ELEMENTARY

COMPOSITION

AND

RHETORIC.

BY

WILLIAM EDWARD MEAD, PHO.

I

PROFESSOR

OF THE

ENGLISH

LANGUAGE

IN

(Leipsic) .

WESLEYAN

UNIVERSITY.

LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN,
BOSTON, NEW YORK, CIIKl\GO.
/

.

HARVARO COL LEGE LI U : ~ltl t.
. GIFT OF Tll E

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AM t.H ICAtl ANTl(,l UA atAfi SOCltll".

!rl.t'A.- ~ I / Cf~ '1

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PREFACE.

Copyright, tS\14, by
W1U.lAM EDWARD MEAD.

PRESS OF SM!UEL U SHER,
BOSTON , MASS.

T111s book is a n outgrowth of sc,·eral years nf experie11ce in
teachi ng Engl is h composition in secondary schools a nd i11 college, and it contains nothing that has no t stOL)d th e test of
actual trial. It docs not profess to lie a guide to English cri ti cis m, b ut aims rath e r to gi,·e brief practic .il s ugRes ti o ns to
young write rs. I
\Vhat should l>e most emphasized in a text-book on English
composition is a c1uestion of mu c h difficulty. i\l y chief conce rn
has been to dbcover what could be omitted rather than wh:<t
could be included. The aim of th e teache r of composit iun
should be to bring his stude nts into such an attitude of mind
that a subjec t may be to th e m a genu in e que s ti o n to l>e a nswered,
and not a mere occasion for combining words into sc nt<.:n ccs
without regard to the thought. I have , th e refore, bid especial
emphasis on th e choi ce ancl treatm e nt of th e mes. If a writer
can form the habit of choos ing one sh arpl y defined topic and
of telling exac tly what he thinks, th e im pe rfect details of his
compositi o n can be corrected IJy readin i;: anJ practice. I need
scarcely re ma rk that nu book of instru ctions will nuke a
finished wr it er. Only co nstant p rac tice and merc iless critici"1'
by the writer him self can yield the desired result. :'>!y p ur posL~
is, th erefore, rath e r to develop a few general principles than to
prescribe definite rules .
As far as possible the study of composition should be combin ed
with the study of literature . Familiarity with the 1,es t models
t

Jn using lhc L•O<J k

S' llHC t c ~1 · : hc r s

th e Th e me and the Pbn, and th e n
P:u0gr:1phs.

lllay pr~fcr to begin :lt 0 TlL C wi t h the t:h:,: • t c r~ un
l tJ

t;.1ke

up th t.: ch:lptcrs on \\',• rd:-> , Si..::n t<.: ii.... c -. ,

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PREFA CE.

4

of English prose will supply what even th e best text-books must
fail to g ive - a standard by which to test one's own writing. I
have , th erefore, added numerous topics for investigation and
composition , based upon rep resentative English and Am erican
class ics . Some of the suggested to pics a re obviously too difficult for any except ad vanced stude nts, but ca re has been taken
in each case to include on e or more topi cs suited to any o ne who
is able to read the books with intelligence .
In conclusion, it is a pleasu re to th ank my colleagues , Professor
C. T. Win cheste r and Mr. F. VI. Nicolson, wh o read most of
the proof and made several valuable suggestio ns.
As for more gene ra l obl ig ations, I am un able to decide to
wh om I am most indeb ted . For th e specia l form, however,
whi ch the book has taken, as well as for most of the se ntences
quoted with out specifi c refere nces, I o we most to my classes in
rhetoric and co mpos ition.
W. E. M.
\VES LEYAN UNJVEJ(SJTY,

MwDLETOWN,

Cr.,

MARCH,

1894.

CONTENTS.

l'A Ci it

3

PART I. - THEORY.
C HAP'TllR

J.
Jl.

9

WOR DS

SS

SENTENCES

102

Ill.

PARAGRAPHS

lV.

T111-: T1n:ME

V.

VI.

Tl!E

J2 1

132

1'1.AN

143

p

lJESC Kll'TIO N

l.\3

' '·

II.

NAIUlATION

156

?-·

Tl].

EXPOSITION

lV.

Al<G UMENT

KINDS uF C oMP<JSJTION
SEC fl U N

1.

Ii·'

~'·..

162
.~:-;

V.

VII.
VIII.

f'1·:RSUASION

COMPOSIT ION ANlJ H."VISI ON

STYLE

•

I (15

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17 3

,.

179

.,

1 ~3

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6

CON 7'ENTS.

PART II. - PRACTICE.

C.: 11 1\ l 'TE H

I.
J f.

W OR llS
1 95

S E NT E N CES

200

1 l f.

PAHA G l<AP II S
20 2

V.

T 1rn PLAN
207

VI.

KI N DS O F CO Ml'OS ITI ON
2 29

229

J l.

NAHHAT ION

Tl T.

EXl'O S ITJ ON

J V.

Al<C:IJ MEN T

\/.
V!J.

VJJ !.

238

PART

l.

PE i(SlJ ASIO N

STtJI Jfl'S JN LITERATUH E
P iJNC l'llA'fl ON

233

T H EORY.

ELEMENTARY
AND

COM POSITION

RHETORIC.

Cl1Al'TER I.
WORDS
" Eve ry wo re! in the bn g uagc h as o nce been used happi ly. The P:tr,
ca ught tJ y th a t felic it y , rc la in s it, and it i~ ust·d ;i.g:nin a nd •1g: ii11, :ls iftlic cl 1.n111
b elo nged to th e wo rd, and not to tl1t !IIeof tl1 1111 gh1 wh1d1 s n1 ·n:.1r1...'•"l i1 .'·
l.::.\tE R SUN; <.j1i1 1/a/1u11 1.1 11J (Jr1:f:111.i/:(;•.

SECTION I.

-

~­

tr"U.-::~-

~

Trrn only way by which a writer can express tho ught
is lhro11gh word s. Writkn words arc ;ubitrary ~ir:,n .~
re p resent ing certain sounds, whi ch i11 turn
Wo rds
represe nt ideas. In process of tim e the an d th e ir
chan,g-es .
writt e n form, the pronunciation, and the
meaning may cha nge. F'tir in stan ce. the w"rd /u:<"
was in the oldest Englisl 1 written !1/11, pr"ll<>tl11 C: c'(l /,1,,11,
and meant an enclos ure. The worJ j ~1w/ w: Ls wriltu1
Jugo!, pronounced som ething like foogk, a nd was
appli ed to a bird of an y sort. Chan ges like the se arc
constantly go ing on. A word gencraliy uscci to-ihy
may narrow its m e:rn inf!: to-morrow, :i.nd :i.ftcr :i. time
may go out of use altogether. ;\ writer of J·:n;..:;li~h
must therefore aim to become familiar with the
9

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IO

WORDS.

words accepted as Engli sh by th ose speake rs and
write rs who best represent the English of his own
clay .
This familiarity may be gainecl in a varidy of ways.
We have all learned to speak by bearin g othe r people
and by imitating them. The co nversaL earning a
·
l
h
vocabulary. t10na
met od would be id eal, if th e
in formation and culture of the spea ke rs
were sufficien tly wide. Hut in the abse nce of the
ideal we may turn t o books. In th em we find in far
g reater vari ety th a n in ordinary co nversation a
vocabulary of choice and expressive words.
By
mast eri n g a few hundred pages of good lit erat ure,
and carefully d iscriminat ing th e shades of meaning
in each word, we may acquire a vocab ulary that will
rarely prove insuffi cient. The labor of forming a
workin g vocabulary need not be g reat, for even the
most copious writers use but a few th ousand words.
The smallness of the number is ind eed surprising.
Ordinary speakers and wri ters do not use more than
three or four thousand words. The English Bible
employs about six thou sand words, Milton, in hi s
poems, about eight thousand, ShakespeJ.re, about
fifteen thousancJ.l
The dictionary becomes of use in the careful
study of a piece of literature; but from the dicThc
tionary alone no one can learn to speak
dictionary
or write. It may expla in difficulties, and
and reading.
·
.
give
t h e exact meanmgs
of words already
I

C:f. Marsh:

L(c!Ures 011 Ilic E11gliJ!i Lan.!{1tage, pp. 263, ~.

R EAD!NC.

II

somewhat familiar, but it cannot supply the place
of extensive reading. As we read we sec word s in
actual use, and get tho finer shades of meaning from
the co nn ect ion. Eve n rare words yield up the ir
meaning after com pari son of the passag es where
they occur. I n a ny case an acqu;_iintancc wi th th e
m ere form of unu sual words makes the la bo r of
learn in g their mea ning in a lex icon comparati vely
easy.
T o be most valu able, from a literary point of v1,~w.
r ead in g ought t o be volu ntary. IL. m:.iy have purpose, the more the bette r; but it ought
never to be forced . For mere informJ.- Vol
u ntary
readin g- .
tion we may read a g reat variety of books
that in style are uninteres ting and otherwi se fau lt y;
but in choosing literature we ought to sclect what
gives us most pleasure. Taste for the bette r k incls
of literature will grow with advancing years, if care
is tak en at the outset to exclude the bad.
Exactly wh at to reacl ca nn ot be specified 111 kw
words. In general, any good narrative
poe m, any reputable novd or biography or w.~:~.' 0
history or book of travel or popular scientific treatise will :.it once SJ.tisfy and stimulate the
curiosity.
Especially adapt ed to read ers who are seekin g
an introduct ion to good literature arc
T.'
Tlie pccu J"1ar mcnt
· o f Macauluy'11
M acau 1av ' s 1'..ssays.
Ess ay • .
Maca ul ay is that his facts are always
interesting, and his thoug ht not too profound; his

•'

. .l
'

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I2

WORDS.

sentences are short and easy to follow; his diction
and grammar are uniformly correct; his paragraphs
are lucid and admirably balanced. He has defects
of style, such as un due love of antithesis and exaggeration; ancl many of hi s opinions in the Essays
arc hasty a nd ill-considered ; but the ve ry prom inencc of his faults makes his work a valuabl e study
for a young reader. Macaulay gives a n easy e ntrance to a wide range of facts, and may well serve
as a po int of departure for beginning the study of
English literature and history.
If a pe rson reads nothing but th e best literature,
and hears nothing but pure English, he will easily
acquire a vocabulary of pure Enbrrlish
Meaning- o f
"pure
words. This term "pure English" may
English.'"
be used in two senses. In the strictest
sense a word is not E ng lish that docs not belong to
th e native English stock - best represented in the
older peri ods by Anglo-Saxon. In a more popular
sense, a word, of whatever origin, is English if
ge nerally used by the most careful writers and
speakers. To make this distinction clear, we mu st
look briefly at the history of the lan g uage.
If we go back to the An glo-Sa xon period (b efo re
I 100 A.D.), we find that our language th en consisted
The
almost wholly of native English word s,
Norman
with a few borrowings from Latin and
Conques t.
ot h er 1anguages. I n IO66 ]:<.. ng 1antI was
in nclecl and conquered by the Normans and their
dependents. These foreigners spoke various <.lia-

CflANCES JN RNCLISJ!.

13

lects of Northern Fran ce, and naturally continued
to speak on English soil the oniy language th ey
kn ew. English they acquired, if at all, only as a
n ecessary means for communicating with the conquered race. At court, a nd in the churches arnl
monasteries, as well as in th e Norman castles,
Anglo-French held the place of honor. llut on
the lips of the common peopk En gl ish speech
lived; and here a nd there an obscure schola r ~rote
in the rud e vernacular in preference to Lat111 or
French.
Afte r the Conquest old English rapidly underw ent
changes in for m. The case endings of nou ns and
adj' ecti ves were either cl rapped or great! y Changes
in
Enf:lish
altered. Pronouns were simplified, verb;il aft e r the
endings were clipped, and sentences con- Conquest.
structed on new models. Vast numbers of old En glish words were disu sed and then forgotten. T he
old English books we re no lon ge r generally read,
and few n ew hooks wer e written to take their pbccs.
When m en did begin again to write En gl ish, mo st of
those who could write at all were familiar wi th
Anglo-French, which in course of time had cl iverg,·cl
considerably from the French of the conlrne11t .
The writers of English therefore naturally used now
a, ncl then a French word in place of an Frt""nch
English one, in translating from the words.
French or in writin~ something ori:.:; i:1: tl.
The num ber uf borrowed words, sm all at first, gradually increases, until in Chaucer's po<.:ms from seven

..

....
'

WORDS.

BORROIVEJJ WORDS.

to twelve per cent. of the vocabulary 1s of French
origin. Of these words a large number have remained in use up to the present. Such arc agree,
allia1lce, bea11ty, laug·11agc, prayer, per.form, piteo 11 s,
processio11, nason, 11sag·e. Th ese early Fn.: nch words
have been supplemented by numerous othe r borrowings from the F ren ch at late r periods. The process is
much s low er now than formerly , but is still goi ng on .
In the wake of early bo rrow ings from th e French
came more terms from th e Latin. The reaso n is
obvious. Many of the Latin w0rcls difLatin
fered but sl ightly in fo rm from words
words.
::i.lready adopt<.:d from the French ; a ncl it
was as easy t o t::i.ke a need ed wo rd at one(; from the
Latin as through the medium of th e Fre nc h. The
extent of the additions from this sourcl: h as vari ed
from time to time, but the borrowing has never
entirely ceased.
Some Latin su bs tantives have been adopted
n- c whateve r. S uch arc
Un c han g ed without any ch::inb
Latin
album , area, ccttsus, circus, g·ntius, index,
w o rds.
interest, itC11t, orator, pastor, se11ator, spca·-

The motives for borrowing arc numcro11s . Tn
some cases there is a genuine call for a new worci.
In others the native wo rd is 111 e\·cry Motive•
rl:spect bet t er, but it is se t aside for :1
fo,
burro wi ng- .
fureign rival that chances to be in fas hiun.
\Vords and p lira ses familiar o n ly tn a sl·!cct circk
have a peculiar charm for sum c }icnplc , wh<1 kc! t h: L1
the use of such terms is a mark of soci:tl disti11clirn1.
Pedanti c writers of the sixteenth anJ sevenll'en t h
centu ri es were especially fond of s howin g LhL:ir
learnin g by usin g long Lalin wo rd s 11\ pr,· I crc11cc l iJ
English words; and it is t•> he feared tl1 :1L Ll1c r:1cc
of such writers is not entirely extinct.
It is importan t t o note that in spite uf the s e
borrowings the native elem e nt has always p redom inated in En bcrlish books, even in those P rc do1nrnanc
. c
most overrun with fore ign terms . Th l· of the En~l i s h
<r ramn1aticai fran1cw0rk has never cc~ l ~c d
element.
,...,
to be l•:n ;,;1ish. Ali Cl lllllc ct iv c w"rds . such :1s i'r,·;J·J sitiuns and conjunclinns, :Lil t he pni11"u11s, 1 the :tt1:-.i~ ­
iary verbs, and most words exp ress in g- s impk itk:ts
arc English. Names u( fo reign objects h:t\'c usu;tliy
come t o us with the things tiH.:msch·cs. I 11 this w:ty
we have borrowed rl/.ua11, ,1w11i11i;-, cart1;·,111 fr1•lll the
Pers ia n; JV!os!cm , salaam, s/i,·rl1et frnm the 1\ r;1liic;
/Jamboo, ,r;o11.i;, ra!tt111 frurn the l\Ltlay.
Similarly we ha\·e bo rro wed most of our \\Tn1s "[
war and of bw from the French. Tlic"lu.~ic:t! terms
we have t;tkcn from Lttin and Cn:c·k . ands<> 011.

11LC1t.

·In the course of the last five cen turi es numerous
other additions to the English vocabulary have been
Oth er
made from G reek and Italian and Spani s h
borrowed
and Arabic and Ch in<..:se and th e dialects
'\VorJi;.
of East India. Sc::ircely a morkrn language ca n be named to which we do not owe something.

1

Yet som e forms may Le in pa rt du e to

~(andinavian

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irdlt1t.:r:ce.

(~;..._...

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16

WORDS.

After this brief survey we are prepared to consider
the question, What entitles a word at present to be
called English ? The only test is that it
Test of Eng- b
· . of t h e most careful
.
lish worda.
e use d bYa maJonty
writers and speakers of our own time.
To determine how widely a word is used we must
search the works of a great variety of writers. The
unsupported authority of no single writer is sufficient to ensure the permanent acceptance of a word.
To be generally adopted, a word must be suited to
the needs of the people for whom it is used. It
must not be too old or too new, too vulgar, too provincial, or too technical. No invariable rules can be
given for admitting or excluding a word; but a few
general principles may serve as a guide.
In the dictionary we find a motley company of
words, old, new, native, foreign, many of whi~h we cannot use at all. Of the old words some
Obsolete
are
obsolete. Obsolete words are of two
words.
classes. To the first class belong many
excellent old English words, which went out of use
centuries ago, and have never been revived. If used
in a modern book, they convey their meaning either
imperfectly or not at all. Some old-fashioned words
like wot and trow and erst yet linger in solemn or
poetical diction, but arc no longer current in everyday speech. If, therefore, our aim is to be intelli~
gible, we should not defeat our purpose by using
words at once affected and obsolete. The other
class of old words consists of borrowed terms that

PROVINCIALISMS.

never succeeded in getting full recognition as
English. Our dictionaries are crowded with such
words, introduced by pedants, but rejected because
not needed. Thus beauty left no place for jmlclzritude, and patchwork for consarcination. People have
preferred to say that an object is marked with a
cross rather than to call it cmcigerous:
When old words go out of general use they frequently linger in remote districts. Such words
obtain no literary recognition except in
dialect stories ; but they may, through a Provin
d cw
wor s .
variety of circumstances, again come into
wide circulation. Many so-called Americanisms are
good old words that have for some reason failed
to hold th eir own in England. To this class belong
freshet, meaning flood, fall, meaning autumn, and
guess, meanin g think. But there are numerous other
expressions peculiarly American, which seem never
to have been used elsewhere in the sense applied to
them in this country. Some of these words arc
used only in the south and some only in the west.
and some only in the east . and north.
Examples of provincialisms are tote for carry,ornery for ordinary,- notions for knickknacks,- bad
for £11,- pack
for carry,- . rock for small Examples of
.
stone,- train (verb) for frolic,- fix for m end, provincialrepair. We hear occasionally: "This is
isms
an everlasting big farm"; " I don't guess the corn is
shucked, but we're goin' to meetin', for they say the
preacher is a rouser."

..

.... ;,,.

\
18

WORDS.

Provincialisms in pronunciation appear in saying
cheer for c!tair; ma' sit for marsh; keow for cow; in
making calm and psalm rhyme with ham, and in
numerous other expressions.
Closely allied to provincialisms are slang phrases.
Slang· is low or vulgar language, not generally
adopted by careful writers and speakers.
Slan1t.
Slang words may have some vogue for a
few months or years, but they usually
give place to other phrases, which in turn run a brief
career. Some slang is more picturesque and forcible
than more dignified phrases ; and some terms once
regarded as slang are now counted among our most
valued words. In serious composition, however, all
phrases of doubtful propriety should be avoided,
though probably no one but a pedant excludes them
entirely from his conversation. In any case there
is no need of haste to form a slang vocabulary, for
it will usually g row without artificial cultivation.
Quite as objectionable as slang is the use of trite
and meaningless phrases. The vulgarity
Trite
phrases.
of such language is well exposed by a
forcible writer in The (London) .'::,pectator:
"The people who seem to find it im possil.ile to speak of an
unmarried man except as •a g-ay bachelor, ' with whom the sea
is always 'the briny' or •the herring pond,' and a horse •a
fiery stee<l,' who eternally talk about • Sunday go-to-meeting
clothes,' and who have' such phrases as •no extra charge,'
'agitate . the tintinnabulator,' •the noxious weed,' ' the pipe
of peace,' '.fo rty winks,' and •braving the elements,' are capa'
l

Is this the best word?

VULGARITY OF D I CTION.

19

producing a sense of disgust in those who care to see
language kept bright and clean, which is absolutely intolerable. '
It is difficult to say whether these cant phrases - that is a
erfectly proper description of them - are more odious wh en
used consciously or uncom;ciously, that is, by people who
.believe th em to be funny, and intend that their hearers should
consider them funny, or by th ose who have merely caught them
up and repeat them like parrots and with out any intention ,
good or bad. Jn our own opin\on the use of •common-form'
jocularities is most offe nsive in those who. think of them as wit,
,though most painful in persons who use them unconsciously and
as mere methods of expressing th eir meaning .. .. As a rule,
however, people who take to the use of mental jocularities com bine the mental standpoint of those who try to ue funny with
he hollow sprightliness of mere imitation. They have a halfearted belie f that they are being funny, but at the same tim e
,, -their chief reason for talk ing about • maternal relatives, and
~·'.[,people of th e masculine persuasion' is the fact that they hear
those with whom they associate doing the same. They say,
; 'W hy this thusness?' or •A fine day for the ducks,' just as
they say• Yes' or ' No.'"

We must distinguish between the vulgarity of
slang and the homeliness of plain, fa miliar terms.
T he highest culture appears in usin g
the · simplest words possible to ex1)ress a Familiar
wordt>.
thought. No form of vulgarity is su
offensive as pretension; ;:rn cl nothin g is more amus~~ing than affected refinement.
People whose clicti1)iJ
"c"- _ is uniformly ovcrelc::;ant set up a false ~ l andard ,,[
excellence. They have an uneasy conscivusness of
·narrow culture, and they try to make a large display
n a small basis.

,,,
zo

WORDS .
fNFf A T FD DICTION.

Writ e rs of this sort betray the c rudity of their
taste by using pretentious phrases. An o rdinary
speech is a "masterly effort "; a tolcrabk actress is
"quee n of the tragic stage," and her performance
is a "triumph uf the histri oni c art"; a pi c ture of
some merit is called a "m:-ttc hlcss work of inspired
b·e nius" or a "sy mph o ny of gorgeo us colori11g," ~ind
so o n ad 1u111sc a111 .
"\Vh e n people ha1·e had •a good schooling' and a rc · ,t;l'ntce l '
and yl'l hal"(.: no idl'as an d no l:htcs, p 1u \\' ill noti ce that th ey
kcc·p up g e ntili1 y :u1d cons ide rati on l1y li ne word s , 1Vh icl1 m ea n
iL•sl \\'h a t plain ones mean, but \\'hi c h arc a s vell"l.:l paletots to
Jilai n I 1roa dclot h .
·· · J\ nd s.,,' says t l1e youn.c;- ma n, ' we fou nd an exce ll e nt hostc:lry, and min e li ust g; 11·c us some de li cio us salmon a 11d c ucu m bt:r, and a s alad c<> n1 p11u n dcd with a g reat va r iety <>f ingn.:d ie nLs,
and II'<.: discussed tlic l' i:1n ds set licforc..: us ll' ith consi <krai>h.: re lish
a nd iiniJiiJed a qu an tit y of t he 1·inous Huid ,' e tc . A c tuall y th e
man thinks h e h:1s been tal king to you in a re fined and ge n ke l
11''1)' , wl1erc as it is, when analy1.c d, nothin;; m o re th :1n the we il was li c d pig g runting on.: r his l ro u.~·h wi1h a 1norc or less Lat iniscU
gru n t.
But Lat.in J•ig s arc only pigs :tflcr all."'

I'relenti u us write rs fail t o realize th at th e ir innatecl
and unnatural diction is an imposture cer tain to be
Falsity of detected , a nd that they cannot make a
pretentious co mpositi on forcible and di g 1:ifi cd by boldiction.
sterin g u p smal l tho ugh ts w1tl1 large
phrases. In the effort tu b1.: u11ifurmly magnifice nt they write a style t h<tt is fataiiy inexact. T hey
expend all the ir fine words on unw o rthy objec ts,
l Letters r'f J'ame1 Smetlwm, pp.

167, 168.

2I

a n d thus leave none fo r thin gs of real importan cL-.
!T o w can one adequa te ly describe a hurri cane if Ulh.:'s
strnn<•·cst p hrases have bee n spent on a ga le?
Dr~ Johnson is frequently censu red for thl: pomposity of his diction. Fe\V m en han: Juhn sn •»s
kn o wn be tter tha n h e the value of pLun, r,~,':,\'~.~-·
homely phrases; yet when he wished to
be especially im pressive h e wa s fund ., f u si11g lun ;.;and sonorous words.
«nin.l(- . f11rv.:1rd.''
,, (·'s. !11". . '\V". . . I")' "· •as· l'::i
•
, ,sa\·c;
•· \vi 1cn t I le S:l Ie o f 1 ' J11·oJ

B uswe ll ,
Jo'111so n ;ippc:ircd l>ustlin .~ ;1 ]. i1Jt1t . w1tt1 : 111 i;u, r1,_i1 :1
an d pen in his bu ttonhole, lik e an L'.\:Chcn1:1n, ~111 1 1 i1n lw11 1.~
>\

1

asked what he re a lly co n s id c 1·cd to be the value u t

which was to he

di:-.pf1:;;.cd

1if,

;111:-,\\'c•rt·d .

'\\ ~ c:

are

l

he p.r"i'cr l 1·
Jiid

Such a style is easily caricat ured , as
appears 111 th e following- parody by the
poet ll uud

~· 1

111 ·r \ ·

sell a p.u cci of bniJer, and l<lh hut the potent1.L1111· of gr"''
ri ch IKyund t he ci rc'J.lllS "f '1\ .1ri cc . "' '

11it;

H ood 's
caric a ture o f
j oh u son ' s
~ t yk .

•A s I am hut an occasion:d read er in the lt:mpor:Hy indul ,t;c· n• ·e
o f in klll'ctual rclaxatiu n , I !"11·c !nit rece ntlr l1ec"m c :· o~:n1'.:1!l ; ... 1
· ·
tl 1e n1t: tro pnlitan pul,!ic:tl\4111
11 f 1~ J 1-· 1~I 11 rn
• ~l' ·;-.,· :\lr
•
· Crnk.- r ,. ~:1
. ·.
Bt>swcll's Dr John so n· a c ircu1nst a 11cc the rnorc to Le dcplc c akd for if J had been simult.tn< ou ,, ly aware ut that am.dg.1111 atinn o f nli '."\ce lLi.nenus 111 cmi) r; tnda . l c1Hild h:1se contr 1h 11t1 d. a
an
perso na I qw> 1",, o·1· c· li-i' ra· c t 1 · ri ·~tic· 1·tiiiolllli:d
. .
. ecd. 1ite.s _· to
_ tile
_-- li i1i
. I j ":11 n.: n1 \nis c~ nc e s ( if tlit.: n1ultJtud1ncHls h:.\l 1....ug1 .qJ lh r.
g rapic.
·
·
.
. .
,. l' · . . .. · •.
which alth0tivh
founded o n the l1as1s ot 1ndL1 u1 ta J1c '_c1.1 c 11_. .
0
I
has n' c 1·c r transpired am .rng tic
mu Jt'f
_1 a 1··Hrn s·· effus1uns
. .
. . , of
1

that stupe ndous c0mplicat i<m of m ec hamcal 1ngenu1ty, which,
1

Boswell: Lift of J ohnson. vo l. iv, p. 65.

'c

'

..;, :,;·;.

...

·t-t·

,

,.

22

according to the tcchnicaltics oi usage in our mode rn nornc ncl;iture, has ol1t ai11 ed the un ivnsal cog nome n uf th l' pri:,s.
Expediency im perious ly dictates that the n om inal idi:ntity uf th e
hered itary kin s man, from whom I deri\"c my authoritatin; responsibility, sha ll be ill\·iolahly and umhrag.:ously olisc ured ; but in
future va riorurn cditiuns his \'O lun tary addenda to th e a lready
in est imable co ncatenat ion of circu mstan tial parti c ub ri sation
might typogr:1phi c:tll y lie discriminat e d from the li te rary accum ulations of th e inckf:ttigalile n os\\'ell and the vivacious l'iozzi, liy
the significant classificatio n of lluz, l'o7., Coz." '

Since the Engl ish vocabulary includ es more
than a hundred and fifty tho usand words, there is
little need of using new fore ig n t erms.
N e w foreign
word s.
Travelers m::i.y be pardoned fo r occ::i.sion;i.lly adopti ng the n;i.me of an ohjcct
peculi ::i.r to a forc: ig n country , as, fo r instan ce,
jinrikisha, for the national carriage of J apan. Butwhat excuse is there for spic ing one's co nversation
wit h sc raps of French s uch as disti11gm! o r !taut gm2t
or coup ti'wil, or fo r adve rtising, as a London theatre
docs, that "in the parterre thcfrr11teui!s a rc the most
rcc/1erclt/s in Lon don"? The F rench of the liveryman who keeps a lu1!cl-de-!torse can he rivaled only
by the wonderful bng-uag-e of res taurant bills-o ffarc, which is ce rtain ly not En gli sh, a nd somet imes
anyth in g but French.
Thackeray ' •
Thackeray th us satirizes the affectat io n
satire of barf llSin
· g l'. rcnc l1 p l1rases W l1ere 1_'..ng
· ' l ISh
'
r owed French 0
p hrases.
wou ld better serve the purpose: "·\Ve have not much
I

I f ood 's Own , p. 329.

NEEDJ.FSS FOREIGN PllRASFS.

'WORDS.

111011d11

to-day,' continued Miss Broug h,

23

.
in etit comite ; but I hope before yo u le:we, us
P , l
.
ke yo ur stiour agree:ihle .
• a nd a1 e o. nl y
.
• netcfil t iat w1 11 ma
,
.
you wtll sec sonic '
·
. . f· hion-lble girl, from her ustn g
l saw at once that she w,\s a .lS
,
.
ll
I· " uacre in this way.
the .f renc11 ,w_,, . "'
r l .
. to what s he had been doing a
To the inquiry of her iat ie r as
da'.

~h;~·~pl~e~1~ve

pincM __th~

h~rp

a little to Captain F izgig"s

· I ' t I Captain l· izvw?
flute. Dtl n
• • •
.·"' 1' "-· . s·iid. ' Yes Brough ; your
Hon Francis · tzg1g · '
·
.. '
·
l
.
l
Captarn t ie
.
.
h
cl touchcd the piano, an<
-" 111
· r 'ti th e arp, an
·
l
fair claug 1ter r
.'
. cl
. ·', a so n" o r two; anti we
. 'd I . "ntar an horu1er/ • - "'
l
igraLt,t;"lle
t le gl .' '
, a l'i:tw _ _ of a walk u pon t 1e
had the pleasure o l a promi:ll11t 1e

wat ·r.'
. l\' _ , g h , walk on th e waler?'
l'1i n I' cnes l '1rs . 1,rou •
"
·
·
,
d t cl French!' says IY11ss
• L aw, cap•
'Hush, mamma ! you don t un ers an
Belinda with a snee r.
I
, s-iys Fiz•'i" grave ly. · and
•It 's a sad d isadvantage, mac a 111, .. , .
""'. "
t in the
cl Bro u•"h here, who are comtn,,. ou
I reco mmend you an
"'
. . . at least "el up a couple o f
11 to have s011ie lessons' 01 '
, . "'
.
l
g reat wor < •
'
.•
I
· D )'Ollr Cot1\'ers:1ttnn \L'l'l'
_
d
introduce
t
iem
tn l
..
I
dozen p 1rases, an
.
. . k 't co mllhlnly at th e .. 11tcc·.
"
.
l
suppose,
s
tr,
you
spea
t
.
.
.
.
, .•
an <l t11e1e .
· . ,
d M. Fi z •i•r pu t !us glass u1to hi:- \.)C
o r what yo u c:ill it ?
/\n ' t.
.t; "

::·:Ft
'

'(\

:l

and looked al me.
k
·
it better than
•We speak Eng I.ts I1 • s ir,' says I. · now rng

·~r

Fre nch .'
I
ot had you r opportumti cs, Miss Brough.'
• Everybody ias n
' ,
d
has no t ''"Jlil,i;i' like
con tinu ed the ge ntl eman.
Eve rybo y
nous attires, hey?'" '

· 0 wor ds. 1s not so
.
of a' fe w f orewn
The acqu1. s1.t 1011
h'
,
t that the borrowed The u se of
b [
borrowed
g reat an UC ievc:men
l y be paradell e o re
hrases
must
constant
words.
P
· 11b or s . An
less for tun ate nc1g
. . unl
o ur
.
b "ntnn s1cally as gooc
familiar fo re ig n t e rm m ::i.y c i
l

The Creal //oggarty Diamond , ch. vii.

\•'

-~ : 1:., ' .&;

WORDS.

as a word borrowed five centuries ago, but until the
new word is generally used it may best be left to
writers and speakers who have nothing to lose by
making experiments.
Some linguistic purists insist that Englis h words
shou lcl in all cases be preferred to words of fo reig n
The: rule cannot be mack so dogThe choice origin.
ofwords.
matic, since the whole matter <kpends
upon the use we wish to rn;tkc of the
words. The safest rule is to select those words, of
what e ver origin, that most exactly express our meaning. If cl earness is our sole pui-pose, we may, when
the subject is simple and untechnical, co1wey our full
thoug ht by means of the nati~·e vocabulary alone.
But if, in a scientific treatise or in any writing that
takes us a little outside of the usual run of experi ence, we confin e ou rselves to words of English origin,
we shall write a clumsy and blundering style:, chat
will be hardly intelligible. Beauty and force, as well
as clcarness, :ire best seemed by a jud icious alternation of the native and the foreign eleme nts. A passag e from which all words of forei g n origin have
been exc lu ded appears somewhat stiff and affected:
while, on the othl'r hand, a pass:tge needlessly
crowded with borrowed words is usually heavy and
pompnus. The best Engli s h prose writers use from
seventy-five to eighty per cent., and in short passages
even ninety per cent. of nativl' words. In poetry
there is in general a higher pro porti on of 11;1tivc
words than in prose.

NATIVE AND BORROWED WORDS.
rr
The cliff erence in the cHect
procj ucer j 1)y· 1ut.ive.
and by borrowed wore ls ma}, 1) c .s c·en by corn p:nuitc,
and analyzin g the following p:tss:tges : -

. I101.se~.
. , .ant l their women
set ·.i n_
.. Then m e n leaped un their
. were
, . _·I
. . So th c v fared four days a-ruling and ulli c- r fodl a s 111)
warnsl .
. b y Lt11<
. I ;JtH l ioa
. d ' till at the bst
l ·l '.four murc au·;un
bo:irc ' an< ye
.
'."
. I . II '[' I1e. 11. ctme
t" n11:d
·
t , ., ce rlam hwh-ln11ll 1.1 ·
I
t 1ey came ' ·
'
. "'
I
.. ., r "I\' .,·.,"dl y feast
Gudrun m;rny folk thronging; :tlll an t· xu:ec in,... . " . I . k.
.
. . I . , · I l1atl .ir1111c
hel\\'t.T!l
w ·is tlicrc Tnade. c\·e n .ts lit.: \\ot<
~
. <:It wt
·\
I 111.
.'
' I ·[ . , . ·fl f..rth Jn
. 11ll1St Jlr<Hl( I ,l. 11d ~ t·1ll.'l
' ,.l ll
.!,
'
·1· Wl .'<' .
anr
I
• t
·er rlld
h1·r
I . . 1~ . i'""'
·t cl ·in ks Atl i his liridal with Gue run; ou Ile\ .
.
.:
theart
l.lt e.1s
laugh ' u n .I.
llm , am I little ·swed and

kine! w;is th e ir l11 e

together ." t
"Now, as tli e waves were nnt s <> high as at fi rst . heii·'.c; ''. '.·",·

J l J held my hold till the wave abated, and th e n fetcliet
anc •
.
. nea
. r the .shore, that th e next
another
run which
urought me so
. .
tlwu;li it Wt'nt <ffe r me. yd did not so swallow me up ·.''
·"":.>
• •
l
~ r11n 1 toPk I . gqt toI .ll1e·r l1n ;11n,f
to c;1rr1· int.: awa\ , and tic next
hncl \~• here to mv ~re.it c11mf11rt. I claml"·n·d up_ I ic tills ' .
•
'
· down upnn ti le g:t.ass,
. . free
and
sat ·me
. trom < ang:er,
ti· IC' S·l1ore,
.
__
,, .,

•

\vave,

a11d quite uul of re:tch ol the water.

-

.
u" ()n :1 c,treks s inspn.:11u11,
you P'-'. T c·1ve nu
. accurac\·
. . -., ur
, u1···tr
.
.
I
·iti n of the h e avenly bodies.
I h ey •'P i'" '
fnrntll 1· 111 t ie pos "
.
. - I · · · loh ··s ·

I .,.

- illu ·triuu s chaos, a promiscuous heap or s lllllng g
L. '
1,ean
'
.
]'
Jltwli1tsecms
t1e·ither nnkt.:d in orde r , n or ino v1n;.; by rne.
u
:
..
- a s1l1> w of ne1fli~·e
1H't·· ts
r.. .
I~ .· • . . ·di re 11uiarit y. wh;tt carrws

con us1on ls·

.-.

· '

·

y

. J

Ll tl11nk

•

ally tl1e result uf the lllost lllasterly contnvancc.
u l
I .
re.: . .
·. rove in th eir aerial Hight; but they ro,·c ))' tie

thou~h

pc rh ,1ps. they ·
. .
Tl ··r circuits
nicC'st rule and withuut the J ea~t e nn1.
ie1
..
·.
.. . ' ( l cv1o
. us,
. their mazes
in tricate to- rn1r
app1eseen11nu·1y
'" . ·- ~ thotwh
b
. . 1 l*
.hens1ons,
. "' are inctr
. k ccI ou t ' not inclcecl IJy., o"olden c"mp.bs c, , .•l '
.
..tn cl l\'01-ris
1 ivtagnusson
1 '1
. .• The Sfrry •of t!u Vohu11gs, p.
'l'he L1/~ i111d Adventures of No/Jinso11 lrusoe.

1 29.

NFW WORDS.

26

WORDS.

by . '.he ' infinitely more exact deter minations
Sp1r1t."

o f the

all-wise

.
variety of m ode rn edu . .
''The
. r c'.1t1 on encourages a scatt e red di le tanllsm. It is on !)• in
1
o •Y
p101css 1onal !if· ti ·
nn,,, m en arc j)JJ\\'Crfttll
e
i.1t t le encr.,ies o f
yfl~
·
v concentrat d
· 'h
.
" ·
e . cc t 111 th oro ugh prufes~irnnl t . .. e . l e re is a steadying
does not supply. Our I . . :
rat ntllg' wl11 c h school cducati< n
.
.
){l\s 1ece11·c
.. . .
• )
m a ny things most im perl~cth· . I p t ''.t".: and pri zes fo r d o in«
remain i" no1·"" 11t of 11· Int J . i' .1nc
'tf t Iley
"'
· . it ts not th e ir f:1Ltll
·

0
rn e nsit y of
the labo r \l'hich li~r-cclloll reall y is, and of th e im •
well
.
, per Jlaps, \l'lthout
di,co co~h
. .111 . I thmk ti iat yo11 would do
1
111 "'" 1)' .1ccu1ak
,
. . estimat
.
.
,. · -u r. ~ 1-'. ·\'ou r son t oo mu c.h h)' c htll.
. cs o 1 t 1le ,·aluc 0 f I
ma ·e him on '- !! p10per
.
w
iat
he
has
d
o
occasio . f ,1
'·
ne, to
k
1
Jetween hall-kn o\l' led"e and ti ns elc and sec the differe nce
1
·
r r a )'<H1th
-~ to b . ll>IOll"
,..,"OOd ti ung
io
. I .~ 1 ma• .s te ry . I t \\'Ould be a
a price of labo r Nature h;~s m.~tc e clcarh• aware how enormous
C\'CJ'\'th
SC
upon
.
rbhment in
.
'. .tng t Il at is reallr wo. rth.
f 1 · . h wh
"' '·1. ccomp
0
suasion,
which
,
•
)
lls
purs
uit.
Jt
is
ti·lls. pere n usuallv arrii·c al
,.
••
.
·

111

ope1ates as the mos t

effect~1 •aJ t ranqu1
. T n) '.n their maturity, that
izc r ot fr ivolo us a c til'iiics.'"
11

1

People who are ignorant
·
of ti . I ...
:-tng;u:irrc arc !) .
H.: 11story of our
"'
. Jone to e nlarge their
Form a tion ackl1n a- well l·
.
vocab ulary by
"'
-,nown · termtnat'
of new
already in <rood use \"h' ions to words
words.
b
.
' v ere the
.
word suppl ies a . 1
proposccl
natio n is of the s
. '. J ca need, and the tcrmi.
amc orwrn ·1s ti
is adclecl, the obi'c t' .. "' , . 1C word to which it
c ions :-trc not . .
to words of En"'lish t ·l· f
. sc nous; but wh ere
dl
"
s oc' orewn tc .
.
nee cssly appended ti
cl
"'
rmmat1ons arc
great. \Ne do ind.' I. 1C anger of deterioration is
eec apply som e r
1·
and suffixes to bo
c.ng tsh prefixes
rrowcd
worcl
s,
and
some
l)O rrowed
1
·

1

11
- ervey: Meditalio11r
'""' ~
.
J111dlert11al J. j/.
lnnt1·111plul1Nrs,
I"
/ '- p art ·..111,. Le tter
v.

loo.

; Hamerton:

171e

prefixes and suffixe s to English words. vV e say
unnatural and not i11natural, aml we add the English
suffixes !y al1l1 11css to make unnaturally and 111matura1ncss. Such formations as these take us back
to a time when, owing to unsettled u sage, many new
elem e nts c rept in to the language. In the co urse of
centuries the except ional usage h as acquired th e
authority of a law. To these words we thcrdo rc
make no objection, and we add the formative
elements without any thought of incon g rui ty .
More serious objection may be raised against aLltling foreign suffixes to native words. H we arc t o
Bad
have skatist a.nd 7Ualhist and slwotist for
formations.
s/;;ntcr anr1 walker and shooter, then why
not nomist and wor/;;ist and writist r If
soa('i11c and sl:atorial arc good words, what is to be
s::i.id against w /uatine and cornine, r11n11orial and
7Uritori1rl ? Such words arc n ot on1y n ot needed, but
they mar the purity of the la nguage, ::i.nd hinde r
its natural development .
The use of a new wonl covering the same g round
as an old one inv olves the disuse of the Needless
old word. For this reason we condemn old
disuse
of
words.

sig1tist f or sig11-pn inter, combine for co1!lbiw1tion.

The invention of new terms that follow the analogy

Absurd
of words already adopted may eas ily be
carrictl to absurdity. F rom 11atio11 we get new "'ords.
11ntionnl and then natio11alizc; dcnationa/i;;e and dc11ationali:;atio11 easily follow. Much

WORDS.

farther we ca nn ot well go. If we plead the analogy
of 11atio1111/is1 and coi n dc1111/1{111ali:::a11·011is1, we shall
have a word made regularly enough , n ot mu c h worse
than deuomina1io11a/is1, but we sha ll have added
another hideo11s formation to t he lo ng list o f un Eng lish words.

I

By app lyi ng the foregoi ng tes ts we may rid o ur
vocabulary of some of the words clearly unfit to be
Doubtfur

expressions .

r e tain ed. But there are 1111merous
1 expressi o ns whose status is n ot exact y deter-

mi ned. They may be put int o a class by
themselves, and used -caut io usly. A writ er ca n usually find for su c h t e rms subs titutes not open to
question. If, h owever, no other wo rd already in
good use expresse s lh e same mean ing as a proposed
new te rm, the latter will be likely to win favor.

I

I

What has been sa id app lies on ly when one's intention is to conform lu t h e s tandards of the literary
When to use language.
\ Vhen, h ow<.:ver, a noveli st or
uo111>tfu1.
dranwtist or poet adopts the diale c t of Iris
phrases
cha racters, he is under few r<.:st rictions in
his c h o ice of words. i\n y expressio n, how evn technical o r antigu:ited 01· prov in cial, is admissible if
it is really chara c teristi c. Sh akespea re uses many
doubtful phrases, bu t he puts them int o the mouths
of sui table persons. Oliver Wend e ll Holm es in Tltf.'
l Vo11t!t·1fit! Onr-Iloss Slwy, James H. usscll Lowell in
The Biglow Papers, and Tennyson in T!te Nor/Item
F11nllrr use words unkn ow n to s tandard English .
Yet the very lack of conformity to ordinary gram-

PRINC/f'l.f~.

. in . s uch
mat .r eal and literary standanl s is
. . . cas.es
) ·aka
l a writer protcss1..s to s1 'I
. .
·
positive
mer· ·it · Butwier _ ' b, satisfied with
nu tl.1··
ui ~
.
. -son he must e
.
I
in his own pe1.
'
. l. J f - ·c from vtrl g .u 1ty .lilt
short of th<.: purest l·,11g is i, re
''

I;

affectation.
.
from "cncr.tl i1111 tu
l f nltun..: van es
o
The stanJan o c
.
.. ll
used in the
words
un1vers.t
Y
S
gc·ri··r-ation.
orne
·
~·
and ei o- I1tee11 ti· 1 centuries Vari ati o n
seventeenth
o
] -·· . and we
in
.
S coarse and
Vll g .t1,
standards.
seem I to I u.
_ 1.t ·rar)' vucalrn bry.
I ..
• l l fru rn u u 1 I c '
exclu t ct 11.; 1
. . l . now Ill "OOl u s e .
' .
)\·erLtkc W U I l s
,... The same fate nuy <
.. ·n observing the
Our only safety, therefore, is '
caution of l'ope: - -

lamrlr~tt

. lC. rule
•·J n word :; a s f-,\s·hr.o ns. t I1e san
J-l · will huld,
. . if tou new u1 o t '
/\like fa ntas ti c
., . ·m.: tri ed ,
fi11 . ·t li y wll<>m t.h e nc v .
Be..: not the
'
ill ·1sidc..:. " '
• ·
Nur yet th e..: I asl l u hv
. , t 1l<..: U

. .rde:t () f w 1'··tt we wi s h to s; 1y
ecrse
pr .
. I . to express what
.
, . c not the precise wo rl s
or rf we h.1v
.
·I ll not succeed
I
Ct' I v e we s 1a
Clearne8'
w<.: ck; uY
con
,
'
. - to others. of doction.
.
our thotwht c·l eat
in maktng
,...
e m eanin rr, and
ore! but on
o
.
Had evf':
ry
w
..
·I o f ec1ual intcl11g;cncc'.,
]I
!<:rs possessel
were a
reac .
.
. ·1 li ttle difficulty rn
l l b , co mpa rat ive y
.
, ·h ..
there
wou
c
e
. .
. l
A rr bnce at t I1C Jict1011ary. tcac LS
wrrtm g clear y.
<>
wo rds like fare,
ti1at eve n common
l
.
f
.
ts • however,
e
a c' reat variety o
•/, ·
.
o
frame, matter, s11 uec /' obIJ ect ' 1i •tv
J[ we hav<.: no

l.l!:uay on li·iticism, II. 333- 335.

(

29

· . £.CT/UN.
OJ· · ::,;J
.

,.,,

JO

WONDS.

meanin rrs
To .
I , • "' .
express o ur thought exactly we must
t i crefo re use each word as hr .
. ' .
same s
• h
, . . as possible in the
ensc t row ,·hout the ·1·
·
"'
( 1scoursc
EsjJe ·. ll
important is it t h at .. I
:
c1,1 y
.
'
cac
i wo rd n :ta111 ti , S:'11ie
m ea111n a- th - 1 , I
ic "
b
I< u,;10u t the sam e se 11tencc
Tn order to se lect ti .
·
·
.
ic prec ise te rms tint
'
, I
we mu s t ha ve a hrrr,
, we ncet
E
.
.
,
, be
voc;1buhry. .l'overty
[
xa ctncs s of dict ion
I
0
express io n
.
co m pc S ll S to use the sa m e t .. .
requires a
rn a vari ety of s ' . . .
'- 111l
large
.
cnscs, and to mult'i ii
~ocabuiary. weak c11-c umlocution s
\rV • .,
. ) Y
n::tm e ·
·
c c.1 11 either
,
.tn u lJject
o r desc ribe it
Tl . l
. .
be exa t I . · .
.
·
le ( e scnpt1on may
• < c '
) lit it requires more words
Tl
. .
must th e refo re in c re ~s" 111·.
) 1 •.
i c writer
' " 'S VO C" l )LI 'tr
t
ti
·
wh e re it can ·'o ·111 tl1
k l, . , y o ic pornt
.
" ·
c wor
a1J
·
wise h • 11··11
upon rt. Otherc
r
perpetually us e cl
.
instead of the
.
·
umsy paraphrases ,
exact words needed to c
I .
meanin g .
unvey irs
The varying a p·• a 1 t .
b e 'nc a ta rnm e nts of r <'aders
I·
n ecessa ry a dict ion suited t th .·
. -·
ma 'c
.
·' " - .
o e rr capac ity. A book
Diction
cic,u to a n ;id ult may he I . . . ,
•uitedto
c hild · . ,
O>SC lll C loa
th e reader.
. .
'
.u .c1 a . book clea r to a man of
era]
sc 1en cc may yield no meaning t o a
.
reader. When th e reader's difficult " . < _ge n of the use of t.. . .
.
Y ,,, 1uws out
c1 ms r cqt1rrcd fo r exactness thcr.
b
may e no r eal obs . t .
'
c
trouble is with tbe r~~~~l1e;. I>~h~:l~s c~pres~i.on. The
und erst a nd the sub3.ect
1:··[.
-·J n J t p i epa r cd t o
c1 cct c C"" 1·11 es s o f c1·ic tron
.
.
C'tn ti
b
·
,
i us e attarned only by modifyrn cr th t " .
of th e tOj)ic accor .1.
e rcatm e nt
"
,
c m g t o tie
f
1 cap .t
whom we write
WJ
I
< ac1 y o
those for
.
iere t 1C: obscurity is due to the

E.\'.-ICT USE OF l·VONDS.

31

writer's confusion of thought , th e difficulty li es
deeper, and is often beyond re m,edy.
Every art and sc ience has a multitude of t e chnical
words, n ecessary for convey ing an exact mcanm g.
The botani s t speaks of petioles and corTcchnicat
ymbs and parcnclt)lll/(7; a nd the physiolo- words.
gist, of the ue11ro!cmma and of th e .1~y11u 1 1 ia!
11l<!11tbrt11lt'.
Such words are not really En g- lish;
they arc rather t echnical symbols which affo rd no
m ea nin g except to a specialist. Before usin g; t hc rn
we should determine whether the clas s of readers
we wish t o address will underst a nd them. If th<.:
words a rc n o t likely to be llndcrst ood, th ey should
be accomp:rnied by definitions. In writin g for specialists we may make o ur diction as technical as we
please; in writing for the general public we mu st
make some sacrifice of accuracy for the sak e of
being understood at all. A topic that cannot be
discussed without resortin g to num ero us tec hni ca l
terms is evidently unsuit ed to popubr treatment.
Precision in the use of words requires a careful
discrimination of synony ms. For example, we mu s t
distinguish between what is impossible and
what is impractz'cab!e; we must not con- Precision.
found ras/mess with temcri!JI, imprudence,
}resumption, audacity. Precision cannut be taught
by rules; it is rath e r the result of Jong practice by
which the w riter ultimately attains an exquisit<..: skill
in select ing those words and those only which exactly
convey his thought.

,. I

i

32

IVONDS.

\Vo rd s, to be used properly, mus t be employed in
t hei r generally ::icccptccl English signification. Violations of this rule arc called impropriImpro pricfas . cties.
N o fa ult is more common among
in experienced writers and ca re less speakers. Exa mples of improprieties arc th e use of
I/able for l1l:cly, as, " His salary h asn't been rai sed
yet, but it's Ila/lie to be at any time "; <J f lmlorsc
for sanction or approve, as, "I lndorse wh a t the
minister sa id this morning" ; of m ust fo r alm ost, as,
"Isn't he most clone?" of li!.·c fo r as, in " \Vhy don 't
yo u write li!.:e he does ? " of file for as if, or as
tltot1;:lt, in "It looks 111.-e it might be clea r to-nig ht";
of a,~'gravati11;: fo r jll"il'i:r1ki1~r;. as, "He is so aJ;gravatt>~i;"; of transpire for occur, as, "A fi g ht lr111tspirrd las t evening"; of quite and nice in such
expressions as, "It is q11itc a 11/cc day"; "Gladstone
is q t1lte a n ora tor"; "Q11itc a f ew studc11ts a re in
town"; "1 Ie think s he 's qttitc some. " Miscellaneous
examples of improprieti es appear in the following
sentences: "Scarcely had Phncbc's eyes rvsted ag;tin o n the judge's countenance l ltan its ug ly stcrn nc.:ss Llll is hcd ." '
"Th e d eepe ning shadoll"s o f Lady Rich's character made it
imposs ible.:, ktd he been so min ckd, for S hakespeare to la ud he r
11!.-c Sidney had done .'"
" L1w books are /air~v sp ri nkkd with Latin phrases."

"He was call ed a n idiot 1>_1· h is oldn l1rothcr, wi!/t whi c h ,·sit"I

Hawthorne: The

speare'.i .So111uts.

J/~11u t~f 11/c .Scve1t

c;ableJ. Z Gerald !'.fasscy; .Shake-

/J)f /'/\ O /'NI 1:.· FlLS.

33

;'

,.
,.-,,.;

.
I ' .me'
. l '·ts. he .savs
ma/ion h e large ly acqu1escec
. in htt-r years , with

I · [ uch wornen
ti . t th e re arc th OUS< llH s o s
"She hot ly rep Jes i.'. . .
l . •·I ' wd because.: the.: rnc.:n
. ' I t their h eroic quahtJc.:s are u1H l.\ c.: l I :
"
110 \\ • m
. · . 1·11/1· 1 r eel ucat ton.
·11
ot
·1lluw
thcrn
to
oi.J
t.un
.tJi
·~.
w1 .. Ca
n
•
I
l't · ·111 ·ittlvl1 1' .
1, .tn
..
E nuli
rl yle cfa 11n.1·
lo oe
o ·s h c.:ditor w 10 ec 1 s '
1
f c ·rnnn scholar."
ograp i y o a cI . .
I . . ti . t occur almost with1•11t
I
three.: c asses l. l
.
.
"\Ve can s1.' . '<1W1t
I ..
l-i1w forms a prlll c1p;1
1
.
'1 ·d
exccpt1on
11
• i th e jJlays where ove··111a, "'

: ~-. !

. .._•

so me reason."

j" •.

. ·i
~'els
le in what differe nt ways s1rn1 ar_ e e ..
"Jt is 111te re st1ng to no
. . pk of drlkrcnt

·irt of the action."

P·

. ..

•

..

. I

. l ], , s in1ilar t:a usc.: s a 1JHJ1lg J> L:~>

will be ]JIU<lltl<
)
.
I ·
cha raclt: rs am t1111 cs..
.
I
k
etfo ct of the mu n is '

.

.

•

. ,

. .
.
I· · f thi s h 'l:en I l l ' '1' ·
i\ st n k 11 w cx. unp c 0
.
, ,.,
. tl1 . eastern and wc~lt:rn
rI f,; .as .111uwn
c
.
111

}•

countries."
.
. .· ,- , s· so n c truod points."
'· ncnl
,, A s to a •111. ·I' s. bC
. rc.:ad111"
.~ Rusk111 g 11 e. . 1 ,,. l .
.. s
.
. I · ts for"d
t li;it a good fu11 n1 allon Is a: .
. .' ,.,
0
.. [th ink that m,rn y slue e n '.
. . ·is it j..; in athletics ...
.
. . ' ·. I •x cel lcn cc Ill men ta 11fli t!-> ' .
.
..
essential to spcc i.t c
I . II . . .. to ii l1nnl y an <l in
I . is hkL·n s ic .tl ic1cs
.. Wh en h er rcso vc.: · ·
' · . . G ·iu ·rl knows the .rnrdy
UI
e
such a pos itiv e nLt11n L' l .' tin' t Uc !\vis.
.t hat it will not lie broken. "
.
I
. I1an It u· tell wh dhe r it was his judgment that faik< ur
'' I tis
\"ll"l her he.: had ol hc.:r motives."
"
, ...
It ~s J·ust i 11t11tc 11 .rc .
. .,1
hear De Milk's ne w Pay.
1
.. You OU)... it
· r the ) resent di.1'Jlc11sation oi th e con" How, thc.:reto1c.:, uncle
I
. . , I ' take th e klcgraph
1
. .
.
I . 'uvcrnmen t co nsi s te nt )
.
"
st1tut1 on, c.rn l '-' g
.
~ ·
.-th Sl'lte rwhts?
.
.
its lnn ds th ere.: by rnter enng \\ i ' •
o
system mto . . ·. ' '.. '.
uth that if Demosthenes w;1s out of
"Lucan puts"' l l11h p s mo
, .· , ti . n he had ' Tlrel.>cs
/\th e ns eve n eas ier i .1
. It.l take
the.: wa y Il C COLI
•

~o.

and Tl1cssaly."
. .
with rnov :tl ;le types
"Cutcnberg had o nl y disco71ered pnntmg
in 1440 ."

.. ;

!

I

':..:::'.:.
,.·

Lj: p. 70.
;'L

34

WORDS.

35

lll1PROl'RIFTIES.

I

I
Iii

If

"Both of these writers employ many words nf Latin o rig in,
liut De Quincey was 11otaNy addictt"d to th e 11s1~t;e of th e m ."

"Fro m Italy to the Netherlands he journeyed, ltluking- at men

and affairs with in terest and s/11,f.y."'

"Wh at saved T e nnyson fro rn b eco ming an Atheist or a Hation;tlist, o r rather the po int in whic h he differed f1om these sects,
was that he did n ot attempt to soh·c these r e ligi o us qu est ions by
the inte llect alo ne. "
"Just such a mind and just such a J1iKhly imagination as
Carly le's was necessary to originate suc h a scheme as that of
•Sartor Hcsartus' for bringing befo re the eyes uf men thi s
chaot ic state of mo rals, society, religion, and indeed of every
human institutio n. "
"His recall fro m e.'l:ile, howeve r, took place after Dante had

laid down his oflicc , so that we cannot accuse him of being

p al"tial."

"The whole play l oo!.: place :tlw:iys in conformity with th e
cu m be rso me· unities' o f time, :-iction , a nd pbce."
•· Th ese two families had been for some tim e occ upied in 11r1g h/Jor!y br:-iwls , but nu open strife had been dec lared till a prc rext
fur it was found in the <1uarrcl of the two cli\·isions of a family
of Pistoia."

·
wron gly used
An adverb is sometimes
instead of an adjective: .. My I_o re. l Duke's ente rtainm en ts
seldom and s h au by·"
•, The trees look

-1. •<•ltifv
vc r. y r'
. "

Wrong"

A preposition 1s so metimes careless ly
chosen: -

"She is not for.i:;ctiul of past kindn esses showed
her liy :-inothc r , and feels that s he ca nn o t do enough in return
.for one wh o has befriend eel her."
"We are g ratifi ed to hani T c nnpo n d e vote scve r·aJ th o usand
lines i11 th e con side ration o f this 1·c ry /illin.i: subject of the
nin e tee nth cent ury. "
"His se ntim e ntality is important , firs t of all .from it s effect

on his li fo."

both

.

,,

in the soft light.

d .. fail to convey instant ly the writer's
A wor nMy
impropriety.
.
thus contam I an are
meaning, an J m·1y
'
T h is IS espeCI<
·ally true of words t mt
Am biguous
word s .
used as prepos1t1ons, acI vc.' ·bs ' or
. . con.
()' to their pos1t10n 111
junctions, accon l'n
t "'
.L

•

the sentence: -

.

.

. k

l

h ·1d n o t been forgiven }"r tlu .-, \\o r .
.. Fourtee n years after ic ,
cl . l v·1ca.nt bv the death of
;,,. his candidacy for th e scat n; n e re( '"'
/Tl11·crs was defeat ed part ly on this account.
. I . ·I I
.
o f tl1 e. cumn1crcu \\Or c. ,..,.as
"N o t long si11te tlhe /tler.1l1~1~rnnic1's railro ad kings. "
attracted by the cleat l " one o
.

The wrong- con jun ct ion is sometimes
used: -

preposition .

were

Adverb
for
adjective .

1

Wrong
co njunct ion.

I J 1 • ceremonies wen: delayer
.
" /+'!tile [alth ou,i.~ ' t >c
.
. I . ·lnnuc of colors was w1tt r·iilw:t)' accid e nt, tie L ' "'
•. I
by an unfortuna e ·
. ! .. hon ored Ly a n:ii "
. . ·! L Y a brilliant
n csseL
. a sse
,, , mblage, .ir1c w,Ls
salute from the ClumJ:''·

. ·I · t" e of ni:itlt.cr is not or b ut
The con c cl IV
•
h following
uor. Incorrect, therefore, IS t e
sentence: -

Neither
and nor.

"Tcnll)"SO!l co u 11
( 11c.1thcr' become an un fce ]"mg rationalist o r
an unthinking cvange ]"is t. ,,
. .•r. , 1, I\''-•ub!io
111 '. March
6, 1893.
l ~jJrlll6.JU11
'I
.
.
23, I 893· a Position of 11ct!lur r

2 /V'nJJ York '/'ribum:, Febru;.i r,y

~I
',

:1

./

I

I

·/

fI

'

IVORDS.

common impropriety th
.
. J
.
'
e misuse of
.tnc wt!!, deserves ·
"
l
·
.
.
spec1.t notice.
H.: follow1nrr account . b ..
from
Ri c hard G rant White'st> E" ., !. IS -o r I OWt.Xl
.
V£1y, ay l:, "glis!t (chap.
xxiii) : Shnll
and will.

