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AS GIVEN 'f'.·J CHILDREN

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BETWEEN THE AGES OF SIX AND EIGHT,

IN A PEST ALOZZIAN SCHOOL,
AT CHEAM, SURREY.

"We daily call a great many things by their names without ever in<J.uir1ng into their nature and properties, so that , in reality, it is only
their n11.mes, and not the things themselves, with which we are acq_uainted."-AIKI:N.

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FROM THE TWENTY-SECOND LONDON EDITION.

SAN FRANCISCO: A. ROMAN & CO.
NEW YORK : 27 HOVV ARD ST.

1876.

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CHILD !li~K

HE'l'WEEN THE AGES OF SIX AND EWHT,
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IN A PEST ALOZZIAN SCHOOL,
AT CHEAM, SURREY.

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"Wo dai ly Cllll u great lllllny things 1.Jy their n ames wit h out e ver in <p1ir1ng- into thei r nat u re and p r opcrt ius , 80 thnt, i n rea lity, it is only
t.hoir t1ttm1~!-I, and not. the thing~ themselvl:s, with \Yhich we uro n.c(1uai11tc(l.1'-A IKLN .

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SAN FRANCISCO: A, ROMAN & CO.
NEW

YORK:

27 HOVVARD

1876.

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PREFACE.

PESTALozzr was peculiarly solicitous that the idea of his
method of Education should not be confounded with the

form it might assume. He felt, and strongly felt, the
value, the power, and the truth of that idea; and highly
as h e was disposed to appreciate the labours of his disciples in the prnctical application of it to the work of education, still he saw that they were at best imperfect, incomplete embodyings of the grand and profound conce~
tions in which h e might be said intellectually "to live
and move and have hi s being.'' The continual appeal
which he made from the imperfections of his practice, to
the beauty and truth of his principles, contributed perh aps to attach to himself the character of a benevolent
visionary, and to his system the charge of impracticability.
Much hurl been written, mnch had been said, yet little
seemed to have been done: for even his own school, miserably conducted in many respects, presented but a cloudy
and distorted exhibition of his views.

H ence the man of

lofty mind and feeling h eart quitted Yverclon with a sigh

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PREFAClc.

PilEFACr:.

of regret; while the shallow reasoner and self-satisfied
routier cast a smile of contempt on principles which he
could not discover to be true, in the midst of the disorder
that impeded and deformed their development.
Profoundly convinced of the truth of Pestalozzi's views,
and warned against his errors by long actual observation of
their conseque11ces, the writer of these prefatory remarks
determined to attempt the introduction of his method
into England, religiously preserving the Idea, but adapt-

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corrected
and recorrected editions of lessons actually given by different individuals. They may want some of that ideal
beauty discernible in works produced by an ingenious imaginatio
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ing the Form to those circumstances in which he might
be placed. He considered that the most effectual mode
of accomplishing this end was to devote himself to the
formation and conduct of a school, in which the arrangement and practical application of those principles might
be made. To exhibit the system in operation, to elaborate by means of experiments continually repeated a
course of instruction; and above all to prepare materials
for an appeal to actual results, seemed to him a far more
useful and effectual, though a less rapid or brilliant process, than that of dragging it before reluctant audiences

It has been thought desirable to commence the series

.

with a course of LESSONS oN OnJECTs. It is a field hith
erto little, if at all, cult.ivate<l. The distinguishing principles of the Pestalozzian system are strikingly exemplified
in it. The instruction given in Infant's Schools would
be improved by the introduction of a similar plan, and
the early education of the nursery receive a new and
interesting feature.
This mode of instruction was suggested to the mind of
Pestalozzi by the peculiar circumstances in which he was

at public meetings, or of advocating its merits in the periodical publications of the day. He was content that it
should be buried i.n oblivion for a while, assured that if
it really possessed the life of truth, it would in due time
spring up with renovated vigour. 'l'hat time seems to

placed at Stautz. The brutalized state into which the
poor children confided to his care had fall en, rendered it
absolutely necessary to find some new mode of interesting their minds, and calling out their dormant faculties.

have arrived. Attention to this subject is revived. Schools

Nature was the only book with which they were conversant, and their fir:;t lessons were consequently drawn

professing to be conducted on Pestalozzian principles are
increasing in number: and publications issue from the
press >vhich point out, with more or less success, the
manner of applying them to different branches of instruction. Under these encouraging circumstances, it is pro-

from its pages.

Experience o.rnl judgment retained what

necessity fin;t imposed. The subjects ordinarily presented to the youthful mind appeared too remote from
that knowledge which the child acquires without regular
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PREFACE.
PREFACE.

ix

doors d~stracted the attention of the pupils, and though
much interest was at first excited, still, as there was no
I

series of
provided, representing those objects
amiliar to children; and the lessons consisted
in naming their parts, describing their structure and use.

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sensible progress, no perceivable end, it diminished
rather than incrnasccl in force.

It was thought, too, that

exercises so miscellaneous in their character, so devoid of
systematic arrangement, were essentially defective as
means of intellectual development. Upon these grounds

One day, however, the Master having presented to his

the Miscellanco ns Obj ec t L essons were abandoned, and

class the engraving of a ladder, a lively little boy exclaimed, " But lhere is a real ladder in the court-yard;

the Master who had conducled the class substituted a
course on the parts and functions of the bodily frame.

why not talk about it rather than the picture'?" "The
engraving is here,'' said the Master, ''and it is more con-

These are contained in the ,ffa.miei. cles 11.feres; a work pre-

venient to talk about what is before your eyes than to go
into the court-yard to talk about the other." The boy's

much that is insufferably tedious. At the period when
the writer of these observat.ions was in the institution at

observation, thus eluded, was for that time disregard~cl.
Soon after, the engraving of Ii. window formed the subject
of examination; ''But why," exclaimed the same little
. objector, "why talk of this picture of a window, when
there is a real window in the room, and there is no need

Yverdon, instructing on objects h ad fallen into disuse;

to go into the court-yard for it?"

senting valuable hints for early eLlucation, mixed with

but having h eard this his~ory from the individual who
had form erly given it, he felt strongly convinced that a
mode might be adopted by which its acivantages would
be secured, and its contingent incon reni ences avoided.
Having communicated this impression to his sister, with

Again the remar.k was

a general notion of th e plan, he h as left the execution of

in the evening both circumstances were
Pestalozzi.
said

the details to her, and the result of h er labo urs is the
Exercises, now for the first time presented to the public.
The desultory character attaching to therit in their original form is corrected, by making a previous selection of

n many mconThe subjects
which the room itself, the building, the premises, presented, were soon exhausted, or thought to be so: the pupils were taken into the fields; the weather was an occa-

subjects, and presenting them in the class-room.

sioual hindrance, the variety of objects presented out of

the pupil's mind.

As

they are intended to be preparatory to instruction in
natural history, they gradually assume a more sci entific
character, and thus a feeling of progress is sustained in

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It has been found, indeed, by long

PREFAOE.
1

experience, that no lessons produced more continued
interest, or more enlarge the minds of children, than
those on

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OBJECTS.

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PREFACE
TO

THE FOURTEENTH EDITION.

When this work was first presented to the public, nearly
thirty years since, the idea of systematically using the
material world as one of the means of educating the

I/

sense of t e p an, owever, soon reco
T eachers, and they discovered that reading, writing, and
arithmetic do not form the sole basis of elementary edu·'--

cation, but that the objects and actipns of every-day-life
should have a very prominent place in their programme.
In spite of the ominous forebodings which attended
the first intrnduction of this little volume, the public has
given a decided sanction to the system of teaching it, aud
the degree in which it has in consequence modified books
for the young, and the practice of elementary instruction,
can scarcely be calculated.
Successive editions of the L essons have issued rapidly
from the press, hitherto without any alteration ; but it is

PREFACE.

XU

PREFACE.

Xlll

now thought desirable to profit by the experience gained
by tl·e introduction of snch a course of instruction, and
to make a few changes and additions. As the work is
much used in institut.ions fo r the training of Teachers,
the following account of the plan of the whole course is.
given :.is a gnitle in the use of the lessons, and a help in
carrying out the idea. 'l'hosc who fall iuto a mechanical
way of giving snch instruction, antl do not perceive the

thepower of expression is cultivated; the
oped in the lessons of the previous series are expressed
either in simple words or short sentences ; but throughout this series the pupils are required to put down all the
knowledge they acquire, in the form of consecutive narrative.

principle involved, completely defeat its intention, and
they had far better keep to old plans and old books.

tho giving of the lesson, a clear apprehension of facts
and truths, and facility in arranging and expressing what

The work contains progressive series of lessons, the

I

prevailing aim being to exercise the faculties of children
according to their natural order of

devd~

al•o at thefr h"'moniou• oultivntion. •
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'rhis plan promotes fixedness of attention dming

has been acquired.
An objection has been made to these lessons, that thr.y
put fine words into children's mouths, and give them an
air of pedantry-but the evil in reality is the effect of the
ignorance that has hitherto prevailed as to the properties
of the most common things by which we are surrounded

'

and the consequent poverty of the poor man's language .
When the love of knowledge is excited, and the habit of

tliem m the mmd, where they will be ready for reproduction when the faculty of conce
The·

intelligent observation cultivated, words and phrnses are

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required to define accurately what so often otherwise remains vague impressions on the mind; consequently a
more extended vocabulary is requisite, and when no simple and common words can be found to express (for in-

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Ju the fifth se~j·-*See "Horue Education," p. l!l8.

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such very important and common qualities as
opacity and transparency) the only terms our langu age
affords must ba used, and the r eproach of pedantry be
risked.
Toacl10rs making use of these lessons are earnestly advised to read carefully the introduction to a series before.

XIV

PREFACE.

commence the lessons which it contains, and to en
deavor to understand, and then to act up to the principlesand aim set forth . They should guard against mere mechanical work, or allowing this in their pupils ; the latter,
after having heard a few names, will often, without
thought or observation, apply them indiscriminately.
Neither should the lessons be slavishly followed in all
is set down ; they should rather be used as affording

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suggestive hints ; and variety should be sought for-th e
children often themselves indicate what their minds

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require.

CONTENTS.

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FIRST SERIES.
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PAGll.

1N'l'RODB'fi0RY REMARKS

Glass
Indian Rubber
Leather
Loaf Sugar
5. A Piece of Gum Arabic
6. Sponge
7. Wool ·
8. Wnter
9. A Piece of Wax
10. Camphor
11. Bread
12. Sealing Wax
13. Whalebone
H. Ginger ..
15. Blotting Paper
16. A Piece of Willow

LESSON

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1.
2.
3.
4.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.

Milk

Rice
Salt
A Horn

Ivory

22. Chalk

23. A Piece of the Bark of the Oak Tree
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5

8
9

10
11
11

12
13
14
14

15
16
17
17
18
18

19
19

20
21
21
22
22

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CONTENTS.

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CONTENTS.
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LE880N 13.
PAGE.

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SECOND SERIES.

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INTRODUCTORY REllIARICS
LESSON 1. A Pin
2. A Cube of Wood
3. An Uncut Lead Pencil
4. A Pen
5. A Wax Candle
6. A Chair
7. A Book
8. An Egg
9. A 'l'himble
10. A P enknife
11. A Key
12. A Cup
13. A Coffee Berry
H. A Pair of Scissors
15. A Bird
16. An Orange

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27
27
28
30
31
31
33
34

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36
, 37
38
38
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THIRD SEI-UES.

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INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
LESSON 1. A Quill ..
2. A Halfpenny
3. Mustard Seed
4. An Apple
5. Glass of a Watcli
6. Brown Sugar
7. An Acorn
8. A l'iece of Honeycomb
9. Refin ed Sugar
10. A Cork ..
11. Glue
12. Packthrcad

55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
62
64
66
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FOURTH SERIES.

41
42
44
46
47
48

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14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
l !J.
20.
21.
22.
2:{.
24.

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Honey
Buttercup
A Lady-Bird
An Oyster
A Fir Cone
J?ur
A Laurel Leaf
A Needle
A Stone
A Bell
A Wheel
Description of an Object

INTRODUCTORY IlEMARKB
LESSON 1. P epper ..
2. Nutmeg
3. Mace
4. Cinnamon
o. Ginger
6. Allspice
7. A Clove,

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75
77
79
80
81

ON LIQUIDS.

49

50

51

52
53
54
55

L&..'ISON 8. Water
!J. Oil
10. Beer
11. Foreign White Wine
12. Vinegar

13. Ink

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89
90
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P.A.GE.

LESSON 14.
15.
16.
17.

Milk
Fire
An Anchor
A Balance

PAGE.

93
96
97
100

LEs~oN 29.

Paper
30. Wcol
31. Cotton
32. Flax
33. Hemp
34. 8ilk
v - ; ; ..-Felt
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36. Porcelain

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131
132
134:
135
136
138

FIFTH · SERIES.

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INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
LEssoN 1. Camphor
2. Wax Candle
3. Putty
4. Shell Lac
5. Butter
6. Cheese
7. Horn
8. Honey
9. Starch
10. Saffron
11. Court Plaster
12. Glue
13. Tamarinds
14:. Indian Rubber or Gum Elastic
15. Foreign Currants
16. Cork
17. Leather
18. Sponge
l!J. Coffee
20. Tea
21. Rice
22. Sago
23. The Cocoa Nut
24. Bread
25. Sugar
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26. Whalebone
27. Glass
28. Parchment

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103
104
104
105
105
106
106
107
1.08
109
lOfl
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
11 !)
120
121
122
124
125
126

ON

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METAL~ .

h ·r'uoDUOTORY HEMAHKS
LESSON 37. Gold
38. Silvr r ..
3!J . Quicksilver or Mercury
40. Lead
41. Copper
42. Irou
43. 'l'in
44. Uomparisou of Metals
45. Ou Metals in General
QUESTIONS ON THE METALS
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145 .
148
i52
156
161
166
169
170
172

ON EAHTHS.

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Ll!.8BON 46.
47.
48.
QUESTIONS
LESSON 49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.

Lime
Silica
Alumina or Argil
ON TUE EARTHS
Coal
Granite
Salt
Slate
Coral
Gutta Percha.

176
181
183
186
188
191
192
197
198
200

CONTENTS.

0 N THE SENSES.
PAGE·

LESSON

55. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
56. Feeling or Touch
57. Sight
58. H earing
59. Smell ..
60. •rastc

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204
207
208

61.

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INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

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FIRST SERIES.
212

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INTRODUCTORY REMARKS FOR THE DIRECTION OF
THE TEACHER.

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ON SOLUBILITY.

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LESSONS ON

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To lead children to observe with attention the
objects which surround them, and then to describe with accuracy the impressions they convey, appears to be the first step in the business
of education.
As the period of childhood is characterized by
the ceaseless activity of the perceptive faculties,
it is clear that with them intellectual education
should commence. The development of these
powers gives animation to the dull, and preci. sion to the lively, whilst it promotes that clearness of apprehension which is the solid basis of
after attainment, and without which our judgments are unsound, and our reasonings inconclusive. As the sphere of observation is enlarged, and the pages of history, or the fields of
science, are explored, the mind, accustomed to

2

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

accurate investigation, will not rest content with
less than satisfactory evidence, either in morals

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FIRST SERIES • .

t em is the result
some experience, and of
several trials, which have produced a strong
conviction of the importance and value of a methodical arrangement, and of a very gradual
progression. It is therefore recommended that
no step in the course should be altogether omitted, though the age and talents of the children
must regulate the time bestowed on each.
The first series presents a selection of miscellaneous objects, every one possessing some distinguishing quality, and so arranged as to have
an obvious connexion with what has preceded.
The children should be practised in remarking
the qualities observable by the simple operation
of the external senses, deferring until a more
advanced period those requiring a higher exercise of mind.
It is very important that in all instruction,
some definite object should be proposed, and
t.hat every step should have a tendency towards
the end in view. Thus in the series under consideration, the development of the perceptive
faculties is aimed at, and each sense is called
into action, that all may be strengthened by exercise, and their judgments corrected. By link-

ing also the ideas gained to appropriate words,
n ready command of language may be acquired.
One lesson is drawn out fully as a specimen
of the manner in which the others should be
givon. It would have extended the volume to
nn lmncccss11ry length, and :filletl it with needloi:m repetitions, b11d e11ch b een m11de out with
oqnn.l minuteness. Inform11tion is not given in
tho prclimin11ry set, 11s the end proposed is to
excite the ment11l powers of the children to activity, 11ncl not to furnish them with knowledge.
It nrny p~rh11ps be necessary to guard against
th e error of expecting, in· a work like the present, nnything more than hints as to the mode
of arranging and imparting knowledge. Teachers ought to be well inform ed, in ord er to meet
tho inquiries which the active minds of children
continu11lly suggest. Their question s will generally point out the best mode of treating a
subject, or of leading them to the discovery of
any ti:'n th. Precise unvarying rules may be laid
clown for mechanical operations; but mind alone
can act upon mind, and bring it into vigorous
oxcrcise; and all instruction must b e dry and
nninLoresting which has not undergone some
modification from the person by whom it is communicated.

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FIRST SERIES.

of instruction,
, · n- they acquire a habit
0
r eceiving ~ions from others at a time
when they ought to be gaining mental povver
by the exertion of their own
ulties. Anotlrn'r
r.

5

LESSON I.
GLASS.

has been selected as the first substance to
bo presented to the children, because the qualitio:; which characterize it are quite obvious to
tlio 11ensos.
The pupils should be arranged
before a black-board or slate, upon which the
result of their observations should be written.
The utility of having t.he lessons presented to
tho eyes of the children, with the power of
thus recalling attention to what has occurred,
will very soon be appreciated by the instructor.
The glass should be passed round the party,
to be examined by each individual.*
T EAcmm. ·what is this which I hold m my
lin.nd ?
CmLDREN. A piece of glass.
TEACHER.
Can you spell the word glass .~
('rhe teacher then writes the word "glass"
upou the slate, which is thus presented to the
whole class as the subject of the lesson.) You
hnve 11ttll examined this glass; what do you obHorvt ? 'Vhn.t can you say it is? t
GLASS

I,,

qua 1 y ms een forme in his mind, without
his being able to express it, the name given
under such circumstances fixes it on the memory :--thus, when a child observes that wha~e­
bone, after having been bent, returns to its
original position, he may be told that this property:
·as discovered is callee ,
·
ally ,
ication, but merely for the
use of the school in which they were given; aml
the information they contain was drawn from
various sources. No memorandum being made
at the time, it would now be impossible to
assign passages to their different authors,
though it is probable that those acquainted with
the popular works on the subjects here treated
of, may detect, in some places, almost literal
quotations.

*Dy this means, each individual in the class is called
upon to exercise his own powers on the object presented; the
snbscqnent questions of the teacher tend only to draw out the
i(lcas of the children, which he corrects if wrong.
t 'rhis question is put instead of asking, "What are its

3

6

0HILDRF.N. It is bright.
TEACHER. (The teacher hn.ving written the
word "qualities," writes under it-It is bright'.)
Take it in your hn.nd and feel* it.
CHILDREN. It is cold. ("Written on the board
under the former quality.)
TEACHER. Feel it again and compare it with
the piece of sponge that is tied to your slate 1
and then tell me what you perceive in the glass. t
CHILDREN. It is smooth-it is bard.
TEACHER. What other glass is there m the
room?
CHILDREN. The windows.
\
TEACHER. Look out at the window and tell
me what you see.
CHILDREN. vV e see the garden.
TEACHER. (Closes the shutters.) Look out
again, and tell me now what you observe.
CHILDREN. vVe cannot see anything.
TEACHER. Why cannot you see anything ?
CHILDREN. We cannot see through the shutters.
qualities?" because the children would not, at first, in all
probability, understantl the meaning of the term; its frequent
application, however, to the ·answer to this question will
shortly familiarise them to it, and teach them its meaning.
*The art of the teacher is to put such qnestions as may
sncces~ively to the exercise of the different senses.
t 'l'he object of the teacher here is to lead the pupil t-0 the
observation of the quality smooth, and he does so by making
him contrast it with the opposite quality in another substance;
a mode of suggestion, of which frequent use may ho made.
lead

GLASS.

FIRST SERIES.-LESSON I.

7

TEACHER. "'1iat difference do you observe
uctween the shutters and. the glass?
Omwm~N. We cannot see through the shuttorn, but we can through the glass.
'l'EAcrnm. Can you tell me any word that
will express this quality which you observe in
tho glass?
CmLDHEN. No.
. Ti>ACHEn. I will tell you, then ; pay attention, that you may recollect it. It is transparout. * vVhat shall you now understand when I
toll you that u substance is transparent?
Cmwmrn. That you can see through it.
TEACIIER. You are right. t Try and recollect
something that is transparent.
CmLDREN. Water.
'l'EAOHEit. If I were to let this glass fall, or
you were to throw a ball at the window, what
would be the consequence?
.
CmLDREN. ~rhe glass would be broken. It
rn brittle.

*

'!'he fact of the glass being transparent is so familiar to
tho ~hildrcn, they will probably not observe it till its great
UHO m consequence of that quality brings it forcibly before
U10i~ minds. 'l'hey then feel the want of a term to express
lhoJr!'ea thus formed, and the teacher gives them the name
!IH n. Aign for it, and in order to impress it upon their minds'.
'l'o nAcortain whether they have rightly comprehended the
moaning of tho word they arc called upon to give examples of
it.a application.
L

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FIRST

s1mrns.-LESSON

I.

TEACHER. If I used the shutter in the same
manner, what would be the consequence?
CHILDREN. It would not break.
TEACHER. If I gave it a sharp blow with a
very hard substance, what would happen?
CHILDREN. It would then break.
TEACHER. W oulcl you, therefore, call the
wood brittle ?
CHILDREN. No.
TEACHER. ·what substances, then, do you call
brittle?
.
"".
CHILDHEN. Those which are easily broken.
These are probably as many qualities as
would occur to children at their first attempt:
they should be arranged on the slate, and thus
form an exercise in spelling. 'I'hey should then
be effaced; and if the pupils are able to write,
they may endensor to remember the lesson, and
put it down on their slates.

INDIAN

It is opaque.
elastic.
inflammable.
black.
tough.
smooth.
f1sr.s. - 'l1o rub out pencil-marks; to make balls.

LESSON III.
' LEA'fHEU.
Itloafl to bo <loveloped by the examination of
this subshmco,-jlexible, ocloi·ous, durable.

Qualities of Leather.
It is :flexible.
odorous.
waterproof.
tough.
smooth.
durable.
opaque.

RUBBER.

This substance bas been chosen that the class
may ouserve the qualities,-opaqiw, elastic, inflammable. The first would be made clear to
them uy contrasting the Indian Hubber with
the Glass of the preceding lesson; the second
by stretching it, and allowing it to resume its
former shape; the third, by setting it on fire.

9

Qualities of Indian Rubber.

LESSON II.
INDIAN

RUDBEH. -LEATHER.

Uses. -For shoes; gloves; rems;
porLrncmteaus; binding books.

3-A

saddles ;

10

GUM ARABIC, -SPONGE.

:FIUST S Eltll':S.-LESSON I\',

11

LESSON V.
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LESSON IV.
LOAF-SUGAH,

Idea'3 to be developed by this lesson,--soluble,
fusible, .r.,parkling.

A PIECE OF GUM ARABIC.

!dons to be developed by this les:m n,-semilransparent, adhesive.

Quahties of Gum Arabic.
It is hard.
bright.
yellow.
semi-transparent.
soluble in water.
adhesive when melted.
solid.

Qualities of Loqf-Sugar.

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It is soluble.
fusible.*
brittle.
hard.
sweet.
white.
sparkling.
solid.
opaque.

use.-To unite light and thin substances. ·

LE8SON VI.

Uses.-To sweeten our food.
*The difference between fusibility and solubility may be
rendered obvious to the children, by dissolving one piece of
sugar in water, and holding another over the candle. It is
better that such simple experiments shonld be perform ed in
their presence, than that a mere cleseription of the operation
should be given.

SPONGE.

Ideas to be dernloped by this Iesso11,-poro11s
·absorbent.

Qualities of Sponge.
It is porous.
absorbent.*

'* 'l'ho

quulil.y of absorbing will be made obviou8 to the

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FIRST SERIES.-LESSON VII.

tough.
opaque.
elastic.
dull.
fle xible.
light brown.

LESSON VIII.
WATER.

Idons to be developed by this lesson,-liquid,
r·rjlcctive, glassy, tasteless, inodorous.

Qualities of Water.

j,

LESSON VII.
woor..

Qualities of Wool.
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It is soft.
absorbent.
white.
:flexible.
elastic.
tough.
durable.
opaque.

dry.

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light.

[!.<;es. --For making cloth; flannels ; blankets;
car•)ets.
stockin bo·s.' &c .
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class by showing that the sponge sucks up any li<]nid. It possesses this q1rnlity in consequence of its being fnll of pores.
'J'he use to which an object is applied, often leads to the observation of the quality npon wl1ich the UHC is dependent.

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It is liquid.
reflective.
glassy.
colourless.
inodorous. *
tasteless.
transpa1:en t.
heavy.
bright.
wholesome.
purifying.

Uscs.-To ct~anse; to fertilize; to drink; for
culinary purposes.

.·

• Iu ordor to <lircct the attention of the class to the force of
tho Byll1iblcs less n.nd in, the teachE)_r should n.sk,-What is
mrnnt by tnAtclr.ss? Having no taste. What is m eant by i n·
odorou~·1
Having no odour. In what are these words alike?
Thuy both tell us what the substance is not. They mark then
lho 11l>~ o n co of a quality. What syllables of the words mark
thlH nlrneuco of tho quality? less and ·i n. GiYe examples of
wonlK iu wldch less and in are so used.

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It is soft.

Use. -For washing.

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WATER.

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FIRST BERIES.-LESSON IX.

. DREAD.

It is white.
semi-transparent.
bright.
soluble in spirits,
hard.
solid.
very inflammable.
medicinal.
light.

LESSON IX.

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A PIECE OF WAX.

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This substance is here introduced, because it
possesses many of the qualities already remarked.
Qualities of Wax.

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It is solid.
opaque.
dull.
tough.
fusible.
sticky.
yellowish.
hard.
odorous.
smooth.

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volatil~.

Uscs.-For medicine; to prevent infection; to
prosorve cabinets from small insects.

LESSON XI.
BRE AD.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson ,-edible,
wholesome, nutritious

Vse.-To make candles and tapers.

LESSON X.
CA MPH OH.

Ideas to be developed by this lesson,-aromatic, friable, volatile.

Qualities of Camphor.

It is aromatic.
easily crumbling, or friable.
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Qualities of Bread.

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It is porous.

absorbent.
opaque.
solid.
wholesome.
nutritious.
edible.
The crumb is yellowish white.
soft, 1•:hen new.
moist.

.1

WHALEBONE-GINGER.

16

FIRS'l' SERIES. -

LESSON XII.

The crust is hard.
brittle.
brown.
Use.-To nourish.

17

LESSON XIII.
WHALEBONE.

Idea. to be developed by this lesson,-fibrous ..
Qualities of Whalebone.

LESSON XII.

It is elastic.*
durable.
hard.
fibrous.
opaque.
bright.
stiff.

SEALING-WAX.

Idea to be developed by this lesson,- impressible.
Qual'ities of S ealing- Wa.x .

It is hard.
bright.
brittle.
fusible.
opaque.
soluble in spirits.
light.
solid.
smooth.
coloured. *
inflammable.
odorous.
When fused it is soft.
impressible.
adhesive.
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Use .-To seal letters.

*

The colour will be determined by the specimen presented.

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Uscs.-As a stiffener; for whips, bludgeons, &c.
LESSON XIV.

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GINGER.

Itloa to be developed by this Iesson,-pungent.

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QuaWies of Ginger.
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It is pungent.
dull.
bard.

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* The

class should be led to compare the elasticity of
W!Jalouone with that of Indian Rubber, and to observe the
tllfl'orouco of the quality; the former when bent returns to its
orl1iinal slrnpe. '!'he Indian Rubber, when stretched, does so;
aml mnny substances, as sponge, after compression, resume
lliolr shapo.

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19

FIRST SERIES-LESSON XV.

It is dry.
fibrous.
aromatic.
tough.
opaque.
wholesome.
medicinal.
jagged.
light brown.

LESSON

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Idea to be developed by this lesson,-pinkish. *

Qualities of Blotting-Paper.

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It is absorbent.
porous.
soft.
thin.
pinkish.
pliable.
dull.
inflammable.
easily torn.

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Use.-To suck up superfluous ink.

*

Ish, added to words expressive of quality, generally denotes the presence of the quality, but in a moderate degree.

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LESSON XVII.

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It is hard.
inflkmmable.
fibrous.
dull.
opaque.
solid.
elastic.
flexible.
white.
.odorous.

BLOTEING-PAPEB.

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Qualities of Willow.

LESSON XV.

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A PIECE OF · WILLOW.

Uses.-To flavor food; for medicine.

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:MILK.

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Qualities of Mille.

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It is white.
liquid.
opaque.
soft.
wholesome.
greasy.
nutritious.
sweet.

Uses.-To make cheese; butter; puddings; to
drink; food for young animals.

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A HORN •

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It is sapid, or has taste.
salt or saline.
hard.
opaque.
soluble.
fusible.

LESSON XVIII.
RICE.

Qualities of Rice.

It is white.
hard.
opaque.
smooth.
stiff.
bright.
solid.
porous.
absorbent.
wholesome.
nutritious.

Uses.-To :flavor food; to preserve from putre!notion; to manure land.

LESSON XX.
A HORN.

Qualities of a Horn.
lj

It is hard.
dull.
uneven.
hollow.
odorous when burnt.
tapering.
opaque.
stiff.
yellowish brown.
fibrous.

Use.-To nouri::;h.

LESSON XIX.
SAL'l'.

Ideas to be 1levelope<1 by this lesson,-granuous, sapid, saline.
Qualit'ies of Salt.

It is white.
sparkling.
grnnulous.

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FIR"3'1' RFRIES.-LESSON XIX.

U1ie.'!.-To make combs; glue; lanterns; handles to knives and forks.

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LESSON XXIII.
LESSON XXIJ.

ldon to bo developed by this lesson,-a.stringent.
<JuaWies of Ivor!J.

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It is brown.
rugged.
opaque.
dry.
inflammable.
stiff.
solid .
durable.
fibrous.
ltUll.
astringent.*
inside smooth.

CHALK.

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Idea to be developed by this lesson,-e'(f'erresce11t.

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Qualities of chalk .

U11cJ1.-'l'o guard the tree from injury; for tan-

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It is white.
friable.
effervescent in acids.*
opaque.
dull.
hard.
solid.
dry.

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LJ:i}::;SON XXII.

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BARK OF THE OAIC-'lREE.

IVOIW.

It is hard.
white .
smooth.
bright..
opaque.
solid.
durable.

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BAUR.

<Jual(!ics of Hark.

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A. l'IEOE OF 'l'HE

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FIRST SERIES,-LESSON

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• 'rl10 ohll1lron nmy bo mn<le to unu erstnnd the quality of
1.trlltHOllOY hy llntwini; th eir attention to the contracting
tr~ \ pro1!11oo(l in the mouth by eating a sloe.

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SECOND SERIES.
l:'\'l'UODUC'l'ORY REMARKS.

SECOND SERIES.
IN'fROD-;JCTORY REMARKS FOU THE DIUECTION OF TUE
TEACHEU.

