I
AN

.,,,.
I

J

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

--6 10

.!fd-3

BY

G. P. QUAOKENBOS, A.:M.,
...

PRINCIPAL OF " TnE COLLEGIATE SCHOOL," N. Y. ;· AUTHOR OF '\FIRST LESSONS m
COMPOSITION,,, u ADV A.NOED COURSE OF COMPOSITION AND llllETOBIC,n
u

A. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,"

u

ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL llISTORY

O.i' TIIE UNITED STATES,,,

u

!"RIMA.RY llISTORY

Oi' TllE UNITED STA.TES, n ETO.

NEW YORK.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, ..,
448 & 445 BROADWAY.

1864.

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OONTENT.S.

. ,D..,. Cor '""\,,
\

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I

·.·
By the same Author:
FIRST LESSONS IN COMPOSITION: In which the Prinoiples of the Ari nra
d.e velopod in connection with the Principles of Grammar. 12mo, pp. 182. 68 cts.
AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR:. 12mo, pp. 288.

67 cts.

PRIMARY HISTORY 01'' THE UN ITED STATES: Made easy and interesting
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Exe,...ises and 335 Illustration•. l Zmo, pp. 450. $1.25.

Entered, nccording to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by
G. P. QUACKENBOS,
!n the Clerk's Office of tho District Court of the United States, for tho
Southern District of New York.

!'.A.GB

:USBON

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
·vI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.

·xx.

XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XI.III.
XLIV.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.

Letters, Syllables, Words, Sentences
Classification of Letters
•
•
•
Accent.-Prlmitive, Derivative, and Compound WordJI
Formation of Derlvatives.-lnseparable Roots
Prefixes
Suffixes •
Analysis of Words .
Rules of Spelling
Syllabication
Forms of the Letters
The Parts·of Speech
Nouns and their Classes
; ~·
Subdivisions of Common.Nouns
The Person of Nouns •
The Number of Nouns
Irregular Plurals
•
•
•
Plural of Compound and Complex Noun.a
Plural of Foreign Nouns
Nouns not used in both Numbers
The Gender of Nouns .
Masculine and Feminine· Correlatives
The Case of Nouns,
The Declension of Nouns
The Pronoun.-Personal Prononns
Rules for Nouns and Pronouns •
Parsing Forms for Nouns and Pronouns
Simple R elative Pronouns
Compound Relative Pronouns
Interrogative Pronouns ~ .
Adjective Pronouns
Tho Article •
Adjectives and their Classes
Comparison of Adjectives
Irregul ar Comparison .
A Written Exercise ·
Verbs and their Classes
Voice .
.
Properties ofVerbs.-Mood.-Tense
\ •
The Indicative Mood and its Tenses
The Potential Mood .and its T enses •
The Subjunctive and Imperative Mood.
.
.
The In·finitive Mood.-Person aii!!- Number of Verbs
Participles •
Construction of Participles
Auxi!iaries.-Be, have
The Auxiliaries do, did, will, shall •
•
•
•
The Auxiliaries may, can, must, need, might, could, itc.

..

1
9
11
13

11>
17
18
19
21
24
25
28
30

31
33

36
38

40
43

«

47
50,
63
64
58
60

62
M
68
70

72
71>

77
80
83
84
86
88
90
93

96
99·

102
104
107
109
112

4

CONTENTS.
LESSON

X L VIII. The V erb n>:
X LIX. Conj.ugation of a .Tranai.tive Verb in the A~tive V~!ce
L. ConJuga~ton of a Tran siti ve Verb in the Passive Voice
LI. Prog ressive Form of the Verb
LII. Negati v~ a_nd r.nterrogative Conj~gatton.s .
LIII. V erbs d 1stmgu1shed ns Regu la r and Irregular
T able of P ri mitive I rregular V erbs
·
LIV. D efecti ve Verbs
·
. ·
·
·
L V . The Ad ve rb
LVI . Ad verbs (continued)
.
.
L VII. Comparison and Construction of Adverb
L V III. T h e Preposition
.
.
s ·
L lX. Prepositions (conti nu ed)
·
·
LX. T he Conj unction .
L X I. The Interjecti on
L X II. A Practi cal R eview
LX II I. Senten ces classified accord.ing to iheir Mcanin •
LXl V. Sentences classified according to th eir F orm g
L XV. Structure of Sen tences
LXVI . A nalysis of Sentences
·
·
'
L XVII. Analysis (continued) .
L XVIII. Elli psis
.
.
.
.
L X I X . Explanation of Difficult Const ructions
L x;c. Subjcct.-:-N ominative Independent.-Falso .Synta;
L ?'-;' L Substanti ves modifyi ng N ouns.- Fa!se Syntax
L?'-?'-ll.' ObJcct .- Objcctivo of T ime.-Falso Syntax
·
L~~III. Substantives in Apposition.-Fa!se Syn tax
•
LX~ I V. Substan t ives afte r Verbs. - Falso Syntax .
L?'-XV. Pron ouns.- Falsc Syn tax
.
.
LXXVI. Pronouns (continuod).-False Syntax
LX.XVII. R elati ve Pronou ns. - F a lse Synta x •
L XXVIJ I. Pronouns (continued).-False Syntax
L XXI X. Articl es.- F also Syntax
LXXX. Adjecti ves. - F also Syntax
L.xx;.r. Adjecti ves <conti nued) .- False S~ntax
~XXX II. F imt e V erbs. - False Syntax - .
.
LX~XIII. F~rnte Verbs (continued).-False Syntax
LXXXI V. F rn1te V erbs (cont inucd).-False Syntax
LXXXV. The I nfinitive.-False Syntax
L XXXVI . Part'.c~pl es. - Fal se Syntax
.
L1x_XXXVII. P ar tic1plca (continued).-False Syntax
X~ VIII. A dvcrbs.-Fa!se Syntax .
LXXXIX. Prepositions.- Falso Syntax .
.
C~ nju n cti on a. -Fal se Syn tax
.
.
XCI. M1scellaneous E xercise in False Syntax
XCII. R u les fo r Capitals .
XCIII. P unctuation
x 91v. P unctuation (co~ tinued)
XCV. P unct uation (continued )
,
.
:C C VI. Punct uation (conttnued) .
.
XCVII. Apostropbe.-Hyph en.-Quotation-poi~ts
X C\ III. F .igu res of E tymology.-Figures of Synta;
XCIX. Figures of Rhetoric
C. Prosody
.
.
CI. Prosody (continued)

X?.

P A.Gll

114
117
120
124
127
130
133
138
140
144
147
150
153
156
159
162
163
165
168
171
173
177
181
184
188
191
195
197
200
204
207
210
214
217
220
223
227

PREFACE.

,

230
233
237
239
242
245
248
251
257
260
263
265
268
269
271
2 74
278
281

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I

L
I

SEVERAL years ago, the author was engaged by the publishers
. of Weld's English Grammar to revise that work, with instructions
to make such changes in it as would in his opinion perfect the
system the~ein presented. 'This task he performed to the best
of his ability, making as good a book as he knew how to produce on Weld's system. This system, however, was not his own; in
many important points it did not r epresent his views_; nor was
it his province, being simply its editor, to introduce his own peculiar views into the revised book. They have been retained for
the present work, contemplated long before the revision was undertaken, and here presented as a new and distinct System of
Grammar.
In offering the present Grammar to the public, the author
begs leave to refer to the work itself as the best exponent· of those
peculiarities by which it is to be approved or condemned. A few
words, however, may not be improper here as to its plan and general features.
Grammar has hitherto been a dry and hard subject to teach.
It is here sought _to .make it easy and interesting by combining
practice with theory, example with precept, on a more liberal
scale than has heretofore generally been done. The matter is
divided into short lessons, follo wed in every case by an E xercise,
which applies in every variety or' way the principles just laid

6

PREFACE.

down, and frequently embodies a practical review of what has
been previously learned.
Definitions are approached by means of preliminary illustrations, which make their abstract language intelligible while it is
in proces~ of learning.
Words are classified as parts of speech solely and exclusively
according to their use in the sentence. This course does away
with all arbitrary distinctions, and enables the pupil to classify
words readily and correctly for himself.

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

The Rules of Syntax are introduced as they are needed, in
connection with etymological parsing. Thus, among other advantages, is avoided the unreasonableness (inevitable, when these
rules are kept back) of requiring a pupil to give the case of nouns
under circumstances in which he can have no possible clue to it.
A simple method of analyzing sentences is presented, not encumbered with technical terms or requiring labor on the teacher's
part to make it available.
There is no avoiding of difficulties. A lesson is expressly devoted to the explanation of perplexing constructions.
Many minor points may also be noticed ; such as doing away
with the neuter gender, a factitious distinction engrafted on English
Grammar fr om the classical languages; the view taken of comparison ; the comprehensive treatment of auxiliaries, and directions for their proper use ; the introduction of need, as an auxiliary of the present potential ; the unusually full Exercises on False
Syntax ; and the general arrangement and adaptation of the whole.
It is believed that this Grammar will be found to work well in
the class-room, and, whether used in connection with the author's
books on Composition or independently of them to impart 8
'
,
thorough knowledge of our language.

LESSON I.
LETTERS, 3YLLABLEB, WORDS, l!!ENTENCEB.

'
•

\

1. WHAT GRAMMAE 1s.-Men have minds; with
these they think. Men have speech ; this enables
them to express their thoughts.
Thoughts are expressed with words. Grammar
teaches us how to put words together, to express
·
thoughts correctly.
Thoughts may be either spoken or written. Grammar, therefore, teaches us how to speak and write correctly.
Different languages, such as English, French, Latin,
have different peculiarities. Hence every language has
its own gramma.-. English Grammar teaches us how
to speak and write the English language correctly.
2. W oRns.-A Word is the sign of an idea.
1. With what do men think I H ow are they enabled to express their thoughts I
With what are thoughts expressed? What teaches us how to put words to·
gether, to express thoughts correctly I How m&y thoughts be made known I
What then does Grammar teach us I . What does English Grammar t each us I
What' ls a' Word I Give an example. How are words combined f Give an

NEw Yonx, July 22, 1862.

.

8

LETTERS.-SYLLABLES.
SYLLABIC DIVISION OF WORDS.

Thus, the word rose is a sign that stands for the queen of flowers.
word village is a sign that stands for a small collection of houses.

To express thoughts, words, which are the siO'ns of
distinct ideas, are combined in Sentences. Whe: I say,
"The rose is sweet," I express one thought, with four
words combined in one sentence.
3. LETTERS.-When spoken, a word is a sound or
combination of sounds. When written, a word is a
character or combination of characters, standing for its
sound or sounds. The word rose, when written, consists of four characters, rose, which stand for the sound
heard when the word is uttered. These characters are
called Letters.
A Letter is a character that stands for a sound of the
human voice used in speaking; as, a, z.
The letters of a language constitute its Alphabet.
The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters; a, b,

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
y, z.

The art of combining letters correctly, to form words, .
is called Spelling.
4. SYLLABLEs.-Some words are uttered with but one
impulse of the voice; as, go, light. Others require
several impulses; as,. go-ing, en-liglit-en. This gives
rise to a division of words into Syllables.
A Syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered
with one impulse of the voice; as,
an, ant, an-tidote.

a,

5. SYLLABIC DrvrsroN

OF

9

The

WoRns.-According to the

example. 3. What is a word, when spoken i What, whon written i Give an
example. Whnt is a Letter i 'What is meant by tho Alphabet of a language p
How many letters does tho English alphapet contn1n i Repent them. Wha\ is
Spelling? 4. Show the difference of words, as regards their utterance. What is a
Syllable i 6. How are words divid~d, as re>(ards their number of syllable• i What

number of their syllables, words are diV:ided int.o four
classes; Monosyllables, Dissyllables, Tnsyllables, and
Polysyllables.
.
A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable; a Dissyllable
is a word of two syllables; a Trisyllable, of three; a
. Polysyllable, of more than three.
is a monosyll~ble;
he-ro, a dissyllable; he-ro-ic, a ·tnsyllable ; - he-ro-i-cal,
he-ro-i-cal-ly, are polysyllables.
·
6. SuMMING uP.-The elements of language are L_ett.l;lrs, which stand for simple sounds of. the ~uman voice
used in speaking. Letters are combm:d m Sy~lables,
which represent sounds uttered by one lmpu.lse of the
voice. Syllables are combined in Words, which are the
signs of ideas. Words are combined in Sentences,
which express thoughts.

1!e

EXERCISE.

Pronounce each of the follo.wing words, and tell whether it is a
monosyllable, diasyllable, trisyllable, _or poly8!J~lable :-Len?th '.
courageous; wintry; irresistible ; corned ; uncomed; beautiful,
mechanism ; unmerciful ; asthma ; every ; trout ; meteorology;
flower; chivalry; wicked; walked; stereoscope.
.
.
Mention four di88yllables; four poly8!Jllables; four monosyllables ; four trisy llables.

LESSON II.
CLASSIFICATION OF LETTERS.

7. PowERS OF THE LETIE~s.-The Power of a letter
is its sound in a given word.
The power of a letter must be distinguished from its name.

In the

is a Monosyllable i A Dissyllable i A Trisyllable i A Poly•yllable i 6. Sum
up the matter of this Lesson.
t
tt be
7. What' 11 the ·Power of a letter I From what must the powei- o a 1e er

10

VOWELS

.AND

CONSONANTS.

DIPHTHONGl!.-TRIPHTRONGS.

10. COMBINATIONS OF VowELs.-A Diphthong. i~ a
combination of two vowels in one syllable; as, ai in
vain, ow in cow, ea in beat.
A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are
sounded · as oy in boy, ou in pound.
An I~pro~er Diphthong is one in which but one vowel
fa sounded; as, ie in mien [sounded like e in me], au
infraud [sounded like a in all].
..
A Triphthong is a combination of three vowels m one
.
syllable; as, iew in view, eau in beau.

word me, the power of c is the same as its name; in met, the power of e is
different from its name. Give the name and the power of each letter in
the word farms.
Some letters stand for more than one sound ; as, a in ale, awl, are, am.
Some sounds have more than one letter to stand for them. Thus, in
her, sir, fur, the same sound is represented by e, i , and u.
Our twenty-six letters represent in all about forty distinct sounds.

8. VOWELS .AND CoNSONANTs.-Of the twenty-six letters, some are uttered freely, without interruption to
the breath; as, a, e. In uttering others, the breath is
more or less interrupted by thil tongue or lips; as, d,f.
Hence the letters are divided into two classes, Vowels
and Consonants.
A Vowel is a letter that can be uttered freely, without interruption from th'? tongue or lips.
A Consonant is a letter that cannot be uttered freely,
. but is more or less interrupted by the tongue or lips.
9. There are five vowels; a, e, i, o, u.
There are nineteen consonants; b, c, d,f, g, h,j, k, l,
m, n,p, q, ?', s, t, v, x, z.
Two of the letters, w and y, are consonants in some
cases, and in others vowels. When they precede a
vowel sounded in the same syllable, they are consonants ; as in wet, wliet, swing, re-ward, yet, un-yield-ing.
In all other positions, they are vowels; as 'i n view, awe,
by, eye, raw-ly.
U and i are classed among the vowels. But observe that u is a consonant when it has the sound of w in wet; as in quit, dissuade [pronounced
kwit, dis-swade ]. I, also, is a consonant, when it has the sound of y in
yet; as in billion, bi·illiant [pronounced bil-yun, bril-yant].
di•tinguish ed 1 Give examples. For what do some letters stand 1 What do somo
sounds have to represent them 1 Givo examples. •}low many sounds are repre~
sentcd by our twenty-six lettcrs 1 8. ·what difference is found in the utterance of
the different letters I Accordi ngly, how are letters d ivided 1 What is a Vowel
What Is a Consonant 1 9. How many vowels are there 1 Name them. How
many consonants 1 Name them. What are wand y? When are wand y consonants, and when vowela 1 W'hen Is u n consonant I Give examples. When .Is i a

11

When u has the sound of w in wet, and i that of y in yet, they are conemiants, and do not therefore, when followed by a vowel, unite with i~ to
form a diphthong. There is no diphthon~ in the ~ords quack,_ sanguine,
persuade, brilliant, &c. So, there is no triphthong m queen; u IS a consonant in that word, and ee a diphthong.

11. A Final Letter is one that ends a word. T is
final in rat.
12. A Silent Letter is one not sounded. E is silent
in ice, k in knave,. l in talk, w in wrong.

EXERCISE.
In the following .words, point out the vowels, consonants, .fl_nal
lette1·s silent letters, proper and improper diphthongs, and triplithong; :-Gnaw; wheat; humorously; quadrillion; liquor; yeast;
beauties; sword; burlesque; .two; . squaw; eye.brow; hymn;
coast-wise; viciously; walking-beam; psalm.

•

LESSON III.
ACCENT.-PRIMITIVE, DERIVATIVE,

AND

COMPOUND WORDS.

13. AccENT.-When a word of two or more syllables

0

l

consonant I Give examples. 10. What is a Diphthong! What Is a Proper Diphthong I What is an Improper Diphthong I What Is a Triphthong! When u
and i are consonants, what follows 1 11. What is a Final Letter 1 12. What Is a
Silent Letter 1
13. Why is one sy Uable of a word heard more distinctly than the rest 1 What

12

ACCENT.

is pronounced, one syllable is generally heard more distinctly than the rest; as, ter in terrible, sleep in asleep.
This is because it receives·more force, or stress, of voice.
Accent is stress of voice laid on a certain syllable
when a word is uttered.
14. The syllable that receives the stress is said to be
accented. It may be denoted by a mark called the
Acute Accent ('), placed above it to the right; as,
lem' on, engrave'.
The first syllable is accented in orange, Canada, amiable; the second,
in create, inviting, A merica ; the third, in magazine, Alabama, irresistible; the fourth, in ove1fatigue, .Ad1·ianople, incomprehensible; the fifth,
in indivisibility; the sixth, in incomprehensibility.
15. .A difference of accent sometimes serves to distinguish words
spelled alike but differing in meaning. Thus .Au'gust is the eighth month;
. august' is grave, majestic. A gal' Zant is a brave man; a gallant' is a gay,
fashionable one. A con' cert is a musical entertainment; to concert' plans
is to contrive them. Observe a similar difference between a per'fume and
to perfume'; an ob'ject and to object'; an o'verjlow and to overflow', &c.

1

'!

16. WoRDS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEm FoRM.A.TION.-As regards their formation, words are .ilistinguished as Primitive, Derivative, and Compound.
A Primitive is a word not formed from any other in
the language ; as, ice, house, arm, light.
A Derivative is a word formed from a single simpler
word, by the addition of a letter or letters to modify its
meaning; as, iced, lwuses, disarm, enlighten.
A Compound Word is one formed of two or more
words, whether primitives or derivatives; as, ice-house,
light-armed, backwoodsman.
io Acecnt 1 14. What io an accented syllable I How may it be denoted 1 Give sn
example of words accented on the first sy!Jablo; on the second; on the third; on
the fourth ; on the fifth ; on tho •ixth. 15. ·what does a difference of accent sometimes serve to do 1 Gi ve examples. 16. As regards their formation, how are
words divided 1 What ls a Primitive 1 WLat is a Derivative 1 What is a Compound Word 1 How may a derivative be formed 1 How may a compound be

13

ACCENT OF COMPOUND WORDS.

.A derivative may be formed from a compound; as, good-natured from
good-nature.
_
A compound may be formed of two derivatives; as, rosy-cheeked (rosy,
from rose; cheeked, from cheek).

17. AccENT OF COMPOUND W ORDs.-In some compounds, there is but one accent ; as, gen'tleman,
praise' worthy. In others, each of the words compounded r.e tains its acc;ient ; as, writ'ing-mas' ter,
man' y-col' ored.
When there are more accents than one, the parts of the compound are
generally connected with a short horiZO!J.tal line (-), called ~he Hyphen.
When there is but one accent in the compound, the hyphen 1s commonly
omitted. See the examples in the last paragraph.

EXERCISE.
Pronounce as accented :-Inqui'ry; muse'um; camel'opard;
he"'i'ra. sono'rous; complaisance' ; compla' cence ; lyce'um; chivaYric ·' chiv' alrous; adver'tisement ; mis' chievous; chas'tisement;
exoter'lc; Ori' on ; .Aristi' des; Iphigeni' a; Ma'homet; Moham'med;
Sardanapa'lus.
.
Classify as Primitive, Derivative, or Compound, and state _w_hich
syllable is accented ;·-Hand; handy; unhandy ; hand-wr1tmg;
Mississippi; achievement; imperishable; unl~o~ed-:~r; but~er­
milk; broken-hearted; narrow-mindedness; 1rntabihty; arithmetic ; a rosewood chess-board, inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

LESSON
FORMATION OF

rv.

D~RIVATIVES.-INSEPARABLE

ROOTS.

18. FoRMATION OF DERIVATIVES. -The primitive
words of our language are few, compared with 'the
formed 1 17. What difference Is found In the accentuation of compound words I
Give examples. What ls the Hyphen 1 When le the hyp~en generally used be·
tween the parts of a compound! When is it commonly omitted 1
18 H w do primitive words compare In number with derivatives 1 Why 1e
this! .
derivative& are formed from the primitive part 1 How are these d&

~t

14:

FORMATION OF DERIVATIVES.

derivatives. This is because many derivatives sometimes come from a single primitive. Thus from the
primitive part ::i.r e formed
co.:;nterpart,

party,
partisan,
particle,

depart,
impa1·t,

unparted,
copartner,
impa1·ting, &c., &c.

It will be seen that these derivatives are formed by placing certain letters before or after the primitive, or both. The letters thus placed are
called Prefixes and Suffixes.

19. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXEs.-A Prefix is a letter or
letters placed before a primitive or compound, to modify
its meaning; as, de in depart, itn in ungentlemanly.
A Suffix is a letter or letters placed after a primitive
or compound, to modify its meaning; as, isan in partisan, ly in ungentlemanly.
Prefixes and suffixes modify the meaning of the word to which they are
joined. Thus, the prefix un means not; the suffix ness means the quality
of being. Then unkind means not kind; kindness is the quality of being
kind; unkindness is the quality of bein,g not kind. So with unsound,
soundness, unsoundness, &c., &c.

20. INSEPARABLE RooTs. -Some derivatives come
from roots not separately used as words. Thus, avert,
reverted, convertible, and many other derivatives, come
from the root vert, meaning to turn.
These roots are mostly from Latin words, and some of them enter into
a great number of derivatives. The most important ones are given below
with their meanings, and should be committed to memory.
INSEPARABLE ROOTS.

OEDE, OEED, OESS, to go.
OEIVE, CEPT, to take.
CLUDE, CLUS, to shut.

OUR, OURS, to run •.
DroT, to say, to speak.
DUCE, DUCT, to lead.

rivatives formed 1 19. What is a Prefix 1 \Vhat is a Suffix 1 What is the force
of prefixes and suffixes I lllastrate this with the prefix un and the suffi:i:: nes..
20. From what sort of roots do some derivatives com0 1 Give examples. From
what language are these inseparable roots mostly derived I

INSEPARABLE ROOTS.

FEOT, FIOI, to do, make.
FER, to bear, to carry.
FUSE, to pour.
JEOT, to cast.
LATE, to bear, to carry.
LEOT, to choose, to gather.
LUDE, LUS, to play.
MIT, MISS, to send.
PEL, PULS, to drive.

15

PEND, PENS, to hang.
PONE, POSE, to place.
PORT, to carry.
SCRIBE, SCRIPT, tb write.
s1sT, to stand.
TAIN, TENT, to hold.
TEND, TENS, to stretch.
TRACT, to draw.
VENE, VENT, to come.

EXERCISE.

Spell and analyze the following derivatives :-[Thus :-~eceive is_
a derivative from the inseparable root OEIVE, to take; re is a prefix.-Mission is a derivative from the inseparable root MISS~ t?
. ,; n is a suffix.'- Copartner is a derivative from the primise nd , •0
.
.
d' t .
tive PART; co is a prefix, ner a suffix.] Tension; contra ic ; mvented · susceptible; translate; tractable; confuse; prevent'. sufficient ; ductile ; conference ; scripture ; postpone ; subJect ;
inducement; repei; averting ; suppose ; illusive.

LESSON V
PREFIXES.

[For young classes, divide the following .List and Exercis~ into
three lessons, giving one third of each at a time.]

21. A list of the most common prefixes fofllo;s;
learn their meanings. It will be seen that some o t em
have different forms. In most cases, this is because the
final letter is changed, to correspond with the fir~t letter of the primitive or root. Thus we have ac-climate,
at-tend, in stead of ad-climate, ad-tend.
AD [AO, AF, .A.G, AL, .A.N, AP, AR,
A, 1. in, on.
AS, AT), to.
2. [or AN], destitute of, want
ANTE, before.
of.
3. [or .rn, ABs], from, away. ANTI [.A.NT], oppos~d, opposite to.

16

,,'
1.
1.1

-''1

. I•

LIST OF THE MOST COMMON PREFIXES.

BE, by, to make.
m , two.
cmouM, around.
CON [co, cot, OOM, OOR], together,
a j oint.
CONTRA (OONTRO, COUNTER], ·
against.
DE, from, down, to make, to deprive of.
DIS [Dr], apart, to remove, not.
EN [EM], in, to make, to make or
put in.
xx [E, Ec, EF], out, from, beyond.
IN [rn, IL, IM, m], to make, to
put in, not.
INTER, between.

Mrs, wrong, ill.
OB [oo, oF, OP], before, against.
ouT, beyond, better.
PER, through, thoroughly.
PRE, before.
PRo; forth, forward, for.
RE, back, again.
SE, from, apart, out.
SEMI, half.
SUB [suo, SUF, SUG, SUP, SUR,
sus], under, after.
SUPER [SUPRA, sun], over, above,
beyond.
TRANS [TRAN, TRA], over, across.
ULTRA, beyond.
UN, to remove, not.

EXERCISE .

Spell and define the f ollowing derivatives. They are arranged
with their prefixes in the same order as those in the List. When a
prefix has seveml meanings, one derivative is given to illustrate each.
[Thus :-Ablaze-spell-in a blaze. Afire- spell-on fire. Acephalous- spell- destitute ef a h ead. Anarchy, want of government, &c.]
Ablaze ; afire; acephalous ; anarchy; avert; abstract; append; assist; anteroom ; anti-American; antarctic; beside; benumb; biform (having two forms) ; circumvent; compose; cotenant ; contradict ; detain ; decry; debase ; defame ; dilate ; disburden; disagreeable; entwine; enrich ; embody; educe; exclude;
exceed ; impurple ; incase ; irrational ; interlace ; misbelieve ;
misfortune; ofter; object'; outmarch; outsail; p erceive; perfect;
preoccupy; produce; P.ropel; proconsul; repay; reprint; secede;
seclude; select; semitone; subofficer; succeed; surmount; superscribe; superhuman; tmnscribe; transport ; ultramontane (beyond the mountains); unload; unfi t.

Armnged promiscuously :-Collect; suffix; embroil; apportion;
imprison; supra vulgar; anti-republican; antedate ; dej ect; illegal;
11ffuse; accede; controvert; allure; dispirit;· infirm.

LIST OF THE MOST COMMON SUFFIXES.

11

LESSON VI.
SUFFIXES.

[For young classes, divide the following. List and Exercise into
two lessons, giving one half of eacli at a time.]

22. A List of the most common suffixes follows ;
leai;n their meanings.
ABLE, IBLE, ILE, that may or can
be, worthy of being.
AGE, a place where, the cost of,
state or rank of, act of.
AL, relating to, the act of.
' N AR IAN relating to, one who.
ARD, IST, OR; one who.
ATE, to make, made like, possessed of.
ED,' did,· possessed of.
EE one who is.
E.;, to make, made of.
ER, more, one who.
ES, s, more than one, does.
ESS, INE, IX, a female.
EST, most, dost.
..il.

,

.

'

'

FUL, ous, EOUB, mus, ·y, full of.
FY, IFY, IZE, to make.
HOOD, DOM, SHIP, the state, rank,
domain of.
ING, ANT, ENT, continuing to.
ION MENT, URE, the act of.
. system
ISM,' the state of bemg,
of.
KIN, LET, LING, OOK, ULE, OULE, a
little.
LEss, without, that can n?t be.
LY, in a (
) manner, like.
NESS, CE, CY, !TY, TY, the. state
or quality of being.
SOME ISir, somewhat.
·
RY, ;RY, the art or practice of.

EXERCISE.

S ll nd de-Rne the fiollowing derivatives. They are ·arranged
v• in the same order as those in
. t h e L is· t • [Thota · w ·thpe
theira suffixes
C~argeable-spell-that may be charged. Honorable-spe · honored. M oorage-sp ell-a place where to moor,
worthy of being
.

ii

&c.]Chargeable; honorable; moorage; p1·1 ot age,· P eern.ne
-,, '· mar. .
.
autumnal /. acquittal; Chilian; columnar; guardian'
riage ·
t · k" k d ·
dulla;d; psalmis t; grantor; validate; globate; fort?na e' lC e '.
ood-humored; employee; shorten; hempen:· qmc~er; ~eeper ~
. ways • crushes; sits; priestess; testatrix; qmck.est' ke?p.
est · ear.ruz '. pompous; watery; justify; manlwod; JUClgesthipt,
,
J • beating;
'
•
•
)j:ingdom;
pendent; mission;
sensu alis· m '· prates an -

~oxes

f

18

ANALYSIS OF WORDS.

ANALYSIS OF WORDS.

ism; lambkin; tearless; sateless; rashly; queenly; oddity;
sourness; lonesome; blackish; herald1·y; buffoone1·y.

AN..l.LYSrs.-Geo is an inseparable root, meaning the earth; graphy
is an inseparable root, meaning a description; geography is a compound,
meaning a description of the em·th.

25. The most important roots that enter into compound words are GR.A.PHY, a description or history ef,
and LOGY, tlie science of, or a treatise on. They appear
in many words, combined with other roots ; such as

LESSON VII.
AN ALYS IS OF WORD!!.
23. FORMATION OF DERIVATIVEs.-A derivative may
be formed by uniting two or more prefixes or suffixes
with a primitive or inseparable root; as,
Re-ex-port, to carry-out-again.
Just-ijy-ing, continuing-to make-just.
R e-col-lect-ion-s, more than one-act of-gathering-togethe1·-again.

A derivative may be formed by uniting a prefix or
suffix with a compound; as, good-humor-ea, having
good-humor.
24. Fomr.ATION OF COMPOUND WoRns.-Compounds
may be formed by uniting,
1. Two primitives; as, moon-beam.
2. A primitive and a derivative; as, bright-eyed.
ANALYSis.-Brigltt is.a primitive; eyed is a derivative from the primitive eye, meaning having eyes; b»igltt-eyed is a compound, meaning having
bright eyes.

3. Two derivatives ; as, brightest-eyed.
ANALYSis.-B1·ightest is a derivative from the primitive brig!tt, meaning most b>"ight; eyed is a derivative from the primitive eye, meaning having eyes; brightest-eyed is a compound, meaning ltaving the most bright
eyes.

4. An inseparable root and a primitive; as, multiform .
. ANALYSis.-lJfitlti is an inseparable root, meaning many; fo1m is a
primitive; multiform is a compound, meaning having many forms.

5. Two inseparable roots ; as, geography~
23. How may a derivative be formed 1 Give examples. Howelse may a deriY-

19

Bro, life.
ETHNo, a nation.

GEo, the earth.
MYTHO, a fable.

EXERCISE.
I

Spell and analyze, according to the forms given above :-,-Reenforce; brightening; seemingly; unattracted; inadvertently; farsighted; gentlemanly; powder-horn; son-in-law; commanderin-chief; battering-ram; wood-pecker; pew-holder; unhopedfor ; riding-schools ; watering-places ; biography ; geography ;
ethnology; mythology.

---.LESSON VIII.
RULES

OF

SPELLING.

26. In forming compounds, the si~ple words are put
together without change; as, green:l·~~e.
. .
In forming derivatives, a prefix is JOmed to a pnm1tive without change ; as, de-form.
On adding a suffix, the primitive is changed in some
cases, but not in others.
ative be formed 1 24. What is the first mode mentioned In which a compound
may be formed 1 The second mode ! Analyze bright-eyed. The third mode 1
.Analyze brightest-eyed. The fourth mode 1 Analyze v.ultiform. The fifth mode 1
Analyze geography. 25. What are the most important roots that enter into compound words 1 Mention some other inseparable roots, "'.ith which they are compounded, and their meanings.
26. What change is made in forming compounds I In forming derivatives with

20

RULES

OF

RULES

SPELLING.

When the .su~x '.less is added to the primitive 11eat, no change ii
m~de ; the den~ative IS neat-ness. When it is added to happy, the final
y IS changed to i ; the derivative is happi-ness.

But in this case and the last there is no doubling, if the. final consonant
is preceded by another consonant or by two vowels : as, damp, damper;
r oom, rooony; uncurl, uncurled; defraud, defrauded.

RULE VI....:....Change the final y of a primitive to i,
when it is preceded by a consonant and a suffix is added
not commencing with i; as, try, tried.

lie,

_But retain final e, when preceded by e or o, if the suffix added is able
or rng: as, agree, agreeable; shoe, shoeing.
Retain final e, when preceded by c or g, if the suffix added is able or

RuLE IL-Reject e or o from words ending in er
or or, when the suffix ance, ess, ix, or ous is added:
as, enter, entr-ance ; testator, testatr-ix.
But in many cases e or o is retained : as, cancer, cancerous; authoi-,
authoress.

RuLE III.-Reject the final le of a primitive, if preceded by a consonant, when the suffix ly is added· as
f eeble, feeb-ly.
' '
RuLE IV.-Double the final consonant of a monosyllable, if preceded by but one vowel, wheu a suffix is
added commencing with a vowel : as stir stirrinn ·
. quitting.
. .
'
'
",
quit,
But final x is never doubled ; ns, ox, oxen.

RuLE V.-Double the final consonant of any word
accented on the last syllable, if preceded by but one
• prefix 1 In forming derivatives wi th a suffix 1 Give examples. 27. Recite
Rule I., for th e rejectio n of fi nale. [Examples arc always to be given with Rules
and E xceptions.] In what two cn•cs is fi nal• retained 1 Recite Rule II. for the
r ejection of e or o. I s e or o always rejected 1 R ecite Rule III., for the ;ejection
of fi nnl le. Recite Rul e IV., for doubling th e final consonant of a monosyllable.
What con somnt is never doubled 1 Recit e Rule V., for doubling the final consonaht of a word accented on t he last syllable. In what case Is the final consonant
not doubled 1 Recite Rule VJ., relating to the final y of a pr{mitlve. When must
no change be made I What is the first exception relating to final y 1 Wbat is tho
aecond exception I

21

SPELLING.

vowel, when a suffix is added commencing with a vowel;
as, bestir, bestirring.

27. R uLES OF SPELLING.-The followinO' rules cover
most cases in which a change is made in fhe primitive
on the addition of a suffix:RULE !.-Reject the final e of a primitive when a
suffix is added commencing with a vowel ; as,
li-ar.

ous : as, notice, noticeable ; outmge, outrageous.

OF

But make no change when a vowel precedes y; ns, toy, toy-ed: or
before a suffix commencing with i; ns, try, try-ing.
Final y is sometimes changed to e before the suffix aus; ns, plenty,

.

,

plenteous.

·

Final y is sometimes rejected before a suffix co=encing with i or o:
ns, sympathy, sympath-ize; felicity, felicit-ous.

EXERCISE.
Spell and define the following deri'llati'lles. State what change
is made informing each, and gi'lle the rule. [Thus:- Cities-spell
-is a derivative, meaning more than one city. The final y of the
primitive city is changed to i before the suffix es, accordingto Rule
VI., "Change the final y of a primitive," &c.] Driver (drive-er);
agitation ; Roman ; hindrance (hinder-ance) ; wondrous ; idly
(idle-ly) ; horribly; funny (fun-y) ; spotted ; quizzing; impellest
(impel-est) ; remittal ; jollity ~jolly-ty) ; h eav.iness ; fanciful;
bounteous (bounty-ous); piteous; eulogize (eulogy-ize); waitress;
loathing; dimmer ; arrival ; demurred ;· spinner; empress; beauteous ; ugliest ; visibly; administratrix.

LESSON IX.

SYLLABICATION.
28. In spelling, divide a word into its syllables, and
spell and pronounce each syllable separately.
29. In writing, sometimes from want of room part
28. In •pelling, what must.be do11e I 29•. In writing, what sometime• ha.Ppens I

22

RULES

OF

SYLLABICATION.

of a word has to be carried to the next line. In this
case, divide the word after a complete syllable, and
place a hyphen at the end of the line to connect the
separated parts; as,
"Delays are dangerous."
30. Hence we must know how to divide words into
syllables. This process is called Syllabication.
31. RuLEs OF SYLLABICATION.-ln syllabication, the
ear is our chief guide. In some words, the syllables are
so marked that they are easily distinguished, as in uncer-tain-ty. In others, however, the proper division
is not so clear, and then the following rules. will prove
of service:RuLE I.-Join consonants to the vowels whose sound
they modify ; as, mel-on,-not me-lon, because the l
modifies the s.ound of the e. So, nni-e-dy, reg-u-lar-i-ty.
RvLE IL-Make prefixes distinct syllables when it
can be done without violating Rule I.; as, de-fine, recall.
When a vowel sound in the prefix is modi fied by a consonant in the
primitive, this consonant is j oined to the prefix, according to Rule I. Thus
we divide def-i-ni-tion, not dc-fi-ni-tion; ?'Cc-om-mend, not re-com-mend.

R uLE III.-Make suffixes distinct syllables unless
they coalesce in sound with what precedes : as, tend-ed,
not ten-ded; in-vest-ing, not in-ves-ting; di-vid-ed, not
di-vi-ded.
·
But ab-horred, walked ; here the suffix ed coalesces with what precedes,
and therefore does not form a distinct syllable.
How must the word bo divided in this case i 30. .What i~ Syllabication i 31. In
dividing words int o syllabics, by what arc we chiefly guided i In what cases will
rules be foun d necessary 1 Recitu Rulo I ., relating to consonants. R ecite 1iu10 II.,
relati ng to prefixes. What is done when a vowel sound in th.o prefix is modified
by a consonan t in the primitive 1 R ecite Rule III., relating to suffixes. Give exa mples in which ed does not form a disti nc t syllable. Recite Rulo IV., r elating
to compound w ords. R ecite Rule V., relating to certain t erminations, and give

RULES

OF

~YLLABICATION.

23

RuLE fV ...;...Make syllabic divisions between the simple words that unite to form a compound; as, wliere-as.
R uLE V.-Never divide the following terminations,
and others that form one syllable:SION,
TION,
OIAL 1
TIA L,
OEOUS 1
GEOUS 1

orous,
TlOUS,

pronounced shun, as in · ex-ten-sion.
or zhun,
" vi-sion.

"
"
"
"
"
"
"

shun
shal,
8h(il,
slius,

jus,
8hus,
shus,

"
"
"
"
"
"
"

mo-tion.
spe-cial.
pres-i-den-tial.
her-ba-ceous.
cou-ra-geous.
vi-cious.
con-sci-en-tious.

RuLE VJ.:-When two consonants come together and
it can be done without violating Rule III., or when a
consonant is doubled before a vowel, divide between
the two consonants; as, tur-ban, for-bid-ding.
·s2. DrERESis.-Two o's generallyunite to form a diphthong, as in soon,
f oot. In some words, however, they do not thus unite, but belong to
separate syllables, as in co-op-er-ate. This is shown by placing two dots,
called a Direresis, over the second o (o).

The Direresis consists of two dots placed over the latter of two vowels that would otherwise form a diphthong, to show that they belong to separate syllables;
as, coaperate, preexistent, aeronaut.
When one of the two vowels belongs to a prefix, a hyphen may be used
in stead of the direresis ; as, co--0perate, prHxistent.

EXERCISE.
Spell the following words, dividing them into 81J Zlables :-Calico ;
m ark et; balance ; business; inseparable; ocean ; aerostation ; reentering; d estroyed; transgression; ser viceable; button-hole;
examples. R ecite Rule VI., for dividing between two consonants. 32. How
are two o's generally sounded 1 How, when two dots are placed over the second
o 1 Of what does the Diooresis consist i When may the hyphen be used instead
sf the diooresis 1

24

FORMS OF THE, LETTERS.

giddy-brained; providential; liquorice; quotient; transientness;
plenteonsly; gorgeous; unfashionable; voracious; re-admitted;
zoology; reformation; irreproachable; apathy.

LESSON X.
.FORMS OF THE LE.TTERl:l.

33. RoMAN LETTERs.-The letters that form the bulk
of priuted matter in English were first used at Rome in
1467. They are hence called Roman Letters.
34. lT.ALICs.-Besides Roman Letters, we use others
that slant, as in tliis clause. These are called Italics.
35. Italics are often used for emphatic words, foreign
terms, the names of vessels and newspapers, a:ijd examples ofrules or definitions.
"I think the Evening Journal is wrong when it says that the prince
and his valet de chambre sailed in -the (heat Western on Saturday."-Why
is I italic? Evening Journal ? Valet de cham bre ? Great Western?
36. In the Bible, italics are used for a different purpose: The Old
Testament was written mostly in Hebrew, the New Testament in Greek.
When these were translated into English, it was found necessary to supply
here and there words not found in the original languages, to make the
meaning clearer. The words thus supplied were put in italics. ·

37. SMALL LETTERS .AND CA.PIT.ALs.-Every letter has
two forms: as, a, A; b, B. They are distinguished as
Small Letters and Capitals.
By looking at any printed page, it will be found that it consists chiefly
of small letters, but that certain words, such as those commencing sentences, begin with capitals. Rules for the use of capitals will be given
hereafter.

• THE P.ARTS OF SPEECH.

,. 25.

lowing primiUves and suffixes, making such changes aa are required
by the R ules in§ 27 :-Join-er (one who joins); employ-er; beginer; pwnder-er ; jolly-er ; rob-er; cobble-er; interpret-er; steadyer; steady-ing; steady-ness ; coy-ness ; executor-ix ; fox-es;
fog-y; stay-ing; fly-ing; fly-es; vile-ly; terrible-ly; gun-ery ;
censure-able; pronounce-able; omit-ed; offer-ed; beautify-ed;
bcautify-ing; plan-ing; plane-ing; complain-ing; box-ing; disagree-ing.

LESSON XI.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
38. THE PARTS OF SPEECH.-Words are the signs
of ·ideas. In forming sentences, we combine different
kinds of ideas, and therefore use different kinds of
words.
Little dogs and kittens play gracefully.-Obscrve the different uses of
the words in this sentence. Dogs and kittens are IL~ed to designate certain animals ; and is used to connect ·dog.• and kittens ; little, to describe
them ; play, to tell what they do ; gracefully, to tell how they play.

39. The English language contains over 100,000
words. They are divided into nine classes·,_called Parts
of Speech, distinguished by the use that is made of
them in sentences.
40. SENTENCE-BUILDING.-Every thing has a name.
There is a large class of words, therefore, made up of
the names of things. These are called Nouns. H enry,
Mary, dog, house, &c., are names of different things,
and therefore nouns.

EXERCISE.
Spell and define the derivatives formed by uniting the foZ33. What nre th e letters mostly nsc<l in our English books called 1 Whence
did they get the name i 34. What arc Italics i 35. For what arc italics u sed i 36.
For what are italics used in the Bible 1 37. How many forms has every letter i
What arc they called I Which constitute tho greater part of a printed pa1:e I

38. What are Words! Why do wo use different kinds of words 1 Point out
th e uses of the several words in the sentence Little dogs and kittens play gracefull!J.
:l9. How many woros does the English language contain I How are they d ivided 1
40. Of whnt docs tho first class of words eonsi•t 1 Wlrnt urc the names of thin gs
called 1 "When we n:imo :in object-, what further do we generally do i What arc
words that afll.rm called! "Wi th what two part• of speech m:iy we form a senteoee I Give an example. Do we generally atop h ere! T ell what kind of d pgs

2

/

I

..
26

,,

THE

PARTS

OF

THE

SPEECH."'

We seldom name an object without affirming something about it. vVorcl s that affirm, are called V erbs.
H enry reacls-JJ:fary sang-Dogs bark j ?'eads, •sang,
bark, affirm something about IIenry, J1fary, clogs, and
are therefore verb s.
W e may form a sentence with a noun and verb
alone ; as, D ogs bcwk. But we seldom stop here.
Taking the noun and verb as the basis, we may j oin
other words t o them, to express additional ideas, and
thus build up longer sentences.
We may tell what kind ef dogs bark. CRoss dogs
bark. vVord s that tell what kind of things is meant,
are Adj ectives.
vV e may tell lww they bark. Cross dogs bark
LOUDLY. w· ords that tell how a thing is done, are
called Adverbs.
The prefix ad means to. .A dm·b means to a verb. These words are
so called because they are joined to verbs. The adverb loudly is joined
to the verb bark.

W e may tell at wlwm. they bark. Cross dogs bark
loudly AT STRANGERS. Strangers is a noun, b ecause it
is a name; and the little word at,. which shows the .
relation between the verb bctrk and the noun strangers,
is called a Preposition.
We may t ell something else that dogs <lo. Cross
dogs barlc loudly at strangm·s AND BITE THEM.-Bite
affirms, like bark, and is therefore a verb. And, which
connects the t wo verbs, is call ed a Conjunction. Thern
bo rk. '\Vhat are words that tell what kind of thi ngs io meant called 1 T ell h ow
th ey bark. What are words that t ell how a thing ie d one called ? 'Vha t ls the
moaning of th e word adv<rb 1 " 'by are these words so called 1 T ell at whom tho
dog• bark. What does tho littlo word at show 1 What is it called 1 \Vhat else
may wo t ell about the doge? What does and do 1 What is lt called 1 How is
them used 1 What ie it call ed 1 If we mean some particular doge and strangers,
what word d o we introduce 1 Wh at la llie called I If wo wi sh to call a!telttion . to

PAR'fS

OF

SPEECH.

2'j

is used in stead of the noun st?'ange1·s, because it would .
sound ill to say, bark loudly at stranger~ and bite
strangers. Tlmn and all other· words used m stead of
nonns are called Pronouns.
vV e may mean some particular dogs and some particular strangers. In that case we introdnce the word
tlie. TnE cross dogs bark loudly at THE st?'angers and
bite th ern.-Tlie is called an Article.
We m ay call attention to the b arking of the dogs.
HARK! tile cross dogs bade loudly at . tlie strangers and
bite thern. ~Hark, and other words thrown unconnectedly into a sentence, to express joy; sorrow, surprise,
&c., are called lnte1jections.
41. SUMMING uP.-Thus·we find nine classes of word.s,
or P arts of Speech : Nouns, Pronouns, Article8, . Adjecti vcs, V erbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions,
and lnte1jections.
Every word in the language belongs to one of these nine classes.. '.fo
find what part of speech any given word is in a sentence, see how
Is
used. This is _the first thing required in Parsing.

1'

EXERCISE.

What ·part of speech is each of tliefollow~ng words?
Hark ! the cross dogs bark loudly at the strangers and bit~ the~.
See ! the playful lambs frisk gracefully in the grass and mbble it.
Lo ! the glorious sun shines brightly on the hills and illumines them,

Give the names of all the articles you can think of that a grocer
sells; as, sugar, tea, soap, &c. What part of speech are these
word,s?
..
Mention all the adjectives you can thin k of that may be JO-med to
the noun boy; as, a cross boy, a good boy; a pretty boy, ~e:
Mention all t~ verbs you can think of that may be Join ed to
th e horse; as, the horse neighs, the horse trots, the horse eats, &c.
th e barking of the doge, what do we say l \\'iiat ie hark called 1 41. To sum up,
how mimy parts of speech have we found 1 Name them. What lo th• first thing
required in parsing I

•

28

THE NOUN.

Mention all the adverbs you can think of that may be joined ~
the horse trots; as, the horse trots slowly, awkwardly, &c.

LESSON XII.

COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS.

29

Mount Fairweather, the Alp", the Pyrenees. Hen'ce there are two kinds
of nouns, the names of classes an,d the names of individuals. .

45. ·Nouns are eith er Common or Proper.
A Common Noun is a name that may be applied to
all objects of the same kind; as, boy, nation, country,

island, dog.
A Proper Noun is the name of an individual object,
which can not be applied to all others of the same
kind; as, R ichard, (the) D anes, Peru, Ireland, Carlo.

•

46. Several individuals may have the same name. There are many
boys called Richard, many dogs called Carlo. But since all boys are
not called Richard, nor all dogs Carlo, R ichard and Carlo are proper
nouns.
47. The names of nations, though belongivg in common to many individuals, distinguish one body of people from all others of the same kind.
They are therefore proper nouns, whether applied to all that compose the
nation, or to ~iu gle individuuls; as, the Germana, a 1\1rlo.

48. Proper nouus always begin with capitals.
the above examples.

See

49. A noun usually common becomes proper,
1. When it denotes a particulur event, place, &c., more conspicuous
or familiar than others of the same name ; as the Creation, the Square,
the Channel (meaning the English Channel).
2. When it denotes an inanimate object personified, that is, addressed
or spoken of as a person; as, "Numberless are thy blessings, 0 Health!"
"Winter wraps his white cloak about him." "Hope whispers in the ears
of the young."-Here Health, Winter, Hope, are personified, They
must be parsed as :proper nouns, and must commence with capitals.
EXERCISE.

42. Wh a t is tho fi rs t part of speech 1 What is n Nou~ 1 43. Speci fy somo of
the different names embraced among nouns, and give examp l {'~. When is any
word & noun ? How can we tell when a word is used merely nf:I a word 1 Give
examples. 44. What objects h aye th e same general name! How.do we distinguish objects of tho same ki nd 1 liI u•trate this. It follow• that there,are how

Mention the nouns and their class : -Seven metals were known
to the ancients; namely, gold, silver, iron, copper, tin, lead, and
m ercury .-:Mercury is nearer the Sun than !lny other planet.mnny kind s of nouns t 45. Name tho two clnsees of nouns. What is a Common
Noun 1 Whal is n Proper Nou n 1 46. I s a n ame belonging to several individuals
common or proper? 'Why sol 47. What do the n ames of nations distinguish I
A1'e they common or proper noun• I 48. H ow must proper nouns always begin I

32

PERSON OF N OUNS .

as spoken to; in th e third, as spoken of. To denote these three dilfere.it
relations, we say that in th e first sentence the noun Jam es is in the firs t
p erson; in the second, it is in the second pe1·son ; in the third, in the tli frd
p erson. Every noun must be in one of these three persons.

58. Person is that property which distin g uishes obj ec ts as sp eaking, spok en to, or spoken of.
59. There are three P ersons; the First, the Second,
and th e Third.
The First Person denotes that which sp eaks ; the
Second Person, tl1 at whi<.:11 is spoken to; the Third Person,
that which is spoken of. ·
F il-st P ersm1.- I, J ohn Adams, p resident of the United Stnles.-We
mortals are short-lived.-Wri ttcn by the hand of me, '/1111 ot/iy. -'l'here is
little vi rtue in us men.
S econd Pason.-John Ada111s, yo u were once president of the United
States.-0 short-li ved mortals !- Go to, tho u f ool /- Answer me, ye f riends
of liberty.
Tliird P e1·son.-I, J ohn Adams, am president of the Un ited States. All mortal" are short-li1·ed. -The fool laughs nt his own/olly. -Ye are but
p ilgrims in the land.
60. It will be seen from these exam ples that a noun bas the same fo rm
in all three persons. ' Ve can not, th erefore tell its pc1·son by its form
but must ask whether it denotes an object speaking, spoken to, or.spok en or'.

61. Most of the n oun s met with in sentences are in
the third p erson. The names of things wi thout iife are
always in the third p erson, unl ess th ey are personified.

.

62. The third person is sometimes used for the first. Thus Wi nchester
says, "As will the rest, so willeth IVinc/icster,''-in stead of " so will I."
Here 'Vin chester uses his own name as that of a person spoken of, and the
noun }Vincliester i8 in the third person.
fi rs t sentence 1 H ow, in the second 1 How, in th e third 1 II ow do we d1..•n otc
these <l ifiCrcnt relat ions 1 58. Wh at is Pc.·rson 1 59. Ka me the p<'rsonR. \ ¥hat is
tlenoted by the Fi rst l'crson 1 ' V liat , by the Secon d 1 " ' hat, by the T lt ird 1 Girn
examples of each. 60. "\V hat wi ll be seen from tJ1 c.sc exam pl es? , Ho w are ,.,,. to
0
toll tbe person of u noun l 61. ·w hut is the p erson of mos t no11 11 s l Of wl.ut p er •on ore the names of thJngs withou t lifo 1 62. F or what is t ho th ird p orso 11 some

NUMBER.

83

63. The third person is also sometimes used for the second. Thus,
"Let not my loi·d [third personJ be angry with his servant;" where the
meaning is, "My lord [second person], be not angry wit~ thy servant."
64. In form al letters and invitations, the third person 1s often thus used
for both the first and the second. Thus, "The S ecretary of State has the
hob.or to acknowl edge receipt of Gov. Winter's favor of the 3d instant, and
bc"s leave to reply," &c. This is more formal than if the Secretary were
to ~vrite :- " I have the honor to acknowle<lge receipt of your favor of the
3d instant, and beg leave to reply," &c.
EXERCISE.

Mention the nouns, their class, and p erson. (Thus :-Travelling
is a participial common noun, in the third person.] Travelling is
sometimes hard work.-The last words of Mohammed were:-" 0
God, pardon my sins! Yes, I come among my fellow-citizens on
high. "-Angels and ministers of grace, defend us!-How foll of
sorrow was the breast of the Indian chief Logan, when h e exclaimed :- " Who is there. to mourn for Logan i Not one."Leadin g the way over a hillock which lay befor e his regiment, he
cried, " Come on, my men ; I, your colonel, will be the first to
meet the fo e."-We Americans do every thing in . a hurry; you
Germans have more patience and deliberation.

LESSON XV.
THE NUMBER OF NOUNS.

One year.
Two years ; .five years; ten year.! ; a thousand years .
65. Observe, in these expressions, that when one is spoken of, the word
year is used; when more than one are referred to, the form changes to
years.

66. Number is that property which disting uishes objects as denoting one or more than one. ·
times u sed 1 Give an example. 63. For whnt else lo the third p erson sometimes
used 1 64. In whnt i• tho third p erson often thus used for both the first and tho
second 1 G ive an ·example.
65. "\Vhat \o to be observed when we say; one year, two years, fi:oe years 1

2*

34:

i

I

FORJ\I.A.TION OF THE PLURAL.

67. There are two numbers, the Singular and the
Plural.
The Singular denotes one; the Plural, more than one.
68. FomrATION OF THE PLUR.A.L.-Rule I.-To form
the plural, most nouns add s to the singular: as,
hat, hats; dwarf, dwarfs; money, moneys; cuckoo,
cuckoos.
Th final is sounded as in think. In some words in which these final
letters are preceded by a vowel, when s is added for the plural, their
sound changes to that of th in this: as, path, paths; wreath, wreaths;
oath, oaths.

Rule II.-N ouns ending as follows take es to form
their plural : 1. In ch not sounded like le; as, torch, torches.
2. In s and sli: as, gas, gases ; gash, gashes.
3. In x and z : as, tax, taxes ; waltz, waltzes.
4. In i, o, or u, preceded by a consonant: as, alkali,
alkalies ; cargo, cargoes; gnu, gnues.
Exceptions in o.-Canto, cantos; duo-decimo, duo-dccimos; grotto,
grottos; halo, halos; junto, juntos; lasso, lassos; major-domo, major·
domos; memento, mementos; octavo, octavos; portico, porticos; quarto,
quartos; sirocco, siroccos; solo, solos; tyro, tyros.

5. Common nouns in y preceded by a consonant take
es, and in so doing change their final y to i (Rule VI.,
p. 21): as, :fly, :flies ; obloquy, obloquies ..
Observe that in the last example u follow ing q has the sound of w
[oblokwy ], and is therefore a consonant.

Rule III.-The following nouns ending inf and je
66. What is Nnmhcr 1 67. Nnme the numbers. What does tho Singulnr denote I
The Plural 1 68. How is the plural of most nouns form ed <Rule I. l I What remark iii mad e ab o ut nouns ending- in tit J What nou ns taka l's to form their plural f
Mention the exceptio ns i n 0 1 th nt form thC'ir plural withs alone. How do common
11ou11s in y preceded by a consonant form their plura l ? How it that obloquy falls
under this rule I How do eleven nouns inf and three in fe form their plural

is

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.

35.

form their plural by changing f or fe into' ves: beef,
beeves ; leaf, leaves; sheaf, sheaves ; thief, thieves ;
loof loaves · calf, calves; half, halves; elf, elves; self,
' ; shelf,
' shelves; wolf, wolves; life, lives; k 1111e,
.,.
selves
knives ; wife, wives.
iVhmf makes both whaif< and wharves.
Staff (a cane) makes staffs and staves. In the second form the a hM
the same sound as in the first, to distinguish the word, when pronounced,
from the plural of slave. All the compounds of sta.!J, and staff itself
when it means a body of military officers,Jorm the plural by adding s;
as, tipstaff, tipstaffs.

Rule IV.-Most proper nouns takes to form their
plural: as, Cato, the Oatos; Antony, the Antonys. .
Proper nouns ending-ins and x take es to form their
plural : as, Venus, the Venuses ; Ajax, the Ajaxes..
Some proper nouns ending in y, in frequent use, form their p~ural by.
changing y into ies : as, Sicily, the Sicilies ; Ptolemy, the Ptolemies.

EXERCISE.
Spell and define the plural of the following words: [Thus:d-a-y-s, more than one day.] Day; t able; niche;. search ; beach;
guess ; atlas ; sash ; brush ; fox ; quiz ; rabbi ; halo ; echo ;
grotto ; solo ; colloquy ; calf; chief; knife ; stave ; staff (cane) ;
distaff; Henry ; Emily ; Sicily ; Pythagoras ; Hercules ; Confucius; Nero; monarch; roof; balcony; bench; tri?; Jutl~s;
Cicero; shelf; gulf; (a general's) staff; sofa; cad1; tlahha;
fuchsia.
Spell the singular :-Cobblers; chimneys; eni~mas; sepulch'.·es; .
porte-monnaies; mementos; selves; safes; stitches; enemies;
hoofs; follies ; canoes; folios; twos; toes; hippopotamuses; the
Rosciuses ; the Alleghanies ; the Colfaxes.
(Rttle III.) 1 Give these nouns. What does wharf make in the plural 1 What
does staff, a cnne, m:tk e 1 \.Yh ~t does staff, a body of military officers, mak~ 1
'Nhat do tho compounds of staff make 1 How do most proper nouns form their
plural 1 How d o proper nouns ending in B and z; form their plural I How do som~
proper nouns ending in 11 form their plural 1

---.36

NOUNS IRREGULAR

IN

THE

PLURAL.

NOUNS IRREGULAR

LESSON XV I.
IRREGULA!t PLU!tALS.
69. NouNs l RREGULAii IN THE PruRAL
Th ~
•
,
· -.L 0 1011 OW·
mg nouns are irregul ar in the plural:Sing.
Child,
Foot,
Goose,

Plu.

children.
feet.
geese.

Sing.

Plu.

Siug.

J.ouse,
Mouse,
M:u1,

lice.
mice.
men.

Ox,
Tooth,
'Womun,

Plu.

oxen.
teeth.
women.
70. Compounds in which these words stand last form th . I J
similal'ly . as b t
b
•
e1r p ura
.
' oa man, oatmcn ; eye-tooth, eye-teeth . gentlewoman
gentlewomen. \Vor<ls that end in man b t
'
.
<l
' u are not compounds of the
G
wor man, form th eir plum! regularly by annexing ~ . as G

man s ; caiman, caimans.

'

, .

,

erman,

er·

71. Cow, which now mak es cows, formerly made kine.

'.2. DouBLE PLURAL Fomrs.-The following noun~
ha\ e botl~ a regular and an irregular plural, with differ
ent meanmgs : Singular.
Brother,

Die,
Genius,
Head,
Index,
Pea,
Penny,
Sail,

R egulm· Plural.
brothers (of a family),
dies (stamps for coining),
geniuses (men of ge 111'us),
~leads (parts of the body),
indexes (tables of contents),
peas (distinct grains),
pennies (distinct coins),
sails (pieces of canvas),

IiTCgular Plural.
l>rethren (of a society).
dice (cubes for gaming).
genii.. (spirits).·
head (of cattle).
indices (algebrab exponents).
p ease (taken in bulk).
p ence (an amount of money).
sail (vessels).

73 .. N~uNs ALIKE IN BOTH .NuMBERs.- The following
are alike m both numbers :-Alms, bass (a fish), bellows,
69. Whnt docs clti/d make in th e pl urn! 1 F ool 7 Goese 7 11'1'
u
Tooth 7 Woman7 70 Wh
ouse 7 man7 O:r1
lnrly 1 How do words. thatnt cdompoundsb of these words form their plural simi.
• en m man ut are not co
d f
fonn th eir plural? What is th
J
i' f l .
mpou1~ so th e WGrd. man,
plural of cow 1 ?
o p ura o iuatman? German 7 71. What is tho
I Grnius 1 H:~·d ~·a: a1;e ~ho two plurals of brother, and their meaning 1 Of
n ex
ca J Penny 7 Sail 1 73. i.\:lsn!.ion the nouns aliko

•lie

IN

THE

PLURAL.

37

cannon, corps (pronounced kore in the singular, kares in
the plural), deer, grouse, hose (old plural, lwsen), means,
odds, 1·est (that which remains, those who remain);
salmon, series, slieep, species, siperficies, swine, vermin
(seklom used in the singular).
74. Summons makes both summons and swnmonses in the plural;
gallows, gallows and gallowses; heathen, heathen and heathens.
75. Fish makes.fish, and less frequently fishes. Fi.ih should always be
used when a quantity is spoken of, and not a number of individuals ; as,
a good mess of jish.- The compounds of fish are alike in both numbers;
as, two cod:fish, six sword:fish, many shell:fish.
The names of different kinds of fish have, for the most part, two
plurals; one (commonly used) like the singular; and a regular form ins or
es. T.hus, herring, he1Ting and herrings ; mackerel, mackerel and mackerels, &c. When a quantity is spoken of, the unchanged form should be
used: as, a hundred barrels of mackerel; a basketful of t1'0"1tt.
So, the word fowl and the names of certain materials, besides their .
regular plurals in s, take a plural form like the singular when they are
spoken of in bulk: as, flocks of seajowl; altars of brick; a load of plank·.
76. Brace, dozen, pair, and score, besides their regular plural in s, take
a form like the singular, when · preceded by a word expressing number.
. We say, fifty brace of pheasants, two dozen of nle, four pafr of stairs, three
score and ten; DUT, fowls are sold in pairs, pheasants in b1·aces; they came
by dozens and scores.

77. PLURAL OF FIGURES, &c.- The plural of £gures,
letters, characters, &c., is formed by annexing an apostrophe ands ('s); as, "She must make her 4's, k's, +'s,
and ;' s b etter."
EXERCISE .

Form tlie plural :-Foster-child; club-foot; beangoose; fieldmouse; madman; musk-ox ; wisdom-tooth; tooth-brush; horsein both numbers. 74. '\Vhatdoes'summons make In tho plurnl 1 Gal/0108 1 Heathen 1
75. Fish 1 'When should fl.Sh be u sed for the plural 1 '\Vbnt do the compounds
of fl.Sh make In the plural 1 What do the names of differ ent kinds of fish mnke in
the plural 1 Which form should Q.e used when a quantity ls spoke'n of7 '\Vhat
other words follow tho same rul e as fish In th eir plural 1 76. What is said of tbe
plural of brace, do•en, pair, and score 1 Illustrate this. 77. How is the plural of
figures, letters, characters, &c., formed 1

42
S ingular.

1,,

I

I~

.

Plural.
errata.
foci.
form ulm, R.
fulcra, R.
I~' ungu s,
fun g i, R.
Ge'nus,
g en' era.
Gymnasium,
gymnasia, R.
H e' lix,
hel'i ces.
H erbarium,
herbaria, R.
Hypothesis,
hypotheses.
fatuus,
· ignes fati~
Lam in
la mi nm.
Larva,
larvre.
Madame,
mesdames.
Magus,
magi.
Medium,
media, R.
Memorandum, . memoranda, R.
Menstruum,
menstrua.
Me tamor'ph~is, metamor'phoses.
Miasma,
miasmata.
Momentum,
mom enta, R.
Monsieur,
messieurs.
Mr.,
mess rs.
Nebula,
n ebulre.
Erratum,
Focus,
:Formula,
Fulcrum,

1:

PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS.
Singular.
Nucleus,
Oasis,
Parenthesis,
Parhelion,
Perihelion,
Phasis,
Phenomenon,
Radius,
Rostrum,
Sarcophagus,
Scholium,
Seraph,
Spectrum,
Speculum,
Sta' men,
Stimulus,
Stratum,
Synopsis,
Terminus,
Thesis,
\Tertebra,
Vertex,
Vi1'luoso,
Vortex,

NOUNS NOT USED IN BdTH NUMBERS.

Plural.
nuclei, R.
oases.
parentheses.
parhelia.
perihelia.
phases.
phenomena.
radii, R.
rostra.
sarcophagi, R.
scholia, R.
seraphim, R.
spectra.
specula.
stam 'ina, R.
stimuli.
strata, R.
synopses.
t ermini.
theses.
vertebrm.
vertices, R.
virtuosi, R.
vortices, R.

EXER C ISE.

Ch ange the f ollowing incorrect plurals to the proper f orm;Vallies; bambooes; ernbargos ; buffalos; grottoes ; soloes; energys; soliloquys ; sea-calfs; loafs; flag-staves; the Scipio's; the
Brutus's; the Allegh anys; taHsmen; Musselmen; dollars are
stamped with heavy dice; the· ancients believed in good and bad
geniuses; ten pennies a yard; two good pence; we must buy new
sail for th e vessel; son-in-laws; men-slayer; going-forths; spoonsful ; kniglit-templars; cannons; bellowses; specieses; a large
haul of shads an d herrings ; fiv e weak fish es; a bagful of water/ owls ; twel ve pctirs of gloves; eight scores; .the General Knox
and Gates; the Miss Maria and Susan Whites ; the. three Masters
Bigginses ; Messrs. Allens; stimuluses; erratums; geni; phenomenas; crisises; ellipsides; myrmida (ons); octaga.
1•

;

43

LESSON XIX.
NOUNS NOT USED IN BOTH NUMBERS.

90. Some nouns are found in but one numbe~
91. SINGULAR NouNs.-The following nouns ave no
plural:- ·
·
.
.
1. Many abstract nouns, the names of vir~ues, vices,
and properties ; as, coitrage, idleness, co!Lesion, roundness.
d'
2. The names of many arts, sci'ences, and iseases ; ·
.
as, architect ure, rhetoric, b1·onchitis.
3. The names of many articles sold by weight or
~easure ; as, flax, lard, lead, cider, millc, pitch, rye.
Some of these how~ver, take a regular plural when
different kinds 'are spoken of; as, the teas of China, the
silks of India.
92. The word news is singular. .Apocrypha, hysterics, measle.~,. ~nd
the names of sciences ending in ics (as, meclianics, hydraulics,_ politics,
plura~; others, with better
&c. ), having a plural form, are by some used
reason, make them singular, as they convey smgulnr ideas.

:is

93. PLURAL NouNs.-Thc following nouns have no
singular now in good use : Aborigines

Annals
Antipodes
Archives
·
Ashes
Assets
Belles-lcttres
Billiards
Bitters
Breeches

Calends
Cattle
Clothes
Dregs
Eaves
Embers
Entrails
Filings
Fireworks
Goods

Greens
Minutiro
Suds
Grounds (dregs) Morals
Teens
Hatches .
Nones
Thanks
Headquarter~
Nuptials
Tidings
Ides
Paraphernalia Trowsers
Lees
Ravellings
Vespers
Literati
Regalia
Victuals
Vitals
Mammalia
Riches
WRges
Shambles
Manners
Withers
Spectacles
Matins

9:J What is an.id about some nouns, as regards number 1 91. Nam ~ three
clnssc~ o f nouns not us.e.d it:i th e plural. Wh!:!n do some nrticlee sold Uy we 1~ht o;
0

measure tako a }llurnl 1 02. In what number is news 1 What is the num er to
apocrypha, measles, and names of sciences in ics 1 93. M~ntlo:ds~~~ t~~.t~l:t';°"
common nouns that have no singular. What namt1s may e a _e

GENDER OF NOUNS.
1;
'i

II

I

I

'

:!

To ~hcse may be added colors (ba
.
ing), letters (literature) the n
fn~e1s), drawers (au article of cloth
ames
o
instruments
co
d f
'
(as, compasses, Rcissors / 011 0' t , - . &
mpose o two parts
'
,,. ' uee.e1s c ) and tl1e
· 'Ji
many orders and fa T
fb
. '
.'
sc1ent1 c names of
m1 ies o eas ts, birds, fish, and insects.

'

EXERCISE.
Mention tlie nouns tlte · . l
Banditti is
'
ti c .ass, person, and number:

·

[Thus :a common noun Ill th th' d
The banditti both !1 d' ,, e Ir p erson, plural number.]
'
or~e an ioot ent · d t1
twenty h ead of cattl
d
'
ei e
ie town, carried off
' e, an put to death ti o
brothers.- you Laplan d
h
le
ount of Orsini's
1
and mackerel ar e ~au h e~s ave arge herds of r eindeer .- Oodfish
Great crises proclr ce g. t
gr.eat numbers near N ewfoundland.will sh ow.-Jack-~'-l;~;n genrn ses, as the ann als of many people
fatui consist of 1 . erns, or as they are oth erwise called ignes
'
·
um111ous gases ti t ·
·
ElizabctJ1 A
.
rn n se rn marshy places ·
·
' nue and V ictor·111 . k
.
' iau amOliig the best of th e English sove reigns ~G
1
battl e of Brau d \"\l'1·1c11e1e1 aTsl GMreeue ~ud Sulli van took -12art in the
10
'
J
.-arqms of 1 F
tt h
of infantry and tw o 8 II
a aye e a<l five corps ·
mn cannon.

;n

NOUNS DESTITUTE OF

GENDER.

4:5

The Masculine Gender denotes males ; the Feminine,
females.
97. NouNS DESTITUTE OF GENDER.-Many nouns are
destitute of gender. Thirigs without life are neither
male nor female ; hence the nouns that represent them
have no gender.
98. Things without life, however, are sometimes personified,-that is,
spoken to or of as persons. Thus we say, "JJ{urder stalk s through the
land." "Here Sorrow sits, veiling her eyes." Fierce, vast, and sublime
objects (as Anger, Time, Revenge) are personified as males, and their
· names become masculine. Gentle, delicate, and beautiful objects (as
Hope, Evening, Plenty) are personified as females, and their names become feminine.

90. Colin.ION G ENDER.-The gender of the vrnrds presented at the commencement of this l esson is perceived
at once. It is not so, however, with every noun that
has gender. Thus n eighbor may denote either male or

f emale.

LESSON XX.
THE GENDER OF NOUNS.
Boy
Lion

Girl
Lion es&
Man-singer
V'f oman-sin"er
.
"
94. Compare the words in the first c0 I
l
umn with tho_se opposite to them in
the second. The former d
t
~oe ma es ·ili e ~Ufffi
l
S
t h erefore, indicate. tbe sex of th 0 b' t, h
' ema es.
ome nouns,
w
e uec s t ey represent.

. 9a. Gender is that property which distinguishes obJects as male or female.
t
96. There
are wo genders, the Masculine a11d tl1e
Feminine.
94. Look at the w01·ds in the two columns
.
denote 1 Those in the second I WI . t th . ' . What do tl1ose in lh e flrst column
d rn' .;.re orc,dost>mcnounsindir.at c 1 95. What
is Gcndcrf 96. Name the
gen era.
h at does the Masculine Geuder denote I

When there is no way of determining which sex is
meant, the noun is either masculine or feminine, which
we express briefly by saying that it is of the common
gender. A. noun in the plural that represents both
sexes, is also of the common gende1·.
100. The gender of a noun which of itself may represent either sex
may be determined by some word referring to it. Jle, his, or him, shows
it to be masculine ; she or her, feminine. Observe the gender of the
noun neighbor in the following examples: Common Gender.-Love thy neighbor as thyself.
"
"
Love your neighbors as yourselves.
llfa sculine Gend.-My neighbor has gone to hi,~ father's.
F eminine Gender.-My neighbor has gone to her father's.
Wlrnt, th e Fem in ine I 97. Whnt nouns nre generall y destitute of gender! 98. Row
are things without life sometimes spoken to or spoken of'I Give ex am pl es. 'Vb ~ t
ki nd of objects are personified as males '1 What gen der do tl;leir names ·become 1
Whot objects arc p ersonified ns fomales 1 What gender do th eir names become 1
!>9. W hen is a noun said to be of the common gender 7 What ge_nder is a noun in
tho plural that r epresent• both sexes! 100 . IIow may the gender of a noun some-

46

I'

I'

GENDER OF COLLECTIVE NOUNS.

I

~

Sir Isaac Newton was among the greatest philosophers of his
age.-The philosopher Diogenes lived in a tub.-'fhe lion · ~s th.e
·king of beasts.-Pleasure, dressed in her gay robes, :"his~ers
t emptingly to young m en and maidens. -Every congregation ~1kes
its own minister best.-The sewing-society appointed a committee
to collect contributions from the congregation.-At Al.~po is a
cat-asylum, found ed by: a Turk, where sick cats are provided for.Boys and girls are our future men and women.

