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THAT . UNDERLIE THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE ~ .: ,-;,,~,;i ·,,
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CONTROL . THE ., ' ',"': ( .,

usE oF · GRAMMA'l'ICAL FoRMB. ·
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Al,ONZO HEED ANJI lll!AI N l<:IU>

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improperly presented as a series of
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A ~ t.or Pl ace, Ne w York

. misl~ading.

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not '' learn to do '' by
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Preface.
t~cious,

intelligent doing.

Preface.

Many persons read much who do not

ite well, and many write much who do not write clearly and forcibly,

.. .

,·,

;.

·. :...

from the printed . page,
best minds of all ages . .

·ause they have never acquired the habit of attending to the form of
1guage. Thought will not always find for itself adequate expression.
the contrary, power to think is limited by power to express ; to open
channels of thougl1t is to increase the flow of thought.
\n attempt has been made in this book to present the study of lan1.ge in a carefully graded series of inductive lessons, designed to
'Ire not only increased power of expression but also habits of close,
ical observation and a thorough discipline of the taste and the
g ment. ·
,s material for object lessons language is always available ; the
iety of specimens is ·unlimited ; the best is easily furnished in every
>ol-room.

To note the various relations of words and the inflec-

al forms that mark these relations ; to discover rules and principles
•bserving the recurrence of certain forms under certain conditions
v generalizing known facts ; to trace the almost unlimited shades
1eaning that may be had by changes in the grammatical structure
the arrangement of a sentence, or by t he use of synonymotlS forms;
Ludy carefully both expression and thought that the full force of
' hought
1e

~ay

expre~sion

'~ xercises

be obtained from the expression, and that the form .
may be exactly fitted to the thought-these and sim-

suggested and outlined in the following pages

will fur-

abundant opportunity for most interesting and profitable investi-

•n.
addition to discipline and facility of expression, the natural out, of such a course i~ ability and inclination to secure thought
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THROUGH copious reading a_n d persisteqt practice in writing;: a~ili~~:t;
to compose may, in time, be acquired without special instru,ctiop./ ._ ~ .._;.'.
But, with no knowledge 9f principles, 'no standard; of criticis~: 'zio\~?;;;;,:
~power to discriminate the good, the bad, and the indifferent, glfl\~ral ~"i!}, 'j: ·
reading, with its coru1icting usages, and practice, with no dE'.finite,.8.~.m /'>,: ~~·~;
or method, lead to excellence in composition by' a long an~ ~i~c~tOil~,.
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·Direct, systematic, consecutive imitruc~ion in English comp~sition'. 1 '•
should begin at the beginning and continue to the en? of ~verr sah<>?1f
course. On no subject, however, is teaching more ;vague and · irregu- ,
.
lar. Even when composition has been awarded ,a .place in ·the' daily,1"
programme, the hour for recitation is usually gi\ren to the · subjeo~ ~}' ·.:c //, '.;
1. ~atter rather than. to the principles of construction ; general-inf~r!Il:i.../~('~~~h
tion lessons and miscellaneous criticism con¥eniently fill up ,the ' time ·,: ' '.~:: ~·'·
j\~ '-;~~t1!;sft
in the absence of a well-defined plan for langu11.ge work. ·;
~ ,.;: - ~ .:·~ .·:,;·1.; 'i
Every exercise in composition should be directed to lisome definit~. :, ~l\·~
.
t an t prrnc1p
. . le or f orm of const', ru_c~,.',''
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end , sh ould . I·11 us t ra;:te some impor
, ;'.(;
•".'11 tion. Of course, gross errors in other directions should not pass 'un·:·?.<l)>~(;,.'
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~. _ noticed, but their correction should, as far as possible, ·be madeinci~ }tf.~f.·
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den,t al to the leading purpose 'of the lesson.
· . · .. · " ~ .>?/';. ;; ~~~\
As the different principles become familiar, they should be immedi~1 1~. ·. 14~
ately applied to the pupil's own composition, and kept constantly !~ ,_fj- /;~
:1;:, ;- review. The zeal a.nd int~rest ~f tlie ~earner wi.11 pe stiID:ulated by ·t~~A~"·~~i,~
' assurance that he is putting himself m possession of the standards by,' '.:.~ ...o ' ,
:\(i1 w~ch the merits and the defects of l~nguage are judged, . an~~tba.t ~~ ~:..,~~·/:1'
. '~' will no longer need to take all authority at second-band.
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·The chief business of the teacher of composition -is to culti\°ate io t :~:;~i·>
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Methods of Teaching Cornposition.

Methods of Teaching Composition.

. ,- ' ' .
pupil power to discriminate the good and the ba<l in what he reads
1d in what he writes.
A8 literary criticism is based on the laws that control the construc•n of the sentence, it follows that a scientific and progressive series
composition lessons must conform to the natural and orderly develop1~nt of the se1~tence. Composition in the primary grades should be
Lroductory to the scientific study of the sentence. The principles of
nstruction should here be taught by exercises, without being formally
tted. In the grammar grades, the composition work should illustte and supplement the work of the grammar class.
In connection with these lessons in criticism many of the principles
construction usually relegated to the province of formal rhetoric
1y be divested of their formalities and worked into the practice of
c young pupil before his habits of thought and expression are foi·med
.r ond the reach of rhetorical training.
We must emphasize our conviction, already suggested, that the work
the composition class is, primarily, to find proper expression for
•)tight, not to furnish thought for expression. To employ the brief
ily or weekly composition period roambg over the fields of universal
owledge in search of material to be workeci into thought and expres•ll is extremely bad economy.
The knowledge gathered from the
pil's daily observation and experience, from his general reading,
•m his lessons in geography, history, etc., will furnish abun<lant
1.tt.er for language work. It is important, however, that the material
· composition should have edu cational value, that it should be worth
•1sideration in itself. The thought will, of course, be subjected to
l closest scrutiny in cletennining its proper or<ler and form of ex·ssion.
l'o accomplish any definite results with a class of twenty or thirty,
a short period of recitation, it is essential that the attention of all be
·icentrated on some one very limited object. The principle or form
construction to be considered should be presented from its inost
tctical side, and the illustrations-selected and original-should be
icf and to the point.
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General directions for · the preparation ,of od~nal.._com~psitiop.s, :?r;, \:
essays, should be given in the composition ' class, b'ut each . pupil ·mus~:f: _· ,,
and his own expression. : In ~·: '• 1· .,__ • •'!',..
nec essarily choose his own treatment
.
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examining these essays, the teach~r will fin~ as many ways of _handling :,:': ~.~r~:;~
the sam~ subject as there are pupils, and will be led o;er a wide range ·
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in his grammatical and rhetorical criticisms. The correction of such . /._'j,_~;~ ·:,.
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essays can therefore profitably be made a class exercise only so far as.". : · t:r~:\/~
it affords opportunity for reviewing the principles passed over in ".t he · · ~· ··':, :-:;~.,
. grammar class or the com pos+tion class. For the ~bservance ~f \all
/•\i,';~•
such principles, the writer should always be held strictly responsible, . 1 . •• .,.' ;,~; \
Preparatory to the writing of an essay, the analysis of the theme,, or ,' ' ">;~
the preparation of a framework for the composition, should receive . v\:+~·~
careful attention. Various exercises may be devised by which such -.~,' 1t./1~
1
anaiysis can be made a simple and natural process, even for beginners. .. .~·.~~'f.'
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_ Short, easy selections may be taken from the readers or other books, and, : ,.. ~ :~4-j:..,
after a carefulconsideration of the meaning, the pupil.maybe requir,e d i ~-_;;r ,·~;l
to state in two or three words what each paragraph
is about.
Fa,cts . \ .;..,..
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relating to some one subject may be thrown out of their proper order , i:~ . •.
and presented for grouping into paragraphs with proper headings. · The ·. _~i: ·{li;'/; :
,
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order of these different headings-growing out of tlieir relations t9each'.:·\i •1 ,.;~1'ft: t
other and to the whole-should be thoroughly -discussed. ·All sucp ·
,tv~'..
exercises should be -very short and simple at the beg~nning, and sho.uld ~' , j{\J'·~:ifit·
be carefully gradea up till the .pupil can easily construct a 'framework. "·<;f'
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for any discourse that he can read intelligently. The benefit of such _'. . .;~~,~. work can hardly oe overestimated. In addition to its direct bearing on . ·~ ,: ,fj:<":'\
the preparation of original compos~tions, it trains .the pupil to habits.: . <>~;~.;
of close, thoughtful reading, and enables him to seize and retain ...t?e.: , . ···.'°' ''.";.!,•.
salient points of what he reads.
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The loose, aimless composition-writing usually practiced in sch~ol isJi;/:~.f (~
productive of little good. !The assigning of topics beyond the . wnter;s_1\: ·. '.;~1;~· ~ ·
ability either tempts to deceptio!1 and the dishonest approp~intion of ~he ~·:\~r;,~;:;~1
1
thoughts and the language of another, or results in the unmethodical.', \, · • ~. ;.\·
accumulation of a sufficient number of coinmon-place remarks to fill the,' 1-~, '. ;f!!.'..;.
required sp~ace. Multitudes of subjects suitable for original'. co~~o- ~,,\: _:-~Wt'~;;

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Methods of Teaching Composition.

ion work may be found on every hand. For exercises in descriptive
·nposition · the pupil may picture his school, his home, his town,
ices that he has visited, places that he has not visited-as he imines them to be,...:._views obtained from different positions, sunrises,
1sets, storms, etc., etc. For exercises in narration he may re.late
• events of the preceding day in school, of a day at home, a day in
rn, a day in the country, of a short vacation , of an excursion, of
'.mrney, of the different remarkable events in his own experience,
., etc. He may write about cows, horses, sheep, birds, insects,
wers, trees, rivers, mountains, etc. The easiest of these subjects will
·ays afford opportunity for the exercise of any amount of skill. For
tancc, in the preparation of the simplest narrative th e pupil..may be
·ght to distinguish between the method of recording events in the
ier of t.ime and the method of grouping related events.
\.ny perso!1 that gives a moment's thought to the matter will see
1· unnecessary, how absurd, it would be to attempt to furnish a text·k on English grammar and composition with material for a series
1riginal essays. We claim, however, to give in the following pages
nnplete, consecutive, and carefully graded series· of lessons in comition-\vriting. It will be seen on examination that we do not base
; claim on a few pages headed "composition," scattered up and ·
•n throu&"h the book without relation to the context.
'he attention of those who cannot gi ve our Look a thorough examiion is invited to such exercises and suggestions as are found on
cs 50, GO, GG, 67, 72-75, 144-150.

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ALPHABETIOAL INDEX.'

PAGES

Abbreviations ......... 32, 319-324
Absolute Phrase..... 192, 244, 245
Adjective, The . ... . ..... 53, 206
''
Classes . ... 53, 156, 157
''
Comparison... 64, 65,
198-205
Construction..
56-58,
"
65, 157-159, 202-205
Clause ....... 117-123,
"
249, 250
Adjective or Adverb?. . . . 93, 94,
241, 242
Adverb, The ............ 62, 206,
207, 240, 252
Classes...... 62, 160, 161
"
· Comparison. . . . 64, 65,
"
. 198-201
."
Construction. . • 6~, 63,
65, 161, 162, 202-205
"
Clause, 123-127, 251-254
Agre~ment................ 24-26,
42-46, 82-84, 204, 225-228
23
Analysis, Sentence.... . . .
Analysis, Additional Selections . . . . . . . . . . . . 280-285
Antecedent . , . . . . .. . . . . .
152
Apostrophe.. , . . . . . . . . . . . 36, 45,
·I .
97, 99, 100, 173,
187-191, 266, 267
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Alphabetical Index.

PAGES

Alphabetical Index.

•mpar1son ........ 64, 65, 198-205 Gender ...... . ......... . 176.181
•mplement, 'l'he... . . . . .
89 Hand in hand . ...... . ..' .
· 241
''
Object..... 89, 00, Homonyms ... ... .. . . ... 50, 68, 75
105, 128, 129, 255 Hyphen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
267
Attribute. . 90, 91, Imagery.. . . . . . . . . . . 269, 274, 276
"
93, 94, 104, 128, In 01· into 'l . . . . . . . . . . . . .
166
129, 242, 244, 255 Inclepemlent E lcmr.nts. .
85-87
Objective. 237, 238,
"
243, 245, 246, 249'
244, 245, 247 Infinitives 103-105, 106, 107, 212,
•mposition.20, 21, 40, 67, 75, 115,
215, 246-249, 260, 307
128, 144-150
"
without to....
247
Additional
"
Intended to have called. . .
221
Subjects .. 324-328 Interjection, The ...... 85, 86, 233
•njugation ..... 213-217, 301-312 Interrogation Point 19, 134, 136, 262
injunction, The........ 78, 233 Irregular Verbs ... 107-112, 297-301
"
Classes .. 163, 293, 294 Is being built. . . . . . . . . . . .
311
"
Construction. 164, 165 It . . ... 105, 130, 131, 132, 179, 180
"
List . .. . ; ... : 293, 294 "It is me," etc.... 95-97, 185, 186
111necti ves ............. 293, 294 It is to yoit that, etc. . . . .
250
•nsonants ... . .. . .. 315, 317, 318 Letters, Sounds of .. . •.... 815-818
•ntraction of Clauses .. 117, 121, Letter-Writing .. 34-40, 48, 286-291
123, 126, 127, 128, 133, 140, 141, Like......... .. ....... ..
246
254, 255, 259-261 Jlfany a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
246
•ntraction of Words. . . 45, 46 Metaphor ... .. ..... . 269, 274-276
ish.34, 36, 132, 133, 243, 265, 266 Metonymy .......... 269, 270, 275
· clen~on .. . . . ......... 294, 297 Jlfine, thine, etc.........
295
acritical Marks ........ 315-318 l\fod ifi catio ns of Parts of
:1.g ram, The. . . . . . . . . .
52
Speech..............
169
me, did, etc. . . . . . . .. . .
108 Mode . . .. . . -· . ........... 211-224
ich other . ............. 242, 297 Modifier, A. . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
·ther........... .. . . . . . 77, 2!J7 Names, Writing ... 28-30, 32, 34-39
iergy ....... ... ... 26!J, 273, 274 Neithe1· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 297
-:clamation Point .. 19, 86, 87, 262 Noun, The .. .. ..... 27-30, 32, 197
1ctitive Object...... . . .
. 237
"
CJasses ......... 27-30, 151
>r-introductory. . . . . . .
248
"
Number . ...... .' . . 24-26,
·a.mmar, English.......
142
42. 43, 169-176

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PAGES

· PAGES

Noun, Gender ...•...... '176-181
"
"
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"

Person . . . . . . . . . . 181: 182
Case....... 97-100, 185-191
Declension..........
294
as Adjective . . . . . 97-100,

242, 243 Pronoun,
''
as Adverb .... 238-240, 24.3
1"
''
Clause .... 128-136, 254-256
'~
N um her. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 24-26,
42-46, 82, 84, 169-176, 204,
"
213-217, 225-228
Indirect (or dative) Object
210,
\
234, 238-240
One another . ...........
297
"
·orthography. . . . . . . . . . . . 315-318
Ought ....... .. ......... 219, 222
".
Paragraph, The ...... .40, 146-149
Parenthesis, Marks ... 132, 133, 266
Parenthetical Expressions 132, 133,
243
Parsing .. 63, 87, 196, 205, 230, 231
Participles ... ........... 101-103,
105-111, 212, 215, 216, 217,
244-246, 247, 259, 260
Period ................ 19, 32; 261
Person .. 181-184, 213-217, 225- 228
Personification ........ 66, 180, 181
"
Perspicuity .......... 268, 270-273
:Phrase, The. , .... ·...... 69, 72-74,
"
239-241, 243-248, 256
"
Pleonasm ................ 154, 243
"
Predicate, The.21, 22, 90, 91, 101, 103
"
Compound . . . . 76, 77
"
"
l\iiodified . . . . . .
60, 61
PreP,Osition, The.. . . . . . . . .70, 71, Simile ...........•..... ,
166, 167, 233 Spelling, Rules ......... .
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Alphabetioal Index.

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PAGES

Statements Combined ..• 122, 123, Verb, Mode •........... 211-224
'
144-146
"
Tense ...... 107-112, 211-224
Style~ Qualities . . . . . . . . . 268-276
" Number and PerSubject, The............ 21, 22
son. ........ .... 24-26
''
Compound. . . . .
76, 77
42-46, 82-84, 213-211, 225-228 ·
''
l\fodified........
50-52
" Conjugation . .... . ·: 213-217,
Subject or Complement?.... 241
301, 212
Subjunctive Mode ....... 136, 219
" Compound Forms,
221, 306
Analysis ........ 312, 313
Syntax, Rules ........... 234, 235
" Tense Forms, MeanTense .......... 107-112 211-224
ing ...... .. , .... 313-315
Than . . . .... .. ......... ' 253 Versification ............ 276-280
That ... •..... .... . : .... 53 118 Voice .. . . . . . . . . 207-210, BlO, 311
129, 249, 250, 254, 293,' 294' Vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315-317
The - - - the..... . .. . . . .
253 Was laughed at. , .......
209
'The one - - - the other....
156 Was lost sight of . . . . . . .
210
There...................
85 What . . 119, 152, 154, 250, 293, 294
This - - - that. . . . . . . . . . •
156 When . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124, 252
To with Infinitive ....... 247, 307 Where .......... ... 119, 124, 250
Verb, The . . . . . . . . . . . 40, 41, 282 Will, would ; shall, should, 222-224
"
Classes.. . . . . . 107, 159, 160 Word, A............... ..
15
"
Voice ..... 207-210, 310, 311 Yes, no. . ...............
161 ;

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THE SENTENCE A~D THE PARTS

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LESSO.N I. ·
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WORDS ·GROUPED: •

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Grass growing is· not a sentence, for the growing is not : a.Sserte~:·;'\. ,, \..'\: .1
Although two ideas are associated, no conclusion is reached. - '. ..;· ~-,; ~ 'f~.fi., · •

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Y ou see .that to make words express · our thou~hts we ~ust loo~ J\: } ~}/
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Th_e two words arranged thus,...:._grows grass, do hot shc,>w: tha~the '- .. ,... ~
ideas. are even associated
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their form and their arrangement.
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16

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The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Kinds of Sen'tences-Meahing. ; J-: · ,_.
t,
·~ '·,f"

Exercises.~Notic~ tlia~

lD~RECTION.-Tell which of the following sets of words make cofu-

e t~nse-are sentences, which express associated ideas without
'lsser ing, and which express ideas not connected,-and explain:1. Glass melts.
11 . l\f us1c
· c h arms.
2. Mirrors reflect.
12. Music charming.
3. Water evaporates.
13. Charming music.
. 4. Clouds floating.
14. Odors are diffused.
u. Sparkles dew.
15. Cologne was imported.
6. Dew sparkles.
16. Pain must be endureil.
7. Floating clouds.
17. Pure air is invigorating.
8. Thunder reverberates.
18. Sugar dissolves.
9. Voices are hearcl.
19. Pepper is pungent.
10. .Voices heard.
20. Are cliffusecl odors.

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Finding Names.-In the first sentence above we affirm
the falling
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in the second we deny the falling ; in both we tell, or dee.are, Some·, ;""-.i '~
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In the third sentence we do not affirm or deny the. falling, ,b~~m~\
some one else to affirm or to deny it. '
, ~ . •' ",: "f'-s. ;:'{:
In the fourth sentence we command some qne to do' somethi~g..
Listen tells what. is to be done, but the wor~ (r°u~ represe~ting':-:~h~ ,~ :
one commanded is not expressed.
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1
In the fifth sentence we express an exclamation, showing that some·
thing about the falling of the rain has awaken.e d 'in us strong :reeling7'.:"' ~ '.~j'
perhaps surprise, wonder, or' astonishment.
·'
': , ,
.·
~i:· ~
These sentences that affirm 'or deny · (declar{)) something' rµay ..,hei~:;.'
called Declarative. As Interrogative
means... denoting a _qu~stion, ·
'
and Imperative means expressing ' a command, and· 'Exclamatory\ ,..
means expressing exclamation, these three words will fit~ingly'_alply t.o,'·,;/ 6t
· the
· · • .'
· · '\ •· ,·
,. .r
. other kinds of' sentences.
..· "; ' :'
,y;.,
'I

Observation• Exercis es.- F'm d m
· t h e exermses
.
above a word that
an.ds for an idea we get mainly by seei1•g
.
• ,· one b y hearing;
one by
~eling; one by smelling; one by tasting.

DIRECTION.-C opy

oft~~~~~~e~;es-:-:b~~

'

1

KINDS OF SENTENCES- MEANING.

<· ' . .

Observation
each
begins with a capit~l letter. Which of these sentences simply states ~.\,, ,.
a fact? Which denies something? Which expresses · a command?··;;· '.
Notice the mark, or point, at the end of each of these. It is ca.lled a. :.~;t.
period. Point out the sentence that expresses a .question.' '. This i~ /~.::>:
. . '(' .
followed by an interrogation point. Point. out the sentence .that··}if
,.,. '1 ,f
expresses strong feeling. This is followed by an exclamation -point:: ~?..; . i'.~·

P

LESSON

1, •','

, . 17 ~·~:,;;· ·
~"~~ :._t~·.; ~..

.

.·

f
~""' I

/'
f

I

.; f. '

___

•

.

'

,

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4

(

'

•

I

'

\

r

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.

.

. ..

;·~v J.

the following sentences; study what is said ·:,,..·!'/.:·
above, explain as fully .as you can what each sentence expresses,.and '';~I'~.:·
fr!:.
tell what each is called::
",,:·•![,'"'·
'
.•' Ji..1";..
' 6. The wind roars.
• ;~ : ~;::: ·
7. The wind does not roar.
·.: 1 · ·, · ' '":" ;
I i
~ ; 7"/'~,\ I
DIRECTION.-Copy

•t;,..,

t

::

~:e~:::o:!~d- roar?

·;"·~~?)~~,

10. How the wind roars I
.
: : ;. ~·~, •.
11. •What soft, be.a utiful colors are seen in a wint~r landscape I :-~-.·'.{.'':·"·
:.lJ;; ;
12; Does the moon revolve around the earth ? .
. ., . ~ ·~ ~t"
1
•
~ "'
13. Aim at the stars.
...
, ,, . ,
1 ••
•

'

\

I

,.

'•;fi
.. : 1.

' '·r~ ~~

•. , •.

-'•-f

'·h 1~

The Sentence and the P a rts of Speech

LESSON
KINDS

OF

Ill.

SENTENCES-MEANING.

DEl'INITIONS.

Sentence is a group of words ex1Jressing a thought.
Decla'r ative Sentence is one that affirms or denies.
u Intm·1·ogative Sentence is one thnt expresse~ a question.
u Inipm·ati~e Sentence is one that expresses a command
m entreaty.
n Exclamat01·y Sentence is one that expresses sud(len
ught or strong feeling.
CRECTION.-Copy the following sentences, noting all capital
ers ·and "points"; tell what kind of sentence each is, and why :-

What a chorus of insect voices may be heard in June !
How many difficulties were conquereu by the stern old Puritans I
Did the Puritans land at Plymouth ?
Was Louisiana once owned by the French ?
Tell about William P~nn's treatment of the Indians.
CRECTION.-Make two sentences of your own to illustrate each

he definitions above.

LESSON

IV.

VIEW QUESTIONS AND OBSERVATION EXERCISES.

ame the four kinds of sentences. What two things may a declarasentence do ? Illustrate. What does an interrogative sentence
ress ?-an imperative ?-an exclamatory?
,·hich of the four kinds of sentences is not found among the exiles of the preceding Lesson ? What woukl the first of these sen·cs become by dropping what ?-the scconu by Jropping how f l hinl by putting did after Pitrifons f-L hc fourth by putting was
·r Louisiana?

The little bird sings.
Does the little bird sing 1
Sing, little bird.
How the little bird sings I

Time flies swiftly.
The mountains lift up their

-LESSO, N

,

'·

_
h~ads.
,1

The Sentence and the Parts of' Speech.

The Two Parts of a Sentence.

mark.-A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperat·ive sentence
qes exclamato1·y when expressed mainly to give vent, to some feel1Ls, It i s impossible I Can it be true ! Talk of honesty after this !
nE CTION.-Observing the Rules above, arrange the following
of words so as to illustrate the different kinds of sentences :-

•JS

nts.-An interrogative and a n exclamatory scnt.cnce can be made
t.hc first; and, by dropping- one word, a declarative sentence can
•c formed. The same is tru e of the scl'ond.
does, on the top, the wind, blow, how, of Mt.. Washington.
by Capt. John Smith, what, told, stories, strange, were.
carefully, of your sentences, to the punctuation, attend.
llE.CTION.-Write a declarative sentence containing one or
· short exclamatory expressions. Write an interrogative sen. and an imperative sentence, and then make them exclamatory.
Composition.

the T eacher.-\Ve recom mend the teach er to continue this practical work.
pies of tho different. kinds of sentences may be selected from books or papers
ictated to the pupils. The slates may be exch anged, and the sentences read and
:ted by the pupil~, aided by th e teacher. Each sentence may be put on the
when it is corrected.
All mi stakes in spelling, capitals, punctuation, etc.
,[ be corrected, reasons being. given 01ily where prev iou s study has opened
ny.
·ending from the slates pupils $hould mention cap ital~ and punctuation marks
·y are met. The meaning and force of each senteucc should be explained.

LESSON
THE TWO

PARTS

OF A

VI.
SENTENCE.

the Teacher. -Let the pupils rend the "Talk" in Lesson I., then let them
and illustrate fully the points there presented.

~s

ttroduction.-You learned in Lesson I. t hat we get ideas of the
'he punctuation alone may sometimes distinguish one kind of sentence from a~-

2. Frogs croak .
3. Insects buzz.
4. Birds twitter.

Subject and Predicate-An~lysis.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

LESSON

Vil.

REVIEW.

,1uestions and Exercises.-How do we get ideas of ~hings about
? What do we .u se to stand for these ideas ? Are our ideas usually
.
gle, or in groups ?
L'hink something about something and express your thought m two
rds. What is your expression called ? What does your first wor:l
? What is it called ? What does the second word do ? What IS
mlled ? Express the same two ideas without expressing a thought.
•rm five other thoughts and treat them in the same way.
Can you put a sentence on
1_)an you really put a tho·u ght on paper ?
per .? Is a sentence a thought, or the expression of a thought ? . ls
vord·. an idea, or the sign of an idea ? ls the ''subject" the th mg
'1 nght about, or does it name the thing thought abo~t ? .
Point out all the sentences found among the exercises m Lesson I.,
ll tell why they are sentences. Name and explain the two parts of
ch.
Define and illustrate the different kinds of sentences.

--

LESSO·N
SUBJECT AND

1. Tides ebb.
2. Liquids fl.ow.
3. Hearts throb.

Example.-Banners wave is a sentence, . because
thought. It affirms something, and is therefore declarative.
is the subject, because it names that of which something is thought ';
wave is the predicate, because it tells what is thought.
.
··
'

I

(

7. Swallows migrate.
8. Heat radiates.
9. Victoria reigns,

PREDICATE-ANALYSIS.

The Subject of a Sentence names that of which something is
110ught.
The Predicate of a Sentence tells what is thought.

'

'

i.

,•)

~t

10. Punctuality pays.. ·,·.,".,..• ~~' .'~\
.,. ,.._,_
11. Industry enriches.
. . ··:. \ ~-· \\~}
12. Nero fiddled.
<l
' .,· ; ,,· 1· ; •

,

>

.:.···~~ -l~:~~~~

~ "Hd•:1-. .k....:,.

1 1·r

Review · Questions and Exercises.

1-·

•··

1·

:-· ' ~e. ;.::;: ;_t~

.\

:what rule for capitals have you learned? _, What r~les f?r- punct.~\ ~> i{~·~-t~
at10n ?
. ... ': , . .. Ji\:· . - ~
''
,
·~·:~\ ,; ~""-'f.'r}. . , . . . . .
When we say hens sitting, do we show that we have made up m_1 i : , ·>"t,,fi.;:;~
1
minds" to anything, or come to any conclusion? Does sittin~~ssert>-\ · ~?-. .: 1-/..;~·.
I

'

•

\

Explanation.-As analyze means to separate into parts, we shall find
, convenient to use different forms of this word in speaking of the
eparation of sentences into parts.

.

To the Teacher.-The teacher Is advised to drop thit! full f~rinal analysis ~h~n ·-./~·
the pupil is familiar with the definitions. The work must not become·meclianical. '( .:~ ,'5§..

•t\J
'f

DEFINITIONS.

4. Blood circulates.
5. Bread nourishes.

DIBEOTION.-Analyze the following sentences :.:._

,~

VIII.

'

··:

•

... 1 '

·,

1'

AktR

~. ~.:.. ...~:, _~.

J..

'~-~ ' -~ '.'·~

\<·

E

.'.a,~.

thought about the subject, or the word mbbif.8. Notice that, a _word ,
:'~1 ~\\
.:-IIlentioned merely as a word is printed in italics. Italics are also used to make . \ ; ,· ' ; (I r:. ,
words prominent.
"\
·'
,J

* Not what is

. ''. . . · _.-:1~-)·~1

\ ·.
/

r

;

i ·: • . -·· !1', : J.~ 'tfJ-",

An,a lysis and Construction.'

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

vthing ? Is hens sitting a sentence ? Is sits hen a sentence ? Give
1.sons for the last two answers. What is a sentence ? How many
rts must every sent.ence have ? Wh at is a subject '( -a predicate ?
the analysis of a sentence ? All the sentences in I.esson VIII. are
what kind ?

LESSON

IX.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE- CONSTRUCTION.
To the Teacher. - The exerci ses b elow afford opportunity for stimulating obser·
tion and thought. In addition to the written exercises pupils will be interested in
·ming orally the many different things that float , sink, climb, etc., and in telling
e many things that the objects named in the second exercise may do.

-LESSON

DIR ECTION.-Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each

ANALYSIS . AND

f the following predicates:-

- - - floats.
-i---- sinks.
~explodes.
I.

. - - -· evaporates.

5. - - leap.
6. - · - sing.
t"' I I '
7. - -'- terrify.
8. - -- expand.

9.
10.
11.
12.

X

..--·

CONSTRUCTION.

- - decay.
- - climb.
- - - crawl.
- - - creep.

,

DIRECTION.- Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to
a.ch of the following subjects :-

~

:-3. Seeds
4. Water
.
i Plants ~ .
G. Books ~

17.
18.
19.
20.

~\(

St:am
. .
Wmd ·
.
Rogues ~ . ·
Indians--.

21.
22.
23.
24.

Insects - - .
Vapor---.
Light--.
Yankees - - .

Agreement of Forms.

Observation Exercises.-How do the words seed and seeds differ in
neaning ? How. is this difference shown ? Which of the other subects given above mean more . than one ? Which mean but one 1
1Vhat letter marks the difference ?

2

* The subjects I

and you must be excepted.

.'
I •

,'

The Sentence and the Parts of Sp.e ech.

27
•

Classes of VVords-Nouns.

... . , :\t ~~Hf,

..

>· /

~

•· )
•'

.,...,.Rf'_ ·.

?.a'.'.~7

,_·;;_t '-d'

EC'l.'ION.-Write

subjects for the following predicates:-

_ _ , is imported.
- - is reflected.
- - was destroyed.
- - was conquered.
- - has been invented.
- - has appeared.

7. - - - are progressing.
8. - - - are drooping.
!), - - - were exported.
10. - - - were crowned.
11. - - - have disappeared.
12. - - - have been improving.

>lanation. - Plural means expressing more than one, and
la1· means expressing only one. \Ve shall now speak of plural
'sand singular subjects, and thus avoid "round about" ex pres-

t·

Describe as clearly as you can · an insect that ca~ fly ; a gar~en.
plant good for food ; a flowering plant that grows in tlie meadow. -'- ·' - .U,

, Did you have in your mind any one pa1:ticular insect or plant? Have . ');:~:~:"
,, .•/
You in each case described one alone, or many millions ? How does it \ ' ·.;:,J
"' 11'Iey 11~ ~
, become possible to learn something of the greater p~rt of' the animals , '.: ' ~~'.' r ~·
.
. " ~ f. ~ .......
and plants on the globe ?
·
- '111-· ,J<'",• (:..,,.
t_,~··
1

I

..,

You see how important it is to group things that are alike, into 1 -~ ;":·~!~;.iJ;:
classes. Unless we learn to compare things to find out their resem- : • ..
blances and differences, we must remain ignorant.
,
' · · · r.,'~IJ;
.,

•

'

)r •

••

I

>11 l . ., • : - .

j'\

.

'1:

l ~·

In studying grammar we are not obliged to examine every one of the ·.: · ·, ~~ :.
. .,
hundred thousand or more words in our language. By studying sen- ~ ;; .\.·...,
tences we discover that many words are alike in naming _thiugs that ~e .· . :; ,; ·_.:..
can think about and talk about. We put all these names together :
a~d make one class, which grammarians call Nouns (noun
name).
\'

ervation Exerch1e!i.-\Vhich of the subjects that you have
for the predicates above are plural ? Which are singular ?
;c your plural subjects to singular subjects, and see what changes
be made in the predicates. Change yo ur singular subjects to
subjects, and see what takes place in the pret1icates. What word
It predicate changes ?
m these experiments what do you conclude about the use of
is, was, has; are, 'vere, have?
he Teachet·.-The first nnd most important step to a scientific kn°o wledge of
1tence is gained when the pupil can cletermi11e without hesitation the simple
1. nnd the simple predicate of any ordinary se nt ence. This knowledge is of
11portance also in th e construction of sentences. 'fh e tenchcr is therefore
ti to make selections from rend ers or other books, for drill in picking out subnd predicates.

The chief office of the noun is that of
I

XI.

CLASSES OF WORDS-NOUNS.
Seeing Resemblances - Makin g Classes.

troductory.-Could you count all the insects that are to be found
mmer in a single meadow ? In studying botany could you csam·
very separate plant ~n a single field ?

4l

)-t:
' .'· t . -~ ~:·,-'.'. '!· :~~

..

Class Names and Individual Names.

1, (

\.

city
Chicago

man
Columbus

ship '
Mayflower
:

LESSON

t. -~,.1.

~'!!'__13ject.

.

dog
Tray '·
'

...

\

\~I ..._ ·~'

~·~""-"

·{~,.y:
-:,~~ ,.,. ..· :\ .,.
1

.:.-...

....

''- .J ,f J:
both names? What ,;f'. :-·~,. ·•,.

Observation Exercises.-Are city and Chicago
difference can you discover in meaning? What iµ the first letter'?-: 7<-~~"Vi ..r.
Answer similar questions regarding the two words ~n each of the other ,;\~\\~~.;'?f:~"
groups. ·
·
__ _ : . ';.;~..:f;' :'
...... J

'

..

.I ~

' ~

~

' ' What advantage can you see in using two names for the same thing ; ~ ;.;, •;,
'as, "the ship Mayflower," "the dog Tray" f Which of the 'e ight >fi'~J. ~~ ',.,_
names grouped above would you call class names,? · Which would ·' J ~··, r''~~:"
you call individual names,?
.
'.
·- ;"i;~
' .I• :.\\.·~
f
'1 ~.., ... '

·. •

~8

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

I
How to Write Names. ·

\_

Do we give indivi<lual names to wild animals ?-to insects. ?-to
' rees 'e--to pet animals ?-to persons ? Why <lo we give in<lividual
·iames to some things an<l uot to others ?
What are all names called in grammar?

LESSON
HOW TO

WRITE

XII.

NAMES-ABBREVIATIONS.*

DIRECTION. - Copy the following carefully, and learn what you
Dan about the forms of names:-

Texas, state, river, Reel River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas
City, statesman, Thomas J eficrson, Thos. J efferson, author,
Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George vVilliam Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. vV. Curtis, poet, John Grccul eaf
Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of
Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General
Robert E<lmund J,ec, Gen. Hobt. E. I1ec, doctor, Doctor
Valentine l\'Iott, Dr. V. l\Io tt, prnfcssor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.
H enry Wadsworth J.Jongfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha."
John Bunyan wroto "The Pilgrim's Progress."
The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."
Observation Exercises.-Which of the names just written are
Which are inclividual ·~am es ? In writing these
names what do you discover as to the use of capitals?
Mention an individual name made up of two names ; one made of
three names ; one made of four mimes. How many capitals do you
fmd in each of the names just mentioned ?
Mention seven wor<ls that arc written without capitals as class
names, and again with capitals as parts of indi vi<lual names.
Mention a word that is shortened, or abbreviated, by omitting all but
the first, or initial, letter. MenUon a shortened form, or abbre via•

class names?

*For list of abbreviations, see p. 319

LESSON

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The
The
The
The
The

XI I I.

city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan.
steamer City of Chicago sails from Jersey City.
island of Cuba is under Spanish rule.
Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea.
'
Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman.

30

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Pronouns.
I

6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window."
7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin antl me with
stories of Uncle Remus.
8. Miss Evans-afterward :Mrs. I.,ewes-was the author of "The
Mill on the Floss."
9. vVe may call the Suprerne Dcing our Heavenly Father.
10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah.
11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV_.
preceded Victoria.
Observation Exercises.-Is Chicago, or city of Chicago the indi vidual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is Chicago, or City of Chicago the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned
in (2) named Jersey, or J ersey City ? Is the body of water mentioned
in (1) known as JJiichigan, or Lake JJiichigan ? What is the name of
the island mentioned in (3) ?-in (4) ? Is I rish, or Irish Sea the name
of the body of water mention ed in (4) ?
' Notice that Spanish, in (3), and EngliBh, in (5) 1 are not names, or
nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the
individual names Spain and England.
What names in (7) usually denote relationship ? Notice that such
words as imcle, captain, professor, etc. do not necessarily begin with
capitals unless prefixed to imli vidual names.
What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name ? What
in (8)? Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
In (8) do you find a period after Jlfiss ?-after JWrs. f
Miss is not an abbreviation.
What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity ? What is
Old Testament the particular name of ?
What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
To the Teaclie.r.-We sngge$t that th e pupils be allowed to bring in for cla~e
exercises lists of geographical and biographical nam es, titles of books, etc., with
euch valuable Information as may easily be gathered concerning the things named
Various slate and blackboard exercises may easily be devised.

LES·SON
'
.

. ..

·' tJ
!)1.'l;·i:..
"..
),.; - .. ·
~.::-

l

-· . -··?--: :>:~ J;t \ .:·~~~ ~~::~

i-'-

x (v . .. .

;..

· .·

. ' '·~'·~" ,.;:•\i;··{h
. "."(.~;\ ~·:~-if~·~·, .­

\ . I~ . ... ~1· • ~ ~~ ~ }o~
~
~~ /'f,';1 ;,. ..:l~ •
10

\

PRONOUNS.

:

'

·

,•

, , _,.. . . .

' '

•

\~-

. ·:

-i: ..

., •

*ill·_·. ¥ .-

Observation Exercises.-(a) I ,shall be obli-g~d to you if you
\
• ). • l. .. .•.
give me your name.
1 .Y
\ ;, ,
In the preceding sentence how often does the speaker m~ntion him~ .. ' _~:: '.<
1
self ?-the one spoken to ? Does he use the class name of either ?-:the '· -": '"'-;.;
individual name ? Give the speaker a name, use it in place o~ - .Z: and .:
m~, and see whether the stranger addressed would know that hi~ ~ame' ( : .: \
was wanted by the speaker himself. Why did the speaker not _µse : a~ . ~ · ·
individual name in place of y01.t and your f
\ ·', ,l-_
. You see how necessary it is to have certain .words that will always /":, ,. ,
. , stand for the speaker, and others that will always stand for t~e one . ,:; :_-:
• l<
'
/ ' ' : spok en t o.
, . ,· ·.'.
f ·. · Read the sentence above, using individual names for the speaker and ·. . :·
,•
the hearer, and see how you like the sound. What additionaLadvan-' -; .:,
' '; . tage, then, can you discover in the use of such words as I_ and you 1 · · ~ ·· ·' . ·.
·:·
Make sentenoes using he, hi.s, him, she, her, it, its, they, th_eir.i t~'"(· · :.:,/
-~ ~. • and see what advantage you can discover in their use.
. , , . .' : ":
(b) Who went ?
(c) .:What was done ?
·_· '.' ' ';.. n. · ·
· - --'
\ ' I
What kind of sentences are (b) and (c)? Mention the subject of i-,- ·\ · ·
. '1'"
~ ; :· each. Why did the questioner use who and what inst~nd of natnes ?..;, ;\-'
,:,; : Make sentences using who, which, and what so that they will s~and fqr ··',';/ · :.. unknown names and at the same time ask for these. names. . Remem• '.: .-

r;t-'- .

r

.>

r.y; \.:.

t

-'I· 1

."

'

"

'·

.

ber·the interrogation point.
·
. · · . ·.Jf, ·:.,
·: ,.!·,. Words used for names are called Pronouns (pro means for, and -,·, ·~- .
t: ., 'l noun means name). They fo~m a sepa~ate clas~, or,part of speech. . , I, \~ • ·~ .-:/ Those pronouns whose special work is to pomt out the speaker, the/· ....
1
'-! ':; · hearer, or the O'rte spoken of are called Personal Pronouns. Tho~
tr ;_'\ that.dsk for a n~me ;ire called Interrogative Pronouns.
· I '·
,
.\

..

.

. i}

~•

··

\

(d) Again, 0 my dear friend ! I must beg your help.

\

Mention two Iette~s in the preceding sentence each of which 'is ~r
entire wo.rd.
1'hese words must always be written with capitals.

'.

. '

:'.. · ."

2

·

The Sentence and the Parts of Speeah.

.LESSON

:(

XV.

33

Review.

J

1 <

UP-NOUNS AND

PRONOUNS. I

..
._ '

DEFINITION.-A Noun is the name of anything.
DEFINITION.-A Pronoun is a word used for a

1f•

1101111.

CAPITAL LETTEit - RULE.'- Individ,,,tal name.~
words derived from them sboulcJ begin with ca1iitals.

and

Explanation.-Two or more names formin g one indiYiuual name
:;hotilcl each begin with a capital ; as, Kanscis City, R ichard H enry
Lee. "When worus of uiffercl1t kirn1s (or classes) form an inuiviuual
name; only the first word and the chief words begin with capitals ; as,
Bay bf B iscay, The Old Glock on the Stairs.

CAPl'fAL AND PERIOD-RULE.-Abb·r eviations generally
begin with caJJitals and are followed by the pel'iod.
CAPITAL AND PERIOD-RULE.-Numbers in the Boman
notation are generally written in capitals* and followed by the
period.
CAPITALS-RULE.-The words I and 0 shoultl be lyritten in
capitals.
DIREGTION.-Copy the following and show how the Rules above

~f'7

I

,

L On the poet's tombstone I r ead the words, " 0 rnre Ben Jonson."
2. Philip, Duke of Anjou, a grandson of t he French king, J_;ouis
XIV., was appointed heir to t he Spanish throne.
3. See '' The Am erican Cyclop:m1ia, " Vol. XIII. p. 413.
DIREGTIO N. - Copy the following and observe the use of capitals :-

4. The E ast, the vVest, the North, and the South are again uni tell.
and prosperous.
* Small letters are preferred where numerou s references to chapters. et.c. are
m ade.

•1

·jl

\i. ::t.:,.

P~~c, on the north by t~e British P~s~essions, and on tr~
~~:.,~·~~;
Muth by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico.
'
. · ,b\.
!
6. Our E<pring begins with . March, our summer with · June, om· :;t.,'":'f'.. ,~'
'autumn, or fall, ;vith September, and our winter with December. ·
· .'.,.')t;t~~I
/,..tt-

I

Observation Exercises.-What words found in both (4) and (5) be..- / ' i ~ :~;,
gin with capitals in one sentence and with small letters in the other? / "~~ •. · ~'.
What difference in meaning can you see to acc~mnt for this ? How do .- . ~7
the names of the seasons begin in (6)?-the months? Write the na~es :. -· ' -:'.;, ·
.
c
f't
of the months and of the clays of , the week, with their abbreviatiops,
J_~t~~ · ~
, beginning each with a capital. (See p. 319.)
'
·· ' ' ·

< ;; ,
I

LESSON

XVI. ,

REVIEW.

What is a sentence ?-a subject ·?-a predicate .?-the
sentence?
May a predicate consist of
how a declarative sentence may be made interrogative.
What i~ the advantage of grouping things into classe!!? How many ,
classes of words do grammarians make ? What does the ";Ord noun
' t~
mean ? What is the chief office of the nomd--' ~·
i.
Illustrate and explain the difference between a class name and an in~ - ': '. . ;~
dividual name. What do you understand by an initial ?-'an abbrevia- -~~
' . ·:~ :.},
tion ?-a surname ?-a Christian name ? Illustrate.
' •' ,,.
What is the advantage of having such words as I and you·f~as who • ··'".! .": •
and what f Illustrate. What does the word pronoun mean ? Men- , ... "·, ·
tion two kinds of pronouns.
, 1 ~ ·~ •
Define a noun. Define a pronoun. R epeat all the rules you have , '; \' '.., .:
learned for capitals and punctuation. Illustrate.
,,
.
I\.
How do easl, west, north, and south begin when they name . parts of I
J .
I
our country ?-when they name directions ? How do the names 01 the 1
seasons begin ?-the names of the months ?-the names of the days
of the week? (For answers to the last five questions, see preceding
Lesson, sentences (4), (5), (6), and Observation Exercises.)
:

•

J

I

•

\·-.

' ' .;

f'

are applied :-

;

' ~. The United States is bounded on the e~st bx the Atla~tic, on .th~-< .'~,;~·F~, ,I ·

tf , "' 1 west by the
' SUMMING

,

'

,,

f ' "*

2"

'

I

!
1

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Capitals, Abbrev i at l one, Punctuatlo~-Letters.

--------

XVII.

LESSON

PITALS, ABBREVIATIONS, PUNCT UATION - LETTERS.

_,, 11OWl"ng' and note carefully capitals,
TRECTION.-Copy the .LO
ireviations, punctuation, and position :-

-

~~~d.~
-

~~

~/cJ;/rr7..

.

~-- - - --·---··- ····--····---··--·-·····-·-·--··-··--------------···--------------··
-------------- ---- -

--

------ ---- ----- --~~

.

~?;?~
~cfl4dr.d, 7 7rx· CJ~ 0£;J$d~
#£<

~~

.

-~ ~------···----------·-----------------··--------------------··
· - - - · - - - - · - · - --· · · ·- · · - - - - - - · -···- · - · · - · • · - - • • • - - • •••• - · · -

I

Capttals, etc.-Letters.

36

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Envelope with Supe'l'scriJJtion.

LESSON

'. 3'1.....

7

••

'"\

XVll'I.

CAPITALS, ETC.-;"LETTER~.

•.I

-<

/ 'f:..,

DIRECTION.-Copy the following letters, noting carefully capitals~/.\·~··
abbreviations, punctuation, and position of parts :·
. :· · .:. ;; ~. ·

.

Observation Exercises.-These forms show how letters may begin
and end. The dotted lines stand for the message, or body of the
letter.
Each letter is supposed to be written at what place ?-at what time?
-to whom ? To what residence or place of business is e~ch to be sent ?
The lines denoting the place and the time of writing form the h eading. The name and the directions of the one to whom the letter is
written form the address.
Before beginning your message you salute your correspondent.
Mention the forms of salutation above. You also close your me:;sage
with some polite expression. Mention each complhnentary c lose.
f.Jastly you sign your name. Mention each signature.
Suppose each letter-form to occupy a page, and then carefully deacribe the position of each part. How tlo you find these parts punctuated? Notice two new marks in th e fin;t form-the comma(,) and
.the dash (-). Where do you fintl these marks together ? When the
dash is not used after the saliitation, where does the body of the letter
b~gin? Notice the apostrophe in the second form.
It stands for
what omitted figures ? Give reaso ns for the use of all the capitals
'"-,.,,;,t tl• "c " in th,,

~,., l,, f nf·inn

nn1l tlH' rnonnl?mpnfnr11 rln.oP .

.

.

·~.

~

,

...

38

The Sentence and the Parts of .Speech,

Capitals, •etc.,-Letters.

· '.

40

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech,

41

Verqs.

Observation Exercises.-Do you find in any salutation or complimentary close capitals that are not provided for in the general rules ?
Give rules for the other capit~ls. Explain the abbreviations found in
Lessons XVII. and XVIII. (See p. 319.)
Name the different parts of the letters above and describe their
_position.

In the last letter whnt change do you find in the position of the
nddress f In a letter of friendship this is the proper position f,or the
address.
Notice .that the body of t his letter is divided into parts called paragraphs. Remember that a paragraph always begins a new line, with
a wider margin for the first word.

On account

of

.

... ,'

'

I

....

h·.·
, ... ,,·;r;,
,,..
.

.

~,

their importance, these words that assert .!!-re. call_ed .. ;. . ~ " ~.

.. ·

Verb m~ans word.
• .' \
'. >i'.l.~~··: t:r
In '' trees growing," growing expresses an action, but does not asse~t; . ~ .. '.:,,.~~. ~~
ln "Trees gro111," grow expresses the same action and asserts.
~ . \ i ;,;..
· In" There is a Creator," or" A_Creator exists," is ~nd. exists .~ssert . ._ \~ 'r.j('
being, or existence. In "The child sleeps, rests, or lies m bed, eac\h "1;/1:j!, ·
verb, sleeps, rests, an<l lies, tells the state, or cono\tion, in which th~ /'. ' ~~; '"
"
· < T "' {t t
<!hild is-that is, asserts state of' being.
.. . , ,.,:1;.."/ ~:: I
Verbs (the words):

I

I

..

~

' '1

•

' i'.~tr~~

, · ,·~P'·h

I ·,

t

.I<

• •

Nouns and verbs are the chief words o~ a sentence.. ·J , . ;i ~~:f~;~'
, .. ~
. ...- ·.. ,"·.'. ,· ~~~ :..
.
. ·+!;]... ·•
Exercises.-Read the first paragraph of Lesson X., and put the word · ~ J: :: _.::·
'1erb in the place of the wor<l predicate. Mention the predicates 'of the ~ ':., J, 1
eight sentences given in Lesson X. Each of these predicates may .be :. .. ~ . ·i;:
treated as one verb. Give five other verbs each containing two or more . ' '\· ,.:
words.
0

1l

..

'-I,

)<

Composition - Letters.

To the Teache1: .-We suggest that the pupil be required to write letters to
illustrate the use of capitals, etc. For instance, an in vitation to a friend may be
accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of
interest to be seen on the way. Or the pupil may mention some of the books he ·
likes best with brief reasons for his choice.

Same Words as Nouns and as· Verbs. ,

(a) Parrots talk.

(c) The crowd dispersed.
(d) Strange thoughts crowd in•

. (b) .The talk ceased.

I

LESSON
*VERBS.

XIX.

Observation Exeroises.-What part of speech is talk in·(a) ah?ve?
(d) ? Do you look to the form~ or:.·,.:_
\
.
to the use, of a word to tell its part ,of speech ? · 1
).
, • r' ,:i
.
~' : . ·~·
, . ,.I '
I

Introductory.-You hardly need an introduction to the next class of
words, or part of speech.
I
You have learned that every predicate contains a word that assm·ts,
and that no sentence can be made without such a word. Examine
Lessons I. and VI., and then illustrate what · we have said about
asserting words.

.

,~ r-

in,fi,nitive are clasBed with the verb as exceptional forms

altheugh they lack the power to assert.

'

.

\

DIRECTION.-Use ea.ch of the following words, flrst as a 1mbject ... ::j .;'.
noun, and then as a predicate verb or a.s a pa.rt of such verb :- .
, ,.
', '.:: . ;
',

1. ride
2. cut
' 3. head

4. face

5. pity
6. sound

7. branches
8. skates
9. drops -

'

. \ . ',: ,
~I

'I I'
'!

* The participle and the

?i•

-;n (b) ? What is crowd in (c) ?-in

i

'1

DEFINITION.-A
Verb is a word that nsserts action,
being, orI
.
.
state of being.

\.'

•

' '

..\

,·

,. '

.

,
,(

43 - ·-

Subject Noun and Predicate Verb-Agreement.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

~

I

\

LESSON

without making another syllable. Can you now see, why es is adde!1 to
these words and pronounced as a separate syllabl~ ?
you have learned the great advantage of putting things that a.re
alike into classes, you will see the advantage of making the following
general statements, which cover the cases just examined and hundreds

XX.

· As

SUBJECT NOUN AND PREDICATE VERB-AGREEMENT.
J>IREOTION.-Make twenty-four sentences by com'!>ining the fol•
lowing nouns and vci·ba :-

of others:-

Nouns.

1. girl, girl.9
2. hen, hens
3. turkey, turkeys
4. lamb, lambs
J'< "
u.
tiger, tigers
6. cricket, crickets

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

torch, torches
coach, coaches ·
fox, foxe s
goose, geese
man, men
ox, oxen

Verbs.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

giggle, giggles
cackles
gobble, gobbles
bleat, bleats
growl, growls
chirrup, chirrups
cackl~,

7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

flash, flashes
pass, passes
watch, watches
t
gabble, gabbles
march, marches
bellow, bellows

Observation Exercises.-Notice what forms of the noun nml the ·
verb go together, or agree.
What is the difference in meaning between girl antl girls f How is
this difference shown ? Which of the words above are mad~ to mean
more than one by adding s ? Which, by adding es? Which, by a
change in the middle ? Which adds en ?
Notice that giggle and giggles do not differ in meaning ; both forms
express the same action.
Which of the verbs above agree in form with plural subjects ? Which,
with singular subjects ? Which add s when the subject names but
one ? Which add es ?
Try to pronounce torch, fox, flash, pass, and atld the sound of s

,

f

,-

'•.·."
. '···'t

•4,.

....

~ \,.

• J ~

RULE.-Nouns are generally made plural by adding s or es. \

. {t4

~~t~·3'

Caution.-When a simple form' of the verb is used1to ··:.·.;~::;:,· .
'. tell what one thing does, s or es is added (unless the subject· .<. :~f:{' ·
I

.. •

.....• , is I or you).
1

,..

\

,

. ..

..

<

,·-:..~~· .!

.

• ••

. . .. ..

;

i--:;t • i'

.

Observation Exercises.-See which of the verbs above will agree · . .:~~~.
with I,-with you,-with he,-with she,-witb it,-with they.
1-, <
Make some of these verbs tell what one thing did, and then see
J ;;:-.:·
whether the Caution· above will work.
· '
-.;. ~. \'.
•

•

\

•

~

.... ,

'#

t

(

~~

DIREOTION.-Put a subject before each of the following verbs:- . · '', · r1-,,<l: '-f.:. ·

.

1.
2.
. 3.
4.
'

- - - is inhaled.
- - - was suspended.
- - - has succeeded.
- - - does contract.

·

. ''

5.
6.
7.
8..

1:_;!/•

- - - are invented.
. .-..;';..,:"f;j:>,
- - - were orgamzmg.
' '. ,.!- ,..~;-;,..
- -·--- have been measure~. ' '·.,~-~·,~~
..... .
- - - do .,expand.i)
'
·
··-·~
..·.--J···
,
•
-:-....,'\fJ(~~-

'
Observation Exercises."'""'"'Which of the verbs above take plural sub' : "jects ? Which take singular subjects ? Change your singular subjects
to plural subjects and your plural subjects to singular subjects, and
, make your predicate verbs agree.
This leads us to the following conclusions• : -

,

I

1

: :'. ;~:~;,·:~: .
· , ,~·:/~;.
·, ·: 11 .
· .
. I 1. \:,
";
\I 'I

J.

Caution.-Is, was, has, and does are used with singula,:r:. / • ; ..
sp.bjects. Are, were, have, and do are used with plural · .... ·:>7:
··.
subjects.
.1 • '·
\

4 •

Remark.-I .can be . used .with am, was, have, and do. You may 1
(For the
.. , mean one or more' than one, but its verb is always plural.
~ · · forms that agree with thoit, see pp. 304--306.)

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

45 .

Agreement-Continued.

LESSON

XXI.

AGREEMENT-CONTINUED.

lien the verb immediately fo llows its subject, there
, danger of disagreement, except that
rs

IS

is often used incorrectly for were; as,

1

is
are

2

was
were

·,

5

comes
come

6

goes
go

·

3

7

"

has ·

4

have
thinks
think

~

rule~ important

~

o We'r e, You were, 'I' hey we1·e (correct) .

3. The farm, with all the· cattle and horses,

flECTLON.-Make four sentences , using for subject~ ·we, yoii,
and some plural nonn, and, for predicates, compound verbs
•duced by 1vere; then change these to interrogative sentences,

4. With what mark (4) imperative sentences~

dng them thus :-

6. There,.®__ trying times in every man's life.

the calisthenic exerc ises (in correct) ;

'ter this~ the calisthenic exercises (correct).
cargo of Delaware

peaches ~

cargo of Delaware

(incorrect):

p e aches~

~

~

them~ to

Vassar College.

8. Not one in ten ..f!2_ about this.

WWW

the subject foll ows the verb, or if other words come
.r een these parts, one not familiar with analysis is liable
se the wrong form of the verb ; as,
~

exceptions.

5. E very effort of the friends of these measures (3) failed.

7. One of

RECTION.-Repeat aloud the expressions just written and
l'S Containing you wet•e 1 etc., till the correct form sounds more
ral than the incorrect.

ter this

write

1. With what kind of letter (4) each* of these names begin ?
2. Under this

~

wr~tes

8

' was, You was, They wa,s (incorrect) ;

You were chosen.
\Vere you chosen ?

.. ·
\does
do

9. N either of

you~ correctly.

Words are sometimes confracted by dropping one or '
more letters and using the apost1•ophe (') to mark · the
---om1ss10n.
DIRECTION.- Use the following contracted forms:-

'

.

.Are n't = are not; does n't ~ does not; don't= do not; has n't = has
,not; have n't =have not ; was n't =was not ; were n't =were not; "'
I've= I have; 'tis= it is.f
I

(correct).

RECTION.-From the following verbs select the proper words to
le blanks in the sentences below :-

mark.-To det ermine th e form of the verb, see how it souuds
placed immediately after its subj ect.

Remark.-Not ice that the Rule for writing abbreviations does not
~pply to contractions.

A int, haint, 'taint are incorrect.

* The adjective pronoun~ each, one, and neithe1· are always singular.
t Informal prose composition such contractions should genera1ly be avoided.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Review-Proof-Marks.

Don't is often used incorrectly for does n't.

LESSON

~ orrect).

XXIL.

REVIEW~P.ROOF-MAR~s\,

It don't work ; He don't care; Mary don't try (incorrect);

It doesn't work; He doesn't care; Mary doesn't trj

.\

Remark.-The following are some of the marks used
proof-sheets for the printer:-

Choosing the Right Verb.

j

De-le = Strike out.

DIRECTION.-Copy the four correct sentences below; determine
' hY the verbs in the other sentences are incorrectly used, and how
uey may be correctly used :-

/\

Cii-ret = Something to be inserted.

I

This calls ·attention to points or letters placed in
margin as corrections.

1. He learnt me to do it (incorrect);

2. He taught me to do it (correct).

This calls attention to the period.
Transpose.

3. I guess (or calc1.tlate) I shall go (incorrect);

Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [. ,

4. I think that I shall go (correct),

Ng new pamgraph.

1

5. We expect that he is dead (incorrect);

6.

vV e believe (or suppose) that he is dead (correct).

7. Can I sec you a moment ? (incorrect);

.\
'l'his calls attention to the apostrophe . .
.
DIRECTION.-Note the meaning pf the marks above, and rewrite
,\• ·the following exercises, making the corrections indicated, and giving ·'
' \ , ·.·
.. reasons as far as they have been learned :-

8. May I see you a moment ? (correct).
7'o the T eachcr. -Let the pupils repeat aloud short expressions illustrating the
·orrect nse of was, were, aren't, don't, does n'l, hare n't, etc. till the ear is accns·omed to the right form.
With the exception cf a few such forms as You was, Ile aint, don't, etc., violations
··f the rules of concord come from the speaker's inability to recognize instantly his
<imple subject and simple predicate. 'l'he necessity of continued practice in point.
ing out these parts-especially in sentences where they are transposed, or where
interVehlng word8 are liable to confuse-is apparent.
Much time is wa11ted in drill on the "conjugations," and in correcting person and
number forlllll when the verb immediately follows it~ subject.

' .. I

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Review.

L ES S 0 N

49

XX I l '\ .

REVIEW.
DIRECTLON.-Correct the following, and give reasons;-

Review Questions.-Explain the meaning of the terms heading,
address, salutation, body of the letter, complimentary close, signature,
superscription, as used in letter-writing. Describe the position of these
different parts of a letter. Where should the first word of a paragraph
.be written?

·. ·, {..

What does the word verb mean ? What is the chief office of a verb ?
· What three things may a verb express? Illustrate. Define a verb.
Give several words that may be used either as nouns or as ver~s.

l·
How are nouns usually made plural ? When is s or es added to a
1 ·\~' ·, .·
· ·: " verb? Illustrate. Name four words that must agree with singular
1 ' _subjects, and four that must agree with plural subjects.
t
. ·'' •'\ . How are words sometimes contracted? . Name one difference between i
1
'I
.
•
a contraction and an abbreviation.
.I - '

'

I

J

'

1'

• ~
• {_....

..

3

\

~.

~
'

~

•

'

tI I

•
I

,.-' t

"' ~..

_!, " • ' :, ; I

"'

~

Modified Subject.

The Sentence and the Parts o f Speeqh.

51

'.

XXIV.

LESSON
NOUNS AND

VERBS

DISTINGUISHED.

.I RECTION.-Notice that the words in each of the following pairs

pronounced alike. Make sentences in which the first word of
h pair shall be used as a noun and the second as a verb or part of
_rb :-

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

1. nose knows
2. brows browse
8. skull scull
4. waist waste
5. side sighed
6. heel heal
7. bee be
B. sea see
9. bin been

weight wait
meat meet
berry bury
wood would
scene seen
steel steal
way weigh
cell sell
seam seem

.'

·. ··~~~ --

. ~--:L..\.f;,
That large, square, two-story red brick house was sold.
· -· ,.t~ ,~;
'
' . - ".
~ r
House here names the thing thought about, but it stands only for ',- 1'\'." /i. .
those qualities common to all houses. Additional words are required · '" :(,". "'·!
to bring out the particular qualities of the house mentioned.
·
· ': :•;• ~What word t ells the material of this house ? What, the color ?
'; '.''~Jr..
What, the form ? What two words give its size or dimensions ? What
').,~·:
word points it out as the particular house that you have known before ?
-' ' :'.'~ ~
Does that tell a quality, or does it simply limit the meaning to one par-'.
ticular house ?
You noticed that the picture presented to the mind by t~e subject
' \
changed somewhat with every new word added.
~fodify means to change, so these words that change the meaning of.
the subject are called Modifiers.
i
That, large, square, two-story, red, and bri ck are modifiers . of
house.
That large , square, two-story red brick house is the
:-

I

1

··

Subject.
Nouns and Pro nouns.
r>IRECTIO N.-Make sentences in which the first word of each

llowing pair shall be used as a noun and the second as a pronoun :-

19. eye I

20. hour our
21. h ymn him

-LES$0N

The sub.Ject with its modifiers is
SuJ~ject .*

Anal ysis and the Diagram.

XXV.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

Introductory.-'l'he word house will probably call U:p in your mind
dim, uncertain picture. Brick house gives a clearer picture, and
ed brick house a still clearer picture. That large, square, twot ory re<l brick house makes the picture ver y much clearer.
I~ expressing our thoughts we generally need more than one word to
resent fully and clearly the thing thought about.

'

. \'
I

The first part represents the subject, the seco.n d part the predicate. "
.

. .'-~ .

\,

I

. J

.,

*When we u8e the word subject without prefixing a qualifying word, it may be
understood to inean the Simple Subject, or unmodiJied subject.

I

(
l

•

.

.···· 11

•I ·:.. ;

l\Iodifiers are represented by light lines plriced below and attached to
1c line standing for the word modified, thus :rain

is

allin

Look at this picture carefully, and you
will see that it tells in a very simple way
the most of whflt is told in the Oral
Analysis below. We call this picture a

·Why is s added to the verb in (3) and not in (1). and (2) ? :. Sbow-tbitt--=~·:;:~·
"~..,
is, are, has, have, was, does, and were _are used correctly in ~he -o~h.er 1 ; :..:'\::;'
sentences.
~\1\ ' '' ' "'1'"·
'
·,
'

DIRECTION.-Analyze and diagram the following :-

Example.-The cold November rain is falling.

J.

I

LESSON

.

XXVI.

Oral Analysis.-This is a declarat ive sentence. Rain is the sub}ect,
and is falling is the predicate. 1Vovember tells the month of the rain;
cold, the feeling or temperature ; and the points out a particular rain;
therefore, the, cold, and 1Vovember are modifiers of rain.
The cold Novembet· rain is the modified subject.

ADJECTIVES.

The dead leaves fall.
A boding silence reigns.
The angry wind is howling.
T,he strong forest trees are bending.
That dilapidated old wooden building hfls fallen.
I alone have escaped.
The odious Stamp Act was repealed.
Does every intelligent American citizen vote ?
Were the oppressed Russian serfs liberated ?

Observation Exercises-Review.-The first seven sentences could
be used together in making a worcl picture of what ? Explain the
capitals in (8), (9), (10).

":'

·';.;;~

.

/

•

;,_·

,.. -

·' t .I!

• • 't•''11/.'

1

..·a;-,

i

)I

•if:
I ~

Introductory.-W ords joined to nouns a_nd pronouns to de~c~ib.e ' Q_~·~ ·
limit make a separate class callecl Adjectives. The word 'adrfecti1'6 i .
,
• '
- \.">.' '
means Joined to.
'
, .. ··I ·'fJ(,
-. · _-~_,.J.'.
.J\11 the modifiers in the preceding Lesson are adjectives.
' / ~i;~_t.'1
.

.-.~ ~ ~...~

1
/

'.

DIRECTION.-Join the following adjectivtis to nouns; and then tell ,<~.:.I
which merely point out the thing or things named ; which tell the ;{,; ' ':
num.ber; which, the quantit·y (how m.uch); and which, the quality (what - .'-~ .2."'
kind) :·
, "1\. ,
I•;.,

The, an, a, one, two, ten, many,
this, that, much, some, modest, patient,
faithful, golden, fragile, sparkling.

1. The dark clouds lower.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

I

~

' . ;{_\.~~"~:;~
. •) :4
• ,

t, \

Written Analysis.-See diagram above.

"

•

.

.

Diagra1n.

DEFINITION.-A DiafJN.wi is a pictnre of the offices and
·elations of the (lifl'erent parts of a seuteuce.

53

Adjectives.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

-

'

..

I

.

·'•

•

" .Sp··~.

DEFINITION.-A.n Adjective is a word used to 1modify a noun ·::,:~. -~
or a pronoun.
\'
d : it'· •l'i; · !~:_.-!··:
. ,! ...
. ~ 1-~
I

Words denoting quality form a very large and impo,:tant '.·<~ ~:·
group. Our knowleclge of the things about us is a ~I)OWli . ~"·?"r:
edge of their qualities.
· · ) · .\~:.:/~

T~acher.-In

~ollowing

t~atJ\:'

To the
the
groups we aim to give, mainly, worqs'
:.· ·
offer some difficulty as to spelling and nse, but words that can very profitably be here ;: ';· ·,
added to the pupil's vocabulary.
_, · • '4 ~· -~/. '. ·, ,
We suggest that the grouping and the application of these qualities be .first dls· ' .,
cussed in oral recitation, and that the adjectives be then written with appropriate
I
nouns. The pupils can extend the list by adding the more common words. '
Two recitations may profitably be made of this.

..
I

Choosing Right

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Jme Qualities learned directly through the Senses.
' RECTION.-Name

things that have these qualities:-

scarlet
crimson
florid
saliow

Seeing.
opaque
dingy
vivid
gorgeous

audible
stunning
thundering

Hearing.
deafening
purling
husky

monotonous
discordant
melodious

fragrant
balmy

Smelling.
odorous
rancid

fetid
aromatic

acid
acrid
pungent

Tasting.
delicious
insipid
brackish

palatable
savory
luscious

rough
gritty

Feeling.
hard
keen

tepid
sultry

gaudy
variegated
verdant
transparent

Vhen words ordinarily denoting properties of matter are used to
icate qualities pertaining to the mincl as, h.arcl hearts, sweet
per, pungent remark, they are said to be used figuratil'e1y.
•d other examples if you can.

verb, and (3) as an adjective:-

' ,,

Example.-The Moabite stone was broken.
Stone the reptile.
Stone implements were found.
iron
wrong
love

brown
right
cash

AME WORD

XXVll

\l

!

•,

Verbs are often converted into

learned
defeated
advanced

running
dancing
cheering

broken
spoken
written

Nouns are often converted into adjectiyes ; as, meadow,.'
flowers, leather apron, Vfrginia. planters.
and

(2)

as a noun :gold
cotton

)

London
New York

mountain
California .

LESSON
LESSON

salt
frame
fancy

XXVlll.

I

CHOOSING RIGHT ADJEC~IVES.

AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH.

)bservation Exercises.-What part of speech is stone in the first
•tence of the E xample below ?-in the second ?-in the third ? Is
he form, or the use, of a word that determines its class ?

water

snow

ocean

music

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

llECTIUN.-Mention animals that may be described by the ad·

Tes-·

timid
gentle

fleet
graceful

cunning
sagacious

ferocious
venomous

nuti on.-Oareless persons and those that have a meager
of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such
ls as-

n;ice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely.
\Ce mountain, awful pen, horrid ink, splendid pie, elegant beef,
1 cheese, etc.-are .bn.d.
''RECTION.-Study the meaning of the six adjectives last men·

ed, and use them to fill the following blanks, taking care that the
ctive chosen fitly qualifies the three nouns to which it is pre·
i:-

~

Caiition.- vV e must never use the pronoun_ them for
\ .
. t•ive t].nose.
adJec
.' ,
.
1
. Example.-Them apples are ripe (incorrect);

Those apples are ripe (correct).
Caution.-These, those, two, three, and o.t her adjectites
denoting more than one require plural nouns.
"
'

Examples.- These sort of people (incorrect);

This sort of people (correct).

/ •'

Five pound of sugar (incorrect);

Five pounds of 'sugar (correct).

palace

~----

distinction
{ workmanship
calculation

-----

--~~--

stillness
chasm
{
rumbling

manners
- - - - - { taste
furniture

child
- - - - - { features
character

d eeds
- - - - - { dreams
butchery

LESSON

57

Choosing and Arranging Adjectives.

victory
, illumination

XXIX.

To the Teacher,-If the pupils have any difficulty in using the correCt form of an,
let the list above be extended, and the expressions repeated in quick succession. _ ,

CHOOSING AND ARRANGING ADJECTIVES.

fJaution.- We of ten spoil a word picture by using too
ny adjectives . .
~ xample.-A

. Examples.-(a) Industrious young men were chosen. ·
(b) Honest, industrious men were chosen.

great, large, wide, roomy, spacious hall (bad);

A spacious hall (much better).

"'Seep. 315.
. _; I
_}

j/

-

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Explanation.-In (a), young mo<lifies men, and then indu8trious
ls what kind of young men. Young comes next to the noun because
st in rank.
Iu (b), honest and industrious mo<lify the noun independently of each
lier-are of the same rank. In such cases we place the adjectives
ltere they will sound best-generally the shortest first.
"Notice the comma in (b),-and could be supplied ; and could not be
1pplied iu (a).
DLRECTION.-Correct the following as indicated, and give your

·aeons:-

J..9
J

j

J

~
~
~

~

A

1. fi!ll:lf'Bt'B, felicious/ H!:ttg11Hieent pumpkin-pie.
2. A stiRgy, miserly/ elese Fistetl fellow.

Adjectives--Revie'W'.

59 ,

-The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
And on its top the stout back-stick ; '
The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
And fille<l between with curious art
The ragged brush ; then, hovering near, ;
..
We watch eel the first red blaze appear,
Hearcl the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, .
Until the old, rude-furnished room ,
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
I
\ :
Whittier."7""Snow-Bound. ,\

3. ':F:kem vulgar fellows shoulcl be reproved.
4. Will you

pass~potatoes

?

5. ~kin<l of men shoulcl be avoided.
6. Two bushel,._ of apples were picked.
7. The @"uc(beauLifuJAsky is cloudless.

))~

8. A;.. ,.(enthusiastR!Narg0 crowcl was adclressed.

~;/

9. An old man, tall"strni ght/\and dignified.
(Notice the comma between the noun and the three
adjectives that follow.)
---+---

LESSON

XXX.

ADJECTIVES-REVIEW.
DIRECTION.-Copy the following, noting carefully capitals, spell
Lg, punctuation; and the use of adjectives:-

We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney-back,-

ation of these several groups ?
Notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it, and how
the adjective sharp makes it penetrate. Notice- how .strong a. picture
is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives
here Used bring OUt the most prominent qualities of the room, and
these qualities bring along with them into the ·imagination all the.'
other qualities. This is what we must try to make our atljectives do. ' . Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explaiJ?. the
I

I

-

.•

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

of an old-fashioned country hou se. They may convert the poetical language
The descrip-

~ into plain prose, with such additions as they choose to make.
111ay be in the form of a letter to a city fri end .

•: exe rcises in this lesson are, of course, only suggestions that may be varied and
1ded at will. We recom m end that choice passages of description in prose and in
y be put before the pupils for the 8turly of ncljecti ve~.
' attenti on be call "d to the advantage of bringing out only the most prominent
·haracteristic qualities of objects described, and of choosing those adjectives
most fitly represent sucb qualities.

LESSON

XXXI

MODIFIED PREDICATE.

itroductory.-Two words may express a thought in a general way;
"leaves fall. If we wish to bring out particular qualjties, we add
Ii tiers to the subject ; as, red maple leaves. If we wish to tell how,
11, where, or why leaves fall, we mnst add one or more words to the
li cate to vary or modify its meaning ; as,

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Leaves fall qitietly.
Leaves fall annually.
L eaves fall here.
Why do leaves fall ?

\"hat does why inquire for ? ·w hat does hei·e tell ?-annually f~
·By p
·o a modifier of the subject or a modifier of the predicate we may
another modifier ; as,
(e) Ve1·y bright lights are shining.
(f) Light~ are shining very brightly.
(e). very modifies bright, in (f), very modifies brightly. In each case
tells the extent or degree of brightness.
ve may add another modifier to very, givi ng more force ; as,
(g) Lights are shining so Yery brightly I
11

1

61

Modified Predicate.

The Predicate with its Modifiers is called the Modi/led ·
.

'\

Analysis.

1. The leaves fall very quietly.

-., the predicate line.
its principal.

I

~

Explanation.- The two lines forming this ' • ;.'. ". .,;(_group slant the same way to show that each ' · " . .7•~;:
stands for a modifying word. The line standing
for the principal word of the group is joined to
The end of the other is broken, and turned to touch

Oral Analysis -This is a declarative sentence. · Leaves, is the s~b­
jec.t, and fall is the predicate. The points out leaves, ~nd is t~ierefore
a modifier of the subject ; very quietly tells the manner of fallmg, and
is therefore a modifier 0£ the predicate; very tells how quietly. The
leaves is the modified subj ect, and fall 11ery quietly is the modified pred- .

' icate.
To the TeachM•.- Pupils should be able to give full formal analy1>es, but to apply
the full form to every ~entence is a waste of time. That the pupil' should be able to
explain in his own language the function and force of ench e!_ement is esFeuti~J, but
be should not be required to repeat mechanically what he is already familiar with.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
JO.

The crocus flowers very early.
A violet bed is budding near.
Threatening clouds a.re moving slowly.
Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere.
The wind sighs so mournfully I
Why will people exaggerate so I
An intensely painful operation was performed.
The patient suffered intensely.
Therefore he spoke excitedly.

*When we use the word predicate without prefixing a qualifying word, it may bP
understood to mean the Simple Predicate, or unmodified predicate.

.' '

Adverbs.

The S 'entence and the Parts of Speech.

Examples.-! only want one

We now travel still more rapidly.
You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed.
Have not those severe laws been recently repealed ?
So brave a. deed cannot be too warmly commended.

LESSON

XXXII

(incorrect);

,

I want only one pencil (correct).\
He must have certainly been sfok (incorrect);

He must certainly have been sick (correct).
Caution.-Adverbs, as well as adjectives, are often misused; as;
Example.-You are awfully kind (incorrect);

ADVERBS.

troductory.-In arranging words into classes, those that modify
' are called Adverbs. The word adverb means to a verb. With
rbs are also put those modifiers that are joined to other modifiers,
is, those words that modify adjectives or adverbs.

pe~cil

63

You are very kind (correct).
Caution.-Two negative (or denying) words are sometimes unintentionally ma4e to contradict each ,other ; as,
I

Example.-! haven't no pencil (incorrect);

I have no pencil (correct).
out the adverbs in the sentences for analysis
te preceding Lesson ; explain the office of each, and tell which
·ess tinie, which place, which dc(jrcc, which 11ianne1·, a.nd which
REOTION.-Point

r. .

~planation.-Th ere

stronger by a proper selection of the noun and the verb
than by the use of many adjectives and adverbs ; as,

are only two adverbs of cause in these sen-

·s ; one inquiring for a cause, attd t he other referring back to some
•1er.

Bemembm· that a word picture may often be made

Examples.-The little feathered creature was startled;

The robin was startled (stronger).

Such words as not and 1indoubtedly may be called adverbs of
They denote the manner of ai'scrtion, not the manner of the

Time passes away very rapidly"

II.

the examples of the preceding Lesson find an
Tb that in one sentence modifies a ve1·b, in another an adjecti1.'e, .
tother an adverb; one that modifies a verb and an adjective.

Time flies (stronger).

UEOTION.-In

·:FINl1.'ION.-An A.dve'r b is n word used to modify a verb, nu
~tive, or an adverb.

Review-Parts of Speech.
DlBEOTION.-Arrange. all the words in the last eight sentences of
the preceding Lesson into groups, thus :-

NOUNS.

iution.-We must place adverbs where they will sound .
and make the meaning clearest ; as,

crocus

PRONOUNS.

ADJECTIVES.

VERBS.

ADVERBS.

the

flowers

very
early

The Sente nce a nd t he P a rts o f Speech.

LESSON

-

65

Forms of Adjectives and Adverbs-'-Comparison.

XXXlll.

)RMS OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS-COMPARISON.

Cntroductory.-Our · knowledge of t hings, as you learned in L esson .
'{VI., is a knowledge of t heir qualities, aud much t hat we kno w about
alities is learned by bringing t hin gs in to compar ison.
When we speak of horses as large animals, a nd mice as small, wlmt
· large and sm all mean ? I s a horse large compared wit h a n elephant
:L mountain ? l s a mouse small compared wi th one of th e many
·'atures to be found in a drop of water ? li ow much meaning wouhl
(~Se words here convey if we had n ot in our mind cer tain groups of
·imals with which we compare horses a nd mice ?
When we call a boy good, do we mean good ccmpared wit h angels ?
Gi,;e other illustrat ions to sh ow how 1irnch our knowledge of qualities ·
·pe nds on comparison.
We often compare two things t o find which hus rnoi·e of some qnality
an the oth er ; as, "This pencil is longei· t han that. "
We often compare a group of three or more thin gs t o find whi ch has
•c m ost of some quality ; as, "'l'his pencil is t he longest of the fi ve."
What two syllables are here added to t he aLlj cctivc to help in exprnss•g these comparisons ?
You see that for convenience in denot in g c omparison adj ecti ves
we three forms ; as,
Jong, long+ e r, long + est,

I

Beautiful, pretty, brilliant,
calm, beautifully, calmly. •

\

. \.
I

Remark.-:Many adverbs are made by adding ly to adjectives.

Exam ples.-Am iabler (wrong),

More happier (wrong),
1

more amiable '(right). . happier (right).
• ,

Review Exercises. /

·•

1. I

1. I can,do no better.

tlled by grammarians the positive , the c omparative, and t he supe r•
1tive form , or degree .
Some adverbs are varied in the same way ; as,

2. We had a perfegtly eleg8Rt time.
3. He ehose

a~humbler

~

part."

~

4. This is a treffleH~81tsly hard lesson.
1

soon, soon+ er, soon+ est.

5. I did n't say H9ih:iHgo

J>TRECTION. -Make sentences illustrating the three forms of eacb
f the following adjectives (see Rules for Spelling, p. 318) :-

.'
'

.-·

6. We~tlo our duty. '

Noble, lovely, broad, thin, red,
nimble, hardy, handsome, heavy, hot.

7. This was the ~unkindest cut of all

' ..

,.

'

'•

'.

The Sentence a1~d the Parts of Speech.

67 '

Adjectives and Adverbs-Review.

LESSON
ADJECTIVES AND

XXXIV.

"venturous boyhood."

~xplaiu

"rustling stone."

ADVERBS-REVIEW.
'

of sentence ?
Convert this into an interrogative and then into a declarative sentence;
and point out all changes. What adjective in this line may be used as
an adverb ? and what adverb as an adjective ? Illustrate.

I.RECTION.-Copy the following, noting carefully capitals, spell·

, punctuation, and use and form of adjectives and adverbs: ·-

Dear though the shadowy maple be,
And dearer still the whispering pine,
Dearest yon russet-laden tree
Browned by the heavy-rubbing kine !

, Point out and explain the four adYerbs in this stanza.
What kind of letter at the beg-inning of each line in the selection
above?

There childhood flung its rustling stone,
There venturous boyhoou learned to climb How well the early graft was known
'
Whose fruit was ripe ere harvest-time !

many of the above
lines are
I
lines?*

Holmes.
>bservation Exercises.-In the first stanza above, what three
·us express different degrees of the same quality ? What three
igs are compared ?

Composition.

f

To the Teacher.-Let the pupils put the poet's thought into language of. the!?

_. r. own, making some such analysis as the following:TREES.

Vhy does. the poet. use shadowy to describe the maple, and whisperto describe the pme ? Can a pine rc11.lly whisper ? Whi'spering is
1 l figuratively.
\'hat adjective in the third line is used merely to point out ? Rusan~ laden, wi~h a hyphen between, fo rm a compound adjective.
ilam the meaning of this compound. Does the poet use a Yerb or
'.L djective, to tell what the "kine" (co ws) did to make the apple-~ree
wn?
[ore than half the words in the first stanza are adjectives ; point
n out. You will find in the second line the only adverb in this
1za ; explain its office.

Alfeotion for trees.
Early associations that endear the apple-tt_ee. ,

An Informal talk on trees will draw ont from the pupils many interesting facts,
,J ,
which may easily be arranged into a formal composition.
It will at first be necessary to aid the pupil~ in finding the proper headings under .
which these facts may be grouped, and in arranging these groups, or paragraphs, in
'
1
proper order.
~--: •' ·' Let selections in prose and in poetry be made for Ob~ervation Exercisee similar
: to those above.
In all these composition and observation exercises special attention should be paid
~. ~iI to the appltcation of 11.ll• that has been
taught concerning adjectives and adYerbs.
,

,.

t

an a period of life fling 11. stone ? Then childhood, in the second ·
1za, must be used figuratively ; explain its meaning.
Explain

t ·: : "' Only

the teacher can determine whether the pupils are sufficiently mature to
receive instruction here concerning the nature of ver~e, its division into feet, etc.

68

· , PhI'ase Modifiers.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

.69

- .

... .. . . . ,. -;- ~).?.·:·,-

....

LESSON
NOUNS, VERBS,

XXXV.

ADJECTIVES, AND
TINGUISHED.

DIS-

t

')<

DIRECTION.-The abbreviation placed before or after each of the
following words indicates its class, or part of speech ; make sentences,
employing these words as indicated :-

/

LESSON . XXXVI I.

(n. =noun, v. =verb, adj. =adjective, adv.= adverb.)
adv. here
adv. not
adv. so
adv.
adj. or adv.
adj. or adv.
adj.
adj.
adj.
adf.

wholly
no
right
dear
red
eight
bare

hear v.
adf. new
knot n .
adf. blue
sew v.
adf. fore
sow v.
adj. coarse
holy adf.
adf. pale ,
know v.
adj. whole
write v.
adj. main
deer n.
n. or adj. male
read v.
adj. one
ate v.
adf. weak
bear n. or v.

knew v.
blew v.
four adf.
course n.
pail n.
hole n.
mane n.
mail n.
won v.
week n.

PHRASE MODIFIERS.

,

j

•

\' . :_ • lJ~~; :.I
\ ' "· '.{~,;~'·~
}·"f_-~~~ r
.-· -~:- ·~:;~i
\"

.'

. Introductory.-To express our thoughts more fully and exa9tly we \, H-(~;.
may need to expand a word modifier into several words ; as,'" A · long'_\ " :·r.~,+
;i.:9.- ,
ride brought us there"= "A ride o-r
)~7~'.
'J one hundred miles brought us to ''. ·1·. .,;11:.,
Chicago." These groups of words, of one hundred miles and to Chicago,
·
,
.··
'.·-i
•
I
·t,:..;'1
-the one substituted for the adjective long, t.he other for the adverb · · \- .. >i·;.
.
.
there-we call Phrases.
. •.•.. ' t';;.
·~.
. •Xt.;.
Notice that all the words of a phrase are taken together to lJerform , t;_
:w,;
one, distinct office, usually that of an adjective or of an adverb. ,
', . ;-;;;_X~::'
Make sentences in which each of the following words shall 'be used to :· ' '(~~~~­
introduce and connect a phrase : from, by, at, with, in. Explain. the1 ; ', ;·~~~:.
, .. .
1
office of each phrase.
·---..1• •: 1~ ·:
•

':a.

1

·~ , ~

-

'

LESSON

• • . i ~ I~

I

1
express time, place, degree,' manner, ·or caus~~" \ · Defi~e an• ad
verb:
~·1-: '~ti_~_~·
•
~ '
~ ""'°'
, .. 'Mention some things to be avoided in the use of adverbs.
'.:'J', .1••··-1·~~'•. ;
Illustrate the changes in the endings of adjectives and adverbs to · ·,- 1' -\•~,
denote comparison. What substitute for these endings is mentioned? · ·
1
,
1llustrate what is ~aught regarding the use of these forms.
/

·_' · l

\:'-

ADVERBS

.

'

'

--- ' '

'

.• '

,. -:::>•}'

DEFINITION.-A Phrase is a group of words denoting
related
·{ >
,,
. ...
..
ideas but not expressing a thought.
';
... ' ·~ , ~; ;~
~_:,:\~~~ _

'

XXXVI

REVIEW.

What is ~ modifier? Illustrate the meaning of modified subject.
What is a diagram? What is an adjective ? Show that some adjectives merely point out, and that some express quality. Show that the
same word may be used as different parts of speech. Mention some
things to be avoided in nsing adjectives. Explain the use of an and a.
What Rule for capitals applies ·only to poetry ?
Illustrate the meaning of modified predicate. Show that ad verbs
may modify three different parts of speech. Show that adverbs may

>

Analysis.

'

'

i

-'Y>I

· "--:~b: :

\ .

1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity; of .·,':~,~' ,
\ ; ' d~·.. <
vibration. 1
·· ~~ >'-"
Explanation. - The dia- , ·\_..:,·;~_.
''
~~
gram of the phrase is made up ? . '.".•_. ;
of a slanting line s~andiug ·for,, , 1 ··~:,
the introductory word, and a · ; ' '.
horizontal line representing · :' ':.
~
•t'bration
the principal word; ., Under '. 1/ \ '.
the latter are drawn the.11ifies,·
.
that represent the modifiers of the principal word.
_.,\,. ·.·<·:. ,'
{

'

.

'It \'I
"

;\i~~ ,' '

"'

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

\nalysis -This is a <leclamtive sentence. Pi'ich is the suoject,
>ends is the predicate. The and the adjective phrase of the ·
note are modifiers of the subject ; the ad verb phrase upon the
1 of vibration is a modifier of the pre<licate.
Of introduces the
·ase, and note is the principal word ; the nll'l musical are modi1•ole. Upon introduces the second phrase, and rapid·i ty is the
i.l word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modifiers
ldy; of introduces this adjective phrase, an<l vibration is the
ti word.
·1itch of the mnsical note is the modified subject, and depends
e rapidity of vibration is the modified predicate.
1

:urgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. ·
~. ead from the book of nature.
Vas New York settled by the Dutch?
'he second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia.
1
'he subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate.
''he first word of every entire sentence should begin with a
letter.
l' he North Pole has been approached in three principal direc-

71

Prepositions.

These prepositions, as you have learned, inttodu~~\ and
phrases. Let us 19ok more closely into their office.
\
In the sentence ''The squirrel ran up a tree,"
sho"!'s the relati~n
that the act of running has to the tree. Repeat this sentence, using in
plaee of 1tp each of the following words in succession : around, behind,
down, into, ove1-, through, to, under, from. You see that these ten
prepositions enable you to express ten different relations that the run- :
ning bears to the tree.

up

DIRECTION.- Point out all the prepositions in the preceding Les-,
son, and tell what they bring into relation.
, '

Examples.-He went in the house (wrong);

He went into the house (right).
·~-~- -

,Vhat a chorus of insect voices may be heard in June!
f'he Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United
uy the blueness of the water.

She stays to home (wrong);

\

r

:
I

\ /

She stays at home (right).

d

DIRECTION .-Rewrite the following sentences, changing the ital•
icized words into equivalent phrases: -

LESSON

XXXVlll.

Example.-The sentence was carefully written.
The sentence was written with care.

PREPOSITIONS.

1. A group of children were strolling homeward.
~ductory.-The

little wor<ls that in the preceding Lesson are
before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a class of words

Prepositions.*
"' Lat. pra;, before, and 7JOsitus, placed-their usual position being before the
1t h which they form a phrnae.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The old soldier fought courageoitsly.
No season of life should be spent idly.
The English ambassador had not then arrived.
That generotts act was liberally rewarded.
Much has been said about the Swiss scenery.

"

'

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Arrangement and Punctuation of' Phrases.

..

73

··,
. '-·~:-,r ~"·"'..,\ff;
.':/ ;_... ~~ ... ,~
In (c) ' the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it w'Pre
not
essential,
thus
-'~
l~
...,
\ .u)
making a break in the sentence:, 'l'o make this apparent to the eye, we !.}'. ·.·j::··~ :..1
'' itf c~~.~;~~fr
set the phrase off by the comma.
.
, · ,:·'~~·i.r~.~
1
Place t.he phrase of (c)' in three other positions, and set it off. When : ~:~.J' ~
lhe phrase is at the beginning ~rat the end of the sentence: h~w. mahy 1 /·J.J' :.)
commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is m the_,/';· , ·l:-'~
middle ?
,
; /'ru' ··
Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase ? After '_'1,1• ~::;·~ ~~
having been told that your answ:ers were correct, would it be a di sap-; ,fi{'t:,,. , •':-:~
pointment to be told that they were not all correct ? Is the interest in '. ?:~·:; tj
.
_, . .• J
a story best kept up by first telling the important points ~nd then •the '-.' j '~ ·
unimportant particulars? What, then, do you ~hink of placing_, ~hi\ :~.~·~\,.,
phrase at the end ?
.
.
I
What does the last phrase of (d) modify ? 'l'a;ke OIL':. the comma, and ~.1J.:,. ';.~
•
'V
f ': "' 1
then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase '" '.~.!·: "..},
.. ·, .... \.' ~;':'< .· ... ~1J'.
modifies.
' \ •~ . ,.r.·
Let us sum up what we have just learned.
. ~ l<;:; (~~

.

.J·..:·

7. A brazen image was there set up.
8. 'Those homeless children were kindly treated.
Same Words as Prepositions and as Adverbs.
DIRECTION.-Use the following words as prepositions and as

lverbs :-

Example.-Birds were singing above us.
Birds were singing above.
aboard
below

after
by

around
over

before
past

',;:J: .;

LESSON
ARRANGEMENT

AND

XXXIX

PUNCTUATION

OF

PHRASES.

'

••

DIRECTION.-Copy the following, and note the arrangement and
he punctuation of the phrases: -

(a) 'This place is endeared to me by mauy associations.
(b) 'l'o me, this place is endeared by man y associations.
(c) Your answers, with few cxecpt:ions, have been correctly given.
(d) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
Observation Exercises.-Phrases in their natural orde1· follow
he words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the
'Rine word, the one most closely modifyin g it stands nearest to it.
I 1i the first sentence al.Jove, to me tells to whom the place is endeared;
'iy many associations tells how it is end eared to me, and is therefore
nlaced after to me. 'Try the effect of placing to me last. Phrases, like
tujectives, may be of difierent rank. (See Lesson XXIX.)
Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order.
Notice that to me, in (b) above, is transposed r.nd thus made em·
phatic, and that it is set off by the comma.

r

~t:·A'

.caution.-Place phrases (and othe~ modifiers) ~here they f·~·~1,
will sound best and make the meanmg clearest-generally .'.· '•.'
as near as possible to the word modified. ,
. ·. ~, t· .~;~'~;
i.

1
·

COMMA-RULE.-Phrnses that are place1l out of their natural\. 'E~/·~
order and made emphatic; or that are loosely connected with .the · );~
rest of the sentence, should be set off by f.he comma.
' · · ' .' :~~°.'.'
••

COMMA-GENERAL RULE.-Use the comma whenever it will
make the meaning clearer.

1•

I

•. 1 •·
....

•'

'

'

DIRECTLON.-Exp18.in the punctuation of the following sen~ences;

determine what different positions the phra1:1es will take, which form
you prefer, and the punctuation for each form:-

I

I

'-r
'

1. For this, time will be required.
2. In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to
throne.
3. No valuable knowledge can be acquired without labor.

th~
'.

'
...... ~

. f . ..

<·'"
(

'

,

~.

'!,

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

75

Parts of Speech Distinguished

I

~

.,

. :~
•

From peak to peak, the rattling crags among,
Leaps the live thunder.
In the preceding sentence, from Byron, among is transposed.
He went from New York to Philadelphia 011 Monday.
In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under th e cover of a
. he approached.
The stories of the adventures of Capt. J ohn Smith were, without
t, somewhat exaggerated.
It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest
' to the present <lay.
Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley.
>servation Exercfoes.-In (1) above, what change in emphasis i'l
\ by putting the words in their natnrnl order ? Without the
na in (1) what confusion might arise ? Why is the transposed
o;e in (10) not set off ?
hat part of speech is among, in (5) ?-in (4) ?
RECTIO.N.-Correct these errors in position; give your reasons;
the comma if necessary :-

, The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by
~resident.

That small man is speaking with red whiskers.
A message was read from the President in the Senate.
Some garments were made for the poor family of thick material.
On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lecture at
Id brick church was delivered.
the Teacher.-In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often
1hle, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost und opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
1y of the principles that underlie the const.ruction of the sentence may be here
uced and worked into the pupil's mode of thought nnd expression, if only the
calitles of the rhetoricians be avoided, and the pupil be led by ea~y steps to
•e, and to draw his own conclneions.
1 questions as those on (c) above, may 8uggest one mode of easy approach to
s usually regarded as an abstruse subject.

~ay

;I

..... ~

trans~osed for - va-:_-~~~,,··

Lead the pupils to discover for themselves that phrases
be
rlous reasons-for emphasis, as in (1) above; for the sake of balancing the sentciic~.,:}lfi'.­
by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follhw, the principal parts, ! 1(\'Y
as in (2'; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention _i · ~ \ :
till the co;;nplete statement is made, as In (7); and for other reasons.
Let the effects of all po13sible changes in the above examples be fuHy discussed bj . •, ~..:::f·

.

. ,. Z "'

·;x:::r
,;'

th~~~:.i~~;or~:~s;::1::~~~: ~:/~::~:d:e:~~a~~::~t:~:~;;ses ~ontlnued.

· •.

Additional Exercises In Analysis.
~·:.C:
;. \~~'!
'
• !.
The examples above have been carefully prepared with reference to their belnd .. •':/.!i\
used as additional exercises in analysis~
~~ ;!·~· ~~j
~~

•

•.

(J

•I\. ·:

I

. ' \ \~· .,:
Com position.
\ . t~J'::.-:-- fu
We suggest thnt, from two or more paragraphs of some Interesting and instructive · ..,,: /;
article, leading sentences be eelected, and that the pupils be required to explain the•
office ond the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phra~e~, . to vary the ar- , l•
rnngement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of ,these changes. Then, :.::.~ ,.. ,
aft.er finding the general subject, and the heading for each paragraph, the I/uplls may ;-=! ·;.~. :t;
arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions .:,'.. ;; 1 /;;, I
as may be suggested.
,· i, ,I,.~~~:. '

,, . i ...,4·.w·'
... ~ ". [

LESS 0 N
PARTS OF

SPEECH

XL.

\

.~ ',: \·;. ;~1-:>( ·~ ·f

I

:·..c:_~t-, ..,.

r.

DISTINGUISHED.
I

· ...

. ;'' . 't~!.~
'

DIRECTION.-Make sentences, employing the following words a8 ·;;,-

indicated by the abbreviations:-

- --

(prep .. = preposition, pro. == pronoun.}
too adv.
v. sent
prep. to
two adj.
v. lain
prep. in
inn n.
n. or v. bow
, prep. , through threw v.
v. guessed
prep. or adj. past
passed v.
v. led
adv. forth
fourth adJ.
adj, great
grate n. or v.
adj. all
adv. there
v. break
their pro.
pear n.
v. pare
pair n.
n. or v. pause
paws n.

'

1'

.

• "\'.'·':'(."'..-

;

i

-'~J,1, '; ·

. · ',.' ··:i. ~~.;; ,:

cent n.
scent n.
lane 'n.
bough, n.
guest n. ·
lead .n • .·

. ..

,.,.. ~ .~ '#.~

,-t

I

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

77

C9mpound Parts.

LESSON
. COMPOUND

XLI.
PARTS.

'.roductory.-(a) 'William and Mary reigned together.
(b) Titles ebb and flow.
1

'lliani and JIIary, connected by and, form the Com1Jo1md Subof reigned.

•b and flow, connected by and, form the Compound Predicatf?
/es.
lter parts may be compounded ; as,

Cloudy or rainy weather may be expected.
The figure swayed back and for th.
_
Dispatches were received from London and fro in Pa1·is.
int out the connective that links together the parts of eac h com·
cl, _and explain the office of the connecte<l terms.

wo or more connected subjects having the same predi.form a Componn<.l Sttl~ject.
wo or more connected predicates having the same subform a Compound P1·edicate.
Analysis.

Ah ! anxious wives, sisters, and m others wait for the news.
~

Explanation.-The three short horizontal
lines represent each a. part of
i: x
wait
' ~~ters
the com pound subject. They are
"?.
connected by dotted lines, which stand
•thers
""'°" for the conn ecti ng worcls. The x
~
shows that a connectirn is understood.
'fhe line standing for the
modifier is joined to that part of t.h c cliagrnm which represent8
wives

._ I .• '

'

'"

'

, .

:

- ~~

--~\;,·~~·
:~r
,.t.·ft,
'
h·
'\

the three subjects united. Tur1i. this diagram about~ and the connecte~ ·'" \ · 1 ·
'
• t 11:1); ~
horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a cqmpound predicate. ·. , ·, :°:!{._ ..
The line standing for ah is placed apart to shOw that this word is in:· . ~.:'.:~f.
' . , ,.. _ f
dependent.
,
·', :·· _ .
.

I

X"

'·¥

Oral Analysis.- ·wives, sisters, and mothers form the compound. · , ( ,.,.,..;
subject; anx'ious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects ,.("\,:.::,
b'ister.<J and mothers. .Ah is an exclamatory word used indepen<letitly. · ' 1;''~~ ~;'
(Fill in from preceding models.)
\.
'";;·;~, ;
• ' \ •t · , , . , ;

•

2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin.
: J: ~-": '.1~ ,
3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. ., ' '~ :. ~:
.. ~ \ ' r;. t
t 4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a str,a nge land and of a• ·h· ..'·
strange parentage. ·
,. _, 1..y, t·._ ~:'-r
1
5. The Revolutionary War began at Lexi~gton and ended at York..
.
. ·r .~,';J
t own. .
" · ..,~y~
6. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China an<l in , ~ · :. · -•1
' .... . .
other parts of Asia.
·
·
··
'i. 'l'he small but courageous band was finally overpowered.
8. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. .
.,

*

f!- .1 '~

t

1:f

•• ,

;;:<.Jf:ylf:

'

~ 9. Both friend and foe applauded.

•; , · .·~ Y :;.·· -~,
10. All forms of the lever and all tpe principal kinds of hinges are ·· ~ ':•-;::: ..
. t}1e b oUy.
' ·• ., , ·'.N.;.
f oun cl in
,
·~ • ·... ·1}. ;., ,
..
•
Ai .. .·•. "'.~ ...
11. The optic nerve passes from the bram to the back of the eyeball, · , . );: ''!"'·
and there spreads out.
\
·\ · '~~::!~;
12. From the l\'.loun t of 0 lives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and ,·"- :·:. ,.'
solemn, is seen .

•

·t

·

pmver.~

friend

_..fi_oe......,~

I

applauded

· · '..'-,~.-:~.~;.:~:~~

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

7Q

Connected Terms-Punctuation.

.. l. ~~ _:~f'-.f;;~
.

LESSON

XLII.

CONJUNCTIONS.

0ductory.-The connecting words which, in the preceding Les·
~~re used to join wonls and phrases in to compound elements, be·
' a class of words call ed Conjunct.ions.
"Men may come and men may go,
But I go on fo rever. "

1

~,

Can you see any reason for using were in (2) and was in (8), Less. : ". · t·i~·
XLI. ? How many things "were identified" ? ·Were two results. . .J:·:<j,~
, . ..
"anticipated" ? Point out in Less. XLJ. the predicates that can :.· :.. · ; '.
agree only with sing ular subjects, and those that can agree .only with
plural subjects, and show that they are correctly used.

LESSON

· TCC'l'ION.-Point out the conjunctions in the preceding Lesson.

,I

,

Tell where conjunctions are omitted•

·ervation Exercises-Review.-R ca<l wh at is said in L esson
X. a bout the order and " rank " of phrases. Find in the sen: of Lesson XLI. three phrases modifying the sam e word two of
are of the s~me rank, forming a compound phrase. Are these
·s in their natural order ? H ow could the arrangement be
cd ? Explain the use or the omission of the comma with these
:s in their different positions. Find a phrase at the beginning of
ence modifying a word at the end. Why is it set off ?
•<l what is said on p. 58, Explanation, about the order and
of udj ectives. Omit but from (7), L ess. XLI., and decide1 from
you have just read, whether a comma would be needed. Find in.

•

:.,_\f'.i

Conjunction is a word used to connect
·. , phrases, or clauses.

what they connect.
·hat may be supplied.

;

~.

'~INITION.-A

·~ 11

·~ .. 4"

_'
the sentences of Less. XLI. three adjectives of the-.. same rank preced· :~ .·; ·';:,. ;, i~
·... ,·· mg
·
\.
th·
,~
t h.
e1r noun, an dth ree of h
t e same ran kfll
o owmg
e1r noun. ·.(.,.A·1.
~" ·f. '.~ 1·~~:
I - . ' • "'•:J!
·\· - What difference do you find in their connectio1, and in their punctua. ·'·;,
'~.'·\.:-Ii ;,,,
~ i~· tion? Observe the punctuation of other connected terms in Less. XLI. 1 . · ~ -~ f!.'·<;>t::.
~~:;~
Can you draw any conclusion ?
. .)..~.:·
Notice that the group of adjectives following the noun is set off from
/ ·~·¥: f
the rest of the sentence by two commas. See also the last sentence of
'
Y..::•;-. '~
1
Less. XXIX. The rule for phrases may apply to these transposed
,
•,
groups.
I\
. " ..
Are adjectives of different rank separated by the · comma? Illus-\.' ..:j/'~~
'
·\ ,. ,.{' ' .
trate.
- -,,~. ~<'

· many separate sentences can you make of the two lin es above ?
this, what words must you omit ? These, then, arc t he words
•in the separate sentences into one compouml expression.
·ntence thus joined to anoth er we call a Clause. ·
it three kinds of expressions may co njunctions conn ect?
1ce that words and phrases connected by conjunctions have the
1mce in the sen tence-are of t he same rank.

' :' \\

CONNECTED TERMS-PUNCTUATION :

1. Dark and threatening clouds appear.
2. Dark, threatening clouds appear.
3. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well.
4. 'l'hat old, rickety wooden building has fallen.
5. We are fearfully, wonderfully made.
6. 'l'he work was done carefully, intelligently, and conscientiously.
7. Dispatches were received from London, from Paris, and from St.
Petersburgh.
·
8. Gold or silver will be received in payme,nt.
'

·

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Days, months, years, and ages circle away.
Cresar came, saw, and conquered.
Cresar came and saw and conquered.

I

CONNECTED

bservation Exercises.-What differences do you discoYer in (1)
(2) ? Are the adjectives in (3) of the same rank ? Which adjec' in (4) are of the same rank ? Are the commas in (2), (4), and (5)
i for the same reason ? How many conjunctions are omitted iv
How many commas are used ? Apply the last two questions to
(8), (9), (10), and (11). Under what circuinstances <lo you find a
111a Lefore a conjunction ?

UMMA.-RULE.-Words or phrases connected by conjunctions
separated from each other by t.he comma unless all the con·
etions are expressed.
CRECTION.-Tell how the Rule applies to each of the sentences

ve.
IRECTION.-Copy the following, and tell why commas are,

81

Connected Terms-Punctuation.

01

not, used with the connected terms :3. Animals see, hear, feel, smell, and taste.
t Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, antl in the United States.
L The old, historic Charter Oak was blown tlown.
'· A daring but foolish feat was performed.
l. A pair of old, shabby, and dirty white kid gloves were drawn on.
I. ·we climbed up a mountain for a view.
!. Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, and Vespasian were Roman emperors.
1, The book is published by J.Jitt le, Brown, & Co., of Boston.
I. The air, the earth, and the water ieem with delighted existence.
n a series of three or more connected terms, the conjunction is usually expressed
betwee'.1 t he last two terms ; but, when, for the sake of emphasis or rhetorical
;, the cdnjunctions are nil retained , writers differ as to the use of the r.omma.
lional emphasis is sometimes sought by putting a comma before each con
ion. ,

DIRECTION.-Copy the following sentences, and
cording to the Rule in the preceding Lesson:-

1. Bright healthful vigorous poetry was written by :rvplton.
2. Men women and children stare cry out and run.
3. You have now learned about the noun the pronoun
the verb the adverb the preposition and the conjunction.
4. We traveled through England through Scotland · and
Ireland.
5. The lior1 the tiger and the panther belong to the cat tribe.
DIRECTIO:N.--Copy the following sentences, and notice
the Rule in the preceding Lesson is strictly followed :- ·

1

.

.\

'1

;.

t ).f
1

. ._(}.,.

,.· : r;~r);
~

~·

V'"

6. Wild birds shrieked, and fl.uttered on the ' ground.
, 1 ..... , ,~1'.
7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and 1clirhbs ·.~;.;
, slowly and steadily .to the zenith.
·
- '\";~ii
8. A C~ristian spirit sh~ul.d be shown to Jew or Greek, male . ~o~ . . :f;~:;
female, friend or foe.
.
.
. .·
· ;; J·i~·l-r•:l!'J ·~·
9. Ireland, or the Emerald Isle, lies to the west of England. ' ;,.:;~/ ~"'.)
'

-----.

,I

.

I·

,

t· )1,,.
•'•
• \'o';:i,.{

Observation Exercises.-Does the phrase in (6) 'modify ~m~ part/ ~r~~\;
. both parts, of the predicate? Does the comma help you .to· see this ?/;',
Name separately the two parts of the modified predicate in (7)._ l)o~:<~'/i;_,)
:
the comma help the eye to separate these parts ?
.. .
~ .. ;' 2;~:· -.'~\t-~f,'!,:.1~~)';
' ' Find the pairs of words in (8). Notice · that .these thr~e . pairs; ;a.re ,\J: ~J ;~~~f
separated as if they were single terms, but that the words in t~e paifS ::~·f;i:.\~ ~. ._ .
. ... .
~\
are no t separa t ed .
, .
":'t'" ...
.,:(·
, ~~ ·
Compare (9) above with (8) of the preceding Lesson, and note. tlie '.) /:~ ;;:iv.,1
1
difference in relation, and in punctuation, of the terms connected·by or. / '.4-~~~

'j

.

{

•( '.·tr!.
1

l~ i

7y' {·
.'":4'. ·.:r

~

Exceptions to the preceding Rule.-When the .connected 't~rm~ \·~~{;·}:~.'j:
are long or differently modified, they are sometimes sepa~ated by ,the ~:.:~)\'. '.'
comma, tqough no conjunction is omitted.
.
.
· -· <·-"'\"J:·'.+/J.:
·. fl
~~ }
. ••. L:i'i~ ,... ;•
6 1
~
f_rJ~.~
',,I •

I

I

/

'

•,i ' ! '~i

• /

1

1,1 1)0)

~ :\,·~;." .: ••1:.il.'t_('t~

84

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Independent Elements-Interjections.
I

preceded by eacli, eve1·y, or no, the verb agrees in the sm·
gular.
When singular connected subjects name the same thing,
the verb agrees .in the singular.
DIRECTION.-Show that the following italicized words are cor--

rect :-

12. Every fly, bee, bee tle, and butterfly is provided with six feet.
13; That desperate robber and murderer was finally secured.
14. The builder and owner of. the yacht has sailed from Liverpool on
the City of Rome.
Observation Exercises.-Tell how the last two sentences above
differ from the first two below. Notice that, if but one the were used
in (17) below, it would appear that the same stanza could be both fifth
and sixth ; and notice that, if but one a were used in (18), blind and
lame would describe one man.
If stanza were plural, it woukl be incorrect to repeat the, for stanzas
would be understood after fifth.
DIRECTION.-Expiain the agreement of the verbs in the follow.

ing sentences:-

15.
16.
pool.
17.
18.

That despemte robber and that murderer were finally secured.
The builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from LiverThe fifth and the sixth stanza were added at a later date.
A lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging.
Arrangement of. Connected Subjects.

Observation Exercises.-Which do· you think the more polite form, .
" You and I al'e invited," or "I and yott are invited" ?-'' J.[ary and
I are invited," or "I and Mary are invited " ?-" You an<l llfary are
invited,h or "Mary and you are invited" ?-" You and llf'ary and 1
are- invited," or "I and llfary and you are invited" ?

.'

86

'

. :~·;~\~~~;:~.~~
' '. ) :1 .,.

.

..,
We trust the conclusion to your good breeding.

; ... '
. \ . 'r
.·~... ,~
"·
f!"11,.f~- '

\

'

Additional Exercises In Analysis.

.

. ..

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. ·.. '>"*'; ) ...

'Y::".'' ·

To the Teacher ,-Tbe sentences above have been selected with reference to use . .
,'( ' ·
'
for exercises in analysis.
. . / ' ..;~ ' /
/ 1 } .:-L.ty:, i
.~.

.

~

LESSON XLVI.

I .

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INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS-INTERJECTIONS,l\""· •

1
"":_..

