.
I see with the naked eye but you cannot
see without glasses.
It will appear that the infinitive see is in form exactly
like the root of the verb see. Such an infinitive is
called a ROOT INFINITIVE, or simply an INFINITIVE •

--.. ·'

~

. 110.
He is fond of w a I k i n g •
The infinitive walking is formed from the verb walk
by adding ing to the simple root form of the verb.
Such an infinitive is called an INFINITIVE IN -ING.

!-IEL-~S.

111, It will be seen, then, that infinitives, like participles, are of two kinds.
\

For remarks on the sign of the in.finitiv~, seep. 96.

\

..
'

!."'

. ·~ '

.

.

_, ~

.

.

·~

HELPS.
REMARK.

The prece d.mg Topics contain on!
of explanation and 1·11 ustrat1on
.
as ythso much
d"
k
e e 1tor
d eems necessary to
average mind. Them~ e them c~ear to the
the teacher conce . elps contam hints to
.
rnmg meth d
t10ns that it was not thou
o s. ; explanatroduce into th T . ght advisable to ine op1cs· dd. ·
tions for students who n ' a it10nal illustraexarn ples and lists fo efed·further help ; and
r re erence I
ance with this plan the T . · n accordas a text-book. th~ H I op1cs may be used
only as a book o'f f
e ps should be used
re erence.
Every paragraph in the
h .
Helps which ref ers to a ,;,ara
f
'g"rap zn the T.•,;, · ·
b
Oyzcs zs numbered wz'th the
which it refersnu~;; of t he paragraph to
refer to other p~ragr:;~s.marked if do not

-·GENERAL

SUGGESTIONS.

TO THE TEA.CHER.

9if I. It should be strongly impressed upon the
minds of all that to study grammar successfully we
must study the language itself. Neither the teacher
nor the text-book should serve as more than a guide.
We must cultivate the habit of observing the facts of
language as displayed in the utterances of approved .
writers and correct speakers. We must acquire
facility in thinking, each for himself.
'If II. In accordance with the most approved theories, the
sensible teacher of botany encourages her pupils to go
abroad to seek for themselves specimens for study. A
similar course is equally incumbent upon the teacher of
grammar. And the text-book of grammar should contain
only the few illustrations necessary to guide the pupil to
the broader field. It should be understood, then, that the
illustrations inserted in the Helps are few because they are
intended to be only helps to something more, not final subjects for the pupil's study.
4
~~

t t.

74

75

HELPS.

HELPS,

':fo the Teacher.

To the Teacher.

Require him to furnish for his recitation new examples
illustrating the fact to be presented. Have him show by
reciting upon his new examples whether he understands
the principle the y illustrate. Ask questions.

ir !II. It must not be supposed that because a pupil has
mastered a grammar, he wi ll therefore have become a correct speaker. We have said that ape rson b ecomes a correct
through
habit. A knowled ge o f grammar
a·d speaker
·
.
I s one 111 preserv111g the habit . but th e st d
f
h .
g ram
h I b
'
u Y o tee meal
mar .e ps ~t very little in acquiring it. The habit is
to b e ac qui red chiefly through imitation.
The
part is to use la nguage wo rthy of the
T .teacher's
. .
pupi s imitation, to lead the pup il to observe and avoid the
errors made . by others
. h"im to correct his
. ' and to req mre
h .
own. Special exercises should be devoted to
tion at proper times B . . .
.
sue 111struc.
.
.
ut it is fa r more important that this
111struction
should accompany that given
.
. every subiect
.
· d f
111
an
rom
the
very
first
Indeed
f
h
:
.
J
b ·
·
' rom t e time the child'
. egms to talk, every occasion for using language of h"
own should be made an occasion for forming the habit ~~
using correct lang uage.

When the pupil shows himself familiar with the examples found in the boclk require him to select illustrations
from the writings of approved authors.
Then let him have much practice in composing original
examples.
He thus learns principles through applying them.
Do not hope that familiarity with a principle is to be
acquired through "learning by rote." The final test of a
pupil's acquaintance with a principle is not the glibness
with which he can repeat the words in the book, but the
readiness and the accuracy with which he can apply the
principle, as shown by his facility in selecting and originating and explaining illustrations.

'If IV. Recitations .and Study• Pr epare yourself thorhi
oug
', k Y for each
· recitation. It is not enoug h merely to
now the less.on.". Thorough preparation implies much
thought ; and implies readin ess in asking q f
the pupil's knowledge.
ues 10ns to test

The pupil should give reasons for every conclusion he
states. This is imperative. And his statement of reasons ought invariably to precede the statement of his conI clusion: For example, he should not say, speaking of a
given word, it is a subject because it represents that of
which something is said. But he should say, it represents
that of which something is said, and there/ore it is a subject. This practice of stating reasons in advance cannot
be too strongly insisted upon.

in grammar are rec 1't a t lOns
"
th Recitations
f
k
on language ·
ere
ore
·eep
the
language
clear!
b
'
th. h
Y eiore t h e pupil.
To do'
is, t e example recited upon should b
. .
board by the pupil himself, and the wor~s ~nt~n
ondt.he
0
should be underlined.
e stu 1ed
At first, for one lesson assign only one to ic
the pupil to read the topic carefully again an~ . Require
'
again, until
h e und erstands it.

As a rule, the course we have indicated should be pursued with each topic separately. In reviewing a chapter, be
careful not only to have the pupil understand each separate

·'

,,
,Ii Ji

•

,.

HELPS.

HELPS.

77

To the Teacher.
topic, but also to h
h'
.
several to . t
ave im perceive the relation of the
pies o one another and t 0 th
h I
treated in the cha ter
. .
e w o e subject
should be able to ~tat~ t:ef~I:~e:~e~'.ng a chapter the pupil
On no account proceed to a
thc;ou.g hly understands. the

.

.

topicsn:;e:~~l~t~~:~~~he pupil

cour~~il:h:~l~ ~:t :~t ;ntelligent enough to pursue such
age may be.

a
u y grammar, no matter what their

ON

DEFINITION

THE

OF

GRAMMAR.

. Remark.-The study of the TOPICS should begin with
the first chapter. Indeed, the student should not attempt
any chapter until he has become familiar with the topics
which precede.

1-2. In studying language we may gain a knowledge of the
derivation and history of words and roots of words. Such
knowledge is Etymology. Or we may acquire a knowledge of
the formation of letters and the spelling of words, a knowledge
sometimes called Orthography. Or we may learn the pronunciation of words and so know Orthoepy. We may, in studying
language, gain a knowledge of the right use of language, by
some called Rhetoric. Or we may study language with still
other objects in view, and thus acquire knowledge of other
branches of the subject. If we would make a scientific study
of any one branch of the science of language, we shall need to
guard against encroaching upon any other branch. One convenient way to avoid trespassing upon foreign province in studying a given science is to have the ground we wish to cover
clearly marked out and its extent limited. In other words, we
should define our subject. It is with this object that we begin
our study by defining grammar.

,.

'

·tt

1, e. In defining grammar the term relations is used in
the technical sense. The technical terms used in this book
should be interpreted technically.
2, g. This definition of grammar is not the definition
commonly given. Yet it will be found to be serviceable

l
t.

i

HELPS.

HELPS.

79

The Subject: Exercises.

The Subject : Exercises.
and not inaccurate. Accord '
.
ject of studying grammar ismg to t~1s definition, the obedge of the relaf
f
to acqmre a classified knowl.
.
ions o words and of th f:
m their various relations This .
~ orrns words take
knowledge of correct ex .
.
implies, of course, a
other things.
pression, and, in fact, of many

Exercises.
'If T he editor wishes to repeat that in inserting a few examples under this topic and following topics, his. object is to
furnish helps. But the pupil's study must not cease here.
With the experience acquired in studying the examples
found in the book, he will be able to look outside for fur-

ther illustrations.
THE SUBJE(JT,
(See TOPICS, p. 14.)

3~

a. Many persons make the mistak

.
subiect, in grammar is "that f h' he of saymg that the
That of whz'ch son:eth .
. o ~ ~c something is said."
h
zng zs saz'd 1s al
.
.
t ought, and must be distin uished
ways an oo/ect of
represents an object of thoug~t.
from the word which
,. do t
-J (The
Th.paragraphs
d. . marked
.
no refer to particular T opics.)

. .is 1stmct10n between words
.
.
words represent must b k
.
. and the objects
this connection but th e ~pt m mmd, not only in
mar.
'
roug out the study of gram-

3, c. The term COMPLEMENT .
apply to the word or wo d
h ' is a convenient one to
subject, make up the c r sl w ich'. together with the bare
omp ete subject Th
complement is used to
·
e same word
'
name corresp d'
'
cates and ·attributes. ·
on mg parts of predi-

Examples of the Subject.
.<Exercises on succeeding pages contain many examples of the Subject.)

,- At first point out both the complete and the bare
subject. But after a time it will be found more convenient, in using the term subject, to designate the

bare subject.
·
I. Elms grew on the lawn.
2 . Stately elms grew on the lawn.
3. Tall, stately elms grew on the lawn.
4. Many tall, stately elms grew on the lawn.
5. Many tall, stately elms, graceful z'n outlz'ne and sym·
metrical inform, grew on the lawn.
6. Contrz'butt'ons to relz'eve the sufferers were sent in.
7. In yonder cot, the village maiden kept her school.
8. The wind rushes by, its howl is unheard.
9. Nevertheless, strange stories got abroad.
Early the next morning the battle was begun:
II. How wonderfully are we made!
12. To relieve the poor is our duty.
~3· How the soul is connected with the body is a mys10.

tery .

.

I

80

HELPS.

Examples of a Recitation.
ir This and following examples of recitations are given
merely by way of suggestion. There are many ways of
conducting recitations from which the teacher will, of
course, select those most suited to her class in the different
stages of the pupils' progress. The recitations should be
quite complete at first, but later, may be much abbreviated.

81

HELPS.

The Subject: Recitation.

The Subject : .Predicate.

Abbreviated Form.
.
. .
( b
) the word vessel is a
II. Of this expression a ove ' . h
thing is
.
.
that of wh1c some
part which represents£
xpression is the subject,
.
S h
part o an e
said.
uc a
fi . .
. The subJ' ect of an ex.
t the de mt10n .
b
according o
. & &
Vessel the bare su pression is that P;~~r £~~ :·complet; subject.
ject, and the toge
.
.

Extended Form.
The vessel was 1lying before the wind.

I. Something is said by this expression concerning
a vessel : the word vessel represents the object vessel,
and therefore represents that o.f which sometht"ng i's
said. This word may be described, then, as a part
o.f the expression which represents that o.f which something is said. According to our definition, such a
part of an expression is the subject of the expression.
The word vessel is therefore a subject.

It is not of vessel, merely, that something is said,
but of the vessel. We have learned that we m ay call
the several words which together form a subject, ' a
complete subject. The vessel, therefore, is the complete
subject of the above expression, and vessel, the bare
subject.
It will be seen that the object of the recitation is to classify
a certain part of the expression. The italicized words illustrate
a way of applying a definition in such a case.