102. GENDER OF COLLECTIVE N ouNs.-A coll ective
noun denotes a body of li ving individuals. These individual s may be spoken of as a whole or separately. If
we say, "The and ience was large," we m ean tlw ai1di-.
ence taken as lt wlwle. If we say, "The audience were
delighted," we mean the audience talcen as ind-ividuals,

LESSON XXI.

When a coll ective nuun denotes a body of individuals taken as a whole, it has no gender. When it denotes individuals t aken separately, it is masculine if
these in di vi duals are males, feminine if they are females,
and common if both. Thus : -

.

N o gender. - Th e audience was delighted.
.Jla,• wline. -A commiltce of gentlemen are calling for subscriptions.
Feminine.-A comr1tiltce of ladies are calling for subscriptions.
Gommo~.-Thc audience were delighted.

EXERCISE.
Mention the nouns, tlieir class, pe1'son, numbe1', and gentbnwlien they have .it. [Thu s :-Sir Isaac N ewton is a complex proper
noun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender.
Pliilosopl!ers is a common noun, in the third person, plural number,
common gender. .Age is a common noun, in the third person, singular number.]
·j

I

'

~

.. .

47

CORRELATIVE NOUNS.

101. Masculine nouns, and some feminines also, may be used without
reference to sex. They then represent an entire class consisting of both
sexes. Thus:- " The tiger lies in wait for his prey." "The world is full of
heroes." "Every passcnge1· must hold his own ticke t." " Geese are long·
lived birds. "-Here tiger, heroes, and passen[!er, are masculin e, and geese
is feminine ; yet we mean the tigress as well ·as the tigei-, heroines as well
as heroes, every f emale as well as every male pasBenger, and ganders as
well as geese.

the p ersons in the audience.
I l

.•

tim es be determ ined 1 W hat words show it to be m:isculinc 1 'V1iat, feminine !
Il lust ra te th is w it h tile noun neig hbo r. 101. How may masculi11c noun s ai~ d some
fomininea be used 1 \V hat do thoy then represe nt 1 Give exampl es. 102. What
docs a collective noun de note 1 How may these indi vi dualS be spoken of? Give
examples. What is the gender of n collective noun when the i ndi vi duals it donotea
are taken as a whole 1 \Vhat, when they arc taken separately 1 Give examples •

MASCULINE AND FEMININE CORRELATIVES.
• 103. CoRRELATIVE N ouNs.-Some masculine nouns
have corresponding feminines: as, boy, girl j lion,
lioness · man-singer, woman-singer.
A m'asculine noun and its corresponding feminine are
caUed Correlative N ourn;.
104. Olasses.- Correlative nouns are divided into
three classes:·
·
I. Those in which the feminine is formed by appending the suffix ess, ine, ina, ix, or a to the masculine,
with or without change; as,
~Masculine.

Abbot,
Actor,
Administrator,
Ambassado;"
Arbiter,
Author,
Baron,
Benefactor,
Conductor,

F eminine.

abbess.
actress.
administratrix.
ambassadress.
arbitress.
authoress.
baroness.
benefactress.
conductress.

JJfasculine.

Count,
Czar,
Dauphin,
Deacon,
Director,
Doctor,
Don,
Duke,
Editor,

Feminine.

countess.
czarina.
dauphiness.
deaconess.
directress.
doct-oress, ress.
donna.
duchess.
editrcss.

103. Wliat are Correlative Nouns T Give examples. 104. Into how many
classes aro correlati\·e nouns divided i Whut Is the first class T Select frOUJ. the

-48

MASCULINE AND FEMININE CORRELATIVES.

.Masculine.
Emperor,
Enchanter,
Ex ecutor,
God,
Governor,
Heir, .
Hero,
Host,
Hunter,
ldola.ter,
Infante (title),
ln5tructor,
Jew,
Landgra ve,
Lion,
Margrave,
Marquis,
Mediator,
Murderer,

Feminine.
empress.
enchantress.
execu trix .
goddess.
governess.
h2iress.
heroine.
hostess.
huntress.
idolatress.
infanta.
instructress.
J ewess.
landgmvine.
lion ess.
margravine.
marchioness.
mediatr-ix, ess.
murderess.

Negro,

negrcss.
ogress.

Ogre,

Masculine.
Palsgrave,
P atron,
Peer,
Poet,
Priest,
Prince,
Prior,
Prophet,
Proprietor,
Protector,
Shepherd,
Songster,
Sorcerer,
Sultan,
Tailor,
Testator,
Tiger,
Trai tm',
Viscount,
Votary,
Waiter,

Feminine.
palsgravine.
patroness.
peeress.
poetess.
priestess.
princess.
prioress.
prophetess.
proprietress.
protectress.
shepherdess.
songstress.
sorceress.
sul'taness, sulta'nn..
tailoress.
testatrix.
tigress.
·trai tress.
viscountess.
votaress.
waitress.

•Some proper nouns are made feminine by a change

of termination, or the addition of a letter or letters ; as,
Augustus, Augusta.
George,
Georgiana.

IJFrancis,
esse,

Frances.
Jessie.

Louis,

Louis-e, a.
Pauline.

I Paul,

II. Those in which the genders are distinguished by
the use of different words; as,
.Mas.
Bachelor,
Beau,
Boy,

Fem .
maid.
belle.
girl.
Bridegroom, } b .d
ri e.
Groom,

.ilfas.
Brother,
Buck,
Bull,
Drake,
Earl,

Fem.
sister.
doe.
cow.
duck.
countess.

Jfas.
Father,
Friar, monk,
Gander,
Gentlem:m,
Hart,

.

Fem.
mother.
nun.
goose.
lady.
roe.

list a feminin e correlative fo rm ed v,rith each of the suffix.cs
muntioned. How are
'
some proper nounB made femin ine 1 \Vhat is the feminine of Augustus 7 George 7
Francis 1 J esse 1 Louis 1 P<>ul 1 What is the second class of correlative. nouns I

Give examples.

What is tho third class of correlative nouns 1 Give examples.

49

CORRELATIVE NOUNS.

.Mas.
Horse,
Husband,
King,
Lad,
Lord,
Male,
Man,

Fem .
mare.
wife.
queen.
lass.
lady.
female.
woman.

. Mas.
Master,
Master,
Mr.
Nephew,
Papa,
Ram, buck,
Sir,

Fem .
mistress.
miss.
Mrs.
niece.
mamma.
ewe.
madam.

Mas.
Sire,
Son,
Sta0rr,
Steer,
Uncle,
Widower,
Wizard,

Fmi.
dam.
daughter.
hind.
heifer.
aunt.
widow.
witch.

III. Those in which words indicating the sex are
prefixed to nouns of common gender ; as,
Masculine.
Feminine.
~ . Masculine.
Man-singer,
woman-singer.
Cock-sparrow,
Man-servant,
maid-servant.
He-goat,
Male-descendant, female-descendant. Buck-rabbit,

I

Feminine ..
hen-sparrow.
she-goat.
doe-rabbit.

105. Compound nouns, in their gend.er and. the formation of their feminines, follow their leadmg elements; as,
Masculine.
Brother-in-law,
Step-father,
Peacock,

.Feminine;
sister-in-law.
step-mother.
peahen.

.hlasculine.
Landlord,
Schoolmaster,
Frenchman,

Feminine.
landlady.
schoolmistref!!.
Frenchwoman.

EXER OISE.

Give the feminine :-Ozar ; director; archduke ; earl ; emperor; enchanter; hunter; infante (prince royal of Spa_in) ; landgrave; sultan; viscount; -Julius; Henry; Joseph; boy; schoolboy ; grandfather ; steer ; lord ; Englishman ; master ; mas~er
(a title); stag; widower; son-in-law; male-descendants;. mediator · tailor; hart ; step-son.
Give the masculine :-Co-heiress; negress; bride; wife; roe;
grandniece; granddaughter; mother-in-law; .. empress; scho.olmistress; Irishwoman; Moabitess; witch; songstress; executrix;
female-servant; serving-woµian; lass; landlady; Charlotte; Harriet ; Cornelia.
Mention six masculine nouns; six feminine nouns in ess; six.
nouns of common gender ; six nouns that have no gendei·.
105. What is the rule for the gender of compound nouns and the formation of
their feminine• I Give examples.

3

60

,I
'. ·j
Ii

'f·,1

' ii'
II ,
I

' ! '~

,I

'I

I

l·
I'

'i ..,·

GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL SUBJECTS.

CASES OF NOUNS •.

51

That respecting which the verb affirms is called i~s
Subject. The grammatical subject of. a senten~e is
always th~ subject of the leading verb m the predicate.

LESSON XXII.
THE CASE OF NOUNS

We must now consider the relations in which nouns
stand to other words.
106. In every sentence there is one leading word,
denoting that about which something is said. This is
called the Grammatical Subject of the sentence.-" Morse
invented the telegraph." H ere Morse is the leading
word, denoting that about which something is said, and
it is therefore the grammatical subject.
107. Words may be joined to the grammatical subject, to limit or explain its meaning, or introduce some
additional fact. These are called Mo<lliiers.
108. The grammatical subject and its modifiers form
what is called the Logical Subject.-" Morse, a native
of Massachusetts, invented the telegraph." Morse, a
native ef Massacliusetts, is the logical subject.
109. The words that remain in a sentence after the
logical subj ect is removed, form what is called the
Predicate.-Inventecl the telegraph is the predicate of
both the sentences given above as examples.

In the example just given, the grammatical subject of the sentence,
telegraph, is the subject of the leading verb. in .the predicate, was invented.

111. Observe the following sentences:Morse invented the telegraph.
The telegraph was invented by Morse.
Morse's invention of the telegraph has made his name immortal.
In these three sentences, the proper noun stands in different relations
to the other words. In the first sentence, the noun Morse is the grammatical subject; in the second, it is the object of the preposition by ; in
th~ third, its form is changed to Morse's, and it modifies th~ f~llow.ing noun
invention, telling whose the invention was. Hence we .d1stmgmsh three
different relations that a noun may sustain in a sentence.

112. Case is that property which distinguishes the relations of nouns and pronouns to other words in a sentence.
.
There are three cases, known as the N 0minative, t~e
Possessive, and the Objective.
113. The Nominative Case usually denotes the relation
which a subject bears to its verb; as, "David succeeded Saul."
'The nominative also denotes ·the relation of a noun in the predicate
after a verb, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of the
verb; as, "Mohammed was an Arabian." "Charlemagne was crowned
emperor."
·
. .
.
A noun used independently, in an exclamation, address, &c., 1s also m
the nominative ; as "Heavens! what a sight I" "Plato, thou reasonest
well." "Teas and gi·oceries for sale." "The sun having set, I returned."

"The telegraph was invented by Morse." Here we express the same
idea, but in a different form. Telegraph is now the grammatical subject;
the telegraph is the logical subject; was invented by Morse is the predicate.

110. The predicate of every sentence contains at
least one word that affirms. This is called a Verb.
106. What is meant by the Grammatical Subject of a sentence 1 Wh at is the
grammatical subject of th e s~ntence Morse invented the telegraph 7 107. What may
be joined to the grammatical subject 1 What are such words called 1 108. What
is the Logical Subject! Point out the grammatical ;md th e logical subject in the
sentence Morse, a native of .Afassacltusetts, invented the telegraph.. 109. What is the
Predicate 1 Select the predicate of the sentence just given. 110. What does the
pred..ioate of every sentence contain ? What is this word called i What is lb.

subject of a verb 1 What will the grammatical subject of a sentence always bo
found to be I 111. Give the three sentences to which attention is called. Show the
different r elations in which the proper noun stands in these sentences. 112. What
is Case 1 Name the cases. 113. What does the Nominative Case usually denote I
What other r elation does the nominative denote 1 In what case is a noun when
u sed independently 1 What is the case of sun, and why, in the sentence T~ e sun
having aet, I returned 1 If we say, As the sun
I returned, what case 1s sun,

had°''•

•

52

THE POSSESSIVE.·-THE OBJECTIVE.

FORMATION OF THE CA.SES OF NOUNS.

In this last sentence, the action is assumed, in etead of being affirmed, and
11un is in the nominative independent. If we say, "As the sun had set, I
returned," the action is affirm ed, and sun is in the nominative case because
it is the subj ect of the verb had set.

LESSON XXIII.

53

THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS.

114. The Possessive Case denotes the relation of possession, origin, or :fitness, which a modifying noun or
pronoun bears to the noun tbat it modifies : as, David's
fath er; an eagle's flight; oliildren's shoes.
11 5. The Objective Case usually denotes the object of
a verb or preposition.
The object of a verb stands in the predicate, and
represents that on which the action expressed by the
verb is exerted; as, '~Bees make wax." "David succeeded Sa·u l."

117. DECLENSION OF NoUNs.-By the Declension of
a noun is meant the process of carrying it through iti1
several cases. The following will serve as examples:-

11 6. The prepositions most frequently used are at, about, after, before,
by, for, from, in, into, of, over, to, with, without. A preposition always.has
an object, which generally follows it. Obser ve the objects in the following
sentence, and select those which are the objects of prepositions: "Do thy
duty with diligence and without fear, from love of right and in the hope of
a reward hereafter."

118. RuLES FOR THE FoRM.A.TION OF THE 0.A.sEs.-From
the above examples may be derived the following rules,
which apply to compound as well as prii:iitive no~ns : 1. The form of the noun is the same m the obJective
.
case as in the nominative.
2. The possessive singular is fo:·me_d b~ appendmg
an apostrophe and s ('s) to the nommative smgula1:.
3. The possessive plural is formed by appei:dmg .'s
to the nominative plural unless -it already ends m s, m
whieh case the apostrophe (') alone is added.

EXERCISE.
P oint out the gi-ammatical subject of each sentence, its modifiers
when it has any, the logical subject, and tlie predicate. S elect the
nouns; state their class and case.-Balboa discovered the Pacific
Ocean.-Living toads are sometimes found in the middle of huge
rocks. -Victoria having succeeded to the throne, the government
was administered with vigor and wisdom.-Deer 's horns adorned
my friend's apartment.-The Indians of the West hang bears'
claws about their necks.-Robert Fulton was the inventor of
steamboats.-My fri ends- alas! I have no friends.-0 H ealth,
inestim able are thy blessings.-The purest pearl may be found in
the rou ghest oyster.
and why 1 114. What re lation docs the Possessive Case denote 1 115. What does
the Objec tive Case usually denote I Wh ere does th&object of a verb stand I ·what
does it r ep r esent I 116. Name the preposition• most frequently used. What doe•
a preposition always havG f

Sing.
Nom. Dog,
P oss. dog •s,
Obj.
dog ;
Nom.
Poss.

Obj.

Ox,
ox's,
ox;

Plu.
dogs,
dogs' ,
dogs.

Sing.
Sky,
sky's,
sky;

oxen \ Woman,
oxen;s
woman's,
oxen. ' woman;

Plu.
skies,
skies',
skies.

Sing.
Hero,
hero's,
hero ;

Plu.
heroes,
heroes',
heroes.

women, \ Julius,
women's,
Julius's,
women.
Julius.

119. When a word ends with the sound of s or z, partic~arly _if the
next word commences with an s sound, some form the possessive with an
apostrophe alone; as, for conscience' sake; P eleus' son; scien~e'. self. It
is best, however, to avoid both this irregular form and the. repetition of the
s sound, by substituting of with the objective or some eqmvalent cous~ruc­
tion. Thus :-for the sake of conscience; the son of Peleus ; sciciice
herself.
117 What is meant by the Declension of a noun 1 Decline dog; sky; hero; o~;
woman.; J ulius. 118. In what two cases is tho form of the noun the same 1 Is t?1•
true in both numbers I How do wo form tho ·possesslve slngula.'" 1 The p~ssess1v~
plural I 119. How do oome form the possessive of words ending with t e sowi
ef 1 or z 1 Whnt ls said of this irregular form 1

PRONOUNS

AND

THEIR CLASSES.

EXERCISE.

Decline green-h ouse ; beau ; cherub; child; dormouse; tomato; Louis; nepl1ew.
Spell first the p ossessive sing~tla1·, then the possessive plural, of
axe; lock; huntsman; talisman; knight-templar ; tigress; phenomenon ; distaff; assembly; rabbi; valley; cuckoo; ashes.
Parse the n ouns. [Thus ::._News is a common noun, in the .t hird
person, singular number, nominative case. Cornwallis's is a proper
n oun, in the third person, singular number, masculine gender,
possessive case. Surrender is a common noun, in th e third person,
singular number, objective case.] The news of Cornwallis's surr ender was r eceived by all tr ue Americans with delight.-Umbrellas were in troduced into England from China, about a hundred
years ago.-Slanderers are Satan's bellows, with which he blows
up strife.-The ostrich is hunted for its feathers, · which form
beautiful ornaments for ladies' hats and head-dresses.-Obey thy
father and mother; honor the authors of thy being.-Dogs' ears are
very different thin gs from dog's-ears.

L E SSON XXI V .

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

All of these have person, number, and case. Such as repres:nt thinge
with life have gender also, though in many cases it is undetermmed. In
parsing, give the gender of ihe personals only.

124. PERSONAL PRONOUNs.- A Personal Pronoun .is
one that simply represents a noun and d:termines its
person, without introducing any other idea respecting it.
125. The personal pronouns are distinguished as
Simple and Compound.
126. Simple P ersonal Pronouns.- The simple personal pronouns are,
I , first person, masculine gender if a male is denoted,
feminine if a female.
Thou, second person, masculine gender if a male is de •
noted, .feminine if a female.
He, third person, masculine -gender.
She, third person, feminine gender.
It third person destitute of gender.
'127. The si~ple personals are thus declined :-

TH E PRONOUN. -P ERSONAL PRONOUNS.
120. TnE PRONOUN.- The second part of speech is
the Pronoun.
121. "Sarah asked William to lend Sarah William's book."-This sentence is very awk ward. To avoid repeating the nouns Sarah and fVilliam,
we make use of substitutes called Pronouns :- " Sarah asked· William to
lend lter his book."

122. A Pronoun is a word used in stead of a noun or
an e~p 1~e~~fo.;i . ei~gfto ~.E:<?..~P'. _·--·- .
123. Olasses.-There are four classes of pronouns;
P ersonal, R elative, Interrogative, and Adjective.
120. What is th e second part of speech 1 121.' Show how substit utes are used,
to avoid repeating nouns. 122. '\Vha\ is a Pronoun i ' 123. How many classes of
pronouns are there I Namo thorn. What properties do all of these have Y What

55

Nom.
P oss.
Obj.

Nom.
P os3.
Obj.

SECOND PERSON.
FIRST PERSON.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
you,
ye,
Thou,
we,
I,
your, yours
thy, thine,
our, ours.
my, mine,
you, ye.
\ thee ;
us.
me;
THIRD PERSON.
Plu.
Sing.
Plu.
Sing.
Plu.
Sing.
they,
She,
they,
It,
they,
He,
5 their, j her,
their,
{ their,
his,
1theirs, 1 hers,
theirs,
its,
theirs,
him ;
them.
her ;
them.
it;
them.

128. Compound P ersonal Pronoi:ns.-Th~ c01.npound
personals are formed of the possessive or obJect1ve case
ronoune have gender also 1 124. What is a P ersonal Pronoun 1 125. How are the
126. :Mention the simple personal pronouns, and
th e person and gender of each. 127. , Decline tho simple personals. 128. Of what

~ersonal pronouns distinguished I

56

57

THE COMPOUND PERSONALS.

REMARKS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

of the simple personals and the word self. They
t fi
d .
.
are
no . om~ m the possessive case, and are alike in the
nommat1 ve and the obieetive
"
. The compound personals arc,

So an editor writes, " We think ourself safe in predicting this," when
be means, " I think myself safe." The former is the more modest form of
expression, and gives more weight•to what he says. Ourself is a plural
form of the first compound personal pronoun, used when one person is denoted nnd only then.
In common discourse, we constantly use the plural in addressing a singie
person. We do not say, "Hast thou hurt thyself l" but, "Have you hurt
yourself?" Yourself is a plural form of the second compound personal
pronoun, used when one person is denoted and only then. The pronoun
of the second person is now used in the singular only in addressing the
Almighty, in poetical style, and by the Friends, or Quakers, in co=on
conversation.

Mys~l~, plu. oi~1'selves, ou1'self, :first person, masculine
if a male JS denoted, feminine if a female.
Thyself, . pl~. yourselves, yoiirself, second person, mas. culme 1f a male is denoted, feminine if a female.
Hunself, plu. tliemselves, third person, mas. gender.
d .
Herself, plu. tliemselves third person "em
I - If l
'
' l' • gen ei.
t~e ' P u. tliemselves, third person, no gender.
12 9. Ji'orms of the Possessive .- Most of th

·
e simp1e personal pronouns
The shorter form is used when
the modified noun follows. the lon~er wh
't .
d
"It .
l
'
" '
en i is un erstood We say
is_ my mt ; ,, but, "This hat is mine." "Here are the .hats . mi '
[that IS, my hat] is ulack." "It is thine [th1 art] to
. '
_ne
[my part] to obey."
YP
co=and, mine
have t

~
· h
w~ Orms m t e possessive case.

. • 130. The possessive case of the simple personals, as well as of nouns

is frequent!! used with t~e preposition of, to denote possession simpl '
Thus : " This heart of mine will break." "Sing to th L d II
. y.
of H:' " Th
e or , a ye sami..
. is.
e meaning here is not this hea1·t of my hearts, as some exp 1~m such expressions, for I have but one heart ; nor all ye saint.y oF His
saints, _for all denotes the whole and not a part. It is rather the noun
possesmi~, owning, that is understood as the object of the preposition ofof my, liis, possessing.
131. 1'/ine and thine were formerly preferred to my and thy before
word~ commm:cing with a vowel sound; as, mine aim, thine honor'. They
are ;t1~l sometimes so used in poetry; thus Byron, " thine azure brow."
3~. Plural for Singnlar.-The personal pronouns of the first and the
seco_nd person are often used in the plural though but one person is denoted
A_kmg would say, " vVe publish this our decree,'' in stead of "I publish
this my decree."
nrc tl10 con: pound personals form ed 1 In whn.t case are they not found 1 Wh t
cnses are alike 1 Mention th 8
d
,,_
a
.
compoun pen;onals, and their person and gender
D. r
cc m~ .eac11 · 129. How ~a~y ~orme have most of the simple personals in th~
po~se s~1ve case 1 'Vb:-tt d1st111chon is observed in their use 1 130 Wh t
~ition is fraqucn:ly u sed with the possessive case o.f th o simple ~erson:ls~rc~~
cnote what 1 Give examples. 131. Before what words were mine and thine for
merly preferred I W11 ero nro th ey still sometimes so used 1 132. When is oursaV

133. Ye.-Ye is now rarely used, except as a nominative in poetry or solemn style.
134. It.-It is sometimes used indefinitely, without
reference to any particular antecedent; as, "It snows."
.
" Is it well with thee? "
It formerly lacked the possessive case. Hence, in our version of the
Bible, its nowhere occurs, but his or her is used in its place. We read, "If
the salt have lost his savor," "the tree of life which yielded her fruit".
It, though destitute of gender, is sometimes applied to living things;
as, " That child will hurt its voice." " The crocodile never gives up its prey."
EXERCISE.

Mention first the simple and then the compound personal pronoun
<>f tlie first person, singu'lar number, objective case; of the second,
plural, possessive; of the third, singul(J//', masculine, nominative;
of the second, singul(J//', objective,· of the third, singu'lar, feminine,
objective; of the first, plural, possessive; of the third, plural, nom"inative; of the first, si.ngular, nominative; of the second, singular,
nominative~· of tlie third, singular, objective (no gender).
Correct ours'; theirs' ; it's; your's; · his'n ; hern; ourn; yo urn;
hisself; theirselves; itsself;· theirn.
used ? How do we constantly use the plural tn common discourse 1 When is
yo1trself used 1 When alone ls tho pronoun of tho second person now used In the
slngulnr 1 133. What is said of ye 1 134. How Is it sometimes used I What is
used instoad of its in our version of tho Bible 1 Give examples. Wb)' h not ii•
found 1 To what is it sometimes applied I Give example•.

3*

'l

I

t'

58

RULES FOR NOUNS .AND PRONOUNS.

LESSON XXV.
RULES FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

135.-In parsing, rules must be given for the case of
nouns and pronouns. The same rules, for the most part
apply to both. We include both under the generai
name of Substantive.
136. RuLE I.-A substantive that is the subject of a
verb is in the nominative case.
The subjec t generally precedes its verb; as, "Thou lovest." In some
sentences, however, the verb precedes its subject ; as, "Lovest thou me?"
" Here is a pin." " Then cometh the Judgment."

137. RuLE II.-A substantive used independently is
in the nominative case.
138. A noun or pronoun is used independently,
1. When it represents that of which some action or state 1s assumed

in s_tead of being a~rmed; as, "Napoleon having charged, the battle was
decided." "Site bemg well, all is well."
2. When it represents an object addressed; as, "O Robert, do not go."
" Friends, countrymen, and lovers, lend me your ears."
3. In exclamations; as, " Heavens I what a sight/" "Ah I wretched we!"
4._ W~e~ there is a sudden break in the construction, and a new subject
or object is mtroduced ; as, " The bride-what can I say of her?"
.

139. RuLE III.-A substantive that modifies a noun
den?ting ~ ~iffere~t pernon or thing, by implying possess10n, ongrn, or fitness, is in the possessive case : as
&au l' s Journey
.
; Oliarles's wain; my hand; liis promises.'
140. RuLE IV.-A substantive that is the object of
a verb or preposition is in the objective case:· as, Love
God; help 'tts ; the horrors of war; for tliem.
141. RuLE V.-A modifying substantiYe, denoting
135. For what i;mst rules be given_ in parsing 1 What do we mean by a SuJ>.
stsntive t 136. Recite Rule I. What is th_e positi-on of the sub.iect as r egards its
verb f 137. Recite Rule II. 138: When is a noun or pronoun used independently I
139. Recite Rule III. 140. Hccite Rule IV. 141. Recite .Rule V. 142. Recite

RULES FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

59

time, direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands
in the objective case without a preposition; as, "Last
week, he went west." " It was an mcli wide, weighed
an ounce, and cost me a shilling."
142. RuLE VI.-One substantive joined to another
denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case.
"The house of Washington, the father of his country;" father,· joined
to Washington and denoting the same person, is in the same case as
Washington,-the objective. "Thou hypocrite;" hypocrite, joined. to
thou and denoting the same person, is in the same case,-the nominative.
So, I myself; ye renegades; Constantine the emperor.
143. A substantive thus used is said to be in apposition with the one
to which it is joined. It explains the latter, or adds to its mealling.
Observe that there is no apposition ·when one substantive stands in the
logical subject, and the other in the predicate; as, " Rome is a cit:\'." The
·
next rule treats of this construction.

144. RuLE VII.-A verb that has no object takes
the same case after as before it, when both words refer
to the same person or thing.
"I know that Charles is a scholar." Charles, the subject of the verb
is, is in the nominative case ; therefore scholar, after the verb, is · also in
the nominative.-" I know Charles to be a scholar." Charles, being the
object of the verb know, is in the objective; therefore scholar, after the
·
verb to be, is also in the objective.
• This rule applies, even when the natural order of the words is changed.
-"Who are they?" "Are you a ·friend?" "Lucifer hewns called."
They, you, and he, are the subjects in the nominative case; who, friend,
and Lucifer, are in the nomi:D.ative after the verbs.
EXERCISE.

Tell tlte case of each noun and personal pronoun, and under
wltidh ~j the above rules itfaUs :-Figures, the characters by which
we delote numbers, were introduced into Europe in the eleventh
Rule VI. Give examples. 143. Wbat Is said of a substantive thus joined to
another I What does the substantive in apposition do 1 Under ·what circumotances is there no apposition 1 144. Recite Rule VII. Does this rule apply
if the natural order of the words is changed I Give examples.

60

PARSING· FORMS.

century.-" Know thyself," was a favorite maxim of Bion's.Isocrates
was ninety-four years old when he wrote his Panath e_
...
naicus, a. eulogy on Athens.-The sun h aving set, your brother
betook himself home; mine stayed all night.-A horse-a horsemy kingdom for a horse !-Twenty-five miles from Ne\vYork the
Hudson is a league in width. .
'

LESSON XXVI.
PARSING FORMS FOR NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

145. Pars~ nouns and personal pronouns, and apply
the rules given above, according to the following
forms:-

Thou hast, 0 f ·riend, a father's heart.
A sentence: grammatical subject, thou ; logical subj ect, thou, O
friend; predicate, liast a fath er's heart.
Thou is a s~mple personal pronoun, in the second person, singular
number, masculme gender, nominative case, the subject of the verb hast:R ule, A substan tive that is the subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
Friend is a common noun, in the second person, singular number,
~asculine gender, nominative independent :- R ule, A substantive used
mdependent!y is in the nominative case.

F_at~er's is n common. noun, in the third person, singular number,
masculme ?ender, pos~ess1ve case, and modifies the noun heart :-Rule,
!1- su~stantive th~t mod_ifi_es a noun denoting a different person or thing, by
Implymg 13ossess10n, ongm, or fitness, is in the possessive case.
. ;a:eart is a common noun, in the third person, singular number, obJect1ve case, the obj ect of the verb hast :-Rule, A substantive that is the
obJ ect of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.
N ote.-The word fat h.er's shows that in this sentence thou and friend
denote males ; therefore we call them masculine. Had the sent~e been
"Thou. h_ast, 0 fri end, a merciful heart," there would have been no way of
determmmg the sex, and we should have parsed tho1i and friend as of
common gend er.

· Fifty years ago. Fi~lding the' novelist was a great
favorite.

PARSING FORMS.

A sentence : grammatical subject, Fielding; logical subject, Fielding,
the novelist ; predicate, was a great favorite fifty years ago.
Years is a common noun, in the third person, plural number, objective case, denoting time :-Rule, A modifying substantive denoting time,
direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the objective case
without a preposition.
Fielding is a proper noun, in the third person, singular number,
masculine gender, nominative case, the subject of the verb was :-Rule,
A substantive that is the subject of a. verb is in the nominative case.
Novelist is a common noun, in the third person, singular number,
masculine gender, nominative case, in apposition with Fielding :-Rule,
One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in
the same case.
~
Favorite is a common noun, in the third person, singular number,
masculine gender, nominative case after the verb was :-Rule, A. verb that
has no object takes the same case after as before it, when both words refer
to the same person or thing."

Tliese bodies of ours will decay.-Time itself shall
be no more.
Ours is a simple personal pronoun, in the first person, plural number,
common gender, possessive case, and modifies the noun possessing understood :-Rule, A substantive that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive
case.
Itself is a compound personal pronoun, in the third person, singular
number, nominative case, in apposition with time :-Rule, Ona substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same
case.
EXERCISE.

T1·eat the sentencl!8, and parse tlie nouns and personal pronouns,
according to the above model.a :-France. contains immense tracts
of land in forests.-" Others* may submit to Fate," said Cresar;
" b e it mine to conquer her."-The tree is known t by his fruit.In the scenery of Switzerland, Nature has· outdone herself.-Mary,
th at child of yours, has cried itself asleep.-Scipio having been
*A sentence : grammatical subject, C rosar ; logical subject, Ca:sar; predicate,
said, " others may submit to Fate ; be it mine lo conquer her."
.
t A verb may consist. of several word.a. Ia krwum ls the verb in this scntcnco '

bas outdme, In the next.

I

;'

62

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

· sent into Africa, Hannibal had to follow him thither.-What a
spectacle present ed itself to our eyes !-You yourself have said
you were my friend.

LESSON XXVII.
SIMPLE RELATIVE PRONOUN'S,

146. A Relative Pronoun is one used to connect parts
of a sentence, without change of form for the different
persons and numbers.
The relatives are so called because they relate to
some word or words in the same sentence, usually going
Lefore, and therefore known as the Antecedent.
147. The r elative pronouns are distinguished as
Simple and Compound.
148. SIMPLE RELATIVEs.-The Simple Relative Pronouns are wlio, wliicli, that, as, and wliat.
149. Wlw is applied to persons, and animals and.
things personified ; as, " Mechanics, who work hard,
enjoy a day of rest." "A butterfly, wlio was flitting
past, took up the conversation." "Hope, wlw whispers
fine promises, often deceives us."
. Observe in these examples, as well as those given below, that the relative connects parts of a sentence. In the first example, it connects wlio
work lta!·d with mechanics enjoy a day of i·est. What does it connect in
the second example? What, in the third?
·

" 150. ~liicli is ~pplied to animals and things; as,
. The alligator, wliicli resembles the crocodile, is sometimes eighteen feet long." "Reason, wliicli is the
g:eatest of divine gifts, belongs to man alone."
146. "Wb~t is" R elative Pronoun I Why are the Relatives so called I 147. How
nre the relatIYe pronouns divided I 148. Mention tho,simplo relatives. 149. To
what is who appli ed I What is to be observed In tho' examples of relatives t
loo. To what is which applied I To what was which formerly applied 1 Where dQ

63

THE SIMPLE RELATIVES.

W7tich was formerly applied to persons, as well as who. It is fre·
quently so used in the Bible; as, " Our Father, which art in Heaven." This
usage is no .Jonger admissible.

151. Tliat is applied to persons, animals, and things,
and implies a closer connection with the antecedent
than wlw or wliicli; as, " ·Mechanics tliat work hard,
enjoy a day of rest." "A butterfly tliat was flitting
past, took up the conversation.', "Every day tliat
passes, has its lessons."
That is not always a relative. When it is, who, which, or whom, used·
in its place, will make sense. Thus, in the examples just given, Mechanics
who work hard, A butterfly who was flitting past, Every day which passes.

152. As is applied to persons, animals, and things,
after sucli, same, a$ many, so many, as mucli, and so
mucli; as, " Such as [equivalent to those wl~oJ are
virtuous, are happy." "You wear the . same kmd of
hat as [equivalent to tliat] I weai·." " I have as many
horses as you." "So many of us as were baptized."'
"He gave as much as he could afford.'.'
.As is a relative, only when used in such expressions as.the above.

153. Wliat is applied to things, and is equivalent to
antecedent and relative ; as, " I have wliat [tliat wliicli]
I desired."
154. Declension.-The plural of the simple relativero ·
is like the singular. They are thus declined :s. cf P.
S. cf P .
S. cf P. S. cf P.
S. cf P .
Nom.
Poss.

Obj.

Who,
whose,
whom.

Which,
whose,
which.

that.

As,

What,

as.

what.

we frequently find it so use<!.1 151. To what Is that npplied 1 What degree of
connection does it indicate I When is that a relative 1 152. To whnt is <U appl~ed.1
After what expressions is it used 1. 153. To what is whnt appiled ! To what is it
•quivalent 1 154. D ecline the simple relatives. Which of them do not ehani'e I

64:

THE

ANTECEDENT.

155. Position of the Antecedent The
t d
generally precedes the relative "as ."He w;n e1ce dent
me is my fi " S
' '
o. s an era
. oe.
ometimes the order is chan ed an
the relative
stands
first·
as
"TITZ
1
d
g 'lie isd
,, .
'
, rr tlO s an ers me
my fioe.
·
'
.
156. Th~ antecedent is sometimes understood. "Wh~
takes my life, but rids me of a load . " here Ii ~
d
stood, as the antecedent of wlw.
'
ie is un erEXERCISE.

. Correct tlie relatives, and give reasons for the chan
ad
tion the antecedent of each relative. Parse the nou::id e~h Mens~na~ pronouns :-The dog who barks seldom bites
e perhve m glass houses should not throw stones -The .-People what
• .
men and horses
whom I saw were a mile off -Th
·
e men and women wh · h r
'
~:r:c f:::ign~rs.-Time, which has mowed down myri?:ds ~~~
chila.7en's' will lay me low also.- Such parents which have their
defaat N golod at heart, will require them to obey.-After his
' apo eon was never the lifillle h · h h
have that they desired.
w w e was before.-They

LESSON XXVIII.
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS .

157. The Compound Relative pronouns are,
Whoever, wlwsoeve1', whoso applied o11ly t .
Wh · li
.
'
o persons.
io ever,. whwhsoever, applied to persons animals
'
'
and thmgs.
Whatever, wliatsoever, wliatso, applied only to things.
Whoso and whatso are now rarely used.
155. What is the position of the antecedent 1 156
.
· WhJlt .do we sometimes find
wllh respect to th e antecedent 1
lli7. Mention tho compound relatives, and tell to what each is applied. Whlcll

THE COMPOUND ' RELATIVES.

65

158. FoRCE.-A coll\1pound : relative is generally
equivalent to an anteced'ent and a simple relative.
Examples.-" Whoever [that is, 1my one that] bas nsited Franoe, knows
this." " Take whichever [ eithe1' that] you choose." " Whatever [every
thing that] is, is right."
159. Since an antecedent is implied in the compound relatives, no antecedent should be used before them. For emphasis, however, one is
sometimes introduced after them. We read in the Bible, "Whatsoever
he saith unto you, do it." Were the order changed, it would have to be
omitted:-" Do whatsoever he saith unto you."

160. DECLENSION.- Wlioever and whosoever are thus
declined:Sing. and Plural.
Nom. Whoever,
Pos.~. whosever,
Obj. whomever.

Sing. and ~ral.
Whosoever,
whosesoever,
whomsoever:

Whoso qccurs only in the nominative.
The other compound relatives do not change, and are.
.wanting in the possessive case.
161. PARSING OF RELATIVES._;_Jn parsing who, wliich,
. - that, or as, two rules must be given : one .for its person
and number, which are always the same as its antecedent's ; and another for its case, which is independent
of its antecedent's.
162. The compound relatives are sometimes so used
as not to imply an antecedent ; as, "Whatever I do, I
can not please you." Here wlia~ever is not eq1iivalent
to any thinq that. In such cases they are parsed like the
personals, and one rule suffices.
· are now rarely used 1 158. To what is a compound relative generally equivalent 1
Illust rate this. 159. Under what circumstances may an antecedent be used with
a compound relative 1 Give an example from the Bible. 160. Decline whoe'Ver.
Decline tehosoever. In what case alone is whoso found 1 What \s said of the. other
compound relative• I 161. What directions are given for par.sing toho, tohich, that,
and as 1 162. How are the compound relatives sometimes used 1 · In such cases,
how are they parsed 1 What Is generally implied in the compound relatives and

66

67

P .ARSING OF RELATIVES.

P .ARSING OF RELATIVES.

. GenerallJ:'", howev~r, the compound relatives and the
simple relative what imply an antecedent in th·
1
They th
.
emse ves.
th th .en iere~ent two cases, one as antecedent and

As many as pive ear to what I say, shall not repent
thereef.

ho~~ ca:::~:·~ :t~~:; :1edst=er;~~:.are necessary, unless

Thus:-" I will buy what is needed " .A .
.
objective case the obiect of the ve b 'll.b
s antecedent, what is in the
· ·
'
"
r wz uy · as relative 't · · h
mat1ve, the subject of the verb is needed. T '
' I is m t e nom" They know not what they do " .A
wo rules are therefore necessary.. '
·
s antecedent what · · th
t h e object of the verb know .
. .
'.
is m e objective,
1f
the verb do. Here one rul: w~I rse affirve, it is Objective also, the object of
u ce.
163. Whoever and whosoever, like the other
.
generally eqjpvalent to antecedent and relativ
compound relatives, are
two cases. iJiheir form howev . h
. e, a~d therefore represent
they can appear in but' one fo:~ ~h:;g::k:n t~~: d1~ereli.t cases; and, as
.
which corresponds with
their case as relatives Thus. ,/.A
·
.reward will be ·
t h
one who] shall arrest the criminal ,, .A
t d
given o w oever [any
·
s an ece ent whoe 11er 1·s · th b' .
case, the object of the preposition t0
.'
m e o uect1ve
; as re1atrve it is in th
· .
h
.
t e subject of the verb shall arrest Its
'
. e nommative,
form, and it id therefore put in the n~minati:7.e as relative determines its

d lt6~. RuLE VIII.-A relative agrees with its anteceen m pen;on and number.
165. MoDELs.-Pope, who translated Homer was

ef the greatest
geniuses thut adorned Queen A ''
.one
. .
nne s reign.
Who is a Sllllple relative pronoun a d h p
.
which it agrees in the th' d
· ' ~ as ope fonts antecedent, with
rr person; smgular number R z .A 1
agrees with its antecedent in person a d
b
.
u e,
re ative
th
n num er· m the no · f
e subject of the verb translated-Rule .A subs~ ti th ~ma ive case,
of a verb is in the nominative case.
'
an ve at IS the subject
That is a simple relative pronoun and has
.
f. .
with which it aoorees in the thi d
'
geniuses or its antecedent,
"'
r person, plural number-Rut .A 1 .
egrees, &c._; in the. nominative case, the subj~ct of tlie verb ad e, . re at1ve
.A substantive that is the subject of a verb is i th
. . orned-Rule,
n e nommat1ve case.
what 1 How many rules are then necessary? Illustrate
.
.
whoe?Jer and u:hosoever generally equival ti A
this. 163. To what are
the different cases which form do th t ekn i I s they have different forms in
VIIL 166. Le1un 'the parsing forms. ey a e
llustrate this
. • 16'. ~D--·
..... ite Rule

As (after many) is a simple relative pronoun, and has per;ons understood for its antecedent, with which it agrees in the third person, plural
number-Rule, A relative agrees, &c.; in the nominative case, the subject
of the verb give-Rule, A substantive that is the subject, &c.
What is a simple relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent and relaiive; in the third person, singular number; as antecedent, in the objective
case, the object of the preposition to; as relative, in the objective case, the
object of the verb say :-Rule, A substantive that is the object of a verb
or preposition is in the objective case.

He bids whoever is athirst come.
Whoever is a compound relative pronoun, equivalent to antecedent and
relative, in the third person, singular number; as antecedent, in the
objective case, the object of the verb bids-Rule, .A substantive that is the
object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case ; as relative, in the
nominative case (and therefore it has the nominative form), the subject of
the verb is-Rule, A substantive that is the subject of a verb is in the
nominative case.

Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it.

rel~ive

Whatsoever is a compound
pronoun, equivalent to antecedent
and relative, in the third person, singular nunib~r; as antecedent, in the
nominative independent-Rule, .A substantive used independently is in the
nominative case; as relative; in the objective case, the object of the verb
saith-Rule, .A substantive that is the obJect of a verb, &c.

Wlwsever lot it ~s to fall, we'll murmur not.
Whosever is a compound relative, in the third person, singular number,
possessive case, and modifies the noun lot :-Rule, A substantive that
modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying possession,
origin, or fitness, is in the possessive 'case.
·
EXERCISE •

Parse the nouns, and the personal and, relative pronouns :Queen Anne, whose husband was a Dane, was the last of the
Stuarts that reigned in England.-Whoever wins, may laugh.Few that.live in palaces know what poor men suffer.-You yourself, who blame me so much, have the same faults.-! who speak,

68

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

and thou who hearest, will soon be in th
happy, little does he know.-Whichever; gralvet.-I~o calls ~e
blame me.
se ec , iear she will

LESSON XXIX.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

166. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used f.
k'
a question, in answering a question indefinitelyor as ;~g
similar indefinite expressions. as w z
z . z 'dan m
. th .r I
.
' ' no, Wnion, an wliat

m

e io lowrng sentences:-

Questions.- W?zo did it? Which was i"t? nn t . t h
·
WMIB~?
n "'nite .Answers.-! know not who did it 1. . h "t
. .
Indej. Expressions.-Find out who did it
ihic "t l was, what truth is.
•
> w iic 1 was, what truth is.
~~G·

't'.

167. The rnterrogative pronouns are
W!i~, applied. only to persons . . " Who is there ? "
W!iioh, .applied to persons, animals aud thing
" Whicli of you? " " Whicli of the c;ts?" "Wh · ~
of the tables ? "
io

:-hat, applied only to things. "Wliat do I see?"
ative p~~n:~~~ 7,~~r~erl! applied to persons and things as an interrogfieth the gold;,, It . ie lier is greater, the gold or the temple that sancti,
·
is no onger used in this sense.
'

169: The in_terrogatives are declined like the
spondmg r elatives, § 154.
corre.
1 ;h70. Th~ interrog~tives and relatives muslnot be confounded Ob
·
at the mtroduction of an t d
·
serve,
an. ece ent converts an interrogative into II
relative 2 That h t .
·
·
w a is not an mterrogative but
1f
alent to that wliich. Thus : '
a re a ive, when equiv,

P .A.RSING

OF INTERROG.A.TIVES.

Relatives.-The person who said so is here . .. Do you know the man who
said so? I can not respect those ~llo said so. .f said .what [that whicli]
you told me.
'

171. P ARSING.-The interrogative pronouns are always in the third person. In parsing, mention tbeir
person, number, case, and the rule that applies.

What is that f - Whose books are those'! Yours'!
What is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular number, nominative case after the verb is :-Rule, .A. verb that has no object
takes the same case aftei:. as before it, when both words refer to the same
person or thing.
~Whose is an interrogative pronoun, in the third person, singular number, possessive case, and modifies the noun books :-Rule, .A. substantive
that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, by implying possession, origin, or fitness, is in the possessive case.
Yonrs is a personal pronoun, in the second person, singular number,
common gender, possessive case, and modifies books understood (yours
being here equivalent to qre they your books?) :-Rule, .A. substantive
that modifies a noun denoting a different person or thing, &c.
172. To parse this last word, we have to supply what is understood ..
So, when a question is answered with a single word. "Whom .did Madison ·
succeed? Jefferson." That is, he succee~d Jefferson; Jefferson is in the
objective case, the object of the verb succeeded ·understood.-" Who succeeded Jefferson? Madison.'' That is, Madison succee~d him; Madison
is in the nominative case, the subject of the verb succeeM~ understood.In such constructions, when you are in doubt as to the case, supply the
words understood.
EXERCISE.

Interrogatives. - W?zo said so 9 Do
k
.
remember 1.
•d
.
you now who said so? I can nol
w io sai so. I know what [not equivalent to that whichJ it is.

Parse the nouns, and tlie personal, relative, and interrogative
pronouns :-Whom did Napoleon marry 1 Josephine and Maria
Louisa.-Which is the house? I forget which it is.-What is a
noun 1 A word used as a name.-Who were the inventors oi
printing 1 Gutenberg, Schoeffer, and Faust.-To w horn did Columbus first apply for aid 1 To the Spanish? No; the Gerioese.-I

166. What is an Interrogative Pronoun 1 G"
terrogatives, and tell to what each.
1· d
ive examples. 167. Name tho iQ.u d
is app 1e
168 What other
d
se ns an interrogatlve pronoun 1 16
. . .
wor w~s formerly
what lnWlt the interrogatives be disting:i.~~c;me the Interrogatives. 170. From
e
What effect has the introduction

of an antecedent 1 When ls what not an interrogat.iYe 1 Gh'e examples. 171. In
what person are the interrogative prononns 1 ln parsing them; what must be men·
tioned 1 Learn the parsing forms . . 172. What must be done in parslJJi 1 when "
question is asked or auswered with a single word 1 Give examples.

70

ADJECTIVE

PRONOUNS.

know what you !aw.-Whose clothes are these? James's and
mine.
Ma~e t~o sentenc~ with simple pe1·s~nal pro;,,ouns for subjects;
two with interrogatives for subjects · two containing si z lat·
· th
.
'
mp e re
ives in e possessive case; two containing com11ound r z t ·
·
th b · ·
'L'
e a ives in
e o >Jective; two containing compound personals in the objective.

LESSON XXX.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS,

173. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNs.-All pronouns not inc11;1ded in the classes already named are called Adjective
Pronouns. They are divided into the following classes :-c.1. Demons~ratives, which point out with precision the
obJects to which they refer :-This, that, former, latter,
both, same.
2. Distributives, which represent objects . as taken
separately :-Each, every, either, neither.
·
3. Ind.e~ites, which refer to objects generally, without spec1fyrng any in particular :-One, none, other,
anotlier, some, all, any, sucli.
174. Oaution.-lt is only when · used in stead ef
nouns or equivalent expressions that these words are
adjective pronouns . . When used with nouns, they are
adjectives.
"~avid and Jonathan loved each other." Eac!t and other are here
used m ~tea ~ of nouns, and are adjective pronouns.- " Each day brings
ot~er ?nt1es. Eac!t and ot!tei· are here used with nouns, and are therefore
adjectives.

1

175. IJeclension.-Tliis that, one, and other, are
'
thus declined :173. Wh~t class of pronouns remains to be treated 1 How are adjective pronouns subdivided 1 . De.fine Demonstratives; Distributives; Indefinites. 174. When
are these words adJect1~e pronouns 1 When used with nouos, what part of speech
are they 1 Illustrate this. 175. Deoline this; that; one; other; another. What la

ADJECTIVE

s.

PRONOUNS.

s.

s.

P.
P.
P.
s.
P.
N. This, these,
That, those,
One, ones,
Other, others,
P. - orie's, ones',
other's, others',
0. this;
these.
that; those.
one ; ones.
other; others.
Another is declined in the singular like ot!ter, .but has no plural. The
rest of the adjective pronouns are indeclinable (that is, do not change),
and are never used in the possessive.

176. Number.--Each, every, either, and neither, are
always singular. Both is always plur£Ll. Former,
latter, same, none, some, a'!J, any, and such, are used in
both numbers without change of form. Their number
is determined by that of the word for which they stand.
177. Remarks.-'17iat and this, former and latter, ai·e frequently used
to distingui.sh. two ~bjects mentioned immediately before. Thus used, that
and former refer to the more re~ote, : or . the- first-mentioned; tl1is and
latter, to the nearer, or last.mentioned. Thus :-"Mercantile and professional life both have their advantages : this [or the latter, that is, profes·
sional life] opens the way to fame; tliat [or t!te former, that is,· mercahtile
lije] leads to an honorable competence."
178. Some assign a possessive case to former and latter; "The
former's victory counterbalanced the latter's defeat." These possessives
are not authorized. Correct thus:-" The victory of the f <n'1TU!r counter·
balanced the defeat of t!te latter."

179. P .AESING.-They killed one another.-Parsimony and prodigality should both be avoided.
One is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, singular-number, nominative · cose, in apposition with they :-Rule, One substantiye joined to
another denoting the same person or thing, is in the same case. ·
Another is an adjective pronoun, in the third person, 'singular numbe{
objective case, the object of the verb killed :-Rule, The object of a verb
or preposition is in the objective case.
Both is an adjectiv:e -pronoun, in the third• person, plural number,
nominative case, in apposition with. parsimony and prodigality :-Rule,
said of tho rest of the adjective pronouns I . 176. Which of the adjectl..-e pronoun•
are :\!ways singular I Which is always plural I Which arfused in both numbers
without change of form 1 How Is their number determined I 177. For what are
that and this, former and latter, often used t When so used, to what do that and
former refer I To what do this and latter refer t 178. What case of former and
latter is condemned as unauthorized I 179. Learn the parsing forms.

72

THE ARTICLE • .

One substantive joined to another denoting the same person or thing, is in
the same case.
EXERCISE.

Parse the nouns and pronouns :-Such is the case.-They will
perish, each and every of them.-Here are three shoes, a ne~ one
and two old ones.-Do either you choose. I will do neither.Give some to me. I have not any. I have. none to spare.-She
can not mean that.-These are beautiful, those amiable; the
former we admir e, the latter we love.-Listen to other.s' woes.H e executed a deed to Richard Roe, and the same was duly
recorded.
Supply pronouns of the classes indicated :-I (compound personal) also am a ma'1.-Love all men, do harm to (adjective pronoun).-(Inte1·rogative) does not love (personal) country?-( Compound relative) I may do, I will not desert (penonal) friends.(Adjective pronoun) who grieve, shall find comfort for (personal)
sorrows.-Such (relative) do good, shall have their reward.

LESSON XXXI.
THE

A.RTICLE.

180. THE ARTICLE.-The third part of speech is the
Article.
The apple ; an apple. The book; a book.
When we say tlte apple, tlte book, we refer to some particular apple
and book. When we say an apple, a book, we mean one of each, but no
particular one. This difference of meaning results from the use of the
words the and an or a before the nouns. ·These two words (for an and a
are but different forms of the same word) are called Articles.

181. The Articles ar~ the words the and an or a, used
before other words to limit their meaning.
182. The articles are generally used before nouns with or without
180. What is the third part of speech 1 What do we mean when we say the
.apple, the book 1 When we say an apple, a book 1 From what does this difference
of meaning result I 181. What are the Articles I 182. Before what are the art!-

CLASSIFICATION OF ARTICLES.

'73

a word or wovds between; as, the rose, a rose, the w\)d rose, an insignificant rose 1 a red and white rose.
all ·these expressions, the article
limits the meaning of the noun rose, and is sl)id to relate ro it.
183. An article may also relate to,
A pronoun; as, the former, the latter, the one, the other.
An adjective ; as; "The softer it is, the better."
An adverb ; as, " The more we study, the better we like to study."
184. Cautions.-Do not confound the article an with the conjunction
an, used by old writers for if; as, "An it be· a long part, I can't remember it."
Do not confound the article a With. the preposition a, used in such .expressions as to go a hunting, to burst out a laughing, &c.

1n:

185. Classification and Use.-The is called the Definite Article. It is used with nouns in both numbers,
and generally ~enotes a particular object or objects.
An, or a, is called theindefinite Article. It is used with
nonns in the singular only, anQ. denotes one object-but
no particular one.
186. Nouns taken in their widest'sense are often used without either
article; as, "Day is the time for work; night, for repose."
187. The definite article used with the names of animals, plants, trees,
&c., in the singular, may denote either one of the kind or the whole gro1;1p.
I may say, "The dahlia you gave me is dead ;"-me(\ning a particular
plant : or, "The dahlia is a native of Mexico; "-meaning the whole group
of plants so called.
•

188. Use of an and a.-The indefinite article.has two
forms, an and a.
189. An is used before words commencing with a
vowel sound ; as, an ant, an earl, an idol, an oak, an
umbrella, an heir, an honor.
cles generally used 1 Give examples. 183. To what besides a noun may an article
relate 1 184. With whit must the article an norbe confoundetl 1 With what must
the article a not be confounded 1 185. What is the called I With what-is It used 1
'What docs it generally denote 1 What is an ·or a calletl 1 With what is it used I
What does it denote 1 186. When are nouns used without either article 1
187. What may tlie 1 used beforO tho names of animals &c.; in tho singular, denote 1
188. Mention the forms of the indefinite article. 189. Where must an be used I
Show tho difference between commencin~ with a vowel and commencin1: with a
1

4

74

ADJECTIVES AND THEIR OL.A.SSES.

PARSING OF ARTICLES.

Observe that a word ·may commence with a consonant and yet with
vowel sound ; as in the last two examples, in which h is silent.

ll

190. A is·used before words commencing with a consonant sound ; as, a bird, a cat, a sea, a hen, a wonder,
many a one, a yew, a ewe, a unit, a eulogy, a humor.
Wand y, beginning words, are consonants. A must therefore be used
before words commencing with these letters or their sound, as in the last
seven examples.
Words beginning with h sounded, take a. Those beginning with h
silent, may commence with a vowel sound and take an, as an herb; or with
a consonant sound and take a, as a humor. Either an or a may be used
before words commencing with h that are not accented on the first syllable;
as, an histo 'rian or a his to' ri~n.
\..

191. The articles have neither person, number, gender, nor case.
192. RuLE IX.-An article relates to the word whose
meaning it limits.
193. P ARSING.-The son,ef a king.
The is the definite article, and relates to son :-Rule, An article relate11
to the word whose meaning it limit,s.
A is the indefinite article, and relates to king :-Rule; An article, &c.
EXERCISE.

Supply the proper indefinite article, according to §§ 189, 190. Thel} parse the nouns, pronouns, and articles :-We waited - hour
for the w:agon, which at last came, bringing - ham, - basket of
. .eggs, - half-barrel of cider, and - well-cooked joint of ~eef.. - ·
ewe, - ox, - year-old colt, and - youn1' calf, were feedmg m worn-out field. - humorous account of - European tour made
by - Yankee in - one-horse wagon, has had - wide circulation.
- heiress with such - immense fortune ' is not met with every
day. _ honorable man and - honest man are two .d ifferent
thirigs.
vowel sound. 190. Wlierc is a used 1 Which form must be used before word•
beginning with wand y 1. Which form, before words beginning with h 1 Which
form, before words beginning with h, not accented on th e first syllable 1 191. What
,properttes do not belong to the articles 1 192. Recite Rule IX. 193. Learn tbs
parsing form .

75

LESSON XXXII.
ADJECTIVES .A.ND THEIR CL.ASS.E .S .

194. THE ADJECTIVE.-The fourth part of speech is
the Adjectiye.
·
" Those four noisy English boys are here."
The words those, four; noisy, and English, are here all joined to the
noun boys. Those and English tell which boys are meant; four tells how
many boys; noisy tells what kind of boys. Words like these, joined to a
noun or pronoun, to qualify or limit its meaning, are called· Adjectives.

195. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or limit
•the meani:ag of a substantive ; as, sweet roses, happy
thou.
196. Th~ubstantiveto which an adjective relates, is.often understood;
as when we speak of the good, the living, meaning good men, living persons. So, "There are worse things than [for a manJ to·be poor." ,
197. A word generally used as a noun becomes an adjective when it is
joined to a substantive to qualify or limit its meaning; as, an iron mask,
a:rose color, a night attack, London porter.

198. Olasses.-Adjectives may be divided into four
classes ; Prop.er, Numeral, Pr_9nominal, and Common.
199. A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper
noun, or identical with a proper noun in form ; as, a
Roznan nose, Ciceronian. eloquence, Byron collars, a
Philadelpliia lawyer.·
200. Oaution.-Proper Adjectives must be distinguished from proper
nouns having the same form. Observe the difference in the following examples:Proper .Adjectives.-li·ish melodies; Welsh flannel; Russian isinglas8,
194. What is the fourth part of speech 1 In the sentence Those four noisy
Englii;h boys are here, wba!. words are joined to the noun boys 1 . What do they respectively tell 1 What are words like these, joined to a no11n or pronoun, called f
195. 'Vhat is an .Adjective 1 196. Give examples to show that an sdjectlve may
relate to a substantive understood. 197. When cloes a word generally used as a
noun become an adjective I 198. Into howmanycla•ses may adjectives be divided t
Name them. 199. What is a Preper .Adjective f 200. From what must proper

77

NUMERALS.-PRONOMINAL ADJEC'l'IVES.

COMMON- -,ADJECTIVES.

Proper Nouns.-Can you speak Irish 1 The Welsh are a thrifty
people. A Russian; the Russians; a Russian's revenge.-A plural or
possessive form, as in the last two examples, indicates a noun.

205. The Common Adjectives are all those not embraced in the above classes. A common adjective may
express,
.

76

201. A Numeral Adjective is one that denotes a definite number ; as, tllne, third, tllreejold.
202. The Numeral Adjectives are distinguished as ·
O'.c1rdinals, Ordinals, and Multiplieatives.
The Cardinals answer the question !ww many j as,
one, two, tliree,four, tlifrteen, twenty-one, two liitndred.
The Ordinals answer the question wlii ch in order;
as; first, second, third, fourtli, tliirteentli, twenty-first,
two-hundredtli.
The Multiplicatives answer the question ·1ww many
fold; as, single, double or two-fold, triple or three-fold,
quadruple orfour-folcl, twenty-fold, hundredefold.
203. Gaution.-The numerals must be distinguished from nouns having
the same form, as used in the following sentences:-" Here is a ten (meaning a ten-dolla1· bill)." "They caine by fifties and hundreds." "Divide
fifty-three by one fo urth." "It produced a hundred fold."

204. The Pronominal Adjectives are words identical iJl ·
form with certain pronouns, but used w~th nouns and
not in stead ef them.
The pronominal adjectives are wliicli, what, whichever, wliichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, this, tl1at, tliese,
tho8e, form er, latter, botli, same, eaclL, every, either,
neitlier, one, none, otlier, anotlier,-some, all, any, suqh.
The adjective pronouns all become pronominal adjectives, when used
with their nouns. Thus :-This man, that field, both eyes, the same party,
other countries, such persons. Silver and gold have I none. Which thing
is an allegory. What thoughts are these?
adjectives be distingui shed 1 Give exilmplcs showing the difference. 'What does
a plural or possessive form indicate 1 201. What is a Numeral Adjective 1
202. What three classes nre embraced under Numorn,ls 1 What question do tho
Cardin ala answer 1 The Ordinals 1 The Multiplicatives 1 203. From what. must
tho numerals be distinguished 1 204. 'What aro the Pronominal Adjectives I Name
tho pronominals. Under what circumstances do all the adjective pronouns become

--

1. Quality; as, wicked, handsome, idle, red-hot, ever-to-be-l'eniembered.
2, Quantity ; as, much labor, money enough, a vJ!tole month.
3. Material; as, a gold crown, a golden crown, wooden buckets.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Time; as, daily, weekly, annual, subsequent, everlasting.
Situation ; as, the above rule, the off horse, the under side.
Direction ; as, a west wind, the ltomeward journey.
An indefinite number; as, several, sundry, few, many, numerous.
Negation; as," There is no music in his soul."
EXERCISE.

Supply adjectives of tlte classe$ indicated :-.Alexander the Great
was a (common) general; he invaded (common) lands, subdued
(common) nations, .took (common) cities, was successful in (pronominal) battle, ~nd added much to (pvoper) glOry.-,(Pronom·irutl)
boys ure so (common) that they can not tell how much (cardinal)
times eleven is.-The United States has had two (common) and
(common) wars with th13 (prope~) nation; during the (ordina[),
Madison was president.....:...Darkness and tempest make a (multiplicative) night.-(Proper) politeness is famous the world over.

LESSON XXXIII.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTI YES.

" The country is pleasant in spring, pleasanter in summer, but pleasantesi
in autumn."
.
'
206. Here we are told that the quality of pleasantness belongs to the
country in different degrees · at different times. These different degrees
are implied in the words pleasant, pleasanter, pleasantest. By varying
the form of an adjective, therefore, we may make it express in differel/-t
degrees the quality which it denotes.
pronominal adjectives 1 205. What are tho Common Adjectives I State what a
common adjective may express, and give examples in each case.
206. Repeat tho sentence given at tho commencement of this lesson. What
are we here told 1 In what words are these different degrees implied i By varying

78

COMP.ARISON.

OOMP.A.RISON.

207. OoMP.ARISON.-Adjectives are not declil!ed.
Bat some, principally t~e common adjectives, are_ comf
pared,-that is, varied ' in form, to express different
degrees of the quality they denote : as few f ewer
f ewest j witty, wittier, wittiest.
'
'
. '
, 208. DEGREES OF CoMPARISON.-There are three de~
g rees expressed by different forms of the adjective.
They are called D egrees of Comparison and are dis•
ting uished as the P ositive, the Compar~tive, and the
Superlative.
·
. !he ~os~t~ve is the degree expressed by an adj,ective
m its pnm1t1ve form; as," H e is'wise and liappy."
The Comparative is a higher degree than some other
or others with which it is compared· as "He is wise7•
. than
. I or th ou." "He ' is '4Jiser
'
an.d happier
and happier than he was." " H e is wiser than h e it:; h appy."
The Superlative is the highest degree of all that are
compare~; as, " H e is the wisest_and liappiest of us all."
209. ~ ORMATION OF THE DEGREEs.-The Comparative
D egree 1~ form ed by annexing er, and the Superlative
by annexmg est, to the Positive · as

'

'

Pos.
Pleasant,
Rude,
Holy,
Wet,
Oomp. pleasanter,
rud-er,
holier,
wetter,
Sup.
pleasantest.
rud-est.
holiest.
wettest.
In annexing er and est, omit final e, ChJi.nge final y to
or double
the final consonant, if it is required by the rules of spelling. See the last
three examples.

i,

210. Many adj ectives of one syllable are compared,
th e form of an adjective, then, what may we make it ~xpress 1 207. What do .;.
mean when w~ say that adjec tives arn compared·? 208. ·How mapy degrees ar~
expres_sed by .different forms of the adjective 1 ·what are they called 1 How a re
they d1strngmshecl 1 What is the Positive 1 What is the Comparati ve 1 What is
the Superlative 1 209. How aro the comparati ve and . the •uperlatlve degree
formed f Give examples. In some cases, wb8.t changes have to bo made¥
210. What adjecti ves are compared 1 "\Vhat adjectives are not compared t

79

· · and some of two syllables ; , but none of mo:re than two.
We use quicker, quickest; pre~tier, prettiest: but NOT
peacefuler, p eacefulest; glorious~r; gloriousest.
211. Some adjectives have a meaning that does not
admit of different degrees ; hence they can not be compared. This is the ~ase with proper and numeral adj ectives, with most of the pronominals, . and with such ·
- common adjectives as chief, countless, infonite, golden,
enough, daily, aio, &c.
212. In stead of annexing er and est to the primitive form of the adjective, we may express the same ideas by prefixing to it the adverbs more
aud most; as, quick, more quick, most quick. These forrnB are more
common than those in er and est, when the adjective .·consists of two syllables, and are altogether used when it has more than two. In the case o~
monosyllables, however, the forms in er and, est are preferre_d. Thus,
more pleasant, most pleasant, are more frequently used than pleasanter,
pleasantest; but shorter, shortest, are preferred to more slwrt, most slwrt.
213. Other adverbs besides more and most may be joined to adjectives,
to express di fferent degrees; such-as, less and least, very,· exceedingly,
surpassingly, &c. An adjective, however, does not become comparative
or superlative by having any of these ad,verbs joined to it, but only when
11· or est is added, or its form is otherwise altered.

214. RuLE .X.-An adjective relates to the substantive whose meaning it qualifies or limits. ·
To find this substantive, a question may be asked with wlto or what.
Thus:-" The elephant is the largest of beas.ts." Question. The largest
what of beasts? Answer. The largest beast of beasts. Largest relates to
beast understood.
.
·
· '

215. P .A.RSING.-To ·parse an adjective, state its 9las_s ;
if it can be compared, compare it and mention . its .degree; tell what it relates to, and repeat Rule X. ·
211. What prevents some adjectives from b eing compared t 212. Besides annexing
er and est, wh at other mode ls there of expressing the same ldeas 1- In what ad- ·
jectives is th e· u se of more and most .mor6 frequent 9 In what ndj.ectivee are er and.
est preferred 1 213. Mention some other adverbs that may be joined to adjectivM
to express differe nt degrees. When alone is an adjective said to _be compared 1
214. Recite Rule X . How can you find the substantive to which a)l adjective r elates 1 215. How is an adjective parsed I L earn the forn'.lil. - ·

82

WRITTEN EXERCISE.

001\IP ARISON OF COJ\I
" POUND ADJECTIVES.

S

Pos.
Bottom,
End,
Fl'ont,
Head,
Rear,

~· .
p rio1· and

up.

1Jottommost.

fendmost.

l rontmost.
1cadmost.
rcal'most.

Pos.
Top,
Under,
North,
N Ol'thern '
South

S up.

topmost.
unde1·most.
nol'thmo,t.
"
no I' th ernmost.

'
southmost &
comparati1·es su erio1' a d .
.
' c.
ulte,.ior, junior a~ senio1~1 "'fcrio1·, anterio1' and posterior
change from the Latin lano-uao-e b
' '.'WJOl' and mino1·, taken withou; .
po s1·rivc nol' superlative In
,·tcad o f being fo llowed byo theo c, ave
. neither
.
29 ·1 Tl

,

~·

tli c
. . OnJunct1on than, like othel' comp
· prcpos1t10n to the last fi
ara 1ves,
1
to what I e . t' d
ve tarn neither than nor to
'
xpec e · p t ..
.
desi.,ns. Ad
J , os e1ioi· to Milton; p1·i01· to the
o
,
am ones ' ju mor;
·
a senioi· partner; the

2~5. A few compound adjectives
varymg their :first element ., as,
are compared by
P os.

ood-naturcd •
11-tempe!'ed
IBl'i" ht-cycd '
0

haste, the less speed.-The first shall be last.-The wisest nnd
best men sometimes make the worst roistakes.-,The uppermost
thought in my mind was of my eldest sister.-1 never saw an
uglier or worse-tempered horse than that.-The hindmost roan and
the fr ontmost were a mile apart.- A prior* engagement prevented
me from calling on our junior partner.

lC

the first fiv e t·1I·c
' '
us :- Supe1·io1·
Tli
D
eluge; ulterior
·
pal't.
major

G

83

'

nvomp.
b etter-natured,
WOl'Se-tempered,
brightel'-eyed

Sup.
best-natured.
worst-tempered.
.
brightest-eyed.

226. Caiit·ion - 0 .
. '
·
omparat1ves and
1 .
super at1ves must
not be fur ther com1) . l.
at ec ' nor should tb d
an d most be used •v"tl
tliem A 'd e ha verbs more
'I 1
expressio ns as WOl'Ser .f'. tli .
vo1 ' t erefore, such
inferior, most liigliest 'n:o::· tier~tst, more fairer, more
'
s raz est, &c.
EXERCISE

tender.' dull ; warm-hearted·
.
n arrCompare
ow ., son th-western;
late. e .1 . . . ' no bl e ; soft; near.
r ear ; pretty; ea tern . O'ood ~ v 1 ' JUmor; long-headed. sweet:
outer ; jolly;
empered; bad-hearted; fi t; much'.

strnng-~i;ded.-

P arse ti.w nouns, pronouns, articles and ail' .
'
'(}ectives :

'
The more

like north, north ern 7 ??4 M
.
from th e L:i t.i n. Jn ''"h·;t- . J.: cnt1on some compnrativce tn1~c1 . .
prC'positi on lo 7 \\'1. I, degrees arc th ey not found 'l WI. 1" l wi thout change
I'
.
llc l lake ncith
II
llC 1 nre follo
db
a•. JCCll\'eS compa1·cd 1 0·.
er "'" n or to 1 225. II01
.
we
y the

w ;th comparatiYcs
n o examples. 226. What ·cautio1 v a10 "few compound
'1'oided 1
and superlatives 1 W hat exp1.ess1ous
. 1 1s must
gtven in
connection
therefore
be

LESSON XXXV.
A WRITTEN EXERCISE.

W1·ite the pliiral of alley ; ally ; sirocco ; stitch; hemistich
[pronounced hem' -is-tik1; topaz; J ehn ; lasso ; punctilio; penknife; wharf; dormouse; penman; washerwoman ; h ead; hose ;
chintz; summons; barn-yard; roomful; beau; sarcophagus; encomium.- Of each of these plurals, tell whether it ·is a. monosyll,able,
dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable, and which syllable is accented.
Write the correlative (masculine or fe'lninine, as the case may be)
of tailoress ; marchioness ; infanta; benefactor; Theodora ; H enrietta ; Victoria ; lady; hart ; school-mistress ; Irishman ; maleservant; husband; priest; n ephew.-l n the correl,atives thus
icritten, p oin t out the prope1· and the improper diphthongs.
Write the possessive singular and the possessive plm·al of lynx;
volley; mercy ; soliloquy; delay; major-domo ; deer; dwarf;
r!almon; alderman ; talisman; I ; thou; she ; myself; one; other;
,iuother; who; which; whosoever.-Divide these possessives into
thei1· syllables.
Prefix the proper jorm of the indefinite article to art ; bushel ;
~ape ; dress ; eddy ; ewer ;- eulogistic discourse ; frown ; girl;
hiss ;-humble prayer ;-high tower ;-honorable place ;-hopeful
son; h eir; ill; jest; keg; lamb; meal; net; owl ;-once mighty
empire; pail ; queen; rock ; seal ; town; urn ; unicorn ; vase ;
world ;- weighty secret; xebec ; yacht; zone.
P refix an appropriate common adjective to waiters ; clocks ;
steam-boats; paintings; teachers; cities; sheep ; fields; carriages;

carpets ; .oaks.
*Parse thus :- Prior is a common adjective, in the comparative degree; positive and superlative wanting ; it belongs to wgagement :-Rule, An adjective, &c.

84

THE VERB.- THE SUBJECT.
LESSON

II

~

I

'1

I

VERB S

Ve~~:·

AND

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

xxxvr. .

THEIR

CLASSES.

THE VERn."-The fifth part of speech is tho

Assertions.
Carlo bai·ks.
Carlo is cross.
E:i:clamations. IT ow Carlo barks !
H- ow Carlo sleeps /
Qioestions.
1''
Gan Carlo bark fl
ias Carlo been hurt?
Commands.
Carl o, do not bark.
C~r!o, eat your meat.
In each of the ab o,·c sen t ences, somcthin" is affirmed o
.d
.
'. r sa1 ' about
Cal'io. I n the first line, we assert somethino-o b
0
a out him ; Ill the second,
we exclaim somethino-. in the th ' d .
· th r
· ir '~e ask somethin
o'
command somethino- The
_,'
g; m e 1ourth, we
o·
gener,u term ajjinn is appl" d t
,.
these modes of speahng Wh
·
ie o a11 iour of
' '
·
en we affirm thcrefo 1·e
claim, ask, or command.
'
' we may assert, ex228. Obser•e th e wonls 111
· 1· t 1·
a ics in the rioo-ht sentences obov~. It ·
these that affirm. B Cl/"1cs,
1
"
~
is
can bark, and do bark affir
.
exerted on any person or th'111 "
r.
•
m an action not
l
0·
' " and sleep affirm st t
H. b
iw·t affirms an action exerted on Carlo E
a es..
as een
on meat. Here then w
.
.
at affirms an act10n exerted
are called VEnn~.
' e ha\ e a new class of words, which affirm. They

229. A Verb is a word or words used to ffi
action or a state.
a rm an
A verb may consist of several
d
wor s; o.s, has been hurt, in the above
example.