~~~(~·

··- \ }.:. ~·,

.

Introductory.-Oh/ ah! a~as! ha, ha, ha! hollo! hurrah! psh~"r" \· · ~0·;' ::
etc. express sudden bursts of feeling. As they_ have no grammatical - . ~ ',T: ; ,
relation to any other word in the sentence, we say that they are ,inde-. · :.,:;~ ~·
· / . '. '
\Ji,- •
P endent. See ah, Less. XLI., Diagram and Oral Analysis.
,..l:
Such words form the eighth and last part of speech. They are cal!~~ · \ :· ~~
Interjections.*

Words belonging to other parts of speech become Interjections when
,;~ .r·~
used as mere exclamations ; as,

..

(a) What I are you going ?
(b) Welz I you surprise me.

:

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." ,\\
. ,>~;
..
~

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:,

·~

··----i

. . •'":' t

, , Other words besides interjections may be used independently; as,
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f}
(g}

Com~

on, boys.
Well, we will try it.
Now, that is strange.
Why, this looks right.
There is reason in this.

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· Boys simply arrests the attention of the persons addressed. Well,
now, and why are used colloquially to introduce sentences withput'
~aterially adding to the meaning. There, as here used,' lose.s ' its
ordinary meaning, and serves merely to throw the subject after .the
predicate. This use of there is very common and very convenient. ' · '

'•

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,, ,:'.·;"
~ 'f'~ "'
~i ;;.'•; '.,l, ·;.' ·

"'Lat. inter, between, andj.acere, t.o throw:

.

'. ,,

~

Independent Elements,Interjections.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

87
,

Adverbial words and phrases are often so usetl us to be nearly
ndependent; as,
(h) Lee did not, however, follow W ashington's orders.

( i) This, infact, needs no proof.

Notice carefully the punctuation of the examples above.
DEFL~ITION.-An Inte1ject'ion is a lVOr<l used to express

trong or sudden feeling.
Analysis.

DIRECTION.--Diagram the following sentences, and explain the
)rce of the interjections and other independent words: -

Explanation.-In the diagra m, independent words should Le placed
part from the rest of the sentenee. See ah in diagram, L ess. XLI.

11. Oh, that is easily explained.
12. Boys, shout. -Boys &bout.
13. Ah, certainly, I understand.

-

Ugh ! I look forward with dread to to-morrow.
Tush ! tush ! 't will not again appear.
l\Ir. President, I shall enter 011 no encomiums upon MassachuNow, there is at J eru::::alem, by the sheep-market, a pool.
Punctuation.

DIRECTION.-Copy the following expressions, and note carefulllf
1ch mark of punctuation :-

1. Sail on, 0 Ship of State !

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Look, then, into thy heart.
0 Shame ! where is thy blush ?
Boast not, my dear friend; of to-morrow,
Hurrah ! the field is won.
Knock, knock, knock! Who's there1?
There is gold here.
New York, on the contrary, abounds in men of wealth.
Oh I how terrible !
Oh, what a magnificent landscape !

J , ·' {f

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't;

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f: ,• •"l ' l)':r;,-.,' .-.,.~ -ft
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't~ : _.. ~}:, ..;~•.~~ .

.

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.·.,.

• ,,

. '

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l·./ ~~ ~ ·;- ,

Observation Exercises.-Name the interjections in the example& '.~ ~(
&hove. Which of these unite with other words to make on~ exclam~
tory expression ? Which are followed immediately by the exclamatio9""~: ,'~ •
'point ? Which one is set off from the rest of the exclamatory ~xpre&-i;t-.-1: .
sion by the 'comma? Can you see any reason "'hy (9) and (10) .-~.ho1lld:~~ ·r
be punctuated differently ?
· ' ~: ....· :qf:':t,~;;' ."Mention the independent expressions used to name the pe~so1!s or1.':Z,' ~L
things addressed. Which of these are exclamatory ? W.h ich are· sef~1:\(':
off by the comma ? Which one is set off by the exclamation point ? '•/t;;.:
Do you find any mark immediately after. 0 when it · introduces ·a ~:{,.,... .;
term of address ? Point out two interjections that have lost .thejr ex- ";"';~r;_.~~
~ J.'.1
clamatory force. How are they punctuated?
- ·l···_-,"f<.'
Point out the 'adverbial expressions that are independent or nearly :}: if ;:
.
\.
.1
so. How is e!lch punctuated?
··
. ' .-~;) ;.~

'. A'/:\
1

'

1.
2.
3.
itts.
4.

,:-

I

·.

,.

"l,,,:ll. ....

t!---~

.

. ,. ·r·

\<,_ ,¥ .. ~ . . .

COMMA-RULE.-Words and phrases independent or nearly s~ 1;~~.;~;"·'.t:i·
are set off by the comma.
..: ; ~ ~- : ~.. +._f4:.".'..-.
..,,

-

•1

' ' ~· '.f~ _:3: •'
Remark.-'-No comma is used after tlie.ex_clamation' point, and t?i-er~i·h : ::
.
'
'
• I
1
used )nerely to introduce, is never set off. . '.
_
~·. / . ~~!•'.'.•·_

I ..

· .,_

l

I

Observation Exercises-Review.-Which of the above·exp,r~~ion~ ~~r~~·
are sentences ? Classify these sentences. What two kinds ·of . sen
-i\ ..-:
,. .. ' ...u,
tences are followed by the period? What three kinds of marks may' -'-t·,,.,
stand at the end of a sentence? 'l'hese 'are called terminal marks: .. ·, .- .:.•::'!,.~;
Analyze the two sentences in (12), and explain their differenc~~ fµlly·~-,;.r~.:.-, ·
1

1

I

.

I

-

Distinguishing tQe Par~s of Speech.'

,

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~

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.

- ·, ' · ..

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.

To the ,Teacher.-F,r om the two preceding Lessons sentences -may be selec-ted... k! I
lilustrating ail the parts 'of speech. The pupils may be required to arrange these into ,''"";"
col!llllns with proper headings, as in Less. XXXIL · ·
' ·
.. .I' • ' \-. .: 'i~if;­
The teacher must determine how much of this work is profitable, tememberlng t~f~ f
the exact office of a word is of more importa11ce to the pupil than It~ name. - · ,.,. . ., •j t'
.

,

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- ... ~_:'it,-•

l

We may call the forms in t.he first list subject fo1'ms, but grummari· .
·s usually call them nominative fbrms (nominative means namrJ) . Those in the Recond list are called objective f'orms.
Use each of the following nouns as subject, as attribute complement,
object complement, and as principal word in 'L prepositional phrase;
d see whether the nouns change their forms for t:1ese different uses :- :
Historian, poet, artist..
Do you think that nouns have distinctive nominative and objective
l'IIlS?

84.
35.
36.
37.

\." .-:i~.-:--.: . 1,

- - - could have been meant ?
She invited you and - - .
You and - - - were invited.
Will you go with papa and - - ?

·-·.·:\;·: ~~,,:: .,"'.
1
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·,.·~·

n
28.

m.
lO.

n.
!2.
l3.

- - - did you see ?
- - - did you ask for ?
This must remain a secret between - - - an<l - .
- - - was referred to ?
- - - did he refer to ?
--- they restored to office.
- - - they hanged.
Was' it _ _ _ _ j _ or---?
It must have .been - - - .
Who was there? - - - and~... .. .,
Who spoke ?
- - - could she have meant?

;#

.

-LESSON

LI IL·
_:. _,_,._,
......

NOUNS AS .ADJECTIVE

:I.I

•

- MO~l~~~RS .

. . \;·

., ., \

,
1

Intr_·,o ductory.-In "The robin's eggs are blue,." robin's ~ tells ~what 1 :.. •
egg~ or whose ~ggs are spoken of, and is the~~-f~re a modifier of 'eg~s. :<~
Notice 'hat a little mark (' ), called an apostrophe, and the. letter s f~ ;,.,y .. · 11
are added to the word robin to denoto the idea of _possessipn.
. ·..1;1~:;~~ [l
1n " The robins' eggs are blue," t)he s is added to robin to den?te '. >. t~"'. ~-,,...-.j
Ii1ore thal1 on~, the apostrophe alone deno~ing the idea of possession. ,· ' ·. /~i~; j
The possessive forms of pronouns are Irregular and do not employ -- -; ~ '.~· ;'.' 1
the apostrophe;* as, my, our, thy, your, hf,s, hm·, its, their, whose. , · ~' .~;J~;,t.;)J
In '' Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire," states-. , .'; "\,~~ ;
man explains what Webster is meant, and is therefore a mmlifier of
':~t . 1
UT b t
''>;.f/;·
rre ser.
. : ·.'' . .r.,:.••'..1, :'
• '
~
• .. <.,J.;; .,
Robins and statesman; like adjectives, modify nouns; but they are '.,. ; ..:..'J.,,,_..'•':
names ~f things, and may be modil~e~ by .adjectives ; as, "the .Ameri- \ {
can robm's eggs," "Webster, the distinguished statesman."
They are._ 1·.I . • ,'"••(• ; ·
.
I

·22.
23.
'3 4.
25.
!G.

Ai!. 'I

repeat the expression~ uloud till the com~ct form becomes familiar.
':: :.:~~;j:~.1
To familiarize pupils with nominative forms after the verb be, they may be allowed .... , ' .- :.J,;_.;.
to repeat rapidly in rnccession such forms as, It ts I, It is we, etc. (using all the ~om• .
inative forms except ye); Is it If Is it we.t etc.; It is not I, It is not we; etc.; 1:''.:,,,\.:·· i,.I);,· ·
Is it not I! Is it not we f etc. These forms may be repeated withJ Wad, may ha171 '.·i
·~-"·t•
,
been, mtqht have been, etc. In place of is.
,
:,,t~

Caution: - Me, u,s, thee, hini, hm·, them, and whom
•otlld n?t be used as sn bjects or as attribute complement~

pplied :-

-,~ ~; . 11

:..,,,.~ J II'

.

A'I /f . 1 ',.'t'''i ' . 1
To the Teacher.-We suggest that, after filling the blanks above, the pupils ,.
.·~~ .'., 11

·epositional phrases.

nERECTION.-Use the no:minative and the objective forms g~Ten
·ove, to :fill the following blanks, and explain the office of each word

. :_, ;

- :-"'.;~'_:/{;:1111,:

Caution.-I,we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who should
it be used as object complements or as principal words in

sente'.ices.

97

Nouns as Adjective Modifiers.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

•

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.........

./.f1l: ;
r

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- _ -.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

• The adjective pronouns one and other are exceptions. Seep. 297.·

5

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.

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100

101.

Participles.

The Sentence and the Pal'ts of Speech.

Caution.-When a group of words may be treated as a
compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last
worcl ; as,
Cla1'k and Maynard's office; J. J. Little & Co .'s printing-house;
Alexander the Great's tutor.
DIRECTION.-Make possessive modifiers of the following:-

William the Conqueror ; Duke of York ; Houghton, Mifflin, and
Company.

You have learned that some pronouns have three distinctive forms to denote their office in the sentence, and that
nouns have one such form. Grammarians call these forms
cases; so we have the n01ni.native cci ..;e, the possessfve
case, and 'the ol~jective case.*
CO!UU-RULE.-An Explanatory Modiftm·, when it does
not restrict the mocliflecl term or combine closeiy ':~·ii;lt it, is set oft'
by the COllllllll.

DIBECTION.-Give reasons for the use or t:Q'3 omission ~f commas
'

'In the following- !lentences :-

\

,

.

.-~..,.

"'These tenns.are applied

to

the qffice n1so, even whe11 the di stinctive form ls wanting.

' !

I.

1. The poet Milton became blind.

...,/ · '
2. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard.
3. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat club. /. ,
4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cmel I i~ his treatment of / . ', ; ..
.Montezuma.
/ ·
·. ri

DIBECTION.-Copy the following, use commas where :ueede\ '

, {

/ .

~d' ;.i:~t~

5. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth.
.. '
·• '.: '. ~ :'.
The
author
of
"Robinson
Crusoe"
Daniel·
Defoe
was
the
son
of
.
",~:~6
a. butcher.
'
' · ._,_'!
. '.·' '
7. My son Joseph has entered college.
. ·" )'.~~· :
8. He himself could not go.
, : k:~~-:
9. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans.
·. : ·.10. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name ·~o
··

11

1

•

•

I

1

·"

•• t ) '

.

\

Franc~

.

,

1,~ ' · ·

r

~x~~s-. ., •~.:;;~,

DIRECTION.-Compose sentences containing tµe following
sions as explanatory modifiers :'
·
"

.·~

A useful metal ; t.he capital of Turkey ; the ' great English Poets ;
I

Explanation.-" Webster the disti11 guished statesman was cohfounded with Webster the ,qreat lexicographer." The name 'Webster b.
here restricted by the italicized wonls. The explanatory modifier tells,
in each case, which vV ebster is meant. Omit these explanatory t erms,
and see how necessary they are to t.he se nse.
"Daniel Webster, the distinguished sta.tesrnan, died in 1852." Here '
the explanatory term docs not restrict, or limit, the application of thf:l
preceding name ; it simply adds information.
In such expressions as "I rnyse(f," "we boys," the explanatory 't erm
combines so closely with the word explained that no comma is allowed.

.': '
1\ •
, ·:". ·;,'
•.

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.'

_ #...,: .·.
I

the hermit.

"~: iff
' ~
·, ' ·, "

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"

LESSON

LV.
I

PARTICIPLES.
.

· \ ·,·, .
I ' \' .'

~troduftory.-What two things must every complete predicate do? . · · .,
(See !.Jess: XLIX.) Why is " grass growin_g" not a sentence ?
:

<

(a) The bird singing so sweetly is entertaining his mate.
(b) The bird delights in p<mring out his rich notes.
What words in the two sentences above express action without assert, •.
;

.

102

103 .

Infinitives.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speecn,

9. We receive good by doing good.
'-,
•
.
. .
Explanation.-The line represenfang ~h
, e , :' ..
.
We
1·eceive
ood
...;.;..:;..-1--~~_._...__
pa1ticiple here is broken ; the fi rs t par t
1 dotn
ood
represents the participle as a noun, and ,'
the other as a verb. (Nouns and verbs are / -

ing ? Which one of these is joined, like an adjective, to a nL.un to
point out and describe the thing named ? Which follows a preposition
and names an action, like a noun ?
One of these words is partly mi adfective and partly a 1•erb, the other
is partly a noun· and partly a verb, -so we call them Participles.*
We class them with verbs, although they do not assert.

/

both written on horizontal lines.)

:' ·

Oral Analysis .-The phrase by doing good is a mo~ifier.<;>f the ~re~­
icate . by introduces the phrase ; ·the principal word is doi"}'g,
.;_ J
1 which IS
1

Analysis,

compieted by the noun good.
\'
'l'
.
bl
f
t'ng ninety thousand
10. The Coliseum was once capa e o sea i
.

1. Hearing a step, I turned.

\

Explanation.-Th e lin e standing for the participle
is broken ; one part slants to represent the adjective
nature of th e participle, and t.he other is horizontal
to represent its verbal nature.

'

. 1,

persons.
acting -prudently, stead'l
i,y, a11:d
11. Success genera11 y d epend s on
vigorously.
* without having
12. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering
suffered.

Oral Analysis.-The phrase hea1·ing a step t is a modifier of the subject; hearing is the principal word, and step is its object complement;
step is modified by a.

LESSON

LVI.

·/
I

2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use
3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down~ I
ward through the back-bone.
4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse.
5. Burgoyne, having been smToumled :j: at Saratoga, surrendered to
Gen. Gates.
I
6. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians
stationed at Trenton.
7. Pocahontas was married to an Englishman named John Rolfe.
8. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission
from Henry VII. of England, discovered the continent of Ameri('a,

INFINITIVES.

lnt~ductory.-There

• Lat. pars, a part, and capei·e, to take.
or because I heard a step.
l Having been surrounded is the participle.

I turned when

is another

form- of

the verb that ·cannot

b~ .·

I

the pr~dicate of a sentence.
·
l'k the participle, lacks the asserting
"
In " I came to see you, see, i e
. .
power-" I to see" asserts nothing. See, following the preposit10n to, .
names th~ act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a noun alld

\

t Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifies the predicate also.

··

as a verb.
cl · th
In office, this word is like the second kind of participle treate .m e
.l ,- g Lesson
It differs from this participle in form and rn fol-/
precel\m
.
. ,,
lowing only the prr.position to. " Came to see"= "came for see~ng.
As this form of the verb names the action in a general way, ':ith~ut '
limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive, t and clas~ it with

verbs:_.----------------::~-:-:-;---,-:---:--"""
-----

• Sujfering is here a noun.

t Lat. inJlnitus, without limit.

'·

'

_>4

1

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Participles and Infinitives-Construction.

'

The infinitive p}tmse may be used as an adjective, an adverb. or a
o un : as, " The time to act has come ; " '' I came not here to talk:,.

To lie is base."

8. To bear our fate is to conquer it.
9. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible.
10. We should learn to govern ourselves.
..
11. It is easy to find fault.
Explanation.-Tbe infinitive phrase to
: :~~
au7t
fi nd fa11,lt explains the \Subject it. Read '·/}~{.:
the sentence without it, .and you will 1>ee1
:f·;..,t....•,,1·'
/
ea.~
is
the real nature of the phrase. This use. of . ;, .(
~.·
"
1
• it as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idi?m of our ·· · '.\~'., '.
language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, an~tbus gi".es '
· ~ ..
\

Analysis.

1. The hot-house 1s a trap to catch sunbeams.
lwt-hou.-;e

is '

Oral Analysis .-To introduces the phrase, catch is
the principal word, and sunbeams is the object complement of catch.

2. A desire to excel leads to eminence.
3. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the Colonies.
4. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and
·cision of character.
f>. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refi ne the race.
G. Wounds made by words are hard to heal.
7. To be good is to be great.

Explanation. - The diagram of the
,__~,__.,_nr--'-en-'-'i- phrase subject is drawn above the subject line, on whi ch it is mnde t o rest by
means of a support. All that stands on
c subject li1Je is regarded as the subject. A similar explanation
•plies to the phrase complement.
Oral Analysis -The phrase to be good is the subject ; is' is the
cdicate ; the phrase to be great is the 11.ttribute complement. The
st phrase is introduced by to, the principal word is the infinitive be,
•cl good is the attribute complement of be-etc.
Remark.-To, in e11.ch of these phrases, shows no relation; it serves
orely to introduce. The complements good and great are adjectives
cd abstractly, having no noun to relate to.

~

the sentence balance of parts.

'\

12. It is not all of life to live.
13. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the J,ord.
·
14. It is not the way to argue down o. vice to tell lies about it.
---+--

"l ~

t

; -~ L. ·~-v.

.-; ,,,; I.

LVII.

LESSON
l

PARTICIPLES AND

.

~

. J

.

~~

JNFl~.~:~v~~:--CO~~TRUCTION • .:~ :0'~~v

Exercises.-Whic~f

Observation
the participles in the first eight
· sentences of Less. LV. are, with the' words belonging to them, set off
by the comma? Try to find a reason why th~se should be set off aml
the others not.

»>]i='r
.. ;/~

.

1

•

• 1~ :<

. , .:: :
' '

.

COMM:A-RULE.-The Participle used as nn adjective modi·
fter, with t.he words belonging to it, is set o:lf by the comma unless
· restrictive.
j

Explanation.-In "A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me
with a song," lighting describes without restricting. In "The bird
sitting on the wall is a wren," sitting restricts-limits the application of
' bird to a particular bird. (See Explanation of Rule, Less. LIV.)

, CauUon.-In using a participle be careful to leave no
doubt as to what you intend it to modify.
5*

I

:~ '

I

'

,

"
'

16

107

The Past .Tense and the rast Participle Distinguished.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

•

'4,

. " ' ••lf; '

. ....

necessary, giving reasons for all changes:-

\

w.11 family containing all the improvements.
2. The town contains fifty houses antl five hundretl inhabitants built
brick.
::. We saw a marble bust of Sir W u.lter Scott entering the vestibule.
4. Seated on the topmost bmnch of a tall tree busily engaged in
iawing an acorn we espietl ,3 squirrel.
!i. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevolent
·ntleman suffering.from coltl and hunger.

20. Reading good books is profitable.
21. Equivocating is disgraceful.
22. Slandering is base.

~

'

.

.. ':

\.

•

\

THE

~v~~~
r

~...., 'l' • • "'

''

LVlll.

PAST TENSE AND THE PAST PARTICIPLE
TINGUISHED:

Introductory.-(a) These men acquired wealth dishonestly.

'

>.·....

, , . ' , ..
•, .'t" ·

\
I

Example.-" Climbing to the top of the hill the distant town was
en." Here climbing appears to relate to town. It shoultl be,
Ulimbing to the top of the hill, we saw the distant town."

ltO participles, and the participles into infinitives:-

•/:

ciples and the three uses of the infinitive phrase.

LESSON

·x,. r ' .

"' ' '(/J- 1
23. Indorsing another's paper is
·/"'•
/!_ ~ ., .,
dangerous.
~/,
.
,·~~,~·J
24. Swearing is sinful.

DIREOTION.-Write sentences illustrating the two kinds of parti•

DIREOTION.-Recast these sentences, making the reference of the
irtiCiple clear, and punctuate if necessary:-

T>IREOTION.-Change the infinitives in the following sentences

t·

Example.-Rising early is healthful. To ri8e early is h~~lthfuJ. \. .;<~~·~~.
It is healthful to rise early. For one to rise early is healthful.
'.,){f

1. A gent.leman will let his nouse going abroatl for the summer to a

6. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo.
7. By giving h~m a few hints he was prepared to do the work well.
8. Desiring an early start the horse was saddletl by five o'clock.

:-·-·--," ~rjjJ7':,
!: ,,

DIBEOTION.-Vary the following sentences as in the Example

r>IREOTION.-Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate

Acquired here asserts the action as past, and is said to be
"·....,,.___ __Pru>t Tense (tense means time).
r ·
(b) Wealth acquired dishonestly will pr~ve a curse.

\
·... . . .~ .
\: ····{h.~·;,
"'_,.,,.. i:

.

in the
.

\Jr·

·•·.. ;~..

!

I

I

"."' :

I~.

;~ , -fl~~

I

:

·. r
,.. I:1"~;•':-:-;• !

,,_ /{C(
Acqttired here assumes the action as completed, and is c~lled a Past ~~:~l•/
".;-._/

Remark.-Notice that to, the only preposition usetl with the infinive, is changed to toward, for, of, at, in, or on, when the infinitive is
;tanged to a participle.
,, '

Participle.
' , .: ·:,;,
The past tense and the past participle of most verbs are the same . in · ...."., ,'.· /
form, both being made by adding ed to the simple verb (or Present
Tense); as, acqufre (Present Tense), acquir + ed * (Past Tense), ac-

I am inclined to believe it.
I am ashamed to be seen there.
I. She will be grieved to hear it.
·~ . They trembled to hear such
words.
1. It will serve for amusing the
children.

quir + ed (Past Participle).
\ ",.'
1
Such verbs as form these two parts by adding ed are called Regular; · ' " '·\
all others are called Irregular (see examples below).
' ' ,..

'I.
').

14. There is a time to laugh.
15. I rejoice to hear it.
16. You are prom pt to obey.
17. They delight to do it.
18. I am surprised at seeing you.
19. Stones are used in ballasting
ve5sels.

,'\.~ I

"
;.;.;'\

r· ·;'.

----------------------------;--~.I

!/ 11~:....:

\ ( ·"·r •

•Final 11,ig dropped when ed is added (see Rule, p. 318).
'

' .:
I

~\. .: " ~~';.
\'

·?-' \'i~t ~?'

l08

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

C"'ntion.-When the past tense and the past participle
differ in form, they are often confounded in use.
Examples.-! done it (incorrect);

I did it (correct).
I seen him (incorrect);

I saw him (correct).
DI.RECTION.- - Repeat rapidly in succession oral sentences made by
putting a subject before, and an object complement after, each of the
pn.st tense forms in the following list :DI.RECTION.-Pronounce rapidly and distinctly the compound
verbs made by placing in succession have, h(J,d, is, and w(J,s before
each of the past participles in the following list :.
DIRECTION.-Make sentences using seen, done, begnn , choset1, and
.~poken as adjective modifiers.
analysis, Less. LV.)
\
Pre~ent.

1. Beat.
2.1 Begin,
3. Blow,
4. Break,
5. Choose,
6. Do,
7. Draw,
8. Drive,
!), Freeze,
10. Give,
11. Know,
12. Ride,
13. Ring,

(See the first eight sentences for

Irregular

Verbs.

Pust.

beat,
began,
blew,
broke,
chose,
did,
drew,
drove,
froze,
gave,
knew,
rod e,
rang (or rung),

Past Participle.

beaten.
begun.
blown.
broken.
chosen.
done.
drawn.
driven.
frozen.
given.
known.
ridden.
rung.

109

Past Tense and Past Participle-Continued.

14. ' See,
Shake,
Speak,
Steal,
Take,
rn. Tear,
20. Throw,
21. Wear,
22. Write,

15.
16.
17.
18.

.. saw,
shook,
spoke,
stole,
took,
tore,
threw,
wore,
wrote,

"

\

\

seen .
shaken.
spoken.
stolen.
ta.ken.
torn.
thrown.
worn.
written.

\

-LESSON

/'

.

". . ·,
•'

LIX.

PAST TENSE AND PAST PARTICIPLE-CONTINUED.• .

Caution.-The past tense is always an asserting, or predi~ ·.
cate, word ; the past participle never asserts, but is used'
1
as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a
compound verb.
DI RECTION.-Fill each of the following blanks with the past tense ',' · or the paat Jlarticiple of the irregular verb corresponding.in numbe1 .- ' ·, :
(see Less. L VIII.), and give the reason for your choice1: ' I

.

1. The poor animal was"(l) unmercifully.
2. We have (1) you in every game.
3. The work (2) yesterday should have been (2) earlle1·.
4. I (2) the work in the morning.
5. The boat was (19) from its fastenings, (8) against the wharf, and \.
1
I ,.,
1badly (4).

6. The horse (12) by the officer (5) to carry the message had been .
(18) from the enemy.
7. Having (6) it frequently, we (Q) it easily.
8. The wind had (3) hard during the night and had (15) the fruit to
the ground.

''

...

111

Verbs Distinguished.
The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

0

.

9.
lO.
l 1.
l2.
l 3.

A word hastily (16) has often (10) great pain.
We (14) the letters (22) by Carlyle to Emerson.
He was nearly (9).
Have you (13) the bell ?
The expensive jewelry (21) by the prisoner was bought with
•ney (17) from his employer.

·>IRECTION.-Repeat rapidly in succession sentences made by
tting subjects before the following past tense forms:-

•

m.

Past Participle,
come.
fallen.
flown.
gone.
grown.
risen.
run.
sung.

'JI.REOTION.-Fill each of the following blanks with the prut tcnae
the past participle of the irregular verb corresponding in number

'

'

'

Empires have (28) and (24).
Another day has (23) and (26).
He might Qave (30) for us.
The birds must have (27) too large for their nest and (25) away.
He (23) near me and then (29) away.

,

.

DillECTION.-Correct the following as indicated, and repeat the / , ~~~!;'
;orrect forms tlll they are perfectly familiar :/
: \ :~ ~ l ~
\'

·IRECTION.-M.ake sentences in which !lid and Raw shall be cor·

\'

I\

;;t~ •

· ;_, i~:'.

, J·~ I

.

,.

_,, '\ ·_tg:~'~

3. You have grawetl stout.

'\ •....~::~~
· y,., ..!~\
t._ ~.

4. I-.lui0we6 him &t. the fi.r:::t glance.
out.

-}t , ...

It

I

2. They J.Fawetl him through the mud.

He~inand~me

?'l-J._\··
,

1. The wind 1'll0we6: furiously.

' •,;.cf\~ . ~µ;,
~"' :- r

"'

: .,:, •,··:, Jt~: ~~ ·.

'P

f :..-

.,._,. · ~-3:

.

.

: ~: ~ -.:·,_~'~ ':

I

We thFe deli it out of the window.

~

:

I was overftet.. and fle.BR 't sit d~wn.
:.'

: •• 4

t.J ,
,~;:~: t

. .' .·-~-~:f
. .,...... ·
.\

J'

l

To the..Tr-acher.-These exerciRes on the use or the past tense and the past par•

·~'

''\0 :

'\ ...

·

'·

ticiple should be varied, and reviewed again and agam. The occasional correction ' \ ~-··'' '~/'i .·
of the erron< that occur In the echool-room iM not sufficient to cure bad habits. , . . · ::,.: i··
---.
~ . 'i .. - •:
Th~ ear and me vocal organs need much discipline.
. .' ·~~;,I'<
I

·. '

'I

:.

I

LESSON

;•

I.

\

LX.

VERBS DISTINGUISHED •
Lay and Lie ; Set and Sit.

Lie,

Past.
laid,
lay,

Past Participle.
laid.
lain.

Set,
Sit,

set,
sat,

set. .,

Present.

Lay,
•I.RECTION.-Afterbeing certain that the blanks in the eighteen
.tences above are correctly filled, read these sentences till you have
1rcome any tendency to use the wrong form.

"i~

.).:fl;

'

e list above), and give the reason for your choice :l4.
l5.
.G.
7.
8.

Vi·

I '.,,, 1•)Ji.,.,

rect verb-forms wherever used.

Irregular Verbs-Continued.

Past.
came,
fell,
flew,
went,
grew,
rose, ·
ran,
sang (or sung),

\ ~

d

1\

Caution.-Blowed, drawed (or drug), growed, knowe , , ._ '.t\.
- throwed dasn't dove liet aint, haint, and warnt are mcor· , · · { ..!{.,

'>.:CREOTION.-·Repeat the compound verbs made by putting have
d had before the following past lHX-rtic·i.ple11 :-

Present.
!3. Come,
~4. Fall,
35. Fly,
36. Go,
37. Grow,
~8 . Rise,
~!). Run,
Sing,

,.\ -.'l-J.:...

rectly used. Repeat these ora~ly till you ~ave overcome any tend~nc~ ,..,._...,..,.f ~~T
to use done and aecn as asserting, or predicate, words.
·
. , r ..,r,.~"•~'i
t- ~
I
'-.
•
"- 1
\.

sat.

!

' '

'

1 1 t'i,l

/9 J;\

•. ~:r:.'
••
•\'•'
f· ·

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

1,13

Arrangement.
.

D_IREC'!'ION.-Determine the meaning of these four verbs from

'

;hell' use 1n the following sentences, and then repeat the sentences
tloud till there is no tendency to use the wrong verb:-

Lay down your pen.
8. Sit down and rest.
Lie down, Rover.
!J. I then set it down
" I laid down my pc11.
10. I sat clown and re~tcd
I. The dog then lay dow11.
11. I have set it down:
.
'· l have laid down my pen.
12. I have sat dowii.
i. The dog has lain down.
13. l\Iy work was laid aside.
Set the pail down.
14. I was lying down.
15. The trap was set by the river.
16. I was sitting by the river.
17. The garment sits well.
18. The hen sits 011 her eggs.
19. He came in and lay down.
20. The l\Ieditermnean lies between Europe and Africa.
1

l.

. Rem~rks.-Notice that we may speak of laying something or setting
·Omethmg, or may say that something is laid or is set; but we cannot
' peak of lyi'ng or sitting something, or of som ething being lain or sat.
L~y'. the ~resent of the first verb, and lay, the past of lie, may easily
>e distmgmshed by the difference in meaning and in the time exiressed.
DIRECTION.-Write sentences in which the following verbs shall

>e correctly used :-

Lays, lies, laying, lying, sets, sits,
setting, sitting, will set, will sit,
will lay, will lie, was laid,
has been laid, have lain, may have Jain,
are set, may have been set, had sat.
might have sat.
Remark.-Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an obict ; as,
(a) The sun set.
(b) He set out on his journey.

'

'

' ,'

I '~ .

'

of

. -

' <
'

I

,I • I ,~

: .':, :ii~f;>"'"'I

-. :. ' i·.

. To the Teaclier.-To overcome the very com~on habit confounding the forms ,' · ~:r·
~
· of lay and lie, set and sit: the pupils may read their o\vn sentences, which may b,e ;: :'.-~
\~&
corrected by the class. The.papers may then be exchanged, \and read again and again.\ \ ;);'!'
,·
Some of the best sentences, or sentences mo!:'t profitable for repetition, may.be put.· l . '!.,. , ·V.
• o'f . li .h ese I .c,. ~·J:'I
• -> •
on the bonrd for concert exercises. Let the meaning and the construction
~t
•·
words be thoroughly understood.
· I. .' :: ":•,,:?:• -.:/
. \
~-; \ 'i ~~?·. ~"?.
·,

LESS0 N

'

'

.

.

ARRANGEMENT.

#- •

+: ..

'_ Y,,·.;j, ,

XI

L

,\

'- 'v.'.fi';<:::

'

:';:-i'J(;'

I :"
'

·

. '. \\1'f

.

i· ., JI

•

'

I

DIRECTION.-Tell the office of each modifier in the following sen·•

tences, and note its position with reference to the word. modi~e~ ,'!'lld,l
with referen,ce to associated ~odifl.ers :-'
.•
· ,: 1' '· ~- 1~~
~

'

1

: , ·'. ):;. .·

s~dde~ly appeared so strangely bright.

Everything

'

·~·'.:~;'.~.t~;.:;i.·

· 1. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
2. William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. /
1 3.

I'

I

·.

. ,1._';-,,'.~._<1~,L;
·

4. We saw it distinctly.

5. We had of~en been there.
6. Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.

,: _~ ':~.":~/. :•#i ;.'
· . V-, -.->vY, ;1
1~}. t ·~ / 1~·9, -~
I

'

'

! .._'..:a:

•

!;.L~'

Observation Exercises.-The words and.. _the phrases in the 'lsen:-- ·!\ti~ '
. th . N
l 0 d
· ' . .,p -;.,iJ~f4~:tences a b ove s t an d m e1r atura
r er.
·
.
. '·, '. <:·~·:;4. :.; _.,, {l!i;~~:f.-:~"'.?
.J ~"'}' '
Frorp. (1) and (2) determine the" natural order " of t he sub"Jee t , pr~~~
cate, and complement. From (2) determine the natural ,order>of '. a.:;~:~~l{~',
,
, l);,>fl',., -l fi'
possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjectiy<!:'
·,
I
From (3), (4), and (5), determine the several. ~ositions of an 'adver~f,{ }~¥ .
' J"oined to a verb. Determine from (3) the pos1t10n of an adverb mod~· ·~\:.7'··f~~: ;
'
·~c-' :f:;lj; ·
.,,.l" ·.- fying an adjectivEI or another adverb. Determine from (6) and , (~) . t~e:;\l'ii
1
natural order of a phrase.
, -· · , · '_ , '.;.. ·,.;:-.-f,)li;•
• '. •
1

• ••

•

1

. . ' •\.l.~ ·~lt•),~~~/

.:·f-

In expressing strong feeling, the fo,rce or · impo~t::p:~~~~-ci~;~~f
I
•
h
f th •
J. . ~- - •&:;+.
v~;\'. words is often increased by placmg ·. t em out 0
e1r: n~~~~j{~~::.·
1.;:· · uraI order. W.ords so placed are said to be transposed, · , ·::.-~): ~·:·

•'.·\ ·L.
1
""'"'
4

,. •

•

'I

· I

.\

I

,
·

•
. : ,I, ·

'

......

'

·
I

'

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I
,

•

.

.

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.,.

·

-

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!/
• ,'

."
'.,.

•

~· ~. ~ .-··
f

, .. :

1

j> ~,'

lt.,/ .. ~'"

\".

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· 1~ ~\;·~f:·'

.1 .J••".f I .

IJ • .•\: :

~;· .._ ·~r~

/I.. ~'J t"
·. ' : ·..:I \,' ~ • ~.l :\..' '}·.\-~• •.::-.ft',, f;..~-..
..,1.

1

''

114

115

· Arrangement.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

' .

. ~ • ·, ·; :• ... 'J

,- -,, -..: -·. :-1 ~ i-;~-v

'
DIRECTION. -Point out the transposed words and phrases in the

following sentences ; explain their office, and the effect of the ttans·
position:-

Victories, indeed, they were.
G. A mighty man is he.
Down came the m asts.
7. That gale I well r emember.
Here stands the man.
8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh.
Doubtful seemed the battle.
9. Blood-red became the sun.
Wide open stood the doors.
10. Louder waxed the applanse.
11 . . Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong.
12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred.
14. So died the great Columbus of th e skies.
15 . .LEneas did, from the fla mes of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old
Anehises bear.
16. Such a heart in the breast of my people bents.
17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared.
18: Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in
school, the most difficult ancl valuable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Remark.-Notice that the beginning and the end of the sentence are
the places of greatest emphas~s. See whether this rema rk will app,ly
to the last four sentences above.
DIBECTION;-Read the following sentences in the transposed

order, and explain the nature and the effect of the change :-

19. He could not avoid it.
22. H e ended his tale here.
20. He would not escape.
23. It stands written so.
21. I must go.
24. She seemed young and sad.
25. I will make one more effort to save you.
26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
27. I came into the world helpless.
28. A sincere word was never utterly lost.
29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.

Interrogative

'

Sentenc~s.

'J,

i"

~

\ , -·,,' ,·\

\

' ' ;.

,

.

.
.
Wh
the -interrogative word is 'subje,c t '~. { 'i. _
Observation Exercises.en
See (30) an'd. •.....,.. ·:.. ,
.
,
f 't . the order natural, or transposed ?
.
, ,, ':
or a modifier o 1 , is
.,
i 1/ ~ .
.
{. ' "
{31) below.
.
1 . ent or a <;, i''.;
When the interrogative word is object or attnbute comp e1~ ' '/-:
'fier of either, what is the order ? See (32), (33), and (34).
S . \. :, ,.
modl
·
b
h t · the order?
E!e ·~, ~-0
When the interrogative word IS an adver ' w a is
.
. . ·.(. ·' '.

>·- ·:::

\

-

.

•

>'y'

(35) and (36).
th
d r ? \ S<>e (37). ' :;(~'.
. t
t' word what is e or e . ,.
. ..
When there is no m erroga ive
' .
. \ . !_/ S

!;:f (.

- · . .'./ · ·~~;:~;){
. . ~ _\ :.·1:>!!~'·.
. ·' .•:·'.1~;~<~'.iE
_: ··;, 1,,), • ~~·· ~

, and (38).
..
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?
31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico ?
32. Whom did you see ?
'83. What is poetry ?
34. Which course will you choose ?
35. Why are the clays shorter in winter ?
36. When was Am~rica discovered ?
37. .Were you there? '
38. Has the North Pole been

_; ': :

'_:,>!~~~;:

1 •

•

;.

I

·• -U/

\

, :

.>!:(·

, ' .'.i \· ::~.,?t~l
I

Composition.

refe;en~e

t. ,

' ,., , " ·

reache~ -~--

·
. , .i.O
.., · tiie ""eacher.-We
suggest exerc i •es m c
..L'

•' ,

~: :. ·:;,·;-.:?.~..,1·:.·

ompo~ition
•
..

here similar ·
,i \
~

discus~ioil

1

(

..

· •.,,.

fri.'·thoee:
~y
.~' :,.~;.' ··
,

._:

·~·· ·.:

-..::

hall :bee~::;;;.'

proposed on P· '.5, b
ade with
to a full
of all that
Let the selections em
.
te
·
··'~ t:i, ;;
t of the pnrts of n 1nmple sen nee.
' :·
taught concerning the arrangemen
a be made intensely inter- · ;,1·
This matter of arrangement, if properly approached, m y .
... ·.. . ' -\ /,
esting and profitable,

I :\ · /
, • •

Additional Exercises In Analysis • .
/'

' A lesson in

\

analy~ls may be selected f~om .the exercise!l above.

·\.

'r i

Li

LESSON

LXll.
LESSON
THE

·o the Tcachcr. - lf the pnpils have n ot don e the preced ing work very thoroughly1
, Lesson should be divided.

1\~hat

is an attri_but~ co mplement? lllustrate a nd explain fully.
•\\ c1o _J·ou .cletermme 1~ dou~tfnl rases whether an at1jective comple11t, or an ctd verb mocl1fier, 1s neeclcc1 ? Illustrate.
;ive the eight nominative forms. ·w hat two uses have they ? G'
l.>° f
.
IVO
· seven o Jee 1ve forms. ·w hat two uses have they ? Show what .
.
nmon errors are to be avoided in the use of these forms.

''

\

REVIEW.

What is an object complement ? Illustrate. Illustrate and explain
ompound complement. What is a modified complement ?

111

The Complex Sentence..

_The Sentenc e and the Parts of Speech.

LXIIL

I

•

COMPLEX ' SENTENCE.

The Adjective Clause.

Introductory.-Notice that in t!1e following sentences the three italicized expressions denote the same quality and perform the same
office.
(a) Wi se men are honored.
(b) Men of wisdom are honored.

'

I n what two ways may noun s be usetl as adjective modifiers?

Illu&·le. How is the possessive form of nouns matle? Illustrate. Men- ·
11 anot-.11 01· way of clc11oting possec;s ion.
Show how this may be mnclo
,ful. Show how to form the possessive of a group of words that
1Y be. treated as a compound.
I s the apostrophe used to make the
<sess1ve form of pronouns ?
I. [ow
· ·
· . I nany d.is f me f 1vc ·fauns
have some pronouns to denote their
ice
m
the
sentence
?
How
many
have nouns ?· \Vhat do grnmman.
·
- l
.
, ca l these forms ? Give and illustrate the Rule for the punctuation
explanatory modifiers.

Clauses, each containing a subject and a predicate. That are wise, .
performing the office of a single word, we call the Dependent Clause'; . '·
and Men are honored we call the Independent Clause. These

!Tow does a participle cliffer from a predicate verb ? Illustrate.
>w does an infinitive differ from a predicate verb ? Illustrate How
es an infinitive differ from a participle used like a noun? G~ve and
ts~rat~ the Rule for the pnnctnation of participles. Illustrate the
tttlon m regard to the use of participles.

The pronoun that here stands for men. Let us exchange it for men,
'and see whether anything is lost. "Men-men are wise-are honored." . ·
We find that the clauses have lost all connection. We therefore conelude that the word that stands for men' and also connects the
I
clauses
and brings them into close relation. Such pronouns are callecl .

"Men that are wise are honored" may be divided into two parts, or

clauses together form a Complex Sentence.
A de.pendent clause used to modify a noun or a pronoun is called
an
.
/

Adjective Clause.

I Iow are the past ten se aml t.hc past part.icipie formed when tho verb

regular? Give examples of irregular verbs. How clo the prist t
'l the past. pa1t.ICip
. l e d.
. use ? Illustrate. Illustrate the ense
. I ff er Ill
uses
1ny and lie, set aml sit.

Who, which, and what are also relative pronouns.

I .

\

~

The Adjective Clause-Construction.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Analysis.

They that touch pitch will be defiled.
['hey

will be clqfiled

, 10. He did what was"right.
He

I

tlid

1

Explanation. -The relative importance
of the two cla uses is shown by their posi-

tion, .by their co nuectio n, and by the difference m tl~e shading of Lhe lines. The pro.n that IS written on the subject line of t he dependent clause. That
lorm~ the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by th~
l.ed lme. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to t he words
1' modify, you learn from this diagram that that touch pitch is a
lifter of they.
·it \ trruch ' r>itrh
~
.
.

•ral Analysis.-This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an
·~pendent clause and a depe!Jdent ~lau se .
They will be defiled is
mdepen<lent clause, and that loibch pitch is the dependent. That
·h pitch is a modifier of they, because it limits its meaning. The dedent clause is connected by its subject that to they.
Man is the only animal that lau ghs and weeps.
Animals that have a backbone are call ed vertebrates.
· The power that bl"ings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its
It..

The lever which moYes the world of mind is the printing-press.
r

6. I found the place to which yon re- ,
-:;. \
ferred.
7. The sp irit in which we act is the
erred \\\.
highest matter.
* 8. Attention is the stuff tlrnt memory
'1/hirh \
is made of.
0. He who will not be 1·t1led by tl1e ru d· t1er mus t be ruled by the
[ound , ~ace
C"'

LESSON

LX IV.

THE , AD_JECTIVE CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION.
Punctuation, Position, Choi<?e of Relative.

......

l'he phrase <if that modifies i s made.
•osition to precede.

The relative pronoun that never allows the

Introductory.-(a) Use words that are curr~nt.
(b) Words, which are the signs of

'l;he Adjectiv~ Clause-Construction.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

121 '

I

' 'i, ,1:,_ ~;. .
! '1} (/,"'-'\ ~I

'··'·'/;. ~~~"

•

~

,'<.';~ ~~t:t ' .

/

DI.BEOTION.-Correct tlie following · errors :-

ta) the adjective clause limits, or restrict8, the application of
ds to a particular kind. In (b) words is not restricted in its appli1on-which a?'e the signs of ideas applies to all words.
~.ead the first independent clause, and you will see that the sense is
complete-that a large share of the intended meaning of the sen;
ee is in the adjective clause. Th e second independent clause is
1plete in itself, the adjective clause simply adding an explanation
description. Which is here nearly equivalent to and they. (See
planations ~f Rules, Lessons LIV. and Ly II.)
11

\

5; I have a dog who runs to meet me.
6. The boy which I met was lame.
7. Those ~hich live in glass houses must not throw stones.

.

' , I )'~~

.: \ ,.rJ)

.. \.. ~ ~· ·: ~-'~ ~:;·. ·~'(:>·:~/:

.

:Ol'tIMA-RULE.-The Adjective Clause, when not re"trict· · ·
·, is set off by the comma.

DI.BEOTION.-Expand

Ca.~tions
'

.

·

and, t~8:'. I? ,
· :· : ~...

· .

i

~·

.

:.~ J~?L

~ ~:'1'!!'.
·. ··',,)/;'
s. Boys learning to swim should take lessons of the frog. ' ' · · " '. 1:.:: ~?t~~jr~
9. France, anciently called Gaul, derived·its name from the ~r1_1-n~.~· ; , ;'.~ ~)~'1
warlike people of German origin:
, . . . \, . .:.;~ '. '.~.~f~t~.'

h.eld at J atilestown.

Example.-Bands of robbers infest some countries who attack travrs in the open day (incol'rect).

. ,
.;: . "

1O. Adopt a plan of life founded on religion and virtue.
' " ;~ : ~. tt~~{·
• •
R
·
Vi
w·
kl
"
d
...
11. The "Sketch Book," containing " ip an in e an t7t e ''·~~ tj
iT~·l·"
"Legend of · Sleepy Hollow," raised Irving to the highest .rank: ~f ;, ~·3t~~

··::f '6
· ·~r'
s

Oaution.-The relative who should represent persons;
~ich, animals and things ; that, persons, animals, and
mgs.

·· •,,.,

was held at Jamestown.
· ·
•
, .. ., .~ !
• A
The first colonial assembly that was ,ever convened in .a..merica
was .~ ,;')~.·.:1
.
· .t,·,•"i-;,
~r ~·:

r the tests suggested above, insert the comma where needed:-

an account of the P ersian war.
Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple.
I. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm ,
ich we had for breakfast.
L The letter was delayed in St. Loni ~ that you sent from Chicago.

~ 1

, . ·; 1 ,.

~: ·Wr
Example.-The first colonial assembly' ever convened · in America : .:.. •: •.'~{

'>IBECXION.-Correct the following errors of position, and, apply-

~.

I•

>·~,:[.
.
." "•I: 's~
each of the folloWmg participle phr~ea ·~'-;·!;'

into an ·adjective clause, observing carefully the
directions for punctuation given above :-

Caution.-The adjective clause should be placed as near
possible to the word it modifies.

ve

. ~

caution.-In a restrictive clause, that is generally pre-. ;,.':; ~~~~
h. l
Wh . ./.d.i,,.•,.,
7
ferred when it will sound as well as w1w or w ic i~
el_l '. 1/ .'. 1*~' ;;:
·the clause is not restrictive, 1J!ho or which is ·generally .pre- ~ 1 "';f /1tf
ferred to that.
.
1'1 , ·~ :: (.' t~.~~
•'

l. H erodotus has been called the fath er of history from whom we

.

.. •' ' ,>i

Participle Phrases expanded Into Clauses.

3ome countries are infested with bands of robbers, who attack travrs in the open day (correct).

f

• '\I
·~ ~ .,
,.., '
.'. .' ·''!~ :i,t}\. ~

•

.

.

' . l' ·'"'

I

.American authors.
.
.
·
. ·
: .. ~:,:.;,,"'
, · 12. The vessels carrying blood from the heart are called artenes. .. '· ·,:\ , j} :
Those fighting w.stom.' with. grammar, are foolish.
. · i\\"-,r),'_
•
.' ~ · '4(>
14. Here comes his body, mourned by Mark .Antony.
,
. , ·~~1.,: .'
15. Tennyson, made poet-laureate after the death of :wordsu:orth, . : :, ,('.:.
was raised to the peerage in 1883.
• ··
' · · .1' · ·-. , :' r'\~
16. In 1837 Hawthorne issued a volume enti~led " TU:ice-told Tal~st .;.:~l('~,('.
17. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mountains flow mto the P~mfi~~ \ ~: ..-i.
6
: ', . '; "·· I

lB

.-

I ,. :\
....~.\~ :1· J..'1
,
"' .',' .I \ .'· '; >-'':J
..f. f'
.~'

"' :

'"

t"

1~3
. :- ,

The Adverb Clause.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

,.- .~

-> .
~bservation

Exercises.-Explain fully why the participle phrases
ve are, or are not, set off. (See Less. LVII. and intr~duction
ve.) In which of the sentences above would you prefer the adjec. phrase to the adjective clause ? In which uo you fin<l an explana" modifier ? Expand this modifier into a clause and explain the
1ctuation.

LESSON
)JECTIVE

:

~~r

·'. {•"'-,t.,i:-

. -'$i .'·

::\.;··

Health should be preserved. , Health is God'~ gift.
::
,;
' .;·:\. 11/ i~'"
He preaches sublimely. He lives a righteous life.
They build too low. They build beneath the stars.
! j•,: ~ :·~l.;,:.
_· I ~ t'>,iJ;f
He lives most. He thinks most.
, '1111- ;•1~
• y '
\ .; •' 1;~
God helps them. They help themselves.
/ •fr·,.
. .
The man blushes. He is not quite a brute.
. ./ .. -o u,
10. John Bunyan became a famous author. He was once a tinker. · ·...~<<;
11. Victoria became queen on the death of her uncle, Willia..ra ,IY• ·:' ::'ti
She is the granddaughter of Geor-ge III.
.
~ "i~·~.,~
12. In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine. St. August_~ne -~: )!~
'J'
is the oldest town in the United States.
," '' "\::.~ft·~'.;
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

t ....
I

'1

,'

•.
•

I

I.

\?

LXV.

CLAUSE-C ONSTRUCTION-CONTINUED.

Sentences Combined by the aid of Relatives.
lllECTION.-By the aid of a relative pronoun combine the two

.ements in each of the following groups into one sentence, observcarefully the instruction of the preceding Lesson :-

Observation Exercises.-Which of the above · statements can ·be · \,,. ~t't1.
united as well, or better, by changing one into an explanatory modi-·; ; ·J;~~i?i
fl.er? Which, by changing one into a participle phrase ? Explain the · · · ;,r'-I:J~~)

, . : . . "'. (~"'\~~.:-.-·_ · ~:· , ' "•J_

.>:,:

punctuation of such phrases.
lxample.-Ristory may be called a narrative of past everil:s.
;e events men have baen concerned. =

, .I

-'·i',ri·1
-:;'!~'vti~t:1
, .,
I

In

' istory may be called a narrative of past events in which meu have
t concerned.
•uestions as tests.-Does history tell what has luippencd cohiing animals, plants, rocks, etc. ? Is the first statement in the
mple strictly true and complete in itself ? Does the adjective
1 ~c restrict the meaning of "events" to a particular sense?
ut that in place of " whir.h," carry " in " to the end of the sentence, '
decide whether it would sound as well. How do your conclusions
·e with what is said in the first sentence of the last Caution in the
·eding Lesson ?
JJead-pencils contain, instead of lead, graphite. Gr:lphite is a
· 1 of carbon.
Birds have lungs. The lungs of birds communicate with air-sacs
:trio us parts of the bouy.
Fishes are vertebrate animals. By means of gills they breathe ,
nir dissolved in water.

.. ;>

Additional Exercises in Analysis . .

~ : •1;, •I)

•

.

"" t.

To the Teacher.-Examples for analysis may be selected >from the two preceding . ..'C,:.
; Lei;sons. Pupils may profitably analyze the sentences they construct.
·. '.' . . : /.};}~
•..

l

·.; -

' ,.\, ,,,1!{

LESSON
THE

office, an admb

'

"t ')! ~q

ADVERB CLAUSE.

tfh~ adverb early is here expanded· into
into an Adverb Clause.

:-~:·\~

LXVI.

Introductory.--{a) We started early.
(b) We started at Btmrise.
(c) We started when the sun rose. ·.

• ~ ·.'
•, \· ~!

I

.(

.:'· t':,(l ~~·.. · '{
,,: ~ :_ ~\~ ~\. ,.- t·

·

i

11'

:::;·{~~'",
·'"
\

r

\ ,

,,, .. . : ·i..1

~ ·:-:- '!/~j~lf{
'i.,n"l.·
ad~erb phrase,. and _th~n 1,~'/;:;,~~

an
Each of these italimzed express10ns is,~ ~n ·_J'.; ·lf:..'lJ~~

••: .:\~11

of(:)m~~.:::~:,'.tarted.

I, ' ,· ". :.~f~

( e) He stood in this place.

(f) He stoo.a . where

I~·

·..

'

;>;'( \~t~

~4

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

The Adverb Clause-Construqtlon. ,

12~ •·.' :,~··;·~·

.' ,_.L~-~4;l;7t·;

am

: :.: ' ·:' ~;·f~ ~.'.'.~'

8. T~e ground is wet' ~ecause it has rained.,

Where I
is an ad verb clause of place, equivalent to the phrase in
•,is place or to the adverb here.

ground

(IJ) He is taller than I.
(h) He lived as the fool lives.
(i) I will go becaitse yo1t desire it.
(j) I will go if you desire it.

I is , wet.

\\
it

j\has rained

.\

\ ~ ,,"A.
:'

Explanation.-Because, being a ~re , ,/:;:. conjunction, stands on a lin~ dotted through- ·~. \k;.~;~
out.
· · ' '•• /.:L
I
'
/F"·.
I .'

These italicized expressions illustrate other offices of the ad verb
ause. 'l'he first-than I am tall (arn tall is understood)-modifies
ller and limits the degree of the quality ; the second modifies lived
td tells the manner of living ; th e third modifies go and tells the
'Use of my going ; the fourth tells on what condition I will go.

thrown into tho gmtdo food

th~aco.

Analysis.

• , •.
1

•

.
;

The line representing when is made up of three parts to picture these
ree offices. The p11rt representing it as a modifier of calls is, for connience, placed aborn its principal line instead of below it.
(3. While Louis XIV. reignetl, Europe 'v-as at \var.
~l. Printing was unknown when H omer wrote the Iliad.
-1. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy
·s within me.
1. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison.
6. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks.
7. The upright man speaks l!'s he thinks.

