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PESTALOZZI
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THIRD EDITION.

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LO~DOK:

PUBLISHED FOR THE HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOVIETY,

AT THE DEPO RITORY, GRAY 'S-INN-ROAD. W.C.
HAMILTON, ADAMS, AND CO., PATERNOSTER-ROW, E.C.

1873.

I

13. Arrange the descriptions in the 9th paragraph under
three heads, and say how you would characterize
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" Pestalozzi is no more. After a short but painful
illness, he died near N euhof, in the Canton of
Argau, in the month of February, 1827 ." "The
sun went down in clouds, and the old man, when
he died at the age of eighty, had seen the
apparent failures of all his toil. He had not, however, failed in reality. It has been said of him that
his true function wa8 to educate ideas, not children;
and when, twenty years later, the centenary of hi3

PART II.

PESTALOZZI
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were bearing fruit, over the greater part of Central
tick. England has of late also been
d greatly benefited by it.
Now this can only be effected by the quickening power of th~
word of the truth of the Gospel, presented, illustrated, e~­
pounded, applied in the teaching and training of the chili~
and blessed by the Holy Spirit. And it is thus that the
· Institntions named have taken the educational principles
of the Swiss philanthropist, and applied them to a true Bihl•
and Evangelical training, in which children are not dealt with
as being, but to be made, children of God.

BT

ELIZABETH MAYO.

WITH NOTES, ORIGINAL AND SELECTED,
BY ROBERT DUNNING,
LECTURER ON SCHOOL MANAGEMENT, HOME AND COLONIAL
TRAINING COLLEGE.

156
dience and of prescribed diligence, but a preparation
for independent action. Whatever class of life a
pupil belongs to, whatever calling he may be intended
None can lay claim to be a Pestalozzian who
for, there are certain qualities in human nature com- is ignorant of the principles o~ng, of gov..!lilUll&.nt, and
mon to all, which constitute the stock of the funda- of education. The philosophic mind of Pestalozzi could not
mental energies of man.
We have no right to be satisfied with mere methods of instruction, however good.
He must needs go deeper, and discover the principles of
withhold from anyone the opportunities of develop- BChool management. To guide him in teaching he looked on
ing all their faculties. It may be judicious to treat the one hand at instruction, on the other at the nature of the
some of them with marked attention, and to give up child for whom the instruction was designed. This led him
the idea of bringing oth~rs to high perfection. · The lo make an analysis of the different branches of inetruotion,
diversity of talent. and inclination, of plans and pur- 1'880lving each into its elements, and teaching these elements
one by one before presenting them in their given combined
siiit~, is a suffi~ient proof of the necessity of such a fonn aa in the usual branches of instruction. It was in accorddistii:t~tion. But we have nd right to shut out the ance with these principles that the elementary subjects of
child ~!together from the development of those N'l!!!!!er, F~, Place, &c., &c., were discovered, and thus in·
faculties also which we may not for the present con· lroduced into ourInfant Schools and Nurseries with such
ceive to be essential for .his future calling or station IUccess. Pestalozzi further ascertained whether a subject of
in life. Who is not acquainted with the vicissitudea Instruction was of an in~e or de~ive character, and
· adopted modes of teaching appropriate to each, reserving the
of human fortune, which have frequently rendered more difficult subject and its corresponding method for higher
attainment valrni.ble that had been little esteemed, ' stages of development,-and he determined whether the subor been led to regret the . want of application to an ject was one to be observed in its facts, and reasoned out t <"
1111 principles, or one to be communicated to the children. It
exercise which. had been treated with contempt 1"
1118 such distinctions which gave rise to the methods of inThe principles of Pestalozzi are more fully set duction, deduction, and direct communication. In connecforth in a Lecture of the late Rev. Dr. Mayo, de- tion with the operations of the human mind, Pestalozzi dielivered at the R~yal Institution, .Albemarle Street, eovered many of the laws by which these operations are
regulated, and finally concluded that, as in the material world
in May, 1826. Of this we avail ourselves.*

* We often hear much of

the methods of Pestalozzi, many
of which were supposed to have been introduced into this
country. by Sir J. Kay-Shuttleworth and othere. The fad
is that Pestalozzi originated few methods, and those, in

lo be successful we must act in conformity with those physical

laws which govern it,J10 in the education of children we must act
in conformity with the known and uniform tendencies of their
Uture. ]'or hiB guidance in the di8c1pline and moral training
cl chil n Pestalozzi contemplated on the one hand the deaign

158

159

f
nf .sc/wol yovcrmnmt :ind t he constitnellts of a healtliy, cumpl,cte, moral charactc1·, ba.sed on the principles of the gospel;

on the other, the la ws of a child's moral natnrc, together with
the inffoence of intelligence on both the affections :ind the
will.
From these he discovered the method of oht:tining
power over children, an <l the spirit in which tlrnt power should
hP administered. I t W>I' thus Pestalozzi came to t he conclu.
sinn that the parent.al spirit u n1 st p n.'>S C ~.~ th1 ~ t('flchf~ r, whil~
kinrlness, f.:yrnpath:·, bnpn.rt ia1lt:v, and :1. r;o11cl l~x arnpk 1

fTirit , a11d by all stri ·:-.;~ 11n g •1•1il Jrll't.1i; 1(L..; uf in~trnctinn

a.:1

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bo:n_fo~ immortality, to that conformity to the
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e.!scntial to e.duc~~ion, a.11.11 not C.:i8ential in the sen .r.;e of important, or being · a lt:ad1ng principle," which are the usual
accept;~tions of the term ; but essential as entering into and
~rva.d1rnr school_-work, jtrnt as the es;.;ence of anyth ing enter s
u~to and pervades that tLiug. 'l 'h e fi1 1irit a wl 1HiWf·r, the prinupl r~ ~ a11 rl _rn nti\·es, if nnt th e wo r ds of reli_~i m1 1 rn nc.:t 11e
j 1 f.(·:-;•~'llt :t.fld rt:ady tn fl);titife::;t thi •gl,..;ChTS in all uart.-.; (if
6ctw1 1l Wurk,

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in f'Vc-ry part of tltt: !Jody, pn:1. ..

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b~:'2.r on the ordin :lT,Y re1:-~tiu1rn, Jutks, and cmH·t:rn~ c~f the
:hi'. llrcn. The rel igion of · t he school-room W<mhl not be a n
much discipline unnecessary. ',\" hen ch~ are kept bujJ,
he averred, they have no temptation ~o naug!_itiness, and the , mc~den;al thing, or one occasionally introduced as a subject
of mst~ction, not something based upon education, but intiteacher's duties are light, whilst evil is prevented, rather thaa
mately connected with it, the guiding, all-controlling spirit
cured. For the principles of education, as a whole, Pestalozii
of every action and movement. It would not be merely
looked to the connection between the child's present state and
fo~.al, ;erl;ial: .no~nal, dogmatic, or even practical; but
its future condition and character. Pestalozzi considered thal
re~gi~n lil sp1r1t, lil aims, in methods, in associations, in
God had not only given m~n a nature, and a sphere of .duty
pnnc1ples, in practice. There would be not onlv re l"igw
· us
in which this n:iture is t o act ; but a destiny to be attained
l"":o~s, a.nd religious pr~pts, but religious i'liw~'We, and
by the workings of a character in which he plays an essentiil
part. It was thus, that the s stem of Pestalozzi was as stem re~g'.ous exan..mle. In this pervading and essential character
of principles ; arid the methods founded on thes·e are so ceJ' relig10n hacrTtS place in the school of Pestalozzi. Neither t
tain, so sati';;factory, and so effective.
'Vhilst,_ therefore, obviate a religious difficulty, nor to square with the practice~
Pestalozzianism is thoroughly practical it is based 011 tbt of _the mere perfunctory teacher, would Pestalozzi have been
nature of children and the connection of their present and sati•fied ~t~ religious instruction and observance during one
future"State. Moreover, fiiitalozzian"piacHceiSilotiiiere;.t' hour, bamshmg all thought and mention of it during the other
burn~;;pported by the abutments of science-scie_i;_t;.ifi~ hours of the day. He pleaded, not indeed for hum an forms
and symb~l.s ~f faith, as adopted by particular Churches, but
• This does not mean merely that religion must be taugh~ :r the uh1qmty of the religious principle, at all hours an<!
but that all things must be taught religiously. Religion u
all doings in the school-room. 'l'his necessarily implied
securing interest awl \·o]nntary :1 ttention, ~nd t11Us rernlcri !lg

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- ---

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161

160
immortality consists. In pursuing this end, means
strictly analogous to the Divine dealings with man

I

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the presence of the Word of God, and the free inculcation of
its truths, precepts, and promises.
It is striking to notice the thoroughly Christian character
of this principle. The first Churches of Christ did not separate their religious services from the rest of life, and give
them alone the name of worship. · To them, as the heritage
of the Lord, the whole of life was worship, and every act
sanctified by the Holy Ghost an acceptable service, being
dedicated by motive, by purpose, by desire. Hence the terms
"worship," " service," '' sacrifice'' are never in the New
Testament applied exclusively to acts of devotion, whether
public or private, but embrace the whole life. " Present
your bodies (or your bodily actions), a living sacrifice ......
which is your reasonable service." "Pure religion (worship)
and undefiled . • ... .is to visit the ,fatherless and widows in
their affiiction, and to keep himself unspotted (in the transaotions of life) from . the world." "Do good and communicate
•..... for with such sacrifices God is well pleased."
'
The pervading character of religion in true education is
well illustrated in the practice of the Abbe Girard. Whilst his
staple commodity in teaching was language, and his pupils were
progressively advancing in the acquisition of knowledge, the
truths of morality and religion were so blended with their instruction, that they received them almost unawares. His
anecdote of a visitor sets this in a striking light. " In 1820,
one of the secular clergy, who was a teacher at Genoa, was
sent by his superior to Switzerland, to visit schools and borrow
from them a better system than that which was then practised in Italy. He remained for some weeks in my school,
during which time we had very little conversation. He was
busy collecting his facts, and I was well content he should
do so. When he had completed his observations he came

in the scheme of redemption, are to be employed.
The instructor must regard himself as ~tanding
in God's stead to tl1e child; the Divine dealings
with man, particularly as ·illustrated in the life
of the Redeemer, present the model by which
his dealings with the pupil are to be regulated. As
by the revelation of God's love the spiritual transformation of man is accomplished, so must the earthly
teacher build all his moral agencies on the manifestation of his own love towards the pupil. Then,
as" we love God because He first loved us," so will
the affections of the pupil be awakened towards his
instructor, when he feels himself the object of that
instructor's regard.* .Again, as love to God generates
to me and said, ' I have discovered the secret of your
method. Your real object all the while is religion and
morality, though you appear to be attending to other
things, This is the true and only way to succeed."' However slow Protestant teachers are to learn this principle,
or deficient in carrying it out, Roman Catholics are by no
means either slow or deficient in applying it to Romanism,
as the following instructive statement shows :-"Some copybook covers for schools have been forwarded to us," says
the "Record" newspaper, "by a correspondent from
Stalybridge, to show how the Romanists are using every
means to advance their influence. On the back of the broadsheet containing the Multiplication Table is printed a wellengraved picture of the Virgin Mary." An attempt to carry
out this principle is made by ourselves in this Institution in
Lessons on Scripture Natural History.
• The means of making education essentially religious are
M

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162

conformity to His will, so will obedience to the
instructor be the consequence of awakened affection.
the teacher's BI!irit and ~er, the teacher's general
ma.nacrement and discipline, a sense of the Divine presence in
the ml~fth~en, and instruqtion. To what Dr. Mayo
has said re;p;tl~gthe first and e:;;;;;a: of these may be added
that the power of religion should be seen in every department
of the teacher's school life. It should be seen in the teacher's
~.it should regulate her tempe-r, guide her in her w.2!!,
etregen her in her difficulties. She should come to her
ecb°;;ol inibued with the senitmdts of true reli.gi<rn, which will
lead her to love her young charge, to take pleasure in ming·
ling with them, and to act simply and condescendingly towards them. She should come from he-r closet to her school·
room diffusing a holy influence.
Ber self-deninl, an~ her
sobriety, which will lead her to be watchful against her failings,
and to avoid caprice and partiality, should lead the children
to respect religion by respecting her. Her gentleness and
sweetness should lead them to love it and her in return. Her
bright cheerful countenance, the result of peace within and a
spirit of good-will to all, should teach them that religion en·
aures happiness. In this way would she win souls to Christ
whilst making religion essential in herself. On the third
and fourth, means of making religion essential in school·
work, Dr. Mayo elsewhere remarks that "the God of
nature Is to be seen in His works, the God of all grace con·
templa.ted in Hie written Word, and felt in Hie influence.
A sense of the continual presence of God as the Giver of all
good, and the Judge of all conduct must be made a pervading
sentiment in the minds of the pupils." To carry this out,
at all lessons in physical science, as those in geography,
' natural history, natural objects, and phenomena., not only
must the power and wisdom of God be exhibited, but the

163
This is the basis of a right education ; for as " love
is the fulfilment of the law," so in love must be
sought the elements which, in this fulfilment, have
their ultimate result.
Thus, while other modes
of instruction may convey the doctrines of Christianity, the system of Pestalozzi, equally adapted
to the attainment of this result, is also, when duly
executed, a practical illustration of its temper and
spirit.*

truth that He is good to all, and His tender mercies are over
all His works. Such lessons without reference to God are
very defective. At the Bible lessons, the character of God in
its bearing on the wants, the character, and condition of man,
as a sinner, must be amply displayed. A sense of God's goodness will lead to love and gratitude, of His greatness and
power to reverence and admiration, and of Hie presence as a
judge to holy reverence and fear, and a watchful conduct .
Thus, by the sanctifying operation of the good Spirit, God
will be felt in His influence.
*Education will never fulfil its Heaven-appointed mission
until the essential and pervading character of religion is recognised as one of its beet instruments. Thia is certainly
the "training" which is enjoined on parents with respect
to their children, and, through them, on teachers, who are
their coadjutors, or substitutes. Where it is adopted, the
power of influence, of example, of association will come to
bur help, and, by repetition, be confirmed into a habit, which,
by God's grace, will be m&tured into a principle.

