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ILLUSTRATED LESSONS
IN

OUR . LANGUAGE;
OR.

HOW TO SPEAK AND WRITE CORRECTLY.
DESIGNED TO TEACH

ENGLISH GRAM.'AIAR, WITHOUT ITS TECHNICALITIES.

}

BY

G;;> P.~UACKENBOS, LL. D.,
'.

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A.UTIIOR 01( "FIRST LESSONS I N CO~ll' OS ITION,"

"ADVANCED

COURBF. OF COMPOSITION

AND RHETORIC," "AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," RTO.

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NEW YORK:

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
549 AND 551 BROADWAY.

18 76.

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TE. )Ill

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P R . E FACE.

BY THE SAME AUTHOR
An Enylish G1•an1.1na1·: 12mo, pp. 288.
Ffr.~t Le.~sons

in Com.1 •osi.t·ion: Jn which the Principles of the Art arc developed
in connection with the Principles of Gmmmur. l 2mo, pp. 182.

.1lllvancecl Con·1·sP. of Com.posUion and Rlwto1·ic: A Series of l'rnctifal
Lesson s on the Origin, History, nncl Peculbritics of the English Lnnguagc, Punctuation, Taste, the Pleasmes of the lrnnginntion, J<ign res, Style and its Essential Properties, Criti cism and the various Departments of Prose and 'Poetical Composition.
New and Re,·iscd Edition. 12mo, pp. 4['i'J.
Elementa 1 •y HL~f01 ·y of th e United Sto.tes: Made easy nncl interesting for
Beginners. With numerous Illustrations nnd .Maps. 16mo, pp. 216.
1Uust1•nt ecl School 11 isto1•y of the Tl nit•Hl Stotes: Containing Biographical
N oticcs of Distlnguishccl Men, numerous Mnps, Plans of Battle-fields, and Pictorial
111ustrn.tions 12mo, pp. 512.
A Natural Philosophy: Embracing the most recent Disco veries in Physics. With
Practical Exercises and 335 lllustrntlons. 12mo, pp . 450.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, In the year 1876, by
G. P . QUACKENIWS,
In the Ofl1co of the Librarian of Co ngress, at Washington.

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Tms little volume is the result of an earnest effort to teach young .children, in a natural and common-sense way, how to speak and w~ite cor; ·· ·
~ · . rectly,-to enable them to master the leading principles of English Gram.mar, without its technicalities, easily and thoroughly because intelligently
~·. ·; and practically. It leaves out of sight the formidable legion of inflections
' ~ ·,~ · and conjugations, divisions and subdivisions, observations and exceptions,
.-:;- .' once considered indispensable, and seeks in stead from the very outset to
: }· ..-.. familiarize · the le~rn er with the use of language as an every-day reality of
· ·prime importance,-not as a mere theoretical abstraction. It substitutes
·.=·· ... for the dry' i·outine of verbal parsing, with its endless round of definitions
"'
and rules, a variety of oral and written exe.rcises t eaching the art of expression inductively; · which . exercises, it is believed, if faithfully follo\~ed, will
"lead the youthful 'traveller by the easiest and pleasantest route through the
cunning mazes of speech. It.aims especially to do away with rote-learning,
and make the language-lessen a vehicle of valuable mental discipline.
The subject is developed substantially by Object-lessons. Correct
,..., . models are given, to be written on the black-board, considered and dis' a; ·~ cussed by the class.
Attention is directed to the special point to be taught,
'-by questions which th e learner is required to answer from his own inspec' , -'-. iion. He is thus made to deduce the prin ciple for himself; and it is then
·.• ' embodied in few words for memorizing, practicall ' a plied, and kept in
· · · mind thereafter by its repeated application in sub
nt..:e2teYcises.- __Kic.-- - ·
;
rllf -1llUS:!,rati'on - from
~ressl,r Ol' the work aid· in tli1she
, t
Among the chief features of this manual are the extent and variety of
;. its Exercises. Brought fully within the scholar's reach by models pre. viously given, they will be found to divest the subject of its proverbial dry"ness,-indeed, to make what was formerly repulsive one of the pleasantest
~f studies. Let the student in no case attempt the Exercise till he per;.:-

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PREFACE.

4

fectly understands the preceding text; and sec that each Lesson is mastered beforp a new one is taken up. No link must be defective in a cha in
that is to be strong and perm:uien t.
It is claimed that this Look is complete in itself. Jt is not one of a
Series. It presupposes no knowl edge of Grammar; and unless, when used
as a text-book by an intelligent teach er, it enaulcs tl1 e faithful student,
t:irown upon the world with no other grammatical im:trnetion, to speak and
write correctly in all ordinary cases, it must Le pronoun ced a failmc. In
01·dina1·y cases; but, of course, those who would uccomc profi cient in all the
niceties of language, in technicalities of nomenclature, in exceptions as well
as general rulcs- stu<l cnt.s of l)igh Schools and Aca<lcm ies , for in stanccwill need a comprehensive Grammar to follow it. For any sueh text-book,
however, these Lessons will be found a fitting introduction, as they cover a
much wider fiehl than is usually embraced in th e Elem entary Grammars,
and, dealing with no controverted points, arc adapted to any systein the
'teacher may prefer. It is beli eved that they will teach more grammar than
these Elementary text-books, for which they are offered as a suustitutc, and
do it more thoroughly and ea~ ily.
Much of our systematic grammar consists of matter practically of little
importance because it has no bearing on correctness of speakin g or writing.
It is by passing over such matter that room is found for the great variety
of Exercises here presented in conn ection with points on which there is
special liability to error. Besides unusually foll and thorough practice in
the correction of false syntax, and in composition from the very commence.
ment, punctuation, sentential an alysis (according to a simple system, unencumbered by diagrams and requiring no elaborate preparation on the teacher's part), the leading principles of good style, oral critici sm, business correspondence with a vari ety of mercantil e form s, and especially tlie means of
securing flu ency of expression, receive carefu l attention.
Those whose experi ence in teaching Grammar according to the t ime.
honored method ha.s not been i;atisfactory, and who foc i that something
more is needed, are parti cularl y solicited to examine, to test, the system
here presented, in the hope that they may find it what they have long
wanted,-or at least an advance in that direction.
A full Alphabetical Index: at the end of the volume will facilitate reference, and takes the place of a Table of Contcnt.s.
NEW YORK, June 12, 1876.

LESSONS IN · OUR . IjANGUAGE.
WE all know how to · talk. We talk, in order to ex. press some Thought that is in our minds.
· We express thoughts with Words. Each word means
something. By putting words together, we can make them
express any thought we wish.
When a child begins to talk, it uses single words. But
it soon learns to put two or three words together-then
more-and thus it forms Sentences.
We can form sentences without spealcing a wo1·d. When
~ Captain John Smith was taken prisoner by the Indians, soon
after Virginia was first settled, he told them that, if they
~ould agree to release him, they should find in a day or
two, in a certain place in the woods, a number of articles
. which he named. On going there at the appointed time,
they found just what he had promised ; and taking him for
a grc~t magician, they let him go.
But he was no magician . . He did no more than anv of
us could do. He had managed to get a letter to his frie~ds,.
.: telling them what he had promised, and they put the things
' there. · Though he had not spoken to his friends, he had expressed his thoughts to them. · Thoughts, then, can be expressed by writing as well as speaking.
When we speak or write our thoughts, we must use
words correctly. How to do this, we are going to learn.

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6

EXl'RESSING THOUGHTS.

SENTENCES
CAPI1'ALS' .PERIODS.
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Qucstious.-Why do people t.alk? When did you !cam to talk?
How did you learn to talk? What do you use, to cxp rcs8 your thoughts?
Ilcsides talking, what other way is there of ex pressing thoughts?
Of what three letters is the written word far made up? Give t.he sound
of each of these letters. Of what three sounds is the spok en wonl jar made
up? Of what is a written word made up? Of what is a spoken word made
up? What do letters represent? What do words ex press? What arc
made up of words? Do you ever hear sentences used, and when? Do you
ever read sentences, and when? ·what arc we going to learn?
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LESSON I.

1

How many thoughts are expressed in words beneath
, · __ the engraving? Then we have six what? Of what is
each sentence made up?. Of what are the words made
up, if read aloud? Of what, if written? Write the six
sentences from dictation, just as they are given, on the
(.. · black-bo'1rd, slate, or paper.
Yon see . that . each sentence commences with a letter
· larger tbm the other letters. Such a letter is called a
Capital.
You see that at the end of each sentence is a dot.
This dot shows that the sentence has endeu. It is called
a Period.
EXERCISE.

Turn to page 5. Read aloud any six sentences on that page.
With what does each of the sentences you have read commence? With what does each end? What does each express?
Are the sentences all equally long? Why is it that some sentences
contain more words than others? How did you know when each
of the sentences that you read ended? What is a capital? What
is a period?

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LESSON II.

1. H ere co~es a load of hay.
2. The load is drawn by two oxen.
3 . The o~-ven a re driven by a nian.
4. They are drawing the load to a barn.
5. On top of the load are three girls.
6. The girls are riding to the barn.

You will see that in each of the six sentences under
,.,' · the engravin o· on pnge 6, something is ajjfrmed-is said
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' ~ -· to be taking place or doing.
But words may be put together without affinning
,_.,
- '· any thing; in that case, they do not form a sentence. A
· : · load ef hay is not a sentence. A load d?·awn by two
,·.!~·· .~ oxen is not a sentence.
.
. , .. 'rV e have sentences, when we affirm something about
.... · ..the load; when we say, A load ef hay is heavy. A load
· ~ ~ ', ,<j hay passed by.

8

FORMI N G S.b'N1'.E'NCES.
SEN1'El't'OES EXPRESSING COJDlfANDS. .

9

EXER C ISE.*

Tell wliich of the fo llowing are sentences, and iohich a1'e not.
Make sentences out of suc/i as are not, by putting in or changing
words.
Hay on tho wagon. Fresh lmy smells sweet. The oxen arc
yoked together. The oxen before the wagon. The horns of tho
oxen tipped with brass kn obs. The horns of tho oxen are very
large. The man driving the oxen. The man cracks his whip. The
man walking alon g. The man whistli11g ns he goes. Tho girls on
tho load. A cttpitttl is larger than th o other letters uso<l iu a. wor<l.
A period being nothing more than a. <lot.
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LESSON III.

This lino - is called a Dash.
'
A dash is sometimes used to show that a word , or ; ,. .t ·
words are left out.
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LESSON IV.

Read the six sentences under the engraving on page
(); in each a statement is made. But a command, also,
may be expressed in a sentence. Thus:·I

L Drive the load of hay to the barn.
2. Get down, girls, when the oxen stop.
3 . Charles, du not whip the oxen.
4. Come h ere, pretty lanws.
5. B e carefu,l to k eep in the road.
6. Look at the swallows flying.

Each of th ese sentences expresses a command or request. Like the others, each commences with a capital
and ends with a period.
Every sentence that ex1>resses a statement or command
should commence with a capital, and encl with a 1>eriod.

EXER C ISE.

JJfake.sentences out of the f ollowing, by p utting woTds in place of
the daslies. Supply cap itals ancl periods where needed.
Hay - out of grass llay - in ba.rns. horses and cattle -.
girls like to Wh en the girls -, they will get down. After tho
man has driven into th e barn, he will-. - will be glad to l1 avo
the yoke taken off from th eir As soon as the oxen are unyoked,
they will -. In citi es, we do not often see Write fou.r sentences of you1· own, about tlie cliiclcens in the pictitre on p age G. B e sure to spell the words right, and to put them
together so as to c~fferm sometliing.
Write fo ur sentences aboitt tlie larnbs in the p icture.

* To THE T F.A CIIF.R.- " E xercises " whi ch the pupil iR not specially di rected to write,
may be either recited or wri tten, bnt it is recom111 entl ctl th at th ey be wri tten. All written E xercises should b e exnmin c<l with refe rence to neatuess ns well ns correctness.
Errors of every kind should be underlin ed, and the pupil rc1J11irc1l to corr<"ct them hi111self. To trnin the eye to the detection of wri tten errors, it, will be well occasionall y to
have the scholars exchange ExerciSes, and correct one another's according to the dictation of the Teacher.

EXEI~CISE,

Malce sentences tliat express a command 01· 1·equest, by inserting
a word 01· words in place of the dasli, usi ng capitals and p eriods
where needed:1. Mary and Berth a, take care you do not 2. Ida, - Mary and Bertha, or they may slip off _
3. charles, do not - th ose pretty lambs
4. -, you noi sy old rooster
5. - the beautiful clouds, tinged with gold
6. - spreading elm, with its graceful limbs
7. - whether that ox's foot is 8. g.et - of the oxen, little .9. - tho barn-do or, wh en 10. - at the - on the fen ce
11. try whether you can 12. - and - the oxen after their day's work
Write six sentences of you1· own, ea:pressing commands.

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SENTENCBtl EXPRESSING QUES1'10NS.

SENTENCES EXPRESSING EXCLAMATIONS.

LESSON V.

3. What beautiful sunsets we have this fall!
4. How the jfirls like to ride on a loa,d of hay I
5. TVhat a jfood driver Charles ts I
You see that all these sentences, like the others, commence with capitals, but they do not end with either
periods or interrogation-points. After each is this mark !,
which,}s called an Exclamation-point.

We have seen that something may be stated or c01nnianded in a sentence; a qitestion may also be asked.

1. Girls, do you like to ride on the hay'?
9J. I-lave you, h e((,rd the old 1·ooslier crow'?

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8. TVhere are the o v1x:,ri going ·w ith that hay'?
4. JY/uit has frightened the lambs'?
You see that all these sentences, like the others, commence with capitals, but they do not end with periods.
After each is this mark ?, which is cal1ed an Interrogatio~·point~ Inte?'rogatiori means qiwstion.

Every sentence that expresses an exclamation should com.
mence with a capital, and end with an exclamation.point.
EXERCISE.

Complete these sentences, so that they may express exclamations,
and place tlie p1·oper point afte1· them:1. How terrible is 4. What misery 2. What gorgeous 5. How grateful we 3. How few men 6. What a fine With what two words do these sentences commence? With
what two words do Sentences 1-5, at the beginning of the Lesson,
commence? What words generally commence sentences that ex- press exclamations? But remember that a sentence may commence
· with how .or what, and not express an exclamation: How did you
go 1 W!iat did yoit see'?
Write six sentences of your own, expressing exclamations.

Every sentence in which a question is asked, should com.
mence with a capital, and eml with an interrogation•1l0iut.
EXERCISE.

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Cc;mplete tliese sentences, so that they may express questions, and
place tlie proper mark after them :1. How do you know that 2. What color is the prettiest
for 3. Why do we have 4. When was 5. Where were
the first 6. Who took care of you when 7. - to write
exercises? 8. - in England? 9. Is it pleasant to 10. When
this mark (i) ends a sentence, what W1'ite six sentences of your own, expressing questions.

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LESSON VII.

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EXERCISE.

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LESSON VI.

·w- e have

seen that in a sentence somethiug may be
stated, commanded, or asked; an exclamation, also, rnay
be expressed. For example:1. How stately the elm-tree loolcs !
fJJ. What a noisy rooster that is on the fence!

, _.
Some sentences follow. Tell what eacli expresses (a statement, a
'. ~ .-• ~ _ command, a question, or an exclamation), and what point should fol": ·'"' low each. Tell whm·e a capital is needed, in stead of a small lette?·.
1. To thine own self be true 2. an honest man's the noblest
work of God 3. how many flowers bloom unseen in the world 4.
- )'. _Whose love equals a mother's 5. Can the leopard change his spots
-, ,«.,,;, 6.• Owe no man any thing 7. we must avoid the appearanc~ of evil.
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EXERCISES ON SENTENCES.

BUILDING UP SENTENCES.

8. What comfort a single word has sometimes brought to the
afflicted 9. i<l.leness is tho parent of crirno 10. wbo gocth a warfare at his own cost 11. a soft answer turneth away wrath 12.
how wicked it is to deceive 13. love all men as thyself 14.
where will the weary be at rest

mation. A period must be placed after sentences that express what?
What must a sentence express, to require an interrogation-point after it?
An exclamation-point after a sentence denotes that it expresses what?

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LESSON IX.
LESSON VIII.

Houses are built on a fom1dation. Brick after brick,
beam after beam, board after board, are added, till the
structure is complete_
So sentences are built. · We may start from a foundation, or Base, and add word after· wo~·d till the whole
thought that we desire to convey is expressed.

A sentence that expresses a statement may, by a slight
change, be made to express a command, a question, or an
exclamation. Thus:-

The ten'bpest rages.
Let the ten'& pest rage.
Does the te1npest rage?
How the tanpest rages I

(Statement.)
(Command.)
(Question.)
{Exclamation.)

EXERCISE.

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Change each sentence so as to make it e.vpress wliat is directed,
and place tlte proper point at tlte end :l. Roses are generally regarded as th e mo st beautiful of flowers. (Ques tion.) 2. Did Moses write the first five books of the
Bible? (Statement.) 3. Our country has made rapid progress.
(E.rcclaniation.) 4. Yon should not gri eve those yon love. ( Coin1nand. ) 5. Is gold still found in California? ( Staternent.) 6. Who
~rote Pilgrim's Progress? John Bunyan. ( Cltange question and
answer to one sentence, containing a statement.)
7. Wh at is Grammar? The nrt of speaking 1m<l writing corr ectly. ($ tatement.) 8. Ilow m:my letters are there in th o English lan guage ? Tw enty-six. (Statement.) 9. Ilow hard it is to
Jeam the mnltiplication-tablo ! (Question ; statement.) 10. Dogs
delight to bark and bite. ( Comnwnd ; question; c~;c lamation .)
11. What a sweet singer tho mocking-bin] is! (Statement ; qiwstion.)

Questions. - ·what .may a F:entencc ex press? Try to make a sentence that will not ex press a statement, a command, a question, or an excla-

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We start from the base, Children study.
We go on to tell what they study : Child1·en stitdy their lessons.
We may t ell how they study their lessons: Children study their
lessons faithfully, carelessly.
We may tell what kind of children study faithfully or oarelessly: Diligent child1·en study thefr lessons faithfully. Lazy childr.e1i study their lessons carelessly.
We may tell when they study their lessons: Diligent children
study thefr lessons faithfully, every afternoon.
We may t ell where they study : Di ligent cltildren study tliefr
lessonsfaithfully, every ajtemoon, at home.
EXERCISE.

·J,,• r.:

B uild up one sentence like tlie above from each of the following:F
J (What kind of ?) farme1·s work (how ?)
armers work. 1 (where?) (iri what season of the year?)

The wind whistles.

~

(In

what season?) the (what kind
of?) wind whistles (how?) (through
what?) (where?)
.

Hay is made: out of what? by whom? where? in what
·

season? for what purpose ?

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TAKING SEN'l.'ENCES 1'0 PIECES.

Fish are caught: when? what kind of fi sh? arc caught by
w horn? in what? for what purpose?

Boys have fun: in what season?

how much fun do they have ?

in doing what? where? with whom?

Learn to sew.

Was discovered.
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LESSON X.

We may take a house down, board by board, beam by
beam, brick by bride, till we get to the foundation. So
we may take a sentence to pieces, part by part, and tell
what each part denotes, till we reach the Base.
vVrite (on black-board or slates) the following sentence:
In s1t1nmer, bees may be seen gatlie1·ing lioney f1·01n flowers, to lay it up ,i n tlwfr liives fm· winter use.
Take away in sw1in101·, which tells when they may be seen.
What is left? Is it a sentence?
Next take away for winter itSe, which tells what they lay up
hon ey for. What is left? Is it a sentence?
Next take away in their hives, which tells wl1ere they lay it up.
What is left ? Is this still a sentence?
Next take away to lay it np, which tells why they gather honey.
What is left ? Is this a sentence?
Next take away from jlowM·s, wl1ich tells whence th ey gather
honey. What is left? Is this a sentence?
Last of all, take away gathering honey, which tells what they
may be seen doing. What is left? I s tl1is a sentence?
B ees may be seen is tho base on which this long sentence was
built up. Build it up again, by adding the parts in succession, going
backward, and tell what each part denotes.

If from the base Bees 1nay be seen, we remove any
one of its four words, will what js left be a sentence?
What word in this base expresses the Subject about
which we say something? Wliat may be seen~
Then bees is the Subject of the sentence.

WORD~ SOUND~ LET1~RR

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EXERCISE.

Tako to pieces, or analyze, as above, the following sentences:1. Gold was discovered in California, in 1848, near the town of ·
Coloma. 2. On a summer morning, the bir<ls warble their sweet
· songs of joy and gratitude. 3. In some countries of Asia, troops
of jackals follow a lion in the night, to devour what he may leave.
4. During the Revolutionary War, General Washington with great
bravery and prudence led the armies of his country till its indepen::-~.ence was secured.
•
Wliat is the base of each of the above sentence3? What is the
.subject!
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LESSON XI.

As we analyze sentences, so we niay analyze words.
- Spoken words, as we learned in Lesson I., are made
· up of sounds. Pronounce the word slaw j analyze it into
. ·. the sounds that compose it.
Th~re are about forty simple sounds in the English
language, of which all spoken words are made up.
Written words are .made up .of letters, which represent sounds. Write the word slaw; analyze it into the
letters that compose it.
There are twenty-six letters in the English language, .
of which flll written words are made up. Taken in order,
: they constitute the Alphabet. Repeat the alphabet.
Some letters represent more than one sound ; as e, in
. :.- ·~- me and met. Give these two sounds of e.
·: · ·
Some sounds have more than one letter to represent
' ·them, as the first sound in the words sell, cell. What two
."' letters represent this sound?
What is the sound, or power, of the letter s in 8ell? What is the name
·• ·: :. of the letter? The power of a letter, then, is quite a different thing from
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NA.MES.

LETTERS AND 1.'HEIR SOUNDS.-SYLLABLES.

1'7

Sound a, e, i, o, u. I s the sound interrupted by the lips or tongue~
Try to sound p a lone. Js th e so und interrupted? , lly what? Try to so und
l alone. Uy wh at is th e sound in terrupted? <Jan p and l be so unded alone?

The letters a, e, ?:, o, ai1d ii, which can be uttered
freely alone, are called Vowels.
The other letters, which can not be uttered without
interruption from the lips or tongue, are called Consonants. Name the cousouauts.

;-

Some words ma.Y be ana.ly;1,cd into Syllables, or parts
pruuounced with l::iC]Jamte impulses of the voice; as,
'

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llATTER,
POLICE MAN,
DISPENSARY,
CoNSTANTJNOPLE,

Ttat-tCI' (two syllables).
po-lfoe-man '(three syllables) .
dis-pcn-sa-ry (four syllables).
con-slan-ti-110-ple (five syllabi cs).

EXERCISE.

Give the d~fferent sounds of a, as found in the uJords can, cane,
care, call, what. Give the soimd of e in he, h en, her: of i in pin,
pine, pique, fir : of o, in no, not, nor, one : of u, in us, use, fur.

f
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Give the soimd of th in both ; in this. Give the sound of s
in this; in is. Give the name and tlie poioer of the lette1· f; of I.
Spell tlle word race; give the three sounds that compose it. Analyze
. orange into its simple sonnds.
Analyze the following words, first into syllables; th en into letters :-Dromedary; snnset; lunati c ; cranberry; watermelon; Africa; incomprehensible; <lenominator.
- ---«>-- -

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LESSON XII.

Every thing that we can see, or liear, or to11 eh, 01·
taste, or think of, lias a Name.
Name so111e tldngs that you sec. Name some thiugs
that yon think of. Name some things in the picture.

1

.11 boy and a girl are skating hand in hand.

J aJnes and Riith are skating hand in hand.
.11 boy and a girl are riding on their sleds.
John and .Mary are ridh'lg on their sleds.
.11 boy and a girl are sliding on the ice.
Henry and Ida are sliding on the ice.
First we say each time a boy and a girl are doing
something. We give them the same name&--that is, Common Names-names common to all things of the same
class. But we do not tell which boy and girl are skating,
· which are riding, or which are sliding.
But, if we say James and Rutli are skating, we give
the boy and girl their Proper Names, which distinguish
them from other boys and girls. Tlien we tell which
boy and girl are skating-that is, James and Ruth-not
J olm and Mary, or Henry and Ida.

NOUNS, COMMON A.ND. PROPER.

EXERCISE ON NOUNS.

Names are often called Nouns.
Are boy and girl proper or common nouns? John and .Afary? Jfcm·y
and Ida? 1lfan aml woman ? 1lfr. Smith and Queen Elizabctli?
Look at th e picture, near the tree : ca ll the two persons standing there
by common names-by prope1· names. Look at the animal near the skaters ·
name him by a common noun; give two or three proper nouns that would
suit him as a name.
With what ki11d ·of letters do the words J ames and Ruth, John and
1lfm·.I/, Henry and Ida, com men ce in the sentences at the beginning of the
Lesson? . With what kind of letters do boy and girl begin?
Commence proper nouns with ca1iitals.

Write fom· names of qualities (as, gentleness); four of actions
(as, walking): four of virtues (as, temperance); four of vices (as,
drunkenness). What kind of nouns are these!
A little story follows. Select the nouns, and as you mention
each tell wlietlter it is proper or common. Hoio many commas do
you find in tlie story ?

18

THE PET LION.-A gentleman named Trappe, living in Africa,
caught a young lion, and th ought he would bring it up as a pet.
He called it Leo, let it run about the house, ailtl fed it himself; so
that Leo loved his master, antl would play with liim like a kitten.
In the course of time, Leo grew to be quite a big lion.
One day Mr. Trappe fell asleep on the sofa,)eaving one of his
arms hanging down. Leo, who was in the room, came up, and to
show his affection began to li ck his master's band. But lions have
very rough tongues, and soon Leo batl rubbed the skin off, and
blood began to ooze out. This was eagerly licked. up by the animal, and the pain awoke Mr. Trappe. He ntternpted to draw his
· hand up, to see what was the matter with it, but the lion growled
and would not let it go. He tried again, but Leo grow led louder
than before.
Mr. Trappe saw that the taste of blood hatl changed his pet into
a wild beast. So, to save his own life, he slipped his other hand
under his pillow, drew out his pistol, and shot poor Leo through
the brain. After this, Mr. TrapP,e never made a pet out of a
lion.

EXERCISE .

Select the no11ns, or names, in the following. Classify them as
common or proper ; and tell which sh.oulcl commence with a capi tal,
in stead of a sma ll letter:Rivers; the Hudso n, the ohio, the Mississippi. Mountains;
the alleghanies, th e white m ountains. The r eel sea. What a virtue is patience ! Rio janeiro is t11c largest city in south America.
Trees.; willow, nrnple, oak, ash. Have yon ever sailed on the Nile,
the largest river in Africa? Geograph ers distinguish five oceans;
the atlantic, pacifi c, irnlian, arctic, and antarctic.

In the 1ast sentence, do yon see a little mark used to
separate the names of the ii ve oceans? This mark ( ') is
called the Comma.

-

LESSON XIII.
EXERCISE .

W1·ite four proper names of boys; four of girls ; four of cities;
f01t1· of countries. The words boys, girls, cities, countries, are what
kind of nouns ?

.'

-----«'---

Names used in a series are separated by the comma.
" Thich of the sentences in the above Exercise express a statement?
Which expresses a question? Which expresses an exclamation?
·- - -~ }---

19

LESSON XIV.

. · ·~

...

There are several things I wish you to observe about

t . ':., ,~ .t he story just given.

The three words, THE PET LrnN, at the commence• ment, te11 what the story is about, or form its Title. With
what kind of letters do these words commence? Do you
find these words commencing with capitals, when they
:~ occur in the story itself? Remember to

.'.

20

TITLES, SIDE-HEADS, PARAGRAPHING.

SINGULAR AND PLURAL.

21

Commence with capitals the Jca1ling words in the titles
of stories, books, chapters, and compositions.

After the title of the story, which forms a si<le-head,
yon see a period and dash. If the title had been placed
over the story, a period alone would have been used.
Set off side-beads with the tlasb.

For the most part, one sentence immediately follows
another. Bnt twice, when we reach the end of a sentence, we find the rest of the line left blauk, and the next
sentence commencing a n ew line, a little in from the margin. This is called comm encing a new Paragraph.
Commence a new paragraph, when you pass to a new
branch of the subject.

In the story, 1lfr. is used for ]f?:ster. This is called
an Abbreviation. vVhen we thus shorten a word, we
place a period after it: thus, P. 0. means post-otlice;
inst., instant; Esq. , Esquire; U. S., United States; etc.

/~

Proper nouns sometimes take s, to form the plural,
when more than one having the same proper name are
ref erred to; as, ·the Brown8, the two Gatos, the four
Georges.
Exe1·cise.-Turn to the second paragrapli of the story in Lesson XIII. Ohange each corq,rnon noun, so as to rnake it plu1·al if it
iB singulm·, and singula1· if it is plural.

Use the perio1l, to denote an abbreviation.

LESSON XVI.

Exercise.- Wr ite (or tell, 'if the teachei· prefers) the story in
Lesson XIII. in dijfe1'ent words-in you1· own language.

Appends to the word torch (torclis), and try to pronounce it. Will the
sound of s combine in the same syllable with that of ch in torch? Try the
·same thing with the word lasli, .9uess, fox, waltz.

- ·'---«:---

LESSON XV.

Some nouns end with a sound, with which the sound
of swill not combine 1n the same syllable. In the plural,
these nouns take es, forming an additional syllable; as,

Orange;

m·anges.

~

~~~

Stitch,

stitch-es.

Kiss,

kiss-es.

A 1·iver )·

r iveJ·s.

Dish,

<lish-es.

Box,

box-es.

tkree, ten, fifty, mat8.

Lens,

lens-es.

Waltz,

waltz-es.

One 11iat;

·write these words in two columns, as above. Mention eacll noun in
the first column, with the corresponding noun in the second. What differ-

l._

- - -<)~--

Do you find an y interrogation-point or exclamation-point used in the
story in Lesson XIII. ? Wh y not? 'Wh at mark is used aft.er every sentence? ·w hat do most of the sentences that you meet with express?

~

~~~

Most nouns ending in o, i, and u, also take es, to form
the plural : as, cargo, cargoes; alkali, alkalies; gnu, gnues.

'

·•

22

FORLlf.·l 'l'JON OF '1.'HJJ: PLURAL.

IRREGULAR PLURALS. ·

Words ending in y not preceded by a, e, or o, form
their plural by changing final y into ies: as, cry, cries j
colloquy, colloquies.

changing f or fe into 'Ve8: as, bef}f, beeves j elf, elves j
., .. wife, wives.
as,
· . '"·· Some nouns form their plural quite irregularly:
,,
: man, men j cliild, cliildTen; ox, oxen j mouse, mice j
goose, geese ; tootli, teeth.
Some nouns have two plural forms with different
meanings. Thus penny makes pennies when distinct
· coins are referred to, bnt pence when a sum of money is
meant. So we speak of the brotliers of a family, but the
bretlw·en of a society-both words the plural of brotlie1·.
.i'..

E .X E It C I S E .

Copy the following sentences. Underline the plit1•al nouns not
formed by appending s to tlie singular; spell tli3 corresponding singular,* and tell how the plural is fo1 ·med :l. Torch es were placed in the porches of th e clrnrcl1cs, to ligl1t
the heroes as they entered. 2. Even in cities, mosquitoes and flies
are sometimes troublesome. 3. The solos were well sung by the
ladies, and the echoes were distinctly heard in the boxes. 4.
The gases from th ese volcanoes are hurtful. 5. V olumcs of different size are distinguish ed as foli os, qnartos, octavos,t and duodecimos.
G. Oadies and rabbi es followed by twos, arm in arm. 7. There
were no dishes to serve th e potatoes in. 8. Hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, am] gnues, are found in Africa. 9. Negroes and mulattoes are numerous in the West Indies. 10. Many spell moneys,
monkeys, cliimneys, t and valleys, wrong.t 11. One cameo ; two
cameos; three pianos. 12. Halos are circles of light; cantos are
divisions of a poem; mementos are memorials, or souvenirs.
- - ¢e.--

LESSON XVII.

Leaf, leaves.

Life, lives.

How many does the word leaf denote? The word leaves? In what
number is leaf? In what number is leaves? Should we say one life or 011e
lives? 'l.'wo life or two lives? What is the plural of l{j'e? What is the
singular. of lives ? How do leaf and l~fe form the plural ?

}ifost nouns ending in f and fe form their plural by

* If the pupil IA nt n los~ for the si11g11 lnr, n Di ctionnry will nssist him.
t What point is used after eneh cif the In st three word s? Why?
:j: The singular being mone!f, monkey, chimney, valley, why is not th e plural monies, monkies, chinmies, vallie8f

I

·1:

.II

23

;.

Some nouns are the same in the plural as in the singular: one deer, five deer; a slieep, fifty slieep.
To form the plural of a figure, letter, or sign, we append this mark (' ), called the Apostrophe, and s j as, The
printer. needs some 5's, b's, and +'s.
EXERCISE.

Copy the following sentences. Underline the plu1·al nouns, spell
the corresponding singular, and tell lioio the plural is f01·med from
the singiilar :1. Some thieves have carried off the best sheaves of whe~t and
two well-grown calves. 2. Men, women, an<l.children, trembled as
the cannon were fired. 3. Our sportsmen have brought . back five
bass, three salmon, and two brace of grouse. 4. One inouse will do
.less mischief than five mice. 5. Oxen have teeth, but geese have
bills. 6. Twenty sail have put into port to procure new sails.
'7. How many peas are in a pod ? How many bushels of pease
will a bin four feet square and one foot high hold? 8. My brothers have all joined the United Brethren. 9. Brethren and chiefs,
there are wolves in the fold. 10. Twenty head of cattle passed, and
-'
all the children turned their heads. to look at them. 11. Boys, cut
those loaves on the shelves into halves, with the knives I sharpened
for you. 12. Dot your i's, cross your t's, and form your 7's better.
_'
.,... :; 13. Hysterics is worse than the measles.

.

•

24

\

.E'XERCISES .IN. FOR.MING PLURALS.

PLURAL OF COMPOUNIJ NOUNS.

:Misses ~ Gre~n · sent . five basketfuls of oranges, to be distributed
..among their men-servants and maid-servants. ' 4. Galileos and
Newtons .are . not produced every day. 5. The Turcomans are
Yussulmans, but the Chinese are not. 6. Some of the best pianofortes in . the world are manufacturecl in New York. '7. No news
.ia good news. · 8. The policemen and firemen were trying to find
~ boatman .with a club-foot. 9. I saw the Messrs. Stone, the Masters :Young, and Mrs. Olark.
Write four sentences exp1·essing statements, containing respectively,. L The plural of man and woman. 2. The singular of oxen ancl
• lwrau; ., s. The plural of rat and mouse. 4. The singular of brethren;
W:rite four sentences expressing questions, containing respectivel11, 1. ,'.J.'he plural of goose. 2. The plural of cupful. 3. The plural '
of-~rother,~in-law. 4. The singular of halves.
~ Wri~e ~ two sentences exp1·essing exclamations, containing respec: tiuly,·:l. The singular of hoofs. 2. The plural of monkey.
Write two sentences exp1·essing command.~, containing resp.~c­
li-cdly, 1. The pluml of thief. 2. The singular of wives.

LESSON XVIII.
Gentleman,
·wisdom-tooth,
Father-in-law,
Man-child,
Piano-forte,
Spoonful,

gentl emen.
wisdom-teeth.
fathers-in-law.
men-children.
piano-fortes.
spoonfuls.

German,
Germans.
Tooth-brush,
tooth-brushes.
Step-father,
step-fathers.
' Yoman-scrvant, women-servants.
J ack-a-lan tcm, j ack-a-la11 terns.
Miss Ray,
the Misses Ray.

Look at the above examples. How do compounds of
the word ?nan (like gentlenian) fo rm the plural? How
do other words endiug in nian (like Gennan) form the
plural?
vVhen the word tootli stands last in a componnd (as in
eye-tootli), which part of the compou11d takes the plurnl
form? vVhen it stands fi rst (as in tooth,1Jowdm'), whi ch
takes the plural form?
Which part of tho compound takes the plural fo rm,
rn such compound nouns as f atlim·-in-law, stepfatlier ?
In such words as spoonful, lianrlful .P In man-cliild,
?nan-servant, wmnan-servant?
Write a sentence containing the plmal of pianofm'te ;
write one containing the plural of steam,-engine.
If we wish to name more than one Miss Ray, what
should we say? More than one Master Picket? Mol'o
than one ~frs . Fanslrnw? Tlie .llfrs. Fansliaw. lvfore
than one Mr. Strong? Tlie Messrs. Strong.
Some. nouns have no plural, as gold. Some nouns
have no singular; as, scissm·s, aslies, clotlies.

- --«>---

LESSON XIX.

· Some English words of foreign origin r etain their foreig~, plurals, changing us to i, is to es, and um or on t?

a;as, ·
.·· · • , ::_ .Alumnus, alumni.
.. ~. Crisis,
crises. .
.. ;: ~ l.. ,· '

Animalculum, animalcula.
Phenomenon, phenomena.

' .~

· · ·,J 3ome words of foreign orig in take both the foreign
&ltd a regular English plural; as,
Beau, beaux or beaus.
Cherub, 'cherubim or cherubs.

EXERCISE.

Copy tlie followinq sentence.~. Give the singula1· of each p li11·al
noun, and tlie plural of eacli singular noun :1. Mothers-in-law are different thin gs from step ·mothcrs. 2.
Children often suffer fr om heaclacbcs and t oothaches. 3. The

. 25

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I

...

·-~

•'

..
'

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26

shade. 2. Parentheses do not generally add to the force of sentences. 3. In the gymnasium are a fine herlrnrium and several
aquaria. 4. The effluvia of great cities are noxious. 5. We havo
few data from which to explain these singular phenomena. ·6.
Clterubim an<l se1'apltim are plural forms derived from the Hebrew.
Cor1·ect e1'ro r-s :-1. Buffalos and deers still abouncl in our western territorys. 2. Here are twelve pence, to pay for three handsful
of seecl. 3. Daughter-in-laws and mother-in-laws do not always
agree. 4. Tho two Mr. Blacks are half-brothers of tho Missc.s
Careys. 5. I shall keep these rnottos as mementoes of my first
evening in Buffalo. 6. The sheafs of grain have all been taken in,
' and the leafs aro beginning to fall.
Write tlte plural of arch; rno11arcl1 ; niche; topaz; reply;
gulf; bread-knife; alley; peach; tooth -pick; gooseberry.
.
1Vrite four sentences expressing questions, containing respectively
the following nouns in tlie singular: 1, Mice. 2. Cuckoos. 3.
Moneys. 4. Clotl10s-brnshes.
--~ --

I

LESSON XX.

I

··1

An egg, one egg:
two eggs, three eggs, four eggs, etc.
two rats, three rats, four rats, etc.
A rat, one rat:
A one-dollar bill ; n two-dollar bill ; a ten-foot pole.

\Vrite the expressions given above.
Is egg singular or plural? Eggs? . In wlrn.t nnmuer
is ?'at? Rats? How many does an imply (an egg)?
Should we say an onion or an ordons? :1\fust a noun
with which an is used, he in the singular or plural?
How many does a imply? Must a noun with which
a is used, be i1.1 the singular or plui·al? Should we say a
nwuse or a ?1uce? vVlrnt other form is there for an?
·with two, tliree, and other words expressing numbers
greater than one, must a noun be used in the sinCYular
or
b
plural? Shonld we say two .flY or two flies?

.

SJNGULAR"AND PLURAL, WHEN USED.

EXERCISES ON PLURALS.

27

a

, . i."Shquld we say two-dollar bill or a two-dollars bill?
·:.ti twelve-inch rule or a twelve-inclies rule ?
·-... 'W:ben a w'o rd expressing number is connected with
~
no~n· by a little mark (-) called a Hyphen, so as to
one word; the noun does not take the plural form.
;w;e. s~y, a two-horse wagon, not a two-ho_rses wagon.

ib

".'lorm.
\

.-1.;

.

EXERCISE.

.~ •. · :_~ Write the following, repeating the noun in the prope1' riitmber
:;··~her6 · the dash occurs: One axis; two-. A beau; one-; three
· ·-. . Severo.I heroes ; a -~ Four · deer ; a - ; three -. An ox;
a ·hundred - . · These phenomena; a wonderful -. Seraphim ;
:.two~; a-. Memoranda; a -. A sheep; twenty-. A sister.·_ bi-law·' many ;...._. The 'baby ; the t'vo - .
·
- • V
I
' · :'. Write six sentences expressing statements and containing 1·espec. · tit)ely the following; do not forget the hyphen. 1. A four-story
'.?•• house.
2. A five-mile walk. 3. Two-acre lots. 4. A three: minute horse. 5. · A four-year-old colt. 6. Dull twenty-page
pamphlets. ·
·~ E~press the following in tliree words each :-A barn that h~s two
stories (a two-story barn). A rule tw_o feet long. Tender chickens
weighing four pounds each. A vial that will hold three ounces.
Ught' wagons for one horse. A piece worth five cents. A bond
for a thousand dollars.
----*""--

· LESSON XXI.

.< An:

or a, implies how many, and is used with nouns in
.what, number~ Is it right to say a ant, an dog~ vVhat
s~ould we say~ May an or a be used indiscriminately~
A boy.
Whether an or a is to be used, de.A fan.
. A cat.
pends on the sound with which t h e f o1A rat.
lowing word commences. Look at the
A unit.
A hair.
examples on the left .

..

I

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I'

28 .\

I

A.Ji is usetl befo
. ( re .word s commencing with a and i, aiul
n1o~t \Vord s commcnc111g with e, o, u, anti h not sounded
A is used before all other words.
•

A mu~t also be used when the following wonl commences with the sound of u in unit J. as, a m11
. 't, a ewe,
. a.
eu I ogy, a I rnmor.
A must be· used before one j as, a one-horse wagon.
A must be used before words commencing with Ii
sounded ; as, a hat; a hen.
EXERCISE,

• .,

_

cou-raI

.

;~

. Supply AN or l wher~ tlie dash occl/.rs : 1. __ h onr ago, _ liurrwan
·.r •
d e passed over yo ur fath er's U'trn
' ' killing_ Jie1ie1,
- o]·,u co w
an ~yok e of ox en. 2. - cup of coffee is often - g reat h elp t~
- trnvell er. 3. - good h ead of hai1· is something of _ wond~ r
nowa<l~ys. 4 .. - ~10st of <l ~ubts ; - indispensnb le arti cle ; many
- on e , - u111vers1ty educat ion; - lionorable positi on . _ 1
famil ·
··
·
.
.
'
iappy
..Y, - 11 on w 111 and - mfl ex ibl~ purpose; - humane dis~
position.
Cliange to tlie .~ingular witli AN or A p1·eceding : -Uncles antl
aunts (an uncle and an aunt); parasols and umbrellas . eulouics . .
courts-martial;
oaks· and ash-trees.' lrnl
o
,
.
' os ,. in ottoes ; '1 rnmorous
stones; asylums and l1ospitals; European t ourists· united eA" ·t .
I ast I
.
'
.
uo1 s'
1 Y g nnccs; um ts, tons, hundreds; <l warfs.
'

I

I
!