\,~{~£::;

'

\

'

'

I~~~{'"' ·•

,I~' '~·'<lb
.•. ,. .,. ;,<:'...

<1f (

"

THE ADVERB CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION.
'.
. •
.
. ·~ '· ·. -.~ , -·fj, . ;.~~ ·,
Punctuation, Arrangement, Expansion, Contraction.
·;_.~·.:~~.;;.~~·'. -:,

I listen

Explanation.- When modifies both listen and
\~
calls, denot ing that the two actions take place at
".<;
the same time. It also connects pleasure calls, as ,
plf!awi·e ~ calls an ad verb mod ifier, to listen. The ofllces of the
njunctive adverb when may be better understood by expanding it
to two phrases, thus : \Ve listen at the time at whi:ch pleasure calls.
! the time modifies listen, at which modifies calls, and which concts.

l~:fti""i"' .f•~

' ' '1 ''.~; ":?fk•'
~ 1< ~~ ~~ ~ i~"'~~ ~~;f;~

J.

LXVll.

LESSON

1. When pleasure calls, we listen.
we

/h~f&.1~1:-.

·'

9. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the · blo~d · -~·~~r "~
throws off its impurities.
, ' ·_ ~: i' ;~ ~i~~1~\'.
. ( 'f.. ,.•T."'<~lfr\
10'. Since thel breath contains poisono,us carbonic acid, wise ~eople- ',: ~?4.'./,
ventilate their sleeping-rooms.
· '· ,' . ' .}1i~f.,,
11. * Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body IS. , , ':;:::)d.

f

.

Introductory.-Rea~ carefully the

1.XIV.

'

_

I

y 1. ~'

. : : J l.f·y.·~ ~/~

"introductory" hints, Less. ·\'1 m
[.{i,U,
, -:,~k~:

,·. .

(a) ,I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
b) Glass bends easilv when it is red-hot.

\· :f:f\~~

. :,.,7·";.,,,
, , '.·:) .l .',

~

J
'
'
1 J ~i'.' '~,i.
.
'
.
' J ~ V':- r
The punctuation of (a) shows that the speaker does not wish to make /-.·~-,'iii\,
the time of · meeting a prominent or essential part of what he hast~ , :;;f;f{},.
;. · say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. . '
,' . '.·'.: ·~~.· ·1 ·
The .bmission of the comma in (b) shows that glass bends eas~ly is , .· t.; .:-~
1
(:'. not offered as a general statement, that the action is restricted .to a · l :~:.~!;~
!':· ··. certain time or condition. When it is red-hot is essential to the' i~- .. ·,.~:}~~~L ded me,amng.
•
.· · ',, ,.,.
!'~"''
.):)''tr.... ~wn
.
..
;~
: /; ·. Tf (a) were an answer to the question, When ·did you meet him ·? the
f''.i j(
1

<;

.~ :,I
1! · '···

,j:,1
· _. ..-, ;,.

"'Pince the subject of the first clause in its natural order, and you will see wha~

:
.....
..
\·.l.':;· ·,
' ~ ~

·
I

l

'·'" ''
; ., :i_,9

\

,'
26

127 , , ,: , . . -

The Adverb Clause-Construction.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

• '

I

I ":

,

8. The Puritans came to America

:imma would not be needed. Why ? Yon see that the sense may be
aried by the use or the omission of the comma.

••

...

••

~

'

~'-"· "t""'~

c:~ ~ -:T:~ T 'k_~

to obtain religio.us .freedom,
'

'

I

"'.,_...

. .

·;

'-;'t:~t1 'i-

'"~f" :i f. -r-. '

.

9. The · Gulf Stream reaches Newfoundland before it crosse~ ·the · <·~
(:'/.;~
.Atlantic.
\·,'"
;l·
·
.
.• r ?j;
. ,,.;
10. If we use household words, we shall be better understood.
· ' . '/'/:;"''~·
11. Philip II. built the Armada that he might conquer England. '· .: <" .>:.- ,,.~~J
.
" I
-. \ .qJ"\!i.(·'
12. We are pained when we hear God's name used irreverently. ,;
'.' :;f:;:~.
13. Criminals are punished that society may be safe.
,
, .' .·~',;,r:

-

>'

I

COMMA-RU LE.-An Adve1·b Clanse is set off by the comma
mless it closely follows and restricts the wor<l it modifies.

DI.RECTION.-Contract

' ,.1

,.;\

,/

{. . 1
the following adverb clauses by si~.Pl~. '";j~~Jl/.{}.'
I ~

· \

omitting such words as may easily be supplied:-

·

. .1

t·'t'/' ~'

.•,

.

,1

F ·""

Example.-" When you are right, go ahead"= "When right, go \ ··;_{!,~ ~;}·-.:·~ '
ahead.
.,,.-. ,.~, .....
.
. .• 1, . .,; "f\(

'rlie ad verb clause niny stancl before the independent
'. lanse, between the parts of it, or after it.

"

•

I

~

14. Chevalier Bayard was killed while he was fighting for Francis L ':i:: h~~~~~~
/1 ..,'.-..~ f'~· ·~
10. l\Iuch wealth is corpulence, if it is not disease.
.. . •' ·,:':-<. , -~.::

DI.RECTION.-Expand the following italicized phrases into equivclent adverb clauses, note the different positions possible for these
·lauses, determine which position you prefer, and attend carefully to
he punctuation :-

1

0

0

0

0

I

I

.

.

16. The sun is much larger t~an the earth is large.
(Such sentences are not used m the full form.)

.'

,~,

{.. J

"J.1_

· r -'<'

,•, ~ /~{; ~_ · .. ·''•.Y~
I

•

Cantion.-An objective form is often used incorrectly ~or,,_. ,'. ~{~k't;~.
1
the subject of a contracted c]ause.
• '-:::~~};{~
• ,. ·

Example.-" Seeing me, he stopped"=" When he saw me, he
.topped." (See second foot-note, p. io2.)
1. The Romans, having conquered the w01·ld, were unable to con1uer themselves.
2. Water increases its volume in beco1m:ng ice.
3. Removing the skin of a seed, we find two fleshy bodies.
4. Looking carefully between the two parts of a seed, we find a min~
•ature plant.
5. The cow, having laid in a sttpply of food, brings it back into the.
mouth, and chews it at leisure.
6. We eat to live.

to eat.

.

..,.

,• t •:., < l.i.:

clauses, and then contract them into equivalent phrases:-

Examine (b), (c), and (d), and determine what differe11t positions the
dverb clause may take. How does the arrangement affect the puncuation?

7. We do not live

f;:

DI.RECTION.-Explain the punctuation of the following adverb \' !, : ~~
.A,ii~

(c) ·when it is 1·ed-lwt, glass bends easily.
(d) Glass, when it is 1·ed-hot, beml& easily.

Example.-We cat to live = 'Ve cat that we may live.
clause tells for what purpose we eat.

.l ,17/-'

~ ~ ~) \~ ;J~ /'-'·

I

~ · ,~~1:-i-:{-'~

Examples.-You are not so old as me (incorrect);

You are not so old as I (correct).

,.,

I am taller than him (incorrect);

, , ,·

_-·-~~~/:i

:_.·':~~}:: ~

1

I am taller than he (correct).

Equlvalen~

'-··- w ·

Forms.

· ,'.':

I>!RECTION.-Change each of the following adverb clauses first to
· an adjective clp.use, and then to an adjective phrase:. ,_' . · f , .

:~:~:;.~~:.

· ~~;~;·fl<
/

·~·"/)~•.'

Example.-" This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends " :::: ,; •;'.~~~·;
'· "\. . .
man, who has no friends, is to be pitied"=" This man, having,- . . · : : ,.
1
l\ f'
friends, is to be pitied"=" This man, without friends, is to be , , . :· «:\: ,
•• d ''
.• ' I . • ',....•.' ~ I
•·~~ ~,;f p1tie
•
"~ .
·-~, 1 . "This

The adverb

no

.' "~f,( '.,.'
~

' II

•l"' .

\

l.

·' '

·' '

'

.{ \ •

/•.

I

' ~. ~

-' . ·j'•

._:

l' ~· ........,'. '· ::
"' · : ,. t\·' t€~ ~ ·~
;.._.. ,• I --;-.' ~t·!/•,
I

28

129

The Noun Clause.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. -

- - - - - - -.- - - - .
•

1

17. A man is to be pitied if he does not care for music.
18. When a man lacks health, wealth, and friends, he lacks three
ood things.

I

'

1

--'--:·.-·\:'~~::"

\

.

•

\ l•"•/1

/{.~

Composition.

To tile Tencher.-Exerclses In compositi on similnr to those sn i:rgested on p. 75
1ny here be Introduced with excellent effect. Let the selections be made with
"ecial reference to adjective and adverb clauses, avoidin g difficult cohstruclions. AR
1r as possible, let phrase modifiers be expanded into clnnses and clause modifiers
>ntracted into phrnses. The advantages and th e disadvantages of these different
1rms and their different possible positions, th e punctnntion, the choice of relatives,
' c. shonld be fnlly discussed.
Suita ble selections for such exercises may be found in readers, hi8tories, or other
ooks In the hands of the pupils.
Additional Exercises in Analysis.

A valnnble lesson In analysit1 may he selected from the preceding sentences . .

r'

/

0

f

.

Oral Analysis.-This is a complex ~entence. The whole sentence here takes the
place of an ind epemlent clause ; that 'the
I has been p?·oved earth is round is the dependent clause.

,;. c1;)'.
, ....

.... ·.~

..

T
A

,·1

'

earth I fa I ,round

~

- ..

'

1. That the earth is round has been proved.
Th at

' .,,

'/ t.,:'_

AnaJysls.

,,

.

The dependent clause is the subject of th~ sentence ; has been prov~d
is the predicate. (As before.) The conj~nc~ion ~~'ft in~roduces the noun ·
. ·~ . '! ·~~~.\? . f .

'; ·n.~

clause,

.· -"'

·

2. That Julius Cresar invaded Britain is a historic fact.
3. What have I done ? is asked by the knave and the thief.
4. Who was tho discoverer of America is not yet fully determined

LESSON
THE

NOUN

LXVlll.

bf historians.

CLAUSE.

Explanation.-The noun clause iri (3) exEresses a direct question; '
that in (4), an indirect question; but (3) and (4) are declarative sen-

Observation Exercises.-

(a) Obedience is better than sacrifice.
(b) To obey is better than sacrifice.
(c) That one should obey is better than sacrifice.
From each of the above sentences get the answer to the question,
What is better? Do the expressions obedience, to obey, and that rne11
!wnld obey differ in office ? What is the office of each ?
You see that a noun may be expanded into a pltrase or into a ·
·lause.

(d) We believe that the world mcves.
( e) Our opinion is, that the wm·ld moves.
(f) The fact that the world moves is not denied.

I

In which of tho precedi17g sentences is a N<>,,un Clause' used as \ · \ n,J;
attribide complement 'I In which, as ob/ect' complement ? In which, as· · ' ' . ('.
explanatory modifier ?
. · . , ,".i \.

tences.
5. Galileo t aught that the earth moves.

...QJ.lileo

tmt. ht

...

Explanation.-Here the clause introduced by that is used like a noun, and is
the object complement of taught .

• .I

·'·, ·

I

6. Plato taught that the soul is -immortal.
7. The world will not anxiously inquire who you are.
: 8. It will ask of you, What can you do ?
9. The principle maintained by the Colonies was, that taxation
without representation is unjust.
6*

r . ,

'· '

.i ' 1;.'. I
. ''"i 1
i ~r

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Hamlet's exclamation was, '' \Vhat a piece of work is man I "
It has been proved that the eurth is round.
t~aJ

i.s

!

Explanation.-The grnmrnatical subject it has no meaning till explametl by
the nou 11 clause.

1·ound

The fact that mould, mildew, and yeast are plants is wonderful.

DEFINITIONS.

Clanse is a 1mrt of a sentence containing a subject and its
1licate.
Dependent Clause is one nsetl as an adjective, an adverb,
t noun.
11 Independent Clause is one not 1lependent on another
nse.

LESSON

LXIX.

The Noun Clause-Construc't ion.

the difference in the punctuation . of (4) and (5)?
necessary to the sense than the other ? (See Rule and Explanation, ·
Less. LIV.)

COMMA-RULE.-The noun clause used as attribute r.om1>lement
is generally set o.fl' by the comma.
Remarks.-The subject clau~e and the object clause are set off
when the comma is needed to separate words that might otherwise 'b e
1
read in too close connection. (See General Rule, p. 73.)
\ •
For the punctuation of the explanatory clause, see Less. LrV.
DIRECTION.- Explain the noun clauses in the
tences, and insert the comma where needed :-

6.

This we know that our future depends on our present . .
.r

.
r

THE NOUN

CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION.
Punctuation.

•IBECTION.-Tell the CJffice of the noun clauses in the following ·

ctences, and note carefully all differences in punctuation. :-

That· the story of William Tell is a myth is now believed.
:. 1vVe do not doubt that the world moves.
.. Our conclusion is, that a whale is not a fish.
The statement above, that a wh ale is not a fish, is scie11tifieaily
rect.
i. The doctrine that all men are created equal was held by our
hers.
)bservation Exercises.-In the examples above, what two kinds of

'··

131'

'

Arrangement. and Punctu._atlon.
-

i

DIRECTTON. - Tell the office of the noun clauses in the following
sentences, and note the arrangement and the punctuation,F- · .'

10. That the world moves, no one doubts.
11. It is now believed that the story of William Tell is a myth.
12. The story of William Tell, it is now believed, is a myth.
Observation Exercises.-Is (10) transposed, or in the' natural ord~r? , , · . ;,~·
What is the effect of this arrangement on the force and on the punc- -, , J.~ /~...~;.ti'-":.
. .. ~ ·f ~·\~
tuation ?
Compare (11) with (1), and note all differences. Notice that th~ :1 ,) ';~I;
long subject in (1) is hardly balanced by the short predicate. Can y'ou .\I·-'·
.· -. ,.::A/
,,..,;.,
see any advantage in .the arrangement of (11) ?
\ ':'.{~.;~~·
Compare (11) with (12), antl note all differences. The hidepen~ent \ · -.,· ..

2

. '·i . .; .~"
I

.. · . '

,1l ·· ·,'. -tr :...,

.· ' ..... ~'11 ·.

133

Noun Clause-Constl"uctton - Continued.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

•'

c thrown in between the parts of the noun clause is said to be used
nthetically.

clause used as object complem6nt, is sometimes transd, and set off by the comma.
1 RECTION.-Transpose

the following:-

·. We cannot determine who first invented letters.
No one can tell how this will end.

L,

.,
\

HI. Religion, we must acknowledge, is the noblest of themes for the

exercise of intellect.
20. Religion-who can doubt it ?-is the nobles~ of them<is for the
exercise of intellect.
21. Religion (who can doubt it ?) is the noblest of theme~ for the
exercise of intellect.

1y using it as a substitute for the subject, clause, this
nse may be placed last.
£RECT.Z:ON.-Transpose the following:-

LESSON
NOUN

:i. That a whale cannot breathe under water is a well-known fact.
G. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowl-

Lxx :

CLAUSE-CONSTRUCTION-CONTINUED.

Contraction.

:ed.

The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing
3 independent clause parenthetically.
(For example and
nctnation, see (12) above.)
1IRECTION.-Rewrite the following and make the independent

use parenthetical:-

7. vVe believe that the first printing-press in America was set up in
xico in 1536.
8. It is true that the glorious sun pours down his golden flood as
:erily on the poor man's cottage as on the rich man's palace.

Parenthetical expl'ess·i ons are set off by commas when
~y cause but a slight break ; when the break is more . ab~.
pt, dashes or marks of parenthesis are used. (See (19),
)), and (21) below.)

Example.- That he is brave cannot be doubted= His being brave ,
-cannot be doubted.

1. That the caterpillar changes to a butterfly_ is a curious fact.
2. Everybody admits that _Cromwell was a grea~ leader.
3. The thought that the earth is spinning around a~ such a rate
makes us tlizzy.
~

DIRECTION.-Contract the following noun .clauses to

infl.nitiv~

}lhrases :I•_\'.

Example.-That he sh01ild vote is the duty·of every American citi·
zen = To vote is the duty of every American citizen.

4. Tha~ we guar<l our liherty with vigilance is ~ sacred duty.
5. Every one desires that he may live long and happily.
6. The effect of looking upon the sun is, that the eye is blinded.
I
I

I

\.

:. 1

,, ·. :

135

Noun Clause - Construction-Continued.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

·,
)bservation Exercises.-Can there be a <loubt as to the reference of
in t5)? Is the meaning clear when the clause is change<l to a
rase ?
l'ell why the comma is; or is not, use<l in the six i;entences above.
Quotations.
'>IRECTION.-Copy the following, noting carefully all capitals

d punctuation marks:-

7. Gol<lsmith says, "' Lcnrn the luxury of t!oing good."
8. Goldsmith says that we shoul<l learn the luxury of doing goo<l.
!), " The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun i'n heaV'Cµ,
ies out, ' Where is it ? '"
LO., Colcriuge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and
king where it is.
11. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eat ing without
gesting."
12. l\lay we not fin<l "sermons in stones aud good in c,·eryt h ing " ?
13. There is much meaning in the following quotation : "Books are
nbalmed minus."
14. We must ask, What are we living for?
15. We must ask what we are living for .

referretl to ? Which question woul<l you call direct'? ·w hich, indirect? 'Name every differenc:ejn the form of these.
·In which of the above sentences is a quotati~n interrupted . by a
parenthetical clause ? How are the parts marked ?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself.
· ' ...
How does it differ from the others as to punctuatio~ and the first
/ .'
'
/".:
,
l e tt, er ?
In (13) a Colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally ,/._, ; .-:-. ·
In (14) a question is i11trocluccd without qnotfttion nmrks. 1Q11e:slions ·:
that, like this. are introcluced with9ut \Jcing referred to any p11rticul11r
person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. l:;tate
the differences between (14) a11tl (15).
In quoting a quest.ion, the interrogation point must stand within the
quotation marks ; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order
is reversetl. * Point out illustrations above.
Sum up what you have leamed.

.I

t

....

j

\

r: '

.•

,·

,· _''Y •

LESSON
NOUN

Observation Exercises.-Notice that the writer of (7) has copie(l
do his sentence (quotetl) the exact lm1guage of Goldsmith. Tlrn two
iarks like inverteu commas an<l the two marks like apostrophes, which
1close this copied passage (quotation), are called Quotation Marks.
Name all the differences between (7) rtml (8). Is the same thought
~pressed in both ?
·w hich quotation woul<l you cali direct?
l hich, indirect?
Notice that the whole of (!)) is a quotation, an<l that this quotation
)]]ta ins another quotation inclosc<l within single marks. Notice the
:der of the marks at the en<l of (9).
P oint out the differences between (9) and (10). In which is a ques::.m quoted just as it woultl \Je askeu '? In which is a question merely

,'. ? ·

infrvrfaced.

LXXI.
....

;{i :
I

__ _

J

CLAUSE- CONSTRUCTION-CON;J"INUED.

'

:.. '.

-... .

.'r ...
'

. ·~ -. i'

Quotations-Continued.

QUOTATION MARKS-RULE.-Quotation marks (" ") inclose
a copied word or passage. Single marks <' ') inclose a quotation ·
within a quotation.
CAPITAL LETTER AND CO.l\Dll-RULE.-When a direct quo·
· tation making con11)ll'tP sense, or n direct question, is introdu,ced
into a sentence, it should be~in with a capital nntl shoultl generaJly '
be set off by the comma..+

.-

"' So with the exclamation.
t No comma is n<f'it nft<'r the lnt errogntion point or t.h<' "ir'·lnmat.ion point.

- ·1.
\ i ·~ ,

I

i ' ",

"' -:\ ' \, '. • \

'

1

36.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speecn.

The Compound

Sentenc~.

137
t·l<

COLON-RULE.-A quotation formally iutrudnced is pr('ceded
'Y the colon.
DIRECTION.-Review carefully the work on Quntatiou,y in the

nreceding Lesson, then rewrite the following sentences, using capitals and punctuation marks where needed :-

1. !Jowell as~s what is so rare

as a day in June

2. ·what is so rare as a day in June asks I.Jowell
3. Lowell asks whether anything so rare as a day in June can be
named
4. The ballad. of 'Chevy Chase' stirs t he heart like the sound of a
trumpet said Sir Philip Sidney.
5. The ballad. of ' Chevy Chnsc' s1titl Sir Philip Sidney stirs the heart
like the sou nd. of a trnmpet.
6. ·what does Wordsworth mean by pl a.in Ii ving and high thinking
7. This cnrions remark was nrn<1c by Burke man is an animal that
1·ooks his victuals.
DIR ECTION.-Point out the direct and the indirect questions and
quotations in Lesson LXVIII., and explain capitals and punctuation.

Some Uses of

"rVere."

1. I wish he were here.

2. If he were here, he would assist us.
Explanation.- Were may be used with a singular subject in expressing a wish, as in the noun clause auove ; also in expressing a supposi- ,
t.ion ·contrary to the fact, as in the adverb clause above.
DIRECTIONS.- Write two sentences containing direct quotations
and two containing direct questions, and then make the quo(at1ons
and the questions indirect.
Write sentences showing how were may be used in the singular.
Find another illustration in the Introductory hints, Less. LXVII.

Exercises. - Noun Clauses-Quotations.
To the Teacl1er.-Sel cctions written in th e colloq11ial Rt.yle and containing fre·
quent quotations and questions may be taken from the readers, for examination, dis· ,

cusslon, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses c<.Ju·n.
',__ \
tracted, transposed, etc.

="'!":':i··

"

' •
•· • t•'-

. i •

Additional Exercise!! in Analysis.

One or two profitable exercises In analysis may be selected from the three preced·
Ing Lessons. Unless the clues Is somewhat mature, the most difllcult of these l!en·
tences should be reserved.

--

LESSON
THE

COMPOUND

/

, /

, .

.. ,~~~~ '

SENTENCE.

)?

... ,
\ )·... I·}~
,,. __.. ~

(c) You must take exercise, or you 'will uot grow strong.
Observation Exercises.-How many clauses in each of the above
sentences ? Is any one clause used as a principal part or a modifier of .
another ? Are these clauses, then, dependent, or independent f Notice·
the,ir punctuation.
Which conjunction shows that the second clause continues the line
of thought begun by the first ? Which shows that two thoughts are in
contrast? Which presents a choice between two thoughts? Exchange
· places with th~se conjunctions, and note hnw the proper relations of
the thoughts are de:;troyed.
Sentences made .up of independent clauses are called Comp~und
Sentences.
Analysis.

1. Light has spreaq, and bayonets think.

'

"
'./,- ...

' ~.'

LXXI I

(a) War has ceased, and peace has come.
(b) We eat to live, but we <lo not live to eat.

.,
Explanation.-The clauses arc.of equal rank, ·
Light I ·:71a.q 19n·eMl
··
and so the lines on which they stand are shaded . ,
:anrl
alike,-and the line connecting them is not slant·----·-:
ing. As one entire clause is connected with the
ba11011ets :· th;•11 k
1
~:::::u,;:.:..:.::::.::..+...;;..;...;,..__
other, the connecting line is drawn between the
pr.edicates merely for convemence.

.. ·',4

'";

." .'! 1,

·,

" ';,

't -

,.

\

38

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Oral Analys s.-This is a compowul sentence, because it is made up of
11dependent clauses. (Analyze each clnuso us before.)

2. The satellites rernlve in orbits aronud the planets, and the plan·
ts move in orbits around the sun.

THE

COMPOUND

SENTENCE-CONSTRUCTION. "
/,

Punctuation.

4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weak1ess.

DIREG1'ION.-Oopy the following, and notice the punctuation:-:-

8. . The camel is the ship of the ocean of sand ; the reindeer is the
<tmel of the desert of snow.
9. Of thy unspoken word thou art m n,sto r ; th y spoken word is master
f theo.

.Ob~ervatio~ Exercises.- \Vhat co11ju11ction could naturally be snp·l1 ed 111 (8) ?-111 (9) ? Girn reasons for your choice. In (8) a cam el is
ailed a ship on account of some fan cied resemblan ce. This is a figure
f speech-a metaphor. F'ind three ot her metaph ors in th e same senence.
Sentences Classified with respect to Form.

DEFlNl'l'lONS.
A Simple Sentence is oue that contains but one suttject aJHl
·nc predicate, either or both of which may be compound.
A C01nplex Sentence is mm composed of au independent
lanse and one or more dependent cJanscs.
·
A Cornpoitnd Sentence is one composed of two or more
ndependent c lanses.
0

* See foot-note , Explanation, p . 77.

\

.

LESSON

3. The mintl is 11 goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst
111slmndry in tho world.

5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb 11 tree.
6. *Either Hamlet was mad , or he ff' ig ned mndness admirably.
7. Places near the sea are not extremd y cold in winter, nor are they
xtremely warm in summer.

.

139

The Compound Sentence-Construction.

1. \Ve must conquer our passions, or our passions will conquer us. ·.
2. The prodigal robs his heirs ; the miser robs himself.
8. There is a fierce conflict between good and i;ivil ; but good is in ·
I
the ascernlant, and must triumph at last.
Observation Exercises.-vVhich of the clauses in the sentences '.
.,
above arc most closely related or linked togetlier ? Point out two
,
clauses that are almost equivalent to two separate statements. Describe the mark that separates them. This mark, denoting a greater
.,,
1legree of separation than the comma, is a Semicolon.
·I

....

.,:~

I'

'.

:.t··
... '

1

DIREGTION.-Apply the Rule below to the punctuation of th9
· sentences above, and then show that this Rule is illustrated by its ".'"
own punctuation.

-.·

l.

-

I·

COMMA and SEMICOLON-UULE. -Independent clauses, when ·
short aml closely connected, are sepnrate(fby the comma; but,
when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are them·
selves divilled iiito parts by the couuna, the semic•ilon is used. '
.•

- . r•

,

... " I

.

DIRECTI\.O N.-Punctuate the following, a.nd give your reasons:- '

·'

I ''

4. Wealth may seek us but wisdom must be sought.
5. The wind and the rain are over the clouds are divided in heaven
over the green hill flies the inconstant sun.
• 6. London is the capital of England Paris, of France Berlin, of
Germany.*

* The comma here marks the omis8ion of the words is the ca71jtal.

...
l

\

.~

·.. \

•f'*'°i

...'·

1. '

,:,

,;:'

,.. '
;

t .•

40

141

Review.

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Contraction.
I>IRECTION. - Contract the following sentences by using.the re•
ieated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a. compound
·erm:-

13.
14.
15.
16.

I

' /" ',:
' +.r:r
'

Resist the devil, and he will flee from you.
Govern your passions, or they will governsou.
I heµ,rd that you wished to see me, and I lost no time in coming.
He was faithful, and he was rewarde<l.

.. .,

/ .

I>IR ECTION.-In all the following exercises of this Lesson attend

!arefully to the punctuation.

'

Example.-Time waits for no man, 11.1Hl t.ide wails for no man=
Tirne and t-ide wait for no man.
7. Lafayette fought for American independence, an<l Baron Steuben
fo ught for American independence.
8. The mind knows, the mind feels, and t he mind thinks.
D. The spirit of the Almighty is within us, the spirit of the Almighty is around us, and the spit-it of the Almighty is above us.
. DIRECTION.-Contract the following sentences by simply omit:1ng from one clause such words as may readily be supplied from the
)ther :-

Example.-He is witty, but he is vulgar =
He is witty, but vulgar.

I

DIRECTION.-Change one of the independent clauses in each of
these sentences to a dependent clause, and then change the depend-

•\

ent clause to a participle phrase :;I-

Example.-The house was built upon a rock, and therefore it d~d
~

not fall=
The house did not fall, because it was built upon a rock=
''
The house, being built upon a rock, <lid not fall.

. .'

Observation Exercises.-Are embroidery and web (in 10) used with
their common meaning, or figuratively ? Explain their meaning here.
,· ·,

.

·

·,_;" i'if..

'.

10. Mirth should be the embroidery of conversation, but it should

~,

To the Teacher,-A lesson In analysis may be made from the preceding LeBBOn. \ '

-LESSON

Equivalent Forms.

1\

i,

..~·: ....:'..!.

I
.\

I"' ;,i
•I

..~

't1"

l'.' .; I \' ~ •
' -'J

t

LX XIV.

~ (::~· .. I

.. 1( .:•

• • ;'' 1
'\

\

. "~

:

l\

\•.

~t \.

REVIEW,.

DIRECTION.-Change the following co·m pound sentences to com,l ex sentences without materially changing the sense :-

Example.-Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care

..

17. He found that he could iwt escape, and so he surren<lered.
18. Our friends heard of our coming, and they hastened to meet us.

,Additional Exercises In Analysis.

10t be the web.
11. It is called so, but it is improperly called so.
12. Willinm the Silent has been likened to Washington~ and he has
ustly been likened to him.

, / \

/ ·'

I

To the Teacl1e1'.-If the pupils have not done the preceding work

'

oughly, this Lesson should be divided.

·

.

f themselves=

If yoit take care of the minutes, the hours will lake care of themil ves. (Notice that t he imperative form is here more spirited and
mphatic than the conditional,)

Show that a Clause may perform the office of an adjective or of ,an
adjective phrase. Explain the two offices of the relative pronoun.
. I ~,.
_Show that an a<ljective clause may be connected by a ~onjunctive ~,d·
.'

..
...

I

142

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

verb. Show the <liITercnce between n restrictive and a n umestrietive
clause. Give the H.ule for punctuating the aujecti rn clause. Give and
illustrate the Caution regar11i11g the place of the adjective clause.
Give and illustrate the two Cautions regarding the choice of° relatives.
Show how a participl e phrase may l>e expanded into an adjective
clause. Show how sentences ma y he co111bine1l by the ai<l of relative$.
Show t hat a clause may per.form the oJTice of an adverb or of an ad\:erb phrase. Illustrate a nd explai n th e punctuation of ad verb clauses.
Illustrate the different positions of ad verb clauses. Show how differe nt kinds of phrases may he expantlPd into adverb clauses. Illustrate
different ways of contracting ad verb clauses. What error often occurs
in a contracted adverb clause?
. Show that a clause may be equi valent t.o a noun. What is a clause ?
-a dependent clause ?-an independent clause? Illustrate and ex- '
plain the punctuation of noun clauses. Show how noun clauses may
be transposed. Illustrate the punutuation of parenthetical expressions.
Show how a noun clause may be co ntracted.
Give nn illustration of a direct q11 ot11tion ; of nn indirect quotation ;
of a direut question introduced into a sentence ; of nn indirect question. Give and explain the Rules tlmt apply to the writinb' of these
quotations and questions.
Show how were may be usetl with a singular subject.
Show how independent clauses may be connected. Define the diffe rent kinds of sentences clnf'sifi r.tl as to for m. Girn and illustrate the
Rule for punctuating compound sen tences. Show how compound sentences may be contracted.

GENERAL.

n umbers.
Scheme for · the Sentence.

(The numbers ref er to Lessons.)
Noun or Proi10un (8, 15).
Phrase (56).
{ Clause (68).

Subject.

.,

Verb (8, 19).

Predicate.

Object.

Noun or Pronoun (48).
Phrase (56).
{ Clause (68).

Attribute.

Adjective-(49). ·.
·
Noun or Pronoun (49).
{ Phrase (56).
Clause (68). •

Oomplements.

' ,~ \

.. I

- ·/,

•·

Objective. . (See Lesson 11 O.)

/

·---,

Adjectives (25, 26). ·
.,
Ad verbs (81, 32).
i
Participles· (55).
·
Nouns and Pronouns (53). ·
{ Phrases (3'1, 55, 56).
Clauses (63, 66, 68).

Modifiers.

is the science which
uses, untl rela1ions of the words of the English

°"-··

'•.•' "I...\_,

Conjunctions (41', 66, 68, 72).
Pronouns (63). .
' ·
{ Adverbs (63, 66).
·

Oonnectives.

DEFI~ITIO~.-English G1'a1n1nar
~orms,

REVI~~-

To the Te.ticher.-This pcheme will be found very helpful in a general review.
The pupils snould be able to reproduce it, iu pnrt or entire, except thE" Lesson

What is English grammar ? •

teaches the

143

· Review.

·

I

•

.

Olasses.-Me&~ng. 1
·

•

,(
.•·

I

·~ .'

...

\''
'"\

.,..

'•-\ 'j ... ,·

I

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Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, 1Ex•
. I .
clamatory (2, 3).

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Olasses.~Form. · Simple, Complex, Compound (72).
-

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Inpependent Parts (46).

langunge.

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144

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

Statements Combined.
..
I

LESSON

LXXV.

STATEMENTS COMBINED.
DI.RECTION.-·Explain each of the seven different ways in which
the two following statements are combined, and justify the punctuation:-

{a)
{b)
(c)
{d)
(e)
(.f)
{g)

This man is to be pitied. Jie has no friends. =
This man has no fricml.s, a11Ll he is to be pitied.
This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends.
Because this man has no fricmls, he is to be pitied.
This man, who has no fricmls, is to be pitied.
Thi& man, hnving no friernls, is to be pit.ied.
This man, without fri ends, is to be pitied.
This friendless man deserves our pity.

Remark.-The seven forms aborn illnst.rate changes in the grammatical structure. By using sy nony ms and recasting the sentence, the
same thought may be expressed in a great variety of ways ; as,
(h) The condition of a perso11 in whom no human being takes a
special interest should awaken ou r sy mpathy.

.

-

14q
,•

., ~

(j) Remember now and al way that life is'~o idle drea1~, but a. soiemn
reality, based upon eternity, and encompassed by etermty. Fmd\ out
· your Lask ; stand to it ; the night cometh when no man can work.~
Carlyle.

CauUon.-Short statements closely related in meaning
may be improved by being combined. Young writers,
· however, often use too many ands and other .connectives,
and make their sentences too long.
. f

Caution.-Statemeuts not closely related m thoughi
must not be combined.
' Example.-1\Iilton was born in 1608, and his father was a scrivenei . '
(improper).

Notice that in combining statements some are merel~·
linked together, and that others are changed into. subordi·
nate clauses, or condensed into phrases or single words . .
(Find. examples above.)
. . . .,

DIRECTION. - Explain all changes made in combining the follow-

ing statements:-

The b1·eath of the ocean is sweet. The winds fill their mighty lungs
with it. They strike their wings for the shore. Th ey breathe health
rind vigor along the hosts. These hosts wait for this breath. They
faint for it. =
(i) The winds fill their mighty lun gs with the sweet breath of ocean,

and, striking their wings for th e shore, they breath health and vigor
along the fainting, waiting hosts.

Life is no idle clream. L~fe is a solemn reality. Life 1:s based
1tpon etemity. L~fe is encompassed by eternity. R emember these facts
now ancl alway. Find ont you,r task. Stand to yottr task. The night
cometh. No man ccin then work. =

.

.

Caution.-In combining statements be careful to -give
.each the form and the position best suited to its :relative
importance and to its bearing on the general subject.
DIRECTION.-Combine in several ways each of the following

. groups of sentences :-

1. The ostrich is unable to fly.

It has not wings in proportion . to

its body.
2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile.
3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend from the
brain. They spread over the whole body.
4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known
to have been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the pat.7

'

146

The Sentence and the Parts of Speec h,

Paragraphs-Com posi ti one.

147 '
. J.,.~

ronage of .John Faust. He published it in 1455. He publishetl it in
the city of .Mentz.
5. The human body is a machine. A watch is tlelicately constructed.
This machine is more tlelirately const.nictcc l. A stenm-engine is complicatecl. This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is
wontlerful. This machine is more wom1erful.
Composition.
To the Teacher. - Bearing in mind th e fact that the sentence is the type of the

di ~conrse, w~ can hardly overratr. the value of the work H1ggestecl above.

In con tinning th e8e exe rcises the teacher should nim to keep nnder constant review
all the principles taught in the preceding Lesso ns.
Figures of speech nml prin cipl es of con stm ction , nsnnlly relegated to formal rhetoric, mny he here trcntl' il iu cid entally nml i11fon11nlly with excell ent. effect.
Sentences or pnrngrnph s co11t.ni11ing vnlnnbl e tho nght may be broke11 np Into 8ng·
!!cstive expressions, and pnt on the hlackbonnl or on cards to be copied and comhined by the pupils.

LESSON

LXXVI

PARAGRAPHS - COMPOSITIONS.

A sentence may be matle up of closely related statements,
a pa1·ag1·aph of reln.t ell sentences, and n comvlete composition of related paragraph s.
HEFINITION.-A. Pa,1·ayra1>h is a scutcncc or a group or
related sentences developing· one point or dhision of a geneml
-. ubject.

In preparing to write n composition we should make out ·
brief headings for the different parts into whi ch we intend
to divide our work. Each heading may be regarded as the
•ntb,ject of a pa1·ay1·avh.
CanUon.-Ench paragraph should lend naturally to the
'llle that follows, and all should have a direct bearing on
the general subject.

DIRECTLON.-Combine the following expressions into a composition of four paragraphs, using the analysis, or ~\ltli~e, here given:- .
'! .,
GENERAL

SUBJECT .~THE

.. ·

'
?- ."·~.

\

,.

I

TAKING OF FORT TICONDEROGA.

1st Paragraph.-Position of the Fort.
I

Zd Paragraph.-Planning tho Attack.

'

/

3d Paragraph.-Getting to the Fort.
Uh Paragraph.-Attack and Capture.
l

'

: .. r

'

Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outiet of Lake ,
George ancl by Lake Champlain. Fronts south ; water on three sides. ·
Separatecl by Lake Champlain from Mount Indepentlence, and by the
outlet from Mount Defiance. Fort one hm1dred feet above the water.
May 7, 1775, 270 men meet at Castleton, Vermont. All but 46, Green
Mountain boys. Meet to plan and execute an attack upon Fort 'I'.
Allen and Arnold there. Each claims the command. .Question left
to the officers. Allen chosen. On evening of the 9th, they reach the
lake. Difficulty in crossing. Send for a scow. Seize a boat•at anch9r..
Search, and find small row boats.
Only 83 able to cross. Day is
· dawning when these reach the shore. Not prudent to wait. Allen
orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks. Every man
responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel
snaps his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel ·retreats. They follow.
Rush upon the paracle ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the
stal.r:;. Orclers La Place, it is said, in the 1mme of the great Jehovah
antl the Continental Congress, to surrender. Capture 50 'men. 120
cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several swortls
and howitzers, small arms, and some ammunition.

'"t.

.'

I

,

·'

I

··:1:
'/

\

I

/./'.
I

'

I ,

DIRECTION.-Combine the following into three paragraphs, using

the analysis here given:GENERAL SUBJECT.-THE NILE AND ITS VALLEY.
1st Paragraph.-Bouroes and Course of the Nile.
2d Paragraph.-The Overflow.
3d Paragraph.-Fertility of the Valley.

I

'

148

The Ser;itence and the Parts of Speech.

Paragraphs-Composition.

. 149

_..

:

The Nile rises m great ln.ke;::. Runs north. Sources two thousand
miles from Alexamlria. Colll':<c through the valley is 1,500 miles.
Flows into the l\Celliterra.nean. Two principal elmnncls. l\linor outlets. Rains at the sources. The melting of th e mountain snows. Nile
O\·erflows its banks. Begins, in Egypt, at the end of June. Rises
four inches daily. Rises till the latter prtrt of Septcm \.Jcr. Begins to
fall about the middle of Octol>cr. Whole valley an inland sea. Only
Yilla.ges above the surface. Th e valley very fertile. The deposit. The
fertile strip is from 5 to 150 miles wide. Renowned for fruitfulness.
Egypt long the grairnry of the workl. Three crops from DJce mber to
Productions-grain, cotto n, and inuigo.

'

To the Teacher.-This work of analyzi11g a ·ci;>mposition to find .the leading
thoughts under which the other thoughts muy be gro~ped is, in many waye, a most
valuable discipline.
\
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read
Intelligently and profitably.
The rending-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphe: ·
Such work is an essential preparation for the rea ding-cla~s.
After a time the teacher may profitably call attention to the formal divi8ion
of composition into
Introduction,
Discussion,
Conclusion.

Jlne.

How to Write an Original Composition.•

LESSON

LXXVll

PARAGRAPHS- COMPOSITIONS.
DIRECTION. - Make your own analysis, and combine into a com• •
position the following suggestions concerning the frog:-

Frog's spawn found in a poml. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs
can be distinguished. , In a few days cnrions · little fish are hatched.
These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head /
Yery large-out of proportion . Appearance of all head and tail. This
creature is a true fish. It breathes wate r-air by means of gills. It has
a two-chambered heart. \Vatch it day by day. Two little gills seen.
These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller.
Two small arms, or fore-legs, are seen. ·R emarkable change going on .
inside. True lungs for breathing air ha ve been forming. Another
chamber added to the heart. As the gills grow smaller, it find s difficulty in breathing water-air. One fin e d~iy it pokes its nose out of the
water. Astonished (possibly) to find thu.t it can IJreathe in the air. A
new life has come upon it! :N"o pa rticular r eason for spendin g all its
time in water ; crawls out upon html ; sit:> down upon its haun ches;
sun·eys the world . It is no longe r a fish; has entere<l upon a higher
stage of existence ; has become a "frog."

I. Choose a Bubject.-Choose your subject long before you are to
write. A void a full, round term like Patriotism or Duty ; take' a
division of it; as, Ilow can a Boy be Patriotic f or Duties which we
Schoolmates owe Each Other. The subject should be on your level,
should be interesting to you, and should start in your mirid many
trains of thought.
II. Accumulate the Material.-Turn the subject over in your
mind in leisure moments, and, as thoughts flash upon you, jot them
down in yout blank-book. Pay little regard to their order ori the page
or to th eir relative importance ; but, if any seem broad enough for the
main points, or heads, il'ldicate this. 'Talk 'Yith no one on the subject,
and read nothing on it, till you have thought yourself empty ; and
even then you should note down what the conversation or reading suggests, rather than what you have heard or read.
III. Qonstruct a Framework.-Before writing search through your
material for the main points, or heads. Perhaps this or that jotting, as it
stands, includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure that by brooding ·
over your material, and by further thinking upon the subject, you ,get
at all the general thoughts into which, as it seems to you, the subject
should be analyzed. Study these points carefully. See that uo two

'

150

I

The Sentence and the Parts of Speech.

overlap each other , that no one a ppears twice, th at no one has been . . ~
raised to the dig nity of a head that should stand under some head, and , ' ' f
that no one is forei g n t o the subj ect. Study now to find the natural (~.'
order in which these points should stand. L et no point follow another
wh en it is a necessary int roduction to t hat other. If developing all the
points would make your com position too long, study t o see what pointf:l
yo u can omit without abru pt break or esscnt in,l loss.
IV. Write.-Gi ve your whole atten tion to your work as you write,
and other thoug hts will occur to you, and better ways of putting
th e thoughts already noted <low n. In expanding the main points into
parag raphs, be sure t hat ever ything falls under its appropriate hea<l.
Cast out everything that has n ot a d irect bearing on your su bject. Do
not strain ·after effect., or stri \'e to seem wi se r tha n you are. Use
1.9.miliar words, and place these, yonr ph rases, anu your clauses, where
they will make your thought t he clearest. As occasion calls, change
from t he na tural ord er to th e t ra nsposetl, and let sente nces, simple,
complex, anu compoun<l, long and short, st.aml shoul<ler to shouluer in
t he paragraph. E xpress yourself easil y- onl y now and t hen putting
your t honght forcibl y and with feelin g. L et a fresh im u.ge here and
t here relieve the uniformit.y of plain la ngunge . One sentence should
follow another without abrupt b reak. Look ~ h a rpl y to the spelling, to
the use of en.pita! k tt.e1·s, to p1111 ct natio11 , n.nd to g rnmnmt ienl fo rm s.
V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution.-Keep your pages clean, '
and let your lrnndwriting Le dear. On t he left, o.E the pnge leave n.
margin of an inch for corrections. Do not write on t he fo urth page ;
if you exceed t hree pages, nf'e a nother ~ li e d . ·when t he writin g iR
•lrme, d ouhl e t he low(• r half ri f ll1•: :-:li •:!!l; fJl"f! l' t.11 <! 11pper, and fold
1liroug h th e mi<ldl c ; th en liri11g tli•: 1<i p d 1i w11 :uul fold again. Brin~
the right end t owaru you, aml across th e t op write yo ur name arnl
t he dat e. This superscrip tion will be a t the top of the fourth page, nt
the right-hand corn er, and at rig ht a.ng les to t he rule<l lin es.
To the Teacher. - Qnestion the pnpil s closely up.:;:i these clirPction s, ancl insist
that th ey shall practice wh at is here lnicl clown.
See list of eubj eats for compo sition, p. 324.

·.:

\

.

)

SUBDIVISIONS . OF THE

pARTS

OF SPEECH.

1_\'

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I

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!..'.

..
~

.

LESSON
CLASSES OF

•

,!~

LXXVlll

.'

'.. ..

. .
~ '

··'.....

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

.I'. • ~. ..

d Pro er nouns, see Lessons XI.,
lntroductory.-For Common an.
pd Relative pronouns, see
p
sonal Iute rrogat1ve, an
F
XII .
or er
•
d' " ll. (- nll men) performs the
LXIII I " A ll must ie, a - ...
Less. XIV.,
· n
Th e words that stand for
tes
by telling something
offices of both an adj ective and a noun.
. .
th
1t as near or r emo e, or
things b y pomtmg em
t7 . that one latter, much, are
of their number, order, or quantity ' as, iis,
'
' .
called Adjective Pronouns.

°' . . .

DEFINITIONS.

I

/

.

;

\

Classes of Nouns.

A Noun ls the name of anything.
i
·n is n 11ame which belongs to all things of 11
A bom:1non No't "'
...
class.
n h1 the particular name of an individual.
A Prope1· Nou
k
It may be well to note two classes o[ common nounsemar . A Collective Noun is the name of a number
collective aml cibsfract.
·
b ·
An Abstract
of things taken t ogether; as, army, flt' ock,a~:i~gJU~;.~ state of being;
. l
f a quality an ac 10n,
'
Noun 1s t rn name 0
movement existence, tthti)
.
.
.
'
as, whiteness, beauty, wisdom, (t~e) singing,
'
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R

•

sleep.

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152

Subdivisions of the P arts of Speech.

Classes of Pronouns.

A P1·01wun is a wor{l used for a noun.
A Pe1·s01ial P1·01wun is one that, by its form, denotes the

' Peaker, the one spoken to, or the

011e

spoken of.

A Relative P1·onoun is one that relates to some preceding

1vord or wordi;;, and connects clauses.
An Interrogative P1·ononn is one with which a question is
1sked.
An Adjective Prononn is one that performs the offices of
Joth an adjective and a noun.

The simple personal pronouns arc-I, than, you, he, she, and i·t.
The compound personal pronouns are-myself, thyself, yourself,
•irnself, herself, and itself.
The shnple relative pronouns arc-who, which, that, and what.

Construction of Pronouns.

.

' 1'53

.

,•'

'\ \

'

Examples.-" I rnyself do not know who that is." I is a personal
pronoun, standing for the speaker ; it is the subject of do know.
11:lyself is a compound personal pronoun, standing for the speaker; it
is an explanatory modifier of I, adding emphasis. Who is an interrogative pronoun, the question being indirect ; its antecedent cannot
be determined without the answer to the question ; it introduces the
noun clause and is the attribute complement of is. That is an adjective pronoun, standing for that person; it is the subject of is.

1. You yourself do not know who inven~ed letters. 2. Who steals
my purse steals trash. 3. What was said, and who said it ? 4. He
heard all that was said. 5. He heard what was said. 6. Whatever is
done must be done quickly. 7. You must determine what it is. 8 .•
. She saw one of them, but she cannot tell which. 9. It is not known to
whom the honor belongs.

The word, phrase, or cbuse in the place of which a prooun is used is called an Antecedent.
n.IRECTION. ....:..Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in
iese sentences :-

Jack was rude to Tum, and always knocked off his ha.t when they
•ct. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep
umli.y, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body. To ae
cowardly, ancl every boy should know it.
1

/

\ .

• ,I

'/

'

L ESS 0 N

The interrogative lH'onouns arc-who, which, and what .

ny, both, each, either, enongh, few, former, latter, little, many, much,
Pither, none, one, other, same, several, s1.lch, that, those, this, these,
·hole.

\

DIRECTJQN.-Determine the class and explain the office 'of each ', ·;,''.)
I
pronoun in the following sentences,:-

The co1npound relative pronouns nm-whoever or whosoever,
"hichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoe.ver.

.
Some of the more common adjective pronouns are-all, another,

,

'

CONSTRUCTION

Cantion.-A void

LX
OF

·x

..,
IX •

PRONOUNS:

he, it, they, or any other pronoun when

. its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat
the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast
the sentence.
Examples.-" The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he should, he
would die" (not clear) = "The lad cannot leave his father ; for, if he
should, his father would die" (noun repeated).
"Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends" (not
clear) = "Lysias g:.i.ve his father this promise : 'I will never abandon
your friends ' " (speaker's words quoted).
'
7*

:-;•..,· '·

l54

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.

Construction of Pronouns.

__ 195 .<_~· 1•

'
Caution.-ln a restrictive clause, tliat is generally pre~ ~ '"
' ) ':

. ~

'

DIRECTION.-Note the different meanings that may be given to
~ a.ch of the following sentences, and then make the sentel!.ces clear :-

1. Dr. Pritlen11x 5nys thnt. ''"lH' ll Ill' lt't'k hi:> l'l'llltnt'nlnry to t.ho
•100kseller, he told him it. wn5 a dry snhjt'et. 2. He :;:nhl to his friend
t hnJ., if ho did not. f1'L'l lwlfrr 5\1011. lw t h1H1gM. In' hml hl'l.kr ~o homo.
:1, A tried to see B in the crowu, hut could not., because he was so
-<hort. 4. Charles's duplicity was full y made known to Cromwell by
:L letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted.
5. The farmer told
the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, anu that it was but fair that
he should pay him for his loss.

Caution.-Do not use pronouns needlessly.
Remark.-Pleomtsm, or repetition for rhetorical effect, is allowed ;
as, "The star-spangled banner, long may it wave ! " but such expressions as "John he doesn't think so," arc vulgar errors.
DIRECTION.-Correct these sentences by omitting needless pro-

nouns:-

6. It isn't true what he said. 7. Th e father he died, the mother sh~
fc.llowed, and the chiluren they were taken sick. 8. The cat it meweu.
t~nd the dogs they harked. anll the man he shouted. 9. Napoleon,
Wa~erloo having been lost, he gave him self up to the English.

Catttion.-The relative who should represent persons ;
which, animals and things ; that, persons, animals, and
things ; and what, things. 'rhe antecedent of what should
not be .expressed.
DIR~CTION.-Correct the following errors and give reasons ·: -

10. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus. 11.
All what he saw he described. 12. 'l'hose which say so are mistaken.
13. The thing what is done cannot be undone. 14. He has friends
which I kll".>w.

ferred where it will sound as well as who or which. When
the clnnse is not restrictive, who or tvhicli is generally pro- . ·
1
ferrod to that.
\
DillECTIUN.-Study the Caution above and the explanation oi
restrictive clauses, Lesson LXIV., then fill the following blanks,
giving reasons for your choice :-

15. 'l'he wisest men - - ever lived made mistakes. 16. \Vho - saw him dicl not pity him. 17. He is the very man - - we want. '
18. He is the same - - he has ever been. 19. . All - - knew him
respected him. 20. !!; was not I - - dicl it. 21. Wate"r, - - is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface. 22. Longfellow, - - is the most popular American poet, has
written beautiful prose. 23. Time, - - is a precious gift, should not
be wasted.

·'

1

'
·'
.. , ..

''"/

DIRECTION.-Correct the following and give reasons:-;-

ft.. '~

24. We cannot justify the means that this was accomplished by.
··
25. The relative represents that that has gone before. 26. It happens _..
too frequently that that that shouhl be, is not.

Caution.-Several connected relative clauses relat~ng to .. ..
the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun.
\

DIRECTION.-Cc,rrect these errors:-

27. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who becamb governor of
the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2s.' ··, : :
. This is the horse which started ·first, and that reached the stand last. · 1 · .
29. The man that fell overboard, ancl who was drowned was the first
·:
mate.

Caution.-The relative clause should be placed as near as
,·
possible to the word that it modifies.
1

'

56

Subdivisions of the Pal'ts of Speech.

DIREOTION.-Correct

these errors:-

30. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent.
1. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 32.
'laudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the
•ame of man. 33. He shoultl n ot keep a horse that cannot ride.

Cantion.- \Vhen this and that, these and those, the one
ncl the other refer to things previously mentioned, this and
hese refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to the
irst mentioned ; the one refers to the first mentioned, and
he other to the last mentioned. (Obscurity is often preeutecl by a repetition of the wonls referred to.)
DIRECTION.-Correct

these errors:-

34. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community ;
hese are shunned, whil e those arc sought after. 35. Talent speaks
·3arnedly at the bar ; tact, triumph a ntly : this is complimented by the
•ench ; that gets the fees. 3G. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist :
u the one we most admire the work ; in the other, the man.

LESSON
CLASSES OF

LXXX.
ADJECTIVES.

Introductory.-See Lesson XXVI., first Direction and exercise.

DEFINITIONS.
Au Adjective is a wor<l usc(l to modify

a noun or a 11ro1101111.

A Desc1•iptive A <ljective is one that modifies by ex1H'essing

111aut.y.
A Definitive Al~jective is one that modifle., by JlOinting out,
mmbering, or clenoUng quantity.

Classes of ·Adjectives.
I

The definitive adjectives an or a,,and 'the are com~. only'
called AJ•ticles. ·
\
\ , .· ~.
To the Teacher.-Exercises for di sting ni.hing Descriptive and Definitive adjec
tives may be selected from the preceding Les8011 s in analysis.
The clas~ification of adjectives made by grammarians Is not, in our opinion, o,f
great practical value.
/

Construction of Adjectives.

Caution.-An is used before a vowel sound,* but /.drops '
n and becomes a before a consonant sound. ·
Remark.-Notice that the form of the article depends upon the
wortl immediately following, which may, or may noti be the, word
modified.

\'"•

'

'

DIREOTION.-Study the following examples, and give the sound
that controls the form of each article:--

An actor, an encl, a n item, an oak, an usher, a good actor, a happy ·
end, a small it.em, a large oak, a polite usher, a history, t an hour (h is
silent), a usurper (n = yoo), a one (one begins with the sound of w).'
/

Caution.-Use an, a, or the befor_!:i each of two ~r more '
connected adjectives, when these adjectives modify differ; - /
ent nouns, expressed or understood; but, when they' modify
the same noun, the article should not be ' repeated. t
Explanation.-" A cotton and a silk umbrella,. means two umbrellas-one cotton and the other silk ; the word wrnbrella is understood
after cotton. " A cotton and silk umbrella" means one umbrella,
>1< The vowel sounds are the open voice soundi; of a, e, i, o, u.
All others are consonant sound s.
t An is sometimes used before unaccented h ; as an historian.
t Wh en qualities are to be emphatically distinguished, the article is sometimes
repeated before adjectives modifying the ~ame noun.

/.

·8

159

Classes of Vel'bs and Advel'bs;

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.

,
•

I

1 \

J.
·. ···Ff.""
'.1'; .

,.:.i .. '

ar.plc. HJ. 'fhe arm-chair was roomy · and capacious.
lovely bmrn, but I paid a frightful price for ib

rtly cotton and partly silk ; cotton and sillc modify tl10 same noun,
1brella. 1'he wise and the good means two classes ; the wise and
'id means one class.
'>IRECTION.-Study the Caution as explained, and correct these

rors :-

f

r

Jl e 111i~ ph cre. 2. The Northern and
Southern Hemispheres.
3. The right and left hand. 4. The
111th and the fifth verses of the poem. 5. The fourth and fifth verse.
A ·W ebster's and Worcester's dictionary.

l. The Northern antl Sont.hcrn

'!

C((,tttion.-Repeat an, a, or the before connected nonns
·noting things that are to be distinguished from each
her or emphasized.
nIRECTION.-Study the Caution, and correct these errors:-

a:· ",;...

20. It was-

\ ·.· ,,!... .. .~
\

Catttion.-Place adjectives whe1;e there can be no doi1bt '. J): ,
as to what you intend them to modify. · If those formi1~g a ' _· ./'
stJries are of different rank, place nearest the noun the one /~ · .
most closely modifying it; if they are of the same rank, ·- 1 ·,,,
place them where they will sound best-generally in the . . '
order of length-the shortest first.
,·
,

\ '

'!1. ,...

21. The house was <!omfortable and large. 22. A salt barrel of pork. _. :--.'. .,
23. It was a blue soft beautiful sky. 24. A fried dish of bacon. · 25. ' ' "
Two gray fiery little eyes. 26. A docile and mild pupil. 27. A pupil, ; :/'>':.
docile and mild.
· ' · ... \. ·.~1;,' ; :,
I

•

,;_ •

'I. \Ve criticise not the dress, but atklrcss, of the speaker.

d .)

Ca,ntiou.-Choose apt adjectives, but do not use them
cccUossly ; amid such as repent the idea or exaggerate it.
El!:amples.-The following atljecti1·es are obviously needless: Good
rt1..es ; verdant green ; painful toothache ; mnbrageous shade.

';
•.•

13. It was splendid fun. 14. It was a tremendous dew. 15. He USt(f
"" words than the other speaker. (Less refers t.o quantity-use fewe·f'
" re.) Hi, The lad was neither docil e uor teachable. 17. The belief
1 immortality is common arnl universal. 18. It was a gorgeous

,,I

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...~ ~

I

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"''. ;·t--~"4~·

1

'LESSON

\t' ".. ).1'1Pf1i-.

. 1· •..p .'
' / :!
...

LXXX I.

'. l:'~; ·

I

I

CLASSES OF VERBS AND

J

ADVERBS.

.

•

,,

Introductory.-You ' learned in Lesson- XL VIII. that . some 1verbs .: · ,.'.,°.
express action as passing over from a doer to a receiver. J As· transitive ,'~>:··
means passing over, we call such Transitive Verbs.
' , •· _, · ··

' The ob,iect of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the re~ei;er of ' · ',' :: ·
the action, may be the object complement, or it may be the subfect; 'as,
~ ,\
, '' \V ashington captured 001·nwallis; " '' Cornwallis was captured by
Washington."
.
,
.
'1 •· ,.: . •
.

l>fRECTION.-Correct these errors:-

..

.DIRECTION.-Correct these errors:-

'

8. A noun
1tl pronoun are alike in office. D. Distinguish carefully between an
ljective and adverb. 10. The lion, as well as tiger, belongs to the
·t tribe. 11. Neither the North Pole nor South Pole has yet been
nched. 12. The secretary and treasurer were both absent. (1'he
,.,.eta,,.y and treasnrnr was absent-referring to one person-is cor-

,,.

·~.

-

\\

.

~·.

. . I

I \· .:

All verbs that, like fall in "Leaves fall," do not represent the action , · .,
as passing over to a receiver, and all that express mere bei11-g 01;, state ·, ; '" - ~
'
l
•
' ,,.
l
...
of being are called lntransit.ive Verbs.
• ' · ') -·'·:

l

1

.

A verb transitive in one sentence ; as, "He writes good English," • : . ".
may be intransitive in another ,; as, "He writes well "-meaning . sim- " .. :
·. •
I

'·

I .

' •

. i

I

\"

; ', I ,-

·. . . ' "\.·.' l·r., '
~

:

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. 'oO}

' \

I':,~..· ·~\ ,; 1 ~ ·~(; :l:1 ',

161

Classes or Verbs and Adverbs.

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.

..........

Adverbs of T ·i me are those that generally- answer the ques· --~-.
tion, When f
'

He is a good wri:ter. A verb is transitive 0nly when an object. is.
resse<l or obviously understood.
Li'or Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs see r~essou I1VIII.
1

Examples.-Early, hereafter, now, often, presently, soon.

\ \

.

·.;,

'./

i

Advm·bs of Place are those that generally . answer the
question, Where'!

HEFINl'l'IONS.

Examples.-Away, back, elsewhere, he1·e, out, within.

\ Verb is a wor(l that asserts action, being, or state of being..
Classes of Verbs with respect to Meaning.

Examples.-Exceedingly, hardly, qu,ite, sufficiently, too, very.

\. 7 1·ansitit'e Ve1·b is one that re1111ires an ohject.
1

..

\

I

.,

-··.

4.:_ •

" ' .'
•

'•41

•., 1

,. .

Examples.-G<msequently, hence, therefore, why.

\.n I1·1·egular Verb is one that docs not form its past tense and
)t participle by a<lding eel to the IH"esent.

I

.

•''

. / .!

Construction of Adverbs.

!i-:

"·"

"
. 'v.1·h~
Oaution.-Ohoose apt adverbs, but do not use them neeq-.. _:.,· ·'t.~~~
•
•
I
lessly or mstead of other forms of express10n ; avoid such · :;·.';.:::)
~'-\"':. 1
as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. . ·- -

Remarks.-Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are
led Redundant.; as, present, clothe ; past, clothed or clad; past
l"!iciple, clothed or clad.
\"erbs that are wanting in any of their parts are call ed Defective 1
present, may; past, might; pa.st participle, - - - .

'"l -,.... , . ) , \

,,,.

; • ' . \ 1}

JIREOTION.-Classify the verbs in Lessons XXV. and L.

....

Examples.-! could ill (not illy) afforcl the time. Do as (not like) I
<lo. A diphthong is the union of two Yowels (not where or when two ··
vowels unite) in the same syllable. This (not this ·here or 'ere) sentence
is correct. He wrote that (not how that) he had been sick. I went
alrnost (or nearly) there (not I went rnost there).

.~ , ~.,

... l:.J •:.
1 · ~-:..
"' ...
'1 .. .;;:, '

:. '
}

r)

.-.-: ,,~\

.,:~;.

...

DIREOTION.-Correct the following errors:-

. 1. I returned back here yesterday.

.\n Advm·b is a word used to mo1liry a verb, an adjective, or an •

~.

Adverbs of Cause are those that generally ans1ver the . .
question, Why ?

\. Regula1· Ve1·b is one that forms its past tense anti past
rticiple by adding ed to the present.

DEFINITIONS.

>

Examples.-Beantifttlly, natitrally, so, thus, well, no, yes.*

Classes of Verbs with respect to Form.

Cntroductory.-See Lesson XXXI.

....._:'

/

: '

, Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the
1111estion, In what way'!

\.n IntransiU1.:e Verb is one that does not require an object,

Classes of Adverbs.

/

Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the ..
<1uestion, .To what extent f

/

rnrb.

, ../ /.

\"

2. He had not hardly a minute

*No and yes, used to au!'wer questions, are generally called indenendent adverbs.
They seem to bodify words omitted in the answer lmt contained in the question;
as, Did you see him? No ( = I did no (not) see him).
·
Some make of t.hese words a separate part of speech, and call them responsive,...

,,.. ~

.

~ .\

.

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.

Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives.

to spare. 3. It was awfully amusing. 4. This 'ere k,nife is dull. 5. A
direct quotation is when the exact wonls of another are copied. 6. He
seldom or ever went home sober. 7. The belief in immortality is uuiversa.lly held by all. 8. I am dreadfully gl:td to hear that. . 9. He
said how that he would go.

L E S S 0 N · L X .,X X ·I I •

162

"

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER
NECTIVES.

CON ~\
I

DIREOTION.-Correct these errors:-

10. I have thought of marrying often. 11. We only cat three. meals
n day. 12. He hopes to rapitlly rccrnit. 13. Jlis sagacity almost '
miraculon~.

, Caution.- Unless you wish to affirm, do not use two
negative words so that they shall contradict each other.
Examples.-.No one has (not has n't) yrt reached the North Pole.

No man can do nothing (proper, because it is intended to atlinn that
eYery man must do something).

UEFINITIONS._~

DIREOTION.-Correct these errors:-

14. No other reason can neve r be given. 15. He is n't impro\"i.ng ,,
much I don't think. 16. Th ere rn11 st be something wrong when
'
.
ch ildren do not love neither fn t hl'r nor mother.

{Jaution.-Do not use adverbs for adjectives or adjectives
for adverbs. (See Lesson LI.)

:~··

1

A Conjunction, is a word usetl to connect words, phrasei;;, or.
I
clauses.*

..,\.\

I

\

Co•o'r <linate Conjunctions are such 1u1 connect words,
· · .~ phrases, or clauses of the same rank.
. Subordinate Conjunctions are such ns connect clauses
' ,~ of different rank.
,<;·

·

I

DIREOTION.-Correct these errors:-

17. You must read more t1ist.in ct. 18. It was an uncommon good
harvest. 19. The prima donna sings sweet. 20. She is miserable
poor. 21. My head feels badly. 22. He spoke up prompt. 23. This
b a dreadful cold dav.

'

Observation Exercises.-Find in Lesson XLI. a conjunction con- · ' ·
aecting two subjects ; one connecting two adjectives ; one connecting I
two phrases. Find two conjunctions that form a pair, one being placed
before, and the other between, the connected terms. Find in Lesson
XLV. two other such pairs.
,
Notice that two words or phrases connected by a conjunction have /
the sa1ne office in the sentence-are of the same rank.
~
~ '1
· .Find in l;esson LXXTI. three different conjunctions that connect
clauses. Are these clauses 0f the same rank, or does one depend on
the other?
What do because and if co1111ect in Lesson LXVI. ? Are the clauses
here connected of the same rank, or is one dependent on the other ?
See whether you can make the connectives in Lesson LXVI. join
words or phrases. See whether those in Lesson LXXII. will join words
and phrases. How then may you group connectives?

Caution.-Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as
to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the
sound also.'

appears

163

(For cla9sified lists of conju nctions, see pp. 293, 294.)

1

', 1

*Some of th e co-ordinate cn11ju11ctions, as and and but, are used to connect, in
thought, sentences separat1·d by the period, and e,·en to conne<·t paragraphs. In
analysis and pursing, we regard only the individual 8entence, and trent ~nch conr. "-'·t
' tves as introductory.

164

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.

Construction of Connectives.

Caution.-Some conjunctions and conj unctive adverbs
may stand in correlation with other words; as, either . .. or.;
neither ... nor ; not only ... but or but also.
Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, ~nd
stand where th ey belong.
Examples.-Give me neither riches nor (not or) poverty. I cannot
find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not only bark bui also
bite (correct) ; Not only dogs hark biit also bite (incorrect). Not only
dogs bark, bid wolves · also (rorrect); Dogs not only bark, but wolves
also (incorrect). He was neither rich nor poor (correct); He neither
wus rich n01· poor (incorrect.).
'l'he first of these rclatc<l co nn cct. i vcs should stand imrn cd.iaLely
before the first of the terms directly connected.
DIRECTION,__:_Correct these errors:-

1. H e not only gave me aLl vice but also money. 2. She not only
dressed richly but tastefnlly. 3. Neit her Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of N cw York. 4. Thales was not only famous
for his knowledge of nature, but also for his moral wisdom. 5. There
was nothing either strange nor interesting.

Caution.-Ohoose apt connectives, but do not use them
needlessly or instead of other parts of speech.
Examples.-Seldom, if (not or) eYer, should an adverb staid between to and the infinitive. I will try to (not er.rid) do better next
time. No one can deny that (not bnt) he has money. A harrow is
drawn over the ground, wh-ich (not and which) covers the seed. Who
doubts that (not but that or bnt what) Napoleon lived ? The doctor
had scarcely left when (not but) a patient callcu. Uc thinks as (not
like) I do.
DIREOTION.- Correct these errors:-

6. The excellence of Virgil, antl which he possesses beyond

Classes of Conjunctions and other Connectives.

165

poets, is tenderness. 7. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow.
8. Who can doubt uut that there is a God ? 9. He seldom or -e~er
went to church. 10. No one can deny bul\ that the summer iii \the
hottest season. 11. I do not know as I shall like it. .
\

Caution.-Else, otlw·, otherwise, 'rather, and adjectives
and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually follow,ed ·
by than. But else, other, and more, implying something 1
additional, but not different m kind, may be followed by
but or besides.
Examples.-A diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was
no other than Sir Philip Francis. He can converse on other topics
' .bes1'des politics.
DIREOTION.-Correct these errors:-

12. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 13.
The moon is something else but green cheese. 14. Cornwallis could not
do otherwise but to surrender. 15. It was no other but the PresideJlt.
Hi. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. '

Cltntion.-Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another word or phrase should each make good
sense with it.
Examples.-! have always (add said) and still do 'say that ' labor is
' honomble. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add
lived) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his. sister, but not so
tall (not The boy is stronger, but not so tall, as his sister).
DIRECTION.-Correct these errors:-

17. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 18. Gold is not so
useful, bnt he:wier, than iron. 19. This is tis valuable, if not more so,
than that. 20. Bread is more nutritious, but n?t so cheap, as potatoes.
21. This dedication m1ty serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall
be, published.

I

I

.

i6

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.

167

Review.

I

.

LESSON

LXXXlll.

PREPOSITIONS.*

P 'r epositions and Interjection ... nre not Suf)(liri<led.
Construction of Prepositions.

Cciution.-Great care must Le usetl in the choice of prep·
' itions.
c,; the Tencher.-In donbtfnl cnRes the pnpil Rhonld consnlt the unabridged
"tionary for the preposition in question, uud nlw for the preceding word to whfcb
is joined.
,\ftcr the right prepo~it.ion~ have been fouml, let the pupils rent! the correct forms
•ud till they nre fomillnr to the tongne and t.o the cur.
.

l>IRECTION.-Correct these errors:-

]. This book is different to that. 2. Il e stays to home. 3. He is in
·mt for money. 4. I was follow ed wiLh a crowd. G. He fell from
e bridge int the water. 6. Ile Lem·s a close resemblance of his
ther. 7. He lives at London. 8. He lives in the turn of the roatl.
The child died with the cronp. 10. She is angry with your contet. 11. He is angry at his father. 12. Ile plnced a letter into my
rnds. 13. ·what. is the matter o.f him ? 14. I saw him over to the
•nse. 15. These plants tli[er with en.ch ollwr. 16. He threw himself
1to the bed. 17. 'Ve are hard to work. 18. He distributed the apples
tween his four brothers. 19. Il e went in the park. 20. You c·an eonle on him. 21. He stays to school late. 22. The Colonies declare<l
emselves independent from England.

Cciution.-Do not use prepositiom needlessly.
T>IRECTION.-Correct these errors:-

28. Tn what latitude is Boston in?

24. He en.me in for to havt'

'' For list ~ee p. 202.
' In denotes motion or rest in a condition or pln.::e ; into, chnnge from one condln ~r pince into anoth er. "\Vhen one is outside of n place, he may be able to gel
o 11 : bnt he cannot do anything in it nnti! he bas got into it."

•

'o

- ;~

I ,

:~· ~~.

r'

>:r1 ,,.·"

a talk. 25. I was leading of a horse about , (leading is transitive). . '· :,;::
1
26. Where are you going to ? 27. They admitted of the fact. 28.' \ .. ?q~[,-'
. I .. "'
Raise your book off of the t~ble. 29. He took the poker from out
•:,:
!,
of the fire. 30. Of what is the. air composed of? 31. You can tell
. .
..
by trying of it. 32. This is the subject of which I intend to write
I 'I
. Rbont. 33. I have a brother of five years olcl. 34. Jack's favorite ~· ' '
I'
;,port was in robbing of orchards. 35. Keep off of the grass.
~

C<ttition.-Do not omit prepositions when they are needed.
'
..

.

DillECTION.-Correct these errors:-

\.

.

..

;

36. There is no use going there. 37. I was prev.ented going. 38. He
is unworthy our charity. · 39. What use is this to him ? 40. It was,
the size of a pea. 41. Egypt is the we8t side of the Red Sea. 42. His
eifoi'ts were not for the great, but the lowly.

~·

,.·

...,

'

./

' .

•

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(

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-+-

LESSON

...i·
'/.·.

LXXXIV.

.il

REVIEW.

:·

To the Teachc1-.-The following exercises in crltiCism are intended as a complete review of the twenty-three Cautions preceding.

.\

·~

\" .•t t

. '\ -·· ' .·
(._

DIRECTION.-Cor'i:ect the following errors and give reasons:-

1. A told n that he was his best friend. 2. John's father died when
he was two years old. 3. There is no book which, when we look
through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it • . 4. Kosciusko hav ~
ing come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle . .
5. There are some men which are always young. 6. The brakemen ·
und the cattle which were on the train were killed. 7. He who does
all which he can does enough. 8. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is
a brilliant gem. 9. There are miners that live .below ground, a~d who
seldom see the light. 10. They need no spectacles that are blind.
11. A man should sit down and conn t 'th e cost who is about to build a
\

.

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168

Subdivisions of the Parts of Speech.
'

- p• 1 .

house. 12. Reputation and character do not mean the same thing :
the one denotes what we are ; the other, what we are thought to be.
13. A umpire became an usurper. 14. The right and left lung were
diseased. 15. The right and the left lungs were both diseased. 16. A
white and reel flag were flying. 17. Th ere is a difference between a
predicate verb and participle. 18. I have less friends than she. 19.
The evil is intolerable and not to be borne. 20. Samuel Atlams's habits
WPre unostentatious and frugal. 21. Begin it over again. 22. Most
everybody talks 5o. 23. Verbosity is when too many words are used.
24. He is some better just now. 25. They were nearly dressed alike.
26. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and
again. 27. lie hasn 't gone yet I don't believe. 28. Th e cars will not
stop at this station only when the bell rings. 29. Thi s can be Jone
easier. 30. \Ve have had a remarkabl e cold winter. 31. A knows
more, bnt does not t11lk so well, as B. 32. Some people never have,
and never will, bath e in salt water. 38. Jlc would neither go himself
or send anybody. 34. ·w ho doubts but what two and two arc four?
35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. no. I board in
the hotel. 37. Th e year of th e R estoration plunged l\filton in bitter
poverty. 38. At what wharf tloes the boat stop at ? 39. It was the
length of your finger.

"\

·"

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,.
~.

)

I

")

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

LESSON
NOUNS AND

LXXXV.

"

PRONOUNS-NUMBER.

Introductory.-You have learned that a thought may be expressed
in two words ; as, "Boys si1tdy," ancl that the thought may be varied
l.Jy adding modifying words ; as, "Some boys study hara."
You have also learned that a thought may be varied by simply
changing the form of the words em ployed ; as, " 'l'he boy studies ; "
'' The boys :study." (See J.Jesson XX.)
Some of these changes in form indicate cha.nges in meaning ; as,
J boy; boys; lion, lioness ; others indicate changes in use or relation :
as, boy, boy's; I see, He sees. All such changes in form are called
Inflections.
' Our language has lost many of its Inflections, in some instances _
dropping them with one class of words and retaining the1il with
another ; as, Norn. lady, Obj. lady; Norn. she, Obj. he1-.
W e shall apply the term Modiftcattons not only to inflections but
also to corresponding changes in meaning and use, even when the
inflections are wanting.
, .,

UEFINITIONS•.

ModijicaUons of the Pm·ts of Speech are changes in' ,,:
their form, meaning, and use.
Number is that , modification of a noun or pronoun which .
denotes one thing OJ' more than one.
8

170

Nouns and Pronouns-Number.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

and add es without increase of sypaples.
'\
a vowel add s only.

The Sinyttla.1• Nunibe1• clenotes one thing.
'fhe Plu1·al Nmnbe1• tleuotes more than one thing.

Nouns in

171

y after
\

.\ ,

. DI JtECTION.-Form the plural of each of the following nouns:-

Number-Forms.

,.

•

RULE.-Nouus are geuernUy made })lnrnl by ncldiug s or es.

I

Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, city, colloquy,* daisy, essay, fairy/
fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, _turkey,

Remarks.-\Vh cn the sou nd of s will nut uni te with the last soun<l
of the singular, es is added to make another syllable.
Such words as horse and cage drop the finale when es is aclLled. *

valley, vanity.

Some nouns change for fe into ves.

DIR.ECTION.-Form the plural of each .of the following nouns, and

· 1.

DIRE CTION.-Form the plural of each of the following nouns:-

note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound
of.<1 : -

Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, .self, sheaf, shelf, .staff, t

.Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, box, brush, cage, chmse, cross, ditch,
face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz.

thief, wharf,:j: wife, wolf.

Some nouns inf and fe are regular.

Some nouns ending in o preceded by a consmrn11t add es
without increase of syllables.

DIRECTION.-Form the plural of each of the following nouns:-

Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, . fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, . :
;
reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif.

DIR.ECTION.-Form the plural of each of the following nouns :-

I

Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo. hero, innuendo, motto, mos·
riuito, mulatto, negro, potato, tomato, tornado, veto, vole:rno.

(Nouns in .tf, except sta_(f, are regular ; . ~s, cu,tf, cu.ffs.)

Some nouns in o preceded by a consonant. add s only.

.Some plurals are still more irregular.

DIR.ECTIO N.-Form the plural of each of the following nouns:-

Canto, domino (os or oes), duodecim o, halo, junt.o, lasso, memento,
octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero (os or oes).

Nouns in o preceded by a vowel adds only.

."

DillEC2'ION.-Learn to form the following plurals:-

'

Chilu, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ;
mouse, mice ; l\lr., Messrs. ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, w01~en.
(For the plurals of pronouns, see pp. 295-297.)

Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, trio.

Common nouns t in y after a consonant change y into ,i
* See Huie, p

31tl.

t See Rn le, p . 318.

* U after q is a consonant.
t Sta,(f (11 stick or support), staves or sta.ffs; staff (a body of officers), sta.ffs. The
compounds of staff are regular ; as, flag-staffs.
t In Englnnd, generally wharfs,.

I

Number-Forms-Continued.

'72

173

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

The following nouns are not treated 'a,~ compounds of rnan

LESSON

LXXXVI.

NUMBER-FORMS-CONTINUED.

Some nouns adopted from foreign lm1gnages still retail\
l1eir original plural forms. Some o'I:· these take the English
·Inral also.
:DIRECTION.-Learn to form the following plurals:-

Analysis, analyses* ; antithesis, antitheses ; axis. axes ; bandit,
anditti or ban<lits ; basis, bases ; bc11u, be11ux or Leans ; chernh,
herubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum , data ; ellipsis, ellipses ;
)cus, foci ; fungus, fungi ol" funguses ; genus, genera ; hypothesis,
,vpotheses ; madame, mesdames (mii-<lam '); memorandum, memoranda
memorandums ; nebula, nebulm ; oasis, oases ; parenthesis, paren'ieses ; phenomenon, phenomena ; raJius, radii or radiuses ; seraph.
'raphim 01· seraphs ; stratum, strata ; synopsis, synopses ; terminus,
'rmini ; vertebra, vertebrre.
1•

Some compound nouns in which the principal word stands
·rst vary the first word ; as, sons-in-law.
DIRECTION.-Form the plural of the following words:-

Aid-cle-camp, attorney-at-law. billct-doux, cornrnan<ler-in-chief,
1Urt-mart.ial, consin-german, father-in-Jaw, hanger-on, ma n-of-war.

Most com po ands vary the last word ; as, pailfuls, t genlemen.
DIRECTIO.N.-Form the plural of each of the following nouns :-

Englishman, Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, mouth111, piano-forte, spoonful, step-son, tooth-brush.
*The Latin plural ending es i~ prononncecl cz.
t Pailsf1tU is not a compound. This expre!!'siu n denotes a number of pails, each
111.

.

'

~

\

-adds.
. /'.

Brahman, German, l\Iussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman.

-

/
I

'

A few compounds vary both parts; as, rnan-singer; rnen• /

singers.
DIRECTION.-·Form the plural of each of the following nouns:I. ; ..

l\Ian-chiltl, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer,

Compounds consisting of a proper ~ame preceded by a
title form the plural by varying either the title or the narne;
as the .Misses Clark or the Miss Clarks~· but, when the title
' is used, the name is varied; as, the Mrs. Clarks.
Mrs.

' '

/

DIREC'!'ION.-Form the plural of the following compoun~s :-

·/

, l\Iiss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Bro';n, Master Green.

I

A title used with two or more different names is made
plural ; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and ·
Maynard.
DIRECTION.- Put each of the following expressions in its proper

form:-

General Lee and Jackson ; :Miss Mary, Julia, antl Anna Seott;

Mr.

Fields, Osgood, & Co.

Letters, :figures, and other characters add the apostrophe , ,- ,
ands to form the plural; as,
Dot the i's, cross the t's, and make the + 's and x 's, the 7's and 9's
more <listinet.

174

-

Modifications of the Parts of Speech,

Number-Forms-Co ntinued.

175
'-··~

LESSON

Re.m ark.-The following nouns have the same form in both. numbers ~\
when used \rith numerals ; they add s in\~her cases ; as, one score, "! .;
three score, by scores.
\ "· ,

LXXXVII.

NUMBER-FORMS-CONTINUED.

Brace, couple, dozen, score, yoke, hundreq, thousand.

Some nouns Iiave two plural8 <liffering in meaning.

,

I>IRECTIUN. -Learn to form the following plurals and note the
Geaning of each :'

~ rother,

1

ie,

ish,*

1h""'body),
1' (part'

{ bmtJm, (by blood),
brethren (of the same
society).
{dies ('tamp' fo' coining),
dice (cubes for gaming).

1fish
fishes (individuals),
(collection).

{ genh"" (mm of gen»nius,
ins),
genii (spirits).

Head,

of

the

l

heaJ (of cattle).
(indexes (tables of refer-

enoe),
indices (signs in algebra).
(pennies (distinct coins),
P enn y, pence (11nantity in
value).
{sails (pieces of canvas),
Sail,
sail (vessels).
Index,

1

/ :1

/"

Some nouns have no plural.
. ./

'

I

i/
./.<

Remarks.-These are generally names of materials, qualities, ,'or
sciences.
·.
Names· of materials, when taken in their full or strict sense, ,9an have ..,..,;1-1
no plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things •• f ·
1
: ; :...,,_:· ./:~·~ .
made of it are referred to ; as, cottons, co.ffees, tins, coppers. '

r

,.

DIRECTION.-Study the following list of words:-

,. '

\; · ~. .~ :
"· \. ,

Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness: '~rilmmar (science, n~t, a < ..:~:{
book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, inarble, meekness, ' milk, -mo- , " -..~.:.,
• ..,..,
I
-,
lasses, ~usic, peace, physiology, pride, tiq, water. .
~f'\.

I

Some nouns and pronouns have the same fonn m both
tmbers.
T>IRECTION.-Study the following list:-

Amends, bellows, corps, t deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds,
ins (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that
lative), what, any, none.
Remark.-The following have two forms in the plural.
\pparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; heat hen, heathen or heathens.
The nnmes of several sorts of fish ; as, herring, sltad, .trout, etc., are used in the
•e way. The compmmds of .fish, as cod_fi.slt, have the same form in both numbers
.
The singular is pronounced kor, the plural korz.

"' Oat is somellmes used, but a grain of oats would be hetter.,. .

I,

~"

'

•i

',I.

~

,. '
~ ?

•. .•

r.I · •.... •·

. ,;, ' . ~'\ _, t"~·. f .

\ ., .-. :.JI. "; ";: "" '

'f'G

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Nouns and Pronouns-Gender.