230. !HE SunJECT.-That about which the action
or state is affirmed, is called the Subj ect of the verb.
The noun Carlo is the subject of the ,~erb in each of the eio-ht
tences at the commencement of the lesson except the two th t o sencomruands- Garlo d
t b 1.
'
a express
is in tl1
. . ' ~ no arte, and Carlo, eat your meat. In these Carlo
c nommat1ve mdependc nt ' an d ti ie pronoun you understood' is the
227. \Vlrnt is the fifth part of speech 1 R
.
.
.
two exclamations i two questions. two co cpc,1t~ two .1sscrt1ons r especting Carlo;
to all four of these modes of sp' k' 1 mmand .... \Vhat general term is npplic1l
tcnccs ¥ Wh at nre such w ords c~~le1~~ 2"2gs,~na: words .affirm in th ese senYCrb consist _! 230. What is the mb 'ect of~ Yer at is a Ve: b 1 Of what may n
lirst six examples given nt tho comm:ncernent of t~: 1!~~\ is,~bhe stu~jetcbt in the

'" a , m

o other

85

subject of the verb--do not [you] bark, eat [you] yoitl" meat. We learn,
then, 1. That the subject of a verb may be a noun or pronoun. 2. That
it is sometimes understood.
231. The subject of a verb is easily found by putting who or what before it. A question is thus asked, and whatever answers this question is
the subject. Thus : in the sentence Carlo barks because he i s hungry, we
wish to know the subjects of the verbs barks and is. W71.0 barks? Answer, Carlo; Carlo is the subject of the verb barks.,-Because who i•
hungry? Answer, he; he is the subject of the verb is.

232. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE v ERBS. - With
regard to their meaning, _Yerbs are distinguished as
Transitive and Intransitive.
A Transitive Verb is one that affirms an action exerted on some person "Or thing ; as, " Sarah b?·oke the
bottle." "The bottle is broken." I n both of these
examples, the breaking is exerted on the bottle.
An Intransitive Verb is one that affirms a state, or
an action not exerted on any person or thing ; as,
"Sarah is happy." " Sarah wept."
In these examples, is affirms a state ; wept, an action not exerted on an
1
obj ect. If we were told what Sarah wept-" Sarah wept tears of sorrow '
- wept would be a transitiYe Yerb.
233. It follows that the same Yerb may be transitive in one sentence
-and intransitive in another. Thus: - He turned his face. He turned.Helen sings simple melodies. Helen sings.- ! cannot see the fire. I can
not sce.- Herc the omission of the object in each case makes the verb intransitive.
234. Gaution.- An intransitive verb is often followed by for ; in, of,
or some other preposition, with its object; a.s, "Beware of the wicked."
"Many frowned upon his efforts." In such cases, do not mistake the
verb for transitive; the object· belongs to the preposition and not to the
verb.
two 'I Wbat do wo learn, then, r especti ng the subject of a verb! 231. How may
the subject of a verb bo found 1 Gi•e exam1>les. 232. With r egard to their meaning, bow are verbs distinguished i Defino a Transitive Verb. Define an I ntransith·e Verb. 233. What follows with respect to the sam e verb in different sentences 1 234. In wl1at c:-ises ie there danger of mistaking an intransitive verb for
transitive i In such conslructio.1s, to what does the object belong i

88

I

THE PROPERTms OF VERBS. -MooD.

MOOD

240. PROPERTIES
"I love peace."

OF

VERBS.-MOOD. - TENSE.
VERns.- Look at the sentence
.

)

ObsCl'\'C four _things about the verb love i11 this sentence:in a positive manner.
Not I may love or I
l
.
'
can ove ' but

1. It affirms
I love.

2. It affirms that the act is goino- on at th
t .
t d
o
e presen tzine Not I did
ove yes Cl' _ay, Ol' I shalt lo1·e to-m ol'row, bu t I love now.
.
3. It affil'ms about the speaka. Not yon lo ve 0 1. Ti 1
pcl'son speaking, loYc.
'
ie oves; but I, the
l

4. It affil'ms about 011e person.
person, I ove.- Hen ce we see that

N0 t

we 1oye, or many love; but I , one

V orbs have four properties ; viz.,
1. Mood, wlii c.: h disti1wuishes the m anner of th e
n
affirmation.
~. Tense, whic.:h distinguishes its time.
3. Person, whi ch distinguishes the affirmation as made
~bout the speaker, that which is spoken t o or that wl . h
rs spoken of.
'
l IC

4. Number, which di sting ui shes the affirmation as
made about one or more than one.
. 2.4:1. ~Ioon.-Mood is that prop~rty of the verb which
d1stmgmslies the manner in which it affirms.

An action may be a'ffirmed as taking place, or a state as existing, at the
present time. "I depart."
An action may be affirmed as having taken place, or a state as having
existed, at some past time. "I departed."
A past action or state may be affirmed as completed at the present
time. " I have departed."
A past action or state may be affirmed as completed at or before some .
other past time mentioned. "I had departed before my father arrived."
An action may be affirmed as about to take place, or a state as about
to exist. " I shall depart."
A future action or state may be affirmed as about to be completed at
or before some other future time mentioned. "I shall have departed by
Christmas."- Hence

An acti_on or state may be affil'med positillely. " I denai·t ,,
An act10n or state mav J
m. d
.
,, ·
"I . d
'
. . Je a ll me contin!Jent1", - that is as poss1'ble

An ,~clftioln or st.ate may be affii'mcd conditionally,- that is as a condidepart, he shall remain."
'
ion.
·
An action
·
.
" ,... or .state
. .mav
'. J,c
a ffi rmcc1 zmperatwely,that is as a com:
man d·
..uepari tlus 1nstant."
'·

244. The grand. divisions of time are three in number; the Present,
the Past, and the Future. The present tense belongs to the first ; the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect, to the second; the first future and second
future, to the third.

.,

'

c

f

240. In the sentence " I love peace" wh t :ti
h"
the \'erb love 1 How mant· }Jl'OJJcrti~a I a oubr t rngs are to be obsen·ed about
, .J
. .
.
rn,-e v er s7 Name them . d t II
eac h d ist1nguishes. 241. 'Vbat is Mood 1 M
. .
.
, 'an
e wl!at
which we may affirm an acti on or t;t.-.•c ~nt1on ,l,nd illustrate the .flxc ways in
.. 1 •
c nce t icrc are how many moods 1

..

There arc five ways in which we may affirm an action
·or state, and therefore there are five rr10ods. They :we
called the Indicative, the Potential, the Subjunctive,
the Imperative, and the Infinitive.
242. A verb in the indicative, potential, subj unctive,
or imperative mood, is li mited to a subject, and is th erefore called Finite.
243. TENSE.-Tense is that property of the verb
which distinguishes the time of wh at it affirms.

There are six varieties of time, and therefore six .
tenses. Th ey arc called the Present, the Imperfect,
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First Future, and the
Second Future.

1nay epart."

'

89

An action or state may be affirmed unlimitedly,- that is, without being
limited to any subject. "I desire to depart."- Hence

LE SS ON XXXVIII.
PROPERTI ES OF

.AND TENSE.

•

\Yh :-it arc 1hey cn.llcU 1 2-1'2. In what- mooda is a verb limited to a subject1 What
i:5 a Yri-b in any of th ese moods called 1 243. What is Tense 1 Mention and illus·
trat u the six variclics of time at which an action m:iy Ue represented us t ru~i ng
p!:-ice, or n. r::talc as existing. Ilencc there are how many tense& 'l \ Vhat arc they

called 1 244. Name the three i::rand d ivl•io11s of time. W'h ich of the t enses belongs to the !ir;;t of these 1 ·which of the tenses are past I \Vhich are future!

..
---DO

THE INDICA'l'IVE

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

l\IOOD.

91

I ,
I

EXERC IS E .
!orin five sen tences with dijj'eren t moods o
.
wliich tl1 e act ion ic ill be ldtir111ed 1 p "t . l if the verb pray, in
. .
.:1·
,
•
osi ive y · 2 Contin
tl
, t-. l .
. . , .
.gen y;
3. (},on d itwncdly ' . 4 . I mp ellt
ive Y , 5. Unlimitedly Fi .
z
see t!te par:1g1·aplis in fine p1'int § 241.
·
01 examp cs
Foi·'.n s1x sentences with dijj'erent tenses or th .
.
.
.
u e verb p1ay, in whicli
tlte action will be a"'i,rmed 1 A t '· ·
7.
:v•
> •
s .atuing place now · 2 A h ·
, · s at'tng ·
ta .:en p lace y esterday . 3 A .
4. As completed brfo1'e 'son;e o;li~;'.~a:~1:1:;;~:d. at the p1·esent time;
p lace to-11wiT ow . 6 A s t 1.
l
, 5. As about to take
th
.
, ·
o ue comp eted be.fore so
action . F or examples see !) 243
me o ie1· future

-----I N DIC A T I V E

was asked.

MOOD A N D ITS TENSES.

~~5: The Indica.tivc Mood is used chiefly for assertin

.
g
pos1tn ely and a~krn o· questions . also "'o .
c d 't '
"'
'
i• i expressm 0
"' a
on 1 ion or supposition.

'•

249. I NDICATIVE IMPERFECT.-This tense denotes,
1. P ast time simply; as, " I asked."
2. An action or state habitual in p ast time ; as,
"Napoleon took snu:ff,"- that is, was in the h abit of
taking it.
250. SrnNs. -None in the simple form .-1 asked.
D id in the negative, emphatic, and interrogative form. - You did not
ask my pardon. I did ask it. . Did you ask it?
·was in the progressive form and the passive voicc.- I was asking.

LESSON XXXIX.
TIIE

Do in the negative, emphatic, and interrogative form.-You do not ask
my pardon. I do ask it. D o you ask it ?
.Am iu the progressive form , to denote the continuance of an action
or state iu an emphatic manner.-I am asking.
.Am in the passive voice.- I am asked.

P ositive A ssertion .-! .sec the prin ce
~uest.i~n. -.Do yo u see th e prin ce ? .
f he 1cill go , I 11.1•11 rcma .m.
Sl ondztion.-I
..
. d
uppositwn.-If I had been wise I would h
246. All six tenses arc found in the . 'd. "
ave rcmamc .
m 1ca.11•e mood.

P1rnsENT-Tl11·s
t ense d enotes,
1247.
p I NDICATn-E
.
.
- ·
·
r
esent
tim
e
srmi)ly
.
as
"
I
9. P
. , ,
as11,c.,,
"'
"
'·
resent
time
used
for
the
IJast
.· w h at ls
.
ffi
d
· ' to b1111°'
a rme more vfridly before the eve . as
l
at once ,
tl
.
• '
'
apo eon
c1osses ie n ver, engages the enemy and
.
'
gauu;
a eomplete victory."
3. Present time used for th e fL1t111·e . as, " When the
war ends, pro.sperit.r will retum."
'

"N

248. SIGNS. -1\onc in the simple form.-I ask.

,,. - - ------ - -- - - - - - - - - - ---- -- .

-45. For wh ot is the J nd icatiw Mood chi cfl
.ll
- -- 247. What docs th o prcocnt indicati ve d , t
y use<
246. Name its tenses.
uno c, as regards time 1 248. What si11n

251. I NDICATIVE P ERFECT.-This t ense denot es,
1. T he time of a past action or state completed at the
present; as, " I have dined."
2. The time of a p ast action or state continued to the
present; as, " I liave been looking for you every day."
3. The time of a p ast action or state connected with
the present by consequences or r esults still existing; as,
"Virgil has w1·itten some noble v erses."
4. After when, till, before, after, &c., it is used in
the sense of the second future. It then den otes the
time of a future action or state which will be complet ed
at or b efor e some other future time m entioned ; as, " I
will r em ain till I have seen; my father."
252. SIGN.-Have.-I have asked.

I have been asking.

I have been

asleed.
h::i.s it in tho simple form 1 What., in the n egative, emphatic, and interrogative
fo rm 1 \Vhat in the progressive form 1 \ Vbat, in th o passh·c \Oicc 1 249. VVhnt
1
does t he imperfect indic>tivo denote 1 250. 'What sign has it in the ·simple form 1
\Vh at, in the negntivc, emphatic, and i nterrogative form 1 What, in the progressive form and the passive yoice 1 251. H ow many varieties of time does the perfect i ndicative d enote 1 V.'hat is the fi rst of these 1 'What is th e second 1 What
is the .third I \ Vhat ls the fourth 1 252. What ls the sign of the p erfect indica-

92

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVK

THE POTENTIAL MOOD.

253. I NDICATIYE PLUPERFECT.-This tense denotes the
time of a past action or stat e completed at or before
some other past time mentioned; as, " ·Virgil liad
stcwtecl before the emp eror arrived."
254. SJGN .- H ad.- I had asked.

asked.

I had been asking.

I had been

255. I NDICATIVE FrnsT FuTURE.- This tense denotes,
1. Future tim e simply; as, " We shall all die."
2. D etermination with respect to a future action or
state ; as, "Yot{ sliall n ot go."
356. S JG Xs. - S /i all, will.- I shall ask, I will ask .- I shall be asking,
I u·ill be· ask ing. I sftall be asked, I will be asked.

257. I 1rnrc.iTffE SECOND F un :RE.-This tense denotes
th o time of a fot.nre action or state which will be comp letocl at or b efo re some other future time mentioned;
as, " I shall lwvi3 dined by the time you arrive."
25 8. S1cxs.-S/rnll ""'"" 1dll lrn ve.-I shall have asl:ed, I will have
ask ed. I slutll have been aski11g, I will have been ask ing. -1 shall have
been asl:ed, I zcill have been asked.

I

i'

I

~

250. INTERIWGATTVE Fomrs.-All the t enses of the
inclica ti-rn mood may be used interrogatively,-that is,
to ask a question. I n tho int errogative forms of the
t enses, th o position of the subject is ch anged. Thus :Pres.-Do you ask 0
l mp erj. -DiJ )·ou ask ?
P ei:f-IlaYe yo u asked?

/

P lu.-Had you asked?
1st Fu.-wai you ask?
2nd Fu.-Wi!l you have asked?

.
?- We have just seen Louis Phile of France. -The English
years.- Do riches make the mhan th
·
from
t
e
ron
11
a
ippe, who was n ve
h p ··t ns r eached Massachusetts.
d V" . . before t e m1 a
·n
had settle. irgm1.a
all falsehood triumph ?-The P ersia w1
- Truth will prova1l:-Sb
H a
heard of th e death of Humhave ar rived by ClmstmaDs::;-M"~t ~o:ell "Paradise Lost" for five
boldt ?- Am I wron g?- Ju l o
guin eas?

LESS ON XL.
'l'IIE POTENTIAL MOOD AN D I'l' S TEN8ES.
260. The Potential Mood is used for affin~i~g a1~
action or state either absolutely or as a condition o1
supposition.
r
d in the potential mood.
f h
261 F our t enses are ioun
.
. the :first four tenses o t . e
They h ave the same n ames asd"ff rent ideas as regard s
but may convey I e
l
d . t'
in
in the potentia,
. . ica
. ive,
Tl e two futures are want"ng
i
1·
tune. time
1
. ·.
future
bemg
often d eno ted by tlie present and tie
The 1)resent t ense of tho
. imperfect.
26~ P oTENTIAL PRESENT. . ..
d .,
Poten""t ial mood affirms _permission, poss1b1hty, esne,
.
ability, or n ecessity,
wi th r esp ect to what is either
present or future.
PRESENT.
PERMISSION. - Y OU may play now.
Poss1DILITY - I may be wrong.
DESIRE.-Oh ! may she now be happy!
ADILITY.-You certainly can see.
NECESSITY.- ! must start at once.
(N egative. ) I need not start now.

EXEHCISE .
S elect t11 e 7:e1'l>s ; tcll wlwtl1e1· tliey are transitive 01· intr ansitive;
state tliefr i·oice (if lli ey are transitire), tliefr mood, and tense;Cu vier th inks it probaLlc that whales sometimes live a thousand
tivc 1 253. 'Vh:1t d oes the plupcrfc:ct indicative denote 1 254. What is t}Jo s ign
uf th i.s t ense 1 255 .

\\"~h:1t do C' s

th u first f ut ure indi ca tive de note ? 25G. Menti on

it s s igns 1 25 7 W hat docs the s econd future incl ic:ttivc den ote 1 258. Mention Hs
s ig ns. 259. H ow m:i. y :tl! the tenses of the in dicative mood be used 'i Give the
inte rrogative forms of th e several tenses.

93

F UTURE.
You may play n ext week.
I may start this evening.
May you die happy ! .
You can see V enus to-mght.
I must start to-morrow.
I need not start to-morrow.

.
used for affirming 1 2Gl. H ow many ~cns~s
ooo Whnt is the P otentrnl Mood
'xn...at two ten ses nrc wnntmg rn
- ·
.
di Namcthem. '°' "
1
nrc fou nd in the polent1:1l mou
.
ft n denoted 1 262. \Vbat does l ie
t1m:
examples in which permission
;h is mood 1 By what t eDj!CS is
pr esent tense of the potential m ood a rm
.
.

fulur~

oG~Ye

94:

TENSES OF THE POTEN'l'IAL·

95

SIGNS. (Possibility.) Jfay have.-He may have dined,-that is, it is po~sible.
(Possibility, interrogative form.) Can have.-Can he have dined?that is, is it possible ?
(Possibility, negative form .) Can have.-He can not have dined,that is, it is not possible.
(Possibility, negative interrogative form.) May have.-May he not
have dined ?-that is, is it not possible?
(Conviction.) Must have.-He must have gone,-that is, I am convinced that he has.
(Necessity.) Need have. - Need he have gone? He need not have
gone. That is, was it necessary? It was not necessary.

268. PoTENTIAL PLuPERFECT.- The pluperfect tense
of the potential mood affirms possibility, ability, determination, willingness, or obligation, with r eference to a
past action or state. completed at some past time.
" SIGNS. (Possibility.) Might have.-! might have saved his life.
(Ability.) Could have.-! could have saved his life.
(Willingness.) Would havc.-I would have died to save his life.
(Obligation.) Shoidd have.-You should have tried to save his life.

269. INTERROGATIVE Fomrs.- .A.11 the tenses of the
potential mood may be used interrogatively. Thus:Prcscnt.- Mayl ask? Can I ask? Must I ask? Need I ask?
· Impeif cct.-Might I ask? Could·I ask? Would I ask? Should I ask?
P erfcct.- May I not have asked? Can I have asked? Must I have
asked? Need I have asked?
PlupC?ject.-Might I have asked? Could I have asked? Would I
have asked? Should I have asked?

' -~

EXERCISE.

i s affirmed i p os .s ibilitr. dr>.:::irc.

. .

present or fu ture time .' d~
' :ib1hly; necessity. IIow is •t d
.
t ial 1 264. 'Yhnt fo;1 r ;~ cnotod 1 2G3. 'Vhat arc the si n l ctcrmrn ed whether
potentinl 1 ?G' WI
ens _mny be conveyed bJ• n le d .g s of the presen t potcn- <.>.
• iat docs a . 1 ·
~
n m g Ycrb ·
l
affirm 1 Gh·o an cx:-tm) . ' e r ) l!l th o im perfect potential .
rn t le impe rfect
determination . obi:, t'] lc 111 which permi ssion is affi . 111 n depe ndent clause,
267. 'Vhat doo~ tl101gn ~on. 266. '1' hat nre th e sig•;s o~~~ ; possibility ; ability.
tential wh en possib·f.~r c:t potential affirm 1 'Vh a; is th ie. im perfect potential I
I I y J:; expressed 1 T\'hat is the si
. e s1g1: of tho perfect pogn rn the mtcrrogativc form,

d

Select the verbs; tell whether they are transitive or intransitive;
&tctte their voice (if they a-re transitive), their mood and tense, and
what each ajffrms. [Thus :-Napoleon could not remain at rest.
Could remain is an intransitive verb, in the potential mood, imwh en possibility is expressed 1 In the negative form 1 In tho negative interrogative form 1 What is tho sign when conviction is expressed 1 1'V'"hcn necessity iii
expressed 1 268. What does the pluperfect potential affirm 1 ·wh~t is tl1 0 sign
when p ossibility is expressed I 'When ability is expressed 1 willingness! oblig"·
lion 1 269. How may :ill the t enses of the potential mood be used I Give the in-

t errogative forms of the several t en ses.

I'

96

'l'IIE

SUBJUNCTIVE

TENSES

MOOD .

perfect tens~, am1 affirms .ability with respect to what is past.]
We must sta1 t at once, for 1t may snow.-N o man need despair.Many boys could learn, if they would study.-Wellington f~ared
that the enemy might fall on his rear.- Can we have mistaken
the way? W c must li ave done so.
Washin gton might have nrn<le himself king.- Cmsar shonld
l1ave p~uscd at the Rubicon.- Possibly he may have done so.Can t~11s be tru c?-Ye woul<l not come to me that ye might
have hfe.-CleopDtra nec<l not have fie<l.

LES SON XL!.
1,

TH E SUBJUNCT I VE AND IMP ERATIVE

MOOD .

27?. Th e Subjunctive Mood is u sed chie:fly for expressmg a condition or supposition; as, "Unless thou
go, I will not stay." " Thoug h he slay me yet will I
love him."
'
0

271. '!'his mood is called S u-b1JUnctivc because it is used 1·n " J
~ c nuse
b· ·
'
s~ IJOined to the leading part of a sentence. 'l'hus, in the first example
given above, the clause unless thoit go is subjoined to the leading part of
the sentence. I. will, not stay, to express the condition of my staying. and
'
the >erb go is rn the subjunctive mood.
272. 'l'he subjoined clause is generally connected with the rest of tho
sent:ncc by iJ, that, though, although, lest, unless, or whet!tei·. 'l'hese con-

nectives arc call ed Conjunctions.
273. Sometimes the conjunction is omitted; as, "See [that] tho u

do it."

. E.ven when a conjunction is used, it is not always a sign of the ~ub­
J unct1ve mood. '!'he indicative or potential may follow in the subjoined
clause; as, " See that he docs it well."

274. The subjunctive mood h as but two tenses, the
Present and the Imp erfect.
270. Wh::i t i~ th e subjunctive mood chiefly used to express 1 271. Why is this
m ood cnllcd suly1tncl i'Vc 1 I ll ustrntc thi~. 272. H ow is the subjoined clam;E: generally co~:1ectcd wi th the rest of the sentence 1 What arc these connectives
coiled 1 - 13. Whal d o we sometimes find r especting the conjunction? ·what
hloods) bcs1des the suhjunct i'\·c, may follow a conjunction 1 274. Name tho tenses

OF

THE SUBJUNCTIVE.

97

275. SUBJUNCTIVE PRESENT.-This tense is used,
1. To affirm a condition or supposition counected
with some future action or state ; as, " If h e promise,
he will perform." But, in such cases, the indicative is
now more frequently used: "If h e p1·omises, he will
p erform."
2. It is u sed after a conjunction following a v erb
that commands, to express the action or state com·manded or forbidden ; as, " Take care that thou remain." " Beware lest thou sin."
Also in similar constructions after it is necessary, it is desirable, &c. ;
as, " It is necessary that these rules be observed." In such cases, the indica·
tive-" It is necessary that these rules are obscrved"- would be wrong.
276. SIGNs.-In the active voice, usually none, rarely do. - " If he
but touch the hills," or " If he do but touch the hills, they will smoke."
In the passive voice, be.-If I be loved.

277. SuBJUNCTIVE IMPERFEcr.-The imperfect t ense
of the subjunctive mood expresses a wish or supposition, and implies that the opposite of the thing wished
or supposed is really the case. Thus : Wi sh.- Oh that he were innocont (implying that he is not)!
Supposition.-If I were now as strong as I w;s a year ago, I would bei:in the work at once (implying that I am not so strong).
278. If the imperfect indicative is used in such suppositions, in stead

of the imperfect subjunctive, it implies that the thing supposed is really
the case; as, "If I was a spy, I still had rights."- When the form of the
verb does not show whether it is in the indicative or the subjunctive,
it is necessary in parsing to apply this test. If the thing supposed is
i·eally the case, the verb is in the indicative; if not, in the subjunctive.
of the subjunctive mood. 275. What is the present subjunctive used to affirm I
•Vhat is more frequently used in such cases 1 Under w h at circu mstances is the
present subjunctive used after a conjunction t In what similar constructions is it
also employed I 276. What is tbe sign of the present subjunctive in the active
,voice I In the passive 1 277. What docs the imperfect subjunctive express I
What does it always imply! Give examples. 278. If the imperfect indicative is
v.sed in such supposit ions, what doe• it imply 1 How are you to tell the mood 111

5

98

THE IMPERATIVE

MOOD.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD.

. 27_9. SrnNs.-In the active voice, usually none, rarely did-If I k a.
if I did ask (implying that I did not).
·
as e
In the passive voice, were.-If I wei·e asked (implyin" that I am

t)

280. The Imperative Mood has only on~ tense c::ll· d
the Pres~nt. It expresses a command, an entre~ty
exhortati on, or permission, with reference eithe; to
present or future time.
·

:n

~ommand.-Do not tallc (either now or hereafter).
E ntreaty.-Do not weep, or weep not.
E xltortation.- Do not sin, or sin not.
P ermission.- Stay till Monday, if you wish.
281. SrnNs.-In the active voice, either none at all or do -A k
d
"sk.
.
s , or o
In the passive voice, be. -Be asked.
282. The subject of a verb in the imperative mood is enerall u
s~ood. Thon or you understood is the subject in each of t~e examy I n~er­
g1ven :-Do not thou or you talk, &c.
P es JUSt

EXERCISE.
S~lect tli~ ver~s ; ~ell whethe1· they are transitive orintransitive ,

: I
11 •

r

1

dt
. ,
mention thew voice (if they ate transitive) their mood
If he b
d I -1
•
, an ense .
e '.1rn : w11
esch ew his company.-Though thou fall ~to
smwHe Will lift thee up.-Take care lest thy t emper betray thee
hether thou be guilty or not, I will not leave thee If th .
·
.ou
do but · k 1 . ill
wm , 1e w espy it.-Respect yourself, and others will
.
b
rnspect you.-Plough deep, while others sleep If I
Id t"ll b
.were a egg ar I
e an honest one.-What right h ad h t . l
' . wou s I
e o msu t
h er, 1f she was a beggar?
If you are wise, pauso for a moment and give
that can lead only t o ruin -Oh that :iien d"d b ut pk a course
·
·
·
'
1
u now the
swee t s of mnocence !-If I were asked where t
t
t :D
I
na nre assumes the
should say in Australia.-Rest assured th
s ran_ges orms,
n'o thmg !i ~s been created without some wise purp~se.-If
"as amb1t1ons, he was a& the same time magna
.
· mmous.

Ores::

• 11
~

parsing I 279. ' Vh at is the sign of tho im erfc t ' .
. .
.
In the passive 1 280. H ow many tenses ha!' th c subjunctive m the active voice 1
~ ll~pe_rative mo~d 1 What does it
express 1 281. 'VJ1at is th o sign of th .
passive 1 282 Jiow may the iu
t• e impeiatl\ e m the active voicej In the
.
'
lpcra ''°mood generally be known 1

99

LESSON XLII.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD.-PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS.
283. The Infinitive Mood expresses an action or state
-- - not limite_d _to_~...8?.~j-~,£~·
It has two tenses, called the Present and the Perfect.
284. INFINITIVE PRESENT.-This tense expresses an
uncompleted action or state not limited to a subject.
It may be used in connection with what is past, present,
or future; as, "I longed to see Ireland." "I long to see
Ireland." "I shall go to see Ireland."
285. S1G N.-Generally, to.-To ask ; to be asking; to be asked.-Bu*
after certain verbs to is omitted ; as, " He bade me [to] ask."

286. INFINITIVE PERFECT.-This tense expresses a
completed action or state not limited to a subject. It
may be used in connection with past or present time ;
as, "The Phamicians were thought to liave settled Ireland." "Washington is said to have been high-tempered."
287. SIGN.-To have.-To have aslced; to have been asking; to have
been asked.

288. Neither the subjunctive, the imperative, nor the
.infinitive, can be used interrogatively.
289. PERSON .AND NUMBER oF VERBs.-Every finite
verb has Person and Number. These correspond with
the same properties in nouns.
290. P erson.-A verb is said to be in the First Person, when it affirms of a person · or persons speaking;
283. What does the Infinitive Mood express 1 Name it• tenses. 284. What is
expressed by the present infinitive 1 285. What is generally the sign of the present
Infinitive! 28G. 'Vhat is expressed by the perfect infinitive 1 With what time
may it bo used in cor.nect.ion 1 287. 'Vhat is the sign of the perfect infinitive 1 288.
What moods can not be nsed interrogatively 1 280. What properties has every
finite verb! 'Vi th what do the person and number of verbs correspond 1 290.
When Is a verb said to be In the first person 1 When, In the second 1 When, in

//. r,,.,.·

;:::,,.._ .• '

100

PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS.

,~-: ....·.

.t'd , J :1 -//,,. ( .

lOl

USAGES OF THE INFINITIVE.

in the Second P erson, when it affirms of an object or
objects spoken to; iii the Third Person, when it affirms
of an object or objects spoken of.
Number.-A verb is said to be in the Singular Number, when it affirms of one person or thing; in the
Plnral, when it affirms of more than one.
The p erson and number of a verb, therefore, depend
on the person and number of its subject. Hence
291. RuLE XI.-A verb agrees with its subject in
person and numb er.
I pray ;- the •erb pra!f is 1st, sing., because its subject I is lst, sing.
Thou prayest ;- pra!fest is 2d, sing., because its subject tho1t is 2d, si.
He prays ;- prays is 3rd, sing., because its subject lte is 3rd, sing.
We pra!J ;- pray is l st, plural, because its subject we is 1st, plural.
You prny ;- pra!f is 2nd, plural, because its subject !JOlt is 2nd, plural.
Tlte!I pray ;- pray is 3rd, plural, because its subject tltey is 3rd, plural.
In the second and third person singular, given above, the verb shows
its person and number by its form, - p1·ayest, prays. In the other fo ur
parts the form is the same, and the person and number of the verb can be
told only by finding those of its subject.
292. Rule XI. does not apply to verbs in the infinitive mood, for they
have no subject.

293. UsAGEs OF THE lNFINITIVE.-A verb in the infinitive may be used as the subject of a finite verb ; as,
"To die for one's country is glorious." The infinitive
to die is the subject of the finite verb is.
294. A verb in the infinitive may also be used to
limit the meaning of some other word.
l. Of a noun; as, "It is my DUTY to go."
2. Of a pronoun; as, "For ME to go would be wrong."
tho third 1 Wben is a •crb said to be in the singular number! When, in tbe
plural 1 On what do tho person and number of a verb depend 1 291. Recite Rule
XI. Gh-e examples of th e rule. I n which of these examples docs the V<!rb show
i ts person nnd number by its form? How are its person and number to be told in
th8 other parts 1 292. To what verbs docs Rule XI. not apply 1 293, What is tho
first usage of tho infinilirn mood i 294. For what else may a verb in the infinitive
be used i Name tho parts of speech that the infinitive mny limit, nncl-glve an

~. Of an adjective; as, "It is HARD to go."
4. Of a verb ; as, "I WISH to go.n
.
,,
5. Of an adverb ; as, " I have walked ENOUGH to tire me out.
6. Of a preposition; as, " I am ABOUT to go."
? ,,
7. or a conjunction; as, "Are you so foolish AS to go .

295. Finally, a verb in the infinitive may be. used
independently,-that is, without limiting 01: relatmg to
any other word ; as," To speak plainly, I thmk you are
dishonest."
296. RuLE XII.-A verb in the infinitive is use.cl as
a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or
standa independently in the sentence.
.
· 297. PARSING.-To parse a verb, state its class, voice
(if transitive), mood, and tense; if finite, its pe~·s~n and
number, what it agrees with, and Rule XI. ; if m th.e
infinitive, what verb it is the subject of, or what it
limits, and Rule XII. Thus : .
Tliougli labor may be liard, to do notliing is still
liarde1·.
May be is an intransitive verb, in the ~ot~ntial ~ood, pre:ent tense,
third person, singular number, and agrees with its subject labor .-Rule, A
verb agrees with its subject in person and num?er..
..
To do is a transitive verb, in the active vorce, mfimt1ve .n:iooc~ , present
tense, the subject of the verb is :- Rule, A verb in the infimtive ~ s used as
a subject, or limits the meaning of some other word, or stands mdependcntly in the sentence.
h' d
rs is an intransitive verb, in the indicative mood, present tens~, t ir
person, singular number, and agrees with the infinitive to do for its subject :-Rule, A verb agrees, &c.

Tlie IIebrews are thought to liave invented letters.
·Are thought is a transitive verb, in the passive voice'. in~i cativ~ mood,
. son , plural number, and a"'rees
with its subject Ilepresent tense, th.11·d per.
"'
..
brews ·-Httlc A verb agrees, &c.
d
To. have in~ented is a transiti ve verb, in the active voice, infinitive moo ,
F'tiiall u,
l'Xamplc of C:1Ch. 20'.
'1u
~ how may a verb !n tho infin!ti"<e be. used
f. 1 200.
Recite Rulo XII. 297. llow ls a verb to bo parsed 1 Learn the pnrsmg ormo.

/

',.°?
:) 1]

:./ _vi
/

'//;;~/)
. I

102

p ARTICI PLES.

perfect tense, and limits the m .
verb in the infinitive, &c.
eanmg of the verb are thought :-Rule, A
EXERCISE .

Parse tlie nouns, jJronouns article
. .
ucation makes the man -0 '
!8, adyectives, and verbs :-Edld
' ·
ato used to sa " Tl R
wor , but women rule the R
,,Y,
10
omans rule the
laugh .-The property of a state~:::~~ -Thos~ who win, may
that thou be not wise i· tl
educate its children - See
.
·
n 1y own conce·t G
to the Chi
.
I .unpowder may have
b een known
A
.
ncse centunes ll"
covered m Herculan eu m, where it h " o.. - . trombone was disyears under the ashes.-Me
l
ad la_m nearly two thousand
n neec not pen sh.

LESSON XLIII.
PARTICIPLES .

298. To verbs belong participles.
I fin_ishcd my meal and left the t bl
a c.
HaYmg finished m .
1
Observe the two sentenc~o J·ust y_rnea ' I le.ft the table.
•m c1·ilTercnt
·
~"
·
given
Th
,
forms. The one direct!
.
CJ convey the same idea bnl
Y affirms that I fi 1118
· h cl
'
otl
ier assumes or imiilics 1·t I·
c my meal the
· · ; in the other •b l .i the
· is
. expressed by• the
. one.' the actwn
ver b fi.nished
299 A p . . '. y iaving fini shed, which we call a Pai-ti . I
.
artic1ple is a form of th
c1p e.

qualifies or limits tl1e
.
e verb that generally
.
· meanuw of a b t
.
Emmmg some action or state .5
su. s .antive, by as300 Th .
m connect10n with it
.
e1e are three partic· l
h
.
P erfect and the C
ip es ; t e Present the
'
ornponnd P erfect
'
3 0l. The Present Partici le assu ~
.
mes an act10n or state
as going on at the time fp
0 some other acf
pas t , present, or future.
1011 or state,
I'

298. 'What words arc embraced
at t.he com mencement ~f th~~,~~~~nver~ 1. Gl\·e the two •entences rir•t e~L 299. Define n Participle. 300 H .
omt out th e difference bc\wcen
heir names. 301. How doe• ti
. ow many participles are there1 G'
le present participle assume nn
lYQ
ac t'ion or state
I

:~ntcd

PERFECT P .A.RTICIPLE.

103

P ast.-Taking leave of you, I departed.}
In each case, the taking leave
Pres.- Taking leave of you, I depart.
i~ represented as g~ing on at the
Ji'u,t.-Taking leave of you, I will depart.
time of the departing.
302. In the active voice, the present participle ends in ing; as, asking,
running. In the passive voice, its sign is being; as, bei1ig asked.

303. The Perfect Participle assumes an action or state
as completed at the time of some other action or state,
past, present, or future.
In each case, respected implies
Past.- Hc died, 1·espectetl by all. }
an action completed at the time
Pres.-He dies, respected by all.
of his death.
Fut.-He will die, respected by all.
304. The perfect participle generally ends in ed, t, or n, and has the /
,same form in both voices. In the active voice, it seldom if ever appears
1 alone, but is used in forming the compo1.md tenses; as, I have asked, I
had bfought, I shall have fallen. In the passive voice, it is used both
alone and in forming the compound tenses; as, " He died, loved and repected." " I am loved and hope to be respected."

~

· 305. The Compound Perfect Participle assumes an action or state as completed before some other action or
state, past, p resent, or future.
Past.-Having learned my lesson, I took a walk.
Prcs.-Having learned my lesson, I take a walk every day.
Fut. -.A.fter having learned my lesson to-morro·w, I shall take a walk.
806. In the active voice, the compound perfect participle is formed by
prefixing having to the perfect participle; in the passive voice, by prefixing having been. -(.A.ctive.) Having asked, having brought, having fallen.
(Passive.) Having been asked, having been brought.

307. To sum up, transitive verbs h ave three participles in the active voice, and three in the passive.
Give examples. •302. How does the present participle end in the nctivo voice?
What is its sign in tho paSBive voice! 303. How does tho iierfect participle assume
a11 action or state 1 Give examples. 304. How does tho perfect participle generall y end 1 For what alone is it u sed in tho activo voice 1 How is it used in tho
passive 1 305. How does the compound perfect participle assnmo an action or
otate1 306. Row is it formed in tho active voice! H ow, in the passive! 307.
'lum up what has been said on this subject. Givo the participles of the verb ask.
Givo those of fall.

'I .

104:

EXERCISE

I·.'
I

I:

ON p ARTICIPLES.

Intransitive verbs, havin no
.
.
three p arti ci1)les corr',spognd' p~ssivf,e voice, make but
. .
'
'"'
Ill O' 111 Ol'ln
'th h
transitive verbs in tl1e t'
eo .
w1
t ose of
ac ive voice.
T P..ANS IT!YE .

fPA a.•.ct.

INTR.lNS ITIV E.

Present.
A sking,

Being asked,
Falling,

Perfect.
asked,
asked,
fallen,

Compound P erfect.
having asked.
having been asked.
having fallen. _

EXERCISE
Select and name tlie p artici l
..
m·e frcmsitive :- Bnrgoyn 1 '? es, stating tlieir voice wllen tliey
the North being th f ed iavmg surrendered at Saratoga and
•
<'
us ree from th :D
t11rough th e land -B
·t·
e ear of mvasion, joy spread
d
·
Y wri JDO" frequent]
1"
. y an carefully correcting
what we liave writt
II
en, we earn to w ··t
condemned to death S . t
11 e we .-Having been
h' 1.
' oc1a es refused t
escaping.--Hopinn- for the best
t £ ? save is ife by secretly
though surr ounded b diffi 1 . ' ye earrng th e worst, Congress
cu ties, to ok measures to increase th~
army.
y
. T um eaclt?:erb in italics into a partici l
.
P e, and, by omitting tlie conJunc tion or sub>J"ect co1n:pl t t'
•
'
e e 11e sentence p 1.
z
·
2ts meaning. [Tlrns ·-Galile
oper Y witliout alte·r ing
and made many imp~rt n nt l ? const~·uct~d a telescope for himself
rr
.
"'
( ISCOvenes ID a t .
'
Li aving consti'ucted a telesco e
.
s I onomy.- Cfianged.
Do what is right, and loavc
fo,r himself, Galileo made, &c.]
selves.-Gold when 't .
. con~el! ueuces to take care of themwith
. b
webster arose' and ndd1 1. 18 nuxed
d
coppei' ecomes l1arder _
1
esse
t
1e
meetin"'
B
. dd
·
.
"
a d vice of \Vashin n-ton and £ 11 .
o ·- i a
ock rejected the
liad been asked his"opi~i~n b et d1'ndto a fatal ambuscade.-Porson
d"ians of America a1·e tldnned
' u 1 not. comm't
'
If.-The In•
I h imse
and are daily becominn- le "
out by m"emperance and disease
o
s~ numerous.
~

th:

L ESSON XL IY.
CONSTR UC TION OF P;lRTICIPLE•S
308. CAUTIONS -Do not
f,
d
.
f, con oun a participle witJi
an adjective of tl;e
. same orm. Both qualify o1; limit
308, 'Vith what

mu t

. .
s n partic1plo not be confounded i

H ow may adjective•

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLE!!.

105

the meaning of substantives; but a participle implies
in addition an action or state going on or completed,
and may govern an object like a finite verb.
Adjectives.-A hal'd-working man (one that is iu the habit of working
hard) ; a travelling clerk ; an amusing story; an enlightened mind.
Participles.- A man working bard (on some particular occasion); a
clerk travelling in Georgia; amusing us with a story; a mind enlightened
by education.

309. Do not · confound the participle in ing with a
participial noun of the same form. ·If the word in
question has an adjective joined to it, it is a noun. If
it is modified by an adverb or governs an object, it is
a participle.
Noun.-Reading is taught in every school, yet good reading is rare.
Pal't.-Tbe art of reading well is acquired by imitating a good teacher.

310. PARTICIPLES USED INDEPENDENTLY. -Participles
·generally qualify or limit the meaning of substantives.
Sometimes, however, they do not relate to any particular noun or pronoun, and then they are said to be used
indepmidently. A participle used independ ently is
often ·Ll1e object of a prcposi ti on.
"The art of reading well is all-important." "Generally speaking, the
hardest workers are the bappiest."- Here the participles reading and
speaking, not relating to any particular noun or pronoun, are used independently. R eading is the object of the preposition of.

311. R uLE XIII.-Participles are used independently, or relate to the substantives whose meaning they
qualify or limit.
312. A participle, whether used independently or not, may tnk e a noun
or pronoun for its obj ect. This noun or pronoun is in the objective case,
nnd parti cipl es be distinguished i Give examples. 309. How may the p articiple
in ing be di stinguished from a part.icipial noun of the same form 1 Illustrate this.
310. When nro participles said to be u sed independently i Of what is a participle
eo used often the object i GiYe examples. 311. Recite Rule XIII. 312. In what
case Is a substantive that ls the gbject of a participle 1 According to what rule 1

5*

' ,I

11 .
'V
I

106
p ARSING OF p ARTICIPLES

acco1·ding to Rule I V A b•
.
•
..
"
su stantive th t · h
os1t10~ is in the objective case.- " Le:dts t e. object of a verb or prep~g his soldiers over the Al s
Ilannrbal entered Italy." "Leacli
ng soldiers over tb e Alps is
p ,
matter.'' In each of th'
b'
ese sentences sold.
. .
no easy
o ~ ec t of the participle leading.
,
iei·s is in tbe objective case, the

313. RULE XIV - A 1
.
being modifi ed by .
s.u .)stant1ve which, in stead of
1t
a p articiple is m d t
a e o modify the
a ter, is put in the IJOssess· - '
ne case.
"

I saw John writing" H .
.
J ohn is in the objectil'c ~ase. ei;h:oh:~.1~ ~he obj~c.t seen. Hence the noun
and therefore relates to it. "I ' p t1c1pl.e writing qualifies its meani "'
Here th
··
"as surprised t J l
·
n,,,
.
e writwg so •ocll is the thin"
.
a o m's writing so we]],,
is no Jono-er modified b tl
.. " at winch I was surprised Th
.
t b
"
Y ie part1c1ple w ·t ·
b
·
e noun
rz mg, ut itself modifies the I t
er _ y telling whose writino- is
XIV
t .
o
meant It is th ~
aere ore, according to Rule
" pu Ill the possessive case- ' ; ,
314 p
.;Oftu s.

. ARSING.-The part' . l .
stanti ve, and its ob . t
ic1p e, its modifying subv
Jee ' are parsed a f, 11
.£!,very tliing depends on c
s . ~ ows : gently.
the JJu.pil s studying diliPupil's is a c
ommon noun in the th' d
mon gender, possessive case a:1d m d'fi tr person, singular number com'
A su~st11nti 1'e whi ch, in stead of bci~ I ws J .he participle studying :_:_Rule
moclily the latter, is put in the posses;. mo ified by a participl e, is made t~
Studying is the
. .
1ve case.
used i d
prcRP.n t. parti ciple nctive of th ·
n ependently as the object f tl
e Intransitive verb stud
are l~fsed in~epcnclently, or relate oto
prebpositi~n of :-Rule, Partioipl;~
qua 1 y or limit
su stant1ves whose m .
·
eamno- they

t:e

IIaving made a code
Lycu1·r;us lift 8pal'ta.

ef la

.
"
ws fm· lizs countrymen,

Having mad e i·•, t1te compound
..
·f:
..
t1 v~ ''.erb make, an d relates to the n~~' e~ part1c1plc active of the transiuse md epend ently &c
n ycurgus :-Rule Parf . I
Code is a
, .
.
,
ICip es are
common noun, in the third
i~~~~ t~1~:cl'!°~t of the participle ltaving~~:~:1'.:J:u;ar ~umber, objective
o a verb or preposition is in th b. . ." e, , substantive that
e 0 uect1ve case.
21 3. R ecite Rule XIV
parsing forms,
.

Show its application in nn
example,

314. Learn the

OOMPOUND TENSES.-AUXILI.A.RIES.

107

EXERCISE.

Pars11 the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and participles:-We can
learn much by simply observing and r emembering what we see.Filled with r emorse on account df having betrayed his Lord, .Tudas
killed himself.-Ilaving been thrown into the sea, Jonah was
swallowed by a great fish.-Bayonets are so called from having
been invented at Bayonne, in France.-Arnold, having matured
his plans, met Andre near the river, and after arranging matters
with him returned to the fort.-Disappointed at not having obtained
an interview with the queen, Columbus was about leaving Spain.

LESSON XLV.
AUXILIARIES.-BE, HA VE.

315. AuxrLLIBIEs.-Some tenses of the verb consist
of two or more words; as, have asked, sliall have asked.
These are called Compound Tenses.
They are formed by joining words known as Auxiliaries to some part of the principal verb. Auxitiary
signifies aiding j and these words are so called because
they aid in forming the compound tenses.
316. The auxiliaries are be in all iti:; tenses, have in
certain tenses, do, di,.d, will, shatl, may, can, must, need,
might, could, would, and slwuld.
317. Parsing.-In parsing, auxiliaries must be taken with their prin·
cipal verb, even though other words come between. " Sarah would not
have thus deceived me." Parse the words would h ave deceived together, as
a transitive verb, in the active voice, potential mood, pluperfect tense,
third person, singular number, &e.
318. vvhen several verbs are used in the same construction, the auxiliary is generally expressed with the first and understood with the rest; as,
Sl~. ·whot is meant by Compound Tenses 1 How are the compound tenses
form ed I What docs auxiliary mean 1 Why arc tho auxiliaries so called I 316.
Mention the auxiliaries. 317. In parsing, h ow must the auxiliaries be taken 1 818.
Wh en several verbs are u sed in the same construction, what is said of the nuxil·
lary! On tho other hand, what is sometimes understood 1 In this case, howmuot

,, .

!~

108

THE .AUXILlaRY BE.

"I am surpl'ised, grieved, and shocked at your pI'oposal." To repeal
the auxiliary [am grieved, and am shocked] would be inelegant. But
grieved and shocked arc to be parsed as if am preceded each,- that is, as in
the passive voice, indicative mood, present tense, &c.
. On the other hand, the principal verb is sometimes understood, and the
auxilia!'y alone expressed ; as, " i\Iay I go ? You may." Here parse may
as an auxilia!'y used fo r may go, an intransitive verb, in the potential
mood, present tense, &c.

319. CoNJUGATION.-By the Conjugation of a verb is
m eant the process of carrying it through its several
moods, t enses, persons, and numbers.
To distinguish the persons in conjugating, we prefix the pronouns I,
tho", he, in the singu lar; we, yo1•, they, in the plural. In the subjunctive
mood, we prefi x the conjunction if. These words must be parsed separately
from the verb.

320. \ ¥ e shall now consider the auxiliaries in turn.
321. Be, in its various parts, is the common verb with
which we affirm existence ; as, "Be happy ." . " I am
happy."
Besides appearing as a p1·incipal verb, be is used in
all its parts as an auxili ary.
Combin ed wi th the pl'csent pal'ticiple active, it makes the pI'ogressive
form of the val'io us tenses of the active voice ; as, I am r"ling, I was nding.
Combined with the pel'fect pal'ti ciplc passive, it forms tho passive tenses;
as, I am ruled, I was i·uled.
The verb be is conjugated in Lesson XLVIII.

322. Have is used both as a principal verb and as an
·auxiliary . As a principal verb, it is transitive, and may
be carri ed through all the mood s and tenses of both
voices. A s an aux iliary, it is used in the compound
perfect p ar ti e; ;ple, and in six tenses, as follows:wepnrsc0ica ux ili ary1 319. Whatis meantbyconjugatingnvcrb ? H owdowc
distinguish the persons in conjugatin g 1 In 'lhe subj unctive mood, what do wo
prefix 1 321. What do " ·c affirm with tho verb be 1 Besides appear ing a s a principal verb, how is be used '( .•Vliat docs it form, when combined with the presen t
parllciple active 1 What, when combined with tho perf ect participle passive I 322.
How is have u sed 1 I n what parts is it used as an auxiliary 1 Ofwhnt tense is

109

THE AUXILIARY H.A VE.

PERF.- Have.
!NDIC. PLu.-Had.
lNDIC SEC. Fu.- Shall have.

l NDIC.

I

PoTEN. PERF.- May have.
PoTEN. PLU.- Migbt have.
lNFIN PERF.-To have.
•
.
d th

. The first two of these are conjugate
323.
Plural.
Singulai·.

.
us .-

Plural.
We bad,
b d
Thou hadst,
You a '
J d
He had i
They m ·
"H
in the third singular i as,
e

1. I had,

Singulai·.
Ih
W e have,
.:!
ave,
2.
have,
~t 2. THebouhasb as. t, You
S.
They have.
3
~324.. In solemn
' styl e, h ave makes hath

{1.

hath offended God."
EXERCI SE .

d "state the mood and tense of
I nsert verbs in compound tenses, anl
invented steel n eedles.
to
iave
k.
.
h
Moors
S
each :-The pams
.
Behring's Strait. Brick-ma ang
The first settlers of America-.·t
The Chinese - - ac" f the earliest ar s.
·
is said - - onv o
.
before it - - in Europe.
quaintcd with the manner's c~mpasse you no offence was iny ou - - that I was rude, but assur
.
h e - - . In some
t 1r vn how to swim,
no.' r£
The boiler exploded, and many
t ended. Had he no
countries, forgers - - for I e.
passengers - -.

LESSON XL V I.

I

•

\

1.

I

THE AUXILIARI ES DO, DID, WILL ' SHALL.

I

.
.
d both as principal verbs and
325. Do and did a1e use
auxiliary in the pres·1· .
Do appears as an •
.
·as aux1 ian es. .
. .
b·unctive and imperative;
ent tense of the indicative, s~ J
d 'b.
tive
·
D t · dicative an su JUnc
·
did in the imper e~ ' m .
d these auxiliaries re.
d
6 I th subJunctive moo ,
32
n e
. d. t•
they are C011JUgate
. u.nchano-ed
main
o · In them ica IVe,
thus:

I

"t persons and numbere.
303 Carry ha'Oe through 1 s
h third
I ave the auxlliary I Had 1 - . 1
tylc what does have make in t e
~o the same with had. 324. In so emn s '

sin ular I
what ar ts of the verb does do ~ppear as
g305 How are do and did used 1 In
ru>d did ln the oubjunct1ve mood.
• :1.iar y'' In wh at, did I 326. Oonjugat~ o
an nux1

~

I:
I

I

'

I\ ,

.
110

WILL AND SH.A.LL.

~ {~:s~::~z::~t £:~;;·
>t;

3. He does; '

They

d~.

/

I.
:·

WILL AND SH.A.LL.

~i~f:,za1·.

~:r~~.

~hou_ didst,

You did,

. .
· e did;
They did
327. As a prmc1pn1
verb do makes d .. t
d
.
the second sin~ulai· ond d .:t,
d , [ oes or os.t [pronounced dust] in
o
' "
oe rt or oltt d t!.] ·
1
.
third singular As an
..
u ' in tie solemn form of the
• h
·
' auxi1rnry it makes dost J
a one mt e second singular
and doth in the solemn f:orm of t'h h"
..
e t 1rd. " Th d ··
'
doet!t, dotlt miracles: ,, llUT " Thou d
ou oest, dost, wonders ; he
3 9. 8 W. .
. ost not speak ; dot!t he not hear? "

"' . ill Is used as a princi I
b
auxiliary in th e future tenses paitv~r 'd~!d also as an
IS iuerently co
·
d
·
Jugate ' according to its use. Thus : nPR!KC!P.\L VERB.

g 11.2.

~
Q.,

I will,
Thou wiliest,
3. He wills;

We will
you will,
They will.

A UX!LlA.RY.

1. I will,
2. Thou.wilt,
3. He will ;

We will
You wili,
They will

1
39.0 Sh 11 J"l
·
.
fntu;e .tens:s·. I rn. will, appears as an auxiliary in the
It is thus conjugated :Singulai·.-I shall, thou shalt, he shall .
Plural. - Wc shall, you shall, they shaiJ.

w

.

330. FORCE OF TVILL .A..i.~D SH.A.LL
that th fi t f
. - e saw m § 255
2 Det ~ .rs t " uture implies, 1. Future time simply
·
e1mma ion.
·
\Vhen future time sim l · · 1·
the auxil1"a1·y . tl fi
p y is imp ied, sliall is used as
<
,
m le rst perso . d ·zz ·
and third I 1; ll t z
• n, an wi m the second
•
8 ia ' tioit wilt he will . Wi
z l
will, tliey will.
'
'
e Ma l, you

When determination is implied w ·zz .
d .
1;
•
' i
Is use m the
first
·
pei son, s <all m the second and third I "ll h
slialt, lie sliall; We will, yoit sliall, they shall.wi ' t ou
In_ th_c indi cative. 327. 1Vhat differences ~ro th . .

.

pr~nc~pal verb and as an auxiliary 1 328 Ho _c1c .rn the conJugation of do as a
prrnc1pal verb. Conjug ntc il as an auxniar - w I! wzll used 1 Conjugate will as a
p ear as an auxiliary 1 Conjugate s/i,l//. 330'.i ·, 3-9. In what tenses does shalt apply 1 Go through tlie llrst future ten
. Vhot do;s the first future tense im.
through tho llrst fu ture, when

dctcrmsi~a:<-hcn. future

lime simply is implied. Go
ion is Impltcd. When determiuat!on la

111

ln tills latter form, the speaker declares his determination, in the first
person about himself; in the second, about the person spoken to; in the
third, about the person or thing spoken of. A promise or threat may
therefore be conveyed. Thus:- " I will go, if I perish in the attempt [it
is my determination]." "You shall have what you want [it is my deter·
mination-promise ]. " "He shall suffer for tills insult [it is my determination-threat]."
331. Will emphasized in the second and the third person implies determination in the person spoken to or of, respecting his own acts; as, " He
will go [he is determined to do so]." " They will not repent [they are
determined not to do so]."

332. In questions, shall and w·ill have a different
force.
Shall, in the first person, asks for advice; " Shall I go? ~ In the
second person, it denotes futurity simply; "Shall you go?" In the third
person, it asks for the determination of the person addressed respecting
some person or thing spoken of. " Shall tills man rule over us [is it your
determination] ? "
On the other hand, will in all three persons implies simple futurity;
"Will I, you, he, be in time ?" In the second and the third .person, it
also sometimes asks for the determination of the persen spoken to or of;
as, "Will you accept my invitation?"
333. Will sometimes expresses merely what is habitual; as, "He will
sit and read for hours [he is in the habit of doing so]."

· 1,.:
I ~ ,;
I

EXERCISE.

Correct the auxiliaries :-Doest thou not see thy danger1He doeth not walk safely, that walks in the paths of -sin.-Thou
shalst not steal.-To whom will we flee for aid 1-I will drown!
Shall no body save me 1-Shall he not have departed?-Wilst thou
notstay1-No matter who is present, I shall state my views.
Supply the proper auxiliai·y :-I expect that I [will or shall!]
see my father.-! have resolved that I [ioill or shall?] rise early.
-[Will or shall?] it be rigl1t to let this go on 1-We [will or
shall!] next proceed to treat of Optics.-He [will or shall?] sueimplied, respecting what is it exerci sed in the different persons I What, therefore,
may be conveyed 1 Give examples. 331. What does wilt emphasized in the second
nnd the third person imply 1 332. In questions, what is the force of shall in tho
senral persons I Of will 1 333. What does will sometimes express I

l

I

I·

I,
'

I'

11

112

AUXILIARIES OF THE POTENTIAL.
WOULIJ .AND SHOULD.

ceed, if industry is worth any thin
.
.
left before you arrive.-By the tim~·-.We [will_ or shall!] have
s~all have taken their departure. wmter sets m, they [will or

n

LESSON XL VII.
THE AUXILIARIES MAY, CAN, MUST, NEED
COULD,

WOULD, SHOULD.

, MIGHT,

334-. May, can, must, and need, are auxiliaries of the
present potential. They are thus conjugated:Singular.
I
Plural.
may, thou mayst (mayest), he may,· W
I
can, t hou canst he can.
W e may, you may, they may.
I must, thou mu;t he m~st.
\Ve can, you can, they can.
I need, thou need;t (est) he' need.
We must, you must, they must.
33 T
,
,
e need, you need the
d
5. hese auxiliaries folio' d b /,
(
'
Y nee ·
perfect potential.
ve
y iave may have, &c.) indicate the

336. Need is also used as a principal
b
all need pardon."
ver ; as, "We
337. As an auxiliary, need remains unch "' .
.
a principal verb it becomes
d
.
anoed m the third, singular. As
,
n ee s, or Ill solemn sty!
de /,

verb limiti ng its meanin"' is put . th .
e nee t'; and another
that can swim need n;t des . JJ~, He mfinitivc. Dr. Johnson says, "He
d
'
pair.
ere need is a
'J'
espair is in the present potent'1 1 Sb
n auxr rary, and need
~ · . a1•spe~re says, "I need not to advise
you further." Here need is
ified by the infinith·e to d. ~ pnBncrplal verb Ill the present indicative, mod£
a vise.
ot l constructio
l
ormer is the more common.
ns are aut iorized, but the

338 . M.ight, could, would, and should
T .
the imperfect potent' 1 Th
.
'~re aux1 ianes of
ia ·
ey are conJugated thus:Singular.

l might, thou might st (est) he might .
could ; '
I c?uld, thou coulcl:;t (es t ),
wou ld, thou wouldst (est), 11c would .
should, thou shouldst (est), he should;

i

lie

Plural.

We might, you might, they mi~ht
'Ve could, you could, they could ..
We would, you would, they would
We should, you should, they should.

334. Of what tense are may, can must and .
,
may i can; must; need. 335. What 'tense' j . n~ecl the .auxlliarics? Conjugate
low:d b~have? 336. Bowisneed alsou sed?s ~lldl'Cated b~ tliese auxiliaries foIconJugat10n of need as a principal verb and
37. What difference is there in tho
two cqmva
· 1ent conatructiona ·With need. 338
as an aux1!1ary I G'
0
ivo an exnmple of
. f what tense arc might, could,

113

339. These auxiliaries followed by have (might have, &c.) indicate the
pluperfect potential.

340. In subjoined clauses, after a verb in tlie imperfect tense, would and slwuld are used with the same
difference of meaning for the different persons as wilZ
and sliall (§ 330). Thus:Futurity.- ! said I should go. I told you it would not rain.
Determination.- ! said I would go. I told you she should not go.
341. JVou_ld is sometimes used to de~ote what was habitual; iis, "He
would sit and read for hours."
342. lVould is sometimes, but ·very rarely, used as a principal verb.
Thus, in the Psalms, "Israel would none of me."

343. Observe that when be, liave, do, will, need, and
would, are combined with a participle or any other part
of a principal verb, they are auxiliaries. When not so
combined, they are principal verbs.
.Auxiliaries.-He is amusing the children. Cmsarwas loved. I do not
want to be robbed. They have pitied us. Do look. Save her, do. Do~s
He not help those whom He will save. Nothing need be said. Who would
be a slanderer·?
Principal Verbs.-That story is amusing. C::esar was ambitious..
Have pity on us. They crossed the river, as they intended to do. Industry does wonders. He saves those whom He wills to save. A workman
that needeth not to be ashamed. They would none of my reproof.
EXERCISE.

Correct the auxiliaries :-Can I leave the room ?-May thou be
happy !-Men will not listen, that they might save their souls.No person neecls blush when he has clone his best.-He cried out
in terror that he should drown, nobody should help him.-Can ke
not have started ?-I proniised that he would be allowed to return.
- Can thou not regulate thine own conduct ?-Helen promised
would, and should tho auxiliaries 'i Conjugate mig ht; could; wo1dd; should.
330. What tense is indicated by these auxiliaries followed by have 1 340. How are
n·ould and should used in subjoined clauses 1 341. What is would sometimes used
lo denote 1 342. How is would sometimes used I 343. 'Vhich of th e auxiliaries
are also used as principal verbs 1 How can it be told whether these words are
•uxiliaries or principal verbs r Give example11.

----114

THE VERB BE.

that she might write to-morrow -Th
pains with it -A .·
·
ou need not have taken such
·
puze was offered to J ·
h
best composition.
um w o wou1d write the

Second Future Tense.
Singular.

Plural.

1. I shall or will have been,
2. Thou shalt 01· wilt have been,
S. He shall or will have been;

LESSON XL VIII.

~e is conjugated thus:-

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
1. I may, can, must, 01· need be, 1. We may, can, must, or need be,
2. Thou mayst, canst,* &c., be, 2. You may, can; must, 01· need ba,
3. He may, can, must, or need 3. They may, can, must, or need
be.
be;

Present Tense.
Singular.

Plural.

i { 1. I am,
~ 2. Thou art
"' 3. He is; ,
~

1. We are,
2. You are,
3. They are.

Impeifect Tense.
1. I might, could, would, or
1. We might, could, would, or
should be,
should be,
2. Thou mightst, couldst, &c., be, 2. You might, could, &c., be,
3. He might, could, &c., be;
3. They might, could, &c., be.

.Enperfect Tense.
1. I was,

2. Thou wast or wert
3. He was·,
'

1. We were,
2. You were,
3. Theywen.

P erfect Tense.
1. I h ave been,
2. Thou hast been
3. He has been·, '

1. We have been,
2. You have been,
3. They have been.

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I had been
2. Thou liadst been

3. He had been·,

'

Peifect Tense.
1. I may, can, must, or need
1. We may, can, must, or need
have been,·
have been,
2. Thou mayst, &c., have been, 2. You may, &c., have been,
3. He may, &c., have been;
3. They may, &c., have been.

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I might, could, would,

01·
1. We might, could, would, 01·
should have been,
should have been,
2. Thou mightst, &c., have been, 2. You might, &c., have been,
3. He might, &c., have been;
3. They might, &c., have been.

1. We had been,
2. You had been,
3. They had been.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
1. If I be,
2. If thou be,
3. ,Ifhe be;

Fii'st Future Tense.
1. I shall or will be
2. Thou shalt o1· wllt be
3· H e shall 01· will be . '
'

1
2.
·
3·

W h
.
y e s ha11 or w~l be,
ou s all 01· will be
Th
hall
.
,
ey s · 01· will be.

1. We shall or will have been,
2. You shall 01· will have been,
3. They shall or will have been.

POTENTIAL MOOD.

TIIE VERB BE .

344. The intransitive verb

115

THE VERB BE.

1. If we be,
2. If you be,
3. ·If they be.

•In reciting, always give all the auxiliaries-Thou mayst, canst, must, or

neadst be.

11
~·

116

I mperfect Tense.
S ingulal'.

P lul'al.
1. If we were,
2. If you were,
3. If they were.

1. If I were,
2. If thou we!:e,
3. If be were;

117

ACTIVE VOICE OF THE VERB R ULE.

RE:\:Ll.RKS ON THE VERB B E'.

e been braver.-Be we contented.-Go~
a lion, he could not hav
I Th world will be wiser than it
·
t tl1ee my son.e
be gracious un o
,
.
h 11 11 be wret ch ed.If ou be mistaken, we s a a
has ever been. - Y
d f life -Having been there, I
To be truly happy is th e great en o
.
am certain this is the way.

IMPERATI VE MOOD.

LESSON XLIX.

P 1·esent Tense.
1. Be I,
2. Be thou or do thou be,
3. Be h e ;

I. Be we,
2. Be yo u 01· do you be,
3. Be th ey.

INFINITIVE MOOD .

P r esent T ense.

To be.

P erfect T ense.

P ei:fect. Been.

Comp ound P eif ect. Having been.

34·5. RE1!.\ RKS.- Besides the fol'm s given above in the pI'Csent indicative, we fi nd the foll owing used by old writers :- I be, thou beest, he be ;
we be, you be, they be. " We be twelve bl'ethren."- Gcnesis, chap. 4 2.
" I think it be thine indeed. "- S liaksp care. These forms are obsolete, and
sho uld not now be used.
346. J.VCl'e is sometimes used fo l' would be, and must then be parsed

as in the potential imperfect; as, " IL were impossible to tell thee all I
feel. "
347. The conjunction

348 The verb R U L E, which will serve as an exam~le
. t h us conJug
· ated in the active
of all ·transitive verbs, is
voice :INDICATIVE MOOD.

To h ave been.

P ARTICIPLES.

Present. Being.

CON J UGATION OF' A T R ANSI T IVE V E RB I N T H E ACTIVE VOICE.

if

ls sometimes omi tted before the pluperfect
indicatire, and the present and impel'fect subjunctive. In this case, the
verb or its au xili ary is placed befo re the subj ect; as, " Had Cresar been
prudent, be would have paused (for if Ocesar !tad been ]. " "Be it [if it
beJ a ghost, I care not. " " Were all Christians [if all Christi ans were] in
earnest, what glorious results would be ach ieved ! "

Present Tense.
P lu1·al.

S ingular.

1. r rule or do rule,
2 . Thou rulest or dost rule,
3. He rules 01· does rule;

I mpe1f ect Tense.
1. I ruled or did rul~,
2. Thou r uledst or d1clst rule,
3. He ruled or dicl rule;

P arse the 11ouns, prono11118, ar ticles, adj ectives, and verbs :-All
men ar e mor tal.-1\' e must be cauti ous.-Hacl King Richard been
345. W Jrn.t obsolete fo rm of the present in dicat ive do we find in old wr iters 1
346. F or w hat is wt: re sometimes used 1 IIow mu'st i t then bo parsed 1 847. What
i i said with regard to the om ission of th o conjunction ifl

·

1. we h ave ruled,

1. I have ruled,
2. Thou h ast ruled,
3. He h as ruled;

,

11

1 We ruled or did rule,
' You ruled or did rule,
2
3. They r uled or did rule.
.

P erf ect Tense.
2. You h ave rul.e d,
3. They h ave ruled.

I

I

I·I · r,
I

Plup erfect Tense.
I. I h acl ruled,

EXE RC I S E .

1. We rule or do rule,
2: you rule or do rule,
3. TJ:iey rule or do rule.

2. Thou h adst r uled,
3. H e h ad ruled ;

1. w e had ruled,
2. You h ad r uled,
3. They h ad ruled.

First Future Tense.
.
I. I shall or will r~le,
2. Thou shalt or wilt rule,
3. He sh all 01• will rule i

.

1. We sh all or will rule,
. You shall or will rule,
2
3. They shall or will rule.
·

II.

I ::~

. l

118

ACTIVE VOICE OF' THE VERB RULE.

Imperfect Tense.

Seconcl Future Tense.
Sinpulai·.

.'

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Present lense.

Present Tense.
rule,
2. Thou mayst, canst, &c., rule,
3. He may, can, &c., rule;

1. Rule I,
2. Rule thou or do thou rule,
3. Rule he;

1. We may, can, must, or need

rule,
2. You may, can, &c., rule,
3. They inay, can, &c., rule,

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or
should rufo,
should rule,
2. Thou mightst, &c., rule,
2. You might, &c., rule,
3. Ho might, &c., rule;
3. They might, &c., rule.

Peifect Tense.

Plupeifect Tense.
1. I might, could, would,

Present Tense.
1. If I rule or do rule,
2. If thou rule or do rnle,
3. If he rule 01· do rule;

1. If we rule or do rule,
2. If you rule 01· do rule,
3. If they rule or do rule.

Perfect Tense. To have ruled.

P .A.RTICIPLES.

Present. Ruling.

1. I may, can, must, 01·necd have 1. We may, can, must, or need
ruled,
have ruled,
• 2. Thou mayst, &c., lrnve ruled, 2. .You may, &c., have ruled,
3. He may, &c., have ruled;
3. They may, &c., have ruled.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

1. Rule we,
2. Rule you or do you rule,
3. Rule they.

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. To rule.

Impeifect Tense.

01·
1. We might, could, would, or
should have ruled,
should have ruled,
2. Thou mightst, &c., have ruled 2. You might, &c., have ruled,
3. He might, &c., have ruled; ' 3. They might, &c., have ruled.

1. If we ruled or did rule,
2. If you ruled or did rule,
3. If tl1ey ruled or' did rule.

1. If I ruled or did rule,
2. If thou ruled 01· did rule,
3. If he ruled or did rule;

POTENTIAL MOOD.

1. I may, can, must, or need

Plural.

Singular.

Plural.

1. I shall 01· will have ruled,
1. We shall 01· will have ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have ruled, 2. You shall 01· will have ruled,
3. He shall 01· will have ruled; 3. They shall or will. have ruled.

119

:REM.ARKS ON THE VERB.

I
I

_J

I

Perfect. Ruled.

Comp. Perfect. Having ruled.

349. REMARKS.-Except in solemn and poetical style, the second person plural of the verb is used in addressing n single person, in stead of the
second singular. In conversation we say you rule, not thou 1-ulest, though
but one person is referred to; but in prayer or poetry we say tlwii 1-ulest.
350. In the third person singular of the present indicative, there is a
solemn form e!fding in th; as, he 1-uleth.
351. The compound forms of the present and imperfect indicative,
containing do and did, are properly used when a negation is expressed or
emphasis is required ; as, " ' You do not love me.' ' I do love you."' "Ho
says I did not go, but I did go."-When there is no emphasis or negation,
the simple form is to be preferred as stronger. "We beseech thee," not
" we do beseech thee."
352. To avoid a disagreeable combination of consonants, the termination st is sometimes omitted by good writers in the second person singular
of the imperfect indicative. Thus Pollok says, thou conqiiered, thou came,
thoii noticed,.thoii lifted. So Pope :-tlwii who touched; thy word who
knew no wish. The regular form, however, is more used, and therefore to
be preferred.
349. In what number do we commonly use the verb when we address a single
person 1 350. Give the solemu form of the izresent indicative in the third person.
351. When is it proper to use the compound forms of the present and imperfect
Indicative I 352. In what part is st omitted by some writers 1 Why 1 Which

120

PASSIVE VOICE.

PASSIVE VOICE OF THE VERB RULE.

353. In the imperative mood, most g rammars give only the second person. But all three persons arc found in standard writers, and may be used
when occasion requires. l!'rns·r PEI<SON. "Cursed be I that did so."
- Slwkspcare. "Pi·occcd we therefore. "-Pope. Tmun PEUSON. "Thy
will be donc."-Bible. "Be it known."

I mnerfect Tense.
Sing11lar.

EXERCISE.

1. I have been r uled,
2. Thou hast been ruled,
3. He has been rul ed.,

1. we h ave been ruled,

2. You have been ruled,

d
3. They have been rule ·

Pluperfect Tense.
1. I had been ruled, ul d
2. Thou h adst beenl dr e '
3. He had been ru e ;

1 w e had been ruled,

2. you h ad been ruled,
3. They had been ruled.
·

First Futitre Tense.
1. I shall or will b~ ruled:
2. Thou sh alt or _wilt b~ ;~~d,
3 . He shall or will be iu e ,

LESSON L.

1 We shall or will be ruled,
2. You sh all or will be rul ed,
3. They shall or will be ruled.
·

Second Future Tense.

CONJU G ATI ON OF A TR AN SITIVE VERB IN THE
P A SS IV E VOICE.

354. The various parts of the passive voice are formed
by combining the perfect p articiple with the corresponding parts of the auxiliary be. All transitive verbs are
conjugated in the passive voice according to the following model:-

1. We 8h a11 01• will have been
ruled,
ruled,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 2. you sh all o1· will h ave been
ruled,
ruled,
3. He shall o1· will have been 3 _ They shall OI' will h ave been
ruled.
ruled ;

1. I sh all

01·

will h ave been

POTENTIAL MOOD.

P 1·esent Tense.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
2. Thou art ruled,
3. H e is rul ed;

Plural.

1. We were ruled,
2. you were ruled,
3. They were ruled.

P e1fect Tense.

Supply ve1·bs, and pane the nouns, pronouns, and verbs in tlw
sentences thus completed :-Strike while the iron - hot. Whatsoever thy h and fin dcth to do, - it with thy might. The bittern in desolate places. The day may - when justice will triumph.
Having thus deceived the enemy, Wash ington - to Princeton. If
the climate of Africa - not so fatal, more travellers - there. In
stead of oppressing his subj ects, Nero might greatly have benefited
them, if he - to - so. A French officer, on visiting the mother
of Washington, - : " :ro wonder America has - such a leader,
since he - such a mother I "

Singula;·.
1. I am rul ed,

T'

1. I was ruled,
2 . Thou wast or wert ruled,
3 . Ho was ruled;

121

Plural.•

1. We are ruled,
2. You are ruled,
3. They are ruled.

form is to be preferred 1 353. Give some examples showing that all th1·ee persons
aro found in th o imperative moocl.

