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P 0 S I T I 0 -'N ',

L'! WHICH THE PRINCIPLES OF THE A.RT A.RE DE>E.LOI'ED

rn

co::-;::-;ECTION

1'ITJI TIIE l'J !l:\ C lf' LE8 O F

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G R A l\l l\1 A H ;

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EJ\113ftA CTNG
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' FULTJ DIRECTIONS ON THFJ SUB.JECT OF

PUNCTUATION; . :-~·
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WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES.

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GI' P.'' (~UACKENBOS, A. l\I.,
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REOTOR OF THE HENRY-STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOL, NEW YORK.

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NEW-YORK:
D. APPLE'rON & COMP ANY, 200 BROADWAY.
PHILADELPHIA :

GEO. S. APPLETON, 164 CHESNUT-STREET.

1851.

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ENTERED,

according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851 , by
G. P.

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A

COUNTY

superintendent of common schools, speaking of

the important branch of composition, in a _communication bearing. date July 27, 1844, uses the following language: "For a
- long time I have noticed with regret the almost entire neglect

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of the art of original composition in our common schools, and
the want of a proper text-b oo k up on this essential branch of

QUACKF.NllO~ ,

education.

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of th e United S tates for the Southern
District of New-York.

Hundreds graduate from our common schools

with no well-defined ideas of the construction of our lnngunge."
The writer might have gone furth er, and said that multitudes

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graduate, nbt. only from commoµ schools, but from some of
our best private institutions, utterly destitute of all practical
acquaintance with the subject; that to many such the compoto .some an almost
sition of a- simple letter is an irkeome,
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impossible, task. Yet . the ' reflecting ~ind must admit that it
is only th!s practical· application of grammar tha£ renders that
a.rt µseful-that parsing is secondary to composing, and the
analysis of our languague nlmost unimportant when compared
with its synthesis.
·. One ··great reason <?f the neglect noticed above, has, no
doubt, been the want of ·a suitable text-book on the subject.
During the years of the author's experience as a teacher, hE'.
has examin_ed, and practically tested the various works on

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PREFACE.