I~I I/.
i.

•

,1

!

'.at-

-- ~ - -

. Ql~~stlons.-,How many uses have we found for the hyphen? What
lre'"they? ·where is the period used? The interrogation-point? The cx' CJ&mitlop-point? )Vhat four things do sentences express?
·'
' What is a noun? · How does a proper noun differ from a coinmo1(noun
.
'"""""- ~·
'
ID.:tbe_l~~~ expressed? How in appearance, when printed? Which do you ·
.
·' • ·,freq{ientljr' meet with in sentences?
Wh.at is 't.he effect of appending s to most nouns ? Is every noun that
~ . ~ •1 p,lural? . Mention one that is not ; how can it be made plural ?
lloW' .la the plural 'or a sign or character formed?
·· Which was ·the original form, an or a ? Why does an change to a beIOre.cerlain words?_.· Should we say an liyplwn or a liyplien? Why?
'(

'

LESSON XXII.

EXERCISE.

In Lesson XX., the Hy~hen is spoken of as conn ecting two worJs in

. In compoun~s that are much used, the hyphen is
diopped; as, ?'aifroad~ firenian (not ?'ail-road, fi1·e-man).

1.

•

~ne. com.pound word; as, a jow·-lwrse stage. Mak e a hyphen. How docs
it differ m appearance from the dash? For what has th e dash been used?

.!I

rose;

, ..

'
----- ~--

~"'

I

..... ·,

W1·ite sentenees exp1·essing questions, containing the following · An l~on est m.a n. A one-si<led story. A useful woman. An L~k
A umversal lnstory. A yew-tree. An idiot.
.

1'

' ·":i

USE OF AN AND A.

.

NOUNS DIS1'INGUISHED AS

.AfASCULINE AND FEMININ.b"'.

boat; bird; night; <log. What is the diffm·ence between ri hou!'o<log and a <log-houso? W!iere is tlie noun that e.1presses tlie leading
idea generally placed in the compound ?

EXERCISE .

30

Analyze the following words into thefr syllables, connecting tlie
syllables with the hyphen :-Work-women ; discrimination; sclf-

<lecoiviug; precious ; iwl efatigable; 11caccnulo; pretension· urn -

Lmgc~us; presi<lon ti al ; <l iscovcry ; snnset ; steamuoa t; moo~ligli t.
Why is there no hyphen in the last tMee ioords?

- --»---

LESSON XXIII.
Some nouns are the 11am es of li ving things ; others, of things without
life (give examples).
Some living things luwe <li:fferen t
she-go:~t.
names for the male and the fema]e.
ni ece.
Loo l{ at the two columns of words
landlady.
on the left; which contains the names
of males? \Vliiclt, of females ?
The names of rnaleR are F.aid to he in the masculiue
gender, or Masculine; those of females, in th e fenl'inine
gender, or Feminine.
Malc8.

Count,
Actor,
Executor,
Hero,
Julius,
Uc-goat,
Nephew,
Landlord,

Ii

1.

•t

lil

'!

,I:

1
i'"
1

;1:
,,.
•'Ii
"'

.;;1,,
:11

II II
I;

I.:
1

l,.11
' '

I

. ·1
I

I
/,

F cmn 1 ~e.

countcss.
actress.
executrix.
heroine.
Julia.

Some.masculine nouns are mad e feminine by adding
or changing a termination. Girn three exa mpl es from
the above lists. The terminations ess, ix, 'ine, and a, are
the most common ones in femi11i11e no1111s.

In some cn ses, the difference of gender is incHrntcd
by prefixing n "·ord: as. man-sernmt, maid-scrrnnt. Or
h,,. the me of " ·ords entirel.r different; as, 1rncle, amit.
Select an example of each from the alJoYe lists.
Sometimes a Boun a1)1)licalJ1e t o e1'tl1e1· se x 1ms a <l"istinct feminine form ; as, l£on, lion ess.

31

Tell which word in the following pairs is m(t,sculine, which iB
f eminine, and which is ~pplicable to either. sex :-Em~e:or, e~­

press; king, queen; princess, prince; tiger, tigress; . adnumstratnx,
a<l.ministrator; duchess, duke; czarina, czar; sultan, sultana; bear,
she-bear; huntress, hunter; sparrow, cock-sparrow, lien-sparrow;
Oornelius, Oornelia; Theodora, Theodore; widow, widower.
T ell whichferninines in the above are distinguishecl by a tennination and which by a prefixed word. Prefix AN or A (as may be proper)
to the masculine common nouns; w1·ite the plural of the faninines.
. Write the masculine :-Actress; mistress; hostess; goddess;
Josephine. W?·ite the feminine :-Jew; priest; shepher<l.; Augustus; h ero; Irishmtu1; Louis.
. · Complete the following :-1. The first hnsban<l of Mary, (k~ng or
queen?)' of Scots, was (Frances or Francis?), afterward (king or
queen?) of France. 2. The <luke was a gr~at (patron. or patroness?)
of letters. 3. Peter the Great having died, Catbarme was left. a
(widow or widower?) and bec~mo (emperor or emp1·ess?) of Russia.
- - --«>---

LE SS ON

XXIV.

1. Jlfary niet Charles.
2. Charles niet Mary.
3. JJiary's sister nwt Charles's brother.
The IeadinO' word in a sentence, denoting that about
· which somethi~g is affirmed, is called the Subject.
In Sentence 1 above, we affirm that Mary met some one;
Jfa1'!f is the Subject, Clw?'les denotes the Object met.
.
In Sentence 2 we affirm that Charles met some one '
Cliarles is the SulJject, jJ[a1·y denotes the Objec.tmet.
Observe that ·whether .ilfctry denotes the su bJect or the
object, it is still Jfary. Observ~ t.hat .whether Cliarle,s
denotes the subject or the object, it is still Cliarles.

....

32

' ~~f~°'-!;~.'..:·::.

POSSESSI VE FOR1lf OF NOUNS.

For what, on page 23, did we find 's used ? •
• •
,
Select the nouns in Sentence 3 above WI .. j . ,F or whnt _is it here used f
the object? Which denote possession~ .M l~C l bis the sub~cct? Wlii cb is
denote possession
.
a e t e nouns siste1· nhd brotltc1·

i~

sin

J

gu nr noun, to make it denote

·

·~\

lJOssessio1~-~

'·· ·

.

~:_~

1

\,
i

. • '·~.~

:· POSSESSIVE

FORM OF. NOUNS.

33
.·- ~~''. "·",
~::-, t~:: ~·. .
, Sometil:µes, however, the birdlets nre robbed of their repast.
Some great . eagle, who is too lazy to fish for )limself, spies the nico
fat chub. or. perch in the osprey's claws, pounces down upon it, nnd
- carries off the prize.
.. '!'he picture illustrates this. The parent-bird i!!' rising .from the
water with dripping feathers, having made a fine captt.ll'e, Its nest
.is on o. high rock in th e lake, and there you "see the yo ung ones all
ready for the titbit. But the robber is coming. Will ·the osprey
. fight, or will he give up the fish? Is there much chance that the
little birds will get their supper? Perhaps the eaglo will eut them
- ;l

In Sentence 3, we speak of Jlfi. , , .
brother Tl f .
f l
a7y s szste1' and Cha,d es's
rn.
o1m o tie proper nouns fa no,~· clrnn
.
W hen possession is to be denoted u
b
(. gecl.
d Cli l
.
' J.u a1·y ecollles ~fa1· '
au
iar es · becomes Clia1.Zes's \V <l<l
_,_
Y s,
and s ( 's ).
·
e a t1ie apostrophe

Add 's to

.

'.

.

.

,next.

.

Exercise.-In the above sentences, select the nouns that a?'e sub·
jects. Wliicli noun in the second paragraph denotes possession '!
,.
·.
· .· lfrite the above in yom· own language. (Describe the lake and
the nest. B.ow do you suppose the osprey au4 · the young birds

.

. j

I

fel~ ?)
-~-

LESSON XXV.
·· 1. A child's shoes;
A man's clothes;
3. An ox's horns ;
4. The minister's sons;
5. The lady's gloves;

2:

THE "WINGED FISHERMA N.

The osprey, or fi sh-li awk feeds its
.
. young with fi sh, whi ch it
catcli es in lakes or ri vers FJ' .
. k een eye 1' · ' ymg a li ttle way auove
1.
soon as its
t 110 water •ts
l IScerns a fi sh near tl
f
' '· .
.
bird closes its wiugs swoop d
ie sur ace, tlie wa tcl1fu1
.
.
'
s
ow
n
upon
the
t
mi sses its prey Se .
.
. .
wa er, and seld om
J
.
curmg its vwtun in its t J
erman t hen soars away t h' d",
. a ons, tic win ged fi sh•
•
<
•
o is istant nest w l
tl
.
await theu· supper with ext l <l b"ll
' . iere ie little birds
ent e I s and fiutteriug pinions.

""
.,

children's shoes.
men's clothes.
oxen's horns.
the ministers' sons.
the ladies' glov~s.

Write the above expressions as in the book. Read them in colu111ns.
·How is each singular noun in the 1st column made to denote posses·
sion? Make the change in each (child, child's,· man, man's; etc.). Which
• of the plural nouns in the 2d column are made to denote possession in the
same way-by adding 's? Make the change in each (children, cliild1·en's ,·
num, m en's ; oxen, oxen's). How are the last two (min isters, miriisters';
,ladies, ladies') made to denote possession? Do you notice nny .1ilfe_r~nce
of form between those plural nouns that take 's and those that take ' alone?
To indicate possession, ndd ' s to singular nouns, and ·
~ _.Plural nouns not ending in s; add the . apostrophe alone to ·
. plural nouns ending in s.

:,

,,

·.

-

....--

I

34

USE OF POSSESSIVE FORMS.

Of is often used before both singular and plural nouns,
to denote possession ; as, tlie liorns qf an ox (e<1 ni valc11 t
to an ox's liunis), the sons ef tlie niinisters (t!ie ministers'
sons).
--But it is not always right thus to use ef. \V c say
nien's clotlies for sale,-not tlie clotlies ef men for sale.
On the other hand, in some cases, particularly of tliiugs
without life, ef must be used instead of 's. 'l'hus 're sny,
tlie walls qf tlie lwuse, not tlie lwuse' s walls j tlie onianients ef the niantelpiece, not the ma11tel_piece's oniament~.

I
It

I
I
I

,,

"'
I:
Ii

i!

,;

I

i

,i

EXERCISE.

Which of the following denote one, and wllicli more than one ?
Which denote possession? For those that denote possession, give equivalent.~ with OI'.-Dromcdary's; drometl nrics ; dromedari es' ; scr~
van ts ; servants'; mice's; mouse's ; nephew; neph e ws ; Juliu s's ;
Julia's; geese; geese's; goose's ; washerwoman; washe1:wom en's;
sister-in-law's; sisters-in-law's; torch es'; torch's.
Gi·ve both the sing·ula1· and plural fonn denoting possession:Frenchman (Frencliman's, Frcnchnwn's) ; clog ; <leer; hostler; wai tr ess; German; belle ; marquis; marchioness ; thief ; dwarf ;
cuckoo; man-child.
Give equivalent expressions :--The president's friends (tliefriends
of tlie president); th e sword of a l1 ero (a lwro's sword); fr eedom's
voice; the farm er's cattl e ; the heat of tho sun; a fireman's cnp;
tlte firemen's caps ; the fox's brush; a fox's brush; the teeth of tho
baby; tho flight of the oaglo.

II

-

--«----

LESSON XXVI.
The nieces of the farm er's wife;
NOT,
The nieces of the wife of the farmer,
or,
'l'he farm er's wife's nieces.

Avoid unpleasant repetitions of 's or of.

USE OF POSSESSIVE FORMS.

35

The prophet Jeremiah's· lamentations ;
.
NOT, The prophet's J eremiah's lamentat10ns.
Brown and Smith, the painters', store,
.
•
or The store of Brown and Smith, the pamters'
NO'r, Brown and Smitl~'s, the painters', store.

The sign, of possession is append~d only ~o. the la.tt~r
(or in apposition,
as it is
o£ two nouns. s tandl.ng toO'ether
e
.
called), one to explain the other.
Ilut one reirm
is referred to, William
o
•
l and
tl
.
.
d
.
.
tly
Both
proper
nouns
denote
possess:on,
mt ie
Mary havmg re1gne J Olll •
.
latter alone takes 's.
·
·
. .
T
d
The i·ose's and t!te violet's odo1· are qiiilc dijjerent.
wo o ors arc ~efcrrec:i
to , the rose and the violet having each its own; and each noun e·
.
noting possession takes· 's . .
. .
•.r ' s 1.c.;gn .
lVilliam
an d mary

. vVhen joint possession is denoted, the. latter of two or
more connected uonns alone takes the sign; when separate possession is denoted, each takes it.
.
How many nurses are deno ted, if we say Frank's, Flo1·cncc's, and? Grace's
llow many, if we say Frank, Florence, and Grace's nurse.

nurse?

EXERCISE. •

Compute by inserting a noun denoting possession :-1. The song is heard in the fields. 2. At Hay, the ~' you can b~y boots, - gm't ers, and - slippers · 3· Many pamters havehI epre. the - den · 4 · Goose-eggs
are larger t an t- .
. I m
·
sente d D ame
- eggs or - eggs. 5. No one b elieves a - story. 6. - bonne s,
the - march ; our - lwuse; - clothes; the - how 1; a good prayers; your -:--- dattghter; :_ schools.
'
. '
Correct errors :-1. Havo you ever seen ~Ienry's son: ~1fe s
father? 2. In William's. the Conqueror's r eign, many Nor mans
.
y to England. 3. The house of the daughter of tho
f oun d th e1r
wa
. . d h' 1
ed
. d o f my unc le. 4 . Davids <and J onathan.'s fnen
f nen
•
, s Ip ms pass
into· a proverb. 5. Call at Allen's, the blacksmith s, as ~ou pass.
6. Ohio and Iowa's sons were both ther e. 7. Golds sp e c1~c grav~
. excee d s il ·1
ity
l ve1·' s. . 8· The parlor's occupant; the houses· roof'
cl'
womens' rights;- the collars of ladies; St. Pauls Church ; t 1ns I 0 -

-.~.

36

A LI1'1'L.E' S J'UH J':

QU01'A 1'10N-POINTS.

tionary's author; th e babie's m oth er; Olrnrl es ' knife. th ese p ot·_
to es' owner; tha t ofli ce's furni t ure. 9. Coop ers nud Sco tts n ov~lis
can be 1: rocurcd at Ril ey :md Grays. (E.vp1·css so as to in dicate, 1.
Tliat R iley and G1·ay are partner s 2 That tli
Ii

stM·es.)

·

·

Imitate these marks on the black-board. The first
two look like commas turned upside down, or inverted,·
,·,. the · last two look jus~ like what? These are called
,,...i Quotation-pcints.

iey zave se1xt1·ate

'

Write s.ix sentences . containing tlie 'following; tlie engraving on
p age, 32 .will Sit(J[Jcst ideas:-1. Th e fi sh-h a wk's talons. 2. Tl1e
eagl,e s flight. 3. The osprey's n est. 4. Th e little
"1"
"
u. ue sur1aco of tho lnko. G. Drops of water.

1, ·
lJ

.:'s'

11 u

wings.

,

In which paragraph do you next sr.c quotation,points used? What are
they used to enclose there? Are quotation-points used in the 3d para. "~-~ graph? In the 4th paragraph ? Why not?
Why are quotation-points used in the 5th paragraph? How many
·. times are they used in this paragraph ? What Mary said, is broken into
: two parts. Give the first part; give the second part. Said J,fa1·y is thrown
in between the two parts, and th e quotation-points are so placed as to exclude said M ary from what she said.
,
In the next paragraph, what are quotation-points used · to enclose ?
. ,' Why are there no quotation-points in the last paragraph ?

,

- ---#--- -

LESSON XXVII.
MARY'S SAUCE.

. ".I do not like my soup; pl ease give me some that is better "
said littl e Mary, one day at dinner.
'
,'.'You shall h a Ye some for your supp er that will please you bet ter, a nswer ed Mr. Gr a.y, her fath er.
Th en h e wont out into th e field to dig j)Otatoes nnd t I l ·
d
ht
. ] .
' "
00 { l! S
an~ er wit 1 lnm. Th ey worked with all tlieir might till sunse t
hoem g th e p ota toes out of th e ground and gath ering th em in h eaps'
At dark th ey cam e in, tired and hungry.
<
•

1'110 g ood moth er prepar ed th e supper, and set before .Mary the
S.'1m e soup sh e h ad fo und fault w ith at dinn er.
" A h ! tlii s is good soup; I lik e this," said Mary. "Please gi ve
me som e m or e. "

'
it'.

. \:rit~ ~he-story ~i,ren above, just as it is printed, and
efe1 to it m answermg th~ following questions : How many paragraphs are there in this story ?
. 11.1 the ~ st pa~agraph, .Mnry is represented as saying
cm. tarn wo1ds. 'I hese words are encl osed between two
pair ~f marks (" "), standing a little above tho line.
1 1i

'lJ_______

~'

Had the substance only, and not.the exact words, been ·
given, we should not have used quotation-points. Thus,
Kar!} puslied baclc her plate, a.nd said she did not like
~: her soup-no quotation-points.
When we introduce, or quote, the words of another,
. ,,, ,, ~hey should be enclosed in quotation-points; as, 'Tlwmson
_' speaks of war as "only splendid murder".
· .
,·

.

~

Quotation-points are used to enclose words quoted, or
i:epresented as spoken in stories.

Th e I~oth e r lau ghed, and, as she gave h er littl e girl anoth er
plateful, ki ssed .her. am~ said, "It is th e som e soup you liad; but
now you are eatm g it with a sauce that makes it taste goou "
·w hat was the sauce ?
·

I

37

.

In stories, different persons are ofteTh. represented as
speaking. '\Vhen one fini shes and another commences,
' .we begin a new paragraph. Do you find it so in the
:·_ story on page 36 ?
'

.Exercise.-Point out each sentence in tlie st01·y. With what
· : ·,·. kind of letter does each begin? Why do Mary and Mr. Gray begin
· .' with capitals? In which sentence is a question asked? What
mark stands at the end of this sentence? What does Mr. stand
~ ;: )~r? Why is the period used after Mr 1 Wl1ich noun in the sec_. · ond paragraph explains, or is in apposition with, another?

Write the story in your own language.

3S

PRONOUNS.

l'JWNOUNS.

LESSON XXVIII.

Look again at the story on page 3G.
:Mary, speaking of herself, does not say, "Jfa1·y does
not like Mary's soup; give Jfary-" but "I do nut like
ni y soup; give me." What little words does she use in
stead of her own name~ These little words are used fol'
nouns, and are called Pronouns (JJ?'O meansjor).

Underline such of the pronouns mentioned as occu1· in tlie story.
on page 36, and state what noun each stands fo1-.
Substitute Harry fo·r Mary in the sto1·y, and show what changes
would ltave to be made in the pronouns in consequence.
Complete by inserting the proper pronoun :-1. Father, we implore - to grant us - blessing. 2. Nature, - art ever beautiful
with thy smiling face. 3. Oatharino, have - prepared - lesson 1
4. Richard has - faults, and Susan has -. 5. Every tub must
stand on - own bottom.

In the 2d paragraph, when Mr. Gray speak s to Mn.ry, he docs not say,
" ilfar.I/ shall have some for Jlfary's supper that will pl ease .Mary !Jetter."

--«'---

What word docs he use in stead of .Mary? What docs he use in stead of
.Afary's? What arc you and yow·? Why docs he use yoit and your?
In the 1st sentence of the 3d paragraph, three pronouns arc used for
Mr. Gray's name ; what are they ? For what words is each used?

LESSON XXIX .

A person speaking of himself may use the pronouns
. I, niy, rnine, me; speaking of himself an<l another, we,
ou1·, onrs, us.
A person speaking to another may use t11c pronouns
you, yoit?', yours; in solemn or poetical language, tlw1t,
tliy, tliine, tliee.
A person speaking of a male may use the pronouns
lie, liis, liim; of a female, she, lier, lw?'s ; of n, thing, it,
its; of more thJin one, they, tliei1·, tlwfrs, tliem.
A Pronoun is a wo1·d used in stead of a noun.

A pronoun must be singular or plural, masculine or
feminine, according as the noun is; for which it stands.
Write the 1uonoun I with a capital.
EXEU.CISE.

Of the pronouns nientioned aboce, write in separrite tables,
1. All those that denote femal es only.
2. All thoso that denote mules only.
3. All those that denote but one.
4. All those that denote more than one.

39

I see myself.
Take care of thyself.
Take care of yourself.
Ile helped himself. t
She helped herself. I
The child hurt itself.

Robert and I see ourselvef!.

l
f

Take care of yourselves.
They helped themselves.
Ida and Ben hurt themselves.

Read the abov.e. Here we have some longer pronouns
ending in self, plural selves.
Which of the pronouns in the above sentences denote one? Which
denote more than one?
·which denote females? ·which denote males?
)Vhich may denote either? What noun does each pronoun stand for?

When you use these pronouns, be sure to spell them
right. Do not say tliei?'selves, hisself, its self, etc.
1. Morse, who invented the telegraph, was born in Massachusetts.
2. The moon, _which looks so bright, has no light of her own.
3. The man and horse that were approaching, sud~enly vanished.

Here we have three new pronouns, who, which, and
tliat, used to introduce additional statements into the
sentences.
What does who stand for ? What statement does it introduce ? What
does which stand for? What statement does it introduce? What does
' tliat stand for? What statement does it introduce?

/~

40

PRONOUNS.

1Vho is al'tlliell to persons, 1Vliich to iuforior uuimnls
or things, 1.'ltat to 11crso11s, nnimals, or things.
Try wh ether which or that may be used in stead of who, in Sentence 1.
'l'ry whether who or that may be used in stead of which in Sentence 2. Try
whether who 01· which may be used in stead of that in Sentence 3.
In Sentence 1, can the statement introduced by who be left out without
marring the sense-1lforse was born in JJ:fassaclrnsctts? It can, and the
statement is set off with a comma on each side.
In Sentence 2, can the statement introduced by which be left out with·
out marring the sense? 'fry it; where is the comma used in this sentence?
In Sentence 3, can the statement introduced by that be left out 1vitl1011t
i11,jury to tho meaning intended to be convcyctl-tltc man and horse smld1.•11ly
vanished? It can not, for we wonk! not know what man and horse wcrn
meant. In this case no comma is required.
Set off with the comma statements i11tro1luced by who,
which, and that, if they can be left out without nmrriug
the sense ; otherwise not.
EXERCISE.

Correct er1•01•s :-1. Let those, who stand, beware lest they fnl1.
2. There is no man what sinneth not. 3. Th o vultures, tlint live
among the Alps, often cai"l'y off lambs and kids. 4. Even the ox
who is among the most patient of animals can be enraged. 5. Thut
child crm amuse its self. 6. Men wl1icl1 make th e laws should nut
break th e laws. 7. Somo poor rn en pri<le th eir sdves on their poverty. 8. Girls, look out for yourself, i say. 9. Cleopatra kill ed
her self by the bite of an asp. 10. We nre indebted to Du Cl111illu
wl10 bas trnvollod much in the interior of Africa for several interesting works.
Combine tlw sentences given under each number into one, connecting them with a pronoun, and using tlw comma when necessary.
Thus :-1. General Harrison, wl10 defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe, was afterward mad e president.
1. General Harrison defeated the Indians o.t Tippecanoe. General Harrison wall afterward mad e president. 2. Alexander conqu er ed others. Alexander could not conquer himself. 3. Japan
long avoided intercourse with foreigners. Japan is uow rnpi(lly
introducing the improvem ents of other countries. 4. Men do evil;

~·:

•.

)VHO, WHICH,

1'HA1~

WHAT.

41

· \ his evil lives after them. (The evil tliat men do, etc.) 5. Men do
. ·. good; this good is often buried with their bones. 6. l~omer wrote
..
the greatest of epics. Homer was poor. Homer was blrnu. 7. The
.. . Nile overflows its banks every year. The Nile spreads a rich deposit over the country. The :Nile makes Egypt fertile.

·--

--¢e--

LESSON XXX.
. Write Sentences 1, 2, 3, on page 39. Name the pronoun in Sentence 1.
· .What noun does who stand for, 01· relate lo? Observe that who, with the
statement it introduces, immediately follows its noun JJforse. Try placing
it in any other position in the sentencc-fo1· instance, Jforse was born in
· Jfr.tSBachusetts, who invented the telegraph-would this be right?
. Name the first pronomi in Sentence 2. What noun does wliich relate to?
· Observe that which, with the statement it introduces, immediately follows
·;., • ' its noun moon. Try placing it, with its statement, in any 6ther position;, ' · at the end of the sentence, for instance; would the sense be preserved?

/

Name the pronoun in Sentence 3. What noun does that relate to?
Observe that the pronoun that, with the statement it introduces, immediately follows the nouns to which it relates. Would it be right to place
it in any other position? Try.

' · TVlw, which, and that, with the statements they intro•
duce, should be placed as near as possible to the nouns to
' which they relate.
Who whispered? Wliicli of you whispered? What did you whisper?
. I do not know who whispered. Find out wliicli of the boys _whispered.
Ile will not tell what he whispered.

"·

, The pronouns wlw, wliicli, and what, are of ten used
,.. at the commencement of sentences in asking questions.
~ . ,. }1epeat the three sentences given above, ' in which they
are so used. \Vhat mark follows each sentence~
lV!w, wliicli, and wliat, are also used, in answering
questions an<l otherwise, indefinitely-that is, without
i:elating to any particular noun.

·!

Repeat the three sentences given above, in which they are so used. ·

I

. 1

~i l iI

1

:~I

42

Tr~ to find what noun who relates to, in the sentence I do not know wlw
wlnspe1·ed.

I/;

!I

;//

T

WHO, WHICH, Tlf.A1~ WI/A 1'.

. Thus used,. wliicli may be applied to persons, hiferjor ..
an11nals, ~r tlnngs; as, wliicli of the boys, wliicli of the ,
dogs, wliicli of the pens.
EXERCISE.

. W1·ite tlwee sentences in wliich ques tions are asked respectitiely
with who, which, and what.
Wr~te a sentence containing who used indqfinitely.
. 1Yrite thre~ sen~ences .containing which usecl indqfinitely-of a
pm son-of an uiferwr anunal-of £i thing.
TV1·ite a sentence containing what used indqfinitely.
.
Introduce the words in italics in tlte prope1· place, with commas
Out of jet are made handsom e brnoches (icliicli is a .
kind of coal). 2. Every man ought to be thaukful to Roger Uacon
(that uses spectacles) (who invented them). 3. The climate of Floriua
is delightful in the winter months (which has become a popula?· resort of invalids).
.

if_ needed :-1.

4. Have you not r ead that .Manhnttan Isbnd was discornrc<l hy
H~nry Hudson (on wMcl~ the city of New York is situated)? 5.
Vrnwed throu g h the m1crnscope, l1airs are found to be h ollow
tubes, and our bodies to be cover ed " ·itl1 minute scales (which
en~bles us to see 'liery small objec ts). Q. Tho Spaniards say that
a lie has short legs (who have some capital proverbs in tlieir lan-

guage).
. Co1-rect errors in ar1·angement, etc.:-1. Rivers som etimes entirely d~y up in summer, that are roaring torrents in spring. - 2.
What did people d? ~efore soap was invented, wliich is n ow so
common? 3. How 1 pity the poor man on such an inclement night
who has no hom e to go to!_ 4. Brutus conspi r ed against Cmsm·:
who was a n ard ent love r of lib erty. (11fake it appem· that Brutus
was the lour qf liberty.) 5. (Introdttce quotation-points.1 Wlio
k1~ocked? asked tbe tenified womnn, 1111.rdly knowing what she
s:11d. If you open tlie door, you will find out who knocked" answered a g ruff voice.
'

'THE USE OF PRONOUNS ILLUS1'RA1'EJJ.

43

LESSON XXXI.
(any one who).
·. . · {Who · ~
{Whoever, whosoever,
(the
one that).
From Which come Whichever, whichsoever,
(any
thing that).
·
What
Whatever, whatsoever,
Whosoeve1· commjtteth sin is the servant of sin.
That is, Any one wlio committeth sin, etc.
. .·.· You may have whichever is the longer.
That is, You may have the one that is the longer.

I believe whateve1· you say.
That is, I believe any thing that you say.
.. .Are whoever, whichever, and whatever, used to ask questions with ? Are
· they used indefinitely? To what words is each of them equivalent? Give
the. longer form for each. From what simpler pronouns are they formed ?

This is good; that is bacl. The forme1· advanced; the latte1·
· retreated. Both are the same to me. Question each and every of
them. I will have either; I will reject neithe1·. One comes; another goes; none stay. Some float; others sink; all swim. Any
µiay depart. Such as wish, may go.

Above occur a number of words that are not names,
or nouns, but represent nouns; hence they are pronouns;
· As the above sentences are dictated, write them on
the black-board; underljne the pronouns. With what kind
of letter does each sentence begin 1 What follows each?
This is good; theM are good. That is bad; tlwse are bad. Each tree; every leaf.
-

this; PLURAL, these.
that; PLURAL, those.
Each and every are SINGULAR.
SINGULAR,

SINGULAR,

John and James hurt each other.
John 'J am es and Jacob, hurt one another.
,
'
Either of the two; any (or any one) of the three.
N eitlier of the two; none (or no one) of the party.

: Use eacli otlie1·, eitlier, and neitlier, when two arc
~poken of. Use one anotlwr, any (or any one), and none
(o~· no one), when more than two are spoken of.

/

44

E XER CIS ES ON PRON OUNS.
EXERCISE.

Substi tute one equivalent pronoun for the ioo1·ds in italics :-1.
Try to succeed in any thing that you undertak e. 2. You are welcome to tlie one tliat pleases you best. 3. Any one who is the slave
of intemperance serves a l1anl master. 4. Any thing tliat is worth
doing,· is worth doing w ell. 5. Any one that does not admire tho
autumn tintf: of a N ew England forest, has no soul for tl1e beautiful.
111

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II
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I

1Vlwre a dash occurs, insert the proper p1·onoun :-1. Here Santa
Anna and Ge11ernl Taylor mot; the - had tho lnrgcr arrny, tho had the bettor m en. 2. Which of tho two will you take; I will
take - , for I lik e -. 3. We sl10uld do - seems right, not minding what - or - 111ay say. 4. On hearing --, the passengers wero
appalled; - wept, - prayed, - exp ected to be saved. 5. - wore
arme4; - had 11is de:idly rifie. 6. Twins often entertain the
strongest attachment to (eacli other or one another?)
Correct errors : - 1. Thero is no getting along with tlwse sort of
men. 2. Will you lend me tliis scissors. 3. Men arc too often envious of each otlie1·. 4. Each workman must see to tlieir own tools.
5. Hore are twenty good ones; take eitlier you choose. 6. Beautiful women do not alw ays admire eacli other.
7. N eitlim· of my throe bro thers is ns tall as I. 8. What do you
thii:k of tliese nows. 9. Tru e merit and mod es ty often accompany
one anotlie1'. 10. Every voter should examiuo into th e question
for themselves, nml ex ercise tltefr own ju<lg-rncnt. 11. Tho house
has been finished this three months. 12. Carry out tliis ashes.

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-* - -

· SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE FORMS.

t~nces in the first column, t~U what each pronoun in the
"
second column stands for.
;. A noun or pronoun may stand in one of three relations to other words in the sentence: it may be the Sub~
j~ct, it may be th~ Object, or it may denote Possession.
Select the nouns that are subjects, in the sentences of the first column
above. Select the corresponding pronouns, which are subjects, in the second column. Select the nouns that are objects, in the first column. Select
the corresponding pronouns, which are objects, in the second column.- Select the nouns that denote possession, in the first column. Select the corresponding pronouns, which denote possession, in the second column.
In expressi11g which of these relations, is the form of the noun changed?
Do you find, in the above sentences, the forms of the pronouns lie and she
changed, to mark thes~ different relations?
· Site being the subjective form, find the corresponding objective form
used above. Find the corresponding possessive form. He being the subjective form, find the corresponding objective form used above. Find the
corresponding possessive form.

Some pronouns have distinct Subjective and Objective
. forms, which must not be interchanged.

Subjective Forms.-I, Thou, He, She, We, They, Who.
·. ·• Objective Forms.- me, thee, him, her, us, them, whom.

. Objective forms follow at, after, before, between, by,
for, from, in, into, qf, over, to, witli, witho·ut, and other
words expressing relations of time, place, etc. ; as, Between him and me (not lie and I).
Write tlie sentences correctly, and of eacli pronoun
atate iohetlim· the aubjective 01· o~jective form is i1sed :·
1
I (not me) laughed.-Charles and she (not her) will go.-Whom
(not who) did you see ?-Who spoke? I (not me, for the meaning
. - · is I spoke).- Whom did h e speak to? Me (not I, for the meaning is
•· He apok_e to me).-Name whomever, or whomsoever, you choose
. (not whoever or whosoever) -We will give the prize to whoever
(~ot wlwrnever) deserves it.-It is he (not him).-None were hap, .pier than I (not me).-Who so graceful as she (not her)?-He will
do it for you and me (not I).
· :·'_ · · EXAMPLES.-

LESSON XXXII.

Review Lesson XXIV., page 31.
1. Ida saw B en.
2. Ben saw Ida.
3. Ben's sister saw Ida's brother.

Sh e saw him.
H e saw her.
Ilis sister saw her brother.

,\Vhich of the above sentences contain nouns? vVhich
contain pronouns? Ifoferring to the corresponding sen-

45

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46

POSSESSIVE FORMS OF PRONOUNS.

NAMES OP OBJECTS PERSONIFIED.

LESSON XXXIII.

LESSON XXXIV.

Some pronouns have di stinct forms to denote possession. An<l some have two possessive forms, one to ue
used with, and the other without, the name of the thing
possessed.
Possessive Forms. -My, mine; thy, thine ; his ; her,
hers; its ; our, ours; your, yom:s; their, theirs ; whose.

Do not use liisn for ms ; liern for HERS ;
. ourn for ouRs ;
yourn for YOURS ;
tlieirn for THEIRS ;
wlw' 8 for WHOSE.
These possessive forms do not take the apostrophe.

47

Do not use tliis liere, or tliis 'ere, for Tiiis ;
tliese liere, or tliese 'ere, for THESE ;
tliat tliere, or that 'e1'e, for THAT;
tlwse tliere, or those 'm·e, for THOSE ;
tliem for THOSE (not tliem maps, but tliose maps).

ExA!IIPI,Es.-Select tlte pronouns i n tlte possessive form, and of
each state whether it is used with or witlwut the name of the thing
possessed : :My fri enJ; a fri enJ of mine. Tl1y h eart; th at h enrt of thine.
II is letters ; some letters of his. H er sisters; two si;;tcrs of l1crs.
Its beginning and its end. Our boy; this Lcloved boy of ours.
Your hou ses; l1 011ses of yo urs. Tl1 eir pi·operty; property of theirs.
Wisdom, whose ways are pleasantness.
Are any apostrophes WJed in these possessive forms 1

"War flings hi s torci1 into the doom ed hamlet; Peace strews her bless.
ings o'er the plain."
Mention the two subjects in thr. above sentence. As commonly used,
what kind of nouns are war and peace? As here used, with what kind of
• letters do war and peace commence ?

When represented as doing what only persons can do,
or when spoken to as persons, things without life are said
- to be personified. lVar and peace are personified in the
aqove sentence.

EXERCIS .E .

Correct errors of every kind, and insert quotcttion-points where
needed :-1. Tim e and me, king philip 11.* of spain used to say, are •
a match for any two. 2. Can not me and you row the Loat across !
The names of objects personified mushcommence with
3. Is it me to whom you allude? asked the sheriff. I will not sny
capitals.
who i allud e to, r eplied Dr Black? 4. Let you nnd I start at once.
5. Who do you think she was laughin g at - :Mnry or h e. G. Them
In the above sentence, what pronoun is used, relating to Wm·? Is his
that win, may laugh. 7. The others, said Ed ward, had a Letter
· · - masculine or feminine? \Vhat pronoun is used, relating to P eace? Is her
chance than us.
· masculine or feminitie?
Complete tlte sentences, and correct errors :-1. It is (lier or slie?)
· · ·Great, fierce, terrible objects are personified as males,
that is causing the trouble. 2. Napoleon, who his Old Guard
· and pronouns relating to them must be masculine.
almost idolized, was familiarly called " the little corp oral. 3. (Jfy ,
·
Gentle, delicate, beautiful objects are · personified as
or mine?) friend, what has become of yon. 4. Be it (111y or mine?),
. , .females, and pronouns rel ating to them must b~ f~minine.
cried tl10 bold sergeant, to defend the flng." 5. None- are so
Llind as those which will not see. 6. Let whomsoever will, come.
1 ~' : ·· With objects personified use wlio, not wliicli; as,
7. Every panmt is apt to think their own child faultless.
. ~/"Smiling Spring, wlw scatters her sweet-scented blossoms

* Alwnys place a pcrio<l after letters nse<l

thus to 1lenote numbers.

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in our path."

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48

OBJECTS PERSONIFIED.

ADJECTIVES.

EXERCISE,

.An adjective may be joined to a pronoun, as well as
a noun. Speaking of the fountain, we may say, It is
la1·ge; it is pretty, it is well-built, etc.

l{ame the o~jects personified, and complete by inserting the proper
pronouns :-1. Consoling Faith points with - finger to tlte skies.
2. Listen not to Pleasure, (wliicli or who?) whispers - ullnring tales

49

An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit the
·meaning of a noun or pronoun.

ouly to <l eceive. 3. Hevenge, with - l1eart of flint, spares not <learest frien<ls. 4. nlin<l, in<lee<l, is Justi ce ; - eyes are always
ban<luged. 5. Stern and pitiless, Hate shoots - poisoned arrows.
1Frite three sentences containing the Moon, Liberty, and War,
personified.
Co1'?"ect m·1·ors :-1. Here i mlll sorrow sit. 2. Tliis land is
n either your's, nor their's, but ourn. 3. Pass them apples to ]\[r
Banks. 4. Her's is a l1ope who's foundation is seeu re. 5. They
wliom he loves, he chastens. G. Take that 'ern meal to the mill.
7. Are this oats yourn. 8. I have been looking all <lay for this
here knife. 9. I thought it was hisn, uut found out it was hern.

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LESSON XXXV.
On the opposite page we have a picture of a fountain.
vVhat kind of a fountain is it?
1.
2.
3.
4.
13.

A
A
A
A
A

large fountain.
high fountain.
pretty fountain.
handsome fountain.
marble fountain.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

A well-built fountain.
A light-colored fountain.
A valuable fountain.
One fountain; this fountain.
The only fountain.

Select the words used above to describe the fountain,
to tell about its size-appearance-material-construction
. -color-value. Select the words that limit the meaning
of fountain.
These words are not the names of things, nor do they
stand for the names of thiBgs; bnt t11cs <11ialify or li111it
the meaning of the noun fountain. Tlrny b elong to a ~
new class of words, called Adjectives.

TUE DRINKING-FOUNTAIN.

'

Name some of the objects in the picture; these names are all what?
Write all the atljcctives you can think of, suitable to describe the street •
shown above (a wide street, a clean street, etc.). ·write as many adjectives
as you can, that will apply to the h01·se; the dog; the woman; the old
man; the pigeons. All these words are what?
"From Scotland comes Scotch ale; from Ireland, Irish linen."
What adjectives do you find in the above sentence? From what proper
noun is Scotch derived? Irisli? How do Scotch and Irisli commence?

From Proper Nouns are derived Proper Adjectives, which
must commence with ca1litals.

There is a large class of adjectives that express number;
as, few, rnany, several, four, twent'!j;five?Jirst? d01/{Jlf}~
.

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PROPER ADJECTIVES.-C01lfPARJSON.

50

.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

51

'

· than some other. "Paul is younger, smaller, than Hen-.
: ry." The Superlative is formed by adding est. It denotes
Select the adjectives in the sto1·y on pages 32, 33.
1V1-ite the proper nouns from which these jJ1'0JHJI' adjectives
the highest degree of all that .are compared. ''Fritz is
come :-English; Jewish; Portuguese ; Welsh; W ashingtoninn; ·
the youngest, smallest, of the three."
Norwegian ; Egyptian ; Scottish ; Peruvian ; Danish ; Sicilian; •
- '~- Compare small, low, briglit, dull, hij;h, soft, tender, tough.
EXERCISE.

Genoese ; Venetian.
Compare VILE. - Vile, · viler, (not vileei'),
vilest (not vileest).
Form proper adjectives f1'om South America; Moses; Brazil; .,
Compare HOLY.- Holy,
holier (not lwlyer), lwli est (not holyest).
France; Persia; Napoleon; India; Asia; Alps; Europe; Mexico; l
Compare HOT. -Hot,
ltoit er (not lwter),
lwtt est (not lwtesl).
Prussia; Britain; Austria; Canada.
_,
. What is the final letter of vile,-that is, with what letter <locs vile en<l?
Join each of the proper adjectives just f 01·med to an appropriate ;
What change is ma<lc in vile, before er and est are added ?
noun: as, South American countries; the Mosaic account; etc.
·
What is the final letter of holy? What change is made in holy, before
Correct er1·ors'.·-T!ie Uhinee language; roman virtue; the Spain- '
and est are added ?
ish' government; . the Central America republics; Greecian liistory; :·
. ~ . ~What letter does lwt end with? Is t a vowel or a consonant? By
japanese fans; scottish snuff; the Asiun countries; the molrnmme- '.'
.~vh~t ~ letter is t in !wt preceded? • Is o a vowel or a consonant? What
dan religion.
. ·:· ~h~nge is made in hot, before er and est are added?
·

er

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LESSON XXXVI.
Turn to the engraving on page 49.
Henry, Paul, and Fritz, are playing leap-frog. Henry, who stands
waiting his turn, is young; Paul, who is in the act of leaping, is younger;
Fritz, whose body is bent, is the youngest. Th e quality of youth belongs to
all three, but in different degrees. These degrees are denoted by varying
the form of the adj ective YOUNG : young, youngei-, youngest.
Two men are standing near the fountain. How would you say that one
has the quality of largeness in a higher degree than the other? (One is than tlte other. )
If you wished to speak of that one of the pigeons which has the quality
of plumpness in the highest degree, what would you say? ( Tlw -.)
How many men are shown in the engraving? 'Which is the oldest?

