. 'I

FIRST LESSONS

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ENGI_JISI-I

GRAThi~IA

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BY

SIMON KERL,
A. :M.,
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4UTUO R OF ' AN ELEMENTARY ENGL!SIJ GRA~lll!AR," " A COMll!0:-1-SCHOOL EXGL

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:iLLR.." .A.ND "A. COMPREHENSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR. "

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·NEW YORK:
lVISON, PHINNEY, BLAKE1\IAN, & CO.
CHICAGO: S. C. GRIGGS & CO

1869.

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FIRST L~SSONS
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ENGLISH G RAM~fAir.
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ELE..."llENTA.B.Y E.NGLJSI! GR.A.lllL.la,U "A OOliONwSCllOOL

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PREFACE.

KER L'S
SERIES OF GRAMMARS.

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Rerl's First Lessons in English Grammar.-Designed as an
Introduction to the Common-School Grammar. T~'V plan, uefinitions, observations, and exercises, are in the simplest style, and
suited to the capaci~y of children.
l{erl's Common.School Grammar. -A simple, thorough, and
practical grammar of the. English language. Great care has been
taken to make it, if possible, the best tre·a tise. of its kind now before
the public. The parts relating to Idio~s, Analysis, and False Syntax, will be found particularly valuable.
·
Kerl's Comprehensive Grammar.:;-A ver;y orlgmal work, tha•
breaks up the old stereotyped style of English grammars, and rearranges matte r more nearly in accordance with the genius of the
language. Th e articles op Versification. Punctuation, and C~pital
Lo;tters, throw new light on these subjects; and in Jt'alse Syntax,
and the Analysis of Sentences, the- exercises are fresh, pithy, and
, >xhaustive. The work is of great practii::a,l utility to ev11ry 11peaker,
writer, or teacher, as a book of r eference.

Entered according to-Act of Congresa, in the year 1866, b_y

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TnE following treatiie Is an-attempt to ·put the science of-grammar upo1
5 more simple, natural, and practical basis. That the schoold of our coun~ry are generally restless under the present. sys!ems of gi·ammar, and
·that the results obtained from the ijtudy of tlus science are not generally
satisfactory, may be taken ·as ~ouclusive- evidence 'that the time baa come
for some radical change in thls.department of education.
· It is rather remarkable at-how early an age children learn to· speak their
· mother-tongue; and this fact prove11.thnt they are !1)8o ab!? to uudeistan_d
the great and obvious principles .of, langu~ge ear.! y ,.--_ c~;t1,1mly __befp~11 -~e1r
minds are overrun with those errors of expression which seem to spr!Dg u.p,
in every com~unity, as naturally and inevitab_l.fas we~ds:: ' . · ·• ' •.
To see whnt is · true or right. in the niceti~s of gtammar, is often a pµz.
zling ~atter even to persons of mature ana c'u!tivated' judgin~nt; an~ i! ia
unreasonable to suppose that young -children can master dim subtleties, -or
that they will take pleasure iu what. must appear to tli~m .in_comprehe~sible
and useless.
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It is therefore-prob~bly best to .tea<;h t~em.~ much practi_sal ,gra'!llllar
as possible, bt>t with just as little of the scie~ce ~'}'.ill sqi!ice for J~s:,1iur­
pose. Let them learn to ayoid_, as soon ~s piey_ c~n, a.U the, co1,11mo11- ~ r~
of language; an_d when they are older; and ha'.'e time to studJ;.f~1tqer, th~y
can learn more of the science in one year than many of them now learn 1n
two or three years. The common mode o~ ~e~c!llng· gr~mmar seems t? us
rather an inverted one. Children are worried for years m the abstract1ona .
of analysis and parsing, from which they often acq11ire 'a loathing and permanent dislike to g~mar. itself; yet, after all, when they q~tlt school,
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most of them know, in regard to language, but Ii
ecially they were sent to sch
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Srn:oN KERL,

In the Olerk'a Office of the District Court for lhe Southern· District rt New

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o three principal parts; definitidn,, infl ections and constructions. The first part comprises a bundle of about one
hundred definitions, - ·all the important ones needed in the study of gram.
mar. In making these defin(tions, we endeavored to embody in them
truth, brevity, simplicity, and _uniformity. In the second part Wf' have
,;iven about all the inflections. of our l.Bngua_g e; because these things a~e
not only needed, but they require simply memory, and ettn be learned m
early life just a.~ well as afterwards. The third part comprises nearly the
whole circuit of syntax, with pithy exercises to teach the pupil ho·w to
llvoid all. the common errors. The remaining matter is suLordinate; and
gives. roundness and finish to the whole subject. A'~ore minute analysil
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of the oontents is given on the next'page.

SYNOPSIS.
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p ART I. ~- DEFINITIONS.
1. Ta_E few gr~at ideas which lie at tho basis ·of grammar, and
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from whieh th" Hmence unfolds itself.
2. Definitions of the parts of speech.
8. D efinitions of the properties of the parts of~peech.
4. Definitions of the cla.sSes into which the parti of speech are

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FIRST. .LESSONS'

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(Given after the properties, because somewhat depende£t on them~

5. A circuit of exercises, to give the pupil a clear and practical
knowledge of the preceding principles, and to show him the gen·
era! construction of sen ten.ces.
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p ART II. -

ENGLISH

INFLECTIONS ..

1. How gender is expressed. 2. How number is.expressed.
8. H_ow ca~e is expressed. 4. Dccl~nsion of.nouns and pronouns.
5. List of irregular verbs. 6. Con1110'ation of verbs.

P-.A.RT I.·
DE~INITIONS.

7. H ow the degrees of comparison. oie expressed. ·
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8. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections classi·
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tied, and illustratecl by examples.

THOUGHT AND 'ITS
EXPRESSION:
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(Some of these words are substitutes for in11ections.)

p .A.RT III.~ CONSTRU:CTIONS.

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APPENDIX.

vation. 4. Capital letters.
clusiot1.

2. Rules for spellin..,,

6. Punctuatio~.

5. Italics.

.8. Deri

1 Con·
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REMARKS.
~ ..:.:·, ;:
I denotes separation. = h~ placed bet~een equfvnlent expr.essfon s:
_....~·~~~f~:~}:~·
A nnm\>er placed over e. woru al.tows which Rule of Syn tax should lie ap_pU~41,ii'1{,';IT" . \~b~t .""to be co°'.mltted to memory by the pupil, is printed !'n.Jurg~ ~ype~!>lil ': '
distingu ished by being numborod with heavy black figures. ·
:.'-'·7/>
Th• few technical or difficult wor<ls which we hav• llotw oblib'6d to use, th11. ·

Bhow1l exvium.

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expresl'l our thoughts by .means of ,'f!J.f!1·ds.
3, Words are either spoken or -~itten, . · · ·
4. The expressill@' rof- our-thoughts :~y · _m~a1.~s,~.2f.~ "'-'
words, is called lg,1ig'U(L9e;pr tp~ech. "·.:,_._ ·:; .- · · -~ _,... ; · _.:
5. Language consist:;; <1f many tho~ands of words,;,,.
but the); ·can all be_~lvia_~f i_l1.~ ~e~j!~s~e~;·,~§i<li:
Pw·ts of Speeclh .. .;" . · ·
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- . :;:- . '-' .-:-'- . ~-•'I . 6. The · Pilli's OF SPEECH 'a re Nmms, Pro-rw1t11is;
'J1·ticles, Acl'jectives, Verb;;·A_dverbs,- PJ:epositi{)ns~-tl',
C9n~
. . ·, ·'.::}wp,ctions, and Interje<;tions;:":" . ·
~:..; , , . . . . . ·-.;
-'~ :~ · 7. To these .nine "classes·. o(~wpi·ds ~pefonii' efaht .
· P,hief properties; Gmyler, ~~r~01i:·~~""' .~be{ fJ~e ;._f.qi~,
~'t ltloocl, Tensr', and Cornpa~'?'I!:.. 'Y~". ~ .:
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1. The rules of·syntax, with examples to show correct ·construction ancl incorrect construction in contrast. · 2. Parsing. · 8. Anal·
vsis. 4. The rcmaini11g k.incls of error. -

1. Letters, syllables, and weirds.

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I. We think, or' have tlunights_.

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ENGLISH GRAl\fMAR.

PARTS oyP,EECH,

,These ?lasses of words, and their prope1tits, are
based mamly on the following ten thin"'s or -ideas .

: PR_,~No'-uNs~;·

Objects, Ac!ions, Qualities, Sex, Nurnber~, Relation,;
lJfannm., Time, Place, and Degree.
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PARTS OF SPEECH. 1~'--

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NOUNS.
. Wben we look around us, we naturally first· notice ob~ects. The words Johi~, Ma_ry, tree, house, street, man, horsH, 1
apple, flower, rose, chair, desk, book, are· -all of them woi·ds
that denote objects, and such words ar: called · nou~.
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Ex.-" Now bright the sun upon St. Lawrence smiles
Her million lilies, and her thousand isles." • '

Lions and ostriches are found in Africa.
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J~hn and Joseph drove the horses to the pastu;e,
Pmks and roses are blooming in the garden. ·
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_Apples, peaches, and melons, are broug~t to market .
._ Con,ide1 2d here chiefll'. in regard to Person and Case. ' -, ,

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V. A Pronoun i1(a.wor4:,usedin stead ofi a1·.nQWJ~ ·,".

Wha• .animals a~e on farms ? What thing~ can boys eat~
Whaht _tlungs ~o children play-. with? Wh!t.{_lbjects did yoµ
see t is mormng, on your way to _school? Who are your
classr:iates? What woi.ild you call the words you have ·
ment10ned?
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Tell ll)e which are I.he nouns in the following sentences:_

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You ~an ~enerally te}l ~helher a worq is a noun or not,
_,,_•. ; ;by cons1dermg wl~ether it denotes something that you can
· , !!' see, ~ear, taste, smell, or feel, or. think of as being ·a persor
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When ;obJ~cts .are near to us; ~6r,.afe l!-It.~ady'~~VI!: by .
having been mentioned;' we do not always U:s1i"~~.1r-:names,
but certain- little words . stead pf: tlie _rianies. " •If I - ~'.iY•
" William pronlised Mary that Willfaiu· would ' lend Mary
William's grammar, that~ Marymight,_!!_tudy the gralnniar,"
you can easily see that _the sentence ·is .clumsy and ·disagree-able, because I have so. .often ·re_,Pea;ted. ilie words· William,
JJfary, and grammar. B 4t if I- .~~J.~ ·/! 'William promised
Mary that he wrluld lend her · hi~\gr*11~¥., that sl;e ; might
study it," you nqtice ·th!lt:the s~n.t~tiee ~ ,µiµqh more,simpleand agreeabl~, because· I \i,~vp:u&eci~th~·;Ut,Ue ,jvo_rds. he, she,
and it, for the .nouns .Williq~z~ ~¥qry;' ~ijd ~q~~r..._ · st~ ,._.
of repeating . ~ese w;n~~'.f*rQnP,un'.~px~~ fl ..,
and pronouns are . so ca1:led .I?e_s~~E'.,;. th~y l!-1' ·
nouns, or in- stead. of nouns,.". J:(::.,, ..,.:··::- ::
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1:h? teacher can not spend . an hour better with his class than in tX1
p ammg the preceding paragraph, .and thence the remainder of tl\e section.

8._ A Noun is a name.

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E:ii... - "My moth.e r L when I learned that tho_u wast dead, · Say, wast thou cpnscioll8 of the .t ears I shed?"! · ·~ ·
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The ~ost co_mmon :prqnotins ~r~ ,!, ·my,.rriys~lf,-11}'.f"!-6, nu;;
wt!, our, oursel~e4i 'ours, U.s, ~ou, ¥01fr;.~9ur~elf, Y?;ur~i~~' ¢ou,:: .
thy, t~y§~lf, thi'TJ:,e,, {/ie.e1. he, his, ;hi'rn, '4lYff~fh ,sl1~1qw;;-;,h$,r_Jeif,
hers, it, · ~tS,elf, it~; !._het1~: thr/r:1•~heir~· . :~Ji~'·' /h~1!J!~{v,,ef!-~~4P•: .
whose, wh,om;ig_h,ic~1 whfi-~, and.tl1.~'.:"~.h!!_ e~est.~ar,"£t~ch; :
you .can gene:r:l!ltJ, distinguiSh a:prplJ.01,lll fro~, a .noiwt:~ t{l_ .
- consider whet,her~'th~_word denotes ax;i.gbj~<t~ ~th9.?:t Q(l,in~ -.,
/t~11,clf the na.r:i~~ o~ .~~ .,,,~~ject. :'·1 '~I -~~w· y~~'0~ $,~~;f~d~~ ,
:/ ·notes me, wi~o~t , be111g; \UY· nam~ r- and 1,y.9u., ~epp.f~ •tlie
·.:_,::~Efr"~n spok~~ ·&r~~Q~~ ye:ing _~~ -na~~ . ~·~~M_:._~· 1'1;~f~.. _ ;•:;,,p~ -•'!ilflbleP.fOTW"~/Pf, the words. i!!Jta/ic _14te_r1.i.,,..• .,:
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;pA.RTS :OF SPEECH:·

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

book. The apple lay under the apple's. tree. The apples
lay under th e apples' tree. Thomas has come' home, and
Thomas is well. Lucy is pretty, and Lucy knows it. The
gun was brought, but the gun was out of:. order. . L aura
was disobedient, and therefore Laura's teacher punished
Laura. Julia will buy you a basket, if Juli a can buy the
basket cheap.

., V E R
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ot
think
of
an
object,
without
,thinking'
i;ome•
W e ~an µ
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al
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f 't Therefore every thought or saymg lJllP ies . .
th mg
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thi k
eak
least' two things : spmetb..ing of wh1c w~
n or sp ...;. '
d om thing that we think or say of it; the former ra,.
::ne~ th~ sufdect, and the latter the prerl_icate. "R.ivers "
flow." here rivers is the subject, and flow i~ tbe _pre(hcate.
'' De~ rivers flow smoothly ; " here deep rwers lS the subject fnd flow smooihly is the-predicate. .
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ARTICLES.

Most objects exist in classes; and when we use merely\......
the O!jdinary name of something, we gen'erally mean the
class or object at large or indefinitely; as, tree, apples, water.
To show that we mean only one object of a kind, and no
particular one, or that we mean some particular object or
objects, we generally place the word a or an, or the, before
the name ; as, a tree, the tree, the trees. If I say, " Give
me a book, an apple," you understand that any book or
apple will answer my purpose; but if I say, " Give me the
book, the books/' you understand that I want some part~::,u­
lar book or books. These words, a or an and th..,, which .
are very often used before nouns, and which generally show
how we select the objects of which we are SJ?eaking, are
called articles.

to. An Article is the word the, a, or an, placed be
fllre a p.oun toJimit its meaning.

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'When we speak of any objec~ w~ gen:raUy ~~~er ·: /
· w bat it does' or what is ,done....~o it.• · t' . ;;_
w11a t 1't is,
· . , -,·__. ·
• 1. Flowers are beaUtiful. ' The a:1~-~~. an i~ec •
-.2. Birds sing . . Boys play. Ca~~~;rs bu.~ ~d hou;~s. :r
3, Fields ·are ploughed: The corn ~as gr?lfn~..
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The words are, is, sing, play; ,w ild, etc., by me~ns o ·:
which we say things of the subjects;. are' c~l~.e~ ver~~'. .

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Ex. - '.' His brow
sad i ~is. eye b~Math '' .. . '"'"' .
Flashed like· ~ falchi_on _from Jjs sheatp. . . .- . ' ·:·,. '.

THE: -

House, book, pen, boy, parrot, pink, newspaper. .

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Place AN before each of the f ollowing nouns; then THE : -

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Ax. eagle, Indian, ox, owl! arbor, hour, · undertaker. Y'-}:~·;;~1,
.

Ex. _" Rome I was an ocean_Of

u. A Yerb is a· w~d ~used' tO "expres~- th_~-~act or
slate of a subject. ~ .·..
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Ex. - "A man he was to all the country dear,
And passing rich with forty pounds a year."
Place A beflYl'e each of the f ollowing nouns ; then

A Subject is ~word or ,e~p~ess~<;>X:- d~~ot~?.? .t¥t
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~ 12. A Predicate is a W?rd op plfrase _4e~oti~~ ~Jiat
is said of a subject. ·. . ··
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13. A Proposition is a .. su:bje¢t _comb1µecl ~th _1 s
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predicate.
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of which something is-said;

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. "The river washes away the soil i" 4ere ·w~h~s,' ~ - ~
. . because it tells w b at th e _nv.
. er·· does
, nver t&
verb,
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"· . The
,....~ · '
deep . " .here i& 1s a verb! because It te.ll~ ~~~ethm~< P .. t1
rive.r, :i_1 serves to show I~ what state it IS. ·".So~eti.r~es w .

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

say that the verb affirms
d"
ject. TI . .
or pre '!Cates something of its sub.
us is nearly the same as t 0 t II
something of that ab t
e you that it says
.h ·
OU W1llC
We are tall •
sometimes obliged to use hard
d .
cmg.
e are
of greater accuracy or exact . wor ~ m bool.cs, for the sake
a way different from that in~~~~·~· ~Y. dressmg soldiers ii~
can ~asily distinguish them fron:1c? .~1t1zens are dressed, ·we
has generally, in its words d c1.tizfe~1s. So e~ery science
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PARTS· OF SPEECH;

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p1·oposition, and why; the subject and l
•e •·erb, and why: _
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w 1Y; , tlie predicate, and why;

Froas
o 1eap. D uc I{S swim ·- The ·. d hi
thlµIder rolls. The Ii htnin .
wm w sties. The
iua H
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g , g. flashed. Clouds were movo·
e recited his lesson The d
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oor creaked. The
snake crept · t h
m o t e grass. Out flew the partridges
Put a suitable subJect to each of tlie fo~ing pi·edicates : - ,

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Hi. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or liinit
a noun or pronoun'.
the meaning
Ex._:_" Sweet was the so~".a, 'whe~ oft; ~t ev~~ing's qlose,' _ , ..

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Is. happy; knows nothin<T. am i k.
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rapidly ; was neglected . weo'
~ c ' art rele~ed; grew
sensibly; replied ; step~ rfo;t~g. e1~te~; went away; spoke
their parents. was a
t
' etieated; should obey
.
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grea man. .
Say wmetliing of each

of the f oUowing objects b telli

·h

Street, grass ha , ·
' Y ng u;
' .) ' ice, stars, mountains room bi.bl
se, armers, trees, servant, hous tailor sch' ol

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L'I.somet iibng

Sa

of

Up yonder hilt the village m?frmur rc:ise:''

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each following obJect, by telling what iii done i},· ·1.

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"A good pupil will be industrious." Good, and industri- ous are adjectives, because they describe the pupil; that is, ·
,_they odescribe 't he objec~ mean.t by t?e.word pup1'l. '-; ·
·,;~ "This tree bore.five bushels· of-~peI,e.~." 17tis is ~ an , ad­
. jective, h;ef~USe it makes the : i_ndefuiite word tree mea,n a
particul~ ~pe ; and five. ,is an - ~ject~ve, because it make~

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at the.I/ are:-.

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;;o:omc~ng of each of the following obJects, by telli~g ""'"t they

of interest in the same object. A river, for instance, may be df._ep, woad, clear, -and swift. . The value of objects, or ·
the regard we have for them, depends not a little on their
qualities; and hence it -is necessary for ·US .to have 'words'
that will sP,ow the qualities of objects, or describe . objects.
These words . are called adjectives. . Sometimes ·we use
words that do not exPi-ess the qualities of objects, but that
still se'rve to show what objects are meant. · Such words
are tM{; that,_each, every, either, first, secqnd, one, two,_three,
etc. T f ese words are also Galled adjectives. . The word
a'dJective' ,means .thrpw-ing to, .ad<;ling to, or Joining_ to; an
~djective generally modifies the idea of an object, by join. ~ng to it that of soine quality.
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esson, onnet bridae y d · d
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o ' ii,r : wm ow, John, newspaper.

·.the indefinite word bushels mean, a particular nuru)Jer.
Ttll which are the adjectives, and why: -

ADJECTIVES.
. We notice every day that objects are not all l"k
when of the same general ki d S
a I e, eve!.1 ·
are red; some are wMte ,· an~ ~om::: iy·oe~;~w'·forAinstancle; . - may be l
ll
'°' ·
n app e
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luv· . me arge o~ s;na ; red, green, or yellow ·;· hard or mef:J;:~.'"::
'
a/!J or Juicy. Sometimes we not'
. ' ' ·· ·
ice several thu~gs '·'

.t
,.•

,..·

Warm .weather; dark _clouds; shjidy lawn;>; WI trees
a white clo_ud; yonder house; a ,hOllow ,ti·ee; a steep bluff
Put iuitahle adjective& t.o eacl,i ·of tliefo/Jinuinfl':MU1111i and tell what each.of
the objects~~ by ming the same adjective:--: ~:·: ..

J

M;m,~ boy, workman, star, rosei river, 'book, day, cro:w.. ·
-" ',~ -'iwan, p-inl,, winter, snow, wood, s,tones, lead.

B

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PARTS OF SPEECH.

ADVERBS.

PREPOSITIONS.
~y looking around us, 'we can easily see that the gre'at
mass of objects composing tbis _world, is held together in a
thousand different ways. "Houses are on ' the : ground
cellars are under houses ;· an..,d trees grow aroU,nd houses."
" Boats run up aad dOwn rivers, . and rivers flow ·between
.
·
_
bills." 1
To describe objects and all their actions and states, we
have not a sufficient number of words made especially for
this pu~pose, or we should have to use these words disa·
greeably often. Hence we often describe objects, actip~, ·
or th~ir qualities, by showing simply how they are related to
other objects ;- or we make our thought.$ pict~res o_f p~~·
of the world, by showing in these pictures how the ~orrc­
spo1~diug things are ·linked together. ·Such linking :wor4s,_
that express relation, are the words on, under, around, up,
down, and between, as' used above ;·and such .words are called
prepositions, because _they !!-re ~e~erally plac~Q. befor~..,the
nouna and pronouns with which they ma~e <;lescriptive'
phrases. Preposition comes from pre; be(on;i," and· positio,
. placing ; the \\•or~ ther~f~re m~ans ?!acing befo,re.
.

l"f~fot only are objects different, but their actions ar

I
1 erent, even when of the .
e n sa
qot all walk al'J
sai~1e general kind. People do
ive often use :u,~h n:~ :lk al!k~ nor write .alike. . Hence
fully, awkwardly hast 'lr

ts we ' b~ly, fast, slowly, grace-

tinguish them ,._ ,
i y, e c., to ~escnbe actions, or.· to disTh
,
· rrom one anoth
adverbs, because they are
er. II
ese words are called
distinguish acti~~:e~a y a~ded t? perbs. Sometimes
when they are done . as " y t.ellmg s1mp)y where or
rained seldom."
'
'
It ramed everywl1ere; '1 "It

we

We not only use
ds t' d
.
'
actions, but we often ~or
do escnbe objects .and their
b'
1se wor s to show in what d
0 ~ects or actions have their
rr
egrces,
ably fast; more rapid! .
qua I _res ; as, very good; tolerwhich express degre/ ' mdost ra~r~ly. And these wo1:ds,
' an are JOmed to ad' t'
a dv<>rbs, are also called adverbs.
. uec ives and ,...._

. Hi. An Adverb is a word used to modify the
wg of a verb, an adjective, or another ~dverb

'

mca~-

Ex . - " Ho w t une,,-,
.1 u IIy through woods and meadows fi •
The brooks, now free from winter's ice and~,;::~!,,
'.' John studies diligently . " here d"l'
l .
~cause it shows the mode ~f doincr t~~fentt lh~' an. adverb,
by the word studies.
b
ac w 1c? is . meant

"Tl.
llS apple is very good ; " here v r .
,
..
cause ' it shows in what cl .
h
e Y 1s. an adverb, beeg1 ee t e apple is good " Tl
cars run uncommonly fast . " I
.
ie
because it shows in wl1at d' iereluncommonly is an adverb,
egree t 1e cars nm fast.
The adv.,·bs, rmd why: _

,

To speak flu ently. To return soon
,
.
'
· . To flow smoo;thly.
Horribly ugly. Very lonrr F
11
The
r
•
,,.
u Y npc. Nearly so• .
young iorgct qmckly, but they feel keenly: .
. "' ·

.

..

I
. I
I

17. A PrepositiQU is a woi·d used to show the rela · ·
t.ion between a following nouii or pron~n.' and some
'· , . ·.
othci· word. .
· .
·· .
Ex. - " And the sheen OF their spears was like star$ Ol~· the.sea,
When the blue ·waves roll nightly ON deep· Galil6t."
' 18. An Adjunct; or Pre}lOsitional I>JLrase, is a: prepOt5ition with the woi:d or words required after it to
complete the sense.
Ex. - " The snows pf Siberia._" "Red apples h_ung on tke tree.•
· An adjunct has generally _the meaning of an ad.fective or
an advirb.
-

IO

r ARTS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ·

" T~e. roses by my. window are in full l.!_loom.:• By is 8
prepos1t10n, because 1t sh()ws the relation between roses and
.window; or the phrase by my window shows what rose~ are
~eant ; and in is a preposition, because it shows the relation between are and bloom, or the phrase in bloom shows
in what condition the roses are or exist.

OF SPEECH.

Tht ro11junctioo, a•ul what it ccmnecta: - . : ,

.· ' ' · ·

Roses 'Ind pinks. Good but dear. In peace an.cl in war.
The buds. of spring or the. fruits of autumn. He . st11dif'.s
in the rborning,_and rides in the evening.
INTERJECTIONS.
· When we see, . hear, ~r in ~ny other way notice thi11~.;: ' : ·.
our feelii\gs are often suddenly excited, and we ut_ter, aim~~~
,
unconsciously, certaifflittle WQrds that show these emotions.
!·
}Vor~ of this kind are such as 0, oh, ah, pish, tut, aha, ~~
. p~haw, etc., which you have doubtless often heard. . _q.'
generally_ express surprise, W?nder, j?y, ~ef, angc_r :
tempt. Interjection means throwing between ;.~· · mce
. these words are looseli thrown .. between 0
: ..wor~ in
speaking, they have been called .intery"ectimts~
_

Tf1e preposition, and between what it shows the relation: -

· _A path through the woods. .A pound of meat. The ·
bridge over the river. A rule against whispering. To go_
to school. To return from school. To ride in a car. -To
_set on the table. To creep under a hedge. Desirous of
fl!ffi.,e• Drawn by horses. Kind to playmates:
.
CONJUN_CTIONS •
.We frequ~ntly use certain little words simply to connect
wo.rds, phrases, clauses, or sentences, and to s4ow the: depev<:lence of the parts thus connected. . When you hear
such w9rds as and, but, because, you at once know that sorr.ething more is·to come, and that it bears a certain relation
~o what h:15 ·b~e~ said. If I say," John writes and cipher~';"
~ohn spilt .~s mk on the desk and on the flo()r;" "John
writes every clay, and I generally look at his writing;" you
can see that the word and adds something m9re .to what
ha_s. been said, or joins two 'Yords, tw.o phrases, or two p.ropos1tions t?gether; and since conjunction means joining together, this word, and others like it, have heen called. cvn·

20. An Interjection i's a . word .· that · expresses · an
emotion, and is not connected, in construction with
any other word. .
· ·: ....
,. ~ ' ·' .
Ex~ - "0 thou beyo~d what ve~e .or ~.e~Ch
-'i
• My guide, my frien~, my best-~eloved,/ar.~~~ ! '.' · ; _.

can

"Day brok~; but ;hen~ oh{_wha~ a;cen~ "'. ~~ -b!!ttle:
- field!" Oh IS an mter.iection; _bec~use . l~ ewre~~s _the. "'
sudden_emotion o~ the speaker; ~d ~'ihe_ rem~ing;~vor~ . ~
of the .sentence win make .~nt' with!;n,I~ It.
. \ ,;; :-o:.:f ·
. S{)GGESTION TO "THE . T.EACHlrn~Jake. a wa!k;.(IYith your clas~'(Jµ:ing
. some leisure interval, and teach them' the· parts ~peech fro~ . tl:ii :urounding sce9ery.
'
·· .
. :' • ~.. ·
··

junctions.

· " I do not, Lord, wish to appear more beauteous rich 1 or ay··
Butk
· ev.ery year, and better every
' day." _····''')::~,
1.f•
. ma e me wiser
"He rides, if he ,is sick." " He rides, though he is .siCk. ~ ,;·
"H
· sick."
·
•' · c ;- .:,
. e ri"des, because he 1s
· Here i};-though, and bec1IUse'·
are conjunctions, be~use each connects two clauses · "' :'., · ~: ,
0

••

• !'t·~ ; ..~~,.~·~'
#

-""

,~:;;~ .:;~ ~

19. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words ·
phras(;ls, clauses, or sentences.
·
· '

PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS O~ SPEECH.' .' ...
GENDER. ·
When I say John, I mean. a· male '; when I say Mary,·I ·
mean a female ;. when I say child, I can mean either.a ·ihaI~
~r_"a female ; and when I say hnife; I mean neither a 'm~li:~
.:..i.··
nor
the
.... I\ fennle. Hence some . ~ouns are
'
' IlaIDCS'Of
(' . uiales • .
~

• •

.

,~·

,.

12

ENGLISH GRAMl1AR.

I>ROf'ERTIES OF THE PARTS 'oF SPEECH.

some are the names of females ; some are the names of
either males or females ;' and some are the names of neithc1
males nor females. From this distinction in the use of
words, we get that property of nouns and pronouns which
is called gender.
21. Geuder is that property .of nouns and pronouni

w!1ich distinguishes objects in regard to sex.
· 22. There are fom· genders ; the 11u:isculine, tho
' feminine, the comnwn, and the' neuter. ·
23. Masculine ... A noun or pronoun is of :the mas{!J!i°Une gender, wh,en it denotes a male. Man.
21 · Feminine."' A noun or· pronoun is of the femin·ine gender, whc1i it denotes a female. Woman.
25. Common. A noun or pronoun is of the c0mmon
gender, when it denotes either a ma:le or a female.
Person.
...
26. l\'euter. A noun or pronoun is of the neuter
gender, w:hen it denotes neither a male nor a female.
House.
The nouns man, boy, and king, are of the masculine gen. der, because they denote maleSJ; the nouns woman, girl,
.. and cow, are of the feminine gender, because they denote
females ; the nouns parent; cousin, and bird, are of the
common gender, because they can be applied t? either
males or females ; and the nouns house, tree, and chair,
are of the neuter gender, because they are the names of
neither males nor females.

27. An inanimate object is sometimes regarded as
a. . person, and it then assumes a suitable sex. , ~~S,l~·{ ... · ·
au object is said to be personified. .
" . ·,,: ~~f,o/'.'.
"Arnl Hope enchan ting smiled, and w:fred her golden bajf:;;•

Here H1/f1e is said to be feminine .by personification_. ~

., '! I

,_

l3

The gender, and why: -

Father, mother, parent, hang, son, daughter, child, infan~·
brother, sister, Julius, Julia, snow,· book, mouse, he, she, it,
we, they, nephew, niece, neighbor; friend.

PERSON.
speaking, we can rj!fer either to ~urselves, to the ·persof1: spoken to, or to the person or. thing spoken of; and "
there are no othe{ ways of speaking. From this distinc·.~.
ti0n in the use of words, we get that property of ni<1:&.i~'
pi·onouns, and verbs, which iS called peiiori. ·
. - _·
~n

1

28. Person is that property of words which shows
whether the speaker is ·meaut, the person spoken~' ·
or the person or thing spoken of:
29. '£here are three persons ; the first the second, ·
and the third.
30. First. A noun or pronoun, is of the first perso'ii,
when it denotes the speaker. "l saw you.~'
-.
31. Second. A noun or._ pronoun is of-·the ·second
. per~on, when it denotes the persol!. spoke~cfo. ' ·" You ~
saw me."
:{i;.·· .,
. ,, ·
•
32. Third. A noun or pronoun is of the thfrd person, .when it denotes the person .or thing spoken of. _
"-He saw it."
·
·
•

..

•...

•

,·

0

' "l Paul have written it;" here' I and Paul ·are · of thu
. first person, because they denote the person speaking.
the sentence, "Thomas, your ·1 horse has run away," Tlzomas_,
'and your are of the second person,. because they de1iote the
person spoken to ; while the word horse is of the third ,
eerson, because it denotes t4e object spoken of.
When an inanimate object is addressed, it is· 'regarded

Jn ·

2

... d~:

(,·•

;_,

14

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PROPERTIEB OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

BS a persou ; as, " But thou, 0 Hope, with eyes
fair."

!10

CASE.
When we speak of an object, ~e either say ,~t it i•
something, that it: does some~hing, or that somethin~ 'is don'
to it; as, "The dove is white-;'.' "The_- dove coos;" "The
dove was caught." This relation of an object to what is..
said of it, is called case. When something _is done, .the
act · often affects some .o bject; as,, •1 The do.ve eats corn."
This relatio~· of·th1f'!i'~t to what is acted upon, is also ca}led
ca5e. Almost every object in' the world belo~1gs to some
"Mary'~ doy~;"
other object, or is a part of some other;
" The dove's feathers."
·
·
All these r~lation~· of objects produce, in the expression
of our thougtfts, those relations· between words which are
called, cases.
.

The nouns and prorwuns, and why ; the person, and why: -

. I, you, he, she, we, my, myself, yourself, hers11lf, them.
Thou art, 0 God, the life and light
Of all this wondrous world we see.
'a.angt into the other persons: -

John writes.

The girls study.

Henry, you may play.

NUMBER.

as,

There are not only many kinds of objects in .the world,
but generally many objec~ of each kind. In speaking, we
often wish to show that we meah'·but one object of a kind,
or else more than one; and we u~e -· words ~ccordingly.
From this distinction in the· use of words; we get that
prop-erty which is called number.
, .;

33. Number is that property of words which shows
whether one object is meant, or more than one.
34. There are two numbers; the singular. and the
plural.
35. Sing·ular. A _noun or pronoun is of the singular
wumber, when it denotes but one object. Book.
36. Plural. A noun or pronoun is of the plural
number, when it denotes more objects than one.
Books.

'

~

. .·

,~

,:

_. ,,

\' ' ..
'.i

·;

"',.. .

The nouns .Albert, tree, and girl, are of the singular num
_
ber, because each denotes but one object; the nouns boys · .- .
trees, and gfrls, are of the plural number, becaus.~ ~acb . .,,, , .
':"t'
?f,1'
denotes more objects than one.
.f~'·
~-=~W.l.
",.;;.,:;.,
.Rose, roses, partridge, partridges, goose, geese, tQQ . ~.-.;

The number, and why: -

t<eth, boy,

.

boy•~ wo, mo,•• ho, tboy, '10, them.

lb

,!re$~;;&\('•
,·, ~

..;

'

37. Case is that property of noµns and pronouns
.which g
. ) iow they are used in the constr~ction of
senteni:ies.
38. 'fhere are three cases; the rwniinative, 'th~ p;ssessive, and the obje,ctive.
39. Nomi.native. A noun or pronounis in the nominative case, when it is . the ~ubject~. of a "pre4icateverb. "l ran." . Wlw ran? "James fel1.l1 • ~ fell?
40.r-Possessire. A·noun or pronoun· is 'fa' th~2f,!s­
sessive case, when it denote~ possession. ' ''My· h~¢~
'4cl. Ol1jective. A noun or pronoun is in the objective case, when it is the object of a transitive verb or
1,1 preposition.
" You sent m<;. to him." ·
· '·.
A transitive •trb is a verb that implies an ac~ done by one person· or
'\ hing to . another; as, strike. The object of. a trans}tive ver~ or a preposi· ·•
·'c oon is the n!Jun or propoun which completes its relati9n; as, He stru.ck me
· - ~ith his hand." Stmck whom 1 with what 1
}!'"Apedi~ei'Q is t verb that makes a predicate, or the chief part of •

.}~~~C!lte:"~~ ·_

·

·

·

· -~

/

17

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PROPERTIES OF TUE PARTS OF SPEECH.

"John shot some squirrels in my father's I field." Here
~he word John is said to be in the nominative case, because
lt deno~es t~1e d?er of something, or the person of whom
't~methmg .ls said or predicated i the words squirrels and
field are m the objective case, because squirrels shows
wl~at he shot, an~field shows in what; and the word father's
Is m the possessive case, because it denotes the owner.

46: Passive. A verb is in the passive voice, when it
represents its subject as acted upon. " I was struck.'·

16

42. S.une Case . .A noun or pronoun is generally in
the same case as another, when it denotes the same
person or thing.
·
~x.-:-" I myself went." "Smith the banke~ is our ~eighbor."
The Italic words of each sentence, denoting the same person, a.re ip. the same case.

The nouns and pronouns, and why; the cas.e, and why : -

Jesus wept. Farmers plough. . Iron rusts. He works.
John found Mary's book. Lucy's lamb nips the grass.
Albert wrote his name on his book. We love them:
I thank you. A flock of blackbirds is on the · ree.
Johnson the lawyer is a brother of Johnson the doctor.
A more detailed consideration of the subject of case is deferred to the
Rules of Syntax.

VOICE.
When an act is done by one person or thing to another
we can state the fact in two ways, - either by tellino- wha~
th~ doer does, or by telling what is done to the per~on or.
th mg acted upon; as, "Merchants sell goods;" " Goods .are
1old by merchants." From this distinction in the use of
words, we get that property of verbs whiCh is called voice.

:· 43. Voice is that property of transitive verbs which .
shows whether the subject does or receives the· ' act
AIAI
Th ere are two voices; the ' active
. and ' th.el
.'
-·
,:,·', ;:'

sfu~

45. Active. A verb is in the active
represents its subject as acting.

-~~r.

-

If I say, " The servant s.coured(the floor,"· sc?JU~ed is said
to be in the active voice, ·because it represents the subject,
servant, as acting upon the floor; .but if I say, ''The floor
was scoured by the servant," was scoured is said to be in the
passive voice, because it represents the subject, floor, 'as
. a1ted upon.-~h,e teach~r @ould expl~in tran&itive. "
The 11e1'bs, and why ; tlie wice, and why : -

I called. I was called. He caught. He was caught.
I see. I am seen. He-Should send. He should be sent.
Snow protects plants. Plants are protected by snow.
The sun is melting the snow. The snow is melted .by the
sun. A servant brought the \lorse. The horse wai'brought .
by a servant.
'
l-

MOOD.

I

Many actioT>S -really take place; but many are .only in the
mind, or people bear certain relations to them. If r say,
"I write," I express something as .a matter of fact; "I may
or can write," I express not ·wJ.iat is maj;~er of fact, yet may
become such, or I simply dec1are my relation to the act ; ·
"If I were writing," I ei.<press. a mei:e suppositio_n ; "Write,'' ·
I request it to be done; "Th · write/' "Writing," I simply
speak of the act. These different modes of exp~essing the
rnrb, grammarians call moods ; or, from this distinction in
the use of words, we get that property of verbswhich is
called mood.
.
.

47. Mood is the manner in which_, the act or state
.
.is expressed with reference to its subjec.t.
'"'- '
)

4n act or state may be referred to .Its subject as wm:thlng real; or as som~­
- tlJlng merely supposed; or a• something modified, b11 a relalion; •tr ns something·
c~n1Hq1U!ed; or as so~1et.hing subordinaie, or mcrelf assumed ~ud ,;;;, j,rodi·

catsd,'

.

18

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS .QF SPEECH.

i.
· 48.t' There are four moods '. the .'nd.
• icat.ive, th e ' suu.
June ive, t.he i:otcntial, and the imperative.
. 49. ln1hcat1ve. A verb in the indicative m-Ood ex.

piesses au actual occurrence or fact.
Ex.-" I went." "It snows." "God created the world."

50. This mood can be used interrogatively.

»x. -

"'Is there no hope?' the sick man said." .

51. Subjunctive. A verb in the subjunctive nWO<l

may express, .
I. Something as future an<l uncertain.

19

The words which express th!J potential mo9d are may,
can, must, might, co~ would, and shoutd. .
54. Imperative. A verb in the imp&rat~v.e pwod ma_},
0

. ·
express, -c.. /
·
.
1. Command. " John:, sit up.''
2. EJ:itreaty. "Forgive our trespasses.''
3. Exhortation. "Learn what is useful.''
~· ~rmission. "Go in peace.'' ·

.• -

We com,mand in fer~ors, entreat superiors, ea:kort equals, and permit ill cgm~·
pliance with the wiShes of others.

-

Ex. - " If he be at home, I shall speak to him."

2. A mere wish or supposition.
Ex. - " 0 had I the win"S of a dove I" B t I h
" If h
h
"
u
ave not.
e were at ome, I would speak to him ., B t h .
" ll d h b
·
u e IS not.
a e een at home, 1 would hav\l spoken
to him.,.

3. A mere conclusion, conception, or consequence.
~x. - '.'. I t 1'.'ere useless to resist." (Would be.)
.
If it were done .when it~ done, then 't were well
It were clone qmckly." _Shakespeare.
·

52. Potential. A v:erb in the potential . mood rway
e.lptess, -

,..

1. Pow~r: . " I can go." "I could go.~'
2. P?ss1b1lity. "It may rain.'" " It rni.ght rai~.:~
3. Liberty or permission. . " You may go ,,
4. Inclination. "I wmdd go.'' .
• .
5. Duty. "I should go."
6. Necessity. "I must go."
7. A l~ish. "May you prosper.'' _
5~. Tlus mood can be used interrogatively. .' :'~,~~;
,._1,

...

.Ex. - "C an Fl a tt ery soothe the dull, colu ear of death ? '""~
,. "< ""·''·,
••~r.
~

..

~,.,

...

.
'
There are· two other forms of the verb, - the Infinitive"
and the Participle, which do not predicate the act or state
of a subject. Most grammarians call the "infiniti:Y.e the infinitive mood; some call the·participle the parliC'ipi~ mood.
Bofo forms may be considere~ a mood·r put it 'seems to us
that they are sufficiently distinguished · by·being called the._
Infinitive and the Participle.
' ·
_ "I study;" here·st.udy is in the 'in~cative mood; because ·
' it expresses :!iOmething as really taking place. · -"If !'study,'!
" If I were studying. ; " ·h_e re study .and w~e studying~ aie in
the subjunctive niood, beca~~ thl:l . fop~er expresses only
· what may take place' hereafter; and ·th~ Ia.tt!'lr a mere su~ _
position . . "I can study;" here c.an .study is· in, ~e ..pq~n·
tial mood, because it expresses : only my ability. iji~ ~egard
tv -studying. "Study;'' h_
e re study' is in the ·illiperative
mood, ·b~cause it is 'given as a. command tQ th~ p~rson ·
spoken to. "To study," "Studying ; " here ·the actions are ~
spoken of abstractly, that is, without referring th~m to '?-Ily
pa~ticular person or thing.
·
,.' ~
For exercises under Mood and Tense, see pp. 42, 44. The circuit of sen- "
.tences which follows this . entire body of definitions,' and which -~how.s the
general construction of the English language,' should be 11,1uch used l>y the ~
.teacher, in order to give the pupils a µving knowledge ~f the ~u?ject.. : - .. : "·

.<

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

The following sentences illustrate the six tenses: " The
tree blossoms" " The tree has blossomed; " ,"·The tree blos' .
.
.
,,
iomed," " The tree had blossomed;-" " The tree will blossom,
" The tree will have blossomed."

TENSE ..

w.e

C:Ul

not separate our actions from time.

