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FIRST BOOK
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E·NGLISH GRAMMAR;.

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BY

G/;/9,uACKENBOS, A.M.,
PRINOIP AL OF HTHE COLLEGIATE BCilOOL," N. Y.; AUTIIOR .OF "A..N ENGLISH
GBAM.:\IAR, 11 uFIRST LESSONB IN COMPOSITION,'' "ADVANCED COURSE
OF COMP OSITION AND RHETORIO," ~ 1 A NATURAL PlllLOSOPilY,"
"ILLUSTRATED S CHOOL HISTORY OY TllE UNITED
BT.A.TES," u PRIMARY HISTORY Oi' TBK
UNITED STATE8 1,, :ETO.

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NEW YORK:

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
443 & 44 5 BROADWAY.

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FIRST BOOK
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BY

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PBINOIPAL OF ~'THE COLLEGIATE

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A.M.,

N. Y.; AUTIIOB . OF

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.A.N ENGLISH

GBAliMAR, 1, °FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION,11 ".ADVANCED COURSE
OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC,,, HA NA.TURA..L PlllLOBOPUY,,,

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"ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED
BTA.TES,n u PRIMARY HIST ORY 011' TilK
UNITED STATES,,, XTO.

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NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
448 & 445 BROADWAY.

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PRE.FACE.
---+---

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Tms " First Book in Grammar,,. has be.en prepared to meet
the wants of young beginners in that branch, as well as those who
need a brief summary of the subject. To awaken their interest, to
teach them to think, to enable them to understand as they learn,
to lead.them.from step to step in the most natural way, and to give
a direct practical application to every abstract principle, have been

By the same Author:
AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 12mo, pp. 288. '15 ct&.

FrRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION : In which the Principles of llie Ari are developed
fn connection wlth the Principles of Gram.mar. 12mo, pp. 182. 63 c.ta.
ADVANCED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC: A Serle1 of Practical
Leaaona on the Orig in, Hiltory, and Pecullarlllea of the Engllah L&nguage, Punctuation,
Taate, the Pleasures o( the Imagino.tlon, Figure•, S tyle and ito Eau ntial Properttu,
Critic iam and the v arioua Department. of Prose a.nd :Poetic&! Compoaltlon: UlUJb'&ted
with copious E.:r:erciaea. 12mo1 pp. 460. •1.25.

PRIMARY HISTORY OF T HE OKI'.J'ED STATES: Made easy and intereltlng !or Beginnera. Child'• Quarto, 1plendldly illustrated, pp. 192. 60 eta.

ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES: Embracing a full
Account of the Aborigines1 Biogrnphico.l Notices of Di.tlngub hed Men, numeroua Map1,
Plans of Battle~field1, and PlctorW Ilhatratlona.

12mo, pp. 473.

$1. 25.

A NATURAL PHI LOSOPHY: Embro.cing the molt recen t Dl!lcoverlea In Phyalca. Adapted
to uae with or withou t Apparatu•, and accompanied with Practic&l hercl.ua &Dd 835
lll uatratJ.on.a. 12mo, pp. '50. •t.25.

the leading objects of the author.

He has en4eavored to condense

in a .small space arid an attractive form all that is of prime importance ; and, while' it is desirable that every pupil should follow this
course with a more comprehensive one, it is believed that those
who master what is here presented wiU obtain a very fair view .of
the language. The teacher's convenience has been · consulted
throughout. The Lessons are short and easy, and illustrated with
Exercises that will impress them on the mind. - The system here embodied is the same (in a simplified form) as
that which has been so. generally commended in the author's larger
Grammar.

The Exercises, however, whether. in etymology, parsing,

analysis, or false syntax, ·are different; . so that those who advance
from this to the· larger work will not. be obliged to go over the
same field a second time, but . will find .that the two books form a
consistent and well graded whole. It is ~oped that those who have
made the author's "First Lessons in Composition" and "Advanced
Entered, according to Act of Congteu, tu the year 1864, bf
G. P. QUACKENBOS,

In the Cleri.'1 Office ot the Diltrlct Court of

the United Stat.ea, !or the Southern Diltrlct of
New York.

Course of Composition and Rhetoric" their text-books on the synthesis of our language, may find his Grammars equally useful in
connection with its analysis.
NBW Yomr; March 19, 1864.

CONTENTS.
--+-PAGE

Sentences,
Word s, Letters, Spe1ling, ,
Vowels nnd Consonants,
Diphthongs, TripLthongs,

The Use of Words,
The Parts of Speech,
The Noun,
Classes of Nouns,
Person, •
Number,

Formation of tho Plural,
Irregular Plural,
Plural of Foreign Noons,
Plural of Compound Nouns,
Gender, ,
Formntion oC Feminines, .

Subject and Object,
Case,
Declension of Nouns,

Formation of the Possessive,
The Pronoun,

Classes of Pronouns, •
P~rsonnl Pronouns,

Declension of the Personals,
Compound Personal Pronouns,
Rules for Substantives,
Apposition,
Relative Pronouns,

Simple Relatives, bow applied,
Construction of Relatives,
Compound Relatives,
Interrogative Pronouns,
Adjective Pronouns,

Declension of Adj. Pronouns,
The Article, .
Adjectives and their Classes,
D egrees of Comparison,

Comparison of Adjectives,
Irregular Comparison, .

()

25

26
27
27

29

28
29
80
80
83
85
86
87

88
40
41
42

44
46
48
49

151

FIRST BOOK IN GRA.MM.AR.

P..lGE

The Verb, •
Classes of Verbs, .
Voice, Moorl,
T enses of the Indicntive,
The Potential Mood,
The Subjunctive Mood,
Person and N um bcr of Verbs,
The Infinltlve Mood,

152
153
54
155
156
1>7
58
1>9
Particlpl~s,
60
Conjugation.of the Verb,
61
Indicative Mood of DE,
61
Potential Mood of DE, •
63
The Infinitive, how used,
64
Subjunctive Mood, &c., of DE,
65
Construction of Participles,
61
Conjugation of the Active Voice, 68
Remarks on Active Voice, .
70
Conjugation of the Passive Voice, 71 .
The Progressive Form,
74
Verbs distinguished as Regular
and Irregular,
76
Table of Simple Irregular Verbs, 78
The Defective Verbs,
82
The Adverb, .
84
Conjunctive Adverbs, '
86
Comparison- of Adverbs,
87
The Preposition,
sg
The Conjunction, .
92
The Interjection,
94
The Rules of Syntax,
91>
Ellipsis,
97
Sontences Classified,
98
Subject and Predicate,
99
Principal Parts of Sentences,
• 102
Clauses,
104
Forms of Analysis,
• 105
Correction of False Syntar,
109
Rules for Capitals,
• 118
Punctuation,
119

6
7
9
10
11
11
12
13
14
15
17
18
19
20
22
24

LESSON I.

Weeds grow rapidly._
Repeat the above words. What do they form ?

A Sentence.

..

.I

Why do we use thls sentence?

To express a thought.

' .

.

Of what is the sentence niade up?

,

Of three words, each the sign of an idea.
What do these words tell us ?

Weeds tells us what is spoken about.
Grow tells us what the weeds do.
Rapidly tells us how the weeds grow.
What do we use, then, to express our thoughts?

•
.

Sentences.

.

I

Of what.are sentences made up?

Of
Words' which ~e the signs of ideas.
.
E::(ERCISE •

.

Complete these sentences by supplying words to tell what ia
spoken about: - - killed Goliath. · - - cross the .ocean.
- - fly swiftly. - - will stai.n the fingers. - - smell
sweet. - - build houses. -· - keep us warm. - - bark•
Complete these sentences by·telling what horses do: Horses
__ oats• . Horses - - carts. · Horses - - water. Horses
- - grass. Horses - - flies. Horses - - in the fields •
Horses - - their masters. Horses - - races.

6

WORDS, LETI'ERS, SPELLING.

SYLLABLES.

How- many syllables, then, in car l In•carpet-I In carpeting l
Mention a word of one syllable ; of two syllables ; of three ;
of four.

LESSON II.
What is a Word?

A Word is the sign of an idea.
sign that stands for fro zen water.

The word ice is a

What is a word of one syllable called P

A Monosyllable ; as, he.

Of what is a word, when written, made up?

What is a word of two syllables called?

Of Letters. The word ice is made up of three
letters.

A Dissyllable ; as, he-ro.
What is a word of three syllables called P

What does every letter stand for?

A Trisyllable; as, h<?ro-ic.

A sound of the voice used in speaking.

What is a word of more than three syllables called?

How many letters are there in English?

A Polysyllable ; as, he-rO-i-cal, he-ro-i-cal-ly..

Twenty-six : a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n,
o,p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z.

Name the four classes, then, into wpfoh words are divided, with
reference to their number of syllables. How many syllables does
each of these contain?

What do these letters form P

The Alphabet.

EXERCISlL

What is Spelling ?

D ivide each word into its syllables,· tell whether it is a
m()nosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable :-a;

Spelling is putting letters together correctly, to
form words.

an; and; hand; handy; unhandy.; .handy-work ; r~pre­
hensible ; Virginia ; service ; serviceable ; ploughs ; mineralogy ; pretend ; history; noticed; noticing ; talked.

EXERCISE.

Spell the following words :-Business; separate; prairie;
independence; believe ; peaceable ; sympathize ; heroes ;
possessor ; cemetery; receive ; outrageous; monkeys; erysipelas ; scimitar; seminary ; maintenance ; Springfield ;
Pyrenees ; Mississippi ; Cincinnati.

LESSON IV.
How many letters in the English alphabet? How are these
divided?
.

Into two classes, Vowels and Consonants.

LESSON III.
Pronounce the word car. Pronounce carpet. Pronounce carpeting. What difference may be observed in pronouncing these words ?

Gar is pronounced with one impulse of the voice.
Gar-pet requires two impulses ; car-pet-ing, three.
What do we call that which is pronounced with one impulse of
the voice?

A Syllable.

What is a Vowel ?

A Vowel is a letter that can be uttered freely,
without interruption from the tongue or lips; as, a, e.

..

I

i

What is a Consonant ?

A Consonant is a letter that can not be uttered
freely, but is more or less interrupted by the tongue
or lips ; .as, b, f. Try to sound these letters.

8

A. REVIEW.

VOWELS, CONSONANTS.

9

What is a Silent Letter?

How many nnd which of the letters are nlivays vowels-?·

A Silent Letter is one not sounded. .E i's silent in
ice,[/ in gnaw, l in walk, win wrong.

Five ; a, e, i, o, u.
How many and which of the letters are always consonants?

EXERCISE.

Nineteen; b, c, d, /, g, li,j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t,
v, x, z.

Point out the vowe'ls, diphthongs, triphthongs, final letters,
and silent letters :-Receive ; chalk; plough ; wreathe;
knowledge; gnat; eye-brow; beautiful; hour; juice;
numbness; castle; awe-struck; ewe-lamb; two-tongued;
sweetly ; Europe.

Are w and y vowels or consonants?

Wand y are consonants when they precede a vowel
sounded in the same syllable; as in wet, swing, rewa1·d, y et, un-yoke. In all other cases, they are vowels ;
as in new, owe, by, rye, new-ly.

-

LESSON VI.

EXERCISE.
A REVIEW.

Pronounce each w01·d; tell wliether it is a monosyllable,
dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable. Name each letter;
tell iohethe-rit is a vowel or consonant :-Baby; why; awfully;
mysteriously; showed; drying; joke; knowingly; zero;
viewed; whortleberry; gown; waxen; unwrap.

How many letters in the English alphabet? Are these letters
mostly vowels or consonants? What is b? What is a? What
is w? What is a diphthong? Wha~ is a triphthong? Which
contains the greater number of vowels, a diphthong or a triphthong? .
May w occur in a diphthong? May fl occur in a triphthong?
Which is longer, a monosyllable or.a polysyllable? How many
more syllables has a trisyllable than a dissyllable? What is a word
of eight syllables called, like incomprehensibility F A word of six
syllables, like incomprehensible l Add one more syllable to a
monosyllable, and what does it become ?

LESSON V.
Name the vowels.

A, e, i, o, u,-and w and y, when they do not precede a vowel sounded in the same syllable.

What are the simplest clements of language?

How many vowels are sometimes combined in one syllable?

LEITERs, which stand for simple sounds of the
voice used in speaking.

Two, or even three.
What is a Diphthong?

In what are letters

A Diphthong is a combination of two vowels in
one syllable ; as, ea in eat, oi in oil.
What is a Triphthong?

A Triphthong is a combination of three vowels in
one Ryllable ; as, eau in beau, owe in owed.
What is a Final Letter?

A Final Letter is one that ends a word; as, t in hat.

~ombined ?

In _SYLLABLES, which represent sounds ttttered by
one impulse of the voice.
In what are syllables combined ?

In woRns, which are the signs of ideas.

...
\

In what are words combined?

In SENTENCES, which express thoughts.
i•

10

USES · OF WORDS.

PARTS • OF ·SPEECH.

What does Grammar teach us?

Nine, each performing a· differei;it office. ,
What are these nine classes of words called ?

p ARTS

EXERCISE.

Give the names of all the trees that you can think of; as,
hemlock, beech, pine, &:c.
Give all the words you can think of that will describe the
trees ; as, ·shady trees, tall trees, spreading trees, &:c.
Give all the word& you can think of that will tell what he
is doing under the shady trees; he is walking, he is running,
he is reading, &:c.
.
Give all the words you can think of that will tell Mt'JJ he
is walking ; he is ·walking slowly, gracefully, quickly, &c.

--

LESSON VII.
In forming sentences, what do we have to use ?

\Ve use the word trees as the name of certain
objects.
We use shady to describe trees, to tell what kind
of trees is meant.
We use the to point out some particular trees.
We use lie for the person's name ; in stead of
James or John is walking, we say he is walking.
We use is walking to affirm an action to tell what
he is doing.
'
We use under to show the relation between is
walking arfd trees j not over the trees, or from the
trees, but under the trees.
We use slowly to tell how he is walking.
We use, see I to call attention.
We use but to connect the sentence with something
going before.
.
.

OF SPEECH.
EXERCISE.

Write four trisyllables; four monosyllables; four polysyllables; four dissyllables; four words containing diplithongs; four containing triphthongs; four ending with silent
e; four words having final y ; four words ha·ving a final consonant ; four having a final vowel.

Show this in the sentence, But see I lie is walking slowly under
the shady trees.

\

How many different classes of words have we thus found ?

Grammar teaches us how to put words together in
sentences, to express thoughts correctly.
.

Different kinds of words, expressing different ideas.

.

-----

..

LESSON VIII.
How many parts of speech are Ghere?

Nine.

-

Name them.

Nouns, Pronouns, Articles, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
What is the first part of speech?

The Noun.
What is a Noun?

A Noun is a word used as a name.
Give examples.

..,

The names of persons are nouns ; as, Adam, Victoria, General Taylor, .Dr. Benjamin Franklin.
The names of countries, cities, towns, rivers, mountains, &c., are nouns ; as, Scotland, N ew York, Missouri River, Rocky Mountains, Atlantic Ocean.

12

THE NOUN.

KINDS OF NOUNS.

The names of things that can be seen, heard, felt,
smelled, and tasted, are nouns ; as, men, thunder,
heat, roses, sugar.
The names of things that are not seen, &c., but
simply thought of, are nouns ; as, art, death, happiness, patience, genius.

13

What kind of nouns are the names of nations P

The names of nations are proper nouns ; as, the
Germans.
How must proper nouns always commence P

With capital letters. See the above examples.
EXERCISE.

What is your name ? What part of speech is it? Mention
four nouns, the names of persons ; mention four, the names of
countries ; mention four, the names of things you can see; mention
four, the names of things you can not see.

Complete these sentences by supplying n~uns of the cliMs
indicated :-The Amazon is the longest river m (proper
noun).-Columbus found America in~abit~d by (proper).-:
Grocers sell (six common nouns).-Cam killed (proper), his
(common), and was punished for his (common).-The garden
was bright with (six common nouns) and other fiowers.-In
the Bible we read about Uour proper nouns) and other good
(common).-Joseph had a (common) of many colors.

EXERCISE.

Supply as many appropriate nouns as you can tMnk of,
in place of each dash: Farmers raise - - . - - are sold
by dry-goods merchants. We can buy - - in market.
Hupters often shoot--. - - are made of wood. Every
one has heard of such great men as - - . The fisherman
·caught some - - .

LESSON X.
How many classes of nouns are there P Name and define them.

LESSON IX.
How many parts of speech are there ? Name them.
is the first ? What is a noun ? What are all names ?

I, James, promise to go.
.
James, do you promise to go?
James promised to go.
How is Jam es represented in these three sentences ?

Which

How many kinds of nouns are there?

Two, Common and Proper.
What is a Common Noun?

I

r

A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to
all obj ects of the same kind; as, boy, country, island,
dog.

In parsing, how do we distinguish the noun James in these
sentences ?
·

In the first sentence, we say that James is in the
first person j in the second sentence, it is in the second
person j in the third sentence, in the third person.

What is a Proper Noun?

A Proper Noun is the name of an individual obj ect, which can not be applied to all others of the
same kind ; as, R ichard, Peru, Ireland, Carlo.

In the first sentence, James is represented as speaking ; _in the second, as spoken to ; in the third, as
spoken of.

"

II ~
i

How many persons, then, are there?

Three · the First the Second, and the Third. ·
,
'
2

14

What do these three persons denote ?

What do they denote ?

S The First' Person denotes that which speaks . the
econd Person, that which is spoken to . the Third
'
Person, that which is spoken of.
Does a .noun show its person by its form?

No ; its form is the same m· all th ree persons.
In
. sentences ?
In what person
. are most nouns that occu r m
the tlnrd person, because they denote .things
t hat are spoken of.
EXERCISE.

S~lect tlie nouns.

Tell their class and pe1·son. [Th ·· t h e second person . L aborusis· a
noun, m
common noun, m the third person.] Toil on brave boy.
~or labor conquers all things.-Alexander Hamil~on was sho~
m a duel by Aaron Burr.-We moderns have many improvements th~t our forefathers did not possess.-Rejoice
O ioung man, m thy youth.-!, Pharaoh, dreamed a dream'
:-- hank Roger Bacon, ye old men, that ye can see for h~
mvented spectacles.
'
B oy 1s a comm

"

o~

How

Tw_o years; five years; ten years ; a thousand uears.
What is to be observed in these expressions ?
•

When one is spoken of, the word y ear is used .
when more than one, the form changes to years.
,
In parsing, how do we distinguish year and years?

W: s~y that year is in the singular number, and
years is in the plural number.
How many numbers are there?

Two, the Singular and the Plural.

The· Singular denotes one ; the Plural, more than
one.
Does a noun show its number by its form ?

Generally ; most nouns change their form in the
plural. Thus :Singular. Year,
Plural.
Years;

potato,
man,
potatoes ; men;

child,
children.

EXERQISE

Select the nouns. TeZl their class, person, and number.
[Thus :-Kings is a common noun, in the third person, plural
number. Rome is a proper noun, in the third person, singular number.] Seven kings ruled Rome.-A sheep will yield
about three pounds of wool every year.-Homer, Virgil, and
Milton, are the three great epic poets.-Lift up your heads,
ye everlasting gates.-Moses wrote the first five books of
the Bible.-Deer are still found in the Adirondack Mountains.
--+--

LESSON XII.

LESSON XI.
What property have we just found that nouns possess?
many persons are there ? What do they denote ?
One year.

15

NUMBER.

PERSON.

How many properties have we thus far found nouns to possess?
How many persons are there? Name them. · How many numbers
are there ? Name them. How many consonants are there? Name
them. How many vowels are there? Name them.
How do most nouns form their plural?

Most nouns form their plural by adding s to the
singular : as, hat, hats; dwarf, dwarfs; cuckoo,
cuckoos ; Cato, the Catos.
What nouns form their plural by adding es?

Nouns ending as follows form their plural by
adding es:1. In ch not sounded like k ; as, torch, torches.