The form of some adjectives may be varied, to denote
different degrees of a quality. They are then said to be

I

compared.
YOUNG

is compare<l thus: young, younger, youngest.

In some cases, adjectives undergo a change, when fl'
·and est are added to form the comparative and superla; tive : . 1. Finale is rejected; as,fine,finer,finest.
: ~'- · , ;, 2. Final y, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to
' ij ·as, lieavy, heavier, !waviest.
·
·
,.· -J•' . 3. ·In words of one syllable, a final consonant, pre.ceded by but. one vowel, is doubled; as, tliin, tliinner,
~/ifnnest.
,~- If two vowels precede, the final consonant is not
doubled ; as, cool, cooler, coolest.
·

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.

tlw comparative and .~upei-lalive of crude ; dainty;
· . end; sweet; large; deep; homely; fierce; lowly; proud; angry; feeble;
·
\,
· " great; easy; gentle; stout; quiet.
'. 'i-' 1:'If a person has supreme power, can any one have supr,emer power? If
f;:! ;;''thing is entire, can any thing be entirer? Would ft suit your ear to say
"a· delightfulei· evening," "the amusingest story"? What would you say
in stead of deligldfuler? In stead of amusingest?

\!

· EXAMPLES.- Write

'

.

From the simple form of the adjective, the Compara- · , • ; .._.i:; ~ Some adjectives do not fqrm a comparative and
t~ve is obtained b,Y adding er. It denotes a higher degree _,;-,. lative in f3'i' and est:~
-. . .
.
.
~~

.

·~

sup~r-

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53

IRREGULAR COllfPARISON.
C01lfPARISON OJi' ADJEC'l'IVES.

52

1. Because their menning does not admit of dcarecs
T~is i~ the ease with snch ns express 11u111bcr, with i~·opc;.
adject1 ves, and with rnauy otl1ers - ns, infinite, daily, ·
wooden, etc.
·
·
. . 2. Because aLhliug e1· auJ est would make ill-sound- ,
mg words. This is the case with sou10 adjectives of t\vo
syllabl.es, and all of more thnn two. vV e must not say
gracrjulm·, [JJ'acefulest-agreeabler, ag1·eeablest.
Us~ ii~ stead nw1·e or most, 'vitli the simple form of
the nd.Jcctive; nwre gracqful, niost g1·acefitl-nw1·e agreeable, most ag1·eeable.

LESSON XXXVII.
A good man; a belle?' man; the best man.
What adjective is compared above? Is it compared regularly or irregularly? Would it be rigi1t to say a gooder man-the goodest man?

Some.short adjectives in common use have irregular
~omparatives and superlatives. Learn the following:best.
worst.
least.
most.
most.

Far,

farther,
{ later,
latter,
{ older,
elder,

Sup.

farthest.
latest.
last.
oldest.
eldest.

better,
worse,
Late,
less, lesser,
~lttle,
more,
Ohl,
Many,
more,
Much,
L esse1· is rarely used in prose (the lesser vices); less is the common form.
Later and latest refer to time ; later news, the latest departure.
. Latter an<l lasl refer .to order; the latter word (as opposed to the for-

Good,
Dad, evil, ill,

J.1f~re

and niost with the simple a<ljcdive may al so be
nsed, m mai:y c~ses, as equivalents for the comparative
and snperlati vc m er and est. vV c may say,

mr.r), the ·zast word on the page.
.
Elclei· and eldest may be used when members of the same family arc
spoken of; the eldest sister. Ilut older should be used when titan follows.

BmEF-bi·iefer, briefest, or more b1·1:ef, most brief.
AMPLE-ampler, amplest, or more ample, most m~1ple.
EXERCISE.
1

TnE FonoE OF OusToM.-Many people do things because th eir
fathers did them, without themselves knowing tbo why or where- , ~
fore.
Napoleon is said once to have founrl an old empty house guarded
by 11 military patrol. The faithful sentinel know that ho was posted
~hero, but why ho had not tho slightest idea. By diligent in<1uiry ··
it was found that, two hundred years before, tho building had been
us_e~ for a short time by the French government as a uepository of .
m1htary stores. Strict · guard hacl been k ept over it ever sineo
though inside there was nothing but sportive rats to guard.
'

lVrite the adjectives in the above extract, in three lists. In the 1st,
place those which by 1·eason of tliei?' meaning are not c01npm·ed; in the
2d, those that take er and est, writing out these forms; in the 3d,
those that take more and most to denote the degrees, ioriti11g out these
J.m•ms. State what noun each ai{jcctive relates ~o. f!ow does tlte adjcc- ·
tive generally s,t and, as regards its noun'!

Comp.

Sup.

Comp.

In some superlatives, nwst is appended. vV e speak of
' theforemost soldiers, the liindnwst row, the inmost court,
the outerm.ost line, the utmost care, the uppermost tier.
Give one adjective that will express fai·th est toward the outside-most
;remote from tile outside-in the front rank-above all the rest. In.what deadjectives?
.. gree Ifareyouthese
wish to speak of a boy that has

a good temper, how can you do
,it in the fewest words ? (A - bo11.) A boy that has a better fe;1pe1· would
be called a - boy. The boy that has th e best temper would be the - boy.
A single adjective, then, may express the meaning of how many words?

· . A Compound Adjective is one that is formed from or
' of two simple words; as, good-tempered, soft-s1Joken.

· What mark is used to f Good-tempered,
. · · · connect the parts of \ I11-naturcd,
Fine-looking,
Which part changes, Dark-eyed,
when we eolllparc
Sweet-toned,

·

l

better-tempered,
worse-natured,
finer-looking,
darker-eyed,
sweeter-toned,

best-tempered?
worst-natured?
finest-looking?
darkest-eyed?
sweetest-toned?

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54

'l'HEIR GONS1'RUOTION A.ND USE.

GOAfPARA1'IVES A.ND SUPERLATIVES:

S~me compol~ncl adjectives are compared by varyi11g-

the first of the snnple words that compose them.
examples from the above list.

Give

. If a thing is worse, should we call it worse1·? There being no rank
higher than the lii9hest, is it right to say the most hi9hcst rank?
.

••, _ 13. Business is deader than ever. 14. The most universal indifferen ce prevails on this subject. 15. The deafest ~an is he ;vhich
will llOt hear. Hi. How much 111oro is the Oaucasrnn sup enor .to
the other races! 17. Even the most faultless ch~racter bas its
defects. 18. The elclest friends are generally the fa1thfulest.

Comparatives and superlatives must not be further
compared; nor should vwre and niost be used with them. ~=•
Adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different .
degrees must not be compared; nor Rlionld mm·~, nw.<1t,
les~, least, or so, b.e used with them . . \V c should not say,
cliu;(est, nwst 8UJJre11ie, least p e1ject, more prqfe1·able, 80
entire, etc.
EXERCISJL

Supply adjectives in the comparative degree :-A - mount11 iu.
a - church; - lakes; the - house ; - horses ; ·- girls; a city'
- th an New York; flow ers - than the lily.
Supply frregula1· comparatives :-An - brother; - luck ; tlie
-, the merrier ; the - said, th e better; - laborers are neeclecl.
lV~·ite. one compow~d adjective equivalent to each group of words,
and _give its compamtive and superlative (1·emembering the hyphen).~­
Havmg a warm heart; that has a light compl exion; in th e lrnbit of
speaking softly; havin g a tender heart ; having an ill nature ; lrnving
a slow motion; that has bright eyes; whose mind is fair.
Correct errors :-1. James said that Grammar was his worsest
study. 2. The generous man takes the. littler share for himself. 3.
Nothing is more truer than that money is a root of evil. 4. T1 1e
most soft spoken men are not al ways the most goocl-humored. 5.
Tlie elclest of these trees is the li ttl cest 11ml tho least healthiest.
6. So infinite is space that we can form no idea of its extent.
7. The furtherest r oute is sometimes the most preferable. 8.
My brother is .elc~ er than my sister. !.l. Switzerland ha s a fre er governm ent and is rn a mu ch more better conclition than Spain. 10.
The most hot ancl low countri es are in many cases the mo st unhealthiest. 11. A more inferior position could hardly bo found.
12. 0~1r chiefest pleasures are sometimes the hurtfulest.

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55

LESSON XXXVIII.
RtGHT.

1. London iR the larger of the two cities.
~. London iR th e largest of the three cities.
3. London is fo.rgci· than any other city.

WRONG. 4. London is the largest of the two cities.
5. London is larger than any city.
6. London is the largest of oriental cities.
'1. London is the largest of all other cities.
8. London is the largest of any city.
4.· WRONG, because, but two being compared, only a higher degree .is to
.be denoted. Say lar9er in stead of lar9est.
. ·wRoNG, because London is itself a city, and it is not larger than
5
't If Say any othei· city tlms excluding London.
1 se .
'
L d .
. t l c'ty
6. WRONG, because this would imply that on on 1s an orien a 1 •
So.y larger than any oriental city.
_
·.- 7. WRONG, because London itself a city, and should n~~ b.e excluded
by other the superlative being used. Say the lar9est of all cities.
·
·
. 8. WRONG, because the use of largest implies that. s.everal are compared,
whereas city denotes but one. Say the largest of all cities.

is.

In comparing two objects; use the Comp~rative; m
.
qomparing more than two at once, the ~uperlative.
After a Comparative, use other with the latter teun
compared if it includes the former, and only then.
.
' After the superlative use neither otlie; nor any with
the latter term.
Use to, not tlian, after the comparatives 8itperior, inferior, ante1·ior, po8te1'i01·, prior; as, "The Deluge was
· to tie
1 D.ispers10n.
. "
pr10r

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EXERCISES ON ADJEC'J'IVES.

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] f Use t;e pronoun t!iat, not wlw or w!iic!i, after a super-

''/

a i;e-a so after the adjectives vm·y and no; as "The
itgliest
(not w!iicli) I e\'er S'"""
" .Tl 1e very
' (]00'
tli
( dog tliat
.
<• n.
0
uit
"_Nl
i
(
Ii ) l'not wliic!i) passed yesterdny"
(, ·
o man triat
not
w w ivcs, could have borne it."
-

"

Use. adjectives appropriately, and without undue exaggeration.
I'.
I'.
. Ji'cw means not man.11; little. means not muclt "V'c I.
"N I'.
• .
·
"
i.ivcJ cw J cars Lut
l illlc ·f ca1·"
·
. otJ.cwc1· tlian ltfty persons WCl'C pr<)Sent."
'
Do not Rpcak of tc1·1'ijic or lwrribl ' o.
.
mean sim1)ly L· d .
l '
i., L awjul, or beastly weather if you
.
,t o1 unp casant weath er. Nor of a sw ,
.. '
• I
eel, a119clu., ,qor9cous,
splcndtd, or stunning dress if ' ' OU lllC'
' ,
,m mete Y a very handsome dress.

EXERCISE.

Supply ac~jectives in tlte superlative ·-Tl10
b b'
thoughts; the - fire. m
l
•
a tcs; o11r b
.
' y - wurs; the - season . the t
oats' your - shoes ; her - broth er.
'
s eamSupply irregula1' superlatives ·-Th e
1
there is not th e - excuse .
.
- c iance; our - en emy ;
- line • ti
I
' - people are forgetful; tho - row . tho
' · 10 ayer; my - letter.
'
Correct m-rors :-1. Samson wns th t
ants. 2 Whicl1
l l
.
o s rongost of all liis descend.
' somH s t 1e s weotcst to ·
tl J
tar I 3. Antony had now littl I
you, ..•o inrp or tl10 guiThe Connecticut i
o iopes of obtamrng tho empire. 4.
.
s the longer of tJ10 two rivers but tho II d
.
tlie most picturesque . 5 . N o man w Ilo ever '·sat on th uE sonl' is
I
ti irono was wickeder than John.
,
o ng ts l
3. Which of the twins is the fittes t? 7 Wh' l . h
the Amazon, the Mi ssissippi, or the nile 8 . Tl ~ 11 IS ~ e longer,
est of any river in Europe !) A
t.
. 10 o ga is the longsupper; a horrid man
Tl swee. pretty Irnt; an awful good
oth er flower 11 '1:1 . SJ. 1 10 rose IS th e m ost fragrant of any
inn . IU rnspcnre
,vl1nt
· supcnor?
·
12 Tl • I ·
.
... poe t is
13. TJ~e ;1~~~c; m~ hnru .is lar~er t11rm yoms, your's is th e pl'ettios t.
l me mote polite than any uation. 14 N • .
the greatest tvraut wl1om J. t .
.
.
c10 was
pal exports of.Ja1)an arn tc ns ·011? m<lout.10ns. 15. The most princi.
,
a, s1 ' an nee . tho f . .
. l
important 16 WI t
.. '
'
oirnor Is t 1e most
.
.
rn a ternhc hubbub them girls are making?

io

ARRANGEJfENT OF' ADJECTIVES.

57

LESSON XXXIX.
."China contains a dense population. This population consists of an
luteJligcnt people. 'l'hcy arc accustomed to work hard. They arc well
aatisficd with themselves. They have not a great deal of courage."

Let us see whether we can not express the above more
briefly and forcibly :-" China contains a dense population of iutelligcut, h~ml-working, but self-satisfied, and
not very courageous, people."
How many sentences .arc there in the first paragraph? Into how many
.nre they condensed in the second? What kind of words have we used, to
express the different ide:1s so briefly? What adjective expresses accus.tomed
to work hard? What adjective expresses well satisfied with tliemselves?
What kind of adjectives arc these? By what al'e thcit· parts connected?
What words cxprcsi! that they ltave 11.ot a 9reat deal of cpura9e? What
mark is placed after each adjective in the series, in the condensed sentence ?

I

A single adjective may denote what it would otherwise require several words to express.
vVould you say a marble ornamental fountain, or an ornamental marble.
fountain? A spirited white ltorse or a white spirited horse? An old dignified man or a dignified old man ? A lai·9e, old, wliitc, mai·ble f ounlain, or
a marb!e, wltite, old, lar9c, fvimtain? In the last case, the adjective de-'
.. noting 'matcrial should stand nex.t to the noun, then that denoting color,
" ~hen that denoting age ; such as express ordinary qualities should precede:-,
.·
"
(size, appearance, etc.) (age) (color) (material) NOUN.

If one of several adjectives unites with the noun p10re
closely than the rest to form a coinplex idea, it must stand
neareQt to the noun.
Which sounds better, a 1·ich and well-cultivated soil or a well-cultivated
and 1·ich soil? An unhealthy, most disag>·ecable, a11d moist climate, or a
moist, iinheallhy, and most disagreeable climate? · 'l'hc shortest · adj ective
should stand. first.

Adjectives expressing ordinary qualities, relating to
the same noun, are generally ananged according to their
· length· the shortest first. ·
..

- ,.

................___________________
..

-.
,. ,

58

~~

EXERCISE ON A DJECTIVES.

59

THE ADJECTIVE.

.'I

I

,,
!•I!

I'

'l
"

Periods, inte1Togatiou-points, exclmn:ition-points, etc.,
are called Punctuation-points. Inserting these points is
called Punctuating.
How do you punctuate a sentence expressing a statement-a question
- an exclamation-a command? How do you punctuate a series of adj ectives used with the same noun?

1. HousE: brown-stone, four-story, we11-builtb,l~ew.
2. SorrooL: well-disciplined, orderly, large, pu 1c.
MILL:
wooden dilapidated, old, silent, moss-covered.
Ros Es: June; F;ench, fragrant, twenty, variegated.
.
5. LADrns: beautiful, grnceful, amiable, young, modest.
6. WINTER: ·most trying, coldest, most changeable, dreanest,
dullest, most disagreeable.

!:

EXERCISE.

. Express tlie follo wing {J1'oups of sentences, eacli in one sentence,
using ADJECl'IVES p1'operly arranged:1. Let your convorsution be entertaining. Let it be in strnctivo.
Let it bo pure. L et it be truthful.
2. Youth is improvident. Youth is happy. Youth is 11ns11spicious. Youth is thoughtless.
3. Old age is calculating. Old age is querulous. It is full of
distrust. It is fond of self.

4. A small lrnuutiful summer-house Jrns been erected on the
pond. This summer-house is built of wood; it is wl1itc.
5. Tho A cademy was a large building. It was handsomelysituated. It 11 ad three stories. It had been recently erected. It
was built of brick.
G. We always like to moot with frank yonng men. We like to
meet ,,.ith young m en of energy (ene1'getic) nntl enterprise (enterprising). \Vo like to m eet with young men of good h cnrts an<l
noble minds. We like to meet with young men of even tempers.
7. Wh en_Columbus first lnnded on Sun Salvador, he found it
occupied by a hospitable race. This race was not civilizc<l. Th ey
wore of the color of copper. They had simple minds. TJ1ey did
not entertain suspicion .
8. The Rhin e is a moro useful river t11nn the W10nc. Jt is
much more pictnresqne than the RJ1011c. T11e Hhone is shorter
than the Rhine.

I

9. Of all animals, the elephant is the most powerful. Tli e elephant is also t11e largest of animals, and lrns tl1e most intclJigeuce
and sagacity.

I.

I·

1·

''

I

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1'Vrite six sentences, eaeh containing one ef tlie nouns that follow
modified by the adjectives given with it, 11roperly an·a11 ged :'

---«.>---

LESSON XL.
MY

LADY AND

HER ATTENDANTS.

There is a very useful lady whom we often meet; wo shoulJ
fin<l it hard to get aloug without her. You may not know her
name. but she can tell you the name of everybody.
w'hen slie goes out, she oft.en has an att~nJant, w 1.10 kc~ps clos~
to her, generally walking b efore, but sometunes. commg atte~ h~1.
This attendant tells every one she meets sorneth111g about h~1 m1stl'ess, and at times perhaps she t alks rather too louu. She is very
fond of comparing her latly with other p eople.
Not unfreqnently my lady is accompanied b~ two, three, or
more of such attendants, all t elling different thmgs . ~bout l~er.
wa1tin g-ma1ds.
S ome o f them are very proper persons-capital
. t'
t
'tl
She is then careful to place the one she is mo~t m una e w1 i nearest to herself; but, if she is on equal terms with all, she pl~ces tl~e
shortest first and the tallest last. So my lady and her tram are rn
everybody's mouth.
Can yon guess my riddle?
are her attcndunb:i called~

What is my lady's name

~

What

Copy the above story. vV rite n. over each noun, JJ·
over each pronoun, a. over each adjective.
. In the first paragra pb, do yot~ see this mark ( ; ~ ~
How often is it used ·~ It is called the Semicolon, and is

'·

[,I:_

>
60

J'HH VERB.

J'

'1.'HE VERB.

61

used to separate the main divisions of sentences, which
have distinct snl>jects.
What arc the two main di visions of the firs t sentence of the s tory?
Wh a t is the s ubj ec t of each? How arc they scpa ratcu ? llle11tio11 th e two
main di vision s of tl1e second sentence. 'Vhat is the subj ect of each? How
arc they separa ted ? Where <lo you nex t lin<l the semicolon used? What
does it there separate ?

• I

EXERCISE.

1V1·itc ri Composition on T1rn ADJ1wnn,, telling rzll yon know
abont it; be sure tl1at your sentences rrjfirm som cthin[J. (You 111ny
t ell what it is-w l1 a t it goes with-wl1at it m ay ex press- kin<ls-how to tell a prop er, mid h ow a co111pu1111tl, mlj cctive-l10w cum pared-w lrnt th o differen t deg rees dcno tc-w h er e un a<ljecti vo
stands in a sentence-its usefuln ess.)
Exch1wgo curn pusitious ; co rrect 0110 1.muther 's, 111arkiug errors
of every kintl.

I

-~ -

'fJIE PICNIC-PARTY,

LESSON XLI.

vVc have learn ed that a sentence may express a statement, a command, a question, or au exclamation . .
·whatever it expresses, every sentence contains at least
one word (sometimes several words taken together as
one), that does the affirming. This is tlw word of the
sentence-the VERB. Yerb·um, is the L~ tin for wo1·d.
A Verb is a word or words u se d to affirm an action or a
state.
In the following, Relcct each verb (giving all t he wo rd:.:, ii' it co n:.: is ts of
more than one), mu! state wh ether it nfTinn s nn net.io n or n state :-1. Children g row. 2. Mig ht ma kes right. 3. Dal'itl s lew Go liath. 4. Cold wa s
the blas t. u. Brazil W:l.8 cliscoverc(I by Calil'al. G. vVaHhingt.011 lllight
ha ve bce11 a ld11~, il' li e l1 ad wi8hcd. 7. L<Ju k not 11pu11 the wine when
it is red. 8. 'Vhnt a striking lesson docs the caree r o t' Nnpolcou teach !
9. To sleep-to dream- is this the end of li fe?

What are they all doing?
Two b.dies _ (r;irc picking flowers).
Ono of the ladies - .
Th e man >vit11 t.h e oar - .
On e of the boys - ; the oth er ~·
.The man in the woods - .
The little girl - .
•

The above, as given, were no t sen t ences. You made
sentences out of them how? Amo~g . th ~ words th.us
inserted each time, was a wlrnt? Undedme the ve1bs
.
't d Every sentence must contain a Verb.
ffi
t'
· tates?
msei c ·
. Diel the verbs yon used above a :·ma~ ions o1 s .
Insert in the following, verbs tliat will affirm a state.The river -

s1110oth.

Shawls and baskets -

o.n tho groun~.

. The verb affirms an action or a state about sonietliing.
This something is called the Subjec~ of the verb.

.-.

I

G2

J.'HE SUBJECT OF THE VERB.

"'l1wo ladies are wnlking on the shore." A1·e wallcing is a verh ; it afHrrns that the ladies are dohJO' something. Lad,£es is the subject of the verb are walking.
The subject may be found by asking a question with
who or what before the verb; the answer to the question
is the subject. Thus: '' \Vho are walking~" Ladies
are walking-ladies is the subject.
.
Mention the subj ects in th e sentences you completed under the cngrn.v111g? How docs the subject generall y Rtaml, as l'<'gard s il.s verb?
Look at Sentence 4, near the bottom of page GO. Mention the verb in
that sentence. Mention the subject. Which stands first?
W1mt is the first verb in Sentence 7? What is the subject of the verb
look? You can not find any. It is thou understood. (" Look not w!to ? "
Look not tlwu upon the wine wh en it is red.) Remcml.Jer that th e subjrct
of a verb expressing a command is often left out, or as we say understood.
It is generally thou, yott, or ye.

E"XERCISE.

Select the subjects in Sentences 1-D, at tlie bottom of page GO.
W1·ite in separate lists the verbs, and their subjects, as they occu1· in
· the story on page 50.
Subjects are given below. Supply with each all the approp1·iate
verbs you can, so as to niake sentences. (Thus :-Boys and girls eat
drink, play, study, work, sing, talk, whisper laugh run aro petted'
'
'
are kissed, will be caressed, may be spoiled, 'etc.) '

.

.

Boys and girls - .
Newspapers - .
A vessel - .

The moon -.
Horses - .
Water -.

Birds - .
Doctors - .
We -.

. Verbs are g~·ven below. Supply with each all tlie app1·01wiate sub.Jects you can tliink oJ; so as to mcdce sentences. (Thus :-Ducks, geese,
fish, trout, boys, men, childl'Gn, dogs, swans, frogs, eels, turtles,
snakes, I, etc., can swim.)
-

can swim.
are eaten.
is studied.

- must die.
- are raised.
- are rea<l.

- frolic.
-fly;
- have been built.

THE SUBJECT AND THE OBJECT.

63

LESSON XLII.
1. Rome was on the Tiber.
2. Rome conquered.
3. Rome conquered Carthage.
4. Carthage 'ivas conquered by Rome.
Write the above sentences. From them

o. He sleeps.
6. He loves.
7. He loves her.
8. She is loved by him.
we may learn several things:-

1. Verbs may have pronouns, as well as nouns, for
their snbjects. Which sentences aboYe Rhow this?
2. The subject may be represented as existing, or
being in a certain state. "'\Vhich sentences show this?
· 3. The subject may be represented as acting, without
reference to any object. \Vhich sentences show this?
4. The subject may be represented as acting on some
person or thing. Which sentences show this ?
The person or thing acted on by the subject is the
Object. Name the object in Sentence 3 ; in Sentence 7.

I

I

In Sentence 3, how are you able to distinguish the obj ect from the subject? In Sentence 7, what enables you to distinguish the object from the
subject? If the object stood first-h er lie loves- would there be any difficulty in distinguishing them? . Why not;-?

5. By altering the form of the verb, and using by,
subject and object may be interchanged without any
change of meaning. That is, the new subject (which
- before was the object) may be represented as acted upon
by the actor (which before was the subject).
We thus have two equivalent forms of expressi.on :Rome conquered Carthage.
= Carthage was conquered by Rome .
Did Rome conquer Carthage? = Was Carthage conquered by Rome?

-

As we have learned, some pronouns appear in different forms when used as subject and object. We must, .
tperefore, be able readily to distinguish subject from
· object, and must use the proper pronoun accordingly.

L
i
l

I

: .

•

..

(.·

-

m

',

I

(

' j'i

'1

':t
:I

·I

I

•

..i

l . 1:;
I

,;i

, ..

1'HE . VERB-ROOT.

'l.'llE OBJECT OF 1'!lE VERJJ.

64:

What is the ol.Jjectivc form of I (sec prtge 4u)? Of we?
Of Bite? Of th ey? Of who ? Of he? Write the following : 1. It is I.
2. It struck me.

3. Who was she ?
4. Wh om dill it strike?

Of thou f

G. I knew it to I.Jc him.

6. What said she?

Observe that verbs which denote existence morelyam, is, aJ•e, was, wm·e, will be, etc.-can have no object.
A pronoun following such a verb must Lo in tho snbjoctive form, if a subj ect precedes the verb-in tl1e objective
form, if an object precedes it. Give examples front the
sentences just written.
Tho usual arraugcuicut is

SUBJECT

vmw

OB.JECT.

In questious it may ue

OllJEU'l'

VEKB

SUBJECT.

Give examples from the sontonc,es just written.
'l'hc part.s of a vcru m:i.y Le Bep:tratcd by so111c other
word. vVhich seutence just writtcu furnishes ·an example~
EXEJtCISE.

.

I 1•
I

I. Supply with the following all th e appropriate o~jecls you can
think of, so as to make sentenc~s. (Thus :-Horses draw carts, wagons, carriages, gigs, cars, stages, coacl1 cs, loads, travellers, ui:;, etc.)
1. Horses draw -. 2. :From the top of the mountain you can
sec-. 3. Learned 111 cn have written -. 4. N cw York contains
- . 5. Carpenters arc constantl y making -. 6. Hotels use - in
great quantities. 7. Will you get mo sornc - ? 8. Ships carry
!l. Merchants sell - .
II. ·w rite eqiiivalent sentences (see models nea1· the bottom of page
63), underlining the suldects :N apolcon invaded flussia. ITa.s Congress admitted N cw Mexico
- as a state? Th o trade-wind s waft ships <]nickl y across the ocean.
Ala,ska wns bongl1t from Hussi:i. l)y tl1c United Stntes. We mi ght
havo avoided th ese mi stakes. Th e so uth ern shores of Europe aro
washed by the Mediterranean. llow t erribly N apolcon llJ. was
beaten by tl1 e Prnssin.ns ! They have accotuplislicd woudcrs. All
things were made by him.

65

III. Complete the following :-It is (she or her'!). I knew it to
be (him or he?) . I felt suro that it was (them or they?). ( lVliom
or wlw ?) was she? ( lVhom or who?) did you mean? (Whom or
wlw ?) did you say had i1rriv.ed? (Who or whom?) did you tell me
to entertain? (Who or whom?) do men say that I am? It was
(they or them?) that called. It was (us or we?) he meant.
IV. Write ti composition about A P10N10-PARTY, drawing your
ideas f?·om the pictu1·e on page 61. (Describe the place-the party
-what the grown folks did-how the children amused themselves
-what th ey bad to cat-what th ey found in the woods-bow wet
they got. You know it always rains at picnics.)
·

--«----

LESSON XLIII.
HELP.

'l'o help.
H elping.
He helps.

They liclpcd.
I will help.
You have helped.

The boys might ltr.lp.
She may have been helped.
Gould he liavc been helped ?

Write the above. Underline the verb in each. \fhat
is the simplest form of the verb that you have written~
This simplest form is called the Verb-Root.
From the verb-root HELP come various longer forms,
just as from the root of a rose-bush spring different stems
with longer or shorter branches.
How is the verb !telped formed from the· root HELP? How is the verb
will ltclp formed from the . root? How is the verb may ltave been liclped
formed from the root? In what three ways, then, may verl.Js be formed
from a verb-root ?
Form some verbs from the roots select-destroy-dress. ·what is the
root of must !tave passed-would have been appointed-blushing?

To lielp. How is thi s verb formed from the root?
Can it affirm any thing of a subj ect~ As to lielp can not
be limited to a subject, it is said to be in the Infinitive.
7'o unites with a verb-root, to form a verb in the Infini•
tive; as, to study, to 1>lay.
'

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. 1D .

I "~

G6

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•1.

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CONSTRUGl'ION OF :l'HE IN.F'INI1'JVE.

The infinitive may be used, in stead of a noun, as the
snbjeet of a verb; as, "To study is not lmplensant."
Or it may be used after an adjective or a noun, in se11tences beginning with it is; as, " It is not unpleasant to
study." " It is our duty to study."
"\<V c thus have three equivalent forms of expression:1. Studying is not unpleasant.
2. To study is not unpleasant.
3. It is not unpleasant to stutly.

i

I!'
,•

I

'

The infinitive may also be use<l to limit the meaning
of some other word, particularly a verb; as, "Try to (not
and) iniprove." " We were aLout to 8ta1't."
Do not use for to with the mot, to form the infinitive. '~ Titus was sent to subilue the J ews,"-uot f 01· to
subdue the Jews.
Do not separate to from the root by an i11terveni11g
word. " 'Ve should strive f aitlifitlly to pm:forni our
duty," or " to pe1form our duty f aitlifitlly,"-not to
.fait'1fnlly pmform our duty.
Just hear it rain.
They were Jct [JO.
\.Ye will make her tell.
You dare not do it.
I see it crack, and feel it shake.
Ilid him enter.
Rain, tell, enter, etc., limiting the meaning of the verbs that precede
them, arc in the infinitive, yet lack the sign of the infinitive-To. This is
because after certain verbs this sign is omittctl.

Omit To, the sign of the infinitive, after liea1·, malce,
bid, let, daTe (meaning ventiwe), see, and.feel.
EXERCISE

Write two equivalent sentences for eacli of the following, consulting
forms 1, 2, 3, nca?' the top of the page. Underline tlie infinitives in
the sentences written :-1. Sitting in the l1ousc all <lay is not healthy.
2. To repeat slan<l ers about our neighbors is not the kin<lest thing
in the world. 3. It is always improving to the mind to travel in

: ·i

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THE PARTICIPLE.

67

foreign countries. 4. It was indeed a stupendous undertaking to
connect ocean with ocean by an iron roa<l. 5. Describing one's
emotions on first beholding Niagara is a difficult task.
Write six sentences containing infinitives.
Correct errm·s :-1. Young men, on leaving college, often travel
for to see something of the world. 2. How great nn accomplishment it is to gracefully enter a room l 3. Few travellers dare to
ascend Mount Blanc. 4. Is it not better to openly censure a person than to secretly cast r eflections on him?
5. Oats will travel miles, for to get back to their old homes.
6. Self-respect should make men to give up their vile habits. 'l·
We can see these causes to operate every day. 8. They bid me to
go to Paris, and to thence proceed as quickly as possible to London.
9. Some men talk just for to display their own learning.

..

--«>----

LESSON XLIV.
They crossed the river and marched rapidly on.
Crossing the river, they marched rapidly on .
Is there any difference · of meaning in these two sentences? Which
asserts that the crossing took place? Which merely assumes or implies
that it took place ? This difference comes from using crossed in .the first
sentence and crossin[J in the second. Crossing is called a Participle.

A Participle is a form of the verb that qualifies or limits
the meaning of a noun or pronoun, by assuming some action
or state in connection with it.

Two participles may generally be formed by adding
ing and ed to the verb-root ; as, respect, respecting, respected.
Form two participles from lical-ltinder-benefit. . What is the verbroot of t!iundering-esteemed-accepting?

vVhat changes, did we find, must be made in certain
adjectives, when er and est are added to form the comparative and superlative (p. 51) ~ Similar changes are

-

/ "·

...

FORMATION OF PAR'l'IUIPLES.

EXERCISE ON PARTICIPLES.

made in certain verb-roots ·when participles arc formed.vVrite the following:piled.
-piling,
Participles of .P ILE
stunned.
- stitnn ing,
"
" STUN .
re+'e1·1·
inO'
1·ifm"l' ell.
" HEFlBH.
0'
b'
"
liun·i
ed.
"
11u1mY
-liun·y
ing,
"
loan ed.
LOAN
loan in(J',
APPLAUD applaud iug, applautl ed.
Dut OFFIDn
oiler ed.
offering,
{
Ei\U'.LOY employ iug, employed.

i when ed is added, but remains unchanged when ing is

68

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With what letter docs pi{c end (refer to what you have just written)?
·what change is made in pile, wh en ing and cd arc added?
Docs stun end with a vowel or a con sonant? l3y how many vowels is
this final consonant ( n) preceded? What change is made in stun, when
iug and cd are added ? Looking in the second list, \lo you find the final n
of lo an doubled, when its participles arc fornlcd? ·why not-is the final
consonant of loan preceded by one vowel or more ?
Does r efe1· end with a vowel or a consonant? By how many vowels
is this final consonant (r) ·preceded? Which syllabic of r efer' receives the
.ACCENT, or stress of the voice?
·w hat change is made in rcjci·, when ing
and cd arc added? Do you find the final consonant of applaud and o.fjer
doubled in the second. list, when their participles arc form ed? Why nothow many vowels precede the final consonant of applaud? Which syllable
of ojjer Is accented?
'Vith what Jetter docs lwrry end? Is the final '!/ preceded by a vowel
or a consonant? "What change is made in liurry, when ing is added?
What change is made in hurry, when ed is added? Do you find the final
'!/ of employ changed to i, when cd is added? Why not-is the final v of
employ preceded by a vowel or a consonant ?

In adding ing and ed, to form participles,
1. Final e of the verb-root is rejected; as, -.*
2. In r oots of one syllable, nnd those of more than
one if acccnt.e<.l on the last syllaLl e, a iinal co11suna11t preceded. by but one vowel is douLled; as, - .
3. Final y, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to
*Select an example of the rule each time from the above list.

.69

added; as, - .
But retain finale, if preceded by e or o, when ing is
added; as,fee,.f eeing j !we, lweing.
· Never double x; niix, mixing, mixed.
EXEltCISE.

Write the infinitive and two pm·ticiples of hate; woo; defraud ;
disagroo; fit; army; bare; vex; omit; attract; survey; ply; panT
der; decoy ; drown; fix; pur; proclaim; shoe; shy; plunder.
Change to equivalent' sentences containing participles, accorcling to
the example at the commencement of this Lesson :-l. W nshington left
his camp-fires burning, and silently withdrew his men. 2. If we
write often, we shall soon learn to write well. (Commence witli .by
and a participle.) 3. When we study a subject diligently, we are

;·
I

sure to muster it in tho end. 4. Columbus knew that an eclipse of
the moon was about to take place, and gathered the natives around
him. 5. Tho good man dies, and is loved and esteemed by nll that
knew him. 6. The \vicked flee when no man pursueth, for they
are harassed by a guilty conscience.

-

-»---

LESSON XLV.
-"Leaving his camp-fires burning, ·washington withdrew his men."
What is the first participle in this f'entence? Write the part of; the
se11tcnce which is made up of leaving and the ,\·ords dependent on itL eaving his camp-fires burning.
Such a division of a sentence is called a Clause ; and us this clause contains a participle, it is called a Participial Clause.
A Clause is part of a sentence containing a verb, but
not cx11ressing a complete thought •
A Participial Clause is a clause containing a participle.
In the example at the commencement of the Lesson, by what point is
the participial clause set off? Might the participial clause have been intro·
duced elsewhere-for instance, "'IN ashington, leaving his camp-fires burn,:

J
·11
,1

70

PAR'l'ICIPIAL CLAUSES.

/I

·I
·I

I

I

I
I
,11
1
11
11
11
11

·1

How do you find the participial clause punctu-

A 1mrticipial clause is generally set off from the rest of
the sentence with tl1e comma.

1:- participial clause modifying the subject of a verb,
particularly if long, generally prece<les the suuject. It
should always do so, when the subject is a pronoun.
"Rl'.ding along, lie suddenly beheld the castle · " not
, , 71
'
.ne, ri'd.
,ing al ong, suddenly beheld the castle." '
" 'While standing on deck, th e most beautiful lnndscapcs passed in succession before our eyes." ll cre the participial clause modifies landscapes,
the subject of the verb that follows; hut it was we that stood on deck not
the landscapes. 'Ve must, therefore, make we the subject: "·while s;amling on deck, we beheld a succession of the most beautiful landscapes." Or
we may substitute we and a verb for the participle: ""Vhilc we were standing on deck, the most beautiful landscapes," etc.

Sec that a partici1lial clause is used with the noun or
pronoun it is intended to modify.
"Cccsar's crossing the Rubicon was the cause of war." 'Vhat was the
cause of war? Crossing the Rnbicon. Whose crossing the Rubicon ?
Ccesa1·'s. Herc in stead of the participle's modifying the noun, the noun is
made to modify the participl e, and the noun is in the possessive form. A
pronoun used under like circumstances would also have to be in the possessive form . "His crossing the Rubicon was the cause of war."

A 1101111 01· pronoun used to mo1lify a participle must be
in the possessive fonn.
EXERCISE.
1 ,

11

11

I

71
:

ing, withdrew his men"?
ated in this case?

. But
. when it modifies the object of a verb ' the connec:
.
tion is often too close to admit of a comma; as, "'Ye saw
a torrent rusliing lieadlong tli1·ougli the valley."

' 1

EXERCISES ON P.AR'l'IOIPLES.

Correct e·rr01·s :-1. Kniting, weaveing, sawing, splitin g, grin<ling, printting, an<l <loing a hnn<lred other necessary things, we find
in steam one of our most useful servants. 2. Shune<l 1111d hntee<l
by all, who now would envy Benedict Arnold '~ 3. No 0110 can

count on fortunes always favoring him. .4, Napoleon insisting on
too much was the source of unnumbered evils to France. 5. Nowadays we seldoni hear of a man sacrificeing himself for others. •
fl. I, dcsireing to be of assistance, promptly offered my services. 7. By appliing ourselves diligently ·to business, success is
·almost sure to follow. 8. There was no time to lose, for they,
seing their opportunity, at once tried to outflank us. 9. Though
plyed with questions, no information could be got out of the witness. 10. You, remembering the golden rule, should overlook the
wrongs you 11ave suffere<l. 11. Propagateing his doctrines with the
sword Mohammed soon widely extended bis new religion ..
· --~~--

LESSON XL VI.

Participial clauses some.times enable us to express
neatly and forcibly in one sentence what might otherwise require two or more sentences. Thus:The Romans were obliged to abandon their distant provinces.
They bad enough to do to defend themselves against the barbarians.
These barbarians were now pressing upon them from the north.
Combined in 011e sentence :-Obliged to abandon their distant provinces,
. the Romans had enough to do to defend themselves against the barbarians,
now pressing upon them from the north,
:EXERCISE.

Fo1'1n into one sentence each group given below, using pa1·ticipial
clauses : . 1. The nllies next laid siege to the strong fortress of Sevastopol.
This was situated in the Crimea.
:
2. The moon revolves round tho earth. The moon is carrie<l
with the earth round the sun.
3. Onr prevailing system of notation was introduced into
Europe by the Arabians. It was probably dedved by them from
the Hindoos. It was not generally adopted before the fourteenth
century.

DIFFERENT FORMS OF 1'HE VERB.

G011fPOUND . VERB-FORMS.

4. The hippopotamus is possessed of an enormous appetite. It
has a stomach capable of ltolcling five or six bushels of food. This
animal is very destructive to tho culti vateJ lands that lie in the
neighborhood of its haunts.
G. 11i ppopotum uses arc gregarious u11 i111 als.
TJ1cy collect i11
herds of twenty or thirty. They make tho 11i1· resound with their
snorts, as they play together.
6. Our forefathers d eclared their ind ependence of the mothcrcountry. Th ey staked their lives an<l fortunes on the issue of the
war. This wnr was forcetl npon them hy Great Britain.
TV1·ite twelve sentences appro1wi1ite to the engraving on page G, containing pa1'ticipial clauses or infinitives; as,
Frightened by the noise, the lambs scampered away.
These girls look as if they like<l to ride on the 11ay.

These different Compound Forms are made by combining the root call, or the participle called, with a number
of little lielping words-be, liave, do, slwll, will, ?nay, can,
must, miglit, coitld, would, sliould, etc.
Besides other forms, we thus get compound infinitive
forms and compound participles, construed like the infinitive and participles already consiclercd : -

72

- --«-----

From one verb-root we get many verbs, vvbich differ
in their manner of affirming, the time they express, etc.
Thus, with verbs from the root CALL, we may affirm the
act positively, as present, past, or future:I !tave called.
I !tave been called.

I slwll call.
I s!tall be called.

I is a pronoun, and no part of the verb. It is used with the verbs
above, in order to make sentences. w·hich of the above verbs express
present time? ' Vhieh express past time? Which, future? Which afnrm
the act as pcrfor:med by th e subject?

Or we may affirm the act as possible, necessary, or

ob~::~:~n'. :::,,

,,.;gAf, coul<l, woukl, dwul<\

I~=::~:~-"·
l

have been called.

Or we may affirm t11e act as a condition; as,
If I be called, I will go.

B eing called.
Having called.
Having been called.

"He having arrived, we were ready for the journey." Here lie j3
neither subject nor object, but is used with the participle having arrived,
independently of other words in the sentence, and is in the subjective form.
Observe that the participial clause is set off with the comma.
.A pronoun used independently in a
must be in the subjective form.

LESSON XL VII.

I call. I do call.
I am called.

He is said lo !tave called.
He is about lo be called.
He was to have been called.

If I were called, I would go.

73

participial clause

EXEH.CISE .