177

'

,:

Alms (Anglo-Saxon, rolmesse), eaves (A.-S., efese), riches (Norman
'rencb, richesse).
Construction of

Number-Forms.

Collective nouns are treated as plurnl when the iuclividals in the collection are thought of, and as singular when
1e collection as a whole is thought of.

\.

~~ t... i.
.-; ~~·....

This modification is called Gender. Masculine means pertaining ' 1f",,
• '· ~ .-;
~ ,· :
to males, feminine means pertaining to f emales, and neuter means .<;~:,
neither. In grammar, nouns and pronouns denoting males are said to. · )' 1 '.
be of the Masculine Gender ; those denoting females, of the ]femi·/ - · ·.• :r
nine Gende r ; and those tlenoting things without. sex, of the Neuter
I ,'
I
' ,
Gen<ler.
~/... ,·,
Such word s as child, parent, friend may be either masculine or fem~
..... 1•,1
inine. Some grammarians say 'that they are of the Common Gen~er'.

.

I

• '

Examples.-The committee were unable to agree, and they asked to
· discharged. A committee was appointed, and its report will scon
· made.
Remark.-Collective nouns have plural forms ; as, committees,
·niies.

The number of a noun may be determined not only by its
rm, but also by the vet'b, the adjective, and the pronoun
'ed in connection with it.
Examples.-" These scissors are so dull that I cannot use them."
1e plurality of scissors is here made known in four ways. In the fol.ring sentence this, is, and it are incorred.ly used : " This scissors
so dull that I cannot nse it."
'>IRECTION.-Construct sentences in which the number of each of
e following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the 1n·onoun,
'= adjecUve, or the ve?·b used in connection with it:-

:ileans, series, species, riches, molasses, family, crowd, meeting.

-LESSON
NOUNS

AND

LXXXVIII

PRONOUNS-GENDER.

rntroductory.-Some nouns change their form to irnlicnte the sex of
· one named ; as, lion, denoting a 111 nle ; lioness, denotin g a fe male.

~

• I : "'

.......
."',i•..·,:;

DEFINITIONS.

Gende1• is that modification of a noun
notes sex.

.~r

'
pronoun which

The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex.
The Feminine Gende1• denotes the female sex.
The N cuter Gender denotes lvnnt of sex.
Gender-Forms.

' ''
I

I
I

-,

No English nouns have distinctive- neuter forms, but · a · · ~~ .:·~.
few have diffei·ent forms to distinguish the ma1icuUne from
_,
the feminine.
, : '.·
The masculine is distinguished from the femjnine in three . ..
ways:1st. By a difference in the ending of the words.
f'.
2d. By different words in the compound names.
' .
'
• 1•
3d. By words wholly or radically different..
Ess * is the most common ending for feminine nouns.
J'
* The suffix ess came int~ the English lan guage from the Norman-French. It dis· .
plal'ed the feminine termination of the mother-ton gue (A. S. estre, old Engli~h ster).
The original m eaning of stei· ls preserved in .<pinster. Er (A. S. ere) was orh;inally
a masculine rnffix:: but 1t now g1·nerally d ·· notes an agent without refe rence to sex;
as, read-er, speak-er.

' ~I

1,,

,·

.\

17'8

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

Construction of Gender-Form.a .

179 '.

>.'

I

.

'.'

DIREOTION.-Form the feminine of each of the following mascu•
line nouns by adding ess :-

Author, baron, count., deacon, giant, goJ (see Rule III., p. 318).
'1eir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule I., p. 318).
)1'ior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor.
(Drop the vowel e or o in the ending of the masculine, and add ess.)
Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, ili1·ector, editor,
nchant.er, hunter, idolater, insl.rn ctor, preceptor, tiger, waiter.
(Drop the masculine er, and add the feminine ess.)
Aclvjmturer, caterer, governor, murd erer, sorcerer.
DIRECTION.--Learn these forms :-

Abbot, abbess; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad , lass; marttis, marchioness ; master, mi stress ; negro, negress.

Ess was formerly more common t han now. Snch words
' editor and author are now fr eq nently used to denote
ersons of either sex.
T>IRECTION.-Give five nouns ending in

M'

or or that may be

11plied to either sex.

The following words, mostly foreign, have various end1gs in the feminine.

.,4- "f .-·.·~·

In some corn pounds distinguishing~ords are prefi~ed ' or./ .:~-:.
affixed.
·
\
.:
..

--

DIRECTION.-Learn the following forms:- ·

Billy-goat, nanny-goat; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit; cock-sparrow, hen- )
sparrow ; Englishman, Englishwoman ; gentleman, gentlewoman ;'
grand-father, grand-m other ; he-bear, she-bear ; landlord, landlady ; .. ,.
man-servant, maid-servant; merman, mermaid; :Mr. Jones, l\Irs. or
Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen.
\ ,
· '-._, ..,/.
.

1

. \tlministrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle ;,
1n rl~s, Charlotte ; ·Cornelius, Comelia ; czar, czarina ; Jon, donna ;
11estrian, equestrienne ; executor, execntrix ; Francis, Prances ;
wge, G~orgiana ; Henr~·, Henrietta ; hero, hero ine ; infante,
"a.nta; Jesse, Jessie : Jn<:eph , .Josephine ; .Julius, Julia nr ,JnJiet;
1
<1grave, Jandgravin <:> : Louis, L ouisa fJI' Louise : Pau l, Pauline ;
nore or signor, ~i gnora ; sultan, su ltana ; testator, testatrix:
1ower, widow,
1

•

,1

'·

Words w holl v or radically different are used to distinguish ·: .·:~ :.'
the masculine from the feminine.
_"' :·:"·:-.~ ;.
.,1 . ~ , . ~
. -:~· .:

DIREOTION.-Learn the foll~wing forms :-1

Bach elor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar ' or ; ·;·;'- ·
..: ~·- ,
monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ; . i,Y',
sir, madam; stag, hind; steer, heifer; wizard, witch; youth, damsel or ·.
maiclen.

·.

<.

'l'he pronoun has tlt1·ee gender-formsmasculine lte, feminine slie, and neuter it.*
1

·L ES S0 N

-~ -

CONSTRUCTION

L X X X IX )

I

.

OF

.I

'

"·...
. . ...
•.-.

\

\

f>IRECTION.-Learn the following forms :-

'

;,

/

I

GENDER-FORMS. '

.

• , 'o

l'

I

~~4:-.~::.:,.
(f~~"'

/ 1,

: .. :r::-c->(~.v

I

: 5~t.t, ~
"

...

Gentler as a matter of orthography is of some importance, . ,'·/ . .:
but in aramrnar it is chiefly important as involving the cor- •' ' ~
o
I . •
rect use of the pronouns he, she, and it.
1
\' •
The names of animals are often treated as masculine · o~· · , .
feminin e without regard to the real sex.
*It, although a neuter form, Is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female.;
as, It was John, It was .Jfary.

..-:
... ,
~\

I .

\.

'

183

Nouns and Pronouns-Person-Agr.e ement.

1.82

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

···J.

<_,..,,;. d ; . \
.
.
' " ~>
·~
1
1
s
of
words
· ' · ·,
h
Personal p1·onoi"ns and verbs are ~ -, on Y c asse
_,\ - ~ ·.x.
that have distinctive person-forms.
·
, ' __ _
Person-Forms.

In these sentences the noun Paul represents a person in three differ»nt relations to the act of speaking ;-in (a), as speaking; in (b), as
~poken to; in (c), as spoken of.
Notice that the form of the noun does not change to indicate these
' hree relations, but that the personal pronoun changes for each rela-

,.,.ion.

We use the term Person to denote these three relations and the
forms that mark them. I, denoting the speaker, is in the First Per.;;on ; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the Second Person ;
:md he, denoting the one spoken of, is in the Thircl Person.
You now see why I, thou, he, etc., are called personal pronouns.
(See Lesson XIV.)
DEFINITIONS.

Person is that modification of a noun or pronouri which denotes
the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
'
'J'he First Person denotes the one speaking.
The Second Person denotes the one spoken to.
The Third Person denotes the one spoken of.
Remarks.-A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an
)Xplanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; as, " I, John,
:aw these things" ; " We Ainerican3 are al ways in a hurry." *
A noun is of the second person when used as explanatory of a pro1oun of the second person, or when used independently as a term of
.ddress ; as, "ye crags and peaks"; " Idle time, John, is ruinous."
A noun used as subject is always of the third person.
DIRECTION.-Compose sentences in which there shall be an e:imple of a noun and of a pronoun, used in each of the three persons.

*It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the,llrsl person. It may be clnimed with
1mc propriety that, in the sentence I, John , saw these thin(!s, J oh11 ~?eak s of his own

.