1. I may, can, must, 01· n eed
be ruled,
2. Thou mayst, &c., be ruled,
3. Ho may, &c., be ruled;

1. We may, can, must, 01· need be
ruled,
2. you may, &c., be ruled,
3. They may, &c., b e ruled.

Imperfect Tense.
1. We might, could, would, or
1. I might, could, would, or
should be ruled,
should be ruled,
2. Thou mightst, &c., be ruled, 2 . you might, &c., be ruled,
3. They might, &c., be ruled.
S. He might, &c., be ruled;
c;

I
I

I ·

122

PASSIVE VOICE OF THE VERB RULE.

REMARKS ON THE VERB.

Singulai·.

1. I may, can, must,

123

Perfect Tense.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

M5. Some verbs, besides the regular present participle passive given
above, have their participle in ing used with a passive meaning ; as, the
houses now ci·ecling, a book now publishing in numbers. Parse a participle
in ing thus used as the present participle passive.
356. CAUTJONS.-In old writers we sometimes find the perfect of certain intransitive verbs formed with am in stead of have, and the pluperfect
with was in stead of had. Thus :-Winter is [has] come; they are [have]
arrived; when they were [had] gone ; happiness was [had] flown. These
forms are now rarely used, and should be avoided. Do not take. them for
passive tenses, which they resemble, but parse thus : Is come is an intransitive verb, used for has come; in the indicative mood, perfect
tense, &c.
357. We have seen (§ 308) that there are some adjectives identical
in form with participles. Do not, therefore, confound the verb be followed
by such an adjective, with a passive compound tense. Observe the difference in the following examples:Verb n;; and adjcctive.-1 am obliged to you. You are mistaken. She
is accomplished. He is resolved to go. I am inclined to remain.
T ransitive verb in the passive voice.-1 am obliged to return. Sometimes hypocrites are mistaken fo r pious men. The deed is accomplish,d.
Water is resolved into its elements. My body is inclined by years.
358. CHANGE OF CoNSTRUCTJON.-A sentence containing a verb in the
!\Ctive voice may often be converted into an equivalent one containing
a verb in the passive. Thus:-" Cresar invaded Britain." Make three
changes. l. Change the active verb invaded to the same part of the passive voice, was invaded. 2. Take the object Britain for the subject of the
passive verb, Bi·itain was invaded. 3. Introduce the preposition by after
the passil'e verb with the former subject C(£1Jar for its object, Britain WIU
invaded by Ccesa;·.

Present Tense.

EXERCISE.

01·

need

have been ruled,
2. Thou mayst, canst, must, oi·
n eedst have been ruled,
3. He may, can, must, or
need have been ruled;

Plural.
l. We may, can, must, or need
have been ruled,
2. You may, can, must, or need
have been ruled,
3, They may, can, must, 01· need
have been ruled.

Plitpeij'ect Tense.
1. I might, could, would, or
should h ave been ruled,
2. Thou mightst, &c., have
been ruled,
3. He might, &c., have been
ruled;

1. We might, could, would, or
should have been ruled
2. You might, &c., have 'been
ruled,
3. They might, &c., have been
ruled.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
1. If I be rul ed,
2. If thou be rul ed,
3. If he be ruled ;

1. If we be ruled,
2. If you be ruled,
3. If they be ruled.

Iinperfect Tense.
1. If I were ruled ,
2. If thou w ere ruled ,
3 · If he were ruled;

1 . I f we were ruled,
2 . If you w ere ruled,
3. If they w ere ruled.

l. Be I ruled,
1. Be we rul ed
2. Be thou o1· do thou be ruled, 2. Be you oi· d~ you be ruled
3 · Be he rul ed;
3. B e they ruled.
'

'j
1

I.

I

Cori·ect the following sentences (see § 356), and mention the
inoocl and tense of each verb :-What is become of your father?Samuel is grown out of my recollectiqn.-The Jews were de-

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.

To be ruled.

Pe1:fect Tense. To have been ruled.

PARTICIPLES.

Presen t. B eing ruled.
Perf ect. Ruled.
Comp. P e1:fect. Hrrving been ruled.

355. How do some verbs have their participle in i'ng ~ed 1 When so used,
how is this participle to be parsed 1 356. How do we somClimes find the perfect
of certain intransitive verbs formc<l 1 Give examples. 'Vbat is said of sUch
for ms 1 Show how to pnrF.c them. 357. With what is there danger of confou ndi ng
tho Ycrb lie followed by an adjec tive ! GiYe examples showing the difference.
358. Into what may a sentence containing a verb in the active voice often be con·
\'cried 1 Enumornte the changes to be made.

.1

--------124

1f
i

,,t
,I

I

'

:PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VEirn.

PROGRESSIVE FORM OF THE VERB.

parted out of th e land.-Tbe strife is ceased.-He was not yet
descended from Heaven.-Oold weather was already set in.-Tbe
spectre was vanished .
P arse tlte nouns, adjectives, and verbs (see § 357) :-Most persons are ashamed to confess that th ey have been imposed upon
(sec § 230).-Demosthcnes was bent on defeating King Philip's
ambitious dcsigns. -W c are indebted to Newton for some most
important discoveries in Optics.-Free countries are generally enlightened.-It is proved that th e earth's axis is inclined to the
plane of its orbit.
Cliange these sentences to equivalent ones containing a passive
ve1·b (see § 358) :-Crocodiles inhabit the Nile.-Wm. P enn founded
Philadelphia.-Men have turned ·steam to great account.-Burgoync had already invaded New York.-You must conquer all
evil passions.-This news will su r prise our neighbors.- All good
men should abhor a tyrant.- Wine must h ave overthrown Alexander 's reasou.

125

PROGRESSIVE FORM.

I nclicative Mood.
·ulin"' thou art ruling, &c.
P nEsENT - I am l
"''
r &
..
I vas rulin"' thou wast o1· wert ru mg, c.
lMPEHFECr.~l ' e been i~ling thou h ast been .ruling, &c.
PEHFEOT.iav
. ' thou hadst been ruling, &c.
PLUPEiffECT.- l hla~ bl~en.1;~~e rulinrr, thou shalt or wilt, &c.
0
.
FmsT F UTURE. - s a 07
&
1
SECOND F UT URE ·-I shall or will have been ru mg, c.

Potential Mood.
must or need be ruling.
PRESENT.-! ~UY; ~n,could' would or should be r~ling.
I:t.rrEnFECT.- mig '
'
'd h e been ruling.
I ay can must or nee
av
.
ld' would or should have been ruhng.
PEnFECT.- m ' . '
PLUPERFECT.-! might, COU '
'

Subjunctive JJ:lood.
p

If I be ruling if thou be ruling, &c.
RESENT.If I were r~ling if thou were l'uling, &c.
lMPERFEOT.'

Imperative Moocl.

LESSON LI.
PROGRE SS I VE FORM OF THE VERB.

P RESENT.-Be thou ruling o1· do thou be ruling, &c.

Infinitive Mood.

359. Some verbs denote an action or state, in which,
from its very nature, continuance is implied ; as, I love,
I re1nember. Others affirm an action or state without
r eference to its continuance ; as, I ? ule, I speak.
V erbs of th o latter class h ave a distin ct form which
is to be used when the idea of continuance is to be
pro min en tly conveyed. It is called the Progressive
Form, and is made by combining the participle in ing
with the vari~us parts of tho auxiliary be, as follows.
R ecite all the persons in bo th numbers.
0

359. As r<?gnrds continu::lllcc, wh::i.t <l iffcrcncc is thoro in th o signification of
\'Crbs f \Yilat verbs h:1se a distinct form to imply continuance 1 What iii H
H ow is it fo rmed 'l

c::tllcd f

. Ji ng.
PRESENT.-To b e lU

PERFEOT.-To have been ruling.

Participles.
PnESENT.-Ruling.

OoMr. PERFECT.-Ho.ving been ruling.

. le form denotes continuance, have
I 1' loving you I was remem360. RE11anKs.-Verbs whose s.imp
.
~
S
ch
express10ns
as a1 •
'
no pro.,.ressive 1orm.
u
·
o
" . d
e not good English.
d .h
be,.ing my J rien s, ar
. £
ivcn above are use wit
361. .A.II the parts of the .proghresfisivte or:; s:cond person they are only
th
. "fi tion. and m t e rs an
an active sigm ca
'
(§ 355 ) th t in the case of some verbs, e
so used. .B~t we have s:en well as~~ active meaning; and in these
participle m ing has a passive as_ D rm is also used passively. "Houses
the third p el'son of the progressive o
1 361 What •ignification h avo all
fo;mWhat
differ~nt signiflcallon bus the

360. What verbs have no progressl;e
Ibo l'arl• of tho progressive form Just given

126

REMARKS ON THE PROGRESSIVE FORM.

are rapidly erecting." "The book is publishing in numbers." ".A.ddison'll
works were 1·ep1·inting."

362. In the present and imperfect indicative passive, another progressive form is used, though it is less elegant than the one given above. It is
form ed by combining the present participle passive with am and was, carried thro ugh th eir several persons and numbers ; as, "Houses are being
erected." " The will of Heaven was being accomplished." This form it is
best to avoid. Use the other form in stead, or change the entire expression : "Houses are in course of erection." "The will of Heaven was
undergoing its accomplishment."
·when the progressive form of a verb used with a certain subject is susceptibl e of an active meaning, it must be used only with that meaning.
Thus we must not say !lie Christians were persecuting, unl ess we mean that
they persecu ted others. If we mean they were persecuted themselves,
in stead of this form or the one mentioned in the last paragraph (t11e
Olu·istians were being pe1·secuted ), we use some equivalent expression, such
as the 0!11·istians were undergoing p ersecution.

363. P ARSING. -·when a verb is in the progressive
form, state it in parsing after mentioning the number.
To determin e whether it is in th e active or passive voice,
see wheth er it represents its subject as acting or acted
upon.

I am ?Wtding.
A m.eri"ca.

Tliese tliings were tm nsacting in

Am reading is an intransiti ve verb, in the indicati1•e mood, present
tense, first person, singular number, progres~ive form, and agrees with its
subject I:-Rule, A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
Were transacting is a transiti ve verb, in the passive voice, indicative
tense, third person, plural number, progressive form, and
mood, imperfect
agrees,
&c.

EXER CI S E.
Correct the .following sentences by clianging the ve1'7Js .from tht
progressive to the common jo rm :-A1J men are loving truth.- No
third person of th is fo rm in certa in verbs 1 Give exam ples. 362. What otl1cr Jll"O·
grcssi vc form is uscu in the p resent and im perfect indica tive p assive 1 Wha t is
said with r espect to this fo rm 1 ·whe n mu st the progrcssi\·e fo rm of a verb bo
Wied only wi th a n acti\·o meaning 1 If, in s uch a case, we wi sh to convey a passive
meaning with the idea of continuance, h ow mus t it be done 1 363. How is a verb

127

NEGATIVE CONJUGATION.

.
.
W hall be seeing what will happen.one was esteemmg him.- ;.s
. t be remaining till to-morrow.
I can not be disliking her.- e ~us h -If thou were wishing to
ked
me
not
to
be
forgettmg
er.
Sh
_
e as
. d .t
help me, thou couldst easily o i . ding progressive .form, and then
Change the verbs to the corresp;~ t ·m raO"ed.-I will wait for
ie s o:t o oEfforts are made.parse them ··-The wind
d. blows.d Do you
wn e .you.-He must have me . ad listened to an opera.-A civil w~r
The poor must suffer.-! hd -The criminal is punished.-Did
was waged.-A canal was ug.h
talked to my brother.-A rehe enjoy himself?-James ~a~. a;ashington next week.
port is circulated.-! shall v1s1 m

LESSON LII.
NEGATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE CONJUGATIONS.
·
f a
The meanmg o
364. NEGATIVE ?oNbJUG~:r~:~o it the adverb not.
.
de n eo-at1ve y JOlill o
.. l
t
verb is ma
. b. . •
d and the partic1p e.s, no
365. In the mfimtive moo
l not to have ruled j
l
b . as not to ru e,
.
Precedes tie
ver · '
S · the passive voice :
0
t having rulecl
m
zz

not 1·uling, no
b.
led · not being ?'U eli ·,
not to be ritlecl, not to have eelndru '
z
•
been ?'U e '•
. . nple n ot must be
not ruled, not riaving
t ·r tl e t ense is su
'
In the other par s, 1 Id ·1· mpound after the first
'
f
tl
erb . an 1 co
placed a ter 1e v
'
shall not be ruled.
.
auxiliary; as, I rule ?hiot, o-ative conjugation, formmg
366. Go through t e neo

J

the tenses in order, as follows : -

1

I ·ule not or do not ru e,
lNDIOATIVE.- P resent. T~on rulest not or dost not rule, &c.
Impm:fect. I ru
. Ied not or did not rule.
Pm:fect. I have not ruled, &c.
. d whether it is in
. h
·essive form to be parse d 1 H ow . canf it be detertnmc
m t c prog1
. voi ce 1 L earn the parsing
35- Wbat is the position
th e
m eani ng of a
What, in the ? thler
· th e infi niti ve
m oo an
·
ted negative y.
of
the1 adverb
notthrough
, 111
parts
366. Go
the ac t'ive v oioe of th e verb rule, CODJUga

~~'. '"~f~~pi:s~~veo

or~.

vcrbdmad~ ~l~apt~:~i~iple:·,

128

So in the passive voice :-I am not ruled, I was not ruled, 1
have not been ruled, I had not been ruled, &c.
So in th e progressive form :- I am not ruling, I was not ruling,
I h ave not been ruling, I had not been ruling, &e.
367. Gontractions.-In con>ersation, the auxiliary and not following
it are often contracted. Hence arise such forms as don't, didn't, liavn't,
lian't, hadn't, won't, •lwn't, mayn't, &c. These contractions are inadmissilile in dignified composition. If they occur in parsing, treat them thus :
-"Don't laugh." D on't is a contrnctiou for do not. Do laugh is an
intransitive verb, ·&c. Xot is an adve rb.

368. I NTERROGATIVE OoNJUGATION. -A verb is said to
b e u sed interrogath·ely when a question is asked with it;
as, "Ritlest thou?" ".Dost thou ?'nle? " In this case, the
subject, in stead of being placed before the verb, is
placed after it if the tense is simple, and after the first
auxiliary if the ten se is compound .

369. The indi cative and the potential mood only can
be u sed interrogatively.
mencii1g thus : -

Go through the tenses, com-

l NDIOATIVE.-Prcsent. Rul e I 01· do I ru le? Rulest thou ·or
dost tl1ou rule ? &c.
I inpeij'ect. Ruled I 01· did I rul e? Ruledst thou
01· didst thou rule? &c.
P erfect. Have I ruled? Hast thou ruled? &c.
So in the p ass ive voice : -Am I ruled ? \Vas I ruled? &c.
So in the progressive form :-Am I ruling? Was I ruling? &e.
Ii

·
E• CONJUGATION.
NEGATIVE·INTERROGATIV

INTERROGA'l'IVE CONJUGATION.

370. NEGATIVE - INTERROG.A.TIVE OoNJUGATION.-The
interrogative conjugation is made negative by p lacing
the adverb not imm ediately after the subject.
371. Go through the tenses, commenciug thus : Tho pa13sive voice. Tho progrcssh·e form. 367. What contractions nre frequently
made in conversation 1 ' Vlrnt is said of t110 use of these contractions in co~po­
sl lion 1 Give an cx:unplc of th e mode of pars ing tlicm . 368. When is a verb said
to be used intcrrogati\·cJy 1 '\Vbcn it is thus used, where does its subject stand 1
36!J. 'Vhat moods alone ::ire used interrogatinlly 1 Conjugate tho active voice of
the Yerb rule interrogatively. Th e passive ' 'oiee. The progre•siyc form. 370. How

ls the interrogative conjugn lion made negative 1 371. Give the active voice of th<>

129

Rule I not or do I not r ule?
l NDIOATIVE.- Present. R l d I not or did I not r ul e1
I mperfect. u e
r ot ruled 1 &c.
Pe1fect. H ave n
d
was I not ruled 1
.
oice ·-Am I not ru1e 1
So in the passive v
. d I not been ruleu 1 &c.
Have I not been ruled?_ Ha
·- Am I not ruling? Was I not
So iu the progressive fo~m . o Had I not b een ruling? &c.
r not been ruling'
.
"Have
H
ruling?
ave
.
ed before the subJect i as,
· sometimes
p1ac
372 The adverb no t is
. It meo"
o" "Did not they msu
·
k simply
·
not I entreated thee.
the verb is used, when we as
373. The interrogati.ve form ::rhether the answer will be yes or no. The
for information and are m do_ubt d ~hen we expect the answer yes. If I
fve
. place, I ask ' "Are you
. .
neooat1ve'mtcrroga
i form 1s use . '" to a certam
a; uncertain whether you. are :~mgoo or ought to do so, I ask, "Are you
. ooo,, If I think you mten o
gorno ·.
,,
n"ugations,
not gomg?
.
rfect indicative of the above co J
.
374 In the present and impe
d forms containing do and did
·
Of
these
the
compoun
·
·
1
mn
style
there are two forms.
'h . pie forms appear only m so e
are the ones commonly used; t e snn
ou not know? ·Did you h ear those loud con·
o
. notes o. Did
speak -to Know
you. ye no to. Heard ye those loud
tending
P (I not
al Form.
Solemn and oe ic
I t unto thee ?
. no t es o. Spake no
contendmg

or poetry.

1·

,t

I

'

Common Form. - Do y

EXERCISE.

. l1 to the corresponding tense ?f
. and negative-interrogative
t
·
,
interrogative,
the progressite, nega ite,

Chcm'}e the verbs successive y

""orm.
.I'

Thus :-

· e He is smiling.
{Progressiv ..
.
Negatite. -He does not sunfo.
il
He smiles. lnterro gative.- Does he sm e 1l
ot smile?
.
Does ie n .
Negative-interroga t ive.You have called bun.
She laughed.
Lawyers make money.
Jane looks well.
y 0 u deceive yourself.
Thou hast written.

.

.
·u ation. The passive vmce.
. to the negotlve·interrogative conJ getimes placed i 373. When
verb rule, according 37? 'Vbcro is the adverb 1101 som l
egative-interrogative I
The progressive f~r~. m ~f the yerb used, and whel\ ~\~:present nnd Imperfect
is the interrogatl_v e ~~one which is the common form~ Give examples.
374. In these conJuga
'd tho simple forms appear
Indicative! Where alone o

6*

·l

130
THE ROOT OF THE VERB .

Omsar overran Gaul.
Some birds sin<>
They may wait°
Thou must go.

CHIEF PARTS OF THE VERB.

He will suffer torture.
You l:ad walked rapidly.
He might have watched
They would make troubie.

LESSON LIII.

VE~ns

DISTINGUISIIED AS HEGULAR AND IRREGULAR.

. 37o. Root ef the Verb.-The
.
..
without its sign to . th R
present mfimt1ve active
p erson sin o-uJ .. 1· of't1hs . e oot of the verb. The first
.::i
"
e present · d' ·
and imperative, has the same /~ icat1ve, subjunctive,
rule, I rule, if I rule, ?'ule I.
o1m as the root; as, to
. The verb be is the only exception to this r
m the present indicative thou I1 't r
. ule.
It makes I am not I be
p . r
'
g 1 .1. orms its
.
' ·
'
e1 a ive regularly, if I be, be I.
present subjunctive and im.

. 376. The present active
·t' ·
.
mg ing to the r oot n1 1,· pa1 rc1p1e is formed by add' a '1ll0' such ch
·
anges m the latter
as may be required b tl o
Y 1e rules f
11·
landing ; be, being ; ?'ule, rulin . o. spe. m.g : as, land,
p ennitTing.
g' pm, pznmng; perni?'.t,
377. Formati'on ef tlie a
of the verb is cor b' d . ompound T enses.-The root
n me with auxil. . .
compound tenses of th
t'
. ianes lll the following
. .
e ac 1ve voice : dzcative and Subjunctive P.
I: d' .
' esent.- I do 1• z
n zcatzvc and SubiuncC Ii
u e.
r d"
,
zvc inpe>:fect I d.d l
.in zeative ] i'utitJ·e. - I h ll
.
. - I ru e.
s a or will rnlc b
.
P otentzal
P ·r esent I
' e.
.
.- may, can, must or
d
P otentzal
I mpei:fect - I .~h
• nee 1-ule, be.
Ji
.
·
mio t, could would
h
mperatzve Preseut. -Do thou i·ule '
' ors ould rule, be.

The other compound

tens~s of t11e

.
active voice are

375. 'What is the Root of the vcr
•
. . b 1 VI: hat parts of the v
form as tho root 1 'What c
active participle formed 1 ~;r';11s ~here to this rule 1 376. ;obw~:\~the same
o present
oombini ng tho root of th . . . l!c of the compound t
o verb with auxiliarie 1 H
enses are formed by
s
ow are tho other compound

131

formed by combining the perfect or present participle
with auxiliaries ; as, I have ruled, I have been ruling.
378. Chief Parts of the Verb.-With the root and
the perfect participle of a verb, then, we can form all its
compound tenses. If, together with these, we know the
imperfect indicative (with whi9h, except in the verb be,
the simple form of the imperfect subjunctive corresponds) we can conjugate the verb throughout.
The root, the imperfect indicative, and the perfect
participle, are therefore called the Chief P arts of the
verb.
379. Verbs distinguished as Regular and Irregular.
-The imperfect indicative and the perfect participle of
most verbs are formed by adding ed to the root. Thus:
-Warm, warmed, warmed; laud, lauded, lauded.
380. When ed is added, changes may be required in the root by the
rules of spelling {page 20). Thus :-Final e of the root is rejected; as,
rule, rul-ed, rul·ed.
When the root is a monosyllable or is accented on the last syllable, its
fin:i.I consonant, if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled: as, stir, stirned,
stirned; bestir', bcstirRed, bestirRed.

Final y of the root, if preceded by a consonant, is changed to i; as,
ply, plied, plied.

381. Verbs that have but one form for the imperfect
indicative and perfect participle, made by adding ed to
the root, are called Regular. Warm, warnied, wa1·med,
is a regular verb'.
Verbs that have more than one form for the imperfect indicative or perfect participle, or that do not add
ed to the root to form these parts, are called Irregular.

'•'

rt
I

.t enses of the active voice formed 1 378. \Vi th what three parts given can we
conjugate a verb throughout 1 Wbat are these three parts called 1 379. How are
the imperfect indica tive and the perfect participle of most verbs focm ed I
~80. W hen ed is add ed, what changes may be required in tbe root 1 381. Wbat
verbs are called Reg ular 1 What verbs are Irregular I Givo examples 11f both.
382. Learn tbo parsing form.

I

132

IRRE GULAR VERBS.

Awake, awolce or awalced, awoke or awalced,-be, wa$,
been,-are irregul ar verbs.
382. P .ARSING.-In parsing a verb, state whether it is
regular or irregul ar, and, if it is irregular, mention its
three chief parts, in the following order:" Warm your hands." Warm is a regular transitive verb, in the active
voice, imperative mood, &c.
"He has been imprudent." Has been is an irregular intransitive verb;
from be, was, been ; in the indicative mood, perfect tense, &c.

PRIMITIVE IBREGULA.R VERBS.

Imperf. P e1f. Part.
abode.
abode,
arose,
arisen.
awoke, R., awoke, R.
been.
was,
/
j bore, } borne.
1 bare,
j bore, l boru.
(b rin g fortb), ( bare, 5
j beaten,
beat,
Beat,
1beat.

Root.
Abide,
Arise,
Awake,
Be,
Bear
(carry),
n ear

EXERC ISE.

Wri te out or spell the three chief parts of the f ollowing regula1·
ver bs, making, when necessa1·y, the changes in the root menti oned in
§ 380 :- Gr ant; beat ; t atto o; fan ; fawn ; smile; root; rot;
bop ; h op e ; h oop; r ow; ply; play ; extol ; profit ; h arass ; b all oo ; b enefit ; compromit ; h amper ; d eter ; occ ur ; d estr oy ;
separ ate; b u ry ; fil e ;)ill ; justify; dismay; t remble; complain;
saunt er ; j ourney ; command; wo o; t ra nsfer· hnrrah.

___._.,______
T ABLE OF P RIMITI VE IRREGULAR VERBS.

383. The chief parts of the primitive irregular verbs
are presented below.
Derinti Ye and compound verbs follow their primitives, and thereforl"
they are not given separately in the Table. Thus overtake and undertake
form their chief parts like their primitive take : overtake, ove1·took, overtaken ; undc1·take, undel'took , undei·taken.
Some verbs, besides their irregular form, have a regular one in ed.
This is denoted in the Table by the letter R. Reci \e both forms in the
order given in the table :- B uild, built or builded, built or builded.
A form in itali cs, or a regular form represented by an itali~ R, is not
n o>v in good use, though once authorized. When there are t w o forms,
th e preferable one is placed first.
No mi stakes in grammar are more frequent than those connected with
the parts of irregular verbs. This Table should therefore receive careful
attention. Each page of verbs with the Exercise at the bottom may constitute a lesson. Aft er the errors in the Exercise are corrected, the nouna,
pronouns, adjectives, and verbs may be parsed.

5 began, l

begun.
( begun, 5
Behold,
beheld,
beheld.
R b 1 "d R., belaid .
Belay,
., e ai '
Bend,
bent, R., bent,~·•
Bereave, bereft, R.' bereft, R.
Beseech, besought,R. besougbt,R.
b t R
bet, R.
Bet,
e ' .,
R. ' betid, R.' betid.
Betide,
bade, biq, bidden, b1'd.
Biu,
bound .
bo und,
Bind,
bitten, bit.
bit,
Bite,
bled.
bled,
Bleed,
R., blent.
R.,
blent,
Blend,

Begin,

*

133

Imperf. Perf. Parl.
blown.
blew,
5broke, l broken.
Break,
1 brake, f
bred.
bred,
Breed,
brought.
brought,
Bring,
built, R., built, R.
Build,
R., burnt, R., burnt.
Burn,
burst.
burst,
Burst,
bought.
bought,
Buy,
cast
cast.
Cast,
'
h R
Catcb,
cau,,ht, R ., caug t, ,
j chld,
chidden,
Chide,
1 chode,
cbid.
chose,
chosen.
\ Choose,
Root.
Blow,

Cleave
5R., clove, l cleaved.
(adhere), 1 clave,
f
Clea.ve
j cleft,
cleft,
( rt)
1
clove
cloven, R.
1
sp '
dun <T .
'
Cling,
clung,
0
1d
R.' clad.
Clothe,*
R.,
ca
•
came,
come.
Come,
cost.
cost,
Cost '
crept.
crept,
Creep,
crew, R., crowed.
Crow,

Unclothe is r egular.

EXER C I S E.

.
verbs ·-Monroe w as born to the gravP.
Cor1·ect tho er rors in the
. The g"mcs h ave began.-Y ou
h I
borne ~
on th e ver y d ay t at w as u d~ -The wind blowed h ard.-You
must do what h e h as b ad e. yo better.-My fri ends h ave cloven to
mi ght have chose some~hmg d and h e r t ongu e cleft t o th e r oof
m e -She w as greatly frightene '1 t
of the m ountain.-John
.
th He clumb to tie op
H I s
of h er mou . Sh h as came on business. - e ia
com e t o the city yesterday.- e
over came every difficult!. b
. bare (regular) ; underbid ; reConjugate re-awak~ ' ~~ ::~hoose ; overcome.
.build; underbuy; ove1cas '

134:
Root.
Cut,
Dare
(venture),
Deal,
Dig,
Di ve,
Do,
Draw,
Dream,

PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR

Imperf.
cut,

Per:f. Part.
cut.

VERBS.

II''"'"•""··
Root.

Per:f. Part.
}
{ forgotten,
forgot,
durst,
dared.
forgot.
Forgive,
forgave,
dealt, R., dealt, R.
forgiven.
Forsake,
forsook,
forsaken.
froze,
frozen.
Get,
R., dove, dived.
got, gat,
got, gotton.
did,
done.
Gild,
R.,
gilt,
R., gilt.
drew,
drawn.
/ Gird
girt, R.,
girt, R.
R., dreamt, R., dreamt. Give'.
gave,
Drink,
given.
{drunk,
drank,
Go,
went,
gone.
drank.
Dri ve,
Grave,*
graved,
drove,
graven, R.
driven.
Grind,
Dwell,
ground,
dwelt, R., dwelt, R.
ground.
Eat,
Grow,
grew,
ate, eat,
grown.
eaten,
eat.
Fall,
Hang,
fell,
hung, R.,f hung, R.f
fallen.
Feed,
H~e,
fed ,
had,
fed.
had.
Feel,
Hear,
felt,
heard,
felt.
heard.
Fight,
Heave,
fought,
R., hove, R., hoven.
fought.
Find,
Hew,
found,
hewed,
found.
hewn, R.
Flee,
Hide,
fl ed,
hid,
fled.
hid.
hidden,
Fling,
/ mt,
hit,
flung,
hit.
flung.
I
Fly,
fl ew,
flown.
{held,
Hold,
held,
Forbear,
forbore,
llolden.t
forborne.
Hurt,
hurt,
hurt.
* Engra11e is regular.

'"'·El., '"'· R.

135

PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS.

Imperf.

I

t Hung is the preferable form, except when suspension by tho neck for the
purpose of killing is meant, in which case hanged is generally u sed. The meat
Was hung up ; the murderer was hanged. Overhang takes the irreirular . forms
only.
I Holden is •till uscrl In law language ; ns, "Th e oourt was holden."

Root.

I mpe1f.

kept,
Keep,
Kneel,
knelt, R.,
Knit,
knit, R.,
knew,
Know,
Lade (load), laded,
laid,
Lay,
led,
Lead,
Lean,
R., leant,
left,
Leave,
Lend,
lent,
Let,
let,
Lie( recline),lay,
Light,
R., lit,
Lose,
lost,
Make,
made,
Mean,
meant, R.,
Meet,
met,
mowed,
Mow,
paid,
Pay,
Pen (con-} pent, R.,
fine),
Plead, "'
R., pied,
Prove,f
proved,
Put,
put,
Quit,
quit, R.,

*

Perj. Part. Root
I mperf. Perf. Part.
Rap
} rapped,
rapt, R.
(seize),
Read,
read,
read.
R eave,
reft,
reft.
Rend,
rent,
rent.
Rid,
rid,
rid.
Ride,
rode,
ridden, rode.
Ring,
rung, rang, rung.
Rise,
rose,
risen.
Rive,
rived,
riven, R.
Roast,
R., roast.
roasted,
Run,
run.
ran, run,
Saw,
sawed,
R., sawn.
Say,
said,
said.
See,
saw,
seen.
Seek,
sought,
sought.
Seethe,
R., sod,
R., sodden.
Sell,
sold,
sold.
Send,
sent.
sent,
Set,
set,
set.
pent, R.
Shake,
shook, R ., shaken.
R., pied.
Shape,
shaped,
R., shapen.
R. , proven.
Shave,
shaved,
R., shaven.
put.
Shear,
sheared,
shorn, R.
quit, R.
Shed,
shed,
shed.

kept.
knelt, R.
knit, R.
known.
laden, R.
laid.
led.
R., leant;
left.
lent.
let.
Iain.
R., lit.
lost.
made.
meant, R .
met.
mown, R.
paid.

l mplead is regular.

t D isprove is regular.

EXERCISE.

Oon·ect tlte errors in tlte verbs :- The king dared not sign the
w arrant.- B rown durst Jones to wrestle with him.-Have you
ever d ove in a deep ri ver ?- Who done it ?-We done our best.He overdrawed his account. -Some drunk too mucl1.-You have
overdrove this l1orse; you driv l1im too fast.-They fell five trees
yesterday. -Some evil has befell.-The battle lasted till evening;
the enemy fit bravely.-Tbe N ile l1ad overflown its banks. -I had
forebore pressing my claim.- He may have went to Texas. -It
was engraven on my h eart.-W e heared you laugh.- Have yo12
hurted yourself?

EXERCISE.

you?-would
lay down
001-rect the errors in the verbs :-1I. knowed
purse
My father
laid

WI
'
Iie
this afternoon. - iere h av e you h am my
laid d own.-Hereupon
.
k
She m ay ave
down and too a nap.repayed - The ev1 ence
. 1 • h he was we 11
·
h
p ent some verses, fo1 w i~c im led with Godfrey and others, as
in the case of Robert Wln~e,
p .
·apt with admir ation.-He
.
Th audience were wr
h h
been d1sproven. - e
h b 11 had rang.-Mart a as
before
t
e
e
·
d
d
rid very fast, a n arnve
h . - I see him do it yesterday.
1· . loose (regular) i r emake;
outran all the rest.-I seen im.
. 1
nder Jet · over ie ,
Conjugate
m
ay;
u
.
'
nit
(regular); uprise; foresee.
d emean (r egular) ; overpay' acq

·a

. I

136

PRIMITIVE IRREGUL.<U•
'~ VERBS.

R oot.
l mpc>f.
Pe1f Part.
Shew (sho), shewed
shewn, R.
Shine,
shone
shone, R.
Shoe,
shod , ., shod.
Shoot,
shot '
shot.
Show,
sho,~ed
shown, R
Shred,
sh red, '
shred.
shrunk,
~shrunk,
Shrink,
shrank,
shrunken.
Shut,
shut,
shut.

R

Sing,

Sink,
Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Slit,
Smite,
Sow,

sung, sang, sung.

sunk, sank, sunk.
sat,
sat, sitten.
slew,
slain.
slept,
slept.
{ sliddcn,
slid,
slid.
{ slung,
sl ung.
slang,
{ slunk,}
slunk.
slank,
slit, R.,
slit, R.
{smitten,
smote,
Smit.
sowed,
R., sown.

Root.

Speak,
Speed,
S_pend,
Spill,
Spin,
Spit,
Split,
Spread,
Spring,
Stand,
Stave,
Stay,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stink,
Stride,
Strike,

• Spal.-c is still used in solo mn

PRIMJTIVE IRREGULAR VERBS.

lmpc1f.
Perj. Part.
{spoke, }
spoken.
spake,*
sped, R. , sped, R.
spent,
spent.
R., spilt,
R., spilt.
spun, span, spun.
{ spit,
spit,
_spat,
spitten.
split, R., split, R .
spread,
spread.
{ sprung, }
sprnng.
spra.no01

stood,
stood.
stove, R., stove, R.
R., staid, R., staid.
stole,
stolen.
stuck,
stuck.
stung,

{ stunk, )
stank, )
{ strode,
Strid,
struck,

stung.

stunk.
stridden,
strid.
{struck
strick:n.

and poetical style.

EXERCISE.

Co1'rect the errors ·in the vei·bs ._
month.-Have yon not often shr . Some horses are shoed ever
sang louder and spoke more d" t' ank from your duty ?-If she h Jd
b e•tt e1·.-After the vessel had is
a
sa mctly
k
' sl1e would h ave been h eared
duke set his horse adm1·rabl
,Dn ' :Ve set sti.11 on the shore _:Tl
l ·d
Yavid · h
·
ic
m asleep.-From morning ~ill . ht m1g t have smote Saul as be
stoven.-King Pl T
mg they spinned -Th b
roses i
nip 1rnd stole away. - N ob d .
e oat was
~ my path.-He must have slin ed . . o y bas ever strewn
Con:;ugate gainsay. ,,
g it mto the river
o ·h
' i orego · overh .
·
ve1 s oot; r esow ; understand : t .
em ; umiersell; missend .
' s iew (regular) ·, m·li>g1ve.
·
'

Root.
String,
Strive,
Strow,

Swear,

Impeif.
strung,

strove,
strowed,
{ swore, }

Perf. Part.
strung.

striven, R.
strown, R.

Root.
Throw,
Thrust,

Tread,

5WOrD.

131

Pe1f. Part.
thrown.
thrust.
{trodden,
trod,
trod.
R., woke, R., woke.

Imperf.
threw,
thrust,

·wake,
sware,
Wax
} waxed,
R., waxen.
sweat, R., sweat, R.
(grow),
swept.
swept,
worn.
wore,
R., swollen. ·wear,
swelled,
wove, R ., woven, R.
Weave,
swum.
R., wed.
R., wed,
Swim, · { swum,}
Wed,
swam,
wept.
wept,
Weep,
{swung,} swung.
wet, R.
wet, R.,
Swing,
Wet,
swang,
won.
won,
Win,
takeu.
took,
Take,
Wind
} wound,
wound.
.taught.
taught,
Teach,
(twine),
torn.
tore,
Tear,
R., wrought,R., wrought.
Work,
told.
told,
Tell,
wrung.
wrung,
Wring,
thought.
thought,
Think,
written.
wrote,
Write,
throve, R., thriven, R.
Thrive,
384. The following verbs, whose imperfect indicative and perfect participle are by some made to end int (as, spelt, past, niixt), are properly

Sweat,
Sweep,
Swell,

regu!ar:Smell
Bless
Distress
Snap
Pass
Mix
Spell
Dress
Oppress
Wrap
Toss
Curse
Ed, after l, p, and s, is generally sounded like t, and thus the irregular
forms in question have arisen. They arc condemned by the best authoritie».
Primitive verbs not found in the above Table are regular.

EXERCISE.

Cori·ect the errors in the verbs :- Several valuable horses were
bamstringed.-You have forswore yourself.- I h ave learnt to
swim, but have never swam more than a few strokes.- You may
have took pains, but this does not look like it.-She says she has
tore her dress.-He writ a poem, and after it was wrote throwed
it into the fire.-He who was curst of men seemed to be blest of
Heaven. - H e tost his head, and wrapt his cloak more closely about
bim.-1 am opprest with grief and distrest beyond measure.
Conjugate unstring; mistake; unteach; bethink_; overthrow;
unweave; outwork; rewrite; outstrip; misspell; undress.

' I

138

TUE DEFECTIVES OUGHT, .BEWARE, IVOULI>.

DEFECTIVE VERBS .

385. A verb is said to be Defective when
.
some of its
parts are wanting The d fi t'
.
e ec ive verbs are ouglit b
wctre, would, qiwtli or quod wit w .
. i ' llm eseenis.
'
' is, wot, metliinks, and
38
.
of tl 6.· Ought
d. · appears only in th e present and imperfect
.
18 m icat1ve and the subjunctive mood
It . .
Jugated thus :·
is con-

I

Pres. and I mpeif. Ind.
1. I ought,
We ou,,.ht
Pres. and I mpe1f. Subj.
o ,
Th
1. If I ought,
If
h
2.
2. If th
we oug t,
ou oughtest, You ou,,.ht
3. He ought;
They ~ h~
ou ought, If you ought,
g . I 3. If he ou,,.ht. If the
h
'l'hc two tenses, in each mood h . ti
o ,
y oug t.
·
·
, ave ie same form· t t II h" h .
I words and . ' o e w IC IS
use d m a given sentence , look a t tiie ot1er
or past tim e is meant " I
!, [
'
see w1iet1ier present
f: J
·
oug it present] to wri te " " I
7, ["
ec t to have 1rritten yesterday."
·
oug 1t imper- .

0

H cnce the expression hadn't oug 'it i"s .
''

388. Beware, as if compounded f b
wary), is used only in those tenses ;h . .~
retain be. Thus :IC

d

~nth
ware (for
111
e verb be

!No. FrnsT F u. - I shall or will beware. thou shalt . ·1 b
POTE NTI AL PRES. -! may ca 11
t '
oi w1 t eware, &c.
p
.
'
• mus , or need beware.
Id
OTENTIAL I lIPERF.- I mi,,.ht could
Sc: nJUNCTIVE PRES -If I
wou ' or should beware
I
·
cware ; 1f thou beware &c
MPE RATIYE PRES., 2nd person.- Beware thou . b' . :
IN FINITI'VE PRES.-To beware.
' ewaie you.

b, '

.'

380 . .Would, as a principal verb is found only . th
present and imperfect indicative ~nd subjunctiv~~ I~
385. W hl'n is a ver b said to be D cfecth·c 'i .
.
88G. In wha t trnscs docs oug ht appc 1 G
M entwn t he defective verbs
to be dist ingui shed in a g iven sen ten: : 1 3:7
these
Ho w are the;
wh y I 388. In wbat t enses only is b
.
iat expr ession is condemned, and
what p orts is th o pr incipal verb wou/~,;~:e du1sc<lM1 ~ention th ese parts. 389. In
n
ention th o expressions In which

tl~~gh

139

is rarely used except in the expressions would God,
would H eaven, would to God, woiild to Heaven, I would
that, would that.

LESSON LIV.

wro SS7. Ought has no participle.
ng ; correct it to ought not.

QUOTH, WIT, METHINKS, MESEEMS.

t.cns~s.

W ould God, wonld H eaven (as in the sentence, "Would God I bad
died for thee, 0 Absalom ! "), mean Oh that it we re God's will ! Oh that
Hea1Jen willed! Here the verb would is in the subjunctive, imperfect,
third, singular, and agrees respectively with God and H eaven.- v'Vo1tld to
God and would to H eaven arc corrupt forms for would God and wo1tld
Heaven , and sboulu be treated as such in parsing.
In the expressions I would that and would that, would is equivalent to
wish, and is found in the indicative, present, first, singular, agreeing with I.

390. Quoth and quod, meaning said, are now obsolete
except in humorous style. They are used ·only in the
imperfect tense, first and third singular, and always
stand before their subject: "quoth I," "quod h e."
391. Wit, meaning know, is used only in the present
infinitive, in the common expression to wit, which is
equivalent to namely. The kindred forms, wis (imperfect, wist) and wot (formerly used as both a present
and an imperfect), are now obsolete.
392. Methinks and meseems, meaning it seems to me,
are in the indicative, present, third, singular. They
are used only in this part and the third singular of the
imperfect tense,-met!wnght, m eseemed.
These verbs never admit of a subject; and, from
their being used in but one person, they are called
U nipersonal Verbs. " He stood, methought, beside
my bed." "Meseems I see my murdered brother."
In solemn style methinks becomes methinketh; and meseems, meseemeth.
it gen erall y appears.

Explain and parse tb c expressions w ould God, would Heaven.

Wh~t is said of th e expressions woulcl to God , 1cou/d to lleai:en? P arso ioould

in the expr ession s I would that, u;ould that.. 390. W hat do quoth an d quad mean 1
T o w hat style do they now belong 1 In what tenses are they fou nd 1 How do
they stand 1 391. What docs wit m ean 1 In what part onl y is it u sed 1 What is
S3id of the kindred forms w is and wot 1 392. What do methinks and meseenis
m ean I Where alone ar e th ey found I What arc these verbs called , and wh y I

140

I'ARSING OF DEFECTIVE VERBS.

. 393. P ARSI NG. -Wlien a verb i l fi .
m parsing, in stead of c 11'
1
s c o active, state it
t ie verb reo·ula . ·
1ar. T he nni1)erso11"] ' a mg
t
1 .
":; 110
1av1n,,. an · "" b' I onrregucan be g·i l'C ll for tlt e i1· a
o
y su ~ec t, 110 rule
~
greement.
JV/et!1inks y01t oug!1t to b
' o./'
.
ewa?e 0 suc!i fiilse ./'riends
M

ethmks i· .
·
J'
·
" a umpersonal intransiti ve v ·b .
. .
present tense, third persor .
er , m the mdr cati ve mood
0
1, srngu1ar number. adm't
f
'
ught is a defccti\'c intransitive verb i '
. i s. o ~10 subj ect.
tense, second person plural
b
' n the md1catirn mood, present
R 1
'
num er and agre
·h ·
•u c, A verb ag1·ces with its sub'cct /n
.
es wit its subject you:Beware is d f · .
U
pei son and num ber
.. .
a e cctivc mtransitive verb in th .
'
e mfimtive mood, presen t
tense, and limi ts th e mcan i1w f ti
· i· · · .
" o le verb oug!. t . R l
lll rnit11"e is used- as as b'
. .
' .- u e, A verb in the
u ueet, or lnm ts th
·
,
e meanmg of some other word,
or stands independently i11 ti .
1c sentence.
EXERCISE.

P arse tlic pronouns aa: t- . ,

t er ers, " quoth my fath,e r. 'J~c.ti.vcs, and verbs :-"Beware of ilat ' 1 w er e better t o f a JI amo. ng pi ckpoc k ets than m.Jiono- thein "-W ld
1
"
H eave n a JI m en were li ont
es . -Thou otwhtest t o h • , d 'ou
"
a\ e 1scovered
can not purchase tru e fri end
·w
' meseerus, that riches
the tongue . to 11'it sl d . s. e must bew ar e of the faults of
'
, an erm "'s fal so . 't
that Hungary had w on h . f·"' 'd
"' w1 n ess, profanity.-Would
·
.
e1 1ee om-Mth
I
mg in Elysium .-If thou ougl t t . .
e oug1it
was wanderI srael would none of me.
1
o improve thy time, improve it.-

---·-- -

LESSON LV.
THE ADVERB.

394. Tim
ADVERB.-TJ1e sixth part of
speech is the
Adverb.
" w·e saw to-da
.
.
In this senten ce H . ' ·b ya ~ery beautiful sunrise."
' ie ' er saw is modified b
.
y to-day, tellmg wlien we
Jn sol em n s tyle 1 ·what do
verb t b
<
mctlnn!..·s :md meseems b
39~ ,;~ars?d 1 L?arn tb e p::irai ng forrns.
. ecome? 3D3. How is a defec tive
.
at is the s1 xth part of
beautiful su nrise, by wJ~ :1t is the ve;~es:c; ~o~;fith e sont.ence f'Fe sa10 to-day a very
cd 1 By what, the adjective beau-

ADVERBS.

141

1aw; and the adjective beautiful is modified by very , telling how beautiful.
To-day, very, and words of similar force used to modify verbs and adjectives, are called Adverbs.
An adverb is likewise used to modify another adverb; also, a preposition; also, an adjunct, -that is, an expression consisting of a preposition,
its obj ect, and the words that modify the latter. "It went considerably
beyond my expectations;" the adverb considerably modifies the preposition beyond. "'rhe Esquimaux live almost exclusively on animal food; "
the adverb almost modifies the adverb exclusively , while the adverb exclusi·uely modifies the adjunct on animal f ood.

395. An Adverb is a word expressing manner, time,
place, degree, affirmation, negation, possibility, or
numb er, used to modify a verb, adj ective, adverb,
preposition, adjunct, or a whole idea.
Examples of adverbs, arranged according to their
meaning, follow :1. MANNER.-How? Thus, so, well, ill, together, somehow, anyhow,
otherwise, lengtl(wise, slowly, happily, and most other words ending in how,
wise, and ly.
2. TIME.- vVhen? Th en, now, immediately , f orthwith, already, f ormerly, to-day , yesterday, to-morrow, sooiz , lately, early, da.ily, seldom, often,
ever, always, &c.
3. PLACE. - Wliei·e l Jlere, there (and most of their compounds, as
whe1·ei•er, herein, thereabouts, &c. ), whither, hither, thither, whence, hence,
th ence, away, ~ff, far, up, down, aboard, ashore, homewa rds, and most
other words ending in wards.
4. DEG REE.-.bfuch, little, very, exceedingly, greatly, quite, enough,
equally, scarcely, nem·ly, almost.-Adverbs that modify other adverbs or
adj ectives generally express degree.
5. AFFIRMATIO N. - Yes, ay, certainly, truly, indeec{, doubtless, am ~n .
6. NEGATION.-JVo, nay, not, nowise, nohow, never.
7. DounT.-Perliaps, perchance, maybe, possibly, haply.
8. NUMBER.-Fil'st (which is preferable to fir stly), secondly, thirdly,
&c. ; once, twice, thrice.

396. Adverbs

ef .Manner.-Adverbs

of manner are

liful 1 What are lo·day and ve ry called 1 What else besides verbs and adjecti\·es
iA nn adverb u sed to modify 1 Give cxai:nples. 395. D efi11e :111 Aclvcrb. GiYe ex -

am ples of adverbs of manne r. Of t ime. Of place. Of degree. Of affirmation.
Of r.egation. Of doubt. Of nnmber. 396. Wh ich of th ese are the mo•t uumcroua 1

142

ADVERBS.

the most numerous. Many of them are formed from
adjectives by adding the suffix ly, meaning in a rnan1ie1·.
Thus, from RUDE, rnclely, in a rude manner;
from SDIPLE, simply, in a simple manner.
397. Obsc1·1·c that wol'ds ending in ly, pal'ticulal'ly those fol'mcd from
nouns, arc no t always adverbs. Some al'e adj ectives only; as, holy, scaly.
Othcl's al'c generally adjectives, though sometimes adverbs ; as, the manly
virtu es, kingly sway, godly men, daily prnyel's, deadly batred,- hc acted
manly, it occul'S daily, &c.
398. AdYCl'bs fol'med with the suffix ly, from adj ectives already ending in ly, should be a.voided as inhal'monious. For godlily, ltolily, say in
a godly manner, in a holy manner.

399. Any word that in a given passage modifies a
verb, adj ective, or adverb, is an adverb, though it may
usua1ly appear as some other part of speech. ObserYe
the adverbs in italics in the following examples:To travel post (commonly a noun) ;-crack (commonly a noun Ol' verb)
wen t the mast ;-click goes the spl'ing ;-to dl'ink deep and talk loud (commonl y adjectives) ;- 'twas passing (commonly a participle) strange;exceeding great l'eward ;- it was but (commonly a conjunction) a fancy.

400. Words that generally appear as adverbs are
sometimes used as the names of things, and then be ·
come nouns ; as, " To-morrow is un certain." " Now
is the time to r epent." " Upwards of twenty ·were
hurt."
401. vVords that genera1ly appear as adverbs are
meaninrr
sometimes used to qualify the
.
b of nouns , and
then become adjectives ; as, an only son, our liorne1oarcl j ourney.
H ow nre many :i.d,·crb1 of manner formed~ 397. As what other part of speech do
wo rds ending in ly sometim es appear ? Give examp les. 398. What adverbs of
m anner should be a\·oided as inharmonious 1 399. Give examples showing bow n
word that usu ally nppenra as some vthcr part of speech n1ay bo used as an adverb.
400. Whn t pnrt of speech do words thn t gen erally nppear as adverbs sometimes
\>ecom o ~ 401. F or wlut are words that genera lly appear as adverbs sometime~

ADVERBS.

143

402. Caution.-Adverbs must be carefully distinguished from adj ectives. To t ell them apart, see in
each case to what the word in question r elates. If it
relates to a noun, it is an adjective; but, if it relates
to a verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, adjunct, or
the whole idea, it is an adverb.
If I say "a loud noise," loud relates to the noun noise, and is therefore an adjective. But, if I say "speak loud," loud relates to the. verb
speak, and is therefore an adverb. So in the following examples :Adjectives.-An upward flight; cleanly habits; the above rules ; the
first fruits; Sarah is well; the very man himself; be will come to-morrow
morning; a far country; a daily paper ; no mercy.
Advei·bs.-To fly upwm·d; to live cleanly ; look above; he spoke
jfrst; Sarah reads well ; very sour; vei·y handsomely ; he will come tomorrow; to travel far; it happens daily; no longer.
EXERCISE.

Inse1·t advM·bs of manner : Time flies - . How - and - Adelaide
studies! Your canary warbles -. The trees are - loaded with
fru it, and pay us - for our labor. Marlborough - addressed his
men, and then - led them against the foe. The sleigh-bells are
ringing - . No poet has written more - th an Milton.
I nsert adverbs of time or place:- and - did Garibaldi go?
Impostors are to be found -. My mocking-bird has flown - ;
will you get me another - ? - tell the truth. Earthquakes occur in England. Franklin pondered th e matter-, walking and - with his arms fo lded. Books are - much better printed
than they - were.
Fo1·m an adverb from each of the Jo llowing adjectives, and spell
it :-Rude; manful; obstinate; general ; vicions; liberal; busy;
ancient; natural; r eal ; sure; true (this ioord and the next four
reject finale before the suffix ly, thoiigh it begins ioith a consonant);
untrue; due ; undue ; whole ; feeble (see Rule III., p. 20) ; noble;
amiable ; terrible ; agreeable ; inseparable ; passable ; irresistible ;
u sed I ·what do they then become 1 Give examples. 402. From what must adverbs be carefully distinguished I How may adjectives and adverbs be told apart 1
Illustrate thi•. Give other examples showing the difference between adjectives
a nd adverbs.

144

ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES.

vile (here le w not preceded by a consonant) ,· stn]e.
u
, sole ; pale ;
servile; 1iearty (see Rule VI., p. 21) ; haughty; pretty; handy;
dainty; easy; coy (liere a vowel precedes.final y); gay.

LESSON LVI.
ADVERBS (CONTINUED).

403. Adjectives and Advm·bs to be distinguislied in
llse.-We have seen in § 401 that some words may be
used as both adjectives and adverbs. There are generally, lio-wever, distinct forms for these two parts f
speech, and in that case one must not be used for t~e
other.
A soon answer; the now govenwr. These expressions are wron"' b .
cause the aclrnrb soon is joined to the noun answer, and the auverb,no:
to the noun ,c;overnor. Substitute the adjectives speedy and present: a
speedy answer; tile p1·esent governor.
Lead is melted eas;e1·
· tea is
• uncommon good. Thes ·
' t'''i an ii· . on. ~rml!!S
· · easier
. 1.s J"oined to the
sentences are wron«
o> beca nse tirn adJective
b ·e
melted
and
th
d'
·
ver
is
c
'
. e a uect1ve uncommon to the adjective good. Substitnte the
. orrespondmg adverbs :- L ead is melted more easily than iron. 'l7tis tea
is wicommonly good.

404. The verbs look, seem, appear, f eel, taste, smell,
and sound, when a quality of the subject is to be . ex~
pressed,. should be followed by an adj ective relating to
the subj ect, and not by an adverb· as " The
·d
1 1
' '·
gar en
oo rn liancbome [not liandsomely]." "Roses smell sweet
[not sweetly]."
405. Cmdunctive .Adverbs.- " W ait till I come."
th

403. 'Vh:tt .rule is .la:d dow!1, when there are distinct forms for n.n adjective and
~ ~-~rrc spondin g ad\e1b 1 Give examples of the violation of this rule and point

ou~ .c crr~rs. 404. Give and illustrate the rule relating to the verbs too~
&
40v. \\That is the force of till in the sentence iVait till I com 1 Wl t 'seem , de.
th · t ·
I
c
1a are wor s
a s1mp y conn ect called I What arc adverbs that connect called 1 Wh t
d
are most frequ en tly used as conjunctive adverbs i Illustrate th e1r
. use in
. sentences.
a wor s

REMARKS ON ADVERBS.

145

Here the adverb till, besides modifying the verb come,
connects two parts of the sentence,- wait and I come.
W ords that connect simply, are called Conjunctions;
adverbs that connect, are called Conjunctive Adverbs.
The words most frequently used as conjunctive adverbs are wlly, liow, wlien, wliere, wlierefore, tlierefore,
after, before, till.
Examples of Conjunctive .Adverbs.-! do not know why I was sent,
how I can cross the river, where I am to go, or when I must return.-Man
has reason; therefore he is not a brute.-vVas Polk president before or
after you were born?
406. REMARKS.-We can generally express the meaning of an adverb
with two or more other words. Thus :-They called daily [every day].
Hence [from this] it follows. Thrice [three times] I warned him. He
answered briefly [in a brief manner].
Two or more words, therefore, taken together, sometimes convey a
single adverbial idea. The words in question may lose their individual
force, as in by and by (presently), on high (above), as yet (hitlic~to); in
such cases, they should be parsed together, as a Complex Adverb. If they
retain their individual force, they must be parsed separately. In particular, in vain, at present, at least, are combinations of a preposition and an
adjective relating to a noun understood ;-in a particular manna, in a
vain manner, at the present ame, at the least estimate. At length, at once,
in fine, on the whole, nre combinations of a preposition and a noun.
407. Inside -out, upside-down, topsy-turvy, should be written with the
hyphen and parsed as adverbs. Red-hot, bright-yellow, stone-blind, &c.,
should also be written with the hyphen. The compound words thus
formed, are adj ectives. If the hyphen is omitted, red, bright, and stone
modify the several adjectives, and are therefore adverbs.
408. The adverb there generally means in that place. Sometimes;
however, it is used merely to introduce a .sentence; in which case the verb
precedes its subj ect. " There was a man sent from God, whose name was
J ohn."
406. How can w e generally express the meaning of an adverb 1 If the words tbus
taken together lose thei r individual force , how •hould they be parsed 1 How, if
they retain their individual force¥ Ex-pl_nin the expressions in particular, in
t1 ain, &c . Explain the expressions al length, at unce, &c. 407. Iiow should inside·
out, upside-down, topsy-turvy be written and parsed 1 "\V hnt is said of red·hot ,
bright-yellow, stone-blind, &c .1 408. What does there generally mean I For what

'l

146

EXERCISE ON ADVERBS.

.

T ,..,
'"m IRREGULAR
REGU.....,,.,..
,,_._,..,

409. Where, here, and there, implying rest or motion Vt, are used in
familiar style for whither, hither, and thither, implying motion towards; as,
I came here, he marched tltei·e.

410. Wlience, lience, tlience, liencefortli, and t~ence­
fortlo, imply motion from. The word from, therefore,
sometimes used before them, is unnecessary. If it is
allowed to stand [as, From wlience came ye?], from is
a preposition, and wlience, lience, &c., after it are nouns.
411. Say seldom if ever or seldom or never, NOT seldom or ever. "Sel·
dom or never has so great a mind as Newton's appeared; seldom, if ever,
will so great a mind appear again."
EXERCISE.

Select tlw adverbs, and tell what they express :-Few indeed, nay
we may say none, are perfectly happy here.-Even the wisest
man may perchance be deceived.-You have not studied quite
enough to-day.-Always think twice before you speak once.He who lies abed late in the morning loses far the best part of the
day.-Hope .on, hope ever.
Tell what part of speech each word in italics is :-She went
splasli, splash, right through the mud.-Rising early, I set out.Early piety is pleasing to the Lord.-Columbus sailed west.-The
wind is west.-Tbe wind is from the west.-He drank too miwh.-I
wonder ed much to see the off horse so lively.- We drove off.- Tomorrow may never come.-Since then he has had money enough.
-She conducted affairs skilfully enough.-Do the wicked ever
think of a hereafter ?-Hereafter we will live apa1·t.
Correct, and give the reasons :-Never answer surlily (§ 398).W e should try to live godlily.-I like to see persons move about
livelily.-The seldom rainbow (§ 403) paints the sky.-The once
king became a beggar.-:My heretofore life has been full of errors.
-The moon looks very brightly.-Your flute sounds sweetly.They rise successive.-Do not think too high of yourself.-How
foolish William behaved !-He spoke briefer than I supposed he
would.-W ellington was seldom or ever defeated in battle.
purpose is it sometimes used? 409. For wbat words arc where, here, and there ueed
in familiar style 1 410. What is said of the use of from before u;hence, he7tee,
!hence, &c.1 411. "Wliat should we say i'1 stJad of 1eldom or ever 7

COMPARISON.

147

LESSON L VII.
COMPARISON AND CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.

412 COMPARISON OF ADVER~s.-Adverbs are inde.
bl. . but a few of one or two syllables, are come1ina e,
'·
pared like adjectives.
db
41S The comparative degree is regularly forme . y
addin~ er to the positive ; and the superlative, by addmg

est.

Thus:Pos.

~~:'

S

f~::,·

la;?s~.

faster,

fastest.

Pos
Eariy,
Often,

Gornp.
earlier,
oftener,

Sup.
earliest.
oftenest.

'
.
are some of the adverbs ending in ly. Milton
414. Old writers comp
.
d · Sh kspeare we even
. l"
· ltl"
,. firmlier · an m
a
1
uses the words plain ier, rig ie ' t f us~. we say more plainly, more
find easiliest. Such forms are now ou o
'
rightly, more firmly, most easily.

415. The following adverbs are irregular in their
comparison : -

Sup.
.
most.
\
worse,
farthest. j'
better,
best.
~~:~h,
furthest.
less,
least.
.
. '
.
adverb used to give the force of the comparative I
416. JJfore is the
f the superlative to adjectives that can
degree, and most to give the force o b
d "th t'he same force before
h
ds may e use w1
T
not be compared.
ese wor
f
. as more gracefully, most ·
. l ly those o manner, '
many adverbs, particu ar
tl
An adverb however, is not
gracefully; more frequently, 1~ost frequen %"est or chang~s its form as in
'
,
said to be compared, unless it takes er an
the above list of irregulars.
Pos.
Badly, ill,
Well,
Little,

Gomp.

Sup.
worst.

Pos.
Much,

Comp.
mare,
farther,
further,

.
413 How are the comparative and th•
varied I
.
examples 414. What ud412 . How are some adverbs
f
d 1 Compare some
·
superlative degree regularly orme
What does Milton u se 1 What do we now
verbs arc compared by old writers 1
d . mparc tho adverbs that are irreguuse In stead of these forms I 415. N~m~ an c~ore and most used 1 To wbat belar In their comparison. 416 . . Forw a~:n,,only Is an adverb said to be com1ides adjectives may they be JOrned 1

148

p .A.RSING

CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS.

417. CoNSTRUCTION OF AnvERBs.-An adverb will
generally be found to modify the meaning of a verb, an
adj ective, or another adverb.
41 8. The word modified by. an adverb may be found by asking a question with what. Thus:-" Is that sum hard? Yes; very." Question.
Very what? Answer. Very hard. The adverb very relates to the adjective hard understood.
As we have just seen, the word that an adverb modifies may be understood. Other examples follow:-" Up and on them, my gallant boys [that
is,.f!et up and f all on them)!" "Away to the ship, my men [that is, go
away) ! " Sometimes in lively style an adverb is joined to an auxiliary
expressed, whil e the root of the verb is under£tood; as, "I'll thence to
Florence [that is, I'll go thence]."

· 419. Sometimes an adverb modifies an idea conveyed
by the whole or part of a sentence. In that case, as it
hears no grammatical relation to any particular word,
we say that it is used independently. The adverbs
oftenest u sed independently are as follows : 1. Yes and no, used in answering questions ; and amen, at the end of
prayers.
2. F orth, in th e com mon expression and so forth . Ilere the adverb so
modifies the adverb forth , but forth is used independently.
3. Consequently, tlte1·ejoi·e, and then, implying inference. " Lignum
vitro, thcYcforc, will sink in 'va ter."
4. First , secondly, thirdly, &c., ·introducing successive particulars.
5. W71y and well, used simply to introduce a sentence. " Why, I for·
got." " lVcll, he is happy at last."

420. R uLE XV.-An adverb relates to the word or
words whose meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the sentence.
421. PARSING.--To parse an adverb, compare it and
pared I 417. What will an adverb generally be found to modify I 418. How may
the word m odified by an adverb be found I Illustrate this. Give other examples
Bhowing that th e modified word may be understood. 419. Wh en is an ndvP.rb
said t o be u sed independently 1 Mention the adverbs oftenest used independently,
and the circumstances under which they are so u sed. 420. Recite Rule XV.
421. Ilow is ri l adverb parsed 1 Learn tho forms,

149

OF ADVERBS.

I

. can b e compared ·' tell what
state its degree, if It
. it relates to or state that it is used .independently~ lf -~ ~o~~
junctive adverb, tell what It connects an "' a l
.
relates to; finally, give Rule XV.
B and by we shall tmvel still more rapidly.
.
Y
.
d !ates to the verb shall travel.-

r.
·1

By and by is a complex adverb, an re
· it modifies
Rule, An adverb relates to the word or words whose meamng
'

or stands independently in the senten:· dverb more :-Rule, An adverb,
Still is an adverb, and relates to e a
-

t . in the comparative degree, and
More is an adverb; much, moi·e, mos '
·a1 . Rule An adverb, &c.
relates to the adverb rapi y .d- . I t ' to the verb shall travel :-Rule, An
Rapidly is an adverb, an re a es
adverb, &c.

&c.

Well I'll off to Paris, afte1· you leave.

'

.

·
d e ·b used independently.
.
.
Well 1s an a v 1 ,
b ·u
(the root go bemg
Off is an adverb, and relates to the ver wi g0
. t d) ·-Rule An adverb, &c.
.
z
und c1s oo ·
'
.
t I'll off to Paris and you eave,
After is a conjunctive adverb; it conncc s
and relates to the verb leave :-Rule, An ad verb, &c.

EXERCISE.
·
d' t"
erbs and adverbs :-In
Pcirse the nouns, pronom1s, a '()eo ~ves, v t '
ountain in Bo-

1545 * an Indian, climbing an exceedin gly s eepdm f

b h that
'
.
.
lf th b tter took hol o a us
livia, to support h1mse
e be t' h ·e he stood The bush
b
· g just a ove w c1
· ·
happe~cd to e grow1~ . and. and its root, strangely enough,
immediately came up i~ his .h d ' t This turned out to b e silver
was covered with a ght~en~~l u~i.scovered the celebrated silver
ore and thus were acc1<len
y
t
l ble mineral
'
. h" h
k among the mos va ua
. mines of Potosi, w JC ran
.
t nds not far from where
d eposits hith erto known .-Tums nows a
. are no wars · or
ancient Carthage formerly stood.-Jus\no::1~h~:s a hyena been
rumors of wars anywhere.-Seldoro, 1 e
'
tamed. On, Stanley, on.
I e being understood ;-just abO!lt
t A preposition, not nn adverb, its obJee p ac
(the place] where he stood.

*A noun, being the name of a y.ear. . t

..

150

PREPOSITION

AND

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.

ADJUNCT.

LESSON L VIII.

THE PREPOSITION
422. Trm PREPOSITION.-The seventh part of speeoh
is the Preposition.
""Washington marched to Princeton."
The relation between Washington's marching and Princeton is here
expressed by to; not from Pri nceton, nor ro1md Princeton, nor past
Princeton, but to Princeton. The words in italics express each a different
relation , and are called Prepositions.
423. That term of the relation which naturally follows the preposition,
is called its Object; and, if it is u noun, it is in the objective case, according to Rule IV. In the above example, Princeton i~ the object of the
preposi tion to, and is in the objective case.
A preposition may also haYe for its object u pronoun in the objective,
a verb in the infinitive, or a parti ciple; as, "There is an air of mystery
about him." " The concert was about to commence." " The concert was
about commencing."

424. A Preposition is a word used to show the relation
that a substantive, infinitive, 01· participle bears to some
other term in the sentence.
425. An Adjunct is an expression consisting of a
preposition, its object, and the words that modify the latter. "Wellington was about commencing important and
extensive operations; " the words in italics constitute an
adjunct.
426. LrsT OF PREPosrrroNs.-The following list embraces all the prepositions in common use : 422. ·what is the seventh part of speech 1 In th e sentence Washington
marched to Princeton, wJrnt does the word to express 1 What other words might
:.ie used, to indicate different relations 1 What are these words called i 423. What
Is tho Object of a preposition 1 'Vhat may a preposition have for its object!
'~· Define a Preposition. 425. Define an Adjunct. 426. Give as many prepo.

a,
abaft,
aboard,
about,
above,
ucross,
after,
aguinst,
along,

amid,
amidst,
among,
amongst,
around,

at,
athwart,
bating,
before,
behind,
below,
beneath,
beside,
besides,
between,
betwixt,
b eyon d,
b
ut,
by,

151

to,
touching,
toward,
over,
overthwart, towurds,
under,
past,
ere,
underneath,
pending,
except,
regarding, 'until,
excepting,
unto,
respecting,
for,
up,
round,
from,
in,
save,
upon,
into,
since,
versus,
minus,
through,
_with,
notwithstunding, throughout, within,
t'll
without.
1
,
of,
. .J..

concerning,
despite,
down,
during,

off,
on,

427. 0.A.UTION.-The words in the above list are not
prepositions in every sentence, but. only when they express some relation and have an obJect.

Thus:- " A polite man would not have burst out a laughi~g._'' The first
. t
of the noun man;. it is. therefore
a h as no ob~ec , but limits the meanin"
o
.
an article. The second a has the participle laughing for its object, and 1s
a preposition.

428. Many of the words i,n the above list of rrep.ositions, particularly those that denote place or direction,
are also used as adverbs.
If I say, "Look above this earth," above hae the noun earth for its
object and is u preposition. But if I say, "Look ubove," above has no
object\ it modifies the verb look, and is therefore an adverb.

429. Some of the words in the list of prepositions
are also used as conj unctions,-that is, to connect words
or sentences.
If I say, "All but me remained," but is used with the force o.f except, hus
me for its object, and is a preposition. If I say, "But .Brutus 1~ a~ honor·
able man,'' but is used without an object, as u connective, and it is thereaitions of the list as you can remember. 427. When only are the w?rds presented
in the list prepositions 1 Give an example of the use of a ~· ddlcr~nt parts or
h 428 As what part of speech do many of the words m tho list of prepo·
:ft~~~. · appe~r 1 Illustrate this. 429. As what other part cf speech do they also

1

153

COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS.

PL.A.OE OF THE PREPOSITION.

fore a conjunction. On the other hand, but, when equivalent to only, is
an adverb; as, "But [ onl!fJ seven metals were known to the ancients."
Observe the differen ce in the fo llowing examples : Prcpositions.- Charlcmagne flourished about the year 800.-Mercury
freezes at 39 degrees below zero.- 'l'hrow it over the fence. - Notwithstanding his merits, Schuyler was superseded.- Since the invention of printing,
books have multiplied. - Go to your home, and lay your throbbing head ·on
your pillow.
Adverbs. -Horsemen were seen riding about.- Man wants but little
here below. -'l'hrow it over.- Pl'inting was invented , and books have multiplied ever s·ince. -'l'here was now no home for Roger Williams to go to,
no pillow for him to lay his head on.
Oonjunctions.-Oil is lighter than water, for it floats on water. -Notwithstanding he was superseded, Schuyler did all he could for his country.
- S ince you suspect me, I have nothing to say.

.
nset I saw a corol r eef extending.-- the east, justis1and - su
,
.
dd d _ sharp rocks and the surface of the sea. Weanly we P10 e
pathless solitudes.

152

430. CmrPLEX PREPosrrrnNs.-Two p1:epositions are
sometimes used to express a c:ompoun d r elation. In
that case, take tbem together in parsing, and call them
a Complex Preposition. "The Germans came .from
beyond the Rhin e ;:' f1 ·om beyond is a complex preposition, showing th e relation between came and Rhine.
From unites with various other prepositions, to form a complex preposition; as, jmm abroad, from abo ve, fi ·om within, &c. Besides these, we
have according to, contrary to, as to, as /01·, because of, instead of, off of,
out of, over against, &c.

EXERC I SE .
Supply preposition s, ancl tell the object of each; parse the adverbs : Eliza beth, daughter - H enry V III., was born - Greenwi ch Pal::ice, not far - Loudon; she su cceeded - the throne th e year 1558. - h er fanlts as a woman, but one opinion is entertain ed - h er as a queen ; few British sovereigns - or - her
time h ave di spl ayed greater ability. The Danube flows - Austria
and Turkey, and empties - the Black Sea; it has several large
cities - its banks. Do yon r duty - fear . As we sailed - tho
appear~

Give an example. Give an e:tample of the use of the same word in differen t sentences as preposition nnd adverb ; ns preposi tion and conjunction.
430. "'""hat is a Complex Preposition? \\That preposition enters into a nnmber of
complex prepositions? Gh·c some cxampl.cs into whicbfrom does not enter.

l·

·~

LESSON LIX.
PREPOSITIONS (CONT I NUE D) .
431. PosITION. -A preposition genera~l! stands be.,1ore i•ts ob"JCct· The word itself, pre-position, means a
placing before.
that and as, however, always precede the preposi432. The relatives
doctrines were held by those that I
tion that governs them ; as, " These
have s oken of [or, such as I have spoken of )."
.
.
In ~arniliar style, the other relatives also, as well as the mterrogatives,
.
.. .
" M. Hall whom I called on about
precede the gov~rlmng p~ef o~~t~~ndaya~; " ;,y.hat do you allude to? Whom
your business, wit atten o l
.
do you speak of?"
.
we occasionally nnd a
433 In some current phrases and m poetry,
.
·
't"
that governs it. as all the world mier;
noun preceding the preposi ion
.
' ' h d'
uiet sods
my ~(forts to the contrary notwithstanding; the churc yar s q
beneath.

434. TERMS OF THE REL.A.TION.- When the terms of
the r elation stand immediately before and after ~h~
prepos1.t.ion, they o.r·e seen at once: when not,f to nh
the former term, ask a qu estion with 'lphat b e ore ~ e
.t. . to find the l atter term, ask a question
prepos1 ion ,
·
. ·n
with what after it. The answers to these quest10ns w1
b e th e terms of the r elation.
.
hi h .r. • shows the relation in the follomng
Find the terms between w c J 01
•
{r unless adorned
t
. " For these purse-proud upstarts, Virtue herse ,
sen cnce ·
,, Question What for these
.
with diamonds, would possess no charms. .
. .
tand l Wbat ls tbe meaning of tho
431. How docs a prcpos1 t10n gen~rn~y ~b
to tbe rule just laid down l In
word prc-podtion 1 432. Wbat exce.pt1~n ~sh ere crning preposition I 433. ·what
familiar style, what words may prece e t: ~ovm• between which a preposition
other exception. is noted I 434. WWhc~ arcthi: i:~ot the case, bow may the terms
en
shows the relation seen at once 1
7~

154

p .A.RSING OF

TERMS OF THE RELATION,

purse-proud upstarts? Answer. Would possess; this is the former term
of the relation.-Would possess for what l Answer. For (these) upstarts;
upstarts is the latter term of the relation.
435. The former term of the relation is sometimes understood; 88 ,
"[Looking] on the whole, I prefer spring."
436. The latter term of the relation is sometimes understood; as,
"Samson is the strongest mau [t!tat] we read of in history."
437. The preposition itself is sometimes understood; as, "Throw [to]
the dog a bone." "He was like [to] his father." "Germantown is near
[to] Philadelphia."