4

composition with which he has met: the result has been a

~µ~nces,

conviction that, while there are several publications well calcu-

~~~gener.ally

lated to advance pupils at the nge of fifteen or sixteen, there
is not one suited to the comprehension of those between nine
and twelve; at which time it is bis dcei(lc<l opinion this branch
should be taken up.

Heretofore, the teacher has been obliged

either to make the scholar labor through a work entirely too
difficult for him, to give him exercises not founded on any
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treated in elementary books with the consideration
which -its importance demands. The rules for punctuation
}laye ,been co11densed, arranged on a new plan, and, ·it ~s' hoped,
.rendered intelligible to all. Directions on the subject of capi~l

of the author, but of many other teachers with whom he has

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~onsulted, that has led to the production of the work now

· , :. :-'This · d<me, the scholar is prepared to express thoughts in

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~ffei'.ed · t~ the public.

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It claims to be a first-book in compo-

his own language, an_d he is now required to .write sentences
·'of
every kind, a.word being given .to suggest au idea for each;
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sltiOn; and is intended to initiate the beginner, by easy and
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. ho is taug~t t() vary them by m ~ans of, different _arrangement
pleasant steps, into that all-important, but hitherto generally
and modes of expression; to analyze compound sentences into
neglect~d, art. .
A bdef account of the plan and scope of the work may not
be out cif place. It presuppo ses no knowledge of grammar,

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~xplan~tions;- (tnd ex;ampl~s,. [or. t~e purpos~ of - ~nabling the
p~pil to form ~nd . spell correotly such, derivative words as
·havi11g1 debarri;,g.,. cha_tted, and .. the lifoe, which -are not to be
·found 1_in djction~ries, and regarding which the pupjl is apt to
be }ed astra~ .by,ti)..~ f~<;t . that a change is m~d~ ~ - the p~i)lve w'ord,befoie the addition of a suffix." . : '· ' · . -. , . -

It is this conviction, founded on the experience not only

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.letters follow . . A -few p.ages are next devoted to rules,

disadvantages of either of these courses arc at once apparent.

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regular system, or to abandon the branch altogether-and the

,an? Js _.thus prepared . for, punctuation, a 1_subject

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P~EFACE.

simple ones, and to combine simple sentences into compound..

and ' fa intended to be put into a pupil's lrnnds, as a first-book in

Several lessons are then devoted_to th.e various kin9,s ~.of style.
The essential properties, purity, propriety, precisfcm, cle.arpess,

gra1nhiar, at whateve1; age it is deemed best for him to com-

strength;. harmony, _and unity_· are next tre_ated 1 examples for,

menc6 that study; say from nine to twelve years, according to

c~rrection being presented under each. . The different kinds of

the '. deg1:ee of intellectual development. In the first fifty pages,

composition follow, .and, proper selections having been first

by · means Of lessons on the inductive system, and copious

given as

exercises under each, he is made familiar with the nature and

sively letters; descriptions, narrations, biographical° sketches,

use of the different parts of t'tpeeeh, so as to be able to recognize

essays, and argumentative discourses.

them at -0nce, and to supply them when a sentence is rendered

·principal

incomplete by their omission. After this, he is prepared to
take up a more difficult treatise on grammar; while in this

-list o_f subjects ca1:efully selected; arranged under their proper

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specime~s,

~gures

the pupil is required .to compose succesAfter this, the three

receive attentiop ; and the work closes with a

-heads/and in such a ·way that the increase in difficulty is very
work he is led to consider the different kinds of clauses and . ; gradual. · The author has aimed throughout to awaken thought

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--...---PREFACE.

in the pupil, to discipline his mind, and by precept and practice
to make him acquainted with the construction of his native

CONTENTS.

tongue.
The distinctive features of the work may b e lJriefly enumerated as follows: the development of the principles of compo- .
sition in connection with those of gr:unnmr; the easy steps by
which it proceeds according to the inductive system; the illustration of every point with exercises, not taken, as hns hitherto
been the general practice, from the time-h onored text-book of
l\furray; the method of analyzin g subjects; and the frequ ency
of reviews.

Suggestions are scattered throu gh the book, to

which it may be well for the teacher to attend.

The pupil

should, in all cases, prepare himself to answer the questions in
each lesson, before he proceeds to the exercise.
With these brief remarks the author com mits his work to
his professional brethren, respectfully asking them to submit
it to that practical trial, which is, after all, the only true test of

a school-book's value. ·
NEw-YoRx,

Jan. 1st, 1851.

. · LESSON ;

PAGE.

9
L Letters, Vowels, Consonants , S.}'.11 ables,
' 11 '
II. Words.-Parts of Speech .-Art1c1es,
13
III. Nouns,
15
IV. Pronouns,
18
V. Adjectives,
19
VI. Verbs, .
21
VII. Adverbs, .
24
· VIII. Exercise on Adverbs,
25
IX. Conjunctions,
27
X. Prepositions,
29
XI. Inte1jections,
' 32
XII. A Review ,
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XIII. Miscellaneous Exercise,
34
XIV. Miscellaneous E xercise,
34
XV. Th e Suh,iect,
38
XVI. Exercise,
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XVII. The Object.-Transitivc and lnt rans1tive ~erb.s,
XVIII. Personal , Rela tive, Interrogative, and Acl.Ject1ve
42
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Pronouns,
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XIX: The Relative Pronoun and Relative Clause,
47
XX. Participles.-Pal'ticipial Clauses,
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XXL A Review, .·
51
XXII. Sentences, Phrases, Clauses, Appositio.n, . ' :
55
XXIII. Period, Jnte!To~ation Point, Exclamat10n Pomt,
57
XXIV. Colon and Seri:ncolon,
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XXV. Comma,
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XXVI. Exercise in Pnnctnat.ion .
G3
XXVJI. Dash Parenth eses, Bracket.fl , .
G5
XXVrH . Oth e;· Marks use d in Writi11g,
G7
XXTX. Exercise in Punctuati on,
' 69
XXX. Ex('rci sc in P un ctuation. .
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XXXI. RnlPs for tli e use of Capital Letters,
72
XXXl L A Red e\\', .
74
XXXIJT. A Rev iew,
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XXXIV. Primitive, Compound, and DenrntJrn Word.s.75
Analvsis. -Accent,
77
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XXXV. ~pelling.~Rules.
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x.xxn. Sa bj-:ct :md Predicate,
xxxm.. EY~rd!e in~~
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mna S!nter.:it:'.f'_g c~ Relative &LIU r i l i UUflk» 83
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LES S ON.

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CONTENTS.

XXXIX. Sentences conta ining Adverbial and Vocative
Clau ses, .
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XL. Different kind s of Sentences,
XLT. Exercise in Sentences,
XLII. Ex ercise in Sentences,
XLHI. Va riety of Arrangement,
XLIV. Variety of Arrangem ent,
XL V. Variety of Expression,
XL VI. Variety of Expression,
XL VII. Synonymes,
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XL VJII. Exercise in Synonymes,
XLIX. Circumlocution,
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L . Aualysis of Compound Sentences,
LL Synthesis of Simple Sentences,
LU. Style,
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LHI. Purity,
LIV. Propriety,
L V. Precision,
LVI. Clearness,
L VIJ. Clearness,
LVIIT. Strength,
LIX. Streng th, .
LX. Harmony, .
LXI. Unity, .
LXTI . A Review, .
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LXIII. Different kinds of Composition.-Analysis of
Subjects, .
LXIV. Letter-Writin g ,
LXV. Letter-Writing,
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LXVI. Exercise in L etter-Writing,
LXVII. Descripti on,
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LXVIII. E xercise in Description, .
LXIX. Description of Natural Scenery,
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LXX. Ex erci se in Description of Natural Scenery,
LXXl. Description of Persons ,
. LXXH. E xercises in Description, .
:LXXIII. Narration ,
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LXXIV. Exerci se in Historical Narration .
LXXV. Exercises in Histori cal Narrati on,
LXXVI. Biographical Sketcl1 cs ,
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LXXVJI. Exercise in Biographical Narration,
1,xxvm. Fi ction,
LXXTX. Essays,
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LX XX . Ex ercise in E~ s ay- writing,
LXXXT. Arg um entati ve Discourses,
LXXXH. Fig m es. -Simile, .
LXXXlII. Mdaphor,
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LXXXIV. E xercise in Metaphorical Language,
LXXXV. Personification,
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PAGE.

85
86
87
88
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92
94

FIRST LESSONS
IN COMPOSITION.
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102
104
107
109
111
113
115
118
121
122
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165
165

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LETTERS, VOWELS, CONSONANTS, SYLLABLES.
WHAT

is a, letter 1

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A letter is a character 'used to represent a sound
of the human voice. ·. ·

· ·. · ' How many Jetters are th~re in the English language 1

. ·Twenty-six.

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b, -c, d; e, j, · g; h, i, }, k, l, m, n, o, p, q,

t, .u, v, w, .x,- y, z.

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What are the letters, whe.n taken together m their regular order, as above, called 1°
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_- The Alphabet.' -"' · · ·.

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· How ~any of tbese letters can be sou~ded alone 1 ·

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F-1.ve-.

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.Which are they1
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A, e, i, .o, u. ·. ·

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What do we call these 1.
°VOWELS.

166

170
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s·s 0

LE

130

133
140
]:l2
143
147
J4.7
150
151
153
153
156
157
168

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.- :~-:· :4-..vow:el ..is . a)e,tte!- that. repJ'.~sents a complete
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No; not unless a vowel is j oined to it.
What are such letters as cannot be sounded alone, called?
CoNSONAN'l'S.
What is a consonant?

A consonant is a letter that does not represent a
complete sound.

Five; a, e, i, o, u.
Two;

What are these parts forming distinct sounds c.alled 1
SYLLABLES.
What is a syllable 1

A syllable is one or more letters combined so as
to form a distinct sound.
Divide the word ramrod into syllables. R am-rod. Divide the
word minister into syllables. Min-is-ter. Divide the word sister
into syllables; H enry; sickness; manfnl; rna11fu,lly; elephant ; wilderness; contemplate; circ1l'lnstance; commiserate ; Constantinople.
You have said that w and y are sometimes vowels, and at
other times consonants ; when are they consonants ?

vVhen they begin a syllable.
Wh en are w and y vowels 1

When they do not begin a syllable.
Is w a vowel or a consonant in wine? in wife ? in new? in
westerly ? in Yorktown ? in bow? in world ? in ·william ? in water-work ? in saw ? in wave ?
Is y a vowel or a consonant in yontli? in M ar?/? in boy ? in
yesterday ? in N ew- York ? in yawn? in syllable ?
How many and which of the letters are always vowels?

* Th e t each~r will do ·\Yell to make the pupil

thorou ghly un.
derstand the difference betTI:een the name of a letter and its
sound, and to illustrate the point by several examples .

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wand

y.

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How many and which are always consonants J

.Nineteen; .b,
y, x, z. .

c, d,f, g, h,j, k, l, m, n,z:, ~, , r, s,.t,
LESS 0 N

Yes; wand y.
Two ; lcind and ly.

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. .;: 'How many· and whfoh of the letters are vowels, when they do
not stand at the ~ommenc~ment of a word .or . sy~lable .1 .

Arc there any letters which are sometimes vowels, and at
other times consonants 1
In the word kindly, how many distinct sounds are there 1

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WORDS.. pARTS OF SPEECH;. ARTICLES.

FIRS'I' LESSONS IN cm.LPOSI'l'ION.
Try to sound b. Can it b e sounded alone ?*

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WORDS.-P
ARTS
OF. . SPEECH.-ARTICLES~
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\vnAT do you use when you want to speak your thoughts 1
WORDS.
What is a word 1

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A word is wJ:iat is spoken or written as the .sign
of an 'i_dea ; as, book.
How are words divided 1

Into different .classes, called PARTS OF SPEEGH.
How .many parts Of speech are there, and what are they cal.led 1 ,
Nine: viz., Article, Noun, Pronoun, Adjective,
~rb, A9.verb, ConjunctiOn, Preposition, !trid In·
terj ection.

V

.Wbp.t i~ the first po.rt of epe<;ich 1
.The,. ARTICLE •..- . , :-. . . ._
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· What an ·Article 1
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An Arlicle is ~-.word place~ before il.J.iqth~r ..w;ord,
to show ·wheth.er. it is .used in a par¥cular, or ih a
general s~ns..e. . , ·. . ."
How.lllany articles are. there 1

,· .. TwQ; ·.The, .and -An or. A.:

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·.When we say tke man;- what d o w_e mean 7.

· Some particular man.

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. Wh.e n we .say a man, do We refer to a P,~rt~cular II1an ·

No ;' to any man;

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FIRST LESSONS IN COl\IPOSITION.
. Nbl'.JNS.

What is tlie called, and why?

is called the definite article, because it defines or points out a particular object.

I~sert t~e definite article before

THE

What is an or a called, and why?

AN or A is called the indefinite article, because
It does not define or point out any particular object.
Are

A

and

AN

the same article ?

Yes; they are different forms of the same article.

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lowing words : . ' ,· ' .
mouse,
lady, tigers,
.. ' squirrels; . book, cloak,
~ inkstil.ndi
pencils, boy,
teachers,
thief, gir I, . .

each of the fol,

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steamboat,
rhinoceros,
elephant;
balloons;

clock,
woman,
goose, drama.

Whero is a used?

A is used before a word commencing with a consonant, or a consonant sound; as, a goat, a bench, a uni"t.
What vowels, standing at the con11ncnccnw11t of a wort!, ha Ye

a conso nant sound?

U long (as in uni"t ), and eu, when they stand at
the commencement of a word, are pronounced as if
the consonant y stood before them; thus, itn'it, use,
eulogy, E itrope.
Do you use a or an, then, before words commencing with u
long and e1t ?

A; because such words commence with a consonant sound; as, a wii·t, a eulogy.

. Insert the indefinite article before each of. the
following 1:1-ouns, being careful .t o follow· th~ directl~p.s g1.yen ~bove' fOr ~~e use o~ . a and an.
. ' •t
h.erm1
,.
apple,
.. urchin,
hunter, ·
yeoman,
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hurricane,
wilderness,
-- alligator,
u pstar t ,
wonder, ..
hundred,
urn, ·
youngs~er,
waterman;
ewe, ·

Where is an used 1

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LESSON

eulogy,
t' 1
. ·1es iva d'
.husban ,
Indian,
. ·hyacinth.
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III.

Defore words commencing with a vowel, or with
an h that is not soun<lecl; as, an enemy, an i?1.1cstand,

an hour, an hcL·r.

.Mention again before what words a is used.
Before what wurds is

r1n

used?

/ W;u;. Is the second part of speech 1

The NouN.

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h" h
What 1s your name '!. Wh
. a t is the na.me of the sta e 111 w IC
yon Uve 1 _What word means th~ same as name 7.
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EXERCISE.'""
The pupil must in no case attempt to write the Exercise until he is fully prepared to answer th e q ues tious that precede it.

* It is intended that all pa.rts oft.his ''"Ork headed Ex1m c 1sE
should be written at home, and broug ht to the teacher for cor-

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N oun;h - . . .

~· ~~~e' .~~d
that ~f yout st~te be caped 1
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. What,· t _en, Iµ!'Y yo - .

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FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

Nouns.

...

· PRONOUNS. ·- :

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• · in place. of the dash,* . a noun, common or proper,

What is a Noun?

~the sense ~ay require.
-

.A Noun is the name of any person, place, or
thmg ; as, James, Boston, bench.
To show that you understand this , mention three nouns, the
names of persons ; three, the names of places· three the names
of things.
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How many classes of nouns are there ?

A common noun is a name that djstjngQishes
one c1ass of things front another; as, ?nan, city, river.
What is a proper noun?

A proper noun is a name that distinguishes
one individual of a class from another· as Byron
Broolclyn, Hudson.
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How do proper nouns always commence ?

With a capital letter.
Is chair a proper or a common noun? lion? George ? Alps?
Connecticnt? factory? Wednesday ? surnmer?

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The teacher, in correcting the exercises, will see that the punc~
tuation of the book js followed. Rules <:>n this subject will be
flirnished' hereafter. ·

'

EXAMPLE. · - - are ripe in summer.
·Completed. Blackberries are ripe in summer.

'I1wo ; Common and Proper.
What is a common noun?

·'

7. - -· is one of the United States of America.
_8: In summer, the - -· are unabl~ : to endure tho
heat of the --~ and retire into the _· - .
9 . . The elephant is one of the ·largest of......____;.-; .he has
a.' rough - - of a dark - ·- ·-. j his -__ are small,' but
bright and penetrating; he moves his ----:- like a fari,
to drive away flies from his - - . Witji his trunk he
.raises food to his-·- · -, anii draws - - to quench his
-----. When he is tamed he obeys his ~, and at his
.~"'.'ill kneel to receive a .- .-.· :- Elephants are said
to live more than a hundred - -; .

EXERCISE.

Write out a list of the nouns in the following
sentences, commencing the common nouns with
small letters, and the proper nouns with capitals.

,

Complete the following sentences by inserting

LESS ON IV ,.
. PRONOUNS.

1. George is going to Boston on Monday.
2. Many towns and villages are situated on the

Mohawk.
3. Victoria is queen of England.
4. We like the city better than the country.
5. Grammar is an important study.
6. Bees make honey, and lay it up in hives.

.. ....

,WHEN

I say,

re

J olin learns his lesson,'' what does the weird li~

Btand for?

_. John's.

'

How would the sentence read, if we
of his 7

s~ould

use John's instead

· ,. John learns John's lesson.
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A dash is a l'lhort horizontal line ( -). -

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16

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'fION.

PRONOUNS.

What part of speech is John's, and why?

A noun ; because it is the name of a person.
What is a word that stands instead of a noun, called ?

A

PRONOUN.
What is a Pronoun?

A Pronoun is

n,

word used instead of a

110Lm.

Why is a pronoun used instead of a noun ?

B ecause it would not sound well to have the
noun repeated too often.
' Give an example.

John respects John's father, John's rnother, and
John's teacher.
How does this sentenc~ r ead, when the pronoun is used instead of J ohn's?
·what are some of the principal pronouns ?

I, rny, rnine, ?ne, we, our, ours, us, thou, thy, thine,
thee, you, your, yours, he, his, him, she, her, hers, it,
its, tliey, . their, theirs, thern, who, which, that.
James, who had studied hard, recited his lesson well.
l\Iary is a good girl, for she obeys her parents.
Ile virtuous, and you will obtain your r eward.
James and George have performed the task which
I gave them.
1.
2.
3.
4.

EXEIWISE.

Where a dash occurs, insert the proper pronoun.
ExAMPLE.

to--.

This apple is mine, but - - will give it

Cmnp'leted. This apple is mine, but I_will give it to
you.
1. William asked--. father to take--· into the
country.
2. I love - - friends.
3. Julia has gone to - - Jinn er.
4. Where is .- - hat? I hung-.-,: - on the naiL
5. Parents love - - children, and t~ke. cai;e' of-.- · .
6. John, where arc - -· going 1
7. ·we gave the poor woman a penny, and she put
- - into - -· bag.
8. H ere is a bird's nest - - I found in the woods.
- - is made of straw and moss, th~ old birds find
in the fields.
.
.
9. Jane and - - brother have _gone to - .- cousin's.
10. I will give you: a handsome prize, if - · .-. are a
diligent boy and attend to - - duties.
11. The .man - - is honest will be. respected by
- - acquaintances.
.
.
·
12. "Washington, in - - youth, and througl1out - whole life, adhered strictly to the truth, and thus set an
example whioh - - ought to follow._
13. If we think we .never do wrong, - .- _dec_
e ire ourselves, for almost every moment - -· are guilty of sin. ··
14. We ought to remember the- favo"rs which are conferred on - - by - - friends.
15. Nature is before us; arid invites - - to contemplate the greatness and goodness of-·- Creator.
16. Miss Pardoe, in - - ·book-of Travels; gives. - ·,
many interesting particulars respecting the Tur.ks, t.heir
habits, - - religion, and ~ government . . - - says
that one of the most attractive features in character
is the respect - - they entertain for the aged. . ~

all

M entfon the pronouns in the following sentences, and as you
name each, tell the noun for which it stands.

"What is a noun 1
What is a pronoun 1
Mention again some of the pron0tms that are most in use.

17

.

,.

~

- ·- ·

..
.·-;-~~:-.-;;;;iiill

I

-~

,.

../_,,,

18

FIRS'l'

LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

LESSON V.
.ADJECTIVES.
·wnAT is the fourth part of speech callecl?

The ADJECTIVE.
In the sentence, "Be a good boy," which worcl is a noun?
Why is it a noun i
Which word describes boy, or tells what kind of a boy is
meant?

Good.
. What is good called ?

An ADJECTIVE.
What is an Adjective?

' .

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit
a noun or pronoun ; as, ·a bad rnan1 an active child,
John is obedient; in these sentences, bad, active, and
obedient are Adjectives.
What do adj ectives sometimes express besides quality?

.Number; as, three rnen1 the fourth row; three and
fourth are Adjectives.
What are adjectives that express number, called?

VERB!:l. .
2. Columbus was ·the - - man that crossed the _:__
ocean.
3. The whale is a_._:__ animal; with .his tail he.often
upsets boats, and destroys - - men ..
. 4. In a garden we see many -· - · flowers ; the -· - rose, the - - violet, and the _:_.__ lily.
5. We live in a - - house, which has ~ s~ories.
6. I saw a company of--· soldiers; well ·armed with
· - - rifles.
7. He has walked a - . - distance, and is - - . ,
8. Be - - to your te.achers, and-, to ,your· parents.
··
,
9. He that is - - and - - when he is -young, wil.l
be - - when he is old.
10. "William has a -. - ,-· dog, a - -. kitten, and a
--horse.
11. I found some - ·- apples, and:- - pears, in the
orchard.
.
·
12. In the West Indies they have very ~ weather
and - - storms. The climate is considered for
sick persons.

NUMERAL Adjectives.
Mention three adjectives.
I

.

Mention three numeral adjectives.

EXERCISE.
Complete the following sentences by inserting
an adjective in place of each dash. No adjective
must be repeated; find a new one in each case.
EXAMPLE,
A - - cow. With an adjective in serted,
a fat cow ; or, a lean cow ; or, a sniall cow ; ?r, a white
cow.
1. It is a - - day; the weather is--.

II

VERBS.
WHAT is the fifth part of speech called 1

The VERB.
In the sentence, "Jane eats cake," which word tells -us what
Jane does 1

Eats.
In the sentence, "Mary sleeps," which word_tells us the state
Mary is in?
·
·

Sleeps.
What do we call kills and sleeps ?

Verbs.
What is a Verb 1

A Verb is a word that expresses action, or a state
of being.
In the sentence, "Jolin is good," what part of speech is Jolln,
and why 1 what is is, and why? what is good, an.cl why?
:Mention in order the verbs in the following sentences.

I·

Oxen are large and sti:ong animals ; they submit to
the yoke; plough the fields, and draw heavy carts. '.l'he
farmer fattens them, and kills them for food, and takes
them to market.

21

ADVERBS.

FIRS'r LESSONS IN COMPOSI'rION.

20

the whole family into terror and confusion. "Ung~ate­
ful wretch pi the- farmer ; ".I find- it - ·-·- useless .
to - - favors on .the undeserving." With these words
he - - a hatchet, and - - the snake into pieces.
4. In autumn, the farmer - -. his harves~, and -. - it away in barns. The leaves - - from ~he trees, and
the wind - - through the branches.
, 5. Whatever you -· - to do, - - · it, quickly ; never
- -· till to-morrow what - - to-day. ·
6. Let us - - early, to see the sun __...::._,
7. Cows - - milk, which - .- into butter and cheese.
8. He - - to the ~oncert, to ~ Jenny Lind sing.

I.

f.

i

LESSON VII.

EXERCISE.
(_

ADVERBS.

Where a dash occurs, insert a verb that will
complete the sense.
ExAMPLE.

The oak - - a firm root, and - - the

winter storm.
C01npleted. The oak has a firni root, and resists the
winter storm.
1. The horse - - a noble and useful animal. He can
- - , or - - -, and at the same ti.me - - a man on his
back, or - - a wagon behind him.
2. \Vandering Arabs - - in th e desert. They - themselves near the springs, and - - travellers when
they stop to - - water.
3. A farmer - - a snake, almost frozen to death, under a hedge; moved wit.h compassion: he - - it up,
- - it to his house, and - - it near the fire. No
sooner did the heat - - to revive it,, than the snake
- - upon his wife, - - one of his children, and ---

WHAT

is the sixth part. of speech called 1 . -_ .

The

ADVERB.
'
What is the meaning of the word Adverb ?

Joined tQ a verb.
Why arc adverbs joined to verbs?

To modify them.

.

"

· · In the !!entence, "George strnggl.ed hard," what· w~rd tells
how he struggled ?
. ' .

-Hard.
Then hard is joined to, or modifies; what word 1

The verb struggled,

-

What part of speech, then, is hard?

:.A.n adverb.
·Are adverbs ever joined to any other words besides verbs 1

Yes; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs.

In the sentence, "George struggled very ha~d,' 1 what word

tells how .hard George struggled?

!

f

1p·
.,.

rr

't

Then very is joined to hard; what part of speech is hard?

adverb, to describe or modify' a yerb, an adjective,
or ·another adverb.
· ·

An adverb.
An adverb. ·
In the sentence, " Jolin is very obedimit," to what word is very
joined?

When the word that expresses manner is joined
to a noun, it ~s an adjective; ·when it is joined to a
·
verb, adjective, or ' adverb, it is an adverb..
.

EXERCISE.

What part of speech is it, then 1

Make a list, in order, of the adjectives that occur
in the following sentences.. · Make a.separate list of
the adverbs, in order.

What is an adverb?

An Adverb is a word used to modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs.
Select the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell what
words they modify.

1. John walks gracefully.
2. He studies very hard, and stands well in his class.
3. I like him very much.
Mention some of the principal ciasses of adverbs.

I ,

- How can you tell them apart?

To the adjective obedient.
An adverb.

I ..
r ·

23

ADYElrns.

Then slnce very is joined to the adverb liard, what part of
speech is it?

I

.

FlllS'l' LESSONS l.N GU.JlPUi::lTIU.N .

22
Very.

i.

,-

1. Adverbs of manner, which end for the most part
inly; as, swiftly, boldly, quickly, slowly, handsomely, &c.
2. Adverbs of time; as, now, then, yesterday, to-day,
...
.
to-morrow, immediately, often, always, never, ever, agam,
soon, seldom, hitherto, &c.
3. Adverbs of place ; as, here, there, hither, thither,
whither, hence, thence, where, and its compounds
nowhere, elsewhere, everywhere, &c.
4. Adverbs of quantity; as, much, little, enough, &c.
5. Adverbs of degree; as, very, almost, nearly, &c.
What other words express manner, and are therefore liable
to be confounded with adverbs of manner?

Adjectives.
What is the difference between them?

An adjective is used to describe a noun; an

1. I will assist you most cheerfully, if you will be
careful and attentive.
2. Those who are virtuous may not aiways be happy
here, but they will certainly receive their reward hereafter.
3. Large armies generally march: slowly.
4. He who forms conclusions too _q uickly, often forms
them incorrectly. .
· 5~ . ~f you are att~ntive, you will learn grammar very
fast.
6. I have heard better singing to-day . than 'I ever
.
heard before.
7. He who tries hard, seldom fiils to succeed.
8. Quicksilver. is a very valuable m~tal; it has hither·
to been imported chiefly from Spain, Germany, and Peru:·
9. The Portuguese were bnce the most enterpr:ising
navigators of Europe; they founded colonies in ' tnan1
parts of the world, before totally unknown: ·· ' -': •.
10. The Bedouin Arabs are, for the most part,· s~~ll,
me.agre, and tawny.
.
.•
:. ~··
· 1L · The early hours of sleep a~e the most .sweet
;
-. .a~d
..
refreshing.

'.

•.

:

·1 .,.: ~ "
~

~·

,l .

24

..

FmST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

I

VIII.

EXERCISE ON ADVERBS.

WHAT is an adverb?" .
·what are the principal classes of arlverhs?
Mention three adverbs of manner; three of time ; three of
place ; three of quantity; three of degree.
·what is the difference between an adjective and an au verb?

..-•

.!!..

•

25··

"'. fO.' . The ·rain began to fali ·- - ; and they were ~

-

LESSON

CONJUNCTIONS. ~ •.

;

• wet.
11. The- poor' dog was· hurt~·
.
12. This room will hold twenty personf;j very - · -.
13. H e . - gave the poor woman his purse.
14. · ·When are you going? -.-- . (Insert an adverb as
an answer.)
15. Do you ~ee him?

Yes; he is -·- .

EXERCISE.

L E SS 0 N

Where a dash occurs, insert an adverb that will
complete the sense.

. CONJUNCTIONS.

I walked - - Completed. I walked briskly ..

ExA111rLE.

1. Mary sings - · - , and dances--.
2 . The house is - - tall, and is - - built.
3. '\Ve are - - going to the grave.
4. I saw him - - - ; he was running - - - down
Broadway.
5. Listen_
, and you will - - be able to understand the subject.
6. Cresar - - started in pursuit; he - - overtook
the enemy, - - led on the attack in person, and gained
a complete victory.
7. Time past
returns; improve the moments,
therefore, as - - as you can.
8. The horse trotted - - - John ate - - 9. The lion roars - - . The kitten plays - - .

* Note to the pupil.

When a question is repeated, and you have
forgotten the answer, look back and find it, in order that you may
give it in the precise words of the book.

I X ..

.~

WHAT is the seventh part of speech called?

The' CONJUNCTioN. . · · · · -.
· '·
When i' say, "Mary learns lier lessons/' what is the ~xpression

called ?

.. ·

-

·.

' '·

.· : · · ·· ,.. . -'

A sentence.
What is a sentence ?

·such an asse1nblage of words as ma,kes cohlplet~
sense,
·
·
Would" Mary to tlie fair," be a sentence? ·· ·

No ; because it would not make. complet.~ sefise:-

Make a complete sentence of it. ·

· : .-

"Mary has gone to the fair."

.

.· "

· · ·.

In the sentence, "Jarnes got :Up eariy, and went to market," how
111any parts are there, and what are they? . .
" · . .,•

. Two; '' Jame§_.got 'up "early'' is one,· ' 1 ?iJe~t w rAar~
ket" is the other.'
" · " - ,. · . · ·' .' ':
0

What are s~ch -parts of a sentence called ? '.

· ' _,

Clauses.
1

·.

What word connects the two Clauses in the'. above sent~nce 1

~ . .·

And.

2

., :. ... ..

26

FIRST LESSONS IN c mIPOSl'l'lON.
What does the word conjnnction mean?

A connecting together.
What, then, may and, and all such words as connect clauses,
be called 1

Conjunctions.
Do conjunctions ever connect any thin g else b esides

claus1~s?

Yes; conjunctions connect words also.
Give me a sentence in which there is a conjunction connecting words .

"Mary turned and wept;" here the conjunction
and connects the verbs turned and wept.
Give me another.

" George and H enry have gone to B oston;" here
the conj unction and connects the nouns George and
IIenry.
Now tell me, what is a conjunction 1

A Conjunction is a word used to connect other
words and clauses.
Mention som e of the principal conjunctions.

And, because, if, that, or, nor, either, neither,
but, lest, notwithstanding, therefore, though, unless,
than, as.
What is a sentence?
What is a clause 1
Whal. is a co11juncli o11 1

l. Either you must go, - - I. · John_- - Mary
are here.
2. Neither the ·wagon, - -· the carriage has arrived.
3. vVe will not go a fishing, - - it rains.
4. Hannibal took an cia.th - - he would conquer· .the
Romans.
5. H _e did not get a premium, - - . he did not deserve it.
· 6. · Mary has excellent parents, - - . she is a bad girl.
7. Do not buy the :book. - 'you can get it for a
shilling.
'8. I Iih. to see a hard sho:wer, -· -· -... ~ never walk out
in one.
9. My father - - mother are . going to Boston to. morrow-·-· - it be clear. ·
10. Let tho:;e' who stand, beware-.'- they fall.
11 . The happy often forget - - ~thers are miserable.
12. General T aylor <lefeated the Mexicans, - -- his
army was much smaller - - theirs. · ..
13. Non e will deny'-·the hawk flies · more swiftly
the pigeon. ·
-. 14. - - you do you'r duty you will not be blamed: ·
15. I saw my cousin - - - I was turning the corner.

,I .

EXERCISE.

J.iESSON X .··

Where a dash occurs, insert a conjunction that
will complete the sense.
EXAMPLE.

.27

PREPOSITIONS.

He went to the ball, - - he was ordered

to remain.
Completed. H e went t o th e ball, altlwu_gh hn was
ordered to remain.

'
.
PREPOSITIONS.

WHAT is the eighth part of speech called 1
PREPOSITION. .

The

In the sentence, " i:Villii11n walked to Albam;," what word
shows the rela ti on between Ti-illiam"s 1crdking and Albany ?

1b. '

28

FIHS'l' LESSONS LN COJ\ll'OSLTJON.

How is this word to placed 1

2. A steamboat runs - - Providence

Before the noun Allm11y.

3. - - the summer, the cattle love to lie - - shady

A pla.ci.ng lJefore.

trees.

What then may we call to, and all similar words 1

4. The camel has a hump - - his back.

Prepositions.
What is a Preposition 1

A Preposition is a wonl placed before n 11011n or
pronoun, to show the relation Letween it, and some
other word or words in the sentence.

I
I:
l

New·

York.

"\Vhat does the word preposition mean ?

!

29

INTEHJ ECTIONS.

.lV[ention the principal prf'positions.*
among
lJeh ind
for
below
from
arou nd
beneath
lil
about
Leside
in to
above
between
instead of,
across
nea:r
according to,
beyond
after
of
by
011
again st
coucenuug
down
out of,
amids t
during
over
at
except
respecting
before

tit l'Oll o·]i
througliou t
to
tO\rnnls
up
upon
uuJcr
uuto
with
within
without
IC)

5. - - patience and perseverance you may attain the
hi g hest station - - soeidy.

G. Ile gave the 1Jook - - me, ancl I placed it - the table.
7. You must do sums - - the rule.
8. It is dark - - sunset .
0. Slid lives - - Piermont, twenty-five miles - New-York.
10. A large ro ck bangs - - the path.
11. The sailor likes to get - - port.

12. Always keep virtue and duty - - your eyes.
13. ! live - - my father.
14. A farmer was bitten - - a snake, while he was
staudi11g - - th e weeds.
15. The ferry-boa t will take us - - the river.

EXE:R.CISE.

L ESSO N :X I.

\Vherever a dash occurs, insert a preposition that
will complete the sense.

IN'l'ERJEC'I'IONS.

Nothing can be accomplished - - an effort.
Completed. Nothing can be accomplished without an
effo1:t .

is the ninth and las.t part of spee~h? · ·
INTERJECTION.
In the sentence, "Alas! I am nndone !" what word .is thrown .
in to express the sorrow of the speaker 1 '
c ·.

ExAM:rLE.

1. In Greenland,. the people l ive - - wretched huts.

WHAT

The

Alas !
What does the word inte1jection mean 1

* The pupil had better commit this list to memory .

c

·A throwing

in.

··

:

"<:
.,

30

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

·what, th en, may alas ! and similar words be called?

Interjections.
·what is an Inte1jection?

An Interj ection is a word used to express some
sudden feeling of the speaker.

It

What are the principal feelings which are expressed by
intet:j(;ctfons?

Sorrow, triumph, disg ust, wonder; there are
a]so interj ections of calling, of attention, of saluting, of taking leave.
M ention the principal inte1jedions of' sorrow.

Oh! ah I alas I alack I
Mention those expressing triumph .

Hurrah I huzzal bravo! aha I
Mention those expressing disgust.

Fy ! fudge I pshaw! tush! away! begone!
Mention those expressing wonder.

Indeed! strange I what I
Mention those of calling.

Hallo I ho i
Mention those of attention.
.

\

Behold I lo! hark! listen! see I hush! hist!
Mention those of sainting.

0 ! ( 0 is always used with a pronoun, or the
name of an object addressed ; as, 0 thou I 0 James!)
welcome I hail !
Mention those of taking leave.

Adieu ! farewell ! good b'ye I
What mark is that ( ! ) which you see placed after each of
the above interjections?

An E xclamation Point.
·when yon write an inte1jection, what must you place after it?

An exclamation point.

.iN'l'ERJECTIONS.

81

l!lJthe exercise that follows, how will you know which -of the
above inte1jections to insert in place of the dash?
I will read the whole s~ntence, and put in an

interjection that- is appropriate; thus, if the sentence express · sorrow; I ' will i'nsert an interjection
~f s~1~row j if wonder, I will insert bne of ~onder, &c..
EXERCISE.

Where a dash occurs, insert, a suitable interjec·
tion.

,:.

·. ExAMPf,E.

-·

-. ! the victory is ours!
Hu?-rah ! the victory is ours !
-

Completed.
l." - - ! I am surprised at this.
2. My house is on fire ; - - I I am undone.
3. _ ,_
. I · what strange figure · is this that is ap·
proaching?
' ! my friend ; I · am glad to see you.
. 4. - - ~ 5. - - 1 the cannon are booming ; .the· batUe has
begun.
6. ___. ! dishonest wretch ; I despise thee ! . · ·
7. - - ! 011r friend has conquered.
. 8." - . - ! stranger; will you ,t ell a traveller where he is1
g: - - I no one can tell how much the poor aufl:er.
l 0. - · l is it_thus you behave?
11. I hope you may ·have a pleasanUo.u rney.. ' -.' -1
12. - - I what noise was that?
13. ! poor fellow I I at;n· sorry for him ...
14. - - ! John, where are you going i
·. 15. Who is that? -~I he is descending the Jiill;
i6. - - !· is it really so I impossible I
17. - - ! thou blessed sun, that spreadest gladfiess
over the earth.
18. - - I I am at the head of my clasfl.

~ :·

32

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

'MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE.

LESSON XII.

LESSON XIII.

: BB

MISC:E;LLANEOUS EXERCISE. A REVIEW.
· (The pupil has answered all the questions given below, as
they occurred in the preceding lessons; but as he may l1ave forgotten some of them, be must look back for the answers, and
learn them carefully.]
WHAT is a letter?
What is a vowel? Name the vowels.
What is a consonant ? Name the consonants.
What two letters are sometimes vowels, and at other times
consonants ?
When are they vowels, and when consonants?
· What is a syllable?
'Vhat is a word?
-How many parts of speech are there? Mention them.
1-Vhat is an article? Mention the articles.
What is a noun? Give an example.
How many kinds of nouns are there? What is a proper noun?
What is a common noun?
What is a pronoun? Mention some of the principal pi·onouns.
What is an adjective 1 Give an example. ·
What is a verb? Give an example.
What is an adverb? Give an example. Mention the different
kinds of adverbs, and give
example of each.
What is the difference between adjectives and adverbs?
1-Vhat is a sentence?
· What are distinct members or parts of sentences called ?
1-Vhat is a conjunction? Mention some of the principal conjunctions.
1-Vhat is a preposition i Mention some of the principal prepositions.
What is an inte1jection ? What are the principal classes of
interjections? Mention one of each class.

an

. . In this lesson and the next, the p~pil, wherever a dash occurs

must insert whatever part of speech is required to complete th~
sense. Follow ~he spelling and punctuation of the book.

~

I

M .ARTINS.
MARTINS - - a kind of swallows.
They feed - · ;fliesi--, and other insects, and skim swiftly through
air, in pursuit of their prey. In the morning - are up by ~:ly"break; a.nd twitter · about your window,
· - .bed . .· They are~ harm·
while ·- ·- are asleepless, and, as people do not molest them, they -- - ; build
'- their~ in towns--- _- villages. T]ley are small bfrds,
but - . - a great deal. I will - - a couple of stories,
illustrating their sagacity.
,
·
· A pair of martins 1 who--. their nest in. - -- porch,
had some young unes ; _a nd - - hap:rened_, that ·one of
. the side, fell out, arid - s~rik­
. them; in -:--- to clirµb - ing - -. the stones, was - · -. ·killed. _- _The old ~
. '.
.
_·'
seerng this accident, went · and-·- - strong ·pieces. of
straw, and fastened them - . ·-· mud nll'itround the_
,_ ·
·. '
. .
.
'
.. '
111 order to keep the - , .- from meeting a siniilar _._~ ·
Here is another _·: - about them. While-a martin
was absent from ~is nest, one day, a - -· cock-sparrow
took possession -·- .-. it; - - when the owner - -.-• and
~ to enter, . he put out - - bill, ~nd commenced
pecking at him. The martin, not - - plea,sed with this
inv~sion of his e
- -, flew away; and --- . -. -a nu~ber of
his ~ompanions. They. all came - .- ·the nest, with· bits
of clay in their--, with which plastered 11P the
. -:-:-- to the nest ; so - -· - the sparrow, .una~le ' to -:--food and air, - - died.
· ..,'···-· ··

2*

84

LESS 0 N XIV.
EXERCISE.

Bo

. THE SUBJECT.

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

The oalc.
What do we call Charles, oak, and all .words respecting which
an action or state is affirmed? ·
- . .
·
SUBJECTS.

THE Dmrn

I
t

•·

i '

'

.

AND

THE GALLEY-SLAVES.

THE King of Spain once gave - - to - - Duke of
Ossuna to release such of the galley-slaves as - - might
think proper. The Duke, as he - - amon g the slaves
who were - - at the oars, asked them in succession of
what crime they had - - guilty. They all protested
innocence, and - - him that they had been unjustly
One attributed his condemnation to the - of an enemy, another to the - - of his judge. At last,
however, be _ _, one who admitted that, to save his
- - from starving, he had robbed a man of - - , on
- - highway.
The Duke, - - he heard this, gave
him a stroke - - the back - - his hand, and said,
"Get you gone, you rogue, from the - - of honest men."
So - - who confessed --fault was released, while the
- - , for their want of--, were compelled to - - at
their labors.
Thus we see - - we are not likely to lose any thing
by a - · - admission of - - faults.

LESSON XV.

TnE

SUBJECT.

WHEN I say, " Cliarles walks,'' who is it that I speak about 1

Charles.
In the sentence, " The oak has been cnt down,'' what is it that

: speak about?

What is the subject ofa verb?

--

, The subject of a verb is that re~pecting which
the action expressed by the verb is affirmed. . . . .
How may you always find the subject of a verb 1

Put the word who or what before the .verb, and
the an;:.wer to the question will be the subject.
-

Give me an example. In th~ sentence, "John went to market,"
what is the subject?
'

Put who bef9re the verb, and the answer to the
question will be the subject; thus, · " Who went to
market?" Answer, John. John, _therefore, is the ,
subject. ~
· In the sentence, "Virtue is a source of happiness,'' find the
subject in the same manner as above.
.

Put what before the verb; "vVhat is a source of
happiness?" Answer, Virtue. , Virtue is the subject.
In the same manner select the subjects in the following senfonces :
·
·
· · '
·

,, Bee~ make honey. Virginia. is a large stat~;
Quarrels are unpleasant. Charles was late at school.
The flute makes fine inusic. We are tired of walking.
The machine was invented in England. You are wrong. ·
· ·Gratitude is a noble feeling. Science enlarges the mind.
. They ate very sick. · We were disappointed.
In the last two sentences; what are the subjects 1

They and we.
. What pai't of speech are tlwy and we 7

Pronouns.
May pronouns, then, be subjects of a verb?

They may.-

....-.
.

·~

36

In the sentence, " To steal is base," find the subject as above.

Put what before the verb; " lVhat is base?"
Answer, to steal. To steal is the subject.
What part of speech is steal? ·

A verb, because it expresses action.
When a verb bas to before it, we say that it is in the infinitive
111.vod ; may a verb in the infinitive mood, then, be the subject of
auother verb?

It may.
·w hat mood is a verb in, when it has to before it?

. A verb is in the infinitive mood when it has to
before it.
How may we know when a verb is in the infinitive mood?

By seeing whether it has to before it.
Is to play in the infinitive mood? to jmnp? to walk? Mention
:;;ix more verbs in the infinitive mood.
May a verb in the infinitive mood be th e subject of another
verb?

It may.
Give me several exam ples, and mention th e subj ect.

! .

TliE

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

~UBJECT.

·.

87

1. To fall from the top of.a church-steeple, is certain
death;
2. For a weak nation to provoke a strong one, is bad '
policyi
·
3. That e,ven the best men commit sin, is proved by
daily experience.
Now, let us see, what have we found_ that a verb may have
foi' its subject ?

A verb may have for its subject,
I. A noun ; as, John walks;

·· U.

A pronoun ; as, they are gone;
: · III. ,A verb in the infinitive mood; as, rto dig is
ha;d work. _. ·
·
IV. Part of a sentence ; as, doing one'$ duty secures happiness. :

Sel~ct and write out ~he subject in each of the

Make three short sentences of your own, like the above, in
which a verb in the infinitive mood will be the subject of another
verb, and mention the subject in each sentence.
In the sentence, " TVlietlier we sliall go to Boston is micertain,"
find the subject in the manner described abo,-c.

· ExAMPLE. Working in quic_ksilver lnine.s. is very injurious to the .health . ..
~ Subject. W 0Fki1Jg in quicksilver mines. _
1. We should improve our time.
2. Digging potatoes is hard work. _
3. To reveal a friend's secrets is dishonorable.
4. Cicero was a celebrated orator.
5. Wealth does not always procure esteem.
._'6. Temperance and exercise preserve health.
·,
.7. Time and tide wait for no man.
8. For an igngrant person to profess. to teacp phil~~~phy, only exposes him to ridicule. ~ , · '' "-~ :- ,: ·

It may.
Find, as above, the subjects in the following sentences.

·'

EXERCISE.

following sentences ; if yol.1 are in any doubt, put
who or what before the verb, as di~ected above. •·

These words form part of a sentence; may, then, vart of a
sentence be the subject of a verb ?

("

_.Select the subject in each of the sentences just given as exainples.

To lie is dishonorable: here, to lie is the subj ect.
To travel is pleasant: to travel is the subj ect.

Put what before the verb : " lVhat is uncertain?"
Answer, whethei we shall go to Boston. rrhese words,
therefore, whether we shall go to Boston, are the subj ect.

'

.i.. ·'

,,,,•

._,,,,

- 88

-...

-

THE O:f3JECT. -

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

9.
10.
11.
12.

Whether it will rain is uncertain.
John and I will start in the morning.
:W-here are the women going?
'ro be wise in his own eyes, is the mark of a fool.

LESSON XVI.
EXERCISE.
WHERE a dash occurs, insert a subject; either a
noun, a pronoun, a verb in the infinitive mood, or
part of a sentence, as may be required to complete
the sense.
EXAMPLE.

Completed.

and - - lead to wealth.
Industry and frugality lead to wealth.

--

1. - - and - - gnaw holes in the floor.
2. -·--,--,and--, are used for drawing loads.
3.
* is dishonorable.
4. - - am going to school.
5.
is a useful study.
6. Has the - - arrived 1
7. - - attends carefully to his lessons.
8. Have - - written your exercise?
9. - - and - - are made from milk.
10.
* is a proof of dishonesty.
11. --* is the practice of a bad boy.
12. - - -* is
. un p1easan t work.
13. --* is the business of the baker.
14. - -- marched by with a fine band of music.

* Here the pupil must insert· a verb in the infinitive mode
or part of a sentence.

... . .

: J
;.',

L RS S 0 N XV IL
·_.

;

'

THE OBJECT.-TRANSITIVE AND IN'l'R.ANSI'l'IVE
VERBS.
IN the sentence, " Charks killed a fly," what word expresses
the object that receives the action_expressed by the verb 1 .

-The word fly.

.

What do we call fly, in this sentence l

. Fly is the OBJECT of the verb kilkd'.
In.the sentence, " Cl/,ildren l(Jve _m ilk," what is the object of

vel·b love 7
Mille.

the

-

.

.

.,I

.

•

What is the object of a. verb 1
.
'11he object of a verb is that 'which receives 'the
action expressed by the-verb.
.
. what is the object in each of the followi~g sentences? -

Bees make honey.
· · Mary kindled the fire.
My mother loves me.

Birds build nests. I bli.ve broken my knife.
John's father_scolded .him.

In the last two sentences what are the objects 1

Me and

Mm. · · ,

· . .'

. . ~'
-

.
-.

' ·
- _;

-. What part of speech are rne and hirn 'J

. I

· Pronouns. .
May a pronoun, then, be tbe objec~ of I;\ verb 1_

It may.

··

·

In the sentence, "John sleeps," is _there any object 1

There is not. .
Does the verb sleep admit ~n. object a\ter it 1

. It does not.

Into how many ~la~ses, then, may verbs be divided 1

Into two classes;
TRANSITIVE verbs, or verbs that express an
· > act that may be done to,an obfect.:.:. - · ·

- J.

.. ,.'r

c

'

~:...

· ~;.

40

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITJON.

II. INTRANSITIVE verbs, or verbs that llo not
express an act that may be done to an object.
Are verbs that express simply a state of being, tra:::sitive or
intran sitive 1

Verbs that express a state of being arc intransitive.
Why'!

Because they do not express any action at. all.
Is strike transitive or intransitive, and ;vhy '!

Strilcc is a transitive verb, because it admits an
object after it. · Thus we may say, "I sLrike a
man;" in this sentence, man would lie the object,
and hence We fincl that strike is transitive.
Is live a transitive or intransitive verb'!

L i.ve is an intransitive verb, because it expresses
simply a state of being, and does not admit an object after it.
Is sleep transitive or intransitive'! jurnp? lmrt? eat? dream?
love ? see ? be ? walk ? rnn ?
May any other part of speech besides a verb, have an object 1

Yes; a preposition may have an object.
In th e sentence, " Jolin is lying on tlie grass," what is the object of the preposition on?

Grass.
Make three short sentences similar to tho one last given, in
which there will be a preposition and its obj ect.
How may you always find the object of a verb, or preposition'!

By pt-itting what or whom after it; the answer to
the question will be the object.
Give me an example. Tell me the object of the verb and
preposition in this sentence, " Tlie butclier killed a pig witli a
knife."

Put what after the verb-" 'I1he butcher killed
what?" Answer, a pig; pig is the object of the

41

'l'HE OBJ EC'l'. ·

·verb killed. Put what after the preposition-" With
what?" Answer,- a lcnife; knife is the object of the
preposition with.
·
·
EXETICISE.

Complete the following sentences by inserting
an o~ject, where a dash occurs; either a 'noun or
prononn, as the sense ma::l require.
1. In Egypt the Nile overflows the -

-, and renders
·

the - ; fertile.
2, Boys can buy - - with their money~
3. I have found in tpe street a - - and a -· -·-.
4. A rn~n by honesty and - - will always gain the
- - of bis companions.
5. Henry's father bought him a - - for a Christmas--.
6. "When danger is nigh, a hen gather~ her - - under
her--.
7. The fisherman is preparing to go to - ·in a--.
8. In building houses, they use· - -,-.·-· - , and.: -.
9. The mice have gnawed - - in this old - -·.
10. The American Indians are very skilful ,with the
bow and arrow ; they can hit a very small ~ at a
great--. With these we.apons they oft~il kill;,,,,..._,
- - , and other wild _ . _.
11. With your spare .- - pui·chase books; read-,
profit by--, and take good care of-_- . , : I
12. My brother loves me, and I love -~
13. After we die; the grave will .contain - - ; but
our friends will remember--., and shed-,- . ; on ~o.count of our departure.
.
14. Birds gather ---:.. for their young,
teacn ..-. -·. - .
how to fly.
. .· .

an4

f
(,

'
!.

42

43

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

DIFFERENT CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

15. The milk of the cow furni shes us - - and - - .
16. In church we see many--; but fihould listen to
the--.

fifty men," to what word does the pronoun who relate; ol', in
other words, who are said to have been victorious? ,

Then, siucc Lhc pronoun wlio relates to Romans, what kind of
a pronoun shall we. call it i

LESSON XVIII.
PERSONAL,

RELA'rIVE INTERROGA'rIVE,
ADJEC11IVE ' PRONOUNS.''f

A relative pronoun.
AND

WHA'l' is a pronoun 1 (Soo Lesson IV., if yo u forget.)
How many different classes of pronouns are there, and what
are their names 1

There are four classes of pronouns-Personal,
Relative, Interrogative, and .Adjective.
Jn t.h e sentence, "I
stand 1

ani

Ra mans.

tired," for what does the pronoun I

For the name of the person speaking.
What kind of a pronoun is I?

.A personal pronoun.
What is a personal pronoun ?

.A personal pronoun is a word, which, ueing use<l
in a sentence without the noun for which it stands,
merely represents it, without introducing any additional idea respecting it.
Mention tho personal pronouns.

rn1e personal pronouns are as follows: I, rny,
mine, rne, we, our, oitrs, us, thou, thy, thine, thee, you,
your, yours, he, his, him,, she, her, hers, it, its, they,
their, theirs, them.
In the sentence, " T!ie R ornans, who were victorious, lost only
*Note. No allusion is made in this lesson to tl~e Reflexive
Pronouns, rnyscV thyself, &c., the Comi:ound Relative what, or
the Indefinite R elatives, whoever, wkickevcr,. &c., u ecau~e a
knowledge of them does not seem to be e~senti~l to the snb.Ject,
and because the author feared that a cons1derat10n of these subdivisions might. embarrass tlrn pupil.

What is a relative pronoun 1

A relative pronoun is .a word that relates to a
noun or pronoun before it.
What is this noun or pronoun going before, to which the relative relates, called 1

The antecedent.
Iu th e sentence, ,., 7'/w boy who is idle will .be 1mluippy," what
is the relati ve, and what its antecedent?
·

TVho is the re]ative, and boy is its antecedent.
Mention the relative pronouns.

The relative pronou~s are · who, whose, whom,
which, that.
Is wko always a r elative pronoun 1

No; sometimes it does not rebte to an antecedent, but is used to ask a question, as, "TVlw ig
there?"
What kind of a pronoun is it then called 1

.An interrogative.pronoun. What is an interrogative pronotin 1

-

,. ,' ,

': . ·

.An interrogative proil,oun is one ·that is used to
ask a question.
·- - ·
· '·
· Mention the interrogative pronouns.

\ ,· ··

The interrogative ,pronouns : are who, whose,
·whom, which, and what. ·· What mark always follows a sentence that ·c·o ntains ii.ii i~te;.
rogative pronoun

The Interrogation Point (? ), ·vyhich .'oughtt~ be
placed after every question.
··
··

44

RELA'I'IYE PR,\)NOU.N AND_RELA'l'IVE CLAUSE.

FIRS'l' LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

45

., : : 1. You say, that* I am charg~d with ' a great cri~e. ~ .
Who are my accusers? ;Let thetn . stand .' forth that I
may· See the authors Of this base Slander. ~; ·. . . ~ i .: -·I
2. If every man would 9.o his duty,'n~ne would . have
. any cause for complaint.
·
_ · 3. Can we stand patiently by,and see our propertJtor~
from us? 1'~-') ; each gene:rous emotion of our hearts forbids it. Let this tyrant. ti·cmble, and all his satellites
beware!
4. The men whom I saw had each a musket.
.f?. \Yherever slie we~t, every one ~eemed disposed to
do her honor.
(. 6. Jjo9k on this picture and on that.

How, then, can you tell when wlio is a relative pronoun, and
when an interrogative?

By looking at the end of a sentence; if the interrogation point is there, it is an interrogative pronoun; if not, it is a rehtive. ·
vVhat are adjective pronouns?

Adjective Pronouns are words that are sometimes used jrn;tead oC nomrn, 1n1t are more frequently followed by their nouns, which they Jimit,
or qualify, after th e rnarn1 er of arljectiveR.
Give me one or two sentences containing adjective pronoUllS.

"Hand me that book." "I bavc some apples."
"Have you any paper?" That, some, and any are
adjective pronouns.
Mention some of the principal adjective pronouns.

1 ln·s, th at, these, those, some, no, none, any, all, each,
every, ei"ther, n e1"ther.

LESSON XIX.

How can you tell adjective pronouns?

'.

By their being followed by a uoun ; as, these
pens, som e money, each breath, e1:ther side.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN AND RELATIVE CLAUSE.

WHAT is a Relative Pronoun? .

ExEHCISE.

Make lists of the pcrsouaJ, re1ativc, interrogative, and adjective pronouns, in order, as they
occur in the following sentences. The pupil will
do well to make his lists according to th e following
Jane, I told you to hand me that book
which is lying on the table, but you have not done it.
What is the reason ~

. /.

A Relative Pronoun is ·one that relates to a noun
or pronoun going before, called the antecedent.
What is the antecedent ?

'I1he antecedent is a n9un or pronoun before the
:relative .t o which it relates.
·

ExAJVIPLE.

I· :

Lists.

P erson al.

I, you,

~ne, (
~

you, it.

Relative.

Which .

!11 tcrrop;ati-rc.

What.

I1djectfrc.

That.

.

*:tyote. The word th.at i,~ sometimes a eonju~ction, sometimes .a
relative, _and a~ otl~e; times an in~errogative pronoun; . the pupil
~ust decide winch 1t 1s by the relat10n that it bears to other words
in the sentence. In this sentence, t/iat is not a relative for it does
!lot relate t~ any antecedent; it is not an interrogativ~, for there
is no quest10n asked; but it is a conjunction for it connects
clauses.
'

46

FlH S'l' LESSO.i'\:-; li'\' ( '!J,\ IJ'USlTION.

· Completed. The st~dy that I like best is l-Iistory.
Or, The stuc1y that Idlslil.:c most is History.
Or, Tho stu<ly that IJind most d~jjicult is History.

In the seuteuee, ' He lilal dues ri.glit will be rewa,rded," what
is th <' !Thth·c nnrl "·hnt t he nntcccrlC'nt?

That is the rclaii vc 1 and lie is t l1c

a11

tcccck11t.

\Vita! >' t'n·il·1· tl11l''< tl1l' n·l:lii\·1· iw11'u 1·111 i11 :1 <;1·1it1·111·1•I

The rebtive i8 used to introduce

ri

Eac h scntcnce may be completed in rt variety of ways.

chnse for the

A

HELA'l'IVF, CLAUSE.
What is the rclatin~ ,clause in the
rig/it, will be rewarded?"

fc•11k11cl~,

"J[r, l!1a/. docs

That does right is the relative clause, because it
is introc1ncc(l by the rclatiyc tlwt.
Select tl1c re la ti 1 c, tlie anteccueut, au cl the n:lati 1 c clause, in
the following sentences.

1. 'rhe friends that we gain in childhood, often forget
us in old age.
2. 'l'he wind, which had been shifting all day from
point to point, now began to blow steadily from the south.
3. Those who are the most industrious are the most
happy.
4. Jam es, whose work was the best, received the pre·
mmm.
5. I have seen the man that lives in the eave.

. 4. Those who - - ·will ~e_ happy in this wo.rld, and _
still happier in tl10 next.
5. Horses are very useful to those who -. - .
6. In every. school there are . boys wh_o - - .
7. Tl10 ma:-i found tho knife which--.
8. There is a Loy whoso - - ,
·g. l\Iary is the most diligent girl that~,
. 10. · The good Loy will apr,1y himse~f vigorou~ly to the
lessons which-. .
·
_
11. ·The carriage which - - has been mended .. .
12. Columbus was the first man that--.
. .13. The butterflies which - - , will all perish· in
wmter.
'
14. The dog th~t ,-· -~ has .r un away.

LESSON

EXERCISE.

The sentences given in this exercise contain a
relative and its antecedent; the pupil must complete them by inserting the relative clause, where
the dash occurs. · Before attempting to ii1sert the
clause, r ead the whole sentence, and then think
of something that will be appropriate.
ExAllIPLE.

The study that - - is History.

,

1. I . have JJrokcn my 1r::i.tch, \YliicI1 - -. .
2. Tho !·rec tlrnt - - , vrns lJlown down Inst night.
~· 1\'.Iy father, who - -, has got well. ·
·. - .

purpose of limitin g, explaining, or aclcliT1g somethiug further io \\·hat is Lci11g said.
What is a clause thus introduced by a relative, called?

47

PARTICIPLES.

..

, ·. ·
,- .

4x.

P ARTICIPLEs.· -PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES. _ .

· IN the sentence, "I saw Jolin feeding liis ch.ickens," what word
l,mplies action, and at the same time qualifies J 6hn 1 - . : .

.·' Feeding.

·

·

·

·

Which part of speech implies action, and which q:ialffles
nouns 1

~>The verb implies action, and the . ac{Jective :qualifies nouns.
' - ·

I .

''

48

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

EXERCISE

ON

p ARTICiPLES. '

49

The word feeding, then, partakes of the nature of what two
parts of speech ?

The verb and the adjective.

0?1:°ple~e

What name is given, to feedi1ig, and similar words?

partw1ple

p AR'l'ICIPLES.

EXAMPLE.

What is a participle?
A_ participle is a

word that describe~ a noun or
pronoun, by assigning to it a certain act10n or state.
Does the participle form a distinct part of speech?

N0

;

particjples are now classe~ .as parts of verbs.

How many participles has every trans1t1ve verb ?

Five.
Mention the five participles of the verb love.

Loving, loved, hav ing loved, being loved, havi"ng
been loved.
How many participles has every intransitive verb?

Two.
Mention the two participles of the intransitive verb 1calk.

lValki'ng, having wallced.
Give me two or three sentences containing participles, and
select the participle in each .
_

James, while wallcin,q by the shore, saw a
large bass attacked by a shark.
· Jiavi'ng been deceived once, I never trusted him

.

~~.

He died loved and respected by all that

HJ.

kn~w

him.

In the last' sentence, what clause is introduced by the par t'i- .
ciples loved and respected?

" Loved and respected by all that knew hi11i."
What is a clause introduced by, or containing, a participle,· •
called?
. A_ PARTICIPIAL CLAUSE .
Select the participial clause in each of the three sentences
given above.

journey..

the following sen~ences . by .insertin~ a
place of the dash.
.
·~
Tb; day
·

-.::....L.

fair,' we

. . Complete! . The ' day_being fair, we
journey.

~tarted - on ~ur
·

sta~te~ ' on ~our

1.. Moses, his lessons, recited the~ well . ~ ·· .
2 •·we saw a boy in the river.
3. Dinne'r --'--, the party sat down . .·
4. The carriage having been br~ken Robert has taken
.
.
it to the blacksmith's, to get it___;___
. - '··...· ' .· · ' ·. ·'
5: My dog sick, -I could not go a h°linting~ ·
.f 6.h. I have just seen a man .killed by~ from th~ top
o a ouse.
,

.

··· 7. My friend, while~ out on ho~seback, was thrown
Bild seriously injured..
· . . .·
· · ·-~ · ~· ' . · ·
8. I saw the American flag - - fro;n ~he .. Oity .H~ll.,
9 . Yo~ may often see bad boys:......_::_ i.n the str~et~
)0. Our house~, we are about .to move into .it. .. .
1L The merchant spends his time i.u ____;_ a n d goods..
·
· · '
· · ,.
12. Gas is useful for ---.::... streets and houses . · _, . · · .
13. Oxen are used for wag~ns .
.
14. Ships, while on the ocean often, encounter
_ · .
'
' · . viOlent storms.
· 15. · The weather is cold, and we must have a fire_.:_
' . , 1~ . · From this eminence my ,eyes ,:upon the.'vast
;,. plam that lay -'--- before infi!; I saw a herd
buffafoes
.".. -:-- amid the long prairie-grass, . ~nd a · group of .
h.~rses away in t.he far distance. ·
· .
~ ,..;}_1. He was a .bad man, and died,~· and · ·-~·· by
; all that knew him..
.
r ' '
•
, ·

of

3

.;nd.

50

LESSON XXI.

loose while the man - - exhibiting him was - - dinner. He made his way
public house, -_ -· -·, and
w_e nt straight -· where there were three children, the
eldest-·- - whom was no more th an six - or eight - old. '; rl'he door sprang open; and in walked - ·- . The
children were much frightened--, and crept - - corners. '.l'he bear followed - - , and rubbed . them with
-. - . _nose, but lie did not.--. \Vhcn tl\e children
-·--, they thought it was a big clog, · aml-they patted,
-.- -., an<l - - . The el<lest boy now _-- .- bis drum,
and began to - - loud noise. N o sooner did the bear
- - , than he raiseJ hirnself on - - and began to dan ce.
This was clwrrn in g .
.
'.l'he boys had been playing at soldi ers before - - ,
and now each - - his gun nncl - - . They gave the
. bear a gun, too, and lie - - like a regular rnilitia-1lian.
~l1h en they march ed; what a fine comrade ----"-"I
Presently, lt0wever, the door - - again. It was the
children's mother. You should have seen her; · her face
was. white as - - , and she trembled with fear whtin she
- ·- . Then the sm alles t - - ran up to her, and
shouted,' .lHamma, mamma, we have had such--, playing soldi_e r !' "
-~
, ,,

to--.

A REVIEW.
(For the answers to th e following questions; see Lessons XV.,
XVII., XVHI. , XIX., aud XX.]
WHAT is the snb_icct ofa verb?
How may you find the subject of a v erb l
"\Vb at may a vcrl> kt \-c for i Is s u hjr'd ?
1Vhat is the ohjcd ofa verh?
\\'liat arc trans,itin' Ycrlis? \V ha t :ire i11lrnnsitiYc H'rbs? A\
\Vhat oth er rrut of 11reech , h esicles transitive verbs, may have

a n o11jrct 7
. .
How may yon finrl the object ol'a verli or prL'pos1l1on 7
\Vliat is a pro11on11 1

Name the four classes or pr 1 •11nw1"
.vVhat is a personal pronoun? :i\Je11lion flii~ pt>rsu.n:1l pronouns.
\Vhat is a relaLive p ronoun 1 J',Icntiun tlw rcbtn-e prononns .
What is an -interrogative pronoun 1 Mentiou the intenogat.ive pronouns.
What is an adjective pronoun? :i\Ientiun some of the prinei pal
adjective pronouns.
What is a r elativ e clause 1
What is the antecedent of a r elative pronmm?
What is a participle?
.
. .
How many participles h as a transitive verb? an 111tr11ns1t1vc
verb 1
M ention the participles of the verb ask.

51

SENTENCES.

FIRST LESSONS TN CO:MPOSI'l'ION.

Mention those of the
· l.

verb dream.
What is a participial clause?

EXERCISE.

Where the dash occurs, put in one or more words,
as may be required to complete the sense.
) -:
THE TAME BEAR.

Hans Christian Andersen, the German writer, tells
us the following - - story of a tame bear, which broke

LESSON . XX!!. ·.
.,
. SENTENCES, PHRASES;, CLAUSES; APPOSITION.
.
.
,-;: . .'
-· ·... -~ . .
· Wii:AT is a sentence?
.
'

.

'

A sehtence .is su~h . an assembl~ge .of words · as
·

~a~es complete' sens_e: · .

How many kinds of sentences are there, and wllat are th~)" 1

- <~

·-1. . . .

52

FIRS'l' LESSONS IN CO.M1'0Sl'l'ION.

Fqur kinds; declarative, imperative, interrogative and exclamatory.

' is a declarative sentence 1
What

A declarative sentence is one rn which somet."
thing is declare d ; as, " Irarns.
What is an imperative sentence 1

.

An imperative sentence is one in whic~ permission is given, or a command, an exhortat10n, or an
entreaty uttered; as, "Let it rain."

·With other Words in the sentence : · if so connected
.
'
they assert some additional circ.u mstance respecting
the leading proposition; as, i' James, who had been
on the watch, espied a sail :"· if not so connected
'
tJiey assert an entirely independent
proposition ;'
· · a~, ,S_tephe1i sailed for Florida, but he was .wreclced
~~ o.n the voyage: . In these sentences the -~ords iri.
(· italics are clauses.
.

What is a relative clause ? · /

·what is an interrogative sentence 1

An interrogative sentence is one in which a
question is asked; as, ''Does it rain?"
V\-That is an exclamatory sentence 1

An exclamatory s·entence is one that contains an
exclamation; as, "How it tains !"
Make two declarative sentences; two imperative; two interrogative ; two exclamatory.
What is a phrase ?*
A phrase is a combination of words whicl~ sepa-

rately have no connection, either in

53

CLA USES.-APPOSITION.

construct10~

or
sense -v-Vith other words in the sentence, but which,
when 'talcen together, convey a single idea, and m~y
be construed as a single word. rrhus; "James, m
short, has become a hermit, "-in this sentence, in
short is a phrase.
·what is a clause?

A clause is a combination of words which sepa~
rately may or may not be connected in construction .

* Note to tke teadler. -It seems irnpossiule to define the terms .
phrase and clause without employing a great many words. Th.a
teacher must exercise his discretion as to whe~l!cr thes~ definitions shall be committed to memory, or not. lhc pupil rnu~t, _
however. understand them perfectly, so as to be able to select
phrases ·and clanses as tlrny occur in sentences.

'

A clause cdntaining ·· a relative -·prortoun; as,
"_James, for whomIfelt so much anxiety, has a:l'.rived."
' 'What is

a parti<;:ipial clause?

-. .

. .

- .

'

. '

'

. A clause containing
a participle
; ·as' ." .T he r~t
.
.
of t~ie _company ~a?Jing· arrived, we ·w~ht _to _dinJ?-eI'."
-

.

.

·. What is an adverbial clause?

'

.

.

· :- · '" A. cla~se that performs the office 'of. an . hdve;bJ
' and genera1ly expresses time,-place, or mariner; .as,
· ·"-A thousand years hence, all these things will. have
· ~ p~ssed 'a way." .
,
· · ·
·
.What is a vocative clause?.

" '::. A clause containing _the '. riame _of ~n objedt ad-'
· dfessed, with its adjuncts; ·as; · ''.My dear friend, l
"l;i.op_e to ·meet you soon."
. · ,
_.
·: : When ill one noun said to be. in apposition witp another? . ..

·•..,_. "\Vhen it refers to the same obje'ct, and i~ in the
~e construction; -as, ·" Paul, the Apostle','-·-· Apos~
}le is in apposition with PauL
.
.
• · : May .more than one of the clauses enumerated above, occuf'in
.:' _ .

~·)< the same sentence . 1 ·

,They may.
·., ·;.Does. everY sentence contairi one of these claU§es ?

·:· .
-··... . ·

"-· No ; there are some simple sentences that do not .

54

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

contain any of these clauses; as,
rnother."

· , ; ·:.:

65
. ,.·.
..

"I love my

- ·:

. ,

• !

~

PUNCTUA TION.

l

•

•

ORAL EXERClSB.

r11ell to ·what class each of the followi11 g· scuLcnces belongs. \Vhen f1. chm:e occ nrs: tell wl1at kind
of a cfanse it is.
Oh ! for a lodge in some vast wilderness !
2. Thero arc m en -in the world, wl10 are tlc'acl to every
generous impulse.
3. Have you heard the news that has just been received by the steamer?
4. Rising from his seat, the monarch gazed around;
and, darting a look of scorn on his humbled courtiers; .
Lade them leave his prese11ce t ill they should Lecome
honest men.
5. JHy sou, Jo you inJulge in anger?
6. 0 ltomeo, ltomco I ·wherefore art thou Hom co?
·1. VV ho ever hears of fat men hea<li ng a riot, or herding together in turLuleut mu Ls l
8. It is chiefly through books that we enjoy inter~
course with superior miu<ls.
9. The ship bein g now under Rai l, 1.lte sho re began to
recede rapi<ll y from our sight.
10. Lord Hastings, who had borne himself most bravely throughout the whole battle, escaped with a slight wourid.:·11. James, whom I sent to the · river an hour ago, ha.8 1"
not yet returned.
. \
12. What an accident! Did you ever witness a scenet.
like this?
13. \Vhere Freedom rears her banner, a new empire
has arisen.

LESSON XXIII.
... PERIOD

1.

. , .
' IN'J.iERROGATION P OINT, EXCLAMATION
POIN'l'.

WHAT

is Punctuation?

·.' .Punctuati~n i~ the art of dividing written l~n­
gua~e by porn ts, in order that the meaning may be
readily understood ·
·

What_~re l£e charac~er~ ~sed in Punctu;a tion?

.,

P enod,
,;... Interrogation,
E
.. xc I ama L~ion, .
,,,., Colon,

?·
?.
:

Semicolon,
Comma ·
Dash, '
Parentheses

.

'•
'

( )

'
~. ·Brackets, [ J
Learn these cl1aracters perfectly so tI t
.
.on the black-boa 'd T . ·
· '
ia you can make them
.Ia
r ·
utn to the oral exorcise at the end of tl
.
ie
. st lesson, and mention the names of the points a th
Where should the period be used?
.
s ey occur.
!

t:·-·.A period should be placed. after everY <l ec1ara1

•

•

•

.

·

_ive and imperative sentence. , as ; "The . , "7, J •
l,e ,, ·T
,
'
'
criiiu is
~s ...fP.· . he period i~ also used to denote· an· abl5reviat10n; thus, when we write Dr "or · n · i~