16

Foruu.noN· OF .
2. In s and s!i . ·a
3 In
. s, gas, gases ; gash gashes
•
::c and z .. as ' t ax, t axes ; waltz ' walt •
4 In .

o, or u, preced d b
'
zes.
alkali, alkalies . cargo
e
Y a consonant : as
'
, cargoes · gnu
'
Do any nouns ending in o rec
'
' gnues.
•

i,

to form the plural ?

p

eded by a consonant take s alone,

A few : as, canto, cantos . .
halos; portico, porticos. 1 ' grotto, grottos; hafo,
H d
' so o, solos; tyro tyros
ow o common nouns d. .
'
.
I. If final
.
en mg m y form the plural?
Y I S preceded b
·
add s ; as, valley, valleys.
y a vowel, they simply
2. If final y is preceded b
it to ies; as, fly, flie8.
ya consonant, they change
Name fifteen nouns endin .
to ves in the plural.
g ID f and fe, that change these letters

Beef, beeves; leaf leaves .
'
' sheaf, sheaves · thief
thieves · loaf 1
'
' oaves · calf 1
'
'
elves ; self, selves . shelf
~a ves; half, halves ; elf,
lives; knife knives' . .ti' s e. ves; wolf, wolves; life
'
' w1 e' wives '. wh ar f , wharves or'
wharfs.

h

EXERC ISE

Spell and de.fine the pl~tral

[
.
one shoe.] Shoe. r at.
. Thus :- s-li-o-e-s, more than
.
'
' wren · arch ·
k iss;
blush ; box; topaz; alk~li. . ' monarch; beech;
.·
• pme; halo; crash . to
mato; bamboo. t 110
•
'
; grotto · echo .
' me1cy; play. can
.
'
, cry; boy. sty.
k .
'
opy' eye . ray. l f
'
'
mife); hoof; sea-calf (like c~if) . ' ea ; . pen-knife (like
' muff; life; knee; ewe.

-

LESSON XIII.
How do most nouns form their I
?
form their plural ? How d
~ ural . What nouns take es to
the nouns that form their pol nalo~s ID y form their plural? Name
ur in ves.
.

THE PLURAL -NUMBER.

Name some nouns quite irregular in their plural.

The following nouns are quite irregular:Sinu.

Plu.

Child,
Foot,
Goose,

children.
feet.
geese.

I

Sin(J.

Louse,
Mouse,
Man,

I

Plu.

lice.
mice.
men.

Sin(J.

Pl!u.

Ox,
oxen.
Tooth, t eeth.
Woman, women.

What compounds of these words form their plural similarly?

Compounds in which these words stand last, form
their plural similarly : as, grandchild, grandchildren;
fireman, firemen.
Give some nouns that take both a regular and an irregular
plural.

Some nouns have both. a regular and an irregular
plural, with different meaningi:l :Sinuular.

Rt(Jular Plural.

Brother, brothers (of a .family),
dies (stamps for coining),
Die,
Genius, geniuses (men of genius),
heads (parts of the body),
Head,
peas (distinct grains),
Pea,
Penny, pennies (distinct coins),
sails (pieces of canvas),
Sail,

Irreuular Pl!ural.
brethren (of a society).
dice (cubes for gaming).
genii (spirits).
h ead ~of cattle).
pease (taken in bulk).
pence (a sum of money).
sail (vessels).

Give some nouns that have th e same form in both numbers.

The following nouns are alike in both numbers :
alms, bellows, cannon, deer, means, sheep, S'Wine, and
the compounds of the word fish, as coiifish, &c. ,.
EXERCISE.

Spell and define the plural :-Ox ; ox-fly; mouse; dor-

mouse; man; waterman; washerwoman; Frenchman;
gooseberry; tooth-pick; eye-tooth; ~annon; fallow-deer;
sheep; wharf; sword-fish; handful; step-father.
Spell the singular :-Moneys; enemies; keys; fleas;
thieves ; heroes ; tyros; N eros ; alms ; dice; bellows;

,,,.

18

FORMATION OF

Irishwomen; sheep; black-fish; Germans; waltzes. leaves·
pence ; volleys; genii .i piano-fortes; brothers-in-la'w.
'

LESSON XIV.

Some keep their foreign plural; some take the
regular English plural ; some take both.
How ~o foreign nouns ending i~ a form their foreign plural?
Foreign nouns in a change a to a3 ; as, vertebra
vertebrw.
'
How ~o foreign nouns in us form thei r foreign plural?
Foreign nouns in us change us to i. ivs

r
I

8i11oula1"

Plural.

alumni.
foci.
magi.

I

Sinoular.

' P'l-ural.

N ucleus,
nuclei, R. *
Radius,
radii, R.
Sarcophagus, sarcophagi, R.

How ~o foreign nouns in is form th eir foreign plural?

Foreign nouns in is change is to es; as,
.Axis. ,
Basis,
Crisis,

axes.
bases.
crises.

Hypot hes1·s,
Oasis

Pare~thesis,

hypotheses.
oases.
parentheses.

How ~o foreign nouns in um and on form their plural?
Foreign nouns in um and on change um and on to
a; as,
.Animalcnlum,
Aquarium,
.Automaton,
Critel'ion,
Datum ,
Encomium,

animalcula.
aquaria, R.
automata, R.
criteria, R.
data.
encomia, R.

* .R. means that the noun takes
nuclei or nucleuau.

Give .th~ pllll'l\l of some more foreign nouns..

'-.

.Appe~dix, appendices;R.;

beau, beaux, R.; cherub,
cherubim, R. ; seraph, seraphim, R.
EXERCISE.

How do foreign words introduced into English without chan"e
form their plural ?
·
"

.Alumnus,
F ocus,
Magus,

19

THE PLURAL . NUJIIBER.

Erratum,
Gymnasium,
Herbarium,
Medium,
M
d
emoran um,
Phenomenon,

errata.
gymnasia, R.
herbaria, R.
media, R.
memoranda, R.
phenomena.

~lso the regular English plural. nuckua
,

'

Supply the proper plural :-Napoleon made his [brothers
or brethren 1] kings.-The gambler must have his [dies or
dice 1].-We need [geniuses or genii 1] at the head of affairs.
-Weak [heads or head 1] often go with strong bodies.Twenty [heads or head?] of cattle have just passed.
I owe you eight [pennies or pence 1], but have only three
[pennies or p ence1] in my pocket.-Thirty [sails or sail1]
swept up the bay, with all their [sails or sail1] set.-Buy a
bushel of [peas or peasen-Two [peas or pease?] produce
two hundred.-Good [geniuses orgeniHJ guardthee!-[.Dies
or dice 1] are used in coining.
LESSON XV.
What are the different classes of words called ? How many
parts of speech are there ? What is the first part of speech?
What properties have we thus far found nouns to possess ? How
do most nouns form their plural?
How do some compounds form their plural ?

The following compounds vary both words that
compose them:Man-servant, men-servants .
Man,-singer, men-singers.
Man-child, men-children.

I

Woman-servant, women;gervants.
Woman-singer, women-singers.
Knight-templar, knights-templars.

Are there any nouns not found in both numbers?

Yes ; some nouns have no plural, and some no
singular.
Mention some nouns that have no plural.

Many names of virtues, vices, arts, sciences, dis-

..

20

GENDER.

MASCULINE .A.ND FEMININE.

ease~, and .articles sold by weight, have no plural; as,
patience, idleness, architecture, music, gout, lard.

How many genders are there?

Two, the Masculine and the Feniinine. ·

Mention some nouns that have no singular.

What do they denote ?

Some nouns have no singular . as
.Aborigines
Annals
Ashes
Billiards

11

'

I

Bitters
Cattle
Clothes
Fireworks

The Masculine Gender denotes males; the Feminine,
females.

' ,

Goods

Headquarters
Riches
Spectacles

Suds
Tidings
Victuals
Wages

What is the gender of a noun that denotes either male or
female,-as neighbor?

Such a noun is masculine or femipine ; we say
briefly that it is of common gen<ler.

EXERCISE.

·'

Do all nouns have gender ?

' Mention six fo1·eign nouns in the singular number . six in
tne plu1·al.
'

No. Things without life are neither male nor
female. Hence their names have no gender.

Correct the errors. Then select the nouns,· tell their class
person, and number :-Goliath the giant of Gath
l'
ten fi t h" h
'
, was near y
oo ig .-The phenomenons of the air are wonderful.
-Where are the bellowses !-Pharaoh put the man '"ld .
of the H b
-c,.i ren
e rews to death.-The cannons roared as the sail
were unfur:ed.-Water is full of animalculums.-Cherubims
and semplmns raise their songs.
.

EXERCISE.

Mention the nouns, tlieir class, p~rson, number, and gender
when they have it. [Thus :-Daniel Webster is a proper
noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender. New Hampshire is a proper noun, in the third person,
singular number. Neighbors is a common noun, iu the third
person, plural number, common gender.]
Daniel Webster was born in New Hampshire.-Love
your neighbors.-The birds of tropical regions generally
have beautiful plumage.-Men of Switzerland, remember
William Tell.-Sponges are obtainecl by di~ers in the Medi;
terranean Sea.

LESSON XVI.
L ion,
B oy,
JJfan-singer,

Lioness.
Gi..Z.
Woman-singer.

Co;npare the words in the first column with those in the second.·
What 1s to be observed ?

The former denote males ; the latter, females.

LESSON XVII.

In parsing, how do we distinguish lion and lioness?

How many genders are there? Name and define them. What
nouns have gender, and what nouns have none?· What nouns are
said to be of common gender P

. We ~ay that lion is of the masculine gender, and
lioness is of the f eminine gender,
. . Here, then, is a new property that some nouns poillleas. what
1t called?
'

When is a common noun said to be personified?

IS

Gender.

21

ll
\

When it is used as the name of a person.
"Sorrow sits veiling her eyes." Here Sorrow is

22

OBJEC'l'S PERSONIFmD.

represented as doing something that only a person
can do, and it is therefore said to be personified.
Does the name of au object personified have gender?

Yes. Fierce and mighty objects (as War, Time)
are personified as males, and their names become
masculine. Gentle and beautiful objects (as Hope,
Evening) are personified as females, and their names
become feminine.

"\

abbess.
actress.
countess.
duchess.
empress.
goddess.
marchioness.

Hero,
Paul,
Czar,
Administrator'
Executor,
Sultan,
Louis,

heroine .
Pauline.
czarina.
.
adminis.tratrix.
executrix.
sultana.
Louisa.

By using an entirely different word; as,
II.

With a capital letter.

.M(J,IJ.

Parse tlie nouns. [Thus:-Hope is a common noun personified, in the third person, singular number, feminine
gender.] Hope whispers her fair promises in the ears of
youth.-Anger plunges the dagger in his brother's heart.Henry Clay was born in Virginia.- Peace and Plenty go
smiling through the land.- With his remorseless scythe,
Time mows down the nations.-Justice, with bandaged eyes,~
holds her impartial balance.-Humility is the rrieek-eyed·
daughter of Religion.-Sweet Charity, of thee I sing.

Feminine.

Feminina.

.Masculine.

Abbot,
Actor,
Count,
Duke,
Emperor,
God,
Marquis,

How must the name of an object personified commence P

EXERCISE.

~3:

GENDER.

.Mas.
Fem.

b 11
Beau,
e e.
Boy,
girl.
Brother, sister.
doe.
Buck,
cow.
Bull,
Drake, duck.
countess.
Earl,

Fem.

Father, mother
Gander, goose.
roe.
Hart,
mare.
Horse,
queen.
King,
lady.
Lord,
woman.
Man,

.M(J,IJ.

F_em.

Master, mistress.
Nephew, niece.
ewe.
Ram,
daughter.
Son,
hind.
Stag,
heifer.
Steer,
aunt.
Uncle,

. g words that denote the sex: to
m. By prefix m
gender ; as,
nouns Of the common
·
maid-servant. \
female-de:Male-descendant, { scendant.

Man-servant,

Cock-sparrow,
H -"oat
eo '
Buck-rabbit,

hen-sparrow.
she·goat.
doe-rabbit.

EXERCISE .

L ESS O N

X V II I .

Have all masculine nouns corresponding feminines?

Not aJJ, but some have : as, lion, lioness; boy,
girl.
In how many ways are feminines distinguished from their cor· ·
responding masculines ?

In three ways:I. By adding ess, ine, ina, ix, or a to the mas.cu.
line, with or without change ; as,

. · ta1·1or,. Jew.• shepherd ; arch·
· · . Lion
Give tltefeminine . 'c l"us. earl.' school-boy;
- A gustus · orne 1 ,
. man-singer; male-serduke; marqms i u
'.
r11m · st ep- father ·• brother-m-1aw'
' k"
J
8 tag . school-master.
vant ; mg i
T" ss . poetess . priestess ; o• .
Gi th masculine ·- igre '
'
d hte .
ve e .
. . . heifer . doe ; grand aug r ,
sephine; Henrietta; ~uha '. landlady; duck; godmother;
heiress ; gentlewoman ' ro~ '
rina · executrix.
.
z· nouns '. siz feminines;
siz ncum
baroness ; cza.
'
•r t " n siz mascu ine
__ :i
JJ:Len io gender; siz
.
of common
nouns tkat have no g.,,.,,,er..

- 24

SUBJECT, OBJECT.

CASE.

25

'!

LESSON XIX. ·
What is a Sentence?

A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as
mak_es complete sense; as, "Bees make honey."
What must every sentence contain ?
II

'

Every sentence must contain a verb which affirms
'
some action or state.
What is meant by the Subject of a verb?

The Subject of a verb is that of which the action
or state is affirmed.
·
What is mcaut by the Object of a verb?

The Object of a verb is that on which the action
expressed by the verb is exerted.

Give examples.

At home; home is the object of the preposition at.
For J.acob's son; son is the object of the preposition
for.
EXERCISE.
\

Select the verbs; tell the su7Jject of each, and its object if
it has one. Select the prepositions and their objects :-Don
Quixote was written by Cervantes' in prison.-Necessity
quickens invention.-Coaches made their way iD;to England
in the fifteenth century.-Without doubt, the ancients never
used forks.-Malice seldom wants a mark.-Quicksilver is
another name for mercury.-Indians traversed the whole
• continent, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.

Give examples.

. "Bees make honey." Make affirms an action and
is a verb. B ees is its subject; honey is its obje;t.
How can you find the subject of a verb ?

By asking a question with who or what before the
verb. The answer to the question is the subject.
Thus:- "What make honey? Answer, bees. Bees is
the subj ect.
.'

'

I

,.

How can you find the object of a verb?

By asking a question with whom or what after the
verb. The answer to the question ·is the object.
!hus:-Bees make what ? Answer, honey. Honey
is the object.
What else besides verbs have objects?

Prepositions, or words that show relations · as at
' over
' '
about, aj'te1·, before, by, f or, from, in, into of,
to, with, witlwut.
' '
'

LESSON XX.
What properties have we found nouns to possess? What other
property has the noun, to distinguish the relation of subject, obj ect, &c. ?

Case.
How many cases are there?

Three ; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the
Objective.
When is a noun in the Nominative Case?

A noun is in the Nominative Case,
I . When it is the subject of a verb; as, "Bees
make honey."
II. When it stands after a verb, and refers to the
same thing as its subject; as, "Vkgil wasaRoman."
III. When it is used independently, in an exclamation, address, &c.; as, "Heavens I what a sight I"
"Ye men of Athens ! " " The sun having set, I returned." "Our fathers, where are they?"
3

THE COMPOUND PERSONALS.

$I

sessive or objective case of the simple personals and
the word self.
Name the compound personals.

Myself, plural ourselves, ourself, 1st person.

T~yseli, plural yourselves, yourself, 2d person.
Hunseli, plural themselves, 3d, masculine.
. .
Herself, plural themselves, 3d, l,.emmme.
I tself, plural themselves 3d
,
, no gen d er.
What case do the compound personals lack?

Th~y lack the possessive case, and have the same
form m the objective as in the nominative.
1'

EXERCISE.

Oorre~t ours'; theirs'; it's; your's. his'n. hern.

yo urn
; h1sself; theirsel ves ,. itsself., th' e1rn.
.
,
S

o

, ourn ;

upply tlie proper pronouns, and tell tliefr person num-

erd, ghende1· when they have it, and case : Charles said that he
h a urt - - but
- - do no t th'm k - - was much in·
'
.Jured. Paul has mislaid __ book. will
t
find it for
o G
'
- - no try to
-- '
eorge and Henry must have lost - .
way m the woods ; I can not find - - Th. b k .
that slate is --.
·
Is oo 1s - - ,

--

LESSON XXV.

Rules must be given for the case of nouns and.
pronouns.
What general term includes both nouns and pronouns ?
Recite Rule I., relating to the.subject.

RULE II.-A substantive used independently is in
the nominative case.
"Napoleon having charged, the battle was decided." "Robert,
do not go." " Ah I wretched we I" · " The . bride-what can I say
of her ? " Napoleon,, Robert, we, and bride, are in the naminati ve
independent.
'
Recite Rule III., for the possessive case.

R uLE III.-A substantive that modifies a noun
denoting a different person or thing, by implying
possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case ;
as, my hand; Horse's telegraph ; men's shoes.
Recite Rule IV., relating to the object.

RULE IV.-A substantive that is the object of a
verb or preposition is in the objective case; as, Pity
us ; in Egypt.
PARSING FvRMS.-Learn the following forms for
parsing nouns and personal pronouns, and applying
the above rules : -

I beg you, my son, think of the conseqitences.
· I is a simple personal pronoun, in the first person, singular num-

In parsing fully, what must be done? .

Substantives.

Recite Rule II.,- relating to substantives'use(l ·iridepende~tly.

·

R~~ I.-A substantive that is the subject of a
verb is m the nominative case . as " Yiears com
d
' '
ean
go. " "Lovest thou me ?"

ber, common gender, nominative case, the subject of the verb beg :Rule, A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
You is a simple personal pronoun, in the second person, plural
number (used for the singular), masculine gender, objective case,
the object of the verb beg :-Rule, A substant!ve that is the object
of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.
My is a simple personal pronoun, in the first person, singular
number, common· gender, possessive case, and modifies the noun
son :-Rule, A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different
person or thing; by implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the
possessive case.

32

RULES FOR SUBSTANTIVES.

Son is a common noun in th
masculine gender nomin~r
. edsecond person, singular number,
'
ive m ependent · Rul .A b
. .
.e,
su stantive
use d independently is in the
nommattve case
Consequences is :i common noun in th~ th'
number, objective case the b' t f '
ird person, plural
•
o uec o the pre ·r
subs tan ti ve that is the ob. e t f
post ion of :-Rule, .A
0
j ective case.
Uc
a verb or preposition is in the obEXERCISE.

Parse tlie nouns and ersonal
above models :-Cleopatr! killed {ronouns acco?:ding to tlie
asp.-The boy oh! h
erself by the bite of an
w ere was he~-W th
us.-Beavers build their lod e b
e ought he saw
dawned the
g Ysome stream.-Day having,
Y were soon on their ·
yourself at the expense of f. d Journey.-Never amuse
let not thy passions cont lathr1en .-I pray thee, neighbor,
ro
Y reason.

RULES FOR SUBSTANTivES.

33

PARSING FORM •....:... Ca3Sar lived nineteen centuries
ago.-Goliath was nearly tenfeet high.

Centuries is a common noun, in the third person, plural number, objective case, denoting time :-Rule, A. modifying substantive,
denoting time, direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in
the objective case without a preposition.
Feet is a common noun, in the third person, plural number, objective case, denoting extent :-Rule, A.· modifying substantive, &c.
EXERCISE.

Parse tlie nouns and personal pronouns according to the
models given :-The Pacific Ocean is 9000 miles long.-1 expect to go home day after to-morrow.-Can you tell us, my
young philosopher, why the mngnetio needle points ·north 1
-Muslin a yard wide now costs forty cents a yard.-Gooci
wheat weighs sixty pounds to the bushel.

LESSON XXVI.
. Repeat Rule I. Rule II. Rule III R l
u_ e IV. In what case
is a modifyin"' substantive th t d
.
What els; may a mod'f .a enotes possession, origin, or fitness?
.
i ymg noun denote ?
t'

Besides possession, origin, and fitness a modifvin
"· g
noun may denote,
'
I. Time ; as, " He went last week "
2. Direction; as, " He went west.~'
3. Extent; as, "An inch wide."
4. Quantity; as, "It measured a bushel,,
5. Value; as, " It cost me a dollar." .
In what case a e th
. .
In
the b' r . . ese mod1fymg nouns,

LESSON XXVII.
When is one substantive said to be itt apposition with another?

When one substantive is joined to another denoting
the· same person or thing, to explain or add to its
meaning, it is said to be in apposition with the latter.
Give examples of nouns in apposition.

