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G R A M M A

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THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

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OLIVER B • .PEIRCE.
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Shlill we elillbrace Trutb 1 when found? or1 S hAU we rejecLit 1 bee11u&e not found btfort 1

WATERTOWN, N, Y,
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY KNOWLTON & RICE.

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1843

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PREFACE.

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Snail we examine New Theories, hoping for Improvement ·1 or, shall we
condemn and reject, without examination, whatever lacks the stamp of
Age?

Theories, now old, were once new. True theories, now new, will bt·
come old.

THE general dissatisfaction in relation to English Grammar, is
rt1y apology for presenting to the world a new theory-a system
1-~hich can not make matters worse-which may improve them.
It is every where admitted, that no other .science is studied at
great a sacrifice of time and labor, with so little countervailing
advantage ; while all must perceive, that no science presents, to
\i1e student, greater inducements to action, than this, the first of
•c'iences-the grand auxiliar of every other science-for,
'Whether a person would make the wisdom of other men, his
<• '.vn ; or would impart, for others' benefit, the knowledge he has
g ~ined ; it is by, and through, the language, as a system of chanr.-;:Js, that he is, chiefly, to receive or impart what he would attain
. ,,·: bestow. Thus it is seen, that the language is inseparably connected with the intelligence and welfare of individuals, with the
pleasures of social intercourse, with the advancement of science
and the varied interests of the world.
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according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by
OLIVER B. PEIRCE,
in the Office of the Clerk of the District Court of the Northern District ~r
NEw-Yonx.
ENTERED, also, according to Act of Parliament, in Stationers' Hall,
ENTERED,

LONDON.

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Of the comparative importance of the English, and other languages , there must be different opinions. Some men, we find,
who were early bred to an acquaintance with the ancient langua- '
ges, to the almost utter neglect of their own, the English. This
they seem scarcely to have examined, save through the distorting
medium of the old systems of Grammar. These persons, it must be
expected, will adhere to their early notions and established prejudices, however wrong ; like shell-fish remaining fixed to the rocks
on which they grew. They are like Lot's wife in the midst of
the plain-like mile-posts, not designed as companions in the
way; but intended only as evidence of others' advancement, as
means to mark the progress of the Votaries of Truth, as they ascend the Hill of Science.

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PREFACB.

PREF.ACE.

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For these antiquated stationaries, blink-eyed from the effects of f
the glare of science outshining the lurid twilight of the morn (
which gave them birth-for these literary abstractionists who fond- \
ly turn, for light, towards the Dark Ages, and who can see nothing ·
of excellence in plans, measures, or systems which have not the
marks of antiquity-for these, I do not write. " They are joined
to their idols-Let them alone .''
I write for the guidance of those who are able to see, and having seen, to appreciate ; for the benefit of both teacher and pupil, the middle-aged and young ; that the principles of science
may be transmitted, unobstructed, through successive stages of
improvement to generations yet unborn.

I duly appreciate the classic languages, as such, but I regard
the English as a broader, higher field of science. Egypt and Israel, Greece and Rome, have haJ, in turn, their glory, and the
grave. Their Literature arose, and shone, and fell in the very
wreck of empires which gave it brightness. The soul that animated it has gone ; and the stream of time which swept over
it, has borne to us, not "the thing of life," but the relics of what
was. Yet, of the dimensions of the living, we may judge, from
the anatomy of the dead.

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If a language is to be valued either according to the extent of
its use, or the amount and importance of light effulging from it ;
or from both combined, there is not, (there never has been,) a language that can compare with the Engli~h, which, whatever may.
have been its resources, and however it may have been regarded,
is, already, the suN in the firmament of literature; and is destined
by the physical, intellectual, and moral energy of the Anglo-Saxon race, to become, in the varied commerce of life-in civilization
and refinement, in mind and morals, by Science prompting Art,
THE RE GENERA TOR of the world.
If the foregoing remark is true, (and who can doubt its truth?)
it sufficiently vindicates the importance of the English, as compared with the other languages of the globe.
We have but one English Language, and consequently can need
but one grammar of the language. That one, designed for the
instruction of millions yet unacquainted with other languag?s,
should be, essentially, and in fact, an English Grammar-Engl~sh
in its CLASSIFICATION-English in its NoMENCLATURE-Enghsh
in its DEF!NITIONs-and last, and most of alli English iu its

Ruu:s, both analytical and synthetical, which should describe, fully, the idiom and structure of the language.•.
An English Geography 0t England, should be fully and tr_uly .
English; describing, by English words, the English country, iust
as the country is-however much or little those words or that
country may agree or disagree with the language or country of th~
French, the Germans, the Greeks or Chinese.
English Grammar, (unlike Medicine, Anatomy, or Physiology,) is a particular, not a general science-being but the geog-:
raphy and directory of the English Language. It should therefore be such as to lend its sanction to every correct sentence, just
as the sentence stands ; and such as to condemn and correct, with
reasons, whatever is wrong in the use of words for the expression of ideas. From these premises, fixed in the nature of things,
it follows, inevitably, and is self-evident, that,
~A sentence,

to be parsed, must be described as it is-that,

~If a sentence is right, and the rules of grammar are right,
they must agree as they are-that,.

~If a sentence is right, and we have to change it, in the least,
to make it agree with the rules of grammar, this shows, on the
face of the fact, that the rules are defective or wrong ; and that
the grammar, (so called,) is not a grammar of the language-that,

{ltW>If a sentence is to be deemed correct, as it is, because,
when put into some other form, it can, in the new form, be parsed ; then it follows, as a matter of course, that all sentences,
(however incorrect,) are perfect, as they stand-for any sentence
can be transformed by putting in words " understood " ! or by
taking out words expressed, (either" or both,) and by this transformation, can be adapted to the rules of grammar.
~What would be thought of a topographer, who, averse to
labor, should sit in his study, and copy from maps of countries and
cities in Asia and Africa, and in presenting his new map, thus
made, should pretend to represent London or New York, as it is,
by describing lakes, where there are parks; forests, where are
stately temples; and sandy deserts, where are blooming gardens;

•Perhaps it is well to retain for a time, in Grammar, as in Chemistry, the
old nomenclature with the new, as a kind of connecting link between twQ
eras in science; till one generation shall have passed, and till, of course, the
teacher and the pupil can meet on the common ground of one nomenclature, and that aphilosphical one.

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and, when told of the discrepancy should begin to talk of his lakes,
and forests, and deserts "understood!" which the teacher aild l
pupil must put in-(" supplying the ellipses!") to make the city .

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agree with the map, which professes, but fails, to represent the
city!
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~Topography, or geography, based on such an absurdity,
~ould be but a burlesque on science-an insult to the understanding.
~Grammar, based on such an absurdity, would be but an outrage on common sense-not even the mimic of Philosophy-but
the mockery of Science-a very libel on the name it bears--yet 1
on this self-same absurdity have all of the old theories of giammar been formed-and on this same absurdity, English Grammar 1
written, learned, and taught, has been sustained, like the old system of Astronomy, by the concurrence of the great, (?) and the
credence of mankind, during the lapse of ages.
~The old theorists scarcely pretend to describe the English
language, as correctly spoken and written. No ! they warp fact1
to suit their theories, in3tead of studying the facts and writing definitions and rules to represent thein-llike stretching an infant out
of joint to make him fit his father's clothes !] They distort and
deform the language and grossly misrepresent its principles and
structure, to make the language, thus distorted, conform to their
false, dead systems, instead of learning the language and writing
grammars to describe it. To prove this, let well known facts be
presented to the erudition, the judgment and cantlor of mankind."
~In the following " contrast,'' the left hand column contains
what is regarded as good English, and what is correct according
to the new system herewith presented to the public. The 1ight
hand column contains the same sentences (corresponding in number,) as they are re-modelled to make them " grammatical" according to the old theories. I give but a few instances of the
thousands that might be given.
*By" the old theorists," as referred to, I mean Johnson, Lowth, Lennie,
Murr.ay, Kirkham, G. Brown, Smith, Bullions, Alger, Hazen, Joseph W.
Wright, Parker and Fox, and all others of the same general character;
their works differing not much in principles, but chiefly in dates, title-pages
and binding.
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The earlier of these writers, transcribed their theories from Latin and
Greek grammars ; like making a geography of modern Engl~nd by copying
geographies of ancient Greece and Rome : and the later wnte.r~ have onl.Y
echoed from time to time, and from place to place, the absurd1t1es of their
predecessors-ar, the figure being. changed, Murray's Grammar is t~e place
in which the principles of the ear her writers ~entered, and from which, un·
changed, but in new dresses, they have all diverged.

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PR:E!FACE;

PREFACE.

'

CONTRAST OF CORRECT, WITH INCORRECT,

Go~D ' ENGLISH

LANGUAGE.
SENTENCES,

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OuTLAl'(JHSH JARGON,

Grammatical according to Peirce's Grammatical according to the old
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theoriu.
Grammar.
1 John; go home.
I John, go thou to home, or John,.
do tlwu. go unlo home.
2 They took Moses' rod. I read of 2 They took Moses's rod. I read

Xerxes' overthrow. I beard of the
of Xerxes's overthrow. I heard
witness' return. I approved Dr.
of the witness's return. I approv•
Evans' advice.
·
ed Dr. Evans's advice.
3 James called and took his ticket, S James called and took bis ticket,
but left Henry's, Jacob's, Seth's,
but left H~nry's ticket, and Jacob'•
William's, 'ulia's and Mary's.
ticket, and Seth's ticket, and William's ticket, i:rnd Julia's ticket,
and Mary's ticket.
4 John lent me his book, and bor· 4 John lent to or unto me his book,
rowed mine.
and borrowed mine book.
6 Jane took, by accident, Julia's 6 Jane took, by accident, Julia's um·
umbrella, and left hers.
brella, and left hers umbrella.
6 George and Henry took William's 6 George and Henry took William's
carriage for their journey, and left
carriage for their journey, and left
theirs ~arriage; because his car·
theirs; because his was better thw
theirs.
riage was better than theirs ear-

riage wiu.
7 James and Rich&rd brought home 7 James andRichard broughtto home
from the East, ten Canary birds.
.or unto home, from the East, ten
They gave two of them to Mary,
Canary birds. They gave two .Catwo of them to Helen, and' two of
nary birds of them to Mary, and
them to me, and kept thi> remaintwo Canary birds of them to Helen, and two Canary birds of them
ing four as theirs,or for themselves.
to me, and kept the remaining four
Canary birds as theirs Canary
birds, or for themselves.
8 Julia and Hannah respect and es- 8 Julia and Hannah respect and es.
teem each other. They use one
teem sopiebody-each person of
another's books.
them respects and esteems theoth·
er person. They use books-one
person of tliem uses another pers<m's books-meaning the other
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person's books.
9 Seth Allen can not go to New-19 Seth Allen cannot go to New York,
I York, finish my busmess, and refinish my busmess and return in
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turn in ten days ; but James Ellis
ten days ; but James Elhs can ~o
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can.
to J\rew York, and can finuh
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my business, and can return in
ten. days.
IO Helen is taller than Maria. Ma- IO Helen is taller than Maria-is
ria is as studious as Helen.
I tall. Mana i~ as studious as Helen-is studious.

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PREFACE.

II William bought more paper than
was needed ; and purchased as
much fruit as can be used.
12 Geurge has more books than he
can read.

111that
Willi:im bought more paper than
or the paper was which was

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13 Harriet is ten years older than
Jane.

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14 The wall is ten feet high.

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15 The canal is more than fifty miles
long.
11l Seth journeyed west five days,
and tra.vel!ed more than four hun-1
dred miles.