21

PROPERTIES OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

BesideSi

~he time of an act, or whether the act is ·completed or not,
often a matter of great importance to us. Time may
naturally be divided into three great divisions, - present,
past, and future ; and in each of these periods we may
speak of an act as simply taking place, or as completed.
!h~s: "I write," "I l1ave written;·" · " I . wrote," "f had
w_ritten ,·" "I shall write," " I sltall have wri"tten." , These
different ways of using verbs to distinguish time, are called
JS

The following are the chief irregul!lrities in the use

or'. the tenses.

63. The tenses of the subjunctive mood move for. ward in time.
IN'DICATIVE:

"lam here now." "
.'!18 there then."
"If! be here to-morrow."" Ifl were there now." •

SuJfJUNCTiVE:

'(
.
. .
. ...
.
64. Tl1e tenses oHhe potential mood, wheµ used

' ..

tenses.

subjunctively, move forward iii time.

55. Tense i; that pro1)erty of-verbs which shows ·
the distinctions of time.
·
·
5G. There are six tenses : the present, the presentperfect ; the pa.st, the pa.st-perfect; the future, •and
.
.
the future-perfect.
57, !>resent. A verb in the present tense denotes a
present act or state. "I see."
58. Present·Ilerfect. A vefb in the present-tJerfect
t~nse represents something as completed in present
tune. " I have seen."
59. I>ast. A verb in the pQ,ftt tense denotes simply a
past act or state. "I saw."
.
'
·
. GO. Past-perfect. A verb in the pa.st-tJerfect tens~
i·epresents something as completed in past time. " I
~ad seen."

. 61. Future. A verb in the future tense denotes simply a future act or state. " I shall see."
,.
62. Futu~e-pe1·fect. A verb in the future-perfect .

t~nse represents something as completed in future '·<•
time• . "I sluill ltave seen."
· ··
"":~. ;.,,,,.:,~:·"':

.": ~_:;....

,

Ex. - " I should think you might, risk it ; "i. e., now or ber}lafter.

,.

G5. Sometimes when, till; as soon- as, or a · similar
term, carries the present or the present-perfect tense
. into future time.
·
·
·
Ex. - " When be comes, I will send bi~ to you."
.
-" When be has finish~ the work, ~ will pay bhn.'1_ .
The teacher should explain the for~going pa;ngraphs more fully: .
FORMS OF THE TENSES.

G6. The -Forms of a Tense are the different ways in ·
')

.

'
which it can be expressed:
Ex. - He str~kes, does strike, is striking, is struck, strilceth.•

,.n

Jn
these ilifferent ways the verb strike can be expressed -in the pres'
ant tense ~f the indicative mood.

. 67. There are five forms; the comm-0n, the emphatic,
the passive, the progressive, and the ancient, or th~
sokmn style.
•
· GS. The Common Form is the verb express~d ··.m
the most simple and ordinary manner.
.,

Ex. - "Time flies."
'.I

"He went home."
;1.=;~{;-~ ~ -~
.

.

.::~~~:·_

;

..

22

P~OPERTIES~_ OF -: TH~

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

69. The Emphatic Form denotes emphasis, expressed by do or did as a part of the verb.
Ex. - " I did sny so." " Really, it does move."~70. The Passive Form is that which is generally
used / to express the passive voice; and it is made
by combining the verb be, or so'me variation of it,
with the perfect participle.
·
•

'

To do to be doing. "They are dancing."
Th books are selling rapidly."

Present participles are such words as planting, teaching, driviug.

72. The Ancient Form is an old common form that
is still -used in the solemn style.
It has the ending t, st, or est, for the__ -second -person singular ; th or eth, in stead of s or es, for the third person
singular ; and generally uses thou or ye in stead of you.

~houl <l

c>:r lain the foregoiug section more fully.

. ~.

..

.. .-.

!• . •

.

.

The teacher should explain the fore-going seel:ion more fµlly.
\

r·

'

~

A verb is 0 f (the first persont 'Yhen it predi~ates a1\ act
or state of the speaker. ' · · ·
· _-- ·
. A verb is of tbe second p~son, whel;i it predicates an act
or state of the nerson spoken ~ "> • • · · :-, · ·:~ : -1
A verb-is of the third person, when_it predicate _ ~act :.
or state of. the person or thin~ spqken ·of.-~-:" " - .'"· _ ~·- :·.
· A verb is of the singular number,'wheµ it pr~dicates a14~
'act or.state of but one person ~r thing. _ _- . - - . ·
,..
A verb.is of the plural numper, wh~n. it _pr~dicates an _
act or state of more 'than .one person or thing. . _ _
Verbs thus have, like nouns and 'prolouns, t?ree persons
and two·n~mbers.

PAS SI VE : "

The teacher

'

It

of

(

•

is cu~omary to make am, art, is, and are, thus , diff~cut bscause the subjects are different in per8on and number i and each.
ve;:ll thus tends to,show what its subject-must be.
_

'fhe ProgTessive Form is that which expresses
continuance of the act or state ; arid it is made by ~,
combining the verb be, or some variation
it, with '._-;~
/ ,
the present participle.
.,

Most verbs or predicates can be used1 besides, in th1:: fol-,
!owing different ways : 1. Affu·matively. " He is at home."
2. Negatively. "He is not at home."
3._Interrogatively. "Is he at home?"·
4. Interrogatively and negatively. "Is be
home?"

:

·" "Th
Ex - "I am" - "Thou-art." .- " H e is.
. . ey,.are"
•, . " I write." "Thou :write~t." -"He writes." · "Tb.cy write."

n.

" Thou art the man."- Bible. " Thou knowest." - lb.
" For every one that asketh,- receiveth." - lb.
"Ye are the salt of the earth." - lb.

·,

73, The Per.so~ and -Number of aver.bare its form
to suit_the person.and .nuinber of its subject •.

Perfect participles are such words us planted, taugl1t, diiven.

Ex. -

'.

PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS;

Ex.- To be, to be seen:; has been, has bee~ broken.
" The oak was shattered by lightning."

ACTIVE :

~- (~ "~

23- -

PARTS -OF SPEECH.

··, .

.

,

~...

·
i

~

COMPARISON. "·<··Objects not only have · q~alities, bu~ they o~n _-diffe_r in their qualities, especially in d:gree ; and· not a _utt~e_ of ,our
regard for objects depends on w.hether ~~y have more· or
less of the qualities which we like or dislike. - ~ ~ay prefer; for instance, one apple to another .bec:ause -1t is ~rger
0 ~ better than -the other. Actions also differ, aµ.d not _un·
., frequently in degree. _"John may study diligently, but
Mary may study more dilig_~~ly.''. • _ -.
_
,~When we thus comp~i:,e; quahtlEtSi, i+9J.ions,. and their. cir·

.......

24

ENGLISH GRAM.MAR.

25

CLASSES OF THE PARTS . OF SPEECH.

cumstances, we usually make but three chief distinctions:·.
We may speak of the quality itself, of a higher or a lower
d~gree ?f it, ~r of the highest or the lowest degree ; as,
wise, wiser, w·isest ; wise, less wise, kast wise. From this
distinction in .the. use of qualifying words, we get that
~roperty of adJectives and adverbs which is called compar-

80. A Clause is a proposition that makes but a. pad
,f a sentence. " If you will go."
·
81. A Sentence is a thought-e~press~d by.a -. proposition, or a union of propositions, followed . by a full
pause. .
,

ison.

Ex._:_ " The morning was pure·and sunny, the fields were white
with daisies, and the hawthorn w~ cn~ered with it.s fragrant bloosoms."-Irving.
.
..
The whole of the foregoing expression is a sent,enc~; the parts
· separated by the comma are clauses· •md the expression, with iU
fragrant blossoms, for instance, is ..a DJ .rase.
.
.

74. Com1rnrison is that property of adjectives and

adverbs which expresse$ quality in different d.egrees.
7~ .. There are three degrees of comparison; the
positive, the comparative, and the superlative. ,
76. Positive. An adjective or an adverb is in the
positi~e <le~ree, w)len it expresses simpl.f the quality;
as, WI.Se, wisely.

The phrases, clause., and sentencea, an11 wny: -

. 77. Comparative. An adjective or an ad~erb i& in

~he cori:-parative degree, when it expresses the quality
a h1?her or a lower degree, or.when lt implies a
comparison between two ; as, wiser, ~s wise.
·
78. Superlative.\An adjective or an adverb is in
the superlative <legree, when it expresses , the quality
in. the highest or the lowe&i degree, or ~hen. MJ)mphes that more than two 1>ersons or things are compared ; as, wisest, .least wise.
111

"Jane is tail,·" "Alice is taller,·" "Louisa is the tallest."
•Jane writes carefully;" "Alice :" writes kss carefull9 ;"
.. Louisa writes least carefitlb9."
.
'

PHRASE, CLAUSE, AND SENTEN.C

. 79. A Phrase is two or more words right!)'
together, .without making a proposition. "To :•
alone." " On a shad v knoll."

,

" .. 'F. ..

.i,

Far away. The dark. storm approaches.' • ~~hn·~~jJ!ite: :
l\Iany small pieces. John's slate is broken·J.llt<?-~ma?l·~~all ·
pieces. The, rising sun. . The sun is rising. ~)a:ge red
-apple. Give me a large red apple. To write a letter:' I
wish to write a letter. The 1rain is pouring down heavily,
and the river is rapidly rising.
~

CLASSES OF THE · PARTS 0F SPEECH.
·1

,'c

CLASSES OF NOUNS~ ,,>'i: ·
divided into twO'chief cl~s~es; pi-aper
82. NOUNS
and comrnon.
· ~ ·-· ·
· ~.}· · '.

are

83. A Proper Nou1'.._i$ a nam'EYthat distinguishes' a
particular one from the rest ·of a class. · .· · ·
Ex. - James, Mary, Boston, Maryland, _September. ...
Jame$ is ·a. proper. ~oun, because it is a namo;th~;~<!i~~ngtiil!hes
a particular boy from others.
·
.
-'~-~ · :.,
·

. 84. A Common No~ is 'a name that is '~o~p1011 to
~ll 6f the same kind.or cl~ss.
'
. · . .,7 .
·

. E~:·_:_ Boy; girl, c;ity, s~ate, "~~~th, ~iver,. -. ·

· ' : · _ ·..
Boy:is ,a, common riou11 1 .,b,eca~ i,t is a_ name:~hat}s c~mon, ~·.-·
• 1an ,be~ipplie4. ~~v,e~Y one. <iii' a certain class of .per.J!ons. ·._·" /

' \~~:i;i .:·:~i~~· ~--

.. . .

26

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ·

CLASSES _OF ·THE

Under common nouns are included · colkctive nouns and
participial nouns.

Ex. - "James lost his book." ·J runes is the ' antecedent of his
"He who is well, undervalues health.~- "He is the antecedent of
viho. " I wished to call h-im baclc, but it was i.nlpossible.'' Th,~
phrase to call him baclc, is the autecedeµ-t- of it. " She is pretty, ·
and she knows it." The. clause, she is pretty, is the antecf,J clenl
<if it.

Ex:. - Family, army, swarm, multitude, congregation, class.
Th13 word family generally ll_leans a group of related µersons.

86. A Partici1>ial Noun is a participle used as a

·'

Ex. - "By the sending of those books, you will oblige me."
S ending tells what thing it is that would oblige me, and the
word has therefore the meaning of a noun.
J

Ex. - "Wh~ is he?" "W"hich is he?"

PRONOUN~.-

87. PRONOUNS are divided into four cl~sses; per~
sonal, relative, interrogative, and ctdjective. ·
8S: A Personal l)ronoun is one of those p~onouns
which distinguish the grammatical persons.
·

j
I,

'· '

93, A Compound

him, her, or it, co~pounded with self; i11. the. plura~, ·
of our, your, or .t hem, compounded_;with selv~.
Ex.-My, myself;. your; your;self; him, hi=elf.
·:;.'~:: <
Our, oyrselv~s; your, yourselves; ·them, themselves. · , •

a"

~

Who relates I<> they; and Its cl&u se d ewrlbes the persons denoted by thBJ!.'.,
Which meo.ns th• breeze; and its olawu describes the bree..,,

pe~soruil Pronotin is a_~or(con­

si~ting, in th~ ,si31gul?x number, of my; thy,. your,

0

Ex. - " Too low they build, who build beneath the stars." ~·
" The breeze which runs along the hills in musk:."·

"what is 'he?" .. ,.

Ex-. - "Some were for this, an<l some for that.''
"The new ones [houses] are larger." ·That is, some persons were for this. thing, and some persons wen.
for that thing. Common spe,cjfying adjectives ai;~ liuch as this, tha.~
each; etc.
.
1. Distrib'utive: Each, either, neither. ·.
· J;-.~••
2. D emon'strative: This, these,-.t hat, tho~e, former, latter.
8. Indefinite: One, other, any, scime, such, all, none.
4. Reciprocal: E~h other, one)nothe.~:
.' ·, · ··.i

Ex. - "f saw you and him." I denote_s' the speaker; you, tho
p<1rson spoken to.; and him, the person__ spoken of.

89. A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun that stands
in close relation to an antecedent, and joins t~ it
:loscri pti ve clause.
.~)..;

'

92. An Adjective Pronoun is a common .specifying
adjective used as a pronoun.

and :Chy: -

Girl, Susan, book, Bible, country, Europe, day, Monday,
bird, blackbird, river, Hudson, island, Cuba, tribe, chain,
flock, people, playing, mountains; Andes, electioneering.
CLASSES OF

.

.

/

91. An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used t.o
ask a question.
·

llOUn.

01· p articipial,

OF SPEECH.

90. The Antecedent of a pronoun -is .the · word.
phrase, or clause, which it.represents.:

85. A Collectil'e Noun is a common noun that denotes, in the singular form, more than one object of
the same kind.
·

A noun, and why; proper, common, collect~ve,

P~TS

. - ·.9t. A

.·o;;what

Com11'~~nd Relatil'e .Pro~ouJi 1s , ivlw~· whwh,

evei:-or'sol!iJer

with
arineied to it.·
.~. -1'·;f~'~
·. -.··.E,f:~:i.'f~p ,..~~1V~~ !Chosoev~r; :"'hich,-~hichever, whicl1soever
-.. ,. •• c:i!'· ·' · :WJiat
er whatsoever.
<
•
• ••
•

·~~..

•-

'- ~·.~

: .'} "-~:'";:{dt

. ' ,.

.

-·

'•

'

/

·

".

28

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

101. A Partici}lial Adjecti".~· ~.~ ~.~articiple used as
a descriptive adjectiv<~.
·: ·- .;:,, ..

RINDS OF ARTICLES.

.

102. A Numeral Adjective -is a detlnitive · adjective that expresses numbe~. · ~

man.

Ex. - .Five men; thirty horses; the second
1. A cardinal numeral tE)lls how many ; as, one, two,
2. An ordinal numeral tells which one; IJ.i!,first, second.
3. A multiplicative numeral tells how many fold ; as, doub:,C.
4. An indefinite numeral expresses number in.definitely; as, few. ·

Ex.-The horse, !he horses ; the c~mecticut; tlie green .meadows. .

97, The Indefinite Article shows that no particular one of a class ifs meant,
Ex. - A bird, a mouse, an apple ; an idle boy.
<>r

,.,

E-:X.. - " A rippli~g and
. murmuring .rivulet."
.
. ·"Broke11o..'1Xindows."'
'

95. There are two ARTICLES; The, the definite, anll
! or An, the indefinite.
96, The Definite Article shows that some particular object or class is meant.

An article, and why; whether definite

~V.

CLASSES OF THE PARTS' OF· SPEECIL

· 103. A Pronominal Adjective is one oqhose ·adjec_tives which resemble pronouns, 'and are- som,etiµies
nsed as pronouns ..

iwieJinite, .and why: -

The roses in the garden. The rose is a beautiful flower~
A fish from the river. A daughter of a duke. The daughter of the duke. A daughter of the duke. An ~agle's
nest.

These adjectives are di.vided into three classes: ...,.:.. .
1. Distributive, which relate to ~bjects ~e~ separa}el!J_.
Ex - Each, every, either, neither, many

a,

.,

CLAS.SES OF ADJECTIVES

2. Demo~strative, which p~int' ou..t objects .definitely.

· ·98, ADJEC'.rIVES are divided into two chief classes;
des1,"liptive and definitive.
.,. 99, A Descriptive Adjective describes or qualifies. ·

This, these, that, those, yon, y<i_n~er; ·same;fonper,latter:

Ex. - A rapid river ; a .beautiful garden ; a warm day.
/1<.ipid shows what kind of river is meant.
·

10(), A Definitive Adjective merely
IUnits.

specifi~
·-~· ·~

·

~r

. Ex. - This peach ; some peaches; all peaches ; four pe!J.«hc/.
Tliis shows merely what peach is meant,.without expressin ': '- "· ..
quality of the peach;
.
.
· :_"5
'\
Four shows how many the indefinite plural, peaches, ,ll/
·
to mean; or it limits the meaning of ·the noun peaches. ·.
The foregoing classes of adjectives include, as a part'.
number, participial adjectives, numeral arlje.ctives, .anq p.r;o
adjectives.
·· "·

...,_ .

· 3. . Indefinite, which rel~te to ~b~ects i~e.ftnitely. ·
Any, other, another, one, .~oth; llll, som~ such, s_ev~~~' ~~· · ,.
An adJective, and why I of what;!dnd, and tdiy:\ ' :·; · .· • :' ~~ ·: <·
Yonder tree bore 'five biishels of these larg~J.ecl)1-PPlei.. ·
This river is bro~d~ deep,' clear,_ a?d swift. ;_ · , .~ ·The ;i.Sing s~, · the. setting sun, and t)ie spu-~powdered
. " galaxy.
. '; ;:<''.
.,
~ ~ ·, 0
I

-•

.
.

.

~-

..

',-

•

.

·

',:<.'.' ~~ 'f§; f;· , ·.

~

CLAS SE !VO:f y' .ER:B .S~ '; :;.,.~;#,:;::.~·-·
.

\

•'

.- ·. -·

~.- -·

.. .

1.~·i.l·- ·;~~:-z;;.i.'"~-~:... -~

:~.

. •.REGULA. R • ' ,!.X.,;D?• IRR .E G U.L ..A. R·~~f:'~~~,it~ '."-: .. J{ ~

• • :,._

••

•.

-·

~-.·-':,':.,,;-.,,,,~

•••

•

- -·- .

-

j.'

-.·,1'!.

-~'...·'.~ ''Y'_•...,"!i_'','°

::, tM -~VER~s are,.~aividei'- ac~ordin·g · tO -theµ: . form, ~··'~~
.t·~~"':i.·
- .. ~· ~::.··;;· ~ ':,~; )-~~..;,.-·.,. .... ,·. - .,. ?·· ''{;·:
; ' -;x.cgular and irregular. ~..:-: ... ,
.
·.: ·. , , , ,._.
., 4 · ·
ci5'.: A RegO,lar Verb _i~ ~·~e~b that takes the end~ ··
--;-··:).·...~· •.

Jt· '·

. -~~·?~~~~~--~~~~·:

/

80

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

''
ing oo, to form its past tense and its perfc«t parti ..
ciple.
. .:. · .

CLASSES (,>F THE ' PARTS OF' SPEECil.
•t .

lay, played, played; try, tn ed, tri ed; rob, rob bed, rob .bed.

Ex. - Sweep, swept, swept; see, saw, seen; cut, cut, cut.

191. The Princi1rnl Parts of a verb are the present ·
tense, the past tense, the present participle and the
perfect participle.
,
'
·
These are called t~~ PRINCIP.AL PARTS, because by rnean's .
of them and the auxiliary verbs all the other parts of the
verb can be formed.
·

108. The l,reseut Tcrise is the simplest form of the
verb ; as, go.
.
109. The Past Tense is the simplest form that ex- ·

presses a past fact ; ·as, went.
· · . ·.
110. The Present l,articiple is that form whicl~
ends always with ing; as, going_. It is therefore :'sl
well known that it hardly needs mentioning. ;'
111. The Perfect Participle is that forn/ whicl.
mak~s sense with the word lwving before it;' as, gone
(haVIug gone).
·
·"
. The present tense an? t~e p.ast te~se which w~ have _j .ust ..me~ . . · •
t1oned,
· d'1ca•.
'!"> ' ·
·
Fare the present md1cative or mfinitive and tie·
1 p·ast m
hve.
or t.he sake of brevity, they are generally called · ~·· •o:<·. ' ·
th: ,pr:sent and thtJ past ; and the past is sometiines calf
~. ·
wet enl
·
' '1!
•

'

· .. , -:~: '

FINITE. • .

-112, VERBS are divided, acco:i;ding to th.~ir .rcfatiou

to sul1jects, into finite. and not finite.

..'

.__,_....-

113. -A Finite Verb is a :verb that predicate1rlhe

Whl:e studying this section, review the Rules for Spelling, pp. 155and156.

IOH. An Irreg·ular Verb is a verb .that Joes not
take the ending ed, to form its past tense and 1•t
perfect participle.
s

NoT

· FINITE AND

~x. - Presen t, plant ; past, pl~nted; perfect participle, pla"lted.

·.1

act or state of_its subject.

··

.

·

Ex. - " The plant grows." i< John has arrived." "I am alone-'.'
114. A verb that is
finite, does _u9tpredicate

the act

not

state of its subject. · · " ._,, ..-. · - · _.
"The plant growing." . "John having come." "Fo;·me· to . ~e
01:

. ~ · - • ' 5.: ,~· :

al0ne."

.r-

.

.

·.

,·

1
•

.•

>.,,,...;..

Observe the d!Jrerence between.these. phrases _and the ~~<J.1.ng aentenc,.., , lJ!l.

'

'.#

.

115_. Verbs that a;lfp,ot·fiujte, ,m.!l:Y':P~ .d,ivi~~4; ~tO. -

two classes ; l11J!-~iti~~r:~q_~ ?wr;f.ifJ!.ples!,'~c . ., . ~~~ '11.>:". _... ,:: .:-,_
-116. Au Infimt1ve lS a f~i::ui, ·of: the ver~ tJi.atg~~-: · ~
erally begins with tv, a11d; t_h.~t expres~es t~~._ ~~t,"~Q~ · ,~;$
stat~ without predi_c~ti,ng i}. i. -'· 1 . '.~ : . ·--_-_ \,~, 0 _
Ex._- To lead, to

have.led,_19 .be '.~ed,

toi have be.jlp l ~d._~ ,·,:

.

Observe that these forms simply'll\Ul!e the aot; .without aasertlng it 'of ~ 'su,bj~ "'-· - · ',i;,.~

117. A Participle· i.st'ii forJA .o~ .the_ve1;h tl!at.··e'X- ·. . :
presses the act or state with ut. J>re~i~ating it,~:¥,i:F '. , ·
generally resepi bles '.~µ:,~pji9t~vi.; :__,~r~ _!)r-1~: ,.,~"~,~"~
..

-(

•

~

•

'

•

.Ex . .....:. "A _tree, bendiTfg. ~i~h fruit: fell_ to t~e ·ground," ;
·ar ,,.. ; &illo that the,

Observe that f ell, and not b<nding, ls predicated

Hnding with fruit, is, like an adjective, ·descriP,tive of the tree.. .

" ..

·•

..:,

.f_

t.I

•

~~·;. ~-: ;
P~""•J

, : ... -:--

;.-

·_ .: )
...

118. There are''two infiaj.#vet>j -thefl~ese1tJi ~n~ - the,
perfect.
·
. : . ...._, " ;: ... · : ' :;'.·.· ' ""
' ···> . ·,-,->:~
119. There are two partic1ples '; the pres1nj(a~a The<;.
perfect.
·.,
· · .,,.,_. . ·
, · •/,;;· ,,. '
..•
. . . .,.
. .
~-·

'

~

The Pl'esent Iiµin_i~iv,tf'r,epre;;ents the· ~ct ·or
st~te as present or future: at th'j:i' time refer.i:ed to . ."~-~20.

•

J_

'

~x.

f.

.,

•

•• t

- " She see7JIS I to study.'~

•

·~

•

,

" Man never is, but alway.a· to be, blest."

.

'
82

CLASSES OF THE PAR.';l'S ; OF SPEECH:

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

12:i', A Compouncl Participl{ is one ~hat 'consist~ of being, having, or having ' been, combined Wlth some
other p~rticiple.
·_

121. The Present Participle represents the act or
state as' present and continuing at the time referred to.

Ex. - "We saw the moon rising."

_Being, ha"ving, · anli having been, thus becoine ,auxiliary
participle:> to other participle!!. ,
128. Being is used cliiefly to express the present
t'assive participle of transitive v~rbs.

" vVho goes borrowing, goes sorrowing."

122. The Perfect Infiniti~e or Participle reprc_scnts the act or state as past or ended at the _time
referred to.
.

" The soldier,

Ex. - " The river appears to have risen."
"A fox, caught in a trap."

12-'J. The present infinitive begins with to; the
perfect, with to have; as, to write, to have-written. 12-i. To, the sign of the _infinitive; is_:<>m,itted,jf.
1. When the infinitive i:5 combined ,~ith
auxil- .
iary vei·b.
· ··:

au·

Ex. - "I can [to] study;" i.e., I a)ll _abl~ to st~dy/
Auxiliary verbs are suc.h as may, might, 'c an, mmt; shall, will, ~tc.

2. After the active verbs bfi!,~ ?,nake, . need; lieiLi:,' I ·

let, see, f eel, and dare.
.:
·" !_~{·,.~
Ex.-"l will make it [to]rise.''. -'-':.J..!lt us [t9]go.'' ·· ;~
/

·

-

. -

-

f.4

-.,-,_.

125. The simple present paiticl_ple end~ ~ith: iwF ,
the perfect, with ed, or it is an irreg4_1ar (o~m. '~ ,~. ·

- Ex. -Plant, planting, planted; write, writi~g:~rit;~~: . ~ .. -;r;,,
·.
·~·. .
~·
i26. The infinitives and participles o~i tra.usi}iv4,1
'

verbs have two se:s of for~s ; ~h«:> on_e},.tt.t,> ~ ~~~i_ie;
and the other passive. ·
. ..
_.1• •
'<,./~~ -~
ACTIVE: To write, to have written;
•

written.

-w.~'ting,i.'irittA. nS. ..~~fa;

PASSIV E: To be 'vritten, to have
. been
llTitten, having been written.

.~

•

;t.~~ · _.f.£,~

!-.!:....· .;r"f"

~.;tjih:P,,..-

;." .. ·~r ~~,

..

wrirt~n'-, bein.;".:.
, ·~·~'·" ·

33

'

bei~g

wounde_d, was

c_~~ied to the hospital/'

129. Ha,ving is used chiefly to expr_
ess -t he perfect
. active participle of transit_iw verbs, or ~ exv~·ess ·"

-the participle -in tini~ tJi~~- ?orres_pop.ds 't~- _some __.p~rfect tense; ·
-.,
·-· ·
·

34

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

TRANSITIYE AND . lNTRANSITJ_yE.

.3:J. VERBS are divided, according to theirrelatioIJ
to objects, i1ito transitive and intransitive.
134-. A Transitive l'erb is a verb that has an object, or r equires one to complete the sense.
Ex. - " The lightning struck the oak." (Struck what 1)
" I knew him well, and every t~uant kn e w " [him].
·
Transitive verbs are used in two fo rms. - See Voice, p. 16.

135, An Intransitive l'erb is a verb that <loes not
!Jave or r equire an object.
Ex. - " Birds fly ."

"Roses bloom~"

The birds do not fly any thing.

136, An intransitive verb that does not ·im'i>Jy ' ac~

tion or exertion, is sometimes called a neuter verb . . r
Ex. - " The ocean is deep." " The book lies on the table.''-

138. A Prh:i.cipal Verb is a verb th~t expresses ~!
itself the act or state, or the chief part of it.
" She si~gs.'' . . She can sing." . " She may have sung.''.
Sing is a principni" verb; can, and may have, &I'll auxiliary verbs... '·.

139. An Auxilia1:y Verb helps_other verbs to express
their grammatical properties.
H ence there are, · ·
.
Auxiliary verbs that express voice; as, was ~aptured.
Au xi Jiary verbs _that express _mood ; as, may capture.
Auxiliary verhs that express t~mse; a:'• had ~ptur~d•._. -. ,
Auxiliary verbs that express emph'asis ; as, ·did. C?-P.t1.1~e: ' -...-;
'2\-Jl auxiliary verbs express person and number.
: , ..
. For an explanation of

A finite verb has a nominative.
A verb not finite does not have a nominative.
A b'ansitfre verb has an object.
Au intransit£ve verb does not have an obj_ect.
AUXILIARY.

137.
wo<le of combining them, into principal

'"·l"'!J·

J ·'

.-;-· '"

FUNDAMENTAL ' IDEAS/ AND GR.A.¥1\IAT~p'.A_.i.
DEVELOPME:NT OF SENT·ENCES~ j;. . •

.

? ~ ~ E c7~ ;.<~: :;;.·~-~

:. . . . ..-.:~-· .

1. Horse, dog, Jllan, b'oy,si lady; iponkel! P\lr~ 0L- , Bo
The horse- mns. The dog ba~ks'. -_ '.I;:~~ man 'Yor~.~ , , ~, !J'
st~dy and play, The W.d!J. l?~t .~er ·1 -.?f!t~?._L ·-·~~.~..~~y
had tf\ken .t he ladyis .l ;,Pqr~~~~'. .:.I ooug~1~~~~~~.f~~[~·
Life
has i:ts I pleasures anc:l
its
J .troubles.
;<:h,•:,.,
: ... >;:;,,
',/ '
·
F'
'
..
"•t.!fk, :r._•I,·. ·•.
2. For me to go: -_I°-. di~}. ior: one's :01~nt_ry;, ( .,-: . _,;
For me to go is ~ssjbl;;:~:{\'yhat IS. ~mpo:is1N~-~), ,:.Be
wishes to sell tlte_jai1ji. : :lt _is.glonous t~ diefqr_,OrflJ"SP.?.U,nf1'!J·
/~.,,.

re•~;;h::
:ll'::::
::'.i)~~': ~::!1:::;ri
s~ys
a~~
busin.~s~:i,
He

PRINCIPAL AND

auxili~ry- ver~'s, see P· 70. - ·

The remaining parts of speech need n.ot-~e subdivided into c~- ~e;re.

A 11erb, and why; whethe?· transitive <Yr intr ansitive, and why:-

Squirrels eat nuts. P e.t er came. The deer runs rap· •
idly. Amelia told an interesting story. A tree grew by .
the fountain. The music was delightful. The · cloud!>
brought rain. A li~tle girl led the blind ma1.1. Do nol
climb, lest you fall. . Good people hate sin. . They live_-in a
· neat cottage.

•35

GRA..."dMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SENTENCES.

nof. . .
J!.nti.ve_ to _your
Is
) le ~
· · ..
-:ic'C]'rom the .example u
is head, we can mfer- th~t ,ao
.,. fundamePtal idea may,:
w- i~~lf in a word, a. pk:~fIM· o~ ~that you

.H ~ot a pity, that she fa!;.
1!.

~ ·t.

.~ ; ••~'

-:-: ~ / ··-

"1

•

'

3ti

ENGLISH GRAMMA!t.

~lause..

And from some oCthe examples under the follow
heads, it will be evident that it sometimes shows itself
the changes which it causes in the forms of words.

