0

0BJECT
now

AND

By GEORGE RICKS B.Sc.

cLond.)

TO GIVE TIIEJVr

.tftrat $crica
Fr>R

NATURAL HI STO RY OBJECT

LESSONS

l'RIJ\IARV SC H OOLS

LESS ONS

A Manu al for Teac hers and Pu p il Teac hers

Bv
OBJECT LESSONS AND

HOW TO

GIVE T HEM

First Seri es for Primary Schoo ls

OB JECT

LESSONS

Second

AND

Seri es fo r

HOW

TO

!UCK~·
.
•J

GEORGE

JN ~ r ~·Tol(
All .flt()H

l )F

~ C lr<l4 Jl . <.: ·rn

O F "NAl"('H .\J .

T ll fl;

~ f~ Jf nn r,

B. • s C .
H1J ,\ rtO FO i(

HI S '.f'11f(y 1 '1 1.JF.C T

J. ES.!'n N ,<.; "

( Lor-m)
J . ~J NDO N
HTf'.

GIVE THEM

In termediate and Grammar

Schools

ROSTON, U.S.A.
D. C. HEJ\TJI & CO ., PUBUSITERS
I 8 '.:)5

CONTENTS•
--

.. ......
INTROOUOTION

(

')) s-I·/
l /_

-

161 I

t

I

QC 1-/
MAY 16 1924

.FIRST STAOE.

!

•

J. -:-JI. COLOUR. rtt . - ' ' 11. F OHM . -

WHITR ANH HLA t: I<, RED,
T.lN Efl, A fl;Q U AIU!,

VRT,r... ow, Rt.UR

OBI.ONO , JJAL't.· RHAPB, f'UH.FA C R

8 - 10
11 - 20

VIit . PllRM ANT> CO J,Ol!R ( A T EST .LF. R~ nN)
IX . -

X. TA RT EB. -

XI. -

XJV. RIZR, t.RNOTH, RH EA 1r r11,

XV.

XVJ. -

XVJ[. HATtD AND

~OFT,

V F. fH~ T,\

XIX. A BASK BT OF
SCHUO!;l!OO~I

JlO UOH

AND 8MO ·TH

.
Bl.ER

zr,

27 - 31
31
.3 3- 3r.
36
38
89

Tll1CKNE R8.

W R !OHT

S.VllI. A 81.. ATE~P E NCJI., llOX

XX.

22
23 -

SWHP. T, 8AT.T. AN H SOU R.

.

TAllLE ANO CHAIR

S"P.CflND RTAGE.
J.-n.

THR BE CONnA RY coT.( lUHS.-OllA N O R,

Ill. ANGLB8 1

LJ NF~,

IV. CURVED

OllR F. N , AND fUllf'J.R

41 - 43

46
48
50
62

TRJA N Of. R ~

(; IH C J.R,

TllNO

V. CURR AN]) TI HI C K RHA l ' R

Vl. F O HM A.Nil CO l.O U Jl COMnTNP.D (A Tl-~ 8T LV.fl;~ O N)

vu.

BWV. P.T,

so u n,

Vlll.-X. LENOTH. -

53
54- 57

AND RITTF.R TAST E R

A FOOT, A Y.ARP, AN lN C H

XI.- XIV. l'lWl'EHTIRB

OP

Jl Q ])IE~.-

RTJ CXY

on

ADHP.FHVR, J'OHll U ~,

TRANSPARENT ANO OPAQUF., JIH1TTLR , FJ_, BXJBLIC, ~ND 'J'OUOll
XV. A BRICK

XVI. ORANOR AND J ,F.MON

68- 63
64
66

67
69

X Vll. A.II EOO
XV!ll. A CABBAGE •

70

XIX. A OO COA•NUT

XX . OLAB8.

71

1·nmD STAGE.

72

I. JlARK ANO L!OHT COLOUR8,

11.-lll. PERPR N lllC U LAR,

lfORIZONTAL,

OBLIQUll ,

ANJl

PARAT ,J .P.L

74 - 76
78

LINBS •
" · LINES ANJl ANOLP.8

;.1

TRfiT llX.,ROJ~ll)

•• MBASUkE8 OF WEIOHT .-~ THB LH.,

*

LB.,

t

LB., AND

·oz.

79

\

CON'l'ENTB.

vi

HR
btl!l.OW

Tl. KllA8UllB8 01' OAPAClTY.--TRB ffAl,P-PlNT, PINT, BTC.

80

•

v11.-xn1. PROPBllTlllS OP JIODIRS.-MQU!D AN)) SOLID, PU8111LR AND
INPLAl4MABLB BLASTIO
81 INl'UBIJH,E, SOLUBLB AND JN SOLUDLB,
'

93
96

XIV. JNDIA-RUBBBR

96
99

X V. 81' 0NOB

XVI. CO HK •
XVII. LEATHER
JC.Vtll.

t~lHA•H.UBTIBR,

xrx .

RPONOE, C:OllK, ANn

~'Et\Tll RR

101
103
104
105

( A C01tlPART SON)

WAT EH, MILK , PAllAFFlN OIL, ET C. (A CO MPARI SON)

XX. LOAF

SUGAR,

ALUM,

SODA,

CAMPHOll,

STARCH, ETC.

CHAl.K,

FOURTH STAGE.
•

(,-11. COLOUR,- BRADP.8 AND Tl1'TS
llt.-lV.
V.

FUHM . -

CIH C f,R, RTC. , 8PRRHB, GYLINDER

M.EASU HES :FOR

JlRY GOODS •

v1.-vn. PllOPRll'flES OP BODIF.8.-MALLEAlll.. &, ETC.
VIII. COMM ON SALT

rx .

@ODA

•

X.. Al.UM •
XJ. CA MPH OR

•

XU . Sl: LJ' ll UR
Xl ll. SNOW AND ICB

XlT. COTTON AND WOOL
XV. PINF' ANO NR P.T> LE8
t:VI. - xx. MANUFACTUllEA -

lHtY,AD. B l'TT EU, CH EF.SP. , RTAHCH, ETO.

]Ofl-108

11 0- 113
ll4
116. 117
119
121
122
124
12.S
126
127
128
130-136

FIFTH STAGE.
138

L lltnF.Ol'LAR COMMOK COLOU ltS.-BBOWI< AND GREY
l l . - T . FOR.M .-THB

RH OME

AND

RHOMHOJD ,

PENTAG ON,

H FXA OON,

BR PT AOON, OCTAGON, PlilS'.\.t:-0 1 PYRAMttJ, AND QONR

n . -1x . 1'1MB, AND HOW WB MEA~URE IT
X. Ml.NERALR

•

159-164
160
169

111.-Xlll. COAT,

xrv.

GRA.PHITH

140-144
1'16- 164
156

•

XV. A BLACK·I,l<AD PENCtL

171
171

xn. er.Av
X.'1 11. J_. IM RRTON B AND J,IM'E •
X:Yllt.-xxu. THR M ETALB.-RUAT

AND

PLATT NO,

HAllDNF.S~,

FUSI ON, CAST J NG, MALl.EAJH ,E, PU CTILE, TENACIOUS
X X TTI. -X~TV. Tl~ XTIL'B llAT Rl<IAL8

AT.LO YB,

17i-188

191, 192
l\H

APPEJ'l))(X

UIDBX

•

201

I NTRODUCTlON.

Omt knowleil ge ofthe rn;if.erial world is obtainl'd through the
senses. Th e organs of' l'lense are the eye, the ear, th e nose,
the tongue and p:ilate, 1111d the nerves oft.ouc h locat ed in the
skin. The spl'cial n erves of t.h ese organs are acted on by
things external to the body; t.h e effect· is conveyed to the
brain; and mental impressio ns or irlrafl are the result. Thus a
red colour acting on the ret.ina, t h e sound from a whi st le actiug
on the auditory n erve~. or the srnPll 0f an onion on the olfactory
nerves produces a d e finite rn e ntal impresRion. The five sensory-organs, then, a re 80 many doors and wind owl'I by which
knowl edge m1h• rfl t.110 rni11rl .
There is, how ever , 1111nt.her 8o nrce of knowledge of material
bodies. In this cruie the m en tal impre~sion s are d eri,·ed from
within th e body, nnd are du e to mu scu lar ex ert.ion. It is bj
muscular feeling that. we estima te tbe amount. of force req uired
to overcome rcAistance. Thus we g et id eas of elasticit.y and
weight from the amou nt of active energy put forth by the
muscles to overcome in l'rt.ia in the one caAe and gravitation
in t.he other . If a '"Pi g·ht. is pl:tc<'d in t.he hnnd we are conscious of a eert,ain :.1111111111t of fore• ~ i>xpc 11dt~ d t.o ke0p it from
falling; if t.h•-~ wPig h L i A in e rt':IRl'd we are conscious of an
incren.Rerl cxp0ncli t.11 re of mu scular en ergy.
Th e m ental imp reRsionR, form ed by and through the senses,
includin g n'\nRc11lar ff'elin g, are called smsation8.
Ry the org-1111R of Rense we are st1.irl to pn-ceire, or to m ake
11wntu.l no tes of ex ternal bodif>s, and these mental notes Will
B

OBJECT LESSONS.

ca 11 prrrPp finnw. P erception ia the first step in lrnowledge:
etlen t.ive perception leads to observatt"on; observation is the
forerunner of comparison; while comparison is the basis of
r.las8ification ; and these together constitute the foundation of
all knowledge.
The primary purpose of l es8ona on common objects and
nrtf11ral ph enomena is to cultivate the senses, to train to
habits of attention, int elligent ohservat.ion, a.nd accurate
comparison, an d so to lead up to the higher processes of the
mind-reason and jud gment. Of course the acquisition of
informal ion is an important aim; but th e object l e~son is
des igned to assi~t and guide th e child to discover. properties
of things, and thus acquire knowledge for himself, rather
th an to pour information into his mind like wh eat into a
ea ck.
Mental impressions are form ed at a very early period of
childh ood. A bright li ght or a shining object attracts
attention before the child bas acquired the power of
' taking h old with its h1111<ls; and a certain amount of discrimination, enabling it, for in sta nce, to distin g ui sh the face
of its mother from t lmt of a stranger, quickly follows. The
po wer of recogn isin g resemblances and differences rapidly
increases, new ideas are as rapidly acquired; a nd when the
child enters school, he enters it with his perceptive faculties,
to a certain extent, cultivat€d, and with his mind a tl'easury
of simple id eas.
The natural course for the teacher would seem to be to
gather up into something like order, and to perfect, that
whi ch hn R been so far imperfectly accomplished; and then,
start ing from this as a bnsis, to evolve a systematic course of
training, proceeding step by step in a natural order, each
step bei11g a logical seq uen ce of the preceding. Further,
the tencher who wo11ld best succeed mu st. take childhood's
m ethod of imbibinJ! knowl edge and adapt it to her own use.
Re:itless acti \·ity, insati.able i11riosity, and love of imitation

HOW TO GIVE THEM,

3

«llrn.racteri:r.e cl1ildhood. What the chilrl sees he wants tel
know about, to handle, and exam ine, :u1d, if possible, to take
to pieces, or otherwise ex perim ent upon; wh at he Aees done
he wants to do, a nd if opportunity be not fu1md for the
indulgence of his natural activity, he will find th e opportunity for him se lf. An object lesson, th en, besides fulfilling
some definite pnrpoAe in trninirig the percrptive facnlti e;,
should provirlP Anrn ething for the chilrlrcu to do to satisfy
their innrtte activity, sornethiu g to exa111i11e and rliscovet· t~
aro~se their curi osity, and somet.hi.ng to copy to g rati(y their
del'n re for imi tation.
H erein lies the secret of securing
attention, of begetting a st.ate of vigorous mental activity,
and of associating pleas ure with instruction .
The selection of les•o11s, ar\d their adaptation tot.h e capacities
of the scholars, or to th eir different stages of ad van cement,
is another point of fundam ental impor tance. A child of four
years of age is a different being, intellectually, from a child
of seven ; and a lesso n s11 i fed to th e capn.c it.y of the one mul!t
be totally ummited to the mentul condition of t he other.
Th e mental faculties of a child are strengthened und invigora~ed by pr~per exer cise.' but are weakened and depressed hy
hem~ exer~'. sed 0 11 s11b1ectA beyond his powers of comprehension. l o graduate the lessons to the mental condition
and previous trni 11i11 g of the scho lf1rs necessitates a complete
system. It is not stdfi cien t to select a lesson at random, no
mat.ter how sk ilfully it. may be handled. Each lesson, whilst.
fnlfilling its own Rpecial purpose, must form a link in th e
chain, a unit in th e whole.
Nor is the method of g ivin g tb e individual lessom of less
importance t,han their seleef-. ion and adaptation. Occasional
information given abo ut. things of every-dar life does not
serve th e rli st.in c1i1· e nim of ol:iject lesson s. To be a passive
recipien t of infor 111at.ion gives no pleasure to s. ~hild. To holrl
an ob.jec~ Lefore it, and enumerate its general propertieswhat it is cow110Aed of, or where or h ow it is made-and

OBJECT LESSONS.

then to get the information returned by questioning, is at
best but a mere exercise of the memory ; it does nothing in
the way of exercising and developing the more important
men tal powers.
"To tell a child this, and to show the oth er, is not to teach
it bow to observe, but to make it a mere recipient of another'!!
observations - a proceeding which weakens rather than
9trength ens its power& of self-i11struction, which deprives it
of t he pleasure r es ul1.ing from i;ucceRsful activity, which pre.
sentfl this all-attractive knowled ge under the aspect. of formal
tuition, and which thus generates that inrlifferencfl and even
di sg ust with which these object lessons are sometimes regarded. On the other hand, to pursue the true course is
simply to guide the intellect to its appropriate food, and to
habituate the mind from the beginning to that practice of
self-help which it must ultimately follow. Children should
be led to make th eir own investigations and to draw their
own inferences. They should be told as little as possible,
mrl ind need to d£scoi-Pr as much as possible."•
Having formed 1iew ideas of things by the method of obeervation and experiment under the guiding band of the teacht'r,
our next step is to endeavour to fix these ideas in the minds of
the chil<l ren by means of language. But in every case words
mus-cfollow ideas; in foct, t erms should not be g iven till the
n ecesRit.v for th em is felt. 'l'hus, suppose "a liquid" to be
th e subfect of the les~on. Tli e ch ildren a.re led by experiment
on several liquid bu(]ies to note that they all have certain
common properties-such as flowing in a strenm, finding the
lowest lev el, spreading out aurl filling up hollows, easi ly
flowing in drops, having no definite shape, but taking the
shape of the Y85l'lel illtO wlii ch t.h ey n.re poured-and the
necc!'<sit.y is felt for oue term which at once emhod ies all
th ef<e properti es. The extension oft.he chilrlren'R vocabulary
in this way is one of t11 e minor advantages of uujcct les~o11s;
• Herbert Spencer.

HOW '.l'O GIYE TITEM.

and further, to secure freedom and accnraP-y in speech, the
children should be encouraged to answer all questions, as
far as possible, in complete sentences, or at any rate in
complete phrases.
The teacher may commence object lessons by taking ~ome
familiar obj ect-Buch, for instance, ns the black-board-and
lead the children to ohscrve its colou r, shape, substance,
surface, anrl so on; but then we h:1ve so many propert.ies in
combination that. t.li o scho l:irA n.re not lilrnly to get. very clear
notions of :rny. It iR dus irahl e, therefore, if not actua lly
nece.~sa.ry, that. leR ~ons on object;s should be preceded by a
special training in colour, funo , l'.' ize, weight,· hardness, and
others of the more conRpicuons properties of bodies. Lessons
on objects may th en be introdu ced gradually, and, to a large
extent., they may be made to con ~ t . itut.e sin1ple practice in
the appli cation of previouRly acquired kn owledge.
In dealing with t.he properlli cs or qualities ofohjects, those
only should be dw elt, upon which render the _objectR valuable
for the several uses in wh ich they are employed. 'l.'hus, all
children are alive to the fact th at we ca11not see thron gb
sponge, cork, indi a-rubber, or leat her; but-. t.o stop to desc ribe
these objed.s as 01mque is a waste of t.ime. On the other
hand, alth ough the chi lrlrc11 know eq 1111lly well that we can
see through glass, it-s property of tran sp:ircncy mu st be rnarle
a car<linal point in a lesAon on g l 11~~. because it :is ihi11
propert,r w Lich 1uu ke~ gla~" spc..:ially u~dul.

ODJECT LESSONS.

FIRST STAGE.
SHORT, 11imple,

pleaRing, and attractive should be the charao·
teristic qualities of t.hfl first object lessons; so short ~·
never to we11.ry, RO simple as to call for scarcely ~11 flf~prem­
Rble effort, and as pl easant and attract,i':'e as play itself_To train the senses, to cultivate habits of observation, to
note to compare, to contrast should be their aim.
Their method should be conversational. The conversations, however, should not take a desultory form ; but should
have a definite object and serve a definite purpose.
'l'he lessons should form the first step in a complete
, tern the founrlation on which future lessons are to be
8) S
'
f
. ')
constructed , the key-note for other subjects o a s1mi ar
character.
The subjects should be selected from simple "~v.ery-day
things," with which the children. are ~ost familiar, and
which are likely to prove the most mterestmg.
The lit.tie scholars should be encouraged not only to look
at. to feel, to taste, to compare; but they should be led to
triik about 1he things, and ask questions concerning t~em.
.At tbis early stage, where the powers of concent;rat1?n a~e
l!O feeble, the object should be placed as far ll8 po8s1
.ble m
the hands of all the children. If this is impracticable, th~n
the specimens should be of sufficient bulk to be seen distinctly by every mem her of the olas.s; but whatever 1."ay
require to be done by way of expenment, such as feelrng,
tasting, &c., sboulrl be done by the pupils themselves. "It
is wlrnt t.h c child dor>8, t,hat it learns to k1101c."
The lessons of this li1·.~t "
are offered as illustrations of

f,

'

the l!Ort of obJect lessons suitable to chilrlren or trom /our to
five years ot' age. They have for their definite aim a11d
purpose to train the children,( I.) To discrimi nn.te between the following colours:
white, black, red, yellow, and blue.
(2.) To dist ing uish and name the following lines nnd
forms: straight line (p erpemlicular, horiz!lntal, and oblique),
bent line, crooked line, square, oblong, and hall-sh ape.
(3.) To discriminate between sw eet., salt, and sour tu~tes.
(4.) To appreciate the general differences between ru11gb
and smooth, hard and soft, long and short, broad and
narrow, thick and thin, h eavy and light.
It is import.ant that the chilrlren should not pass to the
next stage till the subjects of t,his co11 rse are thoroughly
mastered, not only by a few of the more clever scholars, but
by the bulk of the class. The lessons need not be repeated
in the same form , nay, sl?otild not; for the thoug,btful
tea.cher can exerci8e her cL~s on the various ideas h erein
involved in an almost infinit.e vari ety of ways. Neither
should the teacb13r slavi8hly follow tbe order of the different
points in the lessons here given, much less confine herself
to the identical questions .i n tbe text. Notes of object
lessonil can never be anything more than general guides to
the careful teacher. They may a~sist her to confine herself
to the definite purpose of tbe lesson, and point out the way
in which she slwu lrl strive to guide tbe th oug h ts of the
child ren; but the actual q11 e.qfoins to be asked and explanations to be given mu st always depend to a very great extent
on the an~wer.q given by t;he children. The highest kind of
teaching is that wherein the teac hPr b_y skilful q11cstioning
leads her scholars to imagine that t.hey have <liscovered
something new for tb ernsel ves.
Norn. - It is "'stoned thnt for evei·y lesson the teacher will h1n•e 11 tablb
and bluc k-board Lefor e her class; antl both so pl a~ed th:it all th e sr.holal'9
;lllJ1100 distinctly.
Slates and pencils al"o should always be ready to band .

8

HOW TO GIVE TlrnU.

O.BJEC'l' LESSONS.

"Why do you say the black-board ? "
uf the boai·d is black.

B ecause the colour

LESSO N l.

COLOUR -W HITE AND BLACK .
Fent thi s J e~son Hi e tc:i c li er wi ll r erptirn, in n.ddilion to the bluck-buard
Hnd chalk, a eft,.et of <1rnwi11g-pa per, anrl a stick of clrnrenn l or lJlack
crayon . F.ach cl 1iltl ~h• Jttld h ave u. s late , a small piece of chalk, aud
sti·ips of black u.u1l white ['aper.

Th e attc11tio11 6C the chi ldren may he at once sceurorl by
rlrawing so mething at,tract.irn on the black-board-the outli11e of a tea-c11p a nd saucer for inf'ta nce.

Then t h e tcrtch cr will proceed somewh at as follows:" \Vhat have I lie(' IJ <llli11gr" illr1k£11g a tca-cu:1; ll'nd umcrr
"Co11hl yon drink f'rom this tea-cup and saucer?" No .
"\Vhy 110t r"
H wr1 11sp it i8 11ot a rl'ril l e rl -C11}J ((1/rl smu·e1·.
" It. is 11ot. real; it is a pfr tw·e of a t ea-c up and sn.ncer."
"Now anRwPr me.aga in ; wbat have I made on the bbwk·
boarrl ? "
A p1'ct11re of a {f'rr-Ctt)J a11d sr111c1'1".
"Vll1at tl id I make the pi etnre with?"
With d1rt!k.
"\Vhat. is t-.11 0 colour of t.li 0 chalk?" lVh ill' col011 r.
"\Vhat is th e l'Olour of the picture ?" TVhilr• colou r.•
" \Vl1at Jia,·e [ made the picture on?"
On th e bl11ckbor1r1/
• (1£ course, white is a coml1ina t.ion of colour•, 01111 1,lnc k <l en otPe th e
ahsen ce of colour; but, n~ in ordina r~· life. we alway s "i'"" k of whit•• an<!
blaek a~ 1'nlo11rs. th ere can ·110 n o n eed, in the Infant Sd1oo l a t lenst, to
depart hom the corrn non ac0eptation.

"He re is a piece of p:iper which I will pin on t.he bl :l('kbo1ud. \Vufoh me wliile I mak e another picture of a teacup anrl sa1uwr."
[Mnlw a si:nilar out.line wit.h t.11 0 black crayon.]
" \Vbal; is the co lour of t ho picturo now?" fllar·k r:olonr.
"\Vhat have I marle t;he pict.ure on?" A 7iiecr' '!l paper.
"vVhat. iR t.lt e colour of the pu )JUl' r ,, IVh ite colour .
"You have two st.rips of papur; Rh ow me the one which
bas the same colou r aR t lt e black-board. In th o right band s,
please. Now hold up your white paper. Now holrl np the
black pnper in the rig ht hand, and tbe white paper m th<.>
left hand."

The teacher rlrawR a lin e on tlw hln ck -ho:ird . "'\Vhat have
I made now ? " A li11r' .
"And now" [drnwing a RC<'OTH1 li1 w] ? Tl('O linl'·'·
"And now" [drawing a t.hird liu e]? 1'h1w /i11r.q.
Dirr0t th e ('l1ildren to tak e their pirccs of chalk in th eir
right hands. " Now mak e 011 e lin e 011 your Rbtes."
"What colo11r is the lin e ? "
TVhi:te colour.
"Mak e two l ine.s. :A·l ake th ree liu es. .Make one more.
How many have you DOW r" Four lines.
"Count, theru." 011r, two, tltree,.four.

"Now look a hout tlie rn om and on th e tabl e • and give me
the namef< of a11y t.li i ngs which you ca n see of a black colour."

Coat, boy's coa.t, frac/zpr' 1J dress,

girl'~

hair.

• It will he •tn nrln1nf,:rg"o for th e t•)nelier to have on the tA.bl e a few spociR8 a I imp of coal, a et.rip of black cloth or vBlvot, n. lnrnp of sug>tr or
•n it, or auy other ohjrl' t e:r s ily procurabl e, for furth er illuetmtion.
llll' D8 -

now

10

TO OIVF.

11

TJ!Ji;~ r..

OBJECT LESSONS.

"Name some white things which you can see." The toalla,
paper, pinafore.
••What do your moth ers put into your tea whioh has n
white colour?" Milk.
" What do you sometiroeRsee spread all over the ground
in very cold weath er?" Snow.
"What colour bas snow ? " TYhite colour.
""What animals have you seen with white coats?" Orda,
dogs, horses, co1cs, ~c.
"And what animals h ave you seen with black coats?"
Cats, dog~, horses, cou·8, ~c.

LESSON II.

COLOUR.-RED, YELLOW, BLUE.

FoR tbis lesson the teacher will r equire a sheet of dmwin g- napeT,
and r ed and yellow paints • or crayomi of the best standard colours.
The children to have strips of coloured paper to match. Balle of
cotton , silk, or worsted, or skeins of wool, or any articles having
pretty nearly the. standard primary colours, should lie on the table.

The teacher, having fastened the paper to the blackboard, proceeds:.. \Vhat is tbe colour of th is sh eet of paper?" White colour.
"I will make a very pretty colour on this white paper."
[Makes a broad band of red.]t "Perhaps some little child
can tell me the name of this colour. If not I will tell yo u.
Its nam e is red. Hold up your paper of this colour. What
colour is this paper?" R ed colour.
• Carmine or Chinese vermili on, chrom e-yellow or gnmboge, R.n d 11ltre..·
marine or 1•ohRlt bl no may be taken as the he•t stnn<iRrd primary co lours.
t The colours should h ave been prepared Loforolumd. The colound ht•nde
ah ould be placed about four inches apart, and the same pa per will then serve
for use in the First Le11son of Stage li.

"Now I will put 11r11>lher co lour on t.lw papfo l' by t.l1 e Rid o
of the red." [.i\l11ket:1 a Lruml band uf yellow.] 11 lts 11 a1 11e is
yetlo11J."
11
Show me your yellow papors. H old up t.h e yelluw
paper in your ri ght handi'i, aud the red in the left."
" Here iRa.not.her pref t.y colour." [ l\I ; ! ke" a Rt.ripe of Llu e. J
"Its name is blu e. Hold 11p yn11r hlt11· papcrR."
"How many co lours have l now s hu1Y11 yoLt 011 this
paper? " T!i.1w• nilour.~ .
11
What is tli e co lour of the paper?" fVhitP co1onr.
"\Vhat, is t.hL• colour of t.bc hoard?" B1rwk colour.
"How ma11y cul.ours t,heu have I sbu wu JOU iu all?"
Five cotourlj.
Individual chi ldren sho1il rl now be ca ll ocl to 1.he tnble to
select obj ects having co lours simil ar to t hei r p:IJ•C'nl, i11 ot.h er
wordR to "mnteh " the <" olourR, a nd 1.he11 to piek out; art. icl e~
having th e particular co lour uamed Ly 1,he t.eac lrer.

LESSON

lll.

FORM .- PO SITI ON OF LIN ES,"' STAND ING UP, LYING
DOWN, LEANIN G.+

Fon this lesson each chilrl Rhon ld b e pnn· id nd with f\ R11 nrt Rtirk m11l
a slrtt.e aud pe ncil. 'l'ho t.onehor Rhould 1111.1·0 a pi Pce of st rin g , aml n
"form" should be place1l in the front of U10 c h1Rs.
D raw two straig h t Jim·~ on the t)\:ick-board, th e on1:
verti '.:tt l, the other hori wutal.
• Children he.fnrAentP1·ing Rrh ool wi ll hrt rn ~ rr111i n · d Rom•• id i•A .,f th o Rlrn p•
or ob,J f't~fa:~ : but Ji IA <lt' H tr a. ld1~ Ft{) t o pt ! l'fr ~et t hi fl J {l 11 n\'11> d ~n that tl!".V 111 ay 1J1:
Rbl e r earlil y to cl>1 8Hify obj "t:I." hy the promin ent. n ·H•· mhlarll' t:~ 11nd •lifforPn r·cs
in th"ir f o r ms.
t Th <' t11rr11M 1 1 \' Pt'ti 1·ri l" qr" 111 •r p 1 •111li c11lar," " h u1izu11i11l, "
u e better introdu ced at I\ later st11ge.

1111d

" u l 1l i111w •·

12

OTIJECT LESf!ONS.

"What do you l'all these rn rirks I ha ve marle on the black·
board ? " L£nes.
" Are they placed alike ? " No.
"I want two bovA to come h ere. I will stand John on thi s
cbair, and Harry slrnll lie down on th e. form. I want Jane
to point on 1he blal,k-hoard t,o th e line th a t stands upri ght
like J ohn. Now puint to the lin e that is (1Ji11g do1cn lik e
HarrY.· Th en [ may say that this line (pointing to the
perpendicular line) like John is strmdi n.IJ upri;,·h.t, and this
lin e (pointing to th e hori zo ntnl) like Harry is iyin,q do711n.
Take your sti cks in your right hands. Show them stan ding
up. Now lying down."

HOW TO GIVJiJ THEM.

1~

to the order o( the teacher. No matter how imperfect the
result, it will serve its purpose to fix the ideas of vertical ,
oblique, and hori zontal direction in their minds.
NoTB.-After what has been e11id previously (p . 7), it sb onld be almo•l
nnnecessary to warn t ench ers that th esf'l bri ef note• of lessons a fford n o indication whnt ever of the rate of spe" cl at whi<'h new id oas should be in trodu ced .
Tho principal "olours mi ght give m nteriu I for IHilf-a-dozen k ssons in s tend of
two ; nt'l d so with r PgRnl to str .. ig ht and c urv ed lin es. Th e 1..-nch P1· must be
guid~d entirely by the rnte flt which she finds her y oung pupils llble to ltbsorb
1rnd appropriate fresh iclcu.s.

LESSON IV.

"Harry sh all go to his seat, and John shall Jean against
the ta ble with his arm r esting on it."
"Is John standing stra ight up now?" No.
"ls h i:' lyiu g dow;1 like Hur ry wa s ?" No .
"How is he sta11<lin g ?" Lwrn1:11g ri,qainst tlte trible.
"Here is another lin e."
[Teacher draws au oblif]ue
~tra.ight line.]
"It does not stand upright and it ioi not
lying down. It look s like John as he is leaning against
the table."
" What name shall we give this line then?" L caninfj
line. "Take your sticks again. Make them stand 11;11·ight
Now make them lean. Place them lying clown on your
desks."
"Here is a piece of string. I will stretch it between my
hand s. "
" What line dues it mak e now - ? " Lying dow1J.
" A11d now I ? " Standing upright.
" And now / ? " L eanin g.
"And now \ ? " Leaning.
Th e children shoulrl lastly be directed to draw these linea
on their slates, first as a copy from the black-Loard and then

FORM.-SHAPES OF LINES, STRAIGHT, BENT, AN D
CROOKED .

Fon this lesM n the teacher Bhould provide her sP lf wit,h a long fl oxihle
fla t ruler or a p ione of whalebone, aud a yard of !ltring. If possib le
the children should have short rulers.
The teacher taking the flat rul er and holding it by its
ends in a hori:i:ontal position bends it thus,.-... and asks-" What have I done to the ruler?" You ii11ve bent it.
Th en allowing the ruler to st,rai ghteu itself.
''Is it bent now - - ? " No.
"What is it n ow - - ? " It is straigl•t.
'' Now ....- ? " It 1~ bent.
" Now - - ? " Slrm:yh.t .
"\¥hat do I u ~e th e ruler for P" To draw s!rriig11t !in~~
with.

"I will draw a line with the rul er - - . \Vlrnt shape is
this line?" It i.~ ri. slra(1Jh.t line. A lying do1, ·11 hnr>.
" Yes, both answers are correct. \Ve will say a lyin g down
straight line."
'' Hl'lre is another line." ['I'eacher draws vertical line.]

l4

OBJECT LESSONS.

ROW TO GIVE THEM.

I

"What can you say about this
? " It i.s a standing
upright straight line.
"And these \ / ? " Leaning straight lines.
Draw a curved line with" chalk compasses," or wilh (,be
ltid of a piece of string.
"I have drawn anothe r line ,..-.., It looks like 1.be rnler
when I had bent it. "\Vlrn.t sha ll we call it?" A bent line.
" H ere is a stick. ls it straight?" No.
" What then? Crooked.
"And what name will you give to thiR line '
?"
Orookrd li11e.
".I will now make ou the black-board a number of liues.

10

Name them as

1·

1: ·

"i'

r point

to them.''•

The terms" straight, " " bent," and" crooked" may a l ~o be
illust.rated with a piece of string. "\Vhen stretch er! hetwcen
two boys it is stra ight; ; when banging loosely it is bent;
when laid across objects of va rious h eights it is crooked .

'

THE SQUARE.
111Aou chili! R'hou ld be provirl oil with a square, out from 11 s'heet cl stifl
paper or cn.nlboard , four Ati cks" of equal lengths shnrpe ned at th e
ends, and a few soft t pens. The teaeher shoulrl have a IRrge sheet
of paper of squn.re form, and strips of coloured paper (say red) to
make a frame for the squ are.

Pointing to the hla clr -board th e teacher may pror.eed :"How many sideR bas this black-board?" Four sides.
"Count them." One, t100, three, four.
"How many corn ers has the black-board?" Four corners.
"Count them." 011e, two, tltrre,four.
"Take your R!ntes. Count. th e corners. How ma ny corners
have your siaft's?" F 11 1tr C01'1U' J".~.
;, And how many sides? " F our sides.
"You will learn about ot.hcr kinds of corners hy-and-by .
At prese nt I w:rnt you to try n.nd remember the name we
give to all corn ers l iko those of the black-board and slate.
vVe call the m squrrre corn ers."
"There are ot.her things in the room with sritrnre corners.
Give me the names of some." Table, door, pir:ture, ~c. ~c.

The attention of t.he ch ildren should now be directed t.o
any oujects in th e room which hn.ve straight or bent ~ id <•.Q a11d
edge~, as the doors, windows, table, black-board, chairs, &e.

"Here is a sheet of paper which I will fix on t.he black board. How many sid es has it?" Four sides.
"How many corners?" F o11r con1rr8.
"vVhat kind of corn ers are t.h ey ?" Sq11are corners.

As a further exercise, lines may be dra wn on the slates as a
copy from the hlack-board, or to th e orrl cr of t he teacher.
• Individual ~ch •1lars may he called to the front of the class to point to

~on venient.

I

i.

LESSON Ve

lines as named by the teacher.

• Tne sticks of the Kinder- garten used for peas-work will be found very
Th e pr.as sh o11l 1l lie soakot.l nhout twelvo hours in water, um.I be ~owed
dry for 1rn hour previous to being nsed.

1"
IO

16

OBJECT LESSONS.

Hll\V

" What do you call the wood placed round the outside uf
your slates P " Frames.
"Watch me while I make a frame to this sheet of paper."

J.'O Gl

·•Here is th e firs(, !inf;

I ."

i .~

it ?"

"\Vhat kind of li11 e
•rp line.

"Here is th e scco11il li11 0

VJ~

l'/

'I.H EM .

A 8l!'aiyht .'ine.

A standing

L.'·'
A. 8lm ight l/11e.

" \V hnt ki111l of lin e i" thi >1 ?"

A lying

iow11 h w.

""'\Vlrnt cnlonr have these f'trips of paper?" R ed.
"How mnny 1;trips m11 s t I nse to mnke th e frame ?"

"Now I will fini r,h th e sriunre
Foitr

1trip .~ .

"I will now take off the fram e and put the strips of paper
side by sid e on the bla.ck-boanl,-so."
"Can you tell me which is the longest. Rtri p ? " No.
"\Vby not. ?'' T/;ey arc of the sam e leugllt.
" Y es, and this tells me that the sides of my sh eet of
paper are all of the same-/1'11gth."
" Once more. Row many sides bas my sheet of paper? "

ClJ·"

"How mnnv Rt. rnig ltt. 8id PA l1 :1A i f. ?" Fn111· .~ tm 1:qM 8id1','·
" vVl1at. 11:1111 () <lo 11: 1· g i \'() L" f.h n CI H'IH\1',q?" 8q11111·1• 1·01·11 r /'R.
"And what i8 t.he Rlwp c c: dl ,,rl?" A 8'fllarP shape.
"Take your stidrn. Pnt th em tng-e t.twr. Tfove t.hev t.h e
same length? ·Lny U1P m down ngain. T:ik u one Rf ick :111d
fasten a pea at P:tc h end, tl1wi 1.J=O ."
"Now t.n ke a Reconrl 8ticl( aurl put two ot.lwr pea8 on in th e
same wny O==O ."

Four sides.

" A nd wh at about their lengths? I s th ere one longe r
than the other? " No, thry are all of the same lc11gth.
"II ow many corners hus my sheet of paper?" Fvui· corners.
"And what do we call the corners?" S qua l'e comers. ·
" I want you now to r emember that this piece of paper,
becanse it has four squ are corn ers and four sides of the same
length, is said to be of a squ((re shape."
"You have a pi ece of pnper of a square shape.

Sh ow it

t.o rn e. "

" \Vhy do I
it hr1s fo11 r

~: 1y

SIJlll/l'P

it is ~ q 11 n. re ?" Repeat aft.er m e - JJP-1· m1w'
rol'il<'l'S n11 dfon r "idc.s r~l the sa me le11glli."

"I will now dr<.1 w a square on th e black-board, using t.he
l'"H} er."

"'l'ake a11o ther sf.iek und j oin these

t11· 0

as I have dnn e."

"Then j oin th e ot h er ends with t.he remainin g 8tick."
"See that. yon hnve :-:qnnrn co rn crR lik e the black-board."

D

Now t.dl t hP nurn c of th e shnpe of the frame you have
made." A .sq1111 r e /i·r1111 e.

OBJECT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO GIV.E THEM.

side by side, and the tw" short: yellow strips siJ e L>y side,
thusLESSON VI.

AN OBLO NG .
T11 E 1·l1il<l.rAn shonltl li e J'TOYided with the necessary sticks and peas
to ma.ke an obl o ng fr am e.

This }c,;,;on rrii1.y be introrluced (nR ind eed 1wnrly all l esR nn ~
1·d1o nld) h.v : 1. fe w q11es t.ion s on 1.h e pr e vious ks~o11, as a cu n ·
necti11 g- link .
" TT ow 111 :111 y corn ers h aR a l'q 11:iru ? " Four C01'11('1'8 .
"\Vhat. kind of corn er s are 1.hey?" Sq1wre corners.
"]Tow 111 :111y sides h as a Rqu:i rc ?" Fo 11r ,./rfr8.
' ' \\' hat. e:w you tPll 111 e abn111, the Rides?" They rnust bf'
of t /11' sr1.111e lr'11ylh.

T hry m1rst lie st 1·rr'r11tt sidr's.

" JI e n ' iR a.not her Rheet of p:1per which I will fix on the
bln ck -l10:1nl."

It

" H ow is it. like a Rq11 ar e?"

fl

/1(1.~ .fhur 8{ m.irJM

Its sid11s are not nil of the

" 'I I ow is it unlike a sq uare ?"
~f(lllf'

!tas(o11r sq11m·p 1'or11 e1·s.

si1/1•s.

""\Yhich of t!H' hl111' ~t. rip., is t he lung er ? "
a,·tJ of th e .w1111 r l1'11r1lh.

" Aud of th e yell u"· Rt· rip ~ ?"

Tl1P,1J ar e of 1/11' .v1111e le11.qf/1•

"Now T Rhall rlr:i."· a fig11rc on t.h c blnck-boanl hav in g fom·
squ are cn r111 ·r R :111<1 fi111r ~tr:1ig h t s iclP~ . th e t. \\'o f< t:r.ndiiw rrp
0
lin f'R Ahal! hn Rl1 11 rt·, 1111 (. of' 1.h e sa rn P le ng th ; :r.ml the two
lyi ll g duwn lin <'.' ~ lr : ill IH) lorr g, 111 11, of the ,,:i rn n kngth, and
I shnll n ~k yo u tu r1 •111 c' r11ii L'I' it.R 11 :1 111 ('. I !ere it j,. , and it s
name is olil11 11r1 I:__ . ..J ."
"lT Pre iR ann t.11,.,. 11 lilo11 g wit.Ii 1.li c stu nding up Jin es longnt
than tlin ly irr g d uwrr li111 •'4

r].."
/.:;

l l'11gth.

OBL ONG

l\Tritl1 rr. Tli r.11

f'RAMl

"Tnlrn yn11 r R]:i h 's.
T 1l'O lo11r1 sid r•s .
"I will pin a frnm c tn t.hi R pnp1~r ns I did to the Rq11are
..:tern are t.wu lon g ,.;(rips f'11r !li e lung sid es."
"\\'hat co l1rnr arc t.li ey ? " ]J/1r p colour.
" .Aud here a re f.wo ~d1 ~rt str i P" for th e l"h ort sides."
"\Vbat. colour Rre t hey?" Ye/lo11' N1!011r.
" 1 now tak e uff th e fram e urnl pl:1l'f) two long blue strip3

-

-

---

H rnY many lon g ~i<l eR have th ey? "

".I luw m:r11y ;< h11rt. sidl'R have they?"
"llol<l

_)'011r

'!'ll'o sltn rt sir/1'8.

a."

sla l<'s up by tbe lung Rid es, RO

by th e sfi or t Rides, .~()

CJ·

N ow

"Of wLaf. Rhap1• :ire y onr f< latcR?"

----------"-----~----------··--

--

--

--- -

-

--

-

-·

/

21

on.rncT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE TII'F.M.

The children should now be directed to mnke an oblong
frame with the sticks ancl peas, as in the case of the square.

"Wh at am I h old ing in--;ay mma-p>• An apple.
" What part of I.be apple ca n you see P" Tlie out8ide.
"Here is a pRint.ed ball. On what part of the ball is the
paint. put. ?" On the 01tl8ide.
"I will now give you another word which mea ns the
same thin g as outf,id e, it iAs11rfitN'. "
''John Ab:ill come tn t.he tabl e and Rhow me tbe su1'/'rrre of
the orn n gp :ind tb e apple, an d Mnry shall write on t. h e '.~111:f11cP
of th e bl a!'k- hoarfl. You may all of you make a lin e on the
Bt'1:face of your slates."

20

L astly, t.b ey should be ask ed to point o~ t. things in the
room, or select obj ects on tbe table, wl11ch have oblong
~ha pea.

LESSO N VII.

BALL-SH APE,* SURFACE.
ARTT CJT,F.S for il111 8tratio11 :-Ba lls of woorl or india-nthhnr , m o.rhlo•,
orn 11 ges, shot of differ ent s iz,.e, apples, the colour ecl. Kiuuer-gar len
ba lls, or any other spherical obj ects.

Th e teach er holding up, i-ay, an indi a-rubher ball, asks" What ifl t,hi R I hold in my hand ? " A ball.
"vVh at is its shape? " Round.
"Here is a penny. '\Vh n.t is its shape ?" Round.
" But is the penny round like th e ball ? " No.
"Name 11ome things you know which are rou nd like the
ball." An orrni,ge, a morhle, &c. ~c.
"You may say that thin gs which are of the same shape as
the b1tll are of ball-shape. "
"Here is a marble. ·w hat is its shape P ,, B11ll-shape.
" H ere is an orange. What is its shape?" Ball-shape.
"How can I see what is inside this orange?" Out it with
ri kmfe.
Pef'l it.
"You say peel it. Where is the peel, on the inside or the
outside P" On the outside.
• Th e preceding lessons on lin es and shapes 'Will probably be found sufli·
cient for tbe first at(l_qe; but as spheriral obj ects are more fam iliar to child ren
than any oth er regu lar solid bod ies, and as in some of th A first-si nge lAssone
reference ia mAde to ball-1haped objeot.8, this lesson ie here introduced out ut
it.8 logical order.

" Nnw look af; the Rnrfnce of t.liiR b:tll, and th e R11rfJ1ce of
thi s slate. Are they alike P " No ; 011 e ic flat, tit" ol her i~
round.
"This piPce of wire yot: see is st.mig ht. I bend it over
th e ball. \ V lwt Rha11n has it. n ow ,,.--. ? " It is heut.
" Y 0 11 11 1:1.y say, th en, th at·. the surface of the ball if.I a be·11t
surface. "
"Now t.l'll me the names of some thin gs which yon Ree in
tbe room t l1:it have .flat surfaces." Table, 1m l/, book, tl'indoirpan e, l5·c. &r.
"Tell Ill fl th e names of thin gA yon can think of, whi ch
have bent 1< urfaces." Balls, hats, &r-. ~a.

"I cut this apple in two. What kind of surface is this"
(poin tin g to the plmrn surrace)? Aflat su1:facP.
"Aud this " (pointing to tbe curved surface)? A bent
su1face.
"How many fl at surfaces bas a penny?" Two.
"How many bent 8urfaces hns a penny?" One.
"By wh ich surface am I holding this penny?" By the
flat 81 11/orr.
"A11<l nuw?" Bu lite beJ1t ~uijiw6.

now

ou.mcT LESSON3.

23

TO GIVE THEM.

LESSON VIII.

FORM AND COLOUR (A Test Lesson).
A ROX mn.y be place<! on the tabl e contnining any or nll of tho fol lowi ng- 11rtiolee, or any other similar ones randy t o hand :-Balls of
coloured * wor•ted or wool. squares a nd oblongs of coloured* cloth
or ribbon, a equ a.re envelope, an oblong envelope, a fiat i·uler, a book,
an egg, a tea-cup, a h alf-crown .

"I h ave in t his box a number of different thin gs. I am
go in g to tak e th em out. one a t a t im e and ask you to tell me
an yo n can abo nt t;h ern ."
"vVh at is thiR?" An egg.
" ·what. is th e out.sid e of th e egg call erl? " Tlrn .~!i elt.
" By what other name may we call. the outside? " The
8Ur/'r1f'e.

:, '\Yhat kind of surface bn s the eg-g ?" A ben t swfrice.
" '\Vb at is th e colour of the shell?.,
Tn1ite colour.
"vVhat are eggs u seful for? " To eat.
"Hern is a bunch of balls of cotto n. H ow many are
there ? Count th em." Onr, llf'o, th.rne, Jo11r, jive.
"What. is the colour of this one?" -Whit~.
"And 1.his?" B/11e.
"And this?" Y ellow.
"A nrl thi s? " Red.
" An d thi s? " JJ !wk.
Th e t eac her may 11 ow ha.n g th ese balls in a row over a
sheet of paper on the black-hoard . Th en, produ cing fiv e
st.rips of paper, or cloth, or ribbon of sim ilar co lours, require
t.h e children to match the colou rs. The strips may be pinneu
on ben eath the balls.
• Wh i t ~, bl ack, red, yellow, and blue only.

-

-

•

"Hen• is a n eiffdope. Wh at colour is i.t?"
Wi1ifr. colo11r.
"How m :rnv Ri des lrn " it. ? " Fbur s i1 lr'~.
"1-I ow man~· <"< 1rn c r R P" F't1 111 · 1'on1rrs
"\Vlrnt; ki11 ;l ol' en1·11 p r~ !'"
8qtlf11 ·1• 1•1;r11f'!·s .
"\Vlrnt kind of sides lra s it?" Stn11'uhl 8;1l1•R.
"Are all th e ~ iu cs of t he sfrnll' lfmgtb ?" No.
"Jiow m:tJI)' are ]011 v,?" T im .
"liow many a re Rl1orl1: r?" 'f'//'o.
"\Vhat sbnpc i .~ t he e 111·"1 ope P" Ob!rmg .~/11111e.
." ~-I,~re '.s a not li l' r en velopc. W Lat s hap e 1s
thi s ?
Sq1u1n' 8h1111e.

R

12 ;J

A ny other a rfr:l c~ can lie d0n lt with f' imil n.rlv, ca r e h0i1w
talrn n t.o int:r0d11t'.C! n11h- ~ 11 ch c<1 l<1urs und J'orJUs ;1.s h:lve be1:·~
introduced in \,li e }ll'l' Y.i1111 R lnr;1'0 11s.