+ What is moral education 1 wherein does it differ from
religious education! Dr. Mayo distinguishes them from,
M 2

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165

should be derived from the precepts of the Gospel, as
illustrated by the example of the Redeemer, and in-

to be availing, must be the purified and elevated

yet connects them with, each other ; but not a few would
completely separate them. It may, therefore, be useful
to young teachers, amidst the present strife, to give them an
accurate idea of "moral" as applied in education, and then
ask them to consider whether they could conscientiously teach
morality without the Bible, without religion. The term
moral is variously applied in connection with the work of the
teacher.
(1.) It means good, virtuous, honest, &c., and is opposed
to the terms immoral, vicious, or bad. In this sense moral
instruction includes reasoning, expostulating, pointing out
both what is virtuous and what is vicious, and to the
practice of the one and to abstention from indulgence in the
other. All are agreed on this point.
'
(2.) The term "moral" is used as relating merely to the
conduct of men to each other, in contradistinction to the term
religious, which relates to the duties of men towards God. It
is in this aense that the term describes a subjec• of instrnCtion in our schools. In this sense, too, we may have
morality without religion, whilst we cannot have true religion
without morality. In many schools the instruction is religious, whilst the training is me'rely moral. .Alas ! there is a
growing party in this country who desire to divorce religion
from morality in the school, both in theory and practice. And
so it has come to pass that we have been asked to accept
"Ethics for Board Schools" as a guide to teachers out of
" the Religious Difficulty"-a treatise which inculcates
morality without auy recognition of religion as its basis or
principle.
(3.) 'l'he term moral is applied to the doctrine or duty' drawn
from a story, a fable, or a parable; and no good practical
teacher will ever fail to turn fiction to this profita.ble use.
( 4.) Another meaning of the term is that of "subject to the

moral law." And hence we are said to possess moral responsibility ; a condition which every pious teacher will explain
to his pupils as they increase in age, experience, and intelli gence, and thus endeavour by God's blessing to make them
realise the main-spring of duty.
~5.) Again, moral is used in opposition to animal or physical,
as m the expression "moral courage," that is the courage of
moral principle, not that of the animal passions or brute force.
This distinction an intelligent teacher will not fail to make in
the training of children, giving to each its proper place in the
scale of moral excellence.
(6.) The term "moral" as used in the science of education
relates to the feelings, as distinguished from the intellect, which
has reference to the thoughts. Hence the division of education into intellectual and moral. This application of the term
is in accordance 1vith the primary signification of the word,
which means manners or conduct, and is an appropriate application, since conduct in general, particularly in the case of
children, proceeds from the feelings rather than reflection. It
is on the same ground that the plural noun " morals" is used
for the practice of the duties of life.
(7.) "Moral" has also the mea~ing of "probable" as ap·
plied to evidence, being thus opposed to "absolute" or
" certain." Hence it is that we speak of "moral" or "absolute " certainty ; and the teacher has his two great classes of
subjects of instruction, the moral and the absolute, as history
and mathematics, &o., with which to cultivate and store the
minds of his pupils.
The t erm " essential " has the same meaning when applied
to moral education that it had when applied to religious; it is
therefore unnecessary to explain it here.
• The morality which, according to Dr. Mayo, should form
an essential element of education, was fully and clearly ex-

culcated throughout the Bible.•

Moral instruction,

l·i

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166

167

expression of a moral life, actually pervading the
scene of education.* In carrying on the business of

the school-room, or in watching over the diversions
of the play-ground, the motives and restraints of the

pressed by Mr. Ogle in an address which he delivered to our
students and teachers at one of their half-yearly meetings.
"By morality," he said, "we do not in this Institution mean
merely that ordinary good conduct which men may practice
from natural constitution or from the force of a good educa·
tion, or from good example. Neither do we mean, when we
speak of giving moral lessons, the giving the children at one
hour a Scripture lesson, in which we teach them the principles
and precepts of the religion of Christ, and at another hour a
moral lesson, for example, on perseverance, or on filial love,
or on humanity-speaking of these as if there were no such
being as our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ and hie Gospel,
precisely as a heathen philosopher might do. We have no
such view before us. By morality we intend that pr:'..ctice
which results from obedience to Christian precepts, which is
· founded on Christian principles, the application to the ordinary events and duties of life, of the doctrines and precepts
of the Christian religion. And in our moral instruction and
training we apply t'l children in their ordinary conduct, in the
schoolroom and playground, the precepts which they learn
from the Bible. Thus education, to be essentially moral,
should be derived from the precepts of the Gospel as illustrated
by the example of the Lord Jesus, and conducted on the principles of the Word of God."

* It is not enough that the moral lessons be regularly
given, systematically, clearly, and even impressively delivered.
They must be illustrations of the teachec's own life, and
echoes of the spirit and conduct of the school, in order to
reach more readily both the understanding and heart. It is
a happy thing when the teacher can refer to himself as walking by the rule which he lays down, since the sight of such

consistency will inspire the children with a willing readiness
to imitate. It is happier still when the children feel that
their teacher is a model of all the social virtues. Such a
feeling calls out their sympathy, excites reverence and love,
and leads to an unfailing obedience. The example and spirit
of the pupils have also great influence. If rudeness, violence,
untruth, and injustice prevail amongst them, the moral instruction will be unavailing ; every good desire excited will
be stifled by the impure atmosphere around them. But the
teacher has the tone of the school very much at his own
command. It is a point to which a good teacher will give
every attention, and he will not rest till the public opinion
of the school is on the side of gentleness, goodness, and
truth.
Moreover, moral education includes the active training of
the pupils and the direct cultivation of the moral nature.
Nothing is more common than to mistake both moral and religious instruction for religious and moral training, and to be
satisfied with the former. Granting the auxiliary character
of moral instruction, we know that it falls short of what is
required for a high state of morality. The only moral
culture worthy of the name is that which consists chiefly
in leading children to act. Instruction is of course
necessary, as a child must be taught what is right in order to
practice it ; but is not sufficient, any more than is the theory
of music to make a man a musician, or a knowledge of perspective or of lights and shades to make a man a painter.
Between the knowledge of what is right and the doing what
is right there are two stages, feeling and volition. We
must know, feel, and will. Action is the only real education
in morals. Moral conduct and moral habits are to be secured

..
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168
purest morality, and those only, must be employed.*
Moral diseases are not to be counteracted by moral
poisons ; nor is int.ellectual attainment to be furthered at the expense of moral good."t Under the
conditions of the organic character of education
will be found additional remarks on this last
point.

I
I

by training up a. child in the way he should go, not merely
by teaching him. A great mistake fa often ma.de by religious
parents on this point, and they compare unfavourably in this
respect with many people of the world. It is not considered by
them that, whilst moral principles cannot exist without religion,
moral habits may. Now parents who are religious generally
confine their attention to the former. From an exclusive
zeal to establish moral principle, they are often guilty of neg·
lecting moral habits,-their children hcai· rather than do.
Thus metaphysically, or educationally, we may account for
the unhappy abnormal state of the children of many of the
disciples of Christianity ; a. state of things bearing a. striking
contrast to the disciples of Judaism. The children of light
a.re in this respect not wise in their generation.

* In dealing with children, whether in repressing or pun·
ishing for evil done, or in encouraging, stimulating, and re·
warding 1or good done, or attention or diligence manifest ed,
teachers are continually rousing motives for action or acting
on those in operation. But these motives are of very dif·
ferent kinds; some are high, some low, some selfish and
bad, others generous and pure. Therefore in carrying on the
business of the schoolroom, or watching the diversions of the
playground, the t eacher should only employ those motives and
restraints which are of the purest and highest morality.

t Place-ta.king is a. poison which stirs up an ignoble am·

169

bition. Prizes and rewards a.re poisons which bring into
operation covetousness, which is already too strong. Partiality and putting the children in opposition to each other also
stir up envy, jealousy, and hatred. It is at the expense of
moral good that a. teacher bestows more attention upon
learning than conduct, is more pleased with cleverness than
goodness, presents more a.nd greater stimuli to the learning of
lessons than the practice of virtues, and rewards the exercise
of the intellect a.nd not the dispositions of the heart. Throughout all this there is evidence of the presence of the intellectual
teacher rather than that of the _!ll~r~l educator.
e
on. .
The human soul is not a uniform and inert mas11. o emg, but
a complicated living, active structure, an organism of the
highest order. The means used to educMe it must obviously
be suited to its nature ; the mind must be dealt with as a.n
organized existence. It has laws by which it exists,
developes, a.nd improves, and its treatment in harmony
with these laws constitutes an organic education. The t erm
is therefore used by Dr. Ma.yo metonymically ; the instrument being put for the object on which it operates. The
organic character of education was tli_e; f
ental principle
of he s stem of PesW
ot
must be progressive, commencing witli a natural and well-laid
foundation. 2, That education must be spontaneous, the
child being a willing co-operator with the teacher. 3, That
each faculty must be developed carefully, gradually, steadily.
4, That education must be an entire work, embracing the
hand, the head, and the heart. 5, That education must be
harmonious ; not partial or antagonistic to itself. These and

--

-

"
170mechanical deposition of matter on its external
Rurface ; .a plant, on the other hand, grows by
the contmual expansion of those organs which
lie folded up in its germ. Elementary education
as ordinarily carried on, is a meclianical in~
culcation of knowledge, the process being
similar to that by which a mineral substance
at of accretion.

-M'orl:li

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rro cmnrt11't-in preven ing i .
~~ral action~ in the pupil, but in cultivating dispos1t10ns, formmg principles, and establishing habits.
Nor does i~tellectual education attain its end by the
mere communication of intellectual truths, but
rat~er in the development of those faculties by
which truth is recognised and distinguished.
And, lastly, physical education, instead of con' fining itself to instruction in particular arts must
be directed to the improvement of the o~tward
senses, .the increase of activity and strength, and
those circumstances which are essential to the promotion of heal

other secondary principles of the Pesta.lozzian system of education as enunciated by Pestalozzi are taken up further on
in the text and the notes.

171
of development, for action is the parent of pov:er..
The sentiments of the 1leart,-the -faciiHies.- of the
mind, the powers of the body, advance to their
maturity through a succession of actings in conformity to their nature ; i.e., all are strengthened by
exercise and dwindle through inactivity. Opportunities for the exercise of moral virtue should
therefore be carefully sought out, or at least diligently applied. To cultivate benevolent disposi. tions, the pupil should be invited to relieve the indigent ; to overcome hfa selfishness, he should be
induced to share or part with the objects of his own
· desire. In intellectual culture every branch of in; struction should be so presented to the pupil's mind
as to bring into the highest activity the faculties
most legitimate} m lo ed u on it.
e pup1
ave su cien i e
crmanifest decidedly
s ou
his individual character, and must be dealt with
accordingly. Nothing short of this will render
the education really organic.* I~ may be possible,
by a system of coercion, to produce a negative ex• But this liberty is perfectly consistent with a natural and
proper restraint. It is so with the body. The body contains
physical ligaments and bands, but they do not obstruct action.
Artificial ligaments, on the contrary, tighten the feet, the
fingers, or the body. So it is morally and intellectually,
where the wisdom that can preserve by a necessary restraint,
is not united with the liberty of action that promotes growth,

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terior morality which shall endure as long as the
an
circumstances on which it is built remain in force ·
a.
ere ere is no
but no interior moral power, that shall survive ~
ld, is as true morally as it
change of outward circumstances, can be formed, is phyl:!ically. It is the order of providence that maunless such moral liberty be enjoyed as leaves to the ternal affection and maternal wisdom should call
judgment room for discerning between good and ' forth the dawning powers of childhood, and that
evil ; to the moral choice the adoption of the one the wisdom and firmness of a father should build
and the rejection of the other ; to the conscience the up and consolidate the fabric which reposes on a
approval and the rewarding of right, the condemna- mother's love. The Pestalozzian instructor suption and punishment of wrong. Rest,raint may be plying the parent's place must combine the chanecessary to prevent wrong, to check the career of ructers of each relation, but exhibit them in diffepassion, to arrest the progress and diffusion of moral rent proportions, according to the age and disposition
mischief, to remove the incentives to evil, and to of his pupil. Other plans of education are built on
restore to that position in which the moral principle the principles of political relations, the system of
may again exert its influence. Still it is only n Pestalozzi carries in its bosom the pure and gentle
negative, not a positive means. All the real develop- influence of domestic life. There the glowing
ment of man, moral, intellectual, and physical, arises affections, the fearless confidence, the easy interfrom moral, intellectual, and physical liberty. Hu- ' course, the gentle spirit, of the family circle, are
man laws, guarded by vindictive enactments, may
no part or lot in the matter of right and wrong except as mere
be respected even by slaves, but the law of God,
passive instruments. All moral actions spring from motives;
wheresoever and in so far as it is obeyed, is writt~n these act through the will, and choice becomes necessary and
in the hearts of a willing people in the enjoyments marks us as moral and responsible beings. But if our children
of Christian liberty."*-Dr. Mayo.
are so restrained that they cannot choose whether they will
a..t on a right or wrong motive, or so constrained that they

* It is a great mistake to confound n egation and r estraint . are not in the habit of choosing, how can their moral nature
with positive training ; and yet how frequently are prohibi·
tions and punishments regarded as all that are n ecessary in
the moral education of the young. In restraining children
from wrong-doing we are far from t eaching them t o do what
is right. They are merely debarred from all choice, and have

be undergoing the process of training 1 Punishments are restraints ; i.e., not direct and positive means of producing moral
good, but merely negative forces. The r eal use of punishment is to deter a child from doing evil, not to induce him to
do good.