IN this series the children should be much exercised upon the qualities already remarked, but
presented to them in other objects. This recurrnnce of the same qualities, as seen in different
substances, combines, with the advantage of
fixing t,he knowledge they have acquired,-that
of enabling them to form the abstract idea of
the quality.
The impressions made upon the senses by external objects return to the mind in the absence
of the objects. This is the simplest working
of the conceptive faculty, and it should find exercise in this and the following series. Thus,
when a distinguishing quuJity is observed, tho
chi Idren should be directed in searching in
their own minds for the idea of some other object in which they had before recognised tho
same quality.
Care should be taken by instructors whon
they wish, in the first instance, to develope tho
idea of a quality, to select a su1:::;tauee in which
it is very conspicuous; and, secondly, when
giving a lesson on an object in which the same
quality recurs, to advert to former impressions.

it

25

distinctness and force of our ideas, and
U1oir firm hold on our minds, depend on the
vi\'idnrns and clearness with which they were
tirsl npprnhended, and on the reiterated tecurro11t·o of tho Harne impres$ions.
Having lm<l all thei1' senses brought into acio11 in former lessons, the children may be led
to <lolorrn i 110 I.ho sense by the exercise of which
nny pnrl.icnlar property was observed: thus,
• How 1litl you find out that glass was transpar-0nl ·~' 'By my eyes.' 'What can you do with
yo ur oyo '?' ' See.' 'Seeing is called a sense.
Cn 11 you ohb.tin an idea of a quality except by
Urn ROllHO of Hight? Will your sight discover to
you llrnl; a rose is odorous? How would you
~oorlnin this qualil;I ?' 'By what sense?'
' By Am olling. By the sense of smell.' By
Ki milnr q uostions the class will gain a clen,r concopt.ion of tho several senses and their operaLlvlll'I,
Tlwy m11y next procooJ to the ousenuLioll of Lho orya11s of sense. Thus, 'By what naturnl im1trnrnents are you able to see, hear,' &c.
' Dy oyos, on.rs,' &c. Any natural instrument
by whi ch Aomcthing is performed, is called an
vrg1m. ' ·what are the eyes? ' ' Organs.' ' Org1rn1 of what sense'?' 'Organs of sight,' &c.
IL will 110 a. u:::;eful exerci;,;e for the chilJre11 to
dnH11i fy tho various r7unhtie.~, ·which th ey have
obirnrvo<l in objects, under tho heads of the difCorn nt s1:w;es by ·which they are discerned. They
will Roon p erceive that some mn,y be discovered

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A PIN.-A CUBE OF WOOD.

27

SECOND SERIES.

by either of two senses; for example, liquid,
,<;olid, rough, and the varieties of form may be as•
certained either by sight or feeling; these should
constitute another division. rrhus trained to
arrange their ideas, children will acquire a.
great readiness in making use of their information, and a facility in producing new combinations.
No one who has not given little children such
lessons can be aware of the great pleasure experienced by them, when they first discover the
power which they possess of acquiring knowledge through the exercise of their senses; and
also of the systematic order it gives to their subsequent acquisition of knowledge.
In this series, children may also be practised
in distinguishing and naming the parts of objects; while this helps them to form a more correct idea of particular things, it also prepares
them to discriminate between substances and
qualities.
There are two errors which teachers are apt
to fall into, especially in the early lessons.
First, after a few lessons on parts and qualities,
they do not correct the children when they get
into the habit of attributing qualities of which
they have learnt the names, indiscriminately to
all objects without thought. Secondly, Teachers do not make any effort to fix the attention of
the children in distinguishing between general
and peculiar qualities.

LESSON I.
A PIN.

A pin hn.s been chosen for the first lesson, beU.HO tho parts are · few, clearly marked and

aimplo.
Paris.
Tho hond.
shank.
point.

Qualities.
It is hard.
opaque.
white.
bright.
solid.
smooth . .
cold.
F'
The head is round.
The point is sharp.
The shank is straight.
taper.

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U11r..-'l'o keep together for a time parts of
dro11H, &c.

LESSON II.
A CUBE OF WOOD.

The cube will convey to the children a good
ldon of a smface; but as some confusion is
lilrnly t.o arise in their minds, when they are infor111od t.lmt what houndi:l every part of an objC>ot, rn111 c1111 be felt or seen, is the snrfa.ce, and

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SECOND SERIES. -LESSON III.

P arts.
The surface.
faces.
edges.
corners.

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29

AN UNCUT LEAD PENCIL

then when they find that the surface is divided
into parts, to be told that these divisions arc
called su daces, it is therefore n ecessary to give
them a name for the divisions of the surfacethat of fac es has been adopted. A sphere mny
be shown as an example of an undivided surface, and, by comparing it with the cube, a clear
idea of what is meant by surface and fa ues may
be elicited.
Qualities.
It is hard.
light.
solid.
brown.
smooth.
dull.
inflammable.
opaque .
The faces are flat.
square.
The edges are straight.
The corners are sharp.

l'a1'1s.
T ho surface.

faces.
(llHlB

outRido.
insido .
rni<l<llo .
lcn<l.
wood.

From this object the children may become ncquainted with the cylinder; for they will not fail
to observe that the ends are flat, and that the
other face is curved.

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Qualities.

It is hard .
odorous.
long.
solid .
opaque.
inflammable.
dry.
brown.
veined.
One face is curved.
The ends are flat.
circular.
-llhe form is cylindrical.
The lead is grey.
brittle.
friable.
bright.

l '.~1 'H .-For writing ; drawing, &c.

Let the
ehild ron point out on what occasion a pencil is
pro Co rn bl o to 11 p~n, and 'l:ice versa.

LESSON III.
AN UNCUT L EAD-PENCI L.

~

In thiR losson and others, the conceptive faculty mny be exercised, by requiring the children.
to roc rdl to their minds some object in which

lbt y hnd observed before the quality of inflammnbility; also that of friability.

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SECOND SERIES.-LESSON IV,

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A WAX-CANDLE -'-A CHAIR.

LESSON V.

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LESSON IV.

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A WAX-CANDLE.

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A PEN.

A quill pen presents many different parts; tho
qualities of some of these are opposite to tho
qualities of others.

TbiR object recalls the idea of the cylinder,
obt.Binod in n. previous lesson, and presents the
poculinr zmrts of the candle itself.
Qualities.

l'arf,i;.

Parts.

The quill.
shaft.
feather.
laminoo
pith.
nib.
split.
shoulders.
surface.
faces.
skin.
groove.
inside.
outside.

Qualities.

The quill is transparent.
cylindrical.
hollow.
bright.
hard.
elastic.
yellowish.
horny.
.The shaft is opaque.
angular.
solid.
white.
stiff.
hard.
grooved.
The pith is white.
spongy.
porous.
elastic.
soft~

'Xho wick.
wnx.
surface.
faces .
onds.
oclgos.
top.
bottom.
middle.
inside.
outside.

It is cylindrical.
hard.
opaque.
yellowish white.
""""' The wax is sticky.
fusible.
The wick is inflammable.
tough.
white.
fibrous .
flexible.

U.9e.-To give light.
'l'ho chilclren should be asked, What must be

dono before the candle gives light? What bemoH of the wick?

'Vhat of the wax ?

LESSON VI.
A CHAIR.

Thia, and several of thE.! succeeding lessons,

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A BOOK.

SECOND SERIES.~LESSON VI.

are chosen on account of the great variety of
the parts of the object .

LESSON VII.

..

Parts.
The back.
front.
seat.
top.
bottom.
frame.
legs.
straw.
edges.
upper part of the seat.
under part of the seat.
bars.
surface.
faces.
corners.
The qualities are not set down, because they
depend upon the kind of chair chosen for the
lesson.
It is a useful exercise to compare the relative
proportions and situations of the different parts
of an object. Thus, in the chair, the depth of
the seat is about one-half the h eight of the
chair; the legs are rat.her shorter than the back;
the seat is narrower at the back tha.n the front;
&c. The legs are perpendicular, the seat horizontal, the back slanting, the bars horizontal
and parallel.

A

IP"'

5-A

BOOK.

Parts.
The outside.
inside.
edges.
corners.
binding.
paper.
back.
sides.
top.
bottom.
title-page.
preface.
introduction.
contents.
encl.
leaves.
pages.
margm.
beginning.
typ e.
letters.
numbers.
stops.
words.

33

11

-

' 1:

34 ;

I

I

SECOND SERIES. -LESSON VIII.

I

I

-

A THillIBLE.--A PEl\KNIFE.

The sentences.
syllables.
lettering.
stitching.
lines.

35

The yolk is yellow.
liquid.
soft. ·
opaque.
odorous.
sapid:

The children should determille the position of
the different parts, their form and uses.

LESSON IX.
A THIMBLE.

LESSON .VIII.
AN EGG.

.,
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Parts.
(!iw/il'ies.
The shell.
It is oval.
skin.
white.
white.
hard.
yolk.
eatable.
outside .
nutritious.
inside.
opaque.
surface.
dull.
embryo,
The shell is brittle.
or future chicken.
smooth.
thin.
translucent.
The ·white is liquid when ~·aw.
solid when boiled.
semi-trausparen t.
adhesive.
sticky.
insipid.

Qualities.

Parts.
The inside.
outside.
surface.
top.
bottom.
nm.
border.
punctures.

It is hollow.
silver.
punctured.
white.
bright.
opaque.
hard.
curved.
The inside is smooth.
The outside is rough.

CT<>e.-'ro preserve the middle finger from being pricked in working.

LESSON X.
A

Parts.
The handle.

rirnKNIF.E.

Qualities.

The blade is steel.

I

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36

SECOND SERIES. -

LESSON XI.

37

A CUP.

The blade.
The blade is bright.
plates.
cold.
grooves.
hard.
back of the handle.
reflective.
back of the blade.
opaque.
point.
brittle.
edge. The front edge is thin.
· notch.
sharp.
spring.
The back edge blunt.
rivets.
thick.
pivot.
The handle is
hollow to receive the blades.
heel.
flat.

It is liable to rust.
Part of the barrel is hollow.
The barrel is cylindrical.
The ring is curved.
Places locked up by a key. -Doors, gates, boxes,
desks, portmanteaus, trunks, portfolios, teachests, closets, drawers, cabinets, &c.

LESSON XII.
A CUP.

U.se.--To mend pens, &c.

The other qualities depend on the kind of
knife shown. The children should mention
what kind of knives they know of, and what
other instruments are used in cutting.

LESSON XI.
A KEY,

Parts.
The ring.
barrel.
wards.
grooves.
edges.
surface.
corners.

Qualities.
It is hard.
steel.
bright.
col cl.
opaque.
smooth.
stiff.

Parts.

The bowl.
handle.
upper nm.
lower rim.
bottom.
inside.
outside.*
edges.
surface.

*

Quali'ties.

It is hollow.
hard.
curved.
glossy.
smooth.
glazed.
cold.
brittle.
thin.
semi-transparent.
The rim is circular.

From the examinat10n of such an object as a cup, glass,
any vessel, or a box, children may be led to discriminate
clearly the difference between outsiue and surface, and to see
that the former is the opposite to the insid ·~ . whilst the latter
is the boundary of every part of an object.

~

11

-, )

I
.38

SECOND SERIES. -LESSON XIII.

.A BIRD.

The bows.
blades.
shanks.
rivets.
pivot.
points.
surface.
faces.

LESSON XIII.
A COFFEE BERRY.

Parts.

Qualities.

The surface.
If roasted, it is brown.
curved face.
hard.
fl.at faces.
crisp.
groove.
sapid.
aromatic.
stimulating.
agreeable to the
taste.
dull.
solid.
If unroasted, dingy yellow.
inodorous.
disagreeable to
the taste.

lff!.""

39

It is bright.
reflective.
,.hard.
opaque.
cold.
solid.
The blades are pointed.
One face is flat.
the other curved.
The front edge sharp.
the back blunt.
The bows are curved.

The children should name the kind of materials which scissors will cut, and point out the
different manner in which knives and scissors
cut.
·i

LESSON XV.
A BIRD.

Parts.

Use.-To make a beverage.
Children should determine what other object
they have found to be aromatic.

LESSON XIV.
A PAIR OF SCISSORS.

Parts.

Qualities.

The limbs.

It is steel.

The head. ~b~dy.

·wrngs.
legs.
beak.
eye8.
nostrils.
neck.
feathers.

Principal
parts.

The qualities would
depend on the kind
of bird chosen for
the lesson.

SECOND SERIES,-,-LESSON XVI.

40

The skin.
bones.
feet.
claws.
joints.
The children should determine which are the
parts that distinguish it as a bird,-feathers,
beak, wings; they should state why wings are
necessary for birds; why feathers are the be.~t
covering for them; why it has a beak; wh~t it
has in place of fore-legs; how claws are smted
to it.
·:t

LESSON XVI.

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Idea to be clevelopecl,--sphericaZ.

Qualities.
It is reddish yellow, or
The peel.
orange colour.
rind of the peel.
spherical.
white of the peel.
rough on the outjuice
side.
pnlp
The
pulp
is
j11icy.
pips.
soft..
eye.
cooling.
divisions.
FJweot when ripe.
membrane.
odorous.
inside.
vegetable.
outside.
opaque.
surface.
solid.
Parts.

THIR.D SERIES.
.,po
INTRODUC'1'0HY REl\IARKS FOil. '1'HE DIIlECTION

I
l
I

OF THE TEACHEH.

IN this series the chih1ren may be led to the observn,tion of q1wli ies which cannot be discerned
merely by the senses. Thus by showing them
at the same time wool and woollen doth, and
questioning them as to the difference of the two,
they will rea11ily conceive the ideas of natural
and arl'ificial. In this manner they may be led
to r emark the distinction between fore1·9n and
natiue j e.xotic and indigenous j animal, vegetable,
mineral, d!:c.
At this step the conceptive powers should be
more decidedly called in to exercise; the way for
this is preprtred by the c lea rnes ~ and vividness
0f the ideas obtained through the careful cultivati(ln of pereept.ion . Our hints for infih·uet.ion
may be arranged, as Isaac Taylor 1mggesh;, under three heads ,- " The first co111prel1encling
what relates to the means proper for giving vivacity and precision to the conceptive faculty,
while the objects upon which it is employed are actually present. The second, including whatever
bears upon its operation in the absence of those
objeds. And the third, embracing the means to
1

6

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42

THIRD

SERIES.-LESSON

be used for establishing a. ready and perfect correspondence between language and the conceptive faculty."
The children may now be called upon to give
an explanation of the terms they use, and be assisted by the teacher to trace their derivations.

LESSON I.
A QUILL.

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Ideas to be developed by this lesson,-natural, artificial, aninial, vegetable. A pen should
be shown at the same time with the quill; and
the children, being questioned as to what constitutes the essential difference between the two,
will understand the terms natural and artificial.
If some fruits or flowers be placed n ear the
quill, their attention may be directed to the distinction between animal and vegetable substances.

Parts.
The quill.
shaft.
ends.
feather.
lam in re.
inside .
outside.
edges.
groove.

A QUILL.

I.

Qualities.

It is long.
stiff.
useful.
natural.
animal substance.
The barrel is transparent.
hard.
elastic.
bright.

43

The surface.
faces.
pith.
skin.

The barrel is yellowish.
cylindrical.
hollow.
light.
The shaft is feathered.
white.
stiff.
bard.
opaque.
solid.
angular.
grooved.
Children may be led to remark the difference
which :fire produces on animal and vegetable
substances, both as to appearance and smell.
The teacher now requires the class to give an
explanation in their own words of the terms
they have used; and also helps them to trace
the derivation of words, and to mark the force
of p articular syllables.*
TEACHER. Give me examples of words of the
same termination as Useful.
CHILDREN. Careful, &c.
TEACHER. What is the force of the termina. tion?
CHJLDREN. It expresses the quality in a great
degree.
TEACHER. What is the opposite of Use:ful?
CHILDREN. Use-less.
*The radical or invariable part of the word is printed in
Roman characters, the termination in itali cs.

I

THIRD

SERIES.-LESSON

II.
A

TEACHER. Give examples of words of the
same termination as Use-less.
TEACHEH. From what is Natural derived?
CruLDREN. Nature.
TEACHER. Transparent is derived from trans,
through, and par-ens, appearing.* Give other
words derived from Par-ens, appearing.
CHILDREN. Apparent, Apparition.
TEACHER. From what is Cylindr-ical derived?
CHILDREN. From Cylinder.
TEACHrn. Cylinder is derived from the Greek
uv'A.ivpo (lcyh:ndo), I roll.

LESSON II.

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The reverse!'
date.

It is cold.
reddish .brown.
fusible.
hard.
odorous.
artificial.*
heavy.
durable.
uneven.

HALFPENNY.
Remarks on Words.

Parts.
The surface.
faces.
edges.
milling.
impression.
image.
superscription.

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Mine-ral is derived from Mine.
Metal-Zic .
Metal.
To fuse.
Fus-ible
Art-e, by art;
Artific-ial .
fac-ere, to make.
Dur-able .
Dur-are, to last.

Qualities.
It is round.
flat.
mineral.
metallic.
opaque.
bright.
copper.

*The derivati on should be written upon the slate, and read
over several times by the children.

!

I

45

Made from copper ore, which contains sulphur in union with copper; the sulphur forced
off by smelting. Stamped by a die, which is
made to fall upon the coin wit.h great violence.

Ideas to be developed in this lesson,--1nineral, metallic.

I

HALFPENNY.

TEAOHEH. Do you know any other words derived from dur-are .'?
CHILDREN. Duration, During, Endure.
'!.'he class should be led t.o r(;:mark t.hat, though the work
mnnship is artificial, tho substance is natural.
,y_,

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'THIRD SERIES.--LESSON III.

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47

AN APPLE.

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LESSON IV.
LESSON III.
AN APPLE.
lllUSTARD·S 3 ED.

Ideas to be developed by this lesso11, - -indigewius, pulvera~lP.

It is pungent.
dull.
yellow.
opaque.
hard.
dry.
pulverable.
natural.
indigenous.
vegetable.
spherical.
solid.
stimulating.
Remarks on fVords.

Pung-ent is derived from
Pulv-erable
Indigen-ous

Pung-ere, to prick.
Pulv-is, dust.
Indigen-a,a native,
or produced in a
cou11try.

Parts.
The eye.
core.
pips.
peel.
pulp .
JUICe.
stalk.
surface.
inside.
outside.

Qualil'ies.

It is spherical.
bright.
odorous.
coloured.
opaque.
natural.
vegetable.
JUICy.
hard.
nice.
solid.
pleasa11t.
The eye is dry.
brown.
shrivelled.
rrhe pips are brown on the outside when ripe.
white in the inside.
pointed oval.
hard.
bright.
The core is membranaceous.
stiff.
yellow.
hard.
semi-transparent.

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48

THIRD

SERIES.-LESSUN

Remarks on lVords.

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Spher-icaZ is derived from Sphere.
TEACHER. Give instances of similar terminations.
CmwnEN. Cylindr-ical, Crit-ical, Con~ical.
Odor-ans is derived from odor, scent.
Ti!ACHE.R. Give instances of similar terminations.
CHILDREN. Indigen-01Ls, Nutriti-ons.
Veget-able is derived from veget-are, to grow
as a plant.
TEACHER. Name other words derived from this·
CHILDREN. To Vegetate, Vegetation.
Juicy is derived from Juice.
TEACHER Give some other instances in which
the names of qualities are derived from those of
substances in a similar manner.
CmLDHEN. Stone, ston-y;; Milk, milk-y;
·w at.er, water-y.
Semi-transparent is derived from se1111:, tr cms,
through, and parens, ap-pear-ing.
TEACHER. \¥hat is the meaning of semi?
CHILDREN. Half.

LESSON V.

t.

GLASS

OF

BROWN

V.

A WATCH.

The ideas to be developd by this lesson,concave and con1Je.x.

Parts.*

SUGAR.

v

Qualities.

It is artificial.
transparent.
brittle.
bright.
thin.
hard.
clear.
cold.
curved.
The upper face is convex.
The under face concave.
The edge circular.

Uses.-To preserve the hands of the watch
from being injured, and to keep the works from
dust.

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LESSON VI.
DROWN SUGAR.

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The ideas to be developed by this lesson,/oreign , imported.

Qualities.
It is brown.
granulous.
~The children should be askecl whether th ere are any
parts to this object peculiar to it; and when, tts in the watchgluss, there are not, the naming of the parts had better be
omittecl.
I'

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50

f

THIRD SERIEB.-LEBSON VII.

It is sweet.
soluble.
fusible.
opaque.
useful.
vegetable substance.
artificial.
foreign.
sticky.
imported.
moist.

A PIECE OF HONEY-COMB.

The berry.
It is
nut.
point of the nut.
scar.
scales.
The nut is
inside.
outside.
surface.
The cup is
edges.
The insidP- is

natural.
hard.
green.
opaque.
oval.
bright.
solid.
dull.
concave.
smooth.
The outsid~ is rough.
brownish.
scaly.
The edge is circular.

Use.-To sweeten our food.
Obtained from the sugar-cane, which is cultivated in the East and \Vest Indies.

Remarks on fVords.

LESSON VIII.

Granul-ous is derived from Granul-um, a small
gram.
Port-are, to carry,
Import-ed
in, into.
Ex, out, and port-are.
Export-ed
Sol-vere, to loosen;
Sol-uble,
the particles may be loosened from
each other by liquids.
LESSON VII.
AN ACORN.

Parts.
The cup.

Qualil'ie1:;.
It is vegetable.

A PIECE OF HONEY-C011IB.

Parts.
The cells.
divisions.
edges.
base of cells.
corners.
surface.
faces.

Qualities.
It is natural.
animal production.
light.
fusible.
sticky.
dull.
semi-transparent.
yellowish.
thin.
compressible.

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It is brittle.
The cells are hexagonal.
regular.
hollow.

LESSON IX.
REFINED SUGAR.

raw state. Refined by sugar-bakers, and sold
by grocers in loaves of a conical form.
Reniarks on vVords.

Crystal-line is derived from Crystal.
Amorph-ous
a (a) not µopcp'fl.
(morphe), shape.
Nutri-tious
Nutri-re, to n.ourish.

LESSON X.

The ideas to be developed by this lesson,crysta.lhne, amorphous.
Parts.

The surface.
edges.
middle.
cry stale.
grams.
pores.

Qualii'ies.

It is white.
sweet.
sparkling.
crystalline.
solid.
fusible.
soluble.
shapeless or amorphous.
hard.
refined.
nutritious.
friable.
opaque.
artificial.
vegetable substance.
brittle.

Brought from the East and West Indies in its

53

A CORK.

THIRD BERIES.-LESSON '1x

A CORK.

The ideas to be developed by this lesson, compressible, nieagre to the touch.
Parts.

The ends.
surface.
faces.
edges.
middle.

7

Qualities.

It is light.
compressible.
elastic.
opaque.
dry.
meagre to the touch.
light brown.
solid.
porous.
smooth.
cylindrical.
dull.
inflammable.
vegetable.

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54

THIRD SERIES.--LESSON XI.
PACKTHREAD._:..HONEY• .

55 :

. The form is artificial.
The substance is naturaq
LESSON XII.

Uses.-To stop bottles, to buoy people up in
the water. Children to determine what qualities fit it for its use.

PACKTHREAD.

Qualities.

It is dry~
dull.
twisted.
flexible.
tough.
opaque.
:fibrous.

LESSON XI.
GLUE.

Qualities.

idl:

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It is translucent.
mahogany brown.
hard·.
bright.
solid.
::mimn.l substance.
artificial.
\ Vhcn melted, it is tough.
adhesive.
t>Lid ;._y .
el astic.
tenacious.

artificial.

durable.
ligh t brown.

.

Ycg-cb.bl c subsbnco .

t

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intlammable.
slender.
:::n1icl
l'uug1 .

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LESSON XIIl.

Renw !'!cs on W0rds.
llONl':Y,

TP11-a··i•111s is ,l<_:r;V('\1 frnn1 T .. 11- ru, l1ol,li11g.
Ac111 es-i1 ·e
,\•1, Lu; :u1(l 11:\:1'-cre,

t u s tick
(per fed, h;r"i.)

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It is fmeet.
fluid.

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56

..
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THIRD SERIES.-LESSON XIV.

..
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It is t hick.
liquid.
yellow.
bright.
sticky.
vegetable substance.
natural.
nourishing.
healing.
opaque.

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A LADY-BIRD.

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LESSON

The leafits are gr eenish.
thin.
membranaceous.
semi-transparent.
pointed.
The stalk is green.
grooved.
angular.
stiff.
fibrous.

LESSON XV.

xrv. ·

A LADY-BIRD.
BU'rl'F.R- CUP.

Parts.

Qualities.

It is vegetable.
'rhe petals.
concave.
margins or edges.
natural.
cup.
leafit.s of cup.
odorous.
stamens. The petals are yello-w.
pistils.
glossy in the inside.
dull on the outside.
s t a lk .
circular.
place of insertion.
pointed at the place
inside.
of insertion .
outside.
striped.
surface.
opaque.
pliable.

P arts.
Qualities.
The h eacl.
It is animal.
eyes.
natural.
feelers, or palpi.
hemispherical.
horns, or antennoo. The;wing-cases are red.
wing s.
spotted.
wing -cases, or elytra.
bright.
thorax.
hard.
leg·s .
brittle.
body.
opaque.
back.
stiff.
sp ots.
The outside is convex.
surface.
The inside is concave.
margin.
One margin straight..
claws.
The other curved.

7-A

68

The inside is bright.
smooth.
slightly concave.
iridescent.
cold.
The mollusc is soft.
eatable.
nutritious.
cold.
smooth.
lubricious.

The wings are mem branaceous.
pliable.
·
thin.
transparent.
fragile.
The body is oval.
black.
The legs are jointed.
short.
black.

Parts.

.

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59

A FIR-CONE.

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON XVI.

LESSON XVI.

Remarks on Words.

AN OYSTER.

Mar-·ine is derived from Mar-e, sea.
Lrumin-ated
Lamin-a., a plate,
Irid-escent
Irid-escere, to become
like a rainbow.
Lub-ricus,
slippery.
Lub-ricious

Qualities.

The valves.
It is animal.
hinge .
opaque.
outside.
marine.
natural.
inside.
margin. The valves are circular.
·impressions.
hard .
mollusc.
stiff.
scales, or laminm.
pulverable.
The outside is rough.
scaly or laminated.
irregular.
dull.
dingy brown.
uneven.
The inside is pearly.

LESSON XVII.
A FIR-CONE.

Parts.

The scales.
seeds.
top.
place of insertion.
fibres .
outside.

Qnalilit'~.

It is brown.
opaque.
hard.
vegetable.
natural.
conical.

j
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THIRD SERIES .-LESSON XVIII.

A LAUREL LEAF.

The inside.
surface.
stalk.

It is tiled or imbric11ted.
inflammable.
odorous.
The scales are i·igid.
dull.
The outside is light brown.
pointed at the top.
' rough.
irregularly conical.
The inside of scales is chestnut-colour.
shaded.
keeled.
Reniarks on 1-Vords.

Imbric-ated is derived from Imbric-lire, to
cover with tiles.

LESSON XVIII.

The skin.
ha it'.
surface.
points of hair.

Qualities.

It is animal substance.
It is hairy.
inanimate.
The hairs are flexible.
slender.
soft.
tubular.
straight,.

61

The hairs are pointed.
The skin is stiff.
The colour and other peculiarities to be decided by the specimen presented.

LESSON XIX.
A

LAUHEL

LEAF.

Parts.

f

I
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FUR.

Parts.

i'
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f

·It is
The upper face.
under face.
edge or margin.
point or termination.
veins.
middle rib.
base.
stalk.

Quahties.

oval.
smooth.
pointed.
vegetable.
odorous.
opaque.
bitter.
stiff.
long.
The rib is straight.
raised, or keeled on
the under side.
grooved on the
upper side.
The veins are curved.
The margin is curved.
slightly toothed.
The upper face is bright.
The under face is dull.

.,·

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<62

THIRD SERIES. -'-LESSON

A STONE.
XX.

LESSON XX.
A NEEDLE.
Qualit'ies.

Parts.

The eye.
shank.
point.
middle.
top.

It is a mineral.
metallic.
artificial.
opaque.
bright.
cold.
taper.
pointed.
slender.
useful.
fusible.
grey or steel colour.
hard.
brittle.
solid.
steel.

l\'Iade of steel, which is a preparation of iron,
having been subjected to great extremes of
heat and cold.

LESSON XXL
A STONE.
Idea to be developed by this lesson,-inorganized.

63

To give the class an idea of organized and in_
organized, a plant might be shown with the
stone ; and questions given, such as the following:
TEACHER If I put these two into the earth,
and visit them in :1 month, what gTeat difference
might I expect to perceive in them?
CHILDREN. The plant will have grown; the
stone will have remained the same size.
TEACHER. How did the plant increase?
CHILDREN. It absorbed moisture.
TEACHER. By what means?
CHILDREN. Through its roots and pores.
T EACHER. Did this nourish only the roots ?
CHILDREN. No.
TEACHER. You are right; the sap was produced which circulated through the plant by
means of vessels. You remember why we call
the eyes, ears, &c., organs .'i?
CmLDHEN. They are natural instruments by
which something is effected.
TEACHER. What would you therefore call the
pores, vessels, &c. of vegetables?
CHILDREN. They are organs.
TEAc:rnn. A body possessing organs is called
organfaed. Name some organized bodies.
CmLDHEN. A tree, an insect.
TEACHER. What syllable, placed before a
word, expresses the absence of a quality?
CHILDREN. In.
TEACHER. ·what would you call a body which
is destitute of organs?

64

A BELL.

THIRD SERIES.-LESSON XX.II.
CHILDREN.
TEACHER.

The ears, cannon.
handle,
according (
to the sort. J
clapper.
rim.
surface.
inside.
outside.

1

Inorganized.
Mention some inorganized sub-

stances.
Earth, water.

CHILDREN.

Qualities of Stone.

It is hard.
cold.
in organized.
opaque.
mineral.
solid.
natural.
shapeless or amorphous.

Inorgan-ized is derived from Greek opyav ov
(organnon), an instrument.

LESSON XXII.

Ideas to be developed in this Iesson,-sonorous, and the peculiar parts.

Qualities.
It is metallic.

':

'"

,,1

Uses of bells. -To gi.ve notice of different
things-in the homie, of different people arriving, servants wanted--in a church, the time of
divine service is marked, deaths and funerals
announced by tolling , marriages and happy
events by a peal. The sheep-bell is used to
keep the flock together; with other animals,

A BELL.

The barrel.

It is artificial.
hard.
elastic.
sonorous.
cold.
hollow.
concave.
h eavy.
rim circular.
clapper spherical.

..,''

Different kinds of bells.
House-bells, pulled by wires passing from one
part of a house to another part where they are
rung . Church-bells, suspended at the upper.
part of the building, pulled by ropes;-when
there are several bells of different tones, they
form a peal or chime; -- when one is rung
slowly, it is said to be tolled. Hand-bel/,s.
Swung by the hand--some used ir.. houses, some
by dustmen, towncriers, postmen, &c. Sheepbell,s. Swung round the neck of one sheep of
a flock.

Remarks on Words.