17 The enemy returned to the charge
four times.
18 George sold his apples for a pen·
ny each.

needed; and purchased as much
fruit as that or the fruit is which
can be used.
12 George has more books than he
can read them-or than those or
the books are which he can read.
13 Harriet is older than Jane is old,
to more years than to ten years~
or than ten years are.
14 The wall is high to ten feet, [that
is-the wall being " high to ten
feet," or to the tenth foot, is just
nine feet high.]
15 The canal is long to the distance
or extent of more miles than the
distance or extent of fifty miles--i1.
16 Seth journeyed to or towards
west during five days, and travelled over or through the distanc~
OT space of more miles, than the
distance or space of four hundred
miles-is.
17 The enemy returned to the charge
to the number of four times.
18 George sold his apples for a pen·
ny for one apple, or for each ap·

ple.
19 I have a farm with which I Jruow 19 I have a farm with which I know
not the thing with which to do
not what to do.
something or any thing.
20 I have more money by half than 20 I havP. more money by a half, or
by one half than that or the thing
I knew what to do with.
is I know-something to dosomething with which.
21 James resides more than ten miles 21 James resides at a greater distance than the distance of ten
beyond New York.
miles beyond New York-is.
22 The eagle soared more than ten 22 The eagle soared to a greater distance or heiuht than the distance
thousand foet above the level of the
or height ol ten thousand feet asea.
bove the level of the sea--is.
{lG-The next two examples are transformed exactly according to the rules
ofKirkham's Grammar, and his particular directions to the pupil concerning these very examples, to bring them into " grammatical" forms.
23 Who noble ends, by noble means, 23 That man is gre:i.t indeed do thm
obtains,
or ye let him to rei~n like unto
Or failing, smiles in exile or in
good Aurelius, or do thou or ye
~hains,
let him to bleed like unto Socra-

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Like good Aurelillll.Wt him reign, 1 ~.Who, OQtaips JlOble, .epds by DO•
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· ' · ble means-orJh~t ' man: ~. great
or bleed
Like Socrates ; the m'an is great
indeed; u;ho, ftii!iD!t to· obt~n noindeed.
ble ends by nob/e mean.1,' smiles
in exile or in chains.
24 Oh Happiness! our being's end 24 Oh Happiness! our being's end
and aim 1
and aim, whether thou art good,
Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content,
OT whether thou art pleasure, or
whate'er thy namewhether thou art ease, OT whether
The something, still, which
thou art content, thou art that,
thou· art which---Or be thy name
prompts th' eternal sigh,
For which webeartolive,ordare
that thing, it may be whichever
to die!
thing, thou art 8till that some·
thing, &c. &c. ! !

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The foregoing " contrast" of correct language, with language
" grammati_cal" according to the old systems, must convince an~
one but a bigot, that " Grammar," with the old theorists is a mere
arbitrary, ideal thing-an imaginary something, to which the language, by being utterly spoiled, is to be made to conform-like
the operations of a fanatical glover who makes all bis gloves to
an ideal standard or measure, and when a lady calls to purchase,
agrees to ensure a perfect fit ( wbatever the length of her fingers) by cutting off the ends of her fingers, if the fingers are too
l~ng to fit the gloves; or by stretching her fingers out of joint,
( 1f they are too short,) and putting in, between the joints, wooden
blocks, (something "understood") to make the hand fit the~
glove! and, by so doing, renders utterly useless a before perfect
hand !-all this rather than examine the band and make the glove
so as to fit the hand.
It is thus that the principles of science, fixed and enduring, of
themselves, and as clear as meridian light, must ·be distorted displaced, bidden, and lost to the world, by our adherence t~ the
crude,_ disjointed maxims of misguided " grammar" writers-and
men, m other respects really wise, lend the full sanction of their
in~uence to perpetuate the evils of these systems of grammar,
chiefly because the systems were written by some friend or father's friend; and because, really, they know too littl~ of the
works to have discovered one tenth of the thousand errors which
tb~y i~~~lcate_. From friend!~ regard for the man, these " high
priests m science abuse the mfluence of their stations by commending the trash of the author-and thus make actually tMU?,
what should have existed only in the imagination of the poet of
fiction-that
"WISDOM NURSEll FOLLY'S CHILDREN AS HER. Q.WN,
4< fOND QF ?;'HE__ l'OULES'l;'l"

PREFACE.

Law, in a free country, is, professedly, the representation of the
intelligence and will ; and is designed to correct, by established rule, the occasional aberrations of individuals. Grammar
consists of the representation of the principles of communication
as adopte? by the learned of a c?mmunity or country, yet digested 1a.ccordmg. t.o reason, ~nd apph~d bl rule; that, by restraining
the m egulanties of gemus, by d1rectmg the style of the well-informed, and by refining, to expulsion, the awkwardness of the vulgar, it may produce, as nearly as possible, uniformity in the meanrng of w o rd~, and perspicuity in the expression of ideas, or the
transmission of thought.
~eopl e 's

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I have come, as an author, before the public, hoping to correct
the defects in
as a contribuwhose benefit
1t 1s mtended, will examine, discriminate, judge and act.

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th~ errors, to remove the absurdities, and supply
t~1s departmen~ of science. I offer this, my mite,
!10.n ~o the public fund ; asking, only, t:hat those for

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I ~ave classed the words of the language according to their real traits of similarity, and have distinguished the classes according
to their real differences.
R egardless of the course of other writers, I have used, as
1:ERM.s OF DI STINCTION, such words as the principles to be distmgu1s.hed, have, of themselves, suggested to me-words which
must, m turn, suggest the characters of the different principles to
the learner.
. Of the different parts of speech, and their respective subdivisgiven such definitions as really define and include the
principles mtended, and such as exclude every other principle.
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I have so adapted my rules to the idiom and proper structure of
the language, that I parse philosophically, and sanction, as it
stands, every correct sentence in the language ; and condemn and
correct, with reasons, whatever is wrong m the use of words for
the expressing of ideas. I believe I have made English Grammar a plain, practical and pleasant science. If I have failed may
my work sinlc innoxious to the depths of oblivion, rather than remain, like too many others, to burden, not to sustain, the rising
greatness of the intellectual and moral constitution of man.
If I have succeeded in accomplishing the end proposed, in making the crooked paths of Science straight, and her rough places
smooth; if I shall enable the student to become equally learned

and useful, with less expense ; or more learned and useful, with
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PREFACE.

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equal expense ; if I shall, in effect, add something to man's brief
existence, by shortening the time necessarily spent in preparing
him to act his part in life with credit to himself, in usefulness to
the world; then, although amid the coming revolutions of successive improvement, the name of the author and his work may perish from the memory of man ; yet, from consciousness that my efforts for the advancement of the general good have not beeri wholly vain, I shall have had, while living, the satisfaction of seeing
my highest designs consummated.
OLIVER B. PEIRCE.
RoME, N. Y. 1843.

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ADDRESS TO THE TEACHER .

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CoNsrnER the persons under your charge, as rational creatures,
endowed, by their Creator, with intellectual faculties which are capable of being raised, by proper exercise, to indefinite expansion
and power; but which, if forced to admit, as truth, the unexamined dogmas of schools, will dwindle to the insignificance of mere
brutal instinct-the imitative propensity of the parrot or the ape.
MAXIM.

ScrENCE, in every department, Physical, Intellectual, Moral and Religious, should be so taught, that, when imparted, the principles, by recommending themselves to the understanding, can remain living and feed,
without the support of authors' or teachers' names.

Remember that a child ia a man in miniature-that the fact of
your associating with your pupils, must, in degree, stamp upon
them, in mind and morals, in deportment, in every thing that can
constitute the character of man, the impress of yourself.
Remember .that active belief, founded in conviction, from personal investigation, alone can benefit and improve mankind-that
the principles of any theory, on any subject, blindly assented to,
can not be lasting in their effect ; but, like the mist of morning,
may be noticed at the time, yet pass and are forgotten-therefore,
~NEVER ALLOW YOUR PUPILS TO COMllIIT TO MEJllORT
WHAT THEY DO NOT UNDERSTAND.
~NEVER TEACH, AS TRUTH, ANY THING, HOWEVER TRlFLING IT MAY SEEM, WHICH REASON'S UTMOST FORCE AND
BRILLIANCE CAN EVER AFTERWARDS UNTEACH.

What you can not strengthen and improve, do not weaken and
deform.
Teach them that Grammar is but a guide to the understanding
/ in the use of correct language-that PARSING is only describing
facts, or the nature and relations of words as they are used, not
as they, or some others might have been used-guard them against .
blindly adopting the sentiments of any man however great in the
estimation of the world-teach them that authors are but public
men sharing the common infirmities of the race-that, though long
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TO THE TEACHER.

approved, theo1ies which are not philosophical and practical, a.re
down-right insult to the human mmd, and should be at once discarded.
Explain the parts which, ~o the learners~ var~ous capacitie~, shall
need to be explained ; and impress on t~eir mmds, ~hat their proficiency and enjoyment in each succeedmg part, will depend ?n
their having acquired a thorough knowledge of all that precedes it.
Lead them, step by step, from exami.ning the different materials of which the fabric of the language 1s composed, to learn t~e
proper mode of sel~cting, arranging .and combining the parts, to
form a just-proportioned and harmomous structure of the whole.
~Impress them with the TRUT·H' th~t fifteen minutes per day,
spent in exercising the understandmg, is worth. more than. the
whole time wasted in the exercise of memory, without the aid of
the understanding and judgment.

ALL desire improvement; yet many are averse to change.

We forget, that
though there may be change without improvement, there can not be im.
provement without change. We should consider that change is necessa·
rily co·extensive with improvement.

L A N G U A G.E
1 Is the means of communicating thoughts, or expressing ideas.
It is of two kinds ; Spoken and Written.
SPOKEN

LANGUAGE

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2 Consists of certain sounds expressing emotion, and of other
sounds rendered significant by usage ; as,
Oh! ..11.las! Fie!-Man, woman, book, hat.

[Give the sounds, only.]

WRITTEN LANGUAGE

3 Consists of letters or figures used as signs of significant
sounds ; as,
O·h, for Oh !-.II-1-a-s, for ..11.las !-F-i-e, for Fie !-.Jl1-a-n, for Man-w-0-111-a-n, for woman-b-oo-k, for boo~h-a-t, for hat. (Give the Jet·
ters first, and then the so unds of the words.]

4 The different incorporations of words used by the people of
different nations, are called languages ; and generally bear, respec-,
tively, the names of the ·countries in which they were first embodied, or to which they are peculiar; as, the English, the French,
the Greek, the Hebrew language.
5 By speaking the word pen, as a combination of sounds, the
idea of the instrument is communicated from the speaker of the
word to the hearer of it, if the latter has before heard the word
used in reference to a pen. This is spoken language.
6 By writing, as a word, the letters, p-e-n, the idea of the instrument is conveyed from the writer of the word to the reader
of it ; if the latter has before seen the combination of letters used to represent the instrument. This is ·written language. '
7 Spoken language affects the mind through the medium of
the ear, and written language through the medium of the eye.'*
•In merely intellectual matters, impressions of ideas made through the
latter, a,.e generally stronger and more lasting than those made onl)' through.
the former. Tb.e cause of this difference is found in the fact that by ad-

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GRAMMAR.

Violation.

8 Is the science of language. It treats of spoken and written
words as signs of ideas.
Grammar is of two kinds; General and Particular.

I must have my tooth pulled-[ meaning, probably, extracted: as a person may have all his teeth pulled, without having one of them extracted or
taken out.] James lives in New York ; though lodging, at present, in Boston-[meaning, probably, that James resides in New York; though lodg"
ing at present in Boston.] A man lives wherever he is alive: he resides
where his permanent home ·is. George ; barn es• up the horse and put him
into the carriage-[ meaning probably, harness the horse to the carriage.
The rider would find himself in an awkward plight, seated beside such company as the words imply.] The prisoner broke jail and cleared-[meaning,
doubtless , that the prisoner broj<:e jail and escap ed. ] "Cleared," as applied to ships leaving a port, wo.uld be ·proper; but not to the escape of a prisoner from confinement. This turtle soup is elegant or most beautiful[rneaning that it is excellent or delicious.]

GENERAL GRAMMAR

9 Consists of an exposi tion of the general principles of communication which are common to all languages. Thus,

The Second Pdnciple

PARTICULAR GRAMMAR

11 Consists of an explanation of those general principles as adapted to the expression of ideas, and so applied as to constitute a
particular langu age .

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GRAMMAR

10 All languages have names by which to designate objects;
words, to represen t the actions of objects ; words to denote the
qualities of objects, and words to qual ify events or facts, &c. &c.

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GRAMMAR.

16 Consists in using perfect words in speaking and writing.

17 RULE-Speak with perfect propriety and distinctness
every word you would speak ; and so write, whatever you
would write, as to represent the perfect spoken word.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Violation.