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174:
transplanted into a field of greater extent, but o
congenial soil ; and the delicate bloom of mora
sensibility, which the rude contact of the playground
seldom fails to destroy, is watched over with care,
and sheltered with tenderness."-Dr. Mayo.•

the c i , an o en Hoping against hope. Then, fourthly,
there is pastoral rule, which unites watchfulness diligence
faithfulness~ndness. It springs from ben~volence, ~
sense of duty, and Christian devotedness, but it has none of
the instinctive love of the mother. It inspires with respect,
confidence, gratitude, and affection. As Dr. Mayo tells
us in the text, other plans of education are based on the principle of political relations, whilst the system of Pestalozzi
carries in its bosom the gentle loveliness of domestic lift>.
Would that we had more of this ~pirit in our schools, and
th
the teacher acquire and merit the endearing title
which Pestalozzi more frequently was known

;--wftll its met oa of- eac m ,
e sprntofgovernment which animated it. But
assuredly the schoolmaster or schoolmistress who can only
teach intelligently and even interestingly develop ideas, and
discipline the intellectual powers is but half a Pestalozzian.
Without the parental spirit, with all its concomitants, there is
no true and complete Pestalozzianism ; there may be instruction, but not education. To lead to the clearer apprehension
of this principle, it may be remarked that there are four
different kinds of rule differing from each other in epiri
charact er. There is, first, milit'!'ry rule, which is cha.racte
by severity and followed by'no fOve, confidence, or moral
himself up o t Efse1 ~a
(l1!ec
ew of those he
elevation. There is, secondly, political rule, characterized
would benefit, the more did he feel the necessity of someby what is cold, heartless, formal, almost mechanical, and
thing deeper, more searching and influential than any system
often aided by planning and plotting. Justice is done, but in
of instruction, however practical, intelligent, interesting, and
the way of business or policy, and whilst giving a sense of secu·
extensive, or discipline, however rigid and productive of
rity and exciting no malignant passion, such government
order. In fact, he had no faith in anything which sprang
cherishes little that is attaching, elevating, or improving.
There is, thirdly, pa~e, which unites many elements. .• from mere external sources for elevating the degraded and
pe1manently blessing all This was the first step he took.
This alone comes from the heart and goes to the heart. It
But Pestalozzi had not only faith in an education which
is marked by the intere1t that is ever watchful of good to
the child ; of the tenderneas that sympathizes with and even , would reach and influence the principles of human nature,
but he also felt persuaded that it was an appointed means of
anticipates the child's sorrows and joys; of the patience that
God for the happiness and holiness of His creatures. He
does not readily murmur, is never weary in well-doing for

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176
or moral, or both, are sacrificed to the physical ; in
some the moral, or physical, or both, to the intel-

Jectual.

saw education stamped with the Divine sanction, and was reassured. This was Pestalozzi's second step of progress.
H aving arrived at these conclusions, it next occurred to him
that in the wise arrangements of God there should somewhere
be found the natural sphere of education, provided with the
necessary power for accomplishing the ends in view. He
consequently cast about for some ground the most extensive
and some power the most irresistible in its action by which to
animate the new system of improvement. Then it wa.s that
the thought occurred-a thought so natural and familiar to
every one, but so little seen in that light in which it then
flashed on his mind-that the earliest, the most extensive, the
best adapted sphere for education is the domestic circle, in
which the infant and early years are now spent ; but, alas I
often spent without the benefit of a kind and salutary direction,
and but too frequently under the baneful influence of bad
example. Amidst these reflections it also occurred to him
that the most energetic power in the whole range of the
moral world was sympathy and affection ; and that of all
human sympathies and affections, the purest and strongesl
wa.s maternal love. This wa.s the power to be_ ained for the
b ·ect which he bad in view
mother's love the lever b
ot'ZUfich'-would obtain power to move the moral world. In
a nobler cause th= that of the ancient mathematician
might he (and perhaps did he) exclaim, Jl eu1·eka,
heureka ! H enceforth his maxim wa.s, " ·where there
is no mother, there is no child, morally as well as physically."
This was Pestalozzi's third step of progress, and for some time
the training of mothers to do their duty intelligently and
effectually was the subject of bis strongest advocacy. In his
letters to Greaves he gives expression to his warm feelings in

eloquent stmins. Let mothers and teachers bear him on this
topic. " I should not anticipate," he says, "half the consequences for the real benefit of mankind, as long as our
system of improvement failed of extending to the earliest
stage of education ; and to succeed in this we require the
most powerful ally of our cause, a.s far as human power may
contribute to an end which eternal love and wisdom have
assigned to the endeavours of man. It is on this altar that
we shall lay down the sacrifice of all our efforts ; and if our
gift is to be accepted it must be conveyed through the medium of eternal love. This object of our ardent desires will
never be attained but through the assistance of the mothers.
To them we must appeal ; with them we must pray for the
blessing of Heaven ; in them try to awaken a deep sense of
all the consequences, of all the self-denial, and of all the
rewards attached to their interesting duties. Let each take
an active part in that most important sphere of influence."
The Pstimate which Pestalozzi formed of this prize, the tenacity with which be held it, and the place which he assigned it
in his system, ought t o be most thoroughly realized. It took
that undivided possession of his mind which a familiar thought
· I sometimes acquire from a novel combination. It inspired
with the most sanguine hopes; it was from that moment the
nucleus, the luminous centre of all his efforts, and the foundation of his system of moral influence and moral elevation.
But in due time Pesta.Iozzi became dissatisfied here, and he then
made his grand final discovery. He would carry the parental
feeling into the schoolroom, and convert the schoolroom into
a home. H e saw that the family was the original schoolGod's model school in the beginning of the world. The
trainers of children, according to the order of nature, are their
parents, their brothers and sisters. "And depend upon it,"

A

Pestalozzian educator respects the

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rights of each.

179

He foti.ifies the body by gym· · nastic exercises, while he cultivates the under-

he came to assert, " only so far as we conform the school to 3
family in spirit and character, it will be imperfect; it will
. bear the impress of human, rather than of Divine, wisdom."
Henceforth his motto was "
sea e.
e c annel in which his thoughts ran might be ex· '
-pressed in the following formula :-That as the family i1
the nursing-place of society, H eaven's own ordained means
of rearing up to all that is great and good, and the mother's
love is given to secure that end, education must be of a family
character and conducted under the influence of the maternal
spirit-a thinking love.
The parental spirit of the schoolmistress, however, should
be no matter of accident. It ought not to depend merely
upon impulse, which may rest on temperament, or upon
sympathy with the founder of our system, which may be mere
matter of imitation, but ought to be felt as a necessity from
the nature of the case, and as a matter of principle balled
on the most cogent and substantial arguments. And, 1st, It
is reasonable. The schoolmistress has taken the parent'•
place to a great extent, and consequently has in".'olved
herself in the parent's responsibilities. Now, Pesta.Iozzi
demanded that those who undertook the parent's dutie1
should possess the parent's spirit in its interest in the best
welfare of the child ; in its sympathy with his joys and
sorrows ; in the patience, which will not flag or murmur.
Nor did Pestalozzi merely preach this as a doctrine, bul
practised it himself. 2nd. Nature calls for it. We cannol
expect either the trusting confidence of a child, unless we ·
show somewhat of the affootionate feelings of the mother; or
the affectionate obedience of the child, unless we show somewhat of the tender watchfulness of the mother ; or, the reciprocating gratitude of the child, where there is not the
persevering care of the mother.
God has ordained the one

for the other. We are very exacting at the hands of children,
forgetting that we ourselves have a part to act. Our
treatment of the child and the character springing up in him
correspond as cause and effect. Deficieucies in the training of
the child inust ever produce corresponding deficiencies in
his character. Witness the absence of many emotions in
children reared in orphanages, where, with all the kindness
experienced they lack maternal interest, maternal tenderness,
and maternal patience. 3rd. The effects of possessing this
spirit are equally imperative. It will give a particular tone
to the rewards and punishmenU! of the school. Punishments
will be administered with sorro'w rather than anger ; and the
future good of the children considered rather than the present convenience of the teacher. Attention to their wants
will be given with kindly interest ; mischievous rivalry in the
shape of place-taking and similar practices will never be
adopted ; mutual help and sympathy will be encouraged
instead of a spirit of triumph at each other's failures. The
parento.l spirit 'vill inspire with gentleness towards the timid,
patience with the slow and the dull, and compassion for those
labouring under physical or other defects. 4th. Examples
which it is our duty to imitate require this spirit. In God
and in Christ, we have it pre-eminently exhibited. Amongst
the various names taken by God is that of Father, whilst
Christ receives the same title. The love of the former is
seen illustrated in the father of the prodigal, the love of
Christ was displayed in apologizing for His poor remiss disciples, praying for His enemies, and pleading their ignorance
to his God as their excuse. 5th. And to those who have been
trained on the system of Pestalozzi, as a species of argumentum,
ad hominem, I would say that the parental idea is the grand
feature of Pestalozzianism ; at least, it was a leading idea of
Pestalozzi himself ; and he not only felt but practiRed it.
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181

standing and trains the sentimentR.* He endeavours

to preserve the equipoise in each, as well as between
all the three departments ; to mingle firmness
with sweetness, judgment with taste, activity with
strength. His object will be, not to develop a
disproportionate strength in one faculty, but to
produce that general harmony of mind and character, which is the most conducive . t~ess
and usefulness of the individual." -Dr. Mayo.

If we call ourselves Pesto.lozzians let us be consistent and

worthy the name. Let every teacher think of these things,
and ever strive to realise the weight and t enderness of a
relation which combines the parent with the pastor. Let
parental interest, parental t enderness, parental patience, be
united with pastoro.l watchfulness, pastoral diligence, p:.1·
toral faithfulness.

"

• The term harmonious does not exactly express the distinctive idea of this principle, although Dr. Mayo introduces great fundamental principle of the organic nature of educait afterwards. Entire and harmonious are terms distinct in tion may be stated in a full and formal mo.nner as follows:idea and also in the selection of means, though combined in
ies
practice, as will appear in a succeeding note. The principle
would be more exactly stated thus :-"Education should II!
an entire work." It should be a complete system, not super·
ficial but thorough, not partial but penetrating, regulating,
and training the entire being, meeting all his wants, cir·
• This is not mere universality of cultivation but harmony,
cumstances, and character. Education to be thus complete, which consists of a fitting together of parts, so as to form o.
and universal in its application, must be fivefold, so as to meet connected and uniform whole- not a mere equipoise, but a
the fivefold nature of the child. It must be Physi,cal, to meet . concord. Education ".Vould be an entire work, were the
the requirements of his bodily nature ; 2. /ntellectwil, for the faculties cultivated by it singly, as if independent of each
cultivation and storing of the powers of thought ; 3. Esthetirol other; but it is harmonious when they are cultivated, not in
in relation to the sense of the beautiful ; 4. Moral, for the opposition to each other, but in their organic connexion, o.11 difeelings, and the conduct in relation to man ; and 5. Spfritual, rected to the same point, all working together to produce one
to meet the wants of the soul in reference to God. Pestalozzi , result. It is thus that they form an organic whole, and
would have con11idered any system of education necessarily hence a harmonious education is but one application of
defective as a whole which neglected the faculties under any an organic education. The importance of the application
of these divisions, or which did not make provision for as high of this principle in education may be easily demon·
a degree of cultivation as their respective capabilities admi~ strated, whilst at the same time will appear the serwhatever partial excellence or influence it might boast. It vice rendered by Pestalozzi in propounding it. There is no
would not be an entire work, and the pupil would be but doubt that harmony originally subsisted among the .elements
partially benefited.
of man's nature. By the fall however, man became depraved,
The connexion between this . secondary principle and the that is changed from a good state to a bad. Speaking of course

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182
That true education consists in the harmoniou,
development of all the faculties with which man is
metaphysically, not theologically, this change consisted not
only in the faculties becoming excessive, deficient, or 'mis.
directed, in some receiving too much exercise, and in othe,.,
too little, but also in their proportion and harmony being de.
stroyed. In the restoration of man this proportion and
harmony must be restored. The first step in the process fa
regeneration, and there cannot be a true Christian education
without the application of this principle. The necessity of
harmonious operation is beautifully exhibited in the fi!!1m
of the apostle, in which he compares the members or° the
Christian Church to the members of the human body, and
urges that each ha.a a specific work to perform, whilst all
derive their power Jrom the same source, and all should
contribute to one end by a. mutual co-operation. Again, 31
in architecture, proportion is beauty, and parts mutually aid
and support each other, in order to form a. harmonious whole
so it is in education. In physiology, too, it is only as th~
organs of the body a.re brought into activity in their naturnl
connexion and dependence, that the strength, completeness
and h ealth of the body are secured. The design of education
is ~ like manner to establish unity and harmony in man ;
uruty of purpose promoted by harmony of operation-Iovino
and energetic co-operation-harmony within, and harmon;
with what is without in reference to both time and eternity,
to God and man, lea.ding us to ascribe glory to the one, and
perform offices of good will to the other. Thus would be
produced that ha.lanced character which is the result of
a harmonious development.
This harmonious develop·
ment has reference to three things-lat, to the dem ents
of the child's nature. With regard to his moral nature, the
lower feelings must be brought into subjection to the moral
sentiments, as they were evidently designed to be. Tht

183

gifted,

is continually asserted by Pestalozzi, who
endeavours to prove it in the following way. He

moral sentiments must be under the dominion of the moral
j~dgment ; conscience, which is the candle of the Lord, searching all the inward parts. The feelings, the desires, the affections, and even the conscience must be enlightened by the
intellect fiom the altar of sacred truth, and both reason and
conscience, thus enlightened, must be brought under the
dominion of God, i.e., under Bubjection to His will In reference
to the int,eUect, its perfection seems mainly to consist in the
projl!lr adjustment of the observing, the reflecting, and
imaginative faculties-in other words, of the powers by
which the knowledge of things exterior to ourselves is acquired; and the powers by which that knowledge is turned to
aooount, either in the new combinations of fancy, or deductions of reason. An unusual deficiency in either, stamps the
whole intellectual character with defect and antagonism, if not
imbecility. A knowledge of the external world is valuable to
its P<>ssessor only so far a.s he can combine and generalize its
elements, or turn it t o practical purposes ; and the power of
combination is only available in so far as it is united with the
habit and the power of collecting materials on which to
operate. 2nd, to the end of the child: s being in lifetime,
whether he is to be agriculturist, artizan, merchant, profeslliona.I man, or prince. Such a training of the faculties should
be given a.s will enable him to move in his future position with
plea.sure and advantage both to himself and his fellow-men.
Diversity of sex, and the consequent difference of future occupations, come under this head, rendering modification in
the education of different individuals necessary. 3rd, to the
laat and hi,glwst end of man, which is perfect harmony and
eternal union with God. To effect harmony here, cultivation
must be so conducted and blessed by the Spirit of God,
that a.11 the child's powers, whether of body or soul, 'vill be

declares that " it is the proper business of educa-tion to develop the man, to keep in view all his

faculties, to aim at their culture and perfection, not
si ngly and apart from each other, but as a whole,

rendered subservient to this great purpose, and will
co-operat e to -effect it ; or, at all events, will not be
allowed t o be in any way opposed to it. In the training of immortal beings for eternity, no element discordant with this ob-_
ject must be introduced, no minor end be allowed to engrO!l8,
attention. At the same time, it must not be forgotten that
the battle for eternity is to be fought in the field of the world,
and, consequently, with a view t o this object, the young are
t o be prepared for the world. Secular instruction is, therefore,
n ot inconsistent with religious teaching ; and those who would
reduce the amount of secular instruction to the smallest
possible amount, teaching religion almost exclusively, make a
great mistake. Religion includes within its sphere the religiou'i
perfo1wance of duty, not only in relation to God, but also to
man. But to perform our duties t o man, we must be qualified
to discharge them as intelligent and responsible beings, Poei .
sessing a personal concern and interest in what they d' ·
whether for