Complete by supplying compound infinitive forms :-1. The Icelanders are said - the mainland of America before Columbus . . 2.
It is not agreeable - . 3. It would have been no more than right
for America - Columbia. 4. - is the lot of many good men.
5. Dr. Jones was - , but he was defeated by a rival can<lidute.
6. Try - for your virtues.
Correct e1'1·ors :-1. To constantly be scolded for what one can
not help, is intolerable. 2. Many go to Milan, for to be trained in
music. 3. He having been once <lecei ved is likely to be suspicious
h ereafter. 4. The colonial cause was snve<l r.y Washington being
appointed to the chief command. 5. Having been carried past our
station, the cars unfortunately did not stop for the next ten miles.
· 6. The decree was enforced, in spite of its having beeIJ. ipegally
. obtained. '7. (They or them?) having charged up tl1e hill, the battle became general. 8. Him having beeJ.t re~oreq, affairs were
morn discreetly managed.
Combine in one sentence, with the a·i d of pa1·ticipial clauses, as in
the last L esso.n : 4

_(

74

A UXJLIARJE'S.

THE ,'A UXILJ ARIE'S BE, 'HA VE, . DO.

1. Tlie Czar next proccc<lc<l to England. H e Jrn<l obt11ined in
Holland such lrnowlcdgo of the art of ship-building as he desired.
(Commence with H aving obtained in Holland, etc.)
2. We have been r ecognizul us the owners. The rents are,
therefore, payable to ns.
3. The locomotive was brought into a prncticnl form by Stephenson. Railroads soon thereafter came to be the great instruments of progre~s.
.4. The heavy rain ceased. The snn burst forth from behind the
clouds in all his glory. A bonutif'ul bow spanned tho firrn:uncnt.
5. The Cnpe of Good llopo was doubled by Vasco <la Guma.
Other Portuguese navigators follow ed up tho discovery. A lucrative trndo with the East Indios was thus soon established.

·Singular Fo1·ms.-I afn now happy.· Thon a1·t pale.
He is well ; she is better; it is best; John is sacl.
Plural Forni.-W e are here ; you are merry; they
are noisy; the fields are green.
..What form do you find used with I? vVith t!wu ?
With lie, she, it, or a singular noun? What is the only
form for all plural subjects? Learn these forms, as presented below with the pronouns:S1NGULAn.

PLURAL.

SINGULAR.

LESSON XL VIII.
I have loved.
I have a dollar.

I am.
Thou art.
He, she, it-every singular noun-is.
We, you, they-all plural nouns-are.

Learn, in like manner, the present of nAvE : -

----¢~ --

If I be loved.
If I be happy.

75

I do love.
I do my duty.

Auxiliary m eans ./ielping; and the little verbs which
help to form compound verbs are callccl Auxiliarie~.
Some of the auxiliaries-Im, HAVE, and Do-are nse<l
also as principal verbs. Look at the cxarnp1cs at the commencement of the Lesson, and tell in which sentences be
liave, and do, are used as auxiliaries. \Vhich verbs in'
those examples have objects?
Those forms of the verb which affirm an action as
now taking place, or a state as now existing, are called
Present. The participle in ing-bein~', liaving, doing-is
the Present Participle.
Let us look at the Present of the verbs BE HAVE and
'
' and
DO. 'I'}10 Pres~nt forms of BE are quite irregular,
chan~e in some cases according to the subject, as may be
seen from the following exmnples :· ·

PLURAL.

I have.
Thou hast.
He, she, it-every singular noun-has (or hatli*).
We, you, they-all plural nouns-have.

Learn, in like manner, the present of DO:SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

I do.
Thou dost.
He, she, it-every singular noun-does (or doth*).
We, you, they-all plural·nouns-do . .

TVlw, w!iicli, and · t!iat, used as subjects, require the
same form .of the verb as the pronoun or noun for which
they stand : I w!w am ; tlwu tluit art; gold whicli is.
Yon and l= we. He and I= we. You and he= you.
EXEROISE.
I

Supply tlie proper part of BE, rrA vE, or no :-1. I - sure that all
men sometimes- wrong. 2.. A poet says, "Whatever-, is right."
3. Thou - a sl1adow on thy brow. 4. - thou a friend? I-.
5. Lives there a man who - not 13in? 6. Whales - less numerous
than they were. 7. He - (solemnf01·m) not listened; be - (solemn
form) not J1ear.
• The less common form, used In solemn and poetic style:

;i

76

PAST FORMS OJi' BE, HAVE, DO.

77

EXERCISE ON VERBS.

8. We, who....:...._ the chief sufferers, - come to complain. 9. It is
t11on that - the aggressor. 10. They who - right- their reward.
11. You and I, who - been waiting so long, will now take our
turn. 12. y OU and he - not ::mswcr. 13. Ile anu I - going.
14. Even I, who - surroundeu by·cornforts, know what sorrow-.
15. The foliage - fresh, the fields - charming.
--~:---

LESSON XLIX.
I was loved.
I was happy.

I had friends.
W c had sport.

I did love.
W c did right.

Here we hn.vc othe1· forms from the verb-roots, nE, HAVE, and no. In
which of the above sente11ces is was used as an auxiliary? Had? Did?
·w hich of these verbs have objects? :bo they affirm an act as now taking
place, or a state as now existing ?

Forms of the verb which affirm that an act took place
or a state existed, are called Past. Was, liad, and did,
are Past forms of the verbs Im, HAVE, anu DO. The participle in ed is the Past I>articiplc.
lVas is used with all singular subjects except tlwit.
Plural subjects require were. Tims:SrnauLAR.

I, he, she, it-every singular noun-was.

PLURAL.

Thou wast. Thou who wast.
·we, you, they-all plural nouns-were.

IIad jg used with all subjects, singular or plural, except tlwu. Tlwit requires liads t. Th us : I, he, she, it, we, you, they-all nonns--had.
Thou hadst. Thou who hadst.

.Did is used with all subjects, singular or plural, except tlwu. Tliou requires didst. Thns : I, he, she, it, we, you, th ey-all nouns-did.
Thou didst. Thou who didst.

The Past Participles of nE, HAVE, and Do, are quite
irregular. BE mak~s been ; HAvE, liad; no, done.

I
-·~p-,/,

-- . _.. ~·
..0 ·7,-~fi: /
. ~,,.. , · --,.6" /; /- - A!f'J11

~j:_---=-~ -/.7///

/ '77~ ,~~

'

,

'l°IIE COUNTRY SCHOOL-IlOUSE.

The scl1ool is shaded with trees.
Does it not look pleasant?
The children are at play.
They are having fine sport.
Do yon see the teacher reading?
She has a book in her hand.
~
The view from the window is fine.
c A man is uriving a mowing-machine along the road.
Two of the girls have their eyes on a young robin,
The robin does not fly very far at a time.
Do not those stately maples make a charming ii;hade?
Write the above sentences, placing v. over each verb (01· part of a
'
compound verb), and s. over each subject.

1'/ie verbs in the above sentences are Present. Change them to the
corresponding Past forms:-" The school-house was shaued with
trees," etc.
,
From the engraving, w1·ite six sentences containing Present forms
of the verb. Write six containing Past forms.

78

-

EXERCISE ON VERBR

THE :tJ.·uxJLDlRIES WILL, SHALL.

··zz

LESSON L.

Verbs, as we have seen, may affirm an action or state
as present or past. Tbcy may also affirm what is about
to be or take place. Such forms of the verb arc ca1led
Future; and in these the auxiliaries will and 8liall appear.
Thus:-·
I shall go to-morrow. lie will stm·t immediately.
will r etitrn. You will not leave me.
But, Thou wilt not leave me. 'l'hou shalt not kill.

vV c s!tall see.

They

1Vill and 8liall change to wilt an<l 8'ialt when tliou is
the subject, but remain unchanged for other subjects.
The remaining auxiliaries, also, change only when
tliou is the subject. But tliou is not used in ordi11ary discourse. Except in solemn or poetical style, we use you,
whether addressing one person or more; these auxiliaries,
therefore, are very seldom changed.
The forms of the remaining auxiliaries required with
tliou, in solemn or poetical sty le, end in 8t : Musr-thou must (no change).
MIGHT -thou miglttst (miglde.~t).
HAD -thou liadst.
Cou1,n -thou couldsl (couldest).
CAN -thou canst.
"\Vouw-thou wouldst (wouldest).
MAY -thou mayst (or mapesl).
SHOULD-thou slwuldst (slwuldest).
Write after T!tou all the auxiliaries you can think of (fifteen, if possible), in the proper form :-Tlwu art, wast, etc.

1Vill and 8liall may not be used at pleasure, the one
for the other. To express simply what is about to take
place, sh.all is used with I and we j will is used with all
other subjects.
I s!tall start next week. We s!tall be back to-morrow.
start next week. The bovs will be back to-morrow.

79

But, He will

1Vill used with I or we, and sliall with other subjects,
imply determination as well as futurity.

•
.1
"I
go "-that. is I have determ111eu
to go. "vVe will speak ' "-it
.wt
'
'
"
l ll 0 b "-"'!'hey sltall be pun8
is our determination to speak.
He ia
ey,
. d. . t .
D"d
ti ie F 1·enchrnan
who enc• md e1·
. ·
ished "-such
is my determmat10n.
1
d? ·
·
ror, :, I will drown, nobody shall save me!" express what he mten e

What should he have said?
EXEI~CISE.

Change the verbs in the f_ollowing sentences, s.o as t~ n~ake
what is affirmed JJluture. Thu~-1. The children will be tireu of
playing.
·
.
Tl 10 fl 0 wcrs bloomed
1 The children are tired of playmg. 2·
d
.
swee~ly by the window of the school-house. 3. The b~rd escap e
· d ow. 4 · G ood-natured children P1ay
from the cage near the wm
.
pleasantly together. 5. When recess is over, ~l~ey go back to the~r
lessons. 6. I asked the children to let me JOlll them at play.
.
Sue helped Laura to catch the robin.
Write six sentences containing Future forms of the verb ; let tlie
engraving on page 77 suggest the thoughts.
. Complete the following by inserting auxilia~·i~s :-L Col~mb~s
thought that he - reach the East Indies by smlmg westhwa1_, . . :
"f
study 3 Close t e uoo1s,
you - prepare your l esson, I you ·. tlie oils are open.
nobody- leave the room. 4. We - vote, if ·fth p
7 You
5 W c - vote in spite of you. 6. They - go, l
ey can.
.
.
<.:!he
not
be
allowed
to
go
home
alone.
d
8
.
b
k"ll
_have een 1 e .
· .:i
--~~ --

LESSON LI.
Review the present ot be, have; and do (page 75).
d d"d (
76)
Review the past forms of these verbs-was, had, an
i
page
.

Havjna- learned the changes required in the auxai~1d·ies
0
for different subjects, we are now prepa~• ed to cons1 er
.
all the forms of the verb.
.d '
Let us take the verb Rule as an e~ample, an.cl cons1 er
first the forms th_a t represent the subJect as actmg.

/

80

PRESENT Fom.rn.- I rule; " ·e rule; yon rule; they 1·nle.
But, Ile 1·ules; sl1 0 rnles; it rnles; t he king 1· 11.Zes.
In prayer or poetry, Thou 1·ulest; the Lord ntletli.
For nll singular subj ects other than I, tbe common form is
rules; for I, and all plural subjects, rule.
PAST FonMs.-I, 110, she, we, you, they, 1·uled. The king
1·uleil; kings ruled.
In ~rayer or poetry, Th~ 1·:tledst.
For all subj ects, t he common form is rulcll.
COMPOUND Fomrn.-I:lave 'l'uled.
I, we, you, tl1 ey, k in gs, luive ruled.
Uc, ~he, th e kin g, ha8 rule1l.
Iu prayer or poetry, Th ou lrnst 1·uled, h e liatlt nded.
For all singular subj ects other tli::rn I, the common form is
llns ruled; fo r I aml all plural subj ects, June ruled.

jI

I!

Ii

The other compound forms, given below, are unchanged except with tliou, which is rarely used in ordinary style. The forms with tlwu "\Vere given 0 11 page 78.
Had ruled.
Will rule.
Shull rule.
:May rul e.
Can rnle.
Mu st rnle.
:Might rule.
Could rul e.
W ou ltl rule.
Shoukl rul e.

Will have rul ed.
Shall have rul ed.
May 11:we rul ed .
Can liavc rul ed.
llfost ha vc ruled.
.Mi ght have rul ed.
Could have rul ed.
W 011 ld 11 avc rnl cd.
Should Lave ruled.
l NFINITIVEs. -(N o change.) To 1·itle. To lulVe ruled.
PARTICIPLES.-(No change.) Ruling. H aving ruled.
EXERCJSJL

TVrite tlte parts of tlw verb LOVE, following tlwse of nuLE as
given above :First p resent all tlie forms used witli I :1 love, I loved, I have loved, I l1ad loved, I will lo ve, etc.

81 '

THE VERB BE.

FORLlfS OF TIIE VERB.

Then tliefo1·ms used witli he:He lov es, he loved, he has lov ed, he had loved, etc.
T/ien tlie forms used witli we:We Jove, we lo ved, we have loved, we had loved, etc.
Tlien tlwforms used witli you:you lo ve, you loved, yo u h ave loved, you had loved, etc.
Tlien the forms used with they : They love, they loved, they liave loved, they lrnd loved, etc.
Then thef01·ms 1tsed ·w ith th ou, in solemn style:Thou lov cst, thou lovedst, thou hast loved, etc.
---¢~--

/

LESSON LIL

We shall now take up the verb BE. The present was
given on page 75 ; the past, on page 76. Repeat them.
When if or tlwitgli precedes the present and past,
we sometimes have be an d were, used without change for
different subjects : if I be, if thou be, if he be, if we be ;
though I were, though thou were, though he were, etc.
B e is the form used in commands: be (thou, you).
The participles of BE are being, been. By combining
the irregular participle been with the different auxili aries,
as in the case of IWLE, we get the compound forms of BE:
Have been, had been, will be, sh all be, may be, can be, etc.
lNFINITIVEs.-To be. To have been.

BE as we have seen, is both a principal verb and :m
'
auxiliary. By combining it in its varions parts with the
participle RULED, we get those forms of the verb RULE
that represent the subject as acted upon. · Thus :.

Am ruled .
Was ruled.
Have been ruled.
Had been ruled.

Will be rul ed.
Shall be rul ed.
May be ruled.
Can be ruled.

Must be ruled.
Migl1t be rul ed.
Could be ruled .
Would be ruled. ·

',

82

EXERCISES ON VERBS.

. FORMS IMPLYING CONTINUANCE.

Shonld be ruled.
Must have been rnled.
Will have been ruled.
Might have been ruled.
Shall have bee n rul ed.
Could have been ruled.
May have been rul ed.
Would have been ruled.
Can have been rnl cd.
Should l1ave been ruled.
(If I, thou, etc.) be rnl cd.
(JJ I, tlioit, etc.) were rul ed.
De ruled (in commands).
INFINITIVES.
To be ruled. To have been ruled.
P .auTIOIPLES. Rule<l.
Being ruled.
Having bee n rnl cd.

!'

been wonderfully changed by railroads within ri. few years. 4. The
name of Morse will be handed down by historians as one of the
great geniuses of the age . . 5. Geography, if properly presented,
can be masterell by quite young stndents. {l. Coultl the world have
been movetl by Archimedes with a lever, if he had had a place to
stand on~
- --¢C>-- -

LESSON LUI.

He has been attacked, defeated, and driven back.
NoT, He has been attacked, ltas been defeated, and ltas been driven back.

.When similar .forms of different verbs are u sed together, it is generally inelegant to repeat the auxiliary.
Use the auxiliary ·w ith the first only.
EXERCISE.

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Of the pa1·ts of the verb LOVE that rep1·esent tlte subject as acted
upon, w1·ite the following :First the forms used with I : I am loved, I was loved, I have been lov ed, etc.
1'/ien tlte forms used with li e :1
He is loved, he was loved, he has been loved, etc.
Correct tliefollowing :-1. She might have been hurt, or miglit
even have been killed. 2. I h ope th at I may be esteemed, may be
respected, and may be lo ved, by all good people. 3. Having abdicated and having retired to a monastery, Charles V took a strange
fancy to celebrate hi s own funeral. 4. Thon wilst not betray us I
/
5. I shall brave every danger, to accomplish this r esult. G. Thou
shallt not see th e paling cheek. '7. Charles may succeed, if be
woitld try ; he might get the prize, if he will study.
F01· the following write equivalent sentences, in which tlie subject
ioill be represented as the actor,- and itnderline the subject. Thus:1. Tra,jan added Dacia to the Homan Empire.
1. Dacia was added· to the Roman Empire byTrajan. 2. Vaccination was first practised by Dr. J enner. 3. The great West has

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"James is working. He has been working sine~ daylight."
Mention the subjects of these sentences. Are they represented as acting or acted upon? What auxiliaries are used? With what participle are
they combined?
.
Wh en we say James is working, we bring out the idea clearly that the
work is now going on. We can not properly use such a form in the case
of every verb, for continuance is implied in the meaniI~g of. som ~ verbs
without any special form. It would not do to say Jam es is lavzn9 his family, for continuance is sufficiently implied in the common form wves. _

·· · To denote continuance, some verbs m!lke distinc~
forms, by combining the auxiliary BE in its <:1iffcrent parts
with the participle in ING. Thus:. Am ruling, was 1·uling, liave been 1•uling, etc. Sup.· ply the rest according to the forms at the bottom of page
· · 81 and top of page 82.-Participle, I-Iav_ing been ruling. ·
The forms just given-arn ruling, wa.s ruling, etc.represent th e subject as acting; but . nouns used as sub~
jects with such forms are sometimes represented as acted
upon. T!w /io,,,tses were building means that the building was don·e to the houses, that they were in course of
erection.
1

Yuu do not try. l do try.
Yuu did not try. I did try.
Do the first two of these sentences imply present or past time? The
last two ? What are the auxiliaries used ? · ..
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NEGATIVE AND E'JfPHATIC FOR,lfS.

In ordinary language, the auxiliary do is used witlJ
not and the verb-root as n present " ueo-ati ve form " an<l
.
b
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d id as a past " negative form " .
·
Without not, these forms with do and did are "emphatic,"-used when it is desired to make a specially
strong statement. See examples above.
Do is also used in commands or emphatic requests.
Do go; do not SJJeak.
Remember tho cm1>lrntic forms for diiicrcut subjects:
I

I-and all plural subjects-do rule.
Il e, she, it-every singnlar noun-does rule.
Thou dost rule.
I, be, she, it-all plural su~jects-did rule.
Thon didst rule.
EXERCISE.

. Of the fo1'rns of the. verb EAT which denote continued action,
write the parts used ioith all plural nouns and pronouns, making
we, you, they, m e n, in tiwn tlie suldect :W o are eatin g, you were eatin g, they have been eating, men
had been eating, we will be eating, etc.
Oliange to th e co1·1·espondi11g emphatic and negative f01·ms :-I
tried (did t1·y, did not try). Ho walks (does ioalk, does not walk).
Th ey travell ed. You complain. W e w ere entering.
I think.

People talked.

Speak.

They are working 1iard.

Change the verbs to the eon·esponding fo1'ms that denote continued action :-I dream ed (was d1·eaming) . He will preach. The
girls must have played. I do not deceive you. We had discussed
the point. You mi ght h ave roll ed in wealtb. The '~ind has roared
all <lay. They should have studied.
1Vrite a Composition on TnE ScnooL-HousE (see engraving, page
77). (Describe it-th e co untry aronnd-tl1c tcacl1cr-tho stndiestho plays at recess. Tell about your own Hcl1uol-vacn.tio11s-wl1nt
yon go to school for-liow school rn:iy be rnatl c vieusant or unpleasant-whether it is a good .thing to lrnve schools.)

THE. USE OF AUXILIARIES.

85

LESSON LIV.
Must you leave?
Do I trouble you ?
Should she not attend?
Did he answer correctly ?
Could he not have written?
Have I been dreaming?
What
mark
follows each? What docs
·write the above sentences.
each express? ·w hat two words would answer these questions? Underline the auxiliaries. With what kind of word docs each sentence commence? If we place this auxiliary after the subject (I do troitble you-you
must leave), what will each sentence express, in stead of a question P

A question that can be answered by yes or no is often
formed by eommencing a sentence with an auxiliary.
Each auxiliary has its own significance, and must be
used acco1·dingly.

Do not interchange MAY and CAN. Jfay implies permission ; can, ability. A scholar, asking to be dismissed,
should say, ".May (not can) I go~"
Observe the same distinction in using WOULD and
SHOULD after a verb expressing past time, as in using will
and sliall (page 78). That is, .
To express simple futurity, use should with I and we,
~oitld with all other subjects; as," I thought we should
go." "We supposed it would rain."
To express determination, use would with I and we,
-slwitld with all other subjects; as, "We resolved that
we would stay." " I told you she slwuld wait."
Auxiliaries are used together in certain connections.
Thus we say, "I will go, if I can."
But, "I would go, ff I could."
"I have arranged it so that you may go." .
But, "I had arranged it so that you might go."
" If you will remain, I may go."
But, "If you would remain, I mi{Jht go."
· "If you have determined to stay, I can go."

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1'li.E' USE' OF A l!XnJANIES.

EXB"'ROISE ON VERBS. .

'l'he auxiliary HAVE (and so, of course, liast and lias)
implies past time connected ·with the preseut, aud rnust
not be used to express past time simply.

In tlie following sentences, relating to tlte picture, malce the sub}ects plural, and such other changes a8 ~1·e re~uired in consequence.
Thus :-1. In the fireplace logs 11re burnmg brightly.
1. in the fireplace 11 log is bul'lling brightly.
2. Th e old andiron reminds us of times long past.
3. A shelf may . be seen above the antique mantel-piece.
4.
the wall 11 lrnndsome picture is hanging.
5. The hand of the blindfolded boy was extended.
6. ' Tho little girl was standing on tiptoe, watching her brother.
7. The chair has been removed out of the children's way. ·
8. A good boy always likes to play with his sisters.

"Saratoga lws been long celebrated for its mineral waters;" not wa&
long celebi·ated, as its celellrity extends up to the present tim e. "It wa& the
scene of important events in the Revolution ; " not !ta& been tlie &ccne, as
past time simply is to be expressed.

In combining two or more auxiliaries ·witlt a participle or verb-root, soc that they can all be properly uscJ
with it.

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"She lias walked as far ns yo n can.'' As yon can what? Can walked,
for the participle previously used lllUSt be supplied. Correct uy inserting
the verll-root, required with can: "She has walked as far as you can walk.'~

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EXEH,CISE.

Referring to tlte engravin,r; on page 87, wr1:te twelve appropriate
8entences, eo:pressing qu estions tlwt can be answered by yes 01. no.
Thus:-" Will he catch his brother?"
O!tange the statements in tlie last paragrnpli of tlie Exe1·cise wi.dm·
Lesson LII., page 82, to questions, commencing tlie sentences witli
au:viliaries. Thus:-" Was Dacia aJdcd," etc.

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Co1'1'ec t en•ors :-1. "You can go," said tlie teacher. 2. They
would not come unto me, that they nrny r eceive my blessing. 3. I
thought it likely I would see you. 4. I heard that you should leave
on Monday. 5. Pompeii lrns been destroyed, 79 .a. D., by nn eruption of Vesuvius. G. There they have been all last week. 7. I
resolved to work h arder than l lw<l ever before.
8. Can yon answer as many questions as I have? !J. Did they
not cross th e border, and marched rapidly to the north ? 10. Bot·
any has formerly been stuJi ed but littl e. 11. Steam was a very
useful servant to man. 12. If she wouhl intercede for n 1c, he may
grant tho favo1'. 13. I fix ed matters so tlint you may leave. 14.
She might play, if sho wishes. l5. Men may try, even if they
can not. alwa5:s succeed . lG. I thought we would take passage on
the Oelt1c, winch lrna arrived yesterday.

BLIND - MAN'S-DUFF.

Write a Composition on BLIND-MAN'S-BUFF. i (Tell how the
game is played-what danger there is in it-how the -players sot~e­
times cheat. What does the above engraving represent? Descnbe
the room-the fire-the mantel-the walls-the view from the windo·w. How many children are there? What are they ~loing? W?o
is looking on? Whom do you think the boy will C_!Ltch? . W~y 1.
What kind of a family does it seem to be?)
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PRACTICAL DIREC1'10NS AS TO

LE~SON

LV.

Errors are more apt to be made in verbs than in any
other words. Look at the following : .

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'VRONG. 1. A large crop of peaches are expected in Delaware.
2. Bell's "Travels in Mexico" have been widely read.
.
3. He was one of those unfortunates that is always poor.
Wnte the above sentences; let us sec why they arc wrorw.
'Vlmt is the subject of Sentence 1 ? Is crop singular or p~ural? Is its
verb, are expected, singular or plural? What, then, shou ld the verb be
ch~nged to? D~ not make a mistake in the verb, in eonsequcuce of its
bcmg separated from the subj ect by an intervening noun .
. In Sentence 2, the suuj ect is Travels in M exico. 'l'hi s is one title-de~otmg one book-and th e verb should be si11gular, though the noun Travels
1s plural. Correct the sentence.
In Sentence 3, the s ubject of i.~ is the pronoun that. That st.auds for
unfortunates, which is plural. Th erefore the subj ect is plural, uud the verb
should be plural. Correct the sentence.

Ile sure to use a singular form of the verb with a singular subject-a plural verb with a 11Iural subject.

I. Iloncsty and energy lead to success.
2. Courage, gentleness, and fid elity, are traits of the mastiff.
3. To be slandered by the envious and persecuted by the wicked are
common trials of the good.
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·write the above sentences. Underline the subject.s in Sentence I. Ily
':hat a_re they connected? Mention the verb; is it singular or plural ?~nderhne the subjects in Sentence 2. By what arc they connected? 1\fcnt10n the verb; is it singular or plural ?-In Sentence 3, we have two clauses
for Eubjccts; underli11e them. Dy what arc I.h ey connected? :Mention the ·
verb in Sentence 3. Is it singular or plural?

Two or more singular subjects taken together (whether
and connects them or is uude1·stood) require n Jllurnl verb.

One of the subjects thus taken together may Le understood; as, "Smith's an<l Brown's house are alike "-that
is, Smith's lwuse and Brown's house.
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'THE CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS.

89

When the two subjects denote but one person or
thing, a singular verb is required; as, " The attorney and
counsellor next door does .a large business."
EXERCISE.

Combine in one sentence, making nece8sary changes in the verb,
etc. Thus:The zebra is a native of Africa.
Tho giraffe is a native of Africa.
Combined :-The zebra and the giraffe are natives of Africa.
1. Butter is mado from milk. Cheese is made from milk.
2. Gold is a precious metal. Silver is a precious metal.
3. Swearing is a repulsive and degrading sin. Lying is a repulsive and degrading sin. Stealing is a repulsive and degrading sin.
4. Com does not thrive in cold climates. Cotton does not thrive
in coltl climates.
5. Mississippi has been and is a great cotton-raising state. Alabama has been . and is a great cotton-raising state. Georgia has
been and is a great cotton-raising state.
G. Washington was born in Virginia. Jefferson was born in Virginia. Madison was born in Virginia. Monroe was born in Virginia.
Complete the folloioing :-1. He and I -. 2. The steamboat
and the railroad-. 3. Faith, hope, and charity, -. 4. The lion
and the tiger -. 5. Geogrnphy and history -. 6. Iron, copper,
lead, and tin, -. '7. To r elieve the poor and comfort the affiicted -.
Complete the following, by supplying two 01· more singu'lar subjects connected by and :-1. - wait for no man. 2. As the sun
rose, - were singing. 3. - do not grow in warm climates. 4.
Are not - am on~ the chief vices of the clay? 5. - have been
m11de states within our recollection. G. - are imported from
Europe. '7. What large animals the - are!
Slwio why the following sentences are iorong, and correct tliem :1. A six weeks' trip have quite restored his health. 2. A rosy
cheek, a good appetite, a robust frame, is among th e blessings of a
country life. 3. Ray, with his friends, were first in the field. 4.
The remembrance of past joys are always pleasant. 5. The physi-

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THB' 00.NSTRUOTION OF VERBS.'

EXERCISE ON VERBS.

cian and surgeon wh ose 11·ifc tlietl ycstertln.y wcro nwn.y n.t tho
tim e. 6. "l•'acts and Faneics," Dr. L.'s new work, aro not in
the liurnry. 7. Tl1 e "whistling oyster" is one of the greatest
w on<lers th at has lately appeared. 8. Was you present? 9. Frien<l
aftor frion<l depart.

But, if the individuals are referred to as a whole, the
verb must be singular; as, "This jury was dismissed."
EXERCISE.

Correct e1'1"01·s :-1. A stage or wagon meet every train. 2.
Neither the li on nor the tiger are hard beasts to tame. 3. Truth,
and truth alorie, are the object of my search. 4. Do war or conquest
constitute the whole of a nation's history? 5. Silk, but not linen or
muslin, are animal pro<lucts. 6. Not a wor<l, not a syllable, were
uttere<l. 7. The Yellowstone, as well as the Missouri, have been
explored.
8. Each hour, each moment, have th eir duties. 9. In that prolific clime, no clod, no leaf, no drop of water, are without their
minute inhabitants. 10. Every fruit, every flower, and every blade
of grass, t estify to the wisdom of the Creator. 11. The walls were
levolled, an<l tho city d~stroyed. 12. The avenue has been graded,
and trees set out. 13. The mob were made up of the dregs of
Paris. 14. 'the crow<l was glad to h ear such sentiments expressed.

- --«>--

LESSON LVI.
I. R:iin or snow is sure to set in.

2: Cass, as well as \\TclJstcr, was a native of New Hampshire.
3. Neither Vermont nor Kentu cky was among th e original states.
4. Pope, and not Dryden, was the translator of Homer.

u. Every man and every boy has bis mission.
w·rite the above sentences. How many subj ects in each? Underline
them. lly what words are the subj ects connected? In th e firth sentence,
what adj ective precedes the subj ects connected Ly and? Arc the verlis in
th ese sentences 8ingular or plural?
Two or more singular subjects taken separately require
a singular verb.

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W1·ite a Composition on T HE FouNTAIN (see engraving, p age 49).
(Describe the fountain-the street in which it stands-the persons
in the street-what they are doing. Tell what the fountain is forw11o use it-how it is useful to m en and wom en-how to horseswhen it is most useful. Have yon ever seen a real fountain?where ?-describe it-did it add to the beauty of the place?)

Subjects are taken separately, when connected by or,
no1·, liitt, as well as, and not, if not-also when prececletl
by cacli, every, or no.
"The driver was called, and th e children put in the carriage.."
'Write the above sentence. ·w hat auxiliary is used with the last participle put ?-The omission of the auxiliary before put would be right, if the
same auxiliary were required with put as with called-that is, was. nut, as
cliildren is plural, was pnt would be wro1ig. \<Ve must therefore supply the
proper auxiliary, were-" 'l'he dri ver was call ed, and the chih.lrcn were put
in the carriage."

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LESSON L VII.

Do not combine t wo or more participles with the
same allxiliary, unless the auxili ary can be correctly used
with each.
A singular noun implying a collection of individuals
(as, a1·1ny, society, etc.) often takes a plural verb; as,
"The jury wm·e all attention."

91

"He ltas become rich;" NOT, "He is become rich."
"They had just arrived; " NOT, "They were just arrived."

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Do not use parts of the verb BE as auxiliaries, when
parts of the verb HAVE are required.
·
In conversation, the auxiliary and not following it are
often contracted. Hence arise sl.1Ch familiar · forms ·•as

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Root.

arn't, don't, didn't, liasn't, liaven't, won't, slian't, .J<- etc. In
writing, avoid these contractions.

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Simple verbs will serve as models for those formed from them. BEfor example, goes like COME.
Some verbs, besides their irregular form , have a regular one in Eo.
This is denoted in the Table by the letter R When two forms are given;
the preferable one is placed first. Some old forms, not now in good use,
are omitted .

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,. Observe that tho npostropho Is used to denote tlJO omission of n letter or letters.

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COME,

Past.
(l, he, we, etc .)

Abide,
Arise,
Awake,
ne,
Bear t

A void corrupt forms: such as ain't, for ani not, is not,
or are not; mouglitn't, for niiglit not; da1'e8n't for da;re
not; liad liave, for liad alone ; liadn't ouglit, for oitglit
not; liad as lief, liad ratlier, for would as lief, would
ratlier; I'm, a niind, for I liave a niind, etc.
It is the Root and the Past Participle of a verb that
are combined with the auxiliaries to make the tornpound
forms. These, therefore, with the Past form of the verb,
constitute what are called the Chief Parts.
Hegular verbs, for their Past and Past Participle,
add ed to the root, the changes noted 011 pnge GS having been first maJe, if necessary. AsK, asked, asked, is
regular.
But there are man.Y verbs, mostly short and m common use, that do not add ed to the root to form these
parts, and are therefore called Irregular. BE, was, been,
is irregular.
Mistakes in the irregular verbs are very common, particularly from interchanging the past form and the past
participle. Such mistakes can he avoided onl.Y by learning the OmEF p ARTS OF TH E limEG ULAR v Elms, as presented on the next four pages. Each page may constitute a lesson.

93 ·

IRREGULAR VERBS.

CHIEF PAR'I'S OF VERBS.

(cnrry),}

Bear
(bring forth),

neat,
Begin,
Behold,
Bend,
Beseech,
Bet,
Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blend,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Build,

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Past Part.

bore,
} bore,
beat,
begun,
beheld,
bent, R.;
besought,
bet, R.,
barlc, bid,
bound,
bit,
bled,
R., blcnt,
blew,
broke,
bred,
brought,
built,

(1, be, wg, etc.)

(H nve, bnd, elc. )

abode.
abode,
arisen.
arose,
awoke, R., awoke, R.
been.
was,
borne.
born.

J beaten,
I beat.
begun.
beheld.
bent, R.
besought.
bet, R.
bidden, bid.
bound .
bitten, bit.
bled.
R., blent.
blown.
broken.
bred.
brought.
built.

Past Part.

Past.

Root.

Bum,
Burst,
Buy,
Cast,
Catch,

R., burnt,
burst,
bought,
cast,
caught,

Chide,

ch id,

Choose,
Cleave t

chose,

(adhere),

f

R., clove,

Cleave

J cleft,

(split),

1 clove,

Cling,
Clothe,
Come,
Cost,
Creep,
Crow,
Cut,
Dare

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(venture),)

Deal,

Dig,
Dive,
Do,

(llavr-, had, rte . )

R., burnt.
burst.
bought.
cast.
caught.
J chidden,
1 chid.
chosen.

clung,
R., clad,
came,
cost,
crept,
crew, R.,
cut,

crept.
crowed.
cut.

durst,

dared.

dealt,
dug,
R., dove,
did,

dealt.
dug.
dived.
done.

EXERCISE.

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C01·rect the verbs :-1. A great wind having arose, it blowed
bard all day. 2. I have forborn from asking you whether you
done it. 3. Where was Franklin borne? 4. You overdone your
part. 5. The sermon must have began before you arrove. 6. Possibly the connecting-rod may have broke. 'T. Have you rebuilded
your house yet? 8. Polhemus, having underbidded the others, was
chose superintendent. 9. If I had known that you come yesterday,
I would not have forbad~ the ceremony. 10. You should have
came .before me . . 11. I have undid the fastenings. 12. Christmas
has came again.

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cleaved.
cleft,
cloven, R.
clung.
R., clad.
come.
cost.

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Root.

Past.
(I. hC' , we, e lc. )

Draw,
Dream,
. I

Drink,
Drive,
Dwell,
Eat,
Fall,
Feed,
Feel,
Fight,
Find,
Flee,
Fling,
Fly,
Forbear,
Forsake,
Freeze,
Get,
Gild,
Gird,
Give,

Past Pw·t.

Root.

(Hnv 1>, h:i.ll, etc.)

drew,
drawn.
R., dreamt, R., dreamt.
drunk,
drank,
{ drank.
drove,
driven.
dwelt, It., dwelt, R.
ate, eat,
eaten, eat.
fell,
fallen.
fed,
fed .
felt,
felt.
fought,
fought.
found,
found.
fled,
fled.
flung,
flung.
flown.
flew,
forbore,
forlJorne.
forsaken.
forsook,
froze,
frozen.
got,
got, gotten.
R., gilt,
R., gilt.
R., girt,
R, girt.
gave,
given.

Past.
{I. he. Wil. Cl<'.)

Go,
Grind,·
Grow,
Hang,
Have,
Hear,
I Hew,
I Hide,
Hit,
Hold,
Hurt,
Keep,
I
Kneel,
Knit,

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Lay,
Lead,
Lean,
I Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie (recline),

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went,
ground,
grew,
hung, R.,"*
had,
heard,
hewed,
hid,
hit,
held,
hurt,
kept,
knelt, R.,
knit, R.,
knew,
laid,
led,
R., leant,
left,
lent,
let, .
lay,

Past I'm·t.

gone.
ground.
grown.
hung, R:*
Juul.

heard.
hewn, R.
hidden, hid.
hit.
held.
hurt.
kept.
knelt, R.
knit, R.
known.
laid.
led.
R., leant.
left.
lent.
let.
lain.

EXERCISE.

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Root.

Oo1·1·ect the verbs :-1. I meant to lrnve went to the mill and
drawed that flonr to-day. 2. The horses l1ad ate :mcl drank before
starting. 3. Some disaster must have befell them. 4. Never
would he h ave forsook his friends, had he not been drove to do .,
it. 5. Has Joseph and Stephen fell out? G. A beetling rock overhanged the precipice. 7. I l1ave always hcenl tlrnt w<l must uot
fake up what we have not lain down. 8. Being almost froze, he
laid down. 9. The river having overflown its banks, we lay· some
boards to the shore. 10. Perhaps she may have lien down. 11.
Where did you lie it?

Past.
(I, he, we, etc . )

(llnvc, hnll, ck.}

* They lmng the pictures, but hanged th e murderer. The ham was him(! up; the
prisoner wns lianged. OvEmrANGI makes ove:·hung only.

ii

95

IRREGULAR VERBS.

IRREGULAR VERBS.

Light,
Lose,
Make,
Mean,
Meet,
Mow,
Pay,
Plead,
Put,
Quit,
Read,
Rend,
Rid,
Ride,
Ring,
Rise,
Run,.
Saw,
Say,
See,
Seek,
Sell,
Send,
Set,
Shake,

Past Part.
(Have, had ,

Root.

R., lit.
R., lit,
lost.
lost, ,
made.
made,
meant.
meant,
met.
met,
R., mown.
mO\ved,
paid.
paid,
R., pied.
R., pied,
put.
put,
quit,
R.
quit, R.,
read.
read,
rent.
rent,
rid.
rid,
. ridden, rode.
rode,
rung, rang, rung.
risen.
rose,
ran, run,
run.
R., sawn.
sawed,
said.
said,
seen.
saw,
sought.
sought,
sold.
sold,
sent.
sent,
set,
set.
shaken.
shook,

Past,
(I, he, we, etc.)

et~.)

Shave,
Shear,
Shed,
Shine,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Show,
Slfrink,
Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Slit,
Smite,
Sow,
Speak,
Speed,

Past Pat·t.
(llave, ho.d, e tc.)

R., shaven.
shaved,
shorn, R.
sheared,
shed.
shed,
shone, R., ..o;hone, R.
shod,
shod.
shot.
shot,
shown, R.
showed,
8hrunk.
shrunk,
shut.
shut,
sung, sang, sung.
sunk, sank, sunk.
sat.
sat,
slain.
slew,
slept.
slept,
J
slidden,
slid,
1 slid.
slung.
slung,
slunk.
slunk,
slit, R.
slit, R.,
J
smitten,
smote,
1smit.
sowed,
R., sown.
j spoke, l
1 spake, ) spoken.
sped, R.
sped, R.,

EXERCISE.

Correct the verbs :-1. I knowed he had outgrowed that coat.
2. We seen the accident. 3. By sundown we shall have rid ten
miles. 4. Had you been present and saw what I seen, your heart
,, would have sank within you. 5. Have Emma or Julia ever sang
that · song before? 6. ·Are those oxen shoed? 7. Having been
pretty well shook up by the journey, we slided down from the top
of the coach. 8. Thus far not a word had been spoke. 9. We (set
or sat'!) by the fountain. 10. We have (set 01.. sat'!) things in
order. 11. I have (set or sat?) there by the hour. 12. He must
have (set or sat'!) the barrel in the sun .

. -.........

I

96
Root,
' !'
\<

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1,I

IRREGU.f,AR VERBS.
P ast.
(J, he , w e, etc.)

Spend,
Spill,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Stay,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stride,
Strike,
String,
Strive,
Strow,
Swear,
Sweat,
Sweep,
Swell,

spent,
R, spilt,
spun,
spit,
split,
spread,
5 sprung, l
( sprang, f
stood,
R., staid,
stole,
stuck,
stung,
5 strode,
( Strid,

Past Pm·t.

Root.

(H nvc, hlld , e tc. )

spent.
R, spilt.
s pun.
spit.
split.
spread.
sprung.

stood.
R., staid.
stolen.
stuck.
stung.
stridden,
Strid.
. \ struck,
struck,
l.stricken.
strung.
strung,
striven.
strove,
strown, R.
strowed,
sworn.
swore,
sweat, R., sweat, R.
swept,
swept.
swelled,
R., swollen.

A STORY.
Past.
(I, he, we, e tc. }

Swim,
Swing,
Take,
Teach,
Tear,
Tell,
Think,
Thrive,
Throw,
Thrust,
Tread,
vVake,
vVear,
Weave,
W ed,
Weep,
\Vet,
\Vin,
Wind,
\Vork,
Wring,
Write,

1swum,
}
swam,

swung,
took, .
taught,
tore,
told,
thought,
throve, R.,
threw,
thrust,

l

.. I

I'a st I'ai·t.
(H nvt', find, e t c .)

swum.

i

swung.
tak en.
taught.
torn.
told.
thought.
thriven, R.
thrown.
thrust.

{ trodden,
trod.
R., woke, R, woke.
wore,
worn.
wove,
woven.
R., wed,
R., wed.
wept,
wept.
wet, R.,
wet, R.
won,
won.
wound,
wound.
R.,wrought, R., wrought.
wrung,
wrung.
wrote,
written.

··:·1
. !
·1

trod,

EX E RCISE.

Correct tho verbs :-1. ·w ho can believe the yarns spinned by
old sailors? 2. Trees have sprang up amid the ruins of the village.
3. Ned has took the bit between his teeth and swam away. 4. She
wrang out the clothes, and throwed them on the grass. 5. Before
the page was wrote, th e bell had rang. 6. I overhcarcd him say l1is
purse was stol e. 7. You shouhl have stro ve more diligentl y. 8.
The teacher's patien ce was quite wore out. !L He's threw his book
down. 10. Sh e hain't teacl1 c<l l1 crc before.
Write the three O!tief Parts of undcrhu y ; overcome; inlay;
underlie; for esee ; understand; forgive; mi stake ; overthrow.

THE

INTERRUPTION.