L ESSO N

lX.

SWEET AND SALT TA STES.
THE ch ilrlrPn AliP11 id ho pn11·id <'<l t1·ifl1 "1111111 pi•'"''" o f' lortf-An gn r , Rn.lt ,'
clw lk . rrnd Iir1n n ri c1" " 11d (Ji ,. l.< -: 11· J1 ,. r , Ji o11 ld h:wo ln.rgn r ' JIOci 11 1L' l1 fi o n

the ta ble.
Th e hhck liri1 1n ri 1·e :i111l th e \Yhit e chnlk, Sll i:!':tr, a 11d salt
will serve to fo nn a co1111 ccti 11 g liuk with t.l~e preceding
l es so n ~ on colour, &c.

- --....--------------------....---

now

ODJEUr LESSONS.

24

Thus, holding up a. piece of liquorice, the teacher may
comm ence:" Of what colour is this li r1uorice ?" Of a black colour.
" A nd of wh at colour is thi s ckdk?" Of a u:Jn:te colour.
"Row many white pieces hav e you?" TlirPn white p£ecc.s.
"How many more whi te h ave you th an black?" Two.
"What do you taste with P" The. tongue.
"Your mot."ber puts sugar in your t ea-why P"
it

T O GI VE THE llf.

"Then !!11g:1r ,n.nd
l1"11111)1·1" ce a re al1'l{e 1'n t'"'ste
••
, , • l)ut tl1ey
are unlike in co;1i ur."
" Rep ea t afte r rn e :-S11uar a11d liquorice arA a!i!.·e in taslr>,
bu t unlike in colou r."
0

Th e ohil rlren 111 ;1 y no w he call ed on t o nnm e ~o m e of th e
use11 of su ga r and Ralf., a 11d a lso to n ame a ny s weet substa 11 ce11
s11cb as milk, frui ts, &c.

To make

S!Cf'Pt.

" -P lace the chalk on on e sid e, and put th e oth er two white
lumps to the tip of your t on gue. Can you tell me which of
th e two is sugar?"
"How do you know th at P" B ecause it is siceet.
" S how me th e su gar ."
•• Can you tell me what the other lump isP" Yes, i t
is salt.
" How d o you, know it is salt?" B ecause it tas te.~ salt.
••What ie the colour of su gar?" White colour.
"What is tb e colour of salt?"
White colour.
"Then sugar and salt have the same colour. N ow t ast e
the sugar and salt again. H ave t hey the sam e t aste ? " No .
"Then su gar and salt have not th e same taste!'
" Re peat after me :-Suga1· and salt hai;e the same colour,
but not the same taste."• ·
·•Taste th e liquorice. Does it t aste like the salt or the
sugar?" L ike the sugar.
"Whttt taste h as the li quorice?" A sweet taste.
"Are th e li q uori ce a nd t he sugar alik e in colour?'" N o:
t!te liq11orice i8 black, the sugar is white.

Lnstly, the teac her may elicit from the children that chall(
is without tas te.

L ESS ON X.

SW EET AN D SOUR TA STES.
A LEMON, eom e c le:i.r w11ter, 11 li t,t le v i11 rga r , }t1Jd solntion s of s 11g8 r
and sn it, a.nrl a mi xt11re of lem n n -j11i ce und w11.ter - th P so lt1 t.i.;ns a 11 ri
mixture in cl ear glass bot.tles-w ill be wu.ntr• cl for this lesson.

Heoapitulnt.i on of t h e prccedin .,. lesson sh oukl fo rm th r
introd uction to t hi s.
"'
" \\' hat i11 t h e tnR te of s 11 1~: 1r?" It is a siceet taste.
""\-Vhat is the t.nste of s:1 It r " II i.y a salt taste.
" H ow are loaf i; ugar arnl ~alf; iii ike? "
In colour.
" l u wh at are the)' unlike ?" In tagfe.
" ·w h at taste h as liq uoril'e? " A 8Weet lnste.
" \Vhat co lour is l ilp1 ori ('e ? " Rla<'k colo11r.
"How are s u gr:u a nd li r111 or ioe nlil{e?" .J.11
r · t (l8 ttr.
" 111 wh at are they unli ke? "
[ 11 colour .
"How a r e salt; :md chal k :ilil1e?" J n co l,011r.
"Ho w a re t hey u11lik e?" I n taste.
Chalk has no taste.
" What is the tai; f.e of e~1 : 1 Ik ? "

• " All Jwo wleJ ge fina lly resol'<'es itseli iuto diffor once• and agroemonts "
lJAJN ,

a Q(

COUI'l!e

nt thi s stnge it.

iH

011Jy hro1toi sirnila r iti ns that cn n be noticed.

27

OBJECT LESSONS.

HO"W TO GlVE TH:EM.

"I have here [showing a lemon J something which most
of you know. What is it P" A lemon.
"\Vlrnt colour 11aA the lemon ? " A yel!ow cofflttr.
"I will cut; it into snrnll pi c1.:es on this plate, and several
of yo1i shall tal'te the juil'e. "
" Has it a sweet taste ? " No.
" A salt taste ? " No.
" No, it is neither sweet n or salt. W e call the taste of
tJ1e lemon-juice a sour taste."
" Ilere I have some vin egar in a bottle. I want a girl to
taste it."
,
" Does it taste like the sugar or the lemon ? " L ike th~
lemon.
" ·what kind of taste did we say the lemon h ad ? "
A
sour laste.
"Then what taste bas the vinegar?" A 8 11/,1' taste.
"Then bow are lemon-juice a nd vinegar alike ? "
Th ey

.m, by dipping- the tip of the finger iuto tbe saucers and
applying it to the tongue.

26

both have a sour taste.

An unripe apple, a crab-apple, an unripe oninge, a Reville
orange, or any unripe fruit, will serve for furtl.ier illustration of sour taste.
The following experim ent will serve as a test, and will
prove interest.i11g to the children, as it gives tl1ew so mef;b ing
to find out for themselves.
Provide four clear glass bottles. Fill the first with clear
water, the second wi th a clear solnt.i on of s uga r, the third
with a clear solution of ~alt, and the fourth with a clear
mixf·.11re of essence of lemon or lemon-juice ai1d water.
By merely lookiug at the bottles the children are un able
to distinguish the one from the other.
Pour a litt,Je of the liquid from the bottles into saucers or
plates, and t.he scholars may be call ed upon to find out which
ie water, having no taste, which is the sa lt solution, and so

LESSON XI.

SIZE.
PROVIDE a numh er of
!mils of in1liA.-ruLL l'r,
appl~s. book~, stones,
come r eadily to b an d.

objecfR of vuriou8 size~. such as large and small
colton, worsted, or wool, mnrbles, orang-es,
sheets of paper, or any other articles which
-

Tbe teal'her will proceerl Romcwhat as follows:"Yon see I h ave a number of t.hings on th e t:ible. ITere
are oran ges. ' Vhat shnpe have th e orang·es?" A l1rr!l 8ltr1re.
"Here a re marbles. , .\ 'hat shape have tli1·y?" A ball
s!i.ape.

"You know so me thin g-.~ are lnrgp, a nd so me things are
small. Here iR an irnlia-rulJl1er l;;i ]( , an orange, and u
marble. w ·hi ch is t.he larg-cs t.?" T he orrwge.
"And w Ii icb is tbe snrn I lest ? "
Th e 111nrble.
"I wunt James to come t.o th e table and p ick out a smal l
book. Grace sho II find me a large book. H arry sba 11
choose a small marble, n11d 'Villi arn flhall look out for me
th e sma \l eRt or:rng-e."
"Here is a boo k. I want Toru to find me auother oft-h e
same size."
"Nam e Rome large t.hing-s in the ffh>m." Stoi-f', tabff',
bfack-boanl, r11pbor1r1I, donr, 1ri11,rln1c, ~c. ~r! .
"Name some small th i ng·s." B onk8, p encil, 1:11 k-lldls, ~c. ~c.

" Which is the snrnll er, the slate or the black-board P"

Tlie slnle.
"\Vlwt is tlil' H!i:1 pe of 1li P ~ la t.e? "

A.n oh1011.Q.

28

OBJECT LESSONS.

"I will draw an oblong on the black-board." [Draws a
small oblong. J
"IR it small or large?" Bmal!.
" Then what will you call this?" [Drawing a larger
figure. J Large.
The teacher may t11en draw on the black-boarrl, or exhibit, various vessels of different sizes, and proceed thus:" \Vbat is this?" · A basi:n.
"And this?" A tea-cup.
"Which will hold the most water ? "
The basin.
" Why ? " Because it is larger than the tea-cup.
"And what is this?" A tumbler.
"And this?" A 1ci11e-glass.
" \Vhich will hold the most water?" The tumhkr.
" \Vby?" BPcause it is larger tlwn the wine-glass.
"I will fill the wine-glass with water and pour it into the
tumbler. Is the tumbler full?" No.
"V\Te will put in anof;her wine-glassful, and another.
How many wine-glassfuls have I p11t in ? "
1'/iree.
"Now t.be tumbler iFJ foll. How much larger is the
tumbler than the wine-glass?" Three ti'mes a8 la1·ge.
"Some animttls are large, others are 8mall. Give me the
nameR of some small animals you know?" Mouse, fly, beetle,
fJird, ~c. ~c.

"Now some large animals you have seen P" Horse, Rheep,
c.o1i·, ~·c. ~c.
" Which is the larger-a cow or a sheep ? " A coUJ.
" ·w hich is the smaller-a sheep or a cat P" .A cat.

now

1'0 GIVE THElll.

29

LE SSON XII.

LENGTH.
EAOH child ~ho11lrl bo prm·i(lrd with hftlf·a-nozen strips of tapo, or
sticks of diITC'renL l"n g l.h.

Place three hnys of dillerent heights iu front of the class
and procet.d thus:"\Vhich is the tallest of th l'Re three boys, Tom, Harry,
.Jr James?" Tom.
"\Vhich is the shorteRt?" llrrrry.
"We will meaRnre thei 1· heights with t.his lo1w ruler and
"'
,
draw lin es on t:be bluck-board to show how tall the
boys are."
"vVbich lin e A}1ows how tali Tum is?" Tlte top line.
"Which showR how tal l llnrry is?" Tiu' bottom li11e.
"And which l'lhows how fall Jame:i is?" Th e middle line.
"\Vbich is th e lo11g,·st li11e?" T/iP top one.
"And the sburteo;t r"
The bollvm line.
"Here are two pieces of tape. \V Lat 1s the colour of
this?" Rl'd.
"Anrl th it> P" 1Vltile.
"'Which is the longer?" Tl1 c red.
"I will pin thc ~e t.wo pieces of tape on the blnck-hoard."
," .11.L· r:e iR a rnl er. l p11t. it by the side of t.l1 e whit.e tape.
\v lnch rs fh e longn?" Th '/! r/rc ,!!' tlte same lcJ1.gth.
"Nuw let us S('e how 111auy tim es the red tu.pe is longer
than the ruler. Count as I measure." One, tu·o, threr.
"Then the red tape is bow many times longer than the
ruler ? " Three times longer.
"And how m:in~' t.irrn ~s longer than the white tape?"
1'h1·u, t-i11w1.

•

81

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

30

OBJECT LESSONS.

In same way measure black-board, table, &c,, and compare
lengths.
"You have a bundle of Rticks.• Show
me the Rhortes t. Now the Ion gest. Now
place th em all in a row b eg-inning with
t.be lon ges t, th en th e n e xt longest, like I
rlraw th ese lin es on the blac k-board."
Tbe children may now be directed _to nAme Ion;; and sh ort
things in th e r ooms, the lon gest m aps or pictures on the
wulls, the longest pointers, &c. &c.
Lastly, they m ay draw long and short lines on their sl ates
to the t ea cher's ord er.

LESSON XIV.

THI CKNESS.

fN 1'.li e sn me wny as in L C'" son XII., the Iesrnn on thi ckn ess
will n e cf' ~ ~ituh~ 1h e p rm·ision of a n11mber of o bj C'c t ~ for
compa ri 81Jll of difkre 11t t.hi clrnesRef<- s11 cb aRdifferent pu.p ers,
from t.i ><su e to 1•.:ll'llbo:1rd, pi eces of gl:i ~s, bit.s of boards, &c.
l'hick and t bin "hre:i d-a11 d -but ter" may he contrasted ; aR
also tl1 e p Pel of a n or:111 g t> with t he skin of 11.n oni on or a
(!oil ed pot·.:i to, t.hi (' k a nd t.hin sl1 oes, clot.bin g , &c. &c. An
occasiu11nl qu es tion on tb e subj ects of t he forego ir.1g lessons
must, n ot he for g nff Pn . A comparison of.th o l.e ng t.h, breadth ,
and thi ckn eR1< of cliffrrc11t obj el' t s ru ay well form the subj ect
of anoth er lesso11 t.o come in Ii N e.

- - -- - - - -L ESSO N

L ESS ON XV.

x. ru.

WE IGHT.

BREADTH.

Tms lesson sh ould be giv en in a mann er precisely ~imila r to
tlieprecediu g . Th e t eacher sb onlrl ~ruvid e strips o f coloured
paper or rihhou of diff11rent widr.lui, uud th e cliililnm sh ould
first be exercised in selectin g th e broad and n arrow pieces.
Th en pi eces may be selected of the sam e width as oth ers
shown. Broad und narrow lin es may be dmwn on th e
bla ck-board . P a r all el lin es m ny be drn1rn at differ ent
di st an ces a pa rt, and t he children may b e r equi red to t ell the
wide and n a rrow ~jtfl C PA. L a.st.ly , t he cl1ild rc n may be direct.ed
to m easure cer k1in thing s for th emselv es in ord er to find the
wider a.nil the n arrower ; or th ey may b e in strn ct d to draw
lines wider apu.rt or closer togeth er on th eir slates.
0

• Or rihbone, or atrips of papv.

Fon this le>son p ro 1·i1le sm n ll specim P. nS nf nny or n.ll of th e foll owing
or sirnil nr a r ti cl"B: "" rk , inrli n-rubh r·r, ~ : nvd n • t, sa nd, woods, s tones ,
metals, &c., and three t 11111J.I Ne P.n.ch two-thirds full of wa ter .*

"I have a littl e Rand in thii;; pnper, nnd a little sawdu st in
this, nn rl h ere 1 ha ve two gla ~ sel'l par tly filled with water,
nnd y ou mu st wa tch me while I put the sand in one glai;;.•
and th e ~a wdu><t. in th e ot.b er."
"I put iu th e sa11d first. \Vb ere d oes it g o ?" To t11 r
l1otlom.
11

:N ow th e rnwdu st in t.h e oth er glass .
see it P" On I /ii' to11 of' l /ir' 1rn fcr .
• If pos•ihl e, each ch ild Rh n11ltl be provid1'd with
mote.I of nhout th o Rnme Rizo.

tt

V/b ere do you

bit of cork, wood, and

32

HOW 'l'O GJ V1'i '.l'HE!ll.

OBJEC'l' LESSONS.

" Why does the sand sink to the bottom of the water?••
Because it is heavy.
"And why d oes the sawdust remain at the t op?" B ecause
it is light.

"I now put. a s'.one nnrl a r,ork in t.he ot.h er glri ss. Wh ere
is tl1e ston e? "

A.t the bot tom of th e 1mter.
" A nn wh ere is the cork?" At the lop of the wa f f'r.
"Then wh at shall we ~ay a bout the stone because it sinks
to the bot.tom?" lt Is li ro ry .
"Ann what ma y we say about the cork because it swims
ut the to p? " It Ui light.

"Here is a small piece of india-rubber, and h ere 1111 iron
na il. I put th em in the water. '\Vbich is tlie li eu vier?"
1'/ie nail.
"Ho w do you know that.?" B rca use 1'tsi11k.s to fh P bottom .
" Here is a piece of woorl; it swims n ear the top of the
water . What will you say about the wood?" It i.~ l(r;/i.t('r.
"Now tell me h ow cork, ioawdust, and indi a-rubber are
alike ?" Th r.I/ are ligltt.
Th ey all swim on the 1cater .
·" R ep ra t. after me : " Thi11gs thrrt are hearicr tl1an 1i:ater .sink lo tltr bottom.
"T!iings that are ligMrr tl1rm 1crder .float 11ear the top."
"Thi s penn y Rinks to th e lwLto m; is it. hea vier or liO'hter
0
th an watt r?" 1Iearie1·.
" This pa. pe r fl oats on the top; is it heavier or li rr hter than
0
wa ter ? "
L igli.ler.
"I h ave h ere a bot.tie with a lit.ti e water in it. Wh at
colour h ave I made the wnter?" R ed.
"Yes, I have made the water r ed for you to see it better .
Now I 'Till pour in some oil. ·w here do you see th e oil?"
At tlie top of the water.

"·why is it at the top?.,

B ecause

it is t£ghter thait

3J
th e

1Cater.
"I Rh ak e the bottle and so mix th e water anrl oil ; but
when I pu t t h e boll IP on t he t ah] P, yo u mny Ree tl1e oil going
to th e top ngai11 beca use it is li g ht e r tlrn 11 the 11· ater." •
" S11p po~e 1 p nt a co rk at th e b uf fum oft.he inte r . will it.
remain the re wh en I remove my ha11d?" JVo, 1:t 1rill ri8r> to
the top.
" · \Vh y ? "
l?f'm 11 se d £.y lig/it('r than th e im for.

"We can t ell h ea vy and l igh t. t hin gs by hoHing th em in
vur hands. Yo u have bit.s of co rk, wood, and iron. H old
them in yo ur hnnds and say whi ch yo11 think is tbe h eavier,
and which th e li l-\htcr."
·
Furth er illu ~ t-rati o n m ay be h ad by brin g in g inrlividual
scholnni to th e talJle to te~t weig h t of lcaJ, stone, iron, &c.,
by holdi11 g in t he hu11d.

L ESSO N

HM:W AND
PROVIDE ohj ~cts

l\R

X VI.

SOFT.

in I li e In st Jo,sou : 11l so a piece of Lrcad e.ncl •

boil ed po f1.l to o r turnip.

"What have I on tltiA plate?" A 11ir>1!f! qf brerrd.
"\V bat do yo u call t.h e 'lllf·. ~ide?" Th e r. m st.
" And th e i11 Rid e ?" Th e cn 1111 b.
"\Vh 011 yon bite t he crnst. how does it. fe~· l ? " IIrrrd.
"And how fiocs th e crnmb feel wh en you l1ite it. ?" Sqft.
• If B Jiltl e qn ir ksiJv er h ~ at ha nd , ti io CXJ1f'ri1111 •11t m:iy he mane mor"
interesting by sho"·in g- h ow it r rnmi nA IH•twatb th'l wat"r beca use it i•
heBvier. Three ui,tinct 11\ yers are thus show n .

D

34

~1J·1r
I

now

ODJ.EC.:T J,ESSONS.

"What does your mot.her put on your bread before sht
gives it to you to eat ? " ]Jutrer.
"Is the butter hard or so ft, ?" Soft.
"Tell me something you etit for dinn er besides bread whicl1
is soft ? " Po la.toes, cabbage, turmj)s, q·c.

'.l'O GIVE THEM.

80

LESSON XVII.

ROUGH AND SMOOTH.
SMAf,L

may be

strips of snnd-pnp er, brown pnper, and sm ooth writin g -paper
given to th e ch ildr•m.

'I

f I

"Here is 1t boil ed pohto. I wnnt a girl to Atitirc:>:e it.
H ow does it feel ? " It fr cls soft .
"Here is a piece of wood. Squec:>:e it. 'Vhi ch is -th e
hanl1!1', the potato or th e wood P" The u·ood.
"You eee I cn 11 cut t.h e polato ea8ily with my knife; I can
also cut th e wood, lin t not so eas ily."
" Can I cu1. this stone ?"• .ll'o.
"vVhy not?" It is too hard.
"Whi ch iA the h ard es t, tbe stone, wood, or p otato?" Tiu
stone.
"Tell me some other things whi ch nre RO ban! that I cannot cut them with my kni fe?" Iron, glass, %c.
"TI ere is a pi ece of cork. Can I cu t thi s? " Y es.
"Then wh at will you say about it? " Th e r.ork 1'.~ soft.
"You may say that things which I can cut easily with a
kn~(e <11'e sojt, and th ings which I cannot cut u·itlt a knife are
ltard."
Experim ents in cut.ling may be made on oth er substanceH,
such as au iron nail, a pi ece of g lass, lead, india-rubber,
sla1e, h ard and sc•ft wood, a turnip, &c.
The children may th en further test by squeeziug wi th the
fingers.
• An old kni fe Ctln be 1Led for tri al ou stone, iron, glnRs, &c.

"How many ~ 1rips of p:1per have I given you?" 1'/iree.
"Pass your fo re fin ger aloug each str ip. Do th ey feel
alik e?" No.
"Th is piece [ holrling up t.b e sand-paper] is call ed sand paper. ] low dors it. fl' nl wh en you rub it 1" if.feels rough.
"Now try th r white p:iper. H ow does that feel ?" It fed.~
smooth .
"Now th e brown p:qwr ? " It .feel8 rough.
" ·w hi ch J'erl!'l th e roug ber, Llie sand-paper or the brown
pnper?" Th e. saud-paper.

""Wh at do we ca ll th e oul side of a thing?" The sw:face.
"What kind of surfu ce has t.h e saud-paper?" A rough.
Bw:face.
"Pass yo ur fin grrs across your sl ates. vVhat kind of
surface have your Rlat.es ?" A s111ooth s11rjace.
Children may now be call ed to the table to ferl any other
substances which the ten cher IJllt~' have provid ed, such as
woocl , poli shed and r ough, marble, cloth, apple, orange,
pencil , &c. &c.
The terwh er will n nto thnt in the precedin g le>sons the leading idea
hos heen not so mn ch to impar t new infurmittiou AS to cul ti vat e lmb its
of oose rvati on, <'ompn.ri son, a n1l 1li scrimi1m1ion , nnd to grtth fl r up the
~Cftt.lered o.nfl. Ull<'Ol'l:ni n kno wJeil gfl a cqu ir r 1l UCfol'fl entering RChoo\,
for the pmpose nf app ly i n ~ f h 1J 111 in the sy stPmatic examination of the
more comm on nhj N·f~ wl1i• ·l1 "'"Rn<' arn11111l u •.

80

now

OD.JEO'l' l.EHSONS.

TO GIVE TIIF:M.

37

"What nnme do we g ive to a fi g ure which }1as t.wo long
Bides and two short si<les and four sq uure corners? "
An

oblong.

We are now in a p os ition to g ive Rimple Ies8ons on parti·
·c ular obj ects; hu t t.h e teacher's flole aim should be 10 lead
the children to apply the id eas brought out in the preeeding
lessons to the examin ation of n ew obj ects. The sueceeding
lessons should in fnct serve to test and increa8e the powers
of observati on, an d the know lerl ge al ready acquired.

LESSON XVIII.

A SLATE-PENCIL 80X.
TnF. tefwh er may h a.ve C•Il Lhe tnble a ny other smrd l h0x Ps • frr comparison an d illustration.

Tenr:her [holrling the box l'cfor e the clas!1] will proceed:-" \\Tlrnt is this I hold in my ha nd ?" A l1ox.
"Yon have Reen t.each er take something from boxes like
this; 1Yh at was it?" Sla/i> 71rnrils.
"\Vhat iA th e liox made of?" TVood.
"\\That is 1.hi A I a rn rl rawi11g out ? " Th e lid.
"\\' o will look at the lid fir At. How many si d es has it?"

Four sirlf's.
"How many corners?"

Fo111· corners.

"\Vhat kinrl of cornerR are they ? " Sqnrtre coruers.
"How m1rny long sicle;i bas the lid?" · Two tony sides.
"How many short sides ? " Two short sides.
• If the chi ld ren use th e Rinrlerga rt.cn "Gifts." the hox of Gift III. may
tl box planed
befol'e it.

be substituted for th e pen cil-box, and enrh child can havo

"Th en what is the shnpe of t.biR hox lid?" OMni1g R/117pe.
"Now look A.t 1h e box itself. \Vh at. do yo u cnll this part
of th e box [poi11ti11g to th e bottom]?" Tlw bot/om.
"And th ese two pi eces [poinli ng to the sidesJ? " Tiu

sides.

"Of what. shape is the bottnm P"

Ob1rm_q slirrJJC.
"And what Rhape hnve th e ~ id es ?" Ohlong shn11es.
"N ow luokat. the e1Hls. \ Vl1at is t.he shupeof thi8end ?"
Sqnare shrrp1'.
"vVhy rlo yo•t Ray it i ~ of a Rq n:ire shnpe ?" flccrt11se £t has
(our sides f!l th e sa 111€ length a11d .fo11r sq11m ·e corn,,1·s.
"Now cou nt all th e corncrF< of' the box . How many are
there ?" Ei!!hl cor11e·rs.
"And of huw mn11 y pi0ccs of wood is t.h_e box mad e, wi thout the lid?" Office pll'r-es .
"vVliat nre t.hcy?" 1'1co sir/es, t1co ell'/.~ , anrl the bottom.
"Y011 sa irl th e box wn s mad e of wood. Is the wood h:1 rd
or so ft ? " 8oft .
" How can you tell t.hat?" B rm11se 1r" crm cut it wilh a knife.
"Is the wood ve ry sof"t. ?" lVn.
"Tell me 80m etb i 11 g w 11 i(•h is mu ch softer?" Buttir, cake,
bre.-zd, ~c.
' 'Now Janws shall pa ss his finger n.<:ross the 8111ji/!·e. How
tloe~ it feel, rough or smooth P"
Ro11g!t.
The teach er may nnw lc:1d th e childre n to compare the
pencil-box with :rny ot.h er boxes she may have ou tlrn t.aule.

38

OBJECT LESSONS.

HOW 'l'O GIVE THEM.

39

"Wbat is t.h e colour of the onion when I h ave removed the
skin ? "
TVhite colour.

LESSON XIX.

A BASKET OF VEGETABLE~
A.NY or a ll of th e following vege tabl es should be placNl in the basket:

potatoes, long and sh ort car r ots, oni ons, rivliRh es (lon g- and short,
while and r ed ), turnips, and pa1·snips. A bo1 lcJ potato and turnip
wil I a lso be useful.

Th e other v c•~et.:ih l es• m a v be t re:1.t.f'd in asimilar m :111n e r,
n.11 d tl1 e childn·71 n wy Rt· led. th o~e tl1 cy ea t only wben boil ed
or on Iv "h e n· raw, t.hey 111 :1y tdl how th e boilerl v0getabl eR
d iff\'1' .frnrn t he r aw, t.lie col oms ma y be contrasted, the long
mid sho rt scleu t.erl, u1Hl ~o (1 11 .

Attention may first be direc tecl to the bn,.k e t., the hent
ha n d le a nd its use, th e b ent s id es, the u ses of a basket, aml
the substance of whieh it is ma ue.

II

..

I'.

'fhe veget ables sbonlrl now be removed from the basket
on e by one, and a Ii tt.l e cou ve rsa I ion ca rri cd on about eac h.
Thus on the t urnip:"Here is a turnip. Wh at is its shape?" B all shape.
"Wha t colour is it? "
1Vl1ifo cofonr.
"Squeeze it. Is it, h a rd or soft?" 1.Iard.
"Is it very hard?" N o.
"vVhy do you s:iy so P" Brrr/11.~c y ou can cut it trith a knife.
"Ho w coulrl I mak e it wfter?" By bo£!£J1g i·t.
"What is the outside part of the turnip call ed?" The
ski11 or peel.
" _\Vh a t are turnips used for?" Poi· us to eat.
"\Vhat d oes m ot.h er do with th e turnips before she boils
th e m ? "
Washes th em. P e1?l.1 th em.
A ga in on t he onio n : " ~rn ell tbi ll. ·wh at is it?" An 011ion:
"How enn ym1 te ll a n on ion from a turnip?" By £ts smell.
"l\Inry shall com e to the tabl e an d shut h er eyes. I liave
th e t;urnip in one hand and th e onion in t·be oth er, and sh e
11hall t ell m e whi ch i .~ the
onion bv i;rn ellirw ench ."
.
" \Yhat is this 011 the outsille of th e oni on ? " Tlie ~kin.
~

~

LESS O N

XX.

SCH OO LROO M TABLE AND CH AIR.

t f'nrher dircef·s t.he chilrlr <' n to luuk at tbe Lablo and t ell
h er a n_y tl1 i11 g- t hey can a bou t it .
FirRt c hilcl.-It hrrsfo11r f1•r1~­
S Pc n11d cliild .- lt i'8 111r11/e of 1rood.
Third chilrl. - T/1 1' top is flat .
F o11rth cliild .- 7'/1,, 101> h118fo11r corn Prs.
Fi fth child. - Tiu· top is obfong in 81/((pe.

'I'HE

"Now look a t thi '1 chnir which I will pl:rne on t.he table.
Tell m e nny1hi11g- in whi,·h t.ht:y are hofh alik e."
First. child . - Thr 11 ar e !mt/i. 111 ade of 1rond.
Seco nd child .- / ,'11r·h haR f our !1?{/S.
"Nnw I wunt yo 1t to g iv e t. he 11:1n1cs of som e of the parts of
th e chair."
P oi ntin g t.o sea t.. "\\'hat l1' fhii> p:irt L-.a ll c<l P" .The sral.
"\Vhy tlo .Y uu think it is call ed th e se:1t. ?" B er:ause it i.~
t!w 71rr1 ·t. u:e .sit 011.
'l'o11chin g fl1 r1 IJ'lck. "'\Vh at. is t.hi R p:irtcallecl?" .T!te back
"\\' hat is the use of th e bu ck?" T o lean agw'nst.
• Of course , if the n ~.m es 1tr e n ot kn ow n, lh o_v mn •t he o;iven, and the
children mu st be ~ xer(' i Red in ~e l ect in g at sight m1til th ey can r e1tdily dis·
tin.11;uish the one frol"I tho other.

40

Oil.JECT I.ESSONR.

"If the seat liud no legs where should we be aitting P"
On t!i l' floor.
"Th.en what is the use of th e legs ?" To ka p the seal o./J
th e floor .
,; Th ese cross pieees of wo01l [point.in g- to th e bars.] a re called
bur8 or ro1111ds , and I mu st tell yon wh at. they are for. Tlrny
a r e t o k eep Lhe legs firm. Il ow many ba rs bas this chair ? "
J'l11'6I' /Jrr I'S.
"Look at the seat again .

How many sides has it?"

Fou1

side1J .

0

O:~

---

"What is th e sliape of three of the sides?" flentorcmTed.
"W hat is th e shape o f the t.op of the back?" Bf'11t 01· mrud.
.j

" H ow m any pi eces is the bad< made up of?" Of jive pieces .
"How many are upri ght pi ecer; ?" l'1co piecl'8.
"And how nwny are lying down?" 1'/iree pieces.

I

I

I

'

The ten ch er shoulrl now exercise the chi ldren in comparing
this c hair w ith a nother of a different kind.

11
l I

. .I

Other leRf'OUs int.his 8tage (if 11 eceRRa ry) may be ~iven on
rl0or, window, slate, book, and black-Lo:ud.

SECOND STAGE.
lesRons of th l• second stage• are cnnRtrnden on th e lin es
of the fir~t. Rlf1ge. A few id eas, probably n ew to th e majority
of t.b e cla f'R , aJl(l a few n e w names nre i11trod11ced; but th e
ohj ect in t.l1i R, os in th e fir st st.age, is rntbe r t.o train to habits
of observatio n and c orn pari~on than to i rnpart in formation.
The fo ll nwi11g a r e the definite su l 1jects dealt ,\•ith : (1.) Colo11r.-Th c secon1lnry coluurs-ora 11 g<', green, n.11d
purple.
('2.) Form. - An g ln, tri;111g le, circle, cube, or ick- Rhape.
(3.) Sweet, sour, :mrl bitter ta s tes.
(4.) Mcmmres of lc11gih - th e inch , foot, and ya rd.
(5.) Properties of bod ies-ad h es i ve, porou s, t.r:u1sparent,
opaque, britt.lP, fl ex ihl e, toup:h.
(G. ) Co 1nm u11 objcci~ -hri ck , orange and lemon, egg, cabba g e, cocoa.-11 \l t., aw l f! Ia~s.
THE

LE SSO N I .

THE SECONDARY CO LOURS. - ORANGE AND GREE N.
l.i'OR thiR Jee,o n the tencl1 er will rerp.iire re1l, yellow, aJHl blue p1tint.f'
or crayous a• in Lesso n II., Stnge I.; also a ripe orange, a bun ch of

green g-rnss, an•l a few green leaves. The children should be snpplierl
with strips of reil, urnnge, yellow, g reen, nrnl blue papers.

~~

~ r.

, ,j

1.

I

:I

.I

I

:. f

'

Pin the sheet of pa per used for Lesson II., Stage I., on the
lilack -buarrl. Ask for the n:imes oft.he colours there shown.
• Suitabl e for childrev of from 'I.bout four-Bnd-B-h1tlf to fiv<i-trnrl ·a-ball
yea re of age .

42

OBJECT LESSONS.
11111111111m11wnm:imm111mm1111111m1arn11mm1w

~m

-~OMMI

ww•LO[
Direct the chilrlnm to watch carefu lly while you mnke
anoth e r colour by mixing red and yellow.• [Th e teacher
will druw a band of orange betw een the r e<l and yellow.]

': I
I

'i

J.! I
,. ~ I

now

TO G IVJ'; THEM.

"Wh1tt is t,he name of this colou r?" Green rolour.
"How did I make it?" JJy nii.rin,q vellow and bltte.
" ·what kind of colour may I en 11 green because I got it by
mixing·?" A 111i,ret1 rolr!llr.
"Name f 1,·o mix l'rl l'ol ouni." Omn!/r. ai1rl ,q1·r·r11.
"\Vhn t cn l" 11r "·i ll n'd :nvl yPllol\- make?" (Ji·a11 rfr' ro1011r.
"And what; colour will yellow und blue rnnk e ?" Gr(J('11
t)Olour.

" 'Vhat two colour~ have I mixed to make the new
colour?" R Pd r111rl pdloll',
"'Vhat is ibi s I am holding in my hand?" An oran,qe.
"Now look at th e new colo11r on the pnper and the colour of
th e ornnge. \Vhat do you notice?" Th e colours are alike.
"Th en you mny call th is new colour or ange colour."
"\Vhy do I call it orange colo ur?" B ccm.t8e it is of the

"Show me your g r0cn paper. Tiolrl up th e two colo nrs
which mak e t he gree11."
"Now the two whi ch mak e the or;1n g e."
"What colour s is gTce n made of?"
Of .1Jellow and Mue . .
"\Vb at colours is orange nrnd e of?" Qf rrd a11d yellow.
"vVhat colnur m11st I mix with red to mak e oranire?"
b
Yrf!ow rolo11r.
"What colour m11 i;;t I mix with blue to mak e g reen?"
Yellow colour.

sam(' co/ow· as an orang('.
" How did I make orange colour ? " B,l/ mixing 1'erl and
!Jf'//ow colours.
"You may also cnll orange a mixed co/0111· because it is
macl e by mixing reel and yellow."

Jf the t eachn has Cnl,\'Ons the chil r1ren will be intereRted
in making t,be mix efl colours themselves .
The coloured Kind ergarten halls and sk eins of colo ured
wools will serve for furtJ1 e r ill ust rati<m,

"Sbow me your orange-coloured paper."
"Hold up the two colours which made the orange. "
Next, trrke a bunch of grass and a few green leaves and ask
for the names of these objects, and perhaps some little scholar
wi ll tell th e colour; and proceed" Now I sha ll mix th e yellow and blue paints, t and you m ay
!ell the name of ihe new colour which I make on the paper."
LDraw a band of green between the yellow and blue.]
• Three parts r ed to .five part R of y ell ow will produce a good orange co lour.
Tli e t eacher should pr:ictice the mixing before giving the lesson, eo 88 to
enanre the proper colour.
t Eight par!:.8 of blue to five of yellow will produ ce a good grieeu.

LESSON II.

THE Sl:.1.,0NDARY COLOURS. - ORANGE, GREEN, AND
PURPLE.
PAINTS or crny o n s nnd ,,,,J o11rod paper R, as in th e prr corlin g lessons.

Tho same Rhee t of paper with Lhu colou red b:inds to Lo pl a ced on the
black- ho:1 n1.

Co111mr11ce hy rec:ipit11lat.inn of the last lesson.
unother banrl of red b1'yourl th e lilue.

Draw

now

OIIJ .ECT LESSONS.

44

TO

GIYJ~

THEM.

45

until all her scholars can di st.inguish the six different colours,

and tell bow to produce th e mix ed colours.
An i11terp:; t.ing cxprriment may be rnnrl o with rrnyons fN'.l a
further ill11 ~ f- r:itior1. Make crosscR wit.It p:1rallt-l li11 es, ns in
tbo skl'leh. Tli o h orizu11kd l1a11d t.u bo of 0110 pri1uar-y colour,

ttifflM BlU!
1111 JPJI]] Ill punm

"We have m ixed r ed with yellow, nnd blue with yellow;
we have now to m:ik e one mo r~ mixt urc. Look on the paper
and say which two co lo urs we have 11ot y et mixed?" R ed aud

blue.

"Right. \Ve will now mix t-.hcm." [Teacher draws a

b

roa

d

purpl e *' line between the red and blu e.]
"Th e name of thi s 11Pw t:ulour is 711/r/!11?."
"\Vhat colournrn ~t I mix with red t o make purpl e ?" Blu.e

colour.
"How did I make tho purple colour?" By mixiug blue and

anrl tl1 e ve rt ira l hrnd of a11ot.her. If th e prn·t intersected
be rnbl1cd t.li c sceu 11d:1-ry cu l11ur will Le prorlueerl.
As n. teRt, cxerci'1" to occt1py t.he 1-imP, probably, of anot-lier
l1w•nn, tak e ~ kr • irlf1 11f B e i-lin 1Yool of t lr e pmpe r co lou r s, c ut
into fl h ort lc11g·t hR, mix, :it1d g-iv e to each chi ld a small
bundle. Tl1 c childr('n to separ.it.e a ud arrange the colou rs i11
the order. ind ic:i tc<l Ly tlie u~ach e r .
.

red.
" What kind of a colour is pn rplo? " 11 111i.1·ed coloitr.
"How mauy mixed colours have we ma.de?" Three colour8.
"IV hat a re th eir names?" Orw1ye, gren1, rrnd pwple.
"How imrny colouni rloes it. take to make these three mix ed

Tlil're ro10111-,y,
" \ Vhat are th eir nr1n1e ~ ? "

c oln11r~?"

R ('d, y1•11mo, aw{ blue.

"T:ilrn jOHr paprrR. Rhow m e the purple co lour. Hold up
the two colours wh ich H\akr purple. "
. The teacher should conti nue th ese and similar exercises
• Equal parts of red and blue will produce a good purple.

LESSON

Ill .

AN GLES, TRIANGLES.
IlIOnT-A NG L r-:n, "'" ' ' ''""· "11r l ('q tti Jal eral tri:wglos cut from card-

board to l>t> g-il'"ll to ""ch !'!1ild.

Teach e r Ll1r1l<ling- up a sl:itel "How many oorneni Im ~
this ~ l ate P" Four tor111'1's .
"Wh at; kin ll of co rn Prs are t.lwy?" 8q11are r·or1lf'1'S.
"Of what. shape is the slate?" 0( r111 ohlong shape.

46

OBJEC'r LESSONS.

"How many square corners has an oblong P"
corners.

Fowr Bquar~

" How many sides bas a Rq nare?" Four side.~.
"How many square corners bas a l'f.JUUre ?" Four ,~qurt1 ·e
corners.
"Now I will make a square corner on the bluck-bonrd by

L

A

drawing two straight lines. What kind of lin es are th ey ?"
Stra(r;ht lines.
"What do you call this line [pointing to the horizontal J? "
A tvi11 .r; do1cn li11P.
·
" And this [pointi11gtothti perpend icular]?" An 11pri,qltl
line.
"vVb at kind of corner do these lines mak e when they
meet?" A Nq11are corner.
"I shall now give you anothern amefur thepointorflq·mre
corner made by two lin es where they meet.. It is a11{ffe."
"And I want you to remember, too, that the point or angle
marle by a lying down and an upright line is called a right
angle."
[Showing a fin ely-pointed pencil.] "What kind of point
bus this pencil ? " A s!tm71 poi11t.
"And t.his one [showing pencil with blunt point]?" A
blunt point.
"N ow some angl es are sharp and some are blimt angles."

LL"'RIGHT l\~(':L.E

"Here are three angles.
angle ? "
A rivht angle.

"\Vhicb il'l t11e shnrp angle?" The fop rn1p1".
"Anrl whi ch iR t he hl1111t rtnglc?" T/1f lioltom rtnf7 11'.
".l wan t you to ca ll :ill :111 g lt·R l eR~ th :rn t.h e ri g ht angle
~!irt1p anglcR, n11'1 :ill 1111g·l1·R gTe:iff' r t.h:111 1he right nngk
bfo11t a11 glc.q , (Jr yo u m :1y call 1.hc111 s11111// nng ll's :rnd la"!/"
angles. "

"Herc I have a piece of can1bon n1. How many co nH.'I' ~
baR it. ?" ThrN' r·or11 e1·s.
"\Vlwt. kind of co rn er j ;i this [ p0inting to ri g ht anglP]?"

RI CHT A NCL i;

SHA.AP ,t;NGL[

47

HC»V TO GIVE THEJ\l.

BLUNT ANGlE

What is the name of the middle

Mjl/(//'f! ('ll/'llf'I'.

" And what can you sn y of t.hr"c [po in t in g to th e acute
angles J ? " They are .~h r1r;1 ro1·n1'1'8.
"l mal;P a flg11r 0 on thr black-board lik e t.h e cnnlboard ."
"'\\'hat kincl of ang le is 1.his [pointing t.o l J? ". A right
(l. 11(JIC.

"ArHl th f'RO [po int.in g t o~ and!\]?" Sharp a11glrs.
"How ma11y angles ba s this figur e ? " • Three r111gfes.

T~l~Nc.U:

ll

"Yel'l, nntl we m:iy cu ll th e fi g ure a tlwer-an,r1le, but there is
aJitt.le word tri wl1i ch m P:i us three, and ' re ca ll the figure a
tri(I 11glr."
"!low 111 :1ny f.:i d "~ Ji:i q a 1ri:i11 g·le?" 1'11rcr .~idr!8 .
" 1\ 11d li1rn· 111a11 .' · u11 g l1·s P"

"ll.-.rp :~ m1ntlif'I' lri:111 µle.
it?" Tica -'lta1·; 1 r111;;fr·s.

l'lirr>e r111g!cs.

How many fll1a rp anglefl hn~

~
"And what kind of r111 ~l e iR tl1c of her?"

A blunt anglr.

48

now

OBJECT LESSONS.

"Here is another triangle.
Shat7J angles.

TO

GlVJ~

THEM.

®

\Vhat kind of angles has it?"

.

..

-

-.

-

---~ ~

"I want y ou now to say n1•11ft> for ~hnrp, nnrl ohfuse for
hlun t.."
Rxe rcio"~ "·ith th e fo rm:;: l1 el<l hy tb e children thusPoi11t to a c ut P nn g lt', ri ght :i11g-le, o bt: 11 ~ e angl e. Show
trian 6·le witb a rig ht a11gl e, wi th t.hrer ar.ute an g les, &c.

L ESSON IV.

CURVED LINE, CIRCLE, RING.
A RTICLES fo r ill11 strnt ion :- Ci rcll)s an d ring8 cu t from cardboard for
t i.J o schola rs, am! any ci r cu l :i r obj ect' anrl rin gR fo r the ten.cher' s use.

"I draw a square on th e black-board. How m any sides
ha ~ it.?"
P ou r sirfrs.
"How m :111y sid es bas a trian gl e ?" Th ree sirles.
"'Vbat. kind of lin eR a re the sid es of >:quares, oblongs, and
tri un g les? " Slmiglit h11N.

"\Vi1:1t n arn n d id we give to a line like this ....---. P" A
c11rrr•d h11P.
" I will n nw, wit:h this piece of st.rin g, show you how to
m:il<r a figure quite unlik e th e Rq11are or the triangl e. You
sef' J preRs one end oft.he :;:trin g 0 11 the black - bo:ml with th e
forefin ger of m y left h :rn rl, and with t he opposite end of the
strin g a11d a piece of chalk in my right hand I mak e 11

curved Ii ne u:itlt both erid.q meeting."

C I RCLE

h :we I mn <fo? " 0 111• /i11r.
"Anrl wli :it. kinrl of lin e?" .11 1·111·r1•d Iii/I'.
"You rn ny ea.II thi >< fi~11rP I lia H· m:Hl e a r•irrh•. "
"Nnw, h o \\' m:rn y )ill(•>' nre 1·hcre ro 1111<l n cirele?" 011 1'
""' hat is th e sh:ipc of th e lin r?" .A rlfrrr•d /i11r .
"Ilo w man y a ng le:;: has a circl e?" .JY. o n11!flcs .

"Ff ow m nn y

li11 C!<

li11t>

"Now tell me th e 11nnw:;: of Rorn c t.l1i11 gs \vhi ch nre of th e
same :;:l111pe a;; thi s circle?" I'1 ·1111y, l111lfo11, p/n lP, ~r .
"'Vh a t iR t.h e Rh:qw 11f th e Ri <l r ofthi Rhox ?" ()/,/011r1 sli n7wrl.
"And what iR the ~ li : i p c of tl1 e f• Jlfl ?" 8'111an• sli11;,Nf.
"Anrl wLn t m11y J c: ill th e sh :q1 l' of 1'1i ~ l.Jiscuit?" C'irc/I'
.sha;1Pd.

"Aml t h is prmi y ? "

Uircle

8/Jrtp N {.

"\Vhat. na111 c do you g ive this t.l1i11 g 1 have on m~· fin ger?"

.A. ·ring .
"Hh ow me t.he paper rin g I have giY e11 y1111."
"I will slww y0 11 how to mnk e p:ipPr rin gR. Or, perhnp:;:.
you can show me. H 1• rn is a ci rele-s lrnped ]'i cee of puper .
H o w cu.n I m ake a ri11g?" Cu l out th e middle.

"Very wrll, I will cut. ont
th at do?" i\'o.

il1 P

middl e; 11 rre it; i;;.

'viii

50

on.m cT LESSONS.

" 'Vhy not?" It is not i·ound.
"You m ay say it is not circle-s haped instead of not round."
"\Vhich side is no t c irc le-sh aped?" The inside,
"V cry well, I will cu t it circ le-shap ed."

'Now tell m e what toy g irl fl and boys often play with in
t.he streets like t.his rin g." A hoop.
Ex er cise with th e ca rdboa rd forms, and th en let the
ch ilclrc n draw cir!'l os a nd riug-;i on t.he ir slates. Of co urse
t.hc drawings will he very irnpPrfcct., hnt, that. is of lit t.le con1;1 equen ce Ro long- n ,Q t:l1 c rc"nlt·s show that t h e seholars have
gra "ped th e id l'a~ of the ll's~o r 1.

LE SSO N V .

CUBE AND BRICK-SHAPE.
TrrE cubes Rnd " liri ck s" of the Kin11orgarten g ifts will eene for this
]PA,on.
If th eRo nr n n ot at b a nd, fl cnbe nnil bri ek co n be eut from 11
t 11n1ip, rt pot1tto , or a pieee of Ro:ip or wr,n1l , or C!Lll be m rvle with 11
lu mp of ~t iff putty.

Th e children taking up tlr ri r l' nbes will h ave th eir attention directed to th e cu r.11 prs and the ~ irles or fac es.
"Cou nt the n11rnher of co rners. H o w many are there?"
Eight.
"Count t be i;iide8 or faces. H ow many?" Si:r.

lJ OW TO GlVE 'l'HEM.