nence and proportion assigned to them by the character of
the individual mind to which they belong. Conscience,
reason, taste, and love, may be likened to· the essential notes
of a musical composition, which are always there and, sometimes, in fixed positions, yet far from causing monotony, they
blend harmoniously into the less essential not es softenin"
and enriching the most varied and exquisite s;rains, and
adding t o the character and originality of each individual
melody. 3. Care must be t aken not t o put down with one
hand what is built up• 'vith the other. Either through
ignorance or inattention fatal mistakes ar e daily made in
this respect by both parents and teachers. One would suppose
th:>t the ravages of the Fall were sufficient, but the upheavings, the irregularities, and the disorders produced by
the agency of sin in the crust of the moral world, are increased by agencies that ought to be employed for their
counteraction. F or instance, attempts are often made t o re.
mo,·e sinful passions. But, how 1 Often by the encouragement
of others that are worse. Forgetting the overgrown condition of
selfi shness, we encourage it in children by our system of prizes
and place-taking, &c. ; and then with an inconsist ency hardly
acconntable, we are disappointed at our own success. Admitting the superiority of the moral nature of our children to
their intellectual, and that it is the former that has suffered
most by the Fall, we, notwithstanding, sacrifice moral to intellectual improvem ent; we send our children to school to
thin/.; rather than to feel, to 1.:now rather than to act, and to
acquire a smattering of crude ideas ratb er than to acquire the
habits, tastes, and principles that best fit for a life of happiness, usefulness, benevolence, and piety. W e find some of
our children remarkable for the activity and strength of some
faculty or group of faculties, whilst deficient in those of

entire e ucatiOn,~~­
judiciously con u e ;ute to a harmonious education-it gives the energetic hand, the clear head, and tile
warm heart, which, united in the cause of well-doing, exluott
glorious harmony. 2. In educating children, never lose sight
of certain leading internal powers, for on their cultivation t~1 ,
harmony to be secured will, humanly speaking, depend.· Theiie
are conscience, the natural arbiter of the will, and the ruler of the
internal life; reason, or judgment, the conscience of things in·
tellectual; taste, the conscience of things beautiful; and faitli
working by love. These being in all children especiallf
cultivated, other qualities may, as it were, be suffered to
blend into them more in their own way, and in the p

Pestalozzi was ace
a threefold a.~pect, a.'>

cess o e \rc"l!; mn ; no faculty of human
must be treated with attention, for their co-agency
is necessary to ensure success.•
others. We designate such disproportionate beings geniuses,
and have them educated a.s if all the. other faculties were to
be absorbed into those already too strong. Only particular
studies a.re engaged in, only congenial exercises a.re attended
to. The child is to become a. great one thing, poet , pa.inter,
musician, or engineer, and consequently, everything not
directly contributing to that end is rejected. The distortions of '~nature a.re thus increased, a. caricature upon
humanity is produced, some special production comes
forth a.t the expense of the discharge of general duty, or,
what is more likely, the individual comes out into life
a. piece of conceit or eccentricity, fitter to boa.st than to
execute, to blast than to bless, the victim of a. general unhappiness, or the object of occasional envy or constant con- · "
tempt. To escape such results a.s these let us attend to the
ha.i:monious development of the faculties, and experience its •
beneficial consequences.
·•-'

* Many English educators have propounded this principle
of education, but it remained for P esta.Iozzi to give it due
form, make provision for its application, and impart to it a
practical bearing. Dugald Stewart, the distinguished author
of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, thus describes it :--;-~
." The essential objects of education are, first, to cultivate all
the various principles of our nature, both speculative and ac· ·

ti ve, in such a. manner a.s
0
fection of which they a.re capable; and secondly, by watching
over the impressions and associations which the mind receives
in early life to secure it against the influence of prevailing
e1Tors, and so far a.s possible to engage its prepossessions on
the side of truth." .According to Dr. Wbewell, education is
not merely the acquisition of a. certain amount of knowledge,
but such a. training of the human powers as may render them
capable of vigorous exercise. .All education is imperfect, " in
which the attainment of these ends is not made the prominent
object. If the reason be exclusively cultivated to the disregard
of the other faculties of the mind, the education is imperfect ;
if the faculty of language is the exclusive subject of culture
the education is illiberal, though hundreds a-year may have
been expended to procure it. .A liberal education is not a
p:trtial, but a universal development of the chief faculties of
man." .Another writer says:-" I call that education which
embraces the culture of the whole man with all his facultiessubjecting his senses, his understanding, and his passions to
re:tSon, to conscience, and to the evangelical laws of the Christian revelation. There is also the perfection of beauty in edu cation, which is a. species of moral perfection. But in character, :ts in architecture, proportion is beauty, therefore, let there
be proportionate culture of all the parts of the human being."
And l\Ime. N eckerde Saussure, in her "Progressive Educ:ttion,"
says :-"It has almost always happened that instructors have
been too much influenced by partial and confined views.
They have not troubled themselves about the cultivation of
the faculties when communicating their instruction ; and
when convinced by experience of the necessity of this, they
hn,ve still overlooked the Importance of preserving th ese
different faculties in harmony with each other. They have

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0

call for the most diligent
attention 1 Which have the most important bearings on the future welfare of the child i
P estalozzi rightly considered that the last
question must be decided in favour of those of
t
at it had the first and es ecially pro- ·

m-ay e puzzled as to t e re a: 1ve rmpo
different· faculties, and the consequent proportion of
attention they separa.tely demand. " But what can
be the use of the utmost possible exertions, unless
regulated by accuracy of ideas, correct judgment,
. not only entirely neglected many which are as essential as the
enlargement of the mind; but even when occupied exclusively
with the improvement of the mind, they have not taken a
general view of the whole of its attributes. Sometimes the
memory has been cultivated, while the imagination has been '
entirely neglected ; :i.nd sometimes the faculty of investigation has been invested with such high powers, that it has been
thought possible for the pupil to discover for himself all
the wonders of science, and so making no use of the stores of ·
knowledge :i.ccumulated by time. And thus it will be, a8 •
long as the attention of the instructor is bestowed more upon
the science he wishes to teach than on the pupil who is to be .
taught ; as long as he is more desirous to form a. livin
encyclopredia, than an intellectual and moral being."

and, above all, the control of a firm and steady
will i What, again, can be the real use and merit
of schemes, however deep or ingeniou::;, if the energy
or exertion be not equal to the boldness and skill
of conception; or even if these are combined, but
are not working ·for an end worthy of themselves,
and beneficial to humanity i
"It is obvious, then, that a mere cultivation of the
faculties of our animal and intellectual nature will
be found absolutely insufficient as a substitute for
those of the heart. But again, we may suppose the
case of one full of good intentions, his heart overflowing with amiable dispositions, and his zeal ever
ready to patronize and promote any enterprise that
has for its object the good of society. This constellation of excellencies may glow and sparkle in
vain; such a tempemment, however finely constiet live to.little u ose iu reference to
tuted,
othe
nd
0

"

in
those other powers of human natnre, whose co-operation is equally essential, it has
failed of producing that health and vitality which
would otherwise have pervaded the system. The
faculties of man must, in fact, be so cultivated
that one shall not predominate at the expense of
another, but each be e:x:cited to its true standard of
activity."

't·

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190

191

The recognition of this fundamental principle,
which Pestalozzi so clearly propounded, led to quite
new views on the subject, and he sought to introduce
and establish a more effective and enlightened sys·
tern of popular education.
How shall the expanding faculties be exercised
and directed~ The great means to be employed in
moral development Pestalozzi held to be love. The mother's love draws out the child's love; the mother's ·
care and tenderness awaken the first dawnings of
faith; the child feels safe in her arms; he confides
in her word; what she says he believes ; and her will
is the law to which he yields and which he obeys.
Thus it is in the mother's arms that the moral character
is first developed, and moral education passes its firs(
stage. Rightly to direct and exercise the nascent facul~
ties and sentiments, is the next point; and here, God
himself, our heavenly Father, as early as possible,:
must be presented as the first object of love-H~
superintending providence as the object of faith, and
His will as the rule of life. Thus, as we have seen,
moral faculties are first called forth by the circum- ,
stances with which God has surrounded the child. ·
But the impulse thus given to these faculties muSt
be directed and controlled by precepts deduced from
revelation, and the conscience trained to recognis~ .
and acknowledge these precepts; so that constant':
short-comings being thus made evident, the chil~
may be prepared to listen to a Saviour's lov:g.,

as manifested in His wondrous work of man'R
redemption.*

* Not only love, but the whole of the moral faculties of the
child must be brought into exercise and cultivated, in order
to make education an entire work. As the child advances
all the various feelings must be trained on their appropriat~
objects,-for example, the social feelings should be drawn out •
by the presence of companions, the "love of approbation by 4
praise, the love of activity by giving plenty of work to do, both •
physical and intellectual, the love of home by making it happy,
speaking well of it in school, and by giving school a family
character, ~ should be cultivated by warning against .
danger, b~ce by pres."~ting objects of pity, c.2_uraqe by
accustommg ~o brave op~os1t10n and e~ by presenting
venerable obJects, t;onsciense by presenting right and wrong,
&c., &c. Then, the intellect should be cultivated by
the discipline of varied thought kept in vigorous exercisethought as varied in its character as are the operations
of the intellect. Care must be taken to surround the child
with, or to present the things that will call out his various
powers. The observation must be exercised in every direction until it becomes acute. Habitual attention must be
brought into operation until it becomes concentrated and
sustained. The power of simple suggestion must be regularly
and systematically used, not merely in the acquisition of
knowledge, but for the purpose of creating those early
associations which have a lasting effect on the tastes and
character. The faculties of conception and imagination
should be daily exercised until the former attains to
clearness, precision, strength, and versatility, and the latter
to the power, not only of clearly apprehending the
rich imagery of the poet and the painter, but of making
creations of its own. Memory must be in regular operation,
laying up its stores and recalling them at will, until it

192

193

It is hardly possible to conceive the blighting
chill which the affections receive when the child is

transferred from the warm suruihine of a mother's
love to a teacher who governs by fear, works by
machinery, and rules with the rod. This is the
becomes susceptible, capacious, retentive, ready, and faithful.
source of many a moral failure. The true PestaThe powers of abstmction and gmeralizatWri which convert the
'\ lozzian is not a teacher of this class. On the conchild into the man must; in due time and degree, be
1
trary, he presents himself at all times to his pupils
exercised, that separate facts may be changed into general ·
in the parental character; and by practically evintruth, and the essentials of things be comprehended through
their accidentals, and principles through details. N ext
cing to them that their welfare and comfort are
to imagination these faculties form new creations, and raise
wisely and steadily pursued, confidence is inspired ;
a.hove the varying hues of the real into those of the idealistic
and confidence habitually felt, gives an amiable,
and the unchangeable. The proper reflecting faculties of
noble frankness, and an uruiuspicious fearlessness of
• judgment and the reasoning powers, with a true foundation
character. He regards coercion and restraint as
laid in well exercised abstraction and generalization, must be
called out on their appropriate objects, both of contingent and
evils, but, having to deal with a fallen and perverse
absolute truth, the former in the regions of physical,
nature in his pupils, he sees that they are necessary
mechanical, and social science, morals, and history ; and the"" evils ; he therefore allows as much liberty as is
latter on form and number in their various qualities, relations,
compatible with a healthy discipline. iC On this
and applications to both science and art. And, finally, a.s to
point
Dr. Mayo's eloquent remarks have already
the physical nature of the child, the corporeal powers must'·
been introduced in connexion with " organic educain like manner be developed and strengthened by a system of'
gymnastic: and other exercises, so arranged as to bring all the
tion."

i

organs of the body into play. To carry this out there must~ a playground, supplied with sufficient variety of apparatus to..t;,
afford exercise to all the muscles of the body. And the teacher
must superintend and encourage the exercises with as much
regularity a.s she attends to other departments of her duty. •
Moreover, she must complete the work of physical education
by attending, as far a.s possible, to the conditions of hedt~
and activity, such as, good air, light, temperature, Yentna'.
tion, cleanliness, changes of posture, marching, singing, &c. ·
Wholesome food and proper clothing, however neces~ary elements of physical well-being, are not under the control of'
teachers.
' .