THE PREDICJATE.
(Sec ToF1cs, p. 15,)

Examples of the Predicate.
.
(The Exercises
on the SubJ' ect contain examples of the

P

d' cate)

re

I

•

Time.flies.
Time is jlyzflg.
.
3 Time is swiftly flyzng.
4. Time never ceased to fly.
,,,, · out everywhere.
·
5. Flowers are_:Peeyzng nt to the concert together.
6. In the evening they we
. to ,,,rotect persons and
.7. The duty of government zs
Y
property.
l
8. You have heard if I fought brave'-)'.

I.

2•

. ked cease from troubling.
9 . There t h e w1c
They made him laugh.
· .
II. His misfortune was to be born nhc~.
this nobly
. g been a benefactor to is race,
1 2 . H avm
·
generous man died.
What is your reason for doing that? ?
13. When does he propose to leave town
I~
h
.
15. Boys, come in out oft e ram.

10

4*

HELPS.

HELPS.

P·r oposition: Exercise.

Attribute : Copula.

~

Example of a :Recitation.
ATTRIBUTE:

COPULA,

(See ToP1cs, p. 16.·)

5, b. When the attribute is a noun, as in
that metal is go Id,
it may not at first appear to indicate either a condition or a quality. However, a .n oun names a set of
qualities or conditions, and so may fairly become an
attribute.

Examples.
The work is.finished.
z. His efforts were w ell rewarded.
3. To be polite is to be kind in a courtitous mannitr.
4. He had grown to be quite eloquent.
I.

5.
6.
7.
8.

Man is mortal.
The plant will become stunted.
The sun seems to be rising.
The moon will soon have been obscured one hour.

9. The air grows damp and feels chilly.
He is every inch a man.
1 I . Sweet are the uses of adversity.
12. Your spirits are too bold for your years.
13. Your brother is but young and tender.
14. My master is a man of churlish disposition.
15. The merchant might have become rich.

The patient will soon hav~ become st:rong.
a. Of this expression, the word patient is the subject : will soon have ,become strong is. the predi~at:.
The word strong is a part of the predicate, and md1cates a condition of that represented by the subject.
It is therefore an attribute, according to the definition : The attribute of an expression is that part of
the predicate which is used to indicate a condition or
a quality of that represented by the subject.
b. The attribute of the expression is connected
with the subject by will soon have become, which is a
part of the predicate; therefore, will soon have become
is a copula, according to the definition : The cop~la
of an expression is that part of the predicate which
is used to connect the subject and the attribute.
The words composing the copula are so closely combined
that it is hardly possible to separate them, and say of any
one, that it can be used alone as the copula of the expre~­
s.ion. So that the distinction of complete and bare predicate is not to be made.

--·-

10.

THE PROPOSITION.
(See TOPICS, p. 17.)

Exercise on the Proposition.
"if I. Point out the subjects, predicates, attributes, copulas,

and propositions.

Bear in mind that a proposition must

HELPS.

HELPS.

Proposition: Exercise.
combine both a subject and a predicate.
conclusions.

R

easons bifore

THE NOUN.

"Ab
. hoy ' s first night at school is usually not a time
f
·
little lad at
C mirt · The heart 0 f th e solitary
0

thorston
d sank within. him . A
. me Iancholy hung about
e ecayed manswn. It had once k
b.
.
days The b k
nown etter
fail . .
. ro en gateways, the summer-houses
en m rums, the grass-grown court the bl k
of the schoolroom depressed th
. '.
ea ness
p 'll
'
e spmts. Southey's
l ow was wet with tears before he fell as!
. Th
master of the school was at one with h' eep.
e
ings . h t
.
is surround' e, oo, was a piece of worthy old h
.
decayed. h t
. .
umamty now
' e, oo, was fallmg m untimely ruins. The
work of the school fell into the hand
f h.
Charley Flower. Both father and son 1'~e: th~ ;o:,
tery of. ~he fl amboyant penmanship, but South/' handwntmg had not yet advanced to the d
!s
style. His spelling he could look b k ecorat~ve
pride."
ac upon with
'If I I. It will be seen that the d· · ·
. b1v1s10n of the proposition
into Subject Predicate &
'
' c., is ased upon the uses· of
th ose parts.

(See

TOPICS,

p. x9.)

10.

The exercises given under the topics Subject, Predicate,
and Proposition, contain many examples of the NOUN.

"if I.
kinds
other
only.

In reciting, names are not to be given yet to the
of nouns nor to the kinds of words belonging to
classes. We are now makz'ng general dz'visions
Reasons before conclusions.

, II. .By way of additional practice in identifying
nouns the pupil may select any correctly written article and find all the nouns occurring in it, applying
the definition to each one. He should continue this
practice until he is able to identify nouns off-hand.
It is of great importance that in every instance he
should verify his choice.

Example of a :Recitation.
'' Beneath a bony buttonwood,
The mill's red door lets forth the din;
The whitened miller, dust imbued,
Flits past the square of dark within."

"if III. First divide the propositions into subject ·and
predicate; do this always. Then :
Buttonwood is a word which names an object of thought
and which may be used as the subject of a proposition. It
is therefore a noun, according to the definition t A noun is
a word, &c., &c.

.

86

HELPS.
The Pronoun
:
R
---'.:citation.

HELPS.

The Pronoun : Exercise.

it dWhen the pup1·1 says a certain word m
oes n ot happen to be s
ay be used as subiect i"f
b
o used as . th
, '
a ove, he may compose a proposi;ion im ~ case of buttonwood,
used as subject. In
h
n which the noun shall b
t
.
sue cases m
e
sate, if possible, what is the l ~· oreover, the pupil should
stance he would·c t.
re a ion of t he word
In th· .
·
1s mon mue, speaking of b
lt ·
uttonwood .
B

IS

not used either

·

definition : A pronoun is a word, &c., &c. It is not
a noun since it does not name an object of thought.
It is used instead of the noun-( the name of the .person r.e ferred to) . It is the subject of the proposition
of which lifted up his eyes is predicate.

·

.
as sub1ect or as attribute
ut if the sentence read
.

that bony

he would say :

t~ee

·
18

It will be observe d that these statements are all suggested by
the definition of a pronoun.

f I. On no account should the student proceed to the
next class of words until he is skt"lled in identifying words
of the given class, and of classes previously studied.

a buttonwood,

It, buttonwood is he
.
tion.
,
re used as the attribute· of a propos1.
And so on with mill's, door din

f IV

Exercise on the Pronoun.

.

,
' miller, squa1e, dark .
. On no account should h
next class of words unfl1 I1 . ' ~ e pupil proceed to the
of th e given
·
· I"d entifying
.
class : this if ei is skilled
.
m
words
or a month.
,
t requires a week, a . fortnight,

Point out both the nouns and the pronouns. The pupil
may continue giving full reasons for his selections of words ;
this, until he is perfectly familiar with the classes of words.
No mention (yet) of kinds of nouns or pronouns.

THE PRONOUN.
(See

ToPics, p. 19.)

11. The practice work on r

that on nouns. It should p ~no~ns should be similar to
a d·
consist m ·d ·r .
n ~n applying the definition a d I I _ent1 ymg pronouns
relation in which any g·v . ' n a so m determining the
d' .
I en prono
.
istmguishing kinds of p
un is used ; but notyet in
ronouns.

Example of a Recitation.
.

He lifted up his eyes
H e IS a WO r d 'not a noun wh' h . •
a noun. It is theref
'
IC
is used instead of
ore a pronou, n, accordmg
· · .to the

I

Mother said she would propose a plan. Her mind
had long been made up to take the children on their
anticipated trip. They had begged to be taken fo~ a
;;ail up the Hudson. So, after consulting father,
mother laid the plan before the chiMren themselves
and suggested the following Wednesday for a holidaY"
on the river. The girls danced with delight, and
each of the boys thought himself the happiest body
in the world. Father said he would arrange his business so that it should take ca:re of itself for one day,
come whatever would. This almost made us cry for
joy, because we very seldom have mother and father
together to share the pleas.;.re of our merry holidays.
I don't know which of · the . children was most eager~

S8

HELPS.

HELPS.

The Adjective: Exercise.

The Adjective : Limiting words.
Martha was :eally quite beside herself.

Even Jip

~new somethmg unusual was going on, for he was

Jealous and seemed to say, "You do not take much
notice of me."
O~ the appointed morning we were all awake by
the time the sun showed his face. Mother had said
"Rest yourselves well, and do not get up until seven."'
But who could lie abed on such a morning !

But by connecting comforts with survived, a survival
from some definite loss is indicated, and we are led to
apply the term survived more definite~y. .comforts,
then, may be described as a word which is .so used
with another word as to lead us to make a more
definite application of that word. I~ .is therefore a
limiting word, according to the defimti~n .: A word
limits or restricts another word when it is so used,

&c., &c.
LIJU:ITING "WORDS.

1

(See Tories, pp. 19, 20.)

THE ADJECTIVE.

12, a. W o:ds limit one another t'n many ways.
Much practice should be had in applying the definition of " to limit or restrict" before going on with
adjectives.

(See To•1cs, p. 20.)

Exercise,
" Milton was, like Dante, a statesman and a lover · and
like Dante, he had been unfortunate in ambition ~nd i~
love. He had survived his health and hz's sight, the com,
forts of his home, and the prosperity of hz's party.
Onl_Y several of the !imiting words are italicized. The pupil
_may, m each case, pomt out the word limited. O/ hit parly
illustrates the fact that several words may together limit another
word.

Example of a Recitation.
When we say, simply, he had survived, we do not
make a particularly definite application of survived.

12, d. Bear in mind that an adjective
(I) is not a noun ;
(2) is not a pronoun;
.
( ) and may be placed directly before a noun to
3
limit it.

9i1 In reciting, the reasons should be stated why a
given adjective is neither a noun nor a pronoun.
If · a oiven instance it happens that the adjective is not
m o·
·
·
d
laced directly before a noun, but follows it, or is use as
;ttribute or to limit a noun understood, the fact should be
stated.

Exercise.
From my study I see in the lamplight,
Descending the broad hall stair
Grave Alice, and laughing Allegra,
And Edith with golden hair.

l'

...---------------90

HELPS.

---

HELPS.

The Adverb : Examples;

The Verb : Hints.
A whisper and then a silence :
Yet I know by their merry eyes,
They are plotting and planning together
T o take me by surprise.
A sudden rush from the stairway,
A sudden raid from the hall I
By three doors left unguarded
They enter my castle wall ! '
They climb up into my turret,
O'er the arms and back of my chair·
If I try to escape they surround me; '
They seem to be everywhere.
-Longfellow,

THE VERB.

(See T o•zcs, p . 21 .)

13'. a-b. On ~o account should the next topic be
considered
until .the pupil is ready in di s t mgms
'
. h'mg
b
ver s. It n eed. hardly be suggested that the exercises
should be contmued on the classes of words al
d
studied.
rea Y
- , A~ pres.ent the work should still consist mainly in leammg
. to identify verbs by applying the defi m.t.10ns. I n studymg verbs, a course may be pursued similar to that suggested
for the. classes previously studied · The e xerc1ses
·
under
p~ecedmg t.opics contain many examples of verbs, with and
without objects. Keep clearly in mind the definition of th
class of w~rds to be studied. And do not con'ound ver:
phrases wzth verbs.
:t'

THE ADVERB.

