NEW EDITION, 1909

HIGHER LESSONS
ENGLISH
A \YORK ON

IN

E~GLISH

GRAMMAR AND
COMPOSITION

IN WHICH THE SCIENCE OF THE LANGUAGE IS MADE
TRIBUTARY TO THE ART OF EXPRESSI ON .
BY

ALONZO ~EED, A.M.
Formerly Instructor in Engl:ish Grammar in the
Polytechnic Institut e, Brooklyn
AND

BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.
F ormerly Dean of th e Faculty and Profeswr of the
English Langiwge and L iterature in the
Polytechnic In st?:tute, Brooklyn

NEW YORK

CHARLES E. MERRILL CO.
1909

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NEW EDI'l'ION, 1909

HIGHER LESSONS
ENGLISH

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A WORK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND
COMPOSITION
IN WIIJ CH '.l'HI<: scrnNCE '

THE LANGUAGE IS MADE
TRlilU'TATlY 'l'O THE ATl'r OF EXPRESSION

HY

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ALONZO llEED, A.M.
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Formerly Instructor in English Grammar in the
P olytechnic Institut e, Brooklyn

AND

BRAINERD l\:ELLOGG, LL.D.
Formerly Dean of the J?aculty and Professor of the
English Language and Literature in the
Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn

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NEW YORK
CHARLES

E. MERRILL CO.

1909

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PUBLISHERS' NOTE
Tms new edition of Reed & Kellogg's Higher Lessons in Engembodies the correction of such errors in the text as have been
brought to light by the searching test of the classroom.
The demand for the Reed & Kellogg Series has largely increased during the last two years. The orders for introduction
received and filled during the year 1908 exceeded by more than
100,000 copies the introduction orders received during the preceding year. Hundreds of schools in different parts of the country
which were using the books a few years ago and were induced to
exchange them for books by other authors have recently reintroduced Ree<l & Kellogg.
We submit this edition of Higher Lessons in English with the
full assurance that the unprecedented popularity of the book will
be increased and long continued.
In resetting the entire book we have taken advantage of the
opportunity to use a larger type and to make such other changes
in typographical arrangement as would add to its beauty and
utility.

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AND BnAINE

BY ALoNzo

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BltAlNEIW KELLOGG

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PREFACE

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THE plan of "Higher Lessons" will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which
this work is brought into competition.
Method of One Class of Text-books. In one class are those
that aim chiefl y to present a co urse of technical grammar in the
order of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These
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books give large space to grammatical Ety mology, and dema11d
much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, a nd much formal word parsing, - work of which a considerable po1:tion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has
little value in determining the· pupil's use of la nguage or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured,
unfruitful, old-time method.
Method of Another Class of Text-books.
In another class
are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in
' Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, a nd General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these books will have gained
something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of
knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, .
and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim
of a good text-book to affo rd. A text-book is of value just qO far
as it presents a clear, logical development of its subject. It must
present its science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there
is no. apology for its being.
The Study of the Sentence for

the Proper Use of Words.

It is the plan of t/iis book to trace with easy steps the natural
development of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first
and then to descend to the details. To begin with the parts of
speech is to begin with details a11d to disregard the higher unities,
without which the details are scarcely intelligible. The part of
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PREFACE

~peech to whi ch a word belongs is determin ed only by its fun cti on
t he sen te nee, a nJ infl ections simply ma rk t he ofTi ccs a nd relation ~ of words. l~ nl~ss t he pupil has bee n systematically train ed
to d iscover t he fun ctions and relations of word s as clemen ts of a n
organic wh_ole, his kn owledge of th e par ts of speech is of Ji ttle
v a lue. It is n ot because h e cann ot co njugate t he verb or declin e
t he p ro noun t hat h e fa lls in to s uch errors as "How 111a ny so un ds
have each of t he vowels?" " Vi ve yc:i rs' in te rest are du e." "She
IS. older t ha n me."
He would p roba bly not say "each have "
"i 11 te1es
· t are, "" me a m. " 0 ne t horoug hl y famili a r wit h t he stru 'cture_ of th : se ntence will find litt le t roubl e in using correctly t he
few rnfl ect10na l fo rms in E nglish.
The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. Thro twh
th e study of t he sentence we not onl y a rriY e at a n in tellige~t
kno~vl edge of th e par ts of speech a nd a correct use of gramm a tical forms, bu t " ·c discover t he laws of disco urse in gen~ral. In t h e sen te n ce t he student should fi nd the la w of uni ty, of
co n tinuit~r , of propo r tio n, of order. All good wri t ing co nsis ts of
good sen tences properly joined . Sin ce t he se nte nce is t h e found ation or unit of disco urse, it is a ll-i mporta nt t hat t he pu pil sho uld
know the sen te nce. Be should be able to p ut t he p rin cipal und
the subordin ate pa r ts in t heir p roper relation ; h e should know
th e cxaet fu11 ct.ion of every clcrrwnt, its r ela ti on t.o ot her clem ents
a nd its r elation to t he whole. H e should kn ow t.h e se ntence as
th e skilful eng in eer k nows his engin e, t hat, whe n t here is a disorga ni zation of par ts, he m ay a t once fin d t he diffi cul ty a nd t he
r em edy fo r it . ·
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The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation. The
laws of 1.hough t being Lhc same for all nn.Lio11 s, t he logic '. al a na lys is
of the se nte nce is t he same fo r all la ng uages. Wh en n s tud ent
who h as a cquired a kn owledge of the E ng lish senten ce comes
to t he t ranslat ion of a forcig n langun gc, h e find s his work
g reatly simplified. If in a sente nce of hi s own lang uage h e sees
on ly a mass of un organi zed words, how much g reater must be hi s
co nfusion when t his m ass of words is in a fo reig n t ongue ! A
study of t he parts of speech is a far less impor tant preparation
for translation , since t he declensions and conj ugations in E nglish

PREFACE

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do not conform to t hose of o ther la nguages. T eachers of t he
classics and of modern langu ages
beginning to apprecia te
these facts.
The Study of the Sentence for
iscipline. As a m eans of
<liscipline n othin g can compare with a training in t he logical
.analysis of t he sente nce . T o study t hough t t hrough its outward
form, t he se nte nce, a nd to discov er t he fi t ness of the different
parts of t he ex pression to t he pa rts of t he t hought, is t o learn to
think. It h as been noticed t ha t pupils t horoughly trained in
the a nalysis a nd t he co nstruction of sentences come to t heir other
studies with a clceidecl adva n tage in m ental p ower. These results
can be obt:i.in ed tml _,- by ~.'·:" t t' m:i.ti e :ill(! persis trnt. \Ynrk. Experienced tc:1c h t' r:" u n d t' r:"t:rnd t h :it :1 f t '\\" Wt':t k lt\"~t> tl :" Pl\ I ht'
sentence at t he lll'gi11ni11g of n l'O llr~e 1111d a kw at. t lw ('lid ('llll
a fford li t tle d iscipline a nd li ttle knowledge t hat will end ure, n or
can a kno wledge of t he sentence b e ga ined by memori zing complicated rules a nd la bored forms of a na lysis. T o compel a pupil to
wade t hrough a page or t wo of s uch bewildering terms as " complex
.adverbial elcmen t of t he second class" a nd "compound prepositional adj ective phrase," in order to com pr:ehend a fe w simple
functions, is grossly unjust; it is a substitu t ion of form for content,
· of words for ideas .
· Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence. T eachers
famili ar wit h text- boo ks t hat gro up a ll gramm atical instruction
around the eigh t par ts of speech , making eight independent
units, will not, in t he foll owing lesso ns, fin d everything in its
a ccustomed place . Bu t, when it is remembered tha t t he thread
of connection unify ing t his work is t he se n te nce, it will be
seen tha t t he lesso ns fa ll in to t heir natural order of sequence.
w ·hen, t hrough t he d evelopment of t he sente nce , a ll the offices of
the different pa rLs of s peech a rc mastered, t he most natural thing
is to cont inue t he work of classification a nd subdivide t he parts
of speech. The i nflection of words, being distinct from their
classification, m a kes a separate d ivision of t he wo rk. If the
chief end of gram ma r were to ena ble one to parse, we should no t
here depart from long-establish ed preced en t .
Sentences in Groups - Paragraphs. In t racing t he growth of

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the sentence from the sirnµl est to the most complex form, each
element, as it is introduced, is_ illustrated by a la rge 11umber of
detached sente nces, chosen with the utmost care as to thought
and expression. These compel the pupil to confi ne his attentio n
to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature a re then selected to be used at intervals, with questions and
suggestions to enforce principles a lready prese11ted , and to prepare
the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider
scope. They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentence.;; '
are grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to
each other; they a lso lead him on to discover whatever is most
worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented.
The Use of the Diagram. In written analysis, the simple map,
or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to
present directly a nd Yividly to the eye the exact function of every
clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of
every word in the phrase - to picture the complete a nalysis of
the sentence, with principal a nd subordinate parts in their proper
relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that
the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic
whole made up of many parts performing various functions and
standing i11 various rel::i.tio11s . Without such map he must labor
under the- disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or
m succession.
But, if for any reat;on the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they may be omitted without causing the slightest break
in the ~vork. The plan of this book is in 110 way dependent on
the use of the diagrams.
The Objections to the Diagram. The fact that the pictorial
diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices
and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken
of as a fault. It is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches
the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order. H e thus learns what the li terary order really is, and
sees that this may be varied indefin itely, so long as the logical
relations are kept clear .

The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically
is not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in
oral analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to
a most searching examination of the sentence, brings him face
to face with every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point.
The Abuse of the Diagram. Analysis by diagram of ten bebecomes so interesting and so l1elpf ul that, like other good things,
it is liable to be overdone. There is danger of requiring too much
written analysis. When the ordinary constructions have be~n
made · clear diagrams should be used only for the more difficult
sentences ~r if the senten.ces are long, only for the more difficult
parts of ~he~. In both oral and written analysis ther~ is danger
of repeating what needs no repetition. When thP diagram has
served its purpose, it should be dropped.
NoTE. Owing to the increasing pressure upon the curriculum, many
schools are unable to give to the study of English grammar in the upper
grades time sufficient for due consideration of all the subject-m_atter
contained in Hi,gher Lessons in English. For such schools a shorter
course is provided by the omission of Lessons ~ea~ing w~th topics not
e88ential to the subject or necessary to the contmmty of its treatment.
· These Lessons are indicated by an asterisk (*) following the lesson
number.

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AUTHORS' NOTE TO EDITION OF 1896

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DURING the years in which "Higher Lessons" has been in
existence, we have ourselves had an instructive experience with it
in the classroom. We have considered hundreds of suggestive
_letters written us by intelligent teachers using the book. We have
examined the best works on grammar that have been published
.recently here and in England. And we have clone more. We have
gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language
- the best writer8 and speakers of it. That we might ascertain
- what present linguistic usage is, we chose fifty authors, now alive
' or living till recently, and have carefully read three hundred pages
of each. We have minutely uoted and recorded what these
·: · men by habitual use declare to be good English. Among the
fifty are Ruskin, Froude, Hamerton, Matthew Arnold, Macaulay,
. De Quincey, Thackeray, Bagehot, John Iviorley, James Martineau, Cardinal Newman, J. R. Green, and Lecky in England;
and Hawthorne, Curtis, Prof. W. D. Whitney, George P. ~farsh,
Prescott, Emerson , Motley, Prof. Austin Phelps, Holmes, Edward
. Everett, Irving, and Lowell in America. When in the pages
~- following we anywhere quote usage, it is to the authority of such
~- men that we appeal.
Upon these four so urces of help we have drawn in the Revision
of" Higher Lessons" that we now offer to the public.
In this revised work we have given additional reasons for the
Qpinions we hold, and have advanced to some new positions; have
explained rnore fully what some teachers have thought obscure;
·bve qualified what we think was put too positively in former
editions; have given the history of co nstructions where this would
deepen interest or aid in composition; have quoted the verdicts
of ,'usage on many locutions condemned by purists; have tried to
ork into the pupil's style the fe licities of expression found in the
' . n sentences; have taught the pupil earlier in the work,· and
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more thoroughly, the structure and the function of paragraphs;
and have led him on from the composition of si ngle sentences of .
all kinds to the composition of these great groups of sentences."
But the distinctive features of "Higher Lessons" that have made ·
the work so useful and so popular stand as they have stood - the
Study of Words from their offices in the Se11te~1ce, Analysis .f~r
the sake of subsequeut Synthesis, Easy Gradat10n, the Subd1v1sions and Modifications of the Parts of Speech after the treatment
of these in the Sentence, etc., etc. We confess to some surprise .
that so little of what was thought good in matter and method
years ago has been seriously affected by criticism since.
.
In this edition of the work, as in the preceding, we take pleas-.
ure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic, the:.
distinguished Prof. Francis A . .March, of Lafayette College .

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Sentence and the Parts of
~peech
LESSON 1
A TALK ON LANGUAGE
Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn
from a grammar or from a book of any kind - a language
that we come by naturally, and use without thinking of it.
..It is a universal language, and consequently needs no
interpreter. People of all lands and of all degrees of culture
use it; even the brute animals in some measure understand it.
'.F.his Natural language is the langu age of cries, laughter,
. and tones; the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth,
. "the whole face; the language of gestures and postures.
" "'; The child's cry tells of its wants; its sob, of grief; its
screo.m, of pain; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his
eY.ebrows in surprise and his nose in disgust, leans forward
in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fist in anger,
~ ~d calls or drives away his clog simply by the tone in which
. be speaks.
But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish
.c ommunicate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowl;t; edge and learn to think, and then we feel the need of a better
· language.
Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day;
could you express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture? ·
If you wish to tell me the fact that yesterday was cloudy,

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374

MODIFICATIONS OF THE PAilTS OF SPEECH

they had been committed only by Turks or pagans in Asia
some centuries ago. - Greeley
24. To sweeten the beverage, a lump of sugar was laid
beside each cup, and the company alternately nibbled and
sipped with great decorum, until an improvement was introduced by a shrewd and economical old lady, which was to
suspend a large lump directly over the tea-table, by a string
from the ceiling, so that it could be swung from mouth to
mouth - an ingenious expedient, which is still kept up by
some families in Albany, but ·which prevails without exception
in Communipaw, Bergen, Flatbush, and all our uncontaminated Dutch villages. - Irving

Composition
LESSON 146
SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS AND
PUNCTUATION
CAPITAL LETTERS, TERMINAL MARKS, AND THE COMMA

Capital Letters. The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation
making complete sense or a direct question
introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or
clauses separately numbered or paragraphed
should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a
capital letter (5) proper names (including all
names of the Deity), and words derived from them,
(6) narr1es of things vividly personified, and (7)
most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8)
the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in the Ro1nan
notation.*

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Period .. Place a period after (1) a declarative
or an i1nperative sentence, (2) an abbreviation,
(3) a number written in the Roman notation,
and (4) Arabic figures used to enumerate .

* Small letters are often

used in referring to sections, chapters, etc.

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COl\lPOSITION

Interrogation Point. Every direct interrogative
sentence or clause f:lhouhl !Jc followed. Ly an
interrogation point.
Exclamation Point. All exclamatory expressions n1ust be followed by the exclan1ation point.
Comma. Set off by the comn1a ( 1) an explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified
term or combine closely with it; (2) a participle
used as an adj ective modifier, with the words
belonging to it, unless restrictive; (3) the adjective clause when not restrictive ; (4) the adverb
clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the
word it modifies ; (5) a phrase out of its usual
order or not closely connected with the word it
modifies; (6) a word or phrase independent or
nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced into
a sentence, unless fonnally introduced; (8) a noun
clause used as an attribute cmnplement; and (9) a
tenn connected to another by or and having the
same meaning. Separate by the comma (10)
connected words and phrases, unless all the conj unctions are expressed; (11) co-ordinate clauses
when short and closely connected; and (12) the
parts of a compound predicate, and othei· phrases, .
when long or diffetently n1odified. Use the comma
(13) to denote.an omission of words ; (14) after
as, narnely, etc., introducing illustrations; and (15)
when it is needed to prevent a1nbiguity.