~ng
lil

. The sentences to the end of Part First show the ·general con.struc·
lion of the .English language. A .teacher of tact can make these sen·
tences ~vailable in many different ways. We have room to show
only a Jew of the ways in which they may be used
The following are specimens of the manner in whlch the pupil ma'
be conducted through these sentences : ·
~Horse is a no_u~, because it is the name of an animal. Man is a
~~~n, because 1t is th~ name ofa person. Parasol is a noun, because
it is th e ~ame of a thmg. For me to go _is a phrase used as a noun
becaus~ it tells what thing it is that is impossible. That he will ev,;
~"turn. is a clause used as a noun, because it tells what thing it is that
is doubtful.

ACTIONS.

Roll, read, climb, fly, swim, dance, sing.
_The ball rol~. The boy reads. Squirrels. climb trees.
Pigeons ,fly rapidly.. Ducks swim . . The girls sing and dance. , The girls sing, walk, and dance. The Iightnin ~·s
dart from cloud to cloud. The dew bends and refreshes tl~e
flowers.
·
Changes in Form. - The bell tolls. The belt is t~llin;
·The bell lia.s tolled. The bell tolled. The bell had tolled:
The bell will.foll. The bell will ha,re tolled. The bell may '
toll. The bell may have tolled. The bell should have.tolled.
Toll, sweet bell.
I stri~e'. I am striking. I am struck. I was struck. J
t~as strihng. I strv,ck. I have been striking. · I have been
struck.
I shall strike. I shall be struck. I shall uave
~
·v
stri,.mg. I could strike. . I could hare been ·struck. .
for the green graves of your sires.
·
I/oils iii a verb, because it tells what the ball does.
.
ver!J, becallile it tells what is done to me.

GRAMMATIC.AL DEVELOPMENT .OF SENTENCES.

·$7

QU ALIT.IES, . OR ATT!tIBUTES.~
1. \yords-. ,..- A. . green meadow. The meadow is green •
A fragrant pink. Th.e pink is fragrant. · Warm weather.
The weather is warm. ·,Blue · bills. The· hills ·are blue:
Long lessons. The lesson's were long. :An idle boy. : The
boy is idle. A bleak and frosty ·mqrning. . ~.he morning is
bleak and frosty. She has black eyes, rosy cheeks, _and
pearly teeth. · The Windy summit, wild . and , high, 'rises
against the distant sky. · Rosy · child, w~th forehead fair)
coral lip, and sh.in.iv,_g hair.
·
'
Changes in Forni.~ A. coli!-_ day; . a colder .day; the colde~L
day. The day was cold. Th7 day was .eolder. The day
was the · 'coldest: Large fiflh -live in deep water. ···: Larger
. fish live in deeper water.,, r~e largest fish live.in the deep
est water:. · This tree ha~ ma'T}y apples_. r ~hat ti::ee,ha_s"?.11-ore
apples. Yonder tree has most apples.
;. . . . . . .' ·
·
2. Phrnses. ~ The tiower~ . of: spring an.d · the .stars. of
heaven. (What fio,vers ?) ·'B11au~y "is,._lik~ .the -flowers of
spring, but virtue is like the stars of. heaven • •:.The song of
t~ie rob'in was clear and tender: · 4- .P'ough ~h red -.'Ofrrie.~
"·floated on the water; 1'The ..tiine of 4.Etn.9er:~s.;.t.he ti~e'f~
c'ourage'. It is the k~ell of-the :'°'dep~rted ;ye~,f.-~(..Sh~J~,as~a
bouquet of rare and beau,tiflfl jlowers.. 1 The ~hady. lawn..be­
tween the house
river. i~, ..tlie mo~t · d~Jiglt~i:J. , pa,r.;
of the farm. .
·< "" ·· . ·, •
.~ ~ . · •
3. Clauses.-The -lady who , si !l .so well; is now hi. the
house. (What Iady}}L
~.
fond of sqlit~, Js.. geue<?ple wit~ jlat_te'( !JO~f'. are
erally fond of studying. ;;i ·
· · no~ }our friends. ~J:j
'4J,cll. .we ~h<:v~ .had 'thif }ieek, .
· . has·· been very refres
,gathered every ye~J.arge
q'\1.§l!tities of nuts, ~!tic~
ii greq.t abunda"f_<;e~.~~~/O~~
e4~frthat surrounded OU 1ze farm ." ' I call thatmind'jf~e, 1·which escapes the b01 . g;e of matter, I which ·calls , ng~ ~·
master, I and which sets no .bounds .to_if.8 'lov~.

afi!:.u'.e

He

.

.

-

~)

... ;;,.

-

~

._

.

·...

:

~

-:

'

.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O'er the grave where our hero was buried.
Green is an adjective, because it describes the . meadow. Col<kr is
an adjective, bec~u~e it. describes the day; and in the comparative
degre.e, because 1t impli es a comparison .b etween two, or because it
3escnbes ~ certai~ d~y as having a higher degree or' the quality.
Of sprm_q is an ad;ecl!ve phrase, because it describes the flowers, or
ahows what flow ers are meant. Who sings so well, is an adjective
clause, because it describes the lady, or shows what bdy is meant.

SEX;

He is a boy. "She is ~ girl. · It is a tree. I met him. You
n1et her.

We · met them. He is my father. She is my
mother. My uncle caine on his pony. My ·aunt came in
her carriage. His brother is a duke. His sister is a duchess.
He rnarrieJ a Jewess. She inarried a Jew. .He was administrator. She was administ~atrix. He is an actor. She is
au actress. If Joseph was a hero, Josephine was a heroine.
Beaus wait upon belles. The prince and the princess are
now king and queen." Miss Julia Broo'ks is the niece, not the
nephew, of .!lfr. Julius Brooks. Ganders are white, and
ueese are gray. Ganders and geese are often called geese;
drakes and ducks, duds; horses and mares, horses; and
~ eirs and heiresses, heirs. Two sons were all the male descendan~s, and three daughters all the female descendants, of
the fannly. The landlady was very polite to the gentlemen
und the ladies ; but I assure you the landlord' made them
all pay for their titles the next morning.
. .
· Ile ;·s a boy, is of the masculine gender, because it denotes a malt.
Or the teacher may read the sentence, and then make inquiry in r(l·
gard to. the separate words. Thus: ".He is a boy - what part of
1peech is he? allll of what gender is it? " - Pui'IL. "He is a pronoun, because it is a word used in stead of some cine's name; and ii
Li of the masculine gender, ~cause it denotes. a male.
·

GKAIDIATICAJ. DEVELOPMENT OF. SENTENCES.I

3~

NUMBER.
T'vo or more are. One :was. Two or mor6
were. Ope has been. Two or inore have been. .O ne 'reads
·Two cir mor~ read. The man. works. The men work. My
tooth is sound. My teeth are· sound. T_hat goose is wild
'1.'hose geese are wild. The ·boy has lost his knife. Th!l
boys ·have lost their knives: · T}le girl :has recited her . ~es·
son. The' girls have recited the~r .lessO!IS· The fox is a
cunping animal. Foxes are · cunning a:iim!!l.s~ The lady
is modest. Ladies are modest. . My foot is sore; My feet
are· sore. Our feet"
sore. · -The mouse .rari into it$.. hole.
. .
The n~ice ran irito their holes. . The child sleeps. The
childr~n sleep. He bo11ght an ox. They bought a yoke
of'oxen. I am busy. We.are busy: Thouart. ·;Year.e.I know myself. We kriow ourselves:.· He _knows· himsel£
They know themseives. · He, she, or it, is good. -·Tq,ey are
good. The deer is a pretty· creature. l;)eer :;i.re pretty
creatures. _The sh;ep is timid. . ' Sheep .are_·. timid. . The
swine is greedy. Swine are greedy. Vboµght one -dozen.
He boucrht five dozenl:._ This species of flowers is · beautiful. These species Of-:tmrefs are beautiful. · The .committee was. large.' The . committee iw.ere . not · unanimous;
The whole flock of partridges was caught. A multitude
of people ;were assembled. . Tlie news is good. ,._:ay .this
means he lost all. By these means he_lost all.- . ~1s .,.lungs ·
were diseased. Riches are seldom well spent. ·~The. em~
bers were hot. The dregs were at the.bottom. The to,ngs
have.been more useful than the-snuffers. An asb is a tree ;
b~t a.Shes are the remains of burned wood or coal: : Geniuses
are men of genius, but genii are spil-its. . .Dice.are. use~ for .
gaming, and dies are used ~or stalllph1g.~ A rfloern.oran,d~1!1' ­
clenotcs one thing, but m-emorand~ ~enote more. A radius
is .a sin<Tle line but radii are more. · Sillc is a kind of stuff;

01ie is.

:re

-

rt

.,

/

<tO

ENGLISH GRAMMAR . .

but silks are different kinds of silk. T~a is a kind of drinkI
but ·teas are different kinds of tea. · By spices we usuall.r
mean different kinds of spice. The ~llfisses Bates are sis·
ters to Dr: Bates; and the Messrs. Barnes are brother5 to
l\Iiss Barnes. Ten spoonfuls made a c~1pful ; and twPnty
rupfi.ds made two pitchers nearly full. My brothers-in-law
live at my father-in-law's residence.
Every boy has brought his books. · All the boys have
brought their books. Either place is suitable. Each place is
suitable. Both places are suitable. Neither place i~ suitable.
Oue is, is of the singular number, because 'it refers to but one object. Or thus: One is a pronoun, because .it is a word used in stead
of a noun; and it is singular, because it denotes but one object.
ls is a verb of the singular number, because it predicates sometliing
of but one.
·

PERSON.
Tl_1i~

subject belongs more properly to the next head, Relation;
but 1t 1s probably best to consider it in connection with Number.

I am. Thou art. He is. We are. You are. .. They
are. I was. Thou wast. He was. · We were. You were.
They were. I have 'Qeen. You have been. He has been.
They have been. ·I write. He writes. I know my less~n.
He knows kis lesson. You know your . lesson. · We know
our lessons. They know their lessons. : . j take care of my~
self. You take care of yourself. we take C?.re of ouree!i•e:.•.
You take care of yourselves. He takes care of himself.
They take care of themselves. This is mine; that is yo~rs;
and the other is !tis or hers. The responsibility must fall
upon him, upon ·you, or upon me.· We have deceived our."
relves; you have deceived y ourselves; and they have . ~leceived themsel-i·es.
.
'#'
I am, i~ of
thus : I 1s a
11peake~; and
sometlnng of

the first person, because it refers to the speak~'
prono1.m of the first p~rson, because it denotes
am is n verb of the first person, bt'Cau8e it prcrli ·_
the 'pea ker. ·

41

ORAMMA':VICAL DEVELOPMENT OF. :;;ENTEN-CES.

RELATION.
Things have many relations to one · another, an_d there
<\re as man"y cbrresponding relations in the use of words·;
but we shall here nqtice only the chief of those relations
which afford us the cases of nouns and pronouns.
Nominative Case. -+.- The tree .fell. · .(What fell ?) The
flower 1s unfolding. The pa1'tridges ·flew away. The ship
moves The bell rings. The stdrm roars. She laughed.
(Who laughed ?) He is reading. · I shall · return soon.
The boys skate. '!-'he Jrees . wave; The .fire crackles _and
flames.
.
.
·
-"':!'he ocean is blue. . (What is blue?) This maf is beautiful. The well was deep. Her dre~s was white and neat.
The lark is' a singing-bird.' A thief is also a li~r. · Our
corn is gathered. - The bread is .baked. Brass is made of
.zinc and copper.
Objective Case. - '.(he _;hennan catches fish. · (Catches_
what?) The boy brc6"the look-ing-glass• . My mother spins
· flax. The carpentei; mended· the d()or~ :The caterpillars
devoured the buds. The weaver ·weaves yarn' into cloth.
The barber shaved me. I invited'· li:im. -They hid the1~­
'sel-ves. The ·sun is_warming the garden. , ·Snow has ; ~~v, ered the hills. She: sang us· a song.
_·
· ·: ·
· I was going down the street. (Down what ?) · The ·:Mississippi river rises in ·1Yiinnesota., The book lay on the.
table. The child fell into the. well. The · b1fdge extends
over the river. There is a_plank~road from the churcli to
th'e college. Several railroads r.u n through Pennsylvania.
The garden lies behind the house. . The · swallows flutter
·about the eaves.
'
~,
Possessive Case. _:. Here iS the boy's book. Here , are
th~ · boys' hooks. · Thi.s is the man's hat. These are the,_·
.,~11's bats. ~ have cieat!ed my desk. We have Cl~aµ.ed.
,,..

.

' ~~~·'f~'-«

-

.i-~

uur desks. You have broken your slate. He has bruised '
his thumb: . She. has torn. her book. Tha~1ad lost their
way. This 1s mine ,· that IS yours ,· and the other is hers.
Yours are better than ours. I\Iy brother's estate belongs to ·
one person only. My brothers' estate belongs to two or
more persons. 1\Iy friezul's request comes from one per~ou
only. My friends' request comes from two or more per·
sons. It is our duty, not theirs, fo supply the people's wants.
For goodness' sake, help me out of my troubles. He re~
sides hear St. James'.s Place.
Tree is a noun in the nominative case, because it is the subje<!t of
fell, or because it tells what fell. Fish is a noun in the objective.
case, because it is the object of catches, or because it }ells what the
fisherman catches. Street is a noun)n the objective case because it
is ~he object of the preposi tion down, or because it compietes the re~t10n of t!1e p.repos ition down by telling down what. Bog's is a noun
m the possessiv e case, because it denotes possession.

I111iERA.'.rrvE' MooD. -John; be at home. · Peter~ make
a fire. Miller, grind the corn. - Bµy the farm.. See ·him
to-morrow, if you can. Be.have yourself well. . :Be always kind and__9bliging. Do not grieve over. unavoidable.calam'
·
·
ities.
1
l:-1FINTTIVES A.ND PARTICIPLES.~ A servant came to
1lli-ike a fire. I ought to ha:ve bought the farm. You are
too anxious to see it. The miller W!!S .requested to grind
the corn. It seems to have . rau;ed l~t night. , The lady;
dressed in homespun, Was the' neates~ Two hundred can.:
nons, flashing and thunde:FiJ:1g continually; seem~d to shake
the ver~earth to its centre;· No'Y the bright morning-star
· comes dancing from . the east. The glass .having .been
~oken, we threw it away. .• -·
,,s
r

.

•

'.Akin to the forms o.Jl(/i; /~erlrknown as MOODS,: are lM._i_
forms of the verb. cafied --VOI?ES. ·
·
·
· <: /.f..
- John hit James. Jaines was hit by John. . He told the:-'!A.story. T\le story was to~d by him. The puppy tore the 4, ' 'Ji
book.. The book was torn by the puppy. Th:~ water tiirns
p
the wheel. The wheel is turned by the water; . The win1ls-....,.._ )
fan the 'flowers and rtiffie the 'waters. · Tlie flowers are
"'
fanned and the waters are ruffled by 'the wi:i:.ds·

J'

MOOD OR MANNER.

f

We shall notice manner here, only so far as it relates to the differ
ent modes of expressing the verb in regard to its subject.

INDICATIVE MooD. - John is at home. The glass wrus
broken. The servant has made a fire. · I had bought a
farm. You shall see him to-morrow. The miller will have
ground the corn before we return.
SUBJUNCTIVE MooD. - If John were at home. If the
glass be broken, you may throw it away. If the servant
had made a fire, we should have been comfor~ble. If l bought the farm, I should have to sell it again. If you see ~y\..->
him to-morrow, tell him to visit me. Had the miller ground ,_ -?,t~
the corn, we should have returned S'ooner
'.-j:.~ . '
POTENTIAL MooD. - John may be at home. The gl~~·;·~1~,,,:..-.
may have. been broken. The servant could have made1· a·;f,.v. . ~
fire. I would buy the farm, if he would sell it. You m~~t~-.-±
see him to-morrow. The miller should have ground 'tli1~\:;·_
corn.
·
,I/ ·' ·

iS·

GRAMMATICAL DEVELOPMENT OF-- SENTEN.CBS.

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

.

Ak~n to t!te ~IOODS are a4o the IN',i:i<;RROGA.TIVE. and the
. N~~GATiVE FORM of tJ(e v.~rb.
.
He has read the book. '·, He has not read the book. Has
he read the book? · HasJ:e not read the book i You h~ve
been at home. You have not been at home. Have y'ou.been
at ho~ie? Have you J\Ot bee~ at home? Life. is .. a . burd~n.
Life is . not a burden. Is life a burden ? I.s not ,life a.
ourden?
: · .Akin to the MOO.DB are also the FORMS of the tel'iSes. .. , ,. . .·
·He teaches. He teacheth. ; He, is teachfog.. He doe8
teac~0 He do;h a ch_ .You ~now pim.j :j;hou .knowest .

-, J;j

f i;/

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L. 0 .')'ti-

./(/:_. pl,. '

/).,.,~• • {,_id
• '2

•._

0

~

/?c. .r.<.-.

•
Vt.

ENGLISH

\

GRA~MAR.

him. Y11u are a sinful people. Ye are a sinful people. 1
write. I am writing. I do write. I wrote. I was writ·
ing. I did write. Visit me. Do visit me. Are you the
traitor? Art thou the traitor?
John is at home, is a sentence in the indicative mood, because it ex·
presses an actual occurrence or fact; or, i8 is a verb in the indicative
mood, beca use it expresses an actual occurrence or faet. "If Jolm
were at home," is a sentence in the subjunctive mood, because it ex·
presses a mere supposition; or,-were is a verb in the subjunctive
mood, because it expresses a mere supposition.
l!it is a verb in the active voice, because it represents the subject
as acting. Wus hit is a verb in the passive voice, because it r'epre~
sents the subject as acted upon.
He has read the boolc, is an affirrnati ve sentence. He has not read the
book, is a negative sentence. Has lie•read the book1 is an interrogative
sentence. Bas he not read the book 1 is an interrogative and negative
aentence.
Teaches is a verb in the common form, because it is the verb expressed in the most simple and ordinary manner.

TIME.
A chief idea sometimes displays itself i~ the ch~nge~
which it causes in a certain class of words. When this
occurs, the idea becomes a grammatical property. Hencfl
time affords us the tenses.
Changes in Form. - PRESENT TENSE. - The rose blooms.
The boy studies. The work is done. The leaves are' fall·
ing. The cars do not move. The journey is expensive.
PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. - The rose has bloomed.
The boy has studied. The work has been done. The
leaves have · been falling. The journey has been expensive.
PA.ST TENSE. -The rose bloome_d. The boy studied.
The work was done. The leaves were falling. The Cari!
did not move. The journey was expensive.
· ·3"

GRAMM.A,,TICAL DEVELOPMENT :

~F '.

SENTENCES

PA.ST-PERFECT TENSE. - 'Dhe rose had ·bloomed. The
boy had studied. The work had been done. The leaves
had been falling. The journey had bee~ expensive. · : ·
FUTURE TENSE. -The _ro~e ,' will bloom. The ~oy will
· study. The work 'will be done. The }eaves will be falling._
'.l11e journe4'_ will be expensive.
.
.. , . . . ·
FcTURE-PERFECT TENSE.-.The rose will h:i.ve·bloomed.
The boy will have studied. ;fh~ w~rk will"have been .d~ne:
The train will have left. The j9_urne.Y will have been ex··:
_ · ,· ,
pensive.
Time may show itself' more ·:defip.itely in wor,ds, phrasu,
,;Jr clauses, that are use.d to'·expreSs it. .,
. ' . .. ) : ·'
_Words. - The paper - ~omes ~~ekly. ·~ Go' initantly. ~" it
rajns~daily. Your class· is ·now · ~eciting. . He: will return
late. i shall see ~u to.-morrow.• ·:;ae was her~ y. este-rd~'![­
Jonquils bloom ~a~ (!he ()~ li".~s f<!!Lg; ,. W ~ .~~a.J!. &.~?1'
reach - the shore.. He visits _~· {,req'lfen,t{Y.· She ll?~ 1!ay~
cheerful.
.
· .
.Pluases. -·He remained till morning. A great .storm
arose ajter sunset. They were ..treat~d well. that ni!J,.ht, and
the next day they departed. At the bre.alc of day, our hors.e s
1
were saddled. He rode a hundred miles · in twenty-five
lwurs. For man¥ a returning ~'\ttumnr thjs ) nilian visi~e4
the · gnwes of his fathers. Within ·twenty years fro)n the
foundation of this village, deer ..had .become f!Carce. · , ·
j Clauses. - He knocked iit the do<?r, 'bejore_;any .
was_ · uwalce• . We shall have peace, "after~ we have,'"subdiu:'J:i'M.
enemy. Great was the alarm in.th.e colony;- while ,these' chi[.:.
dren were lost. We traveled tllrotigh dim paths/ until :the·
- day dre71Jt.to its close. She smiled when I told her ho~ Ihdtl

f

one

fallen _into the water.

' ·

· ' ., .

Frequently, the changed form, the word, the phrase; and '
'the._clause, are all found in the same sentence ; as, '! He .
came

I early I in the morning, ., tphile we .w~rt> cit hreakfc.tSt.''.-.\::
~

' 0

LOGICAL

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Blooms is a verb in the present tense, because it denotes a present
act. Weekly is a word that shows when the paper comes. Till="'·
ing is a phrase that shows how long he remained. Before any one ii
awake, is a clause that shows when he knocked.

PLACE.
Words. -The man is here. My horse stands yonder. I
went home. I have seen him somewhere. I shall go alJroad.
The wall fell inwards. The birds flew away. The dog
came up. Beautiful mansions gleamed far and near.
'
Phrases. - Melons grow on vines, Tea is brought from
China. The child slept in its mother's lap. I was at the
same school. You reside in a pleasant part of the city. Let
us take a ramble in- the woods. The cascade tumbled from the rocks. The army man::hed round the hill. We ·went
through swamps, thickets, and endless mud.' Tlie Indians
bore them jar. beyond the limits of the settlement; She sat.
below us, I at the same table.
, Clauses. - \Ve caught the minnows where the water ripples
over the rocks. He remains wherever he finds good company . _

Thou hearest the sound of the wind ; but thou canst no(
tell whence it cometh, and whither it goeth.
Frequently, two or more chief ideas are combined in th€
same sentence. A recent French novel begins thus: "ln
the gloomy month of November, I when the English drown
and hang themselves, a disconsolate lover walked forth I into
the fields, and seated himself under a jU'l;tiper-tree." _ (Time '
and place.)
·
Here is a word that shows in what place the man is. On vines is a
phrase that shows in what place melons grow. From China - ~- it
phrase that shows from what place tea is brought. Where,tM- u"
;,
ripples over the rocks, is a cla1.1se that shows in what place the ~ '
were caught.
.~ •

~

DEVELOPMENT:. OF .. :SENTENCES.
.

47
-~

.,

·.

DEGREE . .

The ri~e.r i~ deep. The· lake is deeper. The ocean is -the
rleepest body of water in the world. .;.. This :one is •good j that
one is bet[flr; but the other is· th~ best. Want is bad; but
debt may be worse. A good name is better thah riches.
fhe w()rst gambler won the money. : Who has more ·enc·
n1ies and fewer friends; more trouble' ~~d less pleiiiiure, than .
the mi~er? 1 The pink is more, be~tijul t):ian the marig()lq,
and one of the most fragrant . of flowers. _ .H e sat next to
me, though I was . nearer' to. ~he speak.er. · .:·1 ~aid ~;=· ~lder
soldier, not a braver; . The upper r~:mm' i~ : ~read/"occ~1pi~d~
The hindmost man was left in 'the utmost distress. Most
men judge others mor~ely th~~ .. thei:nselv~s; The
weather is somewhat col?.er. The·weather is so cold that
I need my overcoat. .There was so ~uch :~~~e th~t w~
could hear but very little <?f whi:t was said. . ' / ,
...
Deep is an ndje~tive in th(> positiv!l ·degree, because it ex~~esses
eimply a quality of "the ri~er. Deeper is· an adjective in ; the comparative degree, because it shows that the _lake_has the quality in a
higher degree.
. ~ 1;~
.

LOGICAL DEVELOPMENT- OF SENTENCES.
I•

Persons are often perplexed .in determining; hgw they
shall arrange the words by means <Jf which they ·ex·
press their thoughts. · W ~ generally· expre~s our thoughtS
as we naturally think .them. ; That of which we think o_!:
speak, is n '.l.turally first thou · t ~f; and therefore it is generally first put down . . To this. we -add, either- before or
afteJ; _!lll the descriptiv words, phrases, and clauses, that ·
. • , bel~ni to it; as, "Th\:l"hoy,'' "The little boy," "The little
· ......~~~.;/.f(>m. the coun~ry,'' " The little boy from the country,
~- -"' . W~-~as here yesterday;'' · Having thus got, the subject, we

. • •"'y''°" .

I

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

LO~iCAL

DEVELOPMENT." OF SENTENCES . ..
0

.

4~ ..

next put down, in like manner, what is said of it ; as," wept,•
" wept bitterly," " wept bitterly for aJ.ong tin1e," "wept bit;.
terly for a long time because he coUld not find his father."
" The little boy from the country, who was here yesterday,
wept bitterly for a Jong time because he could n_ot find his
father." . From this sentence it is obvious that we naturally
first put down the subject, then the _predicate, adding to
each, or rather, including with each, the various _qualities
or secondary ideas which! enter- into the thought. We
do not, however, always arra.nge our words in this way ;
but we sometimes put dowri first that which is first or most
thought of, or makes the greatest impression upon us, even
if it is not the object itself of w4ich we are ' speaking. i
"The whole shelf of china fell dowµ with such _7Jattering~:_. ~
and breaking as startled us all." In an occurrence of thisj . ~.
kind, the fall is naturally the most striking part; and there;;· ·'
fore we would probably say, " _Down fell the whole shelf of
china, with such clattering·and breaking as startled us all."
· We have many different thoughts: . Our thoughts are
made thus different because they are made up of many different ideas. ', Hence we get many different sentences ; but
nearly all of these sentences come more or less within the
following description, or their parts answer to some of the
following questions : ·
Which one? }
{ Is what?
{ When? Where ?
Haw many?
Su b.j e ct. Does what?
How? Why?
Or what ki nd ? Who? Wiiat ? Has what done to it? As to wha_t?

Let us now de velop sentences accordingly.
SUBJECT.
What1

Goiumbus discovered
telescope. Capt. ·Jolin

•··

.

LOGICAL , DEVELOPMENT ,OF ,SENTENCES,

50

ENGLISH dRAMbfAR.

fringed th.e horizon. Iron RAILING is very durable. Small
and beautiful FLOWERS hung from the rocks. A Colt's RE•
VOL VER was ii; his belt. .A hunter's RIFLE was the onl
gun we ha<l. !SABELLA, a -pious and noble queen,
C.oldu~bus . . C?LLINS, ~poet of t!te most delicate sensibilities
ie m the pmue of life. A SHIP of the . large~t . .
'
sunk by this rifled rnnnon. A MAN of good h b "t size was
ally enjoys good health. The 1''EATHERS of' d ak i s .dgcnera
d " b
'.I
uc s an gees~
•re use 10r e<ls. A PERSON governed lm his ..
onl ·
t b fi
"
inc inations
. d for .
t · o e ckle. A LADY admired and praise
h y,b is apt
er eau y is apt to become vain. PLANTS reared in cellars
are seldom strong. LAWS to prevent such outrages should
be
- prepared .
Th enacted.
·h A
d DINNER to suit the occasio n was
e MAN w o . oes not keep !tis word, should nofbe trusted:
~e'TREES which are of the smallest size, generally
ow on
lower
high places. There arose, about this time, from
ranks of the people, a UAN narned Cromwell of incredibl
strict integrity' and unw'avering
· 1·eso-e
ldepth
· ofI understanding,
·
ution, . who wit~ one hand held successfully the reins of civil
authority, and w·ith -the other hurled vfrtoriously the t/; d
·
1un erbolts of war.

assiste~

d

z· .

th~

Columbus discovered America, is a sentence . because it . ,
by a full
a
18 _tJ1e subJe~t, because it denotes the· person of whom s~m t~·um ~
18
~aid ! and discovered America is the predicate because it ·d et mgl
. the subject·
'
1s s111d of Colun1 bus. 7 •111·s tree is
eno
es
w
iat
tree is ti
· ·
. hie prmc1pal
word, and this shows which tree is meant Sev~
me · th
· ·
·
n men is t e subject•
n is
e prrnc1pal word, and seven shows how man
A t . '
-is the subject; thunder-stomi is the
.., ,-, e s ows of what kind.
,
'

~xpressed. by a proposition and followed

~::._n.dbler-stohrm

paus~ g,ou~ht

princi:~l wor;ri:~J

-

- .·

.

u~ef~l anima(~ J~hn

Does what? ·

' :

Lambs play. Eagles soar. Cars ru~. Bears- growl and
'Jite. My head aches. · James IS . GATii.E°ii:iNG !iazeZ:.nuts.
~fa~y IS PARING apples. "v 'l'hese islands PRODUCE. spices.
Cresar 1''0UGHT. many hattles. .You HAVE ~ADE an'. enemy
of him. George GAVE me 'a piec~ oj:hi~ apple• .Ht:.·:TOLD
the story to his brother, and _then they both L~UGHEDJ ;•
-..

Has what d~_ne to lt 1 ·

-~
B!'tTEN; by.' t~e
,, _· •,{..

The door )Oas sj;Jlt.' · The stran;er; WAS
dog. The book~AS SENT bg. mail. ~he field had been
t·eaped. The meat _WILL BE' co9KED in· a few hours:·-: The
treasures of the pirates WERE BURIED on an · if.land: Tge.
cargo was landed. The be-Iis' were rung( ~he old hq#e--·
w.A.s TORN down by tlie workmen. -Oiir apples ~us'l.r ~E:
GATHERED next weelc. The book IS .. well PRINTED. and
BOUND. Most people ARE easily DECEIVED by fair appear1
ance.s.
·
'
· •,, ' ... '-: ; ' - .i..;;. ·-'f' ' ·
~

I

~

.

·

,

·.

:.,, .. ·

Is what?

Life is short. Time is precious War .
, ·•
.
is ruinous.
ton i& dear. F
armers are generally industrious_. T~~r

"'l

"'.

,.·,«,.. :..:,.4J :~~; , ... ~;.

Is -<iwrt is a. predicate, because' it tells whatllfe is, or it deno~es what
bi'saiu of life. Play is_ a predicate, because it ·tells what liiJnbs; !lo,
)r denotes what is said of lambs.- Was shut i.: a preafca~.~<i§U11e_
it tells .what is done to the doo~-, or denotes .what is sai~ ~f·-.$~·499r.~
When? H9wlong1 ,.Howoften'l
·.,·•;1j_\\J
...,

,.

'

~1i.1ti'

Words. - Come

.

soon. , I called afterward.$. I have niver
~~ '
· . i( 'i' ~ep him. He has always been .in Q.ebt. :{;et us start ~arly.
visit.; us every day: I go7scho
·' t.!•6
·•· ~"" rrJ-ing. The robbP,r was· hanged before _no , I
,, · ·

·:~"~j>bJases.-He

PREDICATE.

....

are wholesome. Tomatoes are red or. yello.w. ·· The pine•
·
'ipple is sweet and Juicy. · The cat is a
- is an idle. boy. The turkey is a native of America; Tli.e
. eagle is a bird of great power,, The .home of the b~~v~ ,ia
!he home. of the free. . Gr~titude ~s ·tlw ~mory of, th.~ h.~art.
Hope is the blossoni of l_t~ppiness.
·. ·,.
· ·

· ·~wck.

,. _;::,;t·· .~/·;·.. -.1·-

~

·

..

-

,

·"' ·.:-· -

. . .,

52

L9GICAL DEVELOPMEN!- QF;_SENTENCES.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

der flou;er. And probably, " -The :Assyrian-came do~vn·· likd
the wolf on the jl•ld."
· '" <'•· · -· ·.• ·
.. ·'
· ··
Clauses. - She behaved as every modest young la'dy slwuUJ.
beli,ave. . The honest man speaks as he thirflcs ,'· the fi~tte:~r, .
as of hers like to· hear, As . you work;'. so shall ' you· thnve.
The storm howled and tore as if it would _
uproot the forest:

Clauses. - Remain till I return. We often deceive cur.
· selves while we try to deceive others. When wolf eats wolf
there is not~ing else in the woods t~ eat. We 'Used to go
to bed at mne o'clock, when we lived in the country. My
heart dilated with honest pride, as I recalled to ~ind thtJ
stern yet amiable characters of our Revolutionary fathers.
Soon is a word that shows when you are ·to come.
pl~rase that tells how often he visits us.

Every day is

53

Briskly is a word that shows how yo.u are t.o move. In .torrents is a
phrase that shows how it rained._ ,As eve:ry modest young lady slwula
behave
..
, i• a clause that shows how she
.., behaved-

8

Tilt I return, is a clause that

teils how loug you are to remain.

>Whyt

'Where?

Words. - Therefore go. , lfh!6- did you knock? - Wher11-

Words. - Stop here. I called tltere.

Yonder comes your
I found no amusement anywhere. He lives above.
Phrases. - He visited us at home. We went"into the coun~
try. There is a railroad across the hthmus of Darien. Havl:l
you made a fire :'n my room ? On the br;mks of the Ganges
we can see the ebony in bloom.
Clauses. - The enemy put their cannons where no enemy
could approach t'.tem. Where honesty takes root, the blessing
of Go.d makes it a tree. Wherever there is honey, there . I
· !ou will also find -bees. As far as we went, the.re was nothmg but desolation.
·

jore did you not write? , Hence we parte~ , . . . - · .
_
·Plu·ascs -She died of grief, 'I'he _ soldi~rs. penshedfrom
hui/;ger a.nd t!1irst. The. ,ac~idel)._t.. happelled"' through care- .
lessness. He went for _pleasure. I want roon~y~ t~ .buy
books. He ca~to see you.
. ... '. - _ ·· .r·· , _ . - ·
Clauses . ......:. He ·feels "Yf!TY . ~u~h . dejected.,?, for ~can ~ot
find employment. .I ~e~~ .f or,the , doctor, because the -.child
was very sick. Since you will have it so, I will .~o'wi);h ·you.
Live virtuously, that you may ~e .h_appy~ -.. . :.__:,:;- . : , · .

father.

Therefore is a word that implies why you are to . go.. Why is ~
word that asks for the reason of ~our knoc:icing. Of grief is a phr~e
that tells why she died. For · he can not .ftrid employment,:.i..s· .a ·da.use
tit.a': tells wby he' feels dejected.
-

Here is an adverb that tells ~here you are to stop. 211 home is a
Where no enemy could approach
them, is a clause that tells where the enemy pu~heir cannons . .
phr~s~ that tells where he visited us.

• ' As to -what?

Words. - She is ashamed to. dance. He,...1s a.fr.aid tp go.
Phrases. - She has· not th~ co~rage to speak to .him: · ~e

How?

Words. - Move briskly. I .knocked gently. The boatmen
sang merrily. Did your goods sell well ? The 'procession
moved slowly and solemnly.
Phr~scs.---:- ~t . rained in torrents. She dresses after the
Spanish fasliion._, We. keep without remorse that which we
~cquire without crime. Half the people in the world Ji)::,e -:
at the expense of the other half. Here comes .the.body'tf. .;,,."
Cresar, mourned by Mark Antony. She _p erished like -t6n,. .,,

a

,

Is poor in money, but ·rich ·in knowledge. :. I am fond of
1trawberries ·and rasp"lerries. I paid ·the b99kseller/..orp111
books. He is indolent ·about· everj; thing. I ru;n able ·to p.a~ ,
him.
·
.. :
".
_
,·.
Clauses. - I cons~n t tha;t. yo~ go and s.~e him; . · I f~ar~d ~
1
fest] sh~uld lose it.' - I am. ~onvmced that ,?onesty is. . th~!.~ . . _
/
. ,
' policy. I am glad that we ha,ve peace again..

•
·ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

QUESTIONS FOR REY.IEW

To dance is a word that tells in regard to what she is as)lamed. T9
tpeak to hi111 is a phrase that tells as to what she has not couragtJ.
1'hat yuu go ·and see him, is a clause that tells as to what I consent.·

Propositions, or Simple Sentences, combined.

Our thoughts consist of propositions, either single or
Propositions are combined in many different
>enses. The following are the principal modes of combin·
ing them.
,
~ombined.

we can. not enjoy this world l~ng, is_._it not strange' that most
·
· .
. ·.
people are so very avaiicious ?.
Sometimes a sentence consists of a•c_ombinati~n of dif.
ferently connected propositions'; as, ".Great ' men uuder·
take 0o-reat th'.11gs, befaUSe they are themselves gr~~t_; 'fnd
· fools undertake 'them, because· they think them · easy."
.. ·
·
· (Cause and contrariety.)
.
r.4..--rA---r.r
1--"!:7 ';'l

Addition.

The coffee was good, and the rolls were excellent. I
was alone, and the night was dark and stormy. That boy
is very studious, and he is loved by all his classmates. The
rivulet rested clear as crystal in the rocky urn, and large
blue violets hung over the surrounding moss.
·
1'he coffee was good, and the rolls were excdlent, is.,a. sentence that con·
sists of two clauses connected by and, which implies addition. In a ·
similar way dispose of all the remaining sentences.
o_

Contrariety.

He is a small man, but he is very strong. We started
early, but we came an hour too late. He is sto1U; and
healthy in appearance, yet he has always b'een sickly. We
lost the battle, notwithstanding we did our utmost to win it.
.Although he is accused, yet he is innocent.

,

~ondition.

~·

'

If I were in'your~ I would join the army'. Woul~
you go, if you should be invited? If there we.re no evp
listeners -there would be no evil talkers. . So it answers the
' - ;,
Pmrpose, it ))yill 1111atter little 'how indifferent it~· ~ .

'

~

"

~

-

.

t~o co~nective ~xr~d.
\

· ...

When no connective is expressed, the cm:g1ecting sense
generally is that of and, for, but, if, or that is.
· .
,
The woods ar~ hushed, the waters ·rest.' · Eyery ·age has
its pieasures.; every situation has its charms. It is not too
late ~ it is only nine o'clock · He ,who rel,l.<Jers a ser_vice,
should forget it; he who re~eive~ it, _shoul:<!' . rem~~b~r ~t.
That concerns you, d?es it not ? .Would ,-y~u- thriv~ ?. rise
at fiv~. (If you woul~ th~ve, etc.) . ~ad he_d_on~·ihz
is d~~Y~.
. · ~ ·. · ·
he would not now be m d1sgra!!e· . · · .. ~

Alternation, or Choice.

.i ~- . ·J.··

I will eitlier send you my horse, or you may hire one at
my expense. Neitlier spend your money before. you .have
it, nor buy what you do not need. _Either he will hate the
one, and love the other ; or else he will hold to the .one,
and despise the other.
Cause.

This field will.produce well, because the soil i& fertile. ,; 1.:; .
refused his present, for I knew he offered it from ' selfish """·
motives. He is angry ; tlierefore let him alone . . · .A.s"i..itJ.~
impossible to go, let us remain contentedly at home.·:;:§'~

·:::
~'"

-.

~

QUESTIONS, FOR REVIEW.
1 . .How do we express our ·
8. What'is a pronoun? '.
thoughts?
• · •
·'If 2 9. What .is an article? .. •
2. In · what two ways are , · 10. What is a subject (
words used?
•
• . · •· 3 11. What is a preclicate? ,.
3 Into-what classes are words .
12. What is a proposition?
clivideil? "
• ' 0 . 13. What· is verb? . ' . :
4; N' a;e the parts of speech? 6 14. 'What is an adjective?
~s Ho;v many and what prop- _' 15. What is an ·adverb? •
' ' \ ;, erties belong to t!ie parts . ·
.,i,-;:;' : ·: . of~peech?
•
.•
• .1. 16. What is a prepositioi>,?
.·.. .6 -What are the chief thin gs or
. 17.' What is an adj.,ncff
· · · .. ideas that lie at the basis .
1s: W!!~t ,is a conj~nction t
•·. of grammar? •
19. Wliat is an interjectionJ
Wliat is a n_oun?
,
s 20: What is g~nder.? · · ·' : ··

a

1:

• 9 '
.•. 10
" -< 11
'.12
13
• 14 ·
15
.16
17
"

. '.,

IR

19
. .' 2''
"'; ·21

I
I

56

•

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

511 . How many genders are
there and what are they
1
callea?
•
•
•
•
22. When is a noun or poononn
of the masculine gender? •
23. Of the feminine gender?
24. Of the common gender?
25. Of the neuter gender?
•
2G. What is said of personified
objects? •
.
,
•
27. What is person?
•
•
28 . Howmany'persons in grammar, and what are they
culled?
29. When is a noun ~r Jlr~nou~
of the first person? .
.
30. Of the second person?
31. Of the third person? •
82. What is number?
8~. How many numbers in
grammar, and what are
.
•
they calle<I? .
34. ·when is a noun or pronoun
of the singular number? •
35. Of the plural number?
36. What is case ?
37. How many cases are there:
and what are they called?
38. When is a noun or pronoun
in the nominative case? •
39. In the possessive case?
•
40. In the objectiYe case?
41. When is n noun or pronoun
in the same case as another? .
42 What is voice?
•
•
43. How many voices are there
and what are they called?
t4. When is a verb in the active
voice?
.
•
•
•
When, in the passive?
4l:i. What is mood? .
.
•
.:.6. How many moods are there
and wh at are they called?
47. What does a. verb in the in•
di cati ve mood express? .
4S. A verb in the subjunctive?
(9. A verb in the potential?
60. A verb in the impera.tk e?

5i.

QUESTrnNS, FOR REVIEW

"'

1· 51. What IS tense?- ,
, . , 51
22 · 52. How many tenses are there '
and whut are they called·? 1rn'.·
23 1 53. What is said of the present
24 ·1
tense?
•
• · •
. 57
20 . 54. Of the present-perfect tense? 58
55. Of the past tense?
•
, 5~
26 ! 56
·j
· Of the past-perfect tense? • 60· , •
2
Of the future tense? .
. 61
28 58 . Of the future-perfect tens&? ea
5~•. What is said of the tenses
of the suhjupctive mo:cid? ·: 63
29 GO. Of the tenses of the potential mood?
•
•
. 64
30. 61. Of when, till, etc.?
•
• 65
31 . 02. What 1tre the forms of a
32 /
tense?
•
•·
•
. · · 66
3a· 63 . How many forms are there · ·
and what are they called? 67
64. What is said of the comm.on
. 34
form?
: . •
•
• 68
69.
65. Of the emphatic form?
; _ 70
35 66. Of the passh•e form? •

7157.

36
37
38
39
40
4l

42
43
44
45
46
4i
48
49
51
52
54

:[1
67. Of the progressive form?
68. Oft.he aucient·form? •
• 72
69. 'W oat are ·the person and
number of a verb? .
• 73
70. What is comparison? .
• . 71 .
71. How_ many degrees of companson are there, and what ·
are they·called? . ,
• 75
72. When is an adjective or an
adverb in the positive degree?
. ,.
. • . ; .- 76
73. When, in the comparative? 17
14. w·hen, in t!ie superlati_ve? .' 78 ,.
75. What is a phrase?
·
7~
7f;. What jg a clause?
•
8~
77. What is a sentence? : •
• 81
78. Into what classes are not:lll!'.
·
divided? •
•
. :_-:· 82
79. What is a. proper noun? ~ 83
· 80. What is a common noun? '; si
81. Wlrnt is a collective· nouri-? · 85 .
82 · What is a participial noun?· 86 ~

...

83. Into what classes are pr<r-- .
nounsi• divided?
• . • $7
84. What.
a perapna.I- pronoun?
i;~

111. How are verbs dlvided . in
85. What is a relative . .prc. ·regard ti> subjects?
•-112
89.
' noun? ·
• 113
112. What is a fi11ite verb?
86. What is the. antecedent of
a pronouni?
: 90· 113. Whe1ds a verb n~t finite? 114
1,14. · Verbs that are riot finite(
87. What is an interrogative
-. a.re divided intowliat two
• • ... . . 91' · '
pronoun? - • .
chief classes? . .
·. 115
88. What is a_n adjective prc• 116
uou_n?
•.
•
•
.• 92 ·115, What is an- infinith·e?
•· 117
89. Into what classes a-ce adjec- · ;_ 116. What is a participle?
ti\·e pro nouns divided? • ' · 117. _How· qiany infinitives are
there, and what are they
90. What is a. compound per~
called?
·
• 118
• 93
sonal pronoun? . •
118. How many participles? ·• 119
91. What:"is u compound rela94 119. Wliat is said of the present
tive pronoun'/.
infinitive.? . • . •
• 120
92. How ,µ-e the u.rticle.s ch1ssi·
95 120. What is said of the present
- lied?
•
•
• 121
participle?
• 93. How is the definite· article ·: . ·
· '..., used? . •
.·
• ' • ·. 96 121. What is.said of the perfect
and
participle?
122
infinitive
94. H?\~ t.11e .iodefinite a.r- ' "1
~ used? . . • < •
• 97'.. .122. How ar!l ~}:le two Jnfini95. Info wh.a t two chief clas•es 98 .
tives distinguished? , .• 123
are adjectivea divided? •.
123. When i;i to omitted?
. ,124
96. What is a descriptive adjective'/ •.- .· • . . • ~ . . 99 . 12'1-. How are the two participles·
., distinguished? . · ._; ' . -12~
97. What is a definitive adjective '/
• 100 125. What is a compound par_98. What is a participial adjec- · ·
ticiple? • _ •
•
• 127
•
•
•
• 101 126. For what is the auxiliary.
tive '/
99 . What is a"numeral adjec- ' ,·
_participle /J\ "ng used? · • 128
tive 'I
• 102 ' 127. For what is he au\:iliary j
100. Into whi)i classes are nu· J ha ·
d '/
l2
particip e
use
• ?
meral adjecti...-es divided?·
101 · \\_' hat_ is?a pron_o_minal .ad.~. ~0·-·12.8. For
w-h)lt is .t.J\e
auxiliary
participle
~a~ifjg
b~en, .
1)2:

I~1~~t~~at ~ass:s ~r: pro:·.

3

l.

~ng

;' \ ·
used?
• · . •\
• (, • 130
nominal adjectives divid- ,
129. Which com'poun~ partici-·
ed '{ .
•
•
• ' .'. ' · . , / pies are preseo~? and
. 103. How are verbs divi<led iii'
·
which are perfecrl . · Ul
regard to their form~ ..~ . 104 130. Ho~ ar~ verbs divided U.
tM. What is a regular verb? ~-, 105·_
regard to objects?· . .
• J33
105. Wbat is an irregtiiarverb ?'106 131. What is a. transitive'verb? 13!106. Which are ·the · principal '; : ~ .i32. What is ali intransitiv~
.
partsofaver.~,t"<': . :J ;107 ' ,.
verb'? - · ': , . , • .' , • 135
107. ~hat is the 'pr~~.~.n~i;.?, _108, ',133, What is a -1\e"tex:' verb? , l35
108. What .is the past·~ -~'tense
, H ow·~-· are ' ver
:"b·s · c1ass1
' 'fi e d :·""'" 'I. ":.''109
·... 13"*·
109. What is the pre~eIJ.tJ.lartic1- . \
in regard to themsel es? 137
pla?
. '· !'',· .
. 110.
v_
) 11.0 What ; the p~i:fect partic:- ·
135. What _is a -prin~i-pal :...v erb? 138 .
1
pie?
•
•
. : . . 111 . 1• 135. What 1~ an auxiliary verb? 139
·~

.

.•

.

2.
M.ztculint.

PART II.

I NFLE .CTION.S . *
GENDER.
l l-0. There are three methods of distinguishing
the two sexes.

1. By different words.
Masculine.

Bachela.r,
Beau,
Boy,
Brother,
;Buck,
Drake,
Earl,
Father,
Gander,
Gentleman,
Hart,
He,
Horse,
Husband,
King,

Feminine.

Masculine.

Feminine

maid.
belle.
girl.
sister.
doe.
duck.
countess.
mother.
goose.
lady.
roe.
she.
mare.
wife.
queen.

Lad,
Lord,
Male, .
Man,
Master,}
1\Iister,
Mr.,
_Master,
Nephew,
Papa,
Son,
Ram,}
Buck, ·
Uncle,
Wizard,

lass.
lady.
female.
woman.

..

.

mistress.

Mrs. miss.
niece.
ma mm a.
dauglµer.
ewe.
aµnt. ·
witch.

.,

F~mimne.

MascUline. ·

!lone5s. ,
Abbot,
abbess;
Lion,
negres:S.
Negro,
Actor,
actress.
patroness.
Administrator, admin~stratrix.Patroi;i,.
Baro~,
baroness. · Peer,
peeress.
.Bridegroom, bride.~
poetess.
-Poet,
Benefactor, benefactress. Pri ~~t,
prji;;st~ss .. , J .
Ch.a ter,
chantress.
Prophet,
prophetess. '
Conductor,
conductress. · Protector, r protectreSs.
Cou~t,
co_u ntess. b
Prince, "', :
princess.
Deicon,
deacones_s. : , Shephe@i.· .: shepJi~rq~~· •.
Don,
d~
(§~ngster',:,''<'. · _si:mgs~fess~
sorceress.
Du!re,
6chess.
r ;Sorcerer,
-~~--~..~~ft! ~
.sultana, , • Emperor,
empress. · · ,;:\JSU!tan
{ sultaness. ·
Executor,
executrix. _.:~. ; , ~
.· · tailoresS. '< -•·
Giant,
giantess. . · _,.:Tailor,
. testatrix.'..{ . !~
Governor,
governess. . " Testator,
T.- \ .
God,
goddess. . . 11?_er, .. ~ : . : .. tigre~-,_ ·;: ;·:·Heir,
heiress: .;
· <~¥.>r,·:.: . . - tutore~s. , ·: •
Hero,
lier'oine. · , . -Widower, ,.. widow. . ""'.- .
1
Host,
host.es~; •.. 1 " .Henry, ,,-, '",.;~ Hentj.e~ti; "'
Hunter,
huntress: ·
Louis;· ·. ~- , . :{..ow'sa.
· Instr.uctor,
instructres's. ' . Frank; ·}.~'" , u
,.
., .-.
• \ .
• " .1; ranees.
In~}:ltor,
inventress. ,1 Fr_anci&,_ . .:.1-- Jew,~
Jewes~: ".:, .•;<~:~,;. ..
"{;,--

3. By u~ipg· ~ di~tirlgiljshlng word~.' - .
bfn111:1i~e.
Fcmi~i~~·
~-~ ~ai~zi#:;,, ;. ~ ·.·"i'FemintM. .

* We

have hesitated as to whether we should ndopt this word or. Cne
By inflections we here mean all t!J.e cbarig~ 'or· variations of words to express grammatical properties; though tlie. worct'i
Dot generally used with so com prehensivii a meaning. To t.bese i~ftecflon(l-;>
we have added some lists of words that do not imply inflection, but .t~t. '·
could r:ot ':"ell be placed elsewh ere, and that still require special-atteo ·00:, •
m consulermg the sru tax of our. language.
· '-·
· _,i;;

"By. differe~t endings. · -

Feminine.

phr~s~ " Tab ular Matter. "

l!\

B~-gont,
I

•

_·s!i&-goat. ~) j~:.:~ ~.ale de~~~lpi~t:s1 /~.E~~~~dan~ ,
Man-sen·ant, mai4-11_ervant. : ·,1>:.,•_ ' .«" · .J • { ·M~ Rey.nol~. ·
'"'
··
· ::-- M( 'Reynolds
·
' ·• - Buctrabbit! . (!~.r~b~i~: '~:~ · 1' ;'" ' ' J , "~ .. ' ". ·.•,. M~a:·~yn,o~da · :
.

~

I. (

~

~

•

"''!.7"·

·{ •• ~4;. ~·

•

.r

:

~I

"" •1 . \

j

•

~l 1 ~~

.(

60

.

ENGLISU GRAMMAR.

, ,?

145. The foUt>wing
ves:-

NUMBER.

HI. Most nouns are maJe plural by adding s to
the singiilar.
Sofa, sofas.
Rod, rods.
Bee, bees.
Cliff, cliffs.

Ball,
Drum,
Two,
Folio,

balls.
drums.
twos.
folios.

· Car,
c_ars.
Window, windows.
Chimney, chimneys.
l\lonarch, monarchs.

H2. Nouns that end with s, re, z, sh, or soft ch, are
~
made plural by adding es to the singular.
Glass, glasses.
Loss, los.~es.
Fox,
foxes.

Box,
boxes.
Topaz, topazes.
Bush, · bushes.

Dish, Church,
Ditc~,

dishes.
churches.
ditches.

143, Nouns that end with i, o, u, or y, preceded

each by a consonant, ai;e made plural by adding es to
the singular.
~.
·
Alkali, alkalies.
Hero, heroes.
Negro, negroes.

Potato, potatoes.
Gnu,
gnues. .
Army, armies.

Story

stories.

Y is chs.nged to i.
Seep. 105.,
.

To aacertain what iB meant by vowels a.nd consonants, see p. 152.

To o, preceded by a vowel, s only is added.
Ex. - Cuckoo, cuckoos.

"

I

arv . .

taff. . { staffs (officers),
Knife, knives. Shelf, shelves. S ,,., staves (sticks).
· Leaf, . leaves. Thief, thieves. Flag~¥'' tiag_~~s.
v
,,
.
n
146. For forming the plural·'of some;:words, nu

,

. - general rule· can b!'l given r·an4 'they
said to be -rr:;guur_~ .

· _. ' ·

Man,
men.
Woman, .women.
Child, · children.
Ox,
oxen.
Foot,
feet.
Goose, geese.
Tooth, teeth.

·Mouse, mice.
· .. Louse, lice. ·
· .. Cow, . Cf-'~s1 . kine:
\ I, ·.: we. · '·
Thou, ye. •
He, · they.
• .She,-: -·ih:ey~
. :· ......... '.
t

•

at~

·

therefore

·

It, ...·they.

: :-,;-i'I~, these

~~Jha_t, thq~e.
. " .An;i;. · are. .
·:·ts, are.
·was, were.
Has, ~ave.
~- 1.

.~'

·:

'

.

•

. Brother, brothers (of.the.same ,falllily), bre.thren (of .~e_ .same.society).

H4. Proper nouns 'and foreign nouns take simply
or es, whens will not. coalesce in sound. . . \
Canto, cantos.
Piano, pianos.
Portico, porticos.

w

Half, · halves. Sheaf, sheaves.

147. "Some nouns have _both a regular and an irregular plural, b~t with..11 :differetice of meanin~..

Halo, . ~alos; memento, mement1n: quarto, quartos; tyro, tyr !Jb
and zero, zeros, - are some of .the ~xception·s.

D enny, D ennys.
Dennie, Dennies.
Peri,
Pe1·is.

no~ns change ·the ending .:lUto'

' '
- Beef, beeve~. Life;'· lives. · Wife,
wives;'
Cal f, calves. L~af, . Ioave s• Wolf,
wolvef!.
Wharf,
{wharfs,
.
Elf, elves.
Self, seI yes.
h es .

~

To o, preceded by a consonant, es is .added. ·
Ex:. - .Motto, mottoes.

!I j

fW

·~:U~IB~~~ . . . ,

German,
Germans.
Mussulman, Mussulmans ·
Jones,
Jones~s.

t

Die,
dies (stamps·for coining),
Fish,
fishes (individuals),
Genlils, geniuses (men of genius),

. dic.i (B~all cubes for gaming).~
~ (qwµitity '?.r kbld).
·
genii (spirits).

Index, inde.xes (tabl~~ of contents), indices (algebraic si8l!s). . .
Penny, pennies (pieces ofmo;ey), .· ~ (ho.;,;vm~~h in.value)/
1
. 5
.

'

-·-

!

" -NUMBER. ·

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

148. Most compound words are expressed in

3. The ending um· or on is changed to ~. "-< ·

th~

plural number, by making plural only that part of. .
the word which is described by the i·est.

Animal'culum, l!-nimalculii.. .
~ '

Aqua'rium,

Mouse-trap, mouse-traps.
Cupful,
cupfuls.
Spoonful,
spoonfuls.
Ox-cart,
ox-carts.
Wagon-load, wagon-loads.

Brother-in-law, brothers-in-law.
Sister-in-law, sisters-in-law,
Son-in-law,
soris-in-law.
Court-martial, courts-martial.
Aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp.

aquaria.. :

llerba'.rium,

.'

Miss Brown, the Misses Brown ;
J,fisses Ja~e and Julia Brown.

\_...·

.i. ·The. ending ·"u, is ·chang~d

~ ~• . ·

1. The ending a, is changed to w, sometimes to ata, s - ·
.

~

I-

·
Larva,
larvre.
D
{ dogm~s,
.
. .
oama,
d<?gmata
~
0
mu'tia,
mmutire,
Neb'ula, · nebulre.
S.
{.stirrm_as,' · .,
t1gma
."
Ver'tebra, vert_ebrre.
. . ' _stigmata.
M'

2. The ending us is changed to i . .·
Alumnus,
Focus,

alumni.
focuses,
{ foci.

,
{hippopotamuses,
Hippopot amus, h'
tami.
1ppopo

,

. Me'dium,

150. Many foreign nouns, .adopted into the English language, retaiii their foreign plurals. Some
have also regular English plurals.
_,,
, . { arenas,
A re na,
arenre.
•
{ formulre,
For mu1a
' formulas.

5.gywnasia,

1 gymnasiums.'•
5herbariums,
1 herbaria. " . .o- • :

· {media,
· .mediulI!S·
.automata,. ' . M
'd
·{ memorandumai
· Autom'aton, {
um, 'memoranda."·
automatons. ·. emoran
•'
.
cri\eria,
Crite'rion,
{ criterionS.
0
momenta: ··MoD;lentum,
Datum,
data..
. Ph~n~me~on, · phenom~na.. ..
·. Effiu'vium, · effluvia.
·strata, .
5encomi.ums, . Stratum, ··
{ stratums.
Enco'mium, ~mia. ,
. Erratum,
errata: ·'<
Arca'num,

149. When the title Mr.; Miss, 01~ Dr., is used with
a name, the whole term is made plural by making
plural the title only.
·
Mr. Harper, Messrs. Harper.
Dr. Lee,
Drs. Lee.

\.
· Gynina'~um.,·

s"

f i" ;J , ,

I

.,,.;"•

-·

I

I

I

'l..

64

CASE• .

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

155. So~ie nouns .are·useu, without ch~nge of form,
in either -~~mber.
· ·.
. -.
·
•

6. Words that are less regular.
Bandit,
Beau,
Cherub,

bandits,
{ banditti.
beaus,
{ beaux.
cherubs,
{ ch eru b"1m.

Genus,
Monsieur,
~fr.,

Seraph,
S tainen,

gen' era.Messieurs
Messrs.
{ seraphs, ·
serl}phim.
· stam,.ma.

Deer
Sheep
Swine
Vermin
Grouse

Heaq,
Dozen
Means
Wages
(cattle) · SerJes' ,,
News
,·t Bellows
Sail
, ·Species
· Alrps, · ., '. Gljllows,
(ship) " · ,Appara'tus
Odds
. Smnmons
Pair · · -·- carps.
Amends _ · Politics.
.

151. Letters, figures; and other characters, aro
made plural by adding 's (apostrophe and s).

•

•

.;

·,

1

•

.....

•

•

~ ·'"";.

•

News seems to be now used in the singular number only; wag ea is gen
. erally plw:al; an.dpair and dozen have ~fso tl..<l plural fo;m. '· .' · .: ': ' :

Ex. - "The a's and u's in the first line." "By 5's and 7's."
The apostrophe is used to prevent ambiguity.; thus,
.
" Cross your t's and dot your i's," is not the same as .
" Cross your ts and dot your is."

.156.. A_collective' noun is singular; when we i:ega.rd
the entire collection .as .one thing. · ·
. ·'·.

152. Most nouns that denote sqbstance, science,
quality, or condition, ca.n be used in the ·singular
number only.

' 157. A colle<ltive,,norin is plural, when it 'has the
plural·form, or when we refe:i; to the individuals CO.J.!lposing the coileCtion. :···: .
··
., - ·.

Bread
Gold

Hay
. Music

Pride
,
Patience

Goodness . Peace
Darkness .. , Fever.

"The army was)large-'.' Not each man of it was lar~e.

.

.

.

"'I

Ex. - "Teas and silks are brought from China."
"I had but a few coppers left; " i. e., cents.
"The heights around the city;" i. e., the ·hig4 p{qces.

15!, Rome nouns, denoting gen~rally obje'~ts. that
consist of two or many parts, are nearly always
plural.
·
Bowel11
Cattle
' Clothes
Dregs
Eaves

Head-quarters · Riches
Hose
Spectacics
Stairs
Lungs
Snuffers
Goods
Pinchers
Suds

'.

'

.

.,..,,....

largz/'"·

..

Tidings-,· . ·r~
Teens - , . ~
'_;.;
Thanks i}.i...
...""i .
Tongs
Victuals.

\ ? ~

/, "•

.

·r·~~

·' .

"The armies w~re