12 Consists of explanations of the different parts of the English Language, and of directions for speaking and writing the
language correctly.
13 ~It embraces SEVEN GENERAL P~JNCIPLES in relation to
which, and which only, we can err in the use of words. These
principles can not be too carefully regarded.

John; hand me that g'ography-[meaning ge-ography.] George; will
you take some pudden ?-[meaning pudding.] Seth wouldn't go hornewootunt go, &c.-[rneaning would not go home.J Julius bought a napple
an date it-[rneaning bought an apple and ate it.] , ·

The Fil'st Principle

.

The . Third Principle
18 Consists in the selection of the right farms of the words
to be used.

14 Consists in the choice or selection of right words for expressing ideas .

19 RULE-Select such forms of the words as are consistent with the sense intended, and with good usage.

15 RULE- Regard the established meaning and proper
application of words, and choose such words, to express your
ideas, as will express those, and can express no others-such
words as are consistent with a oon TASTE."

Harriet : who did you see at the concert 1-[whom did you see 7] John
took my hat and left his 'n-[and left his.] "Hast thou an arm like God?
and canst thou thunder with a voice like him ?"-[hast thou an arm like
God'a? and canst thou thunder with a voice like his?]

*See T aste treated of at the beginning of P art I of
part of Grammar.

RHETORIC,

the 5th

dressing the eye as well as the ear, we give to ideas a kind of individual
forms or shapes, and relative locations wilh respect to each other; and consequently, a grea ter array of the mental faculti es is brought into exercise,
in grasping and retaining the ideas. It is on this account, that teachers,
who give on black.boards and otherwise , ocular illustrations of what they
explain orally, are more successful than othe{s who J;l.eglect such aids,.

.

Violation.

The Foul'th Princi1lle
20 Consists in the use of_ the proper number of words.

21 RULE-Avoid using unnecessary words-those
which add neither to the sense nor the beauty of the expression, and those words which would express more than
is intended.

" '· '

18

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GRAMMAR.

('.'.t'lie Swen

G ·R AllllllAR.

'lj

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Violation.
I borrowed ten dollars of Henry, yesterday tnorning; but I have refunded the money back to him again this afternoon. [Omit "back to him again," which adds neither sense nor beauty to the express10u.) I went,
from my d>1 elling house in New York, to Philad elphia, and returned back
home again the same day. [Omit " back home ao-ain.'') William has regained his eye-sight. [Omit the word "eye."j George walked home afoot. [O mit the word " afuot. "] The child slipped up and fell doum.[Omit "up" and "down.")
Harriet; come, go lo the basin and wash out your eyes; and comb your
hair out, and prepare for school. [Omit "come," as entirely useless , and
the two words "out," "out," as expressing too much.] John; wash off
your hands and commence your writing. [Omit " o.ff,"asexpressing more
than is intended .] Juli a ; clear out the breakfast room, and resume your
studies. [Omit "out."]

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Tile Fiftb Principle

1

22 Consists in the proper arrangement of words with respect to
each other.

23 RULE-So arrange your words and sentences with
respect to each other, that, while the intended meaning shall
be obvious, at once, no other meaning can be attached to
the expression .

Violation.

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"The 'Ao-ricultural car ' was drawn by twenty pairs of oxen, filled
with three h~ndred men,"-(representing in strictness that the oxen,_ not
the car, were filled with the men!) [The editor 's words nee~ to be differently arranged to express the id eas intended. Thus, the Agncultura!, c~r,
drawn by twenty pairs of oxen, was filled with three hundred men.)
'I he
city contains six ty thousand inhabitants, built. entirely of stone"-_(representing not the city, butt he inhabitants, to be built of stone.) By a ?1ffere~t
arrangement the ideas intend ed are prope rly expressed. Thus, the city! bmlt
entirely of stone, contains sixty thousand inhabitants. "There were m all,
two white men and three Indiam killed by general T's party, who had been
committing depredations in that ;ettlement"-(making the party of general
T. the depred ators .) [Reverse the arrangement of some of tl~e words,thus, There were , in all, killed by general T's party, two white men and
three Indians, who had been committing depredations in that settlement.)

The Sixtb Principle
24 Consists in the proper pauses or rests in speaking the words
of sentences, an<l, in writing, the punctuation, to represent those
pauses or rests.

25 RULE-Let your pauses in speaking sentences, and
your punctuation, in writing them, be such as to represent
the intended relation of the ideas to each other.

Violation.
"W. J. having gone to see (sea) his wife, desires the prayers of the con·

gregation for his ' safe return"-( as though the individual dared not visit
his wife without some special interference for his safety or protection.[Make the pauses ditferently, or punctu~te the sentence to correspoml with
the different pauses of the speaker. Thus, " W. J. having gone to see,
(sea,) his wife desires the prayers of the congregation for his safe· return."
H ere we have, expressed, a different, a very interesting, sentiment-the
tenderness of the wife, her solicitude for her husband's welfare, and her
confidence in the willingness and power of Heaven to protect him.]
The following text may be varied, in meaning, by varying the pauses, or
punctuation. "Verily I say to thee ; to-day shalt thou be with me in Par·
adise." This would indicate that thou shalt be with me in Paradise to-day .
Change the pause, in speakmg, or the location of the semicolon, in writing,
from after the word "thee," to afler the word "to-day." Thus, Verily I
say to thee to-day ; thou shalt be with me in Paradise. This would indicate that I would have thee remember when I told thee this-" to-day"as though I had not said so before, and might not again, but having no reference to the particular time when tho'u shalt be with me in Paradise. I
tell thee to-day, only, at some subsequent time, perhaps two thousand years
after this, thou shalt be with me in Paradise.•

The Seventl\ Principle
26 Consists in giving due emphasis to the words in a sentence,

in view of their relative importance, and the sense to be expres·
sed .

27 RULE-Let your emphasizing of different WORDS
be such as to correspond with the relative importance of the
IDEAS which the words represent, and with the intended
meaning of the whole sentence.

Illustration.
D o you ride to the city to-day ? [Old example.] This would indicate
that the speaker was altogether uncertain as to the whole affair.
Do you ride to the city to day 7-as though the speaker expected that I
should either go, myself, or send some one.
Do you ride to the city to-day 7-as though the speaker knew that I was
intending to go to the city,and he would learn how I am togo-whetherin
a carriage, or on foot.
.
Do you ride to the city to-day ?-as though the speaker knew that I mtended to start towards the city, but was uncertain bow far I mtended to
go.
Do you ride to the city to-day ?-as though the speaker knew that .I was
intending to ride somewhere, and he wished to learn as to the particular
spot or place.
, . Do you ride to the city to-day 7-as though .the speaker knew that I was
; intending to ride to the city soon, and he wished to learn as to the particular time.
[Six different trains of thought, are, it is perceived, suggested, by the six
different modes of emphasizing the words of the same sentence.]
•Punctuation has been so blindly taught, and so little understood, it is
safer to arrange words so that mere punctuation can not give a different
meaning to the sentence.

)
raphy.]

GRAMMAR.

34 The .9.lphabet.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR
28 Is divided into five parts, which comprise the whole
subject of the science of language, viz :

Orthography,
Etymology and Syntax,
Prosody and Rhetoric.
ORTHOGRAPHY

LETTERS

'I I

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30 Are marks or signs of significant soundi. They are the first
principles and least component parts of written language ; as
A SYLLABLE

31 Is a sound spoken by one effort of the voice, or a letter or
combination of letters representing the sound; as,
A, the, this, gig, hap-pi-ness, sat-is-fac-tion, good-ness.
A WORD

32 Is a ~ound, or combination of sounds standing for, or referring to, an object or idea ; as,
BOOK,

the

APPLE,

this

HOUSE,

some MAN'

J
K
L
M
N
0

JoHNt.

THE ENGLISH ALPHABET
33 Is composed of twenty-six letters. Some of these, for
want of others, have several sounds, and some· of them are frequently united to represent single sounds.

L

w
x

u
v
w
x

z

y
z

&t

H
I

I
m

T

y

i~

E
F
G

K

r
s
t

u
v

D

b
c

c

J

p
q

s

a

j

0

p

Italic Letters.

A
B

k
n

Q
R

B-i-r-d, bird-h-a-t, hat-m-a-n, man-l·i·g·h·t, light.

A

Roman Letters.
A
a
B
b
c
c
D
d
E
e
F
f
G
g
H
h

I

29 Treats of letters and syllables, and the method of combi'ning them to form words.*

,p

21

GRAMMAR,

k
l
m
n

MN
0

p
Q

R

0

pe
ku
ar
es
te
u, or ew
ve
double-u
ex
wy
ze*
and

t

u

u

v
w
x

w

z

y
z

v

x

y

&t

ka
el
em
en

0

8

T

ja

p
q
T

s

Names of the Letters.
a
be
se
de
e
ef
ge
aich ·

LETTERS
35 Are divided .into three classes ; V o\vels, Consonants, and
Mutes.
A. VOWEL

•As the learner is supposed to have acquitted himself well in Orthogra·

phy, (including Orthoepy ,) by studying such books as contain the rudiments
of the language, I notice, in this work, only the leading principles, or the
parts which are connected with the rules of Etymology and Syntax.

t In these examples, it is seen that the words in SMALL

CAPITAL

letters,

(book, apple, li(c.) stand for, and represent, distinct objec't s; while those
in italics, (a, the, this, li(c.) do not stand for, or represent distinct objects;
but are used to refer to the objects represented by the words book, apple, l!;c.

36 I~ a letter w~ich has a ~imple, distinct, articulate sound,_
~~d which may, of itself, cons~1tute an entire syllable, or may be
;orned to other letters, to constitute, with them, single syllables;.
as,
.IJ., e, i, o, u, y.......Jl-e-ri-al, 8o1-o-mon, E-gypt, un-der-stand-ing.
*It is much to be regretted that the names of the letters have so little re·
semblance to the sounds which they are forced to represent.
. t 'l'his character stands for the word and. It should be used where breu~
lty, not elegance, is. intended; as"" J. Maxwell·& Sons, Merchants."

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GRAMMAR.

[Orlhog·

t·'(

A CONSONANT

37 Is a letter that, in a word, is always used with a vowel

with which it is sounded; a letter which never, of itself, constitutes a syllable, as a part of a word ; as,
JI£, n, h, k, t,f, w, n, g-M"an, hat, but-Ion, fan, wo-man, ring.

} raphy.]

)

A MUTE

38 Is a letter whic;~is not sounded in the place where it is us-

ed; as,
P, h, h, in Phthis-ic; e, in come ; u, liquor ; i and the last e pierce.•

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A
39 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in late, hat, hall, father,
what, air .
E
40 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in sleep, met, her, there.
I
41 Is a vowel wherever sounded; as in pin, find, bird, fatigue :
EXCEPT

42 Wh en i is immediately followed by a vowel in the same

syllable, it becomes a consonant; as in min-ion, al-ien, civil-ian.
0
43 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as told, not, pool, book,
come.t

u

44 Is a vowel wherever sounded; as in due, annuity, run, full:
EXCEPT

45 When u is pronounced like yu standing as an entire syllable, or beginning a syllable, it act~ the p~rt of a consonant and
vowel; as in ti-sury, pen-u-ry, umon, u-mverse: and,
EXCEPT

46 When n is joined, like w, to a preceding consonant to gi~e
a two-fold consonant sound, it acts the part of a consonant ; as ~n

. Suabia, persuade ; Qr the parts of a consonant and vowel; as m
sure, sugar. t
*The definition of a mule, as here given and applied to letl~s. is unlike
the ordinary definitions given to a mute ; but it is the only one that can be
given consistently with the fact and with reason.
t In the words one and once, o has the short sound of the vowel u, and,
at the same time the force and sound of the consonant w. In the word
womeii it has the sound of i; [women being pronounced wim·men.]
i It has the sound of i in busineilS.

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GRAMMAR,

w
47 Is a consonant when sounded before a vowel m the same
syllable; wing, weep. ·
48 It is often joined to another consonant to represent a twofold consonant sound ; as swing, sweep, twinge, twist.
49 It is used after a vowel to give, with that,
el sound ; as crowd.*

atwo-fold vow-

!