The Darrow children had a little cart, and a fine large dog wl1ich
they had trained to draw it Th ey would put the two youngest children in the cart, and H elen would push behind, while Ben and
Charley would walk . alongside, and drive old Major (that was the
dog's name), as they had seen their father drive the horse
One day, while they were playing in this way, a strange dog
suddenly rn she<l up and showed fi ght But Major was not a bit
afraid, and though he was harnessed to ';,he cart he was quite r eady
to defend himself and the children Ben had to hold him back by
the coll ar, for fem· he would npset the cart; and Charl ey threw
stones at the strange dog, till h e was frightened and slunk away
How these children loved Major There is no nobler or more faithful animal tlrnn a brave <log W oul<l not you like a playmate so
trusty

Write the above story, inserting the proper point after
each sentence.
5

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OORRE01'ION OP

98

l'OMilfON ERRORS IN VERBS.

Write the three Chief Parts of the twenty-one verbs
that occnr in the above story.
Write the story in your own langrmge, as a Composition.
In the second sente11ce of the story on the preceding
page, you see several words enclosed between enrves.
These curves are called Parentheses. They arc used to
enclose words thrown into a sentence by way of explanation.

OL1Mn,

DnowN,
ATTACK,
'VEEo, ·
HEAT,
Smelled,
Spelled,
Mixed,

Lm,

SIT,

is a vulgar
"
"
"
"
"
·"
''
"

error.
"
"
"
"

Snapped,
Wrapped,
Tossed,

Blessed,
Cursed,
Passed,

Dressed,
Oppresse<l,
Distressed,

/~

EXERCISE.

Some common mistakes in verbs must be avoided.
Do not confound the verbs LAY, HAISE, and SET, which
admit of an object, ·with the si111ilar verbs Lrn, msE, and
srr, which can not take an object. Theit· chief parts
should be carefully distinguished:RrEm,

clumb
drownded
attaclcted
wed
11,et

in stead of irregular forms in t (smelt, spelt, etc.) sometimes met with.

LESSON L VIII.

laid.
raised.
set.

climbed drownedattackedweeded heated ___:_

.Use the regular fo1.·ms,

----«>--- -

LAY,
laid,
RAISE, raised,
SET,
set,
We lay a thing down,
when we are sick, but rise
price; the price has risen.

climbed,
drowned,
attacked,
weeded,
heated,

lny,
rose,
sat,

lain.
risen.
sat.

raise it. up, and set it in its place. We lie abed
as soon as we can sit up. They have raised the

.~ !

jl.

"·'

The present participle of - DIE (to expire) is dying;
that of DYE (to color) is dyeing. The present participle
of Lrn, whether signifying to recline or to tell a falsehood, is lying.
Do .not use LEA.RN for TEACH, or FALL for FELL. The
instructor teaclies, the scholar learns. The farmer fells a
tree; the tree falls.
Simple verbs not given h1 the list on pages 93-96
are regular. A void certain irregular forms sometimes
improperly used. Tlnrn,

Correct errors (see pages 91, 92) :-1. The icy blasts are departed, and spring is come at last. 2. During our absence, the children
were grnwn amazingly. 3. Ain't you mistaken? 4. It is mine-I
shan't give it up. · 5. I daresn't speak. G. Had Cleopatra not have
fled with her galleys, the fate of Rome might have been different.
7. You hadn't ought to deceive any one. 8. We had as lief deal
with you.
Supply the p1·oper verb :-1. John came in tired: he (lay or
laid?) down his books, and then himself - down to take a nap.
2. The former (sets or sits?) out trees in the spring; he - snares
for rabbits; he - with his family in the evening. 3. Rents (raised
or rose?) on the 1st of May; the landlords - them. 4. We (sit or
set?) a hen; the hen - on her nest. 5. On her (dying or dyeing?)
bed, as it were, she still thought of (dying or dyeing her hair.

n

j1

J.

Correct errors :-1. Who learned yo~ to sew? 2. Some people
have learned others, who have never learned themselves. 3. . The
room was het altogether too much. 4. I once heard of a bear that
clumb a tree. 5. As we past the house, we wrapt onr cloaks about
.
our faces, fearing that we should be attackted.
6. Such measures opprest the poor, and in fact distrest all
classes in the community. 7. The thread has snapt. 8. Have you
wed the garden? .· 9. The boy was drownded. 10. Wine mixt with
water was past. 11. I'm half a mind to argue that point. 12.
Blest ! no, t 0 thif! day they seem cur'st of Heaven~
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100

FORMA'l'ION OF ADVERBS.

J'lf.b' AD VERB.

101

Some very common little words are Adverbs-how,
LESSON LIX.

now, tlius, so, off, far, up, down, while, till, more, most,
once, twice, etc.

On page 97 we had a pretty picture of some children
and thefr dog; turn to it.

In the examples thus far given, the Adverbs have
modified verbs. They are generally used to modify verbs,
and hence their name-Ad-1Jerbs. But they may also
modify other words, particularly adjectives and adverbs.

The <log was drawin g the cart-now? Slowly, rapidly, etc.
Helen was pushing the cart -now? Qitietly, nicely, etc.
The children were riding
-now? Gayly, happily, etc.
The strange dog rush c<l up
-now? Suddenly, .fiercely, etc.
:Major growled
-uow? Ang1·i ly, loudly, etc.

How happy were the children? Vei·y happy-exceedingly happy. The
adverbs very and exceedingly modify the adjective happy.
How loudly did Major growl? Quite loudly, very loudly. The adverbs
q1,ite an<l very modify the adverb loudly.

'Vritc the above sentences. Answer the question asked by !tow each
time, with all the appropriate words you can think of. These wonls tell
how the action was performed. 'l'hey mo<lif'y verbs.
In the first sentence, slowly modifies tiie verb was clrawin,r;. In the
second, what verb docs qniel(IJ mo<lify? ·wh at Yerb does .<Jri.1;!.11 modify?
Suddenly? Ang1·if.1; ?-'l'hese wonls, added to v£Tb.~, are called .Arh•ci·bg.

An Adverb is u word expressing manner, time, place,
degree, etc., and generally used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

A word use<l to modify a verb is called an Adverb.

EXERCISE.

With what two letters do all the adYerbs in the above examples end?
' Vrite the words that we get by dropping th ese letters, ly :Slow, rapid, quiet, nice, gay, happy, sudde11, etc. Arc these words
nouns? What are they? 'Ve see, then, that

W1·ite the adverbs of manner formed from the following adjectives :-Pure; sweet; solemn; coy; soft; rough; tender; sportive; vile; beautiful; musical; handsome.
DuE, TRUE, and thefr compounds, drop final E before LY.
Write
the adverbs formed fro1n, True (trnly); untrne; due; undue.
~tives ending in y p receded by consonant change final y
to 1 before LY. Write the adverbs formed from, Merry (me?·rily);

Many Ad verbs are formed from adjectives by au ding ly.
The Adverbs in the above examples answer the question, IIow? They tell the nianner in which the act was
performed, and are therefore called Adverbs of Manner.
But there are, al so, other kinds of adverbs.

a

l;>usy; jaunty; pretty; uneasy; funny; mighty; ready ; showy;
lucky ; gaudy; petty.

Adjectives ending in BLE drop LE before LY. Write the adverbs
formed froni, Able (ably); peaceable; disagreeable; horrible ;

'Ve might ask, ll'hen did the dog draw the cart? Yeslei·day, lo-da,11,
thei:i, often, etc. Thus we get Ad verbs of Time.
Where was Helen pushing the cart? H er e, there, ltitlw1·, t!litlier, behind,
Thus we get Adverbs of Place.
How gayly were the children riding? Vr.1·.11 gayly, quite gayly, gayly
enough. Thus we get Adverbs of Degree.
Di<l Major growl? Y es indeed, cerlainl.!J, doubtless. Thus we get Ad.
verbs of Affirmation.
Did Major run away? No, not he: Tl ms we get Adverbs of Negation:

ignoble; feeble.

.

·

W1·ite twelve adve1·bs that occu1· in the story on page 9'7.

etc.

l

Supply adverbs :-1. - was the Garden of Eden? 2. She
writes-, converses - , and conducts herself in all respects-. 3.
- bells were rung, to keep - evil spirits. 4. A stranger - appeared ; no one knew - he came, or - - he intended to remain.
What thou speak'st, and - beware,
Of whom, to whom, ...:__, and-.

102

1'HE USE OF' .AJJ VERBS.

EXERCISE ON ADVERBS.

Mistakes are sometimes made by using adverbs in
stead of adjectives, after the verbs look,feel, taste, smell,
and sound.

LESSON LX.
I. In this place (here) Carthage stood.
2. Spain was at that time (then) a republic.
· 3. She entered the room in a graceful manner (gracefully).
4. Eugenie dressed with great taste (very ta8lefully).
Write the above sentences in the fewest words. What is here equivalent to? 1'!ten? G1'ac~fully ? Taste/idly ? What are lw·e, then, tastefully, and gracefully? We find, then, that

Say, "She looks handsome," not lwndsomely,-because it is intended to
describe the Rubject she, and not to express any particular kind of looking.
In like manner, say it feels rough (not rouglify), tastes bitter, smells sweet,
sounds pleasant, etc.
EXERCISE .

rl'} ie meaning
•
·1 rnay l.ue cxpresse d by
of sevent1 worus
a single adverb. Tl1m:, itpside-down =with the upper
part undermost.
The adverb tliere generally rnea11s in that JJlace.
Sometimes, however, it is used rnere]y to introduce a
sentence; as, " Tfie7·e flashed across the firmament at thjs
time a brilliant but erratic mctcor."-Ouserve that the
verl> then precedes its subject-jl.ashed a meteor.
De careful, in this case, to nse the singular or plural
form of the verb (when there is a difference of form), according as the snbject follo\\·ing js sjngular or plural; as,
There is many a mau-but, There m·e many men.

In the following sentences, substitute adverbs for the word8 i~
italics :-1. Bi<le your time with patience (patiently). 2. Do your.
duty with ca1·e and diligence. 3. With .firmness and in the most
courageous manner did the column stand its ground. 4. Children
shoul<l do what they ::tre told with promptness, in a cheerful manner, and without saying any thing. 5. From that place a good road
leads to :Milan. U. Without doubt, Japan is at the present time eminently progressive.
Correct errors.-1. There's no snakes in Ireland. 2. There has
been many failures this spring. 3. There are two years' interest to
be paid. 4. There was cotton and corn in abundance. 5. There
were no news of the expc<l it.ion. 6. Tallow is melted very easy.
7. It's 1mcommon warm.
8. Tobacco tast es nastily. 9. How sweetly those lilies smell!
l~o not talk rough to any one; speak pleasant to all. . 11.
Pussy's coat feefs softly. 12. An old friend's voice sounds naturally. 13. The country looked beautifully. 14. The then governor
behaved very rude to the new-comers.

A loud song.
She sang loud.
A sweet son g.
She sang sweetly.
Loud and svJeet, <Jualifying the noun .Yong, are adj ectives. Loud and
.~weetly, modifying the verb sang, are adverbs. The two form er l1escribe
what was sung, the two latter describe the act of singin g. Observe that the
word loud appears as both adj ective and adverb; but, in the other case,
there is an adjective form sweet, and a di stin ct adverb form swee f(1j-which
must not be interchanged.

----<»- - -

LESSON LXI.

Adverbs must not be used for adjectives, nor adjectives for adverbs.
"The now mayor" is wrong, becau se an adjective should be used with
the noun mayor, wh ereas now is an adverb. Say "the present mayor."
"Th e wcathPr is r emarkable finn." 'V rong, because an adverb should be
used to modify the adjective fine, whereas remarkable is an adjective. Say
"remarkably fine."

103

J

"The hawk flies high, the skylark flies higher, the eagle flies highest."
In the above sentence, high, higher, ltighest, modifying the verb flies,
ure what? They express different degrees. ' Vhat other .class of words
may be made to express different degrees? How? How is the adverb
higli made to express different degrees? What is this varying of form, to
denote different degrees, called? Compare the adverb high.

;·

EXERCISE ON AD VERBS.

001lfl'ARJSON VF AJJ VHJWS.

104

A few short adverbs are con1pared, like adjectives,
by adding er for the comparative, aml est for the superlative. Th us : limn,
Low,
FAST,

. higher,
lower,
faster,

highest.
lowest.
fastest.

LATE,
EAHLY,

OFTEN,

latel',
earlier,
oftener,

latest.
earliest.
oftenest.

,.
'

·vv e found

some adjectives compared irregularly (page
53). There are, also, ad verbs irregular in their comparison, some of which have the same forms as adjectives:BADLY, ILL, worse, worst.
"IVELL,
better, Lest.
LITTLE,
less,
least.

Muon,
FAu,
Fo1nn,

more,
farth er,
further,

most.
farthest.
furthest.

' Hore and most, as we have seen (page 52), give the
simple form of an adjective the force of the comparative
and superlative. 'l'hey are also used, with like effect, before adverbs-particularly adverbs of manner.
Add- Gl'aceful,
Adv. Gracefully,

more gl'accfol,
more gracefully,

most grncefnl.
· most gracefully.

l .

105

· 1. His song was sweet. 2. Their conversation had been pleasant. 3. Our ride to the seaboal'd will be hasty. 4. Your study
of the subject must be diligent. 5. Piteous were their cries for
help. 6. Your play has been too rough .
Supply adverbs expressing the dijferent degrees :-1: John be~
haves well; James behaves better; Jacob behaves the-. · 2. Sarnh
rides badly; Susan rides - ; Stella rid es - . 3. Anne ruled wisely; Elizabeth ruled - ; Victoria rules - . 4. I love my companions - , my friends - , my brothers - . ·
5. Those boys are. all lazy; Henry studies - , Dick studies -,
Fred studies - . 6. We listened ~; none could have' listened - ;
he noticed that we were listening - . 7. Hoses bloom early; lilacs
bloom - ; cowslips bloom - . 8. Speak loud; you should speak
- ; who speaks the - ?
Correct errors :-1. You can r ead it easier by daylight. 2. Of
all the other yachts, the Naiad sailed the faster. 3. The banana
produces the most abundantly of any plant. 4. Of all our other
cities, Ch icago has grown the most rapidly. 5. Great Britain has
extended her sway more widely than any empire. 6. Patagonia
extends the furtherest south.
---~--

In using 11io1·e and most with adverbs, the same prin-

I

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1!111'.'
1\
i 11 ~

ciples apply as in the case of acljecti ves. R eferring to
the similar cases of adjectives on page 55, tell which of
the following sentences are wrong, and why : Of the two kings, Solomon ruled the more wisely.
Of the three kin~~, Solo111on rul ccl the most wi sclv.
Solomon rul ed more wi sely th:w any other kin g. .
Solomon ruled th e most wi sely of the two kings.
Solomon ruled more wisely than rrny king.
Of all other kings, Solomon rul ed tli e most wisely.
Solomon rnlctl the most wisely of any king.
EXEH. C ISJL

Change the following sent.ences, so a8 to e:upress the same idea
ioith adverb and verb, in stead of adjective and noun. Thus :-Our
journey wns rapid = We journeyed rapidly.

LESSON LXII.

In using adverbs, avoid some common errors:-_
Say, Hence, whence, thenceforth, etc.; NOT, From.hence, from whence, etc.
'l?or from is implied in the adverb, and should not be repeated.
Say, Since which (time), from which (place), etc.; NOT, Since whe11, from
whe1·e, etc.
Say, "Whether you remain or not, I will go; NOT, ·whether you remain or no.

It don't make no difference'.
Don't give nothing.

These expressions are often ·used for It makes. no difference, Don't give any tliing. But such use is wrong
and vulgar. Not to give nothing means to give so~~tliing. · Therefoi·e,
·

.llll ,.

106
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POSJJ'ION OF AD VERBS.

If a negation is to be expressed, do not use
another negative.

EXRRCISE ON AD VERBS..

not with

Adverbs should stand near the words they modify.
Tl~ey ?enerally precede ~ Vc1·y cold, more learned, quite diligent,
adJeCfaVeS,
l . iluT, pretty enoit[Jlt.

I

and stand after the first
'l'
·
d
aux1
. iary
. . . in compoun
·
I
VCl b-founs.
l

Having earl.If leamed self.denial.
'l'hey may possibly be mistaken.
.
.
He would certainly have been left.
You ought, to be well salislied.

Some adverbs precede, and some follow, simple forms
of the verb. Some may do either; place snch where
they sound the best. · Thus:-''._
Never deceive. Deceive ~wt. Alwctys tell the truth.
Tell the truth boldly. Fast flew the foam; the foam
flew fast. Listen not to the diarmer, ehanu he evc1· so
wifsely.
Place not only, ckiejly, mostly, ete., next before the
word or words they are intended to modify.
RIGJIT.

I. Ile 11ot onl!/ speaks but writ.cs l<' rcnch.
2. He Rp caks 11ot only French but <Jerman.
{
3. Th ey subsist principally on ii sl1.

·wnoNa. {

4. IIe not only speaks French b. ut. Ge1rn:'lll,
. . 11 J SU b SlS. t 011. n~ tI.
o. 'r hey pr111c1pa

In Sentence 1, not only is placed correctly before the verl> speaks, which
it modifies and h elps to contrast with the verb writes, following.
In Sentence 2, not only is placed correctly before the noun Frenrh,
which it helps to contrast with the noun Ge1'man, following.
But in Sente11ce 4, iwt only is incorrectly placed before the verb speaks,
as if some other verb were to follow. It is intended, however, to modify
Ji'i·cnch, and Rhonl<l thc•rpf'orn Rf.nrnl ncxt. to it. (110! 01d1; lii-f·ncl1 but G<'1·111a11 ).
EXERCISE.

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Complete tltefoltowing by supplying adve~·bs :-1. Two sparrows
were fighting ~for a crumb, when a third ramo - , and carried it
- from both. 2. People can find a gold-mine - they choose to

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dig - for one. 3. Many are - borne to the grave'. 4. I laid it
down -, bnt -- I do not know.
5. Upon the ice for pastime
- I slide and late;
And - the ponds are frozen,
How - I skate I
Introduce the adverbs in italics in the propet• place :-1. In the
evening bats are numerous, darting after such insects ns they can
find (very; swiftly). 2. How the locomotive screams, as it dashes
along (loudly; rapidly) I 3. Sophocles died of excessive joy (suddenly). 4. The mariner's compass, in a rude form, was known to
the ancient Chinese (unqite8t'ionably; well). 5. Dr. Kane must
have found it cold (certainly j dreadfully).
Correct errors :-1. Then came Christuias, since when the sun
has not showed himself for an hour. 2. From thence the adventurers · climbed to a point from wh~re they had a fine view of the
ocean. 3. Wearied or no, Pizarro· had to advance; 4. He don't
care nothing for nobody. 5. You mustn't say nothing. 6. I can't
:find it nowhere.
The manufacture of silk originated in China unquestionably.
8. N a.da not only yields silver but also gold in great abundance.
9. Wo ves are very suspicious always. 10. Tea chiefly comes from
China and Japan. 11. Bears have been known to ferociously fight
for their young.

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LESSON LXIII.

Ref erring to the engraving on the next page, wr:lte a
· Composition on T1rn STAGE-Co,\cH.
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(Describe the stage-coach-how many horses ?-fast or slow?-·
wliere aro t.110 tru11kA cnrrie<l ?-whore are the passengers ?-where
is it pleasantest to ride ?-why ?-suppose a shower comes up. In
what parts of the c~untry do stage-coaches run? · Why do they not
run between large cities? , Is it pleasant to travel in them ?-whyi
Describe the scene in the engraving-the mountains".""" the farm-house
.._the ~commotion 9ccasioned by the stage-the children-the turkey&-.:~the dog.)
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PREPOSJ1'JONS._:.AJJJUNC1'S.

1'R.E'POSl1'10NS.

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LESSON LXIV.
1. After a storm comes a calm.
2. For us there was no hope of safety.
3. School is about to commence.
4. Without laboring hard you can not succeed.

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Here are four new prepositions; write them. Find the objects of the
prepositions, by asking questions with what after them . Thus, in Sentence I,
"After what?" "After a storm "-sio1·m is the object of the preposition
after. What is the object of /01·? about? witltout? W c sec, then, that

A preposition may have for its object a noun, a pronouu, an infinitive, or a participle.
In Sentence 2, what is the object of the preposition f01·? What js its?
Is us a subjective, an objective, or a possessive, form? Repeat_ the objective forms of the pr_onouns, page 45.

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By the door.
Down th e hill-side.
B eneath the mapl e.
Past the farm-l1ouse.
Across the roacl.
Undel' th e bridge.
Over th e well.
In the pond.
On his hook.
At the 11orses.

From th e stream.
Di11·ing the ride .
Before the stage.

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Of the driver.
Upon the top.
To the village.

Write sixteen sentences, appropriate to the engraving, each containing one of the above expressions; as, "A man is sitting by the
doo1· of the form-hou se, looking at the stage."
The words in italics above, called Prepositions, imply diffe rent
relations; by, in tl1e last example, sliows the r elation betw een ·is
sitting and door. In each sentence just written, und e rline the words
between wl1icl1 the preposition i;;hows tho relntion.
A Preposition is a wonl used tO show the relation that
a noun or pronoun bears to some other term in the sen•
tence.

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"Over these roaring rapids a bridge has been thrown."
What is the object of the preposition over ? . By what words is 1·apids
modified? The preposition, its object, and thP words that modify the object, constitute what is called an Adjunct. Over these roaring rapids is an
adjunct, and it modifies the verb lias been thrown, showing where the bridge
has been thrown.
An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a preposition,
its object, and the words that modify the object.

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A pfonoun that is the object of a preposition must be
in the objective form ; as, Against me, auove thee, around
him, behind lie1·, among us; below tliem, with whom.
Many of the prepositions denote relations of time and
pi~e. Time and place are also denoted by adverbs. But
there is this difference: a preposition . always has an object, while an adverb has not. "The king rode up (prep.)
the hill." "The king rode itp (adv.)."
The to used before a verb-root to form the infinitive
is not a preposition, but part of the verb.

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The meaning of_ an adjunct may sometimes be ex·
pressed by a single word. And this word, if the adjun~t

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.b'XERCISE ON PREPOSl'l'JONS.

CONSTRUC1'JON OF PREPOSITIONS.

modifies a noun, will be all adjective,-if it modifies n
verb, an adverb. Thus:-

An adjunct -must stand near the word it is intended
to modify. "A young lady was playing on the piano
with auburn hair." Did the auburn hair belong to the
young lady or the piano ~ Put the adjunet in its right
place.

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A rim of metal
= A metallic (adj.) rim.
A man with yray lwir = A gra,lj-hafred (adj.) rna11.
Bathing in salt-water = Salt-waler (adj.) bathing.
They advanced with bmvery, in a bmve manne1-. - Brauly (adv.)
Informer times, almost everybody snuffed.
- Ji'ormci-ly (adv.)
He defended himself without being. at all daunted.- Undauntedly (adv.)

"I do not wish for any." "I will consider of it."
·w e often hear such expressions, but they are wrong. lVish and conside1· are verbs that take objects themselves; omit the prepositions, therefore, before the objects. "I do not wish any." "I will consider it."

EXEHCISE.

Do not introduce a preposition, to take for its object
what is really the object of a verb.
So, it generally sounds ill to combine a verb and preposition with the same object; as, "Showers seldom moisten, in fact they are almost unknown on, these great
plains." Vary the expression : " Showers are seldom if
ever (or seldom or never) known on these great plains."
Appropriate prepositions must be used. Thus, say

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Substitute for each adjunct a single equivalent '/Oord, anil, mark
over it ndj. ij' an adjective,-mlv., if mi adverb:1. A cord of silk; ponies j1·01n Canada; people with long
noses; the train frw New IIaven ; the road along the river; stories
of interest to all; the boy with the best temper. 2. It lrnppened b;;
accident-:-by bad luck~by good fortune-with advantage to all. 3.
A residence in the coimtry is preferable. 4-. Pray without ceasing.
5. The Swiss resisted with 1·csolution and m1ccess.

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Substitute an equivalent adjunct fo1· cacli adjective and _adverb i1~•­
italics :-1. A curly-lieadcd lass; fciir-comple.rioned boys; grave and'
dignified men; golden chains. 2. They saluted each other cow·- · '
teously but silently. 3. School-books sltoul<l be bound neatly and
substantially. 4. J.Voioada ys boys are e<lucated scientifically.
Supply prepositions, and 1.tnderline tlie a1.~ju11cts :-1. The flesh

Different from, not to. Adapted to, not f01~
Attended, accompanied, by that which has life (friends, etc.).
"
"
with things without life (results, etc.).
We compare one thing with another, as regards quality or quantity; we
compare one thing to another, for the sake of illustration.
A thing is divided between two persons, among more than two.

- tho kangaroo is exported - Australia as an article - food.
2. - Venezuela, candles are manufactured - turtles' eggs and the
fat - alligators. 3. We rode - sunset, - hills, - fr,uitful vales,
- win<ling streams, - thriving villages, - nothing to annoy us the dust.

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LESSON LXV.

means before. A preposition (position before) is
so called because it almost always stands before its object.
Sometimes, however, the preposition follows its object;
as, the World OVER,--'W/Wm ! look UPON as friends.
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EXERCISE.

"IVi·ite sentences containing "the following, and remember the prepositions to be used in connection with the given words:Accuse of.
Confide in.
Prefer to.
Arrive in or at.
Deprive of.
Sympathize with.
Bestow on.
Dislike to.
W:eary
of.
;
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Introduce the adjuncts p1·operly :-1. Milo, by lifting a calf
every day till it grew up, was able to lift an ox (of Orotona-in the
end). 2. Two women were kneading dougl1, and two others were
making butter (in large troughs-with glass eyes~with gray hair) •
8. Tulips wer~ first brought from Constantinople (in 1559-t~

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EXERCISE ON PREPOSITIONS.

'J'HE CONJUNCTION.

ern Eiwope). The plant was in great demand, nnd extravaganL
sums were paid (in a few years-in Germany and Holland-frJ1'
choice varieties). A thotrn::rnd dollars was no unusual price; and
a trader of Haarlem was actually known to give half 11is fortune
(for a 1·are bulb-in one ca,se-for a single root).
Correct mT01·s :--1. Between you and I, he knows very little,
compared to his father. 2. Dr Johnson who people generally speak
of as a great critic was biassed in some of his judgments. 3. Who
did you bow to? 4. That hint must.J~~we been in tcn<lcd for you
and she. 5. The ball penetrated in ifhe left lnng. u. W c can all
recollect of doing things that we regret. 7. By writing of compositions, we learn to write fluently.
8. Imagine of Cicero wearing a swallow-taileu coat and a high
hat. 9. Mrs. Griggs had five daughters, and divided her property
between them. 10. Our present school-books are quite different to
those of old times, and better adapted for thl;l yonng; they arc often
accompanied by illustratious. 11. Lord bacon was accused with
receiving bribes. 12. Pharaoh was overwhelmed by shame. Pharaoh's host was overwhelmed with the waves.

Copy the preceding lines. Underline eacli adjunct j put . two
lines itnde1· eacli preposition, and adv. over each adverb.

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With what kind of letter does each of the above lines begin?
Commence with a capital every line of poetry.

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LESSON LXVI.
RIGHT.

Keep to the right in whatever you do,
And claim but your own on the way ;
Keep to the right, and hold on to the true,
From the morn to the close of life's day . .

Keep to the right without and within, with frien<l, and kindred,
and stranger; keep to the right, and no doubt need you have that
in the end all will be well.

1Vrite rt Ooniposition in prose on KEEP TO THE RIGHT
(When this sign is put up on a bridge, what does it mean?
What is gained by keeping to the right? Apply it practically.
What is meant by keeping to the right in _life? How may a boy
or girl keep to the right ?-a man or woman ?-a merchant ?-a
farmer ?-a professional man? What teaches us how to keep to
the right?)
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Keep to the right, as the law directs,
For such is the rule of the roatl;
Keep to the right, whoever expects
Securely to carry life's 1oa<l. ·
Keep to the right, with God's word for your guide;
Nor wander, though folly allure;
Keep to the right, and turn never aside
From what's holy, and faithful, and pure.

Look at the first verse. What do you observe with
respect to the sounds that the first and the third line end
with? With respect to the second and the fourth line ~
This iR called Rhyming.
vVhich lines in the second verse rhyme? Which in the third verse?
The following words, ff arranged properly, will make a fourth verse,
'rhyming like the other three. See whether you can so arrange them.

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KEEP TO THE

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LESSON LXVII.
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" Yet Alexander, if we may believe history, loved candor and tr.uth."
What connects the words cando1· and truth? vVhat word connects the
clause we may believe !ii.story with the rest of the sentence? What word
connects the whole sentence with what goes before? Here, then, we have
some words-yet, if, and-whose office is to connect. Such words are
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called Conjunctions.

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen ..
tences, or parts of a sentence.

The parts of a· sentence connected by a conjunction
may be of equal rank; they are then called Members.

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EXERCISE ON CONJUNCJ'IONS.

p .1lfBE'RS.-ULAUSE'S.

"Cast thy bread upon the waters; FOR thou shalt find it
after many days ''- two members connected by fo1·.
Or one of the parts so connected, while it has its own
subject and verb, may be · subordinate to the other; as,
"I know ~·nAT fustice will prevail. Such a division is
called a Clause.

EXE Ii CI SE.

' Select the conjunctions, and state whethe?· they connect words,
Bentences; or pa1·ts of a sentence :- 1. N evertheJess, both painters
and sculptors go to Rome, that they may study in its art-galleries.
2. Whereas some regard Cromwell as having been just and upright,
others have Iooked upon him as a greater tyrant than the Stuarts.
3. Notwithstanding they were in n:ianuscript, books were formerly
more prized than at present, because they were scarce. 4. The act
will become a law, provided the governor signs it.
Supply tlie p1·oper conjunctions :-1. - <lead, he yet liveth,. 2.
Charles XII. acted - he were mad. 3. See - you carve out
your own fortune, - you would have any. 4. - the ruby - the
diamond are more valuable - the emerald. 5. - Wellington Blucher was singly a match for Napoleon; - together they overthrew him, - shaped the destinies of Europe. 6. Amerigo Vespucci, - Americus Vespucius, was a Florentine, - I am mistaken.

EXAMPLES.-- " Either ' 'Vashington or Lafayette might have turned the
tide; but neither was there." Are the divisions connected by the conjunction but, clauses or members ? vVhat do either and or connect?
"Although (though) neithe1· oxygen 1w1· hydrogen is a liciuid, ?Jcl together
they form water." Is the divi sion infroLluced by the conjlinction altlwu,qh,
a clause or a member? vVhat do the conjunctions neithe1· and nor connect?

Members of a sentence are generally separated by the
semicolon ; clauses are, for the most part, set off by the
comma. See examples above.
Sometimes two or more words are used together as a
connective, and thus have the force of a conjunction; as,
inasmuch as,
forasmuch as,

ns well,
ns wtll ns,

notwithstanding that,
except that,

as if,
as though.

Subjects connected by and, as we have seen, take a
verb and pronoun in the plural; as, " Hon esty and temperance have tlieir re-ward ."
Subjects connected by or, nor, or as well as, take a
verb and pronoun in the singular; as, "Honesty, as well
as temperance, 1ias its reward."
If it be he.
If he were I.
If thou loved me.
Unless thou go.

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LESSON LXVIII.
A word or clause having comni.on connection with
two words or clauses joined by a conjunction, must be
adapted to each.
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Though h e ,~la,11 rnc.
Beware lest thou fall.
See that thou have no fear.
Whether I be wr ll 01· ill.

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Observe these forms. In certain clauses introduced
by the conjunctions if, unless, tlwitgli., lest, tlwt, wlwtlier,
we find be and were used >vith all subjects, and the present and past of other verbs unchanged with tlwu and lie.

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"Europe is more populous, but not so large, (than or as?) America."
Nc\thcr than nor as suits both tho preceding expressions, for we can not
properly say so lm;qe tlian nor more populous as. Correct thus: "Europe
is more populous than America, but not so large."
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Avoid some common errors m the use of conjunctions. Thus, we should say,
See whether you can clo it-not if.
I have no doubt that he went-not but or but that.
He said that the sap was rnnning-not as how.
She has no other home than this-not but this.
Crosar could not do otherwise than advance- not but.
It. looks as if it would rain-not as thoitgh.
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EXEROJSE ON UONJUNUTIONS.

THE IN'l'ERJEC1'ION.

The comma is used to set oft~
1. Very short members; as, "I came~ I saw, I conquered." Also, clauses introduced by a conjunction, unless the connection is too close for any point; see Sentences 1-4 at the commencement of the last Exercise.
2. Each of a series of words of tlte same class ; as,
"Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth, were children of
Henry YUL" "\Vith only two words connee;ted by a
conjunction, ns~ no com111a; as, "Mary and Elizabeth
were children of Henry VIII."
3. An equivalent introduced by 01·; as, "Platinum,
or platina, is one of the heaviest metals."
4. Pairs of words connected by a conjunction ; as,
"Snow and hail, mist and steam, are but water in different forms."

advice was gold, we would have less of it. 4. Though she cauEffis
my deeth, I will never forsake her. · 5. Take care that thou doest
it well. 6 . . Dryden is not equal, nor to be compared, to Milton.
7. Amiability is longer-lived and preferable (than or to?) beauty . .
8. I doubt if any other but Wmihington could have brought the war
to a successful issue. 9. Live as though you would die to-morrow.
10. Di<l you say as how he had tried if he could lift it? 11. Doubt
not but that virtue will have its reward.
Insert the semicolon and comma :-l almost killed the bird, said
the fowler but Almost never made a stew. 2. A man is never alone
for God is with him. 3. Wit entertains but wisdom delights. 4. ·
Lakes and rivers hills and plains mountains and valleys all are beautiful. 5. Gold silver platinum and copper have been used for coining. · 6. New Holland or Australia is a land of wonders. 7. Away
they went, pell-mell hmTy-skurry with clang and clatter whoop
and halloo.
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Labor and faith and prayer are worth
More than the richest stores of earth.

EXEltCISE.

Make a list of all tlie conjunctions you can think of.
W-ith the aid of co1~junctions, fcmn one sentence out of each
group. Thus :-1. The moon lias neither water nor atmosphere.
1. The moon has no water. The inoon has no ntmosphcre.
2. Forbidden pleasures arc loved at first. Forbidden pleasures
in the end become distasteful.
3. The fox seeks its prey alone. The pole-cat seeks its prey
alone. Wolves hunt in packs. Wild dogs hunt in packs.
4. The Guinea-pig has an inappropriate name. It is not a pig.
It does not come from Guinea. Jt comes from South America.
5. Many things are prized, not on account of any m erit they
possess. Many things are prized because th ey are rare. Many
things are prized b ecause they are fashionable.
6. Mercury is nemer to the sun than the earth is. So is Venus.
Mars is farther from the sun than the earth is. So is Jupiter. So
is Saturn. So is Uranus; Uranus is otherwise called Herschel. So
is Neptune.
Correct CJ"l'01'8 :-1. Dress, as well as fashion, number their
votaries by thousands. 2. If I was yon, I would Jay down. 3. If

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LESSON LXIX.
llurrali I the day is ours.
Hallo I who is there?

Alas I Sorrow and I are wed.
Adieu I peace be with thee.

Here we have a new class of words-liurrah ! alas I hallo I adiezi ! -.
expressing strong feeling. What feeling does alas express ? What feeling
does lwrrah express? Are ·they connected with other words in co~struc­
tion? Such words are called Interjections. What point follows each
of the interjections used :;i.bove?

An Interjection is a word not connected in construction
with other. words, but used to express some strong or sudden feeling.
The principal I1~terjections, lll'ranged according to the feelings they express, .are as follows : - _
1. Exultation. Ah! aha! hey ! heyday! hurrah! huzza !
2. Sorrow. Ah ! oh ! alas! alack ! lackaday ! welladay !
p. Wonde1·. Ha.! indeed! strange! what! hoity-toity! zoundB !
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CLASSIFICA'l'ION OF WORDS.

INTERJHUTJONS.

4. Appi·oval. Bravo! well done !
5. Contempt, aversion. Faugh ! fie ! fud ge ! pugh ! pshaw! tut!
6. Wea i·in e~s. Heigh-ho!
7. 1lfcrriment. Ila, ha, ha! (an imitation of th e sound of langhter).
8. D esire to drive away. Aroynt ! avaunt! begone! off! shoo!
9. D esire to address or salute. 0, hail! all-hail! welcome !
·-10. D esire Joi· one's welfare on leav-in9. Adi eu! farewell! good-by!
11. D esire for attention. Ho! what ho! hallo! ahoy! lo! hark!
12. D esire for .~ilence. Hi st! whist! hush! mum! .
13. D esire to stop or intrrrupt anothe1·. Avast ! hold! i::oft !
14. Desire for ii~fonnation . Eh? hey?

Most interjections are followed by the exclamationpoint, as in the above list. Ell and liey, imply ing questions, are followed uy the interrogation-point i as, "YOU
like this, lwy ? "
0, always a capital, is nsccl in addressing, and is not
generally follov,'ed by the exclamation-point; as, "vVhither,
0 Justice, hast thou departed ? "

LESSON LXX.

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EXERCISE.

Supply apprOJJ?'iate inte1:jec tions, and such points as are needed:
Babylon has fallen 2. Th el'e goes the bell. - \Yho can
be coming at this time of ni ght 3. - what noi se was that 4. why shou ld the spirit of In Ol'tal be pro\1(1 u. m ess us, - P eace,
with thy all-radiant smile 6. - I am til'ed out 7. Sweet hope,
- henceforth my days al'e sad 8. Yon nvoid me, - ? 9. Not
ready for breakfast yet ! Write foi1rteen sentences, expressing in tnni the f eeli ngs of exultation, sorrow, etc., mentioned above, and in to each introduce appropriately one qf the in tei:jec tions in the list. .
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Qnestion ..;.-What words are nam es ? Ans. Nouns. What words
affirm an act.ion or state? ·w hat words describe or limit the meaning of
nouns? ' Vhat words modify verbs? ·w hat words connect? " ' hat words
are used in stead of nouns ? w·hat words are exclamations, expressing
sudden feeling? What words denote relations of time, place, etc.? What
words have singular and plural forms? What words are compared? What
cl:rnses of words are never changed at all?

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In the · preceding Lessons we have met with several
di:ffereut classes of words,-uot equally important, but
all sometimes used in the expression of thought.
The Verb is indispensable in every sentence ; a Noun
or Pronoun is its usual subject. This noun or pronoun
may have an Adjeetive to modify it, and a Preposition
to express its relntion to other terms. The verb may be
modified by an Adverb. vVhen words or sentences need
to be connected, the Conjunction comes into play; and
exclamations are made with the Interjection.
How many classes of words, then, have we found~
To these some add a ninth class, called Articles, containing only the little words THE and AN or A, which may
be briefly defined as noun-limiters.
Others prefer calling THE and AN or A adjectives.
The teacher will direct what these words shall be called.
Words are classed as nouns, adjectives, vei·hs, etc., accc:>rding to their use in a given· sentence. Before we can
tell what a word is, we must see lww it is used.
The same vvoi·d, for example, in different sentences,
may be a noun, a verb, an adj ective, or an ad.verb. Thus:A FAST (noun-why?) was kept.
I was told to FAST (t•erb-wliy ?).

He drives FAST (aclj.-why ?) horses.
Drive FAST (adv.-why ?).

Again, the same wo1:d may appear as preposition, adverb, adjective, and noun; as,

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They walked past the house. '!.'h ey walked past.
soon forgotten.
The sorrows of the p ast arc forgotten.
each of these sentences, and why?)

P ast sorrows are
(What is p ast in

Or as adverb . and conjunction. "Go as fast as you
can;" the first as js an adve1·b, the second a conjunction .

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EXERCISE ON WORDS.

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I forced my way between the boughs,
The pooi; old cat to seek ;
And what did I find but a swinging child,
With her bright hair brushing her cheek?
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Her bright hair floated to and fro,
Her little red dress flashed by;
But the liveliest thing of all, I thought,
· Was the gleam of her laughing eye.
"Stea_dy I I'll send you up, my child I '
But she stopped me with a cry;
"Go 'way! go 'way I don't touch me, please.I'm lett\ng t.h e old cat die I "

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"LETTING THE

OLD

CAT

"Why don't you know," said the little maidThe flitting, beautiful, elf" That we call it letting the old cat die,
When the swing stops of itself? 1'

DIE."

Not long ago, in an orchard's shade,
Where children were at play,
I heard some words from a youngster's lips
That stopped me on my way.

Then swaying, and swinging, and glancing back,
With the merriest light in her eye,
She bade me good-day, and I left her alone,
"Letting the old cat die."

"Now let the old cat die! " he cried.
I saw him give a push,
Then quiet stand, as he suddenly spied
M:y face peep o'er the bush.
But what he pushed, or where it went,
I couldn't well make out,
On account of the thicket of bending boughs
Tliat bordered the place about.
"The little villain has stoned a cat,
Or lrn11g it upon a lirn b,
And left it to die all alone," I said;
"Bnt I'll play the mischief with him."

" You're letting him die I " I cried aghast;
"Why, where's the cat, my dear?"
And lo I the laughter that rang around
Was a thing for the birds to hear.·

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Exe:rcise.-Which lines of the above verses rhyme? How does
each line commence? Show where and why quotation-points, periods, in:
terrogation-points, and exclamation-points, arc used in the poem. Arrange
the following words to make a verse like the above: "With the rose-light
in her face, swinging back and forth and swaying, like a bird and a flower
\
in one she seemed; and her native place the forest."
· Tell what each word in the poem is-beginning, NOT is an adverb.
Going through the poem again, write in separate lists,
1. Such plural forms of nouns as occur (cliildren, words, etc.).
2. The possessive forms of nouns and pronouns (orclim·d's, etc.).
3. The ;verbs in the past form (were, etc.). 4. The infinitives . .
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A SYNOP1'1CAL REVIEW.

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A S J'NOPTICAL REVIEW.
I. Definition.

LESSON LXXI.
\

A Review of what has been learned is now necessary.

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Pronouns.

( I. Definition-" The expression of thought."

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{ i.· Spoken. }
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II. Km<ls. 2. W rittcn. Doth cons1;;t of Sentences.
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Sentences.

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Words.

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Definition-" The expression of a complete thought."
1. Statements. · I
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Commence with what?
2. Commau <l s.
Q
.
Followed
Ly what
II. Classes.
3. ucstions.
.
points, respectively?
·
L4. E• xcIama t10ns.
I.

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Adjectives.

I. Definition-" The signs of ideas."
{ 1. Vowels.
} Define and
IL Made u of LETTERS.
P
2. Consonants. name them.
III. Classes-eight (including Articles, nine): name them.