"The 'multitud~ p1:1l'ime pleas~."
That is, each on!'I of tile n:iultitud~ pursues ple~~e.
·

.

~

153. Such words are sometimes made ·plural, when · · · ~
different kjnds are meant, or things that nave t4e :'· .
? ·. ·
substance or quality.
·

Aborig'ines
.Annals
. .Ashes
Billiards
Bitters

. ...... _.

~

158, 'fhe non;iinative · and the: objec~ive ·case . of
· '·
"
nouns are alike.
' ·' ·
.::
'

"John kicked the horse."

.

. .

" T~.e horse kick~d John.~' ·

159. The noinill~tive ~nd the-okjective c11se of-pro·~ . , ,. ·', '.i~' .
nouns are generally different. .
I, "· me; .he, }dni. . '.~I ~et, him."
"He met me.• .1.
She, her; we, us. " "'She 'metus."
"Wemether."
'Vho, whom.
" Wlto came ? " " Whom 2Jd you se~ ? '

mo.

The possessi~e ·case ; of. nouns. is formed by

iirone~ing to the name of the· owner an :apostrophe,

or comma above the liiie,. a,ucl then the letter s.

,,

ll.

66

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Boy, boy's.
Man, man's.
Men, men's. '

Child,
child's.
Child ren, children's.
vVoman, woman's.

. DECLENSION.
.
-.·.
' Vomen, womE:r.'s
Prince, prince's
Burns, Burns s.

161, The apostrophe only is added to plural nouna

that end with s.
13<,ys, boys'.
Girls, girls'.

Soldiers, soldiers'.
Horses, horses'.

T eachers, teachers'.
Pupils, -pupils'.

\
RELATIVE ; PR.O.NOUNS.

.163; The_chief relatJve pronouns arc;-.!
\Vho J applied to persons.
.
~ _ _.~ ~ .. .
Which ; applied to things, and to ~nimals inferior to man. ,,
What; used for thing which or tltings ·which.
·
'"'
That; sometime11 preferred to who, or which.
·
. ·, . .
As; which is a relative proµoun w:hcn -it fullows such',_many, ot
.
I
same.
,)

Con science and goodness.also have only the apostrophe ; as,
" For conscience' sake ; " " For goodness' sake."
W1"ite f11e f olbJwing noum in the possessive CII8e : -

Earth, nature, morning, life, river, city, James.
Mountains, ladies, gentlemen, rivers, ocean, churches.
PRONOUNS.

' PRONOU.!\~
.
164, The interrogative pronouns arE), INTERROGATIVE

.

\

•

162. The chief personal pronouns are I, thou or
!fOU, he, she, and i t.
Thou is used in the solemn style.
You is used in the familiar style.
The teacher should explain what is meant.
'We denotes the speaker, with others included.
Ours, yours, hers, and sometimes min~ and Bline, are each equiv· ~
alent to th e simple possessive pronoun and a noun i\as, "This is
my hat, and that is yours," i. e., your hat.
It sometimes denotes merely the state or condition of things, or
a puint of time. " ft rains." "ft is.12 o'clock." "ft was moon· .
light on the Persian Sea."
·
It sometimes introduces a sentence, and is explained by a fol·
lowing word, phrase, or clause. "ft was he." "It is mean to talc~
advantage of another's distress!' What is mean ? · "ft is perfectly plain that a straight line is the ~hortest distance from ond ·
point to another." What is plain ?
·
.-. ·

•• 1

'

•

Who! whi~ asks for the name· of a person.
. · , ~
Which! ·a lied to either pe!SQns or.things i~ asking for a ·par
ticular one o two or more. : _;
·,
·
.·
What; which as"8,for t!J.e. ~nd o(t¥ng,or for, the char~tei. - or
•

PERSONAL Pµ,ONOUNS.

...

,,,
;

,,....-

~

J

•

-

• •'

·-

•

. occupatlQn.

•

-

. ··'··
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS,

\,

•''

'

'

·.,,

'

,- '

L '

•

'

may

\

\

\

•

•

.

•

165; The adjective. p~·onouns
be'divided in~, 1. D istributive, which r~late 'to objec~ taken singl!J,.,.· .,
.f •
•

•

•

. Ex. .:.._ Each, either, neither.
J

.;i

-

•

-

•

.
,..

'

.;

•

'
'

....

~·./

, .
•

'

2. Demonstrative, which point ou~, objects .~.finitely'!~·-·'
. E::x:. -This, these, that, th9se,- same, J?,1il)'.ler, Jt~~ri·-i · ·~ ,
8. Indefinite, which relate to objects indefinitely._ · " '
Ex. - One, 0,ther, any, some, s,q.ch,- several1 all, both,- 110n~..
4. Reciprocal, :which 49.pl~ ~l\tu~l..rel;tion. . . · . .;
Ex. .:.2
Each other, one
ano.ther."
.,.,, ,
'
~v~ •
,:\
t.

.

;.

•.

DEC:LEN·B
~O-N.
-~.
··~
' ; }. .lr . ., ...._;. '"-'

• -

166. To Decli:ae a noun oq>rO°rj.Ollll is . t~ ·Sl\,ow, ip.
some ·~egular way, what :t<?rmS: it'
~:· r~~,i~~
grammatica.l properties. ; ·
> '
'.

?as

exv

68

•

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

·

?

.

.
DECLENSION. ·:.-~·

69

_THIRD PERSON•

NOUNS.
SINGULAR.

Nominative. Possessive. Objective.

Boy,
l\fan,
Lady,
Fox,
Smith,
John,

boy's,
man's,
lady's,
fox's,
Smith's,
John's,

Nominative. Possessive.. Objective.

boy ;
man ;
lady;
fox;
Smith ;
John.

boys,

boys',
men's,
ladies',
foxes';
Smiths',

men,
ladies,
foxes,
Smiths,

NoM.

boys.
men.
ladies.
foxes. ,.
Smiths.

Poss.

OBJ.

2D

......
SD

ones,
ones',
ones.
others, others', ·others.
none,
none·.

l;'ERSON:

I

Nominative. .

·
t
\.

· . Plural.

I, .
my or mine,
me;

we,
· our or ours,
us.

SECOND PERSON. c.,,·

Singular.

POSSESSIVE.
OBJECTIVE .

Thou or you,
thy or thine, }
your or yours,
thee or you ;

or

PLuRAx..

Singular.

-NO l!INAT IVE.

~

or

, theirs,
them.

Plural,.

Myself;
Thyself or yourself;
Himself, .herself,. itse).f;

PERS\)N.

SINGULAR

OBJECTIVE.

or ,,

. hers,
her;

. It, they, .
.
their"
its1 · or ·
theirs,
it; · - them.

they,
· their

Plural.

ye or you,
your· or yonrs,
you.

ourselves.
· yourselves.
the.~elve~

\

RELA'TIVE A"ND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN§!.

FIRST PERSON • .

PossEsSITE.

•

him ; . them.

lsT PERSON.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

NOMINATIVE.

' · She,
" {her .

Singular.

The pronouns one and othe:r are also declined like nouna.

one;
other;
none;

He, ·· they, ..
their
his,
· or
.{ theirs,

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. -

PRONOUNS.

One,
one's,
Other, other's,
None,

Singula;, . Plural.

Singular, Plu_ral.

PLUR.A.L.

Ntiuter.
Sing. Plur.

. Feminille.

l'llasculiue.

,

)

·

Possessive. - Objective. : ·_ .' -

Who,
whose,· ·
W'bich, (whose,).
'
. What,
That,
(w}iose,)
_As,

· ,.

,

whom.. (-ever or -soever.) '
which.
,,- "
".
·wh~
a:t;:; .
.that. .

What is the objective corresponding to.~ ·

.:_

.

- •· "

I? - thgu ?-we?--: Y;~ ? -you ,? -he ?1 o;-:--, sh~? :-i_t i
-they?-who?
··•
·
What is the nominatfoe corresponding !o-

. :

·

l\Ie ?- us?...:.. thee? - him?_:_ whom?- her?-:-- hers?.
- them? -tliemselves? ,- h~rse~f? - it? - which?
Form the comp'rnmdj>ronoun:-

1\·Ty, our, thy, your, him, _her, it, them,_,who, which, what.
Of.what gender, person, number, a'fld ctue u each of fhefollnwing pronoun.a P

Him, his, its, he, tht:m, it, I, you, thy, their, she~ piou, 1?e,
) your, us, they, my, niine, thine, yours, hers, othe.t:s, ,then-s,
we, thee, our, ours, ye, myself, . tl~emselves, ourselves.
,r

- ~;.

70

(

ENGLISH GRAMMAU.

IRREGULAR " 'IERBS.
l'rell<nl.

IRREGULAR VERBS.
'!'he 'l'wo Past Forms Different.
I Peif. Participle. Presens. Past, or Pret. I Perf. Participl. .

arisen.*
awaked.
been.

crowed,
crowed. '
crew,
Dare
durst,
(to venlurt),
dared, dared.
born.
(Dare, to challenge; regular.)
borne.
Do,
did,
done.
( :o carry),
Draw,
drew,
drawn.
beaten,
Reat,
beat,
Drink;~
drank, drunk.
beat.
Drive,
drove, driven.
Become, became, become.
ate,
Befall,
eaten,
befell, befallen.
eat,
~t,
eat.
begotten,
Beget,
begot,
Fall
fell,
fallen.
begot.
Fly,
flew,
Begin,
flown.
began, begun.
Forbear, forbore, forborne.
bid,
bid,
Bid,
bade,
bidden.
Forget, forgot, forgotten,
forgot.
bitten,
Bite,,.
bit,
Forsake, forsook, forsaken.
bit.
Blow,
blew,
Freeze, froze, frozen.
blown.
Break,
broke, broken.
got,
got,
chidden, Get,
gotten.
Chide,
chid,
ch id.
Give,
gave, • given.
Choose, chose, chosen.
Go,
went, gone . .
Cleave
cleaved,
d
Grave,
graved,
graven,n.f
(to a<Lliere ),
clave, c1eave .
Grow,
grew, grown. ·
cleft,
cleft,
Cleave
Heave, hheaved, h eave d.
{to split),
clove, cloven.
ove,
Come,
came, come.
Hew,
hewed, .hewn, R.
• The pupil may also mention the present participle just before he ~e~·-··
lions the perfect.
.
· · ··.; '"'' :
1 R. denotes that ;he regular form may also be used in stead of the oth~.:*-~
Crow,

'

..

Past, or Pret. Perf. Participle.

hid,

P.uet1l . Past, or Pret .

Arise,
. arose,
Awake, awoke,
Be or am, was,
bore,
Bear
(bri7tj• forth),
bare,
Bear
·bore,

.

I

hidden, ·
hid, ,

held. '
held,
Hold,
knew, known .
Know,
· Lade,
laded, laden.
lain.
Lie (recline), lay,
(Lie, w apeakfaZ.ely; ,regula;.)
l\fow,
mowed, mQwn, R.
Rend,
rent,
re_p.t. ·
rode,
Ride,
rode,
ridden. _

.

l""/. Pflrl~
sung,: s~ng,
sang, . s~ng.
sunk,
·s·mk '
!>unk~
sallk,
,
·s"ow,
so\iJed,··· sown, R. .
Speak,
spoke,' · spok~n• .
Spin,
spun, . s13~n. .
. Spit, · spit, · .. spit. · .
Prumt. Past, or Pr<t.

(Spit, to ·pince with a spil-; regular.)

Spring,

0

sprung, • rung· .
.
spra,ng, 8p

stole, . stolen. ,
strode!. stridden,
rung, rung.r - ·.,
, strid, §trld: ·
Rise,
r~ risen.
;._,, . . struck,
trved, riven.
Rive,
Strike,
strµqk, stricken.
r an
run...
Run,
strovO:·~.strivcn.
Strive,1 -saw_'ed, .· sawn, R.·
Saw,
strowed;-s~owni R.
Strow,
See,·
saw,. . seen. '
Swe~r,
i;wore, sworn.
seethed,
s
11,-~ . swe.lled, 'swqllen,~
we
th d
Seethe,
see ,e ;-so~de~.'.7
. ' :'
swum.
Shake, . shook, sh~ls~~..i~+·· ' s~-~~!· :: S~!lf11·
swum)
shaved; 1
Take .. took,
tak~il.,.
shaved,
"
Shave,
shaven.:
Te~r, · tore, . torn. . ·
sheared, shorn;· :s;.
Shear,
thrived, thqv~d,
showed, shown:·R. ·· '1.'_hrive, tl1~0\'e, -thriven:·
Show,
. ' ·•
. thrown.
':('hrow,. threw,
shrunk,
, j
shrun~,
Shrink,
trod~!'.n,._
shrank,
.·
Tread,
ti;od~:· trod. ,\';
slew,
Slay,
sla~n. . r•i:
slidd~!), '
wore, worn.-:
Wear,
slid, R ., . slid, R .
Sl-~e,
Weave, wov_e, . woven,. ··
wrote, ·written.
.Write,
smote, smitten.
Smite,

Ring,

Steal,

•
Stride,

rang,

\

.

~

',

~

72

Pre1eK1. PaAt, or Pret. Perf. Particip!•·

P,.ese nt

Pa.st, or Pret. Perf. Participle.

Bet,

Betide,

betided, betided,
betid, betid.

Bind,
Bleed,

bound, boupd.
bled,
bled.

Bless,
Breed,
Bring,
Build,
Burn,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Catch,
Cling,
Clothe,
Cost,
Creep,
Cut,

Present. Past, or Prel. Perf. Partidpl. .

abode, abode.
Deal,
beheld, beheld.
Dig, ·
belaid,R., belaid, R • . Dwell,
bent, R., bent, R.
Dream,
bereft, R., bereft, R.
b~sought, besought. Feed,
bet, R., bet, R. ' · Feel,
Figh~

·Find,
Flee;
.Fling,

Gild,
blessed, blessed,
blest, blest.
Gird,
) Grind,
bred, bred.
Hang,
brought, brought.
Have,
built,
built.
Hear,
burned, burned, I
Hit,
burnt, burnt.
Hurt,
burst, burst.
Keep,
bought, bought.
. ,. Kneel,
cast,
·cast. ,
Knit,
caught, caught.
Lay,
clung, clung.
Lead,
clothed, clothed,
clad,
clad.
Lean,
cost.
cost,
L ~ave,
crept, crept.
cut,
cut.
Lend,

dealt,
dealt. ·
dug, R., dug, R.
dwelt,R., dwelt, R~
dreamed, dreamed,
dreamt, dreah1t. · ·
fed, '
fed.
'
felt,
· felt.
fought, fought.
found, found.
fled,
fled.
· flung, flung.
gilded, gilded,
gilt,
.gilt.
girt, R., girt, R.
ground, ground.
.hung, R., hung, R."
had,
had.
heard, heard.
hit,
hit.
hurt,
hurt.
kept,
kept.
knelt, R., knelt, n • .
knit, R.,' knit, R.
laid,
laid.
Jed;
led,
·leaned, leaned,
leant, leant.
left.
left,
lent, . lent.
.·~

(a.) Hang, hange<l, hanged: lo snspend by the neck with intenl to kill: but
!ho rlistiucti on is not always ol>;;erveLl.

....

Prue..:. Pa.st, or Prd. Perf. .l'Grlitip#.

let.,
. Sleep,: ;,. s\ept, ., i;· slept~ · .
slung, , . ,
Jighteq,
Sling,-, ' j>lung,
lit.
Siink;.( { slunk,
slunlt.
Sli~ .{;: ·slit, R.,·, .slit, ~ •
lost.
S~ell/... smelt, a;, smel~· R.;l,: ·,
made.
meani
Speed, _ sped, :) J;ped. · , .
met.
· spelled, spelled, ·
passed, ' SpeJ.!,
spelt, . spe~t. · . ' ·
Pass,
passed,
t."
_ .
spe1!_t.
pas
· Spend, spent',
Pay,
paid,
paid•.,,
Spill,
spilt, R., spilt; R.
penned, peirqed, .Split, · spli~ '. ,split/
1of•"" in), . pent,
pent. .
.
.spoiled, spoiled, .
(Pen, io write; regular.)
Spoil, . spoilt, .spoilt.
Put,
put,
put.
Quit,
quit, R/ quit, u~~ -Spread, spread, spr.eiid.
rapptd, rapped, . Stay; ' ' staid,R.,, staid;·.lt·'·
·
rapt.~
String, strung/ " strung,R."
rapt,
· Rap,
Read,
r ead,
read.
Stav:e, stove, R., stove, R.
Rid,
· rid,
rid. .
Stand, ~tood, - ' stood. . Say,
said,
said..
Stic:K, :. stuck, 'stuck.
Seek,
sought, sought.
Sting, stung, , stung.
Sell,
so!d, ( sold.
Sweat, ' swl!at, R., sweat, R.
Send,
sent,
sent.
· Sweep, swept,
swept.
Set,
set,
set.
Swing, swung, · swung.
Shed,
shed,
shed.
Teach, . taught,. taught.
Shine,
shone; shone.
T_ell,
told,
told.
Think, . .t hought, thought.
Shoe,
shod,
shod.
Shoot,
shot,
shot.
Thrust, thrust,. : thrust.
. Shred,
shred,
shred.
waked, waked,
·Wake,
k
wo e. ·
Shut,
shut,
shut.
woke,
·, Sit,
sat,
sat.
Weep,· wept,
wept.
(a.) Pf8t is used as an adjective or as a noun. (b.) Rap; rapt, ra~t; t.J
1eize withi rapture. (c.) S~y, stayed, stayed; to ca~e to 'f'>l?; ( d.) ~tnn9.d
Let,

The Two Past or the tl1ree .Forms Allko.

Abide,
Behold,
Belay,
Bend,
Bereave,
Beseech,

7-3

IRREGUL.t\.R VEn.,BS,,

ENGLISH GRAMMAF..

1

let,
lighted,
lit, ·
lost,
made,
meant,
met, '

mtrwnenta.

.

•

.

/

/

"

74
Pru-. PaJt , or

Wet,
Win,
Wind,
Work,
Wring,

I

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
P1Jl. Perf. ParticipZ..

I

Pr<3ent. PaJt,

,~
tW

Pret. 1:•rf. Parti..,.,,._

wet,
. wet.
. May,
won,
won.
Must,
wound, wound.
Ought,
worked, worked,
(wanting,)
wrought, wrought. Shall,
wrung, w_rung.
Will,

might, · " .
must,
"
ought,
"
quoth,
"
should,
"
would, .
"
(Will, wi.sh, bequeath; regular.)

Beware, (wanting,) (wanting.)
Can,
could,
"
Do (auxil'y), did,
"
Have, "
had,
"

CONJUGATION.

.

CON 'J l]GATI·ON.
~

'

.

a verb is t~e · proper coro:..
hination and arra~geinent of its p~rts,
't heir' full
or<l er.
' ·' · · ·
'• · · · ·
lfi8, · The Conjugatioµ

pf

m.:

. ' t· '.i-..
".Jn their full order," - that is, in all the persons and numbers of ead.1
mood, tense, etc. ConJugation embraces all the persona and riumbers; svrwJ>
Bis, only one.person and nu~be~·~
.
.
, . ,
•

Wit, }
Wot,*
Wis,*
• Gone nearly out of use;

,,.-•

•

•

•

•

Those verbs of the foregoing list, which have more than.
one form for some of their principal ·parts, are called redundant ; as, kneel and cleave.
Those verbs which want some of their ptjncipal parts, ·
are called defective. Most of the defective verbs are auxiliary verbs.
.
I '

167. The auxiliary verbs are, Be and its variations; used in_ the passive and~he p~ogre,
, 've
form.
Do and Did ; used gene~ally for emphasis.
1.,
Have and Had ! used tb express the perfect te1!se
· . · , r.· •
Can and Could ; used to express power or possi_biµty.
.
· ''
1'1aJ and ltlight; used to express possibilit~ permission, o'r
J
wishing.
ltlust ! used to express necessity.
·
JiPP . ·
Sh a II an d Sh ould; generally used to. express compu~~~~'-*'
"' :.
duty.
·
\ , :l--t' ?.'. '-..:
•
Will and Would; generally used to expreBB inclinatio~ ~~~},;~_;· '
. j'f..:; !
dency.
'"4 • i, .• ,
,._. .. ;:,_

~

-

•

•

-~ ~

Pres.mt, I IDlite. · ~J · : : • •• ' l>~eseqt-Perf~~· I ha11.e wri!te~
Past,
/VJTote, .
-, : · ·•. Pas~Perfect,"
lha{l~en;_
•
Future, · ·1 ahaJ/ writ&
. , !
.Future-P.erfect,.".'J .hall have un~n • ,
.. .•

: .. ."'· ~

',.Y,

.~ {

. . ·-·,,,.

--~

-

"I

~.r

.......-

;.

:~~'; ""

;

~·

. : · · ::i___

..

,.. /

•'

170. The.·in-eg\lli¢' v~rb .BEJs-conj~ga_t~dthus :-=:-''tin, ;i .. •,·-."'f'l~ -- ~.s,.t1;·. . \
Present.

.

• •f'

which shows its parts.in a sing-le persQ.n ;!.~d,n13~b-~.r,
through the moods 'and, tenses.>
·
~
SYNOPSIS of write, with I, througµ th'~:.indica~ve mood: "' . ..
.. ,, _. .
,.
'

PRJN¢;f!AL PARTS.
AUXILIARY VERBS.

I

•

169. A Synop'sis of..a verb is . only ~!1!!1·.outline: of)t,

Be or am,

PCU:• .(

-~:J,1-efem Pt1.rticiple.

was; ·:

--~~:_9

·

1-; ''r P,:Jed ParticipZ.

'being, ·'· .,.,, · been.t ·.

_. .. :1.. ~

.r . , .IlfDICAT~ . MOPD.

·

"r. ~·~~~t~i~~·1''.i· ~;~~-;;,;.'i;,'_ !~ ~ ··'

,SI.!fG~~ ·~ :·
" ,; • f ~LU ~,t.., _ .('
1
First Person ... · I a!,n,~i:
. , ! , . ) '. . "\f~ {~e, :. "
Second.Person. You ·are, \~ ·
2. You are,
Third
Person, ?-HeJ she,
; -.8. They are.
.
... }:,or
... ,,it,.ia
. ,•"
.
. .

"

'

'

76

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

· C<:>NJUG..t\.TION.'.·-;._

Present-Perfect Tense.
SINGULAR.

, P!lit .Teilse•

PLURAL.

1. I have been,
2. You have been,
3. He has been ;

1. 1Ve have been,
2. Y:ou have been,
3. They have been.

SINGULAR.

l. If! were, .i Were r;
L If·we .were,
W.~e w~
2. If you were, Were you,.2; Ifyou .w.e re,·; ·· Were yo1v
·3. If he were ; or, Were h,e ;. 3. If ~ey were; or, Were they..

' Past-Perfect Tense• .

I. I had been,

1. We had been,

2. You had been,
3. He had been ;

2. You had been,
3. They had been• .

Future Tense.
Simple futurity; foretelling. ·

1. I shall be,
2. You will be,
3. He will be ;

I. We shall be,

2. YOU will be,
3. They will be.

Past-Perfect Tense.

1. If I had been, 2. If you had been,.

a.

1. We .will be,

2. You shall be,
3. He shall be ;

2. You shall be,
3. They shall be.

,

1. If we had been;
2. If you had been,
3. If they had been•.
)

If he. had been';

Or thus:-

_,. !. Had we l;>een,
2. H_ad :t_OJI been,
.- 8. ·B;ad they been.

1. Had I been,
2. Had you bef)_n,
,8. Had he been;

,-POTENTIAL MOOD.

Promise, threat, or determination.

1. I will be,

''
PLUR.U..

''

...
".

Present Tense.

1. I maybe, ~
.2. You may be,
8. He may be;

1
•

1. . We.may be,
2. You may be,
3. They may be.

In the same way conjugate can be IUld must ,be.

Present-Perfect

T~nse.

I. I may have been,
. . 1: We !11ay· have been,
2. You may have been,. · .2. You ~ay have been, _·
8. He may have been;
.8. · They may have been.
~ In the same way conjugate m~ M!Js_been and" Can I have been'
Present Tense.

I. If I be,
2. If you be,
3. If he be;

1. If we be,

2. Ifyou be,
3. If they b.e.

- ~ast Tense.

l. I might be,

1.-. We -might ·be, ·
2. 'l:'ou iµight be,
3. They might pe.

· ,

2. You might be,
3. He might be ;
In the same w~y conjugate oould be, wi>uld be, and should bll.
6

\

?,

· 78

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. •
Pas~Pe1·fect
SINGULAR.

'T ense.

POTENTI:AL ·MOOP.

PLURAL.

1. I might have been,
2. You might have been,
3. He might have been;

· 1. We might have been,

2. You might have been,
3. They might have been.

In the same way conjugate amid have be~n, would have ~en, 1md

al1Culd have been,

Present Tepse, Thou mayst, canst, or must be.
.
Present-Perfect ~e, Thou mayst, ca~st, ?r ni~st have been.
Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be,
P<ut-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, · wouldst, or
shouldst have ~een:
'

IMPERATIVE ~WOD. .

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

.

Present Tense.

2. Be thou; or; Do thou be. 2. Be ye; or, Do ye be.
Presept.

INFINITIVES. - To be.
PARTICIPLES. - Being.

: Perfect.

To have been.
Been.

Synopsis of the

J·

)

,

Ji ,

I

·,

Present Tense; B.eth~~- ; : qr, Do thou be~ '

171. The 'regular·verb ROW is c_onjugated thu~:.:.......

Compound.

' .,

'

.

"'

\

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

Having been.

ve~b be, with thou. V--)

"
INDICATIVE
MOOD.
Present Tense, Thou art.
Present-Perfect -'l'ense, Thou hast been.
Past Tense, Thou wast, or wert.
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou hadst been.
Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt be.
l!'uture-Perject Tense, Thou shalt-or wilt ha;e beeii. '"

-.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense, If thou be.
Past Tense, If thou we rt ; ·OF, Wert th.ou.
Past-Perfect Tense, If thou hadst been; or, Hadst thou been.
"U thou wei•," and" If thou had b1e>1," are sometimes U88d by good_wrlwra.

Past..

Present.

Row, '

.

-

-

:

P;es'ent Participle. I;'erfect· ;:articipk. ·

-~rt>wed,

rowi:µg,

· - rowed.

•

'INDICATIVE l\W?D.
.

-·P resent ·Tense. .

SINGU.LAR.

PLUJUL.

1. I row,
2. You /row,

1.,.-We:rQw,
.: 2; Yo~ row, .·
3. Tiley, i:o~~

,i . •

3. He rows; ·

W- Let the verbs love, rule, permit; carry,'strike, and 1ee,. be
in ,the same way ,b y o.t her memhers of. the clasar , ~o,)n.

1ugated

.1Jwing tense.

. ,

·

-

_ .

now COD·
e!lch fol·
·

I

Do, i:ombined with the present infini~ve.•

1. I .do row,
2. You do row,
8•.He d~es row; .
.

~1 ;·

1. . We do row,
2. You no row;
s; .T~ey do row.

.,

·~

•The infinitive, in combining with aux,iliary verbs, ·drops .the ·sign lo.

I

80

I

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR.

·.

SING ...LAR.

. .

. .

1. I will row,
2. You shall row,
3. He shall row ; .

PLURAL.

1. I rowed,
2. You rowed,
3. He rowed;

·

81

~· ~

Promise, threat, or determination ..

Piwt Tense.
SINGULAR,

r ·. C.ONJU_GAT10N~

1. We rowed,

2. You rowed,
3, They rowed.

• PLURAL.

1. We will ro,w ·
2. 1;ou shall. row,
3. They shall row. · ·

Future-Perfect Tense.
Shall or will, combined wit~ pi.e perfect infl.oiti ve.

EMPHATIC FORJI(.

Simple futurity; foretelling.

Did, combined with the pl'esent infinitive.

1. I did row,
2. You did row,
3. He did row;

1. We did row,
2. You qid row,
3. They did row.

fh" tenses~ subjunctive mo~~;e formed like those of.~e ind.ica

1. We have rowed,

2. You.have rowed,
3. They have rowed.

In the solemn style, hath, roweth, and doth row, are used for has, rows, and

ii;u

2. You will hav~ rowed,
·' 3 . He will have rowed.;

row.

- Pr~

1. 'IfI row;
2. If you row,
3. If he row ; ·

.,:"ense.

·

1. If. :we.row;
If you .row,
3. If 'they rm~.

2:

·

EMPHATIC FoR:rir;

Past-Perfect Tense. ·
Had, combined witli the perfect participle.

1. I had rowed,
2. You had rowed,
3. He had rowed;

1. We had rowed, ,
2. You had rowed 1,
'
3. They had rowed.

Future Tense.
Shalt or will, combined with the present infinitive.
Simple futurity; foretelling.

1. I shall row,

·1. We shall row,

2. You will ..-pw, ,
3. He will row ;

2. You will row,
3. They will row.

.

J. We. sh~U havt:) rowed,·
· 2. You will have rowed,
· 3. They .will have rowed.

SUBJUNCTiVE ·MOOD.

Present-Perfect Tense.
Have, combined with the perfect participle.

1. I have ro,ved,
2. You have rowed,
3. He has rowed ;

i I shall have rowed, · :.

1. If I do row,
2. If you do row;
3. If he do row ;

l . .If we do row,
2. If you ~o row,
3. If they. d~ .i:o.w.
Pa11t Tense. . '' .·

1. If I rowed,
2. If you rowed,
3. If he rowed ;

1. If we rowed,'
·. 2. If you rowed,
· 3. If they rowed.

E:Ml'HA.TIC FORM • .

1. If! did row, .
2. If you did row,
3. Ifhe did row;

1. ·u .we did -row, .·
. 2. If yeu did row,
, 3. If.they did row.

82

.

E:tfGLISH GRAMMAR.

Past-Perfect Tellll6.
SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

1. Ii I had rowed,
2. Ii you had rowed,
8. If he had rowed;

1. If we had rowed,
2. If you had rowed,
8. If they had rowed.
Or thus:-

1. Had I rowed,

1. Had we rowed,
2. Had you rowed~
8. Had they. rowed.

2. Had you rowed,
8. Had he rowed;

POTENTIAL MOOD.
Present Tense.
May, can, or must, combined with the present infinitive.

1. I may row,

1. We may row,

2. You inay row,
8. He may row ;

2. You may row,
8. They may row.

Present-Perfect Teruie.
May, can, or must, con1bined with the perfect infinitive.

1. I may have rowed,
2. You may have rowed,
8. He may have rowed;

1. We may have rowed, ·
2.. You may have rowe~

s: They may have rowed.

In the same way conjugate muat have rowed.

Past Tense•.
6figlu, could, would, or should, combined with the present infiniril'.e.

1. I might row,
2. You might row,
8. He might row;

1. We might row,

2. You might row,
3. They might row.

In the same way conjugate could row, W<>uld row, and should'"°""

CO~J.U.GATION.

Past

·Perfec~Teniie.•

Might, could, would, or sh~'w.d,
,
S~NGULAR.

co~b~ed with the Perfect blinitive.
.

•

PLURAL.
•

1. I might have rowed, . . 1. We might haye rowed,
2. You might have ro~ed, 2. You mi~ht h~v& rowed,
8. He might hav~ rowed ; · 8. They rmght have rowed.
In the same way conjugate could have rowed, would lui.ve rowed, and ahoul<I

l•we rowed.

- •

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
.Present Tense.

2. Row thou; or, Do.thou row.'. Row ye; or, Do ye row.
P~rfect.

Present.

INFINITIVES. - To row.
p A.~TICIPLES. - Rowing.

'--

'

Compound.

To have rowed.
• Rowed.
Having
.

.

-

rowe~
~

Synopsis of the verb row, with thou~

INJ;>ICATIVE MOOD.
P resent Tense, Thou ro~e5t, or do~t ~ow.
Pres'ent-Perfect Tense; Thou hast rowed.
Past Tense, Thou rowedst,-0r didst row.
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou hadst ·rowed.
Future Tense, Thou shalt or wilt tow. · ' · · '
Future~Perfect Tense, Thou. shalt or wilt _h~ve rowtd
SUEJ"QNCTIVE M901;>.

..

Present Tense, "If thou row, or do ~~w} · '
. .
Past Tense, If thou. rowed,; didst ro~, or .,di~ row~ .
Past-Perfect .Tense, If thou hadst rowe<d. ..
.

.

'

~

' • Th.e simple perfect ;articiple o; a tf~Biti~e v~rbjfu . the active
9 u~ed only in combination with the auxil1arv verb ha'.'6'

!oi~

i

I

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

85
SINGULAR.

POTENTIAL MOOD.
P resent Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must row.
Present-Pe1fect Tense, Thou mayst, canst, or must have rowed.
Past Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst row.
Past-Perfect Tense, Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or
shouldst have rowed.

Past
Ten.se.

·rowed,
·rowed,
· rowed;.

1. I was
2. You were
3. He was

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

PLURAL. •

rowing, ·
rowing,
rowing.

rowed,
rowed, _
rowed.

1. We were
2. You weire
3. They were

IMPERATIVE JUOOD.
SINGULAR.

Present Tense, Row thou ; or, Do thou row.
In like manner give the synopsis of the verb love; with thour
through all the moods; - with he ; - with they.
,
In like manner give the synopsis of the verb see with I· - with
. h he;- with. they.
'
,
thou; - wit
I

Present.
Perfect
Tense.

THE PASSIVE FORM AND THE PROGRESSIVE FORlU
'
OF THE VERB ROW.
,,

The passive or the progressive form of any tense consist.9
of the corresponding tense of the verb _be, combined with -·
the simple perfect or present participle.

SINGULAR_-

Neuter.

Present

g {l.Iam
~
2. You are
R. 3. He is

Tense~

Passive.

rowed,
rowed,
rowed,·

Progressive.

rowing,
rowing, .
rowing;

PLURAL.

1. we have been
2. You have been
3. They have been

rowed,
rowed,
ro_wed.

rowing,
rowin9,
rowing~

TLe p~pil should first conjugate the verb be, through both ~umbers; theq
tll'l passive verb, and then th e verb m the progressive foriu.
_

•.

\

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

,•

SL.'IOULAR.

1. I had been :,
2. You h~d been
3. He had been

rowed,
rowed,
rowed;

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

PLURAL.

1. we had been
2. You had been
3. Th-ey had been

SU!Gtij:.AR.

rowed,
rowed,
rowed,

rowing,
rowing,
rowing-;

rowed,
rqoed,
. rowed;

..

Simple futurity; foretelling.

PLURAL.

1. We are
2. You are
3. They are

3.

.

Past.
Perteet
Tense.

INDICATTVE MOOD.

1. I have been
2. You have been
He has been

Future
Tense.

1. I shall be
2. You will-be
3. He will ~e

.

rowed,rowed,
rowed;

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

rowed,
rowed,

rowing,
rowing,
r1;wing.

PLURAL.

I. We shall be
2. YOU will be
3. They win be_

rQ.w~4,.

86

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

SINGULAR.

SL.'\'GULAR.

1. I will be
2. You shall be
3. He shall b()

rowed,
rowed,
.rowed;

Or thus:

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

PLURAL.

f. We will be

rowed,
.rowed,
rowed.

2. You shall be
3. T~ey shall be

'"87 ·

CONJUGATIO~.

Promise, threat, or det_e rmination. ·

1. 'I.fl were
2. If you were
3. Ifhe were
Pa.st
Tense.

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

• rowed, ·
rowed,
.roweil;

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

PLURAL.

rowed,
• rowed,
rowed.

1. Ifwe were

2. If you were•
3. If th~y were

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

SINGULAR.
Simple futurity; foretelling.
SINGULAR.

Fu turn•
l'erfect
Tense.

1. I shall have been
2. You will have been
3. He will have been

rowed,
rowed,
rowed,·

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Or thus :

1. Ifl be

2. If you be
3. If he be

rowed,
rowed,
rowed,·

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

rowed,
ro~ed,
rowed.

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

2. If you be
3. If they be

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

SINGUL.lit.

;p-·

P ast-

1. If I had been
2. If you had been
3. If he had been

P erfect
Tense •.

1. If we had been

rowed,
.rowed,
rowed;

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

PLURAL.

2. If you had been
3. If they had been

PLURAL,

1. Ifwe be

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

2. Were you
3. Were they

rowing~

\

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

PLURAL.

1. Were we

rowirig,
rowing,

SINGULAR.

P resent
Tense.

2. Were you
3. Were he

PLURAL.

1. We shall have been rowed,
2. You will have been rowed,
3. They will have been rowed.

rowed,
rowed, ·
rowed;

1. Were I

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

SINGULAR.

1. Had I been

r<YUJ.t;d,
rowed,
rowed;

2. Had you been
3. Had he been

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

PLURAL.

Or thus:

1. Had we been

2. Had you been
3. Had they been

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

rowing,
rowing,
rowin_q.

88

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

8INGULAB.

SrnGULAR.

1. I may be
2. You may be
3. He may be

Present
Tense.

·"•

rowed,
rowed,
rowed;

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

rowing,
rowing,
rowin_g.

Past.
Perfect
'l'ense.

PLURAL.

1. We may be
2. You may be
3. They may be

4 I might have been·
rowed,
2. You might have been rowed,
3. He might have been - rowed.;

PresentPerfect
Tense.

Ileen.

.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.

rowed,
rowed,
rowed;

rowing,
rowing,
rowing;

Present
Tense. {

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

Present.
Perfect.

•

2. Be thou

rowed;

2. Be ye

rowed.

. rowing.

PLURAL.

1. We may have been

rowed,
2. You may have bf-en rowed,
3. They may have been rowed.

INFINITIVES.

To be
To have been

1. I might be
2. You might be
3. He might be

rowed,
rowed,
rowed;

rowing,
rowing,
r._owing;

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

rowing,
rowing,
rowing.

PLURAL.

1. We might be
2. You might be
3. They might be

In like manner conjugate could be, would be, and ahoold 6'"

/}1(, vcrA
,7(/. ./1'v)/..
' . ·-

. rowed.
rowed.

towing.
rowing.

PARTICIPLES.

SINGULAR.

·'. •l

rowing,
rowinf!,
rowing.

.

In like manner conjugate mmt have been.

Past
Tense.

rowed,
rowed,
rowed.

. In like manner conjugate could have bee•, trould ha!!_e been, and slwuld ~

SrnGULAR.

2. You may have been
3. He may have been

.t·owing,
rowing,
rOwing;

PLURAL. .

1. We might have been ·
2. You might have been
3. They migh~ have been

In like manner conjugate can be and mmt be.

L I may have been

89

CONJUGATION.

Present.
Perfect.

Being

Compound.

Having been

rowed.
Rowed.
rowed.

•

rowinf!.

The synopsis with thou is similar to the synopsis given on p. 78.
How many and what tenses has the indicative mood? -the lllh;J'unctitJe r
- the potential 1 - the imperative 1
·
What infinitives are there ?- what participles 1
Jn what mood ~nd tense do you find do1-did1-hatJe1-:-had1.....:U.all
or will 1 - shall or will have, - may, can,.?r mmt, - may, c_an, 9.r mmt have ,
- might, could, would, or alwuld 1 - might, 'wuld, IDOlild, or U.oMJti )lave 1, ·.
Te(? of what mood and ieme, then cqnjugate throu[lhQul. the terue, ~fl,fli119

!"itll ~·e first person singular: ·
f.o.J.;;,[:J
.· I study. He suffered. We have lost. it. I had" h~e'n
. ploughing. Were I. Had. I bee1:1. If he were. Were._l

1 ~-1J

jt:_. I .~.

L .(.,

-a. ~

1

(i.

rvy,_ ,J J

)

~~

/

/

DO

..

.

. 114:. Words of two syllables that erid with .y or ·k,
;
or have the accent on the second
also
.
. syllable, are
.
. compared by annexing er u.n~ est: , , · · ·

invited. Had. I been i~,Xi~ed. If I be no~: i!}v~~,~'., They ,
shall haye written. I Jay. We re~d. It maypass. You
should have come. We may ha;,Y: ?r"en robbed. I was··
speaking. It is,:-i_sing. Had yo~'_~n studying. Do you :
:_-b.9p_eJ Did ,silt smile? If I ,40 fail. If t,~.?.$~Jy. Thou .
' art. .Art thou? . He forgivefh'; .' It must nave happened. ~.
....- V"'r'""'
.-."V..-.._.
~ ......
, ) ;. : . -'Predicate each of ihe follmuin9 verb& correctly of THOU; then of HE, a!l4
of THEY:'
Am, was, have been, would have been, are deceived, hacl ,'
been, do say, did maintain, gave, touched, cast,. am~s~ :
recommend, be discouraged, shall have been, will pardon, . ,
may have been rejoicing, was elected, should have been '
elected.

\

Lovely, lovelier, loveli~t.
· , Happy, happier, happiest.
. Noble, nobler, noblest.

JO

Move, rise, spring, degrade; drown, call, overwhelm, blee

.

COMPARISON.

Faithful,
Active,
Industrious,
Diligently,

t:,

j·
·.•

.

~-"-1. . -.:.

least beautif11-l.: · -·· ·
' least worthy.
· ·'; k,ast so. :r- ·,
,,

173. To express degrees above · the 'po~itive; w_e~:~~.1: ·
of one syllable are compared by a1in~~ing ,er...; fp . . 'f,
comparative degree; and est for the superlat,i)'.~·
Positive, liard; comparative, harder; s~perlati/ "
0

Gay,
Dry,
·Sad,

While Atndylng this A8Ction, the pupil should review the Rul.8 for~ '

•

r

morefai~hful,

mosJJ~thfµI. ,

,

more activf',;
. most 11;ct;iv~.
more indus.trious,
-.mos~ Uidustrious.
more <lil!g~n~y7 _
. ~~t(~i}§~~~?,'· . -~
"The more nice and ~legant - parts." - Johnso_n . . ~~ · ~: ,:_ ,' .··~,
"Homer's eyes , were the ':most
quick and pietcin9 .l ,1iver saw.'" Swift. :,
l ..
\
~ .. t:.
L;l;
'· ~ ~ ~· .• r"
~ ~

176. Some of the most c~i:iimon 7-Jidj~ctfves ,:aI.\1, ,,,:
are not comp~ed accoi:ding to the .for~~~~ :-~·
rules, an~ are ther~fore s~W to' b.e .irregular. . ~:::~·fft~ ·'*'-'/·<,..
.•

I>ositive, good; comparative, less good; superlative, lea$i' good: . ·'

Great, greater, greatest.
Sm!!-II, smaller, smaUest.
Wise, wis~r, ·wisest.

Able,
abler, . ablest.
Polite, politer, ·. politesi ·
Remote, rellloter, ~emotest.

-~; a~verbs

172. To express degrees below the
use less and least.
less beautiful,
' less wo;thy,
less so,

•'

115. Other words ,of two 'syllables, ~II "'Yords of
,more syllables, and s9metimes wor(~s. of one syllaLle,
~re compared py nwre·Jtnd rrwst.
·

Give, iii the order of the Conju9ation, the infinitive&, then the participle& { •
first in the active voice, and then in the passive if the vei·b can have, the p- .. :
live voice: r·
- ·
· .. -:

Beautiful,
worthy,
So,

91

COMPARISON.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
/) : ,

~ ~-~

-' ~.'.-';

, ... ..

. .

·.

;·

,{J:t)I'

:g;;

.. IRRE1~~·,~r- ·~ ~DJ~pT~~-~~·~~;:\,j:;;< ..~~. "· .
·
/i°'f!i"t.;. /?..Qf"Pa · ~u~~i:Jali.~;_>,, "

fo&#i~.. <}.?mpar(U~v,~. Sup ·

.Good, ,,~ better, · "bes
~'(t;Jp,).,: ··;upper
j>p,er_iµo~t_..'.~ 1'-(f.i)
Bad,
'·\t "' #·In· . '.'";. ~er ,,_... i!jP.iost;~~-· _.-. · •
lll, . . ~orse,
· "!. · ,;.. ... {-} {~~-.:'.¥1 ,
ji!_1J.1JIWo5!.=
.;.
Evil, . :·;. ~/;r ~.::~
' : ,,,~,,._...
~outm 98 ~-;
':... Much}
. ~- ~· "'-~rt~.'-'(Out
::I'
,
' t ,· __ ,, ·'
'') · '.:-:>•9.~~@r~
( tt ."
) " ,utmos•
' ., '''i
', '! Nany,
~wre, ,, . mos_. ··:,:; ' .
":· _- _..u _er, :::: ~u twrmost. .
;f ~]Little. . ~ less, • · ~ Ieas't. ') : .
. .
{ n; arest,
J.iJ,;:,;.:J!~, >'•:,-:
, _;i {forefu6st, Near,
nearer, . - ~e~t. :. ·'
- ~', c . re · ·
former· " ' · ~
·
,.,. · ·
'f:"fi,/ -..' ,~ . .' -,'. .' -fi:st. ,
L
Sll!-ter,
{fates~ .
~sl1 ;> hn)der, · · hmdmost.
ate, 1 latter,
l<l-St.' · ·
:n~'t~i;,' ' ,farther, farthest.
{ older, . {oldest,_ . .
~(!o"~•) ~u.rther, :~urt?-~t· , Old,,· elder,
eld~~-. ·
..,~..#t~;-::.,~·.
.
';·q~'t;,;:;_.;;/1;:·' ; ~
~

r·

.

.

. ' ··
·

92

ADV:ERBS.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

8. Adverbs of Ti/me, present, past, or future : whiqh s.h.ow
when, how '~mg, or how .often. : . . .. .
4. Adverbs of Degree, Exte1itJ or Quantity; whichgene~ally . .
show how far .or how·-much. - '. .'.
.
·
5. ltiodai Adverbs; which show how th~ ~tatement is made
or regarded.
,
· :·. ""·
· · !.
6. Gony'unctive Adverbs; w~i~l). modify ·~nd coniiect.

Elder and elJest are applied to persons only ; older and oltleal,'
to persons or things. Later and latest refer to time ; latter and
last, generally_ to order in place.
IRREGULAR ADVERBS.

'Vell,
Badly or ill,
Much,

better,
worse,
more,

best. \ Little,
worst. Far,
most. Forth,

less,
farther,
further,

least.
farthest.
furthest. ..

--+-

/

1.

177. A word can not be compared with propriety,
when it denotes something that can not exist in different degrees.

How,
ao,
thus;
.:i t;tS,

Ex. - Equal, level, 'square, naked, straight, here,_now,
two, dead, empty, four-footed.

sooner,
earlier,
more wisely,
less wisely,

..._

179. When a part of a compound or derived word .
is changed in form, it is generally changed in the
same way as if it stood alone.
Boatman,
Dormouse,
~nij.lord,

boatmen.
dormict.
landlady.

JL:in-.teM1ant,

men-servanlJ.

Good-looking, 6etter-looklng,
Long-legged,
longer-legged,
Overtake,
overtook,
Undergo,
underwtnt,

best-lo,oklng.
longest-leggod.

ever,
never,
often,

~- ~.,

1. Adverbs. of Manner; which show how, and genera~~- "i:"fJ!• ~
. end With ly.
. "·n'Jf· '
2. Adverbs of Place; which show where, whence, or wMt~:···
o:i denote position or direction.
·

~

;t

.....

ADVERBS ' O~·''rIME.-

seldom,';;,:-. ,,-,ti>.soon, ·,... '";;:00:da);;-_
' always,';··· " early;.{'\·
·yes~er~ay,
· foriiver, ,: . .
lately~·r: ..: 'tier morrow.
.·

.--

'

.

~;

'"-l.°7~~ '

r;;.;.

... •' '.'

-

.

.

-

l

~._ ;<of,,":',irt."·- ·~.,_.,... ·""· _-.;

. Adver~s of ?rder .1 Firs~, ~~cond!y,' ~¥i'.r\l!i ·last)y~J§~"/F4~ :·· ·
denote either tm1e or pla<)e.~ ;!! ..,_,
•
.••. ., , ' :::"*-. ,L,
; , .. , .. ·
"\..
· : ·, ... :> f;;·~~::.·,;,·
~ - :· ~>·"' .(;,.. . ~D ~J'f'J-:=-·~ ~.. _.:;r.:
4. ADVERBS OF

180. Adverbs may be divided into various classes.
;·;., ,
.

heuc~; · ·_yo~d;~,,,: ·:.'..~, · ~~~X•
. them~e·, ·up,
. ·'
.,_far, ...
· · "'.herice;\_.. ;., · down,
;~ 1 ' ahe~d.

~

-

ADVERBS.

•''

Adverbs of Number 1 Once; twice, etc. " Thes;·~e,OO~ejim.e.<,

overtaken.
undergon•.

togeth~r,

slowly,

1

Nov>
when,
then,

wisely,
_foolishly,
sweetly,
lovingly;

,. _.

wbi~ber,

3.

somehow,
· :apart;

.AP,yERBvS.. 9F P u_cE • . .

hith~r,'

thithe~,

soonest..
·?,
earliest. .
most wisely. :·:<(;..,
least wisely.
·" ..

--

·fast,
adrift,
.hea!Ilong,
ptpenyise,

well,'
ill,
else,
·like,

2.

178. Adverbs are compared like adjectives, except,
that they are more fi:equently compared by 11wre al].d
nwst, and that a smaller number can be comp~_red.
Soon,
Early,
Wisely,
Wisely,

ADVERBS 0}' MANNER.

.Much,·
more,
most,
very; ,

'J?:EG~~~~/f~:XTENT' . O.R : 9-u,~;;#f.

little,
· , s~, ~::.' ;- · ·, en 0ugb,
less '
, <."toe>"
~' -·~ '_.. J. ust, ·
>'
,'
least, .
· as, . . ... , even,
quite, .
.. ho;W; · .' · fully,,

· .;gen~I:'!-l1y,
'- soniewha.t.- ·

Addlti~n, ~~~{~~~n,'or ~~ph~is. __: {~,'oo~id~,

, Adverbs of
also, ~ven, especjally; not. .
.
·.... ·7

o~ly,

~· )artly, :.

·;.,- ~chieflv·
"'
"' ~' . ... ' ...

.

·

:

.
' ..

··

ENGLISH GRAnIMAll.

5.

LIST OF

MODAL ADVERBS • .

Of Affirmation.- Yes, yea, aytverily; surely, certainly, for
sooth, indeed, doubtless, ·truly, verily.
01 Negatioll.- Not, nay, no, nowise, noway.
Of Doubt. - P erhaps, probably, perchance, may-be.
Of Cause or illeans. - Why, therefore, wherefoi-e, ·hereby, ·
whereby, wherewith, accordingly, hence, thence, consequently.
Of Position.-There. "There was no one there."
Th ere, when thus used, simply helps the ·poRition of the wo~ds, hyena- .
bling them to take· a more emphatic arrangement.

6.
When,
where,

while,
why,

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS.

as,.
how,

before,
after,

till,
since,

wh~ reby,

wherewith.·

181. A Coujuuctive Adverb is an adverb that usually
connects two clauses, by rela.ting to a word
and forming a part of the other.
Ex. - " The seed grew up where it fell."
The seed grew µpfrom the place

I on.:which it fell.

Wh ere is thus resolved into two phrases that attach themselves respectively to each of the clauses ; Or it modifies both the verbs gr.J?,W andfe/l hy
joiuing its clause to the former, to denote the place.

7.

ADVERBIAL_ PHRASES.

182. Some phrases are used as adverbs.
ln general,
in vain,

at least,
at present,

as yet,
by and by,

to and fro,
ever and anon,

long ago,
no more. ·

LIST O,F PREPOSITIONS.
v;. -' the I.ist, and tell between what words eMh prepos'.tion shor

the, rel~tJ'Jo .. :· .

A. " \Ve went a fishing."
·
_\
- c .· t
AIJOut. " To play about the house." "To dine about m~on."
.
Above. "The stars above us." "To he above meanness.
.\cioss. "A tree lying across the road "

PR~POSITIQNS.

After. " To start q/ler dinner.'~
Against. "We rowed against. the stream.'.' · .. · ..
.Along. "Tlie l!Ioud is gilded along the border.''
A 111:id, amidst. " 'l'he rogues escaped amidst the ponfusiou.''
Among, amo'ngst. "Flowers perish.amo11g weeds;" ,.Around, round. " Captain Cook saile<l. round the wo.rld.'' -At. " She lives afhome.' ~ "The. sun sets at six o'clock'."
Before. "The tree before the house.'' . " To riae,befa(e day."
Behind. " The squim:l hid behind the tree.'' ' . ·
Below. "The James River.is very eJ:OOked be/ow Richmond ."
Beneath. "The chasm be11e,o.th. n~" "He ia beneath contempt.''
· IJ!J.~ide, besides. "A large sycamore grew beside the river.'' . .
Between. "The.river flows between tw_o, hills," · • .
.
Betwixt. "He was crushed tO death betwixt two cars.''
't:
Beyond. "The life beyond the grave· i~ a mystery."
'>
But. " Whence all bu.t him had fled."
By. '"'A lily Ly a brook.'' :· "Derilolishj:ld by soldiers.'' "
Concerning. "He spoke,concernini/ vjrtue.'' "' '•
Down. " The boat went down the river.'' .. . ·
·
During. ~·He remained abroad during the war.' ' -~
En~. "
ca~e ere noon." i .. .• ,. _:.,
.i.-., .;) ,..r
.; f • ~
Except, excepting. L '14!1 ef_ct>pt~~m were ~et .free/' -_ ; ·:
For. "To sell for mol)ey'.'' -- "A'.'c9llectionfor,_the:.P}lOr.'_'', · -,
From. "A bra!lch from. the· tree.'' "~ " Ju·dg,e from the ~des cription.';
. In. _"A pond in a meadow.'' · !':-ll'o' play in'. the. after~oon.''
'
Into. To step i11to a carriage,. and 'then ride• in<it. ',' ·~ •.
.
N otwithstuuding. "He _succeeded, riatwith.standing .th.e opposition."
Of. "The house ef.·a .f~i~nd.>~·: ,•! To die ofa disease;~'-· . . · ., _
on. "The pict11re ·o11 the·wall.?' .... To start on Tuesday.?'
~.Over. "The bridge,·0£!1! t!•e>i~.ei;.:t· ~!. '.To i;ule .~u~-llo ;n~i~n.'~ ,
Past. " They .drove paflt tf1jj hon s~.'~~
- Respecting: "Respecti!l[J his coqdlJ:ll.~i the.re ia but one opinioi;i."
Save. "All savS.hiro remained:'.' , ..;., __ : . . .'- _ .. · . .
Siuce. " He haS not been here since Inst Christmas:"
Till, until. "He w.~ _rewitln hei;~· tifl .nextPhrist~~;" . . ' .
TC?, wlto. "To go I<? t!i~~- ~~.X:·,'.' . '.' yerily, I,~al,."f.1!-':..W,i;_~..-1
T_oward, towards. "He·9~m ((owards ·m·e.!' '.
.. · _
TJuongh. "To travel tf1rqJ!gh .Yi ooCJs and swamps.'' .
'
';I'h,r9ughoµt 1 "Th e~e wa.~ ~?rrow throughout the-couajp ." - .
Under. - "Th1 earth w"1er•our feet.'' . '.' ·To be under nge.'' ·, ~, Underne~th. '.' Uiulerneatli ,this -. imb.l~ hearse. the· hero .lict1-'.' , ., '

He

•

I

96

ENG!-ISI-l GRAMMAR.

Up. "He climbed up the tree."
Upon. "The_people stood upon the house-tops."
With. "Girls with sparkling eyes." "Enameled with flowers."
'Vithin. "The wur will end within the nex.t six months.''
\Vithout. "A purse without money." "To live without company.'".
According to. "It was done according lo law."
.
Contrary to. " He has acted contrary lo orders.''
As to. "As to your case, nothing was said.''
From beyond. "They came from beyond Jordan."
Instead of. "Use this instead of that.''
Out of. "Drawn out of a well.'' "A piano out of tune.''

fhen ; illati~e; co-ordinate. "'J,'he cotton is yours 1 th8f! defend it."
fhough, although, sometimes what though:; concessiv~; subordin<J!e.
"Though he owns.but littl~; he ow~s ~othing:"
·.
Unless 1 conditional; subordinate. ''Unl.ess you stiidy, you musffail."
Unfos1; adversative; co-ordinate. ,; Remain, unless you must go."
Whether ; ind•terminate; subordinate. "Ask whether be is at boine.''
Whereas; causal; suborqinate." " Whereas it do.!4 ~ppear," etc.
Whereas; adversative; co-ordin~ie. "Such' iS party-spirit; whereas
patriotism seeks only the good of the c,pun try.'' -;
.' ·
Yet; adv'ersative; co-ordinate. "All.dread death, y~- fe":~are J.lious.''
.../.._ The principal co-ordinate conjunctions are and, or, nor, and but.
The principal subordinate cqnjunctions are that, than, _as, if, and

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS.

because.

Leu.rn the List, and show what termS are connected by ea.ch conjunction.
The teach•r shoulu explal11 the words, and the meaulog generally.

And; cop11lative; co-ordinate. "The winds and the" waves.''
As; causal; subordinate. "As you request it, I will go.''
As ; comparative; subordinate, sometimes co-ordinate. " Cold as ice.' .
As well as; copulative ; co-ordinate. "He went,· as well as I."
Because; causal; subordinate. "Few succeed, because many strive.'.
But; adversative ; co-ordinate. "I go, but I return:''.
..r
Except; restrictive; subordinate. "He works, except when he is sick."
For ; causal; subordinate,' sometimes co-ordinate. " Make- haste; for
Furthermorn; copulative; co-ordinate.
[we are waiting." >,
If; conditional; subordinate. ".(/the advice is good , take it."
Lest; cautfonary or causal; subordinate. "Touch it not, lest ye die."
Notwithstanding ; adversative and co-ordinate, or concessive and subor-.
'

'

dinate.
Notwithstanding, in the sense of "still, however," .is co-ordinate;
ihe sense of " even if," s¥bordinate.
iUoreover; copulative; co-ordinate. It sometimes begins paraFapli.
Nor; disjuncti•e; co-ordinate. "He said nothing more, nor did I ."
Or; disjunctive; -:o-ordinate. "We must educate, or
must perish .."
Provided; conditional; subordinate., "I will go, provided you .go."
Since; causal; subordinate. "Since you have come, I will go.''
Still ; adversative_; co-ordinat_e. " He h~s often, failed, still he strite~;". , .
Than; comparatwe; subo1·dinate. " ·w ISdom is better than moo y.
.•
That ; .finul , .ubordinute. "He studies, that he may learn."
· ..
Thaq _demonstrative; subordinate. " We know that the war is \~": . • ·

a

we

_ !amity.''

97

LIST OF!' CONJUNCTIONS.

·

~

.

.

;- __ _ :-

~-

'

The left or first column of meanings will :serve for .pm~s_ing; and the right or second, for anal.ysis. :
. '
Co-~1mINA'rE CONJYNC'l;I_ONS c~nnec~ ·the. parts of couphrases or sentences.; SUBORDINATE 'co~UNCTIONS
connect the parts ·ofa COMPLE_x phrases or slfntences. . ··

;pouND

T'vo clauses, · conne,c ted' by a : co-Ordinate conjunction,
make a compound sentence j -ai:id two ciaus!;'!S; connected by
n subordinate con)un_c~on, make: a; ~omplf!x-s_entenp'e.~.
CORRELATIVE . CONJ;UNC~IONS,

o~ cc>'N:r:niCTIV~S.

Roth - and. "It is both i;nine and yours.'"
. ...
Either_: or. "It is either mine 'or yours.''
Xeither- nor. "It is neither mine nor yourJl."
'Vhether- or. "I know ·not whether it.is mine or yours.''-···
Though, alt11ougll- yet, n~vertheless~ "Though deep, yel clear.'~
If-then. "If you have no confidence, ther! do not vent_ure.: '
As- as; equality. " Time is as precious -~ gold.". As-so; equality. ''As .the .m;1e-dies, so dies the otheF/·~-· '
So - as; consequence. " It'is so plaiii tis to .r equire no explanatlop."
So -that! co11sequence. "The .road
muddy ¢ell .we_returo.eq."
... Not only-but also~ ". He is not only l>old, but he is-alao ca,utio~§·"
Other, else, and comparatives- than. ''No other tho.rt he.''

was--so

-:

L

~

"I .•

•

·. '

...

•

•

•

~·

•

183. A Correspomling Conjunction,, o; Qorrekitwe
·Connective, is one of a separated pa.ir that eonnect.
tho
,
'la lllf\ p:u·tR.
,
'

..

98

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR. ·

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
.

~IST

OF I NTER J ECTI O NS.

I. Ot >i']amestness in Ad1lress.- O I
2. Of ..;urpl'ise, Wonder, or Horror. - Hah I what I h'm l heigh :
h ey-uny ! · Ia I whew I zounds! ah I oh I hoity'-toity I
·
3 . Of ~"l'l'OW or Pity. - Oh! alas ! ali ! alack!
4. Of Jvy, Exultation, or Approbation. -Aha I ah I oh·! he,r
huzzah! hurrah I bravo !
5. Of Contempt or Aversion. -Pshaw ! -pish ! tut! fie ! poh !
6. Of Attention or Calling• .:_ Ho! Io I heigh -ho! hollo ! 'st!
7. Of Silence. - Huslrl hist! whist I 'st! aw I mum I
8. Of Interrogating. - Eh 1 hem, or h'm 1
9. Of Detection. - Aha I oho I ay-ay I
IO. Of Laughter . - Ha, ha, Jia (he, he, he!
ll. Of Sainting- or Parting. - Welcome! hail! adieu!
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
1. How many methods, in Ianwith the title Mr.? Miss, or
·
guage, of distinguishing
Dr., made plural •
. 148
the sex es ?
•
.
.· 140 ·13. What is said of the plural .
2. What is the tirst method?
of foreig~ nouns?
.
. '15(!
Always g ive examP,les.
14. What is said of the ending
3. What is th e second method?
a1 .
•
•
•
•
4. What is the third method?
15. Of the en(ling m f
5 . .H ow are most nouns made
16. Of the ending um or on r
plural?
• 141 17. Of the ending is r
6. To what noun s is the end18. Of the ending x or ;.., r
ing es added?
142, 143 19.
What is th~lural ot bandit,
7. H ow are proper nouns made
beau, chf1 , seraph, gr.nm,
plural?
•
.
.
• 144
and Mr. r ·.
. . .
8. Gi ve the plural of beef, leaf,
20. How are letters and figures
hatk11ife, and wolf;
made plural? •
. .. 151
an tel us what is said of
21. What nouns are g enerally
such words.
. 145
used in the singular num9. Give the plural of man, chi/di
her only?.
· 152
tooth, and mouse ; and tel
22.
When
may such words' be
us what is said of such
used' in the plural numwords.
. • 146
her?·.
. -. · .
• 153
10. Give the plurals of brother,
23. Mention some "toun~ that
die, fi sh, genius, and penny;
are general! y: ased \ the ·
and tell us what is said of
• 154 ·
plural number only.'
such words.
. 147
24.
Some that have the ~e ·
11. How are most compound
form for either numbe~ • 155'. ..,.words made plural? •
. 148
25. W_hen is a collective no~
l2 How is a name tl111.t begins
•mgular? . '. •
• . • 1i6,~

A.

./

26. When is .a collective noun

plural?

• , ,.

27. 'What is said of the nomina-

I

.

43. When are the endings er
157 ,
, and~ pre(erted ~ • 173, .174
·
44. -When are ' mare !Uld ' most
preferreJ?
· ·
, .17a
158 .45. Compare the adjectives good, . ·
159 ' . • bad, mucli, many, near, late,

tive and the objective cas6
of nouns·?J.
·•
•
•
28. Of pronouns? . •
•
•
2n. How i~ the possessive cWie ·
of nouns formed in the
singular number/ • · ·•· 160.
30. How, in the plural?
• 161
·31. llention the leading person- · al pronouns.
• . •
.• 162 ·
82 . The relative pronouns.
• 163
33. The interrogative pronouns. 164
34. Int~ w_hat classes are. ~he adjective pronouns d1v1d- · .
ed? •
.
•
, • •, 1G5 ·
3/i .. Wha_t is declension? "•
• 166
36. Peclme boy, man, I,. thau1 •
you, he, she, it, who, ana
one. •
~

· ~nd _old; and· .tell us what ~ .
. IB said of such wcrds..
. 116
; 46. Co~pare the ~dverbs well,
badly, much, little, far, and
""

forth.
·
' '
47. When can . adje~tives or ad, .verbs not be comp~red? ., l.77
48. How are adverbl!.compared? 178
49 . .How are the par~ of com~

pound words changed in

~ .; form?
: / :·
· • 17n
50 __Into ~hat classea are ad·- ·verbs divitled? ,

'. •· '. • .180

' ·
·
.
51. M~ntion three of each class.
·52. . Mention so~e adve~ial

37. Give the principal parts of
the verbs fly, flee, fl.ow,
phrases.
.• 182
lie, lay, set, and sit.
53; What is a conjunctive· ad38. Mention the auxiliary verbs. 167 • . · verb? : """· •
-. , .• 181
39. What is conj uga.tion (. - • 168
.54
.
.
What
is
a
corresponding
40. What io synopsis?
• 169
· conjunction? ,
•
• 18J
-~'41. How are 170rds compared, to
55. Repeat• the list of preposiexpres~ degreei;. below the
- ·tion~..
•
• · J
.·
positive? .
•
• · . 172
56. Repeat the list of conj unci2. How are words compared,

to express degrees abqve
the positive? •
173

tions.

·

57. Mention sor:e interjectiona. .

lo'f:

,

,,·

-

'

.l,Ql

RULES ·AND . EXERCISES
..-·
,..c. -.
-.

.

• . __. ~_,, (,.,:

I

.

I

'

'

•

l

.~

.

PART III.

CONSTRUCTIONS.
181. A Uule, in grammar, is generally a brief state- ·
mcnt that teaches the proper use of words.
..
RULES OF SYNTAX.

A Noun or Pronoun, used as the subject of a finite
verb, must be in the nominative case.
Th ey study.

~XPLANATION: - Since John docs the studying; there ie plainly a relation bet~eoo
John and ~tudus . Observe also that we can not use objectjve forms e.nd say "Mt
~~~: '.', " The111 study " i but we must use the nomina.tiv~ I and tli~y. Ilen~e the