50 It is used after e, in the same syllable, to give the vowel
sound of u; as in few, new.

51 It is a mute after the long, open sound of o in the same syllable ; as in show-ed, bestow-ed, mow-ed.

y
52 Is a vowel wherever sounded ; as in E-gypt, pby-sician,

mys-tic ;
EXCEPT'
53 When y begins a syllable and is followed by a vowel in the
same syllable, it is a conson.a nt; as youth, yearly, yam, yelp, Yarmouth .
SPELLING
54 Is combining letters, or their sounds, to form syllables and
words ; as, ap-ple, apple-b-i-r-d, bird.
WORDS,
55 With respect to their formation, are of three kinds ; Primitive or Simple, Derivative, and Compound.
A PRIMITIVE WORD

56 Is one which can not be reduced in the number of its sylla-

bles without being destroyed; as, rnan, father, safe.
A DERIVATIVE WORD

57 Is one which is made by adding one syllable or more, not
an entire word, to the primitive form ; as, man-li~ness, father-/y,
safe-ty .
A COMPOUND WORD

58 Is one which is formed by uniting two or · more simple or
primitive words ; as, man-kind, father-in-law, safe-guard.
*The sound of w is that of o represented by oo, a vowel sound; yet, as w
is never used alone to constitute a syllable as the part of a word, but is aJ.
ways, when sounded in its own place, spoken w#h its following vowel, it is
reckoned among the conscm.ants, as above described. Wh is sounded like
hw; ;is in when, hwen-hoo-en, booen-the .last combination giving the or.
dinary sound of the word when-boo-en, booen-hwen, when,
·

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[Parts of

ETYMOLOGY.

24

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) Speech.]

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E T YMO L OGY
59 Treats of the classification of words, their changes
and derivation.
WORDS,
60 With respect to their meaning, and their relation to other
words, are divided into Ten Classes, called Parts of Speechthus,

NOMENCLATURES.

Old Nomenclature .

New Nomenclat11re.
1 NAMES,
2 SUBSTITUTES,
3 ASSERTERS,
4 AD NAMES,
5 MODIFIERS,
6 RELATIVES,
7 CONNECTIVES,
8 INTERROGATIVES,
9 REPLIERS,
10 EXCLAMATIONS.

NouNs,
PRONOUNS,
VERBS and PARTICIPLES,
ADJECTIVES and ARTICLES,
5 ADVERBS,
6 PREPOSITIONS,
7 CONJUNCTIONS,
8 ADVERBS,
9 ADVERBS,
10 INTERJECTIONS .•
1

2
3
4

NA.MES-NOUNS.
61 A name is an independent word used to distinguish an object or idea which may be considered separately or alone ; as,
Man, woman, John, Harriet, city, truth, mountain, river.
[Read numbers I, 11, III, and IV, of the Lecture.]
•Let the teacher read , with the utmost care, the Lecture. immediately
following the definitions of the differe?t. par.ts of speech-let him be careful
to give the pupil clear views of the d1st1nct1ons of the parts of spe~c_h-l~t
him not allow the pupil to commit to memory a word of any defi.n!t10n till
the meaning of the different parts, and of the whole of each defimt10n s.ha.11
have been made plain to his mind. {JO-Let the teacher remember that 1t is
the business of an author to define principles in the simplest, clearest ~an,.
ner possible, with one set of words, and t_hat {)!:1-it is the teacher'~ ~us1?ess
to adapt these definitions word by word, if neces~ary,. to the pup1l.s mmd,
and thereby to enlarge, quicken and elevate the mind itself. Let him mark
this well.

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EYTJ\IOLOGY.

SUBSTITUTES-PRONOUNS.
62 A substitute is a word substituted for a name, phrase, or
sentence , and sustaining, to other words, the same relations that
are sustained by a name ; as,

John was my enemy, but he is my friend . I relieved Mm in his distress ; which excited his gratitude and aff~ction. Maria loves her book. ·
[Read V, VI, VII, and IX of the Lecture. ]
)

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ASSERTERS-VERBS.
63 An Asserter is a part of speech ·used to assert, or to express
existence, or a fact"' in relati_on to a person or thing: as,
I am. Julia walks. John atean apple. The apple was eaten by John .
[Read X, XI, XV, XVII, XVIII, and XIX, of the Lec ture.]

AN INTR ANSIT IVE .ASSERTER
64 I. Denotes the mere existence .of the subject of remark; t
as, I am-or
II. It denotes an action or fact of the subject, without repre~
senting it either as .affecting an object, or as exti!nding to an ob-

ject; a~ ,

Jane walks. John sleeps. Henry fell. Grass grow8. Flowers bloom.
[Read XX, XXI, and X XII of the Lecture.]
•The word fa ct, is used here, and throughout the book, to represent
somethi ng as done, or something mentioned, that may be done, or ·that
\Vhich occurs or happens. The distinctions of the asserter, as Intransitive,
Transitive, and Receptive, arc !!'iven here to assist the learner in .distinguishing th e relations of case, (see Case,) which are closely connected with
·
these distinctions of the asserter.
tTo determine what is mean t by the subject of rr:mark, or the subject, as
menti oned in tJ;is book, find, first, the asserter; as, am-{I am at home.)
Then take, with the asserter, just words enough to make the briefesl remark that can be made of any person or thing ; as , I um. .Here is the brief
remark ; and I, the person speaking, am the subject of the remark.
" George caught a dove." Find the asserter. It is the word caught.Take, with the aqserter, just words enough to make the briefest rem ark that
can be made of the person or thing. George cmeglit. Here it ii; seen that
the man, George, is the subject of this brief remark-is the subject of remark-is the subject.
"Helen died of Consumption, in England." Here the asserter is the
word dted. Take, wil h the a."Serter died, JUSt words enough to make the
brief remark . H elen died. Who is the subject of this storv, narration, or
remark 7 The pt:rson, Helen. She, then, is regarded in Grammar, as i.o;
fact, the subjec t of remark, "the subject.". .
"The farm was purchased of Henry, by John." Was purchased is the
asserter. The farm was purchased, 1s the brief remark ; and the fat ..,
itself, not the word f-a-r-m is the subject of remark-is " the subject.,.

3

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26 .

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A TRANSITIVE ASSERTER

J

65 Represents an action or fact of the subject as affecting an ! ·
\
object, or as extending to an object; as,
James ate an apple. George caught a dove. Julia loves her brother.
[Read XXIII, XXIV, and XXV of the Lecture.]
A RECEPTIVE ASSERTER-Passi-De

Speech.]

[Parts of (

ETYMOLOGY.

Verb,

\
!

66 Represents the Jcict, denoted by the asserter, as received by
the subject, or as extended to the subject ; as,
The apple was eaten. The dove was caught. Henry is loved.
[Read XXVI, XXVII, XXVIII, XXIX, and XXX of the Lecture.]

ADNAlUES-ADJECTIVES AND ARTICLES.
67 An ad-name is a part of speech added to. a name or .a substitute, to limit its meaning; or to show the quality, c~ass, kmd, or
condition of the object denoted by the name or substitute ; or, to
show how the object, as an object merely, is to be regarded ; as,
This book. The apple is sour. Brass ~lo~ks . John is virtuous. He
is happy. UThich book is mine ? No book 1s faultless.. Wh~t a book John
has bought!
[Read XXXI to XL, of the Lecture, mcludmg both.]

:t\'IODIFIERS-ADVERBS.
68 A modifier is a part of speech used to. modify .the meaning
of the sentence or the clause of a sentence rn wb1ch 1t occurs; as,
Harriet is not at home . George is certainly my friend . . Seth studies
attentively.
[Read XLI, to XLIX of the Lecture, includmg both.]

RELATIVES-PREPOSITIONS.
69 A relative is a word used to show the relation of an event
to an object, or the relation of one object to another; as,
I went to Utica in Oneida county. Helen walked across the street.George resides in the city of New York on Manhattan island.
[Read L, and LI of the Lecture.]

CONNECTIVES-CONJUNCTIONS.
70 A connective is a part of speech used to connect mere
words, and sentences ; as,
John and Julia are happy because they are wise and good.
church, but Henry remained at home.
[Read Lii to LXIof the Lecture, including both.]

'

Seth went to

INTERROGATIVES-ADVERBS.
71 An interrogative is a word used only to interrogateconceroing something before expressed ; as,

''

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ETYMOLOGY.

27

We should detest vice, but pity its victims and seek to relieve them.Why? James will go home to assist his father. When.J
[Read LXII and LXIII of the L~cture.]

REPLIERS-ADVERBS.
A re~lier is a word or phrase used only to reply to a foregomg quest10n or remark ; as,

72

Should we improve our time ? Yes. Can man escape from the presence of his Maker 1 No.
[Read LXIV to LXVII of the Lecture, including both.]

EXCLAMA '!'IONS-INTERJECTIONS.
73. An exclamation is a word or phrase used merely to express
emotion ; as,
,
Oh virtue ! how lovely thou art.

I foe!.

.!ilas ! I can fear nothing worse than

[Read LXVIII, LXIX, and LXX of the Lecture-then read the "REand the "General Correlative Arrangement;" and then
read the whole Lecture till you understand every part of it. Then you
may proceed.]

CAPITULATION"

LECTURE
ON

THE DISTINCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH,

NAMES-NOUNS.
I. A name is an independent word; a word which makes full
sense of it~elf, or without reference to another word ; as, man,
John, city, New-York, truth, love, modesty, goodness. These
words are indepe~dent . They make full sense, taken .separately 1
or unconnected with other words. Tbey may be connected with
other words, but tbe other words are not necessary to the sense
of these ; as these make full sense of tbemsel ves.
·
II. A name is used to distinguish an object or idea · as man
-tbis word distinguishing such a bein" from all other' ki;ds of
beings : John:-this word distinguishing one man from other men,
from other bemgs of the same kind: truth-this word distinguishing. the idea of this principle, (opposed to falsehood,) f;om any other 1~ea : somet~ing-this w_ord distinguishing the idea expressed
by 1t! from t.he idea o! ~oth1.ng. or t~e . absence of every thing .:
nol~ing-th1s wor? d1stmgu1shmg the idea expressed by it, from
the 1<hla of any thing generally or particularly regarded.

)
28

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LECTURE.

(Namea and \

Ill. A name is a word which distinguishes an obj ect or idea of
which we can think witho11t thinlciny of any thing else--an object or idea which we ca n consider or contemplate alone or uncon- (
necte<l with any thing else ; as,. man , John, truth, modesty, Bsc.
It is perceived that each of the ideas , thus e xpr ~ssed , may ~e regarded or conside red separa tely ?r alone, or by itself, or without
our co nsid eri ng other objects or idea~ with them .
JV . "John runs." "John is beaten. " H ere, first , the word l
J ohn is an in·lcpendent word. N ex t, it is used to distinguish an
obj ect , a perso n, th~s ma n, froi:n othe r rn~n . Next, although the
word John d1st1 11CYu 1shes a 11 obi ect th Jt 1.s conn ected with so methi ng which he d~e s , t he fo ct of his running , or that of his being
beate11, and though it represents a person who is.not rega rd ed separately ; yet it represents one who may be c~ns1der~d or regarded
separately or uncon nected wi th the. fac t of his running,_ or of his
being beate11- - se;-iaratel_y from what he does or what is done lo
him. T he word John is therefo re a name accordrng to the definition of a name . [ Teacher--p upil; tnrn back and read the.
definition of a narne.l
SU BSTITU TE S- PRONOUNS.
V . A substitute is a word substituted for, or taking the place
of, a name , a phrase , or sentence. 1~h us, "J oh n v:as sick , but lie
is well ." [Joh n was sick , but John 1s well.l .I t is see? that the
word he stands in the place of th e name Jolin-i s substituted for
the name John. "Ja mes gave, for a load of wood, fiv e dollars and
a half, (or fi ve and a half dollars, ) which was too much." Here
it is seen that the word which is substi tuted fo r the phrase five
and a half dollars, as it was this whole sum, ( not dollars merely, as two dollars ,) which was too much. "James went from ~e~
Y ork to Boston fo r fruit ; but it was unnecessary." Here it 1s
perceived that the word it is substituted for the whole sentence before it to which it refers. What was unnecessa ry ? Why, the
fact tha t 'J ames went fr om New-York to Boston fo r fruit.' The
wo;d it embod ies an<l expresses the sense of all this. It was this
fact which was unnecessary .
VI. A substi tute is a word which sustains, to the other words
of a sentence, the sa me relations that are sustained by a name .Thus, J ohn .was sick, but he is well-but John is well-the wonl
he standi no- in the same relation that the word J ohn, repeated,
would susfiin, havin g the asserter is and the adname well referring to, and depe nding on it; just as the na.me John wo~ld ha.ve
had ; as it does have, in the sentence following the one 111 which
the word he is used.

