.'

.

·,,,

LESSONS ON TI-IINGS.
INTENDED

,....
TO IMPROVE CHILDREN IN THE PRACTICE

•

.··

..
OF

OBSERVATION, REFLECTION, AND DESCRIPTION;
:. . ....

-..

'·

...

ON
'

I. •

I

i::~ ~\

,;):··!

THE SYSTEM OF PESTALOZZI.

EDITED BY JOHN FROST, A. M.
. 1

21257

.'

'.JDilnlJelpDia::
CAREY & LEA-CHESTNUT STREET.

.J

BOSTON:
".

. .'

CARTER, HENDEE,&. BABCOCK.

\
·~

-

...

..

1831.

'

J) i\ P. (;' '\

f'

~--,

;~

;'c-0 ·" r:n•!!R T, rnR J\ RY
r • • •

· ·· ~ .

-

•

•I

'°".' ~ ·~~. ~·-, ,~;~ii

ADVERTISEMENT OF TI!E AMERICAN EDITOR.

.'

"

Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year
1831, by CAREY & LEA, in the Clerk's Office of the District
Court of tho Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

.."
~

STE REOTYPED JJY J. llOWE.

Tim following work is an improved edition of
an English book entitled Lessons on Objects,
originally published by the teachers of a Pesta .
lozzian school, in which the lessons were given
for many years before their publication.
In presenting them to the American public,
the editor has found it necessary, besides frequently changing hard and Latinizcd words for
common ones, to . remove one fault existing
in almost yvery English school-book ; which
is an apparently studied neglect of this country. With the exception of . works on Geography, it would be difficult to find a book of this
. class in which the existence of the United States
of America as one of the nations of the earth is
recognized. The removal of this objection in a
work treating of productions and manufactures,
was a matter of obvious necessity;
It is presumed that the mere announcement of .
the subject and design of the present work, will
. arrest the attention · of all those who are desirous
of improving the methods of instruction. A
demonstrative, explanatory, thorough system in
all the difforcnt stages of instruction is now. demanded by the public. The foundation of such
a syst.cm-must b.e laid in lessons on things.

I ~'

. . ...... . .
.Ii .. .

CONTENTS. ,

' "'
·'-'

11 •

..

. • •

•

. • '.

f~1 ~

, ,

j

'

,,

I

•

•

•

•

•

•

FIRST SERIES .

. Ii

Page
INTRODUCTORY REllIAIUCS. • • • . • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • . •

LESSON

,. • : '

.,

.\
I

I
I

9

I. Glass ...•......... ·. .. ......... 12
II. Indian Rubber ................. 15
III. Leather ....................... ib.
IV. Loaf Sugar . ................... 16
V. A Piece of Gum Arabic ...... . .. ib.
VI. Spon ge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
VII. Wool ................ . . . ...... 18
VIII. Water .... . ... .. ...... . ... . .... ib.
IX. A Piece of"Wax ..... .. . . .. . .. .. 19
X. Camphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
XT. B read ..... .. ......... . ........ ib.
XII. Sealin g Wax ................... 21
XIII. Whalebone .................. . . 22
XIV. G·in ger ......... . ......... ... .. ib.
XV. Blotting Paper .. . . ............. 23.
XVI. A Piece of Willow .. ... .... ... . ib.
XVII. Milk . . . . . ...............,...... 24
XVIII. Rice . . ................. . ...... ib.
XIX. Salt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
XX. I-lorn . . ....... . ............... ib.
xxr. 1vary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
XXIT. Chalk ... ... ... . ........... ... . ib.
XXIII. APiece oftheBarkoftheOakTree 27

SECOND SERIES.

.

INTRODUCTORY REi\I AR KS ••.••••••••..•. • ••••••

LEss~·N·

L
II.
III.
IV.
V.

A Pin . .................. : .......
A Cube of Wood ... .. ............
An uncut Lead Pencil ............
A Pen .. . .. . ·.... • ...... .'........
A "\Vax Candle .... . .............

A2
/

28

29
30

ih.
31
32

vi
LESSON

CONTENTS.

COl'iTEl'\TS.

VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.

XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.

Vil

l'nge

A Chair ......................... 33
A Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 34
An Egg ..........................35
A Thimble .................•.... ib.
A Penknife ..... .................. 36
A l{ey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 37
A Cup .......................... ib.
A Grain of Coffee .......·•....•.. • 38
A pair of Scissors ................ ib.

ON TIIE SPICES.

'·'1

Page

LESSON · · · VI.· Pepper .. · · . . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
· VII. Nutmeg ............. • ...... ·
·VIII. Mace · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
· IX. Cinnamon ........ · · · · · .• · · · · ·
· · ·. X. Ginger : ..... . : ... · · · · · · · · · · ·
· XI.- Allspice .............. . . · · · · ·
XII. Cloves .............. · · · · • · · · ·

THIRD SERIES.
INTRODUCTORY REllIARKS .............. : . . . • . . .
LESSON
I. A Quill . .................. .•. ..
II. A Cent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. Mustard Seed ...................
IV. An Apple ......... : .. ..........
V. A Glass of a Watch .............
VJ. Brown Sugar .. ...... .. ... .... .•
VII. An Acorn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VIII. A Piece of Honey-Comb .........
IX. Refined Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
X. A Butter-cup ........ ..... ... ...
XL A Lady-Bird ....................
XII. An Oyster ......................
XIII. A Fir or Pine Cone .............
XIV. A Fur .........................
XV. A Laurel Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XVI. A Needle .·.....................
XVII. A Stone ..... .. ..... .. ·· . . . . . . . . .

1t
73
74
75
76

ON LIQ.UIDS.

40
ib.
43

44 ·
45
47
ib.

I

\

XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.

Water ............... · · · · · · · ·
Oil ........ ... . ... . . ······· · ·
Deer .............. ··········
Vinerrar ... . ......... · · · · • · · · ·
Forefgn White Wine · · · · · . · ·. ·

Ink .... . . ................... ·
Milk ............. -. .. 1.. . • • • • • •

79
81
82

84
85
86
37

43

49
50
5l
52
53
54
ib.
55
ib.
56

FOURTH SERIES.
ON TUE SENSES.

INTRODUCTORY REJ\iARJ(S ......................
LESSON I. Feeling, or Touch ............ ... ..•
II. Sight ....... ............... . ... .. ..
III. Hearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
IV. Smell ........ . . ... ................
V. Taste . . .... .. .................. ·;.

68
69

59
61
64
65
66

67

FIFTH SERIES.
lNTRODUCTORY REJ\IARKS . .. . ... ..............
LESSON
I. Leather ............. · · · .... · ·
II. Cork ........ .. ..... .... ... ··
JU. Indiai1 llubber, or Gum Elastic.
IV. Sponge......................
V. Camphor ........... · ....... ··
VI. I-lorn ....... ~· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VII. Shell Lac .................. .- .
VIII. Wax Candle. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .
IX. Gluc........................
X . .Coffee .... .. ....... · . · ..... · ·
XI. Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XII. Sago ..... . ..... ., . . . . . . . . . . . .
XIII. Rice , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XIV. Paper .......................
XV. Parchment ... .. ............ · ·
XVT. Glass ............•.......•..
XVII. Whalebone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XVIII. Dread ....•.. .• .............. . .
XIX. Sugar ..•.•..••..••..•..••.••

. 89
90

9l
92
93

94
ib.
95
ib.
96
97
98

ib.
99
100
103
104
105
106
107

VIII

CON T ENT S.

XX- . I-T
,emp ........................
XXL Flax ............ . .......... . .
XXII. Cotton ..... ~ ·················
XXII L Wool .. .. . .. . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . ..
XXIV. Silk ..................-.......
XXV. Court Plaster. ; ...............
XXVI. Sa!fron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XXVII . Butter ................. . .....
XXVllI. Cheese .......................
XXJX. Putty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
XXX. Starch .... ... ... ... .. ..... . ..
XXXI. Felt ........ ... ...............
XXXII. Porcelain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LE SSON

Page
J08

109
111 ib.

"

113

114
115
11 6
117
ib.
118

ib.
120

' 1:!

LESSONS ON THINGS.
FIRST SERIES.

- ON TIIE 1\IETALS.
lN'l' RODUCT ORY REJ\IARKS ...•.... . ....... . . ...
LEssoN XXXIII. Gold ...................... .
XXXIV. Silver . .. ........... .. ...... .
XXXV. Quicksilver, or Mercury ... : ..
XXXVJ. Lead . ............. . ....... .
XXXVIT. Copper .................... .
xxxvnr. Tron ... ... .. ...... .. ....... .
XXXJX. Tin ........................ .
XL. Compa risons of th e Metals ... .
\ XLI. On "Metals in general ........ .
QUESTIONS ON nm JVI:i::TALS .. .... .. ..... . .. . .

122
ib.
127
130
J34

13G
14'2
J46
149
1.'iO
152

ON EARTHS.

L ESSON

XLII. Lime ......... . ...... . .. ... . .
XLTII. Silica ..... . . ... . . .. . ..... ... .
XLIV. Aluminc, or Argil. .. . ..... . . . .
QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS .......... .. .. .. . , .
L ESS ON XLV. Coal ...................... . . .
XLVJ. G ranite .. . .. ...... ....... .. . .
XL VIL Salt ......... . ...... . ....... .
XL VIII. Slate .... . ...... .. ....... . ... .
XLIX. - Coral. . ....... ........ . ..... .
DI CTIONARY •••••.•••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••

1!i6

IGO
162
165
167
liO
J 71
175

176
178

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

··To lead children to observe with attention the
objec.ts by which they are surrounded, and then
to describe with accuracy the impressions which
they have received, appears to be the first business of education.
The ceaseless activity of the perceptive faculti es, which characterizes the period of childhood,
will convince those who would act in harmony
with nature, that this is tho best course of instruction to be adopted. It gives animation to the dull, and precision to tho li ve ly; it promotes that
clearness of apprehension, which is the solid basis of after-attainment, without which our judgments arc unsound, and our reasonings inconclusive. As tho sphere of observation is enlarged,
and the pages of history, or the fields of science,
are explored, tho mind accustomed to accurate
investigation will not rest content with less than
satisfactory evidence, either in morals or in science.

1·

FIHST SERIES.

This work consists of five series of lessons, increasing in clifiiculty us the pupil aclvances. 'l'hc
orcJer observecl in them is the result of some experi ence , and of seve ral trials, which have produc ed a strong conviction of the importance and
value of a methodical arrangement, and of a very
gradual prog ression. lt is th erefore recommended
that no step in . the course should be altogeth?r
omittecl, though the age and talents of the elnldren mu st rcffulate the time bestowed on each.
Th e first s~ri es ·presents a selection of miscellan eous objects, each of which possesses some
di stingui shin g quality, yet so arranged as to have
an obviou;:; connexion with what has preceded.
Th e children should be practised in remarki11g
those qualities observable by the simple operation
of the external se nses, defe rrin g those requiring
a hi g her exercise of mind till a more advanced
period.
.
One lesson is drawn out fully as a specimen of
the manner in which the others should be given.
It would have extend ed the volume to an unnecessary lenrrth, and filled it with needless repetition s, had beach been rnaclc out with equal minuten ess. Much information might have been
thrown into th e preliminary set, but as the end
proposed was rather to excite the mental powers
to activity, than to provide them with food, it has
been purposely avoided.
.
It may perhaps be necessary to guard aga111st
the e rror of expecting, in a work like the present,
anything more than hints as to the mode of arranging- and imparting knowl edge. The Teacher
mu st be previously well g rounded, in order to
meet the inquiries whi ch th e actire mind s of

INTRODUC'l'OUY J.U:MAUKS.

<,

11

children continually suggest.
Their questions
will generally point out. the · best mode ?f treating a subject, or of l?adrng thei;i1 to the discovery
of any truth. Precise . unvaryrng: rules may . be
laid down for mechamcal operat10ns, but mmd
alone can act upon min<l, and bring it into vigorous exercise. All instruction must be dry and
which has not undergone
some moc'.uninterestinrr
b
.
•
1fication from the person by whom 1t is commumcated. One principal fault, into which Teachers
arc liable to fall, is that of telhng too i:nuch . to
their pupils, who welcome the inform~t1on with
pleasure, but allow their minus to .remam al.n~ost
passive, and thus acquire the ha~1t of rece1v111g
impressions from others, at a tune whe~ they
ought to be gaining strength~ by an exe~b?n of
their own powers. Another is th~t of g1vrng. a
term before the pupil has felt lus want of it.
Whc'n the idea of any quality has been form~d
l·n his mind without his being able to express it,
.
'
the name given
under such circumst~nces fi xes it
on the memory : thus, when a cluld observes
that whalebone , after havinrr
been bent, returns
to
b
1.
its original position,. he may b? told that tu~ property which he has di scovered is c~llcd ela~ t1~.
The followin<r pa<res were wntten ongmally
with no view to b publication, but merc~i for the
use of the school in which they were given ; and
the information they contain was drawn from various sources. No memorandum be ing made at
the time it would be now impossible to assign
each pas~age to its respecti~e auth~r, though it
is probable that those acqua111te<l with the popular works on the subjects here treated of: may
some places, almost literal c1uotat10ns.
detect,

in

18

FIRST SERIES.

LESSON VIII. IX.-W ATER, WAX.

It is tasteless, insipid, without any taste.

LESSON VU.
-1'.

· transparent.
heavy.
bright.
wholesome.
purifying.

WOOL.

Qualit-ics of Wool.
It is soft.
absorbent.
flexible.
elastic.
tough.
<lurablc.
opaque.
dry.
light.

Uses.-To cleanse, to fertilize, to drink, for
culinary

This substance is here introduced, because it
possesses many of tJie qualities already remarked.

Qualities

of Wax.

It is solid.
opaque.
tough.
fusible.
sticky.
yellowish.
hard.
odorous.
smooth.

WATER.

Ide~s to be developed . by this lesson, liquid, '
reflective, glassy, tasteless, inodorous.

to tho. force
y
cs ess and in, the teacher would as]- WI t .
meant by tasteless? Having no taste . . What is m'~;;t b; ;~~

for moving water-wheels.

A PIECE OF WAX.

LESSON VIII.

* Reflecting images, like a looking-glass.
of~]~~ sor~ae{I to trcct th~ aUcntion of the class

purpos~s,

LESSON IX.

Uses.-For makin(l"
clotl1, fl anne Js, bl ankets,
b
carpets, stockings, &c.

QuaZ.it-ics ef Water.
It is liquid.
reflective.*
colorless, or clear.
ino<lorous,t or without sm~Jl.

19

' 1! ,

Use.-'ro make candles and tapers.
odorous.? Having no odor. In what are these words alike 1
They both tell us what the substance is not. They mark then
tho absence of a quality. What syllables of the words mark this
absence of the quality? les~an.d i11. Give examples of words
in which less and i11 aro so used.

/

20

LESSON

FIRST SERIES.
~'

LESSON X.
CAllirrron.
Ideas to be developed by this lesson aromatic
friable, volatile.
'
'

,.

Qualities ef Camplwr.
It is aroi_natic, i. e.. spicy or fragrant.
easily crumbling or friable. ·
white.
semi-transparent.
bright.
soluble in spirits.
liard.
solid.
very inflammable.
medicinal. - ·
light.
volatile, flying or evaporating.
Uses.-For m~dicine. To prevent infection,
to preserve Cabrnets from small insects and
clothes from moths.
'

LESSON XI.
DREAD.

Ideas to be developed by this
wliolesome, nutritious.

le~son

Qualities of Bread.
It is porous . .
absorbent.

'

eatable,

xr. XII.-DREAD,
It is opaque.

SEALING-WAX.

21

solid.
wholesome.
\
..
nutnt10us.
eatable.
The crumb is yellowish white.
soft when new.
moist.
The crust is hard.
· brittle.
brown.
Use.-To nourish.
'

LESSON XII.
SEALING

w AX.

I

Idea .to be developed by this -' 1~sson~1{1.pressible.
':

,

"'

I

· . ,,

1

Qualities of Sealing Wax.
It is hard.
bright. ,
brittle.
fusible.
opaque.
soluble in spirits.
.light.
solid.
smooth.
colored.*
inflammable.
odorous.

* The color may be determined by the specimen presented.

LESSON xv.

22

FIRST SERIES.

When fused it is soft.
impre~sible, or easily marked.
adhesive, or sticky
se.-T~ seal letters and packages ..

U:

· LESSON XIII.'
WIIALEilONE.

Idea to be developed-fibrous.

Qualities ef Tiflltalebone.
It is elastic. 'if'
dura.ble.
hard.
fibrous or stringy.
opaque.
bright.
stiff.
Uscs.-As a stiffener. F
I·
umbrellas, &c.
'or w ups, bludgeons,

LESSON XIV.
GINGER.

Idea to be developed by this lesson,'-1_mngcnt.

. Qualities ef Gingc 1.,'
It is pungent, or acrid to the taste.
hard.
dry.
fibrous.
aromatic.
* Th~ clnss should bo ] d
"''.hnlcbonc, with that of In~i~o ;ompnre the elasticity of
<l1lfcrcnce.
ubber, and to observe tho

xvr.~DLOTrING

It is tough.
opaque.
wholesome.
medicinal.
light brown.
Uses.-To flavor food.

PAPER, WI1'LOW·

23

For medicine.

LESSON XV.
DLOTTING l'APER·

Ideas to be developed by this lesson,-pinlcisli.
Ish added to words expressive of quality, generally
denotes the presence of the quality, but in a
moderate degree.

Qualities

ef

Blotting Paper.

It is absorbent.
porous.
soft.
pinkish.
pliable.
dull.
inflammable.
easily torn.
Use.-To suck up the superfluous inl;.
LESSON XVI.
A PIECE OF WILLOW• ·

Qualities

of

Willow.

It is hard.
inflammable, or easily set on fire.
fibrous.

21

FIRST SERIES.

It is opaque.
solid.
elastic.
'·
:flexible.
white.
odorous. ·
,
Uses.-To make hats, and bonnets, and to burn
for fuel.
·

25

LESSON xrx. xx:-SALT, l\IILK·

It is bright.
solid.
porous.
absorbent.
wholesome.
nutritious.
Uses.-To nourish, to make drawing pa~er.

LESSON XIX.
LESSON XVII.
MILK.

· Qualities

of llfillc.

It is wl1ite.
fluid.
liquid.
opaque.
wholesome.
greasy.
nutritious.
sweet.
U~es.-To make cheese, butter, puddings and
to drmk.
'

LESSON XVIII.
RICE.

Qualities

of Rice.

It is white.
hard.
opaque.
smooth.
stiff,

SAf,T.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, granulous,

saline, sapid.

of Salt.

Qualities

It is white.
sparkling.
granulous, or full of grains.
salt, or saline.
hard.
opaque.
soluble.
fu sible.
lt has taste (or is sap id.)
Uses.-To flavor food, to preserve from putre·
faction, to manure land.

LESSON XX.
A HORN.

Qualities

of a horn.

It is hard.
uneven.
hollow.
q °),YRO :'\ N -\. 1 .'l ;?--;. -nR

S

~,1

• 1}

•"°'
111

~ ~ ~ r.-1- . ~ ~: :- ? .'."i 1

~ \ .ti~· ~·

~~'~ ~ ~ -~ ~ ~.;~~ ~ ·2~ ·t - ht. •. d~I

)

..

N /\ '7' :. rv ~~ .1, ~

:::~ ... ; . . cs :., ._.__ ~

26

FIRST SERIES.
LESSON xxnr.-BARK.

It is odorous when burnt.
tapering.
opaque.
.,
stiff.
yellowish' brown.
fibrous.
Uscs.-To make combs, glue, lanterns, handles
to knives and forks.

LESSON XXL
IVORY.

. Qualities of Ivory.
It is hard.
white.
smooth.
bright.
opaque.
solid.
durable.

LESSON :XXII.
.

CIIALK.

Idea to be developed by.this ~esson--qfervescent. 1

Qualities 'of Cliallc.
It is white.
friable.
effervescent in acids.
opaque.
* This quality may be made nppuronl to tho children. by
putting tho chalk in vinegar.

It is dull.
hard.
solid.
dry.
soluble.

LESSON XXIII.
PIECE OF TUE DARK OF THE OAK TREE.

Qualities.
It is brown.
rugged.
opaque.
dry.
inflammable.
stiff.
inside smooth.
solid.
durable.
fibrous.
<lull.

27

.

'

29

. It will be a useful exercise for the children to
classify the various qualities, with which their
minds are now stored, under the heads of the
different senses by which they are discerne.d.
They will soo'n perceive that some may be discovered by either of two senses; for exam~le,
fluid solid rourrh and the varieties of form, winch
'
b
may ' be ascertained,
either by sig!1t. ?r fee l"mg::
these should constitute another d1v1s10n. · It is
obvious , that children thus trained from their earli.
est years to arranrre their ideas, would acqmre a
great readiness in ~aking use of their .kno.wledge,
and a facility in producing new coi:nbm~t10n~ ..In
this series, they may also be pract1s~d m d1stmguishing nnd naming the parts of objects.

SECOND SERIES.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

IN this series the children should be much ex:
ercised upon the qualities already rcmarkc<l, but
which shoul<l now be presented to them in other ·
objects. This repetition combines with the a<lvantagc of fixing the knowledge acquire<l, that of
enabling them to form the abstract idea of the
quality.
Having had all their senses brought into action,
they may be lc<l to determine by the exercise of
which any particular property was observc<l: thus,
How did you find out that glass was transparent?
lly my eyes. What can you do with your eyes?
Sec. Seeing is called a sense. Can you obtain
an i<lca of a quality except by the sense of sight?
Will your sight discover to you that a rose is
odorous? How would you ascertain this quality?
By what sense? By smelling. The sense of smelling. lly similar questions the class will gain a
clear conception of the several senses, and their
operations. They may next proceed to the observation of the organs of sense. Thus, lly what
natural instrument arc you able to see, hear, &c.?
By eyes, ears, &c. Any natural instrument hy
which something is performe<l, is called an organ.
What arc the eyes? Organs. Organs of what
sense? Organs of sight, &e.

LESSON I.-A PIN •

LESSON I.
A l'IN.

, ·,

A pin has been chosen for the first lesson,
because the parts arc simple, clearly marked, and
few.
Qualities.
Parts.
It is hard.
The head.
opaque.
shank.
white.
·point.
bright.
solid.
useful.
smooth.
cold.
the head is round.
the point is sharp.
the shank is straight.
taper.
,, r,; ,,

C2

30

Uscs.-To keep together the'parts of our dress;
or whatever we wish to be united only for a time.

LESSON II.
A cuuE 01>

woon.

The cube will convey to the class a good idea
of a surface; they will observe that the outside is
divided into several parts, and may learn that the
·
boundaries of a solid arc called surfaces.
Parts.
Qualities.
The surfaces.
It is hard.
· edges.
light.
corners.
solid.
brown.
smooth.
inflammable.
opaque.
the surfaces are flat.
squarc.
the edges arc straight.
the corners are sharp.

LESSON III.
AN UNCUT LEAD·PENCIL.

The new ideas presented to the children in
this lesson are the ends, which arc flat surfaces
and the curved surface : from this object they
therefore become acquaintc<l with the form cylindrical.
Parts.
Qualities.
The surfaces.
It is hard.
ends.
odorous.

31

LESSON IV.-A PEN.

SECOND SERIES.

Q1iaz.ities.

Parts.

long.
solid. ·
opaque.
inflammable.
dry.
reddish.
veined.
one surface is curved.
the ends are flat.
circular.
form cy lindtical.
the lead is black.
brittle.
· friable.
bright.
Uses.-For wnt111g, drawing, .&c. Let .th.~
children point out on what occasions a penc1l 1
preferable to a pen.
exterior or outside.
interior or inside.
middle.
leaq.
wood.

LESSON IV.
A PEN.

A pen iea<ls to the obscrvati?~ o[ i;nan~ parts,
·' and also presents opposite quaht1cs m i,ts different
parts.

Parts.

Qualities. . '

The quill is transparent.
The quill.
cylindrical.
shaft.
hollow.
feather.
laminre, or parts of the feather. bright.
hard. · ·
pith.
elastic.
nib.
.
yellowish.
split.

32

LESSON VI.-A CHAIR•

SECOl\D SERIES.

Pm·ts. ·

Qualities.
l10rny.

shoulders.
surfaces.
skin.
groove.
inside.
outside.

the shaft is opaque.
angular.
solid.
'rhilc.
sl in:
hard.
grooved.
the pith is while.
spongy.
porous.
elaEtic.
CO!ll!)rCssi IJlc.
soft.

LESSON V.
A WAX CANDLE.

.
·
This object r ecalls th 0 · 1
dric~d
,' 1·
. I C ca oi the form cylin.
, ' g<11 ncc rn a prcv10us lesson
.
the pc<.:ul1ar parts of ti
ll . ' and p1cscnts
'
JC cane c itself.

Parts.
The wick.
wax.
surfoccs.
Cll<ls.
curved s urface.
edges.
top.
bottom.
middle.
inside.
outside.
Tr

Qualities.
It is cy lindri cal.
h~ rd.
r

oparp1c.
yellowish while.

\\ax is slid:r.
fu s ibl e.
The wick is inflammable.

usc.-To give lig ht.

tougl1.
while.
porous.
flexible.

33

LESSON VI.
A CIIAIR.

This, and several of the succeeding lessons,
are chosen on account of the great variety of the
parts of the objects.

Parts.
The back.
front.
scat.
top.
bottom.
frame.
legs . .
straw.
edges.
upper part of scat.
under part of scat.
bars.
surfaces.
corners .

It is obvious that the qualities arc not named,
as they would depend so entirely upon the kind
of chair chosen for th e lesson.
It is a useful exerc ise to make the children
compare tho rolati vo proportion s arnl situations
of <tho different parts of an ohj ec t. T!t11s, in tlto
chair, tho depth of tho se<it is a\Jont one-lta!C tho
height of tho chair; tho legs ~ire rath er "horter
than tho back; tho scat is narro1rcr at th o back
than the front, &c. Th e legs arc perpendicular,
tho scat horizontal, the liack :;lanti11g, the bars horizontal and parallel.

34

LESSON v1n.-AN EGG, A Tllll\IBLE·

35

SECOND SERIES.

LESSON VIII.

LESSON VII.

AN EGG.
A DOOK.

Parts.
The outside.
· insic,Ic.
c<lg?s·
corners.
binding.
paper.
back.
sides.
top.
bottom.
title-page.
preface.
introduction.
contents.
end.
leaves.
pages.
margin.
begi!Jning.
type.
letters.
numbers.
stops.
words.
sentences.
syllables.
title.
lettering.
stitchincr.
b
.
l mes.