'Vhere th e Kiml erg1nten
mrt t.flri:llR

llff'

nut in

U FH\ f\

c11l1i,.:Li hox w ill b e of g·rott

ad,·a 11t11 go bcira11so of lie
@iz.. . Jf:('a 11 lrn nrn<l o wilh a
pi 1·1·1• 11f enr.l1 11 1n rd 1H• r••proF11· 11 !1 ·d 111 tl1 •· fi g-11r• '. Tho
dool f,.tl lin "R ehnw huw the
r,;i rol iR I o J, .. fo Jldcrl.

"Look a t. r• ad1 fa ('o a nd tell its i<hnpe. " Sq11rrre s!wpe.
" Look :1g 1i11 at th o f,rceR nncl show me the largest and th\<
small ci<t." 1'!11·.11 rfl'r> all of th e 1>11 111 r size.
"\Ve call th is pi cc<' of wood , whieh h as f' ix square faces, a
cube."
" No w, b ow man y ( recs has n. eube? " 8i.rji1rf1.~.
"A nrl what is the Rh ape o r (':1eh face ?" Sq11r1 r 1'.
"And what. nam e do we gi \·e to an object, \Yhi ch has six
1;1q uare faces ? " .11 ,.11/1f'.
N ex t., th e atte nti on of t.h e c hildren m ay be directed to th e
brick -shaped ~o lirl eit her in t heir hands or in t he h:11vl s of
the teach er. Th ey ~ h n 111rl be called to note th e nu111ber of
faces a nrl th r ir ob long shapes. Th e pi eeeR rnny t.l1en be
co111parerl wi t h n lmil di ng- uri ek, and the chi ldren told t.lrnt
thing~ hav in g t.hc same ;; ha.p r ns a b ri ck may be ca lled lm'c!.-·
~lllt/! Cd.
Qu es t.i ons sh oulfl tli cu follow, such as : " TI 01Y ma ny fo ces lras a b ri !'l; r"
Si.rfllCC8.

bnre

·-. .b

·-:.._=
- ---..
__ __ ______ ___ j
'

Th A hri r k-Rlrnpc<l hox cnn
be ni ~d·· from cal'd ho:i rrl as

'
'''

Rl1 0\,· 11 .

i_ ____ _J

63

OUJECT LESSONS.

HOW TO GI VB 'l ' ITBM.

"What is the sh ap e of each face?" Oblong.
"Wh at is an oblong?" A figu re with tll'o longer rr11ri t ico
sl1orler s£des and .four 8q1w 1·c corners.

(3.) The chilrlren may be called on indivinuri.lly t o rl0s:ribe
tho colnur anrl form, t,h11 s, "The Alinpe on my c11rd is n11
(oblon g), an<l it.s colour is (g r ('(' n). " " Th e shape on my ca rd
is a (circle), and its co l.our iR (yell ow )," Ull(l so on.

L:i~tly, the children may he shown how to mak e a box of
card board of the same shape ns th e bri ck.

LE SSO N

VI.

A TEST LESSO N.- FORM AND CO LOUR COMBINED .

*

Pnor:u 1lE A. pneket of t.hiu cards ab ou t fo ur in ches long am! three
inch es wid e; a lso she11(s of co lonre1l pnpers , good r epresen tatives of
the s ix co lours--red, orange, yellow, green , blue, a nd purple.

Ct1t en,cb of the followin g pl ane figures- square, oblon g ,
t rinn g le, and eircle- thrce t.im es from each colourerl paper,
111111 paste nea 1l y on the ce 11 t re of th e cards.
This will give
72 cardA, of whi ch on e of en~.~! form and colour (24 cards)
will be ret.ain ed by the teacher, and the remainder (48) will
be distributed among the sch ola ni. t
'fh e lf' sson mny be comlnctcd in various we.ye.
(1.) Th e teacher mny sh ow a card 11 11d direct all children
t.o s t.a nd up t hat h a ve a ca rd cont.aini11 g , first, the same
shape, and, secondly , the same colour. All the forms and
c:vluurA may be gone t hrou gh i11 this way .
U ..l The children may be cu ll ed on t.o show forms and
colours to order of teacher. Children who h a ve t ri a ngles
Fhow th em. Now lil11 e tri angles 011l_v, now red, now yellow, and ~o on for all the form s and colours.
• S1iy on e hundred; t hAy will be nseful in the succeed ing etngeB.
t I.f t here are moTe th an fort y-eight scholars in the cl nss, of conrso mon>
cards muet be prepared.

This l eR~nn Ah nnlrl be re p1 •a t1~d in a var it·d f11rm 1111t.il all
the Sl:holars a r<• pC' rfet: tly f'am iliar wif.)1 th e form s and t:ulourR
incl111l t.! <l in th e F irst aml Second Stnges.

- --- ·- - - L ESSO N VU.

SWEET, SOUR, AND BITTER TASTES.

Fon tl1i • 1'•R"'lll t h A te:lf·l 10r ~h o u. ld prm· i•l e a IP:d' of rhnl•" rb , nnil
som e a t J. •,, st of' t.! 1e fo llowi n!? or nlh "r hittC' r fin bs tn.nces: rue, hop8.
q11ini11 e, wor111wnn d, q 11 rH-i~ i a , tlln !='y , gentian.

In t rorl11 ee t.hiA ll·Rsun by 1.JU CA ti ons on th e " taste " les80llR
in th R F ir ~ ! St :i ge.
"\\'hat is th o t:1st e of s11 i:rn r ? " A 8Wf!et ta8le.
"Of a ripe i•ppl e ? " A 81fl'rt taste.
"Of a g ree n :.t l'pl e P" A 80 111' frr g fr> .
"\Vh en fl re pl 11 ms Rn 11 r ? "
11' hc11 thrv arP- nnt ripe.
"vVh:it is t.he h1 sfr, of a ]Prr1 on?,, A sour frt 8[1'.
"Tell me l'orn e t.hi11 g else which h aR a so ur tnste." Vinegar
"\Vha.t is this I a rn holdin g- in my hantl? " A IN1f
"Y es, it. iAa. rhul J:1rb leuf. ls it a large l e~d' or a small
on e ?" A /,, rrr 0 111'.
"\Vh at iR tl1 e colour of thifl lea f?" G-rre11. cn /1111 r.
"What is t hi R p art called [ po intin g to th e ~ 1nlk ] ?" Th.I'
strilk.
Teach er cuts off th e leaf n.rnl heginR to s trip t.he skin off
the ~ ta lk. " Wh at is tbiR l nm takin g off?" Tlte skin.

li4

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

ODJECT T,ESSONS.

"Is it a thi r k or t hi11 skin P" A t'1in 11kin.
"Now I shnll cut the stalk into small pieces md give ~ach
of yon a pi ece for vo11 to faste it."
.
"Now t ell me wi1il'h is it most like in taste, a lump C>f sugar
or a l emon P" It £s li!.·e th e lemon.
"Then what taste b a11 the rhubarb?" A soil?" taste.
"'Vb en you b ~ve rhubarb pie or pudding wh a t does your
m othe r put over it?" Su.qar.
"Why P" Tu tnrrkp, it ta.~te stceet.

" I have something else I want you to ta 1<te." [A little
quinine.]
"Here it is, try it. Do you li ke the taste?" No.
" Has it a sw eet t:iste ?" No.
"Does it taste lik e t.h0 rh11h:1rb?" No.
"You mfly call the ta~te biller."
Individual cbildren mn.yn owbecalled to the tnl le to faste
other bitter su hstan ce~, und ex e rc i ~ed until tL cy can read ily
di ~ tinguish bitter frow .wur 1:tste."'

"W o will see bow mnny times the black-board is lon ger
t.ban 1.h e boy's lnot."
The ten..11 .. r he ro m Pnsu reR th e len gth of t;he black -hoard
by the boy's fr et, assisting tl1 0 boy to put ono foot in fro11t of
th e ot.h t>r l1 •n!!;thways, anrl ti1nrking t.h e space of each foot
with c halk.

"I will pin ce t.be black-board on the 0asel. You may cou nt
and see h ow m:my ti•n es longer tl1e bla c k-board is than the
boy's foo t." 01/.(', t1co, thrN', f our, f in'. sir.
"The bl:1ck-board, th en, is l1ow muny times as long us
the hoy's foot?" Si:'c tim e.~.
"Tell m e wbich is tbe longe r, a man's foot or a boy's
foot?"
A 111rrn' .~ toot.
"You h:i vc cnc :h of you a Rt rip of ca rrl ho:1rd . 'Vhich is th e
longer , 1h e hoy ' s foot or the cl'.l rclboard?" l'h.e crrrdboa'1·d.
"Y ef: , a11cl 1 be card hoard is about a1> long as th e foot of a
tall m .:111 , nn rl we always call th :d. le11 g-1.h afoot."
"Why rlo we c:1ll t.hici le ng th [showing cardboard] a
foot?" 1Jrm11se it i.~ about a.s lu11g r1s thR f oot of a tall
man.

L ESSON

VIII.

LENGTH. - A FOOT.
Fon tbi8 lesson the chil1lren rnny be provided with st rips of card·
board or paper one foot in length , and rl ivicled into i11chea by ehort
lin es. The teacher should have, in Rdditioo, pieces of string, ta pe,
or ribbon of different leog Ll1s.

"You see, " says tue
i.
k:ic I1c r, " J h:iYe placc<l a blar·k-board
on the t able. I want a boy to stand on it, l1ut h e must have
his shoes n:ff."
"Now, wl1ich is th e lon ger, the boy's foot or the blackboard ? " The blr1ck-board.
. • In the con~try ther~ will i,,. "" <liflh1lty in pmcuring a sprig of rue, for
111atance; and m towns 1t c•n hi! rmrch•sr <l in a dri P.d state.

"N cw I w:int a li It le 1-\i rl to 11wasure t.he black-boa.rd with
her foot-length of ca l'dlioard."
T eac he r as~ i s ts 1.lt e g irl to m ea1<ure, and the black-board
is found to be three t.iuws the le n gth of the cardboard.
"Th e l1lack-bo:1rd is h ow many times as long as the cardboard ? " Th rre tii11 rs.
"And :i A 1.h 1• c:1rdho:1nl m easures onr f oot, how many feet
does tho blac k -board m1•usure ? " l'h rec f eet.
Th e cl1ilrlrc11 will now be intr r!'st.ed in using their foot
measures l'n fiml t.he length of pi C' ces of string, tape, ~c. ,
but for this l!'sson the pieces ll hould measuro an even
nnrnher of fPet..

56

OD.JECT LESSONS,

now

TO GIVE THEM.

LES SON IX.

LESSON X.

LE NG TH.- A YA RD.

LENGTH.- THE INCH.

FOOT rn r. Rsurcs nn<l pi ecnR of st:ring or ta pe, &c., n.s in the )flst lesson
rind n three- foet fl at rul er or a ynnl m easu ro, should be provided.

?.f ATEnTAT.R roq11irod ns in tlw p rncN1ing l('eRu n .

"Jam es allo1rn d us to mea!'> ure t.be bl ack -board with his
feet in our las t l esson. We will n ow ask him to measure
the bla c k-boanl for us with his cal'dhourd foot-m easure."
"How ma ny f, e ~ long is the black-boa rd?" Three f eet long.
"Here i ~ a lun g rnl er. I will pl ace it on the black-board.
Whieh is the lun ger?" 1'/1r•.1; are both of the 8r11ne length.
'"l'hen how m a ny feet d oes th e ruler measure?" Thrre fe et.
"Yonnrny call a len gth ofthreeft?et a yard. How long is
the black-board? "
Three f eet. One yrtrd.
" f fow many feet rna ke a yard? " T!t.ree feet.
" ·wbut name do we give to a leng t.h of three feet P"
A yani.
"I will mark th e foot measures on this ruler to show you
that 1/1' re / Pd ond one yard stand for the same length ."
"We will ca ll o•ir rnler a yard measure, and with it we will
see h ow mnny yards wine our ~ohool-room is. Oount while
T m er11rnre." 011r>, ti.co, t!tree,four, fl ee, si:r, seven.
"Th er e is a lit tle pi ece over.
John, bring your foot
m eas ure and t ell us how long it is." One foot.
"Th en our school-room is how many yurds wide?"
Sf've11 yards.
"A ntl liow much more P" One fo ot.
" Y es, in all, seven yards and one foot."
The class should now be exercised in measuring with the
yard and the foot measures in a variety of ways.

67

In thiR l es~on the n1,t.m1tinn of the children shn11lrl firRt b"'
rlirecterl t o th e divi sions on t.heir foot measures; th ey sho11ld
th en be tolrl th at eac h space bet.ween the lines is ca llerl an
inch. Hy countin g-, t.he chilrlre11 can disco ver for th emse lves how m any iu chcs ther e are i11 a foot, ancl also iu half
fL foot.
In th e Arcnnrl pl are, th e ioch ol nrA mny be set to mr nR11re
~ma ll obj ects, th e " ·idt.b a111l ILmg-t.h uf th eir slat.es, sti1:kR,

peneil R, &e., and t.b e pradiee should be continu ed till it
hecomes pre l.ty accurate.
After the cbilrlren have become fomili ar wit.h th e in ch,
foo t, and ya nl, and nre r.l1le to g·a11ge th em wit.h t.ol ernble
accurn cy frnm m ernory, th ey may be trained to measure
leng ths wi1h the ul1l of t,Jrn eye Ull(l t.b e memory on ly .
Thus, ohjects rn ay be lwld before t; he cb ildri>n who may
be invit od to g11 1'S8 the length in in ch es, feet, or yard~, the
correct leng th being afterwards ascertained by actual
meu.surement.
Th e t.im e of Reveral l es~ons may be occupi ed in thus guessing at leng t.hs, h eights, dept hs, width~, and thick nesses,
and th en measuring to see how nearly correctly the children
have gu essed . Th e pract ice, amu sing in itself, forms on
nclmirahl e exe rei~c in training the eye and tb e judgment.
The extent to whi ch it can be earried must,ofcourse,depend
on th e prnli<'i ency of the class.

58

HOW TO 01 VF. THF.lll.

OBJE<Jf LESSONS.

LESSON XI.

ar.otb er pi ece of paper on it. You see the pieces of paper
are stuck tog-eth er. "
" \ Vba t c;-.i1 yon 1>n y a hou t the wax ? " It is stitky.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES. - STICKY OR ADHESIVE.
ANY or all of the followi11g substances will be useful for this lesson
gum, glue, paste, wax , a letter, lind au envelope.

Teaching [showing a letter J may proceed tl1 us:"What is this I hold in my band?" A letter.
" What is this on the corn er ? " A stamp.
"I want Henry to come here and take off the stamp. He
cannot do it. \ Vby not P" It is stuck on firmly.
"Now, Henry, try and open the letter without tearing the
paper. Ile cannot. vVby 11ot?" Because tile envelope i.~
stuck .firmly.
"There is something put on the stamp to make it stick to
•;be envelope, and· somethi ng put on the envelope to fasten
it up firmly. Here is an envelope not shut up. You cau
'lee stuff shining on it. If I wet this and press it down
wh at does it do?" It sticks the paper togeth Pr .
"I want you to remember that things which stick other
thin gs together we cull stic!.:.IJ, or adh esive."
"\Vhat have you stuck on the walls of your rooms at
home?" Paper.
"Here is a piece of paper and here i:i the stuff we can stick
it on with : it is called paste. I will stick th e pnper on tbe
black-board to show you how men stick the paper on wtJ!is."
"'·V hat am I putting on the paper with this brush?" Prrnfe.
"'V hat do 1 say about tb e paste because it sticks the paper
on the black-board?" It is sticky.

"Tier0 T have a liHl c gum in a bottle. I !:'t ick two pieces
of p·11wr to gc t.h er with it."
""\\' lia t rlo yo u sa_v about t.h e g11rn?" It i:s sfi,.k.71.
"Name th e three tbi 11 gs I l1a ve shown you whicl1 arc
sticky." l'11Ntc, 1rn:r, gllm..
"I have two pieces of wood. I want. to ~tic k tl-1 em togc lh cr.
Let. us try the paRte, th en i:h e wu x, i-.l1 e11 th e ::r11rn. Noit.lier
\ Ve rn11 st try
of th ese hold th t· wmnl finnly t.ogc tli l' r.
,,. 1-l lTe it is. I will ,.,11u t it on t.be iirr to
some lb
. 1n
. g e lsc
melt. It. is <': d Irr! yl11r."
"\V l now Rl.i ch 1li e pi t'Cl'R of wnorl toµ-el li f'r with the g· ln e,
and when the g lu e is dry y ou sl1 all try a11d pull t.b e pieces
apart."
"Tell

In ('

how g ln o is like paR lc ?" It .stirks th i119s tnrff' fh r r.

It i.s 8fir ·ky.
"Wh en do yon my things aro Blil' l;y P" 1/"ltcn they Nlick
thi11r1s l o(lf•f!ie r.
"Is w :il t•r RI icky?" No .
" \ V hy nut?" It rloes uot ho/rl lhi11gs torrther.

or hold

Tb e children 8hou ld be allowed to stiek thin gs to;;etl1 er,
naming th e su b:stu uce th<'y use.

"Here is a piece of wax. I melt it in tbe fLme of this
match and let it drop on a piece of paper. Now I presr;

---··- - - ---

ROW TO GIVE

OJJJ ECT J.ESSON8.

LESSON

xn.

THf•~M.

61

"Wbot does porous mean P " Full of fitlfe holes.
"Why does sugar suck up water?" Because sugar is porous.
" And cane P " B ecause it i8 porous.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.-POROUS.

Fon this lesso n distribut.o 8maLl pieces of c~ne, stick, and sponge.
The following experim ent will form an excell ent introduot.ion to this l e~so n. Tak e a wide-mou t,hed bottle, and half
fill it with spirits of tHrpcnt.ine. Into this insert a sbort
leug th of cane an<l a stick of some ordinary Euglish wood.
In a few minutes th e turpentin e will have ascended through
t.lw pores of the cane to th e upper end, and on th e application
of a li ght ed taper will burn with a sm oky flame. The application of th e li ght ed taper to the upper end of the stick of
course prcduceR no res ult.
It will interest th e children to di scover the cause for the
cliffPrc uee; and the little hofes in the cane will not easily be
forgotten.
T ell th e chilrlren that th e turpentine h~s run up the ca>ie
to the t op and is burning; at the same tim e the turpentine
cannot get up the stick.
Direct them to ex11 min e the bits of cane and stick they
have in th eir hand s, and the cause will strike th em at once
- the cane is full of little holes.
Anoth er experiment may follow. Pour a little coloured
wa ter into a plate and in the centre of the plate stand a piece
of loaf-sugar. The children will see the coloured water
grflclually rising.
Tell th e chi lrlren that the water rises in the sugar in the
aame way that the turpentine rose in the cane-through
litt/.e holeB.
"We cn ll these little boles poreB, and vrhen anything is fu])
of t.h ese little pores we say it is porous."

"Many other things are porous Here is a pi ece of sponge.
You see hr1w it irnek'< t he water up. \Vh ere does the water
go to ? " Into thf' litllr hofes.
"TlH'll what can y011 tell m e about sponge?" It is porous.
"'\That; rlor: s porouR me: m P" Full of littfe. !10fr.~.
"vVlrnt rlo yon eaf: for brrnkf11.st whi ch is porous P" Bread.
" ITow do you kn ow it is porous?" It sucks UJI milk or tea.
"Yon can see th e pores in the hread, and the Rpo nge, and
the c:rn e. onrl oth er thing.", but Rometimes the pores are so
small that you cann ot see th em."
With a pi ece of chamois le:1th er and a little quickRilver a
pretty experim ent muy be performed to show this. The
quicl<silver may be R<J11eezed through the leatlH'r in fine
drops.
L E S S ON Xlll .

PROPERTIES OF BODIES. -TRANSPARENT AND OPAQUE.•
ARTJ e L ES

for illast ra ti on :-Glass, waler, milk, marble.

The chilJren will lrn.\·e no diffieulty 111 arranging classes
of transparent and op:111ue objects. t .
Take a pi ece of gia~s und a sla te. Ilold 11 piece of chalk
behind the g l a~s arnl ask, "vVhat r•m I holding behind the
glass? ,. A pirw of chalk.
" IT ow do yo u know it iR chalk P"
Wi! can NNJ i:t.
"1 wiil now hold the chalk behind the slate. Can you see
t.he ch alk now P" No.
• These t.ernia are diffi cult for littl e children to rem ember, an<.l may ba
postponed till a )At.,.- stage.
• "TranRlucent" eh onld come in later on.

62

on.JECT LESSONS ..

IIOW TO GIVE TJlBM.

"\Vhy not P" We can't see through tlte 8tafe.
" How is it you can see the chalk behind tho glnss P "
We can see through the glass.

"Why do we use glrtss for our windows?" flramse it lets
the light in. B fcrw.se 1ce can see t!u·o righ it.
"vVben do we say a thing is opaq ue ? " Whe11 it can11ot
be seen th.ro11r1h.
" Is your slflt.e tran ~ parent. or opaq ue ?" 0 11n'l11f'..
"\V ·hy do you say it. is opaq ue? " fl ccrw wi 1a !'rwnot S1'e ·
lhrou yh it.

Take a glass of water, a cup of water, and a glass of milk.
Place in each a glass marble or ot.ber suitable object without
I be kn owledge of the children, and ask, "What have I rn
t.hi~ g l:t!>S of water ? "
A mrrrb!f!.
"How do you kn ow it is a marble ? " We can see it .
" ·vVb at do you see th e mar blel through ? " The glass and
the uaff'r.
" I h ave pln ccd som ething in the water in this cup. Can
you tell me wh at it is?" No.
"\Vhy not?" We cannot see through the cup.
"Jane shall come to the table and look throu gh the water.
Wh at; do you see now?" A marble.
"Th en you can see through the-glim, but not. through
the-cup. "
"\Vh at have I put in this glass [ pointing to the glass of
milk J ? " Mill•.
" Can you see thro ug h the milk P" No.
"I have placed a marble in the milk. Can you see it?"

No.

"I will lean the glass a little a nd bring the morblo to the
sid e neares t to you. Can you see tho mnrble now ? "
Yes.
" \ Vhy ? " B ecausP the marble is close to the glass, and we
can see through the glas.~.
" I will give you t wo hard words, one means can be seen
through, and the other cannot be seen th.rougli. Th ey are
trf/,11 .•JHtrent and 011aq1ie."
" \Vh en is a thing said to be transparent P" JY!ten i t cn11
be seen thro11gh
"Tell me some things which are trn11 s1mren t?'' Glas.i
and water.

Th e teac hr r Rh onlcl conl:inn e thi Rkin rl of quest.innin g nnt.il
the term m l! R 11 p the idea and th e idea the term iu tbe
mi111ls of th e children.

L ESSO N XIV.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES. - BR ITTLE, FLEXI BLE, AND
TOUGH."'
A V Al tlETY of articlPR to il lu strate th ese qunliti es , s u ch aA clt nlk ,

gla's , smrdl dry sti ck~, Rhtn-pe nci ls, paper , c npp ~ r nnd iron wire,
leather, c!ot.b , 'l·halo\iune or Ca n o, &c., sho11Jtl 00 provid ed.

To :JRRiRt t·.h e ch il dre n to compare the qunlifi cs of .flr.riblf
and brittle, t.nk e a cn n o an<l a stic k of slatP-po11ci l. Showi ng
the cane bent th e teach er will ask, "\Vhat have I done to
the ca ne ?" You havr· bent 1L
" Now I tnke a st.ick of pencil and t.ry to bend it as I did
the cane ; wh at has h appe11erl ? " Th e p encil i,s hrokrn.
" You see I h ave on tho t:tble a 1>1:ick of chalk, a st.rip of
glas~. a small st ick of wood, so me copper and ~ome iron wi re.
I want a boy and gir l t.o co me to th e t.a.ble rt11d bend nll th ose
• It iR nnd r•irahl o nt th iR Rtngo to rd.tempt to devn lop th e itl eas of hril.tlo,
0Px ih1P. nn rl l.nnµ:h to I.heir fulle st oxtn nt. For our present pnrposn it iR
@1ifli ci" 11t for thn chi ldren to lfm rn t hnt /Ji·itfl• rn ennR " rasily liruk P11 ," t hat
fiexilile means" \Jends eaa il~ with out bren l<in g," and Urnt tmwi>. meallil" aot
MRily lorn."

'

HOW TO GTVE

OB.JEC'l' J,F:SSONB.

things. Those which bend without breaking we will · put
on one side, and those which break we will put on the other
side. Now together name the things which have broken, as
I show th em?" Ghr1lk, ,qla811 , stick, slate-pencil.
"No w nnm e the things which bend without breaking?"
Cane, whaleho11e. copper wire, ir on wire.
"You may repeat after-me, Things which break easily
are said to be brittle ; things which b end without being
brok en are said to be flexible."
Th e t each er will now ask ques t.ions on t h eile two q11n l i ties ;
such as: Name things wl1i ch are fl ex ible. Name thing-s
which are brittle. 'When are thin gs said to be brittl~· ?
When are things sai<l t.o be fl ex ihle ? ·why do you say that
chalk is bri1 t.le? vVLy do you say that a cane is fl exible P
The t eacher should next encourngc the children to name
other articles which are brittle, as crust of brerrd; biscuits,
lorrf-snr1rr r; and fi exiule, as th e flat ruler, a strij1 q( lead, a
book-cover.
The idea of toughnes., may be elicited by taking different
substances, such as paper, calico, leather, &c., and directing
the chi Id ren to try to tear th e m.

LESSO N

XV.

A BRICK.

Bnrcmi of any sort r en.rlily obtniaeu to be pln c1>d on the table.
bucket aud basin with wu l,er should also be provided.

A

- - -- · -- · !he tencher may firRt call alt.cnt.ion to foe shape of the
brick (see L esso u V. Stage II.), the number of corners, of

TJIE~L

65

straight e1lget:1, the nu111ber of fac es, tb e shape of the faces,
and so on.
01rn or more children may be cn ll ed upon to meaRure the
lengt!i, lireadth, ornl thiclrn ess of a bricl<, nr, if Rcveral hrickR
are provid ed, they muy hi> hnn1l f' rl - togdher wit.h th e cardboard st.rip RuRc<l for L es~o n VJ 1l .- to11Rrna11y ch il <lrcn, who
may m eaRure iJl(l i' pe11<l e11tl y nnd 1.h e r es nlts be cnrnpa red."'
The bri ck R rnny now he p:1sRed on to other children, and
qum;tio11R li ke the following ma.v b e nsk ed :" I !old the bri ek!'< in yl•Ur hands; how do t.l:l'y fod? "
Ifeory.
"Sq1H'C'ZC th C'm; how do t.h <
' Y f'ePl?" Jirrrd.
" R uh your fi11 ge rs over th em ; wh a t cun you say i.: bout
the surfa c1)R?" Tl11•y arr> ro11yh.
"Yo u Ray a bri ck is l11·u' y ; if T place it in th is buck et of
w11t.er, will it s wim or siuk to the bolt-om?" It 11£/t sink to
the hol/0111.
"I want. you to fiml out Rom ct11in g elso-:iE011t. brick~. fTen
I pince t.hi s one sta JJdin g upright in a basin, and th C' n fill
th e lm~in with wat er up to the brim. \V e will look at it
ngn.in i11 a few minutes. Meanwhile you may tel l me al l
you cn n about a brick."
Th e teaclirr niny now c111l a rhi lrl to lonk nt t.h e water in
the h:i 8i n ; she fi 11<ls th e basin is not now full.
"Perhaps," proceedR t.he teacher, " so me littl e child rnn.y
gu ess wl1 er e t.he water h 11R gone?" It /i n« gn11r> i11to fh, · /J,.ick.
"Hight; t,h r 11 what may I say about bricks?" l'hr>y are
porous.
"\Vh cn do we say a thing is porous?" 1VliPn it is full o.f
little holP8 .
• Ordinnry bnil<ling bricks mn!lsll re 9 ind1 os in \,,11 g1.h, 4 i11 ehAs in wirlth.
f\nd 2t inch es i11 Lliickn eas.
17

61)

"Nnme som e thingA wltich h ave thin skin s ?"

"Here is a piece of wood cut into a cube. Look at this and
th e hrick."

I'otat oes,

a1111lrs.

"How nre they alike?" Er1r·h.lurneightcornflwa11d six.faces.
" How are th e faces nn li lrn?" l'lir f11ccs of the cu.bear~
8quares. 1'1te ji1ces of t h1! brick are oblongs.

LESSON

6i

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

OD.JECT LF.8SONS.

"I will c11t o.n ornngc o.nil. the lemon into small pieces for
yon to t:i ~ IP-"
" First. lot. m n s<1111'oze a pi ece of orange; what is it tltnt
drol's out.? '' Tli 1'.f11ir·e.
" .A nrl now I sri 11 P1 ~ ;>;0 a bit of lemon?" .T/iP. jnice run.~ out.
"Now yo11 111:1.y l.:1 Rt. e tl1 e orang-e anrl the lt•mon. \Yhn.t
ta~t.n h:iA t.he kmon ? "
So 111· to.sir.
" \ \1 hat ta1;t.e has the ora nge ?"
Sweet fa 8te.

I

XVI.

ORANGE AND LEMON
1'11 II JCF. or fnnr ripe ora11ge~ 1111tl a J,.1no11 Rho11ltl be prov irlNl for t.bis

"I want. you to t.hink over n.ll we ha ve snid nhont the
orange awl t.he LP111n11, :111d first to t.ell me how th ey are
unlik e." Th ey rlrl' 1111/ike in NJ/our nllfl in loslr!.
" .Anrl now how fJ1 py a re alike?" Tltert al'e alike in hai·ing
a th il'k 1u·rl, irhile a11rl soft i11sit!P; r111d tlte,1/ bot It !wve.fn£re whi:c!t

J o~~O ll.

n old i ng up an Ol'<lll ge t.he teacher asks, " 'W hat is this I
bold in my hn.11cl?" An 01·r111r/P .
" vV hat is the ~ hnp e of the orange ? " Ball S!tlfpe.
"'Vb a t is its co lo11r?" Orrmgr rolour.
" Jr ow did we mn k e orange colo ur? " By rm~'Ci'll{f .1rll01r and
red.
. "'Vh:tt. i8 th e n:irne of this I am now showing you?" A.
lelllOil.
" \V hat. is the colu11r oft.be lemon ? "
Yf!flow.

r1111 s on!, 1l'h r n ice cut 01· sq11rP;:.r thPm.

An 11.ppk mny nlRo he introduced for comparison with the
orange aud h , 111on.

- - ------ -LESSON

Th e teach er nrm cuts the orange and the lemon into
hal Vl' S .
" \\"bat is this on tb e outside of' th e orange ?" J'lte peel.
"\\' hat is th e eolo11r of th e pPel inside?" White colour.
"Feel it." Itji·l'/8 sojl.
"'Vb at is there on the outsid e of the lemon ? " The
peel.
"rr ow is the peel of th e !Prnon li ke t.hat d th e orange on
the i11Ri1lu?" It is w!iile amt -<~ft .
" l ;; the peel uf th e urn 11 ge and 10 111011 thick or tl1 in P"
1'/i.ick.

XVII.

AN EGG.
I

)

ONE rnw R.11d n nn h nrrl -hoilP'1 P~g will he ~ nffini o nt for thiR l e•Aon. It

l

will intorost; the cbildro11 if th e egg-can l>o boilotl over
the table.

..1
IJ

11

11

Bpirit-lamp on

This lrf"(m fnrm « :1 gonrl c>::i 111pl e of bow a tenclwr may
m:ilrn a n e w f: 11lij nd I.h e 111cdiu1:11 furn r ec:ipit.11bt.in11 nf id eas
clev elPpcd in prnYi o11R les,o nR, and t hu s serve 118 a tes t of
R11 cee.9ii in what h:i.R Ro fox been nt.t... rnpkd.

l

"vV haL

J·

~\

is 1 hi s I l1 uld in 111y h:irnl?"

.An e1JU·

I

I
¥¥4

•

t
'•

1..

-

¥

:e

LQ2!-es ..ez:._ aza;;zz .;

zQtes.e .

: -.:.........

$

68

OB.JEO'f LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

" What is the outRide of th e egg called ? " The shell.
" Vvbat is the colour of the shell ? "
White colour.
"If you p ass your finger over the shell bow <loes it feel P"

LESSON

X VIII.

A CABBAGE.

It Jr'f'I.~ smooth.
" What is t h e ou tside of t h e ~ h ell called?" Its .s111:fr/ce.
" I s th e surface fl at lik e the tau le ?" .Nn, i·t 1:s bent or curved.
"When I p ut the egg in t he water i t san k to the bottom ;
what does this tell me abo ut t.11e egg? " It i:.s heavy.

t\. conPJ,F. of cnbh 1• (!f'~ . nn e nf which m>l.y be of the pnr plo kind 11 s11rl
l'or pickling-. a11rl. "' f<·W green leavos of different. kiml s shonld lie Ol>

lb e tnhle . .,.

Th e t,<'adier may commence this les8on by com parin g t he
t.wo ca.bb11g-e8 as to t.heir colour, a nrl the cabbages agai n witb
t.h e leaveR . Arl vru1t.a.ge m:iy be tn ke n of the introrluctirm of
greP.n nml purple colou r s t o f".eqt t.h e memor y of the children
on t he co111pn8 it io11 of t he8e colours.

"Now that the egg is boil er!, I t a.p the sh ell with a 8poon;
whnt. has happened to t he shPll ?" It i.~ brok1m.
" ·what do y ou say a bout t.lrn sl1 ell because it broke ensily ?"

It ill briltlf'.
" Look at t h ese small pi eces ; what can you say about the
t hi ck n ess of th e slrnll ? " i t i.s th.in .
"Ju Rt imid e t.b e sh ell you see somethin g else. I will ta ke
a piece off. ·what is it. ?" The slci:11.
"What do you see abou t th e sk in?" It is thin."It is irh.ite.
" Feel it." Itfeeh sq/Z.
"Now I hn ve t11ken off the shell and th e skin. What
com es next?" Th e while.
"vVhy do we call it whit e? " Bf'r:ause £t Ii.nil a !Chile colour.
"I r emove the white. \V l1at comes n ext?" Th e yellow

In t h e n ext pla ce the teacher may r r move th e lnavcs ou e
by on e, at. th e Rame time directing- t.h e at.te n t.ion of tbe children to t h e way iii whi ch th ey a re placrrl 1111 e ovPr the oth er ,
to th e m a nn rr in wh ich th e lp:ivrA are fix ed tot. he s tnlk, nnrl
t.o th e ch ange in t.l1 e colour of th e lea ves as we get n ear er
th e 1111rldle.
'l'hinlly , a compari son Rhould be m a rle l1ctween th e cabhagelea ves :ind ot.hl' r leaves as to s'izr, sh1111,., hf/rd 11 Pss, nnd th e
euse wit.Ji whi ch t li c bl:,,l e~ nr0 l orn , 11R to t.h c co111p:1rnt.ively
th ick, sort, an d juicy leaf- stalk of the on e, and th e thin
ha rder stalk of tb e other.

- f/!P :11ofk.

"\.Yhat colour bas the yolk ? " Yrlloic r:olou r. Orange colour.
You will see th e white and
the y ellow run out into th e plate. I put a littl e of the
white on this sheet of paper, press anoth er sh eet on the top
nnd dry over the lamp. You see the pape rs a re stuck together. Now wh at else can yo u say a bout the white of
egg ? " It is sticky.

"I now brenk t:h e raw egg.

Fourthly, the st;ilk of the cabbuge may he cu t ac ro"s, anrl
th e children mny he !r d to nnt.e the circul ar Rhnpe of t h e
section, nnd the difference in h nrd11 eRs between the external
and in terna l por Lion s of the stalk.
Th e Uf'tJ of t.lw stalk to R11pp11rt. th e pl:rnt., and of the
pl:111 t it,,.nlf for fon d wh en boil erl, may he elinited from the

AA a fur t hPr exercise th e children may be a11l<ed to tell
all t.hey can a.bo ut a n rgg wi thout any ass i ~ta.nce ; in oth er
words, they should be encourngerl to talk about it.

•

child rnn.

* If 1\ ('a l1hr1 .g o eh<Jwing it A Ot1wor or """d-At.,. Jk 1·1111 he ob tnine<l, t h" leRson
ca·o he 1n nd1 • m 0 r P. r.nmp1f'lo .

a

a

70

HOW TO OJ.VE THEllI.

on.rnCT LESSONS.

LESSON 'XX..

LESSON XIX..

GLASS.

A COCOA-NUT.
A ooooA-NUT in its natural stn te-viz. with th e fibrous outer husk
adbering·-a harmn flr, a penknife, and a cup or glass, will be all tl1at
is n ecessary for thi R ks,on.

•

Introduce by tellin g the children that this les~on is to be
about a large nut., called a cocoa-nut;, and t.hat cocoa-nuts
grow in hot countries \'e ry f.lr awa.v from wh ere we live.
Rhow t.h e cocon· nut nnd invite the children to cornrn eut
on its diffe rent parts as it is taken to pieces.
Th e outsirle rind is fltin and smooth.
Th en follows a thick !iu.~!c, con sisting of threads matted
t.ogeth er.
Experiments will sh ow that these threads are flexible and
tough.
R e move the huRk. The shell is sh.01cn to be rough and
hard, and in shape Rom e what like an egg.
The three bla ck scars are now pointed out, one of which
is shown to be .sojl by c11t.t.i11g through with n penknife.
The "milk" is n e xt poured into a glass and the children are invited to ta.~te it.
The flh ell is broke n wit.b a hammer. It is shown to be
thi ck and strong, and the k ern el t.o be fix ed lik e a thick
co:Jt.i11g on t h e in side of th e shell. A knife will d emonstrat e
that t.h e k ern el is soft, and a ssist in its divisio11 into small
pieces for tasting.

ANY specim e n~ of g- ln.ss or of g laR~ nrt.iclPs will he usoful m ~hi~
l ·~~s on.

T he intrnrluct.inn to this le8Ron may be a short r et·:ipitu l:lf;in 11 of L cRsnn XIII. Experinwnts may th en l 1P. m :1tl e
wit.Ii piPt·r~ of' glaRR to ahow that it is not only trrmsparmt ,
but 8111ooth, hard, u.nd britlte.
'l' he eh il<hcn rn :1y 11 e xt he nss iRtr<l in .telling aliout. l'lOlllt' of
th e 118es to whi c h g la ss is put. Que~tions lik e th e f'ollowi11g,
for instance, rn:iy be asl;ed : "How do we get Lli e li g ht i11 this room?" T/i.ro11!!h tli e
1l'i 11.f01rs .

"\\-' h:it pa rt of the window does th e light comu thro11gh?"
The glrrss.
"Tell me so m e othe r wie of the gln sR in th e window? " 1Vr!
can sre tlirn1r[Jli. it.
".But a hole in the wall would let tbe light i11, anfl we could
also see tbro ugh it. IV 011ld a holo do as well as the glass
w ind ow?" .N o.
"\Vby 11ot? " It 1ro11/d Id i11 th e rnin and l/I(' cold 1rind.
"Th e n, whil st the window let fl in the light, what does it
keep out ? " 1'/1r 1ci11d rtnd rain.
Other use~ of glass may be similarly dealt with.

OBJECT J,ESSONS.

THIRD

to th e 111i11dR of th e children tho f'Pcombry colourR 1111<1 h.,w
t;h ey are formed. Th A ~hc c t on which th e colonrP!l l1nn!l>
we re rlrawn shon ld be fixerl on the bln ck-boarrl.
On a d t> :11 1 AhPct of paper fix sq uares or e in·l•'~ of th e
stnnr1nrd r erl, ,Y C'llow , hh11>, :in<l g rC'0n 1 flR i11 t ho RkCl.!•h.
Crt ll th e alk11ti ou of the chilrlren f.o th e fn ct that. you. n r c

STAGJ<~.

les~ons" of the Thir·d Stage fo llow natnralty on
t.hose of t.he FirRt and S econd Stages; but they d emand
closer attenLon, and call for more ext.ended powers of ob servation and compari$Oll. Experiment is also more largely
emµL 1yed on some of th e most. famili ar objeet.R to bring out
the spec ial proper ties on whi ch th eir uses depend. Tho
following are the cbi ef subj ects dealt with:(1.) Colour.-Ligbt and dark colours.
(2.) Form.-~ erpendicular, horizontal, oblique, and parallel lin es.
(3.) Measures of weight-the pound and ounce.
,,
,, capacity-the gallon, quart, and pint.
(4.) Properties of bodies-solid, liquid, fusible, soluble,
in fl am m "ble, e lastic, &c.
(&.) Common obj ecti:;-india-rubber, sponge, cork, lea·
tber. &c.

TRE

LESSON

RED

ii

Y£LLOW

[;] o
BL U E

rEd

GREEN

_____

\

____,

ahout to show th orn other eolo11 r;i 80111 etliin g lik e f.ho~ e of
wlri eh t lr ey have alrcarly learnt t.h e nrim es, anrl proccotT: " I " ·ill place rin other n•d on eneh Ride of tl1e first . Look at;
them. Catr yon sec a ny <lifferc n c<~? " 011r' '"' drtrkrr ow{ lit e
othrr is lir1htPr.
"'Vlti!'h is tl1 e dark Pr ? " 1'h11t 0 11 the lr,I~ side.
"Arnl whi ch ifl th e Jig-ht.e r?" Thot on /h r 1·ig!d sirle.
"Yu11 111ay e;11l t.lt p, Rq1111re on t.110 Jl,ft. Ri!le r{rll'l> ri •d, nml that
on t h e ri g ht Rid n liyltl r ed."
"Tak e yonr pnpcrs. Rhuw m e a li!J!d red. Now the d({rk
re<l."

I.

DARK AND LIGHT COLOURS.
RMAI·L squn.res of standard and dark 11nd ligbt re<ls, yellows, blues,
a nd gree nR, Rhould be given to tho cbil<lren; and the teachers should
hRve on the tnble, in odrlit.ion, triangles, circles, rin gs, squares, and
oblongs of the various colours.

D eni wit·h th e other colo11rs snm ewhn.t in t:lr 0 Ramo way ,
an<l di red tlw cl1ildrP11 to arran g(' thrir squnres on th o rleslrn
aR they are placc!l 011 t l.v black-board, but. f.ake one set of
colours on ly at a t im e.

Aa an i11troduction to this lesson, the teacher nrny put a
series of questions on Lessons I. and II. Stage II., recalling
• Suitable for childnn of about fl ve to Aix yel\111 of 1'ge.

l

The cl1 ilrlren may n ex t arrange all t.h c li ght colours in
row, then ;i ll the dark co lourR.

t1

74

OBJECT J.ESSONS.

An excellent exercise m ay now be int.rodn ced on form and
colours combined, of course using only th e forms and colours·
with which t.h e cb ilrlren nre now supposed to be familiar.
T euc h er [holding up, suy, a tr ian g le of li ght green].
" Wh a t colour is this? Liyht green.
" \ Vhat sh upe is it?" .A triangle.
"W hy is it ca ll erl a trian g·le?" Becrru8e it hrrs three an,qles.
H olrl i11 g u p an oblong of dark blue, - " ·w hat is th e shape
of thi s card?" An ohlonq.
"\Vb at kind of angles b a8 an obl ong?" Ri,qht angles.
"\Vh at colour is it ? " D ork blur.
H old in g up a sq uare of li ght, yell ow, -" \Vb at colour is
1.h is ? " Liyht vellow.
" ·what sli upc is it ? " Sq11are shrrpe.
" -\Vhat isn square?" A fiyure with four equal sides and
/0111· 1·i,r;M 011glf's.
Simi larly d ea l with circ l e~, and rings, and squar es, and
obl o n g~ . a nd triangles of oth er colours.
L et th e chan ges be mad e rapirl ly from shape to colour and
colour to sb:1 pe, so as to secure watehful attention and p rompt,
reply.
A second, and even a t.hif'(l, exerci se m ay be given on fo rm
and co lour combined simi lur to th e above '! a nd the childre n
may now he led to apply the appropri ate names to t he
colours in articles of dress, flow e rs, &c.

L ESSO N II .

HOW TO GIVE

Tlllnl.

75

T ell th e children that we ar e now about to g ive upn:!Jht,
ly £n f! d oin!J and 8lrwti11,q line.~ n ew n11rn e~ , viz. pcrpru1dicular,
horizonfrrl, and ohh11uf', on e! exe rcise somewhat; as fol lows:"I wi ll draw Rlrni g ht. lin es ou th e black -boa rd , nnrl you

I/; - \ I_\ 1-~ \
shnll t.ell 111 0, aR T make th em, wh at positio n th ey are in."
I'1•r1Jenrficnlr1r, oblirrne , hori;:,ontal, <'re.
"I \Yill Jl()IV l:ik e a point er, n.nrl OR r holrl it i11 dill'crcnt
µo si t.ionfl yo u ,.,Ji :il I tcc l l 111 0 w lin t. t hey u.n'."
"In wlwt poi! itio n a m I h old in g the point el' uow - - ? "
H01·iso11tal.
" Now ------ P" Ohliq11e.
"Now J P" l'n11)('11r/ir·ular.
" Y e .~ . or yo u may say rerlicnl.''
"\'\' hat. <lo you 111 rn.n liy lH'rpcnd ieular?" Slrr11rfi11:1 1171rigld.
"\\' hut-. do y•Jll 111Pa11 by horizonta l ?" Lyi11y rlo1ru. or r1 lrJ11 g.
"Now hold your a rm s in a horizo nta l pu,.ition. No w iu n
ve rt irn l position. No w in an ob lique positi on. "
"In wb a t. p o~ i1i1111 ure yo11 wh en sta 11rli11g up ?" Vertical
or j)l'1·111;11r/fr11lar.
"111 what po.< if.i111111re you whe 11 ly in g in bee] P" 1/Uri;:,onittl.
" In '"h at posit.ion am the wall s of this roo m P" I'r' l'jil' Jtdiculnr or rNticrtl.
"Name som e f.lii ngf! in t he ron rn whi ch a rc in a hori zo n tal
pn9il.i ou." Floor, 1·r,ili11g, lop of trtbte, 8eal.•, ~c.

PERPEND ICU LAR , HORIZONTAL, AND O BLIQUE LINES .

F1vE minutes' rnpid q uest ionin g on L esson III. Stage I., and
Lesson III. Stage IL, will form an appropriate introduction
to this lesson .

Th e chil d ren rn :iy now lie iustrnct;ed to plaL·e their sl:1tos
in clille rent positi ons.
As a fur t her and i1J tercst. in g exerc ise, th e teac her may

76

77

OBJECT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO GIVI': TJIL\M.

make three or four of the simpler letters of the alph ahet on
the black-board and question thus : "What is the nnme of t hi s letter (I)?" I.
" Of how many lines is the I made?" Of nne line.
"In what posit.ion is this line?" I'f' l'JICllllirn/((r.
"\Vha t is the nam e of this letter ( L)?" L .
"Of what lines is it made ?" Of one pc rp1' /l(lic1ilr1r rtnrl 0111'

zontal po ~ition, and another child shou lrl be d irected (,,
m easure th e di s tance between th e strin gs in sevnal plu Cl''
[See LeR~on X. Stage l.J. Th e c ln ~s mny now he tu l1l thal
the strings, whi1'. h li e Ride liy Ririe and ev1•rywlicre at t.111·
same di stan ce npnrt, nre t'a id to be 71a mllcl.

horfr:ontal l£11e.