Substiluits.)

~ECTURE.

29

VII. •James paid, for bis load of wood, five and a half dollars
which was too much'-[two dollars , or mere dollars would not
have been too much ;l five and .a half dollars was too much.Here the substitute which sustains, to the asserter was the same
rel~tion that a name sustains, having the as~erter was' depending
on it; as the money, or amount of money was too much.
VIIL When a substitute is used to represent the sense of a
whole s e nt ~ n ce , the sentence itself could not, in its own shape, or
form, sustain the same relation that the substitute sustains · but
the substitute s~stains the sa~e relati,on that would be sustai;ed by
a name expressing the sam e idea. 1 hus, 'James went from New
York to Boston for fruit; but it, [thefact,] was unnecessary .' Thia
fa ct . was unn ~c es s ary. Here we perceive that the substitute it,
(w hich embodies the .sense of the whole sentence, ) sustains, to the
other words of the sentence, the same relation that is sustained
by the name f act, in brackets, followin g the substitute it. Hence.
we fi?d, that the prin~iple of the substitute is that, and that only,
described by the defimt10n. LRead the definition of a substitute.]

Contrast of Names and Substitutes.
IX ..A name is an independent word distinguishing some thing.

A substitute does not distinguish any ·thin""· "He left it ~here
he h~d broken it." The words he and it ~re not names-they are
not indep endent words, or words which mak e sense of themselves
-for no one can tell who or what is mea nt by the word he, ( whether a man, a dog, or some other animal).,-no one can tell what is
meant by the word it, (whether a carriage, or looking-glass , or a
b1tcher,)-;-;Y et when. I say "John left the carriage where he pad
roken 1t,. al~ perceive that the words J~hn_ and carri.age 1 a.re
names, ~e mir independent words ~s e.<l to d1stinguish objects; b.ut
he and. it are not names ; for they ~o no~, can no!, (iisti11guish
any tl11ng. Y et, the words he and it, being ~ubs ti.tutes for · the
na~es Jo~n and can:~age, and referring to these nalljes, derive
their pa r~1c~la r ;neam.ng from that reference. These substitut~s
do 110t dutinguish objects; but, as substitutes, they do represent
the objects al~eady distinguished by the names, (John and carriage,) for which the substitutes stand, and to which they refer. ·
ASSERTERS-VERBS.
X. The asserter is conte~plated and named according to its office, .na~ure, and us~, wh~re ~t ~rst appears-in its primary form;
th~t 1s, m the '.orm m which 1t 1s used as one word, in connection
with the substitute I to affirm a present fact · as I am I love l
3•
' '
'
'

LECTURE.

(Aaserters.)

read, I run. In this place, in this connection,, these words are J!.rst
contemplated, and are named. In this place, form and connect10n,_
any word which asserts any thing, either existence, or any fact,
or any thing as done, IS AN ASSERTER, AND IS CALLED AN ASSERTER IN ALL THE VARIOUS FORMS,
AND RELATIONS, AND CONNECTIONS, IN WHICH
IT BRINGS TO MIND THE IDEA OF THE FACT ASSERTED BY IT IN THIS, THE PRlfrfARY FORM.
XI. Thns, I write; the word write asserting the fact done by
me. Now I say, I had written, I am writing, I_ shall wr~te, or.
will write. In each of these examples, the same idea, the idea ol
the writing, is expressed. Thes? different ex~mple~ a~e only different forms and relations in which the assertive pnnc1ple of the
word write i3 made to appear. These remarks acc?unt for the
choice of th e name asserter. The man who asserts is an asserter· and the word which asserts, is, on. the same principle, termed
an'asserter-as, a heater, that which induces heat; a runner, that
which runs.
XII. " Terms of distinction,'' in science, are intended to indicate more or less particularly the principles which they are
designed to represent ; and d~finition~ _are i~te?ded to s~pply
any deficiency in these terms m descnbrng pnnc1ples defimtely,
or with exactness.
XIII. However the words called asserters may be used, they
always express existence or fa.cts in relation !o persons or things ;
as Have I written? can I write? J0hn; wnle, I have told John
to' write. In each of these examples it is seen that the fact of
writing is expressed, whether interrogatively, imperatively, or
otherwise. It is therefore true that what the term assert~r may
seem to fail of describing, the definition completely desc.nbes.Besides, even in interrogative remarks, the asserter, of itself, or
alone considered asserts the fact expressed ; though the mode of
arranging the as~erter, or parts of the asserter, with another word,
may make the expression interrogative-thus,
HAS WRITTEN.

This mere asserter asserts the fact of the writing as having been
done by somebody not mentioned ; and when I say
JOHN HAS WRITTEN,

I assert the fact of writing no more than by the other expressio~ ;
but now the fact of writing is asserted of a _particular person distinguished by the word John, connected with the asserter : and
when I say,

(Contrasts.)

LECTURE,

sr

·HAS JOHN WRITTEN?

I use the same words that I used before.

The asserter has writ-·
ten, as now used, does, it is seen, by the mode of arranging its
parts with respect to the name .folm, constitute, with that name,
a~ interrogative sentence: yet the asserter has written, taken
without. the_ nai:ie John, wou!d assert the fact of writing, though
not attnbutrng 1t to any. particular one as the writer. The words
~hemsel ves, ( ha:s written,) would assert; but the mode of arrangrng the parts with respect to the name John-this interrogates.
XV. When I use the name John alone; as, John-there is no
assertion ; but when I say " John runs,'' it is seen that the term
runs asserts what the man John does. Runs is therefore named
an asserter.
xv~. !he n.ame asserter indicates the .office of the part of
speech rn its pnmary form and place, and its general business in
other. ~orms and places-and what the name fails to accomplish, the
defimt10n makes complete. [Turn baclc and read the definition. J

Contrast of Names, Substitutes, and .11.sserters.
XVII. "John left the carriage where he had broken it."John and carriage are names-are independent words used to distinguish objects that may be considered separately or alone. They
are not substitutes. They are not words substituted for other
words, but are used, of :themselves, to distinguish objects. They
are not asserters. They are not used to assert any thing, or to
express facts. They are mere names.
XVIII. He and il are not names. They are not ind~pendent
words used to distinguish objects or ideas. They are not asserters.
They are not used to assert, or to express existence or facts in re!ation to persons o~ things. He and it are me.re substitutes ; standrng as representatives of the names, John and carriage.
XIX. Left and had broken are asserters ; both being used to
assert facts. They ~re not ~a~es. They ~re not independent
words, or words used m descnbmg events without having reference to other words on which to depend. The name John is used
to distinguish the person, without reference to whom, these asserters would not be used in describing the events as mentioned.Left and had broken are used to distinguish ideas ; but they are
not independent words-( as just mentioned above )-nor do these
~ords, l.eft and had broken, as used in the sentence, distinguish
ideas to be considered separately or distinctly from the person as
the actor-the one who broke the carriage and left it ; but they

LECTURE.

[.l.lsserter5

distinguish ideas which must be considered in connection with the
actor, and not separately from him. They assert facts done by
him-are asserters.

Contrast of Intransitive, Transitive, and Receptive .!lsserters.
XX. First, an Intransitive Asserter represents the mere existence of the subject ; as, I am at home; John was at school; the
Creator exists in an independent state.
XXI. Next, an intransitive asset ter expresses an action or a
fact of the " subject of remark,'' without representing the action
or fact as either affecting an object, or as extending from the subject to an object; as, I sleep, I wall.-, the grass grows, flowers
bloom in spring, water flows, the river swells, the bird flies, truth
triumphs.

XXII. From this, it is seen that an asserter is intransitive if it
expresses either the mere existence of the subject, or an action or
a fact of the subject, which is not, by the asserter, represented as
extending to an object.
XXIII. A Transitive Asserter is one which expresses an action, or a fact of the s1tbject, and represents the action or fact as
affecting an object, or as extending to an object. Thus, John ate
my apple. Here the asserter ate represents an action of the subject, the man John, as affecting the object, the fruit, the apple.
The asserter ate is therefore transitive. John could not have eaten without eating something; from which it is seen that the asserter ate is transitive, whether the object is, or is not mentioned.
George caught a bird. Here the word caught asserts that the
act of catching was performed, and is, therefore, an asserter.By the asserter's relation to the name George, it attributes the act
to the man denoted by that name. The asserter caught clearly
represents the action as extended to, and as affecting, some ob·
ject, (the bird, as here expressed,) for no one can catch without
catching something. Caught is hereby, of itself, seen to be transitive with, or without, an object expressed or mentioned.*
*With some asserters, having, respectively, different meanings, it is ne•
cessary to use the word denoting the object affected, if we would indicate
that the asserter is used in the transitive sense : as, "John sunk ten feet below the surface of the water." John, himself, i~. here represented as having sunk in the w~ter. Sunk is here used in the intransitive sense. It rep·
resents the act of the man John, as the subject, without representing the
&ction as extending to, or as affecting any object. "John sunk the boat,"
(caused the boat to sink.) Here the asserter sunk, used in the transitive

(

l

contrasted.)

LECTURE.

83

XXIV. "James. loves his brother." The word loves asserts
a fact as done. It 1s therefore an .asserter. It represents_the fact
denoted by. the asse~ter, as extendrng to an object; for no one
can lo~e without lovrng something-for, to love, is to extend, to
the ob1ect l?ved, the tenderness of emotion c3lled love. The asserter love. is th~refore necessarily transitive: for though this fact
of the sub1ect may not affect an object, (in the usual sense of the
term. affect,) yet it clearly represents the fact of the subject as extending to the object, as something lpved.
XXV: "James owns a farm." Here the word ow11s asserts
a fact, (rn the true English sense of the word fact,) and represe.nts the fact of owning as extending from the subject to sometl11ng, ('.he farm,) as the object owned : for no one can own without o.wnrng something; and whether that something is, or is not,
me~t1oned .• does not at all affect the sense of the asserter owns.So ts it with such asserters as keep, possess, purchase, 8;c . ~·c.
XXVI A Recep~ive Asserter may represent the fact denoted
by. the asserter, as either received by the subject of remark, or as
berng extended to the subject of remark. " The apple was eaten." Here the fruit is the ~ubject of remark, and the asserter
v:as eaten represents the ·subject of remark as receiving (at the
~1me referred to,) the very action which the asserter dt!~otes~or
it !epresents the action (of eating) denoted by the asserter, as received by t~e apple, the fruit, as the subject of remark. The apple, the subject, received the action-the apple was eaten. The
act of ~atrng was extended to the subject, and was received by
the subject. ':!'he asserter is therefore called a receptive asserter,
because asserting the reception, by the sub1ect, of the action denoted by the asserter.
XXVII. "The dove was caught by George." Was caught
as here used, asserts that the subject, the dove, received the act (of
sense, is shown by the objective word boat, to be so useJ ; as here it represhnts an action of the man, the subject, as both extending to and affectma
t e ob;ect, the. boat. " The fox sprung forward." Her~ the a.;iert~;
sprung is used m the intransitive sense. It represents the subject of r~mark
as actmg, but no~,that the action ext.eods to or affect~ an object. "The fox
sprung the trap:
Here 1t .IB used m the transitive sense, for it denotes
a fact. of the subject, which 1s represented as extending to, and as atfectin
an object. It embraces the meaning of two asserters adding the tran·itiv~
sen;ie of caused, to the before intransitive sense of'the asserter ri~ _
~sp1ung.) He caused.the trap to spring. "The bell rings." John ::fno-s~he
.ell. Asserters of thJS character were formerly used only in the ingansi
II vh sense; bu~ by the commendable tendency of mankind to shorten th;
s of the mmd, they have been made to assume the transitive mean,..

r::.

34

LECTURE.