438. When two relations subsist between the terms
two prepositions connected by a conjunction and having'
a common object may be used.
Thus : " Collector of taxes in and for the county of Westchester." Jn
shows one relation between collector and county, and for another; county
is in the objective case, governed by the prepositions in and f or.

439. Wh en the r elation extends to several things, a.
preposition may have several objects, as in the following sentence :-" F ew can form any idea of the labors,
trials, and disappointments, that fall to the teacher's lot."
440. A preposition with its object often follows an
intransitive verb; as, "We can not account for some
things."
In some cases of this kind, the verb and preposition taken together
come to be regarded ns o. transitive verb, and as such admit of a passive
form; thus, "Some ihings can not be accounted for." Here for is no
longer a preposition, for it has no object, but is part of the transitive verb
can be accounted fo>'.
In some cases a preposition is thus combined with an intransitive verb
~ithout making it transitive; as, "Glory is worth dying for." Dying for
is the present participle of an intransitive verb.-Sometimes a preposition
of the r elation be found 1 Illustrate this. 435. Give a sentence showing that the
former term is sometimes understood. 436. In like manner illustrate the omission
of the latter term. 437. Finally, what is sometimes understood 1 438. When two
relations subsist between the terms, what may be used 1 Give an example.
•39. When may a preposition have several objects I 440. What docs a preposition
with it• object often follow 1 Sb ow how tbo verb and preposition are sometime•
lhrown into tho p•s•ivc form Give an example in which the verb 11 not made

PREPOSITIONS.

155

is combined in this way with a transitive verb in the active ;'~ice; as,
"I have more time than I know what to do with." To do with is a transitive verb, governing the interrogative pronoun what in the obj:ctive ens~.
441. In like manner, the prepositions for and of enter mto certam
compound adjectiv.e s; as, uncaredjor, unsoughtfor, unheard-of, unthought-of. Connect the parts of such compounds with the hyphen, and
parse as common adjectives.
442. To in the infinitive mood is not a preposition, but part of the verb.
In parsing, it must be taken with the rest of the verb, as shown in § 297.

443. RULE XVI.-A preposition shows the relation
that a substantive, infinitive, or participle, bears to
some other word or words in the sentence.
444. P .ARSING.-To parse a preposition, mention the
terms between which it shows the relation, and give
Rule XVI. Thus:Out of regard for a fri end I had been so much ~t­
taclied to, I overlooked his 9'efleotions on my veracity
and lwnor.
out of is a complex preposition, and shows the relation between the
noun regard, which is its object, and the verb overlooked:-Ru~e'. A preposition shows the relation that a substantive, infinitive, or part1c1ple, bears
to some other word or words in the sentence.
For is a preposition and shows the relation between the noun fri end,
which is its object and\he noun regard:-Rule, A preposition, &c.
To is a prep~sition, and shows the relation between the relative pronoun that understood, which is its object, nnd the adjective attached:Rule, A preposition-, &c.
~
.
On is a preposition, an,? shows the relation between the nouns veracity
and honor, which are its objects, and the noun reflections :-Rule, .A. preposition, &c.

EXERCISE.
Parse the a<lJectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositiom :-The
times are sadly out of joint.-" Early to bed and early to rise,"
transitive. With what kind of a verb is a preposition sometimes thus comMned 1
1
441. Ilow are some compound adjectives formed I Ilow should they be writte~
442. How Is to In the inllnitlve mood to be looked upon and parsed 1 443. Recite
Rulo XVI. 444. How ls n preposition parsed I Learn tho form.

156

CONJUNCTIONS.

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS.

i~ a maxim which it wou ld be well for all persons without exception to i'lct ~p on .~Stephen fell off the bridge iuto the river, but
succeeded Ill gettrng out safe, minus his h at.-Before the time
of Gut~nberg, books were written in stead of being printed.-The
lo~g w1shed-f~r cl11y at length arrived, and was hailed on all sides
with acclmnat10ns.-Accor<ling to Cicero, th er e was a time when
men wandered cv~rywhere through the fields aft er the manner
~f beasts.- N otw1thstanding your vaunted strength, to go a fishrng and a hunting on the same day would be too much for you.

LESSON LX.
THE CON JU NC TION

. 445. THE CoNJUNCTION.-The eighth part of speech
rs the Conjunction.
'.'Yet, if I mi take not, Virgil and Horace were Romans."
In this sen tcncc, and is used to connect the words Virnil and rr
If ·
d
"
.aorace.
'.I is use to connect the parts of the sentence, .I mistake not and Virgil
a~d Horace. wei·e . Romans. Yet is used to connect the whole sentencEl
with_somethmg gomg before. And, if, yet, and other words used as con·
nect1ves, are call ed Conjunctions. The word conj unction means a 'oinin
togethei·.
J
g

446. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words,
sentences, or parts of a sen tence.
447. LrsT OF CoNJU TOTIONs.:_The followino- list embraces all t he conjunctions in common use : ~
al though,

either,

neither,

and,
as,

C' 1 cn,

nevertheless,

because,
both,
but,

except,
for,
if,
lest,

• save,

seeing,
nor,
since,
notwithstanding, so,
or,
than,
provided,
that,

then,
though,
unless,
yet,
whereas,
whether.

445. What is the eighth part of speech 1 Repeat the sentence presented at th
commencement of the lesson. In this e.cntence, what is and used for 1 Ifl Yet ;
\Vb at are _s uch words called 1 What does the word conjunction mean 1 446. Define a OonJunct1on. 447. Mention as many of tho conjunctions in the list as you

151

Many of the words in the above list are also used as other parts of
speech. They are conjunctions only when they connect words, sentences,
or parts of a sentence.
448. Both, either, neithe1', nnd ·that, standing for nouns, are adjective
pronouns. Used with nouns, to limit their meaning, they are pronom·
inal adjectives. That is a relative pronoun, when equivalent to who or
which.
449. Even, then, and now, are generally adverbs. But even is a conjunction, when it introduces a repeated word ; · as, " I, even I." Then is a
conjunction, when it is used as. the correlative of if. Now is a conjunction, when it has no reference to time; as, "Now Barabbas was a
robber."
450. Except and without are conjunctions only when used (though
not elegantly) for unless. But, for, and since, .as we have seen in § 429,
are sometimes adverbs and prepositions. P1'0vided and seeing are frequently participles. So is a conjunction, only when equivalent to provided ; "So you leave me enough, you may take what you choose." Or
in the expression or ever, meaning before , is an adverb; "or ever the silver
cord be loosed."
4 51. As, representing a noun, after such, same, as many, so many, as
much, and so much, has been already mentioned (§ 152) as a relative pronoun. When as denotes degree and modifies an adjective or adverb (as
graceful , as gracefully), it is an adverb. When as denotes manner and at
the same time connects, it is a conjunctive adverb. When it connects
simply, it is a conjunction.
452. Observe the following examples :-Both (conj.) Alexander and
Crasar were great conquerors, and both (adj. pro.) met with an untimely
· end.-I will not go without (prep. ) you.- I will not go without (conj.) you
go.-1 would advise you not to become either (conj.) a painter or a sculptor, seeing (conj. ) there is but (adv .) little encouragement for (prep. ) art
in this country.-They say that (conj.) that (pro. adj.) house that (rel. pro.}
we j1:1st passed, is haunted.-Help such as (rel. pro.) need help.- Good hu·
mor spreads happiness around, just as (conj. adv. ) the sun sheds its light
on all.-Some regard Milton as (conj. ) the greatest of epic poets.
can. When alone are the words in the list conjunctions I 448. As wha.t other
parts of speech clo both, either, neither, and tltal appear, and under what c ircumstances 'i 449. "\Vbat are e1'en, thf!n, and now, for the most part 1 " Then is even a
conjunction l Th en 1 Now 1 450. When alone are e:z:cept and without conjunc·
tions 1 As what, besides conjunctions, do but, for , and since appear 1 What do
we frequently find provided and seeing 1 When is so a. conjunction 1 Wh at i.s or
in tho expression or ever 1 451. When is as a relative 1 'Vb en, an adverb 1 When ,
a conj unctive adverb I When, a conjunction 1 452. Give examples showing these

,·'

158

PARSING OF CONJUNCTIONS.

INTERJECTIONS.

45 3. Two conjunctions, connecting different things, may stand together;

ns, "But, if it rains, I will remain." Here but connects the whole sentence with something going before ;
it rains and I will remain.

if connects two parts of the sentence,

454. Co11IPLEX CoNJUNCTIONs.-Sentences and parts
of sentences are sometimes connected by two or three
words, which must be taken together in p arsing and
called a Complex Conjunction.
The complex conjunctions in most common use are

inasniucli as,forasmuch as, as well, as well as, notwithstanding tliat, except that, as if, as though (often inelegantly used for as if), and for all (when equivalent to
altlwugli).

EXERCISE.

Parse each word :-Except the Lord build the house, they labor
in vain that build it.-Cromwell was either aver~ devout and conscientious man or a great hypocrite.-If an errmg man repents,
a man
t rea t h i·m the same as ever.-Such achievementsTas make
f
form
immortal are seldom performed, nor do opportum ies or per h ..
ing them frequently occur.-Charles I. lost his life, as well as is
crown by his own infatuation, as it were. -As for :Mohamme~, we
are at 'a loss to decide whether he was an impostor or a fanatic, or
a little of both.-It is said that no . other plant produces so much
nutriment in a given space of ground as the banana.

LESSON LXI.
THE INTERJECTION .

45 5. Remember that words must not be taken together and parsed as

a complex adverb, preposition, or conjunction, if they retain their individ-

ual force and can be parsed separately.

456. RuLE XVII.- A. conjunction connects words,
sentences, or parts of a sentence .
457. P ARSING.-To parse a conjunction, mention
what it connects, and give Rule XVII. Thus : .Fm· all ow· country is so young, it has fostered ed'l~­
cation and produced both autlwrs and artists ef distinguislied merit.
For all is a complex conjunction, and connects the two parts of the
sentence, our country is so young and it has f ostered education and produced both authors and a1·tists of distinguished merit :-Rule, A conjnnc·
tion connects words, sentences, or parts of a sentence.
And is a conjunction, and connects two parts of the sentence, it has
fostered education and produced both autlwrs and artists of distinguished
merit :- R ule, A conjunction, &c.
Both and and are conjunctions, and jointly connect the words authors
and artists :- Rule, A conj unction, &c.
·
words ao different parts of speech. 453. Give an example of two conjuncti ons
standing t ogether. 454. What is a Complex Conjunction I Mention the most
oomm on complex conjunctions. 455. When alone mny words be parsed together
as a complex adve1·b, &c. I 456. Recite Rule XVIL 457. Learn the parsilli
for ms.

159

458. THE lNTERJECTION.-The ninth and last part of
speech is the Intc1j ection.
.
,,
"All aim at happiness ; but alas! few bit the mark:
n
Here the exclamation alas, expressing sorrow, is thrown mto the se ~
tence without any grammatical relation to the other words. Alas ~n
similar words used independently to denote some strong or. sudden emot10n
f the mind are called Interjections.-Interj ections, as their name den:~·
:a be thr~wn in between connected parts of disco~rse, but are gene y
. fou~d at the co=encement of a sentence, and sometimes even stand alone.

459. A.n Interjection is a word used independently of
grammatical rela~ions, to express some strong or sudden
emotion of the mmd.
. .
.
.
460. LrsT OF lNTERJECTroNs.-The pn.nc1pal mterJeC·
tions are given below, arranged ~ccordmg to the emotion they express.
Ah ! aha 1 hey 1 heyday ! hurrah! huzza !
·
·
lid 1
Ah! oh! alas! alack 1_~ackaday ! ~e a ay ·_ _ __ _

lt I .
1 E xuaion.

2:

S orrow.

h I In the sentence AU aim at happ in'8•;
458. What le the ninth p art of speec
d bow is it used 1 What are
r. I 'l th
ark what does alas express, an
dt
but ala<! Jew " . •.m
'
called I Where do interjections generally stan.
alas and words s1m:lar~y used,
M nllon tho different emotion• expre&sed by m459. D efine a n InterJect10n. (60.
e

160

lNTERJEOTIONS.

P .A.RSING OF INTERJECTIONS .

3. A}Vonder.. Ha! hah .r m
• d d1
4
ee . strange! what! hoity-toity ! zounds 1
· ppi·oval. Dra vo ! well-done!
5. Contempt, aversion. Fau"h
o ·r fie •r ,,r 0 h •1 f ud0o-e 1 pugh r
h r t
6. }Veariness. Heigh-ho !
ut I
•
• ps aw.

~- ~ei·'.·~mcnt . . Ha, ha, ha! (an imitation of the sound of laughter)
. cs'. 1.c to dnvc away. Aroynt ! urnunt ! begone! off! shoo r •
9. D esv e to address or salute. 0 hail r all h· ·1 r
I
.
I o. )) ·.. .r.
,
• • ·
- at . we come !
))es~ 1.c J oi· one s w~ljai·e on ltiking leave. Adieu! farewell! good-b r
11.
esu e J o,. attention. Ho! soho ! what ho r hallo r aho r r
y.
12. D esire Joi· silence. Hist r whist r hu-h r • r •
y . lo . hark I
13. )) ·
·
·
" . mum.
es'.re to st~p or interrupt anothcl". Avast! hold! soft r
14. .Desire f or in:1·
'"ormation • Eh ?• Iicy.?
•

461. Inte1j ections are generally followed
. th
~bove_ list, by the exclamation-point (!).
~n~n lie e
implymg a question, are followed by the interroO' f y,
pomt (?). " you meant to deceive me hey· [th tt;a ido~d1youJ ?"
'
a is, i

Eh

4 62. 0 and oh arc different words 0 I
.
addressino- or im·okino- a d .
·
• a ways a capital, is used in
0
•
o• n is not usually followed b th
pomt. Oh which com m
.h
Y e exclamationonces wit a small Jette
'
of a sentence, expresses sor 0
d
r except at the beginning
,
is generally followed by ther c:~l'run'
onat?r, or ~ome other strong emotion, and
1on-pomt.
463. Words that commonly a ear as
. .
ad verbs, arc sometimes used . d pp
nouns, adjectives, verbs, or
influence of emotion. as l
m ependcutly as exclamations, unc;ler the
' • ' icavens ! monstrous r se I
I Th
· e so
ey thus become interj ections Or
! .
·
' we may regard them as b d
. carmg grammatical
re at10ns to other words understood
still treat them as nou
d' .
' an ' supplymg what is necessary,
•
ns, a Ject1ves, &c Thus
as an adjective relat1"110- to 't
d
.
' we may parse monstrous
·
o
i un erstood [ "t ·
•
adverb relating to can be understood [
.' bis mon.,trous !] ; and so as au
can it e so /].

4?4. CoNSTIWCTION.-As interj ections haven
.
matwal relation s, no rule is needed .
. o gliamThey n either
- .
.
m parsmg t lem.
gove1 n n01 are governed
"tl
wi
th
other
word
s
nor
relate
to
th
' ne1 ier agree
__
em.
~erj c~ti o~ s , nnd give examples of each cla
rn tt:rJ cc t1onB1 By wh:-tt. are eh. and lte1 f, .as. ' 461. Wh at ~top generally follo wa
between 0 a nd oh. 463. vVhnt words : oll0\1 eel 1 462. P oint out the differe nce
mations ., What two moc~cs of parsing ;~r6;1~~t11nes used independ ently as excla·

s

us used are •uggeotcd 1 464.. Why

161

465. An interjection has nothing to do with the case of a substantiv<l
following it, even though such substantive has no grammatical connection
with any other word expressed. If the nominative follows, it is the nominative independent. If the possessive or objective follows, it is governed by
some word understood, and not by the interjection. Thus: - " Oh unhappy
we!" we is in the nominative independent. "Oh my!" my limits tho
meaning of the noun lot understood [oh my hard lot!], aud is therefore in
tbc possessive case. "Ah me ! " me is governed in the objective case by
the verb pity understood [Ah ! pity me !]-So, Oh dear me! Oh dea1· I
that is, oh I pity deai· me !
466. An interj ec.tion is never limited by an infinitive, or used as one of
the terms between which a preposition shows the relation. Here again
words arc understood. "Oh! to be a king ! " that is, Oh f I would like to
be a king !-" Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness!" that is, Oh! I

long for a lodge.

467. P .ARSING.- To parse an interjection, simply state
what emotion it implies.
H 1m·ali for tlie boys ef '76.
Hurrah is an inte1jection, implying exultation.
F or is a preposition, and shows the relation between the noun boys,
which is its object, and the verb say understood [Hurrah! say I for the
boys of '76] :- Rule, A preposition, &c.
EXERCISE.

Parse each word :- Hallo there! · come along, each of you!Alas ! there is nothing more sad than to bid adieu to Hope.- W elcome, thou bright-eyed Spring I all-hail !- Oh! the pain, th e bliss
of dying!-Woe is me! Alack! I am undone!- Ship ahoy!Quick ! up with it, when I give the word.-Zounds ! what a twoand-sixpenny coat for a w ell-to-do gentleman!
"Lo! the poor Indian, whose untutored mind
Sees God in clouds, and hears Him in the wind."
"Would I had seen my d earest foe in H eaven,
Or ever I had seen that day."
is 110 rule needed in parsing in terjcctions1 465. With what bns nn interjection
noth ing to doi Explain a nominative, posscssivr, or objective C!lsc, following ·an
Interjection. 466. In what relations is an interjection never used 1 467. How ia

an interjection parsed 1 Learn the parsing form.

162

A PRACTICAL R E VIEW.

LESSON LXII.

DECLARATIVE , INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

163

LESSON LXIII.

A PRACTICAL REVIEW ,

Conect tlie errors, and tell what part of speech ea.ch word i.s : Beware lest th ou gettest in difficulty.-If Mohammed were an
impostor, he acted his part well.-If I was a king, I would try tq
rul e wisely.-Thcre is no danger of the world (see Rule XIV., p.
106) being overflown by a second deluge.-1 heard nothing of our
fri ends be~g attackt.-Th e allies were astonisht at Napoleon arriving so soon.-If thou beest a mortal, speak.-! (will or shall?)
enter college nex t year, if nothing prevents.-Try me once more,
and I (will or shall.1) do better.-Wil! I help you to some meat ?Thou need not to fear.-She needs not have revealed my intention.
We be going to London. -After we are ascended, we will
obtain a fine view.-The fire of revolution is being kindled through- ··
out Europe.-A society is now b eing form ed.- Having not read
your book, I can not express an opinion on its merits.-You won't
r each there in time and hadn't ought to think of starting.-It is
time t o sit about works of charity.-After a hen has lain a dozen
eggs, she will set on them if sh e is permitted.-Very few persons like to set for a portrait.- Stocks have raised since yesterday.
- A ledge of rock underlays t he to wn.-Pal;;;erston coufest he waa
wron g.
Time seems to fl y rapider now than it did formerly.-Few sing
prettier than my cousin.-Your often letters are my only solace.These paintings are arranged quite tasteful and look very prettily.
-Just h aving arrived, be fee ls str angely.-Seldom or ever has a
more learned work appear ed.-Good Latin scholars learn Italian
easilier than others.-0 ! I shudder at the remembrance.-Ob
Virtue, how amiable thou art !- We were attackted by pirates, and
came near being drownded.
Write out the three cliief parts of the following verbs :-Hoe ;
mutiny; array ; horrify; hu zza; loath e; avow; blunder; aver;
sway; swop ; swoop; sweep ; cool; stun; stain; stone; unclothe;
engrave; uph old; disprove; fix; misunderstand; rise ; raise; sit ;
set; fl ow; fly; flee ; lie (to utter falseh ood); lie (to r ecline); lay;
overlay; overlie; outbid; r ecast; dare (to challenge); withdraw;
overfeed; found; ungird; rap (to tap); overrun; wax (to put
wax on); weed; whet; heat.

SENTENCES CLASS IFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR MEANING.

468. A Sentence is such an assemblage of words as
. .
makes complete sense.
" This is a sentence, because it is
Stone is the grammatical
" A rolling stone gathers no mo~.
an assemblage of words making comp ete sense. .
.
Gathers no
. (see § 106)· .A rolling stone is the logical subject.
subJeCt
moss is the predicate.
. . ffi
in we may

469 We learned in § 227, that m a rm g
nd or exclaim. Hence, as
.
k
either declare, as ' comma '
d" .ded into four
.
nd
re"'ards their meaning, sentences are iv1
cl;~ses; Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, a
I[

Exclamatory·
.
470. A Declarative Sentence
ethin"'. as "The wind blows.
som
o '
'

i;,

th t declares
one
a

. d () All language,
Declarative sentences are followed by the per10 . . of declarative
.
d
up
for
the
most
part,
whether written or spoken, is ma e '
sentences.

Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a
471. An
h
• d bl i"
question ; as, " Does t e wm
ow .
.· . t (?)
· an
· Interrogntlve sentences are fol1owe d by the interro"'at1on-pom
" es either with
. sentenee generally .commenc T
472. An interrogative
. Ill! " Who
h. h what) or with an aux1 iary ' ,
( l
interrogative pronou~ w w, dw ~ell' I take ?" "Shall vice triumph?"
goes there? " "Winch roa 8 11
•
f
·s Mked is declarative,
473. A sentence which asserts that a ques wn_ I "
'
not interrogative ; as, "They asked me what I said.

474. An Imperative Sentence is one that expre~s~s a
command, an exhortation, an entreaty, or perm1ss10n,

.r

i'

1.

~'
)

164

IMPERATIVE, EXCLAMATORl'" SENTENCE!.

alnd co~1tains a verb in the imperative mood . as "L 8 t
t" re
' wa
' s"
T wmd
. blow ·" "Turn f rom your wicked
hy k1~gdom com e." "Go in safety."
y .
Imperative sentences are followed by th
. d
4 7" I
.
e peno .
v. rnperat1ve sentences often commence with ti
subject is generally understood "Let [tl ] h
_1e verb let. Their
[you] from your wicked ways.".
wu t e wmd blow." "Turn
476. A sentence exprcssinn- a command &c
in the imperative mood is d "1 t"
'
., not conveyed by a verb
,
ec ara 1ve · as "Thou sh It
k'
must depart."
' '
a not ·111." "You

477.. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that
·1 .
sometl1r11o·.
"H
exc arms
as,
ow
the
wind
blows·!
"
'
0
Exclamatory sentences are followed b the ex .
.
.
often commence with the pronominal d~ t" cl~mat1on-pomt (!). They
"W'·
a uec 1ve w1iat or the ad b !.
as,
uat a fearful spectacle ' " " H
b . h
ver ww ;
·
·
ow n g t the stars are to-night ! "

EXERCISE .
-1 Supp;;

ap~i·o?i·ia~ subjects, so as to form declamtive sentences .

Yo1:l-- 3 ma e mtold utter and cheese. 2. - are raised in Ne;
'·
· - are so by the bushel 4 r b ·id·
.
.
.
· · n m mg ships, - are
used. 5 Tl .
. ie1e ::n e many - m every larg 01't
wisest of men 7 Th
.
e
Y· 6. - was the .
ere was a - m the street.
.· ·
. Co~npose imperative sentences; containing tlie foll .
owing exp1·esswns in turn · point out tl
ject, and tlie ;n'edicate of ec::,.~ra~im~~ic~~ subject, the logical subyour actions. 3. Wick d
.
.
~ Jenee to parents. 2. All
to ruin. 6. Be careful e 7 n~n'. ~· ~rn~~ra Falls. 5. The road
tation.
· · or se ac rnlmg. 8. To r esist t empd l
Change fii-st to interi·ogat ·.
ioitlwut altei·ing tlte tense of t;,:e~e~~. t[~~ut:. ex~f;"'!ato:'!J"~en~cnces,
I n te1Togatiu Is time p .
v
·
ime is pi ec1ous."
.
.
rec1ous 0' .EJXclamato1.
H
.
time is I] J Al
Y·
ow prec10us
1
Italy. ~ D~ath ~~l~< are produced abundantly in Spain and
·
'
·
on come to all 3 Ma
·
coveri es hai·e been m d b A
. · · 'ny important disa e y mencans. 4. On a hot day, a

:o

Sentence.

Ily what nrn imperative scntenc<'s

often commence 1 4i6 Wh·t 1·· d f

d

followed 1 4i5. With what do they

.
·' \ID 0 fiSentcnce is Q
th t
ocs not contai n a verb in the imperative y 4
n~ a ox presses a command but

By what arc exclamatory sentence• followed /\I.Define an Exclamatory ,Sentence.
ow do they often commence!

COMPOUND

.AND

SIMPLE SENTENCES.

165

ehower is refreshing to the whole vegetable creation. 5. The
yew-tree has a sad look. 6. It is singular that Africa has produced so few great men. 7. Fine velvet is made in Italy. 8.
Peter the Great did much to elevate and civilize the Ru ssians.
9. America would sufl:'er greatly, if her system of free education
were abolished. 10. Spain has declined much in · power and
importance since the discovery of America.
Compose five interrogative sentences containing interrogative
pronouns.

LESSON L XIV.
SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR FORM .

478. MEMBERs. -Some sentences can be divided into
two or more parts of equal rank, entirely independent
of each other in construction and sense. Such parts
are called M embers. Every member of a sentence has
its own subject and predicate.
479. COMPOUND AND SIMPLE SENTENCEs.-Sentences
that can be divided into !WO or more. members, are
called Compound Sentences. Those that can not be so
divid ed, are called Simple Sentences.
"A man's pride shall bring him low." This sentence expresses but
one thought, and can not be divided into two or more members; it is
therefore simple. If we join to it another member, with or without a conjunction, we express two complete thoughts and make the sentence coinponnd. Thus :-"A man's pride shall bring him low ; but honor shall
uphold the humble in spirit." It will be seen that each of these two
members has a subject and predicate of its own.

480. ADJUNCTS .A.ND CLA.USEs. -Members are of equal
rank ; but sentences, whether simple or compound, may
!78. How can some sentences be divided 1 vVlint are such parts of sentences
cnllcd I Wh nt does every member !J ave! 479. What aro Compound Sontcnces1
What are Simple Sentences 1 I llustrato these definitions. 480. What besides

166

CLAUSES.

contain subordinate divisions. These are distinguished
as Adjuncts and Clauses.
An Adjunct h as already been defined as consisting
of a preposition, its object, and the words that modify
the latter.

)·

A Clause is a subordinate division of a sentence, containing a verb but l10t expressing a C()!llpl~te thought,
and g enerally used to modify _ so~E3 lea_d.:ing !"Ord with
which it is conn ected in construction.
481. KrnDs OF CLAUSES.-Various kinds of clauses
occur in sentences. The most common are distinguish ed as Substantive, R elative, Participial, Adverbial, Causal, Comparative, and H ypoth etical.
482. A Substantive Clause is one that performs the
p art of a noun ; as, " To rule one's anger is well; to
prevent it is better." "The proposal tliat we should
cross in boats was at once rejected."
483. A Relative Clause is one that contains a relative
pronoun expressed or und erstood ; as, " There are few

ef

whom it can be said,.' These are truly happy.' "

167

'•

''

An adjunct, also, frequently expresses time, place, or manner,_ but doea
not like an adverbial clause, contain a verb. "In the _world (ad;unct) we
hav'e tribulation." " While we arc in the world (adverbial clause), we have
tribulation."

486. A Causal Clause is one that expresses the purpose or end for which anything is or is done;_ as, "_Boy,~
go to school, to study and improve their minds.
" Boys go to school, in order tliat tliey may," ~c.
487. A Comparative Clause is one that contams as or
than followed by the latter of two terms compar~d i
as, " Virtue is as rare as it is admirable." " N ot~1,~g
more impairs authority tlian a too frequent use ef it.
The verb of a comparative clause is often understood, as in. the la~t
example:-" Nothing more impairs authority than a too frequent use of it
[impairs it]."

488. A Hypothetical Clause is one that . ex?resses a
supposition or something concei.ved as poss1ble ; as,
" 1.f elephants were muck larger, they could not support
their own weight."
Th ougrt, l es t , and tha.t' followed by the subjunctive mood,
· k dand if ~with
1

" Moses is the meekest man [that] we read ef in Scrip-

any mood introduce hypothetical clauses. " Though the wic e man ie~f
up si·zver ,as d ust , be shall not enJ· oy it· ,, "Do not carry too· much
b d sai ,
lest you sin
. k your v essel .,, " Take care that you do not fall into a com-

484. A Participial Clause is one that contains a participle; as, "Figures, wlien well cliosen, embellish discourse."

pany. ~ '

ture."

489. THE B.asE.-The Base of a sentence is the pa~t
that expresses the leading idea. Like a single word, it
may be modified by an adjunct or clause.

485. An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the
p art of an adverb, generally expressing time, place, or
m anner; as, " Fig ures, wlien tliey are well chosen, emb e1Iish di:;course." " To be sure, he has written some
good poetry ."

" Do not carry too much sail, lest you sink your vessel." The base of
this sentence is the part that ·expresses the leading idea, do not ~arry too
much .iail. It is modified by the hypothetical clause lest you sink your
vessel.

me m bers m ay sentences con tain 1 D efi ne a n Adj un ct. D efine a Clau se. 481. Enum er:ite the k ind s of clauses that most frequently occ ur. 482. D efine a Substantive
.Clause. 483. D efine" Rolative Clause. 484. D efine a Participial C lause. 485. De.
line an Adverbia l Cla use. In what r espect does an adju nct resemble an adverbial

I
din what doe• it differ 1 Tilu strate this. 486. D efine a Ca usal Cla u_se.
cause, n.n
t' ·e Clause
What is often und erstood in a compara tive
Clause. How are hypothetical clauses
duced f 489. What Is the Baae of a sentence 1 How may the ba•e be modifi

:~:~s~~fi~~:. ~~::::a~;pathetic~!

in!~~

168

VOCATIVE EXPRESSIONS.

490. VocATIVE ExrREss10Ns.-The base of a sentence
may also be modified by a Vocative Expression, tlirown
in like an inteijection, without modifying any particular word.
491. Among vocative E xpressions are embraced,
1. The name of an object addressed, with its modifiers; as, " Gentlemen ef tlw Jury, I will detain you no
lon ger."
2. A substantive used independently as an exclamation, with its modifiers ; as, "My native city, oli woe .
unutterable .' is in ruins."
EXERCISE.
Tell wlwt kind of a sentence each is,- wli etlier simple or compoiind, whether declarative, &c. If compound, specify the members.
Point ou t. the vocative expressions, the adjuncts, and clauses.; and
tell what kind of a clause each is :-How soon Love goes out at
the gate, wh en Suspi cion ~ntcrs !-He who receives a good turn
should never forget it; he who does one should never r emember
it.-W ill not a true friend , like u mirror, di scover to you your
own defects ?- My son, carry not u sword in your tongue, to injure
anoth er 's r eputution.-Jf we did but know it, to be ang ry is to
revenge tl1 e fault of others upon ourselves.-It is a good thing,
my m elancholy friend, to lau gh now and then; and, if a straw
can ti ckle a man, it is an instrument of h appiness.-Oonquering
wh erever he went, Alexander at last believed himself invincible.

LESSON LXV.
STRUCTURE OF SEN TENCES.
492. Oo11rouND SuBJECTS AND PREDICATEs.-A simple sentence may have a compound subject,-that is,
Give an e xampl e. 490. By what else may the base be modified 1 491. What are
embraced among voca tive CXJlrcssions 1
492. What is meant by a simple sentence's having a compound subject 1 What

169

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

?Y

two or more grammatical subjects connected
_a con.
t" 11 or not· as " Riclles worlds, would not mduce
JUnC 10
'
'
'
t
me to be a king." ".Alexander and Cr.esar were grea
conquerors."
.
A simple sentence may have a compound predicate,
-that is, one that consists of two parts of equal ~·ank;
as, " Alexander was a great conqueror, yet met witli an
unthntly end."
A simple sentence may have a compound subject
and a compound predicate ; as, " Alexander and Oresar
were great conquerors, yet met with an untimely end."
The example just given is not a compound sentence. But w~ can
easil y make it so, by inserting a subject for the last part of the predicate,
which then becomes an independent member. "Alexander and Coesar
were great conquerors, yet both met with an _u~tim e: y end." Observe that
no sentence is compound unless it can be d1v1ded mto two parts of equal
rank, each expressing a complete thought and having its own subject and
predicate.
·
.
.
.
493. A verb is sometimes understood m the predicate of ?ne or. mote
of the members of a compound sentence; as, " A clear conscience is _th~
best law, honesty [is J the best policy, and temperance [isJ the best physic.

494. OollIPOUND SENTENCEs.-Thc m embers of a compound sentence may all be of the same class, a~ in the
last example. These members are all declarative, and
the sentence is therefore called a Compound D eclarati vc Sentence.
But the members of a compound sentence sometimes
belong to different classes ; as, " Old age h as deformiti es enoucrh of its own ; do not add to them the de• d
.
formity of0 vice." Herc the first member is
ec1arat1ve;
the second, imperative.
1:3 meant by its having a compound predicate 1 May it b:ivo bot h 1 Give :in ex~m ·
pie. Convert the example just given in to a compound sentence: '\Vbcn onl.y m .:l
sentence compound 1 493. What is sometimes understood 111 the prcd1cnw 1
494. What difforenco sul?sists in compound sentences, as regarUs the class ~f their
members I 'vVhat do we oall a sentence whose members belong to different

8

,'\

I

170

rmNCIPAL PARTS

OF A

SENTENCE.

Such a sentence we call a Compound Sentence with
Dissimilar Memb ers.
495. PmNCIPAL PARTs.-Every simple sentence and
ev:rY. m ember of a compound sentence h as at least two
~mn c1pal pnrts,-th e grammatical subject and the leadmg verb. " The cold winds blow." The o-rammatical
sn ?j c?t winds and the leading verb blow ~re the two
pnn c1pal p arts.
Most ~entcnces and members have a third principal
part, besides the two jnst mentioned.
49~. If the leading verb has an object, this object
constitutes the third principal part. " Cold winds blow
up s:orms." . H ere. are three principal parts,-the gramm ~tical snb.i cct winds, the leading verb blow, and the
object stm·ms.
497. I f the leading verb has no object, it is sometimes
follo"~ed by a sub stantive referring to the same person
or tl~rng as th e grammatical subj ect, and called the
Pr:d1~ate Nomin_atiYe. Or, it may be followed by an
adjective b clongmg to the grammatical subject, and
called the Predi cate Adjective.
Th_e predica.te n01:iin~ti ve and the predicate adjective
constitute a tlnrd prmc1pal part in sentences containin"'
0
them.
"vYashington was unanimously elected commander-in-chief." Here
~re three principal parls,- the grammatical subj ect lVaskington, the Jeadmg verb was elected, and the predicate nominative co1mnander-in-c!iief
. "_washington was at all times incorruptible." Here again are three
verb
prme1pal parts,- the grammatical subject lVas!tington, the leadin"
0
teas, and the predicate adjective incon"'ltptiblc.

classes 1 495. Ilow many principal parts must every simpl e sentence and every
m(·mber of a . co~npound sf'ntt'nce ha Ye? 'Vh:it arc these two principal parts 1
How many pnnc1pn.l parts do most Sl!illl'llces nnd members havc 1 496. In some
senteuccs, what cons tit utes tl.10 third principal part 1 497. What, in other etn·
~t!rn.:ca 'l Give examples.

ANALYSIS

OF

SENTENCES.

171

EXERCISE .
Classify the sentences; mention their principal parts. Se"lect
the compoun1l subjects and predicates :-Galileo and Milton both
ended their days in total blindness.-Inexhaustible are the beauties
of nature ; what can equal them in variety ?-Miss Caroline Herschel, sister of the great astronomer, aided her brother in his
labo rs, and herself discovered no less than five comets.-Love your
enemies ; can anything be more godlike ?-Men and women too
often play their part in life as if there were no hereafter.-Pekin
and Jeddo are the largest citie.s in Asia.

LESSON LXVI.
A.NALYSIS

OF

SENTENCES.

498. By the Analysis of a sentence is meant the process of r esolving it into its simple parts . .
499. In analyzing a sentence, state its class; select
its principal parts; tell by what words, adjuncts, or
clauses each is modified, and by what these modifiers
arc themselves modified, resolving adjuncts into the
words that compose them, and clauses foto their principal parts and modifiers. If the sentence is compound,
treat each member in turn as just described.
Fon~ts OF ANALYSIS.

No one knew how to ·use gold more effectually than
Pliilip, lcing of Macedon.
A simple declarative sentence.
The principal parts are the grammatical subj ect one and the leading

verb knew.
The grammatical subject one is modified by the adjective no.
The leading verb knew is modified by the adverb how, <l"hich is itself
498. ·what is meant by tho Analysis of a scn tonco 1 499. In analyzing a sentence, what must be done 1 If the sentence is compound, how do you proceed l
Learn the forms of analysiM.

.i' l '•.

172

FORMS OF .A.N.A.LYSIS.

FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

173

The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subject
modified by the infinitive to use. J'o use is modified by its object gold, and
the advcl'b effectually, which is itself modified by the adverb mo>'e; and
more is in turn modified by the compal'ative clause th an Philip, king of
,1faccdon, connected with it by the conjunction than. The principal pal'ts
of this clause a1·c the grammatical subj ect Philip and the leading verb kn ew
undel'stood. The grammatical subj ect Phil'ip is modifi ed by the noun king
in apposition with it, which is itself modified by the adjunct of j}facedon,
consisting of the prepositi'm of and its object j}facedon.

tliott understood and the leading verb tell.
'fhe grammatical subject thou has no modifiers.
. .
The leading verb tell is modified, 1. By the adjunct [to J me, cons1Sti~g
of the preposition to understood and its object me. 2. By the clause with
whom yon associate. The principal parts of this clause are its grammatical
subj ect you, which has no modifiers, and its leading verb associate, modi~ed
by the adjunct witlt whom, consisting of the preposition with und its obJeCt

Wizen bad men comMne, ilie good niust assodate ; else
they will f all, one by one, an unpitied sacriji,ce, in a conteinptible struggle.

The second member is connected with the first by the conjunction and.
Its principal parts are the grammatical subj ect I and the leading verb will tell.
'l'he grammatical subject I has no modifiers.
The leading verb will tell is modified, 1. By the adjunct [to} yon, consisting of the preposition to undersfood and its object yo1t. 2. By :he
clause wltat yon are. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical
subject yo11, the leading verb are, and the predicate nominative what,-all
unmodified.

A compound declarative sentence. The first member is when bad 111en
combine, the good must associate. The second member is else they will
fall, one by one, an unpitied sac>'ifice, in a contemptible struggle.
The principal parts of the first member are the grammatical subject mell
understood and the leading verb must associate.
The grammatical subj ect men is modified by the article the and the
adj ective good.
The leading verb must associate is modified by the adverbial clause
iclten bad men co111biue, connected with it by the conjunctive adverb when.
The principal parts of this clause are its grammatical subject men, modified
by the adj ective bad, and the leading verb combine.
The principal parts of the second member are the grammatical subject
t!tey and the leading verb will fall.
The grammatical subject they is modified, l. By the noun man understood, in apposition with it. Man is modified by the adjective one, and
this in turn by the adjunct by one, consisting of the preposition by and the
adj ective o»e modifying the noun man understood, the object of the prepos1t1ou. 2. By the noun saci·i.fice in apposition with it, which is modified
by the article an and the adjective ?tnpitied.
The leading verb will fall is modified, l. By the adverb else. 2. By the .
adjunct in a contemptible struggle, consisting of the preposition -in and its
object struggle, which is modified by the article a and the adjective contemptible.

.

T ell me witli wlioin you associate, and I will tell you
wllat you are.
A compound sentence with dissimilar members. The first member,
The second member, and

tell me with whom you associate, is imperative.
I will tell you wltat you are, is declarative.

whom.

EXERCISE.
Analyze accoi·ding to the above forms :-The age of chivalry has
d ep arted.-Is not contentment a p earl of great price1-The way
. to fame, like the way to Heaven, passes through much tribulation.
-The passage to the East Indies around the Cape of Good Hope
was discovered in 149'7, by a Portuguese navigator.-Omnibuses
are said to lrnve originated in Paris, not long after the commencement of the present century.-Amid all thy pursuits and pleasures,
remember that thou art mortal.-How few persons know what
isinglass is made of!-1 do not think you can tell me what a sponge
is, can you ?-Do not wait to strike, till the iron is hot; can you
not make it hot yourself by striking?

LESSON LXVII.
AN ALYS IS <CONTINUED)
500. QuoT.A.TIONs.-A Quotation is a word or passage
taken, or represented as taken, from some writer or
speaker.
501. One sentence is often incorporated in another as
liOO. What is a Quotation i

501. '\Vhat two modes are there of lntroduoing a.

174

FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

175

The pyincipal parts are the grammatical subject Spectator and the lead-

a quotation. When introduced by the conjunction th t
the quoted sentence with tltat forms a clause m d'f .a'
some 1 d. .
d
.
o i ymg
,.
ea mg wor ' and m analyzing must be treated
like odther clauses. 'When brought in without tlwt the
quote
. a·lllO' verb
'
d · ·se11tence generally modifies some piece
an is itself to be analyzed like any other se t o
'
A ...
.
n ence.
502 F
. OR'>IS OF .ru<ALYSIS.-Further models follow:Socrates, reniemuering llis wi+'e Xantlii'Ywie's t
.
ca ll d b
':/ '
:1.-r
ernpe1
i e
eau~y· "a sltort-lived tyranny
". and is it
;
J
no
botli sliort-lived and ct tyranny?
A compound sentence with dissimilar membe1·s Tl fi
So · t
.
b ·
.
·
1C
rst member
;118
Xanthippe's temper, called beaul!f "a short'.
.I
J, ts ee arat1ve.-The second member a d . .
short -lived and a 1•._1,,rauny
,·s 1.11 te rrogat'ivc.
' n is it not both
•
,

liv:~a ;,;';.~,::'.11C1'.: ·e.1·i~[!
Socrates~

i~ife

f tl

fi

Je~ding ~er: call~~. :1:~ ~se:~::ta~~a:~::.grammatical

The principal pa ·ts
the

subject

The ,,1 nmmut1cal subJCCt Socrates is modified b I
- ..
''.e1'.1e1uberi11g his wife Xanthippe's tempa. This
clause
rcmembcriug, and its object tempc1· which is
sbo
parsess1vc Xanth ippe's; and this is modified' h th
. . y e _p,oswith it, and this in turn by the possessive hi / e noun wife m appos1t10n

cl:u::::na~t~c1p~a\
modi:e~ t~1e

t1c1~lc

The leading verb called has no modifiers.
. The object beaut,~ is modified by the noun t1 ranni i
..
1t, which is itself modified b 1
!J
Y n appos1t10n with
.
Tl
Y t le article a and the adjective short-lived
~e ~econd member is connected with the first by the con ·unction Its prmc1pal parts arc the grammatical subiect ii wh' h h
J
. and.
the leadin"' v ·b ·
.
'
• ic as no modifiers·
tive
the
and the predicate adjec'.
articl e a) whi
c pt ed1cate nom1~at1v~ tymim!I (modified by the
'
c 1 at c connected by the conJunct10ns both and and.

sho1'1-livc~; a~~ ~~d1fie.d ~y
i .

adv~rb ~iot;

TTnd c·zcero tiunl.
~e .' pronounced one ef !tis orations witli a blanlcet about
lZS slwulclers, more people woitld ltave laugliecl at 1. •
dress th an have acbnired liis eloquence."
iis

'ifTli.te Spectatorfustlyrernarks tliat' "

.i::llo

A simple dcclarati ve sentence.
quotation i
forms.

H ow are q uot cd sentences to be treated in analyzing! 502. Learn the

ing verb 1·emarks.
The grammatical subject Spectalol' is modified by the article the.
The leading verb remai·ks is modified, L By the adverb justly. 2. By
the clause that, "Had Cice1·0 himself pronounced one of his orations," &c.
This clause consists of a quoted sentence introduced by the conjunctio.n that.
The quoted sentence Hacl Cicero, &c., is a simple declarative sentence.
Its principal parts are the grammatical subject people and the leading
verb would have laughed.
The grammatical subject p eople is modified by the adjective mo1·e, which
is itself modified by the comparative clause than have admired his eloquence,
connected with it by the conjunction than. The principal parts of this
clause are the grammatical subject people, the leading verb have admired, .
and its object eloquence, modified by the possessive his.
The leading verb wo1tld ha ve laughed is modified by the adjunct at his
dress, consisting of the preposition at and its object cltess, which is modified
by the posscssi ve his.
The base of' the quoted sentence is modified by the hypothetical clause
had Cicero himself pronon11ced one of his orations with a blanket about his
shoulders. The principal parts of this clause are the grammatical subject
Cicero, the leading verb had 7Jrono1mced, and its object orntion understood.
The grammatical subject Cicero is modified by the pronoun himself in apposition with it. The leading verb h ad pronounced is modified by the adjunct with a blanket, consisting of the preposition with and its object blanket, which is modified, 1. By the article a. 2. By the adjunct about his
,,/wnlders, consisting of the preposition about and its object shoulders, which
is modified by the possessive his. The object oration understood is modified, 1. By the adjective one. 2. By the adjunct of his orations, consisting
of the preposition of and its object orations, modified by the possessive his.

" That cred·itors slwiild have better memories than
debtors," wittily obsei·ves a distinguislied writer, "is not
to be wondered at."
A simple declarative sentence.
The principal parts are the grammatical subject writer and the leading
verb observes.
The grammatical subject write1' is modified by the article a and the
adj ective distinguished.
The leading verb observes is modified by the adverb wittily and the
quoted sentence that creditors should have better memories than debtors is
uot to be wondered at.

176

177

FORMS OF ANALYSIS.

ELLIPSIS.

This quoted sentence is simple and declarative. Its principal parts are
the grammatical subject, which is the substantive clause that creditors
shonld have belier 111.e11101·ics than debtors, and the leading verb is.
The principal parts of the substantive clause which forms the grammatical subject arc its grammatical subject creditor.•, which has no modifiers; tho leading verb should have, also unmodified; and the object
incmm·ies, which is modified by the adjective better, and this is itself modified by the comparative cbuse than deutors, connected with it by the conjunction than. Tho principal parts of this clause are the grammatical
subject debtors and the leading verb have understood.
The leading verb is modified by the infinitive to be wondei·ed at, and this
is itself modified by tho adverb not.

dance " was the ant's response.-The following sentence is
~ow .becl o'n Gen · Putnam's tomb-stone: "He dared to lead where
mscn
any dared to follow."

Tlwuglitless man, do not temp erance and self-restraint
save youfmm many evils and promote ymtr lwppiness?
A simple in terrogative sentence.
Tho principal parts arc the grammatical subjects temperance and selfrcstraiut, tbc leading vci·bs do save and pi·oinote, and the objects you and
happiiiess, bel onging respectively to the leadiug verbs do .~ave and promote.
The grammatical subjects, temperance and self-restraint, arc connected
by the conjunction m"l, and have no modifiers.
The leading verbs do save and promote are connected by the conjunction and, and a1·c both modified by the adverb not. The leading verb do
save is furthe1· modified by the adjunct /mm many evils, consisting of the
preposition from and its object evils, which is modified by the adjective
mauy.
•
The object you hag no modifiers. The object liappincss is modified by
the possessive your.
The base of the sentence is modified by the vocative expression thoughtless man, consisting of man, the name of au object addressed, and the
adjective thoughtle•s, by which it is modified.

EXERCISE.
Analyze tl1 e followin g sentences :-If I am not mistaken, the
best nutmegs :mtl pepper come from Sumatra and the .Moluccas.II ow utterly ignoran t of bunrnn nature is he who has passetl his
days in his study alone, without mingling with the world !-Cast
t.J1y bread upon tl10 waters; for thou sbalt fintl it after many days.
-" What did you do during th e summer?" asked an ant of a
grasshopper, who petitioned for food when winter was abont setting in. "I played and sung," answered the grasshopper. "Well,

LESSON LXVIII.

ELLIPSIS.
503. ELLIPSIS.-For the sake of brevity, we often
omit words that are not essential to the sense, but are
necessary in parsing, to explain the government, agreement or relation of the words expressed. Such an
omis~ion is called an Ellipsis.
.
The words omitted are said to be understood. In
parsinO" they must be supplied as they ai·e ne~ded.d"ffi.
504.' Examples.-As ellipses often occasion . i culty in parsing, it will be well to atten~ to the _follow. examp. 1es. They will serve to explam certam com1110"
m~n constructions and others like them.
1. Ellipsis of the subiect of a ve~·b.
.
C

d s they were certainly beneficial to Europe.

;~r::: i~::d!~;;;!~i~: s~~;~l:rs~~~~~ri~~~~hi;v~:ar~~et~:r~;:;:;!:
0

~he

::~·e:: ~~;~~wi~~ s~~~e~~i:t s::~:~~~o~:

&c.
names of the twelve tribes
is a conj~ncti~e adlverb:Tand f~l~oi~ pl;·al +ollow because names is plural,
in the third, smgu ar.
o ma'
'J.
,
would be wrong.]
.
I
b the bargain
•
As far as [it] concerns England, she is a oser y
Act as [it ] seems best. Remember [thou] th_y Creator: h I
for the
[Whether I] Sink or swim, [whether I] surv1;e or pens , am
D laration. Do not buy more coal than [what ] is needed-_
ecIn future ages, men may need all the land [that] there JS.
Will you "0 or stay? [I will) Stay.
h" [t b ]
Our youn~ friend is more extravagant than [it] is good for im o e .
. . 1 What is said of the words omitted I
503. What is meant by nn Elhpst~
'
of the ellipsis 0f the oubject
What must be doue in parsing I 504. Give examp1e8
.

8*

178

EXERCISE IN ELLIPTICAL P .A.RSING.

EXAMPLES OF ELLIPSIS. ·

2. Ellipsis of the noun to which an adjective relates.
The honorable [body] the Legislature. Charles the Simple [king]
. The virtuous [ persons] are happy. The professedly virtuous [ pel's~ns]
a1 _e not always really so. Even the strongest [pqsons] will sometimes
faint by the way. [ Vil'tuous being modified in the second sentence b
the ad:•erb J!l'Ojesscdly, and strongest being in the superlative denoree th y
are evidently adjectives relating to a noun understood and not t"h ' 1 ey
nouns. J
'
emse vcs

505 .. In a fragment!lry style, ellipses, even of several
words, are frequent. This will be seen in the following
extract from one of Douglas Jerrold's " Caudle Curtain
Lectures," which will serve as an exercise in elliptical
parsing. Each sentence may be analyzed as well as
parsed.
1

MRS. O.A.UDLE DWELLS ON C.A.UDLE S "ORUEL NEGLECT" OF HER ON

To be [a] virtuous [person] is to be [a] happy [person].

BOARD TIIE RED ROVER.

3. Ellip~is of the noun modified by a substantive in
the possessive case.
.
I_t is thin_e [th~ business] to command.-Therl} shall nothing die of all
that is the cluldren s [property] of Israel.-I shall stop at Thomson's [ slwn]
to get some paper.
r •

4. Ellipsis of the relative.
. Moses is the meekest man [that] we read of in the Bible.-It is infinite
wisdom [that] orders all things here below.

5. Ellipsis of the antecedent of a relative.
[Th ose] Who utter slanders do false witness
loveth, he chasteneth.
bear.- [ Him] Whom he

6. Ellipsis of a verb.
.

[Get] Up and [goJ away.- (It is J No matter what I do, I can not please

you.-Wa~hmgton loved very few as well as (he loved] La Fayette -The

enemy [being] at the gates, there was no time for delay

.

'l. Ellipsis of a preposition.
. Th ~ army were ready to offer [to] Washington a crown -F
p:ulnl t lil'. e [to] Titian.- Cut [for] me some bread. -She sits [~n] =~oc~~
we .-,. 0noreat many [of] rogues • [In th"is expression, many is a noun.]

8. Ellipsis of a conjunction.
To the intent [that] ye may bclleve.-Were I
should make th e attempt.

·nf I

179

were] there, I

of a verb. Gi ve examples of the ellipsis of n. noun
.
. .
Give ex;imples of the ellipsis of a noun mod lied b to whrnh ~n ~dJect1ve relates.
ease. Give eJ<amplc• of tho ellipsis of lhe rclati/. a sOufb~thanl1vc lD the possessive
·
• e antecedent of 11 rela.

"Caudle, have you looked under the bed~ ·what for? Bless
th e man! Why, for thieves, to be sure. Do you suppose I'd
sleep in a strange bed without ? Don't tell me it's nonsense ! I
shouldn't sleep a wink all night. Not thf!t you'd care for
th at; not that you'd - hush! I'm sure I hear somebody. No,
it's not a bit like a mouse. Yes : that's like you; laugh ! It
would be no laughing matter, if I'm sure there is somebody.
" - Yes, Mr. Caudle; now I am satisfied. Any other man
would have got up and looked himself; especially after my sufferings on board that nasty ship. But catch you stirring! Oh, no!
You'd let me lie here and be robbed and killed, for what you'd
care. Why, you're not going to sleep 1 What do you say? It's
the strange air - and you're always sleepy in a strange air? That
shows the feelings you have after what I've gone through. And
yawning, too, in that brutal manner!
"No, I couldn't leave my t emper at home. I dare say l Because
for once in your life you've brought me out-yes, I say once, or
two or three times, it isn't ~ore; because, as I say, you once
bring me out, I'm to be ·a slave and say nothing. Pleasure, indeed ! A great deal of pleasure I'm to have, if I'm to hold my
tongue!
"Dear me! if the bed doesn't spin round and dance about!
I've got all that filthy ship in my head ! No, I shan't be well
i1,1 the morning. You needn't groan in that way, Mr. Caudle,
disturbing the people, perhaps, in the next room. It's a mercy
I'm alive, I'm sure. If once I wouldn't have given all the world
for . anybody to have thrown me overboard I What are you
ive. Of a verb.

Of a preposition. Of a conjunction. 605. In what kind of style

nre ellipses frequent t

•

180

•

EXERCISE IN ELLIPTICAL l'ARSING.

smacking your lips at, Mr. Caudle? But I know what you meal\
- of course, you'd never have stirred to stop 'em; not you. And
then you might have known that the wind would have blown
to-d ay; Lut tl1at's wl1y you came.
" \\'hat do you say? A good deal m y own fault? J took too
rnuch dinner? Well, you are a man! If I took more than the
breast and the leg of that young goose - a thing, I may say, just
out of the shell- with the slightest bit of stuffing, I'm a wicked
woman. What do you say? Lobster salad? La! how can you
speak of it? A month-old baby would have eaten more. What?
G~osebe1Ty pie? Well,. if you'll name that, you'll name anythmg. At~ too much mdeed ! Do yo u think I was going to
pa! for a dmner, and eat"nothing? No, Mr. Caudle; it's a good
tlnng for you that I know a little more of the value of money
than that.
" It's a mercy that some of the dear· children were not drowned·
not tliat tl1 cir father would h ave cared. P eter was as nem'.
throu ~h one of the holes as I t's no such tliing '! It's very
well for you t o say so, but you know what an inquisitive boy
he is, and how he likes to wander among steam-engines. No,
won' t l e~ you sleep. What a man you are I Go to sleep,"
rndccd.1 as 1f one could never have a little rational conversation.
"A miserable creature they must have thought me in the
ladies' cabin, with nobody coming down to see how I was. Y ou
carne a dozen times'! No, Caudle, that won't do. I know better.
And when I was so ill that I didn't know a single thing that was
going on about me, and you never came. Every other woman's
husband was there -ha! twenty times. And what must have been
my fee lings t o hear 'em tapping at the door, and makino-0 all sorts
of kind inquiries - something like husbands!-and I w as left to
be ill alone! Yes, and you want to get me into an argument.
You want to know if I was so ill that I knew nothing, how could
I know that you didn't come to the cabin door. That's just like
your a~gravati ng way. But I'm not to be caught in that manner
Caudle. No."
'
"It is very possible," writes Caudle, "tlrnt she talked two
hours more: but, happily, the wind got suddenly up - the waves
bellowed - and, soothed by the sweet lullaby, I somehow fell
asleep."

!

DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED.

181

LESSON LXIX.
EX PLAN A TI ON OF DIFFICULT CONSTRUCT! )NS .

506. Some of the most common expressions involve
difficulties in parsing. Many of these have already
been explained; some more are presented below, with
suggestions to aid the pupil. Let portions of convenient length be assigned as lessons, and each sentence
be analyzed and parsed.
How much [adj., relating to money understood] is it worth
[prep.] ?-John Jacob Astor was worth nearly twenty millions
[object of the prep. worth] of dollars.-It is worth while to go to
Strasburg, just to see the Cathedral.-Victory over one's self is a
victory worth talking of [part: used independently, § 440].
The wise man is always ready for the ups [noun] and downs
of life.-Every now and then we heard the cannon boom [infin.].
-Thy throne is established of old [adj., relating to tiine understood].-Forgive me this once [noun, obj. case, Rule V.].-All
[adv. ] at once the sky W !\S overcast.-The news soon spread all
over the country.-ffhonor is left, all [noun] is not lost.
What [adv., equivalent to partly] by force, what by policy, he
took fifty castles.-What with hunger, what with fatigu e, we
could advance no farther.-What [difference would it make]
though none live my innocence to t ell?-What [would be the
consequence] if an insurrection should break out 1- What ho !
warriors, have you seen any one of my sisters wandering this way
[Rule V.] 1
Somehow or other [adv.], he is always first.-Children manage
to move about in some way or other [adj .], even if it is on all-fours
[n oun].-You are beaten all hollow [adv .] ; for shame!-I wrote
a month ago [adj.].-Of the cattle of the children of Israel, <lied
not one [animal].-We have more than [what] heart could wish.My friend the doctor's wife has been taken seriously ill.
Full many a flower is born to Llush unseen. [Many is au
adj. and relates to flower, which is singular though more than one
are meant. This is because many a has a distributive force, like
every ;. we say every man, though we mean more than one - all

182

183

DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED.

DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAUfl~D.

men:.J-By the bye [noun] , lrnve you e'er a [corrupted into ary]
ne". spnper to lend?-We saw ne'er a [corrupted into nary J man
dnnng ou r whole ride. [E'er a is equi valent to any · ne'er a to
'
no: Tl 1ese constructions ar e analogous to many a; 'and e'C?· and
ne er arc adjectives.]
. Ire is all ~he time sayin? that . sucli and such [adj.] a person
is to bo adm1red.-What did you find in the drawer? A t endollar [aiV.J bi_ll (object of found understood], a bright-red ribbon,
and~ twenty-mch rule.-My health is so-so [adj. ]; how is yours?
-IlIS own [adj., r elnting to people und erstood] r eceived him not. T!J e~ are all gone [for have gone,§ 356]. So much the better [a(ij.,
r elatmg to it understood].
Ellipses, as [it] has been said above, often o~casion difficulties
in p~r:in g. - [I wish you] Good morning, Harriet; what a fine
day it is !-Long life to th e r epublic !-[Though we] Go where we
may, we find traces of sin everywhere.-Go or stay, I am satisfied.
-To r edeem such a sinner as I [am], is indeed a triumph of grace.
- We have progressed further in art than the ancients [progressed].
-They l111rt tl1 cmsell-es more than [they hurt] us. [In all such
construrtions than is a conjunction, and the case of the word fol·
low ing it depemls on something understood.]
A hundred [collective noun, always co nstrued with a plnral
~·el'!.1] people [obj~ct of .of understood] may be killed, yet nobody
is to blame.-A tew railroads will soon open up the conntry.-A
gre~t mnny houses are to let in Twenty-eighth Street.- Have you
a hi gh-pressu re steamboat to sell ?-They are so much aiike you
can not tell_ which is which [inter. pro.].-Every thing depends on
[p1·e11., h an~ g for its obj ect the substantive clause that follows]
who ~'om friends are.-At the time that I was there, not a ship
was m port:-:A reward shall be given to whoever [§ 163] shall
arrest th e crmunal.
~cicn ce' [Rule III.] self could wish no more devoted follow er.
-1 he keeper of the fo rest's daughter has arrived. [More elegantly, the daugh ter of the keeper of the forest. As first expressed
keeper ~f tl1e forest's must be loo ked upon as a complex noun in th~
possessive case.j-Those lips of Washingto n's [§ 130 ] are now silent
for evcr.-Tliat portrait of my father's nee<l s varnishing.- H e has
bouglit more books than [whatl are needed.-! shall lay iu only
as many books as [rel. pro.] are n eeded.

They could do nothing except pray [infinitive, limiting the
meaning of the prep. except].-If I were you, I would do nothing
but wait in patience.-lt is likely to injure rather than benefit
[infin., limiting the meaning of the conj. than) us.- Polycarp died
r ather than give up his faith.- He could not do otherwise than
say what h e did.-The h amster rat, rather than yield, will allow
itself to be beaten to pieces.
W c can but rejoice.- We can not but r ejoice. [Th e latter sent ence expresses the same idea as the former, but more strongly.
Two n egatives usually nullify each other and make the sentence
affirmative, but here they strengthen the negation. But is an aclverb.]- Oyrns did his utmost to please his fri ends.
I had as lief cross the ocean as not. [Had cross is evidently a
corruption; for the auxiliary had should be combined with the
participle crossed, and not the root of th e verb cross. The meaning, as well as the correct form of this expression, is I WO ULD as
lief cross the ocean as not. Parse, therefore, as follows : had cross
is a corruption for would cross, potential mood, imperfect tense,
&c. I had may h ave come thus to be confounded with I wou ld,
in consequence of the fr equent abbreviation of both expressions into l'd.]-You had best not disturb her.-A good man had
rath er conceal another's faults than make them known.-Yon had
better first see whether you are invulnerable yourself.
E very one tried to make much [no1tn] of La Fayette.-Never
make light [noun] of serious things. -Oursed be he that setteth
light by his father or his mother.-The whole community set
store by an honest man.-He .is so awkward that people are
apt to make fun of him.- Before going, make [int1·ans. ] sure
[adj., relating to you understood, the subject of make] of the means
of r cturning.- The vilJage boys make quite free with our orchard.
- The Hindoo women make away with th eir children, by throwing
them into the Ganges.-! will make bold to tell you that you fall
far short of my expectations.-Have you taken possession of your
house ?
[To make much of and several of the similar expressions just
presented are sometimes thrown into the passive form, by tak ing
tl1e object of th e preposition for a subject and incorporating preposition and noun with the verb. Thus: La Fayette 1oas made
much of by eve1·ybody. Here was made much of conveys a single

184

DIFFICULT CONSTRUCTIONS EXPLAINED.

idea-was caressed-and must b
,
e pnrse<l as a transitive verb in the "
passive Yoice T I·
t orily parsed. Aa , en !separately, the words can not be satisfac.
noma ous as this idiom i ' •t ·
d
''.' '.·itcrs.]- Serious tl1ings shonld n ot be ma~o l li~~ tns~ by good
. o i o .-Nobodr
likes to be made fon of.-Man child
ernry yenr by th e r-1· d
y
rcn m e made away with
'
m oo women -Salama
·
nca was next taken
possession of by th e British.
'iVc took it for [a] granted [thin ] th at
~hey given up the child for [a] lost g[child] /o~ had started.-~ave
mg that ·
·
·
can not help thmk.
' ) on are a little prematu re.-W h .
fi
e ave a pleasant world to
li ve in fadv.].-You h
to live in
,
_ave as ne a house as anyb ody need want
[p1ep ., havmg the r elative as for its object] -It .
t
ma ter th at you will gain nothing by alludin (}" to
.
is a
0
Mnugre f p1·ep .] all you can sa I
•
shide the building, despite our eft~'.ts, :~~ ~~~l:~~f~o~ to gol.-In·
t e cars for Buffalo via [ re ] D
.
sion. - took
fo d
lf .
,
p ip .
unlnrk, but on arriving the
nn mysc mmns my purse A fi
re
Lonl.-Six t imes three is ei(}"hteenre came o_u t from before the
times is eighteen Tlii-ee th o b' . _[That is, Three taken six
t'
·
' e su ~ ect is a noun in th
·
ive ; times is in the obj ective, according to Rule V.] e nomma.

SYNTAX.

185

4. Usage often requires the words to be arranged in
a certain way.
508. The word syntax means a putting togethe1'. That
part of g rammar which treats of the r elations and arrangement of words put together is caUed Syntax.
The rules that bear on these relations are called the
Rules of Syntax. Violations of these rules are called
False Syntax.
509. In the preceding lessons have been presented,
as they were needed in parsing, seventeen rules of syntax. These will now be reconsidered in detail. Their
application in ·different cases 'vill be explained, and
additional principles relating to the construction and
arrangement of sentences will be laid down. The
various errors into which there is a liability to fall in
speaking or writing, will be presented for correction
under the several rules, as False Syntax.
The reasons for making the corrections should in all cases be given,
according to the models. After the sentences are corrected, they may be
analyzed and parsed, in whole or in part, at the pleasure of the teacher.

LESSON LXX.

RULE

SUilJECT.-N OMIN ATIVE I NDEPENDENT.-FALSE SYNTAX.

507. SYNTAX
e 11 owmo·
.
.
. -The 10
prmciples
l t
app y o
words combmed in sentences :-o
~· One word may agree with anoth er as verb with

b

WJ OOL

'

2. One word may relate t 0 anoth er, as adJ. ecti ve to
su b stantive.
f ~- ~l w?rd may be put in a certain case on account
o i s i e at10n to some other as the ob ' t f
.
the obj ective.
'
. Jee o a verb m
607. S tate th~ principles t hat ap ply t o words combined In sententea.

! . -S UBJE CT.

510. A substantive that is the subj ect of a verb is in
the nominative case.
511. ARRANGEllillNT.-The subj ect generally precedes
its verb.
512. ExcEPTIONs.-In the following cases, the subject comes after the
verb ; if the tense is compound, after the first auxiliary: 1. When the verb is in the imperative mood, first or second person;
as, " Pause we now." " Repent ye."
608. Wh at does the w ord synta:r mean 1 In grammar, what is m eant by Synt ax I
What is meant by the Rules of Synta x 1 ' Vlint is False Sy ntax 1 G09. 'iVhy a re
tho r ules of syntax no w repeated 1 510. R ecite Hu ie I ., r elating to th o subject .
511 . H ow docs the subject generall y stand, as regards its vcru 1 512. W hat fo ur
c~coplions uro noted I W hat la aomctimcs UJC effec t of placing tho subject after

186

KO~ lINATn' E INDEPENDENT.

2. ·when the verb is used ;1t

Iio1l'a>"d CYCr be forgottc~?"

l

FALSE SYNTAX.

·
crrogat1ve1y; as, "Are you safe?" "Will

3 · ' Vhcn ;/or Ihough denoti "'
··
. su ppressed. as "Had
·1. -~ b
.
'
"o a snppos1t1on,
is
the B»
. ' '
' '·'' ccn m sc, th cv would have listened to h
B 1·ili•lt /l({d been wise , &t.
t e colomsta [for, If the
a wish is ex 1Jl'esscd wit
· h the potential · as "M
· 4. " !' hen
· .
triumph
"
'
'
· ay JU Slice

J."

'l'l1e su b"
Llect may, in other cases particular! 1. 1
b
. Y ~ poetry, follow its verb,
- and often with fin e effect. as
be light, said God, :md thcr~ :r~s lig~Z,, cautiful is nature " "Let there

"FI '

RULE

I I . -N0.1II NATIVE I NDEPENDENT.

5 ~ 3. 1:- su bstantive used independentl is
Y
nommat1ve case.

111

tl.e
u

LES ·-He
. Ex,Hll'
.
· bein"'
"' awn
'y, ti ie wor1( suffers. -Conscript +: t' . · h
) ou it rests to ]Junish "'"'Uilt.-01·1 wrctcIied day 1- My
J a aei s, wit
.
·
'
she now ?-Tl's I t
co11n 1ry-whcre 1s
1
not al101; his Lb as :von s were, "My wife! my child !"-James I. would
. f: .
Ll ecb to approach him,- a cou,.,e that always g· d"
1s action - The rep t f
f b .
1ves 1ssat·
. . . · .
u a ion
emg a wit is not worth much - I h d
susp1c1on of its being you .
·
a no
5 14.
I
. CAt:Tro:-1. .- Every 'sttlJstant•ive tint
appears to be used . d
d
rn epen ently 1s no t really so used The
"Farewell 1 a
case may depend on a word understood.
· ·
'
· ' P1casan t YOYa"'e 1" Herc vo>
.
.
independ ent, but in the obj~ctivc, the objc~~~~ ~~1 not -~n :110 nominative
-1 wi'h you a l
c Vet v.ish understood
ob d' .
}' easa11 t vo.yage. So, at the close of a letter "Y 01
. t is
. not nommati
.
' d tr
b e tent scrrnnt ' Henry Jones· ·" S enan
ve indepe
t
ut nominati Ye after the verb ain understood - I am your obecztent
· servant.
n en '

°

FALSE SYNTAX .

§ 510· Tl icy sai·d tl1cy conld run faster than me
M, t
b [ Corrected.- T hey said t11cy could run faster than I
e cl_rn~gcd to I, the nominntive case, because it is the. sub ~ mus
the ' c1b could nm und erstood.]
~ ect of
Her and me arc goino- to the fai
Tl
covered by Juan Dermud:z.-Them :i·1~ hi:ipB:~mudals' wedre dis_
·
'
emse ves eser ve
hel p F e . - w are so rndustrious as her Wh 0 · t
d
now i Me _ \I]
d
'
.Ill crru pte me just
.
.
iom o you suppose arrived last night 1 Where
DNDEP·

the vcru
I 513 . Rec·i te R u Ic II ., rd a ting to the nomii:uti vc inde end t
am
l
P es. 514. What caution is giYen 1 Illustrate this.
p
en .

187

are him and you staying?-Edible birds'-nests' are in great favor
with th e Chinese.-Which of you tore that curtain ? Not me, but
him.-Yo u certainl y can not think that you are happier th an us.Kangaroo's are found only in Anstralia.-Thce needst not h ave
rebuk ed me so severely.-Him who h onestly earns his bread by
the sweat of his brow, all men r espeCt; but 11im who is too proud
to work is esteemed by none.
U NDER § 513. Oh blissful hour, and thrice-blessed us that see it !
[ Co1·1·ected.-Oh blissful hour, and thrice-blessed ice that see
it! Us must be changed to we, the nominative case, because it is
used independently.]
Him that hath eyes to see, let him see.-Thee guiding us, spirit
of ar t, we shall surmount the difficulties of the way.- Us absent,
matters will probably be neglected.-Her having died, th e estate
reverted to her moth cr .- Ah miserable us! why are we thus for saken ?- Him hav ing been mentioned as a suitable party, would it
not be well to offer him the situation ?-Them that are athirst, let
them all come an d drink.
And her, the sportive, guileless forest maid,
Where is she now 1 Ah! ask the fl owers that faile.
EXERCISE I N

VARIETY

OF EXP RES S ION.

Va1·y the form of the following sentences without altering their
meaning, by substit11ting for the dependent claitse in each another
clause contciininq a nominative independent ancl a participle.
As she is a general favorite, there are few that do not miss her.
[V ARIEn.-She being a general favoi·ite, there are few that do
not miss h er.]
After he had been defeated, the senate once more r eturned to
the city.-As they are in the wrong, I do not feel called on to
apologize.-They have no claim to the rents, inasmuch as we are
owners of the property.- Since you and I have agreed on t erms,
I can not see why any one !!honld interfere.- ! shall go to .see
Reuben and Ralph to-morrow, for they are the principal parties
interested.- As she and h er sisters are acquaintances of min e, I
will introduce you with pleasure.-Inasmu ch as Mari a, you, and I,
are the principal heirs, it is proper that we should be present when
the will is r ead.

.....

188

SUBSTANTIVES MODIFYING NOUN~.

LESSON LXXI.
SUBSTANTI VES MODIFYING NOUNS.-FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE III-S
,
.
UBSTANTIVES

MODIFYING NOUNS.

515. A substantive that mod'fi
different person or th.
b . i es a noun denoting 3
mg y1m1)lyingp
·
·
or fi1tncss is in the
.
ossess10n, origin
1
'
possessive case.
ExA~IPLEs. -Grace was i,n all hers
.
than J.fa,.y's. - I expect to alt d S teps. - Elizabetl1's reign was lon"'er
called at the
[offi
en Th t. Pete,.'s [church] to-morrow.-We
yovernol' of New l'o,.k's me~:;~-:- at clock is mine [myproperty].-The

J,fa~o,.'s

516. When there are several.mod'f .
posscssi vc case If th
I ymg substantives, they are all in th

po~sessive

sign of the
eylsfetpharat.el! modify different nouns, each has thee
·
.
·
ey JOllltl}'
d'f
s1.vc sig n is annexed only to the last. I~~; y the same noun, the possesd1ffercnt fath ers I say " Joh ' G
olm, George, and Henry have
·
'
n s cor"'e's
d H
rived;" that is, John's father G '
' o ' an
enry's father have arare brothers I say "Joh G' eorge s father, and Henry's father If they
·
'
'
n, eor"'e and He
' i:
an Ceo,.ge are still in th
o ' .
nry s ather has arrived." John.
· .d ti
e possess1 ve case . but
11
! 0111 Y modify the same noun j. tl .
'
' as a three substantives
is annexed to the last only. ' a tel expressed, the sign of the possessive
.

ii 17. When a modifying noun has a

.

notl'.er ~oun m apposition with it
"Je pos~ess1ve is annexed only to the one
nearest the noun modified .o
" Tlle prophet J ei·emial, L' as,
eremiah
' ' s Lamentatlons"
.
' the p1'opr1et
th .
' s amentat10ns " " I
.
.
e JCWcll er that has just ope d
M . ·
saw it at J.fosely's [store]
518 \Vb
. . ne on am Street."
'
.
en a mod1fym"' noun is ~ II
.
the sig n of the possessive is"annex d t o owed by an adjunct or adjective
" the mayor of ;1\-oy's vi ' it " "R.' le o the latter and not to the noun. as'
,,, ,.,,
, ·,
1c rnrd the L · l
d
' '
oJ _, ro,1;'s and Richard t'1e L. '
zon- iearte 's career."- .Jfayor
zon-11carled's
tI
.
''
nouns Ill the possessive case for th 'h I mus icr: be parsed as complex
'
e " o c express10n is made possessive.
rn the possessive case, the si""n of th

515 . R ecite Rnle III .
.
pl ea. 516. \Yh cn th er e are
., l elating
substantives
modifyincr
If I
several to
mod'f
.
~ nouns.