" \Vhat angle do theee hrn lines make ?" A rigid a11g,'p,
"\Vh at is the name of this letter (V)?" V.
" Of what lines is it mad e? " Of tico obliq1te hnP.~.
"\Vhat kind of angle clo tli ese lin es make?" A11 rtcutp, angle.
The let.tors T, H, A, X may be similarly deal t wi th.

In u Rimilar mann er 1wrp011ilic ular n11il nb liq11 e parnll1 •l
lin eR may lie int.rodu\'cfl to th e children.
Turn now to the blark-honr<'l for furth e r ill11 Rt.rntion n11cl
exercise.
Draw lineR as m Fig. l. Poi11t.ing 1o t.hesc lines t-.11c
teacher as ks,

I
LESSON III.

"Do th ese lin es lie sifle hy ~ id0?
Arn tlH'y t h e snm c
distan ce apnrt at each en d ? A re th ey paru l!el ? "
"Now look at \.lwse lin es (Fig. 2). Are tlwy parullel?"

PARALLEL LINES.
AnncLES for illuslrn.tinn :-pieces of wood. striug.

Parnllel lines may be introdu ced by drawings on the
black-board; but a m ore vivid illu stration, and therefore
more likely to be impressed on the minds of the chi ldren,
may be obtain ed hy tying two or three pieces of string ' (sny
tw elv1>. feet lo11g nnd six in ches np,irt) to two pi<cccs of wood,
us Ill th e sk eleh.

!I

No.

?

· 'Vhy not. ?" T!try do not. lie side U!f sidf-, r111d t!1ry a1·r
110t t/t f' .w1111 f! 1/islm1 rf' 11;111rt r1t 11/I p oints.
" H erc are oth e r lin es."
. I

I

· -T

---!+

Two chi ldren should be en.li ed to the fr ont. of the class to
hold the strings t.ightly stretched between them in a hori·

F I G.2 .

F'IC .J .

r:t G. 4-.

//IA
r\ G. 5.

ri o.6 .

[P oi nting 1'> F ig. 3 .J " \Vhat can yo11 tell Ill<' nl 11111t. tlH·s1:
li ne;:? " T!t ry are wmillrl. Thry arc .stmi!Jht. Th1•y ore 711•r -

pendir11 l11r.

78

7!l

Oil.JECT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THmlI.

"vVhy are they said to be pa rallel?" Because the,11 lifl sid1,
by side at the same distance apart.

"Row mnny n.ngl('s do these lines make, und what kind oi
angles P" l'ltree acute angles.

Similar qu estions should be ask ed of the ho1·izo11lal, oblique,
curred parallel lines.

rind

Objects in th e room - the walls, windows, window-pan es,
door, pictures, table, bla ck-board, &c.-will uiiurd urnplf'
illustration of things ba,ing parall el sides.

L E SSON V.

MEA SURES OF WEI GHT. - Th e lb., ~ lb., t lb., and oz.
IT is of g rP:i f·. impnr1,rrnce I.hat ch ilrlron should ea rly ncq11ire rl1• fi nite
irl1•aq of ili e mnro co111m on m• ·11s ures of n'\·ight and C'n pn cit.y aR well r•.s
of length , !rn cl ev•' r y sclwol Rhu11lcl he pro vide;! wil.h . 01111J npparn.lu.9
for weigh ing. In t hi H lesso n we deal ..with the Ii>. , ~· II>., t lb., nrnl
oz., leaving the c wt . and ton for u fu I ure stage.
0

LESSON IV.

LINES AND

ANGLES (a T est Exercise).

For this lesso n use auch lelters of the 11lph a het ns are
built up of st rni g ht lin es, vii. L, T, V, A, H, F, E, N,

M, W, K, Y, X, Z.
\Ve tu k e V and W as ~:r(11111ilrs.
"Wh a t letter is this (V )?" V.
"Jfow many lin eR are thPre in this V ? " Tu:o,
"Are th ey perpendicular?" No.
"vVell, what are they?" Th ey arr' oblique.
"\Vbat kind of angl es do they make betw ec11 tbe111

r"

An ncu fe n.ngfP.
"Are the lines parallel ? " .No.
"Wby not?" Bf'muse fh r!f are not placed side by 8ide, and
1/1 (',1! rwe not th r same distanrr> rrparf at alt 71oi11 t11.
"What can you Ray of th ese lines \\ ? " Tlif'y are pa·
.-af/r>l rn1d l) b/iq ite.
"And of tb ese I I ? " Th r>y nre par(l 1/el and obfiqne.
"I will put tliem together thus-W. What letter do th ey
make?" JV.
" H ow ma ny pairs of parallel lines form the W?" T1co .

The scales nnd weight'! being placed 011 1l1 e t:ibl P th e
t.<>ach e r rnny introdu ce th e leRso n with a lit.Il e co11,·ersat.ion.
She may ask what. ehilrlrC' n have h ee n sent by tlwir moth er
t o th e f! hnp, and wh:d for . How t.b e shop111m1 found out
how mu1·h was a lb. or t lb . of suga r, or hutt <> r, or
chm•su. H a vi111-\' go t frnm th e children t.be 11a11H~ s lb., 4 lb,
i lb., anrl O?: . , f' how th em t.he w('ight.s, and let some of tlie
scholars l1 :l11dl e t.h om to cli sco vn for 1.h e m sPIYP ~ that the lb.
is h eav in than tlw ! lb., th e 4 lb. than tbe ! ll1., and so on
To show 1·.h o childron 1.h n n~ii l cnnqmrntive Yal11c of P11cli
weig ht it will he 1·u11vc 11i c 11t to URC Ra 11rl. \\' (•ig h I lh . of
sand, thC'n tvt0 ~ lh •., ancl t.hcn Rhow that two ~ lbs. ho Ye t.l1 c
!lnr;ie weig ht n~ l lh. In a Ri rnilar way sb ow by cxpori11wu1
thut. two ! llis . h nvc th e Ra 111 e weight as tho ~ lb., au<l t~w1
i 07.R. have the Rum e WC'ig ht :is th e i lb .

The chilrlrcn nwy now b e dir('cted anrl nss ist c<l to w cigl~
for them>iolvc~, :lllrl the pract icn sho11l!l l'e co111 i1111Nl 11111.il
1.he c las~, as a whol e, cu u di.itinguish the diff( •J c11t wt:ight.\'
aud apprncia1e tb eir value.

80

now

OBJECT LESSONS.

Questions such as the :following will show l10w far the
lesson bas been a. success.
"What is the name of this weight?"
lb. weight.
" And this?" One oz. 1cl'ight.
Four ozs.
" How many ozs. mnke i lb. P "
the
same as the ! lb.
"How many i lb. we ights are
wei g ht.?" T11 0 i lb. 1m:yM8.
"Th en how many ozs. mak e ~ lb. ?" Eight ozs.
"How many ~ lhs. make l lh.?" Tiro ha{( lbs.
"H11w many ozs. rnak e I lb. ? " Sia·teen ozs.
"Tl1 e ~ lb. conta ins how many ozs.?" Eight ozs.
"H ow many ;! ll•R. in l lb . ? " Four quarter lbs.

t

NoTB. - Lnokin g at th e pr ofi cie ncy of h er sch .,Jars, tl: e teacher mnat decide
how far her teachin g on this subj ect may be carri ed; but probrtbly Lhe time of
an oth Pr l eSijOD ma y be use full y empl oyed with th e nbovo weights.

I

i
I

TO GIVIO: THEM.

t! I

2 half-pints make l pint,
2 pints mak e 1 quart.,
4 quarts or 8 pints make 1 gall on.
Ln Rt.ly. qu estion 1.hu s : " I lo w many half-pints in one pint? How many pin ts in
on e qu a rt? How many pints in two qu a rts?
How many
l'i.alf-pin ts in t.wo qu a rts ? ilow many quarts in a ga \1 011 ?
R ow many pint. ~ in a gallon? How ma ny pints in a q ua.rt
and a gallon? How many pint measures ean I fill from
two g, dlo11 f!?
ll ow many lrnlf-pint.s in a pint and a qua rt
toget her i'" aud so on.

LESSON

VII.

P..ROPERTIES OF BODIES, LIQUID AND SOLID.-1.
L E SSON

VI,

'•

MEASURES OF CAPACITY.- THE HALF-P INT, PINT,
QUART, AND GALLON.
R~GE

a. half- pint, a pint, a quart, a nd a gallon me1tsure on the

table.

The t each er mny introdu ce the l es~on by asl<ing for the
names of so me of th e articlt•s we buy by weight and by
meaRures of length (Lcs$ons V III., lX., and X ., Stage II.) ,
and then by r efe re11 ce to th e purcha se of milk or oth er liquid
lead the children to see the n ecessity for some other kind of
measure for liquids.

'

Next call th e attention of the chilrlren to the vessels on
the table, g ive th eir narne;i, and then, by actual experiment
(using sand or water) • show that • As f1tr ae practicable let the children do the work.

GLA SS vel"<'els coutn ini11 g liquirls, such us wate r, milk, oil, aml qu icksilver, should be pl ucod en the table.

This is a leRson in whi ch th e a ttention of the ehilrlreu
must be var ticularly d ir eeted to note t.li e r esul ts of e:cperiment.
Pour a little wah ·r on a ~ I :ite Rli g htly tiltcrl. "\Vhich Wll\
does the w:1t.er r1111 ?" Do11ni the sl(/fe.
"\Vh en it. rni 11 8, in what direct ion d oes the water run 011
the roof of a house r " Do1011 t/1(' 'l'UO.f
"Which wa.y docs t he rain wa te r in th e st.,·cet ruu?"
/Jown th e st reet.
"In wh a L direct.ion does water alway s run?" Down wards.
"Now I wnnt, you to fi.nrl out for me whe re water :ii ll'ltJtl
runs to. L nnk at th is slate again. Mary sliu ll come to the
G

82

HOW 1'0 GIVE TI! Ell[,

OlJJJ<:C'l' L ESSONS.

table and show me the lowest part of tb e Plnte.• !light.
N ow wh er e d oes t h e water run t o on th e slate? "
T o th f,
!owest plwe.
" I pl:i ce t.h e blflck-board on the tabl e, but raise it a littl e at
one eml. Now l et ns Ree to whil'h fMrt of th e blu ck-boanl
th e wate r runs. \Vh at <l o yo u say P "
It n111s to the lo1cest

7mrt.
"I want. yo n to r em emb er 1.hat water always run s, whe n it
runs at all, <lown, d ow n, down to th e lowes t place it co n
find."
Ilopea t the expPrim ent on th e sla te with milk, oi l, nnd
qui ck si lv e r, a nd BU lead th e c hildren to OUServe that th ese
bod ies are a ll al i ko in 1· 111111 £11 .11 do1cn to tlte lo1c1·st place.
N ext pl a.ce th e slate in a horizontal pos1t.10n n11d p nnr a
li ttle water gent ly on to it n ear th e cPntre, of cou rse
takin g care as mual t.Jrnt t l1 c c hildren are obser ving. Tak e
ano t.h cr sla te and 0n it p our g-P ntl y a lit;tJ o Semel. Th e
children wil l at on ce €ee th at whil st th e s;ind m ak es a h ea p,
the wntC'r sprNtd.s out.
In t h e snm e way sh ow th at. milk, oil, und quick s ilver
R/J'l'end oHt, and in t hi s reRpect ar" lik e th e water. I

L ESSO N VIII.

PROPERT IES OF BODIES, LI QUID AN D SO LID . -2

Fill :1 f' po11 g-•' 11· ith 11·at c r, li olrl it. 11 p sn tli:if. th 0 r hilrlren
Sl't' how ii. f101y s 011f·. first in a strea m rrnrl thrm in drn;>-' .
\Vat• ·r 111 :1.1· lie' in:irl(' t-0 flow i1t 1lrops from the n eck of' a
IJ<it.t k :ind in Y:i l' in11s ot.l1 e r wn_\" R.
Th e" pipette,. is a sin1pl te li t. tie irn<trnm ent for m:1kin g
li 11ll !•l Lill in dr (l l' ~·
111:i y

It conRiRt.s of a tHhr: op<'n nt. ho t. Ii e nrl", but. h av in g one end
11 0;-;7. l e ~ lin.p erl.

Pl:ieo it i11 t.h o li11uitl as flh oll'n in the fi g ur e. l'rPR8 t h o
t.l111mb firnily 0 11 !h o np p<'r ernl :ind withdrn w it.
80 lon g
ns t.li o prcRs tll'l' is 11111i11t:ii11Prl t.h c liq11irl re mai ns in t ho t.uhe;

' Ascert.nin by questioning ll'h e th er the chilrlren h ave
grasped the two ideas that. wa ter, milk, nil , a nd quicksilver
run d o wn to th o lowest place t h ey can , and spread out wl1 en
pour ed on to a level surface.
• A Hl nte on which th e frnme is closely fi xed will b old a li t tle w11ter.

b11t. wh r. n th e p r e RRure is r elax crl and a liU.le ai r a llowed
'·nt er,_y10 liq11id fa lJ R ou(; in drops.

w

84

now

OBJECT I,ESSONS.

Tbe oth er liquids may be sh own to fall in drops from the
neck of a bot.tie, but. tb e pipette as described abovi> will be
a more convenient inst.rum ent.

Sb

'fO GIVE 'fHKlll.

LESSON IX.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES, LIQUID AND SOLID -3.

"We h (lve Reen how oil t.h ef!e thin gs whi ch I bo.vc in the
glasAes on th e tabl e m:iy be marl e t o- fl ow in drnps. But:
wha t is t he shupe of t hese d rnp~? Y ou spall fiw.1 out for
me. J ohn and .Jnnc cum e h ere. I will pour a little drop
of t.hi s shinin g Rtuff {q u ick sil,·er) i11to th e palms of y our
han d s. H e rc it. is. Tok e enre or it will I'll!! •lway . N ow
look at it., wh at is its s h r~p e ?" Bl/ll s/l(Jj 10 .
"Now I will r; pri llkl e a little wnt.er on tl: c: ci.usf.y fl o,.r. Can
}'Oil see th e d ro ps ? ' Yhat shape nre 1.heJ ( "
~' :_tit shope.

' at .'·ou lr nrnt. alJ out tb c59 things (water,
''Now tell me wh
&c.) in your last less• m ? "
l'ltey run to t!w !ou·11si place they
can /i.11 d. Th c11 sprerrd or1t u•lirn 7101tred 011 a l1:·l'et surface.
"And wh at have y(1 ~1 learn t ubo ~ t t.hem in this les1l'm?"
Th ey _ffo10 i n dro;1s.
"And what shape hove th ese drops ?" B.J:l shape.

SAMT' LES of Ji q nirls as in tho two J.H'OC01lin g lossou s,
vessols of di ffe r en t 811" Jl"S .

""tl

tw o or three

"To- rln.y I w:rnt. yo u to le:irn so llwthing more nl 1011t
liqnirls; hut fir st y ou 111ust. tell me what you n.lrcndy know
abo11t th em ."
"If I pour water ver y slo wly from a hot tle how does it
Bow ? " 111 drops.
" 'W h at is t he sh " pe
th e rlro ps ?" IJall s/l((pl'.
''Wh en I pour wa le r on n. Rlate pl acer] in a hori zo ntal pt1sition , wh en' docs th o wntcr flow ?" It 111,rC11ds out 011 e/.'f'l',I/
side ami corr' I"' t/1 () 1rh ole 111.11/are qf t/i r! slate.

of

0

"I want you to rem ember tlrnt all those tlii11gs which fl.ow
to t.b e lowest pin ce th ey can, whi ch 8pre11d out wh en poured
on to a le vel surfn ce, a n<l wbi cb cnn be m ade to flow in
drops, are call ed ti:q11 ids."
I

Qu est.ion and call on 1.h e children to name other liquids,
':lB vin egar, win e, ink , &c.
"In the n ext lesson I shall ask you to find out s0mething
more about, liquids."

"We will try thi R over aga in . H ere is tb e sl:tt e, nnrl l
pour wut.c r on it. See, it sprearl s out a11<l cove rs t.li e wh ole
sl a te. \Vh a t. pre vcu ts the water running over?"
The
framl' qf f//,I~ sllfte.
"'Vhat. is th e Rh :1pe of th e sl:tt.e ?" Oblo11r; si111pe.
"Tb en wlrn t is t.h e sh ape of t he s11rfi1ce of the waler on the
slate ?" Olilo11 r; sl111pe.
" S uppoRe t.he !:l l : 1 h~ to be squar e inst.en d of oblong , and I
pour wat er Oll it. to <' ove r it., wh at Rli:ive will the snrfa ce of
th o waf er t.nlu~ tl1 e11 ? " S quare sh(!/!!'.
"H ere is a dilln cr-pl ate. \Vh a t i!l its shape ?" A ci1Yr'e.
"Yes ; bu t you h ad better say ciruul a r, which means like a
circle.
" Of wlrn t shape is the phte inside tb e rim?" Circulnr.
"Th en if I fill th e middle pa rt of th e plate wit.h wat.e r uµ
to th e rim, wh at sbn.p e will th P surface of the water ta ke?"
Circulrtr.

86

onrnCT LES80N8.

HOW TO 6IVE 'fHEl\I.

"Once more, here is a box; what is its snnpe

B1·icli

"'Vhy do you say it is a solid?"

Becrll/811 it hrrs il8 orcn

Bliape.

shape.

"Now I fill the box with water; what shape does the water
take ? " Brick shnpe.
" \Vhat is the shape of the I id?" Oblong sllflpe.
"And what. Rhape does the s11rf;1ce of the water take?"

"I am abont to mnke it, into a liquid. I put it into this
!urge iron i:ipoon, aml place the spoon in th e fire where it is
very hot. \ViiilRt the lea d is loeing cha11g-,,1l f.o n. liquid l
will fix t.liis thimlil o into a hole l have made in thiB pi Ace of
wood. Now t.h n IP:Hl li :1s hccom e a white liquid like th e
qni ekRi Jvp r ! ' <HI have Sl'P ll.
I ponr it g1~nt.ly info th P
thimble. Now it iR cool 1 take it. out., and you see it has
taken the same shnpo as tl1e thirnLl e."

Oblong

.~!t(lpe.

" And the bottom and the sideR? "
'/

P"

87

Oblong 811(/pe.

"Now I pour water into this tumbler, and you will see
that t.he watrr tak Ps the ~nrne sh:1pe ns .t.he tumbler; und so
if I pour into a butt.le or a tea-cnp the water t.akes the same
shape as th e bottle or the tea-cup. I pour in sand, but
you see the sand lies in a heap and does not of itself spread
out and take the same shape as t.be vessel."
"And this is the new fuct which I want you to remember about wiiter and other liquids.
Repeat aft.er me,
A liq11£d t"kcs' the s011w 8h11;1P a.~ the ve.ssel in wllle/1. it i._~
rlaced."
'
"Here are pieces of wood, pencil, coal, and sugar; if I put
them into a tumbler or basin will they take the shape of
the tum Lier or h:1s.n?" No.
"Cun you make t.hem flow in drops like water?" No.
"Are t.h ey liqu:<ls?" No.
"You see the wood has its own shnpe und so bas the pencil;
tmd all thing~ which have shapes of th eir own we call
solids. Nam e all the solid things you can see in the room ."
Book, <ie.~k, 1call, door, &-c.

Wh en snow or ice is eaRily procurable, anot.lier nnd
perhaps more i11ft'r<'st ing experi111e11t than the preceding
may be suhstitukd or add ed. :Fill a small m edic ine-bot.tic
with wntcr , cork it and place in a large 1,iasin, cover with a
mixture of ubout erinal q11a1Jt·.it.ies of snow or broken ice,
and salt.. T11 ah(111f. t.1'11 111i1111t.es f·.lin waf:l' I" i11 t.he bot.tlP will
be fru r.e n . I\re:ik the bottle and show the ice to be of th€'
sam e shape us the bot.ti e.

LESSON X.

PROPERT IES OF BODIES.-FUSIBLE AND INFUSIBLE.
As m"ny as possible of th o fo llowing n,rf.iol~s shnulrl he reatly on t.he
t11hle : ice, Rugar, wox, lead or tin, inlli1i-rubber, gla.ss, alum, salt,
camphor, ch:dk, marble.

A spirit-lamp, tripod-st:111d, evnpo rating-dish, and te~t­
"I am now going to show you again, by a very pretty
experiment, that. liquids take the same shape as the vessel
into whicb they are poured . Here I buve a small piece of
lead . No doubt some of you httve seen lead beforn. Is the
lead a solid or a liquid?" A 8olid.

tuhPoi of different-. f' i:..es will be found most useful, if not
indi Rpensable, in this and very many of the lessons which
foll ow.
Three id eits need to stand out clearly and distinctly m

88

89

OBJ gcT LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

this lesson: that some solids may be changed to liquids by
the application of heat, that the chfmge is called melting or
/irsing, and that solids which can be melted are said to be
fusible.

there is no liquid. Now th ere is nothing left, the camphor
is all gone. Camphor does nnt melt, it goes uway iuto the
air."

The t.ead1f'r will toke any of tli e fosihle solids sbe may
have at band, nnd by tbe application of heat change t.J-1 Pm
to liquids-of comse unrl er the obf'ervation of the children.
A running comm entary und fire of questions should be kert
up tbe whole time.
Thus suppose ice to be the first fusible solid to be submitted
to experiment.
"I want Harry to bold this piece of ice for me. How
rloes it feel? Louk ! wlrnt. is that dropping on to the floor
from Ilarry's hand? What has made the ice change .to
water? \Vhnt do you say of water because it flows in drops?
'Vliat do you say about ice because you can see through
it ? "
Or suppo8e butter to be the object.
" Here is butter ; is it a solid or a liquid P How can I
make it into a liquid? I will melt it in the dish over the
spirit-lamp. Here is tbe liquid; what colour is it? When
it g ets cold nl!nin will it be solid or liquid P"
Or take lead.
"How shall I melt this lend? What colour 1s the lead
when liquid? If l take it away from the fire, how will it
change?"
Or take salt.
"James shall t:J Rte this white solid and tell me what it is .
I place it in the dish ove r the lamp; it does not melt.
Mnny other solids will not melt, as chalk, flint, marble. We
will try one or two more."
Or take camp!wr.
"Mary shall sm ell tl1is and taste it; what is it P We
will try to melt it. Louk, the lump is getting smaller, but

The at.1rntion of t11e chilrlren shou ld now be directed to
th e faet that bnt.t.er rnquir uA more heat to mch it. than ice,
anrl that leaJ rP<]11ires more heat than butter; and th ey
sho11lll f.l1Pn be to lrl that. other substances, snch as iron,
copper, and gold, can only he mel1ed with a very grent heat.
" We cannot melt glass in \.he dish over the flame; hut you
see, by holding this Jitt;le glass tube in tbe flume, the glass
. "
gets soft and we can b em l it.
The clasR mny 11 ow be told th at i,1n]ic'ls which can be melted
or fused nre said to be ji1sible, and those which eannot be
mnlt-.erl nr<' F<nirl t.n he 11(fU 8ildn; • anrl th e chilclnm may be
exprcised in clas;iifying s11hstn11ces und er on e head or tbe
oth er.

LESSON X.I.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.-SOLUBLE AND INSOLUBLE.
ARTI CLES for illu Rf.rntion :-Soluble and insoluble substrrnces, as
sugar , sn.lt, sodn., nlum, camphor, chalk, mar\1 le , broken glass, learl,
&c., iil so tes t-tub es, eva.porating-1li sb, and spirit-lamp.

Plnce half-a-dozen 1.eE<t-tnhes or other glass vesRe]A on the
table. Al 8o small qn :intit.ies of, say, tiugar, salt, alum,
camphor, chalk, and broke n glnss.t
• These t t'rms are to a certain extmit relative. Most substances ordinnril y infuRild c, RR rocl;s, Rre prohnbly fusibl e under a higher lempemture
thau we CHTl produce.
t O.f course other Rnbsta11 ces at t.he conv0ni ence of the tcachr.r will answer
pqnnll~- well.

90

ORIECT LESSONS,

Bring children in turn to the front of lhe class to uome
the differe11t substan ces 11fter te8ting by sight, tus te, and
smell. Having gut t h e ua mes, half fill th e test-t;ubcs with
water and place a little of ea.ch su bst.ance i11 each in order
all above. \Varm t.hc ll'at or in th e flarn c of th e Rpirit-lamp,
if n ecessary, to h asten solution of the so luble s uh~ tu11 ces .
Durin O' th e operation th e a t.t.1·nt.ion of the chilclren must be
"'
~
.
kq1t up by co1r11oen t.n. ry and q ucsho11s.
The id ea of solubility may now be brought out somewhat
as follows : -

"I want. you t o look very carefully at these glasses."
" ~What did

I put in th e fi rst gl:iss ?" S ugar.
"And in th e secon d g lass ? "
S!ltt.
"A 11d in the t hircl?" Alum.
"Ca11 you sre th e sug ar, salt., and a lum now?" No.
'"I'l1 c n can you te ll 111 e wh at ba s beco mo of t h c111 ?" 1'/tf'y
ar e 111f' (ted.

"No, th ey are not m el ted. It is ve rv difficult to molt salt.
I put a li tt le in t his pan over t. h E~ s pir it -lamp, and you see it
does not m elt as butt e r o r l ead 111 elts."
"vVbat do you mean Ly melting?" Oh.angi11g f1 'om a so#d

to a liq11i1/.
"Yes, and wh en we m elt a solid we can see the liquid
whi ch it makes."

HOW TO GIVE THEllI.

91

•

"T Tllll Rt nowt.ell vo11 th at rn uuy so lids wh eJJ put. in wate r,
n.ml especially i11 hot·. wate r, hreak up into t.he tini est. littl e
pif-cCf', AO Rrnall that·. you cmrnnt see them, and sp read about.
all t.hrou g h th e li'luirl, and ~· 0 11 mu st please to re membe r t hat.
we Ray that R11 ch Ro lirl H disRO!rf' (11nt melt.) in t h e wate r; a nd
Lecau .se th ey cl issol ve we say t h ey nre sol11hle."

The tench e r m:i.v now Ah ow lh e clnAA that the subAhrn ce:;.
h eld in so lution rn.ay be r eco ve red . Take, for in sl.:111 ce, th e
sol11 t.ion of sn it; mak e it as strong as possibl e, nnd evaporate
a li ttl e ove r th e Rp iri t -la mp. 'l.'h e salt may be seen, h a ndled,
and t.asted over aga.iu.

La~t. ly, atfontion m ay be directcfl t.o th e E>olirl s whi ch h ave
not di ssolved in th e water, u.11r1 th e c hildren 11111 81; he told
that 1mhstanccs wbi c h do not dis8olve are said to be £11.Rolulile..
NO"rn 1.- Snme of t llA Rfllts o f oopp~r -g r ou n f\ n rl b lne vi t ri ol - give

beautiful colnu rNI sol11ti .-, 11 s in wnter .
N uTr. 2. - Snrn e solirlR in Ro lu Ule in wator a.re Roluhl e in o th 1 ~ r li1111ids:
i 11d i a~r 11l 1 l 1{' f in C{llll -nn.pltthn. Arni (•nmph or in a pirit~of wi r~ o .
Arl vH n t~igc
may ho tRk en of tho l• ttor fa.ct to n1>1k o a ve ry pretty expr rnnt>llL. "'"'"'"'g
how solids rmty exi st in liqnit!s a lt houg h we CRnnot see them. J'.,11r " 'flt er

1 •.q.

into a solu tioll o f r nmphm- ; t ho ca mph or 1tt onc·o h pcom~B in ~o lubl e In th P
mixture of spirit au<l water , 1tu<l llo.Jt.8 abuut in w h ite Il a kc;.

"Right, but we h ave not to· day changed th ese solids to
liq11i rl s-"
" You can tell me where t he s ugar a nd salt a 11d alum am?"

Y es , in thr> 1cater.
" Cun you see the sugar in t.h e water, or the salt or th e
·1lum in the water?" No.

LESSON

XJI.

PROPERTIES OF BOD IES.- INFLAMMABLE.
ANY or all of the su behrn cee named below may be used in illustration

"If you a re n ot quite certain, you may co111e to the table
some of you and ta ste."
"You are quite sure th ey are in the water, because although
you ca nn ot. see th em yon can ta8te th em."

SnbRt.a n c<'s "burning" are l'O attracti ve a nd familiar that
one example simply lo attract attention will s uffice before

92

OB.rnCT

LJ~SSONS.

lIUW TO GIVE THEM.

the children are told that things which burn are said to be
i1~flmnmable.

..
' ·'

,'f

''
!

~.

An interest.ing lesson may now be given in arranging the
substances used in illustration into three clasRes: (1) those
which burn rearlily; (2) those which burn with difficulty;
a11d (!:l) those which do not burn at all (at l1·nRt in any ordinary fire). The substa nces may be tested in the flame of
th e spirit.-lamp.

plrmts, all the art.ides in the second cltt~H come from animals,
while all those in the third clmis belo11g to inorganic
nature.
The f.0:11·her ;;h1111l<l nnw enco11rage the cl1ililrnu to 1111rnn
any uRcs t" wl1ild1 h11rni11g- hudit•s arc pttf , and lastly, Rl1P
8ii;•1tld i111p1"C:;s 011 tlw e l1ddreu th e da11ger uf' pl:1yi1 :g wil Ii
fi1 ·6.

The result. will appear thus:(I)

Cotton-wool.
Cotton goods.
Paper.

Corle
Dry wood.
Camphor.
Incl ia-rubbcr.
Coal.
Sulphur.

(2)

Wool.
Woollen goods.
Sponge.
Leather.
WhaleLone.

(3)

GlasR.
Stones.
Clay.
Ch:ilk
Metals.

The chilrlren must he called on to exerci "C their powers
of observatio11 during the experiment on each substance, and
to note any striking liken esses and differences exhibited.
Thus, cotton-wool and wool reRemble ench 9t,her in colour,
lightn ess, t~c., but the one burns fiercely, the other with
difficult.y. Pap er and thin leather (6ay a finger of an old
kid glove), india-r11hber and sp1mge, splinters of rlry wood
:tl\(l w!tnl ehone, sulphur und chalk, coal and i>tone, may all
be compflr ed with advnntage. The smell and smolrn given
off by the different burning substances should also be noted.
\Vh en the various substances have been experim ented on
and classified, 111t.ention may be called to the fact that all
the F>ubstauces iu the fi1:st cL1ss (except sulphur) cume fro11.

LESSON XIII.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.-ELA STIC.
T!IE ten.cl1 er s houl•l l•e pro,·i•l,,,l w il·h i11rlia.-r1tl.Jlwr, ~J>Onf!O, n11d 11
pi ece of wlmlclJoue or s loo l S[•ri11 g to illu ,t.rnLe the tlin'u ki111b ot
elitsticity.

See that the children know tbe n:im es of th e ohjccl$.
Tl1 en, taki11g- up th e whal ebone :ind bending it., prnceed by
q11e~ tion1o1 to di cit·, t.he idea of the first kind of ebst.icity.
"See, I am Lenrling t.hiR wh:ih·hon e. '\Vhat bappP11 s now
I lot it go?" It goe.s bntk ((.[JOin. it jlie.s back 11yain. ii
Hpring8 bat!.·.

" \Ve will sa.y it "'}Jl'i11ys back to it.~ 01c11 sh11pe rt{]ltin."
« '\Vhat iR t.hi~ I Hm Rt.rl't1·l1i11g?"
]1111i11-r1t11/ier.
"'\Vh:1t ,1·ill l1appe11 if 1 lel vnc end go?" It 1rltl SJl1'i11!/
IJ(l1·k rtgr1in.
"Yes, it 8p ri11g s bnck to it.s ow11 ii/tape a[Jrtin."

"TTPr P iR u. pi ece of sp011ge. \Vhat nm I doin g wit·h it, ?"
8q11rrzi11g it.
" \\' bat. will lrnppt' ll if I let it go r" it 1ciit !}fJ /;a<Jk tu its
Oil'/! 8/Wpe 'l!fl/ lll.

94

OB.JECT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO IJTVE THEM.

"I wi11 now give you one word which means springing
back,-it is e/ashr,."
"1Vhat does the word elastw mean P" Springing back.
"Why do we say whalebone is elastic?" B ecause it will
spri11t1 back ajter beiug bent.
"1Vby do we sn.y india-ruhber is elastic?" JJwause it wifl
8Jlrin11 back after being strdcltNl.
" ·w hy do we say sponge is elastic?" Bemuse t:t itill .spn'n,q

1u·e pfmtfo, 'ont. they are nlso .flexibl.e, bE'c:rnRe t. h<'~' ·~au be
f!a.~il,11 bPnf with.out breaking.

Leath er, conl, pnpPr, lead, copper a re all tl cxible, but. uot.
elastic.

J- ESSON

back after being squeezed.

"When do we say a thing is elastic?"

95

XIV.

!NOIA-RUBBER."'

When it will spring

back after being berit, or stretched, or sqiteezed.

"Jobn shall take this cane and bend it.

/\ nTrcr.ER for il111•trntinn:-- A pi ece of hnt.tle inclia-rn l1hnr, bnt11" cnn
t.ai11 ing i1 .. lia-rul.>lrn r <iissolv<1<1i1111n11hth a , and any wuterproof urticJ e , .

Is it elastic?~·

Yes, because it springs back again.

"Here is a strip of lead. Jane may bend it. Is it elastic P"
No, it does not spring back again.
"Here iR a cork. It looks too large to go into the neck of
t.bis bottle. How shall I get it in?" Squeeze it in. Pre8.s

it i:n.
"I take it out again. What do you notice about it?" ll
has go11 e back to its sliape again.

"Tben what can you say about cork ? "

Gori~ is

elastic.

"Here is a piece of cotton-wool. What shall I do to it to
find out if it is elastic?" Squeeze it.
" Mary shall try it. Is it larger or smaller now that Mary
is squeezing it?" It is smaller.
" When Mary opens h er hand what will happen to the
cotton-wool?" It will gf'l lnrger.
" Is cotton-wool elastic? " Y!'~.
"Why do you say it is elastic?" Because qfter bei11g
8!JU.eezed it goes back to Us own shape again.
The property of .fir:ri'.bility or pliability may be taugl1t in
eonjunction with elml icity. Whalebone .ll"d india-rubber

ThiR lc~son should be partially a review of what thl'
children Lave already learnt about this wie fnl s11h ~ tance .
Th e t.(':wher may t.h('refore introduce it hy means of quef<t.ions
such us t.b e following:" vV hat can yon tell me about india-rnhher? vVhy ,10 we
say it; is elaRti c ? Is indiu.-rubber heavy or lig ht? How
ca n you find t hat ont? What. eltle can you say about irnlia ruhher? vVith whnt ki11d of fl ame does india-rubber burn ?
Can yo u t ear it eal'l ily? \Vhat do you call it because it doel'l
not. tea r enRily? What do you call it becau se it l1P1Hl s
ea11ily ? "
"You have remembered about india-rubher, then, t.hat it is
elastic, j/e,rible, tit;lit, tough, and inflammable."
Th e tN1ch er may then proe8ed. "To-day I "·:int yon t.o
filld out liir yo11r~P lv es somet-. bing more nbout iml1<1-r11hber;
but fir st·, l m11 st tdl you Ro rn ething about it which you could
[n!lia-ruhber iR the j11i1~ e of a
Out.A are rn:ide in the bark of the india -rubber tree;

11ot ti11d out for yo11rfd ves.

tree.

• Jn thi • :> nil t.he followin g th ree lessons the tellCher should Rim to sh,Jw
how the [»ittic11 lar uses of india-rubber, 81.m11ge, &c., follow from thei1
sp,.cial proverties.

96

on.rnr.'l'

LERRONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

thick crearny-fooking juice flow-. out, an<l thifl ~ets qolid nF> i\
rlries."

elicit fr om t.h r m the part.icular prope rties whi ch render
suitable for the sp~c ial purposes t o which it is put.

"Here is a piece of t'hiRsolid juice. I will put it int" this
tumbl er of wat er. Is it soluble or im1olubl e ?" Insoluble.
"\\Thy do you say in soluble ?" B ecause i:t does not di.•-

"What do we uAe Rponge for?" To imsh our farrs .
r•lrn11 n11r s/1ilrs.
Tf' ac/tf'r 1rn shf'.~ fh f' wrili11y q(/' thr bll/I'.
li oa rrf 1cith th e s1>011gr.
"Yes, we will say it is use<l for wn .~hing p11rp0Re8."
"C:1 n yon waRh y our faces with a dry spu11 :~e ? " No , 1
"111 .0 !. h11 re so111e 1tr1ter.
"You see, 1u1 I put this dry Apo n gc in 1.his b:1Ri11 of \\':il l'
it fi o:1ts on 1.h e top lik e cork. What do we say of it (
t.ha t il CCOllllt?" It 1:~ 1ir1ht. .
"T put this pi <'ec of i1Hlia-ruhber in th o water.
Cnn Y'
wuAh your faces with it?" No, it i,o too ha.rrl. It does 11

solre.
"You remember p erlrn.pR the other day I showed you that.
camphor diRsolveA in spirit, but not in watnr; an!l sn we
can dissolve indi a-rubber in turpentine or n aphtha. It
di sso l ves, howev er , ve ry slow ly. H er e is Rome in thi fl bnf.1'.]e
which I JJUt in y e. terday, it is only p artly dissol ved no w."
0

" One thing more about india-rubber. Here are pieces of
doth on which india-rubber has b een spread wh en dissolved.
Four chi ld ren shall bold one piece by the corn e rs, making
a hai:; in. I pour in wa te r; you see it does not p ass t hrou g h.
Perhaps yo u can tell m e about some a rticles of clothin g on
which india-rubber bas b een spread to k eep off the min
If e re is a hollow india-ruliber hall.
I fill it wi.t.h water.
Does the wate r get throu gh the india-rubhe r 11s it would
through d oth ? No. Th al; is anoth er ve ry important fact
abo ut i11dia-rubbcr, wa te r will not p uss tLrnugh it-it Ui
•oatetp rooj:''

LESSON

xv~

SPONGE.
.A RTTCT.v.s for illu stm.tio n :-Sponge, in rlia.-rnbber.

All children are familiar wit.h sponge and its use iu
wn ,ihing : t.h e teache r may th er efore Colllmence this 1P.sso11
by aski n g the children to enumerate the uses, and theu

/,l)/d irrtfrr.
"Yon lilrn th e spo nge rubb ed ov er your face beca use
iR- ? " Soj~ .
"Jlrn~ iA a Rn11cr r h alf full of wat.rr. I put this Rponge 1
t.hn 1<: 111<'(' !'.
Lnnk, th o wate r i., gn rw from 1.l1 e sa1n"'
\:Yh ere is it?" T/11' 8ponge has s11cked it up.
"TTnw is it that. th e Rponge can ~ nck up w:i1 r r wh en tl
111<li;1- rnhliC'r Cfl nnot. ?" Tli l' SJ>Oll[Jr' isjii!l q/' Iii/ le holr ·R, 111
th e i111li11- ri:l1/Jrr /i11s 1io holes.
"\'\' r ll, when anything is full of li1tl e h oles lik o th oR
what <lo we call it?"
1Ve call it porous.
" '\Vhat doeR porous m enn ? " Pull of l/ttlr lw!Ps.
" Can you rem embe r anythin g r]Re which is pnr1111R n11
whicl1 Ruek s 11p w11t.e r?" A lwfr!.:.
"Thc11 h nw nr c l'Jl"ll gr. rrnrl a brick alike ? " Th r!J arf! 110 ,
poro1r8, 1111 rl both. suck u;1 irater.
"Now can you tell 1110 :rnything in wl1icl1 1h<> Rp011g-c ai 1
a bri ck nre not alik e?" The 8['(111 [/C is 1'!11.,/ir', thl' lirif'k is 111,
" " ' hy <lo y o n Ray th e spnnge is elasti c? " Because
1pri11ys /Jack after bci11g squr('zerl.
TJ

!l8

HOW TO OTVE

OB.TECT LESSONS.

"\Vhy do peopl e , ·ery often squeeze sponge P" To gf't fh1
roaler otti.
" '\Vb en the sponge is pressed, how is its size altered P"
It is rnadr> smr1lla.
" If you press a brick crin yon make it smaller?" N o.
"\Ve h ave seen, then, th at, sponge is light, and 8oft, anrl
P/118fic, anil porous, tlrnt it suc ks up wa t.er, and that it can be
1•rt>ssed into a smaller size. I want you to r emember two
11 e w words. Things that Rnck up wat.fw a re said to be ab.~or­
l1Pn t . Things that can be squeezed 0 1· pressed into a small er
~ p : 1 ce are saici to be romprf'.ss1:h1e."
"One more thing auo nt sponge. \Villiam shall try anrl
tear it. to pieces. You see it does not tear easily like paper.
\.Vl1 At <lo we say about u thing when it does not t;ear easily?"
It i.s louglt.

THE~!.

99

cc Tf it wer e not el astic it. would not open out again and be
read 1· to take ttp fre81i water."
it were not soft it would lmrt the 8kin of t!u

" if

f1ryr/.11.,,

"If it were not tou g h it would tear to pieces and soon 1>e
/('() 1"12 all'Cl,1/.,,

The t.P:wh er Rhnuld n ow leaf! th e cl1il<lrrn to compare
~pu11ge and india- rubber with r egard to their proverties.

LES SON XVI.

CORK.

"You Ahnll n ow tell me again all you have lea rnt about
:;po11 ge."
" \V hat do yu u sn y of it because it fl on ts on th e wat.er ? "
It i.s light.
"Becn nse it doeR n ot hurt y our face when rubbed ove 1
it?" if is soft.
"Becau se it is full of h oles ?" ft i:s po1·0118.
" B eca u~e it suckR up water ? " It i'N ahRorl1cn.t.
"H ec:rn Re it can be made sm a ll er by pressing?" It ' '
CO i/i

Jll 'CR8l1i/f'.

" Bec:1use it springs back after being squeezed?"

Pi eces of cork Rhoul1l b e di ;it,ributerl to nil nwmlw r R of th e
1:l:i s.o, a nd t.h e tl':u.:lw r Rh ould gu id e t.h e childre11 in e xe rcisin g

tlit>i r perc Ppt.i H ' f:ll'11 If.i <'R to <li ~c ove r tl1e m orr-~ prorni nent.
q11 aliti cs of eo rk . It, is liylit, soft, e/(l.stic, compre,s d1le, and
i111JH'1Tious to w11 \.l'r.

It is

ela8f ie.

"Yon can f'Ce TI ()W h ow the propPrt.ies of s ponge m ak e it
uRc ful for wasl 1ing.' '
" If i.t, ll'et'e not /?Ol'Olf,Y an<l absorhent it could not suck 1111

tlie

A N U MIJ F. H of olrl boll.le - co rk s , a piece of the l 11trk of I.he cork - tr<ie . R
pi ece o f \ ,, , rk of' so 11 1e ot. he r t ree, n. ' 111 " II woOL! on 1loll , :1nd ll glass
vess'l l of witl••r " ho uld h r_1 to b a111l fort.hi s les8on.

8 Pcondly, a pi ece of uncut. cork should be comp:i r ed with
t.h e bark of an ordin ary tr eo tm d t he Ri111il arity pointt~rl out,,
>1.n<l tho ch ildrrn1 11rny f hun be told that cork iR th e ou t.er
1·nv erin g or fJ11rk of :1 tree ; but that the cork-tree d oes not
g row iu this coun try.

1ca f p,r-"

" If it were not Culllpl'e~s ibfe we could 11ot squeeze out tlu
rllrl!J 1rnler."

Thinlly, the t p:rnh er will show h ow its special pro1Jf•riieA
tldapt it for cert a i 11 /l.~e.s.

98

ROW TO OTVF: TTIRJ\f.

OR.TF.OT LESSONS.

"'\Vhy do people wry often Rqueeze sponge P" To gr.t fhi
wafr>r out.
~
"Wh en the sponge is pressed, how is its size altered P"
It is made smalhr.
" If you press a brick cn n you make it smaller P" No.
" We have seen, then, that. spo nge is bght, and soft, au<l
,.fa8tic, a nd porous, t.l1at it sucks up water, and that it can be
pressed into a smaller size. I want you to remember two
11ew words. Things that 1rnck up water are said to be al1.w1·/1f'nt. 'l'bings that can be sque0zed ot· pressed into a smaller
~p:1ee are Aaid to be romprP.ss£Me."
" O ne more thin g about; sponge. William shall try and
tear it f·.o piece~. You see it rloes not tear easily lik e paper.
\Vhat. do 11·e say about a 1bing when it does not tear easily?"
It i8 tough.

er

99

H it. wen~ not elristic it. wonld not open out again and be

take up fresh water."
" If it were not soft it would hurt the skin <?.f tlu

ri:lad )' to

{!Qr/y."

"If it were not tou g h it would tear to pieces and soon 1'e
U"orn away."
The h~:wher Ahnnld now lea.cl the chilrlren to compare
sponge and iudia-rnbber with regard to their prnperties.

LESSON

XVI.

CORK .

"You Rhall now tell me again all you have learnt about
sponge."
"\Vhat do you 8ny of it because it flouts on th e water?"
It is li11 Id.
"Bec:rnse it does not hurt your face when rubbed over
it?" It is sqft.
"BecausfJ it is full of h oles? " It is porou.~.
" Becat1Re it sucki; up water ? " It is absorhcn.t.
"H ecause it can be made smalll'r by pressing P" It i~
rXl 111fl /"l'88 ih!P.

" Because it springs back aft,er being squeezed?"

Pieces of cork should bP distrihuted to nll memlwrs of the
cluss, aud the tmc her shou ld guide t.he children in exerci~ing
lheir 1w rccp ti vc f:i c 11lti1 '~ to di~cover the more prominent
qu aliti es of co rk . It. is Li,q /Jt, .~q/t, elastic, co1npre88lblf1, and
i111peri:io11s to w" 1L' I" .

It is

dri8tit:.

"You can Ree now how the properties of sponge make it
useful for wusliing.''
" If it were J)()t. 7101·011s and a/Hwrhf'ld it could not 8Uck ttp
the

A NUMn P.n of nlrl boftl e -r.nrh, a piece of the ho.rk of the cork -tree. A
piece of' li ri rk of' sn111 e ot hnr fr efl, n smn 11 wootl en tloll , und a glas8
vessel of W:l.t" r ~ 1ioul1l hn tu b awl for this l es.~on.

Secondly, a piece of uncut cork ~ho11ld be cornp:1red wit.h
t.h e bark of a11 ordinary trefl a nd the similarity poi11terl out.,
and the children may then be t.old that. cork is the outer
(•overing or f)l(rk of :1 tree; but. that the cork-tree does not
g row in this co untry.

1n1ff1r."

"If it wcrn not co1111J/'e1m'ble we could uot squeeze out llu
•lirtu 1mter."

Thirdly, the t each er will show how its special propl'.rt£e~
adapt it for certain 'lt81Js.

100

OBJECT LESSONS.

H OW TO GI VJ~ '!'HID.I.

a. A11 "1 toppers for bottles.
Tt is co mpres.sililP, and can thns, whf'n properly cut, be
pressed or forced in. Show this by experitneut.
L et the children notice that the cork is larger than the
opening of th e bottle, and then press it in.
It is eln.~tic. Show t}rnt the neck of the bottle mcreases
in size from th e mouth downwards, and how th e cork presses
out and fills th e n eck.
This fixes the cork in tightly and
prevents the liquid insid e from getting o ut. An old champagne cork will show this ad mirably.
It is impen1i"o11s to water aud oth er liquids, h ence th e1:<e
cannot escape from th e bottle.

101

LESSON XVII.

LEATHER.
Prnur:s of lrnt hrr of difforent kinds and t,hicknesRes, fln old "kid"
g lov 11 , nn old lmi f,Jwr purnn, a nd an ol<l s hoe or boot, will L>e u se ful
for t:his lesso n.

•..