SUM.MARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS, ETC. 377

Direction. Give th e Rule for each capital letter and each
· mark of 71 unclwil 1:on ?>n lhe0c sentences , c;cccpl the colon, the
semicolon, and the 11uotation marks:
1. Francis II., Charles IX. , and H enry III. , three sons of
Catherine de Medici and H enry II., sat upon the French
thron e. 2. The pupil asked, " ·w hen shall I use 0, and when
shall l use oh ?" ~~ . Purity of style forbids us to use: (1) F oreign word s ; (2) Obsolete words; (3) Low words, or slang. 4.
It is easy, Mistress Dial, for you, who h ave always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse one of
·laziness. 5. H e rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting,
~ fell. 6. The Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of t he Saracens, Caliph Omar having, in 637 A. D.,
·t aken J erusalem . 7. He who teaches, often learns himself.
8. San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1402. \). Some letters are super·fluous; as, c and q.

10. No sleep t ill morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet
To chase the glowing hours with flying feet!
Direction. Use capital letters and the proper marks of
punctuation in these sentences , and give your reasons:
1. and lo from the assembled crowd

there rose a shout prolonged and loud
that to the ocean seemed to say
t ake her o bridegroom old and gray
2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the
loins by a girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that
strange solitary man elijah the tishbite 3. The result however of the three years' reign or tyranny of jas ii was that wm
of orange came over from holland and without shedding a
drop of blood became a cl 1688 wm iii of england 4. o has
three sounds: 1. that in not; 2. that in note; 3. that in move

378

COMPOSITION

SUMMARY OF RULES - CONTINUED

5. lowell asks and whftt is so rare n.s a c l ~iy in june 6. spring.
is n, fi ckle mistress but f:>Umme r is murc staid 7. if i may
judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and
variety of his mu sic autumn is i should say t he poet of the •
family 8. new yo rk ap r 30 1789 9. some letters stand each
for many sounds; as a aml o

379

them sec i, who sn,w their brothers .and their sons foll on
the ficltl of Bunker Hill: aml the very walls will cry out in
its support.
Direction. Use capital letters and the proper marks of
punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons:
1. n,ll pn.rts of n, pbnt reduce to three namely root stem and

LESSON 147
SUMMARY OF RULES -

CONTI NUE D

SEMICOLON AND COLON

Semicolon. Co-ordinate clauses, (1) when
slightly connected, or (2) when themselves divided
by the comma, must be separated by the semi-·
colon. Use the se1nicolon (3) · between serial
phrases or cla uses having a common dependence
on something which precedes or follows ; and (4)
before as, to wit, naniely, i. e. , and that is, when
they introduce examples or illustrations.
Direction. J ustify each capital Zeller and each mark of
punctuation (except the colon) in these sentences :
1. It may cost treasure, and it mn,y cost blood; but it will
stand , and it will richly compensate for both. 2. Some words

are delightful to t he car; as, Ontario, golden, oriole. 3. The
shouts of revelry had died awa,y; the roar of the lion had
ceased; t he last loite rer had retired from the banquet; and
the lights in the lhlace of t he victor were extinguished. · ·
4. Send it to t he public halls; proclaim it t here; let them
hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon; let

leaf 2. when t he worltl is dark with tempests when thunder
. rolls and lightnin g flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the
cloucls and laughest at the sto rm 3. the oaks of the mountains fall t he mountains themselves decay with years the
ocean shrinks ancl grows again the i;noon herself is lost in
heaven 4. kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged
. with go ld pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding
· her by t he arms led her to the block and the queen kneeling
, ·down sn.id repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands o lord
i commend my spirit.

Colon. Use the colon ( 1) between the parts of
a sentence when these parts are themselves
-divided by the se1nicolon, and (2) before a quotation or an e11u1ncration of particulars when
,- formally introduced.
Direction. J usli}'.y each capital letter and each 1nark of
· punctuation in these sentences:
1. you may swell every expense, and strain every effort,

still more cxtravn,gant ly; accumulate every assistance you can
beg and borrow; traffic and barter with every little, pitiful
German prince t hat sells and sends his subj ects to tl:e
shambles of a foreign country: your efforts are forever vam
and impotent. 2. This is a precept of Socrates: "Know
thyself."

COl\lPOSlTION

SUMMA.UY OF IlULES -CONTINUED

Direction. U se capital Zell ers and the proper marks of
punctuation in th ese scnlcnces , and give your reasons:

1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three Saul, David, and Solomon. 2. ·w hen Mrs. B - - heard of
her son' s di sgrace, she fainted away. 3. And - "This to
me?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage - what
are they '? 5. I do not rise to supplicate you to be merciful
toward the nation to which I belong, -toward a nation
which, though subject to England, yet is distinct from it.
6. vVe know the u ses - and sweet they nre -Of adversity.
7. His place of business is 22.5 - 229 High street.

380

1. the advice given ra.n t hu s take care of the minutes an<l ·
the hours will take care of t he mselves 2. we may abound
in meetings and movements enthusinstic gatherings in the , ;
field an cl forest may kindle all minds with a common sen ti-,.: .
ment but it is all in vn.in if lllcn do not retire from the
tumult to the silent culture of every right disposition
Direction. TV rile senten ces ·i llustrating the several uses of•
the seniicolon, the colon, and the comma.

LESSON 148
SUMMARY OF RULES -

CONTINUED

THE DAS H, MARK S OF PAH EN TIIES I S , APOSTHOPHE, HYPHEN,
QUOTATIO N MARKS , AND BRAC KETS

Dash. Use the dash where there is an omission
(1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as_
as, namely, or that is, introducing illustrations or '
equivalent expressions. Use the <lash (3) where,
the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same ·
thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or "' .
another takes its place; and (4) before a word or
phrase repeated at ·intcrvnJs for emphasis. The
dash may be used ~.5 ) instead of 1nnrks of parcn-.
thesis, and may (6) follow other 1narks, adding
to their force.
Direction. J u st·i fy each ca pit al letter and each mark ·of ,
punctuation in these sentences:

381

Direction. U sc capital Zellers and the proper marks of
punctuation i n these sentences, and give your reasons:

i

.~

j

1

1. the human species is composed of two distinct races
those who borrow and those who lend 2. this bill this
infamous bill the way it has been received by the house
the manner in which its opponents have been treated the
personalties to which they have been subjected all these
. . · things dissipate my doubts 3. the account of a
's shame
fills pp 1 19 4. lord marmio11. turned well was his need
and dashed the rowels in his steed

"I

Marks of Parenthesis. Marks of parenthesis
may be used to inclose what has no essential
connection with the rest of the sentence.

.'''

!
i

' •I

Apostrophe. Use the apostrophe (1) to mark
the omission of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of
letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases.
Hyphen. Use the hyphen (-) (I) to join the
parts of compound words, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided.
Quotation Marks.

Use quotation . marks to
.j

' ..i

382

COl\lPOSITION

inclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation
contains a quotation, the latter is inclosed within
single marks. (See Lesson 74.)
Brackets. Use brackets [] to in close what;
in quoting another's words, you insert by way of
explanation or correction.
Direction.
sentences:

Justify the marks of punctuation used in these

1. Luke says, Acts xxi. 15, "vVe took up our carriages
[lu ggage], and went up to J eru selem." 2. The last sentence
of the composit ion was, "I close in the words of Patrick
Henry 'Give me liberty, or give me death.'" 3. Red-hot is
a compound adjective. 4. 'Tel egraph is divided thus: tel-egraph. 5. The profound · lea.rning of Sir William Jones (he
~vns master of twenty-eight languages) was the wonder of
his contemporaries. 6. l3y means of the apostrophe you
kn ow that love in mother's love is a noun, and that i's isn't a
verb.
Direction. Use capital Zellers and the proper 11iarks of
punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons:
l. next to a conscience void of offense without which by
the bye life isnt worth the living is the enjoyment of the
social feelings 2. man the life boat 3. clont neglect in writin g to clot ~our is cross your ts and mnke your 7s unlike your
9s and dont in sp:aking orn it the hs from suc h words as •
which when and why or in sert rs in law saw and raw 4. the
scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow
5. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water
mnrk in that great speech ending liberty and union now and
forever one and inseparable

CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION - REVIEW 383

LESSON 149
CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION -

REVIE\V

Direction. - Gi ve the reason fo r each capital letter and
each mark of 7nm ctualion in these sentences :
1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye; the more light

you pour upon it, the more it co ntracts. 2. This is the motto ·
of the Un i vcrsity of Oxford:" The LorJ is my light." 3. The
only fault ever found with him is, that he sometimes fights
ahead of his orders. 4. The land flowing with "milk and
honey" (sec Numbers xiv. 8) was a long, narrow strip lying
along the eastern edge, or coast, of the l\fediterranean,
and consisted of three divisions; namely, 1. On the north,
Galilee; 2. On the south, Judea; 3. In the middle, Samaria.
5. '' vVhn,t a lesson," Trench well says, "the word 'diligence'
contains!"
6. An honest man, my neighbor,.- there he stands vVas struck - struc k like a dog, by one who wore
The bndge of Ursini.
7. Thou, too, sail on, 0 Ship of State;
Sail on, 0 Union , strong and great.
8. O'Connell asks, "The clause '~ hich does away with
trial by jury - what, in the name of H --n, is it, if
it is not t he establis hment of a revolutionary tribunal?"
9. There are only three departments of the mind - the
intellect, t he feelings, and the will. 10. This - trial!
11. American nntionality has nrncle the desert bud and
blossom ns the rose; it has quickened to life _t he giant brood
of useful arts; it has whitened lake and ocean with the sails
of daring, new, and lawful trade; it has extended to exiles,
flying as clouds, the nsylum of our better liberty. 12. As I
saw him [\Vebster, the day before his great reply to Col.

COl'vIPOSITION

384

Hayne of South Carolina] in the evening, (if I may borrow
an illustrn.tion from his favorite amusement) ho was as
u11co1H~e rneLl and as free of spiriL as some here present havo
seen him while floating in his fishing-boat along a hazy shore,
gently rocking on the tranquil tide, dropping his line here
and there, with the varying fortune of the sport. The
next morning he was like so 1ne mighty admiral, dark and
terrible, casting the long shadow of his frowning tiers far
over the sea, that seemed to sink beneath him; his broad
pendant [pennant] streaming at the main, the stars and the
stripes at the fore, the mizzen, and the peak; and bearing
down like a tempest upon his antagonist, with all his canvas
strained to the wind, and all his thunders roaring from his
broadsides. 13. The "beatitudes" are found in Matt.
v.3-11.
To THE TEACHER.
If further work in punctuation is needed,
require the pupils to justify the punctuation of the sentences
beginning page 364.

LESSON 150*
QVALITIES OF STYLE

Style is the manner in which one expresses himself. Styles .
differ as men differ. But there are some cardinal qualities
that all good style mutit possess.
I. Perspicuity. Perspicuity is opposed to obscurity of
all kinds; it means clearness of expression. It demands that
the thought in the sentence shall be plainly seen through the ...:
words of the sentence. Perspicuity is an indispensable ':o
quality of style; if the thought is not understood, or it is : ·.
misunderstood, its expression might better have been left

* See

note on page 9 of preface.

QUALITIES OF STYLE

unatternpted.
· thiugs:

385

Perspicuity depends mainly upon these few

1. One's Clear Understanding of What One Attempts to
Say. You cannot express to others more than you
thoroughly know, or make your thought clearer to them
than it is to yourself.
2. The Unity of the Sentence. Many thoughts, or
thoughts having no natural and close connection with
each other, should not be crowded into one sentence.

·1

3. The Use of the Right Words. Use such words as convey your thought - each word expressing exactly your idea,
no more, no less, no other. Use words in the senses recognized by the best authority. Do not omit words when they
are needed, and do not use a superfluity of them. Be cautious in the u se of he, she, it, and they. Use simple words words which those who are addressed can readily understand.
. Avoid what are called bookish, inkhorn, terms; shun words
that have passed out of use, and those that have no footing in
the language - foreign words, words newly coined, and
slang.
4. A Happy Arrangement. The relations of single words
to each other, of phrases to the words they modify, and of
clauses to one another should be obvious at a glance. The
sentence should not need rearrangement in order to disclose
the meaning. Sentences should stand in the paragraph so
.• that the beginning of each shall tally exactly in thought
with the sentence that precedes; and the ending of each, with
1
'
' the sentence that follows.
Every paragraph should be a
unit in thought, distinct from other paragraphs, holding to
. them the relation that its own sentences hold to one another,
the relation that the several parts of each sentence hold to
one another.
I.,

COMPOSITION

QUALITIES OF STYLE

II. Energy. Dy energy we in c::m force, dgor, of expressio n. In ordin ary discu m se, it is not often so ught, and in no
discourse is it constantly sought . \ V c use energy when we
\Yisli to conyi11ce the intellect , aro use t he fee lin gs, .and captu re the will - lead one to do so mething. When energetic,
we select words and images fur strength and not fo r beauty: ,
choose specific, n,ml not general, t erms; prefer the concrete to
the ::ibstrnct; use few words and crowcl these wit h meaning;
place subordin::ite clauses before t he ind ependent; ::ind put
t he strongest word in t he clauf:lc, the strongest clause in the
sentence, t he strongest sentence in t he par:1,graph , and the
stro ngest paragraph in the discourse, bst. E nergetic t hought
seeks variety of exp ression , is usu::tlly ch[l,rgecl with intense
feelin g, and requires irnpD,. sioaed delivery.

likeness between two things, we bring over and apply to one
of them t he term t h[l,t denotes t he other; as, A st[l,tely squadron of snowy geese were riding in an ad joining pond.

386

III. Imagery - Figures of Speech. Things st::ind in many
rebtions to each other. So1ne things are ( J) like each other
in some particubr; othe r things are (2) unlike each other in
some particubr; ::ind still other things stand to each other
(3) in some other noteworthy relation than that of likeness or unlikeness. Things long seen and :1,ssociatcd by us
in any of t hese relations eo111e at last readily to suggest each
other. Figures of Speech :ire t hose C:-\prcssion s in which,
departing from our ordinary mann er in speaking of things,
we assert or assurne any of these notable relations. The first
and great service of imagery is to the t hought - it makes the
thought clearer and stronger. Inrngery [l,dds beauty to
style - a diamond brooch mn,y adorn as well as do d uty to
the dress.
A Simile , or Comparison , is [l, figure of speec h in which we
point out or assert a likeness between things ot herwise
unlike ; as, The gloom of despondency hung like a cloud over
the land.

A Metaphor is a figure of speech in '"hich, ass uming t he

387

A Personification is a figure of speech in which things are
raised to a plane of being above their own - to or toward
that of pe rsons. It raises (1) mere things to the plane of
animals ; as, Th e sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr
plen.santly for you . It raises (2) mere animals to the plane
of persons ; as, So talked the spirited, sly Snake. It raises
(3) mere things to t he pbne of persons; as, Earth fills her lap
with plen.sures of her own.

An Antithesis is a figure of speech in which things mutually
opposed in some pmticular are set over against each other; as,
The 'llWLlntains give their lost children berries and water; the
sea mocks their thirst and lets them die.
A Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one
thing connected to another by a relation other than likeness
oi· unlikeness is brought over and n,pplied to that other. The
most il1lportant of these relat ions are (1) that of the sign
to the thing signified ; (2) that of cause to effect; (3) that of
instrument to the user of it; (4) that of container to the thing
contained ; (5) t hat of material to t he thing made out of it;
(6) that of contiguity ; (7) that of the abstract to the concrete;
and (8) t hnt of part to the whole or of whole to the part.
This last relation has been thought so important that the
metonymy based upon it has received a distinct name Synecdoche.

