..

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THE

1

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH PROSE
.

"

A

~IANUAL
OF

COMPOSITION AND RHET.ORIC
'

•····

. ...-':.;~-

.···

EV

JOHN G. R. McELROY, A. 1'!.
Professor of Rhetoric and the English Langu~ in the Untversity o( PennsylYanb.,
Member of the Modern Language.Association of America, Author of
"Essential Lessons in English Etymology," etc. etc.

u If, therefore, Plato had reason for writing over the door or hi.3 Academy,' let
no one who 13 not a. geometrician enter here,' the Rhetorician has equal res.son
for inscribing upon the rostrum, 'let no one ascend here who is not a. scholar

and a thinker.' ,,

FOURTH EDITION, WITH

COMP~ETE

ANALYSIS. ·

..

t

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.'

C:Ol'"''R!GHT lJY

JOH:\ G . R. Tll cELR GV
:.835

COLLlNS PRINTING HOUSE,
PR 1LA.DBLPHIA 1 U. B. A.

THE gratifying success of my book has led me, in preparing this new edition, to add a complete Analysis of the
entire wo rk. (Sec pp. ix. to xxviii .)
This Analysis, it \vill be observed, is not only by paragrnphs, out also by the larger sections of the book. First,
the main divisions are set forth; ihen, under e2ch of these
main divisions in turn, the several ch:ipters of th:it mJ.in
divi~ i ::. ·,the sub ·divisions o f these chapters, and e ven the
sections of these sub .divisions. Fin:illy, the subject o f
each paragraph is gi ven, and thus the bst analysis of the
work is reached. Complete tzibubr vie ws of a il c hssifica tions, and occasionally of the contents of more difficult
paragraphs, are included in the Analysis, in the hope thJ.t,
serving as "maps" of importzint parts of the subject, they
may help materially to fix in the student's memory the
sometimes perplexing minutize of the subject.
If properly used, the Analysis can hardly fail to promote topical recitations. No student of seventeen or
eighteen ought to need severe, or even close, questioning
to enable him to state concisely the contents of a paragraph; but he will very often need such help as is here
offered , if only to show him how to analyze a paragraph
for himself. The Analysis will, therefore, promote a
~eco nd useful p :1r po:)C; it 'vill indicJ.t e c1ear1y z~ 1:1ct h cjcl
of s?mi ying , not only th is, but all ki ndre d su bje cts .
The best resuits in the use of the Analysis wiil lH:: obtained, I think, if the student will first read over a para- .
graph, then, with the help of the Analysis, learn .what

PREFACE.

11

that paragraph contains, and last, in re-reading the paragraph, verify and store away in his memory every detail.
After each paragraph has been acquired thus, he can
memorize the topics treated in his whole lesson, and then
go into recitation fully armed and equipped. Even a final
examination will lose its terrors to one who h:is prepared
the subject thus.
J\. fe\V slips in th e hvok: not observed 2n the previou5
editions, are now correcte<l .

J. G. R. :McE.
V~I\'E.RSlTY OF PES ~SYL VA~ IAJ

Au_;,-u.::,

~

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I

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I

SS9 .

PREFACE.

The teacher or Rhetoric has a double office. First, anci chiefly,
he must make writers; s econ dly, he must s o exh:bit the: Ll·.·.- s of his
art as to promote mental discipline. In other words, h e must be
pr3.ct!c3. i, "·ithout b eing a mere ernpiricist; he must lJ~ rJ.tl<>n3l,
w itho ut for an i nsta n t losi ng sight of skill in comrosition
\\'i:L tli~s c ,·iews in mincl, I h:ive tri ~d to fill wlut s·:~ ;;1 ·c d t·J rne
<m empty place amo ng books on Rhetoric . l\'onc c,f thcr:i, I
thought, aimed at practical results, without sacrifici ng too fa~ the
principles of the a rt ; none of them taught these principles in their
fullness, without sacrificing in part or in whole the pra ct ica l side
or the work . I have aimed to strike the happy meJium ,-to r::ake
a book that shall teach composi tion while it forces the student to
think, and shall exhibit the principles of the art, at t he same time
that it keeps uppermost the problem How to JVn'!e . I have adopted
Dr. Shedd' s words quoted on my title-page , accepting fu lly the
doctrine that Thought is more than Style, and modifying this doctrine by only one other truth-a truth to which Dr. Shedd would
doubtless equally assent-that worthy thought deserves, as it promotes, an excellent form. In other words, while, with Herbert
Spencer, I extol practice, I also accept, with him, the doctrine
that "some practical result may be expected from a familiarity
with the principles of style . . . . If in no other way, yet, as facilitating revision , a knowledge of the thing to be achieved-a clear
idea of what constitutes a beauty, and what a blemish-can not fail
to be of serv ice."
I ha ve also tr ied to exhihit the laws o f Rhetoric in their entorety ,
-r: ot th e l:n\'..S 0f Sty1e ;-t1nnc.' but also thnse of Invention . now·
c\·cr v:e nny qnihhle ahont that word I::ver.tior. i n its rhetorical
se!!se, Rlle tork doc~~ tea ch other !::nv s th:i n th os e of Form; and
these laws must be exhibited, if the art is to be taught fully .
admit freely that, in a book whose chief aim is skill in composition, •
Invention will _occupy a considerably less number of pages than Style; and, he'nce, even after saying what I have said of the superior
importance of Invention
32), 'I have given by far the greater
portion of my whole space to Style. The questions discussed under

rn

iii

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v

PREFACE.

iv

the head -of Invention are largely theoretica~; and th_eir full expos_i•
"ther to a distinctively theoretical treatise on Rhetoric
tiom bew»gS e1
\V
tb... several sciences that furnish the theory of the !lrt:re
or to _• as it once was a purely disciplinary study of Senior
Rhetoncnow,
'
· 1 d "fii
t r
b t
·ear, m y book would have taken an entire Y l eren. 1orm; u ,
~ -'th ·holesome change in our college work which assumes,
1n'\O"~ew .,.
ell'
k ·
not that the men know their mother-tongue because they spea ~t,
th t ad ly ignorant of this mother-tongue, they need lessons m
b ut a, s
d h d" . r
ff;
" 0 1 Jan
En Iis 'Si, e-ren more than they nee t e 1sc1p rne o or.:1~'.
g _; c .... • 0 ..- n·odern
-l~1 \· i t:: \\~ o f th:s ch3-r:bt-, ! h'.1v~ t n~d tn
1
gu:;~~~~n~~
·t·~ •· i·. ,..p st-~• ~~~r .;""-ounge
r coHe~c s t ude:!L"i E.!!.d th~
maa.;.e a~ - l•:.11. s ...... t . ct \.
.
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vlG.,cr !!-:.:..::.:::nts i n high s c houb anJ acadcnul.!s. ~n t h e ouiy roa ( •
.fi:::~~!?. ;; ~it is, to a n: ::istcry o f En;lish co m posttion .
~; : F- : '""} • ~ nn o f th e b oo k t o P r ose has Leen a<lvptcd, lieca;..L:i e I
· ~~~~ ·-~_-;~~~· e...-v O'V' who \Vii1 app1v hin !st:lf can :l cqn11c apprc -

~~¥~ii~:~;~:~~'~:?;:'.~t::·~,;;!,'.~0;:i;:;~E:'.'.' .~:::q ~;:,!:,~}
~ ·.'. -~~:;:-~ tf:er ! llu~trat e the Lnvs vf cv!nposition cv:.:n bett e r th:-~ :1
ez- ::-~ =-=--: ~-:·~= j;:J: pro~ e .

!~:~ r.~~:--r~ is. the product uf :ny ow n te.J.ch1ng. Ci r cumstances t~d
r:;.e- :i:;.:_..,:i.:_it e:gh t ye ars J.t::u tv wr it e a COLi rsc of lect u res fo r 1ny ci:i:ss,
m ! h which to replace the text-Look then in use. Later I pri n t ed
an absuact of these lectures; and now this abstract has grown into
a m e ntire work. I do not wish to boast;vh less to anticipate
criticism ; but the course has never yet ·railed to yield in large
measure tbe fruit expected of it.
From the many works on Rhetoric, acknowledged and obscure, ancient and modem, I have sought both light and help. I am indebted,
tberef<H'e,, to all these writers: indeed, although I have in the main
50u.,..ht new examples and illustrations for the rules, yet I must adopt
Dr-.Au,,--tin Phelps's words;-" I have not sc rupled to u se any mat e rial
wbic.h has seemed to me adapted to my purpose. I have appropriated priociples of which no one knows the origin; I have employed
illust ian.iuns, some of which belong to the common stock of rhetor· ical di;;ct!ssion." \Vith him , too, I can excuse myself for not always
r.Dtin«: fr,e sources whence I d rew my material, on the ground that
-.;·.-.:;~;,to n a r:l e th em would be in part commonphce, an d in part
1~d2n:ic. " T o one writer, h(nvcver, I must m:-~kc cspeciJ.1 acknowl~~~""~ ~

YToi* he:r-y ~. Day 1 taught
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nH!

tht! outlint: of a ~y~ t.';;Ul J. lI~ Rhi..;;l•..>!: ~ ... 1

n1V studies a direction the}· have never since los t.
Prui. ~•F -...vl!l.tlv~?.Jtl:.:ss s;niic, sho~ld he ever h(;!10r me by t:.;rni::g
my pages, to think that he c~uld have stimulated the ·production of

I-

a work so unlike hi!! as is mine: yet I hold to · my confession. I
believe there is nothing extant even purporting to have been
written by Timothy; but, if there were, it would doubtless be as
little Pauline as are the epistles of James or Peter. Yet Timothy
was" son in the faith" to Paul, and evidently his particular disciple.
Many friends-more than I could readily mention here-have
helped me in my work. Besides the names that appear in· several
foot-notes, the name of my colleague, Professor ALBERT S. BOLLES,
must be specially recorded. To him I owe what is worth more than
heip, --continual ::.nd hearty encouragement, even when I was most
discouraged.

J. G. R. McE.
U:-;IV ERS !TY OF" PEN1'"SYLVANIA,

a

Febru;;1y ;;(), 1.SS5.

I
.

SUGGESTION.

~

~

ii

t o his fellow teachers t hat the best results \vith it n1ay be obtJ.iried

Ly orn ittin h ur:til revie·.v n,,:uly all p:nagrap 11:; ;,1 the: 5'1::1llc:r
t ype .

The n these paragr aph s 1 v.:hi ch 1 as :\ ru1 e , are theor(: : ic1?

rather than pr actic a l, will be th e more eas ily und erstood. Of course ,
examples and illustrative extracts must be excepted; but th es e are
n ot commonly numb e red as se parate par ag ra phs . Th e judiciou '
teacher, howev e r , will modify this plan at his discreti on.
The Appendix is intende d al mos t exclusively for the teac her.

~;,,;.-

-"rrN#~!'~~l~zj~:{;:~~~~{~~~i~{.:;:.. _-·

,.

CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION, . • • . • . • • . . • • • • • • • ~ •• Page 9
Rhetoric Defined, 9; Rhetoric Prope r and Composition,
12; Sciences_ t11at ?ive L ~nv s t o Rhetnric, 14; Fu nd.:i m en t:d ~·f :n:1ms .. r 6 ; Dcpart!ito::t?h u t E.t: c:oric, ~9
1
Kin d:i of LiiscourseJ z3.
1'~\F'..T

FIRST. - STYLE,.

G!<,\.\1 .UATICAL Pt.:RITY, 53 :

Stand a rd oi Purity, 55; The

c f::..:.::..:.:::t.c risti cs vf -GJv..1

Use~

64;

Olrt!nces against

Pudt y, 6]; Ex cc.t;tion.;~ Ir:+; Di vlJec.1 lise, I 15,
T HE LLE~fENTs or-- STYLI:, 132 : \'ocJ.buiary 1 I33; lne
S cn ~ 1 : n•>: 1 Jr.. J; Th·~
! / J ; Tl:..: \\'Lo::.! Cu::;1 .
1J·Js:ti o n 1 22 3; Figures uf Speech , 235 .
1

'r H~

<...zc·.-\L TTIE S 01-" STYLE, 2.i7: Si.~~nificancej ::i-t 3; Continuousness, 250; Naturalness, 25'.J; Sirnplicity·, 252;
Ckarness, 254; Force, 2&2; Pathos, 26.S; Humor, Satire,

\\'it, 271; Melod y, Harmony, 275; Variety, 273; Elegance, 278.
PART SECOND.-INVENTION,

. .. ..........

231

THE 1"'III-::\{EJ 232 .

THE Drscussrox, 287: Ge ne ral Rul es, 283; Modes of Discussion, 290; Explanation, 291 ; Definition, 292; Narration, 2')6 ; Descr ip tion, 299 ; Divisio n , 306; Pa~tition ,
3 1~?; Exen1µlificat ion , 3')/ ; Cornp;:irison ~tnd Co:1tra::;t,
3 -, . ~; :\r...;-u;:t1cnt) 3');]; Excit::.tiori 1 J~O; Pc1s~LJ..'":donJ 3:i-t.

-l he Lii::-fiuiti .)n u f i<-hetoric, 3:9; Science, Art, Criticlsu1,
33r ; Pure and Applied Science, 331; Theory, 332;
True Method of Studying Rhetoric, 334; Technical
Terms 336; The Latin Word 'Iroj>u.s, 336.
1

INDEX,

•••• , •

337

vii

ANALYSIS.
MAIN DIVISIONS.
li'iTlWUUCTION.

PART SECOND .-INVENTION'.

IKTlWDUCTIO.N.
1. R11ETOlUC Di-: FJ:-.-1:!>.
ll. HH r:Tu1nc P1:ul'E1; A~;ri Co,Il'O.'ITI•J<:.
Ill. Tia: Scn:~c,,: s T I !.\T Gr\·1: L.\W~ 'I O E:rsTor:rc.
J \'. l'.·:;i1.\,ll:~ T.\L .:\l.\Xl\f-'.
V. Trn: Ih:1>.\ET,1r:~Ts OF 1~11r:Tor:1c.
VI. Tur: E:r~DS OF DhCOl'lt~L
I. Rhetoric Defined.
1.* What Rhetoric is; 'Di.,eourse' defined.

2. \\'hat l\lietorie is not; why.
3. 'Discourse' an<l •Compos ition'; the former term in the tlefinitio11.
4. 'Thought' a8 used here; Campbell's definition of Rhetoric.
5. The l\1ental Faculties:1. Intellect, or Cognition;(1) The Presentative Faculties, (a) Intuition,
(b) Perception ;
(2) The lfopresentativc Faeulties,( a) Memory,
(b) Imagi1rntion;
(3) The Elaborative Faculties,( a) Conception,
( b) Judgment,
(c) R~J~oning;
2. Sc:nsibility, or Feding;
l':'.:3

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3. \\'iii.
G. • ] \.::·ni::,' Jd~r:~: 1.l; J
i_1 ,_.fi_n ·l
7, Priniary Yitl"a.uing of ' L:-ttt~u.ig~' ; scup0 of tLe. L.i ws of Rh ct . .
1

*· IuH:.Ltl IH.lmbcr: r..::f..::r tG

1

p~r-ug~;.:. ~~?:::t.

:.::

ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS.

x

VI. The Kinda

II. Rhetoric Proper and Compotition.
Kinds of l!tudy included in Rhetoric.

p

f B N D

10. Authorities for this view;~. Q. A~ams, ro • • • ay.
11. S rces of the distinction; illustr.it1ons. .
. .
12. F~~ther reason for distinguishing R~etorll' and C~mpos1t1on.
f3 . Limitations of the distinction i relations of Hhetonc and Com14.

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15.

L.t.

position.
.
More t ech nical sta te ment of this truth.

111. The Sciences that give Laws to Rhetoric.
1 1 •
. • l s
''{ hence R hetorit..· ,1t': ri.-2.; its u ~~'~!". J 'n ~ I_~ ranc i p~.e • .
16. ; " - R t:b tions of Rh etori r~ to its nomothetical science:> :1!
' (4\. ) D! ~'.r:~:.r: r 5(i: inv .-1lv1·.-i
(Logic.)
L M atter, or Content.
•)
l '"' 1__, ... n: c.;- ~ · ...-!r. .
( G ra unuar . )
- (;,) Ou t w.crll :;r d bfyHy .
(.7L..;thct lc~:.}
( b) I n war'l _a n; l. Spi::i tu a1.
(Et
hit:!!.)
:~. p ~! rl --):-: 1_' , c;r L nr! 1n "\1 t w.

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IV. Fu ndamental Maxims.
:: ~

J 9 T he fo ur Dict a of I!hc·toric: .
,
' Genu ine t hough t' <lefine1l; examples; false m e . of rl ie20 ..

~~

=~

torical. '

:::. ;::;-

21. Variation in the standarcl of t aste.

of the clieturn of Ethics; examples.
2 2. l\leanina
0

1:
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~
~
~

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V. T he De pa rtme nts of Rhetoric.

_!

.!

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23. Names of the d epartments of Rhetoric; what each includes.
24. Why two departments, not three.
.
25. Why Disp0:>ition, or Arrangement, 1s not a d epartment of
B.het ori c.
.
26. T he argume nt against a d('p:utmcn t of In ve nti o n.
21, 23. H casons for con~Prl i ng ~ueh ~ dcpart m: nt ;(a) Th~ rca 5 onin ~ aga rnst it an evas10n o f the poi nt at

•: \
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f~r th e m a tt er of cl iscon rsc exis t ; tl«"Y b ehng

tv l -~h ._.:_ (1 oic:; they ~t.: l ~ s~t l f;w::; nf fo rrn .
29. The real question raised here.
30. Why 'invention' may imply too much ; if so, what?
31 . Bad effects of limiting Rhetoric to Style.

32. Relative importance of Invention and Style; preparatory
topic in next chapter.
33. 'Vhy this topic must be treated here.

or

Xl

Discourse.'

34. Compositions are divided
1. With respect to Form, into
(a) Prose,
.
(b) Verse;
.
2. With rPRpect to Intrinsic Character into
(a) Orlitory,
'
(b) Representative Discourse,
( c) Romance,
~d) Poetry;
8. 'V1th resp f'ct to Pur~ose, into
( c:) Ex planator ..r D ~ ~cour :-o tj'
(b) Arf!11rn en tnti ve Ui""'" 'l'SC
( c ) .Ex..Ci tatory I Ji.·wou;;; -- '
_ . ( d) P c rsmisi.-c Discouroe'.
l:Ht!t ! OTI.

,,~ er se ;

_rh)·tLrr1; _rnctre ; a -t·er~e .

I~ xample rn § 3G explained .
J{ ·~· ·

:>'.l.

~rk .
Pr(; : 1~' d ,__·finciJ .

4<; . T he r h.nhm of fin e pr ow; cx:i mnlcs.
4 1. Met~i c Prose; u Lett~ r nam e fo r ;t; ex amples.
4 2, ·1 3. \Jther examples, 1ncreasmoly
r hythminl
0
'
•
'14. Example of blank Yerse .

4.5 . O ra tory <lefi ned ; ex am plc .
4.G . ~n ot li ~r for m of the sam e example.
4 7. J~sse ntia l charact eris ti c of t he O rat io n.
48 . Na rrower mcaninrr of 'oratio n.'
49, 5 0. 8 pecifi c cases ~f t he orati on.

5 1.
5 2.
53 .
54.
55 .
56.
5 7.

T he L etter, oratorical form .
Dilfo renc e between th is fo rm of letter an<l the orati on.
Other ex amples .
The letter, ordinary form.
Representative Discourse defined .
''\Ve' _ai_i~ 'I' in representative di scourse .
S ub-<l1 v1s10ns of R eprcsc nta ti\·c lJisco uroe ·1. T h o>e in w h ich t he subj ect is a fact ~
(a) 11 is ton- ,
· '
( Ii) Bio•~rajih.(c) Tra~· r· L< ; ' '
2. Tho-;e in whid, tlw oubiect j9
(.a) .::ic;cnt11; c l rea tises,
( b) E ssays,
,.

._

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•

.,..

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•"

fl l nil.~

'

(c) Theses.
58. Combined Oratory and Represen~ative Discourse·1 example.
· 59. Other examples.
J
·
60. Representative Discourse in the Letter·1 example.
61. Other cxa'm ples.

6·>
63.
6-L
65.
66.
61.
6869.
iO.

Most usual form of the Letter.
Romance defined; two sub-divisions.
Hawthorne's definition of Romance.
Examples of (1) t11e Romance proper, (2) the Novel.
•Romance, ' ' tbe Novel,' and 'Fiction' a5 synonyms.
In what sense the Iiomance is true; example.
The definition of .Poetry; two particulars widely agreed on.
l~xampl c:) of t!efi!:!ti0n~ of f>oetry ,
Sub-divl<•iora of Poetry;(1) LJci~ l'c!l::tryJ!3 ·j : •.;l
0 1lc.

ElP~r.
S i1 n~;1· t,
, ..
. .

xiii

ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS.

IV.
V.

OFFENCES AGAINST PURITY.
VARIETIES OF D1cT10N.
ExcEP!'I• ·,s To THE
LAWS OF PURITY.
.

VI.

DIVIDED

UsE.

I. The Importance of Grammatical Purity.
7!1. Grammatical Purity and correctnes~ of drar.ing rn pain ting;

examples.

!!. The Stand ard ol' P u r it y ,
80 . N ecessit v for a st:rn<l:tr<l; it~ propt"r eli:t !",!Ckr.

8!. Exp!ana.t!on of the viol :1ti<.>ns of Pnril\' i1v r>'O<J<i wri tf' N.
s ~. 'rw·n n riri l n::~ ;i .:; t 0 , ... h'.tt t1: " ~~ : 1r~ d:t rd- c f - P~1 ~:~ \- i:-:. .
t,;) .:\ut1 ~ ority for the fir~t 0p!11i .: .•n_
"
k --1 'i' h;> opp~.J -.:i t1 • n1;in i Jll ; by wh(i i ll li~ - LL

.

~ :::!?p! C' Lyr:i(' ;

(}) r: :;'~~.l;',(: c:J'. ~/:',~-

1

r; .~i ~ ~ l 1. H0 :t.:;;nn;;; for pn ·t'1-rri11 .'.! t hi -; n 1i1in -. ; it1· t lj•l! : ~ r1 n ; J:.., t. ~)ri nc i p L'. :°' an tcri r) r to l .'.-' <·, ;. 11:d 1 t L 1 · :- t ·: ·(~ 7"1',
'.? rl • .i\f:tn · ~ u-;c of lan·,11.'t"•) 1.011111! hy d,.,finir ..

J ~ ' ' l 1 ' l f: ,_, l_~ '
B.i.ilad,
j

,

Pa ~tnr :~l, OT Trld!:
(3) Dr ~un J. tlr: Poetry,·- '
T r;t;; c: dy,
c (Jlll\: J y.
i 1, i2. l',cmcirk; examples.
i3 . Tiie wor.! • l'rose· to m1:a11 Oratory and I\.epr esentative Di5 -

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1

:)d. ?\f0n-.;tros1t\· a Yinl:tt1on or tlll_~ l: tv:~ cf l\ :i.:i..:rt·;
,_H}i. 'l'he f:-t('b ~f LT~a-~e a ll point. tLi~ v.-;;v i ,
(1) 'J'licca'il:of sctt!,.,\u-<:i.!.!c;
·
(?) The ca.-<•• ot" u n s!'ltl,~d (' Jivi.J,·J") U5C;
(:i) Chanf!e,; in f!Oorl use;
5th. Excqitiom to thr: l:tw,; of l'urity W l t i:~ ro :1sisten t wi tl1 th e

c vur~c.

doctrine herL" m:ii1Jtai1""l ;
6th. The Gorn! Use th eor y i ncomistl'nt witl1 il,clf:(1) Not all Good ·u se, it sa_p, i-< binding, but on1y suc h
as has certain charadcristics;
(2) In cases of' divided use,' even this theory falls 1~1 ck
on principle.
95 . Hew Grammatical Purity is best stuclierl; why.

i4. Roman ce anrl Poe try as opposer] to Prose .
7f>. '\Vhy the third cw:i of cowpo:;ition:> is not treated here.

PART FIRST.-STYLE.
D1-,r1:-o;1r10:-;s.

(A)

GltA,1\!ATICAL P U RITY.

(B) T 111·; E 1.E,IYS TS
(C) Tu ~: Q u aLITIES

OF STY L E.

OY STYLIC.

I i'
I

Definition•.
iG . St.yle <lLfin1.:U; exa1np1c3.
7tia. The study of Slyie-what it i~.
77. Three. <l!s~inctions of Style; what they are not; example.
78. Sub-d1vmons:of Part First.

(A) GRAMMATICAL PURITY.

I. lTs IMPORTANCE.
II. THE STANDARD OF PURITY.
Ill. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF Gooo

. ··

UsE.

Ill. The Characteri stic s of Good Use.

:R

In

\I

i

%. \Vhat use i:i 'cood' ?

9 7. Tl1e Hnswc r to~th i s qricstion; examples.
DS . l~cJ)utahk Us8 rklin c·d .
! ) ~~ . .N:1tion:il LT,;e delinPil; dial>"•" tif'i 'm; tl1e ' liter.1rv' tlial,·ct.
1 n ! ! 11! :1 -:t r:t t! c ;;s f:orn th~~ h~ ~ t flr\· nf En~li >.: h Rnrl of f·reneh.
1UL I-1.ow :i cotnmon

di ~tlect i:! eh0~1.ln; ~~:trnples.

Why Present Use is not easily defin ed;.
(a) Most languages spoken by several generations at once;
(b) A vocabulary ebbs and flows;
. ( c) The fate of words Yllries as regards both adoption and
. disuse; exnmplcs ;
.
' Principles of judgmen t; Polonius's advice to Laertes;
. Quintillian's rule.
.
.
103. Rhetorical praxis .

102

xv

ANALYBYB.
ANALYSIS.

xiv

130. Fred Vincy's argument in "l\lidlllemarch ."
.
131. Violations of Present Use ;-(1) Archaisms, {2) Neologism>;
example!.
132. Neologism and Vulgarism.
133. Unobjectionable archaism!.

IV. Offences against Purity.
10.t. Two classifications of F.rrors in Diction;(I.) As opposed to Good Use;To l. Reputable, 2. National, 3. Present, Use;
(II.) 'Vith reference to the several Departments of Grammar· 1. Etym~Iogy, 2. Syntax, 3. Lexicography.
105. Relation of the two classifications to each other.
{I .)"\" ! ._~; ~~ : . ):..;; c:. ~\.:~::i ~ c;:pcs::d t:· G: ·: ,. ._
! "(":'::~
1 . \~i i'.Lli;.-.n~ of l! r·n ut~Ll e Use~ -

g~ i:1~~~i~~ '

(II.) Violations of Purity with reference to the Departmenl<I
of Grammar;1. Offe nces against Etymology, called Barbarisms,
(I) !hrl ical wordg and phrases,
l ZJ imk<:tiv i:~,

; --

( ~;) 11 ~~, ·.·~~1·,· ~~,

5

i.

-~.J ·1) C;.):-;1p~;'..!~;d.s;

2. lJ!h~IH..'.l'~ a~;u11:'t. Syn~iX, c~ll1.:J Solt.:ci3rrn, ~ in
( 1) C u: : ·:!:d .
( :2 ) Gr.ti ·: iil .L t; 1 ·;,1 .\ :·r·_;_ :; ; :::. ·~ : 1 ~ 1

,

\:-"jr_:Lt~; :y:;::s uf X;d~fjj ;; ~1 0::-C . ( 1)

l 'r 1 i v ! :. c i:di< ~~ - : 1

c ~/;i T!_ · ~ - 1 · : : i : · :! 1 i t ~· - . .
(:I) .-\ Frr;orr\';
J . ...\.~ !1 1 l:t:·
nf !in,:-= •_: i t

1
=1 11 l. i. :l( ;i '. i : c,; 1:- >·: :·1
(.1 ~' (~r ani1:1 : d.i 1 <tl PrL·~i _) l c ~~

(J) {_~!' <\

!

t·~~-·,-

,). (li\>:!i i •.--t : t ~.L:U
pr it ·tit · ~ 1 --

( 1) ..'\~c!1:;i~1n.~,
(:.!.) ~< ; ·(>j, ,. r; ., ! l l.<

(l ) Sin/L: we.i re.~ ~

10.:i. \ ioL1ti c1n3 of 1(:puta1h.: "'U~ ~ ; -- --f1) \"u l.;;;tri .:· 1n~ J (~) ld;, t.
j c:. ! : l "· ; l' >:. : ~ '. ! : l l t ' :..:.
\.
10 7. 'l'Lc • · slo \· e nl \· '' t;:::l: of 'vonls .
1 n.s. \~ ul ;!.:J.risr u J.r...j co.:J.rscuc.~ .
1 <J9. SL!1~g; w1H·n Ytil~:tri:::1n; when tcch nic:~l it \· .
l l (L \,.ul~ari .~T!13 arno n~ cducat t.: d p cop l,:. ; pr~ci; of Purity i:1 t1 ii3
resped.
·
1!1. ~f e!!rl ~ tci Pt.!r!~ v ; Pu!"i ~Y !!.r~J F'urisrn.
ll:!. •• Fin e writin;/'; tliree':,::r:ttks of it.

( ~~) i' l1 nt:;G:L

1

13 i. }low l~tyn j n~n;;.!y , e tc - tr1~· : tl uC W · , ~ 1 E~ < ' , ~:
is1n, l'tl' .
13'). c~unptwn -~ ~t:1.tc·n1en t of :dl . t!ii~ for l:n~1i .. ;1.

j

1-H. H vbri<lism <lefined ; h ow accounted

114. f};c.onrl, t he langu age of "i\lr.,;. Yincy" and her c la s~ , e tc.
115. 1 h_i~'~• the" penny-a-liner's" diction, "newspaper English."
116. C~1tlc1;im of "ne':spafer English" by a newspaper.

142.
14 3 .

117. V1ola.t1o~s. of N at1on_a U se ;-(1) Provincialisms, (2) Tech• nical1t1es, . (3) Al:enisms; examples.
118. w. hP;n t!1e Al1en1sm 1 ~ most objcctiomiblc.
119. L~m1tat10ns of the rule ag-ains t the Alienism; examples.

1.J-1.

1-15 ;
14G.

li*~ ;;i~;;o ;-

in w oO't l:rnguage:<; in
• En<Tlish; examples .
Abbre.:iate<l forms; when justifiable; example~.
Objectionable abbreviations ; examples.
Kind~ of nbbreviat<'d forms.
S ub-di vi,;io m of the solecism; example:< .
l'ropmed rule for (I) u·lw and 1chich, (:2) that.

1 -l 7. l:L':L' O llc' for the ruk ; 1 ~t. l t i1ro 1nct c;; cL.~ ~1r111.·:;::;;

12fJ . \:hen a \von1 J1 1ct:_. be ('Oll:-;i der e d 1:3.turG!.lizc<l; thn: e c ~~ ~t::3.
l:!L i'eees:w.ry arnl 111l111i ,.,~i l;lc alienisms.
J 'l ·J ~lr . Olipiia11l·" vie w of thf'. ~ 11 1.i1·d .
f;f /\

2•.I . It µ:aino ruon.: th:m it lo,;e;; th e rela tiv e a tr ou\Jleso m'·
\ " Ol

"'

lst. lta lieizatir.n.

2d. Inflection an'd svntax
3d. Intelligibility. •
'
127. How to pronounce forei~n words; again three cases;
127a. Influence of th e study of forcif7n
lanauarres
·1 ·works of ref.
0
0
0
erence.
'1 2.a. Provincialisms and archaisms.
129. When technical terms arc preferable; Whately's view.

r

.
DG. Stib-di,-i,ions of th e lhr\J: m ;m; 1 cx:unplt~ l z, 7. Carnpbcli's sub -- d i vi::;ion-~; why l r uf. D.1.y·.:: a.re \J ·.:~t t ..
.
13B . !\.t~~pronunclati ons and n1isspelling~.
.
I:l'.) . Cnrnpounds in Eng11~1i; t hLi r l:i~lvry.
140 . Mr. Oliphant's opi11ion, aml tl ie n ·ply_ t o it.

113 . First, that of im perf1:ctly educa\('J profc,,ional m(> n.

i •/:;._1_ 2(;. 'fr;.;:;,t.-~

n

'iii

I

ifo .
14'.l.
150.
151.
152.
153 .

T ..- •

;_

- .

J' 11:11..Ut 'f'

~1.
,

'

. ,_ .\ ,

Vt.

-•.

ll• 'V"

'

~·· ~- - • ' -:
-~·

•• .._. .

PossiUfc exp1anation uf tL·:: di,;t: r: (:t! ~::!.

Exce ptions to the rule. . _
, .•
Optional use of that or of 1cho orwn1 cn.
.
Distinction between shall and will; Sir E. ,V. Head's rules.
Exceptions.
154. Im.Proprieties;-

; .

xvi

XVII

ANALYSIS.

(B) THE ELEMENTS OF STYLE.

(1) Single words-, ( a) Alike in $0DDd or appearance,
( b) Al ike in scme,
{ c) Alike in both sound or appearance! and sense,
( d) P..esembling in meaning their foreign equi rnlen!s
or etymological primitivPs,
( ,, ) ~li .<used for c:ich other though not alike,
U-) lllun<lcr-wonls;
(?) Phr-:t~e~.( u) A L~u rd,

ir.,.__:on5i.;t~nt.,

SUB-DIVISIONS.
I. VOCABULARY.

II. TnE
JIL Tm:
JV. Tim

v.

or contra<lictor)· 111 lIH:·3 n-

( b) A l'P~;ent only,
( c) H.hetoric:1l.