Qualities.
It is oval.
'"vhite.
hard.
edible.
nutritious.
opaque.
shell is brittle.
smooth.
thin.
The white is liquid when raw.
solid when boiled.
semi-transparent when raw.
opaque when boiled.
adhesive.
sticky.
insipid.
Yolk is yellow.
liquid.
soft.
opaque.
odorous.
· sapi<l.

Parts.
' The shell.
skin.
white.
yolk.
interior.
exterior.
surface.

I

'

LESSON IX.
A THlllIBLE·

"

. Parts.
The inside.
outside.

Qualities .

It is hollow.
silver.

,

3G

:SECOND SERIES.

Parts.

LESSON XI· xn.-A KEY' A CUP·

Qualities.

top.
bottom.
nm.
border.
indentations.

cylindrical.
white.
bright.
opaque.
hard.
curved.
Inside is smooth.
Outside is rough.

..

.

Use.-To preserve the. middle finger from being
pricked in working with a needle._

LESSON X.
A rEN•KNIFE.

Parts.

37

LESSON XI.
. A KEY·

Qualities.

Parts.

It is hard.
The ring.
steel, or iron.
barrel.
bright.
wards.
cold.
grooves.
opaque.
edges.
smooth.
surfaces.
stiff.
corners.
liable to rust.
part of the barr~l is. hollow·
the barrel is cy lmdncal.
the ring is curved.

Qualities.

The handle.
The blade ts steel.
blade.
bright.
plates.
cold.
grooves.
hard.
back of the handle.
reflective.
back of the blade.
opaque.
point.
brittle.
the front edge is thin.
edf\"e•
spnng.
sharp.
rivets.
the back edge is blunt.
pivot.
thick.
heel.
handle hollow.
flat.
Use.-To cut.
The other qualities depend upon the kind of
knife shown.

LESSON XII.
A

Parts.
The bowl.
handle.
upper nm.
lower rim.
bottom.
inside.
outside.
edges.
surfaces.

cur.
Qualities.
It is hollow.
hard.
glossy.
curved.
smooth.
glazed.
cold.
brittle.
thin.
useful.
The rim is circular
D

38

SECOND SERIES.

LESSON XIV.-SCISSARS.

Qualities.

Parts.
LESSON XIII.
A GRAIN OF COFFEE.

Parts. ·

Qualities.

The surfaces.
If roasted it is brown.
curved surfaces.
hard.
flat surface.
crisp.
groove.
sapid.
edge.
aromatic.
stimulating.
agreeable to
the taste.
pulverable,
or may be ·
turned into
powder.
solid.
If unroasted, dingy yellow.
inodorous,
without
smell.
disagreeable
.
to the taste. ·
Use.-To make a be~erage, or drink._

LESSON XIV.
A PAIR OF SCISSARS.

Parts.
The limbs.
bows.
blades.

Qualities.
It is steel.
bright.
reflective.

39

It is hard.
shanks.
opaque.
rivets.
cold.
pivot.
useful.
points.
solid.
· surfaces.
the blades are pointed.
one surface flat.
the other curved.
front edge sharp.
back blunt.
bows arc curved.
Uses.-'fhe children should name the kind
of materials which scissars will cut, and point
{)Ut the different manner in which knives and
ecissars cut.

·,

41

LESSON J.-A QUILL·

t' t tes the es;ential difference
as to what cons i. u . d -t d the terms ·natural
between the two, will un .ers an
.
1 .d by
and artificial. If some fruits or flower~ are p ace he
the quill their attention may be d1rectc~l to t b
distincti~n between a~imal t~~e veq~~:t w~t~ua~
tances. The. comparison o
.
.
.•
~nsect, will elicit the ideas of animate and mam
mate.

THIRD SERIES.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

In this series the children may be guided to
the discovery of qualities which call into exercise
the judgment in connexion with the senses. Thus
by showing them at the same time an object in its
natu:-al and in its artificial state, as wool and
woollen cloth, and questioning them as to the
difference of the two, they will readily conceive
the ideas of natural and artificial. In this manner
they may be led to remark the distinction between
foreign and native, exotic and indigenous, animal,
vege table, mineral, &c.
.
.
.
Having also been long exercised m observmg
and naming the qualities of objects, they may
now be called upon to give an explanation of the
terms they use, and by assisting them to trace
their derivations, the teacher will add to the
interest of the lesson. For the use of the . instructor a few explanations adapted to the capacities
of children are given at the end of the Volume.

As in a preceding lesson.

LESSON I.
A QUILL.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson-natural,
artificial, animal, vegetable, animate, inanimate.
A pen should be shown at the same time with
the quill. Then the children being questioi'ied

Qualities.

Parts.

,,
'

It is long.
stiff.
useful.
natural.
inanimate.
· animal production.
The barrel is transpa. rent.
hard.
clastic,or springy·
bright.
yellowish.
cylindrical.
hollow.
Jight.
I
.'
The shaft is feathered.
white.
stiff.
hard.
opaque.
solid. ·
angular
grooved.

D2

42

THIRD SF.RIES.

LESSON II-A

Children may be led to remark the difference
which heat pr~duces on animal and vegetable
substances both in appearance and smell.
,The teacher now requires the class to gi vo an
explanation in their own words, of the terms they
used.
TEACIIER. "Useful." Give me examples of
words of the same termination.
CnrLDREN. Careful, &c.
TEACIIER. Wliat is the force of that termination?
CmLDREN. It expresses the quality in a great
degree.
TEACHER. What is the opposite of useful?
Cn1LDREN. Useless.
··
TEACHER. Give examples of this termination.
TEACHER. From what is natural derived?
CnrLDREN. Nature.
TEACHER. From what is "inanimate" derived?
CurLDREN . . From in, which has the sense of
not, and animate.
TEACIIER- Animate is derived from a.nima, a
Latin word, which signifies life. Transparent is
derived from trans, through; and pareiis, appearing. . Give other words derived from parens, appeanng.
CnILDREN. Apparent, Apparition.
TEACHER. "Cylindrical." E;rom what is it
derived?
CHILDREN. From cylinder.
TEACIIER. Cylinder is derived from the Greek
xuA.1vow. (kulindo) I ro~l.

CENT·

43

LESSON II.
A

CENT•

Ideas to be developed in this lesson, mineral,
metallic.

Parts.
The surfaces.
edges . .
impress10n.
image.
superscription.
reverse.
date.

Qualities.
It is round.
flat.
mineral.
metallic.
opaque.
bright.
copper.
cold.
reddish brown.
fusible.
hard.
odorous.
artificial.*
useful.
heavy.
durable.
uneven.

Made from copper ore, the su~ph~r forced off
by smelting. Stampt by a die ~h1ch is caused to
fall upon the coin with great violence.

* The class should be led to ren~urk, that though the workmanship is arlificial, the substance IR naturnl.

44

THIRD SERIES.

LESSON IV.-AN APPLE.

Rcm.a1·ks on w 01·ds.

"M'rnern.I ' "from what derived 1

"Metallic,"
"Fusible,"
"Artificial,"
"Durable,"

·

·

45

Remarks on Words.
Mine.
Metal.
to fuse.

"Pungent,'' from what derived? Lat. pungere, to
prick.
lat. Arte, by an •• '' "Pulverable," from Lat. pulvis, dust. ·
"Indigenous,'' from the Latin indigena, native, or
art; and lat. facere, to make.
produced in a country.
lat. durare, to :·
last.
.,

. TdEAfCIIER. Do you know any other words d~.
nve rom durare 7
CmLDREN. Duration, during, endure.

LESSON IV.
AN APPLE.

Parts.

LESSON Ill.
llIUSTAUD

SEED.

ldpeasl to bbeldevelopc<l by this lesson,-indigen- .
u vera e.

Ous ,

Qualities.
·It is pungent.
<lull.
yellow.
opaque.
hard.
dry.
pulverable.
natural.
indigenous.
vegetable.
spherical.
solid.
stimulating.

/

The eye.
core.
pips, or seeds.
peel.
pulp.
juice.
stalk.
surface.
inside.
outside.

Qualities.
It is spherical.
bright.
odorous.
colored.
opaque.
natural.
~e.getable.

JUICY·
hard.
mce.
solid.
pleasant.
The eye is dry.
brown.
shrivelled.
The pips or seeds are brown on the outside
when ripe.
white in the inside.
pointed oval.
hard. ·
bright.

46

THIRD SERIES.

The core is thin.
stifl:
yellow.
hard.
scmi·transpmcnt.
,
cellular, or divided into cells.

Remarks on fVords.
"Spherical," from what derived? Sphere.
.
TEACHER. Gi vc instances of similar tcrmina· . ·.
tions?
·
; · .,.
CmLDREN. Cylindrical, critical, conical.
"Odorous,'' from what derived? Lat. odor,
scent.
TEACHER. Give instances of similar termina.
tions?
CHILDREN. Porous, numerous.
" V cgctablc,'' from what dcri vccl? Lat. vegeta1·e, to grow as a plant.
TEAc1rnn. Name other words derived from this?
CrnLDREN. To vegetate, verTetation.
"J"
b
mcy, "from what derived?
Juice.
TEACHER. Give some other instances in which
the names of qualities arc derived from those of
substances in a similar manner?
CmLDUEN. Stone, stony ; milk, milky; water,
watery.
·
"Semi-transparent," from what derivecl? Semi,
trans, through, and pm·ens, appearing.
TEAcrrnn. What is the meaning of semi?
CmLDUEN. Half.

LESSON

v.

VI.-GLASS OF A WATCH, SUGAR·

47

LESSON V.
GLASS OF A WATCII.

ldeas to be developed by this lesson,--concave,
.' and convex.

Parts.'"'

Qualities.

It is artificial.
transparent.
brittle.
bright.
thin.
hard.
clear.
cold.
curved.
useful.
Upper surface convex.
Under surface concave.
Edge circular.
· Uses.-To preserve the hands of the watch from ~
being injured, and to keep the works from dust.

LESSON VI.
DROWN SUGAR·

Ideas to be developed, foreign, imported.

Qualities.
It is brown.
granulous .
.* The children sh~uld be asked whether thcro are any
parts to this object peculiar to it; un<l us ~he ro arc not, the
consideration of the purls ha<l better be onuttcd.

48

TIIIRD SERIES.

It is sweet.
soluble. ,
fusible.
opaque.
useful.
.
vegetable substance.
artificial.
. foreign.
sticky.
imported.
moist.
Use.-To sweeten our food.
Obtained from the Sugar Cane, which is culti· .
vated in the East and West Indies, and in the
Southern States.

LESSON vur.-IIONEYCOl\IB.

49

Qualities.
Parts.
hard.
The point of the nut.
green.
scar.
opaque.
scales.
nut
is
oval.
inside.
bright.
outside.
solid.
surfaces.
cup is brown.
edges.
the inside is concave •
smooth.
the outside is rough •. l
browms i.
scaly.
the edge is circular.
LESSON VIII.

Remarks upon Words.
"Granulous," derived from granule, a small
gram.
. .
·•
"Imported," Latin portare, to carry, and in, mto.
"Exported," from ex, out, and portare.
"Soluble," from Lat. solvere, to loosen, because
the particles may be loosened from each other by
liquids.

LESSON VII.
AN ACORN.

Parts.
The cup.
berry.
stalk. ·

Qualities.
It is vegetable.
inanimate.
natural.

A PIECE OF IIONEYCOllIB·

Qualities.

Parts.

. ~
animal production.
light.
edges.
base
of
cells.
fusible.
bottom, or
st
icky.
comers.
semi-transparent.
yellowish.
thin.
compressible.
cells hexagonal ' or sixcornered.
regular.
hollow.

Cells.
divisions.

It ·s natural.
i

E

50

TIIIRD SERIES.

LESSON x.-A IlUTrER CUP.

LESSON IX.

51

LESSON X

REFINED SUGAR.

nuTrER cur.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson, arc
talline, amorpltous.

.Parts.

Parts:

Qualities.
. The surfaces.
It is white .
edges.
sweet.
middle.
sparkling.
cry~tals.
crystalline.
grams.
solid.
pores.
fusible.
soluble.
· shapeless or amorphous.
hard.
refin ecl.
nutritious.
useful.
friable.
·
opaque.
artificial.
·vegetable.
brittle.
Brought from the Indies in its raw state~ Refined by sugar-bakers, and sold by grocers in loaves '
of a conical form.

..

Remarks on HTords.
" Crystalline," derived from crystal.
"Amorphous," Greek a (a) not, and p.op~11
( morphe) shape.
"Nutritious," Lat. nufrio, I nourish.

Qualities.

It is vegetable. ·
.• Petals.
inanimate.
~ margins or edges.
concave.
'· cup.
natural.
· .Ieafits of cup.
odorous.
stamens.
petals
arc
yellow·
. .
" pistils.
alossy
in
the
rns1de.
· stalk.
dull on the outside.
., place of insertion.
circular.
inside.
pointed at .the place
' outside.
of insertion.
surfaces.
striped.
opaque.
pliable.
Leafits greenish.
thin.
membranaceous.
semi-transparent.
pointed.
Stalk green.
arooved.
h
angular.
stiff.
fibrous.

'

I-.

'
<

52

TIIIRD SERIES.

Parts.

LESSON xn.-A N OYSTER.

LESSON.....XI•

LESSON XII.

LADY DIRD.

AN OYSTER·

Qualities.

The Head.
It is animate.
eyes.
natural.
feelers or palpi.
hemispherical.
horns or antennre. elytra are red.
wings.
spotted.
wing cases or clytra.
bright.
thorax.
hard.
legs.
brittle.
body.
opaque.
back.
stiff.
spots.
outside convex.
surfaces.
inside concave.
margin.
one margin straight.
claws.
the other curved. '
the wings are menibraneous. ·
pliable. thin.
transparent.
fragile.
the body oval.
black.
the legs are jointed.
short.
black.

Parts.

53

. Qualities.

It is animal.
opaque.
marine.
natural.
insid~.
val'vcs circular.
mar gm.
hard.
, impressions. . .
art stiff.
mollusca, the_hvmg p · pulverable.
lm1 or lammre.
h
.
sea ·
outsides roug •
. ted
scaly or 1
. aroma •
irregular.
dull,.
.
dingy brown.
uneven.
insi<l~ pearly.
bright.
smooth.
slightly concave.
cold.
mollusca soft.
edible.
nutritious.
cold.
smooth.
lubricious.

· The valves.
hinge.
outside.

E 2

54

TITIRD SERIES.

LESSON

xv.

XYI.-A LEAF, A NEEDLE·

55

•·

LESSON XIII.

LESSON XV.
A FIR OR PINE CONE.

Parts.

Scales • .
It is brown.
seeds.
opaque. ,
top.
hard.
place of insertion.
vegetable.
fibres.
natural.
outside.
conical.
inside.
inflammable.
surfaces.
odorous.
stalk.
scales hard.
outside brown.
pointed at the top.
rough.
inside of scales chestnut-color.
'
shaded.

LESSON XIV.
FUR.

Parts.
Hair.
surface.
points of hair.

A LAUREL LEAF·

,.. .Qualities.

Qualities.

It is animal.
hairy.
inanimate.
hairs flexible.
slender.
soft.
·. t
straight.
·
pointed.
The color and other peculiarities to be decided
by the specimen presented.
' .

'

Qualities.

Parts.

Upper surface bright
Upper surface.
under surface dull.
, u·nder surface.
oval.
·edge or margin.
smooth.
po~nt or termination.
pointed.
verns.
vegetable.
' middle rib.
odorous.
' base.
opaque.
.· stalk.
'
bitter.
stiff.
slightly toothed.
long.
margin 'curved.'
rib straight.
_
raised, or keeled on
the under side.
grooved on the .upper
side.
veins curved.

LESSON XVI.
A NEEDLE·

Parts.
The eye.
shank.
point.

Qualities.
It is mineral.
metallic.
artificial.

5G

LESSON xvn.-A STONE.

THIRD SERIES.

57

CHILDREN. Through its roots and pores.
It is opaque.
TEACHER. Diel this nourish only the roots and
bright.
·
..
pores?
cold.
Cu1LDREN. No.
taper.
TEACHER. You are right; the sap was pro•
pointed.
duced,
which circulated through the plant by
slender.
. means 'of vessels. You remember why we called
useful.
~· ~.the eyes, cars, &c. organs?
·
fusible.
"• • .yj
' CmLDREN. They are natural instruments, by
gray or steel color.·· ·: ·
which something is effected.
hard.
TEA.c1rnR. What would you therefore call the
brittle.
:
pores,
vessels, &e. of vegetables?
solid.
CmLDREN.
They arc organs.
,
.
steel.
1
:
• • TEACllER· A body possessing organs is called
1".lade of stee!,
,is a preparation of iron::.·,
organized : name some organized bodies.
havrng been subject to great extremes of heat and '"
CmLDREN. A tree, an insect.
cold.
·
TEACHER. What syllable, placed before a word,
expresses the absence of a quality?
CmLDREN· Jn.
LESSON XVII.
TEACHER· What would you call a body which
is destitute of organs?
A STONE.
CmLDREN. Inorganized.
Idea to be dcvcloped-inorganizcd.
TEACllER· Mention some inorganized substances.
.To giv? the class an idea of "organized" and .
CmLDREN. Earth, water.
" morgamzcd,~' ~ plant might be shown with the .
s~onc; and similar questions to the following '
Qualities of Stone.
given.
.
TE:'-~llER. If. I put these two into the earth,
It is hard.
and V1S1t them m ·a month, what great diflerence
cold.
should I perceive in them?
.
inorganized.
CmL~REN . . The plant will have O'rown · the
opaque.
'
stone will have remained the same si;e.
mineral.
TEACHER. How did the plant increase 7
solid.
CmLDREN. It absorbed moisture.
natural.
TEACHER. By what means?
The middle.
· top.

whi~h

~

58

',I'IIIIlD SERIES.

It is ~hap~less or amorphous.
rnanunate.

FOURTH SERIES.

Remm·lcs on Words.
"Inorganized," derived from Greek
(organ on) an in strum en t.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

/

r

: ·TUE chief aim proposed in this series is, to ex.ercise tlw children in arranging and classifying
objects; thus developing a higher faculty than
·· .; 'that of simply observing their qualities. The
' "complex operation of connecting things by their
· •:· points of resemblance, at the same time individu·ally distinguishing them by their points of dis0"' similarity, is one of the highest exercises of our
reason. Yet this habit mav be cultivated in children much more early tha~ is usually imagined,
by training them to arrange their ideas. With
this view the spices have been chosen as forming
a connected series of object!'· The metals,
liquids, different kinds of wood, grains; &c. are
good subjects for similar lessons.
1 • The children may now be led to consider more
folly the senses themselves, having already determined by which of them they discover the presen.ce of any quality. The first lesson is d~awn
c;>ut for the use of the teacher, the substance only
of the others is given.
T~Ac1rnn. Do you understand how you gained
.. the knowledge of various qualities?
CHILDREN. By our senses.

GO

1

FOURTII SERIES.

LESSON I.-FEELING Oit TOUCH·

TEACHER. Hmr do you know when a thing ·is: ~·
red or blue 1
"
CmLDREN. Ily sight.
.
~
TEAcu::u. If you were blind, could you
a correct idea of color? Is there any other means
of gaining this knowledge?
CrrrLDUEN. No.
_TEAcn:~n. True ; and to ascertain this point, a ·
~lmd person was once questioned as to what no.'
hon he h;~d of scarlet : he said he thought that it
must be like the sound of a trumpet. lt is obvi.
ous he had n? correct idea of a quality discovera.
bl_e by the sight, an<l he could only compare it
with one that he had acquired through the medium
of another sense. Can you tell me the reason why ·
persons born deaf cannot speak?
··
Cuumm::v. They cannot imitate sounds, be~
cause they never heard any.
TEAC?IER. Since then deaf persons have no
correct ideas of sound, nor blind persons of color
how did we acquire them?
t
CmLDUEN. By means of the senses of seeing
and hearing.
.TEAc1rnu.
How tl~en . do you suppose our , Ji
mmds become stored with ideas?
· , ".~
CurLDREN. 'By the exercise of our senses.''*'
TEAc1rnu. I think we may compare the mind '
of an infant i1~ s?mc respects to an empty box cap~ble of cont::unmg many things, and into this the
different senses empty ll1c treasures which they
collect from the objects· upon which they act.

fom

But you must not suppose that .these materials
remain there unemployed; the mmd wo~ks upon
' tliem. Thus if you have once h~d the idea of _a
dog formed in your mind, by scemg such an aml mal, when a dog is mentioned you can _re~all the
. idea and fancy one immediately, as if it were
pres~nt; your mind '~ill _also perform tl~e same
operation when a qua~ity is spok~n of wl11cl~ y~u
had previously seen 111 some object. Agam, . if
you sec a dog unlike any you hav~ obs~rved ?e" fore, you compare it with the specie~ with wluch
you are acquainted, and mark the difference between them. If I say that I have some green
paper, cannot you at once imagine the color of
which I speak?
CmLn1mN. Yes.
.
.
TEACimu. Diel you then exercise your sight 1.
CmLDREN· No.
.
, TEACIIER· How then could you have the idea
,. of green ? ,
. CHILDREN. It was in our minds .
TEACHER. By what means did you first obtain ·
the idea?
.
CmLDUEN. Ily seeing somethmg green . .
TEACIIER· And what retained it in your nunds 1
CHILDREN· Our memory.
'fEACIIER· We will now consider each sense
': separately.

LESSON I.
FEELING

"" It is probable that children would not at onco nrrive at
~his conclusion; the Teacher must in that cnso lead them t<>
It by easy questions.
·

61

OR TOUCH·

TEAcmm. What part of your body is the organ of this sense ?

F

62

FOUilTJI

s1.mrns.

It
. seems a 11 over our body
. a• .
EACIIER.
Do you not find some
:
..
not possess the sense of fcelin ?
parts t.hat d9,
CmLDREN.
Y
. . g. .
. ·".lr..t .
TEACIIER
A ~s, .om hairs, nmls, teeth. '" . ti;;
arc found «1~stitu~Je o1fn othctr. an?imals what parts.
1011 •
1
CIIILDREN. Tl ] scnsa
[;
'• 1
wool Jia1"r c
ic ioo s, horns, claws, feathers " ,
·

CmLDREN.

T

' , ' <-"c.

TEACIIER

' .

'\VJ

I'• ;,

press · ti
L iat word would you use to ex.! :',
. ic a scncc of sensation? What
11 ., ~
prefixed to a word gives it
.
s~ able~ .
CrrrLDREN.
In.
a negative meaning? ' .
TEACHER
11
. !i'J:/,
b
·
c , what word will
·
a sencc of sensation 7
CmLDREN • . Inscn~ibility.
· ..,
TEACHER.
The parts ti
.r•
arc insensible, and '~ith th1cn ~·ou _Jiavc nam~d
. the sense of feel in
.·
c exception of these, .
the holly 'I'cll
g clx1sts everywhere tlirowrhout
b
.
.
.
me w tat (
Ill obJ.ects by ti .
iua I ics we can discover
us sense.
, ~·
CnrL01mN.
Tlmt the
,,, ..
smooth, Ion()' short sha .Y arc hard, soft, rough, ,.
cylindrical, ~~nical ' 110 a: p, ?~unt, r.oun~I, square, .·~
we}, lwt, cold, &c.'
y' lioht, 1lu1d, liquid, dr~, • ,.;·~
TEAcmm.
By what
l
.
genera term would
express such
cal, &c.?
qua I ics us round, square, coni.

w

rt'

.

r(

By sltapc.
By what
I
express such
1· .
genera term would
CnrLDREN.

you
,·

TEACIIER.

small & ?
qua it1cs as larrrc
0
C
' ·
'
·
C•.
T IIILDREN· fl y size.
EAc1mn.
By what ()'
I
express such qual't" ' bencra term would you
CrrrLDREN
Bi ilc.s as rough, smooth, &c.? .
TE
i •
y und of surface.
'
· ACHEn • . By what general term

LESSON !.-FEELING OR TOUCII·

63

· express such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tena, cious, &c.?
: . · CHILDREN.
By kind of substance.
: ' TEACHER.
By what general term would you
·J<iexprcss such qualities as heavy, light, &c.?
Cmw1m N .
By weight.
TEAcmm.
Now arrange the qualities which
ypu discover by your Feeling, under these five
1 general heads of shape, size, kind of surface, kind
· of substance, weight.
The children having performed this part, the
Teacher may mention the following facts.
" TEACHER. The quickness and accuracy of this
. sense of Feeling, is, WC find, much increased by
' exercise. This is exemplified in blind persons ;
· many of whom are enabled, in a great measure, to
compensate their defect of sight by an exquisite
sensitiveness of touch. Bats also appear to possess this in a remarkable degree. They have
been observed, even after the loss of sight, and
.. with their cars and nostrils stopt up, to fly through
intricate windings and passages without striking
against the walls, and also to avoid lines and cords
placed in their way. The expanded tnembrane
1 that serves them for wings is probably the seat
of this delicate sense of feeling; it fits them for
nocturnal and dark abodes. The palpi or feelers ·
of insects possess the same quality very acutely,
and this enables them to explore the surfaces of
, bodies in search of food, and warns them also of
·the approach of "tlanger.
_ The class should be required, at the conclusion
of the lesson, to draw up some account of this
' sense, mentioning t:' hcre it resides, what. qualities

04

FOURTH SERIES.

fall
· · dwithin
mc1 ental

LESSON III·-JlEARING·

.its cognizance
,
' ail<l t o rccap1"tu Iate an .' .
rnformation
receive<l
during tl1e· Iesson.Y, ·,
.

LESSON II.
SIGHT.

eyes arc .the organs of sight and a ·'.
adapted for the office whicl; they
pe1 orm. , They arc so constructed as to all "
us to sec th"rngs a.t a t 1·istancc, or near. to confiow, , ·.
~e
ourselves to the rnspection of one ~bjcct
take at once a large sphere of vision 1'1 ' or ot
of th
1·
•
1c par
0 eye w 11c 1l admits the light may be expanded or contracted, accorclinrT as the
moro or I .
f I . ', . "?
rays are
..
?ss power u . I !11s is remurkabl OX·
cmphfic<l m the eyes of the cat and of ti . y l
Ind
· a ffon1s a more striking proofieofow
] . eed n o.ti nng
the•
~ml1 prov1<lcncc of ?od than the peculiar forma. ·
t10.n ~f the c~cs of different animals, each exactly ' .
su1 tc to then· peculiar modes of lifo . those of
mt. oles, ffish?s, and birds, arc remarkabie illustra10ns o tins fact. 'H'
,.
Of all the sc.nscs, that of sight is in most fre~
'l~cnt and contmual exercise. It fill ti
. d
with the g t t
·
.
s 1e mm
rca cs variety of ideas, which it gathers
b ti f
o l ron:i the works of nature, an<l the writin s.
of
wise
good of all ages.
g
tra~ he qualities. we discover by this sense are: .
}' spar?nt, scm1.transparcnt, translucent opaque
g nnmcnng, bright, dark, sparkling; dull: and th;:

~ocau~1,ully

ha~:

~~1d

cir:Z~~~n~~:~1;~~e~~~~l~ hcrclc ~ully ox1plnii:t

·various modifications, of color, size, and shape.
Many may be ascertained either by touch or
· · sight; as those of size, form, kind of surface, and
:substance.