(.11.dnames.)

catching) denoted by the asserter. Wa~ caught is therefore called a receptive asserter-the fact of catching denoted by the as~ert­
er, being represented as having been extended to, and received
by, the bird, as the subject of remark.
XXVIII. "The farm is owned by John." Here the asserter
is owned represents the fact denoted by it as being extended t.o
the farm, as the snbjecl of remark; as the thi_ng owned-fur if
the fact of owning had not extended to the subject, as here mentioned, the subj ect or farm could not have bee n .~wned. Was
owned is therefore receptive according to the definition of the receptive asserter.
XXIX. "The house was guarded-was kept from harm."The asse rters was guarded and was kept, as here.used, are receptiv e acco rdincr to the definition-for they represent the facts denoted by them,"as being extended to the house, as _the subject of remark-for unless the facts of guarding and keepmg had been extended to the house, the subj ect, the house could not have been
guarded and kept .
XXX. ~N. B. REMEMBER, that in all these distinctions of
the asserters, and in those of C'ase, the "subject of remark" is
to be considered and limited as in the N otet on page 25.
ADNAMES-ADJECTIVES.

XXXI. An ad na me is so called from its relation to, and dependence on, the name to which it is added ; as, good men;,si_.ve~t
apples, this book, that apple. When I say "good man, it is
seen that the word good is added to the name man, to show the
qua.lily or character of the person, the man . . When~ say, "the
man is good,'' it is seen that the word good is added, m sense, to
the name man, just as much as when I say, ".Y?od n_ian.'' The
word added as used in the definition, means, ;omed m sense ; so
that the ad1:ame is a word joined in sense with the name : and
it makes no difference whether the adname stands before the nam~,
as in ' good man,' or comes after the name, as in ' the man is
good.' In both e:x:amp!es, the adname good has the same meaning, and the same relation to the nam~ man. In both examples
the adname good is joined in sense with t~e na111e to sho~ ,~he
quality of the person. " Good Lord deliver us from evil. Here the adname good is added or joined to the name !-ord, to
show the quality or character of the being. " The Lord is goo~.''
Here the word good is joine~ in sense with the name Lord 3ust
as much as it was when standrng before the name. In bot~ examples, the adname good is joined in sense with the name-is ad·

( .11.dnamea. )·

LECTURE.

3&

ded to the name, to show the quality of the being denoted by the

name.

·

xxxn. In the example, good man, the. pupil may ask, good

what? (good man.J Jn the example, good Lord, lie may ask, good
what? lgood Lord.] The man is good-good what ?-what is
good ? the man is the good object mentioned. A straight STICK
-the STICK is straight-good MAN-or the MAN is good. The

adname is often joined to the substitut~ for the name : just as T,
owing Henry ten dollars, do, in effect, pay him, when I pay his
attorney or substitute, who hands the money to him. ] may say,
"John is happy;'' or, h11ving mentioned John, I may say, He is
happy. In both examples, the word, the adname happy,. refers to
the man, and shows the condition of the man. From all of these
remarks and examples, we learn why this part of speech is called
adname-added to a name-relating to a name-depending on a
name, or subsl'itute for a name.

XXXIII. The purposes for which ad names are joined to, and made
to depend on, names, are various. Thus-This man, that man,
two men, ten men, the man whom I met, a man, any man.The words in Italics are added to the names to limit, in certain
ways, the meaning of the names, as applied to certain objects.
XXXIV. A good man, a sweet apple, a large house, green
fields. The words in Italics, are added to the names to . show
the qualities of the respective objects.
XXXV. Which man is my friend? What a student that ·is !
No man is utterly wretched. The words in Italics sbo\v how
the objects, as objects merely, are to be regarded.
XXXVI. Richard is wealthy, a wretched man, a happy mao,
George is sick, James is miserable. The words in Italics are
added to the names to show the conditi011 of the objects.
XXXVII. A country merchant, city laws, church ordinances.
The words in Italics are added to the names to show the cla&s
of the objects.
XXXVIII. Brass clocks, wooden wheels, woollen garments.
The words in Italics show the kind ; including, of course, the
quality.
XXXIX. An asserter may be used merelv to show what a
thing ~oes, without the least reference to the "quality or kind of
the thrng. An ad name may be used merely to show the quality
or kind of the thing, without the least reference to what it does,
or what is done to it. Thus, ·

&6

LECTURE.

(Modifiers.)