I. Vocabulary.
l. T!te Chn ire nj TVnrcls.
2. The Aulll&tr of ll'ords.

1.55 . H ow diction and the laws of I'urity rnr,>·; illustratious.
l 5 G. Theoc ct:itements tr-..:e of ~ty!c in gt·neral.
151 . Ch<trad .. ristie~ of tlie dietio11 of I'ro:;e 1111<l of P()('trv ·
1~t. l'rfr~e lik": F-j t(·t-ch ; Lut i~
" '

I. TllE CIIorrE OF \\'nr:ns .
1

(a) nHJrt.: l'.Xact,
(',) I 1 · ." L cid',

i

158.

r
l

l

I.
f

I

159.
1 60.
161.
162.

t:
i.:,..,.. !-

• J63.
164.
16;•.
161).
l 67.
JCS.

.....

~

..t.U'1.

VI. Divided Usage.
D!vided Use defii;ed; neces~ity of an appeal to principles.
.'~hen an !ilt.ernatn·c fo:m does n?t .di_vide us:ige; examples .
J ;ie_law of co7ectness Ill cast's ol <11nded usa;,;e.
\\ h.,n a form 1s prefrrahlc; C:u, pbelt"s canons· ot11cr faw·
CampbC'll's canon :< in taLular form
'
' ~.
Exampl(;..; un<ler ead1 canon.
.
l .\ - ' - "~ .
"
,,.
'
,..
n"'""v" v11iuc o r tile ll\"C canons; the controlling priill'iple .

FIGURES OF SPEECH .

170. l\lechanical components of language; rnb-divi.<irinc; of (TI) .
171. }!ow tl1cse auU-<l1vi;;ions arc determined; th e law of uuity.

V. Varieties of' Didion. Exceptions to the laws of Purity.

I

PARAGRAPrr.
WHOLE Co:11POSITION.

Sub - Divisions.

1n ' r

( c ) m rirt.0 Yarit'd in comtruction ;
2d. l'oetic cl:dion
(a) is archaic,
( b) is pieturesqne,
( c) substitutes epithets far the thin!!q d enoted
(d) avoi<l3 lengtbiness anti is cuphocnious · - '
(G) omi~ connectives,
'
(/3) aYoids length without force, etc.,
{y) seeks euphony, but
•
(.5) is long to give added pleasure.
E xceptional forrr.s of Prose·1
(1) Intentional archaism ; examples·
(2) Impassioned Prose ; examples·'
(3 ) Poct1c Prose; examples.
· '
!he <l!ct~on of Romance; examples.
The <l1ct10n of dramatic writinus · examples
'
I 9u?tat10n;
.
F '
'
] ,1tcra
quotations m
foreign languaoes.
Colloqu1al1sms; why admissible; limitations of the privilege.

SENTENCE.

J'ro11:1lik n umL e r of En;;li;h worth; c•JllljUri,on witL C:l· r-

- ~

'.

111:111 .

More l'xact statt'm (' nts on t1w<1: pnin ts.
l'art of this voc:alml ary wwd by Ringle writers; instanc es .
l\lr. l\larsh's expl:111ation of th ese fa ds.

173.
J H.
175.
17G .

177.
1 i 8.
Ji9.
180.
181.
182.
183.

!

~

184.

i\ ,

185.

h!:
,...

186.

":: #

I; .

'.101
<''

.

But commantl of lanf!uage mo>t important; wh.1·; pri1·1.• one
may well pay for it; the English speaker's sp~c1:1l obl1 !!ation.
.
\Yhat is implied by comma ml of language .
Evil conscquenees of poverty or monotony of langu:tge.
Results of the un skilful selet:tion of wor<l:i.
Kinds of readinrr that promote command of language; rea.
sons for each specifii:ation .
Value of works of referenee; examples.
H ow practice in compo~it i on extends one's voc_abula:r·
Principles of choice in words; three especially in place
· !Jere;
(1) Native v.f. foreign words;
(2) t::>hort vs. long wonls;
(3) 11 Proper words in proper places."
\Vh y native worcls are preferable;(a) They !lrC "to the manner born";
(b) In Englisl1, tl~ey arc, sin~ple an<l b~ief.
Etymologieal analysis of b1;,;lish,-(a) JU bulk, (b) in our
lw,;t writeN.
Limitatiowi of the rule in favor of An!? !o-Saxnn E11·cbh ; (a) Other Engli:'11 aJ.,o i:ood; tlie :ule ofte11 0 1cr-c;tatecl;
(11) ~l,1 11y l'"'"' do n11t ndnut a choice.
Surnrn:rry of§§ 18-1 -186 .

•

201.
202.
203 .
204.

1
188- Angl~Sa.xon l1obby-riding' ; examples.
AdvanL!"'cs
of
short words;189.
(a) r_;onomy of space and time;
(b) Compactness or· structure;
(c) ~implicity and clearness.
Oppasing considerations;(a} Dltliculty of understanding a series of short words;
(L) C'o rn p:wt rn·'<~ of 'truct u r e not always d esirable; why;
(c) ~bort w,)rtJS not alwayg simple, nor long om::s always
abstru~e; exam pk;:; length of word a mere ae..-iL1cnt: tL c true rule.
O~her cou~idertd: ioni that ~ary ·rocabuhry; Swift's st ate-

205.
206.
207.
203.
209.

Th ~ t~ . v 0f "j it ~~i,: !.-.u ~., l~rPvl ty; Brc ...·it;: the resulta nt oi
111:1ny v pp o~ing cnn , i r!1_· :-:dlott~.
1 ~t:·L 1->.. :t:!:pi· ·~ ; v;ff~: d i• >1i' in a sin;:.r1e wTitcr.
l

c:-· .

The Law of Proximity; examples.
·
Spceial imPortance of Position in English.
The Law of Modifiers; examples; exceptions.
The Principle of Emphasis; (a) unusual arrangement; (b)
emphatic places; examples.
. ·
l\linto's estimate of the importance of the law:
·
Difficulty in obeying it; exarriples.
How to succeed in 11pplyin;! the rule; spokf'n ancl written
8Hlitu1ic ~.a in tLi.; n.:.spcct; cx arup! cs .
Th e Law of l\l0<lifying Clau•es; their two positiom .
Limitati ons of 'natural' " ant] '}nn:rte·~· in thi; u:w; hoth

po31t: o n~ bond i dl t·i !~t:ts or i_·x1_·._·..:.- in t·1t111· r; t'.\: 1nqJlQ .
21 o. Reason r.. r tJ,., Jircd order; for iu vcr;;i or: ; cx:-,mp!es.
211. Oppo;ite tendency of the~e r easons in many ease~ .
212. Th e CR•P of two or ID'Jre <lependent clauses, with one princip al clau se.

ment.

J. ~· ••

1'. ·r ii'><1i1' :in<1 L ,-\ J~ t'. :-i l'. llh_· r; 1~ 1~':; cJ ~, !1:1 ,.:l ;
::t:~ r1 lr\n~ 1 • _;:tv\ 1•
1__:Jtar;; 1·f,•r ut' tLG l 1L·r iu=J ; C~l.Ill1)~1 ·~ ·l l ·~ dd! ri!li · •Ll: i:.3

Sr)·_:~--·.--~ c-f Y !,-.~ ' 1t~cn~~ c~· l--',:--.. ·;i ·.·,' ; tl:t·!~ t>\··i! t>;l~cL~ .

'.!l

"\~ i·J!: tti1 l '. h cd~ 1 ; r-i:vit~\- on tL1:! ~ i dc of Ex ec .~ :;
( 1) T;;ut olo;.-:_v;
(:2) T'.!t'O!l:l.:m, o r liedunrJ:rncy;
(:_;) \ t·rb n~ 1ty , - .

2l!i . True rueanjng of th e word suspe11s c in thi9 use; it:i c•1111m o11

,1.

2i -L

j-

J·>~~:~!!l i a}

errOiil'OU,->Ilt':..;:-i.

ll 'P.

21G. E fk ct of t11c pcri o1 l ic structure; ('xampks .
217 . \Vhy neither structure is always better.

( n) Cireun1locutioo, or P e riphra.-is,
( b) Paraphrase,
(c) Prolixity.

3. ExPI.I CIT Ru·E1:c: ;o;cE.

l ~ -3 . Ex cc ptior»i to the Liw of nrevitv.
of Deficiency.
1 ~~7 .. Violations of Brevity on the

siue

218 , 21!l. Law of expli cit r efr rcncc; rcaso119 for it; how it 13
effccterl; special 1levices for securing it; 1. Conncctiv.·s,(a) Co11j1inctions, in cludi ng adverbs, etc.;
(b) Pronouns, etc.;

198. The meam to Brevity.

II. The Sentence.
l. The Order of lVu1·d.~ and Clauses in the &ntence.

2.
S.
4.
5.
6.
1.
8.

2. Intentional R epetitions.
Exampl es of inserted o_r omitted connectives.
. .
the undue onuss10n,
220. Evil effects of (1) the excessive use,
of connectives; examples.
221. Exc(\<;sivc use of the Relative Pronoun; equivalents fo::- the

'J'lte Period and the Luose Sentence.
Explicit R eference.
Long and Short Sentences.
1'he Bnla11ced Seutence.

en

The Condensed S entence.
C11ity.
Due Pr npor tinn .

r ehtive .
2:!:! . Law of intention al repeti tion; examples.

,,;1
1.

xix

ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS.

n-iii

Tu~: iJRPEH OF

"\Vorms

'II

'll

A:SD C1, AUSES I1' T111<; l::iic:-;110:-.1.a·; .

2GO. Rulc3 for ordering word3 and clauses;11' r;'i , ~; .,....,.. ,....r p _,,...,:'""": ....

(2) Th; L~~ ~f ilovdifi;;.;:•

(3) Tlie Priuciple of Empl1~~is,
(4) The Law of hlo<lifying Clauses.

ti

:1
1

4.

L o::.;c;

.\:-i D Sno1n SF;o;T F:;-;c r.s.

Ilo·.·: !,.,,;;t1, cf"'-" '' '";" " ;, dl'l.::rni int"rl; scn tence.9 !t•O shon;
,,:...;..,_).
too long; e:l(HJH}Ht~~•
22-L Care to avoid extremes; f'flrly E nglish prose ; "a~thmatic';

•)

~) •)

scnten~e~; !··-'~ 1:e 11t. Pxa n1ples.
•
~ ...............
225. Effcets of short and of long 8entenccs; aavant8g('S ct i...o.n.. u ,

other distinctions; examples .

226. Unobjectionable, thoug~ very long, sentences.

·

ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS.

xx

2. EXPLICIT Rr:FERENCE:

227. J..en,gth of senwnce and periodicity.
228. Devices for making a long sentence clear.
5. THE

·229.
230.
231.
232.
2:rn .
234.

250. The law of Explicit Reference; reasons for it; example.
251. \Vhen neolect of explicit reference is especially bad ; example.
252. How expYicit reference in the paragraph is pro<luc.ed.
253. Special Devices for Explicit Reference:·
·
1. Connective Particles;(a) Conjunctions,
(b) Adverb~, etc., used conjunctively,
( c) Pronouns so used ;
2. Repetitions; (a) Lite ral,
(b) In sub:;tancc;
3. Inversions, etc.
2~··L Kinds of senteuces that nce<l no connective!.
2.15 . Ohler use of the relative pronoun 11s connective; c:rnmple~.
2!',J'l. l{Pason~ aF!':tln!'t this use.

BALASCED SENTENCE.

J>efinition of the ha lanced sentence; examples.
Thecommon<lcfinition; in whatregpectscrroneous; examples.
Nature and etli.-ct of the peculiar structure.
A•h•anta_:!Ci and 1lisarh·anta).!C:i of the balanced ~entence.
Balance by the "~plittin,,-" of two a!li!'d constructions .
Balance ~ith antithesis, ;pi~ram, or climax; the "pointei.1"
style.

6. Tut:

Co.svEXSED Si-:xTENCE.

235. 'Zeugma' in English; its chicf use at present; an exception.

7.

T_T'."!TY .

2,·, 7. I~ule for all cil1ic r En;.rlish CO r1 ~rctiY12:=1.
2;)8 . Ohjectiom to initial and , btil, f:1r, lw1caer; Pro:-. A. ~.

236_ T he: la n of L nity; e:xawplcs, ar;.d comment~ on t11etn .
:?'.3 7 . ~ --· :: t•_·i~ , T ~ ~ 1 ;:1. t '.· i r:L~:~·- L .::t . -_
·

1Ll:' s

(Jvf'rstatements of the law; opposite consitieratio11s; Hlair's
rul +. . · ~ .

••

1st. Objcction:i to and or bul as connectives lwl1l to «ll
COl\ll\'cti Yl~S i
2u. Most EngkJ 1 connectives too insignifica nt to at t r~ct
attPn t ion;

3u. The folly of cripplinf' oursches by giving up a:i y
weapon we may properly u~e;
.
4th. The two rrrounrls of Prof. Hill's statement; their untcnabi l~.y; facts to prove their untcna\Jility; summary or"his argument;
5th. The testimony of competent authorities-(a) rhetol'icians, ( b) gooi.111uthors.

8. Den: PROPORTION.
245. The Law of Due Proportion; the reason for it; examples.

Ill. The Paragraph.
Initial TliP.me, or Topic, Sentence!.
Exrlicit J:eference .
Parallel Construction.

3.

Mr.thod.
Unity .
G. Th ie l~rnp0rtion.
7. Climax .

Bathos .

~;a r u r e

247

u f die I' o.~ 1 ;0 ;,{ ra pl 1; irnp v d<-Ul "A~ uf it ,j L ~w,j.
1-icglcct of Jnird.graph-arrarP 1 cu1ent by ev~n the best writers -

2~8.

silence of rhetoricians
l~ulcs for the paragraph.
.L

o~

the subject.

lxITJAL TrrF.ME, OR TOPIC, SENTF.NCF.s.

249. Ofiice of the opening sentence of a paragrapl;; examples.

vi ·~ -,~.

2'i~. G\'nPral reply to th c•P ohjcetion•.
.
2:)"rz. l'o,s i hi·~ groun<l:i of ~ome of tL• · 0Lj t:(:tlon3 .
2G0-26i . Vctaile1l rcpiy to Prof. llill ; -

239. Critiei;m of Blair · ~ fir:;t ru le.
240 P,l;1ir' s secon< l rule; how far true .
24 J. Hlair' ~third rule ; wh<:n p:1n'nthe,Ps <ks troy Unity; exam plt:s.
24:! . Bla i r'~ fourth ruh:; a nn•t:-:isan· limitation of it.
243. Tlic r..1ativ c "t;1 <"' " nml lJnit>:.
244 . lnkntional violation5 of Cuit)-; their pmposc; examples.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

x:d

'

PAnALLEL Co~sTP.ccno:-.-.

'2G8. The Law of Par:illcl Construction; its rpason; examples.
'J'lic C'ffect of ininin~ Balance, etc., to assimilation.
~ca.
210. The mc•an'< t~ P:1 railcl Con,; truction; cx:1mple«.
'2 7 1. Oppo,;iug laws; rx:impk~ witl; eommcnts on tLem.
2 72. ELn ph :~5ls h y p;;.rallel construettO!L
4..

~JETllOD.

273. The law of Method in the paragraph; rras ns for orderly
arrangement; examples with corn men Ls •

5. UNITY.

~herE the <_• principal
affirmation" is maue.; examples with explauat1ons.

•274. The )aw of Unity in tl1c paragraph;

xx.ill
ANALYSIS.

V. The Figures of Speech.
215. Limitations of t11e rule; danger of giving undue prominence
2i6.

to unimportant matter.
"riiv the rule is more strin.,uent for the para.,"J':lph than for
J
the sentence.

·s.

Dc;E PROPORTION.

The law of Due Proportion in the paragraph; examples.
271.
7. CLDIAX. BATHOS.
278. Definition of Climax, · of Bathos; kinds of each and their

character; aim of intentional Bathos; examples.
IV. The Whole Composition.
1. 'J'lte J;arts of a Compo.~itinn.
2. Canons of tlie Compusitioi; ws a

ll7wle.

of the compositioc a.> a whole; 'Which of them belong
here.
l. THE PARTS OF A Co~1Pos1TrnN.

?!l:o- Laws

no.

Tne four parts of a compooition; the csscntia1 p:i.rts; the

non-e32l'nfr1l parts; dt:>finition of ead1 part.
?;;:1 . Anah·sis of .Matthew Arnohl'~ """a•· U" 'J'ranslatinq Homer.
2 ~:2. I.. ~.n;; "of the introductlo!l and t11e c-;nclu~ion; ('.xamf:1e .
'2 .~.3. Limit atiom of the rule; example.
2;s.; . L~.:! rnethodical stn1cture of 1nany co1npos1t1ons; what is
always nc-cc.,o;ary; ·cx:implc.
285. Danger of thi3 plan; possible evil results.
2S5a . A fair test of the doctrine.
'2 8.)!i. App:nent exceptions to the principle.
2':G. The mechan;cal in thi'l T!se of method; why better than eon_fusion; formality not necessarily a resul t.
287. The value of a Bynop5is, or 'skeleton,' in writing; how to
use such a synopsis; how to work without one.
288. Forms of the Proposition; nec<l of variety; danger of inducling the proposition in the title.
n sa. \Vhcn the Proposition is, when it is not, a judgment.

2.

CAXOXS OF TIIE CO:lll'OS!TIO:-> AS A

\YnOLE .

ii;~ . Four rules obeyetl by the compusition as a wliole ; n~ee~-~ity of ex•:luding-interesting matter~ even
from extended works.;
(2) Method; reason for thi~ ruic;
(3) Selection; when the rule is most bindin"'; its hi"h
0
importance; influence of method on sele~tion ;
( 4) Completeness; meaning of the rule ; judicious brevity
and incompleteness.
·

(i) Un ity;

290. Figure of speech defined ; examples.
,.
291. Classi~~ation ?f the figures of. l!peech; how far possible.
292.-l 1) f,!gures m the 'use of smglc words;• or •tropes.'
293.-(2) F 1gures 'stated at lenrrth,' or 'schema(a.'
294.-(3) 'Figures of diction' a~tl 'fi!!llres of thou"ht'; the dis. ·
tinction between them; valu~ of the p~e ·" figures of
thought.'
·
295. Table of the Fij!ures of Spt>ech; the principal firrurcs
<lefinc<l.
0
296. Why a longer list is not given.
297-302. Another arrangement of the figures of speech;(1) Fil!ures that compare object~ much alike ;-Metaphor,
8imile;
(2) Figures that compare objects remotely alike ;-Allegory, Personification;
.
(3) Figures that substitute oue tl1ing for another ;-.Metonymy, Synccdochc;
( 4) Fi_!.!urcs -- that present the unexp€cter] ; - Antithesis,

Epigr!lm, !rcny, f!yp'~rbole, Euph'.:"n1i~n, .
(5) Th e Figures ofThou"ht; - (see § 29:i.)
303 . F urther (hut not ('SSential) aetail8 .
.304. "\V-lien cornpari:;on is figurative; wh en litGaL
305. Rules fer the use of Fif'lire~ ; ~I) The Law of Keeping; t'xampies;
\2) rrhe l. <l\.\.~ of !\!odcr;i!'io n; ex:irnples;
(3( The Law of ClParncss; ex:unpie:;;
(ci; 'l'he L:n7 of Congruity; ex~~n~p1es. ,.
(C) THE QUALITIES OF STYLE.
DEFINITION AND. Sun-D 1nswc;s.
I. 'l'rn: SunJECTIYE QcALTTIES .

IL

THE OBJECTIVE QliAL!TIE8.

Definition and Sub-Divisions.
306. Meaning · of the phrase, 'subtler properties of language' ;

<listinctions between these properties and the grammatical and the mechanical propcrtirs of language: to what
part of man's nature the qualities of style "PP"al.
.
307 ' Clas;;itication of the Qualities of Style; meaning of' subJCCtivc' and 'objective.'
l, The Subjective Q ualiti es or Style.
308 . The namr's of the 5ul)jectiv1_>. ounl itie .:; of s~ylc.
309. "\Vhat i~ impli•·d by Signific,{nce; 'spuriou5 oratory'; 'foe

N onsensicaL'
310. The Humorous and the Nonsensical.
311. 'Vhat is impli1?<l by Continuousness; the sources of true Sentcntiousness; 'talking in a circle.'
.
. . . . - .
312. · N atnralnc~s dcfinccl; gronn<ls for the quality; 1m1tat1on.
313. Modi[1cations of N uturalncss in discourse; examples. .

:xxiv

ANALYSIS.

ANALYSIS.

11. The Objective Qualities of Style.

831. The Ludicrous defined ; its several form~;(a) Degradation of an object ordinarily dignified;
(a') Satire, (a") Humor;
· .
(b) Unexpected and ingenious association of objects Iiot ·
•
'
usually connected,-\Vit.
832. Criticism of another use of the t erms Humor and Wit.
833. Humor and Pathos united in the same composition.
334. Other terms to denote the Ludicrous.

314. Cla.'iSification :1. The lntPJlectual Qualities;(1) Simplicity,
(2) Clearness,
(a) P erspicuity,
( b) Prt,'Cision;
2. The Emotional Qualities;( 1) F orce,
( 2) P ath os,
(3) The Ludicrous, (a') Satire,
(a" ) Humor,
(b) Wit;
3. The .iEsthetic Qualities ; ( i ) ~ f,~kwly.
( 2 ) H ar m1J n y,
(3) V11riety ,·
(4) Elegance.

~
<

..,•

•n
_.;,.
~lG.

;) l {.

T 11 t: l ;>;Tt::LL!::CTUAL

1.

3. TnE

JEsTUETIC Q UALITIES .

335. /JEsthetic qualities d efin ed; how r efin ement of style is pr0duced.
336. M elody and Harmony in Music, in Style ; euphony; rhythm;
further distinctions; examples.
. .
337. Law of the rhythmic in Prose.
338 . V a rietv defin ed: iti o nno.,i t;; .
3 39. :Elrrrance d efin ed; TMte ; e x 11mpl e,~. ·
.
340. The permanent and the Yariable element of T aste.
0

PART SECOND.-INVENT°I O:·~.

F AC ULTIES.

Si mpEcity d efin ed; contrasted with d earness ; ex amples.
A. b ~t 1 u3ene~~ o::~.Y h:L-:t1ve1y a faah; examples&
~'i"';~~:,r;;
l :c.w:!i;1; k;:-;;1~, (2) l'aI>.i.cul.o<r

SUB-DIVISIONS.
(A) Tim Ti!F:~-i;:.
(B) THE J1I"C'FS,::rn~ .

:-;,;':'f::::L'/-(1)

31.j . CL_, a n iec' .~ d1 ·fin• ·d .; nn t R rt:·b t i''C q u:d ?!y, h~~t "cf obl :g~tt ~ou . ''
318 . l~ ~ i:t t i o iis uf cll'ar tliinkir! cr t o C'l.-ar \vritiri~.

Sub-Divisions.
311. Dc:finition of Inn:ntion; the suL-uiY io icms ot I':i~: IL
34 2. The wor d " discussion" as used here and in § 280.

320. Clc:~0 rlle5S a~ ...tJroJm~... d b;·
~ (lrTPf't!JP<~
of... 1·.........
.::m ;"
ryn n n ~al
.I
- · · - ..... ~ ......... ...
.. ... ~"""' '' '"'""
3 '! 1. Sp~i·i al n1lP~ fo r Clea rm'"S ; (a) Imlicale the particular meaning intended;
( &) A voi <I t wo meanings of the same wor<l in the sa me
J. •

·
contex t;
(c) U se every word in its exact sense, and always express
th at ~cn<e by t ha t word ;
(d), (c), _( f ) ihoicl ambiguous pronouns, ambiguous rwg11t1 v.. ~ , ob<cu re sen tence-structu r e;
3:?:?. :.\!11tu :tl rehtion-; of simplicity, perspic uity, and prc'<:i:-i rJn.
3:?3. AJi,11rrlity of DLir';; rule aLout clear thinking and clt·ar
writ?n~.

2 . l' E E }~.\1UTI0:\AL Qt.;ALIT IES .
1

~t4 .
325.
326.
327.
328.
329.
330.

xxv

Error in !heir cl:iss:5cati ~n before l>a iu.
F orce <lefin etl; other terms for it.
Th e cI:ief source of Force in composition; exampl es.
~c>s tramt of ~a.nguage am! true force; Bombast; examples.
1' urth er cond 1 tton~ to Force; ex amples. .
1:ath_os defined; relations of Pathos and Force ; examples
:F celmg and true Pathos; Sentimentality.

;

B

~

( A) The Theme.
343 . Source of the Th eme ; t11ree cases ; ex amples.
344. Th e exercisr. of judgment in each case ; e~ am pl es. .
345. Three thin rrs to be d etermined wh en th e subj ect 1s not gi ven ;( a ) ~asion of speaking, (b) ~h:~racte r of a:1rl1cnce, (c)
purpose i n writ.ing; wo;k do1:c 111 ignorance ot (rz) anrl ( b).
34G . Relation of the writt::r to rm SllhJCCL
3 j 7. The d:rn,.,.er of cl1oooin~ "frrtilP" ~ 11 hjecl5.
:=:-is . l) t; ;.-clop~ ~ cnt of the t1 lc:nc ;.. (a) pr~parato~y
<lt·tl'rrninin.:..::_ t_hi..: l)r.op o:-:1t 1o n j ~1_·) n1 ~1pp! r: 2 t h·'
a Y1)i 1-Lt r11~· r: _cit 11:in n ;Jl,i t.y j (' >1: in fHt'..
. .,
:~;.; ~1. l.;rcb:.iblc rc.s :..:tt.s 01 v;or-.t:1r:.g 1Y1tno:..:: rr:c.:nc::-u.

(B) The Discussion.
I. General Rules.
JI. The .-..lodes of Discussion.
350 . Collection of matter for the composition; how gui~ ed i resultina sub-divisions of this section . ·
350a. Why lfhetoric cannot . t each the di59uss_ion of s~pi:rate
themes ; earnest writing and earnest reading ; plag1a:m;n.

ANALYSIS.

uvi

I.

351.
352.
353.
354.

ANALYSIS.

GEXERAL RULES.

Three modes of treating a theme;{I) Exhaustive treatment,
.
(2) Treatment within limited portions of a subject;
(3) Treatment for specific purposes.
E:othaustive treatment of a subject; examples.
W rit in<T within limiteJ portions of a subject; examples.
,,.hen partial knowledge is enough; example.
Rule for all cases; examples.

373-378. Laws of Method in Narration·(a) Adherence t? _the order 'chosen, except
(B) A familiar state of thin!!S
0
'
(/3) Concurrin"' streams•
(b) Value ofsumm:~ies·
'
( c) Use of cross-sections'.
879. Forms of Description; their mutual relatioilS. ·.
880. Laws of Method in Description;(a) 'Vhen addressed to the understandin"' •
(,. b)> 'Vhen addressed to ~the ima..,ination ·"''
l c) now !uus!on 1s proaucea ;
( d) How 1llus10n ma,Y be dispelled; .
( e) Reason of the f:ulure of many dcscription.s.
886. Example of self:. restraint in this mat ter.
S87 . \Vhe1: <l~scriptic.Hl3 of the 4 ~ inve ntory': kind are available.
888. Descr~pt~on ~rom "th_c traveller's point of vie w."
889. J>escr1ption 1nvol-vc rl 1n nthPr mo<lP• nf f'f)mn n<itin n
390 . '1lhe lans that cvntavl lJiyi;;ivu. - - -- -- --~·r--·- · - --·
391. T he lawa of P ar tition.
-· ·--~-9~. T~e rule~ that control Exemplification.
TT"

II.

THE l\IODES OF DISCUSSION.

355. The matter of a composition as determined by the Purpose
of the writer; this always to communicate thought; hence,
r.·.nr

~.! :-...~ :" -::

r.''

ll: ~.r:n.;,q;n.n

·-

· ~(~)·D~~~:;,e -~rld;~;;~a' to t~e Understanding,-

'

( I.} Explanat;on, .,vh:th presents a T erm,
(II ~ ) Ar~~;r.cn~ nh:c~ p:-cscuts a Ju~ . . . !!'.!~r:t
(b) Di~coilr:ic a...ddn.~ssc<l tu the Fccliu5~,__,, ~
(I IL) Excit;ition;
( c) Dio""'l!""!' P.<ldr""o»•l to the 'Vill ,- '
~ (!\:"'" .) - ~P:Tt:FJr-,~ .
.
.

. ; •f ~;r_: ;;d ;- , ,; a~ l(J l! .~ ui tr1c. IH•...i~J~s of d1scu::::10 n.
1:1c tu:-:i on of ti: r- corre_::::poridin~ negative pr(X' C-~3e~ .

xxvil

. ,,

•

o

"

0

)

~: ;i~. ii~~~l:~(f~'~fK~;;, 1~'.'.;?);,~~/-~;~: (:):~:/;~:};\w·

'\\'by .Exp!!ln:-ttio-n 1 ete. 1 invoh-e each other.

(1.)
~;-18.

3~(1 .

EX! ' L\:;;ATIO:'.'i.

f>.:.r·la n c1:.io:-:. d r: :l n::r1; a s\·n on vm for it .
\\'l;:it t ilP tl1 rrne in E:xpl;nation is; when it is prescn t c·cl m -

teiligibly.

361.
362.
363.
364.
865.
866.

·

Cl ~ a r a n d di stinct prcscnt:<tion-their difference

illustra leJ .

i-Ieans to the int elligible pre.>e nt.ation of a:1 object.
Th e m os t exact d efi nition.

Substitutes for logical definition.
The general principles that control Definition.
The six proces5es involved in Explanation Proper..

36 ' . The cli :>tinetion between Divi:>ion and Partition.

368 . The six proce.>.>e.'I viewe<l as three pairs of processc,3.
369. .Mutual r.e1ation3 of Narration and Description;(a) \\hat e~ch pre,,enb ; fitness of language to th e fur;ction

of c:1 c11;
(I') JletaiLi involvell in e2rh ; capacity of langu:igc to e:-;pr~~~ tho.:~~ d~t,H!fg ;

(c ) '\Yh ~ ~:h ls e:?:p~~c l:1lh- -th:! work oftL·~ wr it i: r. "'-1~ ; ch Cif tL~

nalnter o!- scuinior.
lli '" i'ic•n .anrl l'artition ·distin!Tl.1ishe(l.
371. In what Exemplification and Comparison and Contrast nrrrce·1
· t1_1e last rt.rtlly a aiuale pfu(;es~-, why.
i:Kind~ oi N arrarion: their nam~: their mterdeperdence ·
the order of thei~ occurrence in 'time; examples.
'

s 70 .

'30 5 . \Yhat the th eme in 1\ r(':imrnt :il-.-::1 n i'.
3'.JG. 'I hi3 judgment nr:d. t he' -::; ubj cct of e0rnpo:::i tio n;
391 . ?\leans to dcteri11i1 1i n,'.! tlw tLcrn •• in Ar '.! un1cnt:
·
3GS. 'Hyp0thcsi'' nnrl 'Tli1.·0ry'; c x.~mpl0.;_
399. On what Argument proceed>< ; proof:'! defined; "";atiom of
. the process to Logic, to Rhdoric.
400. Eeaso11ing of two kind3; - (a.) Immediate, ( 3 ) ?.lecli:itc;
example~.

401. Proof of two kinds ;-(a.) Direct, (13) Indirect (=Refutation);

examples.
402. Proofs are( a) Analyti?, given in the terms of thejudgm Pn t;
( b) ~ynthc~ i :~, de'.ive'.l from outside _the judgmcut;
(b) Intmt1vc, furrnshcd b,- the mind ibclr··
(!/') Empirical, furni shc(l°by experienc e ;_'._
(a.) A prior i, fr om whole to part (A n'.•xc •L·n t Probability_) ; .
~-·
(3)-". pn st.-nnn , rrnm p:irt to "\7nolc (:::-iz~ c);
( j') }_s '. ::: ;
r· · :-~ 11':: • ·:": (i'') ~ S8;':;.!""'!:.0r. p;op~rty, J~d 12~ti0r: ~
(y") a ('r.rnrnnn r eLition; .i\.l_1alcgy.
403 . 'Ce.use' and 'Effe{Ct' defined,
404. Value of the several classes ot' arguments.
405. Other conditions to Eucccss in A.rg. .unent.
,

0

I

4.65. State of the mind addressed; degrees of' belief'; method oC
argumentation in each case.
40 1. Difference between written and spoken argument; examples.
4.0$. Place of the proposition in A~ment; exceptions; examples.
40 9. 0.rder of the several proofs; determined by
(er.) State of the mind addressed,
(a') W i!;bout belief, or in weak faith,
(a'') In positive disbelief;
~) Relative value of the proofs,(ln Analytic proofs,
(13") A priori proof., Eigns, examples.
.
4 10. •Burden of Proof' explained; the' Presumption'; 'Apology.•
01. Importance of determining which side has the Burde~ of
Proof.
412. On which side the Presumption always is; examples.
413 . Opposed and shifting prernmptions; examples.
.f. l ·i . E~planation in Arguu1ent; where explanation3 "come in."'
415. O ther considerations in Argument; example.
4 1 ~ , , Cvn ~l t;Sion of an argum !ntat.i;-e composition ; wh at it m ay
contain.
'
1

III.

Exc IT ATIO~ .

n ;-. \\'n;, t th8 the me in Ex citJ tion is ; i1ow expre":ed .
41. i;;. Mea.ns to the arousi ng of l-'aooion; their mutual relation.
~ i~~ , P c~ -=- 1h~~ st;-it c of m1nrt of th ·:: p·:: rS0!"._"!3 a Jdn.:~.:::c d ; r . ;. :C f or
Q c..r.

I; 1
I

c riti~i s rn

'

.I-------::.lf

(;:~

'

'i

1_

li

~1·

APPENDIX.

it; caution.

1,-the Ail

Communicating Thou,;:-ht in Languag e.

2 I n no p r o per sense, is Rh etoric a sric.·1:((.,. » nv r shulilcl, i_
t he
d efine d as the a rt c,f rjfa!iz·c cli~course. It di , covcT i n 0.t m ng;
· arnuilg
· ·
n· c1· en t \.c
· J' '· · " " 'l its fti\1
it is li k e all o th e r a r ts 111
a t c .t1
· " ' '· ' ··
·
· ·
d efinition, therefore, is that jus t given . Th e discuss io n of th es e
q uestions, however, be l ongs e 1sew h e re .'