LESSON III.

Th~

~IC

65

1.0

tl~o

clnss the ·

• nn give ot 1cr s1milnr mstuncefl,

HEARING·

The cars arc the organs of this sense; in many
animals the external form is that of a trumpet,
. ·which is best adapted for gathering the sound, and
bringing it to a focus; in man it co~1tains r~any
convolutions and channels which receive the v1bra·
lions of air in every direction, and convey them to
the drum of the car which is the uctual scat of this
sense.
'·
The formation of the cars of animals is beautifully accommodated to their peculiar habits of
life. In beasts of prcy~ thc trumpet part is in·
clinc<l forwards, easily to catch the sounds of those
they arc pursuing. nut in those animals whose
chief means of protection is flight, these organs
are · turned backwards, that they may be readily
apprizc<l of the approach of their enemies.
The cars arc the medium through which all
sensations of sound reach the mind: without them
we should be deprived of the advantages of verbal ·
instruction, the pleasures of conversation, and the
charms of music.
The motion of the parts of a body, or the col·
lision of one body against another, occasions a vibration in the air which is similar to the effect
produced on water when a stone is thrown into it.
Circle succeeds circle till the power of motion is

F2

GG

FOURTH SERIES.'-

,

. •• :·
exhausted: and just as an r 1
the influence of thcs
~ ;g ~t su~stan?e w1thm :
them, so when our e~ u~ u .a~1~ns is agitated by>
vibrations of air t
r is ~v1t im reach of these .
eccl.* TI
I . '. _he se~sat.1011 of sound is produ.
. 1c c III prng noise of the . k .
s10ncd sunply by ti
. •~1c ct 1s occamcmbrane against ~~s ~~:~s~~~Jt ~~r~tion of a lit~le
arc rubbed or struck to cth
' ICn tw_o bodICS .
cases able to determine g er, '\.C arc rn ~any
the nature of the sub t ' bybthc sounds emitted, .
. ,
s anccs roual 1t · t
·
.
o
I) 1flcrcnt sounds are· occas10ncd
b 111
ti o contact
11' · .' .
o f metals and that of wood I
y ic co lSlon !
from hollow
bodies
from
ti
,
tt
~c
slo~nd
,
la 1csu trng frproduced
I'd .
ones. 'I here are various k' I
om soi . ~
shrill, deep rrratinrr I .
ll1l s of sounds : as
sweet A , .o l o' iarsh, .Joud, soft, harmonious ' ..
·
mma s produce cliff.
'
cat mews, the dorr bn.rl-s
er?nt sounds. The .
brays, the cow l~vs ' ti~ , Ith~ lion .roars, the ass
caws, the goose cacl~lcs e tl~otse n.c1ghs, the rook
buzzes, the bee hums
c cock crows, the fly
shouts, groans whistle ~n speaks, laughs, cries,
,
s, smgs.

i\1

LESSON IV.
Sl\IELL.

The nose is the orrr
f tl ·
ties are lined with a ~an
us sense; its caviplied with nc
' thm membrane which is sup.
.
rvcs connected with
, . l
.
wluch is essential to ti ic pcrccpt10n
. a .Pnnc1pn
of smell. one

°

*'Tl11s
. account may n
comprehension
of cl ·11' ppcar, at t.ho first sight, ubove the
< rcn · a cla
gone through tho })r 11 a·
.
ss, 11owcvcr, which had
ccc In" oxcrc· . .38 Ii
umlcrstanding it.
"
iscs, "
ound fully capable
0f

LESSON y,-TASTE·

~

67

From this source we derive all our ideas of
-, odor. Though not so important to man as the
other senses, yet it adJs much to his pleasure;
and to many animals it is essential, directing them
in the search of their food. The scent of <logs is
~. peculin.rly fine, anJ on this account they arc em·
ployed in the chase.
· Odor is produced by exceedingly small particles called eflluvia, which escape from odorous
. ·r bodies ; these diffuse themselves in the atmo·
' ' sphere, and whenever they reach the olfactory
·nerves, they occasion the sensation of smell.
Heat promotes the escape of these particles, which
are of a volatile nature ; hence when the sun
shines brightly, vegetation scents the air with its
·· fragrance.

LESSON V.
TASTE·

The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin
within the mouth is fine and more delicate than
that of the rest of the body : it is supplied with a
' great number of blood vessels, an<l covered with
. innumerable papillre, or small protuberances.
~ Sapid bodies, or bodies which have a flavor,
r ·however, before they excite the sensation of taste,
· require to he moistened by the saliva. Jn grasseating animals, the papillre arc defended from the
action of the stiff bristles of grass and corn by a
strong skin, which being full of holes, allows the
dissolved juice to reach \ne scat of taste. The
1 principal qualitiGs discoverable by the taste are
bitter, sweet, acid, pungent, acrid, luscious.

68

LESSON vrr.-NUTJ\IEG.

FOUHTII SEHIES.

names <

There arc many oth?rs which dcri v~ their
from the substance~ Ill which thcy·cxist. . . <'·"l ~.
Man~ of the anunals have some one of th :,_
~len~es. 111 grc'.tter J~crfection than man has . bu~
.ie1 e dis no a111mal in which they all occur j~ the .
same egrcc.
··

SPICES.

69

It is conservative, or fit to preserve things.
dry.
dull.
sap id •
pungent.
odorous.
aromatic.
medicinal.
wholesome.
useful.
stimulating.
'. The pepper plant is a creeping shrub requiring

, ~upport, and is therefore generally planted near

LESSON VT.

· some thorny bush, among the branches of which
, it creeps like ivy. It produces berries, which
· grow in clusters: they arc first green, become
red as they ripen, and black when dried. It
grows in the countries which lie between the
, ~ropics .

l'EPl'Eil.

Qualities

of Pepper.

It is hard.
vegetable.
foreign.*
tropical production.
wrinkled.
spherical.
rough . .
black.
... TEACHER.

we get it?

~llILDREN.
I EACllER.

on ?

EACllEn.

Cll!LDREN.

l\UTJ\IEG.

Qualities.

If it com" fr
fj
.
·' om a orc1gn country, how do ·,

It comes in a ship.
·
·
is called im
·
·
-our own country is called ex 1~rtmg; nn<l sending out of '
. portmg. Whal <lo we call this " , '
<ixchnngc of productions?

~lllLDREN.

LESSON VII.

This

Trade or co:imcrcc
And what . l10 .
. ~
are t
people culfod who curry it
Merchants.

~

It is sapid .
hard.
oval.
dingy brown.
dull.
opaque.
dry.
Surface uneven.
It is vegetable.

70

FOURTH SERIES.

LESSON ' VIII.-1\IACE.

It is natural.
inanimate.
foreign.
tropical production.
pungent.
conscrvati vc.
pulverable.
agreeable flavor.
aromatic.
c<lorous.

71

CmLDREN. Yes.
TEACHEU. Arc all things that are odorous also
" ·aromatic 1 ·
CmLDREN. No.
TEACnEn. Is an onion odorous 1
CmLDimN. Yes.
TEACUEU. Is a rose odorous 1
CmLDREN. Yes.
TEAcnmi. Arc these smells alike 7
CmLDREN. No.
TEACHER. Docs the term o<lorous indudc every
Nufrn?gs arc _the kernels of a fruit growing in ,....
' kind of smell ?
several islands 111 _the East Indies ; they are sur· , ::
.
CmLDHEN. Yes.
rounde<l !JY the spice cal_lcd n:ace,_ an<l cxterna,lly, '".
TEACIIEn. A term which includes all the vaby a husl~, about half an rnch 111 tluckncss. When·' ·
rieties of one kind of quality or substance, is
tl~c fruit is ri pc, the hask .opens at the end, and'
calle<l a generic term, whilst that which marks
d1spla~s a network of scarl e t mace. After the'
one of the species is called a specific term.
mace is ca refuly stripped ofl~ there still remains' ·
Thus in natural history, the term dog- stands for
a woody shell, which surrounds the nutmeg.
the genus, and Spaniel is a species of that genus.
The husks arc taken off in the woods; an<l the
Give examples of generic terms, and of a spe- .
mace carefully removed with a knife. The nuts
cific term applicable to each of them.
arc first dried in the sun, and then placc<l on a
CrnLDmrn. Odorous, fragrant-colored, redframe of b~mboos over a slow fire, until the ker. _
ncls, on bc111g shaken, rattle i11 their shells.
~foreign, Chinese productions.
The class should dete rmine in succeeding les·
sons what terms arc generic, and what specific.

Remarks on words.

"Odorous," "aromatic."
TEACHER. Why is m~tmeg sai<l to be odoro~s 1
CurLDREN. Because 1t has a smell.
TEACUER. Why aromatic?
.
. ~IIILJ?REN. Because it has that pungent smell
d1strngmshed by the name aromatic.
TEAcrmn. Arc all things that are aromatic also ··
odorous?

LESSON VIII.
JllACE.

Qualities.

It is pungent.
agreeable flavor.
aromatic.

72

FOURTH SERIES.

LESSON IX.-CINNAMON.

It is orange color.
dull.
opaque.
thin.
fibrous.
brittle.
foreign.
tropical.
natural.
inflammable.
medicinal.
dry.
pulverable.
membranaceous, or composed
memqrancs.
conservative.
imported.
sap id.
stimulati~g

TEACHER. Can it be mace without being pungent and aromatic 1
CHILDREN. No.
. Those qualities which determine any thing to
be what it is, are called essential, from the Latin
.esse, to be .
.~i Qualities which are not essential are called
accidental.
,;;,.What qualities of mace arc essential 1
"""""""'--·-~ What qualities of mace are accidental 1

LESSON 1:x;.
CINNAMON.

Qualities.

nu~face
isdt~e covering ~ctween the shell of th~l,t
meg an its external husk.
·1

Remarks on Words.

TE~cirnR. d"Foreign.''
Should '
'.
a foreign
·
·
) ou call mace
its growth~ro uct10n, if you were in the place of
CHILDREN. No.
,
TEACHER. Should
· 11 · ··
mat' .f.
you ca It pungent and nro·
IC, 1 you were there?
·
CrrILDREN. Yes.
cig~~ACHEn. Can it be mace without being fo~. · '
CHILDREN.

Yes.

73

It is light brown, and gives name to a color.
thin.
brittle.
conscrvati ve.
aromatic.
pungent.
agreeable flavor.
opaque.
hard.
sweet.
inflammable.
<lry.
vegetable.
natural.
foreign.
inanimate.
light.
G

74

FOURTH SERIES.

LESSON XI.-ALLSPICE.

It is pulverable.
medicinal.
stimulating.
, .
Cinnamon is the under bark of the branches· of
a tree of the laurel tribe, growing in Ceylon and
Malabar. The branches of three years . old
furnish the best cinnamon. The outside bark is
scraped off; the branches arc then ripped up ·
lengthways with a knife, and the bark is gradually
loosened till it ca11 be entirely taken off. . It is
then exposed to the sun, which has the effect of
curling it up. The pieces of bark so curled are
called quills, and the smaller ones arc inserted
into the larger.

Remarks on TVords.
"lnflammable" is deri vcd from
a flame.
Medicinal from medicine.

LESSON X.

i, 1'

:i: .

75

It is foreign.
aromatic.
pungent.
dry.
dull.
solid.
hard.
,
conscrvati ve.
' :
light.
'
yellowish brown.
puhcrahlc.
meJicinal.
stimulating.
wholesome.
opaque.
inflammable.
;. . Gin er is the root of a plant resembling a re.ecl,
:. ~ which grrrows both in the East an~ West Indies.
. Tl
b t docs not strike to a cons1derab_le. depth,
ie roo
.
fi t du up it is soft,
' but spreads Wille. . 'V~1en rs
g . That in- . and eaten by the Indians as a ~ala.cl.
to be
~- tended for exportation is placed rn bundles,
· dried in the sun.

GIN.G ER.

Qualities.

It iii fibrou~.
knotty
snpitb.
rough.
·•
jagged.
inanimate.
vegetable.
tropical.

LESSON XI.
ALLSl'ICE.

Qualities.
Parts.
It is aromatic.
The insi<le.
odorous.
outside.
pungent • .
skin.
spherical.
·seeds.
brown.
partition ?f se~d-vessel.
speckled.
point of mscrhon.

76

FOURTH SERIES,
LESSON xn.--CLOVES.

organized. · .
natural.
. vegetable.
inanimate.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.
imported.
dull.
.
stimulating.
hard.
inflammable: '.•.
friable.
·
sap id.
wrinkled.
conscrvati ve. .
. Allspice or ~im~nto is t~e dried ber~y of a species
of myrtle rnd1genous m the West Indies·' · it·,
.
is a most beautiful and fragrant tree, producing '
numerous bunches of white flowers, to which suc. f
cced the berries ; these arc gathered by the hand
a_nd spread out in the sun to dry. In this opera·
hon they lose their former color and become
brown. When the seeds rattle in the shell they
~re known to be sufficiently dry, and arc packed
m bags for exportation. Pimento is considered
in its flavor to uni le that of several other spices,
and has thence been called allspice.

.

LESSON XII.
CLOVES.

Pm·ts.
The calyx or cup.
tube.

Qualities.
It is aromatic .
odorous.

leafits of cup.
points of leafits.
bud.
surfaces.
edges.

77

pungent.
brown .
organized.
natural.
vegetable.
inanimate.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.
imported.
dull.
stimulating.
hard.
inflammable.
conservative.
bud spherical •
tu belong.
leafits pointed.

Cloves arc the unexpanded flower-_bud_s and
calyx of a species of laurel which grows m the
West Indies. At a certain season of the year, tl~e
clove-tree produces a profusion of flowers m
clusters: they arc g-athcrcd before the fl~wer
opens, when the four points of the calyx pro.iect,
·and the pct;i ls nrc fohlc_d one over the other,
forming a bud about the size of a pea. Aft~r they
are rratherc<l they arc exposed for some time to
the ~mokc of a wood fire, and then to the rays of
the sun.
.
At the conclusion of the lessons on the spic.es,
the children should be called upon to mention
those qualities which they hacl foun_d com~on :~
all; as aromatic, pungent, dry' tropical, st1mu -

1

G2

78

FOURTII

SERIES.

J,ESSON XUI.-WATER·

79

ing, vegetable. Then let some other similar sub.,
TEACHER. Tell me all the substances belong·
stance be presented to them as mustard.
':ing to that class.
.
CHILDREN. Pepper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon,
TEACHER. Is this a spice 7
CmLDREN. No.
ginger, all spice, cloves.
.
,,TEACIII·:n. Are all the substances of tlus class
TEACHER. 'Vhy not?
CmLDREN. It has not the qualities of a spice 7
alike in all respects?
TEACHER. If I showed you a substance with
CmLDHEN. No.
TEACIIEIL How can you tell one spice from
wl1ich you were not previously accruainted, and
you found that it possessed the essential qualities r»'' ' another?
CHILDREN. They all differ in some particular.
of the spices you have examined, what would you .
T.1::ACHER. Name the particular circumstan_ce
con sider it to be?
CmLDREN. A spice.
'' which distinguishes each.
.
CmLDREN. Ginger is a root; yepper is a
TEACHER. To what then do you apply the
term spice 1
berry; nutmeg is a kernel; mace IS . the me~­
branaccous covering of that kernel ; cmn_amon IS
CmLDREN. To a. . set of natural productions
possessing certain qualities.
a bark; pimento is a seed-vessel; clove Is a cup
TEACHER. 'Vhcn a number of thinrrs
are
and flower-bud.
b
arranged together, each having similar qualities,
what would you call the collection? What would
you call a number of boys who arc placed to.
gcther because they are nearly equal in knowON LIQUIDS.
ledge?
CnILDREN. A class.
Idea to be developed , incompressible .
. TEACHER. What then may you call a collec• ,-'.
tlon of substances that possess the same qualities 1'
CmLDREN. A class.
·
LESSON XIII.
TEACHER . What may you call all substances · ·
WATER.
which arc aromatic, pungent, tropical, &c. ?
"' :
CrrILDREN. A class.
· ·""'~F<·
Qualities r!.f lYatcr.
T EACHER. And what is the name of that class 1
CmLDREN. Spi.ce.
.
·
It is fluid.
TEACHER. What then does th<:; term spice
transparent.
express 7
·(1
clear.
colorless.
CruL~R~N. A cl.ass of substances possessing ·,
the qualities aromatic, pungent, &c.
·
liquid. ·

80

l~OURTII ' SERIES.

LESSON x1v.-01L.

It is useful.

ram.
mist.
fogs.
cloud.
vapor.
dew.
steam.

~right.

incompressible.
reflective.
drinkable.
wholesome.
tasteless.
cold.
in odorous.
natural.
solvent.

Natural Collections

DYJ'erent kinds

lCe.

snow.
hail.

Water.

po~ds.

·,

ef

Water.

rain.
spring.
sea or salt~
river.
· medicinal.
hot springs.
stagnant.
Di.fl'erent States

of

Ocean.
sea.
lake.
rivers.

~efreshing.

inanimate. ·
penetrating,
purifying.
cooling.
fertilizing.
heavy.
some waters medicinal.

1~

sprmgs.

· ; Operations of Water.-It purifies, evaporates,
freezes, quenches thirst, cools, finds its own level,
penetrates, fertilizes, . is a solvent, ebbs, flows,
· extinguishes fire, separates easily into par.ts which
assume a spherical form.

LESSON XIV.
OIL.

ef

81

Water . .

Qualities of Oil.
It is fluid.
yellowish.
semi.transparent.
soft.
liquid.
penetrating.
emollient, or softening.

82

FOURTH SERIES. :

LESSON xv.-DEER.

It is greasy.

83

It is orange colo~.
fermented.
artificial.
useful.
.
vegetable production.
odorous.
semi-transparent. '
slightly intoxicating.

useful.
light.
thick.
inflammable.
Some oils are vegetable.
Some are animal.
When bad, rancid.
·
odorous.

o;t ·

Beer is composed of malt, hops, and water
The .vegetable oil is expressed or pressed
.'
boiled
together. Hops are th~ bloss~ms of a
from olive~, and come~ chiefly from Italy and the
/
creeping
plant, v~ry much_ cultivated lll Kent:
so uth of I•ranee. It 1s also expressed from nuts
·
·
the
place
where It grows is ~ailed a hop-yar~.
and other fruits and seeds.
"~"'-'.The
tub
in
which the malt Is first steepe<l is
TJ_ie anim.al oil. comes from the whale and seal, '.'. "'
.
called
a
mashing-tub
; that which holds the beer.
and Is contained 111 ·the. blubber or fat. Birds are ;i,.
r
·when
made,
a
vat.
.
furni s!icd with little bags of oil ; ·this they apply ,
_ · · Malt is made of barley by the follow.mg proto th e ir feathers, and the wet trickles oft: · This i
" r cess. A quantity of barley is soaked m water
provision is very important to those birds which .
~ for two or three days; the water being afterwards
arc .much i!1 the water, preventing it from pe~e~ ·. · '
. drained off, the grain heats sp?n!aneously, swells,
t:atrng th eir feathers, and thus keeping themi· ~ .
bursts becomes sweet, and is m a state of ferlighter than the clement in which they reside. ! -.~
menta~ion. Vegetables, in t)1e process of decom,1 position, undergo several degree.s of ~ermenta­
R emarks on Words.
tion · the first-that above described-Is called
the ~accharine fermentation, from th.e sweetness
"~mollicnt," derived from Lat. mollia, soft.
it produces. Jn consequence of . tlus decompo·
sition, which is similar to that which takes. place
in seed in the ground, the ·barley begrns. to
LESSON XV.
. sprout but this vegetation is stopped by puttrng
"t · it into' a kiln, where it is well dried by a gentle
nmm.
·,, heat.

Qualities.
It is liquid.
fluid.

84

FOUilTH :SERIES.

LESSON XVII.-WINE.

85

LESSON XVII.
LESSON

XVI.

l•'OREIGN WHITE WINE.

Qualities.

VINEGAR.

'

Il is yellowish.
bright.
fluid.
liquid.
fermented.
spirituous.
intoxicating.
heating.
vegetable.
artificial.
semi-transparent.
sapid.
medicinal.
stimulating.
clear.
strengthening.
solid, occupying a space.
yielding to the touch.

Qualities.

It is acid.

1

orange brown color.
liquid.
fluid.
yielding to the touch.
penetrating.
st,imulating.
vegetable.
sol!d, .as occupying space.
artificial.
medicinal.
odorous.
useful.
conservative.
semi-transparent.

It is ?allc~ Vinegar, from the French, ·Vi~i!' .
7
g ·c. Vin, wme-aigre, sour; because it is fre~ ·
qucnt~y procured from wine. The fermentation
by which this acidity is produced, is called the '~ ,
acetous fermentation, from Lat.~ acetum, vinegar. ·

. . Wine is made from the grape, the fruit of the
'- vine which is cultivated in VineY_ards. The
, ~ ~eas~n of its gathering is called tlte Vi1!'tage. '!he ·
·grapes, when gathe~·e?, ~re placed ~n ~ 'YI?epress, by which the JUICe 1s expressed· tlus Ji:ice
undergoes a fermentation, and b~comes wme.
This, which is the second ferment~hon vegetable
matter undergoes, i~ call~d the vinous fermentation from its producing wine.

'

H

.

86

FOURTII SEIUES.

LESSON x1x.-111lLK·

87

LESSON XIX.
LESSON XVIII.

MILK·

INK.

Qualities.

Qualities.

It is black.
bright.
useful.
opaque.
artificial.
liquid.
astringent, or contracting.
fluirJ. ·
solid, as occupying a space;
yi~lding to the touch.
poisonous.

It is white.

·.

fluid.
liquid.
wholesome.
nice.
animal substance.
natural.
opaque.
soft.
smooth.
yielding to the touch.
·
emollient.
solid, as occupy.i ng a space.

~ .•' when fresh, wan:i·.

nutnt.ious.
Ink is made of galls, gum, sulphate of iron, and
water. Galls are excrescences, or bunches taken ·
For animals to feed their young ~all
/ ..
'· Uses.b l rr to the class l\fammaha);
from the oak; they are occasioned by an insect,-'
animals that do so e 0 1\ ,
. _
which wounds the bark of the tree, and lays its '
1 1
.
l
e butter to (rm~·
1
• for malung c ices ' . . .1 'tl1at in creneral supp y
eggs in the aperture. The torn vessels of the
o .
f
s '
Cows arc theI arnma
l' l 1:nl· the milk o asses.
tree discharge some of their contents, which hardiwa
It
s
(
l l i~ilk of mares; in
'milk
to
man.
ening, form a protuberance, which becomes a de- ·
In Tartary they use th:t . in the northern
for· the errcrs.
The insect having
fcnsi ve coverin!!
.._,
Ob
Switzerland that of go.1. s' · Arabia that of
burst. from the egg, feeds, d11ring its larvre state,
countrie~ that of rein-deers ; 111
on th;s substance, through which it eats its way,
camels.
whilst assuming its perfect form. Sulphate of iron
is a dissolution of iron in sulphuric acid, and when
.
fi d · t
very improving
The Teacher wou~Ll 111 J • a 11 to take two
applied to the a~id of lhe. galls, it becomes quite · .. ·
and interesting exercise, ~cca.s~~1g1:tl;er-as water
black, upon which quality the grea..t utility of.ink' . '
1
substances, and compare iem
.
dep ends.
. , ·1•

88

FOUR'I'II SERI.ts.