~
i 1
oc~m
.~ : eo for George, w~ must use a period-JJr., Geo .. ..
·~- _Wher? _should the mterrogatiori point be used? .
.
'il ., .. A.n .1nterroga~ion point should be placed after
ev~ry mterrogative !3eri.tence. as, "Hav ..;, .:z..
to Ohio ?"
'
·
e ~ou 11.!~i
0

;~

56

COLON AND SEMICOLON'. .

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

LESS 0 N ' XX IV.

Where should the exclamation point be used'?

An exclamation point should be placed after
every exclamatory sentence, and af~er ev~ry interjection except 0; as, "Alas I woe is nie I
EXERCISE.

Write the following sentences, and insert periods,
interrogation points, and exclamation points, in
. their proper places.
ExAMPLE.

Alas true friendship has departed from

earth
Punctuated. Alas! true friendship has departed from
earth.
1. Hark the bee winds her sniall but mellow horn
2. What art thou doing Is revenge so sweet
3. Ha at the gates what grisly forms appear
4. Farewell ye gilded follies welcome ye silent. groves
5. "What would I have you do I'll tell you, lnnsman
learn to be wise.
6. Canst thou not sing Send forth a hymn of praise
7. No more I'll hear no more Begone
8. How dead the vegetable kingdom lies
9. 'l'he village dogs bark at the early pilgrim
10. Can you recall time that is gone Why then do
you not improve the passing moments
11. A brave man knows no fear
. 12. Both stars and sun will fade away but can the ·
soul of man die
13. Oh horrible thought Ah woe is me.
f
14. Dr Johnson was a learned man
15. New Holland contains many singular species o "
birds

57

. ...

' •'

. COLON AND SEMICOLON;.. .
MAKE a colon on the l)lack-board.
Where should the colon be placed 1

. .,

'Jlhe colon should be placed between clauses that
hav~ ' :ery little connection; . :u~J aft!)r .the words,
thu~, following, or 'as follows, when '-r.eference_is ~a,de.
py the111 to sometJ:iing c~ming after; as, . " The Squire
next ascended the platform, and spoke as follo~s:
~Gentlemen and ,ladies,' " &c.
Make a semicolon on the bla.ck-boan;l . . ·
For what is the semicolon used ? '

. '.fhe semicolOn is used to sep~rate long _dauses,
and such as are not very closely conne~ted _; -as, ·" I
perceive the difference;' it i.s very 9hvfous."·~
•,

...

~

SPEClAL RULES.

•

.I

I
'

•

•

-

.Ru'le I. · When several . long clauses.-. follow.
. ~ach, other, all having -· commoh . dependence on
some other clause, they are separated by semicolons; as, "I love· to W!:!-nder· through the::-n elds·; _to ·
see_the vegetable wotl_d spring .into · life _;~ te gaze
, ·upon the beati.ties which . God _has so. lavishly dif- '
;, fused ; and through the creature to commune wi~h
the Creator."
.· · ·
.: . _·Ru'le II. When · examples am introduced by
the word as, a semicolon is placed · before as ; for
~an example, see ·the preceding rule .. · , . . . · r
1

.

EiERCISE.

. ..

.

·'"".
"i'

-

;

·. ,',

:

~

;.,.. ·Write the following sentences, and-insert periods,
\,
. 3*

58

FIRST LESSONS IN CO:MPOSI'rION.

interrogation points, exclamation points, colons,
and semicolons, where they are required.
ExAMPLE. He has arrived he sounds his 1Jugle at
the gates Shall we admit him ·
Punctuated . He has arrived; he sounds his bugle
at the gates. Shall we admit him?
1. The warrior spoke as follows " 0 man heavy with

wine why dost thou thus keep prattling : i
2. Do not insult a poor man his misery entitles him
to pity
3. Some books are to be read others are to be studied
while many may be entirely neglected. with positive advantage
4. His last words were as follows " Farewell may
Heaven prosper thee in thy perilous enterprise"
.
5. If the sacred writers will take up their abode under
my roof if Milton will cross my threshold, to sing to me
of Paradis~ if Shakspeare will open to me the fi elds of
imagination , I shall not pine for want of company
6. Beauty is an all-pervading presence It unfolds
in the flowers of spring it waves in the branches of the
trees it haunts the depths of the earth and sea
7. Gentle n~a der, have you ever sailed on the sparkling waters .of the Mississippi

LESSON

XXY.

COMMA.
MAKE

a comma on the black-board.

For what is the comma used?

The comma is used to separate short clauses, or
such as are closely connected, but, in consequence

59'

COMMA.

of the . constni~tion or ar:rapgement,· must be sepa·
rated by some point.
SPECIAL RuLES.
What is the rule for pla~ing th~ comma be. . ' '
fore and after clauses and phtas.es 1 ' •

. Ruk 1. \v'hen a clause 'o r phrase is introduced
il1to a senten.ce without' a -conjunction, particularly
. if' an inversion occurs, so that it <loes not. occ~py its
natural position, a comma: should ' b~ placed be(ore
a~d after it ~ qr, if ,such clause stands.
the coin·
mencement of a sentence, a comm~-should be placed
~fterit.
·
..
; : . - ., .. 1 ' ' / : ' ·

at·

. The principal clauses and phrase's that fall . up.de~ this
'
'

i~lile are as follows : -.

as,

I. A relative clause;
"Ellen, wh~ .was up early,
finished her lessons." - But if the relative clause restricts
the antecedent, or th,e connection between th~ two is ;ery
Close, th~re is ii.o 'comma before 'the relative.; .,as, ·" Those.
• ._,
.
who are good, are ~appy." ; .
II. A participial 'c lause when it · does not qualify the
· object of a verb; , as, " The Oaptairi, ·s eeing his '. danger;
avoided it." ·1
'
III. An adverbial . clause ; ' as, "By '.,the' · tithe' ~e
.
' reached shelter; we were completely · ~et.u · ·: : · · · - :. ~. : IV. A vocative clause; as," Here I arii;·n1y. bel~\ied son."
V. · The phrases, in skart, in trutkr·'on :the ·"cdntrary;
.&o. · ; also, the words( besid(Js, ·moreov.er1· ·narnel'!Ji. nay,
firstly, secondly, &c. ·. ' The conjunctions ,also and: ltiYwever,
.which should not commence . .a sentence;. have -a comma
before and after them ; as, '.'your cousin, in short; has
become a lovely woman.'' ; " James, however, is · he~e."
,./

'

~

t~ the subject .of a vet.b 1 r ··
When the subject of a verb cori!;'.lists .:of

. What is the rule that relates

: Rule IL

'

60

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

a number of words, a comma should be placed after
it; as, "Close and undivided attention to any object, insures success."
vVhat is the rule that relates to the omission of words'!

''

Ru"le IIL When, to avoid repetition, a v erb, or a
conjunction that connects words of the sarne part
of speech, is omitted, a comma should be put in its
place to denote the omission; as, "Conversation
makes a ready man; writing, an exact man." In
the last clause the verb nialces is omitted, and a
comma is pti.t in its place. ''Solomon was a wise,
prudent, and powerful monarch." The conjunction and is omitted between wise and prudent, and
a comma is put i'11 its place.
What is the rule that relates to certain conj unctions?

Rule IV. A comma should be placed before and,
or, if, but, and that, when they connect short clauses;
and before and, or, and nor, when they co1rnect the '
last two of a series of words that are of the same
part of speech ; as, "You must come with me, or
I will go with you." "Neither Ellen, Sarah, nor
Jane was there."
What is the rule that relates to nouns in apposition 1

Rule V. vVhen a clause of more than two words
occurs, containing a noun in apposition with some
preceding noun, a comma should be placed before
and after the clause; as, "Columlms, the discoverer
of-America, was born in Genoa."
·vVhat is the rule that relates to words m:ed in pairs?

Rule VL Vv ords used in pairs take a comma after

each pair; as, "Poverty and distress, desolation
and ruin, are the consequences of civil war."

61

COMMA •.

' ·-

: EXERCISE.

· · , Copy the following sentences, and insert commas
in the proper: places. The rule under which the
examples are g~ven, will di~ect you; refer to it, _if
you do riot remember it
·
·
Examples under Rule I The Rom~ns who conqu~r,,,
ed the world could not conquer themselves, Those who
fled were killed, - Philip whose wife you have seen has
gon~ to Albany, . We saw a man walking on the rails.
A ·man while imprudently walking on the tails was run
ov:er by the cars. Where we stood we could not hear a word.
Wait a moment my friend, Vice is aliuring, and has
many votaries; virtue .on the c'ontrary has bJit few,

· Under Rule II _That this man has basely deceived
those who have trusted him ca,nnot be doubted, A long
life of good works an.d s.incere . repentanM can hardly
atone for such misdeed~, The author of these profounq
~nd learned philosophical essays was a poor blacksmith, ·
rhuler R~tle I_Ii Diligence is th_e m9ther of suc~ess;
laziness of fail.ure, . The wife was a tall lean cadaverous
person_age j 'the husba11d was a' fi~e go~d-lopking stuidy
fellow. Men women and children stare cry out and run.
, '. Under Rule iv. ,· No one will -respect you if you are
dishonest. . Stephen saw his cousin com_i:ng , ~nd ran to
meet her. My horse' is not h~ndsome but.he trots weil.
He will be. here . on W~dnesday Thursday , or . F~iday,
Be virtuous that you may b_e e_steemed by your com pa- .·
.
.
'· .
.
nions,'
'

'.

Under Rule V. Bunyan the author of '' TJie Pilgrim's
Progress" was a tinker. Paul.the Apostle of the Gentiles wrote many epistles. ' have be~n in ireland ill-

r

62

fated country. Cicero the orator is one of the most
distinguished of the ancient Romans.
Under Ritle VI Industry and virtue idleness and
vice go hand in hand. Summer and winter seed-time
and harvest are the gifts of an all-wise Providence.
Painting and sculpture poetry and music will alwa.ys
have enthusiastic admirers.

LESSON XXVI.

the follo-\ving extract, inserting the punctuation points that have been described.
COPY

.63

DASH, PARENTHESES; BRACKETS.

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSl'l'lON.

•

during its life never sings. a note sends fdrth when it -is
. dying a most beautiful strain This is · no· doubt ar ~ere
fable at all events we have not sufficient evidence. to
;establish it as a fact
Swiins were formerly lield in such est~em in .·England
that by an act of Edward IV no one but the king's · son
was permitted to' keep ~ swan unless' he ' had . an ~ncom0
:> of five marks a year
By a subs6'q~ent act those ' who
took their . eggs were punished by iniprison~ent for a
year and a day and fined according to the king's pleasure ., At the present day ~wans ~re little 'Valued for the
delicacy of their flesh though .,Jilany are still presened
for their beauty
·· · · · ·

T1rn SwAN.

r ,

Swans in a wild state are found in the eastern part
of Europe but they· are most abundant in Siberia and
the countries that surround the Caspian Sea Under
ordin;try circu~stahces they are perfectly harmless but.
when driven to act on the defensive have proved themselves formidable enemies. They have great strength in
their wings an old swan using these as his weapons has been
known to break a man's leg with a single stroke When
their young are in danger they do not hesitate to engage .
with large animals and not unfrequently come off victorious from the struggle A female swan was once seen
to attack and drown a fox which was swimming toward.s:
her nest for the purpose of feeding upon her young
·when sailing on the water which is its favorite el~­
ment the swart is a beautiful bird and its motions are
graceful when seen on land however it presents a ve:y
different appearance its gait being awkward and all its
movements exceedingly clumsy
It has been said by some authors that the swan which

LESSON XXVII.

..
DASH, P AR:ENTHESES, BRACKETS.

a dash.
For '''hat the dash useaS

. MAKE

is

./•

The dash is used, ' ·
· ·
· "~ I. " To denote that a sentence is 'trnfinished; as,
-"1lcannot believe that he-· .' 1
· . II. To denote a sudden transition either in the
form of asentence,. or in t4e sentiment . expressed;
. 'as, "It was a sight--that· child in the ·agony of
death-that would have moved a heart. of stone.'' ,
· " He had ho malice in his inind-·
Nb ruffles on his shirt." · ·
Make parentheses. Make brackets.
For what 1;1re parentheses and brackets used 1

Parentheses and · brackets ar~ used · to ·jnclose
.words and clauses, that are not connected in con-

. "'
)

~

l
•I

64

FIRST LESSONS IN COl\:lPOSI'l'ION.

•

struction with other words in the sentence, but are
suggested by them, or explanatory of their meanmg; as,
"Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness below."
"The wisest meri, (and it may be said the best too,)
are not exempt from sin."

'..Parentheses:

Dash.
1. A crimson handkerchief adorned his head

His face was cheerful and his nose was red
2. Some and they were not a few knelt down
3. His eyes how they twinkled his dimples how merry
4. They poisoned my very soul hot burning poisons
5. Away ungrateful wretch A father's curse rest
Alas what am I doing I cannot curse my son
6. The friend of our infancy has she gone forever
7.

Thou merry laughing sprite
·with spirits feather light
Untouched by sorrow and unsoiled by sin
Good Heavens the child is swallowing a pin
1'hou imp of mirth and joy
In love's dear chain so strong and bright u link
Thou idol of thy parents drat the boy
1'here goes my ink

,i'

him

9:

'

'.

LESSON

No ; commas are generally used instead of them.

Copy and punctuate the following sentences.

r

8. Let us then for we cannot flee wit,hout disgrace
~oldiy meet the foe. .
.
. .
Mr. .Morton every old citizen kno~s
well died
. .
. ·
.
last week of apoplexy. ·

Are parentheses and brackets much used by authors at the
present day?

ExEncrsE.

(}5

OTHER' MA:RKS USED IN W:RITING.

'

XXVIII.

OTHER MARKS USED ,.IN WRITING • . ·.

AR~~ any oth er marks used in writi~g besides tI:ose wh ich

·

lia ve been described 1

Yes·

,

..

'

.

.

Apostrophe,
Quotation Marks, "

.'
'
"

·

·

Hyphen, ,.
Car~t,
A

. : _Make an apostrophe. · For what is the.apostrophe used?

f-1he apostrophe is use¢!,
: - .·
- ·
. I. To denote the omission of ~~e 6r more letters;
as, tho' for though j 'neath for beneath.- ·
.
II. 'Yhen sis placed after a_noun, making it denote ·
possess10Ii, an apostrophe is ,inserted before -the s ·
. as, Joki-i's, boolc. ·. · But W.hen the noun ends in .s and
'. . signi~es more than one, ,an_ap·o~t~ophe al~ne placed
after it makes it denote possession,; .as, .11/J;he ladies'
seats."
·
·: Make quotation marks.

Fo~ li'liat are quotation marks used'!

: _Quotation marks are used to inclose a passag~
quoted · from an author or speaker, · in his own
words; as,
,
, _- . . "To err is hu:qian; to.forgive, diyine. ~-~. .
. ··· . Are single quotation marks ('

') ever used? . ' . , • .

Yes; single quotation mark,s are used to incl~se

66

QUOTATION MARKS.-'HYPB:E~;

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'l'ION.

quotations that occur within quotations, or that
are slightly altered from the words of the author
or speaker ; as, " The Scripture saith, ' Watch and
pray.' "
Make a hyphen.

For what is the hyphen used 1

The hyphen is used,
I. To connect two simple words that unite to form
a compound word ; as, "A spirit-moving strain."
II. At the end of a line, when them is not room
for the whole of a word, the hyphen is placed after
one · of its syllables, to show that the r emainder
may be found at the beginning of the next
line;*
as, "He strove manfully."
Make a caret. For wha t is the caret used 1
Wh~n some word that has been omitted

is interlined, the caret is used to show where it should be
.

·

lesson

introduced; as, "Study this carefully."
/\

:liess has passed away I saw the citys gates. · I' saw the
cities gates. Where is Jaries fan 1. .' .·
.. Quotatio?i . marks~ Pope say$ '.the proper st1;1dy of
mankind is n1an ..· When Socrates · was asked· what man
appr~ached the n~arest to perfect happiness he an.swered .
That man who has the fewest wants. · The . phiiosopher
hath t.ruly ·said Anxiety is the poison of human life.
' · ~he quality o~ mercy says Shakspeare is not · sfrained.
. ·H?w much truth there is in Franklin's maxin:i One today is worth two to-morrows:
. Ifypl~en. A~ay tl;iou eaith polluting mh1creant I He
is a mischief maker. . The laborer enjoys h~s weli earned
feast. '.rhe air is full of snow flakes .. "-W:here is your
.eye glass 1 Near the shore was, a grove . ~f spice wood.
The river glides on .in its serpent. like coiirse._. .
. .. Caret. (In each of thefolloioing sentences, ~-~or more
·words are 01nitted. : Introduce the omitted wwd or words
. ·: is
.
by means of.a caret; as, Dark the path.) ·:~ ·
;

EXERCISE.

Copy and punctuate the following sentences:

-- - -·- - - - -- - -

.r

.

J\. -..

.

. "

..

LESSON .XXIX,

' .:·.

\"; . .
\'

EXERCISE.

- -- - - - - -

* When the pupil, in writing, cannot get the whole of a word
in the line, and has to carry part of it to the next, he must be
careful to divide it according to its syllables, and place the hyphen after a complete syllable.

:.

· Labor gives a relish pleasure. . Hope, the balm· life,
soothes under every misfortune.·· 1Charity is. one. ;of the
of virtues. Always show to the aged . . ·Honor, your fa-·
· ther mother, ·Do not your time.·
·

Apostrophe. I 11 neer forget your kindness. They sat
neath a spreading willow. Tho Milton was blind yet
was his mind well stored with knowledge. Hark tis the
signal gun. Where is my fathers hat 1 Zenos school
was one of the ri1ost celebrated in Greece. Romes great- - --- - - - --

.67

~

. CoPY and punctuate the following extracts .: ·

1. PHocION. Phocion one of the most illustrious of
· · the ancient Greeks was condemned to death by .his un-

_, .

68

grateful countrymen -When about to drink the fatal
hemlock he was asked if he had any thing to say to his
son Bring him before me cried he My dear son said
this magnanimous patriot I entreat you to serve your
country as faithfully as I have done and to forget that she
rewarded my services with an unjust death.
2. THE SYBAIUTES. We have heard many stories of
lazy people but what AthenIBUS tells us of the Sybarites
a nation of antiquity exceeds them all. They would npt
allow any mechanical trade to be carried on in their
city because the noise was unpleasant and disturbed their
slum hers for the same reason to keep a rooster was a
grave offence punishable by law. A Sybarite on one
occasion it is said wandering out into the country saw
.some men digging whereupon the sight gave him a violent strain in the back while a friend to whom he described what he had ' seen caught a severe pain in the
side. One of them having visited Laceclrernon was introduced to the public table where the principal dish
was black broth. Ah cried he no longer do I wonder at
the bravery of the Spartans for rather would I die than
live on such wretched diet. ·
3. THE FoRM OF THE EARTH. Heraclitus supposed _
that the earth had the form of a canoe Ari:::totle that it ·,
was shaped like a timbrel while Anaximander proved to · ' ·
his own satisfaction that it was a vast cylinder It was '
reserved for a later age to discover its real shape

69 -

E;KERCIS'E IN PUNCTUATION • .

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'I'ION.

L -E S .S 0 N
)

. :_· _.COPY

xxx.r.

EXERCISE. '

-

'

artd ·p-u nctuate. the following -eitr~ct.- , :-_- -

THE LEPR<fSY IN AFRICA. Lepr?SJ _th.a t "awful -i:J_is:. ease which covers the body· w_ith scales still.-exists iri
: .· Africa Whether it is the same leprosy-as ,t hat m;ntiori:
ed in the Bible is not kimwn but it is regarded ;as yerfectly incurable and so infectious that no one .dare's to
come near the leper in·: the south ol Africa : there is a
_,, . 'Jarge)aza~ house for the~ victims of thfa. terriBle ·malady
· It consists of an immense Space inclosed by a very high
wall and containing _fields which. · the lepers · cultivate There is only one entrance and .it is strictly guarded
·· :when any one is found with the_marks . of··leprosy upon-him he is brought to this gate and _enters -never t'o re~
, . . turn Within this abode of misery there are multitudes.
· , of lepers in all stages of the _disease .Dr- Helbeck ~ .
· mi~sionary of the Church 'o f-England fro~ ~h~ ..top ~f a
neighboring hill saw them at wprk. . ~~ tj.oticed two _parti~ularly sowing peas in , the field . The one had nd
, harids . the _ other n?-feet tho;~ -Plembers _ ha~ing been
. ' wastec.l away by the .disease The one who wanted the
;._ hands was carrying the other who ' wanted. the feet oil his
.. .. b~ck and he again bore in his hands th'e bag ot'seed. and . _drbppea a pea eyery now and then 'Yhich the other press-.
.... ·ed into the ground with his foot and so they managed
"' ..... the work of one ·man _b etween the two
·
'~ · Such is the prison house of · disease ,Ah how little
;,·. do we realize the misery that ·is in the world· How mi- ·
-· ·. ilfankful are we for · the blessings which God -bestows
upon us while he denies them to others

70

CAPITAL .LETTERS.

FIRST LESSONS iN COJ\iPOSI'l'lON.

.

LESSON XXXI.

The pronoun I, and the interjection 0 1 must
~:·be . written in capitals . . · /
·

l

'

I.

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPI'l'AL LE'l''l'ERS.
•

WHAT

usage formerly prevailed with regard to capital letters? ·

.To begin every noun, both in ·w riting and printing, with a capital. 'I1his is still the p·ractice in the
German language.
~

What are the rules that are to guide us at the present day?

·Begin with a capital letter:
·
1. rrhe first word of every sentence.
2. All proper nouns, and titles of ofiice or honor;
as, Rome, Spain, President F'illmol'c, General TVashington, li'enry Strr;et.
3. Adjectives formed from proper nouns; as, ·
Rom,an, Span·ish.
- 4. Common nouns when spoken to, or spoken of,
as persons; as1 " C01ne, gentle 1.5. 'pring."
5. The first word of every line of poetry.
6. 'l1he appellations of the Deity, and personal
pronouns standing for His name ; as, " God is the
Lord; He r·u leth in Elis might."
. 7. 11 he first word of a quotation that forms
complete sentence by itself, and is not introduced
by that, ·or other words which would connect it in
construction with what precedes; as, "Re1nembet ·
the old 11iaxim : 'Honesty is the best policy.'"
8. Every important word in the titles of books,
or headings of chapters; as, Loclce's Essay on the
I-Iunian Understanding."
9. 'vV ords that are the leading SUbj ects of discourse.

a

I

-11

'-

,

t

~;:.~ ,~/:

· .... .

EXERCISE.
• '

.·

•

•

~

-

'

.

•

-,

·· Copy the following sentences,. applying the.rules
- given, above, ~nd obse1'ving that·\yhere th_e re is. no
, rule for using a capital .you must sub~titute a ' small
· ·letter.
,· . ·
-· '
·:
· 1. Under Rule I know Thyself,... ~ honesty is the best
:

.

· >Policj. follow virtue. It Rains. ._envy. is a Dishonor:. ~:-able emotion. avoi4 the appearance of evil. improve
' every, Moment. · ·
. ' 2. Under Rules -II and IIJ. Alexander the . great
overran' syria, persia, lydia, a~d hyrcania, pushing hi~
Conquests as far as the river indus. napoleon kept all
__europe at bay, unti_l the Fatal Field of waterloo consigned
. : him .to st. helena. . President adams received· the con; . g_ratulations of the french and spnnish ministers. ··
·· · ,··3: · Under Rule IV Hail, 'winter, . seate.d on thine
. icy Throne ! · Fierce war has sounded -his .trumpet, And ·
- Called the peasant.from _the field. bland . Go~dess , pe~ce
· now smiles upon the plain.· here I and sprrow ,sit. . Grim
•:
'
.'
. .~arkness furls his le,a den s.hrou~. .
· ;' 4. Under Riiles ~ v.· and VI · ' .,
·. ' in every leaf that trembles to the -breeze, .
i hear the Voi9e .of god aip.ong' the trees.'. :.
. : : ···Trust in .the !Ord ; hath 'he Spoken, and shall he not do it 1
"
these,. as th~y change, almig~ty father; these '
: ·: ' . . are but the varied god.
,_ . .. .
. :·. 5. Under Rule T!IL This was our sitviour's command:
w'ntch : .and pray~" . Vi~gil ~ay~, .· "labor conquet~-, a~l
· · ~biogs." "' mei:ry - christmas," ·cried _.th,e d,elighted , vil. lagers.

.:; . ji

·»+=

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE.

72

FIRST L ESSONS IN CO.MPOSl'l'ION.

EXERCISE.

Tr: d . Rule VIII mil ton's" paradise lost" brought
6 . un
e1
d'
,A
him in only five Pounds. Have yo~ re:d !'~1rnns .· C·
count of his visit to america, which he entitles . amei~can
. .cu1a tion '2"
I have read with delight
notes for genera1 cu
·
hcrvey's "meditations among the to mbF:."
.
d o
7 Under Rule X. i love thee not as once i love ' .
.
0 H eav en
false· friend , o cruel traitor.
. t. i ,am undone. I

Copy the following extracts, inserting as may be
required; capital letters, punctuation-points, and the
'other marks used in writing, described in Lesson

XxVIII.

0 wretched youth I i thoug ht i ~at~~ ~hee i but thy mtRfortune hath turned My Ifate 'lo l ity.

LESSON

XXXII.

A BEVIEViT.
. a sen t c1ice'!· ·How manY
is
" kinds of. sentences .art' tl1ere?
in\Vh at is a declarative sc11lcncc? an iml' crat1n: scntcuce 1. a 11
.
te 1Togaiive sentence? an exclamatory sentence?
. . a cla11sc ?. \Vhat rs a relative
W hat •is a vluase .? "'\IJ
\ JU t lS
..
clause? a participial clause? an adverbial cla use? a vocatne :
\VII AT

clause '?
.
.
. ·
,"th nnother?
\Yh cn is one noun s~ud to be m nppos 1t10n
What is punctuation 1 Name the chn.rnct.erR use<l 111 l'.nnctua- - ~
.
"' •VJ
·s the period placi::<l? What is the penod also .. .
hon . v iere I
.
. t
l '! the ex..: .
'! \Vhere is the interrogat10n porn usec . .
.
te
m;e d t o d eno , .
'! Wh t is
clamation p oint? Where should the colon be placed .
. a ..,
the semicolon used to separate? Repeat the rul e for the use of •. '.
the semiColon b etween dependent clauses ; the rule that relate~, ...

"I

.

73

.:_·

to exam ples.
·
h t J ~ ::
For what is the comma used? What is t h e rule t a re a s ~to the use of the comma in the case of clauses and ~hrases 1 :
Wha t are the four principal clauses that fall under this rule 1
some of the phrases thn.t fall under it. What is the rule
M . t•
l en ton
· ·
f words 1
that rela tes to the subject of a verb 1 to th ~ _01mss1on o .
~ .,
to certai n conjunctions 1 to nouns in appos1t10n 1 to wo1 rls used .
in pairs 1

·

1. The Bushman and the missionary. the bushmen
are a very degraded and ignorant race who live in south:=..ern africa not far from tho cape of good hope A rnis~;"'"sionary who for some time had been laboring to intro.- ~l:lce christianity among them took occasion one day to
.. spe_ak of the great objects of creation and the duties of
,man. at last ho asked, what is the chief end of man
:-The bushmen were silent for several moments apparently
rejlccting what answer they should give to this difficult
. que~tion At length one of them who seemed inspired
1>y a sudden idea replied , to steal oxen.
~ 2. The bravery of Horatius cocles. when porsenna
'ng of tho etrurians was endeavoring to reestablish tar-.nius superbus on the throne he attacked rome and
: .the good fortune to take the janiculum at the first
ult At this crisiR, horat.ius coclcs a conimon sentinel
. t a man of the greatest courage posted him self at the
~r~mity of the Sublician bridge and alone withstood
e whole force of the enemy till the bridge was broken
· behind him. he then threw himself into the tiber
Cd swam over to his friends unhurt by either his fall or
e,darts of the enemy
,
by wisdom tutored poetry exa1ts ·
her voice to ages and informs the page
with music image sentiment and thought

·,.

.

74

-

-· -

;v,,---

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.
(J

LESSON

XXXIII.

, . ANALYSIS OF WORDS.

75 .

L E S S 0.... N XX Xi V .

A REVIEW.

!RIMITIVE, COMPOUND, AND DERIVATIVE WORDS.
Fon what is the dash used? For what are· parentheses ~nd
brackets used? For what is the apostrophe used? quotation
marks? th e hyphen ? the car0t 1
Repeat the ten rules for the use of capital letters.

;;-

.WHAT

ANALYSIS.
is a word?

ACCENT.
_)

A wonl is v,.· hat is written or spoken as the sign
·
of an idea.

'Z : ., I nto how many classes may we divide words, when considered
w.ch reganl to tli cir origin?
- a~ Into three classes; primitive, compound, and

EXERCISE.

Copy the follov.-ing extracts,. iDser_tin g, as may
be required, c<t.pitals, punctuation-pornls, and t4~
~ derivative.
·
,
other marks used in writing.
. ·~.,,~ "\Vhat is a primitil'c word?
, LIARS.
aristides among tLe athenians and epam1- ·
i~· .A primitive wor<l is one that is not formed from
nonclas among the thebans are said to have been such
-any simpler word; as, 'Watch, 'man .
•
lovers of truth that they nevr.r told a lie even in joke~
atticus likewise with whom cicero was very intimate nei' .
ther told a lie himself nor could bear it in others. i ha~
that man achilles used to say as much as i do the gatea.
of pluto who says one thing and thinks another. ~ri
totle bears his testimony as follows liars are not believed
even when they speak the truth. Sincerity is one of t~e
most important virtues that man can possess.
. ..
2 . Tirn AFFECTIONATE DoLPHIN. during the reign ~t
the emperor august us a dolphin formed an. atta~hme.~t'.
. the son of a poor man who used to feed lum with bits .of
bread. every day the dolphin when called by t~e ~1
swam to the surface of the water and after havmg ceived his usual meal carried the boy on his back from
baire to a school in puteoli and brought hiin back in the
same manner. The boy after a time died and the d~
phin coming to tLe usual place and missing his
master is said also to have died of grief.

kini

.: ··What is a compound word?

· ··d:•A compound word is one that is formed by

~itiug two or more primitives; as, watchman.
·' What is a derivative word 1 .

.. ·' .A derivative word is one that is

form~d from

one primitiVe; as, watches, manly.
. How are derivatives form ed from primitives
1
;· By the addition of one or more syllables; which,

if place_d before the primitive, are called prefi,xes;
~after it, suffixes. Thus; act is .a primitive; trans .
~tis a derivative, for~ed by the addition of the
re~~ trans; acted is a derivative, formed by the
d1t10n of the suffix ed.
·
"~What i~

meant by analyzing a word 1

. , ~eparating it into parts.
;;;,;Analyze the word walking.

. Walki'ng is a derivative, formed from the primiitye, walk, and the suffix, i"ng.

., . ·

•.

. r

',....

76

FIHS'l' LESSONS IN COMPOSl'l'ION.

Analyze the word man-ltater.

SPELLING.-RULES.

Man-hater is a compound word, formed from the,
two primitives, ?nan, and hate1·.
'
Analyze blindly, revuw, glass-li01tse, moreover, bird-cage, repress. :
What mark is generally used to connect the primitives that
unite to form a compound word 1
·.p

pHmiti.ves
given above, by adding to them the suffix, s,
,
· •Y, ?r ing; as, mg/its, daily, scliooling.
~'

~· ~~rite out six words accented on the first syllable.
writing, sunny.

'

The hyphen.

-· 4. Write out six wo1·ds accented on the second syllable.

What is meant by Accent 1

&BJ

By Accent is meant stress of the voice: thus, in
colder, the first syllable, cold, receives the stress of
the voiee, and therefore we say t1rnt the accent is ··..
nn

77

affirm, destroy.

'

""''"J,'=<5. ·w rite out six words accented on the third syllable;
~'-elevation, Alabama.

('n?r l.

On how man y syllables in a worcl lllay accent 1H1 laicl 1

ln short words, on one s,yllaLlc only; as, raven, ·~
begin, deny: in Jong words, on two, and even three . ·
syllables; as, agriculture, Ch11sta11tinoplc, Jncompre· '
hensibility. In the examples just given, the accent·
ed sy Jlables are printed in italics.

LESSON XXXV.
SPELLING.-RULES.
- ·" WHAT

is spelling?

- -: Spelling is the art of expressing words by their
-r_oper letters.
., Are ;vo~·ds spelled as we would expect to find them from their
nunciat10n?
'

In sc!tolar, what syllaLle is accented? in detltronc?
in civilize? in inliabilant? in pkilosopk!J?

__ .som~times they are, but not always.

~~Wh.at 1s the best method of becoming a good speller 1

EXERCISE.

Priniitive words. Night, day, school, book,
fruit, fire, man, boat, sun, flower, garden, ice,
green, house.

stor~

..

gl~

1. Form and write out ten compound words, by uniting' .
two of the above primitives. You are not at liberty, to
unite any two, but only such as form a compound word
that makes good sense, or that you may have seen
heard used. Thus, nighi-book would not do ; but nighlf:,
school would convey a definite idea, and would be prope ,.
:2. Forn~- and write out ten derivative words from ~lii

o

II

--~·. A_person may become a good speller,

" l: By carefully observing the words with which

.

he meets, while reading.
vyhen he is writing, by looking out in a dict10nary, all the words respecting which he
has any doubt.
_

D~s the dictionary contain every word that you may have

~ion

'f

to use?

~t. every word; there are some derivatives
Dtch it does not contain.
How, .t hen, are you to know how

to spell these derivatives?

·

·· · here are certain rules which direct us as to their
mrmation.

...•'

..

I'

78

What is the need of these rules 1 If we can spell the primitive and the prefix or suffix, may we not simply join them together and spell the derivative 1
.

~'

In sorn.e cases we may; but, often, a change is.
made in a primitive before a suflix is added.
in forming having from have, the e of the primitive
have is rejected, before the suffixing is added. The
rules cover such cases as this.
When no rule applies, how do you form a derivative?

Regularly; that is, without making any change
before adding the prefix or suffix.
How many important rules are there ?

Four.
When is a letter said to be final?

vVhen it is the last letter
have there is an e final.
Mention four words that have final vowels; four that have.
final consonants ..
Repeat the rule that relates to final e.
"
·1·

Rule, L The final e of a primitive word is r~·
jectecl before a suffix beginning with a vowel; ~ ·
haw, hating-the finale of hate is rejected before the·
suffixing, which begins with a vowel.
. Form and spell the derivatives that are obtained by adding.
the suffixing to the primitives, rave, shave, liope, smoke.
Repeat the rule that relates to the final consonant of a mon~
syllable.

Rule, IL

79

SPELLING.-RULES.

FIRST LESSONS IN COM:POSl'l'ION.

The final consonant of a monosyllable, ·

a

if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled before
suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hat, hatter. : Ip,;
this example, the final t of the monosyllable hat 'iP
preceded by a single vowel, a, and is doubled :l>&
fore the suffix er.

•• r• Form and spell th~ ~~rivatives that. are obtained · by adding
~e suffix er to the pnm1tives, cliat, /wt, spin, win. .,
, ·
,, '." •. ; Repeat the rule that relates to t~e ~nal consonant of any word
· JCcen.t ed on the last syllable.
·· ·
· '·
· '

_/; 'Ruk IIL The final consonant of any word ac.ceri.ted ?ri the last syllable, if preceded by a single
X<>l"el, is doubled before a suffix beginning wlth a
. vo;wel ; as, debar, debarring. Debar is accented .on
,t;i~ la~t syllable; the final consonant, r, _i~ preceded
· by a smgle vowel, and is doubled .before the suffix
- ~~

. ..

·.·

.

.

'
r

•.

-~
-~

:~.s

.~-.

-·~

·.r.....

c-.ffell

,;;ii
c-:;,]11

;~

-rii

,)

.

._~

~

--

· -.·i~·
..

" • . ··Form and spell the derivatives that are · obt~ined by adding'
.•.~ .. ~e suffix ed to the primitives, a?lior, rebut, remit, permit. ·
.·
. . .Repeat the rule that relatel!· to y final.
.

_ ~.· Rule, TV. .The final y of a primitive wo~d, when
preceded by a consonant, is changed into f before
,. su~x which does not commence with i ,: ~s, g"lory,
glorwus. The final y of g"lory is preceded by the
consonant r, and is changed into i before the suffix
. pus, which does not commence with i. When the
suffix commences with .i, the final y remains uncwanged; as, g"lory, glorying.
. .
'
.. ; When y final i~ preceded by a vowel, is it changed into i upon
&h~ addition of a suffix 1
·
.
· ·' · · ·, ·
l No; it remains .unchanged; .as, foY., i~yous; p7,ay, ·
-pl,ayi"ng.
'I

EXERCISE.

..Under Ruk L Write - out the derivatives that . are
·O~tained by adding the suffixing to the following words:
mle, trace, strike, bite, invite, plunge censure tolerate ·
. b. lame, rebuke, allure.
.
·1fYte,
· ·'
.· ;.;· ';· . . :' ,. '
·. Under Rule IL Write out the derivatives that are

. ,;

- ---:~~:~

· -- ·-.:':
l.L ...

!

80

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

, :> ·

81

What is a sentence ?

obtained by adding the suffixed to the following words:
·· A sentence is such an assemblage of words as
pin, shun, plot, plan, spot, tan, dip, fit, sin, thin, hop, jar.
· . ·P'l.akes complete sense.
.
Under Rule III Write out the derivatives that are
. · ~- . ·.. Of how many parts does every sentence consist 1
obtained by adding the suffix ing to the following
.~ ~: . _ Of two parts, subject and predicate.
words: begin, unpin, abet, debar, occur, admit, confer,
·- . What is the subject of a sentence?
recur compel, unfit, dispel, deter.
. The subject of a sentence is that respecting which
u:zder Rule IV ·write out the derivatives tliat are
, -.something is aifinned.
obtained by adding the suffix cd to the following words:
What is the predicate?
cry, try, fry, deny, multiply, terrify, dry, busy, copy, 11he predicate is that which is affirmed respecting
defy, empty, remedy.
. .
-"""'.11E1'::=:..·
the subject.
JYiiscellancous Exercise. Write out the denrnt1ves •. 41~;;;;
Select, the su bjcct and predicate in the seritence , " Internperthat are obtained by adding the suilix ing to the follow- . ~,~
ance leads to destruction."
ing words: brave, destroy,* play, charge, judge, employ, _.;.
Intenipernnce is the subject, because something
annoy, stay, permit, unbar, refer, number,t profit, alter, ·-·
is affirmed respecting it ; leads to destruction is the
propel, flatter, mar, stir, transmit, drive, justifyJ decry,
predicate, because it aflirms something about the
say.
subject, 1:ntcmpcmncc.
- . What part of speecl.1 aflirms 1

A verb.
LESSON XXXVI.

·what mu8t there be, then, in every sentence 1

A verb.
Before beginning to write sentences of your own, it will be

SUBJECT AND J>REDICATE.

-·:o~ well for you to learn the following directions, which, if sarefull.J'."

You have now learned how to punctuate,
~·~~- attende<l to, wm be found of great service.
when it is proper to use capital letters; you have, .. ~ · I. Be sure to use punctuation-p oints and capitals, according
also had rules for the formation of such derivatives.,
~ to' the rules which have been given.
·
· ··
· t h e d'ict'10nary. Y ou ar e-, there.!'ore
~II. Take care that every wo{·d is spelled correctly·, uso your
as are not m
i~
, ·• ·
f
.
dictionary
whenever you are in doubt, and apply the four rules
prepared to make sentences 0 your own.
... that r~late to the formation of derivative words.

* Observe that here a vowel comes before 1J final;

other words
. .,

like this will be given.
t Observe that this word is accented on the fir st sylla~le; t~e
final consonant therefore, is not doubled. Other words like this,
.
'
will be given. '
:j: Remember that the final y remains unchanged before a suffix
commencing with i.

~ · III. If you date your composition, put a comma after the
" name of the place, a comma after the .day of the month, and a
• · period after the year ; thus, New- York, November i, 1850.
·~ JV. Never write in a hurry, or carelessly; but do your best
.· -. to make each composition better than the preceding o,ne." ,: .
·
After you have written your composition, lo9k ov~r it ~ith

. ,- ..v:

!

•

..

.'

. ..... :

83

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

SENTENCES CONTAINING CLAUSES.

care, in order to correct whatever errors you may have committed, in punctuation, in spelling, or in style.

• i; EXAMPLE. Write sentences containing the words se-

82

EXERCISE.
vVrite sentences containing the following words.
When you can, introduce two or more of the words
into the same sentence.
EXAMPLE. Write sentences containing the words,
day, hour, moment, frie1ulsliip, neglect.
Sentences. Each day, each hour, each moment, should
be diligently improved.
Cultivate the friendship of the good.
Neglect not your studies.
country;
poor,
crowd,
Handsome,
fields,
wretched,
market,
graceful,
covered,
gentle,
flowers,
industry,
virtuous,
kind,
fruit,
success;
esteem,
companions,
pleasure,
diligent,
respect,
quickly,
reading,
obtain,
ridiculed,
expect,
try,
reward,
school,
discovered,
excel,
winter,
houses,
frightened,
kind,
dreary,
city,
fainted,
heart,
appears,
noise.
education,
terrible,
influence,

be

LESSON

XXXVII1..
;-

SENTENCES CONTAINING
RELATIVE
-AND PARTt'
.
..
. .
CI:rIAL -CLAUSES. :
. . ·, ·.
WHAT is a relative clause 1
What is a participial clause 1
Who, which, and that, are relative pron~uns; what is t~ be observed in using them 1
,
-

LESSON XXXVII.

EXERCISE.
WRITE sentences containing the following
binatioils of words.

. v~e a.ifiictwn, walking alone. ·
, :
,'
, . ' ·
· r ." Sentences. The loss of his fort~ne ~as a severe ajfiictwn. ·
. While walking alone in the woods, I met a panther.
Hard study. A strong dislike. No confidence can
placed.- Where the house .now stands. . On the ocean.
A dangerous undertaking. Ignorance .and vice. -I
~ '1 ... would .rat~er. " Those who do their duty. -.Begging in
~ . the street. Geography furnishes us. Astronomy teaches
· - us. Birds' nests. A storm a~ sea; :- To preserve our
health. It is hard work The 'life ·of the merchant.
Fought bravely. Produces happiness. · A large clock.
The tops of high mountains. A band of robbers. If it
rain. When my father returns. Are very useful. . We
seldom see. , Always show respect. Large farms pro, - duce. Exercises in composition. : Very important. _

· Who is used, when the antecedent is the name
of a person; which, 'w hen it is the name 'of an' iri.fe' . : ·rior_
... . animal,
. ; or an. object without
.
.life;
.. - tha(/. is used
.
.
· md1scr1mmately in either case; th~, .'~~~"~~ ~Jw

I

com~ ­

\

'

.-• f

__ ____ _
,.,.

...

;

84

ADVERBIAL AND VOCATIVE C:L_A USES.•

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

85 ,

p·anied by a friend._ In studying ~athematics. By attending to your studies. By readmg good bo?ks. ·.In
.doing good. . In buying and selling goods, Havmg
arrived at Boston.

studies; the house which stands; the man that is
virtuous ; the dog that barks.
What is the rule for using commas in the case of relative and
participial clauses 1 (See Rule I., page 59.)
E:XERCISE.

Write sentences containing the following relative
and participial clauses.
ExAllfPLE. ·who ])lade many scientific discoveries.
In examining witnesses.
Sentences. Sir Isaac Newton, who made 11iany scientific discoveries, was buried in vVestrninster Abbey.
Much time was spent in examining witnesses.
RELATIVE CLAUSES. Those'* who are virtuous. The
man who attends diligently to business. 'Which I found
in the street. ·whom I esteem very highly. That
barks at the slightest noise. Which was wrecked at sea.
Whose father I much respected. Who recites his lessons well. All that I have. vVhose character is excellent. The person who reads good books. The city in
which we live. The country in which we live. vVho
defoated the enemy. vVhich was given me by a friend.
PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES. The weather being pleasant.
The rain having ceased. The river having overflowed
its banks. The boat having started. The enemy having
fled. My brother having returned. 'l'he carriage having been broken. While walking by the river. vVhile
t.ravelling through Ohio. Run over by a Rtage. Hundreds of men lying on the battle field. Playing and
shouting in the street. Overcome by fatigue. Aecom-

* The pupil will observe that in this case, and some others, the .
antecedent is given.
·

LESSON XXXIX.

,, .

· · SENTENCES CONTAINING. ADVERBIAL .A.ND VOCAT~VE
CLA~SES.

WHAT is an adverbial clause? Give an example.
,
What is a vocative .clause 1 Give an example.
•
'
What is the rule for using commas in the case of adverbial
,:· ' and. vocative clauses? (See Rule I., page 59.)

.

E:x:ERCISE.

,: :? write sentences containin& ~he following adver•
I

~ f.'- bial and vocative clauses:
· EXAMPLE. Before I arrived. Gentlemen and ladies.
Sentences. The vessel had st,a rted before I arrived. ·
~ntlemen and ladies, I ask your attention to a ., v.ery

important subject.
-. AnvERBIAL CLAUSES. A .hundred years hence. W4ere
. we live. In a very improper manner. · With_ great. unwiUingness. Before the vessel arrived in :port: When
·. the election was held. In the school which , I attend.
· Before Columbus discovered America. When we finish
our lessons. When the lecturer commenced. ·. When ,t he
' ~ boat lands. During the summer months. After winter
.. has set in. With great care. After the storm occurred.
·.. · When a man has a bad character. In a · book which I
have read. · Where the river rises . ... In ~ disagr:~e~ble

86

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

manner. Without any delay. Immediately after the
battle. When a country has a tyrannical government.
Vocative Clauses. My friend. My dear Sir. You
disagreeable fellow. My dear Mary.

LESSON

XL.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF SENTENCES.

How many kinds of sentences are there? (See page 52.)
What are they 1
What is a declarative sentence? an imperative sentence? an
interrogative sentence ? an exclamatory sentence?
May a. declarative sentence be turned into an imperative, an
interrogative, or an exclamatory sentence?

It may.
Give me an example.

It snows, is a declarative sentence; let it snow, is
imperative; does it snow? is interrogative; and, how
it snows I is exclamatory.
What word is generally used to introduce an imperative sentence?

L et.

Thus; ''Let there be silence;" "Let us go."

What words are used to introduce an interrogative sentence 1

The interrogative pronouns, and the words, u,
was, does, did, has, will. Thus; "Is my son here ?'1
"Does he study his lessons?" " vVill you be there?".

DIFFERENT KIND.S OF SENTENCES.

87

;·, EXAMPLE. Milton was a great poet.
. .
. Interrogative. Was Milton a great poet 1
• f. . · Exclamatory. What a great po~t Milton was 1.
1. Sir Isaac Newton was a great philosopher._
2. Benjamin Franklin wrote many excellent maxims.
3. A good boy will study hard to learn ·his. lesson .
. 4. Pope has left us many admirable lines. · .
.
5. America has attained a desirable rank among the
~ " nations of the world.
. 6. Julia entered the parlor gracefully.
7. Philadelphia is a large city.
8. Gratitude is a noble emotion.

_Convert the following declarative into the corre·
· spending interrogative· and imperative sentences:
ExAMPLE. Stephen prepares his lesson well.
.
Interrogative. Does Stephen prepare his lesson well?
Imperative. Let Stephen prepare his lesson well. 0
., 9. The army marches . .
· · ·,,. . 10. The dog barks.
· :_11. ·The cannon roar in honor of victory. ·
r:l2. The books are ready.
':' ·" 13. His good fortune makes him happy.
· .. ·14. They did their duty.
15. Bees gather honey from flowers.

What words are used to introduce exclamatory sentences 1 ' ·

How and what. Thus; "How disagreeable he
'' What a disagreeable man he is!"

LESSON

is!"

~XERCISE.

EXERCISE.

Convert the following declarative into the cor·
responding i"n'te!rrogati"ve and exclaim.awry sentences~ ·: ·

XLI. ,

six declarative, six imperative, stx interrogative, and six exclamatory sent~ncesi,· each . of
WRITE

- ·--~

-~
'- .,;ji

88

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

which shall contain one of the following words in
order.
,
Words-happy, spealc, conie, loss.
Sentences. Declarative-The good are happy.
Imperative-Let no one spealc.
hiterrogative-Has my brother corne?
Exclamatory-What a loss !
Camels,
go,
arrived,
accident,
studious,
lessons,
sick,
unpleasant,
begins,
time,
books,
storm,
walking,
school,
many,
found,
graceful,
injure,
sold,
seen,
idle,
keep,
studied,
handsome.
EXAMPLE.

, · VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT. ,

89

3. Write five sentences c~mtaining a subject, a tr~n.si­
tive verb, an object, and an adverb ;,.as, _" Louise studied
·
.. ·
her grammar faithfully." · · . ' ·
4. Write five sentences containing a verl;> in the infin,,
. itive mood; as, "I tried learn my lesson:" _.
,< 5. Write five sentences in which the subject .will contain two nouns ·connected by the conjunction and; as,
·' "The lion and the iiger are t~e fiercest of animals."

io

~

'!Ii'

,.·

L E S S 0 N XL I I I.
VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT.
How may we obtain variety in a succession of sentences 1

LESSON XLII.
(For the answers to tnese questions, see the first eleven
Lessons.)
·WHAT is an article? a noun? a prononn? an n<ljcctfrc ? a verb? ·
an adverb ? a conjunction? a preposition? an inte1jcction?
'What word prefixed to a verb shows that it is in the infinitive
mood?
•

By employing a differen~ arrangement <?f the
words or clauses, or a different construction.
When the variety consists in the arrangement, what is it

called 1

Variety of Arrangement.
When the variety consists in a difference of construction, what

,is it called 1

, ·Variety of Expression.

To. Thus, to eat, to !ceep, to save, arc in the infinitive mood.
EXERCISE.

. 1. vVrite five sentences containing a subject, a transi-

tive verb,. and an object; as, " 'l'he bee makes honey."
2. vV rite ~~e sentences containing an adjective, a
noun, a transitive verb , and an obiect
·, as, " 7•1ne proV?,··
J
dent ant lays up lier store."

·

EXERCISE.

Arrange the words in the following sentences
differently, but in such a way that the meaning
- may remain the same.
The night was dark. ·
Paris is the capital of France.
Transposed. Dark was the night.
The capital of France is P aris.
EXAMPLE.

.t

90

FIRST LESSON8 lN COMP08l'l'JON.

1.
2.
3.
4.

F urious was the storm.
l\Iournfully the wind waved among the branches.
The longest ri ver in Europe is the Volga.
Than virtue nothing is lovelier.
5. H ere lies the lamented ·warreu.
6. Grammar teaches us to speak correctly, and to
· write accurately.
" 7. Of ancient traders, the first and most expert were
the Phamicians.
8. Formerly, it required a week for a person to go
from New-York to Albany.
9. From Corsica the Carthaginians obtained honey
and raisins.
10. At last summer has set in.
11. Suddenly a shout arose.
12. vV e cannot prize a good character too highly.
13. Perhaps you left it at home.
14. The sheri~seized his prisoner roughly.
15. Do you not know me, l\f ary 1
16. How careful ought we to be to avoid vice!
17. Let me go, I beseech you.
18. Generally, the North American Indians are dressed..
in buffalo-skins.
19. There hangs the picture of my father.
20. Here stands your servant.

L E S S 0 N XL I V.
VARIETY OF ARRANGEMENT.
EXERCISE.

the clauses in the following sentences
differently, but in such a way that the meaning
ARRANGE

V ATUETY O.F' ARRANGEMEN'I'.

91

may remain the same. The pupil must remember
to make such changes in the punctuation as may
be required by the tra_n sposition. ·
EXAMPLE.

·w eil pleased with my visit, I

returned home.

· . Transposed. I returned home, W!'lll pleased with my
visit.

..l

1. Never put off till to-morrow what you can do ·
~da~

··~
~·

2. Sir Isaac Newton, one of the gr.e a test -mathematicians the world has ever produced, was born in Woolsthorpe, England, on Christmas d ay, A. D. 1642.
3. Cresar, after having reached the pinnacle of human
greatness, perished by assassination.
.
4. .M:y good friend, where are you going?
5. Washington is . buried at Mount Vernon, on the
banks of the Potomac River.
6. During the night, the enemy moved their camp.
7. She sunk down in the road, exhausted by fatigue. ·
8. Cannon were first used about · 500 years ago, at
the battle of Cressy.
. . . 9. By the code of Lycurgus, all the Spartans were
. . ' ··
compelled to eat at a common table.
10. ·In every part of Europe, we find the French language spoken.
·
. .. · . · ·
11. While the clouds thus hid the moon- .frolll: view,. I:
heard a loud groan.
, . 12. Improve every moment while you are in· schoot ·. ·
. . 13. We must strive bard, if we wish to excel. -·· ···
14. If Colum b~s bad been less pfilrseyering, ·the West-;.
ern Continent might n'o t yet have been discovered.
15. By the enterprising merchants of Veni?e, th~ .,first
.
•·
1 . : ·t:
'
' bank was established.
·
· ·
· · ' ··

92

FIRS'i' LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

~

scribed above,· being careful to have: them retain
the same meaning.

16. Although surrounded by comforts and luxuries we
may be unhappy.
'

Y,irtue aloiie produ~es happiness.
.. '. AU who know you will admire and respect you.
·. Altered. Happiness is produced by virtue alone.
_ You will be admired and respected by all who know .
you.
lj}xAMPLE.

17. V asco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator in 1497
the passage to India aro1md the' Cape of'
Good Hope.

a·iscovered

18. The Saxons reduced the greater part of 13ritain
under their sway.

- 19. Herod was carried to his sepulchre on a bier of
gold.
20. With a single stroke of his paw, a lion can break
the back of a horse.

LESSON XLV.
VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.
THERE are a number of ways of altering the construction of a
sentence, so as to insure variety of expression. To what sentences does the first of these apply ?

The first method that we shall consider, applies
to sentences that contain a subject, a transitive verb
and an object; "as, Cresar conquered Pompey." '
H~w may the construction be altered, without changing the
meamng?

By making the object the subject, altering the
form of the. :erb, and introducing the subject after
the prepos1t10n by. '11he sentence given above,
altered thus, would read, "Pompey was conquered
by Cresar."
EXERCISE.

Alter the following sentences in the manner de-

·1

93

V ARIE1'Y OF EXPRESSION.

.

1. The ·ancient Egyptians embalmed the bodies of the

, dead.

·

.

_, ·

·

·

.c

2. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the attraction of
gravitation.
3. A courtier of Charles VI. of France invented cards,
to amuse the king during his hours of melancholy.
4. Integrity secures the esteem ..of the world.
5. If the British had subdued our forefathers, we
would now be under the dominion of a king.
6. Astronomers calculate eclipses with wonderful precision.
7. Government honored this able statesman with a
pension for life.
8. The Chinese may have used gunpowder ages ago.
9. An agent will furnish visitors with maps of ,the
grounds.
·
10. The cackling of a flock of gees~ prevented Brennus
~ - from taking the citadel of Rome.
·
·. , · 11. What great effects may trifling causes produce! ,
"
12. An irresistible charge on the part of Murat's gal,l ant cavalry, decided the victory.
'
13. Two ruffians have attacked and killed an unarmed
traveller .
. 14. . A strict government wiil enforce the laws~
, 15. Mersennus says that a little child, with' a machine

'

l

'~

., ..• .

94

95

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. ·:

composed of a hundred double pulleys, might move the
earth itself

·scribed above ; the verb that is · to be changed to
a participle, is printed in italics.

· 20. The bayonet is so called from the inhabitants of
Bayonne, who invented it.

LESSON XLVI.
Y ARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

I s there any other method of obtaining variety of expression
besides the one described in the last lesson ?
~I1here is.
To what sentences does it apply?

To sentences in which there are two or more
verbs, or . two or more clauses, connected by the
conjunction and/ as, "Charles took me aside, and
thus addressed me."
How may the construction of such sentences be altered ?

By changing one of the verbs (usually the first)
into a participle, and leaving out the conjunction
and,- as, "Charles, having taken me aside, thus addressed me."
EXERCISE.

Alter the following sentences in the manner de-

l ·

•",;-·.·

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'l'ION.

16. ·whatever man has done, man may a.gain do.
17. Perseverance will overcome every obstacle.
18. The greatest minds have admired Milton's " Para·
dise Lost."
19. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the
monarchs of Europe persecuted the Jews with unrelenting cruelty.

l

•

ExAM:PLE. The wind 'was fair, and we started OJ?. our
voyage..
.
.
· The enemy landed, and made instant preparation fo~
a march to the capital.
-

·Altered. The wind being fair, we started on our voyage.
· The enemy, having landed, made instant prepa_ration·
for a march to the capital.
· I. The door was opened, and a terrible spectacle presented itself to my eyes.
. ·
,
2. Columbus was convinced that the world was round,
and resolved to test his theory by experiment.
3. The battle was finished, and the enemy fell back
to the river.
. 4. Hendrik Hudson ascended the river which now
bears his name, and founded the city of Albany.
5. The soii of England is cultivated with great care,
and the harvests are usually abundant.
6. Youth is the season of improvement; do not lose
one of its precious moments. .
7. The trumpet soU?uied, and the combatants cparged.
8. My horse threw me ~nd ran away, and I was obliged.
to pursue the rest of my journey on foot..
- .
9. The Romans had conquered all their enem10s, '!-nd
were, at the time of'our Saviour's appearance, masters of
the world.
.
10. The door of the cage was left open, and niy fa:vo:ite
bird escaped.
· 1 L Hyenas are often driven to extrem.ity by hunger,
arid enter church-yards, and dig up the bodies of th~ de.ad,
and feed upon them.
- :: -

. -~·.

··'::·~~

96

-

·~
>I; ~.; SYNONYMES.'-

. ·/

FIRST LESSONS IN COl\lPOSITION.

'·

12. His faithful page saw the deadly shaft, and rushed
before his master, and received it in his own body.
13. J\Ian rebelled against his Maker, and sin at once
entered the world.
14. Napoleon w as safely disposed of in St. Helena, and
ended, on that little island, his tumultuous life.
15. Mungo Park was filled with the spirit of discovery,
and, at the risk of his life, penetrated the inhospitable
regions of Africa.
16. The hardy adventurers threw themselves on the
ground, and gave thanks to God for the successful issue
of their enterprise.

97

, ·,,

'1

I

-·.

·,

fickle, - incoh~tant. " ' Desigtt,
...

:

gratefol, . < bravery, . · attack,
posse.ssr - .powerful, burden, , · divide, ·
protec~, . . lai·ge, . · ' · haste,
use,
'· shine, - . chief; ~
indus,try; .thi:pw;·· ;
room, . _ . weighty,
abandon, · sick;_ .. ·
· des.troy; _ fr:uitf?l, · ·.. hous~: · ~ .. .id1e, /
forest; . careless; : struggl,e,.' conque_~'-- ~-

LESSON XLVII.
SYNONYMES.
WHEN

·~~~-:

'·

01111

is one word said to be the synonyme of another?

A word is said to be the sy n on yme of another
word, when it means nearly the same thing.
Give an example.

Enough and su/J icient are synonymes, because
they mean nearly the same thing.

.

If you wish to find the synonyme of a word, what book will
assist you?

The dictionary.
May a word have more than one synonyme?

Yes; some words have a number of synonymes;
thus, reflect, reclcon, deem, suppose, ponder, consider,
·cMiclnde, jiuige, are all synonymes of the word thi'nk.

'. ~~

. ~

L·E S S 0 N .'~ XL V I IT . -.·:·:'.:. ; · ·.. . .
.

Do synonymes convey precisely the same idea?

Not often ; but they mean nearly the same
thing.

·.-

·.

-.

.,.

,,-/,.

(
.
EXERCISE.

' ::-.: ·· .':·

-.

_,- . ·:

..

" ~-

.

. . .·

.

~-.

_.

,

.·

,· ·· · ~ i;·•:_ -

.

'.

.

.
,

~~

;Jv:IiiT~ out · and .' p~nc~~ate_'1 ~h_e d?P,,o.vJ:i~~· -~ ~e.n,·:

leju~~~;· . substituting· f~r eac~ JVO,r~:1i:i- , it_~l}<;Bi ~ ~.ts
~o~yme, so tba~ the ._meam~g ~f the:.s~:it~~Pf ·:V:1~l
~h+ .be ~altered .'
·.1.
.
' ·
· · "..:\ ·'- ;· ~"f"tr.'.,.
J

.

"-- -

>'. -.'·,: -<; '

,.: Mopt~. I · am monarchof ,all I sur~eif; >
~,~
.-: : ~ {_/; ·I am lord of all I behold. -, . i ~ ":·.: - .:•..> ;..±. ·
·i~ ·Egypt:the Ni~e .a~nua.lly oveljlozb~ '.. ~Jie·'.C.~\l~~ry .
11lcl.t4e~~by render~ :itfe1:tile,__ , : · ' ·: ··: i · .. ~ ..-:- - :! :: ., ~'.;
5

': ;'.

.:~;;_.;J

98

.
,;..· ..

CIRCUML09UTION. :

.

2. In many of the vV est India islands the earth i~
productive and reqitires so little cultivation that pla_

::~~.,

J

~"",,..~· i

}~

.. ' ·.·-"'·~~f.f.

~
I .

'·

may be said to grow spontaneously
· .
3. It is reported of the Emperor '.l'itus that when an ·~
.
I
one spoke ill of him be was u;ont to say that if the stat
ments were false they would not in(/ure him and tha~ ~ ·
they were true he had more reason to be angry ·witll
himself than with the !narrator
'
4. King Jam es of England on one occasion went
of bis way to hear a noted preacher The clergymmi ~
ing the king enter departed from the train of his discour , ·
and forcibly portrayed the sin of profane swcai:ing ·.f~i:
which James was notorious ·w h en he had co ncluded_.~h
monarch thankeu him for his sermon but asked what c9n
nection there was between swearing and his text · ~h
minister inimediately answered Since your maje,~t1:
deigned to come out of your way to me~t me I , 9p~d
hardly do less than go out of my way to meet you ~ ;; •

d'..

5. The enemies' horso7icn were coming up at a raPifl.
pace and I was obliged to abandon my comrade to
fate
6. Indolence is the cause of many evils
.:
7. \Vealth is desired by all but it is accompanied b
many troubles
8. Augurelli a celebrated Italian g ave much of · his.~ ·
tention to alchemy He was convinced that any m~tll
could be converted into gold only one thing bothered ~:·~·
and that was to find out the way Having. conzpose<l•
book on this subject he dedicated it to P ope I..1eo X. · ~: .
ticipqting a rich present in return H e wns qui1e ·, su ·
prised shortly afterwards to receive from his Holipes~.1
pur~e and a letter informing him that as he could_ ~ak .. ,
gold he needed only a purse to put it in
;;.

:r

.

"·).,l:tl~.J

•I,;.....,;_.

...

FIRST LESSONS IN CO:MPOSI'l'ION.

• :·i:.:'} ..~~: -:.
:Wj~~

I

.

' CIRCUM~OCUTIO,N.

ls circumlocutio11? · .

· ~,' :

~
..---{~1

:-\ •.~ .

' .":'. .·

- :· .- : '. '· )' ~.

.

Citcfunlodution is 'the use of t"\VO 'or m9re words . .
eipr~ss the meaning of one ;· thus, f.o_r~:fri.an:'icfnd ·
:.t:Qay say the race of men, the huma:n race:··:.: ' :~ ' .. , \
"' ·,,.
. ~;;,· . . . .
; f.1"'1o:.,,. · ·

. . ~ ... · .·

EXERCISE,
. ·

.

·

..:- ;

~

•· · ,.

r

1·

·

-~ · ip~~ss _the follo~ing single ~vords,'_.~pd:·. s.?-eh

ord.sin the 'sentences as are in)tali~s,_· b:Y, .l1 circum•

,

, .

,,.

''

• ', I

,

; .

::

I

'. •

'

~\~ :;;_i.:·.·. ;~~ ::!-f ~ ·,;:7 '. ~
· ob EL. . A sailor.
" : ·., .- · .... · ·
.Th~ moon is-shini1ig.
_
.,
· ~uJ:ircu~ilocution. . Qne ,who ,spen~s his lif.e, up~n the

. ti0 ri.

l

. •

.•

"n. . .

-~ :::i~
>~

·,~·:·1
...,· ~~.;.;.l
. ¥~
~

, :;__I

·Y;

~a
,. ~

-

--::S

,.,,

- :~)

:·- i;;l.
,

..
~l;

. ·-..

J[~~ _moon .is shedding her light·a1:qund. , .·. .

·. ·
. .i, i D~ath. · Heaven. .Astronomy. · A king. :. Y ?uth.
''hev~lence. A city. · . Agriculture.' The , sun. · A
,:'dian:

Geography.· \Vomen. Dishones.ty: -·· Indus_·
~~· 'Autumn. Childreri. Night, A . pro;nouri.
~J·;My brother is de~d . ' · .. . , . . :,_ , ·. :'~ , .. _._
'.' 4°The poor are often. happier than. the . rich. ·~ •, .. · · '·
~ .B eware of avarice:
· ·. . · · '_;;;··".'·

5.~: .Virtue is a source of happiness;
· ~·,'.:The sky is Cloitdy.
.'/:. Sui~ide is a great ~rime .
') The s~a is rough .. · ..· -

9~·· ii e.is -insensible.

.. '

. _'i~

.- , .
·. ··'

'o: · ·Y~ur cousin was -working. ·
, ·.'l· - '
~

-.:

.

. .: .

~

,, .
i

·'

100

FIRS11 LESSONS IN COl\U,OSlTIO.N.

.J._RA.LYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTE N CES.
.

I.i ESSO N

J~ .

••.

·w hat i" a enrnp nnn fl ,:r nt<'nr<'?

A compound sentence is one th at j s co mposed.-~­
two or more simple sentences; as, "Fn'endslu'p q_. _
to our joys, an d d1.'11u:1u.'.,.J1.e8 our su1 ·1·o ws."
sen t e n n ~ !l ?

.

S eparating them int o the simple sent ences
which they are composed.
'",
Analyze the compound sentence g iven above .

whes

0 7..lr'

OU/'

Joys.

F rienclsh-ip

sorrows.

·- ·

·what word was used in the compound sentence to conne~t
two simple sentences 1
·' ,t·

The conjunction and.

j: '

yes ; the relative pronoun is often us~d
},,fodesty, whi'cli is one of the 11wst attractive vi'rt~~

a great preservative against vie~. " .

is

.

I

.

,

.'

-

,

•

•

, ..:

'.

+i~/! "

'

..
.1 -

~niple

Sentences. Mahomet was the founder of the
_m etan religion.
-ahomet did not hesitate to work with his own harids.
".,. - ~hornet kindled his own fir e.
,ahoinet swept his r oom.
-~hornet made his bed. - '
~:jr~_h6,fn~t milked. his ewes and camels.
· ii.hornet men ded his stockings.
&hornet scoured his sword.
'

,

":::?

' . .ill

-l ~~:Aristarchus of

Samos, w:ho was a little wiser t~an
®~~mpotar~~s, was the first t~ assert that the earth
ed(;:~ : -· '-.

Is any oth er part of speech, besides the conjunction, ·u~ccl' ·
this purpose 1

"

.\

. -i~on;·did not hesitate to work with his. own hands; .
jl)dlod his own fire, swept his room, made h is bed,
ked his ewes and camels, mended his stockings, and
Qfed his sword.

A simple sentence is one th at contains
.
subject, and one prndicatc ; as, "Frz'cnclship addS
our joys."

Friemlsh0J aJrls to

·~

.:ll~A.rit.l>LE. Mahome t, the founder of the '1.1\'lahometan

is a simple sentence 1

"\Vhat is meant by ana lyzing- compound

EXERCISE.

-

:. ~ yze the following compound sen~~nces.
.. •,

ANALYSIS OF ·COMPO UND SENTENCES.
'WHAT

'
I

101.

·.

.

~~.her~upon he was accused, _before the . court o(
~ p·agus;" of violating morality, and intrndu~ing inno. Q~S _ib_.religion.
,,
.
t'A,ristotle, one of the mo~t ,sensi_ble _o~ .t~e an~i~ht
'ophers, tho-µght that .the .earth wa~ ' s~~ped! J1~~ °.'

•. .. ' .· . . . . . . . :· :- ">. {,~ ·,:.: ,.

Analyze the compound sentence just g iven.

ili~.~~t

Modesty is one of the 11wst attractive virtue,s.
a great preservative against vice.
.- ·.:,,_,

' With.out books, justice is dormant, philosophy lam~;
· s-.dU:mb, and all things are invoi'ved iti ~'.l:rknes·s , . · ~1~.fE_sop and . Te~ence, . t~<l'.'e a?mir~ble _wr.iter~~ ':.~re.

In analyzin g a compound sentence, wha t must we-do? :,..,.

vVe must remove the connecting word/ if t~ ,
be any, and repeat, in each simple senten,ce, · ~11
words as may be necessary to complete these~

t~ it/ '

"' " ~~

• ,

·. ·-

-:-~'.hti 's un

,

.

.

,

·

\

• .

"' ·

.

·'

~

I

.

"

·

• ·', ·~ ".

:);

~. /,

shines by day, and the moo~oy' nigh~.'''=1~:~· .'
1' , Modern times, with all their boaste_d progress,'. have ·. .
. -t

.......

102

FIHS'l' LESSONS IN COUPOSITION.

Sl:"NTHESIS ·o.F Sl.MI' tE SENTENCES.

never produced as strong a man as Samson, as
man as Moses, or as wise a man as Solomon.
8. A simpleton fancied, in a dream, that he had ~r.q .
den on a nail, and, on waking, bound up his foot.
9. Another simpleton, learning the cause, said: "I,
not pity you: for why do you sleep without sandals?'' ~..
10. C:::esar crossed the Rubicon, overran Italy, en~~r;
Rome, and seized upon the public treasury.

LESSON LI.
SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES.

WHAT is the opposite of analysis 1

__~}. l

iove tO contemplate the '~onders of the . earth.
love to reflect on the glory of the Creator.
~:-2. '. Beware of avarice. · A~atice is incompatible with
JeAson. A var ice has rui.ned the souls of myriads. ~;
B;' Let your pleasw-~ be. rti.oderate. Let yout pleas~re
:.· ·. seasonable. · Let your ·pleasure be · .innocent. . L~t
-;ir pleasure be becoming. .
. ~:):·Without modesty beauty is ungraceful.. Without
. , o_;?.;~tj learning is unattractive. · _'W ithout modesty
't .is.· disgusting.
·
:·
J5; . vVealth is much sought after. Wealth brings with ·
·~:rllan.j' troubles.
· · · · · _, - · · ·.. · · -· .. ..:;~'
1

•

'

.

. ··· 6. In. Spitzbergen there is a. long day of six mol:iths.
h "Spitzbergen there is a long night of six months. ·
Oh~rlemagne was the most powerful monarch . of
Lis' ~ge. Charlemagne added much to his gloty 'by in'1:inf learned men to his court. '· Charlemagne_added
. doh·'to his glory by inviting scientific
men to his com:t.
.
· S; Bl.nck pepper is produced in Java. Black pepper
•. producfld in Sumatra. Black. pepper .grows upon ·- rr .·
tine;
· The vine resembles our grape-vine.
- , , · - '· .. 1 ·
• .
.
. I
:. 9.' Plato was told that some enemies had spoken"ill of .
' · .., Pl~to said, "It matters not.ii Plato said/'';I ;~iil- ·
.. deavor so to live that no one shall believe them.ii « .•·,··
o,-_,:Xerxes resolved. to invade Greece': " Xerxe~(rais~d ·
The army cdnsisted of .tw,0, millio'us· 'of ' m~n.
is was the greatest force ~hat was · ev~r brought into

Jt

Synthesis.
What is meant by the synthesis of simple sentences?

.-

The union of two or more simple sentences:j)'
such a way as to form one compound sentence.-~~
Jn such a union, what changes are necessary?

-.

·~

The words that are repeated in the simple Se ,
tences must be omitted, and the proper connectiv::
(a conjunction or a relative pronoun,) inserted.~;'
EXERCISE.

! •

.

d..

iOB

Unite the simple sentences given in each
graph below, into one compound sentence.

·,\; ,,

p~

.i.

ExA1v1PLE. The White Sea is so called on accou~t ,
its color. The 'W hite Sea is constantly frozen ' o~
. -'
Tlrn ·white Sea is covered with snow.
Conipound Sentence. The White Sea
account of its color, as it is
covered with snow.

...

e'field.

·

·

..~, · ..

. "r:

The hills nre covered with a ·carpet of green·: > 1'.he .
· dows are covered with a carpet of green. · ' . ~-·· ) ;:
2?; Life is short: Life is unsatisfactory. Lif~ is_ un-'~ :

1-.1n. _·
.. ,, ....

>·,

>

<

. . . -

. ' ' '. :.'- .
'1" /

. :'.,_;;-if·. . .~· .,.:

'· ·. - :·.>:~~··~: ~

;

. . ~ f ... . ·.-1.:·.;.("

_,

--·

104

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

.

· ·. . ,.
'

··STYLE. · - · .

._- ,.,z

> Diffuse style is ·t hat .·of_ a writer.pr speaker. whp
. ·~~]~rges on his thoughts, and uses many wo,r~ ' to
iexpiess them.
/
'.. ' r • • . ' ' ' . :, ,._ .. . ·: ;,.-.·. '
_

WHAT is Style?

Sty le is the particular manner in which a wri ·
or speaker expresses his thoughts by words.
"
.

,

From the Latin word stylus, a pointed steel fu.
strument which the Romans used in writing, U.po
their waxen tablets.
Do the styles of most writers differ much from each other·t ,."

They do; for no two writers are likely to exp!'. ..
the same idea in precisely the same manner.
The simple, the florid, the nervous,
the diffuse.
· . 1•.

·

Simple style is that in which the thoughts are ~-i
pressed in a natural manner, without any attenip\.
at effect.
What is meant by florid style?

,.,

Florid style is that in which there is a bo-reat. deAl
of ornament.
: .':·
~.,

What is meant by nervous style?

Nervous style is that in which forcible senten;Ce.
are employed, and which makes a strong imp '_
sion on the reader or speaker.
·what is meant by concise style?

CorJ.Cise· style is that in which
expressed in very few words.

· * "Rxamples of the different kinds of style will be found' fu"'
exercise at the end of this lesson.
. ·
""

-.~

-..i
. ..

-~ .. _-To .what s~onld the ~tyle of ~n authoi:al~a;s b~ stilted 1

-, , :To_the subject he is treating: ·

. ..

~

- "

~
:.:~

; :: · "There are .certain pr~perties whi<'.h ·the style of every good
·. ·
·
· .""tY.riter must possess ; \vhat are these 1 '

'd

-±!.!
~~

"'~P~rity, propriety, precision, clearness, strength,
: : 'd .h.armony. . •
· ·
·
.
~·. , .
'

~

~

- '!I

... .

.....

:·-1.:
. ,

E XERCISE.

t

r

• •

•

.

•

•

• •

·. .

,

~

..

~l~i

~~

·\·. "Sweet was the sound when oft at evening's_.close'
: ·: up yonder hill the village ri:ntrmur rose
· .:" ~• .· There as I passed with ·careless steps a.rtd 'slow ·
. ·~: "The mingled notes came softened from below
·. TP,e s~ain responsive as th'e milk-maid s~ng, ' ·
The .sober herd that lowed to meet their yortbg _ ·
:;-. ,~ The noisj geese tba,t gabbled o'er the pool · :. · .
· :...., '.rhe playful children Just let loose from scho61 ' ·
:' _: ·: The.watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wib.d
,,.· . .·And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mirid .. ·
~;:.. :.-./~hese all in sweet confusion sought the shade :
.. · ·',And filled ea?h pause the nightingale had niade"
.·· l!,Yorid Style. " His charmed number~ fl.ow on like the
e:-dutreht of a melodious stream whos~ associations are
~~ · the sun beams and ·. the .sliado'Ys . the - leafy · bou~hs
, ~: song of. the forest birds · the dew upon - the ., flowery
. ~ . an~ .all . things sweet and genial atid · 4~lightfur
~se influence is around us in .our, happiest moments

' '·

.......

)

•
.;l-·

_· Copy and•pun<?tuate the following extracts, wP,ich
ar~ examples of the different ~inds of style. · · ·, . ·
· . _-· · S,iniple Style. ' ·
'

What are the principal kinds of style?

·What is meant by simple st.yle ?*

. , · :-' .·..

1

S'rYLE.

From what is the word style derived?

-105

'

: -~· ;,What is meant by diffuse. style i

LESSON LII.

r

.

5*

'

'·

.. .~

~

~.
__.,

w ~

'

;
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"']

'J

. -~;_

, ,~
'I

...
,..J'!
,.;

--~

~-~
i

·I

-1

·,

~

'·- ···~
~ -~1

';J
-ii

'
. .oli~
'jj

.~
.

'.

106

· ~~'~ ;~ti·~ets windows .and: balc~nies' we1:e filled -with '-~ager
· Bp~~·tators who re~t th~ .. air .w ith acclam~ti~n·s . Hi~ jour: ~ey' was continually imp~ded by . ~he ~~ltit~_\le : i>r~ssiug .
' to gafo a sight of him and of the 'Indiari~ ' ~ho : were ·
. garded with as much ad~iration · ~~ ; if th~y had. bee~
- ~~~~ves of anothe1: planet : It was impo~sible ,to satisfy .
..4 :. t~~ craving curiosity ~hich assailed hims.elf and his at./ tcndants at every stage with jnnumerable _questions. po' pular l:urnor as usual had e.iaggerated the truth and had
'1i.Ued the newly found ~ountry ·with all kinds 9f Wonders"