IV. Variety. Variety is a quality of style opposed to
monotonous uniformity. Nothing in discourse pleases us
more than light and shade. In discourse properly varied,
the snme word does not appear with offensive frequency;
long word s alternate with short; the usual order now and then
yields to t he transposed; the verb in t he assertive form fre-

388

COi\lPOSlTION

PEllSPIC UITY - CRITICISM

389

quently gives way to the p:trticiple and the infini tive, which
assume; figures of speech sparkle here and t here in a setting
of plain language; the full u1 ct hod of state ment is followed
b y the contracted; impassioned language is succeeded by the
unemotional; long sentences stand side by sicle with short,
and loose sentences with period s; declarative sentences are
relieved by intenogative and exclamatory, and simple sentences by compound and co mplex; clauses have no rigidly
fix eel position; and sentences hen,vy with men,nin g and moving
slowly nre elbow to elbo\v wi t h t he light and t ripping. In a
worcl, no one form or method or matter is co ntinued so long
as to weary, and the reader is kept fresh and interested
throughout. Variety is rest ful to t he rea,der or hearer and
therefore adds greatly to t he clearness and to the force of
v;hat is n,clclressecl to him.

used to rin g a large bell at six o'clock in the morning for us to
get up, t hen we had h:df a n hou r to dress in, after which we
woulcl go to Chapel exercises, then breakfast, school would
commence at nine o'cloc k and closed at four in the afternoon
allowing an hour for dinner fr om one until two then we
would resume our studies until four in the afternoon. 3.
Jewelry was worn in the time of King Pharaoh which is many
thou sand years before Christ in the time when the Israelites
left t hey borrowed all t he jewels of the Egyptians which were
ma<le uf go kl and sil ve r. 4. \ Vhen it is made of gold they can
not of pure ~old but has to be mixed with some other metal
. which is generally copper which turns it a reddish hue in some
· · countries t hey use silver which gives it a whitish hue but in
the United States and England they use both silver and copper but the English coins are the finest.

Question the pupils upon every point taken
up in this Lesson, and require them to give illustrations where
it is possible for them to do so.

and let him out, as soo n :ts he ste pped out on t he ground, he
saw t he dead and dying layin g about everywhere. 2. They

Direction. Point out the f aulls, and recast these sentences,
making them, clear:
(If any one of the sentences has several meanings, give
these.)
l. J arnes's son, Charles I., befo re the breath was out of
his bod y was proclaimecl king in his stead. 2. He told the
coachman t hat he would be the death of him, if he did not
take care what he was about, a nd mind what he said. 3.
. Richelieu said to the king that Mazarin would carry out his
policy . 4. He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one
of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his
service. 5. Blake answered t he Spanish priest that if he
had sent in a complaint, he would have punished the sailors
severely; but he took it ill that he set the Spaniards on to
punish them.

*See note on page 9 of preface,
arHl ot hers in these Lessons, given just as
we found them, have been cull ed from school compositions. ·

Direction. So place these subordinate clauses that they will
remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each
sentence can be arranged:

To THE TEACHER.

LESSON 151 *
PERSPI CUI'l 'Y -

CRITI CISM

General Direction. In all your work in Co niposition attend
carefully to the punctuat,ion.
Direction. Point out the f aults, arid recast these sentences,
m aking them, clear:
1.

t He was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came·

t T hese four sentences

PERSPICUITY -

COMPOSITION

3!)0

CRITICISl\I

391
1f

1. The moon cast a pale light on the grnves that were
scattered around, as it peered above the horiwn. 2. A
large number of seats were occupied by pupils that had no
backs. 3. Crusoe was surprised at seeing five en.noes on the
shore in which there were savages. 4. This tendency will be
he::i,cled off by approximations which will be made from time
to time of the written word to the spoken. 5. People had
to travel on horseback and in wagons, which was a very slow
way, if they traveled n.t all. G. How can brethren partake
of their Father's blessing that curse each other? 7. Two
men will be tried for crimes in this tmvn which ar~ punishable
with death, if a full court should attend.

Direction. Each of th ese sentences may l~ ve two meanings;
supply the two ellipses in each sentence, and renwve the ambi- (
guity:

has forty first cln,:::;s grn.mmn,r-schools, e.rclus·ive of Dorchester.
5. He rode to town, and drove tvvclve cows on horseback.
6. He could not face an enraged fath er 1:n spite of his e.D'ronter y . 7. Two owls sat upon a tree which gre\V near an old
wall~ul of a heap of rublJ·ish. 8. I spe nt mos t on lhe river
and in th e rfrcr of the time I stayed there. 9. He wanted to
go to sen,, a.lthough it was contrary to the wishes of his
parents, at lh e age of ez:ghteen. 10. I have a wife and six children, and I have never seen one of lhern.

1. In Pn.ris, every lady infull dress rides. 2. I saw my
friend when I was in Boston walking down Trenwnt street.
3. The Prince of 'vVales was forbidden to become king or any
other man. 4. \Vlrn.t is his corning or going to you? 5. \Ve
do those things fr equently which 1ve repent of aftenvards.
6. I rushed out leaving the wretch with his fale half told,
horror-stricken at his crime. 7. Exclamation points are
scattered up n,nd down the page by co1npositors without any
mercy. 8. I want to rnake a present to one who is forn.l of
chickens jar a Chrislnias-gifl.

LESSON 152*
CRITICISM

Direction. So place th ese italicized phmscs that they will ·
renwve the obscurity, and th en see in how many ways each seritence can be arranged:
1. These designs any man who is a Briton 1:n any situation
ought to disavow. 2. The chief priests, mocking, said among .
themselves with the scribes, "He saved," etc. 3. Hay is given
to horses as well as corn to distend the stomach. 4. Bosten .

* See

note on page 9 of preface.

•,

1:;

Direction. So place the italicized words and phrases in each
sentence lhal they will help lo convey what you think is the
author's thought, and then see in how many ways each sentence
· can be arranged:

1. Let us trust no strength less thn.n thine. 2. Study had
more attrnction for him tlrnn his friend. 3. He did not like
the new teacher so well as his playmates. 4. He aimed
at nothing less than the crown. 5. Lovest thou me more than
these?

PERSPICUITY -

/.,

ti

lj

ll

'I
'\;11
~

I!

I

~

·I

Direction. Make these sentences clear by using simpler
words and j)hrases:
•·
,
. ',
.
.

I

· ,,1

1. ..t1 dernslaling confl,agration raged. 2. He conducted her
to the altar of Hym en . ;). A donkey has an abnormal elongation of auricular appendages. 4. Are you excavating a subterranean canal? 5. He had no capillary substance on the
sumniit of his hen.d. 6. He made a sad faux pas. 7. A network is anything reticulated or decussaled, with interstices al
equal distances betw een the intersections. 8. Diligence is the
' ·.

392

ENERGY -CRITICISM

COl\iPOSITJON

l. Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes. 2. Break
dowr~ he dikes, give Ho~land back to ocean. 3. Three hundred
m en 'Plld the hosts of Xerxes at bay. 4. I sat at her cradle, I
follow ed her hearse. 5. Their daggers have stabbed Caesar.
6. \Vhen I 'm mad, I weigh a ton. 7. Burn Moscow, starve
back the 1·nvaders. 8. There's no use in crying over spilt milk.
9. In prupurtion as men delight in battles and bull-fights
will they punish by hangfrig, burning, and the rack.

:sine qua non of success. D. She has donned the habilinients of
1coe. 10. The deceased was to-d:ty d(',JJOsited in his last reslingplace. JL Theinmal esprocecdccl loth esanctuary. 12. I have
pm·taken of my morning repast. 13. He took the initiative in.
inaugurating the ceremony.

LESSON 153*
ENERGY -

Direction. Change these general tenns to specific words,
and note th e gain in energy:

CRITICISM

1. Anne Boleyn vvas executed. 2. It were better for him
that a heavy weight were fastened to him and that he were
submerged in the waste of waters. 3. The capital nf the chosen
people was destroyed by a Rmnan general. 4. Consider the
flowers how they increase in size. 5. Cmsar was slain by
the conspirators. G. The cities of the plain were annihilated.

Direction. E1:pand these brief c:r;presgions into sentences
full of long words, and note th e loss of energy :
1. To your tents, 0 Israel! 2. Up, boys, nnd at them!
3. Indeed! 4. Bah! 5. Don't give up the ship! G. Murder
will out. 7. Ohl 8. Silence there l 9. Hurrah! 10. Death
orfreespeechl 11. Rascal! 12. Nonrntter. 13. Leastsni<l,
soonest mended. 14. Death to the tyrant! 15. I'll none of
it. 16. Help, ho! 17. Shame on you! 18. First come,
first served.
Direction. Condense each of these italicized e.rpresswns
into one or two words, and note the gain:

.

1. He sh1~ffied ojj' this mortal coil yesterday. 2. The author
surpassed nJl those who were living al the sanie time with him.
3. To say that revelation is a thing which there is no need of · .;;.
is to talk wildly. 4. He departed this l1fe. 5. Some say that ·~
ever 'gainst that season conies wherein- our Saviour's birth is
celebrated this bird of dawning singeth all night long.
Direction. Change these specific words to general terms, and
note the loss in energy:
*See note on page 9 of preface.

393

1

Direction. Arrange th ese words, phrases, and clauses in
, the order of their strength, placing the strongest last, and note
. , the gain in energy :
.

1. The nations of the earth repelled, surrounded, pursued,
'· .; and resisted him. 2. He was no long~cons ul nor citizen
-;.· nor general nor even an emperor, but a prisoner and an exile .
'.~· 3. I shall die an American; I live an American; I was born an
. ~- American. 4. All that I am, all that I hope to be, and all
• : that I h ave in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it.
~ 5. I shall defend it without this House, in all places, and
- · within this House; at all times, in time of peace and in time of
·. war. 6. \Ve must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to
'preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon
the struggle.

FIG URES OF SPEECH - ClUTICISl\i

CO.MPOSlTION

394

395
I;

LESSON 154*
FIGURES OF SPEECH -

CIUTI CISM

Direction. 1Vam e th e jig u res of s Jl Ccch, and then recast a Jew
sentences , using plain language, and note th e loss of bea uty and
for ce :
1. Lend m e your ears. 2. Pl c::tse address the chair.
. 3. The robin knuws when yo ur gmpes have cooked long
eno ugh in the sun. 4. A d ::ty will cu me when bullets and
bombs shnJl be r eplaced by ballots. 5. Genius creates; taste
appreciates what is created. 6. C~s ar were n o l ion were not
Romans hi nds. 7. The so ul of J orn1than wn,s knit to that of
David. 8. 'Trajfic has lain down to rest. 0. Burrowing dulls
the edge of husbnmlry. 10. H e will bring d own my gray
hairs with sorrow to t he grnve. 11. H n,ve yo u read F roude
or Freeman ? 12. The pen is mightier t han t he sword.
13. If I can catch hini once upon the hi p, I will f eed fat the
ancient grud ge I b ear him . 1-1. The destinies of mankind
were trembli ng in the balance, while death f ell in showers.
15. The theaded steel fli es s wiftl y . 16. 0 Cassius, you are
yoked with a lamb that carries anger as the flint bears fire.
17. I cnllecl the New IV o1'ld intu existence to redress the
balance of the Old. 18. N atious shnll beat th eir swords into.
plowshares , and their : :; pears 'inlu pruning-hooks . 19. The
lt1 orn in russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew of yo n high
eastern hill. 20. Hom er, like the Nile, pours out his riches · "'
with a slldden 01·c1jlow; Vfrgil, like a river in its banks, with a
constant stream. 2 1. The air biles shrew dl y. 22. He doth ·
bestride the narrow world l'ike a Colosslls. 23 . My heart is
in the coffin there with Cresar. 24. All hands to t he pumps!
25. The gray- eyed J1forn smiles on the frowning Night.

* See

note on page U of preface.

26. Th e good is often buricLl with men's bones. 27. B eware
of t he bnllle. 28. All n ations respect our flag . 29. The
marble speaks. 30. I h ave no spur to prick the sides of my
inten t. ~ 1. I am as cons tant as th e northern star. 32. Then
burst hi s 111ighty heart. 33 . The ice is covered with health
and beau ty on s kates. 34. Lentu lus returned with victorious
beagles. 35. Dmth h at h sucked t he h oney of t hy breath.
36. O ur cha ins areforg('d. 37 . I have bought golden opinions.
38. The hm rll.i blazed hig h. :.rn. His wurds f ell soft er than
snoivs on th e brine. 40. Nig ht' s candles are burnt.out, and
jocund Day stands tipto e on the misty mountain top.

I•

r

'.'

Direction. I n th e fir st f our sentences , lls e s imi l es; in
the second f our, m e taphor s ,· in the third fou r, personific ation s ; i n the last eiyht, melonymi es :
1. He flew with the s101ftncss of an arrow.

2. In battle
some rn en arc brave, others are cowardly. 3. His head is as
full of plans as it can hold. 4. I heard a loud noise. 5. Boston is t he place where Ame rican liberty began . 6. Our dis'. positions s hould grow mild as we grow old. 7. The stars can
no longer be seen. 8. Iu b attle so me men a re brave, others are
cowardly . !). The coc k ten rs up t he gro und for his family of
hens a nd chickens. 10. The waves were still. 11. The oak
· stretches out i ts strong branches. 12. The fl owers are the
' sweet a nd p retty gro wths of the earth and sun. 13. English
" vessels pl ow the sens o f t he two hemispheres. 14. Have yo u
read Lamb's J:,'ssays? 15. The water is boiling. 16. \Ve h:we
prostrn ted ou rselves before the king. 17. lVretched p eople
·shiver in their lair of straw. 18. The soldier is giving way to
the husbandman. 10. Swords flashed, and bullets fell. 20.
His banner led t he sp ean nen n o more.
Remark. If whnt is begun as a metaphor is not completed
as begun , but is co mpleted by a part of another metaphor or

l

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COMPOSITION

VARIETY IN EXPRESSION

by plain language, we have wh::tt is called n. mixed metaphor.
It requires great care to avoid this very common error.

be formed out of sim ple sentences, may be contracted to
simple sentences, and may be changed to complex sentences;
in 70, t lrnt participles, abso lu te phrases, and infinitives may
be expanded in to different kinds of clauses; and, in 130, that a
verb nrny change its voice.

Direction.

Correct these errors:

The devouring fire uprooted the stubble. 2. The brittle
thread of life mn.y be cut asunder. 3. All the ripe fruit of
three-score years was blighted in a dn.y. 4. Unravel the obscurities of this knotty question. 5. \Ve must apply the axe to
the fountain of this evil. G. The man stafks i.nto. cou~·t
like a nwtionless statue, with the cloak of hypocnsy m his
11i~uth. 7. The thin mantle of snow dissolved. 8. I smell
a rat, I see him brewing in the air, but I shall yet nip him
in the bud.

LESSON 155*
VARIETY IN EXPRESSION

Remark. You learned in Lessons 52, 53, 54 that the
usual order may give way to the transposed; in 55, 56, that
one kind of simple sentence may be changed to another;
in 57, that simple sentences may be contracted; in 61, that
adjectives may be expand ed into clauses; in 67, t hat arr. adverb clause nrny stand before, between the parts of, and after,
the independent clause; in 68, that an adverb clause may be
contracted to a participle, a participle phrase, an absolute
phrase, a prepositional phrase, that it may be contrac~ed .by
the omission of words, and may be changed to an adJect1ve
clause or phrase; in 73, that a noun clause as subject may.
stand last, and as object complement may stand first, that it
may be made prominent, and may be contracted; in 74, that
direct quotations and questions may be changed to indirect,
an cl indirect to direct; in 77, that compound sentences may

* See

note on page 9 of preface.

Direction.

307
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Illustrate all these changes.