Parts

65

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TffiRD SERIES.-LESSON

A WHEEL.

xxm.

.

.

.

they are used to stimulate and encourage them
in their work.*

LESSON XXIII.
A WHEEL.

Ideas to be developed in this lesson,~oirou­
lar, diverging, and ihe peculiar parts.

Parts.

Qualities.

The rim is circular. t
The nave.
divided.
box.
spokes.
wooden.
arm of the axle-tree.
thick.
linch-pin.
The tire is circular.
rim composed of felloes. entire.
tire or band.
iron.
tivets.
thin.
centre. The spokes are straight.
circumference.
equal in length.
wooden.
diverging from
the nave.

*

'.l..'his is not put clown as what is to be told children, but
as what their observation and conception may be exercised
upon, and to suggest how the interest in lessons may be
kept up.
t 'rhe children will probably say, round. They should bo
led to see th at this is a very indefinite term , which they apply
to a ball as well as to a shilling; their observation should be
directed by questions to the perception of how a sp~ere and ·a
circle differ, an<l the t€rm circular, given and applied .t o the
wheel before them, ancl to absent.objects of a similar shape.

67.

The relative position and proportion of the different parts should form a part of the exercirn.
The nave is in the centre; the spokes diverge
from the nave to the rim, and are all of equal
length, if not, the rim would not form a perfect
circle; the tire is outside the rim, and forms, of
course, a larger circle than the rim which it encloses; the arm of the axle fits into the box; the
felloes are parts of a circle, and are joined to
together, forming the rim. *
The children should also be led, as an additional exercise, to see the use and adaptation of
the different parts. The box to receive the arm
of the a~le-tree upon which the wheels turn-the spokes to keep the rim in its circular form
and to unite the naye and the rim--the tire to
keep all the parts in their place and to give
strength; the tire is put on when the iron is expanded by great heat, and being suddenly
cooled, it contracts, and this binds the whole
firmly together. The linch-pin passes through
the arm of the axle-tree, and keeps it fixed in
the box.
The use of wheels is, by their rotary motion
to impel carriages of different kinds; the children mig·ht name the various vehicles in which
they are used; they might also be led to see that
· no other form than that of a circle would answer
for a wheel.

* '1.'hese parts are mentioned in 1 Kings , vii. 33.

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68

THIRD

SERIES.-LESSON

LESSON XXIV,
An exercise which gives a pleasing variety to
lessons on objects, and which calls out thought
and conception-consists in the Teacher, instead
of presenting an object for examination, giving
the children a description of one, and r equiring
them from the qualities attributed to it to discover what it is. Some judgment is necessary
in giving such a lesson, that the children may
be led to correct their hasty conclusions, and to
see that it is not one quality which decides what
a material is, but the combination of several.
An example is given, to help the teacher in carrying out the idea.
TEACHER. I will tell you the qualities of
something I am thinking about, and you must
try and find out what ?t is. It is white and
natural.
CHILDREN. Milk ?
TEACHER. No; .i t is solid.
CmLDRli:N. Chalk?
TEACHER. No; it is vegetable and odorous.

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CAMPHOR.

XXIV.

A \ \ Ji it (' i i l :· '!

No; for it is friable and highly inflammable. Now repeat the qualities I have
mentioned and think what substance possesses
them all. ·white, natural, solid, vegetable subsLanue, oJoruu~, alHl highly inthmnrn,ble.
Children will not fail to find out that it must
be Camphor, having in a former series bad a
lesson on the obj crt.

69

It will be obvious that the qualities first mentioned are common to many substances, without
sufficiently distinguishing any one. The children's conception is therefore engaged in calling up in their minds a variety of objects familiar to them. The art of the Teacher is to keep
at first in the background distinguishing qualities, so as more thoroughly to stimulate the
conception, and in the end to lead the children
to see more clearly the peculiar and distinguishing qualities of the substance.

r:.

'l'EACHElc

II
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PEPJ;ER.

71

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and relationship, and l essons are given to
cultivate the discernment of analogies between
physical and moral or spiritual qnn.lities. *

SPICES.

FOU RTH SERIES.
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IN

•.r Il 0 DU C T 0 RY R

LESSON I.

E: MARK S ,

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chief aim proposed in thiR series is , to exercise the children in composin g , arranging ,
and classifying obj ects, and in tracing analogies;
thus developing a higher faculty thau that of
simply observing their qualities. The complex
oper::Ltion of conne~Ling t.hingH by their puillt8
of resemblance, and at the same time of distinguishing them iudi villua,lly by their po in Ls of
dissimilarity, prepares fur 0110 of the highest.
exercises of our rcaso11; ,Yet it m:Ly be cn.niecl
on in childron at a much earlier period thrrn is
usurrlly imagiue(1, if tL ey are traiuec1 to fl n a n ~·c
their ideas.
'Nith this view the spice s arn1
liquids have l)c en chosen rts forming rt connedecl
series of objects. The metals, cliffcrc11t »rnocl-<,
grains, &c. , a.re good sul>jects for Ri111ilar instrucLiou.
In th e en.rly lessons the perceptions simply
exercised the intuitive faculties, which, l>cing
stimulated nnd directed, furnish the mind with
ideas. At this point, the process commences
of rognnliug· them, not simply, lmt in ::;erius

r EPrER .

THE

Qualities of Pepper.

It is b [lrcl.
vegelttl>le.

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foreign."[tropicn.l prollnction .
•vri.11kl e< 1.
spherical.

rouglJ.
blrtck.
con:-.;unati YC'.

c1ry.
'•·' c;,.G l I 1J rn 1: J:, 1ucalio11 . p . 2\J I .
-t 'l'i-:AcUEH. H it co m u from ;1 forei gn couutry, how Ll<> " ''
C;rrum1-: :; . It l'''llll'.'> in a sh ip.
'i'gAcmm. 'rhis is ca ll l'1 l)mpor tin g ; nn(l ~endin g o u t of our

own counlry is called cx pur lin:;. \YLat tlo Wo.; call this exchange of pr0tlu d iu11 '!
CmLDHJ·:N. Trade or eommercE'.
'l.'i;: Ac 1m 1:.
A ntl what a.re the peop!o cnllctl wh o cn.rry in on'!
C u11,J1HE?\.
i\ft:rch;llll;;.

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·72

FOURTH SERIES. - LESSON II.

NU'l'MEG.

''i

It is dull.

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\\hils t grecu, aml ru1LeJ UY Ll.w lrnuds 01' r(~ t·d.
.
'
till 11i e seeds , se \l' l':tl of \\'lti('lt ;11· <· C'\11ilai1tl'< l in
eaclt bPrry, are St\p:tralcd. 'J.'lw ;.;c arc 0~qi()sc il
on mn.Ls tu l.11 u mys of il 1<· su n d 1 :rin~· l11l' da Y,
and :ere collcctecl at nig lil in jal's, tu i1 rcscr~·c
them from the dew . \Yheu the beni!~s arn in _
teuJuJ to be co uvertecl i11 to ·w hite p e pp e r, the.'"
arc alloweJ to ripen, and they th en l>uco111 e rc<.1.
They are ni1JlJcJ i11 a basket, tlic p 11 lp is rnmuv e<l by '.rn shiu g, anc.l the seeds, wl 1i cl1 arc
white, are dried .

i

LESSON II.
I

_:!:n ! !

It is hard.

sapid.
pungent.
odorous.
aromatic.
wholesome.
stimulating.
The pepper-plant is a creeping shrub, much
resembling the vine, and is of ten called the pepper-vine.
It is generally planted near some
thorny bush, among the branches of which it
entwille8 iL::>elI like ivy. IL prucluces benies in
clusters; if the fruit be int.enderl for hl:wk p0;1per, it is not allo,,eJ to 1·ipe11, 1)1tl. is cvllecled

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NU'. rMEG.

It is supill .
~~ ~ I

oval.
dingy brown.
dull.
opaque.
dry.
vegetable.
natural.
foreign.
tropical production.
pungent.
couaenative .
pulverable.
agre cn.blo to the taste.
aromatic.

1I

(t) 1wl/hes.

l'[lf l I

73

Tllo nutmeg· is th e kernel of a fruit 1Yhich is
t h e proclucc of a tree r esemblin g our che rrytre o, b oth in size n,ml growth. IL is fo uml in
th e E ast Inclios. Tho exLcn1al covering of the
fru it is a husk: this opells ,d wu ripe, awl (lisplays a thin scarlet rnoml.mwe, ouJle cl rn~tco:
this being can.: full,r remoY ccl , there still re m n.in s
n. wooJ.y shell which SlllTOlllHls the uu Lmeg.
The nuts are first clrieJ. in the sun, and then
place d on a frame of baml;oos OYer a ::;low fir e,
un til tho kern els, o n being shaken, rattle in

their shells.

t

1

otlo ro us.
u i w nm .

·

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON

II.

l\'IACE.

Remarks on lYords.
TEACHER. ·why is nutmeg said to be odorous?
CHILDREN. Because it has a smell.
'l'v.ACHEn.
Why n,romat.ic '?
CHILDREN. Because it has that pungent smell
distinguished by the name aromatic.
TEACHER. Are all things that are aromatic
a.lso odorous?
CrrILDREN. Yes.
TEACHER. Are all things that arc odorous also
lll'OllltitiC '?
CHILDREN. No.
TEACHEIL Is an onion odorous ?
CHILDREN. Yes.
TEACHER. Are these smells alike ?
CmLDREN. No.
TEACHER. ·which of these terms includes
every kind of smell?
CmLDREN. Odorous.
'l'EACHER. If you were to put all odorous substances into one class, and all aromatic into
another, what would you say of the two classes?
CHILDREN. That the class containing all odorous objects would be much the largest; it would
include the aromatic substances.
TEACHER. A term which includes all the varieties of one kind or quality of substance, is
called a geenric term, whilst that which marks

f

75

one of the species is called a specific term .
Which is the generic term, odorous or aromatic?
CHILDREN. Odorous.
TEACHER. 'Vhy is this a generic term?
CHILDREN. Because it includes every variety
of odo11rs .
TEACHER.
Wh11t kind uf term is aromatic ?
CHILDREN. A specific term.
TEACIIER.
'Vhy ?
CmLDREN. Because it applies only to one
particular kind of smell.
Give examples of generic terms :ind of a
specific term applicable to eacb of them.
CHILDREN. Odorous, fragrant; coloured, red;
forei0·n, Chinese production.
Tl;e class should determine, in succeeding
lessons, what terms a.re generic and w~at specific.

I
I

LESSON III.
MACK

QuaWies.

lt
l

It is pungent.
aareeable
to the taste.
0
aromatic;
orange red.
dull.
opaque.

....

76

FOURTH

SEIUES.-.LESS ON III.

It is thin.
fibrous.
brittle.
foreign.
tropical.
natural.
inflammable.
medicinal.
dry.
pulvemble.
membranaceous.
conservative.
imported.
sapid.
stimulating.
Mace is the covering between the shell of the
nutmeg and its externn.1 husk.

Remarks on Words.
TEACHER. "Foreign." Should you call mace
a foreign production if yon were in the place
where it grows?
CHILDREN. No. It is~ only foreign to the
countries where it does not grow.
TEACHER. \Vhere would you call it pungent
and aromatic ?
CHILDREN. Everywhere.
TEACHER. Can it be mace without being
foreign?
CHILDREN. Yes.

CINNAMON.

77

TF.AOHER. Can it be mace without.bei_n g pungen~ and aromatic?
CHILDREN. No.
TEACHEH. Which then of these qualities belong to mace as mace ?
CHILDREN. Pungent and aromatic.
Those qualities which determine anything to
be what it is, are called essential, from the Latin
esse to be.
Qualities which are not essential are called
accidental, from ·the Latin accidens, happening.
What qualities of mace are essential?
What qualities of mace are accidental?
Why are pungent and aromatic said to be
essential qualities?
Why is its being foreign, said to be accidental?
LESSON IV.
CINNAMON.
Qualities.
It is light brown, and gives name to a colour.
thin.
brittle.
conservative.
aromatic.
pungent.
agreeable to the taste.
opaque.
9

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78

FOURTH

BEBIEB~LESSON

IV

GINGER.

It is hard.
sweet.
inflammable.
dry.
vegetable.
natural.
foreign.
light.
pulverable.
medicinal.
stimulating.
flaky.

Cinnamon is the inner bark of the branches
of a kind of laurel-tree, growing in Ceylon and
Malabar. The branches of three years old ar e
selected as furnishing the best ci1m arnon : the
outside bark is scraped off ; the branches are
th en rip ped up length ways with a k nifo, and
the inner bark is gradually loosened, till it can
be entirely t:tkon oJT. Exposure to tho sun
causes it· to curl up. 'l'he pieces of Lark so
curled are called quills, and the smaller ones
are inserted into the larger.

LESSON V.
GINGER.

Qualities.

~

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Remarks on Words.
Inflam-mable, is derived from Flam-ma, a flame.
Medicin-aZ, . .
Medicine .

1,
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r

It is :fibrous.
knotty.
sapid.
rough ..
jagged.
vegetable.
tropical.
foreign .
.aromatic.
-pungent.
dry.
dull.
s olid.
hard.
conserxative.
light.
yellowish brown.
pulverable.
medicinal.
stimulating.
wholesome.
opaque.
inflammable.

79

80

1.
I I

Ginger is the root of a plant resembling a
reed, which grows both in the East and ·w est
Indies. The root does not strike to a conside1•
able depth in the earth, but spreads wide.
When first dug up, it is soft, and eaten by the
Indians as a salad. If intended for exporta·
tion, it is placed m bundles, and dried in the
sun.
L~~SSON '

VI.

ALLSPICE.

Parts.

Qualities,

The inside.
It is aromatic.
outside.
odorous.
skin.
pungent.
seeds.
spherical.
partition of seed vessel.
brown.
point of insertion.
speckled.
organized.
natural.
vegetable.
dry.
opaque.
tropical.
imported.
dull.
stimulating.
hard.
inflammable.

81

A CLOVE.

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON YI.

It is friable.
sapid.
wrinkled.
conservative.

Allspice or Pimento is the dried berry of a
species of myrtle, indigenous in the West , Indies; it is a most beautiful and fragrant tree,
producing numerous bunches of white flowers,
to which succeed the berries; these are gathered
by the hand and spread out in the sun to dry.
In this operation they lose their former colour,
and become brown. vVhen the seeds rattle in the
shell, they are known to be sufficiently dry, and
are packed in bags for exportation. The flavour
of pimento is considered to unite that of the
other spices; hence the name of Allspice.

LESSON VII.
A CI.OY E .

Parts .
The calyx or cup.
tube.
leafits of cup.
points of leafits.
bud.
edges.

9-A.

Qualities.
It is aromatic.
odorous.
pungent.
brown.
organized.
natural.
vegetable.
dry.

8@..

'(

.,

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'I

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FOURTH SERIES.-~~SSON VII.

It is opaque.
tropical.
impo.1ted.
dull.
stimulating.
hard. ·
inflammable.
conservative.
The bud is spherical.
The tube is long.
The leafits are pointed.

Cloves are the unexpanded flower-buds and
calyx of a species of laurel which grows in the
West Indies. At a certain season of the year,
the clove-tree produces a profusion of flowers in
clusters; they are gathered before the flower
opens, when the four points of the calyx project,
and the petals are folded one over the other
forming a bud about the size of a pea. After'
they are gathered, they are exposed for some
time to the smoke of a wood fire, and then to
the rays of the sun.
At the conclusion of the lesson on Spices, the
children should be called upon to mention those
qualities which they had found common to all·
as aromatic, pungent, dry, tropical, stimulating,'
vegetable. Then let some other similar substance be presented to them, such as mustard.
TEACHER. Is this a spice ?
CmrnnEN. No.

,j .,.!
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THE SPICES.

83

TEACHER. Why not?
CmLDHEN. rt' has not the qualities of a spice.
TEACHER. If I showed you a substance with
which you were not previously acquainted, and
you found that it possessed the essential qualities of the spices you have examined, what
would you consider it to be?
QmLDREN. A spice.
TEACHER. To what then do you apply the
term spice ?
CHILDREN. To a set of natural productions
possessing certain qualities.
TEACHER. When a number of things are
arranged together, each having similar qualities, what would you call the collection? What
would you call a number of boys who are
placed together because they are nearly equal
in knowledge ?
. CHILDREN. . A class.
TEACHER. '\Vhat, then, would you call a collection of substances tbat possess the same
qualities?
CHILDm~N.
A class.
TEACHER. What may you call all substances
which are a.romatic, pungent, tropical, &c.?
CHILDREN. A crass.
TEACHER. And what is the name of that cla.ss?
CHILDREN. Spice.
TEACHER. ..What, then, does the term spice
express?

84

85

:FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON YID.

WATER.

CmLDREN.
A class of substances, possessing
the qualities n.romn.tic, pungent, &c.
T.EAumm. Tell me ull the suLstances Lelonging to that class.
CmLDREN.
Pepper, nutmeg, mace , cinnamon,
ginger, allspice, cloves.
TEACH.EH.
Are all the substances of this class
alike in all respects?
Cnn.mmN. No.
TEACHER.
How can you tell one spice from
another?
CHILDREN.
By each having some qualities
peculiar to itself.
TEACHEH.
Name something in each spice
which distinguishes it.
CmLDl1.EN.
Ginger is a roo t; pepper is a seed;
nutmeg is a kernel; mace is the membranaceous
covering of that kernel; cinnamon is a bark;
pimento is a seed-vessel; the clove is a cup anJ
flow er-bud.

It is colourless.
liquid.
useful.
bright.
incompressible, except b y immense power.
reflective.
<lrinkablo.
wholesome.
tasteless.
cold.
in odorous.
natural.
solvent . . .
refreshing.
penetrating.
purifying.
cooling.
fertilizing.
heavy.
Some waters are medicinal.

ON

LIQUIDS.

Different kinds of Water.

LESSON VIII.
WATER.

Qualities of Waler.
It is fluid.
transparent.
clear.

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Rain.
spring.
sea, or salt.
river.
medici1.al.
bot spring.
s~agnant.

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FOURTH

SERIRS.-LESSON

WATER .

Vlll.

Different states of Water.
Ice.
snow.
hail.
rain.
mist.
fog.
cloud •.
vapour.
dew.
steam.
Natural Collections of Water.
Oceans.
seas.
rivers.
lakes.
ponds.
sprrngs.
Operations of Water.-lt purifies, evaporates,
:freezes, quenches thirst, cools, finds its own
level, penetrates, fertilizes, is a solvent, extinguishes fire, . separates easily .into portions
which asflumes a spherical form.
Movement of Water.
TEACHER. In what way do oceans and seas
.move?
CmI,DREN. In waves;
TEACHER. When you are on the sea-shore;
what difference do you observe in the waves
during the course of .t he day?

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CHILDREN. At one time they are coming in;
at another going out.
TEACHER. This is called the ebb and flow of
the tide. ·what is the movement of a river?
CHILDREN. It . flows.
TEACHER. What eventually becomes of its
waters?
CHILDREN. They are lost in some ocean.or sea..
TEACHER. What is that which with us is
al ways flowing on ?
CHILDREN. Our life.
TEACHER. To what does it conduct us ?
CmLDHEN. To eternity.
TEACHER. Of what, then , is a river a :fit emblem, or representation?
CHILDUEN. Of life.
TEACHEH. Find some passages in the Bible
where a river is used as an emblem of life.
TEACHER. You find the particles of water
run about; will the particles of wood do the
same?
CHILDREN. No.
T.EACHEH. ·why will not the particles of wood
flow about?
CHILDREN. Because they stick together.
TEACHER. This is _called cohering. You remember what adhesive is derived from.
CHILDREN. From ad, to, and hror-ere, to stick.
TEACHER. Cohere is derived from cohror-ere,
to stick together.
When one substance is

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88 .

FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON IX.

BEER.

joined to another it is said to . adhere (or stick
to): when the particles of the same substance
stick together, they are said to cohere.
The particles of a liquid cohere very slightly,
The parti11nd are therefore easily separated.
cles of a solid cohere closely.

of France. It is also obtained from nuts and
some other fruits, and from seeds.
The animal oil is procured from the blubber
or fat of the whale and seal.
. Bir~s are. furnished with little bags containing
011; with this they plume their feathers, and it
c~tuses rain and moisture to trickle off. ·without this provision, the feathers of water-fowl ·
would imbibe so much moisture, that they would
become too heavy to fl.oat on the water.

LESSON IX.
OIL.

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Qualities of Oil.
It is fluid.
yellowish.
semi-transparent.
soft.
liquid.
penetrating.
emollient.
greasy.
light.
thick.
inflammable.
oleaginous.
Some oils are vegetable.
Some are animal.
When bad, it is rancid.
odorous.

The vegetable oil is expressed from olives,
and is imported chiefly from Italy and the south

·ii

LESSON X.

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BEER.

Qnalilies.
It is liquid.
fluid.
orange-colour.
wholesome.
fermented.
artificial.
odorous.
semi-transparent.
slightly-intoxicating.
strengthening.

I
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~eer is composed of malt, hops and water,
boiled together. Hops are the blossoms of a
creeping plant, very much cultivated in Kent:
the
ce where they grow is called a hop-yard.

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rd
Ill ii
1111

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ti Fil
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91

It is ,v egetable.
artificial.
semi-transparent.
sapid.
medicinal.
stimulating.
clear.
strengthening.
yielding to the touch.

Wine is made from the grape, the fruit of the
vine, which is cultivated in vineyards. The season of its gathering is called the vintage. The
grapes, when gathered, are placed in a winepress, by which the juice is expressed; this juice
undergoes a fermentation, and becomes wine.
This is the second fermentation which vegetable
matter undergoes: it is called the vinous fermentation, from its producing wine; vinum being
the Latin word for wine.

LESSON XI.

·I I

(

VINEGAR.

The tub in which the malt is :first steeped is
called a mashing-tub: that which holds the beer
when made, a vat: when wanted for consumption, or sale, it is put into barre'ls.
Malt is made of barley, by the following process. A quantity of barley is soaked in . water
for two or three days; the water being after- wards drained off, the grain heats spontaneously, swells, bursts, becomes sweet, and ferments.
Vegetables, during decomposition, undergo several degrees of fermentation; the :first (that
above described) is called the saccharine f ermentation, from the sweetness it produces; saccharum beina the Latin for sugar. In consequence
'
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of this decomposition, which is similar to that
which takes place in seed in the ground, the
barley begins to sprout, but this vegetation is
stopped by putting it into a kiln, where it is
well dried by a gentle heat.

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FOURTH SERIES. -LESSON XI.

..

FOREIGN WHITE WINE.

LESSON XII.

Qualities .
It is :yellowish.
bright.
fluid.
liquid.
fermented.
spirituous.
intoxicating.
heating.

VINEGAR. ·

Qualities.
It is acid.
orange-brown colour.
liquid.
fluid.
yielding to the touch.

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FOURTH SERIES.-LESSON XIII.

· MILK,

It is penetrating.
stimulating.
vegetable.
artificial.
medicinal.
odorous.
conservative.
semi-transparent.
fermented.

It is fluid.
yielding to the touch.
poisonous.
Ink is made of galls, sulphate of iron, gum,
and water. Galls are found upon the oak;
they are occasioned by a little insect, which
pierces the bark of the tree, and lays its eggs
in the hole which it has formed . The torn
vessels of the tree discharge a portion of their
contents, this hardening, forms at first a defence for the eggs, and subsequently food for
the caterpillars they produce; these latter eat
their way out of their confinement, before they
change into the perfect insect. Iron dissolved
in sulphuric acid, is called sulphate of iron;
when this is applied to the acid of the galls it
becomes black, upon which quality the utility
of ink depends. A little gum is added, to
cause the ink to adhere to the paper.

Uses.-To flavour food; for pickling; for medicine.
It is called Vinegar, from the French Vinaigre,
Vin, wine,-aigre, sour; because it is frequently
procured from wine. The fermentation by
which this acidity is produced is called the
acelous f ermentation, from Lat. ace/um, vinegar.

LESSON XIII.
LESSON XIV.
INK.
MILK.

Qualities.
It is black.
bright.
useful.
opaque.
artificial.
liquid.
estringen t.

93

Qualities.
It is white.
fluid.
liquid.
wholesome.
sweet.
nice.
An animal substance.

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MILK• .

FOURTH SEHIES. ~LES SON XIV.

It is natural.
opaque.
soft.
smooth.
yielding to the touch.
emollient.
nutritious.
When fresh, it is warm.

Uses. -For animals to feed their young; for
making cheese and butkr; to drink.
The milk of cows is that most generally used
by man. Invalids drink the milk of asses. In
Tartary the milk of mares is u sed ; in Switzerland that of goats; in the northern countries
that of reindeer; iri Arabia that of camels.
The t.eacher would :find it a very improving
and interesting exercise, to take two substances
and compare them together, - as water ·and
milk, requiring the class to find out in what
respects they are both alike. They are both
fluid, liquid, cool, incompressible, penetrating,
natural, &c. rrhe qualities by which they are
distinguished from each other should then be
mentioned. 'rhe water is transparent, the
milk is opaque; the water is colourless, the milk
is white ; the water is tasteless, the milk is
sweet, &c.
Liquids possess qualities by which they are
very clearly distinguished from other substances.
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95

They may all become solid, they are all fluid
and incompressible; their parts easily separate,
forming into spheres or drops; they penetrate
into the pores of substances; and they :find their
own level. The last circumstance can· easily be
proved to the pupils by means of a syphon.
Having named the properties comnwn to all
liquids, the class should also be required to
mention the qualities pec1lliar lo each, as in the
lessons on i:pices.
Water is transparent, colourless, tasteless,
inodorous, bright.
Oil is yellowish, thick, emollient, semi-transparent, greasy , inflammable .
Beer is orange-coloured, bitter, spirituous,
artificial, fermented.
White wine is bright, yellowish, intoxicating,
stimulating, fcrmentelL
Vinegar is acid, orange-coloured, semi-transparent, fermented.
Ink is black, bright, opaque, artificial.
Milk is white, opaquo, sweet, nourishing,
natural.
The chil dren might determine which of these
woulJ form a particular class within the geuerul
class of liquids; as beer, wine, vinegar, uniteJ
together, because they are fermenteJ liquids.

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FOURTH SERIES.- LESSON XV

LESSON XV.
FIRE.

(Jualities.
It is bright.
reddish yellow
sproniling.
consuming.
drying.
purifying.
hot.
Flames are pointed.
ascending.

How produced anrlfed.-Fire can be produced
by friction; rubbing two pieces of wood or stone
briskly together; th(l collision of flint and steel
occu.siuns sparks that will set fire to any inflammable material; but lucifer-matcbes, which are
tipped with a very combustible substance, are
now generally used to produce fire. The fuel
that feeds fire is either coal, wood, or peat.
Etf'ects of flre.-Some substances, aR conl,
wood, &c ., it consumes, reducin g them to
ashes. Some, as butter, metals, &c., it melts
or changes from solids to liquids. Some, as
water, quicksilver, &c., it changes into steam,
or vapour. Some substances, as dough, clay,
&c. , it hardens. It expands bodies, penetrating through their particles and loosening

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AN ANCHOR.

97

them. Some substances, as metals, it refines,
driving away impurities.
Uses .-l. In domestic life. It warms our
houses n.1lll gi ve8 light to us when the natural
light of day is removed. It cooks our food,
thus enabling us to profit by the animals and
vegetables which God has given u s.
2. In manufactures. By fire , met:tls aro fitted
for various purposes. Glass, porcelain, brickmaking, indeed all our manufactures require
the aid of firo. It is also :fire that furnishes us
with the steam that enables us to travel with
such rapidity by sea and land, and which lights
our streets and houses at night .
An emblem. *-There are many instances in the
Bible of Fire being used as an eml;lem . Thus
God is spoken of as a ' ' consuming :fire. " His
wrath, when kindled by Rin, destroys like fire.
Our Saviour is compared to the refiner's fire ,
purifying His people, purging them from the
dross of Rin, as fire acts upon metals.
...li';

LESSON XVI.
AN ANCHOR.

Part:•.
The shank.

Qualitifs.

It is iron.

· *An emblem is a picture which represents oue thing to the
;eye and another to the understanding.

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AN ANCHOR.

FOURTH SERIES. -LESSON XVI.

The cross-bar or stock. It is heavy.
arms.
hard.
flukes.
cold.
ring.
opaque.
metallic.
The shank is perpendicular to
the beam.
The beam is straight.
horizontal to the
ehank.
smaller at the
ends.
sometimes iron.
sometimes
wooden.
The arms are curved.
The flukes are pointed.
sharp.
The riug is circular.
The·largest· kind of anchor is called the sheet
anchor, and is only used in times of great danger or in heavy gales.
The anchor is an instrument of iron ·attached
by a cable, which passes through the ring to
the bows of ships; when the latter are to remain stationary, the anchor is let down or cast
into the water, and is thrown by the stock into
such a position that one of the flukes is sure to
~nter the ground perpendicularly: · this keeps
the vessel fixed, for any strain acting nearly

horizontally would rather tend to root the arm
deeper in its moorings. This operation is called
ca.sting anchor, and the ship is then said to be
rid'ing at anchor; when the anchor is heaved up,
the expression used is weighing anchor. When
the anchOl' finds good moorings and takes firm
hold, the vessel is in safety; it cannot be driven
to and fro by the storm, or dashed against rocks
by the hurricane.
~Then the children clearly understand what
an anchor is, and the office it performs, they
should be led to trace the analogy between
hope .and an anchor. The former is thrown
out from us, and is fixed upon something, and
if it has a firm grasp it will keep us steady; we
shall remain unshaken whatever mav assail as
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long as the anchor of hope retains its hold.
The children should be referred to Heb. vi.,
where the anchor is used as the emblem of
hope, which is described as having entered into
that within the veil, that is, the Holy of Holies,
the type of Heaven, where our great High
Priest is for us entered; anchored on Him, the
· rock of our salvation, we shall be kept immovably fixed amidst all the trials and temptations
of life. We of ten speak of a person or thin er
being our sheet anchor, which means that o~
·which we altogether depend as our last and
best resource.

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100

A BALANCE .

FOURTH SElUL':S.-LESSON XVII.

LESSON XVII.
A BALANCE.
Part.~.

The leve1· or beam.
pivot, or fulcrum.
scales
chains connecting
the scales with
the beam.

The qualities depend
upon the kind of
baln.nce used in the
lesson.

The balance)s an instrument used to ascertain the exact weight of anything. It is most
essential in trade; without such a help barter
and exchange would be guess-work, and dishonest dealings could not be easily detected.
When one scale perfectly balances the other ,
what is held in each is equal in weight, and if
in one scale standard weights are placed, the
substance in the other can be accurately determined.
The children should endeavour to find out
why the .balance is employed as the emblem of
justice, and why, whenever Justice is represented as a person, she always holds a pair of
scales in her hand. They will be able to trace
the analogy between testing a substance as to
its weight in scales and the exercise of justice,
which consists in impartially weighing conduct
or opinions against a lawful standard, in order

101

to arrive at a just and right judgment. They
will also understand the metaphor used to set
forth the conduct of Belshazzar,-" Thou art
weighed in the balance, and art found wantina."
His life and character were in one scale, God's
ho:iy ln.w and requirements in the other, and the
former fell short-was altogether deficient.
At this step some exercises would be well
introuuced 011 the connexion of different qualities. The children will easily be led to discover
that all absorbent objects are porous, that all
brittle substances a.re hard, that all adhesive ones
are tenacious, all sonorous ones are elastic ; that
to be malleable and ductile they must be tenacious, their particles cohering ; to be elastic, an
object must be either extensible flexible or·
'
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compressible.
Children may also, with profit, exercise their
conceptive powers in drawing, out of the treasures of their memory, examples of objects in
which any particular quality is found, and classifying· them according to the different degree in
which they possess the quality. Thus objects
may be remembered, furnishing a regular gradation from the most impenetrable opacity to the
clearest transparency ; the same may be done
with hard and soft-from soft as butter to as
hard as flint, &c.