SUBSTANTIVES MODIFYJNG NOUNS

... . ___,,

. exam
Give

Wl~i~e: s?~"''.cly modify different nou1~:,1:~i:~1b:t~~tives, i.n what case are they;

nnothe; ~o'.mc)_ JOllltly n1odify the sa me nou n 1 51~ os the sign of_tho possessive!
518. 'Vh .
m appos1t1on with it, which takes th . \Vh cn a mod1fyrng noun has
en n mo<l1fywg 1101111 is followed by
]c' sign of tho possessive case 9
. an ll< JUUct or adjective, whore does

189

Such constructions, however, it is best to avoid; say "the visit of the
mayor of 'l'roy," "the career of Richard the Lion-hearted."
519. A succession of possessives is inelegant; as, "Our minister's son's
partner's brother-in-law's store." Substitute for one or more of the possessives of with the objective, or other words denoting the relation implied;
ns, " The store belonging to the brother-in-law of the partner of our min·
ister's son." It would not do to change each of the possessives to .of with
the objective: "The store of the brother-in-law of the partner of the son
of our minister." This repetition would be as inelegant as the former one;
variety is essential.
520. The possessive case and of with the objective are not always
equivalent. Thus, the L ord's day is Sunday; but the day of the Lord is
the day of judgment. We may speak of the jlowel' of the field, but not of
the field's jlowei·.

521. ARRANGEMENT. -The modifying substantive in
the possessive, for the most part, immediately precedes
the noun modified.
522. The modifying substantive and the noun modified may be separated by an adjective or adjectives relating to ·the latter; as, "Nature's
richest and most beautiful garb."
They must not be separated by a clause ; as, "Our friends', for friends
they certainly are, attentions were most agreeable." Alter thus: "The attentions of our friends, for friends they certainly are, were most agreeable."
FALSE SYNTAX.
UNDER§

515. I have just read Josephus history and I socrates'

orations.

[Corrected.-! have just r ead Josephus's history and Isocratcs's
orations. Josephus must be changed to Josephus's, and Isocrati;s'
to I socrates's, the possessive case, because they r espectively modify
the nouns history and orations by implying origin.-Still better
(§119), the orations of I socrates.]
Xerxes expedition signally failed. -Who's history of the Thirty
the sign of the possessive nppenr1 Bow must such expressions as mayor of Troy's
bo pa rsed 1 Bow may such expressions be improved 1 519. What is said of I\
oucccssion of possessives 1 What is said of the repetition of of with the objcctiYc 1
How may such inelegnncies be corrected 1 520. Give examples showing that tho
possessi\'C case and ef with the objective arc not always equivalent. 521. What is
tho usual position of the modifying substantive 1 522. By what may the modify .
lug substantive and the noun modified be separated 1 By what must they not be
ooparated 1

190

191

FALSE SYNTAX.

THE OBJECT.

Years War is the best? Schillers.-Two months notice has been
given to those tenants of your's.-There was as much pride in·
Diogen es' tu!J as in Platos .well-spun garments.-Achilles mother
clipped him in Styx' silent stream.-Whosoever's life is upright,
peace antl happiness shall !Je 11is'.-Do you attentl St. Thomas'
church? No; All Soul's.-The countess' dress was more magnificent than the duchess' or any one else.-For gootlness sake, emp.Joy
your tal ents for your fell ow-creatures benefit.-Here are Perkins
Arithmetic, Brooks Ovitl, Robbins Xenophon, and Tacitus Life of
Agricola.

. .
Rome's and Greece's glory, their
boat was robbed last mght.'
.
are still the brightest
..
dili~~ili~~Ill~
f
1
heroes' exp ons an
Th
's l iberty is one o our
f l 1 . toric parre e press
" ;s march is now as rapid as ever.
ornaments o t rn 11s .
chief bulwarks.-The rntellect B ' as she is commonly calletl,
UNDER § 522. Good Queen . ess _s, E glish history.-Such was
f the most glorious m n
·
reirrn, was one 0
him career.
•
tbi~ impostor's, if we may so characterize
'

U;-mmi § 516. I l1ave bought Andrews' and Stotldard's Latin
Grammar, and Worcester and Webster's Dictionary.
[ Corrected. -I have bought Amfrews and Stoddard's Latin
Grammar, antl Worceste1"s antl Webster's Dictionary. The possessive sign must be omitted after Andrews', because but one
grammar is referred to, produced by Andrews and Stoddard
jointly. The possessive sign must be annexetl to Worcester, because two di ctionaries are referred to, produced by Worcester ancl
Webster separately.J
A small stream separates my brother and sister farm. - It would
be h ard to decide which were the greater, Cmsar or Napeleon's
victories.-Adam's and Eve's Creator is our Creator.-The Bank
of England was esta!Jlished in William's and Mary's reign.-Who
" ·as Jacol»s and E sau's fath cr?-Who were Saul and David's
fa t hel"?-Whosc store is that? It is either I,ee's, Jacques' and
Company, or Harris'.-France, England, and America's interests
are all different.
§ 51'7. The emperor Augustus' reign.-Augnstus the
emperors r eign.-Peter the Hermits eloquence.-Abernethy's the
grent physician's practice.-The papers are at my cousin's, the
lnwyer.-You "ill find it at Mason, the draper · and tailor's on
High Stree t.
UNDEI!

U N DER§ 518. First make grammatical; tlien change to tlte more
elegant f onn , of with tlte o~jective :-Golinh's of Gath spear.-The
Qu ee n of the Sandwich Islands proclamation. -The colonel's of the
r egiment's orclers.-The captain of the Erebus clanghter.-I wish
you woultl get somebody's else permission.
UNDER § 519, 520. Mary's teacher's brother's child was taken
iiick to-day.-The house of the sister of the pilot of the Albany

LESSON LXXII.
.
IME -FALSE SYNTAX.
OBJECT.-OBJECTIVE OF T
.

RULE

IV.-THE OBJECT.

523. A substantive that is the object of a verb or
. . · · the obJ. ective case.
Prepos1tion lS 111
t - Surveyin" the

b k simply for amusemen ·
"
ExAMPLEs.-Some read oo s I ~ d some charmino- situatfons. country on this side [of) the Yarro~~k] ou~ou are [by] fiv: dollars richer
It is past two o' clock [for on thfe c] ol . . situation.- ! forbid you [to ap·
Do procure [ or 1e1 a
"
than you were.h [ " ] 1 ilosophyi by ~vewton.
'
pear in] my presence.- He was .taug. .t n m
to Povern
the object of a trans1·t·1v.e
524. Do not introduce a prepos1t10 .d g .
t ansitive verb since it
f
Gonsi er is a r,
'
~
0 ffcr"
·
. h
verb. " Consider o my
re osition of should there ore
affirms an action exerted on my offe.r' t e p p
· t ed.
· ·
"He .will
be omit
.
.t" , verb govern an objective.
525. Do not make an mtrans1 n e
b ·zz ·epent is intransitive, smce
.
· e··" The ver wi ' thin"". him should t heresoon repent him
of h"is cnm
o,
h
.
t
ted on any person 0 r
it affirms an act10n no exer
t . ,, Bewa.re is intransitive; t e
. t d " Beware the temp e1.
. " Be·
fore be omit e ·
.
d ed to govern tempte1 . '
1 o+"
'J should therefore be mtro uc
prepos1"t"on
ware of the tempter."
.
ected by a conjunction; as,
526. A verb may haYe several ob!,ects, conn
.

"Cherish justice, charity, and truth.
b' f es one of which is its ob·
527. A verb may be followed by two o ~ec iv '
•
.
.
ob'ect Give examples. 524. Point ~ut
J .;,,
Stale the rule that nppllc•.
- .
. the sentence Consider ef my OJJer.
I
Stat~ tho rule bthat
the error in
b
t nee Beware the temp er.
bo
505 Poiut out the error in t e sen e
·h h ~el 527. By what may a ver
- .Ii
626 How many objects may a ve1
a

5"'~ Recite Rule IV., r elating to the

app ••· •

.

192

OBJECTIVE WITHOUT

THE OBJECT.

jcct and the other in apposition with this object. as, "They call Walter
Scott the wizard of the North." JV.al ler Scott is' in the objective bein"
the obj ec t oC the verb call . wizai·d is in the objective, in appositi~n with
!Valier S cott.
'
.. 5 ~ 8: A verb .is frcqHcntly fo llowed by two objectives, the former of
"!11d1 is the obJ ect of a preposition understood, while the latter is the
~bJ cc.t of the verb; as, " We promised [to] the best speaker a prize."
Th11cc th ey offered [to] Caesar a crown." "Will ou bu [ -r. ]

Y

telescope? ,,

. u2n. A verb in th e passive voice can have no obj ect. A substantive
m the Objec.t1.rn case, following such a verb, is generally governed b
~.omc prcpos1t1on understood; as, " E ven this favor was denied [to] him .:.
He "as expelled [Ji"om ] the kingdom.''
. 530. Avoid making the same word the object of a verb and
.
t1 on or of t1Y
.
.· .
.
prepos1· .
'
o pi ~positi ons separated by intervening words. "They not
on ly th emsc!Ycs vigorously prosecuted, but call ed on their allies to a·d
th.em in, the war.,, Correct thus: "They not only themselves vigorous;y
p1 osccutcd the war, but called on their allies for aid.'' "I would have
) o~ ,pay defcre?,ce to, and place confid ence in, the fri ends that I leave you.''
C01 1cct thus: I would have you pay deference to the friends that I leave
you, and place confidence in them.''

531. ARRA NGEMENT.-The obj ect generally stands
aftei: the go~ernin g word, but sometimes precedes it
p articul arly m solemn and poetical style.
'
S olemn style.

PREPOSITION.

198

He lives within the city's walls. Poetical. He lives the city's walls
within.
532. The relatives and interrogatives always precede their governing
verb. That and as al ways precede the governing preposition ; the other
relatives and the interrogatives often do so in familiar style. W c say, " The
man that I met, that I spoke to.'' " The man whom I met, whom I spoke
to, or to whom I spoke." " Whom did I meet ? " " Whom did I speak
to, or to whom did I speak ?"

Y .1 or me a

. If· ..th e obje.cts are t ransposed, the preposition is inserted; as, "We
p1om1,cd a prize to the best speaker ,, "Thrice th
"' d
C·
,, " , V.ll
·
ey ouere a crown to
1 you buy a tel escope f or me? ,,
wsar.
f ·wh en such constructions are thrown into the passive form the object
~ th e .verb, and not that of the preposition, must be made the ~ubject. as
A ~nzc was promised to the best speaker ,, NOT "The best
k ' . ,
promised
. ,, "
'
spea er was
. a prize.
A crown was thrice offered to Cresar " NOT "Cre
wa s thrice offered a crown.'''
sar

E.i:amples.-I gil•e you my peace.
unto yo.u.

A

M
Y peace I give

fol lowed 1 528. When two objectives follow n verb of .
.
.
rcspcctJYe!y the objects I If th o b. t
'
"hat me they sometimes
the construction 'J \VllCn s uch co~ s~~~i:ti~~: t~:;ss~~c'~~ ~~:t change i~ made in
w hat m us t be made the suujcct of tho veru 1 629 Wh
oobt~e passive form,
verb · th
·
.
·
en an ~ ect1ve follows a
rn o passJYo voice, by wha t is il governed 1 530 Of wh t
t
be m u th b.
.
·
a mus a word not
I
a e o o Ject 1 Gi ve a sentence in which this rule is violated, and show how
o correct It. 531. ·what is t ho JlO•ition of the object 1 532, What clas!Mlf words

RULE V.-OBJECTIVE WITHOUT A PREPOSITIO:N".
533. A. modifying substantive, denoting time, direction, extent, quantity, or value, often stands in the obj ective case without a preposition.
EXAMPLES. - ! am twenty years old, this very day.-Thrce times he
rose.- .A sick man always wants to go home. -She rode a mile.-A well
fifty f eet deep.-This wheat will measure fifty bush el.~ , and will weigh sixty
pounds to the bushe!.-He charged me n dollar for this book.
In the examples just given, no preposition can be supplied to govern
the objectives in italics. But in many cases prepositions are used or understood, and then Rule IV. applies. " On ltfonday last he started f or
the south.'' "Our western prairies often extend for miles.'' " A cubic
foot of gold would be [by] many pounds heavier than a cubic foot of

coal."
534. To is omitted before li ome, n orth, sonth, &c., when not modified
by other words, but expressed when they are modified: as, " He went
home, north, south;" DOT, " He went to his home, to the north, to the
far-distant south."
FALSE SYNTAX .

523. Who should I trust, if not he who I have lived
with for years 1
[Corrected. -Whom should I trust, if not him whom I have
lived with for years 1 Who must be changed to whom, he to him,
and who to whom, to be in the objective case; the fi rst whom
UNDER§

always precede their governing verb 1 What words always precede their govern·
i r.~ p ro position 1 ·what words often do so 1 533. R ecite Ru le V., relating to a
modifying substantive denoting time, &c . Give examples, and state what each
objective denotes. 634. Give the ru le relating to the preposition to before home ,
north, soul.h , die.

9

194

195

FALSE SYNTAX.

SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION•

being the object of the verb should trust, liim of should trust
understood, and tho second whom of the preposition with.]
I lo ve ye.-Let all th o world give homage, and they praise
th at never praised before.-Who did Dr. Jon es appoint as his
executors ?-We will meet you and he this evening.-Let whoever you " ·ish, be present.-! mentioned those that -r had seen,
and she among the rest.-Between you and I, there is something
wrong in that family. -Despite ye all, I will sueceed.-We have
not had many Nero's in modern times.-Take care who you give
that letter to.-Whnt has become of the W ashingtons' and Franklin's ?-Let the scholar confine himself to his studies, and he that
wishes to be safe avoid the vortex of politics.-Notwithstanding
th e persuasions of my fri ends and she whom I loved more than
they all, I determined to return.
UNDER § 524. I do not recollect of any parallel case in history.-He will comm ence with his studies next week.-No person tlrnt respects himself can allow of such liberties.-Why will
men pursue after pleasure ?-Man wants for little here below.~
She will not permit of any interference.-We have tried in vain
to discover about his plans.
UNDER§ 525. Fare thee well.-Retire thee into the drawingroom.-W e should beware us of evil practices.-! fear me there
are spies abroad.-Sit thee down and rest th ee here.
UNDER § 528. Washington was offered kingly power.-It
seems as if I were grudged even the food I eat.-When a visitor
comes in, he should be handed a book.-1 was told a very singular story.-He was allowed a pension in consequence of his
services.
UNDER§ 530. The nutmeg tree is a native of, and is still largely
cultivated in, the Moluccas.-W e should not only respect and obey,
but try to pay every attention to, our parents.-The natives of
Iceland collect great quantities of, and realize quite a profit by
exporting, eider-down.
UNDER§ 533 . .A man of three-score years old.
[ Corrected.- .A man three-score years old. Of must be omitted,
because years, being the objective of time, needs no preposition.]
Dig a pit of six feet deep.-If it rains on to-morrow, I shall
want to return to home without delay.-! met a lady of from

twenty to thirty years of age.-For three times the struggle was
renewed.-For these I will charge you at a dollar a dozen.

LESSON LXXIII.
SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION.-FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE

VI.-SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION.

535. One substantive joined to another denoting the
same person or thing, is in the same case.
ExAMPLES.-The fables of ...Esop, a Phrygian slave.-Wolsey, the
butcher's son rose to be a cardinal.-W olsey the cardinal's career terminated unfort~nately.-Homer wrote ·two great works, the Iliad a~d the
Odyssey.-! · heard it myself-I Daniel sa:w a vision.:-: e generation of
vipers. -Father Matthew has done much for temperance m Ireland.-The
evangelist John was born in Bethsaida.
The .leading substantive generally precedes the other, but not always,
as will be seen by the last two examples.
536. Substantives in apposition are frequently introduced by the words
as or that is namely (viz.), to wit. " France bas always looked upon
Et;gl a~d ·as h~r enemy [in apposition with England]." "Th~ czar, ~r
C1l1Jletor of Russia is now at Moscow." "The Helvetian republic, that is
'
'
Switzerland,
has given
many proofs of ·its nttachmen t t o. l"b
t er tY·." " Three
children of Henry VIII. reigned after him; namely [viz., to wit] Edward
VI., 1'fa1·y, and Elizabeth."
.
..
537. A substantive repeated for emphasis often stands m appos1t'.on
with the same word previously used; as, "They are tyrants, unfeelmg
tyrants, tyrants from whose tender merc'.e.s notl:iug is to be hoped."
538 . .A noun may be put in appos1t1on with a _clause or me_mber of
a sentence ; as, " Pocahontas informed the colomsts 9f the mtended
massacre -a j av or that was not soon forgotten." As the clause or
member 'has no case, the case of the noun in apposition is not thus
535. Recite Rulo VI., reiating to substantives in apposition .. G~ve cx:m~p.lee,
:md state with what each substantive that illustrates the rule 1& rn appos1t10n.
How does the apposition substantivo generally stand 1 536. By what are sub•t~n·
tiYcs in apposition frequently introduced 1 637. With what docs a substantive
rep eated for emphasis often stand in apposition I 538. With wb~t, besides a so\>.
stantive, may a noun be put in apposition I In such construct1ons, what !• the

196

197

FALSE SYNTAX
"eUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITIOM.

settled;
it may be regarded as in t he nominative independent, according
to Rule II.
.
.
539. A noun in apposition with a Jura! sub
moret singular substantives taken t o,,e
,,. tiie1,'. must be ~tunt1ve,
or with two
Ill the plural.
"Wor
mus not make ourselves gllLttons." "vVashi ,,.
' , as,
e
p1·esidents."
n,,ton and Adams, the first
540. The pronouns all these both and
.
such, are put Ill apposition
with more than one sin"ul~r sub 't t" ,
o
s an 1ve taken too-ether. as " H G b
an d V andal,-all were there " "S . .
"
, '
un, ot '
generals."
·
cipio and Hannibal were both great
..
.
541. The singular pronoun each is ut i
etantivc · as "They lo
P . n apposit10n with a plural subd
, •
o1cc out each for himself"
.
542. In the expressions each other ( ro Jeri.
another (to more than two)
,
d
P I . Y applied to two) and o»e
' caCI! an one are Ill apposit"
.h
cedinrr substantive "B
ion wit some pre·
.
.. "
.
.
e ye 1ovrng to one another: ,, one is in the
.
nat n e . case
. ' 111 apposit"ion wi· tl1 11e ; another is in the ob· f
f nom1·
to,-be ye loving, one to another.- "
t; the
a' e isse.d each other : " each is in the nomin ".
.
. . eace
Righteo1m1ess.;md P eace ; other is the ob· ect fl at1ve,_ Ill app,~s1t1~n with
to each other: " each is in the ob. ective ~in : ia~~ kiss~d.- I give you
also in th e objective after to.
~
'
ppos1t10n with you; other is

~re.po~:1on

Rin-hteou~~~::e::u~

543. There is no apposition in the folio .
substantives refer to the same thin"._
wmg cases, even though the
1. When one substantive is i:.
·
cate; as, "Prussia is a kin dom " the. subject ~n~ the other in the predithe verb, according to RulegVII.. Kingdom IS m the nominative after

possessive is used but once, with the one nearest to the noun modified ;
as, "His duties as editor are very arduous." "Leave it at the doctor's
[office], my J>'iend on Broadway." " Take this prescription to Hill, the
apothecary's [ shop]."
FALSE SYNTAX.
UNDER

§ 535. I love the generous man, he whose great heart
Wide opens to enfold a fellow man.

[Corrected.-! love the generous mau, him whose great heart,
&c. He must be changed to him, to be in the objective case, because it is in apposition with the objective man.l
. Harvey, him who discovered the circulation of the blood,
flourished in the time of King Charles !.-Milton visited Galileo
in prison, he who made so many discoveries in Natural Philosophy.-Will you thus requite me, ungrateful men- I who have
toiled for you- I who have lost all but life in your defence 1Captain Grant, he that commanded the Vixen, I used to count
among my most intimate friends.-He loves you well, all ye that
hear my words.'......Have you read any of the works of"Hannah
More, she who was so popular at the commencement of the present century 1

LESSON LXXIV.
SUBSTANTIVES AFTER VERBS.-FALBE SYNTAX .

of is introduced ' to ,,overn
,,.
2· When
t h e latter substantive ; as, " The
kingdom
of Prussia."

.J

3. Between the parts of a com I x
.
e. p~opcr noun (wluch should be taken
together in parsin"') . as C
La Fayetle.
c '
,
ape orn, t e Ural R iver, .Gilbert lifotier de
4. Between the relative and its a t . d
between these i~ pointed out in Rule V~I~~e ent.

The relation subsisting

544. When the substantives are in the possess1. ve case, the sign of the
case of th e noun in apposition 1 639 Wh
th e plural.I 540. \V ith what arc tl .
en must tho apposition noun be put In
I iet~ronouns_ ~ti, these, /Joth, nnd su.ch put in npp osition 1 54i. Wit h what is
11
eac l pu in nppos1 t1 0111 54? I th
o Jer and one another, h ow are each and one used
.... 11 c expressions each
sentence Be ye lovinrr one to another l'
1 Parse ori.e and another in the
=>
•
aree each and other il th
eousness and P eace have kissed eacl th
M
.
l
e sentence Right·
there is no apposition 544 'Vh 't"h .,.,
3. Specify the four cases in which
•
,
•
t
en . e subitantives a
. th
whteh takes the sign of tho possessive 1
re in
e possessive case,

RULE

VIL-SUBSTANTIVES AFTER

v ERBS.

545. A verb that has no obj ect takes the same case
after as before it, when both words refer to the same
person or thing.
ExAMPLES.- Prussia is a kingdom [same case as Prussia,-nominative].-1 know Prussia to be a kingdom [same case as Prussia,- objectivc].- Who was Pericles? [ lVho is in the same case as Peric/es,- nominative.]-It was she.-Did you know it to be her?
546. Rule VII. refers to intransitive verbs of existence, such as be, be54Ji. R ecite Rule VII., relating to substantives used after verbs. Give example•, and point out the substantive before and after the verb in each. 546. What

I

·1
!

198

199

PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE:

PREDICATE SUilSTAN'fIV.E .

come_, tuni out; also, to the transitive v .
considei', regard, and the like in the . CI ~s cal'., name, make, appoint,
'
b'een calledpassive
come, president ." " H e i1as
d v01ce. "Ile has been, bepresident
' ma e, appointed' elected, CILOSen,
1
.
."

tive before the ·participle is · in the possessive case, the
substantive after it is not; put in the possessive, but in
the nominative; as," The news of my having turned
soldim· [not soldier's] soon r eached the village." "His
b.eing a F r'enchman has nothing to do with the matter."
Soldier· and Frenchman may here be regarded as in
the nominative independent.

ran547. ·The
I words after and beJ,r.ore, as used in th·
I
IS ru c, refer to the
g imat1 ca ' and not to the act I ·d
spo n d .' b ut th e subject of the ve
ua b' o1. er.
al In most cases, the two correand the other substantive as aft r .;s ways to be regarded as befoi·e it
matter what posjtion they
actually occupy. The
thou ? " Thou is the subiect or no . ~r may be r eversed; as, "Who art
n · ·
'
mmatI ve before th
b
.
e verb· who is in the
ommat1ve after it -Bot!
.
l su stantives ma
.d
'
not what lte is called ,, B th
Yprece e the verb· as "I k
· - o substantives
r 1
now
' '
you a Frenchman ? "
.
may 10 low the verb; as, ".Are

grammatic~ ~;dno

ma;

548. The substantive before the v
.
.
J To become a proro d h erb IS sometimes omitted. as " [For
sa clman
" un sc olar re ·
' '
1
wlar is in the obj ective aftc. t b
qmres ong and patient study"

tlie ob'~ e ct1ve
.
before it.

i o ecome becau
.
'
se man understood is in

. 549. The substantive before the v r
is the subj ect of the verb it stands . etlb maly ~c a clause. .As this clause
· · case
a n d th c substantive
·
after' the ' , b m
. ie re
. at10n of th
· e nommative
w ll .
' er is also m the n . .
"
'
omm~ti ve.
To writ.e
e is a great accomplishment [ nom ] " "
1
nom.
J
to
me."
·
·
Y
lte
dzd
it
fa
a
mystery
[
550. Rule VII ·' o f course applies to
t' . 1
par icip es. "By becomin"' a
Quaker, Penn incurred his ra'the ,
. 1
''
r s an.,.er " p
o
cip e becoming relates, is in the nom· o. •
enn, to which the partitherefore in the nominative after 't mat1ve case before it, and Quaker is

wz

Some grammarians teach that the substantive thus used after a participle
is in the possessive case, with the sign of the possessive omitted. But, when
a pronoun stands in this construction, it is unmistakably in the nominative
and not in the possessive; as, " I had no suspicion of its being they [not
their)." It is fair to conclude that a noun in the same construction is in
the nominative also.
Others condemn this construction altogether and would substitute an
equivalent clause; as, "The news that I had turned soldier," &c. " The
fact that he is a Frenchman," &c. "I had no suspicion that it was they."
.As, however, the construction in question is employed by good writers and
often expresses the idea more neatly than any other, there is no reason
why it should not be used. The substantive after the participle simply
constitutes an exception to Rule VII., and is to be parsed as in the nominative independent.
553. This rule and the remarks under it are further illustrated in thi
following

5-1 A
I.
o .
participle may be used ind

b e~endently. A noun standing after
a participle thus used has
d b .
'
no su stant1ve beC
't .
an ' crng used independent! . .
ore i with which to agree
mind revolt at the thou n-ht o/b I~ m the nominative case. "Does not th;
a vo .,.
.
o
emg a murderer? " " Th
.
J
un., man is too atrocious to b r .
.
. e crime of being
~pl e, an d man in the second e~~"M·de
· the first exh .
.
w i·er m
f 1c1p
· 1c being with which to an-rce
' avrng
no s u b_s t ant1ve
·
in
before the par0
pendent.
case, are m the nominative inde-

552.

EXCEPTION TO RULE

VII.

verbs arc r eferred to in ti.
When
the substan<l
.
llB ru 1c 1 547 >Vh t .
--- - - -- - an before 111 this rule 1 How does th .
n ~s the meaning of the words if.
1 Givo exam p les in which
order compare with the
unee omitted 1 549. \Vhat mny tho su . er..
8. Which subst:mtive is somecase, th en, is th e substantive after tho bs~~1t1vc before the verb be 1 In what
VII. npply i Give an exam I
ver
550. To what, of course d
liciplo uoed lndepcndcn;lyi p
cnso.is a substantive
o cxcopt10n to Rulo VII. What do

~·rdcr

th::~~;mat~al

~~/~~~ 1~\~lint

a:t~:~

~ft:::~~~~

PARSING EXERCISE.

No carpet knight was he.-What is a noun 1-Be follow ers of
virtue.-To be called a great man is quite different from r eally
being one.-Ilow the western continent became peopled, is still
an unsettled question.-Who would incur the imputation of being
a malicious slandered-Nobody likes the idea of being called a
fop .- One critic approves of what is called mere bombast by another:-On account of there being but few present, the lecture
w:i.s postponed.-Her being an heiress is certainly nothing against
her.-Bentley has the reputation of being the best Greek scholar
that England ever produced.
some grammarian8 teach respecting this construction 'l What objection is there to
thi• 1 What do others say of thiJ construction 1 Is there any good reason for
contlc1nuing it 1

200

PREDICATE SUBSTANTIVE.
FALSE SYNTAX.

UN~~n § 545. ~id you suppose it was me?

[Co11 ected.-D1d you suppose it was I~ M.
to I, to be in th e nominative aft th . .
e must be changed
er e verb was, i "t berng
· in
· the
· at11·0
. before it.]
nomrn
Did you suppose it to be !?-Did
.
.
mnn wns me ?-If I 1, .
you thmk that little ill-formed
' e1c you or h er I
Id
procee dings.-You kno,~ n t
' wou put a stop to such
.
·• o w 110m lie m t
is not th e person whom he
t d
ny urn out to be.-Fie
him to bc.-It w:1s my l>rotfi:~. ~l~a:d :~ be, or who you supposed
no d1ffe ronoc wl1om or wl .
y
saw, not me.-It makes
.
.
1e1e you are alw
b
did yon say it was l1im 2- Th M.
. ,
ays e po1ite.- Why
· · ·
l ongest rivers' of North· A e . 1ssour1 and the M"1SS1Ssipp1
are the
U
merica.
NDER § 551. I had no idea of its being h.
[ Coincted.-l h ad no idea f .
. im.
changed to lte th e nomin· t' . o its berng lte. Him must be
ently.]
'
a ive case, because it is nsed independThe poss1"b·1·
·
I ity of th eir turnings ld"
'
- I have no doubt of its b . h .o iers never occurred to me.
cion of its being me.-We ~:~ nei.-Tbey ent~rtained no suspi0
hope of their becoming such
scholars'.

LESSON LXXV.
PRONOUNS.-FALSE SYNTAX.

554. The case of a .
·
rules already given <rilonouffin ls <let.ermined by the
'd
.
ese su ce for parsing. b t t
avo1 enors in sp eakin()' and
..
' u' o
other things also as ' vell:::,
wntrng, we must look to
<
as case
555. A pronoun takes the ~rson
der (when it has 5()'ender) of t1
b' num?er, and genit stands.
e su stantive for which
'
"Franklin loved 11 is country Victo .· l
~
their country, we love our couut;·y." ua oves i e1· country, the Swisg love
Here the pronoun changes first from
555. What determi nes th e person number
d
'
' an gender of a pronoun I I!lu.o-

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

201

masculine to feminine [his to her], then from singular to plural [her to
their], then from third to first person [their to ou,.], in consequence of
similar changes in the substantive for which it stands.

556. ExcEPTION.-Sometimes a pronoun, in stead of
agreeing in number with the word for which it stands,
agrees rather with the idea conveyed; as, "Israel had
pitched tlieir tents in the desert." H ere Israel is singular, but it means the Israelites, and hence the pronoun
referring to it is put in the plural.
" I have ten dollars, and shall pnt it in the Savings' Bank to-morrow."
If I mean ten single dollars or separate coins, I should say "put them in
the Savings' Bank;" but otherwise, though dollars is plural, one amount
is implied, and the pronoun, agreeing with ~he idea conveyed, stands in
the singular.
657. Many a i? always used with a singular noun, as many a time,
many an idle word; but the idea conveyed is plural. .A pronoun standing
for a noun preceded by many a, in the same member, agrees with the noun
in the singular, but in a following member agrees with the idea conveyed
and is plural. "During this persecution, many a martyr shed his blood;
and theii- names are still embalmed in the memory of the church."

558. A pronoun referring to a collective noun is put
in the singular when the individuals referred to are
taken as one whole, but in the plural when they are
taken separately; as, "Here the little band lost some
of its best members." " The whole band eagei·ly
plunged into the river to drink tlieir fill."
559. The collective nouns few, many, hundred, thousand, &c., preceded
by the article a, always take a pronoun in the plural; as, "A few lost their
lives; a great many had their limbs broken."

560. A pronoun standing for two or more singular
substantives connected by and expressed or understood,
trate this. 5!>6. 'Vith what does n pronoun sometimes agree, in stcall of tho word
for which it stand s 1 Give examples. 557 . With what number is many a always
used 1 I n wh at number is a pronoun that stand~ for a noun preceded by many a 7
558. In what number ie a pronoun put, that refers to a collective noun 1 559. What
collective nouns always take a pro noun in the plural 1 560. In what. number is a
pronoun that stands for two or moN singular substantives connected by and 1

9*

202
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

must be in the plural . as "
.
weeping for their brotl1er 'L Marth,a and Mary were
charity, 1iad left tlleir mark ona~~rush. ' "Faith, hope,
561 B
us c aracter "

.

. ut the pronoun must be put in th .
•
for tll;e When the substantives for which it :t:~~~ula~,
same person or thino-. as "Th·
ate but different names
heal others; himself he coi:ld no~ h l 1'~ great physician and surgeon could
2 Wh
h
ea .
..
en t e substanti vcs are limited b
w~vmg tree and every rippling bro k h y ~ac!i, every, or no; as, "Every
mmd.,,
o
as its lessons for the thou<>htful
0
562.
Sinn-ulat•
"'
b
t
·
.
"
., ' s ant1ves connected
!Jy and also, and too, and not
but, if not, or as well as are taken
~.in~ular; as, "Brazil, a~d India als:e~arately, and .have a pronoun in th~
:Not only We Ilion-ton but N I
, is noted for its valuable diamonds "
war." "The lord~ as ~·ell as t~:~n,,,.~reatly di~tinguished liimselj in this
563 A
eooar, has his troubles."

.
.
plural pronoun referr·
different persons i, I t . h . mg to substantives of
" ) U m t e first p
·
erson m preference
to the second ancl tl
'
ie second in
. fi
as, "You and lw
dI .
p1 e erence to the third.
body else does." an
"y will prep are our lessons if no-'
mother."
ou and he will not disob~y your
FALSE SYNTAX .

555. There ls s h
.
their tl1oughts.
nc a noise that one
UNDER§

can not collect
[ Corrected.-There is s l
.
thoughts. T!ieir must be uch1 a noise that one can not collect ~.
bee
c an"'e d to h · tl
,.zs
ause one, the substantive to ol . h . is, le singular number
Evety-body ou..,.ht t l . w ne it refers, is singular]
'
CO
.
o
0 Hne regard to th d'
.
nsc1ence.- No one can tell what .
e · wtates of their own •
;ow.~A cow gives every token f ~~als may await them to-mor. rom it. -Any one can secure th e~ istr.ess when its calf is taken
If th ey will find fault with every efi~tation of being a good critic
ung and every-body. Let ~
55 1. In what two ca-

nect ivc
< i:;es m ll Bt the pronoun Ue
.
must :i..s show that i::ingulnr subst::tntiYes nre put~ in tho singular 1 562. 1Vhat con-

HJ the ·1·~~:o;o~ut~:c, that re fora to singular sub~~:~~i::parately 1 In what number
pe!'sons I
person of a plural pronoun referring" tso cobnncckd 1 563. W'J1at
o au otantiveo of different

F.ALSE SYNTAX.

203

young man be temperate, industrious, and upright, and people will
be sure to respect and trust them.-When the buffalo is wounded,
they t urn furi ously on their pnrsuer, and sometimes trample him
to death.-They carved cherubim out of Parian marble, and placed
it over the shrine.
I have lost the scissors. Have you seen it ?-That duck has
lamed his right foot.-Every animal, however small, has some
weapon with which they can defend themselves.-The tongs should
always be kept in its place.-She saves her wood-ashes, and sells
it to a soap-maker.-Thrifty men, when they.have received their
wages, do not spend it for liquor.- We sent for the regalia, but the
manufacturer said that he had not :finished it.-As I was looking
at the heifer, he suddenly started off and ran down the lane. Each horseman put their lance in rest.
UNDER§ 557, 558. Many a flower is born to blush unseen, and
waste their sweetness on the desert air.-Many a book is published,
that is positively injurious ; if it were committed to the flames, it
would be a blessing to the community.- No wonder that many a
poet has sung the name of Washington and i=ortalized it in their
noblest strains.-The jury separated, to get its dinner.-The court
has r endered their decision.-The crew were next called on deck,
to receive its orders.
UNDER§ 560. Hard and soft soap differ from each other in the
materials that enter into its composition.-Shem, Ham, and
J aphet, went into the ark with his father Noah.-My son, my
daughter, do not distress ·yourself.-Adversity, affliction, temptation, ought we not to be ready for it all ?-I have tried blue and
red ink, but it does not write so well as black.
U NDER § 561. The druggist and apothecary on the corner will
hereafter close their store on Sunday.-My friend and benefactor,
do not withdraw yourselves from my embrace.-Your son and heir
would do well to alter their ways.- No lord, no king, can enjoy
themselves more than !.-Each of the Scipios and each of the
Oatos liad their admirers.
UNDER § 562. Roger Williams, and Calvert also, showed the
liberality of their views by allowing freedom of conscience in relig.ious matters.-It was Cleopatra, and not Semiramis, that killed
themselves by the bite of an asp.-Powhatan, as well as Pocahontas, now did all in their power to conciliate the colonists.

204

SYNTAX OF l ' RONOUNS.
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

§ 5G3. I t old botl1 her and
an_d satisfy themsel ves.-May sister ;ou to see the superintendent
tlus afternoon ?-I must h
J anny a.nd I go to h er aunt's
.
ave met ames and y
b t Id"
rc cogmze either of th em.
ou, u
Id not

205

UNDEH

LESSON LXXVI.
P .RONOUN S (CON
" TINUED) . - FALSE SYN TAX.

564. A pronoun standing f, . t
substantives connected by
o1 wo or more singular
.
or or nor must be . th
smgular · as "N "th . V .
'
ln
e
.
' . . ' . e1 e1 emce nor Genoa retains the
p1oud pos1t1011 i t once held."
565. But if one of the substantives is 1 I . .
pronoun is made plural. as "N "th V ? ura' It is placed last, and the
retain the proud positio;1 ;h~y ~n:~ l~:ld.'~mce nor the States of the Church
566 · If the substantives are of differ
I . ent persons, the pronoun must be
used in the proper person with
tb
h
eac l, or the sentenc
t at the pron ou n may be omitted "N "th
e mus e so altered
·,,
ei er J ames nor I will allow our
children to "row up in .
I
e
ignorance
Virronn- beca
.
t 1ere is 110 pronoun applicable to b th J.
e > . u~e our 1s plural. As
(wh ich is first) use a se1Ja .. t
o
ames (which is third person) and I
l.
'
- ' i,t e pronoun for each . "J
.ll
us children to " row up i "no ,
•
•
ames w1 not allow
or I will oome f~ r oui· ch';1d '. enoianTce, nor will I mine.''-" Either my wife
1 1cn on uesday" The
· h
-:
meanmg ere prevents
us from correctinn- ns in ti1e 1 t
.
o
as
case("
Either
my
w
·
~
·11
I 1dren, or I for mine") as th
cu
h"ld
I e w1
come for her
n r
,
e c 1 ren belong to us · · ti
t hercfore 0n-et rid of the
JOm Y· "e must
pronoun alton-ether. "E"th
-~
come for the chi ldren on Tuesday.''
o
.
i er my w1 e or I will
5G7. Wh en th e substanti,·es are of th h"
.
_e t ird person singular, but of diffcrent genders as the pe1·so11al p
'
ronoun 1s the
· h
genders, but not in the ;;nn-iilar th . .
same m t e plural for both
1
"Neither Alfred nor Ellen ~ve. ' ~ e ~ a te~dency to use the plural ; as,
'e per ect m thei r lessons." "An author or
5~. In wh::lt number is a pronoun tha t stan
~t::i. nt1Ycs connec ted by or or nor 1 56 "' I f
de for tw o or more singular sub.
is the nJ!c 1 5GG If the sub t t•
o.
one of tho substantives is plural wl1·1t
.
·
s an l\'ea arc of differ 1
~ '
'
pronoun ? Gi\·c exnmples of the two mod rs . - c i.t. pe.raons, wh at is said of the
t11c snbsbntivcs nrc of tho tl11· 1·cl
.
. of co11 cc twn suggested. 567. Wh en
son erngulnr b t f 1. •
I enden cy is there I \Vhat is tho r pc1
I ~
I
, ' u. o 'ifl er cnt genders w hat
u e or t 10 pronoun m this case 1 YVhat ~ubsti.

authoress should not think that the public are bound to receive them with
favor."
These sentences are wrong. Substantives connected by 01· or nor are
taken scpamtcly and require a singular pronoun. Correct by using tho
pronoun m the proper gender with each; as, "Neither was Alfred perfect
in his lessons, nor Ellen in hers." Or, when it can be done, use a term of
common gender that will embrace both the substantives, and let the pronoun agree with it in the masculine in preference; as, " A writer should
not think that the public are bound to receive him with favor."
568. A noun denoting an inanimate object personified (§ 98) has gender, and a pronoun standing for such a noun must agree with it in gender;
as, "Famine, with his wan cheeks, gloats over his victims." "Plenty
trips along, scattering her fruits as she goes."
569. In a given sentence, pronouns referring to the same substantive
must be of the same number and the same form . " Thou hast always repaid
me with ingratitude, and do you now ask a greater favor than ever?"
Wrong, because in the second member the pronoun is changed to the
plural. Correct thus: "and dost tlw1i now ask," &c. " You have put
your hands to the plough, and will ye now draw back?" Wrong, because
in the second member the form of the pronoun i$ changed. Correct thus:
"ancl·will yoii now draw back?"
FALSE SYNTAX.

§ 564. If Seth or Methusaleh grew in wisdom as they
grew in years, what knowledge they must finally have attained!
[ Cor1·ected:-If Seth or Methusaleh grew in wisdom as lie grew
in years, what knowl edge lie must fin all y have attained! They
must be changed to he, because it stands for the singular substantives Seth and Jlfethusaleh, connected by or.]
Walter Jones or his brother William just passed with their face
tied up, as if they had met with an accident.-If you want a good
house or farm, I can tell you where to find them.-Neither talent
nor wealth should be laid away in a napkin, by those who are
for tunate enough to possess them.- We have no evidence in their
public acts, that either Charles I. or Charles II. deemed it worth
their while to consult the happiness of their subjects.-Neither
UNDER

tu tion is suggested for the substantives 1 568. What is said of a prono un standi ng
for the name of n.n inanimate object personified 1 569. What rule is laid do wn for
pronouns referring to the same subs tant ive in o. given sentence Y How ia this rulo
Violated in tho first example 1 How, in the second!

206

FA.LSE SYNTAX.

Plato nor Aristotle tbouglit it proper to make known to the world
at large tliosc more important doctrin es which they freely taught
th eir followcrs.-Peacc can not be restored till either Austria or
Hun gary shall surrender th eir claims.-We sho ulcl not envy our
neighbor h ealth, wealth, or any other blessing, but, on the contrary, should feel glad that he possesses th em, even though they
be denied to us.
UNDER § 505. If you want a good house or clesirable lots, I can
tell you where to fin<l it.-N either talent nor riches should be laid
away in a napkin , by those who are fortunate enough to possess
it.-N either Plato nor the other ancient philosophers thought it
proper to make known to the world at large those more important
doctrin es which he freely taught his followers.- Peace can not be
r cstorecl till either the Hungarians or Austria shall surrender its
claims.
UxoER § 506. Neither you nor any honorable man ought to be
ashamecl to ask the forgiveness of your friend, when you have
wronged him.-Thou or I must abanclon his clairns.-Neither h e
nor you promised your wives to r eturn before to-morrow.-Here
is an opportun ity for you or me to distinguish ourselves [to gain
·distinction].-Neithcr he nor you shoulcl promise yourselves success in such a cause.

Uxnrn § 567. A true-hearted man or woman will n ever insult
th eir infe r! ors.-N either the king nor the queen seems to concern
th emsel ves mnch about the welfare of their subjeots.-No boy or
girl sl10ulcl clisobey their parents.- Every gentleman and lady
should rem ember that they are r esponsible for the example they
set to the worl<l .-If you see my brother or sister, tell them I will
n ot be h ome to -night.
UxoEP. § 508. Spring trips along, scattering its blossoms as it
goes.-Thc Earth is ever a bounteous mother to its children.Time mows down rich and poor alike with its relentless scythe. Hope breathes many a delightful promise into the ears of its
votari es.- Uow many are woo ed to d estruction by Pleasure with
its syren songs !-There is no orator so persuasive as Fash ion; it
h as but to open its lips, nnd nobody thinks of gainsaying its worcls.
UxnEP. § 569. Fame you know to be a dream; wilt thou then
barter tl1y soul for it ?-Let falsehood be a stranger to your lips, a
1trange r to thy heart.-Listen ye men of Rome, you who proudly

SYNTAX OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

207

call Romul us yom. father ·-Fools may your scorn, but not thy envy
raise.

LESSON LXXVII.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.-FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE VIII.-RELA.TIVES.

570. A relative abo-rees with its antecedent in person
and number.
.
on
'th its antecedent in case. This depends
e Several of the reA relative does not agree WI
.
d or words In Its own c1aus ·
its relation to some wor
to elatives as will be seen in the
marks in the last two lessons app1Y r
'
following
VIIL - I lw [1 st sin"ular, agreeing with I] speak.
EXAMPLES OF RULE
w
,
[': d . ] speaks.-W e who
-Thou who [2nd. sing.] speakest.-He lwh]o 3r sm~;hey who [3rd, plu.]
d
1 . ·1] speak - You who [2nd, p u. spea .
[
1st, p ma
.
[3 d . ] asses for a hero is really a cowar .
speak.-Many a man that r ' si~:1:al pa reeing with two singular antece' g
h . ote some fine lyrics.
- Beaumont and Fletcher, who [p
d]
always named too-et e1, wr
dents connected by an are
'.'
s but one person is de-This great physician and surgeon,ldwhho ~ s~~~~: could not h~al himself.
h · · and sui·geon] cou
ea
'
.
"
In with antecedents preceded by
noted by p ysician
-Every tree and p)ant that [smg., aoree g
C t -You and he and
t t'fi
to the goodneos of our rea or.
1
every] blossoms, es es
'
ns will not be kept in.
1
I, who [1st person preferred) know our e~s~an~ives either of which, llS far
57 1. ·when there are two or m~e sute:edent ;he relative agrees with
as the sense is co~cerned, may be ~ta~ [:i.d sing.,' agreeing with party, not
·
·th I. ot it] run to
the nearest ; as, I am the party 1
'
I] is to blame." "It is I that [1st, sing., agreemg w1
' n

k

blame.". If the antecedent 1s
. a c1ause, the relative is in the third
. person,
,.
57 2
singular ; if two or more clauses, in the third, plnral. "He is witty, wmc 7•
.
to relatives. On wbn.t does th e case of a
570. Recite Rule VIII., referrmg
1
d name the antecedent in c3ch
h
f as
d I ff e examples of the ru e, an
relative depen
iv
ore substantives, either of whic , as ar ~
case. 571. When there are two or m d t "th which docs the relative agree I
u may be the antece ent" , .w1if the antecedent is a clause If
the sense is concerne '
1
f>72. In wha• person and nnmber Is ~he re1a ivc,

208

SYNTAX OF RELATIVES.

SYNTAX OF RELATIVES.

[ .3rd. ' sin"'
J I re"'ai·d
as no great aclvanta e," "\Vb
o·
o
,
.
c1plm e the mind and whethe,1
. g
ether the classICs dis'
an acquamtance with th
· f
.
em is o any practical
benefit in life wli ic!t [Srd 1 , l)
.
'
' p ura are both important
f
scllolar must dec ide for himself.,,
ques 10ns, every

~73. The rela ti''.e connects its clause with the leadin"'
h Id
o part of the sentencc. A conJunctJOn therer .
'
•O I e, s ou
not be u d b r.
unless there arc two or mo e . I t"
I
se
e ore a relative,
r ic a i ve causes to be
d
connecte . " Dr.
J ohnson, tho author of the D" t"
.
ic 10nary who [not a , d , J
' L1"es of the Poe ts ' flourisl d . l
.'
n w1to wrote the
of George II
dG
'
ie 111 tie rewn
0
·an
eorge III."
But, if there al'e two relative 1 ,
•
c
a
uses,
and
may
be
used
,
as "D J h
1
w io wrote the Dictionary and whos 'L"
f
' '
r. o nson,
admired, ranks high as a critic." e
ives o the Poets ' has been much
574. A sentence must n t
.
antecedent in a previous se~t commence m:h a relati ve referring to an
[not wli icli J havin"' been done ence. . Use tlii~ or tlzese instead. "T!Lis
o

575. vVno

,

we again set sail.''

WHICH
' ·
' THA'l'.~

W,"l

no, as alread stated
1e~~t~s to p~rsons, or anim als and things pe1::onified '.
w 1.c i., t o ammals and things only.
'
.

an:7:1~i1~~at ~~ equally applicabl? to p ersons, animals,

.
w lncll,

"' .

must b e used m stead of

h
w o

.

01

1. Wh en both p e1·sons
d th'
as " L 1.
an
mgs are referred to .
'
oo ~ at the artists and maste1·1Jieces that a . t'
G reece produced " H .
.h
ncien
.
ere n e1t er who nor wllic!i w Id
b e applicable to both the antecedents.
. ou
t
d
2. When who is th
"
e an ece ent, to prevent repetiti on.
TVlw that hateth his brother can love
Gocl ? ;, as,
3. After a SUDerlative · as "H, 'b 1
Ziest en emy tliat'Rome e~er l1ad."anm a was the dead577. T!zat is also generally preferred to w/1 0 or which l
all, and the adjectives very and n .
" W
.
, · After sam~,
o ' as,
ashmgton was the very man
t·h~ :lllt cccdent consists of tw o or more cl au ses 1 .5
be used before a rebtivc? "\Vhy ia thi s ~ r 73. ' '.Vhen only may a conjunc.
not co1 rnn c ncc? 575. To wha t docs wh o rclat . uU. ~1th ~vhat must n i:entcnce

209

that the colonies needed." 2. When the antecedent follows it is, it was,
&c.; as, "It was I that knocked." 3. When the antecedent is a collective
noun; as, "The committee that was appointed immediately opened a subscription."
578. That implies a closer connection with the antecedent than who or
which. It is therefore generally used when the relative clause restricts
and is essential to the meaning to be conveyed. But it must not be used
when the relative clause merely states some additional fact, and can be
left out without injury to the sense. Thus :-" A man that [restrictive]
possessed great eloquence could lead the Athenians at his will." "Pericles,
wlzo [not that, because additive] possessed great eloquence, could lead the
Athenians at his will."
579. When the relative refers to the antecedent simply as a name or
character, wh ich must be used, not who or that; as, "Such were the trials
of Job, which has come to be regarded as another name for patience."
" Solomon appears to the greatest advantage as a judge, which he was
even to the meanest of his subjects."

580. PosrrrnN.-The relative, with its clause, should
stand immediately after its antecedent; as, " Tlwse
who break the law deserve punishment," NOT " Those
deserve punishment wlw break the law."
FALSE SYNTAX.
U NDER

§ 5'73, 5'74. The elephant, the largest of quadrupeds,

and which sometimes attains- the height of fifteen feet, can easily
draw a lo ad that six horses can not move.-The whig candidate
for the presidency was Taylor, the h ero of Buena Vista, and who
was elected by a small m ajority. Who dying before his t erm of
office expired, Fillmore became president.-In F ebruary, 1848, a
m echanic, di gging a mill-race for Captain Sutter, a S wiss, and who
had settled in the valley of the Sacramento, discover ed among the
sand some particles of gold. Which news havin g spread, thousands at once flocked to California from the Atlantic states.
UNDER § 5'76. There were not cars enough to transport the
passengers and baggage which had arrived at this point.-The

t 10 . 1

tcc cdc nts l' C'q ui rc th e u se of II t .
. c 1 W!u ch 7 Th at l 576. What an·
must th at b e used 1 577., In wh~~ tl~n ~t<'a~l ~~ who or w hich l Aft er w h at degree
rce ca~eb .1s that generally preferred to who or

ichich?

578. \.\Tbich relative implies th e closest connection with th e antecede nt 1

When , therefore, is that generally used 1 Wh en mu st it not be used 1 570. "When
mu st which be used, and not who or that 7 680. What is the proper position for
the relative and !ts clause I

210

most valu able article which is produced by insects, · is silk.-Who, I ask, who looks upon the heavens studded with stars, can
doubt that th ere is a God ?-Boas are the largest serpents which
arc kn own .-! could not help admirin g th e good-natured countrypco plc and tl1e baskets of sple~did fruit, with which the market
was fill ed.
U1mrn § 577. I am the same man which I was; it is you who

h ave altercd .-There is no man who sinneth not.-He who do es
all whicl1 he can, should be commended, thou gh it be but little.Nations which do not foster education can not hope to prosper.Birds which live on animal food are called carni vorous.- Birds of
paradise, that are much prized for th eir beautiful plumage, are
folin d cl1icfly in New Guinea.-The family whom I visited, can not
be th e same which you refer to.
U :mEn § 580. He is a common-place man, that.has no friends
and no enemies.-A man should first count the cost, who is about
t o build a house.-Alfred freed England from the Danes, who
showed as much courage in war as wisdom in peace.-Even those
philosoph ers fell far short of modern enlightenment, who advanced furthest in the search for wisdom in ancient times.-Those
eYil-disposed persons should be driv en from society, who take
pl easure in slandering their neighbors.-On this voyage, the captain treated the sailors very harshl y, who had never been known
to do so before.

LESSON LXXVIII.
PRO NOUNS <CONTINUED).-FALSE SYNTAX.

581. \Vhen two or more relative Clauses referring to
the same antecedent are connected by a conjunction,
th e same r elative must be used ; as, "No man tlwt
loves his fam ily, or that [not w lio] r egards his own
happiness, will g ive way to intemperance."
Ilut, when one of the clauses is restrictive and the other not, that is
581. What rule ie laid down respecting two or more"rclative clauses referring
to tho same antecedent i When one of the clauses is reatrictivc and the other

211

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

FALSE SYNTAX .

clause which is placed fi rst , an d who or whicli
.
'
" The part that was left, winch
in the other ; as,
·
.Adh .
without a
th' n in reality was given to
c1·
was more valuable in appearance
a
'
.

u~ed in the restrictive

· r on
conJunc i

bal."

th

582. Do /not use i.. ~
wlience for Tom w 1iic i,

1 •

1

adverb where for in w1iic1i, or
unless place is referred to lit-

erally.

.
t as to the spot whel'e Palmyra once
"e say "Travellers are Ill doub
' th fla"S,, But "They
"
,
·1 d was "ay wt
o .
,
'
stood.'' "The harbor whence ~ve sat e
, ~] their grievances were set
t · i winch [not w1ie1e
presented a documen "
. [
l
] they drew these cone1u·
forth." "The premises jl'om which not w ience
.
sions, were false."
D
t omit a preposition and relative, co~583. o no
. s "The winter the P1l-.
nccting parts of a senten·~-e bl: for its severity." Supgrims landed, was re:na1 .. a
ply in wliich after winteT.
stand for an adjective
584. Do not make a pronoun
or a finite verb.

.
. "Never be un 0oorate. the followm"'0 sentences ..
This rule is vio1ate d m
f . ,, " He declared that he
f th e most heartless o srns.
ful fo r this is one o
.
t to g"iving up the cause as
'
• 1
uld be cqmva1en
•
would not retreat, wlnctt wo
t f for ingmtitude is one of the
"Never be un"'ra e u'1
h i
h
lost." Correct t us : l od tl t he would not retreat, for t a
f · ,, " He dee are
m
. . up the cause as lost."
most heartless o sms.
to do so would be equivalent to gmng
.
.
t use the pronoun the11i for the adJ ect1ve
585. Do no
h t for the conjunction that.
.
t
ou mi ht have
those, or the pronoun w a
g
" I will never believe but wliat [tha ] y
1
J t rees. "
saved them [t1iose
586. Pronouns must be so used that there may be
no doubt for what they stand. Do not, therefore, make
Wb
only nrny to Iier e be used for in tc ldch , and
not what l• the rule 1 582.
en
t b milted i 584. F or wha t must a
,
. • o83 'Vhat must no e o
.
I
d
1chence for from which f
•
• •
lea of the '\'iolation of th1s ru e, an
pronou n not be made to stand T Gn e c:atm!iust them nnd what not be used 1
1 'Vhat rul e is lai d clown r espect.
tho modes of correct10n. 585. F or w "
586. 'Vhat is essential in t~e use of pron~~~: violati~n of this rule, and show how
lng personal pronouns 1 Give examples o

212

FALSE SYNTAX.

SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS.

the s~me personal pronoun r epresent different
.
or tlnngs m the same sentence.
.
peison~
Errors of this kind are frequent and . .
.
ways. " The farm er told t1 I
'
m.ay be corrected in different
S
ic awycr that Ins ox had
d l.
ay ' J'ou;· OX has gored my ho1'Se ' Or ' .iJ~
l
gore ns horse."
the case may be " Pop
t '
!J ox ias go1·cd yo1t1' horse ' as
·
c wro c to .Addison that l
'
efforts lo injure his repulat' o ,, S
i e was aware of his secret
&c. " A man does not al ' '.1. ' ay. of tl'.e scaet ~tfo1'/s of the latter
.
WUJS apprecmte liis friend's k' d
'
sacn 6ccs his comfort to promote m
, .s 1iappmess"
ho
.
Say l m
· ,.,ness,
· dwhen
,
ncss, when they sacrzijiice th . .

,,.,

eii C0111.J ort

· •
to promote h is 11

ns J rien s k ind•

"Wc were strnck with the grandeur f l
ap~iness.
hood of this cascade and could
t h I o ti: .scc1~ery m the ncighborThe grandeur, the sc~nery, or the ~~ca~:? ad;mng it." Admiring what?
so as to determine which is mea t " ,"., he sentence must be altered
11 •
·1 ·
'e could not he! d · ·
. h
.
P a mmng the
st n •mg grandeur of the see
Or, "Struck with its grandeu~er~ Ill t led neighborhood of this cascade."
·
'"e cou not help ad · · th
of thi ,- casca de. ,, Or, "We could mmngh e scenery
m. the nci,.,hborhood
o
..
tlus cascade, which was surrounded b
not elp admmng
Y scenery of striking grandeur.,,

. 58 ~ . A pronoun
tive
I t ' should not be used with 1't s su b stan1
1
. ' il a re a. 1011 which the substant'ive may i'tself
Pl oper y snstam.
"Regulus haYi ng reached Rome he
d ti
terms proposed by Cartha'"'e." 0 '.t l urge ie senate not to accept the
ject. " ' Yhatever we deslre . ~· ie, and thus make R egulus the sub.
, we ate very apt to hope :1 " 0 . .
is• hard indeed ' the lot of th e poor when they are tt t ·k d mit .it. "It
Say "Hard inde d · h 1
a ac e by stekneas."
'
e is t e ot of the poor, when," &c.
FALSE

SYNTAX.

UNDER § 581. A rnl er that ~
nd mims
. . t ers
. th e laws 'ti · .
anc1 who consults the happiness of his sub' .
.
w1 I JUst1ce
spected.
~ects, will always be re-

[ Correcte£l. -A rul er that administer ti
.
tlwt consults th e happiness of h'
b' ts 1~ law.s with justi ce and
1Vh
is su ~ ec s will always b
t d
o must be clian,,.ed to that b
,' .
e r espec e .
o
' ecause taat is used in the previous
it may be correctetl . Sho w what is wrong in the sent
grandcnr of /h e scener!J in th e nei"hborl . d if l .
encc We were s tru ck with the
miring il. Alter the rwntcncc ·i~ tb too o tits cascade, and could not help ad-

587. Stato tho rule relating to a prono:ec wda)t•s, •O us t~ determine Its meanina.
0 nn 1 s substantive.
•

213

relative clause with reference to the same antecedent, the t wo
clauses being connected by a conjunction.]
Such travellers as have penetrated into the interior of Africa
and who lrnve given us an account of their explorations, represent it as abounding in game.-What surprises me most, anu
which may well surprise every-body, is that men will so far lose
sight of their own interests as to fall into intemperance.-Persons
that h ave been blind from their birtl1, but who have opportunities for instruction, can be taught to read with facility.-The
cotton that is raised on these islands, and which always commands
a better price than the ordinary qualities, is one of the.staples of
the state.

UNDER § 582, 583. Can you r emember the book where you saw
the passage ?-There are ch aracter s where there seems to be nq
r edeeming feature.-It is useless to speak of the authors whence
:Milton drew his inspirntion.- Gibbon sometimes utters sentiments whence we can derive no good.- H e has produ ced a
volume well calculated to interest the class it is intended.What else could Burgoyne do in the circumstances he was

placed?

UNDER § 584. When there are t oo many laws, th ey are constantly violated; which always has u bad effect on the comrirnnity,-We love to see a man modest, which is generally a sign
of merit.-After an illness of a few days, Washin gton dieu;
wh!ch was the cause of great sorrow to the country at large.Hannibal wintered at Capua, which proved the ruin. of his

army.

UNDER § 585. Jackson had .no fears but what he would prevent the further advance of the British.- We h ave bought some
of them French roses.- Do you like them fuch sias as well as ours?
- I have no apprehensions but what h e will be in tim e.
UNDER § 586. Helen sent :Mary a pot of j elly, which she said
she h ad made for h er husband.- No man should allow another
to commit a crime, if he can prevent him.- Wh y dill not the friends
of Hamilton and Burr do their best to prevent the duel between
them ?-The simplicity of_ the style . maintained throughout th is
book, has always led me to aumire it.
UNDER § 587. William and :Mary, they h ave no love for study.
-It is ilingular the labor that men will unde1·go to avoid labor.-

214
THE .ARTICLE.

Kossuth l1avinn- taken f
"
r e uge in Turk
h
safe.-It is not always ri <>ht l
ey, e was now for a time
There is no politician who~n '1 w iat a man thinks to be right ey
f tl
'
' iowever hi(J'h h
·
es o le world, we shall t fi
. "'
e may stand in the
no nd him selfish and unscrupulous.

--

LESSON LXXIX.
A R'I'ICLES. -FAL S E

SYNTAX .

RULE VIII.-ARTICLES.
5SS. An article relates to th
e word whoso meaning
it limits.
EXAMPLES -A t :
!.
·
•e t te holiest that
·
we talk, the less trouble we are like! t cf:~1!1! ~md men together.-T/,e less
0
often come t
Y .t into - Th
d' I
h . .
o want.-Charles tlie B- !d [k.
.
e pro iga [persons]
C'abited, what a countl ess tlti·ong
·ing].~If all the planets.are inn mg bemgs must pass before the
reator'" eye !
589. Th e articles must not b .
the man of talent " Ch
e mterchanged. "He does not look l1'lce
·
·
ange tlie to
b
.
a, ecause no particular man of talent
is referred to.

Qt]' .·

500. An or a
t
"H
mus not be used ' "th
1
- e borrowed ct tongs fro1
v1
a p ural noun.
Correct thus ·-" H b
n a hut a long ways off"
· f
·
·
e orrowed a
h u t ct great distance
off"
pair o tongs from a .
591. No article mu~t b . .
tJieir widest sense
t 1 e JOmed to nouns used in
' or o t 10 names of
1" .
&c
t
Iqua it1es, passions
states of bein()'
1
•
="
.,
a ~en generally · d
'
mg to a particular ob'~~.t
'an not as be1on0'b
ll 3

1Ye say
. , "L ead us not into tem
.
from evil [not tlie evil] " B
ptatwn [not the temptation]. deliver
·
ut we speak f " !.
'
•
o
tie temptations of the
_oss. ~cci tc Rule VIII., relatin t
.
.

to '\ hat tne ani c lc reht .
r.
g o articles. Give exam l
.
talent, w ha t ch::inge sh~t~I~ b~89. ~n th e sentence I-le does n oi ,::~a~·~ ml. each tell
m a e, an d why I 590 W't!
'.e t,. man ef
be used 1 591 To b t
article be prefixed '~o a thnour is mu st a u arti cle nol be ljo1i w:~t mu st an or a not
.
ne
When must the
a names of qualities
' passions, states of foeling. &c. I

THE .ARTICLE.

215

world,'' " the evil of sin." So, " Patience is a virtue; " but " the patience
of Job." When we limit the meaning of the noun to a particular object
with the preposition of, we must introduce the article.
592. No article must be joined to the names of the arts and sciences,
or words used merely as titles ; as, " Columbus was well versed in geography and mathematics [no t the geography and the mathematics)." "The
supreme executive officer in Russia is called Czar [not a C'zai']."
593. i Vben two or more nouns come together in the same construction,
the article need not be repeated unless they are contrasted; as, " The
energy and ambition of Napoleon were equalled only by his selfishness."
But, "We admire the energy, but not the ambition, of Napoleon." Th~
article is here repeated, because the nouns are contrasted.
594. If one of the nouns does not admit an article before it, place ii
first; as, "Mathematics and the classics should both be studied as a mental discipline,"-not the classics and math ematics, for then the article
would appear to limit the meaning of mathematics also.

595. In making a comparison, if we refer to one person or thing viewed in different .characters or capacities,
we must use the article but once; if we r efer to two
persons or things, we use it twice.
"Shakspeare was a greater poet. than actor." Here we refer to but one
person, and say that he was greater as a poet than as an actor. If we repeat the article- " Shakspeare was a greater poet than an actor "-we
mean than an actor was, and refer to two different parties.
596. So, wben a noun is preceded by two or more adjectives connected
by a conjunction, if but one person or thing is referred to, place the article
before the first adjective only ; but, if more than one, use the article
with each adjective. If we mean one spot, partly black ana pai'tiy blue,
we say "a black and blue spot"; but, if we refer to two spots, one all
black and the other all blue, we say "a black and a blue spot".
597. Few means not many; little means not much. By putting the
article a before them, we make their meaning positive; a few, a little,
mean some. It is better to have a few virtues than few virtues, and a little
5Y2. 'ro what else must an article n ot be joined Y 593. Wh en two or m ore nouns
come together in the same construction, w hen mny we ·u se the arti cle but once,
and when must we repeat it? 594. What must be done, if one of the nouns docs
not admit an article b efore it 1 595. In making a comparison, when must w e u se
th e article but once , and when must we r epeat it 1 596. When a noun is preceded
by.two or more adjectives connected by a conjunction, when must the article be
used before the first adjective only, and when before each I 697. What does few

216

THE ARTICLE.

money than little money. A person may be comm~ncled for having f ew
vices, but not fo r having a f ew.

. 598. ARRANGEUENT.- The article generally precedes
its noun, but sometimes follows it; as, tlie fourth chapte10, cllapter tile fourth.
599. 'When both an article and an acljective are joined to a noun, the
usu.al 01·de'.· is .ai·ticle, adjective, n oun; rarely, as in the last example, noun,
article, ad1ective.
600. The adjective stands before the article and noun, when the ex pres·
sions all the, both the, many a, such a, what a, are used; as, both the
hcm isp ltei·es.
GO l. ' Vhcn the adjective is modified by as, how, so, or too, the article
stands im mediately before the n oun, and the adjective with its modifier
eith er precedes both or follows both; as, too terrible a doom, or a doom too
terr ible. When the aqj ectlve is modified by any other adverb, the order
is either ai·ticle, adjective, noun, or better a1·ticle, noun, adjective. We say
a dazzlingly bright eye, 0 1· better· an eye dazzlingly bright.
602. Wh en the adjective is modified by several words, the article precedes th e noun, and the adjective with its modifying words follows it ; as,
a character lovely in every p oint of view.
FAL S E SYNT A X .

§ 589. A di phthong is the combination of two vowels in
one syll able.
UNDE H

[ Corrected.-A diphthon g is a combination of two vowels in
one syll alile. The must be changed to a, because a diphthong,
one of th e kin d but no particular one, is defin ed.J
By th e·variation of th e compass is meant a deviation in the
direction of th e needle fr om due north.- F ew flowers are so beautiful as a dahlia.- An eagle is the emblem of America.-A wl1ale
is the largest of fish.-Critics are not agreed as t o what animal
J ob means, wh en he speaks of a leviathan. -She is entitled to the
third of h er lrnsband's property.
m ean 1 Wha t docs iii/le mea n 1 W hat is the effect of p utti ng a b efore f eu: a nd
little 1 Ill us trate thi s. 598. W hat ia th e usua l position of the article 1 599. 'Wh en
both an ar ticle and nn adjective arc joined to a noun, what is th e us ual orc.ler 1 600.
In wha t exp ressions does the adjective p rece de the a rt icle and noun 1 601. \ Vha t is
the order, when the adjective is modified by as, lwto, so, or too 'J W hat is the order
when the adjecth·e__i e_.Illild.itl.Cd by any other adverb 1 602. When the adjective is
modified by eoverc.l words, what is tho ord•r 1

F.A.LSE SYNTAX.

217

UNDER § 590. I have just ordered a splendid regalia. -About
this time, people were alarmed by a singular phenomena in th e
sky.-The crime was committed in a th ick wood;.-! can not cut
with such a dull scissors. -When you go to market, buy me a hen
and chickens.
UNDER§ 591, 592. The apteryx is a curious kind of a bird without th e wings.- W!iiclt must not be used when a reference is made
to persons.-The law is just, but it operates hard in the particulnr
cases.- Neither the famine nor th e pestilence destroys as many as
th e sword.-Oresar was now again saluted as the dictator.
U.:rn En § 593, 594. Europeans can stand the h eat, but not malaria, of Africa.-It is the justice, as much as wisdom, of a magistrate, th at we admire.- The law and politics engaged his attention
by turns.-The dahlia, as well as fu chsia, is a native of Ameri ca.
U N DER § 595. A mastiff makes a better watch-dog than spaniel.
- Many a boy that is sent to college would make a better blacksmith than a sch olar.-A German acq uires the English language
more easily than Italian.-Michael Angelo was as great a painter
as a sculptor.
U NDER § 596. Farmer Ball has a black and white cow, and lets
th em both run on the road.-A black and a white cow was run
over by the locomotive last Tuesday.-The past and present condition of Greece present quite a contrast.- The upper and lower
ci ties have a very different appearance. -There is a black and a
blue spot where I struck my arm.
· U NDER § 597. I am happy to say that he h as little sense of shame
left.-We can point with honest pride to few American sculptors.They have run through their property, and now have a little left.

LESSON LXXX.
ADJECTIVES.-FALSE SYNTAX

RULE

X.-ADJECTIVES.

603. An adjective relates to the substantive whose
meaning it qualifies or limits.
603. R ecile Rul o X ., re lat ing -to adjecti ves.

10

Givo exam ples, nnd i n e3ch t ell

218

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.

F.A.LSE SYNTAX.

ExA~rPLES.-'.lhdh is e/ernal.- lVe are all mortal.-To retreat is im·
possible. -'.l'lrnt the best printing-presses are made in the United States is
ccrtain.-The ungrateful [persons] are inexcusable.-To be [a J virtuous
[111a11] is to be [a] happy [man].

must be so arranged that each may properly modify
the complex idea conveyed by the adjectives and noun
which follow.

G04. Use this and that with singular nouns only, th ese and those only
with plurals. Say this soi't of 1n en , not these sort, because sort is singular; I hese tidings, not /hi8 tidings, because tidings is plural.
G05 . This hci'e and these 'ac, th at thei'e aud those 'ei'e, are gross errors.
Correct by omitting the adverbs-this boy, not this hci'e bo!f.
606. Few means not many; little means not much. Few, fewer, fewest,
are therefore used with reference to things numbered; little, less, least,
with reference to quantities. "There can not be f ewer than a hundred
persons present." "It can not weigh less than a hundred pounds."
607. Wh ole implies entireness of parts. To imply entirencss of num- .
ber, ·we must use all. vV c say the whole population, but all the inhabitau ts. Whole villages may be destroyed in a country, yet some may cs·
cape ; if all the villages are destroyed, none escape.
GOS. Adj ectives, though they have the form of participles or arc derived from them, can not govem the objective case. If an objective follows them, it depends on a preposition, and this preposition should generally be expressed. Say ronduct unbecoming to a gentleman, not 1tnbeco111i11g a gentleman.

.Adjectives denoting material generally stand nearest the noun, then
those denoting color, then age, then ordinal'y qualities : as, " a handsome,
new, white wooden cottage; " " a well-formed, spirited, young iron-grey
horse; " "a gloomy, dilapidated old building".

609. A1mANGEMENT.-·when several adjectives are
joined to a noun, if all refer to it alike, they arc generally arranged according to their length, the shortest
first, and connected by a conjunction; as, "a graceful,
beautiful, and intelligent girl".
But sometimes an adjective forms with a noun one
complex idea that can be modified by another adjective, and this again by another. In such cases, the
adjectives are not connected by a conjunction, and
to 'vh at the adjective relates. 604. \Vi th what must this and that be used 'l With
what, th ese and those l 605. Wh1t express ions are prononuccd gross errors 'l IIow
arc they to l>c corrected 1 606. To what are few, frncer, f ewest applied, and to
wh:ll.. lilllc, less, least? 607. YVhat is the difference of meaning between whole and
a.Ii 7 IUustratc this. 608. Is ::m ndjective capable of governing 1 '\rVh at should bo
expressed after au adjective, to govern tile objective case 1 609. When several adjcctiycs refer alike to a nou n, in what order n.ro they generally arranged 1 In what
case must the n.dject.ives not be connected by a conjunction 1 How must they then
ho nrrnngcd? ln what order <lo 1l1ey genrrally e::ta.nd, as regards their meaning t

FALSE

219

SYNTAX.