"Fulton, the inventor of steamboats;" inventor is
in apposition with Fulton. " The prophet Samuel; "
P'rophet is in apposition with Samuel.
In what case is a noun that is in apposition?

week, west, &c.?

o ~ect1ve case.
Rec1te
. Rul e V., relatin" to a mod'f .
.
1 ymg su bstant1ve.
0
R ULE V-A
d'f.
1
·
.
.·
mo ymg substantive, denotin
~rme, direction, extent, quantity or l
f
g
m th b · ·
' .Ya ue, o ten stands
e o ~ect1ve case without a preposition.

In the same case as 'the noun with which it is in
apposition. Inventor is in the same case as F'ulton;
prophet is in the same case as Samuel.
Recite Rule VI., relating to substantives in apposition.

RuLE VI.-One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case.
2•

38

PARSING OF SIMPLE RELATIVES.

Does the relative agree with its antecedent in case 1

No; in case it is independent of its antecedent.
Show this by an example.

" The temple was built by Solomon, who was the
son of David." The antecedent Solomon, being the
object of the preposition by, is in the objective case;
but the relative who, being the subject of the verb
was, is in the nominative.

39

THE COMPOUND RELATIVES.

Decline the compound relatives.

N e of the compound relatives change, except
on and whosoever. They are aJike m
· b oth n um.
whoever
hers, and are declined thus : Sing. and Pl'IVl'a"I.

Nom.
Poss.
Obj.

Whoever,
whosever,
whomever.

Si ng. and Plural.

Whosqever,
whosesoever,
whomsoever.

In parsing a relative, how many rules must be given?

Two : Rule VIII., for its agreement, and whatever
other rule is r!Jquired, for its case.
What has the force of the compound relatives, and
is parsed like them, as shown in the next lesson.
EXERCISE.

Parse the relative pronouns in the last two Exercises.
· [Thus :-It was Pope who wrote, "The proper study of
mankind is man." Who is a simple relative pronoun, and
has Pope for its antecedent, with which it agrees in the
third person, singular number-Rule, A relative agrees with ·
its antecedent in person and number; in the nominative
case, the subject of the verb w1·ote-Rule, A substantive that
is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case.]

LESSON XXXI.
How many kinds of relatives are there?
relatives.

Name the simple

Name the c0mp0und relative pronouns.

Whoever, whQsoever, applied only to persons.
Whichever, .whichsoever, applied to persons, animals, and things.
Whatever, whatsoever, applied only to things.

To what is a compound relative generally equivalent p

•

Like what .a compound relative is generall~ equwalent to an ~ntecedent and a simpl~ relative.;. a~
"Whoever [that is, any one who] i.s low-sp1~1te
should learn to skate." "Take whichever [either
that] you ch oose."
.
P
How
many cases do wltat and the
· compound relatives represent
· b
Two cases ; one as antecedent., and the ot er as
.
When these cases are different,
re1at1ve.
. two rules
must be given in parsing.
PARSING FORMs.-Be content with what you have.
-Bring whoever is there.

What is a simple relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent
d relative . in the third person, singular number; as anteced~nt,
~n h b" t~ e case the object of the preposition witlt; as relative,
mt e o ~ec iv
•
.
b have ·-Rule A sub.
, . .
in the objective case, the object of the ver
stantive that is the object of a verb or preposition is in the objective

case~hoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent and relative, in the third person, singular num:e:; as ~n~e­
cedent in the objective case, the object of the verb l ~~g--: ~~;
A sub;tantive that is the object of a verb,.&c.;
r~a iv~~i:tive
. t"ve
of the verb. is-Ru
e,
su
.
nomma
1 case, the subiect
,
.
that is the subject of a verb is in the nommat1ve case.

7

40

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS,
EXERCISE.

Parse the nouns and pronouns :-Accept with gratitude
whatever (two rules) is sent from Heaven.-Whomsoever
(one rule) we find true, we trust,:._Whoever (one nile)
slanders my fri end, slanders me.-Take not what (two ntles)
belongs not to you.-Let h er have whichever (two rules)
suits her.-Whoever (one ru le) loses, is apt to complain.

j

I

'•

LESSON XXXII.
Jh
·I '

:;.
!Ii

Name the different classes of pronouns.
pronoun ? What is a re!ati ve pronoun ?
What is an Interrogative Pronoun?

What is a personal

An Interrogative Pronoun is one used for asking
a question, in answering a question indefinitely, and
in similar indefinite expressions.
.
Questions.- fV710 did it? Whiclt was it? fV?tat is truth?
Indefinite A.nswers.-I know not who did it, what truth is.
Indefinite Expressions.-Find out wlto did it, which it was.

Name the interrogative pronouns.

The interrogatives are who, which, and what.
How are the interrogatives declined?

Like the corresponding relatives; see page 35.
When are wlto and wlticlt relatives, and when interrogatives ?

When who and whicli relate to an antecedent, they
are relatives; when not, interrogatives.
When is wltat a relative pronoun, and when an interrogative?

The pronoun what is a relative, when equivalent to
t/iat which_; when not, it is an interrogative.
When a question ia answered by a single word, how can you
fi nd the case of that word ?

By supplying the words understood.

Thus:-

INTERROG.A.TIVE PRONOUNS.

41

"Who succeeded Jefferson? Madison." That is, Madison ~uc­
ceeded J eft'erson i Madison is in the nominative case, the subject
,,
.
.
of succeeded understood.
"Whom did Madison succeed? J eft'erson. That IB, Maru:ion
succeeded Jefferson; Jefferson is in the objective case, the object
of succeeded understood.

saw '!/· ou •'R-I would like
to know whose books these are.
PARSING FORM.- Wh om

Whom is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular number, objective case, the object of the ver~. saw. :~~~e,o!
substantive that is the object of a verb or preposition IS
jective case.
.
· !!Ular
Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the third perso?, smo
number, possessive case, and modifies the noun books :-Rule, A
substantive that modifies a noun, &c.
EXERCISE.

~arse the nouns and pronouns :-What is a pronoun 1, 'do•
Jesse's •-Do you know
whom
Whose son was Jn ·uVI
.
Elizabeth succeededl Yes; Queen Mary..-:Which do you
like b est arithmetic (in apposition with which) or grammar 1
-Who invented the telescope 1 Jansen or Galileo, .1 do not
know which.

LESSON

XX:l:III.

What is a personal pronoun? A relative pronoun? .An inall d?
terro.,.ative pronoun?
'\Vhat are all pronouns not included in the above classes c e .

Adjective Pronouns.
How are .Adjective Pronouns divided?

Into three classes :. .
1. Demonstratives, which point out with prec1s1on
the objects to which they refer :-This, that, former,
latter, both, same.

42

ADJECTIVE P.RONOUNS.

2. Distributives, which represent objects as taken
separately :-.Each, every, either, neither.
3. Indefinites, which refer to objects generally,
without specifying any in particular:- One, none,
other, another, some, all, any, such.
Are these words ever used witli nouns, nnd not in stead of them ?

Yes ; as, this book, every person. In that case
they are adjectives.
How are the adjective pronouns declined ?

l

Most of the adjective pronouns do not change.
This, that, one, and other, are declined as follows.
Another is declined _in the singular like other, but has '
no plural.
8.
P.
s.
P.
s.
P.
8.
P.

N. This, these,
P.
0. this; these.
PARSING

I That,
that;

those,
--

those.

I

One,

ones,

one's, ones',

one;

ones.

I

Other, others,
other's, others',
other ; others.

FORM.-T/iey loved each other.

Each is nn adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular number, nominative case, in apposition with tltey :-Rule, One substantive joined to another denoting the same person 01· thing, is in
the same case.

Other is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular number, objective case, the object of the verb loved :- Rule, The object
of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.

I
~ ·

I·

43

.A. REVIEW.

EXERCISE.

P arse tlie nouns and pronouns :-Teach me to fe el another 's woe.-Demosthenes and Cicero w ere both great
orators; the form er was a Greek, the latter a Roman. S"me are timid, others rash ; those lose all by th eir h esitatio n, th ese by their haste.- Let us do good to one (in apposition with us) another (object of to).-Such as are virtuous,
are h appy.

LESSON XXXIV.
A REVIEW.

.
? What is a common noun p What is a proper
f
How mnny persons
What is n noun ·
?
Name the four properties o nouns.
H
noun .
hers 9 How mnny genders?
ow
are there ? How many n : fi ~ person denote ? The second ?
many cases? What does t e rs
9
The third? . In what person are most nouns . The Jura!? How.
What does the singular number denote ?
. p £ m their
19 How do nouns m s or
h .
d<l most nouns form t e1r p1u;a .
that have no plq,ral.
? Mention some nouns
N
·
ouns m Y
.
What does the masculine
plural ?
Mention some that have no smgu1ar.
.
. .
d d te ? The feminine ?
I what three ways are femmme
gen er eno
uli s? What
What nouns have no gender 9. n
.
. d f
thei correspondmg masc ne .
nouns distingmshe rom
r
· ? The objective?
.
e denote? The possessive ·
does the nominative cas
£
? Name some of the
Which two of these case3 have the same orm
most common prepositions.
EXEROISE .

.

lled for ·- l Simple p ersonal, in the
Give tlie pronoun ca . . ·
·)
Simple personal,

2
first person, singular, ?bJect1;e 6:~;ou~d personal, third,
second, plura:, . posses~1v::
. 4 A simple relative, in the
singular, femmme, obJ eC i;. l ~ive in the possessive. 6.
objective. 5. A compoun re~ b.' t've 7 Simple per·
Compound personal, first, plur ' o ~~c it' . B Compound
' rd plural masculine, nomma ive.
.
sona1, thl '
'
· t' e
.
·d
singular
masculine,
nomma
iv
.
th
1
p ersona , 11 ,
•

-

LES S ON XXXV.
.A. REVIEW.
9 Wh are pronouns used?
What proper·
Ny
the four classes of pronouns.
What is a pronoun ·
ame
Whnt
. d
nouns possess ?
ties ois pro
What
a personal pronoun ? What is a relative pronoun ?

44

THE ARTICLE.

~s and inter~og~tive pronoun? What classes are included under the

used with nouns in the singular only, and denotes one
object but no particular one; as, a rose.

ea of adjective pronouns?
.
· How
· h are the compound personals formed?· Wh a t case 1s
want
~:~ ~:u~; ~o~:ound pei:sonals? Which of the simple relatives ar~
n. e possessive case? What pronouns have the same
form as the simple relatives? Name the compouud I t"
Wh" h f
. .
re a 1ves.
ic o the adj ective pronouns are declined ? Name th
t hat are not declined
When d 0 h
ose
Wh
·
t ese words become adjectives?
W ~t does the word substantive include ? Repeat the eight Rules.
h1ch of these relates to nouns in apposition?

Which is the first?.

T

'!'
I,

When must a be used as the indefinite article ?

A must be used before words commencing with a
consonant sound; as, a bird, a wonder, a year, a unit,
a humor.
·
Wand y beginning words are consonants. A must
therefore be used before words commencing with
these letters or their sounds.
Why do we say an heir, but a humor?

. H is silent in both these words. Heir, comm.en·
cing with a vowel sound, takes an; humor, commen·
cing with a consonant sound, takes a.
Recite Rule IX., relating to the article.

PARSING

he second ?

What are the Articles ?

.' .

an be used as the indefinite article ?

An must be used before words commencing with
a vowel so_und ; as, an ant; an·umbrella, an honor.

RULE IX.-An Article relates to the word whose
meaning it limits.

LESSON XXXVI.
Name the parts of speech.
The third?

When must

Must an or a be used before words commencing with w and y?

EXERCISE.

toltui:;ly pronouns of the class indicated:-(Interrogative)
H Y u that ~ary :Qii.d hurt (compound personal) ?-The
W~ttentots anomt (compound personal) with rancid oil.sh en you hav~ re.ad the book, put (simple personal) on the
f
elf, or else give it to (simple personaT\ brother -S
these a 1
•'
·
ome o
PP es are 1arger than (adjective pronoun). (adjectiv~
pronoun) o~ them are ripe.-(Interrogative) of 'you would
lay down (simple personal) life for (simple personal) neigh
bor?
·

I

45.

.A. REVIEW.

The Articles are the words the and an or a
d
before other words to limit their meaning . ~s~~~e
rose, an English rose, a white rose..
'
How ~re the two articles distinguished?

The• IS called the Definite Article • It IS
. use d wit
.h
~ouns m ~oth numbers, and generally denotes a artwular
as ' the rose , the roses. p
A obJect .or obiects.
J
'
n, or a, is called the Indefinite Article. It is

Foru.r.-A friend of the people.

A: is the indefinite article, and relates to friend :.- Rule, An

article relates to the word whoae meaning it limits.
The is the definite article, and relates to people :-Rule, An
article, &c.
EXERCISE •

Supply the proper indefinite article. Then pars6 the
nouns, pronouns, and articles: - - aunt and - - uncle are
not quite eo near as - - father and - - mother. I saw
- - hen, - - ewe, and - - wonderfully fat colt, in - meadow, by the r.iver. We drove about for - - hour in
- - one-horse wagon, looking for - - house with - -

46

THE ADJEarIVE.

honeysuckle by the door; but not - - human habitation
did we find. Here is - - humble and at the same time
- - honest man.

LESSON XXXVII.
What is the fourth part of spee.ch ?

The Adjective.
•.'

When I say those five ripe applea, by what is the word applea
modified?

· By the words those,five, and ripe. Those tells us
":hich apples are z:ieant; five tells how many apples ;
ripe tell~ what kind of apples. Words like these
joined to a noun or pronoun, are called Adjectives. '
What is an Adjective ?

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the
meaning of a substantive ; as, sweet roses, happy thou.
Is the subject to which an adjective relates ever understood p

It _is; as when we speak of the good, the living,
meamng good men, living persons.
Into how many classes are adjectives divided ?

Adjectives are divided into four classes ; Proper,
Numeral, Pronominal, and Common.
What is a Proper Adjective?

. ~ Proper Adjective is one having the form of, or
derived from, a proper noun ; as, Boston crackers,
Jrish melodies.
Proper adj~ctives commence with capitals.
What is a Numeral Adjective p

A Numeral Adjective is one that denotes a definite
n~ber; as, three days, the third watch, a threefold
garn.

THE ADJECTIVE.

What are the Pronominal

4'1

.A.djec~ives?

The Pronominal Adjectives are words having the
form of certain pronouns, but used with nouns, and
not in stead of them ; as, this man, all things, every
day, what a scene.
Naine the pronominal adjectives.

·

The pronominal adjectives are which, wha~, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, . whatsoever, this, .that,
these, those, former,. latter, both, sanie, each, every,
either, neither, none, other, another, some, all, ~ny,
such.
What is the fourth class of adjectives?

.Common Adjectives, which embrace all not contained in the above classes.
·What may a common adjective express?

A common adjective may express,
1. Quality ; as, ltandsome, idle, red-liot, ever-to·be-remembered.

2. Quantity; as, much labor, money enough, a wltole month.
s. Material; llS, a gold crown, a golden crow.n, wooden pegs.
4. Time; as, daily, weekly, annual, aubsequent, everlasting.
5. Situation ; ·as, the above rule, the off horse, the under side.
6. An indefinite number; as, 8everal, sundry, few, many.
EXERCISE.

Select the adjectives; tell their class, and what they relate to. [Thus :-No is a common adjective, aud relates to
man.] Owe no man; French politeness; gold and silver
medals; the former country; five white mice; these diligent scholars; the Memphis boat; every thirteenth soldier;
the Monumental City; a nut-brown maid; several large
Scotch herrings; those never-to~be-forgotten words of the
Massachusetts patriot; a fourfold increase; three hundred
dollars (take thr~~ hundred together).

48

DEGREES OF COMPARISON.

LESSON XXXVIII.
What is a final letter? Name the vowels. Name the consonants.
"John is tall, J ames is taller, but George is the tallest." What
are we told in this sentence?

That the quality of tallness belongs to John,
J arnes, and George, in different degrees.
In what words are these different degrees implied?

In the adjectives tall, taller, tallest. Hence, by
varying the form of an adjective, we may make it
express a quality in different degrees.
What is said of an adjective thus varied in form?

It is said to be compared.
How many degrees of comparison are there ?

Three ; the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative.
What is the Positive Degree?

The Positive is the degree expressed by an adjective in its simplest. form ; as, "He is wise and happy."
What is the Comparative Degree ?

The Comparative is a higher degree than some
other or others with which it is compared; as, "He
is wiser and happier than I."
What is the Superlative Degree ?

The Superlative is the highest degree of all that
are compared; as, " He is the wisest and happiest of
us all."
How are the Comparative and the Superlative Degree formed?

The Comparative Degree is formed by adding er,
and the Superlative by adding est, to the Positive;
as, tall, taller, tallest; tender, tenderer, tenderest.
What changes must sometimes be made in the positive, before
adding er and est ?

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

49

I. Final e must be rejected; as, rude, rud-er,

rud-est.
2. Final y, preceded by a consonant, must be
changed to i ; as, holy, holier, holiest. .
3. A final consonant, preceded by a smgle vowel,
must be doubled; as, wet, wetter, wettest.
EXERCISE.

W 1·ite the three degrees of warm ; sweet (no doubling,
because two vowels precede t); merry; cold; pale.; short;
hot; pretty; slow; fine; cool; fit; plain ; silly'. vile; ~at;
funny; great; handsome; dirty; clear; noble; witty; wide;
long; fat ; quick ; rare.

-

LESSON XXXIX.
May all adjectives be compared?

N 0 , Many adjectives of one . syUable are compared, and some of two syllables; but none of more
than two. We say prettier, prettiest j but not peacer
fuler, gloriousest. ·
What whole classes of adjectives are not compared?

As a general rule, proper, numeral, and pronominal
adjectives are not compared.
What common adjectives are not compared?

Those whose meaning does not admit of different
degrees; as, chief, daily, no.
What other way is there of expressing different degrees, besides
comparing the adjective?

U sin er the adverbs more, most, less, least, &c.
Thus, w: may say more pleasant in stead of pleasanter,
most pleasant for pleasantest.
5

50

When only is an adjective said to be compared?
When it takes er and est.
Recite Rule X., relating to the adjective.
RuLE X.-An adjective relates to the substantive
whose meaning it qualifies or limits.
How may the substantive to which an adjective relates be found?
a question with who or what.

By asking

Thus :-" The elephant is the la.rgest of beasts." Question. The
largest what of beasts? Answer. The largest beast of beasts.
La»gest relates to beast understood.
How must we parse an adjective?
To parse an adjective, state its class; if it can be
compare d, compare it .and . mention its degree ; tell
what it relates to, and rep eat Rule X.
PARSING

FO~M.-June roses are the sweetest of

flowers.
June is a proper adjective, and relates to roses :-Rule, An
adj ective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or
limits.
Sweetest is a common adjective ; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; in th'3
supcrlati ve degree, and relates to jlowets understood :-Rule, An
adjective relates, &c.
EXERCISE.

~.
I

Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, and adjectives :-The
diamond is the brightest and most valuable of precious
stones.-These smugglers introduce great quantities of
Brussels lace and French brandy.-The purer air is, the
healthier.-Few respect a tyrant, and still fewer love him.
-Kind deeds and gentle words are finer ornaments than
golden trinkets (subject of are understood) or jewels of great
price.-Moses was the meekest of men.

51

IRREGULAR COMPARISON.

PARSING OF ADJECTIVES.

LESSON XL.
? Name and define the three degrees.
What is an adjective ·
f f
.
the comparative degree?
What is the regular mode ·O ormmg
. .
The superlative ?
ularly · Compare the irregular adjectives. d •
Some adjectives are compare irreg
•
S1vn.
Poa.
Comp.
Sup.
Pos.
Comp.
wO::st.
Many, more,
most.
Bad, evil, ill, worse,
\ :Much, more,
most.
best.
t ext
better,
Goo d '
l t
Near
nearer' neares ' n •
Little,
less, lesser, eas .
'
.

•

Late and old take two forms : Late,

i

later
latter'

latest.
last.