A more familiar word for Discourse is CmrPOSITI~~,-a synonym that will be used freel~ in these p~~es . .
The more technical term seems necessary m the defimt~~n,
·r l 'or clearness' sake. since Composztzon
h owever, 1 on y 1
also denotes Practical Rhetoric as opposed to the Theory

PERSUASIOX.

~:n . R ules for the prop°"ition in Persuasion.
43'? • ..1..rr~;;:cm. c nt in pcrsu:i.Sin : discourse; rule.:; for

1. RHET O R IC IS TH E AR T OF DrscoURS E

~

421. The theme in Persuasion; what it is; examples.

4:.?9 . .:\1otivf:3 d efined; their classification; general truths concerning them;
(a) T heir differ en t power ;
Q) P urn mo t ive:; preferali!e !o lower ones; cxample.s ;
(1') M us't· b e arlaptc:_d t o th e rmn<l ad d.ressc d ; examples ;
\v) II1g1le r rnot l\ e~ 111ost ~uc c es ~ ful in l.arc"e a ucl icncw.
~3~.. !{ eccss:ty of observing state of the mind a<ldres~ed.

I.

-. ~ RHETORIC. DEFINED .

ef

li
1

of\ \ 'ha k h-.

• 4 28 • .Means to Persuasion; examples.

INTRODUCTION .

L
i ~.

4~ 1. "When grad ual app roach ioi necessary; cxample.s.
422-4 25- P.u..les for Path etic Explanat ion;( a ) Narro w S electi on; ex amples ;
(b) Particular Views ; examples ;
(c) .Appeal to the imagination; examples.
4 2&. Mod~ of Expressing Emotion ; examples.
IV.

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH. PROSE.

f1 .

ead1 case; ex :u n pl es .
I 'lace of th e Proposition in Ex cita tion ; \ rlia tely ' s view ;

Dav 's

THE

l

1

l

4.

I

3

•
·
• fi
is here intend ec.l in its. \\1dest s1gn_i. ca~
ti o n. In a certain sense, the mind tl1w:..·s whe ne\ er it
arts. ancl in th is sense , Th ought is the produc t of an_y

of the art.

i

'

THOUGHT'

- , :

•· -

mental aeLlvn.

H ~N• D l~a n nbdl speaks of Rhetori c
i
Cw... ~,
f. ' ,
.

l

11. :\. D :iy , Ti: e Ar! oJ D 1 sco:~rs~ 1 ~ I.

i

Appendix, pp. 329 ff.

9

*110, below.

•11, above.

· ~

'"
·'

IO

as "the gr~nd art ef communication, not ef ideas on!
bu~ of s~ntzments, p assions, dispositions, a!ld purposes1fY.:
-m a \\ ord, ~he art of communicating mry product ef
mental facultzes. - Exactly how much is intended b th
k f l i l wiil rtlr...
•!Y::dr j fO!!l
·
'
y
e
tne
!0!10\V!ng ana.1y.-·sis.

l1ze

r

•·

II

RHETORIC DEFINED.

INTRODUCTION.

•

<liscourse is its communicating thought. The mode of communication m ay vary; but, so long as thought is conununicated, .
so long must the process be gove rned in certain particulars by
the same rules. For example, the artis t, who has this end at
least partly in view, is directed in his work by certain bws
that a:--e equally i>in diD5 uµon the \V.L"i ~cr. TL::: !::-xs c.f l~nlt y )
of <lef1niteness and continuousness, of proper n.:so>crt io11 vf the
subject into its several p:1rts, as w cli as m:my othd ruks, Jirect
J,c.tli wo rkers alike,-a nd for the same rcaso:1, th:?.t both seek
to communicate: thought. L e ssing- 1 has :1ctu:cliy 2ssertcd th~t
P;tln ~ in; can exprc~s su:nt...: ki11Js of
t LL_· ~ ~·-; ~~:~n Po(__·t ry .
9 . 1: urth·.::r~ (if fur~~: ~ ;- · C.: ~::; -:u :.s! u:1 i--~ \'.· (.._~:--><:- ·-: 1 t'.-1-: c:1c:~ of
the d'....'.;1l-!nutc i:) stru11,.~ ly i11 p ,Ji:1~. Un~il t:·.~ ~-:
, ::.-,
la:1 < u::.;;c ~ hi;:; inincl lies rlo:-r n:u1t, f::lili11.~ of i!_-:; 1.J;- ~]c-::~ bcctll~(~ it
L_~ '--' -, a 11i -~ :\.;L; uf CU!11'.ll '.1 I1'. : :~ ti ,i :L nut . th ;-; C : ~--~-::: f,_ 1 :- :-,: ~~i,>:"i.
t:\.·cn if he duc:J 11ot lc;1rn tu z-trti c uL1.t t: Li ~ 1;~i: i · : c: -:; ·..:
~~: 1 .l
admits of the highest eJucation. The idiut, 0:i ::1" u:h<.:r iund,
can ne\'er be relieved because he G1nnot recti\'e th ought,
howe\·er it is addressed to him . !l!iclw:iy st:i::c'.s t:1e feeble minded child, who is capable o f training cx:ict iy iri pruportion
to his degree of mental endowmen t. An extreme case of a
mind aroused to the exercise of all its facu l:;cs, si111ply by
receiving a medium of communication, and t hi:> no: bnguage
in th e ordinary sense, is that of l\Iiss Laura !3;-idgm:m, who,
though born d eaf and dumb a nd blind, was taug~ t tiirough the
sense of touch . r. l on"over, gestures and faci:ll signs not only
add to the effectiveness of spoken discourse, but, it is s::iid,
were the only means by which the fam o us conspiracy of the
Sicilian Vespers was inaugurated and carried t o a successful
issue.' So, the Greek sculptor carved motion b y setting one
foot uf bis statue in front of the other.
1

.....
!
l

'

I

I
l

!'
t

7. LANGUAGE2 primaril
d h' fl
speech or alphabe t'
..Y an c ie y means articulate
IC wntmg . but man •
. . l
Rh etoric apply equally w
~
l
'
)
pn_nc1p es of
thmwht by ,· .
e11 ? tie commumczi.t1on of
0 .IlCr means .
'°
.
sl'YJlS
.
j · 1.
·
c; +·r u ~ ·· 'ii C'XL)rc c:s tho1J<-rht . ·.~ I.
.. , S}flllOrc;, p 1cture
c·
. . ... ct ,,_
\_;::-,)--,1
. _ ~ .),
tr-~ !ci" .

.4.

,

L()

,-

r'

l

p 1

-~ -

•

Lb

a~d ·~Y~~:1 ;~'." .\. :1~~,o~:c;.

J

,JJ1(_

JDS() f1 1 :tr --,. "lT...,.l{"H

' . ,_ c

I r.1:.lcul, both l'; c!

1- l

'- • ' · ·· ' 1 Z1_1 ) 1C

ltr '="'-"';,;;;.;

- --~ · ; ~_.. .. . •• ..~ .. ~i·... o:aer than the al1)hab . ..
!:iuclfce:> rroru w f1 1 ,-h t-h -.. 1 'h ~,
_ _
er, are the
----

•

"-14

l-

d ..

arpL.cl.Det tuok 1ts rise.

8. The truth of this statement will h
any one who reflects that th
d'
ardly be challenged by
·
e me mm of com
·
·
secon da ry 1 m~ortance - th t h
.
mumcat1on 1s of
i
.
'
a t e essential characteristic of
The Pl&z/osophy of Rlutone,
• I ntroduct1on.
.

1~

r, abCn1e,

1 J,r.i>ro ;_; n , xx., xxi.----OfcourS{',

h(~ c onc ed ·~· s,

tcio, t:-1-:-

l'.~ ... ~~·-

an d i ~s co ~n a tt..' a1·ts. ( s \~ t. '
3'59 ff. , helu:v.)
l G•..:,:-i. P. :. !.~ : , '.1. L c::!:u-1s o~i if.!.' Fn.>· /:.sh L,-:.,:...,~:.4:;_;,~ !· , p . .::-t·

1s o '. PJ.in : in.;;

I),

I
II

•

12

RHETORIC PROPER AND COMPOSITION.

INTRODUCTION.

Ir.

RHETORIC PROPER AND COMPOSITION

As thus broadlv defined R
. .
•
two ,wide!· Y Gll
l"ffierent
- kinds '._ ,.h~tonc
r-o- ~+T-A"
) ,.,.., rrir-Jnri
·- -:~~
-.cuulCS
'i:C-JZS C-T 1?.k·"-·-·--1 n
\, I, .[ ricorctzca! n;..,.,,<
P. · ··
-·~~~~ 1 ''i"'' a " d

.nf
-:

IO.

I

?::-.:":;-:;:::~-.
J

"'" '

aliiiwi - '. .

'

~-~~

' " ' " '"

or sim,.1 ..
. .- '"'_i"J

'"

rmaples, - R HETORIC

l-;T()i-~ IC ; (2) .f'1Pcf;...

d

~

u;;utk o/ ( onslrttl'/i nrr D ·

·· '

c

~l:

•

!::.,:

:;'.,'.,,,::~!li~~~,,b~ ~:,:,;;~\:;:?;~;a;:':~~~~,~:f,;::~z
.S() ...- !_.,, ......

} •

'

... ..o..f. .1'.l(h lr11S HlC<tll.._

·-

-

. .

s tatUile"t fi"
.
c C011lDO " !tlOn 2 •
:f>- .- T ) ·
'
uuy su•)ports tl t
• . . . ,
~Ju
:
. • •ty, too c>11·1 ·- l
i .
.
ia made in~ IO
r . ..
' '·"" lh t teordic·1
.
VL:wursc (thJ.t i. l'!.
..
'"' trcat1:0e T/1c· .Art ol
-,-,.·1
.
,
.
"•
'idonc), but his
:.t
• -" ·.-" more clcnw11t .-)
. more pract 2c2! (" ~
_.. .
. . .
- an wor k ]'1,
~
• IL.cc

llS

·J

'LO'il.Pc'5ifl0Jl.

-

/,C

CJ

Art

•

.Enihs!i

·
•. 12
. . The di~"
"c1nct1on
result fr
•-!H: re may be distinguishe s . om the fact tha t, in e-.·e . a
g-u1de and control th.. d
elements ·-(1) R11 ! -- D h _rt,
c<1-..T
l.
e practice of th
'
' '"" w 1ch
'r·es. w 11ch underlie the I
e art; (2) Scientifi c Pri'
(3) Pr. ·
ru es and
n.
1
rzc1tee, the application f, b
exp am or justify them .
0
actual
work
Th
.
oth
rules
and
a co
.
us, rn Drawing the
. .
pnnc1ples to'
PY or a model and t ld
'
pupil is not simpl
.
tau.,,..ht also
l ,
o to reproduce it o h"
y gwen
"' '
' rues for h'
'd
n is pap,,.r· h .
c'ipl es-uf f;
is gm ance while t
- . e IS
··
orm of lier} 1 t
d
a work -nd
·
?f
<-.1 . •n.~try, Jn e\'e r .
' m
ngmeenncr in :\
.
.-_:irect the practi raJ :r.
rules an d prin ciple;•
• nalyt 1cal
i· ., ., .. , .
~ \\or..:, and tf1ro · . J' !
u
e: \·e ~y step
:· •- c . i _; ar L i OIF_~ of th •::::/ ' +l ,,-.,
_ ,
.,\
lg lt Upon it .
Jr;r~ o:.-. 1 1"f
ur tlie
is \\ant ing,
. _;
.,. D.s.:ourse, (1) and 1.,"') - eiJ ' '.'" ' uw.le\·eloped .s In ,1 ...
Compnsition._
,- constitute Rh etor1"c p roper. · . ..(_ ,1
) ·rt
13. Furthe
• 3 1s
1
· ·
they apply r, ru. es and p nnc1ples
as true. 11 .
lical
r' a:e m this respect esse~ti II m a cases to which
app icatton of rules
. - a y opposed to the
'1£ectroru, I. P - ,,
to special examples
prac.,.,..
'A .or pnnc1ples
.

~hree

q
l

I

Ii

;:u~~d~_tion

1

~~' ~ 1: 1"·yo,

t

a~t,

~t

n;is~i;;.·;-,~ ~J~;'.;~nh

ppend1x, p. 336
·

J

·.L -·'l'l"·of"r.

his rul~s ~o ~ha~, ~f p:rspecti~-e~fo;:~:

-,-

the ;,·:;~:-,

;cc

1 Appendix,

p. 333.

•

13

The methods of study in each case must, therefore, be different,
and a distinction between the two departments be inevitable .
Not to concede this is only to create confusion and to place
obstacles in the way of the student. Of course~ rhetorical
rules may be studied simply as rules, and not in the light of
their underlying principles, just as the principles may be studied
as such, and not with a view to formulating rules that arc to be
b ase<l upon the m ; but , in either c:lse,-a nd neither is usual or
like1y to occur,-the study is :,Lill 'l bcoretic"\ }~ h -~ t.::;,i :: . a!d i~
op; •••'·ed in the :i ': llS•c st:-i ted tn th<: pr:i.ctice of Compositi on, or
P r?.ctical Rhetoric. T his is trc:·~, t·-" '> whc th •:r tl:c
w•Yk p rcc ccc1s ,111iv Ly " n :\cs of thuml) ," (th~.t i·:, 1·y 11nc;xtheir rdio,:c:!", )

(\f

\\ildhc r tLi.: ;-,: 1 :·_,,; .:!: is in

C\ci\'

c.

se

cire-

f t'. : ~-1:i~:cn v:ith the rule .

14. But the distinction must not be c;o.rrinl too far.
Rhetoric and Composition ;-ere not wholly
Each implies the other; e:-tch contributes tu the other's
improvement. Of course, ei ther c:i.n be con cei\cd of
separately; either czin at an y t ime cornnnncl the chic:i
attent io n ; bu t the two :;tudies arc in fact only 01:e,-a
single object app ro ached from different sides .
15. To speak more technically, Th eory and Practice are cor-

relatives, implying each othe r, and having their common
ground of relation in the nature of Art as art. Practice unfailingly tends to develop theory; theoretical discussion as inevit~
ably makes practice more perfect. Certain art-practice, it is
true, seems to be wholly unguided by either rule or principl e;
b ut, in fact, it is not so. Every o ne who practi ces an art,
th ough in e \·er so unintelligent a way, acquires by his experi-.
ence both rules and princip1es ; and these, th ou:;h1 he never
forn1u\:i. tes them, re;.\\ ly control and <.lirect his wor'.:..

THE -\VHOLE COMPOSITION.

STYLE.

222

"Then fill a fair and honest cup, and bear it straight to me;
The gob Id hallows all it holds, what'er the liquid be;.
And may the cherubs o n its face protect nie from the stn,
That dooms one to those dreadful words,-' My dear, where Ir.ave you

(J)

IV.

been ?'" 1

THE WHOLE GOMPOSITION.1

"May the blossom of your heartElcanore--

Be a rose wh ose 1ictals part
But lo pour
Sweets of love ;-am! if there be
Tears ns wd l as smik"S for thee,
May ther he the dew that He

Doth restore.
"So, a kis:; ix.Jure )·ou go,
'
l~leanorc,

223

279. The laws that control the composition as a whole
are derived in great part from th e nature of the thought
expresse d, and belong, therefore , to Inve nti on;' but
there are certain other rules that apply to all co mposi tions, and are in part, at least, laws of form.
These
belong here.

(Reaching up l o

me tiptoe
Fro m the Huor ;-

I. THE PARTS OF A CO~[POSITION.

\Vi th the gold around your head ,
An<l rou r <limpk"<I cheeks so red,)
There-be off with you to bed,

~ 2 3 0 . Considered as a whol e , th e Composi tion h as four
parts, two essential and two 1wn-essc11 /i1il ;-two that
"But changi ng hands, it• reached at length a Puritan divine,
should be found in every compos ition ; two that may be
\\'ho used to fol low Timot hy, am! take a little wine,
present, but need not be. The essential parts are;But hated punch and prelacy; an d so it was, perhaps,
\ TL
n
I .eh
11 ! !. l" .,
He wen t to Leyd en , whert:•he fou nd comeuticl=<1rrd-sc'+m-~~-----------mr-------t-I-y----i- He rROPOSIHBN, W 11
Ct 3 ~rt 1 I 1e lllll S
within which or the end .for wl1iclt th e s u bj ect of the
[From Lerden the howl comes over in ·the Mayflower, and Miles Standi~'i
and his soldi e rs dr ink "a to ng and solem n draught" frorn it on the eve o f a
composition is to b e discussed, or else states tl1e prcdse
battle with !he Indians.]
form £n'so1ne other particular th a t the work proposed is
"That night, afTri~hted from his rest, the screaming eagle flew,
to take;
He heard th e Peq uot's ringing whr>0p, the sol<lier's wild halloo;
(2) The DISCUSSION, which is the body of th e compoAnd the re th e sachem learned the rule he taugh t lo kith and kin ;
•Run fr om the white man when you find he smells of Hollands gin.'"•
sition, and contains what is said of the th e me as limited
" \ Vhen George the Fourth was still reigning over th e privacies
in the Proposition .
of \\'indsor, whe n th e Duke of \Vellington was Prime l\!iniste r,
The non-essential parts are;and Mr. \ ' incy was mayor of the old corporation in l\!iddle( 1) The INTRODUCTION, which contains n ecessary
m a rch, Mrs. Casaubon, born Dorothea Brooke, had taken h e r
preliminary matte r;
wedding journey to Rome." 5
(2) The CO NC LUSION, which contains n ecessary matter 1
1 0 . \V. Holmes, On Lending a Punch-Bawl, st. 13.
by way of summary, of general en:forcemenl of th e truths ~ :
'C. H. L . (in the Philadelphia Evem-.ig Bulletin) , st. 5, 6.
t a u gh t , etc.
Eleanore! "

3

2

D r. Holme-s's punch bo\:1r·l.

• Ho!meS, u/ cit., st. 4, 8.

•George Eliot. (Cited hr Prof. Hill, p . IJ.5.)

Thus, Matthew Arnold's essay On Translating Ffumcr 3
opu1s as follows;281.

l@ IjO,

abO"J_r! .

lJ!.:ssays :·n .Cn"ticism {New York, iS77) , pp . 2&~ ff.

2

P:nt Sec o nd, bdu·w,

STYLE.

•• Jt has more than once been suggested to me that I should
translate Homer. That is a task for which I have neither the
time JWr the courage; but the suggestion led me to regard yet
mMe da;ely a poet whom I had already long studied, and for
cme Gr two years the works of J-Iomer were seldom out of my
haoids. The study of classical literature is probably on the
dedine ; but, whatever may be the fate of this study in general,
it i5 certain that, as instruction !lpreads nnd tl1e number of
readers increases, attention will be more and more directed to
the poetr-y of Homer, not indeed as part of a classical course,
but as the most important poetical monument existing. Even
within the last ten years two fresh translations of the Iliad have
appeared in England: on e by a man of great ability and genuine
lea.ming, Professor Newman; the other by l\lr. \Vright, the
ca;IJ.5cientious and painstaking translator of Dante. It may
safely be asserted that neither of these works will take rank as
the standard translation of Homer; that the tas k of rendering
him '"-ill still be attempted by other translators. [Introduction.]
It may perhaps be possible to render to these some service, to
save them some loss of labor, by pointing out rocks on whi ch
their predecessors have split, and the right objects on which a
t:r.mslator of Homer should fix his attention." [Proposition.]
Th~n follows an elaborate discussion, 1 comprising, of course,
the b":.?!k of the essay; and then another single paragraph,1 co ncluding the \vhole matter;'"Here I stop. I have said so much, because I think that the
task of translating Homer into English verse both will be
re-attemp ted, and may be re-attempted successfully. There
aire great works composed of parts so disparate, that one translat<0r' ~ not likdy to have the requisite gifts for poetically
rendenng all of them. Such are the works of Shakspere, and
Goetll'e's Faust: and these it is best to attempt to render in
p:ro:.e only. People praise Tieck and Schlegcl's version of
S hakspere: I, for my part, wou'.d s ooner read Shakspere in th e
F r.::nch prose transl ation, ancl that is saying a great d eal; but
in. t.'le Ge~man poets' hands Shakspere so often gets, especially
u ·t:c:re he 1s humorous, al) air of what the French call niaiserie /
and can anything be more un-Shaksperian than that? Again;
Mr. Hzyward's prose translation of the first part of Faust-so
good diat it makes one regret :Mr. Hayward should have
abandoned the line of translation for a kind of literature which
·:;
~.

THE PARTS OF A COMPOSITION.

225

ls, to say the le~st, s?mewhat slight-is not lik~ly to be surpa.~sed
by any translation m verse. But poems like the Iliad which
in the m:iin, are in one manner, may hope to find a ~oeticai
translator so gifted and so trained as to be able t~ learn that
one manner, and to reproduce tt. Only, the p'Oet :.Vho would
reproduce this must cultivate in himself a Greek virtue by no
?1eans ~ommon among the moderns in general, and the English
m part1cular-moderalion. For Homer has not only the English
vigor, he has t!ie Greek grace; and when one observes the
boistering, '.oll}c.king way in which his Eng-lish aclmi~ers-even
men of gemus, hke the late Professor \Vilson-love to talk of
Homer and his poetry, one cannot help feeling that there is no
very ~eep co~munity, of _nature between them a'nd th e object
?fth:1r enthusiasm.
It 1s very well my good fri ends,' I always
1mag111e Homer saying to them, if he could hear them : 'you do
me a great d eal of honor, but somehow or oth e r you praise me
too like barbarians.' For Hom e r's grandeur b not th e mixed
and turbid grandeur of the great poets of the north, of the
authors of Othello and Faust; it is a perfect, a lovely gra ndeur.
Certainly his poetry has all the e ne rgy and power o f th e poetry
of our ruder climates; but it has, b esid es, t he pure ·Jines of an
Ionian horizon, the liquid clearness of an Ionian sky.'' 1
282. Unless something must be said by way of introduction or conclusion, the work consists o f Proposition
and Discussion alone. Especially if a work grows too
long, or if there is danger of wearing out the reader's
attention by unduly postponing ''the gist of the matter,''
or by allowing the interest to flag after the discussi on is
fairly ended, an excellent rule is, Cut clown the composition by lopping off both introduction and conclusion.
For example;-

Mr. Arnold's essay The Literary Influence o.f Arndonies•
opens abruptiy thus ;"It is impossible to put down a book like the history of the
French Academy, by Pcllison and D'Olivet, which J\l . Charles
1 Pp. 36S-424, Last 1Vords, really constitute a separate essay, 'n·ith its own
introducti~n (pp . 368-370), double proposition (p. 370), double discussion (371-

389 and 389-42j), and conclusion. (423-424.)

s Id., pp. 39 If.'
IS

·

·

:

~

-~~Ff-T:)~1~~ .Y"·

.·. -~ ...

<

,_

STYLE.

THE PARTS OF A COMPOSITION.

Livet has lately re-edited, without being led to reflect upon the
absence, in our own country, of any institution like the French
Academy, upon the probable causes of this absence, and upon
its results. [Proposition. ] A thousand voices v;.-i!l be n :ady to
tell us that this absence is a signal mark of our national
superiority; that it is in great part owing to this absence that
the exhilarating words of Lord Macaulay lately given to the
world by his \'ery cle ...·er nephew, lllr. Trevelyan, are so profoundly true; 'I t m::iy s::ifely be said that the literature now
extant in the English language is of far greater value than all
the literature which three hundred years ago was extant in all
the languages of the world together. ' I dare say th is is so;
only, remembering Spinoza's maxim that the two great banes
of humanity are self-c.onceit and the laziness coming from selfconceit, I think it may do us good, instead of resting in our
pre-eminence with perfect security, to look a little more closely
why this is so, and whether it is so without any limitations."
[The same thought expanded.]
To be sure, the paragraphs that immediately follow -t his
proposition contain, by way of preparation, "a very few words
on the outward history of the French Academy;" but these
belong to the discussion, not to the essay as a whole, and are
aimed at making this discussion the more intelligible: they are
introductory, of course, but only to the discussion, riot to the
whole work. So, the concluding paragraph of the essayMr. Arnold's opinion as to the kind of academy England will
some day found-is rather a last paragraph of the discussion
than a conclusion to the essay as a whole.
·
Obedie nce to this rule would have saved a certain preacher
the mistake of correcting the excessive length of his sermons
by making them (in his deacon's words) "all introduction."

The essay On Translating H<J1ner might have ended without
the ronclusion quoted above, and might have begun as follows;
- " It tnay safely be asserted that the task of rendering Homer
into English will be attempted by yet othe r translators; and it
may perhaps be possible" etc.; but the opening would then
have been less graceful, the mention of Newman 's and \Vri"ht's
translations (which are, in fact, reviewed in the essay) must have
been made elsewhere, and perhaps awkwa rdly ; while the reader
would have missed the last two sentences of the essay, two as
beautiful sentences as were ever penned by Engli sh wri.ter.
At the same time, the relative proport ions of tl11.: non-essen tial parts of this essay-and the particubr exa111plc is most
instructive-may serve to emphasize the rule. Of nea rly e ightyfive closely-printed post-octavo pages they fill Lut t wu; and even
these two might have been omitted. The rul e is a good working dictum,-arbitrary, pe rhaps, and quite as often to Le \·iohtul
as to be obeyed; but it expresses a great trnth, l'iz., that it is
-a\ w.1ys bette r to begin at once, even at t)1e sacrifice of important
matter, even at the risk of a mode rately abrupt opening or
close, than to allow a delay in coming to the point or an undue
prolonging of .the subject to exhaust or even severely tax a
reader's-much worse, a hearer's-patience. The strain on the
attention, to say nothing of the confusion of thoug ht caused by
an irrelevant introduction or conclusion, is so great as to ~lake
the omission of even admissible matter safer than th() insertion
of matter that is of doubtful importance. ·

283. But the rule must be construed liberally.
Although, as Bacon says, ''to use too many Ci,rcumstances, ere one come to the matter, is Wearisome ''
it is also true, as he says, that ''to use none at all' is
Blunt;'' ~nd ~while a reasonably abrupt opening is by no
-means ob!ect1onable, excessive abruptness is commonly
to be avoided. A brief introduction or conclusion may,
therefore, be admitted, even when one 1s not m the
strictest sense necessary. Thus ; -

227

284. It is not pretended that, in every work by a competent writer, these parts of the compos ition are thus
clearly defined. Even the Proposition and the Discus-.
sion may not be marked off by as much as a paragraphbreak. The whole matter may be left to the good sense
and discrimination of the reader. But, of course, in any
work in really good form, both the limitation of the sub-..
ject that it is the office of the Proposition to set clearly
before the reader, and the several statements about this~;
Proposition that it is the office of the Discussion to make,
will be so presented that the reader can easily and at
once discover them. Thus, to take yet another example
from the. same writer;-

··~·1 i
,. :~~

.

I

l

STYLE.

THE PARTS OF A COMPOSITION.

\fr. A.""1!0ld' s essay Afarcus Aurelius 1 opens by quoting John
~t~art Mill·s assertion that Christian morality is inferior to the

:est moraSity of the ancients ; criticizes this remark by sho·""; ng
die true ground and the inspiring motive of any system of
orals and that Christian morality both rests on this ground
m
,
•
b
-d
and has this motive; cites Epictetus and Jcsus side y s1 c ;
claims tbat Jesus' statements of certain great truths are far
superior to those of Epictetus; has a sly" rap on the knuckles"
for Mr. Mill; and then (in the first sentence of a ne w paragraph)
sllggesls the subject of his essay, as follows;-" That wh~ch
u ives to the moral writings of the · Emperor Marcus Aurelius
tliei r peculiar character and charm, is their being suffused
and softened by something of this very sentiment whence
Christian morality draws i~s best power."• The balance of the
essay cares as little for orderly arrangement, and leaves the
r eader as unassisted as before. It mentions a " recently published " translation of Aurelius, praises this translation and
then brings "one or two little complaints against" it, speab
critically of Aurelius's Greek, gives a brief biography of the
Emperor. and finally quot~s from his Jlfcditations by way of
illustratiog his ethical opinions. The close is quite as abrupt
and disjcinted. In one paragra ph, it re~arks the catholicity of
Aurelius's mo.ral code ; in a second, it speaks of the natural
affinity of the Roman persecutor of the Christians for Christian
morality. and ·raises the at once vain, yet alluring, question,
\Vhat eGe<:t would this morality have had upon this persecutor
of Chrisltlans, could he only have known it in its reality?

285_ But this plan is attended wit? no little dange1
Unless the Proposition (not formally expressed) is (1)
perfectly clear in the writer's own mind, and (2) made
equally dear to the reader or hearer, the whole work not
only nay become inartistic in form and unmethodical in
its dev&-0pment of the subject, but also may violate the
law of Unity ; 3 the writer becoming confused by the
details of his work, and failing of his mission because
the rea~r receives nothing intelligibly. The man who
himsdf does not know where he is going will hardly
guide <•d1e rs a ri g ht: he wh o is led blind.folded conceive!'
1 Id ., I~· 253 Ir.

1 P . 257.

• i 28?

bduw.

many a false idea of his destination, may have m:my a

stumble or even fall.
285 a. A fair test of this doctrine is to read side by side two
compositions such as the essays last quoted from. That on th e
Academies is clear, because its pbn is distinctly bid down
from page to page, and eve ry st ep tak e n in pu;su;rncc of tlii-;
plan is distinctly announced. The write r knows )'·here he is
going, and th e reader where the writer is taking hi m. After the
opening quoted above (one page), thre e pages and a half tell
the history of the French Academy; two pages mo re comment
on the hostility any plan to set up a high standard iii matters
of intellect and taste is s ure to encounter; five pag'cs discuss
certain peculi1'1r characteristics of th e English nati on ; ;incl the
rc.,l of the essay (except one paragraph) is filled wi:ii e.-.;arnp lc:s
of what an English Acad emy might do for Engli.;h litc:;aturc.
But the essay on Aurelius is a continual surprise. ~ Ir. Arnold
doubtless knew what he meant to say in his paper; yet his work
looks very much as if he had sta rted writing with only a Yagucly
defined purpose,-perhaps to review !>Ir. Long' s trans!atiun.
The consequence is a disjointed essay which, bold ~s the criticism may seem, makes most unwarrantable demands upon
one's attention and ingenuity. The reader sets out with the
broad subject Jlfarcus Aurelius; learns, after four pages of
tossing about, that Mr. Arnold intends to speak of Aurelius's
code of morality; is then rudely carried off into fi\·e p:i[;es on l\!r.
Long's translation and the Emperor's Greek; meets th en nine·
pages on the life of Aurelius and cognate questions ; and is at .
last allowed (in eleven pages out of twenty-nine that he J-ias read
thus far) to hear what moral principles this remarkable man
jotted down in his l'r.leditatio11s. The close (in two pages more)
makes at least three separate rema rks cognate with the general
discussion of the subject rather than with the matter th;i.t ha.5
immediately preceded. Such a contrast as that between th ese
essays could not exist, perhaps, in the work of a single w•ite_r,
except as a result of difference of method, and no 0Pd1d
reader can hesitate for a moment, one would think, to say
which method is preferable. E\·en Mr. Arnold's I Iomer P-•<'C!r,
eig-hty-five pages long-, is easily followecl through its e'-e~y
windin.,,.; ..rnd this, quite as much bc:cau se the ckw to them~ ~e
" . .
.
l
\.. l
ha.s ueen securely placed ·in the readc:r 's h:rnd in t iat_ >
sentence of the first paragraph, as for any other rc:ason ..

THE
STYLE.

230
2 g-

b. Important exceptions-<>r, rather, apparent exceptions
-to:>this principle will be met under the heads of Excitation

and Persuasion. 1
. 2 86. Of course, anything mechanical in this use of
method will impair a writer's success; but the artist must
everywhere ''conceal his art;'' and an extreme of formality we.re better, one would think, than confusion or
failure. The chief end of discourse is to communicate
thought; and failure in this particular is, therefore, total
failure. Yet how rnanvworthy books are not read, how
many excellent addre~es are not listened to, simply
because their method is so outrageously bad, that readers
and hearers alike refuse the labor necessary to be instructed
by them ! The assertion often made that a strict arrangement develops only formality, stiffness and awkwardness,
and hampers or even dwarfs or enfeebles the mind of the
writer, tying him down to mechanical processes when he
most needs to be free,-thiS assertion can not possibly be
true in all cases-is not true (as many teachers will testify)
eve n in the elementary work of students. An orderly
arrangement may guide a writer without affecting his
liberty; while (as has been said), without such orderly
arrangement, clear in his own mind, and clearly impressed
upon the mind of his reader, he may fall into confusion,
or spend his well-meant labor in vain.
287. To facilitate this methodical planning and construction of discourse, a synopsis or" the whole work,
("skeleton" it is often called), may be clearly thought
o ut or even written down, before the actual labor of composition begins. Even a systematic notation of the
several divisions of the work by figures or letters may
be employed; though this notation does not commonly
appear in the finished work, except in compositions
intended only to instruct or to set out statistics or
similar details. Text-books use such a notation, and
l

Part Sc:cond, below,

properly; but literary products ( distincti:vely so called)
commonly do not. Of course, such an outline must
never be allowed to fetter the writer: it must be used,
some one has aptly said, only as the ~as9n uses his
scaffolding, as a means to an end. Points may be omitted
from it; new points be added ; in fact, any liberty.1:1ay
be taken with it that tends to improve the compos1t1011.
Sometimes, a writer works better without a synopsis.
The subject, in its broad, general outline, is clear to him,
and he can readily follow it through its every part. In
such cases, let him by all means decline a '' sc~ffoldin_g" :
only let him be sure that his work, when finished, ~s as
clear to his reader as to himself. Of course, loo, if, at
. any point, when working without sue~ help, he becomes
embarrassed, he can jot down his outlme, and so r ccov~ r
his "bearings." Freedom in one's methods of work 1s
too precious to be lightly bartered away.
..
88.
The
forms
that
the
several
parts
of
the
compos1t1on
2
take are determined mainly by the subject-matter : t~1e
Proposition, however, needs _a few _words of spccnl
remark. Many writers state 1t definitely, as Matth ew
Arnold, in the first two of his essays quoted above; or ,
Lord Macaulay, who begins his History, '' I_ purpos;. to
write the history of England from the a:ces:10n _of_ Kmg
James the Second down to a time which i~ w1th111 the
memory of men still living.'' But _other :v~1ters (or the .
same writers at other times) merely imply 1t 111 a senten:e
the chief purpose of which is different; as Mr. Arnold ~n
his third essay named above. Sometimes it ,is fou~d 111 ·
an opening sentence or in the last sentence of the mt:oduction; and it may even be fully expressed _in the t1t1_~
of the work. To insist upon any one form,-rndeed, _not
to insist upon variety in this as in o_ther rcsp ect:,-1s_ a
foolish as well as a usel ess dogm:it1sm. A wn t:r _can
ill afford to allow his openings to become so hab1t~ally
alik~ that they constitute a mannerism. The solitary

2,32

THE WHOLE' COMPOSITION-CANONS .•

STYLE.

horseman climbing .a long hill, so much affected by a
certain writer, has provoked for him the stmbriquet o!
••the one-horse man." The danger in trusting to the
title to announce one's proposition lies in the carelessne.33
...-itb which a title is often read. . Indeed, the common
{but most: mistaken) practice of many persons is to
'"skip' ' title, preface, and all kindred matter.
:zSS a. The Proposition is not nccessari:y a judgment the
tru.th or falsity of which is to be enforced on the reader. Jn
Airgument, t of course, such a judgment stands as propos ition;
but in Narration, in Description, i in other kinds of composition,
1Jre Proposition sets forth only the purpose of the writer, lhe
circumstances of his writing, etc.
:2. CANONS.