A
sin!!
'
Tl '

"Tl
·
.•
ic mistake most co mmonly m ade in th
and I he one th<.:rdorc 1 ·t ... f
c use o f these word s
.
.
,
, I ios l. ll <.: ully to be . ' · 1 I .
•
w J/! fur s//(/// ·rnd f 11
.
.
.n 0 1t ct , 1s the " ·'" "f
.
•'
u
lt' COi rcspond1n« "CJ"/ lt r
,
Is m uc h Jess often ll'<:cl ~ . " .,
<> ' ' ·< wr s11u1dd. .Ski!/
••
..
01 ft// /,.
1
J\mon"
peonl
··
f
A
I
.
.
,.,
,., e o
ng o-S:ixo n race an I 0 f .
th<.: mist a k<.:, \\'h e n nn d.
.
' t
.iverage educati., 11
.
, c, n10.' t com monly· t· k. . I
. .
.
fu1111, thus: •I will " t 0 1 I [
.L es t ic 111d1 cat 11·c
.
""
•ct clc«ant h · r·t"·J·
ii' · .. l·f· ,t
.
". , • c uc at ten o'clo•:k
tu-night ,' or• vVe
Wt . urc.L, .L
at eigh t t
' .
' I sltll/I go to bed ' ·t - , \V
o-m orrow • i 11stead of,
· , .
' " c. •
· c slt111! break fa ·t • , .
qui te S() ofte n we hc ·Lr . . I
ZI b
s ' e tc. Not
'
c 0«lad to go ' , W
IJC I iappy to :sec )'Ou. , . · ·t .uo1t
,. I f
<.: would
. •
,
· in s c.ic o
' I sl1011ZI b
I
s11011/diJehappy,'e tc.
'
'
egad,' ' \Ve
"I/'//'
, , 111 l Iic tirst person e xpresses a wi 'h
.
.
a prom ise; as, • I will ., 0 , ti . . . .
· and a n 1J1tent1n n, or
,., .
l.t.t Is, I mean to "o o 1
.
J.:n. 1-V:ll i ~ never to b , 11 . ·d . . .
'.
-: • r prom ise to
as, •Will J go?' '
~ sc ·h ,\ quest ion with the first person
.. .
·
' ' fll,111 ca nnot ;1sk ii he " "II
. '
1 ·
1 hat he must know , and onl , he k: . .
s to do anytl11ng .
.. iv ·". I
>
io11·s.
. cIcc 1arcs or foretell ..
. ' " 111
. t 1e second 1; crson
go with him.' H ence it is us. I 1 "I
s' as, . You will
' 11 1 court cc u ·
·
· cc
I ·
co mmand, bccausc i tforet·ll· .
.
i . s aut1on ty as a
.
e s sonH.: th1ng tint
·t
s uperio r officer says tel ~ . 1 . •.
• mus 11appcn. i\
" SU JOl llllla(<.: • \'
,' JI
etc. J\s a question will in the . . '1
o u 11 i report yo urse lf, ,
f I
'
seconc person ·1,ks ti
.
·
· · le 1nte ntiu n
" l ic pe rson add ressed . 'LS • \V 'l l . .
lJ
' ,.,
I
) ou "0 tLl mor.
? ' I
,..,
i uw · t iat is,
o yo u mean to go to-mo rrow?
e •

.. /////in the third p<.:rson abo dccl . . . ~
co me,' that is I le . .
. .
a1 es o1 oretclls; as. ' I l e will
.
,
is com1n.t:, and ma1· b · I k·I.
question 7l"ll ; 11 •he . 1 . ,
. c oo cc fur . l\s a
'ltn1 p c 1·son asks what is l 0 b
I
'
. ..
• . • '
.1ct1w1 of the perso n Sj)uk.
f ..: , . .
·
e t le future
.
en ()
' " lil ,\ llCC eSS;-\ f) ' /. 1· .
rntc nti on; as, ' \ Vill h._; , 0 1 , Tl .. . . .
· · · . c e1 ._;nee to
g .
i.1t Is, b he gorng? Docs he

.~..;'

37

CFNFRA!. TF RA!S.

mean to go, and is hi s going sure? Jn th._; third pnso11 . ;,•ill
h as of course uo ma11thl u ry f<>rcc .
".Vta!/ in the first pcrsv n simply tlcdart's or forctcll ,, \\ithoul
any refen..: ncc to wish; !Jut \\'hen

it

annou11l·cs pcrsun ;d

;u ·t ici11,

it o f course m:iy accompany int e ntion; as, •I shall gn,' t hat i.s .
J ;un going. I am to depa rt hence. Used as a (jllestion in th e
first person, it is ;i s im ple inquiry as to th e future; as . · Sl1.dl I
find him?' That. is, !\lay I expect to find him? or it ash direction ; as. ~ Sh;tll I g-1.)?' ·r11 :tl i..;, J)e c id ~ ftH. nH· as to 1n y go i1 1,L:_ .
Slia/l in thl' second pcrson and in the thi1'il ilcclar"s :rnlhuri tativ e1y , :i ncl therefo re p rt) rni:-:.c"', conuii.t nds. or thre;lklh;

;l...; ,

' You slull bl! paid,' 'Thou sh:dt 11<>t s tea l,'· Tl ,.·y ,11.dl sulkr'
- whi c h need no p:l raphrase.
"l / ~011/d ;lnd sl111uld c•111(011n to th e u s: \ ,~c uf 7,.1d/ :u11l 1//,u'/ :
wo11ld referr in g t" an cxercisc of will. a nd slio11!d impl ying c•H l tingent depe nd e nt acti o n, or ubligatio n."

Words th:i.t name a gene ral conception we caii gc11 eral te rm s. Examples of such wort.ls <trc s11/..1!11n<1·,
rock, animal, 11,gctahk. vVe m:i.y take any
General
general term ::md group under it :i. se ri e s
of terms more :i.ncl more specifi c. Thus
under animals we m:i.y class 1J/(l//11ntrls, q1111dr11p,·ds,
!wrsf'S , d rtl)'·lwrscs, racc-/111rscs, etc. General terms
arc c0nven ient if we do not wish to enumerate cn:ry
object included und e r them, but tu express by a sing11.~
word a grea t variety of different things. I n,;tc ;td .. r
naming: granite and sands ton e and limestone and
b;ts:i.lt, we may grunp them all under the g:c ncr:d term
rod. Evid e ntly the greater the number of objects
suggested by a gene ral te rm, the less it can tc li
about any single object. The term s11bs!111111· i11c lt1liL·s
every rnatt.:ri:i.l ouject, and s uggests scaru·ly ;uiy
terrn~ .

"

IVORDS.
FOR CE OF Sf'ECIF!C TF.RMS.

im age at nl l. Trrc is n ge neral term, y et far more
spec ific th::ui s11bs ta110 ·. 01rl is s uffi c iently definite
to call up an image having certain wcl l-m:irked
features.
We ca nn ot say t hat a ge ner:i l term is of more or of
less value tha n a specific te rm. Each is best in its
Use of
pl:1cc, since those words arc bes t that most
genera I and
l
l
·
·
j l
J
specific
exact y co nvey tie nH.:anmg mt e n( Ct .
n
term s.
di scuss ions of g cneral princ iples a writ er
ca nn ot dispense with ge neral te rm s : in descript ions
he must use co ncrete phrases t hat s uggest exac t
im ages. An excess of ge neral terms, however,
makes the style vag ue and feeble.
W ords nrc fo rcible in proport ion as they :lrc specific. Comp:lrc the indefiniteness and feeblen ess of
F o rce of
smmd or 1to1:re with the definiteness and
specific
terms.
force of clrrslt, r raslt, slam, 1'11::::::, 7vlti':::, r11stll',
creal.:, far, grate, clank; or co mpa re 11ucifera tion with Cl)', roar, J'cl!, !tow!, srrca m, w it inc. Y ct
the occasions wh en we can use the most spec ifi c
terms, like w lt1':: or bu:::.:: or rlan/,; are few, and s uch
words a re therefore of less general utility than th e
terms uoi'se a nd somuf
The differen ce of effect produced by general and
specific terms is illustra ted in the followin g pas sages:"Th e co mm o n duties and benefits of soci<.:ty, which belong to
eve ry man li ving, as we a re soci;i/ creat ures, and ev<'n our

n .1 t i,· ~

and nect•ssa ry rel at io u s to a family, a 11,· igh /,.. ,;,,,.,d, o r .1 g o ve111l11c11t, ol.> /igc all persons whateve r tu use th ei r reasoning po wers

39

.· .
Eve ry hour o I- rf
' c. calb for some
a thousa nd occas ions .
.
. - d thi1ws ]Jt'r.'""'
u pon '
. . . "l t a s to t1n1 es . 111
" •
.
.
rc" uiar exerc ise uf ou r Jullgmcl . • . J di sc reet d i:termi 11 :1t1 t1 1l. in
1
"'
\ V'tl
l a jJntL ent an
·
. ·
and actio ns.
lOu •
, . ,
... . int o pc rpdtL d erruh
111
1
1
r
· ·· l ' trust
matters be 01 -.e us,- we .shall .De pun,,_e<
·l I l ·11 Wa)' S he practbet
' .
our co nduct. lN'O W, that
·,, winch s 10u < '

at some time lie learnt.

1

.

.

.
l 1 fl •n a1ny w1'tl1 ·· 1 ch eese from a dairy ll'lll·
" A crow who la< "" • . .
. t . "T ··tl 1,;., froµ; I n a

'

I

tree

look1n~ d ow n .\

,l n

c~

b

-

.• ,.

clow sa t perc hc< on a
,' I . I ·o us hrge C)TS ll't· rc ;:,• •;,,.
The.: fr o" s 111 " . •
.
.
•
J)ool' undern eat h lllm.
.
"'.
·l i ·h appeared qui lt: n dH u f 1 . 1 d m ., nnnner 11 ' c
l' . .
uling out o lls iea
.
.
w ·itched the splay-ftot1k1 s l f ll)
1
lous to th e o ld bL u.:kamoor, who '.
to crows. N ot for from
·
• J unw r be lu11g 1ng
l t
wret ch with that gnm 1
.
I ·1 ·t ·i few lambs frisked a ><H1
. f·
vas })row~1ng; w11 s ('
·~ ,, ,
th e frog .1 .it ox ' .
·- . .
<I J utte rcu ps thc1 c .
the me~ul o w' o r ni bb led the g r .1ss an J

.
ft l e n il· ne( l s-·I " -·1,1 e he stcpt,
"So say>nJ..:, 10 111 '
.. . the ·,Ltce of tumlis,
l . ti e rnou n atlm.u t
I
An< 111 '
.
."ht' bones nf a ncient nw n,
\Vh c rc Lty the rn1 ,., ) l
th. sci-wind s :u1g
· I.
1d ove r t 1cm
c · ·
I
Uld k111g 1tS, a1
- l le ste111Ji11g l o wn,
· Il f·I·""'-cs· o· l loam ..
SI ··11 chill , wll
. ·k
. u1 '
I ·uts of po rnted roe '
By zi ,,zag path s , anc J .
I ' ]· '- , '"
"'
·
·
Came o n the slun111g l c \"e.ls of t 1e .li..t:.

, force is n()t
required,
-r11··r·· arc occas ions w licn
. bl
i:\

v
~ clearness and prec1s1
- .. 0 1 arc des1ra
c.
,. I
,
a l1 cl only
han
is
needed
IS
Vorce
bl
t
l) ression more fo rci c
l
some tim es
1er
no t
11 , l bombastic, al1( 1 is mere! y a not Az
desirable.
ca et
"
tzn cr
1
11 l "fine
wn b '
form of so-ca e(. .
ttract s 'lttention f rom the
un duly striking cl1ct1un a 1 •tl1us·1.,artly defeats the
l words ant
·
thought to t 1c
'
. .
the ckar cxl'n::;.
pnmary
purp. osc of g·ood wntmg sion of thoug-ht.

to/ the A-find, I nlro d11 c tion.
. tf 1r/t' tf .·lr//Jur.
·1 e nnyson .

1 W al ls: ! mpro v emen _

New~:omr:s,

c hap. i.

8

j

(

2

'·
,j

,,.
>t~
,:"i

j

'.

.

''I•

1-••~

Thac keray: T'1e
-~

.

40

WORDS.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIGURES.

i
i1

I

~'

~i

~I· ll

II

In making our thought clear and forcible we
should not hesitate to repea t a word as ofte n as may
be necessary. But if we arc not on our
Variety.
g uard we shall use favorite words so
frequ ently th a t our writin g will s how
nnnn c ri sm and monotony. The temptation to
mannerism is espec ially st rong whe n we c hoose as
a model some noted writer and copy th e prominent
featu res of his styl e. \ Ve may well catch so me of
the spirit of a great writer, and learn from him
correctness and va riety of express ion, but from a
slavish imitation we shall ge t more harm tha n good.
"It is the nature of man," says Saintsbury, "to
select the worst parts of his models for imitation." 1

. n rhetoric arc not en t"ire ly acc
" rc cd in
W .
nters u
r I t fi g ures uf
their use of the techn ical terms app let o
• ·]
Some would give the n:.trne /n'f' c T ro pes and
speec
. k1. , 11 ;rr,,~· fro n1 'tdr.u", t ii t11r11) to 'any figures.
(Gree , t
'
f ·t . litcnl
· t · turned out o 1 s
'
word · tna JS
cl reserve the name Ji.·gure for s pec ial
meanm g, an of wo1.:ls. T he mere name, however,
arrangements
11 l1ere cli sc uss
is of relatively small importance.
· . 1cc we sha
For th e sake of co nven1c1
only those fi g ures that imply : I.

C LOSENESS

OF RELATION,

(a) Synectloche.
(b) Metonymy.
2 . L1KE1'1 :ss,

(a) S imile.
(/i) Me taphor, Personification, etc.

SECTI O N Ir.

Wr-: have thu s far assum ed that the words we
employ arc taken i11 their literal sig nifi cation. When
Figu rc8 of we use a word in other tha n its plai nest
speech .
meaning we make a figure of speech.
Fig urative language is as natura l as plain
languag e a nd abound s even in t he talk of ch ildren
and uneducated people. The variety of possibic
figures is great, bu t compa ratively few need men ti on here. The fig ures most co mmonly in t1se arc
thuse which imply closrness of relation, likeness,
unlik eness.
l E11g /iJh Prose Sly!,-, p. xxxi i.

. hy))Crbr>lc,
, 11 ·• l fiaurcs - an t .tl
I 1e s·is,
Othe r so-ca et
"'
.
· cunn ..:ct i1>11
• . - •·ue iJL·st
stud1et1 111
climax, anti.c 1.1m.1x
·
vith sentences and para.t.;raphs.
ON
Cr , osFNEsS
UF l'- 1'. LA 11 ' .· .
· ~·
l.
J. t t J"r
"' tJy • Wl' . Ill 1.I\' ·
Instead
of naming an O)jC<.:
1 c1..
f
.t
tlnt
su
c
rnests
the: . whok. tie
name some part o i
•
. "'"'
,
.
« crests the objec t made ot
matcnal that S U"" ' '
k
( . . Syncc 1lo c he.
. ,
Thus ca t tle: m:1y be spo ·en o .1s
1t, etc.
, " . mall)'
ny hc-td . ., wurkmen, as S<J
"so
m;1,,
'as "so many sail." O ther examples
hands;
are: -

\

Ficu1n:s

..
IMJ'L\ .1;-;1.

Y )

• .

• •

,'.

'

~ 1;

'

1

shi1~s,

1 Greek, a11..-ie.coox1;.
• '

. l' cr e°'"• to receive ;"ointl;.
from crvvu5c.r,x

1

'1··

42

fVORDS.

AfETONYMY: CO!lfPAR!SONS.

" The dome wh e re j)]e, •t1re l1olds l
·d · l
·~
1cr m1 n1g it train.'"

43

0

"Where through the long-dra wn aisle and fretted 1a /t
1 11
Th e pealing anthem swells th e 110/e of praist:." '
' ·King R ic hard li es
\,Yi thin t he limi ts of yon lime and s!t1 11 e . "

•

"\Viii you wear your smlsli11 (cloak)?"
"I welcome you to rn yjir,'side."
" I \\'ill never go und er his rt1oj, th oug h he offe r me untold

gold. "

Ant onomasia.

One form of synecdoche consists in
sel ecting a n in di vidu al to represe nt a class.
Fo r example: -

"Some critics have ven tured to call flryan t the Hordswor//J
of Ame rica."
" Some village Ha111j>dw, that with dau nt less hre:Ls t
The little tyrant of his fields withstood.
Som· mute ingl ori ous 11/il!on here may rest ,
Some Cromwell, guiltless o f his co unt ry's l, lood." •

A lavish use of this figu re 111 prose g ives an
affected air to a composi ti on.
Somewhat like synccdoche is metonymy. In metonymy, however, we do not represe nt a n object by
so me part of it, but we p ut th e na me o r
Metonymy. attrib ut e of one thi ng in place of th e
na me or attribute of a not her. Hence in
m etonymy we turn from the object itself to somel Goldsmilh: De.rerted V//liwe
A'tehard JI, ac t iii, sce ne iii.
~" .

2

Gray:

Et~ 0 .

8 Shakespeare : Ki11.1:

thin er that suggests it. The chief relati ons thus cxo
.
1
pressed arc those of cause .-tncl sign .
The variet ies of this figure arc num erous. Thus
we may speak of the gla ss when we mean the win..:
within the "lass· of the di::::::y height, when
b
'
.
Example~ of
we mean the height that makes one dizzy; metonymy.
of th e dim rd1~i;io1ts light, when we mea n
th e li ght that s ugges ts qu iet reli gio us meditation.
Other examples arc : "The pen was, therciore, a more formidable political engine
tha n th e tongue .'"

"Jf

W<.:

pre\·ail, th eir lieads [lives] shall pay for it. '" '

"A nd drowsy tinklings lull th e distant .folds."'
"I ha\'c been studying S/Jakespr:are."

.. F ru m the cradle to th e .~?·a<Je he has led a selfish life. "
"J efTrcys disgraced th e English bmclz."

"/\. ror o11et was his reward."
"After such a life he came naturally eno ugh to the .i:allrnos.''
" f\. false bnlanu is an abominati o n tu the Lord."

2. FIGURES OF RESEMBLANCE.

The mincl is co nstantly makin ~ compansons lic twecn objects of the same kind , or between objC:c ts
of different kinds. Thus when we say
that Shakespeare is a greate r dramatist Compa ri sons.
than Sheridan, or that Lo nd on is a larger
cit y th an New Y ork, we compare objects of the same
2 ?vfacaulay: 1. . .·ss11y
I Cf. De Mille: Elemc11 fs of Rhetoric, p ...'.37· ..
Addison. UShakcspeare: J<ichard JI, act 11 1, sc. 11. •Gray : Hltgy.

(Pll

.,·I

44

45

EXAllfP/J.: S OF SJJl!/LE.

WORDS.

class. If, however, we call Shakespeare, as Ben
Jon son docs, the "Swa n of Avon, " or describe
Lo ndon as a g ian t with a hundred a rm s, we select
for compariso n po ints of likeness in two objects
belonging to d iffe rent classes.
vVhen we poi nt ou t by means of !ikt' or as or eq uivalent expressions the resemblance bet wee n two objects of differe nt sorts, we make a s imi le.
The simile. The objects themselves arc tak e n literally,
and the "figure" cons ists in the resc mbbnce between them. The s imil e is so metim es very
easily sug-gestcd. For example, a lamp see n at a
distance in the eveni ng may eas ily be mi stake n fo r a
star low on the horizon . What m ore natural, therefore, t han to describe an illu min at ion by comparing
the lights to stars? Resemblances more or less
com plete a rc observed at every turn; hence th e
num be r of poss ible si miles is limit ed only by the
number of objects that arc more or kss alik e in
d ifferent classes.
Examples arc num ero us: -

" Thy soul was like a star , and dwelt apart;
.
T hou hads t a voice w!tose so1m 1~ w~zs like ~:z,e sea,
Pure as t !tt naked !terzvtins, ma;estzc, fri:e .
. 'Th is Cit y now doth like a gan~unt wea r,
The beauty of th e mo rn mg : s ilen t , ba re,
Ships, towers, dom es , theatres, and tem ples lie
Ope n unto the fie lds, and_ to the sk~'. . . . . . ,, 1
All bright and g litteri ng 111 the smokeless ,\Ir.
.. With haggard eyes th e Poet stmid;
Loose his beard a nd hoary hair
l ·d J.ir."
S tr cam'd like a meteor to t I1c trou lJc

3

,, Th is life wh ich seems so fair
Is /il.:e a bubble hlown up in the air
By sporting children's breath,
'vVho chase it everywhere."'

"Lih"e as lite waves make tm11ard '.Ju peb~t:,d sltore
So do ou r minutes hasten to th eir end .
, , T here's not the smalle~t orb which th ~,u. behold'st
But in his motion lil.·e an angel sm gs.
.. That li).!; ht we sec is burning in _m~ ha!~ . . '
little candle throws hb beaI,
ms.
1-1ow f·,u. that
.
,, T
So shines a good deed in a naug !tty wor ' .

"The glac iers cri:ep,
fjfr s11aki:s tluzt watc/1 tlteir prey, from tlzeir } Lr fo1111tai11s,

S lowly ro lling o n. "

1

" The grea t brand
Macie lightnings in th e splendo ur of th e moo n.
And flashing round and round, and whirl 'd in an arch,
Slwt like a streamer of lite norllztrn m orn,
Seen where the moving isles of winter shock
By night, with noises of the northern sea ."'
I

Shelley: lly111u to Afout /Jlmtc.

2 Tennyson:

Morie d' Arthur.

.. Why· should a man wh ose blood is warm within
. lzis grandsir e carved Ill
· a Iabas t er .""'
Sit like

" As a slzip a;:round is battered by tlze waves, _so man. ' 1:~
.
I ·, n n1 ort·1l life lies OJ)en to the mercy of com mg eve nts .
pnsonec
•
• ·
.
f"/!
,
2 'vVordsworth: Son!ld 11/J°" ,,,,;,/.
1 0
l \V ordsworth: .Sound on A,
d
c, Shakespeare :
' •
_
.
.
u G . . Flu JJard. • W. Drummon .
111wster l lrtdge.
r.ly ·
, .
i
i find. act v .
Sonnet.
G Shakespeare: A1erchanl of l' t111 ce , act v, sc . .
se. i. 8 i bid. act i, sc. i. "Emerson : Intel/eel.

..

'

WOA'DS.

EXA/llPLES OF A!ETA PJ/OR.

" A_s wafrr does a sp on.[[e , so the moonl~'t;l1t
f ·tl/s the void , holl o w, unive rsal ai r." 1
"Like .wi11;t;t!d star s t he jircjlics jlaslt and g lance
P. tl c in th e ope n moo nshin e i hu t each o ne
Unde r the chrk trees stem s a !i'tt'.. & Sllll ,
A m deor t amed; a fixed star .t;o11e astray
From the silver regio ns of th e milky-way." •
"That o rbed ma iden, with whit e fire lad en,
Who m mortals c dl the moon
Clidcs glimmering o'cr my fl:ecc- like fl oo r
Hy th e n1idnii;h t lncczes strew n .
'
J\ n,~ wherever the beat of he r u~see n foct,
\N hich o nly the angels hea r,
May have broken th e woof of my t•· nt' . ti .
Tl
~
s
im roof,
IC stars peep lJch in cJ her a nd ]Jeer.
J\ncl I laugh to sec them w hirl andfl• ·e
/_.i!.;e a swarm 1'.fgolden bees,
l
'
\~hen I wide n the ren t in my wind-bui lt tent
T1H the calm ri?1o·s, faki:s, and seas,
'
Li/.'e strips o/ the sky fallen through me o n hig h,
Are paved with the moo n and th ese.,,'

I n th e s· ·1 ti
.1m1 c 1c two objects compared arc asserted to res e bl
h
h
m e cac ot e r in som e parti c ul a r;
111 the metaphor, the two objects co mpared
The metaphor. a rc take n to
be ide ntical. The si m il e
. .
a nd th e metapho r are th erefo re essent ially
alike'. a~cl a metaph or ca n be made fr om a ny simil e
by om1ttm g the word !t'lc or as The f ll
.
·
o owm rr a re
exa mples of metapho r: t>
.. Place you rsel f in the middle

f I
o t 1c stream o f power and

I Shelley: l .eller to Jlfarirz Gisbonu, , "11 .. ll cy ·,
"

c

Tiu Cloud.

47

.

wisdom whi ch a nimates all whom itjloals, and yo u are with out
effort impelled to truth, to right, a nd a perfect con tc n tm ent."'
"In the f o.i: of good a nd c:v il a.f1ectio11s, it is hard for man to
walk fo rward in a st raigh t line."'

!

.

.!.

"We are the f!ris o11ers of ideas." '
"The walls o f rude m inds are scraw led all over with fa cts,
with th o ugh ts."'
"H e in wh o m the love of truth predo minat es 1vill keep him self
aloof from all m oor ings and ajloat ."'
"Alo ng the cool, seq uestered vale of life,
T hey kept the 11oiseless ten.our of th eir way."'
" That t ime of year thou mays t in 111~ behold
Wh e n ydlrntJ lea11es , or no ne , o r few do hang
Upo n th ose bo1~t;l1J which shake ag ains t th e cold,
Bare ruin ed cltoirs, whe re late t he sweet bi rds sa ng. '''
"The world 's a bubble, and the life of man
Less than a spa n .""
"Full many a g lorious morni ng have I see n
Flatter th e mount ain-tops with smiereig n eye,
Kissin,t; wi th ,[!Olden /are the meadows gree n ,
Gilding pale streams wit h heav enly alch emy;
Anon pe rm it the basest clouds to ride,
With ugly rack o n his celestial fa ce ,
And fro m t he fo rl orn wo rld his 11isa.r;e hide',
Stealing unseen to west with this disg race ."•

..

.i

"Thus arc blown away th e i11sed race of co urtl y fals ehoods ."•
"Fo r el'e n th en , sir, e1·c n IJcfore this splendid orb was entirely
set, and while th e western ho rizon was in a /i!a ::e with his
Emerso n : Spiritual laws .
2 Emerson: /11tdlut.
a Gray: El~<'Y·
~Sh a k es p eare : Sonnd.
6 Lo rd Bacon: Lift.
& Burke : Amtrirnn Ta.rl

ation.

·.·

1-VORDS.
d csct: nding ,t;l111y, nn the o pposite quartt:r o f the hl'avens arose
an o lh t: r l11111intl!J', and for his hour lit:GlllH.: lo rd uf the
ascc:ndant. " '
" \Vh cn we s peak uf the cummt: rce with ou r co lo nies, fiction
la,i;s after trut h; in l'ention is u11jruiif11!, and imag inat ion cold
and barr.:11 . '"

As we investigate languag-c further, we fi nd tha t
the disti nction between plain and literal speech is
not easy to draw_ Nearly eve ry word
Hidden
metaphors, when traced to its source is found to con tain a metaphor, In many words, h owever, the original metaph ori cal meaning has e ntirely
faded out. If it h:ld not, we cou ld scarcely write a
sentence wit hou t dang-e r of co nfusion . These words
reveal th e ir hidd e n pictures to the students of
lang-uage, but to the ord inary reader they a rc plain
and lit eral. Many othe r words arc on the bonJcr
line, so that only a cultivated taste c:rn decide
wh ethe r a n express io n sugg ests a n image too vi vidly
to be us ed in the same se nten ce with a n ot he r word
eq ua lly fodcd.
"Mt::taphor," obs erves J\fax 1\ liillc.:r, "is one of the mos t
powerful engines in ll1t: cu 11s truc ti11n •>f liu 111an speec h, and with out it we can hardl y imagint: how any lan g uage co uld ha ve
progressed beyo nd t he simples t rudi ments."•

Povert y of vocabulary cornpcis me n to use a great
vari ety of word-combinat ions, and to use the same
word in a numbe r of ways _
Burke: American Taxatio11.
·i Burke: Co11ciliatio11 with America.
8 .Sciene:e <>/ l.rz11.rua.re, ~(!C..:Ond Seri es, p. 368.
1

49

A BUSE OF 1!//:" T APllOR.

f
nne we .tppl y the n.un c nf " 1,11 d
"Thus , when we spe.tk o ,\ c ' k "'tl
)111 e so rt of '11111l.111ty
·
I' pl • were s t r uc \\I 1 "
to an e ngrn c .
eo e
, · . kin" up his food with h1~ long
between th e lung- legged /Jin.1 pie _ , "'
l t ,, '
beak and their i ude engines lur hltrng we1g l ~.

Examples of faded m etaphors ar~ foun d in cxorbi· I111, /' ' 'ofilc' record,
taut , •,ra/fcrJ', !ta111j>cr (ve rb),. Jtl'ilC
' o
b1· i1 ltd trade, lr<Tvazl, 1>ersc, etc.
soc!.:ct, so '/ · ' .
· tli . s·t111e senc
•
· coni1nre(
If the s·unc object is
• 1 11 1
. .· .
•
. gs, t J·ic rc, w1·JI be cont uswn
t ence to two
differe nt thrn
- · g the . otheerr.
of two pictures, cac J1 bl
. t~rnn
Mixed
Th e m ore vividly the p1ct.urcs at~. suo- metaphors.
, · d he more d isast ro us is the mixture.
gesTo
t e be
' t avoided
.
. a t o o lavish
use of met
a 1so is
•
, apho rs,
.
f r eve n ~hough we may not confound the 1111ages Ill
t Oh c sam C sentence ' WC may SO hurry . tht e Too freque n t
read e r from one image to a no: he r as o metaphors .
( . . ., th T than cnli1rhtcn
him.
0
co n~ usef 1,t
c. r arc exalll [llcS 0 f Jl11XCt
· . . l metanhors
:.
1 ht: l) Jl OW ll1
t, '
.
.
. . e·d in them. l•>f 11
the
• • ·1·,> trace tire ;dlusiuns
con Lun
l 11rm'd
I
·l1'1cli
dq~rce " " !lJr "
few are willing to l>estow ."'

•
obsc ·11rilt°t.'S
i11wr:tp jH: <l ,111 tlt c nt , ·111vu I vc·s
. .·l

. S
w - JJretences
' wr· rt IJrnshcs
· · as ide; arrd lie yo nd the
. appea I·s IJu l(lly to tlie n at ion , J,y l 1H:I
f im sy
I . ntl'nts he
han dfu. u . ma coI · ·h ..-tmlecl
.
Il .rrnst
, ·It. 111
, his h' tcr stru.,~lcs
, an (
•
0
S<llll e lll StlllCt W llC b
d
}' r .rbroke a s the
A'1.') 'll<l fr
,
.
. t I -1ve sW"'este to ,o rn,,
,
which he seems, o i . . . "'j- -I B r rbroke end eavo red tu llllk
uf the Jiolitical uii:al with w Ile l o mg
his ow n nam e. " •
.

.. Sue
. 1

,.

'

..

·I
~ i

. l :.
~ . ::t ~

!<

l

1

''

.,

· . i ..

· .• l' j
;i r

, [ S'
" In to what Ii nal m old Ills
.. ICln cy 's ] ]>Owers, wo uld
. .
S c. ne
. .~.. 1>
I S . ,,, - , fl/ l .a n.ru 11,1:11 , Set:onU
-. 36<.
:J
.. , P· 304.
,
8 ·!\ · W · C raik : Lift 0/
Ch<1 11Cit
cer, " vol. 111,

h :\\'C nm,
. .

Lounsbury:
. 2 ,IJ
.)wi; I .

..\ /udas at

'•'

50

IVO/\DS.

to wh at he~(;ltts they mi,,ht have a lt . I h
,no
'
a111ct
·id th ey 11 t b
O.u so pre ma tu rely is nnttcr r
o
ecn cut
.' '
•
·
1o r spec11 1a tr o n. " 1
.
" By her own internal schism IJ 1 .
a doubl e PO IJC the chtzr- ·l · . . .· ' y t 1e abo rn1.nab le spectacle of
1
'
L
IV.ls fi'llCilrs111rr
·· ·
·11
·
she li;1d ;ti ready r .1 c· . 'd
·' 'as instr earlie r forms
.
c r .1rsc ' t 1iosc vast r ents .
l
whrch nu man shou ld ever heal."' .
Ill ier j o1111datio11s
" l Ltwtho 1'1H.: enjon;d the ~·II
·I . .
.
c ow, 11pof ·1 fe w cl1)
r·
IJu l Iie l l 1d
n ot c: tre tu shi11i·
'.
<se n n ends,
so<i,·~y . "
as " star in th e uj>per crust of

" By th e s ubtle afd1c111y of i11jlation ti . . .
expect to tu n . 11 ti . I
.
lesc delirded people
i .i
i.1t t H:y touch lllto gold."
" Wh en tl1 e List awful
.
rno111ent came the
t/,OW1twilhall onboard."
"No b:Lo.;c o r fabe v ii'1.vs of life

t en der luart ."

star

. r 1. ·b t
"-' tery wcn!

sho uld f reeze h e r wr1r 111 ,

" l want to h;1vc ;is nnnv I . .
, s 1111g s l o my btn0 . I
0 e able alw;1ys to f<tlld on •my
j rd. ;,
· as can, so as to

" As we look over the sea of fac.. . . .
country of the "lu l .,
.,
.
cs rcprcsep t1ng .1 lm os t e ve ry
.
,., .Jc , 11 e ate 11npressed w tlh l
rnjl1tence ot C hri s ti an Endca i·o r.,,
ti c w idespread
"Jn the c11rrc11t of tlr ese Ill stcri . .
- .
ca nn o t far! to see ll 1ejiN/I> . . / · yf
Olb .• md .1wt11! events we
" '
.
• F' " ' ··' o an :d m1gh ty hand."
!'uskin talks lik e a man who has h. .
..
.
.
chenshcd object uf hi . lif.
! I
. cen d1sap.po rn 1ed Ill some
·' c a il( l •crc by Ins be.
as to see all tlrin «s lltro 11 ..;,
'· •/
' ·
co111c so i:111blttcn:d
b
'-..,
s11101i. u
glasses ."

"Th is i nfa1no11s busi ll t: ss ·1s i' t r· .
.
· I
··• ··
s earn ed o n t I
w1pec ou t , fo r every ni <dll it . 1 .
o-c ay , must be
_, . '
·
"
'
s <II 1tl(. t<J> enter ten t}
.1 l
.
anc I cI.row n i n scalding t • "
rousa nu io rncs
I
e.11s
t 11e <1111/ ,: on th . f
f
.
c I111c hood, tear the rose fro11 1 t l
.I k
c a ce o inn oce nt
·
ic c ice · of 1
·
white n ed Jock fro m th e {;
f
vornan, and pluc k the

..ice o age."

1

A. H. W elsh: E'11.!J1·Hit Litertil11re alld lan u-"a"
of A rc,
,, ., e. "De Quincey: Joan

USE OF SJJl/JLJ.:.' .-I ND Jl/h"l'.-11'/JOR.

51

" These youn g men do not realize tha t they are smui11g the

seeds of a drunkard's grave: ."

A lack of harm ony appears in unitin g in
the same se nt ence literal and metaph or ical
lang uage.
For example: -

Mixture or
literal and
m e taphori ca l
exprcssiont1.

H
J\ s Col un1hus St'! out .fro111 l'11/t1s th e 111ornin,t; s/11r t~( //te
R e/urmali<'il w as bri1Jllly .1/1i11in,i; th :tt had r isen with \ \'yclif i11

1380, a nd it ushen:d in the d aw n e:irl y in th e s ixteenth ce n tury
with Mar tin Luthe r's tran slati o n o f the Bibl e."

"\Ve thu s entered upon th e wo rk with ajlmoini; sail, and spe nt
t wo years n u t unpl easantly in decip!icrin){ a nd 1llf1111.i;i11i: th e

l ·, • ~·. 1:

j

multifari o us 111afrriafs, s o as to fo rm au agreeable and continuo us
li fe of the att tho ress."'

In clc.:c id ing wheth er to use the simile or
Simile or
the meta1Jhor, we mu st a j)j.>1y t h e t est o f metaphor .
clearness and adaptation t o our purpose.
If the rese mb1an cc is too slight to all ow us to assert
id e ntity, we must be co ntent with the simile. Thus
in the followin g example the simi le seems preferable:-

;

.

I'.

" \Vhitti e r's verse is c lea r as rock c rystal. a nd melodious as a sheph e rd's ho rn heard amon;; th e mo u n tains ."

Professor H. ill suggests that "it is often found
advantageous to use the s imile until the meanin g is
plain, a nd th e n to adopt the metaphorical form; tlius
th e advantages of both forms are secured." 2
The metaph or is mo re forcibl e th a n th e simile,
I

J.!emoir of IVzlliam H amess, p. 206.

2

Princip/., of N/1eforic , p.

92.
,;-. ; ,_ ; ' '

FREQUENCV OF F!CURES.

WO/,'DS.

l

fl

I

s ince we are surprised to find identity wh ere we
r
had [)erhaps not even suspected likeness.
G ren ter 1orcc
of the meta- How can the dulncss of a writer be more
phor.
vividly suggested than in Rivarol's remark
that Condorcet wrote with opi um on a p:i.ge of lead?
What ca n exceed the vigor of one of Victor Hugo's
descriptions in whi ch he calls the Hying chain of a
c;111non loose 0 11 the deck uf a s hip in :i. storm "a whip
of iron in a fi st of brass"? Fi g ures suc h as these
add a new powe r to lan g uage, and give un expected
life to wo rds that li:i.vc lost mu ch of th e ir force.
l'ersonification is a fo rm of met aphor in
Pcrsonifica
inani mat e objec ts arc rcgardcu ::u·
which
tion .
living beings. Examples are common: 4

" The 1110011 dot/1 7uillt rlcl1:i:1tt
Loo/.: r ound lier when the heave ns arc uare." 1
"From I !elico n"s harmonious springs
A th0l1sand rills their mazy prog ress take:
The /,11~i;lt i1(i; Jlm tk"rS th :\l ru1111d t ln:m l1luw
/Jri11/.: l1je :md /raJ[ra ncc as th1.:y tl u w."'
•· No w the golden .1for11 aloft
iVav es her d ,:;u-b,·sjJrrnJ[li·d wii(i;,
With ve rmt:il c/1.:i:/.: and whisper soft,
She woos th e Ludy Spring."'

Apostrophe.

8

In apostrophe an abse nt person or pe rsonified object is addressed as if present:

I \ Vordsworth: Ode Oii Imm ortality.
Gray : Ode '"' Vicissitude .

2

Gray: The Prop·eu o/ Poetry.

53

"Blow, hlow, t!tou 7£•inlt!r wind !
Thou a rt not so unkind
As man 's in g ratitud e;
T!ty toot!t is not so k1.:en ,
Because thou art not see n,
Although t!ty breatlz be rude.
Fr1.:c ze . fr c1.:1.e, t!t o11 /litlt!r sl.')' !
Thou d ost no t /Iii<! so ni gh
As ben efits f1>f)c(Ot:
Though thou th<: waters warp,
Th y brcat!t is not so sharp
;\ s friend rc nH.: rnlJ er\l not. ,, '
" 0 wild

J f?est

J,Vind, thou bri:al1t' o f A u t un 1n ' .s bt·ing .'' :

Apostroph e is generall y unsuit cc: to st~ c h cun1_1:0siti ons as a be o...,·1nncr naturally writes ; s tn ce a I ca_I
elevat ion of styl e is nccess:i. ry in ord e r t o pn.:vcnt th is
fi o-ure from bei ng ridiculous in pro ~c .
0
vVh c n fi •' urcs arc usctl in m m Ierauon an< I so
. i I\ 11strat c the tl10usht as to form an in teg ral part of it,
th ey add variety, force, and beauty.
U se of
vVh cn em ployed t oo freely t hey produce fi~ures.
an effect as un p1casan t as· an c·xcc
. .ss. of
. .. , ,
·
1
11
tlress
ancl
rr
iv
c
tou
uft
cn an appc.u an cL.
0
·
·
ornan1c l)t
· ,'
f ·
of prete ns .ion or me re pre'tt.me.ss. Far better
. 1s it, ut"
f a man . "He was born Ill 183 5,
.
cxamp1e, to say 0 '
f l · · cxist•
·
than "The year 183 5 ma rk s t he da wn o 11 s . - . ,
through the
ence" ; or " II
- c cl .ice1"
' t h-in
· "I Ic ·s wept
.
,
. . ." This nauseallll 0" style we ha\ C
po rtals o f eternity
already suffici e ntly di sc ussed elsewhere.
l

Shakespeare: A s You Like It, act ii, sc. vii.

vVi11d.

2

Shdh:y: Ode t~ tlu Wot

•I
·I

, v·
54

WORDS.

To be effect ive a fi rr ure must not I
b .
b
)e so (l vrous as
to lack
all novelty ' nor ·so f·ir
f ·t l · ct as to
The choice
.
' - e C lC
of figures. '. ·cqL'.lre an acquaintance with o bsc ure facts
l
.
.
rn h rstory or o·eorr
tn b
cl
,.., orap iy or sc ie nce in orde r
eun erstood
Firrur ' tl t
ca
.l
1
.
i:>
cs ia nect 1 to be explain ed
. n ev1t ent y e xplain noth ing themselves
1·· .t.
l
· an a·· f
·
rr c anc
t "" wcl 1-Y fiwurcs rr1vc
it
F«.,o _· o. , '11 o co m mo nplace and vulgary.
i,,,ures t hat a re too fo rcibl e for the
arc born bas tic.
occas io n
fi We should avoid n ot o nly "'" n excess O f
g urcs, but the t oo extended use of th e
a .
. "same figt'.re. 'vVc may think of inRue nce
• s ,t strea1:1, but if we recur throu"h a S<"r1·es of
pa crcs to th
b .
....
- .
tl~ ·~n
..... 1s o v1ous comparison, we shall lose more
. we o •llll. Any fi o-urc that .
I
.
"'
.
is repcat ec so often
tl t . . .
ia
it is , so t o speak , taken li te rally ,·111cl
u)
reasoned
l o n, appea rs overstra in ed a nd afft..:cted
F
.
stance we may
k t- f .
.
or 111,
. spea o a1th as a bricke or of hope
as an anchor, but if we e num er" t e tl o .
i e vanous JPrts
.
.
.
"
o f t 11e 1)ridge or of the an h .
.
. ... .:
priate work to c:tch
: . c o1, and ~ss1gn a n appro.
.
'
pa1 t, we mav win admiration for
our rn orrc nu1tj• ' b t1 t none
'
tor
OL 1r tas te.
Strained
metnphors.

CHAPTER IL
SENTE:NCES
t h1~ cor:s1rw.:: 1io 11 o f s~ nten cr·s :tn<l of p;-tr:l.~
graphs, in so far as 1lu:.~ y nrc int cndnl for the co mrnun ka ti ou of kno\'•'lnlgc,
may Uc s11hjcctcd 10 111 on: precise ruh-s than a11y o th1 :r pracessc-·s of the a rt
11

It is prohr1hly true th ;tt

of composition . The pri nciple s o n wliidt th ese rules are found e cl are
capable o f extension lo th e nwtliud uf whole chapti::rs or t!Ssays. Hut it
must l ie borne in m ind tha t a w rit er c:\ u benefit from d irec t prt"'cept chiefl y

as regards the easy, cle:ir, and cu m plctf! co mmuni ca tion of what is in his
thoughts ; fo r any effect of sty le bc•yorH.1 this, precepts are of compar:itil'cly

little service."

MINTO : Jtl.111111il 1~( }~11.~lis!t Pro.re Literature, p. 3.

SECTI O N I.

A SENTENCE is the express io n of a complete
th ought . The shortest sentence must contain or
imply at least two word s, th e subject a nd
the predicate. The subject may be a Dellnltlon of
sentence.
clause or a gro up of clauses, and the
predicate may be equally complica ted . A lo ng sent ence may conta in several hundred wo rd s. Yet in
the longest sentence no more th a n th e two cssenti:ll
elements are found: the subject, that about whi ch
somethin g is said; the predicate, whi ch says something abo ut th e subj ec t. Grammarians
classify sentences as simple, complex, or Class ificntion
of sentences.
co m po und. For o ur purpose we may
class ify th e m as short or lo ng , and again as loose
or periodic.
A sentence of two words is undoubt edly short:

..,

M
,·

"

' '· ·~

f

'II
i
'·'

JJ

t

SENTFNCFS.

a long sentence is not

l'RA CT!CA I. SUGGRSTIONS.