* A successful education cannot be brought a.bout by
mere human wisdom and skill, nor by the contemplation of
the God of nature, and obedience to His voice in the works of
creation and providence. This will never suffice to bring
peace with God, with self, or with mankind, so long as the
fearful and fatal disease of sin dwells and rules in man's
nature ; just as the placing of the best-tuned organ before
a performer whose hands are paralysed, or whose ear
is untrue, will prove insufficient to bring forth harmonious
sounds. A power is required mighty enough to enlighten
man's eyes, and to purify his heart, so as to enable him to
0

' .,

194

195

c
lo
reat10n in the true light, and to understand ·the fu. ~
visible things of God by the things that are visible. This 1'
power can only be found in the Gospel of the crucified, Bina.toning, and risen Son of God. It is very well that our
children should, as it were, continuously bathe in the rivers
of creation, but they must at the same time bathe in the
-0cean of Divine truth-the Scriptures, by which the G~spel
-0f the grace of God is co=unicated, and the Spirit of God
convinces and converts the soul. Thus, to the voice ~of
nature will be added the voice of revelation. The Word will .
be received because written by Him, and what is written will,
where the education is successful, be unhesitatingly acted on.
But the direction given to moral training will depend u
much on the syst em of education as on the religious principlei
of the educator.
" In her su=ary of the principles of Pesta.Iozzi, Mis
Mayo gives this a distinct place, but it is merely an applier..
tion of the principle that education should be complete, 111d
might be thus fully stated-that, as the faculties of cliildml

one artificial something or aggregation of somethings called
a system ; and that teachers should not push any rule or
principle to excess, or use it when not applicable. Thus,
because it is reco= ended to exercise the minds of children
on visible objects from their suitableness to the first stage of
children, it is not to be supposed that everything is to be
taught by objects, or the children confined to such subjects
1bout which discoveries can be made by the exercise of their
senses. Miss Mayo further held that the subjects of instruction should be Sllfficiently numerous to secure the exercise of
all the intellectual faculties, furnish with
and fit ·
uties of societ ·

are various, and the ends to be accomplished equally vario~ f.~~~::!~~:======
as perfection of character can only be secured and the busi· l
ness of life accomplished by the vigour and activity of~
various faculties of the human being, education should<~
of a mixed character. In accordance with this, Miss Mayo
supp ementer 0
constantly maintained that public ·education should I/I
thechild'sacquisitions; that children should be carried rapidly
united with private, and the social with the domestic spitil i over some subjects of instruction in order to develop power
that education should be practical as well as preceptive,
•~d energy, and slowly over others in order to give habits of
trated by the t eacher as well as enforced upon the child, iacl
ID.mute investigation.
• This principle a.rises out of the organic character of
applied both individually and collectively ; that it \11i.Oald
also be practical, by drawing much of its means of develo_P.D,led
educ~tion ; all that is organic grows, i.e. naturally and progress1velyunfolds itself; therefore education should be gradual
from the actual oircumstances of life, and directin~ Ille
the and progressive. It is also essentially founded on the fa.ct
faculties according to the child's station in life ;
methods of teaching and governing should not be confined to
0 2

illat-1

that

'

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196

197

tially progressi1,e.-The ~entiments should be gradu.
ally led to take a higher direction and a wide~
range. The motives of well-doing must be by
degrees elevated and purified in their character;
the duty which was discharged at first in o ..
dience to an earthly father must be set forth
the requirement of a heavenly one ; the charit"
of life must be exercised towards those in iminedia·
contact ; by degrees an interest may be cultiva '
in operations embracing a wider or distant sph~
of usefulness.*

"The cultivation of the higher intellectual faculties of judgment, reason, and taste
receded by
the careful development of j

that a.11 the faculties of children, physical, intellectual,
more.I, a.re gra.dua.lly and progressively exercised in stre
and ability ; a.nd we must follow the progress of na. •
The principle might be fully atated thus,-That a.s the
of children,
v:elo
step b ste

• The progressive character of the Pesta.lozzian system !DI
be applied in the progression (1) of idea.a, (2) of instrued
or study, (3) of the development of the faculties, (4) of

mora.
principles of conduct. These comprehensive sentences of Dr.
Ma.yo refer to the la.st point, and take in a considerable pa.rt
of the range of mora.l education in reference to its graduation.
The more.I feelings should not only take a higher direction
in rising to higher objects a.t la.st culminating in God a.nd
a wider range in embracing the most distant and re:Uote
relations a.nd duties, but there should be the graduation of a successive development and exercise. The moral
nature of a child does not develop in all its parts at the sa.me
period. Some feelings a.re in operation much earlier tha.n
others, a.nd consequently should be acted on finit. Some
a.re active a.nd a.lmost a.s vigorous in the child a.s in the
full-grown ma.n, a.s the desire of action, curiosity, sympathy, imitativeness, faith, a.nd love of approbation, whilst
caution, a sense of self-importance, reverence the sense of
· the beautiful, and conscience a.re of a ia.ter develop·
ment. In the moraJ. treatment of children at different stages
regard must be paid to this fact. In order to secure the permanent possession of right feelings a.nd the practice of right
conduct ; to work the springs of mora.1 character, a.nd even
to administer punishment justly and effectively, to check a
disposition or subdue the will there must be much
discriminating gradation of procedure. Take the following
examples, a.nd although these a.re mainly different means
of moral training, yet both in lessons and in the genera.I
education of th11 children thev will be found to succeed

198
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•·f~

'

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-

..

•

•

•

•

•

199
•

-

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...

1

~

"' '

~

"

deand
and
Else- ·

each other, and thus form a succession, not to be
altered, if not a true gradation. 1st. Exhibit right conduct~
and feeling ; 2nd. Express right feelings and views ; 3rd.·
Inculcate and explain right feelings and practices ; 4th. Lead'
the children to indulge in right feelings and to practise riglit conduct. The first is the simplest, and appeals to sympathy'
and imitativeness ; the second, to faith and habit, which a.i:
both strong in children ; the third, to the understanding and.
the relations of things which call forth the judgment ; and'
the fourth, to various principles of action under the influence'
of the will-the most advanced.
Nothing exhibits gradation more clearly than the prin·
ciples of action by which children are influenced ; a wise
teacher will, therefore, be careful to follow their development:"
Nature first develops the mechanical, consisting of instinct'
and habit, and for a time these predominate. No real mo-'
tives to action exist, and the judicious mother or teacher:
throws herself upon the power of habit, and trusts to instinct
and thus carries forward the work of education. Next alii
developed the animal principles of action, of which anmu;.i
impulse within constituting self, and man without, are the
motives, and the child is stimulated accordingly. And lastly,
appear the rational principles of action in which the noblfsf
elements of man's nature are drawn out towards the supreme
Being, whose will and pleasure become the motive. The
child is led to act as an intelligent and moral being, dictated
to by reason and conscience, deferring to truth and the
of God. It is consequently at this period that appeals~
made to the reason, that the sense of duty is called forth, iili'd

!iJl

where Dr. Mayo remarks, that "physical observation precedes physical conception, and physical
conceptions lead to metaphysical abstractions by
the intermediate link of general conceptions ; and
iu every branch of instruction a correct observation
of facts or data is placed before the process of judgGod made the supreme object of regard. The child is now
prepared to act under the t est of all government-self-government ; and thus he arrives at the crowning-point of moral
education. F<Yr this, the previous stages prepared ; toward~
this, the parent or teacher of intelligence continually looks forward ; and at this the child arrives only when properly handled.
But how many are all their lives the mere creatures of habit,
and of the influences of those instincts that we have in
common with the lower animals. And as to discipline, the
practice of increasing punishments in duration, in degree, or
in kind until the disposition is eradicated or the will subdued
is a painful example in point.
In early infancy the mental constitution presents the rudiments, as it were, of those powers which characterize the
human being in mature age. The several faculties of emotion
and thought are all essentially the same in the child as in
the man, but some of them are developed much sooner
than others. Observation or perception is the first that opens
in the human mind ; it makes its appearance before conception ; and conception before judgment. The association
of ideas takes place sooner than memory; and afterwards
comes to the aid of the latter faculty. Judgment respecting
ideas of objects and actions appears sooner than that of moral
ideas. Ideality, simple abstraction, and intuitive reason are
developed at a comparatively early period, whereas complex
abstraction and abstract reason are the latest in the develop·

200

201

ing or reasoning upon them. Realities should also ·
precede signs; and of signs, those which are significant by nature take the priority of those which
are significant by compact."
Intellectual exercises, which are given at the
usual lessons, should be so graduated, that one step
would prepare for the next, and supply the pupils
with a reason for taking it. "But," says Dr. Mayo, '
"in the ordinary methods of teaching, the course of
instmction is founded on abstract scientific considerations of the knowledge to be conveyed. In the

Pestalozzian method, the course is arranged on
psychological principles, derived from tlie consideration of the nature and positipn of the beings to be
instructed. In every J:>ranch of study

,,

ment of the human mind.
Again, observation, simple
memory, and the drama.tic element of imagination are
almost 88 vigorous in the child a.s they a.re in the full-grown
man, whilst philosophical memory, imagination, abstraction,
a.nd reason do not gain vigour before a. compa.ra.tivelymature state of mind.
Even in the same fa.culty its various functions a.re not
performed equally early. In judgment, for example, the_sense
of resemblance with respect to the visible and tangible forms
of things comes before the power of discriminating
differences; a.nd hence children apply the names of individua.ls to species, and the names of species to genera, long before they analyze a.nd classify. Again, differences a.re noticed before the sense of ratio is in any degree of activitythat sense which is chiefly concerned with the circumstances,
sequence, or order of proportion and dependence. Further,
the transition is imperceptible and gradual from the discem·
ment of resemblance to the more active perception of analogy,
which rela.tes to what is more abstruse, involving identity of
principle or mode of action or construction 88 well 88 sa.men~
iri use or final ca.use.

om t at point where lie m e c ally
IS progressively led to that_ oint where
instructor wi~hes him to be.
s
A'
·~~
~4" -Vi",,-~
at
y
a
process
,_- .
•
1 ·
•
•
.,...- I
1•
I
•• .. ; and, instead of
being abruptly placed in contact with the abstract
elements of a science, he is led by a course of
analytical investigations of the knowledge actually
possessed, to form for himself those intellectual
abstractions which are in general presented as
the primary truths. Thus a natural development
founded on particulars, varying in some circumstances, precedes and prepares for the artificial
development, founded on general, invariable
truth."*

.1 1'

II

i
/'

I

~

* In the progress of study the child proceeds from the
natural signs of looks and gestures to the conventional tones
of the mother tongue,-from living sounds in language to
dead characters in books, and from the actual reality in the
object lesson to the signs of it printed in the description.
Speech precedes reading, 88 reading is followed by writing.
Objects precede pictures, which a.re used antecedently to
maps, diagrams, and other artificial representations. The contemplation of deeds, whether of faith and love, or otherwise,
goes before conceptions and the descriptions of them couched·

:J

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202

203

"A connected course in intellectual education,
not only facilitates the acquisition of knowledge,

but shows the relation in which different truths
stand to each other." ..

in terms and definitions. In arithmetic,· the child proceeds
from ideas of number in connexion with objects, to mental
calculations, where he still comes face t o face with numbers
themselves, though not with the bodily, but with the
mental eye.
From these he passes to ciphering, where
the numbers are seen through symbols. In like manner the
child proceeds from examples and particular ideas t o general
descriptions, definitions, and rules, as in grammar and
number ; in natural phenomena, from the particular
phenomenon occurring under the child's observation to the
general law by which it is regulat ed; in form or geometry, .
from descriptions of particular solids to that of general re- _
. semblances, ending in abstract conceptions ; in the study of
the human heart, from observing the manifestations in himself.
and others, to reading the lives of great men, and from that
to those of mankind in the pages of history. Even writing
and reading are good examples of a gradual procedure. The
teacher analyses these into their elements, t eaches the latter in
succession, and then combines them by a process of syn- thetic teaching.
In writing taught after the method of
M alhauser, and the Phonic method of t eaching t o read,
practised in the schools of the Institution, we have additional specimens of a gradual procedure. But, perhaps, in
the graduated course of instruction drawn up for the infant;·
schools of this Institution there is the best specimen of a
careful graduation of subjects of elementary instruction that'
has emanated from the school of Pestalozzi. In t eaching ,
"Colour," six steps are carefully followed.-lst, distinguish;,
ing colours ; 2nd, naming colours ; 3rd, distinguishing shade~
of colour ; 4th, naming and arranging shades of colour ; 5th,
exercising the conceptive powers in describing colours ~cl

shades of colour ; 6th, the judgment of colour in the formation of secondary colours, &c., their mixture, &c. In lessons
on " Form," the l at step is that of distinguishing regular
forms ; 2nd, the parts of forms ; 3rd, names or phrases
indicative of name; 4th, comparison of forms ; 5th, solids of
a r egu13.!" character obser ved, named, described ; 6th, classification of forms; 7th, with elder children, lines and angles
as matters of observation, judgment, and reasoning; 8th,
In lessons on Sound the first st ep is to
geometry.
distinguish common sound · the 2nd t o imitate the same ·
the 3rd, to distinguish ~d imita~e musical sounds as t~
length ; the 4th, as to pitch ; 5th, as to volmne ; 6th, musical
notation ; 7th, combination of elements, with applications to
singing, differing in degree of complexity ; the 8th, vocal
music. The ease and pleasure alike of teaching and learning, when graduation is thus practically carried out, may be
witnessed in any Pestalozzian schooL All the elementary
subjects of instruction have been carefully graduated in our
own schools, as may be seen by consulting the manuals of the
Society. Simplification can only be carried too far, and conti.imed too long, when the mind becomes so accustomed to
receive knowledge divided into its most simple elements that
it is not prepared to embrace complicated ideas, or to make
those rapid strides in investigation and conclusion, which
is one of the most impo .
:· .
, .
~.
··: ;~
*- In ddi ·
he ' . . .

. . .. .
,

~,

j. . .

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of sighs, the t e .
satisfaction.
teachers, who

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are made happier, smiles t ake the place
se certainty, and

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204:
Dr. Mayo adds in his introduction to Lessons
on Shells :-" Every a[)e has its intellectual,
as well as its moral claims, and though the

e
progre
a; c
m<i'nll.y ~
ascending a. ladder ; when he attempts to take two steps a.t .a
time he runs the risk of. falling to the bottom. Hence his
footing should always be ma.de firm on one st~p before he is
led to the next. Proceeding thus he may ultimately be led
to any height. The beauty a.s well a.s t~e benefit of the
progressive perfection of the human soul i_s very ~t, and ~
the benevolent designs of the Supreme Bemg therem con·
spicuous. Re does all things well. Here nature acts slowly,
· -!!'
gradually, and well, without crowding, or hurrying.
.i\ga.in, progresswe advancement stands in op~osition to the
haste and blind groping of many teachers without system.
It endeavours to find the proper point for commencing, and . ·
to proceed in a. slow and gradual, but uninterrupted course,
from one point to another, always waiting until the ~t
should ha.ve a certain degree of distinctness and fixedness m
the mind of the child, before entering upon the exhibition of
the second. In fa.ct, the intellectual exercises will thus be so
graduated that one step prepares the w~y
t
d

fo:

prepares-

-~·• . IW;.i~~~-

e character
given both in the inf11.nt schools of the poor and the nurseries .:
of the rich. For geometry, " form and size " a.re substituted; ,,
for arithmetic, "number ; " for geography, "place ; " (or

mechanics, "weight," and so forth. Why 1 Because they
a.re elementary, and appeal to the senses. The effect produced
in older schools, if the principle be intelligently and thoroughly
applied, would be still greater. Sensuous instruction would
be a.dnlltted more largely. Isolated facts would be introduced before a.ttemJ.lts ~e nia.de a.t
th
- -

e,

c n·

the imagination, would not be ma.de until the
pup~ had attained greater intellectu~l stature. Instead of
Euclid and Euler ma.de easy for the children, we should wait
until we had children strong enough and tall enough to reach
the lofty niches of Euclid and Newton. There would be no
precocious, unhealthy development. Let teachers deal with
the faculties a.s they come to their hand, and they will find
that they will ultimately be amply rewarded.