1. Common-define.
II. Classes. { _
2 Proper-define-commence how?
1. Singular-denote what?
2. Plural-denote what?
a. Plural, how formed regularly?
b. Irregular plural forms.
c. Foreign plurals.
3. Masculine-denote what?
4. Feminine-denote what? Formed,
a. I3y terminations-what?
III. Forms.
b. By prefixing words-what?
c. By using different words.
J 5. Subjective-for subject.}
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Differ how?
6 01Jjective-1or Oujcct.
7. Possess ive-denote what? Formed how,
a. In the singular?
b. In the plural?

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Verbs.

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I. Definition.

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I. Definition.
II. Verb-root-infinitive-how used?
1. Definition.
III. Participles. 2. F orma t'10n.

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V.

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Adverbs.

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Feminine-name them.
they stand.
., Subjective-mention them. ~
Denote
Objective-mention them.
6
Possessive-mention them. ) what?

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1. Proper-how formed ? commence how?
2. T1rn, AN, A, Ly many made a ninth
IL.Classes.
class of words, Articles.
~
a.
An, when to be used.
{
b. A, when to be ·used.
1. Regular-what terminations?
III. Comparison. {
Changes sometimes required.
2. Irregular.

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Nouns.

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Singular-name some.
Depend on
Plural-name some.
~ the noun
3 Masculine-name them. I for which
1_.

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I. Definition.

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II. Forms.

Let each pupil take a topic from the synopsis below, write
the heads on the black-board, and tell all that he kno\vs
about them without being questioned.
Language.

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123

Prepositions.
Conj unctions.
Interjecti()ns.

VI.
VII.

1. Present. }
What they respectively
2 . Past.
Forms.
d
3. Future.
enote.
{
4. Compound forms-how made?
Auxiliaries-define-name-how varied?
Chief Parts-what -why so called?
Regular and Irregular-examples.

I. Definition.
II. Classes-according to signification.
_
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1. Regular.
1
{ III. Comparison.
.2. rregu1ar.
1
LIV. Position in the sentence.
. I Definition.
1. What it is.
{ II. Adjunct. { 2. Position in the sentence.

Defined.-List of principal conjunctions..
Defined.-List of principal interjections.

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124

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RULE'S FOR CAPITALS.

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125

Under this rule fall also adj ectives denoting religious bodies; as, a Baptist church, an Episcopal seminary.

EXE lt CI SE.
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· RULES FOR CAPITALS. ·

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Tell wliat eacli word is. Thus: The is an adj ective (or article)·
ladies is a noun, etc.
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1. The ' ladies l1eld a fair in th e building beside th e cl1urch·. 2.
Besides b eing warm, it bids fair to be cl ear. 3. B esides, rest
assured that we shall h ave a fair <lay. 4. As calm follows storm
so the rest of the grav e follows th e excitem ent of life. 5. So the'
water is calm, I shall 11ave no fear. G. Calm y om scH~ my friend,
and fear n ot. '7. Man wants lmt littl e l1 crc b elow, nor wants t.liat
little long. 8. I t oltl you that the little bird tlrnt you saw on that
long branch was a wren.
Wri te a story about TrrE S wrna , rifel'Ting to th e engraving on
page 120. (Tell ab out th o cliiklrcn going to the orchard to playdescribe th e scen e-wh at th ey arc doing-how th e swing ;vas put
up-taking turns at swinging-how th ey were interrnpted-the old
gentleman's mi stake-how he felt when he found out bis mistakewhat the children said and did.)

LESSON LXXII.

"

Rttles fm· Capital Lette1·s have been interspersed in

the preceding Lessons. They are now ·presented all together, by way of revi ew. "Where capitals are not required
by these rules, use small letters.
Begin with a Cnpital,
I. Every sentence, and every line of poetry.
IL Proper nonus, proper adjectives, and titles of office, honor, and r espect, used with proper names.
As, the 1£onoi-able Peter Doane, Jfcmber of Congress fro m Jfm·.11land;
Samuel Sherwood, Esq.-,V'rite these examples, and those that follow in
· this Lesson, on th e black-hoard, and tell why ~ach capital is used :-Thus,
Hono1·able commen ces with a capital, because it is a t.itjc pf honor; P eter
Do€(,ne, because it is a proper noun; Jfember, because it is a title of office,
etc.

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III. Common nouns personified in a lively manner;
as, "Fair Health has scattered roses o'er their cheeks."
IV. Appellations of the Deity; as, the Almighty,
the Supreme Being, Providence.
V. The iirst word of a complete quoted sentence, not
introduced by tliat or any other conjunction.
A se11tence cited in some other person's words is said to be quoted.
Observe the different ways of introducing such a sentence. 1. Watts says,
"Life's a long tragedy." (Capital, comma.) 2. Watts says that "life's
a long tragedy." (No capital, no comma-but quotation-points in both
cases.)

VI. The first word, and every noun, adjective, and
verb, in the titles of books and headings of compositions,
chapters, sections,1 etc. ; as, Have you read "What a
Blind Man Saw in Europe"?
VII. A word defined, or denoting the specinl subject
of an article or paragraph. Find examples in this bo~k.
VIII. The pronoun I and the interjection 0.
IX. Words denoting great events, eras, or institu
tion s, noted written instruments, etc. ; as, the Revolutionary War, the :Feudal System, the Constitution of the
United States.
·
X. Single letters standing for words ; as, A. lvl. (master of art13), P. 0. (post-office).
EXERCISE.

Correct m·1·ors :-1. Alfred the great wa_s the most distinguished
of the saxon Kings of england. 2. cbilo of lacedremon embracing
.
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l11s Son who had taken a prize at the olympic games, <lied in
his arms from Joy. 3. i have read in sir F. · Jackson's Work
entitled "gleanings of an antiquary" that one of the important
Questions discussed by the schoolmen of the middle ages was, how

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ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

many Angels can stand on the Point of a Needle? 4. miclrne!
:rngelo, at seventy years of age, said still an1 i learnin g. 5. an african proverb says that, It is easy to cut np a dead Elephant. G. The
magna charta was signed by kin g john. 7. address a letter to the
rev. A. b. coe, d. d., button, illinois. 8. aim not, o love, thy unerring shaft at my H eart. 9. Frederick the great of prussia, marching into saxony, commenced the seven years' war.
10. .Maker, preserver, my redeemer, god,
whom lrnve i in the Heavens but thee ::Ii one l

Each Member of a Compound Sentence has its own
subject, logical subject, and predicate.

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"One generation blows bubbles, and another bursts them."
This is a compound sentence of two . members, connected by the conjunction and. 'fh e subject of the first member is generation; logical subject, one generation; predicate, blows bubbles. The subject of the second
member is anotlm·; predicate, bursts them; there is no distinct logical subject, as the subj ect has np modifiers.
E X E-It C I S E ,

A nalyze ·into subject, logical subject, and predicate, tlie first six
sentences in the last E xercise.
Analyze the following compound sentences, according to the example at the top of the page :-1. A merry heart maketh a cheerful
countenance; but by sorrow of the heart the spirit is broken. 2.
N cwfoun<llau.<l dogs often save persons from drowning; and t11e
noble animals of the St. Bernard breed have r escued many a travell er lost in Alpine snows. 3. The Chinese, particularly such as
live in ::m<l. near the great cities, eat almost every Jiving creature
that comes i11 th eir way; dogs, cats, hawks, owls, au.<l eagles, are
regular marketable commodities.
JV1·i te a Composition on WINTER AMGSEMENTS, referring to the
engraving on page 17. (Describe the scene-how the trees look in
. winter-th e fi elds-the roads-the ponds-the streams. Tell how
people have to dress when they go out-'how they keep warm indoors. How they amuse themseh-es in-doors, how out-of-doors.
Sleighing, sliding, skating, riding down-hill-which do you like
best? What accidents sometimes happen? What do you see in
the picture?)

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LESSON LXXIII.
A rial71ziny Sentences is resolving them in to their

parts. We did something of this on page 14, but now
we are prepared to do it more systematically.
The Subject of a senteuce has already been defin ed as
the leading word denoting that about ·which something
is said. Select the subjects of the first six sentences in
the last Exercise.
vVhen ·we fiay "the leading worcl," we mean a noun
or pronoun, which is the nsnal subj ect. But the subject
may also be an infinitive or a chnse ; as,
To die for one's country is glorious.
1Vlwtlier IIonier evm· lived, has been disputed.
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127 .

ANALYSIS OJi' S.E.N 1'.ENCES.

126

"Certain tribes in Afri ca, lacking better food, eat white ants."
Tribes is th e subj ect. It is modified by the adj ective certai{i, the adjunct in Aji·ica, and th e participial clause lacldng better food.

The subject of a sentence may be modified by an a<lj ecti ve, an adjunct, · or a clause,-or by all tlll'ee. The
rnbj ect and its mod ifiers form what is cn1l ed the Logical
Subject; and tho rest of the sentence is the Predicate.
L ogical Suhject: Certain tribes in Africa, lacking better food.
Predicate: Eat white ants.

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LESSON LXXIV.
1. Cain and Abel were sons of Adam.
2. Cain was a son of Adam, and lived for a time in Eden.
3. Cain and Abel were sons of Adam, and lived in Eden.
What is the logical subject ·o f Sentence 1? Of what does it consist?
What is the predicate of Sentence 2? Of how many parts does it consist?

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CLAUSES:-VOCATIVE EXPRESSIONS.

l\Iention the subject and predicate of Sentence 3.
each consist ?

Of how many parts does

A sentence may have a Compound Subject-that is,
two or more subjects conn ected by a conjunction or not;
or a Componn<l Predicate, consisti11g of two or more parts
of equal rank; or Loth. vVrite exa111ples of each.
The subject is sometimes understood; as, "Aim (tlio1t)
high." So, a verb or other words may be understood hi
0\18 of the members of a coi"npound sentence ; as, "In
science r eason is the g uide ; iu poetry, taste (is tlw guide)."
Analyze this example, and write a similar one.
From the 1'fembers of a sentence, which are of equal
rank, must be disting uish ed Clauses, which arc subordinate
divi sions, generally used to modify some leading word.
Examples of the prin cipal kinds of c.:la11ses foJlow.
vVrite the sentences from dictation, underline the clauses,
and place two lines under the predicates.
1. TV!iet'1 e1· ilfohammed was an impostor is the question before us.
'l'his clause, used as a subj ect, performs the part of a n oun.
2. Jlfany wish the tree fell ed, who hope to 9atlter its chip.~.
Thi s clause in trnduces an add itional statement 'ri th who.
3. Abandoning hope, Burgoyne at length surrendered.
This parti cipial clause contains the participl e abandonin9.
1. Wliereve1· a mangoes, his character goes with him .
This clause has the force of nu adverb, expressing place.
5. Laws are made, to protect the comm?J,nit,I).
This clause cxp rcs~ es the encl or purpose.
6. There a re none so deaf as tlwse that will not hear.
Contains the latter of two te1rns compared, in trod uced by as.
7. If the sky falls, we shall catch larks.
Introduced by the conjunction if, mHI ex presses a supposition.

A Vocative Expression consists of a nouu or prononn
denoting an object addressed, thrown juto a sentence with
its modifiers, independently of other words; as, " 0 L iberty, what crimes are committed in thy name!"

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

129

EXERCISE,

Select the sul?iect, logical subject1 . and predicaUr-adjunct8,
clauses and vocative expressions :-1. Whether the lion deserves to
be called the king of beasts, has by some been questioned. · 2.
Abandoned by the Romans, tho Bl"itons could not withstand the
inroads of the Picts and Scots. 3. So carefully is Belgium cultivated
that th e whole country may be called a garden. 4. If you let me
make the ballads of a nation 1 I care not who makes its laws. 5. Industry and perseverance will in most cases attain their object and
secure ultimate success.
6. O conscience, conscience! man's most faithful friend 1
Him canst thou comfort, ease, relieve, defend.
Treat in like manner tlie sentences in the Exercise on page 115.
Write seven senteneea containing clauses; see examples on the
last page.
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LESSON LXXV.

The subject, and the leading verb of the predicate,
constitute two Principal Parts, which must appear in every ·
sentence and in each member of a comp~:mnd sentence;
• ·
as, Boys study.
A third Principal Part sometimes appe~rs in the predicate, 1. As the object of the leading verb; Boys study
their lesson8. 2. As a noun, or its equivalent, used after
a verb which takes no object; Boys become men. 3. As
an adjective so used; Those boys are studious.
'1.'o a.nulyze a sentence fully, tell what it expresses;
mention its principal parts; tell by what word s, adjuncts,
or clauses, each is modified, and by what modifiers, if any,
these are themselves modified. If the sentence is compound, treat each member in turn as just described.Examples follow.

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130

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.

The subject Bedouins is modified by the adjective (ar~icle) the, the adjunct of Mesopotamia, and the clause when about to set out on a journey.
The leading verb string is modified by the adverb together; and both leading verbs are modified by the clause to .~erve as food by the way.

1. T!w Russians su'l'pass all ot!ier natfons in one

thing at least-tlie size of tliei1· bells.
This sentence expresses a statement. Principal parts, the subject Rus.
8ians, the leading verb mrpass, and the object nation.~.
'fhe subject is modified by the adjective (article) thc.-Thc leading verb
suipass is modified by the adjunct in one thing, whose noun thing is modified by the adjective one (itself modified by the adjunct at least) and the
apposition-noun size, modified by the adjective (article) the and the adjunct
of thefr bclls.-The object nations is modified by the adjectives all and othel".

5. Go to tlie ant, thou sluggard,· slie w£ll teacli thee

industry ..
A compound sentence of two members; the first expresses a command,
the second a statement.-The principal parts of the first member are the
subject thou understood, and the leading verb go, which is modified by the
adjunct to the ant" t1wu sluggai·d is a vocative expression.
The principal parts of the second member are the subject she,-the leading verb 'Will teach, modified by the adjunct (to) thee,-and the object industry

2. T!w man {/wt liatli not music in liJmsc?f,

Is fit for t?'ectson, stratagenis, and spoils.
This sentence expresses a statement. Principal parts, the subject man,
the leading verb is, and the predicate adjective fit.
The subject is modified by the adjccti ve (article) tltc, am! the clause
that hath not nrnsic in ltimse{f. The principal parts of this clause are its
subject that,-its leading verb hath, modified by the adverb not and the adjunct in himsr:(t;-and its object music.
The predicate adjective fit is modified by the adjunct for treason, stratagems, and spoils.

3. 0 A itt1.t1nn, briglit with tliy nJbe

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EXERCISE.

Analyze, as above, Sentences l-6 in the last Exercise; also the
following :-1. Worth makes the man, and want of it the fellow.
2. Life is like a shadow; how swiftly it flies! 3. The flesh of the
horse has been long known to be nutritious food, and that of the
ass is stiil esteemed a great delicacy in Persia. 4. The moon has no ·
atmosphere or water; can it., then, have any inhabitants 1 5. "Babylon," says Aristotle, "was so large, that on the third day the news
of itg capture by Cyrus had not reached some of the citizens."

niany colors,

. lww can tliey call tli,ee 8ad?
This sentence expresses a question. Principal parts, the subject they,
the leading verb can call (mo~ified by the adverb how), and the object thee
(modified by the adjective sad).
0 Autumn, bright with thy robe of 11w11y colo1·s, is a vocative expression, containing Autumn, the name of the object addressed, modified by the
adjective bi·ig1it, which is itself modified by the adjunct with th!11·obe,-whose
noun robe is modified by the adjunct of many colors.

4. "Tlie Bedouins

131

LESSON LXXVI.
A succession of very short sentences does not sound
well. Several such sentences may be combined in one, as
already shown, by means of the pronouns wlw, wliich, tliat
(page 40),-participial clauses (page 69),\or conjunctions
(page 116).
In the story on the next page, combine into one sentence each group, using a pronoun, participle, or conjunction, as suggested. Punctuate properly. Exchange compositions, and let each scholar mark any mistake he finds.

ef

JJ£e80JJotamia," 8ays a recent
writer, "wlien about to set out on a joit?'ney, catc!i locusts,
and string tliem togetlier, to 8erve as.food on tlie way."
This sentence expresses a statement. Principal parts, the subject
w1·ite1·, modified by the adjectives a and rccc11t,-and the leading verb says,
modified by the quoted sentence.
The quoted sentence expt"csses a statement. Its principal parts are the
subject Bedouins,-the leading verbs catch and string,-and their respective
objects locusts and them.

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COMBINING SENTENCES.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

133

Soon he felt a twitch. This twitch (Pro.) made hi~ think that
a fish was nibbling. · (Conj.) He gave (Part.) a sudden jerk. He
threw a minnow up in the air.
It would have fallen back into the brook. (Conj.) Frank (Pro.)
was on the opposite side of the brook. Frank caught it in a net
as it was falling. (Conj.) It was soon swimming in a pail of water.
T11is was done several times. (Conj.) The girls (Pro.) had
watched the proceedings with great interest. They carried the
pail home. (Conj.) They long kept the little fish i:is pets. The girls
fed (Part.) them . . (Conj.) The girls played (Part.) '~ith them.

Combining the sentences as sugges ted on the last page, you will have
eight new sentences, which may be divided into three paragraphs. The
sentences thus written may be analyzed, an<l the words classified as nouns,
adjectives, etc.

Sentence-bttilding was . explained on ·page 13.

Referring to the engraving, from your own thoughts and
from the suggestions made below, build up one long sentence on each of the following as a foundation:..)

THE

LITTLE

FISHERMAN.

Near a pretty farm-house ran a brook. This brook (P1·onoun)
wound through woods and meadows. It (Conjunction) finally
emptied into a large river.
In the farm-house liv ed Mr. and Mrs. Browning. In the farmhouse lived their five chihlrcn (Conj.). (Conj.) The brook was the
favorite resort of the young Brownings.
They thought (Participle) one afternoon that they would catch
some little fish, to put in a trough. They all set out for a deep
place in the brook. ,
For a pole, Arthur had a long branch. To the branch (P1'o.) he
had tied a cord. (Conj.) He did not wish (Part.) to hurt the fish.
To the eml of the cord he fastened a lieut pin in stcaJ of a hook.
A worm furnished him with bait. (Conj.) He threw · in his
hook.

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Thus :-1. From a little spring on a hill-side, where it has its origin, the
brook flows, small at ·first, but gradually increasing and receiving other rivulets, till it grows into a large stream, and is ·finally swallowed up by a great
river, through which its waters at last find their way to the ocean.

• 1. The brook flows. (From what-its size-it receives whatbecomes what-flows into what?)
2. Alice sat. (The-Alice sat-how-on what-where did the
stump stand-what was she looking at-wondering whether-.)
3. The girls8tood. (Where-watching whom-crying out when
and what?)
4. The little .fisherman jerked liis pole. (How-when-whywith what success?)
5. Frank held liis net. (When-where-why-with what sue·
cess-where had he obtained the net?)
6. Tlie.fish was falling. (Where had it been jerked-how was
it caught-where was it put?)
7. The pail was carried home in triumpli. (It had been filled
with what-for what purpose-was carried by whom?)
8. The brook glided quietly along. (In midsummer, making
what kind of noise-caused by what-looking how in the sunshine;
but in early spring, fed by what-dashed along how-doing what to
its banks, and what to the meadows that bordered it?) .

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134

PUNCTUA'l'ION.

OOLON AND SEMICOLON.

The Oolo'n, Semicolon, and Comma, are used between
parts of sentences, and denote different degrees of separation,-the colon the greatest, the comma the least.
A Colon must be placed before a long quoted sentence,
and before any quotation referred to by the words tlius,
this, these, following, as follows; also, before an enumeration of particulars introduced by first, second, etc.

LESSON LXXVII.
P~tnct1~ation is the art of dividing written language
by pomts, m order that the meaning may be readily understood. The Punctuation-points are as follows:PERIOD,

SEM1coLoN,

lNTERROGA TION-POINT 1

Co~orA,

EXCLAMATION-POINT,

DASH,

COLON,

PARENTIIF.SE8,
BRACKETS,

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[ )

Sorne of the most important rnles of punctuation have
been already presented. We shall now review these and
learn some new ones.

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A Period must be placed after every sentence ex pressa statement or command, and after every abbreviated
word. vVrite examples.
.

Curran alluded to the short life of Irish liberty in these impressive
words: "I sat at her cradle; I followed her hearse."
"Geographers distinguish three continents: first, the Eastern; second,
the Wes tern ; third, the Australian." The three different degrees of separation are here shown: the greatest, denoted by the colon before the enumeration; the next, by the "semicolons between the particulars; the least,
by the commas after first, second, and third.

A Semicolon is placed,
1. Bet\veen the members of a compound · sentence,
unless very short. \Vrite an example.
2. Before as introdl!cing an example. Find the semico10n thus u sed on this page.
3. Between particulars enumerated with the words
first, second, etc. See example above, under .t he colon.
4. Before an enumeration of particulars, when the
names merely are given; as, " Geographers distinguish
three continents; the Eastern, the Western, and the
Australian."

111 g

Two distinct but kindred statements may be separated with the period,
and thus made two sentcnces,-or with the semicolon, in which case thcv
form the members of one compound sentence. Use the sem ico lon, whe~
the statements are connected by and or /01·. Thus:"Count not on to-morrow. Thou knowcs t not that to-morrow "·ill
dawn." (Or with th e semicolon-" Count not on to-morrow. thou" etc.)
"\V"1tl 1 a conJunctwn.
·
" Count not on to-morrow; for th on;' etc.
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. A perio~ denoting ru.1 abbreviation does not take the place of any othei·
pomt; but, if an abbrcv1alion closes a statement or command, one period
suffices. Thus:-" H e lives at N"yn ck, Rockland Co., N. Y."-"\Vhat point
follows the first period? What double duty does the last period perform?

EXERCISE.

An Interrogation-point must be placed after every sen~ence. an:l member expressing a question; also, after the
mterJect10ns eli and lwy. vVrite examples.
An Exclamation-point mnst be placed after every sentence, member, and expression, denoting an exclamation;
also, af~er every interjection except 0, eli, and liey; as,
"How improperly yon have acted! Fie! For shame!"

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Write six sentences reqitiring the pe1'iod after them; six requiring the interrogation-point; six 1·equiring the exclamation-point.
W:rite six co.m pound sentences, and punctuate them prope1·ly.
The engmving on page 171 will suggest ideas.
Punctuate the following sentences; supply needed capitals:1. There are two classes of nouns first Common second Proper.
2. The moon revolves round the earth in the same time that she
turns on her axis hence she always presents the same side to us

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136

PUNO'J'[JA'l'JON.

THE COMMA.

3. We all have to write different kinds of letters letters of busi"
ness letters of fri endship letters of introduction etc
4. Robin Ho od was a noted highwayman of the time of Richard
I sherwood forest _w as the scene of many of his exploits
5. Th~ followmg are r egarded as the great epic poems first
Homers Ih atl second virgils roneid third Miltons paradise lost
• G•. Mr W S Sco tt, treas pro tern of the }ft Pleasant R R Co, arrived m town yesterday at 6 p m
.7. But three grand divisions of the earth were known to the
ancients europe asia and Africa
8. There is a fine thought in the following lines of Coleridge
!{as~ thou a charm to stay the morning star
ln his steep course So long he seems to pause
on thy bald awful head, o sovereign Dlanc

4. A logical subject ending with a verb or consisting
of parts separated by the comma ; as, " Those that hide,
can find."
A comma is' used before a short quoted sentence, not
introduced by a conjunction; uetween very short members of compound sentences; also, between distinct parts
of a predicate, unless very short or c1osely connected;
as, "Prosperity begets friends, adversity tries them."
A comma is placed after each word in a series of
more than two belonging to the same class,-or after
each pair, if the words are taken in pairs ; also, after a
word repeated for the sake of emphasis, with its adjuncts
(if any). "Diamonds and rubies, pearls and emeralds,
dazzled the eye." "Hope, hope alone, is ours."
When a verb previously used is omitted, a comma
takes its place; as, '~Virtue brings its own reward; vice,
its own punishment."

----«>---

LESSON LXXVIIl.

A Comma

is used to set off

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1. Adjuncts and c!anses not essential to the meaning

of the sentence, part1cnJarly when introduced between
. closely connected parts; as, "At lcuoth
I sabella who
0
ldf
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·1··c
ia a1t 1 m olnmbus, resolved to assist him."~,. '

EXERCISE •

No comma, if the adjun ct or clnuse is esscnti:1l to t.lie mc nnii1g; as,
"Those w!to begin revolutions rarely end them."
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2. .Sn~jects intro~uced by as well as, and not, etc. ;
also ~ucative cxpress1~ns, a1ternati ves introduced by or,
and smglo word s relatmg to the sentence us a whole.

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Thus:-" Hungary, as well as Spain, is noted for its win es." "A boon
from thee, 0 Hen.Ith, I crave." "Colon, or Columbus, was a Genoese."
"Heat, ti1ere1orc,
r
•
r
"
1s
a 1orce.
"Milton, howeve r, was blind."

3. A noun in apposition, \Vith its rnodiliers · as "Thus
died Elizabeth, the good Queen Dess."
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* It Is recommended that the scholar write the examples on the black-board, as die·
tnted by the teacher, and show why the comma is used in each ens~.

137

I

Write a sentence of your own, to illustrate each of the rule,s in
this lesson, imitating the examples given.
Punctuate the following: -Proverbs are short pithy homely
sayings that embody the wisdom and experience of the million
Though a man may miss many things he never misses his mouth
Tli e mi.II of heaven grinds slowly but grinds to powder Generally
the rebukes of the just are worth more than their praise
"On the 27th of September lOGG at the mouth of the Somme
there was a great sight to be seen four hundred large sailing-vessels more than a thou sand transports and sixty thousand men were
on the point of sailing The sun shone splendidly after long rain
trnmpets soundecl the cries of the armecl multitude rose to heaven
on the far horizon on the shore on the wide-spreading river on the
sea which opens out thence broad antl shining masts and sails extencled like a forest The Normans under William their gallant
Duke were setting out to conquer England 11

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138

l'UNGTUA 'l'JON.

The Hyphen connects the parts of a compound word,
or joins the syllables of a word divid~d at the end of
a line.
Quotation-points are used to enclose vrnrds quoted, or
represented as employed in dialogue.

LESSON LXXIX.

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"Honesty-where can it be found? " We begin ns if about to say,
"Honesty cnn nowhere be found," but afte1· the first word change the con- ·
struction. What point denotes the l>reak?
"His air was majestic, his brow was lofty, and-his nose was red." 'l'he
sentiment, at first grave, suddenly changes to humorous. ·w hat point denotes the transition ?
"You nre a-a-vile, worthless-" "Hear me before you censure,"
interrupted the other. 'l'he first speaker hesitates before applying the
epithets, and is afterward interrupted by his companion. What point denotes the hesitation and the interruption?
"And this was Augustus-Augustus, Rome's emperor and the world's
. master." The word Augustus is repeated abruptly. What point denotes
the repetition ?
"Mrs. L-- was born in 18-." Letters are omitted from the name,
and figures from the date. What point denotes the om ission?

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The Dash is used to denote a break in the construction, a transition in the sentiment, a sndden interruption,
hesitation, an abrupt repetition, or an omission of letters,
figures, or words.
A dash after other points makes them indicate a
greater degree of separation than the_y genera1ly denote.
"Borussia (such was the ancient name of Prussia) lay along the southern coast of the Baltic." Here nn explanatory clause is introduced between
the subject Borussia and its verb lay. What marks enclose this clause?
"Too many studies distracts [distract] the mind." Quoting from some
one who uses the word distracts wrong, I enclose after it the right word
distract within what marks?

11

Parentheses are use<l to enclose words that explain,
modif_y, or add to the mafo statement, when introduced
between closely connected parts.
Brackets are used chiefly in quoted passages, to enclose
corrections, observations, or words improperly omitted.
The Apostrophe denotes the possessive case of nouns,
or the omission of a letter or letters; as, men'E, e'er, tho'.

139

PUNCTUATION.

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EXERCISE.

Write a sentence illustrating each 1·ule in this Lesson.
Punctuate the following :-1. A letter may be omitted from the
beginning middle or end of a word as neath for beneath een for
even tliro for through 2. Dr Johnson (and his remark always
occurs to me when I go trouting calls a fishing pole "a rod with a
worm at one end and a fool at the other 3. My dear sir I I I the
fact is I am delicate about the matter 4. Who [whom have you
seen 5. Mrs G is beautiful graceful and accomplished and talks
through her nose 6. My country 0 my country hast thou so fallen
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LESSON LXXX.
Errm·s in Speaking and rVriting are so numerous
: that the student can not be too watchful for avoiding
· them. The most common mistakes have already been
pointed out; further examples of these, arranged promiscuously, follow. The pupil is also introduced to some
new vnricties of error, and to certain faults of style and
inelegancies of expression, with directions as to the proper
mode of correcting them.
.
This Exercise may be divided into lessons of convenient length. Correct errors of every kind, and giv~
the reasons.
· Us boys liaint had no recess.
Had Napoleon liave winnecl the victory at Waterloo how
• different would have. been the clestinys of Europe?
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COMMON ERRORS.

CORRECTION OF

A Frenchman, disappointed with english cookery, ex··
claimed, I have never before seen a. land with fifty religions
and only one sauce. I shall never visit it 110 more.
See if you can buy me Worcester and Webster's Dictionary at the bookseller's and stationer's next door.
I dont know but what if you had arrove sooner this here
catastrophe mig·ht have been prevented.
No one of my fath ers sons have been so lucky as me.
Five dollars are a small sum to leave to the poor.

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How many times w·e four contained in fifty four.
Five-eighths are more than one-half.
By bow much clo nineteen-twentieths exceed two-fifths.
lYilsons "Travels in Turkey" which were announced
last year have just been issued from Blacks and Co's press.
The Western prairie land produces largely of grain.
You aint going to dep end on him, coming, are you?
Accept of this in the spirit in the which I offer it.
Clay's Calhoun's and W ebster's are rare enough today.
It was supposed that his first act would have been to
have hurled defiance at bis enemies.

Another, perhaps, might have been able to have managed the affair better than me.
This valley was thought at some former time to be overflown with water, a"nd to be the bed of a enormous lake.
Mr M is one of them, practical statesmen that believes in
geting at the root of an evil.
The number of Mohammedans are said to be not fewm·
than 125,000,000.
The phenomena that has just appeared is wonderful.
vVe heard as how your barn was burnt.

IViany a person clapt their hands on hearing this.
The class should here be shown a globe.
It is the globe that should be shown and not the class. Make the right
noun the subject:-" A globe should here be shown to the class."

Thrice was he tendered the crown.
We were presented with sweet smelling nosegays.
The Nile is the lon.qest of ctny river of Africa.
I seen some fine bananas, and was offered a orange.
Fred's brother's wife's sister's farm has been sold.
Interesting indeed are the accounts of the adventures of
the ·immediate descendants of the first settlers of Kentucky.
Art thou not ashamed to see me here, when you recollect how I was lured hither?

Five dollm·s being referred to as one swn, the verb are should be changed
to the singular form is.

The reference here is to an act future as regards the time when it was
supposed. But liave docs not express future time; say would be and hurl.

141

Do not use different pronouns-thou and you-referring to the same
person, in the same sentence. Change art thou to are you, or you recollect
to thou recallectest.

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Art thou not weary of waiting for your friends ?
Such persons as have winter1·ed in the Arctic regio.ns ~nd
that have came back alive have a shattered constitut10n
generally. ·
Every man who appeared 1;1.nd that we spoke to were too
busy to answer us.
Fish have been discovered in subterranean rivers which
have no eyes.
Them Chinee miners have the spitefulest dispositions I
ever seen .· they never forget no injuries.
On e~amin.ing his horse's foot, he found his shoe was
loose and cutting his hoof.
In the first part of the sentence, his and he are used with referen~~ to
the ri<ler · in the latter part, his is used of the horse. Change to the
shoe," ";he hoof."-In the same sentence, do not apply the same pronoun to
d~fferent persons or things.
·

When they looked at their stock of provisions they found
they were near ruined with the salt-water.

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COMMON ERRORS.

Angry m~n permit of_ no explanations nor apologies.
An old sailor was settin,q by a table with a cork leg.
That tongs has been broke this six months.
Husband and wife should love one another.
I and you and Heuben will start immediately school is
out.

The beau monde will forgive dishonesty or falsehood
easie1· than clownishness.
Beau monde is the French for world of fashion,· its use looks affected.Do not use foreign words 01· constnictions, when there are pitre Enplislt one&

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just as expressive.
A Table of Latin and French expressions often used, with their English
equivalents, will be found on page 176.

Modesty requires that we speak of oursell'es last ; say you, and Reuben,
and I.-Do not use immediately or directly for as soon as.

I and the girls can go to the village directly dinner is
· over, easier than we can after dark.
There are no water, no wind, no sound, on the surface
of the smiling satellite whom we call the moon.
TV!w can we trust, if not them as we have lcnowed from
our most early years'.
hadn't ought to do what conscience tells us not to.

we

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143

CORRECTION OF

142

The opening ceremonies passed off comme il faut. The
president was quite au fait in his part, the tout ensemble
was grand, ancl every thing was en regle. The exhibition
bids fai?-ly to be a great success, but nous verrons.
We may remark en passant that New England is long
celebrated for its manufactures.
To become great without ceasing to be virtuous is a
noble undertaking, but in which few have succeeded.

•

1Vhich is a sufficient connective; remove but-or say but one in whiclt.

To should not be used for the infinitive; say to do.

The use of the word except for accept is a bad lapsus linguce, but which we often hear.
Of all other of our acquaintances, flatterers are generally
the least f1·iendliest and the selfislwst.
It was Jackson who inaugurated the practice of bestowing the offices within his gift to his political friends.

Mrs Jones she don't try to get work from no one, for she
doesnt want to.
Hyenas are equally as destructive as wolfs.
If I was you, I would make them to obey the rules.
If you would stay to home, I can go.
Every professor and every student m·e required to keep
tliefr own record.
This constant censuring others is a bad habit.

Inaugurated is here used in the sense of infrodnced-a sense not authorized by good usage. 'vVe inaugurate a president or a public hall, but not a
practice.-Do not use questionable words, or any word in a signification not
authorized b.IJ good writers of the present day.
AggraiJate is often wrongly used for provoke; admfre (with a verb) for
like ; eventuate for result ; j eopardize for endanger or 1·isk' ; 1·esurrect for
revive ; tran spire for elap.~e ,· balance (of persons) for rest ; like for as, etc.

H_ere the adjectives tltis and constant, used with the word censitring,
show 1t to be a noun; and the preposition of is needed to indicate the relation between it and others. Say "this constant censuring of othcrs.''ln th e sentence below, the use of the adverh constantly shows censuring to
be a participle, and of must not intervene between it and its object others.

It seems · as though Turkey was -jeopm·dizing her very
existence by a.gg1·avating her northern dependencies.
I and he would admire to see you try and do it.
The war eventuated in France's humiliation.
It is to be feared that years will transpire before we see
another such a couple of scholars.
.

Constantly censuring of others is a bad habit.
The mending the table will not take long.
The cost of mending of the table will not be £Teat.
vVe can not make men immortal by erecting of monuments of marble to their honor.
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144

CORREU1'JON OP

Some were hurt by the coach overturning, an<l the balance were frightened pretty bad.
By his usual effrontery, he induced his friends to follow
the same course which he had.
Few could cornluct a campaign like Napoleon did.
He's a r<;igular briclc, but a little cheeky withal.

UOJfMON. ERRORS.

The position for which he had applied and long expected,
was now given to another.
·

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Such SLANG expressions are often heard, but they should not be used
either in speaking or writing. Say, "Ile is a good fellow, but somewhat
presuming withal."-Avoid vulgar e:rpressions and sla11,q.

You can't dead-head on this boa.t nohow ; that's played
out ; pony up your tin.
The first off, that dead-beat told us a whopper.
Sam has got the small-pox.-Who has got my pen?
He dont care a r ed cent for nobody.
l£ you turn up your nose at people, thcyll get rnacl.
Ive got the blues today, but yesterday I felt bang-up.
Let's skedaddle, or they'll gobble us up.
Pyrrhus the Romans shall destroy.

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WMcli being the object of the preposition Jo», another pronoun must be
introducea as the object of the verb e~pecled-" for which he had applied,
and wliicli he had long expeeted."-Do not leave out words essential to a clear
expression of tlie rnea11ing.

They did not enter the class they were assigned. '
Railroads for which charters had been obtained and actually been commenced, were abandoned for want of means.
vVho loves me, I will love.
The crops are plenty, and money abundant.
I seen the floor had been scoured with half an eye.
Everybody feels they have got to go to Europe.
Good writers used to use some words that have now
gone out of use.

/

The similar words used, use, use, occurring so close together, weaken
the sentence. This fault is called Tautology. ·Get rid of the repetition,
by substituting other words or forms of expression: "Good writers fonnerly
used some words that a7·e now obsolete." The recurrence of the same sound
in different words is also objectionable.-Avorn TAUTOLOGY.

A noun does not show, by any difference of form, whether it is subject
or object; but the object generally stands after the verb. As in this sentence both nouns precede the verb, we can not tell which is to destroy the
other. Alter the arrangement so as to state clearly, l. That Pyrrhus shall
be the destroyer; 2. That he shall be destroyed.-Expressions like this,
that may be taken two ways, are said to be ambi,l}uous.-Avom A~rnIGUITY.

The duke yet lives that Henry shall depose.
I will have (wnbiguous) mercy, and not sacrifice.
Mary told her sister that lier frock was torn.
Daniel vVebster commenced a teacher at a early age.
I expect John will long remember that boy's beating.
A man was found dead this morning on a stoop that had
evidently seen better days.
Wanted a situation by a young man, to take care of a
garden and horses of stea<ly habits.
The pleasure of relieving of the misfortunate can only
be experienced by the benevolent.

145

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One thing· was a wonder to us-how one weak woman
could accomplish so much.
Common schools, which poor and rich may attend in common, are commonly regarded as great blessings.
This was news to us all, for formerly formidable formali, ties prevailed at this court.
r:L'he fair was fairly attended; especially by the fair sex,
whose fairy forms where everywhere visible.
At Athens, it was the birthright and privilege of every
poet and citizen to rail aloud and in publ~c.
The style is here weakened by the use of words that merely repeat the
idea. This fault is called Redundancy. Privilege is implied in bfrtli1·iglit, poet in citizen, and aloud means nothing more than in public. Prune
out these words that add nothing to the thought: "At Athens, it was the
birthright of every citizen to rail in public."-Avorn REDUNDANCY. ·
.

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COJWE'C'l'JON OJt' UUJlfMON ERRORS.

Es is appended at the end of most nouns ending with
final o, to form the plural.
Integrity is much the safest and most secure mode of
dealing with the world ; it is attended with much l~ss trouble and diflicnlty than dissimulation and deceit.
On Judas is centred the universal loathin g of all men . .
It was at I and you he aimed at in his remarks.
Another such a chance may never again occu r hereafter.
A widow lady wants to hire a pleasant good-furnished
room without children.
I confess 'vit.h humility the sterility of my fancy and the
debility of my judgment.
He answered surlily that he should persevere in it.

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VAR1E1'Y OF CONSTRUCTION.

147

»

LESSON LXXXI.
Va'l'iety in the construction and length of sentences

is quite· necessary. By using pronouns, p~rticiples, and
conjunctions, combine the short sentences below, so as
to make a connected Composition on " The Deer's
Stratagem," with sentences of different length. Avoid
faults that have been corrected m the preceding Lessons.

/

This sentence so unds ill , 1. From the repetition of sound in sitrlif,!J;
2. Decause of the short unaccented word s in it at the end. Correct thus:
"Ile answered in a surl y tone that he should pcrscYere."-Avoid endiug a
sentence with a preposition, 01· with a succession of u11accenlcd syllables 01·

words.

Though he lived holily and godlily, he made no great
show of amiableness.
A preposition is a bad worrl to let the voice rest on, or
to close a clause with.
Wrongheadedness is often a cause of unsuccessfulness.
His horses, being intoxicated, he had no control of.
He sided with, and was the chief supporter of, Maud.
The breaks after the prepositions with and of, terminating divisions of
the sentence and relating to the same noun .Afaud fo ll owin g, arc very unpleasant to the ear. Say in stead, " IIc sided with lllaud, and was her chief
supporter."

No nation takes g reat er delight in, or gives g reater encouragement to, ed ucation than us Americans.
Who can have any esteem for, or place any confidence
i11, a man that has beLrnyecl lti s trust?
What is so exhilaratillg, what 1s mor(3 healthy, than
horseback-ricli np;?

THE

DEER'S

STRATAGEM .

A hunter was looking for game among the mountains of Tennessee. He witnessed a remarkable scene. It showed in a striking
ligl1t the instinct by which the lower animals are sometimes guided.
On the branch of a pine at some distan ce, he observed a wildcat. It was quietly crou ching, as if lying in wait for game. The
hunter thought he would have a shot at the animal. He began to
steal silently toward the pine. He had not taken many steps, however,. when he saw th e wild-cat make a spring. He saw it fasten

VIOLATIONS OF UNITY CORRE01'ED.

148

superior race, and treated them with a kindness which was afterward but

its claws in th o bn.ck of n. <loe. The <loe was :iccomp:mie<l by a
buck and fawn. Th ey bau passed b eneath its place of concealm ent.
The doe was in an agony of fear. In vain she tri ed to shake
off her assailant. Suddenly she rai sed her head. She looke<l hurri edly around. S he made a <lnsl1 fo r an old tree. This tree lrnd
been blown over years before. It leane<l acro ss a little run in the
woods, a few fe et from the ground.
The doe nicely calculated its li cigl1t. Sh e dash ed beneath the
trunk at just th e rigl1t spot to bring the wild-cat 11p nil standing
against it. Sho tl111 s ln·11Rhc<l l1i111 off fro111 hor back ns if ho !111<l
1.Jeon a feath er. Then with a grntcf'ul heart she r ejoin ed her companions. They had t.n.ken the alarm . All three bound ed ont of
sight. The wild-cat was di sappointed. Il e was prett.Y well bruised.
Ile slunk off in the opposite <lirection.

ill req uitcd~"

So, the unity of a sentence is lost, if we express in it
thoughts that have-no connection. Thus:"This remarkable woman, who was possessed of an excellent spirit and
a large fortune, died _of the cholera, which was very fatal at that time in
southern Europe."
Corrected.-" This excellent woman was possessed of a large fortune.
She fell a victim to the cholera, which was very fatal at that time in southc1·n Europe."
EXERCISE.

Ilesi<les wri ting the above us directeu, tell the story connectedly
in your own language, <l escribing the scene as represented in the
picture.
- --»--- --

LESSON LXXXII.

Your Composition on "The Deer's Stratagem," if
w ell done, must read much better tlian the story as told
in the book, because the lattcl' js made up of so many
very short senten ces. Bnt there is a fault on the other
side also. Sentences may be too Jong and invo1 ved.
"After they had left Cub:i., the Spani ards found their way to IIayli,
wh ere on e of their vessels was wrecked, and wh ere th ey were well received
by the natives, who look ed upon them as a superior mcc, :uHl treated them
with a kindness for which the Spaninr<ls afterward made but a poor Te tum ."