l

so easy to c efine. In popShort and
ubr bng-uage we call a sentence short that
1
~~~c::~- doc:; not exceed two or three Jines of print
.and .long when it contains more th an'
seven or e ig ht lin es. In re ·1 lity 11 0 • • .
.
·
'
,
wevc1 , a St~ ntence
'. s long or short according to its adaptat io n to the work
has to do. A sente nce of ten lines m:i.y he short,
if the thought can he co mpn:ssed into no smaller
co 1111 ~::iss. /\. sen tence of tliree Jines is too lo1w if
one lrne will :i.nswcr the j)urriose
Sl1 ·t· . . "'
· · , 01 sen tcnces
~re usu::illy clear, and they add vivacity by presentmg a complete thotirrht that ca n '· , t 1 1.
·
"'
'
'
uc ; "en 1n at a
glance_ 'When too frequent th ey break the main
thought of the paragraph into fragments so sma ll that
the styl~ be~omes jerky, incoherent, and undig nified.
Ccrta111 k111ds of wo rk may therefore be bes t done
by lon g sentences. Such sentences best f f .
t .
Advantages
l
·
· o lOllp 0n nd disad g~t l~r the ~lcments of a co mplex thought
vantag'<s of With its v;inous modifications.
They afford
long sentences 01>1· () ·t
't r
l'
.
•
•
> J un i y or c 1111ax, and give wt.:ig ht and
cl1gn1ty. On the other hand, long sentences are cliff] ..
cul t to handle, and they arc ofte n unduly l .
I
f
·
lt.:a vy a1H
con used . Dependent clauses arc frequt.:ntly tangled
:v1th one another, so that the rc:ider ca n scarcely
follow the. thou~ht. 1\Iorcover, lightness and grace
arc n ot easily united in sentences that rerruire ... I er
•
.
'1
« ar c
0
space 111 w 11 1ch to turn themsel ves.

:t

We cannot say that eithe r sort of sentence is

absolute]~ the better; but on the whole the short
sentence is the safer. Long sentences are edged tools

.

57
j '

that may do mi sc hi ef. Tht.: g reatest ddect of inexperienced writ ers is that they hav e littk conception
of what a sentence is, and hence they try
·
· f au I t Practical
to include too much
in it. Tl llS
cautions.
cannot easily be corrected by mere rules ;
but much will be g:tincd if all st.:ntenccs that exceed
six or eight lines art.: rcgankd with some suspicion.
The effect that we desire to produce must decide
wh ether our sen tences should be long or short. \Ve
may, therefore, in revising our work, deliberately
introduce. a short sentence into a group of lon g 1 1n es
for the sake of livelin ess. Long sentences we m:ty
cut into sh o rt ones, not merely because of the ex_
cessive length, but because on the whole the short
sentence is freest from the obscurity that lurks in
the Jong sentence. The sho rt sentence is most easily
mast ered, and is thus best suited to the beginner.
The habit of writing lung sen ten ces will grow \\'ithout espec ial cultiv:1tio n. As :1 final tt.:st we may
apply tht.: ruk adopted lJ)' J:1111cs l\usscll Low ell: " lt was alw:1vs pres e nt tu 111y cunsciqusncss t!i:tl wh.ltt·\.t'r I
said must he 11n1icrst ood at once J.y my ill:arers, or n e l' er. < lut
of this !, almust without knowing it, formulated the rule th:ll
every sentence mus t lie clear in its elf, and neve r :oo long t" lie
carried, without risk of losing its ],;dance, on a s111gle lircat h of
the speaker." 1

The difference in effect produced by short and by
long sente nce s is seen by comparing th e following
examples:lQuotcll in Oainton's Art of Aul/iorsliip, pp. 29, 30.

'

..

58

.

SENTENCES.
LONG SFNTF.NrFS.

"Th e co ns pirators fou nd that they had miscalculat ed. The
g ove rn o r was in exorabl e . Th e troops were s teady. The .Sepoy>,
ove r whom Clive.: had a lways possessed ext rao rdinary influence,
st ood l>y him with uns hake n tidelity. Th e lead e rs in the plot
were arres ted, tri ed, a nd cashie red. Th e.: rest, hum bled and
dispirited, begged to be p ermitted to withdraw th eir res ignations.
Many o f them <kcla n:d thei r penitence cvc.:n with tears . The
yo unge r offenders C lin; treated with lcnity . To th e ring leaders
he was infl exi bly sc.; 1·e re; IJ •.1 t his se1·erity was pure from all taint
of privat e male\'ol e ncc.: ." '

..ti1ie oliJ'c.:cts J.y \\'hi c h
F ran k - ·.t 11 ·arc· ~as· familiar to
. us as ,,
have been surru utHkd frc•m childhood.

Long se nt ences may be maclc up
of a large
num ber of particulars, each clear in
itself. For
example:-

l

Macaulay : 11.rsay "" Clive.

~Macaulay :

·~,

.

-~

/,

~

·..

\\"C

·
whi c h arc
Of a different sort arc the fol 1owmg-,
l)
admirably c Iea r, ut have Jess vi vaci ty:

" T he c ity was becoming mutin o us. Oxford was beco ming
loyal. Ca ve ndi s hes an d Bentincks were murmu ring. Sunwrsets
and W y n clh ams we re hasteni ng to kiss h a ucls . The head of the
treasury was now Lord Bute , wh o was a Tory, and could ha ve
n o objectio n to Johnson's Toryism. " '

" J ohnson g ro wn old, Jo hn son i n the fuln css of hi s fame a nd in
th e e nj uy m e nt of a co rnpcte nt fort11ne, is bett er known to u.s than
any oth e r 111an in hi s to ry. E1·nyth ing about him , his coa t, hi s
wig , hi s figure, his face, h is scro fula, his St.-Vit u~'s dance , hi s
rolling walk, hi s blinking ey<', t!:e uutw;i rd signs which too clearly
marked his :otpp rnhati on n f liis di1111cr, iii., i11s ,1ti.ti, Jc appet ite for
fish -sa uce and vea l-pk with pl1rn1s , his ir:cxtinguishablc thirst
for tea, his tri ck of to uc hi ng the posts wh e n he wa lked, his
m yste ri ous pract ice.: of treasuring up scraps of orange-peel, his
morning slumbe rs, his midnight di sputat io ns, his co nto rtions,
his mutteri ngs, h is g runtings, his pufli ngs , hi s vigorous, a c ute,
a nd ready eloq ue nce, hi s sarcas tic wit, his ve he mence, his in solen ce, his lits o f tempest 11 o us rage, his queer inmat es, old Mr.
Leve tt a nd bl iud J\Irs . \Villiarns, the cat Hodge and the ncgro

59

. . . . . ch //1eir reli«ion, and snch t/1,-,r l:tw.
"Suc h are !li en- Id ea,, "'
I ,.., . .. thl' well-crn11p;tctcd
.. a d our r:lce. as ung .ts
.
.
But as to o 11r countl). ll
I St · t . the s :t11clu;try, lite holy ol
f
· Churc h a111 , •t e,
·
I 11
structuref ol ou 1 .; ·nl hw , 1c1cll1
r
·] cl
. 1 1' }' rc1•c1·c11u:, def<:nc ,_
.,, ·.·)'
ho li es u l 1'tt anc.e
' '
l
·hall s l'l nd in1·iobtc un
. . . t once ·ind a te mp c, s , . .
power , :t fort1<.:~s :t .
..·
.. I
" ·1...; thf• Bri tish ll1dTLt rchy
B"t
11 h S1011 -.ts oin,., ,
0 f 1
th e lil'Oll" I. t ic.: · ts ·
. · I I . ti . · •n lc rs of th e St:ite, sh:dl.
·l cl tlnn fc·1 He1 >\ •e '
f
no t more 11111 i c ·\- . , .. . i1f \ \ ..ill{1 :-;1 1r. . r .i,111.'...;,
:
i11 ilw- lll.lj• ·,t -,. " pr«
.
l
lik e tl1c jffd<t" l , c .. ,l
b l f · . kindr .. d and Co>t'\''1•
1
1
.
.
I
"
irt
with
tl1e
double
ct
"
s
·
,
,
l
)Or tt o n . •111 < ,.,
:t ll U ,-."'" " ' 1
.
. . this a\\'ful structures·) >.1. JI " 1·c·rsee
l
towers, -- ;ts u n~ .h
· '
I
I · ' t1Hi dikt"s ., f tl t· 1" ·
11
.
]· 1 - so lo nu· t ie n1 ~ "" 1{ :-. .
.
the suli1cckd .lilt• . ·
.-. I . , t fe· ir fro m ail the ptck:txcs
fat• Bedfo rd lcn:l will hal'e nol irn;., n •
f 11 l , i·.:l'c•·s of France .
· · · I
I
" a t 11: ic
' .. . . snv ·rc111
. n ', 111(. I ti h ..:, kin b'
" and his t:irt 11111 su •" As l1in g as Olli. ·c "
. f I .. . . 1n - th e triple: c"'"
' ca I •
.
.
I
J'ccts, the 1on I' ..u id con1111ons l ", .t lls
l.
sw<>lll, ct1rbt1tut1u1i:1
..
lirc·tk ·-· t ic su en 111 .
.
I
whi ch no n1;u1 c.tn
. ·.
I . ( . n t'tt'lr;tnt ie'.' ot eac l
111
I .
"·
I
( thi' na t1 0 11 , - tH
frallk -plc< ge <>
·
• .·
l . _ th e j<0i11l a lld S t '\ 'J'Ll
.
.
1 e·iclt o th e rs 11g 11 s .
othcr ,s b e ing anc
,
.
. I .. f ) f t'\'l'r\" kind ; t \Hi c\ ·l'r y
.
·I 1 .111 it s Jbcc ~\I HI (l] ( LI . l
.
sccuritl<''· ""'·
I
.
.
.
.. , l«l1"."':> as th 1·sc
cndun·.
'''
· ·t\" :llld 1l!•iJ Jl (\ , - , l .
•
•
qualrt v ot pro,)Cl :
.
_.-. ·. . I '. ir e· tli s.dc ln~··t11n. -·
.
I 0 f P ·dltJn \ h ~.ik . . tlH \ L .
.
.'
.
lon g the
U
1:atio11s ot L\p;tCI!."
.
f · u "' tl , blrohts " r cn1 .I . ..t110 I the ,. ....
,.
.
I .
th e h q.;:h to m ie
,...
. .
. . n ·111d tlo e """ t"ill
.
.
f
·o111
the
iron
hand
ut
opprc"'"
.
t I lt; I U \\· 1
spur n of contempt.'' '
0

i

.

N.

]!T'Z·

•

:·.,

1

'~

./\. sentence is tcrmc1 j ]tluSC t h:it C:Iil
.
.~:nlit:r th an the c lo st:.
he ended at a ]"J 111t

..- .

,__

Loose

v

sentences.

For exam pie : .': iav11d HSJay on 7 ohmvn,
I

Macaulay: F irst Essay

Ml

Joh"'°"· '2 Hurke: l ..cllertoaA'obU l ..ord.

},.

60

" Life. altogethe r, is hut a c rumblin" r 11111
.
.-.
• when we turn to
lo l· l I · · 1
"' Jc i1 11t ; a sh at1 en:d co hmrn he r
·l , . . . .
.
stood ; the broken s ln ft f .
. 1
e, \\ icrc . 1 n1ass11·e portal
0
· •
•1 w 111 c ow to mark
.l l •
and a muuld c 1·i1w h e ·11) of I l k
l
• Ill) ac y s bowe r;
"'
'
> ac ·cnec s to nes wl
l
t·l;un es one<: lea•)\ and
'• .. 11 l . .
.
terc ti e g 1o wing
.
.
I '
• 01 e r .1 • t ie tint e d lie! •
. l l
.
ic n .rnc t 1e ivy
cl1n g 111g g reen ."'

."We dwell hut o n the roses '11· th, 1" 1 ,
•
b n a rs tha t stinrr
e " )s ide, .111d the s tro nl!
•
•
•
·'=' u s .ire, to <llll dist an t
l
•o
wa ving in the wind."'
eyes, mt ge ntle te ndrils
"Tli c tun
· es were p ea ceab le and t he C ' .
Ind ·11
l ·
· · .
'
'e 1 man nobles in general

•
• >an c o ned
e;wles' 11 , ·t . 111
·
"'. ·
es s
res1cle
.
I
· ,nces 111 t 1e

tlle1r rnc"nvc ni l' nt 0 11
1
'h
.
cast ks. perched like
• e mount;11 ns, and I I I ·i
ia< JU I t more o1nven1. ent
va ll eys ." ·'

"I le loved to t e ll lo ng- s to ri0s ·1hnut l
whose purtr.ti ts look ·d "_.
l , ;· ·.
t lc dark o ld warriors
e
,,. 111 11 I <.n \\n fr"lll t he . · ll
I
·l,
.'
,q ' ~rounc ' and
ie found no li ste n e rs cqu;tl t.ll ,t hos
c 11 .o f," at l11s expense . .. ·'

l

. T,o such l.oose senknces the re G ill be s]i .,h t
Ject 1on. /\ i):td example is th1.: follo wiiw · - ,..,
ub-

,.., '

ftl sh ,-1f l , r :t c t :t~ ; l luoi:r.:r~u n , 11 l '\' l'!
1
Ltlking cx ccp1 jn 111 y o wn
« >. llll co 11sta111Jy J istcnin.~· to a ll 1
I
-.,
t i c Co nve rsat io n!) in a
gru up. t wugh a ppar e n tly nut notici n" : 1
I
,..,
word said, a nd thus I
u lserl'e a ncu( r ..tlit y between \Vhi "s and
;i nd t'
. ..
,. . .
·rori es, th e s t;1tesnL·ln
.
i 1 ~ StJlU i c r. and a s 1 ha\·c in all
·1 ;
I
p;1rts ', f m_,. life :1cterl
·"' r )j1 y :is :t ~ iJCCL1l.ir t u ' Jtli c r rncn's
tha t c haracte r in th ese
den!., , I intend l o prese r ve
. l
pape rs cv n l. 1iBing m y 11nbiased ari<l
un p re;11( iced op ini o ns."
·
H

J 11 I

Loos e se nt e nces ha ve the aclva11t ao-e of I ,
•
'c :-...
)eJnn·
easy ancl
natural , like the s e nte nces of conversa ti or;
1 k romf' · 11! . 1 •t

If not t oo long and involved, the y arc
.

2

Ibid. p . ' S9-

j

.

Advanta g es
a nd J isaJ -

j

cspec 1aJ y adapted to narratives, to etters, vant a,; es of
to simple exposition, and to any other loos e sen t ences .
compos ition that approache s the case uf con versati on. When too frequent they g ive a c:1relc:-;s,
ragged app1:arance to the style .
Sentences in wh ich the thought 1s not f11lly ex pressed till the close arc called period ic. :::ii11c1.:
t he periudic st ru cture m;1kcs possi l;k a
suspension of the nJost in1po r tant 1..·1 c 1ncnts

Peri odic
se n tence::..

of the sentence, titis form

is l'eculiarly
ad apted tu forc ible \\'riting. One c:rn th us stimuhl e
the reader 's attention throughout the sentence, and
prese nt the weig htiest thought at the n10rnc11L when
he is best prepared tu rec eive it.
Exampks of p1.:riodic senknces a rc t he foll<Jwini;:
"If there is on e p er:-:.0 11 l du dC :""\jl iSc n 111 rc tli;ui ; 1n otliL~r . it i_
'l
th e m :tn wh u docs n ut think cxactlv t he s: m1e " " all t"pics :ts
d 1i .. ,,
••()n th t.: s u 1111nit (Jf Pile of ll1c la·iglih uf tlw <1d1· 11\\,tl1l , .1
wild and ro mantic tract of upper (; e rm:t 11y that li es nut Ltr !mm
the urnllucncc of the i\hin and tl1e J'l1i11c, th ere slul)(l, n i: ulv
yt:;lrs si n ce , th e c;l:-.lle u f tl1i.: l ~ . lr<1 :1 \· 1111 L.u1tblH1rt." ·t

" Tlinu,;.:,h the w;t rlik c di ;-:. jH1.-.. i't ion

~)f

liis i)rcdccc:--;:-.\lr .. :, li ;u!

rntH ),

i111p;1ircd the fam ily pussessivns , yd the baro n still cmlc;"·urcd
t <) kee p u p so me show of former sLtte ."'

Periodic sentences o ught not to he cx cl usivc:ly
used. lf they arc long, they cause impatien ce and

• ...

~.
... .
. c ::,, c Th 1JJL._~l!ls o/ an /di~ l·'rllow 1 r-g
. . r vmg : SJ:etch JJook, 'l'he .Spectre /Jride.s.rroom.
, I. I_y.

8 r

Gr

LOOSE .-!NJ) l'FRJODJC S l cNTEh'CFS.

SENTENCES.

1

J e ro me : Jiu: Idle.· J /Jt1 11_;,rills 1'./ ,tn /,!!~: 1- ~Jf, ,a ', !•·

fl vtik, Jhe .\f>e'-:trr.: lJr id1.;rrvo m.

12'..l .

:.!

Irving : .)"kehh

62

SFN7'ENCES.

wearin ess, :ind are thu s hard to fo llow.
reade r is in dange r of for crettincr
0
.
I">
)e .ore he arrives at the e nd of the sent e nce the topic with whi ch he starts.
'Ne must adapt the fo rm of sen t e nce to our purpose, and thi s will constantly vary. The per iodic
s t ru ct ure must t herefore g ive place at
n1:~i~c~~~~~g times to the loose. In cases, however,
wh ere man y pa rti cu lars a rc to h e unit ed
the period ic se n tence is best fitted to ma ke clear th~
•1 rela ti on of parts.
Loose sentences, if long , break
th e atte nti o n by successive stops, a ny o ne o( whi c h
n:ay be final, and the n compe l the read er to retrace
his steps so as to unite the scattered ma terial.
D isad v antages

M t he pc ri- The
odic structure. j
[

I

SECTION IL

is the prima ry quality o f good wri ti ng;
for wh at is unintelli gible might as well be written in
an unkn own tongue or n ot written at all.
Clea rne ss in CJ .
·
J
sentenc es.
ear expression c ot~s n ot always a cco mpan y clea r thinkini;, but is imposs ible
wit.hout it. A writer shoul d t he refo re co nsta ntly
st nve t o co nceive his tho ught wit h pe rfect distin ctness, and he sh ou ld let no se ntence pass until it is as
transparen t as th e th ought will all o w an d th e int ell igence of the class of readers he is add ressing req uires. Sen t e nces that have no meaning arc comp::irativcly rare; bu t th e re arc rn:i.n y wh ose meaning
can be g rasped only by a n effort. Such sentences
CL EA IW l·:ss

UNJ'f'Y.

con'\pel the reade r to t ra nsfe r a tten t ion from the
thou <l'ht to the expression, and thus cause a m1sclirec~ion of effort and a was te o( time. 1'nfcct
clearn ess is as difficult as it is im portant, since it
·1
.~t s 'v··ll
' ~
.~1s u.~ train ed
de ma nes
I cxac t k-nowI eugc
iut elkct.
We ca nn ot he re c11umc'l'atc all the causes of
obscurity in sentences, but must touch upon a fe w
of the m ore common.
The cl ea rness of se nt ences depends largely upon
their unity. To have uni ty a sente nce should co1it a in but one principal thuught . A v<tric·ty
· j
Unity o f the
of equally important t I10Ug h ts Ill t 1e S;lllll ' ocntcnce.
senten ce is likely l.o distract the reade r's
attention . Begi nn e rs oiten ia il to keep the unity
b ecause tbev do not know when t o end a sentence.
After fully ~ x pressing a t hought they add words that
properly belong to the followin;..; se ntt:nce. Tile
Jcn 0"th o( sentences ma y be i11ddinit l'ly extended
hy
.
adding clauses introduced by altfl, or but, ur wluc!t, ur
w !tilc; but such sentences rapidly !use clcm1ess and
rhythm. Sho rt sentences rarely lack u n it y; fur
there is not room within n arro w limits to int ruduu.:
more th a n one principal th ouF(ht. None b ut strnn~
thinke rs can sec clearly to the end of a lo ng sent e nce, and place ev e ry clause and modifyin g phrase
wh e re its exact relation s will be evident. Especial
prominence, therefore, should be given to the mai_n
cl a use in order that depende nt clauses m::iy be duly
subordinated.

SFN'l'F.VC!'.'S.

"A few simpl~ rules will indicak how to secnre unity.
I he examples illustrate wh:tt is to be avoided : r. Have only one k:tding though t in the
Rules for
same sentence: unity.

"I.Ir. J lu11011's apprcciatiun of Sco tt as a poet
see ms lo us ful l of sub tl <: insi~ht and luhnced judgment, anr~ 11
daliorate criticism on our uwn part w1nild to a co nsi de rable ext~~!
.

repeat his, which is cspeci:dly welco111e to us, we must repeat, as
a protest against the injustic<: of one whose very injustice we note
with reveren ce.,, 1

.,
i
I

"

" John \Vesl ey was liorn at Epworth, in the County of Lincoln,
on th e seventeenth of June , 1703 , and w:L~ the sun of Samuel

:uid Susannah \Vesley, the former being the learned, bborious,
and widly r ecto r ol Epworth, from alJOUt t he ye:1r I (x;6 to his
dea th Ill 173 5. '"

'The b1r11/ grris paradt:d thro ugh Paris o n Sh rove Tuesday
seems a re m111 1sce ncc of th e H1111.r /-f~('e111111t who was exhi bi ted
in the ancient Athenian fl·sti,·:d, .i.nd who, while he was a toke n
,,f the pie ty of the city hy whon1 he w:is offered, was, a t the same
time, a source of profit to the gr;11.i.-r !,\' wholll he had ueen
rcart:d , and \\'ho \\':IS thus l'l\C<>Ur:1gcd tu .i111prO \'C th e urccd of
cattle in Greece."'
"A lthou g h the sight of that lllag11ilicent round of beef, and the
silvt: r tankard suggesti1·e of real British ho me-b rewed ale and
porte r, wl_iich pt:rt:nniaJly greet the eyes of the travell er returning·
fro m fo_re1~n pa1:ts, who entns the coffee-room of the George,
art: so 111v1goral1ve and deli g htful th at a lllan entering such a
co mfo rta ble, snug, homel y English inn might well Jikc to stop
so me days th ere, yet Dobbin began to talk about a post-chaise /
1
Professor 1 >owdr~ n: in The Co11tc111pura1y l\)evien1. 2 Tyerman: Ufe-qf
vVes/ey. u C. T . Newton: in The Ni11c/.'e11lh Cmtmy.
'•

RUl.ES FON UNITY.

instantly, and was no sooner at Southampto n than he wi shed to
be on the road to Londo n."'
/

2.

Adel nothing to a sentence already complete :

"Th is was a matter which from his e:i rli es t years ht: had studit:d
with great care in all its relati ons, an d had in a variety of ways
brough t to the attention of leading s ta tesmen, who listened
sometim es with patronizing flatte ry, and sometimes with ;JI .con·
cealed snee rs, and often advised him to apply to some hi gh
official who would IJe ce rt ain to oppose the schemes of sucl1 :u1
ad venturer, since men in high statiun :tre lik ely tu p.1y littk heed
to matters that appea r visionary, especially where no person:tl
advantage is to be gain ed."

3. Do not join a rel ative clause t o another rebtivc
clause:"It would be inte resting to trace Tindale's course closely, dur ing
the years t hat followed, but it is enough to say that 1,cca use of
inability to carry o ut his purpose in his own iand ht: went i11lu
volu nta ry exile in I 523, go in g first to Saxony t<1 co1hult wi th
Luther, and afterward . hunted a11d persecuted liy Sir Thorn:ts
More , was llriven front place to pl:1re , bu t still pc·rs istcd in his
work in whi ch he was assisted b1· \Villi:un Kur. who '"" :t l\lll ·
away, friar, and by john Frith, hi~s ft:llow stuJ:nt <1l C11niJ1·i clgc ,
who was devotedly attached to th e pr inciples of the Reformation,
which at th is time had begun to attract much attention.''

4. Avoid parentheses, and especially avoid placing
one parenth es is within another : " After adm itting t hat the L>u rea te's style ''' exquisite - not
without a snee r - the critic quotes a p:issag-c from Crab lie as
l>,e_i!ig good wholesom e English, as no doubt it is - c\'ery farmer's
.n.would say so - a nd the n makes an extract from Tennyson,
V.111ity Fair, vol. ii, chap. xvi ii.

,,. '

FAL SL' CONCORDS.

.SENTENCES.
describing a similar event, b ut treated poetically, in fact with
certai n additions (which he no more secs than the farm er's man
would be likely to see) and politely designates it as •Celestial
Chinese .' "

These rules are not absolute: they merely inclicate how a sentence will be most likely to attain
clearness and co herence.
SECTION Ill.

a se ntence may poss<.: ss unity, it may still
be u ngrammat ical and otherwise bad ly const ructed.
A few common faults in gram mar we note incidentally.
Gross errors, s-:.ich as the use of a singuFalse
lar
verb with a plural subject, are never
concords.
pardonable:THO UG ll

!

'!

"I n this body the effects o f the ag itation of the land question
that has been going on in England for ten years /ms been clearly
seen.,, 1
"To us the delusiveness of Bolingbroke's repeated observations , that he had now beco me a retired philosopher, are transparent enoug h." '

I

,!

"The language o f an heroic poe m should be both perspicuous
and sublime. In proportion as ell/1er of these t wo qualities are
wanting, the lang uage is imperfect."•
"We may see how their pride, or presumption, or tyranny
hr!Ve been followed by punishment."•
' H enry George: l\'n;iew of R eviewJ, April, 1892.
2 A. W. Ward ;
!11t"•d11 ci1n11 to r ope'> 1-VorkJ.
a Addison: Sp#clalor, No. ::i85.
4 ]. S.
Brewer: L 'ngli J/i St11dieJ.

" Ne ither hi s conduct nor hi s lcrnguag,; licl7Jl' left me with tlut
impression. "
"The privilege by whi ch the mind, like the lamps of a m.11!
coach mo ving rapidly th rough the midnight woods, d!t111111111fr,
for one instant, the foliage o r sleeping umbrage of the thickets,
and in th e next instant /ia ve <Jlliltcd them tu carry their r:.Hliance
forward," etc.
"There appears tu. l1ave IJce n several ce11!11ri cJ bcf.,r<.: the
church again ventured to use th e stage."
" Du ring th e last tw enty years the neg ro ]l• \pubtion of the
South has increased cn o rnl0t1'ly , and th e d,:pt!is of 1g"" '"'nce
and superstition in which th e vast majori ty li ve is appalling."
"In my judgment m oney, as well as men, are wanting. "
.. But twen ty men passed tl1e gate, and before they could reach
th e uridgc every un e uf them were slain. "

The obj ecti ve form of pronouns is sometimes wron gly used for the nominative,
and vice versa : -

Misus e of
nominative
and objec tive
forms.

" You will sec Coleridge ; he who sits o bscure
In the exceeding lus tre and th e pure
Intense irradiation of a mind."'
"A nd now, my classmates: ye remai ning- few
That num be r not the half of those we knew,
Ye I salute!"'
"This is th e ma n w!tom I said would und crt ak<: the work."

Some writers insert an adverb between the infinitive and its sign to. In some cases this may be
I Shelley: Li:ller lo Maria GiJborni:.
tam us.

2

'11.

Longfellow: Afm ituri Sala-

i

68

SEN7'ENCES.

TENSR OF T//H INFINITIVE.
Position of
adverb with
infinitive.

admissible for the sake of 1
. .
c earness ; but
th~ ma1onty of careful writers condemn
this usage :_

"They read of and praised her nobleness and then c1sl.-,
' Where can a true heroine be found now?'"
"A battle i» fought in which the Prince was among the
wounde<l, and the college is opened an<l turned into a hospital."

"Th e persons represented ir. th ese )l;t
calculated /u dci·li/v inter, ·t ti .. .•. · l · ys were not characters
F :,r

"lt is no small task t

business house."

Relation or
the infinitive.

t.\

le .u1n1ences."

"The clanger is that she will jump at some conclusion and
then believe in it so steadfastly that she becomes intolerant uf
others' views."

o acc11ralely keep the ·iccount. f
'
s o a great

Th e. rel:~tion of the infinitive to the word
on whi ch It depends should be t?;imistakable: -

The time ex1)ressed by the i)resent infinitive is present, past, or future, accord· the pnnc1pa
· · l c Jause 1s
·
ing as the ver b m
present, past, or future.

"On the next clay Prince J oh n Jr
d
nament at Ashby lo make l\.ebec~a o{;1~~~ Q~1~e7io o~o th e tonr~eauty, to preside O\'er the tourname nt anc
Lo.ve and
Saxons who would be likely to be ) .
. I to mortify the
I resent lo view the spectacle.,,

Ten ~es in
subordinate
clauses.

I am trying1
I tried
I have tried to write.
I had tried I
I shall try )
The perfect infinitive should not be used unless
the time to be expressed is plainly :interior to the
time expressed in the principal verb. There is an
evident diffe rence bctwt:cn "He ought to write
either to-day or to-morrow" and "H e ought to have
written yesterday"; "He was supposed to lnve
stolen the money before coming to America."
The following sentences exhibit violations of this
principle : -

Verbs in principal clauses should k
.
eep
e same tense throughout the sentence
'.
The following sentences contain
.
of t111s rule: violations
Ten•es.

th

" .Now comes a sudden change: ;in increasin"' cl .
I. .
. "' es1rc for drama tic performances b1·011 lit
.
1? t . am Jl!1ous yotuw men t L
make their fortunes by ,~rit'1ng pays.
I.
,,
o
o one1on, to
''.The light of the known land sinks behind .
heritage of fame lay before him ."
lum, but the
" Columbus then jlrocet:derl lo hy ti
lI
·
·
1e wor c under a 11
1I'1g;it1o n lo woman, and rewards her l f !'
ew 0)
she would rise to liberty· ·rnd I
biy,. me ing a •.1ew land where
•
iono r c1orc unknown."
"P l'
a
he

"I have said that Mrs. Kemble was not (superficially) a vulg;ir
womoin, but it would have taken the soul of gentility to lww
prese11led, without quailing. her amazingly odd companion to
her particular set of visitors."'

wishe~~ ~~~e;;:i::;1~~'~ct~/~::~~e~l;;::1~:~~: 1~~~~e subsidy~

I

,

'1

\

Frances Anne Kemble: Records o/" Gir/h,,.1d, p.

105.

,.,,

.

.~: .'~

70

SENTENCES.

" It had been 1 • t
·
·' · .
. .ny in ention
l\. eats s compos1t1ons." •

/1; l1tz'11e

ARRANCRMENT.

co!/,:rtrd the re mna11ts of

.
" I int e nded to /1a-1e · · / 1
' ms1s i:1 on tl11s syn11)·1tl1" .·it
·
· :
greater
length. '"

"I meant ' when I fi r.st came,

;,
Ill 1fl7' e h1JJ~1;/1/

all Paris."

".He wanted /,1 !w 1 ,i! /;line to Eurolie 1
ast year, hut lie ivas
a fr:uc l o f t 1ic cholera."
·
.. Macaulay had planned lo l1a11e ddi11N ·<'d 'l SJleccl .
burgh, but was prevented by· ·1 vari'etj· 1f
. ' .,
l in Edin'"
•
· l
reasons. ,

A common fault is the omissio11 o f a ver b or a
preposition after than or as.
. For example, the sentence, "I admire
him more than h. . .
c
IS llltlmate associates "
·
h'1111 more than ' I
. may
. . mean
• ' "I acl mire
admire his 111t1m::tte associates" or "r a I . . I.
dllllle 11m
. . .
'
'
more t lian l11s intimate associates admire him."
Omissions
after than
or"'·

"\Ve want to see him as much as you."

. .

Om1ss1on of
auxmarle•.

be disliked.''

Omission of
verl>.

"He said [that] he would go to France."
"This was the man [whom] l saw in Paris."
't

The following would be obscured by the 01111ss1on
of the bracketed words : "He has stated to you [that] its own agents, in the year 1iS1,
in the arrangement they proposed to make at Calcutta. were
satisfied to have twenty-five per cent. at once struck off from the
capital of a great part of this debt," etc.
"They conceive, very systematically, [that] all things which
give perpetuity are mischievous, and therefore they are at inexpiable war with all es ta blishments. "

verbs arc sometimes· 11nprop.
lAuxiliary
.
e r Y omi t ted. Fo r example:_
"Such men a l ways l•ave [been] and always wiJI

. An essential part of the verlJ is SOmetimes wrongly omitted: -

.
"At any rate it was owing to the hel) a I .
p.1thy of a devoted wife ti t C 1 l
. l , nc symwhat he has.,,
ia
.1r ye was enabled to accomplish
1

Dependent cbuses may sometimes omit the introductory conjunction or relative where the conn ection is close; but not where the relation Omission s In
of clauses would be thereby obscured. dependent
Allowable therefore are such sentences clauses.
as:-

Shelley: Memorials.

2

R uskin: Architecture and Pa'Mfi'

'" ng,

SECTION IV.
ONE of the most important aids to clearness i,;
a careful arrangement. Every modifier should be
broug-ht as near as possible to the word
it limits. Arran<'ement
is of peculiar Rules
for arb
rangement.
importance in English composition, since
the grammatical construction and consequently the
meaning of the sentence largely depend upon the
order of parts : -

; I''

.:

;:
!'

,, .
t. ~ .

.,
!
Sl:NTENCES.

/

- li srn
"It was in th e }'ea• r ! JOO • w 1llC
. re it ,
I
tury, was a ju bilee yea r .1··
' . . \l as t ie e nd of a cen• • " ' "' a11 old lradl/1011 of t he church "
.. He probably did not offe r J •
•
fleeted it ta be solicited." '
11s conversa tion, because he ex-

.

II

,,

. " A trad ition, thus confirn1 cd, 111 ay )e th:t )S h
..
s.1t1s fac tory c vJCl cnce th a t H. k ·I .
. .I
J · e accep ted as
ab ·
.r
n c cv 11 as lm rn at D ysert, nt th•
Je1tct! ''.I doc11111entary /Jruoj". ,, 1
~

I MPROPER ARRANGEMENT.

73

,,

~{ Mr. N. L. Munro /mt up 'the build ings that were on fire fen
years ago and virtually occupied th e whole of th e m, all the oth e r
tenants being cont ractors for him ." 1
"For this reaso n I a m reso lved to d e vote this pape r to a description of myself, and a few succudini: to a description of lll }
colleagues in this work ."

#

Ji'

."Wh en Jie sa w th at th ey were rea l! , fl
.
w l/lwut an e ffort to .1 .
,
) oat ing dow nward again
:u'
J lilt 111e rlrea111 he
t
I.
sa t himse lf down deli be t , l ·. J . ,
p u away lis bill, a nd
ra e v 111 11s place ast · . t ·
•
Jookers qu ite
as mu ch as Pl 11·1·
, • . on1 s 111ng t 11e on..
a mmon had done.'"
" Gibbon incurred th e imputation o f ava .
.
fact, ex trem ely ge11er011S si111pl b ;, . . • n ee , wl~ il e he was, in
'J' 'Y us ig norance o t th e purch asing power of mo ney." '
.. Th e t reatise JJe Oj/iu i :r. known . C
'
.
we pass ne xt is ackl r·essc·fl I ti
as . rcero s Oj/1ces, to which
•
' ·
··
>\'
tc au th · t I ·.
.
Zit/{ at Athe11s 1111der Cr11tipp;1s . "'
o1 o liS son w /11/e study" Finally th e co ndition f J>' ·
o a 1a1rs had bee
b
'
o me so ad that
repeal could make them 110
worse , at any r ate."
" De Quincey had a p redispos ition to consu . .
.
. l
. n1pt ron whi c h th ese
mo rl>J<l tlt ou•»
0 ltt s would t cnt
to agura1 ..1te ·1n I tl
soon after his s iste r's deal!. 0,r , . ·""1 · . • • < ic return home
' · J '"J 1v ely brother \ ·J I 1 .
awa y f ro111 home mu ch of l .. 1·r
. .
'i o ia r hved
11s lie, wa ·s ·au ·spic ious f,or D e Qu incey
on this acco unt."
" Gard iner of Win cheste r, th e most ~·i o le n
a nd Latimer the 1111/iri11 rr jJ
.
t enemy o f Cranmer
b
'
· ... · erst:t lllflr o.f J.Jr ot · ~t 1 1
eca use of th e sympath , d . I
<.> m t s, 1ated her
y an a it s he co nstantly offered them."
One migh t i1na!!i ne that L
estants .
~
atinier was the pe rsecutor of Protl johnson: L 1/e of Dr d.e11

Hypatia

•

• C ti· .

O 111s:

.. J'

.

2

l1cero , p. 153 .

Fraser: Lift of l lerhley
•

8

Kingsley:

" In most cases the guests co ntinu ed re ticen t about the inco nveniences t o w hiclz tliey lzad bun subj eded long ajter tlu:y had
moved away." '
"Various es timates have bee n made as to the ti me of the birt h
of Columbus from the ft!'W f acts wlticlz we hm1e about !tis eady

'i..'

life."
"Bucking h am hoped to turn the tide in favor of Charles by a

successful foreign war."
"This period uf his rule was marked by o ne of the most extraordinary events in the h istory of the tim es , in Fl111·01a ."
"The best we can do is to put together wha t see m to be the
most lik ely facts concerning the history of the tim es, fri>m 1•,trious a11/h{Jritits ."
" Sir l lenry was hardly a favorite in Elizabeth's court /,cmu se

of his blunt , ojot 111a:111<T. n
"I regret to find that Professor T en Brink supposes that I
took h ints from a book of his jJ11b!islted in 187owiti10ut atknow/edj,?lli:nt , but I neve r saw his lJuuk till 1886, nor read it till 1307."
"His fame, such as it was, rest ed upon his comedies a/mos/
wi10/ly."
"They made it very un pleasa nt fo r th eir victim while he was
beiog searched fo r boo ty wit/1 their sarca sm.'"
l New York Iimes. March I , 1893. ; New York Tnbune, J\farch 24, 18y3.
BNl'W Yoroe .Sun.

··::.

74

SENTENCES.

;,.

M I SUSED PARTICIPLES.

" He Ii acI not bid as id e his buff . .
l.
.
crosscut on the should . . r. .
co.tt, w uch dtsplayed the
I
·
t; J • .I or more than I/tree
· r/,t
· .
Ju t s uch momen tary ft;JJO.. . h
· w~ 1 s, en;oying
se
as
t
e
warder
of
·
.k
.
couc li might by snatches ind LI i<T e. ,, 1
a sic · monarch's
0

"Tlie 1·
)!shop heard the doubts which D
acuteness of i11t e/lirre11ce I l . 1 d". .
. e Vaux slated with that
"'
v llC I IStin <'Ulshes th 1'
dergy ."'
o
e "Oman Catholic

Hy a ca reful arrangement " squi ntin ()' "
and clauses are avoid ed.
"'
phrases
These a re so called becau_se they may be taken to modify ei ther
Sq ui ntin g
what precedes 01· \vh u.~t f 0 11 O\VS : _
expressions.
"Every attempt to er.
.
pro 1·ed unsuccessful. s:
lispe nse with axioms has
..
' . omew iere or other . I
th eorems have been found.,,
Int 1e process assumed
" l't:rs ecutions more terrible than eve r
the rebellio us districts."
before too k place in all
"vVilliam Cullen Bn·an t 11•!
.
,
1'
•
io 11-as a careful st ud t f E
·
rie 7i'as edtlor or Th, u
.
e n o . nghsh,
·
'.I
c ;vew York l·7/otir r P. I
prevent th<; writers fur ti . t .
.(
-.
..~
os , so ug ht to
LI p.1pe1 rom using
mort: t /Ja 11 ) artiste (~o. ·t . )
· . over aw1 above (for
, .,

W/ltu:

'

1 a11sl,e tc ."!J

Participles should be brotwht as near
.
to the words the
. "'
as possible
)' modify, a nd never allowed t 0
ban ()' loos e! 111
·
I
Position of
. . "'1
y
t 1C sentence. A partiparticiplcs. cipia
phr::tse should be expan l d
l
.
c e to a
cause if the partic· l
construed wi th any r t f. h ip e cann ot be strictly
ar o t e se ntence :_
"The fait h of h ·.
is gues ts exceeded even his Oll'n ·.
Sco_tt : Tiu Talisman, ch. vi.
Verbalut, p. s 2 •
l

2

Ibid. ch. viii.

8

they listened

Alfred Ayres; Tiu

75

~() every tale of wonder with open eyes and mouth, and nen:r
fu.iled to be astonished, l'7/i:n tli ot~i;/1 rep.:att:d for the hu ndrnllil
time." 1

- "Shy and se nsitive, !iv illg always under th e s hadow of a heavy
am ily affliction, and almos t entirel y isola ted from any congenial
companionship , except that of hi s sister, the friendship of
Coleridge was the c hi ef treasure and embellishment of Lamb's
life- a life of much res traint and of many limitations, patie ntly
accepted a nd bravely endured."'

"Being tlte only cltild of a ma n well-to-do, Nobody would h:we
'· bee n su rprised had Agn es Sta nfi eld been sent to a ]wardi ng
school." "
." Allowing for t/ie exaggeration of friendship and poetry, tl1 is
is not a b ad descri ption of what Lord ] ohn Russell's style
became at its best."'
"Having just now spokm rather of the d iscipl ine th a n of th e
master, t his opport unity may be taken to say , e tc."
" ¥Vearied out by hi s efforts, his examination proved un suc"Bc£ng a mediator and peacemaker also served to keep him
' . from taking an ac tiv e part with either the Bianchi o r Neri, who
-were at this time beginning to agitate Flore!lce."
"To be appreciated, the poem must be t:tken up In the right
mood. Read in the busy ru s h and exci te ment of s tu dy hours.
one is alm ost s ure lo lose its charm ."
"You had be tter g e t lunch now, for nothing is sold after
1
' BeinJ;1111i11ersally 1111popttlar, to torment him was exc usable,
legitimate , a nd even co mm enda ble."

~I rving : Sk.etcli Book, p . 193. 2 Sanford : Lift o.f Thomas P oole. 8 Mrs •
... Oliphant: A.§nes. •Justin McCarthy: History o.f Our Own 7fo1es.

Position of
corre latives.

Correlat ive words shou ld be so placed
that their relations may be unmistakable:

" f neither estimated myself highly nor lowly. "

1

" Oswald not only co1111111oucated a copy of his co mmission, but
a fart of his instructions and a letter fro m the Secretary of
State."'
"Webs ter went not only t o /Joslon , but ddi·11er ed a g reat
speech in Faneuil Hali."
Position of
0 11 /y.

The word only is frequently so placed as
to mod ify a part of the se ntence other
th an th e writer in te nd ed : -

"Fossils can only be deposited in regio ns whe re and in times
wh en th ere is a deposit of sediment."
" I ca n 011/y write this letter now, bu t I hope to scribble a few
more lines t his evening ."

Care sho ul d be taken to make the rel at ion of each
preposit ion unmistakable. I n the fo ll owin g se nt e nce th e relation is obscure, a nd can be
Relation o f
j
1
l b
.
.
prepositions . mac c c ear on Y Y repeat mg th e prepos ition or by chang ing the order: "Whe n he direc ts his powers again s t shee r obs tru ction and
antiquated prejud ice - against abust:s in priso ns , o r the game
laws or educa tion - we can have no fau lt to find." •

No class of words is more misused than
pronouns. Th e examples that follow illustrate a variety of commo n faults.

1
Mill: Autobiography. 2Dancroft: H istory o/ tile United Statn.
lie Stephen: H ours in a Library.

Th e person of the pronoun should n ot
be chan ged without good cause.

Person of the
pronoun.

.. This study trains our memory, teach es us to
think io r o ursdvcs, and also teaches one to express th e thuu;;ht s
of others in his own words, thert:l1y giving that ease of cx]J rcssion which is so valuable to us al l."
"/ thi nk th at if one has c;;rcfully fo llowed our di,cussi1.n, lie
will reali 1.t: t hat every one of 11s have t!uir \Jcculiar dillicultic, in
doing liis particula r work."

-

Some wri te rs use the pronoun !tc as the cqu iv:ilcnt
of the indefinite uue ; but the best us:ige favors the
ret e ntion of one throughout th e sentence.
o,, e Qnd Ju:.
Examples of thi s fault arc: " If one sho uld attempt to trace the history of this
movement , lie would be met with a storm of abuse ."
.. Om should nev er make ad va nced study of American history
unless hi: has had opportuni ty to master English hist ory of the
period fo llowing the Reformation."

A pronoun should be of the same number as its antecedent : -

. !

Number of
the pronoun.

"A ny man caugh t getting ready to lt:ave shop . _
.
before the bell rings will be reported to the ca]Jtarn tor t!wr
discharge."'

SECTION V.

Misuse of
pronouns.

77

111/SUSED PRONOUNS.

SENTENCES.

a Les-

•·Nobody ever put so much of tlumse/ves into tlteir work."'
.. No one can afford to give up the moment um of tltcir popularity and start afresh with ou t it up th e hill." •
1 Not ice in U. s. Government shop, W ashingto n. ~Leslie S te phen: /lours
in a L ibra1y. 8 J a mes Payn: Lit,rary kecollulions.

'

'

:

~

,:

..

,._

'

SFNTF:NCF:S.

"Nohody meant to be unkind l t
1 I
f
.. . .
· JU nouoc y put themsel11es out
o th eu Wd} to sec ure: her co mfort."•

"Always a so und sleeper, he is o ne of th ose fo rtunate individuals \vliu du nut 11ccJ ~o 111 ucli uf it .Ls the avcr; Lgc 11 i. u1 cn;...',;L~t:d

·· In low lin ess o f min
· el Jct each esteem o tl1er l>cttcr than themseh1cs. ,,
" Desp ite a d.un 1J. cold 1.un
· ,·71ery b(Ir 1'Y .1ppearcd to be in o-ood
humo r as //11'}' went O\·e r the side .. ,,
,.,

Pronouns sho uld be replaced by nouns, or the
antecede nt sh ould be
. danger
. l"Cj)catcd
·
, if th ere 1s
of obsc un ty. Macaulay's sente nces are
Obsc ure
models in this particular :_
pronouns.

·I

I

.
"\Vh ilc Coldsmit h was wr it in " th e })
·t t
Villa1,•,· · I SI. . .,.
.
"'
esu e<
. .tnc .. h •. loops l o (_""'I"..,. he wa s e mpl oyed o n works
of a \"t.:ry d1fle1ent k1nd --wor/.-s frnm wh ich he derived litll
e
reputatio n uut much p rofi t. ., 3

The pronuuns
obscure:-

111

the

follo win g

sent ences are

know nothi1w
t .. They
.
,.., •·11J o ut tlit<"m, ancI 1·r they we re s twgestccl
o titan, they wo 1ilcl be greeted with d eris io n."•
"'
'.:·Uy his own father 's req ues t he a ft erward studied law bt1t
qu it ted ti t
r
·
•
on
..
ia pro1css 1on fn r eloquence and poetry ."•

rttJ ri<"a th

" I beli eve this in fluence to be t wo fo lcl ln d anc·' "O l
l l . ·,
th . l · . · . 1. f
• • • , "' oc , anl t 1at
e .tst ts uy ar th e most si..,.nitica nt
L t
.l
the order nam ed."
.
"'
• .
e us co nstt er them in

i

"Ph

·d·

ti· t
c~ an 01 inary coll ege g raduate in a p osition infe rior to
I. i_a o lt ie no n-college you ng man and he will quickly overtake
t1111 an( soon pass liim by."
1
Jane
:I i\ ,. .,.

z ,.

r: i

4

i.l

Aust1•n
: Afan.r'idd
Pad·
.
'J'
'
: ·H;aulay: l :..rsay on Coldsmillt.

IYC/IJ

)'

,

Orh'

iVt·w Var.<·

.

.

C'hal111t:rs's Lliu6"rap!t.icuL Dicliaua ry vu l x I' "'
. . .,:;, .

79

JIIISUSLD f'RONOUNS.

T1111e.r , Marcl1 ZJ, 1893.
Times, M ~ rc h 23 , r8 93.
G Lj: p. 8~ .

in in tellectu al

-

u ccup~tti vn .

11

1

"He had three .tcres of greenhouses with the finest cnllectinn
of fl owe rs and plants i1 1 the N uv World. Ulli: of /lt.:tll was an
eighth of a mil e lo ng .'"
" No douut h e had imperfections of characte r, but th ey are
weaknesses which the p resent day witnesses in much 1111>rc vivid
reali zation than //iosc of Colu mbus's day."
"Nowadays states men and divines are seldom o r n ever di s posed to carry out l hei1· principles to tlzeir legitima te e xte nt. ""
"We were neve r invited lo get so mu ch as a peep at the enchanted chambers in which the greatest poet and wri ter uf our
epoc h spent his last ye ars . J ne ver met uut one acquainLtn c:c in
Weimar who had see n ll1 cm. '"
"An aide-dc-c1mp urought /1im another ho rse, a nd
colon el h eld the s tirru p a ca nno n u;tll took off !tis he.id. ""

;c,

;"

'

a

" Though these lines of sequence may be for a tim e cuncc;tlcd
and apparentl y ol1lit1.:rated l,y great pnlitiol c han ges, I,y the
p rese nce of marked int ell ectual lethargy . or by a ge neral tend ency to literary lawlessness, a careful scrutin y will detect its
unvarying presence, and in due time it will emerge into prominence ."
" Men look with an evi l eye upon th e good that is in others;
and think th at / /1dr reput at io n obsc ures 111011, and t!teir co mmendabl e qualities s tand in l!teir lig ht; a nd the refore t /1ey do
what t!tey can to cast a cloud over titan, that th e 'shining of
t/1cir virtues may not obscure /Item ."•
I Rev iew of Nroiews, August, 1892, p. 29. 2 Ibid, Fcliruary, 1893, p. 41.

a Ar1l1ur Il clps: Frimds in Council. 4 M. B. Edwards : in The Academy.
6 ~ - E. Morris. o Tillotson.

'

:
'

I

~(.·
· i.
<'I'•

·' J

80

SENT'RNCES.

81

11£/SUSED R FL / Tl VE l'R O.VOUNS.

"Sin ce reading of this kin d may be fittingly called the general
readrng of th e st ud en t , it is prope r to consider how far poetry
and ficti on s houl d engage the attenti o n of the student."
"Many passages in tl1e anci ent writers on philosophy seem to
us mere rhe to ri cal commonplaces, but to them they were living
tru ths discovered by lhm1 which they taug ht liecause they
believed and practised thon."

'

l /:
I!11

/1

11

"My birthplace was th e small hereditary estate of our family,
· w/1ich, according to tradi tio n, has been hand ed clown, ~nalter ed ,
from generation to generation since the clays of W1ll1am the.
· Conqueror."
· "There was a twin kle of merriment in her eye at the sensatioi..
she was causing wl1ii;h was unmistakalJly Hibernian."'

•·It must lie admitted that cer tain clements are attracted westward by the prospec ts of making a fortune, and tlzese are often
anything but religious."

"H e gives an itemized account of t he whol e cos t of th e houst.:
and the plan w/1ic/1 is quite am using, th ough nut 111ttnded for
that purpose, I suppose."

"The work has value, in tracing to th eir sou rces sayings which
belong to a far earlier date th an those popularly assigned to them,
a nd in refuting t he authenticity of others."

A relative pronoun is sometimes improper] y used t o refer to a whole clause.
For example: -

"If English authors had been hampered in this way , their produ ctions would have doubtless lost in vigor and spirit, and the
English drama would not have towered above those of other
countries."

"He s tru ggled desperately and in the struggle he dropped his
revolver, w/ui:/1 prooably saved his life."'

" A play in which persons of th e t ime were allowed to be
satirized could not help being used for political and ecclesiastical purposes in a tim e so unse ttled as that in which thest
appeared."

Relative clauses sho uld be closely joined to the
antecedent which they explain. The multiplication
of relative clauses, parti cularly in long
Po.sition of rel- sentences, is to be avoided.
\Vhere such
ut1vc clauses.
clauses can be changed to appositive and
adjective fo rms of exp ression , the sentence frequently ga ins in strength and clearness.
" I have lett ers from college stude nts and others that are curiosities in th eir way."

Relative referring to a
clause.

.. Hawt horne, in his /\Tole Hooks, speaks of meetin g Robert
Browning at a reception in England, and tells us that Bruwntn~
expressed /tis appreciatio n for his works, _and- w/11d1 Hawthorne says has not often happened - mentloned th at he liked
Tlte Blli/1edale Romance best."
.. The intellec tual powers being. as has been said, under the
·
cliate control of the will, wlud1 th e feelings are no t, an
1mme to th e understanding is
. direct;
.
• • '"
address
to the f ee 1·Ings, ·In d"1rcct.

Th e relative should not be left without
a construction : -

Relative
without c on struction.

.. And the reaso n seems to be given by some words
of our llible, wltich, thoug h they may not be the exact rend e_r. " f the original in that place, yet in themselves they explarn
In., 0
.
11 " .
the relation of culture with conduct very we ·
1 London News. February 2], 189 2. 2 /\"ew York Tribune, M a rch I I, 1893.
8 Whateley 's A'hdoric. 4 Matthew Arnold: Literature and Dogma.

:~'ff:
'

82

tf WKIVARD CONSTRUCTION.

S E NTENC!'.S.

"He
1 w1"ti i t }ie (locto r, w ho, having declined taking
. turned b ac;:
a nythrng befo re dinn er but a ".rlass
o f wine ·111d
a' iul. · SCUll
. ' I
'
<
t 1ey
went up together to the library." 1
'

A s and not w lticlt s hould be used after
suc!t : -

S u cli,

'Wlt1Ch .

w·
. •t 1l

111s
· natural qualities grrew 'll>acc J·11c11
wn • i ti l o f k·no w1cc]ge , wh1cl1
· surpri sed even his friends."
' '
"
0

I

I

l
l Th e. constru ction of clauses on the ·san·
• i e pan
t 1rough out a long se ntence is a help to clearnt:ss.
A chan ge of const ruction nearly always
. .
l
" "
S 1mitarity of
con s truction. prot uccs a~vkwa rcln css , if not obsc urity.
F aulty in co nstruction are such sent e nces a s th e follo win ,,o- ·
." Th e •a •.m)
· · a d ' ·a ncc(
' ] Ill
· iour
r
columns a"ainst th e enemy a1 <l
a· great
no
ise
was
he.ird
in
th e rea' r ' wl1~·1·"
l
lJ
.... .... til e 'uaggagc ' •was
co ected and p lun derers were beginning t
.
o sei ze ung uarded
valuables ."
"He
saw th e ~oi cl c n /J,,// glillcri1w
i
,., i11 tl1<>~ IJ laze of sunlight,
ru u. l1r>w e ver)' nook o f th e gLt)' <J}(i ca ti ie<.lra 1 was lloo<lcd w1tlt
rachan cc ."
·• ~h e

t/Jat

Ill

crowd with horro r pe rceived th e approaching Ira.
l
a mom ent a co llis io n mig ht res ult. "
"'•aw

'1erself, and had been paid the strict price -

nay, paid more than

she had dared to ask."'
" B urke had the greates t reverence for whatever was old and
!ong established , probably not merely because it was old b ut
partly for that reason; and this fe eling was, to a large extent, the
basis of his hostility."
"The righ t of suffrage was conferred on every white m;\n wh o
. . . ackn o wle(lged God. All persons w lio so hd io'71ed, and tltat
God is to be publicly worshiped, mig ht form religious societies." '
" In spite of fa iling health an d of th e r eflections fr om her
mirror, E lizaue th considered !ter self th e lo veliest of wo men, and
t/uzt all her courtiers were enamoured of he r .~'•
"I s poke o f \Vo rdsw o rt h's co ncep tion of Nature as /w11i11i; a
life of !ter own and hmu all its forms, each ha ving their own

life , were knit togeth er by Jove ."
" He d etermin ed on selling all hi s estates, and as soo n as this
was do ne, lo quit th e country, believ in g that his ho nor demand ed
th is sacrifice and in tile !top e o f satisfying his creditors ."
"In my last lecture I spqke of th e meaning 'vVords worth had fo r
the term •Nature .' of his co nce ption of Nature as havi ng a li fe
of her own, rrnrl of //t t' cliaracfrri slics of that life, its endless joy,
central peace, and /l(nu all its forms, each having th eir own life ,
were knit together by unsullied love."
"Orders were issued to th e effec t that they sltould be disp er sed
among the English colonists , and Illus prevent any future di ffi -

"Load afte r load of ~~rav"I
' 1·s cIragi;e(l ·1111 0 the ce ntre of th e
road by th e f armer s who are • wor k.
· rng o ut th eir taxes' and
d11111pcd t/1t:rc."

culties."

"We ~h~:~.t to rort'i?1i1(i;objcct io nahle fo reig ners into o ur midst
a nd 111a ~ c c1t1 zc ns of th em , cn:n if th e)' •'"' <) Ill e •a 1c
r w .l
. l a lun
· e."

AFTER makin g sentences clear, we may make th em
forcible or elegant as occasi on requires.

" The do main of th e huslia nll to "" Iiom s I•e
1

Peacock : Cry/I (;ran,fc p.
1

1 2<).

r Il
1c

s he had sr1id

SECTION VI.

1 Geo rge Eliot: Daniel /)er 011d11.
'' Bancroft: /!iJtory of tl: e United
.St<1teJ. S W. Ewald: StorieJ from Ike .state Papen.

"'

'~

1

BRE/'ITV AND T AUTOLOGY.

SENJRNCES.

F o rce. r es. ides primarily in the thou ,,,rr ht . WI1ere th e
express ion .1s [too vi g orous for the thought, the style
is orce<l rather tha n for c ible. But 0(fen _
U
Means for at- ·
]
f
"bl
h
taining force . Ille Y orci
<.: t ou g ht requires forcible
exp ress io n. Th is m ay be atta ined in vario us ways : - by the use o f specific terms a nd fi (J"ures
~>f speech; .by brevity; by throwing the sen~ence
rnto .emph at ic form s. Of course
·· ' n o t 'all fi g urcs a n d
s p e~ 1 fic terms and co ndensed fo rms of e xpression are
f~ rc1blc, but th cs.e arc mo re likely to be vi goro us
tl1an language whi c h JS vag ue and diffuse.
In ge n ~ ral w e should use wo rds e n o ug h to express
our rnca nm g , and no more. 1 B revity docs not, however: con::; ist prc;; iscly in using- few words,
Bre vity .
but 1n say rn g not hin g- s upcrAuous. A n:trr<Lliv c of t en pag-cs i ~ short if it cn nt :iin s
11 o i. h ing bul what i::; IH.:cessary. J\ narrative of
twe n ty lines is lo n g if it can be co ntained in ten 2
W e need not put into o ur compos itio ns every th oi wh.t
t'
. na t occ urs t o us. \Ve must lea rn to select the mhos t
important th o ug hts and let th em s uggest the rest.
!he r eader has but a limited am o unt of attention and
if he must dis t ri b ute. it over matters of seco:dary
importance, he m ay fail to noti ce those of real valu e.
We may secu re bre vity (1 ) by using words 111
apposit ion

in stead

of

r elat ive

clauses;

(z)

by

1
. m pos ·mg as a general
I Sydney Smi th's advice is ofte n quote d·· "I n c.:o
.I· .
·
'
.1 ' ' 11 l. l\t' \\Tllf 1·11; yuu lt. 1 .01 · Hu
1Jc.1''11.H vigor ll will g ive to your s tyle " 2 V. · 11 ·· . C.
.tJ ·
de Rh,:toriy1u, p. 88.
.
c.:rmo cs. ours , le11u11tai1 ~

ru
c , ru, n. yo ur
pen
thro
ugh
e verv· o tlwr
word
.
•.
.
.
.
:
·

L

S5

usin g participial con st ructions in place of
Rules fo r
·
1
·
clauses; ( 3) 1)y usrng exact a nc express ive hrcvity.
words; (4) hy using figurative e xpre ssions
that picture what must o th e rwise be cxpb in ed :tt
length; (S) by selecting- s u ~f!:Cs tiv e particulars.
Brevity must not be carried t oo far, or th ere ma y
n ot be words e n oug h lcfL t" make t he t hough t clear.
Som e in s tanc es o f improper omission have

•lr'

Improper

been already noted.
Op posc1l to brevity arc tautology, \·er-

on11ssions.

bosity, prolixity.
If a writer, after fully exprc ssm g his 11w:tn111 ;_; ,
repeats the same thought in an(lther form , h e k~tds
the readc1· l1 l s u ppose th:1t there is :u1
ad diti on l<> the thou;_; ht , when in rc:tlity Tautolo,;y .
n oth in g i;;
fusing an.\
doubt the
feebleness

added. Such writin~ is c"n cxa;;perating, :111d us u:tlly g i\"<.'S gr.,und t<l
wri ter's ability to think clearly. Th<.:
ca u sed by tautolo~y is seen in the foliow -

i11i; st·ntenn·s: ·--"I not ed nnl only hi s 1v1tf"1h l int his \·1-ry rt/>1·,~s,·1.11 11 1·; ;ind. as
you know, l am very /11slidio11s am! jJttrlii 11/,11· a11d ltr!l"d lo

=-·-~

j>/r'rlJr' .• ,

" ·rh crc :-1rc i1npo rtanl r;ucs tions licfnre u:-; for sctt lcn1l:nt. ;1.tHl

if we are not r((tdv 1111d j> r <"j>,ircd t o se ttle th e m now, it is time
we gave them sullicie nt thou~hl lo settle them i11tc li ig<: ntl y."
"Ci ce ro, too, was a man wh o lo ved comp,111io11ship a nd who
was al ways n ·acly to adapl hi111 st"lf by his (11111j>l.ti.1 ,111«" ,111d
pliability to th e whi ms uf his fr ie nds.' '
"In F ors Clm1i,;erri he crilit'izes and M11111es andji!lds Ji/I{//
wit/1 men for the cours<: th a t they arc pursuing."

,.
__ -~{.

~:'

'.

I
I

86

Sl'.NTENCES.

"The situation may well command ou r thoughif11l study and
care/11! allention. One need have little of the spirit of enthusiastic investigation to discover th a t th e rig hts of individual liberty
and /reedo;n are, at present , abused. One need be little of a
communist, s till less eve n of a socialist, to see that commercial
evils exist."
"\Vithout del ay for jnj;aratio11 or t rai11i11!{ th ousands o f such
itinera nts were to be sent ou t on the c ircu its, and tens of th ousands of local and lay preachers and ex hort crs, as helpers and
un paid assistants."
" \Vhcn we conside r th e hardships and t rials th ese earl y itinerants s11j/ered and m d11red for t he sake of preach ing th e gospel,
we are lost in wonder."
"He foun d much to ce11s11re and object lo that he would not
have no ticed if he had been a n ac ti ve and zea lous parti cipan t in
the life of t hat 'great bee hi ve .'"
" I hope t ha t if you are not loo busy and liave not l oo much to
d o, you will be able to delive r your lectu re in Iloston ."
"H ere we have another example and instance to verify th e
statemen t th at the man and the hour always mee t. "
" U nfortunately, the answe r mu st he 71ag11e and indefinite so
long as the informatio n we have must I.Jc gat hered in r emote and
distant co untries ."
" He was by no means defi cient in th e s11bordi11ate and limited
virtue which alleviates and relieves the wa nts o f o th ers."'

Even more comm on th an tautol ogy is verbosity.
This co nsists not so mu ch in vain repetition as in a
wordy express ion of thought. Conscious
Ver bos it y. of hav in g litt le to say, the inexperienced
writer, in his des ire to cover a required
l

Scott : Tiu Talisma11.

j:.

Vl'.RBOS!TV.

numbe r of pages, expands each phras~ a nd_ clause _to
th e utmost . Such writin g; is keble, since it contams
little th ought in proportio n to the numbc~ of words.
Circu ml oc ution - or tal!.i1lg arouud a subj ect - nuy
be co nvenient if a writer wish es t o conceal bis
th o u ~ht under a cloud of phrases ; bu t if his purpose
is to he clear and forcible, he has no excuse for his
ve rbosity.
Examplt.:s of verbosity: .. J sh oul d like to ask wheth er or not some prov1s 1o n. is .to he
1. ~ r th e all eviati o n of th e wants uf those worthy ind1,·1du mat t: o
.
· l l·
. ·l I". "(>ods
.
·l o ·1··c not so bountifullv prn,·1dcd wit i t us \\ U I t s "
.
a1s " i • •
•
.
cl.
. 1b
I
o
n
.
eare
situa
ted
in
th
e
1mme
1ate
rn:ig i oras S011H! W IlO ~l! l 1 :-, ~
·
'
hood o f th e pe rso ns just mentioned."
· 1 \vas
.. To sa\' that the verd ·ict t l1us rencIeiet
. ·· ·. ·a ·surprise would be
makin'-' a. ve r) mile! .tsserti on . Indeed, it IS hardl y too , mu ch
to say "'that th e measure o f success achie ved exceeded thJe mostf
sanguine expectations o f t h•·~ more ilro minent political lea crs o
the vi ctorious p:1rty ·"
" However, before proceedi ng to the work of making compan.son o f tl·1e' ..· eJ "• t1· ve merits· of th e two sys
· tems, it may
· · be
0 to th e co nst1 tut1 on,
11e t lier O r not • •accordin"'
k
rofitable
to
as
w
P
co ntrol of the telegrap 11
th e govern ment 11as a n.g 11t to •assume
·
system."
.
"Since the great nav igator on two se veral and succe~s 1ve. occa.
·
f 1 · isclf as having bc<'n lJu rn lll (, enoa,
.
f h
s10ns m akes menti o n o 1in .
we may rest assured that we have concl usi ve .cv1d c ~ ce,, u t e
fact that he was a native of that important maritime cit y.

Mere redu ndancy may be corrected by
.
excision
o f t11e needless words. For example:-

Redundancy.

•~ !

88

SENTENCl'.S.

"Poli.tical enthusiasm, discouraged by the res ults of the French . : •.
Revolullon, was already dying ou t, w tlho11t having produced
hardly any modifications of laws o r cus toms ." 1
" I l.
n 1ves sue li as these the mos t extreme id eas could not /ulj> ·z ~
but arise ."
-

"~fl'.e ~l i.fTe re nce lies not only in the s tyle of lamp, but in the
way 1t

is

;orned

up

in th e circuit."

"I do not doubt bu/ that these people arc sincere."
"It is evident that we must

op,:11 up the wh ole ques tion aga in."

" Suppose t hat it is tru e that th e petals o f a flower are nothin<>' ··
but leaves. N .:vertl1e!ess th ey yd reta in their bea utiful form;
and colors ."
Re pc ti ti on of

t hat .

The con junctio n t //at is so metimes needlessly repeat ed. For example: -

"He said tliat in case we wished to return to Paris so as to see
th e E xposition, I/tat we must take th e firs t s tea mer that sailed."
O btrus ive
conj unction
with ·wltich.

A common fa ult appea rs in the followi ng
sente nce : -

•· In this li bra ry are thousands o f ra re and costly
volumes a nd wl11c/1 have been collected in every great city in
Europe ."

I

,j
'•

'I

. :I
1·

"Canada has a grea t amount of wood land as yet untouched
and wh1/:h could be used fo r o ur needs, should it become
necessary."

The obtrusive and serves only to obscure the conn ection bet wee n wlticlt and its a ntecede nt.
Perfectly correct, however, is the following: l

Hildreth: History of the Un ited Slates,

.F:PITI/E TS AND PROLIXITY.

..., fo this li brary arc thousands of rare a nd costly volumes
which have bee n collected in every great city in E urope, and
w /1ic/1 are of unt old value to s tudents of early French literature."

Young writers are tempted to make too free use
of adj ectives and s up<:rlative forms of expression.
They heap epithets upon e very substa ntive till it is smothered under quali fyin g Epithets.
words. They talk about the "bea uti ful ,
glorious, redeemed , sunny S outh, and the other por.,tions of this vast, wealthy, mag nifice nt country,
with its un exampled system of excellent and benefi cent laws and its perfec tly organized, well -equipped,
and well-ma naged public schools." Wh e n needed,
adjectives a re as serviceable as any other class of
\vords, but th ey should not be lavished without stin t.
The occasions arc rare wh en one can use such a
group of ad jec tives as appears in the followin g pas-

'

'I

l

,,

"Th ese philosophers conside r men in thei r expe rimen ts no more
than they d o mi ce in an air pum p or in a recipient o f mephitic
gas. Whatever his Grace may think of himself, they look upon
]1im and everything that belongs to him with no more regard
than th ey do u pon t he whiskers of that little lon g-tailed animal
that has been long th e game of th e grave, demure , insidious,
spring-nailed, velvet-pawed, g ree n-eyed philosophers, wh eth er
going upon two legs or upon four." '

Some writ ers leave nothing to the int elligen ce,
but enumerate every detail, t o the distraction antl
··weariness of the reade r. So much promProHx ity.
inence is given to each circumstance tha t
' l ,Burke: Letter lo a Noble Lord.

!

!''

.

~

.

'i

';

'

I

"

.'
~

,·,
:

.

[,"

·'

91

SENTENCES.

EMPllASIS.

attention is diverted from matters of real importance
to those too insignific:rnt to deserve mention.
For example : -

"As long as he Jived he was the guiding-star of ;l whole hravc
nation , and when he died the little children cried in the streets.'' '

"He went into the room, stood a moment,
th.re\~ it in.to a chair, removed his coat, folded
laid 1t beside the hat. Th en he looked over
and, after some deliberation, selected a small
down to read."

took off his hat,
it carefully, and
the bookshelves
volume and sat

Evidently this tells us little more than:~
"He entered the room, removed his hat and coat,
down to read."

One of Thackeray's most characteristic traits is
the choice of striking details. For example: "Meanwhile th e glimmering dawn peered into th e windo\\'s of
the refreshment room, and, l,eliold, the sun broke in and sca rl'd
the revellers. The lad ies scurried away like so many ghosts "t
cock-crow, some of them not caring to face that detective
luminary.'"

"\.\Then I alight ed from th e train I took my handbag, my two
parcels, and my u.rnhrclla in one haml and the birdcage and the.
lhree newspape rs 111 the other, and so I toiled up the street to the
house. \Vh c n I got th ere I set down the birdcage, piled the
newspapers and th e parcels and the umbrella into a little heap,
took my keys out of my pocket, and after so me trouble selected
the ri?ht one: Then I picked up the things I had brought, and
went 111 and lit the gas, and congratulall:d myself that I was once
more al home ."

This means merely: "I went with my luggage from the train to the house."

The needl essness of prolixity appears in examining a passage containing skilfully selected particulars. A suggestive writer will sometimes
Suggestive
t ·
particular•. pu rnto a sentence what a prolix writer·
. . could n.ot express in a page. Motley says
of W1ll1am the Silent, the great Prince of Orange:

.;.·.'

Emphasis may be secured ( I) llY PUTTING

WORDS

(2) llY REPETITIO N ;
GIVE

QUIRES

(3)

PROMINEi'.'CE

IN

'i

EMPHATIC

POSITIONS;

HY US IN G W ORDS
TO

WIIAT

RE -

Emphasi• .

EMPHASIS .

A sentence may be written in two forms - the
usual or unemphat ic, and the unusual or emphatic,
form. Any words that are tak en out of Emphatic and
J
unemph atic
.
l l
·
b
t h e1r usua p ace we notice ecause t 1cy
form or
are not where WC expect to find them. sentence.
,The emphatic positions in a sentence arc naturally
the beginning and the end: the beginnin g, because
it first strikes the attention ; the encl, because it
. leaves the last impression. The usual place for the
subject is at the beginning of the sentence, ancl for
the predicate, at the end. To emphasize the subject
or the predicate we have therefore only to make them
exchange places. In English, the deg ree of permissible variation from the normal order is limited. In
1 Rise of the Du/cit Republic, vol. iii, p. 627. ~ Tiu Newcomes, vol. i, chap.

xx.xiv.

':1·,

inflected la ng uages, such as Greek, or Latin, or German, the ~m ler may be changed in a great variety
~f w~ys with out causi ng obscu rity. The explanation
lies .m the fa ct th at in English the grammatical
relati ons depe nd almost wh olly on the arran O'ement :
while in th es e ot her la nguages the infl ectio~al end~
in gs are eq ually express ive in any order.
Examples of emphasis by invers ion are: " Personal offe nce I have g iven them none."
"Pension fo r myself I obtained none. "

93

BALANCED SENTL:'NCl.:.'S.

SENTF:NCES.

1

and , in our time, arc generall y treated with intlis"He began to be credulous precisely a t the point where the
1
most credulous people begin to be skep tical."
"St. James's would give nothing ; Leices ter House had
nothing to give ."

1

"He had em ine nt tal ents fo r gove rnm e nt and for
debate; but he had paid little a ttentio n to books.
and felt little respect for auth ors. " 1

Exa •nr le s o f
balan ced •cntcnce•.

"The season of rich harvcsL5 was over, and th e pe riod of