\

~djectives

Old

i

•

older,
elder,

oldest.
eldest.

t~uper:ti:~:t ~~·

that makel a
Compare some
The following make a super a ive
•
Com
Sup.
Poa.
p.
farthest farmost, farthermost~
farth er,
'
·
Far,
foremost, first.
former,
Fore,
hindmost, hindermost.
binder,
Hind,
lowest, lowermost.
lower,
Low,
inmost, innermost.
Inner,
outmost, outermost.
Outer,
upmost, uppermost.
Upper,
frontmost.
Front,
northmost, &c.
N ortb,
-.
t · r prior
.
.
'~ .
pos erio '
'
In what degree are superior' inJ erwr' anterior'
.
.
· · . and senior?
ulterior, 1unio1 •
•
In the comparative degree.

"ther

They have ne1

ositive nor superlative.
d ad"ectives compared?
h
.
le words that comHow are a few compoun
By varying the first o t e s1mp

P

pose them ; as,
Good-natured,
Bright-eyed,

i

better-natured,
brighter-eyed,

best-natured.
brightest-eyed.

52

CUSSES OF VERBS.

THE VERB.
EXERCISE

Parse the nouns, pronouns a .
•
- Superior is a common d~ r~zcles, and adjectives. [Thus.
r .
..
a Ject1ve in th
·
'.
e comparative de' pos1t1ve and superJot·
g ee
u ive wantrng. 1
"t b I
R le
- u ' An adjective &c ] Th
'
e ongs to view ·
th e t opmost point of' the· nr ere is a supenor
· view from·
more work.-There are f,c I .~Let us have less talk and
hearted men than my eldewt better-tempered or warmerh t I
es rother I
·
ear ' could not help think'
·--:- n my lllnermost
. mg my semor partner an illnatured man.-The ld
o est friends are the best.

--

What is the first part of
The fourth ? The fifth ?
speech ? The second ? The third ?

How many
. a thing are th . ?
. ways of affi rmmg
ere .
F our Wb

en we affirm we
'
may assert, exclaim
u.
us:'
Carlo bai·ks.
How Carlo barks/
Can Carlo bark?

Carlo, do not bai·k·

Carlo is cross.
How Carlo sleeps I
Has Carlo been hw·t?

Carlo, eat your meat

that affirm called ?

•

Words that
affirm a re
. calle d Verbs .
.
' as, bark s, can
bark' & .c., lil th e ab ove examples.
What 1s a Verb?

·

A Verb is a word or
d
or a state.
wor . s used to affirm an action
Of
0 f how many words may a verb consist ?

as many as four. as " He

With regard to their meaning, bow are verbs distinguished?.

As Transitive and Intransitive.
What is a Transitive Verb?

A Transitive Verb is one that affirms an action
exerted on some person or thing ; as, " Sarah broke
the bottle." " The bottle is broken." Here the
breaking is exerted on the bottle.

..

An Intransitive Verb is one that affirms a state, or
an action ·not exerted on any person or thing ; as,
"Sarah ·is happy." "Sarah wept."
.
:May the same word be a transitive verb in one sentence, and
intransitive in another?

ask, or comman -7 Th
Assertions.
Exclamation s.
Questions.
Commands.
Wh
at arc words

It is, particularly in sentences that express a command ; as, " Carlo, do not [you] bark." You understood is the subject.

Wbat is an Intransitive Verb?

LESSON XLI.

·

53

What is the subject of a' ve/ ?
might have been hurt."
the subject of a verb be found? b .I (See L e.sson XIX.) How may
a the subject ever understood?

It may. ''He turned his face;" turned is transitive, because it has an object, f ace. "He t·u rned;"
turned is intransitive, because it has no object.
EXERCISE.

Select the verbs ; state whether they are transitive or intransitive ; mention the subject of each, and, when the verb is
t9·arisitive, its object :The Saxons sailed to Britain, effected a. landing, seized
on the best parts of the island, and drove the inhabitants to
the mountain fastnesses.-Go [thou] and sin no more.Sink or swim, survive or perish, I am for the Declaration
[that is, whether I sink or swim].-Whatever we see, hear,
taste, ton.ch, or smell, is called matter.-Visit the sick, help
the poor, comfort the affiicted.-Know thyself.-Bears can
can be taught to dance.-God h!U! promised to bless children

that honor their parents.

54

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.

LESSON

XLII.

How may the subject of a transitive verb be represented?

The subject of a transitive verb may be represented
in two ways :1. As acting. "Bees make honey."
2. As acting upon. "Honey is made by bees."

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

Supply transitive verbs; point .out the subject and the object of each: Fashion - - many followers. Sheep - wool. Dogs - - their masters. Fulton - - steamboats.
Travellers - - some strange stories. - - the laws; - virtue.

How are these forms of transitive verbs distinguished?

When its subject is represented as acting, the verb
is said to be in the Active Voice.
When its subject is represented as acted upon, the
verb is said to be in the Passive Voice.
In what voice is make in the above example? I s made ? What
verbs have no voice?

Intransitive verbs, for- their subjects can never be
represented as acted upon. Their form corresponds
with that of a transitive verb in the active voice.
Besides voice, what properties have verbs ?

Four; Mood, Tense, Person, and Number.

55

-

LESSON XLIII.
What is a verb ? A transitive verb ? An intransitive verb ?
What verbs have voice? What other properties have verbs ?
, Name the moods.
What is Tense ?

Tense is that property of the verb which distingui~hes the time of what it affirms.
, How many tenses has the Indicative Mood?

The Indicative Mood has six tenses ; the Present,
the Imperfect, the Perf¥ct, the Pluperfect, the First
Future, and the Second Future.
Tell what each tense denotes, and give examples.

What is Mood ?

Mood is that property of the verb which distinguishes the manner in which it affirms.
How many moods are there ?

There are five -moods; the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive.
EXERCIS· E.

In the la:;t Exercise, select the verbs that have voice, a;n,d
tell wliat voice they are in.
Supply intranllitive verbs; point out the subject of each:
Pigeons - - rapidly. Rain - - from the clouds. Pekin
- - the capital of China. The Hottentots - - in Africa.
Bananas - - in tropical regions. Most boys - - to play.

The Indicative Present affirms that an action is
taking place, or a state existing, at the present time;
as, I depart, I am.
.
The Indicative Imperfect affirms that an action
took place, or a state existed, at some past time ; as,
I departed, I was.
The Indicative Perfect affirms a past action or state
as completed at the present time ; as, I have departed,
I have been.
The Indicative Pluperfect affirms a past action or
state as completed at or before some other past time ;
as, ·I had departed, I had been.
.
The Indicative First Future affirms that an act10n

56

57

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

THE POTENTIAL MOOD.

is about to take place, or a state to exist ; as, I shall
depart, I shall be.
The Indicative Second Future affirms a future
action or state as about to be completed at or before
some other future time ; as, I shall have departed, I
shall have been.

as, " You may go to-morrow." "He said he woulil
go to-morrow."

Carry the verb love through these tenses of the indicative.

Pres. I love.
Imp. I loved.
P erf. I have loved.·

Plu. I had loved.
I Fu. I shall love.
2 Fu. I shall have loved.

Of what tense is have the sign?
What are these words called ?

Had?

Shall?

Shall hrwB l

Auxiliaries.
EXERCISE.

Carry the verb walk through the tenses of the indicative
mood; the verb touch.
Select the verbs; tell their mood and tense :-:r shall run.
I have slept. I turned and gazed. I had answered. By
Tuesday I shall have finished the .book. Every night I

dream. You shall go, he shall remain. They had started.

--

LESSON XLIV.
What is mood? How many moods are there ? How many
tenses in the indicative mood? Name them.
How many tenses in the Potential Mood?

Four ; the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect,
and the Pluperfect.
What tenses are wanting in the Potential Mood?

The two futures. Future time is sometimes denoted by the Present and the Imperfect Potential ;

What do verbs in tho potential mood generally imply?

Permission, possibility, ability, necessity, determination, or obligation.
Carry the verb love through the tenses of the potential.

Pres.
Imp.
Perf.
Plu.

I
I
I
I

may, can, must, or need love.
might, could, would, or should love.
may, can, must, or need have loved.
might, could, would, or shoul{l have loved.

Namc the auxiliaries of the potential present. Of the potential
perfect. What is the difference between them ? Mention the
auxiliaries of the potential imperfect. Of the potential pluperfect.
What is the difference between them?
Of what tense is may the sign? .May have ? Gould? Gould
have ? .Must? Should? Need? ]Jfight have l Gan have?
Should have? .Must have? .Must? .Might?
EXERCISE.

Ca1·ry the verb walk through the tenses of the potential
mood; the verb touch.
Select the verbs; state whether they are transitive or int1·ansitive; tell their mood and tense:- You must be silent.

-They may have returned.-He need not say a word.Owsar should have paused.-We can not explain all things.
-They need not have failed.-You should remember that
the best men may do wrong.

--

LESSON

XLV.

What is the Subjunctive Mood used to express?

I. A condition; as, " If thou wish it, I will remain."

2. A supposition ; as, " Though He slay me, yet
will I trust in Him."
3. A wish ; as, " Oh that he were there ! "
3*

58

SUBJUNCTIVE, IMl>ER.A.TIVE.

How many tenses has the Subj~nctive Mood?

Two ; the Present and the Imperfect.
Give the two subjuuctive tenses of the verb love.

Sub. Pres. If I love.

Sub. Imp. If I loved.

What generall y precedes a verb in the subjunctive ?

If, that, thougli, leBt, unless, or some other conjunction. But these conjunctions may be followed
by the indicative or the potential.
What does the Imperative Mood express?

A command, an entreaty, an exhortation, or permission; as, "Do not talk." " Stay till Monday."
How many tenses has the Imperative Mood ?

But one, the Present; as, " Love thou."
What is generally the subject of a verb in the imperative?

Tliou_or you understood.
" Stay [you] till Monday."

" Do not [thou] talk."

E XERC ISE.

Gi1Je the subjunctive and the imperati1Je mood of the 1Jerb
walk ; of the 1Jerb touch.
P arse the nouns, pronouns, and .adjectfo es. Select the
1Jerbs; tell their mood, tense, and subject :-If thou be guilty,
I will disown thee.-Oh that there were no such thing as
war [i s] !-If you loved me, I would not complain.-Look
befor e you leap.-Have a care lest thou fall.-Keep thy shop,
and thy shop will keep thee.

LESSON XLVI.

What properties have verbs besides mood and tense ?

P erson and Number.
On what do the person and number of a verb depend ?

On the person and number of its subject.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD.

59

I pray ;-pray is 1st, sing., because its subject Iis. 1st, s~g.
Thou prayest ;-prayest is 2d, siug., becaui:e thou .1s 2d, smg.
He prays ;-prays is 3d, sing., because lie 1:' 3d, smg.
We pray ;-pray is 1st, plural, because we 18. 1st, plural.
You pray ;-pray is 2d, plural, because you 1~ 2d, plural.
They pray ;-pray is 3d, plural, because they 18 3d, plural.

What is a verb that has person and number called ?

A Finite Verb.
In what mood is a verb that has no person and number?

In the Infinitive Mood.
What does the Infinitive Mood express?

An action or state not limited to a subject.
How many tenses has the Infinitive Mood?

~vo : the Present, which expresses an uncompleted
action or state ; and the Perfect, which expresses one
· that is completed.
Give these two tenses of the verb love.

Inf. Pres. To love.
Inf. Perf. To have loved.
Observe that to is the sign of the infinitive.
Which of the five moods may be used.in askiDg questions?

The indicative and potential only; as, " Shal,l falsehood triumph'! Can truth perish'!·~
EXERCISE.

Tell the p erson and number of each 1Jerb in the last
.Exercise.
Select the 1Jerbs; tell their mood and tense :-The diligent
love t o learn.-Try to do better than you ever have done.
-Senator Wilkes was to h ave addressed the meeting.-It
is not right to remember injuries and to forget favor~.-To
have succeeded in this would have rewarded me sufficiently.
"'Tis not the whole of life to live,
Nor all of death to die."

60

PARTICIPLES.

CONJUG.A.TION OF VERBS.

LESSON XLVII.

EXERCISE.

He thanked his host, and toolc his leave.
Thanking his host, he took his leave.
What difference do you observe in these sentences?

They convey the same idea, but the first affirms
the thanking, while the second assumes it.
What is the word thanking, which assumes the action, called ?

A Participle. Participles belong to verbs.
What is a P articiple ?

A Participle is a form of the verb that generally
qualifies or limits the meaning of a substantive, by
assuming some action or state in connection with it.

Give the two infinitive tenses and the three parti.ciples of
the verb walk ; of the verb touch.
Select the verbs,· .tell what mood and tense each is in, or
what participle it is; mention the substantive that each participle relates to :-By writing often, we learn to write well.
-Elizabeth having died, James I. succeeded to the throne.
-Though surrounded by his guards, the tyrant, tormented by
a guilty conscience, never knows what it is to be at ease.After learning much, we find out how little we know.-The
necessity of practising self-control is obvious.

--

How many participles are there?

Tbree,-the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound Perfect ; as,
Pres. Loving.
Perf. Loved.
Comp. Perf. Having loved.
With what must a participle not be confounded ?

With an adjective having the same form. Both
modify substantives; but the participle, in addition,
implies an action or state, and may govern an object
like a finite verb. Thus :.Adjectives.- A travelling clerk ; an amusing story; respected
fri end; withered flowers.
Participles.-A clerk travelling in Georgia; amusing us with a
story ; respected by all ; flowers withered by the heat.

LESSON XLVIII.
What is meant by conjugating a verb ?

Carrying it through its moods, tenses, persons, ~d
numbers.
How do we distinguisAe persons in conjugating ?

By prefixing the pronouns I, thou, he, in the singular; we, you, they, in the plural.
Do these words form part of the verb?

No ; they must be parsed separately.
Go through the indicative mood of the intransitive
verb BE.
INDICATIVE MOOD.

Is a participle ever used without a substantive?

Yes, and it is then said to be used independently ;
as, "Generally speaking, murder will out."

61

Of what is a participle used independently often the object?

~

Of a preposition; as, " the art of reading well".

A,

~

l

Present Tense.
Plural.
1. We are,
2. You are,

Singular.

1. I am,
2. Tho.u art,
3. He 1s;

3. They are.

6

LESSON XLIX.

Imperfect Tense.
Sinaular .

Plural.

1. I was,
2. Thou wast or wert,
3. He was;

1. We were,
2. You were,
3. They were.

Perfect Tense.
1. I have he en,
2. Thou hast been,
3. He has been ;

1. 'Ve have been,
2. You have been,
3. They have been.

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I had been,
2. Thou hadst been,

1. We had been,
2. You had been,
3. They had been.

3. He had been ;

First Future Tense.
,

1. I shall or will be,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be,
3. He shall or will be ;

1. We shall or will be,
2. You shall or will be,
3. They shall 01· will be.

Recite Rule XI., for the agreement of a finite verb.

RuLE XI.-A verb agrees with its subject in person

and number.

PARSING FORM.-Time changes all things, and we
too must change.

Changes is a transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative
mood, present tense, third person, singular number, and agrees
with its subject time :-Rule, A. verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
Must change is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood,
present tense, first person, plural number, and agrees with its subject we :-Rule, A. verb agrees, &c.

Giv-e the potential mood of the verb

1. We shall or will have been,

2. You shall or will have been,
3. They shall or will have been.

EXERCISE.

Turn eMh verb in italie& into a participle, and by omitting the conjunction or subject complete the sentence. [Thus :
-The enemy ravaged the country and departed.-Changed.
The enemy, having ravaged the country, departed.]
Cleopatra lost her kingdom and her lover, and killed
h erself.-Columbus knew how to swim, and escaped with
his life.-Before you proceed too far, be sure you are right.
-If we try to injure others, we injure ourselves.-When
the rain ceased, we departed.-Gen. Taylor died, and Millard Fillmore became president.

BE.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present Tense.

Second Future Tense.
1. I shall or will have been,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been,
3. He shall or will have been;

63

IN'IRANSITIVil: VERB BE.

CONJUGATION OF THE

Plural.

Sinuular.

1. I may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need
be,

be,
2. Thou mayst,* canst, must, or

needst *be,
3. He may, can, must, or need
be;

.

or need
be,
3. They may, can, must, or need
be.

2. You ma.y, can, must,

Imperfect Tense.
1. I might, could, would, or
should be,
2. Thou mightst, * couldst, *
wouldst,* or shouldst • be,
3. He might, could, would, or
should be;

* With or without e;

1. We might, could, would, ar
should be,
2. You might, could, would, or
should be,
3. They might, could, would,
or should be.

mayst or mayest, needst or needest, ·&c.

64

CONJUG.ATION OF THE VERB BE,

Perfect Tense. ·
Si11(Jular.

Plural.

1. I may, can, must, or need
have been,
2. Thou mayst, canst, must, or
needst have been,
3. He may, can, must, or need
have been;

1. We may, can, must, orneed
have been,
2. You may, can, must, or need
have been,
3. They may, can, must,· or
need have been.

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I might, could, would, or
should have been,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,
or shouldst have been,
3. He might, could, would, or
should have been ;

1. We might, could, would, or
should have been, .
2. You might, could, would, or
should have been,
3. They might, could, would,
or should have been.

EXERCISE.

Parse the nouns, pi·onouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs:
-.All men are mortal.-Hannibal was a Carthaginian.-Will
you be there ?-He need not be afraid, for he has been
faithful in performing his duty.-May you be happy!They might have been sure that she would be there.- !
must have been asleep.

---

LESSON

CONSTRUCTION OF THE INF.I NITIVE.

limits the meaning of the verb wish ; to ~o limits the
meaning of the noun duty.
3. An infinitive may be used independently ; as,
" To speak plainly, I suspect you."
In parsing, what rule must be given for the infinitive?
RULE XII.-A verb in the infinitive is used as a
subject, or limits the meaning of some other word,
or stands independently in the sentence.

P .ARSING

FORM.-To

teU the truth, I take you to

be a rouue.
To tell is a transitive verb, in the active voice, infinitive mood,
present tense, used independently :-Rule, A verb in the infinitive
is used as a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or
stands independently in the sentence.
To be is an intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood, present
tense, and limits the meaning of the verb take :-Rule, A verb in
the ~itive is used as a subject, &c.

Give the subjunctive mood, the imperative, infinitive, and particir-les, of the verb BE.
3UBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

L.

Has a verb in the infinitive any subject, person, or number?
How may a verb in the infinitive be used?

A verb in the infinitive may be used,
1. As the subject of a finite verb; as, " To err is
human." The infinitive to err is the subject of the
finite verb is.
2. To limit the meaning of some other word; as,
"I wish to go, for it is my duty to do so." To {JO

65

Plural.

Sinuular.

1. If we be,
2. If you be,
3. If they be.

1. If I be,
2. If thou be,
3. If he be;

Imperfect Tense.
1. If I were,
2. If thou were,
3. If he were ;

1. If we were,
2. If you were,
3. If they were.

66

67

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.

CONSTRUCTION OF·; P A.RTICIPLES.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Is the auxiliary ever expressed alone, and the principal verb
understood ?

It is ; as, " May I go? You may." . Parse may as
an auxiliary used for may go, in the potential mood, &c.

Present Tense.
Sin(JulM.

P lural.

1. Be I,
2. Be thou or do thou be,
3. Be he;

1. Be we
2. Be you or do you be,
3. Be they.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.

To be.

P erfect Tense.

To have been.

PARTICIPLES.
Present. Being.

P erf ect. Been.

Compound P e1f ect. Having been.

EXE RC ISE.

P arse all the words :-If I were you, I would be a b etter
girl.-Try [agrees with its subject you understood] to do
your duty.-Bl~ssed be the peace-makers.-Love all men,
hate none.-To steal is base.-To t ell the truth, if you were
to fail, I should be glad.-Take care lest thou go astray.What care I whether thou stay or go~

-

LESSON LI.

When two or more verbs in the same mood and tense are.connected, must the auxiliary be used with each?

In paraing a participle, what rule must be given?
RULE XIIL-Participles are used independently,
or relate to the substantives whose meaning they
qualify or limit.
P A.RSING FORM..-Smiling, she said, " There is
always a satisf action in liaving helped the poor."

Smiling is the present participle of the intransitive verb smile,
and relates to the pronoun slu :-Rule, Participles are used independenpy, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they qualify
or limit.
Having helped is the compound perfect participle active of the
tranS:.tive verb help, used independently as the object of the preposition i1i :-Rttle, Participles are used independently, &c.
EXERCISE.