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WAX CANDLE .

b efore the class, and likewise pictures of the
machinery e mployed in th e m a nufac ture.
M a ny of th e l essons in th e following series
will co nta in t oo mu ch m a t ter t o b e p rese n te d at
o ne time to the pupils , and mu ::: t ther efore be

FIFTH SERIE S.
INTHODUCTOHY

clivi<lod.

TIEMAI\KS.

. t GJ l (1Cl1 :is a f'1L;ct OXf'l'<'ISC
'l1rn:sE lesson s :iro m
in compos iti on . The ol>jcct should 1Jc: l':·esonl ecl
to th o chil r1ro11 , n,ncl they should contmne, as
1>efore, to make !.heir own oh;ervations upou it.
Q u et>tions shoulcl then lie ad.dressed. to U1cm1 ,
calc ulrttc cl t o elicit t h eir know lellgo o f its natnrnl
hi st ory , m:un1 f:tctnre, or composi ti on ; nrn1 fu~·­
ther partir:111flrs should aftorw rucls.
comrn 11.m11)
ca t.ec ~,' the teacher , to r en d er their rn for rnab on
more c~mpl ctc. After h:iYinc; ren,rr:rn g·eri rrn<'l
repeate<l the matter so ubtni110cl , .tl1c' fra.cli c r
sh-ould examine the cl ass , nnd r cqm r c n \Ynt Le n
c i,,h
accoun t . C 1u- 1·1,1
, 1-011 frolll
.
,, t to ten ..vcrrr,.; of
.
n,go have l1eriYcl1 gron.t, i 1111>rnY en ~c Jlt . Jrnrn 1111~
exorcise in composi Lio n.
lt stnu 11la ies U1e11·
attention, fornisli es n il'f-;(. of their haYing well
uuderstoocl tho lesi0011, a 1Hl leads Owm (o arrnllgc
arnl exp r ess thC'ir ic1e:1s 1Yit.h clt':Hness and
fac ility.
Arti!icial snl>s l:rn eos should Le exhi1Jite c1 , both i 11 tl rnir rnw nnc1 rnanufacturell
Btate. Tlrn s , in U1 e l esso u 011 flax, !he plant
itself, the fil>r es when soparaLel1 from the slem,
the thread when spun, rtntl tho vn.rio11 s :ir !iel es
into whi ch it is manufocturoc1, may be l>rought

LESSOX I .
( 'A.\il'l l <>H.

C: rn11 1hur if; Uw peculiaT j11iee of a specie :~ of
laitrcl l:all ecl LJ10 eam ph ur-Lree , wLieh is abun ch11t i11 Chinn , Borneo awl Ceylon. Expuc:u re to
t1 1c •Lir hanll' J1 s it. His H'lllarkL11l3' i11ila111n1ablc,
anc1 is u se d L.1· the I1ll1iaH pri ucc:-: tu ill11lllinate
Llt cir ruorns. lL is pu n gent , \'()la tile , acrid, flnc1
st~·o11gls ~LrOJHaLie. Those q u:JiLi os h n \"O r cuc1crcc1
it n:-:;dul :tt> a f:> Limulating arn1 r estora! in; rnec1ici;1e, :mc1 in c;ick rooins to prnn:nt c01da,c;·ion.
H j,.; 1ll,.;o placocl in cal;inots of na tural hi;;tory,
tu c1t:ci1rny Llw im1all in ;;oc !s whicli prny u1>u11 the

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103

LESSU~
\\'AX

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II.

C,c ~lJL l c.

\\":tx is ilw l'l'Ul1ucc: oJ' 1> L'l'fi : i1 is :t sulistanr·c
wliich is tiC'c.m·l<·<l in their l>ollics, awl of \\·liich
Uwy eo 11Htrnd Llwir coils . \\Then the l10n ()y is
ta ke !1 01it u f !it<! eo 111l> , Llie laUc r is m clled, :tllll
ai't.unrnnlci bl cal' lwd l >y ex p os urn to Urn air. The
wax, i u n, lic1ui1l st:tte, is p ot u·e,J i1du lcaclcn
m uuhls, in tl ie ccutro of whi<d1 Ll1e ·wiek h as bee n
previously iixed. Tho wick is rnac1c of coLtou

104

or flax, and when lighted, the melted wax rises
up its fibres and feeds the flame.

LESSON III.

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PUTTY.

Putty is a soft unctuous substance, which
hardens by exposure to the air, and is used by
glaziers to fasten the panes of glass to winclowframes. It is composed of linseed oil and ·w hiting, sometimes with the addition of white lead.
The whiting is prepared from chalk gronnd into
a fine powder ; and the oil and white lead are
worked into it, till all the substances are
thoroughly mixed together. Linseed oil is extracted from the seed of the flax ; it is so called
from linum, the botanical name of the plant.

LESSON IV.
SHELL LAC.

Shell lac is a substance produced by a little
insect called Coccus Lacca, and is deposited on
the small branches of the Indian fig-tree, for
the protection of its eggs. It discharges the
gum from its own body, and forms it into cells,
in each of which is placed an egg. ·when the
eggs are hatched the young grub pierces through
the viscid substance which enclosed it, and flies
awn,y; .and the material provided for a little
insect's well-being becomes a valuable article of
commerce. * The lac is first sold on the sticks,

*

CHEESE.

FIFTH SERIES. --LESSON Ill.

'.l'l1e chiltlrcn would be inter ested in recollecting many
instances of this primary and secondary use of subs tances,

105

when it is called stick lac; but after it has been
purified and formed into thin layers or cakes, it
is called shell lac. It is the principal ingredient
in sealing-wax and varnish, and is employed in
japann_ing. Its usefulness arises from its being
fusible, soluble, and adhesive.

LESSON V.
BUTTER.

Butter is prepared from the milk of the cow.
When milk has been allowed to stand a few
hours, a thick, rich substance, called cream, rises
to the surface. This is skimmed off, and by
being briskly agitated, is converted into butter.
The instrument by which this operation is performed is called a churn. There is another
substance found in the churn besides butter:
it is called butter-niilk, and when fresh is drunk
by the peasantry. The butter prepared for
winter store is salted, and packed in barrels and
tubs. The person who attends the cattle is
called a cowherd, and the place where the milk
is kept, a dairy.

LESSON VI.
CHEESE.

Cheese is prepared from milk which is
coagulated or curdled, by mixing it with a liquor
and their attention might be directed to a perception of the
djfference between m an's work and that of the lower creatures;
the latter led by instinct, the former by r eason· and experience,
resulting in dirn :iver.v.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON :VII.

called rennet : the curds thus formed are a
white solid substance; they are separated from
the whey or watery particles of the milk, and then
press&d and dried. Rennet is made by steeping
the inner membrane of a young calf's stomach
in water. A colour is usually given to cheese by
saffron, or by a substance called wmalo, which
is the seed-vessel of a shrub growing in the
vV est Indies.

LESSON Vll.
HORN.
,;1

·"

Horn is the hard substance that forms the
frontal projections of horned animals, all of
which are graminivorous or grass eaters .* This
substance when boiled, becomes a soft jelly, and
can be moulded into any shape . By a peculiar
process it is rendered semi-transparent, and
when formed into thin laminm or plates is employed instead of glass for lantern. It was the
first transparent substance used for windows.
It is now chiefly employed for combs, handles
to knives and forks, occasionally for chinking
utensils and inkhorns. It was formerly in much
greater request than it is now, glass having been
substituted in its place.

LESSON VIII.
HONEY.

Honey is a sweet vegetable juice, collected
by bees from the nectaries of flowers. These

* From

Latin , gram-en, grass. vor-a.re, to eat.

STARCH.

107

insects are furnished with a long hollow trunk
or proboscis, which they insert into the tubes
of flowers and suck up the honey they contain;
when well-laden with their treasure, they carry
it home and deposit it in their cells for a winter
store.
.
'l'he description given of J udwa as a "land
flowing with milk and honey, " was literally true .
The richness of the vegetation supplied the bees
with ample stores; their combs were usually
placed in clef ts of rocks or the hollows of trees
and being continually melted by the heat of the'
sun, the honey actually flowed out of them in
streams. See 1 Sam. xiv. 25, 2G.

LESSON IX.
STAR CU.

Starch is a white substance, with sc1trcely any
smell or taste ; it is insoluule in cold water but
combines with warm water, forming a kind of
jelly. It may be obtained from several farinaceous vegetables, but is generally prepared
from wheat, b3' the following process.
The
wheat is put into tubs of water and exposed
for some days to the heat of the sun, which
brings on a degree of fermentation; during the
process the vrnter is changed twice a-day.
\V"hei1 sufficiently softened, it is poured into
large canvas bags, which are worked or beaten,
in order to separate the husks from the farinaceous particles; these last are received into an

108

109

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON X.

GLUE.

empty vessel.
Fresh water is then mixed with
them , and the whole is left to settle; the water
.
is poured off, and the sedimen.t which re~a1~s
at the bottom of the vessel is starch: this lS
formed into small pieces and dried. Starch?
with the addition of smalt or stone blue; is used
to stiffen linen : it is also formed into a powder
for the hair. Starch, or Fecula, is the nutritive
part of most gra.ins and roots; it may be extracted
in considerable quantities from potatoes.

placed a coarse blanket 0r canvas bag, filled
with straw. When the fire has heated the kiln,
a board, on which is a weight, is placed upon
the blanket, and presses the saffron together.
Saffron has a s-weet odor-a pungent, bitterish
taste, and is of a d eep orange red colour. It is
used as a medicine, to flavour cakes, and to form
11 yellow dye, valuable to painters and dyers, ancl
to colour cheese and butter.
LESSON XI.

LESSON X.
SAFFRON.

Saffron is the orange-coloured pistil of a purple 13pecies of crocus, the leaves. of which appear in spring, and the blossoms m autumn. It
abounds in the neighborhood of Saffron Waldon,
in Essex, which takes its name from that circumstance. The flowers are gathered every morning just before they expand: and as they continue to open in succession for several weeks,
the saffron harvest lasts a considerable time.
When the flowers n,re gathered they are spread
on a table: the upper part of the pistil only is of
any value. When a sufficient quantity of. these
are collected, they are dried upon a kmd of
portable kiln; over this a kind of hair cloth. is
stretched, and upon it a few sheets of white
paper; the saffron is placed upon these to tl~ e
thickness of two or three inches: the whole lS
then covered with white paper, over which is

COUHT -PL ASTEH .

Court-plaster is a black, adhesive, thin substance, applied to wounds on the skin, to protect them from the injurious effects of the air.
The following is the manner of preparing it: a
thin black sarcenet is stretched on a frame; a
warm solution of isinglass is applied with a
brush equally over the surface; when dry, this
operation is repeateJ a sec0nd or third time. It
is next washed over with some benzoin dissolved
in spirits of wine. Benzoin is a resinou s gum,
which exudes from a tree growing in Sumatra, and
possesses an aromatic perfume, and acts as a
styptic. It is the chief ing-redient in Friar's Balsam, and gives it the healing virtue it possesses.
LESSO:K XII.
GLUE.

Glue is a viscid, tenacious substance, useJ as
cement. The best is obtained from the skin of

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XIII.

INDIAN-RUBBER, OR GUM ELASTIC .

:animals, generally the shavings, parings, and
·strips, which have boen rejected by the currier.
An inferior . kind is procured from the hoofs,
sinew,,,otc., of animals. It is prepated by steepinoia waLcr, L11en
n the
. R1'iu for Lwo or three 11ays
.
boiling it till it liecomes a. U1ick jull,Y; whi L;L LoL it
straine(l throug·h osier baskets, the pure glue
passes thro11gl1 the interstice", leaving tl1e impuriti(-;s in the b;i,skct. It is Uien melted ;L scrnrn1
time, poured into square fnnnes or rnuulJs,
and placed in tho ttir to cool graJually a,11J cuugeal: Glue is used by carpenters, joincm:;, hatters, bookbi1ulern, etc.
Isinglass is the finest kind of glue, prepared
from the nir-l1bd1lers or sounds of all tho species of the Rtnrgeon; when fine it is of a, white
color, semi-trnusparent an<l. dry. IL is useJ for
culinary puqioses, and for refining wine, Riso
for stiffening silks, and in sticking-plaster.

and fibres, are taken out of the pod, and those
which are the produce of the vVest Indies are
preserved in n. syrup. The East Indian tamarinds are usually sent without any such admixtrn·o. In hot CCJ111drics LlJO 1amarillc1 is valued
as 11 rnfrcsliiu 0· fruil.; :uHl, i;Lccped in water, it
forms a cool in 0 bcYcra ,,"·c·-'•

LESSON XIlI.
TAi\TATITNDS.
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The fruit of the 'l amarind, a tree growing in
the ~ast and \Vest Indies, is a roundish, somewhat comprcsscc1 iiou, :iuout four or fiso iudies
long , the external part of wiiieh is very lJriUle.
Each pod contains three or four lrnrd seeds enclosed in t,ough skins , surromH1cl1 lw n t1ark-colourec1 acid pulp, and connected together liy
numerous tough woody fibres. Before the tamarinds are exporte~ the pulp, with the seeds

111

fY

LESSOX XIV .
li>dll\l\-HFJn;r:n, OH Gl 1:'1I ELASTIC .

lw1ian-rnh1cr is tl 1c hardened juice of a tree

·w hich
make
. fl
c1lie S
w11id1

gro1Ys in SouLll America. 'l'lie Im1ians
incisio1rn through the bark of the tree
.
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111 wet wc.'1Lhcr; a milky i'uice oozes ont
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secml<1 is put o\·c:r it; lhis
operation isrepeatocl till the Inc1ian-rnbhcr is ()f
the thickness rcquircc1 . Aft er this it. is placeLl
over tho smoke of hurni1J g yegetahle.c;, which
har.dens and Jarke11s it.. The natives apply it to
var10us purposes; for water-proof boots, for
ho t!.JC';; , and als o for :ffambca11\, which g·fro a YonurillianL liglit, awJ Lurn fur H gn,at. . longth ~£
LiJllc. T Lu p1·i11t·i11al 11.c;<·:-i Lo \1·J1id1 I11d ian-ni!Jl 1ur is applio11 l1 c re , :ire i11c (•fl'ac i11g uf 1Jbck lc:ac1 rnml.s, for 1n1tu.::- proo r ;;hoes, fur Lall:-;,
1l o:i:.ible tubes, syrin1~· cs , a1111 uilrnr instruments
uscJ by s urgeon s and clie111i:-;ts. Clo tl1 of all
bnds nrny b e rn1H1c iit1 ienLdr:tlJle to irater, if
impregnatec1 with the fresh juice of the Indian-

ru bber tree.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XV.

sheathed with Indian-rubber, cut very thin; it is
said to be an effectual preservative from the injuries of shell :fish.

I

CORK.

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LESSON XVI.
COTIK.

LESSON XV.
l<'OHEIGN cumtAN'l'S.

rrhe foreign, or dried currants, are a species of
small raisins or grapes, which chieily grow in the
Grecian Islands. They were formerly very alrnndrmt in the Isthmus of Corinth-and w<.lre called
from thence Corinthians; this term has been corrupted into currants, probably from their resemblance to the English fruit of that name. These
little grapes have no stones, and are of a reddish
black colour; they are extremely delicious when
fresh gathered.
The hal'Vest commences in
August; and as soon as the grapes are gathered,
they are spread to dry on 11 floor, prepared for
the purpose by stamping the earth quite hard.
This floor is formed with 11 gentle rising in the
middle, that the rain, in case any should fall,
may flow off and not injure the fruit. When
sufficiently dry, the currants are cleaned and
laid up in magazines, where they are so closely
pressed together that when a supply is needed
it is dug out with an iron instrument.
They are packed in large casks for exportation, and trodden down by the n;, ti ves.

r

Cork is the thick and spongy bark of a kind
of oak, growi11g cliiefl.y in tho mountainous districts of Spain. vVhen it is to be removed from
the tree, a 1011gitudi11al slit is cut, at the cxtremitioH of whieh incisions are rn:cde rou11c1 the
trunk; it cau then be strippcc1 off 1YiU1 great
case by means of a curved knife with a hnlHlle at
both ends. 'WJien the bark is taken from the
tree, it is piled up in a ditch or pond, and heavy
stones are placc~d upou iL in order to flatten it.
After being dried, it is slightly burnt or charred,
and then packed for ex:port,ation. Cork is light,
porous, readily compressible, and extremely elastie: notwithstanding its great porosity, it is
nenrly impervious to any common liquor. These
qualities make it superior to any other substance
for stoppers for bottles. Defore being ma<le in to
stoppers, the cork is charred,-this makes it
contract, and fits it better by lessening its porosity for cutting off communication between the
external air and the liquid.
A piece rather
larger than the neck of the bottle is inserted
the tendency it has to resume its former shape'
causes it completely to fill up the aperture, and
exclude the air. Its buoyant effect in water,
arising from its lightness, renders it useful to
those who are learning to swim: for the same

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FIFTH SERIES. -LESSON

II

xvn.

reason it is employed in the construction of lifeboats and for the floats of :fishing-nets. The
Spaniards make lamp-black of_ it .. Th_e men employed in cutting· and prepanng it for saJo aro
called cork-cutters.

LESSON .XVII.
LEA'l' J!I::H.

Leather is the prepareL1 skin of nninrnls: that
of cows, ox.un, and horses, i8 chieJly lrned for
shoes: that of kids, goats and dogs, for g loves ,
and also shoes; and that of calves, for bookbinding, snddles, harness, etc.
.
'rhe unprepared skin iR called a hidP.; the first
operation it underuoes is soaking iu lime-water,
b
. .
to cleanse it from grease and other impunties;
the hairs are then removed by a kind of knife,
the oil and grease are afterwards more complet~­
ly extracted by an alkali, or diluted sulphunc
acid. After this it is taken to the tan-yar:1,
stretched over a pit, and covered with tan; I~
this state it remains about two months. But if
the leather be intended for the upper part of
shoes seats of saddles, and such purposes as do
not r~quire O"reat strength or impermeability to
b
. work- is
.
water it is first
sent to the cun:ier; 1us
to scr~pe it., reducing it all to an equal degr~e of
thickness . and also to rPnder it supple by 011 or
grease. The skins are then tanned. Tan is the
bark of tlrn oak, and possesses a remarka ble de-

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SPONGE.

gree of astringency; it consequently contracts
the pores of the leather, and renders it impervious to wet.- The c1u::tliiy '.dtic:h the leather
tlrns o1bius frorn tho ta uui11 g-, combino<l ·with
ii.:; durnliiliL,r a1Hl sttpplorn'ss, JJart ic:ularly ad:q lts
it for sl io es, L1)0Ls, ok.

LESSO:\" XVIII.

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SPONGE.

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~ponge is a marine substance, soft , porous,
light and compressible ; it was formerly supp osed
to be a vegetaLle, but the opinion now generally entertained is, th at it is a habi tation con:-:;truc:tecl Ly a li ttle \\'Orm, one of the species
considered to occupy the lowest rank in the
animal kingclom. It is fou rnl firmly aclhpring to
various marin e substances at the bottom of the
sea, especially in the l\Iediterranean, and is procured by divers, who are early tra.inetl to this
employment. Sponge absorbs fluid rapidly, and
yields them again wh en compressed. It was
forme rly s;iturntucl with myrrh and wine, and
given to p er sons suffering the punishm ent of
crucifixion, in order to deaden the sense of
pain, and subdue the intolerable thirst whi ch is
the consequence of their agony. To this cust om the sacred historian r efers in the account of
our Lord's d eath; but his unrelenting persecu.
tors, instead of offering him the myrrh and
wine, "filled a sponge \\·ith vinegar, and put it

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FIFTH SERrnS.-LESSON XIX.

TEA .

upon hyssop, and put it to his mouth." The
offer of vinega:r was considered among the Jews
as an intolerable outrage to their feelings, and
this is alluded to in the following passage,
which at the same time foretold the future sufferings of the Redeemer of mankind,-"Reproach hath broken my heart, and I am full of
heaviness; and I looked for some to take pity,
but there was none; and for comforters, lmt I
found none. They gave me also gall for my
meat, and 111 my thirst they gave me vinegar
to drink." (Ps. lxix, 20, 21.)

it~ very stimulating property. Its discovery is
s~1d to have been occasioned by the following

circumstance. Some goats, who browsed upon
this plant, were observed by the goat-herd to be
exceedingly wakeful, and often to caper about in
the night; the prior of a neighboring monastery,
wishing to keep his monks awake at their matins
tried if the coffee would produce the same effect
upon them as it was observed to do upon the
goats; the success of his experiment led to the
appreciation of its value.

LESSON XIX.

LESSON XX.

COFFEE.

TEA.

Coffee is the seed of a plant growing principally in Arabia and the ·west Indies; the
flower resembles jessamine, and the leaves are
evergreen; the fruit when ripe is like the cherry;
it contains two cells, and each cell has a single
hemi-spherical seed. ·when ripe, it is either g·athered by the hand, or shaken from the trees, and
placed on mats for the sun to dry the pulpy
substance which surrounds the seed. The husk
is broken by heavy rollers, and afterwards removed by winnowing. In Ol'der to prepare the
coffee for a beverage, it must be roasted till it
becomes of a dark brown colour, and extremely
odorous; after which it is ground, and either infused or boiled in water. It is remarkable for

117

The bevemge called Tea is an infusion of
leaves; the plant which produces them is a
native of Japan and China; it bears a flower resembling the wild rose, and the leaves are narrow, pointed, and serrated. It grows only in a
stony soil, and at the foot of mountains and
rocks, exposed to a southern aspect.
There is
a. great art exercised in gathering and drying
the leaves, which are afterwards subjected to
the vapour of boiling water to moisten them.
In this state they are laid upon plates of metal,
and being exposed to considerable heat, curl up.
Green tea is the produce of the same plant as
black; the difference of its qualities arises from
the leaves being gathered in a different stage of

12A

118

llD

FIFTH Sl!:HIES.-LRSSON XXI.

its growth, and from their being dried upon ·
plates of copper.

LESSON XXII.
S,\GO.

Sago is the pith of the sago palm, a tree in·
digenous to Japan and tbe dry rocky mountains
of lVIala bar.
It is hardly possible to imagine a plant more
graceful in its foliage , or more beautiful when in
fruit, than this species of palm. The foliation,
which slightly resembles that of the fern, is
placed on the stem in the manner of the feathers
of a shuttlecock, forming· 1:L gigantic basket
of the most graceful appearance; at the bottom
of this is the salmon-coloured flower, resembling, both in sluipe ancl texture, the blossom of
the cockscomb, but of a pale buff colour, incliuiug
to brown. The fruit is a drupa, that is, a nut
snrroundecl by a pulpy s ubstance, as a plum.
The growth of this plant is at first slow; it appears for some time as a shrub thickly set with
prickles: as it increases in height, it loses its
thorns. ·when the tree has reached its maturity,
a whitish powder transpires through the pores
of the leaves, and adheres to their extremities.
On this intimation of the trees being filled
with pith, the 1\Ialays cut them down near their
roots, and divide them into several sl':lctions,
which are split iuto quarter.:;. The bark is woody,
and about an inch in thickness; in the centre of
the stem is a fat or gummy pith, ·which forms
the sago. This pithy substance b eing scooped

LESSON XXL
HICE.

Rice is the grain of a kind of corn, aud grows
in a spike similar to oats: it is very abm1dant in
China, the East and vVest Indies, and America:
it . is also produced in the south of Europe.
Switzerland draws its supply from Piedmont.
Patna rice is considered the finest of any other
rice grown in the East; it is small-grained and
very white. But the most esteemed rice is that
produced in the marshy grounds of Carolina. It
will not thrive without much moisture, and
therefore comes to the greatest perfection in
marshy landi::. The cultivators of rice always
inundate their grounds, and the higher the water
rises, the higher the pl::tnt grows, the ear al ways
appearing over the water. It requires as much
heat to mature the seed as it does moisture to
nourish the plant in its growth. In India the
women thresh and prnpare the rice, which is a
very laborious employment. The Brahmins liYe
almost entirely upon it, their religion forbidding
them the mie of animal food. Rice is very light
and wholesome, but, it is considered to possess
less of the nutritive principle than wheat; it is
manufactured into vessels which resemble china
or alabaster.
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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXIII.

out, is diluted in pure water, and strained
through a bag of fine cloth, which separates the
glutinous from the farinaceous matter. This
latter having lost part of its moisture by evaporation, is passed through sieves, by which process it becomes granulated, and being received
into earthen vessels, it dries and hardens into
little globules. Sago is extremely nutritious 11nd
wholesome, and forms an excellent light diet for
invalids .

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LESSON XXIII.

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THE COCOA-NU'.r.

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The tree which produces this fruit is a kind of
palm ; its trunk resembles a stately column,
crowned at the summit with narrow leaves, fourteen or fifteen feet in length, and only three in
breadth : amidst these hangs the fruit. The
external rind of the cocoa-nut is thin, brown,
smooth, and approaches a triangular form. This
covering incloses an extremely fibrous substance,
of considerable thickness, which immediately
surrounds the nut ; the latter has a thick and
hard shell, with th1·ee holes · at the base, each
closed by a black membrane. The kernel is
about an inch~in thickness, it lines the shell and
encloses a sweet refreshing liquid. The cocoanut tree affords the Indians food, clothing, and
means of shelter. Before the kernel comes to
maturity it is soft and pulpy, may he . scraped

BREAD.

121

out with a spoon, and supplies the natives with
an agreeable and nutritious food; when pressed
in a mill it yields an oil. By makiug incisions
in the tree during the spring a cool, refreshing
liquor flows out, which, if allowed to stand any
time, ferments, becomes spirituous, a111l is exceedingly intoxicating-it is called toddy . By
soaking the fibrous trunk in water it is made
soft, and can be manufactured into sail-cloth,
or twisted into cordage of any description, which
surpasses in durability that formed of hemp.
The woody shells are very hard, and susceptible
of a high polish; they are used for cups, ladles,
and other domestic utensils. The trunk of the
tree furnishes either beams or rafters for habitations, or is made into boats. The. leaves, platted
together, form an excellent thatch ; they are
also used for umbrellas, mats, and various other
useful articles.

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LESSON XXIV.
BREAD.

Bread, the principal article in the food of most
civilized countries, is made of fl.our, yeast, and a
little salt, kneaded together with water into a
soft paste called dough. Flour is most frequently made of wheat. It is first threshed,
either with a flail or a threshing-machine,- the
grain is next separated from the chaff by winnowing; it is then ground in a mill and con-

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SUGAR.
FIF'l'H SERIES.--LESSON XXV.

verted into flour; the skin of the grain, when
separated, is called bran ; when left with the
flour it makes the flour browner and coarser, but
more nutritious. Yeast is the frothy substance
which rises to the top of new b eer ; it p enetrates
the dourrh disunites the particles, causes them
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to rise, and thus makes the bread light..
t is
similar in its effects to the leaven mentioned m
Scripture, which is sour dough; it penetra~es
and changes the state of the whole mass with
which it is mixed. Leaven is used to represent
that evil disposition we inherit from Adam, and
which pervades and corrupts our whol~ nat'.1r~.
Our Saviour calls himself the bread of life ; mtimating, that as bread, by its nutritious proper. ties, supports our bodies, so He, by the influence
of His Spirit, maintains the life of our souls.
Bread is termed the staff of life, and is frequently
used to signify food in general. A man is thus
said to earn his bread, or bis subsistence ; and
we pray for our daily bread, or sufficient foo~.
Rye, oats and barley· are sometimes made mto
bread.

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LESSON XXV.
SUGAR.

~ugar is the produce of the sugar-cane, a pl~nt
growing principally in the East and ·w est Ind~es.
A field of canes in blossom presents a beautiful
sight; the stem is . a jointed culmus or reed, of a

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123

bright golden hue when ripe, and growing amidst
long , narrow, pendent leaves . The flowers
appear like a plume of white feathers, tinged
with lilac. ·when ripe, the cane or stem is
gathered and conveyed . to the mill, where it is
pressed between two iron cylinders : the juice
is received into a trough, and from thence it is
conveyed to a boiler, into which some quick lime
is thrown; this uniting with the oleaginous
particles and the superabundant acid, rises with
them to the surface, and is skimmed off. ·when
the sugar nen.rly boils, it is strained off into
another boiler, where it underg·oes the same
process as before. This is repeated six: or seven
times, and finally it is r eceived into coolers,
which are shallow wooden vessels; iu these the
sugar forms into grains, separating itself from
the rnolasses : when dry it is called raw Sligar,
and is barrelled for exportation.
The process
of converting it into white or refined sugar is
the business of the su.gar refiner or baker; he
boils it over again, with some purifying substances.
The planter is the c ultivator of the sugarcanes. The m erchant imports it.
The sugarrefin er converts it into \\'hite sugar. The grocr>.r
retails the sugar in small quantities.

124

FIF'l'H SERIES.-LESSON

xxvr.

LESSON XXVL
WHALEBONE.

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Whalebone, a horny, elastic, and fibrous substance, is taken from the jaw-bone of the whale;
the largest animal that now inhabits our globe ..
The vessels employed in the whale-fishery are
called whalers.
The fish is discovered by the
water which it spouts up; when on e is observed,
six boats are immediately despatched from the
whaler, with six row.ers in each: a man accompanies them called a harp0oner, from lris_b eing
tnmecl with a harpoon, a kind of forked mstrument; it lrns affixed to it a rope, at the other
end of which is a gourd; the harpoon having
been darted into the whale, the 'gourd mar.Im
the spot where the wounded animal disa.ppears.
\¥hen the whale is struck, he dives with such
velocity under Uie surface, that it is necessary
to wet the rope which he drags over the side of
the bo1t, to prevent its taking fire; and the
fishermen loo~e their hold of it for a time, till
the strength of the animal is in some degree
spent, or there would be danger of his sinking
the boat by his extreme violence.
The whale
cannot remain long under ·water; he soon reappears, spouting up blood, and is again
att:l.cked by the harpooners, who, after repeated
efforts dispatch him. ·when dead he is cut up.
The fat, which is called blubber, is stmved into
casks, and oil is afterwards procurecl from it.

GLASS.

'125

:Tiie bone is used as a stiffener for whips, bows,
:stays, &c. The whale fisheries are carried on in
the Polar seas.

LESSON XXVII.
GLASS.