and whose essence is the wealth that lies hoarded in
treasury of nature"

Nervous Style.

re-.

"Vengeance calls you quick be ready
Rouse ye in the name of God
Onward onward strong and steady
Dash to earth the oppressor's rod
Vengeance calls ye brave ye brave
Rise and spurn the name of slave"

Concise Style.

.

" He touched his harp and nations heard entranced
As some vast river of unfailing source
Rapid exhaustless deep his numbers flowed
And oped new fountains in the human heart
"'
*
*
With Nature's self
He seemed an old acquaintance free to jest
At will with all her glorious majesty
He laid his hand upon the ocean's mane
And played familiar with his hoary locks
Stood on the Alps stood on the Apennines
And with the thunder talked as friend to friend
Suns moons and stars and clouds his sisters were
Rocks mountains meteors seas and winds and storms
His brothers younger brothers whom he scarce
As equals deemed"

Diffuse Style.

101

'PURITY.'

FIRST LESSONS IN 00.HPOSITION.

'i

.

,J . ..

:: ..

--

~ ':!!~ :;(t --.'

. .

,_ :

:~

..
,·.....

',

...

L .E S _S 0 N . L I I l. ·
: PURITY.

..<t.'. -:W~AT is' the first essential property of a good-style-1 .· _; ·"

.. '. Purity. - _. ·
·,..

- ..

· ·.

:, .

In wb~t does purity consist?

:,:· '.. : -. :::-. ·.

,. ~.

.

'. .Purity of sty le .consists .in the .us~ ·Of .such w~rds
and modes of expression as are_.wan;anted by good .
:I! '
h" .
"':"· ~ut onty.
/
,
.: .; ';" · · -,· . ·,.,.
·'
~

1
~<t.iF W:Q.at
is meant by "good
autbority.'
.
.
.
.
,.

.

• , . :• • ,
-

. . -. ,

~

· .. '

~

, '

..

,· . '

~

and
;.speakers~,, ,,_":" .
. .~ The usage of the best writers
.
\
.
.
",', ' ~~w mai1y rules m?st b: ob.serv~d_,: ~o -i~s:ure .. p~1;i~~j~f stY.le 1 .
,:

·. ·.1 .

" The fame of his discovery had re-

sounded throughout the nation and as the route of"'CO._.
lumbus lay through several of the finest and most pop~ ' ·
· lous provinces of Spain his journey appeared like "th ,
progress of a sovereign ·wherever he passed the · au~.
rounding country pouted forth its inhabitants who liti~~ :
the roads and thronged the villages In the large tow~.

1

ree.
. ."; .
.. .. . .. . ,~. ..
~ ._, "I. · Do not use fpreign . woi:Cls or ,rii9des .of .con·:J .tfU?tiqn, when th.ere (a~e .PU:te .,Engl1~4 :·. .9~-~~· ,t hat . ·.
ar(} JUst as expressive. .
. ·. , - · ·.>. ·; -.-~.,:·~ . . .::; ·
._:.;c.ll:i.'. Do not . use_.obs~lete wor~;-,or _such ..ag::,-hi!.v~
:fallen into disuse.
- ' ··' ' ·., .:,', . i.' :<L.[,1
~" ni. _A void ·words .that ·are not; · a,u.thoriZ~d,; by . ·
·"good writers..
" ·,
·
·:,t.1; ;' >J/:c ;,,;
'

,.
-~ "f

'1

'

·

•

•

"

...