(See Tories, p. 23.)

14, c. The use of the adverb almost in so many ways illustrates the principle that the class-membership of a word is not
determined by means of the number of its p ossible relations, but
by the one or the several characteristic relations in which .t he
word may be used. Adverbs are pre-eminently limiting words,
and as such may limit almost all the kind!> of words in various
ways, so that it would be fatal to a definition of an adverb to
include a statement of all those uses, or of any more of them
than are really distinguishing uses. A definition is a limitation..
A description may be limited or unlimited according to the purpose of the describer. Both are useful in study. But definitions and descriptions must not be made to do exchange duty.

, In those ~ases in which a given adverb is not used to
limit either an adjective or a verb, the pupil should compose expressions containing the adverb used in one of those
ways.

Examples of the .Adverb.
(For Examples of Conjunctive Adverbs, seep. 93.)
1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

The horse grew quite thin.
The snowflakes fell slowly to the ground.
The king scowled ominously.
The rain was falling fast.
It is natural to the deer to move gracefully.
He leaped far beyond the mark.

92

The Participle: Examples •

The Preposition: Conjunction,

.

TO PICS ,

---

Examples of the Conjunctive .Adverb.

THE _ PREPOSITION.

(See

93

HELPS.

HELPS.

(See also under the Topic Propositions, p. ·xo3.)

p. 25. )

15. In his practice exercises the pupil now h

. k" d
<>f words to talk about . A d . h"
. . as six m s
when occasion requires n:w mh is td esc npt10ns he will,
'
ave o mention b ·d
ot h er relations, the relation of
b.
, es1 es
of an object of a preposz"tion. an o 7.Ject o.f a verb and that
if The illustrations, under precedin
.
.
ous examples of th
..
g topics, con tam numertion. Keep the deefip~et?os1~10n ~nd the object of a preposi··
m 10n m mmd ·· prepos1t10ns
words,
connect

I.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

They cannot go while I am away.
Never two ladies lo".ed as they do.
The -stag at eve had drunk his fill
Where danced the moon on Monan's rill.
So still he sate as those who wait
Till judgment speake the doom of fate.
Do you love him because I do ?
He died a patriot's death after he had fought
bravely for his country.

THE CONJUNCTION.

(See

T OPICS,

p. 26.)

THE PARTICIPLE.

· o ften necessary to
su16,1 d. The
d pupil will discover that l"t is
f
. pp! un erstood parts when explaining th
JUnct10ns.
e uses o con-

iT In disti~gui shing between conjunctions and re ..
between conjun ctions and conjunctive d
b
pos1t10ns, and
in mind that the class-membersh1'p ofa vedr s'. it should be kept
.
wor s 1s d ete · d b
t h e1r r elat ions to th e proposition
rmme
Y
· (S ee P· 27, par. 19.)

?

Examples of the Conjunct·i on.
I.

The sun shone into my roQlil. a nd I was w k d
ra e by his
beams.

2. The winds blew but the house stood firm
3. You may come to us or we will go to you.
4. The vase fell from the mantel yet was not. broken.

(See TOPICS, p.

07.)

17. Occasionally pupils find it difficult, in the case of
some particular word, to determine whether it is a participle
or an adjective. In such cases, carefully recall the two definitions. If a word, though like a participle in other respects, may, w ithout change of meaning or sacrifice of sense,
be actually placed, and used, before the noun or pronoun
limited, it is included under the definition of an adjective,
and is an adjective. While a word that is really an adjective
cannot reasonably be included under th e definition of a participle; because the definition of a participle would have a
word merely " partake of the nature of an adjective." (See
r ecitation, p. 94.)

94

The Infinitive.

The Participle : Examples.

Examples of the Participle.
The windows rattling in their frames
The ocean roaring on the beach '
The g us_ty blast, the bickering fladies,
All mingled vaguely in our speech.
z. Waste not a sigh on fortune changed.
3.
All na_ture' s _c~ildren fee l the matin spring
Of life rev1vmg with revi ving day
4.
There is no flock however watched .and tended
But one dead lamb is the re.
'
I.

5.

T wo good friends had Hiawatha
Singled out from all the others '
Bound to him in closest union.'

6.

There was .a stir and a sound in the slu m b enng
.
village of Plymouth ·
Clanking _and clicking of a~s, and the order
imperative, "Forward l"
Given in tone suppressed.

Example of a Recitation.

They set Jlim free without his ransom Paid•
Paid is a word derived from a verb and partaking of
the nature ~f. a verb and of an adjective. It is theref~~e a ~artlc1ple, according to the definition: A art1c1ple is a word
.
. ? &c ., &c • It •is d enved
from Pthe
verb pay. It is like a verb because it ma b 1. . d
·
'
Y e im1te
ad b "
. ver ia11 y m the way in which a verb is limited. for
mstance, we might say,
·
'
without his ransom paid in fu 11 ,

95

HELPS.

HELPS.

in which case in fall limits paid adverbially. Paid
partakes of the nature of an adjective in limiting a
noun, ransom,-a relation characteristic of adjectives.
, This example illustrates the difference between a participle and an adjective. As the expression reads, we are
led to understand that a person was given his liberty without
the paying of a ransom. But, if the expression should read,

he was set free without his paid ransom,
we might understand that the person paid a ransom, and
that it was not returned when he was set fre e; or that he
had had in his possession a paid ransom, which, however.
was taken away from ~im, and he was sent away without it.
W e say, then, that paid in the original expression is a
participle; and that it is not an adjective, because it cannot, without change of meaning, be placed before the noun
to limit it.

THE INFINITIVE.
(See T op1cs, p . 27.)

18, a. In this description the infinitive is shown to
be like a noun in being used as the object of a prepos1t10n. Nouns, however, are used in other common
relations besides that of object of a preposition ; for
example, as subject, as object of a participle, as
obj ect of a verb. So ·with infinitives : they may be
used in all these relations, and, therefore, in all these
respects may partake of the nature of a nouri.
, I. Let the ·student carefully compare the definition ·o r
an infinitive with that of a participle, a:nd carefully consider·

------------

- - - -

HELPS.

HELPS,

The Infinitive .

97

The Infinitive : Examples.

the various ways in which nouns and adjectives may be
used. He wm then be able to distinguish readily between
infinitives and participles, and to recognize readily the similarity of infinitives to nouns, and of participles to adjectives.

I waited to see you.
Here to actually has a meaning, being ~~uivalent t_o _in
order to, and it is a word. It is a prepos1t1on. See is its
object, and is an infinitive.

'If II. The following propositions all contain infinitives
used as the object of a verb. The student should compose
propositions containing infinitives used in the other relations mentioned .
I will go (meaning practically, I will the act
of going),
do wait (do the act of waiting),
begin writing,
let me j ump,
make him laugh,
compel him to laugh,
they intend starting to-morrow, .
they intend to start,
he prefers riding,
he chooses to ride,
she can sew,
you should stop.

' III. Some of these examples illustrate still
another important fact. The "word " to, where it occurs in these expressions, cannot be assigned any
meaning. It has not any meaning. It is therefore
not a word at all. It is a mere sign which custom requires us to employ with some infin~ves and to omit
with others, and permits us to employ or omit as we
please with still others.
'If IV. Nevertheless to when it is a word may have an
infinitive for an object, as in

Examples of the Infinitive.
He chose to sit there.
Let me see it.
3. They must do their duty.
4 . How can they fly without wings?
5. What would you t!tink of me?
6 I enjoy inlialing the crisp air.
.
7: The king seems desirous of advancing the interests of his
country.
B. She is determined to try the remedy.
9· They were endeavoring to induce him to arrange a program.
IO. The rattling of musketry is said to ca~se horses to grow
restive.
II. To be independent is with many persons to be unscrupulous.

1.
2.

Now I do frown on thee with all my heart. .
13. I have more cause to hate him than to love him.
Perchance the maiden smiled to see
Yon parting lingerer wave adieu ,
And stop and turn to wave anew.
1 5. Let me remember thee.
16. I am not taught to make anything.
17: I did find him still mine enemy.
rB. Let us go thank him and encourage him.
1 . What else may hap to time I will commit.
9
20. It shall become thee well to act my woes.

12.

5

99

HELPS.

HELPS.
The Infinitive: Recitation.

Example of a Recitation.
We are going to try reading him to sleep.
Reading is a word derived from a verb and partaking
of the nature of a verb and of a noun. It is therefore an infinitive, according to the definition : An infinitive is a word, &c., &c. It is derived from the
verb read. It partakes of the nature of a verb in
taking an object, him, It is the object of an infinitive
{try), and in that respect is like a noun, nouns being
often used as object.

Remark.-The pupil must persevere in applying
the definitions and the principles, each one separately,
again and again. But the object must not be to become glib in repeating definitions and statements of
principles. Our aim should be to know the .faCts
stated in definitions and to know pri"nciples; in short,
to know English grammar.

PROPOSITIONS.
(See

TOPICS,

23.

The process of dividing a propos1t10n into its
parts is called AN~LYSIS. An analysis should ge~er­
ally be accompanied with descripti~n.s of the various
parts. The analysis of a propos1t10n may follow
some such order as the following :
1.

Declarative?
Interrogative?
Imperative?

2.

Simple?
Compound?
Complex?

3. If simple :
Subject?

t

pp. 29-35.)

Predicate?

Phrases?

4. If compound:
Clauses? Why called independent ?
Analyze the clauses:
Subject ?
Predicate ?
Phrases ?

5. If complex :

.

Clauses: Why called principal and subordmate?
Analyze the clauses :
Subject?
Predicate?
Phrases?
"if If a clause is used substantively, adjectively, or adverbially, the fact should be mentioned. Reasons before
conclusi"ons.

100

HELPS.

HELPS.

Propositions : Recitation.

Example of a Recitation,.
This recitation is not complete. I t is intended to show especially a way of distinguishi ng a proposi tion.
You now perceire what the trouble is.
This is a declarative sentence. It contains two propositions,
you now 1>erceive, and
what tile trouble i s.
The latter is used to limit the former by serving as object to
the verb of the form er. The former, then, is a principal
proposition ; the latter, a subordinate; and the whole expression is a complex proposition, the subject of which is
you, af the complete predicate, now perceive what the
troubl e is.
The subject of the subordinate proposition is trouble;
the predicate (complete), is what.
We have said tha t what the trouble is is the object of a
verb : in that respect it is like a noun, and is therefore a
substanti ve clause.

Examples of the Direct and the Indirect Object.
(See

1.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

T OPI CS ,

IOI

Propositions: Exercise.

p. 32> a .)

We paid the men their wages.
Let me see.
Let us forgive them th eir debts.
I'll give thy harp heroic th eme.
Experience has taugh t men many severe lessons.
Her mother was engaged that mc;>ment in teaching her
music.
I was asking the gentleman his name.