1

"Scoundrel th ough he was, he still had some se nse of honor."

Empha:is may be sec ured by anti th esis: that is, by
so ar ra ng in g- the sente nce that a word or phrase or
E m phas i• cbusc in one part may be contrasted with
by
a word or phrase or cla use in a not her part.
antithes is.
A sentence so co nst ru cted that the second
half is contrasted with the first half is termed
balanced.
. The principle of a ntithesis is of very wide applicat ion. Sente nces may be contrasted with sentences·I
W ide apptica- one paraf( raph may ba la nce another para·
ti o n of
g-rap h ; and a whok g roup of 1)arairraphs
antithes is.
may bt..: co ntra sted with anoth e r group:_

famine had begun." 1
"As every climate has its peculi~ diseases, so every walk of
life has its peculiar temptations." 1
"Johnson , incredul ous on all oth er poin ts, was.a rea? y believer
in miracles and apparitions. He would not believe in Os,;1an,
but he believed in th e second sight. H e would not beli eve in
the earthquake of Lisbon , but he believed in th e Cock Lane
Ghost." '
"The nature o f Voltaire was , indeed, not inhuman, but he
·· · venerated nothing . . . . The more sole mn and august the th eme,
the more monkeyli ke was his gri macing and cha ttering . The
mirth of Swift is the mirth of Mephis topheles; th e mirth of
Voltaire is the mirth of Puck." '

Whole sentences can be contrasted with each

l,J

'•,_I
... ,i•

· •The prizes in th e wr~tc hed lottery of book-making were
s carcely less n11 nous than th e blanks ."•
Examples of
antithesis .

"The judgments which ] ohnson passed on books
were , in his o wn time , regarded with superstitious

I Burke; Letter lo

fl

Noble I .or.I.

2

Maca ulay ; FirII EIItlY on J o!tllJ<Jff.

"A man who told him [Dr . Johnso n] of a wa terspout or a
meteoric stone generally had the lie direct g iven him for his
pains . A ma.n who told him of a predi cti on or ~ clr'~~rn wonderfully acco mplish ed was sure of a courteou~ hearin g .
l

Macaulay: First l<.'sJ ay

01t

Jolin son.

H istory of t/u Popes. a Macaulay; EJSay

'l

;-t_ '

'•

Macaulay: 1~·Hay on Nanlu'J

0 11

Addison.

-

- - - -- ---·

,:: <I

ii''.'

'.

94

SENTENCES.

"\Ve do n? t mean, however, to represent him [Cranm er] as a
mons ter of wickedness H
··
e was not wantonly cruel o r treac herous .. He was merel y a supple, timi d , interested court ier, in times
of ft equent and. VJO~e~t change. That which has always been
represented '.ls his d!strnguish ing virtue, th e fac ili ty with which
h~ forgave his en.em1es.• belongs to th e character. Those o f his
cl.1ss are never v111d1c t1 ve and n ever vratefu l A
·
,,,
·
prese nt 111 ter'
es~ eff'.1ces . ~Ja~·t. services. and. past injuries fro m their mi nds
to,,,e the r .. .r hcu only object 1s self-prese rva ti on; and for this
th ey conciliate those who wrong them, jus t as th ey abandon
those who serve then'.. ~efore we ex tol a man for his fo rgiving
temper, we sho uld 111qu1re whether he is above reve ng'e
belo w it." •
or

Emphasis by
repetiti o n.

Skilful repetition may give e mpha sis.
For example : -

" Such arc their id t.:as , suc h thei r religion, and
suc h the ir laws ." '
."I plead for the rights of laboring men, fo r th e rights of stru glrng wome n, for the rig hts of helpless c hildren. "
g
F
·1
" Gentleme n, I am a Whig , a Massachusetts \V I .
,,.
.
..
.
.·
Hall Wl ·"
11g, a a neu1
.
11,, , a 1' c1ol~uona 1} Whig, a co ns tit utio nal \Vhig. lf
you break up th e WI11g pMty, sir, wh ere am f to go?"•
l Burke: C'r>nci'/ialimr w ith America
.
c;., / /·1 ·
•
/

',".I

\\

"''''"ll

/ /1.1/ary.

:.!

Ma

8 Burk f·: Lrller / o 11

1'

. 1·

· cnu .ty ·
Ar

95

Eil!P/IASIS BY REPETI TION.

" The
·
, . question with me is not whether you have a right to
rend er your people mi se rab le; but whe ther iL is no t vou r in te rest
to ~1ake th em hap py'. I t is not what a lawyer tell~ me I may
do, bL'.t "hat. humanrty, reason, and justice tell me I ought to
do. ls a politic
act the worse for bein 0rr a 0"'enerous o ne .> Is
.
~o concession proper but that which is made from your wan t of
rig ht to keep what you g rant? " 1

i.11

~ JJay 011

,.,0 v•• Lord.
c.ndel! P hiJ;.ips's Oration on Danid O'CoN<e/l.

//al/am.'.s

"All his books are written in a learned language; in a language which nobody hears from his m oth er or his nurse ; in a
lang uage in whi ch nobotl y ever quarrds , or drives bargains, or
makes love; in a lang uage in which no body ever thinks ." '
"The place was wo rt hy of s uch a trial. It was th e great hall
of William Rufus, the hall which had resoun ded with acclamation s at the inauguration of thirty kings; th e hall whi ch had
witnessed the just se ntence of Bacon and th e jus t ;ibsolution of
Somers; the hall where th e eloq uence of Straffo rd had for a
m o ment awed and melted a victorious party inHamed with jus t
resentment; th e hall wh ere C harles had co nfro nted th e 1-l igh
Court of Justice with th e placid courage which has half red eemed his fame."'

Tennyson, in describin g th e lon ely ocean island on
which Enoch Arden was shipwrecked, says that he
saw.:__
"No sail from day to clay, but every day
The sunrise broke n into scarl et shafts
J\mon)!; the palms and ferns a nd precipices ;
The blaze upo n th e waters to th e cas t ;
The blaze upon hi s is1'1nd ove rh ead;
The ulaze uporl th e waters to th e west;
The n the g rcctt stars that g lo bed th emselves in hea ven ,
The hollower-bellowi ng ocea n, and again
The scarlet shafts of sunri se - b ut no sail. "

The parts of a sentence may be so arranged th at
th e thou g ht shall increase in vigor from the beginnin g t o th e encl. Such an a rrangement is
call ed a climax. The chief valu e of t he Em phasis by
climax.
climax is that the attention is stimula ted

.

•Quoted in

1 i\{aca ulay:
/la1ting1.

1~1r1t

h'ssay on 7ohnson.

~M acaulay :

Es1ay on Warren

97

SENTENCES.

96

more and more as the sentence proceeds.
example:"They gaze, turn giddy, rave, and die."'
"I have seen tempests, when the scolding winds
Have riv ed the knotty oaks; and I have seen
The ambitio us ocea n s well, and rage, and foam,
To be exalted with the threat'ning cloud ."'

"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason ! how
infinite in faculty! in form and moving, how express and
admirable! in action, how like an angel! in apprehension, how
like a god!"•
"They were mocked, stoned, ha nged, tortured, burned alive."

In th e anticlimax the order is reversed: the tran.
sition is from the strong-er to the weake r, and usually produces an absurd effec t. Some·
Anticlimax. times anticlimax is unintentional, but it
is sometimes purposely used for humorous effe ct. For exam plc : "ll crc thou, gn.::\l 1\11na. wholII thn: c rcal1ns obey ,
Dost sometimes counse l take , and some tim es tea."'

<.

"Mlle. Mars stormed and raved, and was quarrelsome and
impertinent."
'·Tiu: men were taken to the prison , where th<.:y wcr<.: !Jca lcn
and i11sulted, and dep ri ved of the luxuries to which they had
been accustomed."

Macaulay concludes one of his parag-raphs with
an intentional anticl im :i.x : 1 Pope: / ) 1111ciad, iv , 648.
3

:?

Shakespeare: Julius Casa r, act i, sc. 111.

Shakespeare: J la m/cl, act ii, sc . ii .

4

Pope; Rape of the Loci.:, iii, 7, 8.

,, y ADDJ.iD WORDS.
E/lfPfiASJS 1J
l d · Th ey have
. lto<>ether explOle
"Yet these stories arc now. ,\ "' .1 1 . n b)' alderme n to
•n to a < e1me ,
bandonecl by statesmc
l by old women to
been a ,
to old women, anl
ler<Tyrne
n,
by
deq~ y m e n
.
C
l:)

,,

t

l)y the help o( words
. ·
1 secured
Emphasis is a so . . f tl1P sentence stand
t 1xub o
t
tha t make the impor an .
Emphasis by
out from the rest.
these sen - additional
Compare, fo r example,
word•·

Sir Harcourt Lees.

tences : -

.
rator and statesman.''
. ' at i· urist, and an emi nen t o '
" He was a g rc
· ent ontor and
real i'uris t, but an em111
,
" He was not m~rely a g

statesn1an.,,

,,
.
wise or honorable .
.. This conduct 1s not
,,
.
· . vr honorable.
"Thi~ conduct is neither wise 11
t

e with an
.
1 ·itate to end a sen enc
Some writers 1es
-·tion a pronoun, or
. . cl such as a prcpos1
,
unemphatic wor '
.
. h sentences
Unemphat ic
an acl ver b . They objCCt to sue .
ending: .
as:L

L

.. This was a subject he had ).\ivcn much attentio11 to. "
have ever heard of."
.
e than anv one 1
.. H c had less pat1enc
'
.
,,
l t l meant to rcit:r to.
"H e was the man t 1a .

• , 1 rdcr to write: -a i )t
lJ
.

. \ ·

. j j- • h 'V\

'\ \O \Y l 1 J<- 1

ll

·

ir i\Tl1 !lHl l

"'

I

\ .l

t\

\\t \Oil
l

l

•

.. This wa.s a su >Jee
f whom l have ev er
. . tinn anv one o
. ~ H c haLl less iJ~tl H.: nee
·
' ~

I1earc1·,,
"Ht;
1

\V:l.S

- "
meant to rcter.
the ,nan to w11on1 1
..

EH"Y on J}isto1y.

SENTENCES.

The emphatic end in g is mo re dignified, and bet ter
suited to serious discourse ; but in co nvt.:rsati on and
informal compos ition the unemphati c e nd in g is preferable. Espec ially is this true wh en the un emphatic particle really fo rm s a part of th e verb. For
example: " T hat is the best house I can tlti11!~ o.f."
"Whilst in this !ca rn et! body , I applied myself with so mu ch
diligence to my studies that th ere are very few cele bra ted book~.
eith er in the learned or th e modern tongues, which l am no t
acquainted with."'

SECT ION VII.

Now that we have stud iecl in the preceding
pages by what means sentences
style.
may be made forcible, we may n ext consider how th ey may be made beautiful.
Beauty, or, as it is sometimes ca lled, elega nce,
cannot be attained by followi 11;;- specific rul es, but is
B eau t y not rather the product of a c ultiva ted taste
tau g ht by exercised by mu ch practice.
A kw sugrulcs.
·
h
b
f
ges t10n s, o wevcr, may e o value. ,fhe
ge neral p rin ciple is that elegance is opposed t o vulgarity of every sort, as well as to hars hn ess of
sound, breaks of construc t io n, and wh atever hinders
th e easy m ove ment of the sente nce.
I. S ome lett ers of th e alphabet arc more easily
pronounced than others, espec ially in combinati ons.
Bcauty of

I The .Spectator, No.

99

BEAUTY.

'!

,,

C om pare (l //clui(l, marble, 111ermder with blod·ltead,
b/11,/crcon , bl111ulcrb11ss, cxccrab/,,, scrawl. The~ btt<.:r
words offer mechanical obstacles to easy uttcr:i.nce.
Lac k of e uphony in the sentence can fr eq uently he
remedied by ch a nging the order, so :i.s t o sep:i.ratc
th e discordant so und s.
2. A long succ ession of monosyllables affords too
littl e variety of accent. Pope illu stmtes t his fault
while condem nin g it : .~

"And ten low words oft creep in o ne dull line."

1

Alt ernation of long words with short affords relief
by allowing groups of syllables to be passed over
lig htly.
3. In prose we sho ul d avoid th e movement and, to
some extent, th e diction peculiar to poetry. There
is a rhythm of prose as well as of poet ry ; or rather
there is in prose a so rt of cade nce, while in poetry
th ere is a s uccess ion of regul a r beats. When prose
has this r egular ity of m ove ment it ceases to be
. good prose, but does not become poetry.
4. Jin gling rhymes convert a sentence in to some ·
thing that is neither prose nor verse. For example: -

I.

"No man who values himself ca n believe it is n ;i;lil to work all
night. "
"Th e chi ldren ha ve been noisy, sir, but th ey 're quite q11id
now. ,'

"Sow<: finis hed the tby, llluch excilt!d am! dd1:i;lili'd."

1.

l..llssa)'

O il

Criticism , l. 347.

i

,.'

.!

.·,I

100

SENT!:'NCES.

R EVISION.

5. Alliteration s hould usually be avoided in
Fo r e xample : prose.
"The daring doe r of this da s t dl
, . a r y deed will doubtless be
d .
. .
e.tlt with ll1 a determined way."

6. S0me use may be made 0f . 't .
,.
·
.
11n1 at1vc word
cspec1a 1ly Ill descr ipt ions. b11t a co11t'
I
s,
t
k
'
inu a strivin g
s~yl:a ~ s~u1l1d Tancl sense co rrespo nd rend ers the
he best exampl es are found .
. a ec,ec .
poetry. Tennyson's famous lin e : rn
L

"Th e league- long rolle r thu11der1'ng o n h
t e reef,"

suggests the very sound of the ocean.
The qu iet approach of a sum mer evenin
.
be better s uggested than in t he familiar lin e~: cannot
" Now fad es th e glimrn cri n"' hndsc•pe o n ti
. I
A I
.
"' ·
"
ie s1"1t
. nc all the ai r a sole 1nn stillness ho lds
,., ,
Sa\'e where th e lit:ctle wh eels his dron in <; ,flirrht
And dro wsy tinklings lull th e d ista nt f~lds~' ''

7. Elegance requires that th e fl ow of
sh ]]
b
th o ug ht .
a not e interrupted by sud de n J .,. I
struc ti on.2 To be avo id·cl th
f
>_1ca <s of con.
'
c , er e ore is th e suspens10 n of prepos itions. For example : .:._
"He r posit ive disli ke tu and ali enation
amazrng."'

fi

rom

k

no wledge was

"Neverth eless she was scarcely more ·it I
.
a cc rt ;ii n fashion, an inm:1te o.f ti .
, I . . iome '"•and, ;ifter
' ie one iouse th :1n th e o the r. "'
J Grav : / :'/,g;-. "(j: p. 82. ll Mrs \ Vard · D
·1 .. .
ford; ,;J .Sage tif .Sixtun, p. I.
.
.
'""' ( ,rui•e, p ..130.

• Wal-

IOI

8. A word should not be used in two senses in
th e :;amc clau se or sente nce. For e xample : " It is certain that a certain suspicious c haracter was see n nc:ir
the wh arf o n th e e1·en in-g of the robbery."
"Wh e n he lllld taken a mome nt to co nside r , he realized wha t
/1ad t aken p lace ."

Where elegance is the chief aim of a writer, the
style is rarely vigorous. Force and beauty rn:iy
coex ist, but the union of the two req uires mu ch
skill.
In actual composi tion the writer must not fix
a t te nt io n prim aril y upo n mak ing his sente nces either
fo rcible or elegant. The most i,mporta.nt
thin rr in writing is to transcribe thou boht Re
visio n of
sen t ences.
from hi s min d to th e page. At h is leisure
he may arra nge and con dense and re shape hi s sente nces till he leaves not one in its original form.
No sugges ti ons on m eth ods of composition are of
universal application ; but the a verage begi nn er
should, pe rh aps, not und ertake compos it io n and revi sion at the same instant. Aft e r lo ng practice he
may acquire s uch facility that hi s sente nces will be
at least clear and correct wh e n first writ ten, but eve n
such sentences gain new force and beauty by a
thorough re vision. Th e final test of a se ntence is
that it shall express its mea nin g so exactly that the
read er may t ake in the writer's th ought preci sely as
he himself co nce ives it.
The connec ti on of sentences is a matt er
of prime importance, but it belo ngs rath er Con nec t ion of
sentences.
to the discussion of the paragraph.
l:)

STRUC T URE.

CHAPT ER III.
..

P A RAGfl A PHS .

Th e triumph o f niodcrn
.
of lhc Pnragraph ..
Arr 111 \Vrit ing is m ·r.
.
.
.
nn1 ested m lhe s tru cture
EARLE:

En~lish p
•

rose, p. 91.

\rV1-mN we com I .
natur JJ
J1 nc se nte nces in a
..
a y gro up those t hat I'
compos1t1on we
topic. Such
c iscuss the same specific
n ..
a g r oup of s
elin1t1on. a•pa ra "'raph
A
. ente nces we call
"'
·
parao-raph
1
.
on Y a si n le
"'
may cons ist of
conta in s se veral J\ g - sentence, but comma I
c
I
'·
s1n o-Je ny
omp etc a r ticl e in
.. "'
/-'aragrap h is ofte11
11iay trea t a t .
mini 'at ure, since
·
a
the
.
• • op1c so na rrow ti .
paragraph
1
w1 1 comprise bu t a few s1'11t i.t t the ent ire discuss ion
a g ro u
f
r c nccs
I
. - p o parag raphs so1net' , - . . n a 1ong a rticle
im cs d is cusses with
s1de1able ful ncss ., " J
co n.
•
.
· · " s ing- c toi) · . 1
ic su Jord1na ted to ti
ma in theme :ind t h'
t' 1
' ' .
is group c
I
le
a r ic e within a n article
.
a n )e regarded as an

The imp.ortance of ~le:>rJy
great.
defi ned
e cann ot foll ow a 1
paragraphs
'
On o- d1sc u ·
is
I
sepa rately co - I . "'
ssio n with out
mportanceor . ·
ns1cenn cr the I
.
paragraphs. SJOns.
If ll O
<->
eac1111g cliviparagTaJJhs
wliolc of th
.' ,
a re mad e th
that w
e matena l is so 1
'
e
c osely massed
,
e cann ot readily sec th
e tra ns ition from one
pa rt of t he d iscourse to th
t urn in the h
e next. \VJ .
t ought is in cJ ica t cl
1e1e the new
c to the eye by the

w

"

103

in t h e page, and each new gro up of sentences
co ntains a new g rollp of fa cts , the succ essive st eps
in the development of th e th ought are eas ily
followed.
Th e length of the entire discou rse will m part
determine the length of th e paragraphs, thou g h
rules of ge ne ral appl ication cannot easily
be formulated. In a long a rticle each Len g th of
paragraphs.
topic may be more amplified than in a
short ciiscussion. A s in gle con de nsed paragraph of
a sho rt article may thus be e xpanded in a more
ela bora te trea tm ent of th e sa me th e me int o a whole
group of paragraphs. Extre mes of le ngth or brevity
are in any 'c:i.se t o be :i. voicl ed. Paragraphs that a re
too Jong im pose a h eavy tax upo n th e reader's
attention; pa rag raphs th at are t oo sho rt subdivide
th e thou g ht unduly, a nd make obscure th e relatio ns
of the la rger pa rts of th e discourse.
In the ideal parag raph t h ere is (1) a se nt ence that
contains th e top ic of th e paragraph; (2) a gro up of
sentences amplifying and illustrating thi s
t op ic; (3) a concluding se nte nce th a t ti es Struc t u re of
para graph s.
together the whole of the th ought of th e
pa ragr:i.ph. This ideal scheme cannot alway s he
followed. In some for ms of composition, as, fo r
instance, narrative, we ca nn ot al ways find a topic
that can be expanded thro ug hout the entire paragraph. Hence the stru cture of the parag ra ph allows
mu ch freedom; and co nformity t o the ideal will
depend upon the nature of the t opic treat ed .

';

l'ARACRA/'f/S.

COllERENCE.

A paragraph sho uld h ave (1) unity, (2) coherence,

(3) variety, (4) climax.

If the paragraph discusses with about eq ual fuJ.
ness two or more topics only slightly related, it will
1.

Unity.

not possess unity. Everything in the par.
agraph should therdorc be subordinated to

the leading thought. This should usually
be introduced near the beg inn ing of the paragraph,
and sho ul d be expr essed in the fewest wo rds possible.
On th e highway a guicleboard sho uld give the direc.
ti on a t once; and so a sentence that points out the
directio n of thought in a paragraph should indicate
the purpose at a glance.
In order that thoughts may illustrate and support
one another, they must be developed consecutively.
2.

Cohere n ce .

Some degree of co herence will be secured
if nothing irrelevant is introduced into the

paragraph, and the whole is arranged in a
natural order. ] ust as we arrange clauses in a sentenct: for the purpose of bringing together the parts
most nearly related, so we must g roup sentences in
the paragraph in suc h a way as to join those that
. amplify the same thought. We must a rrange th e
parts of eac h sentence so that the transition sha ll be
easy from o ne sentence to the next. \ ,\l'e mu s t look
both at
beginning and the encl of eac h sentence.
Every sentence may be good in itself, and yet the
connection may be difficult to fol:o w. Each new
sentence, therefore, should so na turally g ro w out
of the preceding sen ten ce that the o rd er cannot

t~e

be shifted wit
. l1ou t obstructing th e fl ow of tht:
. . er ocl and the thou ght not
- thought.
I
f the arra ngement is oo '
1· I. clistance he
1 . the connec ti. on ma y for a itt c .
comp ex,
I e as m
j
by the thought a Ol1 '
Words of
made c ea r
h
I this case the connection.
the following paragrap : . n .
l by the
. J"t of movement is ll1Crcase~
rap1 c ed
i y omission
. .
studi
o f the conjunctions.
.
e th e least par t of t he education of :rn
·
.
. t t1.. 1ns110rt ourse ves. 111
" Books, however, wer
1_ . _
L
for
a
momen
,
•
·
Athen ian-c1t1zen .
.et us, .
Let us imagine that we a1e en
l g
10
that g lorious
t lOU ht •
. city..
f Its power an d glory. A crowd 1s
te rin g its gates in th e ll~e o A li are gazing with deligh t at.tie
1
I led round a .porllco.
··
\ Ve turn int o
assern
. •. _
uttin" up the f11eze.
t bl J
. .
th ere .' men. women,
en a ·ature · for l'h1cl 1as h cl"P·t is o rcc1tmg
another stree t ; a rha pso isl J : . the tears are running clown
rounc
11rn'
children, are tlll·on"in"
. "' ""
. •
"'
l. th e ir very hreat ll .is- s·till .'. for
their checks; their eyes a1c fixcc 1' C l of Achil les, and k1ss,.d
l . ·1s tell ing how Priam fell at t 1c ct:] .. . - which had shin
le ·
·--'j j - th e IJlUJ< c J OUs
.
. "
those hands- the tc111) c
Jllulic place ; there is a nn,,,
f I.
a I s iark li ng eyes , ancl ges·turc
so many o us so 1:s. · \V e en
. ter"th
..s
of )·ouths, all lean In)!; fo rwa:d ':ti t. 1 -~.,ainst the famous Ath e ist
S ntes IS ] H Cl • t:>'
•
t
s
. to a contradiction 111 erm. ·
of expec tati o n .
oc " · ·
l
1 1
f
. t brOU"
'
'
ti 1c
.
Ioni a and 1as JUS
"" it lllll .
•
_
• Room 1or
J om
,.
.
. cl
The herald is c ryrng
. '
But we are rnten upte .
. The people are swarming
Th <.:-· assembl
Y
is to
meelet. _ • Who w1s
· ·]les· to ·Sjlcak?'
Prytanes 1'
·
< ·
•
•
on eve ry side. l'roclamat101~~s ~1;~ands: Pericles is mounti_n~
There is a shout and a clapp fgS I cles. and away to sup w1t11
1'h
a play o
op 10
'
exce lthe stand.
e n for
. . I know
of no. mo,, d ern university which has so
Aspas1a
lent a sys tem of education . 1

The direction of the thoug ht may usually, however,
I

Macaulay: Essay

Ofl

Athenian Orators.

~.

ro6

CO!IFRF:NCF.

107

!'ANA CRAP/IS.

be mack more evid e nt by the use of co n nective
wo rd s, s uch as co njun ctions, conjunctive
W ords o f
d
connecti o n. ~ verbs, pronouns, etc.
Parti cularly usetul arc the word s t/1is, //!(It, t/iese, t!tose,
s~ll"k A style well knit to~ ethcr is easy to follow,
si nce tht.: exact purpose of each ne w sentence and
clause appears at once.
Exce ss ive use o( connect ives is fatal to vigor of
style. Especially liable t o misuse is the co njunction
Excess of and, with whi c 1 some young writ ers begin
connective n ea rly every senten ce.
The Obj. ection to
word s.
this pract ice is th ::lt am! expresses so close
a relatio n that whatever can be properly introduced
hy it mi g ht us ually as well b e m:.H!e a part of the
preceding sentl:11ce.
The best cffr ct is produ ced by a skilful alternation
of senten ces whi ch co nta in co nne ctives and uf se nt~nces whi c h co ntai n no ne.
Takt.: for example a port ion of a parag raph from Bu rkc : "I do not mean to co mm end either th e spiri t in this excess,
or th e mora l causes whi ch pr•>diH.:e it. l'c rh:ips a mo re s mooth
and accommodating Spirit o f Freedo m in them would be more
acceptable to us . l'erha ps ide:is of Li be rt y might be desired,
more reco ncilable with an :irbi trary and boundless authority.
P c rh:ips we mig ht wi sh th e Colon is ts to be persuad ed that th eir
Libe rty is more secure when h<.:ld in tnist for th em by us, as their
~ u ~trd'.ans during a p<.!rpetual minority, than with any part of it
ll1 their own hands.
The qu estio n is , not wh e ther their spirit
d eserves. pr: ~ 1 s e or blam e : but - wh:it , in the nam e of Goel, shall
we do w_ith it? You h:n ·e be fo re you the o bjec t, such :is it ·15 ,
with all it s glnrics, with all its iinpcrfcctions on its head. You

see the magnitude ; th e import:ince ; th e temper; th e h:i l.it ~ ; the
dif.orders . By all th ese conside rations we are strongly urged t•)
determine something co ncern in g it. \V <: :ire calk tl upo n to h x
some rule and lin e for our fu ture co nduct , whi c h m:1y give :i little
·. stability to our politics, and prevent th e return uf such unhappy
" deliberation s as th e prese nt. Every such return will bring th <.!
· matter before us in a still more intract:ibk furm. F o r. what
astonishing and in crl.!di li le things have we not seen alread y?" '

feet expression , and st1p!'iY th e t r:rn si ti ons
ns best he can. In so me cases the enumeration ot
he ma<k in one orcll'r :ts well a,;
another, without the aid (l( spt.:cial wonb to Jl"inl
out the relations; Gut even i11 s uch ,· :tscs t he con
nectivc words g ive a firm ncss and com pact 11 ess
otherwise Jacking-. Sometimes whole senlt.: nL:t.:s m a y
be introdu ced fo r the express purpost.: of bin d in g- the
other sen tences together, and thus co mbinin g or
modifying the thou g ht.
Coherence is also aid eel by constructin g in l i kc
form the parts that have a common relat ion. This
structure appears in the following pa ra- Si milarity o f
crraph from Burke's speech on Co11ciliation s tru cture.

~it!t America : -

tJ': .~ !

"A further objectio n to fo rce is, tl1.1t you impc1ir th e o hJeC t b y
your very endeavors to preserve it. Th t0 thing you fought for is
1

C •mcifia/i on with. .·imcrt C!I .

~

108

PARA GRAPHS.

not the thing which you recover; but depreciated, sunk, wasted,
and consumed in the C(fnte<t. Nothing less will content me than
w~1ole America. I do ''.ol chonse to consume its strength along
with our own, because 111 all parts it is the British strength that
I consume. I dn not c/uwse to be caught by a foreign enemy at
the end of this exhausting conflict. and still less in th e midst of
it. I may escape; but I can make no insurance against such
a n event. Let me add, th at I do not choose wholly to bre11k
the Americ:rn spirit; because it is the spirit that has made
the country."

Transitions may be defined as the "intermediate
ideas which are used for passing from one part of
the discourse to the next." They have
Transitions . been com pared to a knot that ties the
wh ole together, and, still better, to a
bridge that leads from one bank of a stream to
another. They serve a double purpose : they mark
the longer divisions of the discourse by indicating
that the narrative or argument is entering upon a
new stage; and they connect one part with another.
Prominence may be g iven to the main outlines ot
the discourse by introducing the leadin g though ts
into transitional paragraphs, and by de\·eloping subordinate topics in the other paragraphs. If several
di~tantly related topics arc to be treated, we may
bring together th ose which are most closely allied,
and connect others by the principle of contrast.
Where the connection is very slight the best course
may be to announce plainly, afte r a brief s ummary of
what has preceded, th::it we now enter upon an
entirely new divis ion of the theme. The methods

VARIETY.

109

of trans1t1011 may be indefinitely varied; but th e
connection of ideas should not be so strained as
to be unnatural, or so sudden as to leave the reader
in doubt as to what the relation really is.
In the paragraph, as we have seen, no sentence
exists for itself alone, but each is part of an organic
whole. The form of each sentence will
therefore be modified to suit the form of 3. variety.
the sentences associated with it. The
variations may be for the sake of greater -coh e rence or for avoiding monotony. Sentences constructed on an invariable model arc usually tiresome
and ineffect ive. Especially lifeless is a series of
compound sentences, each containing two clauses
connected by and. Such a sentence begins with the
subject and is followed by the predicate: the and
in the middle of the sentence is followed by a second
clause in the same form as the first. Th is kind of
sentence is legitimate, but it ought not to be used so
frequently as to keep the reader in a perpetual seesaw. The abuse of this form of sentence is seen in
the following monoton ous paragraph : "The poet Longfello w was born at Portland, Maine, in 1807,
a11d was a descendant on his mother's side of John Alden . He
entered Bowdoin College at the age of fourteen, and was grad-

uated at th e age of eig htee n. He wrote considerable while at
college, and gave promise even then of his later career. I le
went to Europe for the study of modern langu:i~cs, and he
returned to be professor at Bowdoin in 1829. l lc pu l1!i,d1cd
his first book of verse in 1833 , and was at once recogni zed liy
discerning judges as a true poet. And he won no less praise for

. ·•

~.

111

l IO

!'A/\ A (;' R.-11'/IS.

·,.,.,.

his prose Gook of travel, U ulrc-Jlfcr, and so me critics
ferrcd it to his poetry ."

:'.,

securing

variety.

·t·,

sentences
sentences

..

<.•

l

Durke: Conc:iliatio11 w 1tlt .·fmenca.

\;•

PARACA'Al'/Jj:

adventure r, a man who when o ut f ffi
should in a few )'e:trs ' I ,
o o cc, must live by his pen
.
,
.
· · Jeco111e s uc cess1v•J
d
•
state , cl11cf sec retary for Irch nd . I .
c y un er-secretary of
111 < sccrct·tr}' >f
son H: oratonc:d
·
'
•
·
ta k nt
i\ 1 I' .
.
•
< state, without
. I
. . cc
Iso n Wllhout I11. J ' ·
1111
e property rose 10 .
. · '.
g l uirth and with
.
'
·
.t post wl11 c h dt k ,.
g1eat hu uscs of T albot l' .. 11
' cs, I 1ic heads of the
I
' ·u1sse :tncl He t' k l
lOn o r to Iii/. V.ri thout o pen in <,' I'.. r . n Ill e ' Jave thought it an
pos t the hi "hcs t that C' . l
<> ' ~' iµs in debat~ , he rose tc
,.
. "'
n.ir l.1111 or l· o:x e\· ·· . . I
a
<t1d /,don.: lic h ·1d I . .
.
..
er ie<1c ied. /\.ncl this he
'
Jc en nin e ye ars 111 1' J'
.
for the explan;1tion of thi s sc
: .
. ar iament. \ Ve must look
.
.
.
· . cm1n•• mine!. t 0
stanccs 111 which tint .,. , .. .
,.,
' e
l 1ic peculiar circumI I.
· .~e n c 1 ,1t10 11 was phced D .
va w Helt ela psed bet w , . ti
.
•
·
tm ng the int erccn ic t1111e when th e
. . .
. .. '
p iess ceased and ti.. .
Censo1sh1p of ti
ic
t1111c
wh
en
p;irJi;
.
.
.
.
ie
.
.
.
b
eg.111 to be fre ely reportc.:d lit. . . · /
t111 cnt.11y . proceed1n"'s
of
I
. c rar1 Lt c nts were t
I
o
mu c 1 more im po rt ·in . .
-.
·
o a pu ilic lllJn
.
· Le, ora to ncaJ hlc nt .
f
'
p o 1tance ll1 :u1 in ou r ti111c . . . . It w '.
;~. o much Jess impress that t he opini1Jn o f I )
1 . ;is o 1i.,1 by n1 e<111s of the
· tiucn cecl · ·i nd th . . . .
1c )Hr J/1c \\'rt/ 10 11t < oors could b
111
1
, .
c np111111 n o f the 11 11'
.I
c
.
u J re "' 11 io ut doors could
n ut but be of rhe hi·'/ . ·t .
,.., ics nn po r tancc in
.
. .
p.1rl1;unenl s. ·111c/ 1· I I
a country "ovc rnecl "
· ' '
IH <Tc
a t tint ('
"
uy
p:i rlia rn c nts. Th e pen \\"1s rl .' r ime go n .: rn ed by triennial
..
ic re1 ore a rn o rt: tOnnid:tblt: {Jo l1"t
ica) cnl.:'inc tlnr1 1/1 .. t
\VI
·
"
•
' Onu·11e
considl' rc d, it will not /, :.., II . . I. . . ien thc.sc things arc duly
I iavc c 1·tmbcd Jri,.·hc r in c . .Ht11g
it str·trl 1,.c 11 ti\ ·' I
.
· · ...,
•a
ur ison should
11
'" Sl.ttc than -111)' <ti
L
"
e"c r, IJy rneans mcn.: h· o f l't , ..
'
' ier · ng lishman has
S ·r
,
I c1.1ry t ·llc nts
b
'· )
• \V J t '_vould, in all prob:1liilit)· I . . '.1·
. ' een au c to climb.
no t ,,
' Ltie c 1n1bcd as I· I ·r
uec n cncumbercd Ii)· his .. . . k
' . llg I, I he lrad
i\ {;
1 ho ma"e of t i . · .C. bsoc · an d hi s· pu d c1in"
s ar as tie
.
"
re " t c;1t we it S ·r
,., slcel'es .
:is if he had been lo rd I . . ,.,
I ,
w1 t had as much o f it
.. T
I .
·
· 1e.1sure r.
.
o t 1e rnnuen ce \i·hicli A
n r11
t 1so11 deri\· d r
I. /.
dents
was
add
ed
·tll
ti
·
n
..
.
ie rn11ucn cc \\}, I ·c. irunr liis lit e rary
I Ire world, alway s rc:idy t ti k I 11c l an scs from c h:irat. !er.
I
.
.
u 11n . t ie \\ or . t f
:J c ve nturers, was ~' . . I
s o needy political
"10 I
l re c< lo n1a/,c one e x.
t'
\
e n ce, auda ci ty )uity o f
. .
· cep ion . l<es llcssness
:ittributcd to th ·1t' cl~ . . f prr nuple, are th e vices ordin ·irily'
l
,
' ss o men
lJut r: t'
.
•
I.
a c ion Itself could not
< cny th at 11.dc!ison had ti
, iroug i all c ha1wes off, ·1
,,
"' .
ur unc, uee n

ilf.·I C I U LA Y UN ADD ISON.

strictly faithful to his early opinio ns and to his ea rl y fri e nd s ;
that hi s integ rit y was with o ut stain; that his whol e dcpo1 t111 e nt
indi cated a tin e sense of the beco ming; that, in th e utm ost heat
of controve rsy, his zea l was tempered by a regard for truth,
humanity, and social decorum ; that no outrage coulcl e ve r temp t
him to reta liati o n unworthy of a Christian and a gentleman;
;i,nd that hi s only fau lts were a l oo sensitive de/icaq, and a
modesty which amounted to bas!t/11!11ess.
H He
\\'as undoubt edly one of the most popular men of l1is
tim e; ancl much of his popularity he owed, we be lieve, tu t /,, tt
very timidJ/y whi ch his friend s lamented . That timidity ofte n
preve nted him from exhil.Jiting his talent s to th e bes t ad van tage,
but it propitiated Nemes is. It averted that envy \\'hich wo uid
ot herwi se h;1ve been e xcited by fame so splendid and by so rapi d
an elevation. No man is s o g reat a favorite with th e public as
h u \\'ho is an object o f admiration, of respec t, and of p ity; an J
su c h we re the feeli ngs which Addi~on in ~p ircd, Those who
enjoyed the privilege o f hearing his familiar conversat ion clc clarcd \\'ith one voice that it w:is superior e ven to his writings .
The brilliant Mary Mont. 1gu sai d th a t she had known all the
wits, and that Addison was the bes t company in the world . Th e
malignant Pope was forced to own that there was a charm in
Addison's talk whi ch could be found nowhe re else. S wift, when
burning with animosity against the Whigs , co uld not but confess
to Stella th at, aft e r all, he had never known any associate so
agreea ble as Addison. Steele, an excell e nt judge of li vely co nversation, said, th a t the conve rsa tion of Addison was at once
the most polite and the most mirthful that could be imagined; that it was Tere nce and Catullus in one, h eight e ned IJy a n
exquisite som e thing which was ne ither Tere nce nor Catullus,
but Addison alone. Young, an excelle nt judge o f serious co nversation, said, that wh e n Addison was at his ease, he we nt on
in a noble strai n of th o ught and language, so as to chain th e
attenti o n of every h eare r. Nor were his great culluqui ;tl puw<:rs
m o re admirable th an the courtesy and so ftness of heart which
appeared in his conversation. At the same time it would lie too

IRVING'S SKETCH BOOK.
much to say th t h
.
.,
a
e was wholly devoid f
pe rhaps, i n ~ cpa1~1bl a from n ke
o the malice which is
hr!
1. .
en ~ensc of the ·d 1· I
'
• c one 1lau1t which both S ··f
n cu ous. He
1
which
. l
" t and Stella
l d
we iardly know how to " l' , If h1·~. app au ed, and
se t a
·
u .tme.
~ fir t
·
prest11n1n" dunce rird 1t .
.
.
s attempts lo
to
•
"
,...
"ere ill received I
I
ne, assented with civil leer' a n
. .
' le clanged his
d eeper and deeper into absu rd.it\· cl J_uied the flattered coxcomb
we sh o uld, we th in k ha\·c ,, , . : ." 1 hat s_uch was his practice
. . .
•
.,,11csscd from his , k
.
1CJ.•s cnt1c1sn1s
on Mr S f 1 ·'
· \\ Or ·s. fhe Tat!
· · o t ) s son nd
d 1
.
'
og ue with th e politician, who i . so .• an tie Spectator's diazeal ous for th e honor of
Lady . Q - p - t -s , a rc excellen~
m1 sc h1 c f.
specimens of this innocent
. ·•Suc h were Addison's talents for
.
.
;.:ifts w ere 110/ c.i-ltibllcd lo crrr ,·/
co1n crsat1on. 1J11t his rare
Ji
d
"' s or l o slr1111 ,.
,
e ente re a large co m1ia n y . . .
,i;1rs.
r.s soon as
fa, cc, h"is l"tps were sea J.. d
.d, I.
.1s soo n as. he ..
s·1w. an unknown
, ' an 118 nnnn e b
None wh o met him o nl v .
,
rs ecame co nstrained
. 11
.
, in great a~scmbli ,..
Id I
.
.1 l e to believe tha t he was ti .
cs wou
1;1vc been
~
f .
' · ic sarne man who I d f
ia o ten kept a
ew nc.:nds listcnin" and laug-I.
when th e play end ed ,till ti , .. lllnkg r ound a table frorn th e tim e
ic c oc of St p
I'
·
I stn1ck fou r. Yet , " .
<en
· au s In Co ve nt Gari .I
, even .it such a table l .
t ie Jest advantage. T 0
.
.
• le was not seen to
. ·( . ·
·
e nJ oy 1lls con versa tio ·
1
.
.
n In t.1c l1whest
pe 1 ec t1 o n, It was ncccssa . l I
I·
· l ·
· ·' ry 0 Jc alone with J •
.
,..,
11 111, Ill llS own flhnsc
. . , ti.
lln k. a Ioud • Tl
. i1m, and tu he·1r
'
I1c used to say • .15 re ·tl co
. ·
icrc Is no such thing 1
"This ti111i,i1/:y. ~ ,·. ·1.n1vcrsat10n but bet ween two JJe rson"',
111
• "
" ' ''.Y sur ·I •
·J
·' ·
amiable, led Addi son into th. t c .\ neu ier ungraceful nor un"th .
e wo lllOst serious f; I
wi
Justice be imputed to h ·
H · ·
· ;1u ts which can
spell which lay on his fine in;~iect e four'.d that win e broke the
sed uced into convivial exces
a~d i1as th erefore too eas ily
. . s.
uc I excess was in that a"e
reg-arded, even by g ra
d "JJ
'vc me n, as the most " . I f
, <>
J os; and was so far fr
b .
. ven1a o all peccao
n1
e111"
a
rnark
of
·11
b
I "'
•.
J - reeding that it
was a 1mos t essential to ti
le c laracter of a Ii
t 1ie s malles t speck is see n
I.
• nc gentleman. But
·
· ·
on a w1 11 c g- rou ncl
IJIOl{rap
he rs o f Addi su I . . .. .
; an c1 a 1most all the
·
· n la\ e sa1cl so n1cthi1w b
·
Of a11y other
s tate sman o
.
,... a out t 1lls failinl-i
A
,
·
· ·
r wntcr of Que
en
nne s reign we

S

should no more think of saying th at he s ometimes took too
much wine than that he wore a long wig and a sword .
"To the excessi7le m odesty of Addison's na ture we mu~t asc ri be
another f.llllt whi ch generally arises from a very diffc.:rent cause.
He became a little too fond of seeing himself surround ed by a
small circle of admirers, to whom he was as a king. or ra th er as
a god. All these men we re far inferior to him in ability, and
some of them had ve ry serious faults. Nor did these fau lts
escape his observation; for if ever there was an eye wh ic h saw
through and through men, it was th e eye of Addison. 13ut with
the kee nest observation and th e finest se nse of th e ridi cul ous,
he had a la rge cha rity . The feeling with which he looke d on
most of his humble companions was one of bene,'olcncc , slightly
tinctured with contempt. He was at perfect ease in th eir company; he was grateful for th eir devoted attachment; and he
loaded them with benefits. Their veneration for him appears
to have exceeded th at with which Johnson was regarded hy
Boswell or \.Yarburton by Hurd. 1t was not in the powe r o f
adulation to turn such a head o r deprave such a heart as Addi son's. But it must in ca nd our be admitted that he contracted
some o f th e faults which can scarcely be avoided Ly an y pe rso n
wh o is so unfortunate as to be the or:icle of a sma ll literary
coterie."

The paragraphs in Irving's sketch of T!tc R 1~1 '11/
though admi rable in their way, arc less ckarly
defined than those in the extrac t from Macaulay: -

P{lc/,

" O n a soft, sunny morning in the genial month of i\'l.1y I
made an excursion to \.Yind so r Cas tle. It is a place full of
sto ried and poetical associatio ns. The very ex terna l as pect of
th e pro ud old pile is enough lo inspire high th ought. J t. rears
its irregula r walls and massi,·e towers like a mural crow n round
th e brow of a lofty ridge, waves its royal banne r in the cl.. u.J, ,
and looks down with a lordly air upon the surrounding worl d .

; '

II8

JI<

PARAGRAPHS.

" On this m o rning th e weath er wa s of that vol uptuous, vernal
kind, whi c h ca lls forth all th e lat e nt ro mance of a man's temperam e nt, ti ll ing l1i s tlli11d with music, and dispos ing him to quote
pot:try and dream of beau ty. J n wan de ring through the magni fice nt saloons and long ec ho ing galleries of th e castle, I passed
with ind iffe re nce by wh ole rows of po rt raits of warriors a nd
s tatesme n, b ut linge red in th e chamhe r where hang the like nesses of th e beauties whi c h g raced the gay co urt of Charles the
Seco n d; a nd as I gazed upo n th e m, I blesse d the pencil of Sir
l'e te r Lc ly , whi c h had thus en abled me to ba s k in th e re fle c ted
ra ys o f beauty . In tra\'e rs ing also th e large g ree n courts, with
sunsh in e bea ming on th e g ray walls, and gla ncing alo ng the
ve l\' e t turf, my min d was e ng rossed with th e image of the
t ende r, the gallant, b ut h apless Surrey, and h is account o f his
lo ilt'rings a bout th em in his str ipling days wh en e namored of
th e Lady Gera l<linc ' VJ'i th c·yc s c:ls t up unto thr. m:-i idcn's tower,

W ith cas ie sig hs . su c h :ls me n draw in lo ve .'

" In thi s mood o f poet ic:d s uscepti b ility I vis ited th e ancient
ket:p o f th e cas tl e wh e re J ;uncs th e First of S cotland, the pride
and th e me of Scott ish poe ts a nd historians, was for many years
d e ta in ed a prisone r of s tate. l t is a large g ra y tower th at has
stoo d th e b run t of ages , a nd is still in good p reservation . I t
s ta nds on a mound whi ch ele,·ates it a ho \'C the o ther parts of the
castk , and a great Hi ght of st e ps leads to the interi o r. Jn the
armory, a Cothic hal l, furn is hed with weapons o f ,·arious kind s
:in<l :ig-es, I was sh o wn a coa t of armor kinging- ag a inst th e wall
whi c h had o nce belonged to Ja rn es . I le nee l was co nducted
up a ~taircase to a suite of apa rtm ents of iadc d mag nifi ce nce
hung- with s to ri ed tapes try, whi ch for med his pr ison and th e
sce ne of th a t pass ion:1te and fan c ifu l am ou r, which has wove n
into th e web of his story the ma g ical lin es of p oetry and fi c ti o n.
" Th e wh ole h istory uf this ;uniahle but unfo rtunate prince is
hi;.;hl y rom a nti c. 1\t t he ll' ndcr age of c:Jc,·cn h e wa s sent from
ho me l>y hi s fa th e r, Robe rt I![., and des t i nee! for tl1t: Frt:nch

vI ve ,,..
J

,

.)

SA'F.TC ll JWO K .

1 mon.arch ' secure
. of the Frcnc'
.
..
court, t o be reai ed uncle~ th: ey~1at su rro u11 tkd th e. ro yal. h ou:e
from th e treachery ancl an:"elr
th <.: cou rse o f \us vo)age o
· ed prisoner
f Scotlancl-. 1 t was. hi s 1m s 1a.p in I h e was cl cta1n
.
o .
I I an els of the E n blish' an<
.· ·tcd b e tw een tht:
fall into ti c '·
c1· ' tint a tru ce exis
v n o twith stan mg .
b)· Henry I ·
.
.
1 . trai n of, many
two countri es .
..
e co ming .m tie
"
.. Th e in telli ge nce of I ll~ capt ur , . fath er . 'The ne\\' S, we a1e
. d d id so overwh d 1n
.
. . ·d fatal to l11 s unh .1pp) .
sorrows, P1 0 ' "
whi lt: a t supper, ,\11.
, h ost
·
1
t olt\ •was brought to h1n
I iost read y to g iv e up the

f ..
~11~~:· ~\~~, 1~~1:'.~L
t~~~\:~e s;1~~~,~ll1~t~1't:.~ t~·~1~~1~~~, f~~~:· an~~uitn ~~:;~~
I . .. charnhcr he .1us
.<II

carri ed to ll:~
.
I 'rid at ]{othesay .
rs . l>ut
clays di ed ot hun ger a1: \ fn capt ivi ty a\Jo\'e ei~htee n ;ea.· ~1; th e
. . , he was treate< " 1 .
•. J a mes was th:t.unt:t
.· .. ·I o f pe rso n al It 1Je• 1)
. ·t uct hirn 111 all
th ou gh d ep1I \ e<.
C re was taken to ins r
.· I ncl
. .. ec t due to h is rank.
a
·vated :it that pe 110< ' a
't~;:;branchcs o f useful knowlod~e~:1~~~1 ~ccomplish 1rn:nts. deemed
. I . -' tl11ise m ental ::i nd pe r.
.
t 11·10 irn11nsonm cnt
' " ·e 1111
·
•
\ · rcspcc
"
t o J:,
• cc
Pe rh aps in t i1s
..
. . ·If th e more
p rope r for a p n n . .
I I ·ti l1im to apply h1rnse
" ·\
.
aclvaa tagc , as it t:n:t l "
··ti . to imbibe t\ut • IL 1
was :in
. .
vc mc nt anLl quic )
. . . whi ch
·elusively to hi s im pro
. \ th ose ele g ant tas \cs
f
ex ·
l to ch e n s 1
.
I awn o
·
I o f kno\\'lctlg;e ant
.
_
, Th e picture c r.
.
fun<
I a lus tre to lus m emo r).
.
. \ I . cap ti,·aung
have g iven sue 1 ·
f
·
.
· ·\ histo rians is hi ;; 1 ) '
h; m in early life :1y th~c~~1~\1:~~ o.f a h ero of ro mance' t:~l~~"~: l
ncl s ee ms rathc1 th e
. \ .. . ·ll 1t:·1rnl we are t old,
"' I
a
·
.
l l'fc
1-Icwa!"\\ c
'
'
t ~\nrr a 1H
a character tn rea I . .
t tou r ney to wre st 1c , o . . ,., . 1 \\
' . \ the sword, to ioust , o . . . .'.,] t c raft1· in playing "' '
wi t'
. rt med1 c111e1, n,,,'
.
_. ·1ntl was
d a nce; he was an cxpe
ti 1er instrume nts of music,.
.
anti
sundry
o
of lut e ancl Ii at P ·
·
l )ot.:try ·'
· \
ratorv anc I
.
co mph s i1 •
f
\y a nd c\ eltcate ac
xl) crt in " r:1111mar , o •
· 1·ono
man•
e
1
1c, • 1
\ .V'th "'this com 1·
n n.t
.
·
:incl ck"a nt J'f"::tlH
"
I
, .
·l . , \)oth Ill ;ic\1Ve •
"
. " .. . . it
ts fi tt it1'' him lo s une .
. .1· · \ for )·01·ous cxts .cncc.
ni c n
b
.
1.
.- ) 1ntt.: n:--.1..' JLds'
.,
l . ·· 1 ·\·to
o- 1\'t: l\ll t ·''
calcu l a t e·d to e. I . . n aue u 1· I,, ,..-tic :t nd c: .u;.
.1', I
must have be.e n~ scvc~c lt_r"\.:~r~ in"' m onoto nous ~apt~v1t;. ~h
pass the spn~g:m"' o ~isJames, howeve r, to be g1tlt:t "'
w :is th e goo\l to1 lunc o

~

120

PARA GRAP/IS.

powerful
t" r
.
. poe IC iancy. and to be visi
.
.
.
choices\ Inspiration of ti .
.
. ted in his prison by the
· . .
ic muse. Som~ 1 • d · .
11J.1ct1ve under tli e loss ) f .
. · nin - ·~ co rrod e and grow
. .
· · < perso nal Jibe t .
.
.in c1 irritable. but it . I
r y ' ot 1iers grow morbid
d .
. '
is t 1c nature of the
. .
an imaginative in the lo11e1·
f
poet to become tender
mess o confi
upon the honey of I ·.
neme nt. He bannuets
11s own thougl t
I I'
·1
pours forth his soul in melody." i s anc' ike the captive bird,

.

CHAPTER IV.
THE THEME .
.., Su mit e matcriam vcs tri s, qui sc riliili s. :equam
Viribu s, et versa!<" diu, quid ferre recu sent ,

Quid valcant humeri."
II OR ACE : De Arie Porlica, 11. 38-40.

To write_ on any subject, we have to discover the
facts important for our purpose and to arrange them
in such an order that they will answer Progressive
some question. The basis of all writin g s teps in
is thinking-. Eviden tly, if our thinking is writing.
exact and consecutive, and based upon sufficient
knowledge, we have merely to record our thoughts
in written form. But, since many thoughts arc not
worth reco rding, we mu st select only those of most
value. These when grouped and unit ed by natural
transitions form a connected whole. If we already
possess the facts that we req uire, we may proceed at
once to the discussion of the question that we
propose to answer. Usually, however, we need
to collect additional material, and then to arrang-c
it according to its relations. These relations we
shall discuss in treating of the different kinds of
composition.
In collecting information we shall do
·
Collection of
well to w_nte out the leading questions Information.
suggested by the subject. We can then
Ull

'

C!!O!CE OF A QUESTI ON.

T!! 1' Tl!F.JlfH.

T22

;~ro u p

t he fa cts wh ile w e g-athcr thc m. 1 \Ne must
proceed syste mat ically, with tile help of a trained
curiosity, reject in g irrele vant matter a ml selec ting
only illust rat ive facts . In st udyi ng a n unfamiliar
t opic we m:ty well begin wi t h a rap id view of it as
a whole, so as to sec mo re clearly t he relat ion of
one part of t he subject to another. We may t:1 en
select fo r more careful study th e top ic of especial
interest fo r our purpose. A Yast number of fac ts
we see a t once arc of no v:tlue t o t he disc ussion.
II e ncc the im portance o[ de cid in g at - th e out set
ex:tct ly what we inte nd to do is obv ious.
I n t h ese suggestions we h:tve assu med t hat the
w r ite r has a qu es tio n req u1n 11g inv est igati on.
You ng writers arc, however, so met im es
C hoice o f a e ncourag ed to choose subjects th at call
subjec t.
fo r li tt le or no rest:arch, t he exc use be in g
th:1t invention will thus be mort: stimulated . A
cer ta in kind of invt: nt ion is doubtless cul t ivated by
w riti ng- s t ories, :rnd letters, :incl olht: r eo m pns iti o ns
based wholly upon the writer"s gene ral in for mat io n.
Yet fe w you ng writers have sufficie nt ge ne ral kn owledge of an y b road subject t o d isrnss it wi t h mu ch
in tel li ge nce. In mos t cases, the refore, t he firs t co nce rn of t he writ e r s hould be to g:tthe r th e material
necessary fo r the ad eq uate treatm ent of a to pi c worth
I Th e h nbit of t:tking not os i' c:ts ily fo rmed . if one will beg in in Ihc rig ht
w ay.

Envelopes Ucaring tlil! nn1 11cs of sul>jl'...: ts, :l ncl ;'l f rn nged alphabc ti-

c; 1\l _v, m :ty h ..• m ndc t o contai n all tlil' inform:11ion tli: 1t i s !1f"( '(it'd.
s n111 · ~

:tltt·nti1111 to minur

wunl in a d ic 1ion::uy.

i.~..-:n ling:s ,

•·\":ry i. 11"1 111 .1y

J ,..

\ V ith

fonnd as i':li; ily

.1-. :l

1 23

1 o sh rin k fro m thi s labor rarely
1 s uccess{ul writt:rs. Th e
discussi n i.:;. T l_10se w .1
develop int o v 1 gorou ~ a m . :. t
limited t o in terest
.
. penencc is oo
\
1. ~.
- t o e nable th e m t o
r an ge o f t 1eir ex
. th e subj. cct th e mse vcs , o1
t l1em 111
·
interest others.
. .
f li t tle importance
.
of mat cn a 1 1s o
. ,
Th e co11 cc t 10n
f "t
A writers
.
. l t l e use mack o I .
in co mpari son wit 1 1
.
·er·\ o n t h e
effec tive ness wi\l depen d la1...,C y t S hi s Choice of a
ques ti o n .
w1"t\1 which h e mas er. .
t\1o roucrhncss
o
stirrc:rcst 1ve
l groups the m in a
"'"'
1·
fac t s, anc
.
. t ' rest in "' ques ti on.
, act s
swc r an 111 e
,.,
t
way so as o an.
l
h en th ey arc b rough t
· \ · 'tcrest on Y w
arc of cspcc1a 11.
. 1 1 t. . an<l arc perm eated
into new a nd u ncxpectcc re a '. ons, .
. ..
l"ty of t he writ er.
. \ s mall e r q uesb y t h e 111 <11vic1ua 1
t. 1 involves seve1a
An y b r gc ques 1 ~ 1
- l , t ·s most im portant t o
. . 1f we ca n d1 scovc1 w 1.t i.
t10ns.
. . . ect we shal l t he n sec our L eading and
ask about a s ub]
•
.
T \1c su bordina t e
•·
. 1ons . .
ques t io ns .
ar t o ask 1n ·1no r qu cst
lc
way c
.
tl 'lt th e wri· ter ·is try1n "•' t o
-1·1 . \"ff
c rcncc betwee n a
ch ief q uest ion , ,
1c l 1
. · . 1 · · t heme.
•
·
a ns we1 is 11s
. 1 .· ·fl this . a s ubje ct is a
. . .
. t and a th em e is )11c y
s ub1ec ' . . nd a t heme a spec ifi c top ic. The s ubjec t
ge neral t opi c, a
t a n ind efi nite num be r a n d t he
A sub ject s ugges s
l ·1 a th eme theme .
( tr·at m cnt, w11 c ,
\
l
of m et 1oc s o
c.
1
t . l co mpos it ion we
. , t one
n :ic u.t
. •-, - t11en1{\
.
:i n t\'•e form of :t
m ay su gge st uu
. ·,11w...t \'~s <;•al
n "' c<l not
. ' t.'. til l' ,
.
.
, other mean s T h crrnro•ic
"'
' ll1c)nt some
· . b t n1av
q ucst w n, u
·1 '
tion.
'
· t ,f vie w we
. di catin•' £ru m what porn <
(
o 111 •
o
·
T h e th em e
' to tre:it the t opic.
.
. ..
int c no
l f" ·,, l·orrn
JS S<>illL"lillleS
L' \JlllC
1
reduced to l ic m os,
-t

(.

·-.

1

!_,; .•.'._.._' . ..;.,

...

TllE THEME.

calkd the proposition. The proposition thus differs
from th e theme in being n~tn-owed to the point where
·it can be used. In other words, the proposition tells
what the writer intends t o do with the them e.
The importance of havin g a suggestive question
can hardly be overestimated. Just as the result of
I mpor t nnce
a battle often depend s upon the j)oin t of
of a suggcs- attack, and as a landscape appears best
tivc question.
h
f
.
w en seen rom a certa1 n position, so a
subject yields most when considered from a favor~
able point of view.
The proposition, fre ed fro111 all needless words,
may well be introduced e:irly in the discourse. The
-N aturc nn d form rr.ay vary with the c haracter and
position of the the length of the article.
In a biographproposition. ical sketch the propositio n will indicate
that feature of the rnan's life which we inte nd to
consider. In an argument the proposition will state
in plain, simple terms the precise question under
discussion. Without so me such indication of intention, a reader or heare r is in doubt as to the bearing
of the whole discussion. There is economy of effort
in devoting even an en ti re paragraph in a long discourse to limiting the subject and showing from
what particular point of view we intend to treat
it. In a short article a single sentence may be
sufficient. Some writers are too formal, and introduce into short papers the same elaborateness of
division as belongs properly to a large and complicated subject.

.'::

. t out some common faults m
It remains t o potn

the choice of themes.

tl1an that of
ore common
'
Perhaps no fau t is brn l to be discussed in the
choosin g themes too r~ac
b. t we
s we wi den a su JeC
eel
A
11
Sj)aCe a OW .
.
. or Themes too
of treatlll"
mm
broad.
diminish the poss1·bTt
I i y
t therefore
·
·
letail
We mus '
'
topics _111 ~ ~d~ancc how wide a question we arc
determine
. I .
the allotted limits. If we
d to111treat wit
1111
.
t
prepare
aes we mus t n ot choose a subjec
have but ·te.ns pab
a hun, d. rec.l The treatment of such
that require.
. .
1. ' ts must be vague,
thm narrow 1mi
1· t
a bro:id .sul ))CCcl 111comp
_w1
l de. The difference between
fi
super cia, an
.
t ever be for-rotten.
ere phrase mus n
b
1
·
l )t a striking
a th eme anc a m
.
for the sake of brevity ac OJ '
A wnter may
. rr but ,111s
. th eme should be a
headm

1 ·.

phra~e

~tion<

as
eitl:er written out or clear! y condefi
rnte
qucs
.
'
.
. . the answer to the qucs. 1 Tl . discussion
1s
ce1vec.
ic
b. t · . Ch:ilk, the theme
tion. If the general su Jee is
. . h . lk?
h uesti on as : What is c a . .
will be some sue ql'
h t is it used? How is
· ·t found? •or w :i
d
\Vhe rc 1s 1
·
? S h questions dc man
it prepared for the market. . utchat facts be arranged
.
b t they require
little think111 g, u
The interest of an article .on
in an orderly way.
1·
to the skill with
b. t vill vary accon 111g
such a su JCC '
,
. . broug ht into new relawhich one group of facts is
t ions to other g roups.
f
.
we
can
ask
ar
About most subjects
,
Vague
a
n
answer
at subjects.
.
more questions than we c
must
therefore
select
the
qucsonce. We.
L

li

.\

I

.\-;•

126

TJl £

Tl!/:,'flIE .
THE MES TOO DJFFJCULT.

t io n or quC'stin ns th ::it we most ca re to have answered,
~rn cl in no case sho ul d we imply mo re in the subject
t ha n we a rc prepa red to disc uss in th e arti c2!:) The
abs urdity of s uch topics as Ambition, Hope, Gratitucl;:, Mem ory, Home, Sleep is that th ey a llow the
mind t o wa nder in a ny and every direc tion, and
requ ire a vol um e for full treatment. Such subjects
::i ppea r easy to a begi n ner; bu t he soon discovers
that th ey arc peculiarly difficult. They are practically unsugges ti\· e, because they s uggest too much,
and th us scatte r thought instead of stimulating and
co ncentrat ing it. They d irect attent ion to noth ing
in pa rti c ular. Of the thousa nd things s ug-ges tcd
Ly the word i1follf1Jy there is none that we must
cons ider, cxcl'pt, perhaps, a d efi niti on of the word
it self. If, howeve r, we take th e specific q uestion:
In what way can the mem ory be im prover! ? - we
sha ll a t leas t have a defi nit e topic. \Ve may make
it still more defi nit e by add in g- more spec ifi c t erms:
In wh a t way can one's mem ory for dates be improved? With eve ry additi o n to th e d e finit eness of
the theme we ma rk out more clearly fo r the writ er
th e path in whi ch he is to walk, but we compel on
hi s pa rt an in creasing exact ness of info rmati o n.
A spec imen of wh a t the vag ue th eme
Specimen
o r a may lead to is seen in Geora-e
Osborne's
vague theme.
o
co mpositio n in
xxiii, On Seljisltness).

Vio1i!J' Fair (vol. ii, ch.

" This g reat effo rt of genius, wh ich is still in the possession
of Geurge ·s lllo th er, is as follows: -

127

.. •O N SELFISHN ESS. - Of all the vices which dt:gradc the
hu 111 an character, Selfishn ess is the must odious and conte mptible. An und ue love of Self kads to th e ll111 ~ l mon:;trous
crimes ; and occasions th e g reatest misfortun es in S tates and
·
A· s·· a .S"lf
".sli man
- ·1ies.
I ·a11l!
~ 1
• w ill i1111Jovc rish Ills famil y and ofte n
bring them to ruin: so a selfis h king Lrings ruin to his people
and oft<:n plunges them in to war.
" • Example: The selfis hn ess o f Achilles, as rem;~ rk c d by th~
poe t H omer, occasio ned a th o usand woes to th: (, reeks - "'"P'
- 11- Ay t:, t:,Of1K.E _ (Ho
m. JI. A. 2). 1 T he sel fi sh ness of th. e
A xo 101~
.
lat e Napoleon Bonaparte occas i.u ned . innum e rable
If~
Europe, and cau sed him to pen sh , lrnn s~l f, o n a mi serable
isla nd_ that of Saint Hele na in the Atla nllc Ocea n.
... We s.:e uy these e xamples th a t we a rc no t to consult ou_r
o wn interes t a nd a m bition, but that we arc to co ns ide r the 111t c1c~ts of o th t:rs ;'swell as o ur own.
GEORGE S . O~llOllNE.

wa:s.

"• ATll ENE I-lousE , 24 April, 1827 .'
.. •Think o f him writing su ch a ha nd , and quo ting Gree k too,
at his age,' the delighted mo th er said."

Th emes th at inv olve much ne w matt er are us ually
t oo diffi cult fo r the beg inner. Questions a rc much
more easily asked th a n ans wered. A
e mes too
writ e r s hould therefore consider care f u 11 Y Thdifficult
.
in approaching a new topi c, how far it will
lead him; wha t it will co mpel him to do; wh e ~~er
he has th e knowledge and reaso ning powe r req u1 s1te
to dis c uss it. A s already remarked, exact knowled ge is necessary in o rder to discuss a s~e~ i fic que_sti o n; but the number of fa cts req uired d 1m1111sh e~ 111
·
· narr ow e"cl . A. wnt cr
proporti on as the quest10n
1s
may not be compete nt to handle a large s ubj ect, but
I

The accents are th ose of the ·· co mpositio n."'

TllE TJ/EJl/E.

may succeed admirably wi th a small topic suggested
by the m:i.in theme. A general acquaintance with
the outlines of the larger subject may be easily
gamed,. and the l~ss d ifficult q uest ions discussed as
somet~mg suborcl1natc. Such a piece of work well
done is o.f far m o re val ue than an ambitio us failure.
~n selecting a que~tion for discussion, a beginner
shoul~ therefore avoid one that lies far o utsi de of his
experience or reading. A topic remote from his
~veryday th ough t leads to vagueness and confusion
tor each new sentence is a further step in ti '
dark. _Co1:1pos'.t.ions on matters a ltogether abo~:
the. .writers ability add to the amount of worth] ~s
wnt111g already produced, and miskacl a ny one who
goes to them for help. A reader has the righ t to
assume that unless the writer knows his sub · t
I
·11
d
Jee '
1~
n?t un ertakc t o instruct others about it.
Nothin g is less excusable than ambitio us "ncl
,
'"
pre.
.
tentious ignorance.

w'.

A writ.er shoulc! be sure that what he und ertakes
to treat is worth discussing. If he writes for hi s
own amusement, he may be as trivi al . .
Themes worth I
I
b
.
<
as
discussing.
le P eases; u t if he writes for others
he should not choose themes so trite tha~
he can scarcely avoid repeating what has already
~-een thought a~1~ better expressed a thousand times.
I he ease of writing on such s ubjects is on !
.
.
·
y appa rent.
T o w1_.1tc, mtcrestmgly
he must have somethi ng .
·1 ·
new
?r stn <mg to tell, o r he must have a style so at tractive as to conceal the poverty of his thought. Some-

,,_. __

CON7'NOI. OF '/'// !·." '/'/f l cJl/ !':.

~·

times he may give attractiveness lo a threadbare
topic by discussing ;rn old qut:stion in a nt:w li g ht.
If he writes on Home Life in tht: Co un try, ht: will
probably have his trouble for hi s pa ins. But if he
can describe from his own expe rien ce the home life
on a Rus s ian farm, he wiil have a nov<.:l and attractive
t opic.
There is a great difference betwee n controlling
the theme and being controlled hy it. For in stance,
if wt: write a sketch of the l ife of \Vash inirton we have little or no choice, but arc Control of the
b
theme .
bound to recount the kadin~ facts of his
life in about the ord er of their occurrence. H, however, we write on \Vash ington's Lack of Humor or
on 'vVashington as an Aristocrat, we can arrange our
material in any orclcr we please. Subjects that nat- ;
urally s ugges t about th e same thoughts to different
writers, and lead to a s imil a r arrangeme nt of material, arc n ot likely to stimulate originality. The
chief value of such topics is th at they give some
practice in the use of words and sentences; hut
they arc unsu ggestivc, for they clo not co mpel us
to consider facts in a new light. Every subject
has a suggestive side; ancl we should not be content
t ill we havc found it. Comparison is always more
suggestive than mere delineation; for through comparison we measure eve rythin g, and thus cul tivate
the judgment.
Young writ e rs dislike the labor of selecting :i.ncl
devel oping a stimulati ng topic. If asked to write on

J

'

': .-~

···.

TJJE TJJEME .

Napoleon, th ey are likely to produce a short b iography, dry and un suggest ive, that merely co ndenses
the facts th ey find in a cycloped ia. In
S pecific fau lts
of yo u ng
s uch a prod uction they dis cuss noth ing.
writers.
They do no reasonin g. Strictly speaking,
t hey have no proposition, no sug;gestive question that
leads them t o arr~ n ge .-ill th eir mate ri al in a new
fo rm. They do not turn the su bj ect in on e light and
another till the most attracti\'e side flashes out.
They fa il t o show why the subject s hould now interest us. Th ey forget the human interest that a topic
must possess if it is to be treated in a literary way;
that is, so as to stir our fe elin gs. In a word they
a re not try in g to express ge nuine convictions, but
merely to "write a compos ition."
Mu ch depe nd s upon the wording of th e title. It
should be free from needless adject ives a nd other
ve rbiage. O ne should not writ e on "The
The tit le.
sad fate of the good and beaut iful Mary,
Queen of Scots,. , or on "Th e g rc.-it an<l
evide nt evil of opening the gates on Sunday at the
World's F air at Chicago, discussed and illustrated."
The title sh oul d be point ed and attra ctive; it should
adeq uately in d icate the ge neral limits of the discussion, but it should not tell too much. If the title is
long, it may occupy t oo much mom; if too short, it
may t ell so lit tl e t hat even a reade r who is in search
of information on th e ve ry topic discussed may not
suspect that the articl e conta in s anythin g; for 11im.
Espec i.-i lly important t o a beginner is a suggestive

TJJE TITLE.

131

.
.
cl
·ter 1•5 const:rntly
title . for the mexpcnence
wn
.
. .
t em1;ted to foll ow the words rath e r than th e th ou,.;nt
.
.
f th e title. With
bun
t l1e m ere \,vordm. "n· often
.
~ukes th e difference b etween a ge nuin e d1scuss1on
and a mere en um eratio n of un rc1 atcd fac ts.

~·

•' -

T/11' BASIS OF T!/P Pl.AN.

CHAPTER V.
THE PLAN.
"A/,ove all thing-s , Order ·ind /). I · l•

.

and ~'·)11~1(//11 , ,. ou t of p I .
,.,
a r sis
1,
II . '"" •c no t tou subtill. For he thal
We
into Bu ~ in
\
uo rnu ch, will never co me out o f it clearly.'' . . t·~~ ; .i nd he that divideth

lh 1· life of / Jis11a 1c/1 . S
'[

d_o rh no! divid e,
r

. .,

.11 ' ' 111/1 0 11

, "'"o .i :s th e /) 1.1 /ribu/

will ne ve r

c 11 lc1·

BACON:

U/ Di,palch,

WE shall discuss the Pl
I
l
an lln< er two divisions.
I
nto tie first will proper] fall th
.
.
pla ns in 0crene ral. int th y ,
e cl 1scuss1on of
0
e second the cl '
·
'
'
t he essential JJarts of
1·
isc uss10n of
'
a c 1sco ursc
I. Althoug-h we ma k . · .
.
that we a rc to t ry t o
y no w the prec ise ques tion
.
. ans wer, and may have collected
T he arrange - sufficie nt 111for111atio11 for Ollr /) Llr/JOSe
t
ment of
we ca
t
. ' ye
ma terial.
•. . nno
U S C Ollr mater1'")
t "j
.
·
'
" un 1 we arM
.
.
.
i _a11 g 1.: it according- to some )lan
lll disorder is :-is in ·ff · t',.
. .
I . ·
:i.tcnal
e cc I\ c as ,111 :-irmy in . f .
I n rc g·ard in " c·icli tl .
,.., '
1cn1e ·1 s a
. . · co n us1on.
'
or im1)lied we 11"\" ' .
, ,· , q uest ion, expressed
'
" .... seen t nt ti
·
.
- II .
ic main <111estion
Qu es tions the 1ea Y involves several
ll
.
.
basis of the These i
t
l
s 111a Cl questions.
plan.
n urn cad to sti ll ot her questions
.m ore a nd m ore subo rdinate
If
gz oup these questions so that ca.cl
..
n ow we
gro w naturally out of tl
. .. , l new inquiry shall
.
ic «nswcrs to tl