;

•

••

···I i:!t -<.~· •• r' ',

.-

.'
.:.-;

108

~~~ 9: I

M ention some of the foreign words th at arc often introduced

wot not who it was.
It irks me to see such obstinacy.
The nobles of England dwelt erst in strongly forti-

by writers who violate the first rul e re lating to purity, and the - corresponding English words that sl1oultl be u sed in stead of them . .

Hauteur, haughtiness.
lJehcatesse, delicacy.
Politesse, politeness.
A propos, appropriate.

Erneute, disturbance. '
BagateLLe, triile.
N'importe, no matter. .
J.Y ons z ·(;1Ton~, 1vc shall see~

.

·

. . '. , . '
-~ ".-_ 12. Having n othing to do, h e. employed his time m
_ _ 'siroarning about the fields.
'
·; •
:,. -: :S· 13. 'rl1y speech bewraycth thee.
_.
· He comes to the city dailily. ·
I adm ire his delicatcssc, an d qandidness. _
Her amiableness endears her to all her fri~nds. ·
_,,""""",.": 17. His severe administra tion of the laws :l~'Mered
-·
.
-~ him ~ery impopular among .th e_people.
.· .
-:-: 18. S t. A ugustine lived godlily.
•
I could bot account for his merriness.
D amp weather is very i1;n~greeable.

"···-~
_..,
·
-

.•

Irlcs, wearies.
lVot, know. ·
l Vist, knew.
Sith,

.

"fied castles.

.l\Icntion some obsolete words, and '\'liat it is l'rnpcr
instead of them at the present day

L et, hinder.
. · '" B ehest, command.
Quoth, said.
Erst, formerly.

,109

P ROPRIETY. /

FIRST LESSONS IN COMI'OSITION.

sin ce~

EXERCISE .

~

,,

.t-w::;~

·- ---l
··"'·-___-.
·

..

.

;~~

. ,.3

t~

·i i
~

Correct the following sentences, so that
contain no violation of the rllles of purity.
I cannot believe it, but nous verrons. ' ·. He rep ented him, of his fault.
Corrected. · I cannot believe it, but we shall see.
He repented of bis fault.
:
1. His manners were not marked by p olitesse, but by' ~
an offensive hauteur.
·
2. I have been disappointed, but n'iniporte.
3. Fearing that they might b ecome involved in _the.. '- ·
enieute, they remained in the house.
" , ~4. My friend made some remarks quite apropos · to '' ·
the occasion.
.. ·/~~ 5. The fleeting joys of this world are but bagatelles.\ ' :. ·
6. I can go where likes nie best.
· · ',-,: · :
7. Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey.
8. "Come," quoth he," lay aside thine armor."

LESS 0 N _LIV.

ExAMPLE.

..

... ,'!"' ·

PROPRIETY.
:. ;.....J

'-.

1

'·

''

·. ,·

: • ~"'

•"

I

"

•

~:-. WHAT is the second essential prop~r~y.o[ a goo~ sty!e1.
·~· ·-·propriety.
_. · , .,
_ . , ,__ :··
· In what does propriety consis t 1 . . . . .: - . . . «- . .

.;'

·

" Pr9priety c01;isists -in the s~le_ctio(1 of :s'}.~h. w~~ds
~"".-~.the. best usage ha:;;. appropri~t~d :to t~,~ _id~a~.-l~- ·-le~ded to be expressed. _ _· . . ·
· .. .; '
· !. · t~ insure pi:_opriety, what ki~d of ex.Pressio~s rn~st w,e be
"•hl-

,•: tareful to avoid 1

.

.

.

_

~

' r:~:. /tow . a~d . vulgar . expression~, whicb. ar_e · often

f;.;~ecl
in co~versation,· but at e not _s~m.S-ie!}tl.Y~~ign,i• ·
..
.
. . . ' ;, -., :fied t.b be admitted into compos1t1on. ,u ·
-

.

.

.

... .
110

PRECISION. -

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSl'l'ION.

·.ill'

·'

/,

. · ..:.

EXERCISE.

EXAMPLE.

My father has got the blues.
My fat.her is in low spirits.

1. I saw with half an eye that it was necessary for
me to observe great caution.
2. As the noise disturbed me, I told him to hold his
tongue.
3. They have got the small-pox.
4. Having run up to see what the 1natter was, I b~­
came involved among the rioters, and, before I could
extricate myself, came near getting 1ny head broken.
5. He is not a bit better than be ought to be.
6. My cousin is mad at me.
t. ·
.t
7. He saw the ho:·ses dashing towards Limfull split, .'- .
and, making a desperate leap, escaped by t/ie skin ef his .:.'
teeth.
8. Every one sets store by a good boy.
9. I would as lief live in Am erica, as in ]flurope.
10. James is s01nething ef a scholar.
11. She is in a bad fix.
12. John turns up his nose at every tlti ng.
13. If a clerk cheat, he will soon be turned out ef ki~ · .
si~titatiori.
~··
14. He tries to curry favor with his superiors.
15. Their coming in ,turned every thing topsy-turvy.
16. '\Ve have a great mind to go to Harlem to-morrow..-· · .
·· ' ' '"
17. She is a very stingy woman.

.,

•)

•.... ·

rrhe words in italics in the following sentences
are to be corrected, so that there may be no violation of propriety.
Corrected.

.•

l.

· .\.

.

.

.'"

'

.

-

(

L_E ss o~ · ~Y >,

,

'. ·, ,' j .,

..

.'..

, !·

' ' PRECISION.

W~AT is the third essential property

of a good. style 1

. Precision.

"' , ,··In what does precision consist 'I

, : Precision consists in the use . of such words ·as
.;. e~actly express the,idea 1 .intende~ to hy cgriveyed~
:"""'.. ·>·· In ~vhat is p1;ecision mos t fre9.~ently vi~fated 'I . · . ;;~ '.. ; . .·
· · :) '''.I:n the use of words 'which are generallx,9oh_~ . ::·_sidered synonymo~s, but which do ;not convey the
. '
"' . same meanmg.
. ., , .. .
~ (·

1

~- -''.. Give an example.

. :· r.·-' Courage .and fortitude are generally thought t_o
.~ . m_ean the same thing; but theii· _exact significati_on
··'.>is widely different. Courage is shown in braving
·:· .danger; fortitude, in ·supporting pain. In such a
; ··~·'. sentence as . this, " John displayed great~courage
_
.
': · while undergoing the operation," · prgcision is yio. ~ .::~: lated." · The woru courage is misused, and · the sen:.·,.,'.: tehce should be, i, J ohii ·· displayed~· great fortitude
... :~ w11ile undergoing' the operation." '·. . .:; -~~ ' ! . ;-~ ;··: '
~

' · . · ' : Mention some other words that are often used as synonymous.

· ~·~ Discovery and 'invention/ effect and ·i'nfliience"/ cits~
..·\_tom and habit; vacaht arid empty / great ~nd big. ' .·
.: .' ·_, In what other way is.precision often violated 1

··· >· · · . :,

~~ , ' · By substituting for the proper ·word, another
'_ word formed from the same ·primitive, but -~hich
,· ;; ..pught to be differently applied; as,~- obse~vat!pn /or
.
....... •/ •·
.
· ·~ obse1·vance, conscience for consciousness. · · "' · · · ·
·
.

' ' _ Give an example.

'

..

,._;.: ·, ,- ' ;

-

~

112

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'l'ION.

113

·' CLEARNESS.

"1Vegligence of duty often produces misery."
There is a violation of precision in the use of negli, gence for. neglect; the sentence should read thus:
"J.\Teglect of duty often produces misery."

15. I made a proposal to my ' friend to take me into
partnership.
16. I made a propo_sition to my friend to_ embark with
me in the speculation.
-·
17. Intoleration in religion has been the cause ,of much
suffering.
18. The magistrate, having Leard the prisoner's story,
expressed his disbelief of every word he had uttered. c

EXEIWISE.

The words in italics, in the follovving sentences,
are to be altered, so that there may be no Yiobtion
of precision. Examples are given ahnve.

.

I. Col um bus invented America. Newton i1wP11ird the

attraction of gravitation.
2. The discovery of steamboats produced a most beneficial influence on the coiumerce of the whole world.
3. The cavalry charged with their accustomed fortitude.
4. Smoking is a bad custmn.
5. Jam es endured the pain with a great deal of courage.
6. The house was closed, and we naturally supposed
it to be empty.
7. All the furniture had been removed ; every room
was vacant.
8. He is a very talented and studious boy, and will,
no doubt, become a big man .
9. A frog once swelled herself out, till she thought
herself greater than an ox.
10. Conscience of integrity supports the nii.i fortunate.
11. The observation of the Sabbath is a distinguishing
mark of Christian nations.
- 12. The bird escaped through her neglect.
13. The bird died through her negligence.
14. The farmers of Ohio pay great attention to the
culture of corn.

'. -·

.... -:

LESSON LVI.
CLEARNESS.

WHAT is the fourth essential property of a good style ,?
I

Clearness.
In what does clearness consist? :

'\

.

....;

.

Clearness consists in such a use and arr?-il.gement_.
of words and clauses as at once · distinctly focticate . - . >~
the meaning of the writer or speaker. -- : : · - _ , :- ,:._
~~
~-

What is the opposite of clearness? "

Obscurity. ·

,

·· '

_· · · : · ·. · · ·:_.: .., ·,,,'·,- : '·

What are the n:iost freqlient causes of obscurity 1, ·,_.· ·' -. . : .

~

~
:-~

The use· of ambiguous or , eq\liyo~~L.wor~ds,":aind
. the improper ar~ange_ment of.-wor4~L_or ·._cla1{s~~;·: ~ ..~·~'t
, Repeat the three rules for promoting clearness, ,t ha\ rel~te, to
the use of words.
-.
·' .

> ;,
1

,- , · -. .- ,: . .~ -.

. Rule 1. Avoicl ainbig~?us.'.~xpres~ipps.' .;. .. ~-- ·_- .· -· .. ;'.-:,,;
Rule 2. Do . not make .the saine "P~O.I?-OU~·.J'_ef~r ~o ~ ;_. ,.'
different objects in the same sent~nce. ~/ .'..~:;i - •_, ·
·
Rule 3. Insert words tha.t -.are -.wanting, _·'Yhen they cannot readily be suppl~ed by the m1nd. · ·
~
.

~

"I

._;~
~

-l

...

,I

.- - - .·•
.
-~-i
...

.
.

-

-

~

-

-~.

.

.-

~~-·

-~

115

CLEARNESS.

:~.'fl

. ~ .·,

Correct the followin~ sentences so that tl1ey rnny
contain no violation of Hules 1., 11., and 111., for

the promotion of clearness.
1. The reproof of the erring is a duty.
2. Charles promised his father that he woulJ ucvcr
forget In's advice.
3. ViT e love who flatter us.
EX AMPLE.

Corrected. In the first sentence, the use of the word reproof
makes the sentence ambiguous; for, as it now stands, the meaning
might be, that it is tlie dtity of the erring to reprove o/Jicrs. W c will
therefore alter it thus:

1. To rcproYc the erring is a duty .
The second sentence contains a violation of Rule IL, because the firnt liis refers to Cliarles, while the second refors to
father. This fault may be corrected by making the sentence read
thus:

2. Charles promised his father, "I will never forget
thy advice." .

..

.

f-.

1. We speak that we know.
2. '\Ve dislike who dislike us.
3. Jl![y beating did him good. (Anibiguous, because it

·>

·~

L~SSON

In the third sentence, the word that is omitted cannot readily
be supplied by the mind, and we must therefore insert it, thus:

3. We love tlzose who flatter us.

'

may niean either the beating I gave hini, or the beating
he gave nie.) ·
4. Tlie love of a parent is a natural .feeling.
5. Our rebuke had its intended effect.
6. Tlie officer's instructions were plain.
7. vVe are naturally inclined to praise who praise us.
8. vVho is most industrious is most happy.
9. There were several of the crew died on the pass3ge.

_j

l 0. 'l' he worRt c~m be said of him is, that he is so meti 111 cs i natten ti ve.
11 . There are many men waste their lives in idleness.
1'2. ltalileo was led to invent the pendulum, hy a ch:rndelier he frequently observed swinging to and fro in the
cathedral of Florence.
13. The farmer :went to his neighbor, and told him
that his cattle were in his field.
14. Damon told the king that he would not comply with
his demands.
-.
15. The nobleman's suninions was unheeded. ·
lG. The clerk told his employer, whatcv~r )w did, li,e
could n ot please him .
17. Tl1ere was one man was struck by t~e ball.
18. It was the bodies of distinguished persons ~nly, ·
were embalmed by the ancient Egyptians. '.

J

.

.";·J"~
-- ~

..... ' ·

LVII > ·· )

~-.I,._: ,;, ...

.:

'

CLEARNESS. ·. :

'j

l.

·.

·-

..
-. -

. ...

I
'

- ••

-~·

.

~.

• l..

•

1

IN what does clearness consist ?;
• · ' " '.
What is the opposite of clearness ·? .
, . - :. i: ' ·" , "
Repeat the three rules for p1:omoting deapies.s, .that .relate, to
the use of words."
._ _
.
. ·
Repeat the rule that relates t~ -.t he arrangerne~t ·or"wo';ds and
._
' -.
: • .1'.!
,;.. - ·.. ' • .. . ·_ ... , -,;
clauses.
,
·
· ·
'
·
··
~-

as

~

Place words and clauses.,
near as p6~s1bl~:
to
'
. ~·~•. . ..
the words t,o which they relate.
;'-..
.

'

~'

What \vords are mOst frequently misplaced 1 '·

Adverbs; particularly only, and riot only) ~.-./'~ .

. "·

~

'·~~~

. · ·--. "'-:'° l

f ,.; -~1-;~ -, -

What is the effect of their being misplaced·? - ":1 ~ ';;;~

They are thereby made 'to - ~odif.r<~'·:~<lifl'e:r:ent ,

-- - - ---·· -

---,-.------

-

t.tr
~

u

116

117

CLEAR NESS.

F I RST LESSONS I N CO.MPOSTTJON.

ff

~

i·
I.

I •

'i

1

E XAMPLE. 1. The mate saved a man fr om drowni ng,
who was an excellent s11irri~er.
2. · The man was digging a weJ, with a Rom an nose.
3. I t is my fr iend's son , whom I love so well.
4. \Ve shoulll not only love our relatives, but our
fri ends also.

word from the one intended, and the whole me.aning of the sentence is c11angecl.
Give an example.

"He not only own s a house, but al-;v a large Ji-.irm."
1Vot only, as it now stan ds, modifies the verb ovms;
and from t11e l1eg i1rnin g nf the senirnrf', 0 11 c 1r01:dd
suppose tliat .a.uotlier verl> w as Lo fo ll0w - Ll1 ;1.L li1:
Hot ouly owned the h ouse, lJut lfrc(l in it, ur sumcthing of that kind. vVhereas not only is i11temlcd
to modify house, and it should be placed as near it
as possil>le; tl1 ns, "ITc v1 uis iiot oii 1:J a li uwc, Zn1( u!00
a la rge /ff.rm."
ll•m oil1vul1l a rdali\ e clau se be ]J ht<:cll 1

Iuun ecliately afLer ils au LeeeJent.
That you may accomplish thi s, how must you alter th e fo llowing sentence, in which , it. " ·ill be seen, another noun stands
between the antecedent and the relatiYe clause: " A sc1Tant ·1cill
obey a master's orders, tliat lie loves" ?

Change master's to of a ni aster, and place orde1·s
before it; thus, "A servant will obey the orders
of a master that he loves." vVe thus bring the relative clause immediately after the antecedent,
rnaster.
Alter in this way the followin g sentences , so that the relative
clause may immediately follow its antecedent.

L The mariner's compass was Gioia's invention , a celebrated mathematician of Naples.
2. Have you read rrasso's work, the immortal Italian ,
poet?
EXEHCISE.

Arrange the words and clauses in the following
sentences in such a vvay, that there mn.y be no violation of the last rule for promoting clearness.

.,

Pmpcrly Arra71gcd. l. The mate, who -was an exc~llent swimmer, savc<l a m:i.n from drowning.
2. The man with a Roman nose, was digging a well. .
3. It is the son of my friend, whom I ·Iove so ~elL
4. We . should love not .. only- our. relatives, : but our
friend s also.
I

1. 'l'he Homans now proclaimed war against the Par·

thians, who had conquered all the rest of the world. 2. Glass windows were fir st used in England, in 'the
· year 67 4, A. D., as we learn from Bede's works, the yen~-:
rable historian.
3. Many of the best English authors flourished' -in :
Queen Elizabeth's reign, wpo p~troni~_ed not .op.lyJi~etaty
men, but herself pretended to be an author. .--·.;.. .>i~
4. The lady :was sewing with .sore eyes:
..,,,_-, .. :
5. Boston was Franklin's birth-place,_.the celebrated .
American philosopher, ·who not only ,won .tl~_e r~sp_ept of ·
..
· ' ~ : .. . ·. ·-~.
his own country, but of_all Europe. _·
6. vVashington not only won tpe respe~t, put:th-e
of all true Americans. ..
<· ; ... · ... ;,.,....
·' ..
7. Dr. Johnson ;was once arrested for a debt.,· of five
guineas, the author of the dictionary.
' - ·
8. Sir Isaac Newton's great min_q was '.· principally
directed to mathematics. .
. _' -,,: ·.>·:..· ·.,, i·t
9. The ungen.e rous person only thinks ·of hitnself~:- '.
10. The horse ·is ploughing with a switch
·tail.' ·,.·- ~:· t'.(
'

.

lo.ve;.

'

.··

·.

=

...

dW

118

am obliged at presen t. t.o disco ntinue.
12. I was afraid to ride a horse, having a disease of
the heart.
13. ']'he <lisor<ler1 y peri"OHR were rem o\·cJ from the
room, in consequence of being intoxicated, by the assistance of several geut.lemen present.
14. 'l'he emperor Augustus was a patrou of learned
men, at least.
15. So utterly was Carthage destroyed , that we are unable to point out the place where it stood at the present

11.9

STRENGTH.

FrnST LF:SSONS I N collrPOSITlO.N.

11. This work: beillg aillict.e11 w·i th the rheumatism, I

..

·~

What is tautology?

Tautology is the repet1t10n of the same, or a
similar, vrnrd in a sentence.
How may tautology be corrected?

By substituting a synonyme for the' \~ord re~
pc:iLccl.

.

What is a synonyme? (See Lesson XL VII.)
Correct in this way the sentence g iven above.

·

In the sentence, " JYe looked ont of tlie -11)i1idouJ, and took. a view,"
docs the clause, took a view, add any thing to the meaning F ·. ·

Jt does not.

day.

16. 'rhe steamer from Liverpool is soon expected to

·1Vhat then is its effect on the sentence 1-

It weakens the sentence.

arrive.

What is this fault called?

Redundancy.

. -

What is redundancy?

,.

LESSON J.JVIII.

j

STRENGTH.

-· -

. ·. ;,

Redundancy is the repetitibn of an 1.dea in t~e
. l . . .
same sentence.
' ·
How may redundancy be corrected?

,

,

:_:, ....; ,...

WHAT is the fifth essential property ofa good style?

By leaving out the superfluous word. ol'cP~~~Y; . .

Strength.

Correct, in this way, the sentence given above,-, ..

In what does strength consist 1

Strength consists in such a use and arrangement
of words as make a deep impression on the mind of
the reader or hearer.
" Tke genera.l ordered the captain to order the sold iers to observe
good order" ?

No.
What makes it weak?

The repetition of the word order.
What is this fault in writing called?

rrautology.

,... : , .Z-c·,: ::

"vVe looked out of the wind~w." . •' : : ' .... I '
What two short rules will c~nd~ce much t~· st~~_n~t~ 9istyle?
Rule L Avoid tautolo_g y. .. ·. · : ..._, '.~. . ! ,..: ·, _· 1·~~; 1 : :·c< ·.
Rule II. Avoid , redm;t~~ncy. · _. ,, _: ,: ,. ;.t ": ·'.

;<·· ·

Would strength be a characteristic of the following sentence:

'.

"!..

" 1' he general directed the captain to C()m1nand the
soldi"ers to observe good order."

•.

EXERCrSE.

'

,· .. • 1.:· - .

Correct the tautology and redunda~1cy irf the . (o1~ ·
]owing sentences.
" _
, .: . ' ·~ < ~; .~:· .;,·'.,:; ·
ExAMPLE. 1. He said that his father ~sajd .t!J~t ,h.e
would not leave the city.
-. . - . . <:._. ';,,.:.; .!~
2. Washington was a good and exceZ2.en_
t .~~ri:,;( ~.., ,

,.

120

FIRS'l' LESSONS IN COMPOSI'rION.

STRENGTH. .. ~-.

Corrected. 1. He stated that his father said that he
would not leave the city.
2. vV ashington was a good man.

'.'·

"....,-

l

I
I

1. The sexton told the minister that he had tolled the
bell for an hour.
2. He went to Baltimore by steamboat, and thence
went to Philadelphia by rail-road.
3. Mahomet was distinguished by the dignity and
·majesty of his person.
4. She is so lovely a woman that no one can help
loving her.
5. The ancient Egyptians used to use myrrh, spices,
and nitre, for embalmiug the dead bodies of tho deceased.
6. Sit down, and take a seat.
7. The brilliant brightness of the sun makes all
nature look lively and animated.
8. The children are playing in the umbrageous shadow of a shady oak.
9. They returned back again to the same place from
whence they came.
10. While travelling through Hussia; we met a traveller,
who, in seven days, had travelled over a thousand miles.
11. Generals are generally men of decision and energy.
12. No Christian will revenge himself on his enemies,
and take vengeance on his foes.
13. Charlemagne found that his subjects were very
ignorant, and therefore founded several seminaries of
learning ; but all his attempts and efforts were insufficient and unable to enlighten the darkness of his age. ,
14. No learning is generally so dearly bought, or so
valuable when it is bought, as the learning that we learn
in the school of experience.
15. Pity us, and have· compassion on us.

121

LESSON LIX. '
STRENG'l'H.

t

IN what does strength consist?
What is tautology?
..,.
What is redundancy 1 ·
. ..
. · .
.
Repeat the two short rules for promoting strength. ~ .
Repeat three more rules, the observance of which will con'duce much to strength of style.
' · · ·

Rule III. Do not use the conjmictioh and too
much, or let it commence a sentence . ..:· · . ; ·
. . .Rule TV: .Do not e!1d _a senten~e _with' a pr~po­
s1tion, an ummportant word, or a .siwcession of
short words.
·
· .. · ·
·)
Rule V. \Vhen there · are ~evera{ ~imilar dependent clauses, as a general thing, place_\he long~
est last, and do not. let a . weaker assertion follow a
stronger.
-

EXERCISE. ·

,

\ •

'

•· •

I

'

• '

•

~

..

.. .
~

.. \.

! .. .

Correct the following s~1~tences, so that '. th~re; , ·
may be no violation of the rules just given. -. . .':~ ·" -~-~ :1 . .

~

. ExAMPLE. 1. Id_leness, and luxury, and · pleasure 'destroy many a youth.
• .· . .~
·~ .
, 2..· Ingratitude is a crime that I :caimo~ : accus~ myself of.
... ,
~3. Catiline plunged into every species o(iniquity~ and ' ·
left the path of virtue.
.
. ,- .
Corrected. 1. Idleness, luxury, and pleasure destroy ·
ruany a youth.
·
·
..
·
2, Ingratitude IS a crime of which 1' ca.nnot accuse \
myself.
- ~, '·;__'.>'~·;:°Ji~~~-

6

.

:

122

,;

,•

~.

,...

' ·~·'~
I

l

3. Catiline left the path of virtue, and plunged into
- every species of ini_quity.
1. Charlemagne was a successful warrior, and a sound
statesman, and an able monarch.
2. And he evinced incredible activity; he superintended the public improvements, and managed the affairs
of the kingdom, and still found time to foster literature
and the arts.
3. He is one that I cannot depend on.
4. Galileo made many discoveries in astronomy, but
he was imprisoned on account of them.
5. Charity ought to exert an influence over all our
actions, and regulate our speech.
·' 6. The faith which Mahomet professed, and which he
was the author of, soon spread over Arabia, and Turkey,
and the notthern part of Africa.
7. His conduct was disgraceful; it was unbecoming.
8. There are many mysteries which we cannot understand, yet which we must believe in.
9. His assistance I am sure of.
10. Robert Burns, although originally a poor ploughman, was one that men of letters were glad to be acquainted with, and associate with
11. 'Vhen one is out of health, life becomes a burden,
and there is lio pleasure in it.
12. His gross excesses, and indulgence in pleasure, cut
him off at an early age.

.123

.HARMONY.

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

In what does ha;mony consist 1

."

Harmony consists in that s~ooth and :easy flow
·
_
.
which ·pleases the ear.
'\Vhat words are, for the most part, inharmonious 1

1. Such as are derived from long co~pound
words ; as, sobermindedness, shamefacedness. • ··.
.
2. Such as contain a great number ; o:f 'conso~ nan ts; as, phthi'sic, asthma.
3. Such as are conwosed of a number of short ·
syllables, with the accent· on or- near. tbe, ~ :first j . f:tS)
priniarily, temporarily.
." . ·
.- ···
What combination of \VOrds is -found ' to be · inharmonious ?

A succession of words of the same leng'th · thus
'
'
" no kind of foy can long please us," is by p.o means ,
as harmonious a,s, "no species of joy can · 'lo~g delight us."
· ·
'

· What other combi~ation of words should be avoided?~

A succession of wotds that resemble each · other
in the sound of any of their ' syllables;· thus, -. " a
fair fairy," "a mild child," are less harmonious
than " a handsome fairy," " a gentle child."
As to the general arrangement of words and clauses, what
is the best guide?
. ·
·
· · • - . _
-:- -

The ear.

.-.

, •.r•,

Is not a strong style generally harmonious?.

It

is. ·-

.,

-

-

.

-. :.

. i

. ' .--_-.
. .

~-

.

-

- .--:

.EXERCISE.

LESSON

LX

HARMONY.
WHAT is the sixth essential property of a good style ?

Harmony.

Correct the following se~tences ,in su~h --a ·way
that their h~rmony may be increased, _WheJ:!: ~hy
particular word causes th~ want of. harmony, it is
in italics.
· _"' · ~ -~i :.

....._::
-~

...

'·

~

_!Ii-<

124

UNITY.

EXAMPLE. 1. Shamifaccdncss has been a characteristic of many distinguished men.
2. He went to Home with a friend.*
3. This I consider to be a true union.

15. Seizing the first opportunity, I importuned -him
for hi s assis tan ce.
1G. The lwmc~y honie of poverty is often the seat of
greater happiness than the grandest mans ion. 17. It is J10Ssib1e to posS('SS wisdom without learning.
18. Some regard sobennindcdncss as essential to a good
chnrnnter.
19. He repressed the e:i:pression which was -on his lips.
20. He conducted the busiuess unsatiifactorily.

Corrected. 1. Basl!fitlncss has been a characteristic of
many distinguished men .
2. He proceeded to Horne with n fricrnl .
3. This I consider to be a true fricnrlship .

,.

'-

125

FIHST LESSONS IN Co.:IIPOSITIOX.

1. All rich men have a sly way of jesting, which would
make no great show were they not rich m en.*
2. H.eason seldom governs passion , but passio n often
governs reason.t
3. The slow horse goes 11ot t.o the raec Lill il-, iH done. 11
4. Camoens lived temporarily in the East Iudies.
5. JJl[any m en disregard their duty.
6. In India, innocent infants are thrown into the
. Ganges.
7. Peace should be sought for by us 1 and by all.*
8. The peaceableness of his disposition gained for him
many friends.
9. He kept wriggling in a very uneasy manner.
10. :Pope was accustomed to speak derogatorily of his
friends.
11. Her cheerful temper and pleasant humor procured
her general estee m. t
12. All that afilicts us here will pass away soon.
13. i'he seas shall waste, and rocks shall fall to dust.*
14. The favorableness with which the vV averley novels ·
were received is almost incredible.

* Too many words of one syllable.

t Too many words of two syllables.

. ...

-.~

-: - :-

L E S S 0 N _L X I .'. ,
UNITY.

WHAT does every sentence contain?

One leading thought, or proposition. ,\,
May it not contain more than one proposition?

It may, if they are intimately c~nneete4 ,w_it_h ~he .
leading one, and properly introduced.- - - - ,...
,...<. ~

•

What do you mean by properly introduc.ed ?

Introduced without too frequent
j ect.

achange of sub-

Give an example.

- -.: - ·' '
,-- ·-

-~ ,'. ;\-..-,..

"My friends turned back, after: ~e r~1aohe_(the'
.vessel, ori board of which I was received·-withkfod· ·
ness by the passengers; wlw vied -yvith -each ?-1]1ter
in showing me attenti~n." -· llf ~this :sentence we
have no less than · fo;..-:r nominativ~_s; friends, we, :1,
who; and the frequent change produce~ gre~t
fusion in the mind.
· ·----~ ·.,, · ~~\· (·-: ;;: ·•;

con!'

. _ Wiiat is the fault in this se1itence

A violation of un~ty. '

call~d 1 · .: ·'

-_..'.;·~::,~.:(

' ' ..--_;<

~ -:_.~

i

126

i27

UNITY.

FIRS'! ' LESSONS IN CO:MPOSI'l'ION.
,, '

1

In what does unity con sist?

Unity consists in th e restriction of a sentence to
one leading proposition, modified only by such
kindred ideas as are closely connected with it.
Give an example of a sentence in which unity is viola ted by
joining two propositions that have no connection.

"Archbishop rrillotson died in thi s year. He
was exceedingly beloved by Ki11 g vVilliam and
Queen Mary, who nominated Dr. ':I.1 ennison, bishop
of Lincoln, to succeed him." In the last sentence
there is a gross violation of unity, in connecting the
nomination of Dr. rrennison with the great Jove ent ertained by the King nrnl Queen for Arch bishop
Tillotson.
Give three rules that will conduce to the preservation of
unity.

Rule L Introduce as fe w subj ects as possible into
a sentence.

Rule IL Do not crowd into one sentence things
that have no connection.
Rule IIL A void the introduction of long parentheses.
Are parenth eses as much used as the y form erly were?

No; good writers of the present day, for the most
part, avoid them altogether.
Are all parentheses inadmissible ?

No; short ones, when properly introduced, add
to the strength of a sentence; but in long and com-·
plicated ones the mind is di13tracted from the leading proposition, and obscurity and weakness ensue . . ·
vVhen a violation of unity occurs, h ow are we t o correct it?

I. If it proceeds from a variety of subj ects, get

l

rid of some frf' ' them, · by adopting ·participial
clauses, or a different form of the vei'b: Thus, the
, first sentence given. in this .Lesson, as coiitai}fing a
violation of unity, . may be corrected as :follows:
"My friends havi'ng turned back ' after we reach~d ­
the vessel, the passengers received ~ me on: board
with kindness, .ancl vied with each other in show-.
ing me attention." . rrhe sentence, as thus corrected, has but tw0t sub}ects, ·we ~nd pa8s,~ngers. · · .
'II. If it proceeds frQn1 the -intr()quctidri of t\yo
or more unconnectec~ proposition_~, o~ 'Of a·parenthesis, we must separate the sentence· into two or
more sho:i;ter sentences, as may be required. Thus,
the second example of , a violati9n of unity given
above, may be corrected as follows: · " Archbishop
Tillotson died in this year. · He was ~~ceedingly
beloved by King William and Queen Mary; Dr.
Tennison, bish<jp of Lincoln, was - nominate~ to
succeed him."
EXERCISE.

..

/

-

Correct the following sentences, so that they may
contain no violation of unity. The pupil will of
course make such qhanges in .the punctuation as
may be required . .
Examples of this fault and its _coi-rection have been giv~n
above.
.

1. The next lady to whom I was introduced was .the

. Duchess of Devonshire, who received tne with great· affability, and, no long time afterwards, bad her neck broken
. in consequence of being thrown from her carriage.

.

,

:·;~.>."'

128

.

., .

'

5. The dog is an animal of wonderful sagacity and it
IS used by the Esquimaux for drawing Meds.
'
6. The quicksilver mines of Idria, in Austria (which
were discovered in 1797, by a peasant, who, ~atching
some water from a spring, found the tub so heavy that
he could not move it, and the bottom covered with a
shining substance which turned out to be mercury,) yield,
every year, between 300,000 and 400,000 pounds of that
valuable metal.
7. The trappers of the Rocky Mountains obtain the
necessaries of life in exchange for beaver-skins, which
are worth from four to eight dollars a pound.
·
8. The first gold pens, (which have now come into use
both in this country and in Europe, and which are
generally preferred to any other kind ) were made in
1836.
'

.
'
Mention the six~ ssential properties of good, style.
In what does purity consist? (See Lesson LIII.) ' what three
classes of words do the rule~ fo~ purity forbid tis to fise? .
-'':
In what does propriety consist? (See Lesson LIV.)· What
kind of expressions does propfi~ty forbid us to use.? .
. · ·
In what does precision consist? (See Lesspn LY:) Xn ~hat
way is precision often violated? Mention some. words .th!!,t are
often used as synonym es, but which really differ in their inea~lng·:.
In what does clearness consist? (Se~ Lessons LVI. and LVI(.)
What is the opposite of clearness? To promote clearness, ~·hat
words must be avoided 1. What is the rule lvi~h regard·to '.mak•
ing the same pronoun refer to different olijects 1. :Whe_n must4ve
insert ,w ords that are omitted?. How must words and clauses be
placed 1 What w~rds are mostfreq-qenpy . misplac~a. ( -~ , ;· ' : . '_
In what does strength consist? (See Les5bns L VIII. and LIX.)
What is tautology? Ho\v inay it be ·cofrected? . · .: ·,
···
What is redundancy? How may it be corrected?
-~-·
Repeat the two short rules for the promotion of strength . .
What rule relates to the conjunction and 7 With what must you be
careful not to end a s~ntence? Whei1 yoti have sev~ral simiiar
dependent clauses, which . should come last? , When you · havJ
several assertions, ·which should come last?
In what does harmony consist? (See Lesson LX;) : What
three classes of words are, for the most part, . inharmoniou.s ?
What combinations of "·ords are found to be inhannoniotls
1
0
What is the best go.ide for the general arrange1~10nt of w ord!!.
and cla uses?
·
,
' ·
In what d~es unity consist? . (See Lesson LXI.) . Repeat· the.
three rules for the preservation of unity. ..
· · _ . :' ..

a

>: ..· '.-:- ·

MISCELLANEOUS

LESSON

LXII.

A REVIEW .

.:WHAT is style? (See Le~soi: LIT.) From what is the word styl~
dei ived? ·w hat a re the pnnc1pal kinds of style? Describe simple style; florid style; nervous style; concise style; diffuse style.

\

'

EXER~Istt:

· ... . ~"

...

Punctuate the following sentences, and_correct
. them so that they may' contain ho yiolation of the
rules for purity,· propriety, preci~ion, . c~ear~ess,
strength, harrriony, and l.mity. .
·
1. In the last Punic war the Romap.S:,SOOI! ·got .pie
~pper hand of the Carthaginians ' _ . · , > ·> , , · ._
2. The earth moves round the sun at a ·quick rate. ·

6*
,

"·~~·;.

J\'II_SCELLANEOUS . ],;XERCISE, .·; :

FIRS'.!.' LESSONS IN COM:POSI'TION.

2. Lord Bacon's maxims are full of philosophy; but
he was a very mean man.
.
.3. The bear is capable of strong attachment and its
.flesh makes very juicy and excellent food.
'
4. Father Carli says that the camel. which is the most
patient of animal,s, retains the rememb~·ance of an inju;ry
that has, been done to it, until an opportunity of revenge
occurs.
.

•. -

- ;

't

1-·

130

· ,·

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF COM,POSITION.

3. A French savant at a late meeting of the literati
and scientific men of Paris by a chemical process froze
some drops of water in a red-hot cup
4. The sky in New Holland is so singular and so beautiful in appearance tliat even the icriters' descriptions
who have been there can give us no adequate idea respecting it

What are the two great. divisi~ns, urtder which all . compo11ition a may be classed?
• ,

!'}_ • No nation on the earth are so ge11erally cheerful
and light-hearted that I lrnve met with as the French
.. 6. He endeavored to disarm my fears by ord ering the
army who were all we~l arnied to lay aside their arms
7. He looked coldly at me and e71ed me sternly
8. The criminals were next placed in an enormous car
9. We kn~w that it is hard to do right still let us try
to do it

10. Amethyst means 'that which does not intoxicate'
and it was so called because it was a prevalent doctrine
~mong the ancients that wine would lose its intoxicating
influence drunk from a cup of this precious stone
·
11. In the middle ages it was a habit for pilgrims to
flock from all parts of the globe to the tomb of our
Saviour

..

12. Ther~ was no crime that Catiline was not guilty
He rumed not only a great number of youug men
but attempted to 1·win his country itself.

ef.

LESSON LXIII.

Prose and Poetry.

· '

What compositions fall unde1~ the head of-prose? .

All those in which a n~tur~l ~~thod._6f ~xpres- .
sion, and a natural 01:cler., .are ~mployed; wit_h out
reference to the recurrence of certa!n soun0-s, · or
-any exact arrangement of syllables . . ·
What compositions fa ll under the head

o'r poetry 1 .

,

All those in which there is a departure from the
natural order; or mode of exp1:ey,sion.; or ih which
there is a recurrence of certain sounds, or an exact
arrangement 'of syllables. . ,
Which of these two great divisions shall we. now proceed to
consider? .
·

Prose.

.
'
What are the principal di visions umlel' which the varieties of
· prose composition may be classed ·1

There are five leading divisions; viz., Letters,
!>escriptions, · Narrations, Essays, and Argumentative Discotirses.*
When a subject has been selected, ~o matter to'_ 'vhich of
these divisions your composition is to belong 1 wh~t is the first
thing to be done ?
/ ,

To reflect upon the various branches -of _the subject, to think what can be said about it;· arid then
proceed to its analysis.
· '_ : '
What is meant by the analysis of a subject 1

By the

analysi~

·of a subject is meant the draw·

DIFFERENT KINDS OF COJIII'OSITION. -ANALYSIS
OF SUBJECTS.

WHAT is Composition.

Composition is the art of expressing one's
thoughts by means of written language.

* Note to tile T eacher. The author has deemed it inexpedient
to present the · formal divisions usually given _by rhetoricians.
He has selected such as arc essential/ and se~Iri _pn:~perly. to fall
· ·
·
wiNlin the province of an elementary work,

132

FIRST LESSONS IN COlliPOSI'l'ION.

ing out of the various heads under \Yhich it ismtended to treat it.
Will the analysis of all subjects be the sarne?

No ; the heads will depend altogether on the
subject.
·
Suppose "COMMERCE" to be given you as your subject, how
would you analyze it?

A proper analysis of " Commerce" would be as
follows:
'·

COMMERCE.

I. DEFINITION. (What is commerce?)

II. ORIGIN. (Under this head state who were the first

[,.

'

.-

to engage in commerce; the date; what other
nations soon followed in their steps.)
III. HISTORY. (State how commerce was originally carried on; describe the over-land trade between
Europe and the East Indies.)
IV. DrncovERrns. (Describe the two important discoveries that were made near the close of the
15th century, viz., the discovery of America
by Columbus, and that of a passage to the .
Indies around the Cape of Good Hope. Mention their effects on the commerce of the
world.)
ADVANTAGES.

v.

1. Equalizing the supply of the productions of
the earth.

LETTER~WRITIN<f. : ' ''.

\~

'l

:

·· 1::

· SHIPS.

I. 0Rrnrn: '(When and by whom were th~ first ~h~pff.
made 1)
·
·
. ·- · .· - ' ·
II. APPEARANCE. (Wbat was' their .original form, and
~hat improvements have m6dern'tiu;i.es.lllade
in them?)
· ~ · :.
·
, ~ ··
III. OBJECTS for which they are used, - · ·
.-'.
IV. INVENTIONS ·that :hav.e ·added to their us~ful~esa.
· (Part_icularly the mariners' compass, and;it_s
effects.)
·_ , ,
V. EFFECTS that ships have_pr9duced ,_on niankiri~.:
VI. FEELINGS
excited by
seeing
a sh1p
under fulls~il.
.
r
.
._ ·.
.
~

·what heads belong to almost .every subJect?

: · .. · ·

Such general heads as . Origin; -History, Object,
Effects, &c.
.

. EXER(JISE.

. .·

.

Copy the two analyses given above~ - · · · ..·
Analyze the followir~g subjects_accord!ng ,t? _~he
directions and models that haye been given, . re- · ,
and ·
membering to po~q.er each subject · car~fµlly, _
to give all the heads, under . ea~h,, tha~ :y?u -can .
think of.
-· ·
I. A CrTY . .·.
IV. ·EVENING.'" ~:: -~ ··
II. ScHooLs.
III. A RAILROAD.

V. "H6usEs. '· ,. ·
• ' •

·-...

2. Diffusing the blessings of education and civilization.

wrn'r:im:. -

VI.

• - "=

:.

r

.

LESSON . LXIV.

3. Spreading the truths of Christianity.
When you have a material object to describe, the analysis
would b~ somewhat different. Take, for example, "SmPs" for
your subject, and analyze it.

LETTER· WRITING!
WHAT

is the

Letters.

,

·,_ ~ '; . :

fir~t division bet~ne-in~ to p-~os~ col:npositic,>n 1- ·
,.
. '
.·
. ·. :. . : ~,/f

"i>-·;. ,

' .·.

· 134

FIRST LESSONS IN

CO:MPOSITIO~>.

What makes thi s an important branch 1

The necessity that exists for nJl persons, no mat·
ter what their business may be, to write letters.
Upon what subjects are letters most frequently composed?

Upon the ordinary topics of business or friendship.
Is the form of the letter ever

ns1~ d

ftw any ot.Jrnr sul>jcct.s 1

Yes; some writers have adopted the letter form
in the composition of Philosophical Essays, Novels,
Histories, &c.; that is, they have publisl1ed these productions, with an address to some friend, as if they
had really passed as letters.
·wou ld compositions of this kintl properl y fall u111lcr the h ead
of L etters?

No, they should be classed under the division to
which they really belong.
·w hat, then, are properly embraced unde r the h ead of L etter·writing, or Epistolary Correspondence, as it is sometimes called 1

Letters that are really intended for those to
w horn they are addressed.
What is the principal requisite of a good letter 1

A simple and concise Rtyle.
no attempt at display.

rrhern should be

What is to be avoided 1

A t endency to diffuseness, proceeding from a
fear that there may not be enough to say to fill
out the sheet.
Before com!Ilencing yo ur letter, wh at is it best to do 'I

To think over the various subjects on which it is
intended to write, and drnw out the various heads
on a separate piece of paper. In this way repetition
will be avoided, and n proper arrangement insured.
What rule is to be observed with regard to comm encing a
new paragraph in either a letter or any other piece of com posit.ion 1

135

LETTER-WRITING.

Commence a ne~ paragraph whenever -it is ne·
cessaryto pass from oiie1ea<l.of tLeletterorsubjeet
to another. ,
) .
.
:, _' .. · .~ - . '
::~~ l

What is the best method of preservipg;,neatness irr a letter or
other composition_?
· '
·.
'

Draw two light penc11 lines parallel with the
·1eft edge of the sheet, the first abbut · half an inch,
the second an inch, distant from it. Commence
your first line, and the first line of every successive
puragraph on the second or inner line; but carry
out . every other lin~ to the first or outer marginal
Jinc. Vv hen 'you have completed a page, erase the
lines neatly with india-rubber.*
Describe the date .of a letter.

·A letter should always be dated. rrhe date consists of the name of the place, the day of the month,
and the year; . thus, Gharlr:s,ton, Jqny,ary ~' 1859.
Describe the address of a letter.

It is proper in the first -line -.of the address. to
give the name and title of the persoh. to whonf the
letter is written ; on the second line, to address_ a
gentleman as "Sir," "pear Sir," or "My'_de:;i,; Sir" ·
-a married . lady as _" Madam," "Dear Madam,"'
or "'My dear M~dam 1'-acco~ding · to.,the ,different
·
degrees of intimacy.
How is an unmarried lady best addressed ?

"

In one line; as, "My dear Miss .-·-·- ·- .'.'
How should a relative, ·,or friend be.· address~d? '·

* Note to the teacher. l'he teacher wiil fi;d that the obser\tance of these dir!!ctions will conduce much to the neatness · of/a '
composition. He is requested to explain them tc> tlie pupil, and
is advised t0 insist on their being followed_'·: ' , <~. · · ."/. · :- · \ ' ·

136

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOS11I'ION.
LETTER-WRITING.

A relative is properly ad.dressed by the name that
indicates the relationship; as, "My dear Father,"
"My dear Aunt," "My deaT Nephew." Or, a relative or friend may be addressed by the Christian
name, if inlimaey will allow it; ns, "My dear Sarah,'' "My dear vVilliam."
Give the proper date and address of a letter to l\fr. H enry
Anderson.

.I /(/(/ -7£~~·c~ ~ w.

7 ""7+7 __,,/ k:f /

~d/ ~Md_U/·~/?~- /~ · ~

L./~La;/ .

@e.mt dt~

'

~-4 d~~~:~/~~~ -

Describe the clause of respect at the close of a letter .

. - There are various clauses of respect, appropriate
to different letters, according to the r elative positions of the writer and the person addressed. A
few of the most common are subjoined; the pupil
will at once see in what cases each is appropriate.

7

k-t ~~

~~4 ~~~//~~'%~ -pt~ .
~L~~/ 4Mv~~

~ ~-Ut~~- ~~
. - r

1·

... --.- -

-·~

/

;

EXERCISE; ~ -·

Observe the punctuation of these signa.,

~.

·;:'

" Copy accordl.ng' to-. the : directio_~s :g~y~ti:_ '. ab~y~~>
and punctuate, the follo':m~ )ett~r, w~~ch ;_~ ·'. s:up~
posed to have been writtt')n .J~on;i. the _J<?µowing
~eads, by a young man on _a-voyage. ._, _,, ,~ _- ·:_ :
.

~

'

r

AN ALYS!·~-..

.

;, -

'

' I. Acknowledgment -of the reception of letters from hbnie~ ~ -:·'. ,.
•

'

•

•

• \I

'-

•

•

• :-·

• . ..-\

., ; - •,•;

'

_

,,f .:."' , ,. ·/, ~' I

· ·, :r· ·-,: : ' "' t.
Note to tke pnpil.

·~·'.
.. .

•f . ,

.

~7~ {;76, l/::L~~~. *
*

-

~*_" ~~~~~- ~7~/
':.· ~~ ..

i.

~(.

{76:~/ ~~ao~/ ~/'

,u~~~,,

;-'4,

~ /!k.

'{Yd:

1 @~~~<7~/~ /J,d( /rf'J(/.

J

137

/1:-;._~ ·

tui:es. When t~e initial letter is used for a name, a ·pefiod, shouid
be placed after. it, to denote the ab}:Jrev_iation; , A perfod should ·
be placed after the surname also.
· · ·· -. ·
·

_lj
~

138

FIHS'l' LESSONS IN GO.Ml'OSl'l'lON.

-·

·139

LETTER-WRITING.

·' . ~

.·~

IL Feelings after starting.
III. Sea-sickness.
IV. Storm.
V. Arrival at Rio Janeiro.
N. B. In letters of friendship, the first line of tho address, containing the name and title, is generally omitted.

Rio Janeiro, July 9th, 1850.
My dear :Father,
You who have been such a traveller
must know the pleasure afforded one that is separated
from his family by the receipt of letters from home you
may therefore imagine my delight on beholding the full
budget which awaited my ai:riv:tl here I had hardly
ventui;ed to hope for letters lest I might be disappointed
for though we had tarried some time at 'l'rinidad I was
fearful that no other vessel would have arrived at Hio
Janeiro before us My apprehensions however were soon
put to flight by the reception of a most welcome package,
from which I was glad to see that I had not been fo1;gotten by any member of our little household
While preparations were being made for my l eaviPg
home I looked forward to my proposed voyage with ardent anticipatio1is of pleasure But when the moment
for starting arrived and I was called upon to bid farewell
to all that were nearest and dearest my heart was full of
sorrow and I bitterly regretted that it had been thought
best for me to go ·when the pilot-boat left us and your
form my dear father gradually faded from my view I .
could no longer restrain my feelings but burst into a
flood of tears The recollection of the friends and beloved relatives that I had left behind me and of the possibility that I might never meet them again on earth
overwhelmed me with sorrow

How long these feelings ·might have - continued I do
not know but on the second day out a f~esh breeze sprung
up the sea became quite rough and my ini~d · was called .
away from its gloomy reflections. by a sudden . fit of seasickness Much as I had read in travellers' ·note-books
respecting this most disagreeable companion of a seavoyagc I did not realize a tithe of its discomfort until I
became a victim of it m,yself For three days I lay in
my be1'th withoi.1t tast£:.g food . in a state of perfect indifference to all that was going on around and heartily
sorry that I had ever consented
-

..

·.'.

.

i.
.-~

··.1•
. :·,
. '• _;·J

. , "to roam
0'.er the darU sea-foam" '

On the mornrng of our sixth day out I felt a little .
better and though my br.a in was so dizzy that I co1ild
hardly see and my limbs seemed almost unable to support me I attempted ' to get up Not till then was I
aware that we were in .the midst of a terrible storm -The
vessel was plunging and the timbers were creaking as if
every instant they must part while ever and anon above
the how lings of the gale were hea~d the hoarse· tones of
the Captain shout~ng through, his . ~peaking-trumpet ·to. ·
the men Full of fear I managed to creep l:iapk into my
berth, and it was not' until near · evening I 'learned.' that
for the past twenty-four hours we had experienced . one
of the heaviest gales ever -known off Cape Hatteras ·
The remainder of our voyage was not marked by _a~y
incident worthy of narration. _ w· e arrived here 'ibis .
morning and I hasten: to dispatch this J(ltter~
t~- . relieve
.
,, .
· your anxiety. There , are as -you - may suppose . ma.ny
interest.ing "objects in this city ·these toge~her _with the _

1

.,

_, <:

.;

,,
-~

.-,
· :-·.~

'

..,~

"

,,,

140

beautiful bay and the surrounding country I shall at,
tempt to describe in my next
lfomember me affectionately to each member of our
family I shall write to them all at the next opportunity For yourself my dear father accept the best
wishes and grateful love of
Your affectionate son

in the opposite direction, and the sheet is properly _
.-r .'
folded for inclosing in an envelope.*
What is meant. by "the superscription of a_letter? ·

'I

~~c44 ~c~t?e;~~/- /
r-e~~~; - . .a ·.' . , .

LESSON LXV.

. . m~d~~d#~·

LE'fTER-vVlUTING.

WHAT is requisite in busilless letters?

Business letters should be as short as possible,
and confined strictly to the subj ect in hand.

;l

Give an example of th e proper form of afldress to a Firm.

irhe followin g ]s an example of the proper form.

.
{

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;;

.

How should a letter be folded?
'

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·'·ti

As envelopes are now generally used for inclo~
sing letters, the most convenient way of folding is
· as follows: as the sheet lies befor e yo u, turn up
the bottom until its edge exactly lies upon the edge
at the top, and make a fold in the middle. rrhe
sheet is now in an oblong form. Bring the side
that is at your ri ght hand towards your body, and .. ·
fold · over about one-third of the letter tow ards the·.
top; finally, turn as much of the ur5per part over

~

In the superscription, 'vhat common error must be avoided?

'I1he use of two titles that implj the sarrie _thing.
Thus, instead of directing to '' J,_11•. William Waltcm; ._
E sq.," we should direct either to "Mt._William ·
Wal ton," or t_o '' ·W illiaiii \iV alton, · Es~i:'' ·__ .
Correct the following
direction:
.

~-e4444. A4~ $ t/:;Z:4~~. ·