DIRECTION.-From the forms of the pronouns

~ive~

~~~

:.!; ,11/:

oi:
6 select and write in one list all that can be use on Y
.
I ,
29 '
.
other list all the distinctive second-person forms' a~d
person · 1n an
•
·
·
in anot~er, all the distinctive third-person forms.
.•:

·'

:<'.~'.'

Person, Number, and Gender-Agreement. :

Person is regarded in grammar because the ~erb, s~me~
.
. 't form to agree with the person of its su.b Jeqt'
times vanes I s
.\
as, I see, Thou seest, He sees.
.
.
.
ular · is and verbs . .
A1n agrees with the first person, smg
'
'rhe ver!> ·· -.
·
1
adding s or es, with the third p~rson, smgu ar.
has no person-forms for the plural.
·

t of ·the verb-forms men- .
DIRECTION.-IUustrate the agreemen

tioned above.

I

•j

'

must agree with its antecedent in '·

caution.-A pronoun
number, gender, and person. ·

. ---

.

?'
k
Find from Lesson XLV. how verbs, agree with connected ,
Remar .·
ber with
subjects, and you will understand how pronouns agree m num

connected antecedents.

·

DIRECTION.-Illustrate the agreement of the pronoun

·

~ith con- .

nected antecedents .

ersonal nronoun of. the third
1
r
R emark.-As we have no singu ar P
or feminine, a plural is often .
person that may be either masculine
, / : !. .
incorrectly used instead.
.
.
-Each boy and virl was requested to name their favor~te
Examp1es.
"'
th · favorite
flower (incorrect). Each pupil was requested to name eir
"'

nn" . the e~prE'FFfon m <>R nin!!, T. rrnrl 11u111ame i.s .Tnhn. d .c.
''

' .

\

184:

185 ' '

Nouns and Pronouns-Case.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

'

flower (incorrect). Each boy and girl (01· each pupil)' was requested to
name his or her favorite flower (correct).
When it. is not necessary to distinguish the sexes, a singular antecedent implying both sexes is representell by the masculine. pronoun.
i:r
Example.-Every person has th eir fault:; (in correct). Every person
has his foul ts (correct).

~

-

fl~ ·~

••

What is the subject oI deals in (a) ?~of am in (b) ? -Do ~elstive,~:T · ,
pronouns h~ve person-forms? How, then~"'do we determine "the :per\
.
'
son of who and of that 'I With what person must am always agree?--' ·i '
deals and other words that add s or es 'I What practical aid clo you -,
'
.•
here get from knowing that pronouns agree in person with their ante- · , •

;<'- >

ceeents ?

.

'
----+--

/<

,/.

, .· ..

•ii

Remark.-When connected antecedents are of different persons,
" you, he, and I"
we ; " yon and he "
yon.
In arranging such connected t erms, it is generally more polite for
the speaker to mention first, the one spoken to ; next, the one spoken
of ; and himself last. (See p. 84, last Exercise.)

=

1

=

DIRECTION.-Study the Caution and the Remarks above, and
then fill each of the blanks in the following sentences with a personal pronoun, giving reasons for your choice:-

1. Every one must think for - - . 2. I gave the horse oa ts, hut he
would not eat - - . 3. Both saw - - fault, but neither would own
that - - had done wrong. 4. A person's manners not unfrequently
indicate - - morals. 5. Each must rise in - - turn. 6. Everybody
has - - own troubles. 7. The aster and the clahlia are not cultivated
f'or - - fragranc e. 8. Neither t he af't.cr nor the dnhlia is cultirnted
for - - fragrance. !J. The book and the paper were found in - place. 10. Every book arnl every paper was found in - - place.
11. Each day and each hour brings - - portion of duty. 12. "The
i\[erry ·wives of Windsor " was presentell the first night, but - - was
not successful. 13. No kind word and no kiml act fails entirely in
- - mission. 14. This philosopher and statesman has gone to - rest. 15. The philosopher and the statesman have gone to - - rest.
0

LE.SSON

) .··

XCI.

PRONOUNS-CASE.

\

:..
'~ I
~.

'

·I

-~

i

NOUNS AND

;
,

Observation Exercises.-(a) He suspects every m.an that deals with
l1im. (b) Re even doubts rne, wJ>.o am hi s best friend.

..

.

lntroductory.-Review Observation Exercises, Lesson LIL, and the : ·.
introduction to Lesson Liil: Note also what is said of the three case- ·
forms, p. 100.
,

DEFINITIONS.

Case is that motliflcation of a noun or pronoun which denotes '
its office in the sentence.
··I
The Nominative Case of a noun or p1·onoun denotes its
oOlce ns subject or as attribute complement.
~

The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its
oDlce as possessive mo(lifter.
I
The Ob,jective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its
office as ob.)ect complement, or a~ principal word in a prepositional
phrase.
'

Remark.-A noun or pronoun used independently is in the nomiDIREC'l.ION.- Point out in the sentences above the verbs that have ·
iistinctive number-forms or person-forms, and justify their use.

,

l

native case.
Examples.-! am, dear madam, your friend.

Alas, poor Yorick!

Liberty, it has fled.
', ..

y

I

188

189

Construction of Possessive-Forms.
Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

f

~

IJ.IRECTIQN.-lmprove the following sentences:--: .

LESSON
CONSTRUCTION

OF

XCll.

POSSESSIVE-FORMS.

-As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a dis~
tinctive form, or inflection, it is only with this case that
mistakes can occur in construction.
·
The preposition of with the objective is often used instead
of the possessive case-form-' ' David's Psalms"= "Psalms _
of David."
Remark.-To deno_te the source from which a th ing procee<ls or the
idea of belonging to, of is used more frequently th1J.n ('s).
'
·
?'Im possessive sign ('s) is confined chieff,y to the names of persons,
ammals, and things personified. 'Ve do not say "the tree's leaves "
but "the leaYes of the tree."
'
~he possessive sign, however, is often acl<led to names of things
which we freque1~tly hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and
to names of periods of time ; as, "the earth's surface," "forfone's
smile , " "eternity' s s t 1·11 ness, " " a years
' rnierest,"
·
"a day's work."
By the use of of, such expressions as "witness's statement "
" mo th ers-in. l aw.s f aults" may be avoided.
'
. I>IREC'.lION.-Choosing the form that seems best, make the following ter:r~s denote possession, and then join them as modifiers to
appropriate nouns :-

Sun, ocean, summer, book, chair, enemy, eagle, torrent, months,
hours, minute, princess, Socrates, sisters-in-law, lookers-on.

Cnution.-'l'he relation of possession may be expressed not
~nly by ('s) and of but by the use of such phrnses as belongmg to, property ~f, etc. , or of such verbs as have, hold,
possess, etc. In constrnctiug sentences be careful to secure
smoothness and clearness by taking advantage of these different forms.

'

1. 'fhis is my wife's .father's opinion. ·

Oorrection.-This is the

· .•: -~..:...-. . .,.·

_1 - ·.·,··~·- 1.

~ ..

\

.

i.f".1''.~ -

,·:.: ·.

\

_

~pinion of my wi~e's father hel~ ~jj\,,,~ '. .
(or

i, ·

wife's fctther).

/

2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France,and England's inter- · ·
ests differ widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the daughter ,
of George I., of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's drawings
have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of the
wife of
\

my brother have been much admired.

'

.'\

·'·

' '

DIRECTION.-Make original sentences to illustrate all the ways, of
denoting possession, mentioned above.

Caution.-Groups of words that may be treated as compound terms add the possessive sign to the last word- only.
Examples.-Peter· the Hermit's eloquence ; Dornbey and .Son's
office; the Queen of England's palace; everybody else's business. ·
I

Remarks.-This Caution applies to a possessive with an explanatory i
modifier, whether the two form a compound term or not ; as," I called
at Toni the tinker's." The sign, however; must not be far removed
from the principal possessive. "'fhat language is Bomer, the g?·eatest
poet of antiquity's," is bad. Add the sign to Horner alone, or, better
still, use of to denote the possession.
Euphony requires that the possessive sign should generally stand
immediately before the name (expressed or understood)
of .the thing
I
possessecl.
.DIRECTIQN.-Construct sentences in which the following
groups
I
shall be made to indicate possession :..:..

Frederick the Great ; Fielcls, Osgood, & Co. ; the Duke of Welling•
ton; Wolsey, the Cardinal.

. 192

Modific a tions o f the P arts of Speech.

Construction of Case-Forms-Review.

193
't.:.

Remark.-Th e eig ht n ominative fo rms n.ml t he seven obj ee ti~ e forms
here given are the only distin ctive nomin ative a n<l obj ective fo rms in
the lang uage. All t he " rules of syntax " given in t he gra mmars to
guide in the use of the n ominative and t he objective case apply, prac- ·
tically, only t o these fiftee n fo rms.
lV ho and whom r etain t heir distincti ve uses as case-forms when com·
pounded with ever or soever; lmt not so with personal pronouns compounded with self.
DIRECTION.-Study carefully the definitions and principles given
in Lesson XCI.; then fill the following blanks with the case-forms
found above (using compound i·elativesi~ (24)and (25) ), and give your
reasons in every instance :-

1. It is not - - you are in love with. 2. She was neither better bred
nor wiser t han you or - - . 3. - - scr vcst thou imder ? 4. It was
not--, it was - - . 5. Hs h0in g - - should make no difference.
6. - - and - - a re of the sam e n.ge. 7. - - that sLlllly g rammar
ta lk no better t han - - . 8. I a m not so ol<l as - - ; she is ol<ler t han
- - by ten years. 9. H e was angry, nml - -· too. 10. Who will go ?
11. It is n 't fo r such as - - to sit with the rnlers of t he land.
12. Not one in a thousan<l eoul<l have done it so well as--. 13.
* - - bein g a stranger, they easil y mi sled him. 14. Oh, happy - - !
surrounded thus with blessings. 15. It wag Joseph , - - - - Pharaoh
promoted. 16. I r eferred to m y old fri end, - - of whom I so often
speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and - - together. 18. Between
you an<l - - , I beli eve that he is losin g hi s mind. rn. -- shonl<l I
meet t he other day but m y old fri enJ? 20. - - did he refer to, - -",
or - - ? ~ 1. - - d id he choose ? 22. Dill he choose you a nd - - ?
23. - - that is idle an<l mischievous rcproYe. 24. We will r efer it to
- - you may choose. 25. - - the court favors is safe. 26. - - that
are diligent I -will rewn.nl. 27. ScoLlaml a.nd . - - did in each oth er
live. 28. My honr is come, but; not, 1.o rend er np 111y soni to such as

* A noun or prononn nsed as th e a ssum ed subject of a participle, " ·it.bout grammat ical conn ection with t he rest of the sentence, is said to be independent.

- . .29. I knew that it was--. . ~O. I k~e'{ it to be:--· 31. ;,:-/ ,
did you su ppose it to be? 32. - - did you suppose .1t was? 33. I · .
took that t all man t o be - - . 34. I thought that tall man was - - .

-

./

LESSON
CONSTRUCTION

OF

XCIV.

/'

/

CASE-FORMS-REVIEW:

DIR.ECTION.- Correct these errors, and give your reasons '. _

Explanation.-The possessive forms in (8) 1md (23) are regu~ar, but
they are hard to pronounce and unpleasant to the ear.
1. Who was J oseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur ,
during W ashin gton, J efferson, or Adams's administration. 3.- I con- ·'•
1
·suited ·webster, W orcester, and Walker's diCtionary. 4. This state 1 • was south of Mason~s and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George 1
nor Fann y's books. 6. Howard~, the philanthropist's, life was a noble '
one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's.
8. He visited hi s soil's-in-law'~ homes. 9. A valuable horse of my friend .
/
William's father's was killed.
10. For Herodias's sake, bis brother '
Philip's· wife. 11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, ·,
John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of f?.shermen. 13. He spoke
of you stud ying Latin. 14. It being d ifficult di<l not deter him. 15. ·
What need is there of the man swearing ? 16. I am opposed to the
gentleman speaking again. 17. H e thought it was us. 18. Who did '
you say you spoke to ? 19. Whom did you say it was ? 20: I shall not
'1earn mv tlutv from such as thee. 21. A lady entered, whom~- ! •afterwards f~nnd ~as Miss B. 22. A lad y entered, who I afterwards found '·
to be Miss B. 23. Ask somebody's else opinion. 24. Let him .· be
whom h e may. 25. I ani sure it could not' have been them. · 26: .I"-:.1
1
understood it to be they. 27. It is not him whom you thought it was.
28. Let you and l try it. 29. All enjoyed them!"elves, us excepted. ,
30. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 31. It was Virgil, him who wrote the ·
JEneid. · 32. You thought him to be I. 33. You thought that h~ ·
was me.
13

,·

194

)
'

LESSON
THE

XCV.

NOUN AND THE PRONOUN REVIEWED.

Define a noun and the two classes of nouns.
collective and abstract nouns.

Explain and illustrate

Define a pronoun aml the four classes of pronouns. l\fentio11 the
simple personal pronouns, the compound personal pronouns, the simple
relative pronouns, the compound relative pronouns, the interrogative
pronouns, and some of the adj ecti1·e pronouns. vV!rnt is an antecedent? Use which as an adj ective, a!> a relative pronoun, as a direct
interrogative pronoun, and as an indirect interrogative pronoun. Illus- ·
. trate the Cautions that guide in the use of pronouns.
What two ways of varying a thought are mention ed i11 Lesson
LXXXV.? Explain and illustrate what is meant by inflections. What
are Modifications f
What is Nmnber 'i Define th e singular and the plural number.
How is the plural of nouns reg11lady fonne<l ? Illustrn.Le all the variations of this R.nle that are fo urnl 111 Lesson LXXXV. Give the plural
of some nouns adopted from oth er languages. l\Iention a1Hl illustrate \
the different. ways of forming- lhP plural of <·n111po11111l 1101111s. Jllustrnte the pl11rnlizi11g of letters, figures, rte. Girn examples of nouns
having each t.wo plural forms <lifiering in meaning ;-of no11ns arnl
pronouns having the same form in both munbers ;-of noun s that have
no plnml ;-of nouns that arc always plurnl. Illustrate what is taught
concerning the number of collecti1'e noun s. In what w11ys may the
number of a noun be determin ed ?
Explain the meaning of m.aswline, f eminine, and neuter. ·w hat is
Gende1· 'i Define the thre~ genders. What is said of such words as
child, neighbor, etc.? Have En glish nouns distinctive neuter forms ?
Jn what ways may the masculine be d.istinguished from the feminine ?
Jllust.rat,e, What is said of t.he gender of su ch words as editor and ' ·
author f Give three gender forms of th e pronoun. Of what 'importance is gender in grammar? Show how tl re rnascnline, the feminine,

195 ..

Revie-w-Continue.d.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

I

~- - · , .:._

;

\-

<~ (

•

and the neuter pronoun are used in referripg to a~i~al~ and !o\u ng -.. , .
children. Show how the masculine and the ·f emmme pronoun are .
use~l in personification. Illustrate the Caution in regard to changing. \
/

the gender of the pronoun.

/

/
' .'
'

L E S S 0 N " X CV I.
REVIEW-CONTINUED.
\.

In what different relations to the act of ~peaking may a person be ,
represented ? What is Person f Define t~e three person8' When is · ·
noun found in the first person (,_in the second ? A noun used as
11
subject is of what person? A subject'in the,first or the secoml ~e~~;on ,
must be what part of speech ? ·What classes of words have chstmc-.
ti ve person forms ? Why is person regarded in grammar ? Illustrate.
Illustrate the Caution in regard to the agreernent of pronouns. Show
how this Caution applies to connected antecedents. What lack in ·our '
language oft.en leads to a violation of this Caution. ? Show how a
pronoun may agree with a singular antecedent implying both sexes.1
What is said about connected t.erms of different perspns ?
What is Case f Define the three cases. In what case is a noun 01
pronoun used independently ?-a noun or pronoun used as explanp.tory
modifier ?-a noun or pronoun used as attribute complem~mt of a
participle or an infinitive ? Illustrate the last ~hree answers.. What
cai:;e-foi'ITIS have nouns? Give the Rule for formmg the possessive case
of i 1 ouns. Give and explain some common exceptions. What may
take the place of the possessive sign ? Illilstrate, showing when one is
preferred to the other. Illustrate fully the Cautions that.guide in the
use of possessive forms. What words have each three different ca~e­
forms ? Give all the nominative forms ;-all the ohjective forms. GiVe·
and explain constructions in which these forms are liable to be incor··
rectly used.

l96

I, .

197
,,.
. . " - ~ ;·\'~ ,.· .,..

Parsing-Nouns and Pronouns. '

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

.

GENERAL . REVIE~.; -

LESSON

XCVll.

To the Te<tcher.-These Schecies and questions under lhe head of Genera'} ~~~i~~\: '.( :·
are especially designed to aid in securing an outllnil of technical grammar.
·. .· · · ".:'
The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for out- · ',": ·,, .: .
lines. In some cases a si~gle -que~tion may suffice for a who\e lesson.
,, ,

PARSING-NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.

1

.At,

Pwrsing a word is giving its classification, modifications!
1.nd syntax (i. e., its relation to other words).

Scheme for the Noun.

n the sentences for analysis, Lesson LIII.

Motlel for Written Parsing.-Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh,

wa.~

·eheaded by James I.

'

MODIFICATIONS.

Independe~~ (46, 91).

eYNTAX.

Kind. Penon. Number. Gender.

-:tizabeth'1;1 Prop.
>Lvorite
Com.
taleigh
Prop.
11mesl.
"

3d.

Sing.

"

."

..

"
"

..

Fem.
l\fas.

I

"
"

Gase.

Classes.

Pos. Pos. Mod. ofjawrite.
Nom. Suh. of Wa$ bdieadtd.

"
Obj.

Exp. Mod. of.favorite.
Prin. word ar1er by.

.,'. , )I~~~ ~:

:

,,

!

•

~.)~·,;Ji,)

-...
4\it~~~·~
. . '

Comm6n (78).
(Abstract and Collective.)
{ Proper (78).

. .......

,,.(;iE:
ii!

1'\

NOUN.

Number.

Gender.

.ine, possessive, possessive modifier offavorite.
Modifications.

Person.

Case. ·

~'

.,.• ~''ft

'

. Singular (85-87).
{ Plural (85-87).

. ~ ·;~/1: : · , . l' f1'
1

Oral Parsing.-Elizabeth's is a nou11, proper, third, singular, feml-

To the Teacher.-For additional exercise8 in parsing nonns and prononnA, see
ess~ns 46, 49, 50, 54, 55, 53, 61, 63, 68, etc . For advan 9ed work see pp. 280-285. For
Rules of Syntax" seep. 234.

,

· .
•

Nm.tns.

/."·.--"~
;.~~

,,

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
,:. '- :-1~' .ffii.;
Subject (8).
, _-, ''./F:~;{
Object Complement (48).
\ " ' · «;~1:·'J.}
Attribute Complement (49).
·: : · --,:?'.:f~;~:
Objective Complement (110). ..
\' \;'• .
Uses.
Adjective M<;>d1fier (53).
'._ .\ .1. / • "'~
Adverb Modifier (111). ·
' · · . '\~:,:;~:.:
Prin. word in• PrP.p. Phrase (37, ,38).
i .,·.;. . 1z,1::
. '
. ~~ ::~

DIRECTION.-Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns

CLASSIFICATION .

~_;..---:<T,:.J~;~u:tf"J

1

.: 1_:.:;{i

•

__ ij\fasculine (88, 89). :-- '· ,\ ":;:~f,zj}
"")
. . . ' • ·. '-N~.i
F eml'n1'ne (88 ' o.,.
i ,, ·;.· ·-'l?;'.lfb .
Neuter(88,J89). · ·._-.. : ·" 't '·" • ·
.
I .
d - .
.• - .
\ First (oo). , · j ~.:-if :-.~)~

1~hi~-d~~~).

' ::'~ --.-<~)!:: . '
.t '.!, ....... ' ~ :)p_;...~~4--~·

Nominath;e (91, 93), : , _;'.· 1 \:::~;.. •
Possessive (91, 92). / · .· , .'· ,
Objective
(lit, 93). '' .- /ii
\
! .
,: . ; . :~

~

j

>

. ;

.

.. -~--

Q'-;lestlons on the Noun.
• -?

i'

....

f

:J ,..-.r:·,
~ i,

~

.;~'..,.., ~!1

-~}

j

fj' •· ,

. f ~~J;· t~"

/,

"K?· :.,. . ;;

'

>1

.
·· ·
· ~·::·:~ ·;'/~.
2. Name and define the modifications of the noun.-Less. 85, 8~, :/~? '
1
, '.I . ·.r~ i.: r
90, 91.
, 1 • .r~;v

1. Define the noun and its classes;-Lei;son 78.

~,._•

I

'

,

•.

: . ;:

•..... j

•

'i,:" ':_;.. ~:_;,,.·'

' k'\t ;~ \' •.

• '. .

.. ; . .. ~,

'

,1·..

198

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

199

Adjectives and Adverbs-Comparison.

.. ,..

3. Name and define the several numbers, genders, persons, and cases.
-Less. 85, 88, 90, 91.
4. Give and illustmte the several ways of forming the plural.
-Less. 85, 86, 87.
.

5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the genders.
-Less. 88.
6. How is the possessive case formed ?-Less. Vl.
7. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of the possessive forms.-Less. 92.

pencil is the longept of the five," we uo not say that a~y o~e ~f the pen.. -~::·:·)~~,
cils is really long. The comparative and ' s.uperlative forms ,express 11. •
only the relative degree of 'the quality.
, \
.
: .' \
'( "
Various degrees of quality may be exp1;essed by prefix!ng adverbs ;
,(
as, " very, exceedingly, or rather long " ; "far, still, much, dr some·/
U'hat longer " ; '' by far or much the longest."
/
/
'.'

·:: ,

Adjectives and Adverbs have one modification~*

~.·

'1 .
.• .';

Scheme for the Pronoun.

DEFINITIONS:

'C!ses.-Same as those of the Noun:

PRONOUNS.

\

'

, .·
•

1

' "'i._,;:t
;'· »~.:
"~ , ~ , "~-

t

Modifications.-Same ns those of the Noun (85,
87, 88; 89, 90, 91, 93).

.. !'

The Pos'it·i ve Degree expresses the simple quality.
.. .

Questions on the Pronoun.

1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists.-Less. 78.
2. Decline the several pronouns.-Po.ge 2U5.
3. Gfre and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of the
(lifferent pronouns.-Less. 70.
4. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of the .
number-forms, the gender-forms, and the case-forms.-Less. 87, 80,
~10, 93.

ADVERBS-COMPARISON.

01·

'

.... ~

.
.

The Supm•lative Degree expresses the greatest or the least
degree ~f the qnulity.
Degree-Forms.

I

,,

I

/·

'

\

; '!

"

.'•
oi l

RULE.-A.djectlves a.re regularly compared by adding er to the ' ·~'~: .
positive to form the com11arative, and est to tile positive to form ',' ·
the superlative.
I

. Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally com- ,; '.
pared by prefixing more and most. This method is often 1: \'' .,
used with adjectives of two syllables. and sometimes with
those of one.

XCVlll.

lntroductory.-See Lesson XXXIII.
Notice that in saying, "This pencil is longer than that,"

I

The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degre~ ·" ..
\ ,,
of the quality.
/'
"

ADJECTIVES AND

';,...::· ; f,~ •

'· ! · - . 1•q1 ·
~-.._:·..~~~1. '. ...~rrr ~ ··,·

)

{ 1nt~rr~gative (78).
AdJecttYe (18, 19).

LESSON

"\ ) '
<!·.,, ;i, '·

Comparison ls a modification of the adjective or the adv~rh j~~ <:
to express the relative degree of the quality (or quantity) in the ~.t ', ,:
I < J
things compared.
,.' - ,

Personal (78, 79).
Relative (78, 79).

Classes.

''\

·:\)

. \ ·..' ::"· .

* Two ndjectives, this a.nd that, have number-forms-this, these;

"This

I '

I

th~t,

those.

' :·

00

Modifications or the P a rts of Speech.

Adjectives and Adverbs-Comparison. .

Remark.-Mo1·e beautiful, most beaittiful, etc. can hardly be called
egree-forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the
egree-forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words.
'he adjective, however, is · Yaried in SPnse the same ns when the
1flections er and est are added.

AdJectlve:9 Irregularly Compared.

Remark.-Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily
l'Onounced and is more agreeable to the ear is to be prefe rred ; as,
ost famous (not famousest), mo1·e eloqnent (not eloqnenler).

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and
ast ,; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable.
.Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot'
·~ compared, as their meaning will not admit of different
1grees.
l>IREOTION.-·Frorn this list of adjectives select those that cannot
· compared, and compare those that remain :-

(Observe the Rnles for Spelling, p. 318).
Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, happy,
·le, polite, sad, sweet, vertical, two-wh eeled, infinite, witty, humble, .
·' '• trim, intemperate, undeviating, simple, holy, lunar, superior.

Some advm·bs are compared by ad~ing er and est~· and
1
me, by prefixing rnore and rnost.
')IREOTION.-Compare the following :-

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely.

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comrison.
>IR.ECTION.-Learn to compare the following adjectives and

verbs:-

Pos.

Comp.

(Aft),*

after,

Bad, \
Evil,
Ill,

worse,

Far,

farther,
former,

(Forth),

further,

Good,

better,

\ Comp.

'

Pos.
Little, t

Near,

nearer,

5 foremost or

Old,

1 first. ,
5furthest or
1furthermost.

Solder or
1elder,

(Out),

S outer or
(utter,

S farthest or

1 farthermost.

Under,

S inmost or

(Up),

Top,

5 later or

1innermost.
S latest or

(latter,

( last.

hinder,

(In),

inner,

I hir.dermost.

upper,

I

Pos.
Badly,

1µ,
Far,
Forth,

•

best.

J hindmost or

Hind,

•

5 less or

( lesser,

Many,} · more,
Much,

worst.

Fore,

Late,

S1tperlative.
J aftmost or
1 aftermost.

I

Adverbs Irregularly Compared .

Comp.

} worse,
farther,
further,

S1tperlative.
worst.
farthest.
furthest.

* The words enclosed in curves

Pos.
Little,
Much,
Well,

Comp.
less,
more,
better,

Superlative. ·: ·~'
,.
least.
-.
most.
~ ~· · ~
fl ",, ·:...
best. I
t

.

,•

'r:·~:

'- ~

are a d verbs - the adjectives following having
,
. no ,- ~.'. . .

positive form.
r
f little in the sense of small in size,
t For the comparative and the super1a !Ve o
'
.
nnaller and ;mallest are substituted; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy, '

i

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

LESSON
-::!ONSTRUCTION

OF

Constl'uction of Comparatives and Superlatives.

XCIX.

COMPARATIVES AND
LATIVES.

SUPER-

Ca-ution,_.In stating a comparison avoid comparing a

ting with itself.*
~emark.-:--'~he comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of
mgs) as d1stmct from each other, and implies that one has more of
equality than the other. The comparative degree is generally fol·
wed by than. t

1

1JIRECTION· - Stu d Y th e C aut1on
·
and Remark, and correct these ·

rors :-

1. London is larger than any city in Europe.

~orrection.-The second term of comparison, any city in Europe,
Judes London, and so London is represented as being larger than
~:f. It sho~ld be, " Lond~n is larger tha1i any other city in Europe,"
London Is the largest city in Eiwope."
3. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe
I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is n~
tal so useful as iron. (A compa~ison is here ~tated, although no
~ree form is employed.)
•
i. All the metals are less useful than iron.

6. Time ought, above

kinds of property, to be free from invasion.

;,,uUon.-In nsing tho su11orlutivo degree be careful to
A thing may, of course, be coml!arcd wit.h itself as exieting under different con·
>1~s; as, "The sta1· Is b1·ighter to-night 11 ; "The g1·ass is {Jreener to-duy."

r e comparative is generally used with refe rence to two things only, but It may
.sed to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together.
t~e is no better than other men"; "It contains more than all t.he others C0111/'

.203

.

{'

"llake tile latter term of the compa_!ison, or the t~rm in~r~,;t7
duced by of, include .the former.
\ . ' ,. ·-· '. .:' ,,r.:;5::-...lt; ·

Re~ark.-The

o~ th~~l '"~('

superlative degree i·efers to .one thing (or set
as belonging to a group or class, and as having more. of the que.li~y:-· ~. · 1
than any of the rest. The superlative is gener~lly followed by of.~; ;-·",·
DIRECTION.-Study the Ca1;1tion and the Remark, and

these errors :-

.correct "
· ,

7. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings.

·· ·

··~.;~·~·:

:': ::-

Oorrection._:._Of (=belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging to ,, ·
-a group of kings, and other exclu<les him from this group-a ~ontradic 7 ·, :.
.
•
I
'
tion in terms. It shou~<l be, " Solomon was th~ wisest of .~eb[ew 1 :: .
kings," or "Solomon was wiser than any other
·
. Hebrew king." , · ii~(; •
8. Of all the other b09.ks I ha,ve examined, this is the most satisf~;., '...
tory. 9. Profane swearing is, of all either vices, the most ine:xcusable:r~:
10. He was the most active of all his companions. · (He was not ~ne of Y''
his own companions.)
·
·
I

'

·•

\

•

I

'

•I, \

11. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort.
•

.; ( ,

\

.

1'

I

c.aution.-Avoid double comparatives and double super< .
of adjeotives whose meaning ~ilf
,
latives, and the comparison
.
I
not admit of different degrees. t '
'
·
.
*The superlative is generally used wl1h reference 'to more than two things, but It ·
:ls sometimes med by good writers to compare two ; as, "Which is the beat of the
' two! "
. ·
· ':
t Double comparative~ and double superlatives were former1y used by good 1writers
1
for tho sake of emphndis; ns, Our worse1· thoughts Heaven mend I-Shakespeare. , 1
1 1
The most straitest ~cct.-Bible.
. .
'
·
, "
Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of cojiiparlson are need .
in a sense short of their literal meaning, a11d are compared by good writers; al', Mn
chiefest entertalnmcnt.-Sheridan. The chi~fest prize.-Byron. ])tvtnest Melancholy.
-,Mtlton. Extremest hell.- Whittier. Most pet;fect harmony.-Lon{lfellaw. Leas pe,..
f eet lmltations.-Macaulay. It must he remembered ·that these are exceptional '
, I
forms.

'

?
\

'

f

~·

...

\

'• ,:. ' '

212

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Forms of the ·verb.

(For person-forms and number-forms of the verb, see Lessons XX.
and XO.)
To the Teachei•. - Let the pupils illust rate the different mode-forms and teneeforms, and explain the mann er of as~erti o 11 nnd the tim e of the action, that the language of the definitions mny not be a nrnre matter of memory.

'

. 213
'
I

Tense i~ tl~at modiflration of the,yerb which expresses tlie_tim-e
1
/
or the action or being.
\
'·
•
·
\

0

l'he .Present Tense expresses action or being as present.
The Past Tense expresses action or being as past.
The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come.
,.

DE.F INITIONS.

Mode is that modiflcation of the verb which denotes the manner
of asserting the action or being.

at

The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or
pleted at some past time.

The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact.
. The Potential 1Uo<le asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or
necessity of acting or being.
The Snbjunctive JJfo<le asserts the action or being as a mere
condition, supposition, or wish.
The Impe1·ative Mode asserts the action or being as a com.,
mand or an entreaty.
The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action
being in a general way, without asserting it of anything.

The •Present Pt!rfect Tense expresses action or being'
ns
comI
.
pleted the present time.

The Future Perfect Tense
completed at some future time.

The P1·esent Pa1·titiple denotes action or being as continuing
at the time indicated by the 1n·edirate.
The P<ist Participle denotes action or being as past or com•
plete<l at. the time indicated by the predicate.
The Past Perfect Pa1·tfoiple denotes action or being as com•
pleted at a time previous to that indicated by the 1>redicate.

ns com·

action or being to be

Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that
show its agreement .with the number and person of its subject.

01

The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature
of au adjective or of a noun, aml ex1H'essing the action or being as
assumed.

exp~esses

be~ng

L E S S 0 N- .C I I I

~

FORMS OF THE VERB.

DEFINITIONS. ·
I

Conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms or the
verb.
S11nopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one num·
ber and person in .a ll the modes ancl tenses.
·
Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of
ether verbs.

The auxiliarieR are do, did, be (with all its variations),

..
214

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

have, had, shall, sliould, will, would, may, might, can, could,
and 1nu8t.

Forms 'o r the Verb.

1nftn1t,1~es.'

know.

Remark.·-'fhe present participle is sometimes given as a principal
part. :!"t may always be formed from the prnsent tense by adding ing.
In adding ing 1tn<l other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see
p. 318) should be observed.

Present.

Past.

Know-ing,

known,

Present.

Principal parts.-know,

Past.

Past Participle.

kne-w,

known.

Indicative Mode .
Present Tense.

Past Tense.

Future Tense.

He know-s.

He knew.

He will know.

Present Perfect Tense.

Past Perfect Tense.

Futnre Perfect Tense.

He ha-s* known.

He had known.

Re will have known.

,.

'

·(To) have lonoiun: ·

The P1•incipal Parts of a verb, or those from which the other
parts are derived, are the present indicative or the prest>nt lnftni·
tlve, the past indicathe, nncl the past participle.

CONJUGATION OF U:N<HV-ACTIVE VOICE.

___ ., ~..,~..~\~ '~:>r

Pn11nt Perfeot Teue.

PreaentTente.

(To)

For the principal pa1·ts of in·eyulm· verbs, see p . 297.

.215

\

. .

Par:tlcl pies.

,, .
Paet Ptrf1ot.

,.

having known. , /

Observation Exercises.:__In the' synopsis above, how many ·aI1d
what tenses <lo you find in the Indicative Mode f-in the Potential f in the Subjunctive f-in the Imperative f What tense-forms have
Infinitives f How many, and what, Participles <lo you find ? : · '·
In the Imperative .Mode the sul-Jject is ,of what person? Notice that
the one commanded is always spoken to. Of what. person are the other
subjects ? What person-forms of the verb do you here find ? Do the
Infinitives and the Participles have subjects with which to agree in
' ..
person and number ?

.Describe each verb-form above by telling the principal part,employed,
the inflect·ion added, the auxiliary or auxiliaries prefixed. ,'

I

Repeat the forms above, using I, we, you, · and some plural noun for
subjects. * Notice that the person~form, -s or -es, is found only.wit:h a
subject in t he third person, singular.

Potential Mode.
Present Tense.

Past Tense.

He may know.

He mi·ght know.

Present Perfect Tense.

Past Perfect Tense.

He may have known.

Ile might have known.

Subjunctive Mode.-Present Tense . --(If) he
Imperative Mode.- Present

know.

Tense.-f(now (you).

* Has =

ha(ve) s.

and must are potential auxiliaries in 'the
present and the present perfect tense; might, could, u)oiUd.
and should, in the past and the past perfect. : ··
May, can,

The emphatic form of the present and the past tens1
indicative is made by prefixing do and di<l to the present
Do is prefixed to the imperative also.
'·
• As a mere sign of the future ten~e~shall instead of 10Ul le used with. I and ~e.
<
.

I, ·
l

/.

\

.

,-

. .\ -·
J

-

':,.

~ ( ....~f ~.
' ~ ' • 1" .'f

- t

I ' " ,\,

I

~'

/

'

216

I

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

LESSON
FORMS

OF THE

Forms of the Verb-::-,Continued.

conjug~;~d

CIV.

VERB-CONTINUED.

The Verb IIE.

,• ,

pr~~:...iv~fo;;;.'bJjo~i~~{

A verb is
in the
its present participle to the different forms of the :erb. b~y'
Thi"',.. form denotes a continuance
of the action or bemg.
/ ·
,
/
I
/

Present.

Past.

Principal Parts.-Be or am,

Past Participle.

been.

DIRECTION.-Determine the mode, tense, person, and number of
·e ach of the following verp-forms used with subjects, and tell what
each of the remaining forms is called :-

I am, he is, we are, you m·e, they are ; I was, he was, we were.
you were? they were; he will be; he ha-s been; he had been ; he will
have been. He may be; he might be; he may have been; he might have
been. (If) I be, (if) you be, (if) he be, (if) we be, (if) they be ; (if) I were,
(if) you were, (if) he were. Be (you). (To) be; (to) have been. Being, '
been, having been.
Observation Exercises.-Tell of what each verb-form above consists. Find two distinctive person-forms peculiar to the verb be. Find
two plural forms (remember that yon always requires a plural verb).
Which of these is found nlso in the Snbfunctive singulm· f (See Less.
LXXI., "Some Uses of ·were.")
The verb be differs somewhat from other verbs. Tell how, by comparing it. with know, in the preceding Lesson.
Passive and Progressive Forms.

A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice oy
joining its past participle to the different forms of the
verb be.
DIREOTION.-Read the forms of be found above, adding to each
(except the past participle) the past participle known, thus forming
the Pa••i11e Voice of the verb know; as, "I an~ known."

Remal'l1.-The paBt pardiioiple in the passive has the sattHl form M
in the active.

DIREOTION.-Read the forms of be found above, adding to each
(except "been "J the present participle d ·r i11ing,-thus making the Progressive Form of dri11e; as, "I am d1•i11ino."

Remark.-The progressive form has no past participle.
Person-Forms-Solemn (or Poetic) Style.
DIREOTION.-Tell the mode, tense, pergonj and number of the

lowing:-

fol~..

-

)

Thou know-est, thou knew-est, thou wil-t know, thou ha-st known, thou had-st known, thou wil-t have known. Thou may-st know, thou
might-st know, thou may~st have known, thou, might-st , have known . .
(If) thou know. Know (thou). He know-eth.
Thou ar-t, thou was-t. , (If) thou be, (if) thou w~r-t,
Observation Exercises.-How tnany _!tnd what person-forms do you
find here or elsewhere in the Imperative Mode f-in the Subfttnctive 1
In what mode and tense do you find the person-fo~in, -s or -es, of the
common style f *
To the Teacher.-The conjngation of the English verb Is a very simple matter,
After the pnpil has learned the significance of the forms are, were, am, is, -s, ·es, -est,
-st, -t,-eth, and how the principal parts and auxiliaries are combined to form the different tenses, there is little more to be done.
We regard as a snd waste of time the months or weeks usually spent in learning
by rote several hundred verb-forms (real and Imaginary). The result of such labor I~
to confu~e the pupil and to distract his attention from the few forms he needs to
know.
The paradigms given on pp. 301-310 may be u~eful for reference and for showing
how many forms our verb has lost.
We suggest that, for another lesson, the pupils be required to use correctly in
"'Has(= ha(ve)s) In the present perfect tcnst! Is the
as an auxiliary.

indi~ative

present or have, use~ .

ns

219

Modifications of the Parts of Speecn.

Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. ,

entences the different verb-forms found in th e two preceding Lessons, and to ex.
1lnin their meunlng. Let the pupils ~ee that the tense-forms and their meaning do
1ot always correspond; as, 11 W e go to-morrow ;" 11 \Ve could go on the next train."
See pp. 313, 314.)

water (frozen or froze) . 25. He (raised up, l'aised himself up, or rose).
26. He (ran or run) till he became so weary that he was forced to (l,a y
or lie) down. 27. I (knowed or knew) that it was so, for I (saw or seen)
him when he (did or done) it. 28. I hatl (began or begun) to think
that you had (forsook or forsaken) us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot
(learn or teach) him to do it. 30. I (think or guess) that I will stop.
31. Tell me where you live, and I will (come or go) to your house
to-morrow. 32. I (expect or believe) th at he has gone to Boston. 33.
There (aint or isn't) any use of trying. 34. I (have got or have) no
mother. 35. (May or can) I speak to you? 36. He (ought or had

LESSON
CONSTRUCTION

OF

MODE

CV.
AND

TENSE

FORMS.

Caution.-ll e careful to give every verb its proper form
md meaning.

ought) to see h!m.
DillECTION.-Choose the right verbs, and give your reasons:-

L I (tlone OT" ditl) it myself. 2. He (threw or throwed) it into the
river, for I (seen or saw) him when he (Jone or did) it. 3. She (sets or
;its) by the ope·1 window enjoying the scene that (lays or lies) before
lier.
Explanation.-La.y (to place) is transitive, lie (to rest) is intransi1 ive ; set (to place) is transitive, sit (to rest) is intransitive.
Set in
-;ome of its meanings is intransitive. (See Lesson LX.)
4. The title (t:its or sets) in. 5. Go rmJ (lay or lie) down. 6. The
(sets or sits) in t he west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was
(laitl or lain). 8. (Set or sit) th e plates on the tnblc. !J. He (set or sat)
•>1tt for Lomlon yesterday. 10. Yom dre~s (sits or sets) well. 11. 'l'he
birtl is (sitting or setting) on its eggs. 12. I (lnid or lay) there an
hour. 13. (Set or sit) down a nd talk a little while. 14. He has (lai~
or lain) th ere an hour. 15. I am (setting or sitting) by the rivet'. HJ.
He has (did or done) it without my pel'mission. 17. He (ffod or flew)
from justice. 18. Some valuable html was (ovcrflowe<l or -flown). 10.
She (came or come) in after you left. 20. They sang a n ew tune
which they had not (sang or sung) before. 21. 'l'he water I (drunk or
<lrnnk) there was better t han any that I had (drunk or drank) before.
2~ . The leaves ha<l (fell 01· fallen).
23. I had (ridd en or rode) a short ,
distance whim the ~tQ~'lU (i/~g1.W or began) to gather, 24, I foun<l the
.;1m

r

Explanation.-As ought is never a participle, it cannot be use<l after
had to form a compound tense.

Caution.-A conditional or a concessive clause requires
a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is
assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in
the speaker's knowledge of the fact. But when the actipn ,.
or being is merely thought of as a future contingency, the
subjunctive present is preferred. The subjunctive past of
the verb be is used chiefly to express a wish, or a mere sup- ·
position contrary to the fact. ·
Examples.-1.
2.
3.
4.

If(= since) it rains, why do you ge>?
If.it rains (now) , I cannot go out.
If it rain, the work will be delayed.
If my frien<l were here, he would enjoy this.

Explanation.-In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) there
is a mere uncertainty of knowledge. It either rains or it does not rain
-the speaker is uhcertam which is the fact. In (3) no existing fact is
referred to ; the raining is merely thought of as a future contingency.
In (4) a mere supposition, contrary to the fact, is made. My friend's
not being hero ii' oloarly im plietl.

Construction of Mode and Tense Forms-Continued.

20

221

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

Remarks.-When there is doubt as to whether the indinative or the
11bjunctive form is required, use the indicative.
The present subjune:ti ve forms may be treated as infinitives used to
'lmplete omitted auxiliaries ; as, "If it (should) rain, the work will be
l'!ayed "; "Till one greater man (shall) restore i1s, " etc. 'rhis will often
•rve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive.
If, though, lest, unless, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the submctive mo<le, but they are now more frequently followed by indica· •
,.e than by imbjnnctive forms.

- . 18. If he - - guilty, the evitlence dO\s not show it. 19. He .·~<>.
deserves our pity, unless his tale - - a false one. 20. Thougl}. he ~ '·. '}~: _::;· ,
there, I did not see him. 21. If he - - but discreet, he will succeed.
22. If I - - he, I would do differently. 23. If ye-· men, fight.
,, /
I

..
LESSON

CVI.

l

t

....

.~

) '

I

'

DIRECTION.-Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the fol·

>wing sentences :-

1. If this were so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he was there,
did not see him. 3. If to-morrow be fine, I will walk with you. 4.
hough this seems improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend is in town,
·.' will call this evening. 6. If he ever com es, we shall know it.
~

Explanation.-In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to
decided in future time.

7. If he comes by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it were,
·om billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob.
I. If a pendulum is drawn to one si<le, it will swing to the other.

Explanation.-Be is often employed in making scientific statements
ke the preceding, and may therefore be allowed ; but there is nothing
· the nature of the case to justify such usage. If a penditlmn is drawn
lV heneve1· a pendulwm is drawn.
11. I wish that I were a musician. 12. Were I disposed, I could not
·atify you. 13. 'This sword shall en<l thee unless thou yield. 14. Govn well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 15. I know not whether
is so or not.
DIRECTION.-Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in

e indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for your
·oice:-

16.1 I wish it - - in my power to help you.

17. I tremble lest he

J

CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS-CON- . ·' '
•
.
. \ ,. ·_.:.
. TINUED.
.
·

Caution.-Be careful to employ the tense forms of the

;

different modes in accordance with their meaning, and ip. ·
such a way as to preserve the proper order of time.

t

~

•

·~,'."...:

1

,.

1 .~ .

DIRECTION.-Correct the following errors, and give your rea-

sons:-

1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will " : ~
they be persuade<l though one \·ose from the dead. 3. He ,that
was '<;/-:
.
.
•""\
dead sat up and began to speak. 4. A man bought ahorse 'for one r···,.
hundred dollars ; and, afte~ keeping it three- months, at an expense of ...~,)~".:
ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars : whnt per .-cent. does he gain ? 5. I shoul<l say that it was. an ho11r's ri<le. 6. If . , ...
I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in ·' ·
Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will faYor us with a scng.
9. I intended to haYe called.

I

Explanation.-This i::; incorrect ; it should be, I intended to call. , \. ; .
One does not intend to do what is already completed.
,• ) .. -·'

"

Remark.-Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, intend- ·_ . . ,
ing, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or futu,re . ,- '·'
time.
'·" \ · ·· · · ·: :.' ·
The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, ,and ~~---:
the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by ~

"

Construction of Mode and Tense ~orrns-Continued. ~ 223.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

I

•
'

I

. ~'· f."i_:,'P',,

r

·.*

'

Examples.-! shall go, You will go, He will go. These are the proper · /{ l
Corms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original ; "'•·,.
meaning of shall and will. In the first person the speaker avoids ego- ' :· ~: ,_.
tism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as , ·,1
something under the control of his own will. In the second and third · · • ":
1
persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of ?thers th,an tb t~eir
duty.
·
,\ · .. · ·~j·

O. We hoped to have seen yon bf'fore. 11. I should not have let
12. I should have likPd to have seen it. 13. H e would
1 Niten it.
have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have
1c it.' 15. We expectccl that he would have arrivc(l last night
The experiment provecl that nir lmll weight.

'· . . 'l;:

temark.-What is trne or false at all times is generally expressed in
present tense, whatever tense precedes.
here seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a ·
tkei· does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general proposition,
may use the past tense, giving it th e appearance of an inclirect
hition ; as, " He sa.icl that iron was the most valuabl e of metals."
tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attractell into that of
principal verb; as, " I knew where the place was."

I will go. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. •. ., ~~
'
\ ," ·:··.'
He either promises or determines to go.
.
J:·,
. . ' :.
Yon shall go, He shall go. Here the speaker either promises the
going or determines to compel these persons to go ; in either case the , '
actor is under some external influence.
·
Shall I go f Here the speaker puts himself under the control of
some external influence-the will of another.
\,
lVill I go f-i. e., Is it my will to go ?-is not used except to
'l
repeat another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his
own will is.
. "
Shall you go f Ans. I shall. Will you go-f Ans. I ..will. Shall ' .: 1; '. \,
he go f Ans. He shall.
Will he go? Ans. He will. The same ...( , . ••'Jl
auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer.
,.
No difficulty shall hinder me. The difficulty that might do the '
hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the control : . !·" ,' \_.
~\ .. " I
of the speaker .
He says that he shall go, He says that he will go. Change t.he indirect
quotations introduced by that to direct quotations, and the application
of the Caution will be apparent.
You will see that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is
only an apparent except.ion to the rule. A superior may courteously
avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's
willingness to ohey.

·.

;, I hacl neYer known before how shortlifcreallywas. 18. \Ve then
into a cliscussion whether there is any beauty inclependent of utility.
General maintain ed that there was not ; Dr. Johnson mafotained
there was. rn. I have n.Jreatly told yon that I was a gentleman.
Onr fathers held that all men were created equal.

••

't 'C-

J

nntion.-U se will and would whenever the subject
ies the one whose will controls the action, and shall and
tld whenever the one named by the subject is nnder the
l.rol of external influence.
~ mark.-The

original meaning of shall (to owe, to be obliged) ancJ
(to determine) gives us thr real key to their proper use.
1e only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these

j .

auxiliaries cannot be found is, when the su.bject of will names s~me.::. ~-."'.i.:.
'
.
\1 l
thing incapable of volition ; as, "The wind wil\ blow." E\ren this ~a.1
. ··; •
1
be a kind of personification.
.
\ .· ~

· principal verb. I am glad lo have met y0u is ~orrect, because th!l
"ting took place before the time of being glad.
oitght to have gone is exceptional. Ought has no past tense forrn,
I so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer
past time.

.I

,.

..

JI -

:

.\

•

I

'

..

'.

~

I

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.
Construction of Number. and Person Forms.

l'hey knew that I should be there, an<l that he would be there. The
1e principles apply to shottld an<l wottld that apply to shall 1mu will.
t.his example the events are future as to past time ; making them
11re as to present time, we have, They know that I shall be there,
l that he will be there.
1r~' friend sai<l that he should not set out to-morrow. Change the
I irect to a direct quotation, and the force of shoitld will be seen.

LESS 0 N

1

>IRECTION.-Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in ea.ch
t;he following sentences :-

. Hear me, for I will speak. 2. If you will call, I shall be happy
accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-<lay ? 4. I shall
:er see him again. 5. I will nernr see him again . 6. I said that he
1nhl he rewanled. 7. Thou shalt sm ely <lie . 8. 'I'ruth, crushed to
th, shall rise again. 9. Though I should <lie, yet will I not deny
·c. 10. Though I should rece ive a thousand shekels of silver in
11e hand, yet would I not put forth my lrnrnl against the king's son.
>IR ECTION.- ·Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will,
.. 111<1, or u·ould, and give the reasons for your choice:-

He knew who - - betray him. 12. I - - be fatigued if I had
lked so far. 13. You did better than I - - have done. 14. If he
- come by noon, - - you be r eady ? 15. They do me wrong, and I
- not endure it. 16. I - - be greatly obliged if you - - do me the
·or. 17. If I - - say so, I - - be guilty of falsehood. 18. You - di sappointetl if you - - see it. 19. - - he be allowed to go on ?
- - you be unhappy if I do not come ?
1 l.

1

CV I I.

225
\ , ".,_;,or;-. '."(?!:'".

__,.:...-, · ....- -· ., '" ·
1'"""

I

•

;

CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND

'

PERSON

Agreement.-Verbs-Pronouns.

..

'

.,)-

I

::

'.

~JI

~· (•J

-.1 1

FORMS. 1
... . ...:

.

· )\

Cautton.-A verb must agree with its subject iu numb~r< '--:
and person.
·/
f \

t, '

:

Remark.-This rule applies to but few forms. Are and were are .':··'
the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the\eomm~n · ·"
. style, most verbs have one person form, -s or -es, found in the_indicative present (has, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the
indicative present-ha(ve)s). The verb be has am (first person) and fs ·
(third person).
'
·
'
."
In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the enping est, '
st, or t, and, in the indicative present, the third pe~son 5ingular adds ·
eth.

Caution.-A collective noun requires a verb in the plur~l '· .. ~
when the individuals in the collection are thought of· but 11
' '· '
when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should
,. ·
be singular.
Examples.-1. The •multitude were of one mind. 2. The multitude
was too large to number. 3. A number were inclined to 'turn back.
4. The number present was not ascertained.

>IRECTION.-Correct the following errors, and give yoUT rea-

ns :~ t.

Where will I leave you ? 22. Will I he in time ? 23. It was
111ested that no person would lca\'C his scat. 24. 'I'hcy requested
·1t the appointment would be gh"en to a man who should be known
his party. 25. When will we get through this tedious controversy 1
I think we will have rain.

CauUon.- "When a verb has two or ·m ore subjecfa:1 con/ nected Ly and, it mnst agree with them in the plural.
Exceptions.-1. When the connectetl subjects are different ' names
of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one
whole, the verb must he singular; as, ~'My old friend and schoolma~
is in town ; " "Brljad and milk is excellent food."

10*

'

I

-

'

!2 6

-

-

-- -

-

----

-~

~ ~.'·f. ~ -·:.;
-

2. When singular subjects are prece<letl by each, every, or no, they
1re taken separately and require a singular verb ; as, "Every man,
l'onia,n, and child was lost."
3. When the subjects are emphatically di stinguished, the verb agrees
ith
the first and is understooLl with the second ; as, "Time, and
1
iatienre also, is need ed. " (The same is true of subjects connecteLl by
is well as; as, " Time, as icell as pnl'iencc, ·is needed.")
4. When one of the subjects is affi rmati ,.c arnl the oth er negati Ye,
he verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, "Books, and not pleasnre,

iccnpy his time."
5. When several subj ects follow the Yerb, each snbjeet may be ·
·mpbll.sized by making the verb agree wi t h that which stands nertrest ;
1s, "Thine is the ki11gdom and the power and the glory."

Caution.- When a verb has two or more singular subj ects

·onnected by or or nor, it rnnst agree with them in the
,ingnlar; as, "Neither poi·erty nor wealth was desired."

227'

Constrtiction of Number and Person Forms.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

-~-

!"

DIRECTION.-Justify the use of the foll&wing italicized verbs'and

pronouns:-

··

"

·

\ , •

,· . \

~ :..
1

.r · '

"

1. Books i s a noun. 2. The good are great. 3. The committee
were unable to agree, and they asked to be uischarged. 4. The House / '. .
has decided not to allow its members the privllege. 5. 'Three , times ·
four is twelve.* G. Five dollars is not too much. 7. Twice as much
is too much. 8. Two hours is a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the
wretched was his pride. 10. To profess and to possess ar~ ~wo different things. 11. Talking and eloqu,ence are not the same. 12. The
tongs are not in their place. 13. Every one is accountable for his own'
acts. 14. Every word and every act has its influence . . 15. Not I
I
loud voice, but strong proofs bring conviction. 16. This orator and
statesman has gone to his rest. 17.,Young's i1 Night Thoughts" is his
~
·'
most celebrated poetical wo1-k. 18. Flesh and blood hath not revealed
it. 19. The hue and cry of the country pursttes him. 20. The second
and the third Epistle of John contain each a single chapter . . 21. Man
is masculine, because i t denotes a male. 22. 'l'herein consists the force
and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth nor wisdom is the
;:
chief thing. 24. Either you or I am right. 25. Neither you nor be is
to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, is going. 27. The lowest
mechanic, as well as the richest cit~zen, is here protected in his right. , ..
28. There are one or two reasons. t 29. Nine o'clock and forty-five
minutes is fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican figures, or picturewriting, represent things, not words.+

a

I

Remark.-When the subj ects are of different numbers or persons
he verb agrees with the nearest ; as, "'N either he nor they were satis·

ircl."
vVl'>en a singular and a plural subj ect arc used, the plural subject is
'.enerally placed next to the verb.
In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for
he speak er to m ention first the one addressed, and him self last, except
1·hen he confesses a fault, or when , by using the pronoun we, he assoiates others with him.
When the subjects r equire ditierent forms of the verb, it is generally ,
10tter to express the vcrl~ with each subj ect or to recast the sentence.

The three special Cantions given above for the agreement
,f the verb apply also to the agreement of the pronoun.
See Less. XO.)

* "Three times four is twelve," and "Three times four are twelve" are both used,
and both may be defend ed. The question if' (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the ,
number four thought of as a whol e, or are the lndividnal u11its composi11g it thought
of? The expre8sion ="Four taken three times is twelve." Times is a noun used
adv erbially with out n preposi tion (see Lesson CXI.).
tWhen two ncljcctives differing in number are connected without n repetition of
the noun, the tendency is to make t.he verb agree with the noun express~d. ·

+The verb here agrees .,./ith .fiqurea, as picture-writing
nauns.

is logically explanatory of

228

Modifieations of the Parts of Speech.

DIRECTIUN.-Correct the following errors, and give your reac
'iOnS : -

1. Victuals are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives" a.re
bis great work. 3. What sounds h,a ve ear.h of the vowels ? 4. "No, no,."
~ays I. 5. "We agree," says they. ' 6. Where was you ? 7. Every one
ilf these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited their ·
lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions denote action. 11. One of you are 111 istaken. 12. There is i;everal
t·easons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14.
The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full when
this' point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money,
a s well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you
t o decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are
carable of being d1fren. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their
right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of
t he men was discharged. 23. Nine tenths of every man's happiness
depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no lnbor, were spared.
25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust
a nd ashes prm~d ? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame.
~8. Neither the servants nor their muster are to blame. 29. Our welfare
nml security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, sin.
:a. He don't like it.
To the Te(r.che»'. -The~e exercises muy profitahly be continiied by requiring the
pupils to compose sentences illustrating tho~e constrnctions in which mistakes are
'iablc to be made.

Remark.-'l'he following exceptional forms are worthy of note: Need and dare, when follow ed by an infinitive, are often used instead
)f needs and dares; as, "He need not do it" ; "He dare not do it."
The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relating to the
•ndefinite subject it take, by attraction, the person and number of the
·omplement when this complement imme<liately precedes the adjective
·l ause ; as, " It is I that am in the wrong" ; "It is thou that liftefjl
ue up" ; " It is the dews and showers that m1ike the grass grow."

The Verb Revie-wed.

LESSON

CVl'II.

'

THE . VERB REV1Ev>Eo.
'

'

-

'

'

\

What does fr(1;11,8itive mean ? Show that the object of a transitive '. '/ ,
verb may be the object complement or the subjec{. Show that a verb I
may be transitive in one sentence and intra nsitive in another. Define'
a. verb. Define the two classes with respect to meaning ;-with respect
to fo~m. Illustrate redundant and defective verbs.
What verbs have voice 1 Of what advantage is this modification ?
Define Voice and the two voices. Into what may the passive form be ; ,
resolved ? Iilustrate. What may be mistaken for a passiYe . form ?
Illustrate. What occurs in the sentence whe:i a verb is changed from ' ··.
the active to the passive ? Illustrate regular and irregular constructions.
Illustrate four different ways of asse1~ting an ac.tion. What does
mode mean ? Define Mode and the four modes. Define the Injinitivb.
DefinP, the Participle and the three ldnds of participles. · Why are par-ticiples and infinitives not here classed with the modes ?

...

.·,

I

.; II., "
I

Give forms of the verb representing the three natural divisions o! · r
time ;-forms representing action complet_e<l in each of these. divisions. · · / .•~
Define Tense arnl the six teni:>es.
-- 1
(. ; .
,
\
• .
1

,

..

............. , . ·

Define Pe1·son and Nir.mbe1· of a verb. Give the different personforms of the verb. Give the two number-forms of be. Where, in the
conjugation, are these person-forms and number-forms found ? Show
how the different tenses are formed. How is a verb conjugated i~ the
passive form ?-in the progressive form ?

'

-·'

'"
-:'· :·
I,•

J \ .

Illustrate the Caution in regard to giving every verb its proper form .
and meaning. Illustrate the Caution in regard to the uses of'. the in- " '
dicative and subjunctive forms. Illustrate the Caution in regard to
the use of tense-forms. Explain the uses of shall and will. Illustrate
the principles that control the agreement of the verb with it.s subject
and the pronoun with its antecedent.

I ,

(

'.

'··'

'·· . .
. \· • '· . r

"'

:o

~~

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

LESSON

Parsi rig.

' 1·. .

CIX.

c

~

~

~

c

r>I.REOTIQN.-Select and parse in full all the verbs found in the

<
....

rhteen sentences given for exercises in construction, Less. LXVII.

e-

...;

<XI

't:I

~

nders away to seek new lands.

~

nrbs.

Kind.

elling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac.
riders Reg., Int. .
·~ek
Inf., Ir., Tr.
Ac.

-

Ind.

Pres. 3d.

"

Mod. of Yankee.
Sing. Pred. of
Principal word In JJhrase
Mod. of wander8.

~

< .<
.....

.0 'ti
~
ll<

0

'°
:a
0

0

0

~

"'

5
'E .c
0 r:n

<

~

..c....

I

i::

'a<1>

:

0

!!

;

z0
f:
-<
0

i:i
~

00

&::

~

~

;s

114

:>ral Pareing.-Selling is a verb, present participle, irregular, transie, active, modifier of Yankee.

z

.,;

Q,

...en

..o the Teacher.-Exercise11 for the parsing of rnrbR may be selected from LeA•S 55, 56, 63, 64, 66, 68, 70. For adv1mced work, see 280-285.

"

Qi

QI
Cl)

0
)II

~
Ill
0

i::
<:)

<1>

't:I

~

~

<1>

OS

OS

:::

=

...~
0

.....0 . .....
0

<XI

ci .0 0~
if r:n= .cr:n

'leek is a verb, infinitive, irregular, transitive, active, present, prin•al word in a phrase modifying wanders.

~

.;

"C

.;,

bO

~

Ill

:

0

.9 ......,r::!
<'1

; r::!
114 ""
~
z
j.... "d!;:!r::! f:
-<
·c ......
·~
5.,
~
"'-<
~
..,
.g"'

01

>Q

,1

~

~

0

~

.J

0

ll<

.

'E

:

:

....0

8

0

...

I

0

:i
:

:

:

:

=

ii;
:

~

;

:

'°

~

al

<.>

~

~

-~
..,

~

"C ·i;;
0

<
....

~

~

'

<1>

:

:

:

:

:

:

:

,,.,

'

'°

\

....0

p..

-

.c
~ 0

..c

A

;g

> <

;g

<

0

z

ci.
<1>
....

ll<

~

OS

.c::

OS

·o...

i

....

~

<T•

<1>

.,;
<1>

0::

ll<

0....

...0 'O.....
it !lo <

0

....
o;

p..

<1>

<1>

Q

-r,

0
....

!lo

,.;

0
.c
.c
.... !'!';

ci.
<1>

A

'

,!d
"'
=·
c .... .s .0
"'

.c

'O
<1>

.0

>
~

..

:

I

I

':;"

!
I

~·

i::
,.;
ei0 .... 60
,.;
.... 0
0

z

..

:

...;

0

' ..

\

I
e

/

z

Q

p..

\'\•

~

<1>

£ '~8

:

--

....;

~

.....
0

0

0

£

,.;

~

I~

. 'ti...

ci
0

I\

J'

=· ~

0

•

\

~

E-<
,.;
......

'

~;i

I

...;

.:<1>

. .,

• • .,

't:I

'8~ ifci '£°

<

C3 ]

~

0

....£:::

~

0

.,;

!lo

,. '>-- ~ }fi: ~

_j,~

~ OS
'E0 .....
:;: 0 ........

z0

't:i

~

r::!

:a

'\

~ ~

~ .g ....~o ,

Cl)

Q,
Ill

..

.......0 .;

"'<1>
it

~

"C

~

·.

~

...
...

Wanders is a verb, regular, intransitive, indicative, present, third,
gnlar, predicate of Yankee.

bo
£:::

---

.,;
0
ll<

ei0
z

.d0

~

~

I

.;

'

..: .:£

'E0

Qi

0

.\

~ ~
~

0

0

..

Participles and Infinitives have no subject, and, conseqnently, no person
nbe;-. (Remember that we distinguish between subject and assumed subject.)

0

t~

~

...
......

Voice. Mode. Tense. Per. Num.

0

~i:i.

~

BY NT AX.

~

- ~ "..

-

.. ..
.... :::

~

~ ·2
....< .... ... 0ei

~

.... rr.=
i::

;;;>

MODIFICATIONS.

i::

't:I

r::!
cr,A!ISIFICATION.

~

~

......,"'c

Model for Written Parsing-Verbs.-Tlte Yankee, seZZ.ing his farm,
1

..

<

PARSING-VERBS.

~
....

\

6

·s0

....

aj

Q
bi> OS
p:; p::;

>

~ 't:I<

't:I

....<1> OS>.

=

"'OS

ii: ·

ii:

OS
/

.I
'\

~4 ,

·' . .

<1>

0

• OS

...... ,.,·
I •i

I

.'J i.

'·' J. •,

#..,

'I

General Review.

Modifications of the Parts of Speech. ·

232

' 233
-rs-:

Scheme for the Verb.

Uses,

Classes.

1. Define the verb and its

(The nitmbers ref er to L e8sons.)
To assert action, being, or state.-Predicate (8, 19).
·
·
5Participles (55).
{ T o assume act10n, berng, or state. l Infiniti ves (56).

\ Regul ar (81).
( Irregular (81 , 58- 60).
(Redundant and Def ective.)

!'"•

Meaning.

U" ·

Questions on°'the Verb.

GENERAL REVIEW.

5 Transiti rn (81).

I Intransitive (81}.

classes.~~~ss. 81.

.. : \ · ' :

2. Name and define the modifications of the verb.-Les~. 101, · 102.

3. Name and define the several voices, .modes, and tenses.-Less.
I
101, 102.

4. Define the participle and its classes.-Less. 102.
5. Define the infinith-e.-Less. 102.
6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular ve.rb in the different forms,.:.._J.Jess. 103, 104.
\,
7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use or' the
mode and tense forms, and of the persQn and number forms.7Less.
107_:.109.

Voice.

Mode.

al

er:
w
;:>

j Active (101).
I Passh-e (101).

\ •

GENERAL REVIEW.

r<lieati... }
Po t~ n tial:

SnUJ unct1 rn.
Imperative.

(l02-l06.)

{P•esent.
Past.
Modifications.

Tense.

Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int.

Future.
Present Perfect.
Pnst Perfect.
F uture Perfect.

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)

l

THE CONJUNCTION; Classes. 5 Co-ordi?ate. l (82'
.
. 1Subordm1tte. f !.'
I

THE PREPOSITION.

'·

..
t,

'

./,-'

;•

No Classe sl_~ ~).

(100-100).

THE INTERJECTION.

No Classes (46}.
I

Questions on the Conj., Prep., and Int.

_\ Singular.
! Plural.

} (102-104, Wi').

Person.

{First.
Seconcl.
Thircl.

} (102-104, 1CY7}.

Participles.-

Classes.

{Present.
}
Past.
(102--104).
Past Pedect.

Infinitives.-

Tenses.

{ Present.
l
1
Present Perfect. f (102-104,

Number.

106).

1. Define the conjunction and its classes.-Less. 82.
2. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of conjunctfons.-Less. 82 . .
3. Define the preposition.-Less. 38.
,
4. Give and illustrate the principles that guide in the use of preposi·
.
' L ess. 83 .
_.,
'
\
twns.5. Define the interjection, and explain its office in the sentence.Less. 46.
6. What parts of speech have no modifications 1

Modifications of the Parts of Speech.

SUMMARY

OF THE

RULES OF SYNTAX.

A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute
tplement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is
.he nominative case.
L The attribute complement of a participle or an infiue is in the same case as the word to which it relates.
e foot-note, p. 186.)
fl. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in
possessive case.
V. . A noun or pronoun used as object complement or as
~ctive complement or as the principal word in a preposiral phrase* is in the objective case.
-. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in
same case as the word explained.
•r Cautions, Principle ... , and Examples respectin(J the casea of'
...s 0 . 11.d, pronouns, see Le.~s. 91, 92, 93. F01· CauUons and Exa1nto uuide in the use of the diffe1•ent p1•onouns, see Les.Y. 79 .

.

--\ ~

'"..

i,

. 1

~ /
/'

For Uses of the participle, see Less. 114.

IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with :1:
1
it for~s a phrase used as a noun, a~ adjective, o~, an .ad~~:,\
verb.
, .· :.. ;•,.,
..
"
For Uses of the infinitive, see Less. 118.

'

I

..;.•

,

•.

,,

•' .

I,

'~' . - ..

X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.

. . f.~

F"r Cautions and E11Camples respectinu tlie use of adjectives and oJ
eo1nparative and superlattve forfns, see Less. so, 99.
·

...

:.

XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. , .
For Cautfons and E11Ca1nples, see Less. 81, 99.

.'.-}'

XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier~· and /
shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to .the ·
word modified.

'For Cautions and E11Ca,n 1-ples, see Less. 82.

n "indirect object" or a noun of measure, etc., used adverbially, is treated as
rincipal word in a prepositional phrase (see Less. CXI.).

\

VIII. A . participle assumes the action or being, and . is
r
used like an adjective or a noun.
'•

ith two or more antecedents connected by and, the pronoun is
al.
ith two or more singular antecedents connected by or or nor, the
1oun is singular.

ith two or more subjects connected by and, the verb is plural.

I

For Ca1dions, E11Cantples, and Ep;ce11tio11s, see Less.10'1.

For Cautions, see Less. 83.

II. A verb agrees with its subject in person and num-

I

With two or more singular ~ubjects conn'e~ted by or or nor, th~ v~r~ /~r,
is singular.
'
·
· :!'·'

·I. A pronoun ag!'ees with its antecedent in person,
nber, and gender.

r Caiitions, PNnciples, rind Examples, see Less. 89, 90, 101.

,,, ..:- ~ 23~ :-.~.

- - - - - - - -.- '"

A

/,

S ummar}' of t?e Rules of Syntax.

I

.

'

XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
XIV. Interjections are used independently.

.'
I

"

SUPPLEMENTARY AND REVIEW.

LESSON
THE OBJECTIV:E

ex.

'I

COMPLEMENT.

Introductory.-•: He made the wall white." H~re made does no~·
fully express the action p~rformed upon the wall. We do not mean to
say, "He made the white wall/' but "He made-white (whitened) th~ :
wall." White helps made to express the action, and at the same time it
1
denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the action.' ; ,
" 'fhcy made Victoria queen." Here made does not fully express the
action performed upon Victoria. They did, nbt make Victoria, , but I.
made-q1teen (crowned) Victoria. . Queen helps , made to express ,the '
action, and at the same time denotes the office to which the action' ..
raised Victoria.
A word that, like the adjective white or. the noun queen1 helps to
complete the prellicate and at. the same time' belongs to the object com~,
plement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the '
subject but to the olJJ°ect complement, and so is called an Objective
/

Co1nplen1ent..

As the ob}ective complement denotes what the receivel' of the act is
made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the factitive
complement or the factitive object (l1at. facere, to make).
' "·
Some of the other verbs thl).t may be thus completed are call, thin~,
choose, arnl name.

DEFINITION.-The Objective Complement completes , the
predicate and belongs to the object.

Supplementary and Revie-w-.

Nouns as Adyerb Modifiers.
·

Analysis.

iey made Victoria queen.
Explanation.-The line that i:;epa•
rates made from queen slants to1e object complement to show that queen belongs to the object.
made ,. queen , Victoria

i\ nalysis.-Qneen is an ohjeclive comp lement completing mnde
,mging to Victoria; made Vict01·ia queen is the complete pre<l·Jme one has called the eye the window of the soul.
•estiny had made Mr. Churchill a schoolmaster.
fter a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English
. James I. created the wor thless Villiers Duke of Bucking·c should consider time as a sacred trust.
anation.-As may be used simply t o introduce an objective
'tent. (See as in diagram of (1 4), p. 242.)
phelia and Polonins th0tight Hamlet really insane.
ltc President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to
·ourts.
ow often ha~ he stricken yon <lnm b with his irony !
1stom renders the feelings bl1111t, and callous.
'C rates styled beauty a short-lived ty rn.nny.
:ulame de Stael calls bcautifn l archi tecture frozen music.
:icy nameJ the state N cw York from the Duke of York.
· ~ nry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark
'nstitution.

I

·

1

'

__

239 , ....

;· ~ : .~·;t~~:r;••

they call the direct object ; and me, repres~ting the peraon toward .': '·~~~'i
whom the act is directed, the indirect, or dative, object. / ,., ..' •· '~/.,'. ; :;:_:~~;J~
'\
,_\
'
You see that me and boak do not, like Cornwallis and army, in : ,~ ··;.
"\Vashington captui·ed Cornwallis and his army,". form a compound " "7'~
object complement ; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for I ·_
they do not stanJ in the same relation to the verb gave.
The meaning
/ •. .{ 1 '
I
"'
is not, "He gave me and the book."
, ; .'!'
.
vVe prefer to treat these "indirect objects "-which generally napie ~; ~;::_,;_:.
the person to or for whom something is done-as phi.ase modifiers . ,
without the preposition. If we change the order of the words, the. prep- . ' - ·;:,
osition must be supplietl; as, "He gave a book to me." "He bought
me a book"; "He bought a book for me." "He asked me a question ." ;\ ·~\'.", ·
" He asked a question of me."
~. ~. ~~
Teach, tell, send, lend, are other verbs that .take "Jouble objects." . ~:;'·
Besides these "indirect objects," noun~ denotipg measure, quan- _ ': ~~.:
tity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverb~ ' · .;;!
.ially, biiing equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition. · ", . ;;;\
" We walked four miles an hom·." "It weighs one pound.'-! "It is · · ".\ .
worth a dollar a yard." "I went home that way." "The wall is ·,."f ·,
•."';',,·.::
ten feet, six inches high."
.
\~: ..
The idiom of the language does not often .liQmit a preposition befora
..
!
nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. You need not supply one. :
'.'/

~

'

'~

;~

1

'

•

\'

~

j

';I

.. '·"'·'
''"

•. l,...
. ,•tr'

Analysis.

!. ··.~~
. · , .:~f .,

DIRECTION.-Distinguish carefully between nouns used as indirect objects, and nouns of m.easn1 e, etc. :-;-

.,·,

I

1. They offered Cresar the crown three times.

LESSON
NOUNS AS ADVERB

CXI.
MODIFIERS.

.uctory.-" He gave me a book." H ere we have wha~ many
l'ians call a double obfect. Book, naming the thing acted upon,

crown

Explanation. - Cresar (the "indirect
object") and times (denoting measure)
stand in the diagram on lines represent-.
ing the principal . words of prepositional
phrases.

. I

Supplementary and Review.

Analysis.-Ca!sm· and times, without prepositions, perform the
Pf ad verb phrases moclifying the pre<licate ojfered.

1

We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year.
Ile sent his daughter home that way.
I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound
' sugar.
~hakespcare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death.
Serpents cast their skin once a year.
The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 21, 185!).
Good land should yield its owner seventy-fl ve bushels of corn an
On the fatal field of Zutph en, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants
lit the woun<led Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water.
Fle magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water.
T he frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means
~.

Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor.
Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy.
The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an
Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night.

LESSON

CXII.

AN AL YSIS-M I SCELLAN EOUS- REV I EW.

Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom.
The Suspension Bridg~ is stretched across the Niagara river just
r.he Falb.
'

Falls

Explanation.-An adverb may. 1
modify a phrase or a preposition.
Only here modifies a whole phrase,
and.fusf. modifies a preposition.

Anal ysis-Miscellaneous-Rev1e

S. The range of thirty pyramicls, even in t.lie tiI
looked down on the plain of l\Iemphis.
\
4; Between the mind of man and the outer world are ,
nerves of the human body.
5. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious clevelo1
all the faculties.
6. By the streets of By-and-by, one arrives at the liouse of Neve•.
7. The study of natural science goes hand in hand* with the culture
of the imagination.
8. A Christian spirit should
spirit s7wu1d be shown
be shown to Jew or Greek,
male or female, friend or foe. Greik
x!~ 9. Hunger rings the bell, and
orders up coals in the shape of
~
bread
and butter, beef and ,b al(l
frienil
, '
con, pies and puddings~

10. The natives of Ceylon build hou,ses of the trunk, and thatch
roofs with the leaves, of the cocoanut palm.
''
11. Oh, a dainty plant is the ivy green I
~

·, '

/

Explanation.-The subject names that of '!hich the speaker says
something. The terms in which he says it,-the predicate,-he; of
course, assumes that the hearer alreacly unuerstands, Settle, then,
which-plant or ivy-Dickens supposes the reader to know least about,
and which, therefore, Dickens _is telling him about ; and you settle
which word-plant or ivy-is the subject. (Is it not the writer's poetical conception of "the green ivy" that the reader is supposed not t~
possess?)

.,

. " ..., ~) '

\

\~'

'I

' .r:·~~. ~ . t

., '

12. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity.
13. I am here. I am present.

"
1,

l •I •/

'

•

.;: ~··
~ -1

-

Explanation.-The office of an adverb sometimes fades into that of

~

' ,\

I

••

..

......

~

,\

"'I/and in hand may be treated as one adverb. So may one by one, by and by, in
vain, etc.

11

\

'

1

l

.;

... ·'::~:--~~:~:::;·<·."'::.>· .· ,/

..,.·

., . ,•,,

·1·
, )

upplementary and Review.

1

; went out as mate and came back captain.

--T-

Explanation.-11.fate, like captain, is
an attribute compl ement. Some would
He
q.
ii'
"'"
say that the conjunction a.s connects
"'i came
captain
mate to he; but we think this connection is made through the verb went, and
t hat as is simply introductory. This is indicated in the diagram.

----<

,.--'u""'·e~t__,~!-"n-'1a
n
"""t""c_

15. Und er the Roman law, every son was regard ed as a slave.
16. 'l'his book is prese ntml to yon as a token of estee m and g ratitude.
17. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the ·
gentl eman and idol of the time.

LESSON

C XI I I.

It

f .: ,, -An~Iye;is...:.Mis<:Jella,neous-Rev,~e·~'.'t'.,.. ,

'

<.

, •\ /•
'
. ' •. :- ~--)..·;t~ /

;•

'

jute. H ere, like an adj ective, seems to complete ami
. erb, to modify it. From th eir form and usual function,
·n this sentence, be called an adverb, a nd present an

I

1

~

1

4. ~ In the latter half of the 'e\ghteenth century, three -powerfu
'ons
disme1
tl
' namely· · Russia' Austria, arl\l. Prussia, united for tpe
\
me'n t of Pol11nc1. ' · .
.
".
.'
.· · · : '

.

'

'

Explanation.-As, namely, 'to wit, viz. ; i. e., e.' g., and ' t~at is
introdu~e explanatory modifiers, but 'they do not seem to connect
to the words modified. In the diagram they stam~ like as In the pr
ing L esson.

. t

5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great,
into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pon
Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. ·
<L Reason's whole pleasure, a)\ the ' joys of sense lie in three ' '
-he~lth, peace, and competence.
7. They scaled Mount Blanc-a darin1? feat..
They

I

scaled · ,

~lfount

(~

Blanc

/

I

ANALYSIS - MISCELLANEOUS-REVIEW.

1. Bees communicate t o each other the death of th e quee n, by a :"apid · ·: \
interlacing of the antcnn rn.
·,1: ,;, ~
Explanation.- Each other m ay be treated as 011 e t erm, or 'each may· . · •3
be made expla natory ·of bees.
2. The lamp of a ma n's life lrns three wicks-brain, blood, and "
breath.
Explanation.-Several words may together be explanatory of one. .;
3. The turtle's back-bone an<l breast-bone-its shell arnl coat of
armor-are on the outside of its body.
•!
sfiell
1n.ck-7Jone
are
.,
:
.·1'.
coat
brea~t-bone :s::...

Explanation.- Feat is explanatory of the sentence " They 8·
.Jl. ioimt Blanc, and in the diagram . it stands, enclosed in curves,
short line placed after the sent~.1?-ce line.
8. There are no accidents in the providence of God.
9. The smith,* a mighty man is he.
. 10. But the enemies of tyranny-their path leads to the seaffoltl
11. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman!) managed th~ m
extremely well.
Explanation.-,Expressions enclosed w
retreat
marks of paren~hesis are independent.

.

''

12. A day later '(Oct. 19, 1812) begall
fatal retreat of the Grand ' Army, from
1
•
(See :(,essoh CXI.) . c

day

cor. .

*Expressions independent by pleonasm are set off by.·the comma when the 1
after them is slight as in (9) ' but, if it i~ abrupt, as in (10), the dash is req\lircd
..:. .• •~ .-~ \ "

l

\

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.,i· ·

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_i ~ . ,, /", .t

i

, . ,,,. ~

(

•t, I

, - #·!\

r

,, '

·r . , , 1 1
I

..

,

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•'

1,_ , 1 ~

'i .

j

244

'

,

'

. '

.I : .

.

-

'. •

.... '., •

: ·"

. _-.,...

'. ,

"

.

'

.

~.

~ ~ _:, . -~~..".' ~ .
•

'

If

I '

·~

·/.
. ·. y.

' book grow!ng
. d _ii ll• ,
5. I found my

I

.

Explanation.-Notice that the little
mark before ~he phrase po~nts towar~ ~he
object complement. ~ The' adjecti~.!:J 'dull/,
comple~s growing and qelqngs, ~o b?o~, <'.
the assumed subject of growing.,'.~:· : ". :i(·
\ .. ~ \ ·i"~- .. J.~

. ·,, \ . .

AND

I

:_•

.>

.

CXIV.

REVIEWED

/

formed upop me. '. ·~He kept"-w<#ting·~··i = ·-''He d~tifi~· i;nE'.'.~!,1"",T~,'.·
relation of waiting to me. may be seen, ~.Y changing . ~he · form~of ~~~
1",f . ,
verb ; as, "I was kept waiting." (See Le$son CX.) . · ' ·

I

PARTICIPLES

.

Participl~s .Reyievv~d filn~<! · pontin.':1e~.- :;. · . , , ''..2~.o·; .

13. Six days shalt thou labor aud do all thy work.
14. How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long,
on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead !
' 15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag
into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, .
and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon
and the shouts of bis triumph 't

LE:SSON

'

.

Supplementary and Revievv.

J~

'"

. :., /:;

' I felt my heart beating faster.
7 .·
· .\. 7;~:~.1~£~~~..."
6.
,
7. You may imagine me sitting there.
- ·.
.... ·11 • ~ •
8. Saul, seeking his fa~her's asses, f,~mi:J.d himself sud~enl~: .~u:~e~ -'
· into a king.
· .
· ·
.
.
- ·~ .. .
11
9. Food, keeping the body in h~lth by makmg it warm and repair~
ing its waste, is a necesE<ity.

CONTINUED.

I"" , /,,\\_ •.;

Analysis.

The varUciple may be used as an ad}ective modifier;
as an att1·ibute c01nple11ient; as an ob,jcctive comple1~ient; as the p1·incipal word in a JJ1'epositfonal phrase;
as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or an
object complement; as independent, or with a noun to
form an absolute ph1·ase. The pa1·tici'ple may become a
nie1·e noun or a 1nere adjective.

Explanation.-Participles may take objective complements.

' '

" 1. '

10. Your writing that lette~ so neatly secured the position.
, Oral

1. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high
eastern hill.
2: The natives • came crowding around. I

-'"-~4-.;;;secu;.;.;.;.;..;re..;.;d___.l..;.l;...;o_si~·twn_·
_

~

Explanation.-Crowding here completes the predicate came, and belongs to the subject natives. The natives are represented as performing
the act of coming and the accompanying aet of crowding. The assert.ive
force of the predicate came seems to extend over both rnrus.
3. The philosopher sat buried in thought.
4. He. kept me waiting.

I

'

your writ~.'.

ing that.tetter so neatly is the subje~t , ' .
the principal word of it is writing, whieh.: 1•
is completed .by letter,· writing,' as ,~··a _
;

· .

•

'

'

"

I

noun, is modified by your, 1and, 1 as~ ~ ··:

, . ·;' ~~·' .: "·~f1, ~ ~ ~r:1·;j;:·~

. verb, 'by the adverb phrase so neatly.
1

A~alysis.-The phrase

.:

1
/

.

.L ~· ;- _. ,.i: . KJ ~~:("'

,:

11. We should avoid injuring the feelings of others.
\ , ., ·
12. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his con~n~: . .
13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our 'affairs .... t "·: , :,

1~. Talking of exerci.se, _you have h~rd, of c~~rs~'.; ?~ ..~1,c~~~s'~. ·:
1

"constitUtionals '' ·
··
... . ·
· · · · ... ,,. , ' I ' ; ,; f<'.
~
/ 15. Conscience, her first law b~oken, wo~nded lies: _:'· " .. '-. , ·;,. \.~·;·.•.

Explanation.""'.""' Waiting completes kept and relates to the object
complement me. Kept-waiting expresses the complete action per-

•

•

•

•

t

•

\"

..

. , ) \

Explanation.-The absolute · phrase ' is treated as grammatic11:ll1 ·
'

/

I

'

~.. , '

' . •• ,\ '

I

/\I

I

'

t

~

I

·~ I \.
1 '· '·

.f ,' I

.

' •

·'

246

_

:

.

.

independent, although it may generally be expanded intq an adverb ·
clause.
. 16. ~hy does the vel'y murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and
his glarmg eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide of the mortal part?
17. The ble~ding of the seven prismatic colors produces white light.
18. The settmg of a great hope is like the setting of the sun .
· Ex~l~natio~.-Li:Jce is here an adjective(= similar).
prepos1t10n to IS usually omitted.

I

, .

Infini~ives' Rev.iewed- ~n'd

Supplementary and Review.

After Zike the

,,

\'

I

,

I

Explanation.-1lfany modifies song after it has been limited by a
· and long-forgotten.

I

...

i

. ". •\ . ••. ,. ,
1 1...i~'24~

Oontinueci.-:-7':'

' \.,·. ·< .:_i, ... ·1,, ; . :_.J~ · ~~ '; ,..~
· ·£..~i:-':i ::1'i·I T'.: \

, .

.

· . .\,..-.:---

\.

fJ

',•''

Remark.-Partic~ple_s and infinitives. are ' /\lso used ,in,_tnaki,ng: compound verbs; as, "have walked," "shall (to) walk" • .. ~. "" \ ' .. ,·
.Remark.-The to of the infinitive phrase is omitted after the ·~uxil­
iaries do, can, may, must, shall, and will. It is also " generally or.'f~e­
quently omitted after the active voice of bid, dare, feel, have, hear, let,
make, need, see, behold ; ancl sometimes, after help, plea8e, _ancl some
other verbs.
· ' ·. -,:: .

"'

1. Many attempts to assassinate William the Silent ~ere defeated.

2. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheatecl another
.
\ ': '-. ,' .'-"'-:n..
-, :-".:,'!I
ti.Ille.
3. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hop'e.' /).~~·
4. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. ·, · ~· ~ ·
5. Not to know what happened before we were born is to .be always
t cl).ild.
· ·
.
..- · '
·
·. · . ·. :. · ;" ; ·
~

\ 1. 9. Such was the excitin 0rr cam1)aign, celebrated 1
"r1 many* a longforgotten song.

,, .

I

!

'

I ..

•

-..ot.

.,. '

I

I

•••

6. I love to lose myself in other men's minds.

··•. · · · ...-·
., ·1
· 7. He ?lade me wait.
_, . _
.; . ... . ~ · .•
Explanatfon.-The infinitive 'U)ait completes made and :i;el~tei/ to
-'· I
I
~e.
"He made-wait me ... =" He detained. me.'~ .
.. .. _· •;-, ·
See "Introductory,'' Lesson CX., and compare "He made the stiCk
b1md-equaling "He rnade-bend (= benf) the stick "-with "He made
the stick straight "-equaling "He-mad~-straight (= straightened) ~he
.
.. I
.. . r .
.
stiek."
I
I
.
' ''the relation of these objective complements ' to me and . stick -may
be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus .: ~· 1
was made to wait"; "The stick was made to bend"; "The stick w~s
made straight." ,
/..I
8. We found the report to be true.*
t

\

LESSON
INFINITIVES

CXV.

REVIEWED AND

Analysis.

The infinitive ph1"<tse may be used as an adjective
modifier; as an adve1'b 1no<li/ier; as an explanatory
modifier; as 's ubject; as object, att1·ibute, or objecti'i'e
compleme·n t; after a preposition · as the principal tenn
of another ph1·ase; with its assumed subject, as the
p1·incipal term of a phrase introduced by for; as an independent element.

(>

:'O

March.

·

'O •

•

•

I \'

___J_,____________
We

"* Mantq man in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann, Latin mutt118
'Vir, and the like, nntil the thirteenth century; when the article ~as Inserted to
emphasize the distribution before indicated by the singular number -P, if F. A

•• ,

1

'

CONTINUED.

,

•\

'be

rouna

report

'· '

. ~ -~ . .! ' . "·~ \

.

........-- - ·,,,/ "_\, I·' ' / ·' ',;•. • 1

,.,

~ .;.._.

• Some prefer to treat lM 1·eport to be tl'ue as an object clause, because u' is eqnlVB·
lent to the clause that tM report h true. ·But many expressions log~cally equivalent
are entirely dlfferen t in grammatical construction.
If, in '.'.I desire him to be pr01,noted, " .him to be pronwted Is a clause because equiv>.

, . ... >

, '.

- -.

·~:;· ,.~1, ·

.'

,

: •

'.~

:-.,

"~ ,

....

,f .

f ". .)\:~. r

:

248

Supplementary and Review.

'

~

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,'• •

-

..,

,1

'..

1

..

•.

•

~

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I

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.;

'

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)4

~~n;im:1,C:,~·' , .:.·~~~~A;~'
\I. . ~ .:.:._:-~-~~~ . r.,t·~·~: ·
•

16. For a man to be . Pr~ud of his le~rrling is· t~e g~e~~~' ign~f\
an~~.:); .'
\ k . _ · ' ~~ ,i,,,,,
17. Every object .has .severalfaces, so t o spea
·- . , · ·,,·~: -.., 4, •·
., ,
18. To make a Jong stor.y short, Louis XVI. ~nd Marie A~toin~t~e,~ ·:

9. Being persuaded by Poppma, Nero causetl his mother, Agrippina.
to be assassinated.
.
. ·
10. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelie~
would permit no eminent author to stand bareheadecl in his presence.
11. My friend is about to leave me.

is

•

The Adjective Clause Re':'iewed- a~d ·

\

Hend

'

were beheaded.
. .
.
19. To be, or not to be,-that is the question.

'r :"

. ..

. :· :... . .
~~· ~, , /.~~ ·:.· :
1

• \;. ,,t-: ~ ·,i{g1~!

~

Explanation. - The preposition about
introduces the phrase used as attribute
complement ; the principal part is the infinitive phrase to leave me.

t.: ~'

CXVI.

LESSON

i.j·

#:. ~ ,;~,~;j

;•

\, • _,

.. - ~··;~~:

'

'
\
~. ~
' ~/. ;: ..
AND CON- ·'!,~"'·
v .,('• . •1 1.~ l
·. .::-. ,, ' ' " ·,?,;;. ~~\

' I

THE

12. Paul was now about to open his mouth.
13. No way remaius but to go on.

ADJ ECTIVE CLAUSE REVIEWED
TINUED.
'

-

'

~' .,."f,.i;r .. \~

.... .,.

• •

.:...

•

.

habits

I
1

1'

·~

'

•

'

, mounlalns

\

)

\

•

I

is in the bed of the ocean. -

Explanation.-For introduces the
subject phrnse ; the principal part of .
aulta
the entire phrase is us to know our
faults; the principal word is us,
pmfitahle
which is modified by the phrase to
know our faults.
15. God never made his work for man to mend.

l'j/l t

..

~·,

pis·,.g;.

..

~

•" . ...

·~"

,J.

~-.: ' -~· ';,u· ·~ :.
· 2. Islands are the tops of mountains whose bas.a · ..~

•

14. For us to know our faults is profitable.

.

~

blush. ~9~
... ,..~.,, <,.J .!-'. ·~.iA!'·~;'1:;:~~~

1. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess

Explanation.-Bid is here used as a preposition.

Explanation.-Tbe principal term of the phrase for man to mend is
'
ot man, but man to mend.

•

1

.

'

·--

'

1 ·

.. ·

'

.

>

i:s.

Exp~a~atio~.-The con~ecting pro~o,~~ I
pOSSeSSiVe modifier Of base, \.

f· : '

r

~1 -.··'ef ~_;\ ,

I '

· , ;

.

v
'

••
h.

".'r ···~ :.·
•

(t

••

-~'

l

.i(:i

~>~~-~~"A>
I

'/

1•

,., l' ~ ...1 ~: l·
3. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not m11.ke all mothe~. ·'/
I
~ ,..._. - _' ~: ii i~ .. ·\s~:•,\<t
,/

.

,

interesting.
. _4. Grouchy did not arrive
him. '

'

'

.

'

- ----..

•.\

, •

1

Explanation.-A preposition is wanting with that.
foot-note.)

ent to that he should be promoted, why is 11ot his promotion a clause in "I desire
s p1'omotion " !

. ,..

5. Trillions ~f waves of ether enter the eye an,d hit the
time you take to breathe.
'

"I saw the sun rising" ; "I saw the risinq of the sun." If we must call the
n 1isi11g n clause, why not coll the 1ising of t!ie sun a clause? In both expressions
n names the actor nnd rising denotes the act.

'

. - i.

reti~.~ in,~f~ .. ;:\
. · ·~

·-.~ :.: ._' :
..
~

Explanation.-The connecting pronoun

Besides, when the pupil has learned that he is a subject-form and liim an object.
rm, and that participles and infinitives lack th e asserting element necessary to
8
1e predicate, we prefer not to confuse him by calling him the sullject and to be pro>ted the predicate of a clauae.

~s oµiitted. Supply Ui;at.,''_r·.y~·
~

'

~ 'i

6. The smith takes his name from his smoot~ing · t~~ m,~t~ls 1 ~~ , ~1
wor:,s
/

1

~:rates was one of the greatest sa?es the world ever_. ~:~•...\~ :;~:\i:~~
1{

,I

•

'

..

"

l .

~ ...;

'

f'.\·, ,··o,,'t'·.'
' .... ~''

' t: 1

250

Supplementary and Review.

8. It is to you that I speak.
Explanation.-Here the preposition, which naturally would stand
· ~ast in the sentence, is found before the complement of the iIHlependent
clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its natural place-" It
is you that I speak to." That I speak to modifies the shbject.
9. It was from me that he recci vetl the information.
(Jfe must be changed to 1 when from is restored to its natural position.)
10. Whom the Lord loveth he chastenet.h.

Explanation.~The adjective clause modifies the omitted antecedent
of whom.

Supply him.

li. The swan achieved what the goose conceived.
12. ·what men he had were true.

......... . . ,

t3.

I

told him to bring whichever was th e lightest.

Explanation.-The infinitive phrase is object complement ; him is
used adverbially(" indirect object").

14. Whatever crushes indiYi<luality is tl~spotism.
15. He raised the maid from where she knelt.

" It has rained, for the ground is wet." The ad verb !c lause: intr~
duced by for, does not assign the cause of the raining, but1the cause of ·
our believin<T that it has rained ; it gives the Reason for the assertion
0
or ,the Evidence of what is asserted.*
· ·j, • '. ~. ('
1

I

\

··

I

,

a CllUSe.

.- .

•

I

·• •

' .

'_,,

1

;' '

',·

~:,..

',.• ·)' ... . .. ·-

'.'He takes e~ercise that fie may get well." The adverb clause, intro~
duced by that, assigns the cause or motive . or, better, .the . PurJi>os_e/
°'
'
of his exercising. '
·
. ·
· . '
...' , I , "-.. ·;·I

1

·

1

" 'l'he ground is dry,' although it "fias mined." The adverp. clim~~'
introduced by although, expresses a C()ncessiou. · I~ .is · co.nce~~d _th_a(,~:
a cause for the ground's not being dry exists ; · but, in spite o}'t"4_'i,s · /
~
l f·~
•
'opposing cm'tse, it is asserte.d that the ground 'is dry.
. ~ \ '~· -,' . .', ;:;...: ,'

1
: •• •

l

'J

•

.

' •

'

1

'

\.,

I

'

f

t •

.

",

.

"

I

. All these dependent clauses of real cause, reason, conditio,ri,, purpos~,_>_·
1
and concession come, as you see, under the general hea d 'of 1c,1u~~~·:.·:.'·
1
although only the first ' assigns the cause proper.'
· . ~·"!;:
~1; •:

·;r

,(Fol.· connectives of adverb clauses1 see 293,
1

. :, ·: :."7,\~'./~£!:;

294.) ,.·

1

,

17. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby t.he opera·
tions of the universe are conducted.

..

"If it rain, the grotlnd will be wet.' 1 The adv13rb 'clausi;i;.intr9- ·.
duced by if, assigns what, if it occur, will be the cause of the ground's
being wet, but, as here expressed, is; only a Condition ready to becoll,1e

Explanation.-Supply the place before where.
16. This reason did the ancient fath ers render why the church was
called " catholic ".
.

/

/:

,.
"The ground is wet, because it has mined.'' The adverb ,clatlse;
intro<luce<l by because, assigns the Real Cause of the ground's being
\-.,.. ' ,
1• /-JI· ~ . .
wet.
• ···~ .. ~.~ .'1'' ~.:;._~u ·(

\

Expla~ation.-Men is here taken from its 1~atural position before
what, and placed after it, as if th e relative were an adjective. In analysis restore men to its place-" .JIIen what(= that) he had were true." .

.

Introductory.-See Lesson LXVI.

'

JI

.

•' J1 ,/

• Reason or Evidence ~hould be carefully distinguished from Cau-~e. ";..Cause' pro:'; ..:
• . -1 ,, , ...
duces an effect, Reason or Evidence produces know Id
e ge o f an e fft
ec . · ·
'
, , . ':· ·
·. 'Reason, Evidence, and Prbof have· been used to name this element. .· EvldP.nce, ;_
nowever, Is not Proof till conclusive_. In some ~entences the term fleason will besl '.
apply ; In others, Evidence.
)·
Clauses of Reason or Evjdence are sometlme8 treatl'd as Independent. , ~-· ; I : 1H" · ·
. .
I
'
. •
"'•1 • I ·~ •' ...•.•. ·l/
I
'
' '
1'.
.
I ' I
• ; :J
.• I \
' -\ '
.. ~ I

·i\ .. :-'\" .

'

'J

·~

'\

.

.• (

\\

' . '.· '.j

I

•

•

.

I

•• •

~~

•·, -,

.' \ •

J.

'

'f '. '

252

Supplementary anl:i Review.

The Adverb Clause ·,Reviewed and- Conti~ued . .-,

.,

The adverb clause may express tinie plac l
.
n
l
'
e, < eg1·ee, 1naner, rea cause, 1·ea~on or evid

concession.

I

ence, conditiori, pu1·pos'3j

will take

~ i \~
~

ather

.2. ~ato,

mght
.

1

1

me

. Explanation.-By changing then
mt~ at the time, and when into at
the olfices of these two words
which,
.
orsake me w1 11 be clearly seen. For explanation
of the line representing when, see (1),
p. 61, and (1), p. 124.

before* he durst give himself the

a·

~ 1'ea mg "Plato's Immortality."

.'

8. Gold is heavier than iron.
Gold

fatal strnke, spent the

Explanation.-Just may
be treated as a modifier of
the dependent clause. A '
Wellington
wa.~ meeting I onslaught closer analysis, however
Ju
- .
.
would m~ke it a modifier of'
:i~e. st as - J1~st ~t the tune at which. Just here modifies at the
At the time is represented in the diagram by the firf>t. element
of the as line.

· ~\~
·0

,!

6. ·Washington was as good as he was great.

E:z:planation.-The ad

.

·b 1
ve1 c anse a.~ he was great modifies the first ·

• Some prefer, In con,tructions like this to treat b
rince rts prepositions follo"'ed b
'
ifo1'e, ere, ofter, till, until, and
"
Y noun c1auses.

4 ,

•

is , hefvier

Explanation. - Ifeat•ier = heavy beyond
the deg1·ee, and than = in which. , The seii~
tence =';:; " Gold is heavy
the degree.in
iron
"'
which iron is heavy." · Is and heai:y are '
omitted. Frequently words are omitted after than and as. Th.a n
· modifies heavy (understood) and connects the Clause expressing degte~
i • ,.1
to hea.vier, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb.

bey~nd

9. To be right is better than to be president. ,
I

-. --._

. Explanation.-" To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than
to be president (would be good)."
!
(

rn.
4. Where the snow falls, there is freedom.
5. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense
he could find it.
.
and expression wherever

I

•

\
"'\\

I

I arrived

. >·:, ,. ./.:.:".-·~.:-r:":;-1 ~(l~

Explanation.-The words the
,.. .
the are similar in office to
as .
as-'' He became humbler in that degree in\which he be• '
came wiser."
· ·
\ · · · ·"·

3. Blucher arrived on the fi eld of W
.
meeting the last onslaught of N apo1eon~ter1oo Just as Wellington was
'Blucher

.

as, which is an ad verb modifying good. · The first as, . moqifi.e~· by.the
adverb clause, answers the question, Guod to what extent or .degree ?
.
\
'
The second as modifies g1·eat and performs 't he office of a conjtl,nction,
·and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding
as . . . as into two phrases, we have: "Washington was gO()d'in
the degree in which he was gi·eat." - (See diagram of (1 ), above.) " ~ /;.:
l '/ ,\
7. The wiser he grew, the humbler he became.
\ , ' " : ·!. "-~

1. When my father an<l
my mother forsake me, then th e Lord will
take me up.
Lord

,

: 253

,'

(

.. .

It was so cold that the mercury froze.*

~,

~ '

Explanation.-The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it.
produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mercury froze, answers the question, Cold to what degree ·? The sentence
• In this sentence,' also In (11), th.e dependent clause Is sometimes termed a d11use
of Result or Consequence. Clausel! of Result express dlfterent IOglcal relations, and.
,
"
.,
I
•
cannot always be claseed under Degree.
, .
,
.· ;:
The following ore somewhat peculiar :"I harl heard of it before, so that. I was not surprised." "I never go this wuy that
I do not think of it." "Who is he that he shmdd be so lwnored I'"

• 'i- · .

''

254

I

Supplementary and Revie-w.

The Noun Clause · Revie~ed aQd Contihued. . ; :··'
.

.

. •
•

= "It was col«l to that "egree :

·' · 1
• .
•
•
l""
in wtiicri the mercury froze."
That (.in ~1hidi? modifies froze and connects the clauses. it is the·· f . .,.....
conJunctive acherb.
'
.e ore a

'

j

.

m~nt,

'

'

-

,

•

,

•I,

" ·

.

> , •

\
\

•

.

' ,,
'

I

.

!

Explanation.-" It w~s soc kl
t f
.
t
.
,
o as o reeze the mercury wo1J,ld indica e or require"; or " It was as cold as it wo1dd be t 0 f .'
th ,
,
·
cury " A t f:
teeze e mer.
s o. reeze 1rie mercury may be resolved int0 ti
I
!he merctiry froze.
ie c ause that

''·

255··.

~:::~·.ft~~~'}(~'

; ....l

~ ...~.-..-- f·,..•( ";' i .." /\'.. .-.~;·~·••\:.I
'\::~ :.rt 1f1 '

_.. ••• -· ••

.

~.

'

., •

i-\~r \

,;

attribute .<;onJ-plemettt, e'a(P,lanatory \ »:t,odi~r._~_:v ·
principal te1~m of a prepositional\ phrase.
, :'. ' ;\\~. r:.:;·t: ·'
'

•

I

'

11. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury.

'\

•

-~ (

.•,

,

':I

As the upright man thinks so lie speaks.
g
(For diagram of as . . . so, see when . . .. then in (1) above
14. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washi"ng' ·t ") b"
fresh ·
d ·
• as i com mes
. , air an vigorous exercise with its other benefits
15. Tobacco and the potato are American
.
found them here.
products, since Raleigh
16. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat
duce combustion.
is evolved to pro-

ot~:l:. Langua~e

was given us that we might say pleasant t.hings to each

·18. Spiders have ey0s all over their heads in order that ti
in many directions at one time.
iey may see

Explanation.-The phrases fo order that, so tliat =that (Conj .).
;·.Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are not
sn cient to make up the loss caused by ev~poration.

t

1. "Where is Abel, thy brother ? " smote the ears ,of the·~:~uil~j~';:;
\
t
\
•
'
' l . {' --~,., 1? ·J !.- 1_ '
Cain.
'
, ·
·
.·., 1
· - , · :<' / •;1: 1; ,
2. When to quit business and enjoy their wealth is a problem ,never ' ·
solved by some.
· · -~, . '' ::. ~ ~·" ·
\ ·•.
I ': . . '

.

.. ;,, ~ !~~(~171.

' \
' ..,.,...
Explanation.- When to quit business an~ e1t/oy their we<flth. is Wi?;\:
, indirect question. · A question, fully stated, requires a subjeeh ~~d ~:1 _'.,
predicate. When to quit business= When they are (or ought) · to .' quit ;'.·,
lmsiness. Such constructions may be expanded into ~la.uses; or th~t-~{·
may be treated as phrases equivalent to cl~nses.
.
·. · ...... 3.~:.\,
/,

12. One's breedin I
13.
.
. g S lOWS i·1~Se If llOWhern more than in his reli ion.

r•I

_:.

'. - ~

I

I •

,) . ' '·• ';' ,.
0 !:~'(·.

. 3. He does not know which to choose. ·
.. ., ·
4. The peacock struts about, saying, "What a fine tail I liav~ I" .if~·
5. No one can tell how or when or where he will die. '
·' ·<;:. /~·l · .
6. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so ma.ny .borrowed /~ ·
words •
'
· · , . c\ .:~~t~~
'r
(
}
'
.'~ ~ ",...!'

.. .

7. The question ever asked and never answered is, " Where . and '/ · ·
how am I to exist in the Hereaft.er ? ;,
'
" '..: :·; '~ :.',
!.
8. The myth concerning Achil}es. is, that he was invulnerable ·in ::-·· ..
every part except the heel.
.
•\~·) .,:;~: J:fh~
9. It is believed that sleep is caused by a diminution in the . supply~~' ;'. · ·
of blood to the brain.
·.
:
10. Shakespeare's metaphor, "Night's candles are burnt out," is one.'1'. • ·
1/
of the finest in literature~
.:
11. Napoleon turned his Simplon road aside in order that he might ";:,;,.
save a tree mentioned bY, Cresar.
'
.
--~-- . ·' ~·: 11_' ' ,'. ,;· ~~:' •
• • • ,1..

\.,>'

1 :

1\:

LESSON
THE

NOUN CLAUSE

CXVIII

REVIEWED AND

CONTINUED.

Analysis.

The noun clause. may be used as subject, ob,ject c01nple-

. >I

/

j~{;1 ,;

•

Explanation.-Unless in order that is taken as a conjunction c~n- ·-'·i. ·
necting an adverh clause of purpose (see (18), Lesson CXVII.), .t~i:L .
c1ause introduced by fhat is a. noun clause explanatory of order. :. ·· "'; · ·
\.

I

.~

256

•

Supplementary and Revievv.

Complex and Compound Clauses.

25 '

,

'' 12. Have birds any sense of why they sing ?
birds

I

Have

Explanation .....:. Why they siri,g.
is an indirect question, here used
as the principal term of a prepositional phrase.

/

I
I

(nsects

.... . .

\
\

\

\

·-Explanation.~'I'his diagram illm;
'
. .

l. ..~-.

.

--1
.. I

tra~ the analysis of a \pompouw

\. \ •uihich I. are admired

\

~-.-P~ !,:'.

I

adjective clause. Each adjective claus1
is connected to insects by which. .An1
cotmects the co-ordinate claus~s. '

\ which I are1c1,ecorated
\\
11"4. ,
.
.:......
•\ wh.teh I soar 1'

/'

13. There has been some dispute about who wrote "Shakespeare's

tAof

t-"it

14. "\Ve are not. certain that an open sea surrounds the Pole.

: .... ,

itinvolves!

H'! proved, ; (

Explanation.-Supposing of to be omitted before that, the noun
\. clause may be treated as the principal term of a prepositional phrase
•modifying the adjective certain. By supplying of the fact, the noun
. -. clause will become explanatory.

I

·-·

eart~, round

Plays."

~

1. . ·

hour I -..naapassea

Explanation.-This diagram shows thll'
~ \
:-.
the ~lause while he tarried modifies botl
opportunUy\., ~:iiescaped
· predicates of the in~ependent clauses
I \ __..)
While •modifies had passed, had escaped
.. ~
and tarried, as ,illl.lstrated by the shor:
he
tarritil
lines under the first two verbs and thE1 ow
over tarried. The office of while as connective is shown by .,the". dottet
~
~
-,
lines.
I '
-- - .i
,' I
4. When 11. man becomes . overheated by working, running, rowing
or making furious :<:peeches, the six or seven rhillion~ of perspiratio1
tubes pour out their fluid, and the whole body is b11-thed and C?ol~d.
5. Milton said that he dicl not educate his daughters in . the Jan
guages, because one tongue was enough for a woman.
. 6. Glaciers, flowing 'down mountain gorges, obey the ~~w of rivers
the upper surface flows faster .than the ,lower, and the center faste1
than the adjacent sides.
1'
7. Not to' wear one's best things every day is ·a maxim of Ne"'
England thrift, which is as little disputed as any verse in the cate
chism.
8. Van Twiller's full-fed cheeks, which seemed to ha.ve taken toll o1
' 17
\ ._.; '

'i-

16. The Sandwich Islander is confident that the strength and valor
of his slain enemy pass into himself.

'ff

.

CXIX.

COMPLEX AND COMPOUND CLAUSES.
Analysis.

The clauses of complex and compound sentences may
themselves be co1nplex or compownd.
1. Some of the insects which are most admired, which are decorated

with the most brilliant colors, and which soar on the most ethereal
willgs, have passed the greater portion of their lives in the bowels of
the earth.
I

i
• \

3. The hour had passed ancl the opportunity had e,scaped'. while h·
tarried.

15. We are all anxious that the future shall bring us success and
· triµmph.

LESSON

2. He proved that the earth' is round, an<
that it revolves.
~
, ·; '.: -; ,

.

1

.

:/

'

I

,

:

, <

\ 11

''

'

Z58

Supplementary and Review.

Expansion

c;>f

. '

everything that went into his mouth, were curiously mottled and
' streaked with dusky red, like a spitzenbe1·g apple.
.
'
9. It is one of the most marvelous facts in the natural world that,
though hydrogen is highly inflammable, and oxygen is a supporter of
combustion, both, combined, form an element, water, which is destructive to fire.
10. In your war of 1812, when your arms on shore were covered by
disaster, when Winchester had been defeated, when the Army of the
Northwest had surrendered, and when the gloom of despondency hung,
like a cloud, over the land, who first r elit the fires of national glory,
and made the welkin ring with the shouts of victory ?

LESSON

CXX.

·-'-~·~'·'.-~ ~ f'

. 10. There is -a class a1~ong us so con~vative that.the{~~; lili~d~he1
. roof will come down if you sweep off the opbwebs:-Phillips~ . \
..
11. 'l'he evil of silencing the expression\ of an opinion is, that it is
robbing the human race.-Jiill.
12. There is no getting along with Johnson ; if his pistol misses fire,
he knocks you down with the butt of it.-Goldsmith.
/
13. We think in words ; and, when we lack fit words, we· lack fit '
thoughts.- White.
' 14. To speak perfectly well one must feel that he bas; got to thei
bottom of his subject.- Whately.
15. Office confers no honor upon a man who is worthy of it, and it
will disgrace every man who is not.-Holland.
' ,
· · \ . '. . ~
16. The men whom meh respect, the women whom women approve, '
are the men and women who bless th,eir species.~Parton.
· '·
'

I

'

I

'

ANALYSIS-MISCELLANEOUS.

1. Kind hearts are more than coronets, and simple faith than Nor·
man blood.-Tennyson.
2. I fear three newspapers more than a hundred-thousa.nd bayonets.
-Napoleon.
3. He that allows himself to be a worm must not complain if he is
trodden on.-Kant.
4. It is better to write one word upon tho rock than a thousand on
the water or the saml.-Gladstone.
5. A. breath of New England's air is better than a .sup of Old
England's ale.-Higginson.
6. We are as near to heaven by sea as by lancl.-Sir If. Gilbert.
7. Commend me to the preacher who has learned by experience what
are human ills and what is human wrong.-Country Parson.
8. He prayeth best who loveth best all things both great and small ;
for the dear Goel who loveth us, he made and loveth all.-Coleridge.
9. A ruler who appoints any man to an office when there is in his
dominions another man better qmtlified for it sins against God and
against the state.-koran.
.

259

Phrases and EHiptical Expressions.

_,

'i

./

--+-I

1

•

/

LESSOt-·( CX ·X I.
.\

·,,

,~

.

•

!/

EXPANSION OF PHRASES AND ELLIPTICAL EXPRESSIONS.

I

Pa·rticiples may be expanded into difterent kinds ~~f
.I
clauses.
.,
>J

DLRECTLON.-Expand the participles in these sen~nces-into the

clauses indicated :-

1.
2.
3.
4.
mer.
5.
6.
7.

Simon Peter, having a sword, drew it. (Adj. clause.)
Desiring to live long, no one would be old. (Concession.)
They went to the temple, suing for pardon. (Purpose.)
White garments, reflecting the rays of the sun, ar~ cool in sum·
(Cause.)
Loved by all, he must have a genial disposition~ (Reason.) .
Writing carefully, you will learn to write well. (Condition.)
Sitting there, I heard the cry of" fire I" (Time.)
.,

'

'\

!'

Supplementary and Revievv.

260

8. She regrets not having read it. (Noun clause.)
9. The icebergs floated down, cooling the air for miles around.
(Ind. clause.)

Absolute phrases may be expanded into different kinds of
clauses.
DIRECT.ION.-Expand these absolute phrases into the clauses

indicated :--

10. Troy being taken by the Greeks, _iEneas came into Italy. (Time.)
11. The bridges having been swept away, we returned. (Cause.)
12. A cause not preceding, no effect is produced. (Condition.)
13. All things else being destroyed, virtue could sustain itself. (Concession.)
-14. There being no dew this motning, it must have been cloudy or
windy last night. (Reason.)
15. The infantry advanced, the cavalry remaining in the rear. (Ind.
clause.)

Infinitive phrases may be expanded into different kinds
of clauseH.
DIRECTION.-Expand these infinitive phrases into the clauses

indicated :-

16.
17.
18.
19.
but.
20.
21.
22.

'l'hey have nothing to wear. (Adj . clause.)
The weather is so warm as to dissolve the snow. (Degree.)
Herod will seek the young child to destroy it. (Purpose.)
The adversative sentence faces, so to speak, half way about on
(Condition.)
He is a fool to waste his time so. (Cause.)
I shall be happy to hear of your safe arrival. (Time.)
He does not know where to go. (Noun clause.)

DIRECTION.-Complete these elliptical expressions:-

23. And so shall Regulus, though dead, fight as he never fought _

,-

Summary of Rules for Capital Letters and Punctuation. · 261

~'

'

'

_

"·_ -~ -~--" :;~"~~ i(~~-

b~fore. 24. Oh, that I _might have· one m'o\re. day I 25. ·He is q~ver~J_:·~­
than :wise. , 26. What if be is poor ? 27. He handles it as if' it :- were ,_,;'{
glass (as= as be would handle it). 28. I regard him more as a historian '.' '
·than as a poet. 29._ He is not an Englishman, but a Frenchman. 30.') / \
Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better(= Although
he loved his wealth as much as he did love it, etc.). 31. I will ' go '.·· ' ·
whether you go or not. 32. It happens with books as with-' mere ' ·; ~ 1 ·
.
•, ·r
acquaintances. 33. No examples, however awful, sink into the heart. · ·
~

--LES$0N

! ~ • ..

\

\
. .~ .!

CXXII.

.

' ti

)

)

.

SUMMARY

.

~.r...,

OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTER$ AND '. · •.
PUNCTUATION.
'

Capital Letters.-rrhe first word of _(1) a sentence, of .,
(2) a line of poetry, of (3) a direet quotation making ~o,m- . · ·_:
plete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, ·/
and of ( 4) phr!'lses or clauses separately numbered or para- <
graphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with ll_·· .
capital letter (5) proper names (including all names of the · :,
Deity), and words derived from them, 1(~) nJmes of things .. : :
vividly personified, ' and ( 7) most abbreviations. I Write. in ..\
. capital letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in ,
the Roman notation.*
•

.

I

Period.--'-Place a period after (1) a declarative or an ini'-· . :_ ,
perative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, (3) a number written ..,,, ·
in the Roman notation, and (4) Arabic figures used,' to .
enumerate.
. ,,

· * Small letters are preferred where nu,merous references to chapters, etc. are made. _

'I

262

Supplementary and Review-.

Summary of , Rules fo1'. ·capital , Letters and Punctuation.
'

Interrogation Point.-A direct interrogative sentence
or clause should be followed by an interrogation point.
Exclam,ation Point.-An exclamatory expression should
be followed by an exclamation point.

Comma.-Set off by the comma (1) a phrase that is
placed out of its natural order and made emphatic, or that
is loosely connected with the rest of the sentence ; (2) an
explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified
term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle used as an
adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless
restrictive; ( 4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive ; :
(5) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts
the word it modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or .
nearly so; (7) a direc t quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced; (8) a noun clause used
as an attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to
another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by
the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the
conjunctions are expressed; (11) conhected predicates and
other phrases, when long or differently modified, though
no conjunction is omitted ; and ( 12) co-ordinate clauses,
when short and closely conn~cted. Use the comma (13)
to denote an omission of words ; (14) after as, namely, etc.,
introducing illustrations; and (15) whenever it will prevent
ambiguity or make the meaning clearer.
DIRECTION.-Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark

or

punctuation in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon,
and the quotation marks :-

1. Francis II., Charles IX., ancl Henry III .. t.hree sons of Catherine

'

•

I

~ ~ ~~. ~~·-,.-!
.

26i

:- •. •. ':". -,_-.

cle Medici ancl Henry II., sat upon ' t~e French' throne.'. 2. The pupi
asked, "When shall I use 0, and wbe~ shall I use oh.f" 3~ Purity o'
style forbids us to use: 1. ]'oreign words; 2. Obsolete word~; 3. Lo,1
words, or slang. 4. It is easy, Mistress Dial, for you, who have al,.ays
as everybody knows, set yourself up abo,ve me, to accuse one pf lazi
ness. 5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell/ 6. Thi
. Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of t_hi{ Saracens
Caliph Omar having, in 637 A. n., taken Jer~salem. · 7. The · firs1
maxim among philosophers, and men of sense everywhere• i~·~ -~hal
merit only, should make distinctions. 8. Truth is to b~ loved, ·pll);el)
and solely because it is true. 9. San Salvador, Oct. 12, ~49~. '\ 10
Some letters are supe~fl.uous ; as, c and q.
.,
·
11. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet
..,
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet I
DIRECTION.-Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons :-

12. and lo from the assembled crowd
there rose a shout prolonged and loud
that to the ocean seemed to· say
take her o bridegroom old and·-gray

I

13. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by 11
girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary
man elijah the tishbite 14. the result however of the three years' reign
or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from holland and
without shedding a drop of blood became ad 1688 wm iii of england
15. o has three sounds : 1. that in note ; 2. that in not,· 3. that in move
16. longfellow exclaims with what a glory comes and goes the year.
17. spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid 18. if i may
judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of
his music autumn is i should say the poet of the family 19. new york
apr 30 1789. 20. some letters stand each for many sounds ; as a and o.
21. He can neither read nor write his own name.

266

. Summary of Rules-Cont\ nued. '

Supplementary and Review.

and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension,
or another takes its place ; a,nd (4) before a word or phrase
repeated at intervals for emphasis. ':rlie dash may be used
(5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow
other marks, adding to their force.
DIRECTION.- Justify each capitalletter and each mark ofpunctu·
ation in these sentences :-

1. The most noted kin gs of I srael were the first three-Raul,
David, and Solomon. 2. Art. 1-5 were in spired by Mr. J--n, of
W--n. 3. And-" 1'his to me?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece,
Rome, Carthage-what arc they? 5. I do n ot rise to supplicate you
to be merciful toward th e nn.tion to which I belong,-towarJ a nation
which, though subject to Engfaml, yet is distinct from it.
6. We
know the uses-arnl sweet they are-of adversity. 7. lily <lear Sir,1 write this letter for information.
DIRECTION.- Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctu·

ation in these sentences, and give your reasons :-

8. the human species is co mposed of two distinct races those who
borrow and those who lencl 9. this hill this infamo us bill the way it
has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents
have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected
all these things dissipate my doubts 10. during the winter of 1775 7~
gen w n was besieging b n 11. lord marmion turned well was his
need i:.nd dashed the rowels in his steed

Mm·Tcs of Pa-l'enthesis.-Marks of parenthesis may be
used to enclose what has no essential connection with the

rest of the sentence.
Aposh·ophe.-Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omis·
sion of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, fignres, and

.

.-

"' possessive from
characters, and (3) .t o .distinguish tli~
cases.

ofher

Hyphen.-Use the hyphen(-} (1) between .t he parts o,f ·
compound words that have not become consolidated, and ·
(2) ~etween syllables when a word is divided.
Quotation Marlcs.-Use quotation marks to ~nclose ,a .
copied word or passage. If the quotation contains' a quotation, the latter is enclosed within single marks.* (See pp.
134, 135.)
\
Brackets.-U se brae kets [ ] t<? enclose what, in quoting .
another's w.ords, you insert by way of explanation or correction.
I>IRECTION.-Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sen-

tences:-

12. Milton has acknowledged to me [Dryden] that Spenser was his1' /
original. 13. The last sentence of the composition was, "I close in '
the words of Patrick Henry: 'Give me liberty, or give me death.',,
14. Telegraph-pole is a recent compound -; telegraph is divided thus :
tel-e-graph. 15. The profound learning of Sir William Jones (he was
master of twenty-eight languages). was the wonder of his contemporaries.
16. By means of the apostrophe you know that love in
mothers' love is a noun, and that i's isn't a verb. 17. \.Ve see by the
' hyphen that the o's in co-ordinate belong to different syllables, and
that re-creation is not recreation.
•
DIRECTION.- Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give y<:mr reasons:-

18. next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye
life is nt worth the living is the enjoyment of the social feelings. 19.
man the life boat. 20. dont neglect in writing to dot your is cross your
• If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the
double marks are again used.

268

Qualities of Style. ,

Supple11nentary and Revievv.

269'

i'

--

ts and make your 7s unlike your 9s and dont in speaking omit the hs
from such words as which when and why or insert rs in law saw an'd
raw. 21. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow
22. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in
that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and
inseparable 23. What a lesson trench well says the word diligence contains

LESSON
QUALITIES

CXXV.
OF

STYLE.
'

Style is the manner in which one expresses himself, and

in some respects it must reflect the writer. But there are
some cardinal qualities which all good style must possess.
I. Perspicuity.-Pcrspicuity is opposed to obscurity and ambiguity,
and so means clem·ness of expression. This is an indispensable quality ; if the thought is not understood or is misunderstood, it might
as well have been left unuttered. Perspicuity depends mainly upon
these few things:-

1. One's Clear Understanding of what he attempts to say.-You
cannot express to others more than you thornughly know, or make
your thought clearer to them than it is to yourself.
2. The Unity of the Sentence.-1\Iany thoughts or thoughts having no natural and close connection with each other should not be
crowded into one sentence,
3. The Use of the Right Words.-Use , such words as convey your
thought-eac}:i word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less, no
other. Do not oniit words when they are needed. Be cautious in the
use of he, she, it, they, etc. Use simple words, such as others can
readily understand, and avoid words that have passed out of use, and
those that have no footing in the language-foreign terms, words newly
coined, and slang.

.

--~ ,,.

4. A Happy Arrangement.-'l'he relations of words-to·-~ach -other
should be obvious at a glance. The 'se.n tence !!hould not ri~ed rearrangement to disclose the meaning, or to unite dislocated parts.
II. Energy.-By energy we mean vigor of expression. In ordinary
discourse, it is not always to be sought. We use it when we wish to
convince the intellect, arouse the feelings, and take captive the wiHlead one to do something. When energetic, we select words for strength,
and not for beauty; choose specific, and not general, terms; use few
words, and crowd the sentence dense with thought; place \ subo~dinate
clauses before the independent, and the strongest clause pf .t he sentence, the strongest sentence of the paragraph, and the strongest' point
of the discourse, last. Energetic thought is usually charged" with
intense feeling, and requires an impassioned delivery.
·'
III. Imagery-Figures of Speech.-Things stand in 1nanyrelations
to each other, some of which are these : they resemble each other in
some particular; they differ from each other in some particular ; they
hold to each other a relation different from that of likeness or unlikeness-that of cause to effect, sign to the thing signified, part to the
whole, etc. Figures of Speech are those expressions in ' which,
departing from our ordinary style in speaking of things, we assert
or assume any of these relations. Imag11ry adds.beauty to style, but it
also makes the thought clearer and stronger-a diamond brooch may
do duty while it adorns.
I
A Simile is a figure in which we assert a resemblance .between tw~
things otherwise unlike ; as, " 'l'he gloom of despondency hung, like a
cloud, over the land."
A Metaphor is a figure in which, assuming the resemblance between
two things, we bring over and apply to one of them the term that
denotes the other ; as, " Who carried your flag into the very chops of
the British Channel, and bearded the lion in his den 1 "

A Metonymy is a figure in which the name of one thing long associated with another in a relation not of likenes~ or unlikeness-of cause
to effect or effect to cause, of container to the contained, of p,art to th~
I

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270

Supplementary and Revie-w.

Perspicuity-Criticism.

., 271
~~4.

whole, of sign to the signifiecl, of contiguity, of the instrument to the
user, etc.-is taken to denote that other ; as, "Please address the
chair; " " One needs to listen to the organ before reading Milton."
T~

the Teacher.-Qn e~ tlon the pupils up on every point taken up in this Lesson,
and re'}nire them to give illu~trations where it is possible.

DIRECTION.-Point out the faults, and recast these se~ten.Cea;·--y
1
making them clear :',
(Some may have each many meanings; giV'e 't hese.)

14. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his bodj.
was proclaimed king in his stead. 15. He told the coachman that he ~
would be the death of him,. if he did not take care what he was about,,.)
and mind what he said. 16. Richelieu sai<l to the king that Mazarin ·. '. · ·
woulcl carry out his policy. 17. He was overjoyed to see him, and he i" ~ .
sent for one of his workmen, and told him ta consider himself at his · /. Jl_.·
service. 18. Fieschi ·discharged an "infernal machine" at the king ~ : .
as he passed his wintlow.
\
-. · ·1
I

1

LESSON

CXXVI.

PERSPICUITY- CRITICISM.
DIRECTION.-Point out the offenses against Perspicuity below,
and recast the sentences, making them clear :-

1. A house on R emsen St. was burglarize.cl last week, and to-clay the
thief was jailecl. 2. Spain exported wool and some parts of Germany.
· 3. The fire-place mak es a person as hun g ry as one of Scott's novels.
4. Creteris paribus, the Saxon wonl s in E nglish are the best. 5. She
went a.fter dinner to show her rin g and boast of being marri ecl to Mrs.
Hill and the two housemaids. G. It may be said of Southey that of
all his contemporaries he was the greatest man. 7. To this succeeued
that licentiousness which entered with t he Restoration, and, from infecting onr religion and morals, fell to oorrnpt our language, which
last was not like to be much improved by those who at that time made
up the Court of Charl es II., so thnt the Court (which used to be tho
standard of prop.ricty and correctness of speech) was then (and, I think,
has ever since continncd) the worst school in En glantl for that accorn,
plishment, and so will remain till better care be taken in the education
of our nobility. 8. One mig ht sec with a coi;p d'mil that he belonged
to the beaii monde. 9. All hope soured on me. 10~ Please report any
inattention of the waiters to the cashier. 11. It was now heightened
· into somewhat of a frientllier nature by the testimony so highly in his
faYor and bringing forward his disposit ion in so amiable a llght which
yesterday had producecl. 12. Word sworth 's father and mother died in
his boyhood ; his mother first, his father when he was fourteen. 13.
Juventus, the hero, is bent on going it while he is young.

,I'

DIRECTION.-Place these subordinate clauses where they will
remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence
can be arranged :-

"1[

•

··

19. 'The moon cast a pale light on the gra'-'es that were scattered
around, li.s it peered above the horizon. 20. A large number of seats
were occupied by pupils that had no backs. 21. Often as many as five
dead bodies lay festering in a single house which no one could be
induced to drag to the nearest ditch and bury. 22. The old den of
Mohammedan pirates in Algiers is now one of the favorite resorts of
European travelers, whose delicious climate .is soft without being enervating. 23. People had to travel on horseback and in ,wagons, which
was a very slow way, if they traveled at all. 24. How can brethren
partake of their Father's blessing that curse each other? 25. Tw; men
will be triccl for crimes in this town which are punishable with death,
if a full court should attend.

I

·!

'

I

\•

DIRECTION.-Each of these sentences may have two meanings;
supply two'ellipses, and remove the ambiguity:_
·' .·

26. I1et us trust no strength less than thine. 27. Study had more
attraction for him than his friend. 28. He did not like the new
teacher so well as his playmates. 29. He aimed at nothing less than
the crown. 30. Lovest thou me more than these ?

..
I'

..
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I

., .

,,,

. . I ','

, ' ;.
I

272

Supplementary and Review.

.

Energy 7 Criticism. , · '• ·

.~

' · ":-

~

' I

· ' '•

,· .

.' 1.

' ')

LESSON

, .,

CXXVll

DIBEC2'ION.-Piace these italicized words and phrases where they
will remove obscurity and ambiguity, and then see in how many
ways each sentence can be arranged:-

DIRECTION.--Make these sentences clear by using simpler words

,~.

r·

... .

--

LESSON

/

I

CXXVlll

.. ...
'

!

.

ENERGY-CRITICISM.
I·

D.CRECTIO,N.-Expand these brief expressions int<.) sentences full
of long words, and note the loss of energy :·
· · '.. ·. ·. •

1. To your tents, 0 Israel ! 2. Up, boys, and at !1,em ! 3. Indeed I ..
4. Bah I 5. Don't give up the ship I 6. Murder v ".11 out I 7. O.~ 1· 8. 1 '
Silence there I 9. Hurrah ! 10. Death or free speech I 11. Rascal 1, . ·
12. No matter. 13. Least said, soonest me",Jed. 14. Death to the
tyrant I 15. I'll none of it. 16. Help, ho ·1 17. Shame on you I 18.
. "·
First come, first served.
DIRECTION.-Condense these italicized expresitions into one Ol
two words, and note the gain :-

--

1
.

19. H e shttjfied a.ff this mortal coil yesterday. 20. The author sur··
passed all those who were living at the same time with him. 21. To say
that revelation is a thing which there is no need of is to talk wildly.
22. He departed this life. 23. Some say that ever 'gainst that season· •. :.
comes wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated this bird of .dawning .:·:
singeth all night long.
. · ,/ ..: ·

and phrases :-

19. A devastating conflagmtion ra.ged. 20. He conducted her to the
altar of Hymen. 21. A donkey has an abnormal elongation of auriwlar
appendages. 22. Are you excavating a subterranean canal f 23. He
had no capillary su bstance on the summit of his cranium. 24. He made
a sad faux pas. 25. A net~work is· anything reticttlated or decussated,

') . •'

273 1j1'v\,

with interstices at equal distances between the intersections.-·· 26. Dili-' .'~ /
gence fa the sine qua non of success. 27. SB(( has donned the habiliments,> ·
of-woe. 28. The deceased was to-day deposited in his last resting-pl~ . . ·.
29. The inmates proceeded to the sanctuary. 30. I have pm·taken of ,'.
my morning repast. 31. He toolc the initiative,
in inaugurating the .
\
ceremony.
/ , ,

PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM.

1. These designs any man who is a Briton in any situation ought
to disavow. 2. In one evening I counted twenty-seven meteors sitting on my p iazza. 3. Hay is given to horses a;; well as corn, to distend the stomach. 4. Boston has forty first class grammar-schools,
e.'Cclusive of Dorchester. 5. He rode to town, and drove twelve cows
on horseback. 6. He could not face an enraged fath er in spite o.f Ms /
effrontery. 7. Threatening to cut my head off once a qitarter. 8. But
she had her share of business as well as her aurd. 9. He wanted to go
to sea, alt.hough it was contrary to the wishes of his parents, at the age
of eighteen. 10. It is of use to society that th ere should be polyglot
waiters who can tell when th e train starts in foitr or five languages.
11. In Paris, every lady in fitll dress rides. 12. I saw my friend when
I was in Boston walking down Tremont street. 13. One can pass by
what does not affect himself with a la1lgh or a shrng of ind(fference.
14. What is his coming or going to you f 15. We tlo those things fre~
quently which we repent of afterwards. 16. I rushed out leaving the
wretch with his tal e ha]( tolcl, horror-stricken at his crime. 17. Exclamation points are scattered up and clown the page by compositors
without any mercy. 18. I want to make a present to one who is fond
of chickens for a Christmas g~ft.

. .

DIRECTION.-Change these specific words to general
note the loss of energy:-'-

te·~s, ~n~\:. ~'
· \ .( ·

24. Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes. 25. Br~ak dotbn
the dikes, give Holland back to ocean. 26. Three_hundred men held
the hosts of X~rxes at bay. 27. I sat at her cradle, I followed her
hearse. 28. 'l.'heir daggers have stabbed Cresar. 29. When I'm mad, I
12*
•
I'~·.
....~_
1

'•

\

'

~'

......

1,,,

. )
'

I

t

~ ,,
• _' I • • • I, ....'' - '...... ' • I . (. / / • ''
.,_.,
·,/ f /
' • .......

-

....

\.

> :,
' ·

~
.\ ·~ -" ~ ·,

,.

l.::.:' -..... ~'°i ~
\ . (

'

•

'

•'

}

+'I

,,

. ··.·

I

274

Suppleme~-itary

and Review.

. . · ·. - ;.; .. 275

Figures of Speech-Criticism. ·
.....

t-...fi ~;:.

'"1
...

weigh <:!' ton. 30. Burn Moscow, starve baclc the invaders. 31. There's
no use 'in crying over spilt milk. 32. In proportion as men delight in
battles and bnll-fights, will they punish by hanging, burning, and the
rack.
DIRECTION.-Change these general terms to specific words, and
note the gain in energy :-

33. Anne Boleyn was executed. 34. IL were better for him that a heavy .
weight were .fastened to him, and that he were siibrnerged in the waste of
waters. 35. The capital of the chosen people was destroyed by a Roman
general. 36. Consider the flowers how they increase in size. 37. Cresar
was slain by the conspirators. 38. The cities of the plain were anni• hilated.
DIRECTION.-Arrange these words, phrases, and clauses in the
order of their strength, placing the strongest last, and note the gain
in energy:-

39. The nations of the earth repelled, surroundell, pursuell, and resisted him. 40. He was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor
even an emperor, but a prisoner and an exile. 41. I shall die an American; I live an American; I was born an American. 42. All that I am,
all that I hope to· be, and all that I have in this life, I am now ready
here to stake upon it. 43. I shall defend it without this House, in all
places, and within this House; at all times, in time of peace and in
time of war. 44. 'Ve must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to
preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the ·
struggle.

LESSON

CXXIX.

I<-~-

1' ,-

cooked long enough in the·sun. 3. kd,ay
coive ..when fmllets a~d
bornbs shall be replaced by ballots. 4.\ Cresar were no lion \vere not
' Romans hinds. 5. 'l'he soul of Jonathan was knit to that of I David.
· 6. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 7. He will bring down my
gray hairs with sorrow to the grave. 8. The pen is mightier than' the
sword. 9. The pew not unfrequently has got beyond the. teaching of
the pulpit. 10. 'l'he destinies of mankind were trembling in the bal,ance
'
'
while death fell in showers. 11. 0 Cassius, you are yoked . with~ la~b,
that carries anger as the flint bears fire. 12. The Morn in russet mantle
clad walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 13. The air bites
shrewdly. 14. H e doth bestride the nanow world like a Colossus. . 15.
My heart is in the coffin there with Cresar. 16. The gray-eyed · Morn
smiles on the frowning Night. 17. The good is often buried with men's
bone.<J. 18. Beware of the bottle. 1.9. All nations respect our flag.
20. I have no spu1· to prick the sides of my intent. 21. I am as constant as the northern star. 22. Then burst his mighty heart. 23.
1entul us returned with vict01·ious eagles. 24. Death hath sucked .the
honey of thy breath. 25. Our chains are forged. 26. I have bought
golden opinions. 27. His words fell softer than snows on the brine.
28. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund Day stands tipt9e on .
the misty mountain top.
'

\vm

DIRECTION.-In the first four sentences, use similes; in the
second four, m,etaphors; in the last four, m,etonym,ies :-

29. He flew with the swiftness of an arrow. 30. In battle i;ome men
are brave, others are cowardly. 31. His head is as full of plans as it cw~
hold. 32. I heard a loud noise. 33. Boi>ton is the place where American
liberty began. 34. Our dispositions should grow mild as ,we grow old.
85. The stars can no longer be seen. 36. In battle some men are brave
'
others are cowardly. 37. Can old age make folly venerable ~ · 38. I abjure all dwellings. 39. The water is boiling. · 40. Your·flashes of mer- ·
riment that were wont to set the banqueters on a roar.
'

FIGURES

OF SPEECH-CRITICISM.

DIJ.tECTION.-Name these figures of speech, and then recast each
sentence, using plain language, and note the loss of beauty and
force: -

1. Lend me your ears.

2. The robin knows when your grapes have

DIRECTION.-The parts of a figure should agree, and should unite
to form one whole. Correct these errors:-

'41. The devouring fire uprooted the stubble. ' 42. The brittle thread
I _.

'

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276

r · .' 1 277: .,
.....

. Versification. ' I

Supplementary and Review.

I~

•

of life may be cut nsnndcr. 43. A 11 the ripe fmit of three-score years
was blighted in a day. 44. Unravel t.lie obswrities '.>f this k11otty question. 45. We must apply the axe to the.fountain of this ev il. 46. The
man stalks into court like a motionless statue, with the cloak of hypocr isy in his moitth. · 47. 'rh e thin mantle of snow d·issofred. 48. The
chariot of day peers over the moun tain top.

\

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,· --

Ulustrated above·.

I

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J,.)

"":t7•

accented on the first syllable, .L v; an iambus . is a d1ssyllab1c•..foot. :·~ . 1
accented on the seconcl syllable, v . L ; a·'dactyl is a trisyll~biC fdot ·
accented on the first syllable, .L v v; an a~phibrach. is a trisyllii.bie r. '
foot accented on the second syllable, v .L v ; and an anaprest is u
trisyllabic foot accented on the third syllable, v ' v .L,
Scanning, or Scansion, is the reading of poetry so asto mark its
rhythm. Let us take a few verses in which these several feet are found. '
, and mark the lines for scanning.
·
I

DIREOTION.-Bring into the class examples of the various images

"

• l '

\

I

1

'

Lines with trochaic feet :·I

.L \

v

".

v

.L

I blushing I roses

We are

LESSON

u

.L'

'

CXXX.

.Lv

v

.L

.Lv

\ ,.

Bending I with our I fullness.
r·

VERSIFICATION.

.

Lines with iambic feet : -

Mission of Poetry.-In its purpose and in its effects, poetry is
closely akin to music and to painting. Like these it is addressed to
the feelings rather t.han to the in tellect, aims to please rather t han to
instruct. Poetry deals with the beautiful in the worlds of matter and
mind ; and everything in its choice of words and their arrangement, in
the imagery with which it abounds, and in the form into which it is
cast is in keeping with its spirit.

v

v

.L

Thy soul
v

''
v

.L

v.L

.L

Thou hadst

v

Names of Feet.-There are fiv e feet of which we need here to speak ·, · ·
-two dissyllabic and three trisyllabic. A trochee is a dissyllabic foot ·

,.

v

.L

.L

v.L

.L..

'

'

'

I :• •

v.L

I a voice I whose sound I was
like I the sea.
.
'

Lines with dactylic feet : .L

V

.L

V

vu

.L

.L

·v

v

I mournfully,
v

All that re

.;,.

~

~ , -~' ·"" .~

·v

. .:

I stains of her,

• i.

"

.. .,

j

'.

vv

.L

I mains of her

.Lvv

•;f .

.

I , ;' ' ;;

vv

..L..

.Lvv

I

I humanly;

Gently and
J..vv

I .'

-~

vv

.L...

.L

Not of the

Vu

I scornfully ;

Touch her not
Think of her

Form.-Of its form we may sn,y n, few worcls. Poetry is so written that in reading it aloud it permits and requires a strong impulse of
voice followed by a weak, or a weak impulse followed by a strong.
This arrangement of its words, requiring al termite stress and remission
in reading, constitutes the rhythm of poetry. For this compound
movement of t.he voice, two or t hree syllables are needed, and this
group of syllables is called a Coot. This stress, stroke, or strong im- , ,
pulse of the voice we call the rhythm-accent; and in English and :
other modern poetry this accent must never fall upon a syllable unac- ·
cented in prose, that is, in the dictionary.

v

.L..

I was like I a star I and dwelt I apart;

.L..Vv

Now is pure

I womanly.

Lines with amphibrachic feet:v.Lv

As if I
V

.L.V

v

I hacl
V

.L..

v

v

.L

lived it I or dreamed
..L...

\..J

As if T I had acted

V

I or

.L

v

it.

V

schemed it.

.
I

'

.L

Lines with anaprestic feet :vv.L

I will go
v

v

vv

I to

v

.L

I will paint
VV.L

I will sit

I me
VV

I on

vv.L

And reveal

.L

v

v

.L

my tent I and lie down
v

v

.L

v

.L

V

V

v

despair,

..L

with black I and will sev

v

I er

v

..L

v

my hair ;

.L.VV

I to

the god

VV.L

I of

the tem

v

I pest

v

v · · .L

.L

v

On thy cold
v

v

.L

v

\v

.L

.L ·

I gi"ay stones, I Q Sea I
v

v

.L

,.

v

.L

.

I that my tongue I could utter

And I would

.L

the shore I where the hur I ricane blows,

VV..L.

.L

I break, I break,

Break,

vu..e.

I in

279

Versification.

Supplementary and Review.

278

v

.L

The thoughts

v .

v

.L..

/

..L

I that arise I in me.

/

.L

my woes.

Poems illustrating th<> several Feet.-For t.rochaic verse, see
Poe's Raven, Longfellow's li?'awatha, Tenn yson's Locksley l:lall,
Burns's Bannockburn, Saxe's Rhyme of the Rail, Charles V.f csley's
Ghrist, the Refuge of the Smtl, and Whittier's Angels of Bnena Vista.
For iambic, look anywhere-it is by far the most abundant of all.
Paradise Lost, The Deserted Village, The Faerie Qiieene, Pope's Essay
on Man, etc., etc., and most lyric and pastoral poetry as well as epic
illustrate it.
Dactylic verse is rare.
Examples of it are Hood's Bridge oj
SighB, Tennyson's Charge of the Light Brigade, Heber's Ohristnuis
Hymn, and Longfellow's E vangeline.
Examples of amphibrachic verse are Moore's D ear Harp of My
001mtry and The Meetin.fJ of the 1Vcr,lers, Byron's Napoleon's Farewell,
Uurns's 1'Iy Nanie's Awa, and Woodworth's Old Oaken Bucket.
For Anaprestic verse, see Byron's D estrnction of Sennacharib, pas·
i;ages in Moore's Lalla Rookh, and the fndiai;'s Lament.
Substitution of Feet.-lt must not be supposed that all the feet of
a poem are necessarily of the same kind. The substitutions of other
feet for the prevailing foot arc very frequent. l\fost of the poems just
instanced as illustrating the several kinds of verse contain substituted
teet. It is sometimes difficult to tell what the prevailing rhythm was
meant to be.
Take this stanza from Tennyson :-

1

'

The first line is made up of three monosyllabic feet-a ·foot so rare that
we thought it scarcely worth describing above. The second line has.
one anaprest and two iambuses, the third two anaprests and one amphi:: brach, and the fourth has the feet of the second, but in another order.
Take this from Bryant :.L

V

VV.L

v

.L

V

.L

eyes ;

v.Lv

v

.L

.L

v

V.LV

v

v

.L

V

heavy

.L

I and gray,

V.L

V.L

I

v

.L .

V -

.L

.L

V

-1,

.'/

.L

I zen mist I the snow

.L

V

In waver I ing flakes

·. L v

I the wa I ter lies ;
v

.L

And out I of that fro
V

pray,

.L

V

I below ! thy gen I tle

And dark I and silent
v

VL

L

V

I hang over I it,

The clouds
V

L

V

On the lake
v

.L

V

I by my sid!3 I and turn, I I

Stand here

'I

I

I begins I to flow ';

)

'•

-' ·: '"·.
'

'

.L

.L

v

Flake I after
v

.L

vv.L

.L

/

I flake,

They sink I in the dark

V.L

.·.

V.L

I and si I lent lake,

The limit to this substitution seems to be this : .(1) two accented
syllables must not come together-though, as is seen in the first line
,from Tennyson an~ the seventh from Bryant, this rule is violated. by
monosyllabic feet ;-and (2) not more than two clearly prono_u nced unaccented feet must occur successively.
DIRECTION.-Find other easy selections for scanning, a.nd deter•
mine the prevailing foot and the substituted feet. See (4), (8), (1()). ·' (13), pp. 281-284.
' \'
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280

Supplementary and Review.

281

Additional SelectioQs for Analysis.

'

Meter.-Meter is the q uality of a poem determined by the number . ·'< -.
of feet in a line. The meter of a line consisting of two feet is called
di1neter; of one of t hree feet, tl'ime t c r; of four feet , tetrameter;
of five feet, p e ntamet.e r; of six fee t-rare in English,-hexameter.
.JJIRECTION.-Study the meter of the poetical selections on pages

280-283.

Rhyme.-Rhyme is th o accorda nce in so und of the final syllables of
lines. The rhymin g syllables mt;st not be cornplelefy identical in sound,
they need be identical onl y from (and in cluding) the accented vowel to
-the end. The rhymes sn aio a nd flaio above illustrate t his.
But rhyming is not easy in E nglish-so fe w words or endings of
words have the same sound . l\fuch of onr poetry is written without
rhyme. This is called Blank-Verse.
DIRECTIO N.-Point out the bla nk-ve?·se in pages 282- 285, and note
what are the rhyming iines, or coHple ts, in the remaining extracts of
the same pages.

ADDITIONAL SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS.

·-Whittier.' ·
4. Then to side with Truth is noble when we share her
wretched crust,
Ere her cause bring fam e and profit, and 't is prosperous
,
to be just;
Thea it is the .b rave man chooses, while the coward .
stands aside,
.; .
J!oubting in his abject spirit, ti.ll his Lord is
crucified. - Lowell.

'I

I

,/

' I

To the Teao/ter .-·S hould addit.i onal work be n eeded for reviews or fo r maturer
cla~se s, th e foll owin g 8 e l ec ti o n ~ will a fford profi tnhl e etndy. Let th e pnpil s tran slate
these pns~ ages Into their o wn la11g n•1g;!, nnd cii•cu ~~ the th ong ht a nd th e co n@tructlon.
We shonld not here advi se fnll form al a n a ly ~ c ~ , eit her orul or by di agram.
/

1. Speak clearly, if you speak at all ;
Carve every word before you let it fall.-I:folrnes.
2. The robin and the blue-bird, piping loud,
Filled all th e blossoming orchards with their glee;
The sparrows chirped as if they still were proud
· Their race in Holy Writ should mentioned be ;
And hungry crows, assembled in a crowd,
Clamored their pi teous prayer incessantly,
Knowing who hears the ravens cry, and said,
"Give us, 0 Lord, this clay our daily bread ! "-Longfellow.

I

3. Better to stem with hear~ and hand
The roaring tide of life t han lie,
rI
Unmindful, on its flowery strand,
Of God's occasions drifting by.
Better with naked nerve to bear
The needles of this goading f!.ir
'l'han, in the lap of sensual ease, forego
The godlike power to do, the godlike aim to know.

5. On this question of principle, _ }V~ile actual suffering was yet afar
.,ff, they [our fathers] raised their £).ag against a power to which, for purposes of foreign conquest and subjugation, Rome, in th.e height of h~ r
: . 1 · glory, is not to be compared-a power which has dotted, over the s~r­
face of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts ; ~hose
morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the
hours, circles the earth daily wit.h one continuous and. unbroken strain
of the martial airs of England.- Webster,
l· .

6. In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can .even imagine
that England may cast all thoughts of posses~ive wealth back to the
.barbaric nations among, whom they first arose ; and that, 'while the
i;ands of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the hom;ings of the charger and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as !I
I•

.

,

282

Supplementary and Review.

283 ,:

· Additional Selections· for Analysis..,

' I. ,

_ ...--t'l I ' .

1

Christian mother, may at last attain to the virtues anu the treasures of
a. Heathen one, and be aule to lead forth her Sons, saying,-" These
are my Jewels."-Ruskin.
7. Aml, when those who have rivaletl her [Athens's] greatness shall
have shared her fate; when civ ilizat ion arnl lrnowl mlge shall have fix ed
their abode in di stan t eo ntincnts ; wh en tltc scepter shall have passed
awny from England; when, prrhaps, travelers from <li st.ant regions
shall in vain labor to decipher on some mou ldering pedestal the na me
of our proud est chief, shall hear sa1·nge hymns chant.eel to some misshapen iuol over the ruin ed dome of onr prnn<lest temple, and shall see
asingle naked fi sherm a n wash hi s 11ets in th e river of the ten t hou sanc'
masts,-her infl11c11cc arnl her ~Jory will f'till survi ve, fresh in ctnrrml
youth, exempt from m11Labilit.y nn1 l <leeay. immortal ns t he intell ectual principle from which they tleri vetl their origin, and over which
they exercise their cont rol.-Jfocaulay.

8. To him who in the love of Nature holds
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks
A various language ; fo r his gnyer hours
She has a voice of glad ness and a smile
And eloquence of beauty, and she g lides
Into his darker musings with a, mild
And healing 8ympathy, that steals away
Their shnrpn ess ern he is aware. Wh en thoughts
Of the last, bitter hour come lik e a blight
Over thy spirit, and sad images
Of the st ern agony and shroud and pall
And breathless darkness nml the narrow house
Make thee to shudd er and grow sick at heart,Go forth under the open sky, and list
To Nature's teachings, while from all around-Earth and her waters and the depths of airComes a still voice.-Bryant.

'.

9. Pleasant it was, when woods were green,
And "'.inds were soft antl'.low,, '
To He am.id some sylvan scene,
Where, the long drooping boughs between,
Shadows dark and sunlight sheen
Alternate come and go ;
Or where the denser grove receives
No sunlight'from above,
But the dark foliage interweaves
In one unbroken roof of leaves, ·
. 'I
Underneath whose sloping eaves
The shadows hardly move.-Longfellow.

''
\

'

I

/

,

l_O. That orbed maiden with white fire laden,
"'horn mortals call the moon,
'
Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor,
By the midnight breezes strewn ; .
And wherever the beat of her unseen f~et,
Which only the angels hear,
May have broken the woof
II!Y tent's thin roof,
The sta1·s peep behind her and peer ;
And I laugh to see them whirl and flee
Like a swarm of golden bees,
When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent,
Till the calm river, lakes, and seas,
Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high,
Are each paved with the moon and these.

'•

.

ot

·-'

.'

-ShUley.-The Cloud
'
•'

11.

.

\

Stranger; these gloomy boughs
Had charms for him ; and here he loved to ~it, ·
His only visitants a straggling sheep,
I

•

\

· I

''

,. .

\'

. I
,. .

Supplementary and Revievv.

284

Additional Selections . for

An~lysis. ~ ·-<::··_{- 2~~~ >.
.--

The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper ;
And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath
And juniper an<l thistle sprinkled o'er,
Fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour
A morbid pleasure nourishe<l, tracing here
An emblem of his own unfruitful life;
And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze
On the more di:;tant scene-how lovely 't is
Thou seest,-and he would gaze till it hecame
Far lo..velier, and his heart could not sustain
The beauty, still more beauteous. - Wordsworth.

,

I

.

'

-" ,

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I

•.

I

•

'

I .... ;~ {"

.. ,
,

l ,'

'I

. ' .. <!. j

)~'.

,, '-·

;..:.. !

14. But, when the next sun· bra,ke frdm ~ndergrotfnd,!~', " : ~ ;, ·~·:
Then, those two brethl'en slowly with bent brows .
'. '
, ,
Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier
Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone
v' '~· .
Full-summer, to that stream whereon- the barge,
Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay.
There sat the life-long creature of the house,
Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck,
r'. r
'
.. \~ ... . ..
Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face.
So those two brethren from the chariot took '
'
~"
And on the black decks laid her in her lied,
. ,.
I
,.
Set in her hand a lily, o'er her hung·
( I ·~">\I.
' ~r \ .~ ~
The silken case with braided blazonings,
' :
And kiss'd her quiet brows, and, saying to her,
'
"Sister, farewell forever," a~d again,
"Farewell, sweet sister," parted all in tears.-Tennyson.

H

I

'

'

'

'

....~~

I

I

'

12. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord,
Is the immediate jewel of their souls.
Who steals my purse steals trash ; 't is something, nothing ;
'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands :
But he that filches from me my good name
Robs me of that which not enriches him,
And makes me poor imleed.-Shakespeare.

13. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang,
\
And through the dark arch a charger sprang,
Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knight,
In his gilded mail, that flamed so bright
It seemed the dark castle had gathered all
Those shafts the fi erce sun had shot over its wall
In his siege of three hm1<lred summers long,
And, bin<ling them all in one blazing sheaf,
Had cast them forth ; so, young and strong,
And lightsome as a locust leaf,
Sir Launfal fhished forth in his unscarred mail
'l'o seek in all climes for the Holy Grail.-Lowell.

•

.

•A'

,/'

15. When I consider how my light is spent
Ere half my days, in this dark _wQrld and wide,,
And that one talent, which is death to hide,
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present '
My true account, lest he, returning, chide," Doth God exact day-labor, light denied ? "
I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent
That murmur, soon replies, " God doth not need
Either man's work or his own' gifts ; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best : his state
Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed,
And post o'er land and ocean without rest ;
They also serve who only stand and wait."

.

.. '
'

.

,..,,.

.~

.;

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. ..~ 1 •
~

~

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·'
•

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-Milton.-Sonnet on his Blindness.
. J•

,- .. 28 '

Supplementary and Review.

Letter-Writing Reviewed and Contihued.

LETTER-WRITING REVIEWED AND CONTINUED.

of business or residence of the on(!, to whom the letter is ·written
'
I
Titles of respect and courtesy should · appear in the Address. Preti:
Mr. to a man's name ; Messrs. to the names of several gentlemen
Maste1· to the name of a lad ; Miss to the name of a young lady ; Mrs
to the name of a married lady ; J1fisses to the names of several yonn1
ladies ; and ~Mesdames to the names of several married or elder!~
'ladies. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician, or write 1lI. D. after hi ~
name. Prefix Rev. (or The Rev.) to the name 'of a clergyman, or Thi
Rev. Mr. if you do not know his Christian name ; The- Rev. D1·. if ht
is a Doctor of Divinity, or write The Rev. before the name and D.D.
after it. Prefix His Excellency* to the name of a Governor or ol
an Ambassador; Hon. (or The Hon.) to the name of a Cabinet Officer,
a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor.
Esq. is added to the name of a lawyer, and sometimes to the nameE
of other prominent persons. If two literary or professional titles arc
added to a name, let them stand in the order in which they were conferred-this is the order of a few common ones: A.M., Ph.D., D.D.,
LL.D. t Guard against an excessive use of titles-the hight'lr implies
the lower. Do not use two titles of the same meaning. A void such
combinations as the following : JJfr. Dr. Brown; Dr. Brown, M.D. ;
Mr. Brown, M. I>.; ..llfr. Brown, --A.M;; Dr. Brown, · Ph.D.,· Mr.
B1·own, Esq. Such as the following, however, are allowecl : JJfrs. Dr.
Brown; Mrs. General Scott.

286

In writing a letter there are seven things to consider-the '..
Heading, the Add1·ess, the Salutation, the Body, the
C01nplimentary Close, the Signatu1·e, and the Supm··
scription.
The Heading.

Parts.-'l'he Heading consists of the name of the place at which
the letter is written, and the elate. If yon write from a city, give
the door-number, the 1rnme of the street, the nnme of the city, and the
name of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school or any other
well-known insLit11tio11, its 1mme mny take the place of the doornumber and the name of the street, as may also the number of your
post-office box . If you write from a village or other cotlntry place,
give your post-office address, the nam e of the county, and that of the
state. This part of the Heading shoulU show your correspondent
where to send his reply. If you wish the reply sent elsewhere, give full
directions after the signature.
The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
How Written.-Begin the Heading an inch or more from the top of ,· .
the page. If the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page, you ·
may begin the Heading lower down. Begin the first line of the Head- .
ing a little to the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more · ..· ,
than one line the second line should begin farther to the right than '
'
I .
the first, and the third farther to the right than the second. The place
and date are sometimes put below the signature, at the left of the
~
page.
The door-number, the day of the month, and the year are written in , <1
figures ; the rest, in words. Each important word begins with a capital .· · .
letter, each item is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a .:1:"'~
period.
The Address.

Parts.-The Address consists of the name, the title, and

1

How Written.-In a business letter the Address should follow the
Heading, beginning on the next line, or the next bu t one, and stand0
ing on the left side of the page. In a familiar letter the Address is
generally placed at the end, on the left side of the page, beginn~ng on
the next line below the signature. There should always be a narrow
margin on the ieft-hand side of the page, and the Ad~ress should

* Jli,s Excellency was formerly used in addreseing the President ; but the preferred
form is, To the President, .Executive Mansion, Washzngton, D. C.; the Salutation is
simply, Mr. President.
- 1' See List or Abbreviations, p . 319.
I.

288

Letter-Writing Reviewed and Continued.

Supplementary and Review.

-:

289
j
I . -;· ~.

8cUutation) is long-in : ~hich case the ·comma after th~ Salutation
'
. ), · ~hould be followed by a dash ;~on the lin~ below, if the I~trodl,lction
· is short.
,
·
\
,.
!
1

always begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more
than one line, the initial words of these lines shouhl slope to the
right, as in the Heading.
Every important word in the Address should begin with a capita\
letter ; all the items of it should be set off by the comma ; and, as ~t
is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period.
The Salutation.

Forms.-Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or
the writer's degree of intimacy with him ; as, Sir, Reverend Sir, Rev.
and dear Sir, General, Jlfadam, 11Iiss Brown,* Dear Sir, Dea l' llfadam,
Deai· Miss Brown, Dear Fl'iend, Friend Brown, Friend Jmnes, Dear
Cousin, llfy dear Sir, llfy deai· Nadam , .My clear llfiss Brown, llfy
dear Friend, My dear Jones, J1fy dear lVife, Jfy dear Boy, Dearest
Ellen, etc.
How Written.-Begin the Salutation on the maTginal line or a.
little to the right of it when the Address occupies three lines ; on ,the
marginal line, or a little farther to the right than the first line, or a
little farther than the second line, of the Address when this occupies
two lines ; a little to the right of the marginal line when the Address .
· occupies one line ; on the mttrgirml line when the Address stand!!
below.
The first word and evBry noun in the Salutation should begin with a
capital letter, and the whole should _be followed by a comma, or by a
comma and a <la-sh.
The Body of the Letter.

The Beginning.-Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the
Salutation, and on the same line, if the Introduction (= address and

* jlfUJs is not used alone as a Salutation . In addressing a young unmarried lady
the near repetition of jlfiss is generally avoided by omitting the Salutation and ueing
the Address alone, or by placing the Address at the end of t.he letter. We can see
no good reason for restricting Jlfadam or Dear Madam to married and elderly ladieB.

~

Style.-Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other ,kinds
of writing. Spell correctly, write legibly and wit.h care. Avoid blots,
\ erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other offenses against
·I/. . •epistolary propriety. 'rhe letter "bespeaks the man." Letters of
,,\ friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. Whatever is
~...,..
•,).•. interesting to you will be interesting toy.our friends, however trivial it
'i,i::i. may seem to a stranger. If addressing one of your family, write just
"1'/' '1'
as you feel, only feel right.
, Business letters should be short, and to the point. Repeat nothing,
and omit nothing needftil.
Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and ceremonious. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the
first and the second. No Heading, Address, or Salutation is placed at
the beginning, and no Coinplimentary Close or Signature at the end.
'l'he name of the place and the date, when given, are written at the
bottom, thus :...,..-

1

Mr. and Mrs. A request the pleasure of Mr. B's company at a social
gathering, on Tuesday evening, November fifteenth, at eight o'clock.
32 Fifth Ave.
; ·- - '
Mr. B accepts with pleasure [or declines with sincere regret*] Mr:
and Mrs. A's kind invitation [or the polite invitation of Mr. and Mrs:
A] for Tuesday evening, November fifteenth.
·
10 Astor Place, Nov. 6th.
• I
I ,

The Compllmentary Close and the Slgn,ature. -

Forms.-The forms of the Complimentary Close are inany, and ar~

* Or regrets that a previous engagement (or illness, or an unfortunate event) prevents the acceptance of - - ; or regrets that 011 account of - - - he is unable .to
accept--.
13

.\

'

I-

290

Supplementary and Revie'\V,

291

Letter-Writing Reviewed and Continued.

'I

determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In
' letters of friendship you may use, Your sincere friend; Yours a.tfectionately; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business leLters you
may use, Yo1trs; Yours truly; Tr1tly yours; Y01trs respectfully; Very
res~ectfully yonrs, etc. In olllcial letters yon should be more deferential. Use, I have the honor tu be, Sir, your obedient servant; Vl'ry
9·espectfnlly, yom· most obedient servant, etc ..Among other forrns arA, - · ,

lines.· These lines should slope to the right•as in the Heading and the
Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last
· line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the
name and the title should stand. If the one ·addressed is in a city,
the door-n11111l1er and name of tho street shoulJ be on the second line,
the name of tho city on t ho third , and tho name of the sta te on tho
fourth . If he is in the conntr~', the name of the post-oilice should be
on the secon d line, the name of the county on the third, the name of
the state on t.ho fourth. The nnm her of the post-office box may take ,
the place of the door-nurn ber and the 1iarne of the street, or, to avoid
crowding, the number of the post-ofTice box or the name of the county
may stand at the lower lcft-hanJ corner. The titles following the
name shoul<l he separated from it and from each other by the comma,
and every line shon ld end with a comma, exeept the last, whieh should
be followed by a perio<L 'J'he lines should be straight, and every part
of the Buperscription shouid be legible. Place the stamp at the upper
right-hand COl'IHH'.

very tr?.tly yoitrs; Believe me si:ncerely yours; I arn, dear sir, yours
most respecffnlly; I ami very sincerely yow· fn:end; ilaithfully yours;
Cordially 11ours; Yours very cord1:ally; N~ost respectfitlly yaws; I rernm:n very trnl1111ow· friend : Sincerely and _qratefitlly yow·s ; I remain
yom·s fnithfully; Yonrs, as eL'cr : Ymir afl'Pr/ innaf!~ fri1'wl; With
kindest rl'{lrt-rds, m1er affectionately--. Do not write, Yuitrs, etc.
The Signature consists of your Christi[tn name anJ yonr surname.
Tn addn~~sing a stranger write your Christian name in foll. A Indy
addressing a stranger should prefix, to her signaLure, bet· l.iL!c, J1Irs. or
1'f1:s.s (placing it within marks of parenthesis if preforreLl), u11lcss in the
l etter she has innieaterl whirh of thr<:e titles her cmTespon1lent is Lo
· '-

use i~1 reply.

How Written.-'l'he ComplimenLnry Close shoukl begin near the
midtlle of the first line below the I3otly of the Letter ; antl, if occupying
two or more lines, shoultl slope to the right like the lleatling and the
.Address. Reg in ench line of it with a capital letter, punctnate as in
other writing, antl separ'lt.c it from the signature by the comma. The
Signature should be very plain arnl should be followed by the period.
>.
\
,,.,. ,

\
__

,

The Superscription.

'

.

\

.,
'

Parts.-The Superscription is what is written on the outside of th~ .~:
envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the name, the '
title, and the full directions of the one addressed.
How Written.-The Superscription should begin near the
of the left side of the envelope and should occupy three or

I

·.

,,. .
~

/.

,.. :. .,;3
.

···:'.
...

'

\

·~ ~

,..

~~"'?;

·-,r;::

;

I
292

· Supplementary and Review.

List of -Connectives.

LIST OF

' I I

I

I

•'lt91I

.'1t':,;., >·\> .. J'~

.

, - ---·. 293 '!:;": : )"
'
'
,. ~,.
1
" ,

'
'
CONNECTIVES.

\ •.

' , {f
""'
'i.' ·!.·

• '

~°" 3:°1;

"\ .... \ .d>A~l-~:\
"!:;';;
,

'I,

I

. •. \ :· :,ll:· .

Remark.-Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper.; · · · ( ' ,. J ~ ~ 'J.
some nre relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases,
· ··r:.~
which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of
the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the
clauses.
1

/

CO-ORDINATE

•

CONNECTIVES.

Copnlat-ive.-And, both . . . and, as well as,* are conjunctions
proper. Acco1·dingly, also, besides, consequently, f1wthermore, hence,
likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs.
Adversative.-But and whereas are conjunctions proper. However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand,
still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs.
Alternativc.-Neither, nor, or, either . . . or, and neither . . .
nor are conjnnctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive ·
I
adverbs.
Remark.-Baling, concerning, during, e.xcepling, notwithstanding,
pending, regarding, respectin.q, saving, and touching arc participles in form, and sometimes arc such in use. BuL in most cases
the participial meaning hns fad ed out of them, and th ey
relations.
Bui, except, and save, in such a sentence as, " All but or excepi
save Jn:m were lost," are usually clu::;::;ed wiLh prepositions.

SUBORDINATE

CONNECTIVES.

Connectives of Adjective Clauses.

. That, wlwt, whatever, which, whichever, who, a11d whoever are rcla, tive pronouns. lVhen, where, wltereby, where·in, and why are conjunc~
· tive ad verbs.
Connectives of Adverb Clauses.

\~

•

The phrnses aboa.rd of, accordin,q lo, along with, as lo, b1;cuuse of (by
cause of), from among, from betwc1m, from under, etc., instead of (in ~·
stead of), out of, over a.gainst, nnd round abont may be called compound ,.
prepositions. But from in such compounds as, "He crawled from .
under the ruins," really introduces a phrase, the principal term ,of
which is the phrase that follows from.

I

Time.-After, a.s, before, ere, since, till, 1mtil, when, whenever, while,
,/ and whilst are conjunctive adverbs . .
I•

Place.- Whence, where, and wherever are con junctive adverbs.
1
., ·
;,_, I

* The as

arh."

well as In "He, as well as I, went" ; and not that in "He is as well as

'

·

:

.··~
....
,.r "r
~

,

.• ' .

.

~.

i

Supplementary and Review.

·t'

I

/

,1

.I
/'
I·.
1, .

' •,'

Declension.

Degree.-As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative
with adjectives or adverbs.
Manner. - As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an
adjective or an adverb.
Real Canse.-As, becanse, for, since, n,ncl whereas n,re conjunctions
proper.
, Reaspn.- Becanse, for, n,nd since are conjunctions proper.

DECLENSION

'

P~ONOUNS.

\•

'

Personal Pronouns.
FIRST PERSON.

Singular. Plnral.

Purpose. - In order that, lest(= that not), that, and so that are conjunctions proper.
Condition. - Except, if, in ca.se that, on condition that, provide~,
provided that, and unles.s are conjunct.ions proper.

Nom. I
'
Pos. my or
mine,*
Obj. me;

SECOND PERSON-

SECOND PERSON-

common form.

old form.

Singular.

we
our or
ours,
us.

you,
your or
yours,
you;

Plural.

Singnlar.
thou,
thy or
thine,
thee;

yon,
your or
yours,
you.

,

Plnral.
ye or you ·
your or
yours,
JOU.

,_

Conce.ssion.-Althotlgh, ·~f (=even if), notwithstanding, though, and
whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb.
Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used imlefi.nitely.

· THIRD PERSON-Mas.
1

Singular. Plnral.

THIRD PERSON-Fem.

Singular. Plnral.

THIRD

PERSON-Neut.

Nom. he,

If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. 1Vhat, which, .'
and who are pronouns introducing questions ; how, when,
where, and why are conjunctive n,d verbs.

Singular. Plnral.

Pos.

his,

Obj.

him;

she,
h'er or
hers,
her;

they,
their or
theirs,
them.

it,

they,
their or
theirs,
them.

its,
it ;

)

they,
their or
theirs, ·
them.

. ~~;~
.' ~
.~

.:t:±~
~- . ..~7~
~.l

t-

- J-"<.

. :..;.,. ~ .,
·--~::r\· ~~

* .T he forms mine, eurs, yours, thine, lie1·s, and lhei1·s are used only when the name /,.A';· ,
of the thing possessed is omitted ; as, "Yours Is old, mine is new" = " You1; book i~
/ ., /

DECLENSION.

DEFINITION.-Declension is the arrangement of the cases of ;.
nouns and pronouns in the two numbers.

,t •.

.·

~ ~~-~- ~

•\
;-·'

:

.

I

Connectives of Noun Clauses.

,,

OF

295

DECLENSION

I

LADY.

Singula1·. Plnral.
ladies,
Nom. lady,
ladies',
Pos. lady's,
ladies.
Obj. lady;

OF

NOUNS.

llOY.

Singnlar. Plural.
boys,
boy,
boys',
boy's,
boys.
boy;

MAN.

Sing1llar. Plnral.
men,
man,
men's,
man's,
men.
man;

..