XL. Birds-a name.-Birds4JD sing. Sing, an assserter.Canary ~birds- Canary, an ad name,-

Canary }}J birds~ sing.
~~~~~--------'

Here it is seen that the name birds distinguishes the creatures,
the fowls referred to, without any reference to thei1 lcind, or to
what they do. The word Canary is used only to show the /,,~nd
of birds, without any reference to what they do. · The word sing
is used only to assert or show wha~ the bi.rds do,. without any rel~
erence to their kind. The word birds pomts neither way. The
word Canary points forward to the name birds, and no farther;
while tbe word sing points back to the name birds, and no farther.

MODIFIERS-ADVERBS.
XLI. An adname is used in reference to the name of an object. A modifier is used in reference to a phrase or a sentence
describing a tact, or an event.
A qualifying adname, (one showing quality, class, kind,.or co11dition,) qualifies the object to which it refers. The modifier o'.t en qualifies the sense expressed by a whole sentence. "John 1s
a good man.'' Here the adname go?d shows the ~uality of the
object, the man, merely. "John wntes elegantly. ', He:~ the
word elegantly qualifies the event, or fact, (of the mans wntmg,)
just as the adname good qualifies the man, merely.
XLII. The modifier is, to the sentence, jtist what the adname
is to tbfl name . The adnarne qualifies the object, and · refers to,
and depends on, the name of the object. The modifier qualifies
the event or fact as described, and refers to, and depends on, the
sentence describing the event, describing what happens or what i~.
It modifies the meaning of the sentence, and thereby often qualifies the fa.ct. Thus, " John is a careless boy." " John walked carelessly around the lion's cage." Here the word careless,
an adname, shows the quality or character of the boy, .as an object, without any reference to w?at he does, or what 1s done to
him · and the word carelessly, m the next sentence, shows the
qua!i'ty or character of the particular event-that of the boy's walking around the lion's cage, without reference to the general character of the boy. Careless, the adname, refers to the name of
the object, and shows the character of the object denoted by the
name. Careles3/y, the ad-sentence, or modifier, refers to the sentence describinO" the event, and shows the character of the event
which the sent~nce describes.

(Modifiers.)

LECTURE.
I

37

'

XLIII .. The mer.e adnam,e_,refers only •to· the object . • The
!11ere i:nod1~er ri;fers to the whole of .the fact pr event; or chain·of
~<leas descnbed m the con!lecti~n. · · It .refe1s to the subject, the existence of the fact denoted .by the as;;er-ter, 1the time, place, circumstances, &c. ·
<
·
•·
•
·
. ~LIV. (J(?W:hile the modifier does this, it exerts its modify1~g influence particularly and chiefly on tpat which it is the ·chief
a1.m.of the speaker or~ writer to exwess. [It'follows what in Logic 1s called the p:edicale-that which is chiefly Qffirmed or ' expressed of the subjec~ of remark.l Tbus, "James is certainly
at ~ome . " 'James .1s at home.·' · Here the man· James is the
subject; and that which I wish chiefly to affirm of him, is bis being
at, ( n~t n.ear,) home,-( not another place,) and the word certain!Y• while 1.t ref~rs to ,the ·.words, :fan,1es and is,· (·expressing the subject and his existence,) throws its ·rnfluence of emphasis and assurance upon th~ sense of the two :vords, at h01~e: 'for, to represent :To~n . as .bemg at .that place, - 1s my only aim or purpose in
ment10nmg him at !111·. [I do not me;in .that he certainly is; as
. no one doubts that: but I meap that he is certainly at home.]
XLV: " Jane and Helen ar~ 'assuredly my friends." Here
the modifier a.ssuredly, .thou~h :efer.ring to the sense of all ·the
w?rds before 1t, ~hr~ws its ~h1~f 1,nfluence upon that which is my
ch1:f an.cl only a11!1 m mentiomng . the ,ladies at all~the fact of .
their bem&' my friends; ' not the fact of their existing, as .~o one
whom I address has any doubt of that.
·
XL VI. " I cou!J ~ot .see ·George· wh~n I called at' bi~ father's
house yesterday morning." Here the fDOai'fier 110( is used not to
deny that I could s~e; (I co.uld 'see perfectly well,) but t~ ..deny
what would otherwise be affamed7"'that .J, {not another person,).
could see, (not hear of;) George, (no.tanother man,) when I, .( not
Jame~,) called at, (not.sent to,) his, (not my,) father's, (not
unc.le. s,) house, (not ha~n,) yesterday,.< not day· ~efore yest~rday,)
m01ning, (not aftern~on.) It throws its mod1fyrng; negative in:.
fiuence over the sentiment expressed by t~e _whole of ·the rest of
the sentence.
·
·
·' '
XLVII. A modifi~r refi;rs ~o the whole sentenc~ ·or.. particular
clau~e of .a sentence m w!uch 1t occurs ; but !t .alwaJS bas a ·more
special .reference to one part of the sentence or clause than to the
rest of 1t. l Tum back .and read the definition of a modifier.]

Contrast of .!ldnames and .Modifiers. .;
X~ V.III. " An honest man deals justly with his neighbors." ·

Here 1t 1s seen that the adname honest is used ·only to show the ·
4

"·
38

LECTURE.

character of the person denoted by the name man to which the adname honest is joined or added in sense. The arlnam·e· k()T!est is
used to show the quality of an object without reference to a par7,
particular event, to what the ll)an does, or to what is done' to himwhile the modifier justly, is applied in its influence to the whole
of the rest of the sentence to show the character of the event ; to
qualify the fact expressed by the sentence. The adname refers
to the name on which it depends, and qualifies the object denoted
by the name . It has no reference to . a particular event or fact.
The mere modifier refers to the whole sentence or partic_ular clause
in which it occurs, and shows the character, not of an object, as
an obj ect merely ; but of the event which the sentence, or clause
of a sentence describes.
XLIX. Remember that the modifier is to the sentence, what the
adname is to the name or substitute-that the modifier qualifies the
event, or modifies the meaning of the sentence, just as the adname qualifies the object, or limits the meaning ol the name.

RELATIVES-PREPOSITIONS.
L. A relative, as the name indicates, is a word used to show
relation-to show the relation between one object and another; as,
John Williams, in Utica, is my friend-the word in, showing the
relation which the man bears to the city: the former being in, or
within the limits of, the other : or, in. other circumstances,
LI. The relative is used to show the relation which an entire
event, (action and actor,) bears to an object; as, James walked
around the house. Here the relative around shows the relation
between the t>ntire event of James'. · walking, and the house as the
object around which he walked. ;fne word around does not, as
here used, show the relation between the name James, and the
name house : for one name is not around the other. It does not
show the relation of the man James, to the building, the house:
for the man was not around, (extended around,) the house . He
was not long enough! lo reach around the house. The word around is used only to show the relation between the fact or event of the man's walking, and the house as the object around
which he walked.

LTurn

back and read the definition of a relative .J

CONNECTIVES-coNJUNCTIONs.
Lii. A connective, as the name indicates, is used to connect
words, or to join words or combinations of words to each other ;
as, " John and Helen are wy friends." .Here the word " and" .

f'~ectives.)

.. .
~-

\;···
)...

39

'LECTURE.

com1ects, and .18"ui;ed o.nly to connect, the two names, John and
Helen. It is therefore called a connective. " John is sick"~·one sentence .d~scribing an event.
s~ntence descnbmg anothe.r event.

"James is .well"-anotber
Here we have two classes or
combinations; of three words each-and each combination describes
one event.

I John is . sick, I but I James
'-~~
.· --~~-'

-....

is well.

I

____,

LIII. Here it is seen that the word but is not a part of either
combination ; and that it does not assist in describing either event.
"John is sick," tells one storv, and "James is well," tells the
other-while the word but, n~t being a part of either combination,
does not aid in describing either eve.nt; ..but stands merely as a
connective word-a connective, joinincr the two classes or combi. nations of words which describe the re~pective events.
·
LIV.- ~The word but, as used above, does not express an
a.dditional idea-does not add anything to the sense of the expres~10n; but m~rely c~nnecta the words which do express distinct
·
ideas. , But 1s herem seen to be a mere connective. ·
[Turn baclc and read the definition of a connectiv~. J

Contrast of Relatives and Connectives.
LV .. A relative is not used for the purpose of connecting;
though 1t dot>s connect, as ·does also the asserter; Thus, "John
met Henry." Here the asserter met re,a lly co11nect1, as much as
the word and in the next example-" John saw George and
Henry : " yet the word met is not called a connective, because it
is not used for the purpose of connectrng; .being used only for the
purpose of asserting the fact done by one person to another ; and
therefore called an asserter.

L VI. A relative connects-thus, "John died in Utica." Here
the word in connects the name Utica with the words describing
John's death-' John died'-' John died in Utica.' Though the
word "in" C()T!nects, yet it i~ not used for that purpose ; but on•
ly to show the relation of the event .of John's death, to the city
as the object or place in which he died.

LVII . .Words are named from the chitf design of their use.Connectives ·are not used to show ·relation, but to connect. They
are not called relatjves, but conntctfoes. Relatives are not used

40

l ~u.Y'u,'t:-wbich word yes, constitutes a full reply to the fore-

to connect-for the purpose of connecting; but only to show re•
latio11. Therefore, they are not called connectives,- but relatives

Lvm.
Illustration.

SJohn, with Henry, went to Church..~'~
~John

and Henry went to

41

LECTURE.

LECTURE.

Church,. ~;~

LIX. With, as here used , shows the relation of the man Jolin
to the man Henry, while performing the act of going to church~
one being with, or in the cbmpany of, the other. With is used tG
show this relation of one person to the other, and for no other"
purpose. Both persons went, at the same time, in company, ti> .
the same place.
LX . And, as used in the diagram, in contrast with the rel~~ "
tive with, is employed only to connect. It shows no relation: fo~
when I say, "John and Henry went to church," I do not there~_.
by indicate any relation as existing between the persons mentipn~ '
ed-I do not indicate that they went at the same time. [O~e
may have gone in the forenoon, and the other in the afternoon .j ·
I do not indicate that they went in the same dire::tion, or to the
same place. l One may have gone to the eastern, and the other .
to the western church,l yet both of them, "John and Henry, went· '
to church."
'
LXI. And connects the t}\'o names, but shows no relation.
With is used only to show relation-for the purpose of showing
relation; tnough it has an incidental, (not intended,) connecting
influence.

INTERROG ATIVES-AnVERBs.
LXII. This part of speech, as its name indicates, is used to ask ·
a question or to interrogate-thus, «John: I saw your father .
yesterday." LJohn asks,] " Where?" "Harriet: Julia must
go home." LHarriet asks,] "Why?"
LXIII. These words are not added or joined to asserters.~ :
One person makes a remark, and the other, by the use of the in..,,
terrogative wnrd, asks the question . l The principle, itself, having suggested the name, to the writer of this work; the name, in
turn, sugge~ts the principle to the pupil. , The name, the detini~
tion, and the fact being in three-fold harmony, concord, or co-incidence.]
·
:
REPLIERS-ADVERBS.
LXIV. This part of speech, as its name represents, is used in"
reply to some foregoing question or remark-thus, "Jane: will
you accompany me to church to-morrow ?" [She answers by the

~g~i;rog;ition.

W,
....

" Heltin,.: •:are yo.u opposed· to . improve.:
The -word no, as her.e used, constitutes a full
~:th~ foregqing question. ·. '

,41.:! .No.''

~ .., ..,\

~:.. ,..

,

,

. ,

.

'

.

I

, .J JO.ntrastof Iriter:rogative~ and Repliers.
, ~V. · Both of these parts of speech ·refer or. point back to
already expressed : but tbe former interrogates concern"1g. ;wbat has l>een .expressed ; and tbe latt~r constitutes · a .full
111,1wer: or reply to a forego ing interrogation or remark. '.fhey
~ ijie opposites of each other-thus, ,
·•
~ething

-4.~· :we should lo~e virtue and hate .vice.

cOl

.
.
Wh.y? 1n"'""'"''"·
Should we love virtue !ind hate vice ? ~

Yes.

Replier.

EXCLAMATIONS-INTERJECTIONS.
. .' LXVIII.. The name of this part of_speech seems a sufficient
aefinition of it; for, Grammar ·or no-grammar, it is nothing more
' ·~ }ess ~ban the name indica1tes-a m~fe excla111ati011. ·
.

~·;.ix1x. ,Interrogatives ·and , replieJs point b.ack to what has been
· ' ~xp,ressed ; and exclamations, when .used in 1.elation to sentences,
' pqiqtjorwar4 to what is to be expressed ; to the sentence describ~ 10g the fact which excites the emotion expressed by the exclam• ation ; as,
·nj=>

n:r

"OH ! I:have lived in vain:" ''ALAS ! Ifeadorlife."
.i~

Recapitula!ion.
..

'·. LXXI. From the forerroing, it is seen, that we have, in the
~nguage, ten sorts of words ; each, different from all·of the others:
LXXII.

l

NAMES-Independent words,. used to distinguish . persons ot.
i; [Nouns.] · tl.1in.gs that may · b~ con~idered separately or
.,.
d1stmct from other ideas: as, man, virtue.
LXXIII. '

~.; SUBSTITUTES-;-Dependent words, used, not to distinguish

_; ·- ~p
·
. '.'....~,· .. r.onouns. l

persons or things, but to represent what oth. . h ; as, he, it.
er wor'ds d'1st1ngu1s
4•

42

LECTURE•

(~tulation.)

( Recdp{luiai{iJ'Ti.j

LXXIV.

3

LXXI;x:.

ASSERTERS-Dependent words, used to assert, or to ex•
press existence or facts in connection wlth '
·
Lv.er bs. ]
· re-·
persons or th.rngs ; as, J ohn z·ives, virtue
wards her followers with peace. Asserters
distinguish ideas, yet not as distinct or separate, but as connected .with others.

8.,;INTERROGA TIVES....;..Dependent

words, standing distinct and
. sekarate from other words, and used only . to
·
·
·
· b"
. as questions
con~ermng sentiments· e1ore
expressed ; apd depending, for sense and use, '
on,foregoing rem~rks.

·;.;,.

d b
. -[4. ··ver s.]
· ~;
·~11

,,,:.

6

RELATIVES-Dependent words,
..
[Prepositions.]

used to show the relation existing between an event or fact and an object,
or between one object and another ; as, James
spoke to Henry. George Jackson, at school,
in Boston, is my cousin. These distinguish
ideas, yet not as distinct or separate, but as
connected with other ideas, events, or objects •.
LXXVIU.

7

CQNNEC Tl VE $-Dependent words used to conne.ct other word1

.
or to join words or sentences to each other ;
.
.
[Con1unctions.1 as, James and John w.ete scholars, but Henry excelled them both. 'fhese, the mere connectives, distinguish no particular distinct i~ ·
deas ; they adcf nothing to the sense : but are
used to connect words which do express ideas, '
or add something to the sense of the expression.

.

.

LXXXI. '

10 EXCLAMA TIONS-lndependerit words, used, not to dis.tin. ( r.

•

•

J

.(n / er1ections ·

LXXVI.

LXXVII.

LXXX.

REPLIERS-:-Dependent words, standing · distin~t and separate
from o.ther wor_ds, and used only to ans~er
[Adverbs.
J foregoing ~uestions, or to reply to foregorng
remarks ; and depending, for ·. sense and use,
on foregoing rema4ks.

4 ADNAMES-Dependent word.s, used to limit the meaning
of names or substitutes ; or to show the qual[Ad"uec(ives .] ity
or character of the objects denoted by
names or substitutes ; as, thi:J book, two
books, happy man. Some adnames distinguish ideas, yet not as distinct or separate ;
but as connected with, or pertaining to, the .
objects denoted by the words on which the
adnames depend.

5 MODIFIERS-Dependent words, used to modify the meaning
of sentences, or to show the quality or char[Adver bs. ]
acter of events; as, "John is not at .home."
"Seth writes ·elegantly.' 1 These words are
used to distinguish ideas, yet, not as distinct
or separate ; but as connected with facts or
events.

1

· -

LXXV.

guish objects or ideas which may be considered separately or alone, 'but only to express emotions, [not facts,] in reference to facts or
~rcumstances contemplated.•

LXXXU.

1

•.flrrangement of the Ten Parts
.

uing 'heir

trai~~

of

of

~mil~ty ar~d

0 F ·'I' H E 8 E ,

For representing obje1;ts,
for expressing facts,
For qualifying,
For showing relation,

Fot connecting,
For asking questions, merely,

Speech, exhib-

dissimilarity.

W E . U S Ii:,

5Names and

( Substitutes.
{ .A;serters.
5Adnames and
~ lrlodifiers,;
·
{'Relatives.
~ ·connectives.
~

Ifor replying to questions, &c.

f

Interrogatives.
Repliers.'

F9r expressing emotions, merely,

~

Exclamations.

•(lcrFrom the ~bov.e r~capitulatiqn, it' ill seen that we have but two parts
of speech that are independent words-the name and the .e:i:clamation,
which make full sense of themselves: and that the· other eight parts of
speech are dependent 'on other vy"ords for their meaning, or their place ·in the
sentence. ()G-Let this be impressed; by the teacher, on the _pupil's mind,
to aid him in understanding-the characteristics ·of the \lilferent words of
the language.

44

LECTURE.

(Recapitulation.)

LX XXIII. ~To these ten parts of speech, philosophically
classed, philosophically named anJ defined-,.p.hilosophically distin·
guished-belong all the word:i of the Enghsh Language. By
many, it has been thought a matter of mere taste, fancy, or ca·
price, in authors, to determine how many parts of speech they
will have : but by reading this lecture, it will be seen that th.e
number of the parts of s~eech is fixed in, and by, the ge~ius of
the English Language ; JUSt as much as the. number of km.ds. o~
roses is fixed, by the economy of Nature, m the real, ex1strng
differences rn plants and flowers.
LXXXIV. (ley> The first seven parts of speech, are all which
are used as parts of sentences, regularly constructed, for expres·
sing ideas in connection. The next two are used disli~ct and se_p·
arale from, yet relating to, other words ; and the last ts used dts·
tincl and separate from construction w.ith other words ; yet some·
times relating-, and sometimes not relating, to what is expressed
by other words; as in the examples, XCI, XCII, XCIV, XCV.
4
12
3
57
6
6
I
7
LXXXV. Happy rnan ! he labored long aad faithfully for mankind; but
2
3
II 2 J
7
3
2 4
I
6
I.
he has gone to his rest, and is enjoying his great reward in Heaven.

LXXXVI. Here the words man, mankind, rest, reward, and
Heaven are names, used to distinguish what objects are meant.He-he and his-his are substitutes, used to represent the object
disting'uished by the name man, for which the substitutes are used, and to which they refer.
LXXXVU. Labored, has gone, and is enjoying, are asser·
ters, used to assert certain facts concerning th~ person menti?ned.
Happy and great are adnames, used to qualify the two objects,
the man and the reward mentioned.
LXXXVIII. Long and faithfully are modifiers, used to qual·
ify the. event of the man's laboring for his race-for mankind. ·
LXXXIX. For, to, and in, are relatives: the first, used to show
the relation between the event of the man's laboring, and the race,.
Lmankind]-as the object for which the labor was performed-to,
used to show the relation between the fact of the man's going,
and the state or condition to which he passed-and in, showing
the relation between the fact of the man's enjoying his reward.,
and the place, [Heaven,] in which he enjoys it.
XC. And, but, and and, are connectives-the first and connecting the two modifiers long and faithfully, · yet adding noth·

(Recapitulation.)

45

LECTURE.

ing to their meaning-but, merely connecting the two sentences
which express the two events, yet not adding any distinct idea to
the sentiments expressed-and the last and; merely connecting
· the two asserters and their attendant ·words, (" has gone to bis
rest''-" is enjoying his reward in, Heaven,'.') both of which phra' ses ,refer to the man expressed by the word he-yet the sense of
th.e sentence given would be precisely the same without the connectives ns with them : though the ·connectives, being mere steps
for the hearer's or reader's mind from one part of the sentiment to
the .other, tend to make -the sentence more ~mooth and agreeable·.

-01

XCI. George: you must go home.
·

"Why?"

XCII. Seth: are you waiting for Henry's return? -01
.

No .

XCIII. From the foregoing it is seen that the interrogative why,
and the replier no, stand, respectively, distinct from the sentenc.es
to which they individually refer-one person affirming a fact, and
the other demanding, (by the word why,] the reason; and another person asking a question, and the one interrogated ·ans:-vering
by the replier 110. Each of th&se parts of speech refers to its own
foregoing sentence ; but both stand distinct from the sentences to
which they refer.
·

XCIV. Alas!

5 "The joys .that fortune brings;

J):Y { "Are triflin~, and decay."

Here the exclamation Alas, stands distinct from the sentence describing the fact to which it refers. ·

XCV. Oh dear*' !,.-Why !t
These exclamations are often used distinct from sentences, and
without reference to facts mentioned by sentences.

Conclusion.
XCVI. Let not the teacher or the pupil be in haste to go on.
Let the teacher exercise the pupil extensively and variously, ·on
the different parts of speech till the pupil can distinguish them at
sight.
XCVII. Let the pupil remember that his proficiency in all the
exercises which may follow, will depend greatly on his having acquired a knowledge of'what is inculcated by the foregoing lecture.
•Properly, Dea!
,
.
tSpelled w-h-y, but when used as an exclamation, pronounced wy, the·
letter h being, then, a. m-rqe.
·

46

·. ( Qifestions.)

LECTVRE.

The common saying of " the more haste the less speed," is never more justly applicable than to the earlier exertions ol students
in learning the grammar of any language.
XCVIII. Let the teacher require the pupil to distinguish the
parts of speech as they occm in bis reading lessons ; and when
he shall have shown himself accurate and ready in this, he may
be allowed to proceed to examine, in detail, the peculiarities of each
of the parts of speech, the rules, &c. &c .
·

Questions on the definitio;ns of the .different Parts
of Speech, and the Lecture.
N AM E S,

S U B S T I TU T E S ,

AND

AS S E RT E R S •

What is a J>ame 1 see number 61'. What are the leading traits ' of a
nam e? see 1, II, 111. What is a substitute I 62. Give examples. What are
the two lead ing traits of a substitute ·1 see v, vi. Explain the difference
between a name and a substitute: see IX. What is an asserter? see 63. In
what place and form is it named asser ter 1 see x. What are " .terms of
distinction" used to do I What is said of definitions 1 see xn . What do
asserters always do I Give examples: see XIII. What does the name as·
serter indicate ? What does the definition do ? see XVI. Why are names
not substitutes 1 why are they not asserters 7 see xvn. Why are substi.
tutes not names 7 why. are they not asserters I see XVIII. Why are asser·
ters not names 7 xix .
INTRANSITIVE, TRANSITIVE, AND RECEPTIVE ASSERTERS.

D efine an intransitive asserter. What is the first leading trait of an in·
transitive asserter 1 see 64 1, and xx. What is the second? see 64 n,
and xxr. What is a transitive asserter I see 65. What are its two leading tt aits 7 First, It may represent an action of the subject, as affecting
an object : Second, It may represent a fa ct, merely, as only extending tq
an object: see xxrv, and xxv. D tfine a receptive asserter: see ·&6.What are the two traits of this asserter 1 see the first three lines of XXVI .Give examples of the first trait : see xxvi. Give examples of the second
trait: see xxv1I1, xx1x. How is "the subject of remark" to bfl consid·
ered I xxx. What is taught by the note t, page 25.
"
ADNAMES.

What is an adname 1 see 67. Why is it so called 1 see xxxi. What is
the difference in the influence of an adname when standing before a name,
and when coming after it. Give examples. For what six particular purposes are the adnamesjoined to names 1 see xxx1n to xxxvu1,including
both. What is the difference between an asserter and an adname 1 see
XXXIX. Explain the diagram XL ..
MODIFIERS.

What is a modifier 7 see 68. To what does an adname re fer ? to what
does a modifier 1 see XLI. In what respects are adnarnes and modifiers similar 7 in what: dissimilar 1 see XLII, and XLIII. What is taught by
XLIV 7 What doe;, the modifier certainly, particularly qualify 1 see XLVI.
What is the modifying influence of not? What is taught by XLVII? by
XLVUr 1 What is said, at last, in XLIX, of adnames and modifiers 1

(Questions.)

..

\
LEOTV!.\E.

RELATIVES AND CONNECTIVES.

What is a relative · 7 see 69 . . Why is 'it so called ? see i:.. What is
taught by LI 1 What is a connective? see 70. Why is it so named 1
see LII. Explain what is taught by LIII. What is said of but, as used in
the diagram LII. What does the word but do? what does it not do, as
used in the diagram 1 see LIV. y.'hat is the difference between a relative
and a connective 1 see Lv. How far does the asserter resemble the connective, al)d in what is it unlike the connective 7 see LV. Jn what respect
does the relative resemble the .connective ·? see LVI. In what respect are
they unlike each other I see LVII. From what are .the parts of speech named? see LVII: see ~he diagram LVIII. What is said•of wit{i I see LIX.
between with and
What is said of and? see LX. What is the-difference
1
and ? see LXI.
·
·
INTERROGA.TIVESj REPLIERS,. AND EX.CLAMATIONS.

What is an interrogative ? see 71. Give examples and explain them:
see LXII. What is_said of the interrogative 1 ~ee LXIU. · What sugg~sted
the name to the writer 7 ' What is a replier 1 see 72. What is said of
it 7 see uv. What is the difference between an interrogative and a replier 1 see LIV. In what respect are they' similar ? see LV, Lv1, and LVII .
What is an exclamation? see 73. · What is said of this ? see LVIII. In
what respect are exclamations .unlike interrogatives and repliers, in their
·.
reference to sentences? see LVI, Lvn,.and LXX.
RECAPITULATION.

I. What is said in lxxi 7 What are -the characteristics of names 1 see
lxxii : of substitutes 1 see lxxiii : of asserters? see lxxiv :. of adnames 1 see
lxxv: of modifiers J..see Jxxvi : of relatives 1 see lxxvii: of connectives I
see lxxviii: 'o f interrogatives? see lxxix.: of repli~rs ? see lxn: of ex·
clamations ? see lxxxi. ·
· ·
.
2. How many parts of speech are there ? see lxxii. How many have
we for representing objects? What are 'they I How many for 'e:ryressing
facts 1 What is i,t ? Ho".\' lllany for gualifying 7 ·, What are th~y . ? How
many for showing relation I ,Wh'at is it ? How many for connecting?What is it I How many for asking questions or interrogating ? What is it T
How many for replying ? . What is. it?.,. How .many . for expressing emo- ,
tions I What is it i
'
3. l;; it a matter of mere taste or caprice in an author to tell how many
parts of speech he will have? or is the number fixed by the genius of the '
language ? see lxxxiii . How many of the parts of speech are used as parts
of regularly constructed sentences 7 see lxµiv . Read the sentence lxxxv.
What is said in lxxxvi ?· what in lxxxvii 7 what in lxxxviti I what in lxxxix l
what in xc? What is said in xciii concerningtbediagramsofxciand xciil
What is said in xciv and xcv-concerning examples given in these numhers 1
What is said, in conclusion, in ·xcvi I what in xcvii 1 and what in xcviii T
(Remember these r-emarks.)

PARSING
74 Is describing the nature, distinctions, and powers of
words, and, when united in a sentence, tl!eir refation to,
and dependence and influence on, each other. , ·

,,
48
.

'

.·,,~, . ~

EXERCISES

'

f -~'

-'""\{

. ~Ii: , , .,

~'

'·~

ON THE', Dlf F~lffNr:: .PArltroE · ~PEECl:i. i
~ I ~·,' .' ·'
·· ~::'.'';

'J •'

,

,.

. ·'

'•