Examples of Propositions,Clauses, and Phrases.
Delays are dangerous.
.
The gentle rain refreshes the thirsty flowers.
3· A transient calm the happy scenes bestow.
4 . These are suggestions of a mind at ease.
5. My master is of churlish disposition.
6. A great cause of the night is lack of the sun.
7 . It was the deep midnoon.
8. I thank thee for thy love to me.
9. Spinning tops is a favorite amusement with boys.
.
10• To preach is not to practice.
11. Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gam.
12 . His father left him well off.
From peak to peak the rattling crags among
13.
Leaps the live thunder.
14. Now I do frown on thee with all my heart.
l 5. He is said to have been a very ingenious youth.
1 6. Men have died from time to time.
17 . They d anced themselves out of breath.
,
18. 1 have enough money for the present.
19. Disgusted by his discreditable acts, nearly all the mans
friends d eserted him.
20 • You have done very well on the whole.
21. H aving collected his army, Hannibal began his march.
.
22 . Wilt take thy chance with me?
23 . It is more blessed to give than to receive.
1.
2.

Now came still evening in, and twilight gray
Had in her silver livery all things clad.
2 . Revenge is an act of passion ; vengeance, ?f j~stice. "
3 . Puss is still living and has just completed his nmth year.
I.

102

General Exercises.

Propositions : Exercise.
4. O'er r~ugh and smooth she trips along an d never looks
behmd.
5·
The day is cold and dark a nd dreary ;
It rams and the wind is neve r weary.
6. The sea hath its pearls, the heaven hath its stars but
my heart hath its love.
'
7. The familiar seems trivial, and only the distant ~nd
unknown completely fill a nd satisfy the m· d
8. E'it h er you or he must go.
m •·
9. You have the power to command, nevertheless I will
not come.
IO. In the . proc~ss of ordinary distillation, the liquid to-be
d1stilled is heated and converted into vapor m
. one
,
.
vessel, and chilled and re-converted into r
another.
iquor m
I.

2.

3.

4.

5·
6.
7.

8.
9.
10.
I I.

•

Though the deep between us rolls
Friendship shall unite our souls. '
His praise is lost who waits till all commend
There .have been holy men who hid thems~lves
Deep m the woody wilderness and gave
Their lives to thought and pra~er .
Come, sir, here 's the place.
My heart leaps up when I behold
A rainbow in the sky.
The bubbling brook doth leap when I come b
Because my feet find measure with its call
y,
I'm a careless potato and care not a pin ·
How into existence I came.
As nig~t to stars, woe lustre gives to man.
Whate er the motive, pleasure is the mark
Up guards! and at them !
·
I ask you: are you innocent or guilty?

103

HELPS.

HELPS.

If I were ~ot Alexander, I would be Diogenes.
13. The good that men do lives after them.
14. All that I dread is leaving you behind.
15. Those that think must govern those that toil.
16. They never fail who die in a just cause.
17. He -did what was required of him.
18. Thou see'st I am calm.
19·
When icicles hang by the wall,
And Dick the shepherd blows his nail,
And Tom bears logs into the hall,
And milk comes frozen home in pail ;
When blood is nipp'd, and ways be foul,
Then nightly sings the staring owl,
To-who.

12.

Exercises in Distinguishing Propositions,
Clauses, Phrases, and Words.
I.

Once, when the weather was very dry, a thirsty
crow searched everywhere for water, but she could
not find a drop. While she was croaking for sorrow,
she spied a jug. Down she flew at once, and eagerly
pushed in her bill ; but it was of no use. There was
plenty of water in the jug, but she could not reach it,.
because the neck of the vessel was too narrow. After:
she had tried in vain for half an hour to reach the·
water, she next attempted to tip the jug over ; but it.
was too heavy for her, and she could not stir it. Jils(
when she was on the point of giving up in despair, a ·

HELPS.

HELPS.

105

General Exercises.

new thought struck her. "If," said she, "I drop
some stones into the jug, the water will rise higher,
and in time it will rise up to my bill." Immediately,
though she was nearly fainting with thirst, she bravely set to work. As each stone fell, the water rose ;
and before half an hour had ·passed, the clever crow
had quite quenched her thirst.

II.
The poetry of Milton differs from that of Dante, as
the hieroglyphics of Egypt differed from the picturewriting of Mexico. The images which Dante employs speak for themselves:-they stand simply for
what they are. Those of Milton have a signification
which is often discernible only to the initiated. Their
value depends less on what they directly represent,
than on what tJey remotely suggest. However
strange, however grotesque, may be the appearance
which Dante undertakes to describe, he never shrinks
from describing it. He gives us the shape, the color,
the sound, the smell, the taste; he counts the numbers; he measures the size. His similes are the illustrations of a traveller. Unlike those of other poets,
and especially of Milton, they are introduced in a
plain, business-like manner; not for the sake of any
beauty in the objects from which they are drawn, not
for the sake of any ornament which they may impart
to the poem, but simply in order to make the meaning of the writer as clear to the reader as it is to
himself.

THE <JLA.SSES SEP A.KATEL 1Z' STVDIED.

NOUNS: PROPERTIES.
(See

TOPICS,

pp. 36--48.)

h"
"nt our work in connection with
REMARK.-Up to t is pm '
· d
l in idend . th the other classes, has cons1ste mere y
f 1
Now the classes of words
nouns, an wi
tifying words as members o c asses. are ;o learn of the kinds
are to be studied separately, and we d' f
&c and of the
and roperties of nouns, pronouns, a iec ives,
.,
forms of words.
. the use of the various
rul espgovernmg
_

A ach new fact is learped concerning nouns or any
37. 1 s e f
ds the pupil in reciting should enlarge
-other c ass o wor ' .
d
·b ·ng a noun he will
1
his descriptions act?ord1~:~rdes ~hee:~~i~gs, the nu~ber of
now have to men 10n,
the noun.
. .
One can best learn by observation concemi~g the
1 1
Much information on the subject ?f
~ormation of p ura sd kindred subjects is to be obtained m
irregular plurals an .
lo edias of grammar. As
the dictionaries, and m t,he encyc ~
Jar forms will be
-Occasions present, reviews u~on irregu
found practicable. (See the _Lists, PP· 121-31.)

41~7.

. gen ders an d gender equivalents, the
48 For exercises m
1ists ~t the end of the book may be used.
ON THE DEFINITION OF CASES.

E ry word when used at all in a proposition, is used in s?me :::ve
.
f
of any word. Hence there anses e
· th t
So with every orm
I t.
awn. of misapplying the d efini·rion of cases ' and assummg a
danger
5*
t

106

107

HELPS.

HELPS.

Nounif: ·Parsing.

Nouns: Parsing.
every word and every form of a word is a case. This danger
may be easily avo ided by k eeping in mind the distinction between using a word in a certain relation, and using a form on
account o.f a certain relation. Thus, in
the hero saved the heroine's life,

if III. The following list and example of parsing are _given
by way of suggestion merely. It will be _observ:ed_that the fir~t
few lines repeat in substance a recitation given under the defimtion of a noun. The repetition is made simply for the sake of
completeness.

the nominative hero and the possessive heroine's are employed on
account of the relation in which they are used respectively. It
would be obviously incorrect to use the possessive form of hero
in the relation in which the word /uro is used, and the nominative heroine for the relation of heroine's, saying,

On the Parsing of Nouns.
ORDER.
I.

the hero's saved the heroine life.

2.

But it would not be grammatically incorrect to interchange
hero and heroine as genders, saying,

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

the heroine saved the hero's life;
for a gender indicates a sex as a mere fact, and genders are not
used on account o.f grammatical relations.
In like manner, COIJlParing cases with numb ers, -tenses, and
other forms, it may be • wn that only cases are used on account
o.f certain grammatical relations.

Example:

·

Distinguishing qualities.
Definition.
Number.
Gender.
The noun's relation:
Case.
Rule for construction.
Remarks.

.

·

·There lives more faith in honest doubt,
Believe me, than in h alf the creeds.

First, more or less extended analysis.
ON THE PARSING OF "wo:RDS.

, I. Analysis, we have seen (p. 99), consi~ts in
dividing a proposition into its pai:ts and describing
those parts as such. But we may describe words as
members of classes. To describe a word in this way
is to PARSE it.
if II. It is presumed that the pupil has had practice in
applying each new principle a t the time it was _taught." So
that in giving a full description of a noun he will have a
number of facts to observe and mention.

Then:

Creed~ is a word which names an object of thought
and which may be used as the subject of a proposition. It is therefore a noun, according to the definition : A noun is a word whl.ch names an object of
thought and which may be used as the subject of a
propos1t1on. It . is a . plural number and has no gender. It is the object of the preposition of understood, ·and is in the nominative case, according to the
rule : A noun used as the object of a preposition
must be in the nominative case.

'I

108

HELPS.

HELPS.

Pronouns : Parsing.

Pronouns: Parsing.

(Remark.) We may consider the words half the creed.s
intimately enough connected to compose a phrase, and to
be as such the object of the preposition in.
ir IV. The pupil, for a time, should state his reasons for
saying a word is of one gender or another, or of a certain
number or case. H e should never make a statement he
does not understand and cannot verify.
ir V. When the pupil has become familiar with the
principles taught, it will not be necessary for h.im to make
the parsing so complete. In fact, he should then abbreviate, so that his time and attention may be more fully occupied with new subjects.

The following is an abbreviated form of the foregoing example of parsing :
Creeds is a noun of the plural number, in the
nominative case, and is the object of a preposition·.
With half and the it fps a phrase, half the creeds,
which is object of the preposition in.

PRONOUNS: PROPERTIES.
(Sec T oP1cs, pp. 50-55.)

66, c. Because we say that pronouns have persons, numbers, genders, and cases, it must not be inferred that every
pronoun has all of these properties. A little thought will
lead to the opposite conclusion. The term pronouns is ·
applied to the class pronouns. (See ToPics, par. 38.)

On the Parsing of Pronouns.
ORDER.

Distinguishing qualities.
Definition.
3. Person. 4· N umb e:· 5· Gender.
6. The pronoun's relat10n:
.
. Case. 8. Rule for construction.
7
9· Antecedent. 10. Rule for agreement.
n. Remarks.
I.

2.

Example:

.

-

Huntsman, rest I th! chase is done.
·
Then·.
First, more or less complete ana1ys1s.

.

Thy is a word, not a noun, used instead of fia 1:~un •.
.
t the de mt1on:

It is therefore a pronoun, accor d mg _o
d
·
.
d &
&
It is of the secon
A pronoun is a wor ' c., c.
T
•

. h
o gender ... t is
person singular number ; it as n .
.
d .
sed t~ denote possession (in a certain sense) an is
U
.
t th rule · A proin the possessive case, accor d mg o e .
.
.mit
by
denoting
possess10n, &c., &c.
11
to
d
noun use
· h h · h ·t
The antecedent of thy is huntsman, wit w ic 1
Rule . .A pronoun must agree
.
b
agrees m num er.
·
with its antecedent, &c., &c.
here limits the noun chase. Hunts·
(Remark s. ) Thy
d
n
h
der but thy has not; hence these wor s ca
man as ge~ ' d
Tl1y is a possessive pronoun for
not agree m gen er.
.
which thine is sometimes used as an equivalent.