Th e tc:ich er may proceerl so mewh at as follows:"Her e nre 1<om e pi P.ces of leath er. I will g ive P.ncb of you
a Bmall pi ece. Take fl1 e lt>:itber in your r ight. l1a11ds. l:)hut
ynnr eyes and hold the lt'athe r 111 ~n,r yo ur no,.es. "
"How cau you tell leath er with your eyes shut?"

'mell.
b. Its lighfn f'.~8 mnk es it -valu able for the constru ction of
life belts and jack ets to k eep people from sinkin g in the
wate r and being drowned.
f:l oats for fi shing-nets.

Also for making lifeboats and

This propert y and ul'e mrty be pret.tily illu ~ tratP d by taking
a w ooden doll and weighting it a li t tle in the feet just suf~­
cient t? m ake it Rink, and then s upportin~ it by a ring of
cork used as a life- belt., or st.rips of eork tied round the body
illustrating a cork jrtcket.

c. It.s li:glitness and mmnth make it suitable for inn er soles
of b0ots .
The c hildren will r ead ily a ppreciat e li g ht hoots and warm
fee t..
Advantn go rn n.y he t.ak en here to in culcate carefulness in
keeping the feet warm and <lry to prev ent illuess.

" Henrl the len.t.h er . \Vhat. can you say about leath er
becan"e it bend" easily?" It. isflrxihle.
"C,rn you t ear it? Try." 1Yo.
"Th en what p]Re cnn yon say ofl ea tlwr?" If. is tong!t.
"I pnt. my piece in t.hi R g l:i Rs of wat.er. It d (IOR not si nk.
Th en what t·nn yon sny of i t"?" It is li,qht.
"Re pPat ng:1i11 the t hree thin gs you hav e told m e about
lea.th er?" It is / 71•,r/M,., l o11!fl1, r111d lir1ht.
"\Vby do we say it is toug h?" ll1wr:11.se it dor.s not tea1
eri.s£l,11.
"And wby tlr1 we say it is fl exible ?" BPcause it i8 f' llsily bent
"}fore is an olrl sboe.

Wh a t iR it. made of?"

It -is made

o1f lrrilhe1-.

" 'Vhy d o we wear shoeR?" To kel'P tlw .f!'rt 1crtrm.
" And for what. eli;e ? " To kf'" 11 tlw fr' et dry .
"vVh at din we say of i111lia-ruliber liecause it does not a llow
water t o pass tl1ro11gh?" It i s 1l'{ffr>1·p roof
,
"Anrl wh a t. <lid we Ray of cork because it <locs not allow
liq11i<lR to p : 1 s~ through P" Cork is i m7if'rr£o u.• to tNtter.
" You may rem e rn her that impervious fo 1l'rtler and 1wlf.r·
proof meci 11 th e t• :ime tl1ing."

102

n ow

OBJECT LESSONS.

"Boot1o1 and shoes, whr n not. too mnch worn, \ eep out, tho
water. What more, then, can you say about leather ? " It
is waterproof.
"That is not true of leather when very thin; for water will
pa1<s t.hrou g h a kid g love and wet the hand; but it is true of
t,he leath er we use for maki ng boots and shoes."
"You h ave n ow t ohl me that l ent.her is .ffNri'.ble, t.n11.qli,
Now let us see how these prope rties
of le11th er make it so use fiil for making boots and shoes."
"Leather is ft ex ihle ; but so is th e st uff my dreRs is made of.
vVhy would not that do to m ake boo ts and sh oes?" B ecause
it would let in the 1mfr>r.
"Yes, but. th en I might make t.be shoes of iron, they would
not let in the water ? " Tlu•y icould be too hertt·y.
"Well, then, why n ot use wood?" They icould not bend
and icou!d li urt th e .fret.
"Paper is fl exible and light.. ·why not use paper?"
BN>. au.ge it 1rould not kPep the 1.crder out . It icould tear easi(lf.
"Now t ell me the several reasons why l eather is good for
rn 1tl<i11 g hoots rind sh oes? " Bernuse it isflexi/J!r•, and does not
lw1·t tlw f r!d. Because it is tough, and does not u:ear out verv
q11ickl!J. B rcrruse it i"s light, and dors not tire the f eet. Because
it is wate1prooj, and keeps the.feet dry and warm.
lig!1t, and waterproqf.

Th ere is one other property of leather to which attention
should be dra wn; t.b at is, that when placed on or n ear the fire
it frizzles up, nnd presently burns. The children m ay be
ta u ght a lesson from this, not to put their boots or shoes too
nea r the fire when they wish to dry th em, or tr· warm their feet.
The teacher may deal with its ui;,efulres@ fer gloves, &c.,
in a similar way.
Th e children may also be told that leather is mo.de from
skin s of animals, but the process of manufactun slioul<l bi=
reser ved for a later stage.

~-~-------

--

TO GIVE THEM.

IO;J

LE SSON XV III.

INDIA-RUBBER, SPONGE, CO RK, AND LEATHER

(A Comparison).
T111~ t im ~

of on e lesRon may now he ocnupi ed in tli e cmnpa riso n of the properti ef' of i11rlia-r11 hber, F: pnn ge, cork , a nd
leathf'r, not, onh ns a spec ial exerci>'e in cou1pari so 11 and
claRA ifi catio11, bnt, also as a k· ~ t. as to how far th e teachin g
h as bfle n effee t.i ve .
In no cnse sli o1il rl th e scholars he told how th eRe Aubstan ces a.re alibi or unlik e; but, if n eePs;;:i. ry, reco urse mu st
he a.gain ha d to examination a.ml experim ent.
The followin g are the chief points of lik en ess which should
be eli cited from the chilrlren':-All the four sn bRt ances a re fiqhl ; but s ponge and cork are
li g hter than ind ia-rnbber and ] p:i t lier.
Indi a-r ul1her, Aponge, awl cork are alike in bein g P/rr.~fic
and comp rr8siblr ; hu t. Rponge is more compressible tlm n co rk ,
and cork than i11rl ia-rnhber.
India-n1'1ht>r , Rpn n ge, n.nrl !en t.her are alike in bei11 g- fn11.11h
1md jlr>
x£11 /r•.
India-rubber, cork, arnl !Pathcr are lik e in bei1•g w1tlerr1roof Or i r11J1f'1"'C il!l18 to water .
India-rubber and cork are vegetable subst.irnces, and are
very inflai1111111b!R.
Sponge and }put.her are animal ~mbRtances; they frizzle up
when placed on t he fire a nd do not burn easily .
The followin g amon g oth ers are points of diffe rence whi ch
may be hron g ht forward : Spouge is ahsorf11•nl, t.h e of her :=; 11 hs t.:1.nce~ a re not absr1rben t..
Sponge is J10rn11s, but i11d ia-ru bber and leath er a re nonporous.•
" Cork is poro11s Hiso; L111., as it 1e 1100-absorben t, liql1i ds do not pllBfi

throu gh

--~----'----- --· - -

--

104

011.JECT LESSONS.

llUW TO GIVE THEM .

Cork differs fr nm the other Hubstances in n ot being lottgh.
Leather is twn-ela~ti'c, the other substances are elastic.

l (\,">

LESSON XX.

LOAF SUGAR, ALUM. SODA, CAMPHOR , CHALK, STARCH
ETC. (A Comparison).
LESSON XIX.

WATER. MILK, PARAFFIN OIL, ETC. (A Comparison).

THE agreeme11ts and differences to be elicited as before by
obser vation, examination, and experiment, as far as nece1:1·
sary.
The three substnn ces are alike in being liqw:ds.

TV11ter.

Milk.

Tnrnsparen t.
Colourless._
Tasteless

Opaque.
\Vhite colour.
Sweet.

J:Vatrr.
Tm nspan·nt.
Colourless .
'Vitb out, smdl.
No11-in£lum111:1 blc.

Pr11"f(ffin Oil.
Trani;ip:irent.
Colourless.
Strong unpleasant. smell.
Tl ighly inflamm a ble.

Paraffin oil mny he sh own to be lighter than water by
pouring a little of both into a t est-t ube; the oil will rest on
the top.

M i lk.
Opaque.
Sweut.
Sl igh t odour
Non-in flammable.

ParaJfin Oil.
Transparent.
Bnrniug, and should not be tasted.
Strong u11pleasant sm ell.
Highly inflammable.

Other liqu;ds, such as spirit.s, vinegar, ink, &c., may alsn
be compared with the foregoing and with each other.

Tm~ agr~em!-'11h~ a.ml diffi·r<•nces to ho elici l,ed u.s bt"fore, by
observat.ion, exam i1rn tin11, a11d exl'oriment.

Lonf 811gnr.
'Vhi t.e colour.
Brit.de.
Sweet. f.aste.
Gra 11ular.
Soluble.
Fusible.

Chn1k.
"Vhite colour.
Britt.le.
Tasteless.
Crumbles to pnwder.
In soluble.
Non -fusible.

Rough.

Smooth.

Camphor.

A1"m.
Oolnnrl ei;;s, b11t white
powrl er .
Tran spar1' 11t.
Solu ble in "·nf cr.
llongh taste.
OrlourlN>s.
lnf11sil1le.
Does not burn.

I ll

".hite colour.
Opnrpt e.
Imoluble in water.
Burning ta-te.
St ro11g odour.
Jnfo si ble.
H ighly inflammable.

In powd e r, white colour and

Alum.
Colourless.
Jn powd er, white colo\tr and

opaque.
Rol11 ble.
fufnsilile.
Britt,le.
Sali n e tnste.

Soluble.
Infusible.
Brit.tie.
Hough ta sto.

8 ru1ri.

Colourkss.

opaque.

Other s11 l 1 ~ ta11 ccs m ay be similarly co111parcd.

oi:.rncT

FOURTH STAGE.*
and cmnpari11nn are the dominant feature in
thiR as in tb e preceding stages; but more new facts are
introduced and useful information is impa rted about some
of the com mon n eces~ari cs of life. In the "first lesson s 011
m:rn11factures" only sucb subjects are taken as can be
illul'<trnted without difficu!t.y.
It iR probable that by t.110 time this stage is reached th e
chi ldren will have learned to read, and the chief points of
the le11son should be wri tten on the black-board as they a r e
brought ou t.
Th e subjects d ealt with are(l.) Colour: shades and tints of colours.
(2.) Form : the circle, sphere, and cylinder.
(3.) Measures for dry goods.
(4.) Properties of bodies: malleable, tenacious, du ctile.
(5.) Common obj ec ts: com mon Ralt, soda, alum, camphor,
sulphur, snow and ice, wool a nd cotton, a nd pins and needles.
(6.) Manufactures: bread, butter, cheese, starch, paste,
&o.
0HSERVATION

LESSON I.

COLOUR.- SHADES AND TINTS.-t.
children should be provideil with cards, or paper, or threads of
wool of the following colours: carmin e, yellow, blue, crimson,
scarlet, pink, rose, and flesh colour.

LESSONS.

107

bow tho Tott.or a.re prorluced from th e fornH' r. Th<·y bavr
leurn <'d, moreo ver, t.bat colours may be light or durk.
'I'he teacLer may now proceed to show the cornposition,
and to give the n ames of some of these li g ht and dark
colours.
But as the varying "shades" a.nd "hueR " and
"tint!!"• are i1rnnmorable, wbile the nam es given th em ar <'
. very limited in number, and not very exnet., it will he l1est
for h er to coufine he r n.tt.ent.ion to a fe w of .the more common.
Th e general effect oI mixing darker or li g bter colouni "i th
any particular colour must first he shown by ex pPri111 cnf ..
The resulting colourR are seen to he darker or light er.t
'l'<'o ch er, holding 11p the sta nclard reel [carmi111'] 1rnks : " \\"hat colou r is this card?" R ed colour.
"lf 1·re is a noth('r r ('rl. lA it <lark t> r or li i:rhter ?" .Dr1rker.
"\\' hich is the darker colour, hlu e or red?" H/111· colour.
"JI I mix a li ttle hlu e with th e bright r od it makes this
d ar ker colour, which we call erim-<on.
"8how m e your r ed card. Now t.h e crim l'-nn.
"How is crimsou m ade? " JJ.I/ in i.1·i11u a little h!11P u:ith
br£uht red.
" S how m e your y0ll ow card. vVhich is the dark er colour,
y ellow or r eel ? " Rl(f 1:0/011r.
"If I mix a v0ry lit.tie yellow with bright, rl'tl it makes
this new colour, " ·l1id1 we ca ll 8carfl' t.
"How dn I say scarlet is fonud?" By 111i.ri11y n little
yello1c u:it!t /wight 1wt.
"Now plnoo the thrne r o<l 011rds in o. row, th e d11rkoi>t. first,
then the bright r ed, t.h en the lighte8t.

THE

The children at this stflge are supposed to le ahle to dil'-tingui sh all th e primary and secondary colourR, and to te ll
• Suitable for children of from about

61 to 6t

rears of Rge,

• A .•hnil~ i• •nmotimes nrnl erstoorl to hn,. colo nr mR.rl c dnrk Pr b~· th o A•l ·
ditinn of anot.111 ·r nnd dnr kQr colour, whilt-1 a ti,,t is a col1>11r 1Hndc mu ch
li ghter by the nddit,ion o f a n,,th er Rnrl li g hter co lour. \Vh cn "slig h t eolonr
i• seen in ti•ldi t ion to t h o pri ncipnl co lour it is call ed a t wge or a lt.ue. Btt
in pr,.ctico those term~ •ire u sed indiscri mina.tely.
t The prod11ctio11 of tho parti1.,1h r shnd es nn1l tints r eq n ircrl wil l ho fonnd
~ o m cw h • tt rlitli r. ult, nnrl l'"Jl" r or '''"" ' patt .. m s, 01· tbrcaJs of wool, rnny be
118ed instead of paints.

OBJ !!;CT LESSO NB.

108

••What is the name of the lightest?"
"And of the darkest?" Grz'm.son.

ROW TO GIVE THEM.

Scarlet,

"Now if I t11 ke a little crimson and make it very light by
mixing white with it we get another very pretty colour.
Here it is ; we call it pi11!.:.
"In th e same way if I mix white with a little bright red
we get rose colour, 'and if I mix white with a little scarlet
we get. flesh colour.
"How can we make a pink colour? " By mixing white
1vith a httle cr/1118011.
"How can we make a rnse colour?" By mfrri11g white with
a lit/lf' liri[Jld red.

" H ow ca n we make a fl esh colour ? "
with "· lilt le

Sl'(I

lJy mixing white

rlet.

"Show me vour sca rlet card.

Now the colour which we

rnAke from Rca~let. by mixiug pl enty of white with it.

"Now th e bright red colrrnr and the light colottr we make
it. Aud now the cr i111 son card and the light colour we
make from it."

i"rom

The teach er mu8t continne to exercise the child -·en in
"matchiug" and selecting these colours uu til satisfactory
r sults are achieve~.
0

109

r11'.1cl1 on t.lie intelli gence anrl previous trnini11g of the
Rchola.rR. The method to be followed will be similar to that
of t;he last lesson, and cardA, pnper, or threads of wool must
be provided accordiug to the colours brought under notice.

Th e following ar e among the more common shades of
yeJlow, blue, orange, green, and purple:Y1-:1,1.ow, rt primary colour.
Chrome, a rich bri ght pure yellow.

Srr,(/i·o11, fo e col our of the -saffron flower, a derp yellow
wi th a tinge of red.
S11!;1lwr, th e colottr of Aulphur, a yellow with a hl11i Rl1
t iuge.
C(l11 r1r,11, t.h e co lour of the canary bird, a li g ht chrom e.
L emon, the colour of t he lemon, a yellow with a blue
tinge.
Stm10, the colonr o-f straw, a pure li ght yellow.
Primrose, the colour of the primrose flow er, a very
li ght yel low.
Floxe11, th e colour of flax, a pale t int of yellow.

Bum, a primary colou r .
U/tr(l111 rrri1111, a fin e rich d rep hlue.
Indigo, a deep blue with a tinge of red.
Prussir111 h111c, a fl eep bl11e with a tinge of ~reen.
Violet, the blu e of the rainhow or s pec trnrn.
Sky-blue, a light blue, the colour of the cloudless tihr _

LESSON II.

COLOUR.-SHADES AND TINTS -2.

T11F. tim e of t.his, and probably one other l es~on, may be
occupied with di stin g ui shing and naming the more com mon
shades and tints of yellow, blue, and green. The extent,
how~w er, to which this suhjcet is pursued must cl0pe11d very

a eeconnary colour, a mixture of y ellow and
red, the colour of rt ripe orange.
A1ilnrr11, a dnrk red orange.
H1!f!; a li ght; y cllowiAh orang-e.
S11b11011, t.he colour of tJrn fl esh of the salmon, a light
Grunge with a gulr1 en t.inge.

ORANGE,

110

n ow

OBJECT J,F.l'lSONS.

a f'econdary colou r, a mixture of hlne and :vellow,
the brighte11t grass green.
Olire-green, the colour of the olive, a dark green.
Bottk-green, a dark y ellowish-green.
P ea-green, the colour of t.110 p ea, a li ght green.

GRP-F.N,

a second ary colour, a mi xture of r ed and blne.
Lnrender, a purple ma<l e l igh t; by mixin g white with it.
Lilac, a purple made lighter by mixing white with it.

PURPLE,

LE SSO N III.

FORM.- CIRCLE, CIRCUMFERENCE, CENTRE, RADIUS,
DIAMETER.

l'ms lesson sh ould be int.rodn ced by a few questions cnlling
to mind th e lessons on form in the previous stages. Thus,
usin g the blac k-board:"Wh at is the name of this fi gure
A square.
"What kind of angles are the angles of a square?" R1:g/tt
angle&
" G ive me th e n ame of an other figure which bas four right
angles ?" An oblong.
"How m any sid es has an oblong?" Four 8irles.
"Wh at ki nd of lines are the sides of a sq uare or of an
oblon g? " Sfraight line.~.
" ·wha t is the n ame of this figure 0 P" A circle.
"How many lines bas a ci rcle round it?" Vne line.
"What ki nd of line is it?" A curved line.

liJ ?"

"To-day I am about to t ea('h you somethin g
the cir..:le. We will fir st draw one. I place
board fl a t. on the table, drive in a small
near
and t;ie a pi ece of striug loosely on the nail.

91

more about
the blackthe centre,
MtLry shall

TO GIVE THEM.

Ill

'low talrn t.he ot.h f'r Pnrl 0f tbe st.rin g a nd a piece of rbnlk in
ber ri g ht. han d , awl, walking round the taule, make a l arge
circle.
"I will n ext <lraw three or four straight lines from the n ail
to th e cur vPd lin e which forms t.h e ontsi<le of the circle.
Can yo u t ell mo nnything about t.h eRe lin es ?
Let us
rn eui;ure tl1 ern. Now tel l rue?" T hey are all of t!tr smne
lr11gth.

"Tn what part of th e circ:le iRthe nail?" In the middle.
"YP8, and \1·c c: 1l l th e midd ]., Ly a. nothP.r name- the c11ntrc.
"Th e line ,,. hich goeA ro1111d the circle we call by a 10 11 g
11 un1 e- t.he clffU.11~f, · r P11cr.
" l<::i ch Ii nc w Ii ich we l1 ave clra wn from th o ceu tre to th e
circurn f'1 ·rn nce is call ed a rndius.
"I will n ow take out the nail and rn nke the cent.re of the
circle with tho clmlk, a nd th t•n drn.w a lin e t hro11 t:>0-h th e
centre from one side of tl1 e circle to th e ot.l1 er. Th is line,
because it goPs quite through t.he circle, is called t he di11 meter.
Th e word dia111dPr m ean s mwsure tltrough..
"On r mor e point.. \Ve sorn rt i ri1 es say tfo1 t. th e lin e which
forms the cdgi· of a fi g ure fimwds t.h e fig1;re-; that is, it. sh owR
bow far th e fig ure f'Xt<' ndl'l . Th e w ::i J] ;; of t hi R n •om show
how for t.110 r o0 m ex h · nr1 ~ , they ure s:i id to hou11d the room.
"H ow mnny sides bo11nrl a ~quare ?" Fo 11r sir/PS.
"'\Vli at na111e do we give to th e lin e which bo111;ds th e
circle?" Th e circw1!f 1·r('11c1'.
"Where doPs th e lin o calJPcl the diai!U'tn· beg in f'" It
h1•gi11s r1t ti/Ii circ111n/'erl'11t'e.
"A rnl wh ore does i.t e11 rl?" It e11d8 at thP airr1t11!/r' J'P11re.
"And what po int, <1 oes it uiways pass i.bro11 gh P" It JHIRSr~
tl11"011gh the rl'11fr" of th(' rirde.
"\VhPrP d"l'S the liue ca lloJ t.he radius Legi n?" 11. beui11~
at lite centre

112

HOW TO 0 lYE THEM.

OlJ.TECT LERSONS,

"And where does it end P" It end.~ at the drc1em/Prl'11Cfl.
"What part of the diameter is the radius of a circle?"

LESSON IV.

FORM .-SP HEKE, CYLINDER.

l'he radius is one-half the diarnetm·.

"I,ook at the clock-face.
~hape

What is its shape ? "

The

of a c£rcle.

"Yes, and when a thing is of t.he shape of a circle we Ray
it is circular.
" \Vb nt shape th en ifl the clock-far e P " The clock:face i~
cireular.

"And what can you see on t.lrn clnek-foce which looks like
t.he radius of a circle?" Tiu~ !11rwls.
"\\Th ere are the hands fix ed?" In Urn ce11f.rA of llie
dock: face.

" You see a black line d rnwn rcund j~ist outsi de the fi g ure1.1.
What. nam e do we give to that line?" Tile circuinferewP.
"What is the shape of this penny ? " Circular:
"And of this biscuit?" Circular.
"And of the t.np of this inhtaud?" 0£rcuJar.
" Of this plate ? " Circular.
The iesson may be fu:-tb er illustrated, if necessary, by n
drawing of a c:ut-wheel, the box, spokes, and rim representing resp ectively the centre, radii, aud circumference of a
circle.

A.'3 mnny eph~rical and cylindrical bodies as can conveniently be
obtained should be pl1tee1l on the trible.

"T-kre nre marbles, orange~, a11d balls of sewing-cotton
Ilow are th ey all alike?" T/;ey lu1i;f' rill the same shape.
"And wh at. sbape ha,·e they?" l'lwy are ball sliaped.
"I will give you another word which means round like a
ball; it is 8]!/if're. And when we want to say 8phere sl1ape,
we use th e word sphrricrrl. Therefore you may say that th e
marbl e~ an<l oranges are sphf'rical in Ah:ipe.
"Give me t.he 11:1111 01> of other obj ects which are Rpheric:i l
in shape." I1ulia-r11/;bf'r ball, apples, cherries, curra.ul8, ~c.
"!fore is on :1ppl e. I will cut it int o hnlveR. Now, if th('
whole apple is a ~phore, what muRt; the half be?" A lw?f'.
sphere, or tlw ha(( of a s11here.
"I will give you a n ew name for !ta(( n.f a .~17 !1 r re; it is-11f'mi
spl1ere. lle111£ means half; then !trmisphere means haff of a
sphere, or half of a ball.

"vVh at is t.be shape of I.he half of an ornn ge?" Hrmi'..~p!wre.
"How rnnny hemi spheres does it take to make a sphere?"
Tiro

Ia.<.itly, the children should make circles on their alntes
u,nd draw diameters and radii.
• Thev may be meaa11red by a

'

113

ech o l~T.

he 111i.~pl1 l'res.

"vVhat is this [h ol1li11 g up a cylindricnl ruler]?" A round
ruler.

"Y 011 sn.v round ruler.

Is it. round like a ball?"

No, it

is ro1111d and !011g.

"Loqk at. th e ends rt11d tell me their shapes." The ends
are fla1: and circular.
"Here is a sheet. of p:1p,·r. Can any littl e boy or girl mnke
t.his paper luok so mething lik o the round rul er? No one!

115

Ofl.JEC'l' LESSONS.

HOW TO OJVE TH.EM.

vVell, how do people mnnage to carry home large sh ee t~ of
[h1per? " Th ey roll thmi up.
"Now, roll up this sheet of paper. You see it looks like
the ruler in shape, and I can use it. for drawing lines.
"\Ve use a long word to describe the shape of things
whi ch look as if th ey were rolled up, like this ruler for
inRtnnce ; it is cylinder. \Vben we wish to say things are of
the shape of a cylinder, we sA.y tlrny are cyl£ndrical.
"These are not easy words, but you m11st try and remember
them, because we find so very many things of this shape.

mrnRi11'f'R Are mnRt R11it-.nhle for mea~mring solid boclie~. anrl
eartl1 e11ware, glaRs, or metal for liquid.~ .
Wooden measures are less li able to be broken than earthr nware or ~ln ss , nnd are much ch eaper than met.al, and TnlLY
he k ept suffi cie11t.ly clean for measuring S€eds, &c., without
mu ch wa shing.
On th e oth e r hand, wood en meaRures cannot well be kepi
sufficiently cl<'an for meaAuring liquids, whi[Rt. eart.henware,
g lass, aud mf' t: d are cl eansed with but very lit.t.le trouble.

"Let. 11s look about. tlie room to find things cylindrical in
Hhape. The legR of the fable, the lf'gs of the chair, the gaspipeR, the et.ove pip<', lead pencils, pen-hold ers, the poker.
"Now think of thin g~ ~· ou have seen at, home which are
cylindrical in shape." Broom-handle, candle, blind-roller,
somP hollies, pi11s 1111d n rrdles, ~·c.

sh~u ld

LJ4.

LESSON V.

MEASURES FOR DRY GOODS.
PINT, qnftrt, gal.Ion, peck, ftnd bu~hel meo sures are nece~sftry for
this lesso11. If th ese cannot be procmed for t.he occasion, it will be
better to postpone the sulij ect till a. later period.

TLis l f's~nn should be in troduced by a rapid recapitulation
of Lesson V l. St.age III., anrl the measures then uRed fur
liq 11icls, viz. th e pint, quart, and gallon, should again be
brnught under the notice of the children.
The corresponding measures made of wood will next he
shown, and the children may be led to t!ee why wooden

The next higher nwnR11re for dry gondR-viz. the pccknow he introd11t1)cl, aml the chi ldren must learn from
actual experim ent. that. two gallons make one peck.
'fhe bu sh el will n ext be dealt with, and m a similar
manner.

Questions Rhou]d follow to !:ltrengt.hen nnd t.est'lrn owleffge,
t.h11s: A peck is eq11al to how many gallons? How many
gu llonR make a half-peck? How rn:rny pPcks make one bu shel?
How many gallons mak e a bu sh el? How many quarts in i.
bu shel? How many pecks in a hnlf'. bushel? How many
gallons in a liall'-bushel? and so on. Recourse should be
had to e:xperirn ent where n eeessary.

Tf the tench er can now int.rorluce basket measnres so much
the bet.I.er; and the chil<lren may easily be l ed to see why
bask et measures, whi ch are cheaper than wooden, suffice
for measuring p eas and beans in pods, apples, potatoes,
&c., whilst t.liey are unsuitable for measu1·ing flour, wheat,
pens, seeds for birds, aud so on.
Lastly, the teacher may ask tb e cl1ilclren to f'nnmeratP
nticles so ld by measure nnd by weight. Of course the
1rnswer11 will depend very much on local oust.om.

ll6

now

OBJECT LESSONS.

TO GIVE THEM.

117

lead for co>ering l1 011 ses, lead for making water-pipes and
gas-pipes, copper and silver for drinking and other vessels,
iron for making kettles, saucepan s, nails, &r., gold and
silver for covering oth er ar t.icl es, such as drinkin g- vessels,
fork E<; picture-frurn es, and tin for making tin-foil for
wrnppers .

LE SSON VI.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES.-MALLEABLE AND TENACIOUS.
PIEO'F.S of lead, copper, iron , gohl-leaf and tin-foil, gla•s, marbl e, and
nin t, or as mnuy aR poRs ible of th ese substtLnces, sh ould be provided.
Alm a lnrge stone, or block of wood, to Rerve as nn 11nvil ani! ll
hamm er.

RP<mpitulation, as uAnnl , hy question and answer should
follow.

Take the pi ece of lend, and, after asking the children to
note itfl shnpe, g ive it three or fo ur smart blows with the
hammer. The change in form will be at once evident to th e
sch olars ; it is spread ou.t or flattened.
[If t be n ecessary appliances are within r each, r ed-hot iron
may be treated in th e same way.]
Next t.ry to fl atten a piece of flint.• It breaks into a
num ber of sha rp j agged pieces; it is brittle. The lead which
<loes uot break into pieces, but which spreads out under
beatin g, is said to be 111ri/INr/J!e, a word whi ch means can
be (1ea t en 01,t with a mrdlet or lul!lw1 er.

L ESSO N VII.

PROPERTIES OF BODIES. - DU CTILE AND TENA CIOUS.
As m nn y difl'rn, n t kin ds of wiro of vari o 1t~ • izes a s can rofld ily be
obtn in od will be u su ful in ill11 strntin g t hi 8 lesson.

ii What do we "'ny of gold, silver , lea d, tin, anrl iron because
thev can be h L~ <1 t· e 11 n1tt iuto th in len.veA P" Th ey are malleablf..
,; H ow is ii: that th e~e bodies can be beat;en out wh en chal k
and gla ss and ston es cannot?" B f' causr. tl1 ey !told together.
"\Vh at word means holding together?" T enacious.

A copper veAsel-a Ba ncepan or a k ett.Je-will se'rve to
show th e malleability of copper; and tin-foil, silver-foil, and
gold-leaf will illustrate the extreme mallrability of tin, silver,
and gold.

"There is anof-.lwr property whi ch th ese bodies possess
which I want you 1.<1 learn about to-d ay. Can you give me
the 11nme of tlwse pi eces which li e on the table?" They are
TJieCt>S of wirn.
"Here is a piece made of coppr r. Two little boys shall
oorn e to tbe tnble and try and break it. You see they cannot break it either by pulling or twisting. ·w hat can you
say of it?" I t 1'.s rer.11 strong.
"Yes, th e copper holds together very firmly, it is-?''
Tenacio11s.
" H ere is another pi ece of wire. ·w 1iat is its colour?"

Secondly, the mall enbility of gold , sil ver, tin, iron,
lead, &c., dep1mds on another proper ty wbicb th ese objects
po1-<sess in com mon-they h old together firmly , and so are
said to be tenacioHs, a word which means to hold fast.
Thirdly, the teacher sboulrl direct tbe attention of the
ch ildren to the particular i1ses to which these obj ects are put
following on the property of malleability, sucb as zin·c and
• Care must be tnken to protect the chi ldren from the flying splinters.

Whil e colou.r.

_______ ______·-- -- - ...,...._

-

-

ll8

OB.TEG'T LESSONS.

" Yes, it is made of silver.
"And here is another pi ece whi1·h I c:m cut with a pair of
scissors or a knife. vVhat can you say of it because we can
easily cut it?" It is soft.
"This soft wire is made of zinc.
"Here are several more wires of diffPrent thicknesses;
they :ue llll made of a kind of iron called 1Jteel. Tpey are
very strong.
"Tom !>Lall come and find the stoutest .wire, and James
the tbiuneAt or finest.
"I must now tell you that all these wire!' are made by pulling the copper and silver and st.eel throng!:. holes. You will
learn how it is dom: in & futun les~c.ri. But I want you to
rem ember now t1ht hil thus!-. · btJclit~ whi<:1 <:1>1.J be drawn out
into wirec &.rt said t<, Lt ctuctd6."
I
".Looking at the steel wires, what property can you say
steel has?" Steel is d.ucti/,e.
" ·what, do we mean when we say steel is ductile?" It
can be drrricn 01d into wi1·e.
" vVhat three properties do silver and copper and steel
possess in common?" T/1.elJ are malleable, tenacious, and
ductile.
" Gold is also very ductile, and lead and tin are ductile;
liut lead, zin c, and tin are not. so lmacious, and so the wire
made of these metals is not strong."
The teacher Rbould now elicit from the cliiltlren some of
the uses to which wire is 1l11t, and why; and then recapitu·
late

us

w;ual.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

11!.

LESSON VIII.

COMMON SALT.
AnTTOL1':!! for illuAtmt.inn :-Table salt and rock-salt, with the spiritlamp and evaporntiug-d ish.

A lnrgc lump of cl ean white salt ~ho11lfl ho pl nP-r rl in full
vi ew of tbe clnR~, and the scholars should be 1lirect.erl in the
first pl:tce to tell all th ey have learned in previous lessons
about this important and n ecessary article of food.
"To-nay our leAAOn is on salt. Let me hear how much
you al ready know about salt.
"'Vhat can you learn aLout salt from looking at it?" 1 t
1:s of a white colour.
" .B y tasting it?" 11 /i(ls ri ta.~f(' whir:h tee ca.It :salt.
"By feeling it?" If f., hrrrd rmd rnng!t.
"Can you tell me what makes it feel rough?
"I will hanrl .vou some smnll pieces. .Look at thrm very
olosely. How does the salt differ from chalk ? " Sal t i8 matfr·_

up of tin!! bifa.
"Yes, and we call tbei<e tiny pieces grains, and salt is said
to be granular hccause it is made up of t.iny grains.
"Give me th e name of another white substance which is
granular." Lorr/ sitgr1r.
" \Vby do you say loaf sugar is granular P" B f'1:riuse it i~
mrrde up ol h!tlP gra/11 8.
"If you look at the littlP grnins of Ang-ar and salt again
you may see that they "shiue" or sparkle, and salt ano
sugar a re said to be sparkhng.
"If I strike tbis lump of salt with a hammer what will
happPn ? " Th.e 8alt will brerrk fo piecf's.
"'\Vhnt pn1pcrt.y do we Ray salt pm;sesses hecamie it breaks
into pi eces wlH"n st ruck with a hamm er?" Salt is brittle.

L20

"As I go on hammering the salt you see the pfoce" get
smaller and smaller, and now it is fine like dust. This we
call a powder.
"We use powdered salt to eat with our meat and potatoes.
\

HOW

OBJECT LESSONS.

"Suppose I put a piece of salt into water, what happens
It dissolves.
"Vlbat do you mean by disRolves ?" Breaks up into wch
811/all pir'ces that we cannot set tltem.
" ·w hat do you say of salt because it dissolves in water P"
rt i11 8aid to be soluble.
" How can I tell that there is salt in this water?" By
tri.sting tlie 11'1tler.
"Do you remember how in a forme r lesson we got the salt
back again in little grains ? "
Yes, by driving away the
1wter.
"How did we drive away tbe waterP" By boilitng.
t.o t.he salt.?"

"I wo11der if you have ever thought• where does salt come
from?' I will tell you: it com es from under the surface of
tbe ground. In some places there are thick beds of salt
underground as tbick, or thicker, than the school-room is
high. 'l'his kind of salt is called rock-salt. Here is a piece
of rock-salt. It is not clean and wbite, but you can tell by
tasting it tbat it is salt. You know how often it rains. Well,
a good deal of the rain-water soaks into the ground, and where
th ere are beds of rook-salt the water disRolves some of the
sah. To get salt, then, people either dig out the rock-salt
or pump up the salt water.
" Y011 can tell me how the salt is got from the wator P "
The 1cater U1 boiled away from the salt.
"I dare say many of you little boys and girls lmve heard of
the sea, perhaps some of you bav e seen the s<>a. If you were
to taste sea water you would not like it, becauf:le it is very

'ro

121

GIVE THEM.

snlt 11nd not 11ice t.o the taf:te. People get salt from sea
water by driviug away the water."
"You can tell me what salt is used for P"

To eat wd/1

011rfoorl.
"Can you eat. aR mncb salt al'! you eat potatoes?"

No.

"How dues it ma.kc you frel wh en you eat much salt?"
Thirst 11 .
"S:;]t. is uscrl to mix with our food to mnke it t nste nice;
hut th ere is a1101ber reason wby we eat salt, we should soon
be ill if we ate no sn lt.
"'Vhat are the two reasons then for our eating salt?"
To ma/.·p our food ff/!dP 11ice, and to keep us 1cell.
"Salt ba~ another use; wh en rubb ed on meat it keeps it,
sweet. and fit to eat for a long- time.
"C:m yo u tell me t.he nn~es of Rome things we eat wbicb
have bee n s<illc1J ? " Fish , brrj, bacon, ~c.

"One thi11g more I want you to r ememher . Sh eep, and
cowR, a nd horRe,, , :rnd other animals are very fond of salt;
and it. is good for anirna18 to have t.heir food salted, just at1 it
i11 good fo~ us to eat salt with our food."
I.ESSON IX.

SODA.
A ~UFFlf'mNT (l_llnntit.y of Ao<ln, th o Api ri t-ln.mp nnrl nvnpnrnt.i ng-rli•h ,
little greaoe or oil, a bas in of water anrl a lowel should be provided.

11

As in the previous l<JRson, the chil<l ren sh ould be le<l to
discover 1hc more obvious properties of soda by t.l1e exercise
of tbe senses, aided hy simple experiment, Thus it is transr;arent• and colo111'1c.s8. it is hard, brittk, and smoot!t and
• The white pnwdt)r on lhe oul•i<le must be

1·em0Yed

by wW!hiug.

122

1'23

on.rnCT LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

very unplea8ant to the taste. It is very sol11Mf! m wi1ter ;
but is not jiisible.
When expose<l to the air a while opaque powder forms on
the outside. This is dry soda. The transparent colourles11
article contains a large quantity of water.
An inter esting ex periment will show this. Placed in the
evaporating-dish over the spirit-lamp, tho soda appears to
melt; in reality it is dissolving in its own water. If t,hi s
water be slowly evaporated off, the white dry powder is left.

The teach e r may t.Ake a pi rco of alnm and a pi<>ce of sndn
from which the white opaque powder has been rl' mnrnd, und
lead the children to institute a comparison between the two
substances.

"Whnt. nicl ~·0 11 learn by looking at it?" S oria i11 fra11spare11t and co/011rl1·s8 .
"What by feeling it,?" Soria i8 hard and smooth.
"vVhat by tasting it?" The lrt8tf1 of .soda is not nice.
"What by hf!mrn eri11g it?" Sorlr1 i8 brittle.
"\Vhut hy pntti11g it: in 11at-.er?" Soda is sol11hlf.
"vVhat by heati ng it. ? " The 80dn boded : the irntcr U"(lf
drirrn o//' and a 11'hifr> 7w1nlrr was l~P heh£nd.
" vVha1: did we r.:oll th e powder?" Dr.11 .soda.
"Now taste a little of the pieces I have given you. D res
it tast.e like soda?" JYo.
" Eat a little more. How do the tongue and the roof of
t.h e mouth feel?" R01.if;h.
"\\Tho can tell m e 1.lrn n:1me of t.hiR Atuff?" Alum.
"Hight; now I want yon t.oremcrnber that t.lie part.icul:1r
f·a~te of alum is call ed 11stri11ge11t.
.You will filll1 out. other
thi11g!l by-and-by whi ch l1ave an 11stri11ge11t taHte."
" How are soda and alu 111 t,he11 unlike?" Tl1cy ore ·1111 /ikr
in taste.
"Now you Rhnll t.ell me how they are nlike. Finit loolc at
t;he pieces. Th ey are both trans71arPn f and colonrlr•sg.
~·Feel the :il11rn.
Lik e soda, alum is luwd and wwotlt.
I ha.rnm er a pit'ce. Lik e ~orla, alum iR brittle.
" Lp11t a little in '''Hf« )r. Lilrn so<la, alum is so/11/J/1' in
water.
"Now we heat some over t.li e spirit-lamp. Like i;;oda,
it hnils, t.b e wut.er is drivt'll off, 11.11d dry :il111n iH le ft
b1·l1i11d.
"Look nt thiR dry almn; feel it. It is hard. 'This dry
alum is solrl und e r tbe ll:uu e of lm1·1d alum ."

"To-day our lesAon is to be on a substance very much lik e
soda. You shall finrl out for me p resently in what. ways
they arP. alike: but tirst you must tell what you learnt abou1
soda.

The teacher may now show by experim ent two other
interesting facts ahnut alum.
1st. Articles of clnt.hing, Ruch as cloth and calico, steepccl
in alum wate r and t.hen rlried, are very difficult to burn.

It is not advisable here to enter into the q11 estion of the
rrnrnufact ure of soda, or of its uses in the arts and m anufactures, but the teacher will be able to elicit from the children
its use for cleansing purposes. Its power of removing greas~.
may be illustrated. Allow a child to rub a little grease over
its hands and then try to remove it by washing in water
on l_v. Add a little soda to the wate r, and the grease is easily
removed.

LESSON X.

ALUM.
SUFFJCrnNT

alum sboulrl he provided

for

ench ~cbolar to have a smail

lump.

124

onJECT LESSONS.

2nd. That olum dissolves• much more freely in hot than
H ence, if boiling water saturated with alum
be left to cool, alum deposits in crystals. If the cooling
be slowly conducted large crystals may be obtained. t
Reference will be made to the uses of alum in tanning,
dyeing, calico printing and paper making, in future les:;ous.

in cold water.

LESSON XI.

CAM PHOR.
for illustration : a piece or two of camphor ar.d a. little
"spirits of wine."

ARTICLES

The more obvious properties of camphor can readily be
elicited from the children.
By sight. It is U'!iite in colour. It is not quite opaqu e
and yet not transpareut like soda or al um. It is llatj or
semi-transparent.
By feeling. It is hrrrd.
By taste. It is bitter and u-np1erisrr.nt.
By smell. It has a strong peculiar odour:
By hammering. It is tough.
By placing in water. It is lig!it, and insoluble! in water.
By contact with a flame. It burns readily, giving off
much smoke.
Heated in the evaporating-dish. It does not melt. It is
infw>ible. But it flies off into the air like steam from boiling
• A pound of boilin'l' water will di•solve a pound of alum, while it requires
about eighteen pounds of quite colJ waler to dissolve the same weight of
ulum.
t T1tke eome emall article mRde of wire, su ch ss n bask ~t, cover the wire
with worsted, place the baRket in 11 hot saturated solution of nlum, and leav~
it to cool slowly. In a day or two a pretty crystal basket will Le the result.
! Althoug h apparent,Jy insoluble in water, sufficient of the camphor die·
•olves to give to the wat"r its pt ruliar odour aud bitter t.asLe.

HOW

TO GIVE THF.l\I .

125

water. Tt. iR sai1l to be volrr.tile, a word whi ch means .fll!ing
v.ff.
The experim ent suggested in a former lesson [Stage III.
Lesson XI.] may be repeated here. It will impress on the
minds of t.he children the fact t.h at su hstances may be helrl in
solutiou althu11gh W• ' cannot see tht'm.

LF.SSON

Xll.

SULPHUR.
A STTCR'. of 8nlph11r, 11.nd sulphur matches are th e rrqni~ite n.rt icles.

This lesson sh ould be de:ilt wit.h in a manner precisely
similar tot.hose imm ediately p receding.
Sulphur is of a bri11ht r;dlc1c colour, it is lasfdess aud without s11i1' //, except when rubbed, it is hard and brittle, heav,IJ
and inwluble.
Sulphur iR fu s1Ue ; but there is B peculiarity in the pro-cess of f'u sin11 wh ich giv es an interesting experiment,.
Heated in a t e;;t tube, at a litf.le above the boiling-poi11t of
water it ch an ges to an orange liquid; heated a litt.le more it
thickens f.o th e con ~ i s te n cy of treacle and its eoluur clrnn geA
to a deep red . In th is stat.e, if ponrefl into cold water, it
Forms rnft and elastic hut solid threads, which aft.er a tim e
becom e brittle.
Snlphur is inf!mnmrr.h11'.• It burns with a blue flame, nn<l
a suffocating poisonous gas is th o result.
This gas p oss(' ~ses th e power of b/('llchiug many articles.
• Only a s11111ll p"rti cle nf a11lphur should bo uurnt to ~how Uie coluur of
the flame and th e peculiar smell.

126

12'.'

ORJECT LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

A rerl rose 'vill lose most of its colour if h eld in tLe fumes
of burning sulphur for a minute or two.•

t.l1e pfon ts; and th e ice which covers the water serVl'S a
similar purp 1>11e for the fish and oth er anilllals whi ch live in
fo e water.
Th e children will he interested to lenrn that in some very
cold countries the people live in hou ses made of 11now, an<l
that lumps of ice serve for windows.
A rongb A]rnt.ch of a !'now-house may be drawn on t.he
bl11ck-hnnrd, anrl t.he children may be a;.ku<l to describe how
these h ouses differ frorn our hou ses.

NoTB.- -The time of another lesRon may be well otoupi ed in compRring salt,
soda, alum. camphor, and sulphur, as to points of agreement and difftirence in
th eir prope1·ties.

LESSON Xlll.

SNOW AND ICE.
fnr this lesson eboulrl be select.eel - a 'l'intry dny wh en
covero the gn,und and the ponds and lakes a.re frozen over.

'l'HE ocrri.<inn
RDOW

LESSON XIV.

Th e leRR<m may be intrnrluced by a simple conversation
on what the childre n hav e seen on coming to school-the
t;reeR, hou ses and fi elrls cover er! with snow, boys sliding on
the ponds, others throwing " snow -balls," .&c.
From 1hi11 conversation the teacher may lead the chilrlren
to com pare snow and ice wi i h regu rd to their propertiefl.
Both feel eolrl; both melt in the hand and become water, so
that we may call ice solid water, or water liquid ice. Snow
is S({ft and light and compressible, hence its suilability for
making snow-balls. Ice is li,ght and hard and brittle. Snow
is of a pure white colour. Ice is tra11.sparent and colourle.s!J,
and looks like glass. Ice is also smooth and slijJpery; hence
wh en there is ice on the roads we must be careful bow we
walk. Boys should not make .slide.~ on the roads a.nd pa.tbs
hecfluse tbey may cause peo jJle lo foll down and hurt th emselves.
The specinl mies of snow and ice may now be pointed 011! .•
The snow, although cold in itself, keeps tbe cold wind from
• This experiment should onl y be attempted at the end of the lesson, when
the room may be emptie,J, and the windows a11d dool'S opened for a few
miuutee.

~·

-

- - ·-

- · ~------------.-.._

COTTON AND WOOL.

•

A l1TICI.ES for illustration : Raw ~otton and wool, ~ewing--cntton and
worsted, talico. fl an nel , "loth, togeth er with any other u.rt,icles made
of cot.ton or wool J'(;acly to h a. 11d .

Tl1 e teach er ma.v in the first place lea d the children to
in Rtitute a cornpari~un hetw0e11 raw cottou a1Hl'raw wool.
Both are ll'hite in colour, so/l, ii,qht, ela8lic, and absorbPnt,
and both fePl 1r:rtn11.
··
They differ, however, in t.he fa<"ilit.y with which they can
be burned. Cotton burns readily; wool frizzles up and
burns wilh diffic1ill.y.
The sourr.eR of cotf,on and wool will form the l'lecn11d division of the l e,,~ on .
The children will know tb at wool ie. obtained from the
sheep, a nd tl1ey muRt be told that; coti.on is the soft covering of the seed in the pod of th e "cotton-plant." l£ in
season, it pod of the" broad bean "inay he taken to illustrat.e
the pod , t.he seed , a url the woolly material which lin es the
pull. Or au illustration of th e cotton pod may be shown.

___ ____
--.:'.....,

______

......,.....

..,......,__,,...,.,..........._...,,_...,,,,....,,.._...

128

HOW TO GIVE

OBJECT LESSONS.