Direction. R ecast these sentences, avoiding offensive repetitions of lhc same word or the same sounds:
2. v.;r e sailed
a.cross a bay and sailed up a creek and sailed back and sailed
in all about fourteen miles. 3. It is then put into stacks, or it
is put into barns either to use it to feed it to the stock or to
sell it. 4. This day we undertake to render an account to the
widows and orphans whom our decision will make; to the
wretches that will be roasted at the stake. 5. The news of
the battle of Dunker Hill, fought on the 17th of June in the
year of our Lord 1775, roused the patriotism of the people to
a high pitch of enthusiasm.
1. \Ve have to have money to have a horse.

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Direction. Using other words wholly or in part, see in how
many ways you can e:rpress the thoughts contained in these
~entences :

1. In the profusion and recklessness of her lies, Elizabeth -

had no peer in England. 2. Henry IV. said that Jam es I.
was the wisest fool in Christendom. 3. Cowper's letters are
charming because they are simple and natural. 4. George
IV., though he was pronounced the first gentleman in
Europe, was, nevertheless, a snob.
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COMPOSITION

398

LESSON 156*
THE PARAGRAPH

The Paragraph. The cbuses of complex sentences are so
closely united in meaning that freq uently they are not to be
separated from each other even by the comma. The clauses
of compound sentences are less closely united - a com ma, a
semicolon, or a colon is needed to diviJe them.
Between sentences there exists a wider separation in
meaning, marked by a period or other terminal point. But
even sentences may be connected, the bond which unites them
being their common relation to the thought which jointly
they develop. Sentences thus related are grouped together
.aml. form, as you have already learned, what we call n.
Paragraph, marked by beginning the first word a little to
the right of the marginal lin e.
Direction. Notice the f acts which this paragraph contains,
and the relation to each other of the clauses and the sentences ·
·
expressing t~iese facts:
After a breeze of so me sixty hours from the north and
northwest, the wind died away about four o'clock yesterda.y
afternoon. The calm continued till about nine in the evening. The mercury in the barometer fell , in the meantime, at
an extraordinary rate; and the captain predicted that we
should encounter a gale from the southeast. The gale came
on about eleven o'clock; not violent at first, but increasing
every moment.
1. A breeze from the north and northwest. 2. The wind
died away. 3. A calm. 4. Barometer fell. 5. The capta.in
predicted a gale. 6. It came on. 7. It increased in violence.

* See

note

011

THE PARAGRAPH

Direction.
gra71h below:

390

Give and nunib er the facts contained in the para-

I awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and thumping in the night, occasioned by the dashing of
the waves against the ship. Hurrying on my clothes, I found
such of the passengers as could stand, at the doors of the
hurricane-house, holding on, and looking out in the utmost
consternation. It was still quite dark. Four of the sails
· were already in ribbons : the winds whistling through the
cordage ; the rain clashing furiou sly and in torrents; the noise
and spray scarcely less than I found them under the great
sheet at Niagara.

...
;

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Direction. W eave the fa cts below into a paragraph,
supplying all you need to make th e narrative snwoth:

'·,/

. l.'

,,

'

Rip 's beard was grizzled. Fowling-piece rusty. Dress
uncouth. · \Vomen and children at his heels. Attracted
attention. 'vVas eyed from head to foot. Was asked on
, which side he voted. Whether he was Federal or Democrat.
Rip was dazed by the question. Stared in stupidity.

"

Direction. ·wem;e the f atls below into two para.graphs, supplying what you need, and tell what each paragraph is about:
·In place of the old tree there was a pole. This was tall and
naked. A flag was fluttering from it. The fl ag had on it the
stars and stripes. This was strange to Rip. But Rip saw
• something he remembered. The tavern sign. H e recognized
on it the face of King George. Still the picture was changed.
The red coat gone. One of blue and buff in its place. A
sword, and not a scepter, in the hand. 'vVore a cocked hat.
' Underneath was painted - "General Vvashington."

page 9 of preface.

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400

COMPOSITION

LESSON 157*
THE PARAGRAPH

Direction. lV eave the facts below into three paragraphs, and
write on the niargin what each is about:
The Nile rises in great lakes. lluns north. Sources two
thousand miles from Alexandria. Receives two branches
only. Runs through an alluvial valley. Course through the
valley is 1,500 miles. Flows into the Mediterranean. Two
principal channels. Minor outlets. Nile overflows its banks.
Overflow caused by rains at the sources. The melting of the
mountain snows. Begins at the end of June. Rises four
inches daily. Rises till the close of September. Subsides.
Whole valley an inland sea. Only villages above the surface.
The valley very fertile. The deposit. The fertile strip is
from five to one hundred and fifty miles wide. Renowned for
fruitfulness. Egypt long the granary of the world. Three
crops from December to June. Productions - grain, cotton,
and indigo.
Direction. vVeave these facts into four paragraphs, writing
on the uiargin of each the uiain thought:
The robin is thought by some to be migratory. But ,he
stays with us all winter. Cheerful. Noisy. Poor soloist.
A spice of vulgarity in him. Dash of prose in his song. Appetite extraordinary. Eats his own weight in a short time.
Taste for fruit. Eats with a relishing gulp, like Dr. Johnson's.
Fond of cherries. Earliest mess of peas. Mulberries. Lion's
share of the raspberries. Angleworms his delight. A few
years ago I had a grapevine. A foreigner. Shy of bearing.
This summer bore a score of bunches. They secreted sugar

* See

note on page 9 of _preface.

PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME

401

from the sunbeams. One morning, went to pick them. The
· robins beforehand with me. Bustled out from the leaves.
Made shrill, unhandsome remarks about me. Had sacked
the vine. Remnm1t of a single bunch. How it looked at the
bottom of my basket! A humming-bird's egg in an eagle's
nest. Laughed. Robins joined in the merriment.

LESSON 158*
PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME

Direction.

TV eave these facts into four paragraphs:

Note that the several pa.ragraphs form a composition, or
Theme, the general subject of which is
vVoUTElt v AN TWILLER (according to Diedrich Knickerbocker).
I. Who he was. Van Twiller was a Dutchman. Born
at Rotterdam. Descended from burgomasters. In 1629
appointed governor of Nieuw Nederlandts. Arrived in June
at New Amsterdam - New York city.
II. Person. \Vas five feet six inches high, six feet five
m circumference. Head spherical, and too large for any
neck. Nature set it on the back-bone. Body capacious.
Legs short and sturdy. A beer-barrel on skids. Face a vastr
unf urrowed expanse. No lines of thought. . Two smallr
gray eyes. Cheeks ha<l taken toll of all that had entered his
mouth. Mottled an<l streaked with dusky red.
III. Habits. Regular. Four meals daily, each an hour
long. Smoked and doubted eight hours. Slept twelve. As
self-contained as an oyster. Rn.rely spoke save in monosylla-

* See

note on page 9 of preface.

402

COMPOSITION
PARAGRA·PI-IS AND THE THEl\IE

bles. Dut never saicl n, foolish t hing. Never laughed. Perplexed by a juke. Cu11coivcd everything 011 a grand scale. ·
·when a question was asked, would put on a lllyste rious look.
Shake his head. Smoke in silence. Observe, at length, he
had doubts. Presided nt t he council, in state. Swayed
Turkish pipe instead of a scepte'r. Known to sit with eyes
closed two hours. Internal commotion shom1 by guttural
soumls. Noises uf contending doubts, adn1ircr::; said .

his ch:1riot.
J ezreel.

Girding up his loins, he runs before Ahab to

LESSON 159*

a

IY. Exploits. Settled a dispute about accounts thus:
sent for the parties; eac h produced his nccount-buuk; Vn,n T.
weighed the books; cou nted t he leaves; equally heavy; .
equally thick; made each give t he other a receipt; and the
constable pay the costs. Dernanded why Van Rensselaer
seized Dear's Island. Battled with doubts regarding the
Yankees. Smoked and breathed his last together.
Direction. TV care th ese fa cts 1:nto four 71aragra7Jhs, write
on the margin the special topic of each, and over th e whole what
you th ink is the gen eral subject of lhe theme:

Tho prophets of Bnal nccept Elijah's clt allengc. They
dress a bullock. Call on lhal. Are mocked by Elijah. Leap
upon the altar. Cut them se lves. Blood. Cry till the time
of t he eYenin g sac rifice. Nu :111S\Yer by fire. Elijah commands
the people to come near. llepairs an old altal' with twelve
stones, one for each tribe. Digs a trench. Sacrifi ces. Pours
water three times upon it. Prays. Fire falls, consumes fl esh,
wood , stones, du st, li cks up water. People sec it. Fall on
their faces. Cry out twice, "The Lord, ho is the Goel." Take
the prophets to the brook IGshon, where they are slain. Elijah asce nd s Mount Carm el. Bows in prn.ycr. "Go up now,
look toward the sea." Servant reports, "There is nothing."
" Go again seven times." "Behold there ariseth a little cloud
out of the sea, like a man's hand." Orders Ahn,b to prepare

403

PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME

Direction. IIrcave these fa cts into as many paragraphs
as you think there should be, 'llsing the 'Variety of expression
insisted on in Lesson 150, and write on the niargin of each paragraph the special topic, and over the whole the general subject
of the theme:

Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet
of La,ke George and by Lake Champlain. Fronts south;
w:1ter on three sides. Separated by Lake Champlain from
Mount Independence, and by the outlet, from Mount Defiance.
Fort 0~1e hundred feet above the water. May 7, 177.5, two
hundred and seventy men meet at Castleton, Vermont. All
but forty-six, Green Mountain boys. Meet to plan and execute an :1ttack upon Fort T. Allen n,nd Arnold there. Each
claims the command. Question left to the officers. Allen
chosen. On evening of the 0th, they rea,ch the lake. Difficulty in crossing. Send for a, scow . . Seize a boat at anchor.
Search, and find small row boats. Only eighty-three able
to cross. Day is dawning when these reach the shore. Not
prudent to wait. Allen orders all who will follow him to
poise their firelocks. Evel'y man responds. Na than Beman,
a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel snaps his gun at A.
Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. They follow. Rush upon the
' parade grnund. Fon11. Loud cheer. A. climbs the stairs.
Orders La, Place, it is said , in the name of the great Jehovah
and the Continental Congress, to surrender. Capture fol'tyeight men. One hundred and twenty cannon. Used next

* Sec

note on page 9 of preface.

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404

COMPOSITION

winter at the siege of Boston. Several swords and howitzers
'
small arms, and ammunition.
Direction. These facts are thrown together promiscuously.
Classify them, as they seem to you to be related. Determine the
nwnber of paragraphs and their order, and then do as directed .
above:
Joseph was Jacob's favorite. \'Vore fine garments. One
day was sent to inquire after the other sons. They were at a
distance, tending the flocks. Joseph used to dream. They
saw him corning. Plotted to kill him. In one dream his
brothers' sheaves bowed to his. In another the sun moon
'
'
and stars bowed to him. Plotted to throw his body into a
pit. Agreed to report to their father that some beast had
devoured Joseph. Joseph foolishly told these to his brothers.
Ha~ecl him because of the dreams and their father's partiality.
While the brothers were eating, Ishmaelites approached.
They sat down to eat. \Vere going down into Egypt. Camels
loaded with spices. At the intercession of Reuben they clicl
not kill Joseph. Threw him alive into a pit. Ishmaelites
took him down into Egypt. Sold him to Potiphar. Judah
advised that he be raised from the pit. J aco.b recognized the
coat. Hefuscd colllfort .. Hc11t hi8 dothes and put on sackcloth. They took his coat. Killed a kid and dipped the coat
in its blood. Brought it to Jacob. "This have we found·
'.
know now whether it be thy son's coat or no.''

LESSON 160*
PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME

Direction. Classify these pr01niscuous facts, detennine
carefully the number and the order of the paragraphs, and then
do _a s directed above:

* See

note on page 9 of preface .

PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME

.

405

Trafalgar a Spanish promontory. Near the Straits of
Gibraltar. Off Trafalgar, fleets of Spain and France, October
21, 1805. Nelson in command of the English fleet. The combined fleets in close line of battle. Collingwood second in
command. Had more and larger cannon than the English.
~ English fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates.
~ . Thirty-three sail of the line and seven frigates. He signaled
' those memorable words: " England expects every man to do
, ~;, his duty." Enemy had four thousand troops. Signal re. ceived with a shout. They bore down. The best riflemen in
the enemy's boats. C. steered for the center. C. in the
Royal Sovereign le<l the lee line of thirteen ships. A raking
fire opened upon the Victory. N. in the Victory led the
weather line. C. engaged the Santa Anna. Delighted at being
the first in the fire. At 1.15 N. shot through the shoulder and
' bae,k. At 12 the Victory opened fire. N. 's secretary the
·first to fall. Fifty fell before a shot was returned. "They
have done for me at last, Hardy," said N. They bore him
below. At 2.25 ten of the enemy had struck. The wound
· was mortal. At 4 fifteen had struck. The victory that cost
the British 1,[?87 men wen. These were his last words. At
4.30 he expired. "How goes the day with us?" he asked
Hardy. "I hope none of our ships have struck." N.'s
death was more than a public calamity. "I am a dead man,
Hardy," he said. Englishmen turned pale at the news.
Most triumphant death that of a martyr. He shook hands
with Hardy. "Kiss me, Hardy." They mourned as for a
dear friend. Kissed him on the cheek. Most awful death
: ·/ that of the martyr patriot. The loss seemed a personal one.
Knelt down again and kissed his forehead. His articulation
difficult. Heard to say, "Thank Goel, I have done my duty."
Seemed as if they had not known how deeply they loved him.
Most splendid death that of the hero in the hour of victory.
Has left a name which is our pri<le. An example which is our

406

COMPOSITION

shield and strength. Buried him in St. Paul's.
spirits of the great and the wise live after them.

ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS

Thus the

To THE TEACHER. Continue this work as long as it is ne~ded.
Take any book, and read to the class items of facts. Require
them to use the imagination and whatever graces of style are at
their command, in weaving these facts together.

LESSON 161*
ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT OF THE THEME

Analysis of the Subject. A Theme is made up of groups of
sentences called Paragraphs. The sentences of each paragraph are related to each other, because they jointly develop
a single point, or thought. And the paragraphs are related
to each other, because these points which they develop are
divisions of the one general subject of the Theme.
After the subject has been chosen, and before writing upon
it, it must be resolved into the main thoughts which compose
it. Upon the thoroughness of this analysis and the natural
arrangement of the thoughts thus derived, depends largely .
the worth of the theme. These points form, when arrangc<l,
the Framework of the theme.
Suppose you had taken The Armada as your subject. Perhaps you could say under these heads all you ·wish: 1. What
the Annada was. 2. When and by whmn equipped. 3. Its
purpose. 4. Its sail over lhe Bay of Biscay and entrance into
the English Channel. 5. The attack upon it by Admiral
Howard and his great Captains - Drake and Hawkins.
6. Its dispersion and partial destruction by the storm. 7. The
return to Spain of the surviving ships and nien. 8. The consequences to England and to Spain.

407

Perhn.ps the 1st point could include the 2d and the 3d.
Be careful not to split your general subject up into very many
parts. See, too, that no point is repeated, that no point foreign to the subject is introduced, and that aH the points
together exhaust the subject as nearly as may be. Look to
the arrangement of the points. There is a irnturnl order;
(6) could not precede (5); nor (5), (4); nor (4), (1).
To THE T1~ACHER. Question the pupils carefully upon every
point taken up in this Lesson.
Direction. Prepare the framework of a theme on each of
these subjects:
1. The Arrest of Major Andre. 2. A \'Vinter in the Arctic

Region.

LESSON 162*
ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS

Direction. Prepare the framework of a theme on each of
these subj eels:
l. Battle of Plattsburg. 2. A Day's Nutting.
Does a Proper Care fur One's Health Demand?

3. ·what

LESSON 163*
· ANALYSIS OF' SUBJECTS

Direction. Prepare the franiework of a theme on each of
these subjects:
1. A Visit to the J\foon.

2. Reasons why one Should

* See note on page 9 of preface.

*See note on page 9 of preface.
\

COMPOSITION

HOW TO WRITE A THEME

Not Smoke. 2. \Vhat Does a Proper Observance of Sunday
Require of One?