an<l milk, and desire the class to fin<l
.
r~sp_cct they are both alike. The ' out m. w~a

~~~idAr~~l~1~~~ctomprcs~iblc, penjtr:ifn~~~a!~~:

arc <listinguishcdo r':~:~t~~~l~J~t;~~;.at q,~flities th~y~
transparent ' the ini"IJ( rs
. opaque.• th le water
t 1s
.
colorl?ss, the milk is wlritc; the w;t . ? twa elr 18. ~
the ~mlk is sweet, &c.
c1 is aste ess, ,, ;

FIFTH SERIES.

i· ·

l

Liquids arc disti1wuish cd b
separate th em \'cry dcf-init 1
c1ua ihes that t
stances. They may all b c Y rom. other sub·
11 fl . l .
ccomc solid th
a·
u1t' rncomurcssiblc
. ti .
'
ey are
·
r
' ic1r parts c·1sil
INTRODUCTORY ItEMARKS.
iatc, ~ormmg into spheres or dro J!';.
y sepa· .
tratc mto the pores of b t
I
t wy pene• ,
su s anccs · an<l ti
fi d
.
t Iie1r own level. Tl .
.
.'
rny n
" THESE lessons are intcn<lc<l as a first exercise
be proved to "the pu1u·s1 cbJrcmnstancc can easily ,· ..
-I ·
ll s Y means of
h
,,
·:in
compos1t1on. The object shoul<l be presented
.
av_rng
named
the
pro
ertics
a
syp
on
•.
.,
.,,.
I
l~q u11l s, the class should afs b .co~mon ~o all ~:;' r· to the children, and they should continue, as
~before, to make their ow1~ - observations upon it.
hon the qualities cculia to c 1equ_1red to men• .
on spices.
p
r 0 each, as m the lesson ~"
;'1They arc then interrogated as to what they know
I\~ {
.\concerning the substance; and all the information
·which can be outaincd from them is collected by
the Teacher, who may th en communicate any
· 'further particulars on the subj ect, calculated to
••into.rest or instruct. Th e materials thus obtained
·'•should then be arranged, and repeated to them.
f After this, the class should be examined upon all
' that has passed, and finally reciuircd to draw up a
,· written account themselves. Children, from eight . 1 to ten· years of age, have derived great improve~
: ment from this exercise. It not only serves to
stimulate their attention during the progress of
the lesson, but also furnishes a test of their having well understood it; and leads them to arrange
.. and express their ideas with clearness and facility.
· In this course the substance should be exhibited

l

c

'

'

H2

!JO

Fil'TJC

sr:nms.

both in its raw, and in its manufactured state':'
Thus, in the lesson on flax, the plant- itself, tlie. ;
fibres when separated from the stem, the thread whcn spun, and the various substances into which
it is made, may be brourrht before the class and
likewise pi~tures of the "machinery employ~d in
these operat10ns.
·
. Many o~ the lessons in the following series
will co1~tam too much matter to be presented
at one tune to the pupils, and must therefore be
divided.

,

! ·-

/

-

LESSON

u.-conK.

,

91

it all to an equal degree :.if thickness, an<l ~lso to
render it supple Ly oil or grease. The.skins are
then tanned. Tan is the bark of the oak, po~sessinrr a remarkable degree of aslringcncy; it
c~nsc~uently contracts the pores of the lcath?r,
and renders it impervious to wet. The qu~hty
· which the leather thus obtains from the tannmg,
_ combined with its durability :ind suppleness, par- ticularly adapts it for shoes, boots, &c.

LESSON II.
LESSON I.

come.
·,,f ,,; ni.~

LEATHER.
: i'

• ;

!"

11il'

Leather is the prepared skin of animals ; , that
of cows, oxen, and horses, is chiefly used for
shoes ; that of ki<ls, goats, and dogs, for gloves,
and also shoes; and that of calves for bookbind. •
ing, saddles, harness, &c.
..,
The. unprepared
skin
is
called
a
hide
·
the
first
.
'
opcrat1011 it undergoes is soakin(J' in lime-water to
cl~ansc it from grease and _ othc~· impurities;- tho
h.a1rs arc then removed by a kind of knife, the
011 and grease arc. afterwards more completely
extracted by alkali, or diluted _sulphuric acid.
After this it is taken to the tan-yard, stretched
over a pit and covered with tan; in this state it
remains about two months. But if the leather
be intended for the upper part of shoes, seats of
saddles, and such purposes as do not require ·it
to be very strong or water-proof, it is first sent
to the currier: his work is to scrape it, reducing

- .-;.· cork is the bark of a kind of oak, growing
· ''~chiefly in Spain. W.hen. it is taken from th~ tree,
' the bark is cut long1tudrnally, and at the cxtrem1
; ities of the slit, incisions arc made round the
'trunk; it is then easily stripped off by means of
a curved lrnifc, with a handle at b?tl~ c1?ds.
When the bnrk is taken from the tree, it is piled
up in a ditch or pond, and heavy stone~ arc ~lace.d
'. upon it in or<lcr to flatten it. After berng dnc~l, it
is slicrhtly burnt, then packed for cxportat1011.
One principal use of cork is to stop .bottles'. for
which purpose it is fitted by its elasticity ; a p1~cc
rather larger than the neck ~f the bottle, bc1~g
inserted into it, the tendency it has to resume its
former shape causes it compl~tely to. fill _~p the
aperture, and exclude the air. Ilcrng lighter
'·i ·
than water it is very useful to those who_ a~e
Ii
learning to swim, Ly buoying . them up ; it is
~r':
also employed in the construction of hfe-b.oats,
};
and the floats of fishin. g -!1:i'·~'.:i . _:I~lJ,q.,pr•11'!~~~·~~~:" ~~~!}j
D~...,::r~ ..1,.t . . .. .. ·- ~ 't; ,. ,?', "" "- :. '. ·.. r.. •. • ~,,t t i·

s: f_ ;:;·-.,·;
~:_

·:;-. ~

.

:_;. -': ' ;, ~=,; ;.Ji •.'::~~
.

.·~

l?IFTII

smnm;.

LESSON JV.-SI'ONGE.

mak e lampblack of it. The men employed in'. .
cutting and preparing it for sale arc called cork.
cutters.

LESSON Ill.

93

t<

LESSON IV.
SPONGE.

S nge is a marine
. p roduction '. it was
. formerly
.

INDIAN RUllilER, OR GUJII ELASTIC.

...,;
liardened

\

Indian Rubber is the thickened or
juic e of a tree whi ch grows in South America:
In order to procure it, the Indians make incisions
throu g h th e bark of the tree in we t weather, and
a milky juice oozes out:, whic h is spread over
moulds of clay; wh en tl1is is dry, a second layer ·
of the liquid is· put on' it; this operation is re.
pcated till the Indian Rubber is of the thicknes~
required. After thi s it is placed over the smok~
of burning vege tabl es, which harden s and darke11s
it. The Indi ans convert it into bottles, boots,
and flam bcaux. The principal uses to which
indian rubber is appli ed 11cre, arc, for the cfi~cing
of black-lead marks, for crick et-balls, shoes, for
fl exibl e tu bes, syringes, and other instruments
used by surgeons and chemists. Cloth of all
kinds may be mad e impenetrabl e to water, if im.
pregnated with th e fresh juice of th e indian rubber
tre e. Indian rubb er c ut \•cry thin , is now also
used to sh eath th e bottom of vessels, and is an
effectual preservative from lh c lllJimes of shell.
fish.

t bl _ but the oprmon now
po ·
supposed to be a ycge ~ e~hat it is a habitation
generally cntcrtari:ied JS,
f the species
t d by a little worm, one o
.
construe e
1 1 west rank rn t 11e
consi<ler~d to occ~p~ ~6~~do adhering to various
animal kmgdom.
t is ti
bottom of the sea,
marine substances at . ic
.. t is })rocurcd
. 11 . ti c Mediterranean' I
d
l trained to this hazar espcc1a y rn I
by di vcrs, who are Se~~ yc absorbs fluids rapidlf'
ous employment.
P. g l 11 compressed; tlus
d . l<l them arram w ie
. an y1c s
·.
f .t to be frequently satura te d
iven to ersons suffer.
property occas10n?< I
with myrrh an<l wme, an<l g · fi . · p in order to
. I1 cnt of cruc1 x10n,
ing the pums m .
<l
b<lue the intolerable
f their agony.
alleviate th eir pa1 n, an su .
I . I . the consequence o
I
. l I . tori an . refers in t ie
thirst w uc l is
To this custom the s~c~~r/\ut <his unrelenting
history of o~r blessec
. ri~rr him the enlivening
'persecutors, mstcad ~.f oflc ,] .oh was rarely denied
. portion of myrrh cd " 'me, ""1~~led a sponge with
1
to the vil est malefactor,
d
t it to his
l
t ' t upon hyssop, an pu
vinega\; anc, pu ~· . of vin errar was considered,
1 he ~ c1 an intolerable outrage. to
mouth.
among th_c J ew sl , ?s 11 ded to in the followmg
15
t
a u
time foretold the
their fc elrn gs.
hich at t 110 same
'
I. d
passage, '~ .
f ti Redeemer of man (111 •
future suO cnn gs o JC . , h~art and I am full
"Repro.ach hath bl1·olkel n ~11~1~or ;01~0 to take pity,
of heavmcss ; am
oo c

94

- 95

LESSON Vll· VJlI.-SllELL LAC, WAX CANDLE·

FIFTH SEHIES.

but there was none; and for comforters, but I
found none. Th ey gave me also gall for my meat, ·
and in my thirst they gave me vinegar to drink."
Psalm lxix. 20, 21.

LESSON V.

formed into thin lamin~c or plates, is ernplo~ed
instead of glass for lanterns. lt. was the ti.rst
transparent substance used for wm<lows. It is
now chiefly employed . for combs, . h~ndles to
knives and forks, occas1011ally .for dn11k1.ng utensils and inkhorns. It was iorme.rly rn much
higher request than now, glass havmg been substituted for it.

CAUI'UOR.

Camphor is the peculiar juice of a species oflaurcl called the camphor tree, which is abundant ·
in China, in Dorneo, an<l in Ceylon. It becomes r
thick or concrete by exposure to the air. · It is 1
remarkably inflammable, and is used by the Indian:
princes to give light in their rooms. It is pungent, 1
volatile, acrid, and strongly aromatic. These
qualities have rende red it useful as a medicine,
and in s ic k-rooms to prevent contagion. It is also '
placed in coll ec tion s to keep off the small insects
that prey upon the specimens.

LESSON VI.

.,

HORN.

"

Horn is the hard substance that forms the frontal projections of horned animals ; these are all
graminivorons,'i i. e. eating grass. This subs tance, when boiled, becomes a soft jelly, and can
be moulded into any shnpc. Dy a peculiar pro-.
cess it is rendered se mi-transparent, and when·
·• From Lrrt. g m111c11,

grass~

voro, I cat.

LESSON VII.
SllEJ,J, LAC·

Shell lac is the production of a little ins~ct
~ . called coccus lacca, which feeds on th? Indian

fig-tree; on this pbnt it also pluc~s .1ts .eg~s,
forming a cell. arou.nd. them from ~ ~isc'.l~ ltqm?,
which is conta111ed m ils own hotly' it hardens m
the sun, and in thi s state_ is the substan:c c~lle.~
stick lac; when brok en mlo small .g rams, l~ is
called seed lac; an<l, if rnclt.cd and f?rmed ir:to
thin lamin~ or folia, is shell lac. It is t~1e prmcipal ingredient .in sea~ing-wax and varnish, ~nd
is employed in ppanmng. Its u se fuln e~s anses
from its being fusible, soluble, and adhesive.

LESSON VIII.
WAX CANDLE.

Wax is the produce of the ind~striou~ bee? it
is a substance which is secreted m . their bodies,
and of which they construct their cells. Whe.n
the honey is taken out of the comb, the latter 1~

96

l'IFTH SEnrns .

melt~d, and aftc~·wards bleachc<l by exposure to .
the a1.r. In ma~\:rng candles of it, wax in a liquid
state is poured mto lca<len moulds in the centre
of whi~h ~he wick has been previously fixed.
~he wick is made of cotton or flax, and when
lighted the meltinrr
0 wax rises up its fibres and
feeds the flame;'K'
,. i(
LESSON IX.
GLUE.

Glue is a sticky substance, used as a cement.

'I'lrn best is obtaiqcd from the skins of animals
generally tfie .shavi'ngs, parinrrs
and stri1Js , whicl~
b

I
1avc bcen re.1cctcd by the currier. An inferior
kind is procured from the hoofs, sinews &c. of
1
animals. It is prepared by stccpinrr the skin for
two or three ~lays. in water, then boiling it till it
becomes a tluck Jelly; whiJ.st hot, it is strained
through osi~r bas~\:ets: the pure glue passes
through the interstices, leaving the impurities in
the baskets. It is then melted a second time
poured ~nto square frames or moulds, and placed
111 the_ •u~· gradu:.dly to cool and congeal. . When
used it 1_s . melted again. Gluc is used by car~ .
penters, .10111crs, hatters, bookbinders, &c.
A gl_ue prcp~r?d from fi sh, particularly the
whale, is called 1s111glass, and is used for culinary
purposes, and for refining wine.

~ ~he teacher will find_ this 11 favorable opportunity of ex·
plommg lhe nature of cap11lary allraclion.
'·

LESSON x.-COFI-'EE.

97

LESSON X.
COFFEE.

. Coffee is the seed of a plant growing princi.pally in Arabi~ an? the est Indies ; the flower
, ··resembles white Jessamme? a~d ~he leaves ar~
' evergreen; the fruit when npe is ·hke tl~e cherry,
it generally contains two cells, someti~es _only .
one, and each cell has a single seed, which ~s ~f
a hemispherical shape. vVhen matured, it is
· either gathered by the hand or shaken from the
~ trees, and placed on floors for the sun to dry the
pulpy substance which surrounds the seeds. The
skin is broken by heavy rollers, and aftenvards
removed by winnowing. In order to prepa~e the
coffee for a beverage, it must be roasted till it be- .
comes of a dark brown ·color and e~trcm~ly
odorous, after which it is gr~und, and either i_nfused or boiled in water. It 1s remarkable for its
very stimulating property, which is said to have
led to its discovery. Some goats, who browsed
upon this plant, were observed by the goatherd to
be exceedingly wakeful, and oft~n to ~aper about
in the night; the prior ~f a ne1ghbonng mon~­
tery, wishing to keep !11s monks awake at their
matins, tried if it would produce the same effect
upon them as it was observed to ~o _upon t~e
. goats : his success led to the appreciat10n of its
· value.

'Yi

I

98

99

I.ESSON · .XII. XIII.--:SAGO, RICE •

LESSON XI.
TEA.

. T~a is a~ infusion of the leaves of a plant grow~
mg l~ China a?<l Japan. It bears a flower re. •
sei_nblmg the WJl<l rose; the leaves arc narrow
pornted, and se rrated. The plant grows only i~
~ s~ony ~oil, and at the foot of mountains and
I ocl-s, exposed _to a southern as1)ect.
Tl - . .
<rre· t
t
. l .
iere is
,., . a ar ~xe rc1set rn gathering and drying the
l eave~, winch arc afterwards su biected to tl1
· g water, to moisten them. Ine tiva~
1)o1·s o f bo1·1rn
.
~t~tc tliey arc. laid . upon plates · of metal whi~il~
crng e.:pose<l to great heat, cause the ldaves to
:urI up m the manner th ey appear wheu brought
into our market. Green tea is the produce of.
the ?~me J?lant as black ; the difference of its
qu~h~::s anses from th? leaves being gathered in
a d1fle1 e nt stage of then growth, and dried u on
plates of copper.
P
j

LESSON XII.
SAG O.

1.

.

\

I
Sago is the pitch of the sago palm, a tree indi~ i
genous to Japan and the rocky dry mountains of ,
Malabar.
, ~It is h~rd~y pos_sible to imagine a plant . more:r
gra_ceful lll it~ foliage, or more beautiful when ~ in''
fru'.t tha_n this species of palm. The foliation'·,
which slightly resembles that of the fern, is placed .

. on . the stem in the manner of the feathers of a .
·"shuttlecock, forming a g1g"antic basket of the most
graceful form; at the bottom of this is the salmon.
colored fruit, resembling, both in shape and
texture, the coxcomb, but of a pale buff color,
inclining to brown. The fruit is a drupa, that is,
a nut surrounded by a pulpy substance (as a plum.)
The nut is eatable. The growth of this plant at
first is slow: it appears for some time a shrub
thickly set with prickles; as it increases in height,
it loses its thorns. When the tree has reached
its maturity, a whitish powder passes through the
pores of the leaves, anJ st icks to their extremities.
On this intimation of the trees bei ng filled with
pith, the Malays cut them down near their roots,
and di vi<le th em into several section s, which are
split into quarters. Th e hark is woody and about
an inch in thickne ss ; in the centre of the stem
is a fat or gummy pith, which forms the sago.
This pithy sub stance being scooped out, is diluted
in pure water, and strained throu g h a bag of fine
cloth, which separates the gummy from the mealy
matter. This latter having evaporated part of its
moisture, is put in earthen vessels, where it dries
and hardens into little globules. Sago is extremely
nutritious and wholesome, and forms an excellent
light diet for invalids.

..

·LESSON XIII.
· RICE.

Rice is the grain of a kind of corn which
grows very abundantly in China, the \Vest Indies,
. the Southern States of North America, and in

100

FIFTH SERIES.

1

~~~!~~!~ae~~c~i1er!}o~~ ~:~~:1~~ ~~:vi

muc~

thout
fcction in marshy lands. The
I . greatest P.eralways inundate their r
cu hvato~s of nee
water rises the hirrhe~ ~undsj and the higher the
always appearinrr ~bove ~f p ant grows, the .ear '
as much heat t~ mature 1~1~vater. It r~qmres
m?isture to nourish the plant. s~.d, as It ~oes.
spike resembling oats.
In lndi~c~hgrows In a
thresh and J>repare ti
.
.
~ women
1b .
ie nee, which Is a
Brahmins 1·
l very
a ?nous employment.
1ve a most
entire!
·
.
.
th
y upon It, theu religion forbidding th
use of amm 1 f, d R"
em e
but . 1 a oo . ice serves not only for food
'
Is a so manufactured into
which resemble clii·na . I b paper, and vessels
•
01 a a aster.

LESSON XIV.

.,
'·"
I

PAPER.

l!t
• '

•

J

1

There are several kinds f
·
·
'..
paper, made of a reed call:d ~~per, VIZ. Egrptian,.
the banks of the N"l ~
.PYrus, growing on '
name.
I e, lrom ·Which paper takes its··

Bark paper is made of the inner rind oft , , ·.. :'
C otton pai>er
. rees. .
'
cotton.
Incombustible paper
asbestos.
European JJaper
l1.ne
.
J
. n rags.
ndian
paper
si
ll
R
;: rags.
ice paper
rice.
Coarse.· brown paper
ti
A
ic ends of ropes.
, mencan straw paper straw ..

LESSON XIV.-P,\PER.

IOI

, . Linen paper was first introduced into England
in the fourteenth century. It is, made of linen
· rags; these are first carefully picked and sorted,
according to their quality; they arc then reduced
to a pulp by a machine, which consists of a
solid cy lindricnl piece of wood, into which are
fastened plates of steel, ground very sharp : this
is fixed in a trough into which the rags are put
with a sufficient quantity of water.
At the
bottom of the trough is a plate with steel bars
also ground sharp: the engine being turned round
with consi<lerable velocity, and the rags passing
through the two sets of iron plates are torn to
pieces, and in the course of four hours arc reduced to a pulp. The motion of the engine causes
the water in the trough to circulate, and by that
means constantly returns the stuff to the engine.
The trough is fed with clear water at one end,
while the dirty water is carried off at · the other
through a hole defended with wire grating to prevent the escape of the pulp also. From this, which
is called the washing-engine, the pulp passes in a
state of purity and whiteness to another engine
similarly constructed, and called the beating.
engine. The only difference of this operation
from the former is, that the velocity is increased,
and that it is no longer necessary to introduce
fresh water, the pulp having been already cleansed
from its impurities. From hence it passes into a
large vat connected with boilers, and the heat
produces a degree of consistency : it is afterwards
conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which ·
is a wheel call ed nn agitator, which prevents the
pulp from sinking to the bottom. Into these

I2

102

FIFTH SERIES.

103

LESSON xv.-PARCIIMENT.

vessels a workman dips a mould, a kind of. sieve
the size of the paper to be made, and about
inch deep; the bottom is formed. of fine : brass
wires through which the superfluous water passes.
The skill of the workman consists in taking .up
just so much pulp as •is necessary to form the ' / . .1

an

paper of a proper thickness. Another workman is
stationed to receive from the first the mould, out
of which he turns the sheet upon a felt or woollen

~"

LESSON XV.
PARCIIllIENT.

." Parchment is the skin of sheep or goats, P r~·
d . n the following manner. The woo is
1
off the skin, which is then
to the

pa~e ~

cloth; another woollen cloth is ploeed upon it

tak~n

;tnpp;it. after this it is stretched us bght as

~

up~n a frame, andl tl~e rcmainin.g
fles~i·nplalreof
t
ent a ~
with
ms rum
' pow <l er. is
·
offh"te
sto~ea orkeen-edgel
chalk reduced
to a fine
w1
l on the surface, and a large pumice
then spreat up
.
bed over it which scours
1
: ~~~~efl~~r~~~no~~~:;~I~~ ~esh. 1:he' k~fe is oan~~
more applied the skin, whicl
mmsten:~ the
10

ready to receive the next sheet. Thus they
proceed, placing alternately paper and felt till

1

dirmuem-

they have made six quires , of paper. This is
. then wheeled to the press, where great force is
I applied, and the water is squeezed from it. After
this the paper ·is separated from the felt, one

sheet is laid upon another, and it undergoes a

1

is

•
second pressure. This operation is repeated
bb d arrain with the punuce stone, un i d
1
five or six times before it is sized, and '. the
ru e . o .
th
Thc 'outside then un ershcets are separated from one another between
inner sHlc is smoo ·
left to dry
·
each application of the screw press. They are -· ~ , · goes a similar operation. 1t is ;:~;e and give~
afterwards hung up to dry in rooms where there , :
and afterwards 15 takl~n off I~l~c first sc~apcs it dry
is a fresh current of air. In this state the paper is
·,,
to the parchment mallcri
summer (which is a
absorbent like blotting paper; to fit it for writing,
.~ , ·, on an instrument ca ct ~
fr~mc ) with a
it is sized. Size is made of vellum* shavings
~' calf's skin well s~rlctchel alofnofa the thi~kness of
·
tool ' unt1 one i
. nex t
boiled in water, with white vitriol, and alum
sharp iron
· e stone is
·'~
Sf
1 · ·is p~r ed off·' t11e· pum1c
finely pounded. After the paper is sized, it is
the son
till it is rendere d
again pressed four or five times, and hung up to
·
passed over it on bot11 sic1cs,
dry as before. It is then told into quires, and sent
quite smooth.
.
before the invention
to the stationer, who prepares it for sale.
: Parchment was 111 ~se 1
longdocuments intended
It is probable that skins were the first substance ·
ot f
of time, ;re written
upon which characters were written.
l r d
s
0
on it. It is also use< ior rum •
::1.

bpeapp~~scr~~~l~~ 1~~~y ~~~e;th

• Vellum is the prepared skin of young calves .

104

LESSON xvn.-WIIAJ,ImONE.

· · FIFTH SERIES.

LESSON
.
. .xvr.
·.. :
\

GLASS .

105

' .:. :' ·afterwards in pots or cruci blcs of pipe clay in_ the
i..r i second furnace, is fit for the operation of blowing;
·_ ~· the annealing furnace is intended to cool the gla~s
~- . · very gradually, for if it be expose~ to the co~d a.:r
j immediately after being formed rnto utensils, it
l- : will fall into a thousand pieces, as if struck by a

<?lass is made from an alkali and sand or flint',
w~uch ar? su.b.iected to the action of fire . .. This

hammer.
Before glass was invented, thin folia of mica
i ' · were used for windows.

~

m1xt_u re 1s _said to have been discovered accid~nt­
ally rn Syn~ by some merchants, who were driven ' f
~y s tress o_{ weather upon its shores.
They had
lighted a fue upon the sands to cook their food·
th_c fire was made of the pbnt called kali; whicl~
g1ows on the sen-shore; the sand mixed with its
a~hes, beca1~1? vitrified by the heat, and glass was
produc?d. I he merchants observed the effect of
the _ur11 on of these two substances, and thus was
fur~1i s hed th? first hint for. the making pf glas~,
wl'.1~h has since been earned to such great perfection. The first place where the manufacture
of g la~ s was carried on was Sidon in Syria. Eng·
land_ i_ s now _much celebrated for its glass. The
9u_ahties winch render ~·lass so valuable are, that
it is hard, transparent, mcorrosivc, not being af.
fectcd by anx substance but fluoric acid, and that
~vh en fused it hecom cs so ductile and plastic that
i_t. n~:ty he mouldecl into any form, which it will
ietam ,~J,1 e n cool. [t can be cut by the diamond
only: I here arc three sorts of furnaces used in
mak111rr
•
· a second .
o glass · 011e 1.o p1cpare
t I10 f nt,
t~ '~ork the glass, ~nd a third tp anneal it. After
h.tving p~·operly mixed th e ashes and sand they
arc. put '.nto ~he first furn~c? where the~ are
burned o1 cal_crned for a sufhc1ent time and bec ome what is called jrit. This bei~g boiled

LESSON XVII.
WHALEBONE-

Whalebone is taken from the jawbone of the
whale the largest animal that now inhabits our
globe: and whose mouth occupies. a third part. of
its body. The whales ~r? ~aught m the f?llowmg
manner. 'Vhen the v1c1111ty of the fish i_s a.seer·
tained by the water which it 8pouts up, six_ boa~s
are dispatched from the . vessels employed 111 this
fishery, with six rowers 1_n each, and a ~an called
an harpooner, armed 1~itl~ a [orked rnstrument
called a harpoon ; to this 1s afhxed ~ r?pe, at the
other end of which is a gourd ; tins rnstrument
having been darted into the whale, _the g?urd
marks the spot where the wounded_ arnm~l d1sap·
pears. The whale when s~ru~k dives with such
velocity into the sea, that it is nece~sary to wet
the rope which he draws over the sides of the
boat to prevent its taking fire, and the fi~henn~n
find it necessary to let go the rope for a t1~ne, till
the whale be spent, otherwise he would smk the
boat by his extreme violence. The whale cannot

106

LESSO!\ ::ox: . -sUGAit.

FIFTH SERIES.

himself the bread of life, the uourishment bread
affords our bodies, representing in a faint degree
the nouri shment rlc affords our souls when he
feeds them with t.hc hidd en manna of his word.
Bread from its nutritious and wholesome properties is often termed the staff of life, and is frequently used to signify food in general. A man
is thu s said to earn hi s bread, and we pray for
our daily bread.
Rye, oats, a.nd barley, Indian corn and buckwheat, arc sometimes made into bread.

remai_n long under wat_er; l~e soon reappears
spouting up blood, and 1s agam attacked by the ·
h~rpooners , who, after repeated efforts, dispatch
Jun~.
'.Vhcn dead, th ey cut him np; the fat ,.
winch. is. called blubber is stowed into casks,
and 011 1s afterward s procured from it. The
bone is used as a stiffe ner, for whips bows
bludgeons, &c. The chief whale fishc/ies ar~
on the coast of Greenland, and in other parts of
the northern seas.

LESSON XVIII.
•. '' DREAD.
•

'.

'" l i l

'•

LESSON XIX.

,· '
; :

,

101

SUGAR·
!I

,(

iJ

Bread 1s composed of flour" ,yeast, an<l a · little "
salt, lrneaded tog.,ether_with water into a soft. 'paste :
called dough. I• lour is most frequently made of .
wheat, which '~hen taken from . the barn is first .
thrasl_1 cd? the rnst_rument empl~yed for this pur~ .
p~s? I? either a flail, or a thrashrng-machine; the :
~1a111 is next separated from the chaff by winnow- .
rng, and the former is conveyed to the mill ·:
wl~cre by grin<li_ng it is converted into flour· th~ '
sk111 of the _grain when separated is called
when left with the flour, it makes th e flour browner . and. coarser. The yest is the fermentation :
wluch n ses 1._o th? top of new beer; it penetrates . ·
t~1c dou g h, d1 su H1lcs the particl es, causes them to ·
r_isc_, a?d th~s mak es th e bread li,ght. It is simiLir Ill its. efl~cts to th e leav en mentioned in Scrip~urc, which 1s sour dou~h penetrating and changrng th e s tale of the whole mass. Our Savior calls

bran, :

'·

Sugar is the produce of the sugar-cane, a pl~nt
growinrr principally in the East and West Indies,
and th~ southernmost states of the Union. A
field of canes in blossom presents a beautiful
sight; the stem is a jointed culmus or re?d;
when ripe it is of a bright golden hue, growmg
amidst lonrr narrow pendent leaves. The flowers
appear lik~ a plume of white feathers tinged with
lilac. The leaves afford food for the cattle; when
ripe ' the cane or stem is b<rathcred and conveyed
.
to the mill, where it is pressed between two iron
cylinclers; the juice is received int_o a t~ough, ~nd
from the nce it is conveyed to a boiler, rnto wlnch
some CJUick-limc is thrown; this, uniting with t!1e
oleaginous particles and the supcr_abm~dant acid, .
rises with them to the surface and 1s skimmed off•
When the sugar nearly boils, it is strained off

108

l'IFTII

s1mu;s.

into anotlier boiler, wl1ere it undergoes the saina
process as before. This is repeated six or seyen
times, when it is received into coolers wl1ich are
shallow wooden vessels. In these the sugar
forms into grains, separating itself from the mo.
lasses; when dry, it is called raw sugar, and is
barrelled for exportation. The process of con.
verting it into white or refined sugar, is the
business of the sugar-refiner or baker; lie boils
it over again, putting bullocks' blood and white
of eggs into it to cleanse it from its impurities.
The planter is the cultivator of the sugar-canes.
The merchant imports it. The sugar-refiner con.
verts it into white sugar. The grocer sells the
sugar in retail quantities.