·
questions, the order f ti
..
ic p reced in g
the order of th
l o
ic questions will s twgest
.
oug1t, and thus furnis h t he 1"'
f
tl1e cl 1sco
urse.
P an o
132

1

33

The di sc uss ion will ga in in clearness if we m:d;:c;
th e lend in g questio ns as comprehens ive and d istinct
as poss ible. Every fa c t then falls int o its Th e kadi n g
q u estions
proper place, and stands in clear relations sh o uld be_
cornprehens1vc:
t o other facts. A well-co nsid e r ed plan and d istinct.
reveals at a gla nce th e exte nt of the wh ole discus sion , and se rves as a const ant guide in tht: arrangement and proportionate development of the th o ught.
The p!an thus makes an organic whole of what wou ld
otherwise be a mass of unrelated frag m e nts . Not
the least of the advantages of the plan is that it
indi cates what is t o be left out of th e discussion.
The re is surely little use of polishing sen ten ces and
c;1 ref ully choosi ng sy no nym s if the revision of th e
plan wil l compel the rejection of the e ntire paragraph that co ntains th e m.
The clearest writers bestow mu ch pa in s upon the
g ro up in g of material. For in stance, Maca ulay , in his
E ssay o n Croker's ed iti o n of Boswell's Life
of Johns rrn, a nsw e rs three leading q ues- Example from
M acoulay.
tions : ( 1) What sort of book has Croker
t-; iven u s ? (2) What sort of m a n was Boswell ?
(3) \Vh at so rt of man was J o hnson? In answe rin ;;
these thn.:c questions h e has to ans wer m any othe rs,
but these he ea sily groups und e r the main t opics.
Some practical suggestions with r egard t o a plan
will be of general u t ility : I. A plan ough t t o h ave unit y ; that is,
it sho ul d exclude facts or t opics not closely
co nn ected with the main theme.

Practical

I

au~gcstions.

1

1 34

Tl!E Pl.AN.
V..JR!F:TV OF 7'NJ-:. / 7'NFNT.

., Its ma in divisions otwh t
I ,
exclusive.
b
to )C frw a nd mutuall y

3· It o w•ht t o be
so arranged as to b
t ant tOj)I. "'.111
rin g imporcs to JJromi11e11t pos1t1ons
· ·
,
4 . 1t otwh t to J
•
·f
b
1<.: so comp let e 'l s t . I
acts n eccssary to ti . 1· .
.
'
o inc ude all
,
lC C ISCllSSIO!l.
1'-ules m ore SJJc c ific·· th ·1
l
·
, 11 t H.: ·sc can
· be
n-1vcn
Th , t . t
' no t e:isdy
b.
.
e iea mi.:nt of most th
.
.
ld
.
cmes ca n be rnd efini tely varied a nd sl
' '
iou
never be
\ Vhe n the construction .
I
co me stereotyped.
of t he discourse is " t o is m
l a( c mech a ni cal the life
• u
nee os t.
In carry in g out the s ua-a-e .
we have but to
"t, . ""."' stions already indicated
.. wn e q uesti ons as they occ ur to us l
Th Cse sLwo-e 5 t t I
.
·
l C specific to11ics of ti
Prac tica l
.
: "'"'
1
<1s
··us
·
W
·
1e
.
applications.
. L .. SIOn.
C lllay llOt at fir .
most
st ask th e
S
.
. important quest ions
so trivial tln t
.
· · ~ ome m ay be
•
' we may dismiss th e m
tha t re ma in afte•r
l
a t once. fhose
'
we i :-ivc cxcl d ·d I .
the t rivi:-il, and s uch
.
. u e tic irrelevant,
as repeat a c
t.
another form
,
' · /Ut:s ·wn und er
.
' \\C m:-iy arrange ac
.r
relative im po rtance f )
' coit ing to their
< r our purpose
WI
f ound an effective orcl.
I
: . .
i e n we ha ve
an(
wn
ttcn
out
·
e
r
w l1i c h "'o·en e rally
co
.
t f
o
'
ns1s . o our o
. . ur an s we rs. '
by facts, we have tl . .
wn op ini ons fo rti fied
. 1e intwh
f h
1 1ft
Tl · ·
,.., <I-·
work
.
ie wntmg rn e rel s
r' - O.· t c. whol e
conn ec t th e SC"tt . cl
y . . upp ies th e links to
· .. ei e matcna l
As already remarked, there
'
are fe w themes that
I Th e re is considerable
. .
ga 111 Jn COOVf'f}j ('
·
·
S<~par~te sl ips o f paper, which ca n t · ~ . r:~·c Jn \\·ri1 i ng th e questi o ns on
J,11ghsh Compositio11 p 16
>c e,lSJ Jy re3 r ra11ged. <
.J \.Y ·' II

• ·

5.

:1 ·

enu e ,

1

35

cannot be treat<.:d in a va ri ety of way s. A th ousand
c irc um stances lll <lY m od ify the onkr.
Thus it is that 110 twu writers, thuugh ,~;:;~,'.~"~'.
equally log ical, would arrange their materials in prec isely the same fo rms . \{e t in a scient ific
treatise the arrangement is largely d e tl:rmin cd by
the mat ~rial. T h e d e finitions and ot h er !)rc~im in ary
expla nati ons 1rnust be placed at th e beg1nn1ng, and
th e wh ole devel oped in a reg ular o rd er. In discussions not rig idly scientifi c a more flexibl e a rran gement may be adopted, whi c h may b e called the
\J. it e rary or rhetorical arrangement. \ This places fe w
res tri cti ons upon the order of topics. The liter'.lry
order is continually adopted, even by men of scie nce,
in treat in g scie ntifi c subjects in a popular w:-iy. A
nota ble example is Huxley's " Lay Ser mon " on "A
Pi cce ot C halk ." In s impl e narratives th e plan m::iy
follow the ordcr of eve nts. In letters and other
informal compos itions th e plan n eed be n othin g m ore
than a li s t of catc hw ords to re mind the writ e r of the
leadin g facts to be devel oped. Of such :;ort arc the
hasty n otes whi ch n e wspape r correspondents r:-i.pid ly
weave togeth e r in an article not lack in g in coh e rence
a n d finish.
T o be effect ive, the material mu st, however, be
arranged in acco rda nce with the requirement s of the
lrnrpose. One will not arrange a lett er in The plan
the same way as a speech. If a writ e r modifi ed by
groups hi s materials by a so rt of natural the purpose .
sel ection in ways familiar to him, he may in rough

I

,.
4 1•

r,

J'I u : /'/. ,·I.I\ ·.

work cl.ispcnsc with the mo re ca reful written analysis.
There. is d:rn;;er, however, that the unwritten analyses will become st e reotyped and monotonous. The
well-worn fo rmula may ser\'e its purpose in g rouping
the facts, b ut fre shn ess ancl suggcst ive ness will be
lacki ng'. The writer should, therefo re, co ns tantly
endeavor t o e mbody in hi s plan whatever orig inality
he has. H he looks at a subjcct in a n e w way, he
can make this evid ent by chang ing the usual order.
Many p ubli : di scourses are dull, n ot mer1.:ly because
the m atte r is old and is trt.:ated in :l lifdcss style, but
because the ~Ian co m pels an unsuggesti\'c group in g
of the material. In any case a writn or speake r
ough t n ut to hav<.: a form of const ructi on so wdl
known that any one acquainted ,,· ith his meth ods
ca n fo ret ell how he will treat a gi\'cn topi c.
s l ) lll (.; furth er practic:il suggest ion s and warnings
may be bndly not ed .
No t in frt.:q uentl y a write r is tempt ed to discuss a
subj1.:ct with wh ich h t.: is b ut s lightly acqua inted. In
_
t h e extremity of hi s ig-n nra nce he prepares
Ill-considered .
]
b ut sm
. ce his
. kn owledge of the
plans.
.l P a n;
subj1.:ct as a wh ole is limited, he g ives
undue p rominen ce to min o r topics, a nd lea ves almost
untoucht.:cl the importa 1_1t matters on which everyt~1i 11 g ckpen d s.
Th e n, 111 colle cting; further informa~1on, he follows his preconceived pla n.
I 11 proceedm g thus, he fails to see facts in t he ir true relations
and prod uces in consequence a distorted and worth:
less disc ussion.

REVISION OF T//E !'I.AN.

1

37

F a r bet t e r is it to mak e a brief trial pbn, whi ch
may co ns ist of t he top ics apparent ly most impo rtant .
Th e n, after the subj<.:ct is more thorou ghly
m astered, the plan can be modified to any The trial plan.
degree n ecessary.
Frequ e ntly, after an ent ire article is written, there
will be an evident advant a:;e in some r1.:;1rr:1ngc mc nt
of parts, or in th <.: rdrc~c hment or expansion uf ·some division . Ont.: reason why Rcvi•i
on of
·
the plun .
rear ra ng1.: m ent is n eces. ary is that the
mo st effective order is seldom that in whi ch
th oug hts arc first prese nted t o th e mind .7 /\ pra~·­
tised thinker h::ts little diffi culty in cnuus in g at
once an effective arran g em e nt; but the beginnt.:r
will usually discover that his trial plan rcquirt.:s
num e rous changes. One topic will b e seen to
include another, while other topics will be e ntirdy
irrelevant.
Th e fuln css of the pla n as a preparation for compositi on will depend largely upon th e writ er and the
character of the subject. Some persons
.
. h
l ·
The fulness
write wit out Pac ing upon papcr a spe- of the plan.
cifi c outline of t op ics; whil e oth e r write rs
find that th ey save tim e by finishing the pbn in
detail, al most as carefully as th e e xpa nd ed d iscussion. Most beginners arc unable to think throu gh
a subject without writin g each th ought as it occurs
to th em. Till they acquire facility, they ought,
th e re fo re, to seek the help of a written plan, in order
that the several groups of facts brought out in the

J

~
I

4·."".\''.lo'

"t. , ,...
t

'.,

,· ! .:~
L~\~

Tl!F Pf.AN.
1
d iscussio n may fit'(!
]
w l1ere t h ey can be
• t ,,e
• pace
used to most :icl vanta ,,,.
o-e

A wr'.ter f1.·eque ntly h as diffic ul ty in co ntinuously
devdop111g hrs t houg-h t, so as to p:iss in a natural
·
way from o ne part of the di scu ssion to the
Coherence. next. The remedy is eas ily pres cribed:
.
the ch ief difficulty ari ses in practice.
La~h 1:art shou ld be placed where it expla in s most.
Th is 1s th e same as to say that related th ouu-h ts
should be g rouped toge ther. The co nn ect ion is ~1 en
most natu ral and effec ti ve, si nce t h e trans iti ons are
s h ort~st. The final order of topics wi ll depend upon
a variety of co nsiderations, ch ief :unon 0a them beiiw
the lead ing purpose of t he d iscou rse. D ig ress ion~
sho uld be adm itt ed only as incidental inquiries,
:xc.usable because they ill ust rat e the main question.
fh 1s, however, sho uld not be allowed t o sl ip o ut of
sight for an insta nt . It need not be s peci fi cally
n amed at eve ry turn, hut it sho11ld so pc rnw;ite the
entire '.lis c ussion as to gi ve uni ty a nd co he re nce.
Othe rw ise the whole wil l lack progress iv e moveme nt
a nd will ta n talize and bewilder the reade r.
'
If the s uccess ive par;1 g raphs gro w na tu rally o ut of
t he paragraphs that p r.c cc(k, anrl ea c h n e w g roup of
parag raphs 1s p re faced by an introductory
T he connec tion or details. sente nce or t wo, the connection of details
.will usually be sufficiently evi de nt. The
ge ne ral drift of the th oug ht may us ually be indicated
at th e outset. Some to pics may be enumerated that
we excl ud e from ou r in qu iry, and we may the n out-

1 39

DlVlS!Ol\TS OF D I SCOURSE.

Jim: the quesliun we propose to answer. 'vVe 11tTcl
n ot alw:Ly,., ha ~ ten to re veal at t h e very hcginnin g
wh at o ur u ltim ate purpose is ; but sooner o r later we
mu st let the reader in to the secret. No grace of
di ct ion, n o fini sh of sentences can atone for the
crown ing fault of kav ing the purpose unin telligible.
TI. The olt! books 011 rl1ct(lri c specified a large
numbe r of formal divisions of disco1irse, most ol
which arc n ow abandoned. The necessary
l
Div isions of
l
divi sio ns arc few . They a rc tie
ntro- ,1;,coursc.
duction, the Discussion, the Conclusiun.
J.

Tl-IE INTRODU CTION .

) 0,)

'. ;

In many cases we cann ot discuss a subj ec t intelli i:-; ibly with out som e pre lim in ary explan;i.t ion, nr we
cannot arouse interest in what is to follow
·k ·
V a.J ue of an
without calling att entio n to some stn · 1ng introduction.
feat ure of th e s ub ject . Not everythin g ,
ho weve r, th a t might he said at the beginnin g is
an introduction. The appli cability of the openin;.:.
remarks t o the topic in hand must be the test of
their valu e. O n e lumin ous thought at the beginnin~
will som etim es flash a ray of light throug h tht.: entire
discom se ; hut a thoug.ht tli; 1t is m crt.:ly brilk1nt
with out be in g- applicable may dazzle th e reade r without illuminati ng the subject.
The introduction s hould he att racti ve, so as to win
for a d iffi cul t subject a favurable reccpIt should be un as-Qualitieoofan
tl.on f1·0 111 th e start.
introd uction.

.:.

sumin g , and should not appear t o promise
';:,

140

THE

more than can be performed. Above all, it should
rt:ally introd uce the theme. J\n introduction that
does not lead up to the discussion deceives the
reader by e ngagi ng him in a train of thoug ht of
wh ic h no use is to bt: ma< k, and wastes words a t the
most impo rtant po in t . The writer should th t: refo re
admit into th e introdu ct ion no se11tt:n ce whi ch cannot be turned to account later. Th<.: con nection need
not :il ways he immed iat ely oh vi ous, 1 a lth ough this is
us ually best.
Th e kind of in troduct ion will diffe r with th e subject and the espec ial purpose of the wri te r. Ve ry
effective is the narr:it ive or hi s torical inKind of
t · d t"
M at t J1ew A rn o1.l J IS
' f ond of
intro ducti o n. I 0 UC 10 11.
quotin~ a st riking se ntence as a t ex t that
s uggests th e main theme.
J\s a g-e ncr;tl rnlc, th e .~horte r the· intrnducti<>n th,:
bett e r, ior the reader is thus brought with<>ut dei:ty
t u the 111ai11 top ic. Lord Baco n says:
Lcni::th.
"To use tuo ma ny c ircu msta nce s e re one
com e to th e matte r, is wea risome; to use
none at all is blunt." In a s hort essay the introduction may well co ns ist of on ly a se nten ce or two, or
at mos t of a single paragraph. The long prelud es
that many wri ters play befo re th ey approach their
th eme arc ridicul ously out of place. The question
1

As examp les of introd uct ions that rea lly introduce , and yet a rc no t ol.Jvi-

ously connected with what follo ws, \.\'C 111;-ty note rl1e op1..•ning of Thackeray's
1Vr.wco111es, of Macnulay's Rssay 011 Nobt'rf 11/on<romery'J /..lo~ms, and of

Matthew Arnold's Essay

011

Tl/L DISCUSS/UN.

PLA J\~

L ord Fa/1.:1.ind.

14 I

of lenoth
is really a question of propo rtion. . An ue
tens ive aml un famil iar 1;ubject n:iturally requ ires more
prelimin ary explanation tha n o ne which is simple
;rnd ge neraliy un derstood. Th e iu trudud iun , thcn,
red uced to it s lowest te rms, merely announces wha t is
to be discussed . \ Vhatever else it cnnta in s must hi.'.
determined by tht: length and purpos<.: of t he a rtic le.
II.

TH E lJ! SC USS IU N .

The discussion is th e main body of the d iscou rs e.
Wit hout it the introdu ct ion and the conclusion arc
worthless, s ince the introdu ction mu s t impo rtance
h av e somethin c.._' t o introdu ce, and the con- discussion
of the
.
clusion something t o conclude. The det ails of the treatment of the disc ussiun arc suffic ientlv co nsidered in th e chapters on th e Plan :rnd
th e v;rious K inds of Composition, ancl need not LH.:
u

ch\Joratcd h<.:rc.
Ill.

Tl!!': co:-.:CLUS !ON.

I. ·

....

.;.

S om e writers havt: as 111\lc h diffi culty in knowing
how to stup as they have in knowing; how to beg in.
Their difficulty is largely due to th e fact 01fficu1ty
th at they foll ow no plan at al l. or one so co nc lu
or
din g .
extensive that it cann ot be ca rri ed out
within reasonable lim it s. I Icnce, aft er reachin g a
certain point in the discuss io n, they perceive that
they cannot continue the rest of the discourse on the
same scale. They therefore have either t o condense
all th at they have written or t o bring th e discourse to
a close without really finishin g it. A conclusion that

\.: ;~

-·Tl/I:: PL!N.

thus fails to conclude the discourse cannot grow
naturall y out of th e di scussio n, b ut must b..: so 111 cwhat ahrupt.
The form and the kn g th of the co nclusion must
be modified by ci rc ums t an ces. I t may prese nt an
appeal, or a brief su 111 ma ry of argum<.: nts,
Form a nd
l.
·
£.
length.
or an app 1cat1on o so m e part of the discu ssio n. \Vhen the plan is care fully consid..:r<.:d and d ue rega rd is paid t o proport io n, th e
conclusion will frequently be a mere expans ion of
th e final topic of the pla n. 1 Th e concl usion should
n ot be unduly long, and may sorne ti me s be best
omitted altogether. In no ca se should it recommence afte r it has nat urally come to an e nd . A s
between abruptn ess and tedious repetition w<.: need
not hesitat e whi ch t o choose. If, however, the discuss iun stops when it is fin ish<.:d, th..:re will he no
abruptness.
1
SirH ·c hotl1 !li t: I ntro du ctiun anti !he Co nc! 11 s inn can be fairly jurlgcrl
on ly w he n co nsic.h.:rt.:d in rela tion tv 1hc U i ~cu ~~ io 11, 1li c student must be

rdcrrccl fo r illustratio ns tu the prac tice o f the lies! writers.
..

(~.JL\ A_~·
(l\J
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,

. ··. ·

CHi\l'TEK VI.
KINDS O F COMPOSITION
"Exped iency o f lite ra tu re, r easo n of li tt:r. du re , la\'. .·fu lness of wri1ingt iJ s: 1y on \,n !h s ilks, ;11, d, \\L ilt- tl1 ··

dow n tl 1huught, is que ~ tion•.;d; mu ch i::;
hglit wax1 ·s hut ,

tlici11,

dearest !-iLl1 o lar , slit.:k to tliy fuolish t.isk, aJd

<.1.

li nt.;

t,; vcry hou r, and IJc tW l:c n whi les ad J a line." ·

SECTION I.
DESC Rll'TI0::-1.

A llES C RIPTION is an answer to th e qucsti••ll: ll" w
docs a n obj ec t or scen e appc~tr? Mor..: s pn :iticaii y,
a description answers questions that couD cfi nitto n
cern shape, size, positio n , colo r.
or desc ripti o n.
De sc ri pt ion is of mnrc irnp<1rLrncc for
the us<.: that can b<.: mack o( it th a n for its uwn sake.
In a narrative, for cxampk, there is often n..:..:d pf
tkscription in order to make vi vid t he
01
sct:nc in wh ich the action proceed s. So, deValue
sc ri pti on.
too, in trea tises on geo;;raphy an d history
and b otany, descriptions a rc :rn aid to the clear umlcrs tan cl in g- of t he subjec t .
Desc ription has its limitations, and it can repre sent adequately only those objects which cuntain few
details. Tn the most vivid desc riptions it
. surprisrng
. . h o w f ew tl 11ngs
·
s ot
1s
are r<.:a 11 y t o 11t.. Limitation
description.
A d..:scriptiun cannot reproduce a com plicated scene, but only suggest something like it.

... ,

·,

~·

10

....
1L ~~t..

144

KINDS OF CO/I/POSITION.

S Ll.LC TIUN UF J'.·/R T h .UL../ RS.

Seld om can o ne recognize eit her a place or a person
from a description. Even in th e longest description
we a rc obliged to pass over innumerable details, every
o ne of which, if int roduced, woul d sl ig htly modify
the whole. But in the at tempt to introd uce them all,
one detai l takes atte ntion from anothn, and acids
co nfusion to t he picture. In any des cripti on there
is , too, the disadvantage of having to reproduce by a
succession of words som ething that must be realized
as a wh ole. There is da nge r th:i.t the reader will forget the beginning of a long descriptio n whil e he is
yet becom in g acqu:ii nted with the end.
H:iwthorne reali zed these limitation s and expressed
himself freely on the matter in his Note JJooks: --

to mbs ton es , and a bit of g lass from a painted wind o w, :1s if tl1c
:rnd ;.: lorv of the edifice wen: thus to Li: n:pr11d11cul. "'

~~loo m

.. Th e walk back to the Trosac h s
Ben An under new aspects, - the
rising in a perfect pyramid, whereas
looks lik e quite a clifTere nt mou ntai n .

shinc carne out upon th e ru ,~.~ed side uf Ben Venue, b ut h is pre-

of the rest
of the la11 dscape,. w.1s ster n and
V :11·1·Ill~ 11100( j , ]i.ke· tint
'
·
.
.,]oon;y. I wish I cou ld give an ide ;1 of the v:1ri e 1y of su rLll·e
~pon one o f th ese hi ll sides, - so bul g ing ou t anc~ h ollm~cd. i.1:·.
so bare wh e re th e roc k breaks throug h, so shaggy 111 o th e1 pl.t ees
with he;1th, and th e n, perh aps, a thi ck umlJrage of bi rch, u;1k, and
as h as cend ing from th e base high upw~r_d. \ Vhen I thi.nk l. h:,1 v:~
described th<: ill,] rememlJer <JU!te a d1 flere nt aspec t . «•Id Ji1 1u "
equally true , and yet lacking so meth ing- to make it the whole or
an ade<juat e truth. " 1
c

" Scot t ev id e ntly us ed as mu c h freedom wit h his natural scenery as he did with his histo ri c in cide nts; and h e coul d have made
nothi ng of e ith e r one o r th e o th er if he had been more scrupulous
in his arrange ment an d adornment of th em . In his Jescription
o f th e Tros;1chs , he has producc:d so met hing very beautiful, and
as tru e as pussib lc . though cert;1inl y its i>c:au ty has a littl e of the
sccne-1xlinter's g loss on it. Natu re is be tte r, no doubt, but
Na ture ca nn ot b e exact ly rep rod uced on c rnvas o r in print; a nd
the artist's only resou rce is to substit ute some thi ng that may stand
instead of, and suggest, th e truth." 1
"The beauty of E ng lish scene ry ma kes me despe rate, ;t is so
impossible to describe it, or in a ny way to record its im pressions,
and s uch a p ity to lea,·e it und escribed. "'
" I am we ary of trying to descr ibe cat hedrals. J t is utterly
use less ; th ere is no p ossibil ity o f gi ,·ing- th e ge nera l effec t, or
any shadow of it, and it is m ise rable to put down a few it ems of
1 ffo.i:lis!i

Note llook.i , vol. ii , p.

26(,

2

/bid. vol. ii , p . 93.

showed me !kn V cn ue and
bare surnmit of the latter
fr o m othe r poin ts of vie w it
Some t11nes a gh:a1 11 of ,,un -

it

~·~~

;

~···

"

~f;{.

.·

-r
it
!
!~

Since, therefore, we cannot reprod uce th e wh ole,
we mu st not attempt th e imposs ible, but mu st select
the most import~nt elements, :i. nd so g-roup
ti on of
them that they may su~g- es t t IlC w }lO 1e. Selec
raniculars.
What those most importa nt cleme nts arc
we may see by t ak in g a view of a n object in it3
entirety. In look ing at a bu ilding, a tree, a mo un.
tain, Wl.'. first note the shape, th e size, the C•)ln r.
Then by various devi ces we may bring th e form of
the obj ec t or th e scene before the mind of the reader,
and, as it were, make him see it throu g h our eyes.
We may take objects of familiar shape to explain
those not so well known. Th e outline of a bui ld ing
may resemble a le tter of the alphabet - E, L, T - or
1E 11glisll Note Books, vol. ii, p.

80.

2

fbid. vo l. ii, p. 264.

;

.

I.\ 7

OB'JFCT/Vfc' f!ESCA'fl''/'JUN.

Ji:f,\'IJS Of· CO,J/POSITI0/1/.

I.

a cross or a horseshoe. A river may wind like an S;
a tree may look like an umbrella \vith a Jong handle;
a mountain may su;,;g-est a recumbent lion. The
homelier and more familiar the illustration, the more
surely wili it make clear what it illustrates. Note
the vi\'idness g iven to the two following descript ions
by the use of familiar comparisons: Jn the first the ll'ritcr is cnckavoring to cl c"'crihc the island on
whi c h the c ity of New York is buil t, and imag ines a" pastoral
peasant of the Se in e " to !Jc suddenly pbced above th e yet uninhabited region, and s;1ys that •'he \\"uuhl s ~c a lon~, can oe..>
shaped isiand JllSt loosened astern frolll the sulid l.u1d, muureLl
ill twice its wid~h of \L1tcr, ;ind pointiiig ih prl~w irito a wide
b ay. This islan d is thirteen and a half miles lung, and uf an
a\·erage width l)f n1url'. tl1an a lllilc and a !1.df; its entin.: surface
of twenty-two miks is l101Ll :rnd gunitic, am! in profik rcsemLling the c artil.lbill~US u~H.: k vf a ~turgevu. " I

In the objective met hod an attempt is made to
reprod1JCc the object :is ,·xac:tly :is pnssibic without
reg·anl to the emotions it l~xcitcs . This
T he objective
rc:production may hl: a mere catalogue o ( method.
prominent icatures taken in the order rn
which we find them.
The examples that follow illustrate th is method : " Long lines of cliff brl'aking ha\·e left a chasl));
J\nd in the chasm are foam and yel lo w sands;
Beyu11d. red ruufs ;tbout a n;1rrow wli;u-f
In cluster; tlh:n a t1H.)uldcr"d church; ;u1d liiglicr
A Ion.~ street climl)s tn

~~
-~~

.jjc

011c Llil-towcr\l mill;
And high in hc:l\'en behind it a gray ctown
With Danish barrows, and a hazelwc>ud,
Hy aut11mn nutters li;urntcd. tluurishes
Crecn in a CUjJiikc lwlluw of the dull' n."'

"/\ n1il c fron1 either ;trn1 of the Poton1ac Ri\'t'r, nn a cr.-im-

m:rnclin .i..: hill , nin<'t:.· feet :ih<l\'f' tid<' w:itcr. st :rn r! s the llni tc·rl
Stall's C:1pito l. It is of Creek :irchitcctnrc, in order, Corinthian.
Two \\'bite m:irlile win.:.:s. c1>111wcted l>v a middle building of
white freestone, over th e latter of which ri ses a white dome of
iron- that is the capito l of \Vas hingto n. Take three dominoes
and pl a ce two of th e m lengthwise against the ends of !he mi dd le
OtH:, stand a pullet'~ c;:;.:.: o n the middle domino , and yon ol>tain
a s uggesti ve n1ini.tturc of the huilcling. ,~ 2

It is difficult to make an exact classification of descriptions, since they follow
a variety of methods, and cine kind of
description is not sharpiy differentiated from anoth<.:r.
Varicty of

methods of
description.

I Townsend: T/1e New vVorld C<•mpand wit It tlu Old, p. 47 r.
p. 83.

~Ibid.

'i'J.

"!iut tht:re re111ai11ed a IHoken countl'v. bold and open,
vilLt.1.!,C a t the l1()t \1.ln1 u( th1~ l1ill, a \,r1..ud

:-,\\'Cep

:t

littii:

;u1 d rise l,1__·yun ti

it, :i 1·h11rd1 -l<J\1·1: r. :t ll'inrlmill, a forl'st for the c]1.,se, anc\ a cr:1g
with :i fortress uu it ust:d •ts a pti:)uli.' ~
1

"Finally. between two and three o'clock. J saw the grc.1t tu\\1T

of Onnskirk church with its spire, not risini,:: nut of the tnwn,
but ~jl routing up c lose beside it: and, entcri11;~ the tu''"n, l
directnl my steps lirst lo Ormskirk church.
"lt st:wds on :i ge n tic eminence suf!lciL"nt to givl' it :t ;;uo1l
site, and has a pavement of flat gravestones in front. It is
doubtless, as r e_gards its foundation, very ancient, but h:ts not
ex ac tly a ve11erat1le aspect. iJL'.ill.~ in tuo goud rt.:pair and n1ul:h
restur e<l in v:i.riuus parts; nut ivy-gruwn either, thou~li .~n..:c11

KINDS OF CONf'OS!TION.

OB'JE C T IVE DESCRI!'TION.

with moss here and there. The tower is square a nd immensely
111«~;,il'e, an<l might have ~u p po rt ccl u very lofty np iro; i;o that it
is the more strange that what spire it has should be so oddly
stuck b es ide it, sprin ging out of the church wall."'

River, which is fenc ed from it b y a b ri ck wall. The Ouse fl ows
here, you canno t without s tuc\y tell in which dire cti o n, fr inp:cd
with grass , reedy he rbage, and bushes; and is of th e b lackness
of Acheron, st reak ed wi th fou l metallic glitterings and plays of
colour. For a short space downwards he1·e, the banks of it arc
fully visible; the weste rn row of houses be ing somewhat the
s horte r, as already hinted: instead of hous es here , you ha\·e
a rough wooden balustrade, a nd th e black Acheron of an Ousc
River used as a washing-place or watering-place for cattle. Th e
old Church, suitaule fo r such a population, stands as yet it did in
Cromwell 's time, except perhaps th e steeple and the pews ; the
flagstones in the inte rior are worn deep with th e p;i.c ing o f many
ge nerat ions . The steeple b visi ble from several miles di s ta nce ;
a sharp high sp ire, p ie rc in g up far above the will ow trees. The
country hereabouts has a ll a clammy look.. clayey and boggy ;
th e produce of it , whether bushes and trees, o r grass and crops.
gives you th e notion o f some thing lazy , drops ical and gross. This is St. Ives, a mos t anc ie nt Cattlemarket, by the shores of
the sable Ouse, on th e edge of th e F e n-count ry ." '

"The Castle Hotel stands within fifty yards of th e water-side;
so that this gus ty day showed itsel f to the utm os t advantage, the vessels pitching and t ossin.~ at their moo rings, th e waves
break in g white out of a tumultu ous gray s urface, th e oppos ite
shore gloomi ng mis til y a t a distance: of a mile or two; and on
the othe r side boatme n and seafaring people scudding about th e
pie r in water-proof clothes; and in the street, before th e hotel
door, a cauman or two, stand in g drearily beside his horse."'

Carlyle's description of th e town of St. Ives 1s so
exact that we can draw a map of the place : "The littl e Town. of somewhat d .i ngy aspect, and very quiescent except on mark et-days , runs fr o m Northwest to Southeast,
parallel to the shore of th e O use . a short furl on).! in length; it
probably, in Cromwell's ti me, cons ist ed mainl y of a row of
houses fronting the 11.i\·cr; th e now opposite row, . which has its
lia ck to the rh·er, and still is shorter than th e other , still d e fect ive :1t th e uppn end, was prc liahly built sin ce . In that case,
th e local ity wt: hear u f as the· G reen' of St. lvt:s would th en he
the space whi ch is no w covered mainly with ca ttl epcns fo r
marke t-business and forms the mid d le of the sired. A nar row,
steep o ld llr idge, probably the same whi c h Cromwel l traveled,
leads you over, westward, towards Godmanchcs ter, where you
ag ain c ross the Ouse, an d ge t into Huntingdon. Eastward out
of St. Ives, your route is toward Earith, Ely, and the heart of
th e Fens.
··At the u pper or Northwest ern Extre mit y of th e place stands
the Church; C romw e ll's old fields !icing at the opposite ext remity. The Churc h from its Chur c hyard looks down into the ve ry
I Hawtho rne: l:'J16' l1J!i 1\'ut~ IJovkc, vol. ii, p. 155 . "Ibid. vol. ii, p. 73.

Admirable, t oo, though less reali st ic, is the followin g- imaginary scene: "lt was in d eed a morning that might have mad e an y one
hap py, eve n with no Colde n ){ivcr to sce-k for. Level lin es o f
dewy mi s t by stret ched alo ng th e vall ey , out o f whi ch rose t he
massy mountains - th e ir lo wer clifls in pale, g rey shadow, hard ly
distingu ishable from the floating vapour, but gradually asce ndi ng
till they caught the s un light, which ran in sharp touches o f ruddy
colour, along the angular crags, and pierced, in lo ng level rays,
through th eir fringes o f spear-like pine. Far above, s hot up red
splintered m ass es of eas tdl a ted rock, jagged and shivered int o
myriads of fantastic fo rm s, with here and there a streak of sunlit
snow traced down th t: ir chasms lik e a line of forked lightning ;
l

Carlyle: Oliver Cr omwell'.< f .dlers and Spucltts, part i, letter i.

KINDS OF rO.l!POSITION.

SUBJECTIVE DESCRll'TION.

and, f.1r beyo nd, and fa r abo\'C a ll th ese , fainter than the morn111g c luuJ, b ut p urer and changeless, s lept, in the bl ue sky, the
utmos t peaks of the eternal snow." 1

object s may also excite some e motion . \Vorcls\vort h
finds in the mea nest fl owe r thnt blows th oughts
that lie too ckep for tears; although an
o rdin ary observe r might sec in th e same The •uhjec~
tive method.
flower noth in g more t h::rn a weed. The
va ridy of im press ion g ives g reat variety to descripti o ns of t h<..: same object. The imag ination and the
fan cy play upon it and transform it into something
fill ed with the personality of th e writ er.

II.

A desc ri pt ion may be int erwove n with a st ory.
In such a case the descripti o n may be a series of
.
ra pid glances at the objec t rather th a n a
N a rrative a nd I
. d
. .
desc ri p t io n. < etai 1e
clescnpt1on of it. S hakespeare
adm irably illu strat es th is meth od in Hubert's account of the effect upon the people of the
rum ors of Arthur's death: "You ng Arthur's death is common in their mouths :
And wh en they talk of him , th ey shake th eir heads
An d whi spe r one another in the ear;
An d he that s peaks doth g ri pe the hearer's wris t,
\Vhilst he th at hears makes fea rfu l ac tion ,
\ Vith wrinkled b rows , with nods, wit h ro lling eyes.
l saw a smith stand with his hamm e r, thus,
The whils t his iron did on th e a nvil cool,
With o pe n mouth swallo win g a tailor's news ,
\ Vho, with his shears a nd meas ure in his ha nd
S ta ndi ng on sli ppe rs, whic h his nimb le haste '
Had falsely thrust upo n contrary fe et,
T old of a many t housand warlike Frenc h
That were emlJattailed and ra nk 'tl in Kent:
Ano th er lea n, unwash 'cl a rti fice r
Cuts off his talc and ta lks of Arthur's dea th." 1
I I 1.

Hithe rto we have considered objects without regard to the impress ions they make upon us. But
1

Ruskin: Tiu }(in_~ o.f the Goldm Niver, chap. iii.

SC. :2.

2

}(ing J oh If, act iv,

" T o by down th e pe n and even to think of th at IJ~autiful
R hi neland makes o ne happy. At this tim e of s umm e r e vening .
th e cows are trooping cl ow n from the h ills , lowing and with their
bells tinkling, to the ol d town, with its old moats, and gates, and
sp ires, a nd chestnut-trees , with long blu e shadow~ ~ !r etching O\·cr
t he g rass; th e sky a nd the ri ve r belo w flame in cr imson and
gold; and the moon is already o ut, looking pale towards the
s unset. The s un sinks suddc: nly behind the grea t castle-crested
m• 111ntains, th e night falls sudclcnly, th e rive r grows d a rke r and
d a rk e r, li g hts q uiver in it fr o m th e windows in th e old ramparts,
a nd twinkle peacefully in the villages un de r the hills on the
opposite shore."'
"Es mond came to this spot in one su nny evening of spring,
and saw, amidst a th ousand IJlack crosses , cas ting th ei r shaduws
a cross the g rassy mou nds, that part ic ula r one which marked his
mother's resti ng-p lace . . . . A thousand s uch hill ocks lay round
about, the gentle d a is ies spring ing ou t of th e g ra ss ove r th em,
and each bearing its cross and requiesca t. A nun , veiled in
black, wa s kn eeling hard by, at a sleeping sister's IJecls iclc (so
fresh mad e, th a t the s pr ing had scarce had time to spin a coverli d fo r it ); l>eyo11d th e ce metery walls you had g lim pses of life
a nd the world, a nd the spires a nd gables of the city. A bird
1 Thackeray

: Vanity .Fair, vol. ii, chap. xxii.

(.

'

:

.
.

CONDENSED DESCRIPTION.

KINDS OF COMPOSITION.

cam e clown, from a roof opposite, and lit first on a cross, a nd then
on the g rass Le low it, whence it flew away prese ntly wlth a leaf
in its mouth: then came a sound as of chanting, from the chapel
of the s isters hard Ly; others had long sin ce filled the place
which poo r i\lary Magcleleine once had there, were kn eeling at
th e same st:dl, and hearing- the same hymns and prayers in
which her stricken heart had found consolation. Might she
sleep in peace - might she sleep in peace; and we, too, when
our struggles a nd pains arc O\'C r ! But the eart h is the Lord's as
th e heaven is; we are al ike his creatures here and yonder. I
took a li ttle flower off th e hillock and kissed it, and went my way,
like the IJird that had just lighted on the cross hy me, o ut into
the world again. Silent receptacle of de:ith; tranquil depth of
calm, out of reach of tempest and troul 1lc ! I fdt as o ne who
had been walking below the sea, and tread i11g am ids t th e bones
of shipw recks." '

As k1s been rcm:i.rked, the three methods are n ot
alw:i.ys kept distinct: for in the same descr ipti o n one
portion m:iy lie trc:-ttecl objectively, while another
p:irt m:i.y be gla n ced :lt in the co urs1.; of th1.; n:i.rrativc
and he pervaded with the emotion of the n:-trrator.
'vVhatc ve r the m ctlwcl, the whole should be s u n-"'
gestivc ancl comp:i. c t :is p<)ssiblc. Jf we w:-t. te words,
we sh:-tll make a fcchk and in distinct imCondcnscd
·
Th e e:Gll11])lcs th:-tt follow .'··~ 11 0 \·V
descriptions . l)ress1011.
what may be done in a line or tw o, wh e n
all the particubrs arc chosen with skill : "Looking up surldenly, I found mine eyes
Confronted with the minster·s vast repose.
Silent and gray as forc.:st-leagucred cliff
Lt.:fl inland i>y th e: ocea n·s slow retreat," 'etc .'
1 Thflckeray: l/efll'Y l:."s111011d. l>uok ii, chap. xiii. ~Lowell: Tiu Cathedral.

1

53

;

" In that bu ild ing, long and low,
\Nith it~ windows :d! a-row,
Like the portholes of a hulk,
Human spiders spin :incl spin,
Ilackwanl down th eir threads so thin
Dropping, eac h a h empe n bulk.
At the encl, an open door;
Squares of sunshine on the floor
Light th e long anti dusky lan..:;
And th e whirring of a wheel,
Dull and drowsy, makes me feel
All its spokes arc in my brain." '

.~ ' .

·:·

The writer, by dwelling upon a single fc:i.turc in
his description, can indicate the chi ef impressi on
whi ch a scene makes: " /\II the world knows th at Lord Steyne's town palace stands
in C:wnt Square, out of ll'hich Creal Caunt Stree t leads, whith er
we first conducted !{ebecca , in the time of the departed Sir
J>itt Crawley . Peering over the railings and through the l1bck
trc..:s into the g:ll'C len of the square, you sec a few mi ser:thk
gnvern~sses ll'ith w:rn-Ltcc(\ pu pils wandering rou1Hl and r"und
it , and round the dre:-.ry grassplot in th e centre <>f which ri sc:s
the statue of Lord C:rnnt , who foug ht at Mind en , in a thr..:etailed wig, and othe rwi se h:i !Ji ted like a 1-:unnn Emperor.
Caunt llo,1se occupies n early a side of the Squ.m.:. The rcm:tin ·
ing three sides are composed of m:rnsions t ha t have passc(I al\'ay
into clowagerism; - tall, dark houses. with window-fram es of
stone , or picked out of a lighter reel. Little light seems to be
behind th ose lean comfortless casements now: and hospitality
to have passed away from th ose doors, as much as th e heed
lackeys and linkboys of old times, wh o used to put out their
torches in the blank iron ex ting uishers that still fbnk the bmps
over the ste ps."'
<

Longfellow; The R opewalk.

:?

Thacker:ly: Vimily h1ir, voi. ii, chap . vii.

! :·.

.,
;I

"

KINDS OF C'ONPOS!T!ON.

COi. OR IN DESCRIPTIONS.
;, It was a h eavy mass of building, that c h;\t eau of Monsieur
lhc <\hrquis , with :l large stone court-ya1d IJefure it, a nd two
st?nc_ sweeps of st a irca se meeting in a stone te rrace before the
pnnc1pal doo r . A stony business altogether, with heavy stone
balustrades, and stone urns, and stone flowers, and s tone faces
of men, and stone heads of lions, in all directions. As if the
Gorgon's he:id had sur\'eyed it, whe n it was finished two

centuries ago.

" Up th e broad flight of shallow steps, Monsieur th e Marquis,
ing the darkness to elicit loud remonst r:ince from an owl in the
roof of the great pile uf stable IJuilding away among the trees .
All else was so quiet that the fl:unbeau ca rried up the steps, and
~he other flambeau held at the great door, burn t as if th ey we re
in a close roo m of state, instead of being in th e open night-air.
Other sOllt\d than the owl"s \·oice there wa5 none, ~:t\'<: the fallin!; of a fountain into its stone basin; for it was one of those
dark nights that hold their breath by th e hour together, and
then heave a long low •ig h and hole! their breath again." 1

Carlyle was master of the art of painting an entire
scene by th e select ion of a few particulars: " S und ay I started lm >ad awake at 3 A.M., we nt d ow ns tairs,
out, smoked a cigar on a stool : have n o t seen so lovely, sad,
and grand a su n1mcr weath e r scene for t wenty years back.
Tre es stood all as if cast in bronze, no t an aspen lea f stirrino-.
·1
•
1' I
s k·y was a ~1 vc r mirro r , gett ing yellowish to the north-east; and
o nly one b~g :~ tar, sta r of th e morning . visible in the increasing
light. T111s is a very grand place, this wo rld, too." •

Here is a portion of his description of Daniel
Webster:1

"

"A grim, tall, broad-bottomed. yellow-skinned man. with
brows lik e precipitou~ c lilfa , n nd huge, bl:l<"k, d1ill. weari ed, ye t
unweari able- loo king cyes, under them; amorphous projecting
nose, and the angriest shut mouth I have anywhere seen . A
droop on the sides of the upper li p is quite mastiff- like - magnificent to look upon; it is so quiet withal." 1

,

~ambe:rn preceded, we nt from his carriage, sufliciently disturb-

Dickens: A Tale o/ 11uo Cities, chap. ix.
vol. iv, p. J64.

r55

2

Froudc: Thomas Carlyle,

Especially serviceable are words denoting color.
These strongly impress the senses :rnd help to complete the picture. \ Ve are compelled by
the structure of our minds to ima o- ine Words denot0
ing color.
every object as possessing some color.
Hence, if the color is suggested at once, the image
will gain in vividness.
"Nor must I forget the suddenly changing s easons of the
Northern clime . Th e re is no long and lingering spring. un foluing lea f and blossom one by one; no long and lin gering autumn.
pompous with many-co lored leaves and the glow of Indian
summers. But winter and summ e r are wond e rful, and pass ir.to
each other. Th e quail has h ardly ceased piping in the co rn,
whe n wint e r from the fo lds of tr;tiling clouds sows bro;idcast
ove r the land snow, ici cles, and rattling hail. The days wane
apace. E re long th e sun hardly rises a bove th e h o rizon, or dues
not ris e at all. The m oo n and the stars shine throu g h the day;
only, at noon, they are pal e and wan, and in the southe1n sky
a re el, fiery glow as of ~unset burns a long th e horizon and th e n
goes out. And pleasantly und e r th e silver moon, and under the
silent, solemn s tars, ring the steel shoes of th e skate rs on the
frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells.
o; And now the North ern Lig hts b egin to uurn, faintly at first,
like sunbeams playing in the waters of the blue sea. Then a
soft crimson glow tin ges the h eave ns. There is a bl ush on the
I Froude: Th omas Carlyle, vol. iii, p. r4r.

,,

,•

,,

q'

KINDS OF CO:Jff'OSJT/ON.

check of night. The colors come and go , and change from crimt.on to. go ld , from gold to crimson. Th e s11ow is stained \Vlth
rosy light. Two-fold from the zenit h , east and west, flam es a
fiery swo rd , and a liroad liand passes athwart the heavens like a
~umme r sunset. . Soft purple clouds co me sailing over th e sky,
.rnd through th eir vapory folds the winking s tars shine white as
silver. " 1

~ECTION

Tl.

NAH HA TION.

NAJ<RATIVE writin g includes a varietv of forms of
composition, - hi sto ry, hiogr:iphy, the ,drama, prose
Forms of roma nce, :rnd the whole body of narrative
narrative poetry. \Ne shall not attempt t o discuss
writing.
I
t 1e details of each kind of narrative, but
rather to treat the gene ral principles that apply to
all.

. If the narrative deals with a single event or a
sin g le series of events, there is little or no opporSimple and tunity fo r compl icat ion. A short item of
complex news, an account of a single battle, a relanarrative.
·
t1 on of the ha rdships of an exploring
party, may call for a mere e numera tion of the incidents in the order of occurrence. Narratives
rapi dly in crease in complexity as the number of
sce nes of action is multiplied, and as an attempt is
made to explain events by discussing their causes.
If, for exa mple, inst ead of one explor ing party there
1

Longfell ow: No te to The Cl1iMrt11 of tlie Lonfs S upper.

ESSENTIALS OF NARRATIVE.

are five, all differently equipped and setting out from
different points, but a1l trying to go as far north as
possible, there may be diffic ulty in combining the
fi ve narratives into one. After a ccrLLin p'l int t he
complexity may be so great that no connect<.:d story
can be told. A novel with too many heroes leaves
a blurred imp ression. A history that attempts to
give the details of num erous, insignificant military
campaigns perplexes rather than instructs the reader.
Care must therefore be taken not to weave too many
threads into the story, and not to tangle them.
In every narrative there are three
essentials to be studied: (1) selection of Theessentials
of narrative.
material, (2) arrangement, (3) progressive
movement.
What can be told is but a small portion of what
mi gh t be told. There must therefore be a selection
of the facts that are most significant. In
sketching a man's ca reer. we are obliged Selection.
t o pass li gh tly over th e events of months
and eve n years, and to fix attention upon what is
rcall y characteristic. Unskilful na rrator s arc p rone
t o r egard all the facts as of equal importan ce.
Hence their narratives have no lead in g thought , but
move confused ly in no parti cular direction . The
leading topics are necessarily few. In 1..:very community there are a few men who determin e its policy;
and just so in every complex history the re art: a few
events especially prominent, which stand in c1ose
relations with a great variety of other events. The

KINDS OF CU.l!l'OS/7'/0N.

ARR.-I N6'L'N/:'/1! J" l.V N.-J A'RA J'll'F:.

discovery of Ameri ca, the landing of the Pilgrim
Fathers, the invention of printin!j, of the locomotive,
o( the telegraph - all of these mark turnin g- poi nts
in his to ry. In telling the story of a man's life we
select for cspeci:ll re mark the lead ing in cid e nts of
his career - his choice of a profession, hi s meeting
with men of influ ence, his elect ion to high office, etc.
In the life of such a ma n a s Carl y le we note that his
study of German made an epoch in his caree r and
clctermincd much of his aft er life.
The selection of facts is mu ch si mplified by asking
the qu estions s uggested by the old writers on rh etoric. Th ese questions we ca n most conMeth od or veniently summarize
under the words :
sclc:ctton.
who? when? wh ere? why? by wh at
means ? That i:, in most narratives we are concerned to know where the sce ne is bid ; when the
act ion beg ins, and how lo ng it continues; who are
the k;iding charac ters ; what th eir ability is to carry
on the acti on; what their ;.elation is to one anot her;
what the central t ho ugh t in the story is ; by what
mean s and in what way the a ct ion is to be developed.
Having selected the Ltcls, we h:we next to arrange
t hem effectively. N;irrativc requires a plan as mu ch
as any ot her form of co mpos ition . The
Arrangement . method of arrangement will depe nd upo n
the purpose wh ich the whole is to se rve.
The incidents may lie gro uped in simple chronological s uccession, or :<ccu rdin g- t o the relations of
cause and effect, or acco rdin g to assoc iation of ideas,

No inva riable order can be prescribed, because there
is no !l in glc effect that is uni fo rmly desirer! . Tn
proportion as the narrative increases in extent, the
diffi culty increases of determining wh ;i t order to
follow. But th ere can be no continuous narrative
until all the relations are clearly pe rce ived. \Vhcrc
the eve nt s arc numerous and het erogeneous :111d u(
nearly equal importance, no other course is open
than to gro up as many as possible in the s~ une category, and to treat each group as an ind e pe nd e nt
whole. At best such a narrative will he somewhat
lacking in unity; for one part must be delayed until
the other parts ca n be brought up. We ca nn ot,
even in thought, be in more th a n one place at once.
Complex narratives can be mad e mo re intellig-i blc
by the help of the law of cause and effect. Event s
do not occur by chance, although the determinin '-'g: causes may be hidden. Hence Causcnnd
effect.
the more evident we make it appear what
brin gs about a certain result, th e more intelligible
will the narrative beco me. But as long as each new
group of facts is a new p uzzle we cannot hope to tell
a story th at will present facts in their true rela tio ns.
The only way, then, to keep th e course of events
clearly before the mind is to select th e principal
series of transac tions that are naturally
connected , ancl to trace them out in th e ir
unity.
order, discussing minor events according
to the ir relation to the main theme. 13ut in all the
windings of the narrative we sho uld never lose sight

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KJNDS OF COMl'OS!TfON.

TllH MO'J'JVF JN NARRAFJVE.

of t he central actio n wh ic h g ives unity to the whole.
The leaul ng acti on ought t o b e so promi ne nt as duly
t o subordinate all the other clements. We can, howe ver, unit e two stories in the sa me compositio n only
by mak in g one so promine nt as to leave no doubt
wh-ich one we mean t o put first. A good example
is seen in Shakespeare's Afod1a!lt of Venice, wh ere
the story of J ess ica runs as an und e rcurre nt below
the mai n acti on.
U n ity and proportion go together. If th e g reater
part of th e space is given to the l eacl in ~ se ri es of
event s, a nd these arc ke pt skilfully in th e
Proportion . foreground by means of hints and a llusions, there will be no doubt as to which
is the cent ral top ic. The amount of space to be
ass ig ned to each d ivisi on is a matter of mu ch importance. If proportion is duly obser vec.1, th e parts will
be, as it were, in pers pec tive, like the parts of a
welJ-.cJrawn p icture.
There sho uld be constant progress ion in th e na rrative. Somet hin g sh ould co ntinually s timulat e the
cu rio sity of the reade r so as to en g age his
P rog re ssion. a t te n tio n before he is aware, and to hold it
wit ho ut a break. In this way the reader
is con s tantly brough t in co ntact with somet hin g new
and attract ive, and yet has it so present ed th at
he ca nn ot foresee th e e ncl of th e sto ry from th e

perceptio n of the causes wh ic h arc in operation in
th e na rrat ive, and whi ch keep it fro m being a mere
bundle of d isjointed facts. Those narratives th at have no plot a re mere s ucccs- The motive.
si ons of in cidents loose ly co nn ect ed. In
the various turn s of the story th e na rratnr may now
and then ta ke a glance backward to discover how near
he is keeping to th e main action. These retrospects
should not be protracted, but un ly lon g en oug h to
e nable the reader to keep the wh ole in mind, ;t nd to
make the st ory see m to g row ou t of wh a t has been
related. vVhe re the new part s do not join we ll wi th
wh at ha s preceded, the best plan may. he to ind icate
pbinly th a t there is but littl e co nnect ion.
A well-co nst ru cted narrative s ho uld have" a begi nnin g, a middle, and a n e nd. " In oth er words, if the
narrat ive is t o be an a rti s ti c const ru cti on,
it should ri se prog ress ively in interest to Order of
int erest.
a cl im ax, and then shortly come t o a
nat ural co nclusion. Wh ere th e interest of t he fa cts
is g rea t th e st ory will hold th e atten ti on in sp ite of
faul ts of co nstru ction; but if th e utm ost possibl e is
t,> be made out of the fac ts, there mu st be no sacrifi ce of effec t on acco unt of unskilful ct1 sposition of
material.
The me t hods a nd style of n arrat ive are natur:i.ll y
va ried acco rdin g to th e needs of th e occas ion. Th e
method and style of the Decline and Fall vanety
. or
of t/1.c R oman Empire will not suit th e metho ds "'"d
st o ry of a n accide nt to a m ountain-climber
.tylc.

be.~ innin g.

A narrativ e that lacks a g uidin g motive cannot
well m ove forw ard . There m us t th erefore be a clear

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KINDS OF C01'fPOS!TfON.

11/ETlfOD OF DfV!SfON.

in the Alps. A g reat event demands a style somewhat in harm ony with it.

th e subject shall not be confounded with an other.
The !JI incipal topi c of each divis ion should ther efore
be made pro mi nent. The g reater the
simplicity in division, the more easily Method of
di vision .
th e mind follows the whole discu ssion.
Most s ti cccssful where it is practicable is the method
of division that allows an orde rly development of
the diffe re nt parts, li ke the branch es of a tree from
th e main trunk.
For exampl e, a treatise on physical
geog raphy begins with an in troduction cont:tin i11 g a
g roup of definitions and a preli min ary ch:tptt:r on
the relat ion of the earth to the solar system_ Th e n
follo ws the d iscussion of the subject proper, unde r
t he fo ur divi sions: The Land, The \Nater, The
Atmosphere, Organic Life. Under each of th ese
divisi ons is in turn treated a group of subdivision s.
The 'Nater, for example, is discussed under the headings: Springs, Rivers, Geographical D ist ributi on of
Rivers, Lakes, The Ocean, Ocea ni c Movem ent s.
The expositio n shou ld be complete, un less it is
expressly limited to a few aspec t s of th e subject;
a nd t he t opic s hould be so narrowed th at
th e wh ole can be adequat ely treated Co mplete ness.
within the limits proposed. W e must
th erefo re in brief disc uss ions r eject subjects so
indefinite as Educat ion, Religion, Money, for we
cannot treat them with s uffi cient fulness to justify
us in trea ting th em at all. If we unfold all that is
in clud ed in a general subject, we write a treatise; if
we confine ourselves to a single aspect of it, we

162

SECTION IIT.
EXPOSITI01'.

AN expos ition of a subject is an explanati on or
interpretation of it. What eve r requires expla nati on
is th e refore a t heme for exposition. ExDcnnition of
·
· ·
11 ·
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exposition. pos1to ry wnt111gs arc usua y 111stru ct1ve,
and they include t~a t ises o n sc ience,
philosophy, reli g ion, education, art, go vern ment, as
well as a g reat variety of discuss ions th at ca nnot
easi ly be classified. Any discussion that arranges
facts according to some principle or group of principles may be called an expositio n. From every
such discussion we ought th erefore to be able to
abstract the general truths on whi ch it res ts, an d to
summarize th em in a brief space. I We may thu s
sometime s condense the theory of a whole treatise
into a single proposition. (
The general prin ciples un derlyi ng the entire discussion a re naturally introdu ced at an ea rly point,
along with a clear indicati on of the limits of the
subject. Thus a t reatise on geomet ry begins with
/the definitions and the axi oms or ge neral principles
~on whi ch th e wh ole scie nc e rests.
I_n the develop ment of the subjec t the lin es of
division sho uld be so clea rly dr;:iwn th at one part of

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K!NIJS OF CONPOS/TJON.

write an essay . ~he younp; writer is not o ft e n called
_ upo n to write a trea tise, but rather to d isc uss some
~"• "-LClt.-IM'--topic t hat mig ht form a chapter or a gro up of para~ u1 \ dt
g raphs in a longer work. He may, fo r example, conIJt>tct th\~ sider t he effect of water on the fo rm s of mountain0
----The methods of scientific expos iti on a rc not so
flex ible as th ose of na rr:ttion and descript ion, fo r
each n e w porti on of the expos iti on must
Orderly
i-;row in :tn orderly and locrical w:iy out of
developm e nt.
b
an earlier part.
Spherical geomet ry, fo r
e.\:.trnple , m ust be developed from plane geom etry,
and c:rn n ot precede it in orde r of tho ug ht.
We can not clearly discuss gen e ral prin ciples without illustration and com pa ri so n. Illu strat ive ma teIllus tration rial m:iy be dr::iwn from the e nti re ra nge
and
of ou r r e:iding and expe rienc e. Wh e n we
comparison.
have examined one aspec t of a quest ion ,
we may often cons ider it with adva ntage in a different light, a nd fr om a n ew poi nt of view. Finally,
we m:iy draw con cl us io ns o f wh ic h, if we choose, we
} may make pract ical applic:ition.
There may often be g reat freedo m of treatm e nt,
for t h e re is a wide variety of ways of look in g a t subjects; but when the starting-po int has
Var iety or
trea tment . once bee n chose n a nd the plan made, the
wh ole must be co nsistent ly followed to
the
en
d.
Noth
ing is so fat al to success as to treat a
)
subject by several contradi cto ry mcth ocls at o nce.
The re may be differe nce of opinion as to wh a t
should be incl uded in a subj ec t, a nd as to whi ch of

...

ARG UMEN T AND PFRSUASlpN.

scv~: r::tl topi cs log ically helongs fir s t.

For n:1rnp1c,
a write r n n phys iolog y may hes itate whd hcr lo nuke
hi s work co111pa rat ive, so as to include an account of
the lower animals, o r t o confine it s tri ctly to 111an ;
and he may fi ncl spec ial advantage fo r his purpos e ~n
beg in ning either wi th the bones or with the ner\'Ous
syste111 .
In a lon g expositio n we may adopt several m ethods
of treatment . Fo r exa111pl e, in a t reatise on Modern
Edu cation in India we may in th e first pbce na rrat e
the hi s tory of th e mod e rn educational move111ent, wc
may describe th e buildin gs and oth e r educ:1ti()11:d
appliances, the pe rsonal appea rancc of the pupils,
and discuss argu me nts for or against the con tinu ance
of th e work accordin g t o present meth ods.
Th e re is n o p resc ri bed st yle for expos ition, except
that it shall be adapted to the subject. A treati se
on arithm et ic. or physiology@oes not admit
Sty le.
the o rn ament suitable to a discuss ion of
landscape pa intin!§J
d:

SECT I ON IV.
Al<GUMENT.

W E may br ing people to our way of thinkin g by
an appeal t o thei r reason, o r t o th eir feelings. The
appeal to th e reason is called argument;
Argument
J~ _
t h e appca 1 to the feel in gs is called p erand.
U tj. .
suasio n. Argument and pe rsu as ion a re persuasion.
•'
{{,o. i U.«v. '~
often combined; but for th e sake of clea rness we
I u..~
here con s ide r th e m separately .
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JJi- M~~

.f."INDS OF COMPOSITION.

•. / I< 1.·.. 1. \ "1; l. M LN:J" (IF ,/ /,' {,°l ',l/ l •. N rs .

J\rg um c nt is an attempt by me~111 s of reasoning to
convince the unders tand ing of th e truth o r fals ity of
a propo s iti on. The details of the theory
Definition of
f
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.
argumen t. O
reasoning- e ong rather to logic than
to rhetoric; and we therefore confine o urselves to suggestions of direct practical application.
J\ proposition is someth in g to be proved or dis.
proved; that is, show n to be o r not to be in ha nnony
with admitted facts. Since the proposiThe
tion is the formal statement of what is t o
propos iti on.
be proved, it should be expressed in the
fewest and cleares t terms possible.-, This is espec iall y t ru e in debate, where, unlcssrhe CJUC5'tinn is
freed from all ambiguity, the contesta nts may find
th:tt they have been mai ntaining propos iti o ns esse ntially different. S uc h ambiguity is lik ely to arise
whcrl:vcr words arc vaguely u sed. In the propos ition: Constitutional gove rnment by the classes is
bett e r than government by the masses, th e word s
co11slil11t1·on rrl go71er11111cnt, classes, /1cttcr, masses, must
be defined before any satisfactory discussion is possible. A reasoner whose propositions are so vague
that he never knows precisely what he wi shes t o
prove is like one that beats the air. No a rgu m en t is
possible among m en wh o disagree in every particular.
In every debate it is therefore necessary in the first
place for the contest:ints to find a common g round
upon which they can stand. After certai n common
prin c ipl es have been agreed upon, the aim of each
debater must be to show th at the arg um e nt of his

oppo nent is inconsistent with the principles upun
wli lc li it avowedly 1csls .
The proof co11sists of all th:tt is hrr>u ght forw:1rd to
sustain or refute the proposition, and iL
co11tains fads :tnd infe re nces dr;twn lrorn Th e proof.
them, so :i.r r:t11ged :i.s tn he cf'frctivc for
the pu rpos r~.
Tliat arr;1ngc111L·nt ts gc·neul iy lie ,,\. whi L·h 1•1.tc«:s
the strong :lfgurncnts whnc t hL·y \\·i ii attr:tll 111 .. ,,l
:i.ttcnliun, 111d tlie less weighty arg um ents
·i • ]
.
]
b
·
\\" Ar ra11>(erncnt
w h e re tn cy w1i1 )C ca st o lrus11·c.
'c or ari;umcnts.
havl: found ti1at in sc;itcnccs :tllli p~tra g 1·aph s thl: most c:111ph :1tic places :tr<.: till: ixglll11i11 ;
and the end. The same gener:il principle .,f c1nuh asis
:i.pplies here :tlso. In ari·:rnging :trgu111<.:11ls, the
strongest should 11su ally bc hst, silll'c: th<.: fln;tl im .
pr<.:ssio11 is th:i.t wh ic h rema ins. But :ug urncn ts uf
co n s iderable weight m:iy well lie pbn:d ;1l tlic
beginning, for it is importan t th:i.t the first impression
be favorable. The othe r arguments thL:ll find their
n;:i.tural place in t h e body of the discours1.: , whcrL' they
arc least conspicuous. They may somcti m <.:s be
introduced incidentally, with the r<.:mark tl iat thl:y
a rc not so strong as others, but yet arc worthy of a
passinR glan ce. Suc h arguments when ski!fttlly used
often wi n favorable attention for stro nger arguments
that need to have a presumption cst:1blislivd in th<.:ir
favor before th ey can receive due weig ht. There can
be no inv ariable o rder for ;:i.rg um c nt s ; but the arrangement will be vari ed accord in g to circumstances.

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KINDS OF CO.lfl'OS/'f'/ON.

. 1 n the pra c tical management of an argume nt some
rnay he uf val uc.

)11 n ts

Arguments should not be t oo numerous. A few
stron g arguments presented in deta il ;:i re far more
.
effective than a larircr
number th at hclPrac t 1ca 1
t>
'"
'suggestions. ex1nnsio n and illustr:-ition.
A sufficie nt
object io n to the undue multiplicat ion of
arguments is that some will be likely to be we::ik.
Such arg uments are the first to be sei zc:cl upo n by
an oppone nt, and, if numerou s, they m:-ty enti rely
nullify the effect of arguments whi ch mi cc ht be
"'
convinci ng if they stood alone.
2. A r:guments sho uld be s uit ed to the subject.
The~e is no need of w:-tstinf( time in elaborately
prov111 g wh:-tt everyone admits; for in s uch a case
the inference is natural that wh::it req uires so much
proof must be diffi c ult to cst:-tblish. Furthermore
if undue space is tak e n fo r unimpo r tant matters:
th e re remains less for co nsiderations of real wei ···ht
3. Arg-uments should be suited t o the pc r~)n~
acldressccl. An audience of day-bbo re rs may not be
moved by the a rgume nts that would influ ence a company of tra ined lawyers.
1.

4 . If the co ncl us ion is likely to excite oppos iti on,
care should be taken to secure, if possible, the favorable attention of the hearers. Then arg um e nt s that
are opposed to the prejudices of the liste ners will be
more likely to rece ive fa ir con side ratio n. In this
particular, the met h ods of aq;umcnt and pe rs uas ion
agree.

l'RACTICA/, sur;·r;r'.S'/'/ ONS.

By keeping a11 offens ive proposition out of sight
un t il o ne' s hearers arc in a meas ure prepared for it,
u11c can so m et imes co11v incc eve n t he most prejudiced. A sk ilful speake r will ofte n put an objectionabk proposition into the form of a question, a11d
ad opt for the mnmcnt the poi11t of view of hi~
auditors. l n this way he will appear tu be e1 1;.'.:tgcd
in an impartial inqu iry af t e r the truth, :ind will be
far more likely to carry conviction to his hearers
than by hluntly s t ating his posit ion at the: outset.
5. Policy- to say nothing of higher c on siderations -dictates that the arguments of one's op po n ent should be met without misstatement. One
rn ay someti m es gain a tcmpor::iry advant age by a.11
oppos ite co urse, but m ore often one m:iy destroy by
:i suspic ion of unfair dea ling th e effect of o ne' s oll'n
legitimate a rgu m ents. The inferen ce is natural, t h:tt
a reasu ne r who is obl iged to re so rt t<> trickery in
o rder to mak e good his pos iti on can have no good
case.
6. One sho uid not attemp t to prove what properly
falls to one's oppo ne nt. Th e obl igat ion to pruve a11
:1s.~crt i on is call ed "the b urde n of proof."
Thus
th ose who do not accept the tradi t ional elate and
:iuthorship of t he Pentateuch arc bound to adduce
facts a nd arguments that mak e their position pbusible. Until thi s is clone, t hose who ma intain the
traditional view are u nd er n o ol1ligat iu 11 t o gi ve up
th e advantage of the presumption that generally
accepted histor ical data ;:i re probably true. If the

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171

KINDS OF CO. lfPOS! TfON.

REFU TATION.

advocates of the new view can show tha t the acceptance of the traditional elate ;rnd 3.utho rship involv<.:s