Glass is made of sand or flint, combined with
an . alkali by exposure to intense heat, which
causes these substances to unite and melt. This
mixture is said to have been discovered accidentally in Syria, by some merchants who were
driven by stress of weather upon its shores.
They had lighted a fire upon the sands to cook
their food; the fire was made of the plant called
kali, which grows on the sea-shore; the sand
mixed with its ashes and became vitrified* by
the heat. This, it is said, furnished the merchants with the· hint that led to the making
of _glass, which was first regularly manufactured
;1t Sidon in Syria. England is now much celebrated for its glass. The qualities which r ender
the substance so valuable are, that it is hard,
ti-ansparent, incorrosive, not being affected by
· any substance but fluoric acid, and when fused
it becomes so ductile and plastic that it may be
moulded into any form, which it will retain
when cool. There are three sorts of furnaces
used in making it; one to prepare the frit, a
*Derived fr om La.tin vitr-mn, glasH , and fi-t, it becom es.

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FIFTH 8ERIES.-LEBS._ON XXVIII.

second to work the glass, and a . third to annea~
it. After having properly mixed the ashes and
sand tlaey are put into the first furnace, when~
. they are burned or calcined for a sufficient time,
and become what is called frit.
Thlt; being
boiled afterwards in pots or crucibles of pipe~
clay in the second furnac!'l,:is fit for the operaation of blowing; the annealing furnace is in~
. tended to cool the glass very gradually, fo1· if it
be exposed to the cold air immediatel! after it ~s
blown it will fall into a thousand pieces, as if
struck by a hammer .
. Before glass was invented, thin folia of mica
were used for windows .

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PAPER.

127

dergoes a similar operation. It is afterwards
left to dry, and then is taken off the frame and
given to the parchment-maker. He first puts it
on an instrument called a summer (which is a
calf's skin well stretched out on a frame), and
scrapes it with a sharp iron tool, until one-half
of the thickness of the skin is pared off; the
pumice-stone is next rubbed over it on both sides
till it is rendered quite smooth.
Parchment was in use long before the invention of paper. Wills and other documents, intended to be preserved for any length of time,
are written on it. It is also used for drums.

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LESSON XXVIII.

LESSON XXIX.
PAPER.

PARCHMENT.

Parchment is the skin of sheep or goats~ prepared in the following order: The wool or hair
is stripped off the skin, which is then taken to
the lime -pit; after this it is stretched as tight as
a drum upon ta frame, and the flesh pared off
with a keen-edged instrument; a kind of white
stone or chalk, reduced to a fine po·wder, is
then spread upon the surface, and a large pumice stone, flat at bottom, is rubbed over it, which
scours off the remainder of the flesh. The knife
is once more applied to the skin, which is moistened and rubbed again with pumice-stone, until
the inner side is _!:l mootb. 'l'he outside then un-

Linen paper was first introduced into England
in the fourteenth century. It is made of linen
rags, first carefully picked and sorted according
to their quality; they are then reduced to a pulp
by a machine which consists of a solid cylindrical piece of wood, into which are fastened
i)lates of steel ground very sharp; this is fixed
in a trough, into which the rags are put with a
sufficient quantity of water. At the bottom of
the trough is a plate with steel bars, also ground
sharp. The engine being turned round with
considerable velocity, and the rags passing
through the two sets of iron plates, are torn to
pieces, and in the course of four hours are reduced

128

PAPER.

The motion of the engine causes
the water in the trough to circulate, and by that
means constantly returns the stuff to the engine.
The trough is fed with clear water at one end,
while the dirty water is carried off at the other
through 11 hole defended with wire grating to prevent the escape of the pulp. From this, which
is called the washing engine, the pulp passes in
a state of purity and whiteness to another engine,
similarly constructed, and called the beating
eugine. The only difference between this operaation and tho former is, thn,t the velocity is in,.
creased, and t'hat it is no longer necessary to
introduce fresh water, the pulp having been already cleansed from its impurities.
From
hence it passes into a large 'vat connected
with boilers, and the heat they produce gives
the pulp a degree of consistency: it is afterwards
conveyed into smaller vessels, in each of which
is a wheel called an agitator, which prevents it
from sinking to the bottom. Into these vessels
a workman dips a mould, a kind of sieve, the
size of the paper to be made, and about n,n inch
deep: the bottom is formed of fine brass wires,
through which the superfluous water passes.
The skill of the workm:111 consists in taking up
just so much pulp as is necessary to form the
paper of a proper thickness. Another workman
is stationed to receive from the first the mould,
out of \Vhich he turns the sheet upon a felt or
woollen cloth; _another woollen cloth is placed

upon it, ready to receive the next sheet. Thus
they proceed, placing alternately paper and felt,
till they have made six quires of paper. This
is then wheeled to the press, where great force
is applied, and the water is squeezed from it.
_After this the paper is separated from the felt:
one sheet is laid upon another, and it undergoes a second pressure. This operation is
repeated five or six times, and the sheets are
separated from one another between each
application of the screw-press. They are afterwards hung up to dry in rooms where there is a
fresh current of air. In this state the paper
is absorbent, like blotting-paper; to fit it for
writing, it is sized. Size is made of vellum*
shavings boiled in water, with sulphfi:te of
zinc and alum finely pounded. After the paper
is sized, it is again pressed four or five times
and hung up to dry as before. It is then
told int0 quires, and sent to the stationer, who
prepares it for sale.
The most ancient kind of paper waH made from
the Papyrus, a species of reed growing on the
banks of the Nile, from whence our name paper.
Leaves also were employed at a very early period
for the purpose of preserving and transmitting
the opinions and experiences of mankind; hence
originated the word fol1:0, (folium being the Latin
for leaf), and also the meaning of leaf as applied
to a book. '11he use of bark succeeded that of

to a'. pulp.

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* Vellum is the prepared skin of young calves.
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FIFTH SERIES. --LESSON XXIX .

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXX.

COT'fON.

131

''f

leaves, generally the inner bark of the lime tree;
it was called by the Homans liber, and they gave
the name of liber to a book, and we have adopted
the term library for a collection of books. For
the convenience of carrying, this substance -was
rolled up, and in this form was denominated
volumen, from which is clearly derived our volume. Our Saxon ancestors employed the bark
of the beech, and called it boc, a name which we
have transferred to our book. It is probable that
skins of animals were the first substances upon
which characters were written.

qualities. It is next cleansed from its impurities, and committed to the wool-comber, who, by
means of iron-spiked combs of different degrees
of fineness, draws out the fibres, smooths, and
straightens them. It is then prepared for the
spinner, who forms it into threads, the more
twisted of which are called worsted, and the less
twisted ya-r n. It is then employed in the m~nu­
facture of every description of hosiery, stuffs,
carpets, flannels, blankets, and cloths. England manufactures so much woollen clothing,
that it was formerly considered the staple commodity of the country; and to mark its importance the Lord Chancellor sits upon a woolsack.

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LESSON XXX.

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WOOL.

The clothing manufactured from wool is particularly adapted to cold countries; not that it
communicates warmth, but, being a non-conductor of heat, it prevents that of our bodies
from escaping. Wool is the hairy covering of
sheep, which has a peculiar felting property; it
is taken from the living animal in the summer
season, by an operation called sheep-shearing,
and in that state is called the fleece. The wool
of the Spanish sheep is particularly fine; the
flocks in that country are often very large, containing as many as a thousand sheep.
The first operation performed on the raw wool
is to pick and sort it; this is particularly needful, as the same sheep produces wool of various

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LESSON XXXI.
COTTON.

The cotton plant is cultivated in the East and
West Indies; it produces a beautiful yellow
flower; and the seed-vessel is a pod containing a
white downy substance which surrounds the
seed. This is picked by the hand and separated
from the seeds by a machine, which at the same
time loosens its fibres; afterwards it is packed
in large bags, and sent by the pla"nter to the
manufacturer. It is then carded, that is, wound
upon cylindrical cards, worked by machinery;
afterwards it is roved, by which process the
loose fibres are removed with an instrument resembling a comb; it is then twisted and drawn

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FLAX.

out into threadH or yarn, and sent to the weaver.
It is made into muslins, calicoes, stockings,
quilts, corduroys, etc. The machinery employed
in l!:ngland in ·carding, roving and spinning, is
quite unequalled, and occasions our cotton goods
to be much sought after. In India and China
some of the plants produce a buff cotton, of
which nankeens are manufactured.

then dmwn through a comb with coarse iron
teeth, and afterwards through one with finer
teeth. The refuse is called tow, and is the substance used to make packing-cloths and for the
cG.ulking of ships. The operation of spinning,
which next succeeds, -is clrawinrr
out several of the
b
fihres and twisting them: this was formerly done
by means of a distaff, but now it is performed in a
more expeditious manner by machinery. Weaving is the final operation; it may be regarded n.s
a finer kind of matting. 'l1o perform it, the
threads which compose the length of a piece of
cloth are first disposed in order, and strained
by weights to a proper tightness; this is called
the warp. 'fhese threads are separated by an
instrument called a recd, into two sets , each
composed of every other thread; and while, by
the working of a treadle, each set of threads
is thrown n.lternately up and d own, the crossthreads, called the woof or weft, are inserted
between them , by means of a little instrument
'
sharp at b oth ends, call ed a shutlle, which the
weaver briskly throws from one hand to the other
'
and whieh carries the thread with it.
Tliis is
the most simple kind of weaving. The quality
of the flax depends upon the soil in which it is
cultivated; but the fineness of the thread in some
degree upon tlte dexterily 0£ the spinner.
. Egypt was celebrated at a very early p eriocl
.for the manufacture of linen; and Ireland is so
now.

LESSON XXXII.
FLAX.

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Flax is a slender annual plant with a hollow
fibrous stem, bearin·g a delicate blue flower.
Linen, lace, and canvas are made of its fibrous
bark. When the flax is gathered it is exposed
for some time to the influence of the sun to ripen
the seeds, which are afterwards threshed out and
an oil called linseed oil* is expressed from them.
The stalks are then loosely tied in bundles, fastened to poles, and placed in stagnant pools,
where they are left to steep for about fifteen
days . By the fermentation which ensues, the
bark or fla xy substance becomes separated, when
the stn.lks are thinly spread on the grass, in
which state they exhale a very disagreeable and
pernicious odor.
After this operation they are
b eaten with a mallet, which removes the pulpy
substance and loosens the fibres; the latter u.re
*Linseed antl·lincn aro tlerivcd from lin-1-im, tho Latin and
"botanical name of the plant .

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXII.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON

xxxm.

SILK.

135

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LESSON XX.XIII.
Hemp is obtained from an annual plant which
thrives in a rich moist soil in temperate climates.
It is much cultivated in Norfolk and Suffolk;
and in Russia it forms one of the principal
article8 of commerce. The stalk consists chiefly
of a tissue of :fibres, coarser aJ.Ld stronger than
those of fl.ax, joined together by a soft substance,
which easily rots. At the proper season it is
gathered and steeped in water: then beaten in
order to loosen the bark from the :fibres. This
is completed by an operation called carding,
performed with an instrument resembling a comb.
It is next spun, and then passes into the hands
of the rope-maker or weaver, according to ·the
use for which it is designed.
The extreme toughness, pliability, and durability of hemp, :fit it peculiarly for purposes
where great strength is required, as the cordage
and tackle of our vessels and :fishing-nets. It is
computed that the sails and cordage of a :fi.rstrate man of war, require as much hemp for their
construction as would be the yearly produce of
four hundred and twenty-four acres of land.
Good huckaback is made from hemp, for
towels and common tablecloths. Hempen cloths
are generally worn by husbandmen and labouring manufacturers;,

LESSON

xxxrv.

BILK.

SHk is a fine glossy thread Bpun by a caterpillar, and constitutes the covering by which it
envelopes itself when it changes from the larva
state to that of the chrysalis. From the latter
inanimate condition it emerges as a moth and
having laid ~ts eggs it soon dies.
'
The cocoon, or web of the silk-worm, is an
oval ball of silk, which it has spun out of a substance secreted in its own body. The 1-'hades of
th~s silk vary fr.om t~e pales t s~raw-color to deep
ye1low. In then· native countnes tbe silk-,vorms
form their cocoons upon the mulberry-tree itself
where they shine like golden fruits amidst tL;
leav.es; but the colder climate of Europ e will not
allow_ of their being raised in the open air. They
ure, m consequence_, kept in warm but airy
rooms, and fed ·with mulberry leaves till they
are fully grown. They change their skin several
times while they are in the caterpillar state; at
leng~h t~ey become so full of the silky matter
that it gives them a yello·w ish tinge ; they tben
~ease to eat. A~ this indication of their approachmg
. change twigs are placed over then1 , u pon
h~tle stages_ of wicker work, on which they immediately begm to form th eir webs. When these
are finished, the downy matter on the outside
called flos, is taken off, and the cocoons ar~

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FELT .

FIF'l'H SERIES.-.LEStiON XXYV.

thrown into warm water to dissolve the glutinous
particles whic~ J:rn~d caused the ,_silk to cohere:
the ends of the threads being found, several are
join eel together and wound upon a reel; this is
called raw silk. It afterwards undergoes an
operation to cleanse it, and render it more sup. ple, after which it is twisted into threads of different · degrees of :fineness, as required by the
weavt r; in this state it is called thrown silk. The
excellence of silk as a material for dress consists
in its strenath softness, lightness, lustre, and
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its being capable of taking the :finest.dyes. Silk
may be made into substances varying in thickness from the :finest transparent gauze to the
richest velvets and brocades. Our manufacturers
are supplied with silk chiefly from China, P ersia
and Italy. ]:Prance is the most northern climate
in which silk is produced in any quantity.

LESSON XXXV.
FELT.

Felt is the substance of which hats are made.
It is composed of hairs: those of the beaver are
chiefly used by hatters. The operation of f elling
depends upon a peculiar construction in all
hairs, which, however smooth and even they
may appear, have in r evlity a tiled or scaly text.Lue on the surface. The scales are so placed
that they yield to the finger, if drawn along the
hair from th~ root to tho point, hut; present n.

137

resistance when moved in a contrary direction.
I~ consequence of this peculiarity, if the hair be
seized in the middle between two fingers and
rubbed , the root will gradually recede, and. the
point w~ll app~·oach the fingers, exhibiting a
progressive mot10n towards the root; the imbric~ted surface preventing all motion in the opposite way. From this property hairs, when beaten
or pressed together, begin to move in the direction of the root, and are disposed to catch hold
and twist round each other, and thus to cohere
and form a continuous mass, which is called/ell.
Curled hairs entwine themselves more closely into
one another than those which are straight thou ah
flexible, as these latter recede from the i'.oot i; a
direct line. The hatter spreads th e hairs over
the surface of his coarser cloth, and when pressed,
the fine straight hairs, moving in the direction
of their roots, form a coating; their base being
inserted in the felt, while their extremities
remain free. It is in consequence of this tendency to felt that woollen cloths increase in density, and con tract in dimensione by being washed;
and also that they do not ravel out when cut.
~he Zetlanders, availing themselves of this pecul~ar c_on~truction of hairs, felt their wool by putting it mto n arrow inlets of the sea, where it 18
exposed to the continual motion of the tides.

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138

· . FIFTH

SERIES.-LESSON XXXVI.

LESSON XXXVI.
PORCELAIN.

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Clay and flint are the chief ingredients of
porcelain. The first gives the plasticity and
tenacity requisite for the moulding it into a shape;
the latter renders it hard, and allows of a slight
degree of vitrification. The following is the
usual process carried on in our English manufactories of china. Flints are first calcined, then
mixed in certain proportions with Cornish granite,* and ground to a very fine powder; water is
poured upon this mixture, and it is twice strained
through silken sieves. It is then boiled till it is
of the consistency of cream, and the watery
particles being evaporated, it becomes a tough
paste.
A portion of this substance is then
placed upon a turning-wheel, and moulded by
the hand with a precision and rapi<lity which
practice only can give. Vessels of a circular
shape are formed in this manner, as bowlR,
plates, cups and saucers; utensils of other forms
are made in moulds of gypsum, the pores of
which, absorbing the moisture of the clay, the
vessels are contracted in size, and in consequence may be easily loosened from the mould.
Each vessel thus formed is placed in a sepamte
clay case. rrhe furnace is filled with these, and

*

It is to the large proportion of felspar in a state of decomposition that Cornish granite owes the preference which is
given to it.

POROELAIN.

139

then bricked closely up, and they are subjected
to a red heat for sixty hours. The temperature
is then gradually lowered, and the porcelain is
withdrawn; in this state it is called biscuit, and
is white, dull, and porous. This process greatly
diminishes the size of · the vessels; and it fits
them to receive the blue color.. called cobalt*
'
which has the ai)pearance of a dirty gtey till
glazed. The glazing consists of lead and glass,
ground to an impalpable powder, mixed in
water with some other ingredients, which are
kept secret. The biscuit is merely dipped into
the glazing, and is then baked again for forty
hours. It is now ready to receive other colours,
and the gilding which the pattern may require.
It is baked a third time for ten hours or more.
Lastly the gilding is burnished with bloodstone
or agate, and the china is ready for the wareroom,. The colours are changed by baking, appearing very different when first laid on to what
they do when they have been subjected to heat.

ON .ME'f A.LS.
INTRODUCTORY REMAHKS.

When these lessons on the common metals
are given, it is advisable to present the specimens to the class in their several natural and

* Cobalt is an oxide of the m etal of that name.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXVII.

GOLD.

It is ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
heavy. 4.
indestructible.
fusible.
incombustible, except by electricity.
soft, compared with other metals.
pliable.
compact.
yellow.
solid.
opaque.
brilliant.
reflective.
sonorous.
Not affected by any acid but aqua, regia. *

artificial states, that is, the ores and the native
and manufactured metals. The plan of writing
down the list of qualities has been again adopted with the metals, as the properties which form
so decidedly their characteristic distinctions
present a new range of ideas.
'fhe teacher
should also be particularly careful to direct the
attention of the children to those qualities in the
metal under their consideration upon which its
uses depend, leading them to trace the ada ptation of qualities to certain uses.

LESSON XXXVII.
GOLD.

QLLalities.

It is considered a perfect metal, because it
does not lose any of its weight when fused, nor
suffer any change. Most metals become oxydated. iWhen the childre11 understand fully the different qualities, the teacher may mention to them

H is a perfect metal.
malleable.*
1.

*

A solid piece of gold and some leaf-gold should be presented to the class, and the extreme lightness and thinness of
the leaf may be felt.
'l'EACHER. How was the gold made so thin?
CHILDREN. It was beaten out.
TEACHER. With what do you think?
CHILDREN. "With a hammer.
'.rEACHEn. All things Uiat can be thus extended by beating are called malleable, from the Latin mall-e·us, a hammer .
Could glass b e thus beaten out? Could chalk? Camphor?
What qualities prevent them from being m alleable?
CHILDREN. Glass is brittle . Chalk is friabl e .
TEAcmm. Wlrnt qualities in gold do you think rencler it
malleabl e ?
Cm1,1micN. Its bei11g h ~ nacimrn.

141

'l'EACHER. What other quality in gold clt pends upon its
being tenacious ?
CHILDREN. It is ductile.
TEACHEH. Ductile is derived from L a tin, clue-ti/is, capable
of being drawn out.
*Aqua r egia (royal water) is a mixture of muriatic acid and
nitric acid.
t Substa ncP-s are oxyclated when they are combined with a
certain portion of oxygen.

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GOLD.

the facts that prove the extraordinary degree in
which the peculiar qualities exist in the metal.
1. Malleable. A grain of gold, the size of a
· pin's head, may be beaten out to cover a space
of fifty square inches.
2. Ductile. A grain of gold can be drawn out
to cover a wire of 352 feet in length; a guinea
can be drawn out to reach nine miles and a half .
3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of au inch
in diameter will support 500 pounds without
breaking.
4. Hewy. It is nineteen times heavier than
water of the same bulk.

Gilding is the art of covering the surface of a
substance with gold; this is effected by applying
it either in the state of leaf or liquid gold, to a
surface covered by a cement.
Quicksilver unites with gold, communicating
to it a portion of its own fluidity; it has, from
this circumstance, been used in gilding buttons,
an effect which is produced very rapidly by the
following process: The metals are mixed together and the buttons immersed in the compound. They are then exposed to great heat,
. by which the quicksilver is evaporated, and the
gold is left upon the buttons.
The purple colour used in painting porcelain
is obtained from gold.
Gold is beaten into leaves upon a smooth
block of marble fitted into a wooden frame
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about two feet square; on three sides there is a
high ledge, and the front has a flap of leather
attached to it, which the workman uses as an
apron to preserve the fragments that fall off.
There are three kinds of animal membrane used
in the operation. For interlaying with the gold
at first, the smoothest and closest vellum is
procured; and when the gold becomes thin, this
is exchanged for much finer skin, made of the
entrails of oxen prepared for this purpose, and
hence called gold-beaters' skinj the whole is covered with parchment to prevent the hammer
from injuring it. After the gold bas been reduced to a sufficient degree of thinness it is put

Uses of Gold.
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FIFTH SEnrns. -LESSON XXXVII.

vVhen alloyed* with copper, gold is used as
coin, and for ornamental purposes; for the latter
it is fitted by its brilliancy and beauty, and also
because it is not liable to tarnish.
The gold used in coinage, called standard
gold, consists of a combination of about twentytwo parts of gold and two of copper. Gold of
the new standard, which is stamped at Goldsmith's Hall, consists of only eighteen parts of
gold and six copper.
Gold thread is made by covering silk or silver
with gold beaten very thin.

*

The combinations of metals with each other are called, in
chemistry, alloys; but this term is commonly employed to
designate those substances that lessen the value of any with
which they are united.

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FIFTH SERrnS.-LESSON XXXVII.

beh;eeri paper which has been well smoothed
and rubbed with red bole, in order to prevent
it adhering to the gold.
Geographical and Geological Situation of Gold.
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Gold is found principally in hot climates,
either native or as an ore. A metal is called
native when it occurs in nature pure, and an ore
when mixed with other substances. Gold is
found in mines in Brazil, Peru and Mexico.
Part of the western coast of Africa is called the
Gold Coast, from the gold dust brought down
by the natives to trade with. A great quantity
of gold is obtained in the form of fine sand from
American and African rivers; and in small quantities from the Danube, the Rhine and the
Rhone; it is supposed to be cafried down by the
mountain torrents. The wandering tribes of
gipsies employ themselves in washing it from
the beds of the European rivers. The Himalaya
mountains, in Asia, are rich in gold. It sometimes occurs in the veins which run through
mountains, and sometimes in rounded masses
in soils that are evidently the ruins of rocks.
The mines which formerly yielded the largest
. quantities of gold were those of Peru and Lima;
the principal in Europe are those of Hun gary
and SaHzbnrg. Ther e have lately been discovered large veins of gold in California and in
Australia, which will cause a gren,t, influx of this
metal. 'rhe mode of extracting gold from the

SILVER • .

145

ore is by reducing the whole to a fine powder
and mixing it with quicksilver. The latter unites
with every particle of gold, but being incapable
of formin g a combination with any but metallic
substances, it separates the gold from the earth
with which. it i8· intermixed. The quicksilver,
which has absorbed the gold, i8 then evaporated
by means of heat, l eaving the pure metal in the
vessel.
LESSON XXXVIII.

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SILVER.

(jllalities.
It is malleable. 1.
ductile. 2.
tenacious. 3.
heavy. 4.
indestructible.
fusible.
soft.
flexible.
a perfect metal.
opaque.
white.
solid .
conipact.
natural.
brilliant.
reflective.
sweetly sonorous.
not affected by common aoids.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XXXVIII.

. 1. · l\folleable. Silver can be reduced to a degree of thinness, nearly equal to that of which
gold is capable.
2. Ductile. It can also be drawn out into the
finest wire.
3. Tenacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch
in thickness will support 377 pounds without
breaking.
4. Heavy. It is about eleven times heavier
than water.
Uses of Silver.

Silver is used for coin, and is then combined
with copper, to r ender it harder and better
.adapted to receive a fine and sharp impression on
being cast; it does not lose its white colour by
its mixture with copper. The same alloy is
.employed for ornamental purposes.
Silver is much used as a casing to copper
utensils, to rnncler them more pleasiug to the
sight, and also to prevent the formation of the
poison extracted by acids from copper. The
most permanent plating is effected. by taking
two t1in plates of silver and copper, the former
in the proportion of one to twelve of the latter;
.a little powdered borax is placed hetweeu the
two metals, to promote tLeir fusiou; alHl then,
after Luing expm;ecl to n white heat, they will
be found firmly united: the :mbstance iR passed
between rollers till the ·whole is of the proper
tLickness for the intended manufacture.

SILVER.

147

Silver dissolved in aqua-fortis (nitric acid)
yields crystals, which, being afterwards melted
in crucibles, form what is called lunar ·caustic.
This preparation is of considerable value in
surgical operations, being employed to burn
away diseased flesh, and for consuming warts,
wens, and other excrescences of the skin. Indelible or permanent ink, used for marking
linen, is made by dissolving nitrate of silver
(lunar caustic) in water, and adding gum. The
yellow colour employed in painting porcelain is
obtained from silver.

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Geographical and Geological Situation of Silver.

Silver is found, bot.h native and as an ore in
'
mines and veins. America is the country richest
in silver mines. It is also found in Saxony
'
Bohemia, Norway, Hungary, a1111. England; but
the mines of Mexico and Peru furnish annually
ten times more than all those of Europe together.
So poisonous are the exhalations from tLe mines
of Peru, that many thousands of Iudians have
perished in them, and the cattle that graze on
the outside are affected bv their malio·nnnt
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vapours. The quantity found in England is not
great; it js taken from the lead mines af Cumberland , Cornwnll and Yorkshire. A large block
was found at Freyl>erg, in Saxony, upon which
Duke Albert took his dinner. When melted, it
yielded 44,000 pounds of pure silver.

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QUICKSILVER .

The ores . of silver are very numerous, and
various .methods are employed in different countries to separate this metal from its ore. In
_Mexico and Peru the mineral is pounded, roasted,
washed, and then mixed with mercury in vessels
filled with water, a mill being employed f?r t_he
purpose of more perfectly ~gita.ting the l~qmd.
This causes the silver to umte with the mercur~,
and then being submitted to heat, the latter is
evaporated. The puTe metal is afteTwards melted
and cast into bags, or ingots.

1. ·weight. N e::trly fourteen times he::tvier
Urnn water. It is the heaviest known fluid.
2. Fluid. It always retains its fluidity in our
temperature ; but near the poles it conge ~lls, and
then is malleable, ductile ::wd t enacio us.
3. Cold. It is the coldest of all fluids, and.
t h e h ottest when boiling.
4. It is capable of division, by the slightest
effort, into an indefinite number of p articles ,
which are of a ~-.pherical shape.
5. The p eculiar brilliancy of metals has given
rise to the term melaUic lustre.

LESSON XXXIX.
QUICKSILVER

on

MEitCUHY.

Qua lif.ies.

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149

FIFTH SEUIES.-:-LESSON XXXIX.

It is heavy. 1.
fluid. 2.
cold. 3.
divisible. 4:.
volatile* when heated.
white.
brilliant. 5.
opaque.
least tenacious of all bodies.
dilatable by heat.
medicinal.
natural.
mineral.

* Volatile, from Lat. vol-are, to fly.

Uses of QLlicksilver.

Quicksilver penetrates and softens other metals, losing its own fluidity, and forming a kind
9£ paste calied anialgam. Th is affinity or attraction that it has for other metals, makes it exceedingly useful in separating them from substances with which they are found combined; they
n,re drawn from their ores ancl unite with the mercury, and the latter being volatilized, the pure
metal remains. Quicksilver is easily affected by
th e atmosphere, and is on this account used iu
Thermometers and barometers. The Thermometer is an instrument constructed in the following manner: a tube of glass, terminating iu
a hollow ball which contn,ins mercury, is plunged
into boiling water, which causes the mer cury to
expand and rise to a ·certain h eight.
At this
point, which is called boiling h eat, the tube is

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FIFTH SERlES.~·LESSON XXXIX.

broken off and hermetically sealed;* the freezing point is then ::tscert::tined and marked, and
the intervening spr..ce grad ua tec1. 'fhe Thermometer, by marbng the expanslon and contrnction of the quicksilver, inclicn.t.es the iDcren.se
and decrease of heat and cold in the atmo sp here.
To form the barometer, a g lass tulJe, open nt
one end, and filled with quicksilver, is plunged
with its open end downwards into a bowl cou-faining some of the same 1luicl. Part of the
mercury in the tube flows into the vessel, leaving a space to which the air cannot gain access.
A vacuum ueing thus formed, the atmosphere
acts upon the mercury in the bo\vl: when ht;avy,
causing it to rise in the tube, and when light
(the pressure being decreased), allo·wing it to
descend. The barometer, by thus showing the
weight of the air, indicates the probability of
wet or dry weather. For when the atmosphere
is light, it no longe1· supports the -vapour and
clouds which float in it, and they com:eq neu tly
descend towards the earth; but when the nir is
more dense, they are borne up, and we have
fine vveather. The elevat.ion of mountains is
also ascertained by me11ns of the Barometer;
for as it is known that the rarity of the atmosphere increases in propori.ion to tho m;ceut, tho
height is easily caleulatctl.

* Jn order to seal anything h ermetically, the n ook of a glass

tube is heated till on the point or melting, and then "ith a
pair of hot pincers it ii:; closely twistctl together, l>y which

QUICKSILVER.

151

Quicksilver is also used for coating mirrors.
The process is effected iu the following manner:
a sheet of tin-foil the size of the plate of glass is
placed evenly on a smooth ulock of stone, over
this is poured some quicksilver, which is carefully spread upon it ·with a feather or rubber of
linen.
Tin, in amalgamating with mercury,
quickly forms an oxide of a black appearance:
this being removed, more of the iluid is poured
upon it. The glass is then held horizontally,
and carefully spread over the amalgam, sweepina
before it the superfluous mercury, and any mor~
oxide that may have ~ormed. ·weights are then
placed upon the g lass, and after having remained
several days, the mixture adheres firmly and
forms the mirror.
Vermilion, used in colouring sealing-wax, and
the medicine called calornel, are preparations of
this metal.

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Geographical and Geolo;/ical Situation or
(}u·icksilcer.

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Quicksilver is found in the native state, as
globules , in the cavities of mines; but it is most
freq:iently combined with sulphur, forming the
mineral called Cinnabar, which is of a red colour.
rn10 <1 uidrnil VC l'. mines of Ilhia 111'0 said to yielJ.

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means the air is excl uded. Hcrmeticallv is derived from
Hennes , the deity of ancient my thology ,;ho was thought to
preside over the arts and sciences, particularly chemistry.

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L EAD .

FIF'fH SERIES.-LESSON XL.

annually 100 tons: those of Spain still more; but
the mines of Peru are the richest.
The mines of Idritt were accidentally clis~overed about three hundred years since. That
part of the country was then much inlrn.bitell by
coopers; one of the men, when r etiring from
work in the evening, placed a new tub under a
dropping spring to try if it would hold water,
and when he came in the morning h e found it
so heavy that he could scarcely move it. On
examination he p erceived a shining, ponderous
fluid at the bottom, which proved to be quicksilver. ·when thiscircumstn,nce was made known,
a society was form ed to discover and work the
mines from whence the mercury had issued. In
some parts of the mine it flows in small springs,
so that in six hours as much as thirty-six pounds
have been collecte<l; in other parts it is found
diffused in small globules.

LESSON XL.
LEAD.

153

It is pliable.
livid, bluish grey.