LESSON XX.

umrr.
Hemp is obtained from an anhual plant whicl1
thrives in a rich moist soil in temperate climates.
It is much~cultivated in some parts of England
and the United States; and in Russia it forms
one of the chief articles of commerce. The stalk
mainly consists of a tissue of fibres joined together
by a soft substance which easily rots. At the
proper season it is gathered and steeped in water;
then beaten in order to loosen the bark from the
£bres. This is completed Ly an operation called
carding, performed with an instrument resem.
bling a comb. It is next spun, dhd then passes
into the hands of the ropcmaker or weaver,
cording to the use for which it is desigaeq.

ac~

LESSON XXI.-FLAX.

109

.
tou hness, pliability, and dura. gpecu rnr
·'· •' . The
·
f extreme
h
fit It
1. ly 11"or purposes whered
. bihty o emp, .
uircd as the cordage an
nd fishing nets. It is
great strength Is req
tackle of our vesse~s, a <l cordage of a first-rate
computed that the. sails an I hemp for their conqmre as muc l
"
man o_f war, re Id be the yearly produce of iour
struct10n, as wou
f land.
hundred and twenty.four acres o

LESSON XX.I.
FLAX.

. .
ual !ant with a hollow
Flax is a slender a~n
dp l' ate blue flower.
d bearing a e ic
f
·I·
ocure the comfort o
fibrous stem, an
From its fibrous bar\. we pr
ssels by its means
linen, the beauty of lace; oura~~ even its rags are
arc wafted across th~ oc:ian, book of Genesis we
made into paper.
nb 1e ti a tent Egypt also
N I
· .
· the
nderf1ul perfcct10n
rn
read that oa ~ slept enea
very early attamed. a wo The seeds of the fla;X
manufacture of Lmen: d
nd produce an 011
· much l'k
l b bu s'La· , the botamca
· I
are
1 el . Y
7
.
d 1. from inu1 •
d 't
called lmsee o1 , When the flax is gathei:e ' I
.
t the influence of the
name of the plant.
is expose~ for some time. ~vhich are afterwards
sun to npen the seeds., is ressed out, or ex·
thrashed out, and th;,~~ stalks are then loose~y
pressed from them.
les and placed rn
tied in bundles fastened to po le,ft to steep for
I
• h
the are
fermentation wJuc
stagnant poo s, wI1ere-Il they
about fifteen days.
Y b tance becomes sepacnsues, the bark or flaxy su ~hinly spread on the
.rated, when the stalks I~rc

llO

lo'U"l'Jl SERIES.

grass, in which state they exhale a very disagree:
able and pernicious odor. After this operation · ,
they arc beaten with a mallet, which removes the ~ ~t
pulpy substance and loosens the fibres; these are
,
then drawn through a comb with coarse iron teeth,
and afterwards through one with finer teeth. The...
refuse is called tow, and is the substance used to.
make packing cloths, and for the calking ·of
ships. The operation of spinning which next
succeeds, is drawing out several of the fibres and
twi sting them; this was formerly done by means
of a di s tafl~ but now it is performed in a more
expeditious manner by machinery. Weaving is
the final operation; it may be regarded as a finer
kind of matting. To perform it, the threads
which compose the length of a piece of cloth are
first ilisposqd in order, and strained by weights to
a proper tightness; this is called the warp. These
threads arc separated by an instrument called a
re cd, into two sets, each composed of every other
thread ; and while by the working of a treadle,
each set of threads is thrown alternately up and
down, the cross threads called the woof or weft
arc inserted between them, by means of a little
in strument, sharp at both ends, called a shuttle,
which the weaver briskly throws from one hand
to the other, and which carries the thread with it.
This is the most simple kind of weaving. The
quality of the flax depends upon the soil in
which it is cultivated: but the fineness of the
thread in some degree also upon the dexterity of
the spinner.

LESSON XXII·

x:on.-c OT'fON1 ,

LESSON

WOOL·

111

xxn.

COTTON•

"·
.
. tcd in the East and
The cotton pl~nt is dcu1t1va beautiful yellow
. . it pro uces a
•
. .
,
West I n<l ws,
·
od contammg a
1
the
seed
vessc
is
a
p
d
flower ; an cl
· ·
· l surrounds the see •
white downy substance iv1n~ 1 and separated from
This is picked by th? rnnl ? 1 at the same time
·
ac\11ne w 11c 1 •
,
the scec~s 1iy al~· afterwards it is packed in large
loosens its fibres'
J . • t the manufacturer.
barrs, and sent by the p ~ntcI o1d upon cylindrical
It i's then carded ; that i\s.' woUI. afterwards it is
d by mac uncry ,
cards wor 1~c.
.
the loose fibres are rerovcd, by wl11ch .rrnccss t ·escmbling a comb;
·l
strumcn I
moved w1t 1 . an 111
..
out into threads or
it is then twisted and diawn
It is made into
&
1
t t the weaver.
yarn, nm s?n o
_. n s ui.lts, cordcroys, . ~·
muslins, calicoes, stock1l·'111 United States m
The machin ery employ? ~n ? luite admirable,
It
.
.
ml spmnrng, is (
I t. be much soug l
carchnrr, rovrng, a
o
.
cotton goot s o
and occasions our
Cl :
ne of the plants
d"
nd
nna soi
after. In 1n ia a
f which nankeens are
.
produce a buff cotton, o
manufactured.

LESSON

xxn1.

WOOL•

1 · ar
manufactured from w.oo ' is p o~
The clothing to cold countries; it does n
ticularly adapted

112

FIFTH SERIES.

communi:ate warmth, but being a non.conductor
of ~cat, it prev?nts that of our bodies from es~
capH~g. Wool 1s the !1~iry covering of sheep, ,
and is taken from the hvmg animal in the sum-·
~ner season ; the operation is called . slteep-sliear- ·
ing, and the wool. in this state the fleece. The
~vool of the Spanish sheep is particularly firie;
rn that country a flock often contains a thousand
sh~~P·
.
·
,;J
. I he. first operation performed on the raw wool
JS to p1ck and sort it; this is particulady needfui
as t!1~ same sheep produces wool of variou~
qualities .. It is next cleansed from its impurities
an~ comm.1tted to the wool-comber, who by means
of iron spiked combs of different degrees of fineness draws. out the fibres, smooths, and straightens
them .. .I~ JS then prepared for the spinner who
forms Jt rnto threads, the more twisted of which
~re called worsted, and the less twisted yarn. It
JS th?n . employed .in the manufacture of every
dcscnpt1on of ho~1ery, stuffs, .carpets, ·flannels,
blanket, and clotns. England manufactures so
i-i:iuch woollen clothing, that it was · formerly conSIC!cred the staple .com.mo~ity o.f tl~at country,
and lo mark the estunat10n rn which 1t was held
the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack. Th~
woollen manufactures of the United States are
becoming very important.

LESSON

XXIV .-SILK·

LESSON

113

xxrv.

SILK·
Silk is the production of a caterpillar, and. consti lutes the covering in which it envelopes itself,
when it changes from the larva state to th~t. of th.e
· chrysalis.
From this inan~mate. c~nd1t10n ~t
emerges as a moth.' and havrng laid its. eggs, 1 t
soon ceases to exist. 'Vhen we consider that
our most luxurious and splendid attire is tl~e production of a worm, how arc we led to admire the
power and wisdom of that Being, who works by
.
.
such insignificant means !
The cocoon or web of the silk-worm is an oval
ball of silk, which it has spun out of a substan.ce
secreted in its own body. The shades of the silk
vary from the palest stra~v-color to deep ye.llow ·
In a stale of nature the silk-worms form Jheir cocoons upon the l'dulb~rry-tr~e it.self, where they
shine like 11olden fru1 ts amidst the leaves; but
the colder ~limates of Europe will not allow ?f
their bei1w reared in the open air. They are m
conscquen°ce kept in wan? but airy rooms, and
feel with mulberry-leaves till they.are ful\X grown.
They change their skin several tunes while they
are in the caterpillar state; at len~th t~hcy bcco~ne
so full of the silky matter that 1t gives then: a.
yellowish tinge; they then cease to eat. . Twigs
are now placed · over them upon l~ttle stage.s of
'Wickerwork, on which they immediately bcgm to
form their webs. When these are fimshed, the

K2

....

,.,

114

FIFTH SERIES.

silk is wound off, which when unravelled, ~easures , 1
from se_ven hundred to one thousand feet. After~ ·
separatmg the downy matter on the outside called ·
fl.as, the cocoons are thrown into warm water to ·
d1ssol~e the glutinous particles which Imel caused
th~ silk to adhere, and the ends of the threads
berng found, several are joined together and
wound upon a reel; this is called raw silk. It
next u1~dergoes some operation to cleanse it, and
~end e r 1t more supple, after which it is twisted
rnt_o threads of different degrees of fineness as required b_y the weaver; in this state it is called
thrO\~ n s1_lk .. The excellence of silk as a material
coi:s1sts rn its strength, lightness, lustre, and its
bemg capable . of taking the finest dyes. Silk
may be made rnto substances varying in thickn_ess, frt>m the fin est transparent gauze, to the
n chest velvets an~l brocades. The English manufac~urcrs a~e chwfly supplied with silk from
Cluna, P ersia, ancl Italy. France is the most
north~rn climate in which silk is produced in any
quantity. The manufacture of silk is already
commenced in the United States.

LESSON XXV.
COURT PLASTER.

Court-pla~ter is a black, adhesive, ,thin substance, apphe~ t? '~ounds. on the skin, to protect
the1!1 fr?m the lDJUnous eflects of the air. The fol.
lowrng i_s the manner of preparing it: a thin black
sarsnet is stretehed on a frame ; a warm solution

..

LESSON xxv1.-SAFFRON·

,

'

115

of isinglass (a glutinous substance prepare~ from
·· the bones of fish, particularly the whale) 1s ap·
plied with a brush equally over the s~rfa~e­
when dry, this is repeated .a second or thir~ tun:e·
It is next washed over with some J?enzom. dissolved in spirits of wine. Benzoi~ is ~ resmous
gum which is found on a tree growmg m Suma·
tra. ' It possesses an aromatic perfume! and acts
as a styptic, i. e. stanches blood. It is al~o th_e
chief ingredient in Friar's Balsam, and gives it
the healing virtue it possesses.

LESSON XXVI.
SAFFRON•

Saffron is the orange-colorecl pistil of. a spe~ies
-..
of crocus, the leaves of which appear rn s_prmg,
and the blossoms in autumn. It abounds m the
neighborhood of Saffron Walden, iq Essex~ Eng·
land, which takes its . nam_c from that. cucum·
stance. It is also common m our American ~ar­
dens. The flowers are gathered every ~ormng ·
just before they expand, and as they contmue to
open in succession for several weeks, the saffron
harvest lasts a considerable time. When the
flowers are gathered, the~ are sp~ead on a table :
the upper par~ of the pi~til only is of any value.
When a sufficient quantity of these are ~ollected,
they are dried upon a kind of portable k1~n; over
this a hair cloth is stretched, and ~pon it a few
sheets of white paper; the saffron is p_laced upon
these to the thickness of two or three inches; the

LESSON xxvn1. xxrx.-CIIEESE, l'UTI'Y.
ll(J

FIFTH

SF.Urns.

whole is then covered wilh while paper, over 1.
which is placed a coarse blanket· or canvas bag
filled with straw. When the fire has heated the
kiln, a board, on which is· a weight, is placed
upon the blanket and presses the saffron together.
It is used as a medicine, serving as a slight tonic,
and to exhilarate the spirits, also to flavor cakes,
and to form a yellow dye.

LESSON XXVIII.

1

CHEESE·

1~1?ke~~e !:i:i~~&a~:~vf;1~~ ~:~o~ ~~net:U~~r~?:~
~bus
1

which is made by stec_ping tthe . m::ie;
h
calf's stomach ll1 wa er '
of a d
a white so1·1d su b st anee .' t ey are
the hey· or .
then pressed and dffned. Abco a substance called
to cheese by sa ron or y
.
b rownatto which is the seed-vessel of a shru g
an
,
d"
ing in the West In ies.

~~;~ate~r~rom

LESSON XXVII.

.

117

BUTTER •

Butter is an unctuous substance prepared from
the milk of the cows. When milk has been · al.
lowed to stand a few hours, a thick rich substance
called cream rises to the surface. This is skimmed off, and by being briskly agi'tated is converted
into buttei;. · The instrument by which this operation is performed is called a churn ,· a certain
degree of heat assists the process. The butter
that is required,to be kept any length of time, is
salted and packed in small tubs or barrels. Besides the butter there is another substance remaining in the churn, which is called buttermilk.
The person who tends the caltle is called a cowherd: and the place where tho milk is kept is a
cl airy.

~v

w~~~IsP::~i~\;s~i~~~

LESSON XXIX.
ruTTY·

.\

Putty is a soft ~nctuo~s .. substa~ce ~~~i~~
, <l
b exposure to the air, and is
bar _ens y ,
t tl e glass to window-frames.
to cemen 1
.
..
eglaziers
.
d f linseed 011 and wlutmg, som
It 1s compose o
t
1
d
The
·
times with the a~lditionfi of w1lldC ~:d th~ oil
.. .
und into a rne pow er,
d . t · t till all the subwl11t111g is gro
.
and white lead are wor1rn m o l '
stances arc thoroughly incorporated together.

llS

FIFTH SERIES.

.r

LESSON XXX.
STARCH.

Starch is a suhstance obtained from several
mealy vegetables; it_ is generally prepared from ·
whc~t by the followlllg process. The wheat is'
put rnto tubs of water, an<l exposed for some days
to the heat o~ the sun, which brings on a derrree
of ferm entation: the water is chanrred twi~e a
day. Hav.ing: by this pr?cess becom~ sufficiently
sof~encd, It IS poured rnto !arge canvas bags,
wluch are worked or beaten, 111 order to separate
the .husk~ from the mealy particles, which are
rcc?1vcd rnto an . empty vessel. Fresh water is
again potircd upon them, and after this has been
well shaken, it is left to settle ; the water is
poured ofl~ and the sediment which remains at , ~he bottom o~ the vessel is starch : this is formed
rnto. ~mall pieces and dried. Starch, with the
~dd1t10? ?f smalt or stone blue, is used to stiffen
lmen ; It Is also formed into a powder for the hair.
Sta~ch or Fccula i~ the nu~ritivc part of most
g_rallls and roots ; It may be extracted m con.
SHlerablc quantities from potatoes.

LESSON XXXI.
FELT.

!"cit is the substance of which hats are made.
It is composed of hairs; those of the beaver are

LESSON xxx1.-FELT.

119

, chiefly used by hatters. The operation of felting
depends upon a peculiar constructio9 in all hairs,
which however smooth and even they may appear,
~ave in reality a tiled or scaly texture on the
surface. The scales arc so placed, that they
yield to the finger drawn along the hair from the
root to the point, but present a resistance when
moved in a contrary direction. In consequence
of this peculiarity, if a hair be seized in . the
middle between the two fingers and rubbed, the
root will gradually recede and the point will approach the fingers, exhibiting a progressive motion
towards the root; the im bricatccl surface, preventing all motion in the opposite way. From this
property, hairs, when beaten or pressed together,
begin to move in the direction of the root, and
arc disposed to catch hold an<l twist round each
other, and thus to stick into a close mass, which
is called Felt. Curled hairs entwine themselves
· - more closely into one another than those which
arc straight though flexible, as these latter recede
from the root in a direct line. The hatter however finds them very .useful : . he spreads them
over the surface of his coarser ·cloth, and when
pressed, these fine straight hairs moving in the
·direction of their roots form a coating; their base
being inserted in the felt, while their extremities remain free. It is in consequence of this
tendency to felt, that '\<voollen cloths increase in
thickness, and contract in length and breadth, by
being washed; and that they do not ravel ~:mt
when cut. The Zetlanders, availing themselves
of ·this peculiar construction of hair~, felt their
wool by putting it into narrow inlets of the sea,

120

FIFTH SERIES.

where it is exp
·
I motions
' of .
. • ose cl to ti ic contmua
the tides.

LESSON XXXII.
PORCELAIN.

Clay and flint arc the chief ingredients in the
manufacture of porcelain, from the coarsest pot.
tcry to the ?nest semi-transparent china. The
clay m~lrns it work easily into shape the flint
~nakcs it hard and a little glassy. Th~ following
is the usu?! process carried on in the English
m_anufoctones of Chinaware. The flints are
iii.st re~ucccl. to ,rowdcr by the action of fire then
'.111x ed ll1 c C.: rtain proportions with Cornish' o-ran
~tc / and ground t? a. ~cry fine powder; ;ate;
I.s ,1'.ourcd upon ~his mixture, and it is twice
s!.rau.10d. through silken sei vcs. It is then boiled
till It is o_f the c?nsistcncy of cream, and the
watery particles being evaporated, it becomes a
t~ugh paste. A portion of this substance is then
Paced upon .a turning ~v!1cel; and moulded by
the ~1and with a prec1s10n and rapidity, that
pra~l!cc only can give. This is the manner in
which vessels of a circular shape arc formed as
bowls, plates, cups, and saucers. Utensils' of
other forms a~e made i1~ moulds of gypsum, the
pores of wl11ch absorbing the moisture of the
clay, the vessels arc contracted in size, and thus

LESSON xxxn.-I'OltCELAIN.

121

easily loosened from the mould. Each vessel
thus formed is placed in a separate clay case.
The furnace is filled with these, and then bricked
closely up, and they arc subjected to a red heat
for sixty hours.
The temperature is ~hen
gradually lowered, and when the porcelain is
, withdrawn, which in this state is called biscuit,
· it is a white, dull, porous substance. This, process
greatly diminishes the size of the vessels,; which
in this state readily receive the blu_e col9r, called
cobalt; it has the appearance of a dirty grey till
glazed. The g lazing consists of lead and glass,
ground to a very fine powder, mixed in water
with some other ingredients which arc kept secret.
The biscuit is merely dipped into the glazing,
and is tho rt baked again L>r forty hours. It is
now read y to recei ve all tlic other colon>, aml the
gildin g , ,,·hich the pattern may require. It is
then bakcc a third time for ten hours or more.
Lastl y, the g ildin g is burnished with bloodstone
or agate, a:1d the china is ready for the wa~c-room.
Th e color:= arc c hanged by b akin g, a.ppeanng very
diffe rent wh e n first laid oh. ·

* Tho two pri11c1'pul mgrc
·
<l'10
f
nluminc.
nts o granite nro sjlex and

L

122

.

~ESSON xxx111 •.,-GOLD.

FIFTH · SERIES.

123

· It is ductile.
INTRODUCTORY REMARYC' .: ; i;Fit
·~

·I {'

..,

ON

METALS.

..

(\~

In these lessons on the common metals it is
nec_essary to present the specimens to the' ciass in
their several _natural and arti~cial states, that is ·to
say, the natl ve, the ores, and the manufactured
metals .. The teacher would find the interest 'of
the pupils awakenc:d by the examination of the
several substan~es,_ and' consequently that t.hey_
~vould b~ more 111chned to receive with profit the
rnfor~~t10n co~v.eyed. The plan of writing down
the list of qualities has been again adopted with
the metals, as they lead to a new ranre of ideas
a.n<l form so decidedly the characteri~tic distinc:
t10ns of the substances.

LESSON XXXIII.
GOLD • .

Qualities.
'It is perfect as a metal.
malleabl~. '"'

I.

"' A solid piece of gol<l an<l some lcaf-gol<l should be preHentcd t-0 the class, and the extreme li ghtness nn<l thinness of
tho leaf may be felt.
TEACl!En. Ilow w;:is tho gold made so thin?
Cua.onEN. It wns beaten out.

.

2.
·
tenacious,-holding together strongly· 3.
heavy. 4.
·
indestructible, i. e. it cannot be destroyed.·
fusible.
.
incombustible ' i.. e.. it cannot be ~urnt
ex·
' ·.·
cept by electricity.
...
soft, compared with other metals.
pliable.
compact.
yellow.
solid.
opaque.
brilliant.
reflective.
sonorous.
metallic.
.
. *
Not affected by any acid, but aqua regia.

TEACHER. \Vi th what 1
ClllLDREN. vVith ll hammer. .
All things that can thus be extended by beating, ure culled
malleable, from Lat. Jlfallcus, a hammer.
.TEACHER. Coul<l glass be thus beaten out 1. Coul<l chalk~
Camphor? What quality prevents them fr~m bemg malleable ·
CmLDREN. Glass is brittle. Chalk fnable. .
TEACHER. What quality in gol<l then rcn<lers it malleable 1
CmLDl\EN. Its being tenacious.
.
.
TEACHER. What other quality in gol<l unses from its being tenacious 1
CmLD!tEN. It is <luctilc?
TEACHER. Ductile is derived from Ln,t. Duco, I lca<l.
• Aqua rcgia (royal water) is n mixture of muriatic acid
nn<l nitric acid.

FIFTH SERIES.
.
124
It is a perfect metal b
.
·
any ~f· its weigl~t whe;1 us~~~us~ i.t .do~s. ~ot los~
Vi hen the children under .
•t .1 '
•
ent qualities, the teacher stund full.y the <l1fferthe facts that illu s·tra t e t 1emay
mcnt10n to them
1 ext. d'
111 which the pec uliar
. r .. ta?r mary degree
1. " :fifal!eab}e " CX:hl 1ti.cs CXJSt,
..
a pin's head m"y b. b gram of gold the size of
"' square' inches.
"' e eaten out' t o· cover a space
of uO
2 . "D uc t'JI e. " A rrrain of rr Id ·
..
ou~ to cover a wire bof 352 bo ~an be drawn
gu111ea can be drawn out t0 . fclet
~n length; a
a half.
ieac 1 mne miles and

f

3·

"Tenac1ous
. '"

'
·
A Wll'e
· 0f
ametcr will support 500
<l . an rnch m 'lli4. "'Veight." It . po?n s w1th~mt breaking.
than watt:r of tlie S" Isl nl1lnetcen tunes heavier
ul11e ) U

Uses

~f

~.

Gold.

_\'' hen alloyed"' with c
.
com and for ornam t lopper, gold is. used as
and its not· beinrr liab~n ~ purposes; its beauty
purpose.
b < c .o rust, fit it for the latte;
The golcl used in coinarr
11
consists of a mixture f 'be] ,lea, eel standard gold
·
· '
0 go L and cop
.
~er.
.
. GoI l I thread is mnde l ,
I.>) covcnng silk or silver
with crol<l be·1tcr1
b
'
very t 1111.
·
. *Tl10. combmntions
of metal .·
·.
m chemistry, alloy• IJut ti .
s \v1~h cnch other arc called
I ·
·•
11s term 1
' ~ls~gnntc those subst:mccs which I s com! monly employed to
'' IH'.h they arc unilc<l.
csscn t 10 value of any with

LESSON xxxn1.-GOLD·

125 .

Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a
substance with gold: this is effected by applying
it either in the state of a leaf, or liquid gold.
Quicksilver dissolves gold, and unites with it,
and has from this circumstance been used in gilding buttons, an effect which is produced very
rapidly by the following process. The metals are
mixed together, and the buttons immersed in the
compound. They arc then exposed to great heat,
by which the mercury is evaporated, and the gold
is left upon the buttons.
The purple color used in porcelain is obtained
from gold.
Gol<l is beaten into leaves upon a smooth block
of marble fitted into a wooden frame about two
feet square ; on three sides there is a high ledge,
and the front has a flap of leather attached to it
which the workman uses as an apron to preserve
the fragments that fall off. There arc three kinds
of animal membrane used in the operation. For
intcrlaying with the gold the smoothest and
closest vellum is procured; -and when the gold
becomes thin, this is exchanged for much finer
skin made of the entrails of oxen prepared for
this purpose, and hence called gold beaters' skin,
and the whole is covered with parchment to pre·
vent the hammer from injuring it. After · the
gold has been reduced to a sufficient degree of
thinness, it is put between paper which has been
well smoothed and rubbed with red bole* in order
to prevent it adhering to the gold.

* Bole, n kind of

L2

cnr1h.

LESSON xxx1v.-SILVER· '

120

. : FIFTH SERIES: ·
''•.t

"I

. '. i

I

Geographical and Geolo'gical ·si~uation Of G<:>ld.; ··
,.

:

I ,

I I ;

'

1

'

'

'

"'j

' I

l ' •

• .f

•.:

t

' ~(

Gold is found principally in hot climates, either
native or as an ore. A metal is· caUed native
when it occurs in nature pure, and an ore. when
mixed with other substances. Gold is found · in
mines in Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. 'Part of the
western coast of Africa is called the Gold Coast;
· from the gold dust brought down by the ·na,tives ·
to trade with. A great quantity of gold is ob~
tained in the form ·of fine sand from American
and African rivers; and in small quantities from
the Danube, the Rhine, and the Rhone ·i it
is supposed to be washed down by the mountain
t.oi;rcnts. The wandering tribes of gypsies em
ploy themselves in washing it from the beds of
the European rivers. The Himlaya mountains in
Asia arc rich in gold. It sometimes · occurs in
the veins which run through the mountains; and
sometimes in rounded masses in soils that· are
evidently the ruins of rocks. The mines which
formerly yielded the largest quantities of gold
were those of Peru and Lima; the principal of
Europe arc those of Hungary and Saltzburg. The
mode of extracting gold from the ore, is by reducing the whole to fine powder and mixing it
with quicksilver. The latter unites with every
particle of the gold, but being incapable of form~
ing a combination with any but metallic substances, it separates the gold from the earth with
which it is intermixed. The quicksilver which '
has absorbed the gold, is th~n evaporated by
means of heat, leaving the pure metal in the

.
.
f the States of North and
vessel. Ce~tam pad1tGs o . . have recently been
South Carolma, an
eo1g1a,
found to abound in gold . .

LESSON XXXIV.
SILVEU·

Qualities.

It is malleable. 1.
ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
heavy. 4 .
.indestructible.
fusible.
soft.
flexible.
perfect metal.
opaque. white.
solid.
compact.
natural.
.
subterraneous production •.
brilliant.
·reflective.
sweetly sonorous.
.l
not affected by common ac1c s.
. " s·11
an be reduced to a
1 " M;i.lle'.l.ble.
vcr c f h'ch
gold is
1
·
thinness
nearl Y equa1 to that o w
capable.