III. Construct a Framework. Before writing hunt
through your material for the main points, or heads. See
to what genern.l truths or thoughts these jottings and those
jottings point. Perhaps this or that thought, as it stands,
includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure, at any rate,
that by brooding over your material, and by further thinking upon the subject, you get at all the general thoughts
into which, as it seems to you, the subject should be analyzed.
Study these points carefully. See that no two overlap each
other, that no one appears twice, that no one has been raised
to the dignity of a head which should stand under some head,
and that no one is irrelevant. Study now to find the natural
order in which these points should stand. Let no point, to
the clear understanding of which some other point is necessary, precede that other. If developing all the points would
make your theme too long, study to see what points you can
omit without abrupt break or essential loss.

408

LESSON 164*
ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS

Direction. Prepare the fram ework of a theme on each of
these subjects:
1. 'fhe Gulf Stream.

2. A Descent into a ·whirlpool.
3. What are Books Good for?

LESSON 165*
HOW TO vVRITE A THEME

1. Choose · a Subject. Choose your subject long before
you are to write. Avoid a full, round term like Patrioti~m or
Duty; take a fragment of it; as, How can a Boy be Patriotic?
or Duties which we Schoolmates owe Each Other. The subject
should be on your level, should be interesting and suggestive
to you, and should instantly start in your minJ many trains
of thought.
II. Accumulate the Material. Begin to think about your
subject. Turn it over in your mind in leisure moments, and,
as thoughts flash upon you, jot them chwn in your blankbook. If any of these seem broad enough for the main points,
or heads, indicate this. Talk with no one on the subject,
and read nothing on it, till you have · thought yourself
empty; and even then you should note down what the conversation or reading suggests, rather than what you have
heard or reacl.

* See

note on page 9 of preface.

I

409

IV. Write. Give your whole attention to your work as
you write, and other thoughts will occur to you, and better
vvays of putting the thoughts already noted down. In
expanding the main points into parngraphs, be sure that
everything falls under its appropriate head. Cast out irrelevant matter. Do not strain after e~fect or strive to seem
wiser than you are. Use familiar words, and place these,
your phrases, and your clauses, where they will make your
thought the clearest. As occasion calls, change from the
usual order to the transposed, and let sentences, simple,
complex, and compound, long and short, stand shoulder to
shoulder in the paragraph. Express yourself easily - only
now and then petting your thought forcibly and with feeling.
, Let a fresh image here and there relieve the uniformity of
· plain language. One sentence should follow another without
abrupt break; and, if continuative of it, adversative to it, or

COl\lPOSITION

410

an inference from it, ancl t he hearel' needs to be a,tlviscd of
t his, let it swing into po:-:;it io11 on t he hin ge of a fi LLi11g connective . Of course, your senten ces mu st pass ri gid muster
in sy ntax ; n,ml yo u mu st loo k shal'p ly to the spe llin g, to the.
u se of capital letters, and to punctun,tion.
V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution. Keep yo ur pages
clean , a nd let your h::t11dwrit i11 g be clear. On the left of the
page leave a margin of an in ch fur corrections. D o not write
on the fourth page; if yo u exceed t hree pages, use another
sheet. \Vhen the writing is done, double the lower half of
the sheet over the upper, and fo ld t hroug h the middle ; then
bring the top down to the middle arnl fold again. Bring the
right-hand end t owa rd yo u , and across t he t op write your
name and the d ate. This superscript ion will be at the top
of the fourth page, at the right-hand corner, and at right
angles to the ruled lines.
To TIIE TEA CHER.

Question t he pupils closely upon e\·cry point

in this Lesso n.

Additional Subjects for Themes
1. Apples and Nuts
2. A Pleasant Evening
3. l\1y 'vV a lk to School
4. Pluck
5. School Friendships
6. \Vhen m y Ship Co mes In
7. Ancient and Modern \Varfare
8. The View from m y \Vindo w
9. Hornes without Hands
10. I Can
11. My Friend.Jack
12. John Chinaman
13. Trish Clmracters
14. Robin Hood

15.
16.
17.
18 .

A Visit to Olympus
l\fonday l\Iorning
l\ly Native Town
Over the Sea
JD. Up in a Balloon
20. Queer P eople
2 1. Our Minister
22 . A Plea for Puss
2~~ . Castles in Spain
24 . Young Americn.
25. Black Diamond s
26. Mosquitoes
27. A Dn.y in the \iVoods
28. A Boy's Trials

HOW TO WRITE A THEME

29. The Yankee
;30, Ruhi11 so11 Cru soe
31. Street Arabs
32. L ege rd emain
33. Our Neighbor hood
34. Exa,minations
35. Thea,ter-going
36. Donkeys
37 . The Sout hern Negro
38. A Rainy Saturcb y
39. The Early Dircl Catches the
\Vorrn
40. Sprin g Sports
41. How Horat ius Kept the
Bridge
42:Jack Frost
43. My First Sea, Voyage
44. Monkeys
45. Grnudrno t hcrs
46. The l3oy of the Story Book
47. Fa,mous Streets
48. Pigeons
49 . .Tack aucl .Jill
50. Make H:tste Slowly
51. Commerce
52. The S hip of t he Desert
53. vVinter Spo rts
54. A Visit to Neptune
55. 'vVhis kers
56. Gypsies
57. Cit ies of t he Dcacl
58. Street Cries
59. The \ Vorlcl Owes me A
Living

411

60. Politeness
Gl. Clean liness Akin to Godliness
62. Fighting \Vimlmills
63. Along the Docks
64. Maple Sugar
65. Umbrellas
6G. A Gi rl's Trials
67. A Spicler 's \Veb
68 . The Story of Ruth
6!l Clouds
70. A Co untry Store
71. Timepieces
72. Bulls and Dears
73. Bores
74. Our Sunday School
75. The Making of Beer
76. Autumn's Co lo rs
77. The \Vatched Put Never
Boils
78 . The Missioi1 of Birds
79. Parasites
SU. vV ell-begun is H a lf-clone
8 1. The Tides
82 . The Schoolnrnster 111
''The D eserted Vill age"
83. A D ay on a Trout
Stream
84. A Stitch in Tim e Saves
Niue
85. Of What Use arc Flowers?
86 . A D escent in a Diving
Bell

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412

COMPOSITION

LESSON 166

Letters need special treatment. In writing a letter there
are five things to consider -The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The Conclusion, and The
Superscription.
THE HEADING

LETTER-WRITING

413

Direction. Study what has been said, and write the fallowing
headings according to these models:
1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt.,
July 10, 1909.
2. 250 Broallway, N. Y.,
June 7, l!J09.

3. Saco, Me., Feb. 11, 1910.
4. Polytechnic Institute,
Brooklyn, N. Y.,
May3, HHl.

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1. arrn arbor 5 july l!J09 michigan 2. chf1mplain co
clinton n y jan 141910 3. po box 2678 1911oct19 chicago
4. philadelphia 670 1912 chestnut st 16 apr 5. saint nicholas
new york 1 hotel nov 1913

Parts. The Heading consists of the name of the Place at
which the letter is written, and the Date. If you write from .
THE INTRODUCTION
a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name :
Parts. The Introduction consists of the· Address - the
of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a Hotel · .. ; "
Name, the Title, an<l the Place of Business or Residence of
or a school or any other well-known Institution, its name may
the
one addressed - and the Salutation. Titles of respect
take the place of the door-number and the name of the street; ·
) and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix A1r. to
as may also the number of your post-office box. If you write
· a man's name, A-1. cssrs. to the names of several gentlemen;
from a village or other country place, give your post-office '.~
·
..
Master to the name of a young lad; Miss to that of an unaddress, the name of the county, and that of the state.
married lady; 111 rs. to that of a married lady; Misses to
The Date consists of the month, the clay of the month, and
the names of several young ladies; and Mesdames to those
the year.
of several married or elderly ladies. Prefix Dr. to the name
How Written. De gin the Heading about an inch aml a
of a physician (but never il1r. Dr.), or write M ·. D. after it.
half from the top of the page. If the letter occupies but a
. Prefix Rev. to the name of a clergyman, or Rev. Mr. if you
few lines of a single page, you may begin the Heading lower ., y do not know his Christian name; Rev. Dr. if he is a Doctor of
down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little to the · · ' - Divinity, or write Rev. before the name and D.D. after it.
left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more than.
.:. ' Prefix His Excellency to the name of the President,* and to
one line, the second line should begin farther to the right_ ~-­
that of a Governor or of an Ambassador; Hon. to the name
than the first, and the third farther to the right than the ;~
·, ~ of a Cabinet Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator,
second.
a Law J uclge, or a Mayor. If two literary or professional
The door-number, the day of the month, and the year are .
. titles are added to a name, let them stand in the order in
written in figures; the rest, in \Yorcls. Each important word
* The preferred form of a<l<lressing the President is, To the Presibegins with a capital letter, each item is set off by the comma,
·dent. Executive 111 ansion, TVashington, D. C.; the Salutation is simply,
and the whole closes with a period.
Mr. President .

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414

COMPOSITION

LETTER-WRITING - CONTINUED

which they were conferred - this is the order of a few common ones: 11.111., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D. Guard against
an excessive use of titles - t he higher implies the lower.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or
the writer's degree of int imacy with him. Strangers may be
addressed as Sir, D ear Sir, R ev. Sir, General, Madam, etc.;
acquaintances as Dear Sir , Dear Madam,, etc .; friends as My
dear Sir, f.1y dear Madam, My dear Jon es, etc .; and near relatives and othe r dear friend s as il1 y clear Wije, il1y Dear Boy,
D earest Ellen, etc.

should begin with a· capital letter, and the whole should be
followe<l by a comma, or by a comma and a dash.

How Written. The Address may follow the H eading,
beginning on t he next line, and standin g on the left side of
the p age ; or it may stand in corresponding position after the
Body of the Letter and the Conclusion . If the letter is of an
official character or is written to an intimate friend, the
Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the
letter; but in ordin ary business letters, it shou ld be placed at
the top and as directed above. Never omit it from the letter
except when the letter is written in the third person. Them ·,
should be a narrow margin on the left side of the page, and
the Address should begin on the marginal line. If the
Address occupies more t han one line, t he init ial wor<ls of
these lines should slope to t he right.
Begin the Salutation on t he marginal line or a little to the
right of it when t he Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farthe r to the right or to the left than the second
line of the Address when this occupies two lines; a li ttle to the
right of the marginal line when the Address occupies one line;
on the marginal line when the Address stands belovv.
Every important word in the Address should begin with
a capital letter. All t he items uf it should be set off by the
comma; and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close
with a period. Every important word in the Salutation

Direction.
models:

lV rite

these

415

introductions according to the

3. My dear Mother,
When, etc.
4. Messrs. Vallette & Co.,
2. Messrs. Smith & Jones,
Micl<llebury, Vt.
771 Broadway,
Dear Sirs,
New York City.
Gentlemen,
1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir 2. mass cambriclge
prof james r lowell my dear friend 3. messrs ivison blakeman taylor & co gentlemen new york 4. rev brown dr the
?-rli1igton washington clear friend cl c 5. cul john smith dear
colonel n y auburn
1. Prof. March, Easton, Pa.
My clear Sir,

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LESSON 167
LETTER--WRITING -

CONTINUED

'I
I

THE BODY OF THE LETTER

,

The Beginning. Begin the Body of the Letter at the end
of the S.alutation, and on the same line if the Introduction is
·. long - in which case the co mma after the Salutation should
be followed by a clash, - on the line below if the Introduction
·is short.

~.

Style. Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as
in other kinds o-f writing. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other offenses against epistolary
propriety. The letter "bespeaks the man." Letters of
friend ship ::;houl<l be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. What-

416

COMPOSITION

ever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends,
however trivial it may seem to a stranger.
Business letters should be brief, and the sentences short,
concise, and to the point. R epeat nothing and omit nothing
needful.
Official letters and formal notes should be more stately
and ceremonious. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second; there is no
Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the name of
the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left siJe of the
page, thus:
Jlfr. & M~rs. A. request the pleasure of 11fr. B.'s company at a
social gathering, on Tu esday evening, Nov. 15th, at eight o'clock.
32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5.
Jlfr. B. accepts* with pleasure 1l1r. & Mrs. A.'s kind invitation for Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th.
vV ednesday nwrning, Nov. 9th.
THE CONCLUSION

Parts. The Conchrnion consists of the Complimentary
Close and the Signature. The forms of the Complimentary
Close are many, and arc determined by the relations of the
writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship you may
use, Your sincere fri end; Yours aj)'ectionately; Your loving
son or daughter, etc. In business letters you may use, · Yours;
Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respe,.ctfully yours, etc. In official letters you should be more deferential. Use, I have the honor lo be, Sir, your obedient servant;
Y ery respectfully, your most obedient servant; etc., etc.
The Signature consists of your Christian name and your
*Or regrets that a previous engagement (or illness, or an unfortunate event) prevents the acceptance of - - ; or regrets that on
account o f - -· he is unable to accept--.

LETTER-WRITING - CONTINUED

417

surname. In addressing a stranger write your Christian
name in full. A lady addressing a stranger should prefix .
to her signature her title, ~Mrs. or 111 iss (placing it within
marks of parenthesis), unless in the letter she has indicated
which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply.
How Written. The Conclusion should begin near the
middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and, if
occupying two or more lines, should slope to the right like
the Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a.
capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following
the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain.
Direction. lVrile two formal notes - one inviting a friend
to a social party, and one declining the invitation.
Direction. TV rite the Conclusion of a letter of friendship, of
a letter of business, and of an official letter, carefully observing
all that has been said abo·ve.
Direction. TV rite a letter of two or three lines to your father
or your mother, and another to your minister, taking care to
give properly the Heading in its two parts, the Introduction in
its two parts, and the Conclusion in its two parts. Let the
Address in the letter to your father or your mother stand at the
bottom,,

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COl\IPOSITION

LETTER- WRITING - CONTINUED

LESSON IGS

Direction. lVrile si:i; Superscriptions to real or imaginary
fn:ends or acquaintances in dU}"erent cities, carefully observing
all that has been said abo ve.

LETTER-\VHITING -

CONTINUED

THE SU PETISCIUPTION

Parts. The Superscription is what is written on the out:le of the envelope. It is the same as the Address, consistg of the Name, the Title, ancl the full Directions of the one
ldressed.
How Written. The Superscription should begin just
~low the middle of the envelope and near the left edge le envelope lying with its closed side toward you - and
lould occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope
• the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces
~tween the lines should be the same, and the last line should
id near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the
ame ancl the Title should stand. If the one atldressecl is in
city, the door-number and name of the street should be on
le second line, the name of the city on the third, and the
1me of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country,
ie name of the post-office should be on the second line, the
1me of the county on the third , the name of the state on the
1urth. The number of the post-office box may take the place
~ the door-number and the name of the street, or, to avoid
·owcling, the number of the box or tlie name of the county
.ay stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles following
ie name should be separatecl from it and from each other
v the comma, and every line should encl with a comma
(Cept the last, which should be followecl by a period.* The
ms shoulcl be straight, and every part of t he Superription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper
ght-hand corner.

* Some omit

punctuation after the p:uts of the Superscription.

419

Direction. lVrite two short letters - one to a friend at the
Astor II ouse, New Yark, and one to a stranger in the country.

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LETTER-WRITING -

COMPOSITION

420

421

CONTINUED

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widu ~ witlvk-olb.
wnd wU:lu ~ k Uww-:1, amd t/JV

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A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX

A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX

A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX

·VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person
and number.

\Ve here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of
Syntax, with references to the Lessons which treat of Construction.

For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Lesson 142.

VIII. A participle assumes the action or being,
and is used like an adjective or a noun.

I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as
attribute complement of a predicate verb, or
used independently, is in the nominative case.
II. The attribute comple1nent of a participle
or an infinitive is in the same case (Norn. or Obj.)
as the word to which it relates.