Conect.
Albert is writing.
A cloud is passing over us.
The dog caught the robber.
lYiisers hoard money.
lrioney is hoarded by misers.
Care and grief injure health.
I am writing. H e is writing.
She sings and plays well.
We have less than you [have].
Be [thou J careful.
Come ye in peace here ?
The man J who is industrious, .
can earn what he needs.
lUCin, the subject of can earn.; who, of is.
A lb~rt is~ _noun, nnd thesubjectofthe

Incorrect.
William and me• have learned
the lesson.
Him and me are m the same
class.
_
ViTere you and lier at the party ~
You did fully is well as me.
He is taller than me, but I am
· '
as tall as lier. ·
Whom, would you su'ppose,
stands head in our class ?
Who mi\de the. fire?- Joh.u
and me [made it].
·
Who swept · the room ? "".'"" Ui
girls.
·
,·

f

... INCORRECT: The pronoun 1tte fs ht
part tbe su bject of th e verb hai.·e ~rnul. .
It should therefore b<U, in 11J:e nom nntin
""-'"· accorrllng to llti'le I . (llepca It. ) If

verb IS tvnt111 g It is tb~refore in the
nomina~ive cn.110, according to Rule I.

:Repont It.)

'

'

wt

Surely the teacher, if at all compete.nt, can s)low .the pupils how to -go
through the exercises in a clear and' sensible way; and we shall therefor~
not encumber the following exercises with any more formulas. ·
The examples on the left should be parsed at some future time. To 'go
simply through the sJ;ntax is s11lficient for the present. -

RULE II. -

' .RULE I. "--NOMINATIVES.

I study.

. ...

Talent is full-0f-thqugh4..; ·but . • He · "~i~s ~etter than. Ille·
W,c ; sorro\'.r.
¥ 11,~m- J hat
9~nius, full of·thouglit. .
Art thoi. that' traitor anger'? : ·'. have n'ci -hop.e.· ·;o.;. ( :r:<:. . .'
art thou he who first broke peace
Some di$cussion .arose in re·
in .Heaven?
gar!l to whom should.be sent. ,

>. .

Jolin studies.

,·/,

.

NOMINATIVES;

•

A Noun or Pronoun,,used independently or abso- .
lntely; must be. in t4e nominative case.
Mary, your lil.ies are in bloom. .
The rain having ceased,' we d:pa~teci::
EXPLANATION.-+ Mary 1" simply addressed, and.something else la. said ; or the sen·
l<lnce would make sense 'l'Jthout t_he word Marv, which is t\J.•refo!'e said to be~
im/Fpendenlly of the rest of the sentence.~_~- .
- ·
--<
.The nouu rai" is so used with a parflclple' that, It does not relate to ilny other
word; and It is therefore ~d to be used ab¥>lutely, wU.h tp..e parUclp!e.
.

Correct.
Inco~ct.
INDEPENDENT, BY DIRE CT ADDRESS. Me being sick, the business was
Flora, it is nine o'clock.
-· '
neglected. .. ,. _ ·
•, ._
INDEPENDENT, BY EKCLAMATION. -Them refusing to 'comp!y,,Iwith-.
Alas, poor Yorick ! . drew. · .. '
• ~ .:.:.}..
l NDEI'ENDEN-r, sy PLxoNAs~r. .
Him who had)ed them t 0!.b;i,tllo
The Pilgrim Fathers, ""'7" where
being kitied, t9ey ·~etr.eate<l.
are they ?
. ·\ ~•.. ·: And me, - what, sh~lU do.?
' ABSOLUTE, WITH A p ARTICIPLE. ' He,r b~ing the o~Iyda11gh~er, no
The li~use being sold, we ,.re· expense had .b~n spare<l :iu
moved.
- her education. ,
/ ,r:
There is little honor in :being. .a There is no. doubt 5!~· its being
politician.
him. - .
. . ' - :· · .
AusoLUTE, wITII AN INFINITIVE. (Better: . ~· There is no ' duubt
To become a scholar requires
that it is. he.")
:J ~'"
/
exntion.
... ·o<'.L~~ave, no wisl.l'to be ~im;
~ ;f~:\·

·:.;

:io:

102

RULE ill. -

POSSESSIVES.

A Noun or Pronoun that limits the meaning
another by denoting possession, must be in
sessive case.
EXPLANATION. - Since J ohn owns the horse, th ere is pla inly a rel~tion between--'
u.nd horse; a.nu it is a l ~ e!ident tbnt not an y horse is meant but only tho oue
wl uch helongs to J ohn. A s1mlla.r remark is applicable to our·and pasture, Hence
'.he ltule.
lol~n

Correct.
I will use J ohn's book, and you may use Mary's.
[sent him to Smith's [store], for Sir Walter Scott's works.
Wh ose cap is this? Is it yours [your cap J 1
H is misfortu nes awaken nobody's pity, though no one's ability ever -.. ·.
went farther for others' good.
Ile disobeyed hisfatl;er's as well as his mother's advice.
H e made no secret of my having written the rev iew.-Irvi"ng.
Incorrect.
Do you use lVebster or Worcester's Dictionary?
Brown, Smith , and J ones's wife, usually went shopping together.
W e insist on them staying with us.
·
His father was opposed to kirn going to California.

RULE IV. -

no~1n

•- ' Incorrect.
Correct.
·· '
-Who do you ~ant? -·
The soil produces cotton.
The soil produces cotton, rice, Wlio did' you see ?
1 • ·, • •
-',
WhQ shall we serid ~ .
and su.JJa,r.
· ·
.Let
him
send
you,oan1t
I.
··.·
I saw him. H e saw rne.
Let thou and I the battle try.
Whom did you hit?
•o·
Ye only: have ·! known.
·
(I hit) John.
.·
HavinO'0 made the"law, enforce it. She tjat is idle and mischievou7,
reprove sharply.
·
To .see green fi elds is pleasant. ·
No one knows how much the fel- Him you should ·punish : not ·1.
.who am innocent. •
low is ir. debt.
,~,

John's horse is in our pasture.

A par ticiple t hat follows a noun or pronoun, becomes a. participial
the participle is the chief '!ord in sense.
·
.
.

.103.

RULES AND EXERCISES . .

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

wllen
'

OBJECTIVES .

A Noun or Pronoun, used as the object of~ trausi~
tive verb, must be in the objective case. ·
-:;

RULE- ·•.v.l •_;·OBJECTIVES.
.
1. . '
,
.
A Noun or l)ronoun; .us~d.a~ the 'object ~fa prepo.

·;~

sition.~- must be in the obj~~tive case . .

.

The m~ney was S,llnt ~y me_to hi11f-

-

...."'

)

~ ..• ,,, •.£:--.' ,
~XPLANATION, -Senf by some one, sent to som8·.on_e ; hence ther& is ~yidentl7 a

by m•,

relation between
and
&nd betWl'Oll 10 a~d.htm.. O~servd ~\so.iit"'::!:::.o~;
tive forms, me a.nd him, and not tho nominative f~rms, a.n
e,
~ &"""'!8
sense after the prepositions. ' Hence the R~.

Correct.

. ~~· Incorrect.

A tree, full of cherries, stood . W71~ did y~u com~ W:ith? before the house.
Who <lid you send for ?
Come, go with ine.
• Who is, that boy speaking to.?
I gave a -melon for three pears ' There is so!lle puddi?g left_ fo1
and five p eaches.
· you and- I.
' ,
)
Of whom did you buy it ·1 ~
This is between you .and~(I bought it of) James.
I ..do ·. no,t. kno~ i:i~o she w_e nt
"· •.with-,: Who IS it for?... "
Give [to] hiin t~e knife.
By reading in good books, you l gave it to some~dy i I hav!I
will improve.
forgotten who.

I shot a deer. We caught them.

r:. ,

ExPLANATio,., - Since I •hot the deer , there is a rela tion between my •hooting n11d
th e. deer , or between the words shot and d.eer. In the second example, there is
plamly a r elation between caught and them,· and notice a.Lso tha.t tp.e objective for ,
thtm , and not the n ominative form, they, will make good sense after caught. Ile~•
'lie ltule.
.'. . .
,

· Rule IV is also applied to infinitives and participles.

.,

RULE ,VJ.."""'" .QBJECTlVES.
. .
' A Noun or Pronou~ that'.'U~it~ ·the- me;;,;.i~g of' .a
verb, an adjective, or a:ll. aciV.erb, 'is . somethµe~ ~l§ed
111 the ohjective case .withoµt<a prepositioJt expi.·~sl?_e<l.

.104

. This Rule is applicable to some nouns that show the time, extent,
directzon, manner, value, or quantity; to the indirect objects after
suc_h verbs as give, lend, offer, present, etc. ; and to the objects , ·
wh:ch follow tl~e. words .like, near, worth, opposite, etc. By, sup- ,
plying a prepos1t10n, the Ruic can be dispensed with ; and \vhen
a suitable 'preposition can be easily found, it will be generally bet- .
· ·.
ler to supply it, and to apply Rule V.
Conect.
We sailed north, a hundred miles, the first day.
The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles wide. (Ifow wide?)
It is a ton heavier. It happened five times. He went home.
My knife is worth a dollar. The ice is afoot tQ.ick.
• ·
Oranges grow, like apples, on small trees, but in warm climates.

'

·correct.
Incorrect •
Mr. A, the ti-ustee, was !}ere.
It is· me. It wa~ them.
Mount Holyoke was in sight.
I knew it. was him.
Thou, thou, art the man.
I .knew it to be he.
0 Absalom, Absalom I .·
I did not know it was her.
He struts a dandy.
I thought it was her.
He was made captain.
It was n't me, but him.
They made him captain. ·
. "rt c~ulilnot have been us:
It was I. - Ye stars.
Is it me you want? .
Who is he? (ije is who?) ·
It was them)hat .dicl it.
Who say ye tha~· I am.
Whom do you think it was?
- .W7wm do y°ou take
to be ? .
Who do y9u take me to ·be P.
It is easy to spend mon,ey.
Let us worship Goel, · he who
lt is plain that he nmst'retreat.
created and sustains us.

me

We sail~d _towar.d the north, oi·er & hundred miles of space, during the first day.
N urtli hm1t.s satled, .~>: sho"'.iog the direc tion i milel limits saikd, by showlng tbE
t!xtcnt; and day hm1ts smled, by telling in what tin1e.
lVorlh is an u.djecti ve, meaning- valuable to t/i,e extent of.

Incorrect.
My landlady bad a daughter of nine years old. - Swift.
Just beyond the church is a lot of sixty feet square. .
Who do I look like ? She promised him and I some peaches.

RULE VII. -

Jones is a lawyer. The lawyer is Jones.
It is Jones the lawyer. He himself is Jones the lawy~r.
E::tPLANATION.-Sinw Jones is a lawyer, there niust be·a relation between the
words Jon p,s and lawyer i and since each word can be used as the ·nominative to is
1
both must be in the same case. Hence the Rule.
•
The basis of. this Itule iB, that tho wordB denote the same perso·n or thlcg.

Predicat;-~ of;

The morn Is up again, .the dewy morn,
..
With breath all incense, and with cheek· all bloom.

RULE

ns•erted of, by_ means o( an intransitive or a ptsslve veib..
In apposition; placed by the side of, without a connecting ver ,.
· ..
Appos'it-iioe; the noun or pronoun in apposition with another.
Pre<licate Nomina.tii:e or Suhstantive; the noun or pronoun \ 1ch denotes
what is predicated.
·
I
.
.
.
.

vm. -Two

CASES.

The pronoun what, when it compris~s a sjmple relative and its ant~c.e~ent, has a. dot:!-:h~e construction
in rega.rd to case~ · '· :'
· ·, · . ·".:,.· ··
·
I remember what

SAME CASE.

A Noun or Pronoun used for explanation or emphasis, by being predicated of another, or . put in
apposition with another, must be in the same case.

105

RULES AND EXERCISES.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

'vas said.

_ What, being her8 used for tlilng w!i.ich1>r th-inis .which, is the object of ,.t.membff,

_ &.nd also the subject of was said. Rule YIU ls give~ mere~, as, & C<?µV~ni~noe
thiH Rule can tie dlspenaod with, by applying two other Rules. · ' · '. t
'

j

for

Note 1. -A Co.nipoilnd Relative, or a similar expression, may furn~h . ·~wo 'cases, -w4en its ·form al> ·
' - ·
· !
: ''.· · · .
. lows them.
Whoever sins, must suffer.

Take· whicliever hors: you like.

lV7i "ver ls used as the nominative t.o si11s, and also; as the nominative tq """'

,.../fer.

.

,

.

.

.

.''

. ~.h·

.

.

.

Couect.
' ··
Take u hat comes.
I Jvill employ: whomsoever you
I ·c an not .give you what-you as)t.
.recommepd.
.
Whatever ·comes from· the heart, Wi1at., rrwney. he ,b~ought· with
;:o:is to the hi)art.
him, was ·so~m ..s,rent.
.

106

~07

RUJ,Es, :AND .EXERCISES.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR;

I

RULE x . .,-...A.RTJCJ,ES) ADJECTIVES, 1AND PARTICI~LES.
Au Artic~e, an .Atlj~ct_ive, ·9r a .P.a.rt~~iple, b~lougs
to the noun or pronoun to '\~hicli. it relates.
~- . '

When the form of.-the relative .does ·not allow the tw() ens" requirecl, ii
must take the form needed for 1ts own clause, and an antecedent must be
B".};plicd in paraing; ~s, "Give it to. [any pe7's<m] who (soeve1·) ueeds ·it."
" · o u.:/wrnsoeve1· needs·1t," would be mc~rrect.

RULE IX. -

The' girl brought a lai·ge..rose just 'i·efr-e°'shed·by a shower.

PRONOUNS.

'EXPLA NATION. -The ~hat! a ·wh\lot?
i.v:ge a nd 1efre~hed descnbe the r_?se·

A Pronoun must agree with its antecedent, iu
g·euaer, person, aud number.

Articles.

l\lary has lost her bonnet. -

Adjectives.

Pariiciples~

Leavesjp,/liny gently.
· ·Gates wrenched asunder
Two apples ..
The .garden.
Large red apples,
Having dined; I returned
A11 hour.
B eing seen, he ran.
He is studi'.ous.
The guests.
·she went avyay.singi1i9.
: cedar groves:
A" eagle's nest.
Glittering waterfaUs. 'l'pere we ,Jay concea/,d.
Th e people's rights.
A lily.

}~XPLAN.\TION . - Her must be of the same gender, person, and number as ftfary ·
fci.r if it were different in a.ny of these respects, it is evident that it could not denot~
ltlary .

When the antecedent is a noun of the third person· and singular number,
so that it becomes necessary to choose either a masculine or a feminine pronoun, the masculine is preferred.
·
To ascerta i11 what makes a singular or a plural antecedent, see what is
said under Verbs,.Rule XI.
·

Correct.
Incorrect.
The boy and his mother.
Every person has their faults.
The girl and her father.
Nobody 'will ever entrust themThe tree and its fruit.
selves to that boat again.,
The children and their books.
She took out the ashc.::i; and gave
The people and their rulers.
it to a servant.
The mob and its leader.
If you have any victuals left, we
They who came first.
will help you eat it.·
Pupils, ,abey your teacher.
Now, if any person eve!> pre·
John and James know their lestends to have seen a ghost,
sons.
let my little r eaders tell them
Neither J ohn nor James knows
the story of the pillo~ and
his lesson.
· the lame goose. . ,
Every heart best knows its own When a bird is caught in a
sorrows.
trap, they of course try tp gE.t
You are very sick, and I am
out.
sorry for it.
One or the other of .us mu~ .reBehold the Morn
m an1ber
linquish their claim.
.
.
...
cloud> arise ;
Coffoe and sugar are br ught
See, with her rosy bands she
from the ·west Indies ; and ·
paints the skies.
large quantities of it are c_ou· ·
Wave your tops, ye pines.
sumct1.1urnually. · . · \.,.