~~~·~'detc~s,

1::i:: ::'::i:~:i::~:~:~.~erly

used before words beginning with a vowel

The expression a friend of mine presents n peculiar construction. The explanation
generally given is, that of is partitive, and the expression equivalent to one friend of
my.friends. And it ls claimed that this construction can be used only when more
t.han one thing is possessed. But such expressions as this heart of mine, that temper
qfyours are good, idiomatic English. This sweet wee 'wife of mine.- Burns. This
naughty world of our11.-Byron. This moral life ofmine.-"-Sher. Knowles. Dim are
those heads of theirs.- Carlyle. Some !!tuggest that the word possessing or owning is
understood after the~e possessive~ ; ns, this temper of yours (your possessing) ;
others say that of simply marks identity ; as in citv of New York, making the expre&
<,;; . ' sion =this temper, you1· temper.

. , '.:~

/· ' .',·,
-.. ,

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2·.'

296
• • ~"'1

.

/
/·

List of Irregulat Verbs.

'

.. ....

~

'

Supplementary and Revievv.

C ompound Personal Pronouns .

1

'

Adjective Pronourys. ' ':
..

,Singular.

Plural.

Singular.

Plural.

Singular.

Plural.

.Nom. and
Obj.

Nom. a11d

1Vom. and
Ob,j.

1Vom. and
Obj.

Nom. and
Obj.

Norn .and
Obj.

04j.

myself or }
ourselves.
-ourse lf ;

thyself or}
yourself ; yourselves.

him self ; \ themherself ;
't If
selves.
1 se ;

.·

~ ,_r} .. {~~·~:ff~

1

" ~« , "'> , f;·;-'<';.t

'. • ._ .. .

r

"'~ r

This and that with their plurals,\ tliese and those, ·have no t'"'
' . ;.... · ~
possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the
..-r:
Dbjective.
One and other are declined like nouns ; and · ' · ;:~
another, declined like other in the singular, has no plural.
~I ~
Each, e£tlier, and neither are· always singular;* both is al- . ";--~
-·~
ways plural; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, somt;, , "+~1~
and sitch are either singular or plural.
.
,;:...-'Jl
Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are · '. :"~
not declined. Such expressions as "the wretched's only
plea" and "the wicked's den" are (lxceptional.
".\Gii

I.

Remark.- The possessive of these pronouns is wanting.
Ourself and we are used by rulers, editors, nnd others, insteaP, of singular pronouns, to hide th eir individuality, and give authority to what
they say.
Relative Pronouns.

Sing. and Plu.
Noni. who,
Po.~.
whose,
Obf. whom.

Sing. and Plu.
which,
whose,
which.

Sing. and Plu. Sing. and Plu;
that,
what,

-that.

'

--

'
what.

Remark.-Instead of using whose as the possessive of which, some
prefer the phrase of which.
Interrogative Pronouns.

The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what are de- '_
clined like the relatives who, which, and what.
i

Compound Relative Pronouns.

Singular
1Yoni.
Pos.
Obf.

and Plural.
whoever,
whosever,
whomever.

Singular and Plural.
whosoever,
whosesoever,
whomsoever.

Whichever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever do not
change their form.

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.

Remark.-The forms below in Italics are regular; and those
· .1
'
smaller type are obsolete.

Present.
Abide,

Past.
abode,
awoke,
Awake,
awaked,
Be or am, was,
bore, 1
Bear,
(bring fortfi) bare,
bore,
Bear,
bare,
(carry)
beat,
Beat,
began,
Begin,
b'ent,
Bend,
bended,
bereft,
Bereave, bereaved,

Present.

Past Par.
abode.

Beseech,

awaked.

Bet,

been.
born,
borne.
borne.

Bid,
Bind,
Bite,
Bleed,

beaten.
begun.
bent.

Blend,

bended.
bereft.
berem•ed.

Blow,
Break,

'

betted,
bade, bid,
bou.nd,
bit,
bled,
blent,
blended,
bl est,
blessed,
blew,
broke,
brake,

Bless,

Rast Rar. ··"'"'"';
·l ·

.

.

- .' (

.'"·" ~

betted.'
, . -: "°~
bidden, bid; ",/:.::'-~
.
" W
bound.
' · i-" .'~
bitten, bit.
' · ..,'·'~
bled. ·
blent.
blended.
bl est .
blessed.
blown.
broken.

*Grammarians have taught that each other, either, and neither should always refer
to two things, arid one arwther to more than two; but good writers do not regard this
restriction.
I
r
,, '
13*
. 1·.

I

Past.

besought, besoug)1t; · · • -=
bet,
bet.
, ... ,,

.
,

I

·'-

·'·..:
' . 'j
.~;,~
I ';

'i:

,.·,,. '

29~

Supplementary and Revte-w.

Burst,
Buy,
Can,
Cast,
Catch,
Chide,

ch id,

Bree~

Bring,
Build,
Burn,

· Choose,
Cleave,
(adhere)

Cleave,
(split)

chose,
cleaved,

Past Par.
bred.
brought.
built.
builded.
burnt.
bttrned.
burst.
bought.

--.

cast.
caught.
chidden,
ch id.
chosen.
cleaved,

clave,

clove,
cleft,

cloven,
cleft.

clave,

clung,
clad,
Clothe,
clothed,
(Be) Come, came,
Cost,
cost,
Creep,
crept,
crew,
Crow,
crowed,
cut,
Cut,
durst,
Dare,
(venture)
dared,
ciealt,
Deal,
dug,
Dig,
digged,
Do,
did,
Draw,
drew,
dreamt,
Dream,
dreamed,
Cling,

I

clung.
clad.
clothed.
come.
cost.
crept.

crowed.
cut.

da.red.
dealt.
dug.
digged.
done.
drawn.
dreamt.
dreamed.

Present.

Past.
drest,
Dress,
dressed,
Drink,
tlrank,
Drive,
drove,
dwelt,
Dwell,
dwelled,
Eat,
ate,
(Be) Fall, fell,
Feed,
fed,
Feel,
felt,
Fight,
fought,
Find,
found,
Flee,
fled,
flung,
Fling,
flew,
Fly,
Forsake, forsook,
Forbear, Iorbore,
Freeze,
froze,
(For) Get, got,
gilt,
gilded,
girt,
Gird,
girded,
(For) Give, gave,
went,
Go,
Gild,

(En)Grave, graved,
Grind,
Grow,
Hang,
Have,
Hear,
Heave,

ground,
grew,
hung,
hanged,
had,
heard,
hove,
heaved,

Past Par.
drest.
dressed.
drunk.
driven.
dwelt.
dwelled.
eaten.
fallen.
fed. ,
:felt.
fought.
foun<l.
fled.
flung.
flown.
forsaken.
forborne.
frozen.
got,
gotten.*
gilt.
gilded,
girt.
gfrded.
given.
gone.
graved.
graven.
ground,
grown.
hung.
hanged.f
had.
heard.
hove.t
heaved.

Present.
Hew,

Pastt
hewed,

hid,
Hide,
hit,
Hit,
(Be) Hold, held,
Hurt,
Keep,
'Kneel,
Knit,
Know, '
Lade,

hurt,
.kept,
knelt,
knee led,
knit,
knitted,
knew,
laded,

(load)

Lay,
Lead,
Lean,
Leap,
Learn,
Leave,
Lend,
Let,
Lie,
(recline}
Light,
Lose,
Make,
May,
Mean,
Meet,

...

•Gotten is obsolescent except in fm·gotten, t Hanq, to execute by hanging, is regulag _} ·
i Hove is used in sea language.

Mow,
Must,
~

laid,
led,
leant, .
leaned,
leapt,
leaped,
learnt,
learned,
left,
lent,
let,
lay,

lit.,
lighted,
lost,
made,
might,
meant,
met,
mowed,

Past Par.
hewed.
hewn.
hidden, hid.
hit.
held,
holden.

hurt.
kept.
knelt.
kneeled.
knit.
knitted.
known.
laded.
laden.
laid.
led.
leant.
leaned.
leapt.
leaped.
learnt.
learned.
left.
lent.
let.
lain.
lit.*
lighted.
lost.
made.

-meant.
met.
mowed.
mown.

--

Present.
Ought,\
Pay,
Pen,

Past.

(A)Rise,

paid,
pent,
penned,
put,
quit,
quitted,
quoth,
rapt,
rapped,
read,
rent,
rid,
rode,
rang
(or rung),
roae,

Rive,

rived,

(enclose)

Put,
Quit,

Rap,
Read,
Rend,
Rid,
Ride,
Ring,

Run,

ran,

Saw,

sawed,

Say,
See,
Seek,\

said,
saw,
sought,
seethed,

Seethe,

sod,

Sell,
Send,
(Be)Set,
Shake,
Shall,
Shape,

sold,
sent,
set,
shook,
'should,
shaped,

Shave,

shaved,

Shear,

sheared,
shore,

--.~ .'l1

~-r ''.- :>~~~~

.

.

Past.
bred,
brought,
built,
builded,
burnt,
burned,
burst,
bought,
could,
cast,
caught,

Present.

"

299

List of Irregular Verbs.

.:

Past Par , ' · t.¢":·-;..-- :· ~

--.·

~~~·.;~~~ -~:- - ~

..

paid.
pent.
penned.
put.
quit.
quitted.

..

... : /;~

• I

..

I\ : ·:
;, •·r'

;

--.

1:~,. _:.'~

rapt.
rapped.
read.
rent.
rid.
ridden.

I

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;~- ~~ ~

I 1~ ,"(.

~1;:;{!

' -(~
..
'
...."'t":',;:
I'

.. , ... ,

') "

.

rung.
risen.
riven.
rived.
run.
sawed.
sawn.
said.
seen .
sought.
seethed.
sodden.
sold.
sent.
set.
shaken.

·.

'-'·.~'.1

; -,;,

.~

~~\_:~~~
· ~ ?3

.··:: -1,:;
.

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.., . ;:'~
~

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-f ·~:l;~
':. ;.1,:.. ~.'

T / ' · ~:~

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\ ''

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f .,..-;

II· •

, ..,

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- -·

.<-.? .. ·~
.~••

shaped.

'. ..t
•~ I

·~;, ~,

shapen.

' < •.

shaved.

' .

·''t

_,)'lo "

shaven,

,. "

.

, . ' .."·'
·t

sheared.
shorn.

~

... '!

\•[
t

.~

; . ~".

..

- ..

* Lighted is preferred to lit.

:.~~. :.:
•'

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/:.

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-

'

-~, · ::;SJ

301

Conjugation.

Supplementary and Revievv.

300

''

'~

• "'

\

,

Present.
Sbe<l,
Shine,
Shoe,
Shoot,
Show,
Shre<l,
Shrink,
,\

Shut,
Sing,
Sink,
,. '·

Sit,
Slay,
Sleep,

,,.

Slide,
Sling,
Slink,

Slit,
•.

1,

Smell,

I'' '

Smite,
:,
I

'

""T°

I•

•I ,

t,

-~~ :-

Strew,

.strewed,

8lang,

Stride,

stroue,

slunk,
sli t,
slitted,
smelt,
sm elled,
smote,
sowed,

Speak,

spoke,

Speed,

sped,
spelt,
spelled,
spent,
spilt,
spilled,

l

·s pend,

I

I

;

I'

Spill,

Past.
spun,

Spit,
Split,
Spoil,
Sprett<1,
Spring,
Stand,
Stave,
Stay,
Steal,
Stick,
Stin g,
Sti nk,

spit, ,

spit,

spat,

spitten .

split,
split.
spoilt.
spoilt,
8poiled.
spoiled,
spread.
spread,
sprang
(or sprung), sprung.
stood,
stood.
stove,
stove.
staved.
slaved,
staid,
staid.
stayed.
stayed,
stolen.
stole,
stuck.
stuck,
stung.
stun g,
stunk,
sLunk.
stank,

Strike,

stru ck,

String,
Strive,

strung,
strove,

Strow,

st rowed,

Fm it.

Swear,

swore,

sown.
soiced.
spoken.
spe<l.
spelt.
spelled.
spent.
:spilt.
spilled.

Past Par.
spun.

Ppan,

sl1111k.
sli t.
slitted.
smelt .
smelled.
smi tten,

s pake,

I

·.

Spell,
i

Present.
Spin,

Sow,

, 1

'.·• ,,,

Past Par.
sh eel.
shone.
shined.
shod.
shot..
show11.
.~howed,
showed.
shred.
shre<l,
shrank
shrunk,
(or shrunk), shrunken.
shut,
shut.
sang
(or sung), sung.
san~
sunk ,
(or sunk), sunke n.
sat.
sat,
slain.
slew,
slept.
slept,
sl id<len,
slid,
slid.
slun g.
slu11g,
Past.
shed,
shone,
shined,
shod,
shot,

strewn.
strewed.
stri<luen.
struck,
stricken.
stru ng.
striven.
strown.
strawed.
sworn.

S\Vare,

Sweep,

sweat,
su•eated,
swept,

Swell,

swelled,

Sweat,

Swim,
Swing,
Take,

Past.
taught,
tore.

Past Par. ,
taught. ,
torn.

Throw,
Thrust,

told,
thought,
throve,
thrived,
threw,
thrust,

Tread,

trod,

Wake,

imked,

told.
thought.
th riven.
llw'ived. ·
thrown.
thrust. trodden,·
trod.
waked.

Preaent.
·,Teach,
· Tear,
Tell,
Think,
Thrive,

tare.

woke,

waxed,

Wax,

waxen.
waxed.

Ite~nt• .

Wear,
Weave,
Weep,
Wet,
Will,
Win,
Wind,
Work,
(To)Wit,
wot,

Past.
wore,
wove,
wept,
wet,
wetted,
would,
won,
wound,
wrought, :
worked,
wist,

wrung,
wrote,

Wring,
Write,

Past Par.-,
worp..
woven.
wept.
wet.
wetted.--:-

·'

.

'

·r

·"...

....

\

\

''

.--·
won.

'. '

'"
'

wound.
:w rought.
worked.

'

-.
wrung.
written,

,.

CONJUGATION-SIMPLEST FORM.
' ~.

Remark.-English verbs have few inflect ions compared with those of ' .. _
other languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms-se'e, saw, , :.;j
seeing, seen, sees, seest, sawest; regular verbs have six-walk, ' ·:..:·
walked, walking, walks, walkest, walkedst. As a substitute : ,. -;:
for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are
called compound, or periphrastic, forms.
.
~'

.

CONJUGATION

\

OF THE VERB SEB.
I'

Pres.

seen. ,

saw,

Principal Parts.-See,

sweat.
sweated.
swept.
swelled.
swollen.

P&st P&r.

P&st.

.'

/ ·' ':,. . .,

Indicative Mode.

Plural.
1. We see,

Singular.
1. I see,
~You see or

swam
(or swum), swum.
swun g,
swung.
took,
taken.

.

I ~ ~

1, · '

~

.'

2. You see,

2 • ( Thou seest;
8. I He sees;

I,

I

8.. They see.

\

./

-- ..
,·', . '
_,

· J
< • --:-• •

.~ ' I

.

'~

.!

·,.
Conjugation. -

Supplementary and Review.

302

Emphatic Form.-I do see, You do see or Thon dost see, He doet .
see ; We do see, You do see, They do see.
Past Tense.

I

I
i
I

/,

I

'

1. We saw,

1. I saw,
{You saw or
2.
Thou sawest,
8. He saw;

2. You saw,
3. They saw.

Emphatic Form.-I did see, You did see or Thou didst see, He did
see; We did see, You did see, They did see.
Future Tense.

1.

2.

8.

I shall see,
{ You will see or

1. \Ve shall see,

Thou wilt see,
He will see;

3. They will see.

Plural.
1. \Ve have seen,

Singular.
I have seen,

{You have seen or
Thou hast seen,
8. He has seen;

2.

Present Tense.

1 had seen,

3. They have seen.

\

2. you may see,
3. They may see.

,.

I

I

Past Tense.

1.

I might see,

'

1. We might see,

\ 2. { You might see or
Thou mightst sefl,
3. He might see ;

2. You might see,

i

-

8. They might.see.·

Present Perfect Tense.

I may have seen,
{ Ypu may have seen or
2.
Thou mayst have seen,
3. He may have seen ;

2. Yau h:oi.tl seen,
3. They had seen.

2. Yon may have seen,

.

\

3. They may have seen.

1.

l might have seen,

1. We might ·have seen,

·5You might have seen or

2. You might have seen~

• ( 'l'hou mightst have seen,
3. He might have seen;

· 3. They might have seen.

Remark.-For auxiliaries tha t may take the place of may and might,
see p. 215.
Subjunctive Mode.

1. \Ve shall have seen,

Present Tense.

2. You will have seen,

Singular.

3. They will have seen

see.~

Past Perfect Tense. -

Future Perfect Tense.

I shall have seen,
{ You will have seen or
2.
Thou wilt have seen,
8. He will have seen;

1. We may have

1.

2
1. \Ve hacl !:'een,

{ You had seen or
2.
Thou hadst seen,
8. He had seen;

1.

'\
Plural.
1. We may see,

t8ingular.
1. l may see,
'{ You may see or
2.
Thou mayst see,
i. He may see;

2. You have seen,

Past Perfect Tense.

1.

' Potential Mode.

2. You will see,

Present Perfect Tense.

1.

303 '.

.

\

3. If he see.

2. If thou see,

. '• - ...;

.\

.. , '

. / ..

7

i •

'

,,

".'" I ' ~1· ·•- - •

-

Supplementary and Review.

304:

Conjugation,

...

Imperative Mode.

Singitlar.
2. See (you or thou);

I

(
/'

I
I

Fntnre Tense. \

1.

Present Tense.
\

Plural.
2. See (you or ye).

(I) shall
j (You) will
2
• 1(Thou) wil-t
3. (He) will
-

Pres. · , '

1. (We) shall

Pru.

Pres.

2 . (You) will

. Pres.

Pres.

3. (Th<::y) will

Pres.

Pres.

------- '

Emphatic Form.-Do you or t hou see; do you or ye see.

'

Present Perfect Tense.

S in.gulm·.
[!<Ml Par-,
1. (I) ha1•e
5(You) have .[>ast_~a!'. ,

I nfinitlves.

Present Tense.

Present Perfect Tense.

To see.

/

Pa.st.

Pa.st Perfect.

Seeing,

Seen,

Having seen.

GENERAL SCHEME FOR CONJUGATING A

(I) had
I (You) had
2
· ) (Thon) had-st
(H e) had
3.

1.

Pa8t
Past
Past
Past

(T) sh all hm•e
5 (Yon) will have
2
· I (Thou) wil-t have
3. (He) will have

I n di c at i ve M o d e .

Presen t Tense.

2.
3.

(Thou)
(He)

Pres.
P res.
Pres.
P n ;s.

P lural.

c ..t ,*
R '·*

.

1. (W e)

Pres.

2. (1;'"ou)

Pre11.

3. (They)

I'ns.

Past Tense.
I

I

I

P<Ut
(I)
Past
j (You)
2.
1(Thou) _R_as_t_st (01· est),
Past
3. (He)

1.

1. (We)
2. (You)

Past

- -·-- -,
Past

Par.
Pa!...-,
Par.
Par.'.

1. (We) had

Pasl I'ar.
Pa«t I'ar.

3. (T hey) had Pa;;t Par.

Future Perfect Tense.

VERB.

1.

.
{(You)

'

3. (They) have Past Par.,

Past Perfect Tense.

Present.

(I)

Past Par.

2. (You) have Past Par.

• ( (Thou)lw-st Past Par.,
(Ile) ha-s Past Par ..
3.

Participles.

1.

Plural.
1. (We) have

2

To have see n.

S ingular.

.'

Past
Past
l'aBt
P ast

Par.,
Par.,
Par.

J>m:_:';

1. (W e) shall have

Past Pur.

2. (Y 011) will have

Past Par.

--- --,

3. (T hey) will have Past Par._

P o t e n t i a l Mod e .

Present Tense.

S ingular.
1. (I) may
{ (You) may :
2.
(Thou) may-st
3, · (He) may !

Plural.
Pres.
----,
Pres .
Pres.
Pre11.

1. (We) may

Pres.·

2. (You) may

Pres.

3. (Th,ey) may

PrfJB,

I

3. l'J.'hey)

Past

Past Tense.
Pr~s.

(I) might
2. { (You) might
(Thou) might-st ,
3. (H e) m1g ht

1.

*In the indicative\ present, second, singular, old style, st ts sometimes added In.
stead of est; and in the third person, common style, es is added when s will not
unite, In the third person, old st.vie, eth Is rrdded.

Pres.
P res.

Pres.
,

.

1. (We) -might
2. (You) might

Pres.

3. ('!'hey) might

Pres.

'··

-:"

~

.,.,--

:. 1..'

Conjugation.

Supplementary and Rev1evv.

306

,! •'

Infiniti ves.

Present Perfect Tense.
Pal' . 1. (We)

Past Par.

nwy have
(I) rnay have
--,
{ (You) may hai•e
Past Par.,'
Past Pm·. ,
(You)
rnay
have
2.
2.
(Thou) may-st have Past Par.,
Past Par . . 3. (They) mau have -Past
3. (He) may haue
--Par.
--·
Pa..~t

1.

/ 1

"'(To)

-

(I) might have
c
2. J (You) might have

1.

I

3.

Past
Past
(Thou)might-sthave Past
(He) might have
Past

Par-,
Par.,
Par-,
Par..

1. (We) might have

'.Present Perfect Tense.. •

(To) have ·past Par••

Pres.

Preseat.
Pres. ·ing,

Past Pa'\

Past.
Past Par.

3. (H he)*

Pres.

Imperative Mo d e .

Present Tense.

2.

Plural.
Pres. (you

01·

ye).

'>

.~ .

I , •

"(°*
;..;.•i

* To. as indicated by the ( ), ls not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on Jan/ ...
guage are generally agreed that when to Introduces an Infinitive phrase used as an ';-.:'
adjective Jr an adverb, It performs its proper function as a ' preposition, meaning f'
toward, for, etc. ; as, "I am Inclined to bdlieve," "I came to hear." When the infl.nltive phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no- relat.ion;
It seems merely to int~ ~-·-~•$,), •'"
.
.
duce the phrase . When a word loses its proper function without taking on the func- ·-·-:
tlon of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In
the expression~, "For me to do this would be wrong," " Ov~r the fence Is out of
danger," few grammarians would hesitate to califor nnd over prepositions, although
they have no antecedent term of relation.
We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it In no way affects the meaning, as
does an auxiliary, or as does the to in "He was spoken to." Those who call it a part
of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the " preposition to" (which, as
they have said, is not a preposition) "placed before th e in!:.nitive," i.e., placed before
that of which it forms a part-placed before Itself.
In the Anglo-Saxon, to was used with the Infinitive only In the dative case, where
It hail Its proper funct.lon a~ n prepM!tfon ; 118, nominative, etan (to eat); dative, to
etan11e; accusative, etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the three
· forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and th~ accusative, but
l'l'.lthout expressing relation.

·:r

* The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fnding out of the language. The on ly
distinctive forms remainlng (except for the verb be) are th e Eecond and the third per- .'."
son singular ~f the present, and even the~e ar e giving "·ay to the indicative. Such .·! '
forms as "If he liave loved," etc., are exceptional. It is true that other forms ; as, , .
"If he had known," "Had he been,'' "Should he fall," may be used In a true subjunct.ive sense, to aseert what Is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely . ·
thought of. without regard to its being or becoming a fact; but in these ca~es it is not ·
the form of the re,.b, hut the connective or something Int.he con~trnction of the sen·
tence that determines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the Vl'tbs in such con· ; ·
struction may be treated as indicath·c or potential, with a Enbjnnctive mPaning.
·
The offices of the different mode and tense forms are co nstn ntly interci1anging; a
classification based strictly on meaning wou ld be very difilcult, and wou ld confuee
the learner.

OF THE VERB BE.

Remark.-The line at the right of the following forms has nothing to. >~·;',
do with the conjugation of be. When be is used as an auxiliarv, this ' " ~:·
line represents the present participle of the progressive form, ~r. the1 ~ ·~
past participle of the passive form.

Sing·ular.

2.

Par.~

' "'iti'

fresent Tense.

Singular.
Pres. (you or thou);

Past Perfect.

Having Past

3. (They) might have Past Pat'..

Subjun c t i ve Mode.

2. (If thou) _ Pi_·_e,,_. _

\r

2. (You) n1i"ght have Past Par.

CONJUGATION

/

' -· I~:~·_,.

Participles.

Past Perfect Tense.

! '

J

Present Tense.

,,
.

'

,,.

\ ..

·...1'"

·/

I

~·..,.-,.
• 1' /
'-~

' \.~-

Supplementary and

808

~evtew.

, Conjugation. ·

Indicative Mode.
(

Present Tense.

''

'

!

l

,

•/

r.

(I) may be - - ,
z. 5 (You) may Le - - - or
1(Thou) mayst be - - ,
- .. 3. (He) rnay be - - ;

3. (They) are - - .

2. (You) may bE! - - - ,
3. (They) may be - - .

1. (We) were - - - ,

1.

(I) was - - ,
(You) were - - - or
2•.{
. (Thou) wast - - ,
3. (He) was--;

1.

(I) might be - - ,
5
(You) might be - - or
2
· I (Thou) mightst be - -·,
3. (He) might be - - ;

2. (You) were - - - ,

3. (They) were - - .

1. (We)

(I) shall be - - ,
5(You) will be - - 01·
2
· ( (Thou) wilt be - - ,
· 8. (He) will be - - ;

sbal~

2. (You) might be - - ,

.
3, (They) might be - .
'

1. (We) have been - - ,

Past Perfect Tense. ·-

2. (You) have been - - - ,

1.
3. (They) have been - ·- - .

.

1. (We) had been--,

· ( (Thou) hadst been - - ,
3. (He) had been - - ;

2

(I) might have been - - , ,

5 (You) might have been-·- - or

' ( (Thou) mightst have been--,
3. (He) might have been--;

Past Perfect Tense.

(T) had been--,

2. (You) had been - - - ,
Subjunctive Mode.

3. (They) had been--.
Present Tense.

Future Perfect Tense.

t.
2

·
8.

(I) shall have been - - - ,

J (You) will have been - - - or

1 (Thou) wilt have been ,- - - ,
(He) will.have been - - - ;

Singular.

1. (We) shall have b e e n - , •·
2. (Yon) will have been--, ·,
'"1

3. {They) will have been

',

~

-~

,,

(I) may have been - - - ,
1. (We) may have been--- -·-, , '-~.·
'
'
\
t~,,;~
5
(You) may have been - - - or
2
2.
(You)
may
have
been-.
--:,
·
·
'
.
~A:
· ( (Thou) mayst have been - - -,
3. (He) may have been - - - ;
3. (They) may have been - .- - .

3. (They) will be - - .

5 (You) had been - - - or

· '.: ; :;;~if·.
' ''

1.

Present Perfect Tense.

2

I

1. (We) might be - · --,

Present Perfect Tense.

(I) have been - - ,
5(You) have been - - - 01·
~: ( (Thou) hast been - - ,
3. (He) has been--;

...

,\

be--,

2. (Yon) will be - - - ,

1.

1.

'\

Past Tense.

Future Tense.

I

1. (We) m,ay b e - ,

Past Tense.

1.

' ''

\',

.''

Plural.

1.

2. (You) are - - -,

I

,

Singular.

1. (We) are - ,

(I) am - - - ,
5
(You) are - - - or
2
· 1(Thou) a r t - - ,
3. (He) i s - - ;

Mode. -

Present Tense.

Plural.

Sing1tlar.
1.

'~

Potential

-309

,

Plural.
1. (Hwe}be--,

1.

M·

(If I) b e - - ,
J (If you) be - - or
2
' 1(If thou) be - - ,
8. ~If he) b e - - ;

·"·~·.\

2; (lf you) be - ,
3. (If they) be - - .

,'
,: '

'
I '

Supplementary and Review.

310

'Conjugation!

\

311

'

Remark.-The prngressi v13 form denot~s a conti~uance 'of th; ~tion· 1-,. ·t~~•'i .-·
- ~.·
.. or b emg
.
' . ,,
"
; as, " 'fl
. rn b'1r<l s wre. singing.
·: 1 ..., ;' .•di
,..:}•
/
' , · ',:/t.'. ::;,•
1 Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance-such as love,
respect, know-should not be conjugated in the progressive form . We · ·:y_1/?~
say, "I love th e child "-not "I am lrwing the ch ild."
:.'·~ 1(f

Past Tense.

Singnlor.
I

1.

(If I} were - - ,
. (If you) were - - or
2 5
1 (If thou) wert - -,
3. (Tf he) were---.

'

'1./

· · ,-

. I.
f

Imperative

Mode .

·:· : :)~~~

Present Tense.

, 2.

Be

I'lnral.
2. Be (~'OU or ye) - - -,

Singular.
(you or thou) - - ;

Infinitives .
\

I

Present Perfect Tense.

Present Tense.

(To) have been - - .

(To) b e - - .

u_se, especially in Englnnd. ~nch a
Rimpler form wo11lci he nmh1g11011s,

Participles.

Present.

Being-·- - ,

Past.

Been,

;f';

Remark.-The progressive form is sometimes usecl with a passive ... :.~;~~-~··;
meaning; as, ''The house is building." In such cases the word in ing . ~·· . .'ff':]~
was once a ,.,.r ind noun preceded by the preposition a, a contraction ·
-~
from on or in; as, "While the ark was a preparing ; " "While the
flesh was in seething. " In modern language the preposition 1s clroppec}, . ' ,. '. /~)il
and th e wonl in i11g is treated adjcctiYCly.
·.",r'f~
Another passive progressive form, consif'ting of the Yeru be completed
.11
by the present passive parhe1jJle, has grown into ou r language-" The
; · ;~~}.1
house is being built." Although it has been conckmnccl by some of , ./ ·:',-'.··~
our linguists as awkwnrd and otherwise objectiona.blc, yet it is in good
;, ,. (1

Past Perfect.

i.

seems t~ be nc:dcd w~1cn the ·' , ·.;L~\,~
~::~
"' · • when its subJeCt might be ' ' •;:,-?,.,,;t...

takeu to name either the actor or the receiver ;
ping;" "The prisouer ·i s frying."
·

Having been---.

1

f~rm

RS,

"'!'he ehild 1:s whip•

1

'"
i .:,· l'·.,.J·
_".;,..;,'~
.
'
,,}
· . .;'-r;_'.~'
-~

'"fl'

~.,

•

INTERROGATIVE . AND NEGATIVE ' FORMS.

m~y

CONJUGATION-PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE

A verb is conjugated in the 1woyressive fo1'm by joining ·. ·
its present participle to the different forms of the verb be.
I

Remark.-The past participle of the progressive form is wanting.

A transitive verb is conjugated in the pa.~sit•e vo~ce by
joining its past participle to the different forms of the ,.~ · "'
~
verbb e.
-~';:'
Remark.-The form of the past participle ln the passive is the sam,~i
as in the simple active.
·!

interroyativ~ly in

. .·

I~

:'.·:~iift
: _r·~~~-·

A verb
be conjugate<l
the 'indicaertive and potential modes by placing the SU bject after the ,
. ·-;~
. • (t
first auxiliary ; as, "Does he s-z'.ng? "
I.
) .· ,. 4j
A verb may be conjugated neyatively by placing not after ~ I ,·I:~~·~:~
, '." the first auxiliary ; as, "He does not sing." Not is place~ , .. .,...~
-· ·~~
before the infinitive phrase and the participle; as, . not to · ·· ,_:/~
sing, not singing.
,, ,,
~:·
~;~
A question with negat£on is expressed in the indicative
.
'\11:~
and potential modes by placing the subject and not after the
: :"''.~
as, " Does he not sing?"
'

' · -\, ""IJ

' ,t

'1

• '~ ~

; ,

./

'

..( ' .

,'

I,

\.

: '

• /

) ,·

·'

· L·.!·.;i
··~.

:·· .

-:.

/

312

Supplementary and Review.

Compound Verb-Forms-Analysis. .

.'<

313 . .~ · .
.'.
-· -

• .. I

-

. ·:'l

Remark.-Formerly, it 'Vas common to use the simple form of the ./ '
~
present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus: "Loves-:- ·· ~ :
lhe ? " "I know not." Si1Ch forms are still common in poetry, but in t' •
·.prose they are now scarcely used. \Ve say, ''Does he love f ." "I· do
·not know." The verbs be and have are exceptions, as they do· not
:regularly take the auxiliary do. 'Ne say, "Have you another ? " "Is .
Jt right?"

•

<

I,

' :. ·!,_ •. ;

\;;, 'Verbs-" Spring has come," "Birds' , have flo1nn," . etc.1 being now •. ;
:n 'regularly used instead of " Spring is ~ome," . " Birds are flo"U;n." Is
' \'.
.come., are flown, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the,'
passive voice.
'·'
..
Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus :. May
1have been written is composed of the compound auxi liary may c ;.,
' \;
have been and the particiJJlc complement written; may have been
'
j ' ''\
~: is composed of the eompoun<l auxiliary may have and thr- participlo . ,. 5
11
· '..'.· :complement been; and may have is comp~sed of the ~uxiliary may ....·: . :~
i
.and· the infinitive complement have. May is the assert.mg word-the ' ( "~
1
.1~ .:first auxiliary is always the asserting word.
:: ,. ,

!"

~

1

COMPOUND VERB-F ORMS-ANALYSIS.

··- ·..
.
I

,. ,

~,_

.\
- , .I

1:'

,.
..

The c0tnpourul, or pcl'iphrastic, forms of the Ycrb rnay1 each
be resolved into an asserting wo1·l.I, an<l a }larticiple or an intlui- ·
tive used as a complement.
If we look at the original meaning of the forms "J <lo write," " I
shall write," "I will writ e," we shall fincl that the so-call ed aux~
iliary is the real verb, aml t l111t write is an infiniti,·e used as object
complement. "I <lo write" = "I do (or perform the act.ion) (to) '
write." "I shall ·w rite"= "I owe (to) write." "I ·w ill write"
= "I deterrnine (to) write."
l\lay 'vrite, can write, n111st write; 1nig-ht 'vritc, cou ld \vrite,
woulll write, anJ should write may each be resolvc<l into an assnrt- :1.;_'
ing word in the imlicative mode H1H1 an infinitive complement.
The forms is w1·it.i ng-, was written, etc. consist each of
.•
asserting word (the verb be). aml a participle used as attribute corn.- _.,. .
plement.
I':
The forms have written, had written a,re so far remo,·ed from " •
their original meaning that theit- analysis can not be made to correspond .' 1~~ ·
with their history. They originated from snch expressions as "I ltave .· ~­
a letter written ," in which have (= possess) is a transitive verb, taking .:.:
letter for its object complement, and written is a passive participle ~''"
, modifying letter. The idea of possession has facled out of have, and ,
the participle, having lost; its passive meaning, has become a comple'- f_
ment of hai•e. The use of thi s form has been exteml ed to intransitive
.· •
.' ,..
f'

1'.-'

Tense Forms-Meaning.

The P1·esent Tense is used to express (1) what is actually . ".
-present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what frequently ' ·~·~
1
i ·-0r habi tu ally takes place, (4) what is to take place in the ·. . ,
' future, and (5) it is used in describ~ng past or future evenys ::;
.as if occurring at the time of the speaking. ·
.
. ·, '::,
.,

7

I

.' '

Examples.-! hear a voice (action as present). The sun gives light , .
{true at all times). He writes for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips ,' ...--:",:
.speaks in Boston to-morrow night (future). Ile moimts the scaffold ; , ,, · '.;
~
r.
i · the executioners approach to bind him ; he stritggles, resists, etc. (past
·\ ;,.'~,
'
·events pictured to the imagination as present) . . The clans of Culloden. ; _.,
are scattered in fight; they rally, they bleed, etc. (future events no')" / " · ~
. seen in vision).
. , \\
' -. ·:..~·

' The Past Tense may express (1) simply past action or
being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and ( 4)
it may ref er to present ti,me.

Examples.-The birds sang (simply past action). He · wrote for the
, newspapers (past habit). If I should go, you would miss · me (f,u ture
~ ',: ' events). If he wM·e hei'e, he would enfoy this (refers to present tiine). t

•'\

'· ,;,1£
; ·{~~~--. ~

\

~ ' I '

.. '

14

<'

- :;,y

, ·.
•, :

· : ,~.~

.

.

; '
•

...

<

' . \" ' ., ' ,~·'. l. 1:- .·-,./' - - - ; ·.

.

....

~. \ °"'•.:'-"':, ··1,.·:·.-J.'.

I

...

Supplementary and Review.

.

'I

).''. ,' ·
~

.:~ ~ ' ..

\-

I

. '\f'. .

' r .

} ..
'/ •.' i \

h,;.' ;_ .

~· ·

..

,, .

I

.

.. '

bccasionally lose his temper. 14. At t~e end of this week I shall have
; . '".
been in school four years. 15. If I were\you, I woulcl try that. 1 1,6. He_ ' / ;:.:{:
will become cliscourage<l before he has thoroughly tried it. i 7. She
, :.\
starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel.
... 1 1

I

Examples.-! shall wr£ie soon (simply fu ture action).
there by the hour (indefinite in time).

' I

.

. :<):

H e will sit

I

'c

Vowels and Consonants.

.'

.

Examples.-! hrul. seen him wh en I met you (n ction compl eted at a :
speeified past time). If I had had t i me, I should have written (I had f . '.
not time- I d icl not wi·ite).

.t

.

'

,..

Example.-! shall have seen him by to-morrow noon.
Additional Examples.

..

~

I

t· I•'

-fi .

.

The consonants are the letters of the alphabet not named above as
vowels.

' .~ .'
\ '

Diacr~tical

a, long, in hate.
~'

a,

sho1't, in h~t.
Italian, in far •

4. ~' broad, in ~11.
5. a, intermediate, in
a, long befo1'e r, in
in
in

me.
meL

marks usecl in ·Webster's Dictionary.
1. o, long, in note.
2. cs, short, in nest.
3.

ask .
c~re.

~

(like long oo) in

1.

I, long, in pine.
r, short, in pl'.n.
* II,

..
I~

' j ,\.

j

'

'

\,'.,:!\•

"~

d~.

u, long,

in tube.
2. u, short, in tub.
3. l;l (like short oo) in pl;lll.
4. ft (before r) in fftr.
1.

oi and oy (unmarke<l =

!!:D in oil,

toy.

)

_,. ,J

'

Sounds of the Vowels.

e, long,

., .I

,;,'

DEFINITION.-A Consonant is a Jetter that stands for a sounti . . '
" ·made by the obstructed voice or the obstructed bnath. *
'

I

e, short,

;..

/.I

.<f'ij

The Fntnre Pm'fect '.l'<~nse expresses an action as
pleted at some specified future time.

.. · .

t

fre~, open ''.·,-.,,~
·-"')\.
'

',•I

'.
I '

l.,
• I' I

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u.
W is u. vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a
,- - VOWel SOUncl; as, n ew, now," ancl y is a VOWP,l when it has the SOUncl of i; ' . J · ., -,'
as, by, duty, boy. Wand y arc consonants at the beginning of a word
. · :-~'
or a syllable ; as, wet, yet.
. ~} ' 'j

>'- ,_ ;

··)

I~,

I

· ..., ..

DEFINl'fION.-A Vowel is a letter that. stands for a
sound of the voice.

'f

The Past Perfect '.l'ense expresses (1) action or being as : '"
completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a condi- ' ,;;
tional or hypotheti cal clause it may express past time.
\·

:' \
~

':rhe P1·esent Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being >.1 '
as completed in present time (i.e., a period of time-an hour., :'«
a year, an age-of which the present forms a part), and (2) ..
action or being to be complcte<l in a future period.
• .

..- . : •"'(;

. . V·J

ORTHOGRAPHY.

Examples.-Ilomer has written poems (the period of time affecte<l by , '.
this compl<'l.t>d nc1.ion rrn liracrR the prc>'ent,). The cock shall not crow-, :
till t.hon hast denied me t.hrit:c (action completed in a fntme period). , . ,

'~I

',

'

.The Futiwe Tense may express (1) simply future action ' ~·
•J.
or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite .f !_.
m time.

. • ,1

. ·< >. ·,>~J

'

"'\

i'l -.

14

315 . '.,Y<;

Orthography.

OU

. _;. .I '
·, ·

and OW (unmarked= 000) in . .
out, now.
,' ' j
\

which represents a mere forcible breathing, Is an exception .

:.'
I

I

Supplementary and Review.

316

I

' I

{

fi

i:'
/,

i'

(

i,

~

=

~

=

~

=

e=
i

One letter used f01· another.
~' as in wh~t.
e =~,as in ferm.
&., as in where, hEiir.
o (nnmarkeil) = fl, as in worm.
a, as in §ight.
oo = 9, as i11 mo-on.
ft (n early), ns in her.
00 = 1:1, 11~ in wool.

= e, as

in police.

.

~~

= q,

i = ft (nearly), as in sir.

y

=I, as in fly.

6 = ii, as in done.

y

= 1, as in myth.

=

rr,;; in rHde.

~'

as in w9lf.
Remarks.-ci is between a a nd a. a represe 11 Ls the first, or " radi- ·
I
cal," part of a, touchecl li ghtly, without the ''vanish," or e souncl.
is nearly equivale nt hi (ff prolonged before r.
u is between u aml e. So me careful speakers discriminate between 11,
(= o in worm) and e (= T), making the former a rno<lifi cation of u and
the latter a modification of e.
In the ·•International Dictionary" (the latest "Webst er"), a, i,
t, 'fl,
represent the long sounds as modified in syllables without ..:
accent ; e..Q., senate, event , tdea, obey, unUe. The " International" lf,..
ofte n respells instead of using diacriti cal marks.
When one vowel of a diphthong is marked, the other is silent.
<;>

Orthography.

u,

Diacritical marks used in ·worcester's Dictionary.
a in hate.
6 in note.
a in hat.
o in not.
o in do.
a in far.
A in all.
ii in tube.
~in ask.
ii in tub.
a in care.
fl in pull.
e in me.
ii in fur.
e in met.
i in pine.

l in pin.

51,

oy in oil, toy.

. oft, ow in out, now.

~in

,, 3

1~

4 _ • .,.,- ~.,,
,·-L~::

ll in form.
oci~n moon.
n in rude.
y in fly.
y in myth.

where.
her.
i in police.
I in sir.
0 in done.
~in

I

,-

.

Sounds of the Consonants.

Explanation.- The two classes of consonants arc arrringed hclow in ':;::.·'.:::-~~:.·
separate columns. Those in "1" are called roe.al consonants (voice ,, .·:,--:
consonants), and those in "2" are called aspirates (breath consonants). , · ' '
'l'he letters with dots between them form pairs. Give the sound of ~ •hf-:
the first letter of any pair, and you will find that, as the Yoicc stops,
the vanishing sound will be the sound of the other let.ter. The tongue,
teeth, lips, and palate arc in the same position for both, the only differ' ence being ~hat in one there is voice, un<l in the other only a whisper . .
1.
2.
1.
2.
Vocal Consonants.

Aspir.a.tes.

b . . . ... .. . . ........ p
d . . . . . . .... ... .... t .

g ...... . . . .. ..... . . k
.. .... .... . . .. .... h
j . . ....... ....... .. ch
I. . . ... ... . . . . .... .
m .... .. . ......... . .

Aspirates.
Vocal Consonants.
r
.. .. ......... .

th (in thine) . ..... (th in thin)
v .. .. ... ···· · · ... f
/

,

"\V . • •••• • • • • • •• • ••

y ....... .. . ..... .
%:

(in zone) ... ..... s

z (in azure) . .•.... sh

n . ................ .

, C, q, and x are not found in t be colu mns above. C

=k

ors; q

=:--,

k;.

Diar:ritical marks- lVeb.sler.
q, soft (= s), in qent.
s, slw.rp (unmarked), in same.
· -€ 1 hm·d ( = k), in -£all.
!_! 1 soft(= z), in ha~.
ch (unmarked) in child.
th, sharp (unmarked), in thin.
qh, soft(= sh), in qhaise.
-th; soft or vocal. in-this.
-eh, hard (= k), in -ehorus.
g (= ng) in i~.
g, hard, in get.
¥ (= gz) in epst.
g, soft (= j), in gem.

' .

I

1 ··

/.

' .'

' .'
.- _,y \ .!.

/ .
I

318

Supplementary and Revievv.

Abbreviations.

Diacritical marks- lV01·cester.

ABBREVl~TIONS.
"· ,

',

. I

I

.

!

'

.

._

·'

~/:. ~ .~

G, gin gem.

q in cent.
.£), Q (or f;;) in call.
ch (unmarked) in child.
Qh in chaise.
.CH, £h (or ~h) in chorus.
.G, gin get.

l•.
,,!•
··'

'

~in

has .
th (unmarked) in thin.
-'FH tfi in this.
l in exist.

,i

~
1

~

I

RULES

FOR

SPELLING .

RULE 1.-Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning
vowel; as, fine, finer; love, loving.

.

'1

,.

,f

Exceptions.-Words endii1g in ce and ge retain e before able and'·~ •
I .
ous to keep c and g soft ; as, peaceable, changeable, coitrageotls. Words ..
in oe and ee retain the e unless the suffix begins with e; as,
seeing.

RULE 11.-Y after a consonant becomes i before a
beginning with i; as, witty, wittier; dry, dried.

'i : .
I.

'• ,- I

RULE 111.-ln mono~yllables and words accented on the last.'.· '
syllable, a final consonant after a single Towel doubles before 11.~•
suffix beginning with a volvel; as, hot, hotter; begin, beginning. · ·•.
Exceptions.-'fhe final consonant is not doubled ·when, in the deriv"'I ~· ~
ative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive ; as;::"
refer', ref'erence. But we have excel', ex'cellent, ex'cellence. X, k~~
and v are never doubled.
Remark.-To the Rul es above (and inferences from them)
a few other exceptions; as, dyeing (coloring), singeing; tingeing, rnileage;
awful, wholly, judgment, acknowledgment; slyly, dryness, piteoue; :
go-ses, transferable, hurnbngged, crystallize, cancellation.
. ;>~-;.~'~

J

r

i'

'

•t

@; At.

.

t·A.

B. or B. A. (Artium Baccalau· reus), Bachelor of Arls.
-l~ _Acct., acct, or ale, Account.
~ ...A. D. <Anno Domini), In the year
of our Lord.
·.- Adjt., Adjutant.
·,/Et. or ret. (adatis), Of age, aged.
.:.,Ala., Alabama.
.:' Alex., Alexander.
'A. M. or M.A. (A1·tiumJ1'agiste1·),
;
· :..
Master of Arts.
-: A,. M. (ante meridiern),Before Hoon.
. .:~'Amt., Amount.
~f.And., Andrew.
. _Anon., Anonymous.
:Ans., Answer.
~,,Anth., Anthony.
i Apr., April.
· •:Arch., Archibald.

y:

Exception.-Ydoes not cha nge before 's; as, enemy's.

~J

~

:··. Rem3:1'ks.-Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition.
. ~'::)-,~~
. ,,. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific workSi
; .;.::i:~
'. ·; and wherever certain terms frequently occur.
':.,;;-:
Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in
: ~ ~ ~:~~
addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately · follow
'.>~1
names are almost always abbreviated.
. hf•}
Names of women arc not generally abbreviated except by using an _ '.):~:i\;
initial for one of two Christian names.
·
· · 1 , >.J(~
.
Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, · · .· ·l1~j
:i· Jul. for "July," Jno. for "John," da. for "day " etc
. . :."·'~\
.
1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, etc. are not follow~<l by the }Jeriod. They are not . ' ,.: ~<. :
~
."i'\j
}ii, treated as abbreviations.
· , r.;.. ;;;

"t

1.

., ~

,

' ·:r.

:·. ',fj.~,,_t
,_'r, :~--:~~

i: '

I

.~f.;"...

, ~· ~ :

.$~~::J7'1it
• , • .,1.

I

~~/' .. ~ . ~

•

'

I

.

1

•

I •'

,

..

A k

A I

•

'.

A;i;~n~· ~: ~;~z.,

/
.,

,~

·~:·~
.f~1

1

Arizona Terri- ,
tory. ·
Atty., Attorney.
Atty.-Gen., Attorney-General.
Aug., August ; Augustus.
Av. or Ave., Avenue.
Avoir., A voinlu pois.
Sart., Baronet.
bbl., Barrels.
B.'C., Before Christ.
Benj. 1 Benjamin.
Brig.-Gen., Brigadier-General. •
B. S., Bachelvr of Science. .
bu., Bushels.
¢ or ct., Cents.
Cal., California.
Cap., Capital. Caps., Capitals.
Capt., Captain.
C. E., Civil Engineer.

l

· · ., l

.

/<~;~
·Ii'' ·

\~ ):!~

,::;~,1
, --,_~
· ,i_,')
I ' r. : r
'·:. ~.;,
•·(. ·.
, ·, >' \
.-\ -~: ' ~;
· ..J
· ·~';{
· ,;; ·;

·.'· \ ~~~~

I

.

·.

I.

i'

L.'

I

I

320

Supplementary and Revlevv.

cf. (confer), Compare.
Chas., Charles.
Ohron., Chronicles.
Oo., Company ; County
clo, In care of .
C. O. D., Coll ect JI, delivery.
Col., Colonel ; Colossians.
Coll., College ; Collector.
Conn., Connecticut.
Colo. or Col., Colorado.
Cr., Credit ; Creditor.
cub. ft., Cubic feet.
cub. in., Cubic in ches.
cwt., Hundred-weight.
d ., D ays ; P ence.
Dani. or Dan., Daniel.
D. C., District of Columbia.
D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Law.
D.ri. ( Vfrinitatis Doctor), Doctor
of Divini ty.
D.D.S.: Doctor of Dental Surgery.
Dec., December.
Del., Delaware.
Deut., Deuteronomy.
D. G. (Dei gratia), By the gra2e of
God.
Dist.-Atty., District-Attorney.
D. M., Doctor of l\fosic.
do, (ditto), The same.
doz., Dozen.
Dr., Doctor ; DP-btor ,
D. V. (Deo volente), Goel willing.
E., East.
Eben., Ebenezer.

Eccl., Ecelesiastes.
Ed., Edition ; Editor.
Edm., Edmund.
Edw., Edward.
e. g. (exernpli gratia). Foi'exampier ·
E. N. E., East-northeast.
Eng., English ; England.
Eph., Ephesians ; Ephraim.
E. S. E., East-southeast.
Esq., E squire.
et al. (et nlibi), Aml cl~e where.
et al. (et alii ), And others.
.
et seq.(et seqnentia), And following. ~J :
etc. or &c. (et cwtera), And others1 \ '.t·
And so forth.
Ex., Exmnple ; Exotlus.
Ez., Ezra.
Ezek., Ezekiel.
,loo'
Fahr. or F., Fahrenheit (thermo.m .
ctcr).
Feb., February.
Fla., Floritla.
Fr., French; France.
Fran., Fnmcis.
Fred., Frederic.
Fri., Friday.
ft., F eet.
Ft., Fort.
fur., Furlong.
Ga., Georgia.
Gal., Galatians.
gal., Gallons.
Gen., General ; Genesis
i' Geo., ,Georgu.

Abbrev1at1c;ns.

\ Gov., Governor.
gr., Grains.
h., Hours.
Hab., Habakkuk.
Hag., Haggai.
H. B. M., His (or Her) Britannic
Majesty.
. hdkf., Handkerchief.
Heb., Hebrews.
H. H. His Holiness (the Pope).
hhd., Hogsheads.
H. M., His (or Her) Majesty.
Hon., Honorable.
Hos., Hosea.
· H.R.H.,His (or Her) Royal Highness.
fb. or ibid. (ibidem), In the same
place.
id. (idem), The same.
Idaho, Idaho.
f. e. (id est), That is.
I. H. S. (Jesus hominiim Salvator),
Jesus, the Savior of men.
'ri1., Illinois.
in., Inches.
incog. (incognito), Unknown.
Ind., Indiana.
Ind. T., Indian Territory.
inst., Instant, the present month.
Iowa or Io., Iowa.
I. O. O. F., Independent Order of
Odd Fellows.
Isa., I saiah.

Jan., January.
jas., James.
Jer., Jeremiah.
Jona., Jonathan.
Jos., Joseph.
Josh., Joshua.
Jr. or Jun., Junior.
Judg. 7 Judges.
Kans. or Kan., Kansas.
Ky., Kentucky.
I., Line ; ll., Lines.
1. or £, Pounds sterling.
La., Louisiana.
Lam., Lamentations.
L., Latin .
lb. or tb. (libi-a or librrn), Pound o?pounds in weight.
I. c., Lower case (small letter).
Lev., Leviticus.
L. I., Long Island.
Lieut., Lieutena nt.
LL.B.(Legum Baccalaurws), Bachelor of Laws.
LL.D. (Legum Doctor), Doctor of
Laws.
·
M. or Mons., Monsiewr.
M. (mcridies), Noon.
m., Miles ; Minutes.
Mad., Madam. Mme., Madamo.
Maj., Major.
Mal., Malachi.
Mar., March.
Mass., Massachusetts.
Ma~t., Matthew.

..,,:

'·.'i
-. ~ ' .
,1 ' -· ..

322

'\

Suppleme nta ry and Re v ievv.

Abbreviations.

'\
I

'1.

.

)~

•

>

• </

~-' i
. I

..

, /

,

' 1'

·!

{
(, '1'.

. · '.

,,

)'
~

.

''

'

,

"
. ,

I

I

I

M. C., Member of Congress.
M . D. (111edicinw Dodor), Doctor
ol Medicine.
.Md., l\Iaryland .
mdse., l\Ierchn.ndise.
Me., l\fainc.
Mem;, l\Icmorandum; Memoranda.
Messrs., Messieurs.
Mic., Micah.
Mgr., l\fom:eigneur.
Mich., Michigan ; Michael.
Minn., Minnesota.
Miss., Mississippi.
· Mlle., l\fademoiselle.
Mmes., :Mesdames.
Mo., Missouri.
mo., Months.
Mon., Monday.
M. P., Member of Parliament.
Mont., l\fontana.
Mr., 1\1 if'tc r.
Mrs., Mistress (prononnced l\Iissis).
MS., l\Ianuscript.
MSS. 1 l\Ianuscripts.
Mt., Mountain.
N., North.
N. A., North A m erica.
Nath., Nathaniel.
N. B. (nota bene), l\Iark well.
M. C., North Carolina
N. Dalt., North Dakota.
N. E. 1 New Eng land.
N. E., Northeast.
Nebl". or Neb., Nebraska.

'.Neh. 1 Nehemiah.
Nev., Nevada.
N. H., New Hampshire.
N. J., New J ersey.
N. Mex. or N. M., New Mexico. ·
N.N.E., North-northeast.
N.N.W., North-north west.
N. O., New Orleans.
No. (mtmero), Number.
Nov., November.
N. W., Northwest.
N. Y. 1 New York.
Obad., Obadiah.
Oct., October.
Ohio or O., Ohio.
Oreg. or Or., Oregon.
Oxon. (Oxonia), Oxford.
oz., Ounces.
p., Page. pp., Page ~ .
Pa. or Penn., P enn sylvania.
Payt. or payt., P ay me nt.
per cent. or per ct. (per cenfum,) 01
%, By• the h11m1re1l .
I
Ph. D. (Philo sophim Doctor), Doctor of Philornphy.
Phil., Philip ; Philippiau:;.
Phila., Philadelphia.
pk., Pecks.
P. M. 1 Postmaster.
P. M. or p. m . (post meridiem~
Afternoon.
P. O., Post-Office.
Pres., President.
Prof., Professor.

Pro tem. (pro ternpore), For the
time being.
Prov., Proverbs.
prox. (proximo), The next month .
P. s., Postscript.
Ps. 1 Psalms.
pt., Pints.
pwt., Pennyweights.
qt., Quarts.
q. v. (quad vide), Which see.
Qy., Query.
rd., Rods.
,Recd., Received.
Rev., Reverend; Revelation.
R. I., Rhode Islan<l.
Robt., Robert.
Rom., Romans (Book of) ; Roman
letters.
R. R., Railroad.
R. S.
P. (Repondez s'il vous
plait), Answer, if you please.
Rt. Hon., Right Honorable.
Rt. Rev., Right R everend.
S., South.
s., Shillings.
S. A., South America.
Saml. or Sam., Samuel
Sat., Saturday.
S. C., South Carolina.
1
S. Dak., So uth Dakota.
S. E., Southeast.
Sec., Secretary.
sec., Seconds.
Sep. or Sept., Sc·ptember.

v:

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SoL, Solomon.

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sq. ft., Squarefeet,
sq. in., Square inch-:is.
' ,· . .;''!
sq. m., Square miles.
s.s.E., South-southeast.
s.s.w., 8outh-southwest.
St., Street ; Saint.
. . . ._ '.
S. T. D. (Sacrw 'Pheologim Doctar), ~ · · ,._\ '
Doctor of Divinity.
· 1 '~ • ', •
':-.
t,. - ./:
.l
( ' •.,
Sun. 1 Sunday.
' :. i''
Supt., Superintendent.
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S. W., Southwest.
' .. ' v )
~ !:
T ., Tons ; Tuns.
... "·~...'
Tenn., Tennessee.
\ '
· d.
' '
Tex., T exas.
I
Theo., Theodore.
,J '~ !
Theoph., Theophilus.
Thess., Thessalouians.
Thos., Thom as.
Thurs., Thursday. ·
Tim., Timothy.
tr. 1 Transpose.
'I
Treas., Treasurer.
. ,..
Tues., Tuesday.
.· 1,.\
1
ult. (ultimo), J.Jast-last month.
: '.; ~\
U. S. or U. S. A., United States."~ .·',',
I
..
of America; United States . · "
'
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Army.
. .•:.
·' ·'
U. S. M., United States l\Iail.
:·_, ..~ ~:
U.S. N., United States Navy . .
'
I
Utah or U. Ter., Utah T erritory . ·
Va., Virginia.
.
'/.
Vice-Pres., Vice-President. ·
..i.,:
..•..
viz. (videlicet), To wit, namely.
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Supplementa ry and Revtevv.

Additional Subjects for Themes.

,325
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· v ol., Volume.
vs. (versus), Against.
Vt., Vermont.
W., West.
Wash., 'vVashington.
Wed., Wednesday.
Wis., 'vVisconsin.
wk., Weeks.
Wm., William.

.•, ! .

1. Apples and Nuts.
2.
8.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

.

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I .

_

..

~

;

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,.

,. .

• ,"\'

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..

.,_,

\

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W.N.W., West-northwest.
W.S.W., W est-southwest.
W. Va., West Virginia.
Wyo., Wyoming .
Xmas., Christmas.
yd. 1 Yards.
y . or yr., Years.
Zech., Zechariah.
& Co., And Company.

A Pleasant Evening.
My Walk to School.
Pluck.
School ·Friendships.
\Yhen my Ship Comes in .
Ancient and l\fodern Warfare.
The View from my Window.
Homes without Hands.
I Can.
l\Iy Friend Jack.
12.•John Chinaman.
13. Irish Characters.
14. Robin Hood.
15. Monday Morning.
16. My Native Town.
17. Over the Seas .
18. · Up in a Balloon.
19. Queer People.
20. Our Minister.
21.. A Plea for Puss.

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.

31.
32 .

33.

84.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.
42.

Castles in Spain.
Young America.
Black Diamonds.
Mosquitoes.
A' Day in the Woods.
A Boy's Trials.
The Yankee.
Robinson Crusoe.
Street Arabs.
Legerdemain.
Our NeighborhOod.
Examinations.
Theater-going.
Donkeys.
The South<'rn Negro.
A Rainy Saturday.
Spring Sports.
How Horatius Kept the Bridge.
Jack Frost.
My First Sea Voyage.
Monkeys.

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· :, .i.....\·--;

· 76.• \A Day on a Trout Stream_,
.;:;;;~"'· . ·
48. Grandmothers ..
\
f
' 44. The Boy of the Story Book.
77. Of what Use a.re Flowers? . '·· t~
.
·' ) . "'
78. A Descent in a Diving Bell
·.·
45. Famous Streets.
79. A Day on the Farm.
'
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46. Pigeons.
47. Jack and Gill.
80. Thanksgiving Day.
. .. 1:
48. Make Haste Slowly.
81. A Day at the Fair.
, • . _ :--.:.j
\ ' . • i;
82.
Camping
Out.
._ .• ~
Commerce.
49.
50. 'l'!le Ship of the Desert.
83. The Circus.
·. r .' ~3
84. The Menagerie.
- -~
51. Winter Sports.
152. Whiskers.
85. At the Photographer's.
86. The Fourth of July.
. . ·.H
53 . Gypsies.
87. Christmas.
:i-~ . ~
54. Cities of the Dead.
'. .
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88. A Long Tramp.
«·- · ;
55. Street Cries.
. . '....:
. ,,
56. The World Owes me a Living. 89, At the l\Iuseum.
. .. .. :· ,r
90. A Day by the Sea.
57. Politeness.
1
.\ : / •
58. Cleanliness akin to Godliness. 91. Newspapers.
92. A Great Fire.
. .
·.. ~;~:
59. F:ighting Windmills.
93.
Ancient
and
Modern
Modes
of
•
·
· ';'.~1
60. Along the Docks.
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Travel.
. t f ..·;. ;.
61. l\1aple Sugar.
/ .-_. . ;
94. Much Ado about No.t hing.
62. Umbrellas.
f;
95. Earthquakes. .
' . j·
63. A Girl's Trials.
I
96. How I Spend my Saturdays.
' :
64: A Spider's Web.
•\t
65. The Story of Ruth.
97. The Stars.
·.:
98. The Planets.
. ·. ; .' ;
66. Clouds.
• I :,•,;
99. Dreams.
67. A Country Store.
.
.•f.
100. Fresh Air.
68. Timepieces.
~
·~,
101. Paper.
69. Bores.
102. The North Pole.
70. Our Sunday School.
103.
Ships.
·,_,-.
71. Autumn's Co!ors.
104. Birds' Nests.
72. The Mission of Birds.
' .:
105. Trees.
73. Parasites.
106. Mountains•
74. The Tides.
75. The Schoolmaster in the" De· 107. Rivers.
I
.
serted Village."
.108. Books.
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ADDIT IO NAL SUBJECTS FOR THEMES•

1·. •

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.

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326
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Additional Subjects for Themes.

Supplementary and Review.

109. Public Opinion.
110. Caterpillars.
111. America Two Hundred Years
Ago.
112. America Two Hundred Years
Hence.
113. Indian Summer.
114. The Language of Animals.
115. Our Language.
116. Ancient. and Modern Customs.
117. Coal.
118. Advertisements.
119. Superstitions.
120. Pioneers.
121. Economy and Parsimony.
122. Liberality and Prodigality.
123. Reputation and Character.
124. Corrimon Schools.
125. Letter-Writing.
126. The Postal Service.
127. A Thousand Years Ago.
128.' A Storm at Sea.
129. Ants.
130. Aunts.
131. l\Iy Favorite Author.
132. My Favorite Hero.
133. Tea.
134. Courage and Temerity.
135. Caution and Cowardice.
136. Ancient Greece.
137. The Art of Reading.
138. Railways.
' 139. Telegraphs.
140. The l\Iost Useful Metal.

141.
142.
143.
144.
145.
146.
147.
148.
149.
150.
151.
152.
153.

154.
155.
15G.
157.
158.
159.
lGO.

161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
170.

Sailots. '
Instinct.
A Farm Yard.
Spiders.
Wit and Humor.
Recreation.
Influence of Climate on Character.
Trades Unions.
My Favorite Books.
Effects of Stimulants.
Society.
Advantages of Competition.
Physical and Moral Courage.
Beauty and Utility.
A Storm on Laml.
Benefits of Travel.
Changes of Fashion.
Party Feeling.
Novel Reading.
A Purpose in Life.
Ad vantages of Self-reliance.
Our Government and the Indian.
Corruption in Civil Offices.
Methods of Ventilation.
Love of Nature.
" The Pilgrim's Progress."
The Humble Origin of Great,,.,
Men.
·
Conscience.
[sions,
\'
The Power of Early Im pres· f,f
Earnestness as an Element of ' ,..,
Success.
:~

.

171.
172.
173.
174.
175.
176 ·
177.

Style in Writing;
191. Self.- control is True Freedon{. : ·:: :' ·{;~zj
Politics and Statesmanship. 192. ' Confusion and Order.
- ··,--~
Our Environmentiik
193. A Sunrise.
\
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Curiosity.
194. A Sunset.
' .~
Cheerfulness as a Duty.
195.
,,
,r
E
·
·
.-.
. . .··,: /4
, my_ xperrnnee m Gardening.
-.
l\Iot.her-wit and Book-learni'ng.196. F~as h'wnable F ollies.
' ,,, :·1i,;
An Old Fashioned Corn-husk- 197. Winter Evenings. ·
· .~ -. ';..;

>

j

C~~~~al and
Labor.
1

178.
'1•70 L
u.

180.
18i.
182.
183.

HIS.
199.
aw arn Tyranny.
200
Liberty and Anarchy.
201:
Cant and Sincerity.
202.
Atlee tat!on and Naturai.ness. 203.
Sentiment and Reason.
204.

A Flood.
Pins.
A p 1· 1·

·"

::)i:1

i1>;: ••

· '· "'

,:\>t
·:y;.,:j

The ~~ :~f

Printing.
Wild Flowers.
Insect Life.
1\fy Countrv.

- ·,_cfJ

184. Canal through the Isthmus of 205. Early Friendships.
Panama.
206. Early Rising.
185. Steam as a l\fotive Power.
207. Kindness to Animals.
186. Power of Kindness.
208. l\Iy Ideas of a Noble Char.
187. Influence of Poetry.
acter.
188. 'l'he Lust of Wealth.
209. An Instanee of Tru e Courage~

. .: . : ·~J
. 1· (,
"' : j~
· ·' .; -~)i~
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189. Reverence.
210. Uses of Gold.
190. The Formation of Character. 211. A Presidential Campaign.
212. Limited and Universal Suffrage.
213. S!i.ould Education be Compulsory ?
214. Should Capital Punishment be Abolished ?
215. Was the Execution of Andre Unjust?
216. Knowledge is Power.
·
217. Delays are Dangerous.
218. The Child is Father of the Man.
219. The Pen is Mightier than the Sword.

·_ .

::~: ~:;t~1~;!o; e:~uo::et~:~ !:eri~st out.

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· ·· .f Y~
lJ,;·::t~
, ~ · ~t
' ' · · ;.,."?~
. / ;, ~1i
··· .

222. When in Rome, Do as the Romans Du.
223. Not all that Glistens is Gold.
' .

/·.·:<'~::'.:_~'.

.::~~~

~---~~x~
· · 1 0.~

·'::,~1

··.

~ < {~~l

Supplementary and Review.

I .'

224.
225.
226.
227.
228.
229.
230.

The Early Birtl Catches the Worm.
The Watched Pot nevel" Boils.
Well-Begun is Half-Done.
A Stitch in Time Saves Nine.
Where there's a Will there's a Way.
There is no New Thing under the Sun.
Evil is wrought by want of thought
As well as want of heart.

For Addit.ional Exercises in Composition write biographiea ot
·, distinguished men, accounts of historical events, descriptions of races
·of men, classes of animals, places, processes of manufacture, inven-

·'

WORD-BUILDING

tions, etc.
WITH

RooTs, OR STEMS, AND

. - 'i

PR~FIXES
.t

AND SUFFIXES •

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,. '\i'

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,f.,';

COPYRIGHT, 1892,

BY BRAINERD KELLOGG

AND

ALONZO REED.

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WORD-B UII--1 DING.

.,

THE COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH

ELEMENTARY ENGLISH.

INCLUDES
REED'S lNTHODUCTORY J,ANGUAGE WORK.
REED'S

'Yorm

LESSONS- A COMPLETE SPELLER.

REED & KELl,OGG'S GnADF.D J,F.SSONS IN ENGLISH.
REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHEH LESSONS IN ENGLISH.
REED & KELJ,OGG'S 0NE-IlOOK COURSE IN ENGLISR.

ROOTS, OR

STEMS,

GIVEN

UNDER

"ELEMENTARY

ENGLISH,''

IN THE

SYLLABUS OF THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY 01'' THE STATE OF
NEW YORK.

INTRODUCTION.

KELLOGG & HEED'S WOHD-BUILDING.
KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
KELLOGG'S RHETORIC.
KELLOGG'S ENGLISH L!TERATUltE.
KELLOGG'S EDITIONS OF SHAKESPEAHE'S PLAYS.
THE ENGLISH CLASSIC SEHIES.

CorYltlOIIT,

1892, BY

BRAINERD KEJ,LOOO AND ALONZO REED.

J'n' <• of .J. ,J. Little & Co.
Astor l'lac c, New York

I. The Meanings of Root and Stem.-The word root is used
by philologists to denote the simplest and most primitive forms which
words once had, or to which they can now be traced. In this sense
of the word-its rigidly scientific sense-the word root names that
monosyllabic form which is the origin and source of all verbal derivatives. But usage applies the word as well to later forms of the&J
original and primitive \~ords-forms from which, by the use of pre
fixed and suffixed syllables, new words - are produced-nouns, adjec
tives, Ycrbs, and adverbs. Respectable as is the authority for calling
these "later forms " stenis, what we regard as the prevailing usago
leads us to choose roofs instead.
·
II. Deftnitions.-A primitive word is one not derived from
another word in the same language.
A derivativ.e word is one deriYe·d from another word ; as, unmanly, man being the primitive word.
A c01npound word is one composed of two or more simple words;
as, f orly-two.
·
Prefixes and suffixes are, with rare exceptions, relics of words
<>nee independent, but now run down into ~ere formative elements.
They are used, each with a meaning of its own, to modify the mean;

i

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4

TVord-Bitilding.

ing of the root to which in the derivative they are nttached ; though,
when many of them are use<l in the same word, it is rnmetimes difli- _
cult to detect in the tierivativc the distinct force of each. Prefixes
precetie the root, a nd suffixes follow it. In the following paragraph
the illustratirn instance exhibits the root ju,ncf, the prefixes con and
dis, the suffixes ion, ive, and ly, and the six derivatirn words formed
by combination of the root with these prefi xes and suffixes.
III. E :r-vl<tn<it-ion.-'l'hc work below , compn.ct.e\l for the sn.kc of
brevity, needs explanation. If, as is usu al, two or more prefixes
are to be united in succession with the following root,-or with this
and the suffix after it,-these prefixes staml unconnectctl with each
other by the + sign. If any two of these nre to Le taken together
and treated as a single prefix, these two are grouped by the + sign.
The suffix immediately following the root is to be united with it
in its combination with each prefix or group of prefixes. If other
suffixes follow, the same thing is to be done with these singly or
in groups, the single suffixes or the groups being separated from
each other by an or in Roman type. The suffix, or the group taken
as one, between the first or anti the second, is to enter into the same
combination or com bi nations as ditl the first suffix. Antl so is the
suffix or the group between the second or and the third, etc., and
that which follows the last or. For instance, if untler,innct we had
con, dis+,iunct+ion, or ive, or ive+ly, this would mea n that the
pupil had to do as dirccte<l with con +,iunct + 1:on, dis+ junct +

ion, con+junct+ive, dis+.Jnnct+ive, con+jnnct+ive+ly, dis+
junct + ive + ly; or, dropping sig ns and the black letters, with the
words cory·unction, disjunction, co11junct·ive, disjitnctive, conjunctively,
disjunctively.
IV. The Roots and thei1• Order.-Most of the roots in the
Regents' lists are Latin, and are foun<l usually in tli e Latin verb. We
give first the root or roots found in the verb. These stand in the
infinitive of the verb an<l the perfect participle. That in the perfect participle ends usually in at or it or t, and of course denotes the act,
expressed by the verb, as completed. The future participle root ending in ur follows, if any English words derived from it are to be
formed in the paragraph succeeding. The roots which follow in
parentheses are mostly those into which the roots just spoken of have
changed in their long sojourn in the French language anti in English.

Introduction.

5

If the roots in the Regents' lists are from Latin nouns or adjectives, .
all that we need to say here is, that the r,oots in parentheses are 1noclified
\
forms of those which precede them.
V. The lJienninys of the Boots and of English Tt,ords
derived from thmn.-It is easy to ascertain the meaning of the
rJot fonnd in the infinitive antl of that foun<l in the perfect participle.
These meanings are given or implieti in the definition of the Latin
infinitive which follows tho roots thcmseh·cs. It iscnsytoascertain the
meanings of the English words derived from the roots not in paren·
thesis. It is not so easy to get at the signification of the roots in
parentheses, and that of the English wor<ls derived from them. Often
the etymological sense has faded out of the root ; aml the words, if
metaphorical, <lo not always suggest the likeness on which the metaphor is based. The pupil will sometimes need a hint from the teacher,
sometimes he may profitably consult the dictionary. We have thrown
in liberally suggestions in parentheses and in Helps for the Pupil;
but, where the pupil can seize upon the root itiea, and, combining it with
the meanin~s of the modifying prefixes and suffixes, can give the signifi cation of the derivative, he shoulti be allowetl to do it. As well
do his ph ysical exercise for him as relieve him of the intellectual
labor which he can do alone. The main worth of this work consists in the exercise, which it compels, of the pupil's jutlgment.
VI. The Lessons.-The length of the Lessons assigned has
been determined by the hope that all the work called for by us cari
be done. But those teachers able to take up only the root-forms
selectetl by the Regents can perhaps run two or three of our Lessons
into one. The root-forms they seek are easily found. They are
marked by the asterisk, and are usually the first or the second treated
by us in the several paragraphs.
VII. Direction.-The roots are printed in black letters, the prefixes
and suffixes in italics. The prefixes an<l suffixes are given and defined
on the pages immediately following these Lessons under" Elementary
English." Find there the meanings of the prefixes and suffixes used
below, find in the Lessons the meanings of the roots with which these
prefixes and suffixes combine, and then give the signification of the
derivatives formed by the combination. Frame phrases or sentences
containing these derirntives properly used. Do not look for the mean.
ings of letters within marks of parenthesis and unitalicized.

/.

Word-Building.

Introduction.

Note the changes, if any, which metaphor has wrought in the meanings of words. The literal meaning of a word is not always that which
it really bears. From the likeness in position between the upper part
of one's body an<l the top of a nail, we transfer the name of the one
object to the other, aml speak of t.hc head of a nail. From the real or
fancied resemblance in function between one's head and \Vashington
city, we mfty carry over crqmt, the Latin name of the hea<l, and, gh·ing it to the cit.~·, call Washington the capital of the Unite<l States.

irrefrayable, incapable of being easily broken down-A's argument
was irrefragable, irrefutable, a met~phoricnl use of the word;

0

irrefrayn.bly, in an irrefragable mann~r-he irrefragably established
his point in the debate;

infringe, to break into-one's rights are infringed by the thief;
infringement, act of infringing-the infringement of the treaty, a
metaphorical use of the word, since a treaty cannot literally suffer
a breaking into;

Benia1·k.-\Ve indicate here the way in which the work required in

fraction, state of being broken, a part-the fraction of an hour:

this Direction mav be don e. The roots we take ftre F1·any,
Fract, and F ·r act·; u·, Lesson IX. Turning to th e enll of these
Lessons in "Elem entarv English," for th e prefixes and suffixes,
we combine th eir m c:wi~g-s, fo1111<l there . with the m eaning of the
roots in L esson IX., give th e signification of the tlcrivatives
grouped in that Lesson, au<l illustrate their use.

·1

••

fractional, belonging to a fraction-fractional currency; '
numbers-~

fractions, not integers, or whole

and

k are

fractions;

infract, to break-to infract is to encroach upcn;
I'f'fract, to bend sharply back-water.refracts the light;
infraction, the breaking-the infraction of the rules, a metaphorical

MODEL.

use of the word ;

F1·anyible, capable of being broken-a clay pipe-stem is fungible;

refraction, the bending sharply back, half breaking-the refraction '

franyibility, state of being frangible, nam e of the abstract <]nalitythe frangibility of a pipe-stem;

refractory, bent away from the proper or natural course-the refracrefractoriness, stn.to of being refractory-the refractoriness of his .
child is a grief to the father;
1
• _ ,,
1

infranyibility, state of being infrnngiblc-thc infr::wgibility of the
oak;

fracture, a break-there is a fracture in the plate;

ref1•anyible, cn.pablc of being turned back, or ont of a straight course
-a ray of light is refrnngibl c ;

f1•agile, capable of being broken-fragile playthings;

refranyibility, state of being refrangible-the refrangibility of
light;

frail, capable of being broken down, weak, feeble-frail health or

/

f1•agility, state of being fragile-the fragility of icicles;
constitution, meta.phorical;
.:'(' .

fraymentary , Lelong-ing to a fragment, in fragments-a fragmentary
report of the speech;
suffl'lif]e (a probable explanation given in Lesson IX.);

•.

tory or stubborn child, a metaphorical use of the word;

inf1•anyible, incapable of bein g easily broken-oak is comparatively
infrn.ngiblc;

f1·ayment, a piece broken ofl'-:.i frag ment of a tea-cup;

)
i"

of light from the oar-blade in the water;

.

:; · frailty and frailness, state of being frail-frailty of character, of
·

the intellect.

"
.·•

i

.

· Elementary English.

Lesson xrrr.) + ag +er or (e) _; man+ ag( e) +able or ment ; . ex+ig+ent or ency/ 1 nav (see 'the root, Lesson - XVI.)
+ig+able or able+ness J. prod+iu.+al or al+ity,· 2 amb+
ig+(u)ous• or (u)ity/ co(=cum)+g+ent or ency. 4 \ Act;
act+ ive or ive + ly 6 or iv+ ity or ion or ion+ able or or or .
r + essJ· counter, en, ex, over, re, re+ en, trans+ act; counter,
ex, 'le, trans+ act + ion J. en+ act+ ment; ex+ act+ 11ess.,
a<:tu, +al or al+ ly or al+ ity.
From nav i ga re~ nav i ga tus, derived from agere, come
nav + igat +or or ion or (e) ; circum + nav + igat +or or
ion or (e). From the frequentative t ag i ta re, ag i ta tus,
derived from agere, come agitat+or or ion or (e); co+
gitat+ion or (e). 8 From actuare, actuatus, derived
from agere, come actuat +ion or (e ).

LATIN ROOTS.
LESSON

l.

To the Teacher.-This work of wortl-building may he difficult and
8low at first. But it will rapidly become easy. The same prefixes and
suffixes are constantly reappearing.
The pupil will soon become
familiar with their meanings, and ready in combining them with the
meaning of the root.
If necessary, the opening lessons may be
divided.
To the Pupil.-You will find the JJI odel preceding this Lesson
helpful to you. Following that, yonr work of building up worcls and
illnstrating their use wouill begin a11tl proceed Urns : ent, one who,+
root a(h to do, mn.kc rrgrnl =one 'rho docs, e.,r;. , the agent of the firm;
ency, state of being, function,+ root <ty, make agency=state or function of an agent, e.g., sold throug h his agency, or instrumentality; ile,
capable of, + ay, to mm·c, or moving, make agile = qui ck, nimble,
e.g., the agile squirrel; ity, state of being+ agile=quiclmess of movetnent, e.g., the agility of the S<Juirrel.
The prefixes, suffixes, anll th eir meanings are to be fonml, as you
have been told, at the end of these J.. cssons in "Elementary English."
.

•

I

9

,

Helps for the Pupil.-W e do not in these Helps define, but
attempt to point to the paths which may lead to definitions. 1 Exigency, something urging instant action. 2 Prodigality, an urging
into wasteful extravagance. 3 Ambiguous, uncertain-note the force
of ambi. 4 Cogency, the compelling force of the thought. 'rhe 6 ly is
A.-S.-actively is a hybrid, its parts are from different languages.
e Cogitate, to think, involving intellectual activity.

.

.Ag,* Act, (iy, y, actii), from age 'r e, ac tiis, to do, move,
urge on, imt in motion, drhc.

Ag+ ent or ency or ile or at+ ity; man (see this root,
*Roots thus marked are those given in the Regents' Syllabus for the
present year.
t The suffixes able, abile, ance, ate, bule, cule, ence, ibile, ible, ile, ine,
ive, ize, le, ose, tude, and ure often tlrop the final e, and become abl,
abil, · anc, at, bnl, cnl, enc, i/Jil, ibl, il, in, iv, iz, l, os, fad, nntl 1tr,
Able, abil, el, er, ery, ibl, ity, ly, or, nrnl litde sometimes tlrop the
inithtl letter , and appear as ble. bil, l, r, 1·y, bl, ty, y, r, antl nde.
Ary, ly, rnony, ory. 11nd y sullletimes change y 1.o i, aU<l appear as
ari, li, rnoni, ori, auJ. i.

Ait;"' from

al tus, high, lofty.

Alt+ar (raised); alt(i)fitde.
From foe derivative ex al ta re, ex al ta tus, to raise, come
ex+alt; ex+alt+ed; ex+ altat+ion.
Anim, * from

an i nu.ts, mind, intellect, feeling, spirit.

(see this root, Lesson VI.) + anini + ity; magn (see
the root, Lesson XIII.) + anini + ous or ity ; iin (see root,
Eq1.t

t A frequentative expr&sses a repetition, or an increase, of the action
denoted by the primitive,

10

Elementary English.

Word-Building.

Lesson XX IV.) + anini + ou s or ity; pus ill (pusi llus, small.,
1
mean) + an'i m + on s or ous + ly or it y ; ani ni + os + ity;
anim +ad (the prefix) + v e1·t (to turn) ; anim +ad+ ve1·s
+ion ; 2 the true anim + (ns) ( L.) of the affair.

From an nu

a lis, yearly, come annu+al or al+ly or_ity.
1

· A1>t *, (att, ept), from ap tus, fit or fltted,-the p. })• of obsolete
/
vb., up e re, to fasten, join together.

Apt; apt+ly or ness; in+apt; apt(i)+tude,,· att(i)
+tu de or tud (in)+ ize; ad, 1 in+ ept.
From the frequ entative ad ap td re, ad ap td tits, to fit,
' come ad+ apt; ad+ apt+ able or abil + ity ,,· ad+ aptat +ion.

IL

Remark.-If the pnpil is required t o write out any part of his work,
some fo rm lik e this nrny be :uloptet1-t hc ·n ecessary work wi th the
pn.rts of the word , outlined al1ore, not uci11 g here set down:-

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Adept, one skilled in something ; inept,

1inskillful.

Bas*, (bass), from bas, or bus sus, l?w, humble.
W ORD .

LIT E R A L l\I E ANI NG .

Bas( e); bas( e) + ly or ness or ment ,,· a, de+ bas( e) ; a,
de+ bas( e) + ment ; bass. 1

ILLUST RATIO N OF IT S USE.

Th e drive1· mana,ges his horses.
(Liteml.)
~JIIanag e,

To do something by tlt e hand.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Bass-what part in music?

Dre! *, (b1•ief), from bre vis, short.

Th e speaker manages his voice.
(Jlletaphorica1, since the work
is 11.nt do11 e by th e hand, but
by the organs of speech.)

Brev + ity or et; 1 brev (i) +ary; 2 brief (adj.); brief+ly;
brief (a lawyer's) ; brief+ less.
From ab bre vi d re, ab bre vi d tits, derived from brevis,
~'· come ab+breviat+ion or (e); a+b1•idg+ment or er or (e).

If th e pnpil should bring in as an illnstrat.i on, Th e teacher manages
his pn71ils, he co uld perh aps see that t his use of manage is still more
meta ph orical, since th e work is done by nothing ph ysical, but by
authority or personal influence.

Ann,* Anni, Annu, (enni, en), from an nus, a year.

·

Helps for the Pupil.- Annals, a relatfon of the events of the year. '
Anniversary, the annual return of the day which e:ommemor~tes
some event.
,
.
!!

Helps fer the Pupil.- 1 Animosity, the f eeling hostile. 2 A nimad·
version, the m ind turned in criticism upon its obj ect; is this metaphorical?

L ESSON

11

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Brevet, applied to a commission, or to an
;, ·officer of higher rank than that for which he receives pay. 2 Brevif ary, a compend, a book of the Church, not the missal.
~

.

Ann+ al+ i st or al+ s ; 1 anni + ve1·s + ar y ; 2 bi , cent (se€ ' .;,
root, Lesson IV.) , tr i, sept (seven) , 111£ll (rnale, th ousand), · ~
per+ enn'i + al ; super+ annii + at+ eel or at+ ion.

, Cad,* Cas, (cid, cay, ch, casu),from cad ere, casus, tofaQ,
-. to fall out, to perish, to happen.
· ·
~.'" ,

I

Cad+ ence; 1 de+ cad+ ence or ency ; ac, in+ cid + ence 1
or ent s or ent +al or en t +al+ ly ; oc + cid ·t- ent 4 or ent +al;
co+in+cid+ent or ence or (e); de+C'id+(u)ous; ~ de+

12

Elementary English.

Word-Building.

.cay; ch+ance; 8 mis, per+ch+ance. Cas(e); oc+cas+''.· .
ion ' or ion+ al or ion+ al+ ly casu + al or al+ ly or al+ ty
or ist 8 or ist + ic +al or ist + ry.
J.

Helps for the Pupil.-Adtl the meaning of at to that of incident,
taken as a whole, and the meaning of ly to incidental, taken as a
whole. In general, take t he more simple combinations first, and use
these as wholes in defining other derivatives. 1 Cadence, used of the
voice only. ·2 Incidence, a fall-ing on or npon, as of one line upon
anoth er. s Incident, an ocwrrence. • Occident-the snn apparently
falls down where? 5 Decidit01ts-applietl to what trees, and why?
8
Chance, a happening. 7 An occasion fall s out or happens. "Casuist,
one skilled in cases or questions of eonduct-ac, ic, isl, and ism are
the common Gk. suffixes.
LESSON

III.

To the Teacher.-The meaning of some prefixes seems almost to
have faded out of them in certain combinations. To detect the force •
of de and re, for instance, in deceive and recefre, below, is a task too '
subtile for the pupil. Allow him to give the proper meanings of such
words (they are few) as wholes, without a hunt for th e separate mean· .
ing of each element.

(Jap, CaJlt,* Captu1·, (cip, ceiv, cept, ceipt; ceit), from
cap e 're, cav tus, to take, seize, hold.

Cap+ able or abil + 1'ty or acious or ac + ity or acious +
ness or ac+it 1 +ate; in+cap+able or ac+ity or ac+it+
ate~· p1'in (=prim,, see root, Lesson XXL) + cip +al~ or le'
or al+ ity or al+ ly ; ninni (see root, L esson XVI. ) + cip ,
+al or al+ i'ty 4 pa1·U (see root, Lesson XVIII.) + cip +le•
or (i)alJ· in +cip+(i)ent or (i) ent +lyor(i)ence;e re+cip+
(i) ent or (e); con, de, per, re+cciv+er or able or (e). Capt .:
+ ive or iv+ 1:ty or iv+ ate or iv+ at+ ing or or or (i)ous; ex,
inter, pre+ cept; de, ex, p er,1 re+ ccpt +ion; de, per, ,
pre, re, sus + cept + ive ; ex+ cept + ion + al or ion+ able or ,
J.

· 13

or; sus + cept + ible or ibil + ity .; pre+ cept +or or r + ess;
re + ceipt; con, de+ ceit. Captur( e).
·From an tic i pd re (anti for ant~), an tic i pd tus, and
par tic i pd re, par tic i pd tus, derivatives of capere, coma.
anti+ cipat +ion or ory ·or (e) ; parti + cip + ant; pai•ti '+
·cipat+ion or (e). From emancipdre, emaricipdtus, a
derivative of capere, come e +man (see root, Lesson XIII.)
+ cipat +ion or or or (e). From oc cu pd re, oc cu pd tus, a.
derivative of capere, come oc+cup + y or (i)er or ant or ancy;
oc+cupat+ion. From the frequentative ac cep ta re, accep ta tus, come ac + cept ; ac + ccpt +able or able+ ness or·
ance or er ac + ceptat +ion.

--

J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 It, a L. n. stem ending. 2 Principal, firsi.
. in importance. s Principle, 'that which is fundamental, from which
something proceeds. 4 ~Iunicipality, originally, not now, a town receiving the rights of Roman citizenship while ;retaining its own laws.
0 Incipience, a taking& Participle, a word partaking of two natures.
hold of at the beginning. 'Perception, the act of taking, or that
' ' taken, through the senses into the mind.
'1

Carn*, (carni, charn, car), from ca ro, car nis, flesh.

· Carn+ al 1 or al+ ly or al+ ity or age; carni +val 2 ( imperative vale, be strong; hence used in farewells) ; carni+ vor (to eat) + ous ; charn + el; s car( r) +ion.
From car nd ti o, fleshiness, comes 4 carnat +ion. From
the derivative in car nd re, in car nd tits, come in+ carnat
+ion & or (e).
· . Helps for the Pupi1.- 1Garnal, fleshly; how comes the meaning, sensual, sinful ? 2 Carnival, a festival just before Lent, and so, ac- ·
cording to W elJster (but not Skeat), "a farewell to flesh." 3 Oharnel.
houses are houses for the dead-vaults and sepulchers, • Carnation,.
I flesh color. & Incarnation, putting into a body.

. ,"
/

/

14

LESSON

Belps for the Pupil.- 1 Surcingle, a girth for a horse. 9 _Shingles,
o.n eruption encfrcling the body. 1 Precinct, a digtrict within certain
bounds. 'Succinct, within narrow corhJ?asS, concise.

IV.

Ced,* Cess, (ceed, ceas), from cede re, ces sus, t.o go,
girn up.

Ced( e) ; 1 ac, con, inter, JJre, re, se + ced( e) ; JJre + ced +
ent or ence or ency J. itn +pre + ced + ent + ed J. JJrO + ced +·
it re; ante+ cc<l + ent or ent + ly or ence J. ex, pro, sue+ ceed;
}Jl'O + cee<l + ing or s. Abs, 2 ac, ex, pro, re, sue 3 + cess; ac,
con,4 inter, pro, re, se, suc+cess+ ·ionJ· inter, pre+ de, sue
+ cess +or J. con, ex, sue+ cess + ive; ac + cess + ible or ory;
in+ cess +ant; sue+ cess +ful or Jul+ ly J. an(= ante)+
cest( =cess) +or or r + al or r + y; ceas( e) ; ceas( e) +less or
less+ly; de+ceas(e).~
From the frequentative ces sa re, ces :;a tus, we have
cessat +ion.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Cede a territ.ory. 2 Abscess, a collection, in "
any tissue of the bo<ly, of pus withdrawn from other tissues. 3 Snccess.
a follnwing, a result; now, only a favorable result. 4 Voncession, ~
yielding t.o a deman<l. ~Decease, a going from life, <leath.

Cent,* (centi), from cen ttun, a hundred.

Cent; cent+ itr + y or 1tr +ion 1 or enni +al or en+ ary
or en + ari + an ; per+ cent+ age J. 2 centi + ped( e) (see root,
Lesson XIX.) or grad(e) 3 (see root, Lesson X.) or gram'
or metm· (see root, Lesson XXV. ).
Helps for the Pupil.-:- 1 Centnrion, a Roman captain of a hundred.
' Percentage, the rate per cent or on a hundred. A ~ centigrade thermometer. 4 Gram, the unit of weight in the metric system.

Cing, * Ci net, Cinctur, (shiny), from cin ge re, cine tus, to
gird, surround, enclose.

Sur+ cing +le J.

1

+ cinct + ly or ness.

2

'. 15

Elementary English.

Word-Building.

shiny +le.+ s. Pre, sue'+ cinct; suo
Cinctivr( e).
3

\

Clln,* (clen, cliv), from L. form of Gk. klinein, to bend, slope,
· _,,
lean.

Clin+ic or ic+al or ic+s; 1 de +clen+sion J. ac, 2 'de,'
pro ' + cliv + 1:ty.
From in cli na re, hi cli na tus, dee li na re, dee li na tus,
rec li na re, rec li na tus, we get de, in, re+ clin( e) ; de, in
+ cUn +able; de, in+ clinat +ion J. de+ clinatu,r( e).
Helps for the Pupil.-In 1 clinics, the patients recline. In 2 acclivity, the slope is ascending ; in 3 declivity, descending. 'Proclivity, a
leaning towards.
LESSON

·V.

<:or,* Cord, Cordi, (cour), from c6r, c6r dis, the heart.

Cor( e) 1 cowr +age; 2 cour +age+ ous or age+ ous + ly;
dis, en +emir+ age or age+m.ent. Ac, con, dis 3 +cord; ac,
con, dis+cord+ant orant+ly or ance; ac+cord+ing or '
ing + ly .: ' re+ cord;' re+ cord+ er or er+ sltip; cordi +
al 8 or al+ ly or al+ ity.
- -Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Oare, the heart of the fruit. 2 Courage. the
heart thought to be its seat. 3 Discord, the heart thought to be the
seat of feeling. 'Acc01·dingly, in accord or agreement with. 'Record,
a truthful copy, in accord wit.h the facts. 8 Cordial, adj., from the /
heart ; n., something cheering the heart.
·

<:or;* Curat, (ur), from curare, cu rti tus, to care for, take
care of, heal.
; ·

Ciir( e) ; cur+ able; cur( e) +less; pro, sine+ cur( e) ;
se, in+ se +c1~r(e) + ly; se, in +se + cU1·+ ity 1 or (e); ~( =se)
+ ur( e) ; s + ur( e) + ly ; as+ s, in+ s + ur + ance or (e) ; r6

16

Word-Building.

Elementary Englisli.
2

+as+s+u1·(e). Cu1·at+or or ive or (e) ; ac, in+ac+
ciwat(e) ;-ac, in+ac+cm·at(e) +ly; ac, in+ac+cit'r +acy.

LESSON

,·Di~n + i:y or. it~ ary J: in+ dign + ity; con + dign; 1
daint + y 3 or i + ly or i + ness J. dis
+ dau1, ; dts + da·l n +fu l or f u,l + ly or ful + ness.
F~om i?~ dig nd ri, in dig nd tus, derivative of dignus, we
get ui + d'tgn +ant or ant+ ly J. hi+ dignat + ion.

<hgn~ + fy,. d ei gn;

Curr,* Curs, (c1u·ri, corri, cu1·, cor, cou1·i, cowrs), from
cur re re, cur sus, to run, move qiiickly.

Cn1·r + ent or ency 1 or ent + ly J. con, oc + civ1·1· + ence;
curri +culum,; 2 corri + (cl or) ; con, 1:n, oc, re+ c1w; sue+
cor; s couri + er. · Cu1·s + ory or ori + ly J, ex, in+ curs+
ion; e.& + cm·s +£on + ist J. ex+ c1ws + foe or ivc + ly; dis+
curs+ i've J. 4 pre+ cwrs +or; cowrs( e) ; coiu·s + er or ing.
2

VI:_.

Dlgn ' * (d ign't,
·
· l ·
·
· \
,.
< e'tgn, daint,
da'tn),
from <llg nus, worthy.

Helps for the Pupil.-' Security, one's freedom from care because of
safety. 2 Citrate-whose care or duty does he take upon himself?
1
Accurate-correct because of what taken?

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Cnrrency-what cit-culates?
course of study. s Succor, to rnn imder, or to Lhe aid of.
running from one thin g to another.

17 '

3

:eelps for the
thrnk wo 1·thy. A

1
Pup~l.Condign, suitable
8

dai nty morsel.

4

to the fault. ~ Dei n to
Disdain, not to think wort{y.'

Due,* Duct, (duk, duch, duit), from du cc r e due tus t 0
lead, to bring forward.
.
'
·'

Curriculum,
Discursive,

. Ad, con, de, e, in, intro, pro, re, se, re+ pro, super+ in,
1
con+ duc+i·ve or ive+ness J.
con, de, e, re+ duet ible J. duk( e) ; 2 duk( e) +dam; duch +
ess or y. Duct; duct+ i'le 4 or i'l + ity · ab con de , in,
·
pro, a.que aqua, water), ~i(a) (road)+ duct; ab, de, intro,
pro, 1e+pro, se+duct+ion; de, in, pro, se+duct+ive.
con+ ditct + 01· or r + ess J. con+ ditit. 5
J.
From edit. ca re, edit ca tus , derivative of educere, WE: h ave
, e+ducat+ion or or or ed or ion+al or ory or (e).

t? a+ due( e) ; due+ al or at J.

4

J

Diet,* (d'itt), from die e 'r e, die tus, to say, prononnce.

,

,

I

,

.

(

Ad, 1 contra, e, inter, pre, ver ( = verus, tru e)+ diet;
+ion or ion + ary ; bene, contra, infer, juris 2 (from Jus,
Juris, justice), 1nale, pre, val(e) (see Lesson III ., under .-,
Cm•n) +diet+ ion j contra, val( e) +diet+ ory J. dUt + (o) • 1 '
(It.).
From the freqn entative die td re, die td tus, we have in+
diet+ ment J. 4 lUctat + ion or or or or+ slti'.p or or + (i)al or ·
or+(i) al-1-ly or (e). From di cd re, di cd tits, to proclaim, .
devote, consecrate, we have ab, de, in, pre+ d·i cat( e) ; ab,. '
de, in, pre + dicat +ion.

..

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Addict, to devote to. 2 Jurisdict1:on, sphere <
or limits within which one nmy declare or apply the law. "Ditto, said, ·
or aforesaitl. 4 Indictment, t he statement in detail of one's offence.

Helps _for the Pupil.-' Ducat, first coined in the duchy of Apulia
:nd beanng the wortl ducatus. 2 Dulce, originally a leader in battle'
4
• D uct, a. passage.
Ductile, capable of being drawn out or elongated·
0 ondttit,. a canal condttcting water.
'
•

Equ,* (equi), from

mqiti.ts, equal, just.

E(J1.t+a~ or al+ize or al+ ity J. co, un+equ+alJ· co, in+
equ +al+ ity J. equi + nox 1 ( nox, noctis, night) or nocti +al
2
or val+
ent or val+ ence or voe (see root Lesson XXIV )
3
'
•
+al.
2

,'

(

J

Word-Building.

18

Elementary Englislt.

From the derivative noun c8 qui tas, ro qui ta tis, come
equit + y or able or ab!+ ?J; in+ iqn'it + y or ous or ous + ly. '
From the derivative ver!J w qud 1·e, m qud tus, come cqna +
ble or bil + ity; c + qiiat + ion ' or or~ or ori +al ; ad, in
+ad+cqnat(e); ad, in+ad+cqnat(e)+ly; ad, i n+ ad
+ cqiui + cy.

19 . ,,·.

root, Lesson XXI.)+fic+(i)al or (i)al+ly or (e) ;· vene
+fic+ent or ence or (i)ary; ef,~ in+ef, pro, suf+
fic+(i)ent or (i)ency . or (i) ent +ly ;\ in+suf+fic+(i)~nt
or (i) ent +ly_; de+fic+it 3 or (i)ent or (i)encyJ· ef+fic
+ aciou.s or acy f1J, meaning to make, is found, as a
· su~-ix, in derivatives too numerous to mention; as, magnify,
rarif?J, etc.); af+fai1· (Fr. faire, to be done). Fact;'
fact+or or ory or or+sltJ:p or ion b or (i)ousJ" bene+
fact+ or or ion ; 1nanii (see root, Lesson XIII.) *fact+
0
1
~ry
de, ej~ i~, per, ini +per+ feet; co1i, de, in, per,
im +per + f tJct +ion ; de, ~f +feet+ ive or ive + ly or ive +
8
ness J. feat; de+ feat; feas + ible 9 or ibil + ity; /ash+
10
iou> or 1'on +able or ion+ abl + y J. counter, sur ( = supe1'),
for (.foris, out of doors) +feit. 11 Manii+factur+er or
(e); fcatur(e); .for+fcitm·(e).
From the derivative n.dj. fac il is and noun fa cil i tas,
fa cil i ta tis, come fac + ile or il + ity / faciilt + .1/ ~· dif +
fl_cult; dif + ficiilt + y; faciUtat( e). From the frequentati:e affec ta re, affec ta tus, come af, dis+ af +feet; af,
dis+ af +feet+ fon; af, dis+ aj~ itn + af +feet+ ed ~· af +
feetat +ion. 12
J.

(

J.

VII.

Fa,* Fat, (/, fa1·), from f<t 'l'i, fa tus, to s1Jealr.

Af+fa+ble or Ml+d!J or bl+y.; fa+ble~ orbul+ous;
in+ef+fa+ble ; 1'n+f+a11t 3 or mzcy orant+-ile or ant+
ine~· mnlU (see root, Lesson XVI.)+/ar +(i) ous~·· ne+
fm·+ (i)ous b or (i)ous+ly or (i )ous +ness . Fat( c); 0 fat
. +al 1 or al+. i511l 8 or al+ ist or al+ it!); pre+ fat+ ory;
pre+fa+ce.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 .A.ffrrble (t.he ble of nlile), easily spoken to. '
1

Fable (t.hc b1e of bulum), that by which something is said or taught. ·
4
3 Infant, one 1mable to spea k.
Jllultifarions, lit erally, many-speak5
l\Tefarions, contrary to what is divin ely spoken,
ing: hence various.
hence wicked. ° Fate, spoken Ly the goJs or some power Leliind thnm,
hence fixe<l, unalterable. 7 Fatal, unalterably tlestructivc. "Fatalism, the <loctrine that things are fated and so necessary.

2

Fae, Fact,* Factur, (fie, f1J, fafr, feat, feas, /ash, ,
ieatu1·, fcitii1·), from face 1·e, fac tus, to <lo, to make.

.' .:'

a

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Equi.'no:1:, time of equrrl day n.ml n·ight.
3
2 Equivalent, of equal 1·a1ue.
Eqni:vocal, <loul>tful, l>ccausc open,
equally, to two or more inlervrntatwns. In a 11 "equation what are
equal? b Eq1tator-what does t his line diviue, a uu into ·w hat parts?

LESt>ON

~ --

.t

I

. Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Fac~otum, a doer of everything. 2 Efficient, able of or ont of or from itself to produce something, an effect.
4
H Deficit, what is wanting.
Fact, something done; hence= truth as
5
in fact.
Facti'on, those acting together in opposition to otl~ers'.
6
Manufactory, the word remains, though machinery has largely taken
the place of the hand. 7 Infect, to taint by communicating something
8
noxious. · A f eat, as of swimming. °Feasible, that may be done. 1
1
° Fashion, the make of a thing. 11 Fo1:feit, that lost by some misdeed,
111
Ajf'ectation, an assumption, a trying to seem what one is not, .

Fac+toturn 1 (totus, everything); arti (ars, artis,
skill), bene, of (=op, ops, ability, help, aid), sacri

.'

.1

20

Word-Building.
LESSON

VIII.

To the Teacher.-The words most frequently nsecl should be
selected if not all are taken. All arc usefu l, ~om e more u seful than
others.

Fer,* Lat,* (ln11), from f&1· 1·c, ld tns, to bcnr, cnrry.

Con, de, d1f, in, luci 1 (lw :, lncis, light) , of, pre, prof
· circwn ' con' de ' dif'
in ' J'Jre ,.
( --pro) ' re ' su,r
'./J trans++-m·
.I'
,
jJ
re, trans+ fe1· + ence; suf + fc1' + er or ance or ing; pre, re,
suJ, trans+ fe1· +able; d1f + fcl' + ent or ent + ly; coni (conus, cone), .fiori (ffos, ffon:s, flower), fructi (fructus, fruit),
pesti (pestis, pest), 1.'oci (sec root, Lesson .XXIV.) +fm·+
· ous. Col, di, e, ob,2 pre, pro, 3 re, trans+lat(e); col, ob,4 re,
cor +re, trans+ lat+ ion; d1: +lat+ ory G or ori + ness J. ab, 8
il,7 re, cor+re, s11per+lnt+ivc J· de (=di)+lciy.
From the <leri vati ve fer ti lis come fert + ilc 6 or il + ity or
il+izc or il+iz+er.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 L1.tc1f er, the light-bringer-Venus as morning star; by a strange interpretation of Isa. xiv. 12, applie<l to Satan.
3
j Oblate, pushed, or borne, out at t he silles ;
prolate, at the poles.
5
4
Oblat-ion=o,tferi11g.
Dilatory, deferred, delayed. 6 Ablative case is
that denoting separation, beari7lg away from. 7 Illative, applied to the
process of reasoning or inferring. 8 Fertile, bearing richly.

Fid,* from fide 1·e, to trust.

Con+ /id+ ent 1 or ant 2 or ent + ly or ence or ent + (i)al
or ent + (i)al + ly or (e) ; dif +/id+ ent 3 or ent + ly or ence.
From the <lerivntive/idehs, faithful, comefid+el+ity;
in+ /id+ el J. 1:n +fill+ cl+ ity. From the noun/£ des come
per+fid+y or (i)ous or (i)ous+ly; cle+fy ; 4 de+fi+ant
or ant+ ly or a nee ; fwi (Fr. fei or fay)+ th or th +fill or
tli +Jul+ ly or th+ Jul+ ness or th+ less or th+ less+ ly.

Elementary Englislt.

21

Helps for the Pupil- 1 Confident, trusting, assured. 9 Confidant ~- ~~~
the one trusted. 8 Diffident, di'. s trustful of ..self. •Defy, to disown~;-· - ,. ~.;';
renounce faith in, to <lare. ·
"\
· ··

FSn, * Finit, from fl n ·i, re, fl ni tus, to end.

_Pin( e) ; 1 con,~ de, re+ fin( c) ; con, de, re+ fin( e) + ment;
de, in+ de+ fin+ able J. 3 fin+ islt or islt +er. Fi.nit( e);
/init( e) + ly or ness J. in+ jinit + ive or y or udc or (e) ; de+
/init+ion or £ve or (e).
From the derivative fl nd lis we have fin+ al J. fin+. al+ ly
or al+ ity. From the derivative fl nd re, to furnish a 'fine or
\ tax or subsidy, we have fin+ ance or anc + (i)al or anc + ier.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Fine, a sum paid settles, e1ids, a matter ;
fin e, a<lj., what is well finished is fine. 2 Confine, to place within
bounds. 8 D efinable, that may have bounds, or au end, set to it.

IX.

LESSON

To the Teacher.-Sometimes two suffixes are fonn<l in a word-the
second rulding nothing to, only r epeating, the meaning of the first.
.Al, in genetical and generir;al below, seems only to duplicate the io.

Fract, Fractur, (frag, /ring), from frungere,
f1·uc tus, to bend, break, subdue.
F1·any + iblc or ibil + ity J. in, re+ f1·any + ible or ibil +
ity J. fray+ rnent or ment + ary J. suJ + fray 1 ( e) ; ir +re+
f1·ay +able or abl + y; in+ f1•iny( e) ; in+ /ring( e) + ment.
Fract +ion or ion+ al or ion+ s ; in, re+ f1·act; in, re+
fract+ion; re+fract+ory or ori+ness. F1·actur(e).
From Jrdg i lis we have fra,g + ile or il + ity; fra + il;
fra + 1'.l + ty or il + ness.
Fran~,*

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Su.ffrage, perhaps from a broken piece, or potsherd, used in voting. For other aid, see the Model preceding Lesson I.

I

· ../

/

,!

\
22

Elementary English.

Word-Bitilding.

Fund, Fus,* (foun<l, font), from fun de re, fu sus, to melt,.
to pour, pour out, shed.
2
Re+ fund; 1 re+ fiinll + or or numt ; fomul; fou,nll +
er or ry; font. 3 Fus( e) ; con, d(f, in, pro, si~f~ trans+
fus(e); fus+ion or iblo; con, d1f, cf, in, pro, trans +ftts
+ion ; d(f, eJ + fus + ive.
From clerivtttivo fit ti lis, p oming forth vain talk, ·we get.
fut+ ile 4 or il + ity.

23

..• ..~
LESSON

·'~

X.

.$

To the Teacher.--Seek for variety in Clondncting the recitation.
One or two different English words, for instance, may be assigned to
each of a number of pupils, a;; the l>oanl, or at their seats. These they
arc to analyze, plitcing the plus sign between prefixes, root, and suffixes, and undcl'!ining the root. An illustration of the use of each "
word. should then be ' written. This is more important than writin"'
a.
0
literal definition.
•

2

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 R efuncl, to pour, or to pay, back.
Found,
to melt, ancl pour into a mould. 3 Font of type. 4 FutUe, vain, empty.

Gen, Gen it, (geni, genii, yen,<l, f!Cnet), from (Jt(J ne 1·e (or·
gi gene 1·e), to beget., prolluce.
Gcncr,~f from ge niis ..
gen m· is, kill(l, race, class, ~pccics.
lndi (=in)+ yen + ous ; 1 pro+ gen+ y; (f!en is found as.
a suffix in many Greek words ; as, hydrogen, oxygen, ondo-

gen, e.x ogcn); 7wnw, 2 lwtero 3 +gen+ (o)ous; ycn:i +al ~r al
5
+ity or al+ly or (us) (L.); in+geni+ous; geiui+ine;
in+ genii+ ous 0 or ous + ness or ous + ly or ity ; genll (the,
1
d excrescent) +er~· en+gend+cr. Gcnit+ive or al or
8
or; pro+ ffenit + or; con + f! Cnit + al~· f!Cnet + ic or ic +al.
Gcnm· +al or al+ ity or al+ i ze or al+ iz +at+ ion or ic or
ic +al or ic + al + ly or ous 0 or os + ity; con+ yener.
10
From the derivative gens, gen tis, we have (Jent+ le or
eel or ly or ry or le + ness or ile. From the derivative·
gen era re, genera tus, W O have (Jenerat +ion 01" ive 01'.'
or or ( e) ; de, re+ yenerat +ion or ive or ( e).
1

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Indigeno1ts, born in, and hen ce native to~
4
3
2 Homogeneons, like in kind;
heterogenerms, nnlike in kind.
Genial,
8
pleasant, kindly. 6 Ingeni01ts, gifted with inventive genfos.
Ingen-·
nous, h7;gh born, frank, noble. 7 G<5nitive, the sonrce case, the of case..
8 Gendic, pertaining to source or prOLlnction.
u Genero1ts, liberal, cath ·
0
olic; a quality supposed to belong to high, 110\Jlc birth . ' Gentle, mild,
refined ; a, quality supposed to belong to those of a cla,ss, or gens.

Grad, Gress,* (gred, grallu, .ffree), from g1·d di, ures sus,
to step, walk, go.

Grad( e); 1 retro +yr ad (e) ; yrcid +at+ ion or at+ ion+
al; in+ (Jrell + (i)ent; 2 yradu +al or al+ ly or at+ ion or
ate~· 3 de+ yree.
Con, di, e, in, pro, trans+ yress; ag,
trans+ (Jrcss + or; ag,4 di, pro, re, retro, trans+ (Jress +
ion; ag, di, pro+ yress + ive.
From the derivative ·deg ra du re, deg ra da tus, come de
+grad( e) ; de+ yradat + ion.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Grade, a step in rank. 2 Ingredient, that
which enters into a compound . 1 Grad1tate, one elevated to a grade or
degree. • Aggress£on, the going out tow11:~~s, or to, in hostility.

Grat,* (y·r atu, yrati, (Jrac, gre), front fJTU tu.s, pleasing,
(}eserving thanks, thankful; yra tis, by favor, without reward.

Grat( e) +Jul or fnl + ly or Jitl + ness
in+ yrat( e) ;
gratu + ity or it+ ous; (Jrati + tude
in+ graU + tudc·;.
. grac( e) ; (Jrac( e) +Jul or Jul+ ly or Jul+ ness or less or
· less+ ness ,- dis+ yrac( e) ; dis+ y1·ac( e) +Jul or Jul+ ly;
.: grac+(i)ous or (i)ous+ly or (i)ous+ness; a, dis.' +a+
. gre(e) ; a, dis+ a+ gre( e) +able or able+ ness or abl +.y or
ment.
From the derivative grat ifi ca re, grat ifi ca tus, come
J.

J.

Word-Building.

24

Elementary English.

yrati + fy g'r att + jica,t +ion. From the derivative grat· '.\
'U ld ri, grat n ld tus, come g1·ntnl<.it +ion or ory or (e); '.
con+ gratnlat +ion or ory or ( e).

.Yung, .Junct,!f< .Tunctur, (join, joint, jointur), from jfinge re, ,j'unc hts, to bind, connect, uni~e.

J.

Join; join+ er; ad, con, dis, en, re, sub+ join; joint; ·
joint+ ly. Junct +ion; con, dis, 1:n +.funct +ion; 1 con,
dis, sub+jiinct+ive or ive+ly. Jmictm·(e); con, dis+
junctur(e); jointur(e).
From Ju gd re, ju ga tus, derived from jugmn, a yoke, we
get con+ jug+ al~ or al+ ly or al+ i"ty J. con, sub+ jugat +
ion or (e) 8 •

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Disagree, not to acconl with or be agreeable to.

Jlospit, * (host, hot, ost), from h6s pes, h6s pi tis, one who

entertains, or a guest.

Hospit +al 1 or al+ ity 2 or able host; 3 host+ ess; host
+el or host+el+ry=hot+ el; host+l+er=ost+l+er.'
J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Injunction, an en:joining, a mandate. 2 Conjugal, pertaining to those .foined in marriage. s Sub.Jugate, literally, to
cause to pass under the .fugum, or yoke.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Ho spital, a building for guests, sick people. .
the generous entertainment of guests. 3 Host, the enter.
tainer. Hostler, now •ostler; once the i1t,n-keeper, now the groom.
~Hospitality,

LESSON

25

.Jur,* .Jurat, from ju rd 1·e, ju 1·d tus, to take an oath,
make oath.

Ab, ad, con, per+ ju1•( e) ; jur + y 1 or or J. per+ jur + y
or or; con+ jur +or~ or er/ 3 ab, ad, con+ jurat +ion .

XL

.Yect*, (.jet,jut), from j<ic e 1·e, jdc tus, to lay, throw, east.

Helps for the Pupil.-' Jury..:.....what is administered to a jury?
Oon.f1tror, one bound to others by an oath. 8 Conjurer, a juggler, one
who practises magic arts.

Ab, e, hi, ;i nter, ob, pro, re, sub +ject; de, e, in, inter,
ob, pro, re, sub+ ject +ion; ad, ob, sub +ject + ive 1 ob, pro
+ject +or; ob+ ject +ion+ able ab+ ject + ly or ness; de
+ject+ed or ed+l.'IJ or cd +ncssJ· 2 jct/ 3 jet+(t)y/ 4 jut.
From the derivative ja ce re, to lie, WC have ad+ jac + ent
or ency _; circwn, super +.fac + ent. From the derivatives
con jic ere, con jec tus, a!ld e jac n ld ri, e jac u ld tus, we
have con+ jectu/r +al or al+ ly or ( e) ; 6 e +jac1ilat +ion e or
cry or (e).

2

J.

J.

Hints for the Pupil.- 1 Sub.fective, of the mind, or the internal
world, in distin ction from ob.fective, of the ea:fernal world. 2 D e.fectcdness, stale of be;ng cast down. 3 Jet, a throwing, or that tlt?·own, forth.
5
4 J etty, a pro.fection, as a wharf.
Con.fectnre, to throw together, or
0
throw out, as a guess.
E.faculation, uttered, or thrown oitt, sud•
deuly.

LESSON

XII.

To the Teacher.-Do not let the pupil overlook the common metaphorical uses of words. Have him see that in saying, Collect your
thoughts, Recall or recollect what he said, Outline the lesson, you are
using the words collect, recall, recollect, and outline not literally, but
fi.gurati vely, metaphorically.

Lat,* see Fer.*
.'.' Leg,* Legat, from le ya 're, le ga tus, to bring forward, to
send on an embassy, to depute, to leave by will.

. : Al+leg(e). Leynt+ee or (e); leg+acy/ 1 lega,t+ion;
· · al, de +leg at+ ion ; de+ leg at( e) ; 2 ·r e+ legat +ion or (e). s
'

I

26

Word-Building.

Elementary Englislz,..

Helps for the Pupil.- L egacy, that left by will.
deputed or appointed. 3 Relegate, to send back.

27 .

From de line are, de line a tus, a derivative from .linea, de+lineat+or or ion or (e~.&

1

Leet,* Leetur, (li y, less), from Uy ere, Uc tus,
read, gather, choose.

Le~,

L ey+ ible or ibil + it y or ion; 1 il +leg+ ible or ibil + ity;
col+lcg(e); 2 e, in+ e+ lcy+ance or ant; 3 lcg+ end' or ·
end+ ary; e, & in+ e, intel + liy + /ble or ibil + i ly; di, 0 neg,
intel + liy + ent or ence or ent + ly. Col, clia, 1 e, intel, u neg,
re+ col, sc + lcct; col, e, pre+ di, 0 1·e + col, sc + lcct +ion j
e, col+lect +or~· less+ on. Lcctur·(e); lcctur·+e1·~· lcctur(e)
+ sltip.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 J,eg1:on, a chosrm Lolly of. men. 2 College,
a collection of persons, a seminary. 3 Elegant-what would well-chosm
manners or style be? •Legend, once, that appointed to be read;
now, a mythical sto ry. & Eligible, qualifieLl to be chosen. 0 Diligent,
opposed to neglige11t; painstaking in the matter chosen. 7 Dialect,
language read a nd spoken t hrou ghout a limitecl regio n. 8 Intellect,
the faculty of choosing, distinguishing, knowing. 0 Pred·ilection,. a
bias disposing one to a certain choice.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Linen is made of what? and 2 lint of \\·hat? .
L ·ineage, line of descent. 4 L-innets feed on what ? •Delineate, to
outline.

8

Liter,* from Utera, a letter.

Lite1· +al 1 or al+ ly or ary. 2
From the derivative adj. lit e rd tu.s come literat( e) ; il
: + litcrat( e) ; il + litcrat( e) + ly or ness; il + litera, + cy;
al+ literat +ion s or ive. From the derivative lite ra tit ra
comes litercitur( e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Literai, according to the letter. 2 Literary, pertaining to letters or li terature. 3 Alliteration, repetition of
the s(J,me letfor at the beginning of successive worlls.

LESSON

Loe,* Locat, (loco, lieu), from lo ca re, lo cu tus, to place,
'

Llber,* from li bcr, free, frank, acting at one's pleasure.

Libm· +al or al+ ly or al + ity or al + ism. or al+ frc
libcr + al or al+ ity.
From the derivative noun lib er tas, lib er td tis, we have
libm·t + y or inc 1 or in+ ism. From the <lerivn.tive verb lib.;. ·
e rd re, lib e ra ins, come libe1'at + ion or or or (e) ; de+ .·
livc1·; 2 de+ liver+ er or ancc or y.
J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Libertine, one whose liberty ha s become
mere license. 2 Deliver, to fr ee frorn.
~,, ·

Lin/ from U nu1n, Un ea, flax, thread.

· Lin(e); lin+en 1 or t; 2 Un(e)+ar or age 9 or al or
ment; Un(n) +et;• Un +seed.

XIII.
,

M~~

Loe+ al or al+ ize or al+ ity ; loco+ niot ·(see ~·oot, Les-·
son XVI.)+ ion 1 or mot+ ive .: lieu+ ten (see root, Lesson
XX VIII.) +ant or ten+ ancy. Locat +ion or (e) ; col, dis
·,+locat+ion or (e).
. Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Locomotion, movement from place to place.

Loqu,* Loeut, from lo qui, lo cu tus, to speak, to talk. ·

· · Loqit + acious or ac + ity 1 col, ob, soli (see root, Lesson
.XXII.) + loqu + y ; e, nfr.igni + loqu + ent or ence ~· col+
loq1.i+(i)al or (i)al+ly; soli+loqu+ize;' ventri (venter,
belly) + loqu + ist 3 or ism. Circum + locut +ion; e .+ locut
+ion or 1·on + ary or ion+ ist.
J.

I

1'

28

Elementary English.

TYord-Building~

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Loquacity, talkativeness. 2 Soliloquize,·ro
talk alone and tb one's self. 3 Ventriloquist, one making his voice .
seem to come from some other than its real source.

Lud, * Lus, from lu <.le 'r e, Ui sus, to play, laugh at, sport witli.

Al,' de,2 e, inter, pre +lnd(e) . Al, col," de, e, il +lus+
ion or ive or ive + ly.
From the derivative adj. M ch crus, we have l1uU+ (er) ous
or (er) ous + ly or ( cr)ous + ness.
4

Helps for the Pupil.-' Allude, to hint at, r13fer to, not to speak
fully of. 2 Delude, to pZa,y with in on1er to deceive. In 3 collusion,
men play into each other's hands. 4 lllusion, a deceptive appearance.
'.Mu~u,.,.

JJEayn + awim + ous or <tni1n + ity _;

From the derivative e man ci pa re,
e man ci pd tus, we have e + nian + eipat +ion or cipat +or .
or cipat(e). From the derivative ma rz,1p u la tim we get
mani+(pnlat)+ion or (pnlat)+or or (ptllat)(e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 11Ianreuvre and 2 manure are the same word,
and = work by the hand. The chief work on the form is to fertilize;
hence it came to be calletl to manure, and the wonl was then transferred as a noun to the fertilizer. 3 Manumit, to send from one's
hand a slave, to release, 4 1lfaintain, to hold by the hand, to support.
6
& 1lfannerliness, civil manners.
lJiannerism, peculiar style, or manner, offensively prominent.

LESSON

magn +ate ma(fn'
or fi +er or fie+ ent or fie+ ent + ly or fie+ ence or tude.
From the derivative niafes tas come nw}est + y or ic or .
ic +al or ic +al+ ly. From the derivatives ma gis ter, mag 1"
istratus, come niagiste1·+( i) al or (i)al+lyJ· master;
maste1·+ly or ful or ship or less or y; mayist'l·at(o);
1nagistra + cy.
J.

Mau,* (11ianii, niain), from nui nns, the hand.
JJian + ag( e) ;

man+ ag( e) + ment or ag( e) +able; man
(dim. of manica, a glove) or rmwre 1 or 'lt,re; ~ bi, · ·
quacl1·n (four) + nian + ous J. 1nann +al or al+ ly J. 1nanu ,.
+fact+ory J. m .miii+factn1'+er or factn1·(e); mamu+ ,
1nit 3 (see root, Lesson XV.) or miss+ion or se1·ipt (see ·
root, Lesson XXL) ; a+ numn +ens+ (is) (L.) ; niain +
tain 4 (sec root, Lesson XXVIII.) or ta.in+ able or tatn
+er or ten + ance.
From the derivntive manicre (Fr. ), we have man(n)+er
or er+ ly or er+ li + ness" or eJ' +ism, J. 0 un +man( n) +er+

+ (a)cle

ly or er+ li + ness.

(niagni), from ·mag nus, great.

+ fy

29

Mar,* (ma1·i), from

XIV.

mu re, the sea.

JJia1· + 1:ne or in+ er; sztb, trans, ultra+ mar+ ine ;
mari +time.
Mater,* (1natr, matri), from 1n<.t te1·, ma tris, mother.

.IJ-Iater(n) +al or dy J. matr +ix or on or on+ ly or on+
ize; mat1·i + mony or moni +al.
From the derivative mate ri a, matter, we get materi+
1
, al or al+ ly or al+ ity or al+ ist or al+ ·i st + ic or. al+ ism;
mat(t) +er 2 or er+ less.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 J.fater-ialisrn, a doctrine attaching undue