~~~' /

·- :

'l1lie direction on the outside, consistingp(_the _
name of the person ~ddtessed, the name ~f .the '
place and the state in which he lives; thus: ·_, -

J "AUOB PE.ttRY, J "1t.

,

141

LE'l"l'ER"WRl'l'ING. ·

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

pr. James
Purple,
·.:..
.·
. .

ExERCIS~.

,

..
'.._·

M."D."
. .
· . ;.

.... .
-

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write a letter according' to the.. analysis . given .
below. Follow the directions for dati~g, ~a9,ciress--· .
ing, folding, and supe:rscr' · ' . ·. abpve a11 1Jet ·ybur
letter contain no ba · pe,llit;g;or: 'nco"_:r:rect: p}lnctu-ation. The pupil ill .i:tnagin~ ~· - ~t , }ire ,:lS writing
_from _a boarding s _ ul-:- .::-i : · ' e±n1 .1!¥sachusettsr
to a· sister at home, in N ew~York city; · .. ... .
- ·(..: -·:.... .. ·;-· . ;:_ ; .-:

;,
.
- ' - ')
. .
.
~ . .:·-. . ·. . . . .' ~ . '
.
Note. As a practical illustration seems necessary, -.the
teacher is requested to fold a sheet fol; tl~e pupi! accordi~g to
_these directions. ·
:
- ·. -·;. • ' · - ·

:

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142

FIRST LESSONS IN CO:MPOSITION.
ANALYSIS.

I. A cknowl edge r eceipt of a letter fr om home, .and
state th e feelings it awak ened.

II. D escribe the weather, and state its effect on the
spirits atid amus ements of the scholars.

III. Give an account of the daily r outin e of exercises
in the school.

IV. Describe th e t eacd1er.
l

.['

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V. State when the next Iwlid:iy occnrs; how it is a n~icipa ted by Ll1e scholar:'! ; how tli0y will spend
it; state your feelings witl 1 r0gar rl to i:;our an ticipated return home.
..
··

DESCRIPTibN; ·• ·:

j

l~J

SS0 N

.~.

·: -

facility of commgnicat1on with - ~ ew-Y Citk, par~
ticularly i_p. winter when the river is frozeri ; &c.
III. Give an account of the :way in which you sp~nd
Sunday; describe the plaoe o(wgrship which
you attend. D escribe your new clergyman.
T ell what his text was last · Sunday, and describe liis sermon.
·
IV. Ask your grandmother to write to you often, and
to state in her next letter when she will come
to Poughkeepsie; state how gbcl you will be to ,
see her, and what amusements you have devised
to interest her.
,~ -· ·

LESSON
J

14W-

LXVII.

J_, X Y I .
DESClUP'rION.

EXEHClSE lN LE'l'TER-WRITING.

\\TnrTE a leUcr from I'ollgl11<ccpsic, N. "'\~., to

1

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(

your grandmother aL Dallll1H_y, Conn., accordinoto tho following analysis. J}ate, &e., as directocl
Do not use the 1vorcb of Lhe analysis, whore it can
be avoiued.
I. Ex pr ess satisfaction at having heard, throu1,·h your

fath er, who has just r eturn ed fr om D~nbury,
th at h er health continues good; hop e that you
may see her before long, so as to judge for
yourself.

II. Tell her that th e Hudson Rive r Railroad is now

.bj·

!.

finished as far as Poug hkeepsie; men tion the
results-increase of travel; excitement caused
by the frequent passage of the cars ; greater

WHAT is the second division embraced under the head of
prose composition?

Desc:riptions.
In ·wh at d oes d escr ipti on consist 1 .

Description consists in noting down the characteristi cs OT pocuJia,ri ties of any pa,rticubr object.
T o write a description, wliat is necessary?

For the writer to be familiar with 'vhat he is
tempting to describe.

at~

Do descriptions admit of analysis ? ·

Y es ; all subjeqts of composition do.
Before commencing your . description, then, what
b est to d~?

will it · be
·

To analyze the subject, according to ·the directions already
given.*
I.
.
.
"' N(lte to the leacher.-It will be well for the teacher to insist ·

1

]<'IH.S'l' LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.
What objects ac1m it of ucscriµLion?

T1rn

All oqjects that meet the eye.
Wh at are the three classes of objects that writers are most
frcqucnLly callcu on to

de ~c ri!Jc?

I. Material objects; such as hm!scs,
II. Natural scenery.
III. Persons.

ship~,

&e.

In describing the first or these classes, rnalcrial objecls, what
heads wiil generally be found appropri:itc?

, All of the following heads nmy not be appropriate in each case, but a selection may be ma<le of
such as are.
I. 'l'he place where the object was seen; the time

II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.

when it was made, iuventecl, ur discovered; its
history.
The purpose for which it was designed.
The materials of which, and the persons by whom,
it was made.
Its form, size, and general appearance.
Compare it with any other object which it may resemble.
The effects it has produced.
The feelings excited by beholding it.
EXERCIS.E.

Copy and punctuate the following description;
observe its characteristics carefully. Use capital
letters where they are required.

'
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145

DESClUPTIO.N.

'
that an analysis be drawn up, in all cases, before the pnpil proceeds to his composition. Besides impartin g prech;iou to the
mind, this practice will insure a proper nrrangement in the composition.
.

GliBAT CLOCK oF STRASBURG.

'l'hcre is no subject that i can think of 11bich ·will be
so likely to interest you a8 the great astronomical clock
which i saw the other day in the cathedral at strasburg.
this catl1edrnl by the way is one of the finest a~d oldest
in curopc. it is twenty-four feet higher than the great .
pyramid in egypt and oue lrnudred aud forty feet higher
than 8t. pauls in london. the astronomical clock stn:nds
in the inside in oi1e corner of it and is a most -iinposing ·~
and beautiful edjficc. five or six hundred peopl~ visit it
every <l::iy at twelve o'clock when it performs some extraordinary feats which I shall presently mention
There have been two or three clocks in the same •
place upon the model of ·which the present one is formed
but it is almost a new one. it · >ms constructed in 1838
by a mechanic named schwilque to whom a festival . was
given by his fellow-citizens on the occasion of its completion
,.
'
To give you some idea of the size of this clock i will
inform you that it is as high and about as wide as ·the .
old state-house in washington street boston th~re ' are
means of going into the inside of it and ten or fifte~n .
people perhaps more may stand in its very heart aild..e:i-·
amine the machinery mr neale two other g~ntlem,en and
myself with the conductor went into it _an.d ·spent _ab.oub
an hour there we went first into a lower then in,to a
higher and then into a still higher apartment of it and saw
the various parts of the machinery they consisted i should
think of more than a thousand pieces splendidly polished
and all dependent for their harmonious action upon the
short thick brass pendulum which swings in ·the ?e~tre ·_ .
This clock points out not onl~the houri · and ·. the
'

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146

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'147

FIRST LESSONS IN COJ\IPOSJ.'l'ION.

DESCRIPTION.

days but the times and the seasons the revolutions of the
stars the solar and lunar equations the conjun ctions and
eclipses of the heavenly bodies their positions at any
given time and the various changes through which they
pass for thousands of years it points out apparent time
mean or real time and ecclesiastical time on its face
yott see the motions of the stars of the sun and planets
of the moon and her satellites two li ttle cherubs who
sit the one on one side the other on the other strike the
qua1·ters of the hour death strikes the hour with a mace
while four figures pass and repass before Lim representing the various stages of human life
Every day when death strikes twelve the apostles
who are represented each with the sign of his martyrdom
come out from the clock and pass before an image of the
saviour bowing as they pass and receiving his benediction
which he gives with a movement of the head when the
apostle peter makes his appearance a gilded cock which
is perched on one side of the clock flaps his wings raises
his head and ctow8 so long and so loud as to make the
whole cathedral ring again this he repeats three times ·
in memorial of the cock that crowed three times before
the fall of Peter during the crucifixion of our saviour
of courRe the cock nrnkeR no fnrtlwr nnise or motion till
the next day at hyelve o'clock wheu lie repeals the same
loud and startling crow flapping his wings and raising
his head
.Now i dare say you will all exclaim what a wonderful
clock what a wonderful man must he be tl1at made it but let
us remember how much more wond erful are the mechanism of the universe and the god ttho made it how wonderful that being who made us and all mankind and keeps
the whole universe going and every heart beating from day

to day and from year to year " Lo these are but a part
of his ways but the thunder of his power · who can understand"

L E SS0 N

L XV I I I;

DESCRIPTION.

to

wRITE

a description of A SHIP. according
the analysis given on page .133, omitting the third
and fourth he~ds . entirely, and enlarging on · ti1e
second and sixth.

L E S S 0 N L X I X.
DESCRIPTION OF NATURAL SCENERY.

-

IN describing natural scenery, what h eads is it best to take?

Selections may be made from the following :

1. The circumstances under which it was seen·

. IL
III.

IV.
V.

whether at sunrise, at noon, or by moonlight;'
the effect, &c.
•.
The natural featui·es of the scene; whether level
or undulating; whether fertile ~r barren, &c.
The improvements made by man; whether well
cultivated; whet.h er any buildings are in sight;
if so, describe the11L
The figures in the scene; if any human beings,
describe them.
The neighboring inhabitants; their character, peculiarities, &c.

:J

i
I

, I
!.

. ' :~

- - - - - ---------- .

l'

148

FIRS1' LESSONS IN COM:l'OSI'J'ION,

DESCRIPTION.

VI. The sounds that meet the car; as, the murmur of
a stream, the noise of a waterfall; the rustling
of the leaves under the influence of the wind,
the lowing of cattle, the barking of dogs, the
singing of birds, the cries of children; the
sounds of industry, such as the noise of machinery, &c.
VII. The distant prospec t.
VIII. A comparison with any other scene which it may
resemble.
IX. The historical associations connected with the
scene.
X . The feelings which the view a.wakened in the
mind.

haunted of yore the · fabulous · dragon of wantley here
were fought many of the most desperate battles during
' the civil ·wars of the roses and here . also flourished in ·
ancient times those bands of gallant out.laws whose deeds ·
have been rendered so populai· in english song. * * # * ·
the sun was setting upon one of the rich grassy glades
of the forest that has been mentioned. hundreds of
broad-headed short-stemmed wide-branched _oaks which
had witnessed perhaps the stately march of the roman
soldiery flung .their gnarled arms over a thick carpet .of
the most delicious greensward in some places they were
intermingled with beeches hollies and copsewood of various descriptions so closely as totally to intercep t the
level beams of the sinking sun in others they receded
from each other forming those long sweeping vistas in
t11e intricacy of which the eye delights to lose itself while
imagination considers them as the paths to yet wilder
scenes of sylvan
solitude. here the red rays
.
. of the sun
sl1ot a broken and <liscolored ligl1t that partially hung
upon the shattered boughs and mossy trunks of the trees
and there they illuminated in brilliant patches the portions of tud to which th ey made their· way. a considr~r­
able opeu space iu the midst of this glade se~mcd formerlv to have been dedicated to the rites of drnidical
superstition for on the summit of a hillock so regular as
to seem artificial there still remained part of a circle of
rough uuhcwn stones of large dimensions. scYen stood
upright the rest bad been <l islodge<l from their places
probably by the zeal of some convert to christianity and
lay some prostrate near their former site and others on
the side of the hill. one largo stone only had found its .
w:iv to tl10 1Jottom and in Rtopping tl1e courRe of a small
br;ok which glided smoothly round the foot of the emi-

Is it necessary for these heads to be considered in the order
given above 1

No they mav be taken in any order that rn:w
suit the convenience of the writer.
'

v

v

v

EXERCISE.

Cop:y am1 punctuate the follo1ving description
written by Sir \Va.Her Scott. Observe ii..s cki.racteristics. use capitals where they are required.

"in that plea0auL di0trict of merry onglauJ wl1id1 is
watered by the river don Lliere extemlecl iu a1wie11t times
a large forest covering the greater pa.rt of the beautiful
hills and valleys which lie between shcllielJ auJ the
pleasant town of doncaster. tlie renrnins of Ll1i::i extensive wood are still to be seen at the noble scats of wuntworth of wharncli~'e park and around rotherham . here

149

150

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

nence gave by its opposition a feeble voice of murmur to
the placid and elsewhere silent streamlet.
. the · human figures which completed this landscape
were in number two partaking in their dress and appearance of that wild and rustic character which belonged to
the woodlands of the west riding of yorkshire at that
early period.
(Here follows a descri pt.ion of the persons.)

LESSON

DESCRIPTION.

151 ·

IV. No person in view; sloops with white sails, look ·
like large birds. .
.
V. "While the · eye is thus pleased, the ear 'is no less
delighted; describe ·some of the sounds that
usually meet the ear in the country on a summer morning.
VI. Feelings awaken ed; contrast with the excitement
of a city life; the grandeur and beauty of the
scene lead the mind to the Creator, and a thanksgiving goes up to Him from · the heart-(for
what?) .

J_jXX.

a description of the "Scene from Fort
Lee Bluff," according to the hints in the follmving
analysis. Do not use the words of the book, lmt .
.
express the thoughts in your 01vn lang uage.

· LESSON"

LXXI.

vVRITE

I. Alone; sunrise ; appearance of the sun as he
gradually emerges above the eastern horizon.
II. Eye rests first on the Hudson flowing at the base
of the bluff; effect of water 011 a landscape. On
the opposite side, a fine country, hill and valley,
studded with villages.
III. 'Vhile in the distance many evidences of cultivation meet the eye of one looking eastward on
. an unbroken for est, not even ' an
the west 1s
occasional house; one might suppose that he
~ere in a wilderness far from oivilization, were
~t not ~or one evideuce of human industry and
rn~enmty, a high post for the telegraph wire,
which here crosses the river. Itemarks on this
great enterprise.

~-

DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS.

.'
.'

.

IN what varieties of composition is the writer most frequently
called on to describe persons?

In biographical sketches, travels, history, and
novels.
In describing persons, what heads is it best to take 1

. A selection may be made from the following.
I. Person; whether tall or short, fleshy or thin.
II. Dress.
·· ·1
III. Face ; features ; expression.
' IV. Manners; whether dignified; graceful, awkward,
active, indolent, haughty, or affable.
V. Any peculiarity of appearance.
-,
EXERCISE.

Copy and punctuate the following description of
'' Leather·stocking," extracted from one of Cooper's ·
,.
·.:
novels.
,.

.;··.J
~

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152

NARH.A'I'ION. ,

FIRS'l' LESSONS IN COMPOSI'rION.
J.iEATIIER-STOCKING .

"There was a peculiarity in the mauner of the hunter
that struck the notice of the young female who had been
a close and interested observer of his appearance and
equipments from the moment he first came into view
He was tall and so meagre as to make l1im seem above
even the six feet that he actually stood in his stockings
On his head which was thinly covered with bnk sandy ·
Lair he wore a cap made of fox-skin His face was skinny
and thin almost to emaciation but yet bore no signs of
disease on the contrary it had every inLlica.Lion of the
most robust and cnduriug health 'J'lic eold and the exposure had together given it a, color of uniform red his
gray eyes were glancing under a pair of shnggy brows
that overhung them in long hairs of gray mingled with
their natural hue his scraggy neck was bare and burnt
to the same tint with his face though a small pa.rt of a
shirt-collar made of the country check was to be seen
above the over-dress he wore A kind of coat made of
dressed deer-skin with the htti.r on was belted close to his
lank body by a girdle of colored worsted On his feet
were deer-skin moccasins ornamented with porcupines'
quills after the manner of the Indians and his limbs
were guarded with long leggings of the same material as
the moccasins which gartering over the knees of his tarnished buck-skin breeches had obtained for him among
the settlers the nick-name of Leather-stocking notwithstanding his legs were protected beneath in winter by
thick garments of woollen duly made of good blue yarn
Over his left shoulder was slung a belt of deer-skin from
which depended an enormous ox-horn so thinly scraped
as to discover the dark powder that it contained The

I

153

larger end was fitted ingeniously and securely with a
wooden bottom and the other was stopped tight by a
little plug . A leathern pouch hung before hi'in from
which as he concluded his last speech he took a_small
measure and filling it accurately with ·powder he com•
menced reloading the rifle which as its butt rest~d on
the snow before him reached nearly to the top of his
fox-skin cap"

LESSON LXXII.

...:

EXERCISES IN DESCRIP'TION.
VVRI'I'E

descriptions of
A RAIL-ROAD •

.

THE OouN'rRY IN SUMMER.

[N. B. The pupil . is expected in every case to prepare an
analysis of his subj ect, before he proceeds to the composition itself. This ~vill not, therefore, be repeated any more.in the directions. If he meet with difficulty in drawing out his analyses, .
it will be well for him to revie\v Lesson LXIII., which treats · of
that subject.]

LESSON LXXIII.
NARRATION.
WHAT is the third divlsion embr_
a ced under the head of prose
composition?

Narrations.
In what does narration consist?.

In giving a detailed account of incidents which

7*

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154

FIRST LESSONS IN COl\iPOSI'l'ION.

have taken place, or which the writer imagines to
have taken place.
vVh en the incidents have no foundati on in fact, but are created
by the imagination of the writer, what is the comp os ition called 1

Fiction.
Wh at are the principal divisions embraced under the general
head of fi ction 1

rrales, Novels, and Romances.
When confined to fact, what are the principal divisions embraced under the head of narration ?

.,

I. History ; or, an account of general incidents.
II. Biography ; or, an accom1 t of the incidents
tha,t have lwppenecl in tho lives of individuals.
III. Travels and Voyages ; or, accounts of incidents that have happened to persons while
away from home, or while traversing the
ocean.
In narrati on, must we confine ourselves strictly to an account
of the incidents 1

No; vve may with advantage introduce descriptions of scenes, and of the persons concerned.
In narration, wha t is particularly necessary 1
't_.

That the sentences be clear, ancl the connection
between the parts be properly maintained.
EXERCISE.

Copy and punctuate the fo1Jowing specimen of
historical narration, which is based on the Scriptural account of Belshazzar's F east in the 5th
chapter of the book of Daniel. ri~ h e pupil is requested ·to turn to this chapter; he will find that

NARRATION: ' :' .

155

the language used in the extract below is &rftirely
different from that of the Bible. From this he will
understand -What is meant, when, in . foilowing an
outline given in· ~he book, he is directed to use his
own language.

· -~

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<~.,,.,
·~~.::.r.

BELSHAZZAR'S FEAST

" It was night but the usual stillness of that hour was
broken by the sounds of feasting and revelry It had
been a festival day in Babylon and the inhabitants had
not yet sunk into repose The song and. the dance still
continued and the voice of music was heard All seemed
in perfect security and no precautions had been taken to
avoid the danger which hung over th.eir devoted heads
An invading army was even then surrouhding the walls
of the city but thos~ who ought to have defended it con·
fident and secure left it unguarded and exposed to the
attacks ·of the enemy Fear was excluded {)Veii from the
walls of the palace and the monarch was giving his own
example of rioting q.nd mirth to his subjects A thousand of the noblest lords in his kingdom were feasting
with him as his invited guests They had 'already tar~
ried long at the wine' when Bclsbazza~ in the ptide and
impiety of his heart commanded the servants to · bring
the silver and golden vessels which had been taken by
his grandfather Nebuchadnezzar from the temple · at J e- .
rusalem They were brought and filled with wine and
as they drank it they extolled their go,ds of wood and of
stone
.
. But while they were thus sacrile.giously employed
their mirth was suddei:ilj changed .into amazement and
consternation A hand liko ·that of a man ~ was , seen to

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156

HISTORICAL NARRATION. .

FIRST LESSONS IN COl\fPOSITION.

write upon the wall of the palace and as they gazed upon
it it traced the sentence 'Uene, l\Iene, T ekel, Upharsin'
No one among the vast company understood its meaning
but to their affrighted imagination it was full of portentous import '.I'he king who was exceedingly terrified
sent in haste for all the astrologers and those persons in
whose powers of divination he had been acc nst,orned to
place confidence Lut none could ex1>la in the my sterious
wannng
At this juncture the queen entered and informed the
king that Daniel was in th e city anLl tliat he was supposed, to possess the wisdom of the gods H e was hasti ly
summoned into th e royal presence and after reproving
the trembling monarch for th e pride which he liacl mani, fest ed revealed to him the doom which was pronounced
upon him He told him that his kin gdom and his own
life were nearly at a close that his empire shonlcl be divided between the Medes and P ersians and also that his
own character had bee n examined and found lamentably
deficient
The reward wl1ich liad been promised mis now bestowed upon Daniel He was arrayed in a kingly robe
adorned with a golden chain and proclaimed the third in
authority in the kingdom Ere the next rising sun .Belshazzar was numbered with the dead"

LESSON LXXIV.
EXERCISE IN HISTORICAL NARRATION.

in your own language an account of" The
Ca.sting of Daniel into the Den of Lions,'' from the
vVRITE

157

facts recorded in the 6th chapter of the book of
Daniel. Attach to it such reflectio1~s on the preservation of Daniel, and the d.e struction qf . his
wicked enemies, as suggest themselves to your
mind.

L E, S S 0 N

LXXV.

EXERCISES IN B1sToR1CAL NARRATION.
~,]

in. your own. language an cxtencled .account of the incidents descrih~d in the followrng
out1ines. In doing this you inay have occasion to
follow the directions given rn Lesso:ps XLIII.,
XLIV., XLV., XLVI., and LIL
vVRITE

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RoMAN VmTuE.

. ·.J

Pyrdius was king of Epirus. 'fhe Samnites were at
war with Rome; they invited P yrrhus to help them.
He accepte<l tlieir invitation. Th e physician ~f Pyrrhus
was a bad man· he told the Romans th at, for _a large
re,va.rd. he woul'd poison his master. Fabricius was the'
Homa~ general ; he was an honor:;1,ble man ; he :"afl
shocked at the physician's treachery, and sent the traitor
away with scorn, saying, "We should ?e honorable event~
our enemies." Pyrrhus heard of this; he would not be
outdone in generosity; be sent his prisoners to Rome .
without ransom, and consented to negotiate a peace.
[Close with reftect\ons on the baseness of s,nch tre:l.chert, and .
the volicy of always pursuiug an honorable course, as ~he Ro..... -. ·,
mans did on this occasion.]

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158

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

·'. 159

BIOGRAPHICAL SK~TCHES. ' .

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Tirn

DrnouEDIEN T C APTAIN.

Frederick II., the Great, king of Prussia, was a famous
warrior; remarkable for strict discipline. In one of his
~ampaigns he intended, during the night, to make an
important movement; gave orders that every light in
the camp should be put out at eight o'clock, ou pain of
death. At that hour he went out himself, to see if the
or~er :vas obeye.d. Saw one light; in the tent of Cap·
t~m Zretern ; kmg entered; Zietern was folding a letter.
Ztetern was dismayed at beholding the king; threw himself on his knees and implored pardon · said he was
writing to his wife, and had retained the ~andle to finish
~is letter. The king told him to go on , and write one
lme more which he would dictate to him · that line was
.
'
to mform his wife that by sunrise the next day he would
be a dead man. The letter was sent; at the appointed
·
time Zietern was executed.
(Close with reflections on the necessity and policy of obe;
dience.]

LESSON LXXVI.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKE'l'UllES.
'WHAT

is a hiographical sketch?

. A biogra~hic~l sl~etch is a na1Tation of the principal events m tlie life of an incli vidual.
'·
"What is it proper to include in a biographical sketch?

A description of the person under consideration
according to the heads given in L esson LXXI. '
,,

What other particulars arc to be considered iu a uiograpbical
sketch 1

I. Birth, conditibn in life, vocation. ·
.
II. Character, dispositipn. · ~ · , ·· .
..
ill. .Mental.· abilities,
leading,_cliarac,teristics· ~f
'
·'
mind. '·
IV. Successive events, beginning at the ea~liest
period of life.
.
V. His peculiarities, ,or what rendered him famous.·
'

'

How do ' biographica~ sketches rank aill;ong other pieces of
· composition 1
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They are among the most interestipg an_d useful.
What renders them ~sefui? '

·

·

They are useful, b.ecause the lives of the ~ost . dis-,
tinguished men teach us that a course of uprightness
and industry secures the respect of the world, and
that idleness and vice bring .their votari~s ·to suf7
fering and disgrac~ .'
· .
· .
What length is proper for biographical sketches?

·<

They may be ,o f any length. Some_ me:ri's lives
are so eventful as to furnish . sufficient matter for
volumes. When brevity is requited, . only a few
of the leadi~g facts may be pi:es~nted, and the whole
may be so abridged as to occupy but a .few p~ges,
or be reduced even to the compass of a smgle page.
EXERCISE •

. Copy and punctuate the following specimen of a
· · · · : ···
. biographical sk~tch. - ·
·. l
· ':!' ... •

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MAHOMET.

"Mahomet was born at Me~ci/in 569 · ~ D .The
tribe from which he descended was that of the ' Korash-

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160

FIRST LESSONS I N COMPOSITION.

ites and the most noble in Arabia His immediate ancestors seem however to have been undistin g uish ed and
though his natural talents were great it is certain th a t
his education was inconsiderable He acquired knowJedge but not from books Intercourse with m a nkind
had sharpened his faculties and given him an in sigli t into
the human h eart
In GOV wh en he was about 110 years ohl lie Lc:.!!all to
concert a system of measu r es the issue of 11hich 1>as the
establishment of a i1 ew religion in the wo rld anll of nn
empire which spreading over many countries lasted more
than six centuries 'l'h e relig ion still r emains
His impostures were not at first wc~ ll received The
citizeus uf Mec:e~t evc.:11 upposell lhc:m Forsaking his nativ e city wh er e his life was in j eopardy he fled to 1'Icdina
at the epoch called by th e l\fahorne tans the hegira or
flight which was in the y ear 622 By the aid of his disciples at ..Medina he returned to Mecca as a conqueror
and making num erous proselytes he soon became master
of Arabia a nd Syria an d wns saluted as king in G27
The main arguments which Mahomet employed to
persuade m en to embrace his relig ion were promises and
threats which he knew would easily work on the minds
of the multitude His promises related chiefly to Paradise and to the sensual delights to be enjoyed in that
region of pure waters shady groves·- and exquisite fruits
Such a heaven had strong charms for the Arabians whose
burning climate made them r egard images of this sort
with excessive pleasure His threats on the other hand
were peculiarly terrific to this people Those who rejected his religion were in the next world to drink nothing
but putrid and boiling water to breathe nothing but exceedingly hot winds they were to dwell for ever in con-

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161

IHOGRAP.HlCAL SKETCIJES;

tinual fire intensely burning and be surrounded with a
black hot salt smoke as with a coverlet
:Mahomet was distinguished for the beauty of his person he had a commanding presence a majestic aspect
piercing eyes a flowiug bea rd and his whol e countenance
depicted the strong emotions of his mind His memory
was retentive his wit easy and his judgment clear and
dc ciRive Tn hi A intercourse with society he observed the
forms of tl1at grave and ceremonious politeness so com-

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EXERCISE IN BIOGRAPHICAL NAR¥TI~JN . . :: ..
~

.

WRiTE,

I

•

;

-

in your own language, a · biographical

sketch of N ewtonJrom the facts fornished below. -.
You may ~dopt what€ver arrangement is. most convement.
·
_ .- . . ,.
•

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SIR

ISAAC NEWTON.

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mo11 in bis country
l\lahome t persisted in his fanaticism to the last On
his death-bed he asserted that the angel of death was not
all owed t o t ake his soul till he had respectfully asked the
periniRRion of the pr,ophet 'l'he request 1eing granted
l\Iahom ct fell into the agony of dissolution he fainted
with the violence of pain but r ecovering his spirits in a
degree he raised his eyes up\vards and looking ste~d­
fastly said with a faltering voice 0 God pardon my s111s
yes I come among my fellow-citizens on high and , in
this manner expired))

I1ESSON ' LXXVIL

··~~,-·

...

The most illustrious . philosopher· and math~matician
that ever lived. Born, 1642, at Woolsthorpe; · Lincol~- · ·

...

162

·-.··

FIRST LESSONS IN COl\f POSITION.

shire, England. J,ost his father wlien very young; his
mother took great care of his early education. At 18,
entered Trinity College, Cambridge; here he devoted
himself to mathematics; displayed great ability in the
various branches of that science. At 22, discovered the
method of fluxions, which, however, he afterwards greatly
simplified and improved.
Next, made important improvements in telescopes, hy the grinding of optical
glasses. Next, began to investigate tlie vrism, aud put
forth a new theory respecting light and colors. His
next discovery startled the whole world-this was the
principle of gravitation. He was led to this by 8ecing
ail apple fall, while Le was rceli11ing under a tree iu an
orchard; his inquiring miuJ at 011cc set aLout investigating the cause. His great work en titled "Principia,"
was published in 168'7 ; this added much to his reputa~
tion, and procured him the respect of the learned and
scientific of all countries. The friendship of Lord Halifax obtained for him the lucrative situation of master of
the mint.
At 80 he became affected with a painful disease, which,
Suffered great agony
five years later, proved fatal.
during the last five weeks of his life; bore it patiently;
even smiled, while the paroxysms caused large drops of
sweat to roll down his checks.
Newton was amiable ; a Christian ; studied the Bible
much. Always rebuked irreverence. He was of middling height; his countenance, venerable and pleasant.
His power of mind is uniYersally admitted. A great
writer has said that, if the learned men of all ages could
" meet in one assembly, they would choose Sir Isaac N cw·
ton for their president.

.163.

· FICTION.
/

LESSON

LXXV.III.

FICTION.
VVHA'l'

is fiction 1

Fiction is a species of cornposit~on in whi~h
events are narrated that have no foundation except in the imagination of the writer.
What makes fiction interesting ?

Striking scenes, and novel cornbinat1ons of
events.
Repeat the three divisions that are emb.r aced unde~· the head
· of fiction .

rrales, nove1s, and romances:
, ·what is the <iifference between a tale and a novel 1

A novel is longer than a tale.
What is the difference between a novel and a romanc·e 1

A novd is founded on 'events that resembl~
those of real life; while a romance is .a narnitioi;i.
of wilder and more unnatural incidents.. '
In fiction, what other species of composition may be introduced with advantage 1 ,
·
'

. Desc1;iption .and historical : narration.
.