'ii:

Here the subject changes too often (how nrnny times?),
and too many things are crowded into one sentence. This
destroys its Unity. The relllcdy js to get ri<l of some of
the subjects, ancl make two senteuces out of the one.

I

" After leaving Cuba, the Spaniards found their way to Hayti, where
on e of their vessels was wrecked. 'I'he natives looked upon them as a

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UNITY.

"

001-rect violations of unity, separating into as many sentences as
may be necessary :1. His death was a grnat blow to his countrymen, who immediately began to look about for a suitable person to succeed him.
2. Lake Titicaca, lying partly in Bolivia and partly in Peru, the
ancient empire of the Incas, whi ch w11s conquered in the sixteenth
century by Pizarro, who invaded the country with less than two
hun<lred men, is second in size of the South American lakes.
3. The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared bat'dly, having no other riches
than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and unsavory, by
reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish.
4. Pitt, who was born in 1708, and died in his seventieth year
from the effects of an apopl ectic fit, after a speech in the House of
Lords against a motion to acknowledge the independence of Ame1·ica, was a great statesman and the first Earl of Ohutham.
5. Potosi (and we may here remark that it is noted for its rich
silver-mines, which we1~e discovered by (ln Indian, who falling
cau ght ut a bush which came up in his han<ls with its roots covered
with shining particles) is mostly an elevated table-land.
6. Alfred the Great, thou gh his efforts, which were earnest and
unceasing, were unable wholly to dispel the darkness of his nge,
which was the close of the ninth century, yet greatly improved
the condition of his countrymen.
7. The worthy man has gone to his rest, but we understand
that his afflicted family will continue tho business.

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150

ARRANGING ·woRDS IN VERSE.

LESSON LXXXIII.
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1. Wlio hath kill ed the preLty flowers,

Born and ured in summ er bowers?
Who hath taken away their bloom?
Wh o hath sent them to their tomb? ·
Dec:ewber.

Above we have a verse of poetry. In it, December is
represented as a person, or personified ; wlmt words show
this? How does each line begi 11 ?
Below are wortls whicl1, if properly arranged, will
make six more verses like the abuve. So arrange them,
and presen t tlie whol e poern, written, punctuated properly, and headed DECE l\!BEI~. Then classify the words as
nouns, adj ecfo·es, etc.; and analyze each sentence (p. lBO).

I
I

I,

I ,

I'Iii;

:,',!
1,, i

I i '.
1 1\
"
'lij'
I

'i l'i
j j•

2. Who the bir<l s so gay hath chase<l, linnet and lark, all away?
Who their joyous breath hath hnshe<l, and made still as <l eath the
for est? Doeem bor. ·
3. Who the laughing riv er hath chill ed? Who doth make the
old oak shirnr? Who in snow hath wrapped the world ? Who
doth make th e wild w im1s blow? D ecembe r~
4. Who, wh en the ni glit-win<l's S\1·ift and keen, on snowy drift
doth ride, o'er th e sea and o'er the brnl-011 mischief bent-·who is
he? Decern ber.
5. Who doti1 strike the way-worn traveller to the heart, with
icy dart? Who doth make the seaman's home-the ocoan-wavethe seaman' s grave? Decemuer.
G. Who at midni ght hour <loth prowl around t110 <loor like a
thief, creepin g t hr ough eac h crevice aud craek, peeping through
the very key-hol e? ]Joccrn uor.
7. Who the traveller' s toes doth pinch ? Who tho scl1ool-boy's
nose doth wring? Who doth mak e you r fingers ti11glo? Who doth
make the sleigh-hells jin gle? Dccom Lcr.
Write a Composition on DEOEMBmi, telling about the month all
that you can think of (Christmas, holidays, etc.).

.ARRANGING WORDS IN VERSE.

151

In contrast with December, we will now present June.
A model yerse is fiTSt given. Here the first and the third
line rhyme, and the second and fourth (which, to indicate this, stand a little in, to the right). Arrange, write
the whole correctly; and head it JUNE; then classify the
words, and analyze the sentences : 1. The sun shines fair o'er flood and field,

And all around is leaf and bloom;
The mea<lows now their harvest yield,
And zephyrs waft their sweet perfume.
2. Smooth and slow saunters the rivulet, 'mid stooping flowers
an<l bordering grass; low and soft the birds are whispering to
young ones in their thicket-bowers.
3. With pensive air the gabbling goose leads her goslings forth
o'er the lake, while there quacking ducklings and ducks take their
muddle in silent bliss.
4. 'N en.th sheltering shrubs the busy hen, strong and swift,
plies her vigorous claw, and with unctuous grubs feasts her brood,
raked forth from straw and scattered leaves.
·
5. Tranquil, sweet June! thou art the fairest, brightest month
of all the year; around thy sunny brow summer's first glories; all
so dear, are wreathed.

I

Write a Composition on Ju~rn, presenting some of the above
thoughts (with others) in your own language.
- --<»-- -

LESSON LXXXIV.

etter-w1·iting is the most importarr
a;re
tion, for every one nas to write letters.
s - etters, official etters, news-letters to the public
press, letters of introduction, and ordinary letters of friendship. These have to be dated, addressed, rnbscribed, and
superscribed, according to certain forms.
;

I

15:>;

LE1'TER-TVRI1'ING.

Date.-This generally stands first, on the right,-but
sometimes at the c1H1, on the left. It consists of the
place, day of the month, arn] year.
The name of the post-office, town, or city (except in t.he case of great
cities like New York, Philauelphia, etc.), shoulu always ue followcu uy that
of the state; with obscure places, it is well also to give the county. If the
state is omitted, as there are many places of the same name in different
states, the person written to may uc at a loss where to scnu his reply. The
forms presented at the end of the Lesson will serve as examples of these
directions, as well as of those given b elow. Follow them in punctuation
and general style.

Address.-This comes next to the date, 011 the ]cf t of
the page. It contains on the first line the name arn] title
of the person written to; and on the second, 8£r,-JJear
Sil> (the common form, even if n stranger is nddressed),
-llfy dem· SiJ·,-J1faclwn (\\·hethcr tlw lady is married
or not),-IJea1· J1fadani,- 1lfy dea1· JJ£.:iclam,- Gentle11ien,-1/ea1· Sin,-Ladies,-according to the degree of
intimacy .
Oth er forms are appropriate to relatives or intimates; as, Jlf.I/ dear
.Father, 1lfother, Sisler, Brother, IV~fc, -Dca r Uncle Jolin,- 1lf!J dear Annt
J!fai·!J,-J!I,11 deai· Janc,-Dcai· I 1i·iend,-Dear Robert.
A clergyman may be addressed as Reverend and deai· Si1·.
'Vhen the date appears at th e top of the page, the n ame of the person written to, in s tead of s tamling first in the addn~ss, is sometimes placed
at the end of the letter, on th e lcrt.

SubBcription.-Tl1is consists of certain tcnns of respect
or affection which close the letter, follovved iu the next
line by the signature. Different forms are appropriate,
according to the relative positious of the writer all<l the
person addressed.
Yours truly is the COllllllOll form. vV c h:wc also, Yours, etc.,-Youi·s
respectfully, sincerely, .faitlifully, grat~(ully,- Yours ever,- Ver.I/ frul!f !/O urs,
- Yow·s most tr1tl,1j,- Yow·s with respect,- rours 1l'ith high re9ard,-Yours
in haste,-Your fri end, serva nt, obed'ient servant, cte.

LETTER-WRITING.

153

Superscription.-W e superscribe a letter when we place
on the outside the name and title of the person addressed,
with his residence which should be written plainly and in
' .
full-post-office, county (except in the case of great cities),
and state.
Mr . .Jl.aron F. Brown,
Eureka,
Gallia Co.,
Ohio.
The word Per.~011al, Private, or Confidential, may be written above the
superscription, on the left, to indicate that n letter is on privnte business ..
A letter of introduction should be left unscaled, and should contam
near the lower left-hand corner of the envelope the name of the person
introduced, in some such form as the following: Introducing Dr. GrayTo infroduce Mi·. F. R. Bliss.
When a letter is carried by private hand, it is usual to acknowledge the
favor by placing, in the position described above, the words Politeness of
Jlfr. - , or F avored by Jlfrs. - .
As regards the title to be used in the address and superscription, Jlfr.
is in better taste than Esq., unless a lawyer or justice of the peace is
addressed. To use both (Mr. Arthur B ates, Esq.) is wrong. Either fh·. or
Jlf. D. may be used with a physician's name, but not both (D1'. J. F. Drew,
or J. F. Drew, Jlf. D. ). .A. B., A. Jll., anu LL. D., belong respectively to
those who have received the college degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Master of
Arts, and Doctor of Laws. When the higher title is used, the lower should
be dropped.
T!te R ev.* is the title for ministers, with D . D. or S. 1'. D. after the
name in the case of Doctors of Divinity. 1 lw Hon.* is prefixed to the
nam es of judgeR, members of congress and the legislature, etc. The Presi·
dent of the United States or the Governor of a state is His Excellency.
The eldest or only daughter of th e ~Velsh family is addressed as Miss
Welsh; if there are oth er daughters, they are distinguished by their Christian names. Ella, the second daughter, for instance, is Jlliss Ella Welsh;
on the death or marriage of her elder sister, she becomes Miss Welsh.

The forms on the next two pages will illustrate the
directions that have been given. Let the student, for
different Exercises, copy each form, following the punc"' Punctilious people use The before Rev. and lion.. ,· common usnge omits It.

/

154

FORMS OF LE1'1'ERS AN.D NOTES.

LE1'TER-IVRI7'1N G.

tnatio11, fill out the letter witl1 rnatter of J1is own, fold,
envelope, and sllpe rscribe H. Iu letter-writing, try to be
clear and to the point.
Mr. R S.

7G Madison A venue,
N. Y., July 3, 1876.

HonAcE F.

SwAIN.

Hill, Muss. , July 1, 187G.

Messrs. HUNTER & DROIVN,
Boston:Gentlemen,
Have the goodness to let me know, etc.
Yours truly,
NAT.

The Rev. A . n.

BLAKE,

D. D.:-

F.

SHORT.

Packet Northern Light,
Near Sandy llook.

My clear Father,
I embrace the opportunity afforded by the return
of the pilot-boat, to say one more farewe ll word, etc.
Your affectionate son,
HEGINALD,

July G, '70.
Franklin S tation, l\1d. ,
Jun e 28, 18/li.

Frie nd JENKIN S,
My wife and <laughter will take th e en.rly train to-morrow
for Baltimore, to do some shoppiug. vVill yo u liave the
kindness, etc.
Fraterna ll y yours,
NOAll

S. H.

Dubuque, Iowa, July 7, '76.

'fo the Comm'rs of Public Works, St. Louis : Gentlemen,
Allow me to call your attention, etc. .
Hoping to hear favorably from you, I remarn
'
Respectfully yours,

BRADDOCK:-

Dear Sir,
In reply to your favor of th e 2.9th ult., just received,
asking for information respecting the public libraries of this
city, J beg leave to say t hat, etc.
I rernain, clear sir,
Your obed ie nt servant,

E sq .,
Baltimore.

JENKIN S,

P.

HURD.

155

JOHN

D.

SATTERLEE.

Nashville, Tenn., July 13, 1876.

' Miss S. H. 'v\r ENDO VER:
Dear Madam,
Hearing that you intend to dispose of your
farm in Blount Co., I write for information on the following
points. * * *
An early answer will oblige
Yours with respect,

I

/

JAMES BROCKE;LBANK.
NOTES OF INYITATION.

REPLIES.

( 1.)
Dr. and Mri'l. Rowe present th eir
compliments to Mr. and Mrs. H. F.
Stone, and r equest th e pl easur~ of
th eir company on M.onday evemng,
th e 10th imit.
7 P earl St.,
July 3d.

( 1.) An Acceptance.
llfr. and Mrs. I-I. F. Stone accept
'rith pleasure the polite invitation
of Dr. and ·Mrs. Rowe for the 10th
inst.

(2.)
Mr. Rumford presents his respects to the llev. Dr. Harlow, and
solicits the pleasure of his company
at dinner on Thursday next, at 6
o'clock.
No. 18 Hudson Square,
July 10th.

· (2.) A R egi·et.
Dr. Harlow regrets that mness
in bis family will prevent him from
accepting Mr. Rumford's kind in.vitation te dinner for Thursday ,i;iext.

(3. )
Mr. D. R. Abbott presents hi s
complim ents to Miss Browning, and
I.legs that h e may be allowed to wait
on her to.morrow evening to the
Academv of Music.
August 1st.

(3.) A Regret'.
Mi ss Brown\ng l;>egs .t@ tlrnnk
Mr. D. R. Abbott for his invitation
for to-morrow evening, and regrets
that a previous engagement will
prevent her from accepting}~; .
August 1st.

40 Hamilton Ave.,
July 5th.

All Souls' Rectory,
·
· July 12th.

In stead of a formal note of reply, the card of the person ·invited may .
be sent, with the words Accepts with pleasu1·e, or Regrets, written ·on it. .. · ·

i.,

t

LETTER- ll'RITJNG.

156

Following tlie p1'ecedi11g forms for dating, etc., write
! , il
A letter to one of your parents, giviug :m account of some visit
:J
you have recentl y matle away from hom e.
!I
A letter describing a visit to some Jlace of amusement.
m'1ll.:.-----~letter to a cousin, descriuin r • • _ehool.
l
'lij ~ letter t~clier, <lesc riuing tlie place in whicJ1 yon live.
~
A note accepting an invit::ition to dinn er.
A regret, declining un in vita.ti on to tho theatre.
A note to a friend, requesting the lonrl of a volume.
A note to friends in the country, announ cing u visit.
A reply from the fricncl s in tl1 0 country.
i

1

---<»---

LESSON LXXXV.
Busi;nes.~-lettcrs

should be brief, and confined to the

business in La11L1.
Belo,~· are presented fol'rns of certain lettel's ·which
are constantly r equired in the counting-house. As different Exercises, let the student copy them in turn,
dating and addressing, subscribing and superscribing
each, in regular letter form:1.
I

'II
'

LETTER OF I NTRODUCTION.

vVe b eg leave to introduce to you our esteemed friend,
Mr. ~arry ~Yinslow of this city, who is about visiting Montreal m the mte ~·es t of Mess rs. Hu11ting<lon & Co., corl'cspondents of ours m N ew Orleans. Any courtesies or favors
y~:m may be able to show l\ir. \iVinslow will be warmly appreciated by
2. LETTEI~ OF CREDIT.
If JHr. H enry Foote, the beare r of this letter shoukl
desire to r.urchase m erchandise of .)70111' house, yon n'iay hold
us responsible for such purchases to any am ount not e xceeding two thousand dollars ($2000).
. In _the eve nt of J\lr. Foote's failing to meet any pnyme11t
accordrng to agreement, please give us imm ediate notice.

•

FORMS OF BUSINESS-LETTERS.

157

3. LETTERS OF ADVICE.
Under date of the 15th inst. we have (or, TVe have this
day) drawn on you, at 30 days' sight, favor of Messrs. Hart
& Dunlap of Liverpool, for £1250 ster. (twelve hundred and
fifty pounds). Please honor di:,aft, and charge the same fo
our account.
·I have this day accepted your draft on me, @ 10 days'
sight, favor of H. F. Dunstan, for $560 (five hundred and
sixty dollars), as advised in your favor of 16th inst.
Your favor of 30th ult. came duly to hand, and according
to your request we forward to your address, per Central
R. R. of New Jersey, 3 hhd. Porto Rico sugar and 2 bbl.
N. 0 . molasses. Amount to your debit, as per enclosed bill,
$325.56, @ 4 months, 4th inst. Bill of lading enclosed.

4. LETTER WITH AccouNT.
We enclose herewith your Account to 1st inst., which
please examine and advise.

5. LETTER WITH INVOICE.
Herewith we enclose Invoice of 500 bbl. superfine flour,
which we forward to your address. Desiring to take advanta~e of present prices, we beg that you will close sales
as early as practicable. Please advise us 0£ any change in
the market.
,
6. LETIER ORDERING MERCHANDISE.
You will please forward to my address, per Hudson River
R. R., the following articles ; viz.,
15 bar. Mackerel, No. 1, Halifax ;
250 boxes Smoked Herring, medium.
On receipt of bill of lading, I will remit my
note at. 30 days.
.

Besides the above business-letters, the following forms
will be found useful. The student, by a variety of exercises, should be made perfectly familiar with them.
Let him be required, fol' example, to write on the board his note
at three months, to J. Hay, for $100, with interest.
A note on demand, to Robert Dunn, for $220,2~\, with interest.

/

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP. .

158

4.

A receipt to Richan] Hoe, for $150, unc quarter's rent.
A bill ngainst .Tones & Co. , for 50 bu. potatoc8, at 7'5c.
A bill again st :Mrs. F. Hon e, for 3 pair of kid gloves, G pair of
stockings, and 1 dozen spools of cotton.
A sight draft on 11. P. 1lowell 1 in fovor of Dacl1e & Co., for
twelve hundred dollars.
A bill of exchange for £300, on Blunt Bro., London, in favor of
Alfred S. Smith, t en days' sight.
A demand note, for $500, to Hawkins & Merry, with interest.
Such exercises may be extended at the teach er's pleasure.

Davenport, Jitne 22, 1876.
At sight, pay to the orcle1· of Lewis I-£enderson eight
hundred dollars, value received, and cha1·ge tlie same to account of

5,

Ballimoi•c, July lG, 187G.

Mrs. D. S. FmmY,

July

"

12
15

ALLEN

&

BLAKEllIAN,

12 yd. Calico, @ 12 ~1:, .
2 Silk Scarfs, @ $1.35, .

1
2

ALLEN

Dr.

150
70

-

- 4120

Received Pa.rnent,
&

Lette'l'S of F1·iendship are often required of us all ;

and, as persons are frequently judged by their letters,
care and thought should be bestowed on this department
of composition as on every other ..
There is a tendency in young writers to spin out what
ey have to say, from a fear that they may not £11 the
s ieet. This is to be guarded against. Given :i certain
amount of thought, and the fewer words in which it is
expressed, so they are sufficient to exp1:ess it clearly and
egantly, the stronger the style will be.
Sprightliness and wit in letters are always pleasing,
but there should be no overstrained efforts for effect, no
· stiffness or affectation. Writing too much about one's
is a common fault, always to be avoided.

FREDERICK BLOSSOllI.

3.

--«-----

LESSON LXXXVI.

BLAKEllfAN.

2. HECEil'T.
Received, N. Y., July 3, 1876, jl'om JJfr. A. F. .Tolinson, one liuncb-ecl and twenty-jive dollars, in full for one
quarter'~a lm·y, to l st inst.
$125.

BILL OF EXCHANGE.

Excliange for £1200.
Bost01i, June 20, 1876.
Thirty days aj~e1· sight of this First of Exchr;-nge (Second and Third of the same date and tenor unpaid), pay to
the orcle?' of Philip S. Sterling, twelve hundred pow~ds ste1·ling, value received, with or without further advice, and
charge the same to the account of
HARRISON A. MORGAN.
To DANL. F. BENT, London.

BILL.

To

DRAFT.

$800.

{

1.

15\)

PROllIISSOI!Y NOTES.

Columbus, July 8, 1876.
'l'liirty days afta elate, I promise to pay .fames D ixon,
01· bea1'er, two lwndted 1 \f0 dolla1·s, at the First J..Yationa l
.Bank. Value received.
~200 u
BENJAl\IlN HADDOCK.
<IP
To'o·
Springfield, July 17, 1876.
On deniand, we proniise to pay Andrew Blade, or ordei·,
fou1· liw1clred dollars, with i'.nterest, value receivr;cl.
$400.
CARRY & .JOSLYN.

I\

'

'

·.I
'I'

HW

CRITICISING.

LEJ'J'llR- ll'NJ'l'JNG.

the stndent a confidence and fluency in expressing himself which it is all-important to acquire.
·For an exercise in Criticism, let tlie class exchange
Compositions; tlien et ~en pupff il!._turn rise, and, after
having ~·ead-trlon the exercise lie holds, say what he
thinks of its sentiments, style, etc.- ointing out what
he regards as ca,,pable of improvement.
Suppose, for 'nstance, the following letter to have been
prepared, according to the suggestions on the opposite
page.

. A~ an exercise in this kind of wl'iting, iwcpnrc, nccording to the
~1rcct1~n~ heretofore presented, n Jetter to sorne relative in the
East, g1vrng an a~ eo nnt of overtaking an emigrnnt pnrty at their
noonday halt, dmmg an imaginary trip westward over the G . t
•
Tl
.
iea
1->I ams.
1e engravrng will suggest thoughts.

lLu:r

I

'.'i

OF AN

161

The G1·eat. Plains, June 30, 1876.
My dear Francis,
I embrace the occasion afforded by the return of a small party whom
we have just encountered on their way back to civilization, disgusted by a
series of misfortunes which have induced them to change their plans, to
send you a few Jines, which will inform you that I am improving in health,
· and still like the star of empire making my way westward. I am now with
u. pleasent part/of sturdy emigrants, who, with . their wives and children,
arc seeking hom es in southern California.
I came upon them yesterday near a pleasant spring, where they had
halted for th eir mid-day repast. It was a picturesque sight, and very welcome, I assure you, to a solitary traveller. The wagons, which serve at
once as vehicles and bed chambers, were filing up in single file, the foremost had allready stopped, the oxen were unyok ed, the occupants had dismounted-and one of the women was in the act of kindling a fire to make
a pot of tea. I was not slow in excepting a kind invitation to join them,
which, though they looked somewhat roughly, showed them to have warm
hearts. As long as our routes lay in the same direction, 1 will probably
keep company with them, for, apart from the possible danger of falling
in with some of the copper colored braves who divide their time between
hunting the buffalo and cutting travell ers throats, good company makes a

E~m;RANT PAitTY .

Among other thin gs, it may be well to describ e the co nntrythe distant landscnpe-tli e place selected for the noonin g-any
m ember o.f the party wortl1y of spec inl noti ce-by what th ey were
acc?mpnmed-th e wagon s and th eir contents-their place of destinatwn and obj~ct in go in g there- the pleasur es and dan gers of this
mode of travellin g. Wh at lias made it less co mmon than formerly?

short journey.
The high air of th ese plains are healthy and invigorating. The landscape was for a time monotonous; but sin ce coming in sight of the mountains we have been charmed with a succession of most sublime views. l\Iy
good Dobbin holds out well, game is abundant, and I hope to receive letters
from home at the next post-office, which we shall probably reach in about
two weeks.
. W'ith kind regards to all, your friend,
P. S. HooKER.

. C~iticising'. or passillg jn<lg rncnt on a Composition,
po1~1tmg. out its Lean ties and defects, and taking special
n.ot1ce of: s11:Ii errors ns 111ay occnr, is :rn irnproYi11g cxer~1s~. It trams the eye to th e detection of mista]rns, and,
if Clone orally, as· here recommended, will help to give

,,

/

EXER CI SE JN CJUJ'JCJSlNG.

ORAL CRlTICJSjJf.

Tim CmTICISM.-Th e student criticisin g tl1 c above might say:
"The chi ef obj ection that I have to this Compo ~ iti on is tlrnt it is
tame. Th e d escription is not suffi cie:J?tly vivid or pnrti cular to
interest us in th e scene or tl1 e persons. B esid es, it seems improbable that a person should be making the overland trip alone on
horseba ck, as the writer of tliis letter is representecl ns doing before
he m et th e emigrants.
"As r egarcls th e form of th e Jetter, the name of the person nddressed should app ear, either above th e words .il ly d ear Francis or
at the encl.
"The first senten ce contains the word occasion, improperly used
for opportunity; it is also d efi cient in unity, in co nsequen ce of the
fr eqncnt change of s uuject. Two se11tcnccs nre n ccclecl: I em brace
the opportunity of scndi11g this brief note, to be mailed to you by a
small p arty whom a series of misfo1·timcs in their wcsteni experience
has led to retrace thci1· steps. It will i11jorm yoi1, etc.
"Tli e n ex t error I di scover is in th e spelling of th e "·ord pleasent. I find no fault with th e n ex t two sentenc es ; but in the following on e, bed chambers should be connected with th•e h yp hen,-the
tnntology and r edunclnn cy in fili n.q 11p in single file sh ould be corrected by leaving out in single file,-cillready shonld have but one
Z,-:rnd th e dash after dismounted shonl<l be changed to a comma.
"In the next sentence, the write r docs not m ea n excep ting but
accepting; and, in stead of th e ad \·e ru ro11(lhly m odifyin g the verb
looked, w e should h aYc th e adjecti re rough to qualify the subj ect
tltey.
"The common error of lay for lie next appears. Then I will
should Le changed to I slt all, as si mpl e futurity, nnd not d et erminati on, is implied. A scmi r-olon after with them is r equired, t o separate th e two main divi sion s o f tl1 c sentence. Th e pnrts of the eompo11nd allj ective co71per-co lored sh o11lc1 be co nn ected with th e hyph en,
and travellers, d cuotiug p ossession, sliould Jwyc tl1 e npostrophc
afters.
"In the la st p arngrnph , the fir st Ye rb are must be chan ged to
the si11gnlnr form is, ns its subj ect. afr is sing11lar. Th e In st sent en ce lacks unity, as it co ntain s things that h ave no co nnection;
two new sentences shonlcl be made, commencing respectively with
Game and I hope."

Criticise orally, in like manner, the following Composition on

162

j

i·"

163

FOPS.

Fops are young, gay, trifling, men, that try to gain the eye of . the ladys
by showy dress ; they are sometimes called coxcombs, and sometimes dandies.
:Fops often carry a Cain, and apply an eye glass to one eye, and stare at
people th ey meet (particularly ladies') in a audacious kind of a manner.
They talk alfected, drawling ont th eir words. They are often quite feminin e ... I recoll ect of once reading of an old roman fop, who he was so attach ed to fin ery and so languid that he kept two sets of finger rings-a
heavier set for to wear in winter-and a lighter set for summer when the
heat mad e his winter rings oppressive and unendureable.
Most people despise fops; I do.

- --«>-- -

LESSON LXXXVII.
J.

Letters of Recommendation are often given by teachers
to deserving scholars, by employers to persons who have
been in their service, etc. It is important, in such letters, not to mislead others by saying mme in favor of the
p erson recommended than: the truth will warrant. The
following will serve as a specimen ; copy and punctuate.
Lowell jJfass April 25 '76
The bearer Ur. J. F. Hawes has been in our employ for the last five
years and we are happy to bear witness to his good character fidelity intelligence and obliging dispm;ition He is an expert accountant and possesses
qualifications which will make bim useful in any position of trust He leaves
us to seek a home in the West and we cordially recommend him to any one
nceuing the services of a trustworthy assistant
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' H OnowAY & Co

A letter answering an advertisement for a clerk, or
applying for a situation, is frequently required; it should .
be brief and modest. Specimens of such an advertisement and answer follow; copy and punctuate.

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EXERCISES JN IVRITJJVG.

Write a letter of recommendation, from a teacher for a pupil who
has gradL;ated with the first honors; from the head of a school, for
an assistant teacher; from an employer, for_a clerk; from a lady,

June 2 1876
Messrs IIoYT & PENDLETON
34 Front St
Gentlemen
In answer to your ndvertiscm ent of this <late I beg
leave to apply for the position in question I was four years with 1\fcssrs
Henry Dillon & Co and was thrown out of employment by their recent failure As to my qualifications I refer yo u to either member of that firm
Yours respectfully
T11os SwTn jr

for h er cook.
Write a Jetter applying for a situation as enti'y-clerk; as· bookkeeper; as principal of a. District School.
Write an advertisement of goods for sale; of an article found;
of a watch lost; a house to let; a commercial college; the re~pen­
ing of a school; a summer hotel; a religious meeting; a furmshed
house wante<l; a boar<ling-house wanted; a coachman and gardener

TO LET Farm-house in Litchfi eld Co Conn three miles from Harlem
R R depot Ten rooms piazza ga rden planted shade and fruit stables Eix
months $200 year $325 Apply to II Drummer 47 W 3!Jth St
GOVERNESS A young lady graduate of Sigourney Inst desires a situation as governess can teach French German and the rudiments of music
has had experience and is fond of children A<l<lrcss F II Intelligencer
Office

News Items, or condensed accounts of entertainments,
accidents, etc., such as are found iu the daily papers, furnish subjects for easy and improving exercises in composition. Copy and punctuate the following:-

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W ANTBD immediately an experienced salesman of good address who
cnn refer to his last employer Apply by letter in handwriting of applicant
to Hoyt & Pendleton 34 Front St

Advertfaements,-E\·ery one, whether in business or
not, has occasion so111cti111es to draw up an advertisement. Here brevity is particularly essential. Copy and
punctuate the follov.·i11g specimens:-

.·

AN OBJECJ.'-LESSON.

• i

Sc1100L-RECEPTIO N.-The pupils of Temple St School gave a brilliant
reception to tlrnir fri ends yesterday afternoon A large audience testified
their appreciation of the exercises which were ex tremely crcllilabl c to the
scholars and showed careful trainin g in elocution Th e dialogue on "The
Seasons" was worthy of special commendation The short holiday usual
at this season was announced at the ex piration of whi ch on the 2<l prox the
school will reopen 'Ve arc glad to learn that l\liss Stark will oontinue to
preside over the Musical Department

·wanted; a lecture.
.
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write news-items as follows :-Destructive Fire. Old Folks' ;·
Concert. Accident on the River. Distinguished Arrival. T.er- ·
rifle Thun<ler-storm. Collision. on the Red Hiver R. R. Openmg
of the Academy. Marriage in High Life. The Late Freshet.
G rent Mass Meeting.
--«>---

LESSON LXXXVIII.

The engravings interspersed through the previous
ages have been made the base.s of Comp~sitions. . Mate'l,·ial objects, a1so, may be used as the subJects of impr?v"ng exercises that will cultivate the power o~ o~servat10n
bile they furnish ideas;-the want of which is often a
ugbear to the young when required to compose.
·
'fhe teach er, for instance, hitving called to the black-board a scholar
whom we shnll call A, shows a piece of sponge to the class, nnd nsks what
it is. They nil answer, and A writes the word .SPONGE on the board as a
ti~

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The t eacher proceeds: Let us describe this sponge-dry, as you now
see it. Whnt is its color? Its weight-light or h eavy ? Its struct~re?
Its shape? Has it any taste or smell? These questions are suecess1vcly
answered; nnd A writes as his first head, De8c1·iption (when d1'!J)· Colo1',
wli9ht, sfrucfitre, shape, taste, smell.
.
The teach er next places the sponge in a saucer of water, and wh~n it
bas absorbed the water asks what ~hanges are exhibited in color and weight,

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ANALYZING A SUBJEC 1'.

ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS.

anrl what property t he sponge possesses in a rcmark aul c degree. He asks
whether the scholars have ever noti cecl thi s properl y of absorbing liquid!'
in an y tliin g else bei::ides sponge. One remcml.J crs hal' ing seen a towel
mad e quite we t uy having one corner left in a basin . Anot her think s of a
wi ck drawin g up oil, and feed ing th e Harn e of a li gh led l:unp. A mak es
his second head, 1'1·op ert!1 of ausoru i11g watc1·. /low changed in colo1· and
weight, when wet.
" ·w hat is spon ge ?" is the n t•x t <1uestio11 . Som e of the sch olars think
it a vege table producti on. 'l'h e teacher tells th em th a t it belongs to th e
animal kin gdom ; tha t unorganized animal rnalerial covers th e outsille, and
lin es the littl e pores, of th e f'pon gc, when it is fonnd li ving in th e oecan
fas tened to rocks or shells. A tak es for hi s third head, l Vlwt it is.
It is n ext ask ed wh ere and how s ponge is obtain ed. The scholars do not
know. 'l'h c t eacher tell s th em, in th e warmer parts of th e ocean . Th e
sponges we sec, co me mos tl y from the Bahama Islands and the Mediterranean. They arc obtained by diYcrs, wh o go down and detach th em from
th eir rocky beds. A puts down hi:; fou rth h ead, Wh ere aud !tow 0Utai11 cd.
Next t he teacher asks what sponges a rc used for. Various an swers arc
rcccived, -for cl eaning slates, wa shing carriages, sponging clothes, dryi ng
out boats. One says th e doctor uses a ~ p o n gc in dressing wound s; an other
ha s seen n. wet . sponge on a bank-counter, and the tell er moi stening hi s
thum b a nd finger by touching it wh en he is cou11ting bill s. l•'ifth h ead,
Us es.
Finally, it is ask ed wh eth er any one h as ever hen.rd th e "·ord sponge applied in any other way. One scholar remembers h ea rin g his fath er say that
Mr. Higgin s was all th e tim e sp onging on him. Another a nswers that n.
man who Ji ves on hi s n eighbors is sometim es ca ll ed a spo11gc. 'l'he teacher
then draws out by qu estions the resemblan ce l.Jctwcen n. spon ge and u man
so call ed, and tell s t he cla ss that this is a.figurative n se of t he word. A
makes t his hi s lus t h ead; he has n ow written us follows : -

The heads thns written out constitute what is called
an Analysis of the subject.
Now, from the Analysis just prepared let each member of the class, in the presence of the teacher, write on
slate or paper a Composition on SPONGE, t~ie ti~e for tl~e
exercise being limited, with the view of mducmg rapid
thon ()'ht and fluency of expression. Finally, let the Compositlons be exchanged, and criticised orally by the scholars themselves, as on page 162.

166

S 1•0NGE.

1. D escription (wh en dl'y).
Color, weight, structure, sliapc, tnste, smell.
2. P r operty of absorb in g wnter.
How changed in color an<l w eight, wh en wet.
3. What it is.
4. Wh ere and J10w obtained.
5. Uses.
G. Figu rnti ve nsc of th e IV O)'(l.

By similar object-lessons develop the following subjects, encouragin g prompt and full answers to the questions. L et an A~alysis
be draw n up in each case, Compositions be prepared from it, and
ornlly criti cised:11. A book.
G. Slate.
1. India-rubber.
12.
A ball.
7. Mille
2. Silver.
An
apple.
13.
8. Paper.
3. Marbl e.
14.
A
broom.
9. A pen.
4. Iron.
15. A feather. ·
10. A watch.
5. Leather.

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LESSON LXXXIX.

Any subject of composition, even an abstract one,
may with profit be discussed in advance by the teacher
and the class. . A scholar, as before, is called to the
black-board; as <lifferent topics connected with the subject are presented in turn, h e makes_a note of them, and
at the end arranges them properly for a formal Analysis.
This exercise will be found interesting and of great
aid in helping ~he young to the ready use of language.'
Let errors and even inelegancies of expression be carefull y watr.hecl for and criticised .

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ORAL DISCUSSION OF SUBJECTS.

ORAL DISCUSSION Ofi' SUBJECTS.

For example, let RAIN be the subject. A think s it proper ·to tell fast
what rain is. B or, in case of his not knowing, C goes 011 to tell us lJest he
can tha~ it is water taken up by the air in the form of vapor from the ocean,
lakes, nvers, etc., and return ed to the earth in drops. Th at this vapor, at
first invisilJlc, afterward appears in the form of clouds ; and that., when the
clouds become incapalJle of holding the moislurc with which th ev are
charged, the particles of vapo r unite in drops, which, llci ng h eavier. than
the air, fall to th e earth.
D says that rain-water is v e r~· pure and n ot salt. Hereupon E asks
why, if it comes from the ocean, it is not sn it lik e occ;\n-wntcr. Ji' can not
explain the reason; lrnt anoth er schol ar says it is lJ ecausc onlv the water
of the ocean is evaporated- the salt is left behind.
.
G calls attention to the fact that the quantity of' min differs very much
places. He has read in his Geography that in parts of Pcrn ,
in different
.
Arallm, Egypt, Sahara, and elsewhere, it never rains, whi le on the coast of
Guiana and Brazil the rain is almos t incessant.
H has heard of countries that have their rain all at one time of the
ycar,-the rai ny season being th eir winter, the dry season their summe1-.
I thinks it is time to speak of the good cffocts of rain. It makes the
earth fruitful; without it there would be no crops, no animal life. This is
shown by the barrenness of deserts, wh ere rain seldom or never falls, and
by the consequences of a long drought in other coun tries.
J considers rain useful, because it feeds the rivers and keeps th em in
good order for navigation. ](looks upon it as of great bcne!it to citi es in
washin g the streets clean and laying the dus t.
L acknowl edges the use fuln ess of rain, lJut saYs it is also sometimes
attended with bad effects. He points to freshets, a~d the damage th ey do;
also to the injury done to cotton and other crops lly excessive or unseasonable rains.
.Af speaks of the effect of rainy days on the spirits. N says this leads
him to think of the best way of spending rainy days, and tells how he manages to get through them.
'
0 gives a description of a summ er sh ower- the black clouds- the wind
-the big drops-the rain descendin g in sheets-the sudden cessation-the
re-appea rance of the sun-the rainbow-the effect on the air, on vegetation.
P think s th e subj ect has llecn exhausted. The teacher asks whether
he does not rememller some particular rains spok en of in history. He answers, yes; that in 1781, during the campaign in the Carolin as, the army
of Morgan and Greene was twice saved from the British by h eavy rains
which swelled the Catawba and the Yadkin
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so that the enemy could not make the passage for many hours, and that
thus the Continental troops were enabled to reach a place of safety.
Q thinks the greatest rain recorded in history. should not be overlooked
- the rain of forty da ys and nights that produced the Deluge-and draws
upon his imagination to picture sonie of the scenes connected with that event.
· No further responses being made to the teacher's call for additional
points, the discussion ends, and the following Analysis appears on the board
as the result : RAIN.

l. What it is.

2. Where it comes from.
3. Why it is not salt.
4. Rainfall in different places.
5. Good effects of rain.
G. Bad effects of rain.
7. How to spend rainy days.
8. Description of a shower.
9. Historical rains.

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Prepare Compositions from the above Analysis; revise them carefnlly with the view of correcting your own
errors. Exchange, and criticise orally.
The oral discussion of any subject in a familiar style,
somewhat like the above, will be attended with the great
advantage of evolving thought: It is the want of having
something to say, rather than not knowing how to say it,
that in most cases constitutes the difficulty of composing.
Subjects with which the class are ,!\-·ell acquainted, will,
of course, be the easiest to discuss and write on. For
example:Flowers.
Mountains.
The horse.
A market.
The whale.

Trees.
Snow.
Rivers.
Steam.
Birds.

Gardens.
Travelling.
The ocean . .
The moon.
The camel.

The dog.
Water.
Gold.
Ice.
Cities. ·

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OHAL DESCRIPTION.

LESSON XC.
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As a further exercise for securing correctness nn<l
fluency in speaking, let oue of the class take up an engraving and without previous preparation describe orally
what he sees in it, while tho rest watch for mistakes iu
his language. "'Whoever thinks he observes au error,
rises and offers his correction. If the teacher decides
that he is right, he proceeds with the description till
some one finds him in fo,ult. The picture, having been
thus orally discussed, is then made the subject of written
com positions.
The engraving on the opposite page, for instance,
might be treated as follows:A, being first called on, says: "The scene represented I should suppose to be near some manufacturing village in New England. The time is
July or August, as the grain is ripe; and the hom is not far from noon,
for the shadows cas.~. are short, and a girl is apparently carrying their dinner to two men who arc working very diligent."
Herc lJ interposes an objection, that the adverb diligenll!J, and not the
adjective diligent, is neeued to mollify the verb lH"C woi·king. The teacher
finds his point well taken, and B proceeds: "In tl1c foreground two men
are engaged in cradling grain-wh et.her wheat or rye I can not tell. They
lay it evenly in swaths. Near by a dog is setting, watching the approaching figure."
Several rise. C, being the first on his feet, is asked for his criticism,
and says that B used setting for sitting. He is told to go on, and says, "A
girl has just entered into the field." D hereupon suggest;; that into is wrong,
as the object really belongs to the verb enters. "Hight.," says the teacher;
"go on."
"It seems to be a colorcJ girl," says D. "She has .a ba sket on one
arm, and a pail in h er hand. Behind her is the tow-path of the canal. On
it is a man with two horses." Here E, rising, claims that is, as just used,
was wrong, for that two subjects, taken together, require the plural form
are. D replies that there is but one subject, man-lw1·ses being the object
of the preposition with-and that is, therefore, is right. The teacher

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OF ENGRAVINGS.

171

decides in D's favor, and he proceeds. ''.The t
like many that ' I have seen on canals, old and le
most one." F ris.es and makes the point that, as
he should use the comparative hinder in stead of
is admitted as sounJ, and so the description of
evel·y part has been touched upon.

ys he, "are
y the hind.
of but two,
's criticism
roceeds till

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RURAL INDUSTRIAL SCENE.

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The engraving suggests the following subjects for compositions:
Agriculture,-Hs importance, as supplying what? Its antiquity-when and where first practised? The farmer's life-in
spring-in summer-in autumn- in winter. · Agricultural operations-ploughing, planting, mowing, cutting gra.in ( <lescribe the
cradle, as shown in the engraving-why it is used). A<lvantages
an<l disa<l vantages of the farmer's life.
Manufactures.-Meaning; mention some manufactured articles
made here-m ention some imported. Factories; describe their external appearance (the one in the picture, for instance); generally
situated how, and why? What may take the pl_ace of water, as a

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EXERCISES IN COjJfPOSITION.

motive power? Describe the interior of a factory; tho operatives.
Where in tl1is country is the moHt m:rnnfo cturiug <lone? Effect of
- - -lu.n·d 'me o manufacturing industry; on tho oporntiv es. Would
yon pref'N' the lifo of n for1uer or a rnarwfacturcr, nml wl1y?

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Canals,-Describe (rcfen:iug to the engraving) the canal itsdf,
th e tow-path, th e !torsos, the dri ver, the boat, the bridges ; locks.
To what kintl of country Lest n<lapte<l? Use<l for wl1at? Compare
with railroads, for travelling; for trunsportntion. Nnme any celebrnted canals. Canals in cold conutrics in winter.
Railroads.-IIow built; generally follow what, n1ul whJ? Originatetl how an<l where? Describ e locomotive and trnin in moti on.
Fast trains ; palace-cars; tlepots ; scene when a train arriv es. Ac I.vanta ges ; save time for trav ell ers ; promote comm erce ; open up
new regions. Accidents. The Pacific Iiailroad.
A Village,-Describe a villngc-tho mnin street, tho l1ouses,
storcos, gar<lcns, school-house, church , 11 otel. Generally situated on
what, and why? Life in a village, compared with a city or a country life.