an apparent co ntradi ction of admitted facts, then the
burden of proof falls upon the advocates uf the old
vi ew. If th ey can e xplain the inconsistency, th ey
trans fe r th e burden of proof to their opponents.
A r easo ner may show much skill in so stating the
question at iss ue as to ev:iuc the burden of proof.
Th u s ont: who favors the restriction of immi g ratio n
into the United States may urge that the advocates
of free immi g ra tio n must show th 3.t the foreigners
now admitted int o the co un try become good citizens,
and that if this ca nnot be shown , th ey oug ht to be
excl ud ed. The :idvocatcs of free immigration may
reply that those who objec t to certa in classes of
furl:igncrs must show that th e evils 3.rising fr o m th e ir
pres ence arc g reater than woulcJ be causeu by 3. bill
of ex c lusion.
As has b<.:en al ready r emarked, much of th e work
of the r e:iso ner consists in show ing tha t
Refutation. the arguments of his n1:iponent arc unt e nable . Some of the rndhods of refutation
deserve special mention .

in cauti ous ly admitted that all interfe rence with the
freedom of others is inddensibk. l fence it may ht:
inferrcc1 t 11at t h e arres t o f a tl H· e-f 1·s indefensible.

I. H EDUCTIO AD All SU l<D UM.

In this method of reasoning we may assume, for
the sake of tht: argu ment, the truth of a proposition,"
and, by drawing the logical in fe re nces, show that it
leads to an absurd conclu sion. Of s uch sort arc the
arguments that "prove t oo much." Thus it m ay be

2. AllG U ~IENT U lll AD HOMI NEM.

l

Thi s merely shows that, whatev e r may be the rea}
m erit s of the q uestio n, our opponent cannot m ~unt:un
his position without having his practi ce or his principles turned agai nst himself. Thus'. as an answer
to the arguments of a capital ist wh o is aclvoci trng a
railway, wc 1113 y show that he will gai n l:ugcly l:y its
construction while otlwr peopk hear most ot the
expense. A suffic ie nt personal r t:ply to one who
charges dishonesty upon another is to show that he
is himself eciually guilty.
This sort of argumen t oftt:n cliverts atll'ntion from
the real question, sin ce the truth or falsity of a pr(lpositio n is not de pendent upon the personal character
or opinions of one's opponent.
3.

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THI! IJILEMMA.

This opens two or m o re alternatives, any ont: of
whi ch is undesirable. Thus it m ay be ar~ued that
extre me legislation against Chinese res iding in
America is unwise, since to execute s11ch a bw
would require a vast sum of money, whi le , on th..:
othe r hand, to en :1ct a law whi c h is an empty menace

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is ridi cu lo tiS.
[n mcctin~- the dikmrn:1 "11c must show either that

the alleged consequences do not follow, or that tbt:re

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KINDS OF CO. l/POS!TJON.

PERSUASION.

arc othe r alternatives. For example, o n e who was
<1pposcd to the Chinese might urge th:H the ev il s
arising- from the: prese nce of the Ch in ese are so
great that act ive measures against them must b e
taken at :rny cos t.

ig norant people have often <lcstroyed hbor-saving
machinery thc:y w ill continue: t o do so , the cunclusiun
may be altogether fallacious: since the: general use
of such machinery may have clemunstratc:d its value
even t o the most ignorant hborcr.

4·

FALSE USE O F EXAMPLE .

In the argument from exam ple we ::issurnc that the
circ umstances whi ch we are trying t o illustr;ttc are
sufficie ntly like those of the case cited to warrant a
similar conclusion. Stich an argument is frc:quent ly
much abused; for the cases are numerous in which
although there may b e a superfic ial resemblance, th~
essential circumstance nc:cessary to make the co n clusion valid is hcking. Those historical parallels
arc of most value which show the ope rat ion of a
const:rnt and easily recog nized principle_ Where this
is lacking the ::u-g ume11t from example may be misleading in the cxtn.:mc, and may be turned with
telli ng- effect against one's opponent.
A legitimate in stance of the use of example is
the history of the issue of paper money in various
cou ntri <.:s. The invariable r <.:sult of the excessive
iss ue of paper money has bee n the partial or complete withdrawal of gold from circ ulati o n. In this
cast.: the re is see n to be involv ed an actual causal
p rin c iple which will produce the effect, and it may
be argued from exampl e that the same results will
again follow.
On the other hand, if it is urged tha t !Jecause

~

I

5. l 'ETITI<> 1·1u:-:c 11·1r.
The radical defect in the argument from cx:;rnplc
is like ly to be that the parallel is as s unwd r<1the r
than proved. Sirnibrly, wh<.:rc:ver an llililr<>\· :..:,l c() ;Jcl usi o n is taken as a proo( of something tlut is afterwards used to substantiate the original conclusion,
there is a b egg ing of the question. For in stanc<.:, if
we say: "These m en mu st be good scho lan-;, for they
attend so good a college : and the college must be
excellent since such men attend it," the argument
m oves in a c ircle, and uses as a proof wlut needs
itself to he proved. No more effective rcfut:iti on
of a n elaborate arg ument can be made than to
s h o w th <tl it is not :tn arg u1~1 ent at all hut a mc:re
ass um pt ion.
SECTION V.
PERSUASION.

convincing a man by reasoning o ( the
truth of a proposition, we may st ill have to ruuse
him t o act ion. The ap1)eal in ar(!:um
cn t R c1n t1.on of
._.
is to the intellect: the appeal in pe rs ua-argu mon t an d
·
· main
· I y to t I1c f ee l 111gs.
"
J'~v 1·cl c nt l y persuasion ·
s1on
1s
AFTER

in

order

that

persuasion may be successful the

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KINDS OF C01Jff'OS! T ION.

VAJUF'l'Y UF 1JfU'f'fV!·.'S.

speake r must clearly conceive th e course of action
whi ch he wishes to have followed, and he mu st make
it appear desirable. An earnest a nd persuasive
speaker may violate all the laws of log ic and good
taste, a nd ye t accomplish his purpose by playin g upon
the e mot ions. Ile may often bring men in the
exci t e ment of the moment to act contrary t o th eir
best judgment, and m;:i_y thus move them in spite of
the mselves. Y et, although with ce rt ai n classes of
hc:irers one may largely dispe nse with argument, th e
most effective speakers a re those who co mbine some
reason with their appe:ils.
The appeal to the feelings is not made d irect ly but
indirectly, by presenting suitable motives, and by so
playing up on the im aginat ion as t o touch
Indirect appea l the heart.
For example it is to no rnrt o the feelings.
'
l
pose to tell a man wh o has injured a not her
th at he ought t o be sorry and to as k forgiveness.
Still less to the purpose is it to announce to him
that he is presently to be made sorry. He mu st
rat her be made to feel sorrow by having his conduct prese nted to him in such a light that hi s sense
of shame and reg n:t sh a ll be a wa ken ed . To persuade a man t o contribute to a dl.:serv in g charity, it
is n ecessary to make him see the obl iga tio n that
prope rly res ts upon !t.i111. He may first be shown in
gener:il terms h ow g reat is th e need; how ext e nsive
is the work already done, and ye t to be done. After
this conc ise ge neral statement may well co me detailed in sta nces of want that has been re li eved. It

may be shown how mu ch may be ac complished by
a small sum. And thu s, by a skilful ser ies of appeals
to the pity, the generos ity , and the pride of the
hearer, the desired effect may be produced .
The most effec ti ve plea can be made only wh ere
the matter can be shown to have a personal bearin g. Otherwise there is always opportunity for a man to object that the cause The personal
apphcatton.
is good, but that it imposes no obligation
upon /1im.
The motives to be appealed to arc too num erous
to be detailed here. Natural t:i.ct and a careful study
of men can alone tell a speake r how to
tou ch the chords to which his hearers wi ll V ari et y o f
motives .
respon d. For example, in callin g for
volunteers in time of war he may dwell upon many
different motives--th e safety of one's property, of
one's family and friends, the love of count ry, the
love of fr eedom If h e is determined to move his
hearers at any cost, hl.: may have to "play t o the
gallery," and to pitch hi s discourse in a lower key
th a n he would prefer. I le may thus have to
show that vict ory will bring large personal gains to
the soldiers who e nlis t early. vVh erever poss ible a
speaker will do well to hold up unselfish mot ives;
hut h e must remembe r that he can reach some men
only hy sho wing that t hey will gain someth ing by
th e ir action.
Persuas ion involves th e re moval of prejudice a nd
th e substitution for it of another fcelin~. Such a

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KINDS OF CO.ll!'OS!'f'!ON.

EXA!lfPLJ:: FRO/If CARI . n.E.

transformation is impossible as long as people arc
suspic ious of the speaker. His first ai m should
Irnportancc o r therefore be to win the confide nce of his
at;,~~~ ~~i:u- hcarL:rs.
\Vhatever his real c ha racte r, he
speake r .
must at kast appear to them t o be wo rthy
uf confidence. If he see ms to desire their welfare
and impresses th e m with hi:; g-ood sen se, ht: will be
likely to win the ir hea rt s.
I t !us already b een remarked th at the fccli ng-s :ire
us ually reached indirectly. This docs not m ean th:it
Display of e nthusiasm and earn estnes s ca n safely be
feeling by the i1eg kcted .
.I\ speaker wlw is culd a11ll
speaker.
.
ap parently d es titute of mter~·st 111 th e
ca use he is presentin g ca nn ot hope to move th e fe elin g s of his hearers. Hut he slw uld n o t tear passion
to Lttt c rs and make hims elf ri d icul o us by his excess
o[ zeal.
lic must kee p him self sufTi c iently und er
control lo m ;:i intain control of his aud ience. If he
is fur a momen t overmastered by his feeli ngs, the
effec t upon his hearers may be powerf ul; b ut if he
is e ntirely at the mercy of his emot io ns, he will be
in cl a nge r of ex c iting the a mused co nt empt of those
wh om he is e nd eavor in g to persuade.
We ca nn ot bet t er iil ustr:itc th e methods of suc cessful persuasion than by quuting one of Carlyle's
characteristic letters: -

li on of the said cards. It had cost them JH.: rhaps 10,000 1 , this
controve rsy on a card s u it. There were 150 witne so<es s 11mmoncd from all parts of England and Scotland. It h.1d IJccn
ldt unfi n ished Lis t te rm. That was the re,>son or the U11heard of pe nalt ies for us juryme n, that they might not lie o J,Jiged I<>
IJ eg in at th e beginning again. T he sam e twelve men di d .ti!
as semble. \Ve sat ior two cndlcs,; days till d.1rk 1ti .~ l1 t ' ""' 1i tl.t \ »
About eig ht o'cl oc k a l nigh t o n tht.: s..:cnnd 1by we ini.1 g incd i~

176

F e brnary 18, 184 1.
"l had been sun11Hon ed again und e r unh c:i rd- or penalties to
a t tend a j 11ry t rial :tlJllUl l'atc nl l lld ia-ru bli cr Cotton-c:mk Twu
people fro111 Manch este r lud a co ntron:rsy whose was th e inven"CH E LSEA,

wa s <lune , ~tnd we iud oniy to spe<ik

{.I ll!"

177

n .:: nlict.

B u t, lu

;ti 1d

h e hold ! one or the jmy stood uut. \V <.: were c lc\'C' ll f, ". t 11c
pbint itf, ancl one til t.: other way who wo11l d n <> t yiel d . T l1c
jud g e to ld us we must withdraw, thro11gl1 passag es and sLtirs "i'
and clown into a little st o ne cell with tw e lve !lid clui rs i11 it, " " "
candle, a nd 1111 n1 eat, drink, or lire. Concei ve uu1 l1111no ur. S u l
a p:trticl e o f d inne r, nerve s worn o u t . 8.: c . T l1e rd r.tLl 11 ry 111. t11
- a tl1 ick scl, fht-hc :td ed sa d · - creel e d hi111 sc li in l1i s c l1. 1i1 . 111< !
said, 'J a m one o f the firmest-minded m e n in Engl.u1d. I kn o w
this room pre tty we ll. I h.tv e st«rvcd u11t th ree jmic s he re
;1Jrcady .'

1\.t:asoning ,

<lc111u11str:ttiu11,

w:ls

of no av:-i.il

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They beg an t11 suspec t h..: h.td I >ecn ] ,,·ib 1.: tl. I k r,. .11J y J," •k,. , l
a l one t ime :ts if he w1111l.J kee p '" till ha lf·p:tst nin e i11 the
1norning, and th en g et us disn 1 i:-;~ed , th e whole tri;d

to

bq. :, i 11

again.

One could no t help l:u1ghing. though one liad a not i" ' '
to ki ll the l1ea s t. 'Do nol argue with h in 1. ' I s;tir\. • ITi tkr
him. Don't yo u sec he h"s the ol1stinacy 11f a !,oar a nd little
more sense in thal head or his t h.in in a SwuJi ,h tu rni ;• ;' IL
was a head all c hecks , jaw, and no lirow , of sh.11'i: su111cw i1 .tL
like a great ball <•i putty drop ped from a ht:ight. I set t•> \'. o rk

11pu1t li in1; we :di :-;cl to w or k, and in ;tb o ut.

;u1

lH Hff after o ur

'w ith drawal' th e llas!t, I p ul ling him by the arm, was got stirred
from h is chair - one of the gladd est mom e nts I had seen for a
m o nth - and in a few instants more we were a ll r«joicing on our
road home. In my life I have seen noth ing more absurd."'

Froude adds in a note : 1

Froudu: 1hu11111s Llirly /e, vvl. iii , pp. 175, 170.

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'.'J.

KINDS OF CCJ1/J'OS!TION.

"As Carlyle to ld th e story to me th e man had settled hirnsc:l f down in a dark co rner of the rOL>lll, t he re meanin g to st.1y
ou t the night. . . . Carlyle sat down beside him , COllgratulating
him on being a m:m of decision a ble to ha ve all opinion o f his
own in th ese weak days and stand liy it, a qualit y IJoth rare and
precious . . . but, &c. Jn fac t did he not see that by s tanding
out he wo uld hll rt hi s own fri ends? . . . The jury were eleven
to Ollc . . . . \Vhat cha nce was there th :\! any future jury would
;igrec to the: verdict whi ch he wished? There would only be
more e xpense with no result, &c."

CI I J\ l 'TE R V l I.
'i

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COM P O S lTlON AND HEV IS ION.
" No mau c r how slo w tin.: ~ t ylc be at t-irst, so it IJt: lal11;ri.:tl arHI au:: u r: 1l 1'.

" I remember the players have oftt.:n m c ntion t..: d it as

a11 li o 11 o r to :-:iliak c-

spcare, lh at in his writing,\\ \i ;ttsoevc r h e p<;nncd , lie never l1ln 11e d out a

line.

My answer hath

l1ct:n , '

Would he had b luttc.:J a th ousand.'"
UEN jvN sc1N: 'fi mbf'r.

SECTION l.
COMPOSITION.

AFTER the plan is made, tht.: work of act ual composition consists in filling in the sketch. The pbn,
as we have seen, may be ebboratdy C omposition
detailed, or it may be a mere se ries of based on
the pla n.
catchwords. It may co ntain rnemor:rnda
of leadini; facts or of detail s likely to be 1naccu·
rately remembered. The chief value of a pbn is
that it prevents the beg inner from om ittin g csscntial facts or from in sntin g th e m in the wrong
place. The more practised writer ha lf-m ec lnni c: tlly
arranges his mate rial as he writes, and after deciding
upon his purpose he groups his facts accorclin;..; to
th e ir relati ons. I Ie realizes too that his cum position
should, so far as poss ible, be an organic wh ole, and
th e refore, in cxp:lll din;; the must carefu lly prepa red
plan, he may, for the sake of harm ony and proportion, modify many details as he writes.
179

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COll!i'USJ /'JON AND NE VIS/ON.

Exact 1y how t o fo rm th e h ab it of ready a nd
accurate compos iti o n ca nnot be shown in k w words.
R ap id and
Lack of fluency is clue, n ot merely to
accurate
poverty of ideas , but to lack of ha bitual
composi tion.
expression. Good talk e rs mu s t t::i lk, or
they forget h ow; good writers must k ee p in pr::ie ti ce,
o r they lose their fac il ity. A profi table exe rc ise for
a young wr it e r would be to wri te a half-hour eve ry
day, mere ly for the s:i ke of co mbining words in to
consec utive se ntences. Subjects abound eve ry where. A flo we r, a stonL:, th e pictures on th e wa ll,
t he v iL:w from th.:: wind ow, anything, will give opportunity for p ractice. \Vhcn habits of e xpression :ire
o nce formed, thoug ht will find an easy :incl natural
outl et.
The suggestion of most value is th at
t h e writer while compos in g sh ould care
whi le
com posing.
more for matter than for mann e r. Ham c rton says : W ha t to
ai m a t

"There a re t wo ma in qualit ies to be kept in view in Jitera~y
co mi:ositio n - fresh n cs~ and . fini s h. T he Les t wa y, in my
oprn 1 ~n , to ob tain both 1s to aim at fresh nc ~ s in th e rough draft,
with little regard to pe rfe ctio n of expression; th e finish ca n uc
g iven liy copious subsequent correction, even to the extent of
writing all ove r aga in when th ere is time . \ Vhe never possible, I
wou ld ass imil a te li terary to pic toria l exec ution by treatin,,. the
rough d raft as a rapid and vig o rous sketch, with out any r:..,.ard
lo delicacy of wo rkm anship; the n 1 wou ld writ e fro m tl~s a
second work, retaining as much as possiblt: the fres hness of the
firs t, but co rrecting those oversights and errors which arc due to
rapidity .''

fifASTFN Y OF Tf! F SU/l.7F< T.

18 1

Evidently, if the wr it e r' s mind is filled with the
desire of cle:i rl y est:tblishing- some truth, or nf
answeri ng a d efi nit e qu estion, h e may coun t Lhe
mere form of secondary importan ce. But the: forin
will ult imat ely g:ii n by b eing for t he mom en t made
secondary. \Norcls will come when occasion requires.
Pi cturesque im ages will be formed in the very prnces s of express in g a thou .rht with exact nes s. '.:\en te n ces wil l b e forcible or be:i ut iful lieclllsc there is
force or bea uty in the co nce pti on. \ Vhuevcr while
composing think s c hi e lly about th e beauty or fnrce
of his senten ces will su cceed in puttin g- in to them
little besides prd tin css or bombast.
The writer should th e refo re so m:is te r his ma terial
th a t eve ry ut terance may be natur:il and spont:ineous. If h e s hun s the prelimin a ry labor, Ma stery
h e ca nn ot h ope to give an a pp earan ce of
of the
s ubje c t.
case t o his work . II e ma y bring some
co nnect ion into isolat ed thoughts by btn reco nstruction, but h e can seldom make the union perfect.
Writin g is m uch like talking, only that the words
are written rath er th an spoke n. Anyune who ctn
talk, ought, WL! might suppose, to be able
M e n ta l
t o writ e. But there are some spec ial atti t ude of
diffic ulti es . In t alkin g we h ave th e stim- the writ e r.
ulus of address ing another mind: in writin g we too
oft en forg e t that we are add ress in g anyone in particular. If now, in wri t in g, we can im agine that we
h ave befo re us th e perso n whose diffi c ul t ies we arc
tryin g to remove, we shall at the same time address

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Rl:'VJS!ON.

COM!'OSITJON A ND RFV!S!ON.

an e ntire group rep resented by that pe rso n. Letters
owe m uch of th eir case and g race to the fact thJ.t
the writ e r has addressed one reader. To be equa lly
effective in m ore elaborate compos iti ons, th e writt:r
needs only to have th t: samt: attit ude of mind and
th<.: same mastery of facts .
Composition is an exct:lk n t m eans of discove rin g
what our th oug ht s a rc. 1 On many q uesti ons we
rnay know how we feel, but until we set in
Composit ion
]
.
and th oug ht. ore e r ou r reasons we do not realize th e
g rounds for ou r fc<.:ling or bel ief. F e w
young writ e rs are able to think in a co nn ected way
with out some m echan ical means of securing th ough ts
as they arise. One important thou g ht is almost
forgottt:n befo re ~mo the r worth record ing appears.
There arc fe w subjects on whi ch we ge t light all at
on ce . Many of our most val uable thou ghts co me
unsou g ht a nd un ex pectedly. If seized at the instant
they appear, they a rc ours for all time· if nerrlec ted
'
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th ey arc pe rh a ps lost fo re ve r.
The habit of thinkin g co nsec utivel y is formed afte r
mu c h prac tice. If we choose no definite subje ct, but,
with no rq.~a rd to the co nne ction of ideas,
Consecutive
f
]
]
.
thinking.
trans er o ur t 10u;; its to p:tper as they arise,
we shall lln d th:it at fi rst they will range
widely, and stand in alm os t un di scoverable relat ion s
to one another. After a time, however, through the
1
Shelif')' asks in :l letter to G0dwin: "Docs not wriling hold th e 1wx t
pl:tce to collo quial disc 11!'-sion in dkiti ng and dass in g the powers o f 11t c
miud?" See Dowd cn's 1.ife ~j Slielll'y , vo l. i, p. 225 .

m ere proces s of exp ressio n, they tend to hccOinc
more and more closely co nnected. Furthcnnurc, by
the law of ;issuc i:ition of ideas, one thought s u;;;.:;cst s
an other. \Vh at had swept vaguely before the mi nd
is redu ced by writing to a form in whi c h it c;i n bt~
examined . For the s:tke nf practice, t he hcµ:inner is
reco mmended to write down with :is mu ch c1i11scc utivcness :is he can his first thoughts. l le may well
destroy most of what he writes, fo r he will usuall y
realize ;iftcr his a ttempt how little he Juel to s::i.y.
The few passag es that survive will furni sh a nu cleus
for a second attempt.

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SEC..l lON II.
HEVISION .

;imount that one destroys will depend upon
the thoroup;hncss of one's revi s ion. \ Vriters differ
much in the extent to which they revi se their work .
But some of the greatest masters uf English pro se
have bestowed in fi nit e p:i ins upon the correction of
the smalles t details . When Burke wrote his N 1.jlations on tli c R c7.10/utio1t i1t Fr1111cc he "re vi sed, muderatecl, strengthened, e mph as ized, wrote
a n d rewrote with indefatigable industry.
Burke.
With the manu sc ript constantly under his
eyes, he lin gered busily, pen in hand, over paragr:iphs
and phrases, antitheses and apophthegms . . . . Burke
was so unwearied in this insatiable correction an cl
alteration, that the printer found it necessary, in stc;id

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UNJ?E VISED WRITING.

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of mak in g the chang es marked upon the proof-sheets,
to set up the wh ole in t y pe afres h." I
We are told also "that he never se nt a manuscript
to the press whi ch he had not so often altered that
every page was alnrnst a blot, ancl neve r rece ived from
the press a first proof whi ch he d id not almost equally
alter." 2
Simibrly we read of Mac;:i.ulay, that he "m:ver
allowed a sentence to pass muster until it was as
g ood as h e could make it. I le thought
Macaulay. littl e of recasting a chapter in order to
obta in a more lucid arrangement, and
n ot hin g wh ate \·e r of reco nstruct in g a parag raph for
the sake of one happy stroke or apt illustration." s
In his J/111r11al for January 1, 1854, he wrote: "I
. . . meditat ed a new arrangement of my J!islury.
Arrange me nt a nd transition arc arts whi c h I value
much, but whi ch I do not flatter myself that 1 have
attained;" ;rnd in his Jo1tm11l for February 6, 1854:
"I workc..:d hard at alterin g th e arrangement of the
first three c hapt ers of the third volume [of the ffistory]. What labor it is to make a tolerable book,
and how little reade rs know ho w much trouble the
ordering of the parts has cos t the writer!"
In sharp contrast with th e painstaking
Unrevised
f h
·
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writing.
care o t cse g rea t writers 1s the carelessness of some verbose scribblers, possessed
of a dang-c rous facil ity, who arc content to offer
I M orley: /l11rh, p. 149. 2 Pay ne : Int rod uc tion to Burke 's &led ~Vorks
vol. i, p. xxxviii.
Trcvc!yn. n ; J.ifi: and 1-t:llc· r s o.f lliuraulay, vol. ii, p.

3

200:

the first draft, with all its in coherence :rnd cru dity,
as a finished prod ucti on. For some purposes hasty
work may be all th a t is required, but it seldo m
attains high e xcellen ce. Th e re a rc, incked, writers
wh o by long practi ce have acquired such skill that
the first form of their thoughts is nearly as good :is
the last. Such were Dr. Johnson, Scott, Lamartin e.
But th e inexperienced writer ca n seldom call h is
work finished until he has unspa rin gly crit icized
eve ry phrase, sentence, and paragraph. I I e must
not hesit:ite to exclude wornout comrnonpl ac l~ , nr any
p:issage th at relics on m ere words fo r effec t. Lac h
se nten ce should contribute a di s tin ct :iddition to the
thou ght. If it adds or explains nothing, it encumbers the paragraph by diverting a ttention fr om something of more valu e.
The n eed for rev ision va ries with the character
:rnd extent of the them e. If the t opic i:s simple, and
the materi al can he eas ily arranged, th e
writer may sonH.:times eXJlress himself Vofa r rev1
yin g .need
s 1on .
with sufficient fulness and accuracy in
the first rapid dr:ift. But if the discussion is lo ng,
h e will almost certainly repeat in varying phraseology in one division what h e has already said in
another. Moreover, the .order in which th o ug hts arc
first suggested to the mind is rarely the mos t
effect ive. The hurried jottings of the plan arc
found, when expanded in actual composition, to
require careful rearrang-ement and excision. But
shortcom ings of this sort and m ost other minor

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BALANCE OF /'ARTS.

COMPOSITION AND RE VISION.

failures t o accomplish the desired purpose first come
to li g ht wh e n the entire work is passed in re view.
No rules of unive rsal applicat io n can be laid down
for th e revision. The taste and judgment of the
Re vision not writer, his sense of proportion and of the
a matter of relation of one p:Ht to another, must be
rules.
his g uid es. Ile wil l sec the impropriety
nf devoting much s pace to topics but slightly related
t o the main theme. These may not he unimportant
in thems elves ; but the ir value is to be meas ured by
their applicability to the topic under di sc ussion.
Illustrati ons well suited to a long article may be out
of pbcc in one of a few paragraphs.
No pa rt of the composition sh o uld exist for itself
alone; and no part should be developed at t he expense of another part equally important.
Proportion. Not infrequen tl y a writer is limited to a
ce rtain numb er of word s for the discussion
of h is th e me. l fe must t hen choose between lea ving
something important unsaid a nd excludi ng what is
less worth retainin g. He mu st study his subject till
he secs what can best be omitted . If he is allowed
but five hundred words in all , he must dec ide how
m a ny words he can affo.rd to waste in mere rhetorical
amplification . Since he cannot tdl everythi ng, he
should sdect the fa cts that tell most.
To secure an a rti stic effect , a balance
Bnlnncc o f of parts is necessary.
One group of parapa rts.
g raphs may be contrasted with anoth er
group for the sake of symmetry. Such a n arrange-

ment of the brger divisions can best be made artcr
the wh ole prod ucti on is written, for then the t ransi t ion from one part to another can be most clear ly
indicated. The skill with which the transitio11s ;ire
made will largely detcrm inc whether th e com pl cted
work is an organi zed st ru ct ure or a mass of fragments ca relessl y thrown together. The connection
ought to be clc:arly indicated, and yet a sulfo:ient
break be made to al lo w each larger divis ion to st and
o ut prom in ently. The most important part should
have the most consp icuo us place.
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S T Y/Jo" OF YO UN (,' WRITlcRS.

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CHAPTER VIII.
S TYLE .
"Th e cho icf' of fit words and 1h c skilf11 l :i.rrange mcnt of tl w 1n wi1h suitable graclatiuns in a wl'll -c 1st se ntt:n .,;c is th e first ele ment a ry pn·paration

for wha t is called S tyle."
"St y le is :tn in<le f111alik th ing-. \Ve ca11 say ho w th\: 1«.:nn r o s1--: , and we
say wli 1·re :1nd unde r w h:H .,;o nd itions Ille thing il sc lf rises , l1t1t we ~an ­

c:rn

not for 111ula1 e a

Ucfi niti un for it."
/ bi.I. I'· 3.11.

word St yle is used ii. a great vari ety of
meanin gs. Swift's phr:isc - "proper words in proper
places " - well defines an accurate style,
What is
but t:ik es no account of the hig her qual istyle I
tics of force and beauty. These qualities
we have co ns idered elsewhere. For our 1ircsl·nt
purpose we may c:tll sty le the re fl ection of a writ er's
intlivitluality in his work. If a writer docs not
sh ow his real self in his wrirings, his produ cti ons
will be unnatural or altogether lifeless. The utm ost
that can be expect ed of som e people is that th ey
may acquire su ffi cient sk ill in the use of words to
avoid g laring fau lts. S uch writers, though not attractive, may be usdul. In many kinds of compositions, su ch as sc ientific treati ses and formal statem ents of any sort, a strongly ma rked style is o ut of
place ; and nothing more is req uired than clearness
and acc uracy.
T11E

188

Most juvenile writers have no styl e of their own;
for th ey arc seldom free from self-consciou s ness.
Before a youn!!: writ er be!!ins consciously Stylt: in
t o imitate th e speech of his elders he juvenile
.
.
sometimes
writ
es as natura J] y as h e ta lk·s. compositi o n s.
But during a transi t ion period he no lon ger write s
exactly what he thinks, but rather what he im ag in es
he is expected to think. He chooses v::i g uc an d
ambitious s ubje cts, such as "Glory" o r "\Var'" or
" Greatness" or "Virtue and Prosperity," a nd adopts
st1 ch a tone as he imagines older people Lo use.
He fills his pages with cheap morali zi11g-, b ccw ~c
h e thinks he mu st. l Ie pra ises thin gs that he
dislikes, and properly censures his besetting sins.
Ile makes his diction as unlike as possible to the
lang uage of real life. H e calls a lamp a luminary ;
a house, a reside nce; a farmer, an agriculturist ; a
teacher, an em inent educator. If these fault s arc
passing c ru d it ies, they may be left t o c ure them selves; if they in d icate a h abit of mind, they will
lead a writer into perpetual overstatement, and
bring upo n him the amused contempt of people who
know better.
/\. skilled writ e r adapts himself to his read ers
ancl his subject. If he is addressing persons of
small intellige nce, he will not write in the
- f or peo p l e o f w1c
· l e cu ] t urc. Ada p• •yle.
tation in
same sty l c as
Hence the brevity of statement and fe li city of allusion suitable in a production designed fur
cultured readers, he will deem unsuited to readers
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FON1J!A J'ION OF ,/ STYl..L'.

S'/'YLF.

who clo not understand remote allusions and who find
conciseness obscure. He wil l, therefore, sac ri fice, if
n eed he, some of the graces of style for the sake of
g reater effectiveness. Diffuseness, when required on
account of the slowness of the reade r's apprehension ,
he will count an e xcelle nce rather th an a blemish.
I I c will tell a plain sto ry in a plain way, and not
overlo;1d his pag-cs wi th rn is placed orna ments and
tr ite phrases. J fis m anner will be di['."nifit:d and c~k­
vated when he is treating a lo fty theme, and ligh t and
gracdu l wh t: n he d isc usses trif-!es. In thu s adaptin g
himself to c ircumstances he may write a g rt:at variety
of st yles. Some t opi cs he will naturally discuss
bt:st, and in treati ng these he will d isplay his most
charactnistie traits and thus re\·cal his personality.
The older c riti cs used to ta lk much abo ut forminrrI:>
a style. Dr. Johnson's advice 1s often quo t ed :
"Whoever wishes to attain an English
Forma ti on of t J
·
l
,. style.
s y c, f a1n1·11ar
)l il not co:irse, and eleg-:mt
but not oste nt:itious, must g ive his clays
and his ni ghts to the volumes of Addison." 1 The
imitative theory is now somewhat ont of fashion.
The attempt to create an original styk by imitating
someone else is seen to be vain. But there is something to be said fo r the theory. If we select several
g re;i t writ e rs, we may learn method from one, clearness from another, brillian cy of diction from a third,
compactness from a fourth , ancl so on. By following
a variety of models we escape the servile imitation
l

Co nclu>ion of Lifa of Addismz.

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of any. Yet unless we catch the sp irit that rnadt.:
these writers great, we may copy tht.:ir pe rfection of
form to no purpose. It is not by attempting to
write like Macaulay or Goldsmith or Thackcr:1y or
Burke or \.Vebster that lllle becomes n::cog11iLed ;ts .i.
g reat writer, but by delivering a genuine mess:1ge i:1
one 's own way. There is no mystery about acquiring a style, provided the writer will l)L~ natural and
throw his own pe rso1ni itv into his \\'<ll·k . lt is
onl y lllterest1ng me11 tklt pro d uce i11te:·es t 111,c:; ],\), ,kc;.
Dull men :-tre us11ally ~JS Jul! when they writ e
as when they talk, thou .~h there arc ULcasio11,d
instances of tiresome conversationists whose \\Ti t
ings arc c harmin g , and of brilku1t talkers whose
books arc unreaclable.
The young writer must not adopt false idea ls ., f
style from reading brillia nt passages se lected from
great authors. He must realize that these
id<:al~
passages art.: hut parts of a larger whoi c, Fnuflsestyle
.
and tha t, to be ri g htly estimated, they
must be restored to th ei r proper place.
The best style, then, is that whi c h is
best adapted t o the subject, the reader, and The best
style.
the writ er. Accordin g- to one critic, "The ideal style is a s tyk that is clear, - that cannot lie mi sunderstood; that is forcible, - th:it lwlt!s the attention; and
ti1 Lt is elegant; - that is so exqllis itcly adapted to its purpose
lh.tt you are conscious of its elegance only by s ubtilely feeling
the wonderful ease of ha bi tu;il ma.stcry."'
l Wcntlcll: E'11.~11isll Compositfrm , p. 298.

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STYLE.
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Ma t thew Arnolcl says that a serviceable prose s tyle
sh o ul d have the q ualities of "reg ularity, uniformity,
prec ision, ba lance." 1 J\nd Saintsbury defines a work
"not remarkable for style" as "a work whi ch does
not pile up th e adjectives, whi ch abstains from
rhythm so pronounced and r egular that it ceases to
be rhythm merely and becom es metre, which avoid s
rather than seek s t he clr:iwin:; of attention to orig inal ity of th ought by sin g ul arity of express ion, and
which worships no other g ods but proportion, clearness, closeness of expression to idea, and (within the
limi ts incid ent to prose) rhythmical arran g ement." 2
Such a s tyle is fo r most purposes more serviceable
than any other, and affords the safest mod el for the
beg inner.
I Prefa ce to J ohnson's Chic/ l .ivn o/
f:.'ng/i, /, Prose .',/yle, p. xxxi .

ti1c l 'ods, p . ix.

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PART II.
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PRA C TI CE.

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CHAPT ER L
WO RDS.

. Many of th e follo win g practical e xe rcises presuppose_ the s_tudy of some m odel of English s tyle in
con nect10n with the s t udy of the t ext. T he autho r
o r a uth_ors se lected will , of co urse, vary a cco rding t o
a multitude of c irc um s tan ces, but it is h o ped that
so me of t he writers here ·su t>o
o-crcsted
rii"y
be S UI·t e d
·
,,
t o the n eeds of th e majority of students.

1!)4

PAGE 9 .
Writ e a cond ensed accou nt of some nf
the chan ges in the m e:rnin g of En g li sh words, wit h
illu strations from Trench : On !lie Study 1f' Wortf,-,
and Ellglis!t Pas/ and P resent. (Lecture V l1.)
Page Io. ( 1) Selec t from a page o f Thac keray
o r Hawthorne or a n y ot he r good author fifteen or
twen ty of t he most express ive words, a nd use them
prope rly in a co mposi t ion of your o wn .
(2) Cou nt th e e ntire number of worJs in a short
E ngl ish poe m, fo r exampl e, Longfdlow's Vi/lag,.
Blrrc!.:s111 it!t, an d ob se rve how ma ny words are
repeated, h ow many words are unu s ua l in prose, how
many arc str ict ly poet ic, e t c.
(3) Cou nt the words in o ne of y o ur o wn co m posi tio ns , and co mpare th e extent and variety of you r
vocabulary wi th that of some good English w r it e r.
(4) Classify th e words y o u find in two o r th ree
pages of the clictiL)nary , and n ot e how m any W(mls
arc scarcely eve r u seJ in lit e ra ture. vVri tc a sho rt
account of th e m a tter.
Page 1 r. (1) R e ad a page of Thackeray or Ma caulay o r so me ot h e r standard autho r, and c lass ify th e
words th a t a re un fa miliar t o yo u. Arc th ey (urcign
or native? Arc t hey nouns or ve rbs or adjectives?
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WORDS.

(2) G iv e a sho rt accou nt o f h ow y o u use t h e d iction:uy, and ho w m uch . If you use it b ut littl e,
g-1 ve y o ur r easons.
(3) How do you re:i.d ?
(4) \Nh:i.t is the best w:i.y t o r ead a n ews p:i.pe r?
(5) Gi ve :i.n acco un t o f th e b oo ks t h:i. t. yo u h:i.ve
read.

(2) 1N a m e som e o f tl1 c \v ol-(] s u sed in la w and in
wa r and expla in the ir or ig in.
l,'a.ge 10 . ( i ) 'vV ho a rc som e u f t ~e write r:-; a n d
s peake rs n o w best e ntitled t o d cter m rnc the use ()l

(6) Tell wh :i t b ooks yo u lik e bes t, and wh y.
(7) W h:i.t boo ks have inAuenccd yo u mos t ?
(S) li ave yo u t h o ught of t he d iffe re n ce be twee n
lite rature and othe r writin g- ? If so, arc yo ur ideas
clear eno ugh to he c.::xpressed in words ?
(9) \ Nh:i.t es says of J\facaulay have you r ead ?
What did you li ke or dislike m ost in w lnt yo u read?
Did a ny of h is op inio n s seem t o yo u t o be too
s weepi n g ?

s peare , Mil to n, et c.
P:we 17. ( 1) Select from Lo wel l' s J:ig/<1;u r 11f'1.,.s,
l l o w~Jl s 's n ovels, a nd a ny oth e r li te ra ture ;1t h a nd, :1

1'age 1 2. ( 1) \ Vha t do yo u un de rs tand by 11trti11c
E ng li sh wo rds?
(:::) W hy d ie! t he F ng-li s h borrow m o re wo rd s from
Latin tlnn fro111 /\r;1bic o r J lebrcw or C hi nese?
(3) Ho w docs o n e la n g- uagc borro w wo rd s fr o m
another? Who does the bo rro w ing?
l'ag·e 13 . G ive a br id :-tccou nt of the r e lati o n of
E ngl ish to An g lo-French (or Nornn n), as d esc rihed
in Scot t' s h 1an!toe.
Page 14. J\n; tl y zc w ith the help of the d ic ti o n a ry
a pag-e of yo u r ow n writing, a nd no t e h o w nun y
lang uages a rc rep rese n tt..:d in the won.ls y o u u se.
l'a.ge 15. ( 1) (;i n you suggest add iti o nal m o tives
fo r bo r ro win g fo re ig- n wo rd s?

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F.\'F f..' CISl oS ON

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En gl ish wo rds ?
.
(2) Selec t a li st of obsolete wnrds fnim writers
of th e sixtee n t h ::i. n d seve ntee nth ce n t u ri es - Sluk<··

....

·'

li st of provi n c ial words.
(:?) Make a l ist of prov in c ial wo rds used in YPll r
ow n d ist r ict, or in r eg io n s fa mi l iar to you .
P age 18. ( t) Class ify a nd d isc 11 ss th e slang U SL'<l
in yo ur o wn n e ig hborhood.
(2) S h uw in wh at respec ts tlll: sla n g th:it y o u lls e
is h <.:t t e r than oth e r lan g uage wo uld b e .
(3) 'vVhal is th e or ig in o f sla n g ?
l'a g-c 19. Selec t fro n1 a p:igc of M;ic;i uby (fo r
ex am ple, :t page fro m h is / •irs l F ssa)' 011 ./1 1!111su11 )
t h e fa mili a r w o rd s a n d p ut m ore di gn ified wu rds ll1
thei r stead. Ts t he r es ult a n im provement?
P age 20. ( 1) M a. k c a col lcct io n of p relcnt io11s
adve rtise m e n ts, a n d po int o ut the fa ults in the

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di ct io n.
(2) R e writ e t h e q u ot ed parag rap h, u s in g th<.: plain -

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est and s implest w o rds.
P a g e 2 1. R e writ e in pla in la n g u agl'. H ood 's can cature of J oh n son' s style.
Page 2 5. Re write th e quot e J p a ra.g rap h s, us111g

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W ONDS.

RXI':RCISFS ON

111.tivc words in place of borrowed words, ancl
1Jersa.

11h·e

Page 27. Make a list of bad forma ti ons, and
poi11t out the objections to thei r use. For spec im ens
see Richard Grant W h ite's EverJ'day E11ghs/1.
Page 29. (r) vVrite as long a list as you can of
word s th at have bee n introduced within a f e w yea rs,
and point out :111y objections to their use.
(2) Select from the d icti onary wo rds used in a
variety of senses, for exam plc, fair, f all, drmu, open,
e tc., and write a short essay in which t h e various
meanings shall be correct ly used.
l'age 30. In any piece of vi vid d esc ription s ubst itute p:1raphras1.:s fo r the prec ise desc ript ive words,
and 11ot e the effect.
Page 31. ( 1) Collect fro m some sc ientific work a
li st of techn ical te rm s, and try to find sa ti sfa ctory
un tcchnical equivalents.
Rewrit e a pa ragraph in which tec h11i cal words
a rc us ed, and p11t unt ec hni cal words in place of
technical.
(2) Make out a li st of words and phrases th a t are
often misu sed.
(3) Dis tin g- ui sh between lhe following synonyms:
distant - re mote; cxpci - b:rni s li; ra ise - - heig hte n;
employ- occupy; u ne ndi ng - hnundkss; endure hea r ; declare - utt e r ; ready - prompt ; leave fors ake; rare- unusual.
Pages 32-35. R e write the examples, u s 111g th e
proper words to exp ress the thought.

199

Write a sh ort story or d .ia 1og ue illusP~ge 36. . . t and the in correct use of s/!al!,
trat1n g the c011cc

shou ld, will, w ould. .
h b ks in
00
P age 3 7. (c) Classify .t e . . a ly
tl,at
shall
be
rncreasin<>
.
.
heac1in gs •
Class!.fi cation IJroceeds. .
of tools,
(z) Make a c1ass ifi cat1on

a library under
.
h
s1)ec1 Re as t e
.

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of occu pat1ons,

the quotat ions, suhstitu tof buildings, etc.
Pagcs 38, 39· Rewrite
f .
· 1Jccific and specific t,:rms or
in 0o- t>rre ne ral terms fo r S
general.
in literal language the examP age 42 . Rewrite
Sect ion.
I t
Pk: s in the entire
tr ake si mil es a nd metaphors by se cc f.
P ao·c 44 1\' l ,
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lists v
<> proper
.
in g the
e lem e, nt .s fro m th e following,

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words and phrases : l
sea-fol-'.,
I . - yell ow check , \it ugh, wee ge ,
I. I- a11,
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.
·h ·ld mantle, crowd,
f . t ce l sea eyes, s ie '
h arpoo ns o s
' · ' ' . . . . of the sea, fl ower.
k. \n ess whit e-caps
.
cold, k 111 µ;, ·iiH
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beach cape, ghost,
se·t-ti c1e on a
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0 ( fire , sto .rmy
. 11. . ,ay,
. fl- 11• , ' sapphire,
su
n, flame
,
1tghtn111g s .11 e, '
' . 1
,,.olde n cb;.i.in, win ;:;s
ocean, spray, s-11 ..·1ttcrco co umn , o
of sea-birds, spear of flame.

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SlcNTF.NCF.S.

1
a
sentences
oosc
Pages. 6~, I.
c 1eriodic int o loose.
into periodic, and th . I
1\es PP· I I r-12 0 .
l
m e with the exam\
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(z) Do t 1e sa
..
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cntenccs so as to
") ages 64 , 65 · Rew rite t e s

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I
g ive them unity. . . . l)rOVCl.I f 01-m the .sentences
. 66 . Rewntt 1n1m
I") age
in Section III.
am\ r ewrite the bu\ty
Pages 7 1-88. Correct

CHAPTER II.

S ENTEN CES
T11E exe rc ises written by the class m::i.y be as·
;;ig·11ed to sectio ns of the chs s for co rrectio n. The
s ize of th e sections :u1d other det::i.ils m::i.y safely be
left to t he teacher. It may be suggested , however,
that faulty sentcnccs, co111monly misused words, etc.,
found in the exercis es m;1y be cop ied upon separate
slips of paper, and used as a<ldit io nal material for
cr it icism.
P:igc 5 5. For each of the sentences quoted m
th is c h apter devise ::i.s rn::i.11 y forms of express ion as
possible.
l'age 56. ( 1) Co mpare the sentences in two or
three pages o f J\.facaulay and of Tl1aekeray, and find
the numerical proportion of short sentences to
long. 1
\Vrite a short account of the res ults of th e comparison.
(2) Cornp:He the length of )'<H1r uwn sentences
with the length of Macaulay 's sentences.
Pages 58, 59. Rewrite the quoted examples, combining the short sentences into lon g ones, and brcaking the long sentences into short ones.
I l t is harJ\y m:ce ssa ry tu remark tli: t! the tcadier 1n usl l.ktent1i11c what
5t;u1dartl of s c ut e 1h~e-le n gth is to \Je ta kc~ n fur th e examination.

(I) Convert the

sentences.
tlle S'l"·c
0 ( Macauhy.
Corn1)·1re
u '0
.
Pa<Ye 98. ( l )
,
l - . the crnphat1e and
o
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anll ot ie1s l n
Thackeray, Ac ui son,
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£ tht: sentence.
un e mphat ic em mg o
. . . . - t e n wo rds easy t o
S ·lect fr om th e chct101u1 y
, , not ing
(2 ) c
.. is hard to pronounce,
'11\d tt:n WO\ u.
pronoun ce , ·
-~
. I in each .
. . , . £ letters that ::i.1e u:;cc
I .on <' ·
the classes o
.
£.
t\ e )oets: - "'
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lists 1om 1 1
(3) ~elect s11111 .1 r
.
Hro wnin 0·, etc.
. .
1 owell Tennyson,
"' f
fellow, Wh1tt1c:r, ·'
,
.
' l rn1wsiti ons
or
S " trch you1 own L. J
Pao-es 99- 101.
e-.
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t ·1 11 I)ara«raphs
o
f· Jt . j)Ulntcl uu
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illustrations of the au s
2,

3, 4, 5, 7' 8 .

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~A RACRAPflS.
Catiline ; anoth e r

in Bu rk e' s speec l1

with A m erica.
Parre I I l. F ind e xan: ples
tenc; " in Maca ulay's Essay
CHAPTER III.

First E ssay on Joltnson.

On

Concifi,1tion

of t he "te rm inal senJlfi/ton a nd in th e

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PARAGRAPHS.
P A GE 103.
(1 ) Note t h e lengt h of th e parag raphs
in one of J\faca uby 's Essays, ;rn J account for the
var iation in le ngt h.
(2) In a m::igazi ne ::i rt ic k or a boo k, find ten
parag raph s t hat fai l to confo rm t o t h e ideal structu re.
Page rn5. ·R e writ e the quoted paragraph by inse rtin g JS many connective words :-is possible.
P:-ige 106. (r) Strike out t he conn ec t ives from
the q11oted pa ragraph ;incl , if poss ible, ch a nge th e
o rde r of sentences wit ho 11t d es t ro yin g th e co nn ect io n of the t hought.
(::!) Select t he c1Jnncct ive wo rd s fro m a fe w wellwr it te n pa r agraph~ and write pa rag ra ph s of your
ow n, us in g t h <: sa m e con11ccti 1·es.
}'age ICX). (r) Rewrite the q uoted p::i r::igra ph so
as to secu re greater va ri ety.
(2) Classify the sentences in a well -constru ct ed
pa ragraph accordin g t o th e way in whi c h th ey begin
an d e ncl.
Page r 10. (1) In a group of parag ra p hs d iscover
h ow m a ny m eth ods of sec ur ing va rie ty are used .
(2) F ind a cli max in Macaulay 's l :.'ssay on M ilton;
a n ot h e r examp le in o ne of C ice ro's orations ag ain st
2-02

''

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/ '/IL /'J/LNL:·.

CHAPTER IV.
THE THEME .

topics sug-gcstcd in tlie follo win g pages are
designed to s ui t a variety of tastes. Some of the
th e mes a re doubtless t oo difficult for th e beginner,
whil e , on the other hand, a cons id e rable numbe r are
t(IO simple for the advanced stndent. The t·cache r
must in all cases dt.:cide how fa r his students may
safely venturt.:.
A po rtion of the practice-work is b:ised upon
topi cs req uiring no research. TIJ<; se mav ht· .. r v;iluc
in giv in g drill in r;qiid writ ing. uut th1·)· shn1ild ll•• t
be a ll owed to assume the prima ry place in tht.: course
in composition.
Page 121. (r) Writ e a n exact :iccount of how
you wrote yo11r last essay.
(2) vVrite an :iccount of your method of collecting
and arranging mat e rial for writing-.
Page 122. vVrit e a list of the topics that you
wrote your early compositions upon, and criticize the
list in the li g ht o( the teachings of this chapter.
Page 125 . Base five themes upon each of the
following topics by asking specifi c questions: Travel,
The Air, Readi ng, City Lik, 1\Tusic, Time, National
Holidays, Amusements, Jbsi.:b:ill, Farming, Mountains, R ivers, Charities, The l'oor, Cigarettes.
THE

205

P ai:.;e 127. Write as long a c riticism as you can
on th e q uot ed C(Jmpos ition .
Page 12 8. Show in what respects the following
topics a rc defective as themes, and add specific
words so as to base five themes on each of the
topics 1 : Col umb us.
Q ueen Elizabeth.
Pete r th e Great.
Wa shin gton .

Fr:rnklin.
Garfield.
Burns.
Browning.

Flowers.
Snow.
Mountains.
Fu re sts.
Our Country.
Peace.
\Va r.
Disease.
Life.
Youth.
Morning.
Evening.
N ig ht.
Spring.
Summer.
Autumn.
\Vintcr.
Truth .

Gambling.
Hope.
](;tin.
J\.i vers.
i 'ol itcn css.
The Indians.
Idl e ness.
Smu gglin g.
Almsg-iving.
Early Rising .
Anarchy.
Socialism.
Natio nal Prejudice.
Popular Clamor.
Civil War.
F:tn ;tt.icism.
Dress.

..'

.

.•,t;,·

~o""' 'cJ; fs
f-I~ ncsly .

'.

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i.

I Cf. Quatkcn!Jos; Course of Cvmposilion and t.'lutonc . pp. 428-,134.

~Ot

,'"

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206

Courtesy.
Reverence.
vVinter Evenings.

..

EXERCISES.

Schoolroom Benches.
An Open Fire.
Adverti s ing.

Page I 3 I. Criticize themes suggested hy members
of the clas s as too broad, too difficult, too unattractive in title, etc.

CHAPTER

V.

THE PLAN.

PAGE 132. (1) In one of Macaulay's Essays copy
the open in g sentence of each paragraph, and nutc
how the plan is developed . (2) Show that the topic:s
of the paragraphs are merely minor themes fur brid
essays, each complete within the limits of a few
sentences.
Page 133. (1) Take a series of plans furnish ed
by the class, and prese n t them for criticism.
(z) Make an analysis of a newspaper editorial
article; uf a rnagazim: article:; of a chapter of a
hook .
(J) Make a plan fo r an essay by placing upon t he
blackboard the various subdivisiuns ~ts suggested by
mcm hers of the class.
1'age 135. ( 1) Change as much as you can the
order of topics in the plans 1 here quoted, and g ive
reaso ns for the changes.
(2) Supply the proper divisions where they arc
lacking.
(3) Show how some topi cs of the quoted plans
may be m ade more detailed.
l Th ese plans were writt en by students as class exercises, based upon
top1es volunlarily d1 usc n, and <tre li e n.: uffert:d as inaterictl for i.:riticis1n.

ra ther than as faultless mofk ls.

H

, ;! i;

208

l :.Xl:'NC/SES ON

(4) Show how some of th e plans fail to give a
clear view of the topic as a whole.

J'JIF ! 'I.A.\ '.

IV.
V.

, ENEl\AL

His policy at th e beg-inning of his Pres id ency.
(a) Th e develo pment of this po licy.

The Proclamatio n •>f Emancipation.

SUBJECT.

CONCl.lJS ION .

ABRAllA M I.I NCOLN.
LIN COLN AS AN
THEMES.

Lincoln as an Orator.
Lincoln as a Statesman.
3. Lincoln 's Action in rega rd to Mason and Slidell.
4. Lincoln's Education.
5. L incoln and the Em:rncipation l'rocla mation.
1.

2.

Th e com mon co nception of Li ncoln does not g;ivc
cl ue prom inence t u hi s abi lity a nJ success as an
orato r.
DI S1: lJSS ION.

I.
PL ANS .

I.

J J I SCU~<-i lON.

H is early views in regard to slavery.
( a) Anti·slavcry resolutions in th e Illi nois Leg islature.
(b ) Bill in Congress fo r abolishing slavery in the District
of Columl>ia.

I I.

His posit ion in regard to slavery in the DouglasLin coln debat es.
(") Sorn c of the results uf his speec hes in these ckl,;llcs.

III.

Lincoln's part in organ izin g the l<.cpubli can
pa rty.

public

II is work in Conr:;ress.
(a) Th e d iscovery of certai n weakn \'sses leads him to appiy
himself ri g id ly to his bw p ractice a nd s tudy.

II I.

( c) S uggest ive a necdote.

I.

I I.

Abraham L in col n an oppon ent of slave ry.
(a) ny nature .
(Ii) By ho rne trai ning .

Evidences of great natur;t! ability for
spea king sho wn early in life.
( a ) By his success in spt:ak in g.
(b) By his s uccess won with ou t ed ucatio n.

LIN COLN AND THE EMA.-;C IPATION PROCLAMATION.
Il"TR ODUCT ION.

''
~ .

ORATO!< .

JNTKODUCTlUN .

Repeal of th1.: Misso uri Compromise.
(a) Lincoln, thoroughly a rouse d , leaves his Ltw and discusses n:it iona l questions.
(Ii) DeiJalc with Doug las.

I_,•,..

IV. N omin a ti o n fo r th e l'resiclency.
V. \Vh at are th e clements of Lincoln's power as a n
orator ?
VI. Lin coln compared with Douglas.
(1z) Lincoln's honesty.
(!> ) Ac nir:1k and Jni.::i,·:i l mind.
(t') Conrn1and "f s impk L11;,;lish.
(d) H is ~tories .
(e) His disposi ti o n and self-co ntrol.

·~·

210

EXERCISES ON

Tl/E PLAN.

CO NCLU SIO N .

!IAWTJJORNE'S DISLlK I-: FOR SOCIETY.

No one has a true conception of Lincoln who does
not consid e r him a great orator.
Ll NCO!.N AS A runuc Sr"C1\KER.

I.

His physical qualities.
(a) l'hysiqw.: .
(b) Co unt e nance.
(c) Gesture .
(d) Voi ce .

I. I nh erited from his parents.
II. In cn.:ased by circumsta nces.
(11) His moth er's \\'idowhood.
(h ) Il is life in thl'. wilds of 1\Ltine .

II I. 1 [ is scn:;itivc 11;1 t t11-c.
IV. Dislike fur iurmaltlics.
V. R egard fo r his fa mily kept him at home.
VI. Needed soli tude lo develop his imaginati on.
VII. Is it a blot on his characlt:r?

His style.

11.

(a) Vo cabulary.
(b) i\lanner of conne ·ting his sentences.
(c) Mauncr of co 1111 ec tin g his paragraphs.
(d) His l Iun1or.
(e) H is Pathos .

III.

1 N ·r H.OLJ UC't'l0 0;.

Salem.
(a) \Vi tchcraft and s upers titi on connected with the µlace.
D l SCUS:)lUN.

I.

II.

His late r education .
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

The last of h is schooldays.
He studies surveying .
He studies law.
His knowledge of human nature.

Hawthorne 's love for literature.
(1z) His favorite authors.
(b) Influence '' hich these authors h;id upon him .

His early edu ca tion.
(a) His advantages .
(b) His t eache rs.
(c) Books st udied.
(d) H is dil igence.

Charactn o( his a11ccslurs .
(a) J\e ,.utiful ch;u;tcl<:r uf his moth er.
(b) Ltrly dc ;1 th of his fath er.
(c) Tr;1i11i11g under J{obcrt l\Ltnn ing .

T h e man behind the speech.
LI NCOLN"S ElJUCATION.

I I.

J IJ:,> Wl<IT!:'iLO-.

~h:thod

of Arrangement.
(b) Its force .

I.

THE I N FLUEN C E 0 1'" !! 1\vVTll ORNt·:·s EAl,LY Ll J·" E ON

H_is subject-matte r.
(a)

IV.

21 l

I I I.

C ircumstances which favored the dcvclopmc11l
of hi s ge nius.

(a)
t b)
(c)
I\". l

Injury received while playing bal l.
R uggedness of the country whe re his youth was spe nt.
Visit to Canterbury.

l i:o w,:ird style.

(a) T h is was in accord with his nature .
(b) i\lay li avc ucen influenced. by his ear ly life in Sakm .

>,'
1,

2 12

TllE PLAN.

L'.\'IR1...'/S£S ON

NEW ENGLAND LI

l N' l' H.< 1i )IJCTJ() N .
l)I SCU!':IS l t)N ,

The old l'yncheo n ho use.
I.

(a) L1JLlli <) ll .
(/1) Surro undings.

l I.

If I.

IL

Characte rs represen ted.

CONC L US I ON.

Jud;.:e 1'ync hrn n.
Superstitio n co nn ected with the story.

GENERAL SU BJECT .

I.
JNTR Ol>U CT IUN.

l r.
I H SCU SSlt I N.

(a)
(/,)
(r)
(d)
(e)
(/)

His view o f reli g ion in ge neral.
II is vie w of th e d iffne nl re lig ious beliefs.
Hi s th oug hts abou t C o d .
llis thoughts abou t miracles.
1lis th oug hts about praye r.
H is wri tings affected by his relig ion.
(!{) His loya lty to hi s convictio ns.

The Con clus ion is stated under (a).

:i

TE NNYSO N.

'

THEMES.

CJ\I<LVLE'S RELIG IOUS VIEWS.

III.

,,.

/\ bil ity to co nve rse o n all su bjects .
Subjects bes t suited to his s tyle .
f' own o f holdin g th e a tte nti o n o f th e li s te ner.
Effec ts of hi s co nversati o n on his heare rs.

l'li c~bc.

(d)

JV.

1'1 i., method of be co min g a g n<>d co n \·ersatlo nist.
Q u:iliti es :rnd chara cte risti cs of hi s co nve rs:itiu n .
Subjects best suited to his style.
Effec ts of h is convc rs:-i tio n upo n hi s hea re rs.

M::ica ulay 's convers:tt ion::il pu wers.
(a)
(h)
(<)
(d)

(a) Hebz ibah.
( I) H er pcrso n:-il a ppeara nce.
(2) He r na tur:-il peculiari ties.
(/J) Un cle Venn e r.

(c)

Carlvk's con ve rs:itional powe rs.
(11)
(/I)
(c)
(d)

The shop.
(a) The shop \\'in dow .
(/J) T li e va ri ety of g11ods .
( c) l-.:easons why the shop was opened .

l

CJ\HLVLE'S CONVERSA T ION CO MP,\ RED WITH
MA CJ\U LJ\Y'S.

FJo: ,\ S PORTRAYE D . I N TllE HOUSE OF
T llE SEVEN GABLES.
I NTl\ OD UCT I ON .

I.

213

r. Tennyson a nd th e Bible.

Nature in Tennyson.
3. Tennyson's Co nce pti nn of the S e;i..
4. The Th eo ry o( I·:d ucat it>n in 7/1c Priwcss.
5. The l\.eal Purpose of Jn .llI011uri1rm.
2.

PLAN.

THE REA L PUR POSE Of I N ME'.\.10RIAM.
I NT RU I >UCT I ON .

The purpose of Jn l'vle111oria111 may seem too evident
to need discussion, but it may be well to co nsider the
matter, since there has bee n question raised about it.

..!

'l:,

EXERCISES ON

THE PLAN.

nrscuSS TON.

T he main purpose was not to eulogi ze Hallam , but
to do good to humanity.
The poem exceeds the bounds set by precedent for
poems written solely for eulogy.

T he ti tle sh ows that t he poem has the charac ter
of an elegy.
I. Hallam, to wh om the poem was cledicatecl, died
at the age of twen ty-two, with brilliant prospec ts ahead .
(a) An intimate frie ndship had existed bet wee n him and
T e nnyson.

The wh ole poem shows the strong bon<l of love
that ex isted betw een them.
II. At first sigh t, t he on ly purpose of In M cmon·am
see ms to be a eulogy of Hallam.
Yet, to the th oughtfu l reader, som ething deeper
sh ows itself.
(a) Co m pa re th is poe m with other poe ms
lu s t frien ds .

111

,~·.

:.

I

:

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Till:: CHARA CTER OF CONFUC IUS.

I.

Confucius as a Ma n.
(<1 ) His devot io n to st udy .
(/I) His pe rsonal trai ts.

II.

Confucius as St at es man.
(11) In hi s nal i\" C Stat e of Loo.
(h) His abase me nt.

III.

Confucius as Philosopher.

,.
\ii

(1z) His love fo r th e pas t.
(/I) I lis lo ve for mankind .

memory of

In JJfemorimn does all they do and more. It takes
in th e wh ole human race. Sorro win g mortal s feel
its words of tenderness and comfo rt .
(/I) If Tenn yso n had inte nd ed th e poe m mere ly as a eulo"y
of l la ll a m. why did he w: •it six t<:c n )'t:"rs aft e r Hallan~'s
death to writ e it?

.In Jlfenwriam was written rn a time of agitation.
Tennyson felt t he need of strengt henin g the unsteady faith of th e people. I n this poem he makes
an appeal to men's bett er natures.
IV. T he poem at first con fines itself to Hallam,
t he n broad ens so as to include other topics.
The t ho ught of the immortality of love runs
through the whole poe m.

CONFUCIUS AS A MO RAL TEACHER.

I. Tend ency of Confucian Morals.
I I. Th e force of E xam ple.
(a) [n the •·So n of Heave n. "

(h) In sagt: s and offic ia ls.

III.

The Confucian view of Moral Duty.
(a) From indi vidual standpo int.
(b) From political standpoint.

III.

IV.

Th e Impress of the Sage.
(a) lls upli ftin g tend ency.
( /;) I ts progressive character.
THE CHANGE I N THE RELIGIOUS BELIEF OF
GEO RGE ELIOT.
I NTRODUCTI ON .

Relig ious spirit of England in the early life of
Georg e Eliot.

I·

I

!.

I-

i

!'.

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\, f

216

E .\'ERCJSES ON
lllSCUSSION.

\Vha t was the chan o-e?
(b ) To what was it due ?
( 11 )

(1) 1n what J?art of her li fe did it take place ?
(d) \ Vha t ellec t had it upo n her writings?

THE Pf.AN.

3. His P:ithos as Compared with that of Dickens.
4. O ne of Thackeray's Ch:iracters.

5. Reap pea rance of his Characte rs in hi s Different
Novc:ls.
PLANS.

CUNCl. VS ION .

ACCURACY OF THACKER,\ Y"S lllSTO RI CAL NOVE LS.

\ Vhat effect had this chanl!c
,. upon t l1e character
of Geo rge El iot ?

INTR O l >U<"TION .

I.
GEORGE ELIOT'S CHANGE I N p, 1_~ 1.r c r c>us
BELIEF.
I NT l,0 1>IJCT I ON.

C:in we not dist in i-;"u ish betwee n acc uracy in stat ing facts and accur:icy in form in g- judgment?
II. Their relat ive v:ilue in ;:i work of fiction.

l i JSCVSSIUN.

I.

Causes of the cha n brrc .

I.

(a) He r nat ure o r personal charac teris tics.
(It) Defects of he r early educatio n.
( r ) 1In dt:fcct i1·e notion s o f C hri s ti ·1nity I
w 1en young .
(I)
1' c· n. or 1 of theo logical storms. · •
'

II.

1In drni:il of the Christia n foit h.
(a) I ts suddenness .
I k r att it1 1clc toll':ird he r friends.

1
(/ )

lIT.

II.

Its effec ts upo n her works.
CON CLUS ION.

PATHOS OF T HA CKERAY AS CO MPARED WITJI TllAT OF
DJ CK ENS.

TlI/\. CKER/\. Y.
THEMES.

r. Arc his His torical Novel s J\ccurate ?
2.

H is Historical Novel.~., ,' ts·· Co rnp:ire d wit
. h those of
George Elio t.

Th:icke ray 's acc uracy of j udg me nt.
(a) \Vas not this his m;iin olJj<:ct?
(/,) Is he just in hi s es timate of character?
(l°) Is th e impression le ft o n th e mind of his readers a
truthful o ne?

(a) Viel it lower their v:due ?

CENEHAI. S U BJF.CT.

Th:ick cray' s :iccuracy as to facts.
(a) \Vere his ha b its of mind accura te?
(/t) \V as he a careful reader?
(.") Are hi s fa cts accurate ( 1) As tu hist ori ca l eve nts?
( 2) /\s to soc ial m;tnn ers and customs?
(d) Did T hacke ray aim at accuracy in facts?

INTRODUCTION.

I.

Why should we compare Thackeray and Dicken s ?
(a) Are th ere any points o f resemb lan ce in th eir works?
(b) Arc th ey al ik e in th e motil'es that prompted th e m?
( r ) Is th e influt:ncc they ha ve over th eir readers s imil:1r
any way?

111

218

EXFRCJSFS O.\r

Tl!E Pl. AN.

D ISCUSSION.

I.

II.

Path os ::is ::i characte risti c of th e work of Thack.
cr:J.y and Dickens.
(a) ls it prominent in Thackeray?
(b) Its prominence in Dickens .

CONCLUS ION.

( c) Arc some worb of each author more pathetic as a whole
th an others are ?

II.

D iffe rence of thi s from (a) Shylock's openly avowcc I I1atrc d of A ut011io a nd of all
C hri s ti a ns.
(/J) Shylock's cruelty a nd hi s obstinacy .

Difference in tie
I rcsu It s o f h:J.tred wh ich comes
from the h eart and that whi ch co nh: s from the head.

S ubjects of p:1thos in the two.
(a) Is o ne mo re co 1nm onplace in his cho ice th an the other?

II l.

IV.

M ct hod of trc:ttm en t of in t hct ic scenes.

I S SllAKESPEARE FA I R T O CIES!\R I

(n) As to Ja nf,'1.1agc - diffuse ne ss ~
(b) Do t hey see k to mak e a n impressi on?
( c) Is the exp ression natural?
(d) Effects produced by cont ras ts.

INTRODUCTION.

I.

w:is?
(a) Did he really think as badly of Ca:s;tr as appears in th e

Effect of their p:1thos on readers.
( 1z) \ :Vl1ich wouid ;i_ffcct tJ~c grc;lier n111nhcr?
(b) How would t hn· :ifTrrt (J,,.;,. n'~dr'rs?
(<"I

· · 11 of Shakcs·11earc
Can we t ell wl1:1t t Ile opm10

,,: .11'?

~I ~--k·JH_'\\" C:vs'.1r\;

1

good qrniitir:-:; . fnr in 1n:d-:ing .d lu..:.i

to hirn in 11 tl1cr ;u:·h

\\l.,tdd t he im pr<' ssi•Jn recri,·cd nuk e tlicii rc:idcrs mure
t huugh!f1d?

uf

l1i:-1 '.\"11rk:--

ht• spc.tks (jt"

Lilli

1 1

11 s

.I'">

,, the greJl .u1d llULlc l ·. 1·-, .1r. 1'
J) ISCUSS IU N.

S ummary of essential diffe rences.
Wl!I CI I

IS

TIIE c;l<EATER

~