Tbe tencher may h ere de~cribe, in the form of a simple
st.ory, "sheep-washing" and "sheep-shearing," and this
may be followed by a series of questions, such as the following:" vVhy are the sheep washed before they are sheared? "
To make tfte wool c!Nrn .
"I told you that the shearing took place at the b egi nnin g
of summer; why would it not be right to shear the sh eep in
winter?" BP.cause the shf'f!Ji •coitldfeel vr·ry cold.
"vVhen do you wear great coats and warm cloaks?" I11
the winter.
" And when do you l eave them off?" In t!iP 811111mer.
"vVb en you wnnt a new coa t how can you get it? " By
buying it at the shop.
"How does the sheep get her new coat for the winter?"
It grows on tlte sltePp.
" Can you t ell me what would become of the sheep's great
coat in summ er if it were not shorn off?" No.
"Th e n 1 will tell you: it would come off bit by bit, and so
be wasted."

" 'Vhat 1fo we uRe pins for ? "

LESSON XV.

PINS AND NEEDLES.

l';l1owing a large pin, the teacher may proceed.
" What ie this I nm h olding in my hand P" A pin.

To pi11 or .ri1den t!1i11ys

tOgr' llt a,

In th e third pince the teacher may show some of the
chief articles made of cotton aud wool, ns enumerated at the
head of the lesson, and inquire as to their uses.

EAo:rr child should have a pin and a need: ::i.

THR~[.

,·,

" How is it that the pin goes into the cl0th nn<l calico so
easily ? ~· Brf'f/11s1• it has a slw1·p point.
"\Vhat, is there a t; 1;he ot.ber end of' the pin which pre vents
it from lrnrti11g- yonr finger when you Rtick it in?" Tlte lirvrrf.
"Look at. 1li e pin 1 have gi ven yo1t . \Vlrnt elRe ca n you
t.ell m e aho11t it. ?" ft i8 .~fu'11i11g. It i.~ 8frrr i17ltt. It is smoof!t.
It is /lflrrl. It llffs 11 1tl1ilP r:olo11r.
"vVhy mwit 1h e pin be smooth?" To 111rrke it go tliroug/,
fire dol/i., ~()., ras1/1;.
"The pin has a head and a point, n.nd the p 1rt bet,ween
th e hem! and t.he point we call the bod y; what is the shape
of t.11 0 ho(ly of the pin? " Round.
"I want. a rnore correct anRwer than t.hat. \Vbat is the
shape of tl1is ruk: r? " Cyhnrlriml.
"Ancl t,h e pin, although smaller, is of tbe same shnpe. No"
what i'l the Rhape oft.he borly oft.he pin?" Cylillflrical.
'.'Tell me how a needle difft•r:> from a pin." It ltas ai1
ryf> ; Intl 110 ltr•flrl.
"\Vhnt. iR t.he eye? " A small It ri/!'. tlu·c11gh t/1e 11Pr1/l1J.
"'Vh ere is t.he eye?" Nl'rrl' llw r. nd oprosife to t!tr 11oi11t.
"\Vhnt. is the 11~e of' the eye?" To holrl the tl1rcwl when
it i.~ br•i11r1 p11 //,.d tltrmrr; lt tltr' 8lt(/f in sr1cing.
"vVhat is th e shnpe of tlie body oft.he needle?-'' Cy/£11rfrirnl.
"\.Yhat sort of a point has a needle ?" A .,!iaip point.
"I can bonrl a pin, but. if I try to benrl a llc!edlo what
hop1wns to it?" It brroks.
"Th en wliat. do you ~:iy ahont. the needle becau se it Lreab
wh e n you try to lw 11d it. P" It is brittle.
"And w]rnt about t.11 0 pin?" It is tough.
"\Vhat do we uRe for fastening yonr cloth es together
besid es pin s? " Stri11gs rmd b11tlons.

131

OBJECT LESSONS.

HOW 'l'O GIVE Tlllm.

""' hi ch do yon th i11k is the better to use, p: ns or but. tons~"
Butt nus.
""\Vhy?" Becau.se 1cf! 111oy prick our fingers tedh tlte pi11s,

It lrnR r:it.hf>r a sour smell too. Mary Rhall mix a little
bit of thi" yf>nRt wit.ha littl e bit of sugar. Now we mm1t
add th e water. But. the wat.e r must not be quite cold.
"Now we have mixtures in two basins. vVhat have we in
t.h e first one?" Flon r ai1rf. a t£ttlP. salt.
"Aml in th e 1wc1)11(l oue?"
A little yrrrRt and 811(/(11' 1:11

130

or the!J may be bent a·wt tlte clot!te1J come uiifastened.

l11f,.,•1rr11·m u·rtll'r.
L ESSON

XVI,

MANUFACTURES - BREA D.
WHEAT, flow er, sa lt, y('a•t, sngar, warm water, rlo11 gh anil tliu necessary bas ins, •µnon~, &c., should boat the di spu•al of tLe teacher .

Attention sl1oulrl be cn ll ed to t.he arti cles on the table,
;md the c hildren muy be usked to nam e such as they know .
The te:Jl'her Rh o11ld thf'n give the subject of · the lessou, viz .
"How bread is rn ud e."
Firi;:t, the prepara ti on of flour from wh eat must. be illu straterl. One c hild m ay c ru sh a li ttle wh ea t with th e pestle and
mortar, and two oth e rs m ay •i f't. tl1e rnixtnre through coarse
mus lin. Th e flour will pass through, and the coar~e bran
will be reta in ed.
Seco11dl.v, t.h e necei•sa ry in g r edients a r e to he mix ed in
propPr ord e r, anrl th e pro\'ess should be uccompanied bycon versat.ion and question and answer, thus:
"I put tbe fl our into t.his basin. Here is an oth e r white
powder in this sau cer. .Ja ne shall taste it. and then give me
itR nam e. Yes, it is s:dt:. 'l'ake a little and mix it with
th e fl our. Stir well with t he spoon .
"1-l e r. i iR someth in g P!so. James shall taste it. and th e11
g·ive you il R name." ft £s s11.gar.
"And he re iR another sub~tance which perh a ps you h a ve
uever ::.een before. It is cu.Bed yeast. F eel it. It is soft.

"S:irn h may now ponr t.hP. mixture of yeast. a nd l'! ugar
anrl \Y:tt:er i nlu t.h e li:i ~ in co 11t:1i11i11g th e flonr, mid. 111ix all
tn~ c th c r wil.h t.h e large spor•11.
A11cl uow I wnnt. a little
irirl \Yl10 l1 as ve r y ck: 1.11 lwwl s to con1 e n.11d mix itwit.h th em .
f, o"k at li er. tihe is kneading, and the mixture is now called
rlnlf!Jh.
"Now the rl onorh iR well kn Pnrl f' il, and it 11ho11lrl be put by
for a\.011!; t wo h~~ll'H in a warm place. If we could wait so
lon g for it trnrl w:dc ·h it, we 11h o11 lrl see it get larger anrl
larger and hig·her iu th e b:1Rin 1111t;il perhaps it ran over. It
is t b e y<':1.•t 1\· e p u t. in which makes the do11 gh rise and
Rwell in t.he h:1si11. \VP. c:mnot wait to see tbe d nui;th ri R°e;
lJ11t; 1 have a pi ece in this pl ate, whi ch I got from tl1e bak e r's.
Th e bak0r p11t it; t o risf! this m orni ng. I cut it acr oss. '\Vhat
clo you see ? " T!tr• dong!t. is jiill of tittle hof<?S . It is poro118 .
"J will sprinkl e it wit.It fl ou r :rnrl knea d it ng:1in. Now 1
e ut the do11 g li into f:\yo pi eces, roll t h e piPces in to balls, set.
the f' 111all<·r bnll 011 t.he larger, press the b:dl s toge t:h er anil.
the fo rt /' i R 111 :1(l e .
"But l<te •k at t.hil'! loaf of bread: it is like the loaf of
do11g-h?" .j\'o.
" \ \Thnt. m11 • t. he clone wit.h th e lon f o f dough t o m a k e into
brcarl P" it 111.11st lH~ balced in an oven.

"N:1 111 e

al l th e

thingR we used for making flongh.'.
awl s11gar.
"Of \I ' hie h of th ese did we use a ver,.1 lit.tie?" Salt, yeast,

Fwtl1' , 1mfr' I',
(l/ld 81(!J ll l'.

srifl. ?fPt181,

-

~-

-

~-

~

--

', .~ , -~·, ·• ,.. c;.; '. ·~:.,.~:.,: ·._:, ;. ~-;~- .'
•

132

now

0 R.JECT LESSO NS.

~';.O;'~;ff..,~

TO OIVF. THE]\[.

-

103

"Which rlirl we mix first?" The flotw anrf .•rrlt.
"And what kind of water did we put the y east and sugar
into ?" TVarm water.
"1\-That is the mixing with the hands called ?" Kn eading

is, allow it to r em 11 in quite still in sh allow• pallB for so me
bo1mi, a nd all the nice cream 1·ises to th e t.op. 'rhis is
skimm ed. I h a ve some in this tea -cup. Here it is. You
see it is thicker than milk.

If time perm it, th e iPacher m ay elicit fr om th e sch6lar s
the prope rties of brea d, and contrast th e pru]Jerties of thf'
c ru st wi t h those of th e crurn G.

"vVe will try t.o O'et a lit tle butter fr om thi s cream. First
of nll I mu ~t ; a nnbit a little ; thi1;1 I can do by stn11di11g the
cup i11 hot water. I n ow take thi s li t.tie hun ch of tw ig s and
beat th e c ren m fo r Rorne li t.tle tim e. P erlw ps ~n m e li t.t IP
g irl would like to he lp to ITl'lke butt.e r. N_ow we ~1t1. ve. 1w~1 f'
little lnmp ~ of butt nr swimm in g ahout. 111 a thlll liq111d.
The thin li q ui d is call ed butterinillr.. Peopl e somet.im eR
drink butt er milk, a ud sometimes it is g iven t.o pi g8 to drink."

LE SSO N XVII.

Ml\NUFAC1URES.- BUTTER.
ARTJCT,1'8

for illu stration : M il k with CH'l•m 011 it ~ Hnr-face, cream , and

butter.
" Be fore we begin our lesRon t.o-day I want you to give
me th e 1rnrn es of some o f th e things you had for breakfu s t
thi s morning." Error/, brtflr'1', frrt, co,f!i'e, f'f/{/8 , milk, .su,qar.
"That wi ll do; n ow those who h ad but.ter for breakfast
tell m e wl1 ere it was put?" It was sprecul 011 the brrad.
"A nrl where was t.he milk put?" Info the ~f'<t.
"vV ha t. is t.h e colour of butter?" Ligh1 yr/low.
"C'a n y ou see a ny yell ow butte r in t.hi s milk ? " No, tli f'
m£lk ltas a wltite colour.
"And ye t I must tell yon tbat this milk h as butter in it,
yes, and ch eese too. And to-day I am goi n g to show you
bow people get butter out of milk. Anoth er day I will
show you bow clieese is mncle.
"First of all look at. the milk int.bis gla~s. Can y~u see
anything 011 the surface of th e milk?"
Y es, cream.
"Why do you think the c ream 6 ses to the top .of the
milk ? " Becmrse it is lir1Mcr than t11 e 1·f'sl of the milk.
"\Vhen people want to muk e butter, th ey set the milk, that

The teach er may now lead t.h e chilrlren to see how incon venient and what h n.rd work it would be to heCLt largfl quant.ities of cream bv th e h and on ly , and so t.h e cream is put
into a machi11 e cail ed a churn , wh er e it is sh ak en abo ut. un til
t.h e butt.er co mes. Tbe but term ilk is preRsed out. of the
butte r , the Ju.tier i A w>v1h ecl in fresh cold water, a nd sal ted ,
and is t h en fit for u Fte.
L as t.Jy, t.hn teacher , by t.be help of experim ent, may eli cit
fr om th e children th e spec ial p_rope rties of butter, together
with its ch ie f uses .

LESSO N XVUI .

MANU FACTURES. - CHEESE .
for illustration : So ur, sk immed, 1rnd uu akimmeil milk . and
litt.le renn et.

A RTIOLV.S

a

Milk, if le ft to it;Relt for a sh ort t.im e, b ecomes sour, and a
part of it c111'(1tcs or becomes a kind of white j elly, wh ich we
• 1lxpl1iin by comparing a en11 r.er with a tea-cup.

•.

184

now

OB.JECT LESSONS.

call c11rd.~. The liquid in which the curd11 float is callwl
1cl1ey.
,
The sour milk should be exhibited to show this, and the
curds may be separated from the whey by straining through
a cloth. The children may then be told that this mass 0£
curds, when pressed into a hard )ump and all the whey
squeezed out, is called cheese.
Cheese mnrl e from th e cnrdR of Rour milk is not ni<'e to
Lhe taste, and so we get. the milk to curdle in anoth er way .
The milk is first warmed a little, and tlnn a liquid• is added
.,hich causes the milk to curdle at once.
'l'be teacher will illw;trate this by experiment, and separate the curds and whey.
On teR ting, the whey will be found to be sweet, showing ·
fhat it contains sugar.
A comparison of curds and cheese will show that a colouring mntter and salt. have been added to the curds.
Skimmed and uuAkimmed milk may be experimeuted upon,
and th e teacher will point out that the curds in the latter
case t11 ke the butter with it, and so the cheese will be rir·b or
frrt. The cheese from Rkimmed milk may be callL·d poor
cheese.
A recapitulat.ion of the chief ingredients in milk, and a
cnrnpari11on of the properties of butter and cheese, will complete the lesson.
• Rennet, mnde fro~ the inner slcin or" calre •tomach, is commonl;v nsed .
llilnte nci<I• will u.11Rwer· tlie snmfJ purpoRe, althongh of com»e lL e ac1tls will
r~ nder the curds a1.11l whey unfit for food.

135

TO G.IVE THllM,

LESSON XlX.

MANUF ACTURES.-STARCH.
ARTHJLES

for illustration: Flour, a potato, sturch, water,

1t11<l

pieces

of muMlin.

I

Show the children a cuff or a collar which has heen ma.de
stiff and smooth hy means of starch, a.n rl compare with
a.not.her whi ch has been wa sh ed a11d iron ed without Rtarch.
Dust and dirt do not stick so much to the on e a.s the of;her,
nnd AO it lrnqJs cle:m longer.
Ask the children what their mothers use to make the
collarR, &c., sf iff canrl look so nice ancl smonth, 1inr1 then proceecl fo f'lhow by ex per im ent how sf.arch is made.
"IT ere is some whi te powder; you Rawi t, th e other day wh en
I showed yo11 how bread iR rnnde. What is it?" Flou.f'.
" And h ere is some starch. How are starch and f:lour
alike ?" Tltf'.IJ rrrn both ~(a wl1ite rolour.
"A ml how do t.h ey differ?" The flour is in a powder and
t!te 81!lrrli is in small /11111118.
"IVJ1:1.t if! fl our mn rle from?" It is rnorlPJi·"m wherd.
" Y eA, aml fl nu r is a.lAo marle from rice. .People make
sf.arch from f.h e flour of wheat and of rice. I am g·oi11g to
show ynu how it. is do11 e." •
Tie a small quunt.it.y of flour in a muslin hag. Place in
a basin of wnter, ancl work it. well with tbe fin gers . Th e
st,11.rch pat>Res out int.o the water and gradually se t.t.les 011
th e bottom of th e Vl'Rsel. · .A litt.le of the starch prepared ir.
tbiR wfly beforehunrl and allowed to dry will appear us a
bright white granular powder.
The chief pn•porty of Rtarch, nnd tl1n.t on which its use
• The teRch••r mny :il •n Rhow how st.arr,h i.• made from potnf,no"s. Take a
clcrtn p•Jta t o, r:i•p int o fine • lnc•rl.•, mix well with water, ancl pinc e on :t pi ece

of At.rntch ed mu slin.
st u..rch.

Th e milky liquid whi ch passes th1·011gh contaius the

136

On.T ECT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE fll!Uf.

in the launrlry depe11ds, viz. its solubility in hot water and
its becoming hard and dry under the bot iron, must next be
shown. It will add to the interest of t.he lesson if the teacher
can prepare a litt.le starch and show its application on a
piece of linen or other suit1tble material.•

N ext sl1 ow Hrit.ish gum. British gum (or dextrine) is
&imply starch ba.kerl in all oven which is not hot enough to
scorch it. Gum prepared from dextrine has an unpleasant
sm ell

LESSON XX.

MANUFACTURES.- PASTE, GUM , GLUE.
ARTICLES for ill11 ~trntiou: Flour, gum, Britis h gum, glue,
wall p!iper and a few pieces of wood.

I\

pi oP-e o f

Exhibit a piece of wall paper and ask the children wh ere
they have seen paper something like it, and thus elicit the
nse of this kind of paper and how it is fastened to the wall.
T ell the cl1 ildren that the paper is fastf'ned to the w11 ll
with paste made from flour, and th en proceed to show how
paste is made,t and to illustrnte its use by pastin g the paper
on to the bl ack-board. As the paste dries it hardens and
fastens the paper to the wall.
Wh en we wish to stick small pieces of paper together we
nse gum. Show the specimen of dry gum imd tell the
scholars whence it is obtained. It oozes out from certain
trees, 1md on drying becomes hard and looks like beads of
glass. Show liow the gum is prepared, a11d illustrate its
use by expPrim ent.
• Th e iron must be eufficiently hot to dry the starch at once or it sticks ,
h11t not o vnrhettle<l eo RB to scon:h the m1tlerial.
t 'fh A fl ou r mn•t be mixed with cold water; the wnter must be a<ltl ed
gradua lly, and th e flour well stirred. until it assumes t.he consistency of thirl1
crearr•. Then slowly pour on boiling water, stirring vigorously tho whole
~i.we. On cooling, the paste thickem and looks like j elly.

!:Ji

PaRte and gum do not bold firmly enou gh for st.icking
together such thin g:'\ as wood, and we use glue. Glu e is
marle from hoofs nnd horns and Ak ius of anim als by long
boiling and then drying. ·Prepare glue, and illustrate its
use in mnking furniture, &c., by sticking pieces of wood
toget.her. Let the children try to eeparate two pieces of
wood f:uitened together by glue which has become hard .
L astly, call attention to the common propert,y of paste,
gum, and glue, of being st1ck11, and holding thiu 0 s firmly
~ogether as they g et, <lry,

onrnc T J,F,RSONS.

'1'1n\ f<> :ll'h <' r Al1 n11ld i11t.rnd1icn t.l1iR lPsso n 11 ·i1h ft rapid
recnpi t;11l:it i11T1 of t.l1 e lPsso11 s 011 colu11rs in t.lrn pn: \·i1H 1R stages,
and tben call at.tent·ion to the vari o us articl efl on t.he table,
or in the hands of the c bilrlren, h avi ng colours different
fr om any previously considered.
FIFTH STAGE.•
T1rn Fifth Stnge comp letes the coun'<e of "SyAt.ematic
Obj ect Lessons" for infant. schools; but with t h e ass istnn ce
of similar lessons, and a recapitulation of some o f t he
preceding lesson s (du e 1·egard hei ng- h acl to tl1i:i diffe re nt
Hgt's and c11pacitie8 of t,h e scholani), will s11ffi ce
for
St:irnlard I, and in pt•Or n eighbourhood s and in vilh1gc
E<chools even for Standarrl IL It will be seen that th e
lesRonR on min erals, m etals, an d t ext.ile fabrics are s uggestive rather than exha 11stive.
The following are the snbj ect·.s of this stage:(i.) C9lour-irregular colourn.
(2.) Form-rbombs, rhomboi d, p entag .. 11, &c., prisms,
pyramid~, 1rnd cone.
(3.) Time, and how we m enAure it.
(4.) Minernb, coal (coal gas), graphite (lead [H'ncil s), cla}
(bricks, pottery, &c.). LimPstone (lim e 1111d m ori.ar).
(5.) Tb e com mon lll et.als, their properties aud uses.
(6.) Tex tile fa l.rics.

nrown is <'. ompo•<>rl of rrd, !fr/loll', anrl Mr1r·!.·, or rn l, yP!lo1r,
and li111P. in various proport ion !!. 1n dark hr01011, th e \.Lll'k
or t.he blue prerlo111i11ates ; in rle1'/> Ul'O\\'ll the red; aJHI i11
fight hn11vn the y e ll ow.
Gr<>y is m ade hy mixing ll'hifr :mrl blttl'!.: nnrl. arltling- :1
little rPtl, .l/"llow or h/11('.
The ftdl uwi n g ure t.he more comm on o f th rR1• colo11rR;
they may he dra lt with in a way simil a r to tbat i11<licatcd 111
form er lessons on co lo11 r.
B1tnWNR.

O/i c8 !1111f, a

d:irk

sh:1rl e of hmwn, tl1 e colnur of a

chPi'lt.n n t.
Oho1•0/11i1', a rh rk rerlrlif<h brown, the colo11r of ch<H'olate.
f::J111((/: a dull yellow-brown, the colour of snuff.

C:lnrf' l , a purpli sh , Jig-ht. red brown, the co lnur of claret.
])1'(1/J, a

Vf'l'j'

light-. d11ll brown wit.h a yellow tin ge ..

S toue colo 11r, a very li g ht tint of brown.
gltP.YR.

LESSON

1.

IRREGULAR COMMON COLOURS.t-BROW N AND GREY
P1 ECES of paper, 8i lk , cloth, n.nd thren il s nf Berlin wool 11.nd any otlicr
a.rticles g iving the necessary sb.n.d '1R, hues, or tin LR of brown aud grff!j,
may be brought iuto m e for illuRtrnt.in g t his lesson.
• Sui ta hie for ch Jrlrn1 of fmm six to seven yem·• of nge.
t See int.rod11 ch ry n•,t.e, Leeeon IJ . Staf'e TV .

S/11/f!, n hl11iRh-gTr.y, 1>n m et im eR r mlcli ~ h , th e co lou r <>f the

stone.
8/Pel, or iron c11lo11r, a. dark b lui s h- g )'(~ y,
I'cal'l, a very li ght. sil rn r.Y grey.

140

Oll.J.ECT L.ESSONS.

L ESSO N

II.

FORM.-THE RH OMB AND RHO M BOID.
A " nox of Forms" Rhou Id fo rm a p o rtio n of the rtpparatus of every
infant sc hool ; but la cking this, rh u1111Js, pcllLago us, &c., may be cut
from ca nllioard or paper.

'l\ 1king the Rqu are and tb e oblong, already well known as
istarti ng-points fur other plane Vi g ures, the teacher may proceed as ff>llnws : "I 11:11·e here two forms [ ~ h ')w in g square and rhomb J which
I wi sh yo u to look at car cf"ull.y.
" A re tlwse formR alke ? " No.
" H ow many sides has this form (showing · squarn) P"
F'o11r sir/rs .
"How many sid es h as this form (showing rbom b)?"
Four sir/P8.
"Th en how are th ese two fo rms alike ?" Tltr·y both have
fowr sides
" What. can you t.ell me about th e sid es of the sq ua re?"
T ltey are rill of thn N111e length.
" Observe whil st I m r asnre ·t.h e s id eR of the ot.ber form.
Now what ca.11 yo u Sfl.Y n. l ~o about these fo ur si.tes ? " They
nre all of the sa111p len11th.

"Th en you see th ese two. forms are alike in haviug th e
sa me number ot sides, a nd the sides a re of equal length .
Now why do yo n say t.l1 e.~e tig ures a re not }i.like ?" The
s111,11 ·e llfrs four rir1lit a11r1tr..~, f/w other /i,q1we lws 11 ot.
"How m a ny angles of this figure (t he rhomb) a re larger
than ri g h t an g leR ?" Tica rmg /f.s.
"\\r!i a t do we call these an g les ?" Ohltise any lcs .

EIO W 'l'O 11IVE 'l'HRll! .

141

"And how 111 :111y angleR has thi s figure whi ch are leRs
than right nnglPs?" Two a11gll's.
"And wh at; n ame do we g ive to angles which are less t.han
ri ght angl es ?" A.c11 te a11gles.
"Thi;; form, which has four equal sicl es, and two obtnse fllld
two ac11t.e ang· l c·~ . is c:ill ed a 1"!1 omb. You m ay spell the
word nnd write it on yo11r slates."
Th e chil<lren ma y now bo direc t.eel to draw i;qnares and
oblongs a ml r!to111hi;, a11d writ.e th eir nam es below: or t.li e
exe r ci~e may be vari1•<1 hy makin g th e outlines of th ese
'
forms wit.It point.Pd Rt.i1·k R and so ftener! peas.
Th e 1·!w111 /ioi1 f may 11 nw he compared wit.h the oblong, as
the rh ornh with t he Rqwi re; allfl the cl1ildre n led to see t.li ut
a rh omboid ha s two eq ual long Rid es, tw o equal aborter sides,
two obtuse angles, uJHl two acute a n g !es.

L ESSO N lll.

FORM - PENTAGON, HEX AGON,'"
OCT AGO N.

HEPTAGON, AND

Piwv JT)}] t h eRe fi•n11A fr om t he "Bnx of Fnrn1 R,., or cut them from
co nlh n>ud or prq•" r.

T a kin g t.h e pent.agon, th e teach er may reques t the cl1ilrlr r n t0 coun l t.h e corn ers nncl sides.
"Tlow many 1'id es bas this for m?" Fi"ce sides.
"How m an y an~loR h:ui it?" FivP m1gles.
"A flat fig11re which h :11i.fire sic/es and.five rmgles iscn llcd a
fH'11tagon. Pl'1dl' m ean ~ .five a nd gon mea n s nn a1J gle ; th erefore th e word pr1dr1uo11 meaus having .fire a11gles.
• The moRt important form of t h e pnh-g-""" ;, tl•e l>r:rru1on.

The c• llR of

the hon eycom l, rn :iy l.n Ahnwn to illn stJ:t l " how bN11>l.if111Jy Lex11gon s fll. 11 rnl

join tugt'll1m-.

( Ir

!lie FOm ~ m:iy be sl1owu by a dmwing on t he bluck - uou rd .

142

143

OTI.T F: CT J,ESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE 'l lIEM .

"He re ifl anoth er form h aving five Rirl rR :rnrl fin1 a ngles
H ow is it uulike tb e oth er ? " Its sides and a11gles are not
eqwrl.
"I want you to remember flrnt a pentagon with equal
sidoR is call ed a regnlar pent:i gon ."

cleV<•l11p id c:1s of oth er common solid form~, viz. pris·ms, 11.11rami'ds, and cones.
"How many faces has this cube? " Sixfa1~f.~.
"\Vbat is the shape of each of t,be faces ?" Square shape.
"ll ere is a noth er ltlonk of wood . How nu1.ny faces has
it ? " S i:r f(lcPs.
"I low du t.li e fa ces of t.hi s form Jiffer from the cube?"
In this f orm tll'o farr s. only are squ.nres, tlte other fo1tr are

Th e children may now make the ont.JineR of pPnh1gons
with the point ed stick R a11d p eas, or drn.w th em r oug hly on
their slat.efl, imitating the teacher on the black-board.
Th e other formR will n o w he taken in order and d ealt with
as a.hove; ~ml exerciReR on form and co lour cornLi ned 111ay
lie introduced as in Lesson VI. Stage II.

L ESSO N IV.

FORM .- PRISMS.
SQU.~ RE, triangul ar. anfl h cxngonn l prism• "houlrl he •hmvn.
If not
othe rwise prnvided, th e t wo form er ca n he mado from cardboard.•

Hith e rt o only four sohd forms-the splu'l'r>, C?Jlinr!er, r 11br>,
and brick sh(T/7f! have been brought und er r eYi ew. \Yi th
these as starting-poin ts, the teacher may now proceed to
• Th e fi g ures below r~prpAc nt Ow •lrn pe in which th e r,ardboard mnst Ld
cut, and 1he dotted lines s 11ow wher e it bas t o be f•1JJ, ;J.

;~~: - - =1,

1

obfOll!fS.

" 'IV here n.re th e flq na re faces ?" A t the ends.
"J\!Hl wl1 ere are th e oblong faces?" At the sides.
" ( ~ ornpar e the Rqua re e11ds lV1 1·0 ll ize." T!t1 ·y are rqnrrl.
"A 11d t.h o o l1] 0 11 g Ri1lcA ?" 1'!u 11 are eq 11nt.
1

"ITere is nnnther form. II ow many faces has it? Oounl:
One, two, th.rel', f our, jive.
them "
" Wlm t iR tbe sh a pe of th e ends? " Th ey arr trirmglP.~ .
" And of t·.be RiUPs? "
Thry are oh1ongs.
"How many eq11ril obloug sides are there?" Three.
"How mnn_v faces h as this figure [sh owing an hexn.gnna.l
prism] ? Couut th em."
One, t?l'o, three, .four, five, .1 i:r,
s1wen , ei.'(!ld.
"v\I hat iA the sh ap e of each Aid e P" E (wh side is oblong
in slu1pP.
" 'Vbat is the sh ape of t,he end s of this form ? " Hrxago118.

"I will n ow g ive you a nam e for solids which have equal
obfo11r1 .q £rfe8 a nrl equal ends. They are called prisms.
"But I ba ve show n you three pri smR, and th ey a re not
al ik c ; how shall we know the one from the other? " B .11
their tJl/lls.

'---- -------------- ·'
'l'riang ular l 'risrn.

"J_,onk ogaiu at th e end of t.he first pri sm I ~ht >w ed y0u
What is its shape ?" Square.
"Then we may call t,his form a square vri8m."

144

OBJECT LESSONS.

HO'Y TO

" And what is tbe shnpe of tb e end of tlle second pri;,m

bn.~''8

A fl'i1111g11 /m

"And whnt n a m E sli:ill we g jq, t o tl e pri sm who ~e e nd ~

"

f/ 1·:rnr1r11111/ pr1 .,111 8.

H ecapit uluti o11 Ly qtr f!~ ti o11 a11fl an swe r sh ould follow .

LICSSO N

V.

FORM. - PYRAM IO AND CO NE.
ARTI CJ, E .~ for il.111 slrnt.ion: 'l'rin.ug nlar, sg nare,
and tbf) cone.

rt llll

ot.ber

ba ~o

pyramid ~

"Here is a nother form .

\Vha. t is th e shap e of its lw.se P "

T riru1ynlrrr.

" And of its Ridu"? "

r"

A trir111y11 !111· ;1y m mid.

"Th c rl' arP nth Pr py r:1 111id s, nR there !lrt' oth er prr srn 'l,
hn vi n g 111 oru 1< id P .~ ; lr 11t l \\' Hil t yu u 11o w t.o look af; I . hi~ 1;1n11.
\Vlr nt, iA th e l'lh :J}'t' cd' it s h:r fle? " Circ11 1'1 r.
"And ])f)w is it. li ke a py ra.111id?" It 1'01111•s t u 11 ;111 i11t at
th e 1071.
" I [a,·c yn 11 see 11 a.11yth i11 g of t.lri 8 ,:;lr:ip e ? " r1 •s, Ion(

S how in g a Rq 11 :ire pyrnm iil, th e trnr:li rr m ay ;r Rk , "Jlo\\'
many faces h ns this figure ? " Fir(' /itrl's.
" Jl ow many sid es h as it ?" l 'our .< ir/1•.~.
""\Vh at is the sbape of eacb side?" A ll'ir111g71'.
" An d what is th e shape of the end 011 which it stands?"
A sq uare.
" "\Ve sometimefl call t 11P Pnd on whi ch a t h in g reRt,s it s
bmw.

Th r:y lw re

uli/.-ro i11 ,q h,11111' .

"And how do t.lr "y <liffPr frnm t he p r isms ? " 1'/ify /l(( rt
fri" ll!fli/rrr i'11.q/eati o/' o/;/011y sides, r111d th e fr irt11!Jlr•s 1111•1 I in a
pvi11f rtl t hr lop .
" I 11·ill 1111w jp]j rn n f.l1at th(' sll fort rr ' 11·hi ch lr :JV(' lri :111 ·
g 11l:11' s id1 '" 111 cetin g· in :r p oi 11f. at. t-.l w t·np are ca ll t'd / l.'/l'11111 ids,
and I Ir r 1111'L'l.i11 g -p11 i11t·. iR c all ccl tir e "J1c.1·.
"\V lr at·. iR th e s l1 :1pe of t.h e h n~c of the first p yra mid I
sh ow<'d yo u ? " ] f is sq1111rP .
" Tl11 ·11 \1·ha t. ki 11d ol' pyrarni cl m:iy I C':1ll it P"
A sr111111 ·f
pym111irl.
"i\11d \\·h n.t. Ah a l! I c:ill t h e pyra rnid with a t.riangular

Jll'l811/, .

are h e x ag<HI R ?

THEM.

"Now how a.re th C'.se forms lik e pri8 m8? "

y0u have see rn?"

A trinn!f h .
"Then b ow c01n you 11a111 e this prism?"

G ! Vl~

8U y'tl l' .

•

"l1 11t we d o 11 nt c:dl it. a p _vr: 1111id ; we c:i ll it a rone.
R Pnw rnhe r th c u tl1 :1t. a pyramid " ·it.h a c irr,ul:i r lw:;e h :1s a
sl1 or: t.er 11a111 e t.lrau :rrry ot lr er so rt; 91' pyraruid. lt is a cu11e. "

Trio11-r111lar.
L ESSO N

• Square end t ri•111 g ular 1J)'l'a 1uirJ; rn ay lie funned f, om cardlioa rd thus :

VI.

TIME. AND HOW WE MEA SURE IT. - DAY, HOUR,
MINUTE, SE.COND .
T•11•;

8q•1Rre f' yra111i<l.

Triu 11 g 11J;rr l ' yram '. d .

da.y rn :i.y ho tn k<' "

n~

t.hn shd .i11 g- p11J 11 t i11 th fl divi sion s of t.inw.

fl fe w q11 1·;;: t.i11n s R111·lr :t!'l 1li c follow in g will s1· r ve to
111? rod u ee th e 1.Lty 11!' tw1·11 t.y-fo1; r h o urs a ~ a m eas ure of time
l,

146

147

OBJECT LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

"vVh en there are no clouds what may we see shining
in the sky ? "
The sun . or mnon and stars.
" "\Vh en does the sun shine? " In the daytime.
"And when d o the moon and stars shine?" At night.
" \\Th en do you see t.h e sun first; ? "
In the rnorniug.
"Yes, we sny the Run f!el s 11p or ri.~es in the morning.
Wh en does it go away?" In Ifie ft'e111:11g.
" \Ve 1my it. .srt.~ in the evening.
"Of what use is the sun to us ?" It gii:es u.s ligltt and

is over 0r pa f«eo.
Hut what does noon mean? I will tell
you; it m en11s middlr! of tlte day.
"Now what does afternoon mean?" It means 11/ter lite
middlr qf the da,11.
"At what. t.irne do y ou leuve 'morning school?'" At
/1rda o'r/or·k
"y.,~. n11tl thnt ifl noon; and l rnay tell you it is ju st tlw
1u o111 t•11t. wh e n t l1 t• s 1111 iA lii ghest in the s ky.
" lf' we cal I th e ti me a ftnr the middle of the dn.y afternoon,
what. mny we cull th e time before the middle of the day?"

/tfal.

1Jl'jo1·1~ 11oon.

" What follows the rlny?" 1'he ni,qht.
"\Vh a t, difforen ce is t11ere be t.w een day an<l ni g h t?"
lf i., tlrirk at 11ight, n111l rrr11 of!rm ro/rler.
"\Vii en is it. very dark at night?" 1Yhen i't i.~ clour/p, and
t/1P moan a11d -'f111·R rire n ot to be 8<'en .
"You say the sun shines in tl1e da.y-time; does it always
shine in1o t.be scboo l -roo1n through the same window?" J.Vo.
"Look where it; is shinin g nnw, and then to-morrow at
t.his same tirne we will loo k ng"1i11 to see where it; is shining.
We shall iind that eve ry day at. the same time it shines
through the same window. Now I want you t.o r emember
that. wh en we 1.alk about a d(/.11 (f time we m ean the time
from th e shinin g of the sun through any one window on
on e d ay till it sh ines through the same window the next
<lay. Or, to be more exact, t~e time the sun takes in
rnukin g bis journey from any on e point in the sky back
again to th e same point is one day of time.

"Yes, or R'111rt-.ly, it is call ed fore-11aon. Som etimes uoo11
or tli e rnirldl1 • "f' t.l1 r. day iR t•:tll erl '//lirl-rl11;11, whi ch mean R
middl e of t.l1t' day.
What rnay we call the rniJdle of th e
ni g bt th en?" 'JJ./i1l-11igld.
"Can you g·i,-a m e t.he nam efl of FiOTrJP of the smaller
of' t.i 111 e? " ]fou r s, 111i1m f rs , SCC()ll rl.' .
"\Vhiclt is th e 1011 ger time, the h our or the miuute?"
T/r.e h our.
"And wl1i elt is the shorf er, the minute or the second?"
Tlw 8econd.
"At what. t.im e do you come to school in the morning P"
At 11ine o' clru•k.
"At w]wt. time d o you leave school to go hom e to dinn er?"
At tirefre o' l'/oclc.
"How 111any hours from nine till twelve o'clock?"
Tlt1'ee hou.rR.
"llow many hours from twelve till two o'clock?" Two
hour.•.
"And from t.wo till four P " Two hm1r8.
"Tb en bow many hours rlo you attend Ach ool ear.h day?"
Pice hrmrN .
"lio\I' many hn11rs are there betw~eu niue and tour
o'clock?" S1•re11 hours.
divi ~ ioll S

"How m any tim es do you come to school each day?"
Tu:icr: - in the morni11_q and again in th e ({/lf'1·11oon.
" "' hat does afternoon mean? You don't lrn ow; well,
"'hat does aff·er-school m ean ? " T-Vhen school 1:s orer.
When r1£ne
"And what does after ninf' o'clock mean? "
o'clodc furn JHl88 ed.

"A11J ju st iu Lhe s~nn e way alter-noon m ean s when noon

-- ~ ------- ·-- --

- ·-

-

~- --

148

OB.JECT I.ESSONS.

"I want yn11 to re m e mber that. it takes tw e nty-four of th ese
ho urs to nu~k e up 011e day ; thut, is, we divide tl1e day o! time
into twenty-four parts, and ea ch part is called an hour."
The chi ldren m ay b e le<l to appreciate th e shorte r divisions of tim e by counting. The teacher shou ld first. h erself
a1<certain the proper rnte for co unt.ing l'ixty in a minute .
Following the lead of th e teac he r, the c hil!lren will quick ly
learn to count at th e d esire d rate; a nd then individu a l
sc holars m ay be encournged t.o try.
\Vh e11 a fair id ea of t.h e durnt.ion of time which we call a
minute bas bee n obtained, t.h e children may be told th at
s ixty of th eRe minnt:es m a k e up an hour, or that th e hour
iR divicl crl int.o s ixt.y minutes. Next, that e;.wh count takes n
~econ<l of tim e, a nd thus sixty seconds make up a minute.
Lastly, th e children may b e practi sed in the tahle60 seco nds make one minute,
60 minutes make one hour,
'.!4 hours make one day.
N OTR - Fur l her ex•' r i:isr•s, at the discretion of th e t ea,.hor, may be cl ev iseJ
for trni11inl-( tlw <' hit dr•rn to observe und.rn easnre time, U111 s :- (11) Th ey may
close their oye" flt tL given •i;nal and try to k ee p th r m c losed for a half
mi1111te , or ono, or two min11f o'. (h) A chi ld. m11y be sent to a nother part of
the building fnr" b00k or nth er obj .. ct, and the claPs m11y be directed to find
011t--co uuting for them sel ves - h ow !011g the mesAengcr h11s been gone.

f1

l

.l

.J

1

HOW TO GIVF, T.IIE!IL

111

thP id '.'a t.hat
., 11otinl!
.._, ho\Y lon g it t.nb's
t'll e lllll .,~1t.1.nn of time lty
•)
• ig t o lie (]on0 , o r lww lo u<r
a C\' l "ltlll
f •
.,1 11
o it t:.1 k L'S a certain
(•liject to trn1·el ove r a m easured cli 8ln11ce.
.
"Suppos1\ for i1,1 sk111 cc, wn 111 ako a cund l~ sufficw11tly long
to liurn for a (!;iy (II' 1.11·c11ty-f'uur hours, v i z. \\·]111.<f, th1· 1'1111
appears t o mak e ;J11<: _jour 1H' )', a.1." I then divic,ln it i11t.u t11·c11ty ··
1;>, 1r part " by notcli eR ; th e t. 1111 0 tuk e 11 for th e ca ndl n \.o
burn front 1111 e 11otd1 fo th e n ext will bo OJW hour. J\JHl rntr
f11n,li1t. l wr .~ long :1gl) u ~ccl to m ea ~ uro 1.ime by 110t.clii11g 1ht·ir
rn s h cnndlt>~.
J\11t, tl1i .~ 'm s not a very eoHYPllll'llf. nr vi ·ry
l'O lTt•t·f pl:in; and , hy -awl - hy, it. wns found 11ut t ha t.. ti11w
can bn 1n 1': 1s nrL'd hy u;;i11g Wl' igl1tR, :incl "IY li C'e l ~, and cl1arn s fo
11i:ik1 • :t h11g fin g<' r 11f irn11 tr:1\·1·l ronnrl :i11<l rouncl n. f;icc·.
" Thi s tl L' \\' nw c hin e \Y:tR c ~tll t> rl :1 c lcwk, :1111l 11uw we alw ays
rn r a ~ u re ti111r: hy 1t1 1'.: 1us nf cl ocks aml waLdl l''.
t,] 10 fir s f, pla ce the c l1ildren must grasp

'V O lll l':IS \ll'l '

23

24
2

22

3

21

4

20

5

19 -

6

18
LESSON VII.

TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.- THE CLOCK FACE.-1.
BEFOR~J proceeding to deal with the longer divi sions of time, it will

bf' well t? face tl 1A problem over which children are always more or
less puzzled, vi z. how to tell the time by the clodc.

7

17

8

IG
9

15 ·~
14-

t__I13

Iu t bis, as indeed in all lesso11s, the s ec ret of success lios
in ma stering on e s tep a t a tim e .

10

12

II

" l l"Prr' is u (' loc· k f':1 rn 1lr~m11 01 1 a shcrt. nf p:qw r. A little
st rip of' l.l :1c k c: ml uuanl se rv cR for 1.l1 e point er nr fingc't'. I

150

ROW TO GIVJ<i THEM.

OBJECT LESSONS.

fix t.his finger in the centre of the face by a drawinv-IJin so
. round. and round.
'
b
'
that I can turn it
"The weigh ts a nd wh eels a ll(l chains in the clock <·an be
so arra nged us to make th e poiu tc r, culled the hand, go once
round th e face (trnvelling 11.1; the R:m1e rutt') in twenty-four
h o urs. I have di1·ided the circnrnl'e r en ce .uf tbe face ~ u the
p ape r into tw enty -fo ur pa r ts.
"How Jong theu will it tak e th e h and to travel from oue
figure tot.hf' n ext?" One !t ou r.
" And from th e figure one t.o three ? " Tiro lun l1"8.
"Arnl from four to eight; ?" If1111· hours.
"Cl ocloi a re Rom etim es mad e like this; but it: is found m ore
u seful t.o mnk e th e bul'!d go ronrnl !wire in tw ent.y - four hours.
" How long then will it tu k e the h a nd to go round
on co ? " T1cf'lre hours.
"Then into bow mu11 y parts must I di vi de the circumference
oft.be foce?" 1nto tu·ehe p arts.

9

3

7

5

6
"Hero is another face so divided into twelve parts, and
nurn Lered l, 2, 3, &c., up to 12 . .

151

"How ]nng will it take the hand to go from one figure to
the next ? "
One hour.
"Towards which fi g nre is the h a nd pointing now? "
Towards the figure Tu1l!l11c.
"Yes, aud wh en t;hp hnnd points t.o t.he figure Twelve, we
AH)" it ifl twelve of th e clock, or by the clnc.k, or, in Rhort.,
tw elv e o'clock. Do you re member f'rom your last lesson
wha t oth er n ames we.g ive to t hi fl tirne ?" Noon , and midda.11 .
" Now th e h rrnd poin ts to th e fi µ- urc One; what time i~
it?" One o'd o1·k.
"Now to t.he fi g ure Two?" Two o'clol'k.
"N ow to th e figure Six?" Si:r, o' clock .
"I mu st tell yo n t.lrnt this hand, h e 1 ~au 8e it fl bn sinei:;s is to
point out th e h ours, is culled th e h.011r-lwNd."
Of co urse the children can h a ve no difli c11lty in telling
the hours by this clock face am! honr-h anrl, and th e teacher
may go a litt.le farth er and explain t he terms pa8t a nd t o,
which are alm ost invariably used in namin g the tim e by
the clock.
Hou g bly, they may be taught to say Pf!Sl the hour when
the h a nd i11 ha lf wn y, or less than half way, hetween two
figures. \Vh e11 the hand is more th a n half way towunlR the
n ext fi gure tlrny should say foll'arils, or to the hour indicnterl
by the latter , e.g. " rr quarter tn."
This practice mu st be co11Lin11ed till ull the children can
tell the tim e as thus far indicat rd.
Durio~ the practice the Arabic numeral!! may be rejJlaced
by the Roman.

1~2

1 I O\Y TO C:l V g Tll 10.l.

ODJ ECT LRSSONS.

L ESSON

r:.7 58 59

VIII .

55 56 .

60

I

2

.I

511-

TI ME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.-THE CLOCK FACE.- 2.

7

53

8

52

" Loorc nt. th e school clock.

9

!Tow m:i11y hands do you

see ? " Tll'o ha.nd8.
"Are UJ.ey of the same l ength? "

II

..

- 12
. 13

No, one is /011r1Pr than

t!t1' ot!tm·.

"Yes, and the shorter one is t-he on e you have been
learning ahout. ' Vhat is it call 1·d?" Th e ho11r- hand.
" \Vhy is it called the hour- ha11d ? " 1Jecm1 .ie d p01:11ts
t o the honrs.
"Ilow lo11g does it take th e hour-hand to go from one
figure to th e next?" 011e hour.
"And how long does it take to go once round the face?' '
Ticcli:e hours.
" And how many times does it travel round in a day of
tw enty-four hours?" Twice.
"Now look carefolly at the hn.nds for a minute or two
aTHl t.e ll me wh eth er th ey are t.rnvelli ng at the Aame rate."
No, the long ltand f!Ot'S much fa.8ter than th e hour-hand.
"Quite right, a11d to-day I want to teach you a ll a.bout
thi s long band, why it goes faste r than th e other, and h ow
long it takes to go rou11d once.
"But, we mu st hav e it by itself for a littl e wh ile.
" H erc is anot.ber face which I l1ave made for tho long
hand only.
"You r emember bow many minutes make one hour? "

T e8, sixty.
"And I have divid ed the clock face into sixty parts. Now,
if we make this long hand go once round in an hour, what
ti111 e will th e litLle sl-'.:ees between th e figures staud for?"
illinnt('8.

10

- 14

% -

15

45

IG

44 -

- 17

43

18

42 .

19

4-1

40

2.120

39

22

jp

23

37

Z4

36
'
35 34 3'- 32-·--'---'-~-:
27
31 30 29 28

26
-

25

"TJ 1 i., IPng h :i111l has t.o point to th e minutes ; what may
we call it: P"
'J'Ji, • 111i 111 1l l'-!11111d.
" ] ) 11 you ~0 e t.liat I lmvP 1ll:.1dc. sr1111 e. f·igures .laq,\'CI' fha'.~
th e o ll1 t·r~ r ltepPat. t hcRO, bcg 1m1111 g with t.bc figure F 1rn.
I'ir1» 11>11, .f{l'/1·1·11 , q·r"
.
"l lrn\'C mad e th csc lig11rr1:1 larger, heca.nR(~ t hey eome ,111 RI,
where t.h e figure;. wl1i<·h F<how t-.l1n h n11rs · a.l'P. pl :H·Pd . l f·ix
the othe r f:l('l' on t l1 v lil:1ck -bourd hy t.lw sid e of' t hi s, and you
will RCC th:it. t hi s is flo ."
Th e children m11 Rt now be prn c l iscrl on thiF< clock fo ce
in tellin g t.l1e n11111l1 er of' rnin11t.es prrsl t.he. ho11r u11t.il guit·o
p erf'eet ; but. i:;peei:d F< t, n· ~ i:; ~hnuld be laid on th e larger
figures
Next tlwy must be shown that

154

013.JECT LESSONS.

minut es past is the same as ~Ii rninntes to the hour

40
45
50
55

155

BOW TO GJV F, TTIEM.