I

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207

ot on ar
e scien
get er at each gives each a double charm, but the .
faculties of the mind ar e so constituted, as that the
vigour of each is promoted by the due developmen~ .
of the rest. And there is a harmony as truly existing in a properly educated mind, as in a wellformed and well-exercised body, though the harmony
of the former may not be so easil discerned as that
of
" Again,

ment of the faculties, but progressive instruction
according with the gradually expandinO' nature of
the children. "There is a certain orde~," says Dr.
Mayo, "in which truths present themselves to the
mind engaged in the original investigation of a
subject, and when the subject has been investicrated
~
b
'
a di uerent arrangement is necessary for the lucid
exposition of the truths discovered. These views
have been most unhappily applied in the early
stages of instruction. For although the artificial
orde~ may be best calculated to convey knowledge
t~ mmds al:eady trained for its reception, by preVIous acquamtance with similar subjects, it is by
no means suited to the opening faculties of children.
Hence the disgust, in many cases insurmountaule
w~ich the fi:St principles of a science inspire in thei;
mmds. This disgust, however, vanishes, if a pre·
paratory
.
.course of instruction be arranO'ed
o , having
its obJect the training the mind for the study
ot the science rather than the communicatinO' the
knowledge of it. In this preparatory cours: the
order is determined by a consideration of the mind
of the pupil ; it commences with what is already
" and proceeds to the proximate truth ;
known toh rm,
the more easy precedes the more difficult · the
individual prepares for the general truth ;' the
example for the rule." ·
In his introduction to the Ohearn gr-ammar, Dr.
Mayo makes the following remarks, which, whilst

fo:·

cultlver.'"
But there should not only be progressive develo~ ·

I.
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209

more immediately concerned with the teaching of
language, further illustrate the principle of proceeding gradually with the young, whether in relation to knowledge or the development of the mind.
Although they refer to the acquisition of the classics,
they may also be turned to account in teaching the

with an ill-digested knowledge of the literature of
the language, and leaving the grammar to c toil
after them in vain,' a kind of 'pcena pede claudo .'
But
.
.this is a mistake. To attain the -end we ha ve
111 view, and rightly to fix the knowledo-e we would
.
"'
commurncate, we must attach the same importance to grammatical instruction that ha8 been
assigned to it in our ancient institutions ; accurate
knowledge and ready application of its forms and
principles must be made the predominant feature
the never-forgotten aim of early lessons : 'Hin;
spes rohoris.'
· l

~

~m

s of
"bitof

so- obvious that it is not to be wondered at that a
variety of plans of instruction should have been .
formed on principles diametrically opposite. . By
means of translation, oral or printed, free or literal,
interlinear or interpaged, with various degrees o~
ingenuity, they have carried the self-complacent
pupil along their easy declivities, cramming hiin

tis
-otc..:ne .
a· be
seen in some selected passage before it is read in the
gr~mmar; the end is answered if some prominent
pomts are thus presented.
"The grammar may be referred to as. supplying
a complete as well as a systematic arrangement. In
such a course as this, previous observation and
analysis gives life to the grammar, and the grammar
p

210
committed to memory gives solidity, perman~ncy,
and order to the knowledge practically acquired.
Thus the positive knowledge sought ~ effectually
attained, and the faculties of the p~pil. are_ beneficially exercised in attaining it. HIB mmd is consequently inlproved in a higher degree, and more
real progress is made than would have been _the
case, c<£teris paribus, under either of the nval
modes of instruction.
.
"The principle here laid down .is suscep~1bl~ of
various modifications in its practical apphcatio1:1'
and it has, in fact, been applied. in _various manners
. the Institution of Pestalozzi himself and elsemh
All that strictly speaking, I contend for
w ere.
•
· •t to
is the principle itself-the mode of reducmg ~'
practice I leave to the discretion of the teache

p

- : - ;esta.lozzi laid it down as a principle that education
h Id be addressed and adapted to individual character and
s ou
. ough t to b e "free and
t to Children in a mass-that it
,T
no t
d
ii " rannmg·
I lil
• stead of being cramped, confine ' sen e,
•
na ura ,
uld all · ds mto
in a groove or channel, and attempting to mo
mm ' ;.i,,
1
form.
He
held
that
the
mind
should
one genera
. · not~:'.'";
di ·dual
have sufficient liberty to manifest decidedly its m ~ II
.
t
'¥Of
ch aract er, but that the cultivation or treatment shoul~
fa.r as possible, be adapted to the individual charac eterence
this purpose he required close attention and constant re 'Chl!d,
to be pa.id by the teacher to the peculiarities of every ,-, '

211
and of each sex, as well as to the characteristics of the people
among whom he lived, in order that he might acquire the
development and qualifications necessary for the situation to
which the Creator destined him, and be prepared t o labour
successfully for those among whom he was placed by his
birth.
It is well, of course, to view children in their points of resemblance, in order to adapt their treatment and teaching to
the general principles of their nature ; but their education
caunot be carried on effectually without noticing their individual distinctiveness. It is here that the study of character
is necessary, and helps to give certainty to all our proceedings. By this study the mental chemist (so to speak) can
tell the constituents of his soil, as well as the agricultural
chemist, and like him point out what is redun<iant and what
is defectiTe, and act accordingly. The "sympathy of numbers,"
though a truth, is but a partial one, and when used indiscriminately belongs to that species of quackery that would apply a
special remedy as a universal recipe. The influence of numbers united with the spirit that sanctilies a virtuous home is
good, but it is a principl~ that applies more to moral than intellectual education. True, "the sympathy of numbers" may
be brought into operation at gallery instruction, and a teacher
can thus give instruction to a large number at once, and
thereby economize teaching power. But is this education!
and is the teaching as efficient as if the gallery were broken
up into two or three classes ? Is not the individuality of the
children sunk in the mass, and all measured by the same
rule 1

P~stalozzi never would sanction the teaching or training of
children in large numbers on one uniform plan. The class
was his standard, and even there he would suit and adapt
himself to the particular dispositions and characters of the
children. Like the principles already taken up, this has its

P2

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212
origin in the laws of the human mind of which Pestalozzi was
a diligent student, and on which his whole system is founded.
It is an obvious, a recognised, and a well-established fact in
mental science, confirmed by daily observation and experience,
that the different faculties of the human soul are possessed of
very different degrees of endowment or natural force in different individuals, and that in the same individual they vary
in their degree of power, some being weak and some strong i
whilst others occupy a medium position.
It is this which gives rise to those peculiarities by which
every mind is marked, and to the endless varietiEl!'
in the character and tastes of individuals, and consequently
in their pursuits. It is this which gives rise to what is termed
the predisposition, bent, or bia..• of the individual, and consti.,:
tutes what has been called his idiosyncrasies.
.' _~ .
The diversities of character are twofold, intellectual and
moral; the one giving rise to ability, the other to diapoaiti,o~
and habits ; the one forming intellectual, the other moral
character. These diversities must be met and treated with
discrimination and care. In one child memory takes the l~
and, as it were, throws into the shade all the other poweril,.9f
the mind. Such an one must first have collected everything~
his storehouse before he can elaborate it. In another, almost·
everything comes through imaginati<m. He evinces little or'
no reason, but carefully marks such narratives as C?~
under his notice, and makes whatever in them pleases him bia
own. He writes correct orthography, and yet he does_ ~
know a single orthographical rule. .Another pursues quite-1111
opposite course. His judgment approves, and it is only 1!'.ha' ·
he thus approves that he treasures up. His magazine, il_,we
may so speak, is poorer ; but his store has been ~elected ~
his own fa8hion. All his mental posaessions are ~I
selected and laboriously acquired. Some excel in t~e es•
ercise of the reflective powers, by which they ascertain .

213
mises, deduce infe~ences and draw conclusions_ In a word,
they have the logical faculty, which is always tracing to
causes or consequences. Then there is the mechanical genius,
who, though he seems to effect little or nothing in the school'
will probably become as an arti.zan, much more usefcl
than his neighbour who, though he is of much quicker parts
will probably make a worse workman, because he does no~
possess sufficient patience and steadiness for labours of a
mechanical kind. Again, there is the embryo artist who
sketches all sorts of things in his book or on the walls, and
among the rest a baby brother or sister's face. In such a
one we see a future " Landseer," or a " West." Wbo would
attempt to teach and deal with all these diversities of
intellectual character in the same way, if they are to be
improved!
.
From the neglect or violation of this important principle
much time ia wasted in school by painful and fruitless
efforts to pursue courses for which nature has not qualified the
pupil. Let the hours spent in music by those who have no earupon drawing, by those who might almost be said to have no
eye--upon languages by those who never afterwards speak
any but their mother-tongue, be added together, year after
year, and an aggregate of wasted time will present itself
sufficient to alarm those who are sensible of its value and of
the awful responsibility of using it aright_
'
As t o moral character or dispositions these diversities are
very numerous. In the boy who always manages to be the
driver of what he calls his horses, or the girl who is the
directress at games and the patroness and guide of the younger
ones, the love of power is at work. Again, a child who
Eeparates from companions, and is himself found musing so
often, with a smile now and then playing over the face is
imaginative and solitary, living in his own land of shad~ws
and dreams. One child is timid and needs encouragement ;

I

:,...
'l

1!

I

I
i

!'

Ii

I·,

•
214
another is pert and bold, and requires to be repressed. One
child is prone to pleasure, another to carelessness, and a third
to presumption. One can be ruled only by fear, while another
must be guided only by love. Further, moral diversities also
exhibit an unvarying combination of certain definite virtues
with certain definite vices. One is open-hearted and generous
but self-willed, headstrong, and forward-another is quie~
and patient, but reserved, sulky, and revengeful-a third is
gentle and amiable, but with a morbid sensibility that will
lead to a thousand future wounds-a fourth is bold and fearless, but proud and domineering.
Religioualy, the same differences exist, following the same
variety of temperament. What may be the primal cause of
these differences, whether wholly in natural oonstitution, or
wholly in early influences, or partly in both, is a speculation
into which we have no occasion to enter. W e take their
existence as a confessed fact, and we contend that it demands
as essential to an efficient education, a corresponding personai
influence which shall discriminate in each case its particular
dangers and deficiencies, and be suited to the wants of each
pupil It is certain that a mode of treatment effectual for
one would be ruinous for another, and the moral medicine of
one be the moral poison of another. E ach pupil must be
dealt with under a common classification, with such modifications as an individual influence over each and all can alone
render possible. To stretch them all on one Procrustean bed
by submitting them to one indiscriminate treatment is as
rude a barbarism in the art of education aa can easily be
To one, the terrors of the Lord ; t o another,
imagined.
the gentl,.e ness of the Saviour, must be exhibited, as it is
infallibly declared by GOO himself : "Of some have compassion, making a differ ence, and others save with fear, pulling
them out of the fire, hating even the garments spotted by the
flesh."

215

~

~nd parti cularly the
Jllentary instruction Pestalozzi
intuition.*

'·

·Jn both instruction and discipline these diversities, ineqUalities, or modifications render the strictest attention on
$he part of the teacher necessary ; and prove that simulta' neous teaching and one mode of treatment either intellectually
~ morally is incompatible with the nature of the case.
· • There is a constant use of this term in the present day,
, :ind round it is waged the fiercest of disputes both in the
domain of philosophy and theology. We need not therefore
w~nder at its introduction into education and its being made
the battle-ground of a system. For a ciear understanding
of the subject it will be necessary to look at the different
applications of the term, t o ascertain how the founder of our
eystem applied it, and how far it has been admitted into our
English Pestalozzianism.
In the common acceptation of the t erm, intuition denotes
the act of the mind in perceiving truth without argument,
testimony, or experience. The truth is arrived at by spon~taneous suggestion, and the process ia the sa.me as instinct.
In this sense intuitive and instinctive are equivalent. Thus,
whenever any idea comes into play in the mind indepenaently
of any conscious effort, it is said to be intuitive. Intuition is
higher in degree than instinct, arising from the more oomplex
'and higher character of the human spirit than that of the brute.
In this sense all the faculties and powers, the passions and
'emotions of the human soul, are intuitive or instinctive. In
what mav. be called the theological sense, because so frequently e~ployed in connexion with some of the most im1

216

217

portant religious questions, intuition is used as synonymous
with "consciousness," "common sense," " first principles,"
"self-evident truths," "natural knowledge," "fundamental
reason," "light of reason," "light of conscience," "inward
Divine light." In this sense it is not so much to any distinct
mental faculty as to the mind itself, with all its powers, that
reference is made_ It exists as a mere capacity independent
of experience for the first occasion of its action, and upon suocessive experiences for its gradual development and culture.
It constitutes what is called the verifying power or faculty
by which the truth or falsehood of whatever is presented to
the mind can be decided. There are those who hold that by
means of this power man is a sufficient guide to himself, and
instead of needing to be enlightened by the Bible is qualified
to sit in judgment on the Bible, and by "feeling, or inspiration, to see the truth at once and without any inter vening
medium," even that of Revelation. This is intuitional theology,
which is German Rationalism transported to a higher temperature and more genial clime.
McCosh in his " Intuitions of the Mind," and Tate in his
"Philosophy of Education," use the t erm in its mor.e philosophical or higher educational sense. They apply the term
to the various powers of the mind. The former writer saya
that the mind of man has a set of simple cognitive powers
from which we obtain our primitive cognitions. It has also a
set of r eproductive powers by which it recalls the .past in old
forms produced by memory, or in new dispositions produced
by imagination. The mind has also a power of comparison
by which it perceives relations and forms judgments that are
primitive or intuitional when simple and obvious. H ence ,it
is that Tate speaks of intuitive observation, intuitive
conception, intuitive memory, intuitive judgment, and
intuitive reason, as distinct from the developed, conscio~
and complex exercise of these various fai::ultie~, especia!}Y

when under the guidance of experience and the power of
abstraction. But all this seems to indicate a step in the
development of these several faculties rather than a distinct
power.
In the note on pp. 39-41 is given what may be called
the P estalozzian acceptation of the t erm intuition. By it
P estalozzi understood the impression received by the ext ernal
senses, communicated directly to the mind and by which
it obtains the consciousness of any object. It is thus
with regard to a large class of subjects synonymous with
observation or perception in the Engllih sense. When P estalozzi speaks of intuitive perception he means sensuous
perception as distinguished from the per ception of the understanding or simple apprehension and judgment. But when
P estalozzi pursued the subject of education t o a more advanced age in the child, he spoke likewise of mental, moral,
and religious intuition ; that is, of a pP-rception of the
understanding, the moral feelings, and the religious faculties
of man. The ideas derived from those sources he regarded
as distinct from all information derived from outward sources,
inasmuch as they rest on internal consciousness. And he
would base the intellectual, moral, and religious education of
the child upon intuition equally with physical per ception.
It is here that this Evangelical Institution parts company with
Pestalozzi, and would cordially join in the sentiments expressed
by Miss Mayo at p. 55, and the note appended at p. 57. At
the same time we know that his views were the least injurious
of those held by Rationalists, and that his practice was far
better than his principles. It was said that he attachad
little importance to t estimony as one of the sources of our
knowledge, and devot ed too little attention to historical
truth. But he never questioned Divine t estimony as given
in the sacred recor ds, or neglect ed Bible teaching. Indeed,
the great leader and expounder of the Bible and religious