289. The Composition as a whole, no matter what iti
subject, obeys four general rules. They are ; ( 1) UNITY.
Each part of the composition must be
snbservient to one theme, and one proposition under
that theme.
Everything else must be rigidly excluded; or, if anything out
of strict unity· is admitted, its insertion must be justifiable on
sufficient grounds. Even in extended works, much interesting
matter has alwa;~ to be left out, lest the attention be unduly
diverted from the main line of thought. A reasonable quantity
of such material, however, is sometimes inserted in foot-notes
or appendices; but even here the limits of advisability are soon
reached. Speaking of De Quincey, confessedly a great sinner
m this respect, Mr. _l\tinto sums up the case most cleverly;-.. Should these digressions, obvious! y breaches of strict method,
be imitated or avoided? The experienced writer will please
!mr.sel~ and consult the effect th~t he intends to produce. nut
if he digresses after the model of De Quincey, he may rest
assured that he will be accused of affectation, ana will offend
all that read for direct information concerning the subject in
hand.''
I

el 371 ff, lu/aw.

233

(2) METHOD. The deyelopment of the sul>jcct must
follow a natural (that is, the logical) order.

This canon has already been applied in the sectiun on the
parts of a composition, but it is equally ap1)1icahle t0 e\·ery
other detail. As no little force is gained by properly tlistributing
the greater divisions of the whole work, so a like force is
imparted by assigning to every sub-division, every p~ragrapl~,
every s e ntence, just its own place,-the place <letcrr:1111cd for 1t
by the nature of the thought expressed, by the special work
which that particular part of the discourse has to do, and hy
other considerations, to be mentioned under several heads of
Part Second, below.

(3) SELECTION. From the matter found to be :elevant
by Canon· (1), the writer must choose what is ni~st important in accordance with his proposition and Ills purpose in writing.
This rnle is most binding, of course, when the composition is
limited in extent ; but it has force in all cases. Tl1e wider the
scope of · the autho1, the greater is the mass of material_ he
collects and th e greater the necessity for a judicious sekctwn
from thls mass of just those things which he especially needs to
set down. Hence, no rule of Composition-n0t even the law
of Unity-can be of greater importance than this law of Selection. A wise choice of material ensures the success of a book;
the failure to make this choice may so heavily ''handicap'' the
work as to leave it no chance in the race. Such unassorted work
is sometimes said to be "padded." De Quincey's failures in
this particular are often commented on, and wot~ld doubtl ess ha\'C
ruined the chances of works less remarkable m other respects.
And here again can the value of a commanding use .of meth?d
be seen. In most cases, the writer will choose 111s mate~1al
wisely, only after he has grasped securely. and held befo~e 1
his mind (like a visible object between his fin ;;e r and Ins ·
thumb) the whole outline of his composition. 1 Vite versa, the
I De Quincey is a conspicuous exception .. The law of Method he practise~
most successfully using artisticall)' the several means of indicating the plan
'
.
• ·
his work apologizing
for his digressions,
giving
no t 'ice o f I11.'• return frofll ·
them and in every way carrying hi• reader along with him. Yet. he had _not
lcano~<l the taw of Unity-much less its more exacting sister-rule of Selection.

°·

STYLE.

I

5€(:ret of many a failure in Method has been a failure in Selecti.m ; the want of power to choose wisely serving, as a rule, to
dehar the writer from making a judicious arrangement of
material.

(4) COMPLETENESS.
cussed fully.

1Appeodi.x, p. 335-

1
r.

v.
FIGURES OF SPEECH.1

The proposition must be dis-

Ever)1hing essential, ever)1hing that is necessary to set the
s ubject as defined in the proposition completely before the
reader, must be included. The sin of incompleteness is, of
course, far less com,mon than its opposite of overcrowding and
irrelevancy; but its effects are none the le_ss injurious to the
work, and tl)e vice itself, therefore, none the less carefully to be
guarded against. 1 Ajudicio~!d~'fevity may leave o-~~· s readers
01" hearers wishing that the book, the sermon, the lecture had
been longer: Incompleteness leaves the mind unsatisfied, as
a piece of music leaves the ear, when it closes upon any chord
but that of the tonic. One cannot help feeling that the writer
has pledged himself to more than he has fulfilled, or, perhaps,
has attempted more than he was able to accomplish.

235

FIGURES OF SPEECH., .

290. "A Figure of Speech is a deviation from the
plain and ordinary mode of speaking, ,\vith a view to
greater effect;" 2 as, That lamp lighted in Paradise,
instead of Love; Saturn, quiet as a . stone, for Saturn
motionless. So;.
The vanward clouds of evil days.-To sit upon an Alp as on
0, sir, not/zing ·of the kind /-For thou,
,dea_r, noble Elizabeth, 3 around whose ample brow I fancy a
tiara of light or a gleaming aureola.

a throne.- Tragedy I

"A ca!scment .. . .. . . .
, •• diamonded with panes of quaint device
Innumerable , of stains and splendid dyo,
As are the tig er-mo/h's du) damasked wings."
291. It is_a question,' perhaps, whether the many "artifices of
style gradually accumulated" by rhetoricians under the head
of-Figures of Speech admit of strict classificat_ion. "Sueµ an ·
accumulation," says Mr. Minto,' "could hardly be other than
heterogeneous;" and even Prof. Bain,& who attempts only
"the most common figures," and whose division is based on the
"three simple modes of working" to which "all our intellectual
powers are reducible," leaves one group of figures unclassified. ·
Some points, however, have· been made towards a classifica ·
tion; and by combining. these points, all the most impo_rtant
figures can be grouped under certain well-defined heads. ·
:;;92. (1) "A limited number of figures" are oeviations from .
the ordinary modes of speech in the "use of single words."~
Tirns, !lfmp, clouds, diamonded, stains and damasked, in the
examples cited above, 7 all contain figures of this sort. · They:._ ,
are easily distinguishable both from the formdl similitudes there ~
cited, quiet as a stone, upon an Alp as on a throne, and from
such peculiar sentence-structures as are observable in th~ fifth
and sixth examples of that paragraph. Now, for these smg1eword figures Mr. Minto has proposed t_o reserve the _ name

.,

I~

170; ahove.

• .ftfanual, p. 14.

I

Bain, Part I.
6

Part I.,

£e

a De Quincey's sister, long dead .
2,

40 ff.

•Minto.

,

7

l ~·

28o -·

STYLE.

~· Bain has aptly defined two elements of Taste, one

pennaMnl, and one variable.

Certain questions of taste
though men should dispute about them forever, do not admit
of discussion. The points at issue have been decided by
an appeal to fundamental and unchallengeable truths: the
questions are closed. .Many rules of Rhetoric are of this kind,
- the doctrine of judicious llrevity, the necessity of Clearness,
the e"·il effect of incessantly recurring mannerisms, the excellence of an idiomatic style, the importance of being oneself in
composition, etc. But on other questions, tastes vary in different
ages and in individuals. Neither the drama of the Greeks nor
the "license of personal vituperation" they . allowed their
orators are in taste to-day. English literature of the Classic
Pedod-loosely 166o to 1789--accepted many rules of composition which the common sense reaction of the succeeding period
abrngated. Lessing gave form as well as life to.German literature, till his time almost a wilderness. So, "the emotional
constitution, the intellectual tendencies, and the education of
each individual" cause dh·ergencies of taste. Poetry appeals
to many minds that music fails to touch, and vice versa. Men
"of wider literary knowledg~a nd sup.erior. discernment groan
inwardly, some of them outwardly, at the judgment of the
multitude in the matter of sublimity, pathos, and humour."
Further, there are schools of writers, each with its own admirers
and its own ·clamorous defenders. In a word, as there are
"many men, " so there are "many minds;" and, provided the
disagreement . turns solely on matters of a personal, individual
character, "there is no disputing about tastes." Perhaps the
whole case for both elements of Taste may be summed up in
a s ingl-e. law ;-Men differ most when their sensibilities are
e ngage<l; their intellectual judgments are more nearly at one.

PART SECOND.
INVENTION.
'·J

SUB-DIVISIONS.

· 34 1; · INVENT~,ON stales the Rules that direct and crmlro!
the Discovery of Afaller for tlze Composition.• These
rules concern either the subject about which one writes,
the Theme,' or else the composition itself, what one writes
about the Theme, the Discussion. Hence, .lwo subdivisions of Part Sccond,-(A) THE THEME, (B) THE
DISCU.SSION.

342. The word Discussion is used here in a slightly broader
sense than in ~ 28o, abow, There it meant the body of the composition, as opposed to the Proposition, the Introduction, and
the Conclusion: here it includes these parts as well as the Discussion properly so cal led. But, all told, these parts add but
little, in proportion, to the Discussion Proper; and the extension
of the term to include e verythi ng but the Theme is, hence, not
a material variation of its meaning. I1esides, although the
parts named must be considered as belonging to the Discussion
in this broader sense of llie term, yet the mies to be stated for 1
the Discussion apply to it most particularly in its narrower
meaning. The Introduction and the Conclusion have ali-eady '-:
been characterized as non-essenft'al; and the Proposition itself
is in a certain sense outside the composition, since, in any case, ·
it is determined rather as a part of . the development of ,t he .
Theme than as a part of the Discussion properly so c~lled.
I~ 23,
I

above.
Greek,;,};,,.,, to put (forward as "the subject of a composition).
281

THE THEME.

INVENTION.

(A) THE THEME.
~ . The Theme may be (1) given, (2) suggested (or,
3
at l~st, limited) by the occasion for which the compo~ion is intended, (3) left wholly to the choice of the
wri~.

For example;-

, ,~ The lawyer has his "case" brought to

him; and it is to
th~/":ILce, and no oth,er, that b e must address himself, whether
in t~ papers filed as preliminaries to the trial , or in what he
m~•- s~y ~fore j1Jdge or j•1ry. His theme · is chosen for him:
sh~uid he for any reaso n sµcak on a subj ect not fairly raise<l oy
the .rase, the judge but discharges a plain duty in demandi ng
that n<: '°h al l kc c-p t o his subj ec t. S u, the kgi~Litur mu~t sp ·~ ;ik
on l ~~ Lill before the house. A" Duluth" Knutt or a "Su nset ,. Cox may spend his store of humor or wit on his colleagues;
but !!here is no pretence that in this sort of talk the house is
ocCT~e<l with the: debate.
( 2~- The sacred preacher has, indeed, a wide r ange of subjects
for !-i s sermons; Lut, 11evert!idbs, he meets much adverse
crii;.G;;m , if he s teps far beyond the Emits of th e reli;ious or t!ie
moc--' l Impo rtant puLlic ques ti ons that afTecl tht:se sicks of
m aru's natu re,--even th e p olitical life of the people consi<lered
as oae means of their education by Divine Providence,-may
(pediaps, should) recei ve his attention; but merely secular
toptcs, topics not even remotely his, are justly objected to in the
pulpit. Beside s, the many special occasions that arise in th e
y e;;:-, e·.·•-n i!l tl 1e churches tint do nut observe a fixcc.1 order of
s 1__:~t.. -:c: f::.; 0

c/ tc n 1irnit the prc;ic iu: r in hi s ch oice ( i f subj e ct; \1.·bi: c
ar-c llut 1~n t L.UJl that render one suLjcct 1110:-t..:

x na.::~; :· c,ccar r c~1u..:~

fit

t~~n

h11
t im,;
.... ..... -. -

ar:i_)U;eL

m-::i.nu

. ............ J

''The

pr~H c f1f':r ·:-; su1~ect i ~,

o f c1__sur~e 1 n i_zt

s~l;

Ut:::IV
hie:. rhnirP
·· -J-C::. ---------- 1c:
-- hi~c:c:pf1
........... __. ......... .

(3) The public lecture, the m aga zine article, the opus magnum
of ascholarlike Casaubon, have their subjects at the will of their
authors. Circumstances, to be sure, may influence even these
cases ; but, so far as any subject of composition is at will, the
su~ects of these and other such wc:irks are so.

3'14- In all three instances, however, ample room 1s
left the writer to exercise his judgme~t.

· (1) In the suit at law, not a little depends upon ho\v a case is
put before the court. The question that presents itself on the
6urface is not always the real point at issue; and the lawyer
may therefore abundantly employ his ingenuity in·finding t his
real question: in fact, by thus "making" his case, he all but
chooses his subject. For example, John Ham pden, sued in the
time of King Charles the First fur non-payment of taxes, ~llllwe<l
th e m agistrate th a t th e real question was wh ethe r th e King
should he allowed t o usurp u ncons titutional powers. Many a
proposed act of legislature has b ee n successfull y represented or
misrepresented by a r e -reading- o f its title or by an ope n or
covert sneer. The repea l of the Corn Laws in England was,
on different views of the bill, either an act to put brcacl into the
mouths o f stan·ing women and children or a measure to rnin
the English farm e r. A certain "bill f,Jr th e Relief of the Sur'vi , ;7;g- Officers of th e Revolution" 1 was kindly m en tioned by
Mr. \\"euster as proposing "an annuity: " a s c·1i:1tu r frum
Georgia had sneered at its beneficiaries as willi11;; tu accept
" a p ension ."
(2) The ·cJergyman, more than any oth er public speaker, wi ll
find ro om for a wise jud gment in selecting his thenH::. Th e pro's
and con's are often nicely b~ilan ced in re gard t•) a subj ect ; anrl
a mi stake on his part is commonly faLtl. \\'lien Slavery Wei.-;
still a factor in Americrn politics, a fam ou:' clcrg-yman preachin;::;
on th e J'q]ms in course, found hirnsl·lf fac.: to face wi th the
story of Doeg the Edom ite \\'ho betrayed to Saul th e liidin gplace of David. A ge neral discourse o n Doeg 's treachery
would have avoided the "burning qu estion" of th e day, the
Fugitive Slave Law. I3ut th e pre ac h e r h eld decided /\nt iSla~verv views, and h e consickred his m eetin g thus incid ental ly
a text that allowed him to frc·e hi '. ; suul of a lung umlis cli,11 i'.Ccl
i, vi.: i~.,..h t o f n· :-~ pon:.;ihili t \· ) ;l cdl fr\itn II c;iv c n . ~ r i ll t hen, lL ld ht;
htr-~dnr c d tt1e s1d,j ect. Ji,c Illlht h:t\·c .l'..Ull <: uu t u f hi_-.; I\ .\ )' \c_:,_
brin e- it into hisp~lp!t; 8.!1d his c 0!T:::t_·i1"· n1·r- li:1d l1ithr:rto atJ:.;ot·v-cd
him~ · But now the qu esti on h~d presented . itself to hin1 : to ~<
evade it would be cowardice. His sermon broke _s ome
. old friendships, might have rent his church asunder; but. the
topic was not of his choosi~1g, and cqnsequences, he felt, m1g~:
wisely be left to Him in wh?se name he stood before t?e p eople.
(3) Eve 11 the writer who~e choice seems ~holly unb1asscd can
not be ~bsolutely indifferer:t to -circumst<mces. A number of
l

U.S. Sen~le, April

1828.

.

,

THE THEME.

INVENTION.
co~ determine him,-considerations that must be
d etaik.<JI m full. The same considerations are often of value,
too. in the second case.

of which to the reader requires a commanding use of
m_ethod. .If such a subject must be written on, the writer
will find his powers tested to their utmost: he will need
to call to his aid every help that Nat~re 'or Art ·can
render him.
'·
'
'
. 348. The theme obtained, it must be developed: (a)
1~ exact me~ni_ng must be. determined; and (b) the particular form it 1s to take m the work in hand must be
selecte_d. This selection may have to be postponed until
the student has read on the subject proposed, and has
collected at least a part of his material;. .but in actual
literary work, the purpose in writing is always _k nown,
and the material to be used is selected in accordance with
this purpose, not the purpose determined ' in accordance
""Zvi tlt the material used. The Proposition . may then be
distinctly writlen out; awl now the writer i::; rea<ly to
outline his Discussion, to set down its several heads and

3t5- \Vbenever the subject is not definitely given,·cases ( 2) and (3), § 343, above,-the writer must determine. before attempting a selection, (a) the occasion for
which he intends his composition , (b) the character of
the persom he may reasonably expect to address, and
(c) the end be has in view in writing. His selection will
then be made in accordance with his determinations
upon these three · poir:ts. In case (2), condition (a)
will be in some measure satisfied ; but · there will still
· remain to be settled the particular circumstances< under
which the discourse is to be delivered. Of course, a
writcr may work in ignorance of points (a) and (b) or
in L--:~~~~':'e t0 them : hnt ' vhMt h e \vrltPs~wiH thPn he
addr-::sed to minds of a certain order only, · and be
sn~r~~: t ;.; v.ccasions of unly a certain so r t.. \.\Then brought
ii i~:.-i le-: · --. :::: " 111 c i~hcr pro~~· c :id:ip~cd ~s if by ch:J.ncc, or
(·~-<• r,c~ L.·,=c t;-:

1

wrik• i; •·;,f,.;i.blc.:

ef

thcnH; iHust Le one lh<lt the

/wwlling.

•

•

,

or conciuding- matter. Of course, fornJJ.litv in this process is fatal: th e finished work must s how a-o; s li ght tr:1ccs
of the 111cch:1nic:d p:.irt uf curnpt)sit iun :1s 111:1\· lH '. , '1rs
est celare artem . Yet, consciously or uncons~ioush·, th e

be recast.

~~ }-ur_Lhc.i.·, (d) the

,.

~uu-t11v1~1oi1S 1 anu tu arr;1II~l~C frJr r1t·<_·es '< try j n t rodJI1-rnry

Not that he must knov.;

bef•J!'"".J..2~!<l a ll th a t can l>e ~aid a Lout i t: on the contrary,

writer docs take each of these steps , ::ind mmt take th e m.

t:-~ (' s::- ,r; :-:.~r (-st

th e
s el e· ct,:d u) h·· .'->l/-! r, · _;;:·, · ~ · , ; / ,: (, ,: .
] 'he hrst qu est io n rn u st be, \Vl i~t docs the tcnn-n1c~til? ls sc l:'preservati o n o nly an instinc t that k eeps men from u1111 ece ss:i.rily

i n ccnt i\· c

:1

'Th ll ~. ~;t !p ;11hi ·

\\Tit er c :1 n h:1\·c. ls the 1ntcrc~ ~t

th_~t

:.is subject has for his own mind; and th is interest is
ne\'er greater than when it is prompted by the discovery
of soTi~liing new. All th::it is mc::int by the ru1e is that
th~ ~=~~~;-:;:- ffiUSt b;2 prcparLd by prev iou.s studif:::j, e!c., tu
ur~~~-.:z~ii<l hi~ suLjl'.ct~ to learn \vhat he v.·ill nt:cd to k n r o\.J.,:

c..f i~ ~.i. h;::acc , to Le aLle tu txµr .:::.s wu rthv thuu<!ht
abo~tit..
..
'
-

347- (~)"Fertile" subjects are especially to be avoided.
They are commonly hackneyed and, hence, difficult to
m'!k~ int~esting. !?ey involve, too, a ·g~eat body of
details,, for the definition and classification of which a
vigorous mental grasp is needed, and the presentation

1

endange rin g life or li mb, that mak es th e m a\·o icl clanger and

I

suffering wh t:n n o th ing is to be gained hv i11n1rri11,, l·itlwr; o r
i~-~ it a cu\va rdly 2 t:l ~-- l o ve th~:t, in c1 .11;._::f·d fr:---t=-l y \•:r . ~ilcl r~~i:d :=:~r
det-d "' ,f i ier• -.i-.;1 n P f ~ c·i f- ~a c ri ii,_·.__. in i j" ·~~i: ilt · ? () i, ;1 :<· ' ii 1) (\, ".,. , : ; I•_:
\>.·un.l n1....:.J.u vuly t~1c judiciuus ca:-c o f u r ~ c '.. ; L:-c :J.1:d L c al~h ~:; id'
1

1

the p romotion hy eve ry wise means of bodily vigo r to old age ? , .
On the d efinition accepted \vill turn, of course, the fonn the --.:.
work is to take,-th e Proposition, the matter prope r
the
Discussio n, every part of the composition from its first word to .
its last. In the fi•st case, the Proposition might be, Seif-I'rcsci- ·
vation is a Law of Nature; the Discussion, an illustration of
the law and. a definition of the privileges it confers. and ..the

for

INVENTION.

duties it imposes. In the second case, the paradox might be
affinne<l that, although self-preservation has its root in selfishness, yet, because a genuine sympathy comes only through
suffering, and self-preservation inclines a man to avoid suffering
for himself, the instinct of self-preservation will irresistibly
draw him through his sympathies to deeds of self-sacrifice and
e"·en heroism in behalf of others. If the third definition were
aaxp:c d, the essay might consist of such a series of hygienic
sl.l'Z2:estions, and such moral application~ of them, 8.3 the o ccasi~ ~~<l oth~ r ( i rclHnst.~nces would v..·arrant.

349- Thus; out cf~ ::;ingle therne, (!:;t~te-J rnu::il 1:rua<lly,
to oe sure,) three distinct compo;;itions suggest thcmseh-C:S. No• ,,·as the subject at first gbncc most promising.
P.2- yo!.!r!g· writer, ~-orking \vithout the directions her-e
~~-·e::= "'.\·oU:J i:: ~11µru~:.J}i!lty1~J.'.'e set th.J\~.' n t!1c di~jfjirltcJ.
tlf~:.ugh~,:; t;lJ.t o~cu~rcJ. tu h:111, ::!.S they occurred tu hi1:1,
~i~hfr'<i t d ...-~-~Gcd purpose in v,:riting, and \Vithout cons~te r: :::y wit11 1:ili1cr thi:; pCir!HJSe or one another.
He would
h;:;..-e achieved su ch a n·-->: :1 t as "young Ilfr. Brown"
achiewd, ·wh en he refused ' 'to be put into the leading
strings" of a proposition, and tried to write on Fortune
ir.stead of on the th eo;is .Fu!fmze /felps the IJraz1e. 1 He
would igno miniously have failed; while the experience
of every teacher of Composition proves that reasonably
good work ca n be done by even young writers, if they
are taught the subject in this systematic way. 2
1J. H . Newman, Lectures on University Subjects, p. 150.-Dr. Newman's idea,
howa-er, that a young writer should alw ays have a proposition stated for him,
-..hat (in the U nive rsity tutor's words in the Brown case)" il would have been
' "C1'Y CTIJel to have told a boy to write on •fortune'; it would have been like
as.!::ing hi; o }inion of ' thin gs in general, ' "-loses sight of the valuabt~ disciy?~ne

a. stud.ent rec e i ves in stJ.t i ng his own pro positi on . Jksi<les-sup pos ing
i•il c jvttings about Fur·tun ~ or :i.ny other ~uhjcct are ri gorously
fo.~-b~dd l:n b y tht.'." instru c tor-why 11.,t al! .-,w the youn g: wri tt.:"f the freedom th::tt
a di.~ ct-: of r~opr.sitiO!lS givc-s liim"? Fe·.·: suhjccts of th nug-ht, fe \V t!-:emf'S
~...:c.d on a n:nu by· his cxpt..Ticncc, come in the shartt: of a st:ntence. D0t>s not
<:'.\.--=!")" u~ie, so.:.i!t~r ur L.!.l er. fo:-mubte for himsrl_f judRmcnts about L ife and
~th :rnd n·c:tnh~rh_~ss other tnpTrs? Since \Vh:i.tely 1 Rhetoric has too often
tz!:!g?!!. Lo.c;iC-y and not the Art of D~scour~e.

~ -.-.2ys tbat

e-..!._..:;:(;r:b th :: !:!.:! !1:J" t'h:;us;::.~~ d. co:npc·sltlvn.:. r .::.'.l d b;,..- the ~:..nl~u :r .as.
~-1&!.i~. Oh;J. a rn.~ re h..::.utlful hav;;: L-e~a iik;;: ycuut; I\lr. Brown 1 s.

pri..-.:f~vr uf

CB) THE DISCUSSION_
350. _The ~ollectio.n of matter for a composition on any
the~e. IS ~1ded chiefly by the purpose of the writer;
for 1t 1s this purpose, in the main, that determin es the
mode of discussion proper to the given work. 1 At the
same time, certain general rules can Le stateJ ; thou~h.
of course, no specia! dir~r:tion5 cz,.n be bi ven to n1 cct c~;ch
theme. Henr:-e, two chief hc;id s of thi::; sub-Jivi;-,i 011 of
Invention-I. General Rules, II. The J1fodcs o.f Di"sms-

sion.
350 a. To g iv e specific dirc . _,ticn1:-) fJr tL~.: di.-Jcu~;~icJ~l
of se1>~tr~tte t hen ?es: Rhctorf1: \\·uuld l!~t \'c tu t c~t(h
J1l~Il u n!·.;crsJ.1 kilO'o\·j,_-·d • re ''J \\-h crc:L') \Vb at a \'~ J itcC
needs to kn ow on a ;,i\·~n .subject he must k.irn
from the authorities on that subject. Earnest writirw
presupposes earnest rcading-~rnu n u t thi::; alone, lJl;~
earne:; t thought and an earnc::;t effort to make wlnt is
rc:1d. one's own, or evt.::11 to be stimubtcd by it to trnlv
ongmal thought. Simply to appropriate another 111:u1:s
work, even if one expresses it in one's own words is the
fl~gitious act called by the hard name p!agzari;m, or
lzterary theft: to "assimilat<' \Vhat on e reads, making it
tl~e sour_ce of new life and power, is work worthy of the
highest mtellectual and moral powers in man. The best
work on important subjects must be grounded on the
work of one's predecessors ; 3 and, hence, whatever Ins
been written on a subject must be consi<lerccl :ls at a
later writer's disposal.
Dut this principle gnT.; 110 .
license to literary theft , nor docs it warr:lnt the transferring frorn another ,\·ritcr's p;:i,~cs to one 's 0\\·;1 lii:J
mJ.tLcr Ludily.'
1

iJ J.)5, below.

2 Aµpcndix, p .. JJ I. .

289

INVENTION.

288 .

I.

GENERAL RULES.

351. (1) Exhaustive treatment of a subject requires
on the writer's part a complete knowledge of that subj ect,-especially, a wide acquaintance with the vie\VS
of all pirevious writers. In this way, not only_will com-pletemess be secured, and the repetition as original of
opinio ns tried arid found false or inadequate; be pre,·ented; but, and especially, will the stimulus that
kno\vledge broad and deep always applies to thought,
mostsurely be felt by the writer. It is only when the mind
is heavily charged with truth, that the finest display of
power in writing is possible. For example; ~fr. Dowden,
in S lw...&pcre: f-lt"s 1i1L·nd and Art, says that, although he
was writing from a -new point of view, yet, '' in order to
get s.uhstantiai ground to go upon," he had "thought it
necc-""sary to form acquaintan ce with a considerable body
of recent Shakspere scholarship ; '' and that, although
he ,._-;ts a.-oiding " purely scholastic questions." a nd was
aiming " to approach Shakspere on the human side,"
yet he believed ''that Shakspere is not to be approached
on any side through dilettantism." So, Motley and
l\bpuhy--doubtless every great writer---'spent years of
P ati.-:nt, pains-takini! toil, often a mong rnustv worm eaten state or private papers, before a sing-le volume of
thei5" wo;;-k s was possiblc.1
352. (2) f--Vitlzin limited portions of a subject very good
work can be done without an exhaustive knowledge of
the subject as a whole. But constant watchfulness will
then be necessary, lest an essential relation between the
department under treatment and those left out of sight
...

1 Sec

<.. -"

0

,

escape attention. De Quincey's and }lerbert Spencer;s
essays on Style are examples of work good as· far as it
goes, but misleading because it is incomplete.
353·. (3) For certain specific purposes," partial knowl~
edge 1~ often. suffic;:ient. for ._ example, "to 'show that
Ph?net1c ~pelhng will. or will not overthrow the etymolog1cal basts of the English language, one need not have
as much• knowledge
as \YOU Id
•
· of the proposed ''Reform'•
,
b
e req~1s1te, were the question that of the merits or the
.· dem~nts of the ,syst~m as a substitute for the received
spelling.
' :
354· In all ~a~zs, ' pg wever, there must. be at least as
m~ch . k~owl~dge ~of _
a: subject as is necessary bring
~~-at "subject, m the.form in which its treatment is proposed., ~ull! befcire;}_q}!~writer's mind. Preparation less
than this is superfiCial: more may actu'ally be a hindrance; for the mind, like the eye, may read itself blind.
!hus, a. study of ~hakspe re ' s Hamlet for the purpose of
illustrating the state of the English language at a certain
ep_o ch, must include whatever is necessary to accomplish
this purpose: but anything more would be out of unity
The author not only may be a specialist : he often m·us~
~e .
On the other hand , comparatively defined quest10ns may require painfully extended work. The text
of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales offers a diligent scholar
work for many years.

to

19

'

Dr. Holmes's J',femoir of ftfo/ley and Trevelyan's 11.facaulay.

.,.

291

purpose of the composition is only one . or another of the four
possible, the others may be more or , less in.volved. Thus,
Explanation often brings on Argument; nothing (or but little) is
ever accomplished with uninterested or inattentive hearers· and
neither powC:rful arguments nor seductive· motives suffi~e to
enlighten the ignorant or to remove prejudices: ··

II.
THE MODES OF DISCUSSION.

355. The second factor in determining the matter of a
composition is the purpose of the writer ; 1 and this, as it
is always to communicate thought, must be to address
primarily and chiefly either the Understanding, the
Feelings, or the Will. 2 An address to the understanding, however, may present either an intuition, a percep/io11, a conception-in other words, a term~r else a
jzulgmenl. a comparison of terms.' Hence, four Modes
of Discussion ;-(I.) EXPLANATION, which sets forth the
nature of Terms; (11.) ARGUMENT, which " deals with
Jut!gmenls; (III.) EXCITATION, which seek~. to arouse
th~Feelmgs; and (IV.) PERSUASION, which aims at in-

fluencing the Will. 3
~)6. ~iv:eover,

these four i.IoJc~ uf Discussion are related to
othct in the order stateJ; and, when two o r more of them
~.....:c~r i~ :!le s.:ime compos,it!on : t hey must stand in this -c:rder,
('xccp~ in CT:rtain c:tscs to he noted hc1ow. A very little reflectiun
.. ;n prove the tmth of this; for terms can not be compared, until
they 2.re understood, and appeals to the feelings or the wm
C!n b e successful, in minds th:it arc properly constituted, only

t:acl1

after the judgment is convinced. Moreover, the will is most
commonly to be reached only through the feelings; and even
in those cases in which the feelings are appealed to, before the
judgment is convinced, or contrary to conviction, the under~ianding must be at least so far touched as to bring the object

.-.r t:~.c fccl:..;:; (or s0mdhin5

that i~ falsely affirmed to be tha t
n!:-:c.t:r._-! el=::!:-ly before the mind ;:idrlr.::; :~~~d~
357. TL~ p..::.;~itive processes just de~crihed include, also, thtir
U'ypu!:>ii.~, or uei;atives,-the repiacement of a false notion or
judgment by the truth, the a!iaying of feelings already excited,

and the changing of a. determination already i:eached.
· 358. In practice, the processes "of Explanation, Argument,
etc., can never be carried on strictly alone. Even when the
2~

5, 6, above.

• ~ 75, above.

(1.) EXPLANATION.

• cc•

359. Explanation-from the Latin planus, level, plain
-is the process of making intelligible the nature or the
meaning of an object or a word. I~ includes, also , the
converse process of removing obscu"r ity from objects or
words. Another ·ter;m for the same thi1ig is Exposition;
but this word~s ~of_~ formal and technicai than Expla~· nation, and th ~refofe less available for use here. . In this . ·
~· -,.,~use, Explanation h cf~. the same sense as that which it has
in everyday life-the setting out of what a thing is, or
Vlhat a \VOrd means~
360. Th e 'fheme if? Exp1an3tion is ~1v..-ay~ a 7:0:1.1!, the
name of an object of thought. It is prese nted i11tdlig!bly,. to another 1nind, on1y \vhen it is :::.ho\vn I. t.1c'uli}•,
and 2. distin~t!y ; that is, I. when it is separated from
all otlter objects, (as man from ltorse, dog, etc.,) and 2.
when its own separate parts are plainly set forth, (as man
in his essential attributes-rationality, mortalz'lj', de.; m
his component parts-head, tnmk, "limbs, etc. ; or m
other such details.)
36x. The difference between clear and dis/ind prcs :.: ntation
is aptly illustrated by a familiar occurrence ;it dusk. 011 ;1 1:111·11
planted with trees and Lushes, and orn;irnented, j><.: r h:qh, with
statuary, a <l1sta1;t ol.iject is seen that rt::>eu1ule:> a 1llall, Gut

which

may

he a hush

or

a statue.