,,

,,

,,

L5

,,

"

"

,,

"Look at th e mi1111te-hand: what does it Ray?" l.Ia(fpa8t, or thirty mi111il1•s 71ast .
Move the hour- ha nrl 111 id way bet ween twel ve au cl on e.

"

"

"
,,

10
5

,,
,,

,,
"

time is beticeen t1celre

"

"

,,

20

"Look at t li e hour-L:ind: what does it t ell?"

and t.li a t, when th e )1:1 nd has paRsc.J tlt e figure Thirty, it is more
comm on to llUY Ro ma11y minutes to th e next hour.
Practise
on t.l1i R until the child ren can amw er promptly so many
mim1 t"s pa8f or to the hour wher e ver the t ea che r places th e
hand. During this practice the childre n may be shown
t.li a t ns the figur e Fiftee n fl t.ands a t a guart.r-r of tb e d istan ce
round t.he circle, .fifteen minutes JW-<t is often c::illed quarter
1>a8t; nnd RO of hr1/(-71ast, and a qu"rfer to the hour.
In t he third place remove th e ligureR on the face and
pract.i se the class with the division marks on lv .
LaRt;ly, substitute the numerals which murk. the hours, and
practise again, of course still keepi~g to the minute-hand.
Not until the scl10lars are quite perfect with th e minutehand on th e ordinary clock face must the teacher proceed to
the n e xt le:;:,;ou.

({I/ rt

1'hot the

one.

"And th e minute -hand Rhows yo11 bow much pas t.
f.\\'f'!v e ?" Jfn (f-p rt sl .
"Now what tim e does the cluc k face show?" llr1 (Fpa .~ 1

t 1rrlve.
N ext sett.b e lw1HiR to sh ow, Flt1y, t en minut·. c ~ pa ~ t si:c
"'\Vhat doeR th e mi1111t.e- hand show?" 1'r'lt mi111tl1'8 past.
"And what <loes th e hour-hand point to?" 1Jet 1lw11. si:r
(/11fl 81'l'f'//,,

"Th en what

tim e d oes the clock face show?"

Ten

rninutf:s past 8i.r.

Se t. the hand s to Rhnw , Ray, tw enty minutes to tll'o o'clock.
"What dul'S t.h e minute-h and. show now?"
Tu:ent!I
minutes to th f! hn11r.
"And wh e re dof'S the hour-hand point?" flf'f1c Pen ou r
n11d t1ro .
"'l'hen what t.irn e does the clock face show now? "
Twent.11 ?11£mdes l11:(ore t1co .

LESSON IX.

This kind of ex er cise 11111 st. be continu ed until th e children ure fai rl y pe rfect in t.h eir a n s w'e r~ , nnd th en th e tcuc hPr
rna.y call indi vid ual sc h,,lars to set th e haud ~ to show
pu rticular tim es as E<J>PCi li ed by t.he t ea ch er.

TIME, AND HOW WE MEASURE IT.-THE CLOCK FACE. - 3.
WE a fls 11 me tha t the children am now in a pos ition to answer a ll qu estions on the hours, using the hour-hn.11<1 only, and on th n minute$,
U8in g the minute-hn.nrl only. lt reu111ir1 s f''>r th o teach e l' to Rh ow tho
11se of t.he two h ands on th e clock face. For this purpose the rnl'd board fac-simile of a cl ock faco with two mov able hands, to be found
in most infant schools, may be u sed.

Set the hands, say, to mark twelve o'clock.
th e minute-baud t,o ~hirty minutes past

.

Las tly, th ey may he directed to rlraw (roughly ) a clock
face on their ,.Jut e~ . a nd place t.he ha nds to indi cate tim es a ~
d i rec t.f'fl .

Now move
J.•
(

NoTE.-Th e children s hould lw vP fi ve 111inu t.rs' rrnctio ·e wi th t.he clock face
occ1t,io11nlly; a11d 11dv r1·ota 1!·P, ma y he taken of nny odd mo111 ,.. 11t lo repr•at. th e
numes of th e <lay s of th e wcrk 1t11d th e 111 0 11!.h s of I. he yertr. Th o 1111rn bcw of
days in" week, 1rnd in each J!"rt;ic11lor month , and the 1111muer of days and
weeks in e. yoor, will n h t11rnl ly follow.

156

HOW '.l'O GIVE TT-IP.M.

ODJECT LESSONS,

LESSON X.

MINERALS.
Pon tLis lesson th e teacher shoul1l be prnYi<lerl with specimens of a!
many of the eommon rn inern ls as possible, such us- coal, rock -snlt,
clay, chnlk , li mesto ne, granite, sand, sa nd stone, flin t, slate, marbl e.
and any oi:es of' rnel:ils.

"I hav"," says the teach er, " a nnmber of obj ects _lying
on the table, so rne of whic h you all kn ow, and ot"-bers which
perhaps you hav e not see n b efore. To-day I wish to teach
you sumethi11 g nbout all of t.h em . In other l e>"BOllS we will
take t.hem one or m ore at a tim e, and learn some t.l.1ing mo!'!'
a bout them .
"He re is a lump, the name of which you all know; what
is it?" Chalk.
"IV here do we find chalk?" Undc 1·grou11 d.
"And what is this?" R ock -~all.
"And where do we get rock-salt fr om ? " From ttnder-

167

und h ere is 1t bc:iut.if'ul white stone call er! rnm·b1P.; :1.11d lH're
is anot.Ju01 r very bani stone called ,qranit1· ; a nd here is <i- very
h ea vy stu ne-it cont;ains iron, although you can not see it-·
it is ~n ll ed fron8to11e; and bere is yet one more h eavy still-it co nta in i' 1Md."
" J\ 1l tli e<e and rn a n y oth er ston es we get from unrl ergrou nil, :.rnrl we give th e lll a ll one nam e - th ey are all
111it1f'l'llls.

" H11t. p11t:1toes g row in tbe soil, and the roots of pl:111ts
and tn' f' fl s pread :i. l1o ut und e rgro und ; yet these are not.
min eral. ; t hcse live and grow, but min erals have no life .
".Tn~t. t.hink bow badly off we should be without
111i11 <• r:1 IA.
"\VhaL do wo use coal for?" To make fir es to keep tt8
warrn.
"J\ nd what. is the 11 Re of clny?" To 11wkf! brif'ks.
" And of hard l:lto nesP" To IJ/lilrl houses and 1n11/;p rnad.~.
"Y<'s, and iron, an1l lead , an rl tin, and cop pt·r AlTVe
hundr n<I R :ind hundreds uf useful. puqioses. ' Ve (;UUld not
do Yc ry well wit.b o ut min e rals.

g1·01111d.

"Can you tell me why
what d oes it look something
" Ye~. aml an oth er name
is so named because it is

it is called rock-salt? ·w ell ,
like?" A p £ece of stone.
for ston e is r ock, and ruck-salt
fou nrl in great sto ny or rocky

rna s~et1 .

" H ere is a piece of cl ay ; wh e re do we get clay from? "
Fi·om w1dergro1111d.
"He re is a black lump; what is its na.m e ?" Coril
"Ye>, and like eb alk, a nd r ock-saH, and clay, we get it
fl'0m undArgro und.
"And I may tell you that; all the th ings which you see on
th e t.able were got frum u11d er the surface oft.h e ground.
"Here are sand und flint and slate, which you all know:

"We rnu Rt n ext inquire bow t.he min erals A.re arranged
und l'rg runnrl. If we rlig a d eep hole in t.h e g-;i rd en or fi Plrl
near est t"l1 e sch ool, sha ll we f-i11d l'halk, a 11d r0i.:k-A; d t, and
coal, unrl iron Rto ne, and other rnin ernls all mix ed up t.oget.he r? Ce rt.a.inly not. You 111ay perhaps find sand, or a
mixture of ~ and and pehhles t·a ll t' <l gl'((tf' /, for a littl e way
d own ; and t11 en pr•rh n.ps cl t1y, a111l pe rhaps below this a hurd
s ton e; 11 11d theso li e t h e one on t.h A oth er like th e bed lies on
th e mnttre~s; h en ce th ey are called beds.
.Most of t h e
min era ls, such as clay, cha lk , lim estone, rock- salt, g rav el,
coal, and iron stone, are placed in beds, and these som etim es
spread out so far that i t would take a littJ e bov w<:>eks nncl
eveu months to wulk across lhew. O ther rnineru ls, such us

158

OBJECT Ll<JRSONB.

now

gold, silver, lead, tin, and copper, are mixed up m hard
rocks.

LESSON XI.

COAL.-1.

" Look agam at these minerals. What do your eyes
teach you about them?" l'helf are not of the Mlme eolour.
" Harry shall feel them . What can he tell you about;
t-.bem?" Some are !trtrd, othcn are sq/l.
"Tom shall lift th em in his hand. Wbat can he tell
you ? " Some are heavier than othm·.~.
"If I put them on the fire, one of them will burn; which
is it ? " 1'hf coal.
"If I p11t them in water, one will dissolve; which is it?"

A. LUMP of common h011 ,oliold coal , a pil:'cfl of anthracite, and a bit ot
j et should be provicJ,.<l; a few other min ora ls should lie 011 th'l talil o
for eompo.riso11 .

"To-clay our l(' c.sun iR to he on the m~st valuable, becau se
1.he most 11 <<' ful of all mi11Pral»-coat.
"You Rhall first. of all tell me all you lrnow, or can find
out about i1, by looking at it, handling it, and hammering it.
"By look ing- at, it?" II. '"~ of a utr1ck colou.r .
" Yes, that. is qnit·. p plain; but look agn.in more closely as l
move it Rbnnt.. " It s!t£11('8.
"Many minerals Rhine in the snme way, and we say that
they possess !11stre, a word which means bri,ql!.tness.
"That iR nu irifcrl' ~ fing fnct nhout coa l; but this mineral
posse~ses one property on whicb all it.s value depends.
vVhat
is it?" It burns. It is £1!/lammable.
"Can you t1' ll me why cual is not. suitable for rnnking the
walls of onr huu~c s ?" It is not slro119 enou,qli. It b1w1k.s lo

Tlie rock- 8rtlt.

"If I hammer them, one will flatten out; which is it?"
The clfl.1/.
"All the reAt will break, if I strike them bard enough,
into sharp pieces. 'Vhat do we say of them?" They are
brittle.

"Which of them will break easily?" The c!trilk, rocksalt, and coal.
"Some of them I can cut with my knife." They are
SQ(t.

"Some I cannot cut?"

159

TO GIVE '.l'HEJ\f.

T/1ev are hard.

pieces too fasilJ!.

It wou/r/

rn11kP 011r

ji11gers and clothes hlark

and dirl.'I·

"A~ I told you , you will loam more about t'heRe minera!R
and their uses in future lessons. I want. you to remerf!lber
what minerals are, that they vary very much in their
properties-in hardness, in brit.tJeness, in weight, io colour
- and that a few will burn, and some dissolve in "'..iter." .

"YeR, if; is too eaf'ily brolrnn to be used for building purposes ; but brittlen ess is just its n ext most. useful property
after inflarnma.bility.
" You al I know whence coal is obt.ained ? " From uriderr1ro1111d.
"Suppn ~ ing coal were as hard a11 granite or sandstone,
what then P" 1Jle1). 1co11ld 11ot eut it ou t so ea8ily.
"Ju~t so, and if it took 111ore time and more lnhour toge~
the co:tl, it would lw dearer for us to buy, so that tlie brittle.
neAs of coRl makes it eheaper.

l

-3
•

c

- -

4$24

..

¥

,@M4W

• \a

a c .w

a . yv . ¥

:.en

#

•

--

•

Ii

161

OBJECT LESSONS.

now TO GI VE Tlrn'flt.

"There is another r eason which you did not t ell m e why
coal would not do for the walls of our h ouses. You lrnow
houses som etimes t.ake fire. "'W bat would be the effect., in
such case, of the walls being of coal?" Th ey u·outd burn and

t'!i rtt. WPod, inc111rlin g trnnks, roots, brnm·h<'s, anrl l ea Yrs,

160

increase the fire.

when buried for

1;1.

long tim e in tb e ea rt.h clia11gt>s t.o coal.

It sounds lik e a fairy story ; but it is tru e that. the woods
and for ests which grew thousanch a nd thousands of years
ago, rnmeho"' got. h11ried in t"h e ea rth and cha ngerl to coal,
which we di g out now to supply us wi t.h light and heat."

"Now I wish you to look at two other kinds of coal which
1 have h ere on th e table.
"If you put the common coal of which we have been
talking on the firP, what happrn R? "
It burns.
"And what do you see wh en it burns?" Flame and
smoke .
"Here is anot.h e r · kind of c onl ca ll erl by a long name,
rrnlhracite, which simply rn enns coa.l. ThiR burns with a clear
flame and gives off very little sm oke.
"Tom sball hold a piece in his hand. It. does not soil the
fingers so much as common coa l.
"Try to break it with the hammer. It is ha rder than
ord~11ary coal.
"There are several other kinrlR of r.o:il. One is so hard.anrl
c lnfle that it does u ot soil the fingers a t all, and it ca n be
polished and made to look ~ornet . hing lik e black gla.ss . This
is called .fd. Jet is made into o rnaments, such as brooches,
n ecklace1;1, &c. I will bold thi s pieee in the fl ame of our
lamp. Yon sec it burns; but it does not burn so readily as
common coal.
"Do you remrmber how tbe coal is arranged 11nrlergro 11 nd ? " In brrf.q or la,1/<'rs.
" ln t.be next l eRson I shall sl1ow yo u how the coal is got
out-..
"Rut. p erha.ps som e little boy or girl may be cnrions to
aRk, 'How did the con! get, there P' You are not old eno 11 g b
to understand mu ;;b a Lout lhis y et; but I ru ay just tell you

L ESSO N

X II.

COAL.- 2.
A TITTC'T.F.R for illnsfTntinn: A large
and a littl e '1 na ll

t 11n1 l;le r,

rliffercnt coloured

sm11l~ ,

!'r>nl.

"Ti rfo re 1 r xphiin t.o ~·nu how coo l j,. got o nt of the ea rth I
m11 Rt. ~ 11 0\\' you how it, li es th ere. I c:in only do it in a ve ry

tiny

\\' ; Ly.

"llPn! iA a lnrg-o t.11mhl er . T pnt. a liit.lerougl1 snrnl at t.h e
bot.t orn. 'f'l1 :1t fo 1 · m ~ Ullf' \)('d. No\\' l Rp rinkl c a little small
cPal ov er tlw r oug h s; rnrl. That, ~t:in d ~ for a bed of cu111.
:Now \\' P will h:iv n :1 t.hi11 lav r~ r of brown earth, n ext on e of
white sn11rl , n11rl null' :1110 (.h e r ,,f s 111 a ll eo:il a lit.t.le thicker
t han t.b e In st. Th is represents anot.h er bed of coal. And
now we will fill up to the top wit.11 layer upon lay e r of
hrown, ynl 1!11'·, 11.n<l \\'Ii ite Ra nil.
"vV}1 e n me n di~ f'or coa l t.hey find bPOR ju Rt. like the brrh
in th e g ln ~R; b11t yon m11 Rt t1 ot think the beds t he re are fine
A!tnd li k" th :it I h avt• lw('n 11 ~ i11g, t.h l'." m ny be bard rocl; R, or
firm elny~, ""111e (l{' t.h<' 111 HR t.l1i ck or t hiclu'I' tbn11 the sclwul
iR long,n nd th e re 111 :1y lie t1Yc1ity, t.hirty, nrfo rt.y laye rs bd<1rn
we g e t dnwt1 !'G t.h c cna l beds. Th e re 111:1 y be o;everal coal
herl s, varying in t"hil'lrn 1·~R ; flO Hl P coa l l1 Pri R are only n fe w
inch es thick. ot he rs are f'uur or f-iv e feet. and oeea8iomdly

·-------~~-----

-- -

·-

-

-- -

168

now

OBJECT LESSONS.

" rr ow docs it differ from lead in colour ? ,, It hrrs (I
darker co/o14r than lead.
"And because of its darker col9ur no doubt it got its name,
black-lead; but. its colour is dark grey.
"I must tell you t.bat black-lead has two otber names; they
are plumbago and graphite. Plum \>ago is anoth er name for
lead, and graphite means something to write wi1h . Graphite
is the best name for it, because it points out its very useful
property of making a mark on paper.

qf a dnrk-yrf'.'J co/011.t·, it shiu es, it i8 brittle, it cr11mblr.s m1tl it
is ilff118ib fr..
"If you feel it ynu can tell me one other property. What
is it?" It feels smooth and gt·eri.sy.
"I mHst; tell you tlrn1·. g raphite does not lie in th e ~1u th l.ike
coal and cluy in herl R. Jt, is found in lumps of var10_11s size,
rni xe<l up with lrnrrl rocks, but not in large quanLtt tes, nor
\n very rntrny places."

" 'Ve will compare th esfl min era ls still further, and you will
see how different g raphite is from lead, and you will find out
at the sam e tim e other properties of tLis U ~(' ful min eral.
"Mary shall try th em as to weight. Well?" The lead
heririei·.
A
"Now I will cut slic1'foff each with my knife.
"How do the pieces of !earl come off? " I11 slices.
"And the graphite?" I t brP.aks lo bils, or cr11mMes.•
"You can tell me som eLbing else that crumbles wh en
cut? " Chalk.
"It is this property which makes chalk and grnphit.e useful for writing. Tiny little bits come off and stick to the
black-board or the paper.
"Next I hammer the two mineral~.
" ..What do you say ahout the grnph ite? " 1t is britt!P..
" A nd the lead?" It hammrrs out .firtt. It iH malll'a li/e.
"Lastly, we will try to melt. each. Th e leud mPlh< into a
bright Ahining liquid. Th e graphite cannot bP melt ed.
"Wh at; do we say of things which can be melLed?"
ThP,t/ are fusible .
"And of those that cannot be melted P" 1'/tc!; ure
r".~

i1lfu.sihle.

"HepPat for mo the chief properties of graphite P"
• The term/t·iabte may lie

~iv en.

it i.i

TO GIVE THEM.

LESS ON

XV.

A BLACK- LEAD PENCIL
AHTHJT.F.S for ill11 Rl rn1inu: Hl1wk-len.d pencil, mH·11t.. An otnM •plit.
to sh ow gr oov o n11 1l lh e glu eiu g. Al so strips of woo1l to illustrale
the manufactu re.

"Wbaf; is tlii 8 I am holding in my kwrl?" .A b!nrk-lead
pencil.
.
"What Hre the two parts of the pe11 cil?" T/1P 1rnurl 11nd
tli e bla!'k- lrad.

" Giv e me th e h P!' t nnm e for hlnck -leml. " Grr111hite.
"Why is it c:i ll t'rl graphite?" Brc1111sc 1111• 1rvrrf. grn111n:te
mf'f/'118 soil/ el /i inv to 1cril e 1cit!t, a11d gr(lp/iifr i8 ri se•/ for wrilin_q
TJW"j !08e8.

"Wh ere iR th e graphite in th, pew)il p" It i~ z1!aced
alnng tlrn cen tre.
.
"What is t.h e Rl111pe of t.h e pencil?" It is cyli11rl1"11'(1l.
"\V}rnt. is th o Almpe of the ends of the pencil?" They
m·r .flrd a11d circular.
"Look at. th e end of the gm phi le, what is th e shape? "
It is srprll'C sh11; 1r>.
"How do you think the g rnphite is put down th e mirlrlle
of 1.h e pericil?" A hole i8 11111de and the black-lead put 1:n.
"No, th at. would take too long 11 tim e.
"I will show JOU . JI ere is t\ st irk with vLl ung end ~

170

n ow

OBJECT LESSONS.

Observe-oblon,q, not square.

The breadth or the stick i 8
'1\>
make the ends squii re, you would have to increase the thickness, and that we will do presen tly. The stick is about long
enough to make three pencils. A little gutter or groove i11
cut down the middle by a saw, and the graphite which ha 8
been cut to fit the groo\•e is put, ia.• 'l'ben another piece of
wood of the same shape as the first pi ece, but not so thi ck. is
fastened on the top.
.
" 'Vhat do we use when we want to stick two pieces of
wood together P" Glue.
"And the pieces are glued together. Th e Rtick now has
square ends, but it is cut by a machin e into a c1·lindrical
•nupe. L astly, it is cut into pencils of the proper i crwth.
"N~w I must t.e l1. you some th .mg about gettinog th e
graphite ready to put m the wood. Sometimes litt.le pieces
of gra~hite are ~ou~d quite pure, that is, t here is nothing
else mixed up with It. It has then onlv to or~ cut with tine
saws in to strips and placed iu the groo;es.
"But pure graphite is very scarce, and t.oo dea r for
making cheap pencils. Hence, impLre graphite, that is,
g.raphi te mixed with oth er min erals, bas to be used. To
rid o~ some of th ese minerals which would prevent t
graphite from writing so well, the min eral has to o
cr~shecl to a fine powder. Then to get it again into a hard
solid for cutt in g, it is mixed with ground clay and mad e
into a paste. This paste is put into a inou lrl and baked.
Th e en kes are th en cut with fine saws into str ips re;1dy for
the groo ,·es.
~reater than its thicknes:,,, so t.hat its ends are oblong.

g'

"Wh en you want to write with a black-lead pencil what
is the first thing you have to do?" Gut it to a point.
"• T~~ ~~ch er will sh ow. the. g roove by splitting a pencil and tnki ng out th ~
le•trl.
lh e s><mo pencil will se1' ve to illusLmte the f..oteuiug t.o~elb er o/
th e sL1 i ps of wout.I.

TO GIVE

Till '. ~[.

lil

•• i;vhnt hin1l of \l' ()() cl wi ll cut; tl1e l':t sicst?,, s,1fl 1rood.
"A snft wo<>d . call ee! cf'rlar, jg mol'ltly u ~rrl; ~·0 11 c11 n !ell it
by its plensun t s111 ell 1md redrli sh colour wh en welted .
"Can you tell me why the graphite is put into wood P"
To r1·rrent it .from brPa kin(!.
" Yes, anrl ~· e t. nn ot.li er rf'n~nn P" T o p1 ·1.'i:c 11t it 111rl/'k i11 g
the fing ers as u !'lt as /hr• /J1'/'C r.

Th e rcrnpi t.nlnt.ion q11 rR li ons should embr:1 ce th e preccdi11;;
as well as tlw prcseut lesson.

LESSO N

XVI,

CL AY.
A 11TJ f l ,l\B for ill11 Bfrnfi ,,n : I' irrn '• of bnlli rn o i ~ 1" nnrl 11ry cln y. h ifR of
burnt cln.y (bn\l:i Rt) or brokon bri c k ~ llri l'd in 1111 ov e u or fi ro, t u1n ulns
of wn.tcr n.nu a hamm e r.

"Onr lc~sn n t o. cl:ty is to be on a min crnl Yrry rlifTerent
H erc are lulllps of it. Cun

fr nm eit,her coal nr g raphite.
you tell me itR nam e?" Clrry.

"Are these pi recs or cl:ty quite olilrn? " N o, ll!C!f di(!'c r
in co/01rr.
"Tdl me some of t.he colou rs P" B l11r, brown, rrddish
yellow.
"I may tell you that pure rlny is whi!.e in co lour. Th e
colourA are giYen to clay mostly by iron ru st .

•

"Clay is very plentif'111. Jt, is found in great beds Fprenrl
in"' fo1· m:my rnil eR, :111d m:111v of th!' heels rtre close t.o the
"'
•
J
surfa ce of the gruun<l, tiO Uwt there is b11t very little trouble
\ o clig it.

172

173

OBJECT LESSONS.

ROW TO GIV.F. THEM.

"Chy is one of the mnRt-. u ~c· ful of the min erals. When I
tell you that brickR, drnin -pipes, ti les for roofing hou 8es,
r.rockery ware, chi na, and u great number of other articles are
all made from clay, you will sou bow use ful it is.

from cl oy. Tiri clo1 and tiles rrnrl drain-pipes are mad e of
co.rnmon clay ; but plat.eR and j 11 gR and cups and sa 11 cers nre
made from. t.he purer clay, and the clay used for making
these articles is mixed with flints bPated red-hot nnd then
ground to powder. Olay iR very useful t.he11, l1eca11se
it is plast.ie and e:u'! ily m:1de into any shape, n~d th_1~
artir·lcs wh eu baked become hard and k eep or rat.am th eu
forms.
"Chy hn.Q one oth er propPrt.y which makes it useful i_n
another " ·:iy . I 1<1ke t.his lum p of soft clay and mak e 1t
into a vNy rough basin. I pnt wa.t.er in tlie basin. What
does t.hiR tench vnu ? "
That f'/rry ho/rl_q 1rnfer.
" Y f'R, in otl;er wonls, clRy does not allow water to pass
l hro11g·h it.
"Olav is use ful int.bi s way. It forrn8 t.he h c<l~ of lakes
a nd po1~dR, n11rl so the water does not. soak away.
"J)o you r0111Ptnlier a substance which is very mnch used
becu11~e it does not allow wut.er to pass through?" Yes,
i11dio-r11h11er.
"J\ 11ythi11 g ct ~e ?" Yl'8, cork.

"I wish yon firAt to finrl out for me what. are the special
properties of clay which make it. so use ful, and to help yu11 I
wi ll pass ronnd lit.tie p ieces for you to hand le.
"Rqueeze it between your forefinger and thumb; what
does this teach you ? " 1'1/(/t chry is sn.fZ.
"Is it soft, like the crumb of bread, or like cake?" No,
it does 11ot breok into piecf's.
"Let me see what. ) ' OU can malrn of tl1 e clay. Some of
you try to nrn ke bri cks, some balls, some calms, others may
make a basin.
"Here vou learn the first important, property of clay, It
can be ma;le into any shape or form. It is said to he pln81.ic,
a. word which means capahle of being made or 111011/dcd in to
any shape or fon
"Tell me something else that is plnst.ic b es ides clay."
Dough.

"Wbat does the baker mould the dough info?" Loares.
"Here are small lumps of clay which have been dried in
the sunshine. Feel them and tell me whnt they t.eac h you
' about clay ." Olay, wl1en dried, £.s haNl and rath er brZ:ttle.
" If I take one of t.bese li ttle lumps and crush to powd er,
by adding n. lit.tle water I can knead it into pla~tic cby again.
"Here are other lum ps whi ch have been baked till they
were red-hot.• Th ese are very bard and brittle, and you
cannot make th em into pla.fitic clay again .

"A 11 t,hese articles which you see on t;he table were madtJ

"J,a st.ly, I will show you bow this propert.y of clay ii<
ehunged in the h:1ki11 g.
"Ilere is a small lump nf h:ucl cl11y, and h ere is a pi flce
of bri ck which I have <lried in th e fire. I put them into
tumblers half- filled wit.11 wat.er. \ Vat.ch the water in the
gbsses. vVbat do you notice?" Th e icafrr in one gla.ss gets
le.sB.
"In which glass? "
The one in which yon put the ;1il'ce o.f
bric/,.
"Can you tell me wh e re the water has gone?" The brick
has sucked i:t ttp.
"Yes, we sa11: t,hat bricks absorb water.
"Now we r~quire some rhain-pipes which will not absorb
water, and so when they are beiug baked, sal t is put in the

'

174

175

OD.TF. CT LF.SSO NS.

HOW TO GIVE TH EM.

oven and thi " melts or f uses• and fo rms a tbin continO" over
th e pipes which will n ot allow the wa ter to p ass th~ough.
H ere is a bit of pipe. See, it looks like glass on the outside. 'l'his covering is called a glaze."

"J,irnPstone is m ade up of lim e and of this gas, whi ch th e
miners call choke-damp.
"You will think it strange that a ston e ia partly made
up of a gas whi ch y ou cann ot see. Dut I will sh ow y ou
tlir1.t. t.hi fl is RO. I pu t l'Ome pi eces of chalk into thi s basin.
a ud l'uur on it. "Orn e li11uid f rom this bo Ule. • I will brin g
th e bas in fll•:1r yo u, nn d you can see th e bnhbles 1rn1rl e liy
tb e gas as it ('Omes a wny fro m t h e ch:ilk. Ru t perhaps yo u
will s;iy, 'I ca 11 .- r,e th e lrn bbleR , but wh ere iti t he gas P' h
is i11 tl 1P L:i s i11; I.he li:1 s in is fo ll of it. A cn mll e or a m nteh
will not hum i u this gas, so i f I li g ht, a ma tch a nd hold it
o ve r th e chalk in t h e bas in and th e fl :1m e goes out., yo u will
know t h e g:is is t here . Amy shall try. You see the lig ht
is put ou t.. .J oh n 111 ay try again.

LESSON XVII.

LIMESTONE AND LIME.
ARTICJ,ES for illus tra ti on: Speci me n of comm on lim eston e, clrn.lk nn d
ma rbl e, 11 few lnm ps of quick -lime and a lit tl e d iluted s ulplrn1·ic acid
[oil of vitro!] in a g lass sto pperod bottle.

"You tave l'!'Pn t.l1nt t h e gas is in t.h e lim est.one. I will
now sli u11· y ou h ow m en g e t rid of t he gas fr om m "ny
w u~g< •n - l u ad i" of lirn est.on e a t. a ti me wbil e 1.h e li me is le ft.
behind . Th !·y d o i t by burn ing the lim esto ue in a !urg e
O\' en <'n 11.crl a 111111'-k iln.
"I will rn a lrn a dra win g of on e on th e blac k-li uard ."

"Our leR.•on to-day will be nn in terestin g ou e, heca use
[ RhaJl sh ow Some very pretty experi ment.s. Jt is on ftUOth er
mineral n amed lim estone.
"'Vhy is it called lim estone ? Divid e t.he word in to two
prJrts and we get lime and sto ne. Y 01 t k 11ow wh at sto ne is,
and h ere is some lim e. I will show you more about t h e
lim e presently. W ell , lim estone is so n amed because it is a
ston e which is in g reat pa rl; rnarle up of lim e.
"'l'b ere a re m any kinds of lim es ton e ; som e are b a rd , and
m<i k e good buildin g stones. Chalk is u kind of limestone,
a11d so is tbis p retty m arble.
"What do the miners call . the gas which sometimes
explodes in coal mines P" Fire-drirnp.
" And wh a ~ do they na. ru e th e gas which the fire-da mp
mak es when it b urns, an d which th ey cannot breathe f'"

Choke-damp.
• I t "b n11l d be exp li1i 11 ed that in a fo r mer le8son salt wu.a call ed infusible
bt cause it does n ot 111elt except u11 der a very g r eat hea t.

,,·

[Th e t.earh er h ero l"k r.tch efl o !'im pl,, ou tlin e of a lime-l<iln,
sh owin g the op<' 11i11 g wh ure t h e fire is li g hted.]
"\Vuo!l 11 11<1 <'.ua lo< J ~i r li g li1.i11 g- th e fi re are p lne ed a t tb< ·
bottom. Th l' n lim r,stoue i ~ thrown in at t he top, th en coa ls,
th en ]im eAton e ug-ain, th en more cuul s, t hPn l imesto n e again,
un t il t"lie kiln is foll. Th e lire i.Q t hen li g ht ed, Lhe ston e
becoml'R red- h ot·., a nd th e g as is dri veh out at. th e t< •p.
" \\"li C'n th (' fir e is burn t Mil·., tb e kil n is 11 ll owed to cooi,
u11 d Lh e li111 c is t:iJ;p n ou t at th e hot.tom.
"I h a ve r e;i rl ( 1f 11w n h a vin g gon e, 011 a colrl <l nv, in t.o a
lm1•' -kilu jus t. e111pl.icd fu r Lh e Ra ke of th e 11a r mth . Th ey
• UsP lh e snlphurio acid witb care.

16.2

163

OIIJECT LF.SSONS.

HOW TO GJYE TTlRM .

they ore as much as thirty or forty feet thick, and they
spread out many miles every way.

min eR have more than one ~haft, and some mines extend
from tb e sl11ft for a mile or more. In some of the large
miues several hu1Hlre1l men work at one t.ime, and as many
as fifty or sixty po11i e ..; tn draw the coal from where it is cut
out to ! Ii•' hnl (,11111 of th e R!utf'f'..
"Shon Id yn11 f,lii11 k it. i .~ I ight or 1lark in n coal mine?" D11rk.
"\\Th,· r]q y•n1 think it is d:irk?" Hr•ta11sf' th!' 8111! cmwot

"You see how the coal is placei underg-round. flow
is it got out? Perhaps some little boy or girl can tell me
how to ge t at the byers of coa l in the glass?" Twrn the
glass u11.
"Yes, but I can't turn the earth topsy-turvy and shake out
the coal. Try again ? " Di,q out the la.vers on the top.
"That ce rtainly might be done; but just thiuk of the amount
of work to dig out hard rocks and clays several hundred yardEJ
thick, and th en only to find two or three lay ers of coal four
or five feet. thick. Why the coal when got out would. be
worth more tban its WPight in gold.
"Just for a moment suppose the layers of sand in the glass
to be clay. We can make a hole down to the coal with a
large n eedl e. If we could persuade some tiny ants to work
for us th ey could show us how men get out tbe coal. You
must provide the111 with tiny baskets and give them spiders'
webs for rope. Th en ~ome of the ants will O'et. into the
"' have made
ba~ k e t, a nd others will let them down the hole 1ni
as for as the coal. Th ese ants will fill the basket and a tinv
lo11 d of conl will be drawn up to the top.
•
"Tb i~ is j 11st. how the coal is got out. A hole is made some
ten or fiftee n feet wide through the hard rocks and st.ones
and d ays down to the coal. Through this hol e, which ill
cull ed the 8haft, the men are let down in cages and the coals
are brought up. The men work away in all directions witlJ
pickax es and shovel!J, anrl the coal i~ taken in little trucks
or.· w:i g gon s to th e bottom of the shaft.
"You rnn.y perhap~ wo11der that when the ln.ver of coal is
t.uk eu out the earth above does not sink down a~<l crush the
men; hut all the coal is not. taken out, enough is left st.anding to keep the rocks from fallin g .
"Th e pl nee wb ence tLe coal is taken is called a mine, and
the rn cu who work in tbe min e are called rni11ers. Most

.~ /iinr>

I h r•1·1•.

"Y<•q, it·. is 1111ite dark, dark Pr t.han tliP cLi1'1.:eRt. night you
eve r Raw; bnf t.h e nw11 have candles placed in lalllp» made
of wire wov e11 i11 aw..l nut. like this.

"The min er ~ who " ·nrk in coal mines are always in dangrr;
hut. I m11Rt tell )'1Jll about thi~ , anrl why th e gauze lamp i>:
URPd, in u11r n e xt. lesson.

"I "·ill now n>:k yn11
hcPn !'elli11µ:

.1· n11

~ om0

(jllestions about what I

han~

1ri rl:1~· ·

"T rbr<' ~ :11·· ~ "1111' mw cnn ll'll me why W<' call coal a
min eral ( " }/1•1't1/1 Sf' i f is flff.-1 •11 .f/·o /11. (I IJliJ/I'.
"And what.arc th e 1111 ' 11 P:ill c·rl ll'ho work in min es ?" llfin f' i'8.
" "\Vhat iR 1lw ho!P t': ill rHl up :111rl rlown whi!'.11 the lllincrR
go, nml wh er e !li e coal ~ :i re l1rnug-lit 011t.?" Th e shaft.
"How is tlll' con! fonnd in th e earth?" In brds or !n!frrs.

164

"A_nd about how thick are th ese beds?" S arn e only a f eu
suches, some jive or s-ix f eet, a11d some as much as forty f eet.

LESSON XIII.

COAL. -3.
A n TT f"!T,'f: fl

for m11 ~ trntion: Olay pipA, sm ·dl Cf)n,],

165

ROW TO Gl VE 'l'lUm.

OBJE CT l.ESSONS.

CORI

gn.s, ~cvla - wn.ter

bottle.

"To-day I h ave t o tell you about th e da ngers of the coa lmin e ; ann to help you to un de rstand bette r abo ut them, l
am goi n g to sh ow y011 t wo VC' ry p retty experim ents.
" He re is a loro g· clay t ob acco -p ipe, and h er e is a little fin e
coal, a n d h er e a li ttle soft clay. I nearly fill th e bowl of th e
!-' ~Pe wi t.h small coal, and th e n stop it wi tb clay pre~sed in
fi rmly. I now pu t t.b e bow l in t.be fire, or b old it in th e
fl ame of th e spirit-la mp.
"You mu st watch the thin enrl of th e st em . D o you see
anything comin g out ?"
Yes, sm oke.
" Most of that is !'tea m fr om th e moist clay and coal.
"Now th e bowl is r ed-}1 ot, a nd t.b er e i~ n othin g to be
.;een coming out; but t here is F<Om ething, as l will show
y ou. Ja mes sh all put a li gh t t o t h e end. Th er e, it takes
fi re, y ou see, and burn s like u ca ndle.
" Rave you ever seen any thin g else burn like tbis? "
Y es, _qrts.
"An d t his i1:1 g a11. \.Ve have, in fact, been making our
own g as on a sma ll scale.
"And n ow fo r tl1e Rcco nil exp0rim ent..
"I h ave here a soda -wa te r ho t.tle. You ca nn ot. see an y1hin g in Ri rl e, hut. th er e is a mixture of coal-gas a nd t h e air
of the room. I wrap the l1ottle in a du ster, Lecuuse it m ay

poRF<ih l v hrPrik , a nd wer e it n ot. fo r _th_e du st.er t-h e gh~R
wo uld .m ost likely cut my hn.Jl(l. vV1ll 111.m may h old tlrn1
li g hted ta per, anrl the m oment I t a ke out the cork put the
Hume t o th e mouth of th e bot t le.
.
.
"Yon h earrl the n oi se, i t. w as alm ost hke a gun gom g off.
"If thi s room we re fill ed wi th a mixture of coal gas nnrl
air a ml WP bro ug ht in a li g ht, th er e would be an ex pl0Rw11,
th ~ wi 11 dnwR would he blo wn out, and some of you would he
ver y n11 H"h hurt.
,; y 011 m:i v [0 nrn a vP.r y important leARon from this.
Man y of yo n·, uo r1011hf-., h:1vc ga8 in y onr hou ses, and so me.· · 1't. ef:c,1
·· , pe s . You
t.11nes
- can tell it by
. it.s strong
. Rm e ll. . N ow
if eno no-h g as escapes to for m t he proper rmx t ure w1 tl~ t. h e
air, v ot;h a.~e onl y to ('a rry in a lig h ted candle, or strike a
nrnt~h. t o have a n explos ion. T herefo re, wh en you find by
its smell th at thC' re is gn 8 in a r oom , th row ?PL'll the rl oo_rs
and winrl owR to let it escape, a nd k eep all li g hts aw ay t ill
the r oo m is clear.

"Let.

UA

RCe wh at fact s we can learn from our two ex peri-

lnl' ll t. ~.

.

" Jl ow dirl we m ake gas? " B y !11·11fi11{f cont 1:n a Jl l/ JIJ .
"\.\l li ere di rl th e gA A co me from ?" T he cord -_
" v.\l hat cl ocA tl1 is sh ow ll E<?" Thnt coal co11to111 s ga8.
" T hnt. j ~ th o fi rst fact, 1 wan t y ou to re mem ber . Now for
.
•
"
t.be RPC<rn cl.
" What di (l I tell you I h ad m the bottle ?

Coal

{la8

and 1iir.

·
h
" A nd wh a t. h nppen ed wh en -W illi am pu t t he h g 11t tot. e
mont.h of th e hot. Il e? "
Th Prf! 11·a.~ an e.r/Jfo.q/on.
"Th en wh at fo ot; ha ve you learn er] from th_e second
1 , 1 a n i 1'· ·1 11 1·n of coal-ga.q rm d r1ir 1cill explode.
· - en t ? " r ·,,,
11
expenrn
,.
..1 ,. .
,
" Now we will go to t.b e miue u.u<l see what sometimet1
h a pp l~ n 8 t h l' re.

166

OB,JECT LE~SONS.

"Firstly, t.h e ow 11 ers of a coal-min e g et. all the air th ey llttn
into th e mine, or the m en could not br~athe and would die.
"Secondl y , gas often esrn pes in large quantities from the
coal in the mine witJ10ut any heat.
"Thirdly, it is dark, and the men must have lights to see
to work.

"It may h appen that tli ere is just the mixture of air and
gas to ex pl?de, ~nd. it only wants the lig ht; but fortun ately,
when th e li g ht is m the lamp made of wire ga uze, it will
not set fire to t he mixtu re. S ometimes the m en ere not
cr~ refu l, and t ake out th e con dles, perh ap s to light th eir
pipes, and then th ere may be, and sometim cA t:b ere is, a
terri ble explosion, and scores and even hu ndreds of m en
may be killed.
"But this is not all; th e fire-d(fmp, es the min ers call
the c~a l-gas, wh en it burn s, ma kes another gas, called by
the mm ers c/1 oke-damp. ·wh en the men breathe this chokedamp th ey lie d own, and soon die.
"'l'h e re is a noth er danger, too, in the min e. Sometimes
the rock s from above fall on th e m en and crush th em."
The t each er should now question es in the last leRson , and
some of th e UAes of coal may be eli cited. OLLer uses will
app ear ill the succeeding lessons.

LESSON XIV.

GRAPHITE.
A R OUOH lump of ~rn phite in its natu ral. stnte, or, failing this, a cairn
of N 1x ey s black -lead, and a piece of lead, scmped clean, will be
necessary.

"Wh en y our moth er 'clea ns ' the g rate iu the morni ng
wh a t does sh e put ou it~" JJlack-tewJ.

HOW TO GIVE fHEM.

167

"Wh at. 1lnf' A Rh o dn ne xt P" B rushe11 f/1.f! grrrle.
"vYhy does she bru sh it?" T o mak e £t shine.
"Now t ell me what l1lack -lead is used for besides' clean ing ' g ra teR and ~to ves ? " For mnkin,q blar.lc-lcarl pencils.
"And wh rit do we use black-lead pencils for ?"
Ji'or
1ori fo1 g on p nper.
"vYlrnt cnlour mu st the paper be to show the wri t,in g
best?" fVhite p n7Jer.
"To day our lessn n is to be on the mineral called black lead.
"I have ca ll ed blac k-lead a mineral, tell me t hen wh ence
we get it? " From 1.mdr'rground. •
" I mllfl t Rhow you fir st of all th at this min eral is wrong ly
nam ed. Jt, is not lead a t all, neither has it a black co lour.
" Here iA a liunp (or a cak e) of black-lead a nd here a pi ece
of lea'l. t I w an t yo u to look at t hem and tell me h ow t hey
are alik e ? " Thr.11 bo l h shine.
" vVh en Rpeakin g of coal what n ame did we use in stead of
shinin g ?" L ustre.
"A ga in, h ow are bl ack -lead and lead alike ?" 1'hey both
posse.ss lustre.
"I tak e t hi Rpi ece of white pap er and d ra w first the black Iearl and t,h en the lead acr oss it.
" H ow a re t.h rse min erals alike in t,be second place P"
Th r'.11 both mn rk th1• 71071r.r .
" Now yo 11 ca n see wb y this mi rn~ ral has been callerl lrrid .
Can you t.ell m e ? " R r•cr11tsr', 1't has a lu stre like lead, and
becrw sr• like k lfrl 1.ce N11·1 1rrifr n il.It it on white paper.
"Then a R to i t8 co lour. Is it black like this pi ece of
eoal ? " No ,
" Ho w does it. d iffer in colour fr om coal P" It i,'I lighter
in colour than coal.
• It is und es irable to con fu se you ng chi l1 lreu wi th minerals not found
undergr ou .,d .
t The lead s hould be c lean.

176

177

OUJECT LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

h ave q11i etly gone to sl PPp n e ver to wake n:;ain; the ga~ !Pft

hri i·kRt.lt r rn~e lv,,s . rrnd it. nl so holds firmly to the bri ck s, and
so nm keii th e wall~ st.rong.
"Here is a pi ece of old dry m orta r . It is us h a rd as a
stone.
"Hnt, h nw is rn nrt.a r m:1(le P T will 1u:ike AomA, n.nrl then
rrou wil[ 11 .,f; forget. h ow it, iR 111alk."
' Th e tc:w h c r m:I\· now 111 :ike a little sh ck ed lim e int o a
t hin pnAt" wit.h w; 1t.e r, an<l ad d a lit.tie sa nd , working t.h e
mixt.urr t1tg e th <> r 1111til t he proper cclll~iRtency is obta ined .
lt.~ use lll :tj' furt.\i1·r lie ill 1 1 ~t rut e1l liy u sing two or three
hrid.:l.l.

in the kiln has ch ohd th em.
" 'IV e mmit now look at the lime as it comes from the
kiln. Y ou Ree it in rough lump~ . It is not. pl e:i ~ ant to
handle, for if you happen to have a scratch or cut on yo ur
fi ng e r, t.h e lime woul<l bnrn, and of COtll'l>e ca use g reat; paill .
Yott must. be c:ire ful wh P11 pass in g :i pince wh e re m e n are
ha lldlin g lim e nut. to g et any lim e dust ill yo ur eyPs, for i t
wo11ld h urt t h em \-e rv mu ch.
"I put a IL1111 p 0°.f t l11·~ l 1"1·ne m
· a b as1u
· nn d pour w111.e
• r
on it.
v

" \ \"" hat. do yo u n o t ice? "

q(f .strrun, and .falls into a

It

Cl"((,rks

n.nd

81l'el/,,q, (('/ltl

r1irr·.~

7101cdr 1-.

" Lim e in this conditi on is call ed quirk-lime.
'IVhy ?
Not beca use it moves quickly, n or because it cbnn ges
quickly, but because it seems alive. \Ve sometim es speak of
'the quick and the dead.' Here 'quick' m e:rn s living.
\ Yell, because lim e in th is st.nte stirs so an d i;; teams, ulld
works at t.h e touch of wate r, it is called 'q11ick-li111P.'
"'\Yben we pour water on the lime and thus ca use it to
swell and cra ck and fa ll to a p owder, we a re said to slal'k
the lime, t hat is, to loosen it.

L ESSO N

XVlll.

THE METALS.
SPECIM ENS

many of

of the common rn otals nn rl mn.n11f:1,.t.11r,.•l nr HclPR , :ind as
ores as can be obta ined, should lie on t be tablo.

I },,. j,.

The tcuch r r " ·ill llirect t.be at.te nt.ion of ber clo 8s t.o the
variou~ R lll'\~ im e u s of th e com m on metals on t.h e tab! '. ', :111d

ask for n a mes, thu il :"He rc is a 8ovc r0igll. ,,·h nt iil it m ade of? " Gold.
"0 i VP m e t hP !l:1111 0.q of RO lll P <Jt. her articl es mnd e of
go ld ." t.'iJ1(!-', l11 ·oer./1r ·s, 1rt1 /1'!1.-1 ·11s1•s, f'11,,i11s , 1u·11cil-<"1/8f!-', <Y(\
"\Yhat. is t h iR l1:1.ll'-cr ow 11 m ade of ?"
8ilrcr.
" Nam e o t.he r art id es made of ~ ii ver." Chr1i11s, b ro o c h.c~,
lotkr•l8, 11 rl'kh1ce.<, ~- ,._
" 'IVh:i t, iR t.li l' 11:i rn e o f t h e m e ta l of which common nails
a re m ad e ?"
Iro11 .
And so on of th e of.h e r me t,a ls.