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EXERCISE. . .

:- ,

An extract illustrative of fi~tion is u~necessary, as . the· pupil
will recognize specimens of .it ~n . the vari,ous stories' and 'fairy:.
·
·
· tales which he has read. ·

Imagine that you had an· .e ncounter with banclitti, whily travelling in Italy, and write an account
of ~t according to the following hints.
·
"
THE BANDIT OF T;EIE . APENNINES.

· Describe the scene; pass in the Apennines? night; . .
'

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164

FIHS'l' LESSONS IN CO:MPOSI'l'ION.

moon struggling with clouds. I was travelling in a lal'ge
comfortable carriage; cold ; sleepy.
Suddenly carriage stopped. Voices; oaths; traces
cut; door opened; ferocious fellow masked · presented
. I
,
p1sto ; demanded money. Felt for pistols ; not in their
place; must have been removed by poRtillion ; in league
with the banditti. Had to give up money and jewels.
. One ring had been given me by my mother; prized
it much; asked the leader to let me retain it; he Jian<led
it to me with a polite bow, so much like the courteous
salutation of the inn-keeper at the last stopping-place,
that I could not help fancying that they were one and.
the same man.

•

Stripped me of all they could get; tied me to a tree;
shouted; _did no good . ·was obliged to stay there till
morning ; a Count passed by with a large retinue of servants. Released me.
Six months after this was 111 Florence. There was
to be a public execution. I happened to be out, and
met the procession that, was conducting the criminal to
the gallows. They told me that he was one of the most
daring bandits of the Apennines. Our eyes met· with
.
'
imperturbable politeness he rose in the car, all manacled
as he was, and made me that Rame bow to which I could
have sworn among a thousand. It was no otber than
my host of the mountain inn, and my polite friend of the
mountain pass. It was his last bow; in less than an
hour his body was dangling from the gallows.

.

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· ESSAYS.

LESSON LXXIX.
ESSAYS.
WHAT is.the third division embraced
composition 1

~nder

the head of prose

Essays.
What is an essay 1

,

A.n essay .is . a ·composition,

1

generally on· some
abstract subject, devoted rather to an investigation
of causes, effects, &c., than to an e:f~mination of
visible and material peculiarities.

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May P.l'll'lA.ys ever cont.n.in description or narration 1 ·

Yes; brief descriptions and narrations may be
introduced l.nto essays with advantage. ·
In essays, what heads is it proper to take 1

Almost any that occur to the miri.d.
What name has been g iven to essays that treat of the principles of art, science, or moral ti·uth 1
' ·
·

Philosoph~cal essay~.

.

1

EXERCISE.
WRITE an essay on OoMMERC,m according to .the
analysis given on page 132. It will b~ seen that
the second, third 1 and fourth heads will .i ntroduce
some historical narration; but this is not objection~ ·
able.
·
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LESSON LXXX.
-~~

WRITE an essay on FRIENDSH'.IP, acc'o rding to the
following analysis.
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166
I.
II.

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ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES.

Fl~ IE NDSlIIP.

mons; when oil other subjects, speeches or orations.
.
.'
. ·.

(What, is friendship '2)
ORIGI N. (Friendship took its rise in the social feel·
ings implanted in the breast of man .)
III. ANTIQUITY. (Existed in the earliest times; much
regard ed by the ancients; Cicero com posed a
volume on it.)
IV . .INSTAN CES. (David and .Jonat.han ; Damon and
Pythias; &c. You may briefly relate the story
of Damon and Pythias, if you are familiar with

it.)
V.

NECESSITY.

(What would be the state of society

without friend ship?)

VI.

EFFECTS.

LESSON LXXXI.
....

ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES.
WHAT is the fifth division embraced under the head of prose
composition 1

Argnmen tati ve discourses.
What is an argumentative discourse 1

An argumentative discourse is a composition in
which the writer lays down a proposition, and attempts to persuade others that it is true.
·
What are the facts and r easons which a writer brings forward to sustain his position, called 1

Arguments.
What are argumentative discourses called when delivered
before popular assemblies 1

vVhen on sacred subjects, they are called ser-

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FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'l'JO~;-.

DEFINITTON.

~

In the orations and argum entative discourses of the ancients,
wJiat formal diYisfons Were adop ted 1

Six regular divisions were adopted, viz.: . _.
I. 'I'he Exordium, · or introduction; in which
the speaker strove to make his hearers at~
tentive, and dispose~ to . i·eceive his arguments;
II. The Division, in which the speaker stated
the plan he intended to pt.1Ys1ie in treating
the subject. ·
..
I.II. The Statement, in which the subject and
the facts connected 1vith _it, were ]aid open.
IV. rrhe Reasoning, in . which ·. the arguments
were set fortJ.i in order, _the weakest being
generaJly in the middle; and in whi~h the
reasoning _of oppo~rnnts :was r.efuted. . ·, ·.. :
V. The Appeal to the foelings, one .of the most
important div~sions of th.e discourse." )
:
· VI. Th~ .Peroration, in which the spea~er Slµll·
med up ·an that had been said; and brought .
his discourse ·to a dose. ·• · . - ', • ;.' .~.~.,.
Is it customary to adopt this arrangement and 1divisio~ -in 'dis-' ·
courses at the present day '!
• .,. ,
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It is with sor;Il.e speakers; .. but . others use ·less
formal divisions . . 'There are maily excellent -. ais,
courses, in .which syveral of these p~rts ' are~. alto~
gether wanting.
· ·· ·
:.
EXERCISE.

I

_f •

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~. 'f' '•

Copy and punctuate the follo~ing ~ speoi:rp.en·. of

..
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168

FIHS11 LESSONS IN COMPOSTTION.

ARGUMENTATIVE DISCOURSES.

a short argumentative disconrsc. Tl; 1vill lle seen
that the regular di vision is not strictly 8.dlieretl to.

. B~t ngain no one can deny that it is an important
prrnciple of our religious system that the virtuous and
tlie pious should be put to the trial and that affiictions
Hild crosses are sent by the Omnipotent to test the stability of their faith and practice As Job a man that
"fcarecl God and eschewed evil" was tried by visitations
from on . high ~o .have the goocl of all ages been obliged
to sulrn11t to similar probation Viewed in this light it
would seem tbat trial is peculiarly in this world tLe lot
of virtue tl1e necessary preparation to be made in time
by those wl 10 would enjoy a blissful eternity
But those who with the poet believe that

llArPI NES S

rs

NOT AL\VAYS THE l~LWAlcn OF

Vrrn1;E.

In confompbting the rnaximR of the :rn,·irnt Stoic
philosophers we cannot help being struek with tlie soundneRR of their principlcR and the stern requirclllcnts of
th eir moral cocle Y ct. tlic!'e it> OllC oi' their propositions
to which we cannot yield assent and that is tlrnt t ernporn.l happ in ess is the necessary consellLlence of virtue So
important a suestion one on wliich so mnny i~s11rs nncl
those the pra<;tical issues of l ife are staked is well worthy
of l1 isuu ssio n
In tn~:iting tl1c q11r:-dio11 it is well n111lcrs(11nd tk1t
prejudices will have to 110 cnrn l1fltc'l antl rcmnvc,1 for
there arc many who without having lot1kccl clo::::cly at the
subject have followell t.l1e aneient SLoies arnl lw(:anse it
i8 a convenient creed to tench aud one whidt iL is believed will lead to th e practice of virtue h ave sought to
inculcate this selfish principle
A regard for virtue .
should be instilled by higher arguments than this virtue
should be practised because it is i1 duty because it is th e
com mand of God
In the fir st place I la.y down the proposition that tl1 ere .
is no n ecessary connection between virtue a.nd h app in ess
To th e ancients who kn ew not that the soul was immortal it
may have seemed n ecessary th at the patient self-denial
the forgiving charity and th e active benevolence of virtue
should be r ewarded in thi s world but we who live in the
light of a r evelation fr oni on high know that th ere is a
h ereafter and look to that infinite cycle of ages not . to .
this finite' state of probation for that degree of reward
which virtue may procure

169

" Virtue alone is happiness below"

po int us to the pleasures of a suiet conscience and the
p~ace .wli ic h ~ lrnow l:clgc oft he perform an cc of cl u ty brings
"·1th it I~ is ad1111tted tliat these are great blessings
aiul t.l1at, w1tl10ut them happiness cnnuot exist but are
tliey alone sufficient to make a. man happy Can the
quietest con~cience in the universe remove the pangs of ·
hunger alleviate the sufferings of the sick or coitifort
the mourner The experience of the world wlll an swer
no The re a re many Jobs there are many good but U:n·
. happy men
· ·· · . · . ~
.· - ·r · _·. · ... <
r To go ~ step further to say what is nec~$sary 't_~ !..in­
sure happmess to point to religion the hope of that"which ~
:,s to .come as an anchor to .which ' the_ .~ou(~ ~~y .-cling
am~d a sea of trouble" would be foreign to the q~estion
·_,In view of the arguments we have advanced· in " view ' of
the striking argument furnished by our.· own exp~nenca .
we think we may fairly conclude that .
' ·· :·, - ·.. .
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"Virtue alone is" not "happiness below."
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171

FIGURES.· SIMILE.

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'fION.

What rules are,to be observed in using siqiiles?

LESSON LXXXII.
FIG URES.-SIMILE .

[The pupil is now familiar with th o principal kinds of composition. All that remains to complete the course, is one or two
lessons on the principal fi gures.]
WHEN we say, "Saladdin was a fox in Ike conncil, a lion in the
fi eld," do we mean that he actually became at one time a fox,
and at another a lion ?

No ; we mean that he was cunning in laying
plans, and bold in executing them.
When lang ua ge is used in this way t o represent not the ideas
which the words reall y ex press, but some th ought tha t is analogous or has some resemblance to them, h ow is it said to be used 1

Figuratively.
What are the principal fi gures 1

Simile, Metaphor, and P ersonification.
thin~

Give an example.

Good nature, like the .sun, sheds a light on all
around."
·1 "

In making similes, what must we observe ?

That the objects compared have a resemblance.
What words are used to introduce similes ?

Like and as.
For what two purposes are similes used?

Similes are used,
I. For illustrating or ex plainin g the meaning;··
such similes are called explaining similes. ·
II. For embellishing the style ; they are then
called embellishing similes.

.

..- J

EXERCISE.

Complete the following sentences by introducing
a simile wherever a dash occurs. Rememb~r that
similes are introduced by the words lilce and as: .
EXAMPLE.

What is s imile ?

Simile is a figure by which we liken one
to another.

I. Objects that are little known should be cornpare.d with things that are better known.
II. Objects should be likened to other objects
which possess the quality. in which they
resemble each <;>ther in a higher degree
than themselves; thus, in the sentei16e,
" The moon is lilce a j ewel in the sky," the
simile is bad, because the moon sheds more
light than a f ewel, and should not be com~
pared with it;

,

,.

Temptations, - - , beset him on every

side.
Conipleted. Temptations, like so many snares, beset
him on every side.

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1. He who is a traitot to his country is - - which

turns to bite the bosom that warms it.
·(
2. Richelieu upheld the state - -- whiCh supports.
the weight of a whole edifice.
3. Anger - - consum es the heart.
.
4. Her eyes - · · shed a mild radiance on all around.
5.
Her brow was -'-----' fai~,
Het cheeks - - red.
6. Satan goes about--, seeking whom he may de~
. vour.
7. A virtuous man slandered by his enemies, is
like - .
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172

8. She was as unsuspicious - - which "licks the
hand just raised to shed its blood."
9. She mourns - - which has lost its mate.
10. Sorrow shades the soul, as a cloud - - .
11. He is as firm - - which rears its head unmoved
above the billows.
12. Man is - - which to day springeth up and bloometh, and to-morrow withereth away.
13. Shakspeare tells us that Desdemona's skin was as
white as - - , and as smooth - - .
14. He stood silent and motionless--.

173

METAPHOR.

FIRS'r LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

What is essential to the effect of a metaphor?

That the resemblance between the obje9ts com'.
pared should · be evident.
Is it well to crowd a number of metaphors together into.·a
small compass 7
·
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It is not; they lose their effect; when : used in
too great abundance.

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What is the most important rule relating to the use of metaphors 1
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· Always carry. out the figure .; that . is after hav. ing introduced a metaphor, do not in the same sentence return to the use of plain language.

·~

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Give an example in '}'hich this rule is violated. ,

LESSON

LXXXIII.

:METAPHOR.
WHAT is the most common figure?

Metaphor.
What is metaphor?

Metaphor is a comparison in which the words ,
denoting the similitude are omitted; as, "Good na- .
ture is a sun whidi sheds li"ght on all around."
How may a simile be converted into a metaphor 1

By omitting the word lilce or as, and slightly
alteri.ng the construction of the sentence, as may be .
required by this omission.
Give an example .

" Vice like a Siren, sings her sonqs fri the ears of
youth;" here we have a simile. By omitting like,
and slightly altering the sentence, we convert the
simile into a metaphor; thus, " Vice is a Siren that
sings her songs in the ears of youth."
,J,

Pope, in his translation of Homer's ·Odyssey,
makes Penelope, when speaking of her son, say,
"Now from my fond embra~e by tempests torn,
Our other column of the state is borne,
Nor took a kind adieu, ~or soµght co?sent."

In the second line she calls her son ·a "column of
the state," and in the third speaks of his taking a
kind adieu, and seeking consent~ Now as columns are
not in · the habit of taking lcind adieus, or scelci"ng
consent, there is an inconsistency, and the metaphor
is faulty. The poet" should either not have likened
him to a column, or . else should have assigned to
him no action that a ·column cannot .perform.
How may s_u ch metaphors be corrected?

'j
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.

By assigning to the leading object an action not
incompatible . with the object . to _which it is ccom'pared.
,
·
.
.
· · · -,
Give an example.

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"A torrent of superstition consumed the ldnd / 1 here

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174

175

FIRS'!' LESSONS IN COMPOSI'l'ION.

METAPHOR. ·

the metaphor would be faulty because torrents do
not consume. vV e correct it by assigning to the
leading object an action not incompatible w:fth the
nature of torrents; thus, ''A torrent of superstiti.on
flowed over the land.''

4. Honesty . is a brighter - - - than that which
adorns a king's head. -: ·
5. · Roman eloquence was--- of late .growth.
6. When industry. sows the
··, the ·harvest is .
abundant.

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"What other rule must be observed with regard to metaphors?

They must be appropriate.
Give an example of an inappropriate metaphor?

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':l1he clergyman who prayed that 'God would be
a rock to them that are afar off upon the sea,' used
a very inappropriate metaphor, because as rocks in
the sea are a source of great danger to mariners, he
was in reality asking for the destruction of those
for whose safety he intended to pray.
EXERCISE.

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1. Complete and alter sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and
7, in the Exercise at the close of the last Lesson, so
that they may contain metaphors instead of similes.
Hemernber that in a metaphor the comparison is
not introduced by the word like or as.
2. Complete the following sentences so that they
may contain metaphors.
The cares of riches are
with which
we bind ourselves to earth.
Completed. The cares of riches are golden chains
with which we bind ourselves to earth.
1. Truth is a beautiful but simple
m which
we should all seek to array ourselves.
2. Money is the
which the miser worships.
3. He became involved in the
of vice.
ExAJ\IPLE.

7. Death is but a long

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, f'rom which all shall

one day awaken.
8. He is travelling the
of pleasure.
9. The kindness · of our Creator is
from which
all our blessings flow, .
l 0. Love is a
to which opposition only add_s fuel.

•
LESSON LXXXIV .
..
EXERCISE IN METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE.
. ' ~...

the following figurative language ·into
plai"n language which will express the same idea; ,
EXAMPLE. The evening of life.
·~
A hard heart.
In plain language. 0 Id age.
CONVERT

An uncompassionate heart.
1. The morning of life. · The veil
night. A fiery
temper. A deep think_er. A Zig/it disposition. A cold
heart. A warm friend.
2. We met with afreezing reception.
3. Richard was now at the zenith·of his glory. ··
4. The earth is thirsty.
·, · .:.;1
5. The sea swallows many a noble vessel. ·: · ·
· ··
6. Ajax was the bulwark df the Greeks.
,·
7. His hard heart was melted by :the speaker's fire: '

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EXAMPLE.
The meadows are covered w1"th grass.
(Clothed, robes. )
In .figurative language. The meadows are clothed in
their robes of green.

8. T he ocean was calm. (Waves, asleep, bosom. )
9. I n youth all things seem p lcasan t. (Morning,
color ed, r oseate hue.)
) 0. A true friend will tell us of our faults . (Friendship, mirror.)
11. Let us renou nce the dominion of the tyrant. (Cast
off, yoke.)
12. Guilt is generally miserable. ("'\Vedded. )
13. Hope is a great support in misfortune. (Anchor,
soul clings, sea. )
·
14. Homer's poetry is more sublime than Virgil's.
( Genius, soars higher. )

177

· PERSONIFCATION; ·

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

?onvert the followin g plain language into :figu·
rative language that will · express the same idea.
The words in parenthes'es after each sentence are
intended to suggest an appropriate figure.

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It enlivens and . embellishes it, :by· bringing
striking pictures before the m{nd. -·

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What is meant by attributing sei to an inanimate object?
.

Speaking of it as he or sfie; thus we say of the
sun, " he sheds his light over hill a_nd d~le ;" 9f a
ship, " how bravely she ri"des the waves.'-'

=;

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EXERCISE.

Make sentences, each of which shall contain one
of the following words personified.
EXAMPLE.
I

Sentence.
breeze.
Peace.
Health.
Time.
Fire.
Summer.

War. ·
.
War flings h.is _blood~stai ned banner .tQ_ the
.

·.

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Relig ion. Prosperity.
Industry.·
Pleasure.
L iberty.

A ship.
The wind . .
The moon.
The waves.
The grave.

Spring: .
Wisdom.
Vice.
Night. '
1
Death.

"
......

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A LIST _OF SUBJECTS.

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JJ E S S 0 N L X XX V.
PERSO NIFI CA'r!ON.
WHAT is personification?

Personification is a figure by which we attribute
life, sex, or action to inanimate objects. rrhus,
when we say "the land smi"les with plenty," we
represent the earth as a living creature, srniling. _
What effect has the judicious use of this figure upon style?

~:

rl1HE pupil is now prepared for exercISeS in any
depart_m ent of prose composition. · .As a great deal
of time is often lost in .the selection of ~herµes, a list
of subjects is here subjoined, each of which, if properly treated, will be found sufficient for one exer·
cise. They have been so arranged, as far ·as possi·
ble, as to make tirn_progress in _difficulty reg~lar,
but exceedingly gradual; and the. author . wolild
8*

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FIRS1' LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

advise that they be taken in turn, in t110 order in
which they are here presented. It will be well
for the teacher to prescribe some limit of lengththat no composition, for instance, contain less than
thirty lines of manuscript.
Before entering on this list of subjects, if there
be any part of the book with which the pupil is not
familiar, it will be best :r-hin: to review it.

:

LIST OF SJJBJECTS.

23. A Snake and an Rel.
32. Scenes of War.
24. A Horse and a Cow.
38. Contrast between a Morn.25. A Sleigh and a Carriage. ing and an Evening Scene.
26. Des0ribe the place. in
34. A Scene in an Auction
·
Room.
which you live.
27. A Thunder-storm.
35. The Good Scholar.
28. A Lake Scene.
·
36. The Idle Boy.
29. A Storm at Sea.
.
37. TheJntemperate Man. .'
38. An Indian. · . ~· · . · ·
30. The Country in Spring.
3L Scenes of Peace.
89. Thanksgiving Day.

N ARRATiONS.

Fiction.*
I. Write a letter to
teacher, giving au acco1N..1.1.c.lll-W'l'C
ma nn er in which you spent your
last vacation.
2. Write to a fri end , describing your sister's wedding , and
th e festivities on that occasion.
3. Write to a cousin in the
country, giving an account of a
concert, the .Museum, or any
place of public amusement
which you may have recently
visited.
4. ·w rite to a parent, or other
r elative, travelling in Europe
about domestic matters.
'
5. ·w rite an answer to the
preced ing letter, in whi ch the
paren t \vould naturally give
some account of his travels in
Europe.
6. Announce in a letter to a

that his hrother whom
yon k1ww, and who rcsid crl in
th e same place that yo u do , is
dead. Give an account of his
sickness. Oller such consolation as is in your power.
7. ·write a note to a friend,
req uesting the loan of a volume.
Write a note, inviting a fri end
to spend the holidays at your
father's house.
Write a note, regretti ng th:it
prior engagements will compel
you to decline a friend 's invitation.
8. Write a letter to a merchaut, app lying for a situation
as cl erk , and stating your qualifications.
Write an answer from the
merchant.

DESCRIPTIONS.

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9.
IO.
11.
12.
13.
14.

An Elephant.
A Market.
A Farm.
A Canal.
A Hotel.
A Garden.
15. A Mannfactory.
16. A Church.
17. A Fire-engine.

18. A Dry-goods Store.
19. Describe "A Steamboat"
and "A Ship ;" tell wherein
they d iffor, and wherein they
are alike.
20. Treat in like manner, "A
Clock and a Watch."
21. A Bird and a Beast. .
22. A Man and a Monkey.

I

40. Adventures in California.
45. The History of it Bible. ·
41. An Encounter with Pi· 46. The History of a Cent.
rates.
47. The History of a Shoe. ·.
42. A Lion Hunt in Southern
48. The Story of an old Sol-. .
Africa.
dier.
43. The Indian's Revenge.
49. Robinson .Crusoe.
44. The History of a Pin.

'

· Historical Narrati"ons. t .
50. The Discovery of Amer-

56. The Crossing of the Red
0
The American Revolu- Se57. t:~1~s,a~~apG~lT~{h, (I. tion.
Samuel, chap. xvii.) · .. .
52. Tl~e Reign of the Em:f!er58 JephthaQ's . Daughter. '. ·
or Nero.
(Judges, chap. xi., verse 29.) .
59. Naaruan, the Leper. (II.
53. The Invasion of Russia
by Napoleon.
.
· - Kings, chap ..v.) ·. . .
. . -·
54. The Crusades..
·. ·
60. The .History of~Jo~a~·~·'.:
55. The Reformat10n.
.
. : . ., . · .· .. • '. ·. .

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* For tlrn Exercises in Fiction it wi-11 be necessary to draw ori
the imagination; in some cases it may be "'.ell for the t~acber to
assist the pupil with remarks on the subject .. In .the case of
"the History of a Pin,'' it is ne~essary only to imagme some of
the scenes that a pin would be likely to pass through, and to relate them as if the pin itself were speaking; thus, ",T~e first
· · · .
. . . ~ ..
recollections that I have,'' &c.
t In the Historicai Narrations and Biographical Sketches, the
pupil must obtain bis facts from some hist?ry. He must ,clot.~e.
them, however, in his o.w n language;
,. · · · .,~ " ·

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Bi'ographical Slceiclz es.
6f
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.

"'

Washington.
Franklin.
Charlemagne.
Alfred the Great.
Shakspeare.
Queen Elizabeth.
Columbus.

68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.

Julius Cresar.
Alexander the Great.
Homer.
Moses.
Ruth.
Solomon.
Daniel.

ESSAYS.

75. Spring.

'f.

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7G. Th e Beauties of Nature.
77. The Mariner 's Compass.
78. The Advantages of Educati on.
7Q . Evening.
80. The Fickleness of Fortune.
81. Disease.
82. Chivalry.
83. Honesty.
84. The Ruins of Time.
85. Gambling.
86. The Study of History.
87. Youth.
_
88. Winter.
89. Tbe Starry Heavens.
90. Government.
91. Old Age.
92. Anger.
93. Ambition.
94. Contentment.
95. The Sun.
96. City Life.
97. Life in the Country.
98. The Life of the Merchant.
99. The Life of the Sailor.
100. The Life of the Soldier.
101. Manufactures.
102. The Spirit of Discovery.
108. Newspapers.
104. Freedom.
105. The A rt of Printing.
106. The Influence of Woman.
107. The Ocean.
108. The Pleasures of Travel1ing.
109. The Wroni:s of the Indian

110. Summer.
111. Night.
112. Death.
11:-l. Rcveng·c.
114. Th e Study of Geography.
115. Mus ic.
116. Th e Moon.
117. Th e Slars.
118. Cornets.
11 9. Th e Earth.
120. Day.
121. Autumn.
122. ThePleasuresofMemory.
128. The Sabbat h.
12,1. The Fifth Commandment.
125. Virtue.
126. E gy pt.
127. Snow.
128 . .Mountains.
129. Forests.
130. Character of the Ancient
R omans.
131. Our Country.
132. The Mi ser.
133. Oriental Countries.
134. Hope .
135. Life.
136. Rivers.
137. Astronomy .
138. Rain.
139. Vi ce.
140. Ri ches and Poverty,
141. The Fourth of July.
142. Th e Bi ule.
14?.. Morning.
.
144. The Art of Painting.
145. The Mahomctan Religion
146. TheApplieations of Steam

181

LIST OF SUBJECTS.

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION.

1

166. Peasant Life.
147. Th e Great West. ·
167. The Sources of a Nation's
148. Idleness.
Wealth.
149. Gratitude.
168. Truth.
150. The Inquisition.
151. Th e Advantage of Study- 169. A Republican Government.
.
~'
ing the Classics. ._
· 170. Dissipation. ·
152. The Hermit.
171. Envy.
.
· '
153. Courage.
172. The Attraction of Gravi~
154. Early Rising.
ta ti on.
155. Perseverance.
173. Love.
156. Flowers.
174. Nature_and Art.
157. Modesty.
175. The Progres~ of Civiliza158. Intemperance.
' tion.
159. Genius.
176. Poetry.
160. The Orator.
177. The Feudal Systelll-:
161. Peace.
. 178. Silent Influence.
162. War.
.
179. The Drama.
163. Patriotism . .
180.
The
Mind.
164. The Jews.
165. The English Noble.

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181. "Whatever is, is right."
182. " Beware of desperate steps ; the darkest dayLi ve till to-morrow-'--will have passed away."
183. "There's a Divinity. that shapes our ends,
Rough hew them how we h1ay."
_
.
184. "Health is the vital principle of bliss."
185. " Heaven from all creatures h ides the boo~ of fate."
186. "l3e it ever so homely, there's no place like honie."
·
.
187. "Hypocrisy, the only ,ev il that walks
Invisible except to God alone."
· ·
188. "Kin;rs ar'e earth's gods· in vice their law's th eir will;
An if Jove stray, who ' dares say, J ove d oth 1'11"
• · ..
189 . " Sweet is the image of the brooding dove!
Holy as Heaven a mother's tender love!"
190. "Tile bolt that strikes the towering cedar dead,
Oft passes harmless o'er the hazel's head." ·
191. "Who by repentance is not satisfied,
Is nor of heaven, nor earth."
.
192. "Honor and shame from no condition rise;
Act well your part; there all tI,ie honor lies."
·
193. " Suspicion is a heavy armor, and ·
With its own weight impedes more than it protects." ·
· .
.
" 194. "Treason does never prosper."
·
195. "I Jove thee, twilight! for thy gleams impart
Their dear, their dying influ ence to my heart." .
~
196. "True charity's a plant divinely nursed." _
·
197. " Good name in man and \voman
ls the immediate jewel of their soil ls."
198. "Sweet are the uses of adversity."

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182

FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSI'l'ION.

199. " Man yields to custom as he bows to fate,
In all things rul ed-mind , body, and estate."
200.
" Experience is the school
Wh ere man learns wisdom."
201. Honesty is the l>est poli cy.
202. All is not gold that glitters.
203. One to-day is worth two to-morrows.
204. Birds of a feather
Flock together.
205. Great talkers, little doers.
206. Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee.

ENG LIS II

SYN ' ONYMES~ ··
,_

CLASSiFIED" AND EXP!iAINED,

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WITH

PRA CT I CAt . EX E J,l C.I S E S .

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DESIGNED FOR , SCHOOLS AND P,RIVATE TUITION.

BY G. F. GRAHAM, _
ARGUMEN'rA'rIVE DISCOUHSES.

Author of' English, or the Art o_f Composition,' &c.

When the subject is g iven in the form of a question, the pupil may take either side.

WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND ILLU.STRATIVE AU!HOR!TIES,

l. Is conscience in all cases a correct moral gu ide ?
2. Do public amusements exercise a beneficial influence on
society?
3. Does the stndy of the classics, or of mathematics, afford
the better discip1ine to the mind?
4. Is a monarchy the strongest and most stable form of government?
5. Did the Crusades have a beneficial influence on Europe?
6. Do the learned professions offer as promising an opening
to a young man as mercantile life?
7. Is a nation ju stified in rising against its rulerR?
8. Is a lawyer justified in defending a bad cause?
9. Is it an advantage for a young man who intends to become
a merchant to go through college?
10. Do parents or teach ers exercise the greater influence in
forming the character of the young?
11. Is it bes t for judges to be elected by tlie people ?
12. Does the Pulpit or the Bar afford a better field for eloquence?
13. Does the reading of novels have a goo1l or bad efiect on
the community ?
14. Do inve11tions l1ave a tendency to improve the condition of
the lab oring classes?

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THE END.

BY HENRY REED,

LL~D.,

.1.·

Pro(. of English Literature in the University · of Penn.

One ,neat Vol. 12mo. $1.
.

.

I

•. CONTENTS. -SECTION I. Generic and Specific Synonyines.- II. Active
and Passive Synonymes. III. Synonymes of Intensi.ty. IV. - Positive ·
and Negative Synonymes.
V. Miscellaneou~ Synonymes . . 1 Index to
~ynonymes.
General Index.
Extractfrom American introduction.

.

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11

This treatise is republished <tn1l edited with the hope <hat it will be found ttseful as a teX\
booK in th e study or our own language. As a subject of instru cti on 1 the ~tudy of the En~lish
tongue does not rer,eive that amount of systema ti c a tten tion which 1s due to it, whether 1t ·be
· comhinerl or no witil the st udy of the Greek :rnd La tin . Int.he usaa l courses of education, it has
no large r Rcope than the stutly of some rhetorical principles and prac li ce, and of !jrammatical
rules. whi cl1 , fur th o most part, are no t adequate lo the composite character anrl vaned idiom of
English s peech. This .is fa r. from being enough to give th e needful knowledge of what is the ·
living la11<r 11"ge, bo1h of our Engli sh lit erature and of the rnul1iform intercourse-oral and written-of' our daily li ves. The language d1~ se rves belier care and more sedu lous cullure i it needs
mu ch mn1 e 10 prese rve its purity , and to lfltlcle the p1 O'ltes~ of Its Ii re. The young , IMtead of
• hav111!!1 on ly rnrh la m1lianty wi1h their nail' e specr h as practicP without method or theory ~ives,
should be ea taud1l and trn111e1! as to acf)tlll e a habit of using words-wheLher with the voice or
the pen-fi1\y :rn~d tru ly, intelligently and c.onsc ienuous ly."
,
·
1
·
• For rnr h training. this book, it is believer\, will prove servireable.
The' Pracrical Exer.
cises,' at1achc1l to the explanations of th e words, are cc>nveni ently prepared for the routine o!
' instruction. The valu e ofa course of this kind, regularly and carefu ll y completed, will 'be more
• than the amount of information gained re spe~. iing the words that are e.xp lain ed, It will tend to
produ ce a thuught.iiil and accurate use of languaee, anrl .thus may be a<:q uired, a lm ost uncon- .
ecinusly, that w~hich is not oh ly a critical but a· mclral habit of mind-the habit Of giving. utter·
t n.nce t.o truth in sirnple, clear and precise term s-or telling one's thoughts and feelings· in word11
• !hat express nothing more and nothing le$S. It is thus that \\'e may learn how to escape the
" evils of vn <> ueness, obscurity and J Je rplexi t.y-th e l}lanifold mischiefs of words used thought•
lesslv anrl at random. or words use in ignorance and confusion.
·
·
.
''In preparing 1his edition, it seemed to me that th e value rtml literary interest of the book:
might be increased by the introdu ction of a series of illustrative authorities. It is in the addlr- tioii of th csn nuthorities, containca within hrar.kets under eac,h title, and al•n of a· general index
• to tncilitale rcterence, that 1hls edit ion ditfern from the orii.;inal edition, which in other· respects "
JB exact ly reprinted. I have confined my cho ice of rtuthomies to po.e tical quotations, chiefly betause it 1s in poetry that language is found in its highes~ purity and perfection. The ·s elections
-: have been rn<t•le from three of the EngHsh poets-each a great authority, and each .belonging t3
a ditlercnt pcr iud , so that if! this wny some historical illustration o.f the ·1anguage is gi~en at
. the same time. Tho quotat10ns from Shakspeare (born A . n , 1564, drnrl.1616) may be considered
ss illustratin" the use of the words at the close of the 16tl~ and beginning of t~e 17th century; ·
· those from Milt.on (born 1608 died 1674) the gucceedlng half century 1 or middle of the 17tli
.century; and those ftllm Wordeworth (born 1770) the contem porary use m the 19th cenhiry.

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A TREATISE ON ALGEBRA.

A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE? ··
CONTAINING THE PRONUNCIATION 1 ETY~IOLOGY 1 AND EX PLANATlON OF ALL WORD!I AlJo
THO RIZ ED BY EMINEN T Wll!TGH S ;
To which are adrletl , a Vocahnlary or" th e !loots of En~li e h \Voril ", and an Acr.ented
Lis t of Greek, L atin, a nd Scrip1.ure P roper Names

FOR THE USEO.f SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

BY ALEXANDER RE ID, A. M.~
R eclor of the Circus Sclwol, Edinburgh.

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN DARTMOUTH COLLEG!l,

~ ·

B. Y

.

HA s

E,

Price $1.

<l

of JTda.-; ing.

;..

C

One volume, 12mo, 340 p ages.

Criur.al Prefrl_c e, by Ihm RY R EED 1 Pro fes sor of En!! li "h Litc ralurc in the University ti ' ..
P cnnsylva111 a, mid an Appendix, fl how111g the Pro111111c1;t1 Jon of nearly 3UUU of
the mos t important Geogra phi cal Names. On e vo lum e, 12mo.
• . ,;
of n early 600 p ages, I.Joun cl in Leath e r. l'n ce $ I
·
A1nong the wants of our time was a goorl di ctiona ry of o m own lang ua ~e, espec ially adapted '
for a cad e mi cs and sc hoo ls. Th e boo ks whic h have long !1t)c11 111 u se were o f l1 ttle value lo tile
junior s tud e nl s, be ing too concise in th e 1!efi niti ons, ,;·nil imm e1hodi ca l i11 th e a r rangem_cnt
Reid 's Engl i" h Dic tionary was compi led express ly LO deve lop the prec ise ana log H, ~ a nn n nous ·
proreni es o f th e a 11 Lhorizetl wort.13 m gen eral u se, t y th e stant.lart.I auth ors and urnt,• rs who use
our vernacul a r to n~ue.
E xc lus i ve oi' thc la rge numbe r of proper na m es w hich nre appc111 !ed , thi s Dict io nary includes
four es pecia l imp rovements-am! wh e11 th e ir esse mia.I value to lh c Ht llll en t is con , ILlere.d, the
sterlin!! cha rac1er of the work as a ha nd-1.Jo uk o f our la.n ~ ua '.(~ w ill ue m >ta11tly p e rcei ved.
The primitiv e w o rd is di s ting ui sh ed by a large r 1y pe ; a nd wh e 11 there arc a11 y _1le riva tives
from it , they fo ll ow in alp ha be1il'.a l ord e r, a111.l the part oi" cp ccc h 1s appc 11 tlcd, thu s furn1 sl11ng a
compl e te c lassification o f a ll Lhc co n11 ec1cd :rn:dor;n u s wonl e of lice s:i me s p er. ws.
.
.
Wi1h t hi ~ facil ity to co111prc lw11tl a ct'.ura1"1 y 1he il c1r,r111ina to 111 ea n111 ~. t _t h <_: _r;ng l iRh wonl 1_1s
::onj·~in c d a ri c h illu strali on t(11· th e li11 ~ 11i " t.. Th e tl c riv:uio 11 ol :tll 111<) P• •11111.ive words rn ms.
tinc tly g i ven, am! 1he phra ses of the lan ~uage s whe nce th ey are dcd 11•:ed , w 1.ethc r co inposne or
!implc; so 1.hat the s tudent of fore ig n la ng ua ges, IJllt h an•:.ie nt and m od e rn , by a re fe rence to
!In}' word, c an a"ce rt.a in t h e s nurce whence it has bee n ado p lctl 11110 _01 1r ow n f,>nn of s peech.
Thi s is a great acq uisition to the person who is anx ious to wrn worJs Ill t he n utrn ust c learness
With

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·•The Treatise whi c h Prof. Chase ha s \Vrillen for the u se of •scl10ols and colleges, seems to
to be superior in not a fe w respects to the school Al gebras in commo n u se. The object of the ." "•
wril e r was," lo exhibit suc h a vi e w of th e principles of Alrre bra, as slnll best prepare the stu- :: '
1lc nt for the furth e r pursuit or ma1he mati cal s tudi es. " He l1as, w e think, succeeded in this a t- ;_.)
te mpi.. Hi s uook is more complete in its explanat ions of the principles of Alge bra than an,.- ; •:1
te x1-uook with whi_ch we a re acq11a intetl. The exampjes for practice are pertinent, and are suf. ..."\·l
fici eni ly nume rou s for the ill1! s1ration of each rule .
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J.:-;
"Mr. C. h a ~ aYOlllet.I , by h n plan._the COlll llHIJI fault of text·book_s o_n Alge_bra-u_se!essly nu- r·)
m e rou s examp les, an cl tn ectge rne ~s o1 cxp lana ll o11 as res pects t h e pnnc1pl es of the "c1ence . The ·.' -.-'
ord e r o f 1rn:u m e nl is judic io us. i\Ii-. C. has add et! a tabl e ·of fornw.l re , for con ve l1ience of refer· :. ij
e 11 ce, in which are brought inw one view 1l1e principl es exhibitet! in different parts · of tfie book. ~-:··i
It \~ill be uf great l1<e tu the st ud elll.. W e 1hink th e uook is we ll adapted LO schools and colleges, .. ,
into many of which it will, no doubt, be introtlucet.l."-Clz. Recorqer.. ·
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FIRST LESSONS IN GEOMETRY,
UPON TIIE !llODEL OF COLilURN 'S

.

PROFESSOR OF MATHEM..lTICS IN DARTMOUTH COLLEGE,
One volume; 1Gmo1 170 pages .

This work is a ppro ved of as the bes t e lementary text-book on the s ubject, and I! _v_ery, gene
·
·.

BURN AM'S SERIES OF A,RITHMETICS,

H.e11t ' s Di ct ionary of th e Eng lH1 J.:_1ng uage is co mp_il ctl npon so untl principl es, and with .
Jud.e menl and acc ura cy . It ha s 1h c m e rn , too, nf co 111lrn1111g 1nu c h mnrc 1ha1 1 ' " u s u all y looked •
forfo ]) kt illna ri c8 of s mall 81Zc, anti w1 ll, l bc l1 ern, lie fou11d cxcell e11l a s a co n ve111 enl manual,
for genera l use a nt.I r e f~re·1ce 1 and a lso Ii.Ir n nic us purpose s of ed u cation.

After a care ful examination, I am con v inced th a t. H e itl 's f:11 ~ Ji , h Di.-1i n11~ry h as stron8
claims ll plln 1hc atfcntion or Lcac lwrs gc ne r:t.ll y_. IL i' of cn111·e11ic111 , jze, l11>:1111ih1Jly _c xc~utell,
and see m s well adapi c tl to the use ofsclwla rs, fr om the c.0111111011 Hc.ht•ol tn 1lie 11111,·ersJty.