~~~

Vll.u\!N , SH YLOC K 01< l!\!iO?

" the great an Ll

I N 'I'J{OlJUC' f' I O N .

llf SCt'SS rON.

Opini o n one forms of Iac;o at fi rst.

I.

(n) His undt:rhand llH; tiwds of instill ing je;\lousy into the

heart of Othello .
({1) l I:s out wa rd apµc:tr:tn cc o f lm·c for Uthcll o.
( c") 1-fis j ea lousy of L.~:;:-.iu ' s higher jH)Sit ioa.

110

1 ,.
:i.ilud cd t o in other
//
C :{.
• 's.·a r"

places ?
(
Arc his actions s uch as we might e xpect mm
such a g reat lc:J.dcr and gener::t l?
· h ·is t o ry '' tS a ~grcJ.t gcncrJ.I,
L \Ve read o f h .im Ill
for-

\ Ve arc s ure .th:it Shylock and fag-o arc both
g reat villains, but not certain at first whi c h is the
g reater.

I.

. tJ le p j ;1).. .I ls
\V h;1 t is the cklLtCle r " f l .: 1· o;;tr in
it su c h as wo uld lead one lo s upp usc tk1t 111.: w.<s

-~

(a) lTe Ji:i d great endurance.
(/i) 1-Iewas llrave .
(•) I kw.ts w1·y q1;ick -\\ it1t-d ._
( d ) J le W(Jl1 the a d rnir" t io n of li is soldi ers, which is neccs·
sary for .t gc ncr.d.

,

i

i.

3·

I J.
I .

2.

3.

llll~·

F.\ .l:RCJSJ:"S ON

220

i I e .was :1 th oroug h politi cian.
(11) He did el"t:rything fo r l'orne. fo r he spent th e !Jest tim e
of hi s life in fig htin g he r battles and with o ut him she
wo uld h01ve bct: n los t.
H e h01cl many good qu 01l ities as a m01 n.
(a ) H e was bra\' c 01ncl kin d -hearted , but h e was amb iti ous.

Does Shakespeare make such a n estimate of his
cha racte r?
I le
(a)
(/J)
(<·)

would make out that he w:is no gc 11 c ra l at a ll, fo r -l i e shows hi m as fee b le-willed;
As a co ward, fo r he wo uld 11 ut .c:o to th e c: 1pita l ;
/\s one who wo uld ncl"t:r wi11 t he admirat io n o f his
soldi ers, but who obli;;ecl th em to he sul,jcct to him.
H e docs not hint th a t he was ;t good pol it ician, fo r (a ) I le s ays h e did everyth i ng fo r ho no r and p rai se .
(/J) He s;1ys that he wou lcl h;w e tak e n th e crn wn al no matt<:r wll:lt risk to l.: o rn e in orde r to Ii · call ed king.
As a man Shak espeare puts C a:sa r far be low th e a1·c rage.
(a) Can we tell Sha kespeare's rn o ti1·c fo r trea ti ng Ca::sar
thu s when he knew bet te r ?

I I.

III.

.

(11) He would ha ve let his wife, o n account o f her fc~o ltsh

He was not co urageo lts, for he karcd to µ; o

I V.

t o th e capital.
V . Brutus said :" Ile was t oo ambiti o u s.~' [
VL I k docs nut ca ll forth mu ch sy mpat .1y, olr (a) Before the tim e of hi s death he is so p1cturec as
disg ust th e readers.

VrI.

t

o

..

B ut with Brutus it is cl1tferent.
fi rst he is admired for -

F rom th e

fri e.·.ud al the
( ,, ) I It:: was so patri ot ic, .sin ce. he kill ed· Ifhis. th
immine nt dange r of b e ing k.,II et11 11 msc ' r.t " 1 than th a t
an y harm should co me to J.lome.
(/!) I le was lende r-heart ed, as is sh0 wn in several places ..
(c) I le was of a n affec tio nate nature , as is show n 111 h is
tr.:at me nt o f his wi fe .
.
r
J1e c.\ cmancJe cl lo I.Jc k1lled b.v the
(d) 1le was brave, 1or
hand of a friend .
CONC LUS ION .

D id, th en, Shakespeare intend t o make Brut us the

••

h ero?
DICKE.NS.

DISCUSS l0N.

Docs Cesa r fill th e place of the one des cri bed
abo\'e? Is he the man whom th e readers
follow with t he g n:a tes t interest?

I le is arrogant.
V ery weak-will ed, for-

dream, kee p him at ho me whe n h e should have be e n at
the ca p it a l, had not his friend turned h1111.

I NTROI>LH "f lt>N .

I.

::. .

·1.
I ·in ti >e IJl.·iy is no t one tha t
( a ) 1 li s charac ter as c.l escnucl
wo uld demand a d mi ra ti o n, for -

I S DRUTUS O J< C-E:-;J\R TllC: l lE l ~O OF Tiii ,; PLAY
I tJ I.I US C FS,\ R?

I-I ow docs an a uth or usually set fo rth his hero?
Docs he mak e him a pe rso n in feri o r t o others in the
pl ay, or does he not rathe r make him th e ct.: ntre
abo ut whi ch everythin g t urn s? Is he not the one
who de mands the sympat hy and ad mirati on of the
r eade r?

22 I

Pl.A N.

THEM E S.

x. Esth er and Ada.
Is Dav id· Copperfield Fac t or Fancy?

2.

222

EXERC!.SFS ON

Tf!F Pl ..·IN .

3. Did Dickens' s y ·
ie w of the World
Cynical?
ma ke him
4. \ Vh:it w:is D ickens's Motive for W .t.
Nickleby?
n mg Nicholas

CONC LUS ION.

All these t hin gs point t o t he in ference that Esther
was D icke ns' s ideal woman.

5. Dickens's l\.cligious Views.

W ll AT \VAS JJI C KE NS"S M OT IV E VO i< WRITI Nl;
N I Cl l OL1\S N JCKLEIW?

• i·

PLANS.

I NTROD UCT IO N.

ESTl!ER A ND ADA.

O ug ht Y orkshire boardin g-schools for boys to be
abol ished ? Dic kens tho ug ht th ey ought, for -

I NTR OUVCTIQN.

Dick e ns intended Esther to
represent his idea of
a model woman, for -

U ISCUSS l ON .

I.

Th ey were go vern ed by un q ualifi ed men.
(a) O f this lack of quali ficat ion Squee rs is th e t ype,

ll!SCVSS ION .

I.

While both

r:.s th er and

Ada are beautiful Esther
on y has the strerwth t 0 b
'
beauty.
<>
ca r the loss of
J

~;:; .~;~:t1h~~· Jived a,more

beautiful life a ft e r the loss.
· put be_1 ond conta" i•rn ~ . ·
poin t of the c h o1·"c t
. I "'
. u1 Without beauty th e
" " e r is ost.
.

II.

Ho t h are un selfish b t 1· I
. '
u
-~s t ier tl oes not Jose
com mon se nse.
(a) Esther understood t
·
.
·
ru e unscl tis hn ···· A 1
sac rifi
ce .
ess '
ca, o nly seJf-

(b) Esther co ul d be lru..: to Ii •
. .
heart.
er gu.1rd 1a11 th o ug h it IJroke her

I 1I

IV.

(c) Ada threw h ersel f awa)· in . ~

.

H

I 1

223

1· I
a oo isl sel l-sacrifice

c~t 1 iad sorro w to bear.
(a) Ls th e r buried it.
(b) Ada let others bear it

They were t oo far from supervis ion by a uth ority.
(a) The m o ther o f Squeers's last v ic tim did no t drea m huw
matters we nt .

II I.

The o rdinary conditions of comfort were not
cons id ered ( a) As illustrated by the prov isions fo r s leep in g and .:.tting
in Squecrs's sc h oo l.

IV.

.

; :
!:
I'
i'

.'

I:
I

Ext e nt and im porta nce of Dickens's se rvice to
educatio n and humanity.

.

~un1ebody.

\

Dicke ns did mu ch to abol ish these schools.
l'ONCLllSIU N.

GENE llAL S UllJF.CT.

Ada was a ch ild to. the end. l
f
I
' .~sther, a woman
· rom ier earliest years.
r

i :·

(b) Dickens's correspondence sh ows.

II.

COMPARISON

(a) Ada was ever a child fo r F.51 I
(b) 1.::sthcr al , . .
- ier to shelter.
II a) s a wo111an Jon 0"'lll"
to s h e I le ·.
0

'.

.is

.,

OF EV ANGELINE AND
PRISCILLA.
THEr.tES.

r. Comparison of th eir l'ersonal Appearan ce.
D iffere nce between their S tations in L ife.

2.

'I

F.\.i:'f\C/SFS ON

Tiii:· l'l ...tN.

3. Princip:d traits of Cha racte r

l>I SC U ~ S ll) N .

4 . Compa ri so n of th<.:i r J>eJ· . ·

'- w rou s Life.
5. What Effr ct do th e St ori ~s of th, . ,
upon th e Reader?
ese l e rsons have

I.

( a ) Their lang uage.
(b) Their dress.
(1) Mod e of Jiving.

PLANS.

DIFFERENCE l!ETIVEEN

I.

THEIR STATIONS JN I.JFE.

In early yea rs:_
(a) .Evangeline; happv, inrl _ . . .
in Acadia .
.
ust nous, in her peace ful home

(b) P ris cilla, surround ed wi th all
sctllers o f New England.
the h;trcl s hips o f tli e early

II.

1 [istor ical mistakes in regard to the c ust om s <Jf
th e people.
. f

IT. Mi st<1kcs in n.:g-a rd lo cduc:i.tion of th e peopk.
II!. Mi st:ikes in rega rd to th e Church.
IV. Mistakes in regard to th e Tc mplars.
V. Mistake s about King J oh n and lZichard Ca:ur
dl'. Lion.
VI. Mistakes about th l'. gov ernm e nt.

In later years : _
(a) E1·ange line, sad , hom eless

<~1-:N1mA L

· ·' sea rc hing in vain for her

lo ve r.

(b) Pris cilla, th e h;tppv co r t t l
, '
i e n C< wift.: of Ont.: of th•·· rorernos t men of th e co lony .
' i•

StrnJECT.

TI-I E METHODS OF MODER N l'OLITI CAL
CAMPAIGNS.
THEMES.

CHARACTER IST ICS O F J-'
• _
-YA NG I.:. Lt l\" J·: A N !J

I.

I'I·: I SC! LLA.

Of Eva ngel in<.:.
(a) Centlc ncss , sym pat hy, coura' ..
ance , trust.
· .i.: c , st ro ng purpose, enclur-

IL

The
2. Are
3 Arc
4. The
I.

Of Priscilla.

N ccessity or Meth ods in Modern Ca rnpai g; nin i-(.
these Methods Deg r::ulin g Politi cs 1
the I'rcse nt l'oli t ica l Meth ods Justi fiab le?
Effect of the Present Methods of Ca mpai g n-

111g.

(rz) Blunt , ou ts pok en nature k' I ·
.
keen se nse o f hum o r.
' JIJ L Hes s , hwh
"' ideals of 11·re,
JI

5. J\

Gl im pse into the " 1nsid e Ring" durin g a
Campai g n.
PLANS.

HISTORICAL MISTAK ES·

IN IVANHOE.

INT RODUCTI ON.

I. Character of hi sto rical novel
re rrarcls hi stor
II. D oes. ,S co tt pretend to histos as
. l t>
y.
·

nca accuracy?

THE NECESSITY Of M ETHODS IN MODER N PO LI T ICAL
CAMPA IGNING.

I.

Conventions necessary to draw up pl a tform whi c h
is cs s<.: nti al for unity. The co mmittel'.S only
continue work begun by convention.

..
•

•

•· ~
_,.:

r'

<,

'«':

~

~~

I

~~ '·

i ;.-

( ~··-·
{ 1·:~

226

Committees necessary to brin g real issues before the people.
III. Prese n t-clay educational ca mpa ign requires:-

1,1 ~C U~S I ON .

IL

(a) Judicious plac in g o f speakers. pa mphl e ts, e tc.
(b) J\cttl'r use of money.
(r) Cleane r methods.

IV.

Unity of act ion a requis ite factor m all cam pa igns .
V. Comm it tees must di s tri bute moneys for speakin g, pa radi ng , etc., and meet all expenses.
VI. Com111ittecs can best judge h ow g reat an assessment office-holders and pa rty beneficiaries
must pay!

Nature of change.

I.

(a) Wasitarapidchanf!;e ?
. ?
(b) How clitl this cha nge affect h e r life.

I I.

. d soon after th e
Causes of change.
.
· I in which s h e 1iv e •
(a) The criti ca l pe1:1oc
French Re,·olution.
.
l · . a nd sc icn, _ w• h o f p lul osop llc
Tl 1 •· developme nt ant1 6 ' 0 '
o f her
·
·
( ,'i)
,
"
.
•
. _, _ . ·d in the ht e ratu1 e
tihc in vest igatio ns as c:xp1cssc
time

,

CONCLUSION·

I3F TH E AD VANTA( ; E' _O F AN INT\::l.:WHAT W OULD
.
. LWAY?
CON T! NC:NlAL !{Al
J NTIW JJU CT ION.

·
t " I railway?
Wh o first propos e d the Intercontrnen "

The Nation ;:i ] Committee.
(a) As a whole, leading p art y men.
(b) Its c h;1irman, typical partisan .

DISCUSS ION .

II. All effo rt s massed by thi s Com mittee.
III. The ce n tral point of all action .
JV.

·1
?
I. What n eed is there of such a ra1 way.
I I. Would it be p rofi table ?

The State committees act under it s instructions.

V. Proceedings secret-often questionable.
VI. All national reports as to polit ica l situation of
V II.

section submitted to the m.
The foc i of the camp::tig n ing committees.

CON\ ' l .US lUN.

Would it t end t o increase or decrease the population of our country?

the two oppos-

H OW IS

· · t.ion n ecessary ?
\Vh y is 1rrq;:i

I NTH.OJ1UCT I UN.

Pl ~l l i .--..~lVZ-.: .

Her rel igion in early life.
(a) How she was re ligiousl y train ed.
(b) W hat wa~ th e na ture of her early b elie f?
C.f.p .

216.

UT AND WllAT
IRRI GATION l\ROUGll·~· J\11 O
GOOIJ l)(J lcS n lJ()?
I NTIZO l>UCTl ON.

GEORG E ELIOT'S C l!ANG C: O F RELIG IOUS BELIEF.I

I

,

f her .. free-think ing" comparuons.
.
( c) In Auencc o

A GL!Ml'SE INTO TJJE "I NSIDE RING."

I.

227

THF: Pl.AN.

EXERC/SLS ON

1.

. . ll it is accompli shed.
The various ways in wl11c
(a) By st reams .
( b) lly weiis .

2z 8
F. \ Ef.'l I S!:'.\'.

II.
\ Vhere and wh en first used~
II I. At what time of • . . .
l
year is it used
IV. I
ll

w iat part of the

ION
0 f wh:u pnct· l CONCLUS
l
.
>
,
ica ac vantage is it?
J a cre I ~(1
Cu 11 ect cxam))lc. f
"' . .)";,t·

C oncl usions to l . . .

~

. ..
country is it mos t used ?

. s o Tntrodu cti ons and
and di . .
l .
good rn:i.g-azi nc or vol
sc ussc( in the class.
numerous examples.
lime of essays will furnish
./\

CHAPTER VI.
KINDS OF' COMPOSITION.

)c r c:i.d

S ECTION I.
I 11-:SC I< I i'TJ ON .

PAGE 144. (1) Describe a building in your own
town , and kt th e members of th e class dec ide whi ch
is mt:ant.
(2) In describing persons, call attention to th ose
features that indi cate c haracter.
.!'ag e 145. ( 1) Enumer:i.te other familiar objects
th a t may serve as an a id in desc riptions.
(2) Make a list of fami lia r co mpari sons descriptive
of rive rs, lakes, mountains, buildin g s. The tc:i.cher
should su gges t features of local scenery for this
exerc ise.
(3) Select from a picture te n of the most im portant elem e nts, and write a description limit ed to two
hundred word s.
l'age 146. C ollect to be read in class examples of
the three kinds of description.
Page 155 . ( 1) Write as long a list as yo u can of
words synonymous with red, and apply each word
to a sui table obj ect.
(2) Do th e same with other words of color, - yellow, g ree n, blue, etc.
2-W

F.\ "Ff.' C/SF .S ON

Pag e 1 56.
topics : -

DESCRIPTION.

(1) Fill out th e blanks in the foll

.
owrng

A Sketch o f _
Glimpses of .
A Visit t o _ ·
(2) D esc ribe th~ roo
1
w l Crc yo
t
(3 ) Desc ribe an el m m
tree.
ti s uc1y.
(4) Descr ibe t he n l
.
d ocs it di ff . [ ·
r'
m of y o ur rig ht ha n(l
.
e r 10111 that of .
l
.
(5) Stud ies 1·11 CJ
j our eft hand?

How

1 ·
OU<s:
'(t1) ~l <>uds in \Vintc l'.

(/!) 1· orn1s o f TinJJicl . _ 1
CIC 0 11 cs
1
c) Clouds at Sunset.
(d) 1\fo<Jn) j,, Jit j.'ff . . .
""
· ee ls on Clouds
( t!) Clo uds and
Mist.
..
(

S t udy th e spray of
vapor risi no- fro
a wat e rfall, the thin ve il of
,..,
m ponds a nd 1 k .
.
(G) A Wat•' 1·f·1ll
N
a cs at e ve n1n o- etc
~ · ·
ot c th , l
'""
·
of the water·, the fo.
f
e c.1a11gcs in the color
.
im
so
th
c
J1ttl'
1
·
()
7 flieJiiJls ·1tS .
e w11rlpouls etc
, · ll ll:-<et
N t
l
'
·
(8) Huildin"s Rece1 1tl 1· o e .t le colo rs .
"' Fl. .. Y -· rec tcd 1n ·1·o wn.
(9 ) Sig ht s on
· c c t1on ])· iv
( ro) Tl
le Amcn·c·u1 C ';
th <lt
h
,
o untry Hotel. S l
e cct o ne
' yo u ave s ee n
(11) A letter fro;11 an 7·
.
<r ivi n r
·.ngi1shnia n to ]''11 • .
b
g <111 <1CCoun t of . .. ..
c T1111 cs
•l \ 1s 1tto v .
'
( r 2) Stn.:ct :iin·J .
; 11u1 town.
0
t!
lt .~ .
Do not · ·l . . .
1a t you cannot m ~ k . tl
sc cct so many things
" e 1 e a cco t f
·
. un
(i3) Describe· a 1
them vivid
ocom t •
.
··
.
cng111e •
o ive, a steamboat > •·1 fi.I e-

°

(14) Write a letter describing the birds you h:tvl:
seen in your neighborhood.
(r 5) The Ways of a Dog. Describe some on e clog.
(16) S e lect some game for des c ription , - baseball.
foot bar!, etc., - and give an l:xact but unt echnical
account of it.
Children's games are espec ially picturesque a nd
interesting if all th e features a re no ted.
(1 7) How a Boy Learns to Skate.
(18) Select ten wo rd s from one of the desc ripti o ns
of persons in S cott's Abbot or lva11!we, and writ e a
c.lesc ription conta ini ng the selecte<l words.
(19) Describe in fifty words so me person y o u have
seen.
PLANS FOR DESCRIPTION.'

~I

'i

":
'I

I

DESCRIPTIO N 0 1-' A C ITY.

I.
II.

III.
IV.
V.

VI.

Gene ral view of its outline from som e promin e nt
point.
Comparison with some well -known object which
will defioitcly fix its form in th e mind.
The approaches to th e c ity.
The most striking c haracter isti c to be stated so
as to fix it permanently in the mind.
Its streets.
Its dwelling-nouscs.
(a) Costliness.
(b) Architecture.

VII.
VIII.
1

Its public buildings.
Its parks a nd public gardens.

These plans arc offered for critic ism .

232
J

x.

X.

E XFN C/Sf·.'S <JN

NARRATION.

1t::; m:rn ufacturt:s.
Its p<.:oplc.

V. Th e Falls on th e American Side.
VI. Their a ttract ion to visit ors.
VJ I. Thi.: Falls in Winter ::rnd Summer.
VIII. Arc the Falls changi ng ?
IX. The prospective use of the ir water-power.

(t1) Ldu ca ti o n.
(b) Occupat io ns .
(c ) Morals.
(d) Dress, etc .

I.

Tlfl·: OLI..i 110,\ IESTEAL>.

SECTION II.
NARKATlON.

( 1 ) Firep la ces .
(2) J'i ct ures , etc .

Doory:i. rd.
(") Plants.
(b) T rees.
( 1 ) O rn ame ntal.
(2) Fruit.
(c) Fi shpo nd.

lII.

Surrounding C"untry.

(a) Tl 1c meadows.
( 1 ) Cornfi elds .
(2) The brook .
(b) The forest.
( I) The pi nes .
(2) The oaks .
(c) HiJJs in the backg ro und.

I.

N!A CAR1\

1::\LLS.

Wh ere situated?
TT . T he Falls from above.
I IT. The Falls from below
IV. T he F · II ·
I . ., .
•1 s on ti c Ca nadian Side.

>

"

,,
.1;

The dweilin t>·
a
(a) Cables .
( b) Ver:rndas.
(") The hall.
(d) Parlor-.

r f.

233

IN treatin g narrative and descriptive topics th e
writers should be encouraged to adopt their ow n
me thod, and to give as free play as possible to their
original ity. Narration and description may therefore be fredy bl e nd ed.
Page 1 58. \!\Trite an outline of a narrative on eac h
of the topics suggested bdow.
(1) Fill out t he blanks in the following topics: My Expe rien ce with--.
Recent l'rog ress i n -- .
The Story of - -.
The Charity Club o(
The Reading Club of - - .
(2) Let th e class suggest sim ilar topics.
Make a plan and write a narrative on each of the
following topics : (1) A Skatin g l'arty and What Came of it.
(2) A J ourn ey in a Balloon from New York to
Boston .
(3) /\ Half-hour in a Street Car.

234

235

NARRATI ON.

(4) My First Trip on a Locomotive.

(5) The Ropewalker at Niagara Falls.
(G) Tell the story of Robinso n Crusoe.
(7) T ell a s imibr story of some lost A rctic explore
r.

(8) Tell rn prose the sto ry of l'aul Re vere's Ride,
as related by Lon g fe llow.
.Be cardul to avo id wvrds pcc uktr to poetry.
(9) Give in a le tt er to a friend an accou n t of yo ur
studies a nd your school.

(ro) A Diary of II alf an Hour. Note everything
th at 111011c.r whi le you arc mak in g yo ur observati ons.
( r 1) Leaves fro m the D iary of Met hu selah .
( 1 2) A Visit to a Facto ry.

(a) T lle Hut in the \.Vo ods.
(b) Th e Chase for a Deer.
( c) A Fish ing Expedi'.io n .. i1w Rapids m a C. a11oe . .
(d) S hoot e.
_ . the i\'lounta111s.
( <) A Thund1:r~to1m in
(;.)A Fores t F ire.
.
of th e Forests.
( ' ) The D estru ct10n
. I
I
""
.
(.J;Ii) A R1l
c on a ~ o !-'.aft
.
'· .
·
1 . 1\ d1 rondac ... s .
(i) Rai lwa ys Ill t ic k. . . . Snte Park.
( ') Th e i\dirond. 1c ·s as ,l. . 1· . h cks .
I Peopl e One J~I ce
· -ts. in th e A1 11 u1H · ·
(k)
(I) ~To lie s upp li ed by the class.

Cm>S
( 17) A 'vVeek in a T e nt hy the

(a) The Fire at th e l'ostottice.
(b) ){un :t way on Main .Street.

( a) J'utting up the T e nt.
· .,. for Sua weed·
(/!) H unt1n,,,
•
- I Lobs ters.
( ·) Fish in!! for Crabs ,me . I .
~
Bl
'
(d) An Afternoo n o t
u_c·hs. 1m<Y.
"'
(") Th e Coas tguard Stallon .
(/) A .Storm an cI .l· Wreck .

( r ) The Crading of Park Stree t.
(ti) /'rogress on the J\.iver Bridge.

(Ii)

( 13) A Week in a Town without a Ra ilroad.
( r4) N e wspaper items: -

(t')
())
(i;)
(II)

The
The
The
The

Opposition tu the Uect ric Cars o n Blank Street.
Mass Meet ing Llst Evening.
State of Our .Streets.
Ne w .Skating-Rink.

( 15) A Chapte r of A cc ide nts : (a) l\'1'y Lxpericnce with a Runaway.
( b) My Escape froni a Burning Passenger Tra in .
(c) The Ope n Dr:nvbridge .
(d) The Fall of the Cotton l\lills at - - .

(e) The Explosion on the River Steamer.

(16) Ten Days in the Adiron dacks : -

s .
ea . -

(1.;') ~ To be supplied by the class .

s

.

nits of Fa r m Lrk: ( l

8)
(

.

.

-

f an Abandoned Farm .
a) The Purchase o . . " • on ' l hu m .
·
of Exc1 use
(b ) The Variety
_ ·
·rd t •in \ Vinter.
W 1·k be fore Da; i;... i
(<') Farm
•:
_ A . in-the Woods.
(d) A Day \l'lth an x~
..
I.
Stump l·enu.: .
Id
(ej Jluik 1ng_a ·.
Aliandoned F ie ·
(/) Th e lmgat1o n of_ an
(I[) The Count ry Chui ch .
The Country Store .
1
( ;.)
•
. l'ostoffice ·
(/.) ·1·11·-· Count1
y
·
.

·

~
_ 1
and impr
( 19) C l·1·ticize the follow
. in g- pans,
them w l1ereve, r you can . -

ove

NAJ.'h' ..J T!UN.

L'XER C!SES ON
A TRIP TO TI-IE MOON.
I NTRODtJCflON.

I.

How we happened to make it.
The journey.
(a) Our con"cyance.
(h) The way 11:e went.
(c) Things we saw o n th e way.

I I.

V. The first battle.
VI. JI is ca mp life.
(12) l low di ll it influe nce him?

VII.

The important battl es he was rn.

VI I I.

ADVENTUl,:I:: IN THI ' /\L>IROND/\CKS.

Way of li vin g . ·
(a ) Hous es.

(b) Custo ms.
(c ) Famili c~ . how made up.

IV.

The rctu rn.

(a) Changes in him a nd in his home .

Our re ceptio n.
(a) The people's hosp itality.
(/') How they feJ us.
(c) Th e questions tin;\' asked.

III.

237

Our return.

I.

Our jou rney thither.
(il) Train.
(b) Coach.

II.

The hotel and surroundings.
(Incidental Jescription.)
(a) The party.

III .

}'reparations for journey into th e h eart of th e
mountains.

THE LOSS OF Tl!E BAR QUE ••JANUS."

I.

(a) Difficulties on the road.
(b) Din ner .

The Storm.
(a) Off Cape Horn.
(b) Calm of the storm.
( r) Th e sudde n change.

IT.

The Efforts to make Port.
rI I. Th e Wreck.

IV.

Adventure with a bear.
(a) Fate of one of the p;trt y.
(h) His fall over the precipice in the bear's embrace.

V.

companion .
(a) The night search.
(b) The body not found .
(c) Trail of blood .
(d) W olves.
(e) Our fears.
(/) We follow the trail.
(K) A light on the top of th e precipice .
(Ii) A path up.
(i) 'vVe find our companion in a woodcutter's hut.

THE STORY OF J\ SOLD! ER.
INTKOD lTC TI ON .

\.Vho he wa s.
I. 'vVh;.it inHucnced him to go.
I I. The start.
I II. His arrival at camp.
( 0 )

IV.

His first impressions.

His first march .
(a) What he thought of it.

Return to hotel fur guide and help to rescue our

VI.

Story of the rescue.

"

EXPOSl7'ION.

I.
I I.

\ V'1 t I

lLDING.

a
expected to sec and hear in th e b . ·1d·
Jiow
.
'
u1 1ng.
. my expectations wen.: fu lfi lled
i

(tt) In J{otunda .
(b) In Se nate Chamber.
(c) In th e House.

·

(d) Ju the l'res idi:nt's private olTi ce.
(e) In the Library.

(zo) W rite an outline of a Chr· . t
I .
,
is mas story, introc uc ing at least five cha rac ters.

SECTION Ill.
EX l 'Oo /T/ON.

of the top ics stwirestecl in th f 11 .
pages can be treated with ooe
I
e o owing
,
'
q ua s uccess as th
f or Lxpos
ition for Aw
c
ernes
l >3 <YC 16 ? (' ) F'J] "'un1ent, or fo r Persu •·1s1'on .
• . o
-·
I
• 1 out th e blanks in the f 11
.
LOp lCS : 0 owrng
MANY

The Place of in Education.
The Effects u[ _ _
Th e Result of __ .
Questionable Mcth o.ds in _
The Art of - - .
·
The Best Method of _
S ome L essons from _ _ ·
X . Y. as a - .
·
The C haracter of
The I'ower of _ _
The Eclati ons bet\~ec n _
Som e D iffi c ulties in the wa; of

2 39

nu

l'vfy \'!SIT TO Tl!E N.'\T! (},\:AL CAP ITOL

(z) Write a letter of inquiry to a friend in the
Whit e Mountains, and a reply to the same.
(3) Write a lett er of in q uiry with regard to a
business openin g, and explain your qualificati ons.
(4) Writ e a reply, indicating the possibilities of
su ccess.

-1-

(S) Writ e t o the librarian of some c ity library,
asking information co ncern ing some topic.
Write the libra rian's reply.

(6) Write to the ed itor of a magazine, asking if
he would like an article on some European city you
are expecting to visit.
(7) Write to a classmate in the Adirondacks,
asking him to make arrangements for a campin g
party.
(8) Write a reply in which the classmate explains
that he is too busy to join th e camping party.
(9) How to Plant a Ga rd en.
( 10) Ho w to Build a Rowboa t.
(1 1) How to Make an Aquarium.
(12) liow to Make a Fernery.
(13) How Children Learn to Talk.
(14) The Value of Map-drawing 111 Learning
Geog raphy.
(IS) What do you think of the value of historical
novels ?
(r6) Write a book revi ew. Find models in Maca ulay's Essays, T!te Dial, Tlte Nation, Tlte Cn'tic,
etc.

."
/ o' X PUS/'/'/ U. V.

F.\'FNCIS!:'S ON

the method hy nuk in g t hree columns ancl filling

(17) Compare Longfellow' s poems on birds with
similar poems hy Bryant.

them i11

<i"

iullo,vs: -

Tennyson's

( 18) \Nrite a letter g iving

your imp ressions of
some book that yo11 have lately read .

Lo n gfellow's

(19) Manners of Children a Hundred Years Ago.
(::?o) Sll nclay-school Storybooks.

\Vhitticr's

(21) Thc Defects of Modern Fire Depart me nt s.

L owell's

(22) A 'W orld without Coal.

T h ackeray 's

(23) A \Vorld without Metals.
(24) l'oss1uic l\csllits r;f the
Nic1rap;u:1 C:in R1

c .. lllj>ktiun

etc.
.. [' th e

I

\

I
J

relation to

attitude tu ward
feel in g for
dislike of
opinions o n

Il
I

l
'

SL·icnc:c.
Rci igion .
A r t.
i\ l ll S jL~ .
l'olitics.
!'lain l'copk .
C h ildren.
T

(Ii)

~~

(a) Jts Influen ce on the Murals of the Country.
(b) Its Aid to Sc ience .
(c) Its Pow er as a ]\;:lcc ma kcr.
(d) Its ilcnetits to ' l'r;td" :tnd Com merce.

. i\ n ~.\tensive range of topics m;1y be found by
d1scussrng the relat ion of some man to politics, :irt,
litcratu re, science, f'cl i i~ i • ll1, ct c. 'v\Te ni:iy ii Iustrate

~~ l..:

y.

'.I

:··

.,

'r lh· <.Jce:u1 .

(r)

f<i\Tf"~ .

(J)

L,d\.l'S .

(<)

l\l 1 Jll nt~1in '.'{ _

(29) V.'hy did the E :1rly Sett lers " f i\cw Engbnd
Pers ec ut e the C')u :1kns >

(3 I) The Dangers of Fog :it Sea.
(32) Benefits of th e \\.'o.-ld 's F<tir.

"1 t •

( () h•l l"·~ '"
(:.") 1:1owcrs .
( /,) I :irds .
( i)
l 11 '-\l"l t ...,.

Stn rl cnt .

(30) (_}1u int Cust"111s of the OIJcn T i rnL: 111 New
Engla nd.

·"'·

LUVC .

N;tlun·
(,1) . 1· ~

~iii

(25 ) .Smokin;..; as a Test of Manhood.
(2(1) Uraw up :t phrn fur a school paper.
(2 7) Hints on l lol!s chr.;d Uccur.1tiun.
(28) The Place of Fiction in thr. Reading- of a

.

~-

'.;\

clc.

/\nntht-r fnrm "f 1hcsc t"pics rn:1y lw preferred. ;rs

fur insLlncc: -

Natu r e
(a ) T he Ski
(b) The Ucc;cn

{ll ll' 1ll S.

etc .

George Eliot's

l\-'lot 11crs

r)(Jvcls .

Chiidrcn

etc.

c· tc' .

In thus chnosinh· a topic
tu trc;ll a

~Teat subj ec t ;ls

:1

w1 itcr is Jl()t compclktl
:t

\\'h(1lc,

Uul ca11 caslly

,•:

2.p

.·IA' CU:l !FYF.

1:.XLJ\C!S!:'.'i 0.V

trace it in o utl ine. Great subjects arc easi ly g rasped
w he n not overlmcled with details. Every pupil in a
high school , it may be assumed, knows something
about the Emancipation of the Slaves in 1863, and is
pre pared to g:ither inform ation abo ut how Lincoln
/di on the question of Emancipation.

Some U scs of - - .
Reason s for - -.
.
.
editori al art icle;
(2) Suggest suitable topics to r an
f or a l c~tter to a newspaper.
. .
(3) Overcrowding in c 1t1es : (a) The l)angc: r of - - .
(/.' ) The Rcmc<ly fo r --.

S E CT ION IV.
A

RC: ll ~I

1-:1'

r.

166.

Po int o ut the ambig uity 1n the foll owin g propos it io ns : ( 1) The clc rg·y should bear mon.: uf the obligations
of society th::rn shou ld teachers.
(2) People in muder;tte c irn1111"tanccs slwuld IJc
exempted fro111 excess ive taxation.
]'ag-c 1 i O. Show how the following proposition s
lead to absurd condusinns : (1) Every ni:tn who kills another is a murd erer,
a nd sho uld s uffer the pe nalty for murder.
(2) The effo rts of a rn :m to do good should have
the direct help of the law.
!'ages 170-173. Su,g,g cst illustr:ttions of ca.ch of
the fiv·c nwthods nf rd11t:1ti•1n
PA G lc

l

·

l l 11

1

t le

1"'~rk
,,

(..\) Tht: Proposcd_New1 l ·~u~a 11
.
. . in
( ) J larm o ny in Churc.1 b,J,s.
( l)c[Lre n c~ 1. . lbrarics
5
(Ci) The Nct:t1 o · '-

)

.,

.

.

l li"h
b

School Huildin l-(S .
_.
. ..
(7) I rnprnvcmcnl ol [owns. (11.) lZcm o \·al o f Fen<:es.
\ Ii) l\uilding of New J{o;t<b.

(') La·;ing .. ut i',u-ks.
\ii) lh~ildin .~ nf a nrit·l·~l.' tP -

- ·

, 1 ., . '-'t· lwul J',1111d1nc;_.
(<• ) ! \ ' " ; 1 J
.
(/I ,\ Stt:amvr 1.in e to ~-- ..- .·.

1 ~.
c° i; l O"t'ed , 1f" J'u l1 l1c l.1.i1.11
(11) Electric l.i ghti ug .
.
(i) Ll cc tric Car:> or J lor oc: c;u o '.
Ul

11 at in l'u\.J lic l'.1 1il d1n gs.

.

S \t"all1
e.
~· .,,, 1:;\c\nry for '.\1a 1111Li c 1111 111g . -- .

(A'} 1\ ·'c

·

..

(/) Nn:d oi "i~C\~ ::,11kw:.i.I
(

/II

(S)

) l'lantin" ot 1 rec:> .

.

, "° . .

~hall l'-~.uh\ay

k

on

Ul.1jecti••llS

ti>

.

_ _ ;,ired.

._: I ' s.
Cars·be Il cated l1y .,\<>\l

::itcam'
(•J) ;\ly

( 1) Fill out tlie lil:i1i ks in t h...: fvll uwin;; topics: -S"mc Advantag es of-- .
So me ( )hj(·ctin n s to - - .
Th~: \.' ;liuc ,-,f - - ·- lo - .

-

.

t-·.

~- ;

~·

' !J·\°

i ,..

the

i:vr, ·:-. h .
( 1o) l 'ost:il Delivery in the: C ountry.
nl NcwsFxcuses f,,r the l n :1c n11·ary
,
( 1 1 ) <..;onw
p;1 per s.

: "1

,...

ARCUMLN'l'.

244

EX/o'RCISFS ON

(12) The Value of Deb:i.te to the St udent.
( 13) Arc t he In di:i.ns !'it to be Made Citizens?
(q) The Rcbtivc V:i.luc of German and L a tin to
a ~tll<knt of S c ience.
(1 5) i\mcrican ]\;til\\'ay Colli s iu11s.
(16) Adv:i.ntages of the Block-system on Railways.
(17) Dc·batc the foll owi ng questions:(a) Resolve d: That college stndcnts be allow ed to vo te in
town elections ;
(b) Tktt alhletic tr:iinin.~ h e made compulsory in publ ic
schools;
(c) That /\merican boys be cornpcilcd to rece ive a military
training;

(d) That a tax be imposed upon all immigrants into the
Un ite d States;
(«) That none but landowners shouici be voters;
( /) Thal gas-works and electric-light works be owned and
nuna.~ed by ci ty corporations;
(.i;) That th e telegraph system be purchased and controlled
by th e Fede ral Government;
(h) That OC<'<lll racing should lie prnhihit•:d hy hw.

(11) lf it were not compulsory,
it n1ost would n e~it:c t it;

.
JU Sl

t 1iose s

tudents whl> need

.

l

'l
f the ill't: SC !ll UOl1ircL\L l
(b) It ''"Hild do a\l'ay with C\'I s v
<tthlctiLs, :.)uch :ts) ( l ) Fxccss of t·xcrcisc ,
(2) t 'l\\·~icd i11jury.
(3) >icglcct uf :-. tudy .
t han hc:alth th" ul.Jc< t nf
1
(4) Mak ing rivalry rat icr

III.

The effects o£ ;:ithlctic trainin g
where it has hcen tested, -(") 1n Lkcrease of sicknes~,
(b) In ge neral vigor of constitutivn.

"

.l

(18) Criticize t he followin g plans for a debate on
the quest ion J\esolvcd: That College Athletic Trainin g bl.!
l\hdc Compulsory.

·C

fli<ST AFFIRMATIVE.

Athletic exercise is needed by students, lx:eause
it brings about so me satisfacto ry lxtlanee between phy s ic:i.l :ind intdkctu;tl needs.
II. Athletic training should be made compulso ry
because I.

,,
are: -

·~·-

f.

24 7

/ 'f·,' A'S U.·I Sf ON.

FXER C/ SFS VN
(I)
( . '! )

( 1) E xcess,
(2) l'h ysic:i l injur ies ,

L1t.: 1h.: lit .

(c) No two pc op

(<!) It would e re.Il e less ri valry.
balan ce

Answ e r to one of the Nega tive arg um e nt s. If
men cannot affo rd to spen d t heir t im e 11ow in taking
exerc ise, t hey 11Cvr·r will fi nd ti me.
FIRST N lcGA TI V E.

T.

l\hnncr of dis cu ssing- th e questi on.
( a ) No t in reg a rd to o n e speci al case , bu t a s a ge ne ral rule .
(11) Nu t as a ques tion of th e prese nt on ly, bu t as a !Tec ting
th e futur e.

If.

J\m not opposed t o athlet ics, a nd believe their

mudcrate purs uit to be benefi ci:tl, bu t am
hear t ily opposed to co1J1f11!so1y athleti cs : (a ) lkca use cu ll q.:c m e n, espec ia lly in th e ttppcr c lasses,
sho uld no t IJ(" pbced on th e s c hoolboy pl:tne. (T hat is
th e ge n er:t! effe ct o f co1npul si un in suc h nutt e rs.)
(Ii) Th e parti cu l:tr e lle ct. in that s uc h C<lmpulsion rai ses
a nt:igo ni s m a.c;:ii ns t athletics and defeats its own obj•· c t
S l·:co :-.:o :\EGA'J'l\'E.

J_

Athletic train in g- at co ll q;e s hould not be made
cnrnpul s()ry . lil'ca usc it is not pra ct ical , as ( a) It 1H·ces:-i it. tl t·..; ;\

(/1) \\' it h SO
\·c ni c n t,

and
m :u1 y d :iss<:S the !t ou rs WOUid o ft e n IJe ill CU IJ ·
di\· i .•.(11 ) 11

a meal,

a 1 nc~d ·
l H·l

nwcl

often

.

. • .

·houid not

l. r e cl cn; lopcd alik e, ano su s '
<: a
. . . ·xercise l>cc:tu si:'

l

be g iv en th e s a m e cb. ~~ c. . l
l e b cne ti cial to une
_
I) E xercise wl11ch \\ O ll l
) .
(
·
. . - ·
to a not 1i e 1.
wo 1tl cl he r call ) tn)unous

( / ) S pec ial n eed o f :1th le tic e xercise wh e n o ne is s tudy ing-.
\\'o uld b rin g abo ut satisfacto ry
l1ctwcc n mental and physi cal needs.

Ju ... 1 ;1it1· r

( ti.) ·riil' d.1:~:--c :i cnuld

(J) N eglec t uf s t udy,
(4) Too m uc h n ervous e xpenditure.

( 1) l l

Jus l befo re

SEC TION V .
l ' F. \.:. S l1 1\ S l1 )N .

throutr h
( ) Th e L egal Tole rati on of Lotter ies.
I
S
1
A'lvoc:-it
in•.an
Ekctnc
Road
r(z)
peec 1 '
'
o
]\fain Stree t.
. Snnll V illages.
'
'f 1·a1·11ing for
(3 ) Public Readin g -rooms in
(4 ) The Importa nce o ( Industrial
Y ou n.,· \rVom c n.
.
,.,
of Crcmat10 n.
. c·t · s
(5'1 T he Advan tages
1 . u )hces 111 t ick'. . him
(<i) The N eed of Brcat 1111 0-I '
>
!Xe speaker
as 1 11~
(7) \rVrite a ktt e r to a pu I .
'
,
to

l) ) :tkl: an address.
f
. tanc c
1 instituti on or ass1s
(S) \rVrite to a charitah e

to a poor family.
·
Trade
of l carn1n •' a
·
(9) Th e J\ dv~nt ages - ·. • Me~hods in the Publi c
( Io) 1 nstru ct w n t n Bus i ncss
S chou ls.

!

. l

t

into c bsst·s .

;is .

( 1) Durin;.: :1 s tu dy hour .
(•) T lt e h" t11·s ll' !l u ld l1<: dan ge ro us , as,

;

i-

'!.J:

STUD!FS IN IJTFNA '/"U NE.

(7) Bits of llumor in Addison 's l'ortrait of
Roger.
CHAPTER VII.
STUDIES IN LITERATURE.'

Tim topics here Sii

er t
booksI read .
._goes eel arc based upon the
.
.
• Ill preparation for th
.
N'
e entrance cxammat1on in E1irrlish at tl
o
ie 1 ew Engla d
1
co lleges. The th
n
anc other
l .
emes take a wide ra
t es1 g ned for students of
, - l'f~f
nge, and are
The qu estions cire:
vc1y c1 ercnt grades.
.
. •
Ill no sense exha ·t·
. mtencled as mere s
.
, 'us ive, and are
pec1mens of what th t
suggest or get his stud t
e cacher m y
l· •
t ure read in cl"s . I en s to SUO'crest
oo . on t ie litcrn.
"· s.
n many ca .
l
prese n tccl will not be t
.
'scs .tie topics hero
.
s s u 1t th c n cc l
f
.
pupils, but topics th cit
. cs o untrain ed
be simplified h)' tl1 . t. ahppear too difficult can easily
c eac er.

A dd i.son: T11F- S11·' l'oG
\..
ER DF Cov
(1) l fow I Met S1'1- 1'
.
ERLEY PAPERS.
·
\..Oo-er
0
(2) A letter from Will _ ·
11oneycomb to a f . d .
t O\\'n, clcscribill rr tl , S
,
' nen Ill
"'
ic
pcctator s visit to S. R
( 3) A le t ter from Widow T.
·
. ir oger.
about Sir Roger.
i ueby to a fnend, telling
(4) A Day's Fishi1w with w·11 w·
()-) A Jcaf from Sir"" H.oO'er's1 . imble . ..
account of his vi s1't t h "' . diary, contammg an
.
o t c theatre
(o) Sir Roger's Account of his .
stc r Abbey.
. Visit to Wcstmini

See pages 287, 288.

:!48

~If

Arnold : SoHRAB AND RusTUM.
(1) Outline the story in five hundred words.
(2) Tell in your own words the story of the fight
and the recognition.
(3) Glimpses of Oriental Life in the Poem.
(4) Arnold's Use of the Ocean and of Rivers 111
the Poem.
(5) Select from the poe m ten striking epithets;
ten unusual verbs; ten similes.
(G) The Diction of the Poem as Compared with
that of Longfellow's E1;a11ge/£11e.
Burke: CONCILIATION WITII AMERICA.
(1) Make a detailed analysis of the speech.
(2) Make a detailed analysis of two or three of
Burke's paragraphs, and note how he begins and
ends them, h ow he connects sentences within a paragraph, and how he joins one paragraph to another.
(3) Analyze one of Burke's paragraphs, and note
the proportion of native to borrowed words.
(4) Note the positions of emphatic words in Burke's
sentences.
(5) What do you find most difficult to grasp in the
speech?
(6) The Condition of America in 177 5, as Sketched
by Burke.
(7) Account, as Hurke does, for the "fierce spmt
of liberty" which he noted among the Americans.

STU])!FS JN UTFJUT URF.

STUDIES IN LITERATURE.

(S) II ow does Burke propose to deal with America?
(9) Account, if you can, for the failure of the
speech to accomplish its pu.r pose.
( 1o) Do you find the speech interesting?
If not, why?

(r 1) Some Reasons for Burke's Failures as an
Orator.
( 1 2) Compare the speech on Conciliation with Amt!r·
ira, with his ea rlier speech on American Ta:ration.

(13) Am e rica's Debt to Edmund Burke.
(14) Burke's Use of Metaphor.
(15) Burke's Historical Allus ions, their Character
and th e ir Source.
De Foe: HrsTOJ{Y OF THE PLAGUI! IN L NDO"
( 1) Describe in yo ur own words the causes of the
spread of the Plague.
(2) Describe the 1:-twless ness during the Plag ue.
(3) The Method of Burial during the Viague.
(4) Retel~ some of the anecdotes related in the
flist rJJ)I of lite l'lrzi;"ttc .
(S) vVrite the recollections of a man who recovered
from the Pla_guc.
(6) Is th e /fislory rif t/1e Pl11g11c truth or fi c tion?
If it is fiction, by what means does the author make
it scc.:m to be truth?
Dickens: DAVID CoPPERf'IELD.
(1) Davi cl Copperfidd's School Life.
(2) David's Walk from London to Dover.
xiii.)

(Chap.

he 0 1)inio ns J ldd by D:tvid'~ A1'.nt.
( 3) S ome Of t
upon David Cop(4) The In fl ue nce of Steerforth
pcrftcl<l.
.
. Mi cawbcr's.
(S) Housek...:c.:ping :it M1.
. M. wber as a Borrower.
. . ,..
(6) Mt.
ica
. ' - l' [ T a1 kin <'" ::rnd \Vnt1n "' .
Mr Micaw(7) Mr. Micawbl:r s Sty c o_ . ' . "'f
·
l e· Fiwlish
somt: 0
·
(8) Rewrite .rn simp
- ,..,
ber's ktters.
. · , of Pe~ gotty.
'"
"
\d 0.1r.
(l)) Thc.:vV 11111111_6
\;c.:twccn Mr. ;,'111
c
ai
(io) The Relations
Creak le.
f
t ) like in Tr~Hl(llcs?
(11) What do you llH1 t
_.
_ ( Old C rntcrbury.
(i 2) Glimpses o
..
The Courting of Do.:i. ~ .
. ..
((1 3)) Doi·~, s Houseke eping (Chap. x li•k).
14
·' ·
\
Wrec. (Clup. lv).
Tl e Great Storm and t i e
.·
(1 S)
i . . v· .·. to the l'rison (C hap. lx1 ) .
s bit
.
\ y
bcin~
( ro) 1)·1v1d
,
U .· . h l kep ~ ::un
)
(I 7) \Vlnl
doc s
I l.l
·
'·Ic.: " 1·
l 1·n lJ1··1:·lh
" ' urnu
. . .. " ·s do you t11H
· ·
( l X) Wlut rc1 lc c m in;c. 1 I .llt.
,
.

1

I Ic« l'
.. · ,.
·.
\ L' "t "r \' )
vVhat do you ,11 sl11,l' i11 t i . : I <-. ·t/' .,.,;,Id t<\\
(l .,)
';J
"
..
l · t' c~l c11t l 1' ' " ". /) ' /"'/
' '
·It I ·
( 20) 1 u \V \,
,.,. . f n : c\·cn~ hll11Sl .
the story of the J l c ''
' '
.
t.
clL i\ S J'vTAKNER.
G
-- e El io
....)
.
f
corg ~.
. ·1 · M·irncr's lonely li c.
(1) Desc ribe Si ,ts .J
. l of Silas Marner.
?) Leaves from the o urna
.
(.
.
Became a l\11 sc r.
(3) How Silas M~1 ne.~ . .
arner, a nd 1 low it was
(4) The Chan~ in Silas M
l

L

Wrought.

. .

•

•

, ,

'

1_' -

: r. ""'

l ;; :~

·,

'

}

STUDIES / N /./TER,J TUNE.

E m e rson: Tll!;; A~fERICAN S CHOL ,
(r ) What d 0
Ah.
you fi ncl diffic ult t
·
Tlte American Scholar ?
o und erstand m
( 2 ) "Th e books of
this." Show in \ . h . t an . older period will not fit
wh a t u ntrue.
v a part icu la rs this is tru e, a nd in
(3) Give an outline and a .· ..
theory as t o the JlrOjJe . . 'fc1it1c1sm of E merson's
.
r use o books.
(4) " Man is
surprised to find
.
that things near are
not less beautiful thap ti.
. , 1lll"S remc t
.
Tl
exp l a m s the hr T l d
. "'
> c.
1e near
' .
JC
rop I S
J
Ex1Jb.
·
·
I
·
a
s
ma
I ocean "
.
" in wit 1 numerous ·11
.
.
m eans.
. I ustrati ons what E merson

.
(S) Expla in what you thi 11 1
< th is means·
" .. "The
reflective."
,
youth, romantic ; the adult,
boy 1·s <a G rec k . the

(6) "Tf there is any pniod
born in, is it not ti
'.,
one would desire to be
y • .
.
lC a,,;e of rcvoluti
?"
agree or d1sagTcc with h1 . .
.
_on.
Do you
(7) Do you fi I
. , . ic.:1 s_on in this, a nd why?
th" k
llH anyd1 1ng 111 the a 11
in. would have to be cha no-cd .
c < rcss th at you
to our time ?
<>
in order to adapt it

Hawthorne : TwicE-T
·rATES
.
OLO
Retell each <>f tlie 7 . I. . · · ·
·
fl ··r Ill
·
using not more ti
fi
')'O lli own lann·uao-e
1an i ve 11 t 1 cl
"' o '
Ille re
words in a ny
case.
1
( )

(2) Group the subjects of the T.
any eleme nts that
ales, and point out
t he Talcs.
• yo u find repeated in several of

S'J'UD/ES IN .l .l?"LR.-1 J'U!" L .

(3) Glimpses of Ol<l New England C ust oms in
th e Tal1:s.
(4) How many different aspects of New Engb.ncl
life do you find depicted in the T alcs?
(5) Is Hawthorne's attitude toward th e New England Puri tans Favorable or Unfavorable?
(6) The P uritans a nd the Q uake rs (sec Tlte Gentle
Boy).
(7) Continue th e reflections which I-lawthorn e
suggests at th e co n clusio n of T!tc Proplu:tic Pictures.
(8) W hat is the Meaning of Dr. Heidegger's Expen"mc11t '!
(9) H o w does Hawt h orn e produce the weird
effec ts so comm on in hi s writings?
Irving: T1rn SKETCH BooK.
( 1) Compare th e Au t h or's Acco1mt of Himself in
Tiu Sl.:elclt Book with the fir st number of Tiu
Sp ec/a/or.
(2) Tell the sto ry of Rip Van Winkl e.
(3) 'vVri tc a sim ilar story about yo ur own town.
(4) A Visit to Rip V an Winkle's Vill agt.: on the
D ay of his Return.
(S) An Evening a t th e Boar's Head Tav ern with
Falstaff.
(6) An E ng lish Sunday Compared with a n American S un day.
(7) W hat do you find in an English church un lik e
an A m erican ch urch ?
(8) Compare what Sir Roge r de Coverley sees m
the Abbey with wha t Irving points out.

STUDIES / ,\r !.ITFRATURE.
STU/Jll:,'S IN J.[J 'E R , / TURE.

(9) I Iow docs We st min ster Ab bey differ from an
other churc h ynu have seen ?
y
( I o) \Vhat sort of n.: flcct ions docs I rv in g
l11s
· v1·s 1t
· t o the Abbey ?

n1 ~ke
"

on

. (1 '.) \V hat . h:w c En gl ish travclc rs found to critic ize rn /\me n ca? 1
. (12) Wri tc ~ tkscription of yo ur o wn town, as an
.l•. ngl1shm:lll mi g ht scc it.
_(1,3 ) . \Vh at arc some diflic ul t ic s in the way of
w11 t 1ng a g nod book of tr:t r cls?
. . ( 1.4) What differe nces do yo u find bet ween rural
lit e Ill England a nd in America?

( 15 ) !\ lJr ivc in an Engl ish Stage-coach .
( 16) Desc ri be thc dream in Tlte Art o.f B ook11w I.: i1~~·-.
·
k
' ( r 7) \Vhat a rc some of the ste11s to tal<"~ rn
ma .
mg a book ?
(I 8) T di the sto ry o f Tltc N ora! Poet.

(19) ~he Lifc ot Shakcspc:t1·c- .1s Irving Relat es it.
(20) Compare I iTi111.(s skekh of 1 nd ia n character

with the s ke t c h in Lo ngfellow's
(2 1) Tell the sto ry of lite
J1
..
ol!ow . l e ll the st_nry of 7111·
(2~) J_Iow docs a Christ mas in
o n e ll1 1'.ng land ?
Irv in g :

TAI.Es OF ,\

//ia w atlta.

/.(•o·cnt! , r SI. ,,.,
~ ,~
<:;
e01y
Spectre llridegroom.
America differ from

Ti;A\' El.LEJ\ .

( 1) J\.ctel! any of the sto ri es in your own words.
1 Re~d i\ Ii ss J\farlin cau's S(h idy i11 , lm er ica . lvfrs Troll op • D
.
1.ifi o/ the .·l111rr i1.·a11s . o· ·k ' " ·
.
. . .
cs . omestlC

p;1pcrs on 1\111 erj t.: a, et...:. ,

ic

t

ns 5

A111eru a11 /\'olc.•s ,· Matthew i\rnold 's

~ss

Note th e character of t h e Talcs as a whol e, and
group as m : r ny as yo u ca n u1~d er the s::11n c ;at_cgory.
(3) Compa re these Ta/,·s w it h H:nvthorne s TwtffT old Taks as regards subjects and general meth od
of trea tm e nt .
(2)

Lorwfc llow: Ev AN GE LINE.
~[ell the sto ry ve ry briefly in prose .
( 2 ) J>escribe the village of Gra nd Pre.
(3) Compare Grand l'rl: with Plymout h, as see n 111
T !te Co11r!slup o.f l'r/iles S tmulisk
(4 ) Co mpare t he pos iti o n of the Puritan preach er
with that of t h e F re nch pr ies t.
(5) Te ll the sto ry of Be n ed ict' s co ur tship.
(6) T he Amusement s of the People at Grand Pre':
(7) Did th ey h ave mure amusements th an the
Puritans? If so, why ?
(8) In wh at was the life of the l'uritans and uf thc
Frenc h a lik c?
(0) \Vh a t di ffe n: nces d1i yo u find in th e drcss of the
Puritan s a nd of the Frcn ch ?
1 1)

( 1O) " Four lo ng yea rs in th e times of the w ;1r had he lan.
gu ished a captive,
Sufft:ring- mu ch in an o l<l Frenc h fort as th t: friend of
th e Eng lish ."