" Lime like thiit which I have in the basin is u secl for
111 11 11 ,v purposes, but t.he chie f on e is for m uk ill g mort.ur .
Vo you kllow whut mortar is, a nd what it is used for?
"Look at th e wall of the school-room. What is it built
of?" Brick.~ .
"And what; is t.h at which you see between th e bricks?,.
N odar.
"And wh at is the morta r u sed fur

P" To fasten t11e brickR

to[Jef her.

"And why is m or t:ir used? I will tell you. It is beca use,
as it dries, it grts very hard, ROmetimes h arder than tbl.'

"Lik e lim estone and coal, gold, silv er, iron, &c., are nll

I
•\

lll

l78

HOW TO GIVE THI~ M:.

OBJECT LESSONO,

got from unrfor g round. vVhat name, tb en, mny we give
them ? " 11linem,/s.
" Yes, th ey are all minerals ; but because they are all
alike in some ways, and very different from other minerals,
we put th em in a class or r1roup Ly th em selves, and give
them tbe special nam e of 111f' frr1s.
"Tn this and the following lessons I sbnll ask you to
help m e to point out the rn:m y differ e nt u ses to which t hese
me tals are put, and the special properties which fit them for
t h es·e purticulnr u ses.
"Dut I mu At first explain to you bow they are found in
the earth. Can we dig gold and lead and tin as we dig
coal or cl:i y P Ce rtainl y not. A few of tbe metals ar~
found pure, th at is, without ai1y ot.her substances b eing
mixed up with them . Gold, silver, and copper are found
pure, but ollly in s mall quantities. Metals found in a pure
st.ate are termed 1/(/fii;e.•
But metals are usually found
mix ed up wit.Ji ma ny other things. Th ese mixtures are
called orrs. Ores are not often lik e metal s at all. Here is
a piece of whr1t is cn ll ed iron stone. It bears no lik ene>1s to
the iron wbi ch it contn im .
"How was lim e got from Iime1.<t.one ?" By lica ti11g in a
lime-kiln or .fi1.rnn ce.
"And m eta ls are m el ted out. from their ores somethin g in
~be Ra m e wa y, but y on will better un<lerstund how this is
1lone when you a r e old er .

"\\' kit nre native m etals P"
state.

• Gol<l nsn"lt y r.ontains a sm itll proportion of silver; lmt not suffi cien t
its drnrncler, and Lhe mixture is call ed native gold.

cli~ng e

"Quicksilver is sometimes found native.
"\Vhat are ores?" ]fixtures of m etal.~ 1rith. other sub

stanr.es.
The t encber will h ere !'how any ores and direct the atteu·
ti on of th e childre n to some of the <li!le rnnces between the
111 et.als :111'1 Uit·ir ores.

"l 111uf<t tell vo1t that. t.l1 e r e are other m etals b esirles those
whicl1 J have u .~·ked yo11 t.o l<1ok at; but 111 a ny of them are
very ~1.,: 1n ·e :llld. d e:1.r, l w< ·: 111 se it, iR so difficult·, to get, th em
fro111 tl1 e ir ore:<, and ot.herf< are of littl e value 1"0111p11rerl with
s uch m ct:d R as irun an<l cuJ.Jper. I will show yuu 011e or twu
of them as we go on.

t.Q

"Now for one purti r 111:ir in which all metnls are alike,
on e i11 11·h ic h t.hl·y all differ .
"Here are two iruu 11:1ils, wh:i.t-. differen ce do you observe
i11 them P" 0111• is rusl.'f, !h f! oth<•1· 8fii11 e8.
"'\Vlrnt colour is the rn s t.y one?" H1,ddish -bro1on.
"I low can l mak e a rn~t.y nail to sl1iJ1e ?" By clPa11i11g o(l
tlte r ust.
" H ere is a pit>ce nf cnpper and h ere n. piece of fin e sa11dp;1per; l 11·1111t. a littl e boy to mak e the copper shine more.
llow w i 11 h e do it P" lfo b i f ·1cell.
"Try th e 1Pt1<l n11<l the zinc with the sand-paper, wh at is
1li e r es 11 It. ?"
T/11·.11 shi11<1 betl.f'r.
"Now t:ik e t.hi H uold rin g , tl1iH silr1'1' ~hilling, the pi cee of
t.in foil, :ind the l1 it.1< u f iron, copper, lead, and zinc whid1
!;0 11 hav e cl ca 11 ed , and tell me how all these metals are
:ilikl' ? "
Thr·,IJ all shine.
"111 Rpeak i11 g ul' coal shi11i11g what was the name we
used P" L118t r e.
"Aml th e f< hinin g of m e t.nls is spnlcP11 of as t.b e rneto!!ic
lHstre. Coal is Ra id to have a metallic lu:stre, bc ca u ~e it
shines like the m e tal~

;ill(\

]Jfrtnls fo1111d in a pure

"Of tlH' nwt:ils on the table which are som etimes found
native P"
&'old, silrer, a11d CO)J/Jer.
"Jn a former lesson you saw ·a bright metal in a liquid
state ; what was it P" Quicksilver.

l 7!J

I
l

180

OBJECT LESSONS.

"Here are wires of iron, copper, zinc, end lead. We
will try to cut th em through . I cannot cut the iron; why
not?" B<'cnuse it is too !Jard.
"Which cut.s t.h e easiest?" T!w lr?ad.
"vVhy ca n you cut leud eas ier than iron?" Bt1·ause the
lead £s sofler.
"Now fol' tbe point in which m etals rnry ?" In hard-

now

1'0 GI VE THEi\I.

181

LESS ON XI X.

iHE METALS.- RUST AND PLATING.
A.HTT CT.EA for illll• f-r :1.1in11 : RJ"' " i 1n <> 11R of rnel:i.ls rtR in la•t le•so n, Tin
anu :><iue 1d:1 le, and if po•si ul e so me go l1l a 11d s il ve r plated a rt.id es.

'I/PSS.

"'Ve shall see in an oth er leA•on t.h at the uses to which
metals a re put depc nrl very mu c h on their h a rdn e8S.
"He re is on e of the curiou s m et.a.ls I promiRerl to show
yo u. It is gut. from common table-salt. You see I have to
k eep it. in a bott.le in a liqu id . The liquid is naphth a . I
d are no t t ry to k eep it in wnter. You will soon see why I
t:ike out a small piece and c ut it across. Y ou see it is quite
~oft, a 11 d h as a bPaut.i ful m eta lli c lust.re.
I put a piece iu
th is basin of waf er. You see the pret.ty ba ll how it run s
abo ut, ;1nd grad ually g ets less and less.
"Yo11 can tell me somethin g else about this meta l?" It
ff.oats 011 the miter, it is lighf.
" Y r.s, a n<l if I left it in th e a ir it would very snon rust
away. "
Children should n ot be all owed to tou ch sodium, and the
t.ea.c her sh ould cut it in a sa ucer into whi ch a lit.l'le nophtltu
ba s been poured . Of course it must not, be put into th e
water with t he fin gers. Use the point of a knife.
P laced on blottiu g paper on th e water, it soon takes fire,
and usually ex plodes. Potassium, under similar circumsta nces, b urn s with a violet flame, but this m etal is much
more expeusive th a.11 sod ium .

"[n wli:it r e~ p ('C t did you finrl, in your ln s t lessou , that
all 11 1!•l:i l-< were a lik 1• ?" In /i 11ri11g f./1f! 1111·fll lh1! !11 strl'.
" J J qw did we 111 :1 ke SOJ ll C of t.lt e metah s hi ue bri g hwr? "
J]y n11ibi11!1 tl11'11t l!'ith. srrnrl-prrper.
"ll Pr e is an olrl k11ife, what do you see on t~ . e blad e ?"
N11 sf.

"Then if I rnb th e knif0. wit.h sa nd - paper, or bet.tor foltill ,
wi t. h a slenl til e, wl1at. do I r0. 111 ove? " l'lw r11st.
"Now kt us lo"k at t.h e piPces of lc..O, copper, nn rl :1. i11 c.
N0.itli er of t h orn nre brig h t. Th ey am each of tl1 P111 rl11ll
on t h e o n t~irle, but. the sa rlfl- pnper or t.he Vil e will show you
th e 1<hini11 g m et.a l beneath.
":-..:"""' 11 1d.a ls r u ~t. YPry mtwb m ore tlian otb ern. Guld ,
si h cr, :111d qtti ck,; ill' Pr du not, ru st. H ence t-.h ey a re alw uys
brig ht·.. '.l'i11 , zin e, and copper, wh en e:xpo ~ecl to t.h e air,
ta rui Rb, tl1at i .~, loRe th eir lu str e, but do n ot ru st away.
L ead forms a f/n'n eoa l·. in g o f r11 st which pro tec t.A t.he metu/
from fnrll11 ·r i11j11ry. Not. ~o iron a nd st.rel. If th <'Rfl 111 et:d :o.
are l uft in a dump p lace t.he ru i>t soon ' rats ' th em comp letely a11·ay . He nce all h ri g h t. iron a1Hl s teel goods must
be k ept dr.IJ , if we wish t. h -- 111 to remai n bri g ht.
"IT aH\ v on ever seen a saucr.pan or a k ettle made of
lead r " No.
" Can you g i ve me the r eason?" L ead is too .so/¥. It
111elfs too easily .
" Yes, bulh a 1Js wer s am correct ; but. th ere is nnot.b er

182

ROW TO GIVR

ODJECT LESSO NS.

180

''T ro n plates coated with tin ar e call ed f.in-nla fe.~ . ancl th e
common kitchen vessels are made of tin-plates and not of
solid tin.•

r euson. Any acid, such as vinegar or the juice of a lemon,
or that of an unripe upple, makes a rust with lead which ie
poisonous, h ence vessels fo1· holding food are never made of
lead.

"Iron pl:it.f'R are A.180 co:1fr1l wit.h zinc 1n pre.vent t.he iron
ru st ing; would th e~e plates do for making saLwepanR ?"

"Aga in, zinc will not answer for frying-pans and saucepans, liecause it bums away very easily, a.ad gold and silver
are too d ea r.
"\Vha t m etals, th en, have we l eft to choose from?'

N o, the zinc ·i rould fmrn 1t1my .

"13ut it. wi ll do for buckets and pan s whi ch are not p11t
n ear t.he fir r , 1111<1 zi11 c-platP. is now rnuch uscrl for such t.bin g~ .
"Iron "·ire, wli iL·h ha!> to hr cxpo~e <l to damp, i" often
coaf Pd wit.h zinc. vVby?" J]('cause the zinc keeps the iro11
ji·om rusti11g.

Iron, copper, and t£11.

"I dare say you ha ve seen copper k ettles and saucepans
Th ey la!lt longer than any oth ers, a nd wh e n k0pt cl ea n !coll
very .l lice; but th ey are very d ea r , and wh a t is of m o re conseq uence, any acid, a nd e vu1 cold water when a ll o wed te
si11nd in th em, ma.lees a green ru st wl1ieh is very poisonous.
For t h ese two rea.~ous coppe r is not mnch u sed.
•
" 1Vh a t kinrl s of saucepnn s a 11d ]{c tt.les do you know
beil irl efl t hose made of cop pPr P" T hos1; 111ade of iro11 1111d li11.
"It is n o t. 4ui1 e correc t ·t,o my ~a ucqrnn s, k ~ttl es, &c., are
mad e of t.i11, as I will show you d irec tly; tin is too d ear;
but. m an y are mad e of iro 11 . T hose made of iron a re thick
a.nd h eavy, and all the best are· lin ed with a bard white substance called e11a111 el .
" Can y ou tell m e w Ly th ey nre 1in ed ? " 1'o /.;('ep t!te ir011
frnm 1"usti11u au:a,11
" But tLese articles are d ca.r, and we want som e thing
cheape r.
"Thin sh eet.s of iron will not do alone, b ecnu~e ru st
would soon d es f.r ny th em. But a thin coating of tin prevents the iron from ru ~ 1.ing.
"Her e, then, we get just wh at we wa nted. The iron is
ch eap and stron g , and. the fire d oes nof; e:is ily injure it, and
th e tin on the outside pr1:: HHits the wuter frum m&.k.ing it
rust away.

Tlrn~r.

"Tin nrnl zmc, t.lwn, 11re p11t. ovor irnn to prN;r•rve it, and
l.11 0 iron ~ o coa ted iR ;;aid t.o lie plakd; hnt ot.lwr m etn.ls arc
p/11 {('rl for a nof,h e r purpose. S ilve r n.nd gold ·are VPry d enr,
hut th ey look ve ry bright arnl pre tt.y, nrnl require li11t very
lit.tle cl en ning; h en ce t h ey nre put 0 11 ch eaper rn ef.o l R, whi c h
are th us m ade to look I ike silver and gold. Artic lef! so
covered aro Aa icl to lie sil ve r or golrl -plaled. RingR, chains,
watcb- cn scR, brooch <'R , n eckluces, &c., a r e usu ully coated
with gold; a nd tm-potR, coffee-po ll", fork R, i=;poo n~, &c., with
silver . Th e m e t.:11 cover ings are p11t on in different way s
which I canno t ex pl ai11 now, but instea cl I will do a liHlc
plnt.ing, so th a t yo u may see at least tha t it can be
done." t

t

• Pin s ftre made of braAB wirn coate1l with tin.
t JhAAol rn " fe w c ryetfl lA o f h l 11 A Yitri ol (cnp per en lphnl.o) in ft li'.tlo wnter,
I111m <' rAe a hi t o f !•ri g ht. iron or atee l- • 11 ch ne l h o hladt· ol "knifc- i 11 thA
volu Lion , n1u.l I Ji,. 11rtid fl irn m r r "'erl will Le plated wi lh cop ~1e r in a few HN'ondit

184

now

OBJECT LESSONS.

TO OIVI:<]

rne ?"
k ni1·re ; w1] a.t. d oes t]. 1 1' s teuch
' '"
LE SSON XX.

THE MET ALS.- H ARD NESS, ALLOYS.
ARTifJJ;F:R fo r illu ~t rntion: Spf1ci1110 11s of 111Ptnls 11s in th e last loss11n ,
coins an<l any articles mafl e of bra Rs or other n.lloys.

"In our first lPSROil on m etals we n ot.ed one part.ic11 lu.r in
whi ch all m et als are alike ; wh at is it?" Tlu•,11 all havP t/I(•
metallic lustre.
"And we noted one p a rti cular in which th ey vari ed very
mu ch. What. is that?"
Th e.11 rn1'?/ in h11rd11 ps .~.
" In th e last. lesson we saw bow Rom e m e t.u ls tarnish and
ruf\ t,, and how the rnsting of iron is prevented by coating il
with tin or zinc.
"To-day I want yon to look again at th e ha rd n l' Rf\ of
metals, how th e softer meht ls ar e m af!e hard er , a nd sow e of
th e uses w b ich follow from the h a rdn ess of m etals.
" ·w hich is the softes t of the common useful metals?"
L ead.
"And whi ch is the hardest ?" Iron.
" I h a ve a pi ece of iron wire h ere, and, usin g th e fll e, I
cut it t.hrou g h; wb a. t. does that tell us about t h e fil e ?" It
is liarder th an the iron.
"The fil e is made of a kind of iron call ed steel, which is
ve ry h ard ind eed. Knives, saws, chi sels, arnl all c ut.tin g
too ls are m ade of steel.
" I want. to nail two pieces of wood t ogether ; what kind
of n ails do I u~e ?" Nails mrrde of iron.
" \Vhy wouldn't n ails made of lead do?" The.I/ tcould '"'
too soft.
"'l'oo soft for what?" To go into the 1tood.
"I can cut gold, silver, tin, ziu c, aud copper with a

Bf?/~er

thn n steel.

185

TJrnM.

"'h. t t''111•se rnelala are
-'-'"
0

.

"\Vhich metuls do yon think wear !\way the qnwkest, the
hard or the soft?" Th e s~(t 1nt·lals.
"yefl ; anrl n ow J wa 11 t yo11 to n •111 c111 her R0111Pthi ng
about m et.:i ls wh icb will seem ver y curious t.o ynu . J\) p f a IA,
wh en fu ~t~d, will mi x tnget.li er, t.h e rni xt.11 rn lw i11 g call e<l nn
allov; n11d the curiou s fact is, t lrnt. the a llny rnay Ahow p'.·operti es quite differe nt to the properties of the metals which
form it.
"Yo u know th at gold can be hamm ered into ext.re1.n'.'ly
thin sh ee ts, and that lead is als() ma ll eable ; but t.Jw n.drl1t.1011
of the leas t bit of lead wit.h gold mak es the gold bi·ittle.
Again, a little copper mixed with golrl :wd si lver m ak e~
th ese rn et-.als BO much hard er tlwt th ey wear for a mu ch
longer t,im e. And , once rnn re, tin is F< ufl er tha n. copp<'r,
hut a mi xt.ure of tin a nd copper, call crl uro11ze, is 11111<'h
harder even than th e copper.
· "I b eanl a boy say this morning, 'Pl P:ise, sir, have yo11
got 11 copper?'
Wh at did he m ean?" II11 re yon got a
penny or a lt a(!711•1111y.
.
" .Why cl id he call a p enny a copper ?" B tcu 11sc pr111tiP8
are madP- of copper.
"No; ~o m e y earR ago p e11nies and lrnlf-prn ni es were made
of cnppi: r, lint, 11 o w t;h ey are made of bronze.
,,
"\Vh y du y ou thiuk th ey are now m:1d e from bru11 ze?
B ecousc bmnze is hard.er and 1cears longer th an COJIJ?l'.r.
" ·what. cfl n I pnt wit.h gold and sil ver to mak e th elle
m etal s '1:1 nlf'I', n11d so prevent. th em from wea ring away BO
quicldy ?" Ooppl'r.
"Yes, a nd a very lit t.le copper will do. Sovereign R and
half-sover eig-n s ar e made from golcl which h as hail a litt le
oopper wi x.ed with it. Eleveu p arts gold and one part

186

BOW TO G !VE TITEM.

OD,TEC'f LESSONS.

copper is the mixture. Silver for half'-cro1vns, shilling"",
&c., requires less copper th!tn t.his to m a ke it hard.
"All the gold a.nd silver userl for making ornaments have
copper mixed with them, and many of the gold rings,
wntches, &c., contain nearly one-half of copper. You m ay
learn from this that 'gold' articles of similar size are 11ot
always of the same value. Tbnse that contain more copper
a.re ch eaper than t.hose t.h nt contain less.
"There are many other alloys,• but the most useful of
all is brass, a mixture of copper and zinc."

\\

for ii lust.ration: Specimens es in preceeriing lP~1>on1>, 11
lump o f c lfly well kn eaded to mako a m ou ld, and any sp ec iw e11 s o f

:\ RTICJ,ES

cRst Rrt.icles.

"We have already Reen that all the common m eta ls can
be melted or fused. Some c,m be fused easily, s~me wi t b
great difficulty.
"Or.e m etal which in tl·is country is always in a liquid
l' tate, what is it.s nnme?" Qu£cksilrer.
" I eaid in this cou n t.ry, because it you were to go to very
cold countrie~ in winter you would find the qui ck 8i11'er h<1rd
and solid like silve r. "Wh en tbe summer com es the quicksilver meltfl, so t.bat we may say th at quicksilver fuses with
a ve ry little heat ind eed co111pare<l with the other metals.
H ere is a

• The te1t•·her rnny introd11co any other alloys of which she h r•s specimen•,
•ucb rui hell-metal, a 1nixt11re of cop per and tiu; Gc1·ma11 •ilver, a mixture of
copper, zinc, nurl ni ckel; pewt•r, a mixture of covpcr a 11J tin ; 3olde ... a mixture of tin and lead .

get!~" \Vhat
red h ot.
rlo
.h .

·l

we learn about t

?"

10

f

"bilit.y of lead compared
us1

That ll'ad /it.se:; with /r>.~8 heat.
Beccrnse i!te ll'arl was .firnf!rl and

wit iron
.
. ?"
" Why do you say so

.
.
1' ·1
\Ve will trv
"Now for tin.
H ere is a p1 Pce of tin io1 .
. . J
.
r l th lead You see it does not m olt. RO q111cl-ly,
it as we r 1c
e
·
.. . d h t
It is the sn tn e
nor till t.h e iron shornl get.s.q111te i e
o.
wi th zin c it, m elts wh en th e iron gets red bot.
lt •t .
, , .I '
ld
l s1"lver and copper. I ca nn ot me
. , I in
" If try go anc
.
·.
·m I melt the shov el 1 t~c lf. It i eq 1n1 es a
the shovel, nor c.
•
·n the crrate to fuse these
much stronge r h eat than I can get I
o

the iron icrrs not fused.

'

THE METALS -FUSION, CASTING.

"We will now try some of the other m et als .

. 11 t' fire in An h on sh ove l.
1 0 I t 1.t over a b ng
lump o f ea ' pu
. ·'!· ly even Lefo re the shovel
Y ou see it m elts or fuses very qu1 c ~ '

.,,

LE SSO N XXI.

187

m etals.
d"fl' lt to fu se . but I cn.n mulrn it
" Iron is the most i icu
,
, '
.
. .r .
softer in the fire, so f t enoug tJ to be hnmmere<l w to <ld1u ent
. t
I can h ·1m rn er colrl lead .
sh apes JU R as
<
'
.r. tb
'
e
.
1
. t you to learn some o1- e uses w
"In th1 R 0 ~so 11 I \'an
make of m e tals by fusing them.''

.. • 1e of " cnsti"11
'll t t t h pr111c1p
" · ""O'" met.n]R, fake th e
To I us ra e , e. ·1
. .· e nt J>our a lit.ti e moh.en
.
~ome s1111t ur e x pe11m
.
.
.
1
f o1 o wrn g or
d
.
. d by nres siucr a glass marble rnto
leud into a moul p1 epau'l
.i:ti
clay.

"I ook a t t b e fl;1n~A mn1"hlc ai1d the mnrbl e m ade o£ l ead,
_,
h
l"I ? " 1'heu h a1:e t/1(' 8(11/te slir1.11e.
h o w are t ey a • rn
-'
1 f ti

"How did I manuge to mul\e the l e:ul marl> e o
i e Em~ e
shape ns th e glass min bl e P ,, You pr1'.S8f'(l the glass mm /;le

int~' tAhe ~1r1.;b

I t ook the marble awu.y o. h oll ow place was
ll
\V e mny c;~l\ the
n " en
l ft havin o- the snme shape as t h e mr.r i e.
1
e
ti
~ th
ble
But wh en we s rnpe a
clay then the shape or
~ mar .
.
d so the h ollow
tung
I.
we a re so1neti
· mes said to mould it, au

188

OBJECT LESSONS.

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

place into which the metal is poured is always ca~led the
mo1tld.
" How did I get the lead into the mould P" You po11red

metals by casting in moulds. To-day we have to find out
other ways in which articles are made from metals.

it i11 .
"Another word which means the same as ponr is cast, aud
you may say that I cast th e lead into the mould. You must
rememlJer tbat all articles made by pouring molten metal
iuto moulds are said to be cast.

"Metals when cast are rnmally brittle. Thus cast iron
although hard is brittle ; and for many purposes we want
metals to lrn tough or tenacions. Cast iron wh en re- rn clted
and well Rt.irred nnrl th en hamm ered becomes tough. It is
1hen c11 ll Pd wor!.w l or w rmt[/ lt t iron.
"Wrou ght. iron does u ut melt. easily, but it becomes soft
in th e fire anrl c:111 t.he11 be hamm ered and rolled into such
shapes a.~ ure wante<l. In some towns in En g L1rnl nearly all
the men women 11nfl chi ldren are employ ed in ma.king
wrought iron into nails, chains and other small articles
which require to be 11trong.
"ITere are wro11yht and 1·118t-iron nails. I will hammer
them. \ Vhich will break?" The cast-iron nails.
"And what is th e effect of hmnm ering the 1cro11yht non
nails P" They be11d uit!wut b1·eaking.

"'l'he metal most used for cast.ing is iron, but many
art ides are cast from the alloys-brass, brouze, and bellmetal.
"The iron got from the ores in the furnace is allowed to
run iu to moulds made of sand. Il e11ce it is culled cast
uon.
"This is the iron of which very many common articles are
made such as the leg13 which support the de8ks, grates, many
nails, kettles, saucepans, bolts, bars_, &c. The cast iron iR
brittle, and so of course are the arti cles made from cast
uon.
" Bells are ca.Rt from bell-metal, statues• from bronze,
and mauy ornamental articles from brass."

LESSON XXII.

THE METALS.- MALLEABLE, DUCTILE, TENACIOUS.
ARTI CLES for illu •trntion: Specimens of m<J tals in sheet and wire,
cast and wrought-iron nails, and a strip of ribbon - wire magnesium.

" 1u the last lesson you saw bow articles are made from
•

'l'~e

teacher will explain and i\111etrnte.

18fl

"Steel is made hy beatin g toget.her bars of wrought iron
and charcoal.• ~t eel may be mad e soft or very hard . All
cut.ting tools nre made of hard steel.
"Would a knife made of lead be of any uRe for cuttin g ?"
Nu, i:t wo11/d not cut.
"\Vhy not?" We could not ,qice it an edgn thin enough to
cut, and ~l 1ve co1tld the edge 1rnuld twist and bend instead of
cutting.
" For the same reason wro11ght iron would not do, aml cast.
iron would he too brittle. Wrought iron Hnd all the oth er
comrnon metals can be cut with steel tools, u11d rnauy articles
are shape1l in this way.
" What metal is this [Rh owing tin foil] P"

Tin.

• Show a pieoo of charcoal e.nd explalll t.hat it is cha.nod or pe.rlially burnt

'Noocl.

190

" How was it made so thin P "

By beating u:ith a

hammer.

"And what is this [showing gold leaf] P" Gold kaf
" And how was this made so thin P" By beating with a
hammer.

"What do we say of these metals because they spread out
on bein g hammered?" They nre mrdlwble.
"All the common metals are malleable, but some of them
can be beaten out and rolled into sheets easier when heated ,
than when cold. Zinc is brittle, and requires to be heated,
t.h ou gh only a little, to make it malleable. Gold is the most
malleable of all mewl s.•
"Here are wires of different metals. What do we say of
metals because they can be drawn out into wire?" They
are ductile.

" Would lead wire be of much use P"
strony, and it would brenlc

191

HOW TO GIVE THEM.

OBJEar LESSONS.

No, it would not be

ff bent.

"vVhat other property mu st metal s possess to make strong
wire?" They rm1st be tough or tenacious.
"Steel makes the strongest wire; wrought iron, gold,
«ilver and copper wire are alHo strong. Zin c wire is soft. and
easily bent but it j q not stron g . It is som etimes used instead
of string for tyiug shrubs and trees in the garden.
"All the common metals have one oth er property which
you can tell me at once by taking th em in your hands.
Th ey are heavy. Gold is the heaviest metal. Then follow
yuicksilver, lead, and silver. You saw one curious metal
which wus so lig-M that it floated on the wuter, so that all
met.ala are not heavy.
"1Vhich of the common metals burns away when put on
the fire for some time ? " Zinc.
• '..l'he UBes of gold.leaf for gilding ehould be

poin~e<I

out.

"There iR one met.fl t• which burns very brightly ind eed.
So bright is its light that it dazzles the eye to look at it."
The time of one Ie~so n will be well ocoupied in a recapitu,
lation uy question and an swer of the lessons on meLuls.

LESSON XXTII.

TEXTILE MATER! ALS.-1.
ARTTOI.E8 for illn strntion : Small pieces of coa rse lin en, pine. and
short lengths uf string.

Give to each child a pin o.nd a small piece of some woven
material the structure of which is eas ily demonstrated, such
as very coarse' lin en.
Set the class to discover how it is mnde np, viz. of
thread s ; th en bow the tb reads are arranged. Tell them
that the lon g threads are called the warp and the cross
threads th e u:ooj:
Illu1c1tral'e the arrn.ngemflnt or t.he warp by ty ing small
string le11 g tbways at equal int ervals across a frame (a slate
frame will answer very well), and then threading string;1
across to rep resent the woof. The process here represen Led
is called weaving. t The material s made are usually called
te:rtile, but t exti le means simply woven.
'l'h e children will nex t be directed to examine the threads
to see how they ar e made. They will soou discover th a t
• The teacher may burn e. piece of mt<gtwsium wire.
darhned so mu ch the bolter.

t The mac hinery URP.U in weav in g is

80

If the room oa.n bn

complfcalerl lhat

ieHcrib.i it to young children would be so ml'lch waste time.

to attempt to

192

OB.TEOT I,ESSONS.

tlOW TO GIVE THEM.

each tbrPad consisfa of a number of very tiny hair· like
threads, twisted toget.her; or, if the t.hread of the lin en
selected be not large enough, use ordinary string. This
will be found to consist of smaller threads twisted, and
th ese, again, of hair-like threads twisted. In the manufacture the twisting of the threads is called spinning, and the
threads are call ed yarn.
Spinning may be illustrated by twisting a thread from a
bunch of hemp.

For suitability for clothing they must be wann, soft, lig/if,
flexible, and durable.

In the third place, some inform at ion should be given on
the sources of the raw ma.terial.
Dyeing may be illustrated by using oue or two Judson' •
dy es.
Lastly, the inflammability of the 'various articlcB may bt
tested-all burn freely except wool ; and a useful warniu~
against playing with the fire may be gi vca.

LESSON XXIV.

TEXTILE MATERIALS.- 2.
for illustration : Specimens of raw materials and mo.nufnctured articles. One or two of Judson's dyes.

ARTJOI,ES

Attention should now be directed to the chief raw
materials used in making textile articles, viz., wool, cotton,
silk, and flax. Specim ens of these should be shown and
compared, as also specimens of some of the principal manu·
factured arti cles.
Wool.-Oloth, stuff (for dresses), hosiery, flannel, blauket,A,
carpets, worsted• for sewiug and darning, Berlin wool.
Cotton.-Oalico, print, sewing cotton.
Silk.-Piece silk, ribbons, and sewing silk.
Flax.-Linen, damask, flax-thread for sewi ng.
Q11 estiom1 on the special propert"ies common to the ra"
materials used in weaving will naturally follow.
For facility in weaving the articles must be tough, fairli
~it"o 11g, and .flexible.
• So called because tiret mad e in a town called Worsted. in Norf'olir.
0

--

APPENDIX.

191

or lamp-black, &o., is added. When the ing-redient.s ar1
thoroughly mixed the mixture is poured into moulJs 01
rolled into sticks.

OLIVE OIL.

AI'PENDTX.
Ttn: fnllowing Fketches are intended to serve as frameworl{R
on whi ch the teacher may construct other l es~ons.
Tf t.h e
necessity arises for the use of extra lessons they should be
introduced in their proper places in the series. Thus the
les8on on boots and shoes naturally follows the lesson on
leather-those on nails, bells, a thimble, and the smithy
should follow the lessons on metals, and so on.

hs PRoPF.RTTE!l.-Liquid, but thicker than water; semi
transparent; yellowish colour ; floats on t.h e top of water
and iR therefore lighl er than water [illu strate J ; does no
mix with water. [11ub a little on the hund n11d tJ1 e1
plunge into water, the water is only seen on the h:rnrl i1
drops here and 1be re.J It is inflammable, it could bo us"'
to burn in a Lm1p through a wick [illustrate this], but is to•
expensive. ·It is soft and greasy to the touch.
'VrrnN GE OBl'AINED.-Pressed from the green plum -lik
fruit of the olive-tree.

Us1-:s.-PureRt kinds used chiefly in the preparation
food.

SE ALI.NG WAX.
W1-1v so called; hard and very brittle; easily fused; when
placed in a flame it burns ea~ily and falls in drops; in fused
state sticks firmly to paper, but not to polished metal o r
stone. [Show its uses, viz. to stick paper toget.ber and to
mak e seals. ] Why are Reals placed on letters, &c. Seal·
ing wax is soluble in spirit [illust r ate.]

If the rnatcria ls can be obtained r eal.lily the manufacture
of thi s u ~r.i ul R11 bstaace may be illustrated. The best sealing wax is nrnrle by gently heating together three parts of
shellac and one of resin; a little colouring matter, VPrmilion

t

[ Compare with oth er oils, Loth as to prupertie!l, source•
and u s~s.J

BOOTS AND SHOES.

A 1.F.s~oN on boots and shoes will lead to the considerat.io
of most. of the following point.s : -.
"\Vhv do wo w1~ar hoo t.A anrl Al10es P Of what are t.he
made ?.. What parts ar" Ro 111 et illl es mad e of cloth P Whor
is cork som ,~ times put, a11d why? \Vhy is t.hin lent.hr
used for the uppen1 1111d fhick leather for the soles P Wl1r

196

197

A.PPENDI'J..

APPENDIX.

are sometimes fast.ened on, and what driven iuto, the soles,
and why? How ought boots and shoes to be fastened firmly
to the feet ? What is the use of the tongue P Why is
leather the bt:st material for making boots and shoes P Why
should the feet be kept dry and warm P How are boots and
shoes cleaned P In making what kinds of shoes is carpet
sometimes used P

SHAPF. ANn I'ARTS.-Dell-sb ape; hollow; form~ a lit.tl o
cup which fits 011 the top of the fin ger. Smooth on t.he
inside; rough on the outside; covered wit.h little hollows
or cells; cells stamped in rows. ·what is the use of the
hollows And the t•£111 '!
Thimbl es used by t ailors have no tops, why P Th ey use
only the side of the thimble.

Uirn OF 'fHntllLE.-vVh en are tbimbl E'R URPO? On which
finger are they worn P Why wear a thimble at all P
CHARCOAL.
lTfl PROPRRTIEs.-Black colour; light; porous; brittle;
easily reduced to powder; burns without flame; is infusible
and insoluble.
!Ts N AME.-W ood, used as fuel, was formerly called cole,
or coal; anyt bing partially burned is said to be charred,
hence partially burnt wood is charred coal, or cliarcoat.

How MADE.-Small log11 and short branches of bard
wood are pil ed in a stack and nearly covered with a layer
of earth. Small openings are left at the sides and on e on
the top. Stuck is lighted below. Aft er a time all the
openmgs are closed and t.he wood is only partly burned, or
charred.

hs UAEs.-In some 1iountries as fuel; for cleansing water
(filtering); for cleaning sugar; for making crayons, &o.

BELLS.
OF.-Bell-m etal [an Rlloy corn>i~t.ing of three
parts copper and one part tin]. The alloy is hnrd and hrittle,
and when struck vibrates• and gives clear musical sound.
WHAT MADE

\.

SHAPE AND PAR'l'll.-Sh aped something like tea-cup:
shape called be1l-sh ap e. Many flow ers are bell-sh aved, as
the blue-bell, canterbury-bell, hare-bell, &c.
Hail(lles to some bells; made of wood; why P
Clapper or tongue; its use; why l11rng in the middle of
the cup.
KINDS oF Bm,LR.-Cl111rcl1-bell.,, large 8cnool-hells; hun g
hig b up in the building and pulled by means of ropes.
Ho11se-bells, pulled by wires.
Hand-bet~ , sw1111g by hand.

A .THIMBLE.
WHAT MAnR OF.-Brass, steel, or silver. Brass the ch capE'st,
steel the strongest, silver the prettiest, but dearest. Whv
made of hard snbstances P

UsEs.-For wh at purpose is t.be bell rung in school P
• Illustrate with tuning-fnr k, and show thnt the sunuu ceases ne the vi bra·
lion is stopped by co11 tnct with an} substance.

198

APPENDIX.

APPJ<>NDIX.

Why are church-bells rung P Why are bells fixed in hous1J1 P
Why are bells fixed on bicycles P

199

Thus in the Rlrwksmith's shopTHE FrnE.-Where plnced; how made to burn fiercely ;
its use ; why heat the iron ?
THE A Nvu .. -A block of iron; the uses of the anvil; why
wood or marble would not do.

NAILS.
A LF.!':SON on nails must to some extent depend on the
varieties of nails at the command of the teacher. The
principal points for consideration will be the materials of
which they are made, the special properties and uses of the
various kinds, and a co1nparison of shapes and sizes.
Some nails are made of cast iron ; what is cast iron P Cast
nails are made by machinery; they are brittle. Some are
wade by hand; they are of wrought iron. What is wrought
iron, and how does it differ from cast iron P Some nails
are made of copper, others of brass.

Compare the shape of the h eads, the bodies, and the points
of nails ; all taper mor e or less, some from the head to the
point, others only a little way from the point; why so made;
the use of the head and of the pointed and chisel-like ends.
Compare nails as to sizes and their vat'ious uses. What are
tacks, and "7hy some are called tin-tacks; (~oated with tin
like pins to keep them from rusting).

THE ILH1Mtm.-Use; the noise made in st.riking ; the
l'lparks from the hot iron; bow thing& are shaped with the
hammer on the anvil.
THE \V ATJm-TH nUGH.-Its use; bow the hot iron mak es
the water hiss and send off steam; use of the water.
THE SMITH.-His appearance; bis dress ; bis apron; why
made of lea ther?

., ~'
LEAD.
fTs P1wPERTrns [to be di scovered by experiment]; beovy;
soft as com pured with other metals; can be easily cut O"
scratched; pliable; r eadily fu sible ; malleable.

UsEs.-For water and gas pipes ; for making shot; in
thin sheets for lining tea- chests ; in thicker sheets for making
gutters, puttin g on roofs of houses; for making alloys.•

THE SMITHY.
.A

of interesting lessons may be constructed from
im a~d nary vi sits to various shops. The teacher will draw
attention to the striking properties of the various articles
therein, and the special uses for the same.
8RlllF.S

Similar lessons may be given on the other common
minerals.
• Sold1ir is
copper.

HD

nlloy of tin f\nd len t! ; pewter is an nlloy of tin, lead, and

200

A..PPENDIL

FLINT.

INDEX.

A MINERAJ ..-Why P Found m gravel-pits; in pel1blea
on the sea·shore; in chalk beds.

A

PROPERTIEs.-Hard, brittle, smooth, heavy, variously
coloured, but mostly black; when burnt or calcined becomes
white, and is th en ea!'ily crut1bP.d to white powder.
Edges of broken flint very sharp; when struck wit.h steel
sparks of fire seen. [Show by experiment how it was
formerly used for lighting tinder, and also for igniting the
gunpowder in the old "flint guns."]

'(
I
\

U~Es.- l'i'or making roads; sometimes used for building

walls of houses; calcined and crushed, it is used fur mixing
with clay for making pottery.
,,

;l

;I
PUMICE STONE.
GREY or white stone; harsh and rough to the touch; porouR,
and sufficient.ly light to float on water; brittle, but hard
enough to scrat.ch glass or steel.
·

I
l

I
1

Used for polishing; employed in smoothing wood, glas~.
stone, marble, &c.; painters use it for smoothing before paint·
ing. Sometim es used for smoothing the skin of the hand.
Compare with other stoucs.

Abeo1·b ent, 08, 178 .
Adheeh·e, or sticky, 68.
Afternoon, 146.
Alloys of metal•. 181.
Alum , leF;wm on. 122.
An gle. th e , 46, 14"
Anawera s hould be cmnplete p11.rnsee, 6.
Astrin~ent,, 123.
p
Ball-ebope, 2Q.
BATk, 99 .
Bells. lesson on. lil7.
Blncklead penci l ~ , manufadure of, 170.
JJ oots nnd shoes, HJ5.
Brast1 . 186.
Ifrend, 130.
Brendt b, no. E14
Driok• Rnd briek -ehnpe, 61, 64, 611, 173.
Drit tle nnd tough , 6'1.
DroJJze, l SG.
Butl er , 1:12.
Buttons and strinw~, 180.

\

•/
!
I

I't'
I

l

Eg-g, lesson on, 6f,
Elnst icity, 98.
E 11a mel, J 82 .

B

Experimen ts ou ohjectlt to be made by t.bg
pupil~, 6, 33, llll.
F'
Firedamp, 166 .
FI P::t.ible, or plin.ble, 6H, 94..
l7lint, lesson on, 200.
Foot, n, ~6.
Forms, 7.
And colours, 62, 74, Ht.
Fus ible nud infusible, 87.
F usion, 186.
}""'reezing mixture, 87.

Gl•88, lee•on on, n .

G

Glnze, 174 .
Ocld nod silver plnte, 183.
Oold· le"f, 190.
Oranultir, 1 l!l.
Ornpbit e, lesson on, 166.
Oum ana g lue, 186.

c

Cabbages, leeso~ on , 6f! ..
Camphor, experim en t with ~ 01.
Leason on, 124.
Casting. 188.
Clm.rcouJ, leBBon on, 1!J6.
CheeF.le, manufacture of, HIS.
Choketl•mp, 166, 174 .
.
Cla.F.sitlcation bRsed on oompanson, 11

1I
Hard H.nd soft, 88, 87.
Hemisphere, the, 113.
Hept:igon, 14l.
..
.,
Herbert Spencer on 11 self-iuetrnatlon, 4
Bexngon, 141 .
Horizontal linel'l, 76.

(note I, 24.

Cln.y. l ee~on on, 171.
Clock-fnctl, l es~n11F1 on t,he, 148.
Con.I, l e~Bon . nn, J5! t,
Coal -mine, 162, Hi6.
Colours, B, 10, 16 .
P1imnr;, 10, 22 (note) .
Br.:'"mdnry, 41.
Light 1tud d1trk . 7:1.
lrrcgu lnr (brow n. grey), ma.
Mn.t c hing or nrrnu~ ing. u, 22, 4!°•, 73,
108.
Mixing, 42. 44.
Arnl form, 52, 74.
Compnrin g- properfiee, import.a11<'e of, 89,
92, 10'1-106. 134,
Compressibili ty, on, 98.
Con e, thP , 144.
Co1·k, lt!seo n on. 99.
Cotton rind wool, l c~"o n on, 127.
Cube Rad brick, on th P., 50, f!fi, 113.
Curve u.nd circle. 48, 110.
Cylinder, t.he, 113.

Impervious, 100, 101.

I

Jach, A.n, 67.

Jndia -rub he r, lesson on,

9~.

Jntlum nrn.ble, 91

~~~:J::::t;,' ~g·

Jn ~truction to be a plen1mre,
]ton-wrought Ftn1l CJ\flt, 18}J,

K
Knowledge, sources of, 1.
F our 11leps iu, 2.
Children to l\cq ni re it for themeelvea,
2, 26.

L
Lend. te ..on ou , HJ<J; see a.lao 88, 167.
Leather, le8 ~f1D on, 101.
Lengt h, 10. 19, 29.
Lettere, sh!l pe"' of, 76, 78.
Li me and limesto ne, ks sou on, 114.
Lines, leseons in, 7, 12, 18, 17.
T.iqnids. 84, 86.
A 11rl fio lid, 81, Sb.
Sketcheo ol lessous on, 194 --'lOO

D

Drop of wn. t er, 88--4.
Duel ile and teaaciouH, 11 i, 100.

Dyeing, 1118.

I'

202

INDEX.

1~~1 161.
Metawo, 179.

Lu•tn!,

H

?.11\goestum, 191.
M l\llel\ble and teo&oloue, 116, 188.
?tieneurem eub, gueMing, 67.
Measures or weight, 79.
(;a pacity for liquidti, Ek).
Dry goodB, 114.
Ti me, 145.
And "'eig llte1, 115.
.
Mental imp i ·ess i o n ~. two kindt1 of. 1.
Jmportn.u ce of u t ili:"-l i11 g c : l.l'l i e~ t, 2.
l\Iet.els u.nd I heir orcR, lel"eo ns on, 177.

Uiffereu t nees of, l82.
?tUn era ls, lesson on, 166.
Molt.en lend, 88.
Mortar, 176.
N
N oils, lesson ou, 108.
JS np htlm, 180.
Notes otles11on e, proper m~e of, f.
0
Object Leeeons, primary PUil!""" of, 2.
J mp01·trrnce of a ppropnrde ficle<' Hon,
odoptat.ion , &c., of, a. fJ .
Should teach child not. observa.ttnns
but how to observe, 4 , 7, 35, 41.
Should utilif'-0 pre\'iously acquired
knowledge, 2.
Sbonld be preceded by a gen ernl tmining in properties. 5.
Should be conve1~1\tional, 68, 126, 130.
But not desultory, 6.
Borne Ut1ee of, •, 100, 102, 165, 193 .
Chief points to lie wii tte11 on the
bJ,. cklx>ard (4th singe), 106
Objects should be simpl e e,·ery-da.y tliiugs
tha t oau be hand lflrl by til e echol.•l'a, 6.
L esson" on pa rhcuh r, 86.
Oblique lines. 76.
Oblong, the, 18, 28, a7, 6».
Oct8gon , tl1e. 141.
Olive- oil, lesson on, 196.
Opn que, 6, 61.
Ores, 179.
p
Parnllel line•, Te.
Paste, lf>111tmn on, 136.
l )e ntngo n, t ne, 141.
Perpe udi cul1lr line11, 76.
Pins u.nd needle", 121, 183.
Pipette, use of t.he, 83.
Plating-tin. zinc, gold , Ril ver, 181.-2.
PoreR and porous, 60 1 97 .
Potnssium, 180.
Powder. mea ning of, 120.
Pri sm , the, 14.lj.
Pumi ce-stone, lee1mn on, 200.
i'yrKmid, t he, 144.

Rhomband rhomboid, 140.
Rings, 49.
Rou g h aud 1mooth, 3'1.
Rnst, 171, 181.

s

Salt, le880n on common, ttD.
Senlio g- wux, lesson on, 194 .
Bensee, all kn owledge obta:ned through, L
Sh ade• and tints, JOO, 108.
Sheep- shearing , 128.
Shoes, l esson on, l!l5.
Size, 27.
Bi n.eked -lime, 176.
Smell , 38.
Smithy, le6Son on, 198.
Snow and ice, lfesc 111 on, 126.
Soda. lesRou on, 121.
Sodium l e() .
Solubility, 89.
Sp here, the, 113.
Spin ning, 192 .
Spf)nge , !er.sons on t.he, 88, 96.
Sqwore. the, 15. 17 , 46.
Stage , first,eubj ec ttJ nnd a ges for. ll
Second
41
'l' lokd
72.
Fourth
106.
Fifth
,,
lVS.
llt~lk nnd skin, 63.
St.arrh, manufacture of, 135.
Bteel
"
,,
169.
Sticky or 1t<lheRive, 68.
Strings and buttons. 130.
Snlphur, leAso n on, 1 ~5.
Snrfat:e, 21, 86.

T
T R.Bte and no tast.e, 7, 23, 215, 26, lS.fl .
T erms to be eipa.ring ly used, i , cf. 1l loute)
Textile nml;l" rials , lt>seon on, JQS..
'l'hicknees, St.
'l'himble, leB."M>n on e. , 196 .
Thoroughne88, importnn ce of, t.
'l'ime, measurement of, H.f>.
'fin -foil, 18'. I,
l' lates, 182-8.
Toughness, 64. 1.90.
1
rmnsl uceat, 61.
Trflllsp£\rent, 61.
Triangle, the. 41.

v
Vocabulary, extension of,'·

w
Warp and woof, 191.
\Yater and sand, contra8f of, 82.
VVs.terproof, 96, 101.
Weig-ht, 81.
MPasurement of, i9.
Wire, 190.

Q

y

Questioning, import.a.nee of, 88, 116.
Qn if•kH m e, 176.

Qu icks; lr"r, 84, 1'18, 180.

R
l\equirritee for Object l.e"8on•, r (note), 9.

Yard (mea•ure), 116.
Zino, 100.
pll\te, 188.

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