128

l~IFTII SERIES.

LESSON XXXIV.-SILVER.

2. "Ductil " It
,
·
finest wire. c.
can also be drawn out to the.
.
3 · "'I' cnac10us"
A ·
'··, (. r .. ·.
·
.·
·
wire one-tenth of a · 1
in tl11ckness will support 277
d
~ me l
breakinll"
poun s without
b'
4. "We"rrlt" I ·
than water.lb l •
t is about eleven times heavier

Uses

of

made by dissolving nitrate of silver (lunar caustic)
in water, and adding gum. The yellow color
employed in porcelain painting is obtained from
silver.

Geological and Geographical situation of Silver.

Silver.

Silver is combined with co
ii
.
render it harder and better ad;~:erd tr co1~, to
fine and sharp impression on b .
o receive a .
same alloy is cm 1 d r
erng cast. The
s·1
.
p oye 1or ornamental purposes
.
I vcr is used much as a casinll" to
.
sds, to prevent the injurious cffo~ts ~op~Jr utenrender them more pleasirw to th . 0 ac1 s, or to
permanent platinrr is cffe~ted be s~g:i~. The mo.st
plates of silver all~! copper the iiy a nn~ two tlun
po ·t.
f
'
ormer In the pro
I ion 0 one to twelve of the latter.
r l
. ' a itt e pow.
dere<l borax is placed betw
the fusion of the two m t fen tl~em to promote
·
exposed t
e as, wluch after being
, . d · tlo· a · w1utc J1eat, will be- iiouncl fi rm 1y
umte
whole is oF~1 is ~assed ?etwecn rollers till the
manufacture. ic p1oper t111ckncss for the intended
. Silver dissolved in a ua Corti
. .
.
yields crystals which 1 9
1: .
s (n1tnc acid)
·
'
)Cl/1g a1terwards
It d ·
crucibles, form what is called 1
n:e c i_n
preparation, is of consid . unar ca~stic. ~his
operations being cmploy~~,i~le ~alue 10 surgical
ftcsh; and also for
. 0 urn away proud
I
consummg warts \
l
ot ier excrescences on the +.
I
'. vcns, anc
mancnt marking ink, use<~~~~· m-~~l-~nhr~lel. or pe~­
'
~
b
men, 1s

129

'·

I

~

Silver is found native and as an ore, in mines
and veins. America is.. the ·country ; richest in
silver mines. It is also found ·in ·Saxony, Bohemia, Norway, Hungary, and England; but the
mines of Mexico and Peru furnish annually ten
times more than all those of Europe together. So
poisonous are the exhalations from the mines of
Peru, that many thousands of Indians have perished in them, and the cattle that graze on the outside arc affected by their maligna·nt vapors. The
quantity found in England is not great; it is
taken from the lead mines of Cumberland, Cornwall, and Yorkshire. A large blnck was found
at Frcyburg in Saxony, upon which Duke Albert
took his dinner. When melted, it yielded 44,000
pounds of pure silver;
The ores of silver arc very numerous, ·and various methods arc employed in different countries
to separate it from the ore. In Mexico and Peru
the mineral is pounded, roasted, washed, and
then mixed wit)l mercury, in vessels filled with
water, a mill being employed for the purpose
of more perfectly agitating it, which thus causes
them to combine. The silver unites with the
mercury, and being submitted to heat, the ·latter
is ev:i.porated. The pure metal is then melted
and cast into bars or ingots.

130

FIFTII SERIES. '·

LESSON XXXV.-Q.UICKSILVEU •

:r' "r;:
..

i1: ,~_,,.,,

'',"
,,·1.Jt~:1n ~

i•

J)J

LESSON XXXV. . ·

·,:q!'.'l.fff~J

.~. ; ~ .ta

QUICKSILVER OR llIERCURY. ..

Qualities.

.'
';

It is heavy.

l.

~

!

i'

fluid. 2.
• ... 1· ' .,
cold. 3.
:
di visible. 4.
*v~latile when lieated.
white.
brilliant. 5.
opa,que.
.
l~ast tenacious of all bodies.
dilatable by heat.
medicinal.
natural.
inanimate.
mineral.
l. "Wci<rht"
NTcar1y iourtc
.r
•
b
•
f
]
.·
than water-the he . t 1·
en . imes ieavier
2. "Fluid." It ~~~~~ ,now~ flu:d.
. .
our temperature b t . ys rcta1_ns its fluidity in
it con<rcals and tlu II~ countries near the poles
tcnaci~u s. '
icn is malleable, ductile. and
3 · "Colcl." It is th
l<l
.
the hottest when boil in~. co est of all fluids, and
b

. I 0 fl y.
"' ' ' o In11·1e, from Lar. Vo'-UllC,

.....

ul'

131

. ·, 4_. It is capable of division, by the slightest
. effort, into an indefinite number of particles, each
of a spherical shape.
5. The brilliancy of metals is so peculiar and
great, that it is called the metallic lustre.

Uses

of Quicksilver.

·

Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals,
losing its own fluidity and forming a kind of paste
called an Amalgam. This affinity or attraction
that it has for the other metals makes it exceedingly useful in separating them from substances
with which they arc found combined; they leave
thcso to unite'with the mercury, and this being
volatilized, the pure metal remains. It is easily
affected by the atmosphere, and is on this account
used in Thermometers and Barometers.* The
Thermometer is an instrument constructed in the
following manner :-a tube of glass terminating
in a hollow ball which contains mercury, is
plunged into boiling water, which causes the
mercury to expand and· rise to a certain height.
At this point, which is called boiling heat, the
tube is broken off and hermetically sealed ;t the

* Barometer from {Japo~ (baros) weight and p.trpov (metron)
a measure. Thermometer from Scpµo~ (hot).
t In order lo senl nny thing hermetically, the neck of n
glass Lube is heated till on the point of melting, and then with
n pair of hot pincers it is closely twisted together, by which
means the nir is excluded. Hermetically is derived from
llcrmcs, a name of Mercury, !he 1lcity of ancient mythology
who was thought to preside over the arts, particularly chemislry. .

LESSON xxxv.-Q.UICKSILVER·
' '. FH'Tll SERIES. · ., ,, ... ,
132
freezing_ point is then
...
and the 111tervening spa
d
' and marked,.
ck~ gra uated.•·· ~fhe
.Therrnometer by thus
'
mar ·rng tl1 , .
·
·
contraction of the quicJ-sil
~ ~~pans10n and
crease and decrease of l~ea;cr' .m icat~s" the inmosphere.
and cold Jn~ the : at~

ascertaine~

i..

.

To form the Barometer
l
.
?ne end, and filled with . ~ g _ass .t~b~ open at
rn a bowl c t . .
qmcks1lvm, is immersed
Part of ti on ~1111ng_ some of the same fluid.
.
. ie mc1cury rn the ! tube flo,vs" . '
cup, leavmO' a space t 0 w lnc
. ·h t h.e .'air
. ca I~to
· t ·the
·
0
accesi5, consequently there is a ·vacuum ~~~~h ~~1~
1
upori the
light, th~ pre:~~~e1tb~~:~s~em the tube, ·ai:d '~hen
descend
Th Il
o
moved, allowmg it to
·h ·
.
·
e arometer by th
weight of the air ' ind'
t '
us s owrng
•
ICU CS t 11C pr b b'l'
f the
or dr)' weatlier F
l
o . a I ity o wet
.
light,
it· no Iona· . or w rnn ti le , a t mosphere is
wliich float in i tc~~~Pf~rts the vapor and' clouds
towards the ea;th . b
~onsequently descend'
dense, they arc born~1 w ien . thi;i . air i_s · more
weather 'fl
1
. · up, and we have fine
rn c evat1011 of
t ·
. ·
certainccl 'by means of the m.oun . ai~~ is also_ a~known that the rarity of ti Ba1omete1, for as it IS
in proportion to the as _mt at1ro~ph~re i1:1creases
calculated.
cen ' tie height Is easily

~~~sb~~~e, c:~e.n h~avy, · ~cts.

~~rcu~ ~~

:y

Quicksilver is also used ii
. .
This process is effected
or coat~ng mirrors.
. . th~ follow mg manner :
a sh<:!ct of tin foil th
is placed evenly c size o the plate . of glass·
ove r this i's
oln a smooth .block of stone.
pourc( some
· ]· ·1
.
~
carefully spread up
't . ~u1c '- s1 ver, wluch is:
of linen
on I . wit i a feather or rubber
•
111 111 amalrramaf
·l
quickly foni1s an oxide' o"'[ a. black
mg wit
1 mercury
appearance
•

in

·r· .

',

133

this being removed, more of the fluid is poured
upon it. The glass is then held horizontally, and
carefully slid over the amalgam, sweeping before
·it the su pcrfluous mercury, and any more oxide
that may have formed. Weights are then placed
upon the glass, and after having remained several
da_ys, the mixture adheres firmly and forms the
mirror.
V crmilion, used in coloring scaling-wax, and
, the medicine 'called calomel, are preparationi? of
.' this metal.

Geographical and Geological situation
llfercury.
Mercury
globules or
it is most
forming the

of

is found in the native state in
drops in the cavities of mines; but
frequently combined with sulphur,
mineral called cinnabar, which is of

/ a red color.
The quicksilver mines of Idrca are said to yield
annually 100 tons; those of Spain still more; but
the mines of Peru arc the richest.
The mines of ldrca were accidentally discovered about three hundred years since. That
part of the country was then mucl~ inhabited by
coopers; and one of the men, when retiring from
work in the evening, placed a new tub under
a dropping spring,, to try if it would hold water,
and when he came in the morning he found it so
heavy that he could scarcely move it. On
examination, he found a shining ponderous fluid
at the bottom, which proved to be .quicksilver.
When this circumstance wasemade known, · a

M

134

FIFTII SERIES.

er

SOCiety Was formed to
I
from whence the merc~~co;e~ a~d work th: mine
1
parts of the mine it . fl Y ~ ISsued. I~ some'
that in six hours 'a
owls m small ·stre'anis, .so
·
liave been collected s muc
I 11 as th'IrtY·SIX
pounds
't · cl'iflused
·
nbot ier parts f th e mme
· ·
I Is
in small• go
1 u1es;
·

°

LESSON XXXVI..
LEAD.

Qualities.
It is heavy.' 1 ·
fusible. 2.
.
;
bright,, when first melted · · · ' ' ..
malleable.
or cut • ... H :
ductile.
very soft. 3.
pliable.
1ivi?, bluish gray.
,.
easily calcined, that is, reduced .. b
~1eat to a friable substance
.y
solid.
•
<1
sometiI:ies amorphous.
crystallized.
opaque.
mineral.
~arnishes easily.
,..
ll1elastic.
natural.
It
makes
ab
rrray
t
I
It b ·1
'
s rea{ on paper. ,
o1 s and ceiporatP.s at a great heat.

LESSON xxxvr.-LEAD.

135

. · I. Weight-It is eleven times heavier than

water; rather heavier than silver.
. 2. It melts at a much lower temperature than
the other metals.
3. It is the softest of all metals.

Uses

ef

Lead.

, , The calx* of lead is the basis of many colors,
·. ·which arc obtained from it by different degrees
.. :·· of heat. Red lead and white lead, so much used
· in paints, are the calces of lead. They are
' soluble in oil, and arc all very poisonous, and
occasion the ill-health to which painters are subject. Any acid will extract a poison from lead,
and therefore the use of it should be avoided in
culinary operatiol)s. It is employed in glazing ·
an cl pottery.
When rolled between iron cylinders to a requisite degree of thinness and uniformity, lead
is employed to cover the roofs of houses and
churches; though, in case of fire, its melting is
attended with much danger. It is also used for
gutters and pipes of houses, and for cistr.rns and
reservoirs for water, because it does not rust.
Rust is occasioned by the oxygen uniting with a
metal ; but the oxygen of the water having a
greater affinity for ~1ydrogen, its other constituent,

* Cnlx iH tho dross formed on the surface of lend, when
melted. This name is now generally applied by chemists lo
thoso subst.nnces which have been redu ced by burning to a
friable state. The operation by which this effect is produced
is called calci11alio11.

136

LESSON xxxVI.-LEAD·

FIFTH SERIES.

water

than for lead, it does not separate from the
to unite with this metal.
: · · _.,
The great softness o( lead, and its being so
easily fused, arc the properties which have brought
it so much into use. The persons who work it
arc called Plumbers, from 'the Latin, plumbum,
lead. The solder they use as a cement is an
alloy of lead and tin, in the proportion of two
parts of the former to one of the latter.
Great quantities of lead are consumed_ in
making shot. -The metal for this - purpose is
alloyed with arsenic, to render it more hard and
brittle, and capable of assuming a perfectly._
spherical shape. Shot are formed by dropping
the melted alloy into water, through an iron or
copper frame, perforn.tcd with round ·holes, which
arc larger or smaller, according to the size the
shot arc required to be. Mixed with antimony,
lead is used for printing-types; and, with tin and
copper, it forms pewter.

Geological and Geographical situation

of Lead.

Lca<l abounds in England, particularly in the
counties of Derby, Northumberland, Somerset,
, Cornwall, and Devon, and in Wales. It is plentiful also in Scotland, Germany, France, and
America. It is very much doubted whether it is
ever found native; it occurs frequently combined
with sulphur, when it is called galena.
The lead mines of Missouri are perhaps the
most important in the world. When the ore i11
brought out of the mine, it is sorted and washed, ·

137

rubbisl~'.~~ is;~~~~ t~;:~~~:

to free it from_dirt and
. and the best pieces ar~ separa e been sufficiently
by picking and waslung, has . .
ted* in
·t
ous matter, it is roas
cl~-~n~e~/~~~,c~ r~-~~ it from the sulp~1ur us~all1t
a '-m
. .
Tl next process is to mix i
ic t · d submit it to the
combined w1t1.1 it.
with a quantity of cok?, an are ta -holes, and
smclti1w fum ace. In tins there
p d to allow
when the lead is melted ~hese ar? opene , l . The
.
fl . 1 t t nto an iron vesse .
" k. med off,
it to run 111 a uit s a _e i
dross which flo~ts on its surfacea~~e: :d poured
and the metal is taken .out by ld d, It is then
into cast-iron moulds with roun en s.
called pig-lead, and is fit for use.
lJ which the volatile parts of an
t b which the pure metal
ore arc cvaporntcl\. Smcllwi'j is t ~icl:s combined with it in
is separated from the eartl1y ~~r tl1e whole into a furnace,
'I'h. 15
· d , by t irowmg ,
.
h
is . ?no
that will combine with t e
the ore.
. nnd mixing -with it su~tn~c.csg the heaviest, falls to the
ear:hy ports ; the met~ t~1: proper openings, in its pure
' bottom, and runs out Y

* Roasting is the proccs~ Y. h

metallic state.
.
.t coal under enrtl1, nnd
. f l
d by burmnn- p1 t Coke 1s uc • ma e
is made with wood.
quenching tho cinders; as c1mrcon

l

M2

138

FIF'TII SERIES,
LESSON xxxvn.-COPPER.

•I'

LESSON

xxxvri.

COPPER.

Qualities.

It is heavy; I.
tenacious. 2.
very sonorous. 3.
fusible. 4.
elastic. 5.
capable of extreme divisibility. 6
malleable.
.
•
ductile.
compact.
opaque.
or_ange brown color.
mrneral.
sometimes crystaIIized.
amorphous.
brilliant.
reflective.
sap id.
hard.
odorous.
solid.
medicinal.
easily corroded.
useful.
I

'

139

1. " Weight." Copper is eight times heavier
tlian wnter.
2. "Tenacious." A wire one-tenth of an inch
in thickness will support two hundred and ninetynine' pounds and a half without breaking.
3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all metals.
4. It is more easily fused than iron, but less so
than gold or silver.
5. It is the most elastic metal next to iron.
G. A grain dissolved in an alkali will_ give. a
perceptible color to more' than 500,000 times its
weight of water.

Uses of Copper.
The uses . of copper are humerous and important. When rolled into sheets between iron
cylinders, it is used to cover the roofs of houses,
especially arsenals and manufactories, whe~e there
is liability to fire. The bottoms of ships are
coppered, in order to make them sail faster and
to prevent shell-fish from perforating the wood.
Plates of copper arc used for engravings; which
is done with a sharp instrument or by corroding
them with aqua fortis. o!!' The copper is covered
with wax, and the design sketched upon it with
a pointed instrument; the aqua fortis reaches the
copper just in those places where the wax has
been removed by the sketching, and eats into it.
Copper is much used for cooking utensils, but
great care is necessary, for should any acid or
" Aqun fortis (strong water) is nitric ncid diluted with
wnter.

-

' .. ;j .. ··

140

l'IFTH SERIES.

even water be allowed to stand any time in the
vessels, a poison is extracted; but while .boiling,
this e vil does not arise. It is customary, _fo order
to prevent any danger, to line copper vessels with
tin. V crdig ri s is a ru st or oxid e of copper, usually
pre pared from that metal by corroding -it with
vin egar. There is a large manufactory at Montp e li er in France, where verdigris , is prepared in
th e following mann er :-copper plates and husks
of g r:i pcs arc placed alternately one upon another;
th e la tte r sp eedil y corrodes the surface of the
m e tal. The verdigris thus formed is scraped off
as it collects on the copper; it is afterwards dried
a nd pack ed in casks or bags. It is chi efly cmpl oyc <l in dying, and is a most virulent poison.
C oppe r is used in the manufactorics of gunpowder,
b ecause if docs not like iron give out sparks by
colli s ion. Th ere arc several alloys of copper.
Brass is the most importarit: it is compound ed of
zinc and copp er, in the proportion of three parts
of th e form e r to one of the lllttcr. · This is a very
b eautiful and u seful substance ; it does not rust
so easily as copper; is more ductile than either
that m e tal or iron, and is therefore used in the
c onstruc tion of musical and mathematical instrum ents , an<l in c loc k work. Sieves and blinds arc
woven of brass wire of extre me finen ess. l3rass
is u sed bot:\ for purposes of ornament and use.
Bronze and the metal of which cannon are made
arc alloy s of coppe r with tin. Bell metal is three
parts copper and one tin.

LESSON xxxvu.-corrEll·

141

• l d Gcoloaical situ ation of Copper.
Geograp 7i.ica an
b
.
1
Saxony Amc nca,
Co11pcr is found inl S wcl c~1,ll 1· ;1own' to the a n· ·
t was \I c
"
and Great 13 n 1:am.
. \· f the work ers of brass
cicn ts . the 131 blc spca .. s o
. : t of 'orrns;
somc. before' th e fl ood.
1
·
great van e Y
It is fou11 ll in a
l 1 t !llOrc fr eque nt1y
.
.
.
of 1rnrc m
eta
' , rn- 1nrtJcul
.
limes
lll rn .1sses
l.
.
ar l y su l . ,.
. 1 ,· ,, 0 th cr suustanccts, '
.
.
comb111 C! "!Lil
f A nn lcse a ;ire ' LI Y
phm. The copper rnlll?;" ~ ed . o~ th e top of a
, productive ; th ey arc si u_
. c·1vit )' more than
.
I r rm ·1 11 e normou s ,
'l'l
mountain, an< io
,
1
l lllO dee p.
ic
100
broa<
'
a11
l
. l
l
500 yar< l s ong,
l
·
e ith er by pi e ~. ·~ .
. l . . l from t JC mrn c
It
·. ore is o 1t.11ncl.
1· .t\1 rrun[1owdcr.
·
l . 1 t rr the roe " WI
"'
·
, ,ax. es. or by u as rn "'. ti a hamme1. ll1
. lo s111al l 11Jeces,1
l_ is then u:·okcn \~I\ l ~hi ~ fl , employs ,~omen am
~ an operati on wlu c i_ . . ) ·1 l on a kiln, to the
childre n. Afte r! ~h~s ~t J: ~~-~\.ttaci1cd, that con: uppc r parts of w uc l uc 1' b c r~
The kil n JS
municatc with sulphur e1_ialnt1 l ~J1.1 different part s
I fi bres ig I Cl
.
cov ered, an d t JC I
ti 1roecss of roaslln f!·
that th e ore may u11dclr goll 11~ ·1l1idlc s and the stdY
'
s "cTral
The who.\ c mas
. ua
. . l'l ti\ C ·ore
is cx pc11 Cl\\
.
\.i 'rnc
d Wll
phur w\11eh JS com
l . - r onvcyc ll throug l
in fum es by the heat, am\ i:, 1 ~r ;r hi s process
ul\lhu r c 1alll l · •
the Hu es lo tl 10 s
ths acro r<l i11 g lo
'
.
f
th ree to ten rn on . ' , ,
.
.
~ oce up1 cs rfo n~I l i\11 " \ \' hen t\1c opc rat1 ou i_~
" th e s ize o
ic ' . .. f· 1 from the s til ph ur, I
i corn111ct c or th e ore is. i_rc 1 l
\l'l\C'rc h y th e
\
\\lllrr- \0\JSC:S,
. ! •
I
is sublll1 llc <l ~ o I ic s1nr . Ll 'p ure metal is fo rcClt
inte nse hc:tt it nmlc rgoes, ic
off in :t l\uitl stale.

~-.· ·. .1~f1'

·tt'i.: >. ~,·\
I

I ',;1 ·
'I'

·,···.
,.1,'. '.![

1!\

' .

'.'.~ '

I

I.
.. II

. '. \ "

'·I1r\·1

'' :, 1,,

•,l \'

i'

1

142

FIFTH SERIES~

LESSON

·J

LESSON XXXVIII.
IRON.

Qualities.
,.
It is elastic. I.
ductile. 2.
heavy. 3.
tenacious. 4.
malleable.
liable to rust. . .5.
sonorous.
mineral.
fusible.
hard.
very fusible.
livid gray-color• .
bright. ·
reflective.
solid.
susceptible of a high poli~h.
cold.
_
sometimes amorphous~
· crystallized.

"

I. In the state of steel it is the , most elast1·c·
of all metals.
2. I1:on is more ductile than old. it . . .
drawn rnto a wire as fine as the l~um~1 lia~ay be

xxxvnr.-moN.

143

3. It is the lightest of the common metals except tin ; · between seven and eight times heavier
than water.
.
4. Most tenacious of the metals. A wire about
one-tenth of an inch in diameter will support 550
pounds without breaking.
5. The air is composed of two ingredients,
oxygen and nitrogen; the former having a greater
afii.nity for iron than for nitrogen, attaches itself
to it, and then· forms the oxide of iron, commonly
called rust.
Uses

of Iron.

Iron is the most useful of all the metals, and
man very early became acquainted with its value.
Moses speaks of furnac'es of iron and of the ores
from which it was extracted. By means of this
metal the earth. has been cultivated, houses and
cities built, and without it few arts could be practised. Ir?n is used in three states, cast iron,
wrought iron, and steel. ·when reduced to a
liquid by the action of the smelting-furnace,
it is received in furrows made in a bed of
sand : the larger masses which have flowed into
the. main furrows arc called sows, the smaller pigs,
of uon. In this state it takes the name of cast
iron, and from the process it has undergone it is
become extremely hard, and having lost its .tenacity, it resists t.he hammer and the file, and is
very brittle; it is of a dark gray or blackish color.
It is used for the backs of chimneys, grates; boilers, pipes, rail-roads and common cannon-balls.
Cast iron is converted into wrought iron by a
~roc,ess called blooming; it is thrown into a fur-

144

FIF'l'Il SERIES. · - -".-· • ~LESSON XXXVIII.-IRON.

nacc and kept melted by the fire prod.ucecl-; by ''
com bus ti bl es ; it remains in this situation " for
about two hours, a workman being continua!Jy
employed in stirring it, until, notwithstanding the
h eat to which it is exposed, it acquires by degrees
consistency and tenacity, and congeals into a
mass which is now malleable. It is taken out of
the furnace while hot, and violently beaten by a
large hammer, worked by machinery ; in this,
manner it is formed into bars of iron. The value
of wrought iron in machinery, and tools of all de-· '
scriptions, is incalculable.
· .
Steel is prepared from wrought iron in the following mann er: the bars of iron are kept in con.
tact with bunJi ng charcoal for several hours in
earthen crucibles, from which the air is excluded.
Steel, iT heated to redness and then suffered to ·
cool slowly, becomes soft and pliable; if plunged
while hot into cold 1vatcr, it is_rendered susceptible of a high polish, and acquires such extreme
11arclncss as cvc1~ to scratch glass, '"'.bile at tho
same time it becomes elastic and brittle. Its soft.
ncss and ductility may however be restored by
heating it again and cooling it slowly. Steel'va.
rics in color under the influence of heat; first it ,
assumes a straw color, then a light yellow, purple,
violet, red ; deep blue succeeds,· and last of all a '
bright blue. These hues indicate the different
tempers which steel acquires, from that proper for ·
common files, to that requisite for the finely
elastic spring of watches. Steel is used for all
'l
kinds of edged tools, in which keenness is neces, sary: it is also much employed for ornamental pur·
.
poses, on account of the elerrant polish which it
'· )··
0
•
is capable of faking. In/ uHxllcine
steel is
va l ua-

I

.

14.5

w

which pass over iron and
blc as a tome.
. atcr~ . arc called chalybeatc
Lccomc imprcg~~~cd ~vi·ti~~\nd Hampstead arc of
waters: those o
u~1 rll bi nation of iron, and
this uaturc •. Stecj is ~b~~m Cast iron contains a
a small portion_ o ~a arbo.n and is probably sat.
greater proportwn Co c . ' is converted into
d
' th it
ast iron
d
• b urn~nb
. . er away the carbon, an
uratc w.1iron, by
wrought
l
· · it of its oxygen.
.
wholly t cpnvm~l k I ad which is employed m
Plumbago or ac , e. ' is an ore of iron, conthc manufacture of pencils,
of the metal :
. .
.
ts of carbon to one
ta111mg n11~c par l . C nbcrland to supply the
suflicient is founc rn lll b on~c color used in
trade of Enfrl~nd .. The xil~C of iron. .Meteoric
Porcelain pa.111t111g isb an o tic subject of so much
sto~cs, which ha.v1c. 1c~:~ ~ ,; crencrally believed
con.iect~re,
and w nc l I
es i~ the moon, arc a
to he c1cctcd from vo cano

10

species :of iron o;c: Lie from the magnetical propI ron. JS Ycry va ua.
B these it enables the
ertics it may acquire. ti yocc"11 the traveller to
·
t t r across lC
" '
mnr111cr. o s cc
. 1 afcty in the pathless desert,
direct l11s course wit 1.sd 11. researches after sub!
.
to cru1 c i s
'
I
and t lC m111cr
::o
The loadstonc or natu~·a
tcrraneous trcas~1rcs. f .
. it communicates its
magnet, is :1.n oxide .o uon 'tee! when placed in
t bars of iron or s
'
.
powers ~ , I
The artificial magnet JS now
contact with t le~. .
and retains all the
l
l. as it possesses '
•
. h
a ways uscl ' '
I.
The qualities w1llC
propcrt~cs of the loac sto;rni.ts attracting iron, ?nd
render it usc~ul, arc }ls,
r by which it pomts
2d its polarity' or t lC po we d. ] 0 c end in'
I freely suspen Cl • 11
1
to the
N . tl
i1<l th" oflwr fo th r.
. 11po f cs w ion
fo 1h0 , or 1 ;i .
v<in;i ) v 11rn<l
· :
'
., I
olc when
South,. except \'.'hen it a~roachc ... t JC p )

1'16

FIFTJI SERIES.

LESSON XXXIX.-TIN.

tho directive po.wer ceases altogether, .which. 1 ci~~.t

~umst~nc~ constitutes ~me of the great diffic.ul~ies 1
in 1~av1gatmg_the Arctic Regions. . ., .: , ; hlJ"''f

1 he opposite poles when ·presented to each
other, arc attracted at one end and mutually. re-.;
pelled
at the• other.
.. .
.. :
·
r ,
J \ ('
~he manner'~ compass is a circular box, , i~ '
wlnch a ~agnctic ne~dle is placed in such a· man. 1
ncr that it can move rn every direction. ,.
:.! r
I

,

• 1.

'

'I

,

·,,1

r .

l

''*'

Geological and Geograpliical situation of Iron •. .:
'

p'

tf t

•I

Iron is t~ie most' universally diffused of th~ ·
metals. I~ !s everywhere produced ' in greater or .
less quan.t1t1es ; but England, France, Sweden, ,
and R~si1a, are richer in this metal than the other
countr~cs of ~urope. It- is very rarely if ever
fou~d rn a n~tiv~ state_, but generally as an oxide, •
or .rn combmat10n with Sulphuric or· Carbonic
Acid.

LESSON

xxx~.

I

".

I
'

;
•

TIN,

Qualities.
It is heavy. I.
soft. 2.
malleable. 3.
ductile.
fusible.
white.

'

• ·14!>

r
'

.

,.

l·

147

lt is opaque.
solid.
brilliant.
very little elastic.
useful.
pliable.
easily calcined.
natural.
mineral. ·
reflective.
sonorous, making a crackling noise.
dilatable by heat.
1. It is seven times heavier than water, though
lightest of the ductile metals.
2. It is softer than silver, but harder than
· lead.
3. Tin may be beaten into sheets the lOOOth
part of an inch in thickness.

Uses

of

Tin.

Tin is chiefly' employed in the manufacture of
culinary utensils; they arc not however made ·
of solid tin, but of what is called tin plate, which
is thus prepared. Thin iron · plates are first
' cleansed completely, by washing them in water
and sand; tbey are then dipped into melted tin,
afterwards steeped in water mixed with sulphuric
acid. This process causes the tin not only to
cover the surface of the iron plate, but to penetrate it so that the whole mass becomes of a
whitish color. Pins are made of brass wire
' . , tinned. When the pin is formed, a vessel is filled
with strata or layers of tin plates between the

148

FIFTJI SERIES.

LESSON XL.--C01\IPARISON OF METALS.

brass pins ; the vessel is then filled with water·and
some tartaric acid, by means of which the tin is'
dissolved, and after five or six hours' boiling, the
pins arc found uniformly tinned. It is the zinc
of the brass which has an affinity for the tin, and
forms the union which takes place: . The pins are
afterwards polished, by throwing · them into a tub ·
containing a quantity of bran,.: which is set in
motion by turning a shaft that ··runs .through its
c cn tre, and by means of . friction ; they become
perfectly bright. The uses . of. tin. in economical
purposes arc very various, particularly when laid
ove r other metals, as in stirrups, buckles, &c.
The oxide of tin is used in dyii1g: · :' ·.-: ; i H • ! ·
Tin forms alloys with several .:either· 'metals~
The~e compounds have been mentioned before ;
as bell-metal, pewter, bronze. Tin leaves ainal ~
gamatcd with mercm'y, are used for .silvering and
plating other metals.
. .; ;1· . i., •i ,:1; · .i ,,

Gcogmphical and

Geol~gical

situation of

Tin~

Native Tin. is r,iever found, and its ote ~s of less
common occurrence than that of .iron. ; ; England,
Germany, Chili, and Mexico, produce the· largest
quantity of this metal. The tin mines of, Corn·
wall were well known to the ancients ; ·and the
Phcnicians traded with the Britons for it long
before the birth of our Savior. It is always found
as an oxide, or mixed with sulphur and copper.
It occurs chi efly in veins running through granite
and other rocks. When it is taken from the mine,
it is broken into small pieces, and streams of
water passed over it, to free it from the earthy
particles with which it is intermixed; it is then

149

roasted and smelted, when the metal is poured
out into quadrangular moulds of stone, an<l re·
ccivcs the name of block tin.

LESSON XL.
COi'IPARISON OF 111ETALS.

Gohl, a perfect metal, is the most precious.
most compact.
heaviest.
Its weight is between nineteen and twenty times
that of water.
Silver, a perfect metal, is next in valuA gold,
ancl more useful ; its weight is between ten. and
eleven times that of water.
Quicksilver is fluid.
easily volatilized.
immallcablc.
Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen times
that of water.
Copper is the most sonorous.
elastic except iron.
Its weigl~t is between eight and nine times that
of water.
Iron is the inost elastic.
tenacious.
useful.
ductile.
Its weight is between seven and eight times that
of water.

N2

150

FIFTH

SERII~S.

I • • ,,,.

LESSON XLI.-ON METALS IN _GENERAL· .

~

.

alloy becoming brittle. This is very rel?-arkably
the case with gold and lead, .'~hen unite~, the
latter of which even in the trivial proportion of
half a grain to an ounce. of gold, renders the mass
.
.
quite destitute of tenacity..
The hardness of metals JS vaned by comb1~ation. Gold, by combination w.ith a small qu.antit~
of copper, and silver, by a mmu~e proport10n of
the same metal, acquire such an increase of hard·
ncss, that these additions arc always made to gold
or silver which is to be exposed t? wear . .By a
small addition of gold, iron is said .to gam so
much hardness as to be even superior to steel
for the fabrication of cutting instruments.
.
Change of' color is a common eff~ct of the umon
of metals with each other. Arsenic, for .example,
·which resembles steel, and copper, which ha~ a
red color, afford by their unio~ a compound, which
has nearly the wh~teness of twver.

Lead is the softest.
' ·; f
•.u '\ J,!;;;,,r. m
.
. most easily fused. . .,'. 11.: 1\1~ (. l11;,•
Its weight 1s between · eleven and twelve· times
that of water.
·
.
. 'f~n, next to lead, is the softe.s t of the metals;
it ~hlates. most by heat; it is the lightest, its
wmght being only seven times that of water.

LESSON .XLI.

.

\

j

I

j

t•

\!

1

ON METALS IN GENERAL.

. ~etals are simple elementary b~die~, ·1distin.
gmshed _by being heavier than all other . sub- /
~tances,-by posses~ing a peculiar. lus.t~e 'which
JS called the met~llic ~ustre-by reflecting' light
and heat,-?y their bemg opaque, fusible; malle·
able, te1:ac10us, du~tile, and generally elastic.
Upon this l.a~t quality seems to depend their fit·
ness for exc1trng sound, or sonorousness. Metals
arc capable of uniting with one another in a state
of fusion; this union is called an alloy. It is
remarkable that by these combinations metals
undergo ~ considerable change in their prbperties,
and acquire new ones not belonaincr· to either of
them when not united. Thus the ~eight of the
alloy, or the two metals in combination is some·
times very different from the weight of' both the
metals tak~n separately: an alloy of silver with
?opper ~r tm, or one of silver or gold with lead,
JS heavier than the same quantities of those
m~t~ls uncombined. Their ductility and malle·
ability arc changed and generally impaired, the

151

I

.

In order to ascertain how far tl'.e children had
retained the knowledge commumcate~ to them
in these lessons, the following quest10ns were
given them to answer in writing.

152

FIFTU

Q.UESTJONS ON THE lllETALS.

SERIES.
1

•

I 1

. .: •

i

~

•

•

· ~ • ·~·\ 1 ~•~ H ~ .\tfrtt'
: ! ; t~·
'J,·';i"•" t' ·t

>;;~ ·:·,~ja.;~

'· ., c.-'.t

QUESTIONS ON 'THE 'MET.ALs:1!,;1f'
' i {: ..~ l JI {

'

' \ '.

~

'

I

1 ,;

f

j

)

'

• ' '1 'I, : \

GOLD.
I

I•

•

1' •;

'j

_'

'~

f \

What ~r~ the ~hief qualities. of 'gold·?! . •,L
2.• \\-'.hat is its weight? .
.
. , . ·: · ·: ,,
3. Give a proof of its <luct1'l't
I· i ~»!!!., ,,.
l Y•
: ' I'
4•
tenacity • .:· ' "~' 1 > 1:;:0- ·•
1
5
malleability~ ·1 '.; , ';'.''~'. 11 r
•U
6 · ponwiatotherqualityd
1
·t ·· '11 .r '. '::t
depend?
.
. ~es 1 . ~ m~ .. ~ab~i1ty
11
7. What qualities ~re 'd.' -tl 1 ;
',,·>1 •
malleability?
uec Y,_,opp,os~~.: !O
·
l
. . ; I· l·~ .,.. 1·:-.·;l.l•;t''ilJ•(·
· , ( './ . • •
8 . ur1
n1a t ~sanaloy?
_fJ. Why IS gold alloyed for the
; '" . ,,.• '
corn age?
.
purpose of

!·

1

I'

I

l:".

•'

Descnbe the manner of formin(J' leaf old
b
. . g' , ~
What is an ore?
·
What is meant. by a native metal?
,
In what countnes is gold found 7
What people employ
them se Ives' . rn
. · sepa
·
·
It from the sands of the E·urop ean nvers.
.
7-

In what states is gold found 7

SILVER,

I. WW hat ~r~ the ~hief properties of silver 1 ,
hat 1s its weight?

2.

3. What degree of tenacity docs it possess 1
4. What are the chief uses of silver?
· 5. i Upon . wha~ qualities do the uses of silver
, ,. .
·
depend 1
· 6. Describe the operation of plating.·
7. What is lunar caustic? and what are · its
uses 1
8. Give a geographical an<l geological account
of silver 1
9. Why are gold and silver called perfect
metals?

'/

What metal is used as its alloy?
1;l 0.· How
~re buttons gilt? ·
,

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
f
ra mg

1

153

.1.

,

QUICKSILVER.

1. What are the uses and properties of quicksilver?
2. What is its weight 1
. .
3. In what respect is it remarkable as a hqmd 7
4. What effect does heat produce upon it? .
5. Under what circumstances does a ·change m
its qualities take pbce? and what is the change 1
6. What is an amalgam?
4
7. Mention the uses of quicksilver.
8. What a.re the properties that fit it for n
barometer 1
9. What for a thermometer?
10. How is a barometer 1nade? and what is
its use?
11: How is a thermometer made? and what is
its use?
12. What color is obtained from quicksilver?
13. Whc'~e is quicksilver found 1
13. What circumstance led to the discovery of
the mines of Idria?

154

FIFTH

SERms.

QUESTIONS ON TIIE METALS •

LEAD,

··!,

hrrrr .".

I. What arc the remarkable qualities, of lead 7
2. "\Vhat is its weight?
. ! r li:ll • ,;
3. What are the difforent effects of ;heat1 up on
lead 7
· ·
·
· l,ti\ · ·/ ,., ·
I
1
4. ·what arc the chief uses of lead?
'.' · •:.
5. Why is it used for reservoirs of ·Watifr?
G. How arc shot made ?
. , ,', • .
7. What is the use of the oxides ·of lead? . ·
8. '\\' hat arc its alloys?
1 ,. i .
9. In what state is lead found?
10. What is lead called when found united
with su lphur.
1 I. ·where is lead most abundant?
12. Pcsc ribe the process of roasting and
smelting.

rnoN.

1

•

155

• ' . . ) ~· ~ i\'"j

•

t

COl'I'ER.
ii , :

I

{

,

,1. "\~hat ?r~ the ~hief qualitic:~s of copper 1 :
2. Y\· hat. is .its weight and degree of ten.'acity? ;
. ~·. I~I~w is it proved to be capable of .extreme
<l1v1s1h1hty?
.
·_ '
., .
4. ·w hat are the uses of copper?
5. What is verdigris? and ho1v is it made? '.
6. '~hat. is the uangcr incurred by employing
copper 111 kitchen utensils?
7. What arc the alloys of copper?
,
8. In what respect is brass preferable ' to
copper?
9. "\Vhere is copper found, and in what states .7
10. Dcscri be the copper mines in Anglesea
and the manner of extracting the metal from th~
ore.

,

I. What are the chief qualities of. iron? .
2. What quality does it possess m a higher
clecrrcc than any other metal?
.
What is its weight and tenacity?
.
.
4, What are the different states rn which iron
is used?
5. How is cast iron prepared 1.
6. ·w hat arc its quali.tics and uses~
7. How is wrought .ir.on prepared.;
8. "\Vhat arc its quahtws and uses.
9, How is steel prepared?
IO. What are its qualities and uses?
11. What is meant by the temper of ~teel?
12. What is plumbago? and what quality makes
it useful?
.
.
.
.
13. What is the geographical s1tuatwn of iron·1
and in what state is it found?

3.

TINr

What are the chief qualities oJ tin 1
What are the uses of tin ?
How is it prepared for use ?
How are pins tinned?
5. What is block t4?

I.
2.
3.
4.

LESSON XLII.-LIUE•

156

FIFTH SERIES,

;,,,rzr .r. .
~1·r~ fl- . ~ :
i,:"~ t :· lT! ~
'.'I
.

LESSON XLII.

I

. 1··

'

." .

..
'

<1
•

-., I' .,;

Lll\IE.

ne~~~ f~~~d ~re "

. . THE substa.nce called Lime is
.
rn .n; ture, owmg to its . great affinity for. carb~nic
acid and wa~er. All the earths of which lim
fotl rmL
s th.e basis ~re called calcareous . f1:om calxe
JC
atm
for hme • It IS
. tile most' urnversally
.
'
d·m
<l
. ' use . of .al! su bstunces, and one of the most
.t~1t;mla11t; it is computed that it constitutes one
c 1!:I it!~ of the crust of the earth. In .this distnln~t1on we have great cause to ad .. ·' tl.
rrnc
·<l
mnc · le
;' ' 10us. prov1 ?nee. of our Heavenly Father
~s th e utility of hme m various arts, in agriculture'
m. manu!actur~s, and in medicine, is ver
reat: .
Lune
umtcd
with
carbonic
acid
d'fl'
y
g
·
1
0
t'
r
1 erent propor JOns., iorms common lime-stone chall· marbl
'
&c. ; w1t.h sulphuric acid, it con~titute~'
~u~~
or alab~stcr ; and with fluoric acid lJ!r or
Dcrh):sh11_-e spar.. TI~cse arc its most interestin
comb111at.1ons
with mmeral
g
]
·
, substan ces. It enters
a so rnto th e composition of animal . matter as
shells, bones, and th e har<l coverings of inse~ts ;.
- ~~~~~~~~~~~