For Uses of the Participle, see Lessons 37, 38, 39.

VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in
Jerson, nurnber, and gender.
For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Lessons l 18,
:42.
*See Lesson 35.

'

IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by
to, and with it forms a phrase used, as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb.

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For Uses of the Infinitive, see Lessons 40, 41, 42.

III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive
modifier is in the possessive case.
IV. A noun or pronoun used as object complement, as objective c01nplement, as the principal
word in a prepositional phrase, or used adverbially* is in the objective case.
V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory
modifier is in the same case as the word explained.
For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the
:ases of nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 119, 122, 123, 125.
for Cautions and Examples to guide in the use of the different
)fOnouns, see Lessons 86, 87.

423

X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives
and of comparative and superlative forms, see Lessons 90,
91, 128.

XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
For Cautions and Examples, see Lesson 93.
~

XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modi- .
fier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified.

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For Cautions, see Lessons 98, 99.

XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases,
clauses.
For Cautions and Examples, see Lessons loo,

Of

107.

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XIV. Interjections are used independently.
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II.

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424

425

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

CONJ UGATION OF THE VERB

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB

1111 of these authors, t he student will find it exceedingly
difficult to determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives. Tu illustrate:

Remarks. The scheme of conju gation presented below is
from English text-books. ln some of t hese books the forms
introduced by should are classed, not as Future, but as
Secondary Past Tense forms of the Subjunctive.
If we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in t he preceding pages, we still fail to get a
classification in which every form corresponds in use to its
nnme. The follO\ving examples will illustrate:
He returns to-morrow. (Present = Future.)
' Vhen I have pe1jormed this, I will come to you. (Present
Perfect = Future Perfect.)
If any member absents himself, he shall pay a fine. (Indicative -= Subjunctive.)
.
You shall go. (Indicative = Imperative.)
After memorizing all the terms CT,nd forms belonging to the
conjugn.tion here outlined, the student will find that he has
gained litt le to aid him in the use of language. For instance,
in this synopsi1' of the Subjunctive are found nineteen forms.
As there are three persons in the singuln.r ::md three in the
plural, ' ve have one hundred and fourteen subjunctive forms!
How confusing all this must be to the student, who, in his
use of t he subjunctive, needs to distinguish only such as
these: If he be, If he were, If he teach! Beyond these, the
mbjunctive manner of assertion is discovered from the
3tructure of the sentence or the relation of clauses not from
'
~ h e con jugation of the verb .
Those English autho rs and their American copyists who
~ limin ate the Potential Mode from t heir scheme of conjugaiion tell us that the so-called potential auxiliaries are either
.ndependent verbs in the indicative or are subjunctive auxilitries. vVith t he meager instruction given by any one or by

1. NI ay you be happy.
2. I learn that I may be able to teach.
3. He might have done it if he had liked.
4. If he should try, he would succeed.
5. I would not tell you if I could.
G. I could not do this if I were to try.
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The forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive
auxiliaries; those below are said to be independent verbs in
the indicative.
7.
8.
0.
10.
11.

He may be there.
He niight ask you to go.
You should not have done that.
He would not come when called;
I could do this at one time.

vVe are told t hat can and must are always independent
verbs in the indicative, and t hat may, might, could, would,
and should are either subjunctive auxiliaries or independent
verbs parsed in the indicative, separately from the infinitives
with which they seem to combine. But in parsing these words
as separate verbs t he student is left in doubt as to whether
they are tr::tnsitive or intransitive, and as to the office of the
infinitives thn,t fo llow.
Shall (to owe) and will (to determine) are, in their original
meaning, t ransitive. May , can, and must denote power
(hence potential)'; and, as the infinitive with which t hey combine names the act on which this power is exercised, some
philologists regard them as origin ally transit ive. Among t hese
is our distinguished critic, Prof. Francis A. March. f.1 ay
denotes pO\ver from without coming. from a removal of all

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CONJ UGATI ON OF THE VERI3

1intlrance, - hence permission or possibility. Can denotes
)Ower from within,-henee abili ty. Jlf usl denotes power from
.vit hout coming from circumstances or the nature of things,
- hence neccessity or ob ligation. Should, wonld, rnight, and
:ould are past forms of shall, will, may, and can.
The auxiliaries take different shades of meaning. In some
:onstru ctions the meaning is fainter or less emphatic than
n others. T o say just how litt le of its common or original
11eaning rnay, can, rnust, shall , or will, must have to be an
wxiliary, and how much to be a" notional," or independent,
rerb would be extremely venturesome. For instance, could
n (6) above expresses power or ability to do, as does could
.n (11), yet we are told that t he forme r could is a mere auxliary, while the latter is an independent verb. Jl1ay in (1)
:lenotes a desired removal of all hindrance; may in (7) denotes ·
1 possible removal of hindrance.
It is hard to see why the
:ormer rnay ·is necessarily a mere auxiliary, and the latter
1 "notional," or independent, verb.
These are some of
the difficulties - not to say in consistencies - met by the
3tudent who is t aught that there is no Potential Mode.
In a scholarly work revised by Skeat, \Vrightso n, speaking
)f I rnay, can, shall, or will lo ve, says, "These auxiliary verbs
li ad at some time such a clear and definite meaning that it
wou ld have been tolerably easy to determine t he cn,se function
:lischarged by the infinitive; but these verbs, after passing
through various sh ades of meaning, have at last become little
nore than conventional symbols, so that it would be worse
than useless to attempt t o analyze these periphrastic tenses
)f our moods."

A CONJ UGATION OF TEACH

427

A CONJ UGATION OF TEACH
Active Voice
INDICATIVE MODE

Present
Present
Present
Present
Past
Past
Past
Past
~

Indefinite ......... . .. . .. . He
Imperfect .. . .. . .... ... .. . He
Perfect ..... . ... .. ....... He
Perfect Continuous
. .. . .. He

teaches
is teaching
has taught
has been teaching

Indefinite ...... ... ......... He
Imperfect ... . . . .. . . . ... ... . li e
Perfect ... : . . .............. He
Perfect Contmuous ...... . ... He

taught
was teaching
had taught
had been teaching

• Future Indefinite .. .... . .... , . .. .. He will teach
Future Imperfect ..... . .... . . ... . H e will be teaching
Future Perfect . . ..... . .... ... .. . He will have taught
Future Perfect Continuous ........ He will have been teaching
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE

Present
Present
Present
Present
Past
Past
Past
Past

Indefinite .... . . . . .. . ..... (If)
Imperfect . .. . . ..... .. ..... (If)
Perfect .. . ....... . . .. . ... (If)
Perfect Continuous ....... . (If)

he
he
he
he

teach
be teaching
have taught
have been teaching

Indefinite ......... ... .. .. .. (If)
Imperfect ..... . . . .. . . .. .. . .. ( If)
Perfect .. . . .... . . ... .... . . . ( If)
Perfect Continuous . . ......... (If)

he
he
he
he

taught
were teaching
had I.augh t
Imel been teaching

Future Indefinite .. . . . . . .......... (Tf)
Future Imperfect .... . .. . ......... ( If)
Future Perfect .. ............ . . .. ( If)
Future Perfect Continuous . . .. ..... (If)

he should
he should
he should
he should

teach
be teaching
have taurrht
have bee~ teachi1wb

IMPERATIVE MODE

Present . . . ..... . .... . ......... . . Teach [Lhou]
I NFI N I TIVE MODE

Present
Present
Present
Present

Indefinite ... . ...... . ..... (To)
Imperfect . ...... . ......... (To)
Perfect . . . .. . ... .. . .. . ... (To)
Perfect Continuous ..... ... (To)

teach
be teaching
have taught
have been teaching

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A CONJUGATION OF TEACH
P AH'l'lC'll'LES

nperfect .. .... . .... . ..... .. ... .. Teach inµ;
erfect . ...... . ... . .. .. ...... .. . J lav ing tau gh t
erfect Continuous ...... ......... H av ing been teaching

INDEX

Passive Voice
PAGE

INDI C. \'l'l\'l ·: l\lODE

resent Indefinite . ..... . ..... . . .. I le is taught
resent Imperfect ... .. . ... . . .. . ... l le is being taught
resent Perfect . .. .. . .. . . .. ... .. . He has been taught
'a st Indefinite ... . . . .. . .... . . . . . Ile "·as taught
ast Imperfect . ... . .. .. ... . .. . ... Ile \\·as being taugh t
'ast Perfect . . ........ . . . . . ..... . }l e had been taught
'u ture Indefinite ....... . ........ . Uc "·ill be taught
'uture Imperfect ..... .. ..... ..... - -- - - - - 'uture Perfect . . . . .... ...... . . . . ll e will have bee11 taught
SUBJ UNCTIVE l\!ODE

'resent Indefinite .... . . . . . ... . ... (1 f ) h e be taught
'resent Imperfect. . .. . ... . . . . . . .
'resent Perfect . ... . . . . . . .. . .. . .. (lf) he h nse been taught
'ast Indefinite .. ... . .... .. . .. .. . ( Tf) h e were taught.
'ast Imperfect
............. (J f ) h ~ " ·ere bein g taught
'ast Perfect .. . . . ..... .......... . (lf) he h ad been taught
'uture Indefinite .. . . ...... . .... . . (lf ) li e f'hould be tau gh t
'uture Imperfect .' . . . . .. . . .. . . .. .. - - - - - - - 'uture Perfect
.. . .. .. ... .. .. . (If) he should h ave been taught
Jl\IPETIA'l'JYI·:

l\IOD J ~

'resent . . . . . . . ... . . .... . .. . . . .. . I3c [t hou ] t:1llght
INFINITIVE l\TODE

'resent Indefinite .. . . .. .. ... .. . .. (To ) he krngh t
'resent Perfect .... . . ... . . ...... (To) have Leen taught
P AHTJ Cl PLt:S

mperfect . . .. . ... .. . ... ....... ... Being taught
erfect .. . . ... .... .. .. ... . . . . ... Taught
!ompound Perfect ........... ..... Having been taught
1

.,

A, or n11 , uses of ... .. . 220-223
A a nd the, uses of disting ui shed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
A (day) or t wo , or one or two
(days)....
. . .. . 2\J4 (n ote)
co mm on ones . . . 32
Abbrevi- how made a nd
ations
written . . . .. . 31-33
ofnamesofstates 31, 32
Absolute [ d ~ finition of . . 101, 102
) diagram of . . . . . . 90
Ph rases l
· · o f . . l~O
expansion
I - 172
Adjective an, definition of . . 3G- ;rn,
•
218, 219
r apt ones to be used
223, 224
d efin i t i ve
classes
(n umeral),
219 ·& note
\ d escriptive .219
adj ectives n ot
compared . 303
adj ectives ircomr eg ul a rly
paricompared . 305
son
form preferred 304
Adjecin er and est . 302
tives
with adverb . . 303

PAG E

cardinal . . 2rn
(note)
numera1 ordinal .. 219
Adjec(note)
tives
proper order of .. 40, 41
(Cont.) sche me for general
re view .. . . ...... 310
u se d as abstrac t
l nouns . . . ... 209 (note )
connectives of . . . . 241
d efini tion of . . . . . . 127
=ad jectives . .. 127, 1 ~2
= explanatory modifiers . . . . . . . . . . 134
= indep en den t
cla uses .. 13l(note)
=infinitive phrases .133
Adjec= participle phrases,
tive
133
Clauses
= possessiv.es ... .. 134
modifying omitted
· words .. . .. 129, 130
position of . . . . . . 132
restrictive and unrestrictive . .. .. 131 &
note
unrestrictive, punctuation . . . . . . . . 131
Adjective Complement di st ingui shed from adverb
descri ptive, used as
modifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
nouns . . . . . . . . . . 294
Adjective { analysis of . . . . . 39
errors in use of .. 73, 223,
Modifiers 11 011ns as ...... 74-79
231
having 11111111Je r form s,
Adverb an, d efi nition of 42, 43, 228
301 (note)
apt on es to be used , 229
n eedless ones avoided ,
classes of .. . .... 226-229
22:3
compa ri son of .. . 304, 305
Adnot a lways limitin g,
errors in use of . . 73, 229,
verbs
232
218, 219 (note)
n ot used for adverbs . 72,
expressing negation,
l
231
226 (note)
429

l

l

!.

.

431

INDEX

INDEX

\

U>

PAOEl

PAGE

irregular comparison
of .... .. . .. .... 305
clauses,
228 (note)
phrases .. 46, 48,
modi228 (note)
fying prepositions .. 48,
228 (note)
sentences,
228 (note)
not used for adjectives ...... .... 72, 231
not used n eedlessly .. 229
position of ... . ... 43, 230
3
8Cheme for general
t.)
review ... .... 310, 311
sometimes like adjective attributes ... 70
ind ependently .. 101, 228
(note)
in terrogaused
tively ...... 228
(note)
with connective
force ... 228
(note)
rb Clause, definition of. .. 135
r
cause, real,
139
concession,
141, 142
condition,
141, 142
degree (result)
classes
135-138
evidence,
~rb
139, 140
ses
m a nn er . . . 139
place .135, 1:n
purpose,
141, 142
time ...... 135
by om ittin g
conwords ... 147
tracted to absolute
phrases .145

l

to

participle8and
con- .
participle
tracted
phrases .145
to prepositional
Adverb
· phrases .14G
Clauses = adjective clauses
and phrases ..... . 132
(Cont.)
(note) ~47
= adverbs ...... . . 135
=ind epende nt
clauses ... 132 (note),
16G, 167
position of. . . . . . . . 144
punctuation of . . . . 143
Adverbial (analysis of . . . . . 43
Modifiers nou~ s as . ... . 79, 80
parsmg of . . . . . 43
Adversative Connectives, list .. 241
Adversative, meaning of .. 160, 162,
241 (note)
A f ew, a little, vs. f ew and
little
. . . . . . . 223
of parts of a metaphor . .. . . . .. .. .. 395
Agree- of pronoun with its
ment
antecedent ... 354-35()
of verb with the subject . . ... . .. 352-356
Allusion .. . .......... 108 (note)
definition of. . . . . . . 18
Alpha- perfect one what . . 18
bet
the E nglish imperfect how . . . . . . . . 18
Alternative, meaning of .. lGO, 162,
241 (note)
Alternative Connectives, list . 241
Ambiguity of pronouns, how
avoided ... . . ...... . 211, 212
examples for, ad\
ditional .. . 363-374
Analysis of a sentence . . . . 20 .
of subjects of
themes ... 40G-408
Antecedent, a clause, phrase,
or word ....... . 209 (note), 210
Antithesis . .. . . .. . 164 (note), 38'7
Any body (or one) else's
295 (note)

I

l

I

Il

PA<ll~

Apostrophe the .. 79, 283-235, 381
Appositives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Argumentative Style .... 198, 202
Arrangement .. 110-122, 215, 224,
230, 389- 3!)1
classes { ~l e finiti:; .. 219
mdefimte, 219
Articles errnrs in use of. 220-225
repeated wh en. 221, 222
uses of a, or an, and
the ....... . . 220, 221
introductory conjunction .... ...... G9, 72, 1G3
relative pronoun. 209 (note)
As with clauses of degree,
manner, and time ... . 136,
138, 139, 241
with variety of clauses . 244
As . . . as, construction of . 137
A s 1't were, construction of . . 1G3
Aspirates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 -19
Assumed Subject, what . . . . 92
Attribute
r definition of . 67
Complement diagram of . . GS
Auxiliary Verbs .... 320, 330, 337,
338, 349, 350, 424-42G
Be r conjugation of .... 330-333
derivation of .. . . 330 (note)
Beside and bes1:des distinguished ............ 237 (note)
B est of the two . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
B etween with three or more . 234
(note) .
Brackets, use of . . . . . . . . . . . 382
ad versative conjunction ..... . ... . . ... 241
a preposition . ..... 95, 253
But various uses of . . . . . . 253
with or without that . . 212
(note)
with what incorrect for
but thnt or lnll . 212 (note ~
Can ..... 322 (note) , 330, 424- 42()
in abbreviations . . 27
in beginning sentences . . . . . . . . . 22
Capital in class names . . . . 28
Letters in compound names,
28-31
in names of the
Deity . . . . . . . . . 30

l

l

PAOE

in proper ne,mes .. 27-31
Capital in titles . . . . . . . . . 30
Letters rule for I and 0 . . 58
(Cont.) summary of rules
for ............ . 375
defined ........ 276,278
of attribute complement .. . .. . 279 & note
of explanatory modifier .. .. . ..... ... . 279
Case of noun or pronoun
independent . . . . . 278
of noun or pronoun
used adverbially .. 280
of objective complement ... ..... ... . 279
defin itions of . . . . . . 278
Cases
in Anglo-Saxon and
( in Latin .. . . 27G (note)
errors in use of 295- 298
five pronouns have
three . . . . . . . . . . 295
nouns have two .. 283
Case
Forms
ouly eight nominative . ... . .. . ... 295
only seven objective . . ......... 295
Cause, ad verbs of . . . . . . . . . 226
Cause Clauses, divisible . ... 141
necessity of . . . . . . 25
Classi- not governed by
fication
logical r e lation,
131 (note)
dependent,
classes .
126, 161
mdependent, 126, 161
complex and compound ... . .. 166-168
Clauses depend-( adj ective 127
ent
adverb .. 135
'
noun .... 150
inde- [in a~terna­
endent . t10n. . . 1G2
P
u.1 contrast 162
(th
[ m · same
tl
~t)
line . . 161
wug
inferred. 163
Collective {form of verb with, 353
Nouns
of what number, 266
Colon ... . .... . . .. .... 164, 379

ll

!