. D. II. CHASE,
Prind pa.l '!l Preparntory School.
!llIDDLETOWN, Ct.

11:\

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COMMON SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES .

ef Pennsylvania.

A r· e r a thorough exam ination of" R eid' s Eng li s h. Dict.tonary," I m ay safely say that I con ·. ·
eide r it superior to. any of th e S c hool D1 c l10nan es wHh . wlucl~ I a m acquarntccl. Its accu ratt ' •
and concise definitwns, and a voc abulary of the roots ol E;ng l1s h w orc!s. dra wn from an authOI
ot such authority as Bosworth, are n ot a mong the lea st of !f.s excell enc ies.
l\l. 1\1. PARKS,
Ohaplain and Profe~sor of Ethics, U. S. Mili 1 fl ry Acade my, West Poin_L

\>

FOR

HENRY JtEED,
the Unh>ersily

Price 37~ cents.

rally adopted throu g hout the States.

Prqfessor of Pl11. /osophy, .llistory, and B elles Lettre1,
in lfic Univ ersir y <// t he Ciry <d. N ew- York.

ef English Liter ature in

FIHST LESSONS IN ARI.THl\IETIC.

BY ALPHEUS CROSBY,

To 1he"e advan1a g es 1s subjotned a Vo cabulary of the 1too1s of Eng l1 "h Words , wl11ch rn of
peculiar val ue 10 th e co ll c:da n. The lii'ty pau:es which ii i11 c l11d es 1 f11rn1 ' h the lmg 111 s1 wnh •
wide-s pread li e lil or r e,e<lrc h1 equal ly amu si ng and ins1ru r: tive. Ther e is a;"o a dded an Ac
cented List, Lo the numue r of hflee n th ou sa nd , of Greek, Laun, a nd Scrtpture I rope r Names.
!tECOl\11\lE i\ OAT!<) i\S.
REID ' S Di c ti onary of the En u:h s h Language 1s nn a1!nma bl e b oo k for the use of sch oo_IA.
I ts pl a i1s co n1ui11e a g1e'lter nunlb c r of des11a ble cu111!i 11011s fo r Ruch a wo rk, th a n any wllh
which I am acquamte<l: and ll see m s tu m e lo be executed in g e n e ral wi th great judgment, •
fi!Thlity ,·am! accuracy.
C. S. HENRY,

Prqfe,ssor

{?;

·~;g
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PART FIRST is a work on l\IENT AL ARITHMETIC. The philosophy of the moue of teaching
•'
atl o pl ed in this work, is: . c ommence wh e re th e child comme n ces, and proceed as the child pro
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th e 1hin kin g fo r him . H e nce a se ri es of exercises a re g i ven., by which the child is ina1le familmr
with 1hr. procc,•s, which he ha .• a lready gone throng h wi1h in acquiring his present knowledge.
Th.,, e r.xNri ,r.s i111 e rest th e c hild , ant.I prepare him for fu1ur e rapid prog ress . The plan is so
cl e arl y 11nfoldeil hy i!l11s tra1ion and example , that he ·w ho fullLnv " it can scarcely fail to secure, ,~
on the pan of his r•upil s , a thoroug h knowledge of the s ubject.. Price, 20 ct~ .
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illu st ra1e s more l't~ll y an'.! app li es_ more .ex_tenderlly .and practically the principle at Ca_ncel!ation ·•j
tha n a n y othe r Ai·1thn1et1ca l treat ise. Thi s m e thod a ~ here e m~iloyed m connection with the or·
.;j
dinnry , furni s h es variety o r illus trations , which cannot fa il to interest an1l ins tru c t the scholar • . --;jj
It IS a promin e nt irlea throu~h o ul, 10 impre ss upon the min1l 9f th e scholar lhe tr'u1h that \Je ,.wi!I - ·==
neve r di scover, nor need a n e w principle beyond the s imple rul es . The pupi( is.sho'Pn,_by II - ~
variety of ne~v mod es of illu s tra1ion,_th a t new nam es anti n ew po ~ i tions in t rodu ce no n e w prinCi
ciple , but tlrnl 1hey Ur e in erely rrwtt e rs of convenience. Fracti ons a rc treated a nd exp lained the':·
Imme a s whol e nu111be1 s. Formulas are also give n for 1l!illtn~ the ~cholar upon the Blackboard
which will be found of service to many teachers of Comm0n School~. Price, 60 eta.
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a

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CLASS-TIOOIC Olj NArrURAL HISTORY.
1

TI-IE

Author of Amy Herbert, &c.·, &c.

Pri ce 42 cents.

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From P rqf T ayler Le1r.is.
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"The copy of your b oo k of whi ch y ou advised me last week, reach ed me th is m orning. I
am pl eased with it s contents. Of it s accuracy I can h:ive no ques tion, knowin!! yo ur long a nd
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·. in introducing him to a ktlllwletlge Of o ur nati ve a ni mals."

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HISTORY OF CIVILIZAl'TON IN EUROPE,

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FROl\1 TIIE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIIlE TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION,

EASY LESSONS IN LANDSCAPE,

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' · ,.·.'\

M. GUIZOil".

Eighth America n, from the second Engli sh edition,

FOR THE PEHCIL.
IN THREE JiARTS, EACH CONTAlNCNG SIXTEEN LESSONS.

.,.,

A nc't L angufi.ges," ·

MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY '

PRil\IARY LESSONS :

BY F. N. OTIS.

..,;;

m ust th.ink yo u for a copy.of. ' .l\T1ss ~ ewe ll s Roman Jl181ory." Cla ssirnl te achers have
Ion ., r w'.· d ~d.1u ~t s u ch a work_: fur it,rn a<l1nttfe<l by all_how essc nti:tl to a proper comprcltensron
of.th e ~L1s~1cs rs a knowledge. of coLateral histo r y. 1. el. mos t pupils a re con stru111 g authors be,
fo1 e. 1c.1 cl1111g a n age t.o put In to t.h e ll' h a 11 1ls th e e laborate works we h ave h ereto(ore h ail upon
An c ie n t II1 story. _l\l1 ss Sew e ll, whil e ~he g ives th e m os t hnpoi·ta nt facts, has clothed the m ma ·
style at once pl ea>rng and comprehen~1ble to the mos t youthful mind.
· '
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It. n. T sc Huo1,
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BY

One neat volume, lSmo , containing 14,l p ages, a nd 28 engrav ings.

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THE

"You r 'Cl ass- Book' r each e d m e sa fely , and I am de li g h ted w ith ll; but wh a t i ~ more to
the purpose, g entl e m en ,,, ·110. know ""m e1.l1i11g abo ut Z11o l11gy . are dcl ig h lc<l with ii., such as Dr.
lleck and Prolessor Cook, J l our Academy. l hav e no tluullt that we s ha ll mtroduce 1t."

AUTHOR OF "ANALYTICAL ORTIIOGR A PHY 1"

50

Nmfollc Academy, No1fol!c, Va.

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P rom R ev. Dr. Ca.ml'hell, Albany.

·~·

One vol·ume, 16mo.

"His tory is th e nq.rrat.ive of rea.1 events in the ord e r anrl circu m~tan ces in which lh cy oc
curred; am! of nll h1 ~ tone s, th at o f Rom e C'm p ri ses a se ri es of e"en ls more int e rest ing a ntl ia·
st.rur11 ve to yo 111hful readers 1trnn any ether h at ha s eve r been writ• en.
. ·: 01 .1hc 1n :u1ne r in whi ch Mrs. Sew e ll has executed t.hi s work, \ve r,a n scarcely s pe a k in "
te1n .s of a pp1 obatrnn 100 s t.ron g. D raw 1n!~ h er mate n a ls fro m th e b est-that is to say the m ost
. re \!::t~!l:--r~?u~·ces, f: !1 c has u_1~.~ 1:po rat ed the m in a narratiY_e al once unostcn!atiouS, pe1\ \)ic unu s 1
aml .,. 1.1pl11c, .111au1(csllv l11 rnu1 g throug h11ut to IJ e cl cany u11d c r" tnod by those to r w 1nm she
w rote , n11d to impress .r!eeply and pe rm a nen tly on tj1 e ir minds what she wrote· and in IJoth ot
these a un s we thmk s he has been eminently s uccessful."
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"Your Class- ll ook of Z oology 0 11 g ht to !Jr it11r11d11 ce 1l in to :Lil tl1 c pulilic aud 11rivat c schools
of this c ity, a nd I s h o uld rejo ice fo r yo ur ow n sake, :u1tl for the sa ke o l so und science, to h ear o(
its obtaining the public patro n age w hi ch it dese r ves."

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. Extrnct from Editor's Preface.

"Th" <1i • tin !!11i • h 1>1 l nhilil.v of th e author of tlii ~ \vork. hMh whiln c n<>::i !!c<l <l1trlll !! nearlv ten
·.. years as ProfC!=:S°Or of UotJtny; Z L)O lugy , alltl l\Iodl~ rn Lang u age~, in l'ri111:l~ 1~;n Co llc.~t:, N . .I.~ and.
since as a lecture r in sonw o f th e n1u Bt di::: ting ui :.: ht'd li tc r;iry i11 s ti t uli!1ll ~ , toget her \V itlt the rare
advanta!(es de ri ved fro m hi s ex1cn" i ve tr>tvel s itt varions p<trts or t h e world, un de r t he pa< ronage
of the Empe ro r or Itu ssi<t, affording s upe ri or fac ili ties for th e a c q11is itin11 o f kttow led!.(e in hig
d ep a rlllt c nt, have 1110, t happily ada p ted l'n1fo~rn r .J cc gc r to tlt e la ~ k he ' "''' ·.v iii. rr: ::: '.l'-' .11<ttili t.y
p er fUnn ctl , viz . : that o f p rcs e n 1i11g to til e pulJ ti c une o r lhc 111os l ~ inlp ! c, c n ,~ <.t~ ing, and u:: . cful
Class Uuo ks of Zuulug y that we h ave "cct l. I I is prc nliarly adapt ed lo lit e p urpose he h ad in
vie w, na m e ly , of s 11pply ing a S chno l Jl Lrn k o n this " nbj ecl. !t•r uur C crn1111 011 Sclt<H>I" and Academies, whi ch s h a ll be pcrlcc1 ly co mpre hrn" ibl c to lit e min ds of IJt !! i11111: r". In 1. ltis res p ect, he
has, we think , most aLlmiralJly succcrdcd, :t nd we do11 1Jt nut. tl1at thi s little work will beco m e one
of the most popular Class Uuu ks o r Z oo logy in th e c•J utllry."

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B Y E, M. S E W E L L ·,

BY PROFESSOR J. JJEGER.

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WITH ':lUESTIONS.

DESIGNED TO AFFORD Plll'ILS IN CO;\DlON S C HOOLS AND ACADEl\IlE!!I A
KNOWLE;DGI~ OF nrn ANll\IAL JUNGJJO i\I, ETC.

[

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FIRST I-I I- S T 0 R Y 0 Ir R 0 1'1 E ,

ZOOLOGY:
One volum e, lSmo , with num e rou s Illu s trations.

"

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~ith oc~asionaI,,Notes, by Q. S. ;JENRY; D.D"_

One volume, 12mo.

. ~ M.

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75 cts.

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Guizot., in his in.s lructive !ectures, iias giveri i.1s a~ epitome of m oder!\ history distln :; :- .
r. gur sh c1!. by a ll the m c nt wh.1ch,_ rn a nothe r <l!l \)artment., r end ers Bl ac ks tone a subject
such · ~· ..
1Je?,u1I n.1 nnd u nbo nnd ~d prai se. ~ work' close ly c"nd en·sed; inclurl ing .nothi:ia u se less, omit- :~:..,_~
tm,-. 1101h111g C''e nll a l, w1tttcn with grace, and conceived t.nd · artanaed wnh consumri1ate
~
abrhty. "-floston 'l'ra.veller.
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· ··- f.J:T- This wor!c is us~d in Hanim'd University, Union dolleg.e, University . OJ : ~
Penns yll:a.nw . New- Yur lc Unn,ersity, <fc.

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IIISTORICAL

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A MANUAT, OF ANCIENT
AND MODERN
.
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AND

BY RICHMALL MANGNALL.
i;"irst American, from the Eighty-fourth London Edition.

\Vi th large A<i<litions
Embracing the Elements of Mythology, Astrouomy, Architecture,
H eraldry, &c. Adapted for Schools in tl1e United States
BY l\IBS . .IUUA LAWH.ENCG.

Illustrated with numerous ~ngravings .

HISTORY~
;:-_-_
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f.-...··

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r.n1\1l'RJSJNG:

MISC E 1LANE0 US - QUE S ~I.110 NS.
·•·.

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One Vol:·me, 121110.

$1.

CONTENTS.

·or

A Short View
Sc rirture Hi story, frnrn the Crea1in11 to the R eturn nf th e J c w•-Qu~s1ion1 ,
from !lie Early Ages to the ti111 c o f .Julius Ga"ar-i\fi,ce ll ;1111•11 11 ~ q'"" 'i " " " in Orcr,ian 11.otory
-1\th::ee lla11 co us <.tucF; tio11 s i11 Gt~ 11 c ral fli ~to ry, chiefly A11rie11t -i'. lu es1in11 H c.ornaini11u a Sketch
of. the tn u~! rernarka~J le l~ve 111 ~ from ril e Chri~tian Era r11 !li e clP:-:t· nf' t li1 : Ei!...: li11:c11 1. il C;cntury- '
l\JJ f'Cc lla1wnu~ Qu c~llOll S in Ron1a11 lli~ 111rv - q11e s li o11 9 i11 1 •:11.,li ~d1 lli :-: forv l'rn111 tht• In vasion of
Cre ~ar to lhc Ilc li•n11a1i n 11 - Vo11 1.i1111 a1io1 1 l~f'U11 e:..;1 i t111~ in J.:11 :.dL-:11 lli ;-: 1 nry~
t h e Hefunn at ion
to th e Presc!ll Tim e-Al.Jstract ''.f Early Uriti" h lli , 1ory- AIJ" 11·ac t nr l!11g l i ~ h lt e i!!ns from tha
Cnnquest- Al.Js tracl o f the Scnu1 s h He1c: n8- Ah,lrn c t of tlie Fn,11 c h Hci.:11" frolll l'haramuntl to
Pldlip 1-Guntmuanon of the.Frenc h lt e ig ns.> frurn Loui s VI t<• Lo11 is l'l1ill/ppc-(.{11 estinns Re· ' ,
la11ng to the I11 sw ry o ( America, lrn111 11 9 D1scovcry to 1lic l' rcsc nr. Ti111 e-- A.bstract of Ro man
Km1;s 1111d mos t d rn1 111!'u1s hed Ucroes- Al '"1mct Di' the most ce f.,hra rcd nrc(' ia 11 s- Of ll eathcn ..
~yuwlug_r m gencra l---:Abs 1.r:1c1. nl ll ea1 he n i\lyl11ol1>gy - Tl1 e l': lc 111 e11t" of Astro11omy - Expln· ·
t.1011 ot_ n few A s t.ro1~on11 ca l 1 t;·,··n 8 ~ 1.J s l of Co11~1ella1in11 :- : - (-{11c :-: lin11 :. ; 1111 C1 n11111 on S11b..1ecls(~11est1n ns on :An:h1t ec ture - ·Q11 e, t1n11 s 0 11 ll e mldry- l·:x pla1m ti<111e of s 11ch Latin \.Yunfa und .
Phrases as are se lcl o111 En g li shecl -Q11esti11ns on the Histo ry uf the Middl e A~cs.

ho1t1

I. ANcmNT IJlS roll.I", r.onlaining th e Political Jli i;wry, Geagraplur.al P nsJtion,, and Soci.a
Btate of the Prin c ipal N~ti ons of Antiquity, care fully tl1ges tei.l Jrom the i\,nc1ent Wmers, an•j 11·
lu,u·a1.ecl by the di srove ri ~s of Mode rn Travellers and Scholars.
_ . .
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" JI. l\foDEltN Jiu: ro1w , co11tai11ing the Hi s". anil Prog !-~ss .of the pnncrpa.1 Europea n ~atwm; · _ ..
thr·ir Politieal History, anti the changes m their Socrnl e~indmo!1: ~llh a H 1story of. the Colomea - . JI!
found ed uv Europe•~ns . lly \V . COOKE TAYLOR, LL.D., c f1 nmty Coll eg?, 1Jubl111. He' ~ so i'~ . • ·'
wi1h Audi tions on A mencan His tory, by C . S. H enry, D. D., Prof~sor o f Hi story in the IJmrnr
11 ty of N. Y., anti Q nest.inns aclaptetl for the Use of Schools and C~lleges.. One h a-111l ~mne vni .,&v:i oJ SOO pa.;cs $:!.25 · Ancient History in l vol. $1,25, !rlodern Jhstory rn.l vol. , $1..10.
1.·11 e ANct;N,! IJ.r.sT~ny divis ion ~o mpr(•es Eighteen Chapters, win ch mcluol e the.. general
o•Jlllnrs or the IliRt•HY or Egypt -the Ethinpians- lla.b_ylonia and. A ~•yrn1 -Wcs 1 1H n As in;- 1'11t es1inc - r:1c '"mpire of'tlrn Mecl es a.hd P e r srn n ~- Ph cc nrr.mn Co lo.111es m Nor1h~rn Afl'l<'it--;-l·oum\.
ation nnd llbtory of the Grecian States-Greece-th e l\I acellon 1~n. K111gt!u 111 .111.t Emp1re-: 1h~
S1at~ s that armoC rrom the cli ~ m e mbe rm e nt of. I.h e Mat.ctloman Km g1h~m anti Emp1re - An c 11'n~
Italy-Sici ly-the ltom a n Rel?ubli c-G eog rap li~ cal and P o ll!J cal C~mdmun of ~h ~ lton~an Ernp1ri<
--JI i' tory of the R uman Emp1re-aml ln1h a-w 11h a'! Appe_nthx of importan t 1llus tra11 vc arnde~ .
Thi s portion is une of the best Cum pends of Ancient IJ1story that ev e r y e1 has .ippearctl II
con tains a comp lete text. for the ~olle g i ate lec turer;, and is an esse,ntial hantl -boo k for the studem
• who is 1lesirou s to become acquamte1l with all that 1s memoral.Jle m general sec ul a r a_rchreology.
•
The :\looERN IlrsTonv port.inn iA div11led iuto Fourteen Cha{~ters, on the following general
•, 1ubj ccfA :-GunAequcnces of the Fall of the W cste r,n Empire-I rne anti E stabl1Ahrn ent of th~
Sar.1r.enic l'ower-Restoratio,n ,of the WcRtern Emp1re-G~o wth _of the P:;pa l l'owc r--Hev1val
, of Li terature-Prog ress of C1v1lrzat1011 au•i lnvcntwn-Reform a.t10n, and Cummencemen.t of tht
' 'States System in Europe-Augustan Ages of Eng lant.I and Fro.nce-Mercannl e tint! Coloma! Sys. ~;.
; te rn - Age of 'levolutions-Fren<ih f!111pir~- IJ1 story. of the Pe ace-C o ln111z~twn- Chma-the .
Jews- with Chronolul~Jcal and lllston cal 1 ab l~s and other Indexes. Dr. llemy has appended II
: ·new c hapt e r on the IJl'story of the United Sta.U:s.
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':. This Manual of Modern History, by Mr. Taylor, 1s the most valuabl.e and 111 struct1ve work ·
con cerning the general subjects whit;h It con:ipre he nds, that ~an be foun!l .m th e whnl e t.lepartmeni.
' . of hi swrical literature. l\11 . Taylor's book rn fast ~urersedmg al l other com pends, anti 1s already
'at.lu pt ed as a text-book in Harvard, C<:Jlu1nb1a, Yale, l'iew-York, Pennsylva rua and Brown Uru·
vernities, w1d several leadmg Ac~dem1es.
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"This is an aclmi.rabl e work tu a id both teachers and parc11ts in in stru cting c hildre n an-:! youthi
<u1d there is no w.:irk o f the kind that we have see n that is so we ll ca lc ul ated "tn awaken a spirit
of laudable curiosity in young minds," and to satisfy that c uriosity whe n awakened."

LECTURES_
ON

IIISTORY OF ENGLAND,

M 0 DE RN. HIST QR Y.

From the Invasion of Julius Cmsar to the Reign of Queen Victoria,
BY MRS. MARKHAM.

A n~w Edition, with Questi ons, adapted for Schools in the United States.

By THOMAS ARNOLD, D.D.,

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Regius Professor of Jlfodern History in the University of-0.rford, and Head
Master _o f Rngby School.

!JV ELIZA ROBBINS,

Author ef"Amen·can Popular L essons,''" P oelryfo1· Schools,"

One Volume,

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.

121110.

By HENRY REEb,· LL.D.,

Pri ce 75 cents.

Th ere i~ norhin !l' more necdecl in our Rr. hool • than good his to ri es; nor the clry compemls 11
11rc~ e11t nsc. !1111 elc 111 c 11tary work s 1hat s ha ll s uggest the moral uses ul h1s tu 1y and the pro~J
:Jenee of Onrl. rn :111 ifc"t in th e affairs or m e n.
'
. !llr. i\larklwm :s hi ~ 1ury wa " t!'ed by that mode l fo r a ll teac he r". th e la te llr. Arnolrl , mMTcl
oJ the !!reat En!; ll sh. Rcf11>o l at Rug by, and ag rees 111 Hs c ha ra cie r wi1h hi " _r nli >;h1 e ned and piour
n~wi of te ac:hm~ his<.1 ry. 11 1•. now seve ral vcarn s inr ~ I :1da1 Ked 1!11s }11 ,'i<•ry to 1he form nu~
p11ce ncr.cplable m 1he "c hnn! s 111 the lln11 cd StaleB. 1 lwre recenl.fy rev ised it, and trust that I•
Dmy be extensively se rvic eable in ed11rati t•11 .
· -·'
Th e pnnrir~I a lr e rat.ions frnm 1!1 e ori g inal a.re a ne w and rnorn r.nnre1.ir11t divi sion of pam' .
f'n ·plrn.. and en tire om1 ss wn of !h e cn11,·r rsat11111s an11rx,,1! 10 1!11' rli;q>le r•. 111 1!1c place of thlllt
l l1otve atlL!11d qu c~fiun~ In e'·c ry pa~e tha1 lllay at 011 rc l>w ili1a 1e 1he w o rk of 1h e teacher and
lllt: P~'P!L The ratio!"'al and moral foa tm es of thi s b_ook firs t <:C11nmcnil cd it to me, 'lml I han
used ll ~ucceetfully with my own "clwlars.-£3:tracl frn111 1he A111~1 !can. F:d1tnr's Preftice '· .1.

12

EDITED, WIT.H .A PREFACE AND NOTES,

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Profeasar ef English Liletature in the University of Pa.

One volu.me, 12mo.

$1,25.

Extract frorn the American Editor's Preface.

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t~e.g.e~etal, r~ac!er, bu.t also
a. "te ;<1.-book m educ.illwn, especially 111 our college course of study.
T~e 1•1tr<:Jt.luctwn bf
th ·8 work as n text-book I rega nl as impona.r:it, because, as far ~9 my lnformauon cnutle~ i;ne to
!pnak, there is no boo~ better calculated 1.0 111sp1re an mr e~est 111 lus.to n cal study. That 1t has
this p owe r over the mrncls o• .students I can ~a.y from cxpenenr.e, which .cnnbl.es me a)so to add,
that I have found it excelle!t!ly sullcu to a course of 1;oll ege ms1ruct10.n. By ·111telhg.ent ~nd en•

In

pupa;in~ this edi!ion, I have haq in view its

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use, riot on.ly for

, terprisini members ofa class especially. it is studi ed as; a tex \· hook w_11T1. zea\ and \1'1!1'.!a.t~O{I,.:.,.._:,

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T H E S II A K S P E A H, I A N READE It;
A COLLECTION OF TH E MOS T AE'J'ROV ED PLA\'S OF

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SHAKSPBAHJD .

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.,;V,

Caretully R evise <l, with Introdu cto ry a nd Explanatory N otes , an<l a Memoir
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· the Author. Prepa re d ex pressly fur th e u se of Classes,
and the Fami ly H.ea <ling C irc le .
BY JO H N W. S . HOWS,
P rqfessor ef Elocution in Columbia College.
--Th e !\TAN wh om 1'ln.11lre's se lf h '1t h m a1 le
To mllck h c rs ~ lf, a1ul Tll UTll tr. i111ita.tc.-S11cnscr .

riot wh en th e fam e o f Shak <p ea 1c is "strid ing 1he wo l"l <I li ke a c.11, 1 s•11~,'' and ull
prof11s 1nn th a t te<t 1!1es fil e des11 c .tw.t ke111!d 11\all c la"ses
to re ad and s1udy hi ~ irnpe n slrnbl c c ompo•1t1n11•,- lh e 1e n eeds, rerhap", but little
3
J
~';;y
~or
th
e
1[,lloWlll"
sclectinn
of
hts
w11 rks, p1 e p:11ed ex p1 e"sly l!I 1en de r t h em unexce~
1 e for th e use of S cl1oo ls, arn l acceptahlc
~f.,~abl
fo1 Fa111il y 1e.1d1ng Ap;trt f1 o m the fact, th~
8hak s p ea re is th e "well·s p 1ing" f1om w hi c h m ,1y be uar cd tl1e ~'rI 'S lll ''! th e pu1 est p octr:i: m ,
a ac -a Jona co ni se of pro fe•Si mHtl cxpe 1icnce has ea l! • fi ed m e th.tt a nece~s lly ~X ! Bt!
1 1
~r~/t1~
~d«1fli'~n of a ~..,. k !Ike 1he pre•e 111, to om s tock of Edu cat 11111.1l L 11e ra ~u re. Jl1 • wntmgs ...,.
arc pec uliarly ailapie<l for the purposes or El11rut1n 11 ary cxc1 c1 •e , when . th e syste m of mstru~110? ,
ur•ueci by the T eac h e r is baeed upon th e true pr1n c1pl e nf 1hc a rt, v iz -a car.e(ul analy sB o
.
ftie ~tru cture and rn ean 111 g o r ttu 1g uage, iathcr th a n a ser vil e adh erence to th e at b1trary and mechamcal rul es of E lnclllion .
.
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f h
h
1th t ·
To im iress upnn th e minrl or th e pu p il 1hat wonts are th e ex p os ltinn o t oug t., anr · n m
ti " Jr • pcakin" every s h ·ll le or th1111 !!ht and fccl111g has 118 ap prnpnate $hilde o f modulate~
6".,ht w he 1F.~ C" r eri·1t a im o f every T e:tdH' r ; and ;rn a 11 1hor lik e Sli:tk • p eare, whose
ei::~~·- 1\1 ~e embo;li cs a volt;i~ e nf 111 ea11i11 g , Fhnnld s u re ly i(mn one o f 011r E loc.ut11:11a ry Text
Hon~s. . • • . S 1ill , in prepa rifl !! a sc lcCl}(lfl or hi ~ works ror th e exp ress p111 pc"e comemla1.c1l in my d csi ~n. I h ave rn1t h es lt;ued 10 cxe rr.1<c a seve re rev 1s1nn of h is la ng uage.. beyond
fii at ad.,pt~<i in a n y s imilar undenak ing-" Un wdl e ( s F a 1111l y .Shak,pea rc" nnt even cx cc pte~I ;and simpl y , u cc:iu se I prai;tical ly kn <•W the 1111 J" ' "'.1h1lny o l 111trod uc mg Sh;1bpcnrc as a .~ ltllll
Book. or a~ a sau s facwry !leading lloo k fo r Families wuhout th rn prccautwnary revisi..n.-

ilJ;. w~rk • ;; re mulupil ed \Vllh a

tionqtof
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PROF,. MANDEVILLE'S
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. . .-READING.'
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Th ese two Rcat!ers are formed subs ta ntially on the sa me plan; an< the second Is a contlr.u&·
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,ion of w o n1", wit h a knowledge of the ir grammatica l functions. The parts of speech are u·
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-,louns ; a nd th ese aga in lJy ot he r s, cl ass after class, until all th;i.. tare requis ite to form a f'flntence~""
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The Sr·•:on1l !leade r re~ 1 ews th e g round passet! over rn the l'rnnary, !Jut adds largely·trl lb~ 1
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and in the readi11g le sso n ~, attention is consta.11t1y directed to the dilfcre nt ways In whicli '~1
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IV. FOURTH READER. Price 38 c e nts.
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lea ding des ig n o f th ese, is to forlll a natural, tlex ibl e , a nd va ri ed de li very . Acco rdingly) the 1'.
Third !leader ope n'i with a series o f exerci"cs on articulation and modulation, containin" numer. ~
ou s exa111p les fur practice on the el e m e ntary so und s (inc luding errors to be correcter!) anti on tht -,.
different m ove m e nts of the voice, produce d by se nte ntial s tructure, by e mphas is, and by th e pas- ·: ',
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·
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These lessons luive been se lected with s pecial reference to th e follow ing peculiariti es ~ · 1st.· >
Colloqui a l c haract e r; 2tl , Var iety o f seme 111ia l st ruc ture ; 3J , Va ri ety of s ubj ect matte r; 4th . :~
A.d1tplation to the prugressi n deve lopm tn t o f the pupil 's mind; and , as for as p o$sihle , 5tl~ \!
Tendency to excite mora l and relig io us emotions. Great pains have been ta ken to make th& :;
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o ;hers 111 u se; with what s uccess, a bnef compan son w i ll read il y Show.
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VI. T HE ELEMENTS OF READING AND ORATORY. Price $1.
Tt,ese books a re des igned to cultivate the literary taste, a s well M the understandin&
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TJ:lll .Cou~sE OF READING co mp r ises three parts; the first p a rt containing a more ela horate -."~;
desc npu on of e le m e ntary sounrls a nd th e parts of o; p e ech grammat ica lly rnne i.Jercd than was .,
de e med nc c~8sary in the p re cedi ng works; h e re indi s pen sab le: part second, a co mpl ete c lassi fi · i
cati on and desc rip tion o f e\•c r y sentence to be found in th e Eng li s h, or any other lan oonarre · ex- ,~
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Ill ler.gth, arc adduce1l, and a rran.g ed to he read; and as eac h spe cies h as ll s peculia r delivery 3' ·.!
well an et ruc t u rc, lloth .are lea rne Ll a t the sa me um e ; fJarl tlurd , pa ragraµ hs; or o;e nt ences in · · ~
lheJr C·)1rne-.t1 on unfoltl 111g ge neral 1ho11g h ts, as m th e co mmon r eading books. !1 may be ob· '<
~ e r ve< l th :ll 1.,JC sclec111>ns of sen1e 11 ce~ 111 J>a r t 'ec<>11d, and ol para g ra ph s in p a r! third, com pri se
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some o f the fin est ge m s Ill the langu ai;e : d1st1ngn1 s hcd a like fo r bea u ty of t11 o u rr h t aflcl facili tv
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of diction . I( nut fiJUnd in a sc ho1> i book, th ey ni ig h1 be apJ•rnpratcly cal led" et.;'ga nt ext racts Ji '~l
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,~
tcn:eB a 'rea< iy rcfe rreu ,_:i, hu t h e re rr es~nted wi1h fu ller Slate m e n t arnl iJJu s tra!ion , the Jawa Gf ·,:
pu:ic tu :itwn a mt d e ll very ded u ced. l ro 1111t: the who le follo we<l by carefully selected 'Jieces fot - _.
se11tr11t1al :in.llycw and voca l /)r:tc1 1re .
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book, wi ll,''" !:llmc rous e xpernnents ha ve pro ved ; \ s t, Acquire comp le le know ledge of the -.
stru1:turc of the langu age; ~ti, ll 3 able to de"1gnate a !ly eentc<1 ce of any book by name jlt 8 -. ··
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is res p ect full y ma.de to th e " Hints," w hi ch m ay be found at . t he b eg inning nf eac h v0 lnme .
'~

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~rrirn.
(NE A RLY READY .)

MANUAL OF THE GEOGRAPHY AND IIISTOR.Y
OF THE

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J\'[ JDDLE

AGES.

translated from the Fre nch of lVL Des MrcHELS, Re cto r of tlie Coll ege of Roucni
with A<l<litions and Corre('tions.

BY G . W . GREENE,
Prqf ossor ef 1lludan Languages in Bruu:n Unir·ernity.

Accompani e d with N um crous Eng•ravings and ;\<laps.

One Vo lume, 12mo,

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TO BE FOLLOWED B Y

A ll,fa:wal of Modern lfistory, down to the French Rm,olution.
A iWannal of Ancient Jiistory.
11 Ilistory 1 Rome.
·

• • Great l,;uns will be ta ken t.o a dapt these books to the pracucal purposllll of Lhe Cl.sl ; .

Th e pun ctu at ion in all th e~e bo•1ks co n ro 1rn ~, in the tn a in, to the 8Cll~C ::!. n•I proper d~

·.:.;

Jive 1y of Cl'C I y s e n1 e 111 ".e, ;1nd is a !J lllde to both
\Vhcn a de p<t1t u1 e (rom the p1 op: r punctuatiO!o ' · ~
occnr~, the pro p e r de l! ve1y is rntl1cnted.
As re,ul111g booksa1 e u s 11ally p11nctuatec., It i• a matte1
~
(If surpris e th a t c hildren shou ld learn to read at al L
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', • Th~ above seriM of Head in g Books are already ve ry e xtch •ivelv introduced and com
mended by tne m ost expe ri enced T eachers in th e co un1ry. " Prof. J\fa1u levi !le 's system ie emi ·
oently original, scientifio ant.I practical, and d estil1ed wherev er it is ini:mlu ccd to .Aupel"!ede at ·

once all others."

R

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COURSE OF

~fATHE~IATICAL

BY GEORGE R. PERI< INS, A. M.,
P1 r:fessor ef ll1uth enwt ics a nd Principal qf the Sl ate N orm al School

I.

PRIMARY ARITHMETIC.

Price 21 cts.

A want, with y oung pupil s , of rapidity and acc11ra cy in pc rfunnill !:!; or c r:ition R upon writ.t e n
nnn1bers ; n.11 in1per fec 1 kno w ledge of Num e ration; in a•Jcq uate co 11 ct! p t1011 s or th e 11a 1urc and

relations o f Fra ct ion", arul a la c k of fanliliarit y with . the pn11cipl es ol Dec ini:.11 ", hav e imluced
the author to pre pare th e l' RIMAllY ARITl!MGTI C.
Th e fir" t pa rt is de vot ed to ~IENTAI, Ex1rn c JS E,Q a nti th e Rl' :.011d to £'.1:crc iscs on the Sia.le
a11d 13/a ck bua rd.
\Nhil e the mint! R Pf yo un g pupil s a rc di Rc ipli ncd lJy 111 ent "_I ex •,1-c ises (if 11ot w ~ ari snn1ely
prolonge d), th ey fo1! , 111 ge ne ra l, 111 trw::;tLn 2" tn ' 1 head- wo rk " fu r th e ir c:il c 11l ;1 11 0 11s ; ... ncl 1n re·
surlin ~ tt~ wr_i ~ 1.c 1! op c ~·a1ion s to $Di ve th eir liiffi c ulti e~, arc .urrr.n f.:(CJ\~ :1.1 1d in11 c:c 11rnt.e fn.1n a want
ofeany fam1l1 a rn y w 11h s uc h pro cesses : th ese co11s1de ra t1011R ha ve 111tluce d th e Author cJ ue voto

part of his lJoo k to pr ima,y wri!lt'n e:r:erciscs.
ll has been rece rveu with more popula ri ty tha n a ny Ari thmetic he rntofore i"s ued.

II.

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Pri ce 42 cts.

ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC .

Ilas recently bee n care full y rev ise d a nu enl a rger! . It will be fl1 und conc ise, ye t lu citl. It renr. hes
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It lea \' es nothing o bsc•1rf', y e t il c~u es not en1lmrrnss by '1"JUltipl1 ed processes, no r e nfoeble lJy
min1tte cl e la ils.
In thi s work a ll nf th e e:i:a111 1'ies or Jlroblcms are str ic l l!J 7> rricli cal, m<itl e up as th ey <ire in a
great m eas ure o f impo rt a nt st a li ~ ti cs a nd ,-a luahl c facis in hi ot o ry a nd r ,1til os•1ph y , whic h are
thu s un co nsciou s ly lea rn ed in .<Jcquiring a know ledg e of the Ari th 11 1c1ic.
Frac ti ons are placed it~ 1111 e d1 ate ly a!"t e r Di v i, ion ; F ede ra l Mon ey is tt·t'atnd as a nd wi ll1 Decimal Frac tions; l'rotj urtion is p la ced lJe forc Fe llows hip, Alli ." ation, a nd su c h rules a s require
its appli ca tion in th e ir so lu iiun . !~ve ry rule is mark ed wi th veri ly a nti s i111pli c iLy . The an·
swers tn a ll o f the exampl es a re g i ve n.
·
Th e work will ue found ·to be a n tmn roveme n t on m ost, if not a ll , p rev in us ele m e n tary
Arithm e 1ics i11 the 1reatm e r1t o f Frac tions, ·uc nomin ale N umbe rs , Ruic o f Three, Int erest , Equ.ith·n of Payments , Gxtracti on o f Roots, anti m a ny otl1cr s u bjects.
Wh e re ve r thi s wo rk is JHP sc nte tl, the pu lJli shers ha ve heard bu t one opi11ion in regard to Its
m e rits, and that m ost favo rabl e.

III.

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HIGHER ARrTH.i\iETIC . Price 84 cts.

Th e presen t edi tion has lJee n revi ~e1 l, m a ny subj ec ts rewritt e n, a nil mu ch new m att.er a'ldec' ;
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operation s a r11l in te rest ing prnpe ni es o fn11111h e, rs are fu ll y di f.r 11ssed. Th e wo r k is wh a t !l s na me
purpo rts, a lli[iher Ari t hm ~t i c, anti wil l !J c fl>und to con ta in
c111irc ly new prin ci pl es whkh
h a ve n e ve r befi>re appearer! in any A ri1hm c1i c. It ha s rcce ive1l tlle s tro nges t rccomm e n1L.uions
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JV.

ELEMENTS OF ALGEI3RA. Price 81 cts.

This work is a n introdu c tio n to th e Amhor 's "Treati' c on Al gebra, " and is cl esignecl e"pe ·
clally for the use of Common S c hoo ls , a nd univ e rsally prono unced "adntira ul y auapted to thb
purpose. "

V. TREATISE ON ALGEI3RA.

Pri ce $ 1 f>O.

This wor k conta ins the hi g hPr p v rts of Al ge bra un 1a lly 1:1ll!; ht i11 Colkges ; a n ew met.hod
of cnhi c a nd high e r equa t io n • a s , .·e ll as th e 'J'r-rn ott EM o F S-r u1 ,M , by whi c h we nMy at once
determin e the numbe r of rea l roo ts of any Alge braic Eq u<it 10.1, w i.11 mu c h m or cl ease tl ian by
previou s ly cli scovereu m e thod .
In the przse nt re1;is ed edition, one entire ch a p ter on the s ubj ect of CONTINUED FRACTI;JNS
has lJeen add ed.
·

VI. ELEMENTS OF GEOMETHY ,
T~e

W ITH PrtAL TI C AL APPLI CA TIO NS .

author has a 1lrled thro11 g hout th e entire \V c•rk,

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it, beca11 ' c it ti11l ows m ore c l o~e l y t he best rn o1ln l o r p ure !!uu111c1 n ca l r 0~ s o 11i11g, whic h eve r h a ~
i'ccn , and pe rh a ps e ,·e r wil l be e idiiiJilcd ; a nd be.::u 1sc th e Au t.lt n r ha' coo· irns,xl som e o f the
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