0

~

Wlfai'"kinp: '!! roael ,10bse_~!'t .that !><>th
· .
·
· - · .i ~ · ·

These apples.

Nj)te n. - An Adjective .that implie~ til!?lber~ must
agree in this respect with .t he substantive t,0 which
it relates.
· ''.•
·
This kincl of melon_s: -A wall two feet t¥ck.

.

,

J

EXPL.ANATJOI<. -Ohserve that this a.nd kind are bQth singular, a.nil ilieiiefoni they
a.g rcc in nu mber. A similar r emark is applicable to two andfeet, ..;; · ·· ··
·
For the s<>l\e of greater definiteness, this · Note, 'w.h i ch is appli9'blc .~ the ..a,;.c.
ti.vcs lAis , these, that, those , two, three,(our, etc., mn.y be · used in _parsUJg ;: thoul-{h
ti.le lt ule can also be used in plnc9 oflt,anditwillbegenera.llybet~ .to~the ll.ule • .

e. n~un or a pr~l!6tin.
Correct.
_ Incorrect.
Ten feet long.
;\!,
You ha;e been playing· !his two
. hours. ..
·~
Nine cords of wood. .
Three 1 ods in width.
How do you like tltese kind of
The first or secornf page. --.
chairs ?
..
The first and the ·second page.
I never could endure. those k i1uL..
Th r. first and second pages.
of people. · .
.~,. •
We have been intimate' friends These sort of things. ar~~ v.cry
thllSe ten years.
·provoking..
>._...,..._
He bought four 'cord.. of woud1
' [t is, however, proper to say, '. and· three ton of·hay.
.
"A ten:foot pole," ~· A:fi ve-cent· The :inlet·was t\".'.'o mik "wide.
. Learn rthe ; sixth. and sev,e nth
sayings-bank,''. etc. , · ·
("A ten:feet pole," "afive'-cer;ts
page, and review the fow·tl.
saving~·bauk," .a re improper.)
·and the fifth pages.
Sul/ stantive is a general word, denoting either

108

ENG:r;,ISH GRAMMAR.

The agreement of the verb Y,.ith its subject, .and t_b.e agreement
of the pronoun with its antecedent, make the ch.ief synt~ o{tl~e
F.nglish lanauage; let us therefore consider, - .
·
1. The p~rson ofVthe sqbject or antecedent. ·'
'
2 The numher of the subject or antecedent.
8. The terms· relating :to· tlie subject .or antecedent; which go
not affoct the form of the verlJ or,_pronoun.

Note III. - An Adje<;j;ive or · a Participle is sometimes used absolutely after a participle or an infini-·
live.
The way to be liappy is to be good. Th~ dread of -being poor.
Tb appear discouraged is the way to inxite an att[ck.
_
Observe that the adjectives ha.ppy, good, poor~and the 'p articiple d-iscouraged &N
not used with tho names of the persoUB deacril.J~d; and they are therefore said io be
u•cd absotutetJ<.
·
·

RULE XI. -

FINITE VERBS.

A Finite Verb must agree witl~ its subject, in
son and number.
J ohn studies.

I study. I am.

H e is.

7~

1. PERSON.
185. When two or more nominatives or antecedents, differing in person, are taken t-Ogether, or are
connected nierely by ancl,. the ver°!> ..or pronoun,prefers
the first person to the se.cond, ·and the second to the
third.
·
·
· · ·
·
,-

.

They are.

to 87.

186. When two or moi·e :µominativ.es, <tliffering in
per~on, are take1i separately, :o~ ·eonn~ct~d , by or .0 1
nor, the Yerb prefers the. nom,inative ne~~t•:to it. ,
•

Correct.
Incorrect.
The rose is blooming.
I al}vays learns my )essoris oeThe roses m·e blooming.
fore I goes to school.
You were 11ot at home.
Circumstances alters cases.·
Thou sigh est in vain.
The molasses are excellent.
Believe (thou) and obey.
Five <limes is half a doll~r.
He that seeketli, findetli.
Six is too many to ride in
There u:ere two or three of us.
canoe at once.
To write ten lil)es a day is° s11f- There is five cords of wood
ficient.
the pile.
r hat liars arc not believed e~en Six months' interest are due. · I·
when they tell the truth, is
Was you there?
\
a just part of their ptmish- I called at your house, but. toll
meut.
was not at home. .
- ·
•

I

,;

.

t

•

.

Ex.-" You or I am to blame".; petter,_ E.1tber yoq .are tc
blame, or I am.· " Thou or thy .f!'ien<ls are to nt~~ i;epara9~n."
.

,

..

.

-

Inc·orrect. • · · ·

.,-

,,,...

~ ..

···

'

.

,,. ·• '

He or you is the i:ause of ~y. trouble. ·
,
,
· '_ . ..
· h I or be to. blame.for it ? Neither he nor you was. mentioned..· On that occasiori, neither be nor. I were consulted<
~ ··
r

.!'

•

•

2. SINGULAR SUBJECT OR 'A...i.~TECEDENT.
.,
~

. ·1S'i. The fol1owing subjects or antecedents;are ~;in··
g1tltir:. _, °. _., '.. ,"1: .
·
,' c._..~

. 1. A singuln:r,l}OUll 01~· prop9u,n ,d~n?ihg, a singlo
: · ... ~· . ' . .. ·, .. ·'
object. .
·· .
Ex. - The fil'e b°urns. · John is at home.
8

•

.

..
..
\
"You and J," or" You, lie, and I" · We, "You and he" =You.
"James an<l I hat•e recited I our lessons." . . .,
'

,,.

ExPL ..\NATJON. - S~nce John does the studying, there is obviou~ly o. relation· be.
~i".een Juhn aotl s~url~ es. Observe u.lso that, wu ca n not say, wllen speaking properly
John slu.tl! ", " I ts" , He am"; but we mw~t lll'c with u1.1.ch subject that forw o{ ·
the verb which will agree with it in person aud number o.cco;ding t.o the Coajup

Liou, pp.

109

RULES A.ND EXERCISES.

Since a or an means one, it should not be used in direct connection will
a word that is plural in idea. Therefore we should rather say, a pair.'!/
tong.•,~ pai7' ~f 81'uffers, a flight of winding staii·s, than, a umgs, a anujfe1·1,,
a t.Jmdmg stairs.

110

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

RULES AND EXERCISE:::>.

2. A singular collective noun denoting a· group ot
objects as one thing. _
'

Every tall tree a~d ·every ··steeple were· blo.wn. qo_wn.
, , '. · ,
.Every leaf, every twig, and every.drop ·ot water, teem .with life. "
~very skiff an!l canoe. wei·e_loaded to 't he 'water's edge; .
.
No wife, no mother, and· no ·child, were there to comfort him..
.
Many a man )ooks back on t,!1e· days of their youth with melan
choly regret.
..
.
.
.
, ~ .'
.- .
·
Every twenty-four hours affords ~o us_day an.d ni~lit. -, ' ,

Ex. --: His fami ly is large, yet he supporWt.
Incorrect.
There go a gang of deer. ·
.
Generation after generation pass away.
'.fhe army of Xerxes were conquered by the Greeks.
A committee were appointed to examine the accounts.
The Society hold their meetings on Fridays.
The'fle et were seen sailing up the channel.

6'. Two

or

more- ~i1;1gul~ substanti_ves j~in~d by 01

Mr.

Correct.
Tuesday, ·wedncsday, or Th~rsday, was the appointe~- day.
To forsajrn a friend, or to divulge his secrets, .is mean. :·
Neither precept nor discipline is so forcible as ex~pl~·
Nor eye nor listenjng ear au object.finds.'-- You~g. ;

3. A plural noun denoting but one thing.
Ex. - Tbe "Pleasures of Hope" was .wrillen by Campbell. _
Young's" Night Thoughts" is a gloomy but.instrJctive poem.

4. Two or more nouns joined by and, yet denoting · ·
but one person or thing.
·
Ex. - Yonder li-ves a gr!lat scholar and statesman.
Why is dus~ and ashes [man] proud?
Goldsmith's " Edwin and Angelina" is a beautiful poem.
To tum and flee was now impossible. - Irving.

·Incorrect. ·
Either Thomas o~ George have to s~y ~t· home. ·
.
Neit.ber Holmes; Forbes, µor Jenkiils, were. clq,ssmates qf mine.
Riding on hoi·sebaek, or rowing a sltiff, ar~. goo~ exercise • . ·_..· The violin or the banjo, played by ,som,e mcrry;old negro, begui/4
the summe_r evenings.
.!
1" ·• . ,.~..:.~ ·':

5. A singular substantive, or a phrase of two or .
more, modified by each, every, either, neither, niany a,
or 1w.
Correct.

3.

PLURAL

SuruE~T

l

·· '

ante~edents :

~

.

are

· -~-..

.

(

Ex.,- The fires .burn•.1-The.ashes have lost I their heat.

''"l '·

Emybody ;, figbtiog, >n<h>'< """" r~ wvo"ld'Y•-N

.

ANT~bJJ:QENT.
·
· --~ ..

1. A plural subs~n!iVe that. d~note~ ~ two_. or more
bjects, or that is plural in' sense;
·-:
~ c

.

OR

.
- .
.
. i
188, The · following sU,bjeGts · or

plural: -:-

Every house was deco.rated.
E:very tree, herb, and flower, shows th~ wisdom qf God.
.·
No rank, no fortune, no honor, makes the guilty happy. - Bz;.ar,
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen. - Gray.
Incorrect.
gverybody are disposed to help him.
Every person are hereby notified to pay their taxes.
Each strove to recover their position-_
N ~ither one ar.e suitable to my purpose.

01;

:J.11

• lnconect.

Has the horses been fed' There's. two. or t9ree· of .WI.
The victuals was cold. '.fhere is n~ tidings.
.. ,'_ ..
There seems to be ~o. others included.·' ·
•
On each side of the. river .was ridges-of-hills._;,·
Hr.re is five or six barrels tha~ you·may. take,, ..

-

112

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

What signifies fair words without good deeds ?
There was 110 memoranda kept of the sales.
The book is one of the best [books] that ever was wri; en.
Such accommodations as was necessary, was provided.
Ile is one of the preachers that belongs to the church militanl ,an:4
takes considerable interest in politics.
'

2. A collective noun that is singular in form; lmt
plural in idea.
Ex. - The council were divided in their opinions.
Such a noun I• plural In Idea when we must think of the persons or things sep&. ·
ratcly, iu order to make the asser tion.
.
·
.

Ex. -The majority are handsome, and of large stature.
That is, the individual Islanders (F~ees were meant) of this ml\iority are so.

Incorrect.
The committee disagrees.
The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure.
In France, the peasa)ltry goes barefoot, while the middle
makes use of wooden shoes.
The public is respectfully invited.
,
The higher class looks with scorn on those below them.
All the world is spectators of your conduct.
At least half the members was present.
Five pair was sold. Fifty head was drowned.
Pair and head, when thus plural in sense without being plural· in form,
resemb le collective nouns.

3. Two or more substantives connected by and, and, -:
denoting different persons or things.
·
Correct.
J ohn, James, and William,. ( = the boys,] are studying,.
You, he, and I, [=we,] ai·e allowed to go.
fo love our enemies, to mind our own busines~ and to relieve .th€
distressed, are things oftener praised than prat;tised.'
. ,--\

RULES . AND EXERCISES.

l'i3

.

'

'·
Incorrect.
~ary and her cousin was' at "our ho~e last, week.
· ··: ·
Time and tide waits for no man.
Hill and dale d9ih boast Tfy~blessing· ·
Where is. your slate 'and pencil ? . . .
ls your father and mother at home ?
·. . _
ln all her movements .there is grace ·and digmty.
Four and two is six, and one [and six] is seven.
There .seems to be war and-disturbance in Kansas.
. .'
This and that house belongs to him.
'. EnouO'h money and time has already bee!' expended. ·
~

0

.

..

.

.

· 4. A singular . and .?- ~In.J;'q,l substantiye,. or tw9 or ·
·
more plurals, joined .~Y 0r or Mr, ',: · . . . :
Ex._ The king or his advisers w.ere opposed to .t hat course ;
while neither the prince nor hiS friends were prepar~1. ~ defend.,
it. - Hume. ·
..
' . . ' ·_· !:, .•; · ' · '
Tbe plural nominative should' generally b~ ·placed next to pie verb.
:
-"
,.
· Incon-ect.

..

-

For the sa.)l:e of br~vity .and force, on~ ~r :more wo~~'- i~ so~rtimes omitted. Oue or more persons ·was c~ncerneif. . '
..
Neither beauty, wealth, ·nor talents, was :iµjurio~ to
mod.;,~ sty ·.
. . : .. ~
~

hf:i.
(

4, TEnins THAT 1JL0 No1' AFFE'c~ _THE FoRM: of '
THE VERB OR PRONOUN.
~

. ~·

"

'

-·

189. The foll~wing_t~~w.~ ~? ·.n~t .~~~ct the f~rrn_szl
the verb or pronoun : -:-. ,
•. ,
t 1. An adjunct to_\:ii; ~~~ii.ati~e'. · '

E:-

The

lo~g row ~f elms w.as__mag~ce~t.

Incorrect.
Every one of the witne~s ~e;tify to the s~e 't~ing~ .
Each one of the ·vowels re.present, severalsounda. .
,
·
Nt1~:.Ler of us have a dollar left.

114

.

• RULES
AND EXERCISES.
.
... -,._ •'
~·
.. ;.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Either one of .the schools are .good enourrh.
A v~riety of pleasing objects charm the ~ye.
'\-Vhich one of these soldiers were wounded 1
_T he sum of twenty .thousand.dollars have been expended.
A hundred thousand dollars of revenue is now in the t
·
Tl e
th
· h
reas try.
1 mo. er: wit11 er daughter, have spent the summer here.
The ~erivatwn of these words are uncertain.
Nothmg but expe nse and trouble have grown out of the business.
Each one of us have as much as we can do.
'

2. A term in apposition, or a predicate-nomina,.
tive.
Correct.

Love, and love only, is th e Joa~ for Jove.
·
· The Bible, or Holy Scriptures, is the best book. .
I ~as eyes to the blind, and feet was J to the Jame: ....:_ B ible.
His meat [food] was locusts and wild honey. -)6.
The people are a many-headed beast. - Pope.

1

o

d'a
i

.

.

/

,

Incorrect.

Oqr taxes, e;pecia.lly the mi¥~ary tax, is enormous.
The house, as well as the-furniture,· were destroyed: · .
He not Jess than you, deserve, punishment;
He'. and not I~ am responsibl~'. ··1, .and not, h?,." is re~po~ible.
It is not her beauty, but her· talents, that attracts attention.
0

.

"

-

-

..

.

.

.

~

_.

RULE ·XII; __;'JN:Frn1iiVEs. ·
Ah Infinitive depends··~n ; t~e word . whic~~t liimts,
or which leads to its use.,
·
He is anxious' to retu~n: .
The Passion~· oft, hear her shell, •
Thronged ~?un<!. her'n_iagic celJ. ··
.· .
.., '
. .
The definitions are so arranged as to be easily learne_d• .

to

''-~;.;- :- -

· ExPLANATION.-To relvm Umlts ·a;;.,;ow/ by sho~·. u towh&t be. ls anXI~~;
and it therefQre depends on anzious, ~rdlng to Rulq,Xµ. ,70 IJ•ar ll~ts throngul, ,
by showing for what purpose ; and "lt therefo"!' depends on throng•d1·aooordlng to
Rule XII. To b• l•amul depends.on
iu, ""'®?dbjg to the ~t clause Of l,t~ ~·
, .4-.~ ~ ot•••
:i:
~ -:} ..,.
.
• .
. .,..- --.)

., .

Correct.
This man (and, indeed, all such men) deserves: death.· • la~ ··.
Our stat~sme11, especially John Adan:is, have reached .a good ~Id ..
The carriage, as well as the horses, was.much injui·ed.
· · · ··' '
Tho subjects belong

.

The infinitive dependii on. the>
'{ord t_citli w~ich .it. ~'*-es.syT1taz.

3. A term set off parenthetically or e~phati~ally ·. ·
and terms excepted, or depending on a verb under~)
stood.

i...t.

,

-~ Not only rage, bu~ even llJUf,111Ur~ cease: ·~ Pop,e, abr}dged.
What black .despair, ~hat ~gr:~': Ji~ his ~eart, :, : 7 hqmso11:
Honor and virtue, nay, even jnte;est dema~ds a._differen.t ~ourse,.
For thine is the kingdom,_ an.d [th~!!e ,~~the _power, a.i;id the glorY;-

-

Incorrect.
Lafayette Pia:e, or Gardens, occupy several acres.
Two ~arallel Imes. is the sign of equality.
. ·
The sign of equ.ahty are [consists of] two parallel lines.
The crown of virtue are peace and honor.
·
My cause and theirs is one. - Dryden.
·
.
The few dollars which he owes me, is a matter of small ·
quence.
.
.
cor>seVirtue a~d mutu~l confidence ~ the soul of friendship.·
Tv:elve smgle.thmgs, viewed· as a whole, is called a dozen.
Said the burnmg Candle, "My use and beauty is my death."

Pleasure, and not books, is his delight.
Books, and not pleasur!l, are hi!? delight.
Since none but thou can ~n.d ~t. _:_ Milto.n; ·

·
·· · ;.•
erent propoaitlons, and the verb agroes with the ti~it oul>

.,

-

c·~·~;o., · __ \·:::.

.• ••

• ~- • ..._

J...

Note 1v•.-An Infi;riitive, ~- Participl~, a P4rasc, ,o:t
a Clay.se, may be 1;1S~}! ~~ . a _noun i~, ~ny c~e e~cept
0
the.,.possessive.
_. • . · _ _-._ •
, . ._ •• • ~::
, _
To be without wants is t.h e p~eroga~ve of , God only.
To IM, with the rem&!nlng .woi-ds 11f the
the subject of the verb is. ·

·

plllue, of wbi~b

• '· '. '.

·

_His being bloody was the cause of suapicion, ·.
lt is best not to have any thW,g to do wuh..him.
He knows when to purch_ase. · lle J~nqws .wha( to say.

.

'·

~

·

lt Is the chief wo:'d, II
· ' ·

.

.

)

116

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

117

He knows wlten it is best not to purcltase.
"Very good," replied the pendulum.

Even I as a miser counts ~is gol,a;
..
Those hours the ancient time~piece told. - :Longfellc:c.

Next parse the separate words of the phrase as usual.
This Not<! cau be dispenS-Od with by np J i th R
·
•
.
ble to the case in which the wbrd phrasep Y 0 ~ e · i ule of .syntax which is nppllc... .
a pn.rticiplo asautne! ca.se it ma' be
c ause 8 usttd. Wllen an infinitive ot
Uon. But sometimes the infiuiti;o 0 . .e. IL! .a no~n .would be in the same situu.:
words: that it E<eems a.bsoluWly neces~~~rt:,c~~e J:hso i~t1watuly blendttd with other
1n such cases the Note is pre.feral.I le ~ l:my of ~e R~~-ole phrase as one thing; and

trm:.t°d

No~e v. -A Participle or an Infinitive is sometimes
used rndependeutly, in the sense of a clause.

.

Generali Y ~peaking, young men are best for business.

busin~s.

We, generally speaking, would say, that young men are beHt for

But to proceed_: it has been frequently remarkc<;l, that, etc.
But it Is time to procee<I
d ti
~
,
•
Supplied words ofW
' a~
iere. oro 1et us renew the subject thus :
Note.
n vary t e meaw.ng, orwma.ke the s~n~nce clumsy. H~nce th1

RULE ~III. .:___ADVERBS:

. ~n ,\dverb modifies the meaning of ~ vei·h, an ad-'
Jective, or another adve;rb.
" The horse runs rapidly." Runs how 1
" The horse runs very rapidly?' How ~apidly
" The horse is very s~ron"."
How stron"'
•
0
0°
I

Note VI. -A Conjunctive Adverb joins a modifyin<Y
0
clause or phrase to some oth.er word.
· ·
:: You speak of ~t as you understaud it." Speak lt~w t
The sun had risen wlten we reached the mountai ,,
"Now, wltile it is cool, let us work." .
_
n.
" On it was a directiou wliere to send it."_ Swift. _

.Note VII. -S.ometimes au Adverb1 modifies a phr~~a
or a cla?se ; and some adverbs of addition , exclusio1~ .emphasis, or quantity, may relate to a~~ part of ~ .,
sentence.
,.-:Dryden wrote merely f~r tne people. _ J oltnsoii Not urote merely; but merely lfor th< peo·ple.

Just

I ~s I

•

approaclted tl;e jungle, the ' pan tl.1er made a

s1J1·i~g•.

Even emphasizes ihe ad~erbial

•,~use ~":Ut ~d thla ciause modi.lies lpld.

A ph..,. or a clause sometimes, has the m.~nlng of an"'!<IJ"!'tlve.~~, ..~ a<lverb, ,..,4

therefore an adv,erb "3D modify sucll a

NoT even

Pilrl!B!i or cla.use.

·

. •

I a philosophe~ ~an eQdi;re the tooth~l.te patiently: ~

Even relates to the subject of the S-Ontenoo; arid riol rela.tes to the subject"" m:xl·
lfte<I by even . Sowe of .these I'd verbs""' a ·species of conjuuctlve adverbs, that ,..,_
lat<! to some part of a seutence, and 'a t tlie 'same tlwe refer it back to a siw.ila,r part
oxprt'6800. or implie<I.
· '
·

' Note VIII. -An Adverb is sometimes ,used. independently.
Ex. - "Yes, my lord.", "No;' I was not there."

xrv. -

J'
_·
A PrepositiOn sho.ws the· relation of. its object to
some other wQrd ?D; .}V]ii!!h 1 t~e ~dj.un~t . f}~p~µds_: ·

RULE

PiiEPosrT~oNs.

OF wisdom spoke.~ The ~an SJ!Qke
For explanatioDB and illustrations; seep. 94. .

A man

O!l .wisd~m;

·-

"

· RULE XV. - CoNJmi-cTIONs; ~- ·

or ·

; _A Conjunction· conn~cts ,w~rds, phi~~.s~s,~ ~lausei;,
sentences.
. · · · ... , · ~ · .' · · ,_ : ·
· . :' ,"- •
,-

'

'

\ .,,

•

. . ~ 'l.\

,,

.

... :,..

.. ~

Weeds and briers grow in the field, because )t is l!Ot cultivated.
•

•~

•

r

~

,- ,

'">

'

...

Here and jolDB britrs to·w1edil ;- ~~ becawe_000"18C~ twQ c~U881:"' :

·When a conjunction connects word11 ·~r phra,sea, the.y,~re generally
m ihe same construct\on ;.. as, "Mary, ·Ja11e, and. Alia,. I·we!ll into the
garden, ancl brought some wrg,e, n'pe, aniLjuicy peache~.',. Here. the
connected nouns are rioininatfves · to the ~ame ·verbs, the .connected
verbs or phrases have'. the ·sitme.subject, arid the connectcdqiljectiv.es
q1uilify the same nou,n.
. . ·'
.
,_.

Note IX. -As or · than (someti~es joins' a word or
phrase to a clause, in:stead of connecting two clause·s.
.

-

.

. :t

But ever to do ill our sole ~elight, .
_
.
As being the·contra~;>" fohls high wilt- Milton. ·

118

i'

ENGLISjl GRAM.MAR.

Worda can sometinus be supplied after the infinitive so as to make two clau!lel i
aa, ''Be so kind ':1.8 to write to nie ,, [would be kind]. :hut, in most instances, wordJ
oan not be thus supplied without varying or destroying the sense. . .

RULE XVI. -

INTERJECTIONS.

An Inte1jection has no grammatical connection
with other words.
Alas I D'J hope remains. No hope remains\
ExPLANATION. -Observe that the sent.ence can make sense without the ioterjco
· t;ion alas ; and alas is therefore used independently,. or Wt.a no grammatical coonoo- .
tion with the other words.
·
··

PARSING.

General For~mla. - The part of speech, and why ; .
the kind, and why; the properties, and. whY.; the
relation to othe.r words, and according to what Rule.
A~TICLE;S. ~ .

·

.:~ . .: · ~R:$.s!'.~·
. Finite verbs~

·'
definite t
Form~Ia. - An article, and why; indefinite, {and · why;

what it belongs, and according to what Rule.

to

· ·

· :",

~·~: · ·~~: . t \ -.' , . .
_

· ~ . • ;..

r.

;~ul~r ·} ·

F~nnula. - A ve:b, 8.9-<:l: why; P,rfncip~ par~; irreguldr,

~ud

transitive, with voice, } d. h
h.
.;.
:} t• ·~ c.t·h .
wh y ; .
.. .
an w y ; t e mo , anu_w1y ; e
intransitive or ne~ter,,. , . "" .,.. . ,. . · •
.. •
•
tense, and why, - with Joi-qi, an4:.why; ' q,onju~~-on_; .t he pe:~on
and number,. to agree '!ith .its s_u'f>ject-·-, accordmg to Rule ·XI'..' ·
a
· d• ; ·

Mention Form only )vheJ'it is. progressive; or ~~ph~ti~, ~~~·sive
without being passive' in's.ense:· -:·~· ,,; : ' '. .,, : ·
·

.

·- r: ~,

.

..~

.

4. ·•

r

.

Formula.present, }
perfect,

·,

ADJECTIVES.
. ..
·
descriptive,}
Fo_r mula.-An ad;ectwe, and why; definiiive, . and "!hy; .
whether compared or not, and how ; the degree, and why ; to
it belongs, and ac~.ording to what I'.ule.

wha~

NQUNS.
proper, }
Formula.-A
noun, and why; common, and why; collective,
. .
and why; gender, and why; person, and why; number1 I'll~
declension ; case; and Rule.
.

_w?Yi

PRONOUNS.
.
.
.
(!'
·personal,
} · ' .,
relative, • ·
" ';~
Formula. - A pronoun, and why; in
. terroga t'we, · .and
, ; c.
adj'ective,
, .
antecedent, and Rule IX; or, gender, and why; perso_n, and.,
number, anrl why; dt: ~ leii sion ; case, and Rule.
··

.'

120

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
A simple. and
ORDER OF PARSING, CONDENSED.

to

Article; definition; kind ; disposal; Rule.

defi~ition; ki~d; sub-ela~s; comparison; degree
disposal ; Rule.
.
·
·
I
Noun; definition; kind; gender; person; nun:lber; declension ; case ; disposal ; R.ule.
Pronoun; definition ; kind ; sub-class ; . antecedent and
Rule IX; or, gender; person; number; l declension ;
.
case ; disposal ; Rule.
Adjective;

Finite Vei:b; definition ; principal parts; kind. in rega~d to

form; kind in regard to objects, - with voice; mood;
tense; form; syn.opsis; conjugation; person and number; disposal; Rule.
·
Infinitive; definition; its forms; kind in regard to tim~ ;

kind i11 regard to .objects,-with voice; disposal; Rule. -·
I nfin itive, used as a Noun; its nature as an infinitive; its nature as
a noun; disposal ; Rule for nouns.

Participle; definition ; its forms ; kind in regard to time ; .

kind in regard to objects, -with voice; disposal; Rule.
P articip ial Noun ;)ts nature as a participle; its nature -as a n·o~n;
disposal ; Rule for nouns.
.
Participial Adject fo e; its nature as a participle ; its nature
an
adjective; disposal; Rule for adjectives . .

as

Adverb; definition; kind; comparison; degree; disposal ;

Rule.
Conjunctive Adverb; as an adverb, it modifies the verb - - in it1

own cfause, by expressing--, (Rule XIII); a8 a ' conjuncti~e ad
verb, it refers its clause to - - , according to Npte VI.
Pn~1>0sition;

definition; relation; Rule.

Conjunction; definition ; kind; connection ; Rule.
Interjection; definition; kind ; Rule.

121 -

PARSING:··

comprehe~siye view o.f parsing may b€ pr€sented

the::~~~ th}e ~ollowing :a:::~-:e}.

~-

¥•
_ . F '
t .
·-. · Feminine. ·
· · irs
-is a Com_m~n
Noun; of the c ·
Gender; .,Sec,0nd . Per·
Collective
' , ·
ommon
.·• • Third
Participial
·
. Neuter
· ,
. ., ' ·
· .
·,
.:
Nominative~
·
·
·
·
1
Case; Dlsposal, and Ruic
aon. Smgu ar } Number· and Poss ssive
·
' · Objective
•·
·
' Plural

It may be well for the teacl;er to ' apply the foregoing .idea to-e".ery·par(
of speech; and then to write' the formulas -uP!>D the blackboard, so th11t
they may be duily before the ey~s o_f his pupils. ; ·
' ·.
When a word belocgs to sonie·
re~ote
sub-class
!if
a part 9f speech,
1
it will be easiest for 'i1le :p up i}, in ~parsing, to '.begin, with the largest
ciass' and to descend 'u ntil he gets to the class in~which the word is
found. Thus, five is · an adjective; definitive, -.~t specifies· or limits;
numeral, it expresses number; llJld cardinal, it.tells how:· man;r,. ,

.

Exii':Rc1sEs·.

~ large tree spreitd its~!.~ade';

· rq.stled in

·\r: ·. . . ....

oye.( llif,,a~~~ge~tly

~he br~ez~:-. ··.

.. :.

.'. . · . , Analys"'° ·- ,. ·:.;;.';_ • ./..•'·· .. ~
Tliis is fl. si~ple decl~~ti~e s~.ntenc.e, ~ith 8. compound predii;aTh. The phrase,.,i large tree, is 'the s~bje~t; t1·ee is t_li~ subj_ec~nominative,
~vhich is mo~ified by t~e ~je?tive ,large ~d ~~~ ..~t\e!~· a . .,'.fli~
phrase, sprecui its -s~ade ow,; ~1: cu1d_ TJASt/t;d ~n ~ ,~Ttu;;e, iSJhe. p:e\h·
. cate j spread and rustled are .the piedieate-verbs, which A.re: c?nnected
by a11d. Spread-is modified by. the adjunct over~. aq,d the obJect shade
which is itself modified by .i.t.s; a!1d ru&tled- ~modified by the adverb
9ently, and. by the adjunct in the breeze.
" - ,
When the subject or the .predicate Q<>nsista of two or Piore '. word~, the
teucl'.er may allow the pupil tO call ,it the entire .wbject,.tbe en.!irepi:edicate·;
simply to give a little more fullp..~s or force to the expressiim. .
.
'l'he .foregoing specimen ·of a.nalyels Is given ra.ther ,In 'advance o{ the, principles
which we Jay down under thls ,he&d; ·b ut ·the teacher e&ll easily. expla.ln what ·1s
oH,,.nt ; &nd it Is proba.bly ~fthat the pupil'• curiosity eho}lld be exci,ted in rega.r d
to this euhjeet, before he is required to study the principles '!" they are printed ID
Ula book. Beyond •ul>jtct a.nd predicate, th~ elements of-Analysis e&n n~t be ~m­
prehended to a.ny conslder&ble extent,' without a. thorough knowiodge o! the pa.rt&
"' apeoo\. Hence our &rra.ngement of toplCI.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Parsil~g.

A is a i artide, it is placed before a noun to limit · its meaning in·
definite, it shows that no particular large tree· is meant; and it be.
longs to tree, according to Rule X : An article belongs to the noun to
uhich it relates. (It is not necessary, in parsing, to repeat more of 1
Rule than the example requires.)
ABRIDGED . -A is the indefinite article; and it belongs to tree;ete.
Large is an adjective, - a word used to qualify or limit the meaning of a noun or pronoun; descriptive, it describes the tree; 'compai:td
- positive large, comparative larger, superlative lai-gest i in the posi·
tive de.qree, it expresses simply the quality; and it belongs to tree,
according to Rule X. (Repeat it.)
·
AnRIDGED. -Large is a descrip_tive adjective in the posithte degree
(pos. large, comp. larger, super!. largest) j and it belongs to tree, RC·
cording to Rule X.
·
Tree is a noun, it is a name;· common, it is a name common to · all
objects of the same kind; neuter gender, it denotes neither a male nor
a female ; third person, it represents an object as spoken of; slngµlar
number, it mean_s but one ; and ·in the nominative cas~ - it is ·t he subject of tlie verbs spread and rustled - according to RuL~ I.
·
ABRIDGED . -Tree is a common noun; of the neuter gendei:; thir<i
person, singular number; and in the nominativ.e case .- to the'· verb&
_spread and rttstled- according to Rule I." .
. ·
· ,._Spread is a verb, it expresses the act of a subject; princiPaz parts present spread; past spread, present participle _spreading, perfect _parti·
ciple spread; in-egular, it does not take !he ending ed J transitive, it
has an object (shade), -and in the active voice; l?ecause it represents
its ~ubject as acting; indicative mood," it expresses ail-actual occurrence or fact; past tense, it denotes simply a·.past act; (singular. number- First person, I spread; 2d p. You spread; 3d p. It, or the tree, ·
spread ; ) and in tl1e iliird person, sing;..Jar number, to agree with its s·i1b-.
:ect tree, according to Rule XI.
·
.; ·
.
ABRIDGED. -Spread is an -irreg. tr. v., 'in the active voice i prin.
parts, spread, spread, spreading, spread_; indic. m., past t, ; . and in the
8d p., s. n., to, agree with its subject tree, .etc.
Its is a pronoun, - a word used in stead ·of a noun ; personal,-it is.one
of those pronouns which ·distinguish the irammaticaI- p~rsons ; · ..i>f. ~~
the neuter gender, third person, and singular number; to agree.with .·
its antecedent tree; according to Rule IX; (;ep,,at it;) norir,.'jf/pofif:: ~<
its; and in the 1iossessive case - it limi~ the meaning of.sh · ··'- ..<. .
~Jrding to Rule III.
·\
•

-

123

PARSING,

AB~IDGED. - Its is a personal prono1m ; of the·.neuter gender, third
person, and singular number, ·ta' agree. with its autecede_n t tree, etc.
Over if! a preposition,-:-a word us~d to show the relation between.a
following noun or pronoun and ·some other word; i~ here shows .the
relation between spread imd· us,,or of, us .to ·spread,-accor.ding to ~ule
XIV.

.

,

...-. , .

!

,

Over is ·a preposition, showing the relation, etc.
And is a co1ifwictio11,_.,- a w<;>rd "ilsed to connect words, phrases, or
propositions ; copulative, it implies addition ; Co-Ordinate, it is used to
c1>nnect. parts of. equal -rank;' !lnd it here joins the phrase rustled iii .
the breeze to the phrase spread its shade over µs, according to Rule XV.
A corifunction connects wards or phmses .in (h§, same constructi1m .
. ADRIDGED.-'-.And is-~a copulative CO·Ord.inate conjunction; con-··
ABRIDGED. -

4Y·
···-!
.-

necting two phra.Si:._s; acc<irillng t~ Rule
.

'

/<·

"

.. • , '

·

.

.. •

Gently is an' adverb,_-:a word used to ·mod.ify ·the meaning <?f a
verb, an adjectivi, or an.o ther advero; it·is· an adverb of TJUU1ner aol
it modifies the verb 'rusilid/!lccq.rdjllg~ t<,> Rul~'Xill. . · .
·.
.

(""·J~".,:., · :;-...,,.;..;•

.·•tt_-.....

~. . ~· · :i

_• . ,

--~....

-b··

•

;

'

Since adverbs are but.Seldom-compa.nid, It la .hardly necessary to compare an ad verb ln parsing, except when}t"l1s.ppens"t<l, b<! in the. coml?.\\1"'Uye or the •.uperl&Uve
degne.
.
::¥.« . _; \
· ~o;.~·
:_
•
~ " ; _.
:
•
ABRIDGED. Genl/..11 Js. iln adverb of manner; can be compared;
and modifies the verb. rust/ed, accor.ding lo Rule .XIII,. • l.

The remaining words of ~his 'sedte~oe .:I., ~~sed
nearly ln•the !!&llle way ....the
foregoing words that It la not noceSsliry tci show how they sbould.-1><1 parsed; &n\i the
formulas, wltb the teacher's ~t&!!ce 1 '!fil enable. the 11u_p ll ~·.~rae ' th•' foll<i$1g
phrases a.n.d~te-~c.~. :·:r "•.:· ~ .. :~:.:·, •n. ,:.c~ .. _._.. <.·~- ~~: · \ •• ;•

so

1

-. .

...

'Articles.

;'~'; ..

,· }:

;·.:.. .

. .::. • 1r:. •

.

.~ ..

'

The man.*
· ·. -The.·men.
.· ,,, ·:.•. A; rose. . ..
The horse. · ..-.,: The'. horses; 'kli~.Y!:'•~.:; An .isfa.nd.r · ;
The child. · ·i·,··:r";J;· ~e children:".: .,.-.;:;;;. ::-;A·'uoiversity.
A nei<Yhbor's
farm:
' · · - .". · The I boys
book- • ... · · .. ' ·
o
.
- '·
°"J ·
An Indian's.:hatchet.
· The boys' hooks.~ . · ·

. 0: '-_,~~e?ti;:eS: -...-~:-

. .

<.:.:>,:;~~ ~ - .

. ,~ ,ripe melon., ,.
,... , · .. _~ f;µ~rl}ng_s~!;e~i~· ~: ... ,;.
; ,:}~~ faire.s t lady. . : · • · . Yo?dex: ~?use~<N<;> ho~sc. _,_
" P,e/ed-wip.ged blacJrbird. . ThJ.S tr.ee.~ /These trees .. .
:p;·, />~?oY'.~ i;noth~r;,:· · , Th~s~ ,twA!o~g ~en,«~~~-~; .. •··
i.li,mj!n_.18,s. .pbrase. Tile .priµclj)&I "!.l>'d J• "Ja.n , wb,lch . Ii) _modlfi~, b1 ~e

J~~::..

'

!" •

.

f;

-

',

.

-

•

,,

•>

'"'~"

124

ENGLISH GRAMM.AB.
Nouus.

Fulton invented steamboats.
James the coachman is here.
George is a gentleman and scholar.
Johnson's cattle have eaten our grass.
Alice, bring your slate and aritl:µnetic.
j ; ' ,)/
Af..,:,..,JJ, .?~,;DI<Iy mother being sick, I re~a1fied at horne)'.-A.4·,h-i · ·
•

v

/1rw._

:y

·

'

~~

-

•

. " ,,.

Pronouns.

We caught him.
He came with me.
Albert hurt himself.
John, -you are wanted. ·
Your horse trots well, but mine paces .. , . :':
.Say, Mine is

use~for

.

• .

my a.nd horse: (Now parse each word.)

·· · ·

1-··"1-\Read thy d&'6m in the flowers, which fade and die.
She who studies her glass, n~g!es.~~r h~~t. · · ··
It was I that went. I am HIS""Wtio create9 me. '
James reads what pleases him. What is Tu.e?
Who was Blennerhasset? Who is' my neighbor?
Which is i.t? Who can tell what he may be ~ .· ' ?t/;;,j~
_The old bird fee~ her young ones. . . ~ ·
~Others may be wiser, but none are mpre amiable. 'f'~L ~

.p.N ' ·;;
.

Finite

Verb~.

/t.-;J-o

.j•i,§jl__,-

Birds fly. Bees colleot.honey'. It was I. .. . tr~-.
She broke th~ pitcher. The pitcher was broken. ·
They named her Mary. She was named M!).r.y.,
Fierce was the conflict. I do object. .
. • .
Tall pines are ru!?tling. Thou art the· man. ·. ·:.
Be diligent. . Were lie rkh, he would be lazy,
/.fter a verb In the Imperative mood, tho·u or you Is commonly.un

The apples might have b~en eaten.
.:_-.. ·
The lady may have been handsome·. i f·
Who'. are they? Every evil~ill .be re _
!f!artha and Mary have recited tiieir leSs:

· ·> " ~1

~:·~:-·

l26

.,

.

:~·

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ;.

ANALYSIS q~ ··SENTENUES.
_;

Eagles gcneralJy go alone, b~t little ~irds go in flockci.
If it rain to-morrow, we shall have to remain at home.
Though he is poor, yet he is honest.

Black
These
The
J~hn's

Take, 0 boatman, thrice thy fee.
Ah! few shall part where many meet.
,ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

mo. Analysis, in grammar, is the resoiving 9f a
sentence int.o its principal and subordinate ·pa1:ts,.

.

)..r •

.

Th~y B~ILD woilderfally•.

HORSES.

.. ~ ·They BUILD ships.

HORSES.

-

.

191. Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into .it~ .
parts of speech, and mentioning their p1:op.erties-a~J".
syntax.*
·
"
·
THE THREE RELATION~'. ~:
.

'
Almost the whole of what is usually° called An.a~ysis
in gram·~
·mar, is based simply on three common syntax relations, gen· ' '
eralized and extended. '.l'hese are the predicate··~l-elation, - the
adjective relation, and the adverbial relatioa.
.')' ' '
·. -._

,, .

• .,

-~. .

•

..

If

-"

·~ "

• ·They

'

'"· :r1!.

"''•

. "' \

'

Observe that not mereiy'' th~·, a~je~tiv
:2B~:-t/ie.~~, ~ell
what or which horses are,pieant; but'tha
so the' a'1lcJji ' ~~; the
possessive John's, the appo5iti~e; ·the· parti<,:iple, theJnfin!tiv'~,. the
adjunct, a.n.d the re~ative clause;-Jn~;_ all ~h~ di~er~nt wo~ds!
phrases, and clauses, joined· tQ horses,·-:- tell what or. wh~<l,1\hors~
are meant. The 1;1djective sense is ·thus extended .~ver kindi:ed
. .:neanin!?s ·and over phras~· and· clauses.': ' ' ""· · : · '·-. '·- ·"""
Obse;ve that the adverb. woQderfully, and .t he 'Object 8Mp,.whjcb
· 'it build, though in very.Uiff~ren~}~tys, s~i~'_l?ot~s.h?w.;:'!'~~J~ :k!nd
of buildin()' is meant; µa~ely, wonderf# bpil~irf!J ·~
. '!f#ding.
Observ.e ~lso that all . the dj.fferel\t ;r,or~,""Vbii.~
jidfptfLuse,s,
joined to build, S~OW . h~~' When, :'f~~e, W~y, or. a8 lo~ wha!, the
buildin()' is done, -that is, - ~h~Y- ~J:.i use~ i~ the .sense o~ adverbs;:
and th: adverbial sense is thti,s 'extended' OVjlr"kiridre(l me;ul.ngs
an<l over phrases and cia'iises:_
.. · ~ )~.•-~ _.
~

The most important principal parts are subjects and predicate_'S.

• The teacher should explain thiB word thoroughl7.• •
"'
·,

HORSES.

.

Adverbial ;-Relati~fl· ·

.
BUILD now.
HORSES.
. ~ ~T.bey,BUILD evergu:/lere.
HORSES, ihe property of Jolm •• ';They i .uILD _cona;aJed. .
HORSES owned by John. .
.'Fhey BUILD tp be renumbered.
HORSES to be sold.
:·." · . Th~y BUILD in great splendcn-.
HORSES of strength a7jd sp~.. ,. T!i.e~ BUI.LP. while labor is cJ1eap.
HORSES of which,he boasts.
They BUILD, th.at !My 111ay hav•
HORSES that have been rode. - "i . ho.mu~ "' , '·
' .1
;
' ·

Interjections.