I IO

Ve.r ps: Parsing.

Adjectives: Parsing.

ADJECTIVES: PARSING.
(See TOPICS, pp. 56-58.)

. 81. It is not proper in speaking of the forms of an adjective, say noble, nobler, noblest, to call one a
't'
~
h
.
~~
"rec, anot er a comparative degree and the th" d
'
ir a superlative degree.

On the Parsing of Adjectives.
ORDER.
I.
2.

3·
4.
5.
6.

Distinguishing qualities.
Definition.
Number (when the adjective has number)
Comparison.
·
Relation.
Remarks.

E xample:

noun as person, or body, understood. That .noun
would then be attribute of the proposition, -and
tougher merely a limiting word.. (R(!mark.) It is
proper fo say more tough arid most toug~.

«f

First, more or less complete analysis.

Then :

~ougher is a word, neither noun nor pronoun ·
:Which rr_iay be placed directly before a noun to .limi~
lt.
~t . lS th erefo_re ~Il .adjective, according to the
defimt10n
: An adjective
is a word ' &c ., &c · Tough er
· h
.
is t e ~omparat1ve form (not comparative degree) of
the ad3ective t?ugh, the superlative form of which is
toughest. It is used here as the attribute of' the
proposition,
•

man is tougher,

and limits the noun man.

We may say it limits some

At the proper time the pup£! may abbrevt'ate J. for

example:
Abbreviated Form.
Tougher (above) is an adjective of the comparative
form. The positive form is tough; superlative, tough·
est. This adjective is used as attribute of the proposition,

•

•

man is tougher.

Or we may describe it as limiting a noun understood,
- as person, which would in that ·case be the attribute . .

I

Affiiction, when I know it,
but this :
A deep alloy whereby man tougher is.

"

J II

HELPS.

HELPS.

VERBS: PARSING.
(See TOPICS, pp. 5<)"{i5.)

90· For lists of irregular v~rb.s see the end of the book.
For rem-arks on the disposition oI verb phrases, see pp. r 1720.

On the Parsing of Verbs.
ORDE~.

r. Distinguishing qualities.
2. Definition.
3. Person. 4. Number. 5. Tense.
. 6~ .Subject: 7. Agreement (Rule)...
U . . - j t;an~. (?), objl!ct.
8· se -1 intrans.
9. Remarks.

II2

HELPS.

HELPS.

Example:
High in his pathway hung the sun.
First, more or less complete analysis. Then :
Hung is a word used as the predicate of a proposition. It is therefore a verb, according to the definition : A verb is a word, &c., &c. Hung is not a person nor a number. It is of the past tense. Its subject
is sun, But, not having either a person or a number,
hung does not agree with sun. The verb is here used
intransitively and consequently does not have an object. The simple form of the present tense of this
verb is hang.

-

,- In those cases in which the verb is combined ·
with a number of other words to form a verb phrase,
the pupil should make mention of the fact. (See
pp. I r1-20.)

On the Parsing of Prepositions.
ORDER.
1,

2.

3.

4.
5.

Distinguishing qualities.
Definition.
Words connec.ted:
Obj ect of preposition.
Remarks.

CONJUNCTIONS,
(See ToP1;:s, p. 67.)

On the Parsing of Conjunctions.
ORDER.
1.

3.
4.
5.

ADVERBS,
TOPICS, p. 66.)

(See

On the Parsinu of Adverbs.
ORDER.
2.

3.
4.
5.
6.

Distinguishing qualities.
D efinition.
Comparison.
Actual relation.
Kind of adverb (why?). If conjunctive: propositions connected.
Remarks.

Some of the irregularly compared adverbs will be found on

l"

125.

3

:PREPOSITIONS,
(See ToP1cs, p. 25.)

2.

I.

l I

Prepositions: Conj~nctions •

.Adverbs: Parsing.

Distinguishing qualities.
D efinition.
Propositions connected.
Kind of conjunction.
Remarks.

"if It was stated in the Topics, under adver~s, th ~t t h e " ru1es "
for the use of adverbs, prepositions, and coniunctions were pur. t e d . We will select the " rules " for these classes
of
posel y omit
h
·
words as given in one of the grammars, and will use t em m
justifying their omission from this book:
. .
An Adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adiect1ve,
· or another adverb.
A Preposition shows the relation of an object (object ?) to
some other (other?) word on which the adjunct depends.
A Conj unction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

II4

IIS

HELPS.

HELPS.

Participles: Parsing.

Participles: Parsing.
t In
b the
f first . plac ~· th ese statements are not rules. Th
1
o e ound m this work are .
.
e ru es
scribed cou rse to be obs
d .1mperat1ve statements of a pretain form s. A rule sho:~~e a~;mu:ing certain words and cershould be, &c., &c.
hat so and so must be or

A .
th gam,b we have learned that ad verb s may limit other words
an. ver s, adj ectives, a nd adverbs. The "rule " th
.
.
~~
,
rn,u~
l
Further, it is true tha t re
. .
. "
the obj ects denoted by th p pods1t1011s ·m5i1cate the relati.o ns of
e wor s connected B t th
1 .
o f objects to one anothe r are not grammaf I·
u · e re at10ns
1
not be mentio d .
ica re ations and need
n e m a grammar. W e ma sa
.
.
that prepositions indicate the reI a t"ions to each
y oth
y withf propriety
h
they connect, but the state ment of th f t .
er o t e words
not of first importance.
e ac is not a rule, and is
.
.
L astly, in our definition we . sa that
propositions · so that th
.
Y
conJunct10ns connect
'
ere rs no need of a
" 1 "
attention to that fact.
ny · ru e to call

4. Respect in which similar to a verb . .
5. Respect in which similar to an adjediYe.
6. Principal parts of corresponding verb.
7; Remarks.

Example·
From the steep promontory gazed
The stranger, raptured and amazed.

First, more or less complete analysis.

Then :

Raptured is a word derived from a verb_ and partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective.
It is therefore a participle, according to the definition: A participle is a word, &c., &c. It is derived from the .verb rapture. It partakes of the nature of a verb because it may be limited by an adverb
as a verb is limited. It partakes of the nature of an
adjective in limiting adjectively stranger, a noun. It
is a regular perfect participle. The principal parts of
the corresponding verb are rapture, and raptured.

PARTICIPLES: PARSING,
(See

ToP1cs, pp. 6S, 6g.)

On the Parsing of Participles.
Since pupils find p rt' · 1
.
to understand th
a h1c1p ~s and mfinitives more difficult
k
an ot er kmds of words th
these subj ects should b e ma d e very thorot!!gh.
' e war upon
ORDER.

1

D' .
. .
deriv. from verb
istmgu1shmg qualities
nat. of a verb. .
. .
nat. of an adj.
2. D e fi mt10n.
3· Verb from which derived.
I.

REMARK.-lt may be said, also, that the relation of rap·
tured to stranger is similar to that of a noun in apposition

with another noun. It may therefore be said to limit
stranger appositively. That relation of the participle is not
inconsistent with the definition, which declares the participle to be like an adjective; because the relation of apposition, though common with nouns, is really not a substantive relation, but adjectival.
'If When the participle is part -of a phrase the fact should
be noted.
·

II6

HEL PS.

INFINITIVES: PARSING,
(See ToP1cs, p. 70 .)

I I

HELPS.

7

VERB PHRASES.

On the Parsing of Infinitives.
ORDER.

2.

Distinguishing qualities { ~ertiv.
verb.
a· o ffrom
a verb.
D efinition.
nat. of a n oun.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Verb from which derived.
R espect '.n which similar to a verb.
.
Respect
p. . m which similar to a n oun. .
rmc1pa 1 parts of corresponding verb
Remarks.
·

I.

ON THE DISPOSITION OF J.>HRASES.

, I. In disposing of . verb phrases containing, besides the
verb, both participles and infinitives, there is seldom any difficulty in distinguishing the verb. Whenever there is any difficult)'.,
it is generally occasioned by the participles and the infinitives.
Therefore it has seemed b est to introduce the discussion of this
subject after the topics, Participles, and Infinitives.

Example:

He can do little that can't do th•
p·
~
. irst, .more or less complete analysis. Then .
Do lS a word derived from
.
the nature of a verb
d f a verb and partaking of
.
.
an o a noun It · h
ls : erefore
.an mfimtive, according to th d fi . :
is a word &c &c It . de . e mtwn: An mfinitive
'
.,
·
is en ved f
th
It is like a verb in that .t
rom
e verb do.
b"
(
1 maytakea
we consider little to be
.
n o 3ect unless
take an object) It p ta knoun, m which case do d oes
f
·
·
ar a es of the nat
m b ein g the ob3· ect of a
b
ure o a noun
.
ver can. The
m g perfect participle is done ' Th
. .correspondthe corresponding verb
d•
e prmc1pal parts of
are o and did
if Exercises in analysis and parsmg
.
• b
can
·d .
many ways. Some teachers ma
.
e vane m
y deem it necessary to supplement the exercises w1"tl1
k"
more or less
k
mds. Some may choose t b .d
wor of various
bered that grammar is not~~ n ge.. It should be remem·
·
.
e most im portant f
d'
.a
. n m ass1gn in(T
work to p upi.1s t h e teacher sh Id
o stu 1es,
t' d
0
1me and the coinj;aratz've importance
.
ou consider
of the subject.

Example · of a .Recitation.
He must have been injured.

•

Must have been injured is · a verb phrase form·
ing the predicate of the proposition. Injured is a
perfect participle limiting he, the subject, and is the
attribute of the proposition. Must is a verb h aving
no tense, no person, and no number. Have is an infinitive, the object of must. Been is a perfect participle joined with must have to form a copula connecting the attribute injured with the subject. The words
together form a phrase representing an act as certainly performed at some past time not specified.
if II. It will be noticed that have was not said to take an
object, though it is ordinarily transitive; and that been, a
perfect participle, was not called an attribute. To explain
this, a long statement is necessary. The explanation is
logical rather than grammatical:

\

II8

HELPS.

Verb Phrases discussed.

HELPS.
Verb Phrases discussed.

f III. The expression,

I will go,

one of the_examples given under the topic Infinitive
. (p.
96), was said to mean, practically I will th
So
.
'
e act of gomg.
I ought (to) go

means practically I owe the act of going In th fi
example will is a verb d
.
.
.. •
e rst
in th
d
. an go is an mfin1tive, object of will'•
e secon ' ongbt is a verb and
.
.
..
'
.
go is an mfimt1ve, object
of ought. And in
I shall go,

I. may go,
I can go,
~
I must go,
go is an infinitive, object respectively of shall
.
'may, can, and
must.
.
Again in
I
I
I
I

shall be,
may be,
can be,
must be,
~e is an infinitive, and, like go in the recedin
..
is the object of a verb in each instanc~ B t ~hexamples, it.
dd h. u
ese expres-..
sions sound incomplete Let
·
us a t e word walk'
that the expressfons
shall read ,
mg, so
.
I sliall be walking,
I may be walking,
I can be walking,
I must be walking.
The word walki ·
.
.
ng m each case limits the subject I a d
is an attnbute. It is connected with the subjeCt by 's1i:U·

be, may be, and so on, which are therefore copulas. Yet
shall, may, can, and must are still verbs. And be is still
an infinitive in each example, just as it was in the preceding
examples:
Again, let us substitute have for be in I shall be,
forming
I shall have.