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs :-Having
r apidly marched through his province and r eached .th e
Rubicon, Cresar paused.-By doing good to others, we do
good to oursel ves.-Climbing to the top of Mount Vesuvius
is something of an achievement.-Printing, weaving, knitting, grinding, sawing, steam is our most faithful servant.Can I help disobeying rules 1 Certainly you can.

No ; the auxiliary is generally used with the first
only.
LESSON Lii.

Give an example.

" Cities may rise, :flourish, and decay."
verb alone has the auxiliary expressed.
and decay have it understood, and are in
mood and tense ·as may rise,-the potential

The first
Flourish
the same
present.

CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE.

The verb RULE, which will serve as a model of all
verbs, is conjugated as follows in the active voice:-

68

TRANSITIVE .V ERB RULE.

ACTIVE VOICE OF THE

Imperfect Tense.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
Sin(Jular.

Pl:wraZ.

1. I rule or do rule,
2. Thou rulest or dost rule,
3. He rules or does rule;

1. We rule or do rule,
2. You rule or do rule,
3. They rule or do rule.

I mperfect Tense.
1. I ruled or did rule,

f
I

2. Thou ruledst 01· didst rule,
3. He ruled or did rule ;
1 I

i
iI
I

I.'

1. We ruled or did rule,
2. You ruled or did rule,
3. They ruled or did rule.

Perfect Tense.

I

SJ.n(JuZar.

Pl:wra't.

1. I might, could, would,. or
should rule,
2. Thou migbtst, &c., rule,
3. He might, &c., rule;

1. We might, could, would, or
should rule,
2. You might, &c., rule,
3. They might, &c., rule.

P erfect Tense.
1. I may, can, must, or need
have ruled,
2. Thou mayst, &c., have ruled,
3. He may, &c., have ruled;

.

1. We have ruled,

1. I might, &c., have ruled,

2. Thou hast ruled,
3. He has ruled;

2. You have ruled,

2. Thou migbtst, &c., have ruled,
3. He might, &c., have ruled;

3. They have ruled.

Pluperfect T ense.
1. I had ruled,

l. We had ruled,

2. Thou hadst ruled,
3. He had ruled ;

2. You had ruled,
3. They had ruled.

First Fut11re Tense.
1. I shall or will rule,
2. Thou shalt or wilt rule,
3. He shall or will rule ;

1. We sha• or will rule,
2. You shall or 'nil rule,
3. They shall or will rule.

Second Future Tense.
1. I shall

will have ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have ruled,
01·

3. He shall or will have ruled;

1. 'Ve shall or will have ruled,
2. You shall or will have ruled,
8. They sh:i.11 w will have ruled.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present T ense.
I. I may, can, must or need 1. We may, can, must, or need
rule,
rule,
2. Thou mayst, canst,* &c., rule, 2. You may, can, &c., rule,
3. They may, can, &c., rule.
3. He may, can, &c., rule ;
• In reciting, always give all the auxiliaries-Thou ma11st, canBt, mwit,
or needsl 1·ule.

1. We may, can, must, or need
have ruled,
2. You may, &c., have ruled,
3. They may, &c., have ruled.

Pluperfect Tense.

1. I have ruled,

'·

69

1. We might, &c., have ruled,
2. You might, &c., have ruled,
3. They oigbt, &c., have ruled.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present T ense.
1. If I rule or do rule,

1. If we rule or do rule,

2. &jPou rule or do rule,
3. If be rule or do rule ;

2. If you rule or do rule,
3. If they rule or do rule:

Imperf ect Tense.
1. If we ruled or did rule,
2. If you ruled or did rule,
3. If they ruled or did rule.

1. If I ruled or did rule,
2. If thou ruled or did ~ule,
3. If be ruled or did rule ;

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
1. Rule we,
2. Rule you or do you rule,
3. Rule they.

1. Rule I,
2. Rule thou or do thou rule,
3. Rule be ;

INFINITIVE MOOD.
P resent Tense. To rule.

Perfect Tense. To have ruled.

P .A.RTICIPLES.
Present. Ruling.

P erfect. Ruled.

Comp. P01fect.. Having ruled.

70

!
I

1.

REMARKS ON THE ACTIVE VOICE,
EXERCISE.

Give the following parts of the verb WALK :-Indic. perf.
3d sing. Subj. pres. 2d sing. Inf. perf. Impera. 2d sing.
P ot. imperf. 3d plu. Indio. 2d fu. 1st plu. Subj. imperf.
1st sing. Pres. part. Pot. pres. 2d sing. Indio. imperf.
2d plu. Indic. 1st fu. 1st plu. Pot. pluperf. 3d plu.
· Comp. perf. par t.
LESSON

LIII.

When do we use the forms of the present and impe~fect indicative containing do and did?

When a negation is expressed or emphasis is re' quired; as, " You do not love me. I do love you."
W hat other form is sometimes used in the third singular of the
present indicative active ?

A solemn form ending in th,-he ruleth.

71

THE PASSIVE VOICE,

modified by the participle 'llYl'iting, and is in the obj ective case, the object of the verb saw.
" I was surprised at John's writing so well."
Here John's is made to modify the participle writing,
and is put in the possessive case.
Parse John's in the last example as follows :John's is a proper no~n, in the third person, singular number,
masculine gender, possessive case, and modifies the participle
writing :-Rule, A substantive which, in stead of modifying a
participle; &c.
EXERCISE.

Pa1·se the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs :-Charles
First would not have lost his life, if he had been more
prudent.-God saveth whom He will.-To do good and to
distribute forget not.-We often shut our eyes, that we
· may not see our faults.-Much depends on your studying
diligently.-Have you read of Hannibal's crossing the Alps?

What person and number of the verb do we commonly use in
addressing a single person?

The second person plural,-you rule, not thou
1·ulest. But in prayer and poetry we say thou rulest.
What other form do we sometimes find in the imperfect in·
dicative?

In the second singular of the imperfect indicative,
st is sometimes omitted; as, thou ruled for thou
1·uledst.
Recite Rule XIV., relating to a substantive modifying a participle.

XIV.-A substantive which, in stead of
being modified by a participle, is made to modify the
latter, is put in the possessive case.

LESSON LIV.
CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.

How are the tenses of the passive voice formed?

By combining the perfect participle with the corresponding tenses of the auxiliary be.
The transitive verb RULE is c_onjugated as follows
in the passive voice :INDICATIVE MOOD.

RULE

Give an example.

" I saw John writing."

Here the noun John is

Present Tense.
Singular.

1. I am ruled,
2. Thou art ruled,
8. He is ruled ;

Plural.

1. We are ruled,
2. You are ruled,
8. They are ruled.

. 1·

72

TR.A.NBlTIVE VERB RULE.

PASSIVE VOICE OF THE

Imperfect Tense.

Imperfect Tense.
Sinuular.

S/lnuular.
Plural.

1. I was ruled,
2. Thou wast or wert ruled,
3. He was ruled;

I. I might, could, would, or
should be ruled,
2. Thou mightst, &c., be ruled,
3. He might, &c., be ruled;

I. We were ruled,
2. You were ruled;
3. They were ruled.

I. We have been ruled,
2. You have been ruled,
3. They have been ruled.

1. We had been ruled,
2. You had been ruled,
3. They had been ruled.

3. He shall

0 1·

will be ruled;

Pluperfect Tense.

1. We shall or will be ruled,
2. You shall 01· will be ruled,
3. They shall or will be ruled.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

1. We shall or will have been
ruled,
2. You shall or will have been
ruled,
3. They shall or will have been
ruled.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

Present Tense.
1. If .we be ruled,
2. If you be ruled,
3. If they be ruled,

1. If I be ruled,
2. If thou be ruled,
3. If he be ruled ;

Imperfect Tense.
1. If we were ruled,
2. If you were ruled,
3. If they were ruled.

1. If I were ruled,
2. If thou were ruled,
3. If he were ruled;

Present Tense.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

1. I may, can, must, or need be . 1. We may, can, must, or need

Present Tense.

ruled,
2. Thou mayst, &c., be ruled,
3. He may, &c., be ruled;

. -1·

migh,l could, would, or 1. We _might, could, would, or
should have been ruled,
shod:a have been ruled,
2. Thou mightst, &c., have been 2. You might, &c., have been
ruled,
ruled,
3. I!e might, &c., have been 3. They might, &c., have been
ruled.
ruled;

Second Future Tense.
shall or will have been
ruled,
2. Thou dhalt 01· wilt ha-re been
ruled,
3. He shall or will have been
ruled ;
1. I

·1 !
I J

1. I

First Future Tense.
1. I shall or will be ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be ruled,

should be ruled,
2. You might, &c., be ruled,
3. They might, &c., be ruled.

1. I . may, can, must, or need 1. We may, can, must, or need
• have been ruled,
have been ruled,
2. Thou mayst, canst, must or 2. You may, can, must, or need
have been ruled,
needst have been ruled,
3. He may, can, must, or need 3. They may, can, must, or need
have been ruled.
have been ruled;

Pluperfect Tense.
I. I had been ruled,
2. Thou hadst been ruled,
3. He had been ruled ;

Plural.

1. We might, could, would, or

Perfect Tense.

Perfect Tense.
1. I have been rule_d, •
2. Thou hast been ruled,
3. He has been ruled;

73

1. Be we ruled,
2. Be you or do you be ruled,
3. Be they ruled.

1. Be I ruled,

be ruled,
2. You may, &c., be ruled,
3. They may, &c., be ruled.

2. Be thou or do thou be ruled,
3. Be he ruled;

'

7

I.

74

THE'· PROGRESSIVE FO:RM.

THE PROGRESSIVE FOBM.

INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. To be ruled. P erf ect Tense. To have .been ruled.

PLUPERFECT.-! bad been ruling, thou hadst been ruling, &c.
FmsT FuTURE.-1 shall or will be ruling, thou shalt or wilt, &c.
SECOND FuTURE.-1 shall or. will have been ruling, &c.

PARTICIPLES,
Present. Being ruled.
P erfect. Ruled.
Comp. P erf ect. Having been ruled.
EXERCISE.

Give the following parts of the passive voice of the verb
:-Perf. part. Indio. pluperf. 2d sing. Inf. pres.
Pot. perf. 1st plu. Subj. imperf. 2d sing. Indio. pres.
3d plu. Subj. pres. 3d sing. Pot. pres. 1st sing. Indio.
' 2d fu. 2d plu. Impera. 2d plu. Comp. perf. part.

·Potential Mood.
PRESENT.-! may, ce.n, must, or need be ruling.
IMPERFECT.-! might, could, would, or should be ruling.
PERFECT.-! may, can, must, or need have been ruling.
PLUPERFECT.-! might, could, would, or should have been ruling.

Subjunctive Mood.

H ELP

---+--

PRESENT.-If I be ruling, if thou be ruling, &c.
IMPERFECT.-If I were ruling, if thou were ruling, &c.

.!fl

Imperative Mood.

PRESENT.-Be thou ruling or do thou be ruling, &c.

LESSON LV.
What distinct form do some verbs have?

A form implying continuance, called the Progres·
sive Form.
:How is the Progressive Form made?

By combining the participle in ing with the various
parts of the auxili:i-ry be ; as, I am ruling, I was
ruling, &c.
What verbs have no P rogressive Form?

Verbs whose simple form denotes continuance; as,
love, remember.
Recite the Progressive Form of the verb RULE,
giving all the persons in both numbers.
PROGRE SS IVE

75

FORM .

I ndicative Mood.
PRESENT.-! am ruling, thou art ruling, he is ruling, &c.
l !.!PERFECT.-I was ruling, thou wast or wert ruling, &c.
PERFECT,-! have been ruling, thou hast been ruling, &c.

Infinitive Mood.
P RESENT.-To be ruling.

PERFECT.-To have been ruling.

Participles.
PRESENT.-Ruling.

COMP. PERFECT.-Having been ruling.
EXERCISE.

(Jhange each 'IJerb io the corresponding part of the pa1l8i'lle
voice and the progreMiveform. [Thus :-We have received.
Passive, We have been r eceived. Progressi'lle Form, We
have b een receiving.] He had hurried.-They will eat.She may deceive.-To have injured.-! consider.-Thou
carriest.-They may have visited.-You hav.e pursued.They might h ave r ead.-Having explored.

-

LESSON LVI.
What do we mean by the Root of a verb?

The present infinitive without the sign to ; as, rule.

76

SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS.

What are the three Chief Parts of the verb ?

The root, the imperfect indicative, and the perfect.
participle; rule, ruled, ruled.
How are the imperfect indicative and' the perfect participle
generally formed ?

,t
lj

By adding ed to the root ; as, walk, walked, walked.
What are verbs called, that form these parts thus ?

Regular Verbs.

Walk is regular.

What are verbs called, that have two forms in either of these
parts, or do not make them by adding ed to the root ?
Blow, blew,

What changes must sometimes be made in the root of a regular
verb, before. adding ed?
1. Final e is rejected; as, ?'1.tle, rul·ed.

2. Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to
i; as, cry, cried.
3. The final consonant of a monosyllable, or of
any verb accented on the last syllable, is doubled: as,
pin, pinned; omit, omitted.
Observe that final y preceded by a vowel is not changed to i;
as, play, played.

A verb not accented on the last syllable does not double its
final consonant; as, !tinder, hindered.
In parsing, when do we mention the three chief parts?

"

;'

In parsing, we state whether the verb is regular
or irregular ; and, if it is irregular, we mention its
three chief parts.
PARSING FORM.-He

Received is a regular transitive verb, in the active voice, indicative mood, imperfect tense, &c.
EXERCISE.

Spell the three chief parts of the following 'Verbs :-Love ;
w bet; grieve ; plant; separate; tarry ; stray ; cloy; man;
moan ; remit ; compel; profit; tender; offer; annul ; commit ; abhor ; detest; carry ; bray; weigh ; hoe ; refer ;
dot; doat ; grab.
LESSON LVll.
TABLE OF SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS.

Irregular Verbs; as, arise, arose, arisen.
Is miss, missed, missed, regular or irregular?
blown? Come, came, come? H elp, helped, helped?

77

arose and received us.

Arose is an irregular intransitive verb; from arise, arose, arisen;
in the indicative mood, (go on as before).

The chief parts of the principal simple irregular
verbs are presented in the following Table.
Simple verbs will serve as models for those formed
from them; hence the latter are not given separately.
'thus overtake goes like take: overtake, overtook,
owrtaken. 4Jf1'
Some verbs, besides their irregular form, have a
reO'ular one in ed. This is denoted in the Table by
th: letter R. Recite both forms fo the order given
in the table :-Build, built or builded, built or builded.
A form in italics, or a regular form represented
by an italic R, is not now in good use, though once
authorized. When there are two forms, the prefer·
able one is placed first.
Each page of verbs with the E xercise at the
bottom may constitute a lesson. Remember that
the imperfect indicative must not be used for the
perfect participle, nor the perfect participle for the
imperfect indicative. After the errors in the Exer·
cise are corrected, the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs (see form on p. 76), may be parsed.

78
Rooe.

Abide,
.Arise,
.Awake,
Be,
Bear
(carry),

SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS .

SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS.

Imperf.

Perf. Part.

Rool.

abode.
abode,
arisen.
arose,
awoke,R., awoke, R.
been.
was,

Build,
Burn,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Catoh,

built, R.,
R., burnt,
burst,
bought,
cast,
caught, R.,

Cleave

{cleft,
clove,
clung,
R., clad,
came,
cost,
crept,
crew, R.,
cut,

Imperf.

{bore, } borne.
bare,

Bear

1

Begin,

{began,
} begun.
b

Behold,
Bend,
Beseech1
Bet,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blend,
Blow,

beheld,
bent, R.,
besought,
bet, R.,
bade, bid,
oound,
bit,
bled,
R., blent,
blew,

bore, } born.
(bring rortb), ba>·e,
{beaten,
Beat,
beat,
beat.
egun,

1

b-roke, }

beheld.
bent, R.
besought.
bet, R.
bidden, bid.
bound.
bitten, bit.
bled.
R., blent.
blown.

Break,

. brake,

broken.

Breed,
Bring,

bred,
brought,

bred.
brought.

Perf. Parl.

built, R,.
R., burnt.
burst.
bought.
cast.
caught, R.
chidden,
chid,
Chide,
chid.
chode,
chosen.
Choose, chose,
I R., clove, } 1
Cleave
{ z
c eaved.
(adhere),

1

cave,

(oplll),

Cling,
Clothe,
Come,
Cost,
Creep,
Crow,
Cut,
Dare

} durst

(venture),

Deal,
Dig,
Dive,
Do,

'

dealt, R.,
dug, R.,
R., dove,
did,

cleft,
cloven, R.
clung.
R., clad.
come.
cost.
crept.
crowed.
cut.
dared.
dealt, R.
dug, R .
dived.
done.

Roo~

Imperf.

Per:f. Part.

Rooe.

Imperf.

79
Puf. Pa1'1.

grown.
drawn.
Grow,
drew,
Draw,
hung, R.
Dream, R. , dreamt, R., dreamt. Hang,
had.
Have,
{drunk,
Drink, drank,
heard.
Hear,
drank.
hewn, R.
Hew,
driven.
drove,
Drive,
{hidden,
Dwell, dwelt, R., dwelt, R.
hid,
Hide,
I hid.
eaten, eat.
ate, eat,
Eat,
hit.
hit,
Hit,
fallen.
fell,
Fall,
held.
held,
fed.
Hold,
fed,
Feed,
hurt.
felt.
hurt,
Hurt,
felt,
Feel,
kept.
fought.
kept,
fought,
Keep,
Fight,
found.
knelt, R., knelt, R.
found,
Find,
Kneel,
fled.
knit, R., knit, R.
fled,
Knit,
Flee,
flung.
known.
flung,
knew,
Fling,
Know,
laid.
laid,
flew,
Fly,
Lay,
~own.
orborne.
led.
led,
Forbear, forbore,
Lead,
R., leant, R., leant.
forgotten, Lean,
Forget, forgot,
left.
left,
Leave,
forgot.
lent.
lent,
forgiven.
Lend,
Forgive, forgave,
let.
let,
forsaken.
Let,
Forsake, forsook,
lain.
Lie (recline), lay,
frozen.
Freeze, froze,
R., lit.
R., lit,
got, gotten. Light,
got, gat,
Get,
lost.
lost,
Lose,
girt, R.
girt, R.,
Gird ,
made,
made,
Make,
given.
gave,
Give,
R.,
meant, R.
meant,
Mean,
gone.
went,
Go,
met.
met,
Meet,
ground.
Grind, ground,
grew,
hung, R.,
had,
heard,
hewed,

1

EXERCISE.
~XERCISE,

Correct tlie errors in the verbs:-We have born many•
bardships.- Wben were you borne?-The exercises had
began.-The rain having began, he betted it would last all
day.- Has your father forbade you to swim 1- The wind
has blowed so hard that it has broke some branches off
your elm.- She bursted out laughing. -They might have
came yesterday, if they had cbose.- She outdone us all.

Correct :- He done it. -She has ovll'/·came every obstacle.
- They should have drawed lots.-You drunk too much, I
fear. - That horse has been overdrove.- They have ate up
their oats.- Have they fell out 1- How those dogs have fit!
- I have forborn complaining.- Has be forgave you 1- You
should not have forsook your friends.- They need not have
went so soon. -Your garden is overgrowed w ith weeds.

,:j. I
I

80
Root.

Imperf.

Psrj. P art.

Mow,
Pay,
Plead,
Put,
Quit,
Read,
Rend,
Rid,
Ride,

mowed.
paid,
R, pied,
put,
qui t, R.,
read,

mown, R.
paid.
R., pied.
put.
quit, R.
read.
rent.
rid.
ridden,rode.

ren t,

rid,
rode,

Ring,

rting, rang, rung.

Rise,
Roast,
Run,
Saw,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
Send,
Set,
Shake,
S hape,
Shave,
Shear,
Shed,
Shine,

rose,
roasted,

risen.
R., roast.
ran, run,
run.
sawed,
R., sawn.
said,
said.
saw , '
seen.
sought,
sought.
sold,
sold.
sent,
sent.
set,
se t.
shook, R., shaken.
shaped,
R., shapen.
shaved,
R., shaven.
sheared,
siiorn, R.
shed,
shed.
shone, R., shone, R.

Root.

Shoe,
Shoot,
Show,

Imperf.

Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Sit,
Slay,
Sleep, ·

shod,
shot,
showed,
Jshrunk,
shrank,
shut,
sung, sang,
sunk, sank,
sat,
slew,
slept,

Slide,

slid,

Shrink,

Sling,
Slink,

1

Jslung, l
l slang, f
J slunk, l
l slank, f

Slit,

slit, R.,

Smite,

smote,

Sow,

sowed,
Jspoke,!
1spake,
sped, R.,
spent,
R., spilt,

Speak,
Speed,
Spend,
Spill,

81

SIMPLE mREGUL.AR VERBS.

SIMPLE IRREGULAR VERBS.

P erf. Part.

Root.

shod.
shot.
shown, R.
shrunk,
shrunken.
shut.
sung.
sunk.
sat, sitten.
slain.
slept.
J slidden,
l slid.

Spin,

slung.
slunk.
slit, R.
J sm'.tten,
sm1t.
R., sown.

1

r

spoken.
sped, R.
spent.
R., spilt.

Perj Part.

Imperf.

spun, span,
Jspit,
Spit,
l spat,
split, R.,
Split,
Spread, spread,
Jsprung, l
Spring,

spun.
spit,
spitten.
split, R.
spread.

stood;
R., staid,
stole,
stuck,
stung,
Jstunk, l
Stink,
l stank, f
Jstrode,
Stride,
l strid,

stood.
R., staid.
stolen.
stuck.
stung.

1sprang, f

Stand,
Stay,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,

sprung.

Strike, struck,
String, strung,
Strive, strove,
Strow, strawed,
Jswore, l
Swear,
1sware, f
Sweat, sweat, R.,
Sweep, swept,
Swell, swelled,

Root.

Swim,

Perj Part.

Imperf.

{:::::}

Swing,

Jswung, l
l swang, r

Take,
Teach,
Tear,
"Tell,
Think,
Thrive,
Throw,
Thrust,

took,
taught,
tore,
told,
thought,
throve, R.,
threw,
thrust,

stunk.

Tread, trod,

stridden,
strid.
Jstruck,
1stricken.
strung.
striven, R .
strown, R.

Wake,
Wear,
Weave,
W ed,
Weep,
Wet,
Win,

sworn.

Wind lwound
(twioe),

R., woke,
wore,
wove, R.,
R., wed,
wept,
wet, R.,
won,

f

'

swum.
swung.
taken.
taught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thriven, R.
thrown.
thrust.
Jtrodden,
l trod. 1
R., woke.
worn.
woven, R.
R., wed.
wept.
wet, R.
won.
wound.

Work, R., wrought, R.,wrouliht. _
sweat, R.
Wring, wrung,
wrung. '
swept.
written.
R., swollen. Write, wrote,

EXERCISE.

EXERCISE.

Oorrect:-Has she forgave you ?--He must have froze
his feet.-He has outgrowed the disease.-Have you heard
how Robert hurted himself?-! knowed you had laid down.
-You must have rid fast.-! seen him yesterday.-She has
ran herself out of breath.-They sat a trap by the river.Have yon shook tho carpet?-Your coat has shrank.Having sang, he took his leave.-! have not spoke a word.

Oor1·ect :-Having came in late, they set by the door.Cities have sprang up, as if by magic.-He must have stole
it.-Where have they swam to ?- Who teached you 1-You
have tore your book.-He throwed me down.-Your shoes
have wore well.-They winned the match.-Have yon writ
your exercise ?-Had you wrote to your mother 1-They
rcnded their garments.-! foreseen he would fail.
4•

82

A REVIEW.

LESSON LVIII.

PARSING FORM.S.-Methinks you ought to beware
of such false friends.

What is a Defee ti ve Yerb ?'

A Defective Verb is one that wants some of its
parts. The principal defective verbs are ought, be·
ware, methinlcs, and meseems.
In what tenses does ought appear?

Ought appears only in the present and imperfect
indicative and subjunctive. It is conjugated thus:Pres. and Iinpe1f. I nd.

1. I ought,

83

DEFECTIVE VERBS.

We ought,
2. Thou oughtest, You ought,
3. He ought ;
They ought.

Pres. and Imperf. Subj.

I I. If I ought,

If we ought,
2. If thou ought, If you ought,
3. If he ought; If they ought.

In what tenses does beware appear?

Beware, compounded of be and ware, is used only
in those t enses which in the verb be r etain be:!No. FIRST Fo.- I shall or will beware; thou shalt or wilt, &c.
POTENTIAL PRES.-I may, can, must, or need beware.
POTENTIAL lMPERF.-1 might, could, would, or should beware.
SonJUNCTIVE PaEs.-If I beware ; if thou beware, &c.
IMPERAT IVE PRES., 2d person.- Bcware thou; beware you.
I NFINITIVE PRES.-To beware.

in what part are methinks and meseems ?
Methinks and meseem.s, meaning it seems to me,
are in the indicative, present,. third, singular.
In what other part are they also used ?

. In the third singular of the imperfect indicative,methought and meseemed.
What are methinks and meseems called?

Unipersonal Verbs, because they are used in but
one person. They never admit of a subject, and
hence in parsing no rule can be given for their agreement.

Methinks is a unipersonal intransitive verb, in the indicative
mood, present tense, 3d person, singular number ; has no subject.
Ought is a defective intransitive verb, in the indicative mood,
present tense, second person, plural number, and agrees with its
subject you :- Rule, A verb agrees with its subject, &c.
• To beware is a defective intransitive verb, in the infinitive mood,
present tense, and limits the meaning of the verb ougltt :-Rule, A
verb in the infinitive is used as a subject, &c.
EXERCISE.

PMse the nouns, pronouns, Mticles, adjectives, and verbs:
-We ought to beware of faults into which we have once
been betrayed.-Ought you J:\ti,to forgive your e~eniies ?Methinks I hear Demosthenes thundering in the marketplace.-If thou beware of flatterers, thou wilt do well.Methought I had passed the gates of death.-Meseems a
demon watcheth thee.

--

LESSON LIX.
A REVIEW.

What is a verb ? What is the greatest number of words that
may form a verb? What are may, must, and other little words
that aid in forming the tenses, · called ? What is the difference be·
tween a transitive and an intransitive verb ? Which of these has
voice? When is a verb called finite? What is mood? What is
tense?
Which mood has the most tenses ? Which, the next most?
Which moods are used in asking questions? What have you found
with respect to the subject of a verb in the imperative? On what
do the person and number of a verb depend? What is a participle?
How many participles are there? In what case must a substantive
be put, that modifies a participle ?

.A. REVIEW.

84

When are the forms containing do and did used ? What is the
solemn form for the third singular of the present indicative active?
How are the tenses of the passive voice formed? How are the
tenses of the progressive form made? What does the progressive
form imply? What is the difference between a regular and an
irregular verb ? What is a defective verb ?
EXERCISE.

Give the thrf'Ji chief parts of the following irregular
verbs, remembering that they go like the simple vM·bs from
which they are formed: - Unstring; mistake; overcome;
forbid; overthrow; forego; overhear; undersell; misgive;
rebuild ; underlet ; r emake ; overpay ; uprise ; foresee; unweave; outwork; rewrite; understand; acquit (regitlar);
demean (reg.); unclothe (reg.); implead (reg.).

.ADVERBS.

85

Give examples of adverbs, arranged according to their meaning.

The following are examples of adverb~ :1. .A.DVERDS OF MANNER.-How? 2'hus, so, well, ill, somehow,
otherwise, slowly, and most words ending in ly.
2. TIME.- When? Then, now, afready, formerly, to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, soon, early, daily, seldom, often, ever, always.
3. PLACE.- Wlier~? Here, .there, wherever, whither, hither,
thither, whence, hence, thence, away, o.ff, far, up, down.
4. DEGREE.-Jfuch, little, very, exceedingly, greatly, quite,
enough, equally, scarcely, nearly, almost.
5 . .A.FFil\ll.A.TION.- Yes, ay, certainly, truly, indeed, doubtless,

undoubtedly, amen.
6. NEGATION.-No, nay, not, nowise, nohow, never.
'1. PossIDILITY.-Perhaps, perchance, maybe, haply.
8. NuMnEn.-First (which is preferable to firstly), secondly,
thirdly, &c. ; once, twice, thrice.
Which class of adverbs is the Iargl'r?

LESSON LX.

Adverbs of manner. ·Many of these are formed
from adjectives by adding ly; as, rudely from rude.

What is the sixth part of speech?

The Adverb.
When I say, "He soon became very angry," by what is the
v~

became modified ?

By s.oon, which tells when he became angry.
By what is the adjective angry modified?

By very, which tells how angry he became.
What are soon, very, and other words so used, called?

Adverbs.
What -else may an adverb modify?

EXERCISE.

Insert adverbs of manner: Do your work - - . J ane
walks - - . When the sun shines - -, the birds sing - - .
How - - the wind roars in March ! Speak - - to all
men ; do not talk - - . How - - Maria sings!
Insert adverbs of time, place, or degree : Smart boys get
up - -. Henry's dog has run - - ; - - shall he look
for it? We can - - travel - - more rapidly than we
- - could. They were - - tired. We can - - find
enough to do.

Another adverb; as, "He spoke very angrily."
What is an Adverb?

An Adverb is a word expressing manner, time,
place, degree, &c., and generally used to modify a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

LESSON LXI.
Does the same word ever appear in one sentence as an adverb,
and in another as some other part of speech ?

It does, as in the following examples :8

•

86

He will start to-morrow (adv. ). To-morrow (noun) may never
come.- Only (adv.) believe. An only (adjective) son. -Orack
(adv.) went the mast. The mast will crack (verb).- 'Twas passing
(adv.) strange. Passing (participle) the door.- But (adv.) five
were there. B ut (conjunction) what did you say?
From what must adverbs be carefully distinguished?

Adverbs must be carefully distinguished from adj ectives. They sometimes have the same form . In
this case, if the word modifies a substantive, it is an
adjective; but, if it modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb. Thus:Adjectives.- An upwai·d flight; cleanly habits ; the above rules;
the first fruits; Sarah is well; the ve1·y man ; a daily paper.
Adverbs. -To fly upwai·d ; to live cleanly; look above; he
spoke first; Sarah reads well; ve1·y gayly; he goes daily.

When there are distinct forms for adverb and adjective, what
caution must be ol;>served ?

Not to interchange them. The adjective must be
used with a substantive, and the adverb with a verb
or adjective. Thus :A soon answe,.; the now governor. Wrong, because the adverbs
soon and now are joined to nouns. Correct by substituting adjectives :- a speedy answer; the present governor.
L ead is melted easier th an iron. This tea i; uncommon good.
Wrong, because the adjective easie,. is joined to the verb is melted,
and the adj ective uncommon to the adjective good. Correct by
substituting ad"\'erbs :- Lead is -melted more easily than iron. This
tea is uncommonly good.

What is a Conj unctive Adverb?

A Conjunctive Adverb is one that connects parts
of a sentence ; as, "Remain there till I come." Mention some of the most common conjunctive adverbs.

'why, how, when, where,

after, before, till.

87

COMP .A.RISON OF -.A.DVERBS.

ADVERBS.

EXERC I SE .

Parse the nouns, adjectives, and verbs; select the adverbs:
- How pure is the air at early dawn !- Start early, or your
work will get ahead of you.-Have you no mercy 1 No,
none for idlers.-Sleep on now, and take your rest.-Now
is the time to repent.- The miser never has enough.-You
have not studied enough.
Correct, and give the reasons : -I hope for a soon return.
- Think of your hereafter life. -Your often lateness puts
you back.-N ever behave r ude.- How graceful she walks!
-John speaks more correct than most persons.- The then
mayor was present.
-+--

LESSON

LXII 41..

What part of speech have we learned to compare ? How.many
degrees of comparison are there ? What is the positive degree ?
The comparative? The superlative?
What besides adjectives are compared?

A few adverbs of one and two syllables are compared, like adj ectives, by adding er for the comparative, and est for the superlative. Thus :Pos.
Late,
Fast,

Co-mp.

later,
faster,

Sivp.

latest.
fastest.

Pos.

I Early,
Often,

Comp.

Sup.

earlier,
oftener,

earliest.
oftenest.

Mention' some adverbs that are compared irregularly.

The following are compared irregularly:P os.

Comp.

Badly, ill, . worse,
better,
Well,
less,
Little,

Sup.

worst,
best.
least.

P os.

CoYmp.

Much,
Far,
Forth,

more,
farther,
further,

Sup.

most.
farthest.
furthest.

How are more and most often l)Sed?

More and most are often used before adjectives

88

. THE PREPOSITION.

P.A.RSING OF .ADVERBS.

a?d adver?s, to give them the force of the comparative and superlative degree; as, more graceful, most
gracefully.
How can we find what an ,adverb modifies?

By asking a question with what. " I s that sum
hard? Yes ; very." Very what? Answer, very
hard. Very modifies the adjective hard understood.
W e see, then, that the word modified by an adverb
may be understood.
Is an adverb ever used witho ut modifying any particular word?

89

Till is a conjunctive adverb; it connects I shall go farther
and I find the spot, and relates to the verb shall go :-Rule, An
adverb, &c.
EXERCISE.

P arse the nouns, pronoum, articles, adjectives,·verbs, and
adverbs :-Judge not too hastily.-Compose carefully, if you
would compose correctly.-He who rises late certainly loses
the best part of the day.-The more we study, the better
we like to study.-He then asked me when and where this
took place.-We have far greater faoiliti.es for eduootion
now than formerly; but perhaps we value them less.

Yes, and it is then said to be used independently.
Gi rn examples of adverbs used independently.

Y es and no in answers ; amen at the end of prayers ; f ortli in the expression ancl so foi·tli j first,
secondly, thfrdty, &c., introducing particulars.
Recite Rul e XV., for the adverb.

R uLE XV.~An adverb relates to the word or
words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the sentence.
How must we parse an adverb?

. _To parse an adverb, compare it and state its degree,
if it can be compared ; tell what it relates to or state
that it is ~sed independently ; if a conjunctive adverb,
tell what it connects and what it relates to ; finally,
give Rule XV.
P 11.Rs1xG FORM.- Yes, I shall go farther, till I
find the sp ot.
Yes is an adverb, ns~d independently :-Rule, Ali adverb relates
to the word or words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independent! y in the sentence.
Farther is an adverb ; f ar, farth er, f ai·tliest; in the comparative
degree, and relates to the verb shall go :-Rul~, An adverb, &c.

LESSON LXIII.
Name the parts of speech.

Which is the seven*

The Preposition.
When I say "Washington marohed to Princeton," what word
the relation between the marching and Princeton ?

~hows

To j not from Princeton, nor round Princeton,
nor past Princeton, but to Princeton. The words in
italics express different relations, and are called Prepo·
sitions.
What may a preposition have for its object?

1. A noun; as, about the room.
2. A pronoun; as, about us.
3.

An infinitive; as, about to commence.

4. A participle ; as, about commencing.
What is a Preposition ?

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
that a substantive, infinitive, or participle bears to
some other term in the sentence.
What is an Adjunct ?

An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a prepo-

90

P .A.RSING OF PREPOSITIONS.

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.

sition, its object, and the words that modify the
latter; as, "Crcesus was noted for his boundless
wealth."
Mention some of the prin9ipal prepositions.

The prepositions in common use are,
at,
a,
aboard,
before,
about,
behind,
· below,
above,
across,
beneath,
beside,
after,
agai nst,
besides,
along,
between,
amid,
betwixt,
amidst,
beyond,
among,
but,
amongst,
by,
around,
conceraing,

despite,
down,
during,
ere,
except,
excepting,
for,
from,
in,
into,
notwithstanding,
of,
off,

on,
over,
past,
pending,
regarding,
respecting,
round,
save,
since,
through,
throughout,
till,
to,

touching,
toward,
towards,
under,
underneath,
until,
unto,
up,
upon,
versus,
with,
within,
without.

EXERCISE.

Supp ly prepositions: .Alfred, the sou - -· Ethel wolf,

1

11

I

i··i

succeeded - - the crown of En gl and - - the year 8'71.
- - his reign, England was invaded - - the Danes. He
h ad many battles - - them, and at last, - - having been
d efeated several times, succeeded - - routing them - great slaughter. From this time - - his death he labored
- - the improvement of his subjects, and he was, - - a
doubt, one
the best kings that ever reigned - E ngland.

-

L E SS O N . LXIV.

'I

When used without an object, what are many of these words?

Adverbs. "Look above this earth;" above is a
preposition, having earth for its object. " Look
above;" here there is no object, and above is .an
adverb.
How is a compound relation expressed?

By two prepositions, which are taken together in
parsing and called a Complex P reposition ; as, from
within the house.
How does a preposition generally stand?

Before its object. The word pre-position means
a placing before.
Does the preposition ever stand after its object?

Yes, the relatives that and as always precede the
·preposition that governs ftiem ; as, " The w~ that
• we live in is a world of trial."
How can we find the former term of the relation ?

By asking a question with what before the preposition. Thus :- "In a multitude of counsellors there
is wisdom." What in a multitude? Answer, is in a
multitude ; the preposition in shows the relation
between the noun multitude and the verb is.
Is the former term of the relation ever understood ?

It is, as in the following sentence: " [Looking]
On the whole, I prefer Spring."
Recite Rule XVI., relating to Pfepositions.

RuLE XVI.-A preposition shows the relation

that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to
· some other word or words in the sentence.

Are the words in the above list always prepositions ?

No; they are prepositions only when they express
some relation, and have an object.

91

P .A.RSING
I spoke of.

FORM.- Over

•

against 'I'roy is the island

I

92

LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS.

THE CONJUNCTION.

Over against is a complex preposition, and shows the relation
between the noun 1\·oy, which is its object, and the verb is :-Rule,
A preposition shows the relation that a substantive, &c.
Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between the relative
pronoun t!tat understood, which is its object, and the verb spoke:R ule, A preposition shows the relation, &c.
EXERCISE.

although,
and,
as,
because,
both,
but,

either,
even,
except,
for,
if,
lest,

neither,
nevertheless,

save,
seeing,
nor,
since,
notwithstanding, so,
or,
than,
provided,
that,
Are the words in the above list always conjunctions?

93
then,
though,
unless,
yet,
whereas,
whether.

Parse each word :-The boa is the largest of serpents.
Suspending itself by the tail from some tree beside a river,

No ; several of them are also used as other parts
of speech. They are conjunctions · only when they
connect. Observe the following examples:-

it lies in wait for its prey, darting with great rapidity on
whatever living creature first comes with_in its reach. Winding its folds around its victim, it crushes him to death by
the immense power of its muscles, despite his most violent
efforts to escape.

Both (conj.) Alexander and Cresar were great conquerors, and
both (adj. pro.) met with an untimely end.-They say that (conj.)
that (pro. adj.) house that (rel. pro.) we just passed is haunted.Help such as (rel. pro.) need help.-Some savage nations, as (conjunctive adv.) I have heard, worship the sun as (conj.) a god.

-+--

LESSON LXV.
Name the parts uf speech.

Which is the eighth?

The Conjunction.
"But, if you go, he and I will remain." What words are used
as connectives in this sentence?

But is used to connect the sent ence with what
goes before. If counects parts of the sentence,you go and he and I will remain. And connects the
words lie and L
What are words thus used as connectives called?

Conjunctions.
What is a Conjunction?

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words,
sentences, or parts of~ sentence.
Mention some of the principal conj unctions.

The principal conjunctions are as follows:-

What is a Complex Conjunction ?

A Complex Conjunc~ion is one that consists~two
o:· more connectives, whic~ust be taken together
in parsing. Inasmuch as, as well as, as if, as though,
fo1· all, are complex conjunctions.
Recite Rule XVII., relating to conjunctions.

RuLE XVII.-A conjunction connects words, setl-

tences, or parts of a sentence.
P .A.RSING FORM.- Yet Jefferson, as well as lJfadison, was a Virginian.
Yet is a conjunction, and connects the sentence with what goes
before :-Rule, A conjunction connects words, sentences, or parts
of a sentence.
. As well as is a complex conjunction, and connects the two
nouns Jefferson and Madison :-Rule, A conjunction connects, &c.
EXE RCI S.E.