On

closer inspection it

The object is then clear: for it is entirely, ,
separated from all other objects. But a yet ~arrower examina-~~
proves to be a bush,

tion sl1ows the bush to be a closely trimmed evergreen, 'easily
mistaken, at a distance. and in the dark, for a statue or a man,
Now the object is distinct: not only its class, but its cssenrial
features as of that class, are fully made out. Similarly, the
I

293

Il'>'VENTION.

traveller in the Tyrol spies at a distance an object perched on
the highest point of a rock. At first it seems to be but the topmost crag of a ragged mass of hill; but, as the road come~
nearer, the object is plainly an animal. Next, it is a chamois;
and the delighted tourist t hinks he has seen a real example of
the now rare, if not extinct, mountain goat. Alas! on coming
· closer, his chamois is inde ed a chamois, but one carved from
the solid stone, and se t by some clever hands on an a lmost
inaccessible pinnacle of rock.

362. The intelligible presentation of an objec t of
thought proceeds by two means, -r. DEFINITION, 2 .
EXPLANATION PROPER.
Definition (from the Latin de,
from, a nd finis, a ,limit, or boundary) presents the object
dearly, separating it from all other objects, and setting
its limits or boundaries. Expbnation Proper presents
an object disfinct[y, exhibiting it in its several parts, an<l
giving a full account of these parb by one or more of
several subordinate processes to be d escribed below.
I.

DEFINITION.

363. The most exact DEFINITION is that of a species
by its genus and dijferentia, 1 the so-called '' logical
definition.'' For example; - .
Species.
A whale.
Man

}

is a

Dijferentia.

Genus.

mutilate'

mammal.

{

rational

( 1) Diz•ision or Partition•; :-is, The animal kingdom consists
of R adiates, Mollusks, Articulates, a nd Vertebrates ; The
3:- 0, 'tt:.r.1-' .

•A.t·~-J.:.::r,

L C1xi·c1 I'· 71j.

t H2 \·i n~

v10let; (2) Collzgafwn, the re ve rse of (1); (3) Substitution of
narrative or descriptive phrases or of symbols or names; as
\Visdom leads to virtue and h::ippiness ; Religion is piety; 1 (-1J
The 11'Iethod for Individual Objects; a s , Abraham Lincoln w:1s
the president of the United States wh o issued the E m:mcipati un
Proclamation.-Dy the las t met hod, the i11<l ivicf ual i~ assi;;necl to
its species, as if this were a genus, and so me disti11guis!zing 111ark
is tak en as dijfercntia. Such definitions a re most lik e lugical
definitio ns.

365. D efini tion is controll ed by certain gene ral principles, of th e firs t imp or tance in composition;'(1) A definition sh ould be co-extensi\' e with the obj ects
included in th e t e rm d efi ned : othe rwi se it is too broad or
t oo narrow. For example, to d e fine a horse as ai1 a11i111a!
implies that all -animals are lwrscs; to cle t! ne an a11i111 al ;1-; ;i,
h.~rse im rli es th a t 110!/zin/; 11ot a horse is <111 animc1!. Of C<l\w;c ,
exposition by exemp liti catio11, -s dti11;; furw:\rd the hu~c><: :cs a
type in certain respects of all a nimals,-i s perfectly k;;iti111.tte; 3
but it is not definition . (2) Negative d c ftniti o ns , except u f 1 1c ~a ­
ti ve words and conceptions, are useless. Thus, 11k11 11 n· 11ut
birds is perfectly useless as a definition. (3) D,s:f111itio11s " i11 a
circle," or "in vague, ambiguous, or se nsel ess l:rng ua ge,"
should be avoide d; a s, Life is th e vital force; Poe try is th e stu ff
of which our life is made. (4) A singl e surplu s word i :1 a
definition may imply a fal sehood. For exam ple, The oppo,;ite
sides of a parallelogram are parallel and equal.•

animal.

364. But logical definition is often impossible. Either
the genus to which an object belongs or its differentia is not
known, and the definition is thus left incomplete. Many
simple ideas, color, beauty, goodness, 3 life, etc., defy definition. So, no one has evertold the world wha,telectn•city is.
In such cases, other modes ·of definition must be used ; -

l~

p~ismatic colors. ar~ red, orange, yellow, g reen: blue, indigo,

!i.n s !;i s t~:-irl 0f l~h"' ­

'@ :::/-•\ beluw.

2. EXPLANATION PROPER.

366. Explanation Proper involves one or more of six processes;-5
(1) Narration, "the relation of the particulars of any trans-.

action or event, or of any series of tra nsactions or events;"' as.,
the story of a battl e, a campaign, etc.;
·
(2) Descnption, the enumeration of th e esse11/ial qualifil's of. '.
a thin g or species; as , a ske tch (in lan~uage ) of a battle-fide!,
an account of a chemical s ubstance, etc. ;
1

Atw ate r , p . 79.

1 A1·1•t~11di.x 1 p. 329.

295

INVENTION.

(J} Divisiun, the separation of a class into its specific parts~
35\. .-.Wis into radiates, mollusks, de. ,- 1
( 4) .Partition, the separation of an individual into its

com-

~ parts;

as, a ship into sails, tnasts, hull, etc.;
(5) .Ex~mplijication, the e xhibiting of a member or of certain
_ ~ of a class as representing the whole class; for exa mp ile, the horse as representing all animals,!6} Comparison and Contrast, the exhibiting of an object b y
1...,";;;:w ;J:; ~:r. e. rcsG1::l:!<1n[L'S or t he dij]l·r cn ,:-c:; Li.:tWi..'.i..: n it and anoth e r
~._'-rt u r other obj ects of t he same class; as, Chris t 's parable
oil t.\e .sv;,.;n .s,·,·d and t h e .sj>vl.:.:n 'ii.lord; S t. Paul's a n tithesis
11,!cC)fJ/cf.:rj\ fu ill• a nd 'i.Ji ur/.:s.
fe- The <list inctiv n l>e t ween Divis ion a nd Par titio n is m ost
1:'~~77~ -! 'j ~

Py I )r . P•.._t\V~ T_ t-r. 2 'Th ~ d:-.z·is:nr: ( t ~ ~ r? :-tss Cl 't: ! c: c- ~ )
be pr~dic; t led ~ •f t""' ~ Ch of its snh0n1in ~~h" cl ~ ~~ f" S : ~ ~ .
_~_:._;_ r:: .::·:· ~/:: s ~~: ,_· a ;':-1) 1-:J ! :. : t i :•: f ::r. .'°!.': JJ: (ti i~ i1;J i,.idt!:il s c p : ~ r 2-:::'i ir:r q its curn pun e nt p ;trh) c111 no t be pred i,·;1 tcd o f o n e o f
1::=:-:.s::: ;~ ::-::~\...s. ~)~ nls ~ t r•: n 1_1 t ~l s/: :~1-i: u n ly t he sun 1 t utJ.l of th e c un 11:.- .:-:·:=::: ~~ ::rts I n :d~c s tl1 c p,-:rl:ian:. 3

~ ~;.-~-~.-s

1

1

~:L Of the six processes defined in

§ 3GG, Narrati o 11
t hough t hey present the object through
m puts, p resent it as a wlw!e; D ivision and Pa rtit ion,
cm the other hand, exhibit t he parts as p arts,. wh ile Exemp!ifa::ition and Comparison and Contrast set forth a
ci:araden 'sti'c part (or parts) ,as a m eans to d esired
lmo.-Jeoge. The six processes, therefore, are in one
Tiew- three pairs of processes, and will firs t be so disc:nssed. Further remarks on them as single processes
will follow.
369. ( 1) Narration and Description are (to borrow a
Greek word) antistrophic: where each is weakest, th e
other is most strong. (a) A narrative deta ils at leng th
a co:use of events, shows a series of dissolvin{( v iews ·
pnsen ts ever changing scenery ;- functions ~hat Ian ~
g_'.;age is especiall y fitted to perform . A cl cscr iptio n, on
tZlt orhcr hand, exhibits a stale of things, photograµhs

~Description ,

05

0. tills point Day is wrong, a nd is not foll owed here.

its object at a de.finite moment of time and in a fi x ed
expression, offers to view scenery that is always the
same ;-functions fulfilled by language only with' diffi culty
and when used by a master ; for the picture that a description would call up can be only sugge2te~ in wo ~ds".
can not be fully exhibited. · (b) The historia n ~ how ever,
has a multitude of d etails to set forth , d etails th:tt arc
often contf!/ca!cd to a · high de:gTc:c an<l 1-i;cr/;lc.r:r'il,i.,r- to
both writer an<l reade r ; whi le f lu: 1u-cessary kng !li Clf :i.
n ::i rra tiYc, ( fo r it n1ust t ell c·.;cry thing, ~nd th:lt con1plctciy,) o ften endangers its s uc cess. In a CO !\il ('ct ccl
stor.y, sub.:i c q ucn t Jct:\ib, intcilig ii.i1c o nly i n t he l i ~: Ll oi
those that have p receded them, fail to produce the ir
cks irce.l e ffe c t , if t h e'. p rccc d ii:g- dctJ !b L:<\~ l"~·u1 L J ~ ­
g ntt cn; wh ii e, if the n:ur:tt iv e rc pc:t h itself :1t t li c ~c
critic:tl points, it becom es prolix. T he" word -1 ,:1i 11tu,"
on th e o ther hand , has f<' ii.!<'r dd£uls tu exh ib it;" tl tcsc
de tails a rc com m only less complicated, and th ercfon:, less
perplexing ,· while the necessary (ce rtain ly, the dts irn bit')
brevity of a d escription enables even a hearer to k eep it
well in hand. \ Vords, it has been said , ca n only su gges t
a p icture: hence, in a descriptio n, they need never be
man y, if well-chosen. (c ) F or th is reaso n, Na rratiun is
especially the work of the writer; D escription, of th e
painter or the sculptor. L §lnguage has its limitatio ns,
just as p ainting and sculpture have .theirs. 1 · But it is·
important not to infer too much. Just as a picture may
suggest a long story, if a critical point in th e talc be
taken for representation, so description may be elTcc ted
in words, if the words a re aptly chosen. O n .th e othe r
h and, th e phrases ((wo rd -pain ting'' and ' ' hi stor ic d ric-'
ture, " u nless understood in a very moderate sen se , are, .
actual cont radictions in terms,- too oft en the c;u1t of
men who forget that the chief excelle nce of a com JHbi tion
is its express ing worthy tho ugh t, no t its bea ring t:mdry
lg8, above,

'J i

l

Il'.'VENJION.

NARRATION.

ornaments, and who believe (or affect to believe) that a
page may glow like the canvas of a Tintoretto, a canvas
read like a page from Macaulay.
370. (2) Division and Partition must be .c arefully distin2"llished. The one is applied to classes of objects; the
b
• 1
other,
tu iJZdividual objects. Classes are e1t
ler genera
(higher classes) or speai:s (lower classes); the essential difference or differences bet\\'een any species and its
nearest genus constituting its tliffcrentia. Of course, the
same class may be at once genus to a species below it
and species to ~ genus above i~. Natural historians,
philologists, many writers on subjects that require .a nd
admit of systematic classifications, have used other terms,
.f~i;zgdom, Class, On:jer, Vane_ry, Fami(Y, Group, etc.;
but these are nothing more than genera or species,
according to the relationships in which they stand.
· 37I. • (3) Exemplification and Comparison and Contrast agree in always presenting single parts of oLjeds.
Further, Contrast is only Comparison by negatives; so
that the double process of Comparison and Contrast is,
in fact, but one process,- a double mode of Explanation ,
not two separate modes. Of course, in all cases, objects
compared must be also different, objects contrasted must
be also alike. Otherwise, the objects . in the one case
would be the same, in the other case utterly without
relationship. The ground of the process is in the part
or p arts that the objects have in common.

History (b) rests upon (a), and both ·it and (a) are presupposed in (c). Further, as (a) is the form natural to
the narratives of children, so it is the for!? ·of the ca~li~t
histories; and as (b) and (c) correspond to a proportionate mental development, so they are the forms of later
and the lat~st histories. As examples, Prof. Day cites
Herodotus, Gibbon, and Guizot: 'other examples, and
all of histories otGreece, are Thucydides, Grote, and
Curtius. ·
. _ ..·..
.
373. In any fomi/Narration obeys the following laws,
extensions of C::a1,1.()_1}:_(2) of the ·whole Co~pos~t.ion; 1-

(r.)

NARRATION.

372. A narrative may follow (a) the strict order of
lime, (b) the order of clzange in th_e Subject (c) that of cause
- and effect; and, "though the several forms may be united
in the same composition, one or another will predominate
and give ·character to the narrative. History of the first
form is Chronicles or Annals; of the second form, Proper
History; of the third form, Philosophical Hi'story. Propet

.

~~~

~-~~ t"

I

374: (a) The ~verits '._harrated must commonly be set forth in
. the- order chosen;-whether of time, of change, or of cause and

·· t:Ir~t.

I

·

375. But (a) "A r ecent state.of things more familiar to the
persons addresse_d ,'' may be first exhibited, and then "the
previous steps by \1-·hich that state was arrived at.'' The hi~wry
of Language is a notable example of this law. The p!iilulu~ist
begins with what is about him, and, from this prcs<..'.nt, Ly a
careful comparison of its several parts with one anotliu-, cu11-.
structs the past. So, Morley introduces his .First Slc!d1 o.f
English Literature with the following significant words ; - ''As
soon as we can feel that we belong to a .free counby with a
noble past, let us begin to learn tl1rough what endeauours and
to wl1at end it is free.'' 2
376. ({3) The complication of details is often best unraveled
by following each stream of events as if it were a separate
narrative; care being taken, however, to keep the S<..'.veral
streams united by bringing on each, in its turn, to the gr<:at
epochs of the story. This plan is especially useful, wl1c11 th e
narr;itive exhibits "a principal action with sub.o rdin;\tcs, \'
sever;\] "concurring streams of nearly equal importance," tli~
state of parties, or a "plurality of departments." For exam-'..'.
pie, the history of England is necessarily complicated by the
entangling of the nation in foreign affairs; and. the reader's
attention must often be diverted fi;om England to the f~rei&"?

l~ 289, alJove.-A• ~tated here, the Jaws are condensed from Bain's extended
11.ccount b~ the process (Am. Ed., pp. 166 ff.) Fresh e:x:a~ples, however, have
been taken in nearly all cases;
.
J rage l._;Th.e italics are inserted here.

•

DESCRIPTION.

INVENTION.

aa:-~ ~~~&~tin:;.e~ :::2cGS2.ry-4 Th~_~s, ~!:1--:--:1111~y,s: first t'-.\"O ch:ip! ..~ -:--:-nt;iin a sumnurv of English history from the Roman
c•Ju..~ vf B~it:::.in to the Death of Charles II. !n 1685; Froti<ie's
c- ~~~:: !Lis concerned ·with 11 the L~st \"ears of the Adn1inis-

years, we should find ourse lves in a country utterly new to
Rip ~an Wink!:, who feli asleep when his townsmen w~;~
th.rowmg up their hats and drinking their bumpers to good
Kmg George, and awoke when a·generation that k'new him not
was shouting the names of men and parties u~kn~wn to h.
d.d
fi
.
•
im,
1 no~ md h1msel_f in a land more strange.
The area of the
republic would shnnk to less than half its present extent. The
number of the States would diminish to thirteen, nor would
ma~y of them be contained in their present 'limits or e:dii!.Jit
their present appearance. Vast stretches of upland , which are
now an endless succession of wheat fi elds and com fields and
orchards, would appear overgrown with dense forests abandone
d to SZlVage be.1St5 anrJ y ..........i 1nnrµ
-1.ll C ''<.1''
h~m ...... .... S,.,",,....,..-p
........... 0.... mon
......... .
lets of a few fishermen would mark the sites of wealthv havens
now bristling- with i1murnerabi e masts, and the g-re~t cn 1,, 5
- t~ 1cmscl_ves would dwindle to dimensions scarce - exceeding
tli 0..'.)C Ul surne ruJ~ :-~etllt: incut f..ir tu U1c west uf the Colorado
river. Of th e inv('ntions and discoveries which abridg-c d!~t:rnce

C -..:-=-~~-:_ p<~ i:1ts in hi ~ s t n ry tn rcsu;i.·ey the ground p:-1~:-Ji::d O\·e-r .

culture , which save l:ibor, which tra!lsmi t speech, which t;~~ 11

landls concerned. In each case, the points of divergence and ol
retmn must be clearly indicated, and every other means be
takez. to notify the reader of the exact relation held by the
su~ate story to its principal.-The history of the United
S taJtesbefore 1789 must trace thirteen streams of colonial history
Oo1rimc side by side.-Either English or American politiczl
histo f}" is largely a 6tory of the struggles of two great bodies of
the g:-eop.e (or of ~heir leaders in or out of the national legislaturej each t o secure the adoption of its policy by the natio:1al
a~.-uation .-Th e Departments of Foreign Affai rs, of the
lntericrE. of the Treasury, etc. , are convenient heads under
ui-kb w group the history of an administration.
3Ti- (b} . .A.. brief surn.!T:ary (risu1i:!; recapitulation:) of antec elli=m events often forms a proper introduction to a narrative,

r

,-- ~ - ~ : ' ~ :·r

cJ

F r t_·: · 1n. ~ :~ ·.-~ (,·(,;':~ re! .._c;.~t·!cli

l/i.s t.' ry c:•;:-r_'--l

""'.
(:) .:\ n ~trL tti\- e n::-~y Cl1nsist of a scr1 .:::; of rross--sc.-!:';.:i:. S
of i!he theme, made at different epochs of its existence, conr.{_-rted by a thread of slory, aml each delineated as a sfJ.tus quo
raili"'~

i

r•
t

than as a part of a movement or action. Or, in o rdirnry
nairmil."e, such a cross-section may now and then be introduced,
in ader to keep the reader aware of the state of affairs to
which the story has brought him, and from which he must make
a z.._~ start. Froude and Macaulay again furnish examples ; 1
a::;-"'!. nea!'"er home, Prof. Mc Master's account of "the State of
.:\'::! ":~ ca in r7S4" i~ a brilli:mt specimen.• A s hort ex tract
f~::=:. t~is ;<ccot:nt will show e\·en more dearl y th~ m" thud
~<?.d

to ;-

n-r:~;: ;-'.. medcans
~i"!!A OOnfirt:-si

v.·ho, to"J.·ard the close of

r78 _~.

ce1ebr2ted

with (_-:;.u1nc.u1, {tlld \.vilh iJeH - rin:;;ri1ut. iln: a t::k1·1 uwl-

cdgcauent of indtpen<lcn~e an<l the return of ~c:e; Hvcd in a
"-eiYdifferent country from that with which their descendants
are familiar. Indeed,_could we, under the potent influence of
scme magician's drugs, be carried back through one hundred
•Fmude,ch. i.; Macaulay, ch. iii.

•Jdm Ba<:b Mc Master, A History o/ tlu People o/ '"" Chn1ed Stain, ch. I.

\;:11ir,ta:H~
" i"i-•
· ,
••• ~!
u:d:1li.:lt C 1 lf11C,

the

d:1:- k 11 c:--;s

-h " - i ,

_

.~ -

.i

,

.

.

.•

\\· 1:1C:; t:Xtel1u CU!li!l!el"t ' cJ \Vllt l'li (lH_i ;\'""Ii ·

of t he n: ~-~ht into t ile 1

c1 f

tl it'.

) \\ .\ ;. ; 1

a Lc \·i:d c p:1 in , \\· ~ 1ich dc:strvy l:bc~L.Jc 1 \1,l 1ii_l1 1l gL~t..:il c\. c ii ti:i ·
inflrn1iti cs of a g e, not U!h_.'. cxi~-;tt.:d.
}.' 1Jl t \l! l 'X;1..:; still :t I11) ;· tr;iit

painter, Fitch anJ Rumsey haJ 11ut yet Legun to !:>tudy the steamu15illc, \\'l1ilrn.:y liaJ nul yd g-"1w up t<l colicgc . I lowl" ~Pd
f'>lorse, l\!cCormick and Fairb:rnks, Goodyear and Colt , Dr.
l\lorton and Dr. 13ell, were yet to be born.'' 1
(2.) DESCRIPTION.

319· Description, like N;irration, h;is three forms: it
may exhibit (a) strictly th e spacial parts, ({>)the part-; of
a sub;;tincc,-c-;pcci:tl ly, ib attrilrntc:-; , -:t:i rcpi t::ocn'.i1 ' :
th . tl ::;uL:sL.u1ce, (l-) the ~uL~tJ.ncc: it~ e1f in its 1:cl~tlo:~::; t~
i:::::; p:t r ts nr ;1~ rr i h :1r c:~ . Ft ~ ;-': 1 ,: · ,> ;1;1 t~1re,' ~-, ~ -~·
concur in a single C(":r:1positi~-:-:n ; ~nd they are rc!:~ted tc:
each other as are the corresponding forms of N arrJ.tion.' .
380. The Caaon of Method has here the following"
applicatio11s ; -

.,

lVol. i. p.

2,

1:

1 ,l .

INVENTION.

.DESCRIPTION.

:;Sll- (a ) \Vhen. addressed only to the 11nderslanding, ~-hen

Untended simply to present intelligible a~~ (as far as pos_:;1ble}

a>mplete ideas, without regard to the vividness of the p1~ure
cs a ,.-bole,. Description may proceed by a mere enumera/1011 of
the parts or attributes. In this way_ a text-book of natural
hb-torF describes animals or plants, an 1m·entory _or a _catalogue
ckscn°lJe!i the objects it names, and even the didactic poet,1
,...,...lcgt-1.I•
r. r instance --describes a fine cow or a handsome colL
0
:;S:!. (b) \Vhen addressed to the imagination: _D~cnptwn
must p w-o duce illusion; that is, it must call up a ':?.v1d picture of
tbe oln."Ct described, and thus enable the reader; Ill lus absorbing c~usness of the presence of this picture. •. to ~or~ct tl~e
....o rd s employed to summon it. Hence, such .a .qc~cnpu on will
al" -ays be brief and suggestive, never enumeratn·e; for · language. ill-fitted to description,2 embarrasses .rath~r 'th~n I?romotes illusion, imprisons rather than sets free the 1magmat1on.
H oma- fur example, portraying the divinely beautiful Helen,
for- wb~ sake two Greek worlds were convulsed with strife,
speaks o nly of her coming to the walls of Troy to see the battle,
--d r.! t inP. in1oressions her lJ~auly Jllade UH the o!d I1'i.C ~ ....-ho
;~~fu~r;:- Im~gination does the ;est. s
t

.

•

•

"' Small blame is theirs if both the Trojan knights
And brazen-m:iiled Achaians have endured
So lo11g so many evils for the sake
Of that one woman. She is wholly like
In feature to the deathless goddesses."•

11

t ~

369,

•Iliad, iiL 156, translated by Bryant. (Lessing, xxi.)
~' -

.. In Belmont is'a.'l~dy richly left;
And she is /air and, fairer than that word,
Of wondrous virtues:
l !~r n~m~ is P0rti3., 1w!l!!°n~ u::~!.. r:..·;;:,!:..:::!
To Caio's daughter, Brutus' Portia:
Nor is the ~ide world Ignorant of her worth,
For the four winds blow in from every coast
Renowned suitors, and her sunny lod:s
Jiang on her temples like a golden fleece;
Which makes her seat of Belmont Colchos' strand,
And many Jasons come in quest of her."2
4

Nothing more: th ~ curious reader must draw his l:icly of
Belmont from these hints. Even Portia's ..:harddef is Lltus
d e lineated ; 11

nothin.c; und ervalued

Tu C a to 's daughte r ) Br ut u.:-.' l'urti.i. i"
Ii the {uli sum of me
Is sum of something, \\'hid1 l1J k1 m iu g:r'-'S ~,
Is an unles.rnn~d girli unschoord; unpracfl'.r,.tf. 11 .J
1

So Bassanio's ambassador is pictured ;"A day in April never came so sweet,
To show how costly summer was af hand ."

I

And so Edmund is described in King Lear.~ Gloucester,' Ed-.
mund's father having said, "I have often blushed to acknowledge

aDOVt!.

·~ .. a passing mention that she had white arms and beautiful hair."
(Less.iiag")

unartificial, untlnted, of its natural color,' adding brightness to
the brightest cherry, as if one should dye.ivory with resplendent
purple. Her neck long, of dazzling whiteness; whence she
was called the swan-born, beautiful Helen." 1 · The passage
fills eleven fifteen syllabled lin~s ; and reading' it, s~ys Lessing,
"is like seeing stones rolled up a mountain, on whose summit
they are to be built into a gorgeous edifice; but which all roll
down of themselves on the other side. \Vhat picture d ocs this
crowd of words leave behind? How did Helen look? Nu two
readers out of a thousan~ would receive the same impression
of her."
·.,
383. (c) Illusion. is pro~~ced by mentioning certain individualizing or associated cir~'41~slances, thoughts or feelings, and then
leaving /he reader to h!'f;i_self. Thus (as has been seen) I !omer
describes Helen; thus Silakspere leaves his readers to construct
_ll.,is c]lar:icters. Of Port1~., for instance, he says;-

0

.. \Ym! can give a more vivid idea of her beauty," adds Les.,;,.,. .. tliran that that cold-blooded age should deem it well
""'~~It tlre war which had cost so much blood and so m a ny
,__,_,...." " Constantinus l\fanasses," o n the other h ;rnd, who
:.:·;;~~~tt~
---,e- a d o rn his ha1d f' h rn nic1e \vi th a picture of I-i c lcn,
enumer~es the points of her beauty as mig-ht a colorer of
nh.~~.!~~hs ;-" She was a woman right beautiful, with fine
~hr~~. of clearest complexion, beautiful checks; comely,
with Jar:,e, full eyes, with snow-white skin, quick-glancing,
graceful; a grove filled ·with graces, fair-armed, voluptuous,
breath~ beauty undisguised. The complexion fair, the cheek
:rosy. the countenance pleasing, the eye blooming, a beauty
I~. iii . 51, 79.

JOI

l Cited by Lessing, Laocoon, xx.
"
'The Jllt·rcl1m1t o/' Venice, I. i. 161.-Portia elsewhere adds of hcrsdf, "By
my troth, N<;_rissa, my lzt//e body is a weary of this great world."
'
6.J. I. 10.
1 lll. ii. 159.
.
.*II. ix. 93.
.

DESCRIPTION.

303

INVEN.T ION.

302

.
" can not wish the fault undone, the issue
h"11 "Kent rep11es,- 1
.
1:•
.
p op ,, Later Edmund claims for himself as
of it bemg so r er.
'
h"
ct dimensions, as generous a mind, as true a shar>:, as is
comp::i ,
d
en "more coITTp'()Sition and fierce quality than
brother s, an ev
r
,, 1 0
·1 .... c a
.
u
f whole trilhe of io ps.
ne conce • ~~
go to the ma k m..,, 0 a
· · d ·n ·
b t
d me strong intellectually able, high-spmte v1 am; u
h an so
'
'
d . ~L • R"'ination does the reGt.
Skikspc-r~ onl y starts the rea er, ":'e 1~1 "".
.
• ,..
_
(d ' I n suc h pass:iges, ll1 us1on 1s dispelled almost b1 '"
.,S-t.
J
·
•
h
ff t • ·· i1.,.d · m;iny
t . i:·h. 1\dJ but a Wl>ru, anci. it e c ~c ts spo ~ ,
.
~ :.t .on ~ 1 wo rds veil the p icture in a cloud that even the m ost
<l0C1l 1
J d
h
ti
1
Yi\·id inn;;in;ition can n ot '.)enc:rate: 11: ec , w e1:. 1.e co'. ·
•
1 •. -,.• 1 bv •!,e wntt:r ic; -0fft>ns1·,e or horrible, su ch
cc:t-; t 10 I1 c t "'t, cc:.
- l
,--L.,
• ) - r the othl·rT,,;, ·o '" arc m :::ide afo r.::th0.ign .., 1-. or ~- r tu ,cm~ e
au~ ..1 !.- ·
, i..
k d E- 1 f
wi"e unendurable effect.= Th.us, the croo.--.... ac re
. <CL 0 Gloucest~r paiats his ovin Jl( r\r:a;t ;u

I

.

•

•

•

•

'

1

•' r. ,:: l . t :---.;l ~ :--. ::: n •_'t _th ,-r/· ··.l _r; ,. r .s/> o -rti:1 t n«:Is,
!'j.-, y- ff! ari' to l .. ,,,.. ,-t tllL um .... 1 ~~.; : ...:J.°.:.:.."!:,;;: -g f ,;_ss; _
l ~io~t .a.rn r:.:.J.dy s:.. ..la~ ~··d, a,:i'J ;:en! lr·e·s m:i_i··s(f'
f~> st"';d b . :f.u .-~ u. ;.i...•unt._)n Cr"'.!;!:·r.; n_t.•u_/·h ~·

respectable for any loose doings of any . sort," or- as the prospective home of the retired seaman, sets the reader's imagination to work; but what of the rest of this paragraph?
"Nowelhurst Hall looks too ·r espectable for ariy loose doings
of any sort. It sfands well away from the weeping of trees,
like virtue shy of sentiment, and therefo re has all th e wealth of
foliage shed, just where it pleases, around it. From a rising
ground the house has sweet view of all th e forest chan;;es, and
has seen three hundred sprirgs wake in glory, and th ree hun ·
<lred autumns wanirig. Sprcadi11g aw:1y from it \1 ickr, wider
slopes 'the chase,' as they call it, with great trees stretching
paternal arms in the vain attempt to hold it. For \\vu months of
the tw eh·c, when the heather is in Llossom, all tlut c!nsc i:; a
glo wing reach of ;un;iranth and puq.\e. Then it fo1 de~ aw«y tv
pale orange, dim . olive, and a rusty-brown when C hris tmas
__ !)hu~ders over it; and .51) ti)rvughuut y1_:u:::_~ green ;tnd n: :_.si_·t ,
ti il the July tint CU!llc·s li :1ck a;_-;:1i11. S"mdin:•_·s i ~t lite: cpri:1~;

morning the Llack cucks- ' hcatlip u ulL:>,' as they call tLcm·· lift their 11ecks in the livening hc:atlicr, ,,·.1.c:ll the ir ; u;;L11[;
bre ;ist~ ,

~i~ );.~: "~,"~.~~.~~,':,'.'.' ;'~. :;:· :.r:~.~::;,~: ,~'.; :~,~'::

anct crov..· for their riv.11s to srJ:1:- v;ith th c: :-:1

chase the whiskers of the curling- wt_><) cl
\~;ith

c"111Tr.~c

J·" ;1,,1.

t ;1:::

int•\ ;, ,;i:rnt

\·:1ryin~

D ·: '.u ~· :-:1'd, ~:::'..:1:s.~1 · r1, Sl' :: ": b -:f:::i: •.: r.1 y ti:-:-:~
] :· :·• t~1is :- . :- c : ~: 1 ~ :::<" ·'.; ·l. ~ --· ar c i · h:,:f I:1J.d•: t!;:'

bc:1rd, tufted here and there

And that so lamely and urofasOiouaLie,

feathering-, coying-, and darkening- he re and there, until it reach

~l

· l1: · <:f:,:. i ..:~! 1.1: :_: , r sI'!;:!~ 11.]!h '"'"'° ,~
I,~in th i s \\· 1._·:tk 11 i~1 i:i stimt· uf pt:act:,
}Live no delit:;:h t tu pJ ss 1way t he t ime

but f,.,)r

tb ~ DL1~!1

of it 1 S\;:t: ll ir1;

\-i (_'.\1,·s of :1

;1nd \\·;: \·i : 1

1

11; _. ~

r 11-1: ::·_·::s;
. :;-__ : . ::/, -

the sih·cr 1nirror of tl1t: spre:adir:~: sea . i\nd the .St.:~ lilL:.11, l( 1uk ing upwards fro !ll the w:ir-ship hound f, lr lmli:1, Jc,uki11; !..1ck

\\'hy,

Unless to spy my .slw,duw ~-n iht J un
And descant on mine uwn .Ufonnit_y." 1

The words in italics alone help the reader to conjure up the
rinnstn who~e crim es form the story of the play: the rest

at his native l:ind, for the last of a ll time s it may be, O\"t:r Lrush·
wood waves, and billows of trees, and the long heav e of the·
gorse-land: 'Now, that's the sort of place,' he says, as the
cli st:1nt g:1hlcs list en: 'the right sort of be rth for our j•illv t1ld

:-~t:r\- c. c1;1L· t r; lireJk the ot li crw~St~ offcn~ivc i1npress:u11.
1
. ) ' J- l i":" n<-~e, thi_· L'.ilur1· , -,f n_:;:::y_ ~lcscr_ip :in1~ ~ ,i: 1. n • \> l _:~

~td111;r-:d ,

and poems. At Lest they are but ta:tht~l copies 01 :ne1r 011g1nals, interesting enough as such, but destitute ~fthe p1ctu:esque.
At other times, they fall ~s flat as a handbill announcmg the
personal details of a lost <;hild or a stray horse. M?st readers
skip them, impatient of the delay they cau~e; ~nd this, althou~h
a wide-spread opinion of their excellence mclmes these readers
to believe themselves guilty in so doing, Mr. R. D . Blackmore,
for ex~mple, is famed for his descriptions both ~f forest .an? of
sea-shore scenery . .Yet even with really suggestive descnpt1ons
he mixes dreary inventqries. Nowelhurst_Hall, as a house" too

S o, writers of a faf higher reputation err in the same way;- ·
"The Faun is the marble image of a young man, lea ning his
right arm on the trunk or stump of a tree ; one hand . hangs (.•
carelessly by his side; in the other .he holds the fragm ent of a ~ -­
pipe, or some such sylvan instrument of music. His· only
garmGnt-a lion's skin, with the claws upon his shoulder-falls_
halfway down his back, leaving the limbs and entire front uf
the figure nude. The form, thus displayed/is m<irvellously
graceful, ,but has a fuller and more rounded outline, mon!"flesh,

lKing LeiJ:r, l. ii. 7.

s Lessing, xx.ill.

•Richard 111., I. i. 14.

;u1d

111e

tlr~ - 111 ( ·r:t;:1~t_ )~ :1s

1 Cradock

f()r hi--; hutlL·r,
tlit:y (L - :-.. ~r\ · c s .' '' 1

l'.'owell, ch. i.

"' ·

.

DESCRIPTION.

INVENTION.

r

Cl:'..cll>'l"&l' r'"P

~:i~ '~~;~~ ·.,:.~;~·:;;;,:.i:~~~'~'~,~c"'i via" a kindl • sc;;ti;:~1~::i~ tu.~ ;;.rl!s

iir as if its substance \•le.re w·arm to the touch, and imbue<l ·.vith
~al life. It comes very close to some of our pleasantest
'.S}-mpathis .l ' 1

.

\Yh;it i& 1 tloo::s on~ wh..:l has ne ver h eard of a fa1rn get of th1s
S:t..ai.ut ? _Aud <lvc..-> n o t L:.ach I!lan '.vho h~s l:cJ.r d of ~ nd cu n -

f'teiv ed a iaun sim piy repiace the printe<l words with his uwu
J'k ~· io u sl F i.::n;:igined id e a ? Such d escript io ns m:i y some ti mes
be nece5.Slr).; • but they _a dd nothin g to the novel as a work of
art.
386. E ·~-en though most strongly tempted to inventory-descrip1:ion, on·t' writer 3 has set a good example in resisting the
t:ernptafa:n ;"Rut, zfte r all, the great wonder, the glory, of these Pom p e ia n
houses ~ in their frescoes. If I tried to give an idea of the
lu.xury OJicolor in Pompeii, the most gorgeous adjectives would
be as poorly able to reproduce a vivid and glowing s ense of
those hi:rs as the pho tography which now copies the drawing
of the d-te0rations; so I do not try."
387. fJ) Descriptions of the "inve ntory" kind, however, are
useful in many subjects, and often necessary. They properly
begin w~ an outline, (com:prehensive state ment, general pla n,}
the d etai's of which are to be fiTied in afterwards. This outline
may eve11;rise to the picturesque; for it may serve, as does the
plate t h'2! accompanies and illustrates the text, to present the
descrip~ as a whole.
For example, Hawthorne, in the
passage flUOte d above, doubtless believed a detaile~ picture of
1 Ha-...-tl:nme,

he

were

and less 0 heroic muscle than the old sculptors
wont to
assign to dieir types of masculine beauty. The character of
the face corresponds with the figure ; it is most agreeable in
mmitline aim! features, but rounded and some.what voluptuously
dei.--elope<!. especially about the throat and chin ; the nose is
:'l!m!OSt s t 1ra.ight, but very slightly curves inward, thereby
a..-n·uirin u imn indescribable charm of geniality and humor. The
-....
b
.,
mouth wiilh its full yet delicate lips, s eems so nearly to sm1 e
~.-~~~t
forth a resoonsive
smile. The whole
- •.fi-,. ••<>-,. ttl!11:1t
-- - it- c;:i.lls
..
~1'5_t=. 1 ~-~1r~it_e anything else that ever wa:s wrou.;;hl iu Utdl
m :T1tit?-.fi .1l ofmarble--con\'C\"S the idea of an amiable and
;~~:i·~r't2~~;e: ~asy, mirthful, ~pt for jollity, yetnot incapable
- j.
•
. I. , I \ , . !) " ' ' ~. ·
lt j.; i
I n r :cz c L: : ~: ;l t

'The Marble Faun, ch. i.

aw. D _ l!IGWells, ItalianJounuys, p. 99.

the Faun n:ce.ssary; as, equally without doubt,
believed the
many descnpt1ons of his romance essential to its local col ·
But to l" ht th
d
.
onng.
. ,
tg en e rea er's task, he sets out the object fully in
his first sen~;nce,-" the ma~ble image . of yo°'ng man .. : •
figure nude, -and ~~en fills m the details. Indeed it is only
these first sentences ' that aid the imagination: th~ rest may
addre:55 the unde~standing, but they _a dd nothing, perhaps, to
th_;_ p1ctu~e. So, ~n. the ~ollowlng description of a portrait of
Eu111und ::>penser,' the wnter possiblv had no ,,1t,,.nnt: .. ~ . 1-- ...

a

I

I

ittt1'lul-...~
••,..~t:...., ..... ,...,..JL t .
:
· .. ·: -.................. .,..__,uu\.
... _ -~·-~ ....... GH'-'~uv1a.. u uvw Ji.if an artist pa1nt1n g- fn__
;n1 tli !s d':'~CriPtlon \.\lOUid fPprnr111 r..- tho ",..;,..,.i'"'"1.

".Shor:

c~rling-l~~lr:~~fuii~o';~·~~~~.,~h~~ut

after the pattern ·

o f T.. or(: 1 .. ,.::1,_~\__st~_· r'::;, c!usc -c!if ip;' (l hc~·t: i l, it·.·: t';y c\· ~ · t;r~-1 ·.\., ; 17 -. d
UI~dcr t nc n1 t huu.c; h tful L r U\\"H eyes. v.·Lu~L: UiJjH-r ~' Vt-4ji,i...; u 'i.-.i.--.·h
them d:-c:im~:_y .d·J WH; ~~ lu:ig- a~d straight n~s~,-- str~1i~i~- d'e\:~}~
,

.•• ope~, answering to a long an<l somewhat spare face, with a wellfo rmed sensible-looking forehe;id; a mouth alm ost uu:;curcd
hy t_he moustache, buf still shmd ng !;t t l1er full lips, d c;-; o:i:; ;_;fecl mg, \'.' l'l l s ~ t tu~cthcr, su th:it the warmth of f,;eli llg sliall
not run n ot, with a touch uf sadne!:>s in the m."
3SS. ( c -) \\"h e re a pi ctu re is tuu e xkn dcd for prc sc11t.tt ic• 11 on
a smgli: cani..:as, a succession oi views may be brought for wa rd,
a sort of panorama or series of dissolving- vi e ws. Th is m ·.:th od
o~ dc~:ripti?n has been aptly call ed "the traz·e!!cr's p,1i1t! o.I
view, and ts much used. Its ad\·an tagc is in its comlJ i11i11cr
the vividness of picturesque description with the spcci;d fitn cs:
of lang uage to narrate . The plan has be en su ccessfu lly
pursued by l\I. Taine in his Tour tlzro11glz /!1c Pyrozas ; "The carriage leaves Eaux-Bonnes at dawn. The s un is·
scarcely yet risen, and is still ·hidden by the m o unt ains. Pale _
rays begin to color the mosses on th e western declivity. Th ese
mosses, bathed in dew, seem as if awakening under the first
caress of the day. Rosy hues, of an inexpressible softness,
rest on th e summits, then steal down along the slopes. One ,
could neve_r have b elieved that these gau nt old creatures were-~
capable of an expression so timid and so tender. The lig-ht ~·
broadens, heaven expands, the <iir is filled with joy and li fe. A '
bald peak in the midst of the res t, and darker than they,
stands out in an aureole of flame. All at once, between two
serrate points, like a dazzling arrow, streams the first ray of
the sun."
1 G.

W. Kl tchin, Clarendon Press. Edition of Svens_e r's Faby {}uu•ce.
20

',

t_f;;:~~~;;;~~~~ffz:~:~ _
307

~
Sdisequent sections descnl>e the country beyond Pali\, and
l1'nr: towDs of Coarraze, Lesttelle with its chapel, Saint _Pi€,, ~nd
L~- Here and there :appears a thread _of narraU.v•~ like
t!ine ~1 sen\tence in the para;igraphquoted; butoftenertbemere
:mit'lirion of :a new place kef1PS up the sense or movemenL
· ffeJj. (h) I)escripti?n is often im'?lved in 0th.er kinds off cro_m."' narrative may be simply a stnng of bead-like
Jl<-~00r-.
4.sim:iptions upon a slender thread of story ; an ar&':m.enl may
.,.,. ~dered more convincin~ by a vivid presentation off the
;;-~ to \li>ilich reference is made; while, in appeals t<>. the
:-... ..; -:.. :- ~, ir c-ftDrts t o a:--u u se 1!-?e v..'t~1 ~ t..!e:-- c ri p tiuHs- vf ti H_~ '-.}~~-J -~- C t.5
~~n --,. u r of t h e en d ~-; p-;-opo~--. (rtl often co nstit ute li.h ".: v-·h(11e

,-, ~4

:r:t

:.- ~ - l~xsr;i'!cs_ ::ir_,.;

'fain".'',; f'_u ,·11C<'S: ju~t \i.:c~: '. \\>:i~:.u '~
~---&~~-rt'""'; n ~J\.·-s.cnpti..:H1 :.;f L1e xn1,.;,r c.ler ui 1lr. \ ~lH ~ t.: . -3.•. ~>-Jcn1 J
11- --, q,t !·· '. -. :. nut;d_,l e (hu 1: 1 ::~:-:. Ln•Y,\'11) p'.ctu r<.: of t l ~ i:: ' fc v.-·
~~~~~~~-~---;-:~~:..;J, µ ·...:"i.J!', ' 21Ll tr,_·~~c;1 i, ;, - . :~ r !,irs of t ht : F: ': "; '._1;L>
tl•~.:; ~ho appealed to Congress in r828 for relief in; iheir