* Carbon is cl1"rco aI 111
· its
·
purest st

t

·

·

nbumlnnl in the vegeta ble kin d
d . a e ~ it IS i:nost
from wood u · d ·
g om, an is chiefly oblamed
.
m 1c wit1l oxygen, it forms i;arbon.ic acid.
u

157

our bones contain 80 parts in 100 lime; and the
egg-shells of birds, 9 parts in 10.
Pure lime is procured from chalk, or limestone,
by means of burning. For this purpose alternate
layers of calcareous earth and fuel are arranged
in a kiln ; a fire being kindled, the carbonic acid
and water become volatilized, and are driven off,
leaving · the lime pure. In this state it is called
quick-lime, and· is white, caustic, acrid, pungent,
infusible; corroding and destroying animal matt.er. When water is poured upon it, it swells,
falls into a powder, and gives out great heat.
This last operation is called slacking the lime.
The water combining with the lime becomes
solid, and the heat is occasioned by its changing
from a fluid to a solid state, for in doing this it
parts with its caloric. The uses of lime are
numerous and important. It is formed into
mortar, the cement used in building. The lime,
being slacked, is made into a paste by tempering
it with water ; to this is added sand, · and
sometimes chopped hairs; as it dries it becomes
solid, hard, and durable. Examples have been
known, of buildings a thousand years old, in
which the mortar ·is as hard as the stones which it
unites.
As a manure, limo is useful in loosening the
tenacious nature of some soils, and rendering
them more friable and receptive of vegetable
fibres; it also facilitates the dissolution and
putrefaction of ani~ and vegetable substances
of which mould is chiefly composed, and gives it
a power of acquiring and retaining moisture, so
necessary to the growth of vegetables. Lime is

0

156

·

LESSON XLII -Lll\IE.

FIFTH SEUJES, ; i.

0

also .q,z~nploye<l in ~he manufacture 11 of; su.gar, to
deprive It of a port10n oLits acid. i ·Tanners _use
it in removing hairs from the hides,;arid :cleansing
them from fat and ·grease. .
: · · . 1 -, r
i.: \

Carbonate

ef Lime... ~

.

·:

· · .. '

•

1

:·1

Lime occurs most frequently 'combined . with
carbonic acid in different proportions. ,The generic term for these substances is. Carbonate:' of
Lime. They vary much in appearance" but .·all
agree in the following properties; they readily
yicl<l to the knife; neutralize, acids. (the characteristic properties of .each being destroyed;) and
have a weight· two or three· times m·eater . than
that of water.
.
.
· Limestone occurs in ~!most every country, and
produces hills · of some em'inence ; it is very ·
abundant in England; it is used for making mortar, forming roads, &c. Different kinds of Limestone arc used in building, as :Portland · stone,
Bath stone Oolite. The former has .been much
employed in several of the .principal buildings irr
London, as St. Paul's, the Monument, and .some
of the bridges. Some limestones are soft, ,.w hen
first taken from the quarry, but become hard
when long exposed to the air.
·
,:
Calcareous spar is t.hc purest carbonate of lime.
It occurs both amorphous and crystallized, is
transparent, shows a double refraction, or makes
a small object seen through it, appear double, and
takes the form of the rhombohcdron, occurring in
eight hundred varieties of this figure. ·Carbonate
of lime is often found in stalactites, which are
long pendulous masses. They are deposited

159

from water loaded with particles of ~arbonate of
e . this trickles through fissures m rocks, or
:~vi~es in the roofs of caverns, &~. The water
, evaporates, an<l the particles of lime wadually
harden ; drop succeeds drop, till a long Jrregular
tube is suspended of a most grotesque appearatce.
\Vhcn carbonate . of lime occurs of a ver_y c oserrraine<l texture, it is called.marble; bemg sus~cptible of a high polish, it IS muc~1 used f? ~ ornamental purposes, as chimney-pieces, p1 ars,
and statuarv ·
.
Chalk i; another carbonate of hme, not so
·
encrally occurrmg
as l'ime tone,_ but very
' abun~ant in the south-eastern .counties o_f Engl~n<l,
. 11 I.t stretches m a contmued
along wl nc
· lme,
forming its . noted white cliffs,. and pass1i1g o~cr
to France appears on the opposite coast. . t forms
. hills of a moderate elevation, cliarac!enzcl~ . by
their gentle slopes and rounded sumnuts, ansmg
from this su bstancc being of too soft ~ nature to
resist the effects of the weather upon I.t .. Th.ere
arc two beds of chalk, the 11\?Per one d1st111gm?h·
cd by containing parallel horizontal layers of ~mt
with many petrifactions ; .and ~he lower ?erng
destitute of both. Chal.k IS wlute, <lull, fn~ble,
rncarrer to the touch, adheres to the tongue, IS of
an e~rthy fracture; alway~ amorph?us, and opaquer
It is usually dug f~om pits~ but m some .parts o
Kent they undermine the sides of the hil.l, .then
dig a trench which is filled with. water, tins soal{"
in <r in loosens the masses, which consequent y
~fost of the uses of chall~ are nearly t~1e
same as those · of lAcstone; :v.hen freed from its
coarser particles, it forms wh1tmg.
\Vater impregnated with calcareous substances,

,r

1

fall.

160

Fil"TH SERIES.

is occa~ionally deposited ~n· ~egetables, clothing
them with a stony coat; tlus rncrustation is call~
cd 'l.'u.fa.
·
. Gypsum is a sulphate of lime: i. e. a ~ombina.
t10n of sulphuric acid with lime. ~t is much'
softer .than marble and. more easily worked: it is
somet1.m~s of a beautiful transparent whiteness,
wJ1cn It IS called alabaster, and is made info vases
and other orna_ments. The ' gypsum, which is
very abund_ant rn the neighborhood of Paris, · is
of a yellowish color. When heated it pulverizes
and .water poured over it, is quickly absorbed'
forr:nmg a p~st~ which dries and hardens ver~
rapidly· This · is the Plaster of Paris so much
use~ for casts, statues, &c. When mixed with
• glutinous substances, it forms stucco and plaste1••

LESSON XLIII.
SILICA.

A large number of the rocks with which the
earth abounds, and a great proportion of com.
pound _cart~y s~bstanccs and minerals, have silex
for _th(m _chief ingredient. It seems to form the
solid basis of th_e. crust of the globe, giving firm.:
ness and du:ab1hty to t~e mount~ins by which
the~ have resisted tho vanons revolutions that the
cartn has undergone. lt is found rn its e-reafest
purity in roclc-c1·ystal and quartz. It is the basis
of ali:nost all the mineral substances, which arc
sufficiently hard to strike fire with steel. These
sub~tances are called silicious, from the latin silex
a flint, because flint is almost entirely composed

LF.SSON XLIII.-SILICA.

I Cl

of silicious earth. Silex forms a large portion of
granite, enters in considerable proportion into the
composition of slate ; it is also the substance
which constitutes sand and generally the shingle
of the sea-shore. It is very hard, striking fire
with steel, and ·scratching g lass ; it has neither
taste nor smell; when perfectly pure (in which
state it is, however, never found in nature) it is
infusible, but when heated with an alkali, it unites
with it, melts and forms glass. In consequence
of this property, si li ca has also been called vitrifiablc earth, from vi tr11111., the Latin for glass. It is
not affected by any of the acids except the ftuoric.
Common snncl is a granulated - silex, generally
of a white or yellow color.
Jn the torrid regions
of Africa and Asia th ere arc immense tracts of
<lesert covered only with sand so fine and dry as
to be movable with the wind, and forming into ·
waves like those of the sea. The wind sweeping
the sand from the surf;ice continually, the successi vc w:ives form mountains of sand. These are
inccss;intly shifting, and often overwhelm the
travelling caravans. Sand is of great utility. It
enters into the compositi on of mortar. It prorl11 c!'s th r; vitrification of g lnc:s and porcelain, an d
its hardness has caused it to be much used in
scouring kitchen utensils. In agriculture, it is
val11c<l as a man11rn; it. ~· ivc.s li rd 1tncss to clavish
and heavy soiis, a11d assisls in the work of filtra tion.
Sandstone is formed of grains of silcx cemented
together, producing a solid rock, though of a very
friable nature.
Common flint contaii4t- of silica ninety-seven
pnrls in onc. llllndred. It is generally of a grayish

02

162

\
FIFTH SERIES.

color, approaching ?ften to black, it is opaque, ·
but. t~n.nsluce~t nt i~s edges. It strikes fire by · .\
c,oll1s1~n, an~ Is on this account used in gun-locks.·
1' com its being one of the hardest substances in
nature, it is often taken as an e1~blem of moral
!1ardness. It is found principally in beds or strata
rn chalk formations. It is used in the manufact.urc of glass and porcelain in the construction
of buildings and walls, and it 'also forms excellent
roads.
'

LESSON XLIV.
ALUllIINE OR ARGIL • .

This substance obtained the name of Alumine
from its forming the base of common alum and
·? rgil, ~rom the Latin argilla, clay, on accou~t of
its berng the constit.uent of all clays, which are
t~1crcfore termed argillaccous earths. Their distrnguishin~ qualities are, that they have an earthy
texture, give out a peculiar odor when breathed
upon, which has been thence called the argillaccous odor; t!10y adhere to the tongue; are never
found crystallized, but sometimes slaty; ·are generally opuquc, and their weight is about twice as
great as that ~f water. "'hen tempered with
water, most argdlaceous substances become soft
tenacious, :ind plnstic/' but shrink and harden b;
A'
•
,
I'
t ile '>nnJ '1~~ • 1·i) - r j . t
·
"J'l' '·'" ' n 01 1ca .
a .lumrnc is never 1ound
pure in nature: it is considered to be the most
plentiful earth 11cxt lo ::;ilex.
~ Plastic, from rrAaaaw (plasso) to form, means here, easily
moulded into vnrious forms.

LESSON LXIV.-AROIL.

163

Common clay is a nearly equal admixture. of
nlumine and silex: it is found in most countne~,
nn<l is very valuable in various arts ; for thes.e it
is peculiarly fitted, as it may be moulded rnto
any form, which it retains unchanged after ex·
posurc to heat. The h:ds of lakes, P?nds, and
springs, arc almost. entirely of clay : instead o_f
allowing the filtrat10n of water, as sand. does, it
forms an impenetrable bottom, and by tins means
water is accumulated in the caverns of the earth,
producing those natural reservoirs, whence sprin~s
issue and spout out at the surface. Clayey. S?Ils
in consequence of their abs?rbing and r~taimng
moisture are heavy and sticky. Clay JS often
used by the poorest classes of. society in. forming
their mud cottages. .Loam 1s an .arg1llaceous
substance, containing a great proport10n of san~,
and is generally found upon a bed of .sand. It JS
the substance of which bricks and tiles are constructed; when well baked in a kiln, or in the
sun it becomes very hard and durable. A proof
of ti1is is furnished in the existence at ~he pres~nt
day of those mighty Egyptian Pyramids, which
arc generally supposed to have been the work of
the Israelites in their bondage .
.
Porcelain clay is that ern1:loyed in ?ur chma
manufactories; it absorbs moisture rapully, an_<l
becomes very tenacious when kneaded.
It J~
tli s tinguishcl1 from other clays by tlie fin e ne ss ot
its tc;,ture, its friability and rneag.c r touc '. 1· A
coarser kind called Potters' clay, IS used rn the
making of common eathern w~re.
.
Another description of cby 1s called Pipe .clay
from its being used in th? manuf~cture of. p1p_es:
it is very plastic, and JS cast m a cylmdncal

QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS•

1G4

165

FIFTH SERIES.

mould, a wire being afterwards run through it to
form the hollow through which the fumes of'.the· .
tobacco arc inhaled; when baked it · becomes .
hard and white. This clay is also used in ex-·
tracting grease out of different substances. Fullers' earth is another argillaceous substance similarly employed.
The soil or mould which covers our fields and ·
gard ens, contains more or less of .these . three
substances, alumine, silica, or lime. - They occur:
in very different proportions; the best soils are
those which are a mixture of all, for thev correct
and keep within their due proportion the "qualities'
of each other ; thus in a clayey soil, filtration is
carri ed on by means of sand, while clay on · tho
other hnncl gives consistency to ·a sandy soil, and
lime loosens the texture of heavy lands, and.
corrects the coldness which the retaining of water
occasion s. How bcautifully may we thus trace.
through nature, contending and opposite qualities
working together to form an harmonious whole.
The fcrtiliL:ing property of our soils, however,
greatly depends upon the admixture of decayed
animal ancl vegetable matter.