UNDER § 604. Napoleon was rapid in his movements, and by
these means surprised his enemies.
[Corrected.-Napoleon was rapid in his movements, and by
this means surprised his enemies. These must be changed to this,
because, but one means being spoken of, means is singular.]
Put that ashes in the barrel.-! can not help thinking of those
bad news you brought.-After yon have bought a gallon of those
good molasses, take this spectacles to the silver-smith's, to get
them mended.-For this last ten days, she has suffered from
n eu ralgia.-Old honses are infested with rats and mice, and this
vermin sometimes do great damage to the walls.-None of those
kind of persons will be admitted.
UNDER § 605. I do not like these 'ere coarse-pointed pens.Set out those 'ere onions in this here bed.- What has become of
that there friend of yonrs 1
UNDER § 606, 607. I have little fears on that subject.-She
don't like visitors; the less she has, the better it suits her.-In
this retired spot, you have the least possible interruptions.-No
less than forty-seven scholars were engaged on · our standard
translation of the Bible.-If less than twenty members are pres.ent, no business can be done.-The whole waters around Newfoundland teem with fish.-All the families in New York were
attacked by the cholera; very few escaped altogether.-The whole
details are harrowing in the extreme.
UNDER § 608. Be sparing flattery, when you are in the company of sensible people.-Some persons are so vile as to be utterly
undeserving notice.-We expect from you snch deportment as is
becoming your position in life.-Parties most deserving tho aid
of the charitable are frequently overlooked.

220
UNDE~

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.

CONSTRUCTION OF ADJECTIVES.

221

~en ant, is a rari ty.- ! found her an intellig~nt and y~un"' la~m~
~he c.ompan~ have just erected a bri ck fine four- story bulldin~·-

t

number of others, provided they are taken separately ; as, "Asia is larger
than Europe, Africa, or North America." "Asia is larger than any other
grand division."

ere is a white fragrant rose. -We saw a number of rust . .
Jar
·
-Tlmy have prcsentecl th eir minist Y
. smgu" cop Pe1· 0 Id coins.
er a new
black handsome clo th coat.

612. After the comparative degree, use ot!ier with
the latter of the terms compared, if it includes the
form er, and only then.

§ 609. An industrious, obliging faithful and

--LESSON LXXXI.
ADJECTI VES (CONT IN UED) .-FAL S E SYN TAX.

610. A~j ec tives whose meaning precludes the idea
of.compan
b
d son
. h must not b e compared · N or must th ey
e u se . wit . more, most, less, least, so, or any other
adverb implymg difference of degrees in the quality
denot ed.
An adj ective already in the comparative or superlative degree must
not be made the basis of a new comparison
Do not say, the chie
. f est beauty, a truer. statement, so faultless a cha actcr, the farthcrest house, a more nearer view the least . t
r
Correct b
' tt.
h
,
wises course
y
om1
mg
t
e
termination
or
ad
verb
that
1'mpl'1es
.
comparison ·.
b
b · ·
or y .su st1tutmg an adjective that may properly be compared Thus'.
the ell.le/ beauty, a more correct statement
l
t
·
·
the farthest house a nearet view the l 'ta : rnrac er so nearly fault/es&,
'
,
eas wise course.

d ()'611.
. . In· comparing
. two objects ' use the co mparat'ive
e"'iee '. m comparmg more than two at once the
superlatiYe : as, "the elder of the two brothers"
"the,,eldest
" of. the family". "Asia is .zarge1, th an E'urope.
A sia is the largest of the grand divisions o,_.
the earth."
i
The _
comparative
when
obiect is compared with any
_ __
_ __ _degree
_ __is_used
_ __
_ _an _:_::'.._'=-=
610 .. \.V~at adjecti ves m ust not be compared? 'Vith . ,
'
--- !a ch adJ.CCtlves not be us ed 1 W hat rule is laid down wi wn at ~ords, nls~, ~ust
al re ady m th e comparati ve or su p erh.tive 1 A
a·
th respect to ndJCc ttvoa
forb idden to say ? H ow mu~t we c'orre ~
chcor mg t? these rul es, whnt are we
b' t
h
~
c sue express1or.s? 611 In
.
Q Jee e, w en must the com parative degree b
. iuperlnt.ivo
comp:irmgf
e use d , and when the

" The Amazon is longer than any river." The Amazon being a river,
the iatter of the terms compared, river, includes the former, A mazon ;
and we assert that the Amazon is longer than itself. Correct by introducing the word oth er, to exclude the former term : " The Amazon is longer
than any other river."
" The Amazon is longer than any other river of Europe. " Here the
Amazon is not compared with rivers in general, but with the rivers of
Europe. As it is not itself a river of Europe, the latter term compared
does not include the former, and other must be omitted.

613. After the superlative degree, n either other nor
any must be used with the latter of the terms compared ; this l atter term must include the former.
" The Amazon is the longest of all other rivers." " The Amazon is
the longest of any river in the world." Both these sentences are wrong,
because the latter term compared does not include the former. Say, " The
Amazon is the longest of rivers ;" or, of all rivers.
"Augustus was the greatest of all his successors." Wrong, because
Augustus was not one of his own successors; the latter term ·does not include the former. Correct by substituting a term that does include the
form er : " Aµgu stus was the greatest of ull tho Roman emperors." Or else
substitute the comparative degree: "Augustus was greater than any of
his successors."

614. An adjective in the comparative or superlative
must precede an adjective modified by more or most,
relating to the same noun ; as, " a larger and more interesting volume".
In what case m ay the com parati ve degree be used, m·en when nn object is com11:1rcd with a ny number of others 1 612. How and wb en must other be used afte r
the compo.rn.tiYC clc>gree 1 Show by examples when other must be used , and when
not 613. Aft er the sup erlativo degree, w hat words must not be used 'Tith the
lotter t erm 1 Why not I Illustrate this 1irincip!e. 614. \Vhat is the proper
ord cr wh en a comparative or superlative and an adjective m odified· by more or
1

222

FALSE SYNTAX.

FALSE SYNTAX.

·we do not say "a more interesting and larger volume," 1. Because ii
would sound ill. 2. Because it might appear that more belonged to the
~econd adjecti vc larger, as well as to interesting.

615. Adjectives must not be used for adverbs, nor
adverbs for adjectives. See § 403, 404.
FALSE SYNTAX.

UNDER § GlO. Nothing is more preferable than a good character.
[ Correeted.- N othing is preferable to a good character. More
must be omitted, because the meaning of preferable precludes the
idea of comparison. Than must be changed to to, because prefer·
able is follow ed by to.]
The people were clamorous for a freer constitution.-Few institutions give so complete a course and so perfect an education
as th e German Universities.-Turkey is as dead as any country
can well be.-The raisins of Malaga are more superior than those
of Srnyrna.-The English regarded Wellington with the most
entire confidence.-Mohammedan pilgrims look upon Mecca as
the most holiest spot on earth.-Did you not promise to take
her for better or worser?-The Pacific is the least roughest of
all the oceans.-How much more afe we better off than ever
before!
UNDER§ 611. Which of those twins is the largest 1-The elder
of your three brothers is the smaller. -Is the present or the past
condition of France the best !-Which is the most northerly, New
York or San Francisco !-Which is the more northerly, New York,
Philadelphia, or San Francisco 1 The former, I think.-At Panama, the year is divided into a wet and a dry season ; the last is
the shortest.- We have a department for boys and one for girls;
the former are the smartest in arithmetic, but the latter are the
best in composition.
UNDER § 612. The plague was more fatal than any disease
then known.-Mary is shorter than any other of her sisters.Jeremiah is more pathetic than any of the prophets.-Day and
most relate to the same noun 1 ' Vhy should we not say a more interesting and
larger volume 1 615. What is the lu•t rule relating to adJcCtives?

223

night are longer in the polar regions than in other lower latitudes.
-Iridium and platinum are heavier than any of the metals . .
UNDER § 613. Lake Superior is the largest of any lake m the
world.-Washington was the last of his soldiers to leav~ the field.
-Mount Mitchell and Mount Washington are the lof~10st of any
other elevations of land in the United States.-Adam is supposed
to have been the most noble-looking of his descendants. -The
moon is the nearest to us of all the stars.
UNDER § 614. There are few more fertile or fairer lauds than
Italy.-Domitian was one of the most tyr::mni~al, most de~:·aved,
and weakest, of the Roman emperors.-The reign of Geoi"e II.I.
was at the same time the most eventful and longest recorded m
English history.
.
. . .
UNDER § 615. Opportunities of gaimng distmction do not now
.d
·
ld
t"mes
-The sun looks less
occur so frequent as t 1iey d i m o
I
·
brightly than usual to-day.-There are few that live as holy as
they ought.-His finger pains him very bad.-It i:iakes one f~el
strangely to be alone in a foreign land.-W ater is frozen easier
than alcohol.-J am es reads more distinct than any of my scholars.

LESSON LXXXII.
FINITE

RULE

VERBS.-FALSE SYNTAX.

XL-AGREEMENT OF THE VERB.

616. A verb agrees with its subject in person and
number.
EXAMPLES.-! dare [1st, sing., agreeing with I] not go.-He dal'CS
not go.-lf thou hadst obeyed orders, all would have been _wcll.-~/tolt is
[3rd, sing., agreeing with tho" taken merely as a word) m the smgular
number.-Each of them is to be examined.-There needs great labol' to
produce a good crop.-There lacked but one [art icle] of the whole nulnber.-Is it thou ?-Who art tlwu?-llo [tho1t] meet [tho1t] thy brother.To die is [3rd, sing., agreeing with the infinitive to die] gain.-From what

616. Iiccite Rule XL, relating to the agreement of the verb. In each of the
c:rnmplcs, give the person and number of tho verb, and tell with what lt agrees.

224

AGREEMENT

OF

THE

VERB .

AGREEMENT

co un try the nec tarine was in troduced is [31·d .
.
substantirc clause that precede -]
' .
• smg., agreemg with the
•
, uncertam.

617. CAuTroNs.- Be sure that the verb a()'
.
the rigl_1t word.. When it is separated from i~:e:~;ith
by an mtervcnm 0o- substantive tl
.
~ect
·
,
.
iere is a tendencv to
ma I;:c it agree witli the latter.
, • .
"A
.
.
succession of excitements arc sure to distract the mind f
.
'V' ong, because s11 cccs.sion is ti
b'
rom study."
the obj ect of the preposition of. le 'l~lu uectb and not excitements, which is
is So "y
.
Jc ver a1'c must be made sin"ular
0
,·
,
our vessel, together with twelv 0 th
l'il'cd" "This
,,. .
f .
e
ers, has [not liavc] ar.
coi!J uszon o ideas in ed
t d . d
deplored."
uca e mm s i s [not a1'c] to be

Glb8 .. Be sure ~hat th e verb is in the right person and
mun e1' wl1en its subJ.ect is a relat·
.
b ·
ive pionoun · rem em ~rmg that a relative takes the person and /
ber of its antecedent.
mm
" A belief in astrology n·as one of the most wide-s .
.
has C \'C I' led men nstrny ,, Th
b'
,
p~ead delus10ns that
·
.
c su ucct t11 at agrees with its ant d
cl el uszo 11 s in the tl1ii·d person plural. ti
·b h
ece cnt
,
l "
'
• ic vci s ould therefore be plural
- nave /e< •
I um the person that ; , [not
J
.
.
'
mcnt" Herc p c1' . · tl
"·
am i espons1ble for the statetlu· d. .
I
.ion is JC antecedent, not I ; and the relative is in the
r , srn g u ar.

610: The titl e of n. book, being looked upon ns one thin"
.
.
th e smo-ular c,·cn thou " h its 1 d'
b
. .
b • takes a verb
'Homes ~f th; roets, is [not. m:~ ~n~e~~hstt:.:;t::~~:~'..~ral ; as, "Howitt's
.

111

d

~20. A ."crb between two nominatives ngrccs '~·ith the one that is the
Ica lllg subj ect of di scourse Tl ·
· questions asl-cd with
'
·
.
·
us, except 111
tenog~t11·c jll'onoun , is almost al \\'ays the one that precedes' it.
.~uG 1nl i11 css zs g reat i·iclies."
' as,
odIf the nomiuati1·cs arc equally prominent as sub;ects of d'
,
.
· 1
1scoursc tho
Yerb m·
.1y ag1cc wit 1I tic
one that fo llows it particu larly 1·r 1't .
,
the otl c
"Tl
'
is nearer than
ic wages o( sin is death." .Arc ". . " . h
' r ; as,
, ao1cc111., wit wages,
would be equall y good.
?17. \Vh.;i t. lcndc11C'y i:; tl1 l'rr, "·!J en t ho YCl'b is scpara t •<l f·
1111 c•n ·r 111 !H.r

irn hs.t: 11 1tin~ i

ht• oh:::c rvcd, w l1<.' 1t tl1 0

Ill11 ~ tr·1 te tl.

subj· e ~ t

.is

. i~s,l· n~1 ~

1

1

c

. .

.

iom ib AUbJcct

by un

6 io w th<' error. CilS. 'Vhat m ust
c .lt l\ e pronoun 1 Ill t. t
I.
.

..
.,
a I
u19. S ta te the pri !lc iple rehting to th t"tl
f
L
betwee n t w o nornin a tivea . with ,.ti·~ tl u o . a oo k.

us ia o t 11s point.
Ci20. Wh en a vc:rb st:lnd1
e<iually prominent as s ubjt:cts of\ d~ c l < oca i t . ng rcc ~ I f tho nominatives arc
iscourirn, with whi ch may tho verb ngrcc 1

OF

THE

VERB.

225

621. CoLLECTIVE N oUNs. -.A. verb agreeing with a
collective noun is put in the plural, unless the action
or state is clearly affirmed of the individuals taken together as one body, in which case the singular is required.
"The crowd were eager to hear the news." The verb is iu the plural,
because it was not the crowd as one body, but the individuals in the crowd,
that experienced the delight. " The crowd was composed of men of every
class." Here the crowd as one whole, is evidently meant, and the verb
must be in the singular.
622. A collective noun preceded by this, that, every, each, or no, gen·
erally implies one whole, and takes a verb in the singular; as, "Every
mob has its leader."
623. F ew, many, hundred, thoitsand, &c., almost always take a plural
verb; as, "A few have escaped altogether; a great many of the survivors
arc seriously i11jw·ed." "A hundred [of ] swords wero drawn."

624. .A collective noun in the plural takes a plural
verb; as, "Large crowds were harangued every day."
FALSE SYNTAX .

§ 616. "If that is the only diffi culty," says I to myself,
"we shall soon succeed."
[ Cor·rected.- " If that is the only difficulty," say I to myself,
" we shall soon succeed." Says must be changed to say, to agree
with its subject I, in the first, singular.]
Fifty head of catt1e was sold yesterday.-The duke may talk
as he choose, but he dare not r efu se my petition. -Was you at
the concert last evening ?- If he have brought any news, he will
soon let us know.-Each of the states are well represented.-lle
need to be reminded of his promise.- What means these loud complaints? Was you not warned ?- By the term.fossils is meant the
petrified r emains of animals and plants.- To comply with the
rules promptly and cheerfully are required of all.
Next, thinks I, he will insult the prince himself.- Suspcnd
UNDER

621. Gi Yo th e rule for n Yerb agreeing with a collective noun. Give exam ples.
622. Wha t words before a collec ti ve noun generally show that it requires a verb
in th o singular 1 623. \VJ1:1t collective nouns almost always take a plural verb 1
624. What is said of a collective nou n in the plural 1

10*

226

FALSE SYNTAX.

your opinion till the true state of the case have appeared.-There
are pleuty of oats in Illinois.-My scissors was broken yesterday.-Every one of your arguments are absurd.- What did you
say have become of your three cousins ?-Five are an odd number.-The animalcula in water is clearly seen with the microscope.
-That you should deceive yourself so grossly and so fatally are
almost incredible.
UNDER § 617. The number of immigrants from Ireland have
greatly decreased.-The train due last evening, with several others,
were detained till the track could be cleared.-The fragrance of
h oneysuckl es and ro ses fill the air.-Are not twelve months' travel
in Europe enough to tire any one ?-The absurdity of many of
Mohammed's doctrines are self-evident.
UNDEH § 618. Set forth such arguments as seems to you the
most conclnsive.-Thou mighty spirit of the past that looks upon
me with thy melancholy eyes !- Spencer is confessedly one of the
ablest men that h as written on education.-It is I that is wrong.
-The memoranila that is lost, would throw light on th e subject.
- She is one of those cheerful women that always wears a smile.
-Who that hnrn any regard for what is becoming, could dress
h er hair in this way?
U-"DER § 619, 620. Hersche1.'s " Outlines of Astronomy" are
worthy of a place i n every student's library.-The chief wealth of
the Laplanders nre [consists of] r eindeer.-! have just finished
K ennedy 's "Memoirs of Wirt", which are certainly extremely
intcresting.-Five wild turkeys was the reward of my labors.
U XDER § 621. :A herd of a thousand cattle [is or are?] no uncommon sight.-A whole tribe [was or we1·e?] sometimes nearly
destroyed in war.-A large flock of crows [has or have?] alighted
in the corn-fiel d.-Th c jury [is or a7·e ?] certainly an intelligent
set of men.-The family you relieved still [remembers or remember?] your kindness.-The committee [was or were?] indefatigable.
in their efforts to arrive at the truth.
UNDER§ 622, G23, 624. Each flock that alight, destroy bushels
of grai n.-Every family you reli eved still remember your kindness. -A few inches more or less in a lady's height makes some
diffcrence.-A hundred oysters docs not occupy much room.What avails even the mighties t armies, if they are led by incompetent commanders 1

TWO OR MORE SINGULAR SUBJECTS.

·227

LESSON LXXXIII.
FINITE VERBS (CONTINUEDJ.~FALSE SYNTAX.

625. Two or more singular subjects or substantive
toO'ether
.
o
, r equire. a plural
. ·verb ; tal:en
c1auses, ta1{en
separately, they require a verb m the smgu1ar.
Tc k
togeth er - James and John arc here.-That you
Ex ..urPLES.
a en
· ·
f
tI
arc facts
d ty that you have saved me rom grca oss,
.
d
ha vc one your u '
t be pared
th t I can not deny.-In the former of these examp1es, are mus .
,
asain the third plurnl,-ngreeing with its subject James and_J,ho'.m, twho
'
wit its su 0
singular substantives
taken together: - R ul e, A ve1·b a"'recs
· ect in person and number.
J Taken separately.-James or John is here.-That you have done your
d me from great loss is untrue.-In the former of these exd
uty or save .
d
. ~be third sin<>"ular a"'reein"' with its sub'
o
' "
"
l
amples is must be parse as m
.JeCt ,,a111cs
T'
• Tolm two singular substantives taken sep,uately :-Rzi c,
0 r "'
.,
A verb agrees, &c.

626. Subjects are said to be taken together, when
th ey are connected by and expressed or nnders.tood.
"Industry, energy, and honesty, are [plu.J essential to
success." Or without and, "Industry, energy, honesty,
are [plu.J essential to success."
One of the substantives thus taken together may be unders_too<l ; a~,
"Irving's and Macaulay's style are very ditfe~cnt,"-that is, Irvmg's style
and Macaulay's style.
h" ,., al- a verb
62'7. The title of a book, being looked upon as one t m0 , t ,es
· th · ular even thou"'h it con'sists of two substantives connected by
m
e smg
,
o
.
d · d"
d. as "Moore's 'Paradise and the Peri' is JUSt1Y a mire ·
au 6' 98 'when two sin"'ular substantives connected by and denote the
~ .
o
•
I
"The
same individual, the verb agrees with them in the smgu ar; as,
draper and tailor on the corner is about to remove."
6.,5 Whnt is the rnlc relating to two or moro singular subjects or substa~th·o
- .1 I n, the sentence James ancl John are here, name the singular eubJcctr; .
~:~~c:re they taken 1 Parse are. In the sentence J ames or J ohn is hcreb,~a~e t~~
·
H
. tl
taken 1 Parse ts. 626. When nre su JC~ s sa1
si ngular subJccte.I 1ow~eat ~:ysaid of one of the subjects thus taken together 1
to be taken toget 1er ·
.
. • f . b k I 628 I n what
, ·t"
6? 7 W hat exception is mentioned, relatmg lo the htlc o a oo
o~b.e r case does a verb agree in the singular with t wo singular substan tvcs con-

l

228

AGREEMENT OF THE VERB.

SU BJECTS TAKEN SEl'.A.RATELY.

629. Subj ects are said to be taken separatel r
1. When th ey are connected by o
3 'd
and too and not b t 1if t
r, nor, an also,
"
'
' u ' • no , as w ell as.
Denton, aud General Jackson also w
[ . "
.
Carolina." " \Vellinrrt
b
r
'
as smc.J a native of North
,
.
c on, ut not N clson, was bm·n [sin"" ] . 1 1
In these examples, the verb agrees with the form
c · .m re and. ' derstood wi th the other.
·
er substantive and is un-

n '3. .·when
t they
E are severally preceded b Y eacnz every
o,• or :i no
.
"
'very tempest and eveiy
. d ew-drop
' liM'
.
[ srng,j its mission to perform."
3. When the first is separated from th . t b h
ve ·b . 1 · l · 1
e ies y t e
I '. w uc 1 i.n t rnt case agrees with the first and .
. J m is
with the rest . ''I-I'is w1't p zeases [smg
Iunde1stood
. f
ns rankness, and his courtesy."
· e,
4: _When th e subject is repeated with a;,d onl or
eqmvalent irnrds, or a stronger term is substitute!£
the one first nsed.
or
." ~cligion, and religion only, is [sing. ] an anchor that we
"
Dislik e, nay hatred, was wl"itten [sin"] on h1"s cou t
,, can trust.
.
o·
n enance
630 \V
·
hen snbJCCts taken torrether arc of diffi
t
·
h eren persons, the plural
verb is to be parsed as in the fi ·"'st
d
d
1 person rat er than the
seeon , an. the
second rather than the third . Ob sen" e, a Iso that modest
speaker or writer to mention h"im se.]f 1ast. ,.'She thou andY Ireqmrcs
[ h ·a
1ve ] al"e [first person] well " "Sh
d l
[ '
,
t at is,
person J well."
·•
e an t JOU that is, you] are [second
"

63 1. "When subj ects taken separate! are f .
verb should be repeated with each if ad.!
fo d.1fferen~ persons, the
.
,
iuerent orm is reqmred "E" h
or
I
am
"
"SI
.
.
.
you are m\VIthe wr01w
. '."'
·
ie is very tired,
and
so am. I." it er
639
. ~.
icn subJeets connected by or or nm· arc in different
th e lcrb should be put in the plural , a n d t I1e P1ural sub1.ect numbers,
b"
sh ou1d stand nearest to it. as "N "ti . . I
.
,
or su ~eets
highly
of a man.,,
, '
e1 1e1 I an< nor nches make me think
nccted by and l 629. In wlrnt fon r C:1SC3 arc Fm b" cc
.
"\Vh en the connecti on is mad n with and also &c J .~s s:i.1 d. to be taken separately t
Y12rb agree? 630. 'Vhon sn bJ'ccts t·Jt '
., "1th wh1c.h sul)f;t:mth·e dJes tho
a "' en oge ther arc f 1.l' m
the ve rb to be parsed 1 Ho w should I b I
o
i e rcnt pcrsoWl- how is
.
e P aced 1 631 WI
h
repeated with subjec ts taken separately 1 632. What .
ien ~ ould the verb bo
'iUbJccts connected liy or or nor when tl
.
. . rule is laid down real>f!cting
'
icy nre m d1fiorent numbers l

FALSE

229

SYNTAX .

625. Neither olive oil nor alcohol are so heavy as
distilled water, but milk and sea water is heavier.
[Correctecl.-Neither olive oil nor alcohol is so heavy as dis- tilled water, but milk and sea water are heavier. Are must be
changed to is, to agree in the singular with oil and alcohol taken
separately. Is must be changed to are, to agree in the plural with
milk and water taken together.]
What signifies rank and wealth, if we have not the health to
enjoy them ?-Neither honor, justice, nor truth, permit you now
to draw back.-Your friendly warning and my stern rebuke [w as
or were?] alike unheeded.-To sympathize with the sorrowing
and relieve the distressed [is or are?] required of every Christian.-W onderfully [has or have ?] art and science progressed
during the present century.-Lithography, or the art of obtaining impressions from stone, [is or are?] a modern invention.That he would betray his trust or try to deceive [is or are?)
UNDER §

not probable.
UNDER § 626. Serf, artisan, noble, prince, was among P eter the
H ermit's auditors.-What caro we for the indifference, the ingratitude, the scorn of the wo,;-ld, which has been the r eward of
the good in every age ?-The torrid and the frigid zone represents
the extremes of heat and cold.-Reaumur's and Fahrenheit's scale
0

is quite different.
U N DER§ 62'7, 628. " Paul and Virginia" are a delightful story.
-Simms has just completed "The Sword and the Distaff", which,
I am told, are among the best of his productions.- Your friend and
cousin, as you always call him, have retnrned.-Our minister
plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary, with all his suite, are at
the National Hotel.
UNDER § 629. Not only Albany, but New York also, were
fournled by the Dutch.-Peru, and not Mexico, were conquered
by Pizarro.-Cuba, as well as Haiti, were discovered by Columbus.-Each village and each hamlet have their petty chief.-Not
friendship, not success, not wealth, make a man truly h appy.-In
Mexico the cactus bloom in great profusion, the magnolia, and
the oleander.-Energy, and nothing but energy, are capable of
succeeding in a new country.-Folly, even crime, too often meet
with no rebuke in fashionable society.

230
UNDER§

CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS.

631, 632 Neith

to put up with this ~ny Ion:er1·~Eo1'rthan~£talther no1!· myself are able
· ,.
·
o · I b e1 1ou or t 1y b10
. th er h ath
m1ormed
me wrong-Not
1
Neither the tonO's . .
on Y ' u.t t.h ou also, art to blame.and her cabinet"'orn~~:};eJaor:~rwahs m its place.-Either Victoria
eon as made a great mistake.

LESSON LXXXI
FI N IT E VERBS (CONTINUED

n

) .-FALSE SYNTAX.

t~33d

Errors of various kinds, besides those already
o. ICe : are common in the use of verbs The
.
cl~refiy rn th e substitution of one mood ~r ten!e ~insist
ot 1er, the use of corrupt forms and a want of
r ~ntency , I
cons1s v ien t wo or more verbs 'st d . · h
struction.
an m t e same con034. Do not
mood.
use

t]

CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS

231

,,.

· d
re m icative for the subjunctive

635. Use the present subjunctive
. . .
.
hi bition, or warnino- afte
.
.'not md1cat1ve, Ill a command, pro0 1
r a conjunction foll owino·
.
o an unperat1ve or such
phrases as it is necessary "H ,
636 U ti .
.
a'
ea
care
lest
thou
fall
[not
fallest]
"
· sc 1e imperfect subj un ctive
t · a· ·
supposition when the oppos't
f
I
'~o
m
wat1vc,
to
express
a
wish
or
1
case ; as " ' would H . 1 c o w lat 1s wished 0 1. suppose d 1·s really the
,
eavcu le we1·e [not was] here l,,
.

637. Use the l)resent . d' t'1
l
. .
l!l IC a ve to express what is
a ways tr ne, e1-en though the leading verb .
t
" Man
f tl
rs p as . as
y o lc ancients believed that the
1 . 'r '
was] immorta1."
sou is not
638. The perfect · d · ·
m rcatrve must be used when past

time connected with the present is denoted, but must
not stand with words denoting past time simply.
"They are travelling for the last three months." Here past time terminating at the present is denoted, and the present tense must therefore
be changed to the perfect: "They have been travelling for the last three
months." "A great storm has set in yesterday." Here past time not
connected with the present is denoted, and the perfect tense must be
changed to the imperfect: " A great storm set in yesterday.'' ·

639. The imperfect p otential is often used in wrong
connections.
"Remember that you might jail in your attempt [say may jail]." "I
will not speak of it, even. if I should be asked say if I am asked, or be
asked] ." "I would not speak of it, even if I shall be asked [say if I should
be asked or were aRked].''
In like manner we say, "I will go, if I can ; " but, " I would go, if I
could." "I may go, if you will remain;" but, " I might go, if you wo1dd
remain.'' " I am making, have made, or will make, my arrangements to
remain, that you may go." "I made or had made my arrangements to
remain, that you might go."

l

640. Be careful not to use the imperfect indicative
of an irregular verb for the perfect participle, or the
perfect participle for the imperfect indicative.
Do not say has went fo r has gone, having un·ote for having un·itten, 1
seen for I saw, &c. Numerous errors of this kind were presented for correction under the irregular verbs.

641. A void corrupt forms.
Among the most common of these are had have, for had, in the pluperfect; hadn't ought, for ought not ; had as lief, had rather, &c., fo r
would as lief, would rathe1·, &c. ; I 'm a rnind, for I have a mind; arn't,
for are not ; moughtn't, for might not, &c.

642. In combining two or more auxiliaries with a

63~. In wh:-tt do the rcm:ii ning errors in t

G34. \Vhat caution is gi Ycn rehtino- t th
.. ho use of verbs chiefly consist J
the present subjunctive, ::rnd n~t tl~o l~resecn~~U~~nct~ve mood 1 635. In what mu st
be expressed with tbc impcrCcct
b.
. lll 1cat1ve, be u.: ; ed 1 636. What must
637 "'
sn JU!lch\'C nnd n t th ·
.
. .
. ,Vbat must the present i11c1·1c t· . b
'
o
c nnpc1 feet rnd1cative 1
r
.
a I\ c e used to ex ·
1
per.eel indicath-e be used 1 W'th I
. • p1 css
638. ·when must the
l
w 1at must it not ho used 1 Illustrate the..,

points. 639. \ Vhat tense is often used in wrong connections 1 Give examples of
this error. Is can or could used in a dependent clause, with will 1 \ Vith u:outd?
Is will or would used in a dependent clause, with
1 With might 7 640. \ Vhat
two parts of irregular verbs must not be used for each other 1 Give examples of
the violation of this rule. 641. Mention some of the corrupt forms most commonly u sed, nnd t ell what must be substituted fo.r eacb. 642. In combining two

may

,,,

232

CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS.

participle or the root of a verb, be sure that they are all such as can properly be used with it.
"I will give a.s much as he has." As he has what? Evidently has
give. Correct by introducing the participle with the latter auxiliary : "I
will give as much as he has giuen." "Does he not economize, and even
pinches him~clf, that his family may live comfortably?" Pinches must
not be used with the auxiliary does. Say, "Docs he not economize, and
even pinch himself," &c.
FALSE

SYNTAX.

UNDER § 635, 636. See that thou forgettest not thy froiends.
[ Co1·rected.-See that thou forget not thy friends. Forgettest
must be ch anged to fgrget, the present subjunctive, because it expresses an act forbidden, after the conjunction tliat, following the

imperative see.]
It is proper that he makes an apology.-Use all your efforts,
lest she surpasses yon.-Oh that the storm was over, and the
blessed sun was shining !-If I was a farmer, I should give my
attention principally to fruit.-Would that he was as devout as
form erly !-She could not be more queenly, if she was a queen.I wish th er e was more honesty in the world.
UNDER § 637. The experiments made on this occasion proved
that water was impenetrable.-Oopcrnicus was the first in modern times to teach that the earth moved round the sun.-Were
yon aware that cornets sometimes moved more than a million of
miles in an hour ?-Oolumbus had become convinced that the
earth was round.
UNDER § 638. Philosophers, in old times, have taught some
strange doctrines.-Living with her several years, I think I know
her character.-N ewark is long celebrated for the manufacture
of carriages.- Seven metals have been known even in early times.
-A law bas long since been passed, forbidding merchants to encumber the sitl ewalk.
UNDER § G39. Railroads are not built, simply that a dozen
directors might enrich themselves.-! should speak my mind
more freely, if you will promise not to repeat what I say.-We
or more auxili~rics with a participle or verbal r oot, what must bo seen to I Illuatrato this.

FALSE SYNTAX.

233

shall ultimately find that there is some wise pu:pose in ~ve~~
affiiction, though we could not discover what ·1t was.-: ou
"f u try ?~Men will not
b tt
you not prepare your lessons e er, i yo
. ht
fit b
listen to the warnings of the pulpit, that they m1g pro
y
the;·
641 Had Hume have looked into the matter m~re
N
l DE: §
id not have made this misstatement.-Knowmg
close y, e wou
th h dn't ought to
the necessity of energy and perseverance, e.y a
'
.
fold their arms at this crisis.-! had as lief remam, but I a~ t go~:~
to do so.-They said the stage moughtn't leave to-morrow,
I'm a mind to risk it.
d th n mediU
§ 642 He would sit and read for hours, an
e
.
NDER
. h th . d No poetry more sublime than M1ltated much on w a e rea .:
Have you ever or can
t
~ desert
ton's ever has or is likely to be written.. . ine how you would feel, if you were cas upon
is~:n~ag Th~y could neither realize their misfortune no1· provided any r emedy for its consequences.

LESSON LXXXV.
THE INFINITIVE . -FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE

XII.-lNFINITIVES.

643 A verb in the infinitive is used as a subje~t, or
. of some oth er w ord ' or stands mdelimi ts ·the meamng
endently in the sentence.
.
p
. [ b'ect) is always wrong.-He chastens, [m
ExAMPLES.-!o. deceive su Y of the noun order understood].-Ney
are animalcula so small a.s to be
order) to save [1tm1ts the meamng
offered battle. rath:r ;hand1·:~::t~heT::;1~ was about to be destroyed.-Lct
invisiblc.-M11ler ec are
A house to let [intrans.).-To mur·r
Bid the repentant come.m
k
stru e cease. .
)-which is the wiser course ?-..<O spea
11wr or endure [used mdependently
plainly, honesty is at a discount.
. .
Give an example of the use of
643. Recite Rule x.u., relating to !nfimt::~~iiier of other words; of Its Ind"'
tho infinitive as". snbJect.; of Its Ull<l as a

234

CONSTRUCTION OF 'fHE INFINITIVE.

644. The preposition for must not lie used immedi·
ately b efore the infinitive ; as, " He is trying hard /01'
to ente1' college." Correct by omitting the preposition.
645. The sign to must not be separated from the
rest of the infinitive by an adverb; as, " To faithfully
represent this scene would be impossible." Say faitlifully to represent tliis scene, or to rep resent this scene
f aitlifully.
646. The sign to must not be used for the full infinitive, unless the root of the verb can be supplied from
the preceding part of the sentence.
"You might turn your talents to some account ; you ought to." In
dignified composition, you ought to do so would be preferred; but the sentence is grammati cal as it stands, because we can supply turn from the
first member and thus correctly complete the infinitive. "You ne>er
turned your talents to account; but you ought to." ·wrong, because, in
completing the infinitive from the first member, we should have to say to
turned. Change to you ought to have done so.

64·7. Tlie infinitive is used without its sign to after
the following verbs : 1. Brn (meaning 01·der), in the active voice ; as, "He bids us come."
But, "He !Jids fair [that is, is likely] to succeed." "He was bidden [pas. sivo] to prepare."

2. DARE (meaning i•enture), when not in the infinitive, participles, or
compound tenses ; as, " I dare not speak." Yet to is sometimes used ; as,
"Nobody dares to touch him."-To must always be used in infinitives
after dare meaning challenge, and after the in finitives, participles, and
compound tenses of dare meaning venture ; as, "They will not dare to
draw back."
p e ndent use. G44. ' Vh:i.t preposition must not be U!:!Cd immediately before the in.
fi n it iYe 1 645. Wh at is th e rule relating to tho separation of tho 1::dgu to 1
646. \Vhen onl y may th e sig n to be used f or th e full infinitive 1 Give example s of
its prope r and i mproper use for the fu ll i nfinitive . 647. "\Vhe n mu st th o infinitive
be u sed w ith out its sign , and w hen not, after &id 7 After dare 7 After fe el 1 Af1cr
hear 7 .After m al.e 1 Docs lo cY cr app e ar in th e infinitive after 'make 1 When docs
see retju ire th e omiss io n of to, and wh e n not 1 "\Vbat v erb in both voices requires
!he omission of to 1 After what other ,-crbs is tho sigu of tho infinitive occasionally

OMISSION OF 'l'HE SIGN.

t

235

I'
ll
" Did you feel .the ballf
3 FEEL when transitive and used itera Y; as,
. ? " But
' w h en fee ['is m
. the passive voice ' or is used figurative"1y "o I

en
·
•
.
duce d., as, " The ball was felt to enter.
theermind,
to must
be mtro

feel it to be right."
.
. ·.
"Just hear it thunder."
4 HEA·n in the active voice' as,
th
"
.
'
.
.
.
as
5. MAKE, in the active voice ' ' "He made them
" leave e room.
.
d.
" Make us to love thee.
.
.
"S 't in " When
But to is sometimes use , as,
6 SEE when transitive, in the active v01ce; as,
ee i ra t.h d this
as
"
Can
you see to rea
·
•
·
.
t
d
ed
.
sec is intransitive, to must be m ro uc '
'
9

nee dl e . " 111
.
. .
" Let them go." " They were let go."
7 LET
both vowes , as,
b ld b , e
7; t~ ;r~~J.';
Occ:isionally, also, after find, have;, help, know, [~·
watch, and in familiar style please; as,
Help us pray

s:

"Please receipt the bill.''
·
t t be
648. After other verbs than those just named, the sign to mus no
omitted.

649. If two infinitives or more are used i:1 the sa~e
construction the sign to generally appears m th.~ first
only unless' they are separated by a number of mte~d·.' wor ds ., as ' " Let us try to do good and avoi
venmg
evil."
·
650 . Use the present infinitive to express an act10n
or state not completed at the time denoted by the leadin rr verb·, the perfect, to exp ress an action or state
completed.
"

"'

'
Napo1.eon
r etu1·ned] ."
" He expected to return to- day [ not t o !lave
· d] ." " "The Norwegians
had hoped· to occupy Dresden. [ not to '.''ave oceupie
arc thought to have crossed the AtlantJC before Columbus.
FALSE

SYNTAX.

UNDER § 644. Never do alms for_ to be seen of men ..-:-We .all
· t•ICe anu·1 virtue trmmph.-Always st11ve f01. to
.
love for to see JUS
gain the approbation of your own conscience; for to have this is
better than great riches.

omitted 1 648. What

.
is

'd f th si n to after other verbs than those just named 1

s~1

o

o

g f h.

. n when two infinitives or more are

649. What is said respectrng .the use o ~: t'!~st the present infiuitivo be used
joined in th e same construction 1 650.

a

for expressing 1 What, the perfect infinitive 1

---------=--1
236

UNDER § 645, 646. It is the duty of the good man to sternly
r ebuke immorality, not only by precept, but also by his example.
-Th e grammarian is not to arbitrarily create rules, but to
patiently dcdnce them from the writings of standard authors.I seem to distinctly behold the whole scene.-Jackson vetoed
the United States Bank, as he h ad always intende<l to.-The
P acific Railroa<l has not been built, but it is likely to before
long.
UNDER § 647. The captain bi<l us to leave the wreck, since he
d ared not to stay any longer.- ! feel the pain to dart from one finger
t o another, and can almost see my arm to swell.-A few words
w ere let to slip, that made me to apprehend some difficulty.D o you fe el it be right to leave, when you were bidden remain?
- When we have dared speak the truth, we feel that we
h ave done right.- You were hear<l say that you would dare any
one to mount your horse.-In this di sease, pains are felt shoot
through all parts of the body.- You can h ear with great dist inctnees the volcano to rumble, as if cannon were booming in
the distance.
UNDER § 648. Do I understand you say that you will not
all ow us remain ?- This movement on Dorchester H eights caused
the enemy evacuate Boston. - An idle pupil needs be reminded of the value of tirne.-Have I not forb idden you talk in
school?
UNDER § 650. Before this time to-m orrow, we ought certainly
to have re ceived news. -A keen speculator would not have let
such a chance have passed by unimproved.-Did you expect to
have accomplish ed what no one has ever done befo re ?-You
profess to ha>e been disappointed in me; I am sorry to fall short
of your expectations.
•
Mr sc ELLA~Eou s .-Mu rat ordered his cavah:y to immediately
charge at foll galJop. -Many a martyr h as di ed rather than to
deny his faith .- You need to do nothing more than to call his
attention to the fact.- I shall try to have seen you before tomorrow.-How can I cause m y ideas fl ow more rapidly ?- Some
credulous minds can be made beliern anything. -Wh at went ye
out fo r to see ?-You should not h ave tol<l her to have returned so soon.-I wish you to thoroughly understand the subject.

231

CONSTRUCTION OF . PARTICIPLES.

FALSE SYNTAX.

LESSON LXXXVI.
PARTICIPLES.-FALSE SYNTAX

RULE XIII.-PARTICIPLES.
651. Participles are used independently, or .relate
to the substantives whose meaning they qualify or
· a thor limit.
.
ay of becoming
·

E XAMPLES . Used independently.-There is no w
the west
. t t d
Jitd"ing from appearances,
ough scholar without patien s u y."
.
the ed"e of the
will soon be settled.-It is dangerou~ standing ~o near
o
.
h d · at all is worth doing well.
precipice.-What is wort oi11g
.
·
J 1'ntend stai·ting
.
b t t' - The)! contmued praying.- .
Relating to su s an ivcs.
• .
R
rded with the lucrative
C
[ u] tormenting me.- tewa
immediately. - ease yo
· . d n honorable and well-deoffice of master of the mint, Newton enJoye a

served competence.
d . d . dently in a substantive clause
652. A participle oft~n stan s I~ .epen" His being here is no secret."
used as the subject or obJect of a ver ' as,
1 1' 11
.t

. . 1 O'eneral y io ows l s
Pos1TION.-A par t imp e "'
.
.
f
ut . t 've But if the substantive is the subj ect o
sub s an l ·
'
· t fter the par. ·b i"t is sometimes b etter to p1ace i a
1 · § 651
a "er ,
tici ial clause. See the last examp e rn
.
p
.
. . . a artici ial clause between a pronoun
5~3

It always sounds ill to mtioduce P
p
t with fatigue seized
'
with it · as "I, worn ou
and the verb that agrees
' ' b 1 c'ing the participial clause
~
" Correct Y P a
a few moments or repose.
. h £ t' "'ue I seized a few moments
before the substantive : "Worn out wit a 'o . '
for repose."

654. When
see that it is
relates.

participle is not used. independently,

~J01Ile
. d t 0 the word to which it really .
.

d"

. h the v1c10
· · us
·
"By neglecting to pums
. ' vice is encourage
.

Wrong,

.
to articiples. Give examples of partic~1)lcs
p
. . les relating to subst:mt•Yes.
Give examples of part1c1p
t' .
.n d inde endently I 653. How does a par ictu sed indepen en y. . .
652. Wl1erc docs a participle ofte.n sta Wber: does it sound ill to Introduce a par·
ple stand, as regar ds its substantive 1
ment to be corrected I 654. Wben a participial clause I How is such an arrange
.

651. Recite Rule XIII., rel~tmg
d

tl

238

239

CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES.

FALSE SYNTAX.

because neglecting is here joined to vice, as if vice neglected to punish the
vicious. Correct by introducing the substantive to which neglecting really
relates : " By neglecting to punish the vicious, we encourage vice."

.
Whil
ondering which course I
e ~ ears and set out briskly
slowly ascending the hill.:should pursue, my horse pr~ck~d up -~~s sweat and covered with
on the right-hand road, dr1ppmg w1

655. The participle of a _transitive verb governs the
objective. The preposition of, therefore, should not be
introduced between such a p articiple and its object;
as, " by erecting ef statues," " for controlling ef elec.tions ". Correct by omitting of.
656. When tlie, an or a, this, or tliat, is introduced
b efore a participle, the latter becomes a noun and loses
its participial construction.
In such cases, the construction of a noun is assumed throughout. An
adjective, but not an adverb, may be used as a modifier; and of must be
introduced if an object follows : as, " by this erecting of statues," "for
the more effectual [not ~ffcctually] controlling of elections ".-Observe,
however, that the common kindred noun, when there is one, is often to
be preferred ; as, " by this erection of statues," " for the more effectual
control of elections ".
FALSE

mud.

. .
· · of money to the
UNDER§ 655. There is no charity m g1vmg
- A
.
hel in of others, we often h elp ourselv~s. .
mtemper ate.-By
P g
f
f the general mtellipublic library was. founded fo~l p:~:~t:nffi. : doing of one's duty.
gence.-True happmess gener Y. . h · · money to the inUNDER § 656 There is nochar1tym t eg1vmg
d .
e's

0

temperate.-Tn~e happ~uess ge~erally re~ul:~:~~: t~':na~~~u~;.­

duty.-This m ere re~dmg boo ~can. n~irement of policy as well
The following an upright cours~_1s. a Ielq w which so often proved
as duty. -That neglecting. the i_vme a nd uite as fatal in our
fatal to the ancient I sraelites, will be fou
q
own case.

LES SON L XXXVII.
PARTICIPLES (CON TINUED).-FALSE SYNTAX.

SYNTAX.

653. He, feeling his deficiencies, returned to school.
( Co1·rected.- Feeling his deficiencies, he returned to school.
The participial clause must not separate the pronoun he from the
verb returned, which agrees with it.]
On r eceipt of this ne ws, h e, thinking that he now had an opportuni ty of advancing his fortunes, sailed for Europe.- You, after
making all these sacrifices, will find that you have gained nothing.
- Why should I attempt to comfort her? for she, fearing the
worst, has closed her ears to all words of comfort.
UNDER§ 654. R esting on th e brow of the hill, the spires of
the far-distant city met our view.-Accompanied as they are with
such incessant toil, who would care for th e honors of office?Groaning and r eeling und er its load, we saw the stage-coach

RULE XIV.- PossESsivE BEFORE

UNDER §

ticiplc is n ot used independently, to what must we Ree that it iB joined 1 655. 'Vhat
case does th o participle of a transitive verb govern 1 \Vl1::i.t follows with respec t
to th e prepos ltion of? 656. \ Vben does n parliciplc become n noun 1 In such cases,
what co nstru ction is assumed 1 Wh:it is meant by its assuming tho constr1i1etion

of a noun I What is often to be preferred to this participial noun 1

A

PARTICIPLE.

657 A substantive which, in stead of being ~odi­
fied b; a participle, is made to modify the latter, is put
in the possessive case.
. .
Who first conceived the 1"d ea of the moon's hem"0 m.
. b
. a merchant ·- Did you bear
h
obiection
to l tis
ecommg
.
habited?- 1 ave no •
.,._d at her readuJO"
o
of my teaching school at H untsvi·11e 9.- They were surpr1=
EXAMPLES. -

.

so

':e~~-

A participle thus modified by a substantive in the possessive case

is used independently.
.
b ta.ntive in the possessive does
659. A participle ~~~~fi~: s~~w: s;y ~ts sometimes taking an _object
not become a noun.
d b l"ke the participle taking in this sennnd being modified by an a ver ,- i
ten cc.
.
a substantive modifying n participle. Give
657 R ecite Rule XIV., relatmg to
.
d"fi
658 How is a participle
·
ht II what the possessive mo l es.
·
b
examples, and in eac . e
d 1 669 Prove that a participle modified by a SU modified by a possessive u se
·

240

POSSESSIVE BEFORE A PARTICIPLE.

660. When a participle relates to a substantive; the
substantive is the leading word. When a p articiple is
modifi ed by a possessive, the participle is the leading
word. Use, therefore, the former of these constructions,
if the substantive denotes the leading subject of discourse ; the latter, if the participle denotes it.
" Cicero, fearing an outbreak, bade Catiline leave the city." It was
Cicero that bade Catiline leave ; hence we make the noun Cicero the subj ect, and join the participle to it as a modifier. "Cicero, allowing Catili ne to leaYe the city, may appear strange to some." Wrong, because it
is not Cicel'O that may appear strange, but bis allowing Catiline to leave
the city. We the refore change Cicero to the possessive, that it may modify the participle, and make the whole participial clause the subj ect of the
verb ma.y appca>": "Cicero's allowing Catiline to leave the city may appear strange to some."

661. If the use of the participle is attended with
awkwardness or obscurity, substitute for it a noun, an
infiniti ve, a :finite verb with tliat, or some other equivalent construction.
"A m:m's utterly neglecting the laws of health must sooner or later
bring on disease." Correct thus : "An utter neglect of the laws of health
must sooner or later bring on disease." "They refuse accepting the offered
mercy." Say, "They refuse to accept," or simply" They refuse the offer ed mercy." "I remember its being considered quite a voyage to ascend
the Hudson to Albany." Improve thus: "I remember that it was considered," &c. "The English language's containing so many synonymes is
explained by our iiaving drawn our words from so many different sources."
Very awkward, and inadmissible; say, "The fact that the English language contains so many synonymes is explained by our having drawn our
words from so many different sources."
stantive in the posscssh·e docs not become a nou n. 660. When a participle relates
to a s ubstantive, which is the leading word 1 \V11en a participle is modified by n
substantive, w hich is the leading word? H ow arc we to cbooeo between these
con st ructions ? Illu str3lo thi s. 661. ''.That must be done, if the use of' the par·
ticipJc ia attended with awkwardness or obscuri ty 1 Give an example in which a
noun should be suUst itu ted for the participle. Gi ve one in which an infinitive
should be substituted. Give one in wbich a finite Yerb with that shou ld be substi-

tuted.

•

CONSTRUCTION OF P .A.RTICIPLES.
FALSE

241

SYNTAX .

UNDER § 65'7. There is no hope of such a man keeping pace
with th e spirit of the uge.
,
.
[ Corrected.-There is no h ope of such a man s keeping paco
with the spirit of the age. Man must be changed to the possessive man's to m odify the participle lceeping.]
A·sens~ of self-respect prevents us indulging in recrimi.nation.Hu've yon ever heard of u pear being grafted on a monntam-ash ?There is no probability of Stephen arriving t o-day.- What _d o you
think of him visiting Germany ?-Even the t ops of mountams furnish us with evidence of the world having been overfloweu by a
deluge.
. .
.
UNDER§ 660. Some people think there 1s no advantage m
children studying Greek-Plutarch, commencing _th e st.udy of
Latin when nearly eighty years old, appears almost mcred1ble.-I
can not understand them r efusing to receive you.-I place no confid ence in a man's boasting of what he can do.
UNDER § 661. We sh all hereafter forbear endeavorin~ t o conciliate them.-A nation's extending its territory too w1del~ has
sometimes proved fatal to its existence.-The having committed
yourself to an error is no excuse for ?on~inuing in that error. Arnold's betraying of the trust reposed m him was unp ardonab'.e. This accidental discovering of gold in .Australia' led to the emigration of thousands thither.
MrsoELLANEous.-Active measures were taken _for the more
speedily restoring of order.-It is not by the adding to what we
have but by the cutting off artificial wants, that we become truly
rich.~Now is the time for r etrenching of unnecessary expen.ses
and diligently employing of every moment.-Such an emptymg
purses was perhaps never seen before.-! can not a?prove of any
one's persisting in such deceit.-.Among th e most 1mpo~ta nt duties of the Christian is setting of a good example to his fellow
men.
The doing j ustice to so complicated a case will require the consulting many authorities.-By teaching of others we learn many
things ourselves.-Is there any prospect of a telegraph cable
being laid across the .Atlantic ?-Ther e is some doubt of th e C~·u­
sades having benefited Europe.-Who eyer heard of a hyena berng
tamed ?
11

242

THE ADVERB.

CONSTRUCTION

AND POSITION OF ADVERBS.

243

662. An adverb relates to the word or words wh~se
meaning it modifies, or stands independently in the
sentence.

666. Exceptions.-!. .A negative may be repeated in the same clause
or member; as, "Not rank, not wealth, constitutes true happiness."
2. Two correlative negatives may be used; as, "Neither rank nor
wealth constitutes true happiness."
3 . .A negative, and a derivative formed with a negative prefix, may be
used together, to eJ>press an affirmation; ns, "llo1· is it imprope1·,''-that
is, it is proper.
667. Two negatives formerly strengthened the negation, and were used
for this purpose by old writers. Thus in Beaumont and Fletcher we read,
" By no means be not seen." While we have discarded such constructions
generally, we still retain another negati.ve with but in the common form of
expression can not but. " I can not but rejoice."

Ex.HIPLES.-Try liard.-Far out at sea, we saw a very singular sight.Are you quite in the dark? Yes.-We shall certainly leave before he arrives.-By and by there was a great noise.-You may go furtlm· and fare
worse; consequently, you might as well remain .

668. The rules laid down for the comparative and
the superlative degree in § 612, 613, under adjectives,
apply also to adverbs.

663. Do not use liow, as lww, or liow tliat, for
the conjunction tliat j or how, for lest or tliat not.

The former of the terms compared must be excluded from the latter
when the comparative is nsed, but included when we use the superlative.
"The elephant is said to live longa than any other animal." "The elephant is said to live the longest of all animals [not of any animal]."

LESSON LXXXVIII.
ADVERBS.-FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE XV.-THE

ADVERB.

" She said as how she would come." " Have a care how you listen to
the tempte r." Correct thus: " She said that she would come." "Have a
care that you do not listen to the tempter."

664. Do not use the adverb no for not.
No is used independently in answering questions ; or it ·may modify
an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree. But it must not he
joined to an adjective in the positive degree, or to a verb, expressed or
understood. 'Ve say no wiser, no sooner; but, "Handsome or not [that
is, not handsome], I admire her." " 'Viii you promise or not [that is, not
promise] ?" In the last two examples, no would be wrong.

665. In expressing a negation, do not use t~o negatives in the same clause or member ; as, " I did not do
not/ting." "It makes no difference .to you nor me."
Correct by omitting or changing one of the negatives :
" I did not do anything," or "I did nothing." "It
makes no difference to you or me."

669. Pos1T10N.-Adverbs should stand near the
words to which they relate. They generally precede
adjectives, stand after the first auxiliary in compound
tenses, and in other tenses follow the verb. Observe
the position of the adverbs m the following examples:Ex.AMPLEs.-Quite pretty; very pretty; so pretty; pretty enough.-He
was easily saved.-He was saved easily enough.-He might easily have
been saved.-He ought to be seriously reprimanded.-.Always dare to act
right.-Never betray a trust.-Having never betrayed a trust, I can look
my neighbors proudly in the face.-.Down came the rain.-The rain came
down.
When there is a choice of positions, select the one that best suiti
the ear.

Give examples, and in. each men-

n negation, what must not be used 1 666. In what two cases may two negatives be
used 1 With what kind of a derivative may a negative be used 1 667. What waa

tion to what the adverb relates. 663. What must not be used for the conjunction
lhat 1 664. What mus~ not be used for nol 1 How may no be used! What .may
it modify! To what mu•t lt no't be joined 1 Illustrato this. 665. In expressing

formerly the effect of two negatives 1 What construction with a double negative
have we retained 1 668. What principles apply to the comparative and the superlative degree of adverbs! 669. Glv~ the rule for the position of adverb•, and 11-

662. Recite Ru le XV., relating to adverbs.

-

,I
I
FALSE SYNTAX.

244

POSITION OF .ADVERBS.

670. Care must be taken to place only and not only
~ext to the v:ord or words they are intended to modify. .Otherwise they give a wrong impression of the
meamng.
~nly hires the store," only modifies !tires, imd the imconveyed 1s ~hat another verb will follow: He only hires the
sto1 e.' h.e docs not own 1t". If.I say," He hires only the store," only modifies s/01 e, and the meawng 1s, He hires the store, but nothino-0 else-not
the rest of the house.
"He not only reads Latin but Greek." Wrong because t l ·
so placed as t.o ~o d"f
no on: YHe
Iii
1 Yread s, as if some other verb' were to follow
not onl.y reads Latin, but also writes it. Bnt. not only is intended to modify L atin, and must therefore be placed next to it: "He read
t z
Latin but Greek."
s n o on !I

If I say, " He

prc~s1on

671. So, the adverbs chiefly, mostly, &c., must stand immediately before or after an adjunct that they arc intended to modify. as "Th
duct"
·t
[
' ,
e pro·
ions c01:s1s mostly not mostly consist] of corn and cotton." "II
was by hunt'.ng and fishing chiefly that the Indians subsisted "-not "h
was by huntmg and fishing that the Indians chiefly subsisted."'
'

245

UNDER § 668. Railroads open up a country the most rapidly
of any internal improvements.-Chess fascinates its votaries more,
perhaps, than any game.-Of all other bubbles, the :Mississippi
Scheme terminated the most disastrously.-Linnreus was the most
.
enthusiastic and industrious of other naturalists.
UNDER § 669. He must have certainly been detained.-They
twice give, that quickly give.-Trust the wicked not.-Having not
studied Italian, you can not so well enjoy the beauties of Petrarch
as otherwise you might do.-Think of Balboa now, as the broad
Pacific burst on his enraptured eyes gloriously.-If we ever so
little transgress the laws of nature, ultimately we rue it.
UNDER § 670, 671.
We not only obtained Louisiana, but
Florida also, by purchase.-If education refined only the manners,
we might do without it; but it also disciplines the mind and improves the heart.-California not only produces gold in great
abundance, but quicksilver also.-The Russians mostly belong to
the Greek church.-It was by the English, French, Spanish and
Dutch, that the new world was principally colonized.

LESSON LXXXIX.

FALSE SYNTAX.
UNDER§ 663, 664. We thus see how afflictions are often sent
for our good.-D o you think as how it will r ain to-day ?-Kossuth
h eard. h ow .that the army
h ad surrender·ed. -T·u.Ae
'· care h ow you
.
a~so~iate ~vi th the w1cked.-It is uncertain whether the planets
me rnhab1ted or no.-Ready or no, you must start at once -All
men grow old, whether they will or no.
·
UNDE~ § 665. Don't you care .for nobody?-Nothing was
never gamed by dishonesty.-No other king of Israel was so wise
nor1powerful
as Solomon.-Let no one at no time speak irrever·
·
e~t Y m your p~esence unrebuked.-In this connection no prin:
c1~les can be laid d ~wn, nor no rules given, that will cover every
pomt.-We can not m no way ascertain the exact size of the fixed
stars.

Justrate
b
. it with_ exampl
·
cs. Wb en th ere is a choice of positions, by what must wo
e guided~ 6 tO. \.Vhat caution is given in the case of only nnd not only 1 Prove
by an ~nm pie tbat a change in tho pos.ition of only alters the meaning Show how
: ' onty md aly be placed incorrectly. 671. How must lhe adverbs
Ry mostly
c., s an
v• ,
,

chi·

PREPOSITIONS . -FALSE SYNTAX.

RULE

XVI.-THE PREPOSITION.

672. A preposition shows the relation that a substan·
tive, infinitive, or participle bears to some other word
or words in the sentence.
ExAMPLES.-Oontrary to my expectations, I found the performances
about to begin.- Without concealing anything, tell me whether he is out
of danger.-The silvery beams fell aslant the earth.-Pursue your way
with a bold heart, trusting to Him, who is ever a sure help in time of

need.

673. After certain verbs, by is used before a word denoting an agent
or Jiving object, with before a word denoting an instrument or inanimata
672. Recite Rule XVI., relating to prepositions. Give examples, and point out
!n each the terms of the relation denoted by the preposition. 673. How are by

246

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.

~bject. We say, accompanied by his friends, accompanied with illustra·
btwns; attended
.
. by a servant • attended wz'th ev1.1 consequences · illustrated
y an artist, witli engravings; killed by an assassin with a da'g ~er F. l·
lowed takes by only.
'
o ·
o
674. Between and betwixt must be used of two obiects
d"
only; among
and amongst, of tbree or more . as "B t
c ween you an me, I will divide
.
' '
t his farm among my three sons."

675. Certain prepositions must follow certain words.

~~en the sam.e word sometimes takes different prepo-

s1t10.ns, ~ccordmg to the sense in which it is used. The
pupil will
.
. . find below a list of words with th e p1oper
prepo~1tion annexed, covering those cases in which
there rs the greatest tendency to error.
Abhorrent to.
Confide in.
Accommodate (adapt) one thing to
Conform, conformity, to, with.
another; I (supply) a person wiili.
Copy after a person, from nature.
Accuse of, not with.
Correspond with, to.
Acquaint with.
Deprive of.
Acquit of.
Die of a disease ; by an instrument
Adapted to.
bY ones
' own hand, by violence. '
Adequate to.
Differ with a person in opinion,
Adhere, adherence, to.
f rom a person or thing in some
Angry with a person, at a thing.
quality.
Antipathy to, against.
Different f rom. , not to,
Arri1·e at, i11, not to.
Disappointed of a thing not obAverse to, from.
tained, in a thing obtained.
Bestow on .
Dislike to.
Charge a thing on a person; a perEnamoured of.
son with a thin~0
Entrance into.
Compare with (iu ;·espect of qualiForeign to, from .
ty); to (by way of illustration).
Founded on or .upon a basis i in
"I compare Pope icith Dryden
truth or error.
1
hope to an anchor."
'
Frightened at.
and uith used nftcr certn.in verbs 1 111 t
.
6i4. H ow aro bet1oecn and betwixt t b.usdrot.c this. What docs f ollowed take I
am ongst 7 675 \Vhn t is s•1'd f tho e J~tingmshed in use from among nnd
·
·
.... o
e necessity of u ·
· .
.
cases 1 'Vlrnt prC'positions arc used aft
d smg prepos1t1ons rn certain
the list}1 After compare 7 .After p er.la1ccoAmfmo ale in .its different senses (see
re't'az
ter reconcile 7 Wh
used after charge, and wh en tni!IL 7 Wh en m -t if b
en must on bo
and when
1
must
be us ed after

in

Who~

with

'::er~het:.~:·:.,~f':~e:i:;~pointed,

CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS.

Incorporate into, with.
Independently of, not on
Initiation into.
Inroad into.
Liberal of what is given.
Meddle with.
Need of.
Overwhelmed with a feeling, with
shame; by an agent, by the
waves.
Partake, commonly of, sometimes
in.

Participate with a person, in a
thing.
Prefer, preferable, to.

247

Prevail on, upon, with (persuade);
over, against (overcome).
Reconcile (make friendly) to ;
(make consistent) with.
Redolent of.
Remonstrate with a person, against
a thing.
Rid of.
Skilful in, at.
Smile at, (to express favor) on.
Suitable to, for.
Sympathize with.
Vest a thing in a person, a person
with a thing.
Weary of.

FALSE SYNTAX.
UNDER§ 673. Here is a life of Johnson, accompanied by copious extracts from his writings.
[ Corrected.-Here is a life of Johnson, accompanied with copious extracts from his writings. By must be changed to with,
because accompanied is followed by with, before a word denoting
an inanimate object.]
The queen was attended with a large retinue; her arrival was
hailed by rejoicings.-Here our travellers were surrounded with
a troup of monkeys.-My departure was attended by many misgivings. -With whom were you accompanied 1-We were overcome by sorrow.-The good ship sunk, overwhelmed with the
surging waters.
UNDER § 674. Distribute these presents between James and
his brothers.-! never before saw so great a resemblance among
twins.-A quarrel arose amongst the old soldiers and the recruits.He divides his time betwixt law, medicine, and politics.
UNDER§ 675. We all have need for some one on whom we can
confide.-Long and bitterly have I repented for the crime with
which I am now accused.-Every person should conform his
practice with his preaching.-She smiles at all that profess to be
enamoured with her.-Marius was liberal with his money, and
still more liberal in promises.-Rid yourself from such prejudices,

248

CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS .

CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS.

or people will be disgusted .at you.-Meddle not in what do
~
concern you.
es no
. your th eory seems to be founded on truth, yet it is quite diffe1 ent.to any that I have hitherto lienrd ndvan ced.-Profit from
t~e l~sso ns tlrn;, t~nglit.-Uow do you recon cile his professions to
his conduct.-llns should be incorporated in the bo ·1- - I
compell~d to di ffe r from yon.-Far preferable is a p~i~ate ~~
than this constant turmoil. -Honey r edolent w"th
.
fumed th e air.-For the unfortunate the good
l 1 sprmg perthizes, but not for the wicked.
man a ways sympa·

LESSON XC.
CONJUNCTIONS. -FAL SE SYNTAX.

RULE XVII.-THE

CONJUNCTION.

676. A conjunction connects words, sentences,
parts of a sentence.
ExaMPLEs.-Notwit!tstanding, if you will examine the sub' t

OI

··o-h
L
.
~ec more
closely, you will see th at I
am "o t.- et us do right whether other men
d o so or not - Y t
J 1••
•
'
wh
e. no Y IC poet is more sublime titan he.-Pindar, than
. ·
oEno. 1yric poe~ is more sublime, was a Theban.-They overran Italy and
th e •astern Empi re as well.
'

677. Do not use if for wli:i~0_.ez,-or 13!:..t, 'J:.!!:..t that, or
lest !or that,- after the ve1m douot,fear, deny-or-their
eqmvalents.
- '
"p" Do you know if [correct to whetlm·] a train will start this :ening?"
"N o~e was apprehensive lest [say that] his meaning mi<>ht be mistake~"
o ody can deny but that [say that] experi ence is the ~est teacher"

678. Do not use but for tlian, after else, othe~, or
otlierwise.
6i6. R eci te Ruic XVII
I t'
t
.
.
tell what the conj uncti on ~~~~:c ~~g ; .. ~OI~,~~c~10ns. Give mrnmplce, nnd incnch
Wha t must not be used for that 1 .Gh~c .ex:u: must no t .be used for whethe-r1
t onjunction s OiS ·wh at co .
!'
· · pies of the improper use of these
.
.
l1Junc w n must bo used aftere/sei otherJ and otherwi.ae1

249

"Prevarication is nothing else but [correct to than] falsehood."
" There is no other way of pleasing some people but [say than] by flattering them." "Who could do otherwise but [say than] accept so cordial
nµ invitation?"

679. Than, which is used after the comparative degree, is always a conjunction, and does not govern the
objective case.
Milton says "than whom none higher sat"; and other writers, following him, have construed than with the objective, as if it were a preposi. tion. This is ungrammatical and should be avoided. Than has no governing power, but is followed by the nominative, possessive, or objective,
according to the relation sustained to some word or words understood.
"You are taller than he [is)." . "Your hand is larger than !tis [hand)."
"I love you more than [I love] him." "Than who [sat] none higher sat."
" Than whose [head] no head is higher." " Than [I love] whom I love
none more."

680. When two words or clauses joined by a conjunction have a common connection with some third
word or clause, this last term must be adapted in construction to both of the preceding ones.
"Henry is older, but not so large, as Thomas." Wrong, because th&
last term as can not be properly used with the first term oldei·; we can
not say older as '17wmas. For a similar reason it is wrong to say, "He ia
older, but not so tall, than Thomas." Correct thus: "Henry is older than
Thomas, but not so tall.''
" You can not bestow or bequeath it to a more deserving person." We
can not say bestow to. Change bestow to give, and then the preposition to
will be applicable to both verbs : "You can not give or bequeath it to a
more deserving person." .

681. Certain conjunctions are used in contiguous
What must not be used after them 1 679. What is said of than 1 What expres·
sion does 'Millon use 1 With what havo other writers construed than 1 W .h at is
said of th is construction 1 'What determines the case of the substantive following
th an 1 Give examples. 680. What is required, when two words or clauses
joined by a conjunction have a common connection with some third word or
clause I Illustrate this rule. 681. When are conjunctions said to be correlatives 1
Mention some correlative conjunctione. What must be used ae tho correlative of
neither 1 What correlatives must be use4 after a negative denying equality of degree!

11•

250

251

FALSE SYNTAX.

FALSE SYNTAX

clauses as correlatives : as, thougli, yet j both, anrl;
eitlier, or j wlietlier, or.

else pleases a weak mind e.s much ·as flattery.-Few lived ail
plainly as Mohammed.

There is no liability to error in the use of these correlatives, except in
two cases.
1. Be careful to use nor, not o,., as the correlative of neither. "Neither
youth nor [not 01·] innocence availed as a protection ."
2. Be careful to use so, as- not as, as-after a negative denying
equality of d egr~e. "Few ancient cities were so [not as] magnificent as
Babylon."
FALSE SYNTAX.
UNDER

§ 677. I doubt if the world ever saw such a fleet

b efore.
[Corrected.-I .doubt whether the world ever saw such a fleet
before. If must not be used for whether. ]
It is un certain if a swan lives longer than a r aven.- Can you
t ell me if the Danube is the longest river in Europe ?-I am fearful lest the storm may overtake th em.-There is no doubt but that
Germany has pro du ced many great men.-You certainly can not
dou bt but he will keep his promise.
U N DE R § 678. Washington had nothing else at heart but his
country's good.-N ever act oth erwise b'u t honorably.-What other
motive but the purest patnotlsmcould h ave stimulated Iilm-to
such sacrifices ?- She would not have done it for any one else b~t
him.
·- ··
UNDER § 679. There are many noble women, but none nobler
th an her.-Even Blair, than whom few rhetoricians stand higher,
fr equently makes grammatical mistakes.-! look,. on none with
more contempt than they.
..
U NDE R § 680. Quicksilver is not so useful, but more valuable
than iron.-The moon is nearer, though not so bright, as the sun'.
-This honor should be conferred and confined to the best student.-The road is longer and inferior t o what we supposed it
would b e. -Sin is generally accompanied and followed by reproach es of conscience .
·
UNDER § 681. Such idlers should neither be pitied ~r assisted.
- Neither th<l wastes of Sahara or th e parched plains of central
Australia seem to have been designed for the h abitation ·of man
or beast.-Neither Europe or Africa is as large as .Asia.-Nothing

LESSON XCI.
MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE IN FALSE SYNTAX.

682. Further exercises in false syntax, promiscuously
i\rranged, are now presented for correction. They may
b e divided into lessons of convenient length.
You and me-the .Almighty hath created both.-! wish I was
h er! Yes, but to be her is impossible.-N o one could have acted
more gallantly than him who bore the standard of the legion.-This ring is almost as dear to me as h er who gave it.-And thee
t J o brave son of .A bas-I saw thee fall.-The principal is not only
due,' but also five years interest.
The first of April is called All fools Day.-Beds are stuffed
with cat-tails' but not with cats'. tails.-For common decency
sake, be silent'.-John Ray, his book-Demosthenes orations are
more nervous than lEschines.-I have r ead Cowper and Pope's
Translation of Homer ; the one is in rhyme, the other in blank
verse.-Here is the three judges' of the supreme court opinion.The historian Josephus works are written in Greek.
Victoria's and Albert's eldest daughter has married the prince
of Prussia.--Bancroft's, the histori an's, reputation is deservedly
great.-The governor's of Texas life h as been an eventful one.These volumes are Mr. Hay's clerk's wife's brother's.-Rumors
of the death of the captain of the Star of the West, of Liverpool,
were current in Wall Street.-He who is wise in his own conceit
I never could tolerate.-Two court-martia1s were held.
Send up fifty pound of butter, some pickled sheeps' tongues,
and ten heads of fat cattle.-Let .all good men rejoice at this, even
h e who h as never r ejoiced before.-! do not wish for any coffee
this morning.-Distribute a few pence among those two poor
d warves.-Beware evil practices.-Montezuma was denied even
this slight favor.-David and J onathan loved one another.
La Fayette was voted a township of land and two hundred
thousand dollars by Congress.-Those men, who thought them-

252

IN F.A.LSE SYNTAX.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE

selv~s more wiser than others, have fallen a victim to th eir own
P.ass10ns.-Were yon paid the money?-Oxford University is of
eight ccntunes old.- Each pupil is expected to o-overn themsel
The mob l ·
b
b
vcs.
.
, rnvmg.next roken into some j ewellers stores begun
to fill its pockets with precious stones.
'
·
Whom clo you suppose it was ?-Who do you suppose it to be 1
- \\here liave you bought th em pencils? .A.t Mr. Tilden's tho
booksell er 's.-Those who consider themselves a good criti; are
not so c~nsidered always by others.-! will lend you m
t~·eezers'. 1f you would be sure to r eturn it.-The people ~
Frnland is called Finns'.-Be sure not to tell nobody whom ·ou
are.
y

0

. He was able to have supported himself and family, and certamly .ougl~t to.-1:1" othing hurts my feelings more nor as much
as a.fn cnd s betrayrng of the trust I have reposed on him.-Every
soldier exerted themselves to the utmost, as if on them alone depended. the _issue of the battle.-Fnll many a good man is overlo?lrnd m this world; but in the world to come his good deeds
will be remembered.- He said as how he would come.
Sat:1rn !s s:1nounded with three bright rings, the inner on()
of which is nrneteen thousand miles from the surface of thE>
plan et..-Th e jury could not agree, and so the judge allowe<l it
to separate.- The board of directors looked gravely- in fact a
fr~wn begun to settle on its face.-Can nothing be don~ to induce
th:s fop and coxcomb to abandon their folly ?-These here mosqmtoes are very troublesome.-It was this same Cortez who conquered Mexico.
Saint and sinner will rise together at the last day, to hear his
doom prononnce<l.-The most beautiful peop'le which are known
are_t11~ C~rcassians.-lt seems as if one or the other must lose
tb~n· life 1.n the conflict.-Otis, as well ns Hancock, raised their
v~ices a~amst this new aggression.- Some German critics maint~rn (wh~cl~ I can not believe) that no such man as Homer never
hved .-:N e1ther John or his wife seem to care much for the ex~
ample tbey set their children.
Elizabeth, and h er father Henry also, had their favorites.:N ot only. Ch arlemagne, bnt Harnun al Raschid also, rose superior
to ~lw pnnccs of tlicir time.- Evcry man hns certain rights from
wL1ch they can not be deprived.-Francis did not remain long in

253

the school his father placed him.-No substance which yet has
been discovered is as heavy as iridium.
There are two species of buffalo : one inhabiting the northern
parts of Europe, and which has become very scarce; the other,
a native of America, and which is more properly called tho
bisou.- God watches over us as a father, who Ile is even to
th e most unworthy of His creatures.-The conversation turned
on the generals and battles who had deci<led the fate of empires.
Hand me that tongs.-He lets houses an<l collects rents, and
by this means manages to live.-The very events which we most
deplore sometimes turn out most fortunately.-One or the other
of us are greatly mistaken in their opinion. -Both parties can ·not
be riooht ·1 you or we must be mistaken in your views.-If either
the klng or queen knew the· condition of their subjects, they would
do their utmost to relieve them.
.A. snake was never seen there, that I know of [as f ar as 1
lcnow ].-Who can be expected to r emember the names of all
the authors and books which the present century h as produced 'l
-They say, which I do not believe, that some people die of a
broken heart.-The rattle-snake, one of the most poisonous of
r eptiles, and who grows from four to six feet in length, is only
found in America.
Every one should try to distinguish themselves in their profession.-Measure out five bushel of this oats.-The old and new
house were both burnt.- Holland, a country that has been rescµ ed
from the sea, and which possesses very little natural advantages,
has been converted mto one vast garden by the industry of its
inhabitants.-W e have some beautiful variegated pansies; here is
a yellow and a blue one.
I admit it is dry, the study of grammar. -Robert promises his
father that he would take his advice and try hard to pay his debts.
-Send home a couple of gallon of those same molasses we have
been using.- Pope at one time studied painting, but Nature had
made him a greater poet than an artist.
An ant is a model of provident industry; a grasshopper is t.
type of thoughtless indolence.-The self-devotion, no less than
courage, of La Fayette, commands our admiration.-It is plain
from the movements of that poor child that it is grieving for his

254

IN FALSE SYNTAX • .