Predicate Relation.
Trees '1grow.
Yoµng trees I grow rapidly.
Tbe yo:ing trees along the river I have grown rapidly this year. Observe that the. relatipn bet'Yeen tree~ and gr:ow, in the firsl
example, is the common syntax relation between nominative·
and verb. In analysis, we simply extend th.is relation over tht.
entire phrase, so as to take in the whole sense. Hence, ·.~l;iile tT ~
remains the nominative in parsing, in analysis ' we 'make .t.tc' ·'
young trees, and the yoil.ng trees along the river, respecti velx; ·
·
jects.. So, while ·grow remains the verb in parsin" in.,
0
....,. ~
we make grow, grow rapidly, have grown rapidly this ye<y.1
tively the predicates.
.
.;.~~·.

.. , '
. ..

Adjective ne1aUon.

,

.:

-~'. }...~/....·

···F ......\ ,, . .
. . . .:-- ·_ ."~,

,'J'HE E,.~l.l(E~~....~~ !SEN;!'EN~~S. < : , •;' ~

192; The Elements of _sentences are words,,phrases,
a.nd cl~uses. .,. . · '.;/'.. ~, 'i,-_'. ~ ' ·-: '· · . • i. · · ·, · ·
~-'J.93, .All sentences 'caii be~resolved' j.n.fo prop9,si~fop.s
l.> ~. . . :!;-,. ~
. t iIt=~
~. .. ~ ...
.. · : or' clauses ·; " · . "' " ,,_. ./'..:; ~ ""'~ · ·
J'

l

'

<t'
:-~i - T~e leaves hun"' ~ileni.jn ·\~61 woods~"' I t~e iak.e"shone.
:: ~t.iea. JDirror,· I and ~e aiiwas f!Oft...and,~8.Imy:~·J ~ '. ·' :: .
~.(:.-.:.:;. T.he.Jort:going Ptmtence. con~sts of three .clauses. . ' ,,

~; .;..

..

ill':

;J:\

......

•

.

--·.

4

·-

•

..

-",

~.

128

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR . .

rnt. Sometimes a sentence has, besides, an hi.de ,.
pendent word or phrase.

•

PRINCIPAL PARTS.

195. Every proposition consists of a iubject
predicate.
·
..
196. The Subject is the word, phrase, or clause, de-

Bells I tolled.
Full many a flower I is born to blush.u.nseen.
That our life resembles a journey, I has been often observ~d.

·t t.

Every.subject must have at least one nominative, which is called the subject- · · ·.,_-..)

Every predicate must . have ·
at least one finite verb, which is called the pr~dicate- ~ .
•

. ,.

phrases

_

·205, .A . Modifier .~is a depen(lent' . w~id, . phrase, or

198. Subject-Nomillative.

Vt;rb,

4

The subject-nominative. and th~ pre(licate;v£_rb ari called. the
which
~long to them;· are calledi"~dffiers. ;. :· J ,,....
• _/, t.
•
:
The subje<'.t. or. ih?,. e~t4'e subject, . ~ _the s,ubje_~t-,no,~inative
withallitsmodifiel'8:':
.:,
.: i.•.f.:·1;:,.•· ' .. ~~ r,· ~. _. .. -1:·:
The . predicate,· {ir ..-tJ:ie ~ntir,e,:Pr"._di~ate, .is .the ··predic~~!erll
. hall.
od'fi ·. ·v~ ' \ '• ,. -.•.i " .'• I
• ·
.' "
wit
~~ m , ~-; e~ . i ·" .
'.~ .~~·
~""11 ,!(".~ ~ . . , . . ,

Ex. -

"

·
·f;_-~e~ · I f~e. : • ;. . ~-,.~ ( . . :,_
,Ros~ _arid !!!i~ I bloqi:p. ~d:f,aj~.
·i : : ~ , -.;

princpal parts of the _senten~e. ; and th~. ·1Yo~di·~

noting that of which something is pre~icated. .
197. 'l'he Predicate is the word or phi·~se denotmg
what is said of the<. subject.
•

.

.

The subjt:et-~omina.th·e is ao~etim~· ".lllled.the~~~ica! ;,g,~e~t '. a~~..
:he predicate-verb the grammatical p1',,,Jicate; the. entire. subJect !JI. some, .
times called the logfoal su/Jj_£ct,. ':11~ the entif!' .Pr~~~ tJ\e ~ui;<Jl.P!'~cato.
The predicate.verb bo, or any other neuter verb, 18 sometimes 9alled the
copula_; and the acljectiv~, noun,,,or kindr~d ~I>_ress.i~~. whic~ follow.a it, ~
sometimes called the attribuk.~ '.
· · • · :._ . ,

· Ex. - No, I gentlemen of the jury i this is not law. -·

ttominative.
199. l)redicate-Verb.

>

Ex. --

. ,

iroo. Every subject and every predicate is ·either ·
simple or co1npou1id.
·~
201. A subject is simp7.e, when it has but one sub
·
· · ..
jcct-nominative•tQ the same predicate.
202. A subject is .compound, wh~n it ..has tw~ i~r,
more subject-nominatives to the same predicate. ,·
203. A predicate is simple, when it has but on~ ved>
that predicates an act or state of th? s~bject. ,,,:,.·;~"
20!, A predicate is ~ompound, wh.en it ·,has tw;?,·more verbs that ·predicate acts or sta~es .Qf t~~- ·
.
' .
ject.
• · · .. ·~j

•

\

clause, added to ~an'91ht:ir wQrdm: 1 ,expr~S:!iOµ,, to limit
t :r
or vary the meamng.
.,,, ' < • , ~ ,._ .
, ..: • .
• •

; -' -

•

-

""' -

.... . . .. :

- Ex.-ThePATIJ;Bof glorylel!-dl>ut.to the _grave.

J

'l"-

•

-. ·

The and ·ofglorya.re modlHei::s; becaUBe they •-tO.mali;e; &el""! . !>en the word
vath.> is removed, a.nd they show what p&tbi a.re mea.nt. ~ ·•
. ....,;;.

A

MODIFI~R generally ~I!.ecifies, Zi,,\·u~i'Xpzaitis,'?;;;,d~scribes~
•o.fl
\ • ·
•
•

I

,.~

-

?;

$

~1· ·

~

206. Modifiers :that .belong . ~;JlO:uns or, ~roµou~s,

'

are called adje-0tiv,e modifief's, . •' r·,- ·. . • : . .
· ~1
2o7. ·Mo·difi~rs
that <belong"to. :V.~rb!3,_ ~djecti?~~,~ 01·
. .
.. ·- f .
"> .
adverbs, are called, ·ai];ver~l nwdifjers. , ~ ~~ · · ., . ' . •

."!
•

, . . ~'9.,\

... .,

,~ -

..-J ..

·,,. :~

'

"'

'

-- ~:JEOTiy¥ \MODrnIER~~-- .~ f' f
208,, .1.\ NouN
i;>Ri>N:Pmit.iwty
J;>e mQ.dified~ ·-..d
.
.
-. ...
,r: . ."::.-.
•
.

9r

);.~

~',

#"

I By an Article. "A. BERVANT brought.th' ;i...,asE."

.

•

Dy an Aci.!eettve: "i. "&autiful rose.''-' ''::Money'en0ugh.'
Dy a Possessive.~ · "Joli~'• horse.•~ ·'.. My ·siate.'' ·
. .• ..,
, ,
4 Uy an Appositive;', "John the ' saddler.'' •,·
•
· : ~. lJyaPlll'ticiple. "Fi\lldsploUgMJ.' 1·; "B.!¢11.•~nging!
· · Q. Uy an lnjiuilive. "Horaeo 'to be fed.'' "A houa_
e to:ts..'

By !I
·
.Words,
•.a
- ~-

·-

.

-

.

~

. · ; :..

~ ...

130

.

I. By an Adjunct. "A bunch effreshfiowers."
'
2. By an Appositive Phrase. " It is easy to Jo so!' •,'
3. By a Participial Phrase. "Barns, fiUe,d with grai<r" , , ,
4. By au Infinitive Phrase. "Ties never to be brolcen.:' '>
5. By an Adjective Phr,a se. "Days, slf!n·t .and very cold.'.

r

Plu·ascs, i

l

210. The pre~icate-:verb, be) .whe:Q._,it .'.is ·followe9 by
adjective, a noun,· or·a'kindred :'ex'pression, is sim~
ply combined wit}l it, rather, than ·-piodified:by it';c·and
t.he latter tei:.m ca.n . gener~y .be · calleP. ·an att1jbute.
of the subject.
. - ~ ";,f ,; - · . ., · · / ., -,
ll1l

( I. By a Relative Clause. "The winds which bring perfume."

By an Appositive Clause. "It is txue that I went.''
3. By a Coujunctive Clause. "lioJ>eS that he will come.'1 • , ":
4. By an Adve1·bial Clause. , " The place where hefe:J..':.: , ',
·~ ~:

PnEDICATE OR ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS.
209. AVERB may be modified, I . Ily an Object.

2.
j 3.
' ) 4.

r

\ s.

l G.

"Men build houses."
By an Adverb. "-The horse ranfast.''
By a Predicate Substantive. "He became afamier."
By a Predicate Adjective. " Milk turned sour.'' ·
,
By a Participle. "The ball went whizzing.''
{. i ',
By an Infinitive. " I have come to be instructe.d.'' · "-~ ~ ·

I. By an

2.
3.

Phrases,

4..

5.
G.
7.

Clauses.

~djunct.

"Apples grow on tr:els.''
By an Objective Phrnse. ," Order hi",,. to be brouglu.''
By an Explanatory Phrase. ''To be good ls to b• h~ppy." ~ ,
By an Adve1·bial Phrase. "I will 'go "by and by.''. ·
Dy a Participial Phrase. "He fell gnspi111J his sword.'.~
By an Infinitive :ehrase. "He fell ,,tu ris~ 110 'more.''
By an Absolute Phrase. "He being sick, I, returned." ,,
,

[ 1. By an Objecti_ve-Clause. "I believe that he is hon~.,,-"",
'J.. Ily an Adverbial Clause. "Study while you ar,e young/r
3. Dy an Explanatory Clause." My wish is, that you""'.;.,,.
4. Dy a Conjunctive Clause. "I am convinced tl ..

j

ar~ 1~iyht.''

,

... ,

_·

. ' -·;,..,; "
,................
A mcdified verb may be afinite verb, an ii!finitive, or_ ap'
''

.~t-1.' ·~;.:-

...

,,_

-

-. _,,,

'

'fhe latter term is some.times ,11i~ply!ID
•
1.:~ '~-·~~~ I:,
. . ,,t_~ '/ ;

.... ,

~

....

~

,,

'-..

.

e::Plan.a&IJ ~r iiI{l~ifying. term.
<

-if"~,~~-.:~ ~- •

~

,• ':

baye-the, same

211. An adject~ve. or. an1: a4y~rb:, w:ay

Clauses.12.

By
Words

·131

ANALYSIS, OE:
SENTENCES.
.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

' kinds of modifiers as a verb, except-not those "modifiers which are substantive ·o:i; i:i.djecti~e, · i · '
. 212. A word may have · severai" moqifi,ers' ~t the
same time ; · an~- a wo1:c('i~F lllPd~~~ ·~ngthe~,. way
~ > ·"' · ·
itself be modified.', 1~·-·<. ;} •• ,. " ·
:;- ,

•' '

~

Modify we use as ' t lie mo~t :~ompr~hensive term·;. but limit,
describe, or explain, c~ ·also b~ ':1864- *he~·.i:uo!e eXjiressive~ _

'

. . ·~~~ ;::'~::~.~ Jf~;:~ ,: ,.~~ <: "~ '

From what has b~en ~aid, "'°e ~ay i.pf~r th~t~ ~ntlinces are com, , ,,, ~ '• · .
posed of the six following elements :Two Principal Part!! f Subj~ct-No?if~atiy~ and Pr~di~t.e.Verbs.
'

- ..

..

"

.' -~- . ,

.

...

Two Modifiers J Adjective 'arid Adverbial.
._,

-

~

.... .I,

...

'!t

•

-~

. 3 ")':-

'

•

.'

' .~

; __

•

A Connecting ~lei:p.enq · co.nj~!lc;?-ons, f'i-~positions, Re~ative
Pronouns, anq ' C.onjunctiv~'Adv~rbs.
• ~. ' · . ~';:i~'t:,. ,J',}
·-:.:\;;,>
'
.
_:'
---"' \
·
;• -._.'.
~

'~ r~·""'

f -

••

~ '

An Independent ·Element; Indep~n~ent ·Nominatlves' !J:ite~jeo
tions, and some Ad_ve~bs .., . ,
'
, ,
,,,, , l ' ·
·

,

"->~,

;{;-

..... \' . . . ·;.;i

,,~· ,;'~·· ~

. ' ..

<tl1

' .•.

.

.,
132

ENGLISH GR.AMMAR.

3. Imper'ative, when it expresses ·command,
treaty, or permission.
Ex. - John, ride that wild horse.

4. Excl,am'atonJ, when it expresses an exclamation::·
Ex. - Does John ride' that wild ho~e I'

·

.

: ·

214. Sentences are divided into tl1:ree clitsses ; si~
ple, complem, and compound.
·

....,

1.

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

: -•

215. A Sim1>Ie Sentence is a sentence that has b'1L
one proposition.
··
. · "·: -.-. :
.

'

-.

.

•,J"•

The subject of a simple sentence cane have no clause. · '.· ' The predicate of a simple sentence can have no cla~e.
The core of syntax, in all sentences, is predication• .
--+-

Soldiers fight.
ANALYSIS. -This is a simple declarative sentence.
diers, and the predicate is fight.
....;,.,.·

~

Analyze and parse the follJ:Jwin_q sentences : -

· Dogs bark. 'l}~e flies. Wolves howl. Sin · degi:~d~~;­
Bees were humming. Mary was chosen. We ·shall re¥~·
' fierce
' ·dog' bit
. the stranger. ·- • <:.-·:·
.. .. · _
Tll11t
't'".(.J"

•

. -.1.

.th;-· _,,...;:' .

This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject is thut.fierce do_q;
subject-nominative is dog, which is modified by the adjectives that and -;::,:;_, '
jie1'ce. The predicate is /lit tlt.e strunger; the predicate-verb i.s bit, whicli · · :. '
.ii modified by its object stranger, and this is modified by the lirti~le . th.6;~--·

They moved slowly. Large elms adorn New HaV,ep., ·
Sh!i brought a small basket <?f delicious fruii. -. ,: ,' ,. '
Th€ mountain is covered with evergreeps. ~'_: ;;,
We visited Rome, th~ capit<1-l ofJ.taly. . ..; - : ·~ ·
Our neighb~r's _bee~ h~v~ l.~ ~· their :hiv~. :£:'._°{';.·
The summer breezelparts,the, deep m~zes ·o .
The old
_,

"'

oa~ is lo~~-\Vit~ ~,~. ~~~~. ~(sJ~~"

I:' -.i:~:~: ::'.{-~'.~.'~i,:~ •;' -

F'

~'-

.... ;.~

134

-~"

ANALYic~~,9¥
f\i~NTENCEs.
..
..
.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

..,.

"Religion is a support that will not fail.'' Adjective.
"Make hay while the sun shines.'' .Adverbial.

216. A sentence that consists of two ' clam.es,: ol
which one i<: dependent on the other, is complex. ·

--

This class includes all the preceding _classes.

Mary has brought a rose, w.hich grew in the garden. : ,
This is n complex declarativ~ sentence. The principal clause is, :Mar~..'
has br_ov.ght a rose. (Anal;rze this· clause.) The dependent clause is which ·
grew. in the. garden; and it modifies rose, to which it is connected hy ihe
relative u:/uch. (Now analyze the clause.)
··

The evil which men do, lives after them.
\Vhen the sun rises, the birds sing. ·
All nations believe that the soul is immortal.
It is.. mysterious how an acorn becomes ari oak.

In Part Fi•¢, pp. 35-55, the te~che~ can find an abundanc.l) of senter.~e8,
.,,( all kind? and well classified. He should also write on the b,lackboard·· the

formula fo,

~alysis,

given on p. 262 of Kel'l's Common-School Grammar,

3. COMPOUND SENTENCES.
I. A sentence that consists of two clauses, connected by a co-ordinate conjunction, is compound.
Ex. - The way was long, and the wind was cold.

2. A sentence; consisting of two clauses that have
no connective, is generally compound.
·•
.Ex. -

Some ran into the woods; others plunged into the ..

217. A sentence' that consists of two or m
pendent clauses, is compound.
This last. clefinitiou includes the

pr~cediog

ones.

218. A compound sentence may consist:
,

-

1. Of two ~imple senten·ces.
Ex. - Life is short;

I and art is long;

. · <!,

:

·~

>;;
.'f"

"t

I

2. Of a
pound.

siii1pl~ ,_s,entenc~ :~nd: a.·
coID;p_l'e~· ...or:
~?u!·,
.,.J"' :
, .·. '. '
"': "f''"'f·

. ..

,

.

.~

.. ·~ .. ~

,

,

~

Ex._): ven~ured; I bud lost :)Vhat ,I lf~ i~v'es~e_q.
l came, I saw ;:!, but -~ ~~ po~ qonq~er.... ~~ ...
3. Of two complex or.-<?o~pot!n!l )m,nte~ce11. ·
Ex - He lived as mothers wish their scins to live -; .
·
He died as _fathers wish ·their ~ons . to die~" .. ·
Times change, a~Cl men.change;
• But right p~r'aus, a~,dJru.th ~pide~

,. ..

136

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

, FALSE
. - . ;· ' ~..SYNiT.AX:.:..
.

FALSE SYNTAX, CONTINUED,

This barbarous custom;· a.l'!tb which prevailed everywh.er~,, the ; Jlli&.
sionaries have ab6t'¥ib..~d;
'~
.·:~·:,..
1 ··~
' .

All the remaining errors, in the use of language, can··be
reduced to the four following heads:/ .•

1. Too Many Words.
2. Too Few Words.
3. Improper Word or Expression.
4 .. Improper Arrangement of Words.
1. Too lVI.A.NY Wo.Rns.
Gen eral Rule I. - No needless word should be used.
This here is my seat. That there is your place.
That there apple is better th an this here one. ·
I have got to go. You have got to stay.
She is a poor widow woman. Where is William at 1
Their situation can hardly be conceived of.
Our debts and our sins are generally greater than .we think.f or. ·
I was not ab!e for to do it. Use some other similar_word.
My fath er presented me i:;ith a new knife.
.
Women are governed by fancy instead of by reason:
.
H e died in less than two hours time.
It is equally as good as the other. Mine is equally as good as yours
·
You had_n't ought to <lo it. He hadn't ought to go.
H a<l I have been there, I would have gone with them.
His two sisters were both of them well educated;
The neck connects the head an<l trunk together.
They rel ate to each other mutually.
He went away about the latter end of the week.
The p assion of envy and the passion of avarice ax:e base.
Give that what you can spare, to the poor. ·
I have no doubt but that he will come.
IIe then told us how that he had always been a Union man.
From thence we sailed to Liverpool, by steamer.
Wheneve1; he sees me, he alihays inquires after my health. ·
Whatever she found , she took it with her.
-·..._ ·. '!.
lf I mi~take not, I think I have sec~ you befor.e . .

•

<•

137.

.·' ·

T'

•

The relative la itself a connecting wor.d, and th~re!ore .dpea ~at need an<(. ,

Her tears dropped a~(l f~i,J~µpo'n .the"fa,<)e,-of·heidyi~g and e.x:pirin9
babe. A littlefiowing' rivu'.i~tt '~r.:Henry. Felt;on; ·Esq. ,·
·
UNDEP. PARAGRAPH 124. ~ W~ ri\aa~ her 'to believe il '
HI bid you (o study, dare you .to·be·idle ?1,»' ,:
/To go I coajd not. - You nced •not: to;.l,iaV!l staid,
""'=--, .... ! ,: ..... ,· ,·• ·~ ,..f. I"';_.:;
\
.:.. ;
( ·:.. Special. ~_ulos.

• ...

1. A pronOUJl . shou~d 'pot ibe. aMed to .its antecedent, when the antecedent alone wo~ld . expres~ the
meaning bettcr'.c. . ",·; ·;:·~,; ·:.· ~,,r
·',·i.
'
John he went, and.J.:i!!.r y. ~he -~1~~-i ;bu~ ~e i:est they_ al]. st.aid !it

::::.,

Henry Barton h~ bQ?~• c; rnirJ.~ III.) , ¥a_ry. Johnson
These 101;8, if tbey had bee.n , sold. sooner,. t~ey would
have brought a better .Pr:i<!~·, . ·c~~ . . . ~-. 1;f : _;. ' ~ .• ,-.~
.: • ,1
hogie.

her book.

2. When two negatives1 are1e'q uivalent tO an affirm»:ativ~, only one 'o f .t.~e;µi· shoµl~_· :9:~· ?~~~; f~ }l~J?re~s
denial.
·
, .~ ~· ~. ,,· . s ) ~ Tr.r'~i-.t~ t· ·_.: ~ ·1 ;. -,_ , ,.,: . , -·
I will never do so no more. We did n't·fin.sJ°nobody; at home. ;·
[ clon't kriow notliing about· your _affairs ;·a9d I don'_twa{it to know;
I never said nothing about ·it to nobody: ~A :·,. ··-····:·'-. · , -...,Death never spar~d no one:·· ::She.will rievei..grow, no taller.•.
I sha'n't go, I don't think. ' . (Change t!ie sentence.) . ~·. · · · '--'
N cithe~ you nor nobody- else.. can ivalk"ten mile~ fa one ho~r.

·s..Double compai:~tiye~~~~d- siip~dativ~~ ~h?ul~ I.le
avoided.
·
: .•> .• -. ~: . · · .,:. ~ ·~.-, - ,,..;., 1

The office could not.ha~~'besi~:.glv!ln,to ~ mo;e ~orthier .man. .' ·
. A farmer's life is the nwst ·happiest.~: _. · ' .,_ .· ' - ' • '
She is the mosi-loveliest'one'of the· sisters.' i · , . ·
N1>thing can be more ~orse !..,,.-worser. ·;. " · ~
;,, ~: '
The lesser quantity,-'f remove t'° the ot?e('1Jide. . : ;, ;::..:

>:;

rhe ending er, of llie c<imparat{fe· de!p'O".· !a'.eq~V!'lent t.o the wo,r d more"

:·"

After the most strictest.sect·of"our, l;'eligi'?n'" ~- liv.ed a .l?harisee. · · -.
Those 'vere the least happiest years .of my ~fe.
;

:13s

·. '139

ENGLISH 'GRAMMAR.

4. The article is commonly omitted, 1 When a word is used merely as a title.
2 When a word is spoken of merely as .a word.
,
3. When we refer to the kind generally, or to only a part .. ·
indefinitely,
. ',
The highest :ifficer of a State is styled a Governor
The origin a1 signification of kna ve was a boy.
Reason was given to a man to control his passions.
The cypress is a curious species of a tree.
I have had a <lull sort of a headache all day.
The whites of America are the descendants of the European.s•.

5. When connected descriptive words refer to the
same person or thing, the article can generally .be·
used only before th~ fu:st
~he words.

or

A white and a black calf is one calf with t.wo colors.
There is another and a b etter.world.
My friend was married to a sensible and an amiable woman • .
She is not so good a cook as a washerwoman.
·
Fire is a better servant than a master.
I am a better arithmetician than a grammarian.
I would rather be a poor Solomon than· a rich ignoramus.
.,
Ever ett, the patriot, the statesman, and the orator, sh.ou.ld be invited.
The earth is a sphere, a globe, or a ball. ·
·
The Old and the N ew Testaments make the Bible. _
·' 1..

a"4 · ,;

Better : "The Old Testament and the New. make tho B_ible; ·" or, "Tho Old
the New Testament make the Bible."
'·
·

~

The first and the second pages were our first lesson

6. Do not make transitive verbs i?tr~nsit'ive,'
inserting a needless preposition;
Pharoah and his host pursued after them.
w·e had just entered into the house. Follow on after us.
His estate will not allow .of such extra,vagance.
If you can wait till 'fu..niorrow, I will consider of it.
Many talented men have deserted/ram the party.

bJ

.2 .. Too
General Rule II. ·omitted.

FEW
. . Wo.ans.
.
.:...

1: ·

,..

No ·necessary word should

h6

White sheep are much more corpmon than black.
H e does not know you getter than John. '. ·
·
· ·.
Lov est thou me more than these ? - · ..... ·.
H e did it for your and my . friend's .w.~lfare.
· '
He had fled his native land. ~ What prevents us ·going?
The remark is worthy the.fool that; iuadc it.
.
We ought not speak evil of others, urtless it is neces5ary. §-124.
I have already done .more than I ougbt to. I like[tolive] up here.
Money is scarce, and times ~ard. . (Verb want\~g.) .
, , , :.
He was a man ha d no influence. \, (Nominative wanting.)
·
She saw at once what was .best to _do. .... " ;
· " ·' ;, · m
·

·

•

• ,.

· - · •• • 1

· · Special Rules. •

· .

r ,,, .....

• •

1. The article the ·is frequently need~d to~ show
that all of a class are in.e ant ·; an!I "when;' ~cinnerted
descriptive wo~·ds refer' t9 diff~re~t:p~i·i;;oris. or thi.n~s,
an article is generally nee~eq ,J~efore· .~~h '.of"..tho
words.
:. .,_ · ·.. ..... -'" .'.'. ~ .. .:

The Indians are descendants of the.ab~rigines of· this; country.
Men who are indolent, generaily'. complain of hard"tiµies. · ·
. A black and white calf ~ere. .the only two I saw; · .... · : ·t ,
The white and black inhabitants. amount to several.thousands.
A beautifui stl'ea:O flowedl)~tween the o.l d ~n51:iiew ~~?si~fi· .' · ,,
The sick arid wounded ivere.left a~ this place. ·. ·
·' ,, _.

2. In comparison, 'other, else: or a; similar wor(J,
mnst sometimes. be 'ius.e rted to prevent. the .leading .
term from. being comp~~·d •Witµ itsefr. ~ .
~. : ~'
•

.•

1\

•

•

':\

:h.

~

·- .

That tree overtops all the trees.· in the 'fore~t. · ·
·
He thinks he knows, more :than anybp4y';' . .
~~Nothiug is so g~d foi: a spi:ain as co}<!,. water. ;,
.. , ·
. No magazine is 'so well written.;is. the ,4.tlantic Mon.t{il!I.
; . ..
'Jacob loved. Josepii"m'o re than all.his' childre-n . ; •" ••· ->-: \'c[tlobd
Noah and his fllllily -outli".ed all the peQP,]e _who Jive<l befo\'e tho

.'
·'

I

(
I

140

EN:GLISH GRAMMAR.

3. Parts emphatically di8tinguished should be
pressed with equal fullness.
Ne:cher my house nor orchard was injured. (Supply my.)
Both the principal and interest were paid.
Not the use, but abuse, of worldly things, is sinful.
Tho young, as well as olrl, may sicken ancf die.
The hum of bees, and songs of birds, fell sweetly on the mu-.
I would rather hear the whippoorwin- than katydid.
-+--

4. A participial noun generally requires an . arti~16' "
before it, and of after it ; or else the omission of both
the article and the preposition.
K eeping of one day in seven is required by the Bible.
By the exercising our judgment it is improved.
This is a betraying the trust reposed in him.
A wise man will avoid the showing any excellence in trifles.
A wise man will avoid showing' of any excellence in trifles.
Great benefit may be derived from rea<ling of good books.

3. IMPROPER WORD OR EXPRESSION.
General_Rule III. - In the use of words, grea~ ,
care should be taken to select _the most appropriate. ·
1'o la!/; to make lie, to place . . To lie; to rest in a reclining posi· · ·•
tion. T o set; to place. To ~it; to rest. To learn; to acquire know!,_,
ed ge. To teach ; to impart knowledge. To like; to 'be pleased w'. th,
to clesire moderately. To love; to feer affectionate or very kind
towards. To raise; to lift.
'
This, the nearer; that, the more distant: this, the latter; that,. th; ·' :
former : this, something present; that, something absent.
Either or neither should .be used in speaking of two only ; any one,;
one, or none, in speaking of more. Each other shpuld be US!'d .in ~
gpeaking of two ; one another, in speaking of more. Less; size or num· -ber; fewer, number only.
'-. . ·
I nto, from outside to inside; in, inside. only; at, . indefinitely in ·or, :

no

about; ,:,., definitely within ; between or betwixt, two only; amo!iif, .
three or uore; a taste of what is enjoyed, a taste for what w~ w~h 1
to enjoy. disappointed of what is not obtained, di~appointed. in .'!th~t

lii.iJs ·to answer our expec~tions -after it js obtained; ~e of disease,
b_y au instrument I oompa.re with,,. for ·a,scertahli_ng _nieri~s, •·;:r)f>vfor.
illustration ; a1tended qy persons,' with consequences.
Abhorrence of; accuse of;' adapted to; agreeable to; aspire 'to;
capacity Jo•; correspond lflit_h, to ;"co_Iifide' iii; depennent on; in<lependent of; der'ogation)t o1n; d~ffe~; different, -ftonl; difficulty in j
·diminution of; dislike to ;' eager in 0 . enamored of_; .followed by;
founded on,- s~metimes i;,; influence over; incorporate into, with, _sometirhes in; made ef; meddle with; need of; occasion/or; omittedjiom;
prej udice against ; p~ofit b.v i quarrel with; resemblance to; rely on;
reconcile with; swerve from . . ·
·
H e laid abed till breakfast. Lay. down and rest.
We had laid on the ground all) night.-:-. NezospaNr·
After laying aw~il_e in this positi_on, he raised up.
Vv e were all setting round the fire ... \Ve set up late.
' 'Won't you set down a little bit'? 11 ain't going to go.
I love brea<l and butter, · Can ·you: learn me to write?,
The business will suit any one who~enjoys bad health. ·
l didn't go to do it. Carry the b9rs0 to ·water. .
. .
[ have a heap to say. He is ·a mighty insignific":_nt fellow . .·
{ expect it rained y~sterday. Th~ garment'was ~e_atly. s.i~
He throwed the ball.' · I seed hilJ!, He knowed· better:· '
Very many rivers empty into the Mississippi. :_:- flow;_ ;
Four·goes in thirty, seven tinies;and' two over.
_- . ·
CoaaECTED: Four U contained eeven times in ·thirty, with two retriaiJUI,,,

lt was not taken notice -of. - -was not noticed. ·
Ct was not made use of for this purpose.
She said onr noise an<l romping must be put a stop to.
. _
Such .a poem is wor_th being committed to, memory. (committing)
Whatever is worth being done, is worth being done 'teli. · ·
·;
Dram-shops are no; being closed on_Sundays; (Omit b~i~[J·) ' •,
fhe report is being circulated every.wpere. , .
.. . . ,
Never use 'a compound pa.rtlclple as .a. pa.r.t of a. flnlte verb, unless .It Is ~ 1!11<\lut..1
·· · ./'
.•:
•: :
•
. ~ .... -

nocru1iia.ry to use it.

\Vheat is now being sold.for a dollar. a bµsl}el. - is selling - --: .
The books are being printed. ' The new c~ureh is.~eing built.
~ ,
I bave done written the letter.','lhavedone done it.~--L...J already _-;She is administrator . . . He married_ a Jew:· She is a zood songs;er.
.

She ii a i;oorl sin11er; for songs~er is, now ge;,e;.i,.uy a.pp!!~ t.o J;trds:

10

.

.

.

·: ·. ·"· ·"

;,t

142

. · .FALSE SYNTAX.

ENGLISH GH.A:MMAH.

The two Smiths are related to one another.
. Pupils should be polite to each other. Take eithei· of the five. · -. ·
None of the two pleases ,me. I have cau~ht lus fish than you. ., .··· ~
N either of ~hese three hats is large enough for my h.ead. ·
'
· Any one of the two roads will take you to town.
·.
You may take e'er a one or ne'er a one, just as you please.
. '[ltaJ. very point which we are· now discussing, was lately decide~ -. .
in the supremo court.
There is a right road, and there is a wrong road, before
person : this leads .to happiness ; and that, to misery.
Be that as.it will, I cannot give my consent.
As it ·will implies certainty; as it may· implies uncertainty.

Then says f to him, "You had ought to have staid." -saidA wicked man is n:ot happy, be he never so pros11erous.
Neither our position, or the plan of attack, was known.
You look as though you ha;,e been sick. -if~.
There is no doubt but what he is mistaken. - that This is none other but the gate of Paradise.
Oth er, el$e, or the comparative degree, must generally 1e followed by than. -S..
Correlatives, p. 97.

0 fairest flower, no soener blown but blasted I ~ Milto~. '
It is nothing else but the people's caprice. - Swift.
Nothing else but this will do. It was no one else bu·t him.
It would be still better to omit elsf. from.the two foreg0:ing sent;encea.

Such expresses quality; a.nd so, degree.

Whether, and not if, should begin an indeterminate clause that la Uiied as a noua

Go, and see ijfather has come. See if that will do. .
.
Such cloaks were in fashion five years since. Do lilce I did: (as) ·
(Dictionaries •
.
· ~·

I was there about five wee]ss since. I have not peen there.- .-· -, , "
[tis useless trying: No one likes being in <lebt.
.
_.. , _
In uRing verhh.1 nouns, participles are S-enerally preferred o.fter prepOaltious'i i.nd
lnftnitivWi, in other sitU.atioDB, Qr in connec"tion ·with vttrb.ii.. .
.
. ·"" ··J ;:.

•.

0

"
Sny, - " .. petition in which,".-eto. ;;'for, wher• , m_lght seem to, ~ .. c9.nju:,ictln
t.l v~rb relating to drew.
• .
·
.
•
.
.
.

>o not let the dog come in the house. . He.came pf a sudden,.
He <lie<l with a fever. · '. He .d ied/or thirs~ _
· ·'
· "··.'-'
Tb is is a very diffe~ent dinner to ~hat" we'had yest~i:day. -- ..
I have little influence with him. · I live to"home. ,
I left my book to homll: , .·His..ease,has no resemblance wi ·1i mine.
Please walk in the setting-rooin.. , His prejudice to ou·r cause.'
The soil is a<lapte<l/or wh~~-t ~n'd 'c~rn. . · ' ' "
· ·
·
He was accused with .having._adted l\Ufai.rly. .
• ,
The sultry evening was foil~,w~d with a 1>torm.
.
I have been at France. I board. i1! .th~ P!JW hoteL .
The property wrui ·divided between fiv~' childie11. - · ;-, _-.....- ;
I was disappointed in the p,l easure of, meet}ng you.'·- , ,,.
'-

•

·, '<"" , -

..

·- S~cial ~µI~.
·,

-

;

.

(/ ~.w., :<.:, ;{. :: ~ '
· ---"'--"-~· ·,;n,
.

.

r

~. ~he pronoun..them "s_~p~d;_,13?t -~~ ·1g,~ed.; {ore_the

· ; ... _ . _. .. , , ,..
;,~,
Them boys are very lazy. .. Oive:-'me them_ ;b~).~,,-:, .·,,.
. ,:
What do you ask for them, peaches·? Take_away·_thenl._ things._..
Let some of them boys si_t on so.me of them .pthcr .be.nches.>-.r .. ;·
'l'lwm are good mackerel. Tl}~l!I are ~y seBti~e9ts.'..\;1; ~t t ::,f '

I have seldom seen such a tall man.
The letter was not as well written as I wished it to be.
I will see if it rains or no. -whether*** or not.

Ago, from present time bl_lck; - ~ince , from some past time forward.
do not make this distinction j but it is nevertheless well founded.)

Say, "A diphthong Is the union of," eto,.'; for a diphthong Is nelth~ p!a<:e nor time.

Fusion is while a solid is cqnver.ted _i nto-a liquid by heat. , ,'..•
He drew up a petition w]ier.e _h e repr(lsented his -grievanc.es.·'. ·t

adJective those.

He is not so tired but what he can whistle. P,age 97.
I will not go without you go too. - unless She is such a good woman. - so good a woman.

·

Studying reading lessons •is as · important ·as studyirij/ apf'othei: .·
,;· ., '{[lesson!L ~
A diphthong is where two vowels ~re united. · ·
A d~phthong is when two vowels are united..
, .. ._ _·

0

, - ••

•

.

,

_.

2. Ad verbs should' b~e ~§ed to q0:aliiy"ve~i>s; agj~c- .
tives, or other a:~yerp.s ·;;: ~~<.l.~_-?<djectiv~.~' ~~;·~u~lit~t
mrnnl'i or prqnouns_~ _., ".. , · . _. l .... : ;, ·~. ,~~. - ~ ..t~ i.,"' .. :

...

She sews good and neqt.- , ·Speak slow~and -d~tipd._. ·· ._' 1' :[ : · · "
The work is near done. " 1.. am only tolerable ..;wellf r1.:;.,-: i. -~" • 7 '
I never stu<lied no· grammar,· but I ci~n talk 'jii~t :~ .go/d~ as: il1~111.
that talk grammatical. .' 'I am exceed.inf;_ busy: ; ~· -_ · >". [way
We -ought to value.our prjvileges·,higher. L ea.n ~i~e e~t ' thi
Apples are more plenty than .p.e aches.i-, N. ,·Wc~iter..' ' · {;~ .. :,~ .~ .

.J

14-:t

\Ve landed saf e!y after all our misfortunes.
Things look much more favorably this morning.
She looks beautifully in her new silk dress.

3. The comparative degree is used when but twc
ol>jects are compared; and the superlattve, whcu .
three or more are compared.
The eldest of her two sons is going to school.
Jt;h~ is .the oldest , but James is the largest, of the two boys.
' ' h1ch is the largest number,- the minuend or· the subtrahend?
Which d0 you like best, - tea or coffee?
·
Ch~ose tn e least of two evils. This is the. best .of any other one.
. Chuia has ,tlze greate~t population of ariy other country on earth.

4. The leading term of a comparison should ~ot .
be compared with itself, nor included in that tQ
which it does not belong.
-

.

I

Youth is the most important period of any in life.
·
Th?se people seemed to us the most ignorant of any we had seen.
China has the greatest population of any country on earth.
That boy is the brightest of all his classmates.
.
That is a better-furnished room than any in· the house.
That is the best-furnished room of any in the' house.

H5

FALS]j: SYNTAX.

ENGLISH GRAMM.AR.

6. Words should not be compfl,red, .o~ .made. plural,
when the sense doe~ not allow·or. require it. ;' . ': - ,, '
It.is the TflOSt universal opinion.: This is more preferable than that.
Virtue co~fers supremest dignity OD ,man, and should be his chief·
est desire. A more perpendicular·line. (A line more neqrly)
It is not so universally known as· you· think. - -so generally- _
fhe farm is a long ways from mark.et.. ,_Make a memomnda of it;·
Dy tbe same analogy, somewheres, nowheres, etc., a.r~ frequently used lwproper:J
.
•
lr ~omewhere, nowhere_, etc.

Few persons are cqnteDted with their lo_ts.
[t was for our sakes that Jesus qied upon the ,cross.
Let us go to the next house,. and g~ our suppers ~here.

7 . .A should be used before consonant sounds ; and
an, before vowel sound~.
-•·
'
As to vowels and consonants, seetP· -152. . _ · '.; ·
I. A word that begins with u Jong, eil, w, o a.s in pne, or y follo" e.d
by a vowel sound in the . s~me -syllable, is reg~rded as.beginning ~itl1
a consonant sound.
-· " · . '
'
·' · ·
2. A word that begins with u not }!quivalent to yu, with y equivalent to i with sile.nt h, or with h taintly sounded because the next
sy liable
the chief accent; is regarded as beginning with a vowel
:- -'1 ' 0·! · - sound.
·
· · · - ?.-.- "- ~, ~

has

5. Avoid all improper modes of e~prcssing com-'
parisou or the plural number.
·' ·

He had a interest in -the affair. Such ~non~ s~d so.. ·
It is an useful exercise.. He is a h~nest man.
Argus is said to have hacf an hundred eyes.
There was not ~n human· beiµg .on th!l p!ac~.
:.
A heroic deed it wa.S. . It is an universal compldint:.
•
I ,

It was the curiousest thing I ever saw.
-"
I th ink the rose is the be~utifullest of flowers. ·
He is the awkwardest fellow I ever saw.
H e lives in th e fartlierest house on the street.
.
, .
The vallies of California are among the most beautiful in the world . .
· ,
\Ve need two astronomys .. All the Lee's were officers.
They seem to have been only the tyro's, or younger scbolars.-Swtfl..
\Ve -saw three deers in the wheat-field. · Those are rrood mackerel"·
His brother-in-laws were edu.:ated· at .the same .sc4ocl.
· :'.: .· · ,

He rec~Jved only the fourth. part of th~ est.at!!··· · •
Sometimes one art!cle. iij· imprope;ly ;µsed f'.or another. ,, ..
An oak iB a tree..of great.durabj_lity._ . Tha~ _no9le anjm1", a horse:
A.lion is bold. A pink ~ a verv common species of fiow:er.
When a wlio~e .i_s pu,t for the parf,:qr<'th~ part
~whole; th~ figure
is called synec:doche; .as;' gold fopnqney, tea . for supper.

1

,

•

,

8 . .A or a~ denotes an indefinite one of several; 'th~
denotes the, only .o~e, the class, or a particular: ope. of
several.
.· · · ·
'
._

fot

)

liG

·

ENGLISH . GRAMMAR.

· 9. Tlrn o?j.ec.t of the activ~ verb, and not that of
the .preposit10n, should be, made the subiect of th .
e·
passive verb.
o}

•

~e were sho_wn a ·~weet pot~to that weighed fifteen pounds.

. .- :
-

~;,.u were paid a high compliment by the young iady.
- . B_urke was offered a very lucrative employment'
JVash mg ton was given the command of a division. (To W dshingt~11)

10. The possess~ve . case of a personal ronoun·
should never be written with an apostrophe. p
These are our's.

That is your's or their's.

...

or ~~i~·~.t say yourn, hei'n, hissen, oum, or th ein1, for yours, hera, his. our.;

'.~1. Th~ possessive case of nouns must alwavs be
"ntten with an apostrophe.
• ,
This
A is the boys 11at.

s·ix months mterest
.
. due.
1s

§§ 160 16l , '

:~~~::;:~d~:s: :1~~ ~[y:t~:::.care are natures gift.> for

No ones ability ever went farther for others good.

11

;ans

Page 68.

12. ~ con~pound word or a complex t~rm takes the
possessive sign but once; generally at the end or
next to the name 9f what is owned.
' .
I ;vill meet you at Smith's, the bookseller's.
.
.
~he· used t~ read a~out Jack'~ the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits .
ese wor s are Cicero's, the most eloquent of men's.

~3 .. ~ pair or series of ~ouns, implying common
plossess10n, take the possessive sio-n
at the ·end and
0
mt once.
,
Bond's and Allen's store is the next one above us .
~~:e~s.'. Tlwmson's, ?;id Hard~astle's sto~e is opp~sitc to o~rs.
s and Andrews occ•1pat10n was that of fishermen. B ond and Allen's store ia one so.>re belon .
.
.
B ond's and AUen's store ·are two si:,res o!~"~e:nboth men .. :
That o11c ownership allows but one possess
'
i ve Filgn,
. ging
to
each
man.
that each diP.tinct ownershl&

F~SE;_ SYNTAX ..