Pai·se eacli woi·d :-We are told that Brutus doomed his

own sons to death ; yet he loved them as only a father or a

94

THE INTERJECTION,

PARSING OF INTERJECTIONS.

mother can love.-To injure another because he has injured
us, is both foolish and wicked.-Astronomers can not tell
whether the other planets are inhabited or not; but it is
commonly believed that they are.-Neither fame nor wealth
can insure happiness to its possessor.

LESSON LXVI.
Name the parts of speech.

Which is the ninth and last ?

The Inte1jection.
What is an Interjection?

An Interjection is a word used independently of
grammatical· relations, to express some strong or
sudden emotion of the mind.
Mention the principal interjections.

Ab ! aha ! bey ! heyday ! hurrah ! buzza !
S orrow. Ah ! ob! alas ! alack ! lackaday ! welladay !
Wonder. Ha! indeed! strange ! what ! hoity-toity ! zounds!
App1·oval. Bravo ! well-done !
Contempt, avasion. Fiiugh ! fie ! fudge ! pugh ! pshaw ! tut !
lVeariness. Heigh-ho!
.iJim·iment. Ha, ha, ha! (an imitation of the sound of laughter).
D esfre to drive away. .Aroynt ! avaunt! ·begone! off! shoo!
D esfre to address or salute. 0, bail ! all-hail ! welcome !
Desire for one's welfare on leaving. Adieu! farewell! good-by!
D esire Jo~ attention . Ho! what ho! hallo! ahoy! lo! hark!
D esire for silence. Hist! whist ! bush ! mum !
Desire to stop 01· inl~1.,-11pt another. .A.vast! hold! soft!
D esire f or information. Eh? bey?

1. E.wltation.

10.

11.
12.
13.
14.

By what point are interjections generally followed?

By the exclamation-point ( ! ).

always be a capital, takes no point after it. Eh and
hey, implying a question, are followed by the interrogation-point.
·
Do interjections bear grammatical relations to other words?

They do not. They neither govern nor are governed, neither ·agree with other words nor relate to
them. Hence no rule is needed in parsing them.
.A. substantive following an interjection is generally in the nominati ve independent; as, ".A.las! unhappy we!"
If a substantive in the possessive or objective case follows, it
is not governed by the interjection, but by some word understood;
as, "Oh my [that is, Oh my hard lot] ! " "Oh deii,.me [pity
dear me)!"
PARSING FORM.-Fie

I are you still abed?

Fie is an interjection, implyinf contempt.

The following are ' the principal interjections, arranged according to the emotions they express:2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

95

0, which must

EXERCISE.

Parse each word :-Farewell, vain hopes !-Hist I I hear
a noise.-Bravo ! such an effort deserved success.-What I
art thou really here 1 Well-done !-Off! begone I a slanderer is beneath contempt.-0 grave, where is thy sting 1Ah ! that deceit should steal such gentle shapes I-Alas I
the heavy day !-Hallo I who goes there 1
-+--

LESSON LXVII.

The seventeen Rules of Syntax that have been
given under the different parts of speech, are now
presented together for convenience of reference.
RULE I.-A substantive that is the subject of 11. verb is
in the nominntive case.
;RuLE II.-A substantive used independently is in the
nominative case.

'I

1r
1

•

97

RULES OF SYNTAX.

ELLIPSIS.

R uLE III.-A substantive that modifies a noun denoting
a different person or thing, by implying possession, origin,
or fitness, is in the possessive case.
R uLE IV.-A substantive that is the object of a verb or
preposition is in the objective case.
R uLE V.-A modifying substantive, denoting time,. direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the objective
case without a preposition.
R ur.E VI.-One substantive joined to another denoting
the same person or thing, is in the same case.
R uLE VII.- A verb that has no object takes the ·same
case after as before it, when both words refer to the same
person or thing.
R uLE VJII.--=.A r elative agrees with its !l.Iltecedent in
person and nmnber.
R ULE IX.-An article relates to the word whose meaning it limits.
Rur.E X.- An adjective relates to the substantive whose
meaning it qualifies or limits.
R uLE XL-A verb agrees with its subject in per~on and
number.
R uLE XII.- A verb in the infinitive is used as a subject,
or limits the meaning of some other word, -0r stands independently in the sentence.
RuLE XIII.-Participles are used independently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or limit.
R uLE XIV.-A substantive which, in stead of being
modified by a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put
in the possessive case.
R uLE XV.- An adverb relates to the word or words
whose meaning it modifies, or stands independently iri the
sentence.

RULE XVI.-A preposition shows the relation that a
substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to some other
word or words in the sentence.
RuLE XVII.-A conjunction connects words, sentences,
or parts of a sentence.

96

•

EXERCISE.

I

Parse each word :Hope humbly then ; with trembling pinions soar;
Wait the great teacher,· Death; and God adore.
What future bliss, He gives not thee to know,
But gives that hope to be thy blessing now.
Hope springs eternal in the human breast;
Man never is, but always to be, blessed:
The soul, uneasy and confined from home,
Rests and expatiates on a lif; to come.,

"

--

LESSON LXVIII.

What is Ellipsis?

Ellipsis is the omission of w01;ds essential to the
construction, though not to the sense.
What is said of words omitted by ellipsis?

I

They are said to be understood. They must be
supplied in parsing, to explain the government, agreement, or relation of the words expressed.

I

EXERCISE.

.1

Parse each word. In the key sentences, the wo1·da understood m·e supplied within brackets :-As [it] regards harbors,
Denmark is well provided.-As far as concerns the dodo, it
has become extinct within two centuries.-Goldsmith was
more layish of his money, when he had it, than was prudent.
-Buy no more furniture than [what] is needed.
9

98

ELLIPTIO.AL PARSING.

The poor [per.sons] are often happier than the ricb.-lt
is base to be [a) dishonest [pe·r son].-Wbose [prope1·ty] is
this apple? Arthur's.-Oall at the doctor's [office].-Stop
at Johnson's and buy [for] me some fiour.-Give [to] me
your liand.-You should offer the lady your seat.-When
did h e depart this life?
He save th [him] whom He will [.save].-Whom He loveth,
Re chasteneth.-It is labor enables us to enjoy r est.-[ Go]
On, my gallant boys !--Away to your places.-Some men
prize honor more than [they prize] gold.-Air is 82'7 times
(obj. case, according to Rule V.) lighter than water [is].I am going; [I wish yoit] good evening.-Good-by !- success
to you !-Milton's poetry is more sublime than Virgil's.

LESSON LXIX.
What is a Sentence ?

A Sentence is" such an assemblage of words an
makes complete sense.
As regards

t1::fl meaning, how are sentences divided?

Into four classes ; Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory.
Wbat is a Declarative Sentence ?

A Declarative Sentence is one that declares something; as, "The wind blows."
What is an Interrogative Sentence?

An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a question ; as, " Does the wind blow ? "
' Vhat is an Imperative Sentence?

An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a
command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or permission,
and contains a verb in the imperative mood ; as, "Let
the wind blow."

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.

99

What is an Exclamatory Sentence ?

An Exclamatory Sentence is one that exclaims
something ; as, "How the wind blows! "
With what do imperative sentences often commence?

With the verb let.
'With what do exclamatory sentences often commence?

With the pronominal adjective what or the adverb
how j as, "What a fearful spectacle!'' "J:low bright
the stars are ! "
EXERCISE.

Form five decla1·ative, five inteN·ogative, five imperative,
and five exclamatory sentences, containing the following exp1·essions in order :-1. Fine fruit. 2. Facilities for travelling. 3. A good memory. 4. Very rap~. 5. Brick
houses.--6. H ave you studied i 7'..,Who are disobliging.
8. Love of money. 9. Dark clouds. 10. Travelling so far.
-11. Let us. 12. In peace. 13. A habit of grumbling.
14. Wet grass. 15. Stale bread.-16. How beautiful. 17'. .
What a privilege. 18. To obey one's parents. 19. Pleasant
dreams. 20. A waste of time.

---

LESSON

LXX.

What is the Grammatical Subject of a sentence?

The Grammatical Subject is the leading word, denoting that about which something is said.
By what is the grammatical subject sometimes modified ?

By words that limit or explain its meaning, or mtroduce some additional fact.
Of what does the Logical Subject of a sentence consist?

The Logical Subject consists of the graIIllilatical
subject and its modifiers.

'I,,

100

SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

What is the Predicate of a sentence?

The Predicate of a sentence is what remains after
the logical subject is removed.
Give examples of these definitions.

" Seven metals were known to the ancients."
Metals is the grammatical subject. Seven modifies
it, and therefore seven metals is the logical subj ect. Were known to the ancients is the predicate.
How can some sentences be divided?

Into two or more parts of equal r ank, having each
a subject and predicate of its own. Such parts are
called Members.
What is the difference between Compound and Simple Sen·
tences?

Sentences that can be divided into two or more
members, are called Compound Sentences. Those that
cannot be so divid~d, are called Simple Sentences.

.ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

101

What do we call a sentence whoslt members are of different_
classes?

A Compound Sentence with Dissimilar Members.
" Cast thy bread upon the waters; for thou shalt find it after
many days." This is a compound sentence with dissimilar members.
The .first member is imperative; the second is declarative.

FoRMs.-How slow yon tiny vessel ploughs the
main/
A simple exclamatory sentence. The grammatical subject is
vessel. The logical subject is yon tiny vessel. The predicate is
how slow ploughs the main.

B e }ust and fear not.
A compound imperative sentence. The first membe.:rP be just;
its grammatical and logical subject is thou undEf1tood ; its predicate
is be just. The second member is and f ear not, connected with the
first member by the conjunction and; its grammatical and logical
subject is thou understood; its predicate is fear not.

Boast not thyself of to-morrow
not what a day may bring forth.

j

f01· thou knowest

"All are of the dust." This sentence expresses one thought,
and can not be divided into two or more members. It is therefore
simple. If we join to it another member, with or without a con·
junction, we make the sentence compound. Thus:- " All are of
the dust, and all turn to dust again."
· A verb is sometimes understood~ the predicate of one or more
of the members of a compound sentence; as, " Honesty is the best
policy, and temperance [is] the best physic."

A compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first member, boast not thyself of to-morrow, is imperative. Its grammatical
and logical subj ect is thou understood; its predicate is boast not
thyself of to-morrow. The second member, for thou knowest, &c.,
is declarative and is connected with the first member by the con·
junction Jo,.'. Its grammatical and logical subject is thou; itS
predicate is know est not what a day may bring for th.

How do we distinguish compound sentences, when their members are all of the same class?

Treat the following sentences according to the above
fo1-ms : -Great oaks from little acorns grow.-A soft answer
turneth awny wrath; but grievous words stir up anger.Keep thy shop, and thy shop will keep thee.-How precious
are the passing moments, and yet how few appreciate their
value !-Obey thy parents, and comply with all their wishes.
~Uneasy....i;ests the head that wears a crown.

EXERCISE.

When the members are all declarative, we call the
sentence Compound Declarative ; when all interrogative, Compound Interrogative ; when all imperative,
Compound Imperative ; when all exclamatory, Compound Exclamatory.

102

103

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

LESSON LXXI.

"The sun is the great source of heat." Here are
three principal parts,-sun, is, and the predicate
nominative source.
·3. If the leading verb has no object, but is followed by an adjective belonging to the grammatical
subject, this adjective, called the Predicate Adjective,
forms the third principal part.
" The summer sun is hot." Here are three principal parts,-sun, is, and the predicate adjective hot.

·what sentences alone are compound?

Such as can be divided into two or more members,
each having its own subject and predicate.
Does the introduction of a compound subject or a compound
predicate necessarily make the sentence compound?

It does not. A sentence may contain a compound
subject or a compound predicate, and yet be simple.
.A. simple sentence may contain a compound subject,-that is,
two or more grammatical subjects connected by a conjunction or
not; as, " Time and tide wait for no man."
A simple sentence may contain a compound predicate,-that is,
one that has two or more parts of equal rank ; as, " Time destroys
cities and overthrows empires."
A simple sentence may contain both a compound subject and
a compound predicate; as, " Adam and Eve I disobeyed God and
f 01/eited Paradise."
How many principal parts has every sentence?

Every simple sentence and every member of a
compound sentence has at least two principal parts,
-the grammatical subject and the leading verb.
"The summer sun burns fiercely." The grammatical subject sun and the leading verb burns are
the two principal parts.
When does a third principal part appear?
1. If the leading verb has an object,

this object
, constitutes a third principal part. "The summer sun
burns up the grass." Here there are three principal
parts,-sun, burns, and the object grass.
2. If the leading verb has no object, but is followed by a substantive in the nominative case, this
substantive, called the Predicate Nominative, forms
the third principal part.

FoRMS.-London and Paris are the largest cities
of Europe.
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subjects London and Paris, the lea~ .:erb are, and
the predicate nominative cities.

Alexander and 0<£sar had an untimely ~nd j and
Napoleon's fate was not much better.
A compound declarative· sentence. The first member is Alez..
·ander and Omsar had an untimely end. The second member is and
Napoleon's fate was not much better.
'l'he principal parts of the first member are the grammatical
subjects Alexander and Oa!sar, the leading verb liad, and its object
end. 'l'he principal parts of the second member are the ·grammatical subject fate, the leading verb was, and the predicate adjective
better.
EXERCISE.

Treat tlie following sentences according to the above
f orms :-Worth makes the man.-Homer, Virgil, and Milton, are the three great epic poets.-From how many evils
do temperance and self-restraint save us !-To die for one's
country is glorious.-Do not patience and perseverance
always triumph ?-Love produces love, and hate engenders
hate. -Be cautious; avoid every appearance of evil.

104

CLAUSES.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

105

What is a Comparative Clause ?

LESSON

LXXII.

A Comparative Clause is one that contains as or
than followed by the latter of two terms compared ;
as, " Virtue is as rare as it is admirable."

By what may the principal parts of a sentence be modified?

By single words, adjuncts, and clauses.
What is an Adjunct? (See page 89.)

.

What is a Clause?

A Clause is a subdivision of a sentence containing
a verb, but not expressing a complete thought.
Name the seven principal kinds of clauses.

Substantive, Relative, P articipial, Adverbial, Causal,
Comparative, and Hypothetical Clauses.
What is a Substantive Clause ?

A Substantive Clause is one that performs the part
of a noun ; as, " The fact that we must all die should
be constantly kept in mind."
What is ·a Relative Clause?

A Relative Clause is one that contains a relativ,~
pronoun expressed or understood ; as, " Moses is the
meekest man [that] we read of in Scripture."
What is a Participial Clause ?

A Participial Clause is one that contains a participle ; as, "Figures, when well chosen, embellish discourse."
What is an Adverbial Clause?

An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the part
of an adverb, generally expressing time, place, or
manner ; as, " ll7hen Columbus discoverer;! America,
it was inhabited by Indi:.ms."
What is a Causal Clause?

A Causal Clause is one that expresses the purpose
or end for which anything is or is done ; "Boys go
to school, to study and improve their minds."

I I

What is a Hypothetical Clause ?

A Hypothetical Clause is one that expresses a supposition or something conceived as possible ; as, " .If
I were you, I would try."
w ·hat is a Vocative Expression?

A Vocative Expression is a substantive used independently, with its m~difiers, thrown into a sentence
like an interjection, without modifying any particular
wo rd- ; as, " Spirit of peace, still hover over us!."
FORMS.-' Tis

not the fafrest form that hottis the

purest soul.
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject it, the leading verb is, and the predicate nominative form. The leading verb is is modifi ed by the adverb not.
The predicate nominative form is modified by the article the,
the adjective fairest, and the relative clause that holds the purest
soul. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject
tltat, the leading verb lwlds, and its object soul, which is modified
by the article the and the adjective purest.

Where can you go, 0 doubter, to find comfort?
A simple interrogative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject you and the leading verb can go.
'l'he leading verb can go is modified by the adverb where and the
causal clause to find comfort, consisting of the infinitive to find and
its object comfort. 0 doubter is a vocative expression.

1Ve know that the eloquence of .Demosthenes was .
more impassioned than that of Cicero.
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject we and the leading verb know.

'

106

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

The leading verb know is modified by the substantive clause that
the eloquence, &c., connected with it by the conjunction that. The
principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject eloquence,
th e leading verb was, and the predicate a(ijective impassioned.
The grammatical subject eloquence is modified by the article the
and the adj unct of .Demosthenes.
The predicate adjective impassioned is modified by the adverb
more ; and more is itself modified by the comparative clause than
that of Cicero, connected with it by the conjunction than. The
principal parts of this comparative clause are the grammatical subj ect that (modified by the adjunct of Cicero), and the leading verb
was understood.
EXERCISE.

Treat the following sentences according to the above
forms :-Who shall decide when doctors disagree 7- Cresar,
whose bravery b as never been qu estioned, refused a challenge
fr om Mark Antony.- Wben yo u have done wrong, my
children, be not afraid to admit it.-'l'o do good to the living
is better th an to eulogize the dead.-Tbousands at once
flocked to California, to try their fortunes in that favored
land.-How few who merit the world's applause, receive it I
-+--

LESSON

LX X II I .

W hat is meant by the Base of a sentence ?

The Base of a sentence is the part that expresses
the leading idea. " Who shall decide when doctors
disagree ? " -who shall decide is the base.
What is meant by a Quotation, or Quoted Sentence?

A word or passage taken, or represented as taken,
from some writer or speaker.
What is meant by Analyzing a sentence ?

Resok ing it into its simple parts.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

107

".rn analyzing a sentence, what must be done ?

In analyzing a sentence, state its class; select its
principal parts; tell by what words, adjuncts, or
-clauses each is modified, and by what these modifiers
are themselves modified, resolving adjuncts into the
words that compose them, and clauses into their principal parts and modifiers. If the sentence is compound, treat each member in turn as just described.
FORMS OF AN.ALYSIS.-Intense cold produces a~
sire for sleep, which, if indulged in, results in death.

A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the grammatical subject cold, the leading verb produces, and the objec;t desire.
The grammatical subject cold is modifiei by the adj ective
intense.
The object desire is modified by the article a and the adjunct
for sleep, consisting of the preposition for and its object sleep. The
obj ect sleep is modified by the relative clause wlti~h, if indulged in,
remlts in death.
The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject
which and the leading verb results. The subject which is modified
by the hypothetical clause if inditlged in, consisting of the conjunc·
tion if and the participle ind·ulged (modified by the adverb in).
The leading verb results is modified by the adjunct in death, consisting of the preposition in and its .object death.

If travellers tell the truth, woman is always hu·
mane j even in savage lands she is gentle and kind
to those who need her aid.
A compound declarative sentence. The first member is if
travellers tell the truth, woman is always humane. The second
member is even in savage lands she is gentle and kind to those who
need her aid.
The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical'
subject woman, the leading verb is (modified by the adverb always.),
<llld the predicate adjective humane.

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108

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

The base of the first member is modified by the hypothetical
clause if travellers tell the truth. The principal parts of this clause
are the grammatical subject travellers, the leading verb tell, and the
object ti-11th, modified by the article the.
The principal parts of the second member are the. grammatical
subject site, the leading verb is, and the predicate adjectives gentle
and k ind. The predicate adjectives are modified by the adjunct
to those, consisting of the preposition to and its object those, which
is itself modified by the relative clause who need her aid. The
principal parts of this clause arc the grammatical subject who, the
leading verb need, and the object aid, which is modified by the
possess~e her.
The base of the second member is modified by the adjunct in
savage lands; consisting of the preposition in and its object lands,
which is modified by the adjective savage; and this adjunct is itSel(
modified by the adverb even.

Bion used to say, "Know thyself."
A simple declarative sentence. The principal parts are the
grammatical subject Bion and the leading verb used.
The leading verb used is modified by the infinitive to say, which
is itself modified by the quoted sentence know thyself.
The quoted sentence know thyself is simple imperative. Its
principal parts are the grammatical subject thou understood, the
leading verb know, and the object thyself.
EXE'RCISE.

Analyze, according to the above forms, the sentencll8 in the
E xerci8e under L esson L XX., al,so the following :-Let justice
be done, though the sky fall.-The wicked flee when no
man pursneth ; but the righteous are bold as a lion.-W ere
it not for the numerous enemies that are constantly destroying them, serpents would prove a serious annoyance to man.
- " 0 Autumn," writes Bryant, "why so soon depart the
hues that make thy forests glorious 1" [Here Bryant is
the grammatical subject, and writes the leading verb.]

109

CORRECTION OF FALSE SYNTAX.

LESSON LXXIV.
FALSE SYNTAX.