~~~~$9~· I~ i.' . :

'!.

l 1\

_., ;· ;,: ·. ~...

.'

,;,J.'

" ' .$,!)

-:·~~~ ';:

. -., ..· . '. 2

~ [Let the pupil dis~inguish.' t?e ,~,iff~re_n~. PP.r.t;111tse.e~c~)!\ ~qe.}ol)p"IY).z\~1 . ": .

1~5Son~ Let thji teacbe~ re..qgii:e ;t}lll ;Pu.{Jil,.~q ~~ti~g_ui,s~ th~;.4i'!f,e,,ent .p11-r.W, •'
of :speech as tbey ·oC.cur in different -lines opientencea ,.o f bi~ ·reading~~ · ·(
sons;. atleast such as occ~r.· in sim~leJ~.latio~i :e?~ su~~' ~:· ~ ha'v.e .p~~:'"•'
1
plex characteristics anq: relations.]
·
• : l .·:: ·.. ;
. \>'

Cain killed 'his brother. · Abel was killed· by ·cain.', 'Mari~ foves·her cousin. My friends left their ca;riage,, and walked ....tow_;µ-ds .. th11 .Ci\l<\r11ct:...:..
They met Seth and Henrietta, returning fro[il th~ . mqull~aip. , 1 We.:shou~.. .
be just' to all men. Maq .shogl~ lqve s,nd ql)l!y ~ PreJltor:
.,,, ,,•r
·

,

'·, : •

''LissoN

u. "' ;··:·!-;!_:";.: .·' ...

, . ;.;

W.illiam will visit bis aged:mother. " When?· J:SllwMaria:andher uncle : ·
Where 7 James : Grammar is a useful science. ·.You : should• be, quiet in'
church. My aunt resides in·Boston.)' I visited her and:her •nearest neigh.,.
bor in the forenoon ·of yesterday ... Did Ja,mes go to school I · No.
·
•1

'

.

LESSO~
~

,

-

.

IlJ.,
..

., · :1 ·

'

. .- .

: '

·.

i.:,.«:
. '

.

..
-~,

r

. .. .. ..- (

..
;

. Clarissa and Juli~ went e~rly to S,unday ~cb~V. 'Ti)ey ~earn · ~e.ir .tl!l!lf. · :
lesso!js well. Washmgton died at Mouµt Vernon; m' t!ie s1xty-e.1glit!i .yea~ .
of' his age. Jesus wept w:ith Mary :ind her sister;·· He ra\s~4. tbe.1~ .br9th,~.~;'i - ·
[Lµarus] from the grave. O! glonoqs hop~ of.endl~;'.est. .
." , · :, . ·
LES§ON. IV. ......_':.~ ,.'; ::>.:': '.. ~: :
· ~wr .
.

/;.

Time flies rapidly. James studied attenti\'ely; and . iear~~a '}ifs lesso~
well. Julia writes' elegantly. 'George is a good ' boy ' and
' kio,d brother.:'-;
1
He helps bis littl~ sister make 'ber beds for the 'flower~. !fenry J?riggs:wenf.
to New York and bought some goods. ·. Hannah: will you attend church T1
Yes. Abigail is ·my sister. Joseph teaches school. Seth loveS bis father'
and-mother, and.obeys them.
··• :• "• : :' ·. ,
i .'., ·
. . ' L,ESSpN.Y: · .• ';:
·Albert is a pleasant little boy.- lie.goes. cqeer{ully.-~o ; school, and studies his books. Sophia is not at hol!le· ·She-went. lo iNew,¥or.k1!!a.J'ly -in; th~ .
winter. Samuel bought.a .farµi in.Qhio. He. i~4!11ds :to :. ri\.II)ove · hisrfru:nil~1. ••
SQ.On. Eveline is 11 gooQ and beaµtifµl young lady, , : ShllJ is.attentive.,~o the/ ·
wanta Qf her parents.11nd. bet brot~l'll and ·s_i$ters. . liden.-is an accomplish:.f
e!l girl. She is a first rate scholar. · .
· . .- _.,. ' '"·•., .. . ,.,., .,·.,· .,,
.: ... ~., J .

.,n." .'''' '.' '.

0

.')

LESSON VI.
. .
: I .' , '. ; . ' · • l
'j
. '.
'
, :
The fields are green in spring. · The·grass grows. The dowers bloom.- ·
The e.ir.is·fragrant and .de)igh.ts<1me, . I lov.e to walk-a!ll9ngthafresh,gr~~n
pl11-nts, and tjowers. •Hannab ,,stµdies .bo~ny. ,Sq~ ,has ,a,!iWe •bfll<fnii;·':gilf·v ·
den in which she spends her' mor~i~gs'. She .ri.sei! ~arl7. and goes ,\Iifu l~~ ,1.'~
garden to dress the beds. The b1rds•slng memly-among'th&trees; .: , · .'" ,,.,.

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