'

..

QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS.
LDlE•

1 Why is lime never found pure in nature 1
2. What name is given to the substan~es, cod;
•
.
cl f m what is the name enve ·
tai~~n~~:~ee, t~:C v;r~ous minerals of which lime
forms a principal part.
·
l'
uenerally
4. From what substance is pure ime i:o
procured 1
5 Describe the process.
.
r
nd
. What is the operation of slacking ime, a
G•
1
the effect produced·~.;.
t uses of lime with the
7. Name the weren
'
properties that fit it for those ~ses.1
s. What is a carb.on.ate of lime ·
. e.
9. Mention the ddlerent carbonates of 1hm
10. What qualities dq they all possess.
spar. h . r
a
11 • Describe the calcareous
· 1 d escribe t eir lorm •
12. ·what are sta1act1tes.
tion.

d1
. What is m~rble, and how :use . . .
d
Describe chalk, its situation, qualities, an

i!:

f 1
appearances.
15. \\'hat is calcareous tu a. .
'ldin .
16 Name the limestones use? _rn bmd g 'I
17: What is gypsum, its qualities, an uses.

'

H

• ,.;.ba

166

FIFTH SERIES.

I

I

SILICA.

I. In what minerals is silica found in the
greatest purity ?
.
2. Why was it called silica ?
- -! 1 l
- ~· What are the earths called that cont~;
silica ?
·
. ......n

4. What other name is . sometimes given to
t llorn, and why ?
.
5 WI t
h
. .
; 'I I' I I
. . •.
ia are t e .d1stmguishing qualities · of
SI 1ICIOUS earths?
.
' . "' . ~
6. What are their chief uses.? , .t, ~'•1ni! :: ,!''!·.:
7. 'Vhat is sand?
•· '. · · ':'• 1 ' . , "
8. Where does it abound · and to' wh~·t : m· .: ....
fi ·
tune
ti
1· bl
,
Is orar? 1ose ia e who travel in the count "
where it abounds?
, . ..
nes .
9. Describe common flint, and namcit~· ~ses.
10 · In what geological situation is it fo.u~d?
.,

'1

ALUJ\UNE OR ARGIL.

167
9. What clay is used in the manufacture of
pipes, and how arc they made?
10. What clays are used for extracting grease?
11. Why are clays used for the bottoms of
lakes, canals, &c. ?
12. What kind of soil docs clay form?
LESSON XLV.-COAL.

'

..

\ ••

·,

I. Why is clay calle? argil? . wi1y alumine? 2 • .What are the distinguishing· nualities of
alurrnnc?
·1
3. What qualities render it 'so useful ·in. th
arts?
e,
4. ~amc the_ diffc~cnt argillaceous earths. · ' ''
5. Name then· various uses.
":
G. What_ is loam, its situation and uses? . , . ':
7. How is porcelain clay distinrruished 7' .
8. What clay is used in the ~anufacture of
commo~1 earthenware, and how does it differ from
porcelain clay?

LESSON XLV.
COAL.

Coal may be considered as a mineral, both from
its subterraneous situation, and the qualities which ·
it possesses; many circumstances however justify
the now prevalent opinion that it is of vegetable
origin; the following are perhaps the most convincing. Carbon, which is the chief constituent
of all vegetable matter, particularly wood, composes three-fourths of this substance. Coal is
also found in the various stages of minerali;wtion.
Sometimes it ' possesses a completely fibrous texture and ligneous appearance, even the knots of
wood being discernible, whilst the same bed produces specimens of perfect mineral coal. That
which preserves most distinctly the character of
wood, is found at Bovey near Exeter.
In confirmation of this opinion is the fact, that
in Ireland a standing forest has been discovered
at the depth of one hundred feet below the soil.
To this we may add the inflammability of this
substance, the numerous vegetable remains and
impressions that accompany it, and that it has
J1cver been discovered above the line to which

168

FIFTH SERIES.

vcgct~tion reac~e~. It is of a black color, bright,
?nd ficqucntly mdescen~* the structure is slaty ·
it occurs al_ways ~morphous; it is very combusti~
hie, a quality which few minerals possess. The
pl?ccs from whence it is taken, are called coal
mirics; they abound in many parts of England
and have mainly contributed to the wealth of ou;
c~untry. Both the persons employed in the
mines, and the vessels which transport the coals
arc _called colliers; the place where the trade i~
~amed on, a colliery. The access to coal mines
is generally through a narrow, perpendicular tunnel, called a sliaft, up which the workmen and
coal_s are drawn by macbine.ry. The mines at
:Whitehaven are some ?f ~he most extraordinary
rn tl~e world. The principal entrance is by an
opc~mg at the bottom of a hill through a long
sloping passage, which is hewn in the rock and
leads ~o th_e lowest vein or bed of coal: th'e desce~t is cluefly through spacious galleries intersecting each other, formed by the excavation of
the coal, large pillars of which only are left to
support the ponderous roof. These mines are '
very deep, and are extended under the bed of the
se~, even to where the depth of the water is suf.
fi~1ently great to admit ships of burden~ In these
nun~s there are three strata of coal which lie
considerably apart from one another, and . are
made to. communi?ate by pits. Miners are fre~
qucntly impeded Ill their progress by veins of
hard r~cks ~ailed _dykes, and the coal is seldom
found rn a direct hnc on the other side of them~
* lr'.dcsccnt, cxh!~iling a variety of colors like the rainbow,
from Greek 11uJo,. (mdos) of n rainbow.

.,

LESSON XLV.-COAL.

160

to ascertain its precise situation is often ~work
of considerable labor and expense. Coal is generally situated at the foot of mountains_, and in
hollows which vary much in extent: 1t rarely
lies much above the level of the sea.
Several dangers attend the labors of miners;
the greatest is that arising from fire damp ,·
which is occasioned by the hydrogen gas or inflammable air, produced in the mine, and whi_ch
when mixed with atmospheric air, explodes with
great violence if brought into contact with any
lighted substance. To avoid thi~ danger, safe t~­
larnps are used, which were rnvented by Sir
Humphry Davy. They arc of a very simple
construction, consisting of wire gauze, so closely
interwoven as to prevent a suHicicnt quantity of
the gas from cnte:ing, and thus causin~ ignition.
Another danger arises from the formation of carbonic acid gas or fixed air, which, being heavier _
than the common air, occupies the lower part of
mines, and occasions death by suffocation.
Coal is used to raise the temperature of rooms,
to cook food, to supply the fuel for manufac~ories,
(particularly where steam is required) and rn the
working of metals. It is one of the . substances
from which gas is procured : when. this ~1as been
extracted from the coal, the residu e is called
coke, which is employed where intense heat is
requisite. Coal abounds in various parts of the
United States, particularly on the banks o~ the
Lehigh and Schuylkill rivers, in Pennsylvania.

p

170

LESSON XLVll.-SALT•

171

FIFTJI SERIES.

..
LESSON .XLVI.

l

'

1,

'
,I

'

l,

LESSON XLVII.

GRANITE.

Granite is a compound rock
"
. \, ,.. .
gregation of the grains f
' formed by an !J.g· .
ca. The proportions i~ '~~~rltz, Ifelspar, and ~i­
parts occur, vary much
l t i_
ese component
~1atin g, as mica is the ieast e spa~ Is the predomi1111rredicn ts 'I'l
.
considerable of these
'"'
"
ie grams a .
1
.
magnitudes; when the
a so of different
of a very coarse tcxtur:.a~e arge, ~he granite is'
:;o small as almost t
~ ut sometimes they are
·
'
the appearance of a
u mform
mass 'fl1 0 ou1ve
.
·
ese cucum t
·
great variety in tl1e c Iiaractcr ofs ances·t occas10n a
gra?1 e. When
I_1ornblcnde occurs in the l
is called Sienitc. Some pf: fe of . m1~a, the rock
composition, aml when thi . sp~r IS ha~l~ to de.
stance in the rocJ-s ti s i_s t 1e prevailing subt.lt c weather and. h . . ' wy yield to the effects of
form . i.ut ' I . ~-r,come more or less of a rounded
• u
W len t JC gra · t
· l
grained, which is more u Ill ~I Is I iard and close.
in bold prominent
I sua f ~le case, they rise
gi_vrn~ grande_ur and
boldness to the scente~
cou11tri es where tl1 y
ramte I~ found Ill most
·<l
ere are mountarns f
o any cons1 erabl e elevation It ~
H_ill s i11 Scot.land; :and thorlm1~ the l~fty ~rampian
oi Cornwall arc imm
e b~oan or rnc~nng stones
0
G ranitc is valuable ~:~e ocks _f tttis material.
ucss and durabilit .
count of its great hardfoJ mill-stones,
troughs,
and steps, th o str%~11s
1
ancl it is cmployeds ~ ~n
arc paved with it,
Bridrrc one of ti fi Ill .trc utecture. Waterloo
,. . '
ic nest s11c ·
f
·
structcd of granite.
c1mens o . art, Is con-

Fut

I!

d

01

u;r t

SALT•

Salt is 'a mineral substance, beautifully white,
sparkling, and crystalline; it is soluble, fusible,
granulous, and of a saline flavor. There are
several varieties of this useful mineral which are
distinguished by the different situations in which
they arc found. The principal are sea-salt, called
also bay-salt, which is produced from the ocean;
the best comes from Portugal: salt drawn from
brine. springs: and rock salt, which is dug out of
the earth. Amongst the most extensive salt mines
hitherto discovered, are those at vVielizka, a picturesque little town situated on the sides of a
gentle valley, about eight miles from Cracow, the
chief city of Poland. The tra,,vellcr who visits
these subtcrrancous deposits . J-r_·~ ·salt, being furnished with a guide and. two lamp-bearers, is let
down a shaft of about 150 feet by .a ,rope. At the
depth of !)0 feet he arri vcs at the rock of pure
salt of a dingy soot color, here and there glistening
by the light of the lamps. The swing is now abandoned, and the car is assailed by the busy sound
of spades, rnattoc;ks, and. wheelbarrows, in every
direction. This, is t!ie .first floor of a large cavern
containing in different parts the stable, and
twenty horses, quantities of salt, some in bare
masses, some in casks ready to be hoisted to the
surface, stores of implements for the miners, &c.
This excavation is about 100 feet long and 80

172

FIFTH SERIES.
LESSON XLVII.-SALT.

u,roacl, (beside the stable,) ancl about 20 feet higl1. ,
.f< '.·o_m hence a long gallery .12 f?ct high by eight
b1 o.1d lends towards the in tenor of the mine
'~'lll!c lateral avenues branch off in various dircc~
lions, each nam ed aft?r some Austrian prince or
prrnccss, and rescmb lrng more in appearance the
avenues of so me sub tcrrancous palace, than the
pa ssages of a mine. A flight of steps conclucts
down another 100 feet to the second.floor; in this
<l csccnt the bed of salt is interrupted by a narrow
stratum of pure clay, sometimes by a mixture of
salt, and the same earth; these strata are in
places very curiously curved, as thouo-h a rolling
:va~e ha~ ? een arrested in its course an~l preserved
in its original form. The miners are l1 ere found
at work, some hewing pillars of salt from the rock
some .cutting them into mnsscs for home con~
surnptwn, an.cl some stowing the masses in barrels
for exportation. The cavern on this floor is
rather smaller than the first: it consists of one
spacious hall, and has no pillar to support the
roof.

Procced~ng on this subtcrraneous jo~rney, the
lravcllcr anvcs at a wooden platform, from whence
l~c looks down upon an a.byss'. whi~h the simple
li g hts of the conductors fail to dlumrnate thouo-h
t!1c spnrs of th e mineral reflecting. the' rays ~f
I 1g-ht, pr~cl11cc a novel and beautiful effect.
·v,~h en pnnccs or. other great personages visit th'¢
mrncs, a chandelier of crystal salt which hano-s
'
b
i.1~ t l 1c centre, is furni shed with 150
lights, and
di splays a stupc1~dous_ cavern, having the appear- /
ance of a castle rn ruins ; at the bottom are some
rows ~f scats rising like the benches of a theatre
opposite to which is an orchestra; here on grand

I

173

occasions a small band play a few airs of slow and
sirnple music, which has a rn?sf singular effect
in harmony wit.h the surroundrng sc:ne. Long
galleries and flights of steps, all s~ ac10us enough
to allow fr ee course to the fresh air, lead deeper
and deeper in the saline rock; the scene now
and th en varied by a cavern full of workm.en, .and
some alono- the o-allerics wheeling their little
carts full of salt, c~ch wit.hits. lamp in front. On
the fourth .ftoor 'there is a little subterrane?us
lake, about 80 feet long and 4~ broad, over which
illu strious perso nages arc ferried on rafts of fir
o-s ' li oa htcd by numerous flamb eaux. Here terlo o·
minutes the bed of green salt, the most com~110.n
sort and easiest to be cut. That next to It is
called spisa salt, which is harder an.d more clos~
grained, and next succeeds a white. am~ ~1 e r
grained variety. This part of the m111e is I 00
feet below the surface of the earth; 300 re.ct b~­
neath this lies the fin est crystal salt, '~hie~ IS reach ed by long flights o~ st~P? and 111.clmed
planes. The cavern in wh1?h it 1s found .Is sufficiently spacious for a r.cg1.me?t ?f. soldiers to
perform their mana:mvrcs II~ I~. TJ.IIS lS the de epest part of the mine: the air is quite pure, rather
cooler than that of the open day, but much
warmer than it is about half-way down. The return is through a different se ri.es of_ corridors and
caverns. On the third r.oor is a s11nplc tomb ~f
salt with the name of the late Emperor of. Austna
inscribed with letters of wood neatly gilt. On
the second floor is a large saloon with al! the implements of mining and the mo~ic. of l ~ttmg them
down with men and horses exl11b1ted m t:ansparen cy. On the first is a chapel, prcscnt111g an

P2

.

17,1

I'Ir'J'l[ SEUIES.

LESSO"' XL\'III.-SLATE.

altar, '3fatue of tlie Virg in crucifi x a 11 J ~, . ·
. I
. .-. )
)
Jl~llles
C'·:t.·31rn1r
· an<l l11s wile, ;ill c 11t out of the soliJ
salt;. hr•fure t11: ,cl1apcl i;; a small pulpi t in the
~otluc style. 1 o v1 s1t the whole of th is extraord!ll ary and ex te nsive win e, with all its !!n ll eries
n11d ca1·crn s, 110 less a <list;incc than ;3(.JO miles
n11i.~ t lit; lra 1crscd.
,. 'l'Ju; :c:tlt used in 1': 1Jghnd is chicflv ohtriinr·d
irom the ~r·a,_ or s:ilt lmne springs. 'i'lic saline
wa_tc r is ndrn1ttc<l mto open shallow trenches, and
Lerng _exposc<l lo tlte s un or nrtificial heat, the
\1·;11.';r 1scl':tporatr:rl, and the f:iaJt is left in a crv c;..

. ,,'. \t'

LESSON XLYIII.
SLATE.

oiLL!.t;.

! here arc salt s pri11gs and extensive manufac ioncs of salt ;1t :::l:tli11a in Ne w-York and in vari011F-: qtJter nl:1res Jn t hr1 l!nif(•t '! ~·'lfn0
-_, o::i.
'"!
.
1
r:
:nsrr
r:1111-.;
prnpnlir·s
of
~:ilt
rr• nrkr it i111
\ ,u.u .tui ~; wt eco11orn1caJ purposes, and its stimula; 111g- ~ avor in cn rr0cting- the insipidity of food .
\ \ Ii c ll I11scd 11 1s use<l in gl azing pollery. It is
valuabl e as a manure, on account of its promoting
the g rowth of vegetation.
1
·
.Tt· " "'
'' "
· "~'
' " ' ,p, o ;.. c·I
' ;' 11 J. I'i fl
. w J e w1.s I1 ceremonies
being 1embl?matical o~ purity and incorruptibilitv:
Oll r lJ Jt':'~ctl Lord c:ills Iris <l i;;c iples the salt ~f
the earth, therr: hv si [Tnifyin r; to thrm, th :i.t being
seasoned with g race themselves, they should seaso:1 :1: 1rl p:Hi'.y oilier::, co mm u111cati1;g to them a
p rrn~ 1ple wlllch will preserve them from the corrnp l ton lha t is in t he •.rn rld ,
'

•

c

'·

•

•

J

..

I

of

L1du1c

17G

~ ~ Lu.\

.
·I

Slat n is a min era l substance; it is never found
cn·stalliz cd , tl10 u;.;li it is of a foliated strnclurc; it
is .either of a i.; ra ~', iJluish , or !Jl:.ickisli col11r; a11d
is opaque, dull ar.1cl l1r1lt lc. It r·or1cists chiefly (Jr
a lt11,1 111 ;c, witli a srnall q11anlity ur :-ilc:x. ll is d 11 g
out of quarries; whe n fi rst t ak r:n from them, it is
comp:Hatirc ly soft, hut be c omes kml hy exposure lo tlic air. lt i~ u ~ c<l for \nit in!!, fur 11 hctslones, a nd for rooiing houses. 111 order to ascerta in its fit ness for tile latter pmpo::;c , it is
we ighe d as soon ;1,; it i.~ cxcarntcd ; it is then put
into ~.r a te r fur ~;0 1 11c d: 1y:: : if ~:ftcr b t' i n .~ \\·e ll dric!l
it is f1; 111Hl fo liar1· i1u" rr :1:'cd in \1Ti:;l1t, it. is l:i iil
asi de as Ullsu ilaul e fur the pu rp ose , tile trial having
prorc1l th;it it \\'::ls porou s. Suc h sbt c 1rnuld not
oH ly a ll ow water to pass through it and so destroy
th e wood-work of hu~ld i ngs, but it would al so he
liaLle to be cov ered wi th lichens an<l moss, in
co nseque nce of ti1c woisture 11"h ici1 it retaills. lf
its quality is ascertained to Le good, it is split
into thin plates for rooii1w. Tlie tiles arc fastened
b
. l
to the r:i ftrr s hy r r;-s drirrn thrnu;h holes whirl
have Leen pre1· io11sly made in th em; the edge of
one is laid ove r the otlicr i11 the same man11cr as the
scales of fish es. Slate whi ch is dark -colored, compact., awl solid, i .~ t!i c Lc:0t ;uLqit...:d for \1 riting upon.
In orcler to prepare the slate for thi s purpose, it is
rcn<lcre<l s1;100.th wi th an iron ins tru;n c1°1 l, and it
is then ground with sandstone, an<l slightly polished. That which is softer an<l more friabl e is
used for pencils.

'j

ot•i

' ~\ .
.j

176

LESSON XLIX.-CORAL.

FIFTII SF.RIES.

'·

LESSON XLIX.

Cora.ls ar~ .the secretions made ·:by polype · jn~
sects, mhab1tmg the deep; they ·sometimes a$::
sume the forms of branches, of the most beautiful
appearance; sometimes they resemble beads struncr
in a neck lace, whilst others ·present · a more con~
soliclatcd mass, but are all · perforated 'with . 'pores
more or less minute, the habitations of the little
architects.
Among the various phenomena that the works
of creation open to our view, there are perhaps
none more calculated to excite astonishment and
admiration, than the vast coral reefs that rise up
from the deep, and at times even constitute islands.
They arc produced from a calcareous matter
which exudes from the coral worm, and harden-·
ing forms at once their habitation and their mausoleum. This creature is of the class · of zoo·phytes, the lowest grade of animal life, the 'Jink
between it and the vegetable kingdom. They only
work under water, so that the coral reefs never
rise above the level of the sea; when the tide
retires, they a~penr to be dry compact rock, rugged, and perforated ; h11t when the returning
waters wash its sides, a most interesting spectacle
of active life is presented, and countless mvriads
of various shapes and colors protrude them~clves
from the orifices, nnd the whole edifice seems
teeming with life and animation.

177

The growth of the coral ceases when the worm
is no lorwer exposed to the washing of the sea;
the work"' is then commenced at the sides, and
other parts rise in succession till they reach the
same height, and form a level surface at the top,
with steep prccipito1,1s sides. In this manner, ·
an<l by such insignificant agents, atom deposited
upon atom, the soli<.l rock is at length produced;
upon this the sea deposits sand, mud, and decayed
sea-weed; 't hese prepare for mosses and lichens,
which in their turn form a soil for more perfect
vegetation; till at last the island thus formed, becomes a fit residence for man.
As these rocks arc constructed beneath the
surface of the sea, they present no beacon to warn
the mariner of their existence, and thus render
navigation in those seas in which they abound,
exceedingly dangerous.

I

' ,, j .

.. . 1

178

DICTIONARY.

DICTIONARY.
Absorbcnl'. thnt which sucks up liquids; ns sponge.' A sub- · ,
stance is nc_ver ubsorbcnt without boing nt tho sumo time·
porous, for if there were no pores the fluid could not enter
the subsruncc. ~I! substances nrc in a degree porous,
~ut wu only ullnbuto tho quulily to those in which it
1s obvwus.
Adlic.•i1Jc, that which is composed of pnrticles, not only uniting
firmly together, but which join themselves 'to other substanees. Thus gum, when placed between two pieces of
paper, allachcs itself to ouch, and causes a· union between
the two.
A ron_inlic, that which hns a pung<lnt spicy smell. · .
Asl_rwge111, contracting, cnusing sofi substances to contract.
1Jngl1l, shmmg.
·
lJrill(.c. that which is ensily broken: hard substnnecs only are
bnulc.
, .
.
·
Co11rnuc, nny portion of the internal surface of a hollow sphere.
Co11scrvalwc, thnt which preserves.
'
·
Co11_ucx, _any portion of tho external surface of a sphere.
Cylwrlncal, n form having two flat and one curved surface
ns n rul er.
'
Ductile, that which is cnpablo _ofb?ing drawn out in,l.oo' length.
Dull, that \\ h1ch absorbs the light rnstead of reflecti'Ptg it.
Edible or EataUr, thnt which is fit for food.
·
Elastic, th a t which, when bent or stretched returns to its
original position.
'
IiDi:r~>cscent, that which bubbles up from internal commotion.
l ·-r.ot1r, that whi ch is not produced in our own country.
Eiportrrl, thnt whi ch is se nt out from our ports.
Full, n surface is flnt thnt lies evenly between its boundaries:
us the cei ling, lloor, &c.
Plc:i:iUe, th at which cnn bo bent cnsily.
Fl111d, tha t whi ch has parts easily scpurnblc, which flows
nbout.
Frngrrw t, thnt which hns nn n"'recnblo smell
£.ri<'.blc, that which crumbles c~sily.
hmblc, that which molls in fire.

179

Gran11lo1t!, that which sepnrntes into groins or smnll particles
wi sand.
!lard, that which presents a strong resistance to the touch.
Imbricated, that which is arranged in the manner of the tiles
of a house.
Impre~si.[lle, that which easily receives and ·retains nn impression.
Imported, that which is brought into our ports.
Incompressible, that which cnnnot be forced into a smaller
compass.
Indigenous, that which is the natural production of a country:
this term is applied to vegetables, as native is applied to
men.
Inodorous, that which has no smell.
Laminated, thut which is arranged in thin coats or laminre.
Liguirl, properly signifies thnt which is melted; any thing
which we can drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a
fluid. Water is both fluid and liquid: when we spenk of it
us a stream or current, it is properly culled a fluid; but
when wo speak of it us passing from a congealed lo a dissolved state, it should properly bo culled a liquid.
Mag11ifyi11g, thnt which makes things appear larger than they
actually arc.
Malleable, that which is cnpablc of great extension when
bea ten, without the particles being separated by the opera·
tiun. Thus a grain of gold can be beaten out to a sheet of
extreme thinness.
JITctallic, that which has the nature of metals.
Nutritious, that which contains much nourishment.
Odorous, that which has any smell.
Opw111c, that through which 11othing can be seen ..
Oval, the form of an egg.
Pliable, that which can be folded easily into plaits. Thus a
young twig is flexible, linen is pliable.
l'orous, that which is full of small pores or holes.
Pulverable, that which can be reduced lo a powder.
l'unge11t, that which is w'urm lo the taste.
Rcjlertive, reflecting or giving hack an image; ·ibis quality
depends upon the former. A river that is bright reflects
its banks.
Sapid, that which has a flavor.
Semi-lra11.yiare11l, that which is scon through imperfectly

,· ·.. ~

. , ..

180

'

.

:::,1 ':
DH..."rIONARY.

Soft, tlmt which yields to the touch.

•

::iolid, that which is' composed of particles adhering closely

together; in this sense it is opposed to fluid.
Solid, thnt which fills up n spnce; in this sense it is opposed
lo hollow.
Soluble, that which molts in n fluid.
_S pherical, tho form of n sphere or globe.
Sparkling, Lhnt which does not present a continued brightness,
but one interrupted, ns in sugnr.
·
Tc11acious, thnt which is composed of particles uniting firmly
together. Thus gum being tenacious, the particles cnnnot
cnsily be se parated, nnd on this account it nets us a cement.
Gluc being more tenacious nets us a still stronger cement.
Tough, thnt ·which is co pubic of being bent or stretched without breaking.
,
Translucen.t, thnt through which light only cnn be seen.
Transparc11t, that which can be seen through.
Tubufur, a hollow cylinder.

'

"r

.\

k

.

~

.''

.,

...

\

..·

.

,.
" ;.

;.
'

· .•

'l'HE END. ·· ,..
I

j

• •

.
.
/

'

,,

·"

\

...

,..

...

"

.~,

i

.·

J

i

i.

......

... .

. ./

..

'•

,,.

'

; ... •
I

· l

.,

'· '

.·: ;- -.·.. ..

- ..

/

· j~~7:.':
{

.

i- ' ·~

.;

:, ,·-:~·
...

1'

.:' : • ' .. ·. •