(ti) The sum of all the parts should exactiyequal the divisum,
For example, the sum of the classes organic arid inorganic
's uhstaues exactly equals the divisum chen~icals.-This rule is
simply an extension of rule (b).
.
(e) Division a priori, (into one class and 'its ine'<itable con-.
tradictory; e.g., partridges and · not-partridges, J i~ "a completely useless division,'' A u,seful division· presents all the
classes needed to exhibit the theme. · At the same time, a
convenient d esign ation for a numbe r of objects or even :.
number of classes often results from an a priori division.
Th u ., ~, t! 1e t :;r:n :; n o n -n~ ..__,in's, 1~n:. 1 c 'J f'-1; r i: !;·j·, ,-I·. nr r: \':t1l:,1 l11e
<l 1~ s i gnatio n s,

hovv e\'l'.f US(.:lt.::-;s as ~: c :H !.--) uf a cLh~-;i~l ca t i un.

(4)

l'AKTITI CJ:--; .

1

k i Tr rr.c ~st prnceeri from th e pjven g-enus to the S ?~·i::-s
i-=~-. -:_r::r. :•.J::i Lrcki'. .\ , -!ru: n .r~ l"l}_t- i)j:JiG-· b :_:i 1U..S to jrJ~:- :. .'U .: .' c"
For example, animals ar_e properly divi<lt::<l illLO
~~·!t&Yates _, arl-i[ulates, etc~; e;ich of t!H::se s ui..r-!:tug r.L.nhi i1:t tJ
)~ ~ i-,';:_;sts ; e ~·!ch t:l c. ss in !_:J it~_; L-,rJ:.'r.s; ~t1Ll :su un. 1"\ t1iv t&.~!r--n into 1nc'n , jish"·s , rc:p fi!c:s, cfc., v·; uuld Le sc i cn tii~ ctii: y

=,..ri'i:s.

Jllrciess.
(fj There must be bnt one principle of division; though the
~= dizismn may ortcn lie clas,;ifa:d sua~·ssii:dy upo n scn:ral
_'7<-t':-~r:t prl:1dpic:s . 'rhuc:;~ a iih raiy· czi.n not be :i.rrang:cd ;::.t o::c ctl.i' :wJ!ded, ~ize, aml cost; . tj1ou~h a~ l tht! L~?k~ it ~uutdi.u.-> u;ay
; "_.. st......wressivelv arran P-ed bv eacn or tl1ese a1stincbons~

i.·

- (c)i The d~es out:iined ~ust be mutually exclusive, and, of
O!lt.1l1Se will be, if rule (b) is strictly applied. Otherwise, they
0!4.-u'i~, and the mind is puzzled rather than aided by the
2Ji!kmpt at explanation. Thus to classify men as Jews, Jliuham~. and Believers in God would be faulty, since both Jews
2J!ld .Mohammedans are also believers in the true God.

•.N:satei, Lozic.

t Lr>:.c ( ,f

Division _ cxC::cp~ ~.u! c -Ci);:~ For example, to distri b ute th e
. comoonerit'.oarl:s bf .ltfa~f into head. litnbs. n.nd 11:.cn!al or
11;.o r :.il fa.ctu.'/i-:.:s / t { ~- aS:~r-g- n L; .., li"i:~:r <uh! i:i_..; 1:::..·tZ ; i tu t i: e
class entrails, but his kidnevs to another cbss, m::mbas;
to om!t any o f hiq c0.!11rion.ent p:=t.r ts; or tn Oesrr!h~ ti;:n
as made up of feet or hands and all his other parts;"'-

Z'":t'' Di....,ision is governed by the following laws,L ap·
pbitions uf Canons (1), (2) and (4), ~ 289 ;-

tht~ ~::1 : ~H_: ;1 ~

3 ) I . 1'ht? Lt\A;s of I):1 r ti tinn a r c
1

•

_,,.,.

'~ .. r

•

Each \VOu1<l be

an

•

'

'

in vc:1id p:i.rtition.

("i) ExEMPLIF!CAT!ON.

(a) J11te!!igib!c or e\·en j 11111ili11r t u t h e p erso ns ;icl d ressed;
as, the immediate 11eighbor/zood of a child's home by way of
teaching him Geography, political or physical ;
(b) Fnv u.r;- h i111zu1Jtb<·r to rc li cn' ;ill dirlicu1ti c· s, ;incl to co\·c r
e very p o in t o f t h e si1 hjc c:t t o be c x pl:1i l1 \. 'd; ;\--)

;t t n 1~·tT lu nu (l~·L!

of words to show how the addition of s forms the usual English plural; but 1nan_v ai1~ c_ar(li+l~v clzoscn sentences to ,cxhibit
the nature of English syntax;
(c) Simple at first, if possible; more complicated afterwards, .
if necessary; as, the ordinary suction-pmnp by \vay of preliminary description of the steam-engine ; many and more intrica't e
examples by way of detailed illustration of its .construction;
(d) Free from all distracting circumstances; as, wholesome,
nattiral stories in illustration of right living, n o! sentimental

1 ,

~,

IN\VEITTION.
, .

. ienl simsational

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST.

Jove-tales tmt debauch the intellect while

C\1
' .
•
1
h
·11
clher f..11ill either to arouse the feeilings or to sttmu ate t e wt .1

(i);f

_ ~ lJ'.r ~-stematic treatises, examples must usually follow th e
.:J9~
-J
.
r.
d "th
.nlles tG!'.." principles they expUaim; but they ma,y 01te~ a:1 ·w1
~-an:ltl.•re stand first, aro.lllSint the reader s cunos1ty and
sitti:JHl~ his mi nd to unwonted effort. Thus, long.~efor': a
c:\1hl:°ldo;1: conceive the idea tUt111t, he can be made fom1h11r with
cilie ofiiec of twu1r.s in a sentemce-~ Then to teach him that tzozrns
mre fii,~ r,mmes of objects is :an ea.sy task ; wherea_s ~he re verse
1iif tmsprocess has perhaps 11ever- been successfut T~e chiM
~s le:aD11.ed the required d efiiniti~n by heart, has committed th e
-- ~amp/;es in the same useless fashion, and, aftet"air;:J1as learne d
~ ch:i.i-nition and function of the part of speech Of / indeed, h e
lma'6 Ieamned th em at all) im t he exe rcise of parsi?ig. Many
~It ::mid most approved m o des of teaching: tbe objective
sri<enc;e5,. Botany, Mine ralogy, de., proceed on thi_s plan.
6. Co~1P ARiso~ A N D Co NT RAST.

394.'.- Comparison and Contrast includes · not only the
ilind nuthods of exhibitin,R" objects in the light of their
msemh>bnces and their· differences, but also the indirect
Jmlet:h~

of R epetition, Obverse ' Repetition, Illustration,
cmd Jli:r ·Presentation of .Difficulties. Repetition and
llust:ra.tion are indirect methods of Comparison ; Obverse
~- -i'~~-~~-~n.h :inrl

th e Preg~nt~t i on of D ifficul ties, indirect
Repetition adds to a statement
.tlreadJ complete anothe r or others like it in thought but
.d,:fCt rt:.:/'.: i n expression .
.F o r ex ample;-·-

JfLtt.'iri,~ of Contrast.

~ Jt'EggCd furrows, seamed wi th yawning gashes; redd ish
'1i'OO.nds. tom and crossed by pa llid wounds; scar upon scar."'

D.ustrarion compares exarriples under the rule or principle
vi.th similar cases not under the rule or principle. For
€!Xample ;.. Ccimd knights in armor pursue the herdsman into his bog?
'\Vhat muld they have. taken as prisoners, except a few halfstazvedgoats? . The daring climbers, hunters of the bear and
S.Tbe llllllli:s.arc condensed froµi Bain.

'· .•

s Ta.ine, Pyrenees, p.

170.

[the] wolf, would willingly have played .at this game, sure of
winning at it warm dothes, arms, and horses. It is th11s 1 that
independence has lasted in Switzerland." .
"\
-

.

'\

Obverse Repetition adds to a statement its contradictory 'denied. For exa_mple ; ','Beside him sat an English girl and her mother. The young
woman had not succeed!!d in extinguishing ·herself, she was
~ro_ze~;at h:~ ~i'::h::.: '

_;<

·

.

, ,, 'f.he Present';ltiq,n:o( Pifficulties is the method of statir.g
. objeetions "etc. ;to~·lrift6_; only in order to . contrast them
. ; when refuted w~h 't~j}ruth itself. Thus, F'.aley'1s llforal
Plzil~sop!iy '' _P~~E;~~e-~~i,!n the ~z:squisition '', only after ~he
-{_(!~~r~ ~ ~ · own)toz~b_!ll-a.nd solicitude about'' the quest10n
to be _ discuss~5I~~ha_y¢:t:been excited. In -other subjects
than Moral PhH~i<?P~Y: a capital incentive to ·hard work
is a hu~iliating~~i~se' of one's own ignorance.
- """'",.,:-;;:~~~
~

-

~.:-:.":

. __,- (11.)

ARGUMENT.

395. The the~~ in Argument is always a judgmn:t,
the assertion of the agreement or the non-agreement of
two terms; fo~ e~~mple, The whale is not a fish; The
Constitution o.f. the United Stales oz~r;hl to be amended.
The Discus sion e,;tab ii::d1cs the truth ur Ct!:-;ity ofthi,;j ud:..;ment ;-i n other wo rris, convinas the n•:i.der tlnt the
·
J"uclo-rnent is true or false.
"'' 'fhis jud.~incnt, ho,,vcvcr , is not ah\·~1ys g1ycn ~-1s
396.
t.lze su!y"ect if comjosiHon. In a ctmd. work; suhj.erts are 1 , _

rarely so presented: they rather come in a ·.shape not )
prepared for discussion ; _for example, the .case at .!av'.,- /..~
'the fact of a crime-:--a fact that 'demands explanation-that
is, tracing to a criminal as its author;, de. In .the usual .
school or college exercises, it is, _therefore, ari _excellen~
plan, in order to allow the writer the greatest _freedom .-_
I So far !he .case referred to is that of the people of Bigorre : now the similar
case of Swit; erland is cited.-The words illuslralion and example, l)OWc \·e r
are ofien exchanged.
'
'. ·.

INVENTION.

ARGUMENT.

in d:wosing h is proposition, to state subjects as broadly
as ~"ble: then the pa rticular judgment that it is propo~ to teStablish,-the judgment, in other words, that
is stkded' ,as proposition,-must often be determined with
gnf'alt carce_

. of liberty. So, the resistance of the_American· colonies
in the last century was ungrateful rebelli<?n, if the point
at issue between them and the home government ~as
the refusal of the colonies to_pay a ·ffiere ·pittar{ce begged
of them to relieve the burdens of the motherland; but,
if that point was the~ right of the home government to
impose taxes on British subjects without .the consent of
their representatives· in Parliament, then the resistance

Th~s, :supipose a writer had a subject assigned h im as Cowpe r
had v hen Lady A u sten b ade him write her a poem on Thr
Sojf4i_ He right d o as Cowper did, string on this sle nde r
1~ --~:r:! r::.=:: T C;ttd dt"'>'r-= f :-::'o::-

f To::-,!rb , ,f

l;i , 1U :~- h t. h:riir ~ : iH ::· ;t1l i i ) , ;.,\.-- ...

¥:-- ~~

L1\.\ ful

•

... L ik e a .coy m aiden , E ase,

lN~h en

Fa rthest retir es,"-

courted _m.ost, .,._
·

ui-•fH)~i Lion
-

~

h_~ ~~h'! m~·k e th ls. jud g m ent his p ropoc;it io n J <l eve1~ p lng ~nd
ts'. 1L',i ol .i '."1;'. rte morJ.l tru t hs cont ;!Ined in iL }·>:en when t!:e
.s ~i: dd..i..~'!5 of only a r~;.!!11e~t;J. t i\: e trea~ :~1 e:1 t. : ~o iittit ski H.
;; ;,;.r ~ !...:: ,~.,;,;_-_.,! l.1 st..:;..:..::::.g t.L ~ µ r u ~ u~ : ~ : u ~: .
.:\ c~r ~ ~. .: ~~ s~_;;- : :l1. i; ~ L..i; :..
t i ;-·· :: :- .-:, • '..: •1:: J

Jt._· ~Ll _..;

StUuc1 l»:_: f!) '.'" :..:

th·:

f-.: 1_)\ "t_'. [ ! lU ~ : ~\ll•_l t ~l •_" ~-~ 1 1',·­

l :-T: )~ < D 1~ :.: dL:r11, :...::yi;1 :; . ~·\ r- t th 1~)~J tl:c K in._; (;fth~· J 1_·\\· ~--;? 1\r:J
J -:-~ "".:".l ~-:.:r1 L~~n f:7:nJ 1,hnu ~ .1.ycst ) H ;ir_r_:-ucrl t h e· n1: r rn-n11,

" Fjrlicr }t::ili.> W a.5 what h e claimed to be, the loHg-expected
Messiah, orne was an out and out impostor. " ,

2 .; . ·n,c \\O ~'-: of d ct um ining cx:1ctly \\int i:; t h e
<;: ;-cili> n innJl\Ld in ;:i. ~: l\ ('n subject, is rn:ikri:tily l' f• 'rn <~U:<l by a k nowledge of the m ean ing o f the fo llowing
t eh"mS ;--(a)

the subject of discussion, (b) th e question

rtrfr-m, ( c) the point at i ssue. T he subject of discu ssion
13 th·~ theme st~ltec1 in its Inci~t ~cnrr2l t r·r111 _::;; fnr
c: ~ · : _;:/ :.· , L. . :I ~~r!_)' . "llH; < ~ U 1._· :;, t.ic1 ~ l r ~i2:icd i.:i th~ p J.:-~i ~L:.l~r
1
:

qt¥c--5tivn proposed fnr arg tnpent under this subject ; for
e:t;:iuople, Is liberty an inalienable rig ht of man's? The
~ at issue is the special question on the ans\ver to
which the question raised must turn; for example, Oug ht
the pm,·er to· co nt rol (govern) oneself to be a condition
to the enjoyment of liberty? The th eme in Argument
thien will be, T he power to control (govern) oneself
ought (or onght not) to be a condition to the enjoyment

t (;

t.)"·;.-.}n n y.

398. rfh e judgmen t th us o btaine<l as t he p o int at issue
1.
"'
·I •
"lfi an y argu men t, f!l ~Y· oc \a )
r:.nuvvn uot11 lil 1ts. rnat te r
- ~md in its trutli ·~-'h f\§) "unknown either a·s to its truth
or ....as to both its
aja tler
and its truth. " 1 ·In (b) it is an
...,..
.
I~~i/.1ulhesi:i~ , a iciLialiVe judg ment h eld o nly for the pu rposes of lm·,·st1/;a!ion : in (a) it i-; ;i__ Tl1t0 1)', :rn cstab!i;f;. -1
pri n,:ipie e xh iL,! tt""d ~_) r- t he p ur1)0.:;.r :=; o f C )!/il/t"ii(H l . .. ri,1 1.:. J
\i.·hcn G .:_d ilcu , fus t sus p ected t he m cit i1Jn o f t h e c.~~ ~ h ,
his pioposcd judgment, the earth mo\· c .~, simply\\ a.-; ;c:1
hypothes is . Ke p ler an d Kewt un , wh o cstctliblicJ the
truth of Galileo's suspicion, placed the judgment in the
category of theories. To-day a widely received hypothC>i i.---i rjf c1
rcg:i.rd-; it a::; ~ 1 ~ ulitL__: C
1
Ct-rt:1 in attr il, utcs and (jl!.tlitics : ~L; yd Ii U tl: ~"IY o:- l : u tricity has b een evol\'cd.
399. In all cases, Arg ument proceeds by th e ex hi bit ion
of PROOFS,- " the conceptions or j udg ments on whi ch
the propo:-oi1ion to be cn11fi rmcd dcpcnck" ' The ge11---~-:. • ._,

'

'

~ 1

~

1 r l _, l _'.

, n :1 turc n1c t I'
JL~

- ~' i:1
. 1
· ~n _; 'J(', ~::~ ·,~i ( I. '
p roc1• -;:-; 'L-~ sc t L)rL;l
not propcriy b elong to F... h e turic·; but certain t rut hs of )
c L~1

Logic essential to the due comprehension of the rhetorical 1<
lav.ts, must be briefly· stated.
400. (a) Reasoning is (a) I m mediate, from one judgment _
directly to another; ({3 ) flfediate, from one judgme nt to another .
through a third. For exa mple, (a) All men are m,ortal; No
m an is immortal. ({3) All Mis P; All Sis M; All Sis P. ·
t

·D ay, e?, 125_ff.

'·

3I 2

I ~V E ~ T IO~.

AR GUM E NT.

•4e>I- ( b) Proof is (a) Direcl, "when applied immediately to
the establishment of the proposition ; " (/1) Indirect, " when
applied to the overthrow of objections." 1 (.Bl is kno\.lon as
Refufafion. For example, (a) Daniel Webster, 2 defending the
Jife-tenme of office for the Massachusetts judges by asserting
that onI-r with it could they be independent, cites the venality
of the English judges-before 1688,. the noticeable change after
the e;;tabfo;;hment of life-tenure for them, the illegal forfeiting
of the colonial charter of Massachusetts by judges dependent
on the Crown, and the complaint of the Declaration of Independe:inG:e itsel'. ~hat t_he_ British Ki1:g h~d ma~:, colo~1~al judges
,. ,,::'.~J1

; -.: _~ · 1::;1;ll il '.-~ tfl •_·1r tc1 ·1 ~1~c u~ u~:Hc.

\ ·!)In

iiiS

Lt ii.u ~~:>

sprr;{b :0-n the J-.:n3pp trial ~ befOr-e he s~iys on ~ wD.rd. O!! the
direct t\:idence against the prisoner, he refutes· certain objections on which the counsel for the defense ha d maCle no small
part of their stand; viz., that he had been brougbt 'i.n to the case
i i ~V h~ !!.)' ,.
t~!~ j~ fjT:!·~ ii
2.g ::ti i::;! th.::; ] JW B;;.j b (· y.~.;-,.~ t!--;c.
u:

e\·!~~~/t th~t Hf"~lJS U8l Hi~ ~ DS fl ~ .j t'~~n

peroe:trators of the crime, etc.

't rtken

\ii <i~~COVPr

tfle

o~iections
p ~+~ o:: (' r h 1 ~t s!m ;;! y ~ n

His replies to these

; r~ -r:: :· ·~·-- , n•-)t 0 :-: p T:-1 '.:~ ~::-': -t}"; (-. .c~: ~!t ,- .f ~ !-; c

c:-d;:::· t c i: et: tl1 -:: 1n ind::; ,_,f th':"' j ury11:-:n f: 1J ! rt t:•.:e ry th ln ~ thc:t
mi~i"'A:

d.evrive the direct tv idence o f i~ fuH \V ei~ht.
(.c) Proofs have been classified and sub-classified as folluw:>;-~.;.11 proof~ are either .~·1n{.1ly~i:: or S;-·1dlz.2tic ,· Syn~hc~ic
proofs are .eiiher Jntuif iz;e or Enl/1irical ,~ and Empirical proofs
2 :-12. _-f ~! r:-,_:rI,. . ./1 f . 1. .;.-: ."~·r:·.._.., .rf . J.:::. d L~ i - ::n:/. . _'t...~5 . .
A:-L:.l_.-1.. ic pro u'.s c.r,· ;.,~ i:·c · n in fi;c.,· l .:r;;:s l~f ll! (j.:1 :;'. :._,rJJ :~1:! i::;~- -~/;

401_

Syn:!the1tic proofs come from outside the Judgment. Thus, the
assertion, God did not create man a two-legg ed animal, and
l eave it t o A rist o tl e to nnke hi m ratiorn1, carri es 1•:i1h i t its own •
pro ·::1·, .:ur the d1.:fi 11itil_H l of nuut is r~1li(_ina! a 1:in:(i! ,· hut tI -11;
2~;s •.:..: r~ ~ 1<;:i , ~L1. n i:-; 111or t:ll, cunLtin~., no tLin~- in cit h t:r lcrrn hy \\· ;1y
(;f i -:"" · ~,
Vf t'.l'._. _i lh1,--:-Tn t_·; :1
l ntlliti.~·e pLoo iS arc: ; -U-ru.ishcd by th.e Jn.ind il~-cij-_; E 1uµ i1 ical

proof;. hy ex:perience. Thu~. one's own existence is proved
by one's own consciousness.~ That water freezes at a certain
temperature, or that heat expands iron, can be known only from
obsen;ation.
.
A priori proofs, or proofs from Antecedent Probability, e.re
arguments, from whole to parl,-either from substance to attribute
l I>a;. ~ 125 ff.
•Remarks in the Mass. State Constitutional Convention.
a "Co;ri14, ergo sum," said Descartes: "1 lbjnlt, therefore I exist."·

..

or from cause to effect. A posteriori proofs, or Signs, are
exactly the reverse of a priori proofs ; they are arguments from
part to whole,-either from attribute to substance or from effect
to cause. Examples rest on ''the common p'r operty or relation
that exists between parts of the same whole." 1 ' They are arguments either by Induction or by An'atogy. Thus, the facts that
a certain substance is gold, and that._ a certain man, having
· swallowed a certain dose of arsenic, died shortly afterwards,
are respectively a pn"ori proofs that the substance is malleable,
and that the dose of arsenic killed the man.
Vice versa,
the facts that gold has "been dissolved by a single acid, and
the acid ;vas se!er:ic ac£d: nnd that the terr1per3.ture of the \\"J.ter
. had fallen to the freez-iiJg _point or below it. The argu,m ents by
- Induction and by-Analt>gy can be exemplified by formulre ;A, ,B, _,,_...
C, etc., ca~e~......--~..,,.,.blfrr:ved,
all show a common property X:
-...
....
t!!-::~cf<J!".:, D, E, F, .;,1c..-:·t-J.11 vtht:: r E~:~ c a ::-:::~,- \·:11~ ::i~ h._. ,.,,. t11-::
~:!rne pro~Y~rty; l\ and- B resernb!e e?. :h ot her in hctving th~
common relation X : th_erefore, they will resemble each other in
l : ·~": i : 1< th t.:· j(__· t ~ti. :!! "'{ .
-

1

4 03. 'f!1c \'.' o rrJ:) r:a:: sc> ~n d ej}~,>( /, :~ s u::;~d h--:re, n-: -: :'.1
more than ph_.v sical c~use and physical ejl::1.:t. 'fhey intend

anything that, in the loosest sense of the phrase, accounts for
the t:lfcct, or v-.-- hich ls u,:,::Juut,. d for by the caGse:. The l~ ­
c1 usion of subslatJ[e and aflribute, too, in the d e finitions o f a
/ ·rL.;.1ri ;:.:: d c /~~ .. ! ...:r:..:._:r:.· p :-c1,.=_1fs s·: c::::; j·~~--=t. 1:-::·=: :-·=: :-. -:_- ,=:·s f:-- -:;
~itlH.:r to t he otih..:r :i. re: CL·rt:1in1 y ll• it cx:t;11;1 \_·:~ ; y L· ~ Lh_<L ;; ;·,~
known by experience, and, therefore, proofs of th em are empirical.
4".+ - (d ) Arguments of the sever:i l c bsscs d iffer in y;ilt:e
frurn apoclictic c c rtai11~y (,z ) tu the'. lu\1cst tkgr c·,_: "f rn c·rc 11;,1 !11\1uhtic aml i11tuiti\·c :•r:'.um:.- 11ls :iic' .,f cl"'"(· I;
t-..; n ·. ·\· ,·r ri-;,, tcJ .qi, \( ~>:i , - c t ··-: 1i ·: " ,·. t.': ~ t "
reac h the highesl <.legree uf µruUaUiiity. ri 'ilc \ve;1 kc;t Zii6Uil1 2t:i~

:ihilitv. (iJ)

c n1 1·i ~- : , · :~1 ;•.'. · ~ ti :n·

.1

is that by Analogy: its c·hief use is to refute obfections by show· '
ing that like objections "in similar cases have no weight. ·con- '-~
current arguments, if drawn from wholly independent sources,
are cumulative in force, but, otherwise, are of no g.r eater value·
than each would be alone. This truth needs especially to b~
remembered in weighing Testimony ~r Authority, (a posfl'n"orl.
arguments ~especting matters of fact or ma_tters of'o.Pinion.)
I Day, g 1~7~

INVENTION.