. .ycj.;-

I

... v.,,,,
7

..

' ?;_, ..
«i\'{<;/I'.\\

•

l%

'.\ - •
: , \'ii()

~

~. ­
,:::r
0 ,

./

-&
s~
I

!

.

'

0

'

INDEX

432

INDEX
PAGE

PAGE

Comma, rules for, 49, 5G, 77, UO,
103, 131, 143, 153, 1G:3, 37()
adj ectives without it . . . . . . . 303
caut ions to guide
in . ...... 306- 309
dcfi ni tion of . . . . 301
derrree used with
307
degrees of, dcfi. ned . . . . 301, 302
double, origin of,
Compari303 (note)
son
d o u b 1e , to b c
shunn ed .... 308
ei:rors in usc of,
307- 30\J
forms of . ... 302-304
irrecrula r . . . . . . . 305
wh~1 adverb used
302-304
whi ch form preferred . .. .. . . 304
[
is
what
. . _.: .. . ·.. 65
Compt1o- t he modified is
men
what . . . . . . . . . GS
attribute . . . . . . . 67
Comple(subjective) 67 (note)
ments
object . . . . . . . . . . 65
obj ective . . . . . . . 71
Complex r definition . . . 126, 161
Sentence L treatment of .126 -159
Compound Attribute Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Compound Object Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Compound Personal Pronouns .... . . 206, 291 & n ote
Compound Predicate, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Compound
Relative
Pronouns . .... . ...... .. . 200, 202
changed to colllple·x . . . . 1G6, 167
Compound contracted .165, 166
Sentence
defin ed ... 160, 161
t r eat m ent of,
160- 167
Compound Subject, defin ed 53
Condition Clauses without
conjuncti on ...... .. . . ... 141

two .. ... ...

I

definition of . . . . . 3Hl
Conjuga- r form s of .... 326-336
tion
e l abo r ate
1L more
form ..... . 427, 428
Conjunction a, definition of,
53, 240
co-ordinate,
240, 241
classes subordinate,
240, 241
advcrsative,
160, 162,
241 & note
Cona lternat ive,
junc- J~~;~
IGO, 162,
tions
2 4 1 & note
copu l ative,
IGO, 162,
241 & note
co-ordinate connect
sentences a nd paragraphs . .... 240 (note)
scheme for review . . 256
Con- [are what . . . 228 & note
junctive ofliccs of ... . 130,
Adverbs
135-138
r apt ones to be
chosen ... .. . . 249
a d v ersative .. 241
co-or- a l ternadinate
tive . . 241
copu l ative . . 241
errors in use of, 249- 251
Connect- in correlation . . . 248
ives
in trod uctory,240(note)

I

l

of tie!e~l~uses
241
subor- ofadverb
dinate
clauses,
241, 242
of noun
cla uses 242
Consonants, classes of . . .. 17-19
Contraction of Sentences,
123- 125, 165, 166
Co-ordinate Conjunctions. 240, 241
Copulative, m eanin g of .... 160,
162, 241

l
j

433

PA GE

PAGE

Copula, what . . . . . . . . . . . . . GG
Correlatives, errors in use of,
248-250
D of the ed of verbs in past
tense ..... . . . .. . . 320 (note)
D of th e ed of past par ticiples
320 (note)
Dare, withouts form .. .... . 352
Dash t he . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Declarative Sentence, defined 105
defin ed . . . . . . . . . 289
of in terrogat i ve
pronouns . . . . . . . 292
Declen- of nouns . . . . . . . . . 290
sion
of · personal pronouns . ..... 290,291
of r e lative pronouns . . . . . . . . . 292
Degree, adverbs of . . . . . . . . 226
Descriptive Style . .. 182, 183, 186
Diminution, degrees of . . . . . 303
D"
[a, what . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
iam ay be omitted,
gram
preface, 39
Do, idiomatic use of . .. 252 (note)
E 1 { con struction of .. . . . . 76
c i w i t h t w o or mo r e
0
ier,
293 (note)
Ed of past tense and pa rticiple . .. ..... . ... . . 320 (note)
Either and neither, pronouns
and conjun ctions, with two
or more ..... . .. ... 293 (note)
Either may be used for each
294 (note)
Elocution, object of . . . . . . . . 14
f d e fin ~d : . . . . . . . . 386
Energ
exercises 111 • .. 392-396
Y sec ured how . . 201, 202,
386
English Grammar, definition of . . 14
Epigrams a re what . . . 107 (note)
Evidence di stinguished from
Cause ...... .. . . ... 139 (note)
Exclam[ cIe fi1111·t·ion of . . . . 10,..0
ator
Senten~es ord er of words in 122
of absolu te phrases 171
Expan- of infin_it~ ve phrases 172
sion
of part1c1ples . . . . . 170
of sentences ... 123, 124

Explanatory [ d e fi m·r10n. o f . . . . . 7ur..
Modifier punetuat10n of . . 77
basis of . . . . . . . . . . 385
Figures definition . ... 386, 387
of
illustrations of, 394-39()
Speech ( names of .. . .. . 386, 387
uses of ... . 186, 386, 387
First two, etc . . .... ... 295 (note)
Force (see Energy).
For to ..... . . . . ... . . 329 (note)
defined .. .... 269, 270
distinguished from
sex . . .... . . .... 269
of names of a nimals . .... . . . ... 273
Gender of what import ance .. ... . .... 272
of pronouns, errors
in . . ... . . ... .. 275
used in personificaL
cation . . .. . .. .. 273
Gender Forms . .. . .... . . 270-275
Genders, the th ree defined, 270
H ad better, rather, sooner, 33 7(note)
Hand in hand, construction of,
62 (note)
H ave written, history of. . . . . 33 7
He or one after the indefin ite
one . ... .... . .... 293 (note)
Humor, in style . . . . . . . . . . 195
Hyphen, use of . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Idea distinguished from object 19
for even if, although . . . 142
If
for whether .. .... 244 (note)
omission of . .. . ...... 141
variety of uses . . . . . . . 244
Imagery, discussion of . . 386, 387,
394-396
Imperative definition of . . . 105
Sentence l orrr~r . ~~ . w~~~s 122
In a nd into distinguished,
237 (note)
In case that, construction of ,
152 (note)
definition of,
126, 161- 163
Independent joined without
Clauses
conju nction , 163
punctuated 163, 164

tf

l

I

I

f

I

PA GP.

PAGE

Independent Expressions,
punctuated . . . . . . . . . . . 10:~
Indirect, or Dative, Object . . . 7!:1
Inference, ex pressed by an
independ ent clause, 160, 161, 1G3
r a nd assumed subject a fter f or . . 95
<lefini ti on of . . . . . 318
double natm e of, 92- !)4
o ld dativ e of,
329 (2d note)
Infinitive
(the)
use of pr ese n t
perfect a f t c r
past indi catiYc,
348 & note, 349
why called infinitive .... . .
92
after a preposition 9i)
as ad jective . . . . . 94
as adj ecti\'e modifier ..... . .. . 93, 94
as adverb modifier .. . . . . .. . 93, 94
as attribu te complement ...... 94, 95
as
explanatory
modifier . . . . . . 9G
Infinitive as object compl ePhrase
mcnt ....... 95, 315
ns objec tive complement ... . . 9G, 314
as su hj cct . . . . . . !J4
c l e ft o r s pli t,
230 (note)
docs n ot with t he
noun form a
clause .... 97 (nole)
expansion in to
cla uses. . . . . . . . 172
independe11 t
\) 8
bi order that, construction o f . . 152
Interjections . . . . . ... 52, 53, 102
Interrogation Point, u s c of.
105, 158,376
Interrogative decle:i~i on . . 292
Pronouns
c~ e fi111t1on, 206, 208
hst . .. .... . 209
Interrogative definition of . 105
Sentences
order of word s
in ... . 120, 121

Intransitive Verbs, dcri11 iLion . . . .. . .......... 225, 228
Introductory Words . . . . . . . . 76
Invitations, form of . . . . . . . 416
definition of , 226, 228
Irregular in fl cctions of . . . 326
Verbs
list of ........ 32 1- 325
persistence of . . . 325
rl for a clause ... ... 208 (note)
idiornatic use uf . ... !JG, 152,
It 1
Hi4, 27'2 (note)
use .for a11i n1al s and
/ cluldren . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
L vague
.... . .......... 154
It is rne, him, etc .... 296 (note)
J ust us, construction of .... 136
I defini tion of. ..
14
ma de up of
Language 1 words . . .
14
rnttural . . . . . 13, 14
L word .... .. . 13, 14
Last two, etc. . ..... . . 295 (note)
Lay and lie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
L ess, t he final s of, a nd lesser,
303 (note)
r eq ualing that not . . . . . 242
L est v:~ rious uses of . . . . . . 244
w1 th noun clause . . . . 242
Letters, t he a lphabe t ... .. 16- 19
r l>ody of . . . . . . . . . 415
conclusion of . . . . . 416
]l(':tding nf . . . . . . 412
Letters
illu ~lrat io11 of . 4 1!J-421
introduction of, 4 L3, 414
µart s of . . . . . . . . . 412
superscription of .. 418
Letter-Writing . . . ... ... 412- 421
Loose Sentence ............ 363
J\funy a, ex planation o f,
8!) & note
Manner, adverbs o f .. ...... 227
Masculine Gender di sti11guishcd . . . . . . . . . . .
270
Masculine Pronoun, use of .. 273
May ... 322 (note), 330, 424-426
d e finiti on o f
Metaphor f Gl (note), 187, 386
exercises in use
of ..... . 394-396
M ethinks ...... 323 (2d note)

1

1

435

INDEX

I NDEX

434

1

I

i

l
I

l

l?,

PAGE

definition of,
19!), 387
exercises in use
of. .. . . ... 394-396
1lline, thine, of m ine, etc.
290 (2d note)
Mode is what . ......... 316-318

Metonymy

1

imperative ,
317, 318
indicative,
317
classes
potenti al,
317, 318
subjunctive,
L
317, 318
Modes
definitions of . . 317, 318
imperative, no 2d
and 3d persons,
329 (2d note)
in<licati ve, uses of.
344-347
potential omitted,
424- 428
subjunctive, 282 (note),
344-347
Modifications, d e finition,
257 & note, 258
Modified Complement
G5
defi nition
38
different rank,
Modifiers
38 (110Lc)
ex planatory, pun ctuation . . . . . . 77
Mu st .. 322 (note), 330, 424- 426
Myself, explanatory .... . 77, 281
N, Saxon n e, the negative
particle .. .. . .. .. . . 227 (note)
Narrative Style ........ 19.L , 195
Natural Language ....... 13, 14
Need, wi thout s form . . . . . 352
Negation by adverbs .. 226 (note)
Negatives, double .. . . 231 & note
No a nd yes, sentence-words,
227 (note)
No body (or one) else's,
295 (note)
Nominative Forms, eight . . . 295
Noun a, definition of ..... 2G, 206

r abstract

PAGE

. . . . . . . . . 207
as adjective modifiers . . . . . . . . . . 75
as a dverb modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
cases of . . . ... . 276, 278
classes of . . . . . . . . . . 207
collective . . . . . . . . . . 207
Nouns common and proper,
205, 207 & note
declension . . . . . 276, 28U
p;cnder of . ... . 269-275
number, kinds of . . 258
person of . .... . . 276,277
roots of .. ... 206 (note)
scheme for general
l review . . . . . . . . . 299
as attri bute complement . . . . . 149, 151
as explanatory
modifier . .. 149, 152
as object complement ....... 149, 151
as principal term of
Noun
prepositional
Clauses
phrase .. ... 149, 153
as subject .... 149, 150
connectives of .... 242
contraction of .155, 156
definition of . .. .. . 14H
position of . .. 154, 155
punctuation of
153
explanatory (apposiNoun
tive) . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Modi- explanatory of a senfier
tence . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
possessive . . . . . . . . . 75
definition of. . . . . . 258
kinds of . . . . . . . . 258
of noun ap;reeing
with adjective,
309
Number
of nouns determined ... ...... 268
of verbs shows
what . . ... ..... 319
0 a nd oh distinguished
58
Object and Object Complement distinguished,
224, 227 (note )

l

..

~
•

.