Specimens of the most common grammatical errors
are now presented for correction. Give the · reasons
for each alteration, according to the models. After
correcting the sentences, analyze and parse them.
Divide into lessons of convenient length.
1. Do not put a substantive that is the subject of
a verb or is used independently, in the objective case.
MODEL.-Can you run faster than me? Corrected : Can you
run faster than II Me must be changed to I, the nominative case,
because it is the subject of can run understood. 6
·
Correct :-Him and me are to start to-morrow.-Who dropped
that book? Not me, but her.-Whom do you think has arrived?Them that are industrious generally succeed.-Few have been so
fortunate as us ?-Jane is taller than him or me.-Them that have
ears to hear, let them hear.-We have no fears, thee being our
guide.-Who would have thought of its being him P
·

2. Put a modifying substantive that implies possession, origin, or fitness, in the possessive case. See
that the apostrophe is properly used (as shown on
page 27).
MonEL.-Charles' reign; mens' lives. Corrected: Charles's
reign ; men's lives..
Correct :-St. Josephs Church; womens' shoes; Musreus'
poems; four months residence; misses dresses; Rufus' father;
All Saints Church; three hours journey; the marchioness jewels;
Tacitus' works; the childrens' books.-Who's hat is that? It •is
neither his.'n, her'n, nor yourn.
·

3. When there are several modifying substantives,
they are all in the possessive case. If they modify
different nouns, give each the sign of the possessive.

10

.

llO

FALSE SYNTAX.

CORRECTION OF

111

But, if they modify the same noun, give it to the .,, Correct :-He was tendered a free passage.-We are son;etimes
, µild strange stories.-The clerk is allowed a handsome ea ary.last only.

Arnold was promised £10,000 and the rank of brigadier-general.MooE L.-1 have bought Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Gram•
mar, and Worcester and Webster's Dictionary. Corrected: I have They have been granted leave of absence.
7.
See
that
a
prono~
in
apposition
with
a
noun
is
bought Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, and 1Vorct1ter'1
and W ebstcr's Dictionary. The possessive sign must be omitted put in the same case as t\lat noun..
.
after Andrews', because but one grammar is referred to; it mWlt b8
See that a substantive following a verb without.an.
annexed to !Vorcestcr, because two dictionaries are referred to. '
object is put in the same case as the substantive
Co1~·ect :-Henry and George's farm are on opposite sides of thi?
·
.
rivcr.-What was the name of Adam's and Eve's youngest son t....l' before the verb.
MonEL.-We went to see Florence Nightingale, she who did so
What is the distance between White and Lee's store? •
much good in the Crimea. Corrected: We went to see Florence
4. Put the object of a verb or preposition in the Nightingale, her who did so much good in the Crimea.. S~.must
objective case.
, be chan"'ed to her, to be in the objective case, because 1t is m apMonEt.-Who can I trust? Corrected: Whom can I trust t, position°with the objective Flore1we Nightingale. . •
.
H7w must be changed to whom, the objective case, becaUBe it ia'
Correct :-There are few bolder travellers than L1vmgstone, him
the object of the verb can trust.
,, who explored the interior of Africa.-lf I were her, I _w~uld act
Correct :-He who the world admires most is not always the moat with more dignity.-Have you read the life of Grace ~arlmg, ~e..
worthy of admiration.-He sat behind you and 1.-Who did Hr
who saved 80 many ship-wrecked persons ?-We feared 1t was him•.
Ray leave his property to ?-Tell whoever you send to be careful-Did you suppose it to be she ?-None of us could guess whom
Who did yon say that you saw?-Between you and I, I snspect
he would turn out to be.-It was my brother you saw, not me.
your friend .-How many Pharaoh's have you read of?

5. Do not mtroduce a preposition to govern
object of a transitive verb.

th~

MovEt.-Consider of my offer. Corrected: Consider my offer.
Consider being a transitive verb, the preposition must be omitted. ·
Co,..rect :-I do not wish for any more.-Do you recollect of
walking down Broadway last week ?-Different men pnraue after
different objects.-She will not allow of any interference.-His ser:
vants we are, to whom we obey.-There are many good men at
whom the world ridicule.-Do not doubt of my desire to do you good.

6.

In using the passive of such verbs as offer, allO'l.D,

&c., be sure to make the right substantive the subject.
MonEt.-Thrice was Cresar offered the crown.
Corrected:
Thrice was the crown offered Cresar. Crown, being the thing offered,
should be made the subject.

s.

See that a pronoun agrees in number and gender
with the substantive for which it stands.

:MoDEL.-As you have broken the tongs, you must get it mended.
Corrected : As you have broken the tongs, you must get them
mended. Jt must be changed to them, the plural number, because
tongs, the substantive for which it stands, is plu;al.
Correct :-Many a young man forgets the lessons that th~ir .
mother taught them.-Every one should be considered in~ocent till
they are proved guilty.-That heifer seems to have lost bis way:Nobody knows wha.t may befall them to-morrow.-On that occasion
each sin"'er did their best.-! have mislaid my spectacles ; help me
find it,_:What do you do with your ashes? I sell it.

9. See that a verb agrees with its subject in person
and number.
MoDEL.-The distance of the fixed stars are incredible.

\
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·\
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1

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112

·FALSE SYNTAX·

CORRECTION OF

113

Correct :-Where is your friend and cousin? l have not seen
reefed·
chang~dThe
to isd. tan:e of ~be. fixed stars is incredible. Are must be them to-day.-Hope, and hope alone, are my support.-Religion,
0
' agree with its subject distance in the thi d . m.1 . ..

i:o

oruct :- What are the newa?- .Ashe '.
. r 'BIDi;~· and nothing but religion, are able to console us.
a strong cement for i"ro .
s mixed with salt makes
1 2. Substantives are taken separately, 1. When
n pipes.- Was you not
·
If h d .
present at the accident ?-Well says I to
'
myse ' s e are not touch
th
·
preceded by each, every, or no, whether connected by
- Captain H with h' h
on at subJect.
.,
is w o1e company h
·
and or not. 2. When connected by and not, if not,
study on abstract subjects fatigue the
on such roads are enough t t'
Y Journey as well as, but, or, or nor.
o ir~ any one.-Every teacher have
their own notions on gra
A pronoun or verb agreeing with two or more
Each of our
·
mmar.- e may say whut be choose.singular substantives taken separately, must be put in
selling for ?- Cpoudbhc .officers fhave their favorites.-What is oata
·
rus 1s one o the bl t ·k·
singular.
in history.-Thc phenomena of th no es mgs .that is mentioned the
, MoDEL.-James, as well as his brother, have injured themselves
attention.-Many a merchant bavee t~mospbere is well worthy or
by pursuing this course. Corrected: James, as well as his brother,
of punctuality.
a ed to succeed from a. want
has i11Jured himself by pursuing this course. Have injured must
be changed to has injured, and theimelves to himself» to agree in
10.
Substantives
connected
by
a
d
und · t d
·
n expressed or the singular with James and brother taken .separately.
er s oo are said to be taken together.
Correct :-Neither lead nor iron are so. heavy as gold.-Not
A
w1"th t wo or more only France, . but England, have .committed thems.elves to this
·
I pronoun or verb a"'reeing
0
smgu ar substantives taken together must be
t .
policy.-Cresar, as well us Pompey, met thflir death at the assassin'~
the plural.
'
m
hands.-Either the mate or the captain have lost their reckoning.
-It was Saul, and not Jonathan, that killed tbemse\ves.-Each •
MoDEL.-Milton's
and Byron's poetry is
. entirely different in its.
style.
Col'rected . Milton'
day and each hour have their duties.-Every man, every child, are
in their style. I ; must bes ~nd B~on's poetry ~re entirely different
able to do 'Some good to their fellow creatures.-No word, no sigh;
in th
.
c ange to are, and its to their to u ee
were heard.- Simplicity, or rather folly, are stamped on his face.
gr
e plurnl with p oetry understood (after ]Jfilton's) d '
pressed, two singular substantives taken together. an poetry ex·
13. If one of the substantives connected by or or
Corl'ect :-Of what use is Iearnin" und 1
. . .
nor is plural, the verb or pronoun must be plural ; as,
turned to practical account? I d'ffio
e oquence, if it is never
has too often been the t: t -; n I . erence, contempt, persecution,
"Neither England nor the French are satisfied."
and wealth to such a cb:r:c~e g?em;s.-What udvantnge is rank
Correct :-Neither glory nor riches Cllll make its possessor
lie;ehothers is enjoined on
. happy.-Eitber my eyes or this type is very bad.-Neither knife
l).Or scissors is in its place.-Either the horse or the cattle has been
epic as ever command d ~ . 1
mer s
Hope and th
. e or itse f the admiration of the world e consc10usness of integrity has ceased to comfort U:e.
in the garden.

~i:;~~~1r::d:i:-:,~ mu~

• I
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P~

ever~ ~ri~ti~~y ;:::u':e~~n~:o r~

the11. If the substantives
. connected by and represent
s~me person or tbmg, put the verb and
.
agreemg with them in the sin"'ular.
as
"Thprnnho~
0
'
'
c·
a
e p ys1ian an surgeon on the corner has closed his office.,,

14. Use that as a relative, not who or which,
1. When both persons and things are referred to ;
as, "Look at the artists and master.pieces that ancient
Greece produced."

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114

CORRECTION OF

FALSE SYNTAX.

2. When who is the antecedent. as, " TVho that
hates his brother can love God ? " '
3. After a superlative . as "H
'b 1
_7
dl'
' ·'
anm a was the
uea iest enemy that Rome ever had."
~; Af~er same, all, and the adjectives very and no •
. "
as, He is the sarne that be always was."

18. Do not compare adjectives whose meaning
precludes the idea of comparison, or use with them
more, most, less, least,
or any adverb of degree.

so,

Correct :-The chiefest beauty ; a delusion so Universal; the
least perfect of the photographs ; a more preferable office ; the
truest assertions; so infinite a number; a more complete course;
the freest institutions; the supremest fully.

Correct :-All the w
d d .
.
agona an
rivers which were on the road

wfe~e ca~tured.-Tell was one of the purest patriots whom we read

19. In comparing two objects, use the comparative
degree ; in comparing more than two at once, the
superlative.

o i.n h1story.-AU which glitters, is not gold.-Who who h
to this story unmoved ?-The least w~:c:
. thave. ahr1g~t to expect, is your sympathy.-No prince who
biea es, is app1er than I

~=h~g heart, ~an listen
15 .. Place the

rela~ive with its clause immediateJ '

MonEL.-Which is the smartest of the two brothers? Oor; ected: Which is the smarter of the two brothers? Smartest must
be changed to smarter, the comparative degree, because only two
objects are compared.
Correct :-Which is the greatest, a fat!iom or a cubit ?-Flax,
wool, and cotton, are all important staples,-particularly the latter.
-George is the youngest of my two brothers.-Which looks to you
the largest, the sun or the full moon ?

after its ant~cedent; as, "Those who break the la~
deserve pumshment "-not' " Th ose d eserve purush. .
ment who break the Jaw."
h Co~rect :-The birds are not always the sweetest singers that

ave t e gayest plumage.-Those can not govern others wh~ can
n~t govern themselves.-Many are careless in selecting thelr friends
w o us~ great caution in selecting their horses.-Speeches are no~
much liked by the people, that are full of learned allusions.
.

20. After the comparative degree, use other with

the latter of the terms compared, if it includes the
former, and only then.
After the superlative, use neither other nor any
with the latter term.

16. Use this and that with singular rouns onl
these and those only with plurals. Never say th. h y,
or these 'ere, that there or those 'ere.
is ere
'wh Cor~ect ·:-These sort of people are dangerous acquaintances ose 1s this here scissors ?-Those kind of sh
d
·
Th t ,
~
oes are goo enough
a ere ence must come down. -Empty out that suds.-Wh t.
arc these news I hear?
a

17. Comparatives and superlativeii must not be
further compared; nor should the adverbs more and
·
most be used with them.
Correct :~The furtherest route i a more superior position i in a
.
worser cond1t1on i the most straitest sect of our 1· .
re 1g1on · a more
'
clearer style i much more better off.

115

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Thus :-" The Amazon is longer than any other river," because
the Amazon is a river. But, "The Amazon is longer than ariy
river -in Europe ; " not any other river, because the Amazon is not
a river of Europe. So, after the superlative: "The Amazon is the
longest of all rivers;" not of all other rivers, or of any river.
Correct :-Mercury is nearer to the sun than any of the planets.
--Samson was the strongest of any man we have ever heard of.London is the largest of any city in Europe.-Portions of the Bible
are older than any writings extant.-The whale is the largest of any
other fish.-Railroads develop a country more rapidly than any
internal improvements.

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116

F ALBE SYNTAX.

CORRECTION OF

21. Do not use can, which implies ability, for may

implying permission.
. .'.
Do not use am .for have as the auxiliary of the
perfect indicative, or was for had in the pluperfect.
Avoid corrupt forms of the verb : such as, had have,
for had, in the pluperfect; hadn't ought, for ought
not j had as lief, had rather, for would as lief, would
rather j I'm a mind, for I have a mind • arn't or
•
~
J
amt, ior are not j moughtn't, for might not, .&c.

ture), when not in the infinitive, participles, or compound tenses; and see and feel, when transitive, in
the active voice. "Hear it [to] thunder." "Bid
them sit down."
Correct :- Washington soon made the enemy to evacuate Boston.-He bids all to come and' to drink freely of the water of life.
-We are bid relieve the unfortunate.-Bernadotte durst not to
risk a battle.-Just see those boys to run.-Those boys were seen
run down the bill.-Do you feel the lancet to prick you?

25. Do not use the preposition of between ·the
participle of a transitive verb and its object. Say
by erecting statues, not by erecting of statues.
When the, an or a, this, or that, is introduced
before a participle, the latter becomes a noun and is
followed by of j as, this erecting of statues..

Correct :-I will let you go; you can start next week.-Can I
sit down ?-Those happy days are gone.-The Irish are sprung from
the old Celtic stock.-The phantom was vanished.-They are
already arrived.-:-l'm a mind to go; but after all I had as lief re- '
main.-You hadn't ought to eat unripe fruit.-Had Bliicher have
been a little later, Napoleon might have gained the battle of Water:
loo.-Arn't you mistaken?

Correct :-Disciplining of raw recruits and making of good soldiers out of them are no easy tasks.-The committing an error is
no excuse for defending of it.-What 'sense is there in this following every absurd fashion ?-Adam was not punished for the eating
an apple, but for diSobeying of his Maker.-There are other forms
.of charity besides the mere giving money.
·

22. The preposition for must not be used immedi1

He is trying hard for
ately before the infinitive.
to enter college." Correct by omitting for.
"

Correct :- Cicero sent his son to .A.thens, for to finish his education.-Many have risked their lives, for to make discoveries.Strive for to cultivate a contented disposition; for to possess this is
better than to roll in wealth.

26. See that a substantive modifying a participle
.is in the possessive case ; as, " Who first conceived
. the idea of the moon's [not moon] being inhabited ? "

23. The sign to must not b.e separated from the
rest of the infinitive by an adverb. "To faithfully
represent this scene is impossible." Say faithfully to
represent this scene, or to represent this scene faithfully.

Correct :-Who ever heard of a fat man plotting treason?Many savage nations have a tradition of the world having been
overflowed by a deluge.-Tbe idea of England j oining such a. league
is preposterous.-There is certainly more danger of a child studying
too little than too much.

Correct :-How pleasant it is to quietly sit by some river's bank!
-Try to always deserve the esteem of your teachers.-To hastily
read is generally to quite as hastily forget.

24. Omit to, the sign of the infinitive, after the
verbs hear, make, and bid (meaning order), fu the
active \'Oice i let, in both voices j dare (meaning Velz•

ll'T

1

2 'T. In expressing a negation, do not use two negatives in the same clause or member ; as, "I did not
do nothing." Change or omit one of the negatives:
"I did not do anything," or "I did nothing."

118

Correct :-We never saw nothing like this.-Don't say. nothing
to no one.-French is not so melodious nor majestic a language ,1µ1
Spanish.-Can you not obtain permission in no way f-Don't never
put off till to-morrow what can be done to-day.

28. Certain words must be followed by certain
prepos1t1ons. Thus :-Accuse of j adapted to j arrive
at or in; bestow on j confide, trust in; different
from j dislike to j followed by j rid of; accompanied, attended by a living object, with an inanimate object.
Correct :-Socrates was accused with corrupting the youth.Be careful to whom you bestow your favors.-W e know on whom
we have trusted.-A dog's-ear is quite different to a dog's ear.-Try
to rid yourselves from fiatterers.-To what place did St. Paul next
arrive ?-The king was attended with a large retinue.-Intemperance
is attended by fearful consequences.-It is a fine edition, accom·
panied by illustrations.-Crime is generally followed with remorse.
-Canute was attended with his courtiers.

VI. Every noun, adjective., and verb in the titles
of books and headings of chapters.
. VII. Words that denote the leading subjects of
~hapters, articles, or paragraphs. .
. .
VIII. The pronoun I and the mterJect10n {).
IX Words denoting ·great events or eras, noted
writt~n instruments, and extraordinary physi~al phenomena ; as, the Creation, the Aurora Borealis.
X. Letters standing for words; as, P. '().

-

LESSON LXXVI.
PUNCTUATION.

Punctuation is the art of dividing written langua?e
by points, in order that the meaning may be readily
understood.
The Punctuation-points are as follows:-

--+--

SEMICOLON,

PERIOD,

LESSON LXXV.
RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS.

JNTERROGATION-POINT,

1

ExcL.A.M.A.T!ON·POINT,
COLON,

Begin with a capital,
I. Every sentence and every line of poetry..
II. Proper nouns, proper adjectives, and titles of
office and honor ; as, Eve, Italian, General Scott.
III. Common nouns personified in a lively manner;
as, " Then War waves his banner."
IV. Appellations of the Deity, and the personal
pronouns Thou and He standing for His name.
V. The first word of a quoted sentence, not intrOduced by that or any other conjunction; as, Thomson·
says, "Success makes villains honest."

119

PUNCTUATION.

FALSE Sn;ITAX.

BRACKETS,

COMMA,
DASH,

p ARENTHESES 1

()

( ]

A. period must be placed after every declarative and imperative sentence, and every abbreviated word; as, "N · Y.
stands for New York."
A.n interrogation-point must be placed after every ~ter­
rogative sentence, member, and clause; also, afterthe mterj ections eh and hey ; o.s, " Has air weight 1"
A.n exclamation-point must be placed after .every exclamatory sentence, member, clause, and expression i als~:
after every interjection but O, eh, hey; as, "Alas! how sad l
The colon, semicolon, and comma, are used between

120

PUNCTUATION.

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parts of sentences, and denote different degrees of separaI
tion,-the colon the greatest, the comma the least.
A colon is placed before an enumeration of particulars
introduced by jfrst, secondly, &c.; also, before a quotation
referred to by the words thus, these, following, as follows.
A semicolon is generally placed between the members
of compound sentences unless very short, before an enumeration of particulars when the names of the objects merely
are given, and before as introducing an example.
· A comma sets off adjuncts and clauses not essential to
the meaning of the sentence, when introduced between parts
that are closely connected. It is also used to set off a noun
in apposition modified by an adjunct or adjective.
A comma is also placed between very short members
of compound sentences; also, after a logical subject ending
with a verb, or consisting of parts which are separated by
the comma; also, before or introducing an equivalent.
A comma is also placed after each word in a series of
more than two that are the same part of speech; or after
each pair, if the words are taken in pairs.
The dash is used to denote a break in the construction,
a transition in the sentiment, a sudden interruption, hesitation, or an abrupt repetition.
Parentheses are used to enclose words that explain or
modify the main proposition, w l).i;in jntroduc~<i between parts
that are closely connected.
Brackets are 11sed chiefly in quoted pasaage.s, to enclose
corrections, observations, or words improperly omitted.
The Apostrophe ('
notes the p.ossessiv.e. ca,\le of nouns,
or the omission of et3r :t'letters; as, men's, o'er.
The Hyphen ( c~ct~~ parts of a compound word,
or joins the syllab dt.lof . ra;lvor·~~vided at t~e end of a line.
Quotation-poin
" ·~ enc ~~e words q!ioted, or represented as em\ployed Jia~e. ' '
l
,....._;
~ 6
.--.. :
.:;?

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