~·I
:rill

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111

219

everything taught shoul e rs re uce o i
men ts. It is an essential feature of the system ofPestalozzi that the teachers should analyze and find the
simplest elements of the knowledge to be acquired,
and then, leading the pupil to au acquainta~c~
with these, enable him to build up by his own
exertion the edifice of learning, and make it completely his own. Thus the first task of the Pestaloztruth at Yverdun was Neederer, an Evangelical clergyman of
the Swiss Protestant Church.
It has also been sa.id that "Pestalozzi was accustomed to
observe that history was but a ' tissue of lies,' and forgot
that it was necessary to occupy the pupil with man and with
moral events as well as with nature and matter, if we wish to .
cultivate properly his moral powers and elevate him above
the material world." But we believe that this was more from
accident, and the circumstances of education at the time,.
than from premeditated choice. Deficiency and extravagance '
have been charged against ourselves in this place. Our system
has been called the "no-telling system; " because we devote
much attention to subjects of instruction that can be acquired.
by the children themselves by observation and reflection ixi
connexion with a system of questioning. At one time books
were thought to be ignored by this Institution, becaus~ from
the character of the methods hitherto pursued, instruction
. was very largely given orally, and thus the minds of thEj
pupils brought into greater activity.
·
It is rather in the extent of the operations of intuition
1
than its existence that we disclaim, or at least doubt,.Pestalozzi. '
With McCosh we "would as soon believe that there are nq
such agents as heat, chemica.l a.ffinity, a.nd electricity in phy·

zian instructor is analytic, that of the children
synthetic ; the latter begin at the lowest point and
ultimately reach the highest-they begin with the
elements, then combine them.*
sical nature as that there are no immediate perceptions and
native-born convictions in this mind of ours." Alike the
most accurat e and the most practical view for the t eacher to
take of intuition, after admitting its existence, is, that it
forms one of the original powers by which thought is created,
one of the six sources from which or channels throuO'h which
knowledge reaches the mind. F~r an account of th~se chan.
nels see " Child and Book," under the head of " Origin of
Ideas,"pp. 94-97; where an accurate view of both the eittent
and the limits of this important faculty is given. The t eacher
ought to be able to make discriminating use of it in education
and turn it to 'the highest account. He will avoid mistakes by
eYer remembering that in the spheres of morality and religion as well as that of the intellect intuition has only to do
with ideas, and only indicates a means of acquisition, and
that a limited one.

* If Pestalozzi had done no more for early education than
reduce the different branches of knowledge to their elements,
nnd thereby simplify the subj ects, find a right starting·point
for the child's career in the acquisition of knowledge, and
secure a more intelligent attention and interest, he would
have been a hen efactor to the infantine class. What Baron
Liebig has done for practical purposes, P estalozzi did for
practical education. And as the Russian Government conferred a diploma of honour on the Baron for the application
of his theoretical knowledge of chemistry to the practical
purposes of life, in like manner should the memory of
Pestalozzi be embalmed for applying the theories of mental
philosophy t o the practice of the schoolroom. As Is so com-

/

220

221

Such is Pestalozzianism as developed by P estalozzi
himself, and by individuals who gave to P estalozzi
his just meed of credit, as the originator of the
system. The r esult of the application of these
principles is clearly pointed out by Dr. Mayo : "A pupil educated thus in harmony with his own
nature feels an interest in his studies unknown to
those who are subj ected to an unnatural process;'
and the genuine metaphysical experiences, which
he insensibly treasures up, supply him with invaluable advantages for self-knowledge, and selfimprovement in after life. Whatever application,'
distortion, or mutilation of these principles may
be practically made by those who profess to adopi..
them, they must recommend themselves to the
Christian parent, as a faithful reflection of the
light of the Gospel: for the metlwd of P estalozzi

is, in i ts essence, the application of Christianity
to the business of education."
We might extend our quotations by drawing
upon writers of another class--educators who speak
in P estalozzian phrase, and evidently borrow from
Pestalozzian sources, but have not acknowledged
their obligations. But we forbear.

mon, however, in all first discoveries, his analysis was imper·
feet. L anguage, Number, and F orm a.re not the whole
of the elements of instruction. Indeed, L anguage, as understood by P esta.Iozzi, whilst a. distinct and an important part, .
is not an element at all. .As the term is used by him, it
applies rather to objects to which language is made subsidiary~
What, however, was but imperfectly done by P est a.Iozzi has
been completed by the H ome and Colonial School Society.
And not only so, but these elements have been worked out into
a graduated series of lessons, carrying the infant through all
the st ages of intuitive development, and bringini him up ~
the usual complex branches of instruction taught in the
. juvenile school.
~=

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rt
THE METHODS OF PESTALOZZI.

It remains only to make a few concluding remarks on the method of P estalozzi. We have
already mentioned the comprehensive view he took
of education ; that he considered whatever God
bestowed on man was a talent to be cultivated ;
that he took nature as his guide, and commenced
the work with those faculties which first appear,
carefully watching the dawn of each power, carefully preserving a due equipoise between them,
endeavouring thus to carry on an harmonious and
progressive de...-elopment. W e will, however, in
concluding, enter a little more into detail. And
first as to instruction : The object of P estalozzi was to collect all the
element ary means of developing the faculties by
the most natural processes. The first materials
are supplied by the impressions the child receives
from the external world. 'Ihe crowd of object1>
that present themselves to his observation, causes
at first a real chaos in his mind, but, insensibly, the

222
impressions produced by _th~ things continu~lly
before him acquire more distmctness ; next arises
the desire of communicating to others what he
experiences himself; the or~an of Rpeech_is not
then long before it performs tts office. With the
assistance of language, sensations acquire day by
day more precision. But all this forms onl~ the
basis of the column. Impressions thus received,
prepare the way for higher mental exercises. Soon
the presence of the object is not neces~ary _to ca~l
forth the idea,-by a simple act of his will, his
imagination reproduces it--his memory recalls ithe sees it with the eyes of his mind-he can retrace
its form-determine its proportions ; he compares,
judges, reasons; and the little being, ~o lately
inferior to the brutes in intelligence, manifests the
distinguishing characteristics of man. S~ch is. th~
course of nature ; Pestalozzi took it as hIB gmde;
he was convinced from what he observed, first, that
the intellectual faculties of a child only require to
be developed carefully, gradually, and steadily, to...
elevate him to the highest point to which man can
attain ; and, secondly, that the little succesR hitherto_.
obtained in education ought to be attributed to,
the weakness and incoherence of the foundation
upon which different systems had been based; and.,
especially to the little care taken to give to the
impressions received in infancy a direction conformable to the indications furnished by nature.

223
Pestalozzi sought to discover the most simple means
of giving the child this direction, so that the teaching of art might harmonize and co-operate with that
of nature.

Wlt·~~~~!!!!!~~~~

In consequence, e propose ""an
~~
e l'::e':'::
m~e:;;n-ro-;r~:;.
y c~o~u~rse
of instruction consisting of three branches. The
first embraced the intuitive perception of the objects of nature and art by which the child is
surrounded, with the acquisition of their names, and
to this he gave the name of language. The second
embraced intuitive instruction in number. The
third, intuitive instruction with respect to Form
and Dimensions.
I. Language.-With respect to the first branch
of instruction, Pestalozzi arranged a course comprising five steps.
In the .forst step, the child is taught to distinguish
the so1mds of language, and imitate them. It contained a complete series of articulate sounds, which
the child is to repeat sometimes slowly, sometimes
quickly, but always distinctly ; the mother sometimes singing them, varying the tone and expression.

223

222
impressions produced by the things continu~lly
before him acquire more distinctness ; next arises
the desire of communicating to others what he
experiences himself; the organ of speech is not
then lon<Y before it performs its office. With tbe
assi.stanc: of language, sensations acquire day by
day more precision. But all this forms onl~ the
basis of the column. Impressions thus received,
prepare the way for higher mental exercises. Soon
the presence of the object is not neces~ary ~ ca~
forth the idea,-by a simple act of his will, his
imagination reproduces it-his memory recalls ithe sees it with the eyes of his mind-he can retrace
it~ form-determine its proportions ; he compares,
judges, reasons; and the little being, so lat.ely
inferior to the brutes in intelligence, manifests the
distinguishing characteristics of man. Such is the
course of nature ; Pestalozzi took it as his guide ;
he was convinced from what he observed, first, that
the intellectual faculties of a child only require to
be developed carefully, gradually, and steadily, to
elevate him to the highest point to which man can
attain ; and, secondly, that the little success hitherto
obtained in education ought to be attributed to
the weakness and incoherence of the foundation
upon which different systems had been based ; and
especially to the little care taken to. giv~ to the
impressions received in infancy a direct10n con- :
formable to the indications furnished by nature.

Pestalozzi sought to discoverthe most simple means
of giving the child this direction, so that the teaching of art might harmonize and co-operate with that
of nature.
After a long series of observations and experiments, he came to the conclusion, that the first distinct ideas called out in a ·child by exterior objects,
were the result of observations that he made
naturally on their form and their number, combined
with the knowledge he had acquired of their name.
In consequence, he proposed an elementary course
of instruction consisting of three branches. The
first embraced the intuitive perception of the objects of nature and art by which the child is
surrounded, with the acquisition of their names, and
to this he gave the name of lr.vnguage. The second
The
embraced intuitive instruction in number.
third, intuitive instruction with respect to Form
and Dimensions.
I. Language.-With respect to the first branch
of instruction, Pestalozzi arranged a course comprising five steps.
In the forst step, the child is taught to distinguish
the sounds of language, and imitate them. It contained a complete series of articulate sounds, which
the child is to repeat sometimes slowly, sometimes
quickly, but always distinctly ; the mother sometimes singing them, varying the tone and expression.

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224
In the second step, the child learns to name
everything brought under his notice, without any
order or arrangement, taking advantage of what,
ever creates a want, or excites curiosity. From
namin.,. thin!!S he proceeds to distinguish and to
b
learn how
to b speak of their various propert"ies, and
thus gradually acquires an abundant ~upply of
.J .
wi"th which he also connects clear ideas..
worus,
The obj ect in the third step is to lead the c~ild to
fix his attention successively on whatever m a~y
bject naturally calls out his observation. He will •
~earn to distinguish and name the different parts,
and most striking qualities of an animal, a plant,_ or
astone, and thus the habit is formed of
. observmg
h
.th intellicrence everything around him, and t e
W1
° of expressing himself correct1y wit. h
power acquired
respect to them.
'·
At the fourth step, it is propo~ed to le~d the
h.ld to perceive the points of difference m the
Cl
d h
. . 1
objects of which he has observe t e pnnc1pa
characteristics ; thus, that the horse is a quadru~d,
with an undivided hoof; the ox, a quadruped ~t~ .
a cloven hoof ; that the willow is a tree with .
pointed leaves ; the oak a tree with jagged leave~
&c.
.
i:e"'
The fifth step-the differences obse~ed m ~
preceding steps become the basis of the mst~ct1~n
. this. The child is to .be. exermsed
l.Il
proposed m
.
arranging in one row all objects of a similar na~,

225
These lessons not only embrace a knowledge of
qualities, but are extended to actions and uses.;
and this leads to a large sphere of instruction,to the terms used in arts, and in natural history,
in trades and occupations. With respect to actions,
the child may be exercised in determining their
object, utility, danger, &c. ; he may be led to
observe the following or other circumstances, and
to express himself with relation to them, viz.:
What usually performs such an action 1 When is
it done 1 Where is it done 1 Why is it done 1
How is it done 1 What good i~ it 1 What harm 1
In this way the child may be exercised in acquiring positive ideas of a number of things that might
otherwise strike his eyes, but not arouse his intelligence. One benefit arising from such instruction
is the learning to associate the name with the
thing signified, and the name calls up the idea
of what it stands for. In this way the habit of
newing the material world with intelligence is
cultivated, excited, and this combined with the
power of correct and ready expression. A great
difficulty, and one that impedes every instant those
engaged in teaching the children of the poorer
classes, is that of making themselves understood.
Things, even the most simple, require long definitions, and then, after all, fail to make the matter
iutelligible to the pupil, who, in fact, has no just
idea of the true meaning of terms in which they are
0

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expressed. Further, he is prepared to enter upon ·
the abstractions and generalizations of grammar;·
for particular facts and truths lead to the conception
of general propositions. " The general ideas which,
in the science of grammar, are presented as abstractions, he has seen embodied in realities, and clothed
with circumstances : his course has been from the
concrete to the abstract, from the particular to the
general, from the example to the rule; and this is the
natural course." Pestalozzi addresses his instructions in the first rudiments of language to mothers,
with whom should commence the task of cultivating
the faculty of speech, and calls upon them most
earnestly and affectionately to do their duty fully
by their offspring. Our trained teachers, however,
often conduct this subject efficiently upon the models
set in our manuals of instruction. At this elementary stage of his course, the teaching of Pestalozzi
was chiefly oral and catechetical, illustrated as much
as possible by natural objects and by demonstration.
Books were not resorted to till the mind of the
child was in a state of healthy activity, awakened t<!
a lively interest in truth, and arriving at it by
inductive processes. .As the higher faculties im,·
folded, the subjects presented were such as promoted
their exercise and improvement. The instruction
given had always a reference to .t he mind .of the
child : it was not the value of the acquisition to be
made which was so much to be considered, as .~~

effect in developing and strengthening the innate
powers.*
* " A want of order and arrangement in the original lessons on objects has been alleged as a blemish ; exercises
so miscellaneous in their character, so devoid of systematic arrangement, were regarded as essentially defective as means of intellectual development.
Upon
these grounds the miscellaneous object-lessons were abandoned even in the school of Pestalozzi, the master who
conducted the class substituting a course on the parts and
functions of the bodily frame. But this was a mistake ; the
desultory character attaching to them in their original form
is corrected in our English schools by making a previous
selection of subjects and presenting them in the class-room.
In point of fact their miscellaneous character is a studied
feature, as better suited to the intellectual state of the
pupils. Their first st eps should be the examination of objects as nature presents them, or, rather, as they see them in
nature ; that is, either as insulated or associated only by
accidental connexion. When ideas are formed and correct
expressions familiarized, the business of classification commences, the lessons assume a more scientific character, and
the pupils are prepared to enter on the province of natural
~istory or any other natural science. Besides, as they are
intended to be preparatory to instruction in natural history
in all its departments, they gradually assume a more scientific character, and thus a feeling of progress is sustained in
the ~upil's mind. It has been found, indeed, by long
experience, that no lessons produce more continued interest,
or more enlarge the minds of children, than those on objects.
'l'he training which lessons on objects will have supplied for
commencing easy lessons on shells or any other branch of
natural history will consist principally in the improved faculty

Q2

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~.