·~

,
INDEX

436

PA GE

PAGE

clcfini ti on of . . . . . 282
Parsing first step in . . . . . . 36
model s for written,
G3, 282, 306, 342, 343
adjectival . . . . . . . . . 82
as adjective modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
as attribute complements . . . . . . . 86
as mere a<ljccti ves . . 89
as mere nouns . . . . . 89
as objective complements . .. . . 86, 314
a.s pre,positions .. .. 233
as principal word in
a phrase ....... 88, 89
definition of ..... 83, 318
Parti- expansion of. . . . . . . 170
ciples
forms of ..... .. .. 335
in ind epe nd ent
phrases . ......... 90
mi suse of ...... . 90, 91
modified by a and
the ....... 289 (note)
modified by a possessive ... 289 & note
nounal, called gerunds, fr1/initives, verbal nouns,
~3 & 84 (note)
place of ... .. .... 90, 91
pu11ct11atin11 of . . . . . 00
UceJ in slurring . . . . 190
Passive Voice, idiomatic constructions . .. . . ..... . 314, 315
Period, use of ........ 22, 27, 375
Periodic Sentence . . . . . . . . . . 363
forms .. . . 275-278, 317,
326 (note), 352-354
of a noun or prof
Person ~ noun ........ 276, 277
of a verb ...... . .. 319
regarded in
Il why
grammar . . . . . . . 278
Personification, the figure,
108 (note), 274, 387
Persons, the three defin ed,
276, 277
Per- {definition of . . ... 384
spicuity
exercises in .. 388-392

l

no~ g ~1 ~~~y~ . i1~di~~ti1~g

l

437

INDEX

Object, indirect . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Object, indirect, made subject 314
becoming s u b j e c t ,
313
Object
Com- compound ...... . . G5
G5
definition of
plement retained after verb
in passive . .. ..... 314
<O bjective Forms, seven . . . . . 2\:l5
fan infinitive
phrase .... 9G, 314
a participle,
86, 87, 314
becoming an at·Objective
tribute comCompleplement . . . . 313
ment
definition of .. .. 71
extended beyond its factiti ve sense,
86 (2d note)
in place of possessive
284
1 1
Of
possess10n . . . . . . . . . 288
Of mine, etc ... ... 290 (2d note)
On condition that . . .. 152 (note)
One
syntax of ... . ... 281
another with two or more,
293 (note)
Only { position of . ... .... 230
syntax of . . . . . . . . . 48
Order (words {transposed 11 2-120
and phrases), usual .... 110-11 2
Other, misuse of . . . . . . . . . . 30!.I
Ought . ..... 322 (note) 344, 349
composition of,
190- 203
Paragraph definition of . 190, 1!.11
(the)
topics and subtopics of .. mo, 191
unity of ..... 195, 201
Paragraphing, exercises in ,
188- 203, 398-406
Parallel Construction
.
'
170 (note), 203
Parenthesis, marks of . ... 103, 38L
Parent?etical Clauses, punctuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

l

I'AGB

absolute . . . . 101, 102
a<ljective and adverb . . . . . . . . . 46
a.s prepositions .. 234
complex and compound . . . . . . . . 55
definition of .... 46, 47
infinitive .. 93-102, 172
intercha nge with
Phrases
clauses ..... 171,172
interchange with
words . . . . . . . 51
participial..85, 101, 112
position of
50
prepositional .. 46-52
punctation of . . . 49
used i n cl e p en d ently .. .. . . 101, 102
verb ... . ... 35 & note
Place, adverbs of ....... .. 226
Plural Number ............. 258
e11di11g, origin. 259 (note)
foreign forms of . . . 2Gl
forme<l irregularly,
259, 260
formed regularly . . . 259
formed same as singular ..... .. . .. . 265
forms of verbs . . . . . 352
forms treated as sing11l:i.r . . . . . . . . . . . 2Gf>
no form for . . . . . . . . 2G5
Plural of compound word s,
262, 2G3
of letters, figures,
etc. . . . . . . . . . . . 2G3
of proper names
263
so me originally singular .......... . 266
sotne words always,
265, 26G
two forms with different meaning ... 2G4
without singular of
like meaning ... 2GG
Posadded to explanasessive
tory word . . . . . 287
Ending ambiguity avoided
by . . .... ..... 288

I

.

r attached

PAGE

to the adjective .. 285 (note)
confined to what . 285
error r esp e c ti n g,
283 (note)
Poserrors in use of, 286, 288
sessive of for .... .. ..... 285
Ending of compound names, 285
origin of . .. . 283 (note)
when omitted .. 280, 283·
when pronounced
es ............. 284
adjective defined . . 67
a verb or contains
one. .... ........ 36
Predi- compound ........ 52, 53
cate
definition of, 15, 20, 66, G7
modified ......... 42, 43
noun defined
G7
of two or more words, 23
Preposition a, defined, 46, 47, 233becoming adverbs ... 234
ending a sentence,
238 (note)
enrling in ing . . . . . . 233
errors in use of . . 236-239Prep- li st of ............. 23~
ositwo before a noun,
tions
238 (note)
where sometimes
found. . . . . . . . . . . 128
with verb before a
l noun ... : . 238 (note)
Pronoun a, defined ...... 26, 207
agreement . ..... 354-356
Norn. and Obj.
forms . ... ...... 295·
r adjective,
206, 208
classes interrogaProtive, 206, 208.
personal,
nouns
206, 208
relative , 206, 208.
declension of . . 290-292
denote re 1at i on s ,
207 (note)
errors in use of,
211-217, 295-298

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r:r.'-

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\'\! .

,
138

INDEX

I NDEX

PAGE

PAGE

need of . . . . . . . . . . . :W
Pro- 11u11 il wr ...... _. . . 2f>8
tlouns schc111e for n 'v iew :wo
vag ueness of .. 20G (uoLe)
a (day) or two ,
294 (note)
all, b ot h , a n d
'
whole before of,
29;~ (uote)
any body (or one)
else's, etc.
294 (note)
declension of, 290- 293
definition of, 206-208
demon1itrative,
209 (note)
distri bu ti ve ,
209 (note)
each other, with
two or 1nore,
293 (note)
either, neither with
two or 1nor e,
Pronouns
293 (note)
(Adjece1.ther for each ,
tive)
294 (note)
first two, last three
etc .... .. 295 (note)
h ~ etc. after in. defini teone,294
(note)
indefini te 209 (n ote)
none in both
numbers, 294 (note)
ones, plural, 294 (note)
other and than,
words between,
294 (note)
other two, when
one of th ree is
taken ... . 294 (note)
partial li st of . . . 20\J
such or so with '
adjective1i,
l
294 (not e)
Pronouns { declension . . . . . 292
:Interroga- definition .. 206, 208
tive)
list . . . . . . . . . . . 209

ravoid e d when,
2 11, 2 12
com pound ... 20Ci, 2!H
co11s1ste11 t use of, 212
declension .. 290, 291
definiti on 205, 20G 208
its, hi sto r y of,'
29 1 (note)
misuse of them for
those . . . ... 212, 213
my a nd mi11 e,
etc., 290 (2d note)
order of . . . . . . . 354
ours, yours, etc.,
double possessives, 290 (2d note)
use of compound,
291 (2d note)
used needlessly . . 212
we hardly plural
of I .... 290 (note)
we instead of I . . 276
ye has given way
l to you, 290 (3d note)
agreement of, 354, 355
compound ... 206, 292
declension . . .
292
definition ... 20G, 208
discriminated in
use .. .. ..... 213
omitted when, ·
129 (no te)
same with same
antecedent . . . 214
that in restrictiv e c l a u ses,
214 (2d note)
that instead of
who and which,
214, 215
what mi sused for
that .. . . 212 & note
who and which restri cLi ve and
unrcst ri ct i ve ,
214 & note 215
with omitted an tecedents . 129, 130,
213

l

Pronouns
(Personal)

Pronouns
(Relative)

439

PAOE

PAC:F.

Pun a .. . ......... .. IGD (not.<•) Sr.t and sit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Punctua-1 exe rcises in .. :~ 77 -: 182 ::>hall and will,
tion
sumnmry of rul es
322 (note), 349-351, 42;), 426
Marks
for ........ 375-382 Should an cl would,349- 35 1, 425, 42G
Qualities of Style . ..... . 384-388 Simile, definition a nd exerQuestion, direct and indirect,
cises in . . ... . 187, 386, :394, 395
158, 159
Simple r definition of . 126, 161
Quotation Marks, use of,
Sentences treatment of .. 20-125
157, 158, 381 s .ince, various uses of, 24 1, 242, 245
cnl'.it'.11.ization of .. 158 Smgular Number .. . .. ... .. 258
Quota· f d~frn1t1on of . ...... 158 80 . . . as, construction of, 138
. ns 1d1rcc t ... .. .. .. . 158, 159 Some body (or one) else's, 295 (note)
t 10
.
,.
me
1rcc t .. . .... l vr:3 , 1i.>9
Sounds and Letters ...... 16-19
l punctuation of . 158, 159 Speech { figures c;if .186, 386, 387
Quoth ... ........ .... 323 (note)
mecha msm of .. . . 16, 17
Regular ~l e fini ti?n . ... 226, 228 Spelling, rul es for . . . . . . . . . . 302
Verbs
mcreasmg . . . . . . . 325
argm:n~n tative . . 198, 202
·inflections of . . . . 326
clefimt10n of . . . . . . 384
Relative Clauses, position ... 2 15 Style r <lescriptive . . . . .. 182, 183
Result, cla uses of ..... 138 (note )
illu str~tions .. ... 364-374
Review Questions, 24, 25, 44,
narrative .... . ... 191, 195
45, 64, 81 , 82, 109, llO,
qualities of . .... 384-388
125, 126, 148,1 75- 178,254assum ed, what . . . 92
256, W7-~WO, 310, 311, ;{58-3G2
assumed, cha nged
Review of Sentence, scheme
to prevent amfor .. ... ... . . ...... . 177, 178 Subject
biguity ..... ... 288
Satire ...... . .. . .... ... . . 195
compound ....... 52, 53
Semicolon, rul es for .... . 163, 378
defined . . . . . . . . . 20
ba lan ced . . . 1G4 (note)
determin ed how. . . 23
contrncted . . 123-125, Subject (cont.), modified, or
1651 lGG
logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Sentence
(the)
defin ed . . . . . . 15, 20 Subjunc-1 d~finition of . : 317, 318
expanded ... . 123, 124
tive
d 1 sap p ea r 1 n g,
loose ...... . ... 363
Mode
328 (note)
l period . . . . . . . . . . 363
uses of . .. ... 344-347
complex,
SubordinateConjunctions 2401242
126, lGl Subordinate Connectives' 241 242
synecdoche .. . . ... .. , . ,. . . . ' 387
form
compound ,
161 Synopsis, is what . .... . ... 319
simple,
Syntax, rules for ..... . 422, 423
12G, lGl
defin ed . .. . .. .. 317-319
r
declarafuture, how used ... 340
Sentences
tiv e,
future perfect, how
(classed)
104, 105
used..... . ... . . 340
Tense past, how used . . . . 339
mean- excla matory, 105
past perfect, how
ing
imperaused .... .... .... 340
tive, 105
present, how used, 339, 348
interrogpresent perfect, h ow
l at iv e, 105
l used .......... 340

l

1

!

I

•

j
I

I

) ?

.

--

!

l

I

I

1.'o :vi~h r no part of ... 329 (note)
m.tim- not expressed . . . . 100
t1 ,.e
position of, 230 & note
(Cont.) without relation . 93, 94
Transitive [ defi~1ition of, 225, 227
con,iup;ated pasVerbs
s1 vely . . . . . . . 334 .
Unity of paragraphs . .. . 195, 201
Unless (=if not) . ......... 141
Usage ..... . preface, 293 (note)
how secured .. 396, 397
Variety illustrations of want
[ of . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Verb a, defined ... .. . .. . . 34, 227
an auxiliary. . . . . . 320
Verb Be conj uµ;ation of, 331-333
[ derivation of, 330 (note)

l

Verbs
(classes)

I

1

.ii:r~~~fa~~~ote)
226, 228
regular,
226, 228
1intransitive,

!

mean225, 228
ing
transitive,
225, 227
a modern passive
progressive form,
334, 335
analysis of compound tense form s,
337, 338
as nouns . . . . . . . . . 92
auxiliary . . . . .. 320, 424426
changing their voice,
313-316
conjugated
in
proVerbs
gressive form
334
con j u g a t e d interrogati vel y .. ..... 336
conjugated negatively ... ........ 336
conjugation of ... 326-336
defective . . . . . . . . . . 321
forms not asserting . 35
improper forms
used ......... 343, 344
indicative and pol tential with sub-

junctive meaning,
328 (note)
inflections of . . . . . . 326
definition of,
intran225, 228
sitive made transitive . . .... 315
clefini ti on,
226, 228
irreg- list <;>f .. . 321 -325
ular
per~1Ste1.1Ce of 325.
principal
parts of,
321-325
n1ode, defined . . 317,318
mo<lel for written
parsing. . . . . . . . . . 342
number forms,
326, 352, 353
number of,clefined .. 319
passive form compound . . . . . . . . . 312
periphrastic
forms
resolved .. ... 337-339
person forms 326, 352, 353
person of . . .... 319, 354
potential auxiliaries,
330, 424- 426
principal parts . . . . . 320
redund ant . . . . . . . . 321
definition
regular
of . . 22G, 228
[ increasing . 325
scheme for general
review .... .. 357, 358
Strong (or Old),Weak
(or New) . . . 320 (note)
subjunctive form
fading. . . . . 328 (note)
tense .... . .. . . 317-319
th e e and the d of
past tense . . 320 (note)
the c and the d of
past p a rt i c i p 1e ,
320 (note)
definition of,
transi225, 227
conju~ated
tive
passively . 334
voice ........ .. .. 311

I

Verb-Phrasles . ... .
form

PAGE

PAGE

PAGE

PAGJ;;

defined ........ 31G- 3JU
emphatic form of .. · ~130
~nses
errors in use of, 347-349
conjunctive adverb, 138
errors in use of . 249, 250
followed by acljecti ve . .. 296 & note, 297
rwn
replaced by /mt, etc., 250
use after comparatives .......... 249
with me after it,
L
296 note)
1ian whom .......... 296 (note)
1
wt and this, adjectives, plurals .............. 301 (note)
fiat :incl this { declension . . 293
AclJ. Pro.), reference .... 216
with cause clause . . 245
rfwt rwith noun c 1au s e,
;on · )
149-153, 242, 244
' J· with purpose clause,
142, 242, 244
1
wt, Conj. adv., degree clause ,
138, 241, 244
distinguish ed
from who and
which . .. 213, 215
That
for who and
~el. Pr.)
which .. . 214, 215
genera 11 y restrictive,214 (note)
preposition foll lows . . . 128, 129
ie, uses of ... . . ...... 221, 222
construction
ie . .
the
of . . ... 137, 138
explanation of,
137 (note)
framework of, 406, 409
how to write.
temes
them ...... 408-410
subj e ct s for,
407, 408, 410, 411
ie one, the other
. . . . . . . . . 21 G
1is ...... 216, 292, 301 (note)
toug~t, how expressed .. 14, 15
tree tunes four is twelve .... 355
(note)
) with [construction of. . . . 93
~~niexpressing relation, 93
;1ve
extension of, 329 (note)

441

INDEX

INDEX

10

Verbs

j

,

attracted . . . . . . . . .
errors in. . . . . . . . . . .
with and in what. . . .
with collective noun,
with subjects connected by and, 353,
with subjects conHected by or or

355
356
352
353
354

nor ... ..... .. ... 354
with subjects emVerbs
phatically distintinguished . . . . . . 353
(agreement with subjects naming same thing . . . 353
of)
with subjects one affirmative and one
negative. . . . . . . . . 353
with subjects following .. .... ... .... 354
with subjects preceded by each,
every, etc. . . . . . . 353
·w ith subjects varying in person . . . . . 354 ·
Vocal Consonants . . . . .. 18, 19
Voice, the voice defined .. ... 311
Voices changed . .. ...... 313-3 16
Vowels ...... . ... ... . .. . 17, 18
equal to that or whom, 130
in origin .... 130 (note)
misuse for that, 212 (note)
various u·ses of,
TV hat
212 & note, 213, 252
without antecedent,
l
130, 213
conjunctive adverb, •
135, 241
connecting . various
When
clauses ......... 246
in adjective clauses 130
interrogative adverb,
L
228 (note)
conjunctive adverb,
130, 241
connecting various
Wh ere \ clauses . . . . . . . . . . 246
in adjective clauses, 130
interrogative adverb,
.
228 (note)

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,

.

442

INDE:X
PAGE

repeated .. 242 (note)
Whether
with more than
[ two . ... 242 (11ote)
Wh ether or no . . . . . 242 (note)
an adjeeti ve,
208 (note), 210
an i n t e r r o g a t i v e
pronoun
. .. 209,292
Which \ a relative pronoun,
208, 292
clause as antecedent ...... 208 (note)
composition of ... 292
declension
. . . . . 292
r in restrictive clauses,
Which I
215 (note)
and j in unrestrictive
Who \ clauses . ........ 214
Lthat used for .... 214, 215
fVhile, connecting various
clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
ll'ill and would . ... ..... 349-352
Words [ great number of in
and
English. . . . . . . . 25
Phrases spoken words what, 17

PAGE

r transposcJ order of'

112-122
use of determining
the class of . . . . 26
usual orJer of,
110- 112, 120
writt e n ·words
what . . . . . . . . . 17
connected, each
making goo<l
Words
sense with conan cl
text . .... . .... 250
Phrases
independent ... 101, 102
(Cont.)
independent nearly,
103, 104
in pairs, punctuation . . . . . . . . . . 56
interchangeable. . . · 51
made pro min en t . 113
modifying sentences,
103, 104
Worth, a verb ... . . 323 (2d note)
Ye .... . .... ... 290 & 3d note
Yes and No....... . 227 (note ;
You, verb form with ...... 355

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