JIUSCELL.ANEOUS EXERCISE

brotbcr. -Old stout gentlemen are generally good-humored.When Talent and Industry contend for the pri ze the latter is the
often est winner.
'
Th e pri?e of cotton is fallen.--She moves very gracefuJ...!..The
'~· ~ol c f''.1;1ily have lovelily carried out the principles of their reb g10n.- lh c room was not sufficiently het.-They had sawed the
wood before I seen what they was doing.-Name each king of
England in succession. [As succession implies more than one it
should be Name the kings, &c.]
'
WJ_10 can contemplate without a shudder the hereafter life of
th e wicked ?-It is thon that l1as rui ned me.-The "Pleasures of
l-!ope" were written by Campbell.-The moon was by this time
n sen.-A humble mind is ever ready for to acknowledge its faults.
-Every person h as their fri ends and enemies ; the former he
should seek to conciliate, th e latter to confirm in their attachment;
- Cr cesus had much possessions.
. He is ent irely undeserving commendation.- Texas or Florida
~f no_t bo~h,_ were admitted into the Union in 1845.-The peopl~
is umtcd m its determination to h ave tl1 e most universal freedom
of suffrngc.-Y ou sho uld have made th em have shook those carpets before ~his.-The indiffer ence, nay the neglect, of the world,
too often blight the aspirations of genius.-I wish that I was in
Europe.
The news of the Constellation's being wrecked and the greater
part of h er crew's being lost, w ere r eceived this morning.-I have
heard h ow that the human body contains about thirty pounds of
blood.-" Crime and Mystery" have just been published.-Neither
nrguments or force was able to make any impression.-Do not
desert your father or mother in their old age.
Th e mind whence such sentiments could come, must be depraved h opclessly.-Napoleon found Moscow in flames, which
was total ly unexpccted.-Wus yon able to buy me a brass compasses ?-:-Them shoes are not too large ; I have no fears but what
they will answer.-In th e torrid zone, a wet and dry season
t~ke th e place _of winter and summer.-Pruclence and courage
111 e both essential to the good general ; this in the council that
on th e fi eld.
'
Neith er the horse or the mule h ave as great powers of endurance n.s the camel.-The phenomena observed last evening

255

was well worth seeing.-The youngest of my two brother-in-laws
is the shrewdest.-He, tired of life, declared that nothing~rnt
trials and disappointments are met with in the world.-In abandoning of the throne, Charles V . h oped to have r egained the
peace of mind which he had long been deprived of.-Have you
waken your fri end ?
.
.
A rose by any other name would smell as sweetly.-Oabforma
is now prodncing more gold than any country in the world.- .
London is further north than any other city in America.-:--If Xerxes.
h ad have succeeded in conquering Greece, what incalculable
changes would h ave been made in th e world's history !-I have ancl
ever shall insist on the necessity of strict economy on the part of
government.-The rain disappointed us in our excursion; we
could not go.
Your garden looks much better since you wed it.-To what
conclusion do you arrive ?-Making the experiment, air was
found to be impenetrable.-Where has the snuffers gone ?-It
m~st have been h ard to have endured such sufferings.-He does
not mean to deliberately affront us.-Why h ave you not kept the
promise you have made when I was at your house 1_
.
A honorable man looks down upon the dece1tfnl with supremest contempt.___:..La Fayette is the best character ?f any in
French history.-He is one of those unfo rtunates that is always·
discontent ed with his lot.-Has that suds been thrown out ?-We
h ave now a more promising, wider, and pleasanter field for operations.-A few hours delay is not of much consequence.
The crew is loud in its complaints.-The mule, if it is less
handsome than the horse, is certainly the most enduring. -Which
is the bri o-htest of those two stars ?-The ladies of old times seem
to impli c~ly h ave believed that they would preser;~ their beauty
by washing in dew.-I, r eflecting on the muta?ihty of . hu~an
things, came to the conclusion that all was vamty and vexat10n
~~~

.

.

H e has waxen all the threads.-Cairo is the largest of any city
in Africa. -Anger is a scorpion that stings itself; tak~ care th.at
thou dost not find it so.- The earliest experiments with the a1rpump showed that air was essential to life and combustion.-Of
what use ar e fierceness of gesture or loudness of tone t o the
orator ?-Have a care how you give way to the first advancea of

256

FALSE SYNTAX.

sin.-The way how they give their china ware such a lively coloring,is a secret.
The question is whether the people should elect judges or no.The heathens are perished out of the land.-! told him tha; if he
went to-morrow I shall go with him.-Dwarf pear-trees are som&times loaded down by fruit.-Where is Robert, Jane, and Frankl
I have some cherries to divide between them.
A machine has been invented for the more easily and economically elevating of grain to such h eights as may be required.~
Just think of me entering into one of the fashionable saloons of
Saratoga in such a garb.-No Roman emperor was so cruel nor
tyrannical as Nero.-The Swiss have defended their liberties the
most resolutely of any other nation.
The manufactures of Belgium chiefly consist of laces, silks, and
carpets.-Can I not prevail over you to return with me ?-Your
hat is altogether prettier and preferable to mine.-! h ave no other
friend but thou.-Ben Jonson says that the poet Spenser died by
want.-There were some disagreeable persons along, and so we
was disappointed of our excursion.
The weary sailors heard with delight the woods and groves to
reecho the notes of countless songsters, and saw with rapture the
trees to bend under a load of fruit.-You must have felt the needle
have passed into the flesh.-A diphthong consists of two vowels'
forming one sound.-It is singular how an uneducated tinker could
have produced such a great work.
Willing or no, we must all die.-.An ._eclipse of the moon is
caused by the earth getting between it and the enn.-No disease
was more loathsome nor more dreaded by the people than leprosy.--Cotton, as a crop, is more valuable, but not so certain, as
corn.-She will not sing for anybody else but he.-She had rather
stay, if you will promise to stay with her.-They dared not to
star t.
He no sooner entered into the house but he came rushing out
again with these bad news.-Whom, when they had scourged him
1
they let him go.-Thou shouldst treasure up these counsels deep
in your heart.--When money is to be made, be it never so little,
every man strives their best to be first on the ground.-They
compose the easiest, that have learned to c-0mpose.

RULES FOR THE USE OF C.APIT.ALS.

257

LESSON XCII.
RULES FOR CAPITALS

683. Most words commence with small lett~rs.
Capitals must be used when required by the followrng
rules, and only then : RULES FOR THE USE

OF

CAPITAL LETTERS.

684. Begin with a capital,
I. Every sentence and every line of poetry.
ExAMPLES.-Forget others' faults.-How bright the day !-What is
fame ?-Custom forms us all.
. " Time is the warp of life ; oh ! tell
The young, the fair, to weave it well."

II. All proper nouns, and titles of office, honor, and
respect.
ExAMPLEs.-Henry the Fowler, emperor of the Germans; Ro?ert R~e,
Esquire ; Elizabeth Barrett Browning; the Red River; the Strait Gibraltar; High Bridge; Union Square; the Superior Court of the City of
New York ; July; Monday.

o:

ID. All adjectives formed from proper nouns.
Ex..i.MPLES.-.African, Italian, Welsh, Ciceronian; also adjectives de·
notino- a sect or religion-Methodist, Puritan, Catholic, Protestant.

IV.

Common nouns, when personified in a .direct
and lively manner; not when sex merely is attributed
to an inanimate object.
ExAMPLEs.-Then TVar waves his ensanguined sword, and fair Peace
flees sighing to some happier land.-But, The sun pursues his fiery course;
the moon sheds her silvery beams.

V. All appellations of the Deity, and the personal
pronouns Thou and He standing for His name.

•

683 How do most words commence! 684. Recite Rule I. for the use of capieach example tell which word begins with a capital according to the
Recite R~le II. 'what adjectives must begin with capitals I When mu•t
oommon nouns begin with capitals! Recite Rulo V. When must a quoted

tals

r:11~.

in

'

258

259

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS.

EXERCISE ON CAPIT.A1-S•

ExAMPLES.-The Almighty; the King of kings; the Eternal Essence;
J chovah ; the Supreme Being; our Father.

Preoious.~how Fortune plies her Sports !-is not hope a flatterer r
-gratitude is the heart's Memory.-pay as you go.
be thou the first true merit to befriend;
his praise is Lost who stays till All commend.
UNDE:? RuLli: IL-The sarmatians inhabited what is now known
as poland.-mayor grey and the Common council received governor hawkins and general smith at the city hall, and escorted
them up clinton avenue to The park.-The apennines,:un through
Italy.-cecil, lord burleigh, was queen elizabeth's Premier for forty
Years.
UNDER RuLE III., IV.-How often we hear of welsh flannel,
irish whiskey, scotch Ale, london porter, swedish iron, dutch cheese,
russian isinglass, and french Lace !-The spanish minister and the
representative of the ottoman porte have just visited the british
frigate.-Here are Byron Collars for sale.-May health paint thy
cheeks with her brightest colors I
/
There pleasure decks her guilty Bowers,
And dark oppression builds her Towers.
UNDER RULE v., VI.-Lift up your hearts to the supreme ruler
of the Universe.-the jews are still looking for their messiah,
their promised saviour.-Truly has the Poet said, "the hand of
god has written legibly. "-Attila called himself "The Scourge
of god ".-'Tis said that" conscience is man's most faithful friend."
-How much truth there is in this old proverb: "all is not Gold
that glitters."
UNDER RULE VII., IX.-for the Student i think there are fe;v
Books more valuable than hallam's "introduction to the literature of· europe in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. "-There is much Wit in a Volume that i have lately read,
entitled "What i saw in california; or, a three months' tour
among the placers." Shall i reason further with you, o ungrateful men?
UNDER RuLE X., XI.~A truthful history of the days of
chivalry, the crusades, and the feudal system, will find Readers
enough.-Put your letter in the p. o. before two o'clock p. m.,
and you will receive an answer by 8 a. m. to-morrow.-S. Jones,
m.d.
MrscELLANEous.-the moors, having conquered northern africa,
crossed the straits of ,gades, now gibraltar, into spain, in 710.-

VI. The first word of a complete quoted sentence,
not introduced by that, if, or any other conjunction.
Ex.HIPLES.-Thomson says, "Success makes villains honest."
Thomson says that "success makes villains honest."

But,

VII. Every noun, adjective, and verb in the titles
of books and headings of chapters.
ExA~IPLEs.-Butler's "Treatise on the History of Ancient Philosophy"; Cousin's "Lectures on the Trne, the Beautiful, and the Good".

VIII. Words that denote the leading subjects of
chapters, articles, or paragraphs.
A word defined, for instance, may commence with a capital.-Do not
introduce capitals too freely under this rule. When in doubt, use a small
letter.

IX. The pronoun I and the inte1jection 0.
X. vV ords denoting great events, eras of history,
noted written instruments, extraordinary physical phenomena, and the like.
ExHIPLES.-The Creation; the Confusion of Languages; the Restora·
ti on; the Dark Ages ; the Declaration of Independence ; the Aurora
Borealis.

XI. Letters standing for words are generally written
as capitals.
ExAMPLES.-A. D., for anno Domini, in the year of our Lord; LL.D.,
for legwn doctoi·, doctor of laws.
EXERCISE.

Oo1Tect tlze small letters and capitals improperly used.
UNDER RuLE I.-order is heaven's first Law.-All Truth is
Ecntcnco commence with n. capital , and when not 1 Recite Rule VII., relating to
the titles of books. Recite Rulo VIII. What may commence with a capital
under this ru le 1 VVhat caution is gi''en? Recite Rule IX. Recite Rule:\. ., re.
lating to words deno ting. great events, &c. Recile Rule XI., relating to letters.
What does A. D. stand for! What does LL.D. staod for! How aro these abbreviations written 1

260

E~RCISE

ON C.APIT.ALS.

THE PERIOD.

11t. paul preached at philippi in Thrace, a. d. 51, the first christian
.sermon delivered in europe.
maker, preserver, my redeemer, god!
whom have i in the heavens but thee alone 1
death's but a path that must be trod
if man would ever pass to god.
'

d
N ext with a Slrndder i beheld consumption's sunken Cheek
wasted Form.-o pitiless Destroyer spare thy Victim,_ . han
d ·
'
. i ave
rea m spenser that " love is a celestial Harmony of likely hearts.,,
-ferve.ntly must we all exclaim : "may the Horrors of the french
revolut10n never be repeated! "

261

short, we may either separate them with the colon or semicolon, and thus
form one compound sentence; or we may use the period, and thus make
two sentences. Al ways follow the former course, if the propositions are
connected by the conjunction and, for, or however; for it is not elegant
w commence a sentence with these conjunctions.
"Adversity is the touch-stone of principle. Without it, a man hardly .
knows whether he is honest or not." Here a semicolon may be substituted for the period after principle. If the propositions are connected by
the conjunction for, a semicolon must be used : " Adversity is the touchstone of principle ; for without it,'' &c.
689. A period after an abbreviation does not take the place of other
points. Punctuate just as if the word were not abbreviated. But, at the
end of a sentence closing with an abbreviation, only one period must be
used. Thus : " Go to the P. 0., I tell you, and ask for a letter for H.
Rob, jr., M. D."

LESSON XCIII.
PUNCTUATION.

685. Punctuation is the art of dividinO' written language by points, in order that the me~ninO'
may be
0
readily understood.
686. The Punctuatl.on-points are as follows :PER100,

SEMICOLON,

INT ERROGATION-PO INT,

CoM~1A,

EXCLAMATION-POINT,

DASH,

p ARENTIIESES ,

COLON,
BRACKETS,

[

( )

]

687_ TnE PERIOD. -A period must be placed after
every declarative and imperative sentence and every
abbreviated word; as, "Virtue is the only' nobility"
"Ob ey your parents." " We write Jas. for James,
.
N. Y. for N ew York, no. for number, George I. for
George First."
688. When we have two distinct but kindred propositions, if they are
685. Define Punctuntion. 686. Mention the punctuation-point•. 687. Gi¥e
the rul.c for the use of the period. 688. 'When we have two distinct but kindred
\lropos1twns, what two m odos of punctuating have we 1 When must we U&O t.h•

690. Some common abbreviations, with the meaning
of )1hich every one should be familiar, are now presented.
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS.

A. B., Bachelor of Arta.
A. C., ante Christum, before
Christ.
A. M., Master of Arts.
A. M., ante meridiem, morning
B. C., before Christ.
Co., County, Company.
Cor. Sec., Corresponding Secretary.
D. D., Doctor of Divinity.
Do., ditto, the same.
D. V., deo volente, God willing.
E. E., errors excepted.
Esq., Esquire,
F. R. S., Fellow of the Royal Society.
Hon., Honorable.
colon or semicolon I Why!

Id., idem, the same.
I. e., id est, that is.
I. H. S., Jesus hominum salvator,
Jesus Saviour of men.
Inst.,' instant, of this month.
LL. D., L egum Doctor, Doctor of
Laws.
M. C., Member of Congress.
M. D., Doctor of Medicine.
Mem., memorandum.
. Messrs., messieurs, gentlemen.
M. P., Member of Police.
Mr., Mister.
Mrs., Mistress.
MS., manuscript.
N. B., nota bene, mark well.
P. M., Postmaster.

Give an example. 689. What directio.ns are given

tor punctuating, when a p eriod is used after an abbreviation I What is said of a
oontence closing with an abbreviation I . 690. What point follows each abbreviation presented in the list 1 Why Is thore no period between the two rs In LL. D. 1

262

COMMON ABBREVIATIONS.

P. M., post maidiem, evening.
P . 0., Post Office.
Pro tcm., pro tcmpore, for the time.
Prox., proximo, of next month.
P. S., Postscript.
Qy., Query.
Rec. Sec., Recording Secretari
Rev. , Reverend.

/

J'

R.R., Rail road.
Sec., Secretary.
St., Saint, street.
Ult., itlt-imo, of last month.
U.S. A., United States of America.
U.S. A., United States Army.
U.S. N., United States Navy.
Viz., videlicet, namely.

691. TrrE I NTERROGATION-POINT.- An interroo-ationp oint must be placed after every intei:rogative se~tence,
m emb er, and clause; also, after the interjections eh
and key, implying a question. "Has air weio-ht?"
"A"ir lms weig
. 1it ; do you not believe it ? " °" You
thought it would rain, hey? "
692. TrrE ExcLAMATION-POINT.-An exclamation-point
must be placed after every exclamatory sentence, member; clause, and expression ; as " How diso-ustino- is
•
"
"
•
•
·'
b
b
vice !
Life is short ; how careful we should be to
use it aright! " "For shame ! " .
An exclamation-point must also b e placed after
every inteij ection except 0 , eli, and lwy, unless very
closely connected with other words; as, "Ah! who
could have foreseen it ? " "Pshaw! you are trifling."
EXER CISE.
I nt1·oduce the period, interrogation-point, exclamation-point,
and wpitals, where they are needed :- The good are better made
by ill-We have r eceived good, and shall .we not receive evilHis last words (ah how well I remember them) were, "My son,
beware of the first advances of sin "- What singular traditions
the Laplande rs have -They asked Galileo whether he would renoun ce his d octrin es (§ 473) -They asked Galileo, "will you renounce yo ur doctrines "-Aim at perfection affliction is a school
60 1. Where must an interrogation-point be placed 1 692. Where must an exclama-

\io n-poiut bo placed I After what part of speech must an exclamation-point aao
~ e used I

THE COLON.

263

of virtue how silly are many of the forms of etiquette where
was Homer born many a man addresses another as mr or esq,
according as he dresses ill or well-Wm A Stevens A M PresThe wind is NE

LESSON . XCIV.

PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED)
693. THE CoLON.-The colon indicates the next
greatest degree of separat1on to that denoted by the
period.
694. A colon must be placed b etween the great divisions of sentences, when minor divisions occur that
are separated by semicolons ; as, " Man has effected
wonders; he is every day advancing in_ knowledge and
power : yet, surpassed by nature even m her humbl~:t
efforts he can not so much as make a blade of grass.
'A ;olon must also be placed b efore a form al enumeration of p articulars, or a direct quotation, referred
to by the words thus, f ollowing, as follows, this, these,
&c. "There is much justice in this warning of Lavat er: 'Beware of him who h ates the laugh of a. child.'"
A f ormal enumeration is one in which the words first,_ secondly, &c.,
or similar terms, are introduced. These words are set off with the comma,
the particulars are separated by the semico.Ion, and before the whole e_numeration a colon must be placed. Thus : "There were four great empires
in ancient times: first, the Assyrian; second, the Persian ; third, the
Macedonian; and fourth, the Roman."

695. THE SEMICOLON.-The semicolon indicates · the
next greatest degree of separation to that denoted by
the colon. ·
693. What degree of •eparatlon does the colon indicate I 694. Give the rule
relating to the use of the colon between the great divisions of sentences. Give the
rule relating to a formal enumeration of J>:U-ticulars. What is m~ant by.a J_ormal
enumeration I 695. "What degree of •eparation does the 11em1colon rndwate 1

264

THE COMMA .

TRE SEMICOLON.

696. R ule I.-A semicolon must be placed between
the memb ers of compound sentences, unless the connection is exeeedingly close; as "The wheel of fortune is
ever turning; who can say, 'I shall be uppermost tomorrow'?"
If the members are very short, and the connection is close, the comma
may be used in stead of the semicolon ; as, "Man proposes, but God disposes."

697. R ule II.-A semicolon must be placed between the great divisions of sentences, when minor
divisions occur that are separated by commas ; as,
"Plato called beauty a privilege of nature; Theocritus,
a delightful prejudice."
698. R ule III.--A semicolon must be placed before
an enumeration of particulars, when the names of the
objects merely are given, without any form al introductory words ; as, " There are three cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective."
699. R ule IV.--A semicolon must be placed before
as, when it introduces an example; as at the close of
the last paragraph.
EXER C ISE.

I nsert all tlte points thwi f

ai·

treated, where they are required:

- Five great enemies to our peace are constuntly harassing us
avarice, ambi t ion, envy, anger, and pride - Books are our best
friends they are ever ready with cheerful words yet how many
th ere are that never have r ecourse . to their friendly sympathySeneca sums up the matter thus " I would rather never receive
a kindn ess than never bestow one "-Labor not to be rich cease
from thine own wisdom -A good book, in the language of the
696. Recite Rul e I . for t he use of the semicolon, r elating to compound sentences.
Wlien may th e comma be used In stead of tho semicolon 1 697. Recite Rule II.,
r elating to the g reat divisions of sentences. 698. R ecite Hule III. , relating to ·a n
enumeration of particulars. 699. Recite"'Rule IV., relating to example..

265

boo~sell e rs is a salable one in that of the curious, a scarce one

in that of r:ien of sense, a useful one-There are three safe guides
to eternity fir st a sound h ead secondly an honest h eart thirdly an
humble spirit- The spirit of a man will sustain his infirmity but
a wounded spirit who can bear

LESSON XCV.
PU N CTUATION (CONTINUED).

100. TnE CoMMA.-The comma indicates the least
.
degree of separation denoted by any point.
101. R ule I.-Adjuncts and clauses~ not essential
to the meanino- of a sentence, or modifying the whole
proposition, a1~ set off with a comma on each side,
when introduced between a subject and its verb, or
other parts that are closely connected.
·
At the commencement or end of a sentence, such
adjuncts and clauses are set off with a comma after or
before them, as the case may be.
ExAUPLEs.-The bones of birds, in a word, combine strength with
lightness, in a remarkable degree.-Blankets, which derived their name
from Thomas Blanquet, were introduced into England in 1340.-By the
way, gunpowder was first known to the Chinese.-No one can be an atheist,
if he will only examine his own structure.
702. Subjects introduced by as woll as, and not, &c., fall under thi~
rule · as " Toledo as well as Damascus, was noted for its sword-blades."
7o3. 'Single w~rds relating to a whole proposition, and all vocative expressions, are also set off with the comma. " Galileo, accordingly, was
imprisoned." " Smile, 0 Fortune, smile on our attempt."
704. No comma must be placed between restrictive adjuncts or clauses
and that which they restrict; as, ".All must pay the debt of nature."
"All that glitters, is not gold."
700. Wh at degree of separation does the comma indi cate 1 701. R ecite Ru le
I. for the uso of the comma, relating to adjunct e and clnuseR. At ·the commence·
mentor end of a sentence, how nre such adjuncts and clauses punctuntcd 1 Give
examples. 702. What subjects fall under this rule 1 703. Wh at single words arc
also set off with the comma 1 704. What is the principle re la.ting- to restrictive

12

266

OF THE COMMA.

lWLES FOR THE USE

705. Rule II.-A noun in apposition, modified by
an adj unct or adjective, is generally, with its modifiers,
set off by the comma; as, "Cleopatra, queen of Egypt,
was defeated by Octavius."
706. Riile III.-A comma must be placed after the
logical subject (§ 108) of a sentence, when it ends with
a Yerb, or consists of several parts which are themscl Yes separated by the comma ; as, " All that glitters,
is not gold." "Envy, anger, and pride, are our worst
enemies."
707. Rule IV.-A comma must be placed between
short members of compound sentences, connected by
and, but, or, nor, f or, because, wliereas, and other
conjunctions ; as, "Beauty dazzles, but amiability
charms."
A comma must also be placed before a conj unction connecting the parts
of a compound predicate, unless they are very short and so closely connected that no point is admissible; as, " The sun shines on all, even the
wicked and ungrateful."

708. R ule V. - A comma must be placed before or
introducing an equivalent, or a clause defining the
writer's meaning; as, "Spelter, or zinc, comes chiefly
from Germany."
709. R ule VI.-A comma must be placed before
and, or, and nrw, preceding the last of a series of
clauses, or words that are the same part of speech and
in the same construction ; as, " Sunshine, cloud, and
storm, all arc sent for some wise purpose."
710. R ule VII.-When, to avoid r epetition, an_d,
adjuncts and clnuses 1 705. Recite Rui c II., relating to nouns in apposition.
70G. Recite Rulo III., relating to the logical subject of a sentence. 707. Recite
Rulo IV., rela ting to short members of compound sentences. What is th e rule
relating to a compound prcdic::ttc 1 708. Recite Rul e V ., relating to or. 709. Rooite Ru le VI., relating to and, or, and n or. 710. Recite Rule VII., relating to the

267

or, nor, or a verb previously used, is omitted, a comma
takes its place.
\.

"Tin is found in England, Bohemia, Saxony, Malaccn, and Banca:"
of saying Enuland and Bohemia and Saxony and Malacca, to avo.1d
I n s tea d
o
" M· eth usa1eh " ·as
·
·
repetition we om1·t an d , and a comma takes its place.
f
S
he
strongest
"
Was
is
omitted
a ter amson,
the oldest man ; Samson, t
·
and a comma taltes its place.

711. Rule VIII.-Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair. " Joy and sorrow, cloud and sunshine, are alike sent for our b enefit."
712. Rule IX.-W ords repeated for the sake of emphasis must be set off with their adjuncts, if th~y have
au b the comma. " Truth, truth, and uothmg but
y, y
d"d.
. "
truth, will satisfy the can i mqmrer.
EXERCISE.

Insert the points thus jar treated :-Be t emperate tempern~e
I say that you may avoid disease-Fashion for ~h e most p a~t is
nothing but the ostentation of riches-Where if I mny asl, are
the modesty and self-restraint the indust:y ~nd honest_y of our
"our years after the crucifixion of Christ J oseances t ors- Born •'
B th p ·
hus lived to witness the destru ction of J erusalem- y . e er~ian the Turk and the .Arab carpets are ranked ~mong t~e
.
f l·"e They form with his cushions and d1vaR nil his
h. .
necessaries o w
h" eat his bed his table He must have is pr ayer•t
f urm ure is s
· t d l our he
d out on which to kneel at the appoJU e I
carpet sprea
h' h t
r e and dream
must h ave his smoking-carpet on w ic o r ec JU
away his time there must be a carpet for t ent and harem bazaar
£
f all and
and mosque
As darkness begins bats issue from the ssures o w . s
otlier hiding-places where they have sought sh elter durmg the
day and by their active fli ght capture such insects as ar~ the1h1 .onl
.
th beetles &c The service w 1c i
the wing gnats musqmto es .mo s
.
.
. al
they thus render is very con sid~rable particularly JU tropic
r egions where they swarm by mynads
omisBion of a conjunction or verb. 711. R ecite Rule VII~., relatin g to words ueed
in pcirs. i12. Recite Rule IX., relatlng to words repeate ,

•
THE DASH.-P.ARENTI-IESFS.

LESSON

xcvr.

PUNCTUATION (CONTINUED).

71 3. Trrn DAsu.-The dash is us~d to denote
.
'
I . A break rn
the construction. " Glory-what
is it ? "
II. A transition in the sentiment from grave to
hu~no_rous. . "London is noted for its magnificent
b~nldrngs, its extensive shipping, and-its dexterous
pickpockets."
. III. A sudden interruption. " You know my feelmgs i you know- " " Hold ! " interrupted my friend.
IV. Hesitation. "Such a man is a-a- I know not
what to call him."
V. An abrupt or exclamatory r epetition. "Such
was the testimony of Solomon-Solomon who had all
the pleasures of the world at his comma1;d."
. 71:. ~ das~ is sometimes used to denote the omission of letters, figures,
woi ds , 113, In the year 18-, I stopped over night at the village of
G-."
01

715. A dash after other points makes them indicate a greater de"'ree
0
of separation than they generally denote.

716. P ARENTHEsEs.-Marks of p arenthesis are used
to ~nclose w~r? s which explain, modify, or add to the
marn propos1t10n, when so introduced as to break the
connection between dep endent parts. and interfere' with
the h arm onious :flow. " The Saxons (for they descended from the ancient Sacrn) r etained for centuriei:.:
the energy and morality of th eir ancestors."
717. BRACKETs.-Brackets are used principally in

EXERCISE

IN

PUNCTUATION.

269

quoted passages, to enclose words improperly omitted,
_or added by way of correction, observation, or explanation. " She is weary with [of] life."
EXERCISE.

Punctuate the following sentences :-He who plays the tyrant
in his own family is a a a what term can I find strong enough to
express m:y: contempt-Archimedes the. great Sicilian philosopher
and what ancient philosopher ranks higher was ignorant of some
things that are now known to every intelligent school-boyPhonography and under this head we- include every method of
writing by signs that r epresent the sounds of language is a
great improv~ment on stenography-What are they all worth
the triumphs and honors of the world-This was th e state of
things in Rome Rome the queen-city of the world-" They rise
successive should the author not have said successively and successive fall "
The Romans were at ·war with the P er sians and their supply
of silk from this · source being cut off th ey sought unsuccessfully
to obtain it through other channels Abont this time t wo monks
who h ad penetrat ed to China r eturned to Constantinople brin ging with them the news th at this wonderful sericum for such was
the Latin name of silk was the produce of a little worm which
changed in to a moth they had observed many of the processes
by which it was prepar ed for nse Th e Roman emperor offered
them gr eat r ewards to r eturn and procure some of the eggs of
this wonderful worm which they did at the h azard of their lives
552 A D and the few eggs which they brought concealed in a h ollow stick were the stock from which all the silk-worms since
r eared in Europe have descended

LESSON

xcvrr.

APOSTROPHE. -HYPHE N .-Q U 0 T A TION ·POINTS.
713. For what five purposes is the dash used 1 714. What el so is the dash used
to denote! 715. Wha t is th e efl'ect of the das h after other poi nts ! 716 For what
nre marks of parenthesis used 1 717. Whoro and for whal ure brackets .principally
• aed 1

718. B esides the punctuation-points, the following
marks are used in written and printed matter : the
718. What marks besides th o punctuation-points aro u sed in written and

270

EXERCISE

APOSTROPIIE.- HYPHEN.-QUOTATION-POINTS-

PUNCTUATION.

the quotation alone, but before this point, if it applies to the whole sen·
tence and not exclusively to the quotation; as, Pilate asked, "What is
truth?" Where now is the "man of destiny"?
725. A quotation within a passage that is itself quoted, is enclosed between Single Quotation-points (' '); as, "I would remind you that Young
calls man an' insect infinite'."

Apostrophe ('),the Hyphen ( - ), and Quotation-points

("

IN

").

719. THE ArosTROPHE.-The apostrophe denotes the
omission of a letter or letters, .and the possessive case
of nouns.
ExAYPLES.-'Tis for it is; e'en for even ; don't for do not; tho' for
though ; o'clock for on [the J clock. So, in the possessive : hero's, Gharle:/s,
men's, children's, heroes'. But remember that the personal pronouns never
take the apostrophe in the possessive case: ours, yours, hers, theirs.

EXERCISE.
Punctuate, and ·insert tlie apostrophe, tlie liyplien, and quotation-points, wliere tliey are 1·equired :-The following ever to be
remembered couplet is from Popes Moral Essays
Tis education forms the common mind
Just as the twig is bent the trees inclined
Now continued the cavalier lets seek this fair groves friendly
shelter and mid its cool retreats enjoy that fri endship which according to the poet is a heavn in epitome-Now there 11 be no
delay een tho they meet a stiff souwester- Temptations says Fenelon are files that rub off much of our self confidence- Very forcibly
says the poet
How poor how rich how abject how august
How complicate how wonderful is man
At twenty three he was a hare brained youth who d brook no
counsel-Id rather wait than go thro such a rain-The avenging power belongs to one alone

720. 'THE HYPHEN.-The hyphen is used to connect
the elements of a compound word, when each retains
its own accent; as, castle-builder, father-in-law, redhot, law-abiding, inside-out.
The hyphen is also used after a compl ete syllable ~t
the end of a line, to connect the parts of a divided
word. The hyphen may also be used in stead of the
direresis, to denote that the final vowel of a prefix does
not form a diphthong with the first vowel of a primitive; as, pre-engagement, re-establish.
721. QuoTA.TION-POINTs.-Quotation-points are used
to enclose words quoted from an author or speaker, or
represented in narrative as employed in dialogue; as,
"Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy
youth."

LESSON XOVIII.
FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.-FIGURES OF SYNTAX .

722. When the substance merely is given, and not the exact words,
quotation-points are unnecessary.
723. Matter within quotation-points is to be punctuated just as if it
stood in any other position.
724. When quotation-points nre needed at the end of a sentence, they
come after whateve r other point is required there, if tills point applies to

126. Observe the following sentence : " ' Neath a tyrant's yoke the people languish."
This sentence in plain language and according to the ordinary mode
of expression would read thus : " The people languish beneath a tyrant's
power." Three things are to be noticed: 1. In the original sentence, the

print ed matter! 719. "What docs the apostrophe denote 1 Give examples.
720. For what i• the hyphen used 1 F or what is it u sed at the end of a line 1 For
wh~t purpose is it used in stead of th e direresis 1 721. "What nro quotation-points
used to enclose 1 722. 'Vhen arc quotation-points unneceEsnry 1 723. How is matter
within quotation-points to be punctuated I 724. How are quotation-points to stand,

relatively to other points at the end of a sentence 1 725. When are single quotation-points to be used 1
726. R epent the sentence presented at tho commencement of the lesson. What
lhree things are to be noticed in connection with it 1 What are such changes

•

272

:FIGURES.

FIGURES.

word 'neath is used for the ordinary form beneath. 2. The natural order
o.f t~1e w.ords is. changed. 3. The word .Yoke is used, not iu its ordinary
s1gmlicat1011, a wooden frame by which two oxen are connected for drawing, but in th e sense of power tyrannically exerted. \Ve sec then that
changes may IJc mailc in the form, construction, and application of words.
Such changes are callod Figures.

pound by some intervening word or words ; as, whose
sins soever for whosesoever sins, the live day lonq for
tlie livelonq day.
730. FIGURES OF SYNT.A.x.-The most. impo~-tant
fi gures of syntax are as follows :....,...El-lip'-sis, Ple'-onasm, Syl-lep'-sis, and Hy-per'-ba-ton.
Ellipsis is the omission of .a word or words, necessary to the complete construction of a sentence, but not
essential to its meaning. Numerous examples of this
figure were presented in Lesson LXVIII.
Pleonasm is .the use of words not necessary to the construction; as," IIe that cometh, let him conie quickly,''
-"-for " Let him that cometh, come quickly."-Super:fiuous words generally weaken the style. Pleonasm
should be sparingly used, and only when it is naturally
introduced under the influence of strong emotion.
Syllepsis is the construing of words according to the
meaning they convey, and not by the strict r equirements of grammatical rules.

727. A Figure is a mode of expression in which the
ordinary form, construction, or application of words is
changed.
728. Figures may be divided into three classes:1. Those in which the ordinary form of words is
changed, called Figures of Etymology.
2. Those in which the ordinary construction of
word s is changed, called Figures of Syntax.
3. Those in which the ordinary application of words
is changed, called Figures of Rhetoric.
729. FrGL"RES OF ETYUOLOGY.-The most important
fi gures of etym ology are as follow s : A -phrnr'-e-sis,
Pros'-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, and
Tme'-sis.
A phrnresis is the elision of a letter or letters from
the b eginnin g of a word; as, 'twixt for betwixt.
Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or letters to a
word; as, beclaub for daub, ybent for bent.
Syncope is the elision of a letter or letters frqm the
middle of a word ; as, qiv'n for qiven.
Apocope is the elision of a letter or letters at the
encl of a word ; as, i' tli' midst, for in tlie midst.
Paragoge is th e annexing of a letter or letters to a
word ; as, steepy for steep.
Tm esis is the separation of the elements of a com~
cal led 1 72i . ""hat is a Fi gure? 728. How moy fi g urns bo diY idPd 1 Defi ne and
nam e th ese three cl nsscs. 720. Mention the m ost im portant figures of etymology.
D efino .Apl1rorcRis. Define Prosthesis. Defino Syncope. D efino Apocop e. D e-

273

" Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto
them ." In this example, city is in the thirq, singular; and, according to
§ 555, them should be it. By the city, however, is meant the people in
th e city, and the pronoun referring to it may therefore, by syllepsis, be put
in the plural.
We have numerous examples of syllepsis in masculine and feminine
pronouns used with reference to inanimate objects personified ; as, "Night
spread her mantle o'er the earth."

Hyperbaton is a deviation from the natural arrangement of words ; as, Tliee I ?'evisit for I revisit
thee.
fine Paragoge. D efine Tmcsis. 730. Mention the most important figures of syntax. Define Ellipsis. D efine Pleonasm. What is generally the effect of su perfluous words 1 What is said respecting the use of p leonasm 1 D efine Syllepsis.
Give an example oft.bis fig urC'. In what have we numerous examples of sy1lep·
sis 1 D efine Hyperbaton. Of what is byperbaton a distinguishing featu re !
What is its effect, when judiciously used 1 'fo what is it liable to lead 1

12*

274

275

FIGURES.

FIGURES.

T~is ~gure is on~ of the distinguishing features of poetry. Judiciously
used, 1t 1m.parts variety and strength to composition; but care must bo
taken that it does not lead to obscurity.

"Laws are like cobwebs, which catch small flies, but
let wasps and hornets through."

EXERCISE.

Point o.ut the figures of etymology and the figures of syntax
occm· in the following sentences :-Israel pitched their tents
'.n the desert.-Redemption ! 'twas the favo r of the skies.-Each
rn other's count'nance read his own dismay.-Far adown the
vasty gulf plunged the archangel.-Such is their love to us ward
-'G~inst him discharge thy shafts entipped with fiame.-Swee~
Evemng-how sh e fans our cheek with her cool breath !-Oft with
th' enchantress of his soul he talks.
"Fashion, leader of a chatt'ring train,
Whom ~an for his o.wn hurt permits to reign,
Who slufts and changes all things but his shape
'
And w~uld degrade her vot'ry to an ape,
The fnutful parent of abuse and wrong,
Holds a. usurp'd dominion o'er his tongue;
There sits and prompts him with his own disgrace
Prescribes the theme, the tone, and the grimace, '
And, when accomplished in h er wayward school
Calls gentleman whom she has made a fool."
'
~hat

LESSON XCIX.
FIGURES

OF

RHETORIC.

731. The most important figures of rhetoric are l'>!
follows :-Sim'-i-le, Met'-a-phor, Al'-le-go-ry, Me-ton'y-my, Sy-nec'-do-che, Hy-per'-bo-le, Vi'-sion, Per-son-ifi-c.a'-tion, An-tith'-e-sis, Oli'-max, I '-ro-ny, and A-poph'a-s1s.
732. Simile i~ the direct comparison of one object
to another, and is generally denoted by like, as, or 80 •
7~1.

Row

is

Mention the most important figures of rhetoric. 732. Define Simile.
the comparison sometimes made? For what purposes are similes u.ed I

Sometimes the comparison is made without any formal term to denote
it. Thus : " Adversity brings to light the merit in a man ; a gem is lustreless till it is rubbed and polished." Here we have a good simile, though
neither like, as, nor so appears.- Similes are used eitocr to explain the
meaning or embellish the style.

733. Metaphor is the implying of a resemblance between two objects, not by any term denoting similitude,
but by assigning to one the name, attribute, or action
of the other ; as, " Flattery is a sort of bad money, to
which our vanity gives currency."
Metaphor is the commonest of all figures. It appears in various forms,
sometimes in a single word. We use metaphorical language, when we
speak of a hard heart, a cold reception, bright hopes, fancies gambolling unbridled through the brain, pleasures strewed over the highway of
life, &c.

734. Allegory is a combination of kindred metaphors, forming a kind of story, whereby it is sought to
teach some important truth.
Most of the parables of Scripture are forms of this figure. Sometimes
an allegory is so extended as to fill a volume ; as in the case of Bunyan's
''Pilgrim's Progress".

735. Metonymy is calling one object by the name
of another that sustains some relation to it. The principal relations on which this figure is founded, are as
follows:1. Cause and effect; as, "Extravagance is the ruin of many,"-that
is, the cause of ruin.
.
2. Ancestor and descendants; as, "Then shall Judah triumph,"-that
is, th~ descendants of Judah.
3. Attribute and that to which it belongs; as, " Pride shall be brought
low,"-that is, the proud.
733. D efine Metaphor. As regards frequency of use, how does metaphor compare with other figures 1 Give examples of common m etaphorical expressions.
t34. D efine Allegory. What examples of allegory are alluded to 1 735. D efine

27G

277

FIGURES.

'li'IGURES.

4. Container and thing contained· as "Jern8alem shall rejoice,"-.
that is, the p eople of Jerusalem.
'
'
5. Emblem and thing represented; as, " This was offensive to the
aown, "- that is, the king.
6. Material and thing made of it ; as, "Gold is all-powerfnl, "-that is,
money.

clauses, members, or sentences, that the weakest may
stand first, and that each in turn, rising in importance,
may make a deeper impression on the mind than the
one before it ; as, " Then Virtue became silent, lieart-

sick, pined away, and died."
742. Irony is the asserting of direcHy the opposite
of what we wish to be understood; as wh en I say,
" Go on ; time is worth nothing,"-meaning that it is
very valuable.
'743. Apophasis is the pretend~d suppression of what
on e is all the time actually mentioning; as, " I shall
say nothing of the immorality prevalent in P aris-immorality which is all the more dangerous, because arrayed in the most attractive garbs."

736. Synecdoc:he is using th e name of a part for that
of the " '. h?l e, the name of the whole for that of a part,
or a defimte numb er for an indefinite· as " My roo+'
. at your service,"-that is, my house.' "Bis
'
ls
head is
grey ,"-~hat is, his hai?·. "A lmndred swords leaped
from thmr scabbards,"-that is, a great number.
737. H yperbole is th o exaggerating of an attribute
or the assigning to a su bject of some impossible act;
as, ." Her brow was as wliite as snow." " So bright
theu· arms that tlie sun himself started with sudden
fri ght."
738. Vi sion is the representing of past events as
now going on, or what is merely imagined as actually
seen; as,

"

EXERCISE.

"Lo! anointed by Heaven with the vials of wrath
'
Behold where he flies on his desolate path!
}low in darkness and billows he sweeps from my sight;
Rise, rise, ye wild tempests, and cover his flight ! "

739. P ersonification is the attributirw of sex or life
to an inanimate obj ect, or intelligence ~o an inferior
creature ; as, " Then tlie butter.fly spoke, with a glance
of disdain." .
.740. Anti~h esis is the contrasting of opposites, to
heighten their effect; as, " H atred stirreth up strife·
but love covereth all sins."
'
741. Climax is such an arrangement of words,
~ctonymy.

Mention the principa l relations on w hich metonymy is founded anrl

c:ivc an example of each .

736. Defi ne Synecdoche.

737. Define Hyperbole. ' 738.

-' ..

P oint out tlie figures, whether of etymology, syntax, or rhetoric:
- As cold waters to a thirsting soul, so is good news from a far
country.-Is the pen mightier than the sword ?-Faithfnl are the
wounds of a friend; but the kisses of an enemy are deceitful.Where no wood is, there the fire goeth out; so, where there is
no tale-bearer, the strife ceaseth.-What shall induce a man to
deny his faith? Shall love of pleasure? shall ambition? shall
persecution ? shall the certainty of death itselH-Her tears might
have put out a world on fire.-Reverence the hoary head.-Then
groan'd tbe Earth.-When there's a fir e, be sure to throw the
looking-glasses out of the window, and carry the feathe r beds
carefully down in your arms.-To wast e one's time is foolish, not
to mention the sin involved in it.
"But hark! thro' the fast-flashing lightning of war,
What steed to the desert flies frantic and far? "
"Eternal Hope! when yonder spheres sublime
Pealed their first notes to sound the m.arch of Time,
D efine Vision. 739. Define Personification. 740. Define Antithesis. 741. D efino
Climax. 742. D efine Irony. 743. Define Apophasis.

278

PROSODY>.

Thy joyous youth began-but not to fade.
When all th e sister planets have decayed;
When wrapt in fire the realms of ether glow,
Aud Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below i
Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile,
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile! "

LESSON C.
PROSODY.

744. Prosody is that part of grammar which treat11
of the quantity of syllables, of feet, and the modes in
which they are combined in verse.
7 45. Verse is language so arranged in lines that
syllables of a certain length may occur at certain intervals.
Verse is the form in which poetry generally appears. Poetry is dis·
tinguished from prose not only by this form, but by its containing more
figures, as well as peculiar words and expressions.

746. There are two kinds of verse, Rhyme and
Blank Verse.
747. Rhyme is that kind of verse in which there is
a correspondence of sound in the last syllables of two
or more lines ; as,
"True wit is nature to advantage dress'd,
·what oft was thought, but ne'er sci well express'd."

748. Blank Verse is metrical language without rhyme;
as,
"Shall we serve Heaven
With less respect than we do minister
To our gross selves?"
744. What is Prosody I 745. Wbat is Verse 1 How is poetry distinguished
from proso t 746. How many kinds of verse nre there i Name them nnd define

PROSODY.

279

749. By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the
time required for its utterance. According to this
time, syllables are distinguished as Long and Short.
One long syllable is equivalent to two short ones.
750. .A. long syllable may be denoted by a short horizontal line placed
over its vowel, a short syllable by a curve; as, passing.
751. Remember that vowel sounds have nothing to do with the quantity of syllables in. verse. Met, in which e bas its short sound, is more
likely to be long in verse than me, in which e has what is known as its
long sound.
752. In words of more than one syllable, accent constitutes length;
unaccented syllables are short. In the case of monosyllables, nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and interjections, are for the most part long ;
articles are always short; prepositions and conjunctions are generally
short; pronouns are long when emphasized,-when not, short. Observe
the quantity as marked in the following lines:"('.)fall the causes which consplre to blind
Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind,
What the weak head w'fth strongest bias rules,
Is pride; the never·fai!Ing vice of fools."

753. A Foot is two or more syllables, ;onstituting a
portion of a line.
754. The most important feet m English verse are
as follows : The IAMBUS, a short syllable and a long,
The TRo' CHEE, a long syllable and a short,
The SPONDEE, two long syllables,
The PYRRHIC, two short syllables,
The .AN'.A.PEST, two short and a long,
The DACTYL, a long and two short,
The .A.M'PHIDRACH, a short, a long, and a short,
The .A.MPHIM ' ACER, a long, a short, and a long,

- - severe.
- - trembling.
- - cold winds.
- - wil- I derness.
- - - barrfoade.
- - .:, tenderly.
- - - tremendol'ts.
- - - saddle-bags.

each. 749. What Is meant by the Quantity of a syllable i As regards quantity,
how are syllables distinguished 1 To what is one long syllable equivalent 1 750.
How may a long syllable be denoted 1 A short one i 751. What caution is given
with respect to the quantity of syllables ! 752. In words of more than one syllable,
what constitutes length i State the principles that apply to the quantity of
monosyllables. 753. What is a Foot 1 754. Mention the most Important feet that

280

PROSODY.

PROSODY.

755. Of these, the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, and the Dactyl, are the principal. A line may
be wholly composed of any of these four feet, and it is
"then called Pure.
The four remaining feet never form whole lines by
themselves, but are sometimes interspersed with other
feet. A line into which different feet enter is called
Mixed. Observe the following examples:-.
1. Pure Iambic.-'Tis ed- I llCa- I tii')n forms I the ciim- I mon mind.
2. Pure 'l\·ochaic.-Oh ! the I pftin, the I bliss of I dying!
3. Pure A napcslic.-She wm say I 'twas ii. bar· I biirous deed.

I tenderly.
i. ltfixed I ambic. - Na ref I uge.sa.ve I the wn. I demesa I remAins..
2. ltfixed Trochaic.-Soft1y I sweet In I Ly<ililn I measi:ires.
3. },fixed A11 apestic.-Soft scenes I of content- I ment and ease.
4. 1llixed Dactyl'ic.-Ever move I chccrilY,

4. Pure D actylic.-Handle her

EXERCISE.

Give the quantity of each syllable in the following lines; in
such lines as a1:'e divided, name each foot:" Sweet is th e breath of morn, her rising sweet,
With ch arm of earliest birds; "pleasant the sun,
When first on this delightful land he spreads
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flower1
Glistering " ' ith dew; fragrant the fertile earth
After soft showers; and sweet the coming on
Of' grateful evening mild."
"I have passeLl I o'er the hills I of the storm- I y North,
And the larch I has hung I all his tas- I sels forth;
Th e fish- I er is out I on the sun- I ny sea,
.And the rein- / deer bounds I through the past- I ure free,
And the pine I has a fringe I of soft- I er green,
And th e moss I looks bright I where my step I has been."
occur in Eng\i z::; h verse)

ati<l

th e syllables of which each consists.

755. Of which

of th ese feet may lines be wholly composed i What nre such lines called i ·what
use is m ade of the other feet 1 What is meant by a Mixed Linc i Give exampleo
of pure and mixed lines.

281

LESSON CI.
PROSODY (CONTINUED).

756. By Metres are meant the different systems
according to which verses, or lines, are formed. They
are named from the feet employed, and their number.
757. Metres in which the iambus prevails, are called
Iambic; those in which the trochee prevails, Trochaic;
the anapest, Anapestic; the dactyl, Dactylic.
758. Distinguished by the number of feet in a line,
the varieties of metre are as follows : Monom' eter, which
consists of one foot ; Dim' eter, of two feet; Trim' eter,
of three; Tetram' eter, of four; Pen tam' eter, of five;
Hexam'eter, of six; Heptam'eter, of seven; Octom'eter,
of eight.
'759. Some metres, besides a certain number of comp1ete feet, contain a syllable over at the end of the line.
Such metres are called Hy-per-cat-a-lec'-tic.
'760. Scanning is the process of dividing a line into
the feet of which it is composed.
761. Examples of the different metres follow. Some
of the lines are pure, and some are mixed. The figurel!>
1, 2, 3, &c., respectively denote monometer, dimeter,
trimeter, &c. vertical lines mark divisions into feet.
To scan, pronounce the syllables that constitute the successive feet,
after each foot mentioning its name. The fifth iambic line in the Exercise
below would be scanned thus: Wli.at's fame, spondee; a fan-, iambus;
cicd life, .iambus; in oth-, iambus; er's breath, iambus. The metre is
mixed iambic pentameter. The third of the hypercatalectic lines would be
scanned thus: .Athens, trochee; holds my, trochee ; heart and, trochee;
soul, syllable over. The metre is pure trochaic trimeter hype1·caialcctic.
756. \.Vhat are meant by Metres I 757. 'Vhat are Iambic Metres! 'l'roch:iici
Anapestic 1 Dactylic i 758. Name the different metres as di stinguished by their
number of feet, and toll of what each consists. 759. ·what is meant by llypcrcata..
lccti• Metres 1 760. \.Vhat is Scanning i

282 .

PROSODY.
EXER C I SE.

Scan tlte following lines, and name the metre of each:IAMDIC METRES.

1. D CspUir I
2. ThO wave I rCso llncls.

3. Tl1e 1iunt- I ing herds I repose.
4. The p roud I are taught I to taste I of pain.
5. What's fame 1 I A fan- I cied !ife I in oth. I er's breath.
6. ' Vith still unwearied wing, and eye that never sleeps.

IND EX.

7. Thy bounteous band with worldly bliss h as made my cup run o'er.
Iii. >Visdom, in sablo garb arrayed, immersed in rapturous thought profoun4.

A.

TRO Cll.AIC METRES.

L Pillow.
2. Ch arms tra ns- I porting.
3. Otbi!r i arms may I press the6.
4. \ Var, he I sung, is J toi l and I trouble.
5. Oh I the I strife of J th is di- I v ided J be ing.
6. Only thou art holy ; there is no ne beside th ee.
7. Read you not the w rong you'ro doing, in my check's pale colorf
I . If tho world be worth thy win ning, thin k, ob I think it worth enjoying.
Al'APESTIC METRES.

1. fl ls gone I
2. Let t he loud I trumpet sound.
3. My grottoes are shaded with trees.
4. H ave ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar 1

A , when to be used as the Indefinite article, 74.
.AbbrMJiations, list of, 261.
.Accent, defined, 12. The acute, 12. Difforence of, serves to distinguish words,
12. Of compound words, 13.
Adjective Pronouns, 70. Declension of,
71. Number of, 71. Parsing of, 71.
.Adjectilves, defined, 75. Classes of, 75.

P roper, defined, 75. Numeral, defined,
Pronominal, 76.
Common, 77. Comparison of, 78. Rule
for, 79 ; remarks under, 218, 220. Parsing of, 79. .Arrange~m ent of, 218.
.Adjuncts, defined, 150.
.Adlverbs, defined, 141. Classes of, 141.
Of manner, 141. How to be distingu ished from adjectives, 148. T o be
distinguished in use from adjectives,
1~. Conjunctive, 144. Oomplex, 145.
Comparison of, 147. Construction of,
148. Used independently, 148. Rule
for, 148; remarks under, 242. Parsing
of, 148. Position of, 243.
Alleuory, 275.
·
.Alphabet, of n language, what It Is, 8.
The E nglish, 8.
.Amphibrach, the, 279.
.Amphimacer, the, 279.
AN, when to be used ns the indefinite
article, 73.
A napllilt, the, 27g,
Antecedent, tho, what it is, 62. Position
of, 64. Sometimes understood, 64.
76 ; classes of, 76.

DACTYLIC METRES.

L Slenderly.
2. Fashioned so J slenderly.
3. Fierce as the breath of the h ur.ricane.
4. Ha ppy the homo of tho thrifty and temperate I
5. Fnr o'er the burning sandij , far over de!crt lands, wearily.
~- Far o'er the burning san<ls, far over desert lands, pl2dding on wearily.
EXAMPLES OF IIYPERCATALECTIC METRES.

1. D ae. 111011. Hyp.- ft,·cr bl\

[T!iE FIGU REI! 1!.EFER TO PAGES, NOT TO SEOTIOJ.<1.]

I firm.

2. Ana. Dim. H yp. - FOr th ~ tGm- j pCst is rug. / ing.
3. Trn. Trim . Hyp. -Athcins I holds my I heart :1ud I soul.

4. l am. T etr. H yp.-Y. k now I thci thing I tha t's most I uncom- I moo.
5. l am. P en t. H yp.-Wh cre r eek- I ing L on- J don's amok- J
ciil- I dron
•Im· I m•re.

y

.Antithesis, 276.
.Aphreresi.s, 272.
.Apocope, 272.
.Apophas·is, 277.
.Apostrophe, the, 270 .
.Apposition., what is meant by it, 59 .
Rule for substantives in, 195; r emarks
under, 195.
Articles, defined, 72. Classification of,
73. The definite article, what it denotes, 73. The indefinite article, what
it denotes, 73. Rul e for, 74 ; remarks
under, 214. P arsing of, 74. Position
of, 216.
As (relative), to what applied, 6-3.
A~iliaries, what they are, 107. Enumerated, 107. How to be taken In
parsing, 107. Sometimes u nderstood,
107. How to be distinguished from
principal verbs, 113.

u.
Base of a sentence, defined, 167.
BE, a principal verb and an auxiliary,
lOS. Conjugated, 114. Old form of, in
the present indicati ve, 11 6.
BEWARE, tenSes of, 138.
Brackets, what used for, 268.

c.
CAN, conjugated, 112.
Capitals, rules for, 25T.

284
Ca1'dinals, 76.

Demo1t1Jtrative Adjectfoe Pronolmll, 70.

Case, of no nns, 50. D efined, 51. Nomi·
native, wb nt it denotes, 51. Posses·
sive, what it denotes, 52. Objecti ve,
whnt it dt:Jnoti::s, 52. Cases, how form -

.Deri·v ative lVords, defined, 12. .Forma·
tion of, 18, 18.
Diccresi8, what it is, 28.
D iphthongs, defined, 11. Proper, 11. Im·

ed, 53.
ClaWJe.,, defined, 166.

proper, 11.
Kinds of, 166. Dissylla/Jles, defined, 9.

Subs tantiv e, defi ned, lGG.
Relative,
defined, lGG. rnrticipial , defined, 166.
.Adve rbial, defin e d, IGG.
Causal, de-

fined, 167. Comparative, defined, 167.
Hypothetical, detined, 167.
Climaz, 276.
E.
Collective Noun s, defined, 30. Gender
of, 46.
EAc11 OTnEn 1 construction of,
Colon, the, rules for, 263.
1V6.

expl:tlne ~

Elements, of compound words, SS.

Comparati ve Degree, the, defined, 78. i Eltip.;;,,, what it is, 177. EnmJ>leao( llT.
Adj ectives wanting in, Sl. Adjectives
found only in, 82.
Construction 0 r1

j

Pars ing exercise illustrative of, 179.
Exclamation·point, the, rule !or, 262.

220.
Comparison, 78. D egrees of, 7S; for·
mation of the, 7S. Irreg ular, SO. . Of
F.
con:tpounrl n<ljectives 1 82. Of adverbs,
147.'
Fa~e Synlam, co nnected with the oubCompound n·ords, defined, 12. Accent
ject nnd nominath·e indcpondc 11~ 186.
of, 13. F ormation of, JS. Elements
Substantives modifying nouns, 159. Tho
of, 88.
object, 1V3. Objective without a prep·
Co11juaatio11, 'l"hat it is 1 108. Of be, 114.
ositiofl. , 19-l .. Nouns in apposition, 197.
Of n tr:m sith ·e Terb, in the active
Substantiv es nnct'vcrbs1 200. Pronouns.
voice, 117 ; in the passive voice1 120.
202, 205, 212. Relatives, 209. Arlic!es,
N cgnth·e, 127.
Interrogative, 12S;
216. Adj ectives, 219, 222. AgTecment
wh e n used. 129. Ncgative-i ntP-rrogaof YCrb:s, 22:>, 229. Moo<ls and te nses o!
tiv e, 128 ; wh e n used, 129.
verbs, 232. Tho Infinitive, 235. ParConjunctions, defined, lM. List of, 156.
ticiples, 238, 241. Adverbs, 244. PrepTo be distl n!!uished from other parts
ositions, 247. Conjunctions, 250. Mis·
of speech, 157. Complex, 15S. Huie
cellunoous, 201.
for, 15S; remarks un<lct, 248. Parsin g Feminine, formation of nouns in the, 47.
of, 153. Corrclali \'e, 250.
Fi(Jitres, plural of1 how formed, 87.
Con801iants, dcfincd 1 10.
F igures, defined, 272. Of etymology, 272.
CouLD, c onj ugated, 11 2.
Of syntax, 273. Of rhetoric, 274.
Foot, a, what it is 1 279.
F1tture, of time, 110. Of determination,
D.
110.
Dactyl, the, 270.
D ash, th e, whnt it denotes, 2~8.
Declension, of no uns, 5.'3. Of sim ple personal pronouns, 55. Of simple relatives,

63. Of compound relatives, 65.
r.dj ectivo pronouns, 71.

Of

G,
Gender, of nouns, 44. Defi ned, 44. Masculine, defined , 4:5. F e minine, defined,
Nouns destitute of, 4:5. Common,

45.

45. Of collective nouns, 46.

guished by a change of termination, 47;
by the use of dilferent words, 48; by

L.

prefixing words indicating the sex, 49.

L ettera, defined, 8. Powe rs of the, 9.
Of pronouns, 55.
Classification of, 10. Final, defined, 11.
Gramma1•, what it teaches us, 7. Eng·
Silent, defined, 11. Roman, 24. Italic,
lish what it teaches us, 7.
24. Forms or the, 24. Plural of, bow
formed, 87.
1

Distri butit"e Adjective Pr01iou1l.8, 10.
Do, a principal verb and an auxiliary, lW.
Conjugated as an au:>:i!iary, lOV •

Commia, the, rules for, 2G5.

285

INDEX.

INDEX.

Distin·

H,
HAVE, a principal verb nnd nn auxiliary,
JOS. Conjugated as an auxiliary, 109.

D ype1'baton, 273.
Hyperbole, 276.
Bypercatalectic, metres, 281.
Hyphen, the, for what used, 270. When
used between the parts of a compound
word, 13. When it may be used for the
diroresis, 23.

I,

l'II.
MAY, conjugated, 112.

.Metaphor, 275.
.Muonymy, 275.
METnrNx:s, M ~sEE :-i:s, 139.
llfetrea, what they are, 281. Varietiee or,
•
281.
MIGnT, conj ugated, 112.
.Mimed VerBes, what they arc, 280.
llfodijiera, defined, 50.
Mono8'1Jllables, defined, 9.

Mood, defined, SS. Moods enu merated,
I; '\Yhcn a consonan t, 10.
89. Indicative, for what used, 90. PoI ambus, the, 279.
tential, for what used, 93. Subjunctive,
I F, sometimes omitted be fore certnin
for what used, 96. I mperative, what
t enses, 116.
it expresses, 98. Infini tive, what it exI mperative Afood, what It expresses, 98.
presses, 99.
I ndefinite .Adjective P1'orwuns, 70.
.Multiplicatives, 76.
I ndicative Mood, for what used, 90. MusT, conjugated, 112.
Present tense of the, what it denotes,
VO. I mperfect, 91. P erfect, 91. Plu·
perfect, 9Z. First Future, 92. Second
N,
Future, 92. I nterrogative form of the,
92.
NEED, a principal verb and nn auxiliary,
I nfinitive lllood, what it expresse.s, 99.
112. Conjugated as an auxiliary, 112.
Present tense of the , what it expre~ses, NEWS, singular, 43.
1
99. P erfect, 9V. Usages of the, 100. Norninative Case, what It denotes, 51.
Rul o for the, 101; remarks under, 234. , Rule for the, 58. Indep~nde~t, 58, 186.
When used without its sign, 234.
Nouns, defined, 28. Clnss1ficat10n of, 28.
I nterjections, defined, 159. List of tho j Common, defined, 29 · when they become proper, 29 ; subdivisions of, 30.
principal, 159. Followed by the exclamation-point, lGO. Construction of, 160. j Proper, defin ed, 30; when called
Parsing of, 161.
complex, 31; plural of, 35; bow made
Jnterrooation-point, the, rule for, 262.
feminine, 4S. Collective, defined, 80.
Interro(Jative Pronou.WJ, defined, 68. ' Participial, definecl, 30. Diminutive,
How declined, 68. Parsing of, 68.
defined, 30. Abstract, defined, 30. l'er·
I rony, 277.
son of, 31. Nnmber of, 83. Irregular
I rreuular Verb8, what t hey are, 131.
in the plum!, 36. Alike in both num·
Table of the chief parts of tile, 183.
bers, 36. Compound, plural of, 38 ;
IT, Indefinite use of, 57.
gender of, 49. Complex proper, plural
Italics, for wbnt used, 24.
of, 89. .Foreign, plural of, 40. Singu-

I

286

lar, 43. Plural, 43. Gender of, 44.
Correlative, 47. Case of, 50. Declension of, 53. Parsing of; 60.
Number, of 1;1ouns, 88. Defined, 88. Sin·
gular, defined, 84. Plural, defined, 84;
rules.for forming the, 84. Of verbs, 100.

o.
0, difference between it and oh, 160.

Object, what it is, 52. Rulo for the, 191;
remarks under, 192. Position of the,
192.
O~iective Case, what it denotes, 52. Rule
tor the, 53. Without a preposition, 59,
193; remarks on the, 193.
ONE ANOTHER, Construction of explained,
196.
Ordinals, 76.
OrrGIIT, conjugated, 18S.

P.
Pnra(Jo(Je, 272.
Parentltese~,

what used for, 268.
Parsing, of nouns and personal pronouns,
60. Of relatives, 65. Of interrogatives,
69. Of adjective pronouns, 71. Of articles, U. Of adjectives, 79. Of verbs,
101. Of participles, 106. Of Adverbs,
143. Of prepositions, 155. Of conjunctions, 15S. Of interjections, 161. Exercise iu elliptical, 179. Of difficult constructions, 181.
Participles, defined, 102. The Present
Participle, 102. The Perfect, 103. The
Compound Perfect, 103. How to be
distinguished from adjectives, 105;
from participial uouns, 105. Used independently, 105. Rule for, 105; re·
mnrks under, 237. Substantives modifying, 106. Parsing of, 106. In iny,
used with a passive meaning, 123. Position of, 237. Remarks on the con·
struction of, 240.
Parts of Speech, what they are, 25. Enumerated, 2T.
Period, the, rule for, 260.
Person, of nouns, 31. Defined, 32. First,
defined, 32. Second, defined, 82. Third,
defined, 82. Use of the third for the

first, 82; tor the second, 88.
99.
.
·. .

qr_VQ'ba,
,,;:;-,,,

Peraonal Pronouna, simple, M;.'d~eo·
sioo of, M. Compound, 6.'J.:

Personijication, what · it Is,

281

INDEX.

INDEX.

. :i·

~ ~,

1176.

Makes common nouns proper, ~- En·
dows the names of i.nanimat<>' ..objecta
'
..
.with gender, 45.
Pleonasm, 273.
Plural, of nouns, rules for forming the,
84. Of proper nouns, 85. Nouiia lnegular in the, 86. Nouns that have two
forms In the,- 86. Of figures, &c., 87.
Of compound noune, 88. Of complex
proper no one, 89. Of foreign nouns, 40;
rules for the, 41. N ouna that have no,
43. N oans· used only In the, .-i. Ot
pronouns, usod for singular, 116. ' .' •
Polyayllablea, defined, U. • • · c.
Posit-ive J)e(Jree, defined, 78. A41ective1
wanting in the, BL
Posseaaive Caae, what it denotea, 112.
How formed, OS. Ot :the simple. pe~
sonal pronouns, 00: Used after thQ
preposition oj, 56. Rule tor the, 118.
Rulo for the, before a participle, 289;
remarks under, 240.
Potential .Mood, for what med, 98. Present tense of the, what it denotea, US.
Imperfect, 94; wrong use of the, 281.
Perfect, 94. Pluperfect, 95. Intenoga•
tive form of the, 95.
Predicate, defined, 50. A compound,
169. Nominative, 170. Adjective, 170.
PrefaeB, defined, 14. ' List of, 15.
Prepoaitiona, defined, 150. List of, 151.
To be distinguished from adverbs and
conjunctions, 151. Complex, 152. Position o~ 158. Terms of the relation
Indicated by, 158. Rule for, IM; re·
marks under, ~ Parsing of, 1.55.
List of, that follow certain words, 246.
Primitive Worda, defined, 12.
Pro(Jressive Form, of the verb, 125.
Used passively, 12.5. Parsing of verba
in the, 126.
P.ronowns, defined, 54. Classes or, ·54.
Gender of, 6.'J. Personal, Ni; parsing
of, 60. Relative, 62. Interrogative, 6S.
Adjective, 70. Principles relating to
the person, number, and gender of, 200.

Referring to collectin nouns, 201.
Blanding for two or i;nore singular substantives, 201, 204. Referring to substantives of different persons, 202. Remarks on the construction of, 211.
Proao<,!y, defined, 278.
ProtY.~B, 272.
Punctuation, defined, 260. Points uaed
in, 260.
Pure Versea, what they arc, 280.
Pyr»liic, the, 279.

SHALL, conjugated, 110. Force of, 110;
In questions, 111.
SHOULD, conjugated, 1~2.
Simile, 274.
Speech, the parts of, 25.
Spellin(J, what It ls, 8. Rules of, 20;
Spondee, the, 279.
Subject, grammatical, defined, 50. Logical, defined, 50. .Of a verb, 51. A compound, 168. Position of the, 1~. Subjects, take.o together, 227; taken scp·arately, 228. Subjunctive .Mood, for what used, 96.
q.
Present tense of.the, for. what used, 97.
Quant·i ty, of a syllable, 279.
Imperfect, 94; difference between it
Quotation, a, defined, 173. How treated
and the lmpe:)ect indicative, 97.
in nnajyzing, 174.
Subatantive, ~lfat It denotes, 5.~. Rule
Quotation-pointa, for what uaed, 270.
for n, modifying" participle, 106. Rnlo
Single, 271.
.•
for a, modifying a noun, 188 ; remarks
QUOTH, QUOD, 139.
under, 188. Position of a, modifying a
noun, 189. Rule for a, after a verb, 197;
R.
remarks under, 197. Case of, after a
participle used Independently, 198; afRelativ• PronourJB, simple, 62; declenter a. participle preceded by a possessoion of, 68; Compound, 64; equivalent
ive, 198.
to antecedent and ·s imple rela.tive, 65;
declension of1 65. Parsing of, 65. Rule Sujfkea, defined, 14. List of, 17.
for, 164, 207; remarks under, 207, 210. Superlative Deuree, the, defined, 78.
Construction of, 221.
Position of, 209.
Syllabication, what it is, 22. Rules of, 22.
Rhyme, defined, 278.
Roots, inseparable, 14. !:ntering Into Syllables, defined, 8. Di vision of wor<b
according to their, 9.
compound words, 19. Root of the verb,
Syllepsis, 273.
130.
Rules, of spelling, 20. Of syllabication, Syncope, 272.
22. For the formation of the cases, 53. Synecdocke, 276.
For cnses of nouns and pronouns, 58. SyntaaJ, defined, 185. False, defined, 185.
For capitals, 257.

s.
Scannin(J, what it le, 281.
Semicolon, the, rules for, 264.
Sentencea, defined, 163. Classified accord-

T.
Tense, defined, 89. Tenses, enumerated,

89; compound, 107; formation of the
compound, 130.
'fnAN, construction of, 249.
ing to their meaning, 168. Declarative, TnAT (relative), to what applied, 63. How
defined, 163. Interrogative, defined,
to be distinguished from the conjunc168. Imperative, defined, 168. Exclamtion that, 68. When to be used in stead
atory, defined, 163. Classified acec>rdof who or which, 208.
lng to their form, 165. Members of, Time, grand divisions of, 89.
165. Simple and compound sentE;nces, Title, alone to be pluralized In complex
defined, 165. Compound, with dissimi-proper nouns, 40.
lar members, 170. Principal parts of, Tmesis, 272.
170. Analysis of, 171 ; forms of, 171.
Triphthon(JB, deJl.ned, 11.

\

1.
!

'

1;
:
!

-----------------------------a!P
';

-..(

288
Trlsyllables, defined, 9.
Trochee, the, 279.

of

form ed, 120.
Vowels, defined, 10. Combinations of, 11.

V, when a consonant, 10.

v.
Ave rb

,i .

Vocative E0]>1•ession•, defined, 168.
Voice, defined, 86. .Active, defined, 87.
Passive, defined, 87.; parts
the, how

u.

Ver bs, defin ed, 84'.

"(

INDEX.

w.
must be con-

W, when a. consonant and when n. vowel,
10.
WEim, used for would be, 116.
WHAT (relative), to what applied, 63.
Wnrnu, to whit appli~d, 62.
Wuo, to what applied, 62.
WILL, conjugated as principal verb and
ns auxiliary, 110. Force of, as nn auxil·
iary, 11'0 ·; in qu estions, 111.
Wis, w1T, woT, 189.
lVm·ds, defined, 7. Combined in sentences, to express thoughts, 8. Classified
according to their formation, 12. .A.nnl·
ysis of, 18. Divided into nine classes,

tained in ev ery predicnto, :50; subject
of, 51, 84; how found, 85. Take the
same cnsc after ns before, 59. Transitive, defin ed, 85. Intransitive, defined,
85; ·have no voice, 87; sometimes,
when followed by a preposition, thrown
into a passive form, 87. Properties of,
SS. When called fi nite, 89. P erson
and number of, 99. Rule for, 100; remarks und er, 224, 227, 230. Parsing
of, 101. Conju gation of, what it is, 108.
Progressi vc fo rm of, 124. Root of the
v erb, 130. Chief pnrts of, 131. Regular and irregular, defined, 131. Table
25.
of irregular, 133. Defective, 138. Uni- WouLn, conjugated, 112. Used as
cipal verb, 113; tenses of, 138.
personal, 189. Construction of, ~ g ree ­

~

prin-

in g wHh coll ecti v e nouns, 22.3; agreeing

with t wo or more singular s ubjects, 227.
Corrupt form s of, 231.
Verse, defin ed, 278. Blank.. fl'!'~.
Vislon, 276.

Y.
Y, when a consonant and when a vowel,
10.