..

requires a distinct po88eBBlve si~, &nd, th&t .th• t~~· sign .~J;io~d b<. !'~ &&
ne&r as po•sible to the name of what is owned, are fundamental id""8 tha.t g9v•m
'he syntax or the p088e88ive case.
;:. , ·- l
t!'
• ~ ... ~.;"~} 'f ',. _

14. A pair or series of nouns, not implying · com·
rnon possession', or emphatically di_stinguished/ tako
each the possessi".e _sign~ '.
- '_'. ·:
:

John and William's bo.ots ~t theJl1. wei1: ". ..; •. ·
They took the surgeow as ~ell
the physiciaµ.'s advice.

as

15. To avoid harshness or inelegance, possession
is sometimes better exP,ressed by of; and sometimes
··· ·
even the possessive s. mal be omitted.
Essexis death haunted the conscjence of Queen Eliz1;tbeth.
It was done for Herodias's sake, his. brother Philip's wife.
Such \\'~re Daniel Boone of Ke'fltucky's adventures.. ·
He thinkd his own opinions .bettiir thai{ _any one else's opiniuns any one's else opinions.\ ·--:- than"!hose of any one .else.
They cast"themselves down at Jesus's feet.
··? "

_1When should who be used'1 Wheii'.sh~uld.wliich be ~id 1 :see p. 67;

16. The rel~tive 'that is use'd whe'ri ithe''~ntecedent
comprises both pe~s~nir and things.
', .
Also after t1:J.e sup~rfative · degree, after ·swnie, after
the interrogative v.;lw; an,d .so~etime~ after !ndefinite
..' · ·
antecedents.
· ' ;:1. · . 'r. •
·· .
·
~

§ 163. Those

~

· -~~=

.~>.

~ .... - .

•

whic~ are rich, shoul!l assist the. poor and,helpless.

So I gave the reins to my horse, who knew the way much better
It is the best which -can be goV
· '·. · · - · . :. .[than. I dill,
Of all lhe congregations whom I ever saw, this. was the. largest. ,
The entire collection of persons IB evidently regard~d as one thing.

This 'was certainly the largest congregation which I ever· ~w. The horse and rider which we SaW j fell in the. battle';' '.
.
l am the same as I was. r gav~ all what I had. -k '·· :
Wh0 ever became great, who ·was not ambitious ? ;
. Who of theso boys has los~ a kni£~ ? ' § 164~ .
,.

,.

,·

148

14,9;

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

With the return of spring came four martins, who were evidentl)
the same whicli had been bred under those eaves the previow
year.
·
· ·· "· ·

17. His improper to mix different kinds of pro- ·
,nouns in the same construction.
Ere you remark another's fault,
Bid thy 6wn conscience look within.
You have mine, and I have thine.
The poor man who can read, and that has a taste for reading, · ;&n : ·
find entertainment at home.
'.
·
The man who came with us, and that was dressed in black, is tho
preacher. Such as yours, or which you bought. - or such as But what we saw last, and which pleased us most, was the farce . .
Policy keeps coining truth iri' lter mints, - such truth as it can
tolerate ; and every die ex£_ept ·its own site breaks, and casts
away.
·

18. H is generally improper to U§le different forms
of the verb in the same construction. · ·
Does he not behave well, and gets his lessons well?
Did you not borrow it, and promised to return it soon ?
To profess regard, and acting differently, cfu~overs a base mind.
Spell~ng is easier than to parse or cipher.
.
·
To say he is relieved, is the same as saying he ~s dismi&sed.

19.· What is forced upon the speaker, or what wiil
simply happen t0 him, is better expxessed by shall
or should than by will or would.
Will or would generally represents ~he act or. state as something
desired or wished by the subject..- See also ·p. 75. ·
: ·
'
A foreigner, having fallen into the Thames, cried ou~, ·,,I ur!l .IM ·
drowned, nobody shall help me."
.
We)vill have to take our coats, or we will suffer from cold.
I
Will I.find you herewhen I return?
I was afraid I would lose my, money.
If I wished him to come, I wo11/,f lta11e to write to him.
,.;.:.·

20 . The past tense, ~nd Ii~t the .perf~lt J'li~~~i.~~;P1e,·
should be used to ' predicate, without an·.auxilJ.fi:'J'.
a past act or, state..
.. . .. . . · . . . .,.
The pei·fect participle, · an~ ·not t?e p~st.. tense,
should be used after be~· 'have, ·and their variations.

)

I done so. They done th~ ~~s~ th~y. co~ld.• . .
· . ..
He run all the way. I never seen it. He has took JD~ hat.
The ground is froze. The horse wa.s stole. ~y slate .is brok~.
fhe sun has rose. I seen him when he done it. , . .
.
I micrht ltave went last Saturday, . an'\l I ought to ha~e went.
ha.~ tore her
, • Mary
. .
" book. .
He b"egun w ell I knowed..' it.
I knew he had wr~te it; .for')~ .w~s 'l.~11 wri.t,. .
The tree had fell, and its br~nche~ were broke. ,

. 21. Avoid n~edless ·1>ai;;sive forms, and generally
the passive form of intrans~ti¥e verbs.
. . .
He is possessed vf great t.alents::.' "\Ve are agreed on t~.s p01n,~~My friend is arrived. He was.,already come. · .
•
\vhat is become of him ? , T,he tuip.!ll~ is entirely ~eased,

22: The hiclicative moo~, in ~cond~ion~l Llauscs,
expresses doubt in · th~ regular time . of }he, .tense;.
the subjunctive mooq ~xp~·ess.(}S qoubt or m~Ie ~up­
position, and ma~,~ ~"the ~e~s~. ~~y~ f~r~.llf1~· 1 1 P t~~ie.
(See pp. 18, 20, and 21.)

·

'

.

, .

,

.

. ,.

. ..~. ,• •

I wish I was at home. ·If:it rains to-1i'ITow; we .shal7 not.go;;lle talked to me as if! was a· wi~o'~· ' .' .- .. '!·-.~···
[f the book be in i;ny libr¥y'".l ,wJ!l ~e~~ it:
; .,
1·
If the book is found \n n!Y)ibpi,ry' I w1~l sen'.1-1t:
.:
.
If the book was in my library,~ woul.d send it.
\
. •
·If the book were in my. library; s0me one must have taken },t . ..

._,., . :'

23. The verbs of a sentence should · correspond in
tense, an cl also be consistent with the ~ther ':ords. '.
I have bought it, and no~ I have ~old it.·,-;- See p.' 2~,
Ue th'l.1 was dead, sat up; and begari to' speak.
·

·

/

150

ENGLISH GR1}Ml\IAR.

I know the family more than twenty years.
Next Christmas I shall be at school a year.
'
This was four years ago next August.
I shoulcl be obligecl to him, if he will grant my request.

(

..

24. Present facts and unchangeable truths, ~usL ·)
be expressed in the present tense:
Our teacher told us that the air 7rnd weight.
He told me where the church was.
Is not that clear? - I shoulcl think it was.
What did you say his name was?
What did you say was the capital of Florida?
·No one suspected that he was a foreigner.
Flato maintained that God was the soul of the uni l'erse.

25. T~ie perfect infinitive Q.enotes "something as' .
past at the time referred to ; and the present iµfl11i " ·
tive, as present or futui·e.
I intended to have written to him.
H was your duty to have arrested him.
1 expected to have heard from him yesterday.
I hoped to have met several of my friends there. ·
He is suppo,ed to be born about a thousand years ago.

4. llliPROPER ARRANGEMENT OF WoRDS.
General Rule IV. - All the parts of a sentei1c~
should be so arranged as to make it correct, clear, · ·
•
a11d elegant.
4

.

FALSE SYNTAX>

S11ecial Rules.

1. Nouns and pronouns should be so used as

to leave the case or relation ambiguous.
The seyler hel·e the savage slew. (Which slew the other?)
And thus the son the fervent sire addressed.
If the lacl should leave. his father, he would die. (Repeat noun.):
Lysias promised his father that he would never forsake his frienclJ(
The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, -w7w had .µexc1
before don e rn unjust an action.

.

. 15.1 ~ .

~

2. Politeness usually · .requir~s th~t tlle~· spf?_ak~l '
1
shall mention tqe adcfrl:)_S~~cf p'erson.ifu:st, ',~nd ~him~::
self last.
·· · ·
": ~;
I, Mary, and you, are to go next Sunday• .
Mot.her saicl that I arid you_ mu~t stay at home. .
-

.

•

.

"

4

,

.

3. Adjectives, adverhs, and adjuncts, must gener.>
ally be placed as near as p9ssible to . ~he partnv.hich _
..
·.
they modify.
·
I bought a new pair of shoes•. -There is afresh basket of eggs..·
I only recited one lesson. (Only what.?),' He is considered ·gen·
erally honest. At that time I w~hed s'omebody would h~ng me a
thousand times. vV antecl ~ a yo,u ng man to take .c are . of some ..
.horses, of a religious turn ofomi1i</., ,, A iecture on the methods of
teaching geography at te.I} o'clock; ' All .that ~e ~~ar,- 'Ye sho_1Jld
not believe. 1"Every man rcari not 1affor'a 'tb keep' acoach: ' Please
to sing the three firs{ stl).nza8: '"' ('4pply:)the General-·Rule.} '' The' · ;
two first fell covered with wounds.j,, ~~e, two -last 1::4sses)i,ave not :
recited. He is just such. ano(~~r,
~fll: " : ; .:; !," .. r ., 1· ••
"
.
·> ;,.r ,.,,. J· ....... . , , ·. i i
t.··
......
--

..

i:

4. It is generally iinp1:0Pe,! :t~ .viace'a~:_"a~verJ>. ~e,-:
tween to and the rest
of ;._}_:
the
infinitive.
,... :
·
·.· .
,
·
.'
,• I . ._. ·
1

~

~

1

_ · )"'

.,

They were not such as tofully answer my purpose. ·
He had men enough to strongly. garrison the"fort..
,.
We were to cautiously and quiclcty advance1~~~~pill _~?~ye. ·"

5. Whe'u a part Qf a sentence refel·s to eacii oJ tw~
or more other parts, it sh_ouldJ:ie suitable to, ~a5\i· , ,~.. ,
It is. different and superior ·to the old.- ,,, ,
They might, .and probably were; good. , .
.
.
He can ancl ought to give more attention to his busines8;
The reward has already or will hereafter be given to him.
Cedar is not so hard, but more durable,.than uak.
' · ... ..
' Cedar ;. not· sv hard as oak, but more ·iturabZ.. · Oomp!ote tho OOW1Wotlo1l.; af•.U.. .
.. \ .
.: , .. '
·
first part, and leave understood that of .tho se<10nd. : '

It is different ancl much better than (h~ ;old.~,,
She is fairer but not so an:llable, as liex ~i.st14r.

, ·"·

J

.

·..

APPE~Ill)C·. .

• Jl)8

(.

·~:; ·.~>i ·0::,, .
·~·q-_c~~N~'. .. .. t L· ' "-,;_,' -~".
' !

. ;• . , " ' " .

224. Accent is a stress ot" voice on ·.a c'erta,in sylfablc of a word.
Ex,_:Gar'-den, a-muse'; · an en'-~ranc~ to en~trance'.
"An au-gust' processi.on in the month cif .Au'-gust." •
A ce en t belongs only to words of two or more syllables.

APPENDIX.

~25.

Words of three or more ' syllables generally
have a chief accent, called the primary accent; and
one or more inferior accents, caUed the secondary
uccent or accents.

.

..

219. Letters make syllables, syllables niake words~
words make sentences, an·d sentences express thoughts~~
220. A Letter is a character that . denotes o~e~, dr .-.·.
. more of the elementary sounds of language. '.
Ex. - A, b, c: age, at, art; bubble; cent, cart.'

't"

as, eau, ;i~, iew, uog . . ·
•

..

...

~

·
..

,. .,, .... ' : '

·-

•

b~p;

d, t; k, q, chard, andg }lard : .
8.K~VOWELS : /, h, j, l, m, n!. r, s, v, x, z, ' - 4'
c soft, g soft, and w and y begiuninfl'.

MUTES:

Consonants.

a vowel sound.
\

Liquids : I,

111,

·,_:'.-' , . _, .:,..

n, r, and p~o,bably ~ and .~ ;
J••

~

.._

r-.,

222. A Vowel is a letter that denote;S p~e tµl}.
223. A. Conson)mt is a letter that· can n:ot -be _·
uttered without the aid of a vowels und.
·

~

;· .

.

.

.

4\.:}t'

j

'

Con'-que~t, ~t-tor'-n0y,~ dis-a-gree'-~e;n~· .. ~ .

,

.

>t"'•

...

.

. .

... :
Tem'-per-ate, 'mu~ta:bil'-i-ty; Je~ru'-sa-'.lem ..
Most words used · in . our language. 'h a.ve the cliief ac~ent either
on the penult or else on the antepenult.
· ··· ·--· '

J;~

TRIPHTHONGS;

,

ANTEPENULT:

The letters are generally divided into the .following class~s: · . · ·.
•
•
•
•
Vowels 1 a, e, i, o, u, w=u, and y=i. So1ueUj 1 J_CQIU· ~
bin e<l into, ' ·. ,..~ d~;'\~f ~ · ~ ... , ·
DIPHTHONGS; as, ai, au, O}/, ee, ei, eu, .o._i, oo, . ~u;: 1 t; ...:.

Letters.

-

226. 'The pl!nult syllable of: a word is the se~ond
syllable from the en,d; and ~he a?1'tl!P.,~?1i£,~t is th~ tqir~
syllable from the end. . ·
·
' ,
.
PENUL'r:

221. The English langµage contairis · ab~~t fm:ty ; ~
elementary sounds, which are represented'.by 'twenty- · .
·. · · ... · t.,.
six letters, called the alphabet.
.

Ex. - Lu'-mi-na'-ry · ~n'-te.:ce'-dent; in.:Com'-pre~hen'"si-biJt-i-ty.

"

SYLLA.BLES. ..

a

.

.

227. A Syllable is a letter, or un\on ~f letters,
pronounced as ·one unbroken sound;
··
·.
Ex. - A, on, no; stretched; 'a-:e-ri-~, p~f~-sion. · . :~ :r~
228. In ' dividing wor~s ,intO 'syllables, ·w~ ·sh~uld
give to every syliable prepisely those Jetter31 whicli the
correct pronunciation gives ~fo it.
Divide into S!Jllahles : -·

/

.· •

Artery, varnish, blaukct,:: extraordinary, monkey, Qften,
'unserviceable, grafter,.•fe). ·~y,. felonious, 1 piqt~,e, active,
waiter, Boston, Diana. , '. , , 1~. ·
· '
._
-../..
,I

":

l

•

.•

"·

154

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

-. \
-·
fixed on the last syllable, .:...._·double -tlie consonant
befqre a vowel in the derivative word.

WORDS. ·

Ex. - Sad, sadder, sadde;t ;' i,ebel', ielielled/rebe~ion; ' r,ob, ,
roliber; win, winning; fop, foppiSh •;;'di-uw:," drummerj 'up, upper 1
1t.1lmit, admittance; quiz, quizzed. "
~· "

- 22!}. A Wo1tl is a syllable, or a union
used as the sign of some idea.
Ex. - Man, horse, pink, green, strikes, down, because.

U, t:1.fter q, is a. consommt, ~quivalent to tb'.e consonan~ to.
.

.:.!:JO. vVoRDS are divided, according to their num- ·
lier of syllables, into rnonOS'ljllables, disS'ljllablcs, tri.syl- ·'

lubles, and polyS'ljllables.

,

-

'· ...

_.A monosyllable is a word of one syllable. -Act.
.A dissyllable is a word of two syllables. .Active~
.A trisyllable is a word of three syllables. .Activelg:
.A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllabJes.'"4~tiviiy.

"
Rule I. - Doubling.
Words of one syllable', ending in a ·single ·· cott
nant preceded by a single vowel; and words Of····
syllables, ending in the same way, with . the

.

.

.

. . ·.

\

-·

RULES FOR SPELLING.
c
•.
2:33, S1rnlling· is the. art of expressing words by - ·..their right letters, properly arranged. This art must r.
be learned chiefly from spelling-books; _dietion~l'i

'?"

_

!!;..

.

--

:

•

'

:

-~·<

. Rule II•..:..... Final
Y, ' ' ·:, . i;.,t ...• +: _. .:
;
Final Y, preceded by a consonant and followed ·uy
any letter 'except i, is ch.a:rige<l into 't in the-dertvative word.
··
· · '1~ • --

into nine classes, called parts of speecl•• - See p_. 1.

· ·

.

'

Good writers·sornetimes double ·Z,' contrary to the Rule above.
Ex.-:-" Traveller" -Priscoti, .Bryant; "carolled'' -:'Irving. ·

A primitivei word is not formed from another '~ord . . Bre~z·e:
.A derivative word is formed from anqther word. Breezy;
A compound word is composed of two or more words.: fiea-Breeze•.

and observation in reading.

.

L

:'

2:12. WoRDS are divided, according to their use,

.

plac,e. ,

Ex. - Seal, sea!ed; gild, · gilded; hard, harder; -infer',_, (ffi·
fer're1l,) inference; bigot, bigote<l; tax; tcixed. ~·x final= twG
<>onsonants, ks or g_z; . t)ierefor!l..never doubled.
."· · ·
There Is a difference bet;.~n r;be~. ~d:.ro~~"'..,plan·i~K . 8.nd P
__Ia,nni!'i',~~'' and

""'tter.

231. WoRDS are divided, acco:rdi1~g to their foj-ma.:.

tion, into primitive, derivative, and cornp~~--;- ;• ·

t~kes

In other.cases, no doubling

,

I ~,,

."'!:,.

Ex. - Fly, flies; glory; g1Clries, glorify, glorified; glorifying,
glorification; try, trial; pretty,7prettier, preUiest { merry, m.errily,
merriment l pity, pitiabl~; ·ivy, ;ivie<;l.
· ·r ·.. ·: _\·>~ :~ :~. . ''r·.-:
Eiweptions1 Most derivative~ ,of sly, dr.y, and shy j' a,s, dry!y.

Final Y, preceded -~Y a yowel, or follow_ed by .~, .re
ma,ins unchanged in. the
derivative
word.
: · · ...•
·· . . . . "''
'.
i
.
"":.rl:'·· .
E'x. - Chimney, chimneys; gay, . gayer,- gayest, ·gftyety j er:
crying, crier; destroy, destroyer; annoy, anrwyance j 'joy,' joyful
Exceptions1 Pay, paid; saj.d, 'laid, dairy; · st~id · (rernain~d)'
rtayed ( cLecked).
' ·
·
•, ..;f. '-. ..

L

.,

;•

~

~

...

•

'"1

~. :.~\...·

:\

J

.,.. ·~

Rule ,111; .,.- ,f inal ·E•
:Final E, when silent; is r~ect~'- befo1:e-: a "voiverin
the derivative word~ But it· if:fr~tained when needed

/

l~J

ENGLISH GHAMMA'U.

APPEND~.

to kl'ep c or !J soft, or to preserve the identity of the
word.

238. A Suf'fix is a letter or letters joined to tl}e _e_nd
of a word, to modify its ·meaning.

15()

~x:.

- Bite, biting; force, forcible ·sale, salable; rogue, roguish.
Agree, agreeable;. peace, peacea,ble ; · singe, singeing.
'l'h~re is a <li~erence between dying and dyeing, ~inging anti Jingr.ipg. ~ ,

Final E is refoined before a consonant in the deriva~
ti ve word. Sometimes it is rejected when · not needed. ·
Rx:,. - Base, baseless; definite, dejiilitely; eye, eyelet; whole,
wholesome, but wholly. Due, ditly ;, true, truly ; awe, awful; judge,
judgment. (D softens the and renders thee unnecessary;) .
V{ords ending with ie change i into Y'i before i, to prevent the , ':
..
doubling of i; as, Die, dying; .' tie, tying; lie, lying.

g,

RULE

I.

Swimming,
steaming,
thinned,
learned,
'
airy,
starry,
propelled,
benefited.
-r·
'

RULE

II.

Witticism,
laziness,
loyalty,
allies,
alleys,
reliable,
relying,
gayly.

Exercises.
ROLE III.

r

'

MISCELLANEoui.

Pining,
pinning,
valuable,
chargeable,
traceable,
sedgy,
paroled,
patrolled.

Scar,red,
scared, J
gluing,
hoeing;
acknowledgment,
vying,
truly,
fringing.

DERIVATION.

2.'14. Derivation is the forming of words ft:om

of:her words.
2iJ5, 'l'he elements of words, in derfv·atio11,, :..:~~·~ ,: ,
1·oots ' . pre~xes
and. su.n:""es
' . •~·.;,;£i'.};·
:, ·
'.flJ
'
;JJWJ •
~?a.
· ·23H. A Root is the chief part ·of a w.or<l,· 't~. ·~'t;: :
part which receives the prefix or the suffix. A
~"1
237. A P1·e'fix is a letter or letters joiµed r W.:
begummg of a word, to modify its mean~ug. · ;.«?-';'

o

ROOTS .

PREFIXES.

De, down.
Re, again.
Ex, out.
Con, toµ; ether.
Un, not.
SUFFIXES.

De - press ; to .press down.
Re - build..; to build again. ~­
Ex - pel (drive); to drive out.
Con-nect ·(join); to join together. .
Un - sound; not sound.
.

ROOTS.

Able, can be.
Read-able; c.ai:i be read.
Er, person or thing.
Read-er; one who reads, a reading-book.
En, to make.
Black-en 1-to make·black.
Ne.,s,:state or qua\ity. · Happi-ness; the state of being happy.•
Y, Laving, resembling. Ston-y; having stones, hard as stone.
Sometimes a word has two or more prefixes or suffi..ies; as, re·
. _,,.
·
.
.
.. ' .
pro-tluct-ive-ness. ~

239. In making words from others, the part!) combined are sometimes varied, for the sake of euphony,
by a change, an omission, or an in's~rtion of
letter or letters.
The last letter of the prefix must often be the
same as the first letter of the root.

soine

Ex. - Con-lect, col-lect; ·dis-fer, dij-fer; _ in-mod~rate, - wi.mod
1irate; con-operate, co-operate;: dis:vulge, di-vulge; a-archy, ranarchy; mueilage-ous, mucilaginous • .

CAPITAL LETTERS.
l 2!0. Small letters are pr~ferred in au · .ordii1acy

,...1

writing, except where capitaJ. \etters ari:i
distinction.
/ -+1. Every sentence
letter.

t,or

_ne~~ed_ .

,
.·"

.
\.

sho~1ld . begin with a ··~apij,al

. , -X.,

ENGLISfl ·GRAMMAR.

9. The name .of ·an o_~j~~t-·fully personifie<l'."~~h~?ld
oegin with a cap~tal: · '..
·· · · ·
. .'; ,· ~..
Ex. - " Close t~ Ignorance :~¥ he; d,augqt~r., Pride-'.' - §1.f::ifi·

· £. Every direct quotation should begin with .a
, capital.
Ex. - Solomon says, " Pride goeth before destruction."
They shouted," victory." He answered, no.

W.

-10. The chief words of . ~v,~9' 1.phtase "Gse~ ~~ a
. beading or as a title, should begin with capit~ls.,

W means that the sentences ai·e wrong, and should be corrected•.

3. Every line of poetry should begin with a capital..

Ex. - " He called bis book •The Te~pliof Tr~tb.';;--•

Ex . - " Happy the man whose early bloom
Provides for endless years to come." - Trumbull.

-~

11. Ai1y unus~ally import.a nt ;ord, especially .whe~
it denotes the subject of discQurse, may begin ,with I\
capital.
· _., . ' ' ·
··

4. The words I and 0 should always be capitals.
Ex. - For I will not forsake thee, ·O, friend of my youth. .
He knew i was there. Such, o music !~s thy power.

Ex. - "Preserve the. Unio.n-:and tbe .. Constitntion."

W.

5. Every word denoting the Deity sho.uld begin
with a cap~tal.

24J. Italic letters, and: sometimes smal!• capitals,
are used for emphasis or distinction.
• , ._7- \~·

Ex. -The Almighty; the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.
"The hope of my spirit turns trembling to Thee." -J..foore.
W. divine providence; the eternal; the omnipotent.

" Here lreign king, and, to enr~ thee more, t~y ~ing a~~ !?rd."

1. Italics are generally used to. distinguish for~ign
words and also common worils when we speak of
'
-~·
- them 111e1~ely as being words.
·'

6. Every proper name, or each chief word of a
proper name, should b~gin with a capital.

Ex. - " He was sec~etary pro tem_por~."
" Secretary is a common noun.'·' ·

Ex. -Thomas, Susan, Monday, Boston,· Amelia B. Welby.
W. mary, george, march, saturday, kentucky, henry 1. gaylor.

-

'

2. . I tali cs are ' generally ,used .to'. d1sthigrii$hf:';~p.e .
names of boats, ships, newspapers, and magazh~~~/~1 '.":

7. Every title, whether used alone or in connection
with a proper noun, should begin with a capital. Ex. - Mr. Brown; Judge Holt; 'Alexander the Great.
W. From capt.·Jones; lord Byron; Joseph Allen, ,tesq.-

..

8. Every word derived from a proper name shou~~ . .
begin with a capital, provided it has not ·become ~ a,;;. ~;
.common word of the language.
··· . · ·?
Ex. - Columbia, American, Roman, Christian. . · · ·".:·-~::~.··;•. -~~.;.;••
•
"\.fl, ·~hn; ;-•
But, damask froL-:i Damascus; daguerrotype from .Dagu_e:r,~~J..-~·i'.\

·-

...

. .-

~.'"':, -~ ~.: .

. , - ·i ; ,
_,. . . . f

.,,

· Ex. :- "The Neptune sailed yesterday"."
. '''.".f'·,
"Tliis article apEear_ed in,the_Atlaiitic Mo?P~~'I/,.''. ;:· ·, .
One line is drawn UI!der a w,ritten , ~ord, ~;_.?ll,no:te , sl,<i_n!J.'!i!. OJ;'
Italic letters; two lines ~e draw~ ~nder, to deno~: 8~.A.~L q.i.PJ:r'\LS ;·
Jnd three lines, to denote 'CAPITALS. ·

1

.:.-::'~

! i ',,. .· .

-/,_

t

PUNC'PU;4 .! 'l0-:i:f · - .

~~

'

'!'.

,\·:

;~

.

- , ,·.,

212. Punctuation ti:~tjttfe~-oC,t'.h ~ ·~P~l}it~"" or nijl.r):cs
0

used' in writing !!-lld printi~1g. ' ''"> · '· · .

·t·

.

,

160

The principal marks of this kind are the following: The Period; which denotes the longest pause or aful). stop.
XTbe Colon; which denotes the next shorter .pause.
; The Semicolon; which d.enotes the next shorter pause.
, The Comma; whicJ1 denotes the shortest pause.
(question
The Interrogation-Point; whic:h· is placed after every direct
The Exclamation-Point; which denotes great surprise, joy, ·
or other excitem_en t.
·

/ \,

·

The Dash; which denotes emphasis or abruptness , ..,. . .
The Curves; which enclose some explanation or remark that
can be omitte<.l.
[ ] The Brackets; which enclose some correction or explanation
that is generally inserted by another person.
"" The Quotation-Marks; which enclose words taken from another person. ,
[ tation.' "
' ' "Single Quotation-Marks enclose 'a quotation within a quo- _
' The Apostrophe; which denotes possession or omission.
• The Hyphen; which joins the parts of most compound words,
and is placed at the end of a line when a part of a word
- is carried to the next line. i
' The Acute Accent; which marks stress of vo_ice.
' The Grnve Accent; which shows a sinking of the voice, or
brings out a syllable.
The lllacron; which marks a long sound, as in ltve.
v
The Ilreve; which marks a short sound, as in l!ve.
Th~ Direr'esis; which separates two vowels into two syllables.
/I The Caret; which is used in writing, to show where words or
letters are to be inserted.
(ions of a book
} The Ilrace; which serves to' connect parts.
§ The Section; which is sometimes used to mark the small divis
'II The Paragraph; which shows where a new subje~t begins.
Ii', t, t The Star, Dagger, and Double Daggeq which are used
as marks of reference. L etters or figures are sometimes
·
·
used for the same purpose.
• • •, - - , or • • • • • Stars, Double Dash, or l'e.riods; w.hich di)" ,
note omission or suppression.
' ·,_ ·. .~

Ex. -

John W. Ringgold, Esq., _addressed th~ a.;sembly.
COLON • . -

~.

The Colon is used, 1. As an intermediate point between tile semi·
colon and the period.
2. After words that promise a_series or statement,
or something important.
.
... ,.·

( )

The lln"d I whieh ~t~' •peoi& •ttentton W "me<hfog.

PERIOD.

l2ta. The I•e_riod is put at the end of every phra_sti
or sentence complete by itself, ap.d not i1;lterrogative
or ~xclamatory; also after al)breviations; . , ,

llonco it is generally placed after interjections or unusually earnest addresses.

11?

1'61

APPENDIX.-

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

That is, after a statement ~hat ends wi.th 1%$ fo~ws~ !he fo~rig, , !~"'•
lhese, or other words suggestive of"t~e - same mtarung; also ge
Y'atte1
a formal address that begins a discourse or letter.
.

I ,

,

'

.

·, )'
,

.

·

. .

3. Before an important remark added to a · sen
tence, especially when it su,ms up the s~ntenee.
'

Ex.-The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth, e'er gave,
Await alike the ine.v itable hour: . . _
The paths of glory le~d but to the grave.

y

SEMICOLON.

'

2t5.

The Semicolon is· used, 1. To separate parts that have the comma, .or p~rts
that require a point greater than the com_Iiia ~p.d less
than the colon.

.

Ex. -

Though deep, yet clear; · though gentle, yet not dull. __

2. To separate th~ parts of .a loose series.
(

"~ .

Ex. - Ev\tj' thing h_as its time . to ·flourish; eyery thing grows·
ild ; every thmg pas~es away.
·
~
•

/<
.

I

162

L,

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
COMMA.

2t6. The Comma is used, 1. To separate the terms of a closely related se··
:ies, or two such t erms when the · connective i11
omitted.
Ex. -

Hedges, groves, orch.ards, and gardens, were in bloom.
It was a dark, desolate region.

2. To separate contr~sted terms, and terms of
which a pa1;t in one might also be referred improperly to the other.
Ex. - He is poor, but honest.
'
The troops landed , and killed a hundred Indians.
"The troope landed and killed a hundred Indians,:' p.a.s a. different meaning.

3. To s.et off a word, phrase, or clause, that
coines between other parts, and bi·eaks their connection.
Ex. - You 'Yill then, lwwever, be in no better condition.
Moral culture, especially in youth, is of the greatest importance.
They set out early, and, before the dawn of day, reached the place
Columbus, who was a Genoese, discovered America.

4. To set off a modifying word or phrase that is
not closely connected with what it modifies,. or is
removed from it by inversion.
Ex. - "In a cen tral region, midway on the continent, though
somewhat nearer the Pacific than the Atlantic ocean, at an elevation of nearly seven thousand five hundred feet, lies th e remarkable valley of Mexico, encircled by a colossal rampart of the hardest roe ks, and fo rming a circumference of about sixty-seven leagu~s,
with a sky of the deepest blue, a serene atmosphere, and a ma"·
nificent landscape." - Prescott. (L.ies where? What . kind ;f ·
valley?) H ence, also, loose appositive words or phrases are set
off; as, "Such was T ec umseh, the celebrated I ndian warrior." '

•

APPEND~..:

5. To set off words or phrases used indep~ndently
or absolutely.
.Ex. - This book, Mary, is yours. O, ye.~; 'sir, I do know.
Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. · ;
•

!

., •

.!

. • ·,;

. •.

'.!

:. : · · ·
{-

•

•

'

6. To separate the predicate· from its subject, when
lhe subject 'is very long, has a clause, or ,consists of .
.punctuated parts.
Ex. - That one bad ~xaniple spoils many good precepts, is true.
Ne;ther time nor distance, n.either weal nor woe; can separate us.

7.. To separate <ilauses that '~.re neither very cfo~ely
nor very loosely connected.
·
Ex. -There mountains rise, and circling oceans fl~w. ':.·
If Homer was the greater genius, Virgil was ·the better.'artist.:
We next went to London, which is the largest city in the world.
·DASH,

217. Th_e ~ash is used,-'--i. To show omission caused by interruption.
Ex. - "

False marble I where?

HERE LIES THE GREAT" -

2. To show emphasis or suppressed feeling, or to
show an unexpected turn in·thought or style.
Ex. - The pulse fluttered- stopped - went on - throbbed stopped again - _moved - stopped.
This world, 'tis true, was made for Cresar - but for Titu~. tqo.

3. To set off ·a parenthesis, especially when .emphatic, or when there are other points -w ithin.it. :..
Ex. - Jle was dressed - and, indeed, SQ were . they ii~a~ly all
.,.... in coarse homespun.

·

4. Before echoes~ or where that is. or namely is
_-P
understood. ·
Ex.-They were governed by the worst passions, - malice and
revenge.

•
164

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The dash is also used after side-heads, and generally befora
11uthorities when in the same line with the end of the par~raph.
(The teacher should explain what is meant_.)

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.

W-- For e'>ercises in punctuation, let the reading-books be used. The
pupil may give rul es for the poil!ts which he finds; and he may also be
eq uired" to capitalize and punctuate paragraphs transcribed without capi'1s or points.

GRAMMAR AND ITS DIVISIONS.

2-18. Grammar is the science which teaches how
io speak and write cofrectly.
249. Eng·Iisb Grammar is the science which teaches
bow to speak and 'vrite the English language cor:.
rectly.
250. ENGLISH GRAll'lMAR is divided into five parts;
P ronunciation, Orthogmphy, Etymology, Syntam, and
P rosody.
·
'> 251. Pronunciation treats of the sounds and classification of letters, and of the ·sounds and stress
of syllables in uttering separate words.
25.2. Ortho~Taphy treats of the forms of letters,
and t eaches how to spell words correctly.
',/ 253. Etymolog·y treats of the derivation, classes,
and properties of words.
2:)4, Syntax treats of the relations and arrangement ·of words in sentences.
255. Prosot.ly treats of figures, _versification, utter- ,
an1~e, and punctuation.
.I
Th e teacher shou ld expld n the foregoing secti0n.
if'·-~
The pupil who wishes to obtain a more thorough and •cientific Jrnowledge of a ll that is taught in this book, should now study Keri's CommonSchoul Gra.;imar.

, 'i

al.

t;.

.,

d
21. Which modifiers a.re called ,
1. Repeat Rule 1st; - 2 ; adverbial?
• . •
. 20
3d;-4th;-5th;-6th;
b
_7th;_ 8th; - 9tb,1.22. Tell, so far as yop cnn, Y
10th; -11th; - 12th; - .
what 111 ·noun or pronoun
13th; .,-14th; - 15th j '
may be modified- .
' 20!
16th.
23. ·By what, a ·verb.
•
: 20~
2. Repent Note 1st; - 2d; 24. What is said of. the pred13d · - 4th· - 5th; - 6th; ·
cnte-verbbef - •
· 21f
-7th;-Sth;-9th.
·
Of modified adjectives and
3. Givethegeneralformulafor
adverbs? •
•
•
· 211
parsing. .
26. Of modifiers?
• 21\l
4 . Give the formula for pars- .
27 . When is a clause or_.sening an article; - an adtence declarative? - mterjective ; -:- a no:m ; - ~
rogative? - imperative?
pronoun; - a firute. verb,.
:_ exdamatory?
•
• 213
- an infinitive; - a par28. Into what classes are senticiple; - an adverb i. tences divided?
.
. 214
a preposition; -- a <:0 n29 • 'Vhat is a' simple sentence '? 215
junction; -.an mterJection.
·
30. What is a complex sen- ·
I). What is Anaiysis?
• 190
tence?
•· •
• · · 216
6. What is Parsing'? .
'. 1?1
Give the prec~ding defini7. On what three .chief rel~tions.
.
tions of words 1s Analysis
32. ·What iS a compound sen-.
based? ·
· ten~e?
•
•
•
• 217
1 What are the elements of
33. Give the . preceding defini. sentences?
:
• · • 192
• tions. ~
9, Into what six classes can
34. - Of what parts or members
these be divided'/
Page 131
may compound -sentences
consist?
. 2111
10. Into what can.all, sentences
·
be resolved? .
,
. § 193 35; Into wbat four grea~ c1asses
can all the errors in the use
11 What is said of independent
of language be divided?
· words or phrases? •
• 194
36. What is the first General
Rule? · , ,
12 Of what two parts J?USt
everv c,laus.e or propos1t.J.on
_.
·
con~ist ? •
•
•. 195 - 37. What is said, in the specia1 .
.
What
.jg the subject? .
•
rules,
·.about
·
superfluous
196
13
pronouns.? - two . ne~~14, What is tpe predicate ?
• 197
, tives"?...::.. double compar1- ·
15. What is the subject-nomi. son?. ~ too many l!-r,t\cles.?
n ath•e? . .
.
.
· 198
· superfluous prepos1twns? ·
16. What is the predicate-verb? 199 . 38. What is the 'se_cond General
l7. How are subjects and pred- ·
Rule,? · . , ·.
.
icates classified?
•
• 200 39, .What 1s said, m th~ s. pe~1al
·
rules about the rnsert1on
18. Define these classes.
·
of ~rticles ?. ::- improper
19. What is a modifier '? •
• 205
con'1parison? -_part~ em~ Which modifier& are called-- '
phatjcauy-_-dist111gu~shed?
d' · ·1
· 206 ·
- part1c1p1al nouns I
.•
•
•
.
., ,_: .. , a Je7uve

25.

SUMMARY.

165

I

l·

166

ENGLISH GRAM!fAR.'

W. What is thCJ third

Genera~

Rule?
tl. What is said 1 in the special
rules, of Uicm used for
those 1 - of ad verbs ana
adjectives 'I - of two objects compared? - of the
leading term, in comparison? - of compared adj ectives and plural nouns, improperly expressed 'I ~ of
words that snould not be
compare<l, or made plural 'I
- of a and an ?- of a or
an and the f - of the subject of pa;;sive verbs? - of
the posse,si,·e apostrophe 'I
- of a compound word or
a complex term expressed
in the possessive case? of a pair or series of nouns
ex pre~sed i11 the po:;;sessive
case~ - of harsh or inelegant possessives? - of relative pronouns 'I - of mixing dift'1:::rent pronouns, or
difterent forms of the
verb ? -of shall and will1
- of past tense and perfect
participle? - of improper
passive forms? - of the
indicative and the sub•
junctive mood ?-of the
tenses 'I - of the infinitives?
'2. What is the fourth General
Rule'I
•
4.3 What is said, in the special
rules, of the position of
nouns and pronouu::; "? of the position of adjectives, a dverbs, and adjuncts?- of adverbs that
modify infinitives'/ - of a
part of a sentence that
relates . to each of two · or
more other parts'(
(4 What is a letter{
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15. Into what classe3 are the
letters divided I'
4G. What· is a vowel?
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47. What is a consonant?.
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48. What is.accent'I
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i9. What is said of primary and
~
,,._... ~~ecoudury accent1 .

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50. What is a syllable? •·
. 22l
61. How are words divided into ·
sxllables? •
•
• 22i
52. What is a word?
• . • 229 53. How are words classified
accqrding to their syllables?
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• 230
54. Define each class. • •
•
55. How are words classified 'ac~ord in g to their formation ·1 2.'11
56. Define each class.
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57. How are words classified
nccording to their u.s e '/ • 232
58. Define each class. ·
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59. What is spelling?
•
• 233
60. What is the first Rule?
61. What is the second Rule?
62. What is the third Rule?
63. What is derivation? .
. 234
6cl. What are the elements of
words in derivation?
. 235
65. What is a root ·1 .
• 236
• 237
66. What is a prefix?
67. What is a suffix?
•
. 238
68. How are small· letters used?
and for what are capitals
used?
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. 240
69. Whnt is said of the first
word of every ·sentence?
70. Of direct quotations 'I
71. Of lines of poetry?
72. Of I and 01.
73. Of wo~ds · denoting the
Deity·/ ·
74. Of proper, names?
75. Of titles?
76. Of words derived from .
. proper names?
77. Of the names of personified
objects?
78. Of capitalized phrases?
79, Of important words 'I
80. For what are Italics used?
81. What is punctuation?
82. What is said of the period t
- the co lon? - the senucolon? - the dash?
219 83. What is said of the comma in
regard to series of terms?
- parenthetic terms 'I loose modifiers? - inde222.
pendent words 'I - subject ·
22:3
and predicat-3? - cla uses?
224
84. What. is said of grammar
uud its divisions?
225

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WoRDS

uSED ··IN i DJ:JJ:J!'EREN'i' .wA;Y~..

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. Many wc;irds ~IY u~M as wtfer.en,t p,arts. speech;· ~!·." A black
horse;" "To black· boots;" "Black is a color." . T~e - ~t black·
is an adjective ; the second,_ a ·verb; ~11:~ tlie third, a noun. ~
man who cultivates the ·'eartll; ilf usually called : a '. farmer; but 1f
h'l should engage in the.pusiness of buying ai;!-d selling ·g~s, he
would become a merchant:' even so the ~me ·word, accordmg _to
its use or meaning, belongs sometimes .to ·one part of speech: an•l

qf

aometimes to anot)ier.
All is used, As an adjective. "All flowera :must .fade." ·
As a noun. "Not all that .glitters, is gold."
_
[~P·"
A~ a pronoun. "W~alth, pleasure, and honors,-ru-qst a.II .be given
As an ad~erQ.. !'I ~µi_.<!,µ ~lo11e;" i._. e., .whoily_. -. ;
_,
,
.
"
As is used,A~ an adverb. ''A~ cold as ice ; " .degr.e.£. " Skate as I ·skate ;
. · ma~ner~ ... It felf.{ZS I entered ; " time. As a conjunction. !'As .[since] -you have clome, I
go with you.n
As a prono~n. ' " Let such, as ·11e11-r, ta_~e. ~~.ed." . ; . , ·~·~ . .. .
.
Before is used, .
,,
. ,
•'
!•'
.
As an adverb. ·CC I came bef<Yre it rained."
As a preposition. '"He stood before me.'"
So are also usl)d al/ove,;fl-fter, _below, ere, etc.
But is used · .
,
"' ; ... , .
-:A.s a co;_ijunction. ... siii.'· may gratify; but 're!>E'.ntance stin.~:·"
As a prepositfon. "Whence all but ·[except): !um Md Jl~d. .
As an adverb • . "Words, are but [only] ·1eaves." ·
That is used, ~
.
· . · ·' ,,
'
.As an adjective•. "That book .belong~ to,_~·
·:·· "'
~Ai! a demonsirative pronoun. "My opiniow o!' that.o~ anc;ith~r.''
'As a conjunction. · "I hope that you wl.\J,<':oJ.n.~·" ·•: , .
"
As a relative pro1Joun. ~ The same flag,(hati~-~~:~ ·'Ye ~W. _before ,
\lhat is used, •·:7<
'.; ' ' '·' !_;,
.. ' '"''"''~>:, .·, ·-"'· ..
,, .
.As a relative-prono11n, wi~h .t:wo cases, '' T_ajte what ,1 offei:. • ·
As an in('errogative pr.pnoun.: · " ·W,hat.ails ypu·1/ ' ·;,.,_, · ; ,. . .
.
·As a resp5111siti!l-·prOnot111,,
· ·'-···
' with. ·qne. case. · "lk
ow·what
ail8.:.you'
~ ,_ n
, . , ..
, :.
· ~·an djecti114/' ;'i1 ;W:bat.news ·rro11( Gen.oa_1-'~ .-. .;- . :. ',, .. .... ,,
.,,,A.8 an 11interject(on. :<".Whatl ta.ke- ~y µion,&Y,_~and 'f.PY life•.~o,.~ ,

will

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