ARGUMENT.

Either i;; t;rui1y cumulative, only when the several witnesses are
vndeniia-fdy independent.

provements. In this case, argument may proceed either from
a bold as~um~tion that the buildings or water-works or apparatus fo~ hghtmg or other. such. public arrangement is shabby or
old-fash10ned or long smce insufficient, or else. from a con-·
ciliatory setting out of the many b~auties of the city- its advantageous situation, the 'natural pride e~ery citizen ~f the state
has in it as the metropolis of his state, and so on, until the point
of safety hoi.> been niached at which the suggestion may be
ventured that this really J}Oteworthy city would be even more
an object of :very?ne'sLalfec~ion and pride, w~re . its buildings
only newer, its mam streets lighted by electricity, etc.

JI4

405:.. T hie successful presentation of a new judgment
may d!euiend quite as much on (a) the state of the mind
addre$ierl, (b) the mode of presenting the proposition,
or (c) ire arrangement of the several proofs, as on the
intrililSX: ,..-alue of these proofs. Each of these points,
m.-l1icll ue strictly rhetorical, needs elaboration.
400_ i{t.-i) The ·m i nd addressed may be "without any
belief;'" ••in weak faith," or "in positive qisbelief;"
· and bel'ief may vary in degree, ''from a faint ' probability
to aib5€»kme [apodictic] certainty." 1 In eaclr case, the
method. of argumentation is in some respects different.
F-izrs.!, toa man who professes strict impartiality because he
as ycet J.eached no conclusion on the subject of discussion,
the mirohod of Investigation may properly be proposed. For
.example. the value of the study of modern lani;Uages for dis-

lb~s

<l;p1~;sp f ·s ~h affirmed and denied: a discussion o f l..he subject

.may" tlercf-0-re, prope rly open \•.'!th the question, Is the study

i;,;.:

1:.:.:J. d=1i l~n.;;l~:1~~s as _co!1durive to ment:1! <l !sclphne

1-t._c :s:::-~:-1;:- ci

tf~t"

~! ~~:_' it"nt

cl:::-;sics?

.._c:.;~O..Jl!d:)• , t·1 v1:~

2s

v-.·ho

believes, ~deed, but is seeking furth er and stronger grounds
fo r h~· :: ·~~..Jc faith , only supporting evidence should be pre ~
~~r~--d :

C:=-'"'

to on>? ,.,·horn i ~ 1 ~ p : op•Y·;':d to ro~~ c•C l'\:cn L i_;

weak Li.~11, only destructin= argument shuulJ be ;1ddr·~~se:d .
.. If a man will know of the doctrine whether it be of God,"

said tiheSa,.iour, "let him do the.will of my Father which is in
he2".T:J; ~ thJ. t ic;, let h im ;;.ssurnc it t rue, an cl test i'..-i truth hy
-,! ::,~; it. ()~1 the oth·-:r h ~u 1d 1 111ud~ r n Sccpticis rn s ,~~y...; ,
,. :"-!": :- ::·:-:.-::; 2rc S 1_' i ·_·n ~i~:r-~dl y
. ; ;:~r;-.:l th i_' \\ ~ l \l ·· c~- ~:
c-~ ;1 ~ :!'\.. ~·-' :'.'.": 1 rest s Ciil th::' S\ Jry of t h~ J(c<:;urrcrt iCY'.i of Ch 7i~t
Tlzirdfy,. when positive disbelief is to be met, tv,:o methods are

prat ~l ;

1

:J

possib1e;-either sudden, bold attack, in supreme confidence
that oDte li.right," or else wary approach through principl es generally conceded, but which lead ultimately to the truths in
dispute. For example, the public improvements that a certain
city ~ are refused by a state legislature the majority of
which reall'iy believes· that no necessity exists for the im-

·-

. •":.;!.

315

•

407. Compositi~M -intended to be delivered can, of
course, be the moi:ef~ily accommodated in this respect ;
for th~ speaker is a_q le;' in many cases, to estimate fairly
well his probable aud fonce, while the writer is far less
abl t"i o judge .whet" ' r~-aders his argument will reach ,
Hence, .argument :iritended to be read rriust either be
specifically addresse.d to one class of minds, or else cover
grouno enough to enable it to reach one class of readers
after another. Thus, the argt1mcn t by dilerrnna rr1fn t ioned abovc 1 \vou1<l have uo \',:cig-i1t \\- 1th a 1nan \\ L\J
denled the :i. :ithenticity of the ~~e\ 1/ i~e~~t:t~11f:":~t; i\·! r. .\tn_r-rison's Proofs of Christ's Resurrection. a summarv of
th~ c\·idcnc;s the Rcsu~rcct1nn as a:: .!::"sf(:r/1-a! 1~(.c~1:!.
would h,t\·c 110 wcigl1t \\itli one \\'ho cknicd tL c possi\J!iit)·
of such an event. A complete defence of Christianity
must refut e a!! th e obj ecti ons brought ag-ainst it or li kely
-to he brou'.:ht ag:1inst it.
,fCJS. (/>) The l 'ropositinn rnu~t commonly he st:it' d :tt
the out ...;•,:t ;~ hut, (d.) if i~ i .--:. .c·ci:np1cx 1 it in . ~y L(' scr fii; · d ~
seriatim; (11 j if the subject is likely to be unpleasant, certa jn J
general considerations calculated
to excite .interest may be I..~
.
stated first; while (r) if prejudices exist, only the general
subject must be distinctly stated, and the propositio~ be
brought in later, as if by way o_f necessary conclusiory. .
from conceded premises ; or ( J) the questio_n raised ·

t;

! .

INVENTION.

ARGUMENT.

p roposed for investigation, and every care be
taka::n to p ::-eserve absolute impartiality in the discussion.
The last three cases need exemplification.

({J) Proofs depend upon each other. ...Some are explained
?Y others; some pn~suppose others; some have great weight
1f preceded by certam others, and are of little moment unless
so preceded." These principles determine , th6 followinir
rules ;-(/3') "Analytic proofs precede ·all others." ·The te rm~
of the proposition must be explained ; and proof that comes
out during this proce.s~ will clearly be of primary importance.
(/3") .A priori proofs precede both signs and ex amples. A
su fficient cause once. ~hown, (e.g ., a motive" to the commission of crime,) proofs f n:m1 the effects of that cause back to th e
cause itself, or from ·¢ ~ a~pl es of th e a cti o h of such a cause
bac_k t? the cause, acci.uire doublt'. weight: no a mount of a posteriori proof or examples:ban make a n allegatio n of crime seem
probab!e, whe n no motLve.can be found for its co.rnmis\>ion.

ma:w

b 1!

·(a ) Im A tl Fidem, the Rev. Dr. Burr proposes, not only to
-preseJ!lt 5'0me -0f the e vidences of Christianity, but to bring his
h e;u::eJrS into a p articular "moral slate in which alone [he
b:!ll= cs} they ca n fairly use the evidences." He therefore
unf01lds his. plan littl e by little; his first eight lectures ''prepare
the g 1mrund" for his house; the rest "build it." (~) In
the 5&111le work, (a volume of Parish Lectures, and addressed,
thevefo1re, not to · believers only,) Dr. Burr evidently takes
especia:l pa ins to make his subj ect attractive, and to pos tpone
afgu.ime:nts that n1ight prove unpleasant, until an -interes~ in t}Je
genrerzl! subj ect has been aroused. (!') In another work, Pater

Lectures add ressed to the students of Amherst Co llege,
ii is jplain is evidently that of allaying prejudices by p roposing, in
the •ext1reme of fairness, to test Christianity by experience .
1lf11-111lii,,

4,09- ( c) The arrangement of the- severai proofs in an
arg;nmen t is also a matter of the first importance. It
d epe:nrl"' o n t h e following principles ; (m), Th~ state of t~e mind addressed may influence the order.
(a ' )i H the bea rer is without belief, or if there is" weak faith"
tl u t t L ~;tr •. _ ir ·1,..:- 1~ ·:Jt
1:L1y Lie· rn :1r_\ :_: l:L _-;\ .
1->.1t
to tLis rule cir c um,;t a nces m;iy i11 d1c:1t<.: cx ceptiu11s . ( c: ' 1 ) lf
t here Ji5 "positive disbelici" t o be overco me, tl1is opposition
1n~ : ..: i. Le h·:;:-;ic du'.\·n ~t. 0;1ce) ~1n d t:L1t Ly u:111 LL;~:i r :g- t ! 1L:
''h ~ .--r::c- st t::.: ns ." 1 'This du ne, llti,: or(h:r of \vh:it f1i}J;1\ \.'S is uf
f: :-..: : . .-.,

J

1:

so ~ICa!kly as to leave an impression that damaging concessions
ha e been made to the other side. Two m ethods. of avoiding
thisumfortunate result have !;>een suggested ;-a capable reserve
mai.J' he kept up to give "the finishing stroke ; " or the arguments,. e xhibited from strong to weak, may be recapitulated in
im.~:.e o rder. The danger of t~diousness, however, is alway5
great in ~ecapitulations.

..

JCC.!4<>6. 71tirdly, ah1>11e.-The two rules are not contradictory; for thi5 rule
rcfe:<saaly to the order of presenting the proofs, that to the whole process of
~

~ 41?· The processR(A.rgumcntation varie~ further as th e
speaker has or h as n_ot'b n his side the Burden o.f P roof
. (onus probandi.) ·111-fh e form er case, h e mus t make th e
attack, must act on .th e offe nsive: in the latter, (wh en he
is said to have the Presumj;iion in his favor,) he may
simply stand on the aefens ive. The Greek word apology
( fi-.oJ..orEa, a pleading off,) was once commonly · u sed ,
a n d is still u s ed occasionally, to d e note an a rgum e nt .of
this sort; though it may mea n an argument, which,
t h rn~gh rc;; !h,... in ten d 0d t ·~ P~f.---.r-.'"" P h-? Vi Pf, t -=t ~: PS t he f."""',r~ :
o f ~ l fC'J'·~~;

til

pr_ 1~ .-.;:

cir

: tt ' tl LL)

(1 1 1: ,_ · t_. 1· ; -;

' f'h 1, : _~ , l ", -,

in the early Ch ri st ian centuries, when th e onus w;:is upon
Christia n ity to establish its tru th, and to co!l\·ince m e n of
it s supc riur ity to :-1 11 othLT ~-iy~t(· ; n:-; cf rcL .~:- i1 l;1, it l~'-'\'t_ :rt11
"~ ~ . c
- 1......· l r- · --......

· 1r r;. r......· J
_....

U11• it~......_ !:) IT
...

1:
<1 • • .11.
--.:._,<:_,
L ....

\1';!1·
.
J..
.i. ....

1·:
...... J..•"1
......1r
..

'

:...L i

i ~ l: U'.\' ul~J~
- - : -::.

c h iefly by apologies._ .
41 I. The importance of determining on which side
the Burden of Proof rests, lie.s , not only in the fact .th a t (.~
thereby the labor of proving one's thesis may often be
saved, but als o (and still more) in the fact that to und er- ·
take to prove what may fairly be presumed is to endangei:
one's .own position. It would be arrant folly to v,olzm!eer
a defence,of the veracity of a witness, till this h ad been impugned: the very offer to ·do so would arouse ·~;uspici~n.

, ·.

ARGUMENT.

INVENTION.

dally wh.en the argument is by way of refutation, ~it is politic .as
well as nght to concede whatever the other side can fairly claim.

4n2. The Presumption is always on the side (a) of llze
wegOJ!iz~e of every issue, 1 (b) of wltat exisJs, as opposed
to a change, (c) of the innocence of a person accused, and
(d) c.f 1il!fzat promotes lite well being- of mm,. as opposed
to \what is restrictive and injurious. Thus;He who maintains that Anglo-Saxon is the same language

.414. Argument is often joined in. the .same discourse
with Expl~nation,-as, of the terms em~Joyed, . th.e
attendant c1rcumstan:es,
-Such explanations may
comm.only be placed ~n the introduction; but -they may
so_met1mes be better inserted between ·the parts of the
argument. The self-evident rule on this point is to
p1ace such ~elps ,to the proofs where they will help
most,-espec1ally wqere they will best serve to render
the argument intelligible and convincing. . . .
·
~ . 415. Further, ~erFain personal relations,-for e::;:ample,
between the speaker _~'ijd his opponent, th~ , spedker and
. his ~udience, etc. ,~~s -~vell as certain relatio.ris between the
audience and the p; oppsition advanced, the mode of discussio.n, ~nd the oc~~s.i ~m of speaking, m~y <rlso demand
attention in an argumentative composition. Sucb matter
will commonly stand in the introduction; or, if it must
be admitted into the body of the discourse, should -always
be distinctly marked as constituting a digression. An
introduction of this kind has been called the Introduction
Conciliatory. Thus, Mr. Webster, in a speech on the
Panama mission, 2 defends his own consistency in opposing

etc.:

as rruodem English, or that Shakspere did not' write the plays
recefa•ed as his, must show reasons for his thesis ; the :advocates
of tl:ue sJUbstitution of modern languages for the 'class ics in the
colle ue curriculum, or of the admission of women. to colleges
for ~en, certainly Jzad the burden of proof, whether this h'lS
more recently shifted or not. So, charges against a man in
policies. simply because he is in politics, on the 3:s,smraption that
aU p<aliticians are dishonorable men, fall of -theit own weight;
a"S tfhe r e:?ctionary policy of a Julian or a Jiimes; th e Second
'"'as ,censurable as tending to impair the prosperity
of his realm,
.

4 11J.. Presumptions may be opposed to eack other; or
they may shift f(om one side to the other, even in the
coWISie of a single argument.
T !tus:, the presumption that once existed against t he admiss:iom o f scientific and rriodem language studies to the college
currioul um has been borne down ·by the opposing presumption
in fa\~oir-of what will benefit mankind; the allegation that the
education of women should be as thorough and as advanced as
t..liat of men finds few disputa nts, however much men (and
\\'(Fn.en, to o) m zi y q u i.:stio n thl! prup rid y o f ad mitting- WOI>l·.::n tu

r.;,-1-s c,,r,.-g.,-s.

Sn , I ,\Jth,: r :nikd theses to the dn1rcl1-door

:at \\'inemberg; while to-day, in Luther's and ali the o th er
pro testant churches, the burd en uf pruuf rt!s ls on a tton-pro-

t estant theology. In a single suit at law the presumption raised
by :a d iarge in a "book of original entry" may be shifted to
the d efendant's side by a showing of fraudulent book-keeping
or of a receipt for the amount claimed.
.
In the first case a balance must be struck, and a decision be
reached by this means ;-while, in all the cases specified,-espe1Thzt is, on the side that does not make the affirmation. This affirmation
maybe a _n.,gative ju<lgmcnt, or the negative sitle of the issue may be ex p re~sed
in a1> atlirmative jud;;ment. For example, Tlz" eartlt clots xot 111ove, or Tiu
SJ<n tlrKs 7ROfJe (if now opposed to the <.stablished truth that the earth moves
r owid tbe 511n.)

319

~

II

~certain amendment, and in th e sa me srw ech , rl PscrihPs
as follo ws the speci:tl relations h e a nd hi::; fc:l low public
men h clcl to tlw c1uc:;tiu11-; lJ,_.furc th,·:n a; r r -pr c· ~cnt;1~ti ·,·,;
of :i. gre:.:.t penp1e ;--~ ·
.

''Mr. Chairman : it. is gur fortune to be called upon to act
our part, as public men, at a most interesting era in human _!
affairs. The short period of your life, and ·of mine, has been )
thick and crowded with the most important events. Not only
new interests and new relations have sprnng up among States, (.~
but new societies, new nations, and families of nations, have
risen to take their places, and perform their parts, in the order .
1 A notable, and very familiar, 'example is. \Vebster's description (in'
Knapp murder case) of the death of old Mr. \Vhite.
I

'U. S. House _of Representatives, t.pril, 1626.

th~ .

..f:.

INVENTION.

320

EXCITATION.

d. the intercours"" of the world. Every man, aspi~ng. to the
an
. . fa statesman must endeavor to enlarge his views to
charactth~r o state of things. He must aim at adequate com.
·h h
meet 1s new
-·
of beincr
satisfied wit
t at
narrow
and "nstead
I
"
.
. .
nrehen::.1.on,
r
. .
"t
·hich like the power of minute v1s1on, sees
polrhcal sagac1 y, '\\
' .
.
I h
tI k
. 1I thinrrs accurately' but can see .nothing e se, e mus oo .
=~e far horiz.on, and embrace, in his ~road surve.y, whatever
d ...
•
near ••or
u•e senes
o f recent events has brought mto connex1011,
.
remot e, with the country whose interests he studies. to serve.

his end : dispassion, too, is catching·:. and discovered
hypocrisy only disgusts. Pathetic Expl~nation is effected
by the P'"OCesses set forth under the head of ~planation
above; but these processes will be modified ac~ording to
principles to .be stated presently. The Employment of
Sympathy is governerl. by rules entirely _its own. ·
419. Regard l-..1r the persons addressed is nowhere
more imperative than here : "ignorance
mistake may
occasion an entire faj!~re." 1 Three states of mind are,
of course, possible,.....:.fay orable disposition, indifference,
and unfavorable disposition. A mind favorablv disnoserl
or indifferent rn~y be ~~j:,proached directly; . b'ut ia· mind
that 'is i~ a pos,itio~:,9C)!nqualified antagonism must be
addressed.with grea,tGa~1ion. In this case, the unfavorable feeling must first'b~ allayed; or "other feelings, in
their nature incompati.Ple with those to be allayed, and
yet not directly opposed to them, may be awakened, and
thus the urifavora~le feelings be displaced."' Prof. Day
cites an apt example of these two methods ;1

or

. coroposi6 · The Conclusion of an argumentative
•
P
r·
ti.;n is generally occupied ";th a summary o . · t 1_1e ar~ment presented,.
The foll force of an ar:_gum_ent • is
more ~r less dissipated, of course, by the .. n:cess1ty ~ne
- w-nter-mu
•
c.h more the speaker-is
under of~·.presenting
·
·
it part by part : the summary serves to bril}g fhes; parts
into their smallest compass, and thus to. shmv. the1.r rela. ..
But the conclusion may also be either explanatory
~~
-~
or further confirmatory; and it is fre~uently occup1
with an appeal to the feelings or the will. In the latter
cases, it will be guided by rules to be stated below.

(Ill.)
417 .

.

t1- cn

1

16

The theme in Excitation is alw.a ys an object of
• \.\.·n' 1cn
. ' t 'ra c fi~c'.11n gs
. . 111·'.l y. . ,_u e.. c c:.~ nu---''( l• c .. •
to\vc:.r(l:-;
·' '-.tt. •

Hence, it will always be expressed by a noun or nou ncLrn:-:c: ; as , "The Sufferings of th e Poor, " or " T h ~1t the
puvr ar~ su:-:cr1;-;.g. "
.
. 1s
. arousca•.
' ··b y ralltetz"
~·
'7~.J..l .••• ~1.~ ..
s. Passion
e1tner
L--"'.f''"'''"""V'"•
T)

41

Brutus, who finds the people disposed to demand rather
grimly the reasons why their favorite, Cresar, was murdered,
appeals to their love of country, and so displaces their love for
Cresar; Antony most craftiiy hides his real feeling-, "appears, at

EXCITATION.

~1 t

_, . _

th~ proper setting forth of the object of feeling, ?r by t~1c
·Employment of Sympathy. The latter alone will excite
blind, unintelligent feeling, for ''passion'' . (as Anto_ny
says) "is catching;" but both fairness and good pol_1cy
urge the laying of a sufficie?t ground ~or the feeling
appe~led to.
Vice versa, while explan_at10n alone may
suffice io evoke feeling, an unsympathetic speaker or one
who is plainly "acting his part" will inevitably fail of

321

I
j

ffr::;t, a s tht..: fric!!rJ of Bru tu.s dis cL'."i, 1n1:\ ;. 11 inten ti on~ nf praisi ng
1

~ sa r,

gets the attention of the crowd, fixe s it on Czesar, and
then, though a t firs t he speaks of Cxsar' s fau lts, graclu:!lly
pass es to d c fu1cl h is c h:1r:1 ct '. ~ r. "

T h e d T:.:d i,;

w :1:\ t

intended.. The rage of his hearers at C<esar's usurpati o ns and
tyranny gradually subsides; Brutus's warnings are forgotten;
the feelings of the moo are turned in the opposite direction;
and they leave Antony~ clamoring furlously for the blood of
Cresar's enemies.''
420. The place of the Proposition in Excitatory Discourse has been much debated. Whately thinks that an
appeal to the feelings should never "be introduced as
1 Day, i 189. .
. ,
•Day, 191.~Day's whole passage,~ 185-:ioS, is worth ca~cful study'. .

i

:11

INVENTION.

EXCITATION.

sm:h. and. plainly avowed ; " for, if the purpose is to

421. When, however, opposition is" reasonaqly to be
expected, or when known prejudices _a re to be met, a
gradual approach to the subject is judicious. , Obscur:ity
as to what the speaker "is· co11.1ing to" · ~ill excite
curiosity and secure attention; adroit management will
also engage the inter~st; and thus the most resolute
opponent will be outgeneralled.

Slliggest motives that the h~arer ought not to act on, tb~

pb.inl caintious approach ts necessary ; whereas, even 1f
tk i:oti'U'l!S are such as he may :rightly act on, ~e
}!nt;3Iier wil!lnevertheless resent "the apparent assumptmn
EI>f wperiCM'ity in a speaker who seems to .say, '~ow!
mill exhort you to feel as you ought Qn this occasion ;
• J "'·ill ell!'deavor to inspire you with such . noble, and
gtiirerous, and amiable sentiments as you ought to entert:zi:.n ; • whieh is, in effect, the tone of him w~o a vow: the
µwpose of Exhortation." 1 But, as Day pomts. ou~, bad
••suck: avowals of intention are on every _prmople of
313

aJrrect taste,'' it i5 their form, rather ·tha~ ·their being
anrowals o[ intention that is objectionable; an'd they are as
di~ectionable in one sort of discourse as· in .another. ·~In
p:l>:Oouncing a eulogy,'' for instance, '' m endeavonng
tt.c,. inspire. sentiments of confidenoe .and courage,.' ' . or
""m seekl:ng to strengthen the sentiment of Chnsttan
ignritude i>r the blessings of the gospel,'' .t~ere surely can
Jbe 110 impropriety in setting the Pmpos1t1on at or near
ftbie beginning of the work ; or, if there is, the Thanks~v-in>r Day preacher blunders who proposes ''the timely
ir :.! ::s'- of ·~1c t.::~ r th) ) ~~s a r;,__:a.~on fi:):- g;-atiu1cle to c;nd, 2. nd
Demosthenes was no orator when he told the Atbc11}3ns
t:b::<t , if P1ilip' s growing power had not made th em afraid,
t- ~ w r,1:1d briefl\· ~'i\-...: them reasons for entertai ning such
~ f·:--;i;_; . \Vhat;lj:::s ;-;t;t!erne11t i ~ hy far too s-..vccping-: th e
w~ill is, tlaat, in Excitation,-and. indeed) in discourse
0 1f all IOnds,-the Proposition must stand wherever
itt will cmtribute most '. to the end in view in writing.
Doubtless, reasons will often exist for postponing its
mtrodudion; but, vice versa, good reasons often determine its bold presentation at the start. Other things
king ~qtzal, Variety may be allowed to control a writer
in this particular.
llLii.!I'..

323

For example, a .famous living preacher, who has loosened
more purse-strings, and-!ed the way to more true charity, perhaps, than any other. one man, always approaches his theme
gradually. Perhaps wjt~out intention, though · apparently by
intention, he annou_n ces. text that does not even suggest a
"begging" sermon. , _:The flood of his eloquence -is irresistible.
Before they know it,-hi:F·Jisteners are committed to principles
the logical consequerice~~f
which they little suspect ; and then
.
j ·'fot:.•
a sudden tum in .the sermon applies one or more of these principles to the charity,'.the ' ~hurch-work, the toili1~g and suffering
missionaries. The genetous response of the audience is secured; and the indirec(approach has accomplished infinitely
more than a direct appeal could have achieved. A feeling of
agreeable surprise _is felt, almost epigrammatic in its power,
and resistance is di5armed. On the other hand, the case of
another preacher is .doubtless typical. He was famou:;; for
sermons of this class that were simple presentations of the
" ...1f ijcc:t
s:1 1Jrn·)rtc.d hy t~c n10_~.t ir r c~:-~~ih1,-: L-1;:I.-:. T hey\~· (::-~
always ann ounccu un the prc·\·iuus Su tHby , tlt, ·y alw~.ys cw u1pied the whole hour, (Dr. - - never preachcu short sermons,)
and they always p resented a distinctly avowed proposilion,

:a

~

1

~

"

"'I'his oh_i r·ct di.: n1:1ncL.;; yourunqu:ditll'd ~ yr n pathy :1n(l sup~J'.J;·t
rl'he pr·..:~~ 1 :hcr v;~1~ not c- 1·Jqu·-~nt , c :·~ 1- - ~~ · pt ;i :-; \V 1>rtLy tL .
~ 1.;
a!'.vays t,;luqu'-'.nt; hi~ 1nJ.iu1:..:r \\.- ~ ljU.i·...:t, L~: dc~µly cl~-i:·h(_. ·J
1

'

••

-.

with sincere sympathy with his subject ; yet his con$~egations
were never smaller on . one Sunday than on another; and it
was actually said of him that men who went to church resolved
not to give, always gave liberally bef~re they came away.

· 422. The presentation of the object of feeling-the .
process already called Pathetic Explanation-is governed
by certain special rules. These, a·s stated by Prof. Day, are four; b_ut Day's first and third rul~s. may convemently be cbmbined ; '

INVENTION.

. ·(a) ']he Canon of Selection m~st have wide sc~pe in
423
,r:atbetic E splanation. Onl.r those pomts ?r features ~n the
<ol!.ject that ;ar;e especially ada}kd to the feet:ngs or senli":CT_Zts
,a, /Je awaA:nzed, and only the most prominent and stn'king
lk;atures 2Ild c utlines of the object should be presented. More
·w;il o nly obscure the reader's view, and so tend to defeat t~e
,..,- riter"s aim. Jn the passag:ie already cited from Shakspere s
Jutlius O:esar, Bru~ speaks m ainly of Cesar's usurpations,
b tony m atnlly of his love fO£ the people; and ea~ selects the
·d'a ails. e.- pecially suited to his o wn purpose.
. .
·
. (b) P.:uticular rather than general views. ()f the object
424
,n ust be taken. Examples. u:nder this law, too1 will be found
i'Dthe e xtrart from theJu/iu$ Ctesar. So, Sherid~,·s Invective
·;;gainst 'Vanren Hastings de;cn'bes "the paroxysm, fever, and
.t}!clirium," the natives hastening their owri death'.2by tearing ·
·open their vounds, and their prayers to Go_d t~atj their blood
right cry alou? for vengeance.
::, ··· :. ·
425- {c) O earness and distinctness are not ~cessary .: some1hiog may wisely be left t-0 the imagination. Thus, Antony
l.oes n ot t ell the Roman mob how much CreS<lr l!_ad left each
rilizen in his will ; and, in fact, he did not dare to, the amount
•-as 50 small.-ln the motto,. "Not one cent for tribute, millions
b d efence." the accurate .. one cent" expresses ·the conclu-:Jrion the American people had reached, not to yield to tyran~y,
..mile the vague " millions" was an appeal to patriotism.

~­

I
I

426. The emotion that controls the speaker's mind,
and into sympathy with which he would bring his hearer,
may b e cTprcssed either directly o r ind ir ectly . B y t he
£rst method it appc:i.rs natu r;llly : rei n is given to his

!te!ing. B}· L~ c seco nd met.~od, the feeling appears. o nly
"' by glimpses." A sob that will break through one's
self-contrgl,-the " One, two, three, fire ; he's dead ! "
d the maniac duellist,-and Antony's cunning disclosure
d his love for Ccesar,--:ire apt examples of the second
method cited by Prof. Day.
(IV.) PERSUASION:
42j. The object in · Persuasion is always to move the
will, to mge it to a resolve to do or not to do a certain

PERSUASION• •

act , ·to adopt or to refuse to adopt a certain course of
conduct. ThiS act or course of action is. the .theme of
the compositiof1, and is; of course, exp; es.c;ed by a noun
or a noun-clause. For example, Repentance; ,/will arise
am/ go to my fa/Ir.er; Your m'an sir.an'-! sta,;_i,. Not one
cent for tn"bule, millions fo r defence. .
'
.p8. Persuasion proceeds (a) by explai1_ling the decision
urg ed, (b) by assignipg· motives. Hence, fair and judicious Persuasion · inv·o lves Explanation, Argument, and
E xcitation.
· · . ,: 'f.
Thus, Edmund ~lirlce'G~ndeavoring to dissuade the British
parliament from levyiif~j~~f xes on America, first' explains that
th~ whole scheme was-.a,;~oing "out of the plain higq road of
finance/:.
a givini(':.!_.1,1p·- 'of~most certain revenues and
the clear·
•
.··".
~ ..~~r:ests, merely~.f9$ 'J.!1e sake of insulting the Colonies;"
. then agues that, whil~ 't~-~ccould readily ''bear ~n imposition of
three-pence, no .<;om!llo!lliy will bear three-perice, or will bear
. a penny, wlien the gen eral~feelings of men are irritated, and two
millions of men are resolved not to pay;" and finally appeals
to the interest of England itself in favor of a conciliatory policy
towai:ds America, _;•0 • ' .•• .f
·
·~$f.··

A!.:.the same ti~e, the will, like the feelings, may be · •
influenced unintelligently, and then but too often wrongly.
429. A motive Ls. anything_that "occasions or induces
free action in man.'.' '.By a minute classification, moral
ph il osophers have distinguished moti\·es acco rding to several principles ; b u t thes e t he writer will k;1rn bc:-;t from
t he bo Oks of 11ora l IJ~ ilosophy·. Ho;vevcr interesting a
summary of these p1{~"6iples might be, and great as th~ir
value undoubtedly is
the writer, their discus~on except
at a length that \vcmld J1~ out of all proportion to the neces· j.

to

sary limits of the present work, is dangerous . . The follow·
.
.
ing general truths, however, inay be at least stated ;~~
)

(a) Motives differ in strength, and, hence, consummate skill
· is often required in their presentation,
· (/1) Motives high "in their own purity and excellence are
ev_er to be ,preferred;" and such as are lower in 'character

INVENTION.

sbQi'llThli a1hr;zys be exhibit;ed as subordinate to the higher, or as
~ them. The good of mankind. th•! promotion of
pom.Uic Cfl.'lllls,r the reasonableness of considerin1! dhers' rights. as

own,- these and other such motMts are supenor
narro w selfishness or of a brutal intrusion upon
t h.>e q;ns 10r privileges of others. Honor, ithe doctrine of
Jflii"!.es:s;c .16lig-e, etc. , are other examples.
{>yf l'i-·l~..:es must be chosen by ''the specifiic tendencies of

11urlllasEDRle"s

t(l)il~ cl

.

!L· ~ ==-~~ ~~~ ~c~~ · '"'

~---o r e~ :-:i ~r•~ ~ ~ n ~~?·t-b~y ~'?~fi c:h ~~ !'!·

~

, .---,j..~~~~:(~~~:-i~::{i'~;~i
~.··'

-··.....,.

:

"·PERSUASION.

431. The rme for -the Proposition is the same as in
Excitation: it may safely be announ~ed: whenever the
needs of the d iscourse shall demand it. To spring the
proposition on a prejudiced ~istener is, inqeed, unwise-;
but there is surely as great imprudence in a(ousing his
suspicion by evide~tly talking "all round" the subject,
because one is afraid to declare it. ·

rcg:1rd n1ust a1 .'-io be L~1d tu the purpu:;c in \i1Tltir~:~; at1d the
~ , ;.i '111 t kLrgLr t:'1e ~tu d ·c nce,

" t he nic) n_:

fn~t.Jyr:-1~. t.y

t he hig hc:r
th ·..: n:o:--~ . u; 1i•;er ~ _:.l..
i~ i. .~ U:i ~ f~ l(:. .... t i,_
.d-.. :.. ::.,; :.;.!_

r..:.:.:i. _•.::.i L: \~:--~ Le~ ~ si:1~>:::- ti 1e l1i .::.s- h~r ~tr~
l .!t.·-.i--+;_..;._; *- "' t~ : i .;). ~.: ... :~_::: :~ : ;~~ l":L~:--· :-~ :. . '. . '. ~~ ·;. ,
1~~! ~t..~~~ .a.~} a \.\· Lu l ~J Vl.~.l...J.t~\.·~r ll :~.:.: u~ tr :..::.:. L.I i_.:.~)i \:iJ!...1..ll..i, Ll
r. _[; ~ s ·~- .,- --l i·. i[/:_~ L) ~:L: r1 ..>;_,;i -: i·::: :1 .' :J, ' c~ .
r ~' ·:> ; ; ~:.:_ ll : v ; ~,_ ·;;
1

'

-~.:'°-

Tl:e st:lte of t:ic rn: nd ;-i.d ·ircsscd ls Zt vitai ri11es~
in p e r~; ua'i lon ITij u ircs !· rnck nc c, tact.,
h-~ -:!- l 2.u"J. !eiligcnC(\ and re:n1J.rkab '.c- po'lvcrs o:- o thc i' s,:,rt3_
Tr,.~ r.n :n d addressed may be in any of three states;(. 1 ) Ind r:cision , (b) Ind itfcrc 11ce , (c) Adn:rsc decis :on.

t,_,:;) :

Sl:~ccs s

bi e;d1 c:-sc grc:J.t care, sometimes extre:ne strategy, wili
Many a failure to persuade is doubtless explained by the unwariness, the
<lMkwairdness, sometimes the downright brutality, w ith
.,.,-Jiich the attempt was begun. It is far easier to talk a
nniu1 iirito stubborn resistance than to bring hi :n into
:Ul'tdtig;- entcompliance. Especially, when efforts are made
-.to imd:ui:e a victim of some evil habit to abandon that
hb:t, c::i.ution, de ep sympathy, the avoidance of c \·ery 1:~=.-:~ 1:."\1: may e\·cn seem like s elf- assertion or sd!-suf~~are absolutely n ecessary. I t was the remark of
a !l.lffi1t pious woman, d eeply stirred by t he sig ht of the
:si.n and. misery around h er, that, in her op inion, the first
~a minister of the gospel needed to learn, was a
~~ of his fellow men and of h~~ nature.
be: r:i'if.U ~!fed in one's apprmch ,

!>tudcnt mtht n:mcmbc r tlut, in ~dl kiwL-; of co:llj>U:'i:i";1,
any priucipll: uilZ.h~t 1Jric llLl)' ~.Jr· tLc n·_)L ~c L~_: uf:::u~·; L~ ~ ,_1 1
'\vc!;; ht t o the

hand .