.Number. - The second elementary means by
which Pestalozzi sought the development of
the mental faculties, was number. This at first
he treated as a process of intuition, requiring that before the abstract idea was presented to the child, he should perceive number connected with objects. Thus, the parts of
his body may be nsed to give this idea, also stones,
nuts, beads, &c. The instructor says to the child
(not, Here is one), but, Here is one stone, one nut,
&c.; and adding another, Here are two stones, two
nuts, &c. When the child has thus been exercised
in distinruishing
and naming one, two, three-the
0
.
different number of the objects presented-he will
soon have an intuitive perception, that the terms
one, two, three, are always the same, whilst the
objects to which they are applied vary ; he will
thus be prepared to separate the idea of number
from that of the thing, and to ascend to the abstract
idea. When he has a correct idea of the numbers
up to ten, he is ready to carry on different combination of these numbers. By practical examples he
leams to form rules for himself; he works his own
way, acquiring power, vigour, and readiness at each
a.dvance : " he is not led hoodwinked through the
r

of observing natural features, in the possession and command
of a small vocabulary of scientific terms, in the habit o!,
classification, and in the practice of giving a written 8UJilIIllll'Y
of the knowledge acquired."-Dr. Mayo.

intricacies of arithmetic," but understands what he
is about, first becoming familiar with elements, and
then enjoying the pleasure of finding the results of
their variollS combinations. The whole is a reasonable exercise; he sees truth in all its processes, and
his mind is trained to value intellectual as well as
moral truth. There is a harmony between the different branches of his education which is f elt.
Pestalozzi, in his course of arithmetic, excluded
ciphers until the idea of numbers was perfectly
understood, and the children had practice in the
common operations mentally. The main object of
his instruction was the development of the mental
powers; and this he accomplished with su much
success, that the ability his pupils displayed in
mental arithmetic was one of the chief means of
attracting the public attention to his experiment.*
""The teaching of number at the earliest stages does not
propose to explain processes, but to unfold principles. The
pupil is not taught to comprehend a rule, but to dispense
with it, or form it for himself. The path along which he is
led may be longer than the. usual route, but then it is in broad
day-light ; he is more independent of his guide, and derives
more health and vigour from the exercise. Were the true
ends of intellectual education more clearly apprehended, the
means of prosecuting it would be more justly appreciated.
While the question cui b<YTw .1 so judicious in itself, is answered by a sordid reference to mere money-getting, or by a
narrow-minded consideration of professional advancement,
every method of instruction that proposes to itself a more

i

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3. F orm.-The third branch of Pestalozzi's elementary instruction embraced Form and its relations. It was similarly treated; intuition was the
basis of future acquisitions in knowledge.* The
exalted, though less obvious utility, will be ridiculed ~·
visionary, or neglected as unprofitable. But when the true
end of intellectual education shall be admitted to be, first,
the attainment of mental power, and then the application of
it to practical and scientific purposes, that plan of early
instruction which dwells long on first principles, and does no~
haste to make learned, will be acknowledged as the most
Experience will
economical, because the most effectual.
show as indeed it has already shown, that while superficial
teaching may prepare for the mere routine of daily busineSS:
whensoever a question, not anticipated in the manual, occurs,
none but the pupil whose faculties have been exercised in th~
investigation of truth, who is the master, not the slave of
rules, 'vill solve the unexpected difficulty, by a novel applica·
tion of the principles of the science."-.Dr. Mayo.
-·

* The t eaching of these elementary subjects has a history.
For a time intuition was not only the basis but the superstructure, and in this we have exhibited the original and
progressive character of the system of the great educator:
We shall let Dr. Biber tell the story. "As P estalozzi was not
aware of the existence of a mental intuition a~ clear and '!8
certain as the intuition of the senses, he fell into the mistake
not uncommon among reformers of all kinds, that in avoiding the one extreme of mere nominal knowledge conveyed' by
the usual systems, he ran into an opposite one by k eeping tlie
child to the visible representations of number and form On
outward objects, long beyond that period when they are con'
ceived in the intellect as mental realities or ideas in the true

pupil gains from objects the ideas upon which he
afterwards carries on the processes of reasoning : he
learns the data of the science from the examination
of geometrical solids : he deduces truth himself from
facts he perceives to be true; and thus he gradually acquires the power of mathematical reasoning.
Here, again, he works for himself-all is clear and
real to him ; and if the true end of education is to
form the man, it is surely more likely to be effected
by 1 treating him as the agent rather than as the
passive recipient. Under this system, the child
constructs his own edifice; his faculties are exercised in the investigation of truth, which is so presented that he arrives at it step by step, each advance
preparing for the next. The great aim is the development of the precious germs, folded up within
his mind, and which, with expansion, acquire health
and vigour. .A. child under such a system will, it
mind's emancipation from the external world. The merit of
having detected and pointed out this mistake is chiefly due
to Niederer, who from the first moment struggled against
the tendency of Pestalozzi to incrustate as it were, the mind
in the perception of sense. The impulse which he gave,
produced very soon a reform in the mathematical instruction
of the establishment, and the pupils, after they had been
allowed sufficient time by the aid of visible representn.tions
to acquire real ideas, were conducted to purely mentn.l operations on the same subjects." This may account for some of
the accusations brought against .Pestalozzi, and at the same
t.lrni::.

f,.....,. ......... hla u-inHir..:li-inn ti.nTn +hogo o_trni:>T"Q.lf\TIQ

11
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is true, acquire less positive knowledge, in a given
number of·years, than one who has had all communicated to him : but his knowledge will be his
own ; and he will have gained a mental independence and power which will fit him for grappling
with difficulties, and prepare him for whatever may
be hfa position in life.
-~
Under the head of form Pestalozzi ranked writing,
drawing, and geometry. The ba.<iis of each of these
he considered to be the intuitive perception of form
and its dimensions. Drawing, he thought, ought t.o
be a universal acquirement, because the faculty for
it is possessed by all, and because it won ld prove the
means of leading the child from vague perceptions
to clear ideas. He also considered that the art of
measuring ought to precede that of drawing; that
is, that the eye should be practised in determining
figure and proportion, before the hand is employed
to execute these perceptions. If a child, he observes, is called upon to imitate objects or represe~~
tations of objects before he has acquired a distinct
notion of their proportions, his instructions in the
art of drawing will fail to produce upon his mental
development that beneficial influence which alone·
renders it worth learning. Writing, he maintained,
should not be taught before, but after drawing, and
this also should be preceded by a previous proficiency in measuring lines ; for writing is, in fact, a
sort of linear drawing, and that of fixed forms, from
.,

which no arbitrary or fanciful deviations are permitted. H e also contended that the practice of writing,
when acquired previously to, and independently of
drawing, spoilt the hand and cramps its freedom,
by confining it to a few peculiar forms. Another
rea.<ion in favour of drawing being taught first, was,
he said, that by the previous acquirement of this art,
the power of forming letters is greatly facilitat ed, and
the time is saved which children lose in correcting
bad habits contracted by the practice of Lad
writing.
The elements of geometry were included under
the head of form, and Pestalozzian instruct ors have
been a.<J successful in this science as in that of number. We will extract from a Preface by Dr. Mayo
to a work entitled "Lessons on Form," an account
of the manner of treating this subject:In the choice and adoption of :form as a subj ect
of instruction and a means of education, Pestalozzi
exhibited as much sagacity a.<J he did in seizing hold
of Arithmetic and turning it to these purposes.
"Bacon observes," says Dr. Mayo, "that a man really
possesses only that knowledge, which he in some
degree creates for himself. To apply to intellectual
instruction the principle implied in these words was
the aim of Pestalozzi. It is a principle admitting of
various degrees, as well a.<i modes of application, in
the different branches of human knowledge ; but in
no one can it be more extensively applied than in

234
geometry. That science is peculiarly the creation
of the human mind, in which, independent of external nature, and complete in its own resources, it
builds up the solid but airy fabric of its abstractions.
It needs no laboratory to test its conclusions, no obHervatory to obtain data for its calculations ; rendering aid to other sciences, it asks none for itself.
" Hence, that tf~acher will act most in conformity with the genuine chamcter of the science,
and consequently will render the study of it the
most interesting and the most improving, who invites and trains his pupils to create the largest
portion of it for themselves. In geometry, the
master must not dogmatise, either in his own
person or through the medium of his book; but, he
must lead his pupils to observe, to determine, to
demonstrate for themselves. In order to accomplish this, be must study the intellectual process in
the acquisition of original mathematical know ledge;
alld having ascertained what are the conditions of
successful investigation, he must so arrange his plan
of instruction as that these conditions may be perfectly supplied. H e cannot fail to perceive that the
leading requisites are a clear apprehension of the
subject-matter, and well-formed habits of mathematical reasoning. . . The master, led by these con- •
siderations, will, in directing the first labours of his
pupils, consider it as his especial aim, to enable them
to form clear apprehensions of the subject-matter of ~··

235
geometry, and then to develop the power of mathematical reasoning. A ware that clearness of apprehension can take place only when the idea to be
formed is proximate to some idea already clearly
formed-when the step which the mind is required to
takeisreally the next in succession tothest ep already
taken, he will commence his instruction exactly at
that point where his pupils already are, and in that
manner which best accords with the measure of
their development. As his pupils are unaccustomed
to pure abstractions, he 1will not commence with
abstract definitions. But supposing them, through
the medium of 'Lessons on Objects,' to have had
their attention directed to the forms which matter
assumes, he will present in his first lessons a transition from the promiscuous assemblage of forms, to a
particular group of them, the regular solids. In
conformity with the plan pursued in 'Lessons on
Objects,' the pupils will exallline regular solids presented to them, state what they perceive; then, by
a more close and attentive examination, directed by
the master, discover and supply the deficiencies in
their first preceptions, and afford him an occasion for
connecting their new ideas with adequate technical
expressions.
"The master's next aim is to cultivate the power
of abstract mathematical reasoning. With a view
to this end, he may advantageously avail himself of
the knowledge obtained by the puvils from the

236

solids in the manner above described. Here, then,
he will lead them to deduce the necessary conse.quences from the facts which they know to be
true, and then invite them to examine the object,
and see whether their reasoning hmi led to a correct
result. Thus, if a child has ascertained and knows
that two sides of different planes are requisite to
form an edge, and that a certain solid (an octahedron)
is bounded by eight triangular planes, he will be required to determine from these data the number of
edges which that solid has. He will reason thus :
Eight triangular faces have twenty-four sides; two
sides form one edge ; therefore, as many times as there
are two sides in these twenty-four sides, so many
edges that body must have,-that is, twelve edges.
This result being obtained, the object is presented
to him for examination, and he perceives by actual
observation the truth of that conclusion at which he
had arrived by abstract reasoning.
"These lessons form the basis of the introduction
to geometry, and their results are, correct ideas of ,
the subject-matter of the subsequent lessons, adequate
expressions for these ideas, and sound knowledge of
the definitions, which form the connecting link between physical and abstract truths.
" When the pupils have gone through the elementary course, they are found competent to demonstrate
for themselves the greater part of the propositions
in Euclid. These advantages arise from the appli-

237

cation of a principle generally neglected in early
eduC11.tion, but deserving of consideration and universal adoption; namely, that every course of scientific instruction should be preceded by a preparatory
course, arranged on psychological principles. First
form a mind, then furnish it." *

CONCLUSION.
It is not the object of this little work to enter
fully into the details of Pestalozzi's system. A word,
however, to objectors. Some, perhaps, will be ready
to exclaim, we .find but little new in this muchvaunted system ; are not these the principles now
generally acted upon i To some extent it is so, and
this is what we have before stated-that Pestalozzianism has crept into and leavened the eJucation
of our land, though it fa scarcely known whence the
impetus proceeded which has given new life to our
*The "Lessons on Form," by Mr. Charles Reiner, form a
beautiful application of these principles. Respecting them
Dr. Mayo further observes :-"It has been found in the
actual use of these Lessons for a considerable period,
that a larger average number of pupils are brought to
study the mathematics with decided success, and that all
pursue them in a superior manner. There is much less of
mere mechanical committing to memory, of mere otiose admission and comprehension of demonstrations ready-made,
and proportionably more of independent judgment and
original reasoning. They not only learn mathematics, but
they become mathematicians."

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institutions and our schools.
It is this system
which has taught us that reading, writing, and
arithmetic do not constitute education-that in- ·
struction does not constitute education, nor even ·
intellectual development itself-but that education,
to use Pestalozzi's own expression, has to train the
hand, the head, and the heart.
which has t
h
hat t ·

·O•

rinciple,
nnse
as cognised in
His teaching by parables. L et us grant that Pesta~ .
Iozzi is not to be considered as the discoverer of new·· .
principles : yet has he, at least, as the propounde~
of a system, "the merit of one who says it so long, '
so loud, and so clearly, that he compels mankind to ·
hear him ; of one who is so deeply impressed with
the importance of the discovery, that he will take no.
denial, but, at the risk of fortune and fame, pushes' .
through all opposition, and is determined that what '.
he thinks he has discovered shall not perish for want ~
of a fair trial."
"'!;. '
As Model Lessons are so much used in the train: ~.:
ing of teachers, and Miss Mayo's works mainly
consist of these, the following description of her

15

lessons on shells is extracted froin Dr. Mayo's
preface to that work. "The end for which these
lessons are laid before the public is not that they
may serve as an instructive and entertaining
volume to be placed in the hands of children, but
in order that the subject may be more familiarly
handled and more vividly conceived. They represent an imaginary group of pupils conversing
and receiving instruction. The object my sister
has proposed to herself is to place a volume in the
teacher's hands which shall help him to re-act with
his pupils the scenes that are here described. It is
not a drama offered for perusal in the closet, but
a manager's copy commended to the conductors of
other theatres of education, to enable their lilliputian corps dramatiques to assume the same characters, play the same parts, and I will not say,
on the starre,' but
' fret their little

C. A. Macintosh, Printer, Great New-street, London.