It is easily calcined, that is, redu0ed by heat
to a friable substance.
so lid.
sometimes amorphous.
sometimes crystalized.
opaque.
mineral.
liable to tarnish. 4.
inelastic.
natural.
It makes a grey streak on paper.
It boils and evaporates at g reat heat.
1. H eavy. It is eleven times heavier than
water; rather heavier than silver.
2. It melts at a much lower temperature than
the other me tals.
3. It is the softest of all metals.
4. L ead is n ot much altered by b eing exposed
either to air or water, though the brightness of
its surface is soon lost. Probably a thin strn.tum of oxide is formed on the surface, which defends the rest of the metal from corrosion.

Qual'ities.

It is heavy.

1.
fusible. '2.
bright when first melted or cut.
malleable.
ductile.
very soft. 3.

Uses of Lead.

The calx* of lead is the basis of many colours,

*

Calx is the d ross form ed on the surface of lead when
fu se d. Tliis name is applied hy chem is ts to those substances
which h ::ivo Leen reduced Ly burning to a friaule ot«te. The

154

155

FIFTH SERIES. --LESSON XL.

LEAD.

which are obtained from it by different degrees
of heat.
Red-le::i.d and white-lead, so much
used in paints, are the calces of lead. They
are soluble in oil, are very poisonous, and
occasion the ill-health to which painters are
'subject. The oxide of lead also enters into the
composition of white glass, rendering it clen.rer;
it is also used in the glazing of common e::trtheuware vessels. Any acid will oxtrn,ct a poi~> on
from len.u, ancl thernfore the use of it slwulcl bo
avoided in culinary operatjons. It is employecl
in g lazing pottery.
·when rolled between iron cylinders to the
requisite and uniform degree of thinn ess, lell.d
is employed to cover the roofs of houses and
churches; but in case of fire, its melting is attended with much danger. It is also used for
gutters and pipes of houses, and for cisterns
and reservoirs of water, because it does not rust
and is very durable.
The great softness of lead, and the ease ·with
which it is fused, are the properties which lrnYe
brought it so much into use. The p ersons who
work it are called plumbers.* The solder they
use as a cement is an alloy of lead and tin, in
the proportion of two parts of the former to one
of the ln.tter.

Great quantities of lead are consumed in making shot. The metal for this purpose is alloyed
with nrseni.c, to renJer it in ore hard aud brittle,
ancl capn,ble of assuming n. perfectly spherical
shape. Shot are formed by dropping the melted alloy into water from a considerable heiglit,
throng h rm iron 01· copper frame, perforated
with l'Ound holes, which are lu.rger or smaller
n,c(:o rding to the ret1uired size of the shot.
Mixed ·wiLh n,nt.imo11y, lead is used for printing
types; aml with tin. :rnJ. copper, it forms pewter.

opcrn,Lion by wl1ich t.liis effec t is prodncl!<l ii:; calk11 ('(l/ci11a l inn.
His lll Ol'lJ genurnl HOW io term metallie uudicl:i wltcll calciuetl,
ox ides.

* Plumb-er, from the Ln.tin plurnb-iim, lead.

Geological and Geographical Situation of Lead.
Lead abounds in Engl:rnd aud \Vales, particularly in the countries of Derby, Northumberland,
Somerset, Coruwfl.11, and Devon. It is plentiful
.also in Scotland, Ireland, Germany, France, and
America. It has lately been imported in sueh
quantities from Spain, as greatly to lower its
·p rice irr England. It is very doubtful whether
it is ever found native: it occurs frequently combined with sulphur, when it is calle<l gale1ia.
It is supposed that some of our lead-min es,
wbich are perhaps the most important in the
world, were workeL1 by tho Romans. ·when the
ore. is broug ht out of the mines it is sorted a.11<1
washc<l , to free it from dirt aad rnbbish; it is
th en sprea (l out, 11ud the best pieces separated.
A.ftm· th e ore, by piding and washing, has been
suili.ci.entls cleansed from extr£Lneous matter, it

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156

FIFTH SEilIES.-LESSON XLI .
COPPER.

is roasted* in a kind of kiln, to free it from the
sulphur usually combined with it. The next
process is to mix it with a quautity of coke and
submit it to the smelting furnace. In this there
are tap-holes, which, when the leacl is melted,
are opone<l to allow it to run in rdlni<1 state into
an iron vessel. The dross which floats on its
surface is skimmed off, and the metal is taken
out by ladles and poured into cast iron moulds
with round ends. It is then called pig l ead nncl
is :fit for use.

It ii: opaque.
oranD"e-hrown
colour.
0
mineral.
sometimes crystalized.
sometimes amorphous.
brilliant.
reflective.
sapid.
nauseous to the ta.ste.
hard.
unplea.santly odorous.
solid.
medicinal.
ea.sily corroded.

LESSON XLI.
COPPER.

Qualities.
It is hen. vy. 1.
tenacious. 2.
very S0110l"OUS. 3.
fusible. 4.
elastic. 5.
capable of extreme divisibility.
malleable.
ductile.
compact.

*

G.

Ronsling is the process by which Lhe volatile parts of an
ore are evaporated. Smelti 11g is that by which the pnre meta]
is separated from tho ear tl1 y particles combined wit h it in the
ore. This is don e liy throwing the whole in to a fnnmce, nncl
mixing with it snb~t:rnces that will combmc with the earthy
p:irls; the mct:il being the heavies t falis to the bot: om :md nrns
ont by tho proper opening in its pure 1nda1lic state.

157

1. Heavy.
Copper is eight times heavier
than water.
2. T enacious. A wire one-tenth of an inch
in thickness, will support two hundred and
ninety-nine pounds and a half without bren.king.
3. It is the most deeply sonorous of all
metals.
4. It is more easily fused tha.n iron, but
less so than gold or silver.
5. It is the most elastic meta.I, next to iron.
B. A g rain dissolved in ammonia will give a
perceptable colour to more thn.n 500,000 times
its weight in water.

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FIFTH SERIES. -

L ESSON X.LI.

The U1:;es of Copper.
The uses of copper are num er ous and important. ·when rolled into sheets between iron
cylinderc;, it is used to cover the roofs of houses,
e~pecially arsenals and manufactories, \Yh~re
there is a liability to fire. The bottoms of ships
are coppered in order to make them sail faster,
and to prevent shell-fish from perforating the
wood. Copper is much used for cooking utensils,
but gl'eat cn,re is necest~ ary, for should any
acid or even water be allowed to stand some
time in the vessels, a poison is extracted ; but
while boiling, this evil does not n.rise. It is
customary, in order to prevent n.ny Llangor, to
line copper vessels with tin. Copper is used i~1
the manufoctories of gunpowder, been.use it
does not, like iron, give out spn.rks by collision.
Plates of copper a.re sometimes engraved with a
sharp instrument called a burin; sometimes they
are corroded with n.qua-fortis;* in the latter
case, the copper is covere~ with w_ax, on .wl~ich
the desio·n is sketched with a pomted 111SLrUment, tl~e aqua-fortis reaches the copper just in
those places where the wax has ~een rem~ve:l
by the sketching, and eats into it. Verchgns
is a rust of copper, usually made from that
metal by corroding it with vinegar. 'I'here is
.
. Ii' ran_ce,
11 large manufactory at Montp_e 1ier m.
whore vercligris is prcpnrcd m tho followrng

COPPER.

15!)

mn,nner:-copper plates and husks of grapes
are placed altemately one upon another; the
latter speedily corrode the surface of the metal.
The venligris thus formed is scraped off as it
.collects on the copper; it is afterwards dri€d,
and packe<l in ·casks or bags. It is chiefly employed in dyeing, and it is a most virulent
poison.
'l'he alloys of -copp er are numerous
and vuJu:1ble.
Brass is the most important; it
is cornpo unded of zinc n.ncl copper, in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of
the latter. This is a very beautiful and useful
s ubst::!.nce; it does not rust so easily as copper;
it is rnore ductile th:;m either that metalor rion,
an<l is therefore used in the construction of
musical and mathematical instruments, and in
cfock-work.
Sieves and blinds are woven of
brass wire of extreme fineness.
Brass is u sed
both for purposes of ornn.ment and use. Copper
a lloyed with tin forms bronze; it is remarlrn.hle,
that when these two metals are melted together,
the compound so proL1uced is heavier than the
weight of the two metals taken separately.
Bronze is very useful from its being extremely
hard, durable, and sonorous; it is fabricated
into cannon-balls, statues, &c. The metal of
which cannon are made is also an alloy 0£ copper with tin, Bell-metal consists of three parts
copper o,ncl one tin.

*

Aqna-fortis (strong ·water) is nitric acill diluted with
water.

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XL!.

IRON.

161

Geographical ancl Geological Silna.tion of Copper.

Copper is found in Sweden, Saxony, Great
Britain, America, and Australia. It was one of
the metals earliest known: the Bible mentions
workers in brass before the flood.
It is found in great variety of forms; sometimes
in masses of pure metal, but more frequ eutly
combined with othet substnnces, particularly·
sulphur. The copper:-mines of Anglesea aro
very productive; they are situated on the top of
a mountain, and form an enormous cavity more
than 500 yards long, 1.00 broad, and 100 deep.
The ore is obtained from the mine, either by
pickaxes or by blasting the rock with gunpowder.
It is then broken with a hammer into small
pieces, an operation which chiefly employs women
anll children . After this, it is piled on a kiln,
to the upper part of which flues are attached,
that communicate with sulphur chambers. The
kiln is cover ed, and the fires lighted in different
parts, that the ore may undergo the process of
roasting. The whole mass gradually kindles,
and the sulphur which is combined with the ore,
being expelled in fumes by the heat, is conveyed
through the ilues to the snlvlrnr clrnmber. This
process occupies from three to ten months,
according to the size of the kilns. ·when the
operation is complete, or the ore is freed from
the sulphur, it is submitted to the smeltinghou ses, where, by the intense heat it undergoes,
the pure metal is forced off in a fluid state,

LESSON XLII.
IllON.

Qualities.
It is elastic. 1.
ductile . 2.
heavy. 3.
tenacious . 4.
hard . 5.
malleable.
liable to rust.
sonorous.
mineral.
fusible.
livid grey color.
bright.
reflective.
solid.
susceptible of a high polish.
cold.
sometimes amorphous.
sometimes crystallised.

1. In the state of steel, it is the most elastic
of all metals.
2. Iron is more ductile than gold, it may be
drawn into a wire as fine as human hair.
3. It is the lightest of the common metals,
except tin; between seven and eight times heavier
than water.

1G2

FIFTH 8ERIES.-LESSON XLII.

IRON.

4. The most tenacious of the metals . A wire
about one-tenth of an in ch in diameter will support 500 pounds without breaking.
G. Its hardness exceeds that of most other
metals, and this is increased by its being converted into steel.
Uses of Iron.

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Iron is the most useful of all metals, and man
very early been.me n.cc1 un.i11 ted with its vn.lue.
:Moses speaks of furnaces of iron, and of the ores
from which it was extracted. By means of this
m etal the earth has been cultivated, houses and
cities built, and without it few arts cou ld be
practised. Iron is very abundant in i1atme, but
it is always found mixed with some other substance. It is then called iron stone. Sometimes
it is combined with clay, at other tim es with
lime, or with flint. In order to separate the
iron from its ore, intense heat is required; either
pure clay, lime, or silex, remain stubborn in the
hottest fires, but when mixed in proper proportions, the one assists in the fusi on of the other;
therefore there is always thrown into the furnace
with the iron stone some earth that will combine ·w ith that in the iron stone. The intense
heat of the furnace is kept up by means of a continual supplyof air rushing into it from immense
bellows, worlceLl by mrtehinory. The limo, clay,
or flint unite antl form a kind of :,;lag, which floats
on tbe surface. At the s:ime time the carbon or

1G3

pnre charcoal of the fuel, aided by the limestone,
m elts the iron, which, being he11vier than the
other substances, falls to the bottom of the furnaee, and remains there till the workmen le t it
out by a hole made at the bottom of the furnace
and plugged with sand. \ Vhen the workman
judges that there is a sufficient quantity of iron
fused, he displaces the plug with an iron rod,
and the m elted iron runs out like a stren,m of
liquid fire, and is conveyed into furrows made in
sand, ·where it cools; the pieces formed in the
principal furrows are called sows, those in the
smaller furrows branching from them, pigs . In
this state it takes the n::tme of cast iron, and from
the process it has undergone it is become ext remely hard, and, having lost its tenacity, it
resists tho lrnmmer and the fi le and is very brittle; it is of a dark grey or blackish colour. It is
used for ti1e backs of chimneys, grates , boilers,
pipes, railroads, common cannon-bn,lls, &c.
Cast iron is converted into wrought iron by a
process called blooming; it is thrown into a furnace and k ept melted by fire; it remains in this
situation for about two hours, a workman being
continually employed in stirring it, till, by
means of the he:i.t of the air in the furnace, the
greater part of the carbon is burnt out of it. It
th us acquires ; by d egrees, consistency and tenacit,y, and congeals into a mass. It is taken out
of the furnnce whilst hot, and violently beaten
with a large hammer worked by machinery; in

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FIFTH SERIES.--LESSON XLII.

this mn.nner it is formed into bars of iron. The
vn.lue of w.rnught iron in mn.chinery, ancl tools
of all descriptions, is incalculable.
Steel is prepared from wrought iron in the
following manner; the bars of iron are kept in
contact with ignited charcoal for several hours
in earthen crucibles, from which the air is excluded. Steel, if heated to r ecluess, :111cl then
suffered to cool slowly, b ecomes soft ancl pliable;
if plunged while hot into cold water , it is ren-.
dered susceptible of a high polish, n.nd acquires
such extreme hardness as even to scratch glass,
while at the same time it b ecomes elastic and
brittl e . Its softness and ductility may, however,
be restored by heatin.0o· it a Llo·ain and coolinn·
it
Ll
slowly. Steel varies in colour under the influence of heat: first it assumes a straw colour
then a light yellow; purple, violet, r ed, deep'
blue succeed, and last of :111 a bright blue.
These hues indicate the different tempers ,vhich
steel acquires, from that proper for common
fil es , to that r eq uisite for the fine elastic springs
of watches. Steel is used for all kinds of edged
tools, in which keenness is necessary; it is also
much employed for ornamental purposes, on account of the elegant polii-J1 wl1icli it, iH r:apalJlo
of taking . In medicine, steel is valunlJle as a
tonic. \Vaters which pass over iron and be_
come impregnated with it, are called Chalyueate*

* Clrnlyb-eate,

from xa:A.v'ljJ (clia.lyb-s)' iron.

IRON.

JG5

waters; those of Tunbridge n.nd Hampstead are
of this nature. Steel is a combination of iron
and a small portion of ca,rbon. Cast iron contains a g reater portion of carbon, and is probably saturated with it. Cast iron is converted
into wrought iron by burning away the carbon,
and wholly depriving it of its oxygen.
Plumbago, or black lead , which is employed
in the manufacture of pencils, is an ore of iron,
containing nine parts of cn,rbon to one of th e
metn,l; sufficient ha& been foui1cl in Cumberland
to supply the trad e of England, but it is feared
that this mine is foiling. The bronze colour
used in porcelain pn.inting is n.n oxide of iron .
Meteoric stones, which have been the subject of
so much conjecture, and which are sometimes
believed to be ejecte d from volcanoes in the
moon, are native iron; there is a fine specimen
in the British Museum.
Iron is very valuable from the nrngnetical
JJroperties it may acquire. By these it enables
the mariner to steer across the ocean, the traveller
to direct his course with safety in the p::tthle ss
desert, and the miner to guide his res earch es
after subternmeous treasures. The loadston e
or 11nb1ml mag net, is an oxido of iron; it com -'
municates its p ower to bars of iron or sted when
placed in contact with them.
The artificial
magn et is n ow always u sed , as it pos sesses a nd
retains all the properties of the loadstone. The
qualities which rend er it useful are its attracting

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FIF'fII SEHIES.-LESSON XLlII.

iron and its polarity, or the power by which it
p oints to fo e poles when fr eely suspended. One
end inv ariably turns to the norlh and the other
to the soutl1, except when it approaches the
IVJles; there the directive power ceases nltoget.her, which circumstance constitutes one of
the great difficuHies in navigating the Arctic
seas.
Geographic(ll and Geolog'icnl S ilualion of Iron.

Iron is the most universa:ily diffused of the
m etals. It is found in every country, in g reater
or less qun,111.iLies; but En g·b1Hl, Frnuce, Swetlen
a ncl llussia are richer in this metal than the
other p arts of Europe . It is Tery rarely met
with in a native state, but generally as an oxide,
or m combination with sulphuric or carbonic
acid.

TIN.

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It is solid.
brilliant.
very litLle elastic.
plinble.
easily calcined.
natural.
mineral.
reflective.
sonorous, makes a crackling noise.
dilatable by heat.
1. It ifl seven times h eavier than ''utter, :yet
the lig ht.est of Hie duc tile me tals.
2. It is softer than silver, but harder tlrnn
l end.
3. Tin may be b eaten into sheets the lOOth
part of an inch in thickness.

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Uses of Tin.
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LESSON XLIII.
TIN.

Qi.wlities.

It is hen,vy. 1.
soft. 2.
malleable.
c1 uctile .
fu sible.
\V l ti te.
opaque.

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Tin is chiefly employed in the manufact.ure of
culinary utensils; they are not, however, made
of solid tin, bu t of wlrn.t is call ed tin -plate, which
is t.bus prepared: Thin iron plates are first \1e11
cleansed uy washing them in water and sand:
they are then dipped into melted t.in, and after'ivanl s st.eepe<l in water acidulated with sulphuric
acid. This process causes the tin n ot only to
cover th e surface of the iron plnte, but to penetrate it, so that the ·w hole mass b ecomes of u.
whi!-.ish colour. PiD s are made of brass wire,
tinned. "When the pin is fo.rined, a vessel is

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FIFTH

SEJUES.-LESSON

COMPARISON OF :ME'rALS.

XLilJ.

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filled with strata or layers of tin plates between
the brass pins; the vessel is then filled with
water and some tartaric acid, by means of which
the tin is dissolved; after five or six hours' boiling the pins are found uniformly tinned. It is
the zinc of the brass w bich h as ::n1 affinity for
the tin, and forms the union which takes place.
The pins are afterwarc1s polished ; they are
thrown into a tub containiug a quantity of bran,
which is set in motion by tho turning of a. ~;lmf t
in tho centre: the fri ction w hieh the pins thus
undergo r enders them perfectly bright. The
uses of tin in domestic purposes are very various,
particularly when laid over other metals, as in
stirrups, buckles, &c. 'l'he oxide of tin is u sed
in dyeing.
'rin forms alloys with several other metals.
These compounds have been mentioned b efore ;
as bell-metal, pewter, bronze.
Tin leaves ,
amalganrnted with mercury, are used for silvering and plating other metals.

with sulphur and copper; chiefly in vein s running
through granite and other rocks. ·when it is
taken from the mine it is broken into small
pieces, and streams of water are passed over it,
to free it from the earthy particles with which
it is intermixed,· it is then roasted and smelted '
when the metal is poured out into quadrangular
moulus of stone, and receives the name of block
tin.

Geographical and Geological Situation of Tin.

QUICKSILVER is fluid.
easily volatilised.
immalleable.
Its weight is between thirteen and fourteen
times that of water.

England, Gf,rmany, Chili, and Mexico produce
the largest quantities of this metal. The tin
mines of Cornwall were vrnll known to the
ancients: and the Phcenicians are said t.o have
trnclell wiLh the Britons for it. 1011g before tho
birth of our 8aviour. Nat.ivo tin is n ever found,
and its ore is of less common occunence than
that of iron. It occurs as an oxide, or mixed

.

LESSON XLIV.

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COi\IPAHISON (JF METALS.
I

GoLD,

perfect metal, is the most precious.
most compact.
h eaviest.
Its weight is between nineteen and twenty
times that of water.
S1Lvrm, a perfect metal, is n ext in value to
gold, and more u seful; its weight between ten
and eleven times that of water.
11

C0Pi>:1.m is the most sonorous.
most elastic, except iron.
Its weight is between eight and nine times
that of water.

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ON l\iETi\L8 JN GENERAL.

FIFTH SEim:s.-LESSON XLV.

is the most elastic.
most tenacious.
most useful.
most clnctile.
Its weight is between seven and eight times
that of water.
I RON

is the softes t.
most en.Rily fused.
Its weight is betweeu eleven and twelve times
that of water.
LEAD

Trn, next to lead, is the softest of the mGtals;
it dilates most by heat; it is the lightest; its
weight being only seven times th::tt of water.

LESSON XLV.
ON l\iETALS IN GENERAL.

Metals nre simply elementary bodies, J.istinguished by being h eavier tlrnn all other sub.,
stances; by possessing a peculiar lustre, which
is called the m etallic lustre j by reilcctiug ligltL
and h eat; by their being opaque, fusible, rnalloable, tenacious, ductile, and g·enei:ally · elftstic.
Upon this last quality seems to depend their :fitness for exciting sound or sonorousn ess. Metals
are capable of uniting with each other in a state
of fusion; this union is called an alloy . It is remarkable that by these combinations metals

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171

undergo a consideraule change in their prop erties, and ac(1uire new ones not belonging to
either of the m when not united Thus th e weight
of the alloy, or the two metals in combination 7
is sournhmes V81'.)' clifferent from the wein·ht
of
t>
both th e metals tftk en sepn.,rately; an alloy of
silver with copper or tin, 01: oue of silver or gold
with lead, is heavier than the same quantities of
those m etals uncombined. Their ductility and
malleability are changed and generally impaire<l,
the n,lloy becoming brittle. This is very r emarkably the case with gold and l ead when united, the latter of which, even in the trivial proportion of lrnlf n, g rain to ftn ounce of gold, rend ers the nrnss quite destitute of t enacity .
The hanlness of metals is varied by combi1rntion.
G old, being united with ~ small
quantity of copper and silver, ·w ith a minute
proportion of the sn.me met.al, acquires such n,n
increase of hardness that these additions are
always mad e to go ld and silver which are to be
expo sed to 1vear. By a small addition of gold
iron is s:tid to gain so much lrnrdness as to be
oven superior to stool for the fobric11tiu11 of cutting i11strnments .
Olrnnge of colour is a common effect of the
union of m etals with each other.
Arsenic, for
example, which resembles steel, and copper,
which has a red colour, afford by their union a
compound which has nearly the whiteness of
silver.

172

QUES'l'IONS ON 'l'HE METALS.

In order to ascertain how for the children
have retained the knowledge acquired in these
lessons, the following questions may be gwen
to them to answer in writing:-

QUESTIONS ON THE l\IETALS.
GOLD.

1. ·what are the chief qualities of gold ?
2. What is its weight ?
3. Give a proof of its ductility.
4.
tenacity.
5.
malleability.
6.
Upon what other quality does its malleability depend?
7. ·what qualities are directly opposed to
malleability ?
8. \i\That is an alloy ?
9. \i\Tby is gold alloyed for the purpose of
coinage?
10. \i\That metal is used as its alloy ? and in
what proportion ?
11. How are buttons gilt ?
12. Describe the manner of forming leaf-gold.
13. In what state is gold found?
14. \i\That is an ore?
15. vVlrnt is meant by a native metal?
lG. In what countries is gold found?
17. vVlrnt people employ themselves in separating it from the sands of the European rivers?

QUESTIONS ON THE METALS.

173

SILVER.

1. \Vhat are the chief properties of silver ?
2. \Vhat is its weight?
3. vVhat degree of tenacity does it possess ?
4. ·what are the chief uses of silver ?
5, Upon what qualitie·s do the uses of silver
depend?
<J. Describe the operation of plating ?
.
7. "'What is lunar eaustic ? and what are its
uses?
8. Give a geographical and geological account
of silver.
9. vVhy are gold and silver called perfect
metals?
QUICKSILVER.

1. ·what are the uses and properties of quicksilver?
2. vVhat is its weight?
3. In what respect is it remarkable as a
liquid?
4. vVhat effect does heat produce upon it?
5. Under what circumsta,nces does a change
in its qualities take place? and what is the
change?
G. What is n.n amalgmn?
7. Mention the u ses of quicksilver.
8. ·what are the properties that fit it for a
b11rometer ?
9. \i\That for a thermomet0r ?

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QUESTIONS ON TIIE METALS.

QUE8'i'ION(l ON THE METALB.

10. How :i.s a bawmetBr :made ? and wfaat }s ifa3
11Se?
11. How is n. thermometer :made?' a:n(1 what is
its use?
12. ·what colour is ol1tain ~d from quicksiher '?
13. ·whe:re is quicksilver fountl?
14. vVhat cin:>umshmc~ led t<J th1a disco'10ry oi'
the :mines of Id:riu.?
LEAD.

1. '\Vlrnt are the remarkable qn:i;litie:s of lead?
2. \Vhat is its wtight?
3. '\Vhat are the different effects which heat
produces on lead?
4. ·what. are the clrief uses of Ien.d?
5. ·why is it used for reservoirs of w~ter?
6. How are shot made ?
7. vVhat is the nsc of the oxitles of lend ?
8. \Vhat are its alloys?
9. In wh::\t state is l ead found ? ·
10. vV11at is lead called v'1he11 found united
with sulphm?
11. WhHe is len.d most n.farndant?
12. Describe the process of rofl,sting ancl
smelting}
COPPER.

1. What are the chief qualiti es of copper?
2. What is its weight, u.nd what its degree of
tenacity?

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175

3. How is it proved to be capable of extreme
di YisibiJity?
4. \Vhat are the uses of copper?
5. \Vlrnt is verdigris? and how is it made?
G. \.Vlrnt is the dn.nger incurred by employing
copper in kitch en utensils?
7. ·what are the alloys of copper ?
8. In what respect is brass pr eferab~e to copper?
\:l. ·where is copper found? and in what
state?
10. Describe the copper mines m Anglesea,
and the manner of extrncti11g the metal from
the ore?
IRON.

1. \Yhat are the chief qualities of iron?
2. \Vlrn,t quality does it possess in a higher
degree than any other metal?
3. '\Vlrnt is its weight and tenacity?
4. \Vlmt are the different states in which iron
is used?
5. How is cast iron prepared?
G. \Virn,t are its qualities ancl uses?
7. How is wrought iron prepared?
8. What are its qualities and uses?
\:l. How is steel prepared?
10. '\Vlrn.t are its qualities and uses?
11. \Vhat is meant by the t emper of steel?
12. \Vlrnt is plumbago? and what quality
makes it u seful?

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XLVI.

13. vVhat is the geographical situation of iron?
and with what is it found combined?
TIN.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

\Vhat are the qualities of tin?
\Vhat are the uses of tin?
How is it prepared for use?
How are pins tinned?
·what is block tin?
Where is tin found?

ON EARTHS.
LESSON XLVI.
LIME.

TrrE substance called Lime is never found pure
in nature, owing to its great affinity for carbonic
acid* and for water. All the earths of which
lime forms the basis are called calcareous. t It
is the most universally diffused of all substances,
and one of the most abundant; it is computed
that it constitutes one-eighth of the crust of the
earth. In this distribution we have great cause

*

Curbon is clmrcoal in i ts purest und colourlesR state; it is
most ubu1Hfaut in the vegetable kingdom , :uitl is cliidiy oLt<Linetl
from wood. Tho diamond is the only pure carbon that is
known. United with oxygen, cnrbon form s carLonic aciLl.

t Calcareous, from _the Latin cah, lime.

LIME.

177

to admire the wise anci. good providence of the
Creator, as the utility of lime in various arts, in
agriculture, in manufactures, and in medicine,
is very great. Lime, united with carbonic acid,
forms common limestone, chalk, marble, &c.;
with sulphuric acid, it constitutes gypsum or
alabaster; and with :fluoric acid, fl.nor or Derbyshire spar. These are its most interesting combinations with mineral substances. It enters
also into the composition of animal matter, as
shells, bones, and the bard coverings of insects:
our bones contain 8 parts in 10 of lime; and the
shells of birds' eggs, 9 parts in 10.
Pure~lime is procured from chalk, or limestone, by means of burning. Alternate layers
of calcareous earth and fuel are arranged in a
kiln; a fire being kindled, the carbonic acid and
water become volatilised, and are driven off, leaving the lime pure. In this state it is called quick
lime, and is white, caustic, acrid, pungent, infusible: corroding and destroying animal matter.
·when water is poured upon it, it swells, falls
into a powder, and gives out great beat. This
last operation is called slacking the lime. The
water combining with the lime becomes solid,
and the heat is occasioned by its changing from
a fluid to a solid state, for in doing this it parts
with some of its caloric. The uses of lime are
numerous and important. It is formed into
mortar, the cement used in building. The lime
being slacked, is maJe into a paste by tempering

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FIFTH SERIES. -LESSON XLYI.

it with water; to this is added sand, anfl, sometimes, chopped lmirs; as it dries it becomes solid,
hard and durable. Examples lrnve beeu known
of buildings a thousand years olt1, in which the
mortar is as h ard as the stones which it unites.
Lime is u sed as a manure, to loosen soils
which are too tenacious, and to render them
more friable and capable of receiving yege tn,l,le
fibres; it also hastens tho cliHso lu t.ion alH1 putrefaction of animal and veget.al>le sulrnta.nces, of
'Yhich mould is chiefly compo sed, and giYes it
the po·w er of acquiring and retaining moisture,
so necessary to the growth of vegetables. Lime
is also emploved
in the manufacture of su b,,.:.n- ' to
..,
deprive it of a portion of its acid. TannPrs u se
it in removing- hairs from the hides , and cleansing them from fat and grease; it is u sed also in
bleaching, and as a ·flux in the smelting of
metals.

Carbonate of Lime.
Lime occurB most frequently combined with
carbonic acid in different proport.ions. These
substances are called carbonn,tes of lim.e. They
vary much in appoarance, but all agree in tlw
following properties: tltuy readily yiell1 to tho
knife; neutralize acid n (the characteristic properties of each being destroyed), an cl lrn ve a
weight two or three times greater than that of
water.

LIME.

17'9

The most common carbonate of lime is limeston e ; jt r.;.cc1irs in almost eveTy co untry, and
forms bills of some eminence ; it is very abunda nt in Eng-la.nu; it is us.eel for making morta r,
forming roads, &c. Different kinds of limestone are usPd in building, as Porllancl stone,
Oolite, &c. The former h as been employed in
seYeral of Uie principal lmildings in London, as
St. Pnnl's, the l\fomunent, n,nd some of the
bric1gos . Some limesto1ies u.ro soft when first
fol: en from the qua.lTy, but become hard when
long exposed to the air.
Calcareous spnr is the pures t carbonate of
lime; it occurs both amorphous and crystallised,
is transparent, shows the double refructiou, and
takes the form of a rhombohechon, occurring in
eight hund1·ed varieties of this figure. Carbonate of lime is often found in sta.lactites; these
a r e long·, p endulous m asses, deposited from
wr.ter loaded with particles of carbonate of lime
which trickle througll fissures in rocks, or crevices in the roofs of caYerns, &c. The water evaporates , and the particles of li me gradually
hn,rd cn; drop succeeds drop, till a l ong , irregubr tube is suspendetl, often of 11 mos t grotesque
appen,ra.nce. ·when carboua.te of lim e occurs of
n. clo se-grained texture, it is called maJ'lJle; b oing
sm;cept.ilile of a high _po1ish it is much used fo r
ornamental purposes , as chimney-pieces, pillars
and st.atun.ry.
Ohalk is another carbonate of lime, not so

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FIFTH SETIIBS.-LESSON XLVI.
SILICA.

generally occurring as limestone, but v.ery
abundant in the south-eastern counties of Eno·o
land, along ·which it stretches in a continuous
line. It forms hills of n. moderate eleYation ,
characterised by their geutle slopes and rounded
summits, n.rising from this substance being of
too soft a nature to r esist the action of the
weather. There are two beds of chalk ; the
upper one distinguished by containing parallel
horizontn,l layers of flint, wit.h many petrifac"tions, and the lower, by being destitute of both.
Chalk is white, dull, friable, mer.gre to the
to uch, adheres to the tongue, is of m1 earthy
fr~cture, always amorphous and opaque. lt is
usually clug from pits; but in some parts of
Kent the workmen undermine the sides of the
hill, then dig a trench, which is filled with
water; this, soaking in, loosens tJie masses
which consequently fall. Most of the u ses of'
chalk are nearly the same as those of limestone·,
when freed from its coarser particles, it forms
whiting.
·vv ater impregnated with calcareous substnnces is occaRionally deposited on ve<,.e
tables ,
0
clothing· them ·with a stony cont; this incrustution is called Tufa.