Have, like be, is an infinitive, and is the object of shall.
I shall have, however, does ·not sound complete. We may
add the book, saying,
I shall have the book,

have signifying possess. . And if we wish to describe the
condition of the book which is to be possessed we may add
the word bound, saying,
I shall have the book bound,

have still meaning possess. As before, shall is a verb, and
have is its object. But now· have, also, has an object, book,
which is limited by bound, a perfect participle.
Furthermore, if we choose to put the perfect participle
nearer to the verb phrase, we may by transposing obtain
I shall have bound the book.
. By this transposition the meaning of the expression is
greatly changed. Whereas before, the expression only indicated the time at which possession of the book was to be
obtained, without reference to the time of the binding, it
now' declares particularly that the binding is to be completed at some future time. Indeed, shall have bound is a·
perfect tense phrase. But in producing it, have has lost iti;
meaning of possess, and no longer takes an object. It has
lost individuality in becoming part of a phrase having a pe-

120

I2I.

HELPS~

HELPS.

Verb Phrases discussed.

culiar meaning. It cannot, therefore, be parsed as fully as
when possessed of an individual force. Such is the case
generally with words that go to make up phrases. This is
shown further in

they have gone.
Here, though a prese1!t tense, have is joined with a perfect participle to form a phrase representing an act performed during past time. And in

they may have gone,
the infinitive have serves a similar purpose. If we divide
these phrases, have gone and may have gone, and attempt
to ascribe to each word the force it would have if used
alone, we shall destroy the peculiar force of the phrase. The
same is true of must have been injured in

LISTS

he was to have been made secretary, and
the king having been dethroned, the prince was
crowned.
·
We may say, then, z'n general terms : Whenever several
words, composing part of a proposition, are so intimately
combined in a phrase as to lose individual force, the nicer
analysis may be waived, and the words may be described as
phrase members. This is true of adverb phrases and
phrases of other kinds, as well as of verb phrases.

WORDS

FOR

EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR FORMS,

&c.

-These lists are not intended to be c~mplete
REMARK.
1 to furnish mavocabularies of irregular words, bu_t. mere yd
terial for exercises on the more familiar wor s.
.

Genders ana Gen.aer Equivalents.

I.

he must hum been injured,
the example used in the recitation introducing this topic;
also of such expressions as

OF

FEM. ··

MASC~

bachelor
beau
boar
boy
bridegroom
brother
buck
bull
bullock
colt
drake
earl
father
friar
gander

maid
spinster
belle
sow
girl
bride
sister
doe
ewe
cow
heifer
filly
duck
coun~ess

mother
nun c
goose

6

MASC.

gentleman
hart
he
horse
husband
king
lad
lord
male
man
master
Mr.
mister
monk ·
mon!iieur

JBM.

lady
roe
she
mare
wife
queen
lass
lady
female
woman
mistress
miss
Mrs.
mistress
nun
madame
mademoiselie

!22

1:

HELPS.

I rregular words : Genders.
MASC,

, _,

nephew
ox
papa
ram
rooster
s·ir
sire (horse)
son

MASC.

FEM.

niece
cow

stag
steer

mamma

swain

uncle
wizard
youth

ewe

hen
madam
dam
daughter

Fl!M,

.

hind
heifer
nymph
aunt
witch
maiden
damsel

II.
abbott
administrator
anchorite
Augustus
Cornelius
czar
don
duke
emperor
executor
Francis
Frank
goodman
Henry
hero

abbess
administratrix
anchoress
Augusta
Cornelia
czarina
donna
duchess
empress
executrix
Frances
Frances
goody
Henrietta
heroine

Infant
Jesse
John
Joseph
Julius
landgrave
marquis
negro
Paul
signor
sultan
testator
votary
widower

Infant a
Jessie
Johanna
Josephine
Julia
Juliet
landgravine
marchioness
negress
Pauline
signora
sultana
testatrix
votaress
widow.

archduke
h e-bear
cock-sparrow
he-goat
grandfather
landlord

,,-

fl l

archduchess
she-bear
hen-sparrow
she-goat
grandmother
landlady

milkman
peacock
buck-rab9it
stepson
stepfather

milkmaid
peahen
doe-rabbit
stepdaughter
stepmother

Irregular w o rds: Plurals.

-

1

IRREGULAR PLURALS,

I.
SINGULAR.

I

·,.
I

:

'
\

~
i

~

~

•

'

calf
child
cow
die
elf
foot
genius
goose
half
he
I
index

J

')

·"
I

j.

~

PLURAL.

beeves
brothers
brethren
calves
children
cows
kine
dies
dice
elves
feet
geniuses
genii
geese
halves
they
we
indexes
indices
they
knives
leaves
lives
loaves
lice
men

beef
brother

·1

III.

123

HELPS.

it
knife
leaf
life
loaf
louse
man

SINGULAR.

mouse
ox
pea
penny
self
she
sheaf
shelf
sow

PLURAL.

mice·
oxen
peas
pease
pennies
pence
selves
they
sheaves
shelves
sows
swine

staff
that
thief
this
thou
tooth
wharf

wife
wolf
woman

staffs
staves
those
thieves
these
ye
you
teeth
wharfs
wharves
wive~

wolves
women

II.
FOREIGN WORDSWords marked R . form also the regular English plural.

analysis
alumna
alumnus
·~

analyses
alumnre
alumni

axis
bandit, R.
basis

axes
banditti
bases

.I

:I

t!
I

'I
I

124

PLURAL.

beau, R.
beaux
crisis
crises
criterion, R.
criteria
calyx, R.
calyces.
cherub, R .
cherubim
datum
data
dilettante
dilettanti
erratum
errata
ellipsis
ellipses
focu s, R.
foci
formul a, R.
formul::e
fungu s, R.
fun gi
fulcrum, R .
fulcra
genus
genera
hypothesis
hypotheses
lamina
lamin::e
larva
larv::e
medium, R.
media
memorandum,R. memoranda
metamorphosis metamorphoses
minutia
minuti::e
madam
mesdames

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

monsieur
Mr.
nebula
nucleus, R.
oasis

parenthesis
phenomenon
radius, R .
rostrum, R .
seraph, R.
spectrum, R.
stamen, R .
stimulus
stratum, R .
synopsis
synthesis
terminus
th esis
tumulus
vertebra
vertex, R .

messieurs
Messrs.
nebul::e
nuclei
oases
parentheses
phenomena
radii
rostra
seraphim
spectra
stamina
stimul.i
strata
synopses
syntheses
termini
theses
tumuli
vertebrre
vertices

IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES.
POSIT IVE.

bad
evil
far
fore
good
hind
ill
(in)

COM PAR.

worse
worse
farther
former
better
hinder
worse
inner

I

I rregular w ords : Adverbs~

Irregular words: Adjectives.
SINGULAR .

12 5

HELPS.

HELPS.

SUPERL.

worst
worst
farthest
foremost
best
hindmost
Worst
innermost
inmost

POSlTIVD.

little
late
many
much
near

COMPAR.

less
lesser
later
latter
more
more
nearer

(out)

outer
(utter)

old

older
elder
(upper)
better

(up)
well

SUPERL.

least
latest
last
most
most
nearest
next
outmost
utmost
uttermost
oldest
eldest
uppermost
best

DlKEGULAB A D VERB S.

badly
early ·
far
forth
little
near
much
well
oft, often

worse
earlier
farther
further
less
nearer
more
better
oftener

worst
earliest
farthest
furthest
least
nearest
next
most
best
oftenest

126

HELPS.

HELPS.

127
Irregular Verbs.

IKKEGULA.R VERBS.

It will be observed that in many cases either the past tense,
or the perfect participle, or both have the regular form. The
italicized forms are either obsolete or not so often used as the
accompanying forms .
PRESENT.

abide
a rise
awake
be or am
bear (bring for th)
bear (carry)
beat
begin
behold
belay
bend
bet
bereave
beseech
bid
bind
bite
bleed
blend
bless
blow
break
breed
bring
build
bum

,.-

PAST.

abode
arose
awoke, awaked
was

bore, bare
bore, bare
be:o.t
began
beheld
belaid, belayed
bent, bended
bet, betted
bereft
besought
bid, bade
bound
bit
bled
blended, blent
blessed, blest
blew
broke, brake
bred
brought
b uil t, builded
burned, burnt

PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

abode
arisen
a waked
been
born
borne
beaten, beat
begun
beheld
belaid, belayed
bent, bended
bet, betted
bereft, bereaved
besought
bidden, bid
bound
bitten, bit
bled
blended, blent
blessed, b!est
blown
broken, broke
bred
brought
built, builded
burned, burnt

PRESRMT•

burst
buy
cast
catch
chide
choose
cleave (adhere)
cleave (split)
climb
cling
clothe
come
cost
creep
crow
cut
dare (venture)
d eal
dig
do
draw
dream
dress
drink
drive
dwell
eat
fall
feed
feel
fight
find
flee
fling
fly

PAST.

burst
bought
cast
caught
chid, c!zode
chose
cleaved, clave
clove, cleft, clave
climb.ed, clomb
clung
clothed, clad
came
cost
crept
crowed, crew
cut
dared, durst
dealt, dealed
dug, digged
did
drew
dreamed, dreamt
dressed, drest
drank, drunk
drove
dwelt, dwelled
ate, eat
fell
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
flung
flew

PERFECT PARTICIPLE.

burst
bought
cast
caught
chidden, chid
chosen
cleaved
cleft, clov1n
climbed
clung
clothed, clad
come
cost
crept
crowed
cut
dared
dealt, dealed
dug, digged
·done
drawn
dreamed, .dreamt
·dressed, drest
drunk, drunken
·driven
dwelt, dwel!ed
eaten, eat
fallen
fed
felt
fought
found
fled
fung
flown

I!
i.
I!

11 [

l28

HELPS.

HELPS.

Irregular Verbs.

Irregular Verbs.

- ---

PRESENT,

forbear
forget
forsake
freeze
get .
gild
gird
give
go
grave
grind
grow
hang (suspend)
have
hear
heave
hew
hide
hit
hold
hurt
keep
kneel
knit
know
lade
lay
lead
leap
learn
leave
lend
let
lie (recline)
light

#

..-

129

----

PAST,

forbore
forgot
forsook
froze
got
gilt, gilded
girt, girded
gave
went
graved
ground
grew
hung
had
heard
heaved, hove
hewed
hid
hit
held
hurt
kept
knelt, kneeled
knit, knitted
knew
laded
laid
led
leaped, leapt
learned, learnt
left
lent
let
lay
lighted, lit

PERFECT PARTJCIPLB.

forborne
forgotten, forgot
forsaken
frozen
got, gotten
gilt, gilded
girt, girded
given
gone
graven, graved
ground
grown
hung
had
heard
heaved, hoven
hewn, hewed
hidden, hid
hit
held, holdm
hurt
kept
knelt, kneeled
knit, knitted
known
laded, laden
laid
led
leaped, leapt
learned, learnt
left
lent
let
lain
lighted, lit

PAST.