But,

s· p~~·ci ::d

o ~h e r

ru le: fr)r t h ·_:

1;:~ ~ti !_ :uLn- :' t: '. ~: 1 ·ct !:1

things be ing- eq ual , a know iedt; e oi

t ~ ~ ~ pe:r~;o rLl ad:lr 1. ~5-;se:d , and~'-

carc:ful cst:r:::1.tc

of t '.~ ~· r~-: ,11

char::i.c tcr of the m ot i\·cs tu Le prc.:.,cn tcd , w ill g: ·: c
1r.ctl10d to p ersuasio n.
nevt.:r be furg u.acn, that, a1t11ough it n1~1 y sur.1 cl ~i1J, .~; L'-.:
neces sa ry t o 3f)pro.1ch rn c n t h ro tig h ~'l. n t:n-.. '.· n r i.: ~1y ;-"i

to their lower natures, y et the \1·ork of µe rsu;t::;ion cm
not rightly be looked u pon as ende d , till action h;is been
secured based on the h igh er, and, thercfur'..'., s :! Cll~·i t:: 1t,
grounds. Otherwise, the writer may fa il of his rnd, or
even find th::i.t he has only induced a stubborn continu ance in regretted courses o f a ction or a s tubborn refusal
to move from the ground first taken .

APPENDIX.

1.

THE DEFINITION OF RHETORIC.

Two objections h<i:_ve been broug ht against F~of. Day's Jdini·
tion of Rhetoric, ac~_epted in the text;-( r) That it is equally
true of Grammar; .(2) That it characterizes Rhetoric only as
an art. Each of these objections demands attention ."
First, According_to the obj.ectors, Grammar as well as Rhetoric teaches the laws of speech and writing: Rhetoric 'seeks to
_!!l~k-~ disc0~1rse efTer:tive ; it teilches men, nAt only hnu,' t 0
cV11vey inteiligence _to otlier rninds, but fHJi.v to ol1t:tin over
th(;SC other niinds n1aslt;ry. ~rhc tiilH..:-hunun..:<l dLLni tivH uf
(~ rrtnHHrtr <l2:=;cri11es it rts tf-'r1('11ing tn.=.n h 1 1\V' t, -" ~pea~ rtn d v":rit~. . .
!::iurdy Khctoric is somt:tiiiHg mur...: tli..in .thi"; and i;i \,L.:i.t,
if not in adapting discourse to its purpose, or end in view?
But all this proc~eds upon a time-honore d misconception of

a

the office uf Gramrn~r, v.:hich has n 1t IH.:Ct·ss ~~ri ly Clnythiii;;:( t=J t._11_1
with speaking and writing-. Gramm;i.r ;;PPk<; onlv to cli"r'.ovf'r
;-ind cst;thli~h in ~l systc;11 th e
(,f t '. ;c ~~,~· ntcil(C: }\.h·_-tu : i',:
1

deals with th e whole co111pusitiu11, ar1d 11 ith the sentence as
only one part of this whole . Grammar is not an art, lrnt a
science: it aims at knowledge, not at skill. 1 The ancient definition of Grammar simply confuse d it with Composition; for,
the mumuit Gra mm :lr gi1·,,s ko;s rJ11s in composition, t!Lit
mom<'nt it becomes Rhetoric, on hm1-c1-er low :1 pl:rne. C:~m1 1 bt"1l lung ago co1n1Ht:nted on the clu...;c-lyi1ig OurJ;...:r l...ttH.!s cf

Grammar and Rhetor-ic; and, but for his faulty definition of Xhetoric, he mii;ht have commented, also, on the erroneous definition
of Gramm~r. Further, the words effective, etc. add nothing to J
Prof. Day's definition of Rhetoric: the quali.fication they ex- (.~
press is already in the word art; for all arts aim at efficiency.
and the only possible results of adding a qualifying term to the
definition are to set up a tautology and to give color to the .
unjust aspersion of Rhetoric as an art that teaches an unusual, bookisk, ,orfussily ornamented style of writing-the very mode

•

lSee. p. 33~, below•

329

-·
~

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

0 eiii;ression that ·a true Rhe toric pillories a:s mer~ '.'jewelry
am.id' 11!1Uge, "-the acme of the unrhetorical, becClllSe 1t 1s unnat u;all mnd displeasing to every cultivated mind .
•Sti!fi"Amd/y, Rhetoric is often defined as a scientce as well as an
:ar:'l ; loot in no true sense is Rhetoric a sciel!JCe. It discovers
~ ; it simply states laws that are true im the nature of

of a text-book or a course of study; but it,can not be maintain~d
in a definition of the art. Many rules apply equally well in all
kinds of compositions; and any restriction would be unscientific.
(3) So, too, with regard to the proposed limiting of Rhetoric
to Argument or Persuasion : the full definition 'of the ~rt is
squarely against the advocates of restriction; and nothing
would be g ained by it, but much lost. (4) Q11i ntili:in 's extenr :.· r ( ~· f_ ·=: · 1 -, • - -.- ~.... ,;

~ '~-~~ g~~:~~~~~~;i~~~~i;;~. ~ ~u1rr~,~~~-ed ,~~~~,:~~~o,th'e't,ic~I

331

r .- .L
.......

O ".:!. rT.

o; .\" '"J{ t",..; f_ Jiscu!!rSc .

'.'"";: .•(; ·~·:-T:.,

.;;:
~1:--

_,;,_--=;

L:1 ·.: e

1-~oet :y ~ t_-:-r

r
- . . ...
..
_

~

~·····.-.,,

(2) ~Ltny \\·r ·l:·,·:-- .\ (1'1 ~ h ;1nc \:: n t

!'. i: :'.:~_: d

t..: ic ;•.re t o i ·'r c·.;:; C '.! - ·r}:...1~:.'· '. , · t.: '.both }(f_Fn :-; ::::e c..n·:J i2f_~tryi a~ f::::. ~ ;~ : f~.

'l'lhe end of Poetry (and Romance), they sal\', is to please;

....... ...... _ ,.,_.-,.
,,_, ,

t: · :.:_·r ~·~ h -:_· r

L

'

'

'

n1ii 1d_"'.) .w :1ici: it. d,·)cs nr)t quii:tly
b:,_:.a st a J:;t,1 ·...:. ' ' 3 (3) \\ . lL~ tc l y, .~1._L •~ !>l! ll .,;

v;;_ ~ i :·

"'.R:~b ~eir-ic

I _o~;:;-lc," still fur:hcr

l? i·:'!

is

2..:1 off.~ h oot [ 1 ~:·:- :G -:-p 1 J<:)·~ ]

~ ·.; Rhe t oric t•) _,,-1r.rru .11fr~l:!.

;""l n d

fr0n1

f\_>r,

ii ~1t (ilJ~ ;: i n :~

_,;.ri., t o t l~~ ~

~1r;-i.cti·:-::tl1y

co nsi d ...' r::;
1

d . 1~ : t. 111

T h e relati,rns of R h ct"r!c to i:s nonrnth·2t ic:il

better understood , perhaps, in

J Jt.·r~;tt, :-

,,
t..

liim'ited and specific branch of knowl e dge."' It i ncluded
•"en:11·thi11g that could conduce to the attainme nt of th e obiect
p--rcp'lsed-L:t w, Mor:ils, Poli ti cs, de., on t he gro u nd th ,1 t a
k:n !:l'Cx!td:;e of these subjects is requisite to cn:iblc a m an to
~ - ,--~;,~ · (Ji rY:1

th c·r11.''

~

( , F. I i i

:t r t -prod~1ct

1

i ;\~

,,,, :. J ·, .

the laws of its being. By way o f preparatio n, it ol>scr\'es and
classifies all the related facts and processes. Its wo rk, th e r e ~
fore, is one of dz'sco~'OJ', and kncls to k::u:.i:kdJ:: <'- J\rt teaches
t he rules by which this fi nished product is const ni ,·tc: d; either
g-rouncling th ese rule s upon the rl'Likd scie nce or sc iu1cl's, <•r
~; L1ti 1 ; ~~ t!::...' !11 ~ '. =- ·

[ l i t ;: '

-····· ~~

\o!i!~u=. l:u~y

..

•

f

•

,..

•

•

w-er-c Loy D •J i11£:Zd1S .tgilVfdid. that .iu lu..:i .: ui ii: cu

•

•

i.t:uL i!!ub

:;;:;p~

equally to writing.~ (2) The restrictio n of Rhetoric to
F'rme: Composition i~ often useful by way of_lim iting the scope
•i:d..&bove.
I~ 7J, above.
•smtdd, Literary &says, p. io6.

• Theremin, Elogiuxa A Virtue, I. Ii.
'Whately, i I ,

:; v: il! Le

or o :h(.:r Li. ct p:- csc1 :t·--: d t u it, in orc'.c r t 0 (::~~ C ( 1 ';·~r

: :· :~: l! V .

I

\ \ , 1'.":· ,

(! 1 · :· :~· ; .

It

'T

: ; ci·~ r 1:·:

careful consid cr:1tiu11 of the

l 1 j j i ( )\\ i !I·~: l; l . . ., l 11 )!. l l ' ) ! ! -~.

I'

• ·r;:1,~ e Ji1.;e an encyclop;.,edia of all arts and sciences, t h:rn a

~'

J

1 ' ) \ \," ; .,...

C r:::

1' .

,;
ll

\

\1;\

I

:L

:' : ''

k!HPY! •.· d~l' e ,_,f !_;1 ~t h 1 hP ~1 ·r - n1lt=- i:.;. ;inri r hP s1-i Pniinc !ffinc1pics . .
Tt-::-: ,_~.-n!"L~ th 0 : rfn : r- !s . f!1 d,:: rtt1!1!!. :tnd tends to l.h~ -in!frnz:rncrnl
<if the (1.r/-j>roducf.

2. PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE.-Science is either Pure or
Applied ;-Pure, whe n it teaches necessa ry truths as abstract

IA. S. Hill,p. iii.

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

propositions; App!ie<1:!,_ ""'n en it a<fapt s these truths to particular

gle science, they are, with refe rence to the art, p lainl y n nt a
.~-. ~·
_ :;' :-.. : ._---

332

333

'.::::

''- ' l

·

I.
:

•

.

\

ev ents~

or phc n orr1L!!2 2:s iexpL1i nt.:d, accounted fc, r, or prc)'(Ju ,:ed
1_;~. : 01;.:..an;; of p e> '=
;·c rs. cz=:cs. er L1·.;-s. l.. u:-c Sci~r: cc is the k ::c· ·,~. _
1ed:.:;-t:' of these pu..,;.· ·-:rsi cd.u ...;c~ , or]~ '.,.1,· s, cunsidc rcJ a}Jti.r-t , ur as
p ure from all ap plic:i.':.ions. " l knee, the principles of pu~c
1

science are always true, true in t hemselves and in all p ossible
cases: the principles rnf applied science are true only as applied,
and in the special case~s.
3. TttEORY.-Theory is a body of scientific principles underlying and exp laini~g or justifying the rules of an art; or it is
the stucl.r of t hese ru! ,·-s vie\1·ed in the ligh t of t heir u nder lying
princip ks. H e n ce, it ii prope rly opposed to Practice,-a sense,
says Sir \Villia m Ha11111ihon, 1 in which it both was known to the
Ancients and is now co mmonly used on the continent of Europe.
Hence, ( r) Art is llllll'Te than Applied Science ; for the latter
is content to know tthe truth in the special case, while the
former is dissatisfied-t:m.til it has done the work that the application of the truth <enables it to do. Art promotes skill;
Applied Science teache-s special truths. For example, Surveying may be taught either· as an applied science or as an art.
As the one, it seeks oruy knowledge for its own sake ; as the
other, it seeks to ma'ke skilled surveyors. (2) Science and
Art are incom.patibl<e terms,-terms, that is, which are not
affirmable of the sarne object at the same time. The same
name, indeed, may he given to both science and art ;-for example, to Mechanics, which is either "the scie nce of the
action of forces on bodies'' or the art of constructing machines
and other mechanical contrivances ;-but, unless the two things
so named are only t0ne and the same thing, it is no more
true that they are at once a . science and an art, than
it is that two men, both n,a med John Smith, are only one
man. Confusion is o ften deated by this loose way of speaking, and serious errors have been inculcated by it. (3) Science and Theory, though often interchanged, are, in fact,
essentially different terms, and should not be confused. The
scientific principles on which an art is based are often drawn
(as is the case in Rhetoric) from several nomothetical sciences; and, in this case, though they constitute a tl1eory, they
can not be said to constitute a science: they are only excerpts
from several sciences.. Even when they all come from a sinl

'Th is err()r h ~lS led t o

,

,Meta}hysics, Edited by Bowen, p,

113.

conccrtions of the n~iturc o f arl.
In order of tint<', the art -p rod uct is ;i,I 1' ays cv ul vul first ;

then co m e rules ; a nd fi n all y, th e unde rlying th eory is rn acle out,
and Goth rul es and th eory are arranged in a syste m . (1) Practice necessari ly precedes theory; for ne ithe r sc ientific principles
nor rul es for work can be disco vered exce pt t h rou g h expc ri·
e nce, a nd this e xpe rie nce " ca n ha ve 11 0 fo u nda t io n, o the r than
pre vious practice.
Such rnu,;t ulJ\ iouo;ly b e the c:t.sc 11 ith
al l th e arts. Ma ny a ho use mus t hav e bee n buil t, befurt:0 ;;
system of architecture could be formed; many a poem comp o:;cd, before an art of poetry could b e writte n. " 1 (~) Rules
are always suggested by the work already done, and are in ferred
from it. At first, they are but "rul es of thumb,"-m e re dir!a
of experience, liable to revision, correction, and even retracta·
tion ;. but later, · when brought to the bar of Criticism and carefully te~ted, they become more accurate and more trustworthy.'
This criticism, it is true, is at first uncertain, b ecause without a
sufficient foundation in knowl edge; but, the underlying arttheory being once detected,-knowledge exists abundantly, and
Criticism has a fair field . (3) Finally, guesses are mad e at the
"why" of the rules ; scientific principl es are brought forward
to explain or justify them ;-that is, a theory of the art is constructed; while the rules themselves are more and more revised,
till they are perfected into a system. Thenceforward, the art,
its theory, and intelligent criticism of th e art-work are mutually
dependent; each throws light upon the others ; each helps to
make the others perfect.
In the light of all this, Rhetoric is plainly not a science, but
an art. Its end is to construct the composition, not to discover,
knowledge. Its rules are the dicta of expe rience; its under-'
lying principles, truths drawn from four nomothetical s c i e nces; ~;
and the phrase science of Rhetoric is simply a blunder for

theory of Rhetoric.
I

John Quincy Adams, Lectures, I. pp, 73, 74.

I

' trite couplet,Jn Pope's·
" Those rules, of old discovered, not devis'd,
Are Nature still, but Nature melhodi;o'd."

APPENDIX.

334

!IL

APPENDIX.

'IHE TRUE METHOD OF STUDYING RHETORIC.

The principles thus established would seem to d_etermine,
also, heyond dispute, the correct method of studying ~h~t·
one (i } The goal before the student should be skill m
writia g; and speaking; (2) the order of stud y should be the
__ __. __ ~I ,i ,,. ..,,.lnnmPnt :mcl no one of the th.ree elements.
;,,~~'";: R~ie:·.-Pri~~ipl~~: sho uld be omitt.00; {3) the studj
she u·:d rt.·s t on c!l the non10tiictica 1 sri~·n(~e:;-- - n u t

un ;:.ny

TI CJ~" DE'f !Pss tha n al l.
.:1, 1,j ·vd t 11c ~ tud 1·

o f R hctoric h:1s con'.tantly procc c:de:d in
Y'. c•':cli :.;1 o f one o:- 1;1,>rc o f tlic o;c p ri nc iples.
( 1 -1 1Lhttoric b .a. s Lc c:n treated 2.S if its chi ef ~:i d v;ere to rn a k e
r rih~.-s-, no t ;e rif cT S. It has tended t o ski ll in judging, n ot in
c,, 7_1 ,;tni <:tin c;. H e nce, not only l1:1s und;1 e i mpur t:rnce be e n
attached t~ th~ furrn of discou rse, and too little at tention
be'l.'.n p;:iid to the though t e:-:p rcsscd, but the course ln s be en
na.rro.lE"ed to a theoretical discussion of rules and principles,
whil e practice in composition has been wholly or in great
p art o mitted.
(z} The natural order of teaching the art has been inverted,
and one or more of its three elements been omitted or else
u nduly emphasized. 1 H ence, three mistakes in the methods of
teaching ;-(a) Rules and principles are put before practice in
writing, although it is practice that in the highest degree
makes rules and principles intelligible. Earlier practice · in
composition, (such as is, or certainly was, common in the
preparatory schools,) is confined to the writing of themes;
a.nd the student, who is ill-prepared for such work, gains but
little benefit from it. Simple exercises in s_e ntence-builcling
or in the reca sting of work that is more or less defective,exercises that tell most powerfully on all subsequent practice. and which need only the briefest rules by way of suggestion to guide the student,-such exercis~s are rarely employed2 (b) A second blunder results from the error already
noted, the error of treating Rhetoric as the art of Criticism.
Men whose end in teaching is only to make competent judges
of discourse, can not be expected to value highly either
1 111

all arts, the greatest amount of attention must, of course, be given to
but this greatest amount is not necessarily an undue amount.

~;

'.an. to Write Clea,-ly is a capital book for the purpose.

I

I
.

I!

at

.

.,

335

rules for composition or practice in it. Hence, their instruction
omits both rules and practice, while it gives ·at length' abstract
discussions of the scientific truths (especially, the truths of
£sthetics) that underlie the art. Rhetoric wit~ them becomes ·
a philosophical study, both interesting and profi tabl ~ in itse lf
but contributing as little as may be towards the making of com~
(' c),. Still m ort> ....- rim"'
{;f t-'
nr.<:cihl~
-oetent write rs.
. - --, hPr""""
'"" _., ,, ._,, ..__ \J
more misleading, is the error of teaching Rhe toric hy p ra ctice
- - --- -~

:i!un~,--p r; ictiu.: gui d, _·d

u1 i1 y Ly 'jrui~ __.s

(Jf

,~·

tll!11 n 1,' ' ;u1d th(_'

stu d y of >vorthy 1110de b . \Vhatc ve r value an cm1 i irical stud v
o f l\.hctoric nny kl\·c, furnnl J~lic.·t,,: i c: h. 1-; ;1kJ it-; 1·!.v·c i;1
0

t he course; fo r, h ~1 d 11 Jt p r; h: ti c ~ ~ tH_·1.._· d ~: d th,_· g11irJ:111 r_e o f
und erlying truths, on ly 0;1e eL m u1 ~ uf a:t \v , iu ld Li '.1 11
pru1Ja1, ili cy ha ve L e e n cl c:1· clu pul. T he \·ery 111c 11 w l1r> q u ,1rr d
inost Lit tcri y v.: ith f0 r n1al !~ h ct o ri c a re 0Lc:1 t i:c.: Incn who 1
tll1C<"Ji1S ci o usly, to be sure, seek its aid . i\Llcau b y is a 11u ta lil e
1

cxample. 1
(3) Rhetoric has n ot been based on al l its nomothetical
scie nces, but now on one of them, now upon two . Campbell
starts from his famous dictum, "It is by th e sense that Rhetoric
holds of Logic, and by the expression th at she holds of Gram- '
mar." Blair grounds his work on £sthetics
Th ercmin
thinks Eloquence a virtue. \Vh ately says Rh e toric is an
offshoot of Logic. Day seems to ha ve been the first to
state formally the truth that Rh eto ric rests on four nomothetical sciences. The opposite belief has enfeebled and belittled the art, and disg usted many really sensible perso ns,
who have (unfairly, no doubt, but not unnaturally) charged
the vices of" fine writing," puerility, des ulto riness, etc., on the
art tha t professed to . teach something bette r, but fail ed. As a
result, "Rhetoric has become extremely superficial in its character and influence, so that the term 'rhetorical' has become
the synonym of shallow and showy." 2 "Conside red as je welry and r<mge," says another author, "Rhetoric is sufficiently ·
contemptible." s
"' 1
)
I Compa re the parall el cases of Engin.cering and other. scientific professions. ~;
The ci vil engineer was' once trained in the field, the g coloi;is t in the bowels ol
the earth . To-day they are ins tructed-some say over-instructed-in colleges ,
and in nothing more than in the underlying truths of their arts. \V ho wo uld.
think of showing a raw country boy a finished bridg e or a" crack" coal -mine?

· S\V. G. . T, .. Shedd, Pre/ace to Theremi11, p. x •
IT. Starr _King, in \Vhipplc's !1~troduction to Sub_s tanu and S how, p. xii.

"\

I~

.'!,
'!{
I

APPENDIX.

336

IV~ CERTAIN TECHNICAL TERMS OF RHETORIC •
The following table will help the student as he reads the
older imoclem OJI' the ancient writers on Rhetoric;Crull..

Lati11.

Ercg!UI&.

"H ( ,i;iv.,) j..rrop<IClf,.

(Ars) Rhctorica.

Rhctoric.1
Composition.t
{ Orat.ory.t
Invention.•
Composition.•
Disco11rsc.1
{ Eloquence.I
Eloquence.•
Elocution.f
{ Style.•
Oratory.
{ Elocutloa.

Exercitatio.
Inventio.
Oratio, Eloque ntia.
Eloquentia.
Elocutio.

•p.,,_,,.•a..

Orato ria.

INDEX.
,.,

~

Cei1ain terms-oratory, eloquence (in the sense of the Greek
}Jqdmrc), and elocution-refer wholly to spoken discour5e. 'The
other terms have the double reference to either speech or writing.

v.

THE LATIN WORD TROPUS.

Wbat did tr.opus-Greek -rp6rr~ and -rp6m1-mean? Cicero
·(Bnrt:11s,_xvii.) defines -rp6rr~ as verbornrn immutationes, and
says that the Greeks called se11tentiarum orationisque formas
axf;µm,a. But Quintilian says, "Tropus est verbi vel sermonis
. . . m·.1t'.lti0, " :1.n<l, "verti'111e fonna<> non verboru11i modo,

'WI. vi. 1-3.

Cf. IX~ i. 4.

flood."
•IX. i.

2.

299:

1

ciency, 156; means to, 158.
ELBCANCR, 278 .

Elements of style, 52, 132,
whole

verff.01poneretur." 1 Curiously enough, no Greek writer now
exta.ul: seems to have used · -rporr(){ in its. rhetorical sense, and
Lucimus alone of Greek writers (A. D. i66?) has -rp6-:011 in this
mea'l!iing. [See Liddell and Scott's Lexicon, s. vv.] More
than this, the confusion of trope and .figure-especially the
8
modern use of figure as g~nus-had begun in Quintilian's tirne, • .• •

•TJr,e~cmin defines Eloquence as" thought in a

Conclusion, th~, 22].
Continuous.n ess, 250..
Contrast, 29~. 3o8.
Criticism, 33t.

DARTMOUTH Colleg~ case, 30.
Definitio n, 292; of Rhetoric, 9, 3~.
Departments of Rhetoric, 19 . .
Description, 29"*,
l
Dicta, 16.
Diction, 51; varieties of, II-4; of poetry,
116; figures of, 236.
Discourse, 9; matter or content of 14 •
form of, I-4 , 50; ki~ds of, 23 ; r~pre:
sentativc, 36.
Discussio n, the, 223, 287; general rules
BALANCED sentence, 18•.
for ; 288 ; modes of, 290.
Barbarisms, 86.
Divided use, 125; canonS for, 127.
Bathos, 220 ..
Division, 294, 3o6.
Brevity, 149; exceptions to, 154-; viola- Due proportion in sentence, 19.+ ; in
tions of from excess, ~s2. ; from defiparagraph, 219 .
Burden of proof, the, 317 . .

scd -tt St'l:s1::Ln: ct roJn/iosi!i'on is. Quare inihi vidcn:~:.r crra::i ~c ,
qui son alios credidcrt1nt trupcs, qu~n 1 i1: q r.i!.:;iS :. -· t·r/~;;n; }r.'?

1 i 23, abuve.
• i 3, ahove.
'~ 10 ff, ahuve.
fOli&olete in this senS<!.-Eloquence seems to be ued sometimes by C '.\mpbell te m<!an as much as Rhetoric. (See. I. i.)

ABBREVIATIONS, 92.
Abstruseness, 252,
../Esthctics, 14.
Alienisms, .,t>.
Ambiguity, 254: in P.r9n.ouns, 258; in
negatives, 2fu.
-;., .
Anglo-Saxon words, 1"j 9: '-j
Antitncsis, 237.
7!~:
Anticipation, 170.
:)f~·
Archaisms, 85.
~·,:f...:.;;t-J~~~
Arrangement, 19; grammat_ica.1, 94 ; of
words and clauses, l~ex;-;~· unusual for
emphasis, 163: in persuasion, 327.
Argument, 3"9; proposition-:in, 315.
Art, 331 .
.
~-

·,

composi~icn , 23:: .

Lthiv-., r4

Circumlocution, 152.
Exceptions to purity, t14; to brevity, IS-4· _
Oauscs, order of in sentence, 16o; modi- Exemplification, 294, 307.
fying, 166.
. ·'
Explanation, 291; proper, 293; patllctic ..
Clearness, 254.
320.
Climax, 220.
Explicit reference in sentence, JH ; by
Colloquialisms, 124.
rcp~tition, 178; in paragraph, 198.
/
)
Composition, 9, 12; the whole, 223; parts
FtGURES
of
speech,
235;
of
diction,
23~;
of, 223: canons of, 232.
of thought, 236; rules for, 2~3 :
I.•
Compositions with respect to form, 23:
'
to intrinsic character, 30; to pur- Force, 262 .
Form of Discourse, 14, 50.-1'
pose, 49.
Fundamental maxims, i6.
Completeness, 234.
Comparison and contrast, 294, JOS.
Goon use, 55; characteristics of, 6~.
· Compounds,Sg.
Grammar, 1.f.
Condensed sentence, 188.
Grammatical 'purity, 53; propriety, 871
Connecti ~es, i75, 200.
precisioi;i, 95.
Conjunctions_, initial, ~3•

n

337

INDEX.

INDEX.
PARAGs.APH,

Jf[Asxo,..,.. 275·
llfmmior. 27'1.
J!!.1'1MU!i'su:i,9t.
'Jli:m>uchcsis, 31 'I.
JmaJng(S,, 6g.
"'Jlbstt.atioa. 308JI:r.wropr:ieries, 86, ur.
Icii;mssioncd prose, n9.
fo;iri'>I t opic sentence, 197;
~~20J.

·~;

tence, '97; parallel consllru1tt'.»n, 209 •
method, 214; unity, 216 ; d!ae proportion in.• 219.
Par:tlld construction in par.oi,=pb., 209.
Parentheses, 19• ..
l ~araphrasc, 152.
Partitio,;, 294, "F1·
Pathetic explanation, J20.
coojunc- Pathos, :WS.
Periphr.a.sisr 152.
1

I

L

310.

L

l

!

! Poetry:~~Lc11:er, t.he,. 35.
l..i:=anne a.od Rhetoric, 22.

Point at issue, the, 31:0 ..
Precision, grammatical, 95; 1betorical.

Lag;ic, q .
Lcomg and short words, 146; sentences,

254.
Present use, 67.
Presumption, the, 317.
Prolixity, 152.
Pronou~s. relative, as connect)i"es.t 177.
202 : ambiguous, :z.50.
·
f I ::l.ngi1ag ~ ~ S l' ,,,
Prop'!rt ! ~S o
Propdety i rhetorical, 87; ~rn_rnaticaI,

"69'sen'tence,, 179.
Laelicrous, che, 271.

~se

fundamental, 16.
!\b:ittc::T. or content, of discourse., 14.
Mean> t.o h r--evity, 158.
)J:dod.y; 2 J S·

'.MA..llll5,

II

I

95.

I P1upvrtfon,

due., iu ;;~nteu~41 ~;.it; ~

l.le:tr.; "'"
paragraph, 219.
Ncib.od ~- J>"'."graph, 21 ~;. of wbole Proposition, the, 223; in argument, 315 :
::_:7l~~;::ao0;. ::33; of studym; Rhet~ \ .. in ~dtation, 3'11: iu p-asu~iou, 327.

)l~: -~~. ~~·.l~ ·
,:1.:~ :v: ~ ':'.>

- -c !.:; · . • 11 ) ·

o j' c'.isCl.:ss iun, zc.p .

}L.cC. ~ fi i::-s., 1£~.

l. 7 "1 .--: !f~.- i~;

cb us cs , 1G6 .

~ ~ : ~ '.·. '.'.'~ . ; ::;i .

~AT.:'!::' "\~ ~;::-; .; .- rr.:..~5.

?

~:::~;:~·

m i' ;:ri..: , -,, r.,

I.;o:J~ :":-<.· ;,';~;~~:c,

: 7 ; impJ.ssioncJ, 11) .

P ro se

r~yt~m,

Romance,~.

SATIRE, 271:

Schemata, 236.
U?<t."TTY, of sentence. 188; Blair's rulet
for, 190.; of paragraph, 216; of whole
Sciences nomothetical to Rhetoric, 14,
composition,. 232 .
1
;';!

'I Periodjc sentence, x70.
Pe;su3..ion, 32~; propositioa1 iiJi,. "$27·
1Phraswiog-;, 51.
j Pleonasm, 152.

:>5 .

P u <:r , g :-:i.;~ 1 ::--:. .1 : : ,SJ; '5'. r:.·~.1 :--~ cf,
5~: n!fonscs :i.;;1inst,. 69: -exce ;:i-t!o~.s

I

i

II
I..
;;:;;

bd

~ -=-=~3 ~ .. {;~ -

E!

}i;cgativcs, ambiguous, 2~. ­
~cologisms, 85.
N°-Dmotherl.cal sciences, 14, 331
Nonsensical, the, 248.
No-nl, the, .p.
Namber cf words,·~·

QUALITIES of style, 5}. 247.
Question raised, the, 310.
REDUNDANCY, x52.

Relative proiioun as connective, 177,202.
Repetition, tautological.. 152; justifi..
able, 154; for empb.isis, 163 ; for ex·
plicit reference, x78, 200; obverse. 3o8.
Oavnls'I!: repetition, JOS.
Reputable use, 64.
Oifcnses against purity, 6g.
Representative discourse, 36.
Oratory. 30; spurious, 248.
Order of words and clauses in sentence, Rhetoric defined, 9, 3:39; proper, :12 ;
departiiients of, 19; .sciences that give
a6>.

T.:chnic:tlities, 76.
Terms, io; t,_echnical, of Rhetoric, 336.
7lal, "'"" and which, 1o6,
Theory, 311;3j2.
Theme, 282.
Thought, 9; figures of, ,236.
Tropes, 236. .
._ . \
, Trgjus; the Latin word, ")36.

laws to, 14, 331 ; true method of studying, 334; certain tech.nicaltenns of, 336°7
Rhetoric and Literature, n.
Rhetorical propriety, 87: pn:cision, 254.
Rhythm, 23; of prose, 2s.
Rhythmic prose, 27.

.in.iti.11! 1111pic sen-

! T'-::r:. ;; ~:..:.i.:.:Lv • ..:: ~-"-·

l n-.:e:atio:n, 19 , :2St.
Isnwr,,. the ·pa.int at,

339

.

. ~

•

.... , , .. ,., -. - ..J ..,--.\:,...J
;.•c .. '·· ' ' ... . •- ;':· ·· - - ,

-~­
.J.,:-.

Selection, 233.
Sentence, the, 16o; order. of word~ and

I

I TT . ..

.. ' •

"?" :":".'".'. :: _:-.~.'.:

present, 67; divided, 125.
"' . . _
_n

0

~~~:~;~i~i:~~e;;~~~~~~;4c~~-i-.u.,:·,_·~. .:~.~u.:. i.::~- .~."~,,s.:_.
~:;;_
short.
balancCd. :.S4 : - .
- I 10:

-~ ::~-

J;

x88; -un.ity of, t88; d ¥ .Proportion in, · Vioiations oi purity,&.) ; of ~ ~n::vity, 15:l,

1
194; initial topic, ·197·;;;"'
56.
Slrall and will, 10s.
-''"-.
Vocabulary, 133· '
S h ort and long wo ~ds, J46: sentences, Vulgarisms, 6g.

I

1 79 ·
\VEBSTER, Dartmouth
College case,
Significance, 248.
·
30 •
Simplicity, 252.
fVho, which and tliat, loo.
Solecisms, 86, 91-·
_
'Vholta .compos ition, the, 223; canons of,
Spur\Q11~ oratory, 2-48.
23 :z.
Standard of purity, 55· ...-..
. tVill an<l shall, 1v8.
Style, 19, 50; clements of, 52, 132; qual1- \Vit, 271 .
tie5 vf, 5:, :;.7.
I \Y c rds, cho ic1:: of, 133 ; A nBlu .. Sa.:<.UH,
Suspense, 170.
1 139 ; short and long, _146; numb~r o~ ·
TA.STX , 27 s.
1~9; order of in sentence, 16o; cmTautolcgy, I ) .l.
phatic1 16:2 ; ambiguous, 2~6.

Ij

-'