Sulphate of Lime.
Gypsum is n sulphate of lim e; it is much softer
than marble, and more easily worked ; it is
sometimes of n beautiful trnnsparnnt whiteness ,

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181

when it is called alabaster, and is made into
vases and other ornaments. The gypsum which
is very abu11dant in the neighbourhood of Paris
is of n yellowish colour. ·when heated it pulverises, and water poured over it is quickly absorbed, forming a paste, which dries and hnrdens very rapidly. This is the Plaster of Paris
so much usecl° for casts, statues, etc. ·when
mixed with a glutinous substance, it forms stucco and plaster.
·when gypsum occurs crystallised, it is called
Selen·ite.

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Fluale of Lime.
Lime combined with fluoric acid is called
Fluate of Lime, or Fluor. It is very abundant
in Derbyshire. It is formed ·into very beautiful
ornaments, and is much used in the smelting of
the ores of copper.

;.·

LESSON XL VII.
SILICA.

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A large number of the rocks with which the
earth abounds, and a great proportion of compound earthy substances and minerals, have silex
for their chief ingredient. It seems to form the
solid basis of the crust of t.he globe, giving
:firmness nnd durability to the mountains, by
which they have resisted the various r evolutions
thd the earth has undergone, It is found in

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:FIFTH BEilIEB.-LESSON XLVII.

ALUMINE OR AilGIL.

its greatest purity in rock-crystal and qnartz.
It is the basis of almost all the mineral substances, which are sufficiently hard to strike fire
with steel. These substances are cu1led silicious,
from the Latin silex, a flint, because flint is
almost entirely composed of silicious earth.
Silex forms a large portion of granite, and enters
in considerable proportion into the composition
of slate: it is also tho substance whieh constitutes sand, and generally the shingle of the
sea-shore. It is very hard, striking fire with
steel, and scratching glass; it has neither taste
nor smell; when perfectly pure (in which state
it is, however, never found in nature), it is
infusible, but when heated with an alkali, it
unites with it, melts, 11nd forms glass. In consequence of this property, silica has also been
called vitrifiable earth, from vitnon, the Latin
for glu.ss. It is not affected by any of the acids
except fluoric.
Connnon sand is a granulated silex, generally
of a white, red, or yellow colour. In the torrid
i-egion<:1 of Africa and Asia, there are immense
tracts of desert covered only with sand, so. :fine
and dry as to be moveable with the vvind, and
f Jrming wnves like those of tho sea. The wind
sweeping the land from the surface continually,
tho successive waves form mountains of san<l.
These are incessantly shifting, and often overwhelm the travelling caravans. Sand is of great
utility. It enters into the composition of

mortar. It produces the vitrification of glasa
and porcelain. In agriculture it is valued as a.
manure; it gives lightness to clayish and heavy
~oils, and assis ts in the work of filtration.
Sandstone is formed of grains of silex cemented
together, producing a solid rock, though often
of a very friable nature.
Common flint contains of silica ninety-seven
part.s in ono hundred. It is generally of a greysh colour, approaching often to black; it is
oqaque, but translucent at its edges. It strikes
fire Ly collision, and \vas on this"account formerly
used in gunlocks. From its being one of th.e
hardest substances in nature, it is often taken as
an emblem of firmness or obduracy. lt is found
prineipally in beds or strata, in chalk formations.
It is used in the manufacture of glass and
porcelain, in the construction of buildinas
and
t>
walls, u.ncl it dso forms excellent roads.

18~

LESSON XL VIII.
ALUMINE OR ARGIL.

This substance obtained the name of Alumine
from its forming the base of common alum ; and
Argil, * on account of its being the constitueut
of all clays, which are therefore termed argii'laceow; earths. The di::;tinguishing qualities of
clays are, that they have an earthy texture, gwe

* Argil, from Latin argil-Za, cl.ty.
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FIFTH SERIES.--LESBON XLVIII.

ALUMINE OR AHGIL.

out a peculiar odour when breathed upon, which
has b een thence called the argillaceons odour;
they adhere to the tongue; are n ever found crystalized, but sometimes slaty; are generally
opaque, and their weight is about twice as great
as tlrnt of \vater. When t empered with water,
most argillaceous substances become soft, tenacious, and plastic; but shrink and harden by
the application of heat. Alumine is never found
pure in nature; but it is considered to be the
most plentiful earth next to silex.
Commwn clay is a nearly equal admixture of
alumine and silex; it is found in most countries,
and is very valuable in various arts: for these it
is peculiarly fitted, as it may b e moulded into
any form, which it retains unchanged after
exposure to h eat. The b eds of lakes, ponds,
and springs are almost entirely of clay; instead
of n,llowing the filtration of water, as sand does,
it forms an impenetrable bottom, and hy this
means water is accumulated in the caverns of the
earth, producing those nn.tural reservoirs, whence
springs issue n.nd spout out n.t the surface.
Clayey soils, in consequence of their absorbing
and retn.ining moisture, are heavy and sticky.
Clay is of ten used. by the poorer classes of
society in forming their cottn.ges.
Loam. is an argillaceous substance, containing
a great proportion of sand, and is generally
found upon a b ed of sand. It is the substance
of which bricks and tiles are constructed; ·w hen

well baked in a. kiln, or in the sun, it becomes
. very h ard and durable. A proof of this is furnish ed in the existence at the present day of
those mighty Eg·yptian Pyramids, which many
suppose to have been the woi'k of the Israelites
in their bondage.
Porcelain clay is that employed in our china
manufactories; it absorbs moisture rapidly, and
becomes very tenacious when kneaded. It is
distinguished from other clays by the finene ss
of its texture, its friability and meagre touch.
A coarser kind, called Potters' clay, is used in
making common earthen ware.
Another description of clay, of a. pla.stic nature,
is called P1'pe clay, from its being u sed in the
manufacture of pipes; it is cn,st in a cylindrical
mould, a wire being aftenwrds run through it
to form the hollow through which the fumes of
th e tobacco a.re inhaled; when baked, it becomes
hard ancl white. This cby is also used in extracting grease ·out of different substances. Fuller'.<!
earth is a.nother argillaceous substance, similarly
employed.
The soil or mould which covers our fields and
gardens, contains more or less of these three
substances, a.lumine, silica, and lime. They occur in very different proportions; a mixture of
all forms the best soil, each correcting and
keeping within their clue proportion the qualities of the other: thus, in a clayey soil filtration
i~ carried on by means of sand, while clay, on

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QUESTIOXS ON 'l'HE EAll1'HS.

the other Lund, gives consistency to a sandy
soil, and lime loosens the texture of heavy lands,
and conects the coldness occasioned by their
retaining water. The fertilising property of our
soils, however, greatly depends upon the admixture of decayed animal and vegetable matter.

QUESTIONS ON ·rrrE EARTHS.

187

14. D escribe clrnlk, its situn.tion, qun1ities, and
appearances.
.
15. ·wha t is calcareous tufa ?
1 G. N a,me the limestones used in building.
17. w·uat lS gypsum, its qualities, and uses ?

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SILICA.

QUESTIONS ON THE EARTHS.
LIME.

I. Why is lime never found pure in nature?
2. ·what name is given to the substances containing lime? and from what is the name de1·ived?
3. Name the various minerals of which lime
forms a princiµal part.
4. From what substance is pure lime generally procured ?
5. Describe the process.
6. -what is tho operation of slacking lime,
and the effect produced?
7. Name the different uses of lime, with the
properties that fit it for those uses.
7. What is a carbonate of lime?
9. Mention the different carbonates of lime.
10. 'Vhat qualities do they all possess?
11. Describe calca,reous spar.
12. ·wha,t a,re stalactites? DescriLe their
formation.
13. vVlrnt is marble, a,nd how used ?

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· s1-1·ic a· found i'n the
1. In what mmera
gren.test purity?
2. vVhy is it en.Heel silica?
3. ·what are the earths called that contn.in

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silica?
4. ·what other name is sometimes given to
them , and why?
5. ·what are the distinguishing qualities of
silicio us earths ?
6_ ·what are their chief uses?
7. "\Vh at is sn nc1?
.
8. "\Vhere does it abound? and to what misfortune are those liable who travel in the countries where it abounds?
!J. Desctibe common flint and name its uses.
10. In whn.t g·eological Rituation is it found?
ALUMINE OR ARGIL.

1.
2.

'Vhy is cl::ty called argil ? why ah~~ine ~
'Vhat are the distinguishing qualities o

alumine?
3. vVhn.t qualities render it so useful in the
arts?

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON XLIX.

4. Name the different argillaceous earths.
5. Name their various uses:
6. ·what is loam, its situation, and uses?
7. How is porcelrtin clay distinguished ?
8. ·what clay is used for the manufacture of
common earthenware, and how does it differ
from porcelain clay ?
!J. ·what clay is used in the manufacture of
pipes, and how are they mat.le?
10. ""What clays are used for extracting grease?
11. Why are clays used for the bottoms of
lakes, canals, &c.?
12. ·what kind of soil does clay form?

LESSON XLIX.
COAL,

Coal may be considered as a mineral, both
from its subterraneous situation and the qualities which it possesses; many circumstances,
however, justify the now prevalent opinion that
it is of vegetable origin; the following are, perhaps, the most convincing: Carbon, which is the
chief constituent of all vegetable matter, particularly woot.1, composes three-fourths of this substauce . Coal is also found in the various stages
of mineralization.
Sometimes it possesses a
completely fibrous texture and ligneous appearance, even the knots of wood being discernible,
whilst the same bed produces specimens of per-

COAL.

18!)

feet mineral coal. That ·which preserves most
distinctly the character of wood is found at Bovey, near Exeter. In Ireland a standi11g forest
has b een discovered at the depth of one hundred
foet below the soil. To this we may acld t.he
inflammability of this substance; the numerous
veg etabl e remains and impressions that accompany it; and tlrnt it has never boeii discovered
above the line to which vegetation reaches.
Coal is of a black colour, bright, and frequentJy iridescent; the structure is slaty; it
occnrs always amorphous; it is very combustible,
a quality which few minerals possess.
The
places from ·whence it is taken are called coalrni11 es i they abound in many parts of England,
and have mainly contributed to the wealth of
our country. Both the persons employed in the
mines, and the vessels which transport the coals,
are called colliers,- the place where the trade is
carried on, a colliery. The access to coal-mines
is g enerally through a narrow, perpendicular
tunnel called a shajt, up which the workmen and
coals are draYrn by machinery. The mines at
""\:Vhitehaven are some of the most extnwrc1innry
in the wo rld . The principal entrance is by au
opening at tho bottom of a hill, through n long
slopin g passage whieh is hewn in the rock, aud
lends to the lovrnst vein or bed of coal; the descent is chiefly through spacious galleries inttrsectin g each other, formed by the excavation of
the coal, large pillars of which are left to support

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FIFTH SETIIES .-LESSON XLIX.

the ponderous roof . Th ese mines are very deep,
and are extendP-d under the b ecl of the r;ea, even
to where the depth of the water is sufli.eieutly
grnat to admit ship·s of burden. In tliesc mines
there are three strata of coal, which lie cons iclernbly apart from one another, and are matlo
to communicate by p its. Miners are frequeu fly
impedetl in their progress by veins of hard rock
called dykes. and the coal is seldom found in a
direct line on the other sido of them; to ascedain
its precise situation is oft.en a work of cc nsiderable labor and expense.
Coal is generally
s ituated at tbc hot 0£ rnountaius, and in h ollows ,
which vary much iu extent; it rn.rely lies much
above the level af the sea.
Several dangers attend the lu.bour of miners;
the greatest is that arising fromfir e-dnmp, which
is occasioned by the hydrogen g as or inflammable air produced in the miue, and which, when
mixed with atmospheric air, explodes with great
violence if brought into contact with r.ny lig hted
~mbsta.nce.
To avoid 1.his clanger, safety-lamps
are u secl, which wore inventecl by Sir Humphry
Davy. They are of a very simple construction ,
consisting of wire gauze so closely interwoven,
that gn.s of sufficient quantity to cause ig nitibn
ca11110t enter them. Another dnnger arises from
tho forma tion of carbonic acid gus , or fixed air,
y~·hich, b e in~· h en.vier thn,n tlrn common ai r, occupies the lower parL of tho mines, an<1 occasions
death by suffocation.

GRANITE.

Coal is usecl to raise the tern pernture of
ro om s ; to cook foocl ; to supply the fu el for
manufactories (particularly where steam is r equire L1), aml in the wo rking of metals. It furni she r; us with the gas so much useC:(which is
th o substance called h yclrogen, and exists in co11l
in union with ca.rb0n; it is easily driven awu,y or
volatilised by h~ating the coal in a close place,
ancl when caught and presened it forms the gas
now used to light our str eets and buildings:
when this has been extracted from tlrn ooal the
r esidue is c:Lllell coke, which is employed where
inten se h eat is l'Oll uisite.

LESSON L.
GHAKITE.

Granite is a compound rock, formed by an
agg r egation of grains of quartz, felspar and
mica.. The proportions in ·w hich these compon ent parts occur vary much; but felspar is the
predominating, and mica the least considerable,
of these ingredients . The grains are also of
different magnitudes; when they are large, tbe
granite is of a very coarse texture; but sometimes they a.re so small, as almost to giYe the
uppearnnce of a uniform mass. These circumstances occasion n, great variety in the character
of granite .
\ \Thon hornhlend occurs in the
place of mien., tho rock is called sienite. Some

192

ID3

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON LI.

SALT.

felspar is liable to decomposition, and when
this is the iJrevailing subst,ance in the rocks,
they yield to the effects of the weather, and become more or less of a rounded form: but when
the gmnite is hard and close-grained, which is
more usually the case, they rise in bold prominent peaks, giving grandeur and boldness to the
scenery. Granite is found in most countries
where there arc mountains of any considerahle
elevation . It forms the lofty Grnmpia.n hills in
Scotlaud; and the Logan or rocking-stones of
Cornwall are immense blocks of this material.
Granite is valuable on account of its great hardness o,nd durability; it is used for mill-stones,
troughs and steps: the streets of London are
paved with it, and it is employed in architecture.
Waterloo Brid$:re,
and the new London Brid0·e
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Portugal; salt drawn from brine springs; and
rock-salt, which is dug out of the earth. Amongst
the most extensive salt-mines hitherto discovered are those at vVielizlrn, a picturesque little
town situated on the sides of a gentle valley,
about eight miles from Cracow, formerly the
chief city of Poland. The traveller who visits
these subterraneous deposits of salt, being furnished with a guide and two lamp-bearers, is
let down a shaft of about 150 feet by a rope.
At the depth of 90 feet he arrives at the rock of
pure salt, which is of a dingy soot colour, here
and there glistening by the light of the lamps.
The swing is now abancloned, and the ear is assailed by the busy sound of spades, mattocks,
and wheelbarrows, in every direction. This is
the first jloo1· of a large cavern, containing in
different parts a stable for twenty horses, quantities of salt, some in bare masses, some in casks
ready to be hoisted to the surface, stores of
implements for the miners, etc. This excavation is about 100 feet long and 80 broad (besides
the stable), and about 20 feet high.
From
hence a long· gallery, 12 feet high by 8 broad,
leacls toward the int erior of the mine, where
lateral avenues branch off in various directions,
each named after some Austrian prince or princess, and rei->emhliug more in appearance the
avenues of a subterraneous palace, than the
passages of a mine. A flight of steps conducts
down another hundred feet to the second floor;

LESSON LI.
SALT •.

Salt is a mineral substance, beautifully white,
sparkling and crystalline; it is soluble, fusible,
granulous, and of a peculiar flavour called .c:;aline.
There are several varieties of this usofnl mineral, wliid1 are t1isti11g11islted by tho t1iffcrcut
situations in which they aro found. The principal are sea-salt, called also bay-salt, which is
produced from the ocean; the best comes from

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FIFTH SEilJES.-LESSON LI.

8ALT.

in this clesc:_nt the bed of salt is interrupted by
a narrow stratum of pure clay; sometimes by a
mixture of salt and the same earth; these strata
are, in places, very curiously curved, as though
a rolling ..wave had been arrested in it.Fi course,
and preserved in its original form. 'l'he miners
are here found at work, some hewing pillars of
salt from the rock, some cutting them into
masses for home consumption, and some stowing the masses in barrels for exportation. The
cavern on this floor is rather smaller than the
first; it consists of one spacious hall, and has no
pillar to support the roof.
Proceeding on his subterranean journey, the
traveller arrives at a wood en platform, from
whence he looks down upon an abyss, which the
simple lights of the conductors fail to illuminate, though the spars of the mineral reifoctino·
0
the rays of light produce a novel and beautiful
effect.
·when princes or other great personao-es
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hanging in the centre, is furnished with 150
lights, which display a stupendous cavern, having the.,appearance of a castle in ruins; at the
bottom are some rows of seats, rising like the
benches of a theatre; opposite to these is an orchestra: here, on such occasions, a small band
plays a few airs of slow and simple music, which
has a most singular effect, and harmonises well
with the surrounding scene. Long g·alleries
and flights of steps, all spacious enough to al-

lo·w free com·se to the fresh air 1 Iead deeper ancl
deeper in the saline rock; the scene now and
then i" varied by a cavern full of workmen, and
some aJong the galleries, ·wheeling their little
carts full of salt, each ·with its lamp in front.
On the follrth j/rJor tbere is a little suhternweous
1ake, about 80 feet long and 40 broad, over
-which illustrious personag'es are ferried on
rafts of fir-logs lighted by numerous :fhmbeaux.
Here terminates the bed of green salt, the most
common sort, and easiest to be cut. The next
to it is ca,lled spica salt, which is harder and
more close-grained, and next succeeds a white
and finer-grained variety.
This part of the
mine is 700 feet belo·w the surface of the earth:
300 feet beneath this lies the finest crystal salt,
-..vhich is reached by long flights of steps and
inclined J.lanes.
The C[l.Vern in which it is
found is sufficiently spacious for a regiment of
soldiers to perfonn their manccuvres in it. This
js the deepest part of the mine; the air is quite
l)Ure, rather coo:er than that of the open day,
but much warmer thrm it :is _about half-·way
down. The return i8 through a <liffereut series
of corridors ~md cv.. verns. On t.he third floor is
a simple tomb of salt, with the name of the late
Emperor of Austria inscribed with letters of
-wood nently gilt. On the second floor is a large
saloon ·with all the implements of mining .. and
the mode of letting them down with men and
horses exhibited in trn. nspurency. On the first

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197

FIFTH SEilIES.-LESSON LI.

is a chapel presenting an altar, statue of the
Virgin, crucifix, and figures of Casimir I. and
his wife, all cut out of the solid salt; before the ·
chapel is a small pulpit in the Gothic style. To
visit the whole of this extraordinary and extensive mine, with all its galleries and caverns, no
less a distance than 300 miles must be traversed.
Tho salt used in Engln.ncl is chiefly obtained
from the sea, or salt brine-springs. 'l'ho salino
water is admittec1 into open shallow trenches,
and being exposed to the sun or artificial heat
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the water is evaporated, and the salt is precipitltted in a crystalline state.
The conservative properties of salt render it
invaluable for household purposes, and for preserving meat during voyages; and its stimulati~g pr?perties give a relish to food and help
d1gest10n. ·when fused, it is used in glazing
pottery; it improves the whiteness ancl d en.mess
of gln.ss, and gives hardness to soap; it is used
by the dyer in fixing colors; also sometimes as a
manure.
It was employed in all the Jewish ceremonies,
being emblematical of purity and incorruptibility. Our blessed Lord calls his disciples the
salt of the earth; thereby [signifying to thorn
tlrnt haviug, by clivino grace, their own hearts
purified, thoy are to exercise, by precept and
e:x:mnple, a purifying influence on the hearts of
others.

LESSON LIL
SLATE.

Slate i.s a mineral substance; it is never found
crystallised, but generally of a foliated structure:
it is either of a grey, bluish, or blackish colour,
often streaked by a different tint from that of
the ground; it is opaque, dull, compact, and
brittle. It consists chiefly of aluniine, with a
small quantity of silex. It is dug out of quarries; when :first taken from them it is comparatively soft, but becomes hard by exposure to the
air. It is used for writing upon, for whetstones,
and for roofing houses. In order to ascertain
its fitness for the latter purpose, it is weighed
as soon as it is excavated, and is then put into
water for some days; if after being well dried it
is found to have increased in weight, it is laid
aside as unsuitable for the purpose, the trial
having proved that it was porous, and consequently absorbent. Such slate would not only
allow ·water to pass through it, and so destroy
the wood-work of buildings, but it would also
be liable to be covered with lichens and moss,
in consequence of the moisture which it retains.
If its quality is ascertained to be good, it is split
into thin platef1 for roofing. The tiles are fastened to the rafters by pegs driven through holes
which have been previously made in them; the
edge of one is laid over the other in the same

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON Lil.

manner as the scales of :fishes. Slate which is
dark-colored, compact, and solid, is the best
adapted for writing upon. In order to prepare
the slate for this purpose, it is rendered smooth
with an iron instrument, and it is then ground
with sandstone and slightly polished.
That
which is softer and more friable is used for pencils. Since the repeal of the duty upon slate it
has been extensively used for many purposes,
such as flooring of warehouses, shelves, mantelpieces, formation of cisterns, and covering of
houses in exposed situations. The principal
slate quarries in Great Britain are in Caernarvonshire . Those belonging to Mr. Pennant
(formerly Lord Penrhyn's), near Bangor, employ
about 1500 men and boys, and are the most
extensive and valuable in the empire.

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LESSON LIII.

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CORAL.

Corals are the secretions made by one of the
lowest class of animals, called polypi, iuhabiting
the deep; they sometimes assume the forms of
branches of the most beimtiful appearance;
sometimes they resemble beads strung in a
. necklace, while others present a more consolidated mass; but all are perforated with pores
more or less minute, which are the habjtations
of the little architects.

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199

Among the various phenomena of the natural
world, there are perhaps none more calculated
to excite astonishment and admiration than the
vast coral reefs that rise up from the deep, and
at times even constitute islands.
They are
produced from a calcareous matter which exudes
from the coral worm, and hardening, forms at
once their habitation and their mausoleum.
This creature is of the class of zoophytes, the
lowest grade of animal life, the link between
the animal and the vegetable kingdom. They
work only under water, so that the coral reefs
never rise above the level of the sea; and when
the tide retires, the rock appears dry, compact,
rugged, and perforated; but when the returning
waters wash its sides, a most interesting spectacle
of active life is presented, countless myriads of
of various shapes and colours protrude themselves from the orifices, and the whole edifice
seems teeming with life and animation .
The coral ceases to grow in height when the
worm is no longer exposed to the washing of the
sea; the work is then commenced at the sides,
and other parts rise in succession, till they
reach the same height, and form a level surface at
the top, with steep, precipitous Hides. In this
manner, and by such insignificant agents, atom
deposited upon atom, the solid rock is at
length produced; upon this the sea deposits
sand, mud, and decayed sea-weed; these prepare for mosses and lichens, which in their turn

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GUTTA PERCHA.
FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON LIV.

produce a soil for more perfect vegetation; till
at last the island thus formed becomes a fit
residence for man.
As these rocks are constructed beneath the
surface of the sea, they present no beacon to
warn the mariner of their existence, and thus
render navigation in those seas in which they
abound exceedingly dangerous.

LESSON LIV.
GUTTA PERCHA.

This useful substance is the gum of a tree
growing in Singapore and Borneo. The word
gutta means gum, and percha is the l\'Ialayan
name for the tree which chiefly yields this gum.
The natives tup the tree when it is in the state
to produce the largest amount of this its peculiar
juice.
Gutta percha is brought, to England in a shapeless lump; it is reduced to a pulp by lacerating
machines, is then purified by water, which is
combined with other substances according to the
preparation necessary for its future destination;
it is pressed into sheets and different forms by
rollers, and little is afterwards required to fit it
for · the particular purpose to which it is to be
applied.
rl'he numerous valuable qualities of gutta percha fit it for a great variety of uses. Its tough-

201

ness, (which differs froni that of caoutchouc),
and the facility with which it can be softened by
heat render it peculiarly apt to receive, and permanently to retain, any form that can be given
to it; but its being so readily affected by heat
prevents its being available except for cold purposes. Its toughness, and the ease with which
it is converted into a tenacious cement, make it
very valuable in the different processes of bookbinding. Its impermeability to water has caused
it to be used for the soles of shoes, and it is
taking the place of lead in the conveyance and
stowage of water; with this great advantage,
that the injurious effect produced by the action
of water upon the metal is avoided. From its
power of resisting the most potent chemicals, it
is of the greatest service to the chemist; and it
is substituted much for glass in the conveyance
of their preparations, especially muriatic acid,
whereby the expense occasioned by breakage is
prevented. Its applicability to various purposes
in the laboratory is great, as for syphons, funnels, &c., and in surgery for bandages for
wounds, stopping teeth, &c.
The various domestic purposes to which it is
applied can scarcely be enumerated, and its
plastic nature enables it to be moulded into any
form, and makes it fit for a great variety of vessels; also for ornamental purposes, as pictureframes, trays, ink-stands, &c. 1 and different
embossed articles. The advance in the trade of

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ON THE

FIFTH SERIES.-LESoON LV,

·gutta percha proves the increasing appreciation
·of its value. The first specimen was brought to
England in 1843, ancl in the following year 230
pounds were exported to great Britain from
Singapore; in 1848 the exports amounted to as
much as 1, 700 ,000 pounds, and it was computed
that no less than 300,000 trees were destroyed
to obtain this supply.

ON THE SENSES.
LESSON LY.
The children having been already exercised in
determining by which of the senses they discover
the presence of any quality, may be led to consider more fully the senses themselves. The
first two lessons are drawn out for the use of the
teacher: the substance only of the others is
given.
TEACHER. Do you undel'Stand how you gained
-the knowledge of various qualities ?
CmLDREN. By our senses.
TEACHER. How do you know wh~n a thing is
red or blue?
CHILDREN. By sight.
TEACHER. How, if you were blind, could you
form a correct idea of color ? What other means
is there of gaining this know ledge ?
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203

CHILDREN. None.
'l'EACHEH. True; and to ascertain this point, a
blind man waB once questioned as to what notion
he had of scarlet: he said he thought that it must
be like the sound of a trumpet. It is obvious
that he had no correct idea of a quality discoverable by the sight, and he could only compare
it with one that he had acquired through the
medium of another sense. Can you tell me the
reason why persons born deaf cannot speak?
CHILDREN. They cannot imitatt sounds because they never heard any.
TEACHER. Since, then, deaf persons have no
correct ideas of sound, nor blind persons of
colour, how did we acquire our ideas of -s ound
and colour?
CmLDREN. By means of the senses of seeing
and hearing.
TEACHER. How, then, clo we suppose our
minds become stored with ideas?
CHILDREN. By the exercise of our senses.*
'rEACHER. Yes; and if you had once had the
idea of a dog formed in your mind, by seeing
such an animal, when a dog is mentioned you
can recall the idea an<l fancy one immediately,
as if it were present; your mind will also perform the same operation when a quality is spoken
of, which you had previously seen in some ob-

*

It is probable that children would not at once arrive at
this conclusion. The teacher must, ia that case, lead them _to
H by easy questions.
-

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FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON LVI.

ject. Again, if you see a dog unlike any you
have observed before, you compare it with the
species with which you are acquainted, and mark
the difference between them. If I say that I
have some green paper, cannot you immediately
conceive the colour of which I speak?
CHILDREN. Yes.
TEACHER.
Did you, then, exercise you sight?
CmLDREN. No.
TEACHER. How, then, could you have the
idea of green?
CmLDREN. We remembered it.
TEACHER. By what means did you first obtain
the idea?
CHILDREN. By Reeing something· green .
'rEACHER. ·what power of the mind do you
exercise in recalling an idea?
CHILDREN. Our memory.

.I

LESSON LVI.
FEELING OR TOUC'H.

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TEACHER.
VVhat part of your body is the
organ of touch?
CHILDREN. It seems all over our body.
TEACHER. Tell me some parts that do not
possess the sense of feeling.
CmLDHEN. Our hairs, nails, teeth.
TEACHEit. And in other animals, what parts
are found destitute of sensation?

FEELING
CmLDREN.

OR

TOUCH.

205

The hoofs, horns, claws, feathers,

wool, hair, &c.
'rEACHER. \Vhat word would you use to express the absence of se n~ation. \Vhat .syl;able
prefixed to a word gives it negtive meanmg .
CHILDREN. In.
TK'.CHElL ·well, what word will express the
absence of sensation?
CHILDHEN. Insensibility.
TEACHEit. 'rhe parts then you have named
are insensible, and, with the exception of these,
the sense of feeling exists everywhere throghout
the body; but what part of it is particularly
adapted, by its forms, to become the organ of
the sense?
CHILDREN. 'rhe hand.
TEACHElt.
Tell me what qualities we can
discover in objects by this sense?
CHILDREN.
That they are hard, soft, rough,
smooth, long , short, sharp, blunt, rou~d, s~ua~·e,
cylindrical, conical, heavy, light, flmd, liqmd,
dry, wet, hot, cold, &c.
TEACHER. Bv what general term would you
express such q~alities as round, square, conical,
&c.?
CHILDREN. By shape.
TEACHER. By what general term would you
express such qualities as large, small, &c.?
CHILDREN. By size.
TEACHEli. By what general term would you
express such qualities as rough, smooth, &c.?

:

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206

l"IFTH SERU.S. -LESSON LVI.

By kind of surj(we.
TEACHER. By what general term would you
express such qualities as hard, soft, fluid, tenacious, &c.?
CHILDREN.
By kind of substance.
TEACHER. By what general t.erm would you
express such qualities as heavy, light, &c. ?
CHILDREN.
By weight.
TEACHEit. Now arrange the qualities which
you discover by your feeling under five general
beads, i.e., shape, size, kind of surface, kind of
substance, weight.
The children having performed this exercise,
the teacher may mention the following facts:
TEACHER. The quickness and accuracy of the
sense of feeling is, we find, much increased by
exercise, as is exemplified in blind persons, the
defect of whose sight is frequently compensated,
in a great measure, by an exquisite sensitiveness
of touch. Bats also appear to possess this sense
in a remarkable degree.
They have been
observed, even after loss of sight, and with their
.ears and nostrils stopped, to fly through intricate
windings and passages, without striking against
the walls, and also to avoid lines and cords placed
in their way. The expanded membrane that
serves them for wings is probably the seat of
this delicate sense of feeling, which so admirably
fits them for their nocturnal and dark abodes.
The palpi, or feelers of insects, possess the same
quality very acu_tely, and this enables them to
CHILDREN.