PJUtSElllT.

lost
made
meant
met
mowed
passed, pa.st
paid
penned, pent
proved
put
quit, quitted
rapped, rapt
read
rent
rid
rode, rid
rang, rung
rose
rived
ran, run
sawed
said
saw
sought
seethed, Jod
sold
sent
set
shook
shaped
shaved
sheared, short
shed
shone

lose
make
mean

meet
mow
pass
pay
pen (mdo1e)
prove
put
quit
rap
read
rend
rid
ride
ring
rise
rive
run
saw
say
see
seek
seethe•
sell
send
set
shake
shape
shave
shear
shed
shine

6*

PERFECT PARTIClJ'LK.

lost
made
meant
met
mowed, mown
passed, past
paid
penned, pent
proved, proven
put
quitted, quit
rapped, rapt
read
rent
rid
ridden, rid
rung
risen
riven, rived
run
sawed, sawn
said
seen
sought
sodden, seethed
soldsent
set
shaken
shaped, shapm
shaven, shaved
shorn, sheared
shed
shone

..

r30

HELPS. .

Irregular Verbs.

Irregular Verbs.
PRESEN T.

shoe
shoot
show
shred
shrink
shut
sing
sink
sit
slay
sleep
slide
sling
slink
slit
sm ell
smite

../

SO\V

•.

sp eak
speed
spell
spend
spill
spin
spit
split
spoil
spread
spring
stand
stave
stay
steal
stick
sting

131

HELPS.

PAST .

shod
shot
showed
shred
shrank, shnmk
shut
sang, sung
sank, su1ik
sat
slew
slept
slid
slung, slang
slunk, stan k
slit, slitted
sm elled, smelt
smote
sowed
spoke, spake
sped, spee ded
spelled, spelt
spent
spilled, spilt
spun, sjan
spit, spat
split
spoiled, spoilt
spread
sprang, sprung
stood
staved, stove
staid, stayed
stole
stuck
stung

PERFECT

PARTICIPLE.

shod
shot
shown, showed
shred
shrunk, shrunken
shut
sung
sunk
sat
slain
slept
slid den , slid
slung
slunk
slit, slit ted
smelled, smelt
smitten, s1nit
sown, sowed
spok en
sped , speeded
spelt, spelled
spent
spilled, spilt
spun
spit
split, splitted
spoiled, spoilt
spread
sprung
stood
staved, stove
stai d, stayed
stol en
stuck
stung

•

PRESENT.

"PAST.

PE:RFECT PARTICIPL&.

stridden
struck, stricken
strung
striven
strown, strewn

stride
strike
string
strive
strow, strew

strode, strid
struck
strung
strove
strewed, strewed

swear

swore, sw are

sworn

sweat
sweep
swell
swim
swing
take
teach
tear
tell
think
thrive
throw
thrust
tread
wake
wax
wear

sweat, sweated
swept
swelled
swam, s·wum.
swung
took
taught
tore, tare
told
tho(tght
thrived, throve
threw
thrust
trod
waked, woke
waxed
wore
wove
wedded, wed
wept
wet, wetted
whet, whetted
won
wound, winded
worked, wrought
wrung
wrote, writ

sweat, sweated
swept
swollen, swelled
swum
swung
taken
taught
torn
told
thought
thrived, thrivm
thrown
thrust
trodden, trod
waked, woke
waxed, waxen
worn
woven
wedded, wed
wept
wet, wetted
whet, whetted
won
wound
worked, wrought
wrung
written

\veave

wed
weep
wet
whet
\Vin

wind
work
wring
write

'1

,,

lit
j·~
\,.
I

1:

INDEX.
The referenc es are to pages.
Abbreviate, 108 (V).
abbreviated form of recitation: adjective, III ;

noun, 106;

subject, 81.

abstract names, number, 38.
action : object of, 22 (c); subject of, 22 (c).
adjective: def., 20; clause, 34.
adj~ctival nature of participle, 27 (a).
adjectives :
abbreviated recitation, III ·
cases(?), 56 ; comparison, 57-8; compound; 56.
exercises, 89-<JO·
genders(?), 56.
interrogative, 56; irregular, 124-5.
numbers, 56-7; numeral, 56.
parsing: abbrev., n1; example of, no; order, no.
persons(?), 56·; pronominal, 56.
recltation, :no ; remarks, 89.

adverb : def., 23; clause, 34; remark on def., 91.
abverbs: comparison, 66; compound, 66; conjunct., see letter C.
exercises, 91.
parsing, order, 112 .
u rule," 66 (remark), u3-q.; relative, 66.

anaiysis.: meaning, 99; order of, 99-100.
ante~edent : mean'g, SS; .agree't, SS."
apposition: roean'g, 47; nouns, 47; pronouns, 54attribute, def., 16.

bare, oomplate 1 16 i uercisc1 1 8~ ; recitation, 83 (&).

:attributiV'e object, 33 ( d).

,.

!
·I

agreeme~t : mean'g, SS; verb and subject, 61-3, 63 (b).

"

' i

[133J

In·I
!

I

/

134

INDEX.

·Bare: subject, predicate, &c., rs ; attribute, r6; copula, r6.
Cases: def., 43 ; as opposed to other forms, ros-6 ; as opposed
to relations, 46.
nominative: nouns, 43 : pro nouns, 51.
nouns, 42-48; pronouns, 51-3.
objective, of Pronouns, 51.
possessive : nouns, 43 i pronouns, 51 i forination, 43-4.
rules, see letter r.

class membership: howdetennined,r8(remark); 23-4; 27(par.r9);
91 (c).

classes of words: defined, rS- 28; in forming compounds, 28;
separately studied (chapter), 36--70; remarks, 105.
classification of words, basis: 27 (par. r9 ), r 8 (remark), 24 (d),
Qt (par. 14 c).
clauses: mean'g, 30 (cl); adject., 34; adverb, 34; noun, substan•
ti ve, 33 (a) i exercises,

1 02- 3 1

103-5.

combined: words, rr (b) ; sub j. and pred. in prop., r1.
collectives, 37 ; number of, 38.
compare, to, S8; comparative form, S7·
comparison : adjectives, s7-8, 124-s ; adverbs, 66, r25.
complement, 78 (3, c).
complete: subject, predicate, r s; attribute, copula, r6.
complex proposition: mean'g, 30 (c); analysis, 99 (par. 5); exercises,

102- 3

i recitation,

100.

compound : adjectives, s6; adverbs, 66; verbs, S9·
propositions : mean'g ,
words, 28 .

,

30;

exercises,

1 0 1-2, 1 03.

condition: in clef. of attribute , rs ; indicated by attribute, r 6 (b ), 82.
conjunction, def., 26.
conjunctions : <li sting. from prepositions, 26 (d), 92 (d); coordinating, 67; exercises, 92,
dinating, 67.

135

I NDEX.

101-2 1

103 i remarks, 92; subor-

conjunctive : adverbs, 26 (c), 66; <listing. from conjunctions,

D e_c larati:ve proposition (clause), 29.
deer, not a number, 38.
degrees, <listing. from forms, no.
dependen t proposition (clause), 29 (~) · · ..
. d , ,· n definition
of participle,
mfimtive, 27.
·
.
d enve
direct object, 32 (a); exercises, roo.
Ellipsis, 34·

. .

else, exception to defimtion o

f adi·ective, 2o(d).

English grammar, def., r3 .
.
58( b)· 66(a).
.
a, ' .
eqmvalents
.. gen d er, 42.• phrases of companson,
etymology, 77·
expletive, 32 ( e) ; t!iere, 32 ( e ).
. .
d . def 4r . formation of (nouns), 41 (par. 49).
Femrnme gen er.
.,
•
first person : pronouns, 50; verbs, 59. .

foreig~ nouns :

plurals of, t~;~a;~~~)s'. ~:~: s~: ietters g, n, t, &c.
format10n of ge:1~ers, num ~ar r2-I3 ; <listing. from degrees,
forms : in defimt10n of _gram
f
pronouns &c. see letters
3

uo; from relations, 46; o nouns,
n, P1 &c.

'

,

future-tense phrase, 63 ..
future-p erfect-tense phrase, 65.
. f nouns 41-2. of pronouns, 51 ; equivaGenders : def., 41 ' o . .
d' f ' . formation of feminine, 41 (par.

d

lents, 42; fem101neT e ., 4
quivalents i21-2; neuter of
49) ; irregular genders an e
'
nouns, 42; neuter of pronouns, 51.
. b" t f

. d f II-I3. English grammar, def., 13, o iec o.
grammar. e .,
'
d fi ' t 7-8
study ing, 77 (g); remarks on e 01 ·, 7 •
grammatically independent, 48 (a) ; rule for nouns, 4 8.

92 (d) i exercises, 93 , 102- 3; pronouns, 49.

connectives : copulas, r 6; conjunctions, 26; conjunctive adverbs, 26 (c) ; conjunct. pronouns, 49; conjunctions , 26; prep.
ositions, 25; phrases, 16 (c), 35.

construct, to, def. , 45.
construc fion, see rules, letter r.
co-ordinating conjunctions, . 67.
copula: def., r6 ; in def. of preposition, 25 ; in def. of :verb, 2I;
phrase, 16 (c); exercises, B2; recitation, BJ (b).

Helps, 70 +.
( I "fied)· abbreviating recitations, ro8 (IV)~
hints, to teachers unc a\ss1 d;finitions and principles, 73-7, Bo (I),
"' (,) ; app ymg
. .
(IV).
B6 (II), BS (a), 9B (remark); ass1gmng 1esson, H
book as guide, 73 (I).
-6
1on' disting. from other fo rms, 105 •
fi "1 t"
cases : d en
complement, 7B.
course of study, 77 (remark).
conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, 92 .

I

.I

I

INDJ):X.
hints-continued.
definition : of adjective, 89 ('f); of adverb, 9 x; of attribute, s.;·
of cases , 105-6; of conjunction, 92; of grammar, 77-8; of
subject, 78; of the several classes, 95 (I).
distinctions: degrees-forms, 110; definition-description, 91;
words-abjects, 78; may be used-is used, 86 (top of p.).
divisio n of words into classes, 85 (I).
formation of plurals, 1 05.
ba.!>it of speaking correctly: the teacher's part in inculcating,
95-S; in preface.
infinitive, 95-8.
learning by rote, 75.
lim_iting words, 88, 89 (,), 9x, 95 ('f).
new examples ·for recitations, is; object of examples, So ('f). ·
nouns, 85-6 1 io5-8.
parsing, 1o6, xo7 (Ill), xoS (V).
participles, 93 ; prepositions, 92; pronouns (properties), 1o8·.
plan of subjects studied, 76.
preparation for class, 74 (IV).
progress, 76, 86 (IV), 87 (I).
reasons for c::mclusions, 75; omitted, 1o8.
recitations and study, 74-6; on definitions, 85 (a).
relations, 77; as basis of classlficat!on, 9x.
review ing, 75-6.
h rules " for adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, UJ-I.4··
nelections from authors for recitations, 75 .
study of nouns, 85-6; of pronouns, 86-7.
teacher a guide, 73 (I).
test of knowledge of principles, &c., 75.
using the book, xo, 72; illustrations, 73 (II), 79.
verb phrases, 1 n (,.}, n7-20.
who should study grammar(?), 76.