T iike as subjects of oral description like the above, the
engravings on pages 6, 17, 49, 61, 108, and 160, of this
book. Engravings in Geographies or Readers may be
treated in the same way.
Explaining and applying current proverbs, first oralJy
and then in writing, is a good exercise. Thus : -

" St1·ike wliile tlie fron is !wt."
This proverb is evidently drawn from th e experience of the black smith.
vVhcn he wants to shape a piece of iron, he puts it in his fire and mak es it
red-hot; then with a few quick Llow s of Ids hammer he can forge it into a
bolt, a horseshoe, or whatever he desires. llut if he is dilatory and lets
the iron cool after taking it out of the fire, all his blows are vain; he has
lost th e opportunity.
Th ere is anotl1cr prov erb of lik e signifi cance, which may be supposed
to have first come from some form er-" .Make hay while the sun shines."
'Vh cn a goo1l hay-~ay comes, the thrifty farm er always improves it; he

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· EXPLAINING PRO VERBS.

will not take the chance of to-morrow's being wet. A few rainy days may
damage his crop ; so, while the weather is good, he gets his hay in.
These proverbs teach that we must improve our opportuniti~s , must be
up and doing w.hile circumstances are favorable. We must not put things
off, as so many are tempted to do, to theii·. great inj~ry. Shakespeare says,
"There is a tide in the affairs of men, ·
'Vhich, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;"
but if we ·do not take it at the flood, it will soon ebb, and we shall find to
our sorrow that we are too late. The man who has a good business, and
neglects it till it gradually leaves him, does not make hay while the sun
shines. 'l'he !Joy who has the opportunity of · receiving a good education,
.and fails to improve it, does not strike while the iron is hot,-and for him
it never gets hot agai~.
·

In like manner, enlarge on the fol1owing proverbs : -.
Shoemaker, stick to yom last.
A new broom swee ps clean.
A burnt child <lreads the tire.
.Money makes the mare go.
Look before you leap.
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
It's a long lane that has no turnin g.
One swallow does not make a summer.
It n ever r ains but it pours.
Cnt your coat accoruing to your cloth.
Once caught, twice shy.
A stitch in tim e saves nine.
Bin1s of a feather flock together.
All is not goltl that glitters.
.
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
A nod is as good as a wink to a blind horse.

li'rom the following points write stories
language, giving them appropriate ti t1es : -

111

your own

I.
A young man in want of employment went to Paris-had letters
to a large banking-house-::-called and presented them. ·Head of

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EXERCISES JN NARRA1'10N.

house looke<l over them-told him no vacnucy. :Much disappoint&d.
As he stepped out, ouserved a pin on the sidewalk, picked it up,
stuck it in lapel of coat. The banker to ·wl1om he had jnst applied
happened to be at window-thougl1t he must be a very carefnl
young man, to notice and pick up a pin in the midst of liis disappointment-called him back-made a place for him. Young man
very attentive to business-rose step by step-became partner in
the house and finally its 11ea<l-::m eminent banker, and 01ie of the
conspicuous puulic men of th e age. What lesson does this story
teach?
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A miller and his son were driving tl1eir Jon.key before them to
a fair, to sell him. Troop of girls by the way-side ridiculed them
for trudging along afoot when they might ri<lc; RO the miller told
his son to mount. Soon came to so111e old men. The ol<l men
rebuked the lad for riding while his father walked; so the miller
got up in his son's place. Next met women nnd cliil<lren-they
reviled ol<l man for riding, while the poor boy was tired to death
and could hardly keep up; so the miller took up his son behind
him.
Near the town a man cried ont against them for overlonding the
donkey, and s::ti<l they were better able to carry him than he them.
Miller, wishing to please him, tied donkey's legs-got n pole-son
at one end, he at other-trie<l to carry donkey acrosr;; a bridge into
the town. Crowds ran up to see so strnnge a sight-laughed,
shouted, clapped their hands. ' Donkey frightened-kicked-broke
the cords-tumbled off the pole-fell into river-drowned. Old
man, vexed and' ashamed, matle the best of his way home-having
been taught what important lesson?

The above story may be expanded by introducing
various circumstances in connection with the narratfre,
and giving the words used l>y tlie different parties in
stead of the substance of ·wliat th ey snid.
For further practice in nanation, read a brief story to
the scholars, and req nire them to tell or write it in their
own language.

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TABLE OF COMMON ABBREVIATIONS.
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Jun.,.jr., junior.
Lib., I., liber, book.
J,L. D., Leauin 1Jocto1-, Doctor
Laws.
L. S., Loc11:i Siaitli, Place of the SeaL
M., mei•idie, noon.
M. C., Member of Congress.
M. D., Doctor of Medicine.
M em., memorandum.
Messrs., messie111·s, gentlemen.
M. P., Member of Police.
Mr., Mister.
Mrs .• Mistress .
l\IS., manuscript. MSS., manuscripts.
N. B., nota bene, mark well.
. No., niime1•0, number.
0. S., old style.
Ph. D., Doctor of Philosophy.
Pllf., Plaintiff.
P. M., Postmaster.
P. M., po8t meridiem, evening.
P. 0., Post-cffice.
Pr., per', by.
Pres., President.
Prin., Prindpal.
Prof., Professor.
Pro tern., pro te111po1·e, for the time. ·
I Prox., proo:imo,of next month.
P. S., Postscript.
.
Qy.,Query.
Rec. Sec., Recording Secretary.
I Rev., Reverend.
R. R., Railroad.
Sec., Secretary .
Sen., Senior; Senator.
S. S., Sunday-School.
St., Saint; street.
_ . .
s. '1'. D ., Sanctcc Tl!eologi(I!, Docto1', Doctor of Divinity.
'l'rcns., Treasurer.
Ult., 11ltimo, of Inst month.
Univ., Unive1·sity.
I U . S. A., United States of America.
I. e., id est, that is.
I. II. s. Jesus hoininmn salvator, Jesus U.S. A., Umted States Army.
Savi~ur of men.
U. S. N., United States Navy.
I.N.R.I.,Jesus Nazarenu.~ RercJudroo1·um, Vid., v:, vi~e, see.
Jesus of Nazareth king of the Jews.
\ Viz., videlicet, namely.
Inst., instant, of thls month,
Vol., volume.
ols., volumes
J. P., Justice of the Pence.
Vs., 1·ersus, ngmnst.

A. B., Bachelor of Arts.
A. C., ante ClwiRtuin, before Christ.
Acct., a/ c, account.
A. D., amw ])()mini, in the year of our
Lord.
Agt., Agent.
A. M., Master of Arts.
A. III., ante 1iieridiein, morning.
Anon., anonymous.
B. C., before Christ.
·nro., Brother.
.Bt., bought.
Capt., Cnptain.
Ct:, confer, compare.
Chap., ch., chapter.
Co., County, Company.
C. 0. D., collect on delivery.
Col., Colonel.
Coll., College.
Com., Commodore; Committee.
Cor. Sec., CorreBpouding Secretary.
Cr., Creditor.
D. D., Doctor of Divinity.
Dea., Deacon.
Deft., Defendant.
Dep., Deputy; Department.
Do., ditto, the same.
Doz., dozen.
Dr., Doct0r, Debtor.
D. V., deo volente, God "·illing.
Ed., Editor.
E. E., Prrors excepted.
. E. g., ercempli arat-ia, for example.
Esq., Esquire.
Etc., et cetern, and so forth.
Gen., Genernl.
H. M., his or her l\Injcsty.
Hon., Honorable.
I., islnnd. Js., lslnnds.
Ibid., ib., ibidem, in the some place.
Id., idem, th e same.

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TABLE OF COMMON EXPRESSIONS
FROM 1'1IE LATIN AND FJU~N UJJ, Wl'l'H TUErn l\U:ANING.
[Those from the French nrc iu It.1lics.]

INDEX.

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!'

Ad infinitum, to iufl11ity.
Ipso fa cto, by th e very net.
.Ad libltum, nt pleasure.
J ett de m ots, pluy upon word~. pnn .
.A la -, after thc'-mauncr.
Lapsus Iing u:c, slip of the tougn<·.
A la mode, In the fashi on.
J,usus untune, freak of 11ature.
.Alma mater, fostering m other.
11/al ct p1·opo8, inapJll"Of'rlat c, ill -ti111cd.
Amende hon01Ytblc, apology.
Nis e en scene, getting l!JI (of a pl:iy).
A propo8, to the point.
lll o<lu s operandi, mou e of opcrntiu n.
.Aufait, skilful, expert.
ll1ultum in parvo, mu ch in little.
Au r·evofr, farewell till next we m ee t.
.JYl!e -, whose urnidcn nmnc wa s -.
Rrt(J<1fclle, trifle.
No plus ultr:i, notlriJl g IJ('yoml, fortbcst
lle1m·111011.de, the work! of fashion.
]loint.
Billet·doux, love-letter.
N"importe, no matter.
Casus be lli, ground fur war.
No lens volcns, willhrgly or 111nvil li11gly.
Cl111f-d'w1tv1·e, masterpiece.
Koin de plume, nam e under which ono
Ci-devm1t, former, form erly.
writes, pseml o11y111.
Com111e ilfaut, in good style.
Non co111pos, of 1111so u11<\ 111ind .
Coup de solcil, sunstroke.
Non sequitur, illog ieal co nclusion.
Conp d'etat, stroke of poli cy.
Nous vcrrons, we shall sec.
De fn cto, iu fact, actual, r eally .
On dit, it is said.
De ju re, by right, rightful, jus tly.
Otiurn cum dignitate, di gnified leisure.
De nov<>, anew, afresh.
I'm · errcellence, pre-eminently.
Da·nie1· 1·ess01·t, last r esort.
Particeps criminis. an accomplice.
En attendant, meanwhile.
Passe, pns t its prime, worn-out.
En masse, in n body.
P er 1111num, a year i per uiem, a dny.
En passant, in passing.
Per sc, of itself.
En 1°e(Jle, nccord ing to rule.
P os t mortem, after death.
En 1·oute, on the 'my.
Prima .fncil', at flr~t sight .
Entre nous, between ourse lves.
Pro rnta, prnportiona te, proportionately.
Esp1·it de C01"JJ.Y, spirit animating persons Quantum s uflicit, s ullicicnt.
of one voca tion; class-spirit.
Qui<\ pro quo, an cquivnlent.
Ex ofllclo, by virtue of bi s ollicc.
Qui i·irc (on the), o:i t]J e lookont.
Ex parte, on one side.
R eclt erdti, choice.
Ex post fncto, after th e thing is don e.
Sccundum artem, nccor<ling to rule.
Fait accom.pli, thing done.
Sine die, without narn ing n future day.
Faux pas, false step, blunder.
Sine qua non, indispensable coru litlon .
Hors de combat, disabled.
Sub rosa, priYately.
Ignobile vu lgus, the ignob]() crowd.
Su i gcncris, of its own kind; unique.
In extremi s, at the point of <l ea th.
'l'crrn Jirma, the soli<l earth.
In m emorimn, to the m emory.
I Tite-d- tete. face to face, familiar interIn propria persona, in person.
I view.
Jn statu quo, in th e sm nc sta te.
I Tout ensemble, th e wh ole.
In toto, wholly, entirely.
Vice \'er sa, th e term s being exchanged.
Ipso dLxit, be himself said it; nn urbitrnry
Yis-d-viB, opposite, person opposite.
assertion.
1 Viva rnce, by voice.

I

I

----»---A.

B.

A, when to be used, 28.
Abb1·eviations, followed by the period, 20.
Table of, 175.
.Adjectives, defi ned, 49. Proper, 4:J ; formation of, 50. Compnrison of, 00. H ow
clJnngcd, In some cnscs, when the compnrntil'e and superlntlvo arc formed, 51.
Jn some cuses not compnred, 52. Compnred Irregularly, 53. Compound, 53,
54. Should be used appropriately, 56.
May express the meaning of se·vernl
words, 57. Arrangement of, 57. Must
not be used for nd verbs, 102.
.Adjuncts defined, IOU. Position of, 111.
Aclve1·bs, 'defined, 101. Formed from adj ectives, 100, 101. Classes of, 100. llfoy
express the meaning of several words,
102. lll ust not be used for adjectives,
102, 103. Comparison of, 104. Common
errors in the use of, 105. Where they
should stnnd, 106. Ditforence between
them and prepositions, 109.
A ch'ertisements, bow to draw up, 164.
Adv ice, letters of, 157.
.Alphabet, the, 15.
.Ambi(Juity, to· be avoided, 144.
AN, when to be used, 28.
.Analysis, of words, lG. Of sentences, 126131. Of subjects of composition, lGG,
167, 189.
Apostrophe, the, with 8 forms the plurnl of
fi gures, letters, nnd ~igns, 23. Used in
the possessive form of nouns, 32. Ruic
for its use, 138.
A 1•ticle8, defined, 11().
.A ua:iliaries, 14. · Forms of the, r equired
with tlwn, 78. The use of, 85. Care to
be exercised in combining with a participle or verb-root, 66. Fnmilinr and
corrupt contractions of, with not, to be
avoided in writing, !12.

Base, of sentences, 13, 14.
.BE, present of, 75. Pnst of, 76. Not to
be used ns nn nuxillnry in pince of
have, 91.
Bill, form of, 158. Of exchange, 159.
Brackets, for what used, 138•

c.

I
1

CAN nml may, not to be interchanged, 65.
Capitals, commence sentences, 7, 9, 10, 11.
Commence proper nouns, 18. Commence lending words In the titles of
books, etc., 20. Commence tho names
of objects personified, 4i. Commence
proper adjectives, 49. Comm ~ nce lines
of poetry, 113. Rules for, 124, 125.
ClauBes, defined, 69, 114. Generally set off
by the commn, 114. Examples of tho
principal kinds of, 129.
Colon, the, rule for, 135.
Comma, the, separates names usecl in n
seri es, 18. When to set off st.1tements
introduced by 1cho, 1chich, or that, 40.
Generally sets off clauses, 114. Rules
for, 11 G, 136, 137.
Comparative·, how formed. 50. Used in
comparing two objects." 55.
Comparison, of ac)jectins, 50; lrregulnr,
53. Of compound ncljectives, 53, M.
Of adverbs, 104.
Composition, exercises In, 20, 33, GO. 65, 84,
87, 91, 98, 107, 113, 124, 127, 150, 151, 156,
160, 165, 171-174.
Compound, worcls, 29, 30. Adjectives, 53,
54. Forms of th e verb, 73. Sentences,
127. Subjects, 128. Predicates, 128.
Co11juncti011.s, dellned, 113. Common errors in the use ot; 115.
Consonants, defined. 16.
Correction of errors la speaking and writ'.
ing, arranged promiscuously, 139-146.

C1·edit, letter of, 156.
C1·iticism, oral, ·rno-tG3.

expressing questions, JO. Follows the
intc1:jcctions cit and hey, ll 8. Huie for,

)),

134.

j ectives, 1i3; of adverbs, 104. Verbs, 92 ;
chief parts of the, !13-96.

L.
La n(/naue, defi ned, 122. Kinds of, 122.
L etters (characters), rrprcscnt sounds, 15.
Divided into \'owels nnd consonants, 16.
Address o f~ Hi2. Subscription of,
152. Superscription of, 102, 153. Forms
of, IM, lfJ5. Of introduction, ](i3, 156.
llu sin ess, 156. Of credit, 156. Of ndvicc, 157. With ncconnt, l!i7. With in·
voice, 157. Ordering merd1nndise. 157.
Of fri e ndship,. l i.>!I; s peci men of, 161.
Of rrcommcndntioa, 1U3, 1115. Answer-·
ing aclvertiscmcnts, 163, 164. Applying
for situations, JG5. Exercises in writing,
15G, lGO.
1f>2.

Exclian(Je, bill of, 1()9.
Exclamation-point, the, follows senten ces
expressing exclamations, 11. Follows
most inte1jection s, 118. Huie for, 1 3~.

F.
Feminine, nouns, how formed, 30.
Foreian Expressions, not to be used in
place <if pure English "·ords, 143. Tabin
of, with their m eaning, 176.
Forms, m ercantile, 156. Letter of intro·
dnction, 156; of crerlit, 156; of a<hicc,
157; with account, 157; "·ith invoice,
157; ordering mcrchanrlisc, 157. lli.1 ,
153. R ece ipt. 158. Promi sso ry notes,
15S. Draft, 159. Ilill of exchange, 150.
Futll1·e forms of the verb, 78.

lU.
Nasculine gender, 30.
MAY nn<l can, not to be intcrchangecl, 55.
1lfembe1·s, of sentences, 113. Generally

N.
Jl'am es, 16. Common, 17. Proper, 17.
Narmtion, exercises in , 1 i4.
News-items, s pecimen of, l 64. Exe.rci scs in
16
writing, 5.
Note•, forms of, lf>f>. J'romi ssory , 155.

Gender, masculine and feminin e, 30.
If.
present of, 75. Past of, 76. Implies
pnst time connected with the present,

JIAVE,

tl w part s of
IIyplien, the, used to connect
TT
t
t
a compomHl wor<1, 27 . , sec1 o conncc
syllabics, 29 . Huie for, t3!l.

J.
I, the pronoun, nlwnys a capital, 3S.
Injiniti1Je, the, 65. How used, 6G.

Its
sign to omitted nfter certain \'erbs, 6G.
Inte1:Jections, defin ed , 117. The principal,
117, 118. Mostly followed by the exclamation-point, 118.

Distinguished as common and
proper, 18. Di stingui shed as sing ular
nml plural, 21. Plural of, how formed,

li'owrn, JS.

.

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I·

•

Jrrrg n.nr 111 the plural, 23.
Plural of proper, 21. Plural of compound , 24. Plural of foreign , 25. Dis·
tingui shed as mnsculine and feminine,
30. Distinguished as subject, object,
nnd possessor, 31, 32. Possessive form
of, 32. Modifying participles must be
in the posscssivt' form , 10.
Number, singular and plural, 21.
21, 22.

to Introd uce ndr!itional s tatements, 39 . .
Used in asking questions, 41. Used. indefinitely, 41 . Subjccti\'C forms of, 45. .
Objective forms of, 45; follow prepositions, 45. Possessive forms of, 4G_
Corrupt forms of, 4 7. Jlfodi(ying p::rtici pies must bo in the possessf\·e form,
70. Difierent, not to be used in tho
same sen tence, with reference to tho
same person, 141. The same, not to bo
applied to dilfrrent persons or things In
the same sentence, 141.
Proverbs, exercises in explaining and np·
1ily!ng, 172, 173.
Punctuation, rules of, 134-139.

tuation of, 70. Position of, 70. lllnst
be used with the noun or pronoun they Punct1tation-points, 58, 134.
arc intended to modify, 70. Enable us
'·Q.
to combine senten ces, 11Quotation-point11,
used for wbnt, 37, 1 3~.
Pm·ticiples, defined, 67. How generally
formed, 67. Changes sometimes · re· Q1toted Sentences, 12;;.
quired In the verb:root, 68. Present,
R.
H . Pnst. 76. Cnrc to bo exercised in Receipt, form of, 15S.
combinini;- two or more with the snmc ·Redundancy; to.be avoided, 14).
auxiliary, 90.
R e(Jrets, forms of, 155.
Past, forms of the verb, 76. Of be, lim:e, Review, a synoptical, 122, 123nnd do, 76. Participle, 76.
Rhymin(J, 113.
Pe1•iod, the, used after sentences, 9. Used Rules, for capitals, 124, 125. Of punctuto denote abbreviations, 20. Rules for,
ation, 134-139.
134.
Person~f'yin (J ohjccts, 47.
Pl1tral, 21. Of nouns. how form ed, 21, 22. Semicolon, the, used to separate the main
divisions of sentences, 60, 114- Rules
Of proper nouns, 21. Nouns irregular in
for, 135.
the, ~3. or figures, le tters, and signs,
23. Of compouml nouns, 24. Of for- Sentence-buildina, 13, 133.
Sentences, must nffirm something, 7. Exeign words, 21:'.
Possessive Form, the, of nouns, 32, 33.
pressing statements, 6; expressing comUnplcasnnt repetition of, to be avoided,
mands,!!; expressing questions, 10; ex84. Of pronouns, 46. Of a noun or pi·opressing· cxclnmations, 10. Ilase of, 13,
' noun modifying a participle should bo
14. Building up, 13, 183. Taking to
pieces. 14. Mnst contain · a verh, 61.
used, 70.
I'1·edicate, the, 12G. Compound, 128.
Members of, 113. Clauses of, 114, 128.
l'repos-itions, defined, 108. ·Object of, 10().
Quoted,' 125. Analysis of, 126-131.
Difference between adverbs and, 109.
Principal parts of, 129. Combining, 40,
69, 116,132. .
.
lllnst be used appropriately with certain words, 111.
SHALL nncl will, difference to be observed
P1·esent, forms of the verb, 74. Of be,
in the u se of, 78.
have, nnd do, 75. Pnrt!clple, 76.
SnouI.n and 1co1ild, difference to bo obProno1t11s, defined, 38. Must be In the
served in the use of, 85.
same number and gender as their nouns, Sina11la1· numher, 21.
38. Ending in se(I; selves, 39. Used Slan(J, to be avoided, 144.

s.

scpr.ratcd by the semicolon, 114. Have
distinct subjects nnd predicates, 127. ·

G.

86

p,
Paraaraph, when to commence a new, 20.
Parentheses, for what used, 9S, 138.
l'at·ticipial Cla1tses, defined, 69. Punc-

Letters (epistles), kind s of, 151. Dntc of,

E.

I

0, nlwnys a capita!, 118.
O~jec t, the, 81, 45, li3. Of a preposition,
109.
Objective Forms, of pronouns, 45. Required after verbs that denote existcnco
merely, If an object precedes, 64.
Object-lesson, for oral discussion nncl analysis, 165, 166.

Introduction, letters of, 153, 156.
Invitation s, HJ5. Hcplies to, tu5.
Irrer1ular, plurals, 23. Comparison of ad-

words, 8. Sets off side•hea<ls, 20. llu!C's
for, 138.
Dm, used in past n cgatirn and emphatic
forms of the verb, &!-.
Di~cussion, ornL of subjects, l6i--169. Of
engravings, 1 iO.
Do, present 01; 75. Past of, i6. Used in
present ncgati\'e and cmplmtic form s of
the verb, 84.
])raft, form of, 159.

!

o.

l11 tcrroaation-poi11t, tltl', follows sentences

Dash, the, used to d enote the omission of

179

INDEX

INDEX.

178

~· '

/

180

IND.EX.

D . ..APPLETON&: 00.'S PUBLIG..ATJONS.

rn.

Somids, forty simple ln the English lan-

74. Po st forms of,
J•" utm·c forms
ot; 78. 1'"orn1 s o f, that rl'prescnt the
subject as acting, SO. Forms of, that
represent tho s u bject as acted upon,
Sl, 82. F or1u s of, d t no ting continu:rn ce, 88. Negative forms of, f4. Emphatic forms o f, 84. Colllmon cnors iu,
corrected, 88, US, !l!J. l'lurnl, r equired
with two or m ore singular subjects taken
toge ther, SS, 114.
Singular, r equired
with two or more s ingular subjects
taken separately, UO, 114. Construction
of, with s ing ular i10u11s implying a colChi ef
lection of individuals, !JO, Ul.
!'arts of, U2. R eg ular, !12. Irregu lar,
92. Chief P arts of t he irregular, and
exerci ses on th em , U3-U6.
Verse, arranging word s in, 113, 121, 150,

guage, l ;),
Subject, of a sente n ce, 81. Of a verb, 61;
h cl\v found, ()2 ; h ow it may be represented, 63. A sin gu lnr, requires a singulnr form of the verb, SS. A plural,
requires n plurnl form of th e verb, SS.
Of n sentence, how it may be modified,
12li. Logi cnl, 126. Compound, 128.
Subjective Forms, of pronoun s, 45. Hequircd after verbs tliut d enot e existe nce
m erely, if n subject precedes, 64. H equlretl wh en pronouns arc used indep endently in purticipiul elnuses, 73.
Superlative, how forn;ed , ul. Used in comp a ring more than two nt once, u5.
Syllables, d efin ed, 16. Dividing words
into, 29, DO.
'I'.

151.

Yocati ve E.cpressionB, <lcJlnc<l, 128.
Foicels, defined, IG.

TautolO(J!J, to be nvohled, 145.
THAT, applied to what, 40. .\\.h ere to stand,
with its statement, 41. S hould be used
after n BUJJerlntive, 'CC l '!J, nnd no, 5 6.
TmmE, used to lntrodu cc u sentence, 102.
Tnou, forms of the amdliuries required with,

w.

Wmcn, oppliell to what, 40, 42. Where to
stand, with its statr.meut, 41.
79.
Wno, appli ed t o what, 40 . 'Vhere to stand,
To, unltcs with n v erb-root to form the inwith its statement, 41.
finitive, 65. S houlcl n ot bo separated Wn.L aOd shalt, diffe rence to be observed
from the r oot Ly an iule r vcuing w ord,
in the 11 se of, 78.
66. Omitted after certai n verbs, 66.
TVords, express tho ughts, 5. Form senNot to be u sed fo1· th e full infinitive,
tences. 5. Spoken, mad e up of sounds,
W2.
15. Written, mad e up o f letters, 15.
Analyzed into sy llabics, IG. F"ormntion
Uni ty, violations of, corrcctl·cl , 1-IS. 149.
o f compound, 2!1, 30. Arranging, in
verse, 113, 121, 150, l!i1 . Eight different cla sses of, briclly 1lcfined , 11!J. Mu ~ t
Vi11•iety ncces~a ry in th e cousfru clion and
he classified according to th eir u se in
len g th of sente n ces, 147.
the sente nce, 119. Mu s t be used only
fTe1·l>-root, the, 6G.
in authorized signifi cations, 143. When
Verbs, defined, GO. ·Subject s of, Gl-63. Ob- .
essential t<> tho m eaning, not to he
j ects of, 63. Infinit.ive. 65. Affirm the
omitted, 145.
net or state in diffe rent ways, 72. Com- / Wout,n and should, difference to be obpound forms of, 73. Present forms of,
served in the u se of, SG.

u.

v.

I

II

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By G. P. QUA.CKENBOS, LL. D.

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of the English language that can be obt.ained from no other source. The
Grammars, by an original system peculiarly clear and simple, teach the
Analysis of our tongue both verbal an<l logical. The works on Composi·
tion are equally thorough guides to its Synthesis, embodying in a con·
denscd form the substance of Blair, Karnes, Alison, Burke, Campbell, and
other standards, the wh?le illustrated with practical exercises in great
variety.
The pupil thoroughly instructed in these books cannot fail to learn
how to express himself with propriety and elegance. They work like II
charm in tho school-room; where one is introduced, the others soon follow.
C. J. Buckingham, Pres. Board of B. F. Morrison, Prine. High School,
Education, Poughkeepsie, N. Y ., says:
Weston, Mass., writes: "Having for sev"I am very much plen.scd with the general years pas t used the author's Rhetoric,
eml plan as well ns with the particular
I was preparecl to find a good Grammar.
nrmngcmcnt of the Grammar. It Is very
The examination did not clisappoint me.
concise, and yet very comprehensive ;
It is characterized, like the form er work,
omitting nothing that Is essential, nor
by admirable m etlwd and great clearcontaining nny thing superfluous. The
ness nnd precision of statement."
definition s are . ·very exact and ensily Rev. L. W. Hart, Rector of College
understood. Parsing is rendered nn
Grammar School, Brooklyn: "Your
ensy nncl pleasant fo sk, if tnsk It cnn he
.new Gmmmnr hns been very closely
longer called . Pun ctnallon is mncl c very
examin ed In rcgnrcl to the plan and
plain and intclligiblo. I think thi s treai:reneral execution of the work; and ii
tise is destin ed to become u great favo ~­
perfectly marked by the ~am e excellte In our pnblic schools, u sed eith er in
lences which have made your 'First
connection with Quackenbos's Lessons
Lessons' nnd your 'Advanced Course'
In Composition or without them. The
my favorite text-book s for some years.
Series appears to ci>vcr the entire
It will go in.to use, like them, as my .··
.~ckl."
text-book in English Grammar."

;-

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IJ. APPLETON & 00.'S PUBLICATIONS.

.D. APPLE1'0N & 00.'S PUBLICA1'JONS.

.·

Cornell's First· Steps in Geography.

'rhe History of the U. States of America.
From the Discovery of the Continent to the Close of the First Session
of the 'l'hirty-li'ifth Congress. By ,J. II. PA'l''fON, A. M. 8vo,
822 pages. 13 S~eel Portraits (from Washington to Clay).

Chil<f's Quarto, with numerous Maps and lllustralions.
precede

CORNELL'S COlllPLETE AND SYSTEMATIC SERIES OF
SCHOOL GEOGRAPHIES,

Teachers in our Higher Academies and Seminaries have long felt tho wnnt of a
lllstory of the United Btntes adapted to the acquirements of th eir advancccl pupils,
male and female. Buch pupils r<"quire more than is found in the ordinnry school compcnds to satisfy their minds, while they nre not prepared to study, wi th profit, tho
more elabornte bistorics, extending to several volumes. A bi8tory cfa country to Interest thnt class of mind, must bo sptcinlly nttrnctlve In style; clear in nrr:mgcment,
though not formal; judicious in the selection of facts, a8 well ns discriminating Jo
tracing their direct influ ences; dwelling at length on the great salient points of tho
history, that the pupil, as well as tlH' general render, may receive a vivid conception of
the rssential charncteristics of the people, and of that wonderful moulding, which hae
given to our institutions-educational, religiou s, and political-their tone and spirit.

Prom

M.A.,
I'1·qfe.qsor of Litc1·at1we and l'hilo8ophy i n Colmnbia Colle(Je.
"I have rend with great pleasure and
Interest the whole of the proof-sheets snbmltte<l to me, of Patton's History of the
United States.
., At first I intended, n~ is usual In such
cases, to peru se a passnge here aud there,
In order to form a gcncrnl opinion of th e
work; but I foun<I that the nnrrntive wns
written wit.h so much clcn mc ss, elegance,
nnd vivacity, and interspersed with so
much animated and tasteful description,
that I read on without note of time, and
regretted that I had not before me the
whole, instead of :1 part of' th e volume.
The work is intended for the library, and
Is far superior in literary merit to any
School History of the United States tbnt
I have soen; hut on nccount of itR conrlensi>tion and portable size, it would serve
ns an admirable manual for educational
purposes. He would be a stupid scholar
Ind eed, who would not study it ns a delight rather than a mere task; and besides the historical knowledge which it so
plensantly imparts, it might be commended ns a worthy example of unafl'0ctcd,
perspicuous. auil energetic composition."
CnARLl':S llIURRAY NArnNP.,

CONSISTING OF

Primary Geography.

Intermediate Geography.

j I,
J 11

!I

This work contains
;~

Large quarto, 100 pages. Revised edition,

with no\\' and nddltlonnl Mnps and numerous Illustrations. Designed for pupils
who have r.0~1plcto ll a Primary Course. It, as well ns tho Pl'imary, contains many
peculiar afl(l lnvaluablc advantages of nrrnngemcnt and system," summary of Physical Geography, and easy Lessons on Map-drawing.

of LrrUn an1l (/i·eck lan(l1ta(Je8 c111d
Literature in the Fne Academy oj
tho City of New rork.

Grammar-Soho:>! Geography.

Large quarto, 122 pages; with nu-

merous Maps and Illustrations. It is very full on Physical Geography, particularly
that of the United St.'ltes. This work is intended to follow the Intermediate, or be
used lnstencl of it. Both arc alike philosophical in their arrangements, accurate in
their statements, judicio usly adapted to the school-room, chastely nnd lavishly illus·
trntcd, attractive In their external appearance, and generally just what tho lntelligenl
teacher desires.

High-School Geography and Atlas.

Geography, large 12mo, 405

pages. Richly illustraterl. Atlas, very large quarto. Containing a complete set of
Maps for study; also, a set of Reference Maps for family use. These volumes are
Intended for High-S ~hools and Academics; they cover the whole ground. The
Atlas will be found fnller and more reliable than former atlases, and will answ.ir
every practical purpose of reference for _schools and families.

Physical Geography.

Large quarto, 104 p'.lges.

The most interest-

ing and instructive work on this subject ever presented, lavishly illustratecl, and cm
bracing all lnte discoveries and the most recent views of scientific writers. Contain·
ing 19 pages of Maps nnd copious Map-Questions.

(
I

I

Small quarto, 100 pages.

only those branches of the subject that admit of being brought within the comprehonsion of the youthful beginner. It is illustrated with upward of seventy suggestive dcs.igus, and twenty beautiful Maps, newly engraved in the best style, and
pronounced "gems of art.'' The sale of this favorite work bas already exceeded
1,000,000 copies.
·

From Jtcv. Dr.•To11N ,J. Ow1rn, l'rq(cssor

... I have examine<!, with much attention, the History of th e United States, by
Mr.•J. H. Patton, and nm highly pleased
with the evidence which it gives of extended and accurate research, nud a strict
adherence to historical verity. It has fulness of detail nnd Incident, without being
ovcrbunlcnf'd with Isolated and compara•
tirnly trivial facts and uigr essions.
"It groups the great features of our
national histury-political, · ~ Jigious, educational-by such uatural la·. ', of association, that th e render passes from subject ta
subject, and from chapter to chapter, with
out feeling him self burdened or taxed to
remember what be bas r ead, or to pince
nny inciden t in it~ proper position in the
line of history.
"The style is clear, lively, nnu vigorous,
and the arrangement of the chapters and
tholr length nntnral nrnl judicious. I have
no hesitation in cxp1cssing the O!>inion,
that this history is better adapted to ou:
higher schools aJHI seminaries of learning
than any which h:tR yet been published,
:rnd most cordially recommend it."

Intended to

In the present editions of these works. the text of enc11 has undergone n rigid revision. ·
and the many geo>rraphlcal ch11ngeR in hot.It worlds hav~ hoen carefully embodied. The
lmportanco of l'HYSICAL GEOGRAPHY nnd MAP-J?RAWING hns been fully recognized, the Physical Gcogrnpby of the United States receiving special attention. To
tho Maps the Publishers point with pride, as tltfJ most booutiful splJCimens it~ tMs li'M
'If art ~ver

offered to tltfJ American pubUc.

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D. APPLETON & CO.'S P'TBLJCAJ'JONS.

..;~

.A. · N"OT.A.ELE

.:

"VY.ORK.

Cornell's Physical Geography

FIRST BOOK OF ZOOLOGY.

. ACCO~IPA N IE D WITH N IN ET EEN I'AGKS VF ~lAPS, A C:ItE AT VAHIETY OF MAP
Q UESTIO NS, AN!J ONE ll UNDHEI> AND 'JlllllTY D IA C: l tA~I S AND
PI CTOHIAL lLL US TltA TJO NS ; AND E ~ I BBA CJNG A
DETAILIW lJESCRll'TJON OF TJ!E

Physical
By

Feattw~s

S.

S .

By EDWARD S. MORSE, Pit, D.,

of the Uuitecl States.

Formerly Professor of Comparative Anatomy and Zoology in Bowdoin College.

COH.N .E L L .

1 vol. Large 4to.

1

10'1 pages.

'l'he attention of teach ers is particularly requested to this new volume
by the Author of Comell's popular Series of Geographies, in the belief
that it will b e found to embrace all that is valuable and interesting in
this important branch of stud y, and to be, beyond competiti on, the best
text-book on the subjRct. It is no mere reha sh of time-honored details, but
has b een drawn from original sources,. and is on a level with the present
advanced state of the science. Clearness, adaptation to th e scl1ool-room,
inductiv eness of arrangement, and th e presentation of one thing at a
time am! every thing in its proper' place-features which have contributed so la rgely to the success of the other Geographies of the ConNELL
Series- are among its striking characteristics.
It is interesting to the learn er. 'l'h c dry statistical s tyle usual in
similar text-books h as been avoided, and the great wonders of Na tu re,
always fa scinating to the inquiring mind, are presented in the most striking manner, so as to rivet the atteution and impress the memory.
'l'he illustrations are num erous and b cautif11l, and are used wherever
It was thought th ey would help to elu cidate the text. .Maps and diagrams
have b een liberally in trodu ced. The "laps are executed in the fines t
style of the art-carefull y drawn, distinctly engraved , and tastefully colored according to the most approved style. Each map is accompanied
with qu estious in great variety.
'l'he physical features of ou1· own co nn try receiv e· particular attention
in a closing chapter. Th e student is aided by a fine Physical .Map of the
United States, which (in add ition to the features usually presented) shows
the mean annual temperature of different parts of the country, the vegetable products of different sections, and th eir mineral resources, the relative values of the prcciomi metals producetl in the scvcrnl States being
· clearly represented to the eye by an ingenious plan. A Map of Alaska,
on a compara tively large scale, is also presented.
It is b eli eved that the above feat ures, besides others which there ia
· no space he:·e to enumerate, cannot fail to r ecomrneud this work to all.

.. .:

;

vol., 12mo.

Profusely illustrated.

Price, $1.25.

Prof. M orse has adapted this First Book of Zoology to the pupils of the United
:!ltatcs. The examples presented for study a re such as are common and familiar to
ev ery school-boy-as snails, iii.sects, spiders, worms, mollusks, etc. \Vhen marine
anima ls are cited, the examples are selected f1om creatures that may be found in
all of the markets of the interior, such as the clam, lobster, a~1d oyster, with its parasites. Th e book will thu s be eqt1ally well adap ted lo all parts of the country, and the
material easily a ccessib!e to pupils of every sec tion.
The illustrations, of which there are upwa1 d of three hundred, have, with few exceptions, been drawn from Nature by the author, expressly for this work. The absence of those antiquated figures which h ave d one such long service in text-Looks of
natural hi~t ory, is among th e excellences of Prof. Morse's book which teachers will appreciate. The drawings arc m.a de in simple but graphic outlines, with special reference to their easy reproduction by the pupil on the slate or black-board.
Unlike all other books on this subject, as well as the greater number of scientific
te xt-book s in general, the plan of this work, as already explained, makes it possible to
have the easiest lessons precede the more difficult ones. The first chapter of the book
;s so simple and comprehensible tha t it can r eadily be mastered by a child of six years
of age. H enc e, the pupil is not compelled · at the outset, as is frequently the case, to
grap ple with problems that he can not understand·, n or burden hi s memory with a long
scientific nomenclature. His knowledge is not forced beyond what he can corroborate
Ly his own investigat ion and resea rch . Knowledge thus acquired s timulates the pupil
to continued effort and eager study.
To the at ta inments of Prof. Morse as a sc ienti st, naturalist , and in s t~uctor, it is
h ard ly necessary to allude. His brilliant success in the lecture-field, a1:<l his achievements in scientific re search, have already g iven him a national reputation, while !1is
work in ihe class-room, and as Professor in Bowdoin College, places him in the highest
rank of progressive edncators.
His Look here ann ounced was prepared at the urgent solicitation of the publishers,
and they are confident that it will prove to be the most interesting school publication
o f the season.
.
I
Prof. Morse has also conse nted to prepare, on th e same pl::in, an advanced work on
toology, snitable for colleges, science classes, e tc., which will be duly announced.

.D. APPLETON &> CO., Publishers,
549 & 551

BRoADWJ\Y, NEW

YoR.i:=
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Appletons'

Stan~ar~

Scientific Text-~ooks.

Youmans' s First Book of Botany.

Desig ned to c 11lliva te th e O bserving
Powers of C hildren .. lly E LIZA A. YOUMANS . I2mo. 183 pages. $Loo.
This littl e book has proved a wonderf11 l success, a nd is empha ticall y a s tep in the
rig ht d irec tion. Alth oug h it bas bee n issued b11t a short time, it has bee n adop ted for
us e in the citi es of C hicago, S t. L o uis, Ne w York, Columbus, N ash ville , Milwa ukee,
etc., etc. , a nd in the S ta tes of Maryla nd, Illin ois, and Arka nsas. It 'is to be spee dily
foll owed by th e Second Book of Botany a nd six large and b eautifully-colored llot a nical
Charts, a fter the plan of H ensluw.
H on. Superin tendent Ba teman , of llli nois, say s: " As a sam ple of t}e true methcd
of teach in g the elements of science in primary schools, M iss Youm a ns's book is d eserving of the high es t p raise. In this respec t 1 have see n n othin g eq ual to it. Th e same
method , pursued in all the nat ural sciences, wo nl<l soo n g ive us a genera tion of accu-.
r a te and intelligent y o ung "bservers of na tural obj ec ts a nd phenomena, a nd change for
the b etter the whole to ne and character of comm on-school in stru c tion.
"NEWTON B ATEMAN, Suj"t l'ublic J11stn1cti'o11."

Lockyer's Astronomy, accompanied with numero us Illu s trations, a Colc red
represe nta tion of the Sol,.r, Stellar, and N ebular S pec tra, a nd Celestial Charts of
the N orthern a nd the South ern H emi spheres. A m ericnn Edition , rev ised and
specially ad apted to the Schools of the .United Sta tes. 12mo. 31 2 pages.

Quackenbos' s Natural Philosophy.

Revised E dition. E mbracin g th e
m ost recent Discov<;ries in th e various Bra nches of Ph ysics, and exhibitin g the
A pplication of Scientific Prin ciples in Every-day Life. Ad apted to use with or
without Apparatus, and accompanied with Practical Exercises and numerous lll ustra tions. 121110. 450 pages.
Q u ackenbos's Philosoph y has long been a fa vorite Tex t- Book . T o th ose who h ave
u sed it, no words of com mendation are necessary ; to th ose who have not, we would
earnestly s uggest a care ful exa minati on of its claims. We would here merely say that·
it has recentl y been THO llOUGHLY REV ISED, in view of rece nt di scoveries in P hysics,
and th e ge neral acceptance of new th eories respectin g H ea t, L igh t, and F. lcctricity,
the Corre lation a nd Co nservation of Forces, etc. T he presen t Ed ition is in all respects
an accura te ex ponen t of th e presen t state of science.

Huxley and You1na ns's Physiology.

The E lements of P hys iology and
H ygiene . A Tex t-Book fnr E d uca tional Institutions. B y T 11 0~ 1 As H. HUXLEY,
F . R. S., a nd WILLIAM ] k'I 1 vUMAN<;, M . D. 12mo. 420 i:ages.

Nicholson' s Text-Book of Geology. W ell condensed, accura te, and clear.
umo.

266 pages.

Nicholson' s Text-Book of Zoology. A compreh ensive M anual for th e use
of Acad emics a nd Colleges. By P rof. NICHOLSON, of Toronto.

12mo.

353 pages.

Wrage's German Grammar: b ased on the Na tural Me thod-L a11g·11nge be.
fare Grammar.
350 pag es.

T eaches Germa n rapidly, pleasan tly, a nd thoroughl y . . 12mo.

Krusi's New Serie s of Dra wing-Books: T each er' s !Vlanu al, a nd Sy nthe tic
Series of In ventive Drawing (4 N os. ), now ready. Some thing new a nd excell ent
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