\ Vhat can vo u tell abou t th e causes of thi s wa r?
( 1 1) Desc1~i be the burning of the vill age of G rand
l'rl: and the sce n es that attended it.
( 1 2) Can yo u fi ncl a ny excuse fo r the re moval of
the French from Acadia?

STUD/ES /N L/TERA TURE.

STUJJ IF S IN LITER ../ TUR/;;.

( 13) Compare the Indians .
'
.
those in Tlte Co11rtslt/p if Ml in Ev~nge!tne with
(14) Wl . h f
o
'cs Standish.
11c o the two poem d 0
.
and why ?
s
you like better,

(i5) The Findin rr of Ev-.n
"'

~

.

" ge1me.

Longfellow: THE Co . ..
(r) Tell the story in ~: i.-,111 lPIOF Mt LES STANDISH.
e 1 u nc r eel words.
( 2 ) " Meanwhil e Alden at 1
haJ ,ita ti on
'
iome had built him a new
I I
Solid. subs tan:ial. of timbe
of the forest."
r roug l iewn from the firs

Th e H o uses at p
(3) .. No thing

lymouth, as Seen in the Poem.

was heard in the r

the stri1Jli1w

oo m but the hurrying pen of

Bus ily wri tin•r "'
cp"tI
·
,
"
Is es important to ,
b
fl owe r,
'
go Y the MayJ,cad
• y to s;:u·1 on the rnorro
.
w, 01 next clay at lates t,
C od wi1Ii 11 ., 1

Homeward b~:11~d with the t' I'
wint er."
J( ings of that terrible

(a) Mea ns o f Travel in th r
.
(b) The Use of S . .c m1e of Miles S tandis h.
c1iptu rc Phrases b
ti
.
Conversation .
Y ic Puritans rn
(c) \~hat had john Alde n to tell b
winter"?
a out that "terrible
(4) " Is it to. shoot i·ed squirrels y
I
p la n te d
ou Jave your howitzer
There on the ro of uf the ch urch
. ..
cl e \·ils?"
' or 15 It to shoot red

(a) J~low did th e Puritans attend
t1n1 cs ?

(b) A .Sunday in Old Plymouth.

church in old Colony

2

57

(c) How did the Puritan~ of Plymouth (real th e Ind ian s?
(d) Differences in the Puritan and the Indian Me th ods of
Fighting.
(e) Glimpses of the Indians in the Poem.

(5) I-Tow were the Puritans dressed?
John

(6) Describe the wedding of

Alden

and

Pri~ c illa .

Macauby: EssAY ON A n msoN .
(1) Sketch Addison's political life, as n arrat e d by
Macaulay.
(2) Some of Addison's Friends.
(3) An Eveni ng in Button's Coffee-house with
Addiso n and Steele.
(4) A Letter from Addison to Steele, giv in g an
account of the Quarrel with Po pe.
(5) The Elemen t of Truth in Pope's portrait of
Addison in the Epistle to Arbutlmot.
(6) The Varie t y of Macaulay's Allusion s 111 the
} :,-.1·say 011 Addisoil.
(7) Compare Macaulay's est imate of Addison's
character with the estimate in Thackeray's Lecture

•I

on Addison.
Macaulay: SECOND

EssA Y

ON

TllE

EARL

OF

CHATHAM.

(r) Outline th<;: causes which, in Macaulay's words,
"h ad for a tim e suspended the a nimation of both th e
great Engli s h parties."
(2) Give a brief sketch of l'itt's political associates ,
and contrast him with th e m.
(3) What were Pitt's Political Ideals?

!' .
!

I~

STU/Jfl'.S f.V LITERATURE.

(4) The Political Methods a nd Ideals of Newcastle
Compared with those of l'itt.
(S) \Vint claim had Lord Bute to be called a
statesman?
(6) Compare Bute and Grenville.
(7) Causes of the Stamp Act.
(I::) The Clnracter of George III. Compared with
that of George IL
(9) Chatharn 's Last Speech in Parliament.
(ro) John vVilkcs ancl the Frct:clom of the Press.
( 1 r) Give an account of the political corruption in
E n t.Janel in Pitt's t im e.
(12) The General State of Morals in England as
Presented in the Essay.

Macaulay : Lr FE OF SAll!UEL ]Ol!NSON.
(1) Buw I J\1ct Dr. Johnson.
(2) A Group of Johnson's Friends.
(3) \Vh;tt Did Johnson Find to Like 1n Boswell?
(4) Is Macaulay in either of his Essays fair to
Boswell ?
(S) Compare Macrnlay's estimate of Boswell with
C::irlylc's.
(6) An Evening at the C lub.
(7) Dr. Jolrn~on as a Conversationist.
(8) Dr. Johnson's Writing · Compared with his
Con vcrsation.
(9) Snme of Johnson's Opinions.
( I o) ) ohnsun\.; Clnracll:r as Illustrated by a Few
An<.:edot<.:s.

2 59

STUDJFS IN f,/TERATURE.

(1 1) The Range of Dr. Johnson's Reading.

(12) Dr. Johnson's Personal Habits.
( 13) 'vVhat do you fincJ interesting

in

Samuel

Johnson?
(14) Compare Macaulay's f,ijl: of Samuel jolm.11111
·
with his -r:r~.cv1ew
o f C ro k·e r ' s l',cl't
1 1'or1 of Boswell's
Life of Jo!tnson.
Macaulay: EssAY oN MILTON.
(1) A Visit to Milton in his Old A ge.
(2) The Defects of Milton's Character. ,
( ) Taine's or Johnson's Sketch of Milton 's Char- :
3
aetcr Compared with the Sketch by Macaulay.
( ) With which of the following opinions do you
4
agree, and why?
"On the whole Milton's character was not an
1
amiable one, nor even wholly estimable."
"But there are a few characters which have stoocl
th e closest scrutiny and the severest tests, which
have hecn tried in the furnace and have proved pure,
which have been weighed in the balance and h ave
not been found wanting, which have been declared
sterling by the general consent of mankind, and
wh ich arc visibly stamped with the image and superscription of the Most High. These great men we
trust that we know how to prize; and of these was
Milton." 2
(S) Milton's Political Life.
I Saint sln:ry: ~- l f /i story of l1..·li:;;abellllu1 /.,ill'raturt·, p. 317.

Ern1y "" .Milton.

2

iv1ac11.ul:1y:

260

ST UJJ!F.S IN LITERATURE.

STUDIES IN /./TERA 'J'URE.

'\/ (G) The Puritan Ideal of Life as Sk ·t h I
l • ·~ C C e<
]\tr
·1aca11 ay s L.r.r11.J' 1m Jlhlton.

Ill

··4 (7) Is Macaulay's Estimate of Puritan Character
too Favorable?
(8) Remote Allusions
!Vft!ton.

(9) Macaulay's
Jl ft!tun.

in

Macaulay's

Exaggerations

Essa·11
J

111

h

t e

on

Essay on

\;( 10) Milton's Life at Horton.
\ (11) Jn what sense was Milton a Puri tan?
Milton: Cmrus.

(I) Mil t on' s l'u rposc in writing Comus.
(2) Com1ts _has been cal!...:cl "", "I-Iyin 11 to Virtue."
.

How doc s this appea r?

(3) The 1 Iisto ri cal Allu sions in Cumus.
(4) \Vhat impression docs the Comus make
you?
upon
(5) Do you find the Co11111s less attractive than
the i1ft·rdta11t of Vi. ·11ice, and if so, why?
. (G) The Dramatic Defects of Cumus as Compared
with a Phy of Shakespea re.

(~) !he JV'. ythological Confus ion in Comus.
. (8) . fhe Compound Epithets in Comus and Para-

t/1.rc Lost.

(9) Milton's Interest in the Stage.

.(10) Why i.s Comus called a Masque? What is a
nuscjlic, and in what docs it differ from an o l'
play?
re rnary
(11) Milton's Use of Natural Scenery in his Poems.

(12) \\Th :tt difficulti es do you find in unclers t:rncling Milton?
(13) ·why do people hesitate to express honest dislike for Shakespeare and Milton?

Milton: L ' ALLECRO AND Ir. T'ENSEROSO.
(r) \Vrit e out, in as few words as yuu can, what
you think the p oe ms L ' All<grt.J and fl Pmseroso m ean.
(2) Reflections of Milton's Personality in L'Alli:[[ro
and fl Penseroso.
(3) Traces of Puritanism in fl Pmscroso.
Milton: LYCIDAS.
(1) Milton's Life at Cambrid ge as Hinted at 111
Lj1cid,ls.
(z) Historical Allusions in Lycidas.
(3) M il ton's Use of the Classics in Lycidas.
(4) Difficulties in the Way of Reducin g the LJ 1cidas
to Prose.
(S) Poetic Embellishments of Simple Facts in

Lycidils.
(6) Comparison of /,ycidas with Shelley's Admwis
or Matthew Arnold's T!tyrsis.
(7) What objections have you to make to Dr .
Johnson's criticism of Lycidas .'1
"One of the poems on which much praise has been bestowed
is 'Lyciclas,' of which the diction is harsh, the rhym es uncertain, and the numbers unpleasing. What beauty there is we
must therefo re seek in the sent im ents and images. It is not to
be considered as the effusion of re.a l passion; for passion runs
not after remote allusions and obscure opinions. l'assion plucks
no b e rric~ from the myrtle and ivy, nor calls upon Arethuse and

STUD/ FS / N JJ Tl':JU T URE.
1\1 in ci us, no r tells of rotwh sat}•rs and ' 'aw11s

ST UD I ES IN

I
Wl .
.
.
" .
,
,,
. w1 l cove n heel'
ic1 e there is leisure for fictio n th ere is little truth ." I
.

Scott:

THE

AnBoT.

h
( I ) Write ;i.n acco unt, based on the novel f
f tl
f lI .
' o eac
I
o . ie o owrng topics : food dress 11 0
. .
.
'
,
uses, mec ic1 11 es, huntin g , hawking, o ther a mu sem e nt s.
(2) Wome n 's D ress in the T im e of C) uee M
n a ry.
_
( ) T IJ
3
e the story of Roland Gme m e.
(,~) 'v\!o ulcl you h:wc disliked hi m? If so
?
, w 1iy.
( ) 'vV
' 5
hat do yo u think of the p reac her, Henr
Warden?
y
(6) A Newspape r Report of the Vi s it of the
elcrs to t he Abbe)' (chap . xiv) .

R~v­

(7) A letter b)' Mary Q ueen of Scot.<· .
·, g iving an
account of he r escape.
(8) Some Reasons for tl
1• l
ic
opu arit)' of Mary
<.Jueen of Scots.
S cott: IvANllOE.
(r) The Life of the Saxon S win e he rd, Gurth.
(2) Co mpa n.: l<.owena wi th Rebecca.

(3)
( )
4
(5)
(6)

How <..lid the Normans oppress the Fn<rJ" ' l ?
p
.
lS 1.
. ersecution of the J e ws in h •anlwc. 0
An A ccount of the Trial of H.e becca.
Te ll t he st ory of Isaac of y ork.
(7) A le tter written by the Jew Isa "'c . .
. ,
.
.
· ··•,g1vrngan
.tccount of his treatment in the cas tle of F
t l
B~uf.
ron -c eJ

(8) Desc ribe the attack on the castle of Frontcl e-Bceuf.
1

Lift of Millan.

/.JT/~·N.· l

'l'U/\R.

·1·)

(9) An A ccou nt of th e Great Tournam e nt ;1t
Ashby, by an Eyewitness.
· (r o) The Part that th e Knight Tcrnpbr Play s 111
the Story.
(r 1) What do you fincl t o dislike in l'rincc
] oh n ?
(r 2) The Black Knight' s Visit to th e Hermit.
(13) A Day in the Fore s t wi t h the Outlaws.
( 14) The Food of th e Saxons as Contrast ed with
th a t of th e Norm ans .
(r 5) Drinking C u sto m s in hmtl1oc.
(i6) D escribe an old English castle, as seen in
h1m1!toc.

( 17) The D iffere nces be twee n th e S:-ixon a nd the
N orman Houses a s Descr ibed in f va11!1.0c.
( 1 8) The Slee ping Accommodations Desc ribed in
l va?t!we.
(i 9 ) Compa re th e dres s of the Normans with that
of th e Saxons.
(20) Means of Travel in th e Time of h 1a11!to1'.
(21) In what particulars a rc the cle rgy in h 1111tl1oe
false to their vows ?
(22) An e minent c riti c has said th at in h 1a 11la1<'
there is a historical mistake in every line. 'vVh at
mistakes do you find?
Scott: T im LADY O F T HE LAKE.
( r) Describe Loch Katrine as seen in th e poem ..
(2) Describe some of the Results of R ocienck
Dhu's raids.

l

I

'<r.

i

!

i

d

ll: I

I
I

t

:I

.1

1.

I

-~~

ifi

l .i

>it

STUDIES IN .1.!TERATURE.

STUDIES IN L!TFN.4 TUl\'F.

(3) Tell the story of Douglas as you find it in the
poe m.
(4) Describe Douglas's part in the games at Stir-

ling.

(S) -~)cseribe the combat between Roderick Dh
a nd htz-James.
u
. (6) I.s y ou r sympathy more with Roderick Dhu .
with Fitz-James? Wh y ?
or

(7) What cl id Ellen think of Roderick Dim?

.. :Vere there special reasons why s h e might have
be en expec ted t o care for b im ?

(S) Write a clescriptio1J of Stirli1io- Cast]
no otl .
f .
"'
e, using
ie1 source . o .rnformat ion than the poem.
(9) Soldier Life 111 Stirling Castle.
(ro) The Everyday Life of Ellen.
(1 i) Ellen's Visit to Stirlin n- Castle.
( r -") T .ic
' F'
"' l'art it !'lays in the
"ic ry C ross and the
Story.
(r 3) The
Music and Musical Instruments in the
l'oem.
(14) Compare t he minst rel in
T!te Lady of t!te
La!.:e with th e min s trel in T!tc
Lay of lite Last
ll.fi11 s I re I.
(r5) The Use Mack o f Heather in the Poe
(16) The Houses of the Hi11hJanclcrs as ~:·
the Poem.
""
'.
en

Ill

( r 7) ~h;it does the poem tell us about the dress
of the Highlanders?
(rS) The vVe;ipons of the
Clansmen in the Poem.
(19) Hutton says ( Life
of Scutt, chap. v) :

"Directly he begins to attempt ri ch or pretty subjects, ;is in p;irts of Tiil· f , ady of t!te Lake, . . his
charm disappears." What seems partly to justify
the critici sm ?
(20) Do you prefer T!te Lady of t!te Lake to
JVlarmion .'1 If not, why?
Scott: MARMION.
(!) Tell the Story of llfannion in five hllndred
words.
(2/ The Fate of Lady Cbre at Holy Island.
(3) Describe your visit to a feudal castle, usin:;
th e material you find in JVlamzion.
(4) What do you learn in Mannion of the everyday
life of a Knight?
(S) vVhat do you learn in Marmion about life in a
conve nt?
(6) Sketch the characteristics o( the different
classes of ecclesiastics represented in Jlfanniou.
(7) llfarmion in the Hall of Douglas.
(8) What docs the Poem tell of the Causes of the
Battle of Flodden Field?
(9) The Methods of Warfare Described in llfar1nion.
(10) Compare the Engl ish Warriors with the
Scotch.
(1 r) Compare th e battle in Mannion with th 2t in
T!te Lady of tlte Lal.:c.
(r2) Glimpses of Superstition in Marmion.
(13) What use does Scott make of the frequent
descriptions in Marmion f

266

STUD/ ES IN LITERATURE.

STUDIES f:V /.!TERA TURF.

(r.+) W ha t do yo u d isl ike m ost in th e charac ter
of Marrn io n ?

(2) Do y ou find a nything- u1~in tcr est i n ~ rn Celia?
If so, what i \ Vhy docs l\..osalm cl like hl: 1 ?
(3) 'vVhat is y our not ion of th e pe rson.a l :1ppcara ncc of Rosal ind, Celi a, Orlan do, J aq ues, To uch-

( 15) The Bette r T raits in t he C ha ract e r of Marm1 on.
S cot t: \N ooosTOCK.
( 1) Describe
(chap. i).

the

d isturba n ce

111

th e

Church

(2) Co m par e Ho lclcno ug h wit h D r. R oc hecliffe.
(3) Holclcnoug-h as a Soldier.
(4) The M:rn ne rs and Tastes of t h e Cavali ers
Compared with those of the P uritans.
(S) Si r I fc n ry Ll:e's l\.l:aso ns fo r D isl iking th e
Pu rit a ns.

(G) T hu Use o f Sc ri ptu re L rng uage throug hout
t he S tory .
(7) Arc Scott's sy mpath ies w it h t he R oyalists or
the Puritans in t he sto ry ? Pr ove by refere nce t o
th e story itse lf.
(S) G li mpsl:s of Fanatic is m in t he Sto ry.
(9) Rdcrc nccs to Shake spea re and M ilton 111
1Voods toc/.:.
( 10 ) Co m pare I Iarr iso n wi t h Cro mwell.

s t onl:?
(4) Rosalind' s

H um or

Com pare d

. l
wit 1

To uch-

st o ne's.
T
l t
,
(S) Traits Co mm o n t o J aq ues a nd t? ouc is o ne.
(6) Do you ft ncl a n yth in ~ unn at ural tn t h e play, as
som e critics p re tend t o do?
.
,
(7) Why dol:s Rosalind delay so lo ng in thl: I"o re st
of A rden lido rc seeking h e r fath e r?.
(8) Can yo u sh ow fro m the play it self how mu c h
tim e elapses in t h e co ursl: of it?
.
(9) l s the pl a y m ea nt t o t eac h a nythin g ?
what ?

1

,

\

says 1I udso n,. '_~ ~~
cl: .
•
.Do yo u a 0uTee or d1 ~ag1

( 10) "Prope rly speak ing,"

play \1as no \1er 0 . "
G iv e yo ur reasons.

If so,

Shakespeare : J u u us CJEsA 1c
(r) Till: vVeak nesscs o [ C ;csa r ,'ts· Po rt rayed in the
P lay.
l1 o w docs C ass iu s tr y t o b el ittle C::esar ?
.
f -. ( 3) Is S h akespea re a11 t o :-cs.u ·
. .
(4) I s C:csar o r B rutu s th e lead m g c ha rac ter 111 the

(1 1) A V is it to Woodstoc k L odge with Cro mwe ll.

2
( )

C harles I f. as h e Appears in ltf/ood stock .
(r 3) T he Ho un d Be vis, an d hi s Pa rt in the Story.
( 1 2)

c ., . )

play?
Shakes pea re : A s Y ou L 1KE IT.
( 1) How doc s Ros:tlin I in d isgu ise s ho w tha t she
is s t ill a wo ma n ?

(S) The Plo t aga in st C:csar.'
(6) T h e Last D ay. in t h e Life of C:csar.
I

Sllakespeare's Lift , A ri, and Ch aracters , vol. i, P· 337·

268

STUDIES I N !JTER A T URE.
S T UDIES I N l.ITLN, / T U RF.

(7) 'Wha t do you find to like in Brutus, Cassius,
Antony?

(8) What c ha racte rs in th e play do you most dislik e, and why?
(9) Co m pare Po rtia a nd C1lph urnia .
( r o) 'What can we learn from th e play a bout the
perso na l :-tppcara ncc of Cassi us, Cicero, et c ?
(r r) A Vi s it to R o me on the Day of C e sar's
Assass in ation .

( 12) \Vo ulcl you like to have lived at Rome in
Ca::sar's t ime ? If not, why?
( 13) Glimpses of th e Rom;-in People in th e Play.
( r4) Whi ch side wo ul d yo u take in th e quarrel

bet ween Brutus a nd Cass iu s ?

(15) The Bdter Tra its in the Character of Cassius.
(r6) What led B ru tus t o make his speec h over
C::esar, an d why d id he allow Antony t o speak?
(r 7) Mark Antony's Speech Contrasted with that
of Bru t us.

( r ~) \V hat. im press io n do Cxsa r, Antony, Brutus,
Cass ius, l'o rt1a, etc., ma ke upon you ?
( 19) Is th e p lay tru e t o history ?
(:w) Anachro ni s ms in /11li11s Cesar.
(2 1) Describe the storm in act i, sc. iii, and show
wh at use is made of it in the play.
(22) Shakes peare's U se of the Supernatural in the
l)lay.
(23) Sha kespeare's Use of Trifles in the Delineation of hi s Characters.
(24) Docs th e play lack un ity ?

(2 5) C an any sce ne be o mitted with o ut destroying
th e uni ty of the play?
.
.
( 2 6) Is Cic e ro n ecessary to th e action of tl.1e play.1
(z 7) Is the language of th e play ne ed lessly rnvo lve<l
and obscure?
(z8) Wh at do you find m ost difficult to und erstand
in the p lay ?
.
.
( 29 ) The Motives of Brutus for E nt e rn.1g rnt o the
Co nsp iracy Co mpa red with th o s~ of C ass iu s.
(3 o) The La s t Night in th e Life of Brutus.
S hakespeare:

T11 E

MERC HA NT

OF

V1,;N 1ci,:.

( 1) T h e Su it o rs of Portia.
(2) Tell th e s tory of th e caskets.

(3) Contrasts of Ch;i.racter in Portia a nd J essica.
(4 ) Portia 's ·w it and L a un cclot's.
(5) Shylock is r ega rded a s one of Shakespeare 's
g reatest creation s. Wh a t elements o f g r eatness do
y o u di scove r?
_
(6) Can w e account for S hakespeare's unt avorablc
port rait of th e J ew Shyloc k?
(7) \Nhat defence can y o u mak e for Shylock ?
(8) Describe S hyl ock and his Frie nd s.

(9) Jewish Tra its in Shylock. .

.
( 1o) Comparison of Shylock with Barabas rn Marlowe's J ew o.f M alta.
· and Shylock dis lik e each
( r r) Why cl o A n t omo
other?
(i 2) Comparison of Gratiano and Antonio.
( 1 3) The Court-room Scene ,

'

,.'

270

S/'C/Jll:'S IX 1.1/'ER..t T UNE.
. . T\\'FI F'\'11

( 14) Is the Fifth Act, which is frequently omitted
on the sta~c , s upe rflu ous ?

Shakc:-.pc a i<.: · '-

( 1o ) Dues l he slury see m rcai tu you? l[ 110L,
what u n real clements do yo u d iscol'c r?
(I t ) Tcil what l'uck docs in til e p i:Ly.
( 12) Do you th ink th at / I J!idsmn111rr l'ligltt's
J)rwm is a good acting pby 1 Tf nnt , why?
( 13) What do y ou th ink that the play means?
(l4) vVhat di!Ti c ult:il:s do you find in undcrsLtllLlin;,;
t i i'..: pL~ty?

(15) \ Vh:1t is thne in tlw phy tn jus tify the title,
/ / Jitlirl.11n1u11 <r 1\ 'n : /1(s })ru r111 !

, her d is•'uisc ?

docs Viul:t :t ssunH.:
(I ) "'\
vv 1y
.
,
t llk c ac n 1.1n
( 2 ) Docs s l1e ac
ucccss
-.
\ ~

Shakespeare: J\ l\lmsu~tMER N1 GH T's DREAM.
( 1) Tell the story o f I'yramus and Tbisbe as it
ap pears in the play.
(::!) Docs anythi ng in the play appea r unnatu ral?
(3) \ Vhat m arked d iffere nces do you find between
this pby and any other you have rc:td?
(4) Do th e characte rs in the phy really possess
h u1n:u1 int erest ? If n o t, why?
(5) \Vhy do we find it di fficult to discove r wh et he r
we like or disl ike th e m?
(6) The Co ntrast!-> bet wee n Titania and Bottom.
(7) How clo yo u explain Titan ia's admiration fo r
Bottom ?
(S ) In \\' hat respects do Shak espc:trc's fairies differ
from men and worn cn '
(~>) Shakespeare's Use of the Fairies 1n the

l'bv.

;'( ll<llT .

·

(3) Comp~re

1~r _s . .

·l '

·
111

. ".
. . '
dis •f 111sc.

h er

•

·«

•

o

'sin• '

d1s,...u1. "'
}'011 f ,i!.·r ft.
.
.. l '

in

hcrsc:' f·

' th th ·tt ol Ros;-t 1u1cl 111 /..
'
. f l to 1ikc 111 \: 10 :l .
( ) \V ha.t Jo yu u 111l
, ..
4
, V ioh w ilh 011v1:l.
.
- •
f
, u>tnmllnplac e Ill
( ~c) Compare
find o mere
<o} W hat c1o you

w1

the most arnustn~

O li via's cha.racl..:r?
(7 )

n c·sc ri be

is to Y"u

wl1 a t

l · "h)"
s cen e ·ill •c.1c
t· ,
Sir Tolly
·1 l1 . dud hclwl.·cn
(S) lksl'l"l )e .ic

·

:L 11d

~·

• I

r

A.ndrc w .
,
..1 /
. . \ \'hat kd U') to tile du..:. .
.
\<-:))
. ...l - .. t · 'b\J.rnc in the q uarrel?
(10) \C·~ 1rnu')1:rcuSi;. Tuhy an<1 Fa1st:1ff.
. ,
(1 I)
o l '.
, ,. Sir To11y's pracl101 jokes.
..
~cri\1e
,.;c1rne
(12) l_) ~J
~ir T< >liy .
..
}-,l.UW l '1"t
)\ ~ '
_.
\
'i ' \\' 1-; " ]U<ll(I-:?.)
,
... .. '" th:1t Sir I 11< n
.
()I

(14) (

-~

cri\ 11

l11c

'

:-;.1; .

1 ,,\· the· n11isl 111 ·\.ty
crous iy 1 111)~ll·
... . .
,
.
, ('T ·c nr d1~.1~1 c . (,,
1

.

it1cs.

l)o
11;) The

,1"" c
Persona\

\ i;i\·1;1 ,

c_ " " '

.

Do Y"ll
.

tcrl.·st11 1'. .C,

1.

t. 1-111

H su, in wh;1l

r

i

ell· .
,1\l'.

11c·1·11li .1ri \ ics)

c

\

.

. _

' t 'rs

1,11 .1l

1111 ". .
\ ..
tho s1: 11 1 nt l<..l

l

l1l<ll

e ()\

Andrl·w
1 ,. ~.- ~

1~

111
)

1

1

draw out Si r Toh/'-'

IH ie

l

'

~) How d()cs lli<.: Clu\\' ll 11c· l' t11c

11\.1)' I

Sir

111.1vs "! ~h.tkc''')ll'.ll<

p:1rll cu\. 1~. 1 · '\\'

( l ;) ]\()\\'docs S ir
( l

\i 11di:-;\i irn:;..:;1il:u·-

..
. . u[
J\ppc:u.Ll1ll

)U LI

· - ·li .. 1.
J\ "'tr\JC -L
(1C>)

l

,

;ic\',11\l

or

l '.:e

ST/..'Df/.S I\' I /U·Of(./ '!'{'NF .

n·

S f'CD!ES

un.R.-1 ICNlc.

.,, · which
r.ir " ,Ill' ,rreat. c·l1,.. ui,,,cs
. r
.
.,
.
S lllLT Lill: lull 1L ()(
ln ve h :tp]K l \Cli ill l 1c '" '; ) . . ,
. . som e
..
[
, t "
:-)·mil:tr l v 011tl1nc
l' . \. T l lil l w:ts c> ll :-', >l .
. '
,
.
.. . "
. JUtl,,.c
1
. . · ]1 ·1t· .]nvc taken pl:tt·c: 111 1\ meric . l
tJt the l' Llll.c~'·" ' · · ..
since vV c bst e r s poke.
.

1
IS) vV cbste r spca l,s
· ,..
'
' . l . r,r• ,. ·,· ;ns

( 19) Dcscrihe the circumstances t hat called
forth this remark (act iv, sc. ii) : "Th e re w:i s
neve r man thus ab used : I am no more mad than

y ou are."
(20) \ Vas i\falvol io m:i.d?
justify the cha rge ?

If not, what seemed to

\21) l: ihuks the First uf LngLrnd alte red in his
copy the ti t ie of t he pLty from T;c1dft/1 1V1j;i:t to
J1.! ah10/io. Can yo n j us t ify th is in any way?

(22) What is there to dislik e in Malvoli o ? Does
i\bh·ul1<1 admire hi1nscl[ lu\J lllUcl 1 1 l low <i<>es this
:lppc;tr?
-~

r_.,\ol.,,'2.
.-'l'

:,;

(23 ·1 Civc rn vnllr own words 1\fari:-i's ··stim e1te of
l\1 :il vol i<1.

!

'
1

-±

~-

~

'

(.!.:J.) \\"hat t !o
1)1nt of 7 "';,·<·/.l/11
;;.._~~·· ~·-

;~\...,~~

)"t'li

1°111tJ L'S)ll'Ci; tJJ y J'l'Cil JJ;tr ill tiJe
/

_. \·,,~ . . ·-/; /

(:SJ llo you iintl ;u n· t h1 n ,c; impr11b.1lile 111 J'~ cdftlt
J\/1.:.:/1/ :? :-)t'C :td ii1, St'. 11'.

r:

-

~

-----

~

\Vchste r: FrnsT Jh•:·d'-1 .i' 1i ;;, 1.
( r) i\.1: tkc ;rn ;11ulvsis

or

0 1\ATltJ:'\ .

'

the· 0:·;1 ti1111 , ll <>lin:_: ,·;ire-

fu11y the introduc t ion , the discl!ss ion, and the con e ! II'. I<> ll .

\ :Ci
j i1 l j 11.,'.

i

L· ,; 111 yuur

(q·;d 11

tJ\\'il

\\«>1« :s Li 1c ;ur r:1l i\·c: inserted

in.

(3) Compare this orati on wi th tlw c•;1 c rJ,·Jin·rcd
by \Vc hste r a t Li1e l"tllli i >lc!itJil "f tl1c" ,\["1n 1rnc·11 t .
( . ~) Ci1-c a n :1Cl'tll li1 t or the: c' i1·t.' l ll l1'L : 111, ·c-. k.1.illl_:;
to tl1v deli 1Y:·y "r the 1_11.1L i " 1L

·,

~

t .'

.

l' U.VC/'U.-1 TION.

2

75

a diven.~cnt usa;:;e , hut this very Ltd 1s wort hv 11[
his ~tttcnt1uJl.
l fc slw uld e:umi11e 1niter<.; ,,[ d1ifcr ·
cnt chsses in order tn determine wh;Lt the gcilcraliy

accepted u s:1ge is.

CJ l/\PTFR VITT.
PUNCTUATION.
]'u:--;cTUATION

1s

a

m echa ni cal aid to a reader in

foiiowing the thou gh t of a writer. The ch ief marks
of p un ctuation a r c: The comma [,I
The scm icolon I ;l
The colun l :J
The perinrl [.]
Other rn::irks frc q uentJ \· ;1sL'<l ::i r e: Tlw in terrngat in n nnrk ! 1 J
The e x clamatio n mark [!l
The p;:i.rcnthescs f( )l
The dash [-!
Th e apos trophe [' -!
The q uo tat ion m arks

l"

']

The hyph en [-1
W e may note also the use nf it;ilics, whi c h arc
indicated to the printer by drawing- a sing-Jc line
under the wo rd t•J he italicizcJ, and of CLpiLtl lcttc 1·s,
w hil· ii SlT\'<:

a

\ ~ Lricty 11[ 1_·111.L .

1\.u1c:s fur p un ct1i;tLin11 arc 1-(i1111111):1iy .~·i\'l'!l in
trc:i.tiscs on rhetoric, hnt the student \\·ill pcrh:tps
he llHffe likely l<> ;qiply rnks if ]i.._, f.,r111t1bks them
for himself by comparison of the usa~c of the bes t
writers. The 1.:xampks that he collec ts may show

A phy or a 11<>\'<_.] l·;111n11t he

punctu:ttul i11 precisely the sa1ne w;ty ;Ls :L tc-xt -h<>"k
on histor y or a treatise on . nuthenntics. Th e tende n cy ;Lt present is to reduce the numliLT of mar ks
of pu n cttut ion as far as possilJk. l le nee an essl_·11tial thing fur a young writer to rc111c111Lcr is lh;Ll hl:

should nuL usl~ ~L n 1~L rk of pu11ctu:lti~ ) n \\·1th1l\J t 1H.~ i t1,:_:·
ahk to ;.:;1ve ;L re:asun f<>r St) dui11g-. Furl h l'llll<>rl-, ht:
sho uld form thr~ hab it "l punct1:;1t111.c.; .1s lie w11k ~ .
and of a llowing ll<> Sl'ntence t o p;1ss u11til it is prn11 -

cily

;~
-~

1•11nl'!11 :i kd .

The follow in g p ractical cxen:ises will require the
cxam111::itio11 of a \'a:·1cty uf kinds uf cornp"s it ion ,
and t h e statc me11t b1· the stl!(knt "r simple ruks
based upon the l·oilcded l'.X~llllj>k:-;. Tlw Wllrk here
outlined is not i11tc:11dcd to ;:;ive the· stude11t a co111plcte k11owlcdgc n f the a r t nf p111lc·t11<Ltirrn, hut l<>
kad him to consider and to pract i se the chief principles up<>n which the ;11t depends : -

',
T111::
J<'i11d

Cu\t\IA.

of the
c:ts, ·,;: ---

l''\a111rilcs

folluwi11~·
\<l)

\\ 'L·i rti :--. . l11d ]'i1r.1....,t.-.-.;

~

I '.Lrc 11 ! h t·ti1 ·: Ll

/,}

(.)

:)1· ; w11(k1i1

t

in

llS'-'. uf

;l ~t·1ics.

t'.'\j l!"l'~"inri--;.

Lt lh l '."-

(rl) i{1·l.1li\·t· cLui....,r·s.
('-') Coiirdin:lle senlt'<llCS.

tJi1:

C<>lllllLL lll

tJie

-~

f

1·1·.\ ·1 n ·. 1'/"/0 ,\'.

rr :.\'r"J'C'. I T/l '.V.

2/7

1;1WH I·

J\1·tJsl

(/) To set of1 a ppos iti ves .

T111'

(L;) 'l'o n1ark ornis..;ions.

Find c:.arnpks uf f o ur different uses of the apo s-

(_!1 ) To introd uce short quota ti ons.

( Jthc 1· 11 se ,.; " f tiic corn m:t ni:ty ]Jc

the

trorhc.
st:.:;;;cstul hy
() 1' OT .\Ti•>:-;

~ c ;1 c h c r.

).T_.1 !<. KS.

T11E SEMICOLON.

Fin cl ex:rn1 plc s of fi 1·c different u ses o f quol:1L 1• •1\
m a rks. Fspc1·i :illy 11r1te <1u11t:1t J()!1 S c1Kl <> sed \\'1tl11 :1

i·-ind examples ul the use of the semicolon -

quoLtliuns .

(, : ) ! r·1 c 11ii1 ; ,, 11 i il r) ·" ' · 1\ I1 · 1)' · ~ ·:-;.
( h) In a ser ie s vi c L1u,,es .
( c) Before an a clclcd clause.

T:rt:. CuLu :--:.
F ind examples ol the use of the colon ( 11) In complex sen te nces .
(/1)

Jk :-. ,rc di rl· t

(L) 1\L ti1c

T1 11:

!11·1 · 111:-1.

Find e:-:amp 1cs o [
hyph1:11 .

tl11 .l.' C

<liffe rc nt uses

I TA ucs.
Find cxamplci:; of the use of italics -

t (1• r1 1u l q1111t.11i 111h.

tJL:b~I;;iiu;.;

uf

~ctt~ rs .

(t1)

in ,:.::i \·ing

(/;) Tn q uotin _:. ; 1itlt-s !if \111nks :\nd JH.: r i1.dic1b .
(:,\1° :T 1\l

J~ i · l "T l· l\.'"' .

l•' i 11 d 1:x: 1n1pks of the use \\l ctpiLtl letters T111·:

l.,11·.1'1"";111< 1:-<

~l.-1 1;1.;_

i;11Hi c·.\:1111pics ul l\\'O dillcr u 1l uses ol the inlcrrog~t i o n in~rk.
T 11L

ExcL1:1L\TJ11x :'1!.11u;_

Find exam ples of tw o diffcn:nt uses of the cxcbm:1tion mark.
THE 1-'AH.ENTJ IESE S.

Find examples of the us e of the p:nc·nthescs.
T111 ·:

i

J.1. :;11 .

l;i11d «.\ :1111pks 11[ luur d11tcrc11t uc.cs uf the dash.

( ,/)

\ 11 il\'()!Wl JL\l\\l"S.

( (,)

i

11 j >«cl I .' .

( L° ) J11 i11tr1ldu cin,~ quvLttiuns .
(d) Jn hc.: :inni il.:..( s l·Htcncc s .

(t) Ill k tte rs.
( _() ill tiilc•s .,( ]1<1<1ks.
(.() Jn gi\·ing spn'i:d l' lllphasis.

'

..,.

I.

INDEX OF SUBJEC TS.
l\ihle, vocahubry c.f, 10.

A djec tives, ad verbs fo r, 35; tuo

B revity , ddlned , S4 ;

free use o f, g9 ·

fv r,

Clearn ess o f dicti un , 2<); in sen te nce s, 62; a ide d hy ar r a11gt.: n1 en t, 7 1; a ided hy cu nstrm.>
t io n u f clau:->cs on the sam~
model, Sz, 83; i11 lh c plan,

ositio ns , 166.
Amcricanisn1s, 17 .
A ng lo -Saxo n, 12.

J\n t1dimax, 96;
of, 96.

rules

8 5; too grea.t, 85.

A dve rh for adj ec tive, 35; pos iti o n o f, with in fini ti ve, 67 .
Ambig uity, in wo rds, 35; in p rop-

int entional use

133.
Cli11L1.x , in sente nces, 95 , 96; in
paragraphs, 1 I o .

.A n tit hesis, e mphasis hy, 9 2; wide

appl ica tio n of, 92; exa mpl es of,

Co he rence of s e nt e nces, 104- 108;
ur th e plan, 138, I 39·
Co mpariso ns, simpl e, 43.
Cu mposit io n, kinds or, 143- 1 7~;;
nthl revision, r 79- 1.~7; ha:;ed
on the pl an, I 79; rapid and

9~-<J4·

Apostrophe, 52.
Arg ume nt, 165- 173; persuasi on
a nd , 165, 173, I 74; Jeti ni ti.,n
.,r, 166 ; th e proposition in,
1 lJ6; proof, 16 7;
arran gc rn ent
o f, 167 ; practi cal s uggest i o n ~
concer ni ng , 1 68~ 170 ; re fu ta tion , 170- 173 ; rcdu c.Liu ad ab -

a c~ ur at e , 18o;

whi le

what tu aim at

composin g,

180,

18 1;

mastery o f tlic su bj ect esse nti al

:-; urdum, 170, 171; a rg um entum

to, 18 1; JHi:! nt a l a ttitud e uf th e

ad ho minc...:m, J 7 1; the d il e mm~,
171, I 72; fa l~ c use uf e xarnph:,

w rite r, 181, 182; and th o ught,

182, 183.
Conclusio n, diriiculty o f th e, 14 1;
form ancl le ngt h o f th e, 1.p .

172, 173; pdi tiu pri11 cipii, 173;
exi.;rci ses o n, 2 42 - 24 7.
Arra ngt:m l. .'. nt o f sente11t:es, rules

Co nju ncti o n, imp r11 JH.: r cl iui cc nf,

fo r, 7 1-7 6; exam ples u f impro per, 72- 76 ; squi ntin g ex pressions, 74; participl es , 74 ,
7 5; emphasis gai ncd by chang-

35 .

Co n 11 ectives, obtrusive a11.I " ·ith

10/iic/1, 8S; in par:lgrnphs, 106;
excess uf, 106 ; iniprope r o missiun of, 107. St:c Collt.'rt.' 1uc.

in g th e, 9 r; o f materi al f ur
writ ing, 132; o f narrati ve , 158,

Corre la tives, posit iun o r, 76.

159; of arguments, 16 7.
D escriptio n, 143-15 6; definition
vf, 143; value of, 143 ; limit:itio ns of, 143-14 5 ; llawthorne's
remarks ou, 144, 1,,5; sdecti un

Beauty in sentences, 98- 10 1; n ot
taught by rul es, 98; suggestio ns
fur securing , 98- 101.
27~)

280

.!Nf)FX OF SUR:JEC7'S~

uf pa rticula rs in , 145 , 14 6: variety '. 'f meth ods uf, 14 r,_ 152 ; obJec1 1 v~ m ~ th o d of, 147-150·
narr ati o n nnd,

meth od

J 50 ;

of

0-

su bj e di ,·~

de nse ) 1 ~ ' 1 15 15 - , con .
'i' 5- - 55; words de1rntin g- co or in, 1 55, I 56 ; exe rcises
?·

_

229-23 3.
D1c t1 v n. See iVtJr / ·
Uict iun:ir}', vnluc <i f,' '1:11 fur111i ng a
_0 1~,

.vo cal al b ry , to.

V1s~o ursc,

th e three formal d ivi-

_s 1<rns of, 13y.
lJ1 sc us~ iu n, importance
141.

of

Emphasis in sentences, how
c ured , ? I ; c rnph at ic and
cmp hat1_e forms, 9 1; gained
a n t ll h~sis, 92- 94: ga in ed

the,

se un by

hy
r ep c tH1 on, 94; g:ti nt.: d l1y cli111:~x, 9S• 96; cife cl of a11ti-

c l11n ax, 96; gai ned by added
wo rds, 97; unem ph atic cndint)'

. 9 7! 98.

Sec Force.

"' '

1 '. n~l i sh , n~ eaning- of pu re,

J z;
c li :tnges in, afte r Norru:ln Con-

'Jll~s l ,

IJ;

pn..:d o 111in:-i nce

uf

. 1 ~ a t1v c, 15; te.st o f, I fi.

1·: 111t l1 ~ l~ .

Sec Ad;>cti1•1.·s.
J·.:'\pos 1t1 u 11, 162- 1(,5 : d e li 11 ition
o f, 162; n1cthn.J lJf divi sivn in
163 ; co m pleten ess of l 6J '
16-1 ; . o rde rly cle vdopm~n t of:
.164 • 1ll 11stra ll<>n and compar isu n
~ n,

H14;

varit.:ty of trea.tml'n t
in, I 64, 165; exercises on, 23 g_

2,p_

.

Figu re~. o f speech , defined 40 ·
clas.sihcatiun uf, 41; use of, S3 '.
. . chu1cc of, s 4 .
'
} o r,cc , ga~ 1~ed by use of specific
" ord:-., J8; sometimes not dc:;ir.

abl e, J9; in sente nces, 8.;-9 8.
gam ed uy lm:vity, is4 , 8 5 ; cm'.

I NDEX OF SUBJECTS_

p~as i s in se ntences, 9 I-Q8. See
/ :111phns1s.
Fren ch, words borrowed from
13, 14.
•
C?cncral term s. See Ti!rms.
Grammatical errors, 66- 71.
l mproprict ies, defi nition of 32
t:x:u.11p ks uf, 32- 37 .
'
'
l n/111 111ve, pu.>ili on of adverb with,
67 •. r ela l1un of, to word on
win ch '.t depends, 68.
lnlrod uct1un, val ue of a n, 139;
qual iti es o f a n, 139, 140 ; ki:id
of, 140; length of an
14 1.
' 140,
Latin, words from, 14 .

l\lctaphor, definition of 6· ·
' 4 ' Ill
wh .t· t , l"ff
' erc11t from th e simi le
ex~mplcs of, 4 &- 52 , hit! '.
c t: n, 4X; mixed, 49 ; loo frc.
qucnt, 49 ; mi xtu re of metaphuncal
t and !item!
• Jang uage,
51; w Jen lo use, 5 1; greater
force of th e, 52; person ifi cat1<>n, s2 ; strained 54

j6, ;

J\ l ctn 11y;11y, dcJi nitio~1

oi

2 · ex

' 4 '
amplcs of, 43 .
Narra ti ve; 1s 6-i62 ; forms of
: 56'. smqilc and complex , 1 s6:
S 7' CS>enl1al s of, 157; selectiun
,,f materi al for, 157, 1s8· a rra ngement. o f, c5 8, 15 9; ~ause
and effect 111 • r 59; unity of the,
i5 9, 1 6o; proportion of 100 .
progression in , 1 6o; the ;notiv~
? f th e, l 6 I ; order o f interest
"" 16 1; . variety o f methods
and style in , 16 1, 162; exerd;,es
o n, 233-238.
Norman Conqu est, 12, 13.
Obsolete words, 16, , 7,

O missi on , afte r titan or as, 70; of
auxiliari e-, 70: of verb, 70 ; in
depend e nt clauses, 71.
011~'" p osition of, 76.
Parag raphs, definitio n o f, 102;
impurt an ce of, 10 2; length o f,
103; structure of, 103; unity
t1f, 10 4; c u here nee of, 10410:-S ; varidy o f, 109 , 1 IO; cl imax in,

11 0;

te rmin al senten ce

of, 111 - 1 13; exa mples of, by
Macaulay and Irving, 113- 120;
ext rcises o n, 202 , 203.

Participles, pusiti on of, 74, 7S·
Period ic sentences. Sec Sen tences.
Pe rson ification, s2.
Pcrsua.'ion, 173-178; a rgument
anJ, 165 , 173, 174; indirect
appeal lo the feelin gs, 174, 175;
variety of mot ives in, I 7S;
im porta nce of a good rep utatio n to a speaker, 176 ; display
of feeli ng, 1 76; exam p le fr om
Carlyle, 176, 177 ; exercises on,
247.
Plan, questi ons the basis o f the,
132; ex ample of, fr om Maca ul ay, 133 ; prac ti cal suggestiu11s cu tH:crning, 133, 134 ;
variety in the, 13s; modi lied
by th e purpose, I 35 , 136; ill consid ered, 136; the t rial, 137;
revision o f th e, 137; fuln ess o f
th e, 137 ; coh erence o f the,
I .)S, 139; composition hascd on
th e, 179; exercises on th e, 207228.
Precision, 3 1.
Preposit ions, careless choice of, 34;
relation of, 76; suspens ion of,
100.

Prolixity, 89, 90; avoided by skilful choice o f particula rs, 90.
Pronouns, misuse o f, 76-82 ; per~on of, 77; o1'e and lu, 77;

zS r

numb er o f, 77; obsc ure, 78-

&> ; positio n of relati ve, 8o, S 1 ;
sudl , ·wltich , 82; and 1ul1iclt ,
88.
Proo f, definiti o n of, 167.
Prl1positio u, dciin ed, 124; na·
tu rc and p ositio n o f the,

1 ~4~

in argument, 166.
Pro vincial words, 17, 18.
Pun ctua1ion, 274-277.
l'ure English, meaning o f, 12.
Read, how to , 11; what to , 11.
R e futa tio n, 170- 173. See Arg u111e nt.

Relative pronouns, 1nisuse o f, to
refe r to a whole dausc , ~ 1 ;
with o ut constru cti o n, S 1, 82 ;
such, 1ohich, 82; a nd u1hit!1 , SS.
Re petit ion, needl ess, 83; e1u phasis gained by, 94, 9 5.
Reputatio n, importa nce o f a g ood,
to a ~peake r, 176.
Rev ision, o f sentences, IOI; ol
the plan, 137; composit ion
and, 179-187; Burke's method
Maca ulay's
of,
183, 184;
m d hocl of, 184; unrevised
writin g, 184, 185; varyin g neccl
of, 18s, 186; not a matt er of
rules, 186 ; proportion , 186 ;
balance o ( parts, 186, 187.

Sel tish ness, composition on, 126,
127.
Sent ences, definiti on of, SS: cl assifi catio n of, SS; slwrt a nd
long, s 6 ; advantages and disadvantages o f lo ng, 56; caut io ns concerning use of long,
57; comparison of effect produced by sh ort and by long,
s7- 59 ; loose, S9 ; examples of
loose, 6o; advantages am! disadvantages of loose, 6 1 ; pe riod ic, 6 1; disadvantages of
periodic, 62; clearness in, 62;

i.

INDEX OF WORDS AND PJIRA S E S.

I NDEX OF S U/J')'E CTS.
unity of, 63; grammati cal errors
in, 6&- 71 ; m is use of p ro nouns,
7&-82 ; s imilarity of structure
in, 82, 83 ; for ce in, 84-98;
halan cecl, 93 ; un empha tic endin g o f, 97; beauty in, 98-101 ;
r evision of, Ior; cohe reni:e of,

104-IOS; variety in form of,
109, 11 0.
S hall and w ill, 36.
~i111il c , ddi11i tio 11 of, 44; cx:tmp lcs
of, 44 -46; in wh at un like the
111 etaph or, 46; when tv use,

5 1.
S \ang, 18.
S pec ifi c term s. See T erm s.
S tyle,
188- 192 ;
va rieti es of
mea n ing o f th e word, 188; in
juven il e cumpositivns, 189 :
adaptati o n in, 1S9, 190 ; f11r--

mati un o f a, 190, 191; false
idea ls o f, 191; the hes!, 19 1,
192 .
S ubjects,

cho k e

difk rc nt

frurn

o f,

Unity of sentences, 63-66; of
paragraph s, 104 ; of the plan,
138; o f narrative, 159, 16o.
Verbosity, 86-SS.
Vuca bubry, how to form a, 10 ;
value of th e diction ary in fo rmin g a, 10, 11; additions to English, from Vrench, L atin, etc.,
13-15; exactness requires a
large, 29. See 11/ords.
W ill. Se e Shnll.
\Vor<ls, 9- 54; cha nges in, 9 ; borrowe d from furcig11 la nguages,
13 -15, 2 2- 24; mutivcs for borrv wing , 15 ; ubso lt: te,

16, 17;

1 22;

huw

thc incs,

12 3;

test uf English, 16; provincial, 17, 18 ; slan g, 18; trite

4 1;

p hrases, 18 , 19; famili ar, 19;
prete ntio us,
20 ;
Johnso n's

v ag-ue, 12 5 .

Sy nct:ducht:,

Transitions, in paragraphs, 108;
in wh ole co mpositions, 186,
18 7.
Tropes. See fiij;'u res of Speech,

definiti on of,

exa mples o f, 42; antonom a5in.,

4 2.

style,

Ta utvlogy, 85, 86.
'f cns1..:s, in prin Lipa l cl auses,

68;

i n suburdi11 a ti.: cl au ses , 69.
T c r111 s, g e nera l, 37 ; ust.: o f gen era )

a nd sped tic, 38; fo rce o f spe cific, 38; ol ifk rcn cc of cllcct

pro d uccd by g eneral and 'l'Ccil ic , 38.
Th emes, ll\lw different fro m s uhj ccts, I 23 ; fa ults in th e c huicc
of, 125- 130 ; too bro ad, 125 ;
vag ue, I 25 -1 27; too di fficult,
I 27, 1 28 ;
w o rth disc ussi ng-,
I 28, r 29 ; cunlrul u f, J 29; va r i-

ety o f trea tment of,
cises o n, 204- 206.
Titk, wor<ling of, 130.

fo nd ness fo r pompous, 21 ;
H ood's carka ture of J ohnson's

I

35; exer-

21, 2 2 ;

new foreign,

22;

Thackeray's satire on the use
o f Fre n..:: h, 22, 23; c ho ice o f,
24; native compared with bo r-

rowe<l, 25, 26 ; formati on vf
ne w, 26, 27; needless disuse
. ,f, 27; abs urd ne w, 28 ; do uhtful expressions, 28 ; P ope 's rule
fur use of, 29; dearness of
d iction, 29, 30; dictio n suited
to the read er, 30 ; techni cal, 31;
p rec ision, 31 ; impro prieties,
32-37; general and specific,
3 7-39 ; unduly forcible, 39;
va riety in choice of,40 ; choice
of, so as to secure beauty, 98IO 1 ;
exercises on, 195-199.
See Vocabulary.

11.

IND EX OF WORDS AND PHRASES.
A ggra vating,_ 3 ~·

,\ isitate th e t1nt111nabulato r, 18.
:\grec, 14.

All1um, 14 .
i\ lk lu lia, 99·
Allian ce , '4·
And, 109 , 11 0; 01ntl whi ch, 88.
A nim al, 37·
Art a, 14.
As, 70.
Awnin g, 15.
Ba<l, 17.
lla mbou, 15.
Beauty, 14, 17.
Better, 166.
Bluckh end, 99 ·
Hlu dgeo 11, 99·
Hlund crbuss, 99·
Bravin g the elements, 18.
Bri ny , th e, 18.
Hut, IIO.
ll uzz, 38.

Den ati onali zati onist, 28.
l)e nominatio nalist, 28.
Disting ue, 22.

D ivan, 15 .
IJu cks, a line day for th e, 19.
E rst, 16.
Eve rlasting , 17.
I-: xecrahk , 99 ·

E xo rbitant, 49·
Face, 29.
F all, 17.
Fauteuils, 22.
Jo"icry steed, a, 18.
l'ix, 17.
Fo rty wi11ks, 18.
lo"owl, 9.
\o"ram e, 29.
Freshet, 17.
l'ugol, 9·
Gallery, 49·
Gay bachel or, 18.
Ge nius, 14.

Ca ra van, 15.

Gvng, 15 .

Ce ns us , 14.

C:rate, 38.

Cheer ( chair), 18.

Guess, 17 ; clon't guess, 17.

Circus, 14 .

Cla nk, 38.
Clash, 38.
Cl asses, 166 .
Curnhin c ( no un), 27.
Consarcinatlon, 1 7.
Co nstituti onal guvernm ent, 166.

Hamper ( verb), 49·
\[aut guOt, 2~.
J {erring po nd, th e, 18.
1 [ote\ -cle-hurse, 22.
llowl, 38.

Cornin c, 27.

Index, 14.
l mlorse, 32.
Int erest, 14.
Item, 14.

Cory m hs, 31.
Coup d'ccil, 22.
Cran e, 49·
Crash , 38.
Creak, 38.
Crucigerous, 17.
Cry, 38.

Jar, 38.
Javelin, 49·
Jinrikisha, 22.

I NDEX OF NAMES.
INDEX OF WORDS AND PHRASES.
J(eow, 18.

Language, 14.
Liable, 32.
Like, 32.
Marble, 99.
Masculine persuasion , 19.
i\Ll'sh (marsh) , 1S.
Masses, 166.
M astcrly effort, a, 20.
Matchl ess work of inspired genius,

20.
M aternal relatives, 19.
Matter, 29.
Meander, 99.
Meetin', 17.
Moslem, 15.
'Most, 32.
Neither, 35.
.Nt.:urolemma, )I.

Nice, 32.
·
No. extra charge, 18.
No1sc, 38.
Nur, 35.
Noti o ns, Ii·
Noxious weed, the, 18.
Object, 29.
One, 77.
Only, 76.
O rato r, 14.

O rnery, 17.
Pack,

1 i·

}'an.;nc hyma, 3 I.
Pastor, 14.

Patchwork, 1 i·
Perform, 14.
Pct iolcs, 31.
I'ipc of peace, the, 18.
r itcous, 14.
Prayer, 14.
rrucessi0n , 14.
Profi le, 49.
Pulchritude, 17.

Queen of the tragic stage,
Quite, 32.

20.

Rattan, 15.
Reason, 14.
Recherches, 22.
Record, 49.
]{oar, 38.
Rock, 17, 37.
Rouser, I 7.
H.unnist, 27.

Whine, 38.
Whiz, 38.
Why this thusness, 19.

Trow, 16.

Tim, 9.

Will, 36.

Usage 14.

W orkist , 27.
Would, 36.
W ot, 16.
Writist, 27.
Writorial, 27.

Vegetable, 37·
Verse, 49.
Vociferation, 38.
W alkist, 27.
\V hcatine, 2 7.

Yell, 38.

]{unnorial, 27.
R ustle, 38.
Salaam, 15.
Scrawl, 99.
Scream, 38.
Senator, 14.
Shall , 36.
Sherbet, 15.
Shootist, 27.
Should, 36 .
Shucked, 17.
Signist, 27.
Skatist, 27.
Skatorial, 27.
Slam, 38.
Soapine, 27.
Sobri quet, 49.
Socket, 49.
Sountl, 38.
Specim en, 14.
Sui>jcct, 29.
Suh,;tance. 37.
Such, which, 82.
Sunday-go -t o-m eeting clothes, 18.
Sy1nphuny of gorgt:uus culoring,

20.
Synovial membrane, 31.
Than, 70.
'fown, 9.

Trade, 49.
Train, 17.
'1'ranspire, 32.
Travail, 49.
Triumph of the histri onic art, 20.

II I.

INDEX OF NAM ES.
Addison, 66, 248, 249, 2 57·
Arnold, 81, 140, 192, 249.
Austen, 78.
Ay res, 74·
nacon, 47, 132, 140.
l:lainton, 57·
Bancroft, 76, 83.
lloswcll, 21, 133.
Brewer, 66.
Burk e, 47, 48, 59, 89, 92, 94, 106,

107, 111, 183, 249, 250.

Earle, 102 , 18l':i.
Edwards, 79·
Emerson, 9, 45, 47, 143, 252.
Ewald, 83.
Fraser, 72.
Froude, 154, 177.
George, .66.
George Eliot, 83, 215, 216, 226,

251.

Goldsmith, 42.
Gray, 42, 43, 45, 47, 52, 100.

Carlyle, 149, 154, 155, 158, 176,
212, 213.

Chalmers, 78.
Chatham, 257, 258.
Chaucer, 13.
Collins, 72.
Condo rc et, 52.
Craik, 49.
Co nfucius, 215.
Croker , 133.
DeFoc, 25, 250.
De Mille, 43.
De Quincey, 50.
Dickens, 147, 154, 217, 221-223,

Hamerton, 26, 18o.
Harn ess, 51.
Hawthorne, 32, 144, 148, 211,

212, 252, 253.
Helps, 79·
Herv ey, 26.
Hildreth, 88.
Hill, 51.
Holm es, 28.'
Hood, 21.
Horace 121.
Hugo, 52.
Huxley, 135.

250, 251.
Dowden, 64.
Drummond, 45·

Irving, Go, 61, 75, 117, 253-2 55.

- &&

WJ,.;)lj!) ,._

-~

z:..;6

7 /1e

INDEX UF .v.1.111"-·s.

S!udcuts'
S!'ries o_f l~n.:;l/sl:
- - --- - -- ··- - - - ---··- - - -

- --

J en .me, 60, 6 1.
J uh n,;on, 21 , 72, I 33, t85, 190,
258, 259.
Jo nson, 179.

[ ,3J11:1rl i ne, I 85 .

I .incoln, 208-210.
l.ulldu n N ews, S r.

Macaulay, I 1, 43, 58, 59, 78, 92,
93, 94, 95, rn5, I 12, 11 3, I J.),
qo, I 8,; , 213, 257-26o.

M:i.~nusscin ,
;\·l;isseyJ .1~ ­

25.

J\lcLarthy , 75.
1\-!i!i, 76.
i\i ilton. IO. ::!)9~262.
1\iinto, 55.
7\l1 •r ic\· _, JS_.+.
]\;i o r ri < F . I':., 79.
1\1orris, \ V., 25.
Tvi otiey , 90.
Miiller, 48.

Newtn n. 64.
New Yo rk Sun, 73.
Nt:w York Ti mes, 73, 78.
New York Tri bune, 35, 73, 81.
Oliphant, 75.
P:iyn, 77.
Payne, 184.
Peacock, 82.
Phill ips, 94.
Pope, 29, 96, 99.

FN JC!:..'.S / 1'/JJ U L'fcD .

To furnish the cch1cati11 nal publ ic ll'ilh well -cd iit;ci c·diti<>r>' of

Samtsh ury, 40, 1<)2 .
SaHford, 75.
Scott, 74, 86, 185, 224, 225. 262266.
Shakespea re, 10, 42, 43, 45 , 47,
53, 96, 150, 16o, 218- 22 1, 266272.
Shelley, 44, 46, 53, 67, 70, 182.

K e mble, Frances J\ nn, 69.
Kingsley, 72.

Lmgfcll o w, 6 7, 153, 156, 223,
224, 255 - 257.
LounslJUry, 49.
Luwell, 28, 57, 152.

Classics.

Review of Reviews, 79.
]{ivarol, 52.
Rusk in, 70, 150.

1

<';::;"ill'

~
~I

or

tho"; autho rs usc:d in. u r requirc:tl fur adrniss ion l< J. 111 ;1 111·
Lhc:
co ll eges, the puhlis h c rs a nn o un ce th is new series. //11· (1011/·.1
'i(.t1i/1 j>ri(_·t's ari' 11,1-;t1 rc11dy , and others are in prep.1r:1ti on .
! lu:v
are uniformly l•1>1111d in dot!t, furnished at a ;,,.,, , j•rir1'. :rnd
Stude nt s shou ld b uy such t e xts th at a ft er use i n the cl;issroom
II' ill J,e found v;c]uaulc for the: pri 1alt: libury.

Srnetham, 20.

Smith , S.1.
Spect ator, 98.
Spectator, The (LonJo n), 18.
Sprin gfield Republican, 35.
Stephe n, 76, 77.
:-iwi ft, 188.

25

Coleri1(i;t's A11cic'11! Jlft1rillr:r

A JJallad lJoo/.:
Edited \.y

50
\\'e llcsky C<> lkgc .

KATllAK J:o;E LEE BATI·" ·

1lftL!!l1t«tJ A r11o!tfs Solira/, awl R11st11m
Tennyson , :-S, 3~), 44, 95, IOO,
147, 213-215 .
Tlucker~y , 22, 39, 05, 91, 1 2(J,
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Trevel yan, '184.

Tyerrnan , 64.

Vern iolles, 84.
Walfo rd, 100.
Ward, ,\. \ V., GG,
\Varel, Mrs., 100.
Wa tts, 39.
Webster, 272, 273.
\Vdsh, 50.
Wendell , 134, 19 1.
Whateley, 8 1.
"Wordswo rth , 45 , 52.
Wh ite, 36, 198.

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Ed ited by

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FRED

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N . ScO'rT, U niversity o f Michigan.
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Edited by JA~IES C HAUIE!<s, University v f 0liiv.

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J(Ja!I o.f Arr, and o/!1 cr sdcc/i(J!1sfriJm D<: Q11inccv .JS
Edited hy llE NRY H. HE!.FIEl.I>, Chit:agu Manual Training School.

TllE i'>ll·: J{Cl!i\NT OF Vl':NICJ·:.
LEE i)ATl·:s, \\'clksky Culkgc.
SELECTIONS FROM
CLAY. Edited by
School, N . J.

THE
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SPEECHES OF HENRY
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SCOTT'S LADY OF THE LAKE. Edited by
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