importance to matter. 2 Matter, the substance, and so, as it were, the
' riwther of material things.

Medi,* from

me di us, middle.

Medi+(um) (L.) or al or ocr(e) or ocr+ity orev (mvu_m,
1
·
age)+ al or ter1· (term, earth) +an+ ean.
From me did re, rne did tus, we get mediat +or ~ or ion

30

mira + cle ( = cul um) or cul+ ous or cul+ ous + ly;
Ad+ 1ni'rat +ion.
The Fr. merveille, from the derivative rni rab i lis, gives
us nim·v +el or el+ oits or el+ ous + ly o'r el+ ous + ness. \
'

+ ly

or ori +al or (e) ; im ,3 inter + mecliat( e) ; i'm,
niecliat(e) +ly.

Helps for the Pupil.-' Jfirage-what is the optical illusion, called
mirage, which causes wonder? ~ .Admjrable, the mere wonder passir.g
now into approbation . .

M cnt~ ~f from niens, nien tis, the mind.

lJicnt +al or al+ ly; de+ ment+ ed.
Mere,* (1ne1·ci, 11ie1·ch, 1na1·ket), from 1ner -ea 1·i, mer ed. .
tits, to trade.
lJierc +er or ant+ ile corn+ me1'c( e) ; JJierc + ur +.'I/ 1 ;
com+ m crci + al or al+ ly .: mcrch +ant or and (=ant) -1-izs~ .
or ant+ able 11w'1·ket (from w c1·cat, tho p. p. root);
J.

J.

t1u1,rkct + able.

·

Helps for the Pupil.-' 11Iercnry, the grnl of trade.
uu~ 1· sn.<;,

to plunge into,

; o + 111 e'l'(J + ent or ence or
E, im, sub+ 11ic1·s +ion

e1·g( e)

J.

im.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Emergency, a pressing necessity

arising.
LESSO N"

' ltliU, * lUiss, (ntit, mis), from mit te re, 1n1,s sus, to sencJ, cast,

throw, let go.

,..•

Ad, re+ 1nitt + ance; re+ 1nitt + ent ' or er_; inter+ mitt
+ ent 2 or ing + ly; corn+ 1nitt + ee or al ad, com, e, i'nter,
mann, o, per, re, sub, trans+ m,it. JJfiss + ive or al 3 or ile •
or ion or ion+ ary; re+ niiss; re+ niiss + ness / ~ ad, com,
e, inter, 1nanu~ o, per, re, sub, trans+ miss+ion; ad, per,
' trans+ miss+ ible; per, sub+ miss+ we corn+ miss+ ion
+er; com, e+niiss+ary ). coni+pro, de, pre, pro," sur+
mis(e).
J.

xv.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1,Remitlent, slackening in effort. 2 Intermittent, periodic in effort. 3 111issal, the mass- book-mass from missa
est {the congregation is dismisseLl), with which words the service closes.
4 Jlissile, that thrown.
~Remissness, slackness. · ' 6 Promise, to put, or
send forth, a binding declaration.

lUlgr, * l'tli~rat, from m,i gr<t 1·e, nii y1·a tns, to go from J>lace
to 11lnce.

l'tlon,* lUonU, (nionu), from 1no ne·re, niun i tus, to advise,
rrmind , wnrn .

11Iiy1·+ant; e, im+111.iff1·+ant. Jlliy1·at +ion or
(birds) or (o); c, im., tra11s + mily1'f1t-1-ion or (o).

A rl + 111-on +ish : su1ii +'lnon:' sum + ·m on +er or s;
11w1w.+11ient 2 or mcnt+al. JJionU+or or ion or ory or ,
or+ sMp ad, pre + monit +ion or ive or ory.

Mir,* l'tlirat, (nii•Nt, m.irr), from 11ii1·<i1·i, niiratus,
'

1'fi1• +age/ ad+ m,i'I' +able or abl + y or er or ing or ing
2

I- ~}

I .

[, ·

J.

look at, wonder or man·cl at.
1

.{

J.

sink.
JJ.Ccrg( e) ; e_
, irn, sub + m
ency). 1 sub+ uiery + cnce.
sub+ 11ie1·se( e).

J.

mfrr +or.

Helps for the Pupil.-1 1lfediterra11ean-the se11 nam e<l
lying between what? 2 Jlfediator, one coming iu between
3
Im, the negative.

Mer;;-,* lUcrs, from 1nc1' gc 1·e,

31

Elementary English.

Word-Building.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 81.tmmon, to ica.rn to appear.
that by which people are reminded of something.

2

Monumen4

''

Elementary Englisli.

Word-Building.

32

Mort,* from ni01·s, 1n6r tis~ J en.th.

1JI01·t +al or al+ ity or al+ ly or main or gage~ ;
nio1't+al or al+ize or al+ity.
From the <lerivatirn mar tifi ca re, mar tl:fi ca tus, come
morti + fy or ft.cat+ ion 3 •
1

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 .Morimctin, property passing to the Church
was inalienabl e, passeu, n.s it \Ycrc, inlo the hcinds of a dead man.
2 11f01·tgage, la.nu helu by mortgage 1.Jecame lost, or dead, to the mortgagor, on breach of the comlition. 3 JJlortification, the metaphorical
meaning is death of pride.
LESSON

re

re+mov+al or able or ed+ness or (e); mov(e); mov(e)
+ ment. Mot+ ion or 01· or ive.; 1 e,+ mot+ ion 2 or ion+
al or ive_; pro+mot+ion or ive or er_; pro, re+mot(e);
com+ niot +ion mo+ ment 3 or ment + ary or ment + ly or
ment+ous 4 or ment+ous+l.z; or ment+(um) (L.); mo+b
(the b from the ending bilis or bile in m6bilis, m6bilB, easily
moved).
J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 1lfotive, a reason for change of purpose, for
movement. 2 Emotion, movement, agitation, of the feelings; the feeling itself. 3llfornent, an instant of time; of importance. 4 .Momentous, of moving force.

XVI.

To the Teacher.-For oral rec itation , a Latin root-word, movere, · · ·~
for instance, may be put on the board. Different pupils may name the ·
several root-forms from this. These mar be written in a column .,
beneath. Other pupils may 1.Je asked to gi,·e the prefixes and tho suf·
fixes that unite with each root-form. Write the prefixes in a column
to the left of the root-form and the suffixes in a column to the right,
thus:im

33

} J.Jiov {

able
abl+y
ed
er
er
ion

01-,

1'1un,* (1non, niun'i), from niu nus, 1nu ne ris, a duty, an
office, a gift.

,

/ .I
-

etc.

etc.

I

Im+ mun+ ity 1 com +mun+ ity 9 or ist or ion or (e) ;
com +?non; s com +mon+er or ly or al+ ty or ness or s;
1nuni +fie+ ent ~ or fie+ ent + ly or fie+ ence. '
From the derivatives com mn ni ca re, com mu ni ca tus,
and re mu, ne ra r£, re mu nerd tus, we have com+ niiinic +
ant or able com+ municat +ion or ive or (e) ; ex+ com
+municat+'ion ot· (e); re + 'm Hn€1'+a ble J· re+munernt
+ion" or fre or (e).
J.

Then Jet. othr.r pnpils combin e these into worc1s. expl::i.in
ing of each prefix, rool-funn, aml suffix, am1 illustrate Lhe use of

words which they compose.

1'Iov, l'tlot, * (tno), from nio vc re,

JJiulti +tu de or tud + (in) + ous or ply (see Lesson XX. for
the four roots ply, plic, ple, pli) or plic+ity or ple or pli
+er or plic+and or pUcat+ion or form (shape or fonn)
or form+ ity or far+ (i)ous.

J.

e
corn
pro } Mot { ive

re

Mull* or JUulti, from mul tus, many.

tho
-

mo tus, to move.

lJiov +er or able or abl + y _; i·m + mov +able or

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Tm.munily , exemption from duty. 2 Community, all sharing. 3 Common, shared by all. 4 Munificent, making
lavish g1fts. "Remuneration, giving, or th at given, in relitrn.

I·

.:~ ',:~,r,t

Word-Building.

34:

Nase, Nat,* Natur, from nus ci, net tus, to be born.

Nase+ ent or ency. 1 Nat+ al or ion 2 or ion+ al or ion+
al+ity or ion+al+ize or ive or iv+ity; in, cog+nat 3 (e).
N atiu· +al or al+ ly or al+ ness or al+ ize or al+ ist or al+
iz +at+ ion or ( e) ; 4 itn, prete1·, super+ ·n atm· +al.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Nascency, state of birth. Etymologically,
but not in fact, 2 nation names a people of the same birth or stock.
4
1 Cognate, born with one.
Nature, ety mologically, the iuea of birth
predominates.

Nav,* from

na vis, ship.

Nav (e); nav+al or y. (I'Jr nmn'gate, etc., see Ag.)
From the derivatives nazi ti cus and nausea re, nauseatus, we have nattt+ ic +al or ic +al+ ly; nausc + ous or (a); 1
nauseat +ion or ( e).
1

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Nave, the body of the church, likenetl to a
ship. 2 Nausea, sea-sickness-appropriate?

LESSON

XVII.

ce 1·e, gno tus, to know.
Not (e) ; 1 not+e1· or ed or ice or ice+able or ion or ion+
al or ori + ous. 2
]from the derivative no tifi cd 1·e, no tifi ca tus, to make
known, we have noti + fy or ficat +ion. From ig no rd re, ,
not to know, we have i ( = in)+ ynor +ant or ance or
amus s or (e). From the derivatives n6 bi lis, i'g n6 bi lis, we
have no+ ble 4 or bil + ity or bl+ y or ble + ness; i + yno +
hle or bl+ y or ble + ness. From no ta re, no ta tus, come
not+ able or abl + y or abil + ity; notat +ion~· de, con+
not(e); an, de, con +notat+ ion; an+notat(e), From
Not,* from no.<; ce 'r e, no tus, or

yn6.~

Elenientary English.

35

cog n6s ce re, c6g ni tus, we have co+ uniz + ance or ant or
able~· co+ gnit +ion
re+ co+ gniz + ance or able or (e) ;
re+co + gnit+ ion~· in +co +gnit+ (o) (It.).
J.

\

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Note, a mark by which a thing is known.
2
Notorious, with us, known for bad qualities. 3 Ignoramus, a blockhead ; bnt really, amus is the 1st per. pin. indic. ending of L. verb ;
hence ignoramus= we are ignorant. 4 Noble, known for good qualities.

Numcr, * Numeral, (niunber), from nu me ru re, nu me·
rd tits, to count, to number.

Nttmer +al or al+ ly or ous or ous + ly or ous + ness or ic
+al or ic+al+ly; in+nunier+able,; super+numer+'
ary; 1 niunbe1·; nnmber+ er or less. Niimerat +ion or
or or (e); e+nmnerat+ion or (e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Supernumerary, one in excess.

Nun ct,* Nunclat, (nounc), from nitn ci a re, nun ci a tus,
to proclaim, report.

Nwnci+(o 1 ) (It.); an, de,' e, pro, 3 re+nounc(e); an,
, de, e + nounc( e) + ment; pro+ nounc( e) +able '; an, e, re+
nunciat +ion or (e) ; pro+ nunciat +ion ; de+ nunciat
+ion or 01· or ory.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Nuncio, a papal ambassador. 2 Denounce,
t-0 proclaim threateningly. s Pronounce, to utter or speak forth.

Ocu I,* from 6c u lus, eye.

. Ociil + ar or ist or ar + l'!f J. bin + ocul + ar.
From the derivative in oc u la re, in oc u la tus, we have in
+oculat+ion or ~r or (e). 1
, Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Inoculate, to engraft a bud, or eye, of one
tree into another.

.I

Word-Building.

36

LESSON

Past,* Pastor, from pas ci, pus tus, to feed.
Past+ or 1 or or+ al or or+ ship or or+ ate
Pastm·( e) ; pastiw +ago or er.
'\

XVIII.

Par,* Parat, (ue1·, va:fr) _. from J>ll-'l'<h·c, pa 1·<i, fu.s, t.o sec,
to get rendy, or mnke ready.

J.

J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Compatible, agreeing with each other, each
su,tfering the other. 2 Patient, suffering, the one suffering, but without murmur. 3 lmpass'ioned, the im adding force, intensity.

Part* from Fr. parter, 1o talk.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 P(/,rlor, the room for talk.
talking, and then a place for it. · "I'arley, a confere nce.

Part,* ( J>01't, pa1·ti, pa1·, pars), from pa1·s, pu'I' tis,
'piece, portion, share.
Part; a, comiter +part; part+ y or ly J. a, de,
pm·t + ment port+ ion or ion+ less ap +port+ ion or iot!;.
+ rnent pro+ port+ ion 1 or ion+ al or ion+ able; parti +'~ ''
al' or al+ly or al+ity or cle or cul+ar or cul+ar+ize o
cul+ar+ity; pm·+cel; JJars(e). 3
'·From par ti re, par ti tus, to divide, come partit +ion o
ive or ive+ly J. de, im+part; de+pa1·t+ure; pa,rtrt+'1i
er=partit +ion+ e7·; partn +er+ ship. (For participate

re+ past.'

Pat, Pass,* (pati), from pa ti ri, pas sus, to suffer.
Com, 1 in+ com+ pat+ ible or ibil + ity or ibl + y pati +
ent 2 or ent + ly or ence; im + pati + ent or ent + ly or ence.
Pass+ ion or ive or ion +ate J. im +pass+ ive or ion+ ed; '
com+ pass+ ion or ion+ ate or ion+ ate+ ly.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Several, once, many taken
not necessarily one by one.

Parl + ance or or 1 or (ia)ment •
(ia)ment+ari+an or ey. 3

J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Pastor, a shepherd, real or metaphorical.
~ Repast, a meal, food.

Com, pre+1ur1· (e); com, i n+coni, 1:n+se, re, ir+rc, se+ ·
pm· + able or abl + y; com, + pa1' + (is) (Fr.) +on ; se., dil
1
+se+1·c1·; se,(l/:s+sc+1'<'''+rmce; se+uc1·+al or al+
ly; re+ pair. Pre, re, se + 11a1·at +ion; com+ parat-fj~
ive; pre+pa'r at+ory ap+parat+(us) (L.).

J.

37

Elementary English.

Pater,·* (patr, patri), from pater, pa tris, father; pa tr~ a,
father-land.
Pater+(n)al or (n)ity J. patr+on or on+age or on+ize
' or on+ ess; patri + mony; patri + ot . or pt+ i'c or ot +ism
or ot + ic +al + ly ; com + patrf+ ot; ' ex+ patr'l +at+ ion
or ( e).

_,I

Helps for the Pupil.-1 Compatriot, a jeilow_-c_r:untryman . .

J.

J.

etc., sec Cu1J.)
Helps for the Pupil.- 1Proportion, relation between parts, harmo
ous arrangement of parts, etc. 2 Partial, appertaining to a part
distiuction from the whole. 3 Parse, to tell the parts of speech.

LESSON I

1

XIX.

To the Teacher.-In reviews you may give Latin root-words, and
require pupils to write or give all the root-forms from these, used in
English, with one or more words in which each root-form is found.
The teacher will see that a great variety in manner of recitation may
easily be devised.

Ped,* from pes,

pe dis, foot.

Ped+al or estr+ian or est+al; bi, quadru+ped;
bi, quadrit + ped +al.

.'

.•

. ~

lFord-Building.

38

Elementary Englislt.

:From the derivatives ex pe di re, ex pe di tus, to free from; \
to make easy, and impe di re, impe di tus, we get ex+ped~ · ·
+ent or ency; ex +peclit+ion or (i)ous+ly; 1 1'm+ped(e); .

im + pedi '+ rnent. 2

·

,f.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 E xpeditionsly, with hurrying fe et.
pediment, literally, something by whieh the feet are obsfritcted ,· how ·

used metaphorically?

,.

Pell,* Puls, (pel, pelt), from pf:l le 1·c, 1n£l sus, to drive,
strike.

push, ~ ~

Pro+pell+er; com, dis, ex, im,pro, re+pel. Pitls(e); ·' .
im, re+pnls(e); com; ex, im, pro, re+1mls+ion or ivs;
pelf.

2

From the derivative pul sa re, pul sa tus, we have pulsat .
+ion or ive or ory or (e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1Pulse, the blood driven in beats.

39

(e) ; re +com +pens(e); dis +pens+er or able or able+ness or ary; 5 in+ dis+ pens+ able or able+ ness; dis+ pensat
•
6
•
\
+ion or we or ory.
\·
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Compendium, an abridgment. 2 Dispense,
to deal out in portions; what is it to dispense with f 3 Expense, literally, weighed out, as gold still is in the Bank of Englan<l; cost.
•Pensive, thoughtful, considering. 5 Dispensary-place where what is
done? 6 Dispensation, the act of, or the government, meting out.

Pet,* Petit, (petu, peat), from pet ere pe titu,s,,to ask, to
seek, to rush at, to fly to.

Com+ pet( e); com+ pet+ ent or ence; in+ com+ pet+ ent
or ence~· im+pet+(us) (L.); centri (center)+pet+al; im
+ petu + ous or ous + ly or ous + ness ·or os + ity ; re+ peat;
re+ peat+ er or ed or ed + ly. Petit+ ion or ion+ er or
ion+ ary J. com, re+ petit +ion ; com+ petit + 01· 01~ ive; ap
+peUt(e).

beat.
LESSON

Pend,* Pens, from pen de 1·e, pen sns, to hang, rely upon •

.Ap, de, im, sus+pen<l; perul+ant or ent or itl+(um) ;.
(L.) or itl + ous; de, in+ de+ pend+ ent or ence; ap +pend '
+age or ix; sus+pencl+ er +s. Pens+ile~· sus+pens+:
ion or (e).
Pend,* Pens, (pendi), from pende1·e, pensus, to
out, consider, pay out.

Com, ex, s (=dis), sti (stips , a gift given in small coin) + ;;;
pend; com+ pe1uli + (nm 1 ) ( L.) or ous or oits + iy ; sti +·t;
pencli+ary. Dis, 2 e:r 3 +pens(e) ; ex+pens+ive or ive+ly ·~
or ive + ness ; pens+ £on or ion+ er or ive • or ive + ly.
From the derivatives com pen sd re, com pen sd tus,
dis pen sd re, dis pen sd tits, we get com+ pensat +ion

·,

xx. -

I

Pict,* found in compounds of ple re, to fill.

·'

Com, de,' in+ com, re 2 + plet(e); com, ln +com +plet(e)
+ly or nessJ· com, de, in+com, re+plet+ion; ex+plet+
ive. 3
Helps for the Pupil.-Note ·the force of de an<l re in
•Expletive, used to fill out.

1

deplete and

~replete.

Plic,* Plicat, or Plicit, (ple, pli, ply, ploy, play, plex),
from pli ca re, pli ca f;us, to fold, bend, turn. .
I i

Com, du, niulti, sim 1 (=semel, once)+plic+ityJ· ac+
com+plic(e); sim, sup+ple; sim +pli+fy; pli+ant or
able or ancy or abil + ity or able+ ness J. ply; ap, com, im,
mis+ ap, multi, re+ ply; 2 em+ ploy; 3 em+ ploy+ er or

\.

I

I

.'

I

40

Word-Building.

ment J. de+ ploy; dis+ play;• com, du, muUi+plex.
Ex, 6 im "+ plicit; ex, 1:m + plicit + ly or ness. Ap, du, im,
mis +ap, ninlU, re, sup+ 1Jlicat +ion;' com, du, ex, im,
sup +plicat(e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Sfoiplfrity, literally, state of being single,
uncombined, without fold. llow docs it get its meaning of absence of ' .
cunning, or of sagacity? How does dupli'city mean cunning, deceit?
~Reply-what is retiu·ned in a reply? "Employ, to involve, infold, by
using, occupying. 4 Display, to itnfold, as a flag, to show. 5 Explicit,
unfolded, and hence <lislinctly seen ; 6 implicit, folded in, the meaning
only implied. 7 Supplicntion, the leg from the knee clown bent under
in kneeling in prayer.

Elementary English.

ant 1 or a nee J. de+ port+ ment ; de, ex, im, · trans+ portat ~"""'~'
+ion.
"·
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Port, carriage of the body. 2 Purport, meaning carried, tenor of. 9 Impurtant, carrying something of weight, or
importance, within.

Port,* (porch), from p6r ta, n gate or door.

Port; 1 port+ al or er or r + ess or ic + (o) (It); porch.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Port, opening, as in port-hole.

LESSON

Pon,* Po!i!U, Post1 ..., (pound, post), from pun e 1·c,
it us, to place.

Post+ pon( e); post+ pon( e) + ment; com, de, ex,
pon + ent J. com, ex, pro+ vonn<l. De+ vosit; posit+ io1i
or ive 1 or ive + ness or iv+ ist ,· ap, corn, op+ posit( e); ap,
com, de, de + com, d1'.s, e.1:, im , inter, Ju xta, op, pre, pro,
sup, trans + pos'it +ion ; com, dr, e:i.: +posit+ or; de+ posit
+ ory 2 or ary;" post;• po.<>t +al or age; com, im +post;
im+post+or 6 or nre. J.>o.<;fn'J'(c).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Positive, placed, fixed, in opinion. 2 DepoB·
itory, the place where things a.re placed; 3 depositary, the one with ·.
whom. 4 Post, a stake .fb.:ed in the ground; a military station; & ~ ·'­
posit.ion of cluty. How a conveyance for letters? 5 Impostor, one ·~
who imposes upon others, <lecei\•cs them.

41

XXI.

Pos, * from Fr. pose1·, to place ; J,ow Latin, pan sa re.

Pos( e) (attitude); com, de, ex, im, inter, op, pro, pur,
re, sup, trans+pos(e); com+pos+er or ure or ed+ly or
ed + ness; pro+ pos +al J. ex+ pos + ure.
P1•im, * (p1•in, pri), from prl, 1nit.'I, first.

Pri.Jn( e); 1 prini +er or al or ary or it+ ive or ev ( wvum,
age) +al ; prin + cip + le or cip +al or cip +al+ ly or cip +
al+ity or cip+al+sliip; prin 2 +c(e) (c(e) from capere, to
take); prin+c(e)+ly or c(e)+doni or c+ess; pri+or
(ending of the L. comparative) or or+'itu or ory. 3
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Pri:me, first in quality. 2 Prince, the principal person. 3 Priory, the house presi<le<l over by a prior.

Port,* Port at, from por td 1·e, vor Ui fns, to carry, convey,
bear along.

Sacr, * (sac1·i, secrat), from sa era re, sa era tus, to set
n11art as sacred, to dedicate.

Port; 1 com, de, dis, ex, 1'111, s (=dis), s11p,pur, 2 trans+
port; port+ able or able+ ness or er or er+ age or l.11 or·
li + ness ; ex, im, re, sitp + vort +er or able ; im +port :t '

Sacr+ed or ed + ly or ed + ness; sac1·(a) +ment or ment
+al; . sac1•i +fie+ (i)al or fie( e); sacr·i + lcu + (i)ous or leg
+ (i)ous + ly or ley( e). Ex+ cc1''( =secr=sacr) + ableJ· 1 ex+

42

ecrat( =sec1·at) +ion or (e) ; con, de+ sec1·at +ion or
or ( e ).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Execrable, worthy of
upon things not sacred, unholy.

Sci,* from sci 1·e, sci tns, to know.

Sci +ence or ent(i) +fh: or ent(i) +fie +al or ent(i) +fie +al
+ ly ; con, pre+ sci+ ence _: ' con+ sci,+ ou.'I or ous + ness; •
con+sci+ent+(i)ous 3 or ent+(i)ous+ly or ent +(i)ous+ ·
ness; omni(all) +sci+ ent or ence _; un +con+ sci+ous or
ous +ness or ly.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Presc1:~nce, a knowing beforehanLl,
knowledge. 2 Consciousness. a !wowing with one's self. 3 Gonscie~.
tio1ts, governed by conscience, beimvi11g by the rules of right..
_.i!f~

Scrib,* Scl'illf, Sc1•iptur,

(scriv, sc1•'i p), from sc1·ibert1

sc1·ip tits, to write.
Sc1·ib(e) ; a, circmn, de, in, JJre, pro, sub, suJJer, trans+ ~·
sc1·ib(e); sub+scr-ib+er; sc'l'·i b+(b)le or (b)l+er; sc1•iv.;'
+en+cr. 1 Sc1•ipt; con, 11utnn, non+de, post, re, tran+
sc1·ipt; a, circum, con, de, in, pre, pro, sub, super, tran. ·
+ sc1·ipt +ion; de, pre, pro+ scl'ipt + ive ; sc1··iJJ. Sc1•·l pt•
iw( e); sc1·iptiw +al.
' ,
1

Helps for the Pupil.- Scrivener, once, a money lemler ; now, one ~ :
who draws contracts and other wn:tings.
.~.,

Sent,* §ens,. (senti, sensii), from sen ti 1'e, sen sMs, to feel, :
think, 11erceivc.
~

As, con, dis, re+sent; dis+sent+e1·J· s(c)ent; 1 sent ~
+ ence J. 2 sent+ ent + (i)ous 3 or ent + (i)ous + ly J. re +sent .
+ment or ful; • senti + ent or ment or ment +al or menl
+al+ ism J: pre+ senti + ment. Sens( e); sens( c) +less 01' -

43

Elementary English.

Word-Building.

less + ly; sens+ ible or ibl + y or ibil + ity ; non +sens(e) ;
non+ sens+ ic +al; sensn +al or al+ ity or ous or ous + ly. ~:
From the derivative . adj~. sen sd tics\ and sensitif,, we
have sensat+ion or ion+al or ion+al+ly; sensit+ive or '.
ive+ness.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Scent, something perceived by the nose.
9
9 Sentence, containing a thought.
Sententious, weighty with thought.
'Resentful, literally, full of the feeling towartl one which he has
toward you ; now, full of indignation, anger.

LESSON

XXII.

se qui, se CU•
tits, to follow.
Sequ +el or ent or ence con+ sequ + ent or ence or ent +
ly sub+ seqit + ent or ent + ly ,; sec+ ond 1 ( = und, the gerundive suffix = the pres. part.) or ond +ary or ond +ari + ly
or ond +ly J. ob+sequ'i +es or ous 2 or ous+ly; su(e); en,
pur+sn(e); pur+sn+ant or ance or er. Per, pro+secut
+ion or or or ( e) ; con+ secut +ion or ive or ive + ly; ex
+ ecut ( = secut) +ion or ive or ion T er or or or r + ix
sect : 9 sect+ an; or ari +an or ari +an+ ism snit; suit
+able 4 or able+ ness or or or (e) ; 5 pu.r +suit.
Sequ, * Sccut, (sec, sequi, Mt, sect, sitit), from
J.

J.

J.

J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Second, next after first, ·called second because it follows the first. 2 Obsequious, submissively following the
will of ~nother. 3 Sect, followers of some one. 'Suitable, follows
the style of, adapted to. 6 Sitite of rooms; a train of followers,

Sol,* (soli), from s6 lus, alone.

Sol(e); sol(e) +ly .;_sol+ (o) (It.); soli+loqit+y or loqu
soli + tude.
From sol i tas como sol it+ ary or ari + ly. From tho

+ ize ;

44

Elementary English.

JtVord-Building.

.

derivative des o la re, des o la tits, we have
or ness; de+solat+ion or (e).

~

;

LESSON xxnr~

Splr, * Splrat, (spirit, spright, spri~), ~from spi
ra tus, to brenthe.
.

Spec,* or S1•ic, S1•ect, (spici, speci, spy, spi), from spec ·
(or sp'tc)e 1·e, spec tns, to look at.
Au (=av , from avis, bird)+ spic+ es;' de+ spic+ able 2
or abl + y ; spic( e) ; 3 su + spic + ion; 4 sit, an, in +au +
0
spici+ous~ or ous+ly / .r;;pcci+al or ous or al+ty or
es 5 or (e) ; 3 c+spcci+al; spcci+men; spy; e+spy;
e + spi +al or on+ a_qe. A , circwn, pro, re, retro, su + spect;

circum, intro, retro+ spect +ion; intro, pro, re, retro+
spect + ive ; re+ spect +able 1 or abl + y or abil + ity or j'ul
orful+ ly.
From the d erivatives con spic it 1ts, per spic u us, we get
·con, pe7· + spicn + ous or ous + ly or ous + ness ; per+ spicu
+ity. From tho froqu entatirn spec ta re, spec ta tus, we
get ·"J>ecta+ cle (=cule) or cle+s; ·"J>cctat+or ; cx+pect
(= spcct) ; ex+ pect +ant ; ex + vectat +ion; fri + spect;
in+spect+ion or or or or+ship. From the derivative
spec ifl ca re, spec ifl ca tus. "·e get speci+fic or f!J 01' fie+
al or fie+ al+ ly or fi cat + ·ion. From spec u la ri, spec-.
it la tus, to ox ploro, watch, ire go t spcculat + ·ion or ive or ( e).
Helps for the Pupil.-' A usp1:ces, once, omen from the fli g ht of
bfrrls ; under the a.nspices of=t111d cr lhe patronage of. 2 D espicable,
deserved ly looked down npo11 . 3 8pic1', 3 spec1:es, 3 sz)(;c1;e-thin gs of a
ldnd, or class, ha Ye ge nerally like v1:sible forn1$, hence, on t he au thority
of G. P. l\Iarsh , species came to mea n kind, class; among t he lcindsor
classe.~ of Eastern m erchandise were l1rugs and condim ents, h ence these
were called spices; species is the visible form in di st.inetion from that
which represents it, hence spec £e 'ras taken to name golll and silver
when paper money appeared as th eir representati1·e. 4 Snspicion, a
looking askance at, or with mistrn st. 6 Aiisp1:cious, th e omen fa vorable.
8
Specious, appearing well, plausible, hut the appearance deceptive.
.'Respectable, literally, worth looking at a.g ain.

45

ra •re, spi-

1

\

A, con, in, per, re, re+ in, tran + spir( e) ; ex+ pir
(=spir)(e);' a+spir+ant. 2 A, in, per, re, tran+spirat
+ion_; spirit; spirit+ less or ed or cd + ly or ed + ness;
s1n-ight; spright+ly orful; sprit(e).
From the derivative spirit u a lis, we have spiritu+al
or al+ ly or al+ ize or al+ ity or al+ 1·sm or al+ 1:8t or ous.
Helps for the Pupil.-1 Expire, to breathe out, tlie.
who pants for something.

A

2 Aspirant,

he

Stru, * Struct, Structur, (stroy), from stru e re, struc tus,
to make, build, arrange.
Con,' m£s 2 +con+stru(e); in+stru+ment 3 or ment+al
or ment +al+ ly or ment +al+ t'st or ment +al+ ity J. de+

stroy; 4 de+stroy+er. Con, in, ob+struct .: con, de, in,
ob+ stn.tct +ion or ive or ive + ly; con, in+ stf•itct +or.
Strztctm·(e) ; super+ sfructitr( e).
Helps for the Pupil.-' Construe, to set in order, to translate ;
3 In4
strument, a machine for making something.
Destroy, to unbuild,
pull down.
s misconstrue, to set amiss, to misnnderstantl or misrepresent..

I

Sum,* Sum pt, (sumptit), from su nie re (sub+ em, ere),
si"ilnp tus, to arrogate, to take np, to spend.
,
.
•

As, con, pre, re+sitm(e); as, con, pre, re, un+as+sum

+ ing; con, in+ con, pre, re+ suni +able con+ sum+ er.
J.

As, con, pre, re+ smnpt +ion or ive
swmptu+ ous 2 or
2
ous + ly or ary ; pre+ sump tu+ ous or ous + ly.
J.

Halps for the Pupil.-' Sumptuous, expensive, luxurious.
aumpfoous, taking liberties untluly, r<J..shly .

9

PreI

!

~:"

Tani", Tact,* (tiny, tag, tigii, tain, teg, tegr, tactu, tast),
from tan ge re, tac tns, to touch, to reach, to handle.

· ,

Tang+ ent or ency or 1:ble or ibl + y or ibil + ity or ent +
(i )al J. con+ ting+ ent 1 or ent + ly or ency J. con+ tag+ ion 9
or (i)ous or (i)ous+ness J· con+ti yn+ous 3 or ous+ly or
ous + ness or ity ; at+ tni n ; rd+ tain +able 4 or able+ ness
or rnent J. in+ tey + e1· J. " i'n + tey1· +al or ity. 0 Tact; 1 tact
+ ile J. con, in+ tact ; tactn +al; tast( e); a tast( e) +less or
less+ ness J. tast( e) +Jul 0 or Jul+ ly or J itl + ness.
From the derivative in te gra re, in te grd tus, come in+
teg1· +ant ; in + teyrat +ion or (e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Contingent, touching, resting ~1pon, and so.
· dependent. 2 Contagion, transmission of di sease by touch or contact.
3
Contiguous, touching. 4 Attainable, reachable. 6 Int eger, itntouched,
whole. 6 Integrity, character untouched, sound. 7 Tact, skill in touching, in handling. 8 Taste, literall y, to touch with tongue or palate.
•Tasteful, agreeable to our taste (m etaphorical?) for the beautiful.

XXIV.

IiESSON

.

r

'ro the Teacher.-Thc pupil, made familiar hy this work with the

roots, prefixes, and suffixes used in these lessons, can ne ver go far
astray in his use of the .many English words which they form. Such
an acquaintance with these worrls as shall enable him to employ them
intelligently and correctly is an attainment to he coveted, on e worth
a ll t he lahor Rnrl p •1i n"< it 0n"t " hi 11 1 f~111d yn11. \ \",, k11"w no lie t.t"r roa<l
to it than that which, under your direction , he is foll owing.

Un,* Unit, (uni), fr om un i r e, n ni t ns, to j oin, make
u nus, one.

Un+ion or anini+ous or anini+ity; dis,
ion; tri + un(e); un + ique nni + cur n (curmt, horn) or
son (sonzls, sound, h arm ony) or r oe (sec root "below)+ al or ' .;
vers (vertere, to turn)+al or vers+al+ity or vers (e) ~r.
1

J.

47

Elementary English.

Word-Building.

46

J:

form or f01•m + ity or fy. Unit (one) ;· unit+ y 2 or ari +. -- -...-r- ·-·
..,
..
an or (e); dis, re+unit(e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Triune, three in one.

Ut,* Us, Usur, (usu), from

2

Unity, oneness.

u ti, u sus, to use.

Ut+ens (=ent)+ilJ· ut+a+ity or il+ize or il+iz+at
+ion or il+it+ari+an. Us+able or age; per+us+al;
ab+us+ive or ive+ly; us(e); ab,1 dis, mis, per+us(e);
us( e) +fitl or Jitl + ly or less or less+ ly ; usn +al or al
+ ly. Usu1· + y 2 or er or i + ous.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Abuse, to use wrongly.
lawful charge for the use of money.

2

Usury, now, un-

Viet,* Vis. (vey, vie, view), from vi de 1·e, v·i, sus, to see.

E, pro+ vid + ent or ent + ly or ence .; pro+ vid + ent + (i)al
or ent + (i)al +ly; pru( =pro)+ d( =vid) +ent 1 or ence or
ent + ly J. pur, sitr + vey; pur + vey +or or ance; sur + vey
+or or or+sliip. Vis+age 2 or ion orion+aryoribleor
: ibl + y or or J. ad, re, super+ vis( e) ; ad+ vis+ able 3 or able
+ ness or ed + ness or er; pro, re, super+ vis+ ion J. ad+
vic(e); view ; 4 view+e1· or less; re+vieiv; re+view+er.
From the derivative vis i ta re, vis i ta tits, we get visit;
visit+ or 6 or ant ; visitat +ion _; re+ visit; re+ visUat +
H elp s fo r t he P upil. - 1 l'rurJ.cnt , f orr:Rr:dnr; n111l w is" in llir: ust "f
mean!>. 2 VifJrt ge, t.he fn.ce, I Ii~ foolc . •A dvisrtbfo, 1uien to !Je the best
, to do. •View, U111L seen. 6 Vilfitur, one who goci; Lo see.

Viv,* (vi), from vive re, vie tus, to live.

Fiv+ frl or ac ious or ac +Uy ; re. su.r+dd o) : re + dv
.+al or al+ist; sur+viv+az or or j vi+and+sJ· con+
1

viv + (i)al or (i)al + ily.

~,

Word-Building.

48

Elementary Engfish.

49

From the derivati-ves vi ta lis and vie tu d lis, we get vit ·
+al or al+ s or al+ ly or al+ ity ; victu +al+ s. From the '
derivative vivificdre, vivificdtus, we get vivi+fy;

(history), lexico (lexicon), topo, typo+ graph+ er ,; tele +
graph+ ic or ist or er; typo+ graph+ ic or ic +al.

vi vi+ ficat +ion ; re+ vivi + fy; re+ vivi + ficat +ion.

Lo;;,* Logu, from louos, a word, speech, science, reason.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Viands, things to live on ; now, only food.

(voic, vow), from vox, voe ·is, voice.
Voe+ al or al+ ist or al+ izc or al+ iz +at+ ion cqul,
uni+voe+alJ· voie(e); voic(e) +less; vow+el.
From the derivative verb VO ca re, VO ca tus, to call, we gel;
voea + ble 1 or bitl + ary J. 2 't:ocat +ion 3 or ive J. vouch;
vouch+ er; re, ir +re+ voe+ able or abl + y J. con, e, in, ··
pro, re+ ·v ok(e ); •a, con, cqwi, in, pro, re+voc.at+ion;
ad +voca+cy J. ad, cqu:i + vocat(e). From vo cif era re,
vo cif e rd tus, we get voci + fc1· + ous or ous + ly; voci +
fe'r at+ ion or (e). ~
~'oc, *

J.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Vocable, n. name, n. word. 2 Vocabulary, a.
list, or collection, of vocables. 3 Vocation, calling, profession. •ViAv.ocation, a calling away, or a diversion, from one's vocation. b ociferate, to speak loudly.

GREEK ROO'l'S, OR ST.EMS.
LESSON

Gra1>h, * from

XXV.

y1•aphein, to write.
Graph+ic or ic+al+ly or ite; auto (autos, one's own)," ·
litho (lithos, stone), photo ( plios, photos, light), tele (at ai .'
distance) +graph; bio (bias, life), geo (giJ, earth ), litlw,
ortlio (orthos, correct), photo, steno (stenos, narrow), tele,
topo (topos, place), typo (tupos, type) +g1·aph+y; kistorio -

Log+ ic or ic +al or ic +al+ ly or ic + ian; lou + arithms
(arithmos, number); ana, apo, bio, chrono (c,hronos, time),
concho (conche, shell), doxo (doxa, praise), entomo (entoma,
insects), etymo (etymon, source), eu, genea (genos, birth),
geo, mytho (muthos, fable), ornitho (ornis, ornithos, bird),
pa tho (pathos, suffering), phreno ( phren, mind), phraseo,
( phrasis, diction), physio (phusis, nature), philo (philos,
loved), psycho, (psuche, soul), tauto (the same), techno
(techne, art), tlieo (theos, God), toxico (toxicon, poison), zoo
(zoon, animal) +log+y; ana, bio, chrono, etymo, genea, geo,
mytho, ornitlio, patho, phreno, physio, pltilo, psycho, tauto,
theo, zoo+ log+ ic +al or ic+ al+ ly; log( o) + mach+y
(strife) ; syl +log+ ism; ana, apo, cata, deca (ten),, dia, ec,
epi, mono, p1·0 + log-u( e).
Meter,* Metr, from metron, measure.

Meter; anemo (anemos, wind), baro (baro.s, weight), dia,
gaso (gas), hexa (hex, six), hydro (hudor, water), penta
(five), pen:, thermo (thermos, heat)+meter; metr+ic or ic
+al; geo, sym, trigono (tri + gonia, angle) + metr + y.
Phil,* Philo, from philos, a friend or a lover.

Phil+anthrop (anthropos, man)+ y or anthrop +ist phil
+adelph (adelphos, brother)+ian or adelph+(ia); phil+
harmon (harmonia, harmony) +ic philo+log+y or log
+ist J. philo+soph (sophia, wisdom) +er or soph +y or
soph + ic or soph + ic +al or soph + ·ize.
J.

J.

--.

-..-

... .

50

Word-Building.

Elementary English.

ADDITIONAL LATIN ROOTS.*

con, ex, in, se+clus+ion or ive; · in+con+clus+ive ·';
clos + ure or et clos( e) ; 2 clos( e) + ly or ness; en, in+ clos
.,
+itre or (e).
From the derivative claits trum, we get ~loist+er, 'clot~t
+ 01· + ed, clo'i st +er+ al.
·

51
1

y'

LESSON

XX.YI.

Ccrn, Cret, (c1·e)~ from cer ne re, c1'e tiul, to see, to sift, to , .
distinguish, to separate.

. Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Clause, n portion of the sentence shut oJ!
from the rest, by itself. 2 Olose, to shut to.

Con, dis+ ce1·n; dis+ cc1·n +er or ible or mcnt _; de+
ere( e); se +ere+ cy. Dis, in+ dis+ Cl'e( e)t; se + cret; 1 se
+ cret + ly or ive or ary J. 2 e:i;, se + c1·et +ion J. 3 se +ere~+ ive
or (e); dis+cret+ion or i·on+al or ion+al+ly.
From the derivative cfr tus, w e have ce1·t+ain 4 or ain+
ly or ain+ty. From cer t~/i ca re, cer t1f i ca tits, we have
cert-i+fy; ccrti+ficat+-ion or ficat(e).

Fleet, Flex, Flcxur, from ftec te re, ftex us, to bend.

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Secret, separated and hidden. 2 Secretary,
originally a private clerk, one i ntrustcJ with secrets. 3 S ecretion, tho
act of secreting, that sepctrated from t he blood and maL1e into new substances. • Certain, use<l when one has sifted t he matter thoroughly.

Clam, Clamat, (clai1n), from cla 1nd 1·e, cla 11ui tus, to call,
· to cry out.

Clan't +or· 1 or or + oits or or + ous + ness J. claim, ; 2 claim
+ant; itn, itn +re+ claim+ eel J. re+ claim.+ able ; ac, de,
dis, ex, pro, re+clai1nJ· de, dis, e:-r, pro+cla'i1n+erJ· ac,
de, ex, pro+clcwiat+ion J. de, ex+cla:mat+ory.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Glamor, a noisy cry.
a right.

2

Claim, to demand as

Claus, (clos), (Clucl, Cius, in compounds), from clau<l ere,
clait sus, to shut.

Claus(e).'

Con, ex, in, pre, se+clnd(e).

* These not in the H,egents'

List.

Re+clits(e);

De, in, re+ ftect; de, 1·n, re+ ftect +ion; 1 re+ ftect +or
or ive or ive + ness. Flex+ ile or ion or or or ible or ibil
+ity J. circum, re+ftex; in, re+ftex+ible or ibil+ity~
Flexit1'( e).
I

Helps for the Pupil.-Reflection, the turning (metaphorical ?) of the
mind back upon itself.

Flu, Flux, from ftu e 1·e, ftux us, to flow.

Flit( e) 1 ftu + ent 2 or ency or id or id+ ity J. af, con, ef, ·
melli (mel, honey) + ftu + ent or ence y' in+ ftu + ence s or ent
+ (i)al; super+ ftu, + ous 4 or ous + ly or ity. Flux; con,
ef, in, re+ ftux; ftux + ion; de+ ftux +ion.
From the derivative flue tu a re, flitc·tu a tus, we have
fiuctuat+ion or (e).
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Flue, a passage for the smoke to flow
through. 2 Fluent, flowing/ applied to a speaker, is it metaphorical ?
3 Inff,uence, a power conceived as flowing from a person or thing and
affecting another. 4 Superflu?us, overflowing.

Greg, (y1·egi), from grex, gre gis, flock.

Greu + ari + ous 1 or ari + ous + ly or ari + ous + ness ; e +
greui + ous 2 or ous + ly or ous + ness.
·
From gre ga re, gre gd tus, to collect into a flock, we h1:tve

52

n~ord- Building.

Elementary Englisli.
Nect, Nex, from n~c te re, nexus, to bind' or tie.

ag, se+ureuat+ion

or (e); con+y1·cuat+ion
or ion+ al+ ist or ion+ al+ ism or ( e ).
Helps for the Pupil.- Grega1·ious, associating in flocks or herds.
Egregious, out of, or above, the flock, or the com mon.
1

·t

LESSON

XXVII.

llab, Habit, (ab, habitu, hibit), from ha l>e 1·e, h<'ih i tns, ·
to have, hold, lrnep.

Ab(=hab)+le 1 or l+ yJ· en, dis+ab(=hab)+le; hah
+ il(i) + ment. 2 Habit; 3 habit+ ude; habitu, +al or al+
ly or ate ; ex, 1:n, pro+ hibit; ex, in, pro+ hib'it + ion; ex "~
. + hibit +or or ory or ion+ er J. pro+ hil>it + ive or ory; '·
de+ bt • ( =hib'it); de+ bt +or.
From habil itas, ha bilihitis, we get a(=ha)biUt+y;
de+ bilit( =habilit ) + y J. de+ bilitat( =habilitat) +ion or
(e).
From the frequeutative hab i td re, hab i td fas, to ·
dwell, we get habita + ble or bl+ JI or ble + ness ; habitat;,
liabitat+ionJ· co, in+Tuibit; in+habit+ant or ableJ· co
+habitat+ ion.
,.;

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Able, having power. 2 Ilabilimcnt, the hav•.
ing, called dress. 3 I-Iabit, the having. called cnstom, called dress also.
•Debt, that due another, had away from him that owes.
•

Her, lies, from haJ1' e 1·e, lu£ su,s, to stkk.

Ad, co, in+he1·(e); ad, en, in+ her+ent or ence or ency,
.Ad, co+lws+ion or ive or ive+ness.
From the frequ en tativc hms it a re, lues it d tus, we havs
lwsit +a nc!J J. 1 hcsitat + ion or (c) ; it n + lw.<:U<tt + ing or
ing+ ly.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Hesitancy, the sticking fast in doubt.

53

Con, dis+ con+ nect; con+ nect +ion, or ive or ed or ed
+ly; d-is+con+nect+ion or ed or ed+ly. \ An+nex; con
+nex+ion.; an+nex+at+ion or at+ion+ist.
Senn, Scans, (Scend, Scens, (scent), in compounds), from
scan de 1·e, scan SUS, to climb, to }lllSS.
Scan. Scans+ion. 1 A, de, con+de, tran +scend; a,
de+ scend +ant; a+ scend +ency J. tran + scend + ent or
ent +al or ent +al+ ism. A, con+ de, de+ scens +ion J. a,

de+scent.
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Scansion, read ing of poetry so as to mark
the feet:

Scd, Scss, (see, sid, sidit, siz), from se de re, ses S1LS, to sit.
Scd+ent+ary or ent+ari+nessJ· se<l(i) +ment 1 or ment

+ary J. siwer + sed( e); see; 2 pre, re, sub+ sid( e); pre, re+
si<l+ entJ· in+sid+(i)ous or (i)ous+nessJ· sub+sid+(i)
ary; as+ sidu + ous ~ or ity .; re+ sidu( e) ; re+ sidu +ary.
Scss +ion or ion+ al; as, (pos), pre+ (pos) + sess; (pos) +
sess +ion or i've or or J. as+ sess + ment or or; 4 as+ siz( e ). •
Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Sediment, that which has settled to the bottom; sits there, as it were. 2 See, the seat, or jurisdiction, of a bishop.
. , s Assid'UOU8, sitting intent 1tpon, atte ntive. •Assessor, originally, one
who sat beside the ju<lge. 6 Assize, a sitting, or session, of the court.
LESSON

XXVIII.

Serv, Servit, (servi, serf), from ser vi re, ser vi t1,1,s, 1o serve,
be n slnre to.

Serv( e) ; serv +ant or er or ice or ice+ able or ?°le or il +
ity or 1'le + ly J. de+ scrv + i'ng or hig + ly or ed or ed +ly or
( e) ; mis, sub+ sC1·v( e) ; sub+ serv'i + ent or ent + ly or
se1·f +darn. ~ervit + or or ude.

54

55

Elementary English.

n-ord-Building.

Slg_n, from sig num, n sign.

I

I

Sign; siyn +al or al+ ize or al+ ly or et.
From the derivative sig na re, sig na tns, to set a mark, or . .
seal, we have as, con, counter, de, re+siyn; re+siyn+ed ·
ored+ly; de+sign+er or ed or ed +ly; as, con+sign+
ment or e1' or ee; itn +de, under+ siyn +ed; as, de, re+
signat+ionJ· sig1uitur(e). From sig nif i ca re, sig nif ica tus, we get siyni+fy or fic+ant or fic-j-ance or ficat+
ion ; in+ siyni +fie+ ant or fie + ance.
Ten, Tent, (tin, tinii, tain), from te ne ·r e, t'3n tus, to hold.

Ten+ able or aciou.s or ac + ity or ant or ant+ ry or ( e)
ment or et; 1 un +ten+ ab le or ant+ ed J. ten+ urc J. Ueit +
ten+ ant or ancy J. coun, 1nain, sus +ten+ ance J. abs, con,
1·n+con, per, im+per+tin+ent or ence; con+tinn+al or
al+ly or ance or ity; con, re+tinn(e); abs, ap+per, con,
de, enter, ·1nain, ob, per, re, sus +fain. Con, dis+ con+
tent; con+tent+ment or sJ· dis+con+tent+ment or ed. ' ·
Helps for the Pupil.-' Tenet, a <loctrine held to.
Trlbut, from frib 'lt e 1'e, tri bu tiis, to give.

Tribut( e); t'r ibut +ary J. at, con, dis, re+ dis+ tl'ibut( e);" .
at, con, dis, re, re+dis+tl'ibut+ionJ· at, con, dis+t'l'ibiit /" .
+able or ive; re+ tribut + ive.

'"
LATIN PREFIXES.

ab (a, nbs)

Helps for the Pupil.- 1 Prov'ince, a conqitered territory, a district or
department. 2 Provincial, pertaining to a province, hence not national
or cosmopolitan ; a term of reproach.

=two.

ef,

* ad (a, ac, af,

es, (e) s)
= out of, from.
extrn
= beyond, with.
· ag, al, a11i.
out.
an, ap, a1·,
= to, against.
as, at)
in (en, i, il,
i1n, i1')
= not;
ambi (amb,
= aroun<l, on all in ( atn, an,
. am, an)
sides.
ern, en, il,
ante (a.n)
be1ie

=
=
bi (bin, bis)
=
circiini (circu) =

before.
well.
two, twice.
abouu<l,
around.

contra (con·
t1·o, counter)
= against.
cttni (co, col,
com,
con,
cor, coun) = with,
de

Vine, Viet, (vinci), from vin ce re, vie tus, to conquer.

Con, e, pro+ ·v ine( e) ; 1 1:n +vine+ ible or 1:bil + 1:ty or ibl
+ y; pro+ vinci +al 2 or al+ ism. Con, e + vict .: con, e +
vict +ion J. vict +or or or+ y or or+ (i)ous.

=from, away du (dtto)
from.
ex (a, e, ec,

<l is

(<le, des,
di, dif)

im, i1')

= in, into, on,

upon.

inter (enter,
intel)
= among, be·
intro
juxta
nu.tle (mal)

tween.
=within.
=near to.
= badly, evil,
or ill.

ne, nee ( = ne
+ que, ney) =
together, or non ( = ne +
unum)
=
adds force.
away, down, ob (o, oc, of,
op, os, o(b)s) =
from, or
ad<ls force. pen (pmne)
=
pe·r (p<,i·r , pel,
pil)
=
= apart, not, op=
posite act. post

=

not.
noi;, not one.
against, upon.
almost.
through.
after.

* For the sake of euphony the last letter of the prefix is often
changed to the first letter of the root, or is <lroppe<l.

',
·.-

5G

I

,,

Wo1 ·a-Building.

pre
=before.
p1•eter
= past, beyond.
pro
(p1•od,
prof,
pol,
por,
pwr,
p1•u)
=for , forth,
forwards.
re (1•ed)
=again, uack,
again st, or
opposite
act.
1•etro
=backward.
se (sed)
= away, from.
semi
=half.
sine
= without.

sub (.'10 u,

snf,

Elementary English.
sue,
SU(J,

su11i,
sup,
sn1·, sns)
subte1•
snper (sur)

= under,

from
below.
= urnler.
=over, above,
beyond.

t 'l'lins
(tran,
tra, t1·es)
=beyond,
across,
through.
tr,i (tre)
=three, thrice,
Ult1'(t,
= beyond.
vice (vis)
= in place of,,

ANGLO-SAXON, OR ENGLISH, PREFIXES.

= a t., in , on, or atltlsforce.
=behind.
=wholly.
= to make, cause, by.
=against, n ot, or atlJ s
force.
fore
= befo re, in front.
forth =forward.
= com plctcly.
fttll
gain
=against.
-in (i1n) = in , in to, within ; sometimes, intensive.
((,

iifter
all (al)
be
for

1nis

= wrong, wrongly.
=n ot ever.
=from.
ont
~ beyornl.
ove r
= above, in excess.
to
= at, the, this.
nn
= not, opposite act in
vcrus.
un<ler
=beneath.
w ell (wel) =rightly.
with
= against, from.
back.

n cvm·
off'

GREEK PREFIXES.
aniphi
an (a)
ana

anti

= on both sides.
=not.
· =again, back,
through.
(ant) =against.

<Lpo (ap)
cr.ttft (cat)
d i (dis)
d ·i a (di)
dys

ec (ex)
en (em)
epi (ep)
eu (ev)
hem.i
hype1·
hypo (hyp)
meta (met)

= from, out of.
=in, on.
=upon.
=well.
=half.
=over.
= under.
= beyond, after,
change.

= from.

= twice, two.
= t hrough.

= bad, ill.

= alone, one. \t'' ·

mono
(mon)
,

= beside.

para (par)
peri
poly

~;;....---

= nround.

·,,_
\

pro
pseudo
syn (s1Jl, sym,
sys, sy)

=many.
=before.
=false.

=-

with.

LATIN SUFFIXES.

The part of speech formed by the aid of the suffix is imlicated by
the letter placed before it.-n. =noun, v. =verb, a. =atljective, ad.=adverb.
Many of these suffixes are much changed in form and in meaning
by long sojourn in the French language.
aable (abil,
abl,
ble,
bl);
ible
(ibil, ibl,
bil, bl)
= able to be, fit to
be, causing.
aaceons,
= having th e qualaciotts
ity of, full of.
= state 01· quality
nacy
of being.
nad.
See at.
nage
state of i being ;
act of; that
which ; a collection of,.
anal, el, (l)
= pertaining to ;
the' get of.

=

= down.

57

a nan,
ane,
ian

ain,
ean,

= pertaining to ;

one .who.
nance, ancy
(anc) = state of being;
act of.
1
narid, end
= L. fut. part.
ending.
(,tnt
See ent.
aar
= pertaining to.
a na1·y (ari) ar=belonging to ;
one who; place where.
n vat, it, p. part. ending; ending
of L. n. stern also.
an vate, (at)= having ; orie who. ;
1
to make.
' '
ble.
See able.

,(
/'

.... .

.

58

JrVord .. Building.

nbulnm,

l>ule,

(bnl)

l>le= aine, (in)= belonging to ; n. end·

place; that which or by which.

ncul1un, cule, (cttl), cle, che1'

ing also.
nion=act of; state of being:
which.
a.iqne=belonging to.
ish. Sec esc.
n aite=one who ; being.
nify, (ty)=statc or quality of be·
ing.
n ai1Je, (iv)=one wh o ; that which;
having power ot· qtrnlity.
nix, denotes a female.
nix=that which.
[give.
vize, (iz), ise, (is) = to make, to
vle, (l) (freqnentative).
ale, n,l). See al, el.
;1lence=abundance of.
alent= aboundin g in.
n11te n =that acterl n pon.
n1nent=state of being ; act
t hat which.
n1nony, (moni)=st.at.e of being; '
th a t which; that lleri ve<l from.
a nocr=pertaining to.

=place; that which or uy
which.
ce. 8ee acy.
ncle, eel, cule, (cul)= little (<liminuti ves).
c11. Sec acy.
nee=one to whom.
vee1'. See seconu er, below,
el, eel. See al.
nence, (enc), ency=state of being.
nens=of, belonging to.
n aent=one who ; that which ;
being or ing.
ner, (r), ee1', im·,=one who.
vm• (freqn entatirn or causat ive).
nery, 1'!/, m · =placc where ; state
of being ; collection ; art of.
vesc=to grow to or tenu or become.
ness denotes female agent.
ae.<;qne=sorncwhat, like.
non, oon, ion=one who.
nest=of, belonging to.
on. See ion.
nestr=of, belon ging to.
n01·=one who ; that which.
nette, et=little (uiminnti ve).
no1·, onr=sta te or qnalit.y of beey. See y.
lng ; pl ace where.
ible. Sec able.
a 1101'!/, (ori,)=relating to; place
a nic, ical=pcrta ining to ; made
where; thing whi<.: h.
of; one who.
nose, (os), mts=full of, having.
nice=state or quality of being ; not=onc who.
thing that.
nr=er or or=on e who.
aid=quality, pertaining to.
1·ix uenotes female agent.
te?·. See ee1·.
1•y, See ery.
Gile, (il)=able to be ; r elating to. sion, son, See ion.

Elementary Englisli.

59

nule, ul=little (diminutives).
=
atinie=belonging to.
nu,re, (ur)=state or act of: tliat
tion. See ion.
which.
ntude, (titd, ude)=state of be- I
au'
r
n
=belonging to.
ing.
ny,
(i)=state
of being; that which.
ty. See ity.
aul=prone to.

=·~~'J.
~--;.,_

, -,, ·

ANGLO-SAXON, OR ENGLISH, SUFFIXES.

nlet=little (diminutive).
nling=little (diminutive).
aadly, (U, y)=likc, manner.
nnes..;=state or quality of being.
noclc=little (diminutive).
par. ending.
nor=one who, that which.
nel=that. which or by which.
an nen= maue of ; to make ; past vow=to make.
now=by which.
par. little (uiminutive).
n vs or cs the plu. ending of nouns
ner=one who; that which.
and ·the ending of 3<.l per. sing.
aer=more (comparative degree).
of verbs.
ver (frequentati ve or causative).
n's 01· ' denotes possessive case.
er (acljecti ve ending).
nsltip=st.ate of, office of.
aest=most (superlative uegree).
asonie=full of, causing.
aful=full of, causing.
n/tea<l, hood=state or quality of nst=statc of being.
nster=one who.
being.
nth, t=state of being.
nie, y=little (diminutives).
adward, wards=direction of.
n v ainf]=the act; co ntinuing.
a vish =sornewhat; like ; to make. ad'Wise =manner.
ny. See ie.
nkin=little (<limiuutive).
ay=full of, having.
t'le, denotes frequent action.
a ady. Seely.
nle=that which.

na1·=one who .
na,r d=on e who.
ndo11i=state of being; <lomain of.
ved, d, t=past tense ancl past

aless=without.
GREEK . SUFFIXES.

vise, -ize=to make; to give.
aac=pertaining to.
nisni=state of being; doctrine.
net=one who.
a nic, ical=pertaining to ; made nist=one who.
ny=state of being.
.
of ; one who.
nic, ics=science of.

. 'J

'.'

J·· ,~---:

t ',:, ,_•';'3~;i

6U

Word-Buz'lding.

Elementary English.

61
. / ...

ORTHOGRAPHY.
Vowels and Consonants.

DEFINITION.-A Vowel is a letter that stands for a free, open
sound of the voice.
The vo~els are a, e, i, o, u.

DEFINITION.-A Consonant is a Jetter that stands for a sound
· made by the obstructed voice or the obstructed breath.*
The consonants are the letters of the alphabet not named above as
vowels.
Sounds of the Vowels.

1.

Diacritical marks u:sed in lVebster's Dictionary.
in hate.
/L 6, lrmg, in note.
a, short, in h~t.
2. l:S, sltort, in not.
a, Italian, in flir.
3. ~(like long oo) in dg.
~' broad. in ~II.
l. u, long, in tube.
a, infenned£rtte, in aAk.
2. u, short, in tub.
a, long before r, in care.
3. 'l;l (like short oo) in P1:11L
4.
u (before r) in fUr.
e, long, in me.

2.

e, short,

2.

3.
4.
5.
CL

a, long,

in

met.

I. I, long, in pine.
2. r, short, in pln.

t =

oi and oy (unm arked = {l:r)
toy.
OU

and ow
out, now.

• H, which represents a mere forcible brcatblpg, fa au exception.

e, as in pol'ice.

~

= !=?, as in ~de.

y =l,asinfly.

= t1 (nearly), as in sir.

i

y

0 =ii, as in done.
0

W is u vowel when it unites with n preceding vowel to represent a
vowel sound; ns, new, now; and y is 1t vowP.l when it has the sound of i; ·
as, by, duty, boy. lV and y are consonants at the beginning of a won)
or a s~·llable ; as, wet, yet.

I.

One letter uaed for another.
·8 :::: ~, a~ in f&rm. '
·
a=~' as in wh~t.
o (unmark~d) = t1, as in worm.
~ = &, as in where, heir.
@ = a, as in {!ight.
00 = 2 , as in . moon.
00 =~,as in wool.
e,,,; tl (nearly), as in her.

= u, as in w9lf.

= 'i, as in

m~th.

,.: d'ra I
Remarks.-a is between
11.!H.
•
"vanish " or e sound. a
cal," part of il, touched lightly, without the
, '
·l e uivalent to(! prolonged before r.
12
.
is nea1 y q
d .., S c careful speakers discriminate between
u is between -rt a~ e. ) omk ' "' the former a. modification of u and
(=oinworm)ande(=i,ma mo
•

'

• •

(J,

l

iJ,

d represents the first, or

' '!

ae

the latter 11 modification of~.
w b t ")
. t'wnary " (the latest "
e sbler ' ·u ' t'
In the ,, International D ic
d
mrnlified
in
sy
lln
es w1
t
represent the long so11n s as
.
t . ·wu
1"
,
,
'
...
...b
unite
The
"
lnterna
1ona
accent ; e.g., senate, event, idert, 0 ey,
. .

ou

often respells instead of using diacr.itieal ~~k;~e other is :silent.
~'hen one vowel of a diphthong Is mar e '

JJiucritical mar k 8 Used
a in hate.
~in hat.
a in far.
& in all.
A in ask.
a in care.

e in
~in

me.
met.

i in pine.

l in pin.

l• 11

Worcesler~s D
.

ictionary••

6 iu note.
6 in not.

e in do.
ii in tube.

ii in tub.

t1 in pull.
ft in fur.

esI, oy in oil, toy.
oil, ow in out, now,

1•

62

Elenientary English.

Word-Building.

a in where.

Di.<writical marks- Worcester.

o

in form.
e>oin moon.
fl in rude.
y in fly.
y in myth.

ti in her.

t in police.
I in sir.
Oin done.

q in cent.
JiJ, Q (or FJ) in call.
ch (unmarked) in child.

Sounds of the Consonants

Explanation.-Thc t
l ,
·
'
!ieparate columns. Tho:~ ;na~~:s,,of ~onsot;ants are arranged below In
. consonants), and those in "2" . me ca e~l rocal consonants (voice ;
The letters with dots betweena:l~e~:l~e<l aspir~tes (br~ath consonants):
the first 1 tt
f
.
orm pairs. Give the sound
e er o any pair, an<l you will find that as the vo·
t
J ·
• <·
ices o~
th e vanishi
teeth Ii s
soun will ~c the sound of the other letter. The ton u '

ot

:g

ence

bci~i~ t::~t ~::h~~~e 11:~~0:'.e: ~~10vuicc, aJHlpos~tion
for both, tho only tli~c~
in the other only a w!iis11er .
8 1 1 10
'. . : •

1.

2

cca1 Consonants ·

'

J:;

.
Asp1rates.
.

b... .. ..

I

d . . . . . . :: : : :: : : ::

:t)

g ........ . ..... . .. . k

................ :.h
j . · · ·· · · ·· · · ·· . .... c h
)

. ... .. .. ... ...... .

m .. .... ...... ... .

1.

2.

'

'J:'

Aspirates.
r . ........... . ..

th (in thine) . .... . (th in thin
, •.. ...... . ....... f'

'"· . ....... .. .. .. .
y . .. . , .. ........ .
z (in zone) ... ..... s

z (in azure) . .. . . .. sh.

n .. ... . .... .

Diacritical rnarks- Webster.
soft ( = s), in c;ent.
-e, hard ( = k), in-£all.
ch (unmarked) in child.
Qh, soft(= sh), in c;haise.
-eh, hard(= k), in-ehorus.
g, hard, in get.

g, soft ( =

j), in gem.

• ·'

Vocal Consonants.

C, Q, and x are not founcl in th e columns ahove
•=ks or gz.
·
Q,

63 .

s, sharp (unmarked), in same.
~' soft ( = z), in ha~.
th, sharp (unmarked), in thin.

-th; soft or vocal. iu-this.
~ (= ng) in i~.
¥ (= gz) in epst.

Qh in chaise.
..0H, c;h (or ~b) in chorus

9, gin g~m.
'in has. \
th (unmarked) in thin.
.!!!H Ui in this.
~in

exist.

B, gin get•
RULES FOR SPELLING.

RULE 1.-Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a
vowel ; as, fine, finer,· love, loving.
Exceptions.-W ords ending in ce and pe retain e before able and
ous to keep c au<l g soft ; as, peaceable, changeable, courageous. W onls
in oe and ee retain the e unless the suflix begins with e; as, hoeing,

seeing.

RULE 11.-Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not
beginning with i; as, witty, wittier; dry, dried.
Exception.-Y does not change before 's; as, enemy's.

RULE 111.-ln mono-.yllables and words. accented on the last
syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before 11,
~mllix beginning with a vowel; as, hot, hotter; begin, beginning.
Exceptions.-The final consonant is not doubled when, in the derivative, the accent is thrown from the last syllable of the primitive ; as,
refer', ref' erence. But we have excel', ex' cellent, ex' cellence. X, k,
and v are never doubled.
Remark.-To the Rules above (and inferences from them) there are
a few other exceptions; as, dyeing (coloring), singeing, tingeing, mileage,
awful, wholly, judgment, ackrwwledgment; slyly, dryness, pUeou8;
gases, trans[erable, humbugged, crystallize, cancellation.

64

IVonl-IJu ilding.

History <!( the English

65
.· .1.

I-

III. The Roman Conquest.-'l he Celts did not make a
· stubborn resistance to the Romans, who bv 84 A.D. had con~ quered as far north as the Firth of Porth .• 'l'his the Homans
7 joined to the river Clyde by the wall of Antoninus. They
~. subsequently built, as additional protection, the famous wall
l' of Severn8, or lfadrian's wall, uniting the Solway and the
Tyne. The R.01nans did not attempt a thorough conquest
. of Britain ; bnt, with their headquarters at Eboracnm, now
·~ York, held the ·i sland by a series of fortified posts, whose
sites are now mainly indicated by towns with names ending in
chester, cester, or caster-forms of the Latin castra, a camp.
But the imperial city whose empire . stretched so far, whose
armies were brgely composed of soldiers drnftecl from her
subject peoples and led by generals of their own blood, was
menaced by invading hordes, and was forced to recu.ll her
legions for her own defence. By 420 the soldiers had all
left Britain, never to return, and the Celts \Vere again free.
, But their freedom was of short duration. By the middle
of the fifth century a more formidable invasion than the
Roman had taken place, and a more thorough conquest was
begun by
IV. The Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes.-These peoples
were of the Low German branch of the Teutonic stock.
They had blue eyes and flaxen hair, were large of frame,
fond of adventure on land and on sea, and were fierce and
cruel in battle. They were owners and tUlers of the soil,
hated cities, knew no king, and lived each group of related
families within its mark, or district, which was bounded by
a belt of neutral land from other "farmer commonwealths."
The .Ttttes, we are told, came over under Hengist and
Horsa in 449, and settled in Kent. Ella and his followers,
, m 477, and Oerdic with his, in 495, settled Sussex in the
1

i
I

I

L(~UfJllll.'Jf!.

LEssox

xxrx.

A. lHUEP HISTOJl y

OF THE ENGLISil LANGU
EAHLY
AGE.-THE
. CONQUESTS OF BRITAIN.
.

THE languages spoken on the
.l
perfectly classified ib . 11 ea1t1 have been more or less "
th
·
i. ove a
other cla
· ·
·
at to which our own tongu b 1
sses Ill Importance is " ,
I The I 11 d E
e e ongs, namely : :~
•
o- uropean Fam~lv Of tl .
•
ten members-throe i ·. t'
h_,l.us family there are " the ten have loug bee,11s1,~ IC a1J.c seven European. Seven of ;
k .
Iecoamzed · (1) Th I a·
s rit, used i11 Hindosb11. (·~ tl
.
. e n rnn, or San- .
Modern Persian; (3) ,tli~ 1'io110:~ Iranm:1, or Ancient and
Greek ; (4) the Italic tl . t . . tl Lllc~Ancwll t and Modern "'
.
' ia, JS, le ·1t111 and . t l
.•,.,
VIz., the Italian the
. .
tl '
I s c escendants- '
81J,tms11, le Portn
th
'
tl
.
gnese, · le Fre1ich,
~·
e Proven 9 a1, th e Rhet n
the Slavonic-111'ee . o-tlwmm11c, and the Wallachian ; (5) ;; '~
mrne11 y tho Hussian . (o)
tl 0 .
.
K el tic,
made up of the C
.
' ' 1 le elt1c, or
Teutonic, subdivided int;~1l~n~a~~l· the Gaelic; and (7) the
High German and tl1 c [
(~ ro u c, tho Scandinavian, the
'
~ow iennan
I t tl
the English f·tlls
'l' tl
" .
n o le Low German .
"
·
o
iese
seven
r
t
d
a ded (8) the Lit]
.
' ecen sc 1iolal's have
relat
l
t
rnanrnn
,
closelv
( 9) the Armenian . aud (10) tl ·~lb . ec o t lie Slavonic;
II Th
'
le I i. anrnn
.
e Celts.--This peo )le
·l
..
Peninsula, Gaul when Omsa~ snl~;1 y o_ccuprnd tl.ie Spanish
Oresar visited it in 5I .
ned It, and Bntain when
o nnc rn 54 n c
'I'I C It .
were at this time broke . t . · · . 10 e s 111 Britain
united in a cou1rr11'u
n Ill o many tnbes, which seldom
" cause.

.,
I

66

1Vord-Build£n,r;.

south and 1Vessex in tl
,
Essex. 'l'he end.
1e west, ai:d later Saxons founded
mg sex wo11 ld of Itself
.
these kingdoms
'l'h .
suggest the origin of
i ec 1nngc1oms nortl1 0f 'Tl
1argest of which,. North
.·
rnmes-the
to the Forth-were fonn~;n~b~1a,tttretchod from the Humber
umbria, East Anglia a d ~~ Y. 10 Anglc.'i. Besides North'l'he
, n 1' erc1a were established
,
conquest of the Ce! ts L ti
I
.
proceeded slowly. N t t'll ·'.' icso JOW German invaders
Britons taken refuge . o tl ' fJ07 had the n nexterminated
Ill
ie western }Jart f ti · 1
now for more th·1n two 1
l 1
( o lC Is and. And
lll ll c re< Years tl1
<
'
fierce ,
•
e conquerors waged
var upon one another Tl
war bcgat the k'
.
.
le several kingdoms for
mg, contcn<l<~<l for the ' l . 1 1 .
'
1ast Wessex sccurc<l it , 1 I' . 1.
.
mer orus 11p, till at
I ,1
' ,LJH i,ouc rt its ki
E nglish Chaunel to the Jr· ·t·I <::> f 1~
11g rn cu from the
M
.
11 , 1 o
i or th.
.
eanwh1le the inva<le . ] 1 b
tine and his missi01rnri , s .'~c . eo n Clwistianize<l, Augus~· ..
11
Christian templ .
cs ft! .vmg from Home in 097. '.l1he
e Ioso Oil the site of tl
end. of the sovc1t th
ie pagan fanc.
By the .
ization. As popuht~cn t.u ry, the Ch11 rclt was :t Ri nglc organ~ ~·
beca1ne ."ihire s of< "'101~11111.cre~slefd, the ma,.k.~ coalesced and ~ :
IC l Ill It r l ' t"
l
~
two, each with its reJ1' .
1
e( s imc t 1orc were thirty- ~
gious crr'tl
V. The Danish c
' 0 ; , ' ''tnd l >o I'1t'icnI ol'ganization.
onquest.--J he Ang! 0 8 , ,
.
-"- ,txou Chromcle
relates that in 787 ti D
.
ie anes as all Sc ]'
·
t 1me were called b
. .' ' '
ant rnavrnus at that
' euan then· ·1n1.:asion~
S
.
(
great rivers that pour into th~ Nor ,. .
wee pm?° up the .
the territory adjacent 1 .· l
tl~ Sea, they laid waste
and settled as th
' umrnc and Jnlled the inhabitants
'
ey conquered
TJ
'
Anglo-Saxon, derived fr
ti ,. .'
io very verb harr,y is
ish army-lter·e 11r tonti lCJ 1 n:~rne for tho d roa<led Dan.
n 1rn
error tl
·
gathered from th
.
.
u s .army mspired may be ·
e piayer that made 1t
· t
,
Saxon litany . "Fro tl .
.
s way 111 o the AngloLord, deliver.us." m ie rncurs10ns of the Northmen, good
''

H

History of the Enyl is!t Lanyuage.

67

These Scandinavians were beaten · in great battles and
:;}'.;,(:;~
driven back, but only to return. They were .bonght off with :~'.:·,;:;:. "\!'gold; and finally, on condition that they would confine
themselves within it, they were given the territory to the
cast and north-east of 1VatUny St1'eef, an old Homan military road which stretch ed from near Dover thro11gh London
to Chester 011 the D ee. But they could not be kept within
the limits of this territory, call ed the Dmielayh, and at last
sncceedecl in placing four kings in succession on the throne
of England-Sweyn, Cnuutc, Harold lfarefoot, and llardicauute, 1013-1042.
VI. The Norman Conquest.-'l'ho JV01·1nn11s, or Northmen,
were originally of tho Norse, or Scandinavian, branch of the
Teutonic race. "They wore uwn of nct·i on, enterprising
merchants, 11avigators, soldiers of fortune, lending the van
of every battle from Norway to Byzantium." Breaking
from the restraints of a power that was consolidating the
Scandinavian kingdomR, they Lokllv ventnrc<l forth, co1tqnered tho Shetland Isles, the Orkncys, and the Hebrides,
founded the kingdom of Caithncss in Scotlarnl, settled Iceland, cliscoverc<l Grecnla1td, awl eolouizcd Vi nbnd, supposed
to Le on tho coast of Ncw-E11glaml.
In 911, a Norman chief, Bolf, or Hollo, the Ganger, with .
his band of vikings, got a footing in tho fertile valley of the
Seine. This province of Normandy ho recci ved as a fief
from Charles the Simple, and mnrriod his daughter. The
·I'
Normans were brought under French law and customs,
became Christians, adopted tho French language, married
into French families, and caught tho French spirit.
In 1066, the childless Edward the Confessor, of England,
died, and Harold, his brother-in-law, succeeded him. But
William,, seventh Duke of Normandy, whose aunt, Emma,

68

Word-Hnilrliug.

had been maniecl t,o J•jtlH~ lrrn1 IL of Ji~11gla11d, claimed t~e
throne by heredibtr·y rig ht an(l l>.r the }>romise of both
·
ward an cl Harold, and set Ra i [ wi tit thir ty thousand follower;
for the coast of Euglaud. On October 14, lOGG, he met abd
d cfcat<J<l I£a1·ol<l on tl1e Rlnpe of Senlae, 11eal' Hastin~,:
a11d soon after was c rowne<l king at WoRtmin sto r. 'L'his wu·
~he one conquest tlmt re:1.t:l1 cd do wn to tliu people of .tbe
ISlaud, and in time thoroughly lea\ ened thelJI. Tho aurniX~
tnre. of new blood a111l another sp11:it proved a most sig "
blessmg to them. ' 'Ve can call it no less than their 'r cge
c1·ation,

1 '

TITI~ ENU Ll 8 11. -

ITS < ~O ,\IP()Sf'l'TON.

First Peri~d~in English.-'l'lin Jangnaq
spoken on th? 1Rland, afte r 1tR conrpwst by tlin Anglos, tho,.
Saxons, nrul the Jn tos, WaH o vcnv li cl mi 11g ly th:i.t of tho con~
qncl'ors, m~cl is cnlled A11glo-Saxo11. Bnt it was not pure'; ..
_:i, few Celti c words li:ul e11torocl i t. Tho Celtic uames t6r
the rivers, Jnkm;, hillH, and 11101111tains cln11g fast to thea$1'
objects, and arc fo1111tl in J~ nglii:; h even 11ow.
'-* '..:l
· I saac 'l'aylor, in liis W01·ds and Places, R.:tyR, "rl'hrough
out t,Jio wh ole of E11gla11tl there is hardl y a sin<Yle rivei·-num
tho iuime ot
which is not Celtic." Avon, Celtic for 1~ater,
fourteen English ri vers to-day. Es!c, meanin o- the sam
thing, designates m ore than twenty. Eslc has ~1tered ini.o·
the 1m111cs of towll s nl Ho. as in E :i:ete r, Ax111i11sLor, Oxford, ' '.nm1 U:-xhridge. Tltames, llurnber, JVye, Cam, Ouse, nnd
urnuy other ri ver-11a111cs nre Oel tie. F'en or Ben, tho usual
Celtic name for a rnou H tain, is seen iu the name for tho
range called Pennine,
. iu that of the hills called I'entland, in

I. Celtic of

t~e

fs

·~

History of the English Language.

69
~­

Ben-NoviR arnl Ben-Lomond. Dun, a hill-fortress, is found
.in London, Dumbarton, Dundee, etc. Many other Celtic
words can be found on almost any map of England, and,
ind eed, on the maps of Spain, Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. Besides thm;e geographical terms it is said that the
common words
Clout, croc k, cradle, cart, 1lown, pillow, Larrow, glen, havoc, kiln,
mat.tock, nn<l pool

came into tho Anglo-Saxon before the Norman Conquest.
As other Celtic words appeared later , we will call all these,
wh ether geog raphical or not, entering the Anglo-Saxon and
continued on into Bnglish, the Celtic, 01· H cltlc, of' the
r .Fi1'st Pc1·iofl.
IL Latin of the First Period-in English.-But in the
Celtic vocab ulary foreign words had found a lodgment.
· rr1 10 Roma.ns held most of th o island foi· hundreds of years .
. Mm1y of their words filtered clown into the speech of tl~e
subject Celts. Some Gf these, seven it is said, forced their
way up in to the language of the Anglo-Saxon co nq1~ero1:s.
Gastra, a camp, appears in the nam es of to\v:rn enclrng m
chester, caster, and ceste1', nS' Manchester, Lancaste?', and
. Lei(:ester; strata, paved streets, in Stratford, Streatlrnm,
· etc. ; colonia, a settlement, in l.iincol~ and Colne; f'os sa,. a
trench , in Possway and Posbridge; portus, a h~rbor, m
Portsmouth arnl J3riclport .; valluni, a rampart, m wall;
aml mile. These Reven now in Ji~11 gli sh wo call Lati.n of' the
F i r.<it J'e1•·i od.

III. Latin of the Second Period-in English.-Ilut, aR we
have said, t he heathen Anglo-Saxons were Christianized.
Hosts of Boma,n wo1·ds, i:;ome of wliieh were deri vcd from
the Greek, ctinw in with, ur follow e d in the wake of, the

''l.~~~

70

History of the Englisli . Language.

Christian

Chn1·<~h, whoRo so rvi crn; wore co11dnctod in Iiatiti' it'

Presbyte~, originally n11 elcler, apostolus, one sent, clm·icu81 •

?ne or<lamed, and e7Jisr:opns. nn overseer, taking the forms ·
I~ A~1glo-Sax?n of preost, pustol. clerc, and b1:scop, and in " i.
~_Jughsh of jJ'l"Wst, apostle, clerk, and b1:slt071, and snch words
as clteese, pom1d, candle, table. nnd marble illnstrate these ·. ·~­
acquisi tio11s. Of tlw Lal.in word:; L1·011gJ1t into Anglo-Saxon .....
. Ly the Olmrch, or entering throngh the door which it' ·
opened, there wore before t ho N orma11 Conquest at least six
hundr~d, it is thought ; if compounds arc connted, three or "'"
four fames as m a ny. These arc style<l the Lntin of tlie . .
Second Pm·'iorl.

. .

IV. Scandinavian of the First Period-in English.-1,he .-; <!
Danish C?nqnest introll_n cml SrxindinmJinn t erms. 'l'aylot ·~·­
says that 111 tho east of JDngland, most of them in the Dane- ~'t;
lagh, ~her~ are six Jwrnlro<l places whose names end in b;lj,
Scandrnavmn for town. Thi s is seen in Jlng by, Grimsby, in'
one hnn<hed rn1m os in Li11 co l11 Rl1ire alone, and in our by~law1 ,,:
Tltorp, ?r turp, Oonua11 d01f~ n village, is found in Altltorps ·.
and \V1lstrop
tltwa ite, a eloariHg, in FiJtstltwai'te and .
Rrnitltwa/te ; ness, a i10:-;o 01· capo, in Sheerness and Cai th•
ness wfr, a creek or bay, in Wickham, Norwfrlt, and in.
m'X:ing ; toft. n liorn estna1l. in Lnwestoft and Totnoss · ·and ~
yart!t. a yard. in Apploga !'tit all(l Fi sliguard. All thes~ and
heck, a bmok ; force, n waterfall ; dale, German thal, ~
vall ey; arnl lwlm, an island , cxisti11g as separate words or in ', '
composition, and entering before th e Norman Conquest, we ·
··~s
call St·a1ulinn1•ia,n of the Ffrsf P<n·iotl.
V. The Norman French-Latin of the Third Period-~
English.--Tho changes which the AJtglo-Saxon nnderwent
becau se of th e N ormau Cou<Jnest are vital, we will say fun<lamenta l .: they anwu 11 t to a rovoJ u tio11.
A change of,.
J.

J.

name is needed to mark this. We have refrained from
calling the dominant people of the island, or their speech,
before 1066, by any other term than Anglo-Saxon. But
after the union of the peoples and of the languages, a new
word is needed to denote new things; and this term we have
in the word EngUsh. As we use it, EngUsh denotes always
the race resulting from the marriage of the two peoples, or
the speech resulting from the union of the two tongues.
But we must guard against supposing that either the two
, peoples or the two tongnes were welded into one instantaneously. They grew together, and this growth was slow.
The Two Peoples Side by Side.-Any yoke of conquest
would be ya-lling t o the liberty-loving Anglo-Saxons, but
there are special reasons why this was so. The conquerors
were of alien blood, and national animosity existed between
them and the conquered. William confiscated the entire
soil. H e parceled ont the land, upon condition of military
service, among a score or more of grent vassals, among some
hnnclreds of inferior crown-vassals, and among the higher
clergy. "The meanest Norman rose to wealth and power
in the n ew dominion of the Duke." . ~hoals of Norman
ecclesiastics came across the Channel, and the people were
forced to receive even religious consolation from foreign ers.
Anotl~er langu age than their own prevailed in all places of
authority-in the palace and among the nobility, in law
courts, in the schools. To their painful consciousness of
social and political degradation was added their keen sense
of the scorn with which the Norman regarded their lack of
culture and their "barbarous tongue."
But the influences operative through all these years were
not wholly those of repulsion. These two peoples living
together had to meet each other in the field and in the town.

72

Wurd-B nilding.

History of the Englislt Language.

73
/"\'•

f -~ ;. •.'· .,

They were forced to buy of each other and to sell to eaon
~~her. The subject ~·ace grndnally acqnirocl definite rights;' ·.
I he serf was strugglrng to become a copy holder, and the ·
copyholcler to be a freeholcl er. The military power of the. ""'
nobles was w~niug. The con rts of tho fo uclal baronage were '"·
shorn of then· J)OWer. 'l'liu fowl:d RJHtcm was 1riviiw way ;
0
'l'l i_e A 11¥ I0··1":::Saxo11s were rniprovrng
·
·
b
iu eclucatiou as in
ma-• ~--terial tlnugs. 'l'hey and tho Normans intermnrrie<l.
.
~strong 1iatfonnl fed-inf! wm; springing np before whicl~
t~1e1r mutual antagonism was yieldi11g. 'J'his feeling was
~I<le~l by the fact that th~ English kingR hatl vast possession~ ,.
I~1 ] mncc, partly Jiored 1tary and partly acquired by mar.. ·~
na?e. 'J'o hold these against tlie French kings required a '.~
umted i1eoplo. Aud to make .hoatl against tho encroachi:7
meuts of their own kings th e nobility were forced to make .-?om~on cause with the people. 'l'o what extent the barons .
Identified the cause of the commons with their own may be .;.
seen from the celebrated provisions of the Great Charter·.
extorted from King Jolm in 1~15.

LESSON

THE li:NGLISU. -

XXXI.

ITS COUPOSITION.-CONTINUED.

'

.
.
V. Latin of the Third Period-in English.-Continued.-Yet ~~ow slowly the Anglo-Saxon and the French were blending'··,;,
m the vocabulary of writers, at least, may be seen in the fact ,
that Layamon's Britt, a poem of thirty-two thousand lines · '
written in 1205, d~es not contain a hundred and fifty French'
words_; and that _m t~10 Ormulum, a poem of twenty thou-.
sand Imes, appeanng m the year of J1fagrui Oltarta, scarcely'
fifty Prcuch wordi::; aru fo1111d.

The Two Languages Side by Side.-But during this period :4 ::·
the linguistic di,fflcu.Uies in the way of a ._ coalescence were
gradually lessening. 'rhis period was for the subject race
one of great and general depression. 'J'heir speech was no
longer cultivated. 'l'he standards iu it were all forgotten.
Analo-Saxon was no longer taught in schools, spoken at the
pal:ce ancl in the castles of the nobles, m· nse:l in courts of
law. Few were writing in it. It was left m the care of
those ignorant of the literature in it and of its grammar, and
familiar only with the vocabulary employecl iJ1 speech upon
the commonplace topics of the household, the farm, the street.
'l'he effect of all this upon the language can easily be inferred. A large f1·action of the vocabulary, the more di?'nified and scholarly portion, fell into ncylcct and then mto
oblivion. Of the words kept in circulation, so much of
each as we call its grammatical inflections, denoting case,
person, number, tense, almost entirely perished. 'l'h~se _inflections would be retained only by those aware of thell' Importance. When, then_. this Anglo-Saxon speech had forced
itself upon the Normans, as it fairly succeeded in doing by
the second half of the fourteenth cent1fry, it was far easier
to 11iastc1· than it would have been immediately after 1066.
It is estimated that nearly one-half of the words in 'the vocabulary before the Conquest dropped out of it in the three
hundred years immediately following, and we certainly know
that the grammar had been vastly simplified.
Instruction Revolutionized.-We said that by 1350 the conquered had forced their tongue upon their conquerors. We
have it upon the authority of John of Trevisa, that, after
the great pestilence of 1349, the insfritctfon of youth was
revolutionized. John Cornwall changed the instruction in
the grammar-school from French into English, and Richard

74

Wo1 ·d-1Ju iltling.

H istory of the English Langitage.

Pencrich and others followed hiR lead R
•
"
:
,•
the grammar-schools of E crl l f
. ~o thnt m L>85 lil all
I~'rench and were taught 111.01 aE:1c IJ~ ol c1uldrou had abandoned ,
l - ng- ls 1.
In l "G·J F,
1
exchanged for Eng·Iish . ti ~
.:> >""
I enc i was
.
,
:>
111 10 eonrts of Jaw A
t f
f ar1mment was passed in ti .
.
.
n ac o
~onrts "all 1)1 . '
, n s year. onlermg that in all tho
'
c.is . .
RIi ·1 ll L ' I
l l J
answered debated , ' . ' ' cl'. en< ec 'i::: iowe<l , d ofenclod,
1
G, t
:
'
' ,tJH JIIC 1ged lll tho J~;1wli sh toner "
iea wnters had now arisen-Wvclif 1324 ~
.
one.
Chaucer 1340 1400 ·
v
'
-1384, m prose·
'
, Ill p oetrj'
Th ey
t · ,
'
their infiuen
.'
wro 0 111 1'1 1lglish, ttlld
of
tl1e·
t'
ce upon the plastic ln1w11·we
0
upon 'all]?,ug1·]
·
' t>
IS l wnters Rnccc('<li111r is s·
I . Jr 1me ' 'and
.
The Norman-French-C
:-,• ", , nn p y i 11calc11 ln1Jlo.
.
f A
orrupt.-\\o Illa)' add ll1·1t tl1e
ad op t 1011
o
n rl S·
1
.
·
' ''
tated by the factg t~1~;1~on;~ tho _No1·11rn11 "·u.s g reatly facili'
ie ' ' c nch h e 'lf:ar-1 U<;'iny h· lb
sadly con•Ltpf. That wlticl 1 1 .
t · · '. a,( ecome
t·
t io Jlottg 1l over from the C
ment was not tho :F'reuch of p. ,. L
onton ne of N .
.
- ,i i JS, n t the d egenerate
g .
B OJ ma~dy, nnd so at best was provincial a m ,
pa t ois.
nt dunng tho , t .
. .
'
eie
had b
cen nncs of its nso in l~ng1and it
mand een kept from free .cou tact with the dinlect ~f Nory, and so had d etenorated oven from tl ·, . f
standard-had 0
us Imper ect
•
<
ecome., as Lo1111 sLnry aptly 1mts it
prr.tois of a patois.
' a mere
'

L

'Vhen now we say that bv 14()0 .tn<
. l
.
oven earlier
E r l
was generally nsed , what are 11·0 really snyin,g? '\VJ· 1~gt ids 1
we me·m by E . l. , ? ,,,
·
·
i.1
o
'
.
llfl u;,,, ,
' e rnoan n s11e J1
t .
.
by itself till I
,f .
ec no m existence
.
.
ong a te1 the Norman Con uest . a s . ne1th01 Anglo-Saxon 11or lfn~ n cli. lmt Anq . - ' , , . peech
.F ·1 ·ench · a Slle l1 t 0
· glo 8a..r.,on nnd
. I
'' '
ec
w 1He l both of tl
t ·
form which both of these
l
iese con nb11ted, to
Wh'tt by
t l .
.
com ullle(
twob jointly
is' the
ie muon, u t n ot mu vocal, uot all of , .
every speaker of which is Liliugual.
a prnce,
v

•

i_·

~~!e~~:f~::.(~lig th~

f~r~ne(l

E~;;li~l:-~~~

75

The Norman-French-really Latin.-We have hitherto
called the tongue brought over by the Conc1ueror NorrnanF-1·ench. But it is time now to say that in reality it was
Lnt'in. Just Lefore the Christian era began, J nlius Cmsar
subclned tho people then in possession of what is now
Fran ce, and imposed upon them hiR Jangnage, which was
that of Rome. This language, used for a thousand years
by a people to whom it was not the mother-tongue, the
N ormaus, of still an.o ther alien stock, acquired, and brought
into England. Spoken a whole millennium by those whose
vernacular it displaced, and from them learned by strangers,
flw wo1·<l.~ harl lost much of theil' original form and moaning.
rf'hey were almost invariably shortened. By n dropping of
vowels or consonants, or of both, two or three syllables had
· Leen squeezed into one ; as, li'rench s1lr, our sure, from
original Latin securus; French regle, our rule, from Latin
regu.la ). French Ue, ]~uglish isle, from insula. And sometimes the final and unaccented syllable or syllables seem not
to h:;i,ve been caught by the subject Gaul ; or, if caught, were
not retained. The Latin domiua, foi:_ i_!lstance, appears in
French as the truncated dame; and malum, as mal. Still,
thongh changed, the French words are Latin ; their essential
identity with the words used by the countrymen of Horace
and Virgil is easily seen. 'l'hese Norman-French words, ·
introduced in the centuries succeeding the Conquest, and
entering into union with the Anglo-Saxon to form the
English, constitute the Latin of the Thi·r d Pm·iod.
VI. Latin of the Fourth Period-in English.-1'he NormanFrench words in English wore largely spoken words..:_words
dropping from the tongue, and learned by the ear, both ig
France and afterward in England. Bnt there was another
larye influx of La.Un words consequent upon that great
I I

.•

i

:. ~

, ( j,·(f:.,.•I. .

'i6

JVonl-JJ u /ldiug.

1/istory of the English Language.

·ruickeuiug of -E11ropcau mind kuown as the Renaissa1~
.ir Hevival of Learniug, tho first waves of which touched
.L~uglish shores ~bont the openiug of tho sixteenth century•.
~· he New Learmng and the now ideas to which it gave birth "
omandccl new. wore.ls.; aJHl, :from 1550 to IGGO, Latin was
· ''e store on wl11ch wntet·s began to drnw. Bnt the Latin of
. :10se learned men was the Latin of t11e eye and the perl
~.aken from Latin literature; or, if from French as welJ, lit '
was not the fanguage spoken by the people. 1'he Latin .
words thus transferred to l~nglish had suffered then , and
h~v~ sn~ered since, little or no change_, and may rca(lily be
d1stmgmshed from the Lntin of the Third 1\lriocl by their
fuller . form. 'l'hese Latin word s, brought in to meet the
needs of scholars-and their coming has not yet wholly ceased
-are calfod tho Llttin of the Fourth Period.
• •
1

LESSON

XXXJJ.

THE ENOLTRH.-JTS COMPOSITION.-CONTINUFD.
'

VII. Celtic of the Second Period-in English.-Bnt aA th~
original Celtic of Britain had Latiu words in it, so the Latin ·
of the Normans had Celtic words in it. The Gauls them.
Re ives were Celts; aud it could not Le that, wlien forced to
adopt the Latin tongue, they would surrender every word of
Lhe~r own speech. Indeed, in the province of Brittany, the •.
native tongue was not exterrninatecl, and, as Breton, still ,.,.
~n rviv:s. 'J.'lio CcHic W<mfo brn11gl1 t i 1tto ]~nglish by the
rncomrng of the N orma11s cousti tu te the Celtic of tlte ,
Second Pe?·iod. A few of these words are
Baggage; Lar, LatTel, Lasin, Lui.ton,
't
'
J
earry, Jmo age, tl'Uant, var ct,
and vassal.

VIII. Celtic of the Third Period-in English.-Whatever
Celtic words have been adm.i tted into English sin~e, whether
Irish, Welsh, Gaelic, or Breton-and

·'

.

:~

Clan, claymore, flimsy, kern, pibroch, plaid, spalpeen, and whiskey

are samples of these-constitute the Celtic of' the Thfrd
Pe1•iod.

/

IX. Scandinavian of the Second Period-in English.Whatever Scandinavian words have eome into English since
the Norman Conquest, and, according to Professor Skeat,
their name is legion, such as,
Are, call, drag, gabble, grab, hap, hinge, hurry, lug, lunch, pod. sag,
scratch, scream, shirt, stutter, teem, whim, and whisk,

we call Scandinavian of' the Second Period.
X. Greek-in English.-Greek has a very respectable contingent in English-five per cent. of the whole vocabulary,
'l'rench estima,tes. Perhaps half this number would be a
better guess. They are lnrgely scientific and technical, rarely
on the tongue in conversation. They are such as : - ·
Amphibious, anodyne, blaspheme, catarrh, cynosure, decagon, rlilemma, doxology, electric, exegesis, heliocentric, heterodox, hyperbole,
isof'ccles, labyrinth, lexicon, mechanic, metamorphosis, monosy Hable.
necrology, oxygen, phrenology, rhetoric, squirrel, surgeon, synonym,
' telegraph, thermometer, trophy, tyrant, anu zoology.

From the :Eiebrew, we have such words as : A men, cabal, chet·ub, lmllelujnh, hosanuah, Jehovah, jubilee, nrnnna,
sabbath, Satan, seraph, and shibboleth.

'/
i. I
I

The English race has had intercourse, commercial, literary,
or other) with the peoples of all lands. Fr.o m rp.ost of these

\\

.\

i'

\·

78

Word-1Jni:ldi11r;.

Jii;;tory of the Euglish Language.

it has brought home words which it has naturalized
made good English.
. ..
From the Ital'irin, wo have imported such words as:- :•.
\'

Alarm, balcony, Lankrupt, canto, citadel, concert, contmbn11J,
cupola, duet, gonclola, g11itar, i11fl11 c11zn, lava, malaria, motto, 111119·
tache, opera, piano, pistol , portico, qnota, regatta, sonnet, soprano.
8111dio, trio, visb, an cl volea110.

From the

Spnn-ish~

79

From the '.l'wrkish, such as : Bey, janissary, ottoman, and tulip.
\

"

From the ltialay, such as:Bamboo, bantam, gong, gutta-percha, mango, rattan, and sago.
I

From tho Polynesian, such as : Boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, ancl tattoo.

snch words as:-

Armada, bravado, Lnlfalo, cargo, eigar, cork, embargo, indi!,~
merino, mulatto, negro, rc11cgaclc, sherry, tornado, and vanilla.
·

Irrorn tho I.'01·tu,,1wse, such

China, junk, nankeen, serge, silk, tea, an<l typhoon.

li'rom the A ·r abfo, such as : -

a1-1 : -

Alcohol, algebra, alkali, candy, chemistry, cipher, cotton, crimson,
elixir, gazelle, magazine, nadir, sofa, tariff, zenith, and zero.

Caste, cocoa-nut, co111111ollon., la::::::o, 111olasscs, palaver, a1Hl tank.

From tho Dutch, snch as :-

From the Nm·f/1, Am.er·i can Indian, such as:-

Aloof, bluff, boor, brnrnly, lrnm pki11, elope, fop, gas, hustle, Jmapsncilti
landscape, loiter, lufI, measles, ogle, reef, skates, skipper, sloop, wagoit,
yacht, and yawl.

From the Gcl'nuin, such afi : - -

From the Chinese, such as : -

~/!
•r

Dntch, felclspar , lon.rcr, 111cerscha11111, ni cke l, plunder, poodle, quarts,
swindler, trnll, and zinc.

From the Sla,voni<:, sncli a:-: :Calash, czar, knont, polka, sablu, slave, arn1 steppe.

From the Pei·· s-ian, snch as :1
Bazaar, caravan, check, <•.h cc ~ lwrs , diess ' !!houl
.. .
.-_.
' haznr1l ' hor·u e , l·n
qj,
lemon, lilac, nrnmmy, orange, riec, sash, shawl, and vera11cla.

Prom tho Tiin<ln, snch as :Jknyan, calieo, ehintz, jungle, pagoda, shampoo, sugar, and toddy. '

Hominy, moose, raccoon, skunk, squaw, tomahawk, and wigwam.

From the 1Vcst In<.l-ian, such as:Buccaneer, cannibal, canoe, hammock,

mai~e.

potato, and tobacco.

But, aftel' all, the great component elements of English
are the Anglo-Saxon and the Latin-the Latin mostly that
of the Third and Fourth Periods, of course.
It is from the Anglo-Saxon that the English derives all the
grammar it has. The grammatical forms of the English
noun, pronoun, and verb are those not sloughed off during
the centuries immediately succeeding the Norman Conquest.
Some, like tho s for tho plnral and for the possessive singular
of nouns, had a footing in the Anglo-Saxon, and have been
universalized by the influence of the Norman-French. But
the N orman-Fronch cau hardly be said. to have introduced
anything new into our grammar.

r ,\

80
~

0
Cd

Word-Build£ng.
( 1. Anglo-Saxon.

~

( Of the Fi.1-.'lt Pe1•io<l.

CJ)

Cl
~

1-Iistory

2. Latin ..... . ......

0

~

•

~

Of' th e

~ecoud

l_

Of t/w Fonrth Period.

Period.

I Of the 1'hfrd Pel'iod.

~

0

C:::)

P::1

if)

(Thu ori g i1111 l words of thu Iml.-Earop. fmn lly.)

0

~

~

0

u
if)

...... ~

><

Cd

~

i-:i

5.

\ Of the First Pe'r iod.
Celtic . . ... .. .... . . 1 Of the Second Pn·iod.
t Of the Thfrd Period.

IL S r:a.n<liua1J'i<tn . . ) Of'Nw Ffr.'lt l'<!J'i 0<l .
I Of the Second l '<!l "iml.

!::)
i:Q
~

7 . I Ieb1·ew.

0

,
orig in), the Dtttch, the Ger1nct11 ,
8. Snch ofheJ• Lan- / th e Slavonic, t he Pe1·sian, t ho .
nita f'}e s as .. . ..
lifruln, the 1'ttrkish, t he Ma· ·
1J
lay, the Polynesia,n, the Ch i ·
ne8e, the A1·ab·ic, the N orth
Am.c'l'icnn Indian, anu the
JVest Indian.•

u
p...
tJj
r:t2
......
~

c!)

z

P::1
P::1

~

8

.

.

4. In<lo- Eu1·opean.

rLlie Italian, the Span-i.<ih, tho
I P01·t1tf]'ltc.<ie (these three Latin in

.
1

l

LESSON

XXXIII.

THE ANGLO-SAXON AND TTIB LATIN IN

'l'ho Noruuin mm·d ... , La.Un as we have seen, ea11w into
Euglish (1) to supply the llemands of tho blended peoples
for terms to denote things and C':prcss thoughts which the '
Saxons never had, and so had uo wonls to denote. rrliey

~f

the English Language.

81

came (2) to fill the gap caused by the loss of words which th0.
Anglo-Saxons before the Conquest did have. rrhey came (3)
as contestants for the places already filled . by the AngloSaxon. In this contest the Latin (a) sometimes dislodged
the Anglo-Saxon . Labor and to£l do duty now instead of
swinmn, and voice has snpplante<l stefen. Often in the
struggle the Latin (b) divided the ground with the AngloSaxon. Color exists side by side with lt.iw or hue, and joy
with bl£ss. But oftener, parhaps, the Anglo-Saxon ( c) held
their positions, and the Latin words never secured the coveted footing in the language.
J~citin wordB have come in, in great numbers, since, to
Ratisfy t ho cle111a1H IR of ottr cvcr-i11 ercasi 11g knowledge and
' h igher development. Fo1; little attempt has been made to
meet those insatiable "requirements by any effort to compound into new vocables the ol<l Anglo-Saxon material preserved .
These, too, have entered into contest with the AngloSaxon for the places occupied by them .
We may say that the pronouns; the numerals; the irregular verbs (except strive), including the auxiliaries; the
prepositions ai 1<l the conj unctions (excepting save, except,
concerning, and because, and a. few others) are Anglo-Saxon.
A sligh t percentage of the other words are Indo-European ;
som e are Celtic, some Scan<linavian, some Greek, some Hebrew, and some have been adopted from the peoples with
whom the English have had intercourse.
The remainder are Anglo-Saxon and Latin. It is of this
rem<.iin<le1 ·, tl1 0 Lulk of the vocabulary, more than ninety
per cent. of it, that we wish now to speak. And we should
speak more plainly if we cou ld speak specifically, if we could
throw these words into classes and look at them there. Th~

I "

.

.. .
~·

, •.

~¢'

•

,··
t

82

I.Vo nt- JJ u itd ing.

~e cannot clo h~rc, l:nt wo can g i vo the r ost11tR roached by us

m work of t ills lornl <lone ol:-m whoro-rcs11lts which not
unfaithfully pictnre tho fun ctions of tllfi A n ,g lo-~a xon :i.n<l of
the Latin in tho English rncabnlary .
What Words Belong to the Anglo~Saxon.-'l'ho llames of . t>,
snch things (1) in tho animal ancl vogotnblo worlcls ns wore native to the isbncl, and gcn orrtlly known before the Norman
Conqu est; the naincs (2) of tho ontwanl parts of tho animal
body, and of those internal orga ns that easily reveal their
presence ; (3) of common bnilclings and their necossn.ry ,
~arts; (4) of the l1011 sohold oq11iprnont that families living .
m such houses must lutvo; (5) of snch farm implem ents as a
· p eople rnd_o in art~ and agricultu re couhl make aud nso ; (6)
of occnpat10ns maml y manu al ; (?') of tho essential divisions :
of ti_mc; (8) the_ verbs tl1:tt express in any of tho customary
acts m the matcnal worl<l all<l operationK in tho m e ntal· and
(!>) acl~cctivcs that d eno te "hvio11 Ksc 11 Ri1Jlc qualities, :m~l tho,,
obtrusive attrilrntcs of the int.el led, of tl10 emotional JJaturo,
and of character ;-those arc mainly .Anglo-Saxon.
•
. What ~ords Belong to the Latin.- Ilut to name (1) things
m the am'.na_l nrnl :'ogc taLl c ki 11 gtl oms seen by trnvel; (2) to ·
denote bmldrngs high er nncl m ore complex thau the common
~wolliug, and to mar~c.t liof'c parts of them and those bo lo~ 1 g• .
rngs to them nnfanulmr to t li c A11glo-Saxo11s, but needful,
we should think, even for co mfort; (3) to indicate those
parts of the body and th eir functions which science has disclosed; to d enote (4) the lon ge r or the more minute divisio~s
o~ time, and the occupatio11s that imlicatc higher 011 lture;
and ~5), generally, to m a rk th o less ordinary physicnl acts, r
rcqumug, many of tl1orn, plan allll cornhi11atio11. arnl to de- ..
note the less oLvious oLjects aml qualities of obj ects in the·. ~
putward world ;-to do these things we draw largely upon ,·;,

'

llistory of th e .b'11glis/i. La11g11rrye.

--

,.

...
-

l

SB

the Latin clement of the lang uage. And when we turn to
the wonls in ]~nglish expressive (G) of civil and social organiz:thon, or i1 f"c<l (7) to denote intelled,n al hctf;, states, qnalities, p owers, possessions, products, or required (8) to express
the hi g her feelings and the traits of character, or needed (9)
to denote classes rwfl gen eral notions,-we find the contrast
Lctwecn the .Anglo-Saxon and the L a tin in English most
striki11g . It is in words expressive of these things that the
Anglo-Saxon element is painfully laekiug.
I.JESSON

XXXIV.

TTrn A NG LO-SAXON AND nm LATIN TN ACTUAL USE.

rl'hc pcrccnta.ye.~ o[ the Anylo-Sa.x on and the Latin, in
EnyUsh, n scd Ly writers and pnblic speakers depend upon

the rnm1 , upon 11is subject, and upon the culture of those
adJrcssccl. But they depend in the showing still more largely
upon the 1nctho<l of counting. If every word is counted
every time it is n se<1, th e r esult r each ed will be one thing; if
each wonl is countccl but once, no matter how many times it
is u sed, the res ult reach ed will Le quite auother thing. r.I.'he
words often est employed, n ot alone in ordinary conversation but for literary pnrposcs as well, are the irregular verbs
(espccinJly the auxiliary), the pronouns, the articles, the prepositions, and tlic c011jun cti011 s. Th ese with scarcely an exception arc Anglo-Saxon. So that the wor<ls constantly
appearing, 1·cnpvca,,r iny, on the par1es of Ute1'ature and
in 1ntbUc <Usc01n·se, as well as in colloquial speech, a 'r e
almost cxclnsivc]y Anylo-Snxon. As was said, then, the
metho<l of counting ]ms mu ch to do with the exhibit made.
Marsh's Examination.-Ol\1' countryman, the eminent

'

l ;,.

Ii

I.

84

II
I

I

JVord-Builliz'ng.

George ~· . Marsh, at one. time made several excerpts from
many Bntish an<l Amcnc::m writers. Ile connted eaclt •·
wo1'fl eve1·y tinie it was f'onnd, and gave us the results in - ' .
tables which show that the Anglo-Saxon wonls used by these ;
m en rangect from 70 to [);") per cent. of all the words ernployccl by them. We give these fig1u·cR withont jndgment as
to whether tho extracts rnadu woro ample in 11 11 muer und in
len?'th to justify th~ claim. that they fairly represent the levy
which these men m their coniplete works made upon the
Anglo-Saxon.
· .
. ·our Own Examination.-It came in our way, some yea~
smce, to make a far more oxto1Hl orl examination of t.lw wor<lA
eminent ,.,'.ritr.rs and speakers cliooRo. 'J'he d·UJ'errmt won.ls ol "
one Arnenean, Hnfns Ch oate. fon 1111 in 1i i:-; co rn pl ctr. works, - - •
were br~u?ht t.ogethe1· nml arra.11g0rl alphahcf;irall y. 'f'wcnty.
other d1strngu1shed rneu-tcn British null ten Americanwere chosen. From each of these tt speech, au ar<,.urncnt at ; .
the bar, an oration, or so me chapters of a book w~re tukeu, • ~
ctnd th.e words of each were nlµlrnbctically placed. No . ·
wo1·d m any one of the twenty-one lists thus formed watJ ··
conntc<l 1n01··c than oner-, 1111lcss the several forms of it
were from distinct roots; only one <l1'g rec of an a<ljoctive or an ml verb ; only one of tho i-;i x or seven possiulo forms of ~
any verb; only oue case of any noun 01· pronoun.
Let · •·
this be Lorne in mind ; it is the one poiut of difference,
to be emphasized h ere, between onr work and that of Mr.
Marsh.
After the classification of tl1c words, a connt was made,
and the percentages were reached. Our tables show that
twenty-one representative au tho rs in representative efforte
use a per cent. of Latin worcls varyinrr from JG L to 72' "U.1
•
.
b
2
:2"' "" u
of Latin and Gree.!i'. togethe r from G3 17u to 751J0 , over agaiu~t ·

Hi'sto1·y of tlte English Language.

85

a per cent. of Anglo-Saxon ranging only from 23r\ to 33-fo.
'I1his is the showing if each word is counted but once.
'rhe general beli~f (1) that for ordinary ~ommunication we
make the h eaviest drafts upon the Anglo-Saxon ; (2) that
the words coming most frequ ently to the tongue and oftenest repeated on the page arc Anglo-Saxon; arnl (3) that,
while on social or Lusi11css ·topics we can co nstrnct whole
parngrnphs without a word of La.tin , it. iR all l>ut irnpm;sible
to frame a sentence without the Anglo-Saxon ;-this belief
the figures of the comparison do not disturb. And this is
much to confess; for it is an acknowledgment that our
dependence upon the Anglo-Saxon is absolute, so far as it
extends. Nor do those figures (4) g ive tho number of the
Anglo-flaxon :tJl(1 nf the L:1.ti11 "·on ls 111 011r Yocah11 bry, or
RP.ttle their ratio t.o eafl h 0tlier. or (ii) r1Arido thP. 'lllPstion
whether, had onr ancestors of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries imitate<l the ancient Greeks or the modern Germans, and formed new words by compounding natiYc material, we might not now be u sing a vocabulary a ll of a piece,
and yet ample for our utmost needs.
Our Need of Both Anglo-Saxon and Latin.-Bnt from the
exhibit made by the compari son above we t hink we are
warnmtc<l in claiming that we cnnnot clo without the Latin
worcls in our English ; tlml, when we ri se aLove the commonplace in matter ancl in rna11ner, we find such words
indispensable. We sny £11rli:spensaule for, wblo the ferry boat that takes ns daily to our place of business is indispensable, the trnnsatla11 tic steamer tlrnt bears. us to ]~urope is
not less so, even though we go but once.
It would seem that these two classes of words, mingling
freely in the current of every English sentence, have dwelt
so long and pleasantly together, that we should cease to call
J.

.F.

, ./.

c

I
86

l Vonl-Building.

eithe~·

class forei(Jn, alien. Often we cannot, without close
scrutmy, tell wlnch words are Latin and which are AngloSa~o.n.
By some ~ar-marks, perhaps, but certainly not by
theu length, by theu strangeness, or by his inability to handle
them deftl!, would one of bnt average culture suspect that
the .followmg nouns, adjectives, autl verbs belong to the
Latin:Age •. n.rt, cn.sc, cent, cost, fad , form, ink, line, mile, pain, pair, pa.rt,
pen,d piece,
pnce, rul e, so und, ton, tone ' and vail.' "'npt , '"'r.Je a r , cross,
fi
c~u e,. rm, ~rand, large, mere, 1.1ice. pnl e, plain, poor, pure, rare, real, \
nch, 10u~1d, s,~fc, scarce, sll!:e, vam, and Yast; add, aid, aim, boil, close,
..
, serve, tr·y , j·ur
) ·n, an d
cook, cme, fail, fix, fry, mix, move, 11ay , save
use.

'l'hese, and huutlr?ds of other short Latin words as well
understood. as the sirr1plest Anglo-Saxon, are mostly 'without
S~xon eqmvalents.
~311t oven those with Saxon duplicates ·
a~e nec~ssary; .they g1v.e to onr speech a rich synonymy that
aids us m makmg and m expressing the finer distinctions in
thought.
The Latin are often (1) tho most forcible words in English.
What Angl~-Sa~on v~rb of teaching matches in vigor incu,lcritn--_to tlnvo m with Lho h od? What other adjective ·
denotmg health has the strength of robust-oaken?· Such'
words, unfortn~w.toly. rtl'O pregnant with mcaniiig umiuly
to the etymolo.g1~t. In this they differ from what the vigorous, self-explammg Anglo-Saxon words would have been had .
that ~lerne1~t been fostered. They give (2) conciseness to expres~ion ; like canals across isthmuses they shorten the route
-witness mutual, reanimate, circumlocution. Oftener than
the Anglo-Saxon th.ey ~re (3) metaphorical, and flash upon t
the thought a p~etic light ; as, dilapidated, applied to for- ·•
tune or dress; ruined, to character; lum'inous, to expression.

---IIistory of the English Langtwge.

87

They impart (4) grace and smoothness to style-are the musi- ·-:~·f'
.,"
cal, melodious, and meZZ.(fiuous words of the lan'guage. 'l'hey" · · give ( 5) pomp and stateliness to discomise, and make possible
the grand manner of Sir Thomas Browne, of Milton, and of
Do Quincey. A vocabulary like ours, duly compounded of
the Teutonic and the Romance, has a manifoldness and an
affluence of wealth that adapt it to every kind of writing,
and are wonderfully stimulative of it. And so while the
literatures in other languages excel, each in some single
department, ours is confessedly eminent in all.
While it is difficult to exaggerate the work and the worth
of the Anglo-Saxon in English, we deprecate what has been
called the "violent reaction" that has set in, in favor of it
-a reaction which, carried to the extreme, would practically
disinherit us of vast verbal possessions. But, without any
wish or effort to champion the much decried Latin element,
we may safely say that this reaction cannot be carried to the
extreme.
We are glad to find the wise Alexander Bain breaking out,
on the opening page of his work, On Teaching English, into,
"To write continuously in anything like pure Saxon is plainly
impossible. Moreover, none of our standard English authors,
whether in prose or in poetry, have thought it a merit to be
studiously Saxon in .their vocabulary."
The words chosen should be appropriate to the topic, and
level to the comprehension of those addressed. 'l'his much
we may properly insist upon; but it would be unwise to
encourage our pupils to seek for such words in the Anglo·
Saxon element alone.

_.,."":"'

. I