Ideas, words express, I I (a).
imperative propositions, 29.
independent: grammatically, 4B (a); proposition, 30 (b, l),
indirect object, 32 (a); examples, 100.
infinitive, def., 27.
'infinitives: <listing. from participles, 95 (if I); from nouns, 96
·

('f I~); direct, and indirect object of, 32 (b), xoo; exercises;96,
97; in •Ing, 70; as object of verb, 96; parsing, order, exam ple of, 116; recitation on definition, 98; root, 70; as subject
of pro position, 32 (c).

-Ing: infinitive in, 70; participle in, 6B (b).
interjection, meaning, 28.

l37

INDEX.

interrogative: adjectives, 49, 56; pronouns, 49; propositions, 29.
intransitive verbs, 23 (f).
irregular: adjectives, 124-5; adverbs, 125; genders, 121-2; past
tenses, 6o,· 126-31 ; perf. participles, 69 126-J1 ; plurals, 38,
1

3g--40, (!isl<) 123-4, (foreign) 123; verbs, 6o,(lists) 1>6-3x; words,
remark, 105, (lists) 1:.u-31.
-

it, impersonal, 32 ( d).
Language lessons, preface; 74 (if III).
language, study of, 77.
less, least, 5B.
limit or restrict, to : def., 20; exercises on limiting words, recitation, remarks, 88, 89; in def. of adjective, • o (c, d); phrases
~~

.

lists, of irregular words, 121-31 (see under irregular).
"Masculine gender, def., 41; of nouns, 41; of pronouns, 51.
may be used, dis ting. from is used, 19 ( e), 20 ( e), 23 ( c), 86, 89
{'{); 9x (c, 'f).

moods (?), 65.

more, most, in adjective phrases, 58 (a, b); in adverb
phrases, 66.

·

·Name: in def. of noun, 19; noun as name of itself, 19 (e); noun
as name of abstract objects, 38 (par. ~o).

neuter gender: nouns(?), 42; pronouns, 51.
nominative case: nouns:-4j (c); of subject, attribute, object, 45;
· object of preposition, participle, Infinitive, 46 (a); in independent relation, 48 ; pronouns_:-sx (a); as subj., attrib., object,
52-3.

noun: def., 19; in def. of adjective, 20; of adverb, 23; of infini- .
tive, 27; clause, 33 (a); as name, 19 (d); as name of itself,
x9 (e), 40 (par. 46); as name of abstract object, 38 (par. 40).

nouns: chapter, 36-48; cases, genders, numbers, rules, see letters c, g, n, r.
appositive, 47; attribute, 45, 82.
common, proper, compound, collective, 3&--,;
obj. of infinitive, preposition, pa.rticiple, verb, -4-5-6.
·possessive of, 43-•h 47·
parsing : order, example of, 107; abbreviated, 1o8; re marks, 1o8.~
recitation on the definition, 85 ; remarks, 85, 86.
as substantive, 33 (a).

• L,

13_9

INDEX.

INDEX.

numbers: def., 37; adj., 57 (c) ; nouns, 37-40; pronouns, 50;
verbs, 59.
singular, plural (meaning), 37 (c).
plur~ls : format ion ?f, 38-40; irregular (meaning), 38 (a); forma-

plan, 7-8.
pluperfect-tense "phrase, 64.
plural number, see (index) under numbers.
plurals, irregular, lists, 123-4.
positive form, 57.
possessive case, def., 43; see also (index) under cases.
possessive nouns in apposition, 47 (c, 2d).
predicate : def., rs ; bare, and complete, 15 (c); exercises, Sr ;
in def. of verb, 2 1; with two or more subjects, 31 (b).
preposition: def., 25; object of, 25 (c); remarks on definit., 92 •
prepositions: compared with conju~ctions, 26 ( d); parsing, order,

tio n of, 39-40; h sts of irregular, 123-4 i spoken written 3 s~

numeral adjectives, 56.

'

'

Object: of .action, 22 (c); attributive, 33 \d) ; direct and indirect, 32 (a)-examples, l oo ; of infinitive, 46 (a), 96; of participle, 46 (a); of preposition, 25, 46 (a); ofa verb,., (c, d, e f)not an adverb, 23 (.a, b).
·
'
objective case, 51.
.orthography, 77.
orthoepy, 77.
Parse, to, meaning, ro6.
parsing, order, example of:
abbreviated. xo8,

(order only),

1og ;

adjectives, uo-abbrev. form,

111 ;

adverbs

n2.

?onj~~ctions

(order, not example of), H;l.
1nfimt1ves, II 6.
nouns , 107 i abbrev., 1o8 .
participles, 114; prepositions (order only), u3; pronouns, xog.
verbs, 1n-u2.

participle, def., 27 ; recitation on def., 94.
participles _: d.irect, and indirec t object, 32 (b); <listing. from ad1e.ct1ves, 93 , 95 (~) ; from infinitives, 9 5 (~ l).
exercises. 94.
68 ; formation of perf. part., 69.

~or ms,

imperfect, 68 (a, b).

in phrases, 11 7 - 20.
parsing , order, example of, n4-1 5.

parts, principal, of verbs, 69 (a).
past-perfect-tense phrase, 64.
past tense: meaning, 60; format. of, 60-r; irregular, 60, (lists)
126- 3x.

perfect participle, 68 ; forma tion of, 69.
personal pronouns, 4 9.
persons: def., 50; of pronouns, 50; of verbs, 59 (a, b).
phrase, def., 34-5.
phrases: exercises, rnr-3, 103-s; fut.-perf.-tense phr., 65; fut.tense phr., 63 ; present-perfect-tense phr., 64 ; past-perf.-tenso
phr., 64 i of comparison, 58; verb phrases, discussed, n 7-2<>.

113 i

u

rule,'' u3-14.

present participle, 68 (a, b ).
present-perfect-tense phras\!, 64.
principal : parts of verbs, 69 (a); propositions, 29 (a).
pronominal adjectives, 56.
pronoun, def., r9.
pronouns : cases, genders, numbers, persons, 50-r.

I
I

'I

I
I
11

conjunctive, interrog., relative, personal, 49.

impe,.onal, 32 (d).
parsing, order, example of, 109.

properties (remarks), ioS.
rules, see (index) under rules.
proper nouns, 37.
proposition : def., 17 ; chapter on definition, 14-17 ; compared
with sentence, 3t (e); exercises on the def., 83-4.
propositions: analysis of, orde r, 99; chapter on kinds, 29-35;
connected by conjunctions, 26 (a, b, c, d), 67.
clauses, see (index) clauses.
compound, complex, simple, 30.
declarati ve, imperative, interrogative, principal, subordinate, 29.
dependent, independent, 29 1 30.
exercises, 101-2-3-4-5; recitation o n disting'g, propositions, too.
uses, as clauses, 33-4.

Quality: in def. of attribute, 16; degrees of (comparison), 56.
Recitations: a t tribute, 83 (a); copula, 83 (b); subject, Bo-I.
analysis: of proposilion, ioo; verb phrases, n7.
definition : of noun, 85; pronoun , 86 ; limit, to, 88; participle, 94 ;
infinitive, 98.

Ii

1

INDEX.

INDEX • .
recitations-continued.
in parsing : nouns, 107-abbrev ·~ 1o8; pronouns, IO<);. adjectives,
IIo-abbrev., Illj Verbs 1 n2; participles, n5; iofinitive~1 116.

regular: plurals, 38 ; perf. participles, 69; verbs, 60.
related words, II (a, c).
relation: of words, def.., !2 (e); .II-12; state of, II (d); <listing.
from

cas~,

46; words in different relations,

12

(a, b).

relation s, as basis of classification, 27 (par. 19), 91 (c), 92
9: (18 a, I).

cin. 93,

indc::pendent of grammatical relations, 28.

r.elative pronouns, 49.
restrict, see (index) under limit.
rhetoric, 77.
root infinitive, 70.
rule, meaning, II3, II4 ('If)
rules : adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions,(?), II3-14
construction : nouns :
subject, attribute, object of verb, 45.
.object of preposition, part., infin., 46 {a).
possessive, apposition, 47.
four rules, 40.

grammatically independent, 48.
construction : pronouns :
subj, attrib., obj. of verb, prep., part., inf.,53.
po ssessi\~e , apposition, 54.
agreement with antecedent, 55.

construction : verbs : agree't with subj., 61 (b, 2d) ; in 3d
person, singular, 63 (b).
Sentence, mean. of, 31 (e).
sheep, n ot a number, 38,
sign of infinit ive, to, 96 (III).
simple proposition, 30 (a).
singular number, see (index) under numbers.
spelling, not basis of classification, r8 (remark), 24 (d).
subject : def., r4; agreement, 61(b,2d), 63 (b ); bare, complete, 15;
of action, 22 (c); composed of several words, 1 4 {jl), 3 1 (b);
<listing. from l ogical subject, 78 ( 3 , a); exercise~, recitation,

79-80; impersonal, 32 (d); as noun , 18 (b); as infinitive,95 (a);
use d to designate bare subject, 15 (e).
subjective relation, 46 (remark).
subordinate: proposition, 29 (a); conjunctions, 67.

substance, <listing. from word, 14 (a).
substantive: clauses, 33 (a); nature of infinitive, 27 (a, 2d).
suggestions, to the teacher, 73-6.
superlative form, 57.
Teacher to: hints, see (index) under hints; general suggestions,
73-6.

tense: present, past, 60; phrases, see (index) under phrases.
tenses: meaning, 60 (a); of verbs, 60 (b ).
there, expletive, 32 (e).
to, sign of infinitive, 96 (III).
" to be," forms, 62,
transitive verbs, 23 (f).
Understood, meaning of, 17.
Verb: def., 21; direct and indirect object of, 32, b; not group of
words,

21

(remark); remark on definition, go .

verbs: exercises (remark), 90 ('If); irregular, meaning, 60 (90 a),
lists, 126-3x ; number, p ersons, 59: phrases, see (index) under
phrases; parsing, order, example, nx-12; tenses, &:r3; rule,.
a2"ree't, see (index) under rules.

verbal nature of participles, infinitives, 27.
Words: <listing. from substance, 14 (a); from group of words,
21 (remark); as name of itself, 19 (e), .40 (par. 46).
words: basis of classification, 27 (par. 19); classes of def., 18-28;
combined, u (b); compound, 28; different forms, 1:J; in differ·
ent relations, 12; on the parsing of, 106; related, II (b); spell-

ing not basis of classification, 18 (remark),

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