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SIGHT.

207

explore the surface of bodies in search of food,
and warns them also of the approach of danger.
The class should be required, at t~e conclusion
of the lesson, to draw up some account of this
sense mentioning where it resides, what qualities
fall ~ithin its cognizance, and to recapitulate
any incidental information received during the
lesson.

LESSON L VII.
SIGHT.

"
The eyes are the organs of sight, and are
beautifully adapted for the office they have to
perform. They are so constr~ctecl as to allow
us to see things near, or at a distance; to confine
ourselves to the inspection of one object, or to
take in at once a large sphere of vision. The
part of the eye ·which admits t~e light may be
expanded or contracted, acco1'dmg as the rays
are more or less powerful. The fact is remarkably
exemplified in the eyes of the cat and of the owl.
Indeed nothing affords a more striking proof of
the kind proviclence of God than the beautiful
adaptation of the eyes of animals to their pec~liar
mod es of life; those of moles, fishes, and birds,
are remarkable illustrations of this fact.*

*

'!'he T eacher should h ere fully explain to the class the circumstances referred t-0, and give other similar instances.

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HEARING.

208

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON LVIII.

Of all the senses, that of sight is in most frequent and continual exercise. It fills the mind
with the greatest variety of ideas, which it gathers not only from the objects of nature and of
art, but from the writings of the wise and good
of all ages.
The qualities we discover by this sense
are, transparent, semi-transparent, translucent,
opaque, glimmering, bright, dark, sparkling,
dull; ;ind the various modifications of colour,
size, and shape. l\'Iany may be ascertained
either by touch or sight; as those of size, form,
kind of surface, ancl substance.
I'

LESSON LV lII.
HgARING.

The ears are the organs of this sense.
In
many animals the ear has externally the form of
a trumpet, and is well adapted for gathering
sound and bringing it to a focus; in man it contains many convolutions and channels, which
receive the vibrations of air in every direction,
and convey them to the part called the drum,
which is the actual seat of this sense.
The formation of the ears of animals is beautifully accommodated to their peculiar habits of
life. In beasts of prey the trumpet part is inclined forwards, easily to catch the sounds of
those they are pursuing. But animals whose

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209

chief means of protection is flight have these organs turned backwards, that they may be readily apprised of the approach of their enemie1::1.
'rhe ears are the medium through which all
sensations of sound reach the mind; without
them, we should be deprived of the advantages
of verbal instruction, the pleasures of conversation, and the charms of music.
The motion of the parts of a body, or the collision of one body against another, occasions a
vibration in the air, which is similar to the effect
produced on water when a stone is thrown into
it. Circle succeeds circle, till the power of motion is exhausted; and just as any light substance within the influence of these undulations
is agitated by them, so when our ear is within
.the reach of these vibrations of air, the sensation of sound is produced.* The chirping note
of the cricket is occasioned . simply by the constant friction of a little membrane against its
wmgs ·when two bodies are rubbed or struck
together, we may in most cases be able to determine by the sounds emitted, the nature of the
substances brought into contact. Very different
sounds are occasioned by the collision of metals
to that which wood gives out; and the sound
produced from hollow bodies is very unlike that

*

This account mny appear, at first sight, above the comprehension of children; a class, however, which had gone through
the preceding exercises, was found fully capable of understanding it.

18

210

FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON Lll.

resulting from solid ones. There are various
kinds of sounds; as shrill, deep, grating, harsh,
loud, soft, harmonious, sweet. Animals produce different sounds. The cat mews, the clog
barks, the lion roars, the ass brays, the cow
lows, the horse neighs, the rook caws, the goose
cackles, the cock crows, the fly buzzes, the bee
hums.
Man speaks, laughs, cries, shouts,
groans, whistles, sings.

LESSON LUC
SMELL.

The nose is the organ of this sense; its cavities are lined with a thin membrane supplied
with nerves connected with a principal one,
which is essential to the perception of smell.
By means of this sense we derive all our ideas
of odour. Though not so important to man as
the other senses, yet it adds much to his pleasure; and to many animals it is essential, directing them in the search of their food. The scent
of dogs is peculiarly fine, and on this account
they are employed in the chase.
Odour is produced by exceedingly small particles called effluvia, which escape from odorous
bodies: these diffuse themselves in the o.tmosphere, and whenever they reach the olfactory
nerves they occasion the sensation of smell.
Heat promotes the escape of these particles,

TASTE .

211

which are of a volatile nature; hence, when the
sun shines brightly, the flowers are more fra.gran t.

LESSON LX.
TASTE.

The mouth is the organ of taste. The skin
within the mouth is finer and more delicate than
that of the rest of the body; it is supplied with
a great number of blood-vessels: and covered
with innumerable papilloo. Sapid bodies, however, before they excite the sensation of taste,
require to be moistened by the saliva. In graminivorous animals the papilloo are defended
from the action of the stiff bristles of grass and
corn by a strong skin, which being perforated,
allows the dissolved juice to reach the seat of
taste. The principal qualities discoverable by
the taste are bitter, sweet, acid, pungent, acrid,
luscious. There are many others, which derive
their names from the substances in which they
exist; as salt, spicy, etc.
Many animals have some one of the senses in
great perfection, but in none are they all found
in the same degree as in man.

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ON . SOLUBILITY.
212

FIFTH ilERIES.-LESSON LXI.

ON SOLUBILITY.

213

Do you know what those substances are termed
that dissolve in water?
PUPILS. Soluble.
TEACHER. What are those termed which do

INTRODUCTORY HE!l'.IARKS.

not dissolve?
PuPILS. Insoluble.
TEACHER. Tell me the names of several

LESSONS on objects would be well followed up
by instruction on qualities with which the children are familiar. This idea is well worked out by
Mr. Tegetmeir, who purposes publishing a
series of such lessons; the following which is
copied with a few alterations from one of his
'
will explain what is here recorumended.

s0luble bodies.
PuPILS. Sugar, Epsom salts, gum, salt .
TEACHER. Tell me some that are insoluble.
. PUPILS. Marble, stone, wood, tin, slate.
TEACHEH..
What has become of the sugar
that dissolved ?-is it destroyed?
PuPILS. No, it is in the water.
TEACHER. How do you know that it is in the

LESSON LXI.

LESSONS ON SOLUBILITY.
The Teacher developes the ideas for which he
afterwards gives terms by means of simple experiments. In the first he fills half full with
water three glass tubes; he then adds to one a
pinch of Epsom salts, to another a few grains
of sugar, to the third some powdered marble,
and shakes each for a few moments.
TEACHER. I wise you to describe the changes
which have taken place in the mixturei:i.
PUPILS. 1st. The · salt and the sugar have
disappeared. 2nd. Melted in the water. 3rd.
Dissolved in the water. The marble remains
the same.
TEA<..:HEn. Right; the salt and sugar have dissolved in the water; the marble is not dissolved.

'water?
PUPILS. We can taste sugar when it is dissolved in our tea, or in water.
TEACHER. Would it be useful to give a particular name to a liquid that has dissolved any
Elubstance, in order to distinguish it from
another that has not any substance dissolved in
it?
PUPILS. Yes.
TEACHER. Such liquids are called solutions :
what, therefore, is ~ormed by the experiments
made?
PUPILS. A solution of Epsom salts in water,
and another of sugar in water.
TEACHER. Is there a. solution of marble form,ed?

18A

214

FIFTH SEUIES.-LESSON LXI.

· PUPILS. No; for the marble would not dissolve.
TEACHER. Does the water, or the sugar, or
both together, form the solution ?
PuPILS. Both together.
TEACHER. A liquid used to dissolve a solid is
termed a solvent. What can we say of water.
PuPILS. It is a solvent of_Epsom salts, sugar,
&c.
Teacher takes two equal portions of Epsom
salts and places euch in a tube, with equal quantities of watm·. One is left undisturbed, whilst
the other is heated in the flame of a spirit-lamp.
The pupils are required to state what result they
observe.
PUPILS. The water that has been made hot
has dissolved the salts very quickly, and also in
greater quantity. (The experiment should be
made with the sugar also.)
TEACHER. What would you say of the effects
of hot liquids on soluble bodies?
PUPILS. Hot liquids dissolve substances more
quickly and in greater quantities than cold ones.
TEACHER. This is generally, but not invariably, true. There are some bodies upon which
cold and hot water has the: same effect. Common salt is an example.
Teacher makes another experiment; placing
two equal quantities of sugar in water, allowing
one to remain undisturbed, and shaking or stir-

ON

SOLUBILITY.

rrng· the other. Pupils to tell the result observed.
PuPILS. 'l'he sugar m the shaken tube dissolves first.
TEACHER. Try and explain why this is so.
PUPILS. When the tube is shaken, every part
of the solid is affected by the solvent which dissolves it; but when the sugar lies at the bottom
the water at the top does not help to dissolve it.
Teacher then places a large lump of sugar in
a spoon and puts it into a tumbler of water,
holding it near the top; and then, placing the
tumbler between the pupils and the light, requires them to say what they observe.
PuPILS. Little wavy lines fall from the spoon.
TEACHER. Can you tell what causes this?
Consider what is happening to the sugar.
PUPILS. It is dissolving.
TEACHER. What, then, is being formed ?
PurILS. A solution of sugar.
'rEACHEu. \Vhat becomes of the solution, as it
is formed?
PuPIL;;. It is that which we see falling through
the water.
TEACHEH. Right ; but why does the solution
sink in the water ?
PuPILS. It must be because it is heavier than
water.
TEACHEIL It is so; every solution formed by a
solid in water is heavier than water. Knowing
this, can you tell me why men swim more e;i sily

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216

l''IFTH BERIES.-LESSON LXI.
ON SOLUBILITY.

in the sea than in fresh water, and even more
easily still in the Dead Sea ?
PuPILS. Sea water is a solution of salt, and
being heavier than fresh water, a man would not
so easily sink in it.
'feacher next places a quantity of common
salt in a tube, and pours over it about twice its
weight of water, shaking it for some time,-then
asks what has happened.
PUPILS. Part of the salt is dissolved, and part
is left,-the water does not dissolve it all.
TEACHEit. You are correct; water will not dissolve more than one-third of its weight of salt;
and when it refuses to dissolve more, it is said
to be saturated. What kirnl of a solution is then
formed'?
PuPILS. A saturated solution.
TEACHER. Water, as we have seen, will dissolve
more of some bodies, as Epsom salts, when it is
heat.eel. If we were to heat a cold solution of
Epsom salts, what do you think would happen?
PUPILS. It would then dissolve more salts,
showing that it would not be :-iaturated by the
same quantity of ealt as it was when cold.
Teacher puts some powdered sealing-wax into
two tubes, and pours into one cold water, into
the other spirits, and then shaking them, asks the
pupils to say what difference . they observed in
the two.
PUPILS. The sealing-wax has dissolved in the
spirits and not in the water.

217

TEACHER. Is sealing-wax a soluble or insoluble
body?
PuPILS. It is both; soluble in spirits, insoluble in water.
TEACHER. \Vhat kind of liquid is a solvent to
sealing-wax, and other resinous bodies?
PUPILS. Spirits.
Teacher repeats the last experiment, substituting gum for sealing-wax.
PUPILS. The gum, contrary to the sealingwax, dissolves in the water, but not in the spirit;
it is also soluble and insoluble.
'rEACHER. It is so: but when no particular
sohent is named, it is always understood to be
water: hence, in ordinary language, gum is said
to be soluble; sealing-wax insoluble, the solvent,
water, being understood. India-rubber is an
exampie of a solid insoluble in all ordinary
liquids, but soluble in coal-tar, naptha; the solution thus obtained is used for making waterproof
(Macintosh) clothing, by employing it to cement
together two thin layers of cloth.
The pupils then should be required to mention
all the new terms they have learnt, or any like
them; as soluble, insoluble, solve, solvent, solution, dissolve, dissolving, solubility, insolubility,
saturated.
TEACHER. Do you observe a resemblance in
these words?
PuPILs. Yes: they all, except saturated, bave
solve or solu in them.

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ON

218

219

PUPILS. That it is unloosened; the partners
are no longer united together.
TEACHER. And what do we mean when we call
death a dissolution?
PuPILB. That the body crurn bles to pieces;
its pads are all loosened or separated .

:FIFTH SERIES.-LESSON LXI.

TEACHER. The meaning of that root, as it is
called (for it is like the root of a plant, the
part from which other parts spring), is to loose; it
comes from a .Latin word salvo, to loose-the v
. being changed into u: the word soluble then
means, being able to be loosed, or to have particles separated by the action of a liquid.
What would insoluble mean?
PUPILS. In stands for not, therefore it means
not soluble.
TEACHER. I wish you now to sum up the various parts of the lesson, so as to connect the
whole together.
Bodies that are capable of dissolving are
called soluble,- those not capable of doing so, in.soluble.
When we speak of a body possessing
.solubility, we say it will dissolve. A liquid that
dissolves a solid is termed a solvent; and a solution is a solid dissolved in a liquid.
When the
solution will hold no more of the substance dissolved in it, we say it is saturated.
TEACHER. These terms are sometimes used
metaphorically---'-that is, applied to what is of a
different nature; try and remember some examples.
PUPILS. To solve a question.
TEACHER. Which means to take it to pieces .o r
unloose it. What similar use of any of these
terms do you recollect?
PuPILS. Dissolution of partnership.
TEACHER. W~at does this mean?

SOLOBILITY.

\

VOCABULARY.

.,

AROMATIC, derived from the Greek apGUJ.UX a (aroma):
spice having a pungent spicy smell.
ADHESIVE, derived from the Latin ad-hair-ere, to stick to:
composed of particles which not only unite together, but
ta3h themselves to other substances, causing them to
stick together;-thus the particles of gum have a strong
mutual cohesion; it also easily attaches itself to paper and
other substan ces, causing them to hold together.
AFFINITY, derived from the Latin affin-is, related: the tendency which some bodies have to unite with others. .
ABSORBENT, derived from the Latin absorb-ere, to suck
up; sucking up liqnids. An absorbent substance must be
also porous, for if there were no pores, the liquid could not
enter the substance.
AGGREGATION, derived from the Latin aggreg-are, to collect together in one flock. A collection of things brought
together in one.
•
AHGILLACEOUS, derived from the Latin argilla, clay: partaking of the nature of clay, or consisting principally of
clay.
ALLOY, an inferior · metal mixed with one more precious: or
as the compound of two meta.la.
ASTRINGENT, derived from the Latin ad-atring-ere, to bind
to: binding, contracting,
AMORPHOUS, derived from the Greek a (a) not, and µop<pr/
(rnorpbe) a f\)rrn: without any regular form.

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VOCABULABY.

ACIDULATED, derived from the Latin acid-ulus, slightly
acid: made slightly acid.
ACRID, from the Latin acri-s, sharp: hot, or sharp to the
taste.
ANNEAL, to beat glass after it is blown , that it may not
break.
AMALGAM, the combination of mercury with any other
metallic substance.
AQUA-FORTIS signifies literally strong water, but is applied
to a weak nitric acid.
ALKALI, a substance which, uniting with acids, n eutralises
their acidity: it derives iis name from a plant called ka.li,
from the ashes of which alkaline substances are procured.
ATMOSPHERE, derived from the Greek arµoS (atmosvapour, antl 6q)(:npa(sphaira) a globe or sphere: tho air
that surrounds our globe is composed of oxygen and nitrogen.
BRITTLE, easily broken: hard substances only are brittle.
CONGEAL, derived from the Latin con, together, and gel-u,
cold: to turn from a liquid into a solid by the influence of
cold.
CIRCLE, a. circle bounded by a curved line , which is equally
distant at every point from the centre.
CIRCULAR, in the form of a circle.
CONE, a solid bounded by a flat circuln.r surface called the
base, a.nd a curved surface tapering to a point, called the
apex.
CONICAL, having the form of a cone.
CALCINED, burnt in a fire and reduced to a calx, or friable
substance.
CULINARY, derived from the Latin culina, a kitchen: belonging to the kitchen.
CHALYBEATE, derived from the Greek xaJw1fJ (chaly-bs),
iron: impregnated with iron or steel.
CORROSIVE, derived from the Latin rod-ere, to gnaw: having the power of eating away anything.
CON'l'AGION, derived from the Latin con, together, and tangen~ , to touch: something proceeding from body to body, by
which disease is communicated.
CONCAVE, the inner curve of a. hollow sphere.

VOCABULARY.

223

CONVEX, the outer curve of a sphere.
CONSERVATIVE, derived from the Latin con, together, and
serv-a.re, to keep: having the power of preserving or preventin g decay.
CAUSTIC, derived from the Greek Hazrpvwt; (causticos),
burning: having the power to destroy the texture of parts
by burning oi· eating them away.
COHEflE, derived from the Latin co, together, and hair-ere,
to stick: to stick together.
CALORIC , derived fr om tile Latin cal-or, heat: heat.
COLLISION, derived from the Latin collis-us, struck together:
the act of striking two bodies together.
CO MP ACT, firm, solid, close.
CARBON, derived from the Latin carbo, charcoal: the pure
inflammable part of charcoal.
CARBONIC ACID, carbon united with a certain portion of
oxygen.
CALCAREOUS, derived from the Latin calx, lime : consisting
principally of lime.
COMPONENT PART, derived from the Latin con, together,
and pon-ere, to place: a part forming with others a compound
body.
CYLINDER , derived fr om tho Greek :1wilzv60 (kylindo), I
roll : a solid bounded by one curved surface and two flat ends.
CYLINDRICAL, having the form of a cylinder.
DUCTILE, derived from the Latin duc-tilis: capable of being
drawn out in length.
DECOMPOSITION, the separation of the particles of a com
pound body .
DILATABLE, derived from the Latin dilat-are, to extend:
capable of being expanded.
DENSE, close, thick: the opposite to rare.
DILUTED, derived from the Latin dilu-ei·e, to wash: having
been made thinner or weaker.
ECONOMICAL, derived from the Greek ornovoµux. (oikono.
mia), household management: relating to the managemen
of a family.
ELEMEN'l', a substance not compounded, having but one constituent part.

~24

VOCABULARY.

EXOTIC, derived from the Greek i;o (exo), without: not pro.
duced in our country; particularly applied to plants.
EVAPORATE, derived from the Latin e, out from, antl vapor,
vapour: to pass off in a vapour.
EXCRESCENCE, derived from the Latin ex, out, and crescere. to grow: something growing ont of 1111othe1' hocly, not
useful to it, and contrary to the common ortler of prounction.
EXHALE, dcrivetl from the Latin ex, out, and hal-are, to
breathe: t•J send out vapours or fumes.
ELAS'.rIC, having tl.io power, when bent or stretched, of
returning to its original position.
EFFERYESCE:r.r, derived from the Latin cffervesc-ere, to
boil up: bubbling up with internal commotion.
EDIBLE, derived from the Latin ed-ere, to eat: fit for food,
eatable.
FRAGRANT, having a sweet scent.
FLUID, derived from the Latin fl.u-e1·e, to fl.ow: having parts
easily separable, and fl.owing about.
FUSIBLE, melting in fire.
FRIABLE, easily crumbling.
FOLIATED, derived from tho Latin foli-um, a leaf: composed
of leaves, or laminm.
FRACTURE, derived from the Latin fract-iis, broken; the
appearance of a mineral when broken.
FRAGILE, derived from the Latin frang-ere, to break: easily
broken or injured.
FLEXIBLE, derived from the Latin flex-its, bent: easily
bent.
FRIC'l'ION, derived from t.he Latin fric-m·e, to rub: the net
of rubbing two bodies together.
FARINACEOUS, derived from the _Latin farina, fl.our: mealy,
of the nature of fl.om.
FILTRATION, derived from the Latin filtr-um, a colander:
the process of passing a liquid through the interstices of
another body.

225

VOCABULARY.

EMOLLIENT, derived from the Latin moll-is, soft: having
the power to soften.
EXPORTED, derived from the Latin ex:, out, and port-are, to
carry: to carry out of the country.

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FERMENTATION, derived from the Latin ferment-um,
leaven: internal commotion in the particles of a body:
plants undergo fermentation when they decompose.
GLUTINOUS, derived from the Latin gluten, glue : tena·
cious, viscid.
GLOBULE, derived from the Latin glob-ulus, a small globe:
small globe or sphere.
GRAMNIYOROUS, derived from the Latin gramen, grass,
and vor-are, to eat: feeding on grass.
GRANULOUS, derived from the Latin granul-mn, a little
grain: separnting into small particles or grains, as sand.
GENEIUC, derived from the Latin gener-a, kind8: relating
to a genus, or kind of things.
GRADUATED, derived from the Latin gradu-s, a !!tep :
marked by a regular increase of degree~.
HORIZON, derived from the Greek op1t;,ov (horizon) bounding: the line that bounds our view.
HORIZONTAL, in the same direction as the horizon.
HERME'l'ICALLY sealed, so sealed as to entirely exclude
the air.
HYDROGEN, derived from the Greek
op (hydor) water,
and yt-vva.eiv (gen-naein) to produce it: the lightest gas:
with a certain portion of oxygen it forms water.
IRIDESCENT, derived from the Latin irid-escere, to become
like a rainbow: shining with the colours of the rainbow.
IMP ALP ABLE, derived from the Latin in, not, and palp-are,
to feel: not to be perceived by touch.
BIBRICATED, derived from imbric-ai·e, to cover with tiles:
arranged in the manner of the tiles of the house.
IMPORTED, derived from the Latin in, into, and port-ai·e,
to carry: carried into a country.
IMPB.ESSIBLE, derived from the Latin in, and press-us,
pressed; easily i·eceiving and retaining an impression.
INDIGENOUS, derived from the Latin indig-ena, native:
the natural production of the country. This term is applied to vegetables, as native is to animals.
INSIPID, derived from in, not, and sap-ere, to savour: haT•
ing but little flavour.
INCOMBUSTIBLE, derived from in, not, a.nd combust-w,
burned: not to be consumed by fire.

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226

VOCABULARY.

VOCABULARY.

IN'.rERSTIC.E, derived from the Latin inter, between, and
stit-!im, placed: small space between the different parts of
ti1e body. · ·
IMPREG"iA'.rED, filled with any quality or thing.
INOiSION, derived from the Latin incis-us, cut in: a cut or
wound made by a sharp instrument.
IMPERVIOUS, derived from tile Latin in, not , per, through,
and via, a way: presenting no passage. A substance is impervious to a liquid when it presents no pore or passage by
which it can enter.
IGNITED, derived from the Latin igui-s, fire; having been
kindled or set on fire.
INFUSION,. derived from in, into, and fusus, poured: a
liquid in which something has been 1>teeped to draw out its
properties.
LIQUID properly signifies that which has been melted; anything which we drink, or which forms into drops. Air is a
fluid. Water is both fluid and liquid; when we speak of
it as a stream or current, it is properly called a fluid, but
when we speak of it as passing from a congealed to a dissolved·state, it should properly be called a liquid.
LAMINA, a thin plate.
LAMINATED, formed of thin plates or laminro.
LATERAL, derived from the Latin latera, sides: at the side
LIGNEOUS, derived from the Latin lign-mn, wood: made of
wood, or having a woody structure.
LUBRICIOUS, derived from the Latin lubric·us, slippery:
slippery, smooth.
LAYER, that which is spread over a substance.
MAGNIFYING, derived from the Latin magn-us, great, and
fi-eri, to be made: making things appear larger than they
actually are.
MALLEABLE, derived from the Latin, malle-us, a hammer:
capable, when beaten, of great extension without the parti·
cles being separated.
MALEFACTOR, derived from the Latin male, badly, and fac_
tor, doer: a criminal, an evil-doer.
MATURITY, derived from the Latin matur-us, ripe: ripe, or
having arrived at its most perfect state.
MARINE, derived from the Latin mare, the sea: belougin~ to
the sea.

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MEAGRE, dry and harsh to the touch; a term applied to earthy
minerals, as chalk.
METALLIC, composed of a metal, or of the nature of a
metal,
NATIVE, derived from the Latin nat-us , born: growing uatur.11 yin a country. When applied to a metal , it mean8 that
it is not mixed with any other substance.
NU'rnr.rious, derived from the Latin nutr-ire, to nourish:
containing much nourishment.
NEU'.rRALISE, derived from the Latin neut-er, ne; ther : to
destrov the distinguishing qualities of anything. The compound of an alkali and an acicl has not the qualities of
either, both being neutralised by their action upon each
other.
NITROGEN, a gas: united in certain proportions with oxygen•
it forms atmospheric air.
NITRIC ACID, nitrogen, united with a certain proportion of
oxygen.
NI'rRA'.rE, niti'ic acid united with another substance.
OXY<iEN, derived from the Greek oi;vS (oxys), ac;d, ancl
ycvvacl1' (gen-naein), to produce: a gas; unitecl in certain proportion with oxygen, it forms the air; with hydrogen, water.
OXIDE, that which is united with oxygen.
ODOROUS, derived from the Latin uclur, a smell: having a
smell.
OVAL, derived from the Latin ov-um, an egg: having tho form
of an egg .
OLEAGINOUS, derived from Ute Latin ole-um, oil: oily.
ORE; a m etal is termed an ore when united with another mineral substance .
OPAQUE, derived from the Latin opac-iis, dark: dark, not
admitting any light to pass through.
PONDEROUS, derived from the Latin pond-us, a weight;
heavy.
POR'.rABLE, derived from the Latin port-are., to carry: easy
to carry.
POLARITY, the property of turning towards the poles .
PLIABLE, derived from the French pli-er, to fold: easily
folded into plaits. A young twig is flexible, linen is pliable.

228

VOCABULARY,

PULVERABLE, derived from the Latin pulv-is, dust: capable
of being reduced to a powder or dust.
PERFORATED, derived from the Latin perfor-are., to bore
through: pierced with holes.
PLASTIC, derived from the Greek n'Aa66'eiv (plass-ein), to
form : capable of being monlded into any form.
PETRIFACTION, derived from the Latin petra, a stone, and
fac-ere, to make: turned into stone.
PARALLEL, derived from the Greek irapa (para.), by the
side of, and aA.A.vAmv (nJlolon), each other: rnnning in
the so.mo direction with another thing, and always keeping
at the same distance from · it.
PERFECT, when applied to a metal, signifies that it does not
lose any of its weight by fusion.
POROUS, derived from the Greek 7topo<; (poros), a passage;
full of small pores or holes. All bodies are more or less
porous, but the quality is only attributed to those in which
it is obvious.
PUNGEN'r, derived from the Latin pung-ere, to prick: warm
to the taste .
PROCl~SS, derived from the Latin process-us, a going forward: a regular course by which anything is done. ·
PERPENDICULAR, derived from the Latin perpendicul-mn,
a plumb-line; in the same direction as a plumb-line, hanging freely.
PENDULOUS, derived from the Latin pend-ei·e, to hang:
hanging suspended.
QUADRANGULAR, derived from the Latin quatuor, four,
and angul-u.~. an angle: a form having four angles.
REFLlW'l'IVE, reflecting or giving back an image : this
quality depends upon brightness.
RESERVOIR, derived from the Latin reserv-arn, to keep: 11.
place where anything is kep t in store.
RARITY, thinness as applied to fluids: tho opposite to donso.
ROASTING, the process by which the volatile parts of a mineral are evaporated.
RHO MB, derived from the Greek poµfJo<; (rhombos), a.
rhomb; a surface bounded by four equal straight lines; Ha
opposite angles are equal, but not right angles.

VOCABULARY.

229

HHOMBOHEDRON, derived from the Greek r3oµ(Jo~
(rhombos), a rhomb, and i opa (hedm), a base: a solid
bounded by six rhombs, any one of which may be its base.
S'l'ItA'rUM, derived from tho Latin strat-mn, laid: a bed or
layer.
SUPPLE, easily bent in any direction.
SMELTING, the process by which the pure metal is separated
from the earthy particles with which it is combined in the
ore.
SILICIOUS, derived from the Latin, sil-ex, flint: consisting
prin cipally of silex or flint.
SECBE'l'ION, derived from the Latin secret-us, separated:
tlrn.t which is separated from any other substance. Tears
are an animal secretion; the honey in flowers is a vegetable
secretion.
SOLUBLE, derived from the Latin solv~ere, to loosen: melt·
ing in a liquid.
SOLVENT, having the power of dissolving things.
SOLU1'ION, that which contains anything dissolved.
SPHERE, derived from the Greek 6cpazpa (sphaira), a globe
or sphere: a solid bounded by one curved surface, which is
equally distant in every part from the centre.
SPHEnICAL, having the form of a sphere.
SOLID, filling up space: in this sense it is opposed to hollow.
SOLID, having particles adhering closely together: in this
eense it i~ opposed to fluid.
SONOROUS, derived from the Latin son-u.~, a sound: capable
of producing sound.
SUMMIT, derived from the Latin sum-us, highest: the top or
highest part.
SAPID, derived from the Latin sap-ere, to savour: having a
flavour.
SPARKLING, bright in parts, and not over the whole surface.
SATUHATE, derivecf from the Latin satur, full: to fill anything till it can receive no more.
SEllU-TRANSPAHENT, derived from the Latin, semi, half,
trans, through, and par-ens, appearing: presenting an imperfect passage to the rays of light, so that objects do not
appear clearly through.
TRANSPARENT, derived from the Latin trans, through, and

230

VOCABULARY • .

par-ens, appearing: yielding a free passage to the rays of
light, so that objects appear through.
TRAN8LUCENT. derived from the Latin trans, through,
and lux, light: yielding a partially obstructed passage to the
rays of light, so that light only appears through.
TENACIOUS, derived from tho Latin tcnax, holding: having
particles uniting firmly together. Gum being tenacious,
the particles cannot easily be separated, and on this account
it acts as a cement; glue, being more tenacious, acts as a still
stronger cement.
TUBULAR, derived from the Latin tubul-u.s, a small tube:
·having the form of a hollow cylinder.
TOUGH, capable of being bent or extended without breaking.
TARTAR, a hard substance deposited on the sides of a cask
during the fermentation of wine.
TARTARIC ACID, tartar combined with a certain portion of
oxygen.
·TRIANGLE, derived from the Latin tres, three, and nngul-us,
an angle : a form that has three angles.
TRCANGULAR, having the form of a triangle.
TRANSMITTED, derived from the Latin trans, across, and
mitt-ere, to send; sent from one person or place to another.
VACUUM, derived from the Latin vacu-us, empty: space completely unoccupied.
VELOCITY, derived from the Latin velox, swift; speed, swiftness .
VISCID, derived from the Latin vise-us, bird-lime: glutinous,
tenacious.
VITR!FIA13LE, derived from the Latin vitr-um, glass, and
fi·eri: capable of being converted into glass.
VOLATILE, derived from tho Latin vol-are, to fly: pa~sing or
flying off naturally by evaporation.
UNCTUOUS, derived from the Latin unct-us, anointed: fat,
clammy